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Edgar Dewdney

Edgar Dewdney, (November 5, 1835 – August 8, 1916) was a Canadian surveyor, road builder, Indian commissioner and politician born in Devonshire, England. He emigrated to British Columbia in 1859 in order to act as surveyor for the Dewdney Trail that runs through the province. In 1870, Dewdney decided to take up a role in Canadian government. In this year, he was elected to the Legislative Council of British Columbia as a representative from the Kootenay region. In 1872, he was elected as a Member of the Parliament of Canada for the Yale region representing the Conservative party. He was reelected to this position in 1874 and again in 1878. Dewdney served as Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories from 1879 to 1888, and the fifth Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia from 1892 to 1897. Additionally, he served as the Indian commissioner in the North-West Territories from 1879 until 1888. In 1897, Dewdney retired from politics and began working as a financial agent until his death in 1916.

Throughout his political career, Dewdney played a role in the settlement of western Canada and defining the relationship between the government of Canada and the Indigenous peoples of the North-West in the nineteenth century. Dewdney experienced several political and humanitarian issues throughout his political appointments. As Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Territories, Dewdney had to manage with a starvation crisis faced by the Indigenous peoples after years of deliberate extermination of buffalo herds, promoted by the Government of Canada to force the Indigenous inhabitants off the land prior to its settlement. Additionally, as Indian Commissioner, Dewdney subsequently tackled issues pertaining to the North-West Rebellion of 1885.

Early life and career
Edgar Dewdney was born in Bideford, England to parents Charles Dewdney and Fanny Hollingshead. He grew up in a wealthy family, providing him with many social opportunities. Dewdney had two marriages, neither producing any children. The first marriage was to Jane Shaw Moir in 1864, and the second in 1909 to Blanche Elizabeth Plantagenet Kemeys-Tynte. Dewdney originally wanted to pursue a career in civil engineering, studying the subject at Cardiff University. After his civil engineering training in 1859, he decided to start a life in the Pacific northwest in hopes of making a fortune with his newly acquired qualifications. Dewdney was also motivated to move to the North-West Territories after the discovery and further mining of gold in the Fraser Valley. He was active in the development of pack trails in the colony of British Columbia including the Dewdney Trail which became the main trail into the interior of the colony.

Dewdney was active in political life in British Columbia throughout the 1860s. Dewdney had a limited understanding of the functions of Canadian politics when his interests first piqued. After a few years in Provincial politics, Prime Minister John A. Macdonald requested Dewdney to become the Indian Commissioner in the North-West, as he knew of the “Indians” in the area quite well. Dewdney had an advantage due to his general knowledge of Indigenous peoples and that he did not originate from Ottawa. Later in his life, Dewdney held dual titles of Indian Commissioner and Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Territories. He was also the Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia and after three years retired and became a surveyor. Due to his prestigious career in politics, Dewdney was considered suitable to conduct the study and surveying of the Cascades. He discovered three routes, Allison, Coquihalla, and Railroad Passes in his 1902 exhibition. However, he disclosed that he never liked any of these routes due to their engineering difficulties. As a result, Dewdney suggested the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) should be built from Midway to Princeton, then north to Merritt and Spences Bridge, and have Fraser Canyon as the way through the Cascades. Dewdney is recognized as a legendary trail builder of colonial days in British Columbia, as this played a large role in the westward expansion of Canada. Despite this recognition, he faced issues regarding Canadian expansionism and the effect on Indigenous peoples.

Surveyor during the gold rushes of the 1860s
Dewdney was originally employed as a surveyor, and supervised the survey of New Westminster. In 1865, Dewdney was appointed by Governor Frederick Seymour to oversee the construction of a trail to the East Kootenay region of the British Columbia Interior so that coastal merchants might benefit from the burgeoning trade associated with gold mining in that area. This was also done to secure a line of communication within the region to prevent an American takeover of that part of the province. Although used for only a few years, parts of the Dewdney Trail, as it was known, remain to this day and are used for recreational hiking. Provincial Highway 3 largely follows the route of the Dewdney Trail.

Entry into politics
From 1868 to 1869, Dewdney became active in Colonial politics, representing the electoral district of Kootenay in the Legislative Council of British Columbia. After the colony joined Canadian Confederation in 1871, he served as a Conservative Member of Parliament for the riding of Yale following his election in 1872. He was appointed a member of Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald's cabinet in 1879, where he served as Indian commissioner for the North-West Territories until 1888.

In 1881, Macdonald arranged Dewdney's appointment as Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories, then an executive position. Dewdney resigned his seat in the Commons, but remained Indian Commissioner during his term as Lieutenant-Governor, which lasted until 1888. Macdonald, along with being Prime Minister, held the cabinet post Minister of the Interior. Dewdney took orders directly from Macdonald. Responsible government had not been granted to the North-West Territories, so Dewdney was the Territories' head of government. Perhaps his most notable decision in office was changing the territorial capital from Battleford to Wascana – Cree for "Pile of Bones" –  in 1883: a featureless location without water apart from a short spring run-off Wascana Creek, trees or topography. This is where Dewdney had secured a substantial real estate for himself adjacent to the near-future planned Canadian Pacific Railway line. Other townsites were also considered probable territorial capitals, including Fort Qu'Appelle and Qu'Appelle, the latter to the extent of having been designated the cathedral city of the new Diocese of Qu'Appelle by the Church of England in Canada. The matter was a national scandal at the time. Still, the initial major street of Pile of Bones, later renamed Regina by Princess Louise, Marchioness of Lorne, was called Dewdney Avenue.

After his term as Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories, Dewdney was again elected to Parliament and served as the member for Assiniboia East (now southeastern Saskatchewan) from 1888 to 1891. During this period he also served as Minister of the Interior and Superintendent of Indian Affairs.

In 1892, he was appointed to the non-executive viceregal post of Lieutenant-Governor of British Columbia. He served in this post until 1897.

He retired from politics in 1900, after unsuccessfully running for Parliament in New Westminster, British Columbia.

In 1909, following the death his wife Jane, Dewdney remarried. His newlywed wife was Blanche Kemeys-Tynte, the daughter of Colonel Charles John Kemeys-Tynte of Halswell, Somerset, England.

Crisis: The starvation of the Indians
Upon taking office in May, 1879, Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories Edgar Dewdney came face to face with the plight of the natives in the wake of the disappearing buffalo. The mass extermination of buffalo, encouraged by the Government as an important step to depopulating the land and permitted its settlement, had had its intended effect on the Indigenous peoples who relied completely on every aspect of the buffalo for food, clothing and resources for housing. Indigenous peoples had already starved to death at Qu'Appele, Fort Walsh, Fort Macleod, Battleford, Carlton, Fort Pitt, Fort Saskatchewan, Edmonton, Touchwood Hills, Fort Ellice, Moose Mountain, Fort Calgary, and elsewhere. Dewdney's solution was to locate the native tribes on reserves. Their agents would teach them how to farm.

He reported conditions at the Blackfoot Crossing in July 1879 as follows:

"On arriving there I found about 1300 Indians in a very destitute condition, and many on the verge of starvation. Young men who were known to be stout and hearty fellows some months ago were quite emaciated and so weak they could hardly work ; the old people and widows, who with their children live on the charity of the younger and more prosperous, had nothing, and many a pitiable tale was told of the misery they had endured."

