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604 Records

604 Records (stylized as VIOIV Records) is a music production company. It is named after area code 604 of the Lower Mainland, where the company's offices are located.

History
The company was co-founded by Nickelback lead singer Chad Kroeger and attorney Jonathan Simkin, founder of Simkin Artist Management, in 2001, and launched in 2002. Their records are distributed in Canada by Warner Music Group.

Simkin launched the companion label Light Organ Records in 2010 to release music by indie rock bands who he felt did not fit with 604's image.

In 2014, mainly due to the revenue from the success of Carly Rae Jepsen's Call Me Maybe, 604 Records relocated to a larger office and opened 604 Studios, a multimedia production facility featuring two recording studios, soundstage and in-house production team.

In March 2022, the company announced plans to launch an NFT platform.

Notable artists currently represented

 * Carly Rae Jepsen
 * Coleman Hell
 * Dirty Radio
 * Josh Ramsay
 * Marianas Trench

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Notable artists formerly represented

 * Dallas Smith
 * Daniel Wesley
 * Faber Drive
 * Jakalope
 * Jessie Farrell
 * My Darkest Days
 * One Bad Son
 * Ralph
 * Small Town Pistols
 * Suzie McNeil
 * The Suits XL
 * Theory of a Deadman
 * Thornley
 * Tommy Lee

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title: 604 Records


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Santa Cruz Province, Argentina

Santa Cruz Province (Provincia de Santa Cruz,, "Holy Cross") is a province of Argentina, located in the southern part of the country, in Patagonia. It borders Chubut Province to the north, and Chile to the west and south, with an Atlantic coast on its east. Santa Cruz is the second-largest province of the country (after Buenos Aires Province), and the least densely populated in mainland Argentina.

The indigenous people of the province are the Tehuelches, who despite European exploration from the 16th century onwards, retained independence until the late 19th century. Soon after the Conquest of the Desert in the 1870s, the area was organised as the Territory of Santa Cruz, named after its original capital in Puerto Santa Cruz. The capital moved to Rio Gallegos in 1888 and has remained there ever since. Immigrants from various European countries came to the territory in the late 19th and early 20th century during a gold rush. Santa Cruz became a province of Argentina in 1957.

History

The Tehuelches inhabited these lands before the arrivals of the Spanish colonisation. In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan arrived to what is currently known as San Julián Bay. 15 years later Martín de Alcazaba explored the area near the Chico River, which he named Gallegos River. Because of the attacks of British privateers, and after the visit of Francis Drake in 1578, the Spaniards sent Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa to fortify and map the Strait of Magellan and prevent access to Spanish posts in the Pacific.

In the middle of the 18th century, the Jesuits settled in the area, establishing a few missions. When the Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was created in 1776, the region was set under the rule of Buenos Aires. Antonio de Biedma founded Nueva Colonia near present Puerto Deseado and Floridablanca not far from Puerto San Julián, both of them shut down later by Viceroy Vertíz.

Between 1825 and 1836 there were a series of explorations of the regions, including that of Charles Darwin in 1834. In 1860 commander Luis Piedrabuena established a base on Isla Pavón in the estuary of Puerto Deseado.

In 1878 the Government of Patagonia was created, with capital in Viedma, but six years later it was split into smaller entities, with the territory declared National Government of Santa Cruz, whose capital was the city of Santa Cruz. In 1901 the capital was moved to its current location at the city of Río Gallegos.

At the beginning of the 20th century, a large European immigration began to arrive to the almost uninhabited zone; Spanish, Germans, British and Slavs were the most numerous among them. They came mainly to escape the growing conflicts of World War I, and were attracted by the wool industry of the area. The beginning of the war meant a sharp reduction in the amount of exports, bringing a serious economic crisis to Santa Cruz.

The ideals of progressivism, brought by the Spanish immigrants, grew among the workers who, working in Santa Cruz's harsh environment under often sub-human conditions, decided to strike in 1922. The strike was severely and harshly repressed by the government, culminating in the events of the Patagonia Trágica ("Tragic Patagonia"), the execution of dozens of strikers.

In 1944, the Military zone of Comodoro Rivadavia was created, which encompassed the northern part of the National Government of Santa Cruz and the southern part of Chubut Province. This jurisdiction lasted until the abolition of the measures in 1955. The Territory of Santa Cruz acquired province status in 1957.

In 1973, voters in Santa Cruz elected Jorge Cepernic, a Peronist. An advocate of labor rights, Gov. Cepernic worked with film maker Osvaldo Bayer to make La Patagonia Rebelde ('"Rebellion in Patagonia"), a documentary drama on the ill-fated 1922 sheep ranch laborers' strike. For this, Gov. Cepernic was imprisoned following the March 1976 coup. The return to democracy in Argentina in 1983 brought new, mostly young leadership to Santa Cruz's elected posts, among them a well-known local country lawyer named Néstor Kirchner, elected that year to the Río Gallegos City Council. Elected mayor in 1987 and governor in 1991, Kirchner helped negotiate a US$535 million payout for his province following the 1993 privatization of the state-owned oil concern YPF. Earning plaudits for his careful administration of the funds, Kirchner was elected president of Argentina in April 2003, following the withdrawal of Carlos Menem from a runoff which Kirchner was projected to win handily.

Presiding over four years of expansion totalling 42% (the best performance for the Argentine economy since the 1880s), Pres. Kirchner steered record spending into public works (particularly those in his province, as is customary for Argentine presidents).

In the Province there is a border dispute with Chile in the Southern Patagonian Ice Field,   in 1898 the border was defined and wasn't objected during the 1902 Arbitral award of the Andes which defined most of the border on the current Province territory. Both experts, Francisco Pascasio Moreno from Argentina and Diego Barros Arana from Chile agreed on the border between Mount Fitz Roy and Cerro Daudet. However the border started being questioned by Argentina later on which started the dispute between both countries. In 1998 a border redraw is agreed, being pending to this day the part between Mount Fitz Roy and Cerro Murallón, however a new border was drawn between Cerro Murallón and Cerro Daudet.

In the 20th century both countries had another dispute over the Del Desierto Lake which was resolved in favor of Argentina in 1994 and had its climax in 1965 when Lieutenant Hernán Merino Correa was killed by Argentine Gendarmerie.

Geography
The province is generally divided into 2 distinct regions: The Andes in the west and the plateaus in the centre and east. In the Andes, there are numerous lakes such as Buenos Aires Lake (2,240 km2, 881 km2 in Argentina), Cardiel Lake (460 km2), Viedma Lake (1,082 km2), Argentino Lake (1,560 km2), Pueyrredón Lake, Belgrano Lake and San Martín Lake (1,013 km2). One characteristic of the Andean region is the presence of the Southern Patagonian Ice Field that covers the central part of the Andes.

From the centre to the Atlantic coast in the east, the landscape is dominated by plateaus. These plateaus are made up of basalt rock occur in stepped sequences. The plateaus are of different ages with the older –of Neogene and Paleogene age– being located at higher elevations than Pleistocene and Holocene lava plateaus and outcrops. There are isolated pockets of hills and depressions within this region. In Gran Bajo de San Julián, the Laguna del Carbón is 105 meters below sea level, and is the lowest point in the Western and Southern Hemispheres. On the Atlantic coast, it is characterised by cliffs.

Hydrography
The main rivers in the province are the Deseado River (Río Deseado), Chico River (Río Chico), Santa Cruz River (Río Santa Cruz), Coig River (Río Coig), and the Gallegos River (Río Gallegos). These rivers all originate from the Andes which then drain into the lakes before moving eastwards to empty into the Atlantic Ocean.

Climate
The Andes block most of the incoming frontal systems and as a result, most of the rainfall occurs in the western side of the mountains, with precipitation rapidly decreasing eastward. As a result, except for the westernmost parts of the province where precipitation is abundant and under more influence from the Pacific, much of the province is dry. Unlike the Northern Hemisphere where there are large land masses to allow cold temperatures, cold fronts, which usually originate from the southwest and move northeast are moderated by the Pacific Ocean, resulting in less intense cold temperatures. Similar to much of Patagonia, the climate of the province is characterized by strong westerlies, which also enhances evapotranspiration. In general, the southern parts of the province are colder than the north.

Temperatures
The mean temperatures for the province are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Falkland Current. The extreme northeast coast is by far the mildest area, with annual temperatures around 8 to 9 C with temperatures inland being 1 °C to 2 °C lower. The coldest temperatures are found in the southern parts of the province with an annual mean of 6 C although in the western parts of the province which are at higher altitudes, the mean can be below 5 C and even below 0 C at the highest elevations. In the summer, mean temperatures range from 16 C in the North to around 12 C in the south. However, temperatures can reach up to 35 C in all parts of the province except at the highest elevations. Winters are cold throughout the province, with more uniform temperatures than during the summer; July temperatures average 4 C in the North to 2 C in the southern parts. Temperatures can plummet below -20 C in the interior while at the coast, it infrequently drops below -15 C.

Precipitation
Owing to the Andes, they block most of the incoming frontal systems and as a result, most of the rainfall occurs in the western side of the Andes, in which precipitation rapidly decreases eastward. Much of the province receives less than 200 mm of precipitation a year while in the Andean region which is under more influence from the Pacific, it can receive more than 1,000 mm. Precipitation mainly falls in the form of light rain with heavy rain and thunderstorms being rare, with these two only occurring during the summer. In all parts of the province, more precipitation occurs in the winter than in the summer.

