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Pistis Sophia

Pistis Sophia is a Gnostic text discovered in 1773, possibly written between the 3rd and 4th centuries AD. The existing manuscript, which some scholars place in the late 4th century, relates one Gnostic group's teachings of the transfigured Jesus to the assembled disciples, including his mother Mary, Mary Magdalene, and Martha. (In this context, "transfigured" refers to Jesus after his death and resurrection, not the event during his life where he spoke to appearances of Moses and Elijah on a mountain.) In this text, the risen Jesus had spent eleven years speaking with his disciples, teaching them only the lower mysteries. After eleven years, he receives his true garment and is able to reveal the higher mysteries revered by this group. The prized mysteries relate to complex cosmologies and knowledge necessary for the soul to reach the highest divine realms.

Much of the first two books of the manuscript are dedicated to outlining the myth of the fall and restoration of the figure known as Pistis Sophia, in particular giving detailed parallels between her prayers of repentance and particular Psalms and Odes of Solomon.

Although in many Gnostic texts and systems Sophia is a major female divinity, in Pistis Sophia she originates and dwells outside of the divine realm. Her fall and redemption parallel that found in versions of the Sophia myth such as that in the Apocryphon of John, but the actions all take place in the material aeons, and she can only be restored to her place in the thirteenth aeon, outside the Kingdom of Light.

The Askew Codex

Pístis Sophía has been preserved in a single Coptic language manuscript originally comprising 178 leaves of parchment, but currently consisting of 174 leaves. This "Askew Codex" was purchased by the British Museum (now British Library) in 1785 from collector Anthony Askew. The Greek title Pístis Sophía was assigned by Carl Gottfried Woide, based on a title at the beginning of Book 2, "The Second Book of the Pistis Sophia," which was added by a later hand. Carl Schmidt suggests Τεύχη τοῦ Σωτῆρος "Books of the Saviour", based on a title found at the end of the same book.

The expression Pístis Sophía is obscure, and its English translations varied: "The Wisdom of Faith", "Faith Wisdom", "Wisdom in Faith", or "Faith in Wisdom". To some later Gnostics, Sophia was a divine syzygy of Christ, rather than simply a word meaning wisdom, and this context suggests the interpretation "The Faith of Sophia", or "The Loyalty of Sophia". Both the Berlin Codex and a papyrus codex at Nag Hammadi have an earlier, simpler Sophia wherein the transfigured Christ explains Pístis obscurely:

"Again, his disciples said: 'Tell us clearly how they came down from the invisibilities, from the immortal to the world that dies?'

The perfect Saviour said: 'Son of Man consented with Sophia, his consort, and revealed a great androgynous light. Its male name is designated 'Saviour, begetter of all things'. Its female name is designated 'All-begettress Sophia'. Some call her 'Pistis''."

The work is divided into several parts, with debate as to the number of parts. The most common view is that the work consists of four books, but some have posited as many as five or six books. Additionally, the codex contains two fragments in a later hand that are not directly connected to any of the main books.

Until the discovery of the Nag Hammadi library in 1945, the Askew Codex was one of three codices that contained almost all of the Gnostic writings that had survived the suppression of such literature both in East and West, the other two codices being the Bruce Codex and the Berlin Codex. Aside from these primary sources, everything written about gnosticism before the Nag Hammadi library became available is based on quotes, characterizations, and caricatures in the writings of the enemies of Gnosticism. The purpose of these heresiological writings was polemical, presenting gnostic teachings as absurd, bizarre, and self-serving, and as an aberrant heresy from a proto-orthodox and orthodox Christian standpoint.

Text
The work as a whole shows clear signs of having been compiled from multiple sources, with only the first two books following directly on each other. Even within a single book, occasionally multiple, differing accounts of a single event or cosmological outline appear, suggesting the use and preservation of several sources. Changes in terminology and cosmological description between books also shows that it is a compilation of texts that may have been written over a period of some time.

The bulk of the text (Books 1-3) is in the form of a dialogue between Jesus and the disciples, both male and female. Mary Magdalene is the most featured disciple, who provides many questions and scriptural interpretations; John “the Virgin” is the second most prominent. Other figures named as followers include Andrew, Bartholomew, James, John, Mary the mother of Jesus, Martha, Matthew, Peter, Philip, Salome, Simon the Canaanite, and Thomas.

First Book
The first book (Chapters 1-62) establishes that Jesus remained with the disciples for 11 years after the resurrection, teaching them only the lowest of the mysteries. At a certain point, he ascends and traverses the aeons, defeating the wicked archons, before returning to speak with the disciples further. It connects Jesus’ actions to the effectiveness of astrologers in the world – it suggests he has reduced, but not eliminated, the effectiveness of astrological magic. This leads into the introduction of the myth of Pistis Sophia's fall and restoration, which takes up the bulk of both the first and second book. Pistis Sophia recites several prayers/repentances, and after each one a disciple interprets the repentance in light of one of the Psalms or Odes of Solomon.

Unlike other versions of the Gnostic myth, such as the Apocryphon of John, here Pistis Sophia is a being of the lower, material aeons. She is not a high, divine being, and her restoration is not to the realms of light, but only back to her place in the thirteenth aeon. This is significant in distinguishing the theology of this book from other Gnostic systems – it prioritizes its own, distinct cosmology and mythology above the Sophia myth, which to this author represents inferior, material struggles.

Second Book

This book makes up Chapters 63-101. After the conclusion of the story of Pistis Sophia, the text turns to lengthy explanations of cosmology and the knowledge offered by the mysteries of this author's system. The end of the book also suggests the close connection of this work with the Books of Jeu found in the Bruce Codex (Chapter 99).

Third Book
The third book (Chapters 102-135) is mostly concerned with presenting an ethical or lifestyle code for adherents of the text. It outlines what is needed for right thought and right action, as well as actions that are not acceptable and their punishments. It also discusses at length the dissemination of the mysteries, repentance, and when it is or is not permissible to grant the mysteries to others. Finally, it discusses the formation of the human being, its components, and how they are connected. Again the Books of Jeu are referenced (Chapter 134), with the stipulation that they contain mysteries that are necessary for all, including the righteous.

Fourth Book
Part one of this book (Chapters 136-143) deals with cosmological and astrological speculation, and ritual development. It presents a myth of fallen archons of the aeons being imprisoned within the zodiacal sphere; outlines five realms of punishment (the Midst, mhte) and the types of sinners each holds; and gives specific configurations of the planets in the zodiac that allow souls to be released from each region. Jesus also interprets the elements of his incarnation and their role in the world, and administers the “baptism of the first offering” to his disciples.

The second part of what is commonly thought of as the fourth book (chapters 144-148) appears after a lacuna in the text, and is probably part of a separate book. Its cosmology is different to the preceding text, and it focuses entirely on the destiny of various types of souls and the punishments of sinners. Some of the sins listed are duplicates from part one of book four, but list different punishments.

Cosmology
Cosmology is a primary focus of the Pistis Sophia – learning the structure of the universe and how to traverse it is considered key in these texts, and the cosmology is one of the most complex from any Gnostic text remaining today. Summarizing the cosmology is further complicated because the structure is slightly different in each of its separate books, with certain realms added and removed.

Some scholars have suggested cosmologies encompassing the entirety of the codex; recently an outline has been made looking at the cosmology of each text individually. A general overview could be seen as: Notably, the portion of Books 1 & 2 dealing with the myth of Pistis Sophia's fall and redemption use a different cosmology from the rest of those books. The most controversial point in this alternate cosmological conception is reference to the thirteenth aeon, Pistis Sophia's home, as a place of “righteousness;” this view of the thirteenth aeon is absent from the rest of the text.
 * The Treasury of Light (the place of the right; separate regions in Books 1 & 2 only)
 * The Midst (mesos)
 * The thirteenth aeon (excluded in Book 3 and part two of Book 4)
 * The twelve aeons/heimarmene (separate regions in Books 1 & 2 only)
 * The first sphere (Books 1 & 2 only)
 * The firmament (Books 1 & 2 only)
 * Amente (Book 3 and part two of Book 4 only)
 * Chaos (Book 3 and part two of Book 4 only)
 * The Midst (mhte) (Books 3 & 4 only)
 * The Outer Darkness (Books 3 & 4 only)

In Books 1-3, all the regions except for the punishment realms are also known as the Spaces of the First Mystery, and in Books 1 & 2, all the regions from the thirteenth aeon downward are considered the Outer Darkness.

