text:
Formal group law

In mathematics, a formal group law is (roughly speaking) a formal power series behaving as if it were the product of a Lie group. They were introduced by. The term formal group sometimes means the same as formal group law, and sometimes means one of several generalizations. Formal groups are intermediate between Lie groups (or algebraic groups) and Lie algebras. They are used in algebraic number theory and algebraic topology.

Definitions
A one-dimensional formal group law over a commutative ring R is a power series F(x,y) with coefficients in R, such that The simplest example is the additive formal group law F(x, y) = x + y. The idea of the definition is that F should be something like the formal power series expansion of the product of a Lie group, where we choose coordinates so that the identity of the Lie group is the origin.
 * 1) F(x,y) = x + y + terms of higher degree
 * 2) F(x, F(y,z)) = F(F(x,y), z)  (associativity).

More generally, an  n-dimensional formal group law is a collection of n power series Fi(x1, x2, ..., xn, y1, y2, ..., yn) in 2n variables, such that where we write F for (F1, ..., Fn), x for (x1, ..., xn), and so on.
 * 1) F(x,y) = x + y + terms of higher degree
 * 2) F(x, F(y,z)) = F(F(x,y), z)

The formal group law is called commutative if F(x,y) = F(y,x). If R is torsionfree, then one can embed R into a Q-algebra and use the exponential and logarithm to write any one-dimensional formal group law F as F(x,y) = exp(log(x) + log(y)), so F is necessarily commutative. More generally, we have:
 * Theorem. Every one-dimensional formal group law over R is commutative if and only if R has no nonzero torsion nilpotents (i.e., no nonzero elements that are both torsion and nilpotent).

There is no need for an axiom analogous to the existence of inverse elements for groups, as this turns out to follow automatically from the definition of a formal group law. In other words we can always find a (unique) power series G such that F(x,G(x)) = 0.

A homomorphism from a formal group law F of dimension m to a formal group law G of dimension n is a collection f of n power series in m variables, such that
 * G(f(x), f(y)) = f(F(x,y)).

A homomorphism with an inverse is called an isomorphism, and is called a strict isomorphism if in addition f(x) = x + terms of higher degree. Two formal group laws with an isomorphism between them are essentially the same; they differ only by a "change of coordinates".

Examples

 * The additive formal group law is given by
 * $$F(x,y) = x + y.\ $$

 * The multiplicative formal group law is given by
 * $$F(x,y) = x + y + xy.\ $$
 * This rule can be understood as follows. The product G in the (multiplicative group of the) ring R is given by G(a,b) = ab. If we "change coordinates" to make 0 the identity by putting a = 1 + x, b = 1 + y, and G = 1 + F, then we find that F(x,y) = x + y + xy.

Over the rational numbers, there is an isomorphism from the additive formal group law to the multiplicative one, given by exp(x) − 1. Over general commutative rings R there is no such homomorphism as defining it requires non-integral rational numbers, and the additive and multiplicative formal groups are usually not isomorphic.

 * More generally, we can construct a formal group law of dimension n from any algebraic group or Lie group of dimension n, by taking coordinates at the identity and writing down the formal power series expansion of the product map. The additive and multiplicative formal group laws are obtained in this way from the additive and multiplicative algebraic groups. Another important special case of this is the formal group (law) of an elliptic curve (or abelian variety).
 * F(x,y) = (x + y)/(1 + xy) is a formal group law coming from the addition formula for the hyperbolic tangent function: tanh(x + y) = F(tanh(x), tanh(y)), and is also the formula for addition of velocities in special relativity (with the speed of light equal to 1).
 * $F(x,y) = \left. \left(x\sqrt{1-y^4} +y\sqrt{1-x^4}\right) \right/ \!(1+x^2y^2)$ is a formal group law over Z[1/2] found by Euler, in the form of the addition formula for an elliptic integral :

 * $$\int_0^x{dt\over \sqrt{1-t^4}} + \int_0^y{dt\over \sqrt{1-t^4}} = \int_0^{F(x,y)}{dt\over \sqrt{1-t^4}}.$$

Lie algebras
Any n-dimensional formal group law gives an n-dimensional Lie algebra over the ring R, defined in terms of the quadratic part F2 of the formal group law.
 * [x,y] = F2(x,y) − F2(y,x)

The natural functor from Lie groups or algebraic groups to Lie algebras can be factorized into a functor from Lie groups to formal group laws, followed by taking the Lie algebra of the formal group:
 * Lie groups → Formal group laws → Lie algebras

Over fields of characteristic 0, formal group laws are essentially the same as finite-dimensional Lie algebras: more precisely, the functor from finite-dimensional formal group laws to finite-dimensional Lie algebras is an equivalence of categories. Over fields of non-zero characteristic, formal group laws are not equivalent to Lie algebras. In fact, in this case it is well-known that passing from an algebraic group to its Lie algebra often throws away too much information, but passing instead to the formal group law often keeps enough information. So in some sense formal group laws are the "right" substitute for Lie algebras in characteristic p > 0.

The logarithm of a commutative formal group law
If F is a commutative n-dimensional formal group law over a commutative Q-algebra R, then it is strictly isomorphic to the additive formal group law. In other words, there is a strict isomorphism f from the additive formal group to F, called the logarithm of F, so that
 * f(F(x,y)) = f(x) + f(y).

Examples:
 * The logarithm of F(x,y) = x + y is f(x) = x.
 * The logarithm of F(x,y) = x + y + xy is f(x) = log(1 + x), because log(1 + x + y + xy) = log(1 + x) + log(1 + y).

If R does not contain the rationals, a map f can be constructed by extension of scalars to R ⊗ Q, but this will send everything to zero if R has positive characteristic. Formal group laws over a ring R are often constructed by writing down their logarithm as a power series with coefficients in R ⊗ Q, and then proving that the coefficients of the corresponding formal group over R ⊗ Q actually lie in R. When working in positive characteristic, one typically replaces R with a mixed characteristic ring that has a surjection to R, such as the ring W(R) of Witt vectors, and reduces to R at the end.

The invariant differential
When F is one-dimensional, one can write its logarithm in terms of the invariant differential ω(t). Let $$\omega(t) = \frac{\partial F}{\partial x}(0,t)^{-1} dt \in Rtdt,$$where $Rt dt$ is the free $Rt$ -module of rank 1 on a symbol dt. Then ω is translation invariant in the sense that $$F^* \omega = \omega,$$where if we write $\omega(t) = p(t)dt$, then one has by definition$$F^* \omega := p(F(t,s)) \frac{\partial F}{\partial x}(t,s) dt.$$If one then considers the expansion $\omega(t) = (1 + c_1 t + c_2 t^2 + \dots) dt$ , the formula$$f(t) = \int \omega(t) = t + \frac{c_1}{2} t^2 + \frac{c_2}{3} t^3 + \dots$$defines the logarithm of F.

The formal group ring of a formal group law
The formal group ring of a formal group law is a cocommutative Hopf algebra analogous to the group ring of a group and to the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra, both of which are also cocommutative Hopf algebras. In general cocommutative Hopf algebras behave very much like groups.

For simplicity we describe the 1-dimensional case; the higher-dimensional case is similar except that notation becomes more involved.

Suppose that F is a (1-dimensional) formal group law over R. Its formal group ring (also called its hyperalgebra or its covariant bialgebra) is a cocommutative Hopf algebra H constructed as follows.
 * As an R-module, H is free with a basis 1 = D(0), D(1), D(2), ...
 * The coproduct Δ is given by ΔD(n) = ΣD(i) ⊗ D(n−i) (so the dual of this coalgebra is just the ring of formal power series).
 * The counit η is given by the coefficient of D(0).
 * The identity is 1 = D(0).
 * The antipode S takes D(n) to (−1)nD(n).
 * The coefficient of D(1) in the product D(i)D(j) is the coefficient of xiyj in F(x,y).

Conversely, given a Hopf algebra whose coalgebra structure is given above, we can recover a formal group law F from it. So 1-dimensional formal group laws are essentially the same as Hopf algebras whose coalgebra structure is given above.

Formal group laws as functors
Given an n-dimensional formal group law F over R and a commutative R-algebra S, we can form a group F(S) whose underlying set is Nn where N is the set of nilpotent elements of S. The product is given by using F to multiply elements of Nn; the point is that all the formal power series now converge because they are being applied to nilpotent elements, so there are only a finite number of nonzero terms. This makes F into a functor from commutative R-algebras S to groups.

We can extend the definition of F(S) to some topological R-algebras. In particular, if S is an inverse limit of discrete R algebras, we can define F(S) to be the inverse limit of the corresponding groups. For example, this allows us to define F(Zp) with values in the p-adic numbers.

The group-valued functor of F can also be described using the formal group ring H of F. For simplicity we will assume that F is 1-dimensional; the general case is similar. For any cocommutative Hopf algebra, an element g is called group-like if Δg = g ⊗ g and εg = 1, and the group-like elements form a group under multiplication. In the case of the Hopf algebra of a formal group law over a ring, the group like elements are exactly those of the form
 * D(0) + D(1)x + D(2)x2 + ...

for nilpotent elements x. In particular we can identify the group-like elements of H ⊗ S with the nilpotent elements of S, and the group structure on the group-like elements of H ⊗ S is then identified with the group structure on F(S).

Height
Suppose that f is a homomorphism between one-dimensional formal group laws over a field of characteristic p > 0. Then f is either zero, or the first nonzero term in its power series expansion is $$ax^{p^h}$$ for some non-negative integer h, called the height of the homomorphism f. The height of the zero homomorphism is defined to be ∞.

The height of a one-dimensional formal group law over a field of characteristic p > 0 is defined to be the height of its multiplication by p map.

Two one-dimensional formal group laws over an algebraically closed field of characteristic p > 0 are isomorphic if and only if they have the same height, and the height can be any positive integer or ∞.

Examples:
 * The additive formal group law F(x,y) = x + y has height ∞, as its pth power map is 0.
 * The multiplicative formal group law F(x,y) = x + y + xy has height 1, as its pth power map is (1 + x)p − 1 = xp.
 * The formal group law of an elliptic curve has height either one or two, depending on whether the curve is ordinary or supersingular. Supersingularity can be detected by the vanishing of the Eisenstein series $$E_{p-1}$$.

