text:
Peter Snow

Peter John Snow (born 20 April 1938) is a British radio and television presenter and historian. Between 1969 and 2005, he was an analyst of general election results, first on ITV and later for the BBC. He presented Newsnight from its launch in 1980 until 1997. He has presented a number of documentaries, including some with his son, Dan Snow.

Early life
Snow was born in Dublin, the son of John FitzGerald Snow and Margaret Mary Pringle. He is the grandson of First World War general Sir Thomas D'Oyly Snow; first cousin of Jon Snow, the presenter of Channel 4 News from 1989 to 2021; nephew of schoolmaster and bishop George D'Oyly Snow; and brother-in-law of historian-writer Margaret MacMillan. He is the father of fellow TV presenter Dan Snow.

He spent part of his early childhood in Benghazi, Libya, where his father was stationed. His father became deputy Fortress commander at Gibraltar in 1956.

Education
Snow was educated at Wellington College, an independent school in the village of Crowthorne in Berkshire, and subsequently read Greats at Balliol College, Oxford, where he was taught by classicist and ancient historian Russell Meiggs and moral philosopher R. M. Hare. From 1956 to 1958 he did National Service as a junior officer in the Somerset Light Infantry, serving in Plymouth and Warminster.

Life and career
Snow was a foreign correspondent, Defence and Diplomatic Correspondent, and occasional newscaster for Britain's Independent Television News (ITN). He also appeared as an election analyst and co-presenter of ITN's General Election programmes throughout the late 1960s and 1970s. He joined the organisation in 1962. He gained a much higher profile after he was recruited in 1979 to be the main presenter of the new late evening BBC 2 in-depth news programme Newsnight, which began almost a year later than planned, in January 1980. He left Newsnight in 1997 and presented Tomorrow's World (with Philippa Forrester) and the BBC Radio 4 quizzes Masterteam and Brain of Britain, amongst other projects. At the Royal Television Society in 1998, Snow won the Judges' Award for services to broadcasting.

Snow has been involved as an election analyst and co-presenter in the live General Election results programmes for many years, first at ITN for five General Elections (1966–1979) and later at the BBC for a further six (1983–2005). He presented in-depth statistical analyses of the election results at both ITN and the BBC, and at the BBC took over responsibility for this in 1983, following the death of Robert McKenzie, and became largely associated with McKenzie's BBC "Swingometer" when it was reinstated in 1992. In his presenting, he often made use of props and graphics. During the Falklands War in 1982 and the First Gulf War in early 1991, he used a sandpit to illustrate the progress of the combat. In 1994, he parodied his election role by providing analysis of the entries for the Eurovision Song Contest in the BBC's two contest preview shows ahead of the final in Dublin. His data analysis predicted that either France or the United Kingdom would win. They finished seventh and tenth respectively.

Snow survived a plane crash at Port Blakely, Bainbridge Island, Washington on 1 October 1999 when the de Havilland Canada DHC-2 Beaver, registration number N9766Z, in which he was a passenger hit trees during a film project for the BBC.

Along with his son, Dan, Snow presented 'Battleplan: El Alamein' for the BBC in October 2002 to celebrate the 60th anniversary of the allied defeat of Rommel's Afrika Korps. They then went on in 2004 to make the eight-part BBC series Battlefield Britain, covering battles on British soil from Boudicca's struggle with the Romans to the Battle of Britain. They demonstrated the hardships that the much smaller soldiers must have faced (Peter is 6'5" and Dan is 6'6"). They reunited to host 20th Century Battlefields for BBC 2 and the Military Channel in 2006. This covered battles all around the world from the Battle of Amiens in the First World War in 1918 to the Gulf War of 1990–1, and was presented in similar fashion to the first Battlefield Britain. Peter and Dan Snow authored BBC books with the same titles to coincide with the TV shows.

Peter and Dan Snow also presented "Whose Britain is it anyway?", a survey of the ownership of Britain's countryside, in 2006, "What makes Britain rich?" in early 2007 and "What Britain earns" in 2008. Peter and Dan have also made two history series for BBC Radio Four on the Black Prince, on Wellington's Peninsular War, and the story of the Royal Flying Corps. He also presented "Random Edition" over a number of years, a Radio Four programme that examined in detail the stories in a newspaper chosen at random from one day in history.

On 6 October 2005, the BBC announced that Snow would cease working on election broadcasts. Snow said "I shall be over 70 at the next general election and that, frankly, is a bit old to be dancing around in front of huge graphic displays." In July 2006, Snow presented "Pompeii Live" for Channel 5, a live outside broadcast telling the story of the Roman towns of Pompeii and Herculaneum. In January 2008, while presenting What Britain Earns, a BBC programme about salaries in the UK alongside his son, Snow admitted to earning around £100,000 a year. In the summer of 2008, Peter presented a six part series for Channel 5, "Brits who Made the Modern World", a celebration of great twentieth century British engineers and inventors. In August 2008, Snow appeared in the reality TV talent show-themed television series, Maestro on BBC Two.

In July 2009, to coincide with the 40th anniversary of the NASA Moon landings, ITN produced five special 10-minute programmes for ITV titled Mission to the Moon – News from 1969. Snow participated in these programmes, acting as a correspondent alongside former ITN colleague John Suchet, the presenter of the specials. Snow also presented a special on BBC Radio 4 focusing on Britain's First Day of War in 1939. In June 2013, Snow presented D-Day As it Happens for Channel 4.

In July 2016, Snow presented Trainspotting Live – a three part television series about trains and trainspotting on BBC Four. In June 2018 Peter presented a five-part series for Channel Four Great Train Restorations which created a so-called Time Train from four refurbished railway carriages. In July 2019 Peter presented Planespotting Live for BBC4 with co-presenter Andi Peters.

Books
In addition to presenting programmes, Snow has written a number of books besides the ones written with his son, Dan. In 1970, he wrote "Leila’s Hijack War" with a journalist colleague, David Phillips, telling the story of the international crisis that was caused by Palestinian guerrillas, including Leila Khaled, who hijacked three airliners and blew them up on a desert airstrip. In 1972, he wrote "Hussein", the Biography of King Hussein of Jordan. In 2010. Snow published "To War with Wellington", the story of the Iron Duke's campaigns from Portugal to Waterloo. In 2013, he published "When Britain burned the White House", the story of the 1814 British invasion of Washington.

In 2015, he published "The Battle of Waterloo Experience" with his son Dan on the occasion of the bicentenary of the Battle of Waterloo in June 1815. In 2016, they went on to write "Treasures of British History, The Nation's History told through its 50 Most Important Documents".

In 2017, Peter and his wife, Ann MacMillan of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), wrote "War Stories, Gripping Tales of Courage, Cunning and Compassion", which was published by John Murray. In 2020, Peter and Ann wrote "Treasures of World History, the Story of Civilisation in 50 documents" published by Welbeck. In 2022 Peter and Ann wrote - also published by Welbeck - "Kings and Queens, the real lives of the English Monarchs".

Personal life
Snow has been married twice, and has six children from three relationships. His eldest son, French citizen Matthieu, was born before his first marriage, although Snow was not aware of his existence until he was an adult. He married Alison Carter in 1964 and the couple had a son (Shane) and a daughter (Shuna). They divorced nine years later.

In 1976 Snow married Ann MacMillan (of the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation since 1981), with whom he has a son, Dan (who is married to Lady Edwina Grosvenor, daughter of the 6th Duke of Westminster), and two daughters, Rebecca and Kate. His wife and sister-in-law are great-granddaughters of former British Prime Minister David Lloyd George.

Snow was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2006 New Year Honours for his services to Broadcasting. His hobbies include model railways, and he has an OO gauge layout installed in his loft. In August 2014, Snow was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.

He is the cousin of fellow journalist and broadcaster Jon Snow.