Wind
The prevalent wind directions are from the west, southwest and northwest and together, these occur 60% of the time. Northern parts of the province tend to have more northwest winds than the southern parts of the province. With few landmasses south of 46°S, the province is dominated by strong winds throughout the year. Summers are windier than winters. The strongest winds are found in the Andean region while the weakest are found in the coastal areas. With a mean wind speed of 10 m/s, the province is the windiest in Argentina. Gusts can reach up to 200 km/h in some places.

Sunshine
Although most of the province is dry, the province is relatively cloudy. The percent of cloudy days ranges from 50% in the north to 60% in the south. Average daily sunshine hours range from 6 hours/day in the North to 4 hours/day in the south with the lowest in the coastal areas in the south.

Demographics
According to the 2022 Argentine national census, the Province of Santa Cruz has 333,473 inhabitants.

Economy

Santa Cruz, with a small population and rich in natural resources, has long had one of Argentina's most prosperous economies. Its 2006 output was estimated at US$3.3 billion or a per capita income of US$16,553. In 2011 Santa Cruz had the highest per capita income of Argentina, US$36,550.

Its economy, with the possible exception of Neuquen's, is the country's least diversified, however. Fully half its output is accounted for by the extractive sector (petroleum, gas and mining), with an annual production of 4.5 million m3 of petroleum and 3 million m3 of gas, mainly in the Pico Truncado, Cañadón seco and Cerro Redondo extracting facilities. Cerro Negro mine by Gold Corp. has in recent years contributed to the growth of population of Santa Cruz through its Gold mining operations and subsidies to local public education and private sector.

The coal production at Río Turbio, Argentina's only active coal mine, is of around one million m3 per year. Mining includes gold (Cerro Vanguardia Mine), clay, gypsum, salt and others.

The second most important productive activity is that associated with sheep. With 7 million heads, Santa Cruz is the second main producer of wool and meat after the Province of Chubut, most of which is designated for export. Sheep farming revived in 2002 with the devaluation of the peso and firmer global demand for wool (led by China and the EU). Still there is little investment in new abattoirs (mainly in Rio Gallegos), and often there are phytosanitary restrictions to the export of sheep meat. Livestock also includes small numbers of cattle, and in lesser numbers pigs and horses.

Sea fishing, and its later industrialization at the fishing ports of Puerto Deseado, Puerto San Julián, Puerto Santa Cruz and Río Gallegos produces prawn, squid, hake and dozens of others. Most of the production is frozen and exported.

There is little agriculture due to the arid nature of the soil. There is a small timber industry fed by both forests and planted trees, of which the wood of the lenga is the most exploited.

Tourism
Santa Cruz's most visited destination is Los Glaciares National Park and a number of glaciers of which the Perito Moreno Glacier is the most famous. Nearby El Calafate has an airport that connects the area with Buenos Aires and Trelew.

Some 200 kilometres north of El Calafate is the village of El Chaltén at the feet of the Cerro Torre and Mount Fitz Roy. Still not very developed, El Chaltén serves as a hub for various trekking routes including walks on the Viedma Glacier. 600 kilometres further north of El Chaltén, by the dirt road Ruta 40, the Cueva de las Manos near the town of Perito Moreno allows the few tourists who venture to this point to see the prehistoric wall paintings in the caves near the Pinturas River.

Perito Moreno National Park and its lakes, north of Los Glaciares, are rarely visited. Besides trekking, other sports practised on the west side of the province are sport fishing, rafting and climbing.

In the east, the National Route 3 follows the Atlantic coastline, by which buses connect the coastal cities, and take passengers both south to Tierra del Fuego and north to Chubut Province and Buenos Aires. The most visited places are the cities of Río Gallegos, the Bosques Petrificados National Monument petrified forest, and the depression of Laguna del Carbón near Puerto San Julián.

Government
The provincial government is divided into three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoints the cabinet; the legislative; and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court.

The Constitution of Santa Cruz Province, Argentina forms the formal law of the province.

In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police but the additional work is carried out by the Santa Cruz Provincial Police.

Political division
The province is divided into the following 7 departments:

Department (Capital)

 * 1) Corpen Aike (Puerto Santa Cruz)
 * 2) Deseado Department (Puerto Deseado)
 * 3) Güer Aike (Río Gallegos)
 * 4) Lago Argentino (El Calafate)
 * 5) Lago Buenos Aires (Perito Moreno)
 * 6) Magallanes (Puerto San Julián)
 * 7) Río Chico (Gobernador Gregores)

Sports
Boxing Club de Río Gallegos is the only side that competes in national leagues. The club currently plays in the Torneo Federal B, the regionalized fourth-tier in Argentine football league system. At the 2015 season it reached the second phase.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Santa Cruz Province, Argentina


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Villa Park

Villa Park is a football stadium in Aston, Birmingham, with a seating capacity of 42,640. It has been the home of Premier League club Aston Villa since 1897. The ground is less than a mile from both Witton and Aston railway stations and has hosted sixteen England internationals at senior level, the first in 1899 and the most recent in 2005. Villa Park has hosted 55 FA Cup semi-finals, more than any other stadium, and it is the 10th largest in England.

In 1897, Aston Villa moved into the Aston Lower Grounds, a sports ground in a Victorian amusement park in the former grounds of Aston Hall, a Jacobean stately home. The stadium has gone through various stages of renovation and development, resulting in the current stand configuration of the Holte End, Trinity Road Stand, North Stand and Doug Ellis Stand.

Before 1914, a cycling track ran around the perimeter of the pitch where regular cycling meetings were hosted as well as athletic events. Aside from football-related uses, the stadium has seen various concerts staged along with other sporting events including boxing matches and international rugby league and rugby union matches. In 1999, the last final of the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup took place at Villa Park. Villa Park also hosted the 2012 FA Community Shield, as Wembley Stadium was in use for the final of the Olympic football tournament.

Aston Villa have plans to redevelop the North Stand: this would increase the capacity of Villa Park from 42,640 to 50,065. Such plans also include the construction of an accompanying commercial and entertainment venue dubbed "Villa Live". In December 2022, the plans were approved by Birmingham City Council. The renovations were planned to be completed by UEFA Euro 2028. However, in December 2023, President of Football Operations Chris Heck announced that the redevelopment plans had been indefinitely postponed.

History
Villa Park, formerly part of Aston Lower Grounds, was not the first home of Aston Villa F.C. Their previous venue, Wellington Road, faced increasing problems including an uneven pitch, poor spectator facilities, a lack of access and exorbitant rents. As a result, in 1894 Villa's committee, led by Frederick Rinder began negotiations with the owners of the Aston Lower Grounds, "the finest sports ground in the district." Situated in the former grounds of Aston Hall, a Jacobean stately home, the Lower Grounds had seen varied uses over the years.

Originally the kitchen garden of Aston Hall's owner Sir Thomas Holte, after whom the Holte End stand was named, the Lower Grounds later became a Victorian amusement park with an aquarium and a great hall. The current pitch stands on the site of the Dovehouse Pool, an ornamental pond that was drained in 1889. In place of the pool, the owners of the Lower Grounds built a cycle track and sports ground that opened on 10 June 1889 for a combined cycling and athletics event before a crowd of 15,000. Negotiations continued for two years before the Villa committee reached agreement with the site's owner, Edgar Flower, to rent the site for £300 per annum on a 21-year lease with an option to buy it at any point during the term.

Much of the credit for the design of Villa Park must to go to Villa Chairman Frederick Rinder, who as a trained Surveyor, is said to have laid down every 'level and line' of the ground himself before construction began. The committee immediately engaged an architect who began preparing plans for the site, which included construction of a new 440 yd cement cycle track to replace the existing cinder one. The main stand was to be built to the east on the Witton Lane side, with the track and pitch fully enclosed by banking. Construction of the final phase of the stadium began in late 1896 after negotiations with contractors over the price. Several months behind schedule, the almost-complete stadium opened with a friendly against Blackburn Rovers on 17 April 1897, which ended as a 3–0 win, one week after Aston Villa had completed the League and FA Cup 'Double'. The process of fixing issues with the building work continued for several months. As built, the stadium could house 40,000 spectators, most of whom stood in the open on the banking.

After winning the league championship in 1899, Villa's record-breaking average crowd of 21,000 allowed the club to invest in a two-stage ground improvement programme. The first stage extended the terrace covering on the Trinity Road side at the cost of £887; the second cost £1,300 and involved re-laying all terracing around the track to remedy a design flaw that caused poor sightlines for the majority of the crowd. In 1911, Villa bought the freehold of the ground for £8,250, the office buildings in the old aquarium and car park area for £1,500 and the carriage drive and bowling green for £2,000. This was the first stage in plans drawn up by Villa director Frederick Rinder that saw the capacity of Villa Park increased to 104,000.