Generally speaking, the aeonic realms represent the material universe, bounded by the stars and the zodiac. The Midst is the space dividing this region from the upper realms, and is sometimes a waiting space for souls before being allowed to enter the light realms. The goal of the soul is to ascend beyond the aeons and enter the upper realms of light. This is achieved by receiving the mysteries offered by the group represented by these texts.

The mysteries are not explicitly listed in the text; an initiate would most likely have to prove him or herself worthy by living for some period according to the ethical guidelines provided in the texts before undergoing the baptisms and gaining access to the mysteries. The Books of Jeu are noted as a source of the mysteries; it is probable that the texts found in the Bruce Codex are very similar, if not identical, with these texts.

Pistis Sophia
The story of Pistis Sophia's fall and restoration (chapters 29-82) dominates much of Books 1 & 2. She dwells in the thirteenth aeon, is tricked into leaving her aeon and descending into Chaos, has her light-power stolen, and is not allowed to return to her place until Jesus ascends through the aeons. She recites many repentances and prayers, and is repeatedly persecuted by wicked archontic beings before being allowed to wait just outside of the thirteenth aeon for restoration.

It is noteworthy that she is not a divine being, as portrayed in other versions of the Gnostic myth such as the Apocryphon of John. She is a being of the material aeons, and her restoration is only as far as the thirteenth material aeon. The myth as a whole seems to have been adopted to address the beliefs of another Gnostic group, and to assert the superiority of this text's system: humans who receive the mysteries of this group can surpass Pistis Sophia and reach the divine realms of light.

Authades
Authades is the equivalent of Ialdabaoth/the demiurge in versions of the Sophia myth such as that found in the Apocryphon of John. Unlike Ialdabaoth, he is not created by the Sophia figure, and in fact he holds a slightly higher hierarchical position than Pistis Sophia. His sin is wishing to rule all the material aeons, and he grows jealous when Pistis Sophia chooses to worship the light rather than continuing the ways of the aeons. Authades appears only in the chapters dealing with the Sophia myth; elsewhere Sabaoth the Adamas is the representative of evil in these texts.

Jesus
Jesus serves as a teacher or instructor, teaching his disciples information about the divine world they will need to progress to a higher state of being, as well as knowledge of the cosmic realms, their inhabitants, and their functions. He teaches the disciples baptismal rites, and instructs them to give these rites to all who show themselves worthy. He is closely tied to the highest divine being. However, little significance is given to his earthly incarnation – the ritual bread and wine in the baptism is not associated with the Christian Eucharist, and the crucifixion and resurrection play little role. Here, he only gains his true garment and teaches the disciples the higher mysteries eleven years after his resurrection – downplaying versions of Christianity claiming his earlier teachings as ultimate truth.

Jeu
This is the demiurge of these texts. Jeu dwells in the Treasury of Light and organizes the cosmos. He places the archons and the aeons in their proper places, and assigns powers to the planets, effectively offering a divine origin for astrology. This is particularly noteworthy given the anti-cosmic nature of some other Gnostic groups.

He is sometimes referred to as the “Father of Jesus’ Father.” Jeu is considered the father of the Great Sabaoth, the Good, who provides the soul to Jesus’ earthly incarnation – thus Jeu is the father of Jesus’ earthly father. The divine Jesus’ true father remains the highest, ineffable God.

Zorokothora Melchisedek
Often referred to simply as Melchisedek, this figure also dwells in the Treasury of Light or Place of the Right. His primary role is overseeing transport of light from the lower realms to the higher light realms as it becomes purified. His subordinates also deliver certain souls out of the punishment regions when believers on Earth pray for them.

The Great Sabaoth, the Good
As mentioned above, this figure provides a power or soul for Jesus’ earthly incarnation, making him effectively Jesus’ earthly father. This role is most widely discussed through extensive interpretations of Psalm 85:10-11 in Chapters 62-63.

Sabaoth, the Adamas
This is the primary representative of evil or wickedness in the majority of the Pistis Sophia. He is accused of inappropriate sexual conduct, begetting archons and other beings, and as a result he is imprisoned in the bounds of the zodiac, or the material universe. For those human souls who did not receive the mysteries before death and are thus bound to be reincarnated in the world, he is also responsible for giving the “cup of forgetfulness,” denying them the knowledge they had acquired from previous lives and punishments.

Editions of the Coptic text

 * First edition in Coptic with a Latin translation. This work of Schwartze was published postum by Petermann.
 * 4th ed. Berlin 1981. German translation.
 * German introduction and Coptic Text.
 * German introduction and Coptic Text.

title: Pistis Sophia


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Artifact Small Format Film Festival

The Artifact Small Format Film Festival (formerly the $100 Film Festival) is Calgary's only celluloid-based film festival. When the $100 Film Festival was born in 1992, it showcased eight short films on Super 8. The name sprung from the challenge to shoot a short film on four rolls of Super 8 – which tallied to the cost of $100. In following years, the festival dropped the budgetary limit and allowed 16 mm film, which shifted the focus from low budget to quality small-format films. Thus, the name was changed to the Artifact Small Format Film Festival in 2017 so as to better represent the festival's role as an international celebration of creative story telling on celluloid.

Over the years, Artifact has expanded to include the popular Film/Music Explosion!, commission projects, and various partnerships.

Artifact is one of only a handful of festivals worldwide that exhibit exclusively on small-format celluloid.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Artifact Small Format Film Festival


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Lost

Lost or LOST may refer to getting lost, or to:

Geography

 * Lost, Aberdeenshire, a hamlet in Scotland
 * Lake Okeechobee Scenic Trail, or LOST, a hiking and cycling trail in Florida, US

Films

 * Lost (1950 film), a Mexican film directed by Fernando A. Rivero
 * Lost (1956 film), a British thriller starring David Farrar
 * Lost (1983 film), an American film directed by Al Adamson
 * Lost! (film), a 1986 Canadian film directed by Peter Rowe
 * Lost (2004 film), an American thriller starring Dean Cain
 * The Lost (2006 film), an American psychological horror starring Marc Senter
 * Lost (2023 film), an Indian Hindi-language thriller film

Television

 * Lost (2001 TV series), a short-lived American and UK reality television series
 * Lost (2004 TV series), an American drama series about people who become stranded on a mysterious island
 * Lost (South Korean TV series), a 2021 South Korean television series
 * "Lost" (Stargate Universe), an episode of science fiction television series Stargate Universe
 * "Lost", an episode of Unleashed!
 * "Lost", an episode of the Canadian documentary TV series Mayday
 * "Lost", an episode of Disney's So Weird
 * "The Lost" (Class), an episode of the first series of the Doctor Who spin-off series Class

Literature

 * Lost (Maguire novel), a 2001 horror/mystery novel by Gregory Maguire
 * Lost (Robotham novel), a 2005 Michael Robotham novel
 * Lost, a novel by Alice Lichtenstein
 * Lost: A Memoir, a 2009 memoir by Canadian author Cathy Ostlere
 * The Lost: A Search for Six of Six Million, a 2006 memoir by Daniel Mendelsohn
 * The Lost (Durst novel), a 2014 fantasy novel by American author Sarah Beth Durst

Groups and labels

 * Lost (band), an Italian pop rock band
 * The Lost (band), a Boston garage rock band