Works
Peter Snow and Ann MacMillan, 'Kings and Queens, the real lives of the English Monarchs' Welbeck 2022 (ISBN/978-1-80279-003-0)
 * Peter Snow and David Philips, Leila's Hijack War. Pan Books, 1970, ISBN 0-330-02810-3
 * Peter Snow, Hussein, a Biography.  Barrie and Jenkins, 1972, ISBN 0-214-65426-5
 * Peter Snow, Dan Snow, Battlefield Britain: From Boudicca to the Battle of Britain, ISBN 978-0-563-48789-0
 * Peter Snow To War with Wellington: From the Peninsula to Waterloo, John Murray, 2010, ISBN 978-1-84854-103-0
 * Peter Snow When Britain Burned the White House: The 1814 Invasion of Washington. John Murray, London; St. Martin's Press, U.S., 2013, ISBN 978-1-4668-4894-8
 * Peter Snow and Dan Snow, The Battle of Waterloo Experience, Andre Deutsch, 2015, ISBN 978-0-233-00447-1
 * Peter Snow and Dan Snow, Treasures of British History, The Nation's History told through its 50 Most Important Documents. Andre Deutsch, 2016  ISBN 978-0-233-00218-7
 * Peter Snow and Ann MacMillan, 'War Stories, Gripping Tales of Courage, Cunning and Compassion'. John Murray 2017 (ISBN/978-1-47361-829-9)
 * Peter Snow and Ann MacMillan, 'Treasures of World History, the Story of Civiisation in 50 documents' Welbeck 2020 (ISBN/978-0-23300-604-8).
 * Peter Snow and Ann MacMillan, 'Treasures of World History, the Story of Civiisation in 50 documents' Welbeck 2020 (ISBN/978-0-23300-604-8).

title: Peter Snow


text:
Talk:Pseudo-photograph

This article says nothing about what a pseudo-photograph is... Dysprosia 23:52, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Why not tell define it? After all, it IS a stub :-) Have you read the article on pseudo-photographs under UK legislation?

I think a See Also reference to https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photorealism would be useful. The pseudo-photograph strikes me as a special case of trompe-l'oeil, an article on which is linked from the Photorealism article. The latter includes interesting remarks distinguishing the photorealist painting (which is always seen as the painting that it in fact is) from the trompe-l'oeil painting (whose objective is to be seen not as the real painting that it is but as the object it depicts); for isn't the objective of a pseudo-photograph to be seen as a photograph without being one? Should it not fool the eye by possessing all the attributes of a photograph except for the identity as a photograph? From this UK Parliamentary webpage https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldbills/033/en/09033x-f.htm I quote: "A pseudo-photograph is an image, whether made by computer-graphics or otherwise, which appears to be a photograph and includes a copy of a pseudo-photograph and electronic data capable of conversion into a pseudo-photograph." That definition sees the pseudo-photograph as a special case of the image. I am especially intrigued by its implication that pseudo-pseudo-photographs could exist, for what else would "a copy of a pseudo-photograph" be? Also that it envisions virtual counterparts of such things (if indeed they are things and not mere constructs) that take the form of "electronic data capable of conversion into a pseudo-photograph." The late 20th-century and ongoing concern with the pseudo-photograph is to my mind of a piece with the nexus of phenomena famously explored by Baudrillard; see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation. It is symptomatically post-modern even as it preserves the 19th-century error of taking photographs to be direct reproductions of natural reality. The (pseudo-)logic seems to be that if a photographic portrayal shows 'a child is being beaten' it can only be because 'a child was beaten' (thus denying altogether the technology of the special effect, which is by definition 'obscene' in the sense of 'off-stage'), and further that a pseudo-photograph that 'shows' [viz., purports to show] 'a child is being beaten' must also 'show' (or 'seem to show' thus 'pseudo-show'?) the 'actual' -- though in fact purely imaginary -- beating of a (necessarily and naturally non-existent) child. For non-controversial (because non-photographic? though they are arguably in some sense pseudo-photographic) examples of images of non-existent children, ubiquitous in western art including not infrequently in erotic contexts, see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Putto. Another related, because contrasting, phenomenon is https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_manipulation, in the products of which actual photographs purport to show scenes that could never have been actually photographed (since they did not happen). The therefore ironic congruity of the manipulated photograph with a huge fraction of western religious pictures, accounts perhaps in part for the manipulated photograph -- as well as its counterpart, the pseudo-photograph that also seems unproblematically to show things that never happened or humans who never existed -- being so disturbing. The discussion here, which references "virtual cinematography," also provides food for thought on this subject: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lion_King_(2019_film). See especially the sections on Development and Visual Effects. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.17.179.75 (talk) 22:16, 10 December 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Pseudo-photograph


text:
Political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina

The political divisions of Bosnia and Herzegovina were created by the Dayton Agreement. The Agreement divides the country into two federal entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) and the Republika Srpska (RS) and one condominium of the two entities named the Brčko District.

The vast majority of the population in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are Bosniaks and Croats, while in Republika Srpska, the vast majority are Serbs. Due to the high powers the entities have and the political differences between the entities themselves, Bosnia and Herzegovina is described as a confederation.

Overview
The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina is split into 10 cantons, local governing units that were endowed with substantial autonomy, whereas Republika Srpska operates under a centralised government structure. While the state level holds a limited set of exclusive or joint responsibilities, the entities wield most of the authority. Both the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Republika Srpska control the majority of responsibilities and resources, each with its own constitutions, presidents, parliaments, governments, and prime ministers. They manage citizenship matters and primarily enforce laws since the state level lacks this ability. The entities serve as the primary level for distributing state-collected funds and oversee a significant portion of civil and political rights. They hold direct representation in state-level institutions and essentially possess veto power over all state policies.


text:
Andrew L. Harris

Andrew Lintner Harris (also known as The Farmer–Statesman) (November 17, 1835 – September 13, 1915) was one of the heroes of the Battle of Gettysburg during the American Civil War and served as the 44th governor of Ohio.

Biography
Harris was born in Milford Township, Butler County, Ohio, and was educated in the local schools. After graduating from Miami University in 1860, Harris enlisted as a private in the Union Army. Harris was married at West Florence, Ohio, to Caroline Conger of Preble County, Ohio, on October 17, 1865. They had one son.

Career
He quickly rose to the rank of colonel of the 75th Ohio Infantry, seeing action in many of the Army of the Potomac's engagements. At Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, he led his men in a successful withdrawal through the hotly contested streets to Cemetery Hill, where they entrenched on the northeastern slope. Assuming command of a brigade, Harris played a key role in delaying repeated attacks the next day by Harry T. Hays's famed Louisiana Tigers, helping secure the critical hill for George G. Meade. Harris continued to lead troops through the war, although he suffered an embarrassing defeat in August 1864 at the Battle of Gainesville in Florida. When the war ended he was brevetted a brigadier general of volunteers.

An attorney, Harris began practicing law in 1865 and then served in the Ohio State Senate from 1866 to 1870 and as Preble County Probate Judge from 1875 to 1882. Harris served as the 23rd and 29th lieutenant governor of Ohio having been elected in 1891 and 1893 as the running mate of William McKinley, and again in 1905 when Democrat John M. Pattison was elected governor. An early temperance activist and Republican politician, Harris succeeded Pattison (upon the latter's death in June 1906) as governor, serving from 1906 to 1909. He was nominated in 1908 but lost narrowly to Judson Harmon in the gubernatorial election. While in office, Harris signed legislation banning corporate political donations. Harris also served on the U.S. Industrial Commission on Trusts under President McKinley. His official residence was at the Hartman Hotel in Downtown Columbus.

Honors
Per state law, U.S. 127 between Hamilton and Eaton was renamed the Gov. Andrew L. Harris Bicentennial Roadway. At the Milford Township Bicentennial in 2005, the Gov. Andrew L. Harris Bicentennial Roadway was dedicated by the Governor's relative, James Brodbelt Harris, president of the family reunion association and whose family continues to own an Ohio Century Farm in the township.

Death
Harris died of heart trouble on September 13, 1915, and is interred in Mound Hill Union Cemetery, Eaton, Preble County, Ohio US.

title: Andrew L. Harris


text:
Lockheed YP-24

The Lockheed-Detroit YP-24 was a 1930s prototype two-seat fighter aircraft produced by Detroit Lockheed. An attack version called the A-9 was also proposed. The YP-24 is most remarkable for being the first fighter aircraft to bear the Lockheed name.

Design and development
In 1930, Detroit Aircraft Corporation undertook a private venture to develop a new fighter ("pursuit aircraft" in contemporary terminology) for US Army Air Corps based on the successful Lockheed Altair transport plane. Designed by Robert J. Woods, the aircraft was completed in 1931 with Detroit Aircraft fabricating the metal fuselage and Lockheed providing the wooden wings, essentially identical to the Altair. Wright Field assigned the prototype the designation XP-900. Vance Breese was hired to be the chief test pilot for the project. The aircraft was purchased by USAAC in September 1931 and redesignated YP-24, serial number 32-320. Early testing was sufficiently impressive to generate an order for five Y1P-24 fighters and four Y1A-9 attack aircraft intended to replace the Berliner-Joyce P-16. The A-9 differed in having four forward-firing machine guns, underwing racks for bombs, and a V-1570-27 engine better low-altitude performance.

