text:
Christopher Moltisanti

Christopher Moltisanti, portrayed by Michael Imperioli, is a fictional character of the HBO TV series The Sopranos. He is Tony Soprano's protégé and a member of the DiMeo crime family, rising from associate to captain over the course of the series.

In the TV series, Tony Soprano has been a father figure to Christopher since the death of his father, Dickie Moltisanti. Tony affectionately refers to Christopher as his "nephew," but he is actually a first cousin once removed of Tony's wife Carmela (Carmela's father Hugh and Chris's grandmother Lena were brother and sister). Tony and Christopher knew each other before Tony met Carmela because their fathers were both involved in the Mafia and because they are both cousins, through unrelated sides, to Tony Blundetto; Christopher's girlfriend Adriana La Cerva also believes that Tony and Christopher are distantly related through Christopher's mother.

The character, Christopher, is a volatile, impulsive, and unpredictable young man, frustrated by his perceived lack of progress in the Mafia business. His violent behavior often causes friction between him and the rest of the North Jersey Mafia, which is especially troublesome for Tony Soprano, who attempts to guide Christopher towards becoming a major leader in the business. Throughout the series, Christopher struggles with substance abuse, which further complicates his relationship with the Mafia, especially when other Mafia members ostracize Christopher when he attempts to stay sober.

In Season 1, Christopher oversteps his authority when he hijacks trucks under the protection of captain Junior Soprano. To teach him a lesson, Junior orders his mock execution. In the second season, Chris is shot by his subordinates Matthew Bevilaqua and Sean Gismonte but survives. Tony trusts Christopher with sensitive tasks, such as disposing of the bodies of murdered captains Richie Aprile and Ralph Cifaretto and arranging the assassination of New York boss Carmine Lupertazzi. In the third season, Chris finally becomes a made man. This leads to friction with Paulie Gualtieri, culminating in the Pine Barrens incident and although they make an uneasy truce, they clash again on several occasions. By the sixth season, Christopher is promoted to the role of captain, and Tony tells him that he will lead the family into the 21st century.

Christopher's character has a tumultuous and abusive relationship with Adriana, his long-term girlfriend, who becomes his fiancée. When Chris becomes enraged about rumors that Adriana and Tony are having an affair, he pulls a gun on Tony, who is ready to kill him for doing so. He is spared only after Tony Blundetto intercedes for him. In the fifth season, Chris learns that Adriana has been working as an informant for the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation and that she wants him to go into the Witness Protection Program with her. Valuing loyalty over love, Christopher reports Adriana's actions to Tony, who has Silvio Dante kill her. Christopher then marries his new girlfriend, Kelli Lombardo, and they have a daughter, Caitlyn. But his interest in his new wife soon wanes. He grows disillusioned with Tony and frustrated with his progress in the Soprano family, and distances himself from the business by making a film and trying to become a Hollywood screenwriter. While the movie is a modest success, Chris grows irritated with his business partner J.T. Dolan and eventually ends up murdering him when Dolan refuses to listen to details of the murders he had witnessed previously.

Because of his substance abuse, Christopher spends significant amounts of time at AA meetings and rehabilitation centers. Despite wanting Christopher to succeed, Tony doubts his "nephew"'s loyalty and suitability to be his successor, and he fears that Christopher's immaturity and frequent drug problems make him a ripe target to turn state's evidence. Christopher's efforts to stay clean of drugs and alcohol cause him to spend less time at their regular haunts, further arousing Tony's suspicions. Christopher causes a car crash as he is driving Tony home while high. After seeing that Caitlyn's baby seat has been completely destroyed in the accident and knowing she would have been killed if she were in the car, Tony has finally had enough and suffocates the badly injured Chris, finally ridding himself of his troublesome "nephew".

Biography
Christopher Moltisanti was born in 1969 to Richard "Dickie" Moltisanti, a soldier in the DiMeo crime family, and Joanne Blundetto. In the episode "Cold Cuts" it is revealed that Chris grew up in the Rochelle Park section of Paramus, New Jersey next to the Westfield Garden State Plaza. When talking about his childhood with his cousin Tony Blundetto he describes himself as an urban youth, something Blundetto disagrees with.

When discussing making a biographical movie of Joe Gallo with Jon Favreau, Moltisanti mentions that he vaguely remembered Gallo being murdered in 1972, as he was only a kid (3 years old). Dickie is killed when Chris is very young. Tony Soprano affectionately considers Christopher a "nephew," and looks out for him over the years. He is a fan of the television show Cops. Moltisanti is a roommate of Brendan Filone before his murder and engaged to Adriana La Cerva before her murder. Chris is a cousin once removed of Tony's wife Carmela, making him a second cousin to her children.

Season one
Christopher begins the series as Tony's driver and enforcer and is eager to rise through the ranks in the Mafia. He "makes his bones" by killing Emil Kolar in order to settle a dispute with the DiMeo crime family over the Triborough Towers garbage routes. He initially plans to place the body in a Kolar Bros. dumpster to send a warning, but Salvatore "Big Pussy" Bonpensiero convinces him to put it elsewhere as it would bring less heat to the crew. The murder haunts Chris' dreams, and he twice has to dig up and move Kolar's corpse.

Chris aids Brendan in hijacking Comley trucks, which are under Junior Soprano's protection. The two are ordered to pay $15,000 in restitution to Junior and leave the trucks alone. Chris and Brendan plan another heist while high on methamphetamine, but Chris backs down at the last minute out of loyalty to Tony. Brendan and two others go through with the heist, which ends in the accidental death of the driver.

Chris is reprimanded by Tony for not using his leadership to stop Brendan. Junior, angered that his authority was flouted, stages a mock execution for Chris in the New Jersey Meadowlands. Brendan is shot in the eye by Mikey Palmice. Christopher later avenges Brendan's death as part of Tony's revenge against Junior, when he and Paulie ambush and murder Mikey out in the woods.

Season two
Chris is put in charge of the family's pump and dump scam, with Matthew Bevilaqua and Sean Gismonte serving as his subordinates. Eventually, Bevilaqua and Gismonte decide to murder him to gain favor with Richie Aprile. The pair ambush Chris outside a diner and badly wound him, but he manages to kill Gismonte as Bevilaqua flees the scene. When Chris recovers from a coma, his spleen is removed and goes through a traumatic recovery process, having been clinically dead for about a minute.

Bevilaqua is eventually tracked down and executed by Tony and Big Pussy. Chris tells the crew that during his coma, he had seen himself in either hell or purgatory and warned them that Brendan and Mikey told him that three o'clock would be a significant time in their future.

Shortly before the shooting, Chris and Adriana had gotten into a fight causing Adriana to move in with her mother. Chris gets her back by proposing to her, against her mother's advice. Despite this, the two don't get married.

Following Richie's death at the hands of Janice, Tony calls Chris and Furio Giunta to dispose of his body. They use Satriale's bandsaw and processing room to dismember the corpse. At Meadow Soprano's graduation, Tony proposes to let Chris be made.

Season three
During Chris' initiation ceremony, in "Fortunate Son", he notices a raven on the windowsill and takes this as a bad omen. As the family's newest member, he inherits a betting shop from his capo, Paulie Gualtieri and is charged with paying minimum weekly dues to him. There is friction when Chris has difficulty making payments to Paulie, who subsequently humiliates him. After the Pine Barrens incident, they agreed to bury the hatchet. Elsewhere, Chris opens the Crazy Horse Nightclub in Long Branch with Furio as a partner and Adriana as the front operator.

Chris is present when Jackie Aprile, Jr. and his friends try to rob a card game run by Eugene Pontecorvo. Chris and acting capo Albert Barese fire back, killing Jackie Jr.'s friend Dino Zerilli as he tries to escape. Chris, jealous and resentful of Jackie Jr. as a rival for Tony's favor, expresses his intent to kill Jackie Jr. as retaliation for the heist, which Tony denies. This causes Chris to question Tony's leadership, calling him a hypocrite for not enforcing established rules of the mob protecting made men, which enrages Tony.