Albums

 * Lost (8Ball album), 1998
 * Lost (Carpark North album), 2010
 * Lost (Cool Calm Pete album), 2005
 * Lost (Died Pretty album), 1988
 * Lost (Elegy album), 1995
 * Lost (RTZ album), 1998

Songs

 * "Lost" (The Badloves song), 1993
 * "LosT" (Bring Me The Horizon song). 2023
 * "Lost" (Cold Chisel song), 2015
 * "Lost" (Faith Hill song), 2007
 * "Lost" (Frank Ocean song), 2012
 * "Lost" (Gorilla Zoe song), 2008
 * "Lost" (Hunter Brothers song), 2018
 * "Lost" (Lasgo song), 2009
 * "Lost" (Linkin Park song), 2023
 * "Lost" (Menudo song), 2008
 * "Lost" (Maroon 5 song), 2021
 * "Lost" (Michael Bublé song), 2007
 * "Lost" (NF song), 2021
 * "Lost" (Roger Sanchez song), 2006
 * "Lost" (Skin song), 2003
 * "Lost" (Vassy and Afrojack song), 2017
 * "Lost!", by Coldplay
 * "Lost", by Amanda Palmer & the Grand Theft Orchestra from Theatre Is Evil
 * "Lost", by Annie Lennox from Songs of Mass Destruction, 2007
 * "Lost", by Anouk from Hotel New York
 * "Lost", by Avenged Sevenfold from Avenged Sevenfold
 * "Lost", by the Box Tops from Cry Like a Baby
 * "Lost", by BTS from Wings, 2016
 * "Lost", by Chance the Rapper featuring No name from Acid Rap
 * "Lost", by The Church from Starfish
 * "Lost", by Clockwork Radio from State of Mind EP
 * "Lost", by the Cure from The Cure, 2004
 * "Lost", by Dead by April from Incomparable
 * "Lost", by Delain from April Rain
 * "Lost", by Dusty Springfield from A Brand New Me
 * "Lost", by Edge of Sanity from The Spectral Sorrows
 * "Lost", by Katy Perry from One of the Boys, 2008
 * "Lost", by Killswitch Engage from Killswitch Engage (2009 album), 2009
 * "Lost", by Korn from Life Is Peachy
 * "Lost", by Kreator from Cause for Conflict
 * "Lost", by Kris Allen from Horizons, 2014
 * "Lost", by the Meat Puppets from Meat Puppets II
 * "Lost", by Nevermore from The Politics of Ecstasy
 * "Lost", by Neurosis from Enemy of the Sun
 * "Lost", by Nik Kershaw from You've Got to Laugh
 * "Lost", by Orbital from Blue Album
 * "Lost", a 2019 song by Onlychild
 * "Lost", by Red from End of Silence
 * "Lost", by Robbie Williams from XXV, 2022
 * "Lost", by Stabbing Westward from Ungod
 * "Lost", by Tristania from World of Glass
 * "Lost", by Uriah Heep from Into the Wild
 * "Lost", by Van der Graaf Generator from H to He, Who Am the Only One
 * "Lost", by Will Haven from Voir Dire
 * "Lost", by Within Temptation from The Unforgiving
 * "Lost", a 2014 song by Irish musician The Eden Project from the EP Entrance

Video games

 * Lost: Via Domus, a 2008 video game by Ubisoft based on the Lost TV series
 * The Lost (video game), a 2002 vaporware game by Irrational Games

Other uses

 * Local option sales tax
 * Mustard gas, originally known as Lost
 * Lost Generation, the social generational cohort that was in early adulthood during World War I
 * Abbreviation of lost work, any work which is known to have been created but has not survived to the present day

title: Lost


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Industrial Commission

The Industrial Commission was a United States government body in existence from 1898 to 1902. It was appointed by President William McKinley to investigate railroad pricing policy, industrial concentration, and the impact of immigration on labor markets, and make recommendations to the President and Congress. McKinley and the Commissioners launched the trust-busting era. The Industrial Commission included McKinley's Ohio running mate, Commissioner Andrew L. Harris (a Governor of Ohio and Civil War General) who served as Chair of the Agriculture Subcommittee, and prominent Senators and Congressmen. After McKinley was assassinated in 1901, President Theodore Roosevelt heeded the advice of the Commissioners and further regulated the large trusts. Roosevelt became known as the nation's toughest trust-buster.

title: Industrial Commission


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Thermal diode

The term "thermal diode" can refer to:

 * a (possibly non-electrical) device which allows heat to flow preferentially in one direction;
 * an electrical (semiconductor) diode in reference to a thermal effect or function;
 * or it may describe both situations, where an electrical diode is used as a heat pump or thermoelectric cooler.

One-way heat-flow
A thermal diode in this sense is a device whose thermal resistance is different for heat flow in one direction than for heat flow in the other direction. I.e., when the thermal diode's first terminal is hotter than the second, heat will flow easily from the first to the second, but when the second terminal is hotter than the first, little heat will flow from the second to the first.

Such an effect was first observed in a copper–cuprous-oxide interface by Chauncey Starr in the 1930s. Beginning in 2002, theoretical models were proposed to explain this effect. In 2006 the first microscopic solid-state thermal diodes were built. In April 2015 Italian researchers at CNR announced development of a working thermal diode, publishing results in Nature Nanotechnology.

Thermal siphons can act as a one-way heat flow. Heat pipes operating in gravity may also have this effect.

Electrical diode thermal effect or function
A sensor device embedded on microprocessors used to monitor the temperature of the processor's die is also known as a "thermal diode".

This application of thermal diode is based on the property of electrical diodes to change voltage across it linearly according to temperature. As the temperature increases, diodes' forward voltage decreases. Microprocessors having high clock rate encounter high thermal loads. To monitor the temperature limits thermal diodes are used. They are usually placed in that part of the processor core where highest temperature is encountered. Voltage developed across it varies with the temperature of the diode. All modern AMD and Intel CPUs, as well as AMD and Nvidia GPUs have on-chip thermal diodes. As the sensor is located directly on the processor die, it provides most local and relevant CPU and GPU temperature readings. The silicon diodes have temperature dependency of -2mV per degree Celsius. Thus the junction temperature can be determined by passing a set current through the diode and then measuring voltage developed across it. In addition to processors, the same technology is widely used in dedicated temperature sensor IC's.

Thermoelectric heat-pump or cooler
There are two types. One uses semiconductor, or less efficient metal, i.e. thermocouples, working on the principles of the Peltier-Seebeck effect. The other relies on vacuum tubes and the principles of thermionic emission.

Peltier devices

 * a heat engine working backwards as a refrigerator, such as a Peltier device (diode)

Advancements
As of 2009 a team at MIT is working for construction of thermal diodes that convert heat to electricity at lower temperatures than before. This can be used in construction of engines or in electricity production. The efficiency of present thermal diodes is about 18% between the temperature range of 200-300 degree Celsius.

title: Thermal diode


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Interlaken

Interlaken (lit.: between lakes) is a Swiss town and municipality in the Interlaken-Oberhasli administrative district in the canton of Bern. It is an important and well-known tourist destination in the Bernese Oberland region of the Swiss Alps, and the main transport gateway to the mountains and lakes of that region.

The town is located on flat alluvial land called Bödeli between two lakes, Brienz to the east and Thun to the west, and alongside the river Aare, which flows between them. Transport routes to the east and west alongside the lakes are complemented by a route southwards into the near mountain resorts and high mountains, e.g. the famous high Alpine peaks of Eiger, Mönch and Jungfrau, following upwards the Lütschine.

Interlaken is the central town of a Small Agglomeration with the same name of 23,300 inhabitants.

The official language of Interlaken is German, but the main spoken language is the local variant of the Alemannic Swiss German dialect, Bernese German.

History
Until 1891, Interlaken was known as Aarmühle. The convent of the Augustinian Canons was built around 1133 when it was mentioned as inter lacus Madon and lasted until 1528. The mill on the left bank of the Aare was first mentioned in 1365 as Amuli, while the town on the right bank was mentioned in 1239 as villa Inderlappen.