By that autumn, seventeen instructors were established at different reserves along with supplies of tools and seed. They began to teach the natives how to farm.

Dewdney was later denounced for not responding to four official requests for food aid during the winter of 1882-83 for "over 2000 Indians here almost naked and on the verge of starvation". When finally pressed to send food supplies after the official requests, Dewdney stated it was government policy to use famine to force Indians onto reserves.

The Report of the Royal Commission to Inquire into Changes Affecting the Administration of Justice in the North-West Territories was conducted by Dewdney in 1880 regarding the administration of Indian Affairs. This communication was written to the Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs in Ottawa and provided insight into conditions in the North-West. This report was controversial because it only provided a colonial viewpoint into the lives of Indigenous peoples. The Indigenous voice was omitted from the report, making the report biased to colonial views. Dewdney outlined in the report that the “scarcity of buffalo in Fort Walsh had not been exaggerated, and numbers of Indians of the Cree, Assiniboine and Blackfeet were awaiting the arrival of Col. MacLeod and myself.” The decline of the buffalo populations created a famine which “reduced the Indians to a state of dependence on government relief supplies and even forced the Indians to seek government on their reserves.” In order to resolve the starvation crisis, Dewdney proposed relocating all Indigenous peoples in the region onto reserves. Because of the scarcity in buffalo populations, the government had no other choice but to provide Indigenous peoples on reserves with food rations, distributed by the North-West Mounted Police.

Due to the high decline in the buffalo population, many Indigenous communities were facing starvation. Changes needed to be made in regards to the government’s actions in controlling and alleviating the threat of a starvation crisis. Dewdney traveled to parts of the north-west with Col. James Macleod, the Commissioner of the North-West Mounted Police, in response to the threat of a starvation crisis. Before traveling to Blackfoot Crossing, Macleod stated in Fort Walk that the resolution to the buffalo problem and the starvation of the Indigenous peoples was to promote an agricultural lifestyle rather than one based on the reliance on buffalo. After observing the crisis at Blackfoot Crossing, Dewdney stressed that the Indigenous peoples there should work to relieve themselves of starvation that resulted from the disappearance of buffalo. He proposed stationing instructors on reserves in order to educate the Indigenous peoples on how to sustain an agricultural society, as well as to provide those on reserves with the necessary supplies. The Royal Commission shows that members of the Blackfoot nation were grateful for Dewdney’s efforts made to ending the crisis. Both members of government in Ottawa and Dewdney believed that the Blackfoot Crossing could be a prosperous agricultural settlement. Upon arriving to Blackfoot, Dewdney hoped to talk about this possible prosperity but before his arrival, he had received news that a number of buffalo had crossed through the settlement and destroyed the crops.

In the early 1880s, government officials such as Dewdney withheld rations from Indigenous people as a tool to bring them into submission. From 1881 to 1883, it was recorded that buffalo and buffalo herds were headed towards Fort Walsh. Upon hearing this, Dewdney ordered that the food rations for Fort Walsh be reduced. The North-West Mounted Police began preparation to abandon their post at the fort, which meant Indigenous peoples could only receive their treaty payments and other assistance if or when they signed the treaty and moved north. Dewdney's refusal to allow the supply of relief to Indigenous communities created a volatile environment. In October 1882, reports from Augustus Jukes, senior surgeon for the Northwest Mounted Police, regarding the limited food and lack of shelter did not have an effect on Dewdney. As a result, Fort Walsh closed in 1882 which left many Indigenous people starved, unless they signed Treaty One or Treaty Two. Dewdney said that he would recognize any male Cree as a chief if he could get the support of one hundred or more men to accept him as a leader. As a result, many Metis, Cree and Assiniboine separated from their bands in order to receive the promised rations from the government.

In 1882, it was reported that Cree and Assiniboine that settled in the Cypress Hills were supplied with minimal food rations. As a result, many Cree and Assiniboine began travelling to Indian Head. However, many died along the journey as a result of starvation. The reserve in Indian Head was called Win-cha-pa-ghen, or Skull Mountainettes, because the mountains were covered with the victims of the starvation crisis who received little aid from the government of Canada. In the spring, many made the journey back to the Cypress Hills, where Augustus Juke reported that many of the Cree and Assiniboine were in a state of starvation and did not have the basic necessities of life. This was the direct result of the Indian Commissioner’s insistence on letting them starve unless they complied with the government's request for them to sign treaties. Dewdney was quoted saying “the longer they continue to act against the wishes of the Government, the more wretched will they become.”

In 1884, tensions between Louis Riel and the government were rising. Charles Borromée, the Justice of the Supreme Court of the North-West Territories and legal advisor in the North-West Territories, sent a letter to Edgar Dewdney on September 5, 1884, regarding the conditions of Indigenous communities during the North-West Rebellion. Borromée wrote “Riel can harm the country, and that the government must come to the assistance of the Indians or misery and starvation will result.” Dewdney ultimately ignored this information, allowing the half breed (Metis) to starve.

In 1886, Dewdney described the state’s initiatives to provide rations to Indigenous communities as a “policy of reward and punishment,” implying that only bands deemed as “loyal” would receive rations, livestock, and other farming equipment. To help promote an agricultural society within Indigenous communities, treaties stipulated that farming supplies would be made available as well as livestock. Dewdney believed that one of the reasons Indigenous people could not become self supporting was due to the treaties failing to provide grist mills for grain farming. Dewdney, as Indian Commissioner, noted that there were insufficient resources and supplies despite the terms of the treaties. The government of Canada promoted self sufficiency in agriculture by Indigenous peoples as a way to offset the cost of famine relief from the government. However, the supplies that would help Indigenous peoples on reserves to create an agricultural based community were lacking. The lack of supplies from the government frustrated many. The starvation crisis would symbolize the defining issue during Edgar Dewdney’s tenure as Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories. The Crisis regarding the starvation of the natives is still seen as a major political and humanitarian crisis.

Northwest Rebellion of 1885
The North-West Rebellion of 1885 was an uprising led by the Metis and other Indigenous peoples of the North-West Territories against the Canadian government. The Metis felt threatened by the continuous buying and selling of land by the Canadian government. There was the question of whether the Metis would receive the land that they were entitled to, while the government continued to give more land to settlers. This, in conjunction with the decline in buffalo in the region and the lack of government relief, resulted in the North-West rebellion. The North-West Rebellion began as a peaceful protest by the Metis against the lack of government relief. The reinforcement of the North-West Mounted Police to the area was seen as a threat to the Metis, and helped to jumpstart violence between the Metis and the government. The violent altercation lasted for five months, with the eventual defeat of the Metis rebels by federal enforcers.