Operational history
On 19 October 1931, the sole aircraft crashed. The aircraft had a partially stuck landing gear, and Wright Field pilots painted messages on the side of their P-12D and O-25C aircraft, indicating to test pilot Lt. Harrison Crocker to bail out.

Shortly after, in October 1931, events in the Great Depression forced Detroit Aircraft into bankruptcy with Lockheed following suit in June 1932. Although Lockheed was resuscitated by a group of investors only five days after it closed doors, the financial hardships had taken their toll and the P-24/A-9 project was cancelled with no aircraft built beyond the original prototype. Four pre-production Y1P-24s, 32-321/324, were cancelled. However, after Robert Woods left Detroit Aircraft for Consolidated Aircraft, he continued to develop the YP-24/A-9 concept into the Consolidated Y1P-25/Y1A-11 which eventually entered service as the Consolidated P-30.

title: Lockheed YP-24


text:
Hypericum calycinum

Hypericum calycinum is a species of prostrate or low-growing shrub in the flowering plant family Hypericaceae. Widely cultivated for its large yellow flowers, its names as a garden plant include rose-of-Sharon in Britain and Australia, and Aaron's beard, great St-John's wort, creeping St. John's wort and Jerusalem star. Grown in Mediterranean climates, widely spread in the Strandzha Mountains along the Bulgarian and Turkish Black Sea coast.

Description
Hypericum calycinum is a low, creeping, evergreen woody shrub (classified as a subshrub or shrublet ) to about 1 m tall and 1–2 m wide but often smaller. The green, ovate leaves grow in opposite pairs. Usually 4 inches long, the undersides of the leaves are net-veined. In the sun, the leaves are a vibrant green color, and in shade, the leaves are a lighter yellow-green. The underside of the leaves is a blue-green color and in the fall, the leaves take on a purple color.

The flowers are 3–5 cm in diameter, a rich yellow, with five petals and numerous yellow stamens. Its flowers can be described as "rose-like" and tend to be single or in units of two or three, flowering in June to September.

Hypericum calycinum is indigenous to southeast Europe and southwest Asia. It is a popular, semi-evergreen garden shrub with many named cultivars and hybrids derived from it.

Although the genus is generally not affected by rust fungi, it can appear on H. calycinum (and another cultivated plant, Hypericum × inodorum 'Elstead').

Usage
Various species of the genus Hypericum have been used since ancient times as herbal remedies. This species has been used traditionally to reduce muscle spasms and for the treatment of asthma.

Hypericum calycinum is an economically valuable plant in North America, commonly used for ornamental reasons and landscaping.

Under ideal growing conditions, from full sun to partial shade and well-drained acidic soil, this species can grow rapidly. Although resilient in many soil types, this species grows best in sandy or loamy soils. This shrub grows through underground stems and is typically grown as ground cover or to stabilize soil on hills and requires low maintenance. It does have the potential to become invasive, as reported in some areas of California, due to its ability to grow rapidly by stolons. While generally easy to take care of, this species is suggested to be cut down each spring.

According to the USDA, this species is used as nursery stock product.

It is visited by the honeybees for its pollen.

Etymology
In North America the name Rose of Sharon is applied to a species in a different order, Hibiscus syriacus.

The common name of St. John's wort, which is used to describe plants of the entire genus, arose from the old tradition of Hypericum plants being burned on the eve of St. John's Day, to stave off evil spirits. The species name, calycinum, comes from the flower's prominent calyx, the whorl of the sepals.

Research
This species is capable of producing the same medicinally active components as H. perforatum (hyperforin etc.), though in different ratios, with adhyperforin predominating, and a low level of hyperforin present.

Research has shown that the UV pigments of the Hypericum calycinum flower stave off predators such as mites and aphids. One type of DIP (dearomatized isoprenylated phloroglucinols), a category of pigments alongside flavonoids, was found to be toxic to a caterpillar as well. A large quantity of DIPs were found in the male and female reproductive organs, which furthers emphasizes the use of DIPs as a defense mechanism. These pigments also serve a dual function to attract pollinators, as they are visible to insects and not humans.

Recent research on mice has shown that the alcoholic extracts from Hypericum calycinum have antidepressant effects and are comparably as effective as antidepressant drugs, such as desipramine and trimipramine. Unlike the rest of the genus, H. calycinum does not have hypericin, which causes photosensitization, which causes the side effects of flush, fatigue, and pruritus when used in drugs. These extracts have the potential to be a remedy for depression without these side effects common in current antidepressants. However, more research is required.

title: Hypericum calycinum


text:
P. C. Jersild

Per Christian Jersild, better known as P. C. Jersild, (born 1935) is a Swedish author and physician. He also holds an honorary doctorate from the Faculty of Medicine at Uppsala University from 22 January 2000, and another one in engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology (1999).

Biography
P. C. Jersild was born in Katrineholm in a middle-class family.

His first book was Räknelära which he released 1960 at the age of 25, although he had already been writing for 10 years at that time. Until now he has written 35 books, usually focused on social criticism. His most famous work is Barnens ö (Children's Island), which tells the story of a young boy, on the verge of adulthood, who runs off from a children's summer camp to spend time alone in the big city, Stockholm. Other notable books include Babels hus (The House of Babel), which gives an account of the inhuman treatment of patients at a large modern hospital, said to be modeled on the Karolinska Hospital in Huddinge outside Stockholm, and the science fiction novel En levande själ (A Living Soul), about a living, thinking and feeling human brain floating in a container of liquid.

Aside from his literary production, Jersild has also been a columnist for Dagens Nyheter since the mid-1980s. In 1999, he was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.

Awards

 * Svenska Dagbladet's Literary Prize 1973
 * The Aniara Prize 1974
 * The Kellgren Prize 1990
 * "Samfundet De Nios stora pris" (Society of the Nine's Grans Prize) 1998
 * Övralidspriset 2007
 * Ingemar Hedenius Award 2007

title: P. C. Jersild


text:
London Bridge Is Falling Down

"London Bridge Is Falling Down" (also known as "My Fair Lady" or "London Bridge") is a traditional English nursery rhyme and singing game, which is found in different versions all over the world. It deals with the dilapidation of London Bridge and attempts, realistic or fanciful, to repair it. It may date back to bridge-related rhymes and games of the Late Middle Ages, but the earliest records of the rhyme in English are from the 17th century. The lyrics were first printed in close to their modern form in the mid-18th century and became popular, particularly in Britain and the United States, during the 19th century.

The modern melody was first recorded in the late 19th century. It has Roud Folk Song Index number 502. Several explanations have been advanced to explain the meaning of the rhyme and the identity of the "fair lady" of the refrain. The rhyme is well known and has been referenced in a variety of works of literature and popular culture.

Lyrics
There is considerable variation in the lyrics of the rhyme. The most frequently used first verse is:

Although another version substitutes:

The rhyme is constructed of quatrains in trochaic tetrameter catalectic (each line made up of four metrical feet of two syllables, with the stress falling on the first syllable in a pair; the last foot in the line missing the unstressed syllable), which is common in nursery rhymes. In its most common form it relies on a double repetition, rather than a rhyming scheme, which is a frequently employed device in children's rhymes and stories. The Roud Folk Song Index, which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number, classifies the song as 502.

Melody
A melody is recorded for "London Bridge" in an edition of John Playford's The Dancing Master published in 1718, but it differs from the modern tune recorded above and no lyrics were given. An issue of Blackwood's Magazine in 1821 noted the rhyme as being sung to the tune of "Nancy Dawson", now better known as "Nuts in May," and the same tune was given in Richard Thomson's Chronicles of London Bridge (1827).

Another tune was recorded in Samuel Arnold's Juvenile Amusements in 1797. E.F. Rimbault's Nursery Rhymes (1836) has the same first line, but then a different tune. The tune now associated with the rhyme was first recorded in 1879 in the United States in A.H. Rosewig's Illustrated National Songs and Games.

