text:
Roger Staubach

Roger Thomas Staubach (, -;, -; born February 5, 1942), nicknamed "Roger the Dodger", "Captain America", and "Captain Comeback", is an American former football quarterback who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 11 seasons with the Dallas Cowboys. He attended the U.S. Naval Academy, where he won the 1963 Heisman Trophy playing for the Midshipmen. After graduation, he served in the U.S. Navy, including a tour of duty in Vietnam.

Staubach joined the Dallas Cowboys in 1969, becoming the team's second major franchise quarterback after the retirement of Don Meredith in 1968. Staubach played with the Cowboys during his entire career. He led the team to the Super Bowl five times, four as the starting quarterback. He led the Cowboys to victories in Super Bowl VI and Super Bowl XII. Staubach was named Most Valuable Player of Super Bowl VI, becoming the first of four players to win both the Heisman Trophy and Super Bowl MVP, along with Jim Plunkett, Marcus Allen, and Desmond Howard. He was named to the Pro Bowl six times during his 11-year NFL career. Staubach is one of ten players to both win the Heisman Trophy and be elected to the Pro Football Hall of Fame, and the only quarterback. He was the executive chairman of the Americas region of Jones Lang LaSalle until his retirement in 2018. The same year, he received a Presidential Medal of Freedom. He is regarded as one of the best quarterbacks of all time.

Early life
Staubach was born in Cincinnati, Ohio, the only child of Elizabeth (née Smyth) and Robert Staubach. He is of partial German descent, and grew up in Silverton, a northeastern suburb of Cincinnati. He was a Boy Scout as a youth, attended St. John the Evangelist Catholic School, and graduated from the Catholic high school Purcell High School in Cincinnati (now named Purcell Marian High School) in 1960.

U.S. Naval Academy
To prepare for his naval career, Staubach spent one year at New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, where he set a school record for passing yards and scored 18 total touchdowns. Staubach entered the U.S. Naval Academy in 1961, and played quarterback for the Midshipmen. As a third-class midshipman (sophomore) in 1962, he got his first opportunity to play, in the third game of the season, against the University of Minnesota on October 6. He relieved starter Ron Klemick as the Minnesota defense, led by Bobby Bell and Carl Eller, was stifling in its 21–0 victory. Staubach was 0–2 passing and was sacked twice for -24 yards.

A week later, playing against Cornell University, with the offense failing, coach Wayne Hardin decided to put Staubach into the game to see if he could improve the team's offense. He led Navy to six touchdowns, throwing for 99 yards, and two touchdowns while running for 88 yards and another score as Navy won 41–0.

A few weeks later, Staubach started again in the famous Army–Navy game. President John F. Kennedy attended the game, performing the coin toss. Staubach led the team to a 34–14 upset over Army, throwing for two touchdowns and running for another.

In his second class (junior) season of 1963, he won the Heisman Trophy, Maxwell Award, and the Walter Camp Memorial Trophy while leading the Midshipmen to a 9–1 regular season record and a final ranking of No. 2 in the nation. He appeared on the cover of Time in October; he would also have been on the cover of Life magazine's November 29, 1963 issue, but for the assassination of President Kennedy.

On New Year's Day, the Midshipmen lost the national championship to the No. 1 team, the University of Texas, in the 1964 Cotton Bowl. Earlier that season, Staubach led Navy to a 35–14 road victory in its annual rivalry with Notre Dame. Navy did not beat Notre Dame again until 2007, 43 years later.

During three seasons at Navy, Staubach completed 292 of 463 passes with 18 touchdowns and 19 interceptions, while gaining a school-record 4,253 yards of total offense. Staubach is the last player from a military academy to win the Heisman Trophy. As a senior in 1964, he injured his left heel in the opening game victory over Penn State and missed the next four games, and Navy finished the season at 3–6–1.

The Naval Academy retired Staubach's jersey number (12) during his graduation ceremony after his senior season. In 1981, Staubach was enshrined in the College Football Hall of Fame. In 2007, Staubach was ranked No. 9 on ESPN's Top 25 Players In College Football History list.

Statistics
When his collegiate football career ended, Staubach finished his Academy sports career as captain of the Academy's 1965 baseball team, and also played for the school's basketball team.

U.S. Navy officer
During his junior year at the Naval Academy, Staubach's color-blindness was detected and he was commissioned directly into the Supply Corps, which did not necessitate being able to tell the difference between red (port) and green (starboard) lights or to discern the color differences in electrical circuitry.

After graduating from the Naval Academy in June 1965, Staubach could have requested an assignment in the United States, but he chose to volunteer for a one-year tour of duty in South Vietnam. He served as a Supply Corps officer for the Navy at the Chu Lai Base Area until 1967. Staubach supervised 41 enlisted men.

Staubach returned from South Vietnam in September 1967, and spent the rest of his naval career in the United States. He played football on various service teams to prepare for his future career in the National Football League. During his tour at the naval air station in Pensacola, Florida, he quarterbacked the Goshawks, a team consisting of fellow U.S. Navy officers like himself, and played games against college football teams. He had access to the Dallas Cowboys playbook, and the Goshawks defeated many of the college teams they played against.

Professional career
Staubach was a tenth-round "future" selection in the 1964 NFL draft by the Cowboys. The NFL allowed the Cowboys to draft him one year before his college eligibility was over because he was four years out of high school, although due to his four-year military commitment, he would not play professionally until 1969 as a 27-year-old rookie. He was also drafted by the Kansas City Chiefs in the 16th round (122nd choice overall) of the 1964 American Football League Draft, also with a future selection.

While still in the Navy during 1968, he went to the Cowboys' rookie camp, using most of his annual military leave. During 1969, Staubach resigned his naval commission just in time to join the Cowboys training camp. The Cowboys won their first NFC title in 1970 with Craig Morton starting at quarterback, but lost to the Baltimore Colts in Super Bowl V, losing by three points on a last-second field goal.

In 1971, Morton began the season as the starter, but after a loss to the New Orleans Saints, Staubach assumed the role. However, in a game against the Chicago Bears during the seventh week of that season, coach Tom Landry alternated Staubach and Morton on each play, sending in the quarterbacks with the play call from the sideline. Dallas gained almost 500 yards of offense but committed seven turnovers that resulted in a 23–19 loss to a mediocre Bears squad that dropped the Cowboys to 4–3 for the season, two games behind the Washington Redskins in the NFC East race.

Staubach assumed the full-time quarterbacking duties in week eight with a victory over the St. Louis Cardinals and led the Cowboys to 10 consecutive victories, including their first Super Bowl victory, 24–3 over the Miami Dolphins in Super Bowl VI in January 1972. He was named the game's MVP, completing 12 out of 19 passes for 119 yards and two touchdowns and rushing for 18 yards. After the season, he negotiated his own contract, a three-year deal at about $75,000 per year.

In 1972, Staubach missed most of the season with a separated shoulder, but relieved Morton in a divisional playoff game against the San Francisco 49ers and threw two touchdown passes in the last 90 seconds to win 30–28. With that performance, he won back his regular job and did not relinquish it again during his career.

Staubach led the Cowboys to a second Super Bowl win in the 1977 season. He threw for 183 yards, a touchdown, and no interceptions in Dallas' 27–10 victory in Super Bowl XII over the Denver Broncos, led by his former teammate Morton. Staubach also led the Cowboys to appearances in Super Bowl X and Super Bowl XIII, where they lost to the Pittsburgh Steelers both times by a total of eight points.

Staubach's offensive teammates included standout receivers "Bullet" Bob Hayes, Lance Alworth, Drew Pearson, and Golden Richards, tight ends Mike Ditka, Billy Joe Dupree, and Jackie Smith, tackle Rayfield Wright, and running backs Robert Newhouse, Calvin Hill, and Tony Dorsett. Dorsett, Hayes, Pearson, and Wright are in the Hall of Fame, as are Alworth, Ditka, and Smith (although those three were all with the Cowboys only at the end of their careers).

During his final NFL season in 1979, Staubach had career highs in completions (267), passing yards (3,586), and touchdown passes (27), with just 11 interceptions. He retired at the conclusion of the season in order to protect his long-term health, declining the Cowboys' offer for two more seasons. He suffered 20 concussions in his playing career, including six in which he said he was "knocked out". After suffering two concussions in 1979, a doctor at Cornell told Staubach that while his brain tests were fine at the moment, another concussion could have life-altering consequences. He chose to retire and was replaced as the Cowboys starting quarterback by Danny White.

Overall, Staubach finished his 11 NFL seasons with 1,685 completions for 22,700 yards, 153 touchdowns, and 109 interceptions. He also gained 2,264 rushing yards and scored 21 touchdowns on 410 carries. For regular-season games, he had a .750 winning percentage. Staubach recorded the highest passer rating in the NFL in four seasons (1971, 1973, 1978, 1979) and led the league with 23 touchdown passes in 1973. He was an All-NFC choice five times and selected to play in six Pro Bowls (1971, 1975–1979).