Edgar Dewdney was the Lieutenant-Governor of the North-West Territories during the Riel-led rebellion of 1885. It is clear that there were many issues in the North-West region prior to the outbreak of the Metis rebellion. The North-West Mounted Police Superintendent L.N.F. Crozier acted as an informant for Dewdney in the events leading up to the outbreak of the rebellion. With the information that he had gathered, Dewdney believed that he could maintain peace within the region and that he had control of the situation. However, he did not have faith in the ability of Indian agents across the region to maintain and control the unrest that was beginning to arise within Indigenous communities. As a result, Dewdney called for the appointment of a second roving inspector in 1885, as he believed that it would be difficult for one man to do the job effectively over a vast amount of territory, as well as the fact that the current roving inspector T.P. Wadsworth was reporting his findings to other officials behind Dewdney’s back. Since his arrival in the North-West Territories, Dewdney supported the increase of rations for Indigenous communities and believed that it was crucial that the terms outlined in treaties were met in order to maintain peace between the Metis and colonial settlers.

Land
The issue regarding Metis land claims and entitlement had been a topic of discussion for many years prior to the outbreak of rebellion. Louis Riel’s return to Canada caught the attention of the Canadian government, which motivated the efforts of communities along the Saskatchewan River to advance political demands. The Federal Government was not willing to negotiate with the Metis on the matter. Metis leader, Louis Riel and the Metis forwarded their demands to Ottawa in 1884. Dewdney, as Lieutenant Governor, stated that the government would investigate the claims of those who did not receive land or script in Manitoba, but made no other promises. Riel wanted “land titles and government by the people” instead of Dewdney holding absolute power in the region. The issue had been brought up to Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald many times, but had always been pushed aside to prioritize other issues occurring within the dominion. Many settlers in the region were becoming anxious and feared the outbreak of a rebellion, so in February 1885, Dewdney urged the Prime Minister to respond to their demands from the Metis. This request was once again ignored. Later that month, officials in Saskatchewan began sending reports to Dewdney regarding Metis military action that had begun in the area. It had been reported that the Metis had obtained weapons and ammunition from colonial traders, which was considered illegal. This was alarming for Dewdney, who believed that action needed to be taken to control the Metis and suppress tensions. As a result, Dewdney prepared to send police to the area if conditions worsened. When Riel and his followers began to take prisoners and recruit support from individuals on nearby reserves, Dewdney allowed one hundred Mounted Police to intervene. Dewdney was devoted to preventing other Indigenous peoples on reserves from joining Riel in the North-West Rebellion as an attempt to keep settlers in the area at ease. Land was prioritized by Riel and the Metis in order to secure their future prosperity and survival in the area. Their demands were not recognized by the government of Canada and prompted some Metis communities to prepare for military action.

Rations used as means of control
Land and food were important tools used by the government of Canada to control Indigenous peoples. Therefore, land and food were key motivators in the resistance. Prior to the outbreak of the rebellion, Dewdney was unwilling to provide large amounts of rations to Metis settlements unless they were in extreme desperation. This mindset changed during the rebellion, as Dewdney’s idea was to “tempt” Metis and other Indigenous peoples to remain on their reserve and remain devoted to the dominion by offering them more rations and goods. When violence broke out between Riel and the government, Dewdney conducted a tour of reserves in the area, listening to the specific needs of the individuals living on the reserves in an attempt to keep them content. Dewdney offered them more rations of tobacco, bacon, flour, and tea. This was done to keep the Indigenous people on the reserve loyal to the state and separated from the rebellious Metis. Dewdney maintained this appeasement strategy throughout the rebellion. He emphasized the need to be loyal to the state throughout the rebellion. Dewdney suggested that rations and other goods should be withheld from “rebel Indians” after the North-West Rebellion had ended, until it was decided how justice could be achieved. Dewdney believed that those who had been loyal to the state should be rewarded after the North-West Rebellion had ended. These individuals were awarded through the distribution of money and livestock.

The North-West Rebellion can be linked to the starvation crisis, which is represented in the Frog Lake Massacre. The Frog Lake Massacre on April 2, 1885, was due to the restlessness of the Native people in the area of Frog Lake due to the lack of food and resources. Theresa Delaney, a settler who was held captive whose husband was shot in Frog Lake believed that Edgar Dewdney should be blamed as a cause for the massacre in that while visiting Frog Lake, Dewdney made many promises in regards to food and aid, but none of the promises were fulfilled. Although the massacre cannot be directly linked to Dewdney’s unfulfilled promises to the Indigenous peoples of Frog Lake, it is clear that the lack of government intervention at a time of crisis worsened the conditions. Due to the lack of resources, aid, and food provided to those in the region, it is clear that the residents of Frog Lake were living in unjust circumstances. Additionally, Dewdney acted as a mediator between the government and the Indigenous peoples of Frog Lake.

Result of the rebellion
The North-West Rebellion eventually ended on June 3, 1885, with subsequent consequences and as well as solutions to ensure there would be no repetition of violence. After the North-West Rebellion had ended, Dewdney took actions to improve the level of security on reserves. This was done to prevent another rebellion of the same nature from occurring in the region. Dewdney believed that all of those who were involved in the North-West Rebellion should be sentenced accordingly. He supported heavy jail sentences for the perpetrators and believed that many executions needed to be carried out in order to make a statement, including the execution of Louis Riel. Dewdney believed that the future of Indigenous communities lay in the younger generation. He feared Indigenous children and the power that they held. This was one of the arguments that justified his support the closing of day schools and the creation of Indian residential schools in order to fully transform Indigenous children into model citizens. He believed that children needed to be removed from the influence of their Indigenous parents and communities. This needed to be done in order to maintain control and ensure that another rebellion of similar nature did not occur. The failure of the North-West Rebellion caused the government of Canada to impose other regulations on the lives of individuals, such as Indian residential schools. The intended purpose of Indian residential schools were to isolate Indigenous children from the influences of their family in order to effectively assimilate them into Euro- Canadian society. These schools operated within Canada until 1996. They were opened and funded by the Canadian government and were operated by the Catholic church. At these schools, Indigenous children faced extreme physical, emotional, and sexual abuse as an assimilation tactic. The traumatization that Indigenous children faced at these schools has been passed down through generations and continues to have an extremely negative effect on Indigenous communities in the twenty-first century.

Honours
Dewdney had the prenominal "the Honourable" and the postnominal "PC" for life by virtue of being made a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada on September 25, 1888.

Indigenous relations
Settler expansion westward further strained Indigenous and Crown relations. Metis and Indigenous peoples were affected by the increase in westward expansion and the methods of land settlement imposed by the government in Qu’Appelle and Saskatchewan. The Metis distrusted Dewdney due to his control over the land in question for settlement. New settlers arriving in the region began to push Metis out of Manitoba. The uncertainty regarding the fate of the Metis in Manitoba in regards to settler migration became a reality. Surveying of Metis land for the new settlers created new tensions, which Dewdney failed to acknowledge. There are some instances of Dewdney mediating territorial disputes as Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs, and while travelling the areas affected by the starvation crisis in 1879. He noted in the Royal Commission that the Sacree nation was in dispute with the Blackfeet over flour rations. The Sacree were forced to travel to Fort MacLeod in order to avoid further trauma caused by starvation, but voiced concern over the area also being inhabited by the Blackfeet. Dewdney ended the dispute and the Sacree agreed to move to Fort MacLeod. Dewdney was involved in mediating the territorial disputes between the Metis and settlers when tensions were heightened.