Eventually, Vito Spatafore carries out a contract killing on Jackie Jr. in the Boonton Projects, shooting him in the back of the head, on the orders of Ralph Cifaretto and Tony. At Jackie Jr.'s funeral, Chris is arrested on a gambling charge along with Patsy Parisi and Silvio Dante.

Season four
To protect himself from prosecution, Tony makes Chris the main contact in criminal dealings. He then bonds his nephew to him by having him murder the recently retired Lieutenant Detective Barry Haydu, after telling Chris that Haydu had murdered his father. Christopher confronts Haydu at his home and Haydu denies having heard of Dickie Moltisanti and claimed that someone was "obviously" setting him up. However, he inadvertently admitted knowing Dickie Moltisanti by stating "Look, whoever told you I had anything to do with his death is lying!", before Christopher ever mentioned Dickie's death, whom Haydu supposedly did not even know.

Haydu's last words before he is killed by Christopher are "I'm sorry!" indicating that he was likely responsible. In "No Show", Chris is made acting capo of Paulie's crew while Paulie is imprisoned on a gun charge, being awarded a no-show job at the Esplanade construction site. His promotion irks Patsy, who has seniority. The two come to blows over Patsy's continued theft from the construction site, despite orders from Tony. Silvio was actually the guiding force behind Patsy's actions, as he was also jealous of Chris' promotion.

Chris' drug use spirals out of control following his temporary promotion. When Tony calls upon him to dispose of Ralph Cifaretto's body, he realizes that Chris is high on heroin. Although they successfully hide the body, Tony decides his nephew needs help. Later, Chris is carjacked by a Puerto Rican gang while trying to buy heroin. When Chris physically abuses Adriana, Tony organizes an intervention. However, the meeting ends badly when it is revealed that Chris had accidentally killed Adriana's dog by sitting on it when high. Tony, whose beloved racehorse was killed in a fire set by Ralph, becomes very angry. He insists Chris go into rehab and assigns Patsy to guard him.

Following Chris' successful rehabilitation, Tony entrusts him with the planned hit on Carmine Lupertazzi; Chris contracts the job out to Credenzo Curtis and Stanley Johnson, Black gang members and drug dealers who he had known from his period of heroin abuse. When the job is called off and Tony urges him to make sure it can't be traced to them, Chris has Benny Fazio and Peter "Bissell" LaRosa shoot Curtis and Johnson to death while he waits in his car watching over the hit. Fazio and La Rosa steal back the money Chris had given Curtis and Johnson, which they believed was payment for the hit they were tasked with.

Season five
Chris and Paulie are put in charge of a cigarette smuggling operation. While Chris is traveling to North Carolina to pick up cigarettes, Tony and Adriana are involved in a car accident. Rumors begin to spread that the crash was caused by Adriana performing oral sex on Tony. Chris finds out, gets drunk, starts a fight with Vito, and pulls a gun on Tony in the Bada Bing. Tony is prepared to kill Chris, but their cousin Tony Blundetto steps in and saves his life. Tony B. arranges a meeting with the doctor who treated Tony and Adriana, who explains that both passengers were upright and had their seat belts fastened when it occurred. Chris reconciles with Vito and Tony.

Chris later travels to his uncle Pat Blundetto's farm alongside Tony and Tony B. They help Pat move bodies hidden on the farm as Pat is planning to move away. While there, Chris recalls being bullied by the two Tonys, and they exhibit such behavior by ribbing him over his addiction problems.

Throughout this time, Chris maintains a turbulent and sometimes violent relationship with Adriana. He indulged her aspirations for a career in music by allowing her to produce a demo and later giving her a club to run. They became engaged before he is sent to rehab. However, after he learns that Adriana has reluctantly provided information to the FBI, he turns to Tony rather than accept her plea to join her in witness protection. Tony sends Silvio Dante to meet with Adriana, purportedly to drive to the hospital to visit Chris, but in reality, he executes her in the woods. Chris relapses into heroin use and weeps to Tony out of grief for Adriana.

Part one
Chris is promoted to capo, in keeping with Tony's long-term plan to raise his nephew through the ranks until he eventually is appointed boss. He uses Chris to organize a sensitive hit on Rusty Millio. Chris initially questions Tony's decision to contract the job out to their friends in Naples, but later decides it was a smart move. He uses his Italian-speaking associate Corky Caporale to communicate with hitmen and provide them with weapons and instructions while paying him off with heroin. Chris' readiness for the responsibility of leading his own crew is unclear as he is distracted by a potential career in Hollywood, relapses into drug use, and displays unresolved feelings over his murdered fiancee.

Chris' crew get involved in a credit card fraud scam; his AA sponsor James "Murmur" Zancone and Benny Fazio take numbers from local businesses and sell them on to associates Ahmed and Muhammad. He wonders about whether these men have links to terrorism. The use of numbers from Nuovo Vesuvio leads to a violent dispute between Benny and Tony's friend Artie Bucco. Tony blames Chris' trip to Los Angeles for the dispute not being settled quickly.

Chris marries Kelli Lombardo after learning that she is pregnant with his child. He has a belated bachelor party with the Soprano crime family at Nuovo Vesuvio, where "Larry Boy" Barese makes a toast to his future. However, when he later delivers Corky's final payment, including more heroin, he cannot resist when he watches his friend inject the drug. He spends the night at the Feast of St. Elzear festival with a stray dog.

Chris takes a road trip to Pennsylvania with Tony just before the feast. On their way home, they spot some bikers robbing a strip mall and take part of the haul for themselves. This leads to a firefight in which Chris shoots one of the bikers as Tony drives away. Later, the two get drunk on the wine they had stolen, and Chris recalls telling Tony of Adriana's treachery. The two express their love for and loyalty to each other, though when the two later try to recreate their camaraderie sober, it falls flat and ends in awkward silence. Months later, Chris is back in AA meetings.

Part two
Chris premieres his film Cleaver at a private screening with other Soprano associates, looking to have it distributed nationwide. He also tries to distance himself from the criminal lifestyle and stays away from the Bada Bing. When Tony begins grooming Bobby Bacala for the position Chris once held, it is clear that their relationship has cooled. Given Chris' resentment towards Tony about Adriana's death, and his continued desire to enter the film business, the two continue to drift apart.

When he relapses to drinking after yet another confrontation with Paulie, he becomes very angry with the crew and leaves. He later ends up at his "friend" J.T. Dolan's home, looking for someone to talk to. When J.T. makes explicit mention of Chris' membership in the Mafia and refuses to let Chris talk out his problems that night, Chris shoots him in the head and leaves.

As Tony and Chris drive back from a meeting with Phil Leotardo and the New York crew, Chris – clearly impaired by drugs and alcohol – crashes his Cadillac Escalade. Tony is able to climb out of the SUV, but Chris is badly injured and coughing up blood. He pleads for Tony's help, mumbling that he wouldn't pass a drug test and could lose his license. Tony sees a tree branch impaling a car seat where Christopher's daughter could have been sitting. He pinches Chris' nostrils shut, causing him to choke to death on his own blood.

Throughout the episode's remainder, Tony displays the proper decorum for the family in mourning yet can barely restrain his relief that he is finally free of the burden Chris has placed upon him for so long – his insubordination, his substance abuse, his reckless behavior, and his complaints. He describes Chris as a "drag" on his emotions, and "a weak, lying drug addict". In a dream, Tony admits to Dr. Melfi that he murdered Chris, as well as other friends and associates, naming specifically his cousin Tony Blundetto and best friend Big Pussy. In the series' final episodes, Chris' picture is hung in the pork store in his honor; Paulie is disturbed that the resident cat spends its days staring at the picture.

Clandestine knowledge
Because of his close relationship with Tony Soprano, Christopher is the only one (besides Tony) who knows which bodies were buried at "Uncle Pat" Blundetto's farm and what really happened to Ralph Cifaretto. Chris is also one of the few (along with Furio Giunta) to know Richie Aprile was murdered by Janice Soprano, Tony Soprano's murder of Fabian Petrulio, the aborted plan to hit New York boss Carmine Lupertazzi, Sr. and about Silvio's murder of Christopher's fiancee, Adriana La Cerva.