In June 1914, another phase of enhancements began at Villa Park to compete with improvements at other grounds around the country, including Everton's Goodison Park, where a new two-tiered stand had just been completed. The first stage of improvements saw the cycling track removed, new banking at the Holte Hotel End (Holte End), and a re-profiling of all the terracing to bring it closer to the newly squared-off pitch. Rinder turned to the renowned architect Archibald Leitch to design a new Villa Park. Their joint plans included large banked end stands at the Holte and Witton ends and the incorporation of the original Victorian Lower Grounds buildings, including the aquarium and the newly acquired bowling greens. The outbreak of the First World War severely hampered design and construction efforts.

As a result of inflation, 1919 quotes for the implementation of the pre-war construction plans came to £66,000, compared to the 1914 quote of £27,000. By March 1922 this price had reduced to £41,775, and the directors pushed ahead with the plans for the new Trinity Road Stand. Construction began in April 1922 with the stand partially opened in August. Construction continued throughout the 1922–1923 season, with the stand officially opened on 26 January 1924 by the then Duke of York, later King George VI. He commented to Rinder that he had "no idea that a ground so finely equipped in every way—and devoted to football—existed."

On completion the Trinity Road Stand was considered one of the grandest in Britain, complete with stained glass windows, Italian mosaics, Dutch gables in the style of Aston Hall and a sweeping staircase. The Oak Room in the Trinity Road stand was the first restaurant at a British football ground. Several commentators including Simon Inglis consider it to be Leitch's masterpiece; a Sunday Times reporter described it in 1960 as the "St Pancras of football." The final cost of the stand and associated 1922–1924 ground developments was calculated at £89,000, a sum that enraged the club's directors who ordered an investigation into cost and in 1925 forced Rinder's resignation.

Villa Park remained in much the same state for another 30 years, with no major developments until the late 1950s. During the 1930s the earth and timber terraces with wooden crash barriers were completely replaced by concrete terracing and metal barriers, a process first begun by Rinder. In 1936 he was voted back onto the board at the age of 78 after the club were relegated to the Second Division. Nearly 25 years after he had created his 1914 masterplan, Rinder resurrected it and looked to carry out the third phase of his developments. He died in December 1938 (Leitch had died in April), leaving his construction business to his son, Archibald Junior.

The complete redevelopment and extension of the Holte End began in early 1939, supervised by Archibald Junior. When the Second World War broke out in September 1939, all construction across the country stopped. Unusually, given the austerity measures in place at the time, Villa acquired a special permit to continue construction of the Holte End; Simon Inglis notes "How they achieved this is not recorded". Work on the ground was completed by April 1940, and the stand was immediately mothballed as Villa Park switched to its wartime role. The Trinity Road Stand became an air-raid shelter and ammunition store while the home dressing room became the temporary home of a rifle company from the 9th Battalion, Royal Warwickshire Regiment. German bombs caused £20,000 worth of damage to the Witton Lane Stand, which was remedied by 1954.

In the late 1950s, four projects were announced. The old Bowling Green pavilion on the Trinity Road became a medical centre, the basement of the aquarium building was converted into a gym, four large floodlight pylons were installed, and a training ground was purchased 500 yd from Villa Park. The floodlights were first used in November 1958 for a friendly match against the Scottish side Heart of Midlothian.

In mid-1962, £40,000 was spent on a roof for the Holte End, the first to provide cover for the ordinary terrace fans at Villa Park since 1922. The old barrel-shaped roof on the Witton Lane Stand, the only remaining feature of the 1897 Villa Park, was removed in the summer of 1963 and replaced with a plain sloping roof in the same style as the Holte End. Villa Park was chosen by FIFA to host three matches for the 1966 World Cup on the condition that the Witton Lane Stand became all-seater. The players' tunnel had to be covered with a cage while the pitch was widened by 3 yd.

Regular ground developments and innovations began from 1969 under the direction of the new chairman, Doug Ellis, who set about redeveloping Villa Park for the modern era. Much of the stadium had fallen into disrepair and was in need of modernisation; Villa's attendances and financial situation had also declined as a result of losing their First Division status in 1967 and going down to the Third Division for the first time in 1970. Ellis updated the infrastructure, installed a new public address system, carried out plumbing work which included installing new toilets, resurfaced the terraces, and built a new ticket office. His tenure saw executive lounges replace the old offices in the Trinity Road Stand.

Redevelopment of the Witton End stand began in the summer of 1976, a year after Villa returned to the First Division after eight years away. The stand had not seen any major work since 1924, and its rear remained a mound of earth. Initial renovations saw the levelling of the earth and new concrete terraces constructed on the lower tier in preparation for the construction of an upper tier. Stage two began in February 1977 and was officially opened in late October. The stand's design and fittings were impressive for the time, including novelties such as an 'AV' logo spelled out in coloured seats and a double row of executive boxes.

As well as the new Witton End stand, renamed the North Stand, Villa Park went through further renovations throughout the ground. The cost of the work was £1.3 million. As a result, and as with the construction of the Trinity Road Stand fifty years earlier, Villa were again burdened with debt. An internal investigation found that £700,000 of the £1.3 million worth of bills were unaccounted for. A later report by accountants Deloitte Haskins & Sells found that the bills were inflated by only 10% but that there were "serious breaches of recommended codes of practice and poor site supervision".

In response to the Hillsborough disaster which resulted in 96 fatalities, the Taylor Report of January 1990 recommended that all major grounds be converted to become all-seater as a safety measure by August 1994. Within a few months of the Taylor Report being published, the first changes were made in line with the report. The North Stand saw the addition of 2,900 seats to the lower tier of the stand in place of terracing, the Holte End's roof was extended in preparation for more seats, the Trinity Road Stand had its roof replaced, and the Witton Lane Stand had more corporate boxes added. By that time, all four floodlight pylons had been removed to make way for boxes or in preparation for seating, and new floodlights were installed on new gantries on the Trinity and Witton stands. In February 1992, the club's application to the council for permission to demolish the Holte Hotel was rejected. After several months of negotiations, Villa gained permission for a new stand to replace the Witton Lane Stand. The new design meant that the club had to realign Witton Lane and, as a condition of the planning permission, pay £600,000 to compulsory purchase the houses along Witton Lane and upgrade the road from a B to an A road, as well as moving its utilities. The stand was fully operational by January 1994 at the cost of £5 million with 4,686 seats, which brought Villa Park up to a capacity of 46,005. It was announced at the 70th birthday gala of chairman Doug Ellis that the stand was to be renamed the "Doug Ellis Stand", a move that caused some controversy among Villa fans with some still referring to it as the Witton Lane Stand. Nevertheless, during the 1993–94 season, the newly rebuilt Witton Lane Stand became the Doug Ellis Stand.

The Holte End was the only remaining stand that did not meet the Taylor Report requirements, and a structural survey revealed that putting seats onto the existing terracing would be uneconomical. Instead, the decision was taken to build a new stand consisting of two tiers, just four years after construction of the new roof. The demolition of the stand began on the last day of the 1993–94 season. Its replacement began to open in August 1994 with 3,000 seats in the lower tier occupied for the first seating-only game at Villa Park. By December it was fully operational and had a capacity of 13,501 seats, bringing the Villa Park capacity to 40,310. Upon completion, the Holte was the largest single end stand in Britain.

The next development at Villa Park was the Trinity Road Stand in 2000. It had stood since 1922 and seen several renovations and additions. The demolition of the old stand began after the last game of the 1999–2000 season, an event met with an element of sadness from observers such as Simon Inglis who stated that "the landscape of English football will never be the same." The new stand was larger than the old one, taking Villa's capacity from 39,399 to its present 42,682. It was officially opened in November 2001 by Prince Charles; his grandfather George VI had opened the old stand, 77 years earlier, when he was still the Duke of York.

Structure and facilities
Villa Park has 42,682 seats, split between four stands. These four stands are the Holte End to the south, the Trinity Road Stand to the west, the Doug Ellis Stand opposite the Trinity Road Stand, and the North Stand behind the northern goal. All of the stands have two tiers except the Trinity Road Stand, which has three.

The Holte End is a large two-tiered stand at the south end of the stadium. Originally a large terraced banking with accommodation for more than 20,000 spectators, the current stand was constructed in 1994–1995 and consists of two tiers with no executive boxes. The two tiers are slightly curved in a parabola to provide good sightlines from all seats. Inside there are three levels of concourse and the Holte Suite, a large hospitality room for supporters. The roof is a variant of the "King Truss" system and the front third slopes slightly forward. Two large staircases, pediments, Dutch gables and a mosaic introduced in the 2007 season in the style of the old Trinity Road Stand make up the facade, itself inspired by Aston Hall. The Holte End is the most renowned stand at Villa Park amongst home and away team supporters. Traditionally Villa's most vocal and passionate supporters gather here, including members of Aston Villa hooligan firms.

Built in 2000, the main Trinity Road Stand is the most recently completed at Villa Park and houses the dressing rooms, club offices and director's boxes. The stand is composed of three tiers with a row of executive boxes between the second and third tiers. Although much larger than the other stands, the stand has roughly the same roof level as the other three sides. The players' tunnel and the technical area where the managers and substitutes sit during the match are in the middle of the stand at pitch level. The press and the directors' VIP area are situated in the centre of the middle tier. The upper tiers of the stand extend over Trinity Road, the street that cuts behind the ground. Trinity Road passes through a tunnel formed by the Trinity Road Stand.

