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Phenakistiscope

The phenakistiscope (also known by the spellings phénakisticope or phenakistoscope) was the first widespread animation device that created a fluent illusion of motion. Dubbed Fantascope and Stroboscopische Scheiben ('stroboscopic discs') by its inventors, it has been known under many other names until the French product name Phénakisticope became common (with alternative spellings). The phenakistiscope is regarded as one of the first forms of moving media entertainment that paved the way for the future motion picture and film industry. Similar to a GIF animation, it can only show a short continuous loop.

Etymology and spelling
When it was introduced in the French newspaper Le Figaro in June 1833, the term 'phénakisticope' was explained to be from the root Greek word φενακιστικός phenakistikos (or rather from φενακίζειν phenakizein), meaning "deceiving" or "cheating", and ὄψ óps, meaning "eye" or "face", so it was probably intended loosely as 'optical deception' or 'optical illusion'.

The term phénakisticope was first used by the French company Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie in their application for an import license (29 May 1833) and this name was used on their box sets. Fellow Parisian publisher Junin also used the term 'phenakisticope' (both with and without the accent).

Inventor Joseph Plateau did not give a name for the device when he first published about it in January 1833. Later in 1833 he used 'phénakisticope' in an article to refer to the published versions that he was not involved with. By then, he had an authorized set published first as Phantasmascope (by Ackermann in London), which some months later was changed into Fantascope for a new edition and sets by other animators. In many writings and presentations Plateau used both the terms phénakisticope and fantascope, seemingly accepting phénakisticope as the better known name and holding on to fantascope as the name he preferred.

The spelling 'phenakistiscope' was possibly introduced by lithographers Forrester & Nichol in collaboration with optician John Dunn; they used the title "The Phenakistiscope, or, Magic Disc" for their box sets, as advertised in September 1833. The corrupted part 'scope' was understood to be derived from Greek 'skopos', meaning "aim", "target", "object of attention" or "watcher", "one who watches" (or rather from σκοπεῖν skopein) and was quite common in the naming of optical devices (e.g. Telescope, Microscope, Kaleidoscope, Fantascope, Bioscope).

The misspelling 'phenakistoscope' can already be found in 1835 in The American Journal of Science and Arts and later ended up as a standard name through encyclopedias, for instance in A Dictionary of Science, Literature, & Art (London, 1842) Iconographic Encyclopaedia of Science, Literature, and Art (New York, 1852).

Technology

The phénakistiscope usually comes in the form of a spinning cardboard disc attached vertically to a handle. Arrayed radially around the disc's center is a series of pictures showing sequential phases of the animation. Small rectangular apertures are spaced evenly around the rim of the disc. The user would spin the disc and look through the moving slits at the images reflected in a mirror. The scanning of the slits across the reflected images keeps them from simply blurring together so that the user can see a rapid succession of images that appear to be a single moving picture.

When there is the same number of images as slots, the images will animate in a fixed position, but will not drift across the disc. Fewer images than slots and the images will drift in the opposite direction to that of the spinning disc. More images than slots and the images will drift in the same direction as the spinning disc.

Unlike the zoetrope and other successors, common versions of the phénakisticope could only practically be viewed by one person at a time.

The pictures of the phénakisticope became distorted when spun fast enough to produce the illusion of movement; they appeared a bit slimmer and were slightly curved. Sometimes animators drew an opposite distortion in their pictures to compensate for this. However, most animations were not intended to give a realistic representation and the distortion isn't very obvious in cartoonish pictures.

The distortion and the flicker caused by the rotating slits are not seen in most phénakisticope animations now found online (for instance the GIF animation on this page). These are usually animations created with software. These do not replicate the actual viewing experience of a phénakisticope, but they can present the work of the animators in an optimized fashion. Some miscalculated modern re-animations also have the slits rotating (which would appear motionless when viewed through an actual phénakisticope) and the figures moving across the discs where they were supposed to stand still (or standing still when they were supposed to move around).

Most commercially produced discs are lithographic prints that were colored by hand, but also multi-color lithography and other printing techniques have been used by some manufacturers.

Invention

The phenakisticope was invented almost simultaneously around December 1832 by the Belgian physicist Joseph Plateau and the Austrian professor of practical geometry Simon Stampfer.

As a university student Plateau noticed in some early experiments that when looking from a small distance at two concentric cogwheels that turned fast in opposite directions, it produced the optical illusion of a motionless wheel. He later read Peter Mark Roget's 1824 article Explanation of an optical deception in the appearance of the spokes of a wheel when seen through vertical apertures which addressed the same illusion. Plateau decided to investigate the phenomenon further and later published his findings in Correspondance Mathématique et Physique in 1828. In a letter to the same scientific periodical dated December 5, 1829 he presented his (still nameless) Anorthoscope, a disc that turns an anamorphic picture into a normal picture when it is spun fast and seen through the four radial slits of a counter-rotating black disc. This invention was later marketed, for instance by Newton & Co in London.

On 10 December 1830 Michael Faraday presented a paper at the Royal Institution of Great Britain called On a Peculiar Class of Optical Deceptions about the optical illusions that could be found in rotating wheels. He referred to Roget's paper and described his associated new findings. Much was similar to what Plateau had published and Faraday not only acknowledged this publicly but also corresponded with Plateau personally and sent him his paper. Some of Faraday's experiments were new to Plateau and especially the one with a fixed image produced by a turning wheel in front of the mirror inspired Plateau with the idea for new illusions. In July 1832 Plateau sent a letter to Faraday and added an experimental disc with some "anamorphoses" that produced a "completely immobile image of a little perfectly regular horse" when rotated in front of a mirror. After several attempts and many difficulties he constructed a working model of the phénakisticope in November or December 1832. Plateau published his invention in a 20 January 1833 letter to Correspondance Mathématique et Physique. He believed that if the manner of producing the illusions could be somehow modified, they could be put to other uses, "for example, in phantasmagoria".

Stampfer read about Faraday's findings in December 1832 and was inspired to do similar experiments, which soon led to his invention of what he called Stroboscopischen Scheiben oder optischen Zauberscheiben (stroboscope discs or optical magic discs). Stampfer had thought of placing the sequence of images on either a disc, a cylinder (like the later zoetrope) or, for a greater number of images, on a long, looped strip of paper or canvas stretched around two parallel rollers (much like film reels). He also suggests covering up most of the disc or the mirror with a cut-out sheet of cardboard so that one sees only one of the moving figures and painting theatrical coulisses and backdrops around the cut-out part (somewhat similar to the later Praxinoscope-Theatre). Stampfer also mentioned a version which has a disc with pictures on one end and a slotted disc on the other side of an axis, but he found spinning the disc in front of a mirror more simple. By February 1833 he had prepared six double-sided discs, which were later published by Trentsensky & Vieweg. Matthias Trentsensky and Stampfer were granted an Austrian patent (Kaiserlichen königlichen Privilegium) for the discs on 7 May 1833.

Publisher and Plateau's doctoral adviser Adolphe Quetelet claimed to have received a working model to present to Faraday as early as November 1832. Plateau mentioned in 1836 that he thought it difficult to state the exact time when he got the idea, but he believed he was first able to successfully assemble his invention in December. He stated to trust the assertion of Stampfer to have invented his version at the same time.

Peter Mark Roget claimed in 1834 to have constructed several phénakisticopes and showed them to many friends as early as in the spring of 1831, but as a consequence of more serious occupations he did not get around to publishing any account of his invention.

Commercial production

According to Mathias Trentsensky, of art dealer and publishing company Trentsensky & Vieweg, Stampfer had prepared six double-sided discs as early as February 1833 and had repeatedly demonstrated these to many friends. In April 1833 Trentsensky applied for an Austrian patent (k.k. Privilegium) together with Stampfer, which was granted on 7 May 1833. A first edition of four double-sided discs was soon published, but it sold out within four weeks and left them unable to ship orders. These discs probably had round holes as illustrated in an 1868 article and a 1922 reconstruction by William Day, but no original copies are known to still exist. Trentsensky & Vieweg published an improved and expanded set of eight double-sided discs with vertical slits in July 1833. English editions were published not much later with James Black and Joseph Myers & Co. A total of 28 different disc designs have been credited to Professor Stampfer.