Legacy and accolades
Staubach retired from football in March 1980 with the highest career passer rating in NFL history at the time, 83.4, and was voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1985. In 1999, he was ranked No. 29 on The Sporting News list of the 100 Greatest Football Players, the second-ranked Cowboy behind Bob Lilly.

Staubach was one of the most famous NFL players of the 1970s. Known as "Roger The Dodger" for his scrambling abilities, "Captain America" as quarterback of America's Team, and also as "Captain Comeback" for his fourth-quarter game-winning heroics, Staubach had a penchant for leading scoring drives which gave the Cowboys improbable victories. He led the Cowboys to 23 game-winning drives (15 comebacks) during the fourth quarter, with 17 of those in the final two minutes or in overtime.

In the television show King of the Hill, Staubach's name has been used for the elementary school in the fictional town of Arlen, Texas.

Staubach's most famous moment was the "Hail Mary pass" in the 1975 playoff game against the Minnesota Vikings. With seconds on the clock and the Cowboys trailing 14–10, Staubach launched a 50-yard pass to wide receiver Drew Pearson, who caught the pass and strode into the end zone for a 17–14 victory. After the game, Staubach said he threw the ball and said a "Hail Mary". Since then, any last-second pass to the end zone in a desperate attempt to score a game-winning or tying touchdown is referred to as a "Hail Mary" pass.

In 1976, Staubach received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Staubach was named The Walter Camp "Man of the Year" in 1983, and was awarded the Davey O'Brien Legends Award in 2001.

In 1996, the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Staubach its Lone Sailor Award for his naval service.

On the occasion of the 30th anniversary of Super Bowl VI in 2002, Staubach, accompanied by former President George H. W. Bush, flipped the coin at Super Bowl XXXVI, played at the Louisiana Superdome, where his only other Super Bowl victory took place.

On January 25, 2007, Staubach was named chairman of the North Texas Super Bowl XLV Bid Committee, whose goal was to have the Dallas-Fort Worth Metroplex host the Super Bowl in 2011. On May 23, 2007, the NFL chose Dallas as the host city of Super Bowl XLV, which Staubach would also present the Vince Lombardi Trophy after the game.

In 2010, Staubach was named the No. 1 Dallas Cowboy of all time according to a poll conducted by the Dallas Morning News.

In November 2018, Staubach was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by Donald Trump, becoming one of only four recipients associated with American Football to receive the distinction. He was the first player to receive the award, given it at the same time as Minnesota Vikings defensive tackle Alan Page. The other two recipients, Earl Blaik and Bear Bryant, were both head coaches.

On Friday, August 18, 2023, Staubach's alma mater, Purcell Marian High School in Cincinnati, Ohio, opened its new athletic complex, named Staubach Stadium in honor of Staubach.

Family life
Staubach married his wife Marianne on September 4, 1965. Together they had five children, Jeffrey, Michelle, Amy, Jennifer, and Stephanie. He and Marianne reside in Dallas, Texas. As of 2017, they have 15 grandchildren and two great-grandchildren.

Real estate
In 1977, he started a commercial real estate business, The Staubach Company, in partnership with Robert Holloway Jr., an associate of Henry S. Miller. He had prepared by working in the off-seasons from 1970 until 1977 for the Henry S. Miller Company. Staubach began working with real estate because "I couldn't have retired at my age and just played golf. First of all, they didn't pay quarterbacks what they do today. And I was 37 with three kids. I kept thinking about [what would happen] if some linebacker takes off my head and I can't play anymore." He said "Henry Miller Jr. was a lot like [legendary Cowboys coach Tom] Landry. They both had similar haircuts ... they both had phenomenal integrity, great work ethic, and they could transfer their strengths to other people."

The Staubach Company has been his primary endeavor since retirement from football. The company first developed several office buildings; Holloway managed construction while Staubach found tenants. In 1982, Staubach bought out Holloway and shifted the company's emphasis from commercial development to representing corporate clients seeking to lease or buy space. This proved fortuitous as a boom in Dallas office construction followed by a recession in the Texas oil industry left the city with excess office space, so companies representing tenants wielded greater influence. The company has worked with major businesses including AT&T, McDonald's Corporation, Hospital Corporation of America and K Mart Corporation. The company was also involved with residential development, with ownership stakes in 27 apartments and other real estate projects in the Dallas-Fort Worth area. Some of these were in partnership with Cowboys teammate Bob Breunig through S.B.C. Development Corporation, then a subsidiary of the Staubach Company. Others were collaborations with local developers and investors, including Ross Perot. He served as its chairman and CEO until June 20, 2007, when he announced he would resign as CEO of the multibillion-dollar real estate company he started 30 years earlier.

On July 11, 2008, The Staubach Company was sold to Jones Lang LaSalle for $613 million. Staubach and his children's trust would gross more than $100 million from the sale by 2013. The sale provided an initial payment of $9.27 per Staubach share with additional payments due during the ensuing five years for a total of approximately $29/share. Staubach took half of his first payment in Jones Lang LaSalle stock which was then trading at approximately $59.50/share. Staubach served as executive chairman of the Americas region of Jones Lang LaSalle until his retirement in 2018.

Other work
During the 1970s and early 1980s, he was a spokesperson for the men's clothing retailer Anderson-Little, appearing in both print and television advertisements. Later, he did television advertisements for Rolaids as well.

Staubach served as the president of the philanthropic organization No Greater Love in 1981.

During the early 1980s, Staubach worked for a brief time as a color commentator for CBS Sports' NFL telecasts. On November 9, 1980, during a close game between the New York Giants and the Dallas Cowboys, Staubach broadcast a nostalgic comment by exclaiming he would like to be "right down there in the middle of it". The Cowboys lost 38–35.

Staubach jointly owned Hall of Fame Racing, a NASCAR Nextel Cup Series team, with fellow former Cowboy and hall-of-famer Troy Aikman, which began racing for the 2006 season.

In 2009, Staubach was honored with the "Lombardi Award of Excellence" from the Vince Lombardi Cancer Foundation. The award was created to honor coach Lombardi's legacy, and is awarded annually to an individual who exemplifies the "spirit" of the coach.

On December 27, 2011, Staubach wrote the foreword for a book titled The Power in a Link, published by John Wiley & Sons, authored by United States Military Academy graduate, David Gowel.

title: Roger Staubach


text:
Public holidays in Cambodia

Cambodia has numerous public holidays, including memorial holidays and religious holidays of Buddhist origin. The Khmer traditional calendar, known as ចន្ទគតិ Chântôkôtĕ, is a lunisolar calendar although the word itself means lunar calendar. While the calendar is based on the movement of the moon, calendar dates are also synchronized with the solar year to keep the seasons from drifting.

Therefore, some public holidays are subject to change every year based on the lunar calendar.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Public holidays in Cambodia


text:
Epitope

An epitope, also known as antigenic determinant, is the part of an antigen that is recognized by the immune system, specifically by antibodies, B cells, or T cells. The part of an antibody that binds to the epitope is called a paratope. Although epitopes are usually non-self proteins, sequences derived from the host that can be recognized (as in the case of autoimmune diseases) are also epitopes.

The epitopes of protein antigens are divided into two categories, conformational epitopes and linear epitopes, based on their structure and interaction with the paratope. Conformational and linear epitopes interact with the paratope based on the 3-D conformation adopted by the epitope, which is determined by the surface features of the involved epitope residues and the shape or tertiary structure of other segments of the antigen. A conformational epitope is formed by the 3-D conformation adopted by the interaction of discontiguous amino acid residues. In contrast, a linear epitope is formed by the 3-D conformation adopted by the interaction of contiguous amino acid residues. A linear epitope is not determined solely by the primary structure of the involved amino acids. Residues that flank such amino acid residues, as well as more distant amino acid residues of the antigen affect the ability of the primary structure residues to adopt the epitope's 3-D conformation. 90% of epitopes are conformational.

T cell epitopes
T cell epitopes are presented on the surface of an antigen-presenting cell, where they are bound to major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. In humans, professional antigen-presenting cells are specialized to present MHC class II peptides, whereas most nucleated somatic cells present MHC class I peptides. T cell epitopes presented by MHC class I molecules are typically peptides between 8 and 11 amino acids in length, whereas MHC class II molecules present longer peptides, 13–17 amino acids in length, and non-classical MHC molecules also present non-peptidic epitopes such as glycolipids.

B cell epitopes
The part of the antigen that immunoglobulin or antibodies bind to is called a B-cell epitope. B cell epitopes can be divided into two groups: conformational or linear. B cell epitopes are mainly conformational. There are additional epitope types when the quaternary structure is considered. Epitopes that are masked when protein subunits aggregate are called cryptotopes. Neotopes are epitopes that are only recognized while in a specific quaternary structure and the residues of the epitope can span multiple protein subunits. Neotopes are not recognized once the subunits dissociate.