The oldest stand at Villa Park is the North Stand, formerly known as the Witton End, completed in 1977. It is a two-tiered stand, with a double row of 39 executive boxes running between the two tiers. Upper-tier seats are claret with "AV" written in blue; the lower tier consists of sky blue seats. The North Stand was "the first major stand in Britain to use what is now broadly termed the 'goalpost' structure." The facade of the stand is a "textured concrete render" typical of the time.

Since the segregation of supporters in the 1970s, away fans had been situated in the lower tier of the North Stand. Former manager Martin O'Neill expressed his desire to have Villa fans seated in the North Stand to improve the atmosphere at Villa Park. For the start of the 2007–2008 season the club released cut-price season tickets for the lower tier of the stand. This meant moving the away fans to the northern end of the Doug Ellis Stand across both tiers and since then the North Stand has been fully occupied by Villa supporters with the most vocal and fervent being housed in the lower tier.

The Doug Ellis Stand, formerly known as the Witton Lane Stand, is a two-tiered stand with a row of executive boxes between the tiers. The roof was originally planned to be a goalpost structure, the same as the Holte End and North Stand, but the plans were changed to a simpler cantilever design. It saw slight refurbishment before the 1996 European Championships to join the corners with the lower tier of the North Stand, improve legroom and increase the curve of the terracing to improve sightlines. The main television camera viewpoint is on the half-way line in the Doug Ellis Stand.

In the south-west corner, between the Holte End and the Trinity Road Stand, there is a three-storey pavilion-like structure, which is used for corporate hospitality. There is a large television screen. On 28 November 2009, a bronze statue of former Villa chairman and Football League founder William McGregor was unveiled outside the stadium. Behind the North Stand is the "Villa Village" made up of club and ticket offices as well as a club shop. The club bought the buildings from British Telecom in the 1990s.

Future
Future redevelopment of Villa Park has been an ever-present topic, with previous owners of Aston Villa: notably Randy Lerner and Tony Xia, expressing support to increase capacity. However, no definitive redevelopment occurred in either case.

Under the current ownership of Nassef Sawiris and Wes Edens, there has been concrete support for a long-term redevelopment of Villa Park. In December 2021, CEO Christian Purslow announced that redevelopment plans were forecasted to take "two to ten years".

Preliminary plans to construct a new North Stand were announced in March 2022. Following a consultation process between June and September 2022, Aston Villa formally submitted plans to fully demolish and rebuild the North Stand, alongside developments to the Trinity Road Stand. The plans would see the construction of a new 13,074 capacity stand. Alongside minor seating adjustments to the Trinity Road Stand and Doug Ellis Stand, this would increase Villa Park's capacity to approximately 50,065. Alongside these featured plans to develop a large indoor entertainment and retail venue called "Villa Live", replacing the car park, academy building, and the current on-site retail store. This followed initial planning permission granted in 2019 to demolish the car park and academy building behind the North Stand. Within the aforementioned planning documents, Aston Villa alluded to potential further redevelopment via 'configuration of the stands', including the Doug Ellis Stand and the Holte End, to increase Villa Park's capacity to between 52,000 and 53,000 at a later date. In December 2022, planning permission was granted by Birmingham City Council. However, in December 2023, President of Football Operations Chris Heck announced that plans to redevelop Villa Park had been paused.

Other sporting uses
Villa Park was the first English ground to stage international football in three centuries and has hosted matches in several international tournaments. Three 1966 World Cup matches were played at the ground and four matches during Euro '96. The ground has hosted England internationals, the first in 1899 and the most recent in 2005. Sixteen international matches have been hosted at the stadium in total.

Villa Park has been the venue for several Cup competitions. It has hosted 55 FA Cup semi-finals, more than any other stadium. The club hosted the League Cup Final in 1980–1981 when Liverpool beat West Ham 2–1 in a replay. In 1999, the stadium hosted the last final of the European Cup Winners' Cup in which Lazio beat Real Mallorca 2–1. During the construction of the new Wembley Stadium between 2001 and 2005, the FA Trophy Final was held at Villa Park. The 2012 Community Shield was held at Villa Park instead of Wembley due to Olympic Games at the stadium.

The venue has also hosted two first-class cricket matches. The first was the United North of England Eleven's final first-class match against a London United Eleven in June 1879. The second was tour match played between Australia and an England XI side in May 1884. The ground also hosted a 1897 Minor Counties Championship match between Staffordshire and Northamptonshire and was the home ground for Aston Unity in the Birmingham and District Premier League from 1889 to 1954.

Many athletics and cycle events took place at the ground before the First World War, and boxing has been hosted on several occasions. On 28 June 1948, Dick Turpin, brother of Randolph Turpin, became the first non-white boxer to win a British title in a fight against Vince Hawkins in front of 40,000 spectators after the British Boxing Board of Control lifted their ban on non-whites challenging for titles. On 21 June 1972 Danny McAlinden defeated Jack Bodell in a British and Empire Heavyweight title fight.

Great Britain secured the first ever rugby league test series at the ground when they defeated the touring Australian Kangaroos side 6–5 on 14 February 1909 in front of a crowd of 9,000. A second rugby league game followed three years later on New Year's Day 1912 when 4,000 people turned up to see Australia beat Great Britain 33–8. The stadium has seen several international rugby union tour matches. On 8 October 1924, a North Midlands XV lost 40–3 to the New Zealand side touring Europe and Canada at the time. The second game took place on 30 December 1953 when Midlands Counties played another New Zealand side on their 1953–1954 tour of United Kingdom, Ireland, France and North America. The Midlands side lost 18–3. On 26 August 1985, it played host to the first ever American football "Summerbowl," intended to be the English equivalent to the Super Bowl. The game was played between the London Ravens and the Streatham Olympians, and the low attendance of 8,000 meant that the Summerbowl was not repeated in subsequent years.

Villa Park was originally listed as one of the six stadiums that would hold Olympic football matches in the 2012 Summer Olympics. In 2009 it was announced that the organising committee for the games and the football club had decided that uncertainty around expansion plans meant that the club were "unable to commit fully to hosting matches".

Villa Park was chosen as the venue for two pool matches in the 2015 Rugby World Cup. The first was a Pool B match between South Africa and Samoa on 26 September 2015 with South Africa winning 46–6 with 39,526 in attendance. The second was a Pool A match between Australia and Uruguay the next day with Australia winning 65–3 in front of 39,605 spectators.

Birmingham hosted the 2022 Commonwealth Games. Though Villa Park was originally chosen to host the Rugby Sevens competition, the event was moved to the Ricoh Arena in Coventry. This was because the Premier League began in July while the games were on, in order to accommodate the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar at the end of the year.

Non-sporting uses
Villa Park has been a venue for musicians from multiple genres as well as preachers. The stadium has hosted several rock concerts, including Bruce Springsteen who played two concerts in June 1988 as part of his Tunnel of Love Tour, and again in June 2023 as part of his 2023 Tour, Bon Jovi in 2013 as part of the Because We Can: The Tour, and Pink in June 2023 during her Summer Carnival Tour. Duran Duran held a charity concert in 1983 to raise money for MENCAP. Other singers who have played at the ground include Belinda Carlisle, Rod Stewart and Robert Palmer. The American evangelist Billy Graham attracted 257,181 people to a series of prayer meetings held at the stadium in mid-1984. Archbishop Desmond Tutu held a religious gathering at the stadium in 1989.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, it was announced that midwives from Sandwell and West Birmingham Hospitals NHS Trust would host maternity clinics at the ground, for expectant parents anxious about going into hospitals. From February 2021, Villa Park was used as a regional COVID-19 vaccination centre by the NHS. The vaccination centre was set up in the Holte End.

Records
The highest attendance recorded at Villa Park was 76,588, on 2 March 1946 in an FA Cup 6th round tie against Derby County. The highest attendance in the all-seater era was 42,788 on 29 December 2009 in a Premier League game against Liverpool, but the overall record league attendance was 69,492 in a First Division match against Wolverhampton Wanderers on 27 December 1949. The highest average post-Second World War attendance at Villa Park was 47,168 in the 1948–1949 season; the lowest average post-war attendance was 15,237 in the 1985–1986 season.

Transport
Villa Park is within a short distance of two mainline railway stations. Witton railway station is approximately 500 m from Villa Park, and Aston railway station is approximately 1.5 km. Under former owner Randy Lerner, there have been discussions on changing the name of Witton Station to Villa Park as is the case with West Bromwich Albion's local railway station, The Hawthorns. Aston Villa's former CEO, Bruce Langham, has said that the West Midlands Passenger Transport Executive (Centro) are amenable to the idea as long as it is done at the expense of the club. No action has yet been taken.

title: Villa Park


text:
Acacia koa

Acacia koa, commonly known as koa, is a species of flowering tree in the family Fabaceae. It is endemic to the Hawaiian Islands, where it is the second most common tree. The highest populations are on Hawaii, Maui and Oahu.

Name
The name koa in the Hawaiian language ultimately comes from Proto-Austronesian *teRas meaning "core" or "ironwood"; many names referring to certain ironwood or heartwood species in Southeast Asia and Oceania such as Vitex parviflora (tugás in Cebuano), Eusideroxylon zwageri (togas in Tombonuwo), and Intsia bijuga (dort in Palauan) descend from this root.

