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Ibrox Stadium

Ibrox Stadium (Scottish Gaelic: Stadium Ibrox) is a football stadium on the south side of the River Clyde in the Ibrox area of Glasgow, Scotland. The home of Scottish Premiership team Rangers Football Club, Ibrox is the third largest football stadium in Scotland, with an all-seated capacity of 50,987. The stadium was designed by renowned football stadium architect Archibald Leitch, with renovations to the stadium between 1978 and 1981, as well as 1990 and 1991, being designed by The Miller Partnership and Gareth Hutchison respectively.

Opened as Ibrox Park in 1899, it suffered a disaster in 1902 when a wooden terrace collapsed. Vast earthen terraces were built in its place, and a main stand, now a listed building, in 1928. A British record crowd of 118,567 gathered in January 1939 for a league match with Celtic. After another disaster in 1971, the stadium was largely rebuilt. The vast bowl-shaped terracing was removed and replaced by three rectangular, all-seated stands by 1981. After renovations were completed in 1997, the ground was renamed Ibrox Stadium.

A UEFA category four stadium, Ibrox hosted the Scotland national football team when Hampden Park was redeveloped in the 1990s, and three Scottish cup finals in the same period, and has also been a concert venue. The stadium hosted the Rugby Sevens at the 2014 Commonwealth Games held in Scotland.

First Ibrox (1872–1902)
Rangers played its first match in May 1872, on Glasgow Green. The club then played home matches on public pitches across Glasgow, first moving to a regular home ground at Burnbank in 1875. A year later, Rangers played at the Clydesdale cricket ground in Kinning Park. This ground was improved to give a capacity of 7,000, but it was not owned by Rangers. After hints by the landlords that they wished to develop the site, Rangers left in February 1887. The club shared Cathkin Park with Third Lanark for the remainder of the 1886–87 season.

Rangers first moved to the Ibrox area later in 1887, playing on a site immediately to the east of the current stadium. The first match at this stadium was an 8–1 defeat to English side Preston North End on 20 August 1887, watched by a capacity crowd of over 15,000. This inaugural match had to be abandoned after 70 minutes due to a pitch invasion. The first Ibrox Park was a success in the short term, as three Scotland international matches and the 1890 Scottish Cup Final were played at the ground. Celtic Park, built in 1892, was more advanced, however. Rangers opted to construct a new stadium, raising funds by forming a limited company. The last match at the old ground was played on 9 December 1899. The new Ibrox Park was formally opened with a 3–1 victory over Hearts on 30 December.

Ibrox Park and Ibrox disaster (1902–1928)
Ibrox Park, as it was known between 1899 and 1997, is almost completely different from the Ibrox Stadium of today. It followed the model of most Scottish stadiums of the time, comprising an oval track around the pitch, with a pavilion and one stand along one side. The ground had a capacity of 40,000. Celtic Park, Ibrox and Hampden Park all competed with each other to host Scottish Cup Finals and Scotland matches, one of which could generate up to £1,000 in revenue for the host club. To aid their chances of gaining that revenue, Rangers constructed a large terracing, holding 36,000 people, behind the western goalmouth. The terracing, designed by Archibald Leitch, was formed by wooden planks bolted onto a framework made of iron. A similar wooden terracing was constructed at the eastern end, giving a total capacity of 75,000.

The structure was passed by the Govan Burgh Surveyor in March 1902, but there were newspaper reports that it was unstable. A crowd of 68,114 assembled for a Scotland v England match on 5 April 1902, but shortly after the kick-off one section of the terracing "collapsed like a trap door". A gap of 20 square yards appeared, causing about 125 people to fall to the ground 50 feet below the terracing. Most survived due to the fact they fell on top of other bodies, but 25 people were killed. 517 people were injured, some due to being crushed in the panic caused by the collapse.

Most people in the stadium were unaware that the (first) Ibrox disaster had happened. People even re-occupied the damaged area, despite the danger of further collapse. A definite reason for the disaster was not agreed upon, partly because there was no public inquiry held. Some experts blamed the quality of wood and the supplier was tried for culpable homicide, but was acquitted. The design was also cited as a possible cause. Generally, wooden structures of that size were not trusted. Rangers removed the wooden terraces, reducing capacity to 25,000. The criticism of the design did not deter Rangers from hiring Leitch in the future. He designed an expansion of Ibrox to a 63,000 capacity by 1910, using slopes made of earth. By this point, the city of Glasgow had the three largest purpose-built football grounds in the world.

Renovations (1928–1953)
The next major redevelopment occurred in 1928, after Rangers had won their first double. A new Main Stand, to the south side of the ground, was opened on 1 January 1929. The Main Stand, which has the familiar Leitch style criss-cross balcony and a red-brick facade, seated 10,000 people and provided standing accommodation in an enclosure. Simon Inglis, a writer on football stadia, commented in 2005 that the Main Stand is Leitch's "greatest work" and is "still resplendent today in its red brick glory under a modern mantle of glass and steel". The architectural significance of the Main Stand was reflected when it became a Category B listed building in 1987. Original seats in the Main Stand were made of cast iron and oak. One was auctioned in 2011 for £1,080.

The banking of the terracing continued to increase in the 1930s. On 2 January 1939, the Old Firm game against Celtic attracted a crowd of 118,567, the record attendance for any league match played in Britain. At this point, Ibrox was the second-largest stadium in Britain.

Post-war, re-design and new name (1953–1997)
Floodlights were first used at Ibrox in December 1953, for a friendly match against Arsenal. The first floodlit Scottish league match was played at Ibrox, in March 1956. Covers were built over the north and east terracing during the 1960s. No structural changes were made to Ibrox, but capacity was cut to approximately 80,000 by safety legislation.

Ibrox Park had the worst fan safety record in Britain before its complete redesign and renaming in 1997. Two fans died in September 1961 when a barrier collapsed on Stairway 13, resulting in a crush. Stairway 13 was a popular exit from the East Terracing due to its proximity to Copland Road subway station and parking areas for the Rangers supporters' coaches, but it was often overcrowded and very steep. After this incident, Rangers installed safety measures, but further injuries were sustained in crushes on Stairway 13 in both 1967 and 1969. On 23 October 1968, the main stand at Ibrox was hit by fire. Just seven months later there was another fire, which destroyed more than 200 seats behind the directors box. The worst disaster to date to affect football in Britain happened after the Old Firm game on 2 January 1971, when 66 people died of asphyxiation due to another crush on Stairway 13. The game itself ended in a 1–1 draw, with Colin Stein scoring a late equalising goal for Rangers. This led to a widespread belief that the crush had been caused by fans who had left the game early, but had turned back when they heard the roar that greeted the Rangers goal. A public inquiry discounted this initial story. It established that the crowd had been travelling in the same direction when the crush happened, with it perhaps being precipitated by some bending over to pick up items that had been discarded during the goal celebrations. The downward force of the crowd leaving the stadium meant that when people started to fall there was no means of preventing a crush.

The inquiry and subsequent compensation cases found that Rangers had been inept in their administration and complacent after the incidents in the 1960s. The disaster also highlighted, however, the fact that there were no established safety standards that should be adhered to, let alone any means of enforcing such standards. This had been first recommended nearly 50 years earlier, after the 1923 FA Cup Final. The Guide to Safety at Sports Grounds was published in 1973, and legislation was enacted with the Safety of Sports Grounds Act 1975. This law cut the capacity of Ibrox to 65,000. In the short term, Rangers took the stopgap measure of installing benches in the North Stand, which was renamed the Centenary Stand.

Ibrox Stadium (1997–present)
The 1971 Ibrox disaster led to the club developing a modern, safe stadium. Willie Waddell visited modern grounds in West Germany during the 1974 World Cup and believed that steep terracing and exits, such as Stairway 13, had to be replaced. The cut in capacity and boardroom changes led to radical plans by architects Miller Partnership, which were published in November 1977. The plans were modelled on the Westfalenstadion, home ground of Borussia Dortmund. They involved a radical reshaping of the stadium, with the old bowl-shaped terracing to be replaced by three new all-seated structures. Only the old Main Stand would remain, with its enclosure providing the only standing room in the ground.

Although later events, such as the Hillsborough disaster and the subsequent Taylor Report, vindicated this plan, Rangers were taking a significant risk. The whole plan was estimated to cost £6 million, which no other club could have afforded in a short period of time. The development was funded by the Rangers football pools operation, which was the largest club-based scheme in Britain. The first phase of the plan, which began in 1978, was the removal of the east terracing and its replacement with the Copland Road stand. The same process was repeated on the west side of the ground a year later, with the two identical stands each holding 7,500 seats. The redevelopment was completed in 1981 with the replacement of the Centenary Stand by the 10,300 capacity Govan Stand.

The new Ibrox had a capacity of 44,000 and was opened with an Old Firm game played on 19 September 1981. By this time, however, the development cost had risen to £10 million, which depleted the club financially. This resulted in a difficult period in the history of Rangers, as the average attendance fell to 17,500 in the 1981–82 season, including a crowd of only 4,500 for a game against St Mirren. The redeveloped stadium was partly blamed for this, as some fans felt that the new ground lacked atmosphere due to the spaces between the stands. This was during a period of low attendances in Scottish football in general, but also because of Rangers' generally poor performance at the time - between 1979 and 1986, Rangers never finished higher than 3rd. Despite this, Rangers had the highest average home attendances in the Premier Division in both 1983–84 and 1984–85.

This all changed when a new regime, chaired by David Holmes, took control of Rangers in 1986. Graeme Souness was appointed player–manager, while several English stars, including Terry Butcher and Chris Woods, were signed. Season ticket sales rose from 7,000 in 1986 to over 30,000 in the 1990s, while commercial income increased from £239,000 in 1986 to over £2 million in 1989. The introduction of computerised ticketing, zonal public address systems and closed-circuit television for monitoring turnstile areas meant that Ibrox was at the forefront of stadium management. Rangers also adopted the American technique of analysing the types of fans in each area of the stadium and adjusted their food stalls accordingly. Greater success on the pitch meant that Ibrox demonstrated that seated stadiums would be welcomed by most fans, if designed and fitted well.