The game

The rhyme is often used in a children's singing game, which exists in a wide variety of forms, with additional verses. Most versions are similar to the actions used in the rhyme "Oranges and Lemons". The most common is that two players hold hands and make an arch with their arms while the others pass through in single file. The "arch" is then lowered at the song's end to "catch" a player. In the United States, it is common for two teams of those that have been caught to engage in a tug of war. In England until the nineteenth century, the song may have been accompanied by a circle dance, but arch games are known to have been common across late medieval Europe.

Five of nine versions published by Alice Gomme in 1894 included references to a prisoner who has stolen a watch and chain. This may be a late 19th century addition from another game called "Hark the Robbers", or "Watch and Chain". This rhyme is sung to the same tune and may be an offshoot of "London Bridge" or the remnant of a distinct game. In one version the first two verses have the lyrics:

Origins

Similar rhymes can be found across Europe, pre-dating the records in England. These include "Knippelsbro Går Op og Ned" from Denmark, "Die Magdeburger Brück" from Germany, "Pont chus" from 16th-century France, and "Le porte" from 14th-century Italy. It is possible that the rhyme was acquired from one of these sources and then adapted to fit the most famous bridge in England.

One of the earliest references to the rhyme in English is in the comedy The London Chaunticleres, printed in 1657, but probably written about 1636, in which the dairy woman Curds states that she had "danced the building of London-Bridge" at the Whitsun Ales in her youth, although no words or actions are mentioned. Widespread familiarity with the rhyme is suggested by its use by Henry Carey in his satire Namby Pamby (1725), as:

The oldest extant version could be that recalled by a correspondent to the Gentleman's Magazine in 1823, which he claimed to have heard from a woman who was a child in the reign of Charles II ((r. 1660 – 1685)) and had the lyrics:

The earliest printed English version is in the oldest extant collection of nursery rhymes, Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, printed by John Newbery in London (c. 1744), and has words very close to that. A version from James Ritson's Gammer Gurton's Garland (1784) is also similar but replaces the last verse with:

Meaning

The meaning of the rhyme is not certain. It may simply relate to the many difficulties experienced in bridging the River Thames, but a number of alternative explanations have been put forward.

Viking attack explanation
One hypothesis of origin is that the rhyme relates to the supposed destruction of London Bridge by Olaf II in 1014 (or 1009). The translation of the Norse saga the Heimskringla, published by Samuel Laing in 1844, included a verse by Óttarr svarti, that looks very similar to the nursery rhyme:

However, modern translations make it clear that Laing was using the nursery rhyme as a model for his very free translation, and the reference to London Bridge does not appear at the start of the verse and it is unlikely that this is an earlier version of the nursery rhyme. Some historians have raised the possibility that the attack never took place. However, the original document detailing the attack was written only about 100 years after what would be a famous event in a highly populated area, leading the majority of historians to conclude that the account is at least relatively accurate.

Child sacrifice/immurement explanation
Alice Bertha Gomme (later Lady Gomme) put forward the hypothesis that the song refers to the burying, perhaps alive, of children in the foundations of the bridge. This theory was repeated by Iona and Peter Opie. This was based around the idea that a bridge would collapse unless the body of a human sacrifice was buried in its foundations and that the watchman is actually a human sacrifice, who will then watch over the bridge.

Bodies were found beneath London Bridge in 2007 while building work was being carried out for the London Dungeons tourist attraction.

Age and damage explanation
Until the mid-18th century the Old London Bridge was the only crossing on the Thames in London. It was damaged in a major fire in 1633, but in the fire of 1666 this damage acted as a fire break and prevented the flames from further damaging the bridge and crossing to the south side of the Thames. With its 19 narrow arches, it impeded river traffic and flow. Central piers were removed to create a wider navigational span. Widening and the removal of its houses was completed in 1763, but it remained relatively narrow and needed continual and expensive repairs. In the early 19th century it was decided to replace the bridge with a new construction. New London Bridge was opened in 1831 and survived until it was replaced in 1972. At that time, the 1831 bridge was dismantled and reconstructed in Lake Havasu City, Arizona.

"Fair lady" identity
Several attempts have been made to identify the fair lady, lady gay, or lady lee/lea of the rhyme. They include:

 * Virgin Mary: The nursery rhyme could allude to the Virgin Mary as the fair lady. The Viking attack was on 8 September 1009 (or 1014), the traditional birthday of the Virgin Mary; they burned the bridge but could not take the city, it was protected by the 'fair lady'.
 * Matilda of Scotland (c. 1080–1118): Henry I's consort, who between 1110 and 1118 was responsible for the building of the series of bridges that carried the London–Colchester road across the River Lea and its side streams between Bow and Stratford.
 * Eleanor of Provence (c. 1223–1291): Consort of Henry III, who had custody of the bridge revenues from 1269 to about 1281. Eleanor of Provence was also attacked with eggs and stones at London bridge by the discontented citizens as her barge tried passing beneath the bridge. This was in response to the political discontent that had been created not only by King Henry III's vast unpopularity at the time but was also sparked by his son King Edward I's raiding of the Temple.
 * A member of the Leigh family of Stoneleigh Park, Warwickshire, who have a family story that a human sacrifice lies under the building.
 * The River Lea, which is a tributary of the Thames.

Legacy
By the late 19th century, the rhyme had become one of the most popular and well known in the English-speaking world. It has also been referenced in both literature and popular culture – appearing, for example, at the climax of T. S. Eliot's The Waste Land (1922). The final line may have been cited as the inspiration for the title of the 1956 musical My Fair Lady, while the chorus of Brenda Lee's song My Whole World Is Falling Down (1963) is loosely based on "London Bridge Is Falling Down". The music on the first track of the Helloween's album Walls of Jericho (1985) was also based on "London Bridge Is Falling Down", and the traditional tune is often used by English football supporters as the basis for chants.

title: London Bridge Is Falling Down


text:
74th Division

In military terms, 74th Division may refer to:

 * 74th Division (People's Republic of China), 1949–1952; later the 70th Motorized Infantry Brigade
 * 74th Division (2nd Formation)(People's Republic of China), 1969–1976
 * 74th (Yeomanry) Division, a Territorial Force infantry unit of the British Army in the First World War
 * 74th Infantry Division (United States)
 * 74th Rifle Division (Soviet Union), see list of infantry divisions of the Soviet Union 1917–57

title: 74th Division


text:
Talk:Perun

Piorun is the Polish for Perun
Hey, Romanm, you are right! Another thing, I deleted the 'Serbo-Croatian' for the words PRAVO and PRAVDA, they are more or less present everywhere!

Piorun?

Would that be the same god as Piorun? If so, this should probably be mentioned in this article, and the later should be redirected here. --Romanm 00:12, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Umm, yes, Piorun is the Polish spelling. I think that Perun is much more often spelling in English, so it should redirect here. I see that Poles have covered most of the Slavic mythology as Polish mythology but under different names, perhaps a naming convention needs to be made. Nikola 00:57, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * No need to, both articles should be merged under Slavic mythology. And please do not generalize, it was a single anon, not "Poles". [[User:Halibutt|Halibutt]] 14:19, Sep 9, 2004 (UTC)

 * What are you guys discussing? Piorun is already a redirect to Perun. A LOT of stuff on the Polish mythology page is redirected to equivalent entries in Slavic mythology. Merging is well under way. --Gene s 14:56, 9 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * OK, I see. Halibutt, you continued the discussion which took place back in February. --Gene s 15:00, 9 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Attention
I moved the attention tag from the main page to the talk page. gK ¿? 04:52, 9 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Off topic and not English language editions
I removed the last two references

 * V. Belaj. "Walk through year, mythical background of Croatian folk beliefs and customs", Golden Marketing, Zagreb 1998.
 * T. Smiciklas. "Croatian history, Part One", Matica Hrvatska, Zagreb 1882.