The early 1880s saw raids led by Indigenous bands to steal cattle and horses from ranchers. This is directly linked to the loss of buffalo in the area and the subsequent starvation crisis. These raids occurred across into the United States and created American tensions. As a Result, Dewdney created a permit system in 1882 so that groups such as the Blackfeet and Assiniboine could move across the border to hunt, visit relatives, and for leisure. Dewdney supported and defended the allegations against Canadian Indigenous peoples as being held responsible for the depredations in Northern Montana. Rancher anxieties and prompts from Americans due to raids by Indigenous peoples pushed Dewdney to move Indigenous bands “from the southern prairies of Assiniboia to reserves north of the Canadian Pacific Railroad.” This plan disrupted bands searching and following remaining buffalo across the international boundary. The Royal Canadian Mounted Police were instructed to use force when faced with bands attempting to move north. Dewdney triumphantly claimed that there were no more natives north of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) line. As a result, the development of the CPR could continue further west by the instruction of Dewdney.

Concerning governance, Dewdney advocated for the enforcement of the Indian Act to dispose Indian chiefs. This would help the colonial government maintain power in local communities by removing Indigenous leadership and eradicating self-governance. As a result of this enforcement, arrests were made against those who were viewed as ‘bad Indians.’ The use of language such as ‘bad Indians’ left for interpretation that any Metis or Indigenous person that rejected government policy was atrocious. Additionally, Dewdney mediated territorial disputes as Superintendent-General of Indian Affairs while traveling areas affected by colonial expansion as well as food and land disputes.

Criticism
Dewdney has been criticized for using the courts as an extension of administering his own concept of justice He reportedly withheld rations from the Cree until he realized that it created more violence among them

Dewdney was known for making many promises to the Indigenous peoples which raised their morale, but ultimately leaving these promises unfulfilled. At the time of the North-West Rebellion, Dewdney was Indian Commissioner as well as Lieutenant Governor of the North-West Territories. This gave him a great deal of power and influence in the area and created criticism towards him, as many believe that he was able to abuse this power to ultimately achieve his goals. Dewdney was criticized for not responding to requests for food relief made to the government by Metis, Assiniboine and Cree in the winter of 1882 to 1883. The lack of a response from Dewdney in regard to official requests for food supplies to Indigenous communities can be seen as a tactic used in order to push Indigenous peoples onto reserves.

Additionally, there was concern that the Department of Indian Affairs, its agents, and Dewdney had secretly been in contact with Montana grocery and mercantile firm I.G. Baker Company. The worry was that the Department had purchased subpar goods to distribute to the Metis who were affected by the starvation crisis. It was claimed by the Hudson's Bay Company That Dewdney and other key officials in the North-West and Ottawa were linked with the company and therefore profiting off of the starvation crisis. Dewdney's relationship with the Baker Co. relates back to before his appointment as Indian Commissioner. Dewdney was known to involve himself in various business ventures and investments in the North-West that resulted in his personal financial gain. Flour supplied to Indigenous communities by the Baker Company was unfit for consumption and caused deaths in several reserves. Additionally, there was the belief that the food had been tampered with which created a formal independent investigation into the Baker Company’s flour supply. It was determined that the flour was indeed substandard, which reflected negatively on Dewdney given his relationship with the Company.

Furthermore, there are also reports that Dewdney and other agents from the Department of Indian Affairs used food as a tool for coercion. Many Indigenous people on reserves were at the mercy of these agents.

Life after the rebellion
It is important to note that Dewdney never truly liked living in the North-West Territories, as he saw the land as bleak and lifeless. He also disliked the harsh climate of the North-West Territories, as it could become intolerable at times. Dewdney suffered from extreme back pain, preventing him from traveling on horseback and camping between reserves. Dewdney’s wife Jane also expressed a longing to return to life in British Columbia, as it was filled with excitement and adventure. After the North-West Rebellion, Dewdney requested political appointments outside of the North-West. On September 12, 1888, he was named Minister of the Interior as well as superintendent general of Indian Affairs. Dewdney was appointed as Lieutenant Governor of British Columbia on November 2, 1892, and retired December 1, 1897. After his retirement from politics, Dewdney focused on business ventures. Throughout his life, Dewdney managed his personal finances poorly, resulting in his lack of pension to support him in his later life. Subsequently, he also focused on surveying projects for proposed railways in British Columbia. His wife Jane died in January 1909, which prompted his second marriage to Blanche Elizabeth Plantagenet Kemeys-Tynte in 1909. Money continued to be an issue for Dewdney up until his death. He attempted to receive a senate appointment as well as an appeal to receive a pension to aid him in his old age. He never received a senate appointment or a pension. Edgar Dewdney died on August 8, 1916, in Victoria, British Columbia, at the age of eighty.

Legacy

 * A major east-west street in Regina, Dewdney Avenue, is named after him; Government House, the original Territorial government building and the local detachment of the RCMP (formerly its headquarters before these were transferred to Ottawa) and national training centre are on Dewdney Avenue.

 * Dewdney, British Columbia, is the name of a locality immediately east of Mission, British Columbia, located below the 920 m Dewdney Peak on the north shore of the Fraser River. The community was the namesake of the former Dewdney provincial electoral district and also of the now-dismantled Dewdney-Alouette Regional District
 * The Dewdney Trunk Road was one of the earliest main roads in the Lower Fraser Valley of British Columbia, running from Port Moody to the community of Dewdney. Today it exists in sections in Coquitlam and Port Coquitlam and is a major thoroughfare running between Maple Ridge and Mission, ending short of Dewdney in the community of Hatzic.
 * The Last Mountain Lake Bird Sanctuary in Saskatchewan, established in 1887 upon Dewdney's recommendation and the first wildlife reserve of its type on the continent, was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1987.

Archives
There are Edgar Dewdney fonds at Library and Archives Canada and the Glenbow Library and Archives, University of Calgary.

title: Edgar Dewdney


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Convair F2Y Sea Dart

The Convair F2Y Sea Dart was an American seaplane fighter aircraft that rode on twin hydro-skis during takeoff and landing. It flew only as a prototype, and never entered mass production. It is the only seaplane to have exceeded the speed of sound.

It was created in the 1950s, to overcome the problems with supersonic planes taking off and landing on aircraft carriers. The program was canceled after a series of unsatisfactory results and a tragic accident on 4 November 1954, in which test pilot Charles E. Richbourg was killed when the Sea Dart he was piloting disintegrated in midair. The four surviving planes were retired in 1957, but some were kept in reserve until 1962.

Development
The Sea Dart began as Convair's entry in a 1948 U.S. Navy contest for a supersonic interceptor aircraft. At the time, there was much skepticism about operating supersonic aircraft from carrier decks. In order to address this issue, the U.S. Navy ordered many subsonic fighters. The worry had some foundation, since many supersonic designs of the time required long takeoff rolls, had high approach speeds, and were not very stable or easy to control—all factors that were troublesome on a carrier.

Ernest Stout's team at Convair's hydrodynamic research laboratory proposed to put a Delta Dagger on water skis.