Stadium design
The Ibrox pitch is surrounded by four covered all-seater stands, officially known as the Bill Struth Main (south), Broomloan Road (west), Sandy Jardine (north) and Copland Road (east) Stands. Each stand has two tiers, with the exception of the Bill Struth Main Stand, which has had three tiers since the Club Deck was added in 1991. The two corner areas, known as the West and East areas of the Sandy Jardine Stand, have one tier of seating below a JumboTron screen.

The Bill Struth Main Stand, formerly known as the Main Stand, faces onto Edmiston Drive (A8 road). The red-brick facade, designed by Archibald Leitch, is a Category B listed building. Simon Inglis, writing in 1996, described it as an "imposing red-brick facade, with its mock neo-classical arched, square and pedimented windows, exudes prestige and power." On each end wall the club crest is depicted in a blue and gold mosaic. Stairtowers leading to the Club Deck (third tier) stand at each end of the Main Stand. These towers are also framed in red-brick, but deliberately contrast with the main body of the stand. The two stairtowers also support a 146 m long and 540 t truss, claimed to be the longest and heaviest clear span girder in the world.

Through the main doors of the Main Stand is a wood-panelled hallway. A marble staircase leads to the boardroom and trophy room. Inglis compared Ibrox to Highbury, in that it combined corporate power with a sense of tradition and solidity. It was originally constructed as a 10,000-seat stand above a standing enclosure. It was redeveloped in the early 1990s with the addition of the Club Deck and seating in the enclosure. It is now a three-tier all-seated structure, accommodating approximately 21,000 spectators. The front wall of the middle tier is one of the last surviving examples of the Leitch style of criss-cross detailing. The middle tier is split into front and rear sections, while the enclosure is split into east and west sections, either side of the retractable tunnel cover.

Opposite the Bill Struth Main Stand is the Sandy Jardine Stand formerly known as the Govan Stand. It is a two-tier stand, similar in style to the two end stands, which was completed in 1981. To the rear of the Govan Stand is the Argyle House extension, completed in 1990, which provides executive boxes, hospitality areas and office space. The Bar 72 area was added to the rear section of the Govan Stand in 2006. The Copland Road Stand, at the east end of the stadium, was completed in 1979 and now accommodates just over 8,000 fans. It is traditionally the 'Rangers end' of the ground and the team normally chooses to attack that end in the second half of matches. The western Broomloan Road Stand, which was completed in 1980, is identical to the opposite end. Although constructed as separate structures, the three stands have been linked since the mid-1990s, when two additional areas of seating were added to the corner areas. All of the stands are designed using the 'goalpost' structure, in which a large portal frame supports perpendicular beams on which roof cladding is secured. The Rangers Store is located in the corner between the Copland Road and Govan Stands.

Away fans are normally accommodated in the corner of the ground between the Broomloan and Govan Stands. Ibrox is seen as being an intimidating ground for visiting supporters. Rangers banned Celtic fans in 1994 from attending games at Ibrox, citing the damage caused to the Broomloan Stand by the visitors in previous derbies. The ban was lifted after one game, as the Scottish Football League passed a resolution preventing clubs from taking that action. Before the corners were filled in, away fans were accommodated in the lower tier of the Broomloan Stand. Rangers had to take action in 1996 to prevent their fans in the upper deck from throwing items at visitors. Celtic fans were normally given the whole of the Broomloan Stand for Old Firm derbies until 2018, when Rangers opted to restrict their allocation to the much smaller corner section.

Club Deck
David Murray acquired control of Rangers in November 1988. Argyle House, a £4 million extension behind the Govan Stand, was opened in 1990. This added executive boxes, office space and hospitality suites. A further series of developments was started in the early 1990s to increase capacity to over 50,000. Murray commissioned architect Gareth Hutchison to find a way of adding a third tier to the Main Stand. This was a highly complex process, as the Main Stand facade had become a listed building and Murray wanted the existing structure to remain open during construction. The contractors removed the original roof and added a temporary cover while the work carried on above. The Club Deck, which cost approximately £20 million, was opened with a league match against Dundee United in December 1991. The redevelopment of the Main Stand was partially financed by a Football Trust grant of £2 million and a debenture issue that raised £8.5 million. Ordinary fans bought debentures for between £1,000 and £1,650 each, which guaranteed the right to buy season tickets for at least 30 years, along with some other minor benefits.

Four columns were built through the existing Main Stand to support the Club Deck, which resulted in approximately 1,000 seats having a restricted view. After opening the Club Deck, Ibrox had a capacity of 44,500. When a new playing surface was installed in 1992, Rangers were able to add a further 1,300 seats to the front of three stands by lowering the pitch slightly. The only standing area of the ground, the enclosure of the Main Stand, was seated in 1994 to comply with the Taylor Report and UEFA regulations. The multi-coloured seats were replaced in 1995 with uniform blue seats. A further 1,200 seats were added in this process by reconfiguring passageways, giving a total capacity of 47,998.

The two spaces between the Govan, Copland and Broomloan Stands were filled in with seats and Jumbotron screens. The ground was officially renamed Ibrox Stadium after renovations were completed in 1997, when Ibrox had a capacity of just over 50,000.

Capacity and developments
Rangers have explored options to increase capacity at Ibrox. A report in the Daily Record in April 2007 claimed that Rangers were planning to increase capacity to 57,000, principally by removing the JumboTron screens and lowering the pitch to accommodate more seating. These plans were said to be dependent for finance upon improved performance by the team. In January 2008, Rangers announced that they were investigating three options to further develop Ibrox. One of the proposals would have resulted in a capacity of 70,000, by replacing three of the stands with a bowl-type structure. These plans were shelved by October 2008, however, due to the late-2000s financial crisis.

Alongside changes to the stadium itself, Rangers have also sought to develop land around Ibrox. In partnership with the Las Vegas Sands corporation, the club received outline planning permission from Glasgow City Council for the development of land adjoining Ibrox as the home of a super casino. The casino was planned to be accompanied by a Rangers-themed leisure complex. Britain's Casino Advisory Panel reviewed bids from eight short-listed cities, including Glasgow, and in 2007 awarded the first licence to Manchester. There is no immediate prospect of the Ibrox proposal being resurrected, as Gordon Brown dropped the plans for super casinos soon after becoming Prime Minister. Rangers were given approval by Glasgow City Council in October 2008 to purchase land around Ibrox and redevelop the area with hotel and retail outlets. This scheme stalled, however, as regulations constrained what could be built in the area.

Three rows of seating were added to the front of the Govan Stand upper tier in 2006, linked to a new 'Bar 72' area, increasing the capacity to its present figure of. After opening the Bar 72 area in 2006, chief executive Martin Bain said that the scheme could be replicated in the Copland Stand. The Main Stand was renamed the Bill Struth Main Stand in September 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of his death.

In January 2023, Rangers added 170 new seats in the Sandy Jardine Rear Stand by removing hospitality boxes in the former Argyle House Restaurant (rebranding it as the Blue Sky Lounge) adding three rows of seats to the rear of the stand and more disabled seating, taking the capacity up to 50,987.

In June 2023, a fan engagement meeting at New Edmiston House was told that Rangers were investigating various options to increase capacity. Beyond the previously announced plan to radically improve disabled facilities that would provide a net gain of 600 seats, Rangers costed both partial and complete infills of the corners between the Sandy Jardine stand and the Broomloan and Copland stands. The partial infills could deliver an increase of 1,300 seats per corner (2,600 total), with full infills delivering 3–4,000 seats per corner (6-8,000 total). In addition, there was an option to lower the playing surface to increase capacity by 4,500 seats, but this would involve the team having to relocate for matches until the work was completed.

Sale of Ibrox Stadium, 2012
Rangers became insolvent in February 2012 and was unable to reach a company voluntary arrangement with its creditors, principally HM Revenue and Customs. Ibrox Stadium, along with the business and other assets of Rangers, was sold in June 2012 to a new company run by Charles Green.

Tributes and statues
On 16 July 2014, the club paid a tribute to Sandy Jardine by renaming the Govan Stand in his honour. Jardine won the league championship three times and the Scottish Cup five times with Rangers.

On 25 May 2024, a statue of former manager Walter Smith was unveiled in front of Ibrox's Copland Road Stand. Smith won ten league championships and five Scottish Cups with Rangers.

Football
Ibrox has been a home venue for the Scotland national football team 18 times, the third most of any ground. The first Ibrox Park (1887–99) hosted three internationals, giving an overall Ibrox total of 21. The ground most recently hosted a Scotland game in October 2014 (a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifier against Georgia, won 1–0) when Hampden Park was unavailable due to its temporary conversion to hold athletics in the 2014 Commonwealth Games. Ibrox hosted several internationals during the 1990s, particularly during two phases of redevelopment works at Hampden. Ibrox hosted four Scotland games in the first phase, starting with a 1994 World Cup qualifier against Portugal in October 1992. It was not a happy interlude for Scotland fans, however, as the team failed to qualify for the World Cup for the first time since 1970. Although the attendances at Ibrox were higher than at Hampden, some fans resented the fact that they were helping the finances of Rangers. and there were complaints about high ticket prices. During the second phase of work at Hampden, Scotland won an important 1998 World Cup qualifier against Sweden at Ibrox.