It is apparent that
 * their primary topicality is not about the old Slavonic church/religion
 * both books are not the English language editions - even though that the books titles are translated into English

 * Have you ever heard proverb "Do not judge the book by its covers", or in this case, by its title? I have no idea how you can so boldly (and so completly wrong) state what both books talk about simply by judging their titles. Both books have incredibly valuable insights into old Slavic mythology in general, and that entire article was rewriten by me with those two books as sole refrences. I do not see what the problem is with books not being English language editions; if wikipedia had been written using only English books as refrences, it would not have half of the articles it has today. I cannot imagine that there are acctualy people here on wikipedia deleting legitimate refrences from articles which have them, when there are tons of articles which have tag 'unrefreenced' on them simply because they do not list their resources. I am returning these refrences you deleted; noone will accuse me of writting unrefrenced articles. -Hierophant 12:08, 29 June 2006 (UTC)

 * The whole issue is not about proverbs - rather about your plagiarism and your lies:

 * Original -http://com3.runboard.com/bfarfrontiers.forum13.t19 timestamped as of 23/Dec/05, 18:40

 * In the classification scheme of Georges Dumйzil he was the god of the second function (physical and military power). Members of Slavonic squads swore on his name.

 * Your copy-paste plagiarism
 * In the classification scheme of Georges Dumйzil, Perun was the god of the second function (physical and military power), god of war, and as such, he was armed with several fantastic weapons.

 * # 22:05, 20 February 2006 Hier0phant (Talk | contribs) m
 * # (cur) (last) 22:00, 20 February 2006 Hier0phant (Talk | contribs) m (?Myth)
 * # (cur) (last) 21:58, 20 February 2006 Hier0phant (Talk | contribs) m (?Sources)
 * # (cur) (last) 21:52, 20 February 2006 Hier0phant (Talk | contribs) (Expanded article, added new sections, verified information.)
 * # (cur) (last) 21:55, 18 February 2006 Hier0phant (Talk | contribs) m (Adding a template)

 * Original:

 * Like Thor, Perun's vegetable hypostasis was the oak, especially a particularly distinctive or prominent one. Underneath this oak would be a general place of worship and folding of sacrifices (with a bull, an ox, a ram, and eggs). In Southern Slavic tradition, marked oaks stood on country borders; communities at these positions were visited during village holidays in the late spring and during the summer. Perun is also connected with the plants perunika and perin in Serbian and Croatian tradition.

 * Your copy-paste forgery

 * Like many other Indo-European thunder-gods, Perun's vegetative hypostasis was the oak, especially a particularly distinctive or prominent one. In Southern Slavic traditions, marked oaks stood on country borders; communities at these positions were visited during village holidays in the late spring and during the summer. Shrines of Perun were located either on top of mountains or hills, or in sacred groves underneath ancient oaks.

 * Original From: Roman Zaroff  timestamp -(2/2/03 14:35)
 * http://p087.ezboard.com/fistorijabalkanafrm23.showMessage?topicID=12.topic

 * Moreover, the name of Perun is also commonly found in Southern Slavic toponymy. There are places called: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunika, Perunicka Glava, Peruni Vrh, Perunja Ves, Peruna Dubrava, Perunuљa, Peruљice, Perudina and Perutovac.

 * Your copy-paste forgery

 * That he was known among all branches of Slavs is evidenced by a vast number of toponyms which still bear this name. Examples include: Perun, Perunac, Perunovac, Perunic, Perunsko in Croatia(???), Perunja ves, Perunji vrh, Pernovska gorca, Pernjak, Perovec, Perudina in Slovenia, several Peruns in Bosnia, Perun and Perunike in Macedonia,

 * So, I am going to remove your 'references' and warn you that your place is not here.

 * My plagiarism and my lies? I do not know what you are talking about, and, frankly, I am shocked at such rudness and arrogance. As I said, I expanded and rewrote the entire article using two stated books as my refrences, trying to keep as much of existing info as possible. That is the way things are being done at wikipedia, AFAIK. I'd like to add that the fact that the article did not have any refrences before my intervention, so, if I myself may be so arrogant to note, on overall my expansion was an improvement. Furhtermore, if you have problem with "my plagiarisam and my lies", then, my dear, you will have to rewrite the entire article because a greater part of it I wrote, using the mentioned two books as my refrences. It seems to me like what you are doing should be classified as "plagiarism and lies", because you keep deleting two legitimate refrences upon which this article was based and adding a bunch of refrences without any modifications to the article. I am returning those two legitemate refrences and I ask you not to remove them again, because, as I said, the entire article is based on info from them. --Hierophant 07:09, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Yes, your plagiarizm and your lies. Here is a proof where the rest of yours 'originality' comes from:

http://www.abitabouteverything.com/files/s/sl/slavic_mythology.html

Original:

A possible exception is perhaps a short note in HerodotusÃ¢â‚¬â„¢ Histories, mentioning a tribe of Neuri in the far north, whose men, Herodotus claims, transform themselves into wolves for several days each year.

The first definitive reference to the Slavs and their mythology in written history was made by the 6th century Byzantine historian Procopius, whose Bellum Gothicum described the beliefs of a certain Southern Slavic tribe who crossed the Danube river heading south in just two days. According to Procopius, these Slavs worshipped a single god, lord of all, who crafted lightning and thunder; though the historian does not mention the name of god explicitly, it is clear from his description that it was Perun. He also mentions the belief in various demons and nymphs (i.e., vilas), but does not mention any other names.

Yours plagiarism looks like:

Of all historic records describing Slavic gods, those mentioning Perun are the most numerous. As early as 6th century,he was mentioned in De Bellum Gothicum, a historical source written by Byzantine historian Procopius. A short note describing beliefs of a certain South Slavic tribe states they acknowledge that one god, creator of lightning, is the only lord of all: to him do they sacrifice an ox and all sacrifical animals. While the name of the god is not mentioned here explicitly, the fact that word Perun in a number of Slavic languages today simply means "thunder" or "lightning bolt" is proof enough this was a reference of him.

All the rest of your 'knowledge' comes from the above reference. All what you did - reshuffled words on wrong way and damaged the original text that way greatly.

'''Aren't you ashamed now? This way you compromised the integrity and trustworthiness of Wikipedia and broke the basic etic norms of its editorial policy. I am going to mark your 'contribution' as pure plagiarism and request an administrator to block your access to the English version of Wikipedia.'''

 * Go ahead by all means, contact the administrator, I will do it myself if you fail to do it. The article you present here is wikipedia's Slavic mythology article, written single-handedly by your's truly - me, that is. Don't belive it? Go to Slavic mythology article and check who expanded it into a masterful, admirable article it is today. Oh, and you might want to check refrences there as well, to note which books were used in expansion of article. Now, if you don't stop vandalising articles I wrote and accusing me of plagiarisam, I will contact the administrator and ask that you be put into a mental institution for your own good and for good of everybody else--Hierophant 22:48, 2 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Hier0phant haven't plagiarized anything. You should check a dictionary for what plagiarism actually means, instead of blindly accusing people. It is not plagiarism in rewriting info found in a book, if that book is cited as a source.
 * Also, books need not be in English to be usable as a source. Much on Indo-European studies, and indeed, religion and mythology in general is in languages such as French and German(ie. Georges Dumezil and Walter Burkert).
 * Finally, this page is part of a Mirror of Wikipedia(something which is completely obvious just by looking at it). It, is a copy of Wikipedia. Not the other way around. — Lemegeton 20:51, 6 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes (s)he is a forger even and plagiarius - which is visigle quite clearly fom my comparisons. If you have some problems with understanding what plagiarizi really is - ask somebody to hel you.
 * True - if it is about an essay or a monography. This is an encyclopaedia article providing just basic information to an Englsh speaking reader.
 * Nonsense. Go to the original Wikipedia article mirrored there and compare the timestamps of all contributions to the plagiarized one. It is clear that the original article contributions are older than the plagiarized one. By the bye, you claimed that you are a person of a higher IQ?
 * This person, who isn't even leaving a IP signature, should be reported.99.54.188.176 (talk) 14:40, 18 December 2014 (UTC)

Outside view
Hello, I was asked to protect this page by Matt Parlow, though I see there is a dispute I think there is no real need to protect the article. Though there was an edit war here before, this hasn't happened for a week - so there is nothing to protect, unless a new one erupts. Protection is meant as a temporary stop to ongoing edit wars so that a discussion can go on in a more civil way, nothing to support either side of an argument. (And I'm not actually an administrator - so either way I can't protect it). I haven't been involved with this article previously, so I will throw in my thoughts here in the hope that they will help resolve something. So here is what I see here:

 * Wikipedia articles are meant to be 100% from other sources, otherwise it would be Original Research. So use of external sources is actually required by policy.  Though of course this does not mean copying and pasting material - which is copyright violation.
 * Hierophant did use some parts of sentences from his two sources. I personally wouldn't have used language so similar to the original sources, but I don't see how this constitutes copyright violation (nor "plagiarism").  The whole article is not a straight out copy, even the phrases that Matt has mentioned are are not straight out copies - they are just roughly based on the original phrases.