Joseph Plateau never patented his invention, but he did design his own set of six discs for Ackermann & Co in London. The series was published in July 1833 as Phantasmascope. In October 1833, Ackermann & Co changed the name of the series to Fantascope and released two more sets of six discs each, one designed by Thomas Talbot Bury and one by Thomas Mann Baynes.

In the meantime some other publishers had apparently been inspired by the first edition of Professor Stampfer's Stroboscopische Scheiben: Alphonse Giroux et Compagnie applied for a French import license on 28 May 1833 for 'Le Phénakisticope' and were granted one on 5 August 1833. They had a first set of 12 single sided discs available before the end of June 1833. Before the end of December 1833 they released two more sets.

By 16 June 1833, Joh. Val. Albert published Die belebte Wunderscheibe in Frankfurt and soon marketed internationally. This version had uncut discs with pictures and a separate larger disc with round holes. The set of Die Belebte Wunderscheibe in Dick Balzer's collection shows several discs with designs that are very similar to those of Stampfer and about half of them are also very similar to those of Giroux's first set. It is unclear where these early designs (other than Stampfer's) originated, but many of them would be repeated on many discs of many other publishers. It is unlikely that much of this copying was done with any licensing between companies or artists.

Joseph Plateau and Simon Stampfer both complained around July 1833 that the designs of the discs they had seen around (besides their own) were poorly executed and they did not want to be associated with them.

The phénakisticope became very popular and soon there were very many other publishers releasing discs with numerous names, including:
 * Periphanoscop – oder Optisches Zauber-theater / ou Le Spectacle Magique / or The Magical Spectacle (by R.S. Siebenmann, Arau, August 1833)
 * Toover-schijf (by A. van Emden, Amsterdam, August 1833)
 * Fores's Moving Panorama, or Optical Illusions (London, September 1833)
 * The Phenakistiscope or Magic Disc (by Forrester & Nichol & John Dunn, September 1833)
 * Motoscope, of wonderschijf (Amsterdam, September 1833)
 * McLean's Optical Illusions, or, Magic Panorama (London, November 1833)
 * Le Fantascope (by Dero-Becker, Belgium, December 1833)
 * The Phenakisticope, or Living Picture (by W. Soffe, December 1833)
 * Soffe's Phantascopic Pantomime, or Magic Illusions (December 1834)
 * Wallis's Wheel of Wonders (London, December 1834)
 * The Laughingatus, or Magic Circle (by G.S. Tregear, c. 1835)
 * Le Phenakisticope (by Junin, Paris, 1839?)
 * Das Phorolyt oder die magische Doppelscheibe (by Purkyně & Pornatzki, Breslau, 1841)
 * Optische Zauber-Scheiben / Disques Magique (unknown origin, one set executed by Frederic Voigtlaender)
 * Optische Belustigungen – Optical Amusements – Optic Amusements (unknown origin)
 * Fantasmascope. Tooneelen in den spiegel (K. Fuhri, The Hague, 1848)
 * Kinesiskop (designed by Purkyně, published by Ferdinand Durst, Prague, 1861)
 * The Magic Wheel (by J. Bradburn, US, 1864)
 * L'Ékonoscope (by Pellerin & Cie, France, 1868)
 * Pantinoscope (with Journal des Demoiselles, France, 1868)
 * Magic Circle (by G. Ingram, c. 1870)
 * Tableaux Animés – Nouveau Phénakisticope (by Wattilaux, France, c. 1875)
 * The Zoopraxiscope (by Eadward Muybridge, US, 1893)
 * Prof. Zimmerman's Ludoscope (by Harbach & Co, Philadelphia, 1904)

After its commercial introduction by the Milton Bradley Company, the Zoetrope (patented in 1867) soon became the more popular animation device and consequently fewer phénakisticopes were produced.

Variations
Many versions of the phénakisticope used smaller illustrated uncut cardboard discs that had to be placed on a larger slotted disc. A common variant had the illustrated disc on one end of a brass axis and the slotted disc on the other end; this was slightly more unwieldy but needed no mirror and was claimed to produce clearer images.

Fores offered an Exhibitor: a handle for two slotted discs with the pictures facing each other which allowed two viewers to look at the animations at the same time, without a mirror.

A few discs had a shaped edge on the cardboard to allow for the illusion of figures crawling over the edge. Ackermann & Co published three of those discs in 1833, including one by inventor Joseph Plateau.

Some versions added a wooden stand with a hand-cranked mechanism to spin the disc.

Several phénakisticope projectors with glass discs were produced and marketed since the 1850s.

Joseph Plateau created a combination of his phénakisticope and his Anorthoscope sometime between 1844 and 1849, resulting in a back-lit transparent disc with a sequence of figures that are animated when it is rotated behind a counter-rotating black disc with four illuminated slits, spinning four times as fast. Unlike the phénakisticope several persons could view the animation at the same time. This system has not been commercialised; the only known two handmade discs are in the Joseph Plateau Collection of the Ghent University. Belgian painter Jean Baptiste Madou created the first images on these discs and Plateau painted the successive parts.

In 1849 Joseph Plateau discussed the possibilities of combining the phénakisticope with the stereoscope as suggested to him by its inventor Charles Wheatstone. In 1852 Duboscq patented such a "Stéréoscope-fantascope, stéréofantscope ou Bïoscope". Of three planned variations only one was actually produced but without much success. Only one extant disc is known, which is in the Plateau collection of Ghent University.

Projection
The first known plan for a phénakisticope projector with a transparent disc was made by Englishman T.W. Naylor in 1843 in the Mechanical's Magazine – Volume 38. His letter was illustrated with a detailed side view of the device. Naylor suggested tracing the pictures of available phenakisticopes onto glass with transparent paint and painting the rest black. Nothing else is known of Naylor or his machine.

Franz von Uchatius possibly read about Naylor's idea in German or Austrian technical journals and started to develop his own version around 1851. Instrument maker Wenzel Prokesch made a first model for him which could only project images of a few inches in diameter. A more successful second model by Prokesch had a stationary disc with transparent pictures with a separate lens for each picture focused on the same spot on a screen. A limelight revolved rapidly behind the disc to project the sequential images one by one in succession. This model was demonstrated to the Austrian Academy of Sciences in 1853. Prokesch marketed the machine and sold one to magician Ludwig Döbler who used it in his shows that also included other magic lantern techniques, like dissolving views.

From around 1853 until the 1890s J. Duboscq in Paris marketed different models of a projection phénakisticope. It had a glass disc with a diameter of 34 centimeters for the pictures and a separate disc with four lenses. The discs rotated at different speeds.

An "Optical Instrument" was patented in the U.S. in 1869 by O.B. Brown, using a phenakistiscope-like disc with a technique very close to the later cinematograph; with Maltese Cross motion; a star-wheel and pin being used for intermittent motion, and a two-sector shutter.

Thomas Ross developed a small transparent phénakisticope system, called Wheel of life, which fitted inside a standard magic lantern slide. A first version, patented in 1869, had a glass disc with eight phases of a movement and a counter-rotating glass shutter disc with eight apertures. The discs depicted Ice Skaters, Fishes, Giant's Ladder, Bottle Imp and other subjects. An improved version had 13 images and a single slot shutter disc and received British Patent 2685 on 10 October 1871.

Henry Renno Heyl presented his Phasmatrope on 5 February 1870 at the Philadelphia Academy of Music. This modified magic lantern had a wheel that could hold 16 photographic slides and a shutter. The wheel was rotated in front of the light source by an intermittent mechanism to project the slides successively (probably with a speed of 3 fps ). The program contained three subjects: All Right (a popular Japanese acrobat), Brother Jonathan and a waltzing couple. Brother Jonathan addressed the audience with a voice actor behind the screen and professed that "this art will rapidly develop into one of the greatest merit for instruction and enjoyment." The pictures of the waltzing couple survived and consist of four shots of costumed dancers (Heyl and a female dancing partner) that were repeated four times in the wheel. The pictures were posed. Capturing movement with "instantaneous photography" would first be established by Eadward Muybridge in 1878.

Eadward Muybridge created his Zoopraxiscope in 1879 and lectured until 1894 with this projector for glass discs on which pictures in transparent paint were derived from his chronophotographic plates.