The Many Saints of Newark
Imperioli returns in the prequel film The Many Saints of Newark. Though never seen on screen, he acts as the narrator of the film. Christopher is seemingly narrating from the afterlife, bitterly referencing his death at the hands of Tony as well as Tony's lack of financial support to his family after his death. During the film, an infant Christopher cries when he sees Tony at a welcoming back party for Tony's father, "Johnny Boy" Soprano. When Tony expresses confusion at the infant Chris' behavior around him, a woman at the table tells him that "some babies, when they come into the world, know all kinds of things from the other side." The final scene of the film ends with Christopher narrating that Tony is "the guy [he] went to hell for."

Killings or possible killings committed or assisted by Christopher

 * Emil Kolar: Shot in the head by Chris due to a dispute between Barone Sanitation (Tony's company) and Kolar Bros. Sanitation over waste management contracts, in the backroom of Satriale's Pork Store. (1998)
 * Michael "Mikey Grab Bag" Palmice: Shot in the chest by Chris and Paulie for conspiring to kill Tony with Junior and for killing Brendan Filone, Christopher's friend. (1999)
 * Sean Gismonte: Shot and killed by Chris in self-defense after he and associate Matthew Bevilaqua attempted to kill him. (2000)
 * Carlo Renzi: Shot in the head and killed by Chris in self-defense during poker game robbery. (2001)
 * Dino Zerilli: Shot and killed by Chris and Albert Barese after Zerilli and Jackie, Jr. shot and killed Sunshine and wounded Furio Giunta during a poker-game robbery. (2001)
 * Detective Lieutenant Barry Haydu: Executed in his home by Chris after Tony informed Chris that Haydu was the man who was contracted by Jilly Rufalo many years ago to kill Chris' father. (2002)
 * J.T. Dolan: Shot in the head by an inebriated Chris after Dolan persistently refused to listen to Christopher's personal problems and exclaimed, "Chris, you're in the Mafia!" (2007)

Christopher has helped dispose of several people murdered by other people throughout the series, mainly Tony.
 * James "Jimmy" Altieri: Lured by Christopher to his death, a bullet to the back of the head courtesy of Silvio Dante. Chrissy helped Silvio get rid of (or at least transport) the corpse, as he followed Silvio's orders to "get the piano dolly" to transport Jimmy's body. (1999)
 * Richie Aprile: Bagged up, carried off, and cut up in the basement of Satriale's as requested by Tony after he was shot by Janice Soprano for hitting her. (2000)
 * Tracee: Ralph Cifaretto beat the stripper to death; Silvio told Christopher to "get a sheet" from inside the strip club to cover up her corpse. (2000)
 * Valery: Possibly alive, he was shot in the head by Paulie in the woods when Chris and Paulie were chasing him. (2001)
 * Ralph Cifaretto: Decapitation and removal of hands with a cleaver. Head and hands placed in a bowling bag by Christopher, who subsequently helped Tony dispose of the bag and Ralph's body. Ralph had been beaten and choked to death by Tony. (2003)
 * Credenzo Curtis and Stanley Johnson: After being released from the Eleuthera drug recovery program, Tony gave Christopher the responsibility of hiring a couple of assassins to take out New York boss Carmine Lupertazzi, Sr. at the request of Johnny Sack. He chooses Curtis and Johnson, two African Americans from Irvington who he believes would be good at making it look like a carjacking. When Tony comes to an agreement with Carmine and calls off the hit, Christopher is given the new task of eliminating the two hired hands. He meets with the hitmen in a parking lot and gives them the money for the hit that never happened. Benny Fazio and Petey LaRosa surprise the two hitmen when they suddenly appear and shoot and kill them in their car. (2003)
 * Raoul: Christopher threw a brick at him and then Paulie shot him. (2004)
 * "Black" Jack Massarone: Christopher volunteered to do the hit on Massarone after Tony suspected "Black Jack" of wearing a wire under his hat; it is unclear who murdered Massarone later in the episode, but there is strong evidence that Moltisanti was directly responsible for it. (2004)
 * Adriana La Cerva: Once she confessed to Christopher that she had been an FBI informant, divulging important information about the DiMeo crime family Christopher's loyalty to Tony proved to be greater than his love for Adriana. While he did not directly participate in the hit (it was carried out by Silvio Dante - see article on Adriana La Cerva), Christopher did park Adriana's car (after disposing of a suitcase that he had stuffed with her belongings and clothes) at an airport's "Long Term Parking" lot in an attempt to make it look like she had fled. (2004)
 * Teddy Spirodakis: Chris asked Eugene Pontecorvo to do him the favor of going to kill Spirodakis in exchange for Chris' putting in a good word to Tony for Eugene's retirement from the Family. (2006)
 * Rusty Millio: Organized the discreet hit on orders from Tony via Neapolitan Camorra hitmen as a favor to Johnny Sack. (2006)

References to Imperioli's career

 * In the episode "46 Long", Christopher and Brendan Filone encounter Martin Scorsese (portrayed by a lookalike) outside of a club. Christopher yells "Marty! Kundun! I liked it!". Imperioli acted in Scorsese's gangster film Goodfellas in a minor role, "Spider".
 * In Season 1 Moltisanti shoots a bakery clerk in the foot in retaliation for a perceived lack of respect and service — a nod to Imperioli's Goodfellas character Spider, shot in the foot for the same reason. When the bakery clerk was yelling in pain about his foot being shot, Christopher replies "It happens!"
 * In reference to his Goodfellas character, Spider, being shot and killed by Joe Pesci's character, Tommy DeVito. In the season 2 episode, "Big Girls Don't Cry", when Christopher gets his confidence up as a student actor, Adriana tells him "I like you as an actor." and Christopher replies "Joe Pesci or so.", he then does a Joe Pesci impression of him saying a line in Jimmy Hollywood.
 * In the episode "Live Free or Die", after it is confirmed that Vito Spatafore is gay, Christopher states "I wanna kill the fat faggot myself, it'd be a fucking honor. Cut off his pisciatil' and feed it to him." This is a reference to Imperioli's character D'Ambrosio in the film Dead Presidents having exactly the same thing done to him by the North Vietnamese. Pisciatil' is slang connotation for penis.
 * When Imperioli auditioned for the role of Christopher, he thought that series creator David Chase was unimpressed with his audition and was surprised when he was offered the part.

Reception
Both Christopher's character development and Michael Imperioli's performance have received universal acclaim. He received several accolades, including a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series in 2004. He was nominated four other times for the award and he also received two Golden Globe nominations in 2002 and 2004. TV Guide rated him #13 on their list of "TV's Top 100 Characters".

title: Christopher Moltisanti


text: User talk:80.142.232.210

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:80.142.232.210


text:
Naive Bayes spam filtering

Naive Bayes classifiers are a popular statistical technique of e-mail filtering. They typically use bag-of-words features to identify email spam, an approach commonly used in text classification.

Naive Bayes classifiers work by correlating the use of tokens (typically words, or sometimes other things), with spam and non-spam e-mails and then using Bayes' theorem to calculate a probability that an email is or is not spam.

Naive Bayes spam filtering is a baseline technique for dealing with spam that can tailor itself to the email needs of individual users and give low false positive spam detection rates that are generally acceptable to users. It is one of the oldest ways of doing spam filtering, with roots in the 1990s.

History
Bayesian algorithms were used for email filtering as early as 1996. Although naive Bayesian filters did not become popular until later, multiple programs were released in 1998 to address the growing problem of unwanted email. The first scholarly publication on Bayesian spam filtering was by Sahami et al. in 1998.

Variants of the basic technique have been implemented in a number of research works and commercial software products. Many modern mail clients implement Bayesian spam filtering. Users can also install separate email filtering programs. Server-side email filters, such as DSPAM, SpamAssassin, SpamBayes, Bogofilter, and ASSP, make use of Bayesian spam filtering techniques, and the functionality is sometimes embedded within mail server software itself. CRM114, oft cited as a Bayesian filter, is not intended to use a Bayes filter in production, but includes the ″unigram″ feature for reference.