Early history
While some scattered Neolithic flint objects, early Bronze Age swords and Roman era coins have been found near Interlaken, there is no evidence for a settlement in the area before the Middle Ages. Interlaken Monastery was built around 1133 on imperial land on the left side of the Aare. The monastery controlled a bridge over the river and generated an income from tolls. A village grew up around the monastery, along with a mill (which gave the municipality its name until 1891). On the right bank of the river, Interlaken village developed. In 1279/80 the village of Unterseen developed near Interlaken village. Also near the village were the imperial castle of Weissenau and the market town of Widen. The castle and market town became the possessions of the monastery, but fell into disrepair in the Late Middle Ages.

Interlaken Monastery
The Interlaken Monastery was first mentioned in 1133 when Lothair III, Holy Roman Emperor took it under his protection. By 1247, there were also women at the monastery. During the 13th century the monastery's influence spread throughout the neighboring area and into the Aare and Gürbe valleys. They eventually had authority over two dozen churches along with a number of villages and farms and became the largest religious landholder in the region.

During the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century, the monastery grew and prospered. However, in 1350 a period of crises and conflicts led to a decline in the number of monks and nuns and increasing debt. A document from 1310, indicates that there were 30 priests, 20 lay brothers, and 350 women at the monastery. In contrast, in 1472 there were only the provost, the prior, nine ordinary canons, seven novices and 27 nuns. At this time, the monastery also had problems with its tenants and neighbors. In 1348, the people of Grindelwald and Wilderswil joined a mutual defense league with Unterwalden. Bern responded with a military expedition to the Bernese Oberland, which ended in defeat for Unterwalden and its allies. In 1445 the Evil League (Böser Bund) rose up in the Oberland near Interlaken and fought against Bernese military service and taxes following the Old Zürich War.

During the 14th century, the canons and nuns stopped following most of the monastic rules. In 1472 a violent dispute between the men and the women's convents resulted in two visitations by the Bishop of Lausanne who noted serious deficiencies. The provost was arrested and some of the canons were replaced by canons from other convents. Despite the reform measures the nun's convent was closed in 1484 and its property transferred to the newly founded monastery of St. Vincent in Bern.

During the Protestant Reformation, the monastery was secularized in 1528. The canons received a financial settlement and the properties were now managed by a Bernese bailiff. The tenants of the monastery who had expected the abolition of allowed interest responded by rioting, which was suppressed by Bern.

After the Reformation, Bern created the Interlaken bailiwick from the monastery lands. Part of the monastery building was used as the headquarters of the district administration, while the rest was used as an indigent hospital. In 1562-63 Bern converted the monastery church's choir into a granary and a wine cellar. In 1746-50 the west wing was demolished and Governor Samuel Tillier built the so-called New Castle. It has remained the center of administration for the Interlaken District since that time.

Aarmühle village
Aarmühle was named for the mill on the Aare which was built there in or before 1365. Starting in 1365, the monastery held weekly and yearly markets at Aarmühle. It had its own bäuert (agricultural cooperative) but was politically part of the municipality of Matten.

In the 16th century, the bäuert of Aarmühle and the surrounding bäuerten began quarreling over the use of common fields and woods. Attempts at arbitration in 1533, 1586, and 1618 were unsuccessful. Partly as a result of the quarreling, in 1633, Wilderswil separated from Matten and became an independent municipality. However, the dispute continued between Aarmühle and Matten, and in 1761, the governor of the Interlaken district attempted, unsuccessfully, to mediate. Finally, in 1810 the two villages divided their common property, though it took until 1838 for Aarmühle to become an independent political municipality.

Around the time of the separation, the number of tenant farmers (farmers that did not own the land that they worked) was very different in Aarmühle and Matten. In 1831, 37% of the population in Aarmühle were tenants, while only 12% were in Matten. This meant that the population of Matten was closely tied to the land and remained farmers, while in Aarmühle they began to support the growing tourism trade.

Aarmühle becomes Interlaken
On the right bank of the Aare, Unterseen became the only municipality and absorbed the village of Interlaken. In 1838, on the left bank, the villages became the two municipalities of Matten and Aarmühle. However, Aarmühle used the name Interlaken for its post office and train station, leading to that name becoming more well known. Officially the name changed to Interlaken in 1891.

Rise of tourism
Interlaken's reputation as international resort started around 1800 due to the landscapes of Franz Niklaus König and other Swiss landscape artists. The success of the Unspunnenfest, a festival of Swiss culture, in 1805 and 1808 brought many tourists to Interlaken. Starting in 1820, they came for mountain air and spa treatment and the large Kursaal opened in 1859 to provide an elegant spa. The many hotels combined with good transportation links made it easy for these early tourists to visit. In 1835 a steam ship route opened along Lake Thun from Thun, followed in 1839 by another along Lake Brienz from Brienz.

In 1872, the Bödelibahn railway opened from Därligen, on Lake Thun, to Interlaken. Two years later it was extended to Bönigen, on Lake Brienz. Initially, this line was unconnected to the rest of the Swiss railway system and served as a link between the steamships on both lakes. However, in 1893, the Lake Thun railway line opened alongside Lake Thun providing a direct rail connection to Thun, with onward connections to Bern and beyond. In 1888, the Brünig railway opened between Alpnachstad, on Lake Lucerne, and Brienz, on Lake Brienz, thus providing a through steamer and rail connection from Interlaken to Lucerne. By 1916, the Brünig railway had reached Interlaken from Brienz, and, together with an earlier extension at its eastern end, provided a direct rail route to Lucerne. In 1890, the Berner Oberland railway connected Interlaken to the tourist destinations of Lauterbrunnen and Grindelwald.

With the opening up of transport links, hotels developed along the route to the Jungfrau. In 1860–75 and 1890–1914 several luxury hotels were built with views of the Jungfrau and surrounding mountains. The current Kursaal was built in 1898-99 and remodeled in 1909–10.

Despite the emphasis on tourism, a parquet factory operated from 1850 until 1935 and a wool weaving factory opened in 1921. In the late 20th century a woolen thread and a metal products factory opened in Interlaken. Since 1988, Interlaken has been connected to the A8 motorway.

Modern Interlaken
The tourism industry's frantic growth abruptly ended in 1914 when World War I started, though it resumed somewhat after the war. World War II brought another dramatic slowdown. Interlaken started to recover from the effects of the war in 1955 as Interlaken re-branded itself as a convention and conference center. Today, the two nuclei villages (Aarmühle and the village around the Bailiff's Castle) have been joined by new construction between them. The municipalities of Matten and Unterseen are also connected by new construction to Interlaken and share a common infrastructure. A referendum to merge the three political municipalities into one was voted down in 1914 and again in 1927.

Topography
Interlaken is located at 566 m above sea level, between Lake Brienz to the east and Lake Thun to the west on the alluvial land called Bödeli. The town takes its name from its geographical position between the lakes (in Latin inter lacus). The Aare flows through the town from one to the other lake, whilst the Lütschine flows from the mountains from the south into Lake Brienz however not running through the municipality of Interlaken.

The municipality of Interlaken has an area of. Of this area, 1.05 km2 or 24.4% is used for agricultural purposes, while 0.97 km2 or 22.6% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 2.03 km2 or 47.2% is settled (buildings or roads), 0.3 km2 or 7.0% is either rivers or lakes and 0.01 km2 or 0.2% is unproductive land.

Of the built-up area, industrial buildings made up 5.3% of the total area while housing and buildings made up 21.4% and transportation infrastructure made up 16.0%. while parks, green belts, and sports fields made up 4.0%. Out of the forested land, 20.9% of the total land area is heavily forested and 1.6% is covered with orchards or small clusters of trees. Of the agricultural land, 6.5% is used for growing crops and 16.3% is pastures, while 1.6% is used for orchards or vine crops. All the water in the municipality is flowing water.