Scientific use
The phénakisticope was invented through scientific research into optical illusions and published as such, but soon the device was marketed very successfully as an entertaining novelty toy. After the novelty wore off, it was mostly seen as a toy for children. Nonetheless, some scientists still regard it as a useful demonstration tool.

The Czech physiologist Jan Purkyně used his version, called Phorolyt, in lectures since 1837. In 1861 one of the subjects he illustrated was the beating of a heart.

German physicist Johann Heinrich Jakob Müller published a set of 8 discs depicting several wave motions (waves of sound, air, water, etcetera) with J.V. Albert in Frankfurt in 1846.

The famous English pioneer of photographic motion studies Eadweard Muybridge built a phenakisticope projector for which he had his photographs rendered as contours on glass discs. The results were not always very scientific; he often edited his photographic sequences for aesthetic reasons and for the glass discs he sometimes even reworked images from multiple photographs into new combinations. An entertaining example is the sequence of a man somersaulting over a bull chased by a dog. For only one disc he chose a photographic representation; the sequence of a running horse skeleton, which was probably too detailed to be painted on glass. This disc was most likely the very first time a stop motion technique was successfully applied. Muybridge first called his apparatus Zoogyroscope, but soon settled on the name Zoöpraxiscope. He used it in countless lectures on human and animal locomotion between 1880 and 1895.

20th and 21st centuries
The Joseph Plateau Award, a trophy resembling a phénakisticope, was a Belgian movie award given yearly between 1985 and 2006.

Several vinyl music releases have phénakistiscope-like animations on the labels or on the vinyl itself. In 1956 Red Raven Movie Records started a series of 78 RPM 8" singles with animations to be viewed with a device with small mirrors similar to a praxinoscope to be placed on the center of the disc. Since 2010 audio-visual duo Sculpture has released several picture discs with very elaborate animations to be viewed under a stroboscope flashing exactly 25 times per second, or filmed with a video camera shooting progressively at a very high shutter speed with a frame rate of 25fps.

title: Phenakistiscope


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Processivity

In molecular biology and biochemistry, processivity is an enzyme's ability to catalyze "consecutive reactions without releasing its substrate".

For example, processivity is the average number of nucleotides added by a polymerase enzyme, such as DNA polymerase, per association event with the template strand. Because the binding of the polymerase to the template is the rate-limiting step in DNA synthesis, the overall rate of DNA replication during S phase of the cell cycle is dependent on the processivity of the DNA polymerases performing the replication. DNA clamp proteins are integral components of the DNA replication machinery and serve to increase the processivity of their associated polymerases. Some polymerases add over 50,000 nucleotides to a growing DNA strand before dissociating from the template strand, giving a replication rate of up to 1,000 nucleotides per second.

DNA binding interactions
Polymerases interact with the phosphate backbone and the minor groove of the DNA, so their interactions do not depend on the specific nucleotide sequence. The binding is largely mediated by electrostatic interactions between the DNA and the "thumb" and "palm" domains of the metaphorically hand-shaped DNA polymerase molecule. When the polymerase advances along the DNA sequence after adding a nucleotide, the interactions with the minor groove dissociate but those with the phosphate backbone remain more stable, allowing rapid re-binding to the minor groove at the next nucleotide.

Interactions with the DNA are also facilitated by DNA clamp proteins, which are multimeric proteins that completely encircle the DNA, with which they associate at replication forks. Their central pore is sufficiently large to admit the DNA strands and some surrounding water molecules, which allows the clamp to slide along the DNA without dissociating from it and without loosening the protein–protein interactions that maintain the toroid shape. When associated with a DNA clamp, DNA polymerase is dramatically more processive; without the clamp most polymerases have a processivity of only about 100 nucleotides. The interactions between the polymerase and the clamp are more persistent than those between the polymerase and the DNA. Thus, when the polymerase dissociates from the DNA, it is still bound to the clamp and can rapidly reassociate with the DNA. An example of such a DNA clamp is PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) found in S. cervesiae.

Polymerase processivities
Multiple DNA polymerases have specialized roles in the DNA replication process. In E. coli, which replicates its entire genome from a single replication fork, the polymerase DNA Pol III is the enzyme primarily responsible for DNA replication and forms a replication complex with extremely high processivity. The related DNA Pol I has exonuclease activity and serves to degrade the RNA primers used to initiate DNA synthesis. Pol I then synthesizes the short DNA fragments in place of the former RNA fragments. Thus Pol I is much less processive than Pol III because its primary function in DNA replication is to create many short DNA regions rather than a few very long regions.

In eukaryotes, which have a much higher diversity of DNA polymerases, the low-processivity initiating enzyme is called Pol α, and the high-processivity extension enzymes are Pol δ and Pol ε. Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes must "trade" bound polymerases to make the transition from initiation to elongation. This process is called polymerase switching.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Processivity


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Centerfire ammunition

A centre-fire (or centrefire) is a type of metallic cartridge used in firearms, where the primer is located at the center of the base of its casing (i.e. "case head"). Unlike rimfire cartridges, the centerfire primer is typically a separate component seated into a recessed cavity (known as the primer pocket) in the case head and is replaceable by reloading the cartridge.

Centerfire cartridges have supplanted the rimfire cartridge, with the exception of a few small calibers. The majority of today's handguns, rifles, and shotguns use centerfire ammunition, with the exception of some .17 caliber, .20 caliber, and .22 caliber rimfire handgun and rifle cartridges, a few small-bore/gauge shotgun shells (intended mainly for use in pest control), and a handful of antiquated rimfire and pinfire cartridges for various firearm actions.

History
An early form of centerfire ammunition, without a percussion cap, was invented between 1808 and 1812 by Jean Samuel Pauly. This was also the first fully integrated cartridge and used a form of obturation employing the cartridge itself. Another form of centerfire ammunition was invented by the Frenchman Clement Pottet in 1829; however, Pottet would not perfect his design until 1855. The centerfire cartridge was improved by Béatus Beringer, Benjamin Houllier, Gastinne Renette, Smith & Wesson, Charles Lancaster, Jules-Félix Gévelot, George Morse, Francois Schneider, Hiram Berdan and Edward Mounier Boxer.

Advantages

Centerfire cartridges are more reliable for military purposes because the thicker metal cartridge cases can withstand rougher handling without damage, and is safer to handle because explosive priming compound in a protruding rim is more likely to be triggered by impact if a rimfire cartridge is dropped or pinched. The stronger base of a centerfire cartridge is able to withstand higher chamber pressures which in turn gives bullets greater velocity and energy. While centerfire cartridge cases require a complex and expensive manufacturing process, explosive handling is simplified by avoiding the spinning process required to uniformly distribute priming explosive into the rim because of uncertainty about which angular segment of a rimfire cartridge rim will be struck by the firing pin. Larger caliber rimfire cartridges require greater volumes of priming explosive than centerfire cartridges, and the required volume may cause undesirably higher pressure spikes during the ignition process. Reducing the amount of priming explosive will greatly diminish the ignition reliability of rimfire cartridges, and increase the probability of a malfunction such as a misfire or hang fire.

Economies of scale are achieved through interchangeable primers for a wide variety of centerfire cartridge calibers. The expensive individual brass cases can be reused after replacing the primer, gunpowder and projectile. Handloading reuse is an advantage for rifles using obsolete or hard-to-find centerfire cartridges such as the 6.5×54mm Mannlicher–Schönauer, or larger calibers such as the .458 Lott, for which ammunition can be expensive. The forward portion of some empty cases can be reformed for use as obsolete or wildcat cartridges with similar base configuration. Modern cartridges larger than .22 caliber are mainly centerfire. Actions suitable for larger caliber rimfire cartridges declined in popularity until the demand for them no longer exceeded manufacturing costs, and they became obsolete.

Primers

The identifying feature of centerfire ammunition is the primer which is a metal cup containing a primary explosive inserted into a recess in the center of the base of the cartridge. The firearm firing pin crushes this explosive between the cup and an anvil to produce hot gas and a shower of incandescent particles to ignite the powder charge. Berdan and Boxer cartridge primers are both considered "centerfire" and are not interchangeable at the primer level; however, the same weapon can fire either Berdan- or Boxer-primed cartridges if the overall dimensions are the same.