During these periods of redevelopment to Hampden, Ibrox also hosted the 1997 Scottish Cup Final, and the 1994 and 1997 Scottish League Cup Finals. Ibrox was on the approved UEFA list to host major European finals in the 1990s, but it lost out in a bid to host the 1996 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup Final because a convention threatened a shortage of hotel rooms in Glasgow. Ibrox continued to hold the top UEFA rating, but the Scottish Football Association instead proposed Hampden as a venue for European finals during the 2000s.

Non-football
King George V & Queen Mary visited Ibrox Park on 17 September 1917, to thank Glasgow and Clydeside for its efforts in the First World War. In the first ever public investiture in Scotland, and in front of 100,000, the King awarded medals to servicemen including three Victoria Crosses, 46 Military Medals and 33 Military Crosses. Four-fifths of the gathering were women - munitions workers, nurses and other war workers. For the 1938 Empire Exhibition being held in Bellahouston Park and which attracted over 13 million visitors, his son King George VI suggested the official opening ceremony be held in Ibrox Park, allowing 146,000 spectators to see the opening. His speech was broadcast live to the nation and throughout the Empire on the morning of 3 May 1938. This was used as source material by Colin Firth for his performance in The King's Speech movie.

Ibrox has been used for athletics competitions, Empire Games, and concerts, including performances by Simple Minds (1986), Frank Sinatra (1990), Rod Stewart (1995), Elton John (1998), Billy Joel (also 1998), Bon Jovi (1996, 2003 & 2007) and Harry Styles (2022).

In 1980, Ibrox hosted a world championship boxing match between Jim Watt and Howard Davis. Ibrox hosted the rugby sevens event at the 2014 Commonwealth Games, won by South Africa. There was a total attendance of 171,000 for the four sessions of play, which set a new record for a rugby sevens tournament.

The stadium hosted the 1983 Centenary Celebrations of The Boys' Brigade.

Transport
The main railway stations in Glasgow, Central and Queen Street, are both approximately two miles from Ibrox. The Ibrox and Cessnock stations on the Glasgow Subway both serve Ibrox. It is also served by First Glasgow buses on Paisley Road West. Ibrox sits near to the M8 motorway, with junction 23 being the closest exit, but the roads around Ibrox become congested on matchdays. There was an Ibrox railway station, on the main line linking Glasgow and Paisley, which was closed in 1967 under the Beeching cuts.

title: Ibrox Stadium


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Freundeskreis

Freundeskreis (meaning "Circle of Friends") also known as FK, were a German hip hop group from Stuttgart. They performed songs in German, English, French and Esperanto. The members were Max Herre, Don Philippe and DJ Friction.

They were a socially conscious German rap group that released three top twenty albums.

Freundeskreis
Freundeskreis were primarily known for their political lyrics, in which they advocate equality and international understanding. After the much-noticed first album, Quadratur des Kreises (Squaring the Circle), and its hit single "A-N-N-A" which peaked at #6 in the German charts, the band released its second album, Esperanto, named after the constructed language Esperanto. The reasoning for the name was that the group wished to show that they believe that hip hop should be the Esperanto of youth.

In 1999 and 2000, the band was back in the charts with the singles "Mit Dir" (With you; featuring Joy Denalane, who later become Herre's wife) and "Tabula Rasa Pt. II". For the soundtrack of the film 23, Freundeskreis covered the song "Halt dich an deiner Liebe fest" (Hold on to your love) written by Rio Reiser, voicing it on Lee "Scratch" Perry's police & thieves riddim. Freundeskreis was one of the first bands to take part in the Kolchose, a group of hip hop artists from Stuttgart.

In 2001, the band took a break for the members to pursue solo careers, the most active being Herre, who has released a solo album and works as producer for his wife.

A Freundeskreis greatest hits album was released in July 2007 under the title FK10. After announcing their breakup in summer 2007, Freundeskreis gave their last concert in Stuttgart on 19 September 2007.

Conscious lyrics
Freundeskreis have been considered as a conscious hip-hop artist as their lyrics have educational themes. The song "Leg Dein Ohr Auf Die Schiene Der Geschichte" (lay your ear on the tracks of history) asks listeners to look beyond what they were taught in history lessons and learn the real lessons of history.

Excerpts from "Leg Dein Ohr Auf Die Schiene Der Geschichte" "

 * viele Menschen schrecken zurück wenn sie "Geschichte" hör'n

 * Geschichte...

 * vier langweilige Stunden pro Woche in der Schule

 * neunzehnhundertdreiundsiebzig Geburtsjahr wichtig für mich

 * als auch geschichtlich denn da wurd' klar dass die C.I.A. 'ne Hure war

Rough translation:

 * many people step away when they hear "history"

 * History...

 * Four boring lessons in school a week

 * nineteenseventythree, birth year, important for me,

 * as well as historically, because then it became clear that the CIA was a whore

The rest of the song takes into account other historical events important to his year of birth, as well as other events throughout his childhood which are often overlooked. The chorus implores,

 * you're just a part of it so get to the heart of it

 * 'cause if you don't go you won't know

 * you're just a part of it get to the heart of it

 * 'cause if you don't go you never ever never ever gonna know

FK Allstars
FK Allstars was a collaboration of several hip hop, soul, and reggae artists, including Max Herre, Sekou Neblett, Afrob, Brooke Russell, Joy Denalane and Gentleman. Despite the FK Allstars band having its roots in hip hop, there are elements of reggae, soul, funk and jazz blended in.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Freundeskreis


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Norman Thagard

Norman Earl Thagard (born July 3, 1943; Capt, USMC, Ret.), is an American scientist and former U.S. Marine Corps officer and naval aviator and NASA astronaut. He is the first American to ride to space on board a Russian vehicle, and can be considered the first American cosmonaut. He did this on March 14, 1995, in the Soyuz TM-21 spacecraft for the Russian Mir-18 mission.

Experience
Thagard held a number of research and teaching posts while completing the academic requirements for various earned degrees.

In September 1966 he entered active duty with the United States Marine Corps Reserve. He achieved the rank of captain in 1967, was designated a Naval Aviator in 1968 and was subsequently assigned to duty flying F-4 Phantom IIs with VMFA-333 at Marine Corps Air Station Beaufort, South Carolina. He flew 163 combat missions in Vietnam while assigned to VMFA-115 from January 1969 to 1970. He returned to the United States and an assignment as aviation weapons division officer with VMFA-251 at the Marine Corps Air Station at Beaufort, South Carolina.

Thagard resumed his academic studies in 1971, pursuing additional studies in Electrical Engineering, and a degree in medicine. Before joining NASA, he was interning in the Department of Internal Medicine at the Medical University of South Carolina. He is a licensed physician.

He is a pilot and has logged more than 2,200 hours flying time, of which the majority was in jet aircraft.

NASA career
Thagard was selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in January 1978. In August 1979, he completed a one-year training and evaluation period, making him eligible for assignment as a mission specialist on future Space Shuttle flights. A veteran of five space flights, he logged over 140 days in space. He was a mission specialist on STS-7 in 1983, STS-51-B in 1985, STS-30 in 1989, was the payload commander on STS-42 in 1992, and was the cosmonaut/researcher on the Russian Mir-18 mission in 1995.

Thagard first flew on the crew of STS-7, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on June 18, 1983. This was the second flight for the Orbiter Challenger and the first mission with a crew of five persons. During the mission, the STS-7 crew deployed satellites for Canada (ANIK C-2) and Indonesia (Palapa B1); operated the Canadian-built Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to perform the first deployment and retrieval exercise with the Shuttle Pallet Satellite (SPAS-01); conducted the first formation flying of the Orbiter with a free-flying satellite (SPAS-01); carried and operated the first U.S./German cooperative materials science payload (OSTA-2); and operated the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System (CFES) and the Monodisperse Latex Reactor (MLR) experiments, in addition to activating seven "Getaway Specials." During the flight, Thagard conducted various medical tests and collected data on physiological changes associated with astronaut adaptation to space. He also retrieved the rotating SPAS-01 using the RMS. Mission duration was 147 hours before landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on June 24, 1983.

Thagard then flew on STS-51-B, the Spacelab-3 science mission, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 29, 1985, aboard Challenger. He assisted the commander and pilot on ascent and entry. Mission duration was 168 hours. Duties on orbit included satellite deployment operation with the NUSAT satellite as well as animal care for the 24 rats and two squirrel monkeys contained in the Research Animal Holding Facility (RAHF). Other duties were operation of the Geophysical Fluid Flow Cell (GFFC), Urinary Monitoring System (UMS) and the Ionization States of Solar and Galactic Cosmic Ray Heavy Nuclei (IONS) experiment. After 110 orbits of the Earth, Challenger landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 6, 1985.

He next served on the crew of STS-30, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on May 4, 1989, aboard the Orbiter Atlantis. During this four-day mission, crew members deployed the Magellan Venus-exploration spacecraft, the first U.S. planetary science mission launched since 1978, and the first planetary probe to be deployed from the Shuttle. Magellan arrived at Venus in mid-1990 and mapped the entire surface of Venus using specialized radar instruments. In addition, crew members also worked on secondary payloads involving fluid research in general, chemistry and electrical storm studies. Mission duration was 97 hours. Following 64 orbits of the Earth, the STS-30 mission concluded with a landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on May 8, 1989.

Thagard served as payload commander on STS-42, aboard the orbiter Discovery, which lifted off from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on January 22, 1992. Fifty five major experiments conducted in the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 module were provided by investigators from eleven countries, and represented a broad spectrum of scientific disciplines. During 128 orbits of the Earth, the STS-42 crew accomplished the mission's primary objective of investigating the effects of microgravity on materials processing and life sciences. In this unique laboratory in space, crew members worked around-the-clock in two shifts. Experiments investigated the microgravity effects on the growth of protein and semiconductor crystals. Biological experiments on the effects of zero gravity on plants, tissues, bacteria, insects and human vestibular response were also conducted. This eight-day mission culminated in a landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on January 30, 1992.