Process
Particular words have particular probabilities of occurring in spam email and in legitimate email. For instance, most email users will frequently encounter the word "Viagra" in spam email, but will seldom see it in other email. The filter doesn't know these probabilities in advance, and must first be trained so it can build them up. To train the filter, the user must manually indicate whether a new email is spam or not. For all words in each training email, the filter will adjust the probabilities that each word will appear in spam or legitimate email in its database. For instance, Bayesian spam filters will typically have learned a very high spam probability for the words "Viagra" and "refinance", but a very low spam probability for words seen only in legitimate email, such as the names of friends and family members.

After training, the word probabilities (also known as likelihood functions) are used to compute the probability that an email with a particular set of words in it belongs to either category. Each word in the email contributes to the email's spam probability, or only the most interesting words. This contribution is called the posterior probability and is computed using Bayes' theorem. Then, the email's spam probability is computed over all words in the email, and if the total exceeds a certain threshold (say 95%), the filter will mark the email as a spam.

As in any other spam filtering technique, email marked as spam can then be automatically moved to a "Junk" email folder, or even deleted outright. Some software implement quarantine mechanisms that define a time frame during which the user is allowed to review the software's decision.

The initial training can usually be refined when wrong judgements from the software are identified (false positives or false negatives). That allows the software to dynamically adapt to the ever-evolving nature of spam.

Some spam filters combine the results of both Bayesian spam filtering and other heuristics (pre-defined rules about the contents, looking at the message's envelope, etc.), resulting in even higher filtering accuracy, sometimes at the cost of adaptiveness.

Mathematical foundation
Bayesian email filters utilize Bayes' theorem. Bayes' theorem is used several times in the context of spam:
 * a first time, to compute the probability that the message is spam, knowing that a given word appears in this message;
 * a second time, to compute the probability that the message is spam, taking into consideration all of its words (or a relevant subset of them);
 * sometimes a third time, to deal with rare words.

Computing the probability that a message containing a given word is spam
Let's suppose the suspected message contains the word "replica". Most people who are used to receiving e-mail know that this message is likely to be spam, more precisely a proposal to sell counterfeit copies of well-known brands of watches. The spam detection software, however, does not "know" such facts; all it can do is compute probabilities.

The formula used by the software to determine that, is derived from Bayes' theorem

 * $$\Pr(S|W) = \frac{\Pr(W|S) \cdot \Pr(S)}{\Pr(W|S) \cdot \Pr(S) + \Pr(W|H) \cdot \Pr(H)}$$

where:

 * $$\Pr(S|W)$$ is the probability that a message is a spam, knowing that the word "replica" is in it;
 * $$\Pr(S)$$ is the overall probability that any given message is spam;
 * $$\Pr(W|S)$$ is the probability that the word "replica" appears in spam messages;
 * $$\Pr(H)$$ is the overall probability that any given message is not spam (is "ham");
 * $$\Pr(W|H)$$ is the probability that the word "replica" appears in ham messages.

(For a full demonstration, see Bayes' theorem.)

The spamliness of a word
Statistics show that the current probability of any message being spam is 80%, at the very least:
 * $$ \Pr(S) = 0.8 ; \Pr(H) = 0.2$$

The filters that use this hypothesis are said to be "not biased", meaning that they have no prejudice regarding the incoming email. This assumption permits simplifying the general formula to:

 * $$\Pr(S|W) = \frac{\Pr(W|S)}{\Pr(W|S) + \Pr(W|H)}$$

This is functionally equivalent to asking, "what percentage of occurrences of the word 'replica' appear in spam messages?"

This quantity is called "spamicity" (or "spaminess") of the word "replica", and can be computed. The number $$\Pr(W|S)$$ used in this formula is approximated to the frequency of messages containing "replica" in the messages identified as spam during the learning phase. Similarly, $$\Pr(W|H)$$ is approximated to the frequency of messages containing "replica" in the messages identified as ham during the learning phase. For these approximations to make sense, the set of learned messages needs to be big and representative enough. It is also advisable that the learned set of messages conforms to the 50% hypothesis about repartition between spam and ham, i.e. that the datasets of spam and ham are of same size.

Of course, determining whether a message is spam or ham based only on the presence of the word "replica" is error-prone, which is why bayesian spam software tries to consider several words and combine their spamicities to determine a message's overall probability of being spam.

Combining individual probabilities
Most bayesian spam filtering algorithms are based on formulas that are strictly valid (from a probabilistic standpoint) only if the words present in the message are independent events. This condition is not generally satisfied (for example, in natural languages like English the probability of finding an adjective is affected by the probability of having a noun), but it is a useful idealization, especially since the statistical correlations between individual words are usually not known. On this basis, one can derive the following formula from Bayes' theorem:

 * $$p = \frac{p_1 p_2 \cdots p_N}{p_1 p_2 \cdots p_N + (1 - p_1)(1 - p_2) \cdots (1 - p_N)}$$

where:
 * $$p$$ is the probability that the suspect message is spam;
 * $$p_1$$ is the probability $$p(W_1|S)$$ that the first word (for example "replica") appears, given that the message is spam;
 * $$p_2$$ is the probability $$p(W_2|S)$$ that the second word (for example "watches") appears, given that the message is spam;
 * etc...

Spam filtering software based on this formula is sometimes referred to as a naive Bayes classifier, as "naive" refers to the strong independence assumptions between the features. The result p is typically compared to a given threshold to decide whether the message is spam or not. If p is lower than the threshold, the message is considered as likely ham, otherwise it is considered as likely spam.

Other expression of the formula for combining individual probabilities
Usually p is not directly computed using the above formula due to floating-point underflow. Instead, p can be computed in the log domain by rewriting the original equation as follows:

 * $$ \frac{1}{p} - 1 = \frac{(1-p_1)(1-p_2)\dots(1-p_N)}{p_1 p_2 \dots p_N} $$

Taking logs on both sides:

 * $$ \ln \left ( \frac{1}{p} - 1  \right ) = \sum_{i=1}^N \left[ \ln(1-p_i) - \ln p_i \right]$$

Let $$\eta = \sum_{i=1}^N \left[ \ln(1-p_i) -\ln p_i \right] $$. Therefore,

 * $$ \frac{1}{p} - 1 = e^\eta $$

Hence the alternate formula for computing the combined probability:

 * $$ p = \frac{1}{1 + e^\eta} $$

Dealing with rare words
In the case a word has never been met during the learning phase, both the numerator and the denominator are equal to zero, both in the general formula and in the spamicity formula. The software can decide to discard such words for which there is no information available.

More generally, the words that were encountered only a few times during the learning phase cause a problem, because it would be an error to trust blindly the information they provide. A simple solution is to simply avoid taking such unreliable words into account as well.

Applying again Bayes' theorem, and assuming the classification between spam and ham of the emails containing a given word ("replica") is a random variable with beta distribution, some programs decide to use a corrected probability:

 * $$\Pr'(S|W) = \frac{s \cdot \Pr(S) + n \cdot \Pr(S|W)}{s + n }$$

where:
 * $$\Pr'(S|W)$$ is the corrected probability for the message to be spam, knowing that it contains a given word ;
 * $$s$$ is the strength we give to background information about incoming spam ;
 * $$\Pr(S)$$ is the probability of any incoming message to be spam ;
 * $$n$$ is the number of occurrences of this word during the learning phase ;
 * $$\Pr(S|W)$$ is the spamicity of this word.

(Demonstration: )

This corrected probability is used instead of the spamicity in the combining formula.

This formula can be extended to the case where n is equal to zero (and where the spamicity is not defined), and evaluates in this case to $$Pr(S)$$.