The two primer types are almost impossible to distinguish by looking at the loaded cartridge, though the two (or more) flash-holes can be seen or felt inside a fired Berdan case and the larger single hole seen or felt inside a fired Boxer case. Berdan priming is less expensive to manufacture and is more commonly found in military-surplus ammunition made outside of the United States.

Berdan primer
Berdan primers are named after their American inventor, Hiram Berdan of New York who invented his first variation of the Berdan primer and patented it on March 20, 1866, in. A small copper cylinder formed the shell of the cartridge, and the primer cap was pressed into a recess in the outside of the closed end of the cartridge opposite the bullet. In the end of the cartridge beneath the primer cap was a small vent-hole, as well as a small teat-like projection or point (this was to be known as an anvil later on) fashioned from the case, such that the firing pin could crush the primer against the anvil and ignite the propellant. This system worked well, allowing the option of installing a cap just before use of the propellant-loaded cartridge, as well as permitting reloading the cartridge for reuse.

Difficulties arose in practice because pressing in the cap from the outside tended to cause a swelling of the copper cartridge shell, preventing reliable seating of the cartridge in the chamber of the firearm. Berdan's solution was to change to brass shells, and to further modify the process of installing the primer cap into the cartridge, as noted in his second Berdan Primer patent of September 29, 1868, in. Berdan primers have remained essentially the same functionally to the present day.

Berdan primers are similar to the caps used in the caplock system, being small metal cups with pressure-sensitive explosive in them. Modern Berdan primers are pressed into the "primer pocket" of a Berdan-type cartridge case, where they fit slightly below flush with the base of the case. Inside the primer pocket is a small bump, the "anvil", that rests against the center of the cup, and usually two (or more) small holes by the sides of the anvil, which allow the flash from the primer to reach the interior of the case. Berdan cases are reusable, although the process is rather involved. The used primer must be removed, usually by hydraulic pressure, pincer, or lever that pulls the primer out of the bottom. A new primer is carefully seated against the anvil, and then the powder and a bullet are added.

Centered single-hole primer
From the 1880s to the 1940s, many smaller European armies were reloading their ammo for economical reasons, and for that reason they adopted the system known as either Austrian or after the George Roth factory in Vienna which patented it in 1902 even though it was known from the early-to-mid 1880s, where the anvil had a single fire hole right at its center.

Boxer primer

Meanwhile, Colonel Edward Mounier Boxer, of the Royal Arsenal, Woolwich, England, was working on a primer cap design for cartridges, patenting it in England on October 13, 1866, and subsequently received a U.S. patent for his design on June 29, 1869, in.

Boxer primers are similar to Berdan primers with one major difference, the location of the anvil. In a Boxer primer, the anvil is a separate stirrup piece that sits inverted in the primer cup that provides sufficient resistance to the impact of the firing pin as it indents the cup and crushes the pressure-sensitive ignition compound. The primer pocket in the case head has a single flash-hole in its center. This positioning makes little or no difference to the performance of the cartridge, but it makes fired primers vastly easier to remove for reloading, as a single, centered rod pushed through the flash hole from the open end of the case will eject the two-piece primer from the primer cup. A new primer, anvil included, is then pressed into the case using a reloading press or hand-tool. Boxer priming is universal for US-manufactured civilian factory ammunition.

Boxer-primed ammunition is slightly more complex to manufacture, since the primer is in two parts in addition to the pressure-sensitive compound, but automated machinery producing the more complex primers by the hundreds of millions has eliminated that as a practical problem. And while the primer has one additional step needed during the manufacturing process, the cartridge case is simpler to make, use, and reload.

Early primers were manufactured with various dimensions and performance. Some standardization has occurred where economies of scale benefit ammunition manufacturers. Boxer primers for the United States market come in different sizes, based on the application. The types/sizes of primers are:

Examples of uses:
 * 0.175" (4.45 mm) diameter small pistol primers, and a thicker or stronger metal cup small rifle version for use with higher pressure loadings in weapons with heavy firing pin impact.
 * 0.209" (5.31 mm) diameter primers for shotgun shells and modern inline muzzleloaders, using a Boxer-type primer factory-assembled inside a tapered, flanged brass cup.
 * 0.210" (5.33 mm) diameter large rifle primers, and a thinner or softer metal cup large pistol version for use with lower pressure loadings in weapons with light firing pin impact. Large rifle primers are also 0.008" taller than large pistol primers.
 * 0.315" (8.00 mm) diameter .50 BMG primers, used for the .50 Browning Machine Gun cartridge and derivatives
 * .38 Special, small pistol standard
 * .357 Magnum, small pistol magnum
 * .45 Colt, large pistol standard
 * .50 Action Express, large pistol magnum
 * .223 Remington, small rifle standard
 * .357 Remington Maximum, small rifle magnum
 * .308 Winchester, large rifle standard
 * .338 Lapua Magnum, large rifle magnum

Primer size is based on the primer pocket of the cartridge, with standard types available in large or small diameters. The primer's explosive charge is based on the amount of ignition energy required by the cartridge design; a standard primer would be used for smaller charges or faster-burning powders, while a magnum primer would be used for the larger charges or slower-burning powders used with large cartridges or heavy charges. Rifle, large and magnum primers increase the ignition energy delivered to the powder, by supplying a hotter, stronger and/or longer-lasting flame. Pistol cartridges often are smaller than modern rifle cartridges, so they may need less primer flame than rifles require. A physical difference between pistol and rifle primers is the thickness of the primer's case; since pistol cartridges usually operate at lower pressure levels than most rifles, their primer cups are thinner, softer, and easier to ignite, while rifle primers are thicker and stronger, requiring a harder impact from the firing pin. Despite the names pistol and rifle, the primer used depends on the cartridge, not the firearm; a few high-pressure pistol cartridges like the .221 Fireball and .454 Casull use rifle primers, while lower-pressure pistol and revolver cartridges like the .32 ACP, .380 ACP, 9mm Parabellum, .38 Special, .357 Magnum, .44 Magnum, and .45 ACP, and traditional revolver cartridges like the .32-20, .44-40, and .45 Colt, also used in lever-action rifles, these cartridges would still be loaded with pistol primers. Virtually all cartridges used solely in rifles do, however, use rifle primers.

Shotgun primers

All modern shotgun shells (excluding specialized .22 caliber rimfire "snake loads" or birdshot cartridges) are centerfire. They use a large, specific shotgun primer that is based on the Boxer system, in that the primer contains the anvil against which the primary explosive is compressed by the firing pin and deformation of the primer cup.

Shotgun primers are also used as a replacement to the percussion cap ignition system in some modern black-powder firearms, and in some cases as the actual cartridge, notably the 6mm Pipet.

Cartridge primers
Primer actuated or piston primer cartridges use a primer in the form of a blank to contain the propellant within an empty cartridge, or in some cases as a piston to unlock the bolt and operate the weapon. These types of rounds are rarely used and are mostly found on spotting rifles.

Primer chemistry
Primer manufacture and insertion is the most dangerous part of small arms ammunition production. Sensitive priming compounds have claimed many lives including the founder of the famous British Eley ammunition firm. Modern commercial operations use protective shielding between operators and manufacturing equipment.

Early primers used the same mercury fulminate used in 19th century percussion caps. Black powder could be effectively ignited by hot mercury released upon decomposition. Disadvantages of mercuric primers became evident with smokeless powder loadings. Mercury fulminate slowly decomposed in storage until the remaining energy was insufficient for reliable ignition. Decreased ignition energy with age had not been recognized as a problem with black-powder loadings because black powder could be ignited by as little energy as a static electricity discharge. Smokeless powder often required more thermal energy for ignition. Misfires and hang fires became common as the remaining priming compound sputtered in old primers. A misfire would result if the priming compound either failed to react to the firing pin fall or extinguished prior to igniting the powder charge. A hang fire is a perceptible delay between the fall of the firing pin and discharge of the firearm. In extreme cases, the delay might be sufficient to be interpreted as a misfire, and the cartridge could fire as the action was being opened or the firearm pointed in an inappropriate direction.