On his last mission, Thagard was a crew member for the Russian Mir 18 mission. Twenty-eight experiments were conducted in the course of the 115-day flight. Liftoff was from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan on March 14, 1995. The mission culminated in a landing at the Kennedy Space Center in the Space Shuttle Atlantis on July 7, 1995.

Current activities and positions

 * Tenured Professor at the FAMU - FSU College of Engineering.
 * Co-founder and executive director, Challenger Learning Center of Tallahassee, with shuttle/mission control/space station simulators, digital space theater/planetarium and IMAX theater.
 * Member of the Board of Directors of EMS Technologies, Inc. EMS is an Atlanta-based communications company.
 * Member, Editorial Review Board of the Journal of the Society for Human Performance in Extreme Environments.
 * Distinguished Lecturer for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics.
 * He is an aerospace consultant and was technical advisor for Virus, a 1999 film starring Jamie Lee Curtis and Donald Sutherland, and for Armageddon (1998) starring Bruce Willis, Ben Affleck, and Liv Tyler.
 * Advisor for Space Adventures, Ltd., a company offering aerospace experiences, including orbital flight.

Organizations

 * American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics
 * Aerospace Medical Association
 * Phi Kappa Phi
 * Tallahassee Symphony Orchestra

Awards and honors

 * Inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame (2004)
 * Who's Who In America; Who's Who In Science and Engineering
 * Erskine Visiting Fellow, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand (2001)
 * Designated Honorary Conch and Citizen of the Florida Keys (2000)
 * Participated in the 1998 Tournament of Roses Parade in Pasadena, California, on an award-winning float ("Best Animation")
 * Admitted to FSU's Circle of Gold Honorary Society (1998)
 * A small portion of Jacksonville, Florida's 5th Street, in front of his alma mater, Paxon High School, renamed "Norman E. Thagard" Blvd (1998)
 * Recognized in Guinness Book of Records for setting U.S. human space flight records (1997)
 * The Society of NASA Flight Surgeons' 1997 W. Randolph Lovelace Award
 * Recipient of Russia's Order of Friendship, presented personally by Russian Federation President Boris Yeltsin (1996)
 * Named as one of NASA's 15 "Superstars of Space Flight" (1996)
 * Inducted into New Mexico's International Space Hall of Fame (1996)
 * American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics' 1996 Jeffries Medical Research Award
 * Aerospace Medical Association's 1996 Hubertus Strughold Award for Space Medicine
 * At the request of the Smithsonian Institution, his Russian "SOKOL" space suit was donated to the National Air & Space Museum (1996)
 * Henry G. Armstrong Lecturer in Aerospace Medicine (1996)
 * Florida Senate Commendation Resolution (1996)
 * City of Tallahassee Commendation Proclamation (1995 and 2004)
 * Aviation Week & Space Technology's 1995 Laurels Award
 * American Astronautical Society's 1983 and 1995 Melbourne W. Boynton Award
 * Florida State University's "Grad Made Good" Award (1983) and Wescott Medal (1995)
 * Designated by the Commandant of the Marine Corps an honorary Naval Astronaut Pilot (1992)
 * Florida State University's student health center designated the "Thagard Student Health Center" by legislative act (1986)
 * NASA Space Flight Medals
 * NASA Distinguished Service Medal
 * NASA Sustained Superior Performance Award (twice)
 * Air Medals (11)
 * The Navy Commendation Medal with Combat "V"
 * The Marine Corps "E" Award
 * The Vietnam Service Medal
 * The Vietnamese Cross of Gallantry with Palm

title: Norman Thagard


text: User talk:64.12.96.102

title: User talk:64.12.96.102


text:
User talk:Phongn

Hello Phongn, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. Drop us a note at New user log so we can meet you and help you get started. If you need editing help, visit How to edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. Alex S 19:17, 31 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Re B-36: interesting to know. I'd heard the reports of a 50,000ft plus actual ceiling, too. —Morven 02:34, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Image tagging for Image:KHNL Airport Diagram.png
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AfD nomination of TCS Confederation
An article that you have been involved in editing, TCS Confederation, has been listed for deletion. If you are interested in the deletion discussion, please participate by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/TCS Confederation (2nd nomination). Thank you. BJBot (talk) 13:14, 31 December 2007 (UTC)

Nomination of Dia de los Muertos (2015 film) for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Dia de los Muertos (2015 film) is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Dia de los Muertos (2015 film) until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article.  McDoob AU  93  20:51, 26 April 2012 (UTC)

Nomination of Inside the Mind for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Inside the Mind is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Inside the Mind until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion template from the top of the article.  McDoob AU  93  11:59, 28 April 2012 (UTC)

Please stop
Please read WP:NFF, and read the comments at the deletion debates on your two articles. Creating articles about 2015 films is just a waste of everyone's time. JohnCD (talk) 20:27, 29 April 2012 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
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title: User talk:Phongn


text:
Byronic hero

The Byronic hero is a variant of the Romantic hero as a type of character, named after the English Romantic poet Lord Byron. Historian and critic Lord Macaulay described the character as "a man proud, moody, cynical, with defiance on his brow, and misery in his heart, a scorner of his kind, implacable in revenge, yet capable of deep and strong affection".

Both Byron's own persona as well as characters from his writings are considered to provide defining features to the character type.

The Byronic hero first reached a very wide public in Byron's semi-autobiographical epic narrative poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage (1812–1818). Despite Byron's clarifying Childe was a fictitious character in the preface of the work, "the public immediately associated Byron with his gloomy hero", with readers "convinced ... that Byron and Childe were one and the same".

Byron's poems with Oriental settings show more "swashbuckling" and decisive versions of the type. Later works show Byron progressively distancing himself from the figure by providing alternative hero types, like Sardanapalus (Sardanapalus), Juan (Don Juan) or Torquil ("The Island"), or, when the figure is present, by presenting him as less sympathetic (Alp in "The Siege of Corinth") or criticising him through the narrator or other characters. Byron would later attempt such a turn in his own life when he joined the Greek War of Independence, with fatal results, though recent studies show him acting with greater political acumen and less idealism than previously thought. The actual circumstances of his death from disease in Greece were unglamorous in the extreme, but back in England these details were ignored in the many works promoting his myth.

Origins
The initial version of the type in Byron's work, Childe Harold, draws on a variety of earlier literary characters including Hamlet, Goethe's Werther (1774), and William Godwin's Mr. Faulkland in Caleb Williams (1794); he was also noticeably similar to René, the hero of Chateaubriand's novella of 1802, although Byron may not have read this. Ann Radcliffe's "unrepentant" Gothic villains (beginning in 1789 with the publication of The Castles of Athlin and Dunbayne, a Highland Story) also foreshadow a moody, egotistical Byronic "villain" nascent in Byron's own juvenilia, some of which looks back to Byron's Gordon relations, Highland aristocrats or Jacobites now lost between two worlds. For example, in Byron's early poem "When I Roved a Young Highlander" (1808), we see a reflection of Byron's youthful Scottish connection, but also find these lines:

As the last of my race, I must wither alone, And delight but in days, I have witness'd before:

These lines echo William Wordsworth's treatment of James Macpherson's Ossian in "Glen-Almain" (1807):

That Ossian, last of all his race! Lies buried in this lonely place.

Thus Byron's poem seems to show that a brooding, melancholy influence not only from Wordsworth but also from Macpherson was very much on his mind at an early date.

After Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, the Byronic hero made an appearance in many of Byron's other works, including his series of poems on Oriental themes: The Giaour (1813), The Corsair (1814) and Lara (1814); and his closet play Manfred (1817). For example, Byron described Conrad, the pirate hero of his The Corsair (1814), as follows:

That man of loneliness and mystery, Scarce seen to smile, and seldom heard to sigh— (I, VIII) and He knew himself a villain—but he deem'd The rest no better than the thing he seem'd; And scorn'd the best as hypocrites who hid Those deeds the bolder spirit plainly did. He knew himself detested, but he knew The hearts that loath'd him, crouch'd and dreaded too. Lone, wild, and strange, he stood alike exempt From all affection and from all contempt: (I, XI)

Public reaction and following
Admiration of Byron continued to be fervent in the years following his death, despite claims from author Peter L. Thorslev that the literary culture of the Byronic Hero "died in England almost with Byron". Notable fans included Alfred Tennyson: fourteen at the time of Byron's death, and so grieved at the poet's passing, he carved the words "Byron is dead" on a rock near his home in Somersby, declaring the "world had darkened for him". However, the admiration of Byron as a character led some fans to emulate characteristics of the Byronic hero. Foremost was Wilfrid Scawen Blunt, who took the Byron cult to remarkable extremes. His marriage to Byron's granddaughter, taking a "Byron pilgrimage" around the Continent and his anti-imperialist stance that saw him become an outcast just like his hero cemented his commitment to emulating the Byronic character. For professor David Michael Jones, the Byronic Hero becomes an expression of masculinity that "is changed, repressed, and reformatted through the long nineteenth century".

Literary usage and other influences
Byron's influence is manifest in many authors and artists of the Romantic movement and writers of Gothic fiction during the 19th century. Lord Byron was the model for the title character of Glenarvon (1816) by Byron's erstwhile lover Lady Caroline Lamb; and for Lord Ruthven in The Vampyre (1819) by Byron's personal physician, John William Polidori. Edmond Dantes from Alexandre Dumas' The Count of Monte Cristo (1844), Heathcliff from Emily Brontë's Wuthering Heights (1847), and Rochester from Charlotte Brontë's Jane Eyre (1847) are other later 19th-century examples of Byronic heroes.