Cross-activity
Epitopes are sometimes cross-reactive. This property is exploited by the immune system in regulation by anti-idiotypic antibodies (originally proposed by Nobel laureate Niels Kaj Jerne). If an antibody binds to an antigen's epitope, the paratope could become the epitope for another antibody that will then bind to it. If this second antibody is of IgM class, its binding can upregulate the immune response; if the second antibody is of IgG class, its binding can downregulate the immune response.

T cell epitopes
MHC class I and II epitopes can be reliably predicted by computational means alone, although not all in-silico T cell epitope prediction algorithms are equivalent in their accuracy. There are two main methods of predicting peptide-MHC binding: data-driven and structure-based. Structure based methods model the peptide-MHC structure and require great computational power. Data-driven methods have higher predictive performance than structure-based methods. Data-driven methods predict peptide-MHC binding based on peptide sequences that bind MHC molecules. By identifying T-cell epitopes, scientists can track, phenotype, and stimulate T-cells.

B cell epitopes
There are two main methods of epitope mapping: either structural or functional studies. Methods for structurally mapping epitopes include X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance, and electron microscopy. X-ray crystallography of Ag-Ab complexes is considered an accurate way to structurally map epitopes. Nuclear magnetic resonance can be used to map epitopes by using data about the Ag-Ab complex. This method does not require crystal formation but can only work on small peptides and proteins. Electron microscopy is a low-resolution method that can localize epitopes on larger antigens like virus particles.

Methods for functionally mapping epitopes often use binding assays such as western blot, dot blot, and/or ELISA to determine antibody binding. Competition methods look to determine if two monoclonal antibodies (mABs) can bind to an antigen at the same time or compete with each other to bind at the same site. Another technique involves high-throughput mutagenesis, an epitope mapping strategy developed to improve rapid mapping of conformational epitopes on structurally complex proteins. Mutagenesis uses randomly/site-directed mutations at individual residues to map epitopes. B-cell epitope mapping can be used for the development of antibody therapeutics, peptide-based vaccines, and immunodiagnostic tools.

Epitope tags
Epitopes are often used in proteomics and the study of other gene products. Using recombinant DNA techniques genetic sequences coding for epitopes that are recognized by common antibodies can be fused to the gene. Following synthesis, the resulting epitope tag allows the antibody to find the protein or other gene product enabling lab techniques for localisation, purification, and further molecular characterization. Common epitopes used for this purpose are Myc-tag, HA-tag, FLAG-tag, GST-tag, 6xHis, V5-tag and OLLAS. Peptides can also be bound by proteins that form covalent bonds to the peptide, allowing irreversible immobilisation. These strategies have also been successfully applied to the development of "epitope-focused" vaccine design.

Epitope-based vaccines
The first epitope-based vaccine was developed in 1985 by Jacob et al. Epitope-based vaccines stimulate humoral and cellular immune responses using isolated B-cell or T-cell epitopes. These vaccines can use multiple epitopes to increase their efficacy. To find epitopes to use for the vaccine, in silico mapping is often used. Once candidate epitopes are found, the constructs are engineered and tested for vaccine efficiency. While epitope-based vaccines are generally safe, one possible side effect is cytokine storms.

Neoantigenic determinant
A neoantigenic determinant is an epitope on a neoantigen, which is a newly formed antigen that has not been previously recognized by the immune system. Neoantigens are often associated with tumor antigens and are found in oncogenic cells. Neoantigens and, by extension, neoantigenic determinants can be formed when a protein undergoes further modification within a biochemical pathway such as glycosylation, phosphorylation or proteolysis. This, by altering the structure of the protein, can produce new epitopes that are called neoantigenic determinants as they give rise to new antigenic determinants. Recognition requires separate, specific antibodies.

Epitope databases

 * MHCBN: A database of MHC/TAP binder and T-cell epitopes
 * Bcipep: A database of B-cell epitopes
 * SYFPEITHI – First online database of T cell epitopes
 * IEDB – Database of T and B cell epitopes with annotation of recognition context – NIH funded
 * ANTIJEN – T and B cell epitope database at the Jenner institute, UK
 * IMGT/3Dstructure-DB – Three-dimensional structures of B and T cell epitopes with annotation of IG and TR – IMGT, Montpellier, France
 * SEDB: A Structural Epitope Database – Pondicheery University, DIT funded

Antigene

title: Epitope


text:
Nathan Stubblefield

Nathan Beverly Stubblefield (November 22, 1860 – March 28, 1928) was an American inventor best known for his wireless telephone work. Self-described as a "practical farmer, fruit grower and electrician", he received widespread attention in early 1902 when he gave a series of public demonstrations of a battery-operated wireless telephone, which could be transported to different locations and used on mobile platforms such as boats. While this initial design employed conduction, in 1908 he received a U.S. patent for a wireless telephone system that used magnetic induction. However, he was ultimately unsuccessful in commercializing his inventions. He later went into seclusion, and died alone in 1928.

Disagreement exists whether Stubblefield's communications technology can be classified as radio, and if his 1902 demonstrations could be considered the first "radio broadcasts". Most reviews of his efforts have concluded that they were not radio transmissions, because his devices, although they used a form of "wireless", employed conduction and inductive fields, while the standard definition of radio is the transmission of electromagnetic radiation. However, Stubblefield may have been the first to simultaneously transmit audio wirelessly to multiple receivers, albeit over relatively short distances, while predicting the eventual development of broadcasting on a national scale.

Early years and family life
Stubblefield was the second of seven sons of William "Captain Billy" Jefferson Stubblefield (1830–1874), a Confederate Army veteran and lawyer, and Victoria Bowman (1837–1869), who died of scarlet fever. Stubblefield grew up in Murray, Kentucky, and his education included tutoring by a governess, followed by attendance at a boarding school in nearby Farmington called the "Male and Female Institute". His formal education ended in 1874, at the age of 14, with his father's death, which left Stubblefield an orphan in the care of his step-mother. However, he continued to develop his technical knowledge by reading contemporary scientific publications, such as Scientific American and Electrical World.

In 1881 he married Ada Mae Buchannan, by whom he had nine children, two dying in infancy. Six of Nathan's surviving children left no descendants. The seventh, Oliver (RayJack), married Priscilla Alden, who gave birth to two daughters and Nathan's only grandson, Keith Stubblefield, who would become a television and recording personality under the professional name Troy Cory.

Initially Stubblefield supported his family by farming. (His farm land later became part of the campus of Murray State University.) From 1907 to 1911, he operated a home school called "The Nathan Stubblefield Industrial School," or "Teléph-on-délgreen Industrial School".

Inventions
Despite very limited finances, in his spare time Stubblefield worked on developing a series of inventions. His first patent,, was issued on November 3, 1885, for a tool for lighting coal oil lamps without having to remove the glass chimney.

Acoustic telephone
In late 1886, Stubblefield began to sell and install acoustic telephones—an early and somewhat limited form of the telephone, which, instead of using electricity, employed a taut wire to carry sound vibrations directly between two soundboxes which were located at the far ends of the wire. Although most installations were around Murray, he also made sales as far away as Mississippi and Oklahoma. On February 21, 1888, Stubblefield and partner Samuel Holcomb received for their "mechanical telephone" design. However, the establishment of a local Bell Telephone franchise, whose electric telephones were far superior to Stubblefield's offerings, ended most of the acoustic sales by 1890.

Earth battery
In 1898, Stubblefield was issued for an "electric battery", which was an electrolytic coil of iron and insulated copper wire that was immersed in liquid or buried in the ground. Stubblefield made the unsubstantiated claim that, combined with normal battery operation, his device also drew additional power from the earth. However, it did successfully serve as both a power source and ground terminal for wireless telephony.

Wireless telephony
After the winding-down of his acoustic telephone business, Stubblefield reviewed possible alternatives that would avoid infringing on the Bell telephone patents, and began researching wireless options. Because he never filed for a patent for his early work, the technical details of his experiments are largely unknown. But, based on contemporary descriptions, it appears that they initially employed induction, similar to a wireless telephone developed by Amos Dolbear, which was issued in 1886. Information for this period is very limited, but in 1935 a former neighbor, Rainey T. Wells, reported that in 1892 Stubblefield gave him a telephone receiver, and had Wells walk a short distance away from Stubblefield's shack, after which he was amazed to distinctly hear the words "Hello, Rainey", followed by additional speech from Stubblefield.

Because later references refer to earth connections, it appears that Stubblefield subsequently switched to using ground currents instead of induction. Following a decade of research and testing, he felt that his wireless telephone had now been perfected to the point that it was ready for commercialization, and began a series of demonstrations to publicize his work and attract investment. On Christmas Eve, December 24, 1901, he successfully transmitted ¼ mile (400 meters) to his home, where "A party of children were gathered there and at the receiver obtained messages from Santa Claus", and had local residents sign affidavits attesting to the success of his tests.