 * OK, then - copying and pasteing and not putting the copied text in quotes and, even worse, not giving the correct references - rather false ones - is definitvely plagiarism and forgery, not tolerated by any serious editorial policy.--Matt Parlow 03:17, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

 * In general I think Avoiding Copyright Paranoia over things like individual phrases is a good idea.
 * The link http://www.abitabouteverything.com/files/s/sl/slavic_mythology.html states very clearly that "This article is from Wikipedia" and the text is "available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License" - so it can be re-used in any another article licensed under GFDL (which of course includes anywhere on Wikipedia).

I think the sources should be kept and I don't see any reason for the warning on top of the article.
 * Do not think - rather read carefully my statement above and the one on your talk pages. The warning on the top of article shall stay until the very cause for that warning still exists.--Matt Parlow 03:17, 31 July 2006 (UTC)

Also, some of the the language being used on this talk page is slipping too much into personal attacks. I suggest assuming more good faith from other editors.--Konstable 05:22, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

"Bosnian" folk song
The song about golden apple, is typical example of Serbian epic poetry. Language, style, and structure are exactly as they are in Serbian epic songs. The song is written in "десетерац" which means that each line has exactly ten syllables. And btw there are no Bosnian folk songs that are treating this kind of theme.Uross 16:54, 14 August 2006 (UTC)

Primary chronicle
I move a section which appears problematic here:
 * The first source that definitely mentions a god named Perun is the Rus' Primary Chronicle, a history of early Kievan Rus. Together with a god named Volos he is sworn upon in peace agreements between Slavic overlords and Byzantine emperors. Here he is mentioned as a god of war and nobility, who punishes oathbreakers with death in battle.

The primary chronicle was written in the 12th century, and instead of "Slavic overlords", it talks of Norsemen called Karl, Farulf, Vermund, Hrollaf, and Steinvith. This source (url removed) notes that Perun was presumably a translation of a Norse god from the Greek original. Most likely the Greek original used the name of a Greek god in that place, see Interpretatio graeca. Since the removed section is completely unreferenced, and I find it a bit off-topic to discuss the custom of Interpretatio graeca, I think the text should be removed until a working non-OR suggestion is provided for how to treat it in the article.--Berig (talk) 14:44, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

Not a Croatian folk song!
"Jedna gađa dva djevera mlada, Druga gađa pašu na dorinu, Treća gađa svata šest stotina, Ne uteče oka za svjedoka, Ni da kaže, kako pogiboše"

This is certainly not a Croatian folk song! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.245.111.142 (talk) 01:27, 24 April 2011 (UTC)

"The root *perkwu originally probably meant oak"
An occult nonsense. There is no proof that it meant an "oak" if some celtic or germanic or italic "lignuists" understand the name through their own language.

Warren Ellis' Supergod
I was sure I'd already find references to Perun's inclusion in the comic book series Supergod, but seeing as this hasn't been done, it should be. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.255.175.17 (talk) 18:56, 24 January 2014 (UTC)

Baltic mythology
Is Perun synonymous with Perkwunos (Lithuanian: Perkūnas), the god of thunder and oak trees to the ancient Baltic peoples, including the now-extinct Old Prussians? Sca (talk) 14:34, 2 June 2014 (UTC)
 * Yes. Perun and Perkwunos have a common origin. Noraskulk (talk) 20:11, 9 January 2021 (UTC)

Banned editor activity
There is a banned IP editor making nonsensical edits concerning Perun and articles about early European history and language. Please report such activity to WP:ANI with reference to WP:PERUNBAN.  Sandstein  21:17, 22 April 2016 (UTC)

Etymology again
See https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/perun%D1%8A

Let us use these here.

Zezen (talk) 11:17, 13 September 2020 (UTC)

Interpretatio slavica
It is very interesting that the Varangian rulers in Slavic areas are reported to have worshiped Perun (Thor) and Veles (Freyr?). Pre-Christian cultures translated the names of the gods into the corresponding names of other cultures and languages, as in Interpretatio graeca and Interpretatio germanica. Maybe there should be an article named Interpretatio slavica?--Berig (talk) 16:28, 9 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Berig, with your permission, I can write such an article (many useful sources are available on the Internet), but on the condition that it will be created for about 3 months. I like to create large-scale articles. I also invite my new etymological friend, Ermenrich, to come here. Noraskulk (talk) 19:58, 9 January 2021 (UTC)
 * I'm happy to help. What do you mean "that it will be created for about 3 months"?--Ermenrich (talk) 19:59, 9 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Nothing. I'll write it, and Ermenrich will edit it Noraskulk (talk) 20:05, 9 January 2021 (UTC).
 * Thank you both! Take your time, Noraskulk, because we are all doing voluntary work here and there are no deadlines. I look forward to reading it when you feel done :-).--Berig (talk) 20:22, 9 January 2021 (UTC)

sky of stone
This is unexplained here, and I was unable to find a reliable source.Peter Flass (talk) 01:03, 18 August 2022 (UTC)

 * @Peter Flass Here's the source: which says "An essential distinguishing feature of the ancient Indo-European conception of mountains and cliffs is the image of mountains of great height reaching to the sky. This is what must have given rise to the Proto-Indo-European image of ‘stone sky’. In Indo-European the very word for ‘stone’ also means ‘sky’, conceived of as a stone vault: Skt. asman- ‘rock, cliff’, ‘stone tool, stone ham-"
 * and "hangs head down from the sky (see Reichelt 1913). Cognates meaning ‘stone’ in other Indo-European languages are used of the ‘stones’ of the thunder god, who throws them down to the earth from the skies: Lith. Perkdno aJcmuo ‘stone of Perkunas’, Pol. kamien piorunowy ‘stone of Perun’. The Balto-Slavic mythic image of a thunder god who lives in the sky on a high cliff is a reflex of these same Proto-Indo-European concepts of a sky made of stone and stony cliffs reaching to the sky." Sorry, OCR didn't catch the diacritics.
 * I don't have the time to work on this though. The original author said their English wasn't very good. Used Who Wrote That?} to find them. [[User:Doug Weller| Doug Weller] talk 09:10, 18 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perun


text:
Talk:Mokosz

Mokoš?

Would that be the same goddess as Mokoš? If so, both articles should be joined and one of them should become a redirection to another. --Romanm 00:14, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

It's the same, so I made Mokoš to be a redirect to Mokosz. Please refer to the Talk:Mokoš and merge the content to this page; there are some interesting things but my (or someone's) English isn't good enough to understand them all. --Romanm 13:15, 3 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mokosz


text:
Outlaws

An outlaw is a person living outside the law.

Outlaws or The Outlaws may also refer to:

Film

 * The Outlaws (1950 film), an Italian crime film
 * Outlaws (1985 film), a French film
 * The Outlaws (2017 film), a South Korean film
 * Outlaws (2017 film), or 1%, an Australian film
 * Outlaws (2021 film), a Spanish film
 * The Out-Laws (film), a 2023 American film

Television

 * Outlaws (1960 TV series), an American Western television series
 * Outlaws (1986 TV series), an American action-adventure series
 * Outlaws (2004 TV series), a UK drama
 * The Out-Laws (2012 TV series), the UK title of the Flemish series Clan
 * The Outlaws (2021 TV series), a UK comedy crime series
 * "Outlaws" (Lost), a 2005 episode

Literature

 * The Outlaws, characters in the Just William series of children's books by Richmal Crompton
 * The Outlaws, a novel in The Bikers series by Richard Gordon
 * The Outlaws, a novel in The Presidential Agent series by W. E. B. Griffin
 * The Outlaws (comics), a team of super-villains in Marvel Comics
 * The Outlaws (novel), a 1930 novel by Ernst von Salomon
 * "The Outlaws", a short story by Ron Rash

Music

 * Wanted! The Outlaws, a 1976 compilation album of recordings by Waylon Jennings, Willie Nelson, Jessi Colter, and Tompall Glaser
 * "Outlaws", a song by Green Day from the 2016 album Revolution Radio
 * Outlaws (band), an American southern rock band
 * Outlaws (Outlaws album), the band's 1975 debut album
 * The Outlaws (band), a 1960s English instrumental band
 * Outlaws (Luke Doucet album), 2004
 * Outlaws (Jeremy Steig and Eddie Gómez album), 1977
 * Outlawz, an American rap group