In later Victorian literature, the Byronic character only seemed to survive as a solitary figure, resigned to suffering. However, Charles Dickens' representation of the character is more complex than that. Steerforth in David Copperfield manifests the concept of the "fallen angel" aspect of the Byronic hero; his violent temper and seduction of Emily should turn the reader, and indeed David, against him. But it does not. He still retains a fascination, as David admits in the aftermath of discovering what Steerforth has done to Emily. He may have done wrong, but David cannot bring himself to hate him. Steerforth's occasional outbreaks of remorse reveal a tortured character, echoing a Byronic remorse. Harvey concludes that Steerforth is a remarkable blend of both villain and hero, and exploration of both sides of the Byronic character.

Scholars have also drawn parallels between the Byronic hero and the so-called superfluous man, solipsist heroes of Russian literature. In particular, Alexander Pushkin's famous character Eugene Onegin echoes many of the attributes seen in Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, such as solitary brooding and disrespect for traditional privilege. The first stages of Pushkin's poetic novel Eugene Onegin appeared twelve years after Byron's Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, and Byron was of obvious influence (Vladimir Nabokov argued in his Commentary to Eugene Onegin that Pushkin had read Byron during his years in exile just prior to composing Eugene Onegin). The same character themes continued to influence Russian literature, particularly after Mikhail Lermontov invigorated the Byronic hero through the character Pechorin in his 1839 novel A Hero of Our Time.

The Byronic hero is also featured in many contemporary novels, and has played a role in modern literature as the precursor to a popular form of antihero. Erik, the Phantom from Gaston Leroux's Phantom of the Opera (1909–1910) is a well-known example from the first half of the twentieth century, while Ian Fleming's James Bond (if not his cinematic incarnations) shows all the earmarks in the second half: "Lonely, melancholy, of fine natural physique, which has become in some way ravaged ... dark and brooding in expression, of a cold and cynical veneer, above all enigmatic, in possession of a sinister secret."

Modernity
Different iterations of the Byronic Hero are also recognisable in pop culture. Many researchers have already connected the figure of the Byronic Hero to mainstream Hollywood characters: Christopher Nolan's interpretation of Bruce Wayne as superhero vigilante Batman has been described as embodying “the dark side of human possibilities”, where his “moral code does not align with the law.” Christian Bale's portrayal of the character in the Dark Knight trilogy was described by Nolan as "exactly the balance of darkness and light that we were looking for." The Star Wars franchise has also repeatedly dealt with themes of temptation and corruption relating to the central conflict between a "Light Side" and a "Dark Side", as embodied by the character of Anakin Skywalker. The undisputed villain of the original Star Wars trilogy achieves some sense of redemption when audiences get insight of the manipulation and mind control he became the victim of, which inevitably led him to become the infamous Darth Vader. This ambiguity and his close relationship with darkness (literal and figuratively) places him right in the centre of the Byronic Hero archetype.

Byronic heroine
There are also suggestions of the potential of a Byronic heroine in Byron's works. Charles J. Clancy argues that Aurora Raby in Don Juan possesses many of the characteristics typical of a Byronic hero. Described as "silent, lone" in the poem, her life has indeed been spent in isolation – she has been orphaned from birth. She validates Thorslev's assertion that Byronic heroes are "invariably solitaries". Yet, like her male counterpart, she evokes an interest from those around her, "There was awe in the homage which she drew". Again, this is not dissimilar to the description of the fascination that Byron himself encountered wherever he went. Her apparent mournful nature is also reminiscent of the regretful mien of the Byronic hero. She is described as having deeply sad eyes, "Eyes which sadly shone, as Seraphs' shine". This was a specific characteristic of the Byronic hero. This seems to express a despair with humanity, not unlike the despair present in Byron's Cain, as Thorslev notes. She herself admits to despairing at "man's decline", therefore this brings her into direct comparison with Cain's horror at the destruction of humanity.

title: Byronic hero


text:
Talk:Moby-Dick

"decline" vs. "conjugate"
Dear all The current version says "Pip declines the verb "look"."

It would be better to write "Pip conjugates the verb "look"."

One declines nouns, adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, etc. Verbs are always conjugated. Emiru678 (talk) 18:48, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

Style & Carlyle
Melville borrowed much more from other writers than writers usually do. The writing style of MD is perhaps complex enough to warrant subsections on the most important specific influences. The top three are the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton. As it stands now, the second paragraph of Assimilation of Shakespeare sets forth, with citations, how the creation of Ahab was influenced by a lecture of Coleridge on Shakespeare's main characters. Yet the final paragraph of the subsection on Carlyle claims that it was Carlyle who made Ahab possible. Further, the sentence accounted for with note 61 makes it look like Carlyle influenced the whole book, but the publication cited in note 61 is about "Carlyle and the Conclusion of MD". Last, the sentence accounted for with note 62 has the phrase "MAY have been borrowed from Sartor", while the number of books that are proven sources is already too large to be covered entirely in this article.

My proposal, then, is that only those authors who, according to scholars, have influenced the style of the whole book, not just a few chapters, are candidates for a subsection of their own. MackyBeth (talk) 22:25, 23 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Good to refine and develop these points, as the article is still rough in many respects. But I'm not clear what your proposal would specifically do. Cut the Carlyle section? Qualify the sentence referenced by note 61? ch (talk) 20:53, 26 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Just thinking out loud here. Imagine this article would have FA-status. Besides Shakespeare, the stylistic influence of the Bible and Milton may be large enough to warrant subsections of the Style section, while I don't think the article will still have a subsection on the stylistic influence of Carlyle alone. But I am not  yet familiar enough with the scholarship on the lesser influences on MD to have a firm conviction about what needs to be said about them, and about which of these influences. O, BTW: it is of course not my own opinion that the Bible, Shakespeare and Milton are the most important influences, I read that in the Introduction of Mary K. Bercaw-Edwards 1987 book on Melville's Sources. MackyBeth (talk) 22:29, 26 April 2024 (UTC)
 * But there are quite a few references to C's influence on the whole book, for instance, as "prototype" for his iconoclastic style and Ahab as an appopriation of C's "Hero". ch (talk) 22:52, 27 April 2024 (UTC)
 * As I said above, what Arac (1989) says about the influence of Carlyle's "Hero" seems to me a misattribution: the real influence here is Coleridge's lecture on Shakespeare, as identified in 1940. But Wikipedia editors will have to follow what scholars think of this, of course. The biographies of Parker and Delbanco should discuss Carlyle if they think Arac is convincing enough. MackyBeth (talk) 10:05, 28 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Checked Delbanco and Parker in the library. The influence of Carlyle's "Hero" is well established: not only do both Delbanco and Parker mention that title as a source, but Parker refers to the "Explanatory Notes" in the 1949 Hendricks House edition of MD, so this has been known for a long time. Parker, on page 699-700, enumerates the influences upon MD, with short specifications of what kind of influence each source exactly had. This list is long, and starts with the Bible, Shakespeare, and Milton, so apparently the major influences are named first. Carlyle appears somewhere in the middle of the list. Which means, that if Carlyle should have a subsection, then all of the sources above him are candidates for one as well, and that would be something for a separate Wikipedia article called something like "Literary influences on Moby-Dick." MackyBeth (talk) 18:58, 28 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Moby-Dick


text:
Youth Action Network

The Youth Action Network (formerly the National Federation of Youth Action Agencies) was a UK-wide youth organisation that promotes volunteering by young people in their communities.

The organisation was set up in 1989 under the name World Affairs Canada as a support network for Youth Action Agencies across the country, it later changed name to Youth Action Network in 1995. It was supported itself by the National Youth Agency, though this support ceased with the launch of Millennium Volunteers in 1999.

One of the chief successes of the organisation has been the development of a quality assurance model, based on PQASSO, for its members.

It merged into NCVYS on 9 March 2012

Youth Action Network members include:
 * Aylesbury Youth Action (founder member)
 * Youth Action Cambridge (founder member)
 * Solent Youth Action
 * The Ivy Project

Youth Action Network currently has around 100 member organisations which pay an annual fee to be a member of the network.

May also stand for young adult novel, in certain circumstances, including and not limited to fanfictions. These fanfictions often refer to movies in the late 20th century.

title: Youth Action Network


text:
Wisconsin State Assembly

The Wisconsin State Assembly is the lower house of the Wisconsin Legislature. Together with the smaller Wisconsin Senate, the two constitute the legislative branch of the U.S. state of Wisconsin.

Representatives are elected for two-year terms, elected during the fall elections. If a vacancy occurs in an Assembly seat between elections, it may be filled only by a special election.

The Wisconsin Constitution limits the size of the State Assembly to between 54 and 100 members inclusive. Since 1973, the state has been divided into 99 Assembly districts apportioned amongst the state based on population as determined by the decennial census, for a total of 99 representatives. From 1848 to 1853 there were 66 assembly districts; from 1854 to 1856, 82 districts; from 1857 to 1861, 97 districts; and from 1862 to 1972, 100 districts. The size of the Wisconsin State Senate is tied to the size of the Assembly; it must be between one-fourth and one-third the size of the Assembly. Presently, the Senate has 33 members, with each Senate district formed by combining three neighboring Assembly districts.

The Assembly is heavily gerrymandered, with a 53–45% Democratic majority in the popular vote in the 2018 election translating into a 63–36 Republican majority in the Assembly. According to the Oshkosh Northwestern, many experts recognize Wisconsin as the most gerrymandered state in the United States, a claim rated "Mostly True" by Politifact. After the Republican redistricting in 2021, the Wisconsin Center for Investigative Journalism reported the efficiency gap had further increased to 16.6% in favor of Republicans.

On December 22, 2023, the Wisconsin Supreme Court ruled in Clarke v. Wisconsin Elections Commission that the gerrymandered districts were unconstitutional and must be redrawn before the 2024 legislative elections.

The Assembly chamber is located in the west wing of the Wisconsin State Capitol building, in Madison, Wisconsin.