A much more ambitious demonstration was given on January 1, 1902. Assisted by his 14-year-old son, Bernard, "hundreds of people" in Murray witnessed a test where "From a station in the law office of a friend over a transmitter of his own invention [Stubblefield] gave his friends a New Year's greeting by wireless telephony, and at seven stations, located in different business houses and offices in the town, the message was simultaneously delivered. Music, songs, whispered conversations could be heard with perfect ease." This in turn attracted the attention of the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, which sent a reporter to Murray to personally review Stubblefield's wireless telephone. A detailed, and positive, account appeared in the newspaper, which quoted an optimistic Stubblefield as saying that, in addition to point-to-point private communication, his system was "capable of sending simultaneous messages from a central distributing station over a very wide territory. For instance, anyone having a receiving instrument, which would consist merely of a telephone receiver and a signalling gong, could, upon being signalled by a transmitting station in Washington, or nearer, if advisable, be informed of weather news. My apparatus is capable of sending out a gong signal, as well as voice messages. Eventually, it will be used for the general transmission of news of every description."

However, the unrestricted reception of signals from Stubblefield's device meant that there was still a major limitation in its intended use for personal communication. Although he exuberantly declared: "The possibilities of the invention seem to be practically unlimited, and it will be no more than a matter of time when conversation over long distances between the great cities at the country will be carried on daily without wires", he also admitted: "I have as yet devised no method whereby it can be used with privacy. Wherever there is a receiving station the signal and message may be heard simultaneously. Eventually I, or some one, will discover a method of tuning the transmitting and receiving instruments so that each will answer only to its mate."

At this point a promoter, Gerald Fennel, traveled to Murray from New York City to enlist Stubblefield in a commercial venture. While negotiating, Stubblefield next embarked on his most publicized promotional trip. On March 20, 1902, he demonstrated his system in Washington, D.C., where voice and music transmissions were made over a third of a mile (535 meters) from the steamer Bartholdi, anchored in the Potomac River, to shore. This particular test was reported in prestigious scientific publications, including Scientific American, which claimed that Stubblefield's invention would be installed by the "Gordon Telephone Company, of Charleston, S. C., for the establishment of telephonic communication between the city of Charleston and the sea islands lying off the coast of South Carolina", and Nature, which noted: "The system used is an earth-conduction one, and is, therefore, similar in principle to, though doubtless differing in detail from, many other wireless telephony systems which are being tried in various countries."

In early 1902 three New York City residents, J. B. Green, W. B. Whelpley, and Wm. T. Quinn, incorporated, in the Territory of Arizona, the Wireless Telephone Company of America. The firm had a $5,000,000 capitalization, with shares set at a par value of $1 each. Gerald Fennel offered Stubblefield 500,000 shares of stock in exchange for the rights to his wireless telephone technology. A June 1902 stock-promotion advertisement for the company, echoing the excessive claims of contemporary wireless telegraph companies, proclaimed: "With the vast savings made in cost and maintenance by the Stubblefield system, it is not unreasonable to expect that the earnings of Bell Telephone will be easily equalled by those of this company. Its stock at 25c. places the subscriber on the same basis as the earliest investors in Bell, whose profits have amounted to over 2,000%". This advertisement also stated that regional sub-companies would be established throughout the United States.

With travel expenses financed by Fennel, Stubblefield made additional successful demonstrations in Philadelphia from May 30 to June 7, 1902, spanning a distance of around a mile (1600 meters). Tests followed in New York City beginning on June 11, 1902, which were less successful, with the explanation for the difficulties encountered including the rocky soil in Battery Park, and electrical interference from local alternating current power distribution.

Stubblefield quickly became distrustful of the promoters behind the Wireless Telephone Company of America, and, in a letter dated June 19, 1902, severed his connections as a director after expressing his concern that the company was being fraudulently run. Two months later, the company announced that it had merged its operations with the Collins Wireless Telephone & Telegraph Company, a company that had been organized to promote the work of Archie Frederick Collins, who had been doing research on conductive and inductive wireless telephone systems very similar to Stubblefield's. The fanciful stock solicitations now claimed that there were plans to "license subsidiary companies in each state of the Union".

Stubblefield returned to Murray, where he faced considerable skepticism—a March 1903 review of his "earth battery" and wireless telephony endeavors stated: "...the people in this section of the country are yet wondering whether he is simply a crank or will yet emerge some day from his obscurity to astonish the whole civilized world with a great discovery". Later that same year, he posted a Public Notice in the Murray Ledger stating that the Wireless Telephone Company of America had "gone out of existence", and "My inventions have reverted back to me." He also noted that he was continuing his wireless telephone research, using the "over two thousand dollars" he had received from that company's promoter.

Stubblefield returned once again to investigating using induction, rather than conduction, for his wireless telephone system. This approach employed large circular induction coils, that no longer needed ground connections. He carefully documented his progress, preparing affidavits that in 1903 he had transmitted 375 ft, and in 1904 reached 600 ft. The total wire required for the transmitting and receiving coils was greater than the distance between the transmitter and receiver, but the invention allowed mobility. Bernard Stubblefield reported that in 1907, using a 60 ft coil, transmitting and receiving spanned "¼ mile (400 meters) nicely."

Encountering difficulty in obtaining a patent, Nathan Stubblefield moved for a time to Washington, D.C. to speed up the process. On May 12, 1908, he was granted U.S. patent for his new version of a wireless telephone. The patent application stated that it would be usable for "securing telephonic communications between moving vehicles and way stations". An accompanying diagram shows wireless telephony from a fixed location to passing trains, boats, and wagons.

Despite receiving a patent and some financial backing from Murray residents, and the assertion that "while messages have been sent for distances less than ten miles, he is confident that with his machine he can talk across the Atlantic", Stubblefield made no headway in commercializing his latest invention. By now continuous-wave arc and alternator radio transmitters had been developed, which were capable of wireless telephone communication over distances that dwarfed the short ranges attainable by induction wireless systems, in addition to being able to be tuned to multiple transmitting frequencies. The invention of vacuum-tube radio transmitters in the mid-1910s would make possible, in the early 1920s, the nationwide broadcasting that Stubblefield had envisioned in 1902. But Stubblefield himself made no further progress beyond his previous work.

Final years
Stubblefield later lived in self-imposed isolation in a crude shelter near Almo, Kentucky and died around March 28, 1928, although his body, "gnawed by rats", was not discovered until a couple days later. Although many later accounts state that he died of starvation, at the time of his death a coroner was quoted as saying "he apparently was a victim of heart disease". He was initially buried in an unmarked grave in the Bowman family cemetery in Murray, Kentucky.

Legacy
Although Stubblefield's inventions did not lead directly to the development of radio technology, the public demonstrations in 1902 and the extensive press coverage may have helped spur interest in the possibilities of wireless transmission of voice and music, as most prior inventors had merely sought to provide point-to-point communication, to compete with telephone and telegraph companies.

Since his death, various individuals and groups in Murray, Kentucky, have promoted Murray as the Birthplace of Radio, and Stubblefield as the Father of Broadcasting. Loren J. Hortin, Journalism Professor at Murray State, organized his students to investigate Stubblefield's work, leading to the dedication of a monument on the campus in 1930. Hortin, adopting an expanded definition of "radio" to include wireless transmissions that did not employ electromagnetic radiation, later contended: "Radio is a device that transmits and receives voice over considerable distance without connecting wires. Stubblefield invented, manufactured, and demonstrated such a device and did so before anyone else on the planet." However, there had actually been earlier audio wireless transmissions, including, beginning in 1880, the photophone, invented by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter, which employed light beams, and Amos Dolbear's "electrostatic telephone", for which it was noted in 1884 that "with this instrument we can telephone, not only without wires, but without even a beam of light".

In 1948, Murray, Kentucky's first radio station began broadcast operations, and in honor of Nathan B. Stubblefield, the owners selected WNBS as the station's call letters. In 1952, his family installed a memorial headstone at his gravesite, which credits him as the "Inventor of Wireless Telephony, or Radio". The Murray State University physics club is also named in his honor.

In 1991, Kentucky Governor Wallace G. Wilkinson issued a proclamation declaring that Stubblefield "is the true inventor of radio" and proclaimed 1992 as "Nathan Beverly Stubblefield Year" in Kentucky.

Timeline

 * 1892: First voice transmission, using conduction wireless telephone attached to ground electrodes.
 * May 8, 1898: patented "electric battery" (wireless telephone transmission coil).
 * 1902: First ship-to-shore wireless telephone transmission, using wires dropped in the water from the steamer Bartholdi.
 * 1908: Patented inductive wireless telephone capable of mobile use.