Convair's proposal gained an order for two prototypes in late 1951. Twelve production aircraft were ordered before a prototype had even flown. No armament was ever fitted to any Sea Dart built, but the plan was to arm the production aircraft with four 20mm Colt Mk12 cannon and a battery of folding-fin unguided rockets. Four of this order were redesignated as service test vehicles, and an additional eight production aircraft were soon ordered as well.

Design
The aircraft was to be a delta-winged fighter with a watertight hull and twin retractable hydro-skis for takeoff and landing. When stationary or moving slowly in the water, the Sea Dart floated with the trailing edge of the wings touching the water. The skis were not extended until the aircraft reached about 10 mi per hour during its takeoff run.

The required power was supplied by a pair of afterburning Westinghouse XJ46-WE-02 turbojets, fed from intakes mounted high above the wings to avoid ingesting spray. When these engines were not ready for the prototypes, twin Westinghouse J34-WE-32 engines of just over half the power were installed.

Ski configurations
The prototype was fitted with an experimental single ski, which proved more successful than the twin-ski design of the second service test aircraft. Testing with several other experimental ski configurations continued with the prototype through 1957, after which it was placed into storage.

The US was not the only country to consider the hydroski. The Saunders-Roe company of the United Kingdom, which had already built an experimental flying boat jet fighter, first flying in 1947 the SR.A/1, tendered a design for a ski-equipped fighter, but little came of it.

Submarine carriage
In the 1950s, the US Navy considered the internal arrangements of a submarine aircraft carrier that could carry three of these aircraft. Stored in pressure chambers that would not protrude from the hull, they would be raised by a portside elevator just aft of the sail and set to take off on their own on a smooth sea but catapulted aft in a higher sea. The program only reached the "writing on a napkin" stage, for two problems were not addressed: the hole for the elevator would have seriously weakened the hull and the load of a laden elevator would also be difficult to transmit to the hull structure.

Operational history
The aircraft was built in Convair's San Diego facility at Lindbergh Field and was taken to San Diego Bay for testing in December 1952. On 14 January 1953, with E. D. "Sam" Shannon at the controls, the aircraft inadvertently made its first short flight during what was supposed to be a fast taxi run; its official maiden flight was on 9 April.

The underpowered engines made the fighter sluggish, and the hydro-skis were not as successful as hoped; they created violent vibration during takeoff and landing, despite the shock-absorbing oleo legs they were extended on. Work on the skis and legs improved this situation somewhat, but they were unable to resolve the sluggish performance. The Sea Dart proved incapable of supersonic speed in level flight with the J34 engines; not helping was its pre-area rule shape, which meant higher transonic drag.

The second prototype was canceled, so the first service test aircraft was built and flown. This was fitted with the J46 engines, which performed below specification. However, speeds in excess of Mach 1 were attained in a shallow dive with this aircraft, making it the only supersonic seaplane to date. On 4 November 1954, Sea Dart BuNo 135762 disintegrated in midair over San Diego Bay during a demonstration for naval officials and the press, killing Convair test pilot Charles E. Richbourg when he inadvertently exceeded the airframe's limitations.

Even before that, the Navy had been losing interest (problems with supersonic fighters on carrier decks having been overcome) and the crash relegated the Sea Dart program to experimental status. All production aircraft were cancelled, though the remaining three service test examples were completed. The two final prototypes never flew.

Redesignation
Despite the fact that the airplane was officially retired and had not flown since 1957, at least one F2Y was still in storage as of 1962. As a result, it was redesignated YF-7A under the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system.

Operators

 * United States Navy
 * United States Navy

Aircraft on display

All four remaining Sea Darts survive to this day.
 * XF2Y-1 Sea Dart, Bureau Number 137634, is in bad shape due to a mistake with a crane and is awaiting restoration for the Smithsonian Institution in Washington D.C.
 * YF2Y-1 Sea Dart, Bureau Number 135763, is on display at the San Diego Air & Space Museum in Balboa Park. It is on loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola.
 * YF2Y-1 Sea Dart, Bureau Number 135764, is on display at the Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum at NAS Willow Grove, Pennsylvania. It is on loan from the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola.
 * YF2Y-1 Sea Dart, Bureau Number 135765, is on display at the Florida Air Museum that is part of the Sun 'n Fun complex at Lakeland Linder International Airport, Florida.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Convair F2Y Sea Dart


text:
Talk:County Londonderry

Note to editors: the agreed compromise for the Derry/Londonderry name dispute is that the city page shall be titled Derry and the county page shall be titled County Londonderry (see WP:DERRY for details).

Semi-protected edit request on 11 July 2022
its derry not londonderry Kturner112 (talk) 20:38, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

 * See previous discussions above. Valenciano (talk) 20:41, 11 July 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 October 2022
Change county name to derry 2001:BB6:A62E:5300:D19E:A841:5E62:BE5A (talk) 22:30, 3 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: See discussion above and in the archives. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 22:34, 3 October 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 25 August 2023
Londonderry to Derry as Londonderry does not exist. Thanks 2A02:8084:51BF:6600:6843:DE48:31C4:A4CF (talk) 16:48, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Not done as you haven't provided reliable sources to support your request. According to all the references and the article the county of Londonderry was created from County Coleraine and parts of Tyrone and Antrim. Unlike the city references and historical record indicates there was never a County Derry other than as a colloquial naming. Please provide evidence and references to the contrary if you wish to have the article altered. Thank you. Canterbury Tail talk 17:41, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 30 August 2023
County Londonderry is not the name of this county it is just county derry .The six counties in Northern Ireland are Tyrone, Derry, Antrim ,Down, Armagh and Fermanagh. Diiie (talk) 13:11, 30 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Not done as you have failed to provide reliable sources for this claim. You claim goes against the current reliable sources and government documentation for the creation of the county. If you wish to alter it you will need reliable sources that shows the current ones to be incorrect. Canterbury Tail talk 13:16, 30 August 2023 (UTC)

Its County Derry. The county has a majority Catholic and Republican population. The county is referred to, and has been referred to as County Derry, not L*nd*nderry. Absolute virgin. Alaa kka (talk) 13:27, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

 * WP:DERRY 212.3.150.52 (talk) 18:12, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 12 November 2023
Freederry 2A01:B340:66:7C34:5C8:4B04:D6D1:8266 (talk) 23:42, 12 November 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Liu1126 (talk) 00:10, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:County Londonderry


text:
Naegleriasis

Naegleriasis, also known as primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), is an almost invariably fatal infection of the brain by the free-living unicellular eukaryote Naegleria fowleri. Symptoms are meningitis-like and include headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, a stiff neck, confusion, hallucinations and seizures. Symptoms progress rapidly over around five days, and death usually results within one to two weeks of symptoms.

N. fowleri is typically found in warm bodies of fresh water, such as ponds, lakes, rivers and hot springs. It is found in an amoeboid, temporary flagellate stage or microbial cyst in soil, poorly maintained municipal water supplies, water heaters, near warm-water discharges of industrial plants and in poorly chlorinated or unchlorinated swimming pools. There is no evidence of it living in salt water. As the disease is rare, it is often not considered during diagnosis.

Although infection occurs very rarely, it almost inevitably results in death. Of the 128 naegleriasis US cases in the half-century to 2016, only two survived.