Koa also means brave, bold, fearless, or warrior.

Description

Koa is a large tree, typically attaining a height of 15 - 25 m and a spread of 6 - 12 m. In deep volcanic ash, a koa tree can reach a height of 30 m, a circumference of 6 m, and a spread of 38 m. It is one of the fastest-growing Hawaiian trees, capable of reaching 6 - 9 m in five years on a good site.

Leaves
Initially, bipinnately compound leaves with 12–24 pairs of leaflets grow on the koa plant, much like other members of the pea family. At about 6–9 months of age, however, thick sickle-shaped "leaves" that are not compound begin to grow. These are phyllodes, blades that develop as an expansion of the leaf petiole. The vertically flattened orientation of the phyllodes allows sunlight to pass to lower levels of the tree. True leaves are entirely replaced by 7 – long, 0.5 – wide phyllodes on an adult tree.

Flowers
Flowers of the koa tree are pale-yellow spherical racemes with a diameter of 8 - 10 mm. Flowering may be seasonal or year round depending on the location.

Fruit
Fruit production start occurring when a koa tree is between 5 and 30 years old. The fruit are legumes, also called pods, with a length of 7.5 - 15 cm and a width of 1.5 - 2.5 cm. Each pod contains an average of 12 seeds. The 6 - 12 mm long, 4 - 7 mm wide seeds are flattened ellipsoids and range from dark brown to black in color. The pods are mature and ready for propagation after turning from green to brown or black. Seeds are covered with a hard seed coat, and this allows them to remain dormant for up to 25 years. Scarification is needed before A. koa seeds will germinate.

Habitat
Koa is endemic to the islands of Hawaii, Molokai, Maui, Lānai, Oahu, and Kauai, where it grows at elevations of 100 - 2300 m. It requires 850 – of annual rainfall. Acidic to neutral soils (pH of 4–7.4) that are either an Inceptisol derived from volcanic ash or a well-drained histosol are preferred. Its ability to fix nitrogen allows it to grow in very young volcanic soils. Koa and ōhia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) dominate the canopy of Hawaiian mixed mesic forests. It is also common in wet forests.

Uses
The koa's trunk was used by ancient Hawaiians to build waa (dugout outrigger canoes) and papa hee nalu (surfboards). Only paipo (bodyboards), kikoo, and alaia surfboards were made from koa, however; olo, the longest surfboards, were made from the lighter and more buoyant wiliwili (Erythrina sandwicensis). The reddish wood is very similar in strength and weight to that of Black Walnut (Juglans nigra), with a specific gravity of 0.55, and is now sought for use in wood carving and furniture. Koa is also a tonewood, often used in the construction of ukuleles, acoustic guitars, and Weissenborn-style Hawaiian steel guitars. B.C. Rich used koa on some of their electric guitars as well, and still uses a koa-veneered topwood on certain models. Fender made limited edition koa wood models of the Telecaster and the Stratocaster in 2006. Trey Anastasio, guitarist for the band Phish, primarily uses a koa hollowbody Languedoc guitar. Commercial silviculture of koa takes 20 to 25 years before a tree is of useful size. Taylor, Collings and Martin are few among the many other brands that use that tonewood for manufacturing acoustic guitars.

Relation to other species
Among other Pacific Islands of volcanic (non-continental) origin, only Vanuatu has native Acacia species. A. heterophylla, from distant Réunion, is very similar and has been suggested to be the closest relative of koa. Genetic sequence analysis results announced in 2014 confirmed this close relationship; the estimated time of divergence is about 1.4 million years ago. A. heterophylla sequences nest within those of the more diverse A. koa, making the latter paraphyletic. Both species are thought to be descended from an ancestral species in Australia, presumably their sister species, Acacia melanoxylon. Dispersals most likely occurred via seed-carrying by birds such as petrels. Both species have very similar ecological niches, which differ from that of A. melanoxylon.

A closely related species, koaia or koaie (A. koaia), is found in dry areas. It is most easily distinguished by having smaller seeds that are arranged end-to-end in the pod, rather than side by side. The phyllodes are also usually straighter, though this character is variable in both species. The wood is denser, harder, and more finely grained than koa wood. Koaia has been much more heavily impacted by cattle and is now rare, but can be seen on ranch land in North Kohala.

Conservation
The koa population has suffered from grazing and logging. Many wet forest areas, where the largest koa grow, have been logged out, and it now comes largely from dead or dying trees or farms on private lands. Although formerly used for outrigger canoes, there are few koa remaining which are both large and straight enough to do so today. In areas where cattle are present, koa regeneration is almost completely suppressed. However, if the cattle are removed, koa are among the few native Hawaiian plants able to germinate in grassland, and can be instrumental in restoring native forest. It is often possible to begin reforestation in a pasture by disk harrowing the soil, as this scarifies seeds in the soil and encourages large numbers of koa to germinate. Experiments at the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge have shown that ōhia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) survives best in pasture when planted under koa. This is because koa trees reduce radiative cooling, preventing frost damage to ōhia lehua seedlings.

Ecology
Koa is the preferred host plant for the caterpillars of the green Hawaiian blue (Udara blackburni), which eat the flowers and fruits. Adults drink nectar from the flowers. Koa sap is eaten by the adult Kamehameha butterfly (Vanessa tameamea). The koa bug (Coleotichus blackburniae) uses its rostrum to suck the contents out of koa seeds. Koa is vulnerable to infection by koa wilt.

title: Acacia koa


text:
Talk:Triode

I am afraid that most filaments require a two wire connection to allow current to flow through them to cause heating. The filament heater is sometimes separate and sometimes electricaly isolated from the cathode. So a triode may require 4 or 5 leads. I think leaving this out may confuse some. Perhaps someday more about their history could be added. I believe this invention is attributed to Lee DeForest and that triodes were originally called audions. I also think there was some confusion about the importance of vacuum. I think the issue was resolved with the introduction of the "getter".

See Vacuum tube, we don't need to duplicate this information. In fact it might be good to merge this page with that. --Mystic Pixel 07:21, 9 April 2006 (UTC)

Gas-filled?
I doubt that the British call a VACUUM tube a GAS FILLED tube. One has gas, the other cannot.Thortful 07:25, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I removed the link, it doesn't make sense... --Mystic Pixel 07:23, 9 April 2006 (UTC)

Vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes are both glass tubes that have function in a circuit.. Vacuum Tubes are linked to Gas and vice versa, but it really doesn't matter that much

Well, actually it does matter VERY MUCH. Gas-filled tubes are generally triggerable into conduction (ignitron, thyratron etc), while vacuum tubes can't do that but instead provide fairly linear amplification. As it happens, in the days when valves/tubes were in common use, the best manufacturer, as far as reliability was concerned, was Mullard, and their vacuum pumping and degassing was to a higher standard than their competitors, which is what made the difference. The higher the vacuum, the better, for an amplifying triode. Tiger99 (talk) 14:57, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

De Forest's patent
De Forest thought some gas was necessary to make the Audion work, and this is in his patent. In fact they worked in spite of the gas not because of it. De Forest wasn't worried about the physics except where his patent was affected. PAS 02:46, 18 August 2006 (UTC)

Workings same as transistor?
I know that the triode and the transistor are worlds apart as far as how each works internally. However, can one theoretically replace the other if the transistor is a high power consumption transistor?

They're different in implementation, but not in theory, as far as internal workings. I'm not sure what you're trying to get at (as transistors are normally used to replace triodes, not the other way around) but the answer is quite simple: use a high-power triode. See the Vacuum tube page, where it talks about high-power tubes. --Mystic Pixel 07:21, 9 April 2006 (UTC)

the wikipedia article on valves states that the origional audion (now called a Diode) was invented by John Ambrose Fleming, in 1904, this article seems to contradict this. could anyone explain?220.233.74.219 07:46, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

Don't merge
I don't think the page should be merged with vaccum tube because the term triode has its own meaning in the realm of solid-state electronics. It refers to a mode of operation in which output current is (more or less) linearly dependent on the voltage across the output terminals (drain-source, emitter-collector) voltage, as opposed to operating in the saturation region. I.e., transistors in this region act like resistors.

So, maybe a more general discussion on what triode operation means for vaccum tubes and for transistors is in order.

Also, transistors were initially referred to as triodes themselves (or "crystal triodes"). So, the term triode really describes the function and not the particular technology used.

No
Don't Join Pages It Helped Me alot!

 * I removed the merge tag. I think the page could eventually have a discussion of triode circuits, etc. Give me some time and I'll get around to some expansion. - mako 21:40, 2 May 2006 (UTC)
 * OK, I see your point. Fair enough. Mystic Pixel 00:33, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

'''Triode and Transistor both amplify stuff don't they? Explain it more on the triode article please'''
 * Both are actually one-way resistors that can be controlled. In triodes the resistance between Anode and Cathode is controlled by the voltage between the grid and the cathode, while in transistors the resistance between the emitter and the collector can be controlled by the amount of current flowing into the base. 70.27.152.243 (talk) 16:50, 20 July 2016 (UTC)

... triodes are still more linear at audio-frequency ranges...
This is a rather barmy assertion. All amplifiers use negative feedback to compensate the non-linearities of their amplifying elements. From what I gather, valve amps produce a "warmer" sound because they saturate more gracefully outside their linear range. Transistor amps tend to cut out abruptly outside the linear range, resulting in a harsher sound. (This is discussed a bit in Valve sound).