Historical: Documents during Stubblefield's lifetime

 * Nathan B. Stubblefield Collection (MS 84-4), Wrather Museum, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
 * • Collection's online archive ("correspondence, handwritten notes, drawings, photographs and patents")
 * • Collection inventory (December 15, 2011)

 * Nathan B. Stubblefield Papers, Pogue Library, Murray State University, Murray, Kentucky
 * "To Try Wireless Telephony: Inventor Stubblefield to Give an Exhibition of His Apparatus Thursday on the Potomac River", New York Times, March 17, 1902, p. 1
 * "Wireless Telephony Tests: Partial Success of Inventor Stubblefield Near Washington", New York Times, March 21, 1902, p. 2
 * "Practical Tests of Wireless Telephony", Washington Times, March 24, 1902, p. 4
 * Fawcett, Waldon, "The Latest Advance in Wireless Telephony", Scientific American, May 24, 1902, p. 363
 * White, Trumbull, Telephoning Without Wires, pp. 297–302, in Our Wonderful Progress: The World's Triumphant Knowledge and Works, Book 2, "The World's Science and Invention", 1902
 * "Radio Pioneer Dies, Poor and Embittered. Kentucky Hermit, Stubblefield Had Wireless Phone in 1902-Predicted Broadcasting", New York Times, April 24, 1928, p. 25

Books, Periodicals, journals, and dissertations after 1928 discussing Stubblefield

 * Cory-Stubblefield, Troy and Josie Cory, Disappointments Are Great! Follow the Money... Smart Daaf Boys, The Inventors of Radio & Television and the Life Style of Stubblefield, Marconi, Ambrose Fleming, Reginald Fessenden, Tesla, ... De Forest, Armstrong, Alexanderson and Farnsworth, 2003, Library of Congress Catalog Card #93-060451, ISBN 1-883644-34-8
 * Dunlap, Orrin E. Jr., "Listening In", New York Times, April 13, 1930, p. 137
 * Horton, L.T.(sic) (L.J. Hortin), "Murray, Kentucky, Birthplace of Radio", Kentucky, Progress Magazine, March 1930
 * Kane, Joseph, et al., Famous First Facts (5th Edition), New York: Wilson, 1997:
 * • First radio broadcast demonstration (by Stubblefield, 1892). Item 6262, p. 455.
 * • First mobile radio telephone marine demonstration (by Stubblefield, March 20, 1902). Item 7716, p. 590.

 * Lochte, Bob, Kentucky Farmer Invents Wireless Telephone! But Was It Radio? Facts and Folklore About Nathan Stubblefield, All About Wireless, 2001, ISBN 0-9712511-9-3
 * Morgan, Thomas O., "The Contribution of Nathan B. Stubblefield to the Invention of Wireless Voice Communications" (dissertation), Florida State University, 1971
 * Nahin, Paul J. The Science of Radio (2nd Ed.), Springer Verlag, New York, 2001, p 7.
 * Sivowitch, Elliot N., "A Technological Survey of Broadcasting's 'Pre-History,' 1876–1920", Journal of Broadcasting, Winter 1970–1971

Patents

 * Patent – "Lighting device" – November 3, 1885.
 * Patent – "Mechanical telephone" – February 21, 1888.
 * Patent – "Electric battery" – March 8, 1898.
 * Patent – "Wireless telephone" – May 12, 1908.
 * Canadian patent 114,737, "Wireless Telephone" dated October 20, 1908

Pro-Stubblefield pages
(ed. The links below are cited in Troy Cory-Stubblefield and Josie Cory book)
 * Yes90 tviNews s90 • LookRadio Main. / FEATURE: lookradio.com / Smart90, lookradio, nbs100, tvimagazine, WiFi-187, WiMax187, RF-300, WiMaxBunny, WiVATS, Patent887, vratv, ... at lookradio.com
 * "Stubblefield Radio Trust". SMART90.com.
 * "Did Nathan B. Stubblefield, really invent the wireless telephone?". The TeleKey Group.
 * "Nathan Stubblefield". All About Wireless. 2001.

Other

 * Virgin Media website commemorating Nathan Stubblefield's device as "world's first ever mobile telephone"
 * "Another 'Inventor of Radio'", Broadcasting, January 1, 1937, page 32.
 * "Another 'Inventor of Radio'", Broadcasting, January 1, 1937, page 32.
 * "Another 'Inventor of Radio'", Broadcasting, January 1, 1937, page 32.
 * "Another 'Inventor of Radio'", Broadcasting, January 1, 1937, page 32.

title: Nathan Stubblefield


text:
Sälen

Sälen is a locality situated in Malung-Sälen Municipality, Dalarna County, Sweden with 652 inhabitants in 2010.

Despite its small population, Sälen receives many tourists every winter. Sälen is best known for hosting the start of Vasaloppet, the oldest (since 1922) and largest cross country ski race in the world, with over 15,000 participants in the main race alone. It is also known for its many alpine ski resorts, of which there are seven. The oldest resort in Sälen is Högfjällshotellet which was built in 1937 and remains popular for recreation, cross-country skiing and downhill skiing. Newer resorts with steeper mountains are Hundfjället and Stöten. Other resorts are Lindvallen, Näsfjället, Tandådalen, and Kläppen. Today Lindvallen, Högfjället, Tandådalen and Hundfjället are operated by the Skistar company. Lindvallen and Högfjället are connected with ski lifts, as is Tandådalen with Hundfjället The vertical height is up to 350 m.

Transport
The nearest airport is Scandinavian Mountains Airport, which opened in December 2019. Mora Airport is 100 kilometers away (regular bus connections from Mora). The nearest international airport is Oslo Airport, 220 kilometers away.

In the media
Popular rock band U2's music video for the song "New Year's Day" was filmed in Sälen on December 15, 1982.

Climate
Sälen has a subarctic climate (Dfc).

title: Sälen


text:
Ricardo Sanchez

Ricardo Sanchez (born September 9, 1953) is a former lieutenant general in the United States Army. His career was most notable for authorizing the use of torture at the Abu Ghraib prison between 2003 and 2004.

Early life and education
Sánchez was born into a Mexican American family in Rio Grande City, Texas. He spent one year at the University of Texas at Austin on an ROTC scholarship, eventually transferring to Texas A&M University-Kingsville, where he graduated in 1973 with a double major in mathematics and history. Sánchez was named a Distinguished Military Graduate (DMG), meaning he was in the top 20% of all ROTC cadets in the nation. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the United States Army.

Career
Sánchez became a platoon leader in the 82nd Airborne Division, stationed at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. By 1977, he had transferred from the infantry to armor. He received promotions regularly and was stationed at posts in the United States, South Korea, Panama and Germany.

In 1991, then Lieutenant Colonel Sánchez served as a battalion commander during Operation Desert Storm, successfully leading his unit of the 197th Infantry Brigade (Mechanized) to Basra without suffering any casualties. Shortly after the Gulf War, Sánchez was promoted to colonel and given command of the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Infantry Division. Afterwards, he served on the staff of U.S. Southern Command, first as deputy chief of staff then as director of operations.

On July 10, 2001, by then a general, Sánchez became commander of 1st Armored Division under V Corps. He held that position for nearly two years, including commanding the division during the invasion of Iraq in March 2003, before assuming command of V Corps on June 14, 2003. On this date he also became commander of Combined Joint Task Force 7, the coalition ground forces in the U.S.-led occupation of Iraq. Much of Sánchez's time commanding 1st Armored Division had been as a brigadier general.

June 2003 to June 2004
Sánchez held the top military position in Iraq during what was arguably one of the most critical periods of the war—the year after the fall of the Hussein regime, and the time the insurgency took root and began its counterattack. Highlights during his tenure as commander in Iraq include the killing of Uday and Qusay Hussein, and the capture of Saddam Hussein.

He was in command when the abuse of prisoners occurred most notably at Abu Ghraib prison. Some have been highly critical of the U.S. military's failure to hold senior officers accountable, as blame for abuses at Abu Ghraib and other detention centers was placed only on a few individuals of the lowest rank.

Sánchez was succeeded as commander of coalition ground forces in Iraq by a four-star general: former Army Vice Chief of Staff George Casey. This changeover was part of a larger split in responsibilities as Sánchez's former command, Combined Joint Task Force 7 under a three-star general, was superseded by Multi-National Force Iraq under a four-star general.

Disunity in leadership
L. Paul Bremer was the leader of the Coalition Provisional Authority in Iraq. As the appointed authority, Bremer wanted national elections to take place only after the creation of a constitution that included basic principles about the election process. This led to the delay of the elections, which led to serious problems. It was during this time that the power vacuum within Baghdad was being filled by a Shi'a cleric, a factor that Bremer failed to take into account. Insurgency among Sunni civilians first became a problem when American troops first became a presence on Iraqi soil. This insurgency led to Bremer kicking all the Sunni Ba'thists out the Iraqi administration and the disbandment of the Iraqi army via Coalition Provisional Authority Order 2, which only prompted a harsh response from the American troops. This was a very poor decision on Bremer's part, according to Sánchez, who viewed the insurgency as mostly provoked by Bremer. He is quoted as saying,

"When you take a father in front of his family and put a bag over his head and put him on the ground, you have a significant adverse effect on his dignity and respect in the eyes of his family."