Signs and symptoms
Onset of symptoms begins one to twelve days following exposure (with a median of five). Initial symptoms include changes in taste and smell, headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, back pain, and a stiff neck. Secondary symptoms are also meningitis-like including confusion, hallucinations, lack of attention, ataxia, cramp and seizures. After the start of symptoms, the disease progresses rapidly, with death usually occurring anywhere from one to eighteen days later (with a median of five), although it can take longer. In 2013, a man in Taiwan died 25 days after being infected by Naegleria fowleri.

It affects healthy children or young adults who have recently been exposed to bodies of fresh water. Scientists speculate that lower age groups are at a higher risk of contracting the disease because adolescents have a more underdeveloped and porous cribriform plate, through which the amoeba travels to reach the brain.

Cause

N. fowleri invades the central nervous system via the nose, specifically through the olfactory mucosa of the nasal tissues. This usually occurs as the result of the introduction of water that has been contaminated with N. fowleri into the nose during activities such as swimming, bathing or nasal irrigation.

The amoeba follows the olfactory nerve fibers through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone into the skull. There, it migrates to the olfactory bulbs and subsequently other regions of the brain, where it feeds on the nerve tissue. The organism then begins to consume cells of the brain, piecemeal through trogocytosis, by means of an amoebostome, a unique actin-rich sucking apparatus extended from its cell surface. It then becomes pathogenic, causing primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM or PAME).

Primary amoebic meningoencephalitis presents symptoms similar to those of bacterial and viral meningitis. Upon abrupt disease onset, a plethora of problems arise. Endogenous cytokines, which release in response to pathogens, affect the hypothalamus' thermoregulatory neurons and cause a rise in body temperature. Additionally, cytokines may act on the vascular organ of the lamina terminalis, leading to the synthesis of prostaglandin (PG) E2 which acts on the hypothalamus, resulting in an increase in body temperature. Also, the release of cytokines and exogenous exotoxins coupled with an increase in intracranial pressure stimulate nociceptors in the meninges creating pain sensations.

The release of cytotoxic molecules in the central nervous system results in extensive tissue damage and necrosis, such as damage to the olfactory nerve through lysis of nerve cells and demyelination. Specifically, the olfactory nerve and bulbs become necrotic and hemorrhagic. Spinal flexion leads to nuchal rigidity, or stiff neck, due to the stretching of the inflamed meninges. The increase in intracranial pressure stimulates the area postrema to create nausea sensations which may lead to brain herniation and damage to the reticular formation. Ultimately, the increase in cerebrospinal fluid from inflammation of the meninges increases intracranial pressure and leads to the destruction of the central nervous system. Although the exact pathophysiology behind the seizures caused by PAM is unknown, scientists speculate that the seizures arise from altered meningeal permeability caused by increased intracranial pressure.

Pathogenesis

Naegleria fowleri propagates in warm, stagnant bodies of fresh water (typically during the summer months), and enters the central nervous system after insufflation of infected water by attaching itself to the olfactory nerve. It then migrates through the cribriform plate and into the olfactory bulbs of the forebrain, where it multiplies itself greatly by feeding on nerve tissue.

Diagnosis
N. fowleri can be grown in several kinds of liquid axenic media or on non-nutrient agar plates coated with bacteria. Escherichia coli can be used to overlay the non-nutrient agar plate and a drop of cerebrospinal fluid sediment is added to it. Plates are then incubated at 37 °C and checked daily for clearing of the agar in thin tracks, which indicate the trophozoites have fed on the bacteria.

Detection in water is performed by centrifuging a water sample with E. coli added, then applying the pellet to a non-nutrient agar plate. After several days, the plate is microscopically inspected and Naegleria cysts are identified by their morphology. Final confirmation of the species' identity can be performed by various molecular or biochemical methods.

Confirmation of Naegleria presence can be done by a so-called flagellation test, where the organism is exposed to a hypotonic environment (distilled water). Naegleria, in contrast to other amoebae, differentiates within two hours into the flagellate state. Pathogenicity can be further confirmed by exposure to high temperature (42 °C): Naegleria fowleri is able to grow at this temperature, but the nonpathogenic Naegleria gruberi is not.

Prevention
Michael Beach, a recreational waterborne illness specialist for the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, stated in remarks to the Associated Press that wearing of nose clips to prevent insufflation of contaminated water would be effective protection against contracting PAM, noting that "You'd have to have water going way up in your nose to begin with".

Advice stated in the press release from Taiwan's Centers for Disease Control recommended people prevent fresh water from entering the nostrils and avoid putting their heads down into fresh water or stirring mud in the water with feet. When starting to suffer from fever, headache, nausea, or vomiting subsequent to any kind of exposure to fresh water, even in the belief that no fresh water has traveled through the nostrils, people with such conditions should be carried to hospital quickly and make sure doctors are well-informed about the history of exposure to fresh water.

Treatment
On the basis of the laboratory evidence and case reports, heroic doses of amphotericin B have been the traditional mainstay of PAM treatment since the first reported survivor in the United States in 1982.

Treatment has often also used combination therapy with multiple other antimicrobials in addition to amphotericin, such as fluconazole, miconazole, rifampicin and azithromycin. They have shown limited success only when administered early in the course of an infection.

While the use of rifampicin has been common, including in all four North American cases of survival, its continued use has been questioned. It only has variable activity in vitro and it has strong effects on the therapeutic levels of other antimicrobials used by inducing cytochrome p450 pathways. Fluconazole is commonly used as it has been shown to have synergistic effects against naegleria when used with amphotericin in vitro.

there was no data on how well miltefosine is able to reach the central nervous system. the U.S. CDC offered miltefosine to doctors for the treatment of free-living amoebas including naegleria.

Nevertheless in 2013–2016, three successfully treated cases in the United States utilized the medication miltefosine. In one of the cases, a 12-year-old female, was given miltefosine and targeted temperature management to manage cerebral edema that is secondary to the infection. She survived with no neurological damage. The targeted temperature management commingled with early diagnosis and the miltefosine medication has been attributed with her survival. On the other hand, the other survivor, an 8-year-old male, was diagnosed several days after symptoms appeared and was not treated with targeted temperature management; however, he was administered the miltefosine. He suffered what is likely permanent neurological damage. In 2016, a 16-year-old boy also survived PAM. He was treated with the same protocols of the 12-year-old girl in 2013. He recovered making a near complete neurological recovery; however, he has stated that learning has been more difficult for him since contracting the disease.

In 2018, a 10-year-old girl in the Spanish city of Toledo became the first person to have PAM in Spain, and was successfully treated using intravenous and intrathecal amphotericin B.

A 2023 study has showed that the treatment (with usage of benzoxaboroles) of infected mice significantly prolonged survival and showed a 28% cure rate without relapse.

Prognosis
Since its first description in the 1960s, only seven people worldwide have been reported to have survived PAM out of 450 cases diagnosed, implying a fatality rate of about 98.5%. The survivors include four in the United States, one in Mexico and one in Spain. One of the US survivors had brain damage that is likely permanent, but there are two documented surviving cases in the United States who made a full recovery with no neurological damage; they were both treated with the same protocols.

There is also a fourth survivor in the United States. However, he had a different strain.