Climate
Interlaken has a rather mild warm summer humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) when 0 °C (32.0 °F) isotherm is used. However, if −3 °C (26.6 °F) isotherm is used, then the climate is temperate oceanic (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The climate in this area has mild differences between highs and lows, and there is adequate rainfall year-round.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent a Semi Ibex rampant couped Sable langued Gules.

Government
The Municipal Council (Gemeinderat) constitutes the executive government of the municipality of interlaken and operates as a collegiate authority. It is composed of seven councillors (Gemeinderat/-rätin), each responsible for a portfolio (Ressort). The councillor of the executive portfolio acts as an executive president (Gemeindepräsident). In the mandate period (Legislatur) 2021–2024 the Municipal Council is presided by Gemeindepräsident Philippe Ritschard. Departmental tasks, coordination measures and implementation of laws decreed by the Grand Municipal Council are carried by the Municipal Council. The regular election of the Municipal Council by any inhabitant valid to vote is held every four years. Any Swiss resident of Interlaken allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Municipal Council. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz. The president is elected as such as well by public election by means of a system of Mayorz while the heads of the other portfolios are assigned by the collegiate.

, Interlaken's Municipal Council is made up of three members of the FDP (The Liberals) of whom one is also the mayor, and two members each of the SP (Social Democratic Party) and SVP (Swiss People's Party). The last regular election (Landsgemeinde) was held on 27 September and 1 November 2020. The voter turnout was 67%/49.4%.

Parliament
The Grand Municipal Council (Grosser Gemeinderat, GGR) holds legislative power. It is made up of 31 members, with elections held every four years. The Grand Municipal Council decrees regulations and by-laws that are executed by the Municipal Council and the administration. The delegates are selected by means of a system of Proporz.

The sessions of the Grand Municipal Council are public. Any resident of Interlaken allowed to vote can be elected as a member of the Grand Municipal Council. The parliament holds its meetings six to eight times per year in the Kunsthaus (art museum) at Amman-Hofer-Platz.

The last regular election of the Grand Municipal Council was held on 27 September 2020 for the mandate period (Legislatur) from 2021 to 2024. The voter turnout was 67%. Currently, the Grand Municipal Council consists of 7 members of The Liberals (FDP/PLR), 7 Swiss People's Party (SVP/UDC), 6 Social Democratic Party (SP/PS), 5 new members of the Green Liberal Party, 2 Green Party (GPS/PES), 2 Evangelical People's Party (EVP/PEV), and one member each of the EDU and the Jupa.

National Council
In the 2019 Swiss federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SVP which received 26.1% (-4.6) of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the SP (19.9%, +1.3), the FDP (12.3%, +0.9), the Green Party (10.6%, +2.7), GLP (9.8%, +5.6), and the BDP (7.9%, –6.5). In the federal election, a total of 1463 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 42.1%.

In the 2015 Swiss federal election for the Swiss National Council the most popular party was the SVP which received 30.7% of the votes. The next five most popular parties were the SP (18.6%), the BDP (14.3%), the FDP (11.4%), the Green Party (7.9%), and EVP (6.1%). In the federal election, a total of 1610 voters were cast, and the voter turnout was 45.5%.

Twin towns – sister cities
Interlaken is twinned with:

 * 🇯🇵 Ōtsu, Japan
 * 🇺🇸 Scottsdale, United States
 * 🇨🇿 Třeboň, Czech Republic
 * 🇨🇳 Huangshan, China
 * 🇩🇪 Zeuthen, Germany

Population
Interlaken has a population of. , 26.4% of the population are resident foreign nationals. Over the last 10 years (2000–2010) the population has changed at a rate of 5.3%. Migration accounted for 8.2%, while births and deaths accounted for −1.9%.

Most of the population speaks German (4,271 or 83.4%) as their first language, Portuguese is the second most common (198 or 3.9%) and Italian is the third (145 or 2.8%). There are 64 people who speak French and 11 people who speak Romansh.

, the population was 47.5% male and 52.5% female. The population was made up of 1,830 Swiss men (33.7% of the population) and 751 (13.8%) non-Swiss men. There were 2,164 Swiss women (39.9%) and 684 (12.6%) non-Swiss women. Of the population in the municipality, 988 or about 19.3% were born in Interlaken and lived there in 2000. There were 1,923 or 37.6% who were born in the same canton, while 805 or 15.7% were born somewhere else in Switzerland, and 1,185 or 23.1% were born outside of Switzerland.

, children and teenagers (0–19 years old) make up 19.3% of the population, while adults (20–64 years old) make up 63.1% and seniors (over 64 years old) make up 17.6%. In the same year, there were 2,158 people who were single and never married in the municipality. There were 2,288 married individuals, 367 widows or widowers and 306 individuals who are divorced.

, there were 2,418 private households in the municipality, and an average of 2.0 persons per household. There were 1,041 households that consist of only one person and 74 households with five or more people. A total of 2,292 apartments (83.5% of the total) were permanently occupied, while 329 apartments (12.0%) were seasonally occupied and 125 apartments (4.6%) were empty. , the construction rate of new housing units was 4.6 new units per 1000 residents.

the average price to rent an average apartment in Interlaken was 1013.98 Swiss francs (CHF) per month (US$810, £460, €650 approx. exchange rate from 2003). The average rate for a one-room apartment was 642.58 CHF (US$510, £290, €410), a two-room apartment was about 741.20 CHF (US$590, £330, €470), a three-room apartment was about 945.28 CHF (US$760, £430, €600) and a six or more room apartment cost an average of 1648.96 CHF (US$1320, £740, €1060). The average apartment price in Interlaken was 90.9% of the national average of 1116 CHF. The vacancy rate for the municipality,, was 0.1%.

The historical population is given in the following chart:

Economy
Interlaken is classed as a tourist community. The municipality is the center of the agglomeration of Interlaken. , there were a total of 6,939 people employed in the municipality. Of these, 12 people worked in 5 businesses in the primary economic sector. The secondary sector employed 804 workers in 100 separate businesses. Finally, the tertiary sector provided 6,123 jobs in 724 businesses. In 2019 a total of 4.2% of the population received social assistance.

In 2011 the unemployment rate in the municipality was 3.4%.

In 2015 local hotels had a total of 710,116 overnight stays, of which 82.2% were international visitors. In 2017 there were about 27 hotels in the municipality, with 1,599 rooms. the total number of full-time equivalent jobs was 4,903. The number of jobs in the primary sector was 4, all of which were in agriculture. The number of jobs in the secondary sector was 745 of which 281 or (37.7%) were in manufacturing and 397 (53.3%) were in construction. The number of jobs in the tertiary sector was 4,154. In the tertiary sector; 1,145 or 27.6% were in wholesale or retail sales or the repair of motor vehicles, 276 or 6.6% were in the movement and storage of goods, 1,170 or 28.2% were in a hotel or restaurant, 57 or 1.4% were in the information industry, 168 or 4.0% were the insurance or financial industry, 308 or 7.4% were technical professionals or scientists, 119 or 2.9% were in education and 360 or 8.7% were in health care.

, there were 4,253 workers who commuted into the municipality and 1,117 workers who commuted away. The municipality is a net importer of workers, with about 3.8 workers entering the municipality for every one leaving. Of the working population, 12.5% used public transportation to get to work, and 28.5% used a private car.

Religion
From the, 1,139 or 22.3% were Roman Catholic, while 2,873 or 56.1% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there were 83 members of an Orthodox church (or about 1.62% of the population), there were 4 individuals (or about 0.08% of the population) who belonged to the Christian Catholic Church, and there were 374 individuals (or about 7.31% of the population) who belonged to another Christian church.

There were 3 individuals (or about 0.06% of the population) who were Jewish, and 170 (or about 3.32% of the population) who were Islamic. There were 29 individuals who were Buddhist, 43 individuals who were Hindu and 9 individuals who belonged to another church. 342 (or about 6.68% of the population) belonged to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 235 individuals (or about 4.59% of the population) did not answer the question.