There was almost a complete failure to communicate between Bremer, the top civilian, and Sánchez, the military leader. According to journalist Thomas Ricks: "It was very clear they hated each other. They lived in the same palace and didn't talk to each other." This disunity in leadership has been cited as one of the major failures of the first year of the Iraq War.

Abu Ghraib scandal
Sánchez was commander of coalition forces during a period when abuse of prisoners occurred at Abu Ghraib and at other locations. In a memo signed by General Sánchez and later acquired by the ACLU through a Freedom of Information Act request, techniques were authorized to interrogate prisoners, included "environmental manipulation" such as making a room hot or cold or using an "unpleasant smell", isolating a prisoner, disrupting normal sleep patterns and "convincing the detainee that individuals from a country other than the United States are interrogating him."

On May 5, 2006, Sánchez denied ever authorizing interrogators to "go to the outer limits". Sánchez said he had told interrogators: "...we should be conducting our interrogations to the limits of our authority." Sanchez called the ACLU: "...a bunch of sensationalist liars, I mean lawyers, that will distort any and all information that they get to draw attention to their positions."

Documents obtained by The Washington Post and the ACLU showed that Sanchez authorized the use of military dogs, temperature extremes, reversed sleep patterns, and sensory deprivation as interrogation methods in Abu Ghraib. A November 2004 report by Brigadier General Richard Formica found that many troops at the Abu Ghraib prison had been following orders based on a memorandum from Sanchez, and that the abuse had not been carried out by isolated "criminal" elements. ACLU lawyer Amrit Singh said in a statement from the union that "General Sanchez authorized interrogation techniques that were in clear violation of the Geneva Conventions and the army's own standards."

Military career after Iraq
In June 2004, Sánchez relinquished command of the Multi-National Force Iraq (MNF-I) to General George Casey, Vice Chief of Staff of the Army. Sánchez returned to Germany, where he continued as Commanding General, V Corps. He was briefly considered for promotion to four-star rank with assignment as Commander, Southern Command; nomination would have required Senate confirmation, which would have been contentious due to the Abu Ghraib scandal. He was not nominated; the position went to General Bantz Craddock.

On September 6, 2006, Sánchez relinquished command of V Corps in a ceremony at Campbell Barracks, Heidelberg, Germany. Sánchez had commanded the corps for more than 3 years; longer than any previous commander in the unit's history. In deference to Sánchez' longevity, he relinquished command to General David McKiernan, Commanding General, US Army Europe and Seventh Army, his higher commander, instead of to a successor.

Sánchez retired on November 1, 2006, culminating 33 years of Army service. Sánchez now lives in his home state of Texas.

In May 2008 Sanchez's autobiography Wiser in Battle: a Soldier's Story was published by HarperCollins Publishers. The book focused mostly on Sanchez's frustrations following his appointment to command coalition ground forces in Iraq in 2003.

2012 U.S. Senate campaign
In May 2011, Sánchez announced that he was considering a candidacy for the Democratic nomination for the U.S. Senate seat held by Kay Bailey Hutchison in the 2012 elections. If he ran, Sánchez indicated that his campaign would be guided by the tenets of Catholic faith, as well as his experiences in growing up so poor that members of his family used cardboard to cover holes in their shoes. On December 16, 2011, he announced that he would not run, citing a fire that destroyed his home and other concerns. In a statement to his followers Sanchez stated:

I am very grateful for the strong support and encouragement I have received from supporters across the country and the wonderful Texans I have met in every part of our great state. However, pressing personal challenges, coupled with the recent loss of our home due to fire and lagging fundraising numbers make a statewide election campaign impractical for me at this time.

After extensive consultation with my family, Maria Elena and I have decided to put family first and I will therefore end my campaign for the 2012 U.S. Senate seat as of today.

I am blessed to have made friends with so many great Texans on this journey. Their personal stories and their love for our homeland will continue to inspire me as I look ahead and consider future opportunities for public service. I remain steadfast in the desire to serve both my country and the State of Texas to help bring new, responsible, and fair-minded leadership to our government. May God Bless Texas and May God Bless America.

Criticism of the media and political leadership
Speaking to a group of military reporters and editors in Washington, D.C., on October 12, 2007, Sanchez lambasted the media for "sensationalist" coverage and "self-aggrandizement" and expressing the belief that reporters were willing to "compromise [their] integrity" and "display questionable ethics" to get front page stories: The death knell of your ethics has been enabled by your parent organizations who have chosen to align themselves with political agendas. What is clear to me is that you are perpetuating the corrosive partisan politics that is destroying our country and killing our servicemen who are at war.

My assessment is that your profession, to some extent, has strayed from these ethical standards and allowed external agendas to manipulate what the American public sees on TV, what they read in our newspapers and what they see on the web. For some of you, just like some politicians, the truth is of little to no value if it does not fit your preconceived notions, biases and agendas.

Sánchez went on to criticize the partisanship that has characterized America's political leadership on Iraq:

There has been a glaring, unfortunate, display of incompetent strategic leadership within our national leaders. As a Japanese proverb says, "Action without vision is a nightmare." There is no question that America is living a nightmare with no end in sight.

Since 2003, the politics of war have been characterized by partisanship as the Republican and Democratic parties struggled for power in Washington. National efforts to date have been corrupted by partisan politics that have prevented us from devising effective, executable, supportable solutions. At times, these partisan struggles have led to political decisions that endangered the lives of our sons and daughters on the battlefield. The unmistakable message was that political power had a greater priority than our national security objectives. Overcoming this strategic failure is the first step toward achieving victory in Iraq — without bipartisan cooperation we are doomed to fail. There is nothing going on in Washington that would give us hope.

Sánchez has become the most senior retired general to criticize American political leadership of the war.

Military awards
Among Ricardo Sánchez military awards and decorations are the following:

Badge
Master Parachutist Badge

title: Ricardo Sanchez


text:
Loplop

Loplop, or more formally, Loplop, Father Superior of the Birds,  is the name of a birdlike character that was an alter ego of the Dada-Surrealist artist Max Ernst. Ernst had a ongoing fascination with birds, which often appear in his work. Loplop functioned as a familiar animal. William Rubin wrote of Ernst "Among his more successful works of the thirties are a series begun in 1930 around the theme of his alter ego, Loplop, Superior of the Birds." Loplop is an iconic image of surrealist art, the painting Loplop Introduces Loplop (1930) appears on the front cover of the Gaëtan Picon's book Surrealist and Surrealism 1919-1939, and the drawing and collage Loplop Presents (1932) was used as the frontispiece of Patrick Waldberg's book Surrealism.

The series
Loplop first appeared in Ernst's collage novels La Femme 100 Têtes and Une Semaine de Bonté in the role of a narrator and commentator, followed by a number of works into the mid 1930s, forming an informal series of collages, paintings, and mixed media works.

Loplop's image was not a fixed character, but highly variable in appearance and seldom depicted in the same way twice. Typically (but not always), Loplop had the head of a bird, which could be highly abstracted, often a bird with a crest, comb, or wattle. The body was a square or rectangular space (a canvas, frame, easel, or wall), with the arms and legs being zoomorphic or geometric abstraction in form. Within the "body", an image, a piece of Max Ernst's art is presented (a collage, frottage, painting, etc.) which could be equal to, or function independently from the rest of the work. See external links below, The Menil Collection, Houston, Texas: 3 Loplop drawings, for some typical examples.

The German art historian Uwe M. Schneede offered his view — "By letting his pictures be presented through an intermediary — his art figure — rather than by himself, Ernst has changed his role, or, better still, he is showing more clearly where he stands in relation to his work. The artist-and-model iconography is adopted and, at the same time, twisted. The artist appears as his own exhibitor and intermediary: he shows his products and thus demonstrates their availability. This seems to indicate a basic change in Ernst relation toward his artistic activity — a kind of coming into the clear. At forty, he seems to have freed himself from the need to pictorialize oppressive childhood experiences and also from the rules of Surrealism, to the point where he can —with sovereign ease — make his liberating creative work (and thus the creative process itself) his main theme."

Samantha Kavky stated in the abstract of her journal article Authorship and Identity in Max Ernst's Loplop — I suggest that Ernst models Loplop on the father/totem, as defined by Sigmund Freud in his Totem and Taboo of 1913. An exploration of Ernst's interpretation of Freudian theory in creating Loplop illuminates the character's surprising complexity and centrality to Ernst's oeuvre. As a totem, Loplop emerges from a primary oedipal conflict on which Ernst structures his artistic identity and practice. Equating traditional notions of creative authorship with various forms of patriarchal authority, Ernst's constructed totem signifies his personal, aesthetic and political rejection of individual mastery in favour of his fraternal allegiance to the surrealist group and his embrace of surrealist automatist practices.