Other heuristics
"Neutral" words like "the", "a", "some", or "is" (in English), or their equivalents in other languages, can be ignored. These are also known as Stop words. More generally, some bayesian filtering filters simply ignore all the words which have a spamicity next to 0.5, as they contribute little to a good decision. The words taken into consideration are those whose spamicity is next to 0.0 (distinctive signs of legitimate messages), or next to 1.0 (distinctive signs of spam). A method can be for example to keep only those ten words, in the examined message, which have the greatest absolute value |0.5 − pI|.

Some software products take into account the fact that a given word appears several times in the examined message, others don't.

Some software products use patterns (sequences of words) instead of isolated natural languages words. For example, with a "context window" of four words, they compute the spamicity of "Viagra is good for", instead of computing the spamicities of "Viagra", "is", "good", and "for". This method gives more sensitivity to context and eliminates the Bayesian noise better, at the expense of a bigger database.

Mixed methods
There are other ways of combining individual probabilities for different words than using the "naive" approach. These methods differ from it on the assumptions they make on the statistical properties of the input data. These different hypotheses result in radically different formulas for combining the individual probabilities.

For example, assuming the individual probabilities follow a chi-squared distribution with 2N degrees of freedom, one could use the formula:

 * $$p = C^{-1}(-2 \ln(p_1 p_2 \cdots p_N), 2N) \, $$

where C−1 is the inverse of the chi-squared function.

Individual probabilities can be combined with the techniques of the Markovian discrimination too.

Advantages
The spam that a user receives is often related to the online user's activities. For example, a user may have been subscribed to an online newsletter that the user considers to be spam. This online newsletter is likely to contain words that are common to all newsletters, such as the name of the newsletter and its originating email address. A Bayesian spam filter will eventually assign a higher probability based on the user's specific patterns.

The legitimate e-mails a user receives will tend to be different. For example, in a corporate environment, the company name and the names of clients or customers will be mentioned often. The filter will assign a lower spam probability to emails containing those names.

The word probabilities are unique to each user and can evolve over time with corrective training whenever the filter incorrectly classifies an email. As a result, Bayesian spam filtering accuracy after training is often superior to pre-defined rules.

Disadvantages
Depending on the implementation, Bayesian spam filtering may be susceptible to Bayesian poisoning, a technique used by spammers in an attempt to degrade the effectiveness of spam filters that rely on Bayesian filtering. A spammer practicing Bayesian poisoning will send out emails with large amounts of legitimate text (gathered from legitimate news or literary sources). Spammer tactics include insertion of random innocuous words that are not normally associated with spam, thereby decreasing the email's spam score, making it more likely to slip past a Bayesian spam filter. However, with (for example) Paul Graham's scheme only the most significant probabilities are used, so that padding the text out with non-spam-related words does not affect the detection probability significantly.

Words that normally appear in large quantities in spam may also be transformed by spammers. For example, «Viagra» would be replaced with «Viaagra» or «V!agra» in the spam message. The recipient of the message can still read the changed words, but each of these words is met more rarely by the Bayesian filter, which hinders its learning process. As a general rule, this spamming technique does not work very well, because the derived words end up recognized by the filter just like the normal ones.

Another technique used to try to defeat Bayesian spam filters is to replace text with pictures, either directly included or linked. The whole text of the message, or some part of it, is replaced with a picture where the same text is "drawn". The spam filter is usually unable to analyze this picture, which would contain the sensitive words like «Viagra». However, since many mail clients disable the display of linked pictures for security reasons, the spammer sending links to distant pictures might reach fewer targets. Also, a picture's size in bytes is bigger than the equivalent text's size, so the spammer needs more bandwidth to send messages directly including pictures. Some filters are more inclined to decide that a message is spam if it has mostly graphical contents. A solution used by Google in its Gmail email system is to perform an OCR (Optical Character Recognition) on every mid to large size image, analyzing the text inside.

General applications of Bayesian filtering
While Bayesian filtering is used widely to identify spam email, the technique can classify (or "cluster") almost any sort of data. It has uses in science, medicine, and engineering. One example is a general purpose classification program called AutoClass which was originally used to classify stars according to spectral characteristics that were otherwise too subtle to notice.

title: Naive Bayes spam filtering


text:
Peter Bichsel

Peter Bichsel (born March 24 1935) is a popular Swiss writer and journalist representing modern German literature. He was a member of the Gruppe Olten.

Bichsel was born in 1935 in Lucerne, Switzerland, the son of manual labourers. Shortly after he was born, the Bichsels moved to Olten, also in Switzerland. After finishing school, he became an elementary school teacher, a job he held until 1968. From 1974 to 1981 he was the personal advisor and speech writer of Willy Ritschard, a member of the Swiss Federal Council. Between 1972 and 1989 he made his mark as a "writer in residence" and a guest lecturer at American universities. Bichsel has lived on the outskirts of Solothurn for several decades.

He started publishing short lyric works in newspapers. In 1960, he got his first success in prose as a private printer. In the winter of 1963–1964, he took part in a writing course in prose taught by Walter Höllerer.

One of his first and best-known works is And Really Frau Blum Would Very Much Like to Meet the Milkman. Just as successful, Children's Stories, intended for adults, is written in the form of droll tales for children. Both books were translated from German by the English poet Michael Hamburger. A theme of Bichsel's works for younger readers is the stubborn desire of children to take words literally and wreak havoc on the world of communicated ideas. In the early 1970s and 1980s, Bichsel's journalistic work pushed his literary work mainly into the background. Only Der Busant (1985) and Warten in Baden-Baden appeared again with the Bichsel style that was so familiar to German readers. Peter Bichsel gave up being a professional teacher early in his lifetime, yet he has continued to teach his readers that the drudgery and banality of life are of our own making. Conversely, we have every opportunity to prevent our lives from being boring. This theme has helped make Peter Bichsel a symbol of German literary work today.

In 1981, he was a member of the jury at the 31st Berlin International Film Festival.

Peter Bichsel's estate is archived in the Swiss Literary Archives in Bern.

Awards

 * 1965 Prize of "Group 47"
 * 1970 Deutscher Jugendbuchpreis
 * 1981/82 Stadtschreiber von Bergen
 * 1996 Mainzer Stadtschreiber
 * 1999 Gottfried-Keller-Preis
 * 2000 Prix Européen de l’Essai Charles Veillon
 * 2000 Kassel Literary Prize
 * 2004 Honorary Doctor of Theology, University of Basel
 * 2005 Work grant by Pro Helvetia
 * 2011 Solothurner Literaturpreis
 * 2012 Grosser Schillerpreis

Short story collections

 * Versuche über Gino (1960)
 * Eigentlich möchte Frau Blum den Milchmann kennenlernen (1964)
 * And really Frau Blum would very much like to meet the milkman. Translated by Michael Hamburger. London, Calder & Boyars (1968)
 * Die Jahreszeiten (1967)
 * Kindergeschichten (1969)
 * Des Schweizers Schweiz (1969)
 * Inhaltsangabe der Langeweile (Hörspiel, 1971)
 * Geschichten zur falschen Zeit (Kolumnen, 1979)
 * Der Leser (1982)
 * Schulmeistereien (1985)
 * Der Busant (récits, 1985)
 * Irgendwo anderswo (1986)
 * Möchten Sie Mozart gewesen sein ? (1990)
 * Im Gegenteil (1990)
 * Zur Stadt Paris(1993)
 * To the city of Paris. Text German/English. Translated by Michael Kuttner. Kolkata, Tarjama (2007)
 * Gegen unseren Briefträger konnte man nichts machen. (1995)
 * Die Totaldemokraten (1998)
 * Cherubin Hammer und Cherubin Hammer (1999)
 * Alles von mir gelernt (2000)
 * Eisenbahnfahren (2002)
 * Doktor Schleyers isabellenfarbige Winterschule (2003)
 * Das süsse Gift der Buchstaben(2004)
 * Wo wir wohnen (2004)
 * Cherubin Hammer und Cherubin Hammer (2005)
 * ''Kolumnen, Kolumnen (2005)

title: Peter Bichsel


text:
Charles Bridge

Charles Bridge (Karlův most ) is a medieval stone arch bridge that crosses the Vltava river in Prague, Czech Republic. Its construction started in 1357 under the auspices of King Charles IV, and finished in the early 15th century. The bridge replaced the old Judith Bridge built 1158–1172 that had been badly damaged by a flood in 1342. This new bridge was originally called Stone Bridge (Kamenný most) or Prague Bridge (Pražský most), but has been referred to as "Charles Bridge" since 1870.