Video games

 * Outlaws (1985 video game), a shooter game for the Commodore 64
 * Outlaws (1997 video game), a first-person shooter for the PC
 * Houston Outlaws, an American professional eSports team in the Overwatch League
 * Star Wars Outlaws, an upcoming Star Wars action-adventure game

Bosnia and Herzegovina

 * Outlaws, a subgroup of the organized Ultras group Horde Zla

Ireland

 * Tallaght Outlaws, an Irish American Football League team

United Kingdom

 * Nottingham Outlaws (rugby league team), a National Division team
 * Nottinghamshire County Cricket Club, known as Nottinghamshire Outlaws in limited overs competition

United States

 * Arizona Outlaws, a former United States Football League team, also known as the Oklahoma Outlaws
 * Austin Outlaws, a National Women's Football Association team
 * Billings Outlaws, a former National Indoor Football League team
 * Chico Outlaws, a former Golden Baseball League team
 * Denver Outlaws (2006-2020), a former Major League Lacrosse team
 * Denver Outlaws, a Premier Lacrosse League team
 * Houston Outlaws (RFL team), a former professional football team from the Regional Football League
 * Kansas City Outlaws, a former United Hockey League team
 * Las Vegas Outlaws, a former professional football team from the XFL
 * Las Vegas Outlaws (arena football), a former professional football team from the Arena Football League
 * Nashville Outlaws, a former wooden bat summer collegiate baseball team of the Prospect League
 * Osceola Outlaws, the original proposed name of the Osceola Ghostriders, a former National Indoor Football League and World Indoor Football League team
 * Ventura County Outlaws, a rugby team in the Southern California Rugby Football Union

Tag-team wrestling

 * The New Age Outlaws, a professional wrestling tag-team
 * The Texas Outlaws (original version), a former professional tag-team consisting of Dusty Rhodes and Dick Murdoch
 * The Texas Outlaws, former tag-team champions in the United States Wrestling Association

Other uses

 * Outlaws Motorcycle Club

title: Outlaws


text:
Chicago Express Airlines

Chicago Express Airlines, Inc. was a regional airline headquartered in Chicago, Illinois, United States.

It operated regional feeder services from Chicago Midway Airport under the name ATA Connection. On June 1, 1999, ATA Airlines acquired Chicago Express for $1.9 million. Chicago Express became a wholly owned subsidiary of Amtran, later known as ATA Holdings, and now known as Global Aero Logistics, Inc. The airline had a line maintenance base at Midway Airport in Chicago, Illinois, and a hangar maintenance base at Gerald R. Ford International Airport in Grand Rapids, Michigan. In 2000, The hangar maintenance base was moved to South Bend Regional Airport in South Bend, Indiana. Chicago Express provided connecting service at ATA's hub, Chicago Midway International Airport. In 2004, ATA Airlines declared bankruptcy, and as a result, ATA terminated turboprop service (ATA Connection), and Chicago Express ceased all operations on March 28, 2005. It was purchased by CSC Investment Group based in Chicago, headed up by investment group CEO Edward Halley, on March 28, 2005. Chicago Express Airlines relaunched June 1, 2021 as an International Charter Cargo Airline Broker utilizing multiple International Airlines Operating Certificates and Aircraft.

History
The airline was established in 1993 by Mike Brady of Express Airlines I in Atlanta, Georgia. The airline started operations in August 1993. Its route structure in many ways mimiced an unrelated defunct predecessor named Chicago Air which also operated from Chicago Midway's airport less than a decade before. On June 1, 1999, Chicago Express became a wholly owned subsidiary of Amtran, later known as ATA Holdings and now Global Aero Logistics, and operated as ATA Connection, a regional code sharing affiliate of the now defunct ATA Airlines (formerly known as American Trans Air). Chicago Express' principal base of operations was Chicago Midway International Airport, where the company maintained its headquarters. For several months before its liquidation, the company also operated a hub in Indianapolis, part of ATA's failed plan for intrastate flights throughout Indiana. However, following ATA Holdings' decision to codeshare flights with Southwest Airlines, a decision was made to terminate Chicago Express effective March 28, 2005, in favor of a strictly mainline operation. CSC Investment Group, Inc., headed by CEO Edward S. Halley, purchased the airline in 2005 for $3.2 million. Chicago Express Airlines relaunched June 1, 2021 as a International Cargo Charter Airline utilizing aircraft from International Cargo Carriers Operating Certificates and Aircraft

Destinations

At the time of ATA's grounding of Chicago Express on March 28, 2005, Chicago Express/ATA Connection had operated scheduled service to 17 destinations throughout the Midwest:

Illinois

 * Chicago (Chicago Midway International Airport) Hub
 * Moline (Quad City International Airport)
 * Springfield (Abraham Lincoln Capital Airport)

Indiana

 * Evansville (Evansville Regional Airport)
 * Fort Wayne (Fort Wayne International Airport)
 * Indianapolis (Indianapolis International Airport) Hub
 * South Bend (South Bend Regional Airport)

Iowa

 * Cedar Rapids (The Eastern Iowa Airport)
 * Des Moines (Des Moines International Airport)

Kentucky

 * Lexington (Blue Grass Airport)

Michigan

 * Flint (Bishop International Airport)
 * Grand Rapids (Gerald R. Ford International Airport)
 * Lansing (Lansing Capital City Airport)

Ohio

 * Dayton (Dayton International Airport)
 * Toledo (Toledo Express Airport)

Wisconsin

 * Madison (Dane County Regional Airport)
 * Milwaukee (General Mitchell International Airport)

Prior to the airline's dissolution, it announced new service from Indianapolis to Gary/Chicago International Airport in Gary, Indiana, however it never began service on this route.

Fleet
At the time of termination on March 28, 2005, the Chicago Express fleet consisted of 16 Saab 340B configured to carry 34 passengers on short-haul and commuter flights. All were former American Eagle aircraft.

Fleet history
Chicago Express received delivery of its first Saab 340B (registered as N194AE) on February 5, 2000. Having previously operated a fleet of BAe Jetstream 31 aircraft, at the time Chicago Express ceased operations its fleet consisted of 17 Saab 340B aircraft, all of which were former American Eagle aircraft. The 17 Saab 340Bs replaced the BAe Jetstream 31s, which were used prior to ATA's acquisition of the airline in 1999.

The Jetstream 31s were divided into two groups based on design features: 6 Jetstreams were equipped with Garrett turboprops with Automatic Power Reserve (which came from JetStream International, a USAir commuter. These were the ones with tail numbers N8xxJS), and the remaining 4 Jetstreams were equipped with Garrett turboprops with water-methanol injection. After Amtran's acquisition of Chicago Express in 1999, the Jetstreams were "retired" and most found homes with other (mostly corporate) operators. One aircraft was written off during an engine run-up immediately prior to its resale to another operator when one propeller struck a ground power unit.

Two Saab 340Bs (N309CE and N311CE) were owned by Amtran, and remained in Indianapolis for several months after Chicago Express ceased operations. The remainder were quickly leased by Colgan Air.

title: Chicago Express Airlines


text:
DNA synthesis

DNA synthesis is the natural or artificial creation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules. DNA is a macromolecule made up of nucleotide units, which are linked by covalent bonds and hydrogen bonds, in a repeating structure. DNA synthesis occurs when these nucleotide units are joined to form DNA; this can occur artificially (in vitro) or naturally (in vivo). Nucleotide units are made up of a nitrogenous base (cytosine, guanine, adenine or thymine), pentose sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate group. Each unit is joined when a covalent bond forms between its phosphate group and the pentose sugar of the next nucleotide, forming a sugar-phosphate backbone. DNA is a complementary, double stranded structure as specific base pairing (adenine and thymine, guanine and cytosine) occurs naturally when hydrogen bonds form between the nucleotide bases.