Ernst was familiar with Freud's writing and titled one of his later paintings Totem and Taboo (1941, private collection).

Partial list of works

 * Loplop Introducing a Bird (1929/1957), plaster, oil, and wood, 102.2 × 123.2 cm., Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago, Chicago
 * Loplop Introduces Loplop (1930). oil and mixed media on wood,100 x 180 cm. Menil Collection, Houston
 * Loplop Introduces a Young Girl (1930), oil and mixed media on wood, 175 x 89 cm. Musée National d'Art Moderne, Paris
 * Anthropomorphic Figure and Shell Flowers: Loplop Introduces a Flower (c. 1930), oil and collage on wood, 99 x 81 cm., private collection
 * Loplop Presents (1930), graphite frottage on paper, 29.8 × 21.6 cm., Menil Collection, Houston
 * Loplop Introduces the Members of the Surrealist Groupe (1931), collage, photographs, frottage, and pencil on paper, 50.2 x 33.7 cm. The Museum of Modern Art, New York
 * Loplop Presents Grapes (1931), graphite on paper with gouache mounted on paperboard, 64.8 × 49.5 cm., Menil Collection, Houston
 * Loplop Presents la Marseillaise (1931), graphite frottage on paper mounted on paper, 31.1 × 22.9 cm., Menil Collection, Houston
 * Facility: Loplop Introduces (1931), collage and pencil on paper, 65 x50 cm., formerly Roland Penrose collection, London
 * Loplop Introduces (1932), collage and frottage with drawing, gouache, printed marble paper, paint, and crayon on paper, 50 x 64.5 cm., Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago
 * Loplop Presents (1932), collage, botanical lithograph, graphite on pape 63.4 × 49.6 cm., Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago

Publications

 * Spies, Werner (1998), Max Ernst, Loplop. DuMont Reiseverlag, Ostfildern. ISBN 3770145526 (German language)
 * Kavky, Samantha (2005). Authorship and Identity in Max Ernst's Loplop. Art History, 28 (3): 357-385 pp.

Legacy

 * Rikki Ducornet's novel Phosphor in Dreamland (1995) partially concerns the plight of the "lôplôp" bird, endemic to the fictionalized Caribbean island of Birdland. Perhaps deliberately to keep with the variability of Ernst's loplop, Ducornet never describes the lôplôp in detail but instead emphasizes its shape-shifting capabilities, usually into that of a woman with animal body parts.

title: Loplop


text:
School of Brentano

The School of Brentano was a group of philosophers and psychologists who studied with Franz Brentano and were essentially influenced by him. While it was never a school in the traditional sense, Brentano tried to maintain some cohesion in the school. However, two of his most famous students, Alexius Meinong and Edmund Husserl, ultimately moved radically beyond his theories.

Notable members
Among the School of Brentano are counted several founders of new schools and movements (place and period they studied with Brentano):
 * Carl Stumpf (Würzburg, 1866–1870), taught Aron Gurwitsch and became the head of the Berlin School (Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Köhler)
 * Edmund Husserl (Vienna, 1884–1886), founded the phenomenological movement, influencing:
 * Munich phenomenology (Johannes Daubert, Adolf Reinach)
 * existential phenomenology (Jean-Paul Sartre, Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Martin Heidegger)
 * Alexius Meinong (Vienna, 1875–1878), was the head of the Graz School, and he influenced among others Stephan Witasek, Alois Höfler, Vittorio Benussi
 * Christian von Ehrenfels, credited with the introduction of the notion of Gestalt, which led to the establishment of Gestalt psychology
 * Kazimierz Twardowski (Vienna, 1885–1889), became father of the Lwów–Warsaw school of logic (Jan Łukasiewicz, Stanisław Leśniewski, Tadeusz Kotarbiński, Władysław Witwicki, Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz and Alfred Tarski)
 * Anton Marty (Würzburg, 1866–1870), developed a detailed theory of language with his disciple Karl Bühler, which influenced Reinach (who developed a theory of speech acts long before John Austin), whose lectures were attended by Franz Kafka
 * Sigmund Freud, founded psychoanalysis

Other students were:
 * Alois Höfler
 * Benno Kerry
 * Tomáš Masaryk
 * Rudolf Steiner

Scholars such as Roderick Chisholm, George Edward Moore, Gilbert Ryle, John Searle, Barry Smith, Kevin Mulligan, Peter Simons and Jan Woleński have propagated Brentano's influence to analytic philosophy through their research, editions and publications.

Through the works and teachings of his pupils the philosophy of Franz Brentano has been spread far and wide and indirectly influenced many if not most of the debates in contemporary philosophy, cognitive science and philosophy of mind.

title: School of Brentano


text:
Baby & Me

Baby & Me (赤ちゃんと僕) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Marimo Ragawa. It was published in Hakusensha's magazine Hana to Yume from 1991 to 1997. In North America, it was published by Viz Media. In 1995, Baby & Me received the 40th Shogakukan Manga Award in the shōjo category.

The series was adapted into an anime television series in 1996. As of November 2021, the manga had over 17.7 million copies in circulation.

Plot
Takuya Enoki loses his mother, Yukako, when she dies in a car accident. Takuya now lives with his father, Harumi, and his baby brother, Minoru. Takuya's baby brother is only two years old and requires much care. Although Takuya is only a fifth grader, he cooks, cleans, sews, scolds, and does everything that is normally a mother's job. Between his housework and looking after his baby brother, Takuya begins to feel a helpless gap between his friends who have fun every day after school. The Kimura family blame him for Minoru's constant crying. His stress gradually builds up and bursts at a point. Because of a mistake Minoru made, Takuya reacts violently. He cannot help feeling upset over Minoru, who is stressing him and taking up all his time.

One day, when Takuya picks Minoru up from preschool, he starts to walk faster imagining what it would be like to leave his little brother behind him. But soon, Takuya realizes what he has done and runs back. He finds Minoru with his eyes full of tears and a brutal dog is blocking Minoru's way. Takuya dashes in full speed and saves his little brother. After coming home and seeing Minoru sobbing, Takuya realizes that Minoru cries because he is just lonely and becomes ashamed of himself. From then on, Takuya learns to love his little brother as family and his long life story of being a mother and a brother at once begins.

Enoki family

 * Takuya Enoki (榎木 拓也)
 * The elder brother. 12 years old. Has taken up the burden of mothering his younger brother, Minoru. Due to his gentle, calm demeanor, good look and good grade, he is popular with the girls at school. Most likely to be mad when someone hurts or scares Minoru.
 * He is kind, caring, hard working, responsible and sensitive though oblivious of the girls' feelings towards him.
 * He is also good at short distance run. However, he's really bad at long running and handicraft.
 * In Valentine day, he receives 9 boxes of chocolate. In the long run, he comes up at 3rd place thanks to his extreme effort.
 * In Valentine day, he receives 9 boxes of chocolate. In the long run, he comes up at 3rd place thanks to his extreme effort.

 * Minoru Enoki (榎木 実)
 * Baby of the family. Super cute. Loved and over protected by his older brother, Takuya. Loves to wear a bear hat. His favorite character is Zap, a superhero from a laundry detergent commercial. His hero in life is Takuya.
 * He is of the same class as Hiro. Both Hiro and Ichika loves him.
 * He is of the same class as Hiro. Both Hiro and Ichika loves him.

 * Harumi Enoki (榎木 春美)
 * The father of Takuya and Minoru. He works hard to feed his family. He is a system engineer. He is really handsome and is popular in his company.
 * He deeply cares for his two sons.
 * He deeply cares for his two sons.

 * Yukako Enoki (榎木 由加子)
 * Deceased mother of Takuya and Minoru. Married Harumi against her family's wishes, and escaped her family in doing so.
 * She first met her husband when she was working part-time at a bento shop.
 * Her parents died in an accident when she was 10.
 * Her parents died in an accident when she was 10.

Friends

 * Tadashi Gotoh (後藤 正)
 * Classmate of Takuya's. Nicknamed Gon. Is the older brother in his family, with Hiroko (Hiro), his younger sister. Is the opposite of Takuya in many ways, especially his care towards Hiro and his look. Greedy and lazy. His family opens a grocery store, and he often works there. Though Gon's crush likes Takuya, he still likes Takuya as a friend.
 * Classmate of Takuya's. Nicknamed Gon. Is the older brother in his family, with Hiroko (Hiro), his younger sister. Is the opposite of Takuya in many ways, especially his care towards Hiro and his look. Greedy and lazy. His family opens a grocery store, and he often works there. Though Gon's crush likes Takuya, he still likes Takuya as a friend.