Incandescent particles were found most effective for igniting smokeless powder after the primary explosive gases had heated the powder grains. Artillery charges frequently included a smaller quantity of black powder to be ignited by the primer, so incandescent potassium carbonate would spread fire through the smokeless powder. Potassium chlorate was added to mercury fulminate priming mixtures so incandescent potassium chloride would have a similar effect in small arms cartridges.

Priming mixtures containing mercury fulminate leave metallic mercury in the bore and empty cartridge case after firing. The mercury was largely absorbed in the smokey fouling with black-powder loads. Mercury coated the interior of brass cases with smokeless powder loads, and the higher pressures of smokeless powder charges forced the mercury into grain boundaries between brass crystals where it formed zinc and copper amalgams weakening the case so it became unsuitable for reloading. The United States Army discontinued use of mercuric priming mixtures in 1898 to allow arsenal reloading of fired cases during peacetime. Frankford Arsenal FA-70 primers used potassium chlorate as an oxidizer for lead(II) thiocyanate, to increase the sensitivity of potassium chlorate, and antimony trisulfide, as an abrasive, with minor amounts of trinitrotoluene. These corrosive primers leave a residue of potassium chloride salt in the bore after a cartridge is fired. These hygroscopic salt crystals will hold moisture from a humid atmosphere and cause rusting. These corrosive primers can cause serious damage to the gun unless the barrel and action are cleaned carefully after firing.

Civilian ammunition manufacturers began offering non-corrosive primers in the 1920s, but most military ammunition continued to use corrosive priming mixtures of established reliability. The various proprietary priming formulations used by different manufacturers produced some significantly different ignition properties until the United States issued military specifications for non-corrosive primers for 7.62×51mm NATO cartridge production. The PA-101 primers developed at Picatinny Arsenal used about 50% lead styphnate with lesser amounts of barium nitrate, antimony trisulfide, powdered aluminum and a tetrazine compound. Most United States manufacturers adopted the PA-101 military standard for their civilian production of Boxer primers. Manufacturers subsequently offered more powerful magnum primers for uniform ignition of civilian long-range or big-game cartridges with significantly greater powder capacity than required for standard infantry weapons.

Other explosives used in primers can include lead azide, potassium perchlorate, or diazodinitrophenol (DDNP). New on the market in the late 1990s are lead-free primers (see green bullet), to address concerns over the lead and other heavy-metal compounds found in older primers. The heavy metals, while small in quantity, are released in the form of a very fine soot. Some indoor firing ranges are moving to ban primers containing heavy metals due to their toxicity. Lead-free primers were originally less sensitive and had a greater moisture sensitivity and correspondingly shorter shelf life than normal noncorrosive primers. Since their introduction, lead-free primers have become better in their performance compared to early lead free primers.

European and eastern military or surplus ammunition often uses corrosive or slightly-corrosive Berdan primers because they work reliably even under severe conditions, and have a longer storage life than the non-corrosive type primers currently in use. Modern Boxer primers are almost always non-corrosive and non-mercuric. Determination of corrosive or non-corrosive characteristics based on the primer type should consider these final headstamp dates of corrosive ammunition production:

 * .45 ACP: FA 54, FCC 53, RA 52, TW 53, WCC 52, WRA 54
 * .30-06 Springfield: FA 56, LC 52, RA 51, SL 52, TW 52, WCC 51, WRA 54
 * FN 57

title: Centerfire ammunition


text:
Cathy Dennis

Catherine Roseanne Dennis (born 25 March 1969) is a British singer, songwriter and record producer. She was discovered as a teenager by music manager Simon Fuller, which led to her featuring on the hit dance single "C'mon and Get My Love" with D Mob in 1989.

In the early 1990s, Dennis saw international solo success with her debut album Move to This (1990), which included three US top-ten singles including "Just Another Dream" and "Touch Me (All Night Long)"; the latter peaked at number two and remains her signature song. It was followed by the albums Into the Skyline (1992) and Am I the Kinda Girl? (1996), her final release, which included a cover of the Kinks' "Waterloo Sunset" that reached number 11 in the UK.

Dennis pivoted to songwriting in the 2000s and became renowned for her work, scoring eight UK number ones, winning six Ivor Novello Awards and two Grammys. Her co-credits include the multi-platinum singles "Can't Get You Out of My Head" by Kylie Minogue, "Toxic" by Britney Spears, and "I Kissed a Girl" by Katy Perry. In 2004, Dennis was listed 66th in the Q list of the 100 most influential people in music. In 2006, she won the UK music industry's Woman of the Year Award.

Early life
Educated at Taverham High School, as a teenager she was spotted recording Stevie Wonder-influenced demos at The Kitchen in Norwich with her father (himself an experienced musician and local restaurateur) on piano. At the time she was working for Norwich Union. In 1986, Simon Fuller signed Dennis when she was 17 to his company 19 Management and his label Polydor, and this began a career-long association that has seen Dennis provide songs for many Fuller-related artists and projects.

Performing career
Dennis achieved her first success as a vocalist with D Mob, when their single "C'mon and Get My Love" (which was credited as "introducing" Dennis) reached No. 15 in the UK Singles Chart and No. 10 in the Billboard Hot 100 in 1989. It is regarded as an underground classic in the dance music field, and a second collaboration with D Mob, "That's the Way of the World", was also a hit. It was followed by Dennis's debut album, Move to This. She subsequently scored three solo hits, all of which reached the UK Top 20 and the US Top 10. She enjoyed considerable success in Japan in the early 1990s. The three solo hits were: "Just Another Dream" (UK No. 13, US No. 9, Australia No. 14), which featured D Mob on backing vocals; a cover of the Wish and Fonda Rae 1984 club hit "Touch Me (All Night Long)" (UK No. 5, US No. 2, Australia No. 16), which is probably her most remembered hit to date; and "Too Many Walls" (UK No. 17, US No. 8, Australia No. 57).

"Touch Me (All Night Long)" stayed at No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 for two weeks, and was kept out of the No. 1 spot by Hi-Five's "I Like The Way (The Kissing Game)" in the first week, and Mariah Carey's "I Don't Wanna Cry" in the second week. The song was a cover and lyrical reworking of a 1984 single by Wish featuring Fonda Rae, which had peaked at No. 70 on the US R&B chart that year. "Touch Me (All Night Long)" reached No. 1 on the US Hot Dance Club Play chart, and its follow-up, "Too Many Walls", which Dennis co-wrote with Anne Dudley of Art of Noise (who also co-wrote the ABC track "All of My Heart"), was a No. 1 Adult Contemporary hit in the United States. It was around this time Dennis agreed to join Club MTV's first tour, booked for six weeks. In an interview on the late night show Into the Night Starring Rick Dees, she explained she dropped out after three days, accusing one of Milli Vanilli's members (the tour's headline act) of sexual harassment. During this period, she recorded a song called "Find the Key to Your Life" with David Morales, for the soundtrack to the movie Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles II: The Secret of the Ooze. Subsequent releases were only minor hits.

Dennis released her second album, Into the Skyline, in September 1992, written with a focus toward the US market. The album featured the singles "You Lied to Me", "Irresistible", "Moments of Love", "Falling", and "Why" – the latter was credited to D Mob with Dennis. The album got to No. 8 in the UK Albums Chart, whilst in the US Billboard Hot 100, "You Lied to Me" was a Top 40 hit - her final American Top 40 single as a performer - and "Irresistible" made the Adult Contemporary Top 10; however, the album never charted. Dennis experienced a brief peak of fame, making a cameo in Beverly Hills, 90210 singing the songs "Moments of Love" (a minor US Adult Contemporary chart hit), "Why" (in the episode, not to feature D Mob) and "Touch Me (All Night Long)". In Japan, the album was called Into the Skyline +1, and featured three extra tracks: "Nothing Moves Me", a previous B-side, and two tracks that were both released as singles, "It's My Style", and "Love's a Cradle". She also provided background vocals on PM Dawn's US Top 10 and UK Top 20 hit "Looking through Patient Eyes", released in 1993. In that same year, she sang a duet with Lance Ellington on the soundtrack of Robin Hood: Men in Tights

Dennis began to record a third album, Inspiration. The title track was recorded with Todd Terry, along with another song "Is There Life After You". Only one song from the recording sessions was ever released, "S.O.S.", which can be found on the Beverly Hills 90210: The College Years soundtrack. She wrote her first song for another artist by writing a song for Dannii Minogue called "Love's on Every Corner".