There are several different definitions for DNA synthesis: it can refer to DNA replication - DNA biosynthesis (in vivo DNA amplification), polymerase chain reaction - enzymatic DNA synthesis (in vitro DNA amplification) or gene synthesis - physically creating artificial gene sequences. Though each type of synthesis is very different, they do share some features. Nucleotides that have been joined to form polynucleotides can act as a DNA template for one form of DNA synthesis - PCR - to occur. DNA replication also works by using a DNA template, the DNA double helix unwinds during replication, exposing unpaired bases for new nucleotides to hydrogen bond to. Gene synthesis, however, does not require a DNA template and genes are assembled de novo.

DNA synthesis occurs in all eukaryotes and prokaryotes, as well as some viruses. The accurate synthesis of DNA is important in order to avoid mutations to DNA. In humans, mutations could lead to diseases such as cancer so DNA synthesis, and the machinery involved in vivo, has been studied extensively throughout the decades. In the future these studies may be used to develop technologies involving DNA synthesis, to be used in data storage.

DNA replication

In nature, DNA molecules are synthesised by all living cells through the process of DNA replication. This typically occurs as a part of cell division. DNA replication occurs so, during cell division, each daughter cell contains an accurate copy of the genetic material of the cell. In vivo DNA synthesis (DNA replication) is dependent on a complex set of enzymes which have evolved to act during the S phase of the cell cycle, in a concerted fashion. In both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, DNA replication occurs when specific topoisomerases, helicases and gyrases (replication initiator proteins) uncoil the double-stranded DNA, exposing the nitrogenous bases. These enzymes, along with accessory proteins, form a macromolecular machine which ensures accurate duplication of DNA sequences. Complementary base pairing takes place, forming a new double-stranded DNA molecule. This is known as semi-conservative replication since one strand of the new DNA molecule is from the 'parent' strand.

Continuously, eukaryotic enzymes encounter DNA damage which can perturb DNA replication. This damage is in the form of DNA lesions that arise spontaneously or due to DNA damaging agents. DNA replication machinery is therefore highly controlled in order to prevent collapse when encountering damage. Control of the DNA replication system ensures that the genome is replicated only once per cycle; over-replication induces DNA damage. Deregulation of DNA replication is a key factor in genomic instability during cancer development.

This highlights the specificity of DNA synthesis machinery in vivo. Various means exist to artificially stimulate the replication of naturally occurring DNA, or to create artificial gene sequences. However, DNA synthesis in vitro can be a very error-prone process.

DNA repair synthesis
Damaged DNA is subject to repair by several different enzymatic repair processes, where each individual process is specialized to repair particular types of damage. The DNA of humans is subject to damage from multiple natural sources and insufficient repair is associated with disease and premature aging. Most DNA repair processes form single-strand gaps in DNA during an intermediate stage of the repair, and these gaps are filled in by repair synthesis. The specific repair processes that require gap filling by DNA synthesis include nucleotide excision repair, base excision repair, mismatch repair, homologous recombinational repair, non-homologous end joining and microhomology-mediated end joining.

Reverse Transcription
Reverse transcription is part of the replication cycle of particular virus families, including retroviruses. It involves copying RNA into double-stranded complementary DNA (cDNA), using reverse transcriptase enzymes. In retroviruses, viral RNA is inserted into a host cell nucleus. There, a viral reverse transcriptase enzyme adds DNA nucleotides onto the RNA sequence, generating cDNA that is inserted into the host cell genome by the enzyme integrase, encoding viral proteins.

Polymerase chain reaction
A polymerase chain reaction is a form of enzymatic DNA synthesis in the laboratory, using cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the reaction for DNA melting and enzymatic replication of the DNA.

DNA synthesis during PCR is very similar to living cells but has very specific reagents and conditions. During PCR, DNA is chemically extracted from host chaperone proteins then heated, causing thermal dissociation of the DNA strands. Two new cDNA strands are built from the original strand, these strands can be split again to act as the template for further PCR products. The original DNA is multiplied through many rounds of PCR. More than a billion copies of the original DNA strand can be made.

Random mutagenesis
For many experiments, such as structural and evolutionary studies, scientists need to produce a large library of variants of a particular DNA sequence. Random mutagenesis takes place in vitro, when mutagenic replication with a low fidelity DNA polymerase is combined with selective PCR amplification to produce many copies of mutant DNA.

RT-PCR
RT-PCR differs from conventional PCR as it synthesizes cDNA from mRNA, rather than template DNA. The technique couples a reverse transcription reaction with PCR-based amplification, as an RNA sequence acts as a template for the enzyme, reverse transcriptase. RT-PCR is often used to test gene expression in particular tissue or cell types at various developmental stages or to test for genetic disorders.

Gene synthesis
Artificial gene synthesis is the process of synthesizing a gene in vitro without the need for initial template DNA samples. In 2010 J. Craig Venter and his team were the first to use entirely synthesized DNA to create a self-replicating microbe, dubbed Mycoplasma laboratorium.

Oligonucleotide synthesis
Oligonucleotide synthesis is the chemical synthesis of sequences of nucleic acids. The majority of biological research and bioengineering involves synthetic DNA, which can include oligonucleotides, synthetic genes, or even chromosomes. Today, all synthetic DNA is custom-built using the phosphoramidite method by Marvin H. Caruthers. Oligos are synthesized from building blocks which replicate natural bases. The process has been automated since the late 1970s and can be used to form desired genetic sequences as well as for other uses in medicine and molecular biology. However, creating sequences chemically is impractical beyond 200-300 bases, and is an environmentally hazardous process. These oligos, of around 200 bases, can be connected using DNA assembly methods, creating larger DNA molecules.

Some studies have explored the possibility of enzymatic synthesis using terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase (TdT), a DNA polymerase that requires no template. However, this method is not yet as effective as chemical synthesis, and is not commercially available.

With advances in artificial DNA synthesis, the possibility of DNA data storage is being explored. With its ultrahigh storage density and long-term stability, synthetic DNA is an interesting option to store large amounts of data. Although information can be retrieved very quickly from DNA through next generation sequencing technologies, de novo synthesis of DNA is a major bottleneck in the process. Only one nucleotide can be added per cycle, with each cycle taking seconds, so the overall synthesis is very time-consuming, as well as very error prone. However, if biotechnology improves, synthetic DNA could one day be used in data storage.

Base pair synthesis
It has been reported that new nucleobase pairs can be synthesized, as well as A-T (adenine - thymine) and G-C (guanine - cytosine). Synthetic nucleotides can be used to expand the genetic alphabet and allow specific modification of DNA sites. Even just a third base pair would expand the number of amino acids that can be encoded by DNA from the existing 20 amino acids to a possible 172. Hachimoji DNA is built from eight nucleotide letters, forming four possible base pairs. It therefore doubles the information density of natural DNA. In studies, RNA has even been produced from hachimoji DNA. This technology could also be used to allow data storage in DNA.

title: DNA synthesis


text:
Mug Root Beer

Mug Root Beer is an American brand of root beer that was originally produced in 1940 under the name Belfast Root Beer. It is now made by New Century Beverage Company of San Francisco, California, which was acquired by PepsiCo in 1986.

History
Mug Root Beer was originally sold under the name Belfast Root Beer in 1940 by the Belfast Beverage Company in San Francisco, California. The company had been known for making sparkling water and ginger ale since 1877. Belfast Beverage Company was purchased around 1925 by New Century Beverage Company, which had successfully launched Crush Soda in 1918.

In 1936, New Century Beverage Company gained permission to franchise Pepsi-Cola products, and about four years later, it launched Belfast Root Beer. An advertisement for Belfast Root Beer appears as early as 1947. According to the San Francisco Examiner, the catchphrase, 'You haven't tasted Root Beer like this in years!' filled 1950s newspaper advertisements." An advertisement for Belfast Old Fashioned Mug Root Beer appears as early as 1952. In the 1950s, the soda took on the title Belfast Old Fashioned Mug Root Beer before its name was eventually shortened to Mug Root Beer.

In the late 1960s, Sugar Free Mug (now Diet Mug Root Beer) was introduced. Mug Cream Soda and Diet Mug Cream Soda were later introduced, but they are not as widely available. Mug was purchased by Pepsi in 1986, and replaced On-Tap Draft Style Root Beer as Pepsi's root beer brand. Mug Root Beer is manufactured by independent bottlers under the authority of New Century Beverage Company.

Since Mug Root Beer's acquisition by PepsiCo in 1986, the company's mascot has been a bulldog named "Dog" holding a mug of Mug Root Beer. PepsiCo stopped producing its sodas in San Francisco in the early 1990s.

title: Mug Root Beer