Lazard ring
There is a universal commutative one-dimensional formal group law over a universal commutative ring defined as follows. We let

 * F(x,y)

be

 * x + y + Σci,j xiyj

for indeterminates

 * ci,j,

and we define the universal ring R to be the commutative ring generated by the elements ci,j, with the relations that are forced by the associativity and commutativity laws for formal group laws. More or less by definition, the ring R has the following universal property:
 * For any commutative ring S, one-dimensional formal group laws over S correspond to ring homomorphisms from R to S.

The commutative ring R constructed above is known as Lazard's universal ring. At first sight it seems to be incredibly complicated: the relations between its generators are very messy. However Lazard proved that it has a very simple structure: it is just a polynomial ring (over the integers) on generators of degrees 2, 4, 6, ... (where ci,j has degree 2(i + j − 1)). Daniel Quillen proved that the coefficient ring of complex cobordism is naturally isomorphic as a graded ring to Lazard's universal ring, explaining the unusual grading.

Formal groups
A formal group is a group object in the category of formal schemes.
 * If $$G$$ is a functor from Artin algebras to groups which is left exact, then it is representable (G is the functor of points of a formal group. (left exactness of a functor is equivalent to commuting with finite projective limits).
 * If $$G$$ is a group scheme then $$ \widehat{G} $$, the formal completion of G at the identity, has the structure of a formal group.
 * The formal completion of a smooth group scheme is isomorphic to $$\mathrm{Spf}(RT_1,\ldots,T_n)$$. Some people call a formal group scheme smooth if the converse holds; others reserve the term "formal group" for objects locally of this form.
 * Formal smoothness asserts the existence of lifts of deformations and can apply to formal schemes that are larger than points. A smooth formal group scheme is a special case of a formal group scheme.
 * Given a smooth formal group, one can construct a formal group law and a field by choosing a uniformizing set of sections.
 * The (non-strict) isomorphisms between formal group laws induced by change of parameters make up the elements of the group of coordinate changes on the formal group.

Formal groups and formal group laws can also be defined over arbitrary schemes, rather than just over commutative rings or fields, and families can be classified by maps from the base to a parametrizing object.

The moduli space of formal group laws is a disjoint union of infinite-dimensional affine spaces, whose components are parametrized by dimension, and whose points are parametrized by admissible coefficients of the power series F. The corresponding moduli stack of smooth formal groups is a quotient of this space by a canonical action of the infinite-dimensional groupoid of coordinate changes.

Over an algebraically closed field, the substack of one-dimensional formal groups is either a point (in characteristic zero) or an infinite chain of stacky points parametrizing heights. In characteristic zero, the closure of each point contains all points of greater height. This difference gives formal groups a rich geometric theory in positive and mixed characteristic, with connections to the Steenrod algebra, p-divisible groups, Dieudonné theory, and Galois representations. For example, the Serre-Tate theorem implies that the deformations of a group scheme are strongly controlled by those of its formal group, especially in the case of supersingular abelian varieties. For supersingular elliptic curves, this control is complete, and this is quite different from the characteristic zero situation where the formal group has no deformations.

A formal group is sometimes defined as a cocommutative Hopf algebra (usually with some extra conditions added, such as being pointed or connected). This is more or less dual to the notion above. In the smooth case, choosing coordinates is equivalent to taking a distinguished basis of the formal group ring.

Some authors use the term formal group to mean formal group law.

Lubin–Tate formal group laws
We let Zp be the ring of p-adic integers. The Lubin–Tate formal group law is the unique (1-dimensional) formal group law F such that e(x) = px + xp is an endomorphism of F, in other words
 * $$e(F(x,y)) = F(e(x), e(y)).\ $$

More generally we can allow e to be any power series such that e(x) = px + higher-degree terms and e(x) = xp mod p. All the group laws for different choices of e satisfying these conditions are strictly isomorphic.

For each element a in Zp there is a unique endomorphism f of the Lubin–Tate formal group law such that f(x) = ax + higher-degree terms. This gives an action of the ring Zp on the Lubin–Tate formal group law.

There is a similar construction with Zp replaced by any complete discrete valuation ring with finite residue class field.

This construction was introduced by, in a successful effort to isolate the local field part of the classical theory of complex multiplication of elliptic functions. It is also a major ingredient in some approaches to local class field theory and an essential component in the construction of Morava E-theory in chromatic homotopy theory.

title: Formal group law


text:
Talk:Pan (genus)

The Jared Diamond sentence
this article is on my watchlist, and I've been seeing you two back-and-forthing over the sentence "In his book The Third Chimpanzee (1991), Jared Diamond proposes that P. troglodytes and P. paniscus belong with H. sapiens in the genus Homo, rather than in Pan. He argues that other species have been reclassified by genus for less genetic similarity than that between humans and chimpanzees.". As I'm sure you're both aware, the discussion on whether or not to include that should be here on the talk page, not via edit warring. Now my inclination is that Ribbet32 may be correct on this one, in that including a view on how to classify chimpanzees that was not made by a professional evolutionary scientist or zoologist, could be giving WP:UNDUE weight to that viewpoint. The article should reflect the balance of reliable sources in regard to this, and if there are literally no professionals who have said that chimpanzees belong in the Homo genus, then it's really a fringe view and should be removed. If, on the other hand, there are experts in the field who've said this, then those are the ones we should be citing rather than Diamond who, for all his obvious intellect, is not a specialist in this field. I would obviously be happy to hear dissenting views from Randy on this, however. — Amakuru (talk) 23:31, 16 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for joining in. Seems like the due weight would rest on the impact and recognition of the book and its statements. The Third Chimpanzee Wikipedia article has no negative criticism or controversy sections, and includes a positive New York Times review by Frans de Waal (noted primatologist) that summarizes the topic under discussion here without dissent or criticism. The Wikipedia article reports that, two quotes, "The Third Chimpanzee was the recipient of the Royal Society Prize for Science Books and the Los Angeles Times Book Prize" and "A contemporary review of the work by Frans de Waal was published by the New York Times (March, 1992), who praises the wit and breadth of the author's approach to the subject matter. He notes there is an emphasis on linguistic diversity by the author, and endorses the virtue of his inclusion and comparison of historic or far-fetched speculation on origins in hominids." In the 1990s the book made what could be called a splash, and was well known and influential. Keeping a long-term now-referenced mention in the article doesn't seem far-fetched. Randy Kryn (talk) 01:28, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Jared Diamond is a populist writer, and accordingly he favours interesting provocative hypotheses. He is highly notable, so his fringe view may be worth mention. However, on the argument of genetics, the defining point of speciation of homo should be taken as the point of chromosome collapse from 48 to 46. That’s the point that would mark the end of backbreeding between homo and pan. —SmokeyJoe (talk) 01:44, 17 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I also want to add my voice in support of removing the Jared Diamond quote for the reasons cited by other editors above. I can’t see The NY Times reference because I’ve used up my free looks and won’t pay for a subscription but I’ve read a lot about Chimpanzees in the last few years by de Wall, other primatologists, and anthropologists who reference primatologists and I’ve never heard this theory. It is a fringe theory and doesn’t represent the consensus of the best experts in the field. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 14:10, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Since the entire book in question is about the idea, and de Wall gave a positive review of the book in the New York Times and it won the Royal Society Prize for Science Books and Los Angeles Times Book Prize, it at least was recognized outside the fringe community at the time and may edge over the fringe line by virtue of non-criticism and established non-controversiality (Diamond seemed to have either played the devil's advocate or monkey's uncle). Randy Kryn (talk) 14:23, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I just found de Waal's review. I didn't see where he said anything that supports this radical hypothesis. What he does say is: "WITHOUT speculation on a massive scale, it is impossible to reconstruct our past. And this book contains some rather implausible scenarios." What de Waal praises is what I assume all of us would take for granted: Diamond's assertion that humans are part of the animal kingdom and that we can understand ourselves better by understanding primates. I think there is a consensus that Diamond's fringe theory should not be included in this article. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 17:07, 19 October 2021 (UTC)
 * The part you quote isn't about the topic being discussed here, and de Waal specifically uses "the absence of hybrids between Cro-Magnons and their predecessors, the Neanderthals, is due mainly to language" as a implausible scenerio. Concerning that de Waal says without judgment or criticsm: "The book, which includes material that was previously published in Discover and Natural History magazines, starts out with a discussion of the genetic differences between humans and other primates. The DNA molecules of two ape species, the chimpanzee and the bonobo (pygmy chimpanzee), are so similar to human DNA molecules (a difference of only 1.6 percent) that there is no good reason, Mr. Diamond says, to place us in a separate genus. The book's title drives the message home: we are just another pongid, the "human chimpanzee." Since this is sourced, and what you point to has nothing to do with the premise, no consensus to remove has been formed (which would have to agree that the book is fringe, which its awards and things like de Waal's review would counter, and which Wikipedia hasn't asserted). Randy Kryn (talk) 19:32, 19 October 2021 (UTC)