As the only means of crossing the river Vltava until 1841, Charles Bridge was the most important connection between Prague Castle and the city's Old Town and adjacent areas. This land connection made Prague important as a trade route between Eastern and Western Europe.

The bridge is 516 m long and nearly 10 m wide. Following the example of the Stone Bridge in Regensburg, it was built as a bow bridge with 16 arches shielded by ice guards. It is protected by three bridge towers, two on the Lesser Quarter side (including the Malá Strana Bridge Tower) and one on the Old Town side, the Old Town Bridge Tower. The bridge is decorated by a continuous alley of 30 statues and statuaries, most of them baroque-style, originally erected around 1700, but now all have been replaced by replicas.

The bridge is currently undergoing a twenty-year process of structural inspections, restoration, and repairs. The process started in late 2019, and is expected to cost 45–60 million CZK (US$1.9–2.6 million).

14th to 19th centuries

Throughout its history, Charles Bridge has suffered several disasters and witnessed many historic events. Czech legend has it that construction began on Charles Bridge at 5:31am on 9 July 1357 with the first stone being laid by Charles IV himself. This exact time was very important to the Holy Roman Emperor because he was a strong believer in numerology and felt that this specific time, which formed a palindrome (1357 9/7 5:31), was a numerical bridge, and would imbue Charles Bridge with additional strength. The bridge was completed 45 years later in 1402. A flood in 1432 damaged three pillars. In 1496 the third arch (counting from the Old Town side) broke down after one of the pillars lowered, being undermined by the water (repairs were finished in 1503). A year after the Battle of White Mountain, when the 27 leaders of the anti-Habsburg revolt were executed on 21 June 1621, the Old Town Bridge Tower served as a deterrent display of the severed heads of the victims to stop Czechs from further resistance. During the end of the Thirty Years' War in 1648, the Swedes occupied the west bank of the Vltava, and as they tried to advance into the Old Town the heaviest fighting took place right on the bridge. During the fighting, they severely damaged one side of the Old Town bridge tower (the side facing the river) and the remnants of almost all gothic decorations had to be removed from it afterward. During the late 17th century and early 18th century the bridge gained its typical appearance when an alley of baroque statues was installed on the pillars. During a great flood in 1784, five pillars were severely damaged and, although the arches did not break down, the traffic on the bridge had to be greatly restricted for some time.

The original stairway to Kampa Island was replaced by a new one in 1844. The next year, another great flood threatened the bridge, but the bridge escaped major damage. In 1848, during the revolutionary days, the bridge escaped unharmed from the cannonade, but some of the statues were damaged. In 1866, pseudo-gothic gas lights were erected on the balustrade; they were later replaced with electric lighting. In the 1870s, the first regular public-transport (omnibus) line went over the bridge (officially called "Charles Bridge" after 1870) later replaced by a horse tram. The bridge towers underwent a thorough reconstruction between 1874 and 1883.

On 2–5 September 1890, another disastrous flood struck Prague and severely damaged Charles Bridge. Thousands of rafts, logs and other floating materials that escaped from places upstream gradually formed a huge barrier leaning against the bridge. Three arches were torn down by the great pressure and two pillars collapsed from being undermined by the water, while others were partly damaged. With the fifth pillar, two statues – St. Ignatius of Loyola and St. Xavier, both by Ferdinand Brokoff – also fell into the river. The former statue was replaced by a statuary of Saints Cyril and Methodius by Karel Dvořák; the latter was replaced by a replica of the original. Repair works lasted for two years (the bridge was reopened on 19 November 1892) and cost 665,000 crowns.

20th century to present
In the beginning of the 20th century, Charles Bridge saw a steep rise of heavy traffic. The last day of the horse line on the bridge was 15 May 1905, when it was replaced with an electric tram and later, in 1908, with buses. At the end of World War II, a barricade was built in the Old Town bridge tower gateway. A capital repair of the bridge took place between 1965 and 1978, based on a collaboration among various scientific and cultural institutes. The stability of the pillars was reassured, all broken stone blocks were replaced, and the asphalt top was removed. All vehicular traffic has been excluded from Charles Bridge since then, making it accessible by pedestrians only. The repair cost 50 million crowns.

During the 1990s, some people started criticizing the previous reconstruction of the bridge and proposing further work. As of the beginning of the new millennium, most of the experts appeared to agree that the previous reconstruction had not been flawless but disputed the need for further interference with the bridge. However, after the disastrous floods of 2002 (which themselves caused only minor harm to the bridge), support for an overall bridge reconstruction grew. It was decided that repair and stabilization of the two pillars (numbers 8 and 9) on the Malá Strana side of the bridge would be done. These are the only river pillars that were not repaired after the 1890 floods. The reconstruction was a gradual process that closed off parts of the bridge without closing the span entirely.

Performed from 2008 to 2010, the work included bolstering the pillars and building a new hydroisolation system protecting the bridge. It also encompassed a re-pavimentation of the bridge's pavement and the replacement of many of the stones in the bridge walls, a matter which was controversial due to a heavy-handed approach adopted by the restoration team, which had no previous experience in restoration of cultural heritage monuments. The result has been criticised by conservation professionals all over Europe (see photos on external links), as dozens of new replacement stones do not match the historical ones they are next to, the amount of replaced stones is considered excessive, some stones have been inappropriately positioned, original stones have been chipped and joining materials employed are considered not appropriate for the structure. In 2010 UNESCO's World Heritage Committee adopted a decision stating that "the restoration of Charles Bridge was carried out without adequate conservation advice on materials and techniques".

Statues on the bridge

The avenue of 30 mostly Baroque statues and statuaries situated on the balustrade forms a unique connection of artistic styles with the underlying Gothic bridge. Most sculptures were erected between 1683 and 1714. They depict various saints and patron saints venerated at that time. The most prominent Bohemian sculptors of the time took part in decorating the bridge, such as Matthias Braun, Jan Brokoff, and his sons Michael Joseph and Ferdinand Maxmilian.

Among the most notable sculptures, one can find the statuaries of St. Luthgard, the Holy Crucifix and Calvary, and John of Nepomuk. Well known also is the statue of the knight Bruncvík, although it was erected some 200 years later and does not belong to the main avenue.

Beginning in 1965, all of the statues have been systematically replaced by replicas, and the originals have been exhibited in the Lapidarium of the National Museum.

Tribute
On 9 July 2017, Google celebrated the 660th anniversary of Charles Bridge with a Google Doodle.

title: Charles Bridge


text:
Egyptian Revival architecture

Egyptian Revival is an architectural style that uses the motifs and imagery of ancient Egypt. It is attributed generally to the public awareness of ancient Egyptian monuments generated by Napoleon's conquest of Egypt and Admiral Nelson's defeat of the French Navy at the Battle of the Nile in 1798. Napoleon took a scientific expedition with him to Egypt. Publication of the expedition's work, the Description de l'Égypte, began in 1809 and was published as a series through 1826. The size and monumentality of the façades discovered during his adventure cemented the hold of Egyptian aesthetics on the Parisian elite. However, works of art and architecture (such as funerary monuments) in the Egyptian style had been made or built occasionally on the European continent since the time of the Renaissance.

Egyptian influence before Napoleon
Much of the early knowledge about ancient Egyptian arts and architecture was filtered through the lens of the Classical world, including ancient Rome. Prior to Napoleon's influence an early example is the Obelisk of Domitian, erected in 1651 by Bernini on top of the Fontana dei Quattro Fiumi in Piazza Navona, Rome, which went on to inspire several Egyptian obelisks constructed in Ireland during the early 18th century. It influenced the obelisk constructed as a family funeral memorial by Sir Edward Lovett Pearce for the Allen family at Stillorgan in Ireland in 1717, one of several Egyptian obelisks erected in Ireland during the early 18th century. Others may be found at Belan, County Kildare; and Dangan, County Meath. Conolly's Folly in County Kildare is probably the best known, albeit the least Egyptian-styled.