History
The United States first organized Wisconsin in 1787 under the Northwest Ordinance after Great Britain yielded the land to them in the Treaty of Paris. It became the Wisconsin Territory in 1836. The then-territorial assembly, after elections, was seated in Burlington for three sessions before they relocated to the permanent capital, Madison.

During the period of territorial assembly, the assembled members helped to set up the court system, established the borders and number of counties, and regularized the spelling of Wisconsin. In 1842, an assemblyman (Charles Arndt, a Whig of Brown County) was shot dead by another assemblyman, James Vineyard, a Democrat of Grant County, over an appointment for Grant County sheriff.

Wisconsin became a U.S. state on May 29, 1848, and special elections were held to fill the first session of the State Assembly; at the time, the body consisted of 66 members. The Assembly was expanded to 82 seats in 1852, and then to 97 seats in 1856, then to 100 seats in 1861, which is the maximum allowed in the Constitution of Wisconsin. The membership remained at 100 seats until the 1971 redistricting act, which decreased membership to 99 in order to comply with federal equal representation requirements within the limits of the Wisconsin Constitution. The current number of 99 seats is set in order to maintain a 3:1 ratio of Assembly to Senate seats.

On July 8, 2015, a case was filed with the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Wisconsin arguing that Wisconsin's 2011 state assembly map was unconstitutional partisan gerrymandering favoring the Republican-controlled legislature which discriminated against Democratic voters. This case became filed with the court as Whitford v Gill. The case made it to the United States Supreme Court, which vacated and remanded the case. The Supreme Court held that the plaintiff challenging the state assembly map did not have standing to sue. In the Opinion of the Court, Chief Justice John Roberts stated that "[a] federal court is not 'a forum for generalized grievances," and the requirement of such a personal stake 'ensures that courts exercise power that is judicial in nature." Gill v. Whitford, 128 S.Ct. 1916 (2018). We enforce that requirement by insisting that a plaintiff [have] Article III standing..." Justice Elena Kagan filed a concurring opinion, in which Justices Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Stephen Breyer, and Sonia Sotomayor joined. Justice Clarence Thomas filed an opinion concurring in part and concurring in the judgment, in which Justice Neil Gorsuch joined.

Salary and benefits
Representatives elected or re-elected in the fall of 2016 receive an annual salary of $57,408.

In addition to their salaries, representatives are allowed to claim a per diem for travel expenses. The maximum rate is set by the 2001 Wisconsin Act 16 to 90% of the U.S. General Services Administration rate, but the houses are permitted to establish additional criteria for determining per diem. The State Assembly per diem is set to $155.70 per overnight stay and $77.85 for day visits. A maximum of 153 days may be claimed for per diem in 2023, and 80 days may be claimed in 2024. Over two years, each representative is allotted $12,000 to cover general office expenses, printing, postage and district mailings.

According to a 1960 study, at that time Assembly salaries and benefits were so low that in Milwaukee County, positions on the County Board of Supervisors and the Milwaukee Common Council were considered more desirable than seats in the Assembly, and an average of 23% of Milwaukee legislators did not seek re-election. This pattern was not seen to hold to the same extent in the rest of the state, where local offices tended to pay less well.

Members
The corresponding state senate districts are shown as a senate district is formed by nesting three assembly districts.

Committees
The following is a list of the Assembly Committees:

 * Review of Administrative Rules
 * Aging and Long-Term Care
 * Agriculture
 * Assembly Organization
 * Audit
 * Campaigns and Elections
 * Children and Families
 * Colleges and Universities
 * Constitution and Ethics
 * Consumer Protection
 * Corrections
 * Criminal Justice and Public Safety
 * Education
 * Employment Relations
 * Energy and Utilities
 * Environment
 * Family Law
 * Finance
 * Financial Institutions
 * Forestry, Parks and Outdoor Recreation
 * Government Accountability and Oversight
 * Health
 * Housing and Real Estate
 * Insurance
 * Jobs and the Economy
 * Judiciary
 * Labor and Integrated Employment
 * Local Government
 * Mental Health
 * Public Benefit Reform
 * Regulatory Licensing Reform
 * Rules
 * Rural Development
 * Science, Technology, and Broadband
 * Small Business Development
 * Sporting Heritage
 * State Affairs
 * Substance Abuse and Prevention
 * Tourism
 * Transportation
 * Veterans and Military Affairs
 * Ways and Means
 * Workforce Development
 * Speaker's Task Force on Racial Disparities
 * Special Committee on Trade and Supply Chain
 * Subcommittee on Education and Economic Development
 * Subcommittee on Law Enforcement Policies and Standards

title: Wisconsin State Assembly


text:
IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry

In chemical nomenclature, the IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry is a method of naming organic chemical compounds as recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). It is published in the Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry (informally called the Blue Book). Ideally, every possible organic compound should have a name from which an unambiguous structural formula can be created. There is also an IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry.

To avoid long and tedious names in normal communication, the official IUPAC naming recommendations are not always followed in practice, except when it is necessary to give an unambiguous and absolute definition to a compound. IUPAC names can sometimes be simpler than older names, as with ethanol, instead of ethyl alcohol. For relatively simple molecules they can be more easily understood than non-systematic names, which must be learnt or looked over. However, the common or trivial name is often substantially shorter and clearer, and so preferred. These non-systematic names are often derived from an original source of the compound. Also, very long names may be less clear than structural formulas.

Basic principles
In chemistry, a number of prefixes, suffixes and infixes are used to describe the type and position of the functional groups in the compound.

The steps for naming an organic compound are:
 * 1) Identification of the most senior group. If more than one functional group, if any, is present, the one with highest group precedence should be used.
 * 2) Identification of the ring or chain with the maximum number of senior groups.
 * 3) Identification of the ring or chain with the most senior elements (In order: N, P, Si, B, O, S, C).
 * 4) Identification of the parent compound. Rings are senior to chains if composed of the same elements.
 * 5) For cyclic systems: Identification of the parent cyclic ring. The cyclic system must obey these rules, in order of precedence:
 * 6) It should have the most senior heteroatom (in order: N, O, S, P, Si, B).
 * 7) It should have the maximum number of rings.
 * 8) It should have the maximum number of atoms.
 * 9) It should have the maximum number of heteroatoms.
 * 10) It should have the maximum number of senior heteroatoms (in order: O, S, N, P, Si, B).
 * 11) For chains: Identification of the parent hydrocarbon chain. This chain must obey the following rules, in order of precedence:
 * 12) It should have the maximum length.
 * 13) It should have the maximum number of heteroatoms.
 * 14) It should have the maximum number of senior heteroatoms (in order: O, S, N, P, Si, B).
 * 15) For cyclic systems and chains after previous rules:
 * 16) It should have the maximum number of multiple, then double bonds.
 * 17) It should have the maximum number of substituents of the suffix functional group. By suffix, it is meant that the parent functional group should have a suffix, unlike halogen substituents. If more than one functional group is present, the one with highest group precedence should be used.
 * 18) Identification of the side-chains. Side chains are the carbon chains that are not in the parent chain, but are branched off from it.
 * 19) Identification of the remaining functional groups, if any, and naming them by their ionic prefixes (such as hydroxy for \sOH, oxy for \dO, oxyalkane for O\sR, etc.). Different side-chains and functional groups will be grouped together in alphabetical order. (The multiplier prefixes di-, tri-, etc. are not taken into consideration for grouping alphabetically. For example, ethyl comes before dihydroxy or dimethyl, as the "e" in "ethyl" precedes the "h" in "dihydroxy" and the "m" in "dimethyl" alphabetically. The "di" is not considered in either case). When both side chains and secondary functional groups are present, they should be written mixed together in one group rather than in two separate groups.
 * 20) Identification of double/triple bonds.
 * 21) Numbering of the chain. This is done by first numbering the chain in both directions (left to right and right to left), and then choosing the numbering which follows these rules, in order of precedence. Not every rule will apply to every compound, rules can be skipped if they do not apply.
 * 22) Has the lowest-numbered locant (or locants) for heteroatoms. Locants are the numbers on the carbons to which the substituent is directly attached.
 * 23) Has the lowest-numbered locants for the indicated hydrogen. The indicated hydrogen is for some unsaturated heterocyclic compounds. It refers to the hydrogen atoms not attached to atoms with double bonds in the ring system.
 * 24) Has the lowest-numbered locants for the suffix functional group.
 * 25) Has the lowest-numbered locants for multiple bonds ('ene', 'yne'), and hydro prefixes. (The locant of a multiple bond is the number of the adjacent carbon with a lower number).
 * 26) Has the lowest-numbered locants for all substituents cited by prefixes.
 * 27) Has the lowest-numbered locants for substituents in order of citation (for example: in a cyclic ring with only bromine and chlorine functional groups, alphabetically bromo- is cited before chloro- and would receive the lower locant).
 * 28) Numbering of the various substituents and bonds with their locants. If there is more than one of the same type of substituent/double bond, a prefix is added showing how many there are (di – 2, tri – 3, tetra – 4, then as for the number of carbons below with 'a' added at the end)

The numbers for that type of side chain will be grouped in ascending order and written before the name of the side-chain. If there are two side-chains with the same alpha carbon, the number will be written twice. Example: 2,2,3-trimethyl-. If there are both double bonds and triple bonds, "en" (double bond) is written before "yne" (triple bond). When the main functional group is a terminal functional group (a group which can exist only at the end of a chain, like formyl and carboxyl groups), there is no need to number it.