I only skimmed the article before, this time I read it through carefully. I apologize. So yes, de Wall does mention the hypothesis. The quote you referenced is all he says. He says nothing to support the hypothesis. The claim that humans are not correctly classified and should be in the same genus as Chimpanzees is not a trivial hypothesis. It directly contradicts what you will find in every reputable modern text book on genetics or anthropology. If there was a strong argument for this to be the case it would be written up in a referred journal not a pop science book. What I said about a consensus was not based on my interpretation of the NY Times review it was based on the fact that there are 4 editors in favor of removing it, (although I'm not completely sure if SmokyJoe was arguing it might be possible to include it in a separate section as a fringe theory but his later argument on genetics seems to argue against that) and only one in favor of leaving it as it was. I think Amakaru said it best in the comment that started this thread, Diamond's hypothesis: "was not made by a professional evolutionary scientist or zoologist, ... The article should reflect the balance of reliable sources in regard to this, and if there are literally no professionals who have said that chimpanzees belong in the Homo genus, then it's really a fringe view and should be removed. If, on the other hand, there are experts in the field who've said this, then those are the ones we should be citing rather than Diamond" So unless there are some actual experts who have written in support of this hypothesis I think we have a consensus and that consensus is that the part about Diamond's hypothesis should be removed. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 20:16, 20 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the summary. Regarding Randy's point about Diamond's book not receiving criticism and being praised by a primatologist, I would suggest that should be taken with the proviso that it is (as SmokeyJoe points out) a popular science book. As such, it would be understood that it might take readers down lines of thought which are possible but aren't the mainstream viewpoint, but just to tease the audience. I can't imagine that would command outright criticism, because it is accepted that it's just an idea. — Amakuru (talk) 20:52, 20 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I would think positive reviews of The Third Chimpanzee would belong in the article The Third Chimpanzee and not here. Ribbet32 (talk) 22:58, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree with Ribbet32 Also, here is the first paragraph in the wp:undo weight section on the Neutrality page. I've highlighted the most important part in bold: "Neutrality requires that mainspace articles and pages fairly represent all significant viewpoints that have been published by reliable sources, in proportion to the prominence of each viewpoint in the published, reliable sources.[3] Giving due weight and avoiding giving undue weight means articles should not give minority views or aspects as much of or as detailed a description as more widely held views or widely supported aspects. Generally, the views of tiny minorities should not be included at all, except perhaps in a 'see also' to an article about those specific views. For example, the article on the Earth does not directly mention modern support for the flat Earth concept, the view of a distinct (and minuscule) minority; to do so would give undue weight to it." Given that the only reference in support of Diamond's hypothesis that has been given is Diamond's book and that Diamond is not an expert on the topic and his hypothesis was in a pop science book not a peer reviewed journal I think that makes his view a "tiny minority" view that is appropriate for the "See also" section but nowhere else in the article. I'm going to revert to the version that Ribbet32 had and then add the article about Diamond's book to the See Also section. Before anyone adds Diamond's hypothesis back to the article itself they need to provide additional references by experts in the field in peer reviewed journals or conferences or provide some rational argument why a hypothesis only supported by a non-expert is not a "tiny minority" view. Of course Diamond has more credibility than Flat Earth people but in terms of the definition of tiny minority in that article his view is a tiny minority. If anything even more so than Flat Earth views because those views have many non-experts who support it. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 15:10, 22 October 2021 (UTC)

Disambiguation link
Hello @UtherSRG: I have noticed that you have reverted my addition of a disambiguation link. I have thoroughly analyzed your edit summary of the revert and did not understand it. Is there a specific policy on when to add those links, whether they are acceptable here, and could you direct me to it? Thank you! 2003  LN  6  04:11, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

 * What purpose did that link serve? To what inbound audience is it intended? Looking at the What Links Here list... anyone who arrived at this article either typed in "(genus)" (so knows they are not looking at the disambiguated term) or arrived from another taxonomy-related article. Folks looking for some other topic would not be arriving from either of those routes, so the dab note has no audience. - UtherSRG (talk) 11:15, 13 March 2024 (UTC)
 * @UtherSRG: I have read and understood your reply. Could you provide me with a specific policy page that permits the addition of these links or are they added or removed by consensus? Thank you! 2003   LN  6  16:21, 13 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Are you looking for WP:HAT? - UtherSRG (talk) 16:32, 13 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Your usage was a form of WP:NAMB. - UtherSRG (talk) 16:35, 13 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I will be more responsible in adding hatnotes in the future. 2003   LN  6  17:02, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 21 April 2024
Change the bold panina in the taxonomy box to an article link. 2601:586:5300:F6E0:A93F:C745:C46F:611B (talk) 13:42, 21 April 2024 (UTC)
 * ✅. Thanks for mentioning it! DMacks (talk) 14:32, 21 April 2024 (UTC)

How does one set a partly italic display title ?
(For my edification)

I notice that the display title of this article, « Pan (genus) », is partly in italic; and this is of course the correct typography for an article title partly consisting of a biological genus; but I can't see how it was set. When editing either the full page or its lead section, I don't see the wikicode for the page title; and when displaying the page information, the first item is the display title, with its first word in italic, but AFAICT it is not editable. Let's imagine that on some other similar page, a biological name making part of the title had been left non-italic: how could I correct that? Would I have to "move" the page to a page of the same title but with the italics correctly set? Would I have to request an administrator's assistance because my permissions (as autoconfirmed extendedconfirmed user) are just not enough? Or didn't I look in the right place? — Tonymec (talk) 10:21, 22 April 2024 (UTC)

 * The automatic taxobox system is handling the formatting of the title. The documentation in that link explains how to adjust if needed. - UtherSRG (talk) 11:40, 22 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Ah I see. The automatic taxobox invisibly takes care of the title so I did not see it set explicitly, but for special cases any automatically set displaytitle (no matter how set) can be overridden with placed (I suppose) at the start of a wikicode line near the top of the article. (Side boxes, including the taxobox, may need a similarly formatted parameter.) Thanks. — Tonymec (talk) 07:07, 23 April 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Pan (genus)


text:
Talk:Plato's Meno

please reformat this page
 * User:JimD reformatted all the quoted text to be "displayed" (thus). That makes them render MUCH more nicely in my browser (Mozilla 1.5)

title: Talk:Plato's Meno


text:
Talk:New World monkey

Continental drift
Is anyone aware of the relationship between continental drift and primate evolution?
 * No, no one is aware of it. Do you have some text you want to add to the article, and do you have a citation to support it? - UtherSRG (talk) 18:19, 19 April 2006 (UTC)

Someone should add a section about how the new world monkeys managed to get there. Ashwinr 20:02, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

I am looking at the continental drift http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondwana It is only about ~1800 miles/ 2800km from Brasil to West Africa now - the 4500km does not make sense.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1_E+6_m  <-- wikipedia has it at 2800km for narrowest point 4800km is the widest width from US to N. Africa —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.142.130.28 (talk) 04:39, 6 September 2007 (UTC)

My anthropology TA - this is why I'm here - says it's thought that a chunk broke off and floated across the ocean. Still may sound improbable, but as Carl Sagan pointed out, what seems impossible in a hundred years may be inevitable in a hundred million (or ten million or WHATEVER) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.146.93.33 (talk) 22:21, 5 May 2008 (UTC)

I am doing some research on the very subject (how the heck there are monkeys in S. America and Africa). So far it looks unexplained, if S. America and Africa were apart before the existence of simians. I find it highly improbable that a chunk of Africa up and drifted over to S. America, no matter what you T.A. said. And even less believable that a 'raft of vegetation' from Africa floated over on ocean currents with monkeys on it. I think it discredits the page to have the 'raft theory' on there unsupported. So I think the most probable theory is that a main monkey ancestor existed at the time the continents separated, and evolved into slightly different species on each continent. I will continue this research. Hopefully someone out there has some supporting documentation that can shed some light on the issue.QatBurglar (talk) 06:52, 21 May 2008 (UTC)

 * The raft theory is supported by the existing evidence. The evidence includes the facts that 1. Africa and South America were much closer at the time the first monkeys appeared in South America and 2. the earliest monkeys in South America appeaered along the Atlantic coast. There is no evidence of monkeys existing in South America at the time the the two contienents were connected; in fact, no monkeys existed back that far in history. The New and Old World groups split about 40 million years ago. Africa and south America split about 140-150 million years ago. There is no way that monkeys existed on Pangaea. - UtherSRG (talk) 10:34, 21 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Obviously the first primates didn't appear until 60 mya. But how far from Africa did S. America travel in the ~100 million years? The next step is to find out the positions of the African and S. American continents around 60-40 mya and the distance between them. If the distance is small enough, maybe the 'raft theory' is conceivable. Large clumps of trees have been known to break off from the Amazon and travel great distances on ocean currents. Also, these prehistoric trees were probably inconceivably large, probably capable of sustaining their own ecosystem for a while. Does anyone have any supporting data on either the distance between the continents or of the possibility of monkeys traveling from Africa on floating trees? - QatBurglar (talk) 15:20, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

 * I found out that South America, when it separated from Africa, moved sort of in a swinging motion, with the bottom of the continent swinging away about a pivot point that was around sub-Saharan Africa. This was the area where the first simians appeared, and was the last to float away from the African continent. The two landmasses were much closer together at this time than I had originally thought. QatBurglar (talk) 03:33, 16 June 2008 (UTC)

Origins
I have begun reading the book "Evolution of the New World Monkey and Continental Drift" which offers some of the major theories on the evolutionary controversy. My question is whether or not this should be contained under a separate article with only a summary under the 'Origins' section of this one. QatBurglar (talk) 03:33, 16 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Depends how much information you want to provide about it. If you write enough for a full article on the issue, then by all means give it its own article. My question is, how many monkeys would have travelled by raft to South America? Is the hypothesis that a couple of dozen monkeys travelled on one raft, or is the idea that there were probably several rafts? Or is it believed that all the New World Monkeys emerged from an even smaller founding group, of say less than a dozen individuals? --Mathew5000 (talk) 09:07, 3 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Also, are platyrrhini the only nonhuman primates in South America? I assume that but the article doesn't make it explicit. --Mathew5000 (talk) 09:10, 3 July 2008 (UTC)
 * A rafting event also occurred on the other side of Africa, taking early prosimians from Africa (or possibly India) to Madagascar. The concept of a "rafting event" may even be relevant to other species outside of the order Primates.  For that reason, I'm considering starting a new article, even if it has to start as "stub status" until we can track down enough sources to flesh it out. - Visionholder (talk) 20:15, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Go for it. - UtherSRG (talk) 20:57, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * I'll create it now. However, if someone has better sources that discuss the details of these events (or formally documents when these floating mats of vegetagion have been seen), please add it.  Unfortunately, all of my sources only mention the theories briefly with no citations or references.  I'm sure there's something out there.  - Visionholder (talk) 21:32, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Done. Please clean up, rename, or whatever is needed.  Anyone who is able to expand it is encouraged to do so, especially for other types of animals. - Visionholder (talk) 22:23, 23 September 2008 (UTC)

Ancestry
Would it be right to say that the Platyrrhini (of course not the New World monkeys, but their common African ancestor) ist also the forefather of the Old World monkeys and thus the apes and the humans? It would be a logical assumption because doubtlessly they are the more animallike and therefore primitive monkeys.--80.141.186.5 (talk) 16:08, 10 August 2009 (UTC)
 * It all depends on how far you go back. But the most recent common ancestor of all of Platyrrhini would certainly not be ancestral to all of the Old World monkeys and the apes. - UtherSRG (talk) 07:37, 12 March 2012 (UTC)