Egyptian buildings had also been built as garden follies. The most elaborate was probably the one built by Duke Frederick I of Württemberg in the gardens of the Château de Montbéliard. It included an Egyptian bridge across which guests walked to reach an island with an elaborate Egyptian-influenced bath house. Designed by Jean-Baptiste Kléber, later French commander in Egypt, the building had a billiards room and a bagnio.

During the 2nd half of the 18th century, with the rise of Neoclassicism, sometimes architects mixed the Ancient Greek, Roman and Egyptian styles. They wanted to discover new shape and ornament ideas, rather than to be just faithful copyists of the past.

Napoleonic and Post-Napoleonic eras
New after the Napoleonic invasion was a sudden increase of the number of works of art and the fact that, for the first time, entire buildings began to be built to resemble those of ancient Egypt. In France and Britain this was at least partially inspired by successful war campaigns undertaken by each country while in Egypt.

For Napoleon's intention of cataloguing the sights and findings from the campaign, hundreds of artists and scientists were enlisted to document “antiquities, ethnography, architecture, and natural history of Egypt”; and later these notes and sketches were taken back to Europe. In 1803, the compilation of “Description de l'Égypte” was started based on these documents and lasted over twenty years. The content in this archaeological text, includes translation of the Rosetta Stone, pyramids and other scenes, arouse interests in Egyptian arts and culture in Europe and America.

According to James Stevens Curl, people started to present their imaginations about Egypt in various ways. First, combinations of crocodiles, pyramids, mummies, sphinxes, and other motifs were widely circulated. In 1800, an Egyptian opera festival was staged in Drury Lane, London, with Egyptian-themed sets and costumes. On the other hand, William Capon (1757–1827) suggested a massive pyramid for Shooter's Hill as a National Monument, while George Smith (1783–1869) designed an Egyptian-style tomb for Ralph Abercromby in Alexandria.

According to David Brownlee, the 1798 Karlsruhe Synagogue, an early building by the influential Friedrich Weinbrenner was "the first large Egyptian building to be erected since antiquity." According to Diana Muir, it was "the first public building (that is, not a folly, stage set, or funeral monument) in the Egyptian revival style." The ancient Egyptian influence was mainly shown in the two large engaged pylons flanking the entrance; otherwise the windows and entrance of the central section were pointed arches, and the overall plan conventional, with Neo-Gothic details.

Among the earliest monuments of the Egyptian Revival in Paris is the Fontaine du Fellah, built in 1806. It was designed by François-Jean Bralle. A well-documented example, destroyed after Napoleon was deposed, was the monument to General Louis Desaix in the Place des Victoires was built in 1810. It featured a nude statue of the general and an obelisk, both set upon an Egyptian Revival base. Another example of a still standing site of Egyptian Revival is the Egyptian Gate of Tsarskoe Selo, built in 1829.

A street or passage named the Place du Caire or Foire du Caire (Fair of Cairo) was built in Paris in 1798 on the former site of the convent of the "Filles de la Charité". No. 2 Place du Caire, from 1828, is essentially in overall form a conventional Parisian structure with shops on the ground floor and apartments above, but with considerable Egyptianizing decoration including a row of massive Hathor heads and a frieze by sculptor J. G. Garraud.

One of the first British buildings to show an Egyptian Revival interior was the newspaper office of the Courier on the Strand, London. It was built in 1804 and featured a cavetto (coved) cornice and Egyptian-influenced columns with palmiform capitals. Other early British examples include the Egyptian Hall in London, completed in 1812, and the Egyptian Dining Room at Goodwood House (1806). There was also the Egyptian Gallery, a private room in the home of connoisseur Thomas Hope to display his Egyptian antiquities, and illustrated in engravings from his meticulous line drawings in his book Household Furniture (1807), were a prime source for the Regency style of British furnishings.

Rise of Egyptian Revival in America
The first Egyptian Revival building in the United States was the 1824 synagogue of Congregation Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia. It was followed by a series of major public buildings in the first half of the 19th century including the 1835 Moyamensing Prison, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States, the 1836 Fourth District Police Station in New Orleans and the 1838 New York City jail known as the Tombs. Other public buildings in Egyptian style included the 1844 Old Whaler's Church in Sag Harbor, New York, the 1846 First Baptist Church of Essex, Connecticut, the 1845 Egyptian Building of the Medical College of Virginia in Richmond and the 1848 United States Custom House (New Orleans). The most notable Egyptian structure in the United States was the Washington Monument, begun in 1848, this obelisk originally featured doors with cavetto cornices and winged sun disks, later removed. The National World War I Museum and Memorial in Kansas City, Missouri, is another example of Egyptian revival architecture and art.

Around the 1870s, Americans started to become interested in other cultures, including those of Japan, the Middle East and North Africa, leading to a second period of interest in Egyptian revival. Egyptian motifs and symbols were commonly used in the design including elements of "gilt bronze fittings shaped like sphinxes, Egyptian scenes woven into textiles, and geometric renderings of plants such as palm fronds".

Some Americans in the 1880s believed that the United States was a nation without art and therefore wanted to innovate in the field of aesthetic design to distinguish it from Egyptian pyramids and obelisks, Greek temples, and Gothic spires. But implementing such innovations was difficult, and as Clarence King said, “Till there is an American race there cannot be an American style”. The creation of the American style was also hindered by the fact that the ethnic mix of the American people did not constitute a race. In the time that followed, however, America's own culture was assimilating Egyptian revivalist architecture, and their tectonic significance became unstable. This may be because the United States of the early 20th century was a confident nation, and the approach of defining one's own spiritual world by establishing a connection to a great civilization like ancient Egypt faded in such a cultural context.

Other countries
The South African College in the then-British Cape Colony features an "Egyptian building" constructed in 1841; the Egyptian Revival building of the Cape Town Hebrew Congregation is also still standing.

The York Street Synagogue was Australia's first Egyptian revival building, followed by the Hobart Synagogue, the Launceston Synagogue and the Adelaide Hebrew Congregation, all by 1850. The earliest obelisk in Australia was erected at Macquarie Place, Sydney in 1818.

Later revivals
The expeditions that eventually led to the discovery in 1922 of Tutankhamun's tomb by archaeologist Howard Carter resulted in a 20th-century revival. The revival during the 1920s is sometimes considered to be part of the Art Deco style. This phase gave birth to the Egyptian Theatre movement, largely confined to the United States. The Egyptian Revival decorative arts style was present in furniture and other household objects, as well as in architecture.

Hieroglyphics
Many notable works in Britain featured attempts by architects to translate and depict messages in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Although sincere attempts at compositions, understanding of hieroglyphic syntax and semantics has advanced since they were built and errors have been discovered in many of these works. Although both public and private buildings were built in Britain in the Egyptian Revival style, the vast majority of those with attempts at accurate inscriptions were public works or on entrances to public buildings.

In 1824, French classical scholar and egyptologist Jean-François Champollion published Precis du systeme hieroglyphique des anciens Egyptiens in 1824, which spurred the first notable attempts to decipher the hieroglyphic language in Britain. Joseph Bonomi the Younger's inscriptions in the entrance lodges to Abney Park Cemetery in 1840 was the first real recorded attempt to compose a legible text. An Egyptologist himself, Bonomi and other scholars such as Samuel Birch, Samuel Sharpe, William Osburne, and others would compose texts for a variety of other British projects throughout the nineteenth century including Marshall's Mill in Leeds, an aedicula in the grounds of Hartwell House, Buckinghamshire, and as part of an Egyptian exhibition in The Crystal Palace after it was re-erected in southeast London.