In 1996, Dennis changed her musical style: away from the dance-pop sound of previous releases, to a more traditional singer-songwriter approach. The resulting album, Am I the Kinda Girl?, was more in keeping with the Britpop sound of bands such as Blur and performers such as Stephen Duffy, and featured collaborations with Guy Chambers of The Lemon Trees and Andy Partridge of XTC. Three singles from the album were released: "West End Pad" (UK No. 25), "Waterloo Sunset" - a cover of The Kinks' song (UK No. 11), and her last solo single, "When Your Dreams Turn to Dust" (UK No. 43).

In 2001, Kylie Minogue had a worldwide hit with the Dennis and Rob Davis penned song "Can't Get You Out of My Head". The following year Dennis won the Best Dance Recording Grammy for writing "Come into My World". She followed that up with Britney Spears's hit song "Toxic" which also won the Grammy for Best Dance Recording. Dennis had a string of hits with S Club 7; she wrote almost all their hit singles such as "Never Had a Dream Come True", and also worked on the singles for the spin-off group S Club Juniors which was a younger version of S Club 7. Dennis wrote hit songs for Céline Dion, Delta Goodrem, and for Hear’Say and Bardot. She also wrote the fastest selling debut single in UK history for recording artist Will Young, the winner of the British music competition reality show Pop Idol, and his runner-up Gareth Gates. Dennis wrote the theme song to the television series American Idol. She wrote several songs for former S Club 7 member Rachel Stevens including "Sweet Dreams My LA Ex", and also two songs for Phil Roy, one of which was on the soundtrack for the film As Good as It Gets starring Jack Nicholson and Helen Hunt.

According to news reports, Dennis was working on a new album under the name Sexcassettes, which she planned to release in 2008. She has collaborated with Mark Ronson on his album, The Business. As of 2015, Dennis became a vocal affiliate with Galantis by first performing, uncredited, on their debut album Pharmacy on the tracks "Runaway (U & I)" and "Louder, Harder, Better". She later co-wrote their song "Love on Me" from their second album The Aviary and sang on five songs from their 2019 album Church. In 2019, Dennis returned to performing. She celebrated her 30th anniversary in the music business with a performance at London's Mighty Hoopla Festival. In 2020 and 2021, Dennis wrote for Now United and collaborated with composer Will Gregory on the soundtrack for the BBC/Discovery Channel docuseries, Serengeti.

Songwriting career
Dennis has written a number of award-winning songs and international hit singles. Her first success was with "Bumper to Bumper", the B-side to the Spice Girls' hit "Wannabe".

Dennis continued this success by co-writing the Pop Idol theme (re-used for numerous international remakes of the show, including American Idol), and writing for Idol contestants, including Kelly Clarkson, Will Young, Gareth Gates, and Clay Aiken. Clarkson's single "Before Your Love" (a double a-side with "A Moment Like This") was Dennis's first US No. 1.

Dennis's "Can't Get You Out of My Head" (recorded by Kylie Minogue) spent four weeks at number one in Britain, while also rekindling interest in Minogue in America, where it hit no. 7 on the Billboard Hot 100. With over three million copies sold worldwide, "Can't Get You Out of My Head" became the second highest selling single in 2001.

Dennis also co-wrote the international hit "Toxic" by Britney Spears, which went to number one in the UK and worldwide.

Dennis's biggest success came in 2008 with Katy Perry's smash hit "I Kissed a Girl" co-written alongside Katy Perry, Max Martin and Dr Luke, which ranks among the best-selling digital singles in history.

Dennis co-wrote three tracks on the Galantis album Pharmacy, one of which, "Runaway (U & I)", reached No. 1 in the UK Dance Chart, No. 9 in the US Dance Chart, and was nominated for a Grammy Award. Dennis has written with KT Tunstall, Black Honey, and Sigala. More recently, Dennis co-wrote three tracks on the new Galantis album out in 2024 and the Laura White single "Nobody".

Personal life
Dennis briefly dated Noel Fitzpatrick, veterinary surgeon and host of The Supervet. The relationship ended in 2003.

World Music Awards Music Awards

 * 1991
 * Herself
 * No. 1 New Pop Female Artist
 * Won
 * }
 * }

Billboard Music Awards

 * 1991
 * Herself
 * No. 1 New Pop Female Artist
 * Won
 * }
 * }

Brit Awards
!Ref.
 * 1992
 * Herself
 * British Female Solo Artist
 * Nominated
 * Nominated

Grammy Awards

 * 2004
 * "Come into My World"
 * rowspan=2|Best Dance Recording
 * rowspan=2 Won
 * 2005
 * "Toxic"
 * }
 * "Toxic"
 * }

Ivor Novello Awards

 * 2001
 * "Never Had a Dream Come True"
 * Best Song Musically & Lyrically
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=4|2002
 * rowspan=4|"Can't Get You Out of My Head"
 * International Hit of the Year
 * rowspan=3 Won
 * Most Performed Work
 * The Ivors Dance Award
 * rowspan=2|Best Selling UK Single
 * Nominated
 * 2003
 * "Anything is Possible"
 * rowspan=3 Won
 * 2005
 * "Toxic"
 * Most Performed Work
 * 2018
 * Herself
 * Outstanding Song Collection
 * 2005
 * "Toxic"
 * Most Performed Work
 * 2018
 * Herself
 * Outstanding Song Collection
 * Herself
 * Outstanding Song Collection

Discography

 * Move to This (1990)
 * Into the Skyline (1992)
 * Am I the Kinda Girl? (1996)

title: Cathy Dennis


text:
Carl Anderson (singer)

Carlton Earl "Carl" Anderson (February 27, 1945 – February 23, 2004) was an American singer, film and theater actor best known for his portrayal of Judas Iscariot in the Broadway and film versions of the rock opera Jesus Christ Superstar by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice. Anderson and singer-actress Gloria Loring performed the duet "Friends and Lovers", which reached No. 2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in 1986.

Early life
Born in Lynchburg, Virginia, Anderson was one of 12 children of James and Alberta Anderson. During his junior year of high school, Anderson enlisted in the U.S. Air Force, where he served as a communications technician for two years. He returned to Lynchburg to complete high school and he graduated in 1965. With his honorable discharge, following high school, Anderson sang at military bases across the United States as part of the World Wide Air Force Talent Contest.

Anderson moved to Washington, D.C., in 1969, where he and some friends formed a group called "The Second Eagle", with Anderson handling the vocals. Among the many jazz and rock tunes that the Second Eagle covered were some from the album Jesus Christ Superstar, which had been released long before there were ever any definitive plans for a stage production.

In 1971, a talent agent from the William Morris Agency saw Anderson perform some songs from the show at St. Stephen's Church and recognized his potential as a solo performer.

Early career
Anderson played the role of Judas in the pre-Broadway touring company's production of Jesus Christ Superstar but was passed over for the initial 1971 Broadway production when producers opted for the more well-known Ben Vereen for the part, and was cast as an understudy. One of his most significant opportunities came when he took over the role from Vereen and performed it on Broadway and in Los Angeles when Vereen fell ill. After Vereen recovered, both actors took turns playing the role. Castmate and future close friend Ted Neeley was performing in the tour as well, but had also been cast in the chorus and as a Jesus understudy. Yvonne Elliman was also in the tour as Mary Magdalene. While performing in Los Angeles, Anderson was flown to London for a screen test for the film adaptation of the rock opera. Two weeks later, he left that production to begin filming in Israel alongside Neeley and Elliman, who were cast for the main roles as Jesus and Magdalene, respectively. The film, released in 1973 by director Norman Jewison, catapulted Anderson's career with two Golden Globe nominations as "Most Promising Newcomer" and "Best Musical Actor".

In the late 1970s, he reprised his role as Judas for two regional productions in California, both under the auspices of the California Youth Theatre organization. The first reunited him with his Broadway and film co-stars Ted Neeley and Yvonne Elliman, and the second reunited him again with Neeley (Jesus).