How many families?
The first sentence of the article says there are five families of New World monkeys, but Atelidae refers to "the four families of New World monkeys". Which is it? 68.83.240.41 (talk) 01:00, 2 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Five families. Things were in flux last year. - UtherSRG (talk) 07:34, 12 March 2012 (UTC)
 * This needs revisiting. The five families are not supported by either of the two sources for the taxonomic listing. Groves (in MSW3) lists four, with Callitrichinae included in Cebidae. This is followed by Ryland & Mittermeier (2009). The molecular analyses seem to support Aotidae/Aotinae as sister to Callitrichidae/Callitrichinae. So either three or five families are compatible with the data, but recent taxonomies seem to favour three with Cebidae including Aotinae and Callitrichinae (e.g. Feldhamer's Mammalogy and the ASM Mammalian Diversity Database).  Jts1882 | talk 16:17, 9 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Oops. Strike that. I should have checked the column headers in the table in Ryland & Mittermeier (2009) more closely.  Jts1882 | talk 15:44, 10 February 2020 (UTC)

prehensile tail
This surprised me when I saw this. It was my understanding from reading your article that only the family Atellidae had prehensile tails. But I found at least three photos of squirrel monkeys suspended in part by their tails. Here is one photo. http://www.mrfs.net/trips/2006/Ecuador/Yasuni_Wildlife/squirrel_monkey3.jpg — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.161.220.192 (talk) 23:50, 11 March 2012 (UTC)
 * That is certainly not a squirrel monkey! Looks like a spider monkey, or perhaps a capuchin. Hrm, in Ecuador.... Nope, the only squirrel monkey in Equador is the common squirrel monkey, and it has coloring and body shape that is distinctly different that this image. - UtherSRG (talk) 07:34, 12 March 2012 (UTC)

Source
Here's good (recent) source for discussing the arrival and diversification of New World monkeys:

– Maky  « talk » 17:26, 6 June 2012 (UTC)

Central and South America
Can North America be included here, too? Perhaps, South and Central America and the tropical portions of Mexico? Fotoguzzi (talk) 03:02, 16 July 2013 (UTC)
 * Added Mexico. Fotoguzzi (talk) 23:25, 23 July 2013 (UTC)

Characteristics
The photo illustrating the difference between Old World and New World monkey faces - is it really correct that Old World monkey faces are represented by a non-monkey? Scatterkeir (talk) 21:01, 2 January 2018 (UTC)

A:  ...No. I've added a section below that makes your point clear. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.161.79.137 (talk) 20:12, 13 January 2018 (UTC)

The image that supposedly delineates "New World" from "Old World" monkeys is erroneous.
The primate on the left appears to be a chimpanzee, which is an ape. Apes are not monkeys in any sense or meaning. The images should be updated to replace the chimpanzee with a baboon, which really IS an Old World monkey. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.161.79.137 (talk) 20:08, 13 January 2018 (UTC)

Bumping this!195.99.56.90 (talk) 12:15, 30 May 2018 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on New World monkey. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080515074123/http://www.chimpanzoo.org/ceboidea.html to http://www.chimpanzoo.org/ceboidea.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:57, 17 February 2018 (UTC)

New World and Old World comparison picture
New World monkey is an actual monkey while the Old World "MONKEY" is a Chimpanzee. This needs a major correction. I highly suggest using a baboon or a mandrill. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 222.99.129.242 (talk) 04:35, 18 June 2018 (UTC)

Article Title
Why is this article titled "New World monkey" and not "Platyrrhini", to be analogous with the "Catarrhini" article about Old World monkeys? Does this comply with WP:Article titles? ♆ CUSH ♆ 14:29, 12 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Catarrhini includes old world monkeys and apes. A subdivision Cercopithecoidea deals with Old World Monkeys and is titled as such. While using taxon names for article titles would be more consistent, this is very much in line with the Wikipedia naming convention. —  Jts1882 | talk 17:05, 12 May 2023 (UTC)

Updating taxobox
Since List of New World monkeys is now List of ceboids, I figured to update the taxobox here. Need the authority for Ceboidea, and is the type species for the superfamily the same as the parvorder or different? - UtherSRG (talk) 10:50, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

 * However, I'm not finding Ceboidea is actually in use from any of the regular sources of taxonomy... so perhaps we shouldn't use it and should move the list to List of platyrrhines instead... - UtherSRG (talk) 11:02, 26 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Yes, I'd use Platyrrhini or platyrrhines (e.g. see ASM-MDD). I assume Ceboidea is not used as it is the only superfamily in Platyrrhini (and thus redundant). —  Jts1882 | talk 12:03, 26 August 2023 (UTC)
 * It seems Ceboidea is "Bonaparte, 1831", from some quick googling, but agree that it seems that it's generally unused as an interstitial grouping as the only superfamily. In terms of naming, as per the FLC for cercopithecoids the lists are going to be named after the highest level clade that includes only those extant species, which would be Platyrrhini for this group, so, "List of platyrrhines". I note that this article actually only discusses Ceboidea in the lead/infobox; the cladogram and article body text never mention it. -- Pres N  19:19, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

Change name of List of platyrrhines to List of New World monkeys?
Seems a good idea per common name and consistency with this page and with the page Old World monkeys (although the list of Old World monkeys is named List of cercopithecoids). I don't recall hearing or reading the words 'playtyrrhines' or 'cercopithecoids' before today, and those being the list name for New World monkeys and Old World monkeys has surprised me. Randy Kryn (talk) 23:54, 27 August 2023 (UTC)

 * The Lists are all being moved to align to the highest level taxon they contain. See the discussion immediately above. - UtherSRG (talk) 10:54, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
 * "List of platyrrhines"? Yeah, that's not confusing. Why would you move anything into something like that before a full RM supports it. Randy Kryn (talk) 11:53, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Because of:

List of afrosoricids, List of bovids, List of canids, List of cervids, List of cingulates, List of dasyuromorphs, List of didelphimorphs, List of felids, List of herpestids, List of leporids, List of lorisoids, List of macropodiformes, List of macroscelids, List of mephitids, List of mustelids, List of ochotonids, List of peramelemorphs, List of perissodactyls, List of phalangeriformes, List of pilosans, List of pinnipeds, List of procyonids, List of scandentians, List of suines, List of ursids, List of viverrids, List of artiodactyls, List of carnivorans, List of diprotodonts, List of lagomorphs, List of lorisoids, List of cercopithecoids, and List of hominoids.

 * The standard, built over the last 3 years, is that the mammal "List of X" lists are named after the scientific name, not the common name, because many groupings do not have a common name- even within the primates, the lorisoids for example contain 5 different "common name" groupings. So, the list for this grouping should be at the same, with "List of New World monkeys" redirecting to it. The discussion above decided that it would be platyrrhines (for Platyrrhini), not ceboids (for Ceboidea). Both of those terms are in bold in the second sentence of this article. -- Pres N  18:16, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia naming conventions support common names as article titles. By common names they mean the name most commonly used, not a vernacular version of a taxon name. While a case could be made for lists of taxon names, I can see no justification for the the use of the vernacular version of the taxon name when it is not a common name in the Wikipedia sense. The Wikipedia guidance suggests List of New World monkeys as the appropriate title. A case can be made for List of Platyrrhini but I can't see one for List of platyrrhines. —  Jts1882 | talk 19:23, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
 * WP:BOLD. Not everything requires a discussion first. And for the record, I oppose moving the list back to Old World monkeys and prefer to leave it at List of platyrrhines as the most precise title. SilverTiger12 (talk) 01:34, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:New World monkey


text:
Baron Ventry

Baron Ventry, of Ventry in the County of Kerry, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland.

History
It was created in 1800 for Sir Thomas Mullins, 1st Baronet. He had already been created a Baronet, of Burnham in the County of Kerry, in the Baronetage of Ireland in 1797. The Mullins family claimed descent from the Norman De Moleyns family. The first Baron's grandson, the third Baron (who succeeded his uncle), resumed the alleged 'ancient' family name of De Moleyns by Royal licence in 1841. His son, the fourth Baron, sat in the House of Lords as an Irish representative peer from 1871 to 1914. Lord Ventry also assumed the additional surname of Eveleigh, which was that of an earlier ancestor. His younger son, the sixth Baron, married Evelyn Muriel Stuart Daubeny. the titles are held by their grandson, the eighth Baron, who succeeded his uncle in 1987. In 1966 he assumed by deed poll the surname of Daubeney de Moleyns.

The family seat now is Hill of Errol House near Errol, Perthshire. The family's former seat was Burnham House, near Dingle in County Kerry. The family sold Burnham House in the 1920s. It is now a girls' school.

Barons Ventry (1800—)

 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Thomas Mullins, 1st Baron Ventry (1736–1824)
 * Hon. Thomas Mullins (b?—1823)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] William Townsend Mullins, 2nd Baron Ventry (1761–1827)
 * Hon. Townsend Mullins (1763—1799)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Thomas Townsend Aremberg de Moleyns, 3rd Baron Ventry (1786—1868) (born Thomas Townsend Aremberg Mullins)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Dayrolles Blakeney Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 4th Baron Ventry (1828—1914) (born Dayrolles Blakeney Mullins)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Frederick Rossmore Wauchope Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 5th Baron Ventry (1861—1923) (born Frederick Rossmore Wauchope de Moleyns)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Arthur William Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 6th Baron Ventry (1864–1936)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Arthur Frederick Daubeney Olav Eveleigh-de-Moleyns, 7th Baron Ventry (1898—1987)
 * Hon. Francis Alexander Innys Eveleigh-de Moleyns (1901—1964)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Andrew Harold Wesley Daubeney de Moleyns, 8th Baron Ventry (1943—)
 * (1) Hon. Francis Wesley Daubeney de Moleyns (1965—)
 * John Andrew Wauchope of Niddrie Marischal (1900—1956) (born John Andrew Eveleigh-de Moleyns)
 * (2) Andrew Dermod Wauchope (1932—)
 * (3) James Andrew Wauchope (1963—)
 * (4) Angus Wauchope (1995—)
 * (5) Ian Simon Wauchope (1963—)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son the Hon. Francis Wesley Daubeney de Moleyns (born 1965). The heir apparent's heir presumptive is the present holder's second cousin Andrew Dermod Wauchope (born 1932).

title: Baron Ventry


text:
Intel i960

Intel's i960 (or 80960) was a RISC-based microprocessor design that became popular during the early 1990s as an embedded microcontroller. It became a best-selling CPU in that segment, along with the competing AMD 29000. In spite of its success, Intel stopped marketing the i960 in the late 1990s, as a result of a settlement with DEC whereby Intel received the rights to produce the StrongARM CPU. The processor continues to be used for a few military applications.