Epidemiology
The disease is rare and highly lethal: there had only been 381 cases Drug treatment research at Aga Khan University in Pakistan has shown that in vitro drug susceptibility tests with some FDA approved drugs used for non-infectious diseases (digoxin and procyclidine were shown to be most effective of the drugs studied) have proved to kill Naegleria fowleri with an amoebicidal rate greater than 95%. The same source has also proposed a device for drug delivery via the transcranial route to the brain.

In the US, the most common states with cases reported of PAM from N. fowleri are the southern states, with Texas and Florida having the highest prevalence. The most commonly affected age group is 5–14-year olds (those who play in water). The number of cases of infection could increase due to climate change, which was posited as the reason for three cases in Minnesota in 2010, 2012, and 2015.

the numbers of reported cases were expected to increase simply because of better-informed diagnoses being made both in ongoing cases and in autopsy findings.

History
In 1899, Franz Schardinger first discovered and documented an amoeba he called Amoeba gruberi that could transform into a flagellate. The genus Naegleria was established by Alexis Alexeieff in 1912, who grouped the flagellate amoeba. He coined the term Naegleria after Kurt Nägler, who researched amoebae. It was not until 1965 that doctors Malcolm Fowler and Rodney F. Carter in Adelaide, Australia, reported the first four-human cases of amoebic meningoencephalitis. These cases involved four Australian children, one in 1961 and the rest in 1965, all of whom had succumbed to the illness. Their work on amebo-flagellates has provided an example of how a protozoan can effectively live both freely in the environment, and in a human host.

In 1966, Butt termed the infection resulting from N. fowleri primary amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM) to distinguish this central nervous system (CNS) invasion from other secondary invasions made by other amoebae such as Entamoeba histolytica. A retrospective study determined the first documented case of PAM possibly occurred in Britain in 1909. In 1966, four cases were reported in the US. By 1968 the causative organism, previously thought to be a species of Acanthamoeba or Hartmannella, was identified as Naegleria. This same year, occurrence of sixteen cases over a period of three years (1962–1965) was reported in Ústí nad Labem, Czechoslovakia. In 1970, Carter named the species of amoeba N. fowleri, after Malcolm Fowler.

Society and culture
Naegleria fowleri is also known as the "brain-eating amoeba". The term has also been applied to Balamuthia mandrillaris, causing some confusion between the two; Balamuthia mandrillaris is unrelated to Naegleria fowleri, and causes a different disease called granulomatous amoebic encephalitis. Unlike naegleriasis, which is usually seen in people with normal immune function, granulomatous amoebic encephalitis is usually seen in people with poor immune function, such as those with HIV/AIDS or leukemia.

Naegleriasis was the topic in Season 2 of the medical mystery drama House, M.D. in the two-part episode titled "Euphoria". It is also the topic of the episode "39 Differences" of season 6 of The Good Doctor.

Research
The U.S. National Institutes of Health budgeted $800,000 for research on the disease in 2016. Phenothiazines have been tested in vitro and in animal models of PAM. Improving case detection through increased awareness, reporting, and information about cases might enable earlier detection of infections, provide insight into the human or environmental determinants of infection, and allow improved assessment of treatment effectiveness.

title: Naegleriasis


text:
Rachel Félix

Elisabeth Félix (21 February 1821 – 3 January 1858), better known only as Mademoiselle or Madame Rachel or simply Rachel, was a French actress. She became a prominent figure in French society, and was the mistress of, among others, Napoleon III and Prince Napoléon, both nephews of Napoleon I, and of Alexandre Colonna-Walewski, the illegitimate son of Napoleon I. Efforts by newspapers to publish pictures of her on her deathbed led to the introduction of privacy rights into French law.

Biography
Rachel Félix was born as Elisa-Rachel Félix on 28 February 1821, in Mumpf, Rheinfelden, Aargau, to a family of Jewish background. Her father, Jacob Félix, was a peddler and her mother, Esther Hayer, was a Bohemian dealer in second-hand clothes. She had four sisters (Sophie-Sarah, Rébecca, Mélanie-Dinah, and Adelaïde "Lia") and one brother, Raphaël.

As a child, Félix earned money singing and reciting in the streets. She arrived in Paris in 1830 intending to become an actress. She took elocution and singing lessons, eventually studying under the instruction of the musician Alexandre-Étienne Choron and Saint-Aulaire. She took dramatic arts classes and debuted in La Vendéenne in January 1837, at the Théâtre du Gymnase. Delestre-Poirson, the director, gave her the stage name Rachel, which she chose to retain in her private life as well.

Rachel was described as a very serious and committed student. She was admired for her intelligence, work ethic, diction, and ability to act. Auditioning in March 1838, she starred in Pierre Corneille's Horace at the Théâtre-Français at the age of 17.

During this time, she began a liaison with Louis Véron, the former director of the Paris Opera, which became the subject of much gossip. During this time, from 1838 to 1842, she lived in a third-floor apartment in Paris's Galerie Véro-Dodat.

Her fame spread throughout Europe after success in London in 1841, and she was often associated with the works of Racine, Voltaire, and Corneille. She toured Brussels, Berlin, and St. Petersburg.

Although French classical tragedy was no longer popular at the time Rachel entered the stage of Comédie-Française, she remained true to her classical roots, arousing audiences with a craving for the tragic style of writers like Corneille, Racine and Molière.

She created the title role in Eugène Scribe's Adrienne Lecouvreur. Her acting style was characterized by clear diction and economy of gesture; she evoked a high demand for classical tragedy to remain on the stage. This represented a major change from the exaggerated style of those days, as society was beginning to demand the highly emotional, realistic, instinctual acting styles of the Romantics. Félix completely rejected the Romantic Drama movement happening in nineteenth-century France. She was best known for her portrayal of the title role in Phèdre.

Death
Félix's health declined after a long tour of Russia. Her efforts to remain successful and the constant flux of her relationships had weakened her. She had shown symptoms of tuberculosis as early as 1841, and died early in 1858 of the disease, aged 36, in Le Cannet, Alpes-Maritimes, France. She is interred at Père-Lachaise cemetery in Paris.

Legacy
Félix had two illegitimate sons; Alexandre-Antoine-Colonne with count Walewski (illegitimate son of Napoleon I), and Gabriel-Victor with Arthur Bertrand (son of Henri Gatien Bertrand).

Upon her deathbed, she wrote many farewell letters to her sons, family members, lovers, colleagues and theatre connections at Comédie-Française. She is buried in a mausoleum in the Jewish part of Père Lachaise Cemetery and in Paris was named after her.

The English theatre critic James Agate published a biography of her in 1928, which echoes the anti-Semitism of his day.

A modern account of her life and legacy by Rachel Brownstein was published in 1995.

The character "Vashti" in Charlotte Brontë's novel Villette was reportedly based on Félix, whom Brontë had seen perform in London.

Rachel, a light tannish colour, primarily for face-powder used in artificial light, is named after her. The Raschel lace-making machine was also named after her.