If people are claiming that valve amps are more linear, then they're wrong. I'm going to delete this statement unless someone can back it up with a reference. -- Sakurambo 桜ん坊  18:36, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

Let us be wary of allowing the nonsense often put about by the so-called high-end audio industry into Wikipedia, without proper evidence. I don't think that anyone intends that, but they do jump on the bandwaggon of linearity, coupled with no feedback, so let's not feed them..... The fact is that a good triode IS more linear than a bipolar transistor over a fair part of its operating region, and is roughly comparable to a JFET. You can just about get away with a triode audio stage with no negative feedback, but never a BJT, unless the signal is very small. Most BJT circuits have in fact got at least local negative feedback, which the inexperienced may not recognise as such. It is true to state that to achieve best accuracy and low distortion, negative feedback is always needed in any amplifier, as an acceptably linear amplifying device has not been invented, and probably can't be, due to the laws of physics, which favour exponential or square laws, or combinations thereof. So I suggest keeping THIS article about the properties of triodes, good and bad, and keep subjectivism elsewhere. Being a circuit designer, I can easily run a SPICE simulation of various circuits, the triode version does indeed always come out much better as regards linearity, as a standalone device, but the BJT allows me to build a more complex circuit ("PNP" valves would be made of anti-matter!) which can partially cancel some distortion mechanisms and allow more forward gain, and the ability to apply far more negative feedback, with resulting better overall performance. Basically, valves by themselves ARE more linear, complete things like amplifiers almost always ARE NOT. And yes, valve distortion mechanisms, along with sensitivity to supply rail ripple, do indeed provide what hard-nosed factual engineers as well as subjectivists will probably agree is a "warmer" sound, however it is an inaccurate sound. So is a "harsh" sound.... Tiger99 (talk) 15:17, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

Characteristics
We could do with a diagram of typical triode electrical characteristic curves.--Light current 19:31, 1 January 2007 (UTC)

Triode region?
A lecturer at MIT talks about a MOSFET getting into its "triode region" (the oppose of saturation), e.g. in relation to small signal analysis. What's a triode region? And what's it got to do with triodes? —Pengo 08:28, 27 August 2007 (UTC) ... it's also mentioned in pMOS logic —Pengo 13:07, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

The triode region is simply the region where it is amplifying. If the grid is too positive, the anode current more or less saturates, anode voltage is very small, and it can't usefully amplify small changes in grid voltage. If the grid is too negative, anode current is cut off, so again no amplification. But like the FET, in the middle region it amplifies. At the lower region of anode or drain current, near cutoff, both triode and FET show a near square law characteristic. The triode is rarely (except in very early computers) used as a switch, whereas almost all MOSFETs are used as switches, either hard on or hard off, going through the triode region as quickly as possible. Tiger99 (talk) 16:34, 18 July 2015 (UTC)

Operation section can be improved.
The first sentence is: The directly-heated cathode (or indirectly by means of a filament) produces an electron charge by thermionic emission when AC is applied. It would be better to say that the cathode emits electrons by thermionic emission and leave out the mention of AC in this first statement as the introduction of the superimposed AC signal is clearly expressed later in the paragraph.184.45.71.182 (talk) 12:15, 10 May 2012 (UTC)

ECC83 Usage
I have changed this on the caption to the picture, because although it was indeed very popular in the 1960s, it was quite rare in TV sets and radios, although occasionally found in stereo radiograms and such like. It was also used briefly in professional audio equipment, before that went solid-state, and is still used in the bogus "high end" audio market. The double triodes found in TV sets were commonly as a cascode in the VHF tuner, ECC84 or ECC85. Single triodes, with pentode, were more common in radios and TV sets. ECC83 is equivalent to 12AX7. Feel free to change or add, if you know more, of course. Tiger99 (talk) 14:52, 27 August 2014 (UTC)

The Audion was a triode
re your last edits, there are plenty of sources saying the Audion was a triode. I don't care if we co-credit the von Lieben tube as the first triode, but I think that should be in the introduction. -- Chetvorno TALK 21:05, 2 December 2016 (UTC)
 * I am actually only approaching this as a set/sub-set edit, does one item belong within another? If the lead sentence "Triode is an electronic amplifying vacuum tube" is correct then an Audion is not a Triode since it is an electronic rectifying partial vacuum tube. It could be the lead def is incorrect and any 3 electrode tube, partial or full vacuum, amplifier or not, is called a "Triode". A definition similar to what we have now seems to come up in references, i.e. A Triode is specifically an electronic amplifying high vacuum tube invented in 1913 derived from the Audion (name coined by William Eccles during WWI). There is even a claim that the name triode is only applied to vacuum tubes which have been evacuated of as much gas as possible (unknown reliability though). Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 02:43, 4 December 2016 (UTC)

 * I do not see The Foundations of Chaos Revisited: From Poincaré to Recent Advancements edited by Christos Skiadas as a reliable source for a claim about applied electronics. Chaos?
 * Neither do I see Quo Vadis: Evolution of Modern Navigation: The Rise of Quantum Techniques by Fouad Major as a reliable source for a claim about applied electronics. Navigation?
 * The Race for Wireless: How Radio was Invented (or Discovered?) by Gregory Malanowski is better, but it does not go into sufficient detail about the controversy. It does acknowledge that the De Forest patent did not describe how the audion worked.
 * Triode.pdf is not an RS.
 * The U.S. Supreme Court in De Forest Radio v GE saw no fundamental difference between the soft and hard vacuum device. Langmuir's purported invention just had a higher vacuum. Higher vacuum made the device more stable and usable at higher plate voltages. With a 20 V plate voltage, an electron may excite a molecule but it will rarely ionize it.
 * De Forest was interested initially in detectors; he wanted a nonlinear device, but even detectors can have gain. If the audion had no gain, then it would not have an advantage over the Fleming (high vacuum) valve. That De Forest wasn't interested in quasi-linear amplifiers isn't a reason to quash the invention.
 * De Forest was not a good circuit designer. Although De Forest is credited with DC biasing Fleming's valve to improve performance (maybe he stole the idea from the carborundum detector bias), his audion detector designs did not DC bias the grid but rather DC isolated the grid. See the patent. The benefit of the imperfect vacuum (or leaky capacitors) was setting up a suitable grid bias voltage. De Forest exploited the soft vacuum for that effect. If there were no positive ions and the capacitor was extremely high resistance, then the grid would collect negative charge until it repelled all further electrons from the cathode. De Forest's circuits would stop working when the vacuum got too high. That's a failing of the circuit and not the device. It probably also led De Forest down a false path about how the device worked.
 * Armstrong's September 1915 IRE (1997 IEEE Classic; also Electrical World 1914) paper on using audions teaches circuits with DC bias on the grid (e.g., figure 20). Armstrong discusses the grid leak problem, and says "This effect is sometimes troublesome in the reception of signals, especially in high vacuum tubes." Armstrong knew of the soft/hard distinction, but the implication is designs could use soft or hard vacuum tubes. By letter in response to De Forest, Armstrong states the audions he used had sufficient vacuum (Langmuir style) to operate by thermionic emission ("that the  vacuum  of  the bulbs was such that only thermionic currents existed"). The exchange between De Forest and Armstrong is illuminating. Armstrong explains that the variations of the soft vacuum audion pointed out by De Forest are due to the gas. However, Armstrong goes on to state that that the audion can be used at the lower end of the plate potentials:
 * Dr. de Forest speaks of the great differences existing between the wing potential-wing current curves. It will be readily understood by those familiar with the laws of the conduction of electricity through gases that such is bound to be the case where any considerable amount of gas is present in the bulb. The potential at which progressive ionization of the gas begins, is dependent, among other things, on the pressure; and hence the upper parts of the wing potential-wing current curves vary, but the lower parts, the only place where the electron relay can be operated, are invariably of the same general shape.  With the modern methods now available, for producing very high vacua, it is a simple matter to construct audions whose characteristics are for all practical purposes identical. With these high vacuum bulbs, the astonishing differences of which Dr. de Forest speaks disappear to an astonishing extent. (Armstrong 1997, pp 695–696)
 * Armstrong's comments speak to better devices rather than fundamentally different devices. Keep the plate voltage low enough, and ionization is not an issue.
 * De Forest was also improving other aspects of the audion. I doubt carbon is a good emitter; IIRC, De Forest started using tantalum.
 * The book Applied Electronics (Wiley, I think 1943; it's buried in the garage right now) discusses the effect of residual gas on the space charge. IIRC, there's also a huge discussion on cathode emission technology. It wants a vacuum of 1.0e-9 atm. Fleming wanted 0.01e-3 mmHg (a deeper vacuum than Langmuir). For comparison, mercury at 300 K (reading from a chart and ignoring temperature rise from filament) is 5e-3 mmHg; at 400 K, it is 1 mmHg; a heated tube with mercury in it will have a poor vacuum.
 * Glrx (talk) 05:34, 4 December 2016 (UTC)
 * It seems to me the article's terminology should follow that found in reliable sources. The triode is still used as an electronic component, so I think the appropriate definition of "triode" should be that found in modern technical sources, which call it an amplifying vacuum tube (there are gas-filled triodes but they are usually called thyratrons).   Virtually all the sources I regard as authoritative call the Audion a triode: Okamura, p.19-21, Sarkar, p.101, Wood, p.9, Lee, p.11, Aitken, p.195, Huurdeman, p.226, Heilbron, p.819, Hong, p.x,119,223,  (Malanowski, p.50 does not) and most call it a "vacuum tube".  To me this makes sense from a "history of science" POV: the crucial innovation which made possible amplification, later triodes, most other vacuum tubes, and the entire field of electronics, was the addition of the grid to the diode valve by De Forest and Lieben.  Langmuir's higher vacuum was just a refinement.  So the Audion, and probably the Lieben tube, were the "first" triode vacuum tubes. -- Chetvorno TALK 09:49, 4 December 2016 (UTC)