Other movie appearances by Anderson include: The Black Pearl (1978) and Steven Spielberg's The Color Purple (1985). Television appearances include The Eddie Capra Mysteries, Cop Rock, Days of Our Lives, Rockford Files, and Hill Street Blues.

As a recording artist, Anderson was equally prolific. He signed with Motown Records in 1972. Several of the most recognizable albums to be released in the 1970s would bear the mark of Anderson, including his work with Stevie Wonder on his Songs in the Key of Life double album.

Anderson also made numerous appearances at several notable clubs in Los Angeles during the 1970s and, with Columbia Records' talent scout Larkin Arnold, signed a record deal for which Anderson would release four albums on the Epic label beginning in 1982. In total, Anderson released nine jazz and Soul albums as a solo artist, including hits "How Deep Does It Go", "Pieces of a Heart", "Hot Coffee", and the hit from his self-titled 1986 album, "Friends and Lovers", a duet with Gloria Loring. The song reached the number-two spot on the charts that year and endeared Anderson to soap opera fans, after he and Loring performed the song on Days of Our Lives. In 1989, Anderson recorded the song "Between You and Me", which was used as the title theme for the film Her Alibi. He also recorded on albums with other leading artists.

Later career
In 1992, Anderson reprised his role as Judas in Jesus Christ Superstar for a "20th Anniversary of the Movie" tour, alongside Neeley who also reprised his role as Jesus. Both men had agreed to do the tour only if they got to work together. Initially planned for three months, the production lasted five years and grossed over $100 million, visiting over 50 North American cities, including the Paramount Theater at Madison Square Garden in New York City, the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles, the Fox Theaters in Detroit, St. Louis and Atlanta, the Morris Mechanic Theatre in Baltimore, The Orpheum in San Francisco, Providence Performing Arts Center in Providence, Rhode Island, the Wang Center and Shubert Theater during multiple returns to Boston as well as dates in Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, Miami, Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. All these showings allowed Anderson to reprise his role over 1,700 times.

In 1994, Anderson released an album titled Heavy Weather Sunlight Again which is full of soulful songs such as "Love'll Hold My Baby Tonight".

In 1997, Anderson performed on Broadway in an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night called Play On! featuring the music of Duke Ellington, playing The Duke. Beginning in 1998, and in later years of his life, he reprised his role as Judas in Superstar to sold-out auditoriums around the world.

One of his later albums, Why We Are Here!, was recorded at the Agape International Spiritual Center, then located in Santa Monica, California. He continued to perform, with Linda Eder, in a show called Once in a Lifetime produced by Eder's then-husband, Frank Wildhorn.

In 2002, Anderson reprised his role as Judas in another national tour of Jesus Christ Superstar with ex-Skid Row singer Sebastian Bach playing Jesus. Bach received good reviews and Anderson was again praised. In April 2003, following a disagreement with the director, Bach walked out on the tour and was replaced with Broadway actor Eric Kunze. Bach considered Anderson a father-figure and good friend. Anderson stayed on the tour for three more months, but eventually left the show after being diagnosed with leukemia. The tour closed a year after his death.

Personal life and death
In 1992, Anderson married Veronica Porché, former wife of boxing legend Muhammad Ali.

In 2003, while performing with the national tour of Superstar that had started the previous year, Anderson was diagnosed with leukemia. According to a page on his memorial website, Anderson was involved in a minor car accident on his way to perform and, while being treated for his injuries, doctors discovered that he had leukemia. Anderson died from the illness on February 23, 2004, four days before his 59th birthday, in Los Angeles. The Leonard Cohen / Anjani song "Nightingale" (2004) was recorded in his memory.

Soundtracks and compilations
— indicates a solo contribution.

title: Carl Anderson (singer)


text:
Romina Johnson

Romina Johnson (born 28 November 1973) is a London-based R&B, soul and garage singer. She is perhaps best known in the UK for providing the lead vocals to the Artful Dodger song "Movin' Too Fast", a number 2 hit in early 2000.

Life and career
Johnson was born in Rome to an American father, the musician Wesley Johnson, and an Italian mother. Her singing debut was in 1994, for the Italian TV show Non è la RAI. Johnson is the featured vocalist on the 2000 hit single "Movin' Too Fast", with the Artful Dodger. Later that year, she appeared on the UK Singles Chart for the second time with "My Forbidden Lover", featuring Luci Martin and Norma Jean of Chic. On the 24 October 2011 broadcast of the BBC panel show Never Mind the Buzzcocks, Johnson appeared in the Identity Parade round. Since January 2013, she has been singing with the '70s and '80s disco outfit Odyssey.

Albums

 * Simply Passion (1998)
 * Superbad (2001)
 * Soul River (2008)
 * Heartbeat (2020)

Singles

 * 2000 – "Movin' Too Fast" - UK #2
 * 2001 – "My Forbidden Lover" - UK #59
 * 2003 – "Round & Round" (on Full Flava's album Colour of My Soul)
 * 2005 – "What Can I Do"

Compilation appearances

 * 1994 – Non è la Rai novanta5 (track "Il vento")
 * 1995 – Non è la Rai gran finale (track "Tele telefonarti")

title: Romina Johnson


text:
User:Zhen Lin

劉/刘 振霖

Japanese morphology cheat sheet

ja:利用者:振霖

title: User:Zhen Lin


text:
Praxinoscope

The praxinoscope was an animation device, the successor to the zoetrope. It was invented in France in 1877 by Charles-Émile Reynaud. Like the zoetrope, it used a strip of pictures placed around the inner surface of a spinning cylinder. The praxinoscope improved on the zoetrope by replacing its narrow viewing slits with an inner circle of mirrors, placed so that the reflections of the pictures appeared more or less stationary in position as the wheel turned. Someone looking in the mirrors would therefore see a rapid succession of images producing the illusion of motion, with a brighter and less distorted picture than the zoetrope offered.

Variations
Reynaud introduced the Praxinoscope-Théâtre in 1879. This was basically the same device, but it was hidden inside a box to show only the moving figures within added theatrical scenery. When the set was assembled inside the unfolded box, the viewer looked through a rectangular slot in the front, onto a plate with a transparent mirror surrounded by a printed proscenium. The mirror reflected a background and a floor that were printed on interchangeable cards placed on the inside of the folded lid of the box, below the viewing slot. The animated figures were printed on black strips, so they were all that was visible through the transparent mirror and appeared to be moving within the suggested space that was reflected from the background and floor cards. The set appeared with 20 strips (all based on previous standard praxinoscope strips), 12 backgrounds and a mirror intended for background effects for the swimming figure. This set also sold very well and appeared in slight variations, including a deluxe version made of thuja-wood with ebony inlays.

Reynaud mentioned the possibility of projecting the images in his 1877 patent. He presented a praxinoscope projection device at the Société française de photographie on 4 June 1880, but did not market his praxinoscope a projection before 1882. Only a handful of examples are known to still exist.

In 1888 Reynaud developed the Théâtre Optique, an improved version capable of projecting images on a screen from a longer roll of pictures. From 1892 he used the system for his Pantomimes lumineuses: a show with hand-drawn animated stories for larger audiences. It was very successful for several years, until it was eclipsed in popularity by the photographic film projector of the Lumière brothers.

The praxinoscope was copied by several other companies. Ernst Plank offered several variations, including one that was automated by a small hot air engine.

20th century revival
The Red Raven Magic Mirror and its special children's phonograph records, introduced in the US in 1956, was a 20th-century adaptation of the praxinoscope. The Magic Mirror was a sixteen-sided praxinoscopic reflector with angled facets. It was placed over the record player's spindle and rotated along with the 78 rpm record, which had a very large label with a sequence of sixteen interwoven animation frames arrayed around its center. As the record played, the user gazed into the Magic Mirror and saw an endlessly repeating animated scene that illustrated the recorded song. In the 1960s, versions of the Red Raven system were introduced in Europe and Japan under various names—Teddy in France and the Netherlands, Mamil Moviton in Italy, etc.