Origin

The i960 design was begun in response to the failure of Intel's iAPX 432 design of the early 1980s. The iAPX 432 was intended to directly support high-level languages that supported tagged, protected, garbage-collected memory—such as Ada and Lisp—in hardware. Because of its instruction-set complexity, its multi-chip implementation, and design flaws, the iAPX 432 was very slow in comparison to other processors of its time.

In 1984, Intel and Siemens started a joint project, ultimately called BiiN, to create a high-end, fault-tolerant, object-oriented computer system programmed entirely in Ada. Many of the original i432 team members joined this project, although a new lead architect, Glenford Myers, was brought in from IBM. The intended market for the BiiN systems was high-reliability-computer users such as banks, industrial systems, and nuclear power plants.

Intel's major contribution to the BiiN system was a new processor design, influenced by the protected-memory concepts from the i432. The new design was to include a number of features to improve performance and avoid problems that had led to the i432's downfall. The first 960 processors entered the final stages of design, known as taping-out, in October 1985 and were sent to manufacturing that month, with the first working chips arriving in late 1985 and early 1986.

The BiiN effort eventually failed, due to market forces, and the 960 was left without a use. Myers attempted to save the design by extracting several subsets of the full capability architecture created for the BiiN system. He tried to convince Intel management to market the i960 (then still known as the "P7") as a general-purpose processor, both in place of the Intel 80286 and i386 (which taped-out the same month as the first i960), as well as the emerging RISC market for Unix systems, including a pitch to Steve Jobs for use in the NeXT system. Myers was unsuccessful at convincing Intel management to support the i960 as a general-purpose or Unix processor, but the chip found a ready market in early high-performance 32-bit embedded systems.

The lead architect of i960 was superscalarity specialist Fred Pollack who was also the lead engineer of the Intel iAPX 432 and the lead architect of the i686 chip, the Pentium Pro.

Architecture
The i960 family features four distinct architectures, designed for upward binary compatibility:
 * Core architecture is a RISC-like core
 * Numerics architecture adds floating point
 * Protected architecture adds paged memory management, supervisor/user protection, string instructions, process scheduling, interprocess communication for the OS, and symmetric multiprocessing
 * Extended architecture adds object protection and interprocess communication for applications

In the initial release, the 80960KA supported the Core architecture, the 80960KB supported the Numerics architecture, the 80960MC supported the Protected architecture, and the 80960XA supported the Extended architecture.

To avoid the performance issues that plagued the i432, the central i960 instruction-set architecture was a RISC design. In the Extended architecture, the memory subsystem was 33-bits wide—to accommodate a 32-bit word and a "tag" bit to implement memory protection in hardware. In many ways, the i960 followed the original Berkeley RISC design, notably in its use of register windows, an implementation-specific number of caches for the per-subroutine registers that allowed for fast subroutine calls. The competing Stanford University design, MIPS, did not use this system, instead relying on the compiler to generate optimal subroutine call and return code. In common with most 32-bit designs, the i960 has a flat 32-bit memory space, with no memory segmentation, except for the Extended architecture, which could support up to 226 "objects", each up to 232 bytes in size. The i960 architecture also anticipated a superscalar implementation, with instructions being simultaneously dispatched to more than one unit within the processor.

80960MC
The i960MC included all of the features of the original BiiN system; but these were simply not mentioned in the specifications, leading some to wonder why the i960MC was so large and had so many pins - 53 out of 132 - labeled "no connect". Later iterations of the i960, like the 80960Jx series, have a more typical number of "do no connect" and use more power and ground pins and have additional I/O pins instead. However, these "no connect" pins are actually not connected internally and unrelated to the BiiN feature set - the silicon die inside does not have bond pads for them.

The 80960MC contains an on-chip memory management unit and supports fault tolerant systems in conjunction with Intel's M82965 Bus Extension Unit as well. Both chips meets MIL-STD-883C standard. Both chips became available in the first quarter of 1989 with the price of US$2400 and US$1700 respectively. Extended temperature samples became available in August 1988 as well.

It contains 32 32-bit registers, a 512 byte instruction cache, a stack frame cache, a high speed 32-bit multiplexed burst bus, and an interrupt controller. It also has 256 interrupt vectors and 32 levels of interrupt priority.

80960XA
The 80960XA is a military member of the i960 family, implementing the Extended architecture, a superset of the military 80960MC. It supports object-oriented programming with a 33rd tag bit in hardware, a Capability. It supports the Joint Industrial Avionics Working Group (JIAWG) 32-bit ISA standard.

80960KA, 80960KB
A version of the RISC core without memory management or an FPU became the i960KA, and the RISC core with an FPU became the i960KB. The versions were, however, identical internally—only the labeling was different. This meant the CPUs were much larger than necessary for the "actually supported" feature sets, and as a result, more expensive to manufacture than they needed to be.

These processors contain more than 350,000 transistors. These processors can perform around 7.5 VAX MIPS. The 80960KB version is compatible with IEEE 754 standard and can perform up to 4 MegaWhetstones Both processors are available in 16 and 20 MHz using CHMOS-III technology. Both processors are packaged in 132-PGA. The 80960KA version is available for US$230 and the 80960KB version is available for US$390 in quantities of 100 respectively.

The i960KA became successful as a low-cost 32-bit processor for the laser-printer market, as well as for early graphics terminals and other embedded applications. Its success paid for future generations, which were without the complex memory sub-system.

80960CA, 80960CF
The i960CA was announced in July 1989. It featured a newly designed superscalar RISC core and added an unusual addressable on-chip cache, but lacked an FPU and MMU, as it was intended for high-performance embedded applications. The i960CA is widely considered to have been the first single-chip superscalar RISC implementation. The C-series included only one ALU, but could dispatch and execute an arithmetic instruction, a memory reference, and a branch instruction at the same time, and sustain two instructions per cycle under certain circumstances. The first versions released ran at 33 MHz, and Intel promoted the chip as capable of 66 MIPS. The i960CA microarchitecture was designed in 1987–1988 and formally announced on September 12, 1989.

Later, in May 1992, came the i960CF, which included a larger instruction cache (4 KB instead of 1 KB) and added 1 KB of data cache, but was still without an FPU or MMU.

80960MX
The 80960MX is a superscalar implementation of the Extended architecture, executing up to three instructions per clock execution for sustained performance of 25 VAX MIPS. It implemented the Joint Industrial Avionics Working Group (JIAWG) 32-bit ISA standard. It was originally packaged in a 348 lead ceramic pin grid array and later supplied as a bare die. The i960 MX supports object-oriented programming. A 33rd tag bit distinguished between a 32-bit data word and a 32-bit pointer to memory. This prohibited forged pointers to protected areas of memory.

80960Jx
The 80960Jx is a processor for embedded applications. It features a 32-bit multiplexed address/data bus, instruction and data cache, 1K on-chip RAM, interrupt controller, and two independent 32-bit timers. The 80960Jx's testability features included ONCE (on-circuit emulation) mode and boundary scan (JTAG).

80960HA, 80960HD, 80960HT
The 80960Hx processors offered upgraded performance from the Cx variants by offering clock multiplication, larger 16K instruction cache and 4k data cache, and a GMU. (Guarded Memory Unit). The HD variant had an internal 2× clock multiplication while the HT version has a 3x clock multiplication, allowing increased performance without external bus speed changes.

80960VH
Announced in October 1998, the i960VH Embedded-PCI processor featured a 32-bit 33 MHz PCI bus and 100 MHz i960JT processor core. The core also featured 16 KB of instruction cache, 4 KB of data cache, and 1 KB of built-in RAM. Other core features included two 32-bit timers, programmable interrupt controller, I²C interface, and a two-channel DMA controller.

80960Rx
The 80960Rx processors were labeled as I/O Processors and included an implementation of the PCI Bus (2.1 or 2.2 depending on the variant) as well as a 80960Jx core. These could be used on motherboards to implement on-board PCI device as well as on PCI expansion cards. The RM/RN/RS variants used a JT core with a 3x bus to core multiplication to achieve 100 MHz internal clock speeds, while the RD variant used a JF core with 2× multiplication to achieve 66 MHz. The RP variant had a JF core that ran at the 33 MHz bus speed.

End of development
Intel attempted to bolster the i960 in the I/O device controller market with the I2O standard, but this had little success and the design work was eventually ended. By the mid-1990s its price/performance ratio had fallen behind competing chips of more recent design, and Intel never produced a reduced-power-consumption version that could be used in battery-powered systems.

In 1990, the i960 team was redirected to be the "second team" working in parallel on future i386 implementations—specifically the P6 processor, which later became the Pentium Pro. The i960 project was given to another smaller development team, essentially ensuring the end of its developmental life.

Current status
Some i960 I/O processors, such as the 80303, include a built-in hardware XOR engine for RAID algorithms. They are used as controllers for higher-end, RAID-capable, SCSI-disk-array, host-adapter cards as well as Digital Equipment/Compaq/HP's high-end SCSI and DSSI, and eventually Fibre Channel HSx-series, standalone RAID controllers.

An i960RS chip also powers Adaptec's AAR-2400A controller, which uses four commodity parallel ATA drives to build an affordable RAID-5 protected fault-tolerant storage system for small PC servers and workstations.

The i960 was also used in some Brocade Fibre Channel switches to run Fabric OS.

The i960 architecture is also used in slot machines. Currently, they are found in IGT's Stepper S2000 family and i960 video family. It was also used as the main CPU of Sega's famous Model 2 series of arcade boards.

The Indian Air Force's HAL Tejas light combat aircraft's MMR (multi-mode radar) is said to use the i960. The HAL Tejas was introduced into service in 2015.

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is said to use the chip in its on-board computers in its launch vehicles.