Education
In Interlaken about 2,181 or (42.6%) of the population have completed non-mandatory upper secondary education, and 562 or (11.0%) have completed additional higher education (either university or a Fachhochschule). Of the 562 who completed tertiary schooling, 62.3% were Swiss men, 21.4% were Swiss women, 8.4% were non-Swiss men and 8.0% were non-Swiss women.

Tourism
The town is principally a base from which to explore the surrounding areas. Among the main attractions are the mountains of the Jungfrau region, including the Jungfrau, (4158 m), the Mönch (4107 m) and the Eiger (3967 m). Whilst the peaks of these mountains are accessible only to mountaineers, a sequence of connecting mountain railways gives access to the Jungfraujoch, a saddle (3454 m) between the Jungfrau and the Mönch, but correctly translated as a yoke (Joch), which is the highest point in Europe reachable by train.

Closer to Interlaken, the Harderkulm (1321 m), just to the north of the town, and the Schynige Platte (1967 m), just to the south, are also accessible by railway and provide extensive views of the higher mountains. Lake Thun and Lake Brienz are both close to the town, and the Aare flows east to west through the town. Boat trips operate on both lakes, serving various lakeside towns. One of these, Brienz, is the starting point for one of Switzerland's last remaining steam operated mountain railway, the Brienz Rothorn Railway.

Jungfrau Park, an amusement park, is situated just to the south of Interlaken. It was originally opened as a Mystery Park, a paranormal-based theme park owned by the author Erich von Däniken, but was closed in 2006 after three years because of financial difficulties. It re-opened in its current guise in 2009.

Interlaken has a large selection of hotels of various grades, many of which are located along the Höheweg, a street that links the town's two railway stations and offers views of the mountains. Other hotels are clustered around one or other of the two stations, or located across the river in the neighboring municipality of Unterseen.

Interlaken is also a destination for backpackers. It has numerous backpacker-friendly hotels and companies providing guided services in skydiving, canyoning, hang gliding, paragliding, and skiing.

Education
The canton of Bern school system provides one year of non-obligatory Kindergarten, followed by six years of Primary school. This is followed by three years of obligatory lower Secondary school where the students are separated according to ability and aptitude. Following the lower Secondary students may attend additional schooling or they may enter an apprenticeship.

During the 2009-10 school year, there were a total of 667 students attending classes in Interlaken. There were 4 kindergarten classes with a total of 72 students in the municipality. Of the kindergarten students, 36.1% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 47.2% have a different mother language than the classroom language. The municipality had 15 primary classes and 275 students. Of the primary students, 33.8% were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 43.1% have a different mother language than the classroom language. During the same year, there were 16 lower secondary classes with a total of 301 students. There were 17.6% who were permanent or temporary residents of Switzerland (not citizens) and 18.3% have a different mother language than the classroom language. , there were 450 students in Interlaken who came from another municipality, while 78 residents attended schools outside the municipality.

Interlaken is home to the Bödeli-Bibliothek library. The library has 22,043 books or other media, and loaned out 114,730 items in the same year. It was open a total of 292 days with an average of 21 hours per week during that year.

Transportation
Interlaken has two railway stations, Interlaken Ost and Interlaken West, which are both served by the BLS AG's Thunersee line that provides direct services to Spiez, Thun, Bern and beyond, with onward connections at Bern to the rest of Switzerland. Through international services are provided by TGV to Paris and ICE to Frankfurt and Berlin.

Besides being the terminal of the Thunersee line, Interlaken Ost is also the terminus of the Zentralbahn's Brünig line to Brienz, Meiringen and Luzern, with onward connections to north-eastern Switzerland. The Berner Oberland railway also operates from Ost station, providing the first stage of several mountain railway routes into the Jungfrau region and, most notably, to Europe's highest station at the Jungfraujoch.

Boat services across Lake Brienz to Brienz and across Lake Thun to Spiez and Thun are operated by the BLS AG. The boats on Lake Thun operate from a quay adjacent to the West station, connected to Lake Thun by the Interlaken ship canal. The boats on Lake Brienz operate from a quay on the Aare by the Ost station. The remainder of the Aare between the two lakes is controlled by several weirs and is not navigable.

Interlaken is connected by the A8 motorway to Thun and Lucerne, with onward connections by other Swiss motorways to the rest of Switzerland. Local roads also follow both banks of the lakes to east and west and follow the valley of the Lütschine south into the Jungfrau region. However there is no direct road connection across the mountains of that region into the canton of Valais to the south, with the nearest such connections being the Grimsel Pass to the east, or using the vehicle transport service through the Lötschberg rail tunnel to the west.

In the more immediate area, two funicular railways, the Harderbahn and the Heimwehfluhbahn, provide service to nearby vantage points. Local and regional bus services are provided by PostBus Switzerland, whilst Verkehrsbetriebe STI operates a regional bus service to Thun.

Events

 * The Jungfrau Marathon is held in Interlaken each September.
 * The Unspunnenfest is a festival held in Interlaken and the neighbouring communities of Matten and Wilderswil approximately every twelve years. The festival highlights traditional Swiss culture and features competitions of Steinstossen (stone put), Schwingen (wrestling) and yodelling. The last Unspunnenfest was held in 2017. The next celebration is scheduled for the year 2029.
 * During summer, there is the Greenfield Festival on the outskirts of Interlaken.
 * On 15 July 2007, the Red Bull Air Race World Series was held on the airport situated near Interlaken.
 * From 27 August 1968 to 1 September 1968, World Constitutional Convention was held at Theatre Hall of the Kursaal in Interlaken.

Heritage sites of national significance
The former Monastery Building, the Hotel Royal-St. Georges, the Hotel Victoria-Jungfrau and the Kursaal are listed as Swiss heritage site of national significance. The entire urbanized village of Interlaken is part of the Inventory of Swiss Heritage Sites.

Notable people

 * Marie Fillunger (1850–1930 in Interlaken), an Austrian singer, lived in Interlaken from 1919
 * Georgia Engelhard (1906–1985 in Interlaken), an American mountaineer, painter and photographer; lived in Interlaken
 * Hans Schaffner (1908 in Interlaken–2004), politician and former Federal Councillor
 * Dölf Reist (1921–2000), photographer and alpinist
 * Adrian Frutiger (1928–2015), typographer, served his apprenticeship in Interlaken
 * Elisabeth Glauser (born 1943 in Interlaken), a Swiss operatic mezzo-soprano and an academic teacher of voice
 * Polo Hofer (1945 in Interlaken – 2017), rock musician
 * Sport
 * Walter Balmer (1948–2010 in Interlaken), a Swiss international footballer
 * Suzanne Müller (born 1963 in Interlaken), a Swiss rhythmic gymnast, competed in the 1984 Summer Olympics
 * Sandra Dombrowski (born 1967 in Interlaken), a Swiss ice hockey player and referee
 * Nelson Ferreira (born 1982 in Interlaken), a Swiss and Portuguese footballer
 * Marcel Marti (born 1983 in Interlaken), a Swiss ski mountaineer
 * Sven Michel (born 1988), a Swiss curler from Interlaken
 * Kilian Moser (born 1988), racing cyclist
 * Sascha Stulz (born 1988 in Interlaken), a Swiss professional football goalkeeper
 * Lucas Tramèr (born 1989 in Interlaken), a Swiss rower, gold medallist at the 2016 Summer Olympics

title: Interlaken


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Color term

A color term (or color name) is a word or phrase that refers to a specific color. The color term may refer to human perception of that color (which is affected by visual context) which is usually defined according to the Munsell color system, or to an underlying physical property (such as a specific wavelength of visible light). There are also numerical systems of color specification, referred to as color spaces.

An important distinction must be established between color and shape, as these two attributes usually are used in conjunction with one another when describing in language. For example, they are labeled as alternative parts of speech terms color term and shape term.