 * On the Lieben tube: The tube patented by Von Lieben in 1906 was not really a "transmission grid" triode like the Audion, it was more similar to Braun's cathode ray tube ( Sarkar, p.335-336, Nebeker, p.13, Tyne, "The Saga of the Vacuum Tube, Part 8", Radio News, Nov 1943, p.26).  The input signal was applied to a deflection coil or plate which deflected the electron beam from the cathode transversely, so more or less of it struck the anode plate.  It wasn't until 1910, 4 years after De Forest's invention, that Lieben, Reisz, and Strauss patented a tube that had a "transmission grid" like the Audion, that controlled the current by letting more or less of it through.  This probably explains why many sources don't mention Lieben and credit De Forest as the sole inventor of the triode.-- Chetvorno TALK 00:48, 5 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Agree we should not stray into primary research. We should also not look for "who used a word where" or discount sources because we don't like the title but stick to more detailed description. Wikipedia does have two articles, Triode and Audion, so we are already saying they are two different things. From what I see we seem to have a few different things here: some types of 3 electrode (triode) "soft valve" vacuum tubes, and a specific "hard valve" vacuum tube amplifier called "the Triode". Okamura notes the progress from one to the other and notes the beginning of triodes with the Audion and Lieben valve. Dito with Sarkar. Wood doesn't go into detail with his history or types of devices. Lee notes De Forrest didn't seem to invent anything, one of his tinkerings came out as a triode configuration. Aitken covers more De Forest v. Fleming. Huurdeman - independent invention von Lieben and De Forrest. Heilbron - independent invention von Lieben (and a few others) and De Forrest and distinguishes between the Audion and "hard triodes". Skiadas, Triode was developed in many stages, one being the Audion. Malanowski - Triode is the name for the device developed from the Audion.

 * I do not think we can call De Forest the "inventor of the Triode" per Okamura, Sarkar, Huurdeman, Heilbron - hard up against WP:YESPOV there. The Triode amplifier?.... definitely not De Forest per almost all of those sources. It would be true to say that the Audion was a triode and "The Triode" amplifier was developed form the Audion. The edits I have made so far follow that and the article where the wording gets dicey is this one, just because this seems to be the article about the hard vacuum Triode amplifier - it states that in the lead sentence but skips inventor(s?) of this device up front. Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 20:39, 10 December 2016 (UTC)

Claim Maxwell investigated the fundamental principle of the triode?
"In 1871 James Clerk Maxwell investigated the principle of grid control, the fundamental principle of the triode." Nether source talks about "grid control", nether states this was the "the fundamental principle of the triode", and one doesn't say it was just Maxwell but also includes Bernhard Riemann. These additions should be reworded/expanded (with hopefully more reliable sources), and should not make synthesized claims. Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 19:49, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Please, read the actual article and look at control grid. This isn't controversial stuff I'm saying here. I'm sure when Chetvorno comes back on he will tell you that the control grid is indeed the fundamental principle underlying the triode.SQMeaner (talk) 19:55, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Some references for you listing the grid as the fundamental principle of the triode: http://www.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/electronic_engineering/Triode.pdf, http://www.physics-and-radio-electronics.com/electronic-devices-and-circuits/vacuum-tubes/vacuumtriode.html, www.fishercom.xyz/electromagnetic-waves/the-principles-of-a-triode-amplifier.html. SQMeaner (talk) 20:13, 23 July 2018 (UTC)

 * The problem is none of the sources make the statement "fundamental principle of the triode" or imply its all just Maxwell, and we do not draw those conclusions ourselves, see WP:STICKTOSOURCE, specifically "Drawing conclusions not evident in the reference is original research". Its your burden to prove otherwise and not just edit war (or claim other editors are not using the talk page ). Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 20:47, 23 July 2018 (UTC)

 * I don't see that your statement: "James Clerk Maxwell investigated the principle of grid control" is supported by your sources. All the Harper source says is: "Maxwell published the first study of the effect of a grid of wires on the field between two electrodes". It doesn't say the grid was in a tube, much less that he had in mind a current of charged particles passing through the grid (this was long before the electron was discovered, and scientists didn't even know what was causing those funny lights in Crookes tubes). All the Peto source says is: "The effect of the grid on the electrostatic field was known to scientists from the fundamental works of Maxwell and Riemann."  All these amount to is that Maxwell found the electrostatic field of a grid of wires.  I can't find any support for your statement in reliable seconary sources like Okamura.   As Fountains says, your conclusion is WP:SYNTHESIS, and a false synthesis at that. --ChetvornoTALK 20:55, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Please take a look at the following link, where it states 'He (Maxwell) also deduced the shape of the electrostatic field about a wire grid placed between two electrodes'. The fact he used electrodes indicates he was passing a current between a grid and therefore is indeed the inventor of the control grid circa 1870. https://archive.org/stream/HistoryOfWireless/HistoryOfWireless_djvu.txt. I also don't see what that Okamura thing has to do with this conversation. It doesn't even mention who invented the control grid.SQMeaner (talk) 21:06, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * "indicates". It would be possible to draw that conclusion, establish ones self as an expert, have this peer reviewed, have it cited by several secondary works, and then use it in Wikipedia. We can't shortcut that, please read again the policies of the project you are trying to edit. Fountains of Bryn Mawr (talk) 21:14, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * OK, you would prefer I say 'does' instead then? What does it matter? The evidence clearly indicates Maxwell discovered the control grid principle circa 1870 and it would be downright criminal to neglect to mention him in a history of the triode.SQMeaner (talk) 21:16, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * What page? --ChetvornoTALK 21:18, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I just used Ctrl+F and grid to find that sentence. But having checked through a PDF version it appears to be on page 70. I also found another reference that states that Maxwell's 1871 experiment 'was directly applicable to the audion'. You can find it here: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=h850HhOi3NQC&pg=PA227&dq=Maxwell+Wire+Grating&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiszKWVmLbcAhWECuwKHTv2C60Q6AEIPDAD#v=onepage&q=Maxwell%20Wire%20Grating&f=false. I'm sure if someone were to look through Maxwell's treatise on electricity they could find the experiment he conducted and as a matter of fact I have tried myself but the language is too archaic and technical for me, which makes comprehension of his experiments difficult.SQMeaner (talk) 21:21, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Okay. "He deduced the shape of the electrostatic field of a wire grid placed between two electrodes." in no way indicates that he was "passing a current through a grid".  Vacuum tubes were 30 years in the future, and scientists of the time didn't know what electric currents were.  If Maxwell had passed some kind of current through his grid and controlled it, the book would certainly say that and all the history books would say the inventor of the triode was Maxwell, not De Forest.  It was simply a calculation of the field of some metal pieces in open air, an electrostatics problem.  Your huge leap to your conclusion is based on "20-20 hindsight" and an ignorance of the enormous development in physics between 1870 and 1907.  As your source says I'm sure Maxwell's calculation was helpful to De Forest when he discovered grid control, but Maxwell didn't have any idea of grid control.   --ChetvornoTALK 22:05, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Actually, going by my source, he must have had an idea of grid control because he understood that currents could be amplified using the grating. And your claim that he didn't pass a current through the grid seems to be based on absolutely nothing. He used electrodes, as in things you use to pass electric current through. How on earth could he have done anything but pass an electric current through them? And I know you're going to try and use that to claim I'm jumping to conclusions but the fact is this stuff doesn't need to be spelt out and the author probably assumed the reader would understand. To be honest, you're kind of beginning to confuse me and I suspect that's got more to do with the senselessness of your logic than anything else. I would like to get someone involved in this discussion who has some technical knowledge and isn't either you or FoBM as I strongly suspect you are too biased to win over through force of reason alone.SQMeaner (talk) 22:18, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Where does your source say that he understood that currents could be amplified using the grating? --ChetvornoTALK 22:29, 23 July 2018 (UTC)

 * Did you even look at my source? Fine, I'll quote it for you. In the section 'Calculation of Amplification Constant' it says 'An expression for this effect had been derived by Maxwell long before the audion came into existence'.SQMeaner (talk) 22:34, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * I did look at your source. Did you? Your Van Der Bijl source says: "The problem Maxwell set himself was to determine the extent to which a wire grating could protect apparatus enclosed by it from external electrostatic disturbances". Nothing about amplification.  Your Harper source writes: "Long before the thermionic valve was invented, Maxwell  published the first study of the effect of a grid of wires on the field between two electrodes"   The constant $$\mu$$, now called the "amplification constant" was not called that in Maxwell's time, and he calculated it without any reference to amplification or current between the electrodes.   It just expresses the shielding effect of the grid wires on the electrostatic field of the metal plate beyond it.  If you look at your Harper source, you will see that