The content of the inscriptions varied depending on the nature of their specific projects. The Crystal Palace exhibition features several different inscriptions, with the main inscription detailing the construction and content of the hall and proclaiming it as an educational asset to the community. It ends with a message to invoke good fortune, translated as 'let it be prosperous. ' Other smaller inscriptions on the cornice of the exhibit entrance feature the names of the builders and a message in Greek wishing for the health and well-being of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert, members of the royal family. The main inscription is accompanied by an English translation, with the characters spaced to match the position of the English words. However, Chris Elliot notes that the translation overly relies on phonetic transliteration and features some unusual characters for words that were difficult to translate into hieroglyphs.

North America

 * First Presbyterian Church in Nashville, Tennessee; designed by William Strickland from 1849 to 1851
 * Washington Monument in Washington, D.C.
 * Battle Monument in Baltimore, Maryland
 * New Jersey State Penitentiary in Trenton, New Jersey; designed by John Haviland from 1833 to 1836
 * Medical College at Richmond in Richmond, Virginia, designed by Thomas Somerville Stewart in 1845
 * 1826–1830: Groton Monument in Groton, Connecticut
 * 1834-1835: American Institute in New York City
 * 1835: Moyamensing Prison in Philadelphia; designed by Thomas Ustick Walter; demolished in 1968
 * 1836: 4th Precinct Police Station on Rousseau Street in New Orleans. Designed by Benjamin Buisson, it originally served as a jail and police station. Later altered significantly; now used by the Knights of Babylon krewe for Mardi Gras float storage
 * 1838: Green-Wood Cemetery in New York City
 * 1838: The Tombs, a court and jail complex in New York City by John Haviland; demolished in 1902
 * 1838: Pennsylvania Fire Insurance building in Philadelphia [1] by John Haviland
 * 1840: Gates of the Granary Burying Ground, by Isaiah Rogers, in Boston
 * 1842: Croton Distributing Reservoir in New York City
 * 1827–1843: Bunker Hill Monument in the Charleston neighborhood of Boston
 * 1843: Gates and gatehouses of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts; designed by Jacob Bigelow
 * 1844: Old Whaler's Church, Sag Harbor, New York; designed by Minard Lafever
 * 1845: The brownstone entry gates of the Grove Street Cemetery, by Henry Austin, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
 * 1846: First Baptist Church of Essex, Connecticut
 * 1856: Skull and Bones undergraduate secret society at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut (architect's attribution in dispute—may also be Henry Austin of the Grove Street Cemetery gates)
 * 1894: The Cairo apartment building in Washington, D.C.
 * 1914: Masonic Temple in Charlotte, North Carolina (1914–87)
 * 1914-1916: Winona Savings Bank Building in Winona, Minnesota
 * 1920: Marmon Hupmobile Showroom in Chicago; designed by Paul Gerhardt
 * 1922: Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in Los Angeles
 * 1927: Pythian Temple (New York City)
 * 1928: Lincoln Theatre (Columbus, Ohio); has an Egyptian revival interior
 * 1939: Social Security Administration Building (Washington, DC)
 * 1966: Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum in San Jose, California

Europe, Russia, Africa and Australia

 * 18–12 BC Pyramid of Cestius, Rome
 * 1798 Karlsruhe Synagogue
 * circa 1820: Donkin Memorial in Port Elizabeth, South Africa
 * 1822: Egyptian temple in Łazienki Park in Warsaw, Poland
 * 1824: 42 Fore Street in Hertford, known locally as the Egyptian House, is an English Heritage Grade II listed building built on the site of a former inn. A grocery store from the Victorian era until the 1960s, now a restaurant.
 * 1825–1826: Egyptian Bridge in St. Petersburg; collapsed on 20 January 1905, but 1955 replacement incorporated sphinxes and several portions of it remains
 * 1827–1830: Egyptian Gate of Tsarskoe Selo, St. Petersburg
 * 1835–1837: Egyptian House, Penzance, Cornwall. Built by local bookseller John Lavin as a museum, it is still standing.
 * 1836-1840: Temple Works, a former flax mill in the industrial district of Holbeck in Leeds, England; built for textile industrialist John Marshall and held the distinction of being the largest single room in the world when it was built
 * 1838–1839: The Egyptian Avenue and inner circle of the Lebanon Circle in Highgate Cemetery in London
 * 1838–1840: Temple Lodges Abney Park in London Borough of Hackney
 * 1844: Launceston Synagogue in Launceston, Tasmania
 * 1845: Hobart Synagogue in Hobart, Tasmania
 * 1839-1849 Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, Denmark.
 * 1846–1848: Old Synagogue at Canterbury, England
 * 1849: Cape Agulhas Lighthouse, the second-oldest lighthouse in South Africa; also called the "Pharos of the South"
 * 1856: Egyptian Temple housing elephants at the Antwerp Zoo; designed by Charles Servais
 * 1862–1864: Egyptian temple in the park of Stibbert Museum in Florence, Italy
 * 1870: The Egyptian Halls in Glasgow; designed by Alexander Thomson
 * 1881–1889: Mausoleo Schilizzi in Naples, Italy
 * 1891: The Typhonium near Wissant by the Belgian architect Edmond De Vigne
 * 1899: Sha'ar Hashamayim Synagogue (Cairo)
 * 1902: Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
 * 1914: Regional Studies Museum in Krasnoyarsk, Russia
 * 1919: Mukhtar Museum in Cairo
 * 1921: Louxor theater in Paris
 * 1922: Collège des Frères d'Heliopolis in Cairo
 * 1925: AbdulHamid al-Shawarby Pasha building in Cairo
 * 1927: Emulation Hall, Melbourne, Australia
 * 1927: Mausoleum of Saad Zaghloul in Cairo
 * 1927– 1928: Collins & Parri's Arcadia Works for Carreras, London
 * 1924–1929: Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow; designed by Aleksey Shchusev using elements borrowed from the Pyramid of Djoser
 * 1926–1928: Carreras Cigarette Factory in Camden, London
 * 1930: foyer of Oliver Percy Bernard's Strand Palace Hotel, London (destr. 1967–8; parts now London, V&A)
 * 1932: Ismailia Monuments Museum in Ismailia, Egypt
 * 1933: Moussa Dar'i Synagogue in Cairo
 * 1934 Pyramid Theatre, Sale, Greater Manchester, UK (formerly a cinema, both independent and Odeon now a Sports Direct)
 * 1930–1937: National Museum of Beirut
 * 1934: Former Perth Girls' School in Perth, Western Australia, Australia
 * 1937: Manly Town Hall in Manly, New South Wales, Australia
 * 1942: Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University campus in Alexandria, Egypt
 * 1946: Royal Rest House, Giza Pyramid Complex, Giza, Egypt
 * 1961: Cairo Tower in Cairo
 * 1974: Unknown Soldier Memorial (Egypt) in Cairo
 * Unknown: Lamati Court in Minya, Egypt

Post-Modern variants

 * 1989: Louvre Pyramid in Paris
 * 1991: Pyramid Arena in Memphis, Tennessee
 * 1992: Cheesecake Factory
 * 1993: Tama-Re in Eatonton, Georgia; demolished 2005
 * 1993: Luxor Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas
 * 1995: City Stars Heliopolis in Cairo
 * 1996: The Lost World of Reptiles, an exhibit at the Australian Reptile Park, Somersby, New South Wales, Australia
 * 1997: Wafi City, Wafi, Dubai City, Dubai UAE
 * 1997: Sunway Pyramid, Bandar Sunway, Malaysia.
 * 2001: Embassy of the Arab Republic of Egypt in Berlin
 * 2001: Supreme Constitutional Court of Egypt building, Cairo
 * 2001: Scotiabank Theatre Chinook Centre in Calgary, Alberta
 * 2010: Sohag International Airport terminal building in Sohag, Egypt
 * 2010: Fairmont Nile City, Cairo
 * 2019–present: New Administrative Capital, Egypt, including Iconic Tower (Egypt), Oblisco Capitale, The Octagon (Egypt), Egyptian New Parliament, Presidential Palace and more
 * 2022: Cairo Security Directorate, New Cairo, Egypt

title: Egyptian Revival architecture