Etymology
The word praxinoscope translates roughly as "action viewer", from the Greek roots πραξι- (confer πρᾶξις "action") and scop- (confer σκοπός "watcher").

title: Praxinoscope


text:
User talk:Carlosar~enwiki

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 14:23, Mar 5, 2004 (UTC)

Hi - you need to give your images better names - as ones with the same name overwrite each other. symbol.png and flag.png are not suitable. You also need to say where your images come from. Thanks. Secretlondon 20:06, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Carlosar: Great job you're doing with Americana! Is that where you live? It sounds like an interesting place. Unfortunately, what we can't allow is for you cut-and-paste copyrighted information from other websites (such as guiaamericana.com.br) without knowing whether or not they've given you permission. Do you work for the municipality or the website? Perhaps if you ask politely, they would give permission. If they don't, we'll probably have to remove your work from the Wikipedia to avoid possible copyright problems. No one wants that to happen, of course, but we do have to be careful about copyrights. Saludinhos, –Hajor 17:31, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Pedro II of Brazil-images
Hi,

have a look at Image:Dompedro-II.jpg, Image:Dpedro2.png, Image:Dompedro-grant.jpg and Image:Dom-pedro-ii-family-b.jpg next time you look by ... Interpretix 18:09, 13 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Dpedro1.png

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 05:16, Dec 11, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

Re: Could you please help me?
You are correct, I am a native English speaker. The article itself appears to be written in good English, didn't notice any grammatical or spelling mistakes reading it. I would say that it appears to require some input from a counter-MST POV. If, as it says on the discussion page, MST has links to FARC, Hugo Chavez, etc, this is extremely troubling. I'd have to know how the current owners, who are being expropriated, acquired the property in the first place. Depending on whether it was acquired through legitimate or illegimate means, MST may or may not be correct in expropriating the land. I'm alarmed by the fact that according to the Index of Economic Freedom 2004, Brazil is classified as a "mostly unfree" economy. So in closing, the article itself is well-written from a proper English point of view, but I'm very leery of MST personally, and believe that criticism of MST would be justified in the article. --MSTCrow June 29, 2005 04:01 (UTC)

Image:Brazil-flag-12.jpg listed for deletion
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Alterações nas páginas
Caro Carlos.

Eu desfiz suas alterações nas páginas do PT. O texto que você escreveu é muito estreito: o PT nunca se pôs como partido Comunista (se fosse um, se teria comunista no nome). O partido foi fundado sem asceticismo teórico. Apenas um partido de esquerda. Existe claro, todas essas correntes internas que seguem os ismos todos. Mas assim como há os leninistas há os sociais-democratas (não no sentido PSDB da palavra, bem entendido). A referência a respeito da NEP é completamente absurda. O Brasil não é um país agrário que está passando por uma industrialização rápida orientada pelo Estado!

Quanto às alterações na orientação política dos partidos brasileiros...
 * PPS é discutível rotular como centro-esquerda ou esquerda...
 * PSDB é impossível chamar de centro-esquerda... Ele é diamentralmente contra o governo do PT, que é um partido de esquerda (assim classificado nessa mesma lista)
 * PL também não fica bem chamar de direita, já que está com o governo.

É isso.

Atenciosamente...

José San Martin July 7, 2005 00:29 (UTC)

Partido dos Trabalhadores & afins
Ai, mêo. Eu tinha escrito uma resposta tão longa e cuidadosa... Mas só agora que eu vi que isso aqui acabou não mandando!

Bem, eu escrevo de novo, fazer o quê?

Enfim, só passei aqui para dizer uma coisa, que você é um bom contraponto em discussões desse tipo.

Mas já que estou aqui... Agora estamos discutindo a Crise, a qual você chamaria de A Crise do Mensalão, mas eu acho melhor chamar de A Crise do Valérioduto.

O problema final é como financiar as campanhas dos partidos políticos. Há caixa 2 demais no ar em todos os partidos. Meu entendimento da situação é que o Valério repassava dinheiro de doadores tímidos que queriam dar algo aos partidos. As campanhas são muito, muito caras. Nem os R$ 100 milhões e nem o R$ 40 milhões que o PT e o PSDB (respectivamente) declararam à justiça em 2004 cubririam os gastos bilhadários das campanhas. Há muito caixa 2 em quase todas as campanhas do Brasil, você sabe.

Lembra aquelas notas fiscais do MV queimadas? Elas indicavam que ele tinha recebido dinheiro do Daniel Dantas. E a Conexão Lisboa DD é um grande canalha do mundo empresarial que - tendo ganho o controle dos investimentos do Citibank - ganhou o controle da Brasil Telecom e da Telemig Celular mesmo sendo acionista minoritário e as administrou em seu próprio proveito e em detrimento dos outros acionistas - em especial os fundos de pensão dos funcionários do Banco do Brasil e da Petrobras. Os fundos têm uma forte ligação com Luís Guishiken, que você sabe quem é. Os negócios de DD são bastante escusos, que podem ser facilmente desbaratados por algum governo. Segundo informação da Carta Capital, o Dantas - prevendo a vitória do PT - quis uma aproximação e ofereceu dinheiro ao PT, mas foi sumariamente refutado por Gushiken. Portanto, ele flertou com outra parte mais inescrupulosa do partido, enviando dinheiro via Marcos Valério. Pode ser que haja mensalão, mas analise de novo as notícias tendo em mente o que eu falei.

Bem, obrigado pela discussão! José San Martin 15:20, August 14, 2005 (UTC)

Looks good
I should have a chance to work on it later tonight. Tfine80 17:05, 13 September 2005 (UTC)

Excellent
I should update the timeline and probably also add the information about the businesses from pt. I've noticed that the Portuguese article seems to be edited less now, and I keep reading articles that the scandal is slowing down. I would like to speak with you about the current situation. Best, Tfine80 00:23, 8 October 2005 (UTC)

Also, the English page is now the number 2 hit for mensalao in Google... Is that incredible or what? Tfine80 00:25, 8 October 2005 (UTC)Hey, I've been on vacation the last few days. I certainly will try to update the timeline at some point. Best, Tfine80 19:35, 25 November 2005 (UTC)

Sorry for being a bit AWOL on the Mensalao page. Nice update... I like all of pictures you put up on the pt page. Best, Tfine80 00:59, 15 December 2005 (UTC)

Nice work. Will look at it. Merry Christmas! Tfine80 18:54, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

Re: Revision Help
Well, I'd like to help, but I don't see an actual draft at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Carlosar%5Cdraft. I was under the impression that you were going to translate the article from Portuguese to English, and then wanted some edit and clean-up, but now I'm confused.
 * MSTCrow 09:12, 1 January 2006 (UTC)

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Your account will be renamed
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The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Carlosar. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Carlosar~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Renamed
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title: User talk:Carlosar~enwiki


text:
User talk:Zhen Lin

Do not be offended if your comment is no longer on the page. Comments are removed when noted, and are not archived. - 振霖T July 9, 2005 12:47 (UTC)

Electric/Computer Soldier Porygon
The general Wikipedia rule of thumb is to favor common English-language usage over precise translation when the two conflict, so I've sort-of-reverted your edits at Pokémon and Banned episodes of Pokémon.

I'm given to understand that both translations of "Dennou senshi Porygon" are perfectly valid; but I myself don't speak a word of Japanese. If one is more technically correct than the other, could you mention this at Talk:Banned episodes of Pokémon? - A Man In Black (Talk | Contribs) 08:16, 2 October 2005 (UTC)

Jawi
Hi, I edited one letter of your Image:Jawi alphabet.png, to use the ک-shaped glyph rather than the ك-shaped glyph for gaf. According to this pdf it's the preferred form, and it matches with the other image on the Malay wikipedia. (Incidentally, I'm vlad from the zbb.) --Ptcamn 18:17, 13 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Hmm, similarly for Kaf it seems: Image:SMS0384 RM1 back s.jpg. But sometimes I also see the Arabic usage over here. - 振霖T 09:32, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

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If you don't want to keep your media on English Wikipedia, please nominate it for deletion under Criteria G7 of the Criteria for Speedy deletion ShakespeareFan00 (talk) 13:47, 13 September 2018 (UTC)

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Nomination for merging of Template:Manner of articulation
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title: User talk:Zhen Lin


text:
User talk:Smellycat

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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Dori | Talk 14:24, Mar 5, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Smellycat


text:
User talk:ZeRenato

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

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 * How to write a great article
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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

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Dori | Talk 14:24, Mar 5, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:ZeRenato