 * $$\mu = {-2\pi d_{gp} \over a \ln{\big({2 \sin \pi r_g \over a}\big)}} $$

 * where
 * $$d_{gp}$$ is the distance from the grid wires to the plate
 * $$a$$ is the distance between the grid wires
 * $$r_g$$ is the radius of the grid wires

 * See? It's just a geometrical factor based on the shape of the grid and spacing. Nothing about current or amplification.   Harper is saying that it is now used to calculate the amplification of triodes, but Maxwell just used it to calculate the shielding effect of a grid of wires in electrostatic problems. --ChetvornoTALK 23:48, 23 July 2018 (UTC)
 * In other words, he discovered the principle of grid control, even if he didn’t apply it to the same purpose as later inventors. Also, here’s a reference for you stating that Lenard used grid control in his photoelectric experiments: https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=7eUUy8-VvwoC&pg=PA339&lpg=PA339&dq=Lenard+%22Grid+Control%22&source=bl&ots=Jz9GUrORnL&sig=RmykFYONMQHF15wmhqdU3b15VDM&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiahJXQz7fcAhVBXsAKHd_YDmcQ6AEwAXoECAIQAQ#v=onepage&q=Lenard%20%22Grid%20Control%22&f=false. Also, in your edit you claim that the Der Bijl link ‘explicitly states Maxwell was not studying amplification or grids’. This is news to me, where does it say that?SQMeaner (talk) 11:35, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Read your Van Der Bijl source closely: "The problem Maxwell set himself was to determine the extent to which a wire grating could protect apparatus enclosed by it from external electrostatic disturbances" Maxwell had no idea about vacuum tubes, amplification, putting a wire screen in a tube, or passing current through it: "grid control".  Wire screens were used for a different purpose, electrostatic shielding; preventing electrostatic fields from affecting delicate apparatus.  That is the problem Maxwell was working on. --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 15:26, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * You didn't tell me to read my source closely. You said it explicitly stated Maxwell was not studying amplification or grids and you have not shown where it says this in my Der Bijl source. Also, a grid can still be used in an electronic component even if it's not necessarily in a vacuum tube or even a tube. Otherwise, transistors would be massive. And if what Maxwell was studying had nothing to do with amplification why does Der Bijl refer to it as an 'amplification constant'? Maxwell may have been working to a different end than electronic amplification but it seems pretty clear to me he still discovered the principle of grid control in doing so. I'm also interested to hear what you have to say about that last source I posted to do with Lenard.SQMeaner (talk) 15:56, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Van Der Bijl calls it an "amplification constant" because he is writing in 1920 and by that time it was used to calculate amplification. It would be fascinating if your idea was true, and I can see how much you want it to be true, but if you read the history critically you will see there is no support for it.   As User:Fountains of Bryn Mawr and User:Glrx can tell you, the concept of controlling a current of charged particles by passing it through a grid was a very difficult idea for scientists of the time to understand, and even 40 years after Maxwell Lee De Forest who invented the grid triode did not really "invent" it, he just stumbled on amplification while putting electrodes of different shapes in tubes, and even after it was invented he didn't really understand how it worked.  --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 16:17, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * I don't understand how you can literally admit that Maxwell's equation was used for amplification and still hold on to the claim that he didn't discover grid control. I'm really not sure if this argument is worth pursuing at this point because you absolutely refuse to consider the idea that Maxwell invented grid control regardless of the volumes of evidence I've provided indicating he did. Again, I really would appreciate it if we could bring in someone who really knows what they're talking about and isn't you or FoBM or that other guy you mentioned as the level of bias you are displaying is absurd. Finally, I'm still waiting to hear what you have to say with regards to Lenard and grid control, who also appears to have discovered it before De Forest.SQMeaner (talk) 16:23, 24 July 2018 (UTC)

Well, you've convinced me on Lenard's use of grids, there are multiple sources which support that. If you want to put it in the article I'll support you. But you've got to be careful how you write it, not give it WP:undue weight. It is not a very WP:notable fact, there is no indication Lenard inspired anyone else or used it for amplification. The sources don't give it more than a single sentence so I think that is all it merits in this article. --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 16:49, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Very well. I suppose we will have to agree to disagree on whether or not Maxwell discovered grid control but at least Lenard is properly mentioned. I don't think I could write a suitable history section mentioning Lenard that would meet with your approval and as I'm quickly growing tired of this argument I will leave it in your hands.SQMeaner (talk) 16:54, 24 July 2018 (UTC)

 * e/c
 * Displacement current is between two electrodes but does not involve charges moving across a gap. Capacitors have currents between two electrodes without electrons traveling from one electrode to the other. Maxwell can investigate a grid attenuating displacement current flow to one of the electrodes. If the electrodes are 1 m apart, then a grid wire spacing of 1 m will let most of the displacement current through. If the wires are spaced 10 cm, less will get through. At 1 cm spacing, very little will get through. That attenuation can be viewed a gain/amplification. Varying the potentials on the grid and two electrodes will also affect the fields. Maxwell can know all that, but did he consider packets of charge going from one electrode through the grid to the other electrode? We'd need a clear source for that.
 * The invention of the triode is about much more than the grid; a triode needs a vacuum to allow electrons to move unimpeded and avoid ionization, it needs thermionic emission to source electrons; it needs a space charge around the cathode for the grid to control, it needs a grid potential that mostly repels and does not suck up the space charge, and it needs high potentials on the plate to sweep the electrons that pass the grid.
 * Better sources are needed or else it is synthesis. Glrx (talk) 17:47, 24 July 2018 (UTC)
 * OK seeing as Chetvorno doesn’t seem to want to do the edit himself I took it into my own hands and did it myself. A single sentence, as agreed upon here.SQMeaner (talk) 13:54, 25 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Looks good. --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 17:16, 25 July 2018 (UTC)

life
The article seems to say that high power tubes have longer life than low powered ones. That seems unusual. Gah4 (talk) 02:13, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * I added those figures. I got them from a book but didn't source it and now I can't remember which book.  I'll keep looking.  I think the reason is the thoriated tungsten filaments used in power tubes have a longer lifetime than the coated cathodes of small signal tubes, because the cathode coating is eventually  eroded by ion bombardment. --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 16:01, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * The high power tubes should have more electron current, so also more ion current. Some tubes were used in continuously powered systems with mostly no current. But yes, it depends on how they are built.  A year is about 8000 hours, so one should last at least that long with low current.  But otherwise, yes, it depends on what WP:RSs say. Gah4 (talk) 17:36, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * This one says 3000 to 5000 hours for the average tube, and 50000 hours for lightly loaded tubes. Not the most useful description, though. Gah4 (talk) 18:45, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * The greater ion current is why thoriated tungsten filaments are used in power tubes instead of coated cathodes. The thorium is embedded in the tungsten and continuously diffuses to the surface, so as the emission layer is removed by ion bombardment it is continually replaced.  Sources say thoriated tungsten tubes last a lot longer than coated cathode tubes.    Part of the difference is that low power tubes in consumer electronics were continually turned on and off, the thermal cycling shortened the lifetime, while the greater cost of power transmitting tubes motivated transmitter designers to preserve the filament,  by operating it below rated current and keeping it on ("black heat") while the transmitter is off to keep it at a constant temperature.  These two articles   and  say coated cathode tubes have lifetimes of 1,500-2,000 hours, while thoriated filament types last 4,000-10,000 hours.   Yes, the life of both types can be extended by various measures.  --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 14:25, 13 August 2020 (UTC)
 * This one says 3000 to 5000 hours for the average tube, and 50000 hours for lightly loaded tubes. Not the most useful description, though. Gah4 (talk) 18:45, 12 August 2020 (UTC)
 * The greater ion current is why thoriated tungsten filaments are used in power tubes instead of coated cathodes. The thorium is embedded in the tungsten and continuously diffuses to the surface, so as the emission layer is removed by ion bombardment it is continually replaced.  Sources say thoriated tungsten tubes last a lot longer than coated cathode tubes.    Part of the difference is that low power tubes in consumer electronics were continually turned on and off, the thermal cycling shortened the lifetime, while the greater cost of power transmitting tubes motivated transmitter designers to preserve the filament,  by operating it below rated current and keeping it on ("black heat") while the transmitter is off to keep it at a constant temperature.  These two articles   and  say coated cathode tubes have lifetimes of 1,500-2,000 hours, while thoriated filament types last 4,000-10,000 hours.   Yes, the life of both types can be extended by various measures.  --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 14:25, 13 August 2020 (UTC)

current through the tube from cathode to anode
The article says: current through the tube from cathode to anode. However, current it, by definition, positive so current is anode to cathode. Electron flow is cathode to anode. Gah4 (talk) 18:22, 12 August 2020 (UTC)

 * Thanks for catching that! I corrected it.  --Chetvorno<i style="color: Purple;">TALK</i> 00:21, 14 August 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Triode