 * Hiroko "Hiro" Gotoh (後藤 浩子):
 * Younger sister of Tadashi. Has the exact same face as her brother. Same class as Minoru. She has a crush on Minoru after he saves her from a dog.
 * She often fights with love rival, Ichika. Was first thought to be a boy. She sees Minoru as brave and handsome. Plays roughly.

 * Tokio Tamadate (玉館 時男):
 * Rich classmate of Takuya's. Stuck up because he is rich. Wears expensive designer clothes. He often ridicules Takuya and fights with Gon (whom he dislikes). His grandmother Hanae considers Gon's grandmother her love rival in the past (and vice versa).

Fujii family

 * Akemi Fujii (藤井 明美):
 * Oldest daughter in the family. She is in charge of the other siblings when Parents are at work and looking after the house. She has a boyfriend.

 * Tomoya Fujii (藤井 友也):
 * Oldest son, second-oldest child in the Fujii family. 17 years old. Dirty-minded.

He is loud, positive and popular at school.
 * Asako Fujii (藤井 浅子):
 * Second-oldest daughter, third child in the Fujii family. 15 years old. Has a cold voice and personality. Her crush is Sakamaki, an introverted boy obsessing with audio visual.

She's jealous of Tomoya's cheerful personality.
 * Akihiro Fujii (藤井 昭広)
 * Classmate of Takuya's. Is the fourth brother in his family of two older sisters, an older brother, a younger sister, and a younger brother. Competitive.
 * He is deemed "cool" in class, mostly because it is hard to know what he is thinking. Poor because he has to share everything with his other siblings. Often stuck taking care of his younger siblings.
 * He is deemed "cool" in class, mostly because it is hard to know what he is thinking. Poor because he has to share everything with his other siblings. Often stuck taking care of his younger siblings.

He is good looking and intelligent. He is also good at sports and is popular at school.

In Valentine's Day, he receives 7 box of chocolate. He wins the 1st prize for the long run competition.
 * Ichika Fujii (藤井 一加):
 * Younger sister of Akihiro's. Different class from Minoru. She has a crush on Minoru and often fights (verbal and physically) with love rival, Hiro. She is highly intelligent and sees Minoru as cute. Sharp tongued.

 * Masaki "Ma-Bo" Fujii (藤井 正樹):
 * Youngest son, sixth child, and youngest child in the Fujii family. Though younger than Minoru, his vocabulary is better than Minoru's. Also very intelligent.
 * Because of his gentle personality, he is often controlled by Ichika.

Neighbors
Seiichi Kimura : the only son. He had a bad reputation, so he ran away from home to another city, and when he came back it turned out that he had married and had a son.
 * The Kimuras:Lives across the street from the Enoki's. Though both are old, they are very spirited. Their son recently came home.

Tomoko Kimura : Seiichi's wife.

Taichi Kimura : son of Seiichi.

Others

 * Shinako Fukaya (深谷 しな子):
 * A girl in Takuya's class. She has a quick temper. Her reputation as a liar makes it hard for her to have friends. She often speaks too honestly, and words come out of her mouth before she thinks it through, leading her to hurt other's feelings without meaning to.

 * Ai Yarimizo (槍溝 愛):
 * Gon's crush. She is the class representative of Class 6-3. Takuya thinks she is weird. Gon probably likes her because she is pretty. She likes to dress very extravagantly (weird by Takuya's taste). On her date with Gon, she chose to go to the kiddie rides. She sexually harasses Takuya and Gon by patting their behinds. When Takuya asked her to go on a date with Gon (from Gon's orders) she told him that she liked someone else. After her date with Gon, she confesses to him that she liked Takuya. She commented to Takuya that she knew he would not tell Gon because he wants to protect his friends.

Media

 * 1) ISBN 4-592-12241-0 published in March 1992
 * 2) ISBN 4-592-12242-9 published in August 1992
 * 3) ISBN 4-592-12243-7 published in December 1992
 * 4) ISBN 4-592-12244-5 published in February 1993
 * 5) ISBN 4-592-12245-3 published in June 1993
 * 6) ISBN 4-592-12246-1 published in November 1993
 * 7) ISBN 4-592-12247-X published in March 1994
 * 8) ISBN 4-592-12248-8 published in July 1994
 * 9) ISBN 4-592-12249-6 published in November 1994
 * 10) ISBN 4-592-12250-X published in February 1992
 * 11) ISBN 4-592-12821-4 published in May 1995
 * 12) ISBN 4-592-12822-2 published in September 1995
 * 13) ISBN 4-592-12823-0 published in January 1996
 * 14) ISBN 4-592-12824-9 published in July 1996
 * 15) ISBN 4-592-12825-7 published in November 1996
 * 16) ISBN 4-592-12826-5 published in March 1997
 * 17) ISBN 4-592-12827-3 published in June 1997
 * 18) ISBN 4-592-12828-1 published in September 1997

Reception
Baby & Me won the 40th Shogakukan Manga Award in the shōjo category in 1995. As of November 2021, the manga had over 17.7 million copies in circulation.

title: Baby & Me


text:
Louis Essen

Louis Essen OBE FRS (6 September 1908 – 24 August 1997) was an English physicist whose most notable achievements were in the precise measurement of time and the determination of the speed of light. He was a critic of Albert Einstein's theory of relativity, particularly as it related to time dilation.

Early work
Born in Nottingham, Essen earned his degree in physics from the University of London in 1928, having studied at University College Nottingham. He started work at the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) the following year, under D. W. Dye, investigating the potential of tuning forks and quartz crystal oscillators for precise time measurement. His research led to his development of the quartz ring clock in 1938, the clock soon becoming a standard for time measurement at observatories throughout the world.

The speed of light
During World War II, Essen worked on radar and developed a number of instruments, including the cavity resonance wavemeter. It was this work that suggested to Essen the possibility of a more precise measurement of the speed of light. In 1946, in collaboration with A.C. Gordon-Smith, he used a microwave cavity, of precisely known dimensions, and exploited his expertise in time-measurement to establish the frequency for a variety of its normal modes. As the wavelength of the modes was known from the geometry of the cavity and from electromagnetic theory, knowledge of the associated frequencies enabled a calculation of the speed of light. Their result, 299,792±3 km/s, was substantially greater than that from the prevailing sequence of optical measurements that had begun around the start of the 20th century and Essen had to withstand some fierce criticism and disbelief. Even NPL director Sir Charles Galton Darwin, while supporting the work, observed that Essen would get the correct result once he had perfected the technique. Moreover, W.W. Hansen at Stanford University had used a similar technique and obtained a measurement which was more consistent with the conventional (optical) wisdom. However, a combination of Essen's stubbornness, his iconoclasm and his belief in his own skill at measurement (and a little help with calculations from Alan Turing) inspired him to refine his apparatus and to repeat his measurement in 1950, establishing a result of 299,792.5±1 km/s. This was the value adopted by the 12th General Assembly of the Radio-Scientific Union in 1957. Most subsequent measurements have been consistent with this value. In 1983, the 17th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures adopted the standard value, 299,792.458 km/s for the speed of light.

Atomic clocks

Essen earned his PhD (1941) and Doctor of Science (1948) from the University of London before becoming interested in the possibility of using the frequency of atomic spectra to improve time measurement. The feasibility of measuring time using caesium as an atomic reference had been demonstrated by the US National Bureau of Standards. In 1955, he developed, in collaboration with Jack Parry, the first practical atomic clock by integrating the caesium atomic standard with conventional quartz crystal oscillators to allow calibration of existing time-keeping.

Time standards
This work led Essen to champion the caesium spectrum as an international time standard. The ammonia molecule had already been proposed as such but Essen was convinced that caesium would prove more stable. However, the International Astronomical Union meeting in Rome in 1952 had adopted the ephemeris time scale, on a proposal by Gerald Clemence defining the time unit in terms of the Earth's motion round the sun. The ephemeris second, based on a fraction of the tropical year derived from Simon Newcomb's expression for the mean solar motion, became a standard in 1960, but in 1967, at the 13th Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures, the second was redefined in terms of a value for the ephemeris second that had been precisely measured by Essen in collaboration with William Markowitz of the United States Naval Observatory in terms of the frequency of a chosen line from the spectrum of caesium.

Later life
Essen spent all his working life at the National Physical Laboratory.

In 1971 he published The Special Theory of Relativity: A Critical Analysis, questioning Special relativity, which apparently was not appreciated by his employers. Essen said in 1978:

"No one has attempted to refute my arguments, but I was warned that if I persisted I was likely to spoil my career prospects."

He retired in 1972 and died in Great Bookham, Surrey in 1997.

Awards and honours

 * A.S. Popov Gold Medal from the USSR Academy of Sciences (1959)
 * O.B.E. (1959)
 * Fellow of the Royal Society (1960)
 * Rabi Award of the IEEE Ultrasonics, Ferroelectrics, and Frequency Control Society (1987)

title: Louis Essen