Psychological conditions for recognition of colors exist, such as those who cannot discern colors in general or those who see colors as sound (a variety of synesthesia).

Color dimensions
Typical human color vision is trichromatic, meaning it is based on a three-dimensional color gamut. These three dimensions can be defined in different ways, but often the most intuitive definition are the dimensions of the HSL/HSV color space:
 * Hue: representing the different colors of the rainbow or color wheel (e.g. 'red', 'orange', 'yellow', etc.); roughly analogous to the color's wavelength or frequency.
 * Saturation: the colorfulness of the color, i.e. a measure of vibrant vs. pale.
 * Luminosity: a measurement of intensity or 'brightness'.

Lexicology
Monolexemic color words are composed of individual lexemes, or root words, such as 'red', 'brown', 'fuchsia', or 'olive'. The root words generally describe the hue of the color, but some root words—namely brown—can also describe the other dimensions. Compound color words make use of prefix adjectives (e.g. 'light brown', 'sea green'), that generally describe the saturation or luminosity, or compounded basic color words (e.g. 'yellow-green'), which refine the hue of the color relative to root words. 'Vaaleanpunainen', the Finnish word for 'pink' is a clear agglutination of the language's words for 'pale' ('vaalea') and 'red' ('punainen').

Basic color terms
Basic color terms meet the following criteria:
 * monolexemic ('green', but not 'light green' or 'forest green'),
 * high-frequency, and
 * agreed upon by speakers of that language.

English has 11 basic color terms: black, white, red, green, yellow, blue, brown, orange, pink, purple, and gray; other languages have between 2 and 12. All other colors are considered by most speakers of that language to be variants of these basic color terms. A useful litmus test involves replacing each of these basic terms with an approximation of other basic terms, e.g. replacing orange with red-yellow. If the approximation is jarring, the replaced term likely meets the requirement for being a basic color term. An example of a color that comes close to being a basic color term in English is turquoise. It is monolexemic, but is not very high frequency, especially compared to alternatives teal or cyan. It also generally fails the above litmus test in that most people do not find the use of the approximation of other basic color terms (blue-green) to be jarring.

Color-term hierarchy
In the classic study of Brent Berlin and Paul Kay (1969), Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution, the researchers argued that the differences in number of basic color terms in languages follow a repeatable pattern. Color terms can be organized into a coherent hierarchy and there are a limited number of universal basic color terms which begin to be used by individual cultures in a relatively fixed order. This order is defined in stages I to VII. Berlin and Kay originally based their analysis on a comparison of color words in 20 languages from around the world. The model is presented below, broken into stages, with stage I on the left and stage VII on the right: $$\begin{Bmatrix}\text{white} \\ \text{black} \end{Bmatrix} < \text{red} < \begin{Bmatrix}\text{green} \\ \text{yellow} \end{Bmatrix} < \text{blue} < \text{brown} <\begin{Bmatrix}\text{purple} \\ \text{pink} \\ \text{orange} \\ \text{grey} \end{Bmatrix}$$

Berlin and Kay's study identified seven stages of color distinction systems. Each progressive stage features a color term that the previous stages do not.

Stage I (dark and light)
Stage I contains two terms, white and black (light and dark); these terms are referenced broadly to describe other undefined color terms. For example, the Yali highland group in New Guinea identify the color of blood as black. This is because blood, as a relatively dark liquid, is grouped into the same color classification as black.

In the Bassa language, there are two terms for classifying colors; ziza (white, yellow, orange, and red) and hui (black, violet, blue, and green).

In the Pirahã language, there appear to be no color terms beyond describing lightness and darkness.

The Dani language of western New Guinea differentiates only two basic colors: mili for cool/dark shades such as blue, green, and black; and mola for warm/light colors such as red, yellow, and white.

Stage II (red)
Stage II implements a third term for red. Objects begin to rely less on their brightness for classification and in this stage we instead see each term cover a larger scope of colors. Specifically, blue and other darker shades continue to be described as black, yellow and orange colors are classified with red, and other bright colors continue to be classified with white.

In the Bambara language, there are three color terms: dyema (white, beige), blema (reddish, brownish), and fima (dark green, indigo, and black).

Stage III/IV (yellow + green)
Stage III identifies a third term referring either to green (IIIa) or yellow (IIIb). Most languages in the study with this system identify yellow over green, such as the Komi language, where green is considered a shade of yellow (виж, vizh), called турун виж (turun vizh) grass yellow. However, the Nigerian Ibibio language and the Philippine Hanunoo language both identify green instead of yellow.

The Ovahimba use four color names: zuzu stands for dark shades of blue, red, green, and purple; vapa is white and some shades of yellow; buru is some shades of green and blue; and dambu is some other shades of green, red, and brown. It is thought that this may increase the time it takes for the Ovahimba to distinguish between two colors that fall under the same Herero color category, compared to people whose language separates the colors into two different color categories.

Stage IV incorporates green or yellow, which ever was not already present, i.e. stage IIIa languages will adopt yellow and stage IIIb languages will adopt green. Most stage IV languages continue to colexify blue and green, as listed in Blue–green distinction in language.

The Chinese character 青 (pronounced qīng in Mandarin and ao in Japanese) has a meaning that covers both blue and green. In more contemporary terms, they are 藍 (lán, in Mandarin) and 綠 (lǜ, in Mandarin) respectively. Japanese also has two terms that refer specifically to the color green, 緑 (midori, derived from the classical Japanese descriptive verb midoru to be in leaf, to flourish in reference to trees) and グリーン (guriin, which is derived from the English word 'green').

Stage V (blue)
Stage V introduces blue as its own color term, differentiating from black or from green.

Stage VI (brown)
The seventh basic color term is likely to be brown.

In English, this is the first basic color term (other than black and white) that is not differentiated on hue, but rather on lightness. English splits some hues into several distinct colors according to lightness: such as red and pink or orange and brown. To English speakers, these pairs of colors, which are objectively no more different from one another than light green and dark green, are conceived of as belonging to different categories.

Stage VII
Stage VII adds additional terms for orange, pink, purple, or gray, but these do not exhibit the same hierarchy as the previous seven colors.

English contains eleven basic color terms: 'black', 'white', 'red', 'green', 'yellow', 'blue', 'brown', 'orange', 'pink', 'purple', and 'gray'.

Stage VII+
Languages with further color distinction use relativistic light/dark terms like light blue/ dark blue (in comparison to blue sky/ blue ocean), or pale red/ deep red.

Italian, Russian and Hebrew have twelve basic color terms, each distinguishing blue and light blue. A Russian will make the same red/pink and orange/brown distinctions, but will also make a further distinction between sinii and goluboi, which English speakers would call dark and light blue. To Russian speakers, sinii and goluboi are as separate as red and pink, or orange and brown.

Hungarian and Turkish distinguish multiple words for 'red': piros and vörös (Hungarian; vörös is a darker red), and kırmızı, al, and kızıl (Turkish); kırmızı now includes all reds but originally referred to crimson, to which it is cognate, while kızıl mainly refers to scarlet and other orange-tinted or brownish reds. Two words for 'red' are also found in Irish and Scottish Gaelic: (dearg for light, bright red and rua or ruadh respectively for dark, brownish red). Turkish also has two words for 'white' (beyaz and ak) and 'black' (siyah and kara). Ak and beyaz have the same meaning, while kara is a broader term than siyah and also includes dark browns; which word is used also depends on the kind of object being described. Both ak and kara are of Turkic origin, while siyah is borrowed from Persian, and beyaz from Arabic بياض bayāḍ.

In Serbian/Croatian language there are differences in dark brown (mrk), brown (smeđ and kestenjast), red (crven), pink (ružičast), and orange (narandžast), as well as in blue hues: navy blue (teget), dark blue (modar), blue (plav), and ash blue ().