Chronological repertoire

 * 1837:
 * La Vendéenne by Paul Duport (Théâtre du Gymnase, 24 April)
 * Le Mariage de raison by Scribe et Varner (Théâtre du Gymnase, 12 June)

At the Théâtre Français:

 * 1838:
 * Camille in Horace by Corneille (12 June to 11 September)
 * Émilie in Cinna by Corneille (27 September)
 * Hermione in Andromaque by Racine (4 September)
 * Aménaïde in Tancrède by Voltaire
 * Ériphile in Iphigénie en Aulide by Racine
 * Monime in Mithridate by Racine
 * Roxane in Bajazet by Racine (23 November)
 * 1839:
 * Esther in Esther by Racine (29 February)
 * Laodice in Nicomède by Corneille (9 April)
 * Dorine in Tartuffe by Molière (30 April)
 * 1840:
 * Pauline in Polyeucte Martyr by Corneille (15 May)
 * First tour in France during the summer (Rouen, Le Havre, Lyon)
 * The title role of Marie Stuart by Lebrun (22 December)
 * 1841:
 * Toured in Belgium and England (summer)
 * 1842:
 * Chimène in Le Cid by Corneille (19 January)
 * The title role of Ariane by Thomas Corneille (7 May)
 * Toured in England and Belgium (summer)
 * Frédégonde in Frédégonde et Brunehaut by Lemercier (5 November)
 * 1843:
 * The title role of Phèdre by Racine (21 January)
 * The title role of Judith by Girardin (24 January)
 * Toured in Rouen, Marseille and Lyon (summer)
 * 1844:
 * The title role of Bérénice by Racine (6 January)
 * Isabelle in Don Sanche d'Aragon by Corneille (17 January)
 * The title role of Catherine II by Romand (25 May)
 * Marinette in Le Dépit amoureux by Molière (1 July)
 * Toured in Belgium (summer)
 * Birth of her son Alexandre in Marly-le-Roi (3 November)
 * 1845:
 * Virginie in Brest (3 July)
 * Polyeucte in Nancy (25 August)
 * 1846:
 * Toured in the Netherlands, in Liège and in Lille (June)
 * Toured in London (July–August)
 * 1847:
 * La Muse sérieuse in L'Ombre by Molière (15 January)
 * Fatine in Le Vieux by La Montagne (6 February)
 * The title role of Athalie by Racine (5 March)
 * Toured in London, in the Netherlands, and at Liège (May–June)
 * 1848:
 * Birth of her second son, Gabriel, at Neuilly-sur-Seine (26 January)
 * Horace (13 March)
 * Toured in Amsterdam (June–October)
 * Britannicus by Racine (October)
 * 1849:
 * Andromaque (January)
 * The title role of Le Moineau de Lesbie by Armand Barthet (22 March)
 * The title role of Adrienne Lecouvreur (14 April)
 * Toured in west and southwest France (29 May – 31 August)
 * 1850:
 * The title role of Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle by Alexandre Dumas, père(25 January)
 * Thisbé in Angelo by Victor Hugo (18 May)
 * Lydie in Horace et Lydie by François Ponsard (19 June)
 * Toured in London, Hamburg, Berlin, Potsdam, Bremen, Vienna and Munich (July–October)
 * 1851: Toured
 * 1853: Toured
 * 1854: Toured in Warsaw, Saint Petersburg and Moscow (January–April)
 * 1855: Toured in New York and in the United States (September–December)
 * The troupe separated in Cuba in December.
 * 1858: Rachel died on 3 January

title: Rachel Félix


text:
Langar (Sikhism)

In Sikhism, a langar (ਲੰਗਰ, pronunciation:, 'kitchen' ) is the community kitchen of a gurdwara, which serves meals to all free of charge, regardless of religion, caste, gender, economic status, or ethnicity. People sit on the floor and eat together, and the kitchen is maintained and serviced by Sikh community volunteers who are doing seva ("selfless services"). The meals served at a langar are always lacto-vegetarian.

Etymology
Langar is a Persian word that was eventually incorporated into the Punjabi language and lexicon.

Origins
The concept of charity and providing cooked meals or uncooked raw material to ascetics and wandering yogis has been known in eastern cultures for over 2000 years. However, in spite of institutional support from several kings and emperors of the Delhi sultanate (up to the Mughal empire), it could not be institutionalized into a sustainable community kitchen, but continued as volunteer-run free food opportunities.

Within the Jammu hills, a significant component of the Sufi missionaries' social outreach was to organize community kitchens, known locally as langar. In addition to providing meals to the needy, they were also intended to promote inclusion within their society and discourage segregation and untouchability, both of which were widely practised throughout the Indian subcontinent. This practice, largely facilitated through donations, allowed participants to discard their social identity and was considered a sacred duty. The tradition was inaugurated in the 12-13th century by Shaikh Farid.

The community kitchen started by the Sikh Gurus, was universal and accepting of people from all faiths and backgrounds, a tradition which has continued to this day. The type of food served and the method of cooking employed, further helped make Sikh langar universally accepted by all faiths and castes.

Several writers such as Gurinder Singh Mann and Arvind-Pal Singh Mandair have alluded to this fact of cooked food (or raw material) being provided to travelers, ascetics and wandering yogis, free food distribution practices being in vogue in fifteenth century among various religious groups like Hindu Nath Yogis and Muslim Sufi saints. However, no evidence exists of formal institutionalized community kitchens, providing cooked free meals, continuously, over a period of time by any particular community.

The roots of such volunteer-run charitable feeding is very old in Indian tradition; for example: Hindu temples of the Gupta Empire era had attached kitchen and almshouse called dharma-shala or dharma-sattra to feed the travelers and poor, or whatever donation they may leave. These community kitchens and rest houses are evidenced in epigraphical evidence, and in some cases referred to as satram (for example, Annasya Satram), choultry, or chathram in parts of India. In fact, Sikh historian Kapur Singh refers to Langar as an Aryan institution.

The Chinese Buddhist pilgrim I Ching (7th century CE) wrote about monasteries with such volunteer-run kitchens. The institution of the Langar emerged from Fariduddin Ganjshakar, a Sufi Muslim saint living in the Punjab region during the 13th century. This concept further spread and is documented in Jawahir al-Faridi compiled in 1623 CE.

The concept of langar—which was designed to be upheld among all people, regardless of religion, caste, colour, creed, age, gender, or social status—was an innovative charity and symbol of equality introduced into Sikhism by its founder, Guru Nanak around 1500 CE in North Indian state of Punjab.

The second Guru of Sikhism, Guru Angad, is remembered in Sikh tradition for systematizing the institution of langar in all Sikh Gurdwara premises, where visitors from near and far could get a free simple meal in a simple and equal seating. He also set rules and training method for volunteers (sevadars) who operated the kitchen, placing emphasis on treating it as a place of rest and refuge, and being always polite and hospitable to all visitors.

It was the third Guru, Guru Amar Das, who established langar as a prominent institution, and required people to dine together irrespective of their caste and class. He encouraged the practice of langar, and made all those who visited him attend langar before they could speak to him.

Contemporary practice
Langars are held in gurdwaras all over the world, most of which attract members of the homeless population. The volunteers feed people without any discrimination, alongside the Sikh devotees who gather. Almost all gurdwaras operate langars where local communities, sometimes consisting of hundreds or thousands of visitors, join for a simple lacto-vegetarian meal.

title: Langar (Sikhism)