Wherever it says "with numbers", it is understood that between the word and the numbers, the prefix (di-, tri-) is used.
 * 1) Arrangement in this form: Group of side chains and secondary functional groups with numbers made in step 6 + prefix of parent hydrocarbon chain (eth, meth) + double/triple bonds with numbers (or "ane") + primary functional group suffix with numbers.
 * 1) Adding of punctuation:
 * 2) Commas are put between numbers (2 5 5 becomes 2,5,5)
 * 3) Hyphens are put between a number and a letter (2 5 5 trimethylheptane becomes 2,5,5-trimethylheptane)
 * 4) Successive words are merged into one word (trimethyl heptane becomes trimethylheptane) Note: IUPAC uses one-word names throughout. This is why all parts are connected.

The resulting name appears as:
 * #,#-di<side chain>-#-<secondary functional group>-#-<side chain>-#,#,#-tri<secondary functional group><parent chain prefix><If all bonds are single bonds, use "ane">-#,#-di<double bonds>-#-<triple bonds>-#-<primary functional group>

where each "#" represents a number. The group secondary functional groups and side chains may not look the same as shown here, as the side chains and secondary functional groups are arranged alphabetically. The di- and tri- have been used just to show their usage. (di- after #,#, tri- after #,#,#, etc.)

Example
Here is a sample molecule with the parent carbons numbered:

For simplicity, here is an image of the same molecule, where the hydrogens in the parent chain are removed and the carbons are shown by their numbers:

Now, following the above steps:
 * 1) The parent hydrocarbon chain has 23 carbons. It is called tricosa-.
 * 2) The functional groups with the highest precedence are the two ketone groups.
 * 3) The groups are on carbon atoms 3 and 9. As there are two, we write 3,9-dione.
 * 4) The numbering of the molecule is based on the ketone groups. When numbering from left to right, the ketone groups are numbered 3 and 9. When numbering from right to left, the ketone groups are numbered 15 and 21. 3 is less than 15, therefore the ketones are numbered 3 and 9. The smaller number is always used, not the sum of the constituents numbers.
 * 5) The side chains are: an ethyl- at carbon 4, an ethyl- at carbon 8, and a butyl- at carbon 12. Note: the \sO\sCH3 at carbon atom 15 is not a side chain, but it is a methoxy functional group.
 * 6) * There are two ethyl- groups. They are combined to create, 4,8-diethyl.
 * 7) * The side chains are grouped like this: 12-butyl-4,8-diethyl. (But this is not necessarily the final grouping, as functional groups may be added in between to ensure all groups are listed alphabetically.)
 * 8) The secondary functional groups are: a hydroxy- at carbon 5, a chloro- at carbon 11, a methoxy- at carbon 15, and a bromo- at carbon 18. Grouped with the side chains, this gives 18-bromo-12-butyl-11-chloro-4,8-diethyl-5-hydroxy-15-methoxy.
 * 9) There are two double bonds: one between carbons 6 and 7, and one between carbons 13 and 14. They would be called "6,13-diene", but the presence of alkynes switches it to 6,13-dien. There is one triple bond between carbon atoms 19 and 20. It will be called 19-yne.
 * 10) The arrangement (with punctuation) is: 18-bromo-12-butyl-11-chloro-4,8-diethyl-5-hydroxy-15-methoxytricosa-6,13-dien-19-yne-3,9-dione
 * 11) Finally, due to cis-trans isomerism, we have to specify the relative orientation of functional groups around each double bond. For this example, both double bonds are trans isomers, so we have (6E,13E)

The final name is (6E,13E)-18-bromo-12-butyl-11-chloro-4,8-diethyl-5-hydroxy-15-methoxytricosa-6,13-dien-19-yne-3,9-dione.

Alkanes
Straight-chain alkanes take the suffix "-ane" and are prefixed depending on the number of carbon atoms in the chain, following standard rules. The first few are:

For example, the simplest alkane is CH4 methane, and the nine-carbon alkane CH3(CH2)7CH3 is named nonane. The names of the first four alkanes were derived from methanol, ether, propionic acid and butyric acid, respectively. The rest are named with a Greek numeric prefix, with the exceptions of nonane which has a Latin prefix, and undecane which has mixed-language prefixes.

Cyclic alkanes are simply prefixed with "cyclo-": for example, C4H8 is cyclobutane (not to be confused with butene) and C6H12 is cyclohexane (not to be confused with hexene).

Branched alkanes are named as a straight-chain alkane with attached alkyl groups. They are prefixed with a number indicating the carbon the group is attached to, counting from the end of the alkane chain. For example, (CH3)2CHCH3, commonly known as isobutane, is treated as a propane chain with a methyl group bonded to the middle (2) carbon, and given the systematic name 2-methylpropane. However, although the name 2-methylpropane could be used, it is easier and more logical to call it simply methylpropane – the methyl group could not possibly occur on any of the other carbon atoms (that would lengthen the chain and result in butane, not propane) and therefore the use of the number "2" is unnecessary.

If there is ambiguity in the position of the substituent, depending on which end of the alkane chain is counted as "1", then numbering is chosen so that the smaller number is used. For example, (CH3)2CHCH2CH3 (isopentane) is named 2-methylbutane, not 3-methylbutane.

If there are multiple side-branches of the same size alkyl group, their positions are separated by commas and the group prefixed with multiplier prefixes depending on the number of branches. For example, C(CH3)4 (neopentane) is named 2,2-dimethylpropane. If there are different groups, they are added in alphabetical order, separated by commas or hyphens. The longest possible main alkane chain is used; therefore 3-ethyl-4-methylhexane instead of 2,3-diethylpentane, even though these describe equivalent structures. The di-, tri- etc. prefixes are ignored for the purpose of alphabetical ordering of side chains (e.g. 3-ethyl-2,4-dimethylpentane, not 2,4-dimethyl-3-ethylpentane).

Alkenes

Alkenes are named for their parent alkane chain with the suffix "-ene" and a numerical root indicating the position of the carbon with the lower number for each double bond in the chain: CH2\dCHCH2CH3 is but-1-ene. Multiple double bonds take the form -diene, -triene, etc., with the size prefix of the chain taking an extra "a": CH2\dCHCH\dCH2 is buta-1,3-diene. Simple cis and trans isomers may be indicated with a prefixed cis- or trans-: cis-but-2-ene, trans-but-2-ene. However, cis- and trans- are relative descriptors. It is IUPAC convention to describe all alkenes using absolute descriptors of Z- (same side) and E- (opposite) with the Cahn–Ingold–Prelog priority rules (see alse E–Z notation).

Alkynes

Alkynes are named using the same system, with the suffix "-yne" indicating a triple bond: ethyne (acetylene), propyne (methylacetylene).

Haloalkanes and haloarenes

In haloalkanes and haloarenes (R\sX), Halogen functional groups are prefixed with the bonding position and take the form of fluoro-, chloro-, bromo-, iodo-, etc., depending on the halogen. Multiple groups are dichloro-, trichloro-, etc., and dissimilar groups are ordered alphabetically as before. For example, CHCl3 (chloroform) is trichloromethane. The anesthetic halothane (CF3CHBrCl) is 2-bromo-2-chloro-1,1,1-trifluoroethane.

Alcohols

Alcohols (R\sOH) take the suffix "-ol" with a numerical suffix indicating the bonding position: CH3CH2CH2OH is propan-1-ol. The suffixes -diol, -triol, -tetraol, etc., are used for multiple \sOH groups: Ethylene glycol CH2OHCH2OH is ethane-1,2-diol.

If higher precedence functional groups are present (see order of precedence, below), the prefix "hydroxy" is used with the bonding position: CH3CHOHCOOH is 2-hydroxypropanoic acid.

Ethers

Ethers (R\sO\sR) consist of an oxygen atom between the two attached carbon chains. The shorter of the two chains becomes the first part of the name with the -ane suffix changed to -oxy, and the longer alkane chain becomes the suffix of the name of the ether. Thus, CH3OCH3 is methoxymethane, and CH3OCH2CH3 is methoxyethane (not ethoxymethane). If the oxygen is not attached to the end of the main alkane chain, then the whole shorter alkyl-plus-ether group is treated as a side-chain and prefixed with its bonding position on the main chain. Thus CH3OCH(CH3)2 is 2-methoxypropane.

Alternatively, an ether chain can be named as an alkane in which one carbon is replaced by an oxygen, a replacement denoted by the prefix "oxa". For example, CH3OCH2CH3 could also be called 2-oxabutane, and an epoxide could be called oxacyclopropane. This method is especially useful when both groups attached to the oxygen atom are complex.

Aldehydes

Aldehydes (R\sCH\dO) take the suffix "-al". If other functional groups are present, the chain is numbered such that the aldehyde carbon is in the "1" position, unless functional groups of higher precedence are present.

If a prefix form is required, "oxo-" is used (as for ketones), with the position number indicating the end of a chain: CHOCH2COOH is 3-oxopropanoic acid. If the carbon in the carbonyl group cannot be included in the attached chain (for instance in the case of cyclic aldehydes), the prefix "formyl-" or the suffix "-carbaldehyde" is used: C6H11CHO is cyclohexanecarbaldehyde. If an aldehyde is attached to a benzene and is the main functional group, the suffix becomes benzaldehyde.

Ketones

In general ketones (R2C\dO) take the suffix "-one" (pronounced own, not won) with a suffixed position number: CH3CH2CH2COCH3 is pentan-2-one. If a higher precedence suffix is in use, the prefix "oxo-" is used: CH3CH2CH2COCH2CHO is 3-oxohexanal.

Carboxylic acids
In general, carboxylic acids (R\sC(\dO)OH) are named with the suffix -oic acid (etymologically a back-formation from benzoic acid). As with aldehydes, the carboxyl functional group must take the "1" position on the main chain and so the locant need not be stated. For example, CH3\sCH(OH)\sCOOH (lactic acid) is named 2-hydroxypropanoic acid with no "1" stated. Some traditional names for common carboxylic acids (such as acetic acid) are in such widespread use that they are retained in IUPAC nomenclature, though systematic names like ethanoic acid are also used. Carboxylic acids attached to a benzene ring are structural analogs of benzoic acid (Ph\sCOOH) and are named as one of its derivatives.