The i960 processor is also used in Automatic Radar Plotting Aid (ARPA) interfacing boards in radars from Kelvin Hughes.

The chip was used on some HP X-Terminals.

Some SATA RAID controllers use Intel's 80303 IOP (Intelligent I/O Processor), which integrates a PCI-to-PCI bridge, memory controller, and a 80960JT-100 CPU core.

The chip was used on the Alcatel-Lucent 1000 ADSL broadband modem.

title: Intel i960


text:
Levantine

Levantine may refer to:

 * Anything pertaining to the Levant, the region centered around modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Jordan, including any person from the Levant
 * Syria (region), corresponding to the modern countries of the Levant
 * Levantine Sea, the easternmost part of the Mediterranean
 * Levantines (also Latin-Levantines, Franco-Levantines, Italian Levantines), Members of the Latin Church in the Middle East:
 * Levantine Arabic, a variety of Arabic
 * Levantine cuisine, the cuisine of the Levant
 * Levantine Cultural Center, subsequently The Markaz, a cultural center in Los Angeles, California
 * Batavia (cloth), also called "Levantine", a type of cloth originally produced in the Levant.

title: Levantine


text:
Cryogenian

The Cryogenian (from κρύος, meaning "cold" and γένεσις, romanized: génesis, meaning "birth") is a geologic period that lasted from. It forms the second geologic period of the Neoproterozoic Era, preceded by the Tonian Period and followed by the Ediacaran.

The Cryogenian was a time of drastic biosphere changes. After the previous Boring Billion years of stability, at the beginning of Cryogenian the severe Sturtian glaciation began, freezing the entire planet in a state known as a snowball Earth. After 70 million years it ended, but was quickly followed by the global Marinoan glaciation. There is controversy over whether these glaciations covered the entire planet, or if a band of open sea survived near the equator (slushball Earth).

Ratification
The Cryogenian Period was ratified in 1990 by the International Commission on Stratigraphy. In contrast to most other time periods, the beginning of the Cryogenian is not linked to a globally observable and documented event. Instead, the base of the period is defined by a fixed rock age, that was originally set at 850 million years, but changed in 2015 to 720 million years.

This could cause ambiguity because estimates of rock age are subject to variable interpretation and laboratory error. For instance, the time scale of the Cambrian Period is not reckoned by rock younger than a given age ( million years), but by the appearance of the worldwide Treptichnus pedum diagnostic trace fossil assemblages, which can be recognized in the field without extensive lab testing.

Currently, there is no consensus on what global event is a suitable candidate to mark the start of the Cryogenian Period, but a global glaciation would be a likely candidate.

Climate
The name of the geologic period refers to the very cold global climate of the Cryogenian.

Characteristic glacial deposits indicate that Earth suffered the most severe ice ages in its history during this period (Sturtian and Marinoan). According to Eyles and Young, "Late Proterozoic glaciogenic deposits are known from all the continents. They provide evidence of the most widespread and long-ranging glaciation on Earth." Several glacial periods are evident, interspersed with periods of relatively warm climate, with glaciers reaching sea level in low paleolatitudes.

Glaciers extended and contracted in a series of rhythmic pulses, possibly reaching as far as the equator.

The Cryogenian is generally considered to be divisible into at least two major worldwide glaciations. The Sturtian glaciation persisted from 720 to 660 million years ago, and the Marinoan glaciation which ended approximately 635 Ma, at the end of the Cryogenian. The deposits of glacial tillite also occur in places that were at low latitudes during the Cryogenian, a phenomenon which led to the hypothesis of deeply frozen planetary oceans called "Snowball Earth". Between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations was a so-called "Cryogenian interglacial period" marked by relatively warm climate and anoxic oceans, along with marine transgression.

Paleogeography
Before the start of the Cryogenian, around 750 Ma, the cratons that made up the supercontinent Rodinia started to rift apart. The superocean Mirovia began to close while the superocean Panthalassa began to form. The cratons (possibly) later assembled into another supercontinent called Pannotia, in the Ediacaran.

Eyles and Young state, "Most Neoproterozoic glacial deposits accumulated as glacially influenced marine strata along rifted continental margins or interiors." Worldwide deposition of dolomite might have reduced atmospheric carbon dioxide. The break up along the margins of Laurentia at about 750 Ma occurs at about the same time as the deposition of the Rapitan Group in North America, contemporaneously with the Sturtian in Australia. A similar period of rifting at about 650 Ma occurred with the deposition of the Ice Brook Formation in North America, contemporaneously with the Marinoan in Australia. The Sturtian and Marinoan are local divisions within the Adelaide Rift Complex.

Cryogenian biota and fossils
Between the Sturtian and Marinoan glaciations, global biodiversity was very low.

Fossils of testate amoeba (or Arcellinida) first appear during the Cryogenian Period. Since 2009, some researchers have argued that during the Cryogenian Period, potentially the oldest known fossils of sponges, and therefore animals, were formed. However, it is unclear whether these fossils actually belong to sponges, though the authors do not rule out the possibility of such fossils to represent proto-sponges or complex microbial precursors to sponge-grade organisms. The issue of whether or not biology was impacted by this event has not been settled, for example Porter (2000) suggests that new groups of life evolved during this period, including the red algae and green algae, stramenopiles, ciliates, dinoflagellates, and testate amoeba.

The end of the period also saw the origin of heterotrophic plankton, which would feed on unicellular algae and prokaryotes, ending the bacterial dominance of the oceans. The unicellular algae (Archaeplastida) went through a big bang of diversification, and their population went up by a factor of a hundred to a thousand.

title: Cryogenian


text:
46P/Wirtanen

46P/Wirtanen is a small short-period comet with a current orbital period of 5.4 years. It was the original target for close investigation by the Rosetta spacecraft, planned by the European Space Agency, but an inability to meet the launch window caused Rosetta to be sent to 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko instead. It belongs to the Jupiter family of comets, all of which have aphelia between 5 and 6 AU. Its diameter is estimated at 1.4 km. In December 2019, astronomers reported capturing an outburst of the comet in substantial detail by the TESS space telescope.

Discovery
46P/Wirtanen was discovered photographically on January 17, 1948, by the American astronomer Carl A. Wirtanen. The plate was exposed on January 15 during a stellar proper motion survey for the Lick Observatory. Due to a limited number of initial observations, it took more than a year to recognize this object as a short-period comet.

Perihelion passages
The July 2013 perihelion passage was not favorable, only reaching a magnitude of 14.7. Between January 23 and September 26 of 2013, the comet had an elongation less than 20 degrees from the Sun.

On 16 December 2018 the comet passed 0.07746 AU from Earth, marking one of the 10 closest comet flybys of Earth in 70 years. The comet reached an estimated magnitude of 3.9, making this pass the brightest one predicted, and the brightest close approach for the next 20 years. The comet experienced six outbursts, with the comet brightening by −0.2 to −1.6 magnitudes.

The 2018 close approach, combined with Wirtanen's brightness provides an opportunity to study a potential future spacecraft mission target in detail. A worldwide observing campaign was organized to capitalize on the favorable circumstances of the 2018 apparition.

Exploration proposals

The comet was the target for the proposed Comet Hopper mission, which reached the finalist stage in the NASA Discovery program. It was one of only three missions in that selection to have a more detailed study. The selection process was ultimately won in 2012 by the InSight mission, a Mars lander. The Comet Hopper was designed to use the ASRG, the Advanced Stirling Radioisotope Generator.

The Comet Hopper mission, if it were selected, would have had multiple science goals over the 7.3 years of its nominal lifetime. At roughly 4.5 AU the spacecraft would rendezvous with Comet Wirtanen and begin to map the spatial heterogeneity of surface solids as well as gas and dust emissions from the coma - the nebulous envelope around the nucleus of a comet. The remote mapping would also allow for any nucleus structure, geologic processes, and coma mechanisms to be determined. After arriving at the comet, the spacecraft would approach and land, then subsequently hop to other locations on the comet. As the comet approached the Sun, the spacecraft would land and hop multiple times. The final landing would occur at 1.5 AU. As the comet approached the Sun and became more active, the spacecraft would be able to record surface changes.

Also, 46P/Wirtanen was the original destination of the European Space Agency's Rosetta spacecraft mission, but launch delays meant that the comet was no longer easily reachable and another periodic comet, 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, was chosen as the mission's target instead.

2023
Close approaches to Jupiter in 1972 and 1984 moved the comet's orbit closer to Earth, and as of epoch 2018 the comet has an Earth–MOID of 0.071 AU. In 2023 Earth passed through a denser part of the 1974 meteoroid stream than Earth did in 2007. As a result a shower with radiant in the southern constellation of Sculptor was observed with a zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) of $1.4 km$ and was given the name λ-Sculptorids. The meteors made atmospheric entry (Ve) at a relatively slow 15 km/s and as a result the mean mass of the meteoroids observed was about 0.5 grams, about 10 times higher than that of other meteor showers.

2012
Russian forecaster Mikhail Maslov had predicted that the Earth's orbit would cross Comet Wirtanen's debris stream as many as four times between December 10 and December 14, 2012. As there had not previously been an encounter with this debris stream, it was not certain whether or not a meteor shower would be visible from Earth, but there was speculation that a shower with as many as 30 meteors per hour might occur.

Observers in Australia reported that on the night of December 14, 2012, as many as a dozen meteors were seen emanating from the predicted radiant in the constellation of Pisces.

title: 46P/Wirtanen


text:
Grammy Award for Best Traditional Gospel Album

The Grammy Award for Best Traditional Gospel Album was awarded from 1991 to 2011. A similar award, the Grammy Award for Best Soul Gospel Performance, Traditional was awarded from 1978 to 1983. It was previously known as the award Best Traditional Soul Gospel Album.

According to the category description guide for the 52nd Grammy Awards, the award is reserved for "albums containing at least 51% playing time of newly recorded traditional gospel vocal tracks" performed by "solo artists, duos, groups or choirs/choruses."

The category was discontinued from 2012 in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. From 2012, recordings in this category were shifted to the newly formed Best Gospel Album category.

Shirley Caesar and The Blind Boys of Alabama were the biggest recipients in this category with five wins each.