If there are multiple carboxyl groups on the same parent chain, multiplying prefixes are used: Malonic acid, CH2(COOH)2, is systematically named propanedioic acid. Alternatively, the suffix "-carboxylic acid" can be used in place of "oic acid", combined with a multiplying prefix if necessary – mellitic acid is benzenehexacarboxylic acid, for example. In the latter case, the carbon atoms in the carboxyl groups do not count as being part of the main chain, a rule that also applies to the prefix form "carboxy-". Citric acid serves as an example: it is formally named 2-hydroxypropane-1,2,3-tricarboxylic acid rather than 3-carboxy-3-hydroxypentanedioic acid.

Carboxylates

Salts of carboxylic acids are named following the usual cation-then-anion conventions used for ionic compounds in both IUPAC and common nomenclature systems. The name of the carboxylate anion (R\sC(\dO)O-) is derived from that of the parent acid by replacing the "–oic acid" ending with "–oate" or "carboxylate." For example, NaC6H5CO2, the sodium salt of benzoic acid (C6H5COOH), is called sodium benzoate. Where an acid has both a systematic and a common name (like CH3COOH, for example, which is known as both acetic acid and as ethanoic acid), its salts can be named from either parent name. Thus, KCH3CO2 can be named as potassium acetate or as potassium ethanoate. The prefix form, is "carboxylato-".

Esters

Esters (R\sC(\dO)O\sR') are named as alkyl derivatives of carboxylic acids. The alkyl (R') group is named first. The R\sC(\dO)O part is then named as a separate word based on the carboxylic acid name, with the ending changed from "-oic acid" to "-oate" or "-carboxylate" For example, CH3CH2CH2CH2COOCH3 is methyl pentanoate, and (CH3)2CHCH2CH2COOCH2CH3 is ethyl 4-methylpentanoate. For esters such as ethyl acetate (CH3COOCH2CH3), ethyl formate (HCOOCH2CH3) or dimethyl phthalate that are based on common acids, IUPAC recommends use of these established names, called retained names. The "-oate" changes to "-ate." Some simple examples, named both ways, are shown in the figure above.

If the alkyl group is not attached at the end of the chain, the bond position to the ester group is suffixed before "-yl": CH3CH2CH(CH3)OOCCH2CH3 may be called butan-2-yl propanoate or butan-2-yl propionate.. The prefix form is "oxycarbonyl-" with the (R') group preceding.

Acyl groups

Acyl groups are named by stripping the "-ic acid" of the corresponding carboxylic acid and replacing it with "-yl." For example, CH3CO\sR is called ethanoyl-R.

Acyl halides

Simply add the name of the attached halide to the end of the acyl group. For example, CH3COCl is ethanoyl chloride. An alternate suffix is "-carbonyl halide" as opposed to "-oyl halide". The prefix form is "halocarbonyl-".

Acid anhydrides

Acid anhydrides (R\sC(\dO)\sO\sC(\dO)\sR) have two acyl groups linked by an oxygen atom. If both acyl groups are the same, then the name of the carboxylic acid with the word acid is replaced with the word anhydride and the IUPAC name consists of two words. If the acyl groups are different, then they are named in alphabetical order in the same way, with anhydride replacing acid and IUPAC name consists of three words. For example, CH3CO\sO\sOCCH3 is called ethanoic anhydride and CH3CO\sO\sOCCH2CH3 is called ethanoic propanoic anhydride.

Amines

Amines (R\sNH2) are named for the attached alkane chain with the suffix "-amine" (e.g., CH3NH2 methanamine). If necessary, the bonding position is suffixed: CH3CH2CH2NH2 propan-1-amine, CH3CHNH2CH3 propan-2-amine. The prefix form is "amino-".

For secondary amines (of the form R\sNH\sR), the longest carbon chain attached to the nitrogen atom becomes the primary name of the amine; the other chain is prefixed as an alkyl group with location prefix given as an italic N: CH3NHCH2CH3 is N-methylethanamine. Tertiary amines (R\sNR\sR) are treated similarly: CH3CH2N(CH3)CH2CH2CH3 is N-ethyl-N-methylpropanamine. Again, the substituent groups are ordered alphabetically.

Amides

Amides (R\sC(\dO)NH2) take the suffix "-amide", or "-carboxamide" if the carbon in the amide group cannot be included in the main chain. The prefix form is "carbamoyl-". e.g., HCONH2 methanamide, CH3CONH2 ethanamide.

Amides that have additional substituents on the nitrogen are treated similarly to the case of amines: they are ordered alphabetically with the location prefix N: HCON(CH3)2 is N,N-dimethylmethanamide, CH3CON(CH3)2 is N,N-dimethylethanamide.

Nitriles

Nitriles (R\sC\tN) are named by adding the suffix "-nitrile" to the longest hydrocarbon chain (including the carbon of the cyano group). It can also be named by replacing the "-oic acid" of their corresponding carboxylic acids with "-carbonitrile." The prefix form is "cyano-." Functional class IUPAC nomenclature may also be used in the form of alkyl cyanides. For example, CH3CH2CH2CH2C\tN is called pentanenitrile or butyl cyanide.

Cyclic compounds

Cycloalkanes and aromatic compounds can be treated as the main parent chain of the compound, in which case the positions of substituents are numbered around the ring structure. For example, the three isomers of xylene CH3C6H4CH3, commonly the ortho-, meta-, and para- forms, are 1,2-dimethylbenzene, 1,3-dimethylbenzene, and 1,4-dimethylbenzene. The cyclic structures can also be treated as functional groups themselves, in which case they take the prefix "cycloalkyl-" (e.g. "cyclohexyl-") or for benzene, "phenyl-".

The IUPAC nomenclature scheme becomes rapidly more elaborate for more complex cyclic structures, with notation for compounds containing conjoined rings, and many common names such as phenol being accepted as base names for compounds derived from them.

Order of precedence of group
When compounds contain more than one functional group, the order of precedence determines which groups are named with prefix or suffix forms. The table below shows common groups in decreasing order of precedence. The highest-precedence group takes the suffix, with all others taking the prefix form. However, double and triple bonds only take suffix form (-en and -yn) and are used with other suffixes.

Prefixed substituents are ordered alphabetically (excluding any modifiers such as di-, tri-, etc.), e.g. chlorofluoromethane, not fluorochloromethane. If there are multiple functional groups of the same type, either prefixed or suffixed, the position numbers are ordered numerically (thus ethane-1,2-diol, not ethane-2,1-diol.) The N position indicator for amines and amides comes before "1", e.g., CH3CH(CH3)CH2NH(CH3) is N,2-dimethylpropanamine.

*Note: These suffixes, in which the carbon atom is counted as part of the preceding chain, are the most commonly used. See individual functional group articles for more details.

The order of remaining functional groups is only needed for substituted benzene and hence is not mentioned here.

Common nomenclature – trivial names
Common nomenclature uses the older names for some organic compounds instead of using the prefixes for the carbon skeleton above. The pattern can be seen below.

Ketones
Common names for ketones can be derived by naming the two alkyl or aryl groups bonded to the carbonyl group as separate words followed by the word ketone.
 * Acetone
 * Acetophenone
 * Benzophenone
 * Ethyl isopropyl ketone
 * Diethyl ketone

The first three of the names shown above are still considered to be acceptable IUPAC names.

Aldehydes
The common name for an aldehyde is derived from the common name of the corresponding carboxylic acid by dropping the word acid and changing the suffix from -ic or -oic to -aldehyde.
 * Formaldehyde
 * Acetaldehyde

Ions
The IUPAC nomenclature also provides rules for naming ions.

Hydron
Hydron is a generic term for hydrogen cation; protons, deuterons and tritons are all hydrons. The hydrons are not found in heavier isotopes, however.

Parent hydride cations
Simple cations formed by adding a hydron to a hydride of a halogen, chalcogen or pnictogen are named by adding the suffix "-onium" to the element's root: H4N+ is ammonium, H3O+ is oxonium, and H2F+ is fluoronium. Ammonium was adopted instead of nitronium, which commonly refers to NO2+.

If the cationic center of the hydride is not a halogen, chalcogen or pnictogen then the suffix "-ium" is added to the name of the neutral hydride after dropping any final 'e'. H5C+ is methanium, HO\s(O+)H2 is dioxidanium (HO-OH is dioxidane), and H2N-(N+)H3 is diazanium (H2N\sNH2 is diazane).

Cations and substitution
The above cations except for methanium are not, strictly speaking, organic, since they do not contain carbon. However, many organic cations are obtained by substituting another element or some functional group for a hydrogen.

The name of each substitution is prefixed to the hydride cation name. If many substitutions by the same functional group occur, then the number is indicated by prefixing with "di-", "tri-" as with halogenation. (CH3)3O+ is trimethyloxonium. CH3F3N+ is trifluoromethylammonium.

title: IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry


text:
Radio 2

Radio 2 may refer to:

 * ABC Radio 2, former name of ABC's Radio National, Australia (1947–1985)
 * BBC Radio 2, a British national music radio station
 * CBC Radio 2, a Canadian national music radio network
 * CyBC Radio 2, Cyprus national radio
 * NPO Radio 2, a Dutch radio station
 * Radio 2 (Australian radio station), a defunct narrowband Australian radio network (2001–2006)
 * Radio 2 (Belgium), a Belgian radio station
 * Radio 2 (Estonia) (Raadio 2), an Estonian radio station
 * Radio 2 (Ghana), a national radio station in Ghana
 * Radio 2 (Hong Kong), a Hong Kong radio station
 * Rai Radio 2, an Italian radio station
 * RTÉ 2fm, an Irish music radio station originally known as Radio 2

title: Radio 2