Recipients
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year. undefined Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.


text:
Grammy Award for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album

The Grammy Award for Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album was awarded from 1991 to 2011. From 1991 to 1993 it was awarded as Best Pop Gospel Album. According to the category description guide for the 52nd Grammy Awards, the award is reserved "For albums containing at least 51% playing time of newly recorded pop/contemporary gospel vocal tracks."

The award was discontinued in 2012 in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. From 2012, recordings in this category were shifted to the newly formed Best Contemporary Christian Music Album category.

Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.

Recipients
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year. undefined Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.


text:
Grammy Award for Best Rock Gospel Album

The Grammy Award for Best Rock Gospel Album was awarded from 1991 to 2011. From 1991 to 1993 the category was awarded as Best Rock/Contemporary Gospel Album. From 2007 to 2011 it was awarded as Best Rock or Rap Gospel Album.

The award was discontinued from 2012 in a major overhaul of Grammy categories. From 2012, recordings in this category were shifted to either Best Contemporary Christian Music Album or Best Gospel Album categories.

Recipients
undefined Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.

title: Grammy Award for Best Rock Gospel Album


text:
Talk:List of rivers of Michigan

Old talk
This list was developed based on the USGS GNIS database with (so far) two changes - Black River of Allegan county is called the Black River Drain in the database and the St. Joseph of the Maumee does not appear to be in the database. Rmhermen 17:54, Feb 21, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm wondering just how complete this list of rivers needs to be. This list seems to include any "stream-like" body of water than has the word river in it, without regard to how large it actually is or how significant it is. I suspect that for many or perhaps even most of these, there will really be very little to say about them in an article (it starts here, flows though x and y, and ends there). -- I can feel my thoughts starting to go in two rather separate strands now--so I'll try to get to them both as concisely as I can.

 * 1) If we're not basing the list on size or significance, then why not include every item labeled as a "stream" in the GNIS? I mean, if we're after completeness, then why limit it to an arbitrary thing like whether it has the word river in it's name. Seems that we would have to do that unless we adopted some sort of threshold for listing--like flow rate or other historical significance. Of course the title would then have to be something like Waterways in Michigan.

 * 2) It seems that many of the smaller entities can be consolidated on single pages--in perhaps either of two ways. a) For example, all the Pine Rivers could be described on a page titled something like "Pine River, Michigan". Each would have a separate section. This would probably work best if all the Pine Rivers were relatively insignificant so all the sections would be about equal, or if at most one of them had a longer section and the others only had short descriptions. Or b) the minor rivers would be described on the pages of the rivers to which they are tributories. This might pose some difficulties for referencing them, as say a link to Gun River would have to point to the article on the Kalamazoo River into which it flows. But since these are minor rivers, there would presumably not be many such links.

 * One other thought and then I'll stop. Perhaps rather than have separate articles for every river, perhaps there should simply be some very basic information listed here for all of the rivers, like location of headwaters, and mouth and any counties traversed. Then those rivers for which there is something more to say can have links to articles about them. Otherwise the minor rivers would remain unlinked.

Bkonrad 03:05, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * If you wish please go ahead and make a list of Michigan waterways - I'll warn you, GNIS lists over 4,000 of them. This page is part of WikiProject Rivers where there is currently a debate about how to name articles on rivers. (To determine how difficult it would be was part of my reason for creating this page.) I favor a single pages for all Michigan Pine Rivers but the debate is ongoing. Rmhermen 19:05, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)

4000+ entries? heh, heh. I'll pass. I didn't really think that was a good idea--I was just wondering about coverage (minor streams called a "river" and most significant "streams" that may not be called a river). I think discussing all the rivers with the same name in one article is probably the best way to go. Bkonrad 19:14, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Tributary of vs. watershed
Either is correct so it isn't dreadfully important. Looking at a nuber of other state lists, about a third only had an alphabetical list, about a third used tributary and the last third used watershed. Minnesota used the phrase "watershed and tributary" or somthing similar and added government watershed codes, however without an article explaining them. I am not sure how they were found or if they would be useful. Rmhermen 15:32, 23 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I changed it to watershed based on the description at tributary. As described there, using the term to describe a tributary of a lake doesn't seem accurate, especially for such large bodies as the Great Lakes. It's really not such a big deal though, I just thought the use of the term should match the description in the linked article. older≠wiser 16:47, 23 November 2005 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia's definition is perhaps shallow. Certainly it is not the only definition in use. Most basically a tributary is a body of water which contributes water to another body of water. Google "definition tributary" for a wider range of defintions than Wikipedia shows. Rmhermen 16:51, 24 November 2005 (UTC)

Other waterways are listed when they have articles
I strongly suggest that "other waterways" (creeks, etc.) NOT be listed here, even if Wikipedia articles have been written about them. As defined in the introductory sentence, this is meant to be a list of Michigan streams designated as RIVERS. The inclusion of other types of streams is misleading and confusing to the reader. John Trapp (talk) 15:48, 21 July 2011 (UTC)
 * I have removed all creeks from the main alphabetical list. I didn't notice any other non-"river" waterways in that section. In the ordered list some creeks are necessary. Rmhermen (talk) 21:11, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
 * I couldn't disagree more with this deletion of content from the list, on the grounds that it perpetuates the misconception that there is some rhyme or reason to the nomenclature of creek vs. river in the U.S. (or anywhere), and that the application of the term "river" carries with it some inherent meaning relative to other streams that have been given different titles, by some quirk of history or local practice. It does not. Plaster Creek and numerous other creeks are, by any measure, larger than dozens of streams in Michigan carrying the name "river." If the name "river" conferred some inherently meaningful distinction, Plaster Creek would be the Plaster River and the White River would be White Creek. Nomenclature is not sufficient to make a distinction about inclusion here: the names were assigned more or less randomly, over a long period of time, by people who were neither in communication with one another nor working systematically to apply names coherently. This list is an entirely appropriate place for Plaster Creek and others like it. (And as an aside, this issue is the reason Creeks is not listed as a valid subject heading in Library of Congress Subject Headings; books about creeks are given the subject heading Rivers, and users searching for the subject term Creeks are directed to see Rivers instead.) --Malepheasant (talk) 22:57, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Seeing no response to this, I have restored the deleted entries. --Malepheasant (talk) 10:20, 16 July 2015 (UTC)
 * Wow. Four years wasn't enough time to consider it an agreement but three days is to disagree? The problem is that "rivers" is a small set that can be covered by a list article - there are 300 of them. All streams in Michigan cannot - there are over 4,000 (USGS GNIS cuts off at 2,000 but only gets to Kent County alphabetically so 2,000 must represent slightly less than half). Most of these will never have articles and the ones that do are a random assortment not related to the size or importance. A list of 4,000 is poorly navigable by any organization method. Rmhermen (talk) 17:30, 16 July 2015 (UTC)
 * I'm not saying (and didn't say) that I thought that every stream in the state should be included here. I'm saying that the presence or absence of the word "river" in the name is an arbitrary and meaningless criterion for inclusion or non-inclusion. Size and/or the availability of reliable sources supporting the creation of an article would be a more reasonable standard for inclusion on a list of physical features. (I'll add that the List of United States counties and county equivalents runs manageably to 3,000+ without applying an arbitrary exclusion of parishes and boroughs on the basis of their names.) --Malepheasant (talk) 18:19, 16 July 2015 (UTC)

Shiawassee River
The Shiawassee River is a National River in the State of Michigan, covering nearly 90 miles from Holly,MI up to Saginaw,MI -- https://scontent.fdet1-2.fna.fbcdn.net/v/t39.30808-6/432778767_7909647382396196_4037262387364377707_n.jpg?_nc_cat=102&ccb=1-7&_nc_sid=5f2048&_nc_ohc=DpEvLyKW6mEAX_4vF18&_nc_ht=scontent.fdet1-2.fna&oh=00_AfDFWjZv3M78lj4uTSc2tba2FleF67niAwxkEOjEn1gsgg&oe=65FF80EB 2601:410:8200:1174:D000:9B17:1F4B:E12C (talk) 00:14, 21 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of rivers of Michigan


text:
Sole

Sole may refer to:
 * Sole (foot), the bottom of the foot
 * Sole (shoe), the bottom supporting member of the shoe

Business

 * Sole proprietorship, a business which legally has no separate existence from its owner
 * Corporation sole, in English law, a legal entity consisting of a single person ("sole")
 * Sole Technology, an American footwear company specializing in skateboarding shoes

Fish

 * Sole (fish), one of several species and groups of flatfishes:
 * Soleidae, the family of the "true soles"
 * Solea solea, the common or Dover sole, used in European cooking
 * American sole, the family Achiridae
 * Tonguefish, or tongue sole, in the family Cynoglossidae
 * Several species of righteye flounder in the family Pleuronectidae:
 * Lemon sole
 * Microstomus pacificus (Pacific Dover sole)

People

 * Solé (surname), a French and Spanish surname
 * Sole (hip hop artist) (born 1977), hip-hop emcee and co-founder of the Anticon record label
 * Solé (born 1973), American rapper and former wife of R&B singer Ginuwine
 * Alfred Sole (1943–2022), American production designer, film director, producer, and writer
 * Anil Sole (born 1959), Indian politician
 * Catherine Sole (born 1978), South African entomologist
 * Chris Sole (born 1994), Scottish cricketer
 * Christian Sole (1896–1980), Norwegian politician
 * David Sole (born 1962), Scottish rugby union player
 * Fabio Sole (born 2001), English footballer
 * Jonathan Sole (born 1987), New Zealand cricketer
 * Josh Sole (born 1980), New Zealand born rugby union player
 * William Sole (1739–1802), British apothecary and botanist
 * Caro Soles, Canadian author
 * Henry Soles Jr. (1935–2018), American minister
 * Linden Soles (born 1956), Canadian journalist
 * Michael Soles (1966–2021), Canadian football player
 * P. J. Soles, American actress
 * Paul Soles (1930–2021), Canadian voice actor
 * R. C. Soles Jr. (1934–2021), American politician
 * Steven Soles, American musician

Other uses

 * Sole (currency), a 19th-century Argentine and Bolivian currency
 * European Liberal Social Democracy (Socialdemocrazia Liberale Europea), a defunct political party in Italy
 * Sole Bank, a sand bank in the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest of Cornwall, England, giving its name to the Sole sea area in the BBC shipping forecast
 * Sole (film), a 2019 Italian-Polish drama film
 * Sun (film) (Sole), a 1929 silent Italian film directed
 * Sole, the flat bottom part of plane that slides along the workpiece
 * Sole, a part of a tool such as a spokeshave

title: Sole


text:
Pure Data

Pure Data (Pd) is a visual programming language developed by Miller Puckette in the 1990s for creating interactive computer music and multimedia works. While Puckette is the main author of the program, Pd is an open-source project with a large developer base working on new extensions. It is released under BSD-3-Clause. It runs on Linux, MacOS, iOS, Android and Windows. Ports exist for FreeBSD and IRIX.

Pd is very similar in scope and design to Puckette's original Max program, developed while he was at IRCAM, and is to some degree interoperable with Max/MSP, the commercial predecessor to the Max language. They may be collectively discussed as members of the Patcher family of languages.

With the addition of the Graphics Environment for Multimedia (GEM) external, and externals designed to work with it (like Pure Data Packet / PiDiP for Linux, Mac OS X), framestein for Windows, GridFlow (as n-dimensional matrix processing, for Linux, Mac OS X, Windows), it is possible to create and manipulate video, OpenGL graphics, images, etc., in realtime with extensive possibilities for interactivity with audio, external sensors, etc.

Pd is natively designed to enable live collaboration across networks or the Internet, allowing musicians connected via LAN or even in disparate parts of the globe to create music together in real time. Pd uses FUDI as a networking protocol.

Similarities to Max
Pure Data and Max are both examples of dataflow programming languages. Dataflow languages model a program as a directed graph of the data flowing between operations. In Pure Data and Max, functions or "objects" are linked or "patched" together in a graphical environment which models the flow of the control and audio. Unlike the original version of Max, however, Pd was always designed to do control-rate and audio processing on the host central processing unit (CPU), rather than offloading the sound synthesis and signal processing to a digital signal processor (DSP) board (such as the Ariel ISPW which was used for Max/FTS). Pd code forms the basis of David Zicarelli's MSP extensions to the Max language to do software audio processing.

Like Max, Pd has a modular code base of externals or objects which are used as building blocks for programs written in the software. This makes the program arbitrarily extensible through a public API, and encourages developers to add their own control and audio routines in the C programming language, or with the help of other externals, in Python, Scheme, Lua, Tcl, and many others. However, Pd is also a programming language. Modular, reusable units of code written natively in Pd, called "patches" or "abstractions", are used as standalone programs and freely shared among the Pd user community, and no other programming skill is required to use Pd effectively.

Language features

Like Max, Pd is a dataflow programming language. As with most DSP software, there are two primary rates at which data is passed: sample (audio) rate, usually at 44,100 samples per second, and control rate, at 1 block per 64 samples. Control messages and audio signals generally flow from the top of the screen to the bottom between "objects" connected via inlets and outlets.

Pd supports four basic types of text entities: messages, objects, atoms, and comments. Atoms are the most basic unit of data in Pd, and they consist of either a float, a symbol, or a pointer to a data structure (in Pd, all numbers are stored as 32-bit floats). Messages are composed of one or more atoms and provide instructions to objects. A special type of message with null content called a bang is used to initiate events and push data into flow, much like pushing a button.

Pd's native objects range from the basic mathematical, logical, and bitwise operators found in every programming language to general and specialized audio-rate DSP functions (designated by a tilde (~) symbol), such as wavetable oscillators, the Fast Fourier transform (fft~), and a range of standard filters. Data can be loaded from file, read in from an audio board, MIDI, via Open Sound Control (OSC) through a FireWire, USB, or network connection, or generated on the fly, and stored in tables, which can then be read back and used as audio signals or control data.

Data structures
One of the key innovations in Pd over its predecessors has been the introduction of graphical data structures. These can be used in a large variety of ways, from composing musical scores, sequencing events, to creating visuals to accompany Pd patches or even extending Pd's GUI.

Living up to Pd's name, data structures enable Pd users to create arbitrarily complex static as well as dynamic or animated graphical representations of musical data. Much like C structs, Pd's structs are composed of any combination of floats, symbols, and array data that can be used as parameters to describe the visual appearance of the data structure or, conversely, to control messages and audio signals in a Pd patch. In Puckette's words:

"Pd is designed to offer an extremely unstructured environment for describing data structures and their graphical appearance. The underlying idea is to allow the user to display any kind of data he or she wants to, associating it in any way with the display. To accomplish this Pd introduces a graphical data structure, somewhat like a data structure out of the C programming language, but with a facility for attaching shapes and colors to the data, so that the user can visualize and/or edit it. The data itself can be edited from scratch or can be imported from files, generated algorithmically, or derived from analyses of incoming sounds or other data streams."

Language limitations
Though a powerful language, Pd has certain limitations in its implementation of object-oriented concepts. For example, it is very difficult to create massively parallel processes because instantiating and manipulating large lists of objects (spawning, etc.) is impossible due to a lack of a constructor function. Further, Pd arrays and other entities are susceptible to namespace collisions because passing the patch instance ID is an extra step and is sometimes difficult to accomplish.

Projects using Pure Data
Pure Data has been used as the basis of a number of projects, as a prototyping language and a sound engine. The table interface called the Reactable and the abandoned iPhone app RjDj both embed Pd as a sound engine.

Pd has been used for prototyping audio for video games by a number of audio designers. For example, EAPd is the internal version of Pd that is used at Electronic Arts (EA). It has also been embedded into EA Spore.

Pd has also been used for networked performance, in the Networked Resources for Collaborative Improvisation (NRCI) Library.

Code examples

 * 1) The first patch prints "hello world" to the display.
 * 2) The second patch applies reverberation to the incoming signal from channel 1, then emits it on channels 1 and 2.
 * 3) The last, more complex patch filters white noise at 9000 Hz (with a Q of 20), then fades it in and out each second over the course of a half second. In Pd, time is measured in milliseconds, thus the '1000' is one second and the '500' is a half second.

title: Pure Data


text:
Register window

In computer engineering, register windows are a feature which dedicates registers to a subroutine by dynamically aliasing a subset of internal registers to fixed, programmer-visible registers. Register windows are implemented to improve the performance of a processor by reducing the number of stack operations required for function calls and returns. One of the most influential features of the Berkeley RISC design, they were later implemented in instruction set architectures such as AMD Am29000, Intel i960, Sun Microsystems SPARC, and Intel Itanium.

General operation
Several sets of registers are provided for the different parts of the program. Registers are deliberately hidden from the programmer to force several subroutines to share processor resources.

Rendering the registers invisible can be implemented efficiently; the CPU recognizes the movement from one part of the program to another during a procedure call. It is accomplished by one of a small number of instructions (prologue) and ends with one of a similarly small set (epilogue). In the Berkeley design, these calls would cause a new set of registers to be "swapped in" at that point, or marked as "dead" (or "reusable") when the call ends.

Application in CPUs
In the Berkeley RISC design, only eight registers out of a total of 64 are visible to the programs. The complete set of registers are known as the register file, and any particular set of eight as a window. The file allows up to eight procedure calls to have their own register sets. As long as the program does not call down chains longer than eight calls deep, the registers never have to be spilled, i.e. saved out to main memory or cache which is a slow process compared to register access.

By comparison, the Sun Microsystems SPARC architecture provides simultaneous visibility into four sets of eight registers each. Three sets of eight registers each are "windowed". Eight registers (i0 through i7) form the input registers to the current procedure level. Eight registers (L0 through L7) are local to the current procedure level, and eight registers (o0 through o7) are the outputs from the current procedure level to the next level called. When a procedure is called, the register window shifts by sixteen registers, hiding the old input registers and old local registers and making the old output registers the new input registers. The common registers (old output registers and new input registers) are used for parameter passing. Finally, eight registers (g0 through g7) are globally visible to all procedure levels.

The AMD 29000 improved the design by allowing the windows to be of variable size, which helps utilization in the common case where fewer than eight registers are needed for a call. It also separated the registers into a global set of 64, and an additional 128 for the windows. Similarly, the IA-64 (Itanium) architecture used variable-sized windows, with 32 global registers and 96 for the windows.

In the Infineon C166 architecture, most registers are simply locations in internal RAM which have the additional property of being accessible as registers. Of these, the addresses of the 16 general-purpose registers (R0-R15) are not fixed. Instead, the R0 register is located at the address pointed to by the "Context Pointer" (CP) register, and the remaining 15 registers follow sequentially thereafter.

Register windows also provide an easy upgrade path. Since the additional registers are invisible to the programs, additional windows can be added at any time. For instance, the use of object-oriented programming often results in a greater number of "smaller" calls, which can be accommodated by increasing the windows from eight to sixteen for instance. This was the approach used in the SPARC, which has included more register windows with newer generations of the architecture. The end result is fewer slow register window spill and fill operations because the register windows overflow less often.

Criticism
Register windows are not the only way to improve register performance. The group at Stanford University designing the MIPS saw the Berkeley work and decided that the problem was not a shortage of registers, but poor utilization of the existing ones. They instead invested more time in their compiler's register allocation, making sure it wisely used the larger set available in MIPS. This resulted in reduced complexity of the chip, with one half the total number of registers, while offering potentially higher performance in those cases where a single procedure could make use of the larger visible register space. In the end, with modern compilers, MIPS makes better use of its register space even during procedure calls.

title: Register window


text:
Snake River (disambiguation)

The Snake River is a major river of the greater Pacific Northwest region in the United States.

Snake River may also refer to:

Canada

 * Snake River (Sahtaneh River tributary), British Columbia
 * Snake River (Renfrew County), Ontario
 * Snake River (Yukon)

United States

 * Snake River (Nome, Alaska)
 * Snake River (Nushagak Bay), Alaska
 * Snake River (Colorado)
 * Snake River (Massachusetts)
 * Snake River (Michigan)
 * Snake River (Elk River), Minnesota
 * Snake River (Isabella River tributary), Minnesota
 * Snake River (Red River of the North tributary), Minnesota
 * Snake River (St. Croix River tributary), Minnesota
 * Snake River (Nebraska)

Other uses

 * Snake River High School, near Blackfoot, Idaho, U.S.

title: Snake River (disambiguation)