An interesting case that deviates from this pattern is Irish's two words for green: This distinction is made even if two shades are identical. Glas is also used for "natural" grays, such as the gray squirrel, iora glas.
 * glas denotes the green color of plants
 * uaine denotes artificial greens of dyes, paints etc.

Linguistic relativity
These colors roughly correspond to the sensitivities of the retinal ganglion cells, leading Berlin and Kay to argue that color naming is not merely a cultural phenomenon, but is one that is also constrained by biology—that is, language is shaped by perception. A 2012 study suggested that the origin of this hierarchy may be tied to human vision and the time ordering in which these color names get accepted or agreed upon in a population perfectly matches the order predicted by the hierarchy.

Non-hue terms
This article mostly describes the color terms that define the hue of a color, since hue is considered the most innate dimension of the three. However, other terms are often used to describe the other two dimensions, which can be seen as common prefixes to the root terms that generally describe hue. Adding prefixes to root color terms generates multilexemic colors. Examples of common prefix adjectives can be seen in a list of color names and are described:
 * Brightness: can describe either high luminosity or high saturation, according to the Helmholtz–Kohlrausch effect and/or Hunt effect.
 * Lightness: describes both a high luminosity and low saturation
 * Darkness: the opposite of lightness, or low luminosity
 * Paleness, dullness: a measure of desaturation
 * Deep, Royal: may refer to darkness and/or high saturation; unrelated to color depth.
 * Pure, Bold, Vivid, Rich: all referring to high saturation
 * Pastel: refers to colors with high luminosity and low saturation.
 * Neon: bright, in either of the word's connotations; alluding to the bright glow of neon lighting.
 * Fluorescent: very bright, sometimes also highly saturated. Named after the fluorescence effect of pigments and dyes, which can produce a luminous glow when viewed under UV light, thereby appearing significantly brighter than their surroundings.

Non-dimensional terms
Other terms sometimes used to describe color are related to physical phenomenon that do not describe a single color, but describe the dynamic nature of an object's color. These include:
 * Glossy: whether the surface reflects diffusely or specularly (sharply)
 * Metallic: distinguishing 'gold' and 'silver' from shades of 'yellow' and 'gray', respectively
 * Iridescent: dependence of color on viewing angle, innate to structural coloration
 * Opacity: opaque (solid) vs. translucent (transparent or see-through)

Abstract and descriptive color terms
Color terms can be classified as abstract or descriptive, though the distinction is often unclear.

Abstract color terms refer only to the color they represent and any etymological link to an object of that color is lost. In English white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, brown, and gray are abstract color terms. These terms are also basic color terms (as described above), though other abstract terms like maroon and magenta are not considered basic color terms.

Descriptive color terms are secondarily used to describe a color but primarily refer to an object or phenomenon. 'Salmon', 'rose', 'saffron', and 'lilac' are descriptive color terms in English because their use as color terms is derived in reference to natural colors of salmon flesh, rose flowers, infusions of saffron pistils, and lilac blossoms respectively.

Abstract color terms in one may be represented by descriptive color terms in another; for example in Japanese pink is momoiro (桃色, lit. 'peach-color') and gray is either haiiro or nezumiiro (灰色, 鼠色, lit. 'ash-color' for light grays and 'mouse-color' for dark grays respectively). Nevertheless, as languages evolve they may adopt or invent new abstract color terms, as Japanese has adopted pinku (ピンク) for pink and gurē (グレー) for gray from English.

While most of the 11 basic color terms in English are decidedly abstract, three of them (all stage VII, so understandably the youngest basic color terms) are arguably still descriptive:
 * Pink was originally a descriptive color term derived from the name of a flower called a 'pink'. However, because the word 'pink' is rarely used to refer to the flower anymore, relative to its common usage as a color, it is often regarded as an abstract color term.
 * Purple is another example of this shift, as it was originally a word that referred to the dye named Tyrian purple, which took its name from the Latin purpura, which referred to both the dye and the sea snail from which the dye was derived. However, this etymological link has been lost in translation.
 * Orange is difficult to categorize as abstract or descriptive because both its uses, as a color term and as a word for an object, are very common and it is difficult to distinguish which of the two is primary. As a basic color term it became established in the early-to-mid 20th century; before that time artist's palettes called it 'yellow-red'. In English, the use of the word 'orange' for a fruit predates its use as a color term. The word comes from French orenge, which derives via Arabic narand͡ʒ and Sanskrit narang from a Dravidian language such as Tamil or Tulu. The derived form orangish as a color is attested from the late 19th century by reference to the fruit.

Struggle in linguistics
Research on color terms is often conducted without reference to common uses of the term or its significance within the context of its original language. In John A. Lucy's article The linguistics of 'colour' he identifies two key categories. One of these is "characteristic referential range", or the use of a color term to identify or differentiate a referent over a wide context.

Standardized systems
In contrast with the color terms of natural language, systematized color terms also exist. Some examples of color-naming systems are CNS and ISCC–NBS lexicon of color terms. The disadvantage of these systems, however, is that they specify only specific color samples, so while it is possible to, by interpolating, convert any color to or from one of these systems, a lookup table is required. In other words, no simple invertible equation can convert between CIE XYZ and one of these systems.

Philatelists traditionally use names to identify postage stamp colors. While the names are largely standardized within each country, there is no broader agreement, and so for instance the US-published Scott catalogue will use different names than the British Stanley Gibbons catalogue.

On modern computer systems a standard set of basic color terms is now used across the web color names (SVG 1.0/CSS3), HTML color names, X11 color names and the .NET Framework color names, with only a few minor differences.

The Crayola company is famous for its many crayon colors, often creatively named.

Heraldry has standardized names for 'tinctures', subdivided into 'colors', 'metals', and 'furs'.

title: Color term


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Richard N. Richards

Richard Noel "Dick" Richards (born August 24, 1946), (Capt, USN, Ret.), is a retired American naval officer and aviator, test pilot, chemical engineer, and a former NASA astronaut. He flew aboard four Space Shuttle missions in the 1980s and 1990s.

Early life and education
He was born on August 24, 1946, in Key West, Florida, but considers Houston, Texas, to be his hometown. He is married to the former Lois Hollabaugh of Amarillo, Texas. He graduated from Riverview Gardens High School in St. Louis, Missouri, in 1964. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in chemical engineering from the University of Missouri in 1969, and a Master of Science degree in aeronautical systems from the University of West Florida in 1970. While at the University of Missouri, he became a member of the Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity.

Military service
Richards was commissioned as an Ensign in the United States Navy upon graduating from the University of Missouri in 1969 and was designated a Naval Aviator in August of the following year. From 1970 to 1973, he flew support missions in the A-4 Skyhawk and F-4 Phantom airplanes while assigned to Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron 33 (VAQ-33) at Norfolk Naval Air Station, Virginia. He subsequently reported to Fighter Squadron 103 (VF-103), and deployed to the North Atlantic and Mediterranean aboard the aircraft carriers USS America (CV-66) and USS Saratoga (CV-60), flying F-4 airplanes. Selected for test pilot training, he reported to the U.S. Naval Test Pilot School at NAS Patuxent River, Maryland, in 1976. A tour in the Naval Air Test Center's Carrier Systems Branch and F/A-18A Program Office of the Strike Aircraft Test Directorate followed Test Pilot School graduation. Over the next $3 1/2$ years, Richards served as a project test pilot for automatic carrier landing systems development work in F-4 and A-7 aircraft and also conducted approach/landing/catapult flying qualities and catapult minimum end speed performance testing of a prototype "slatted" F-4S airplane. As carrier suitability project officer for the F/A-18A Hornet airplane, he made the first shipboard catapults and arrested landings during Initial Sea Trials of the F/A-18A on board USS America in 1979. He was reassigned to Fighter Squadron 33 (VF-33) in May 1980 and was en route to that assignment when notified of his selection as an astronaut candidate.

NASA career
Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA in May 1980, Richards became an astronaut in August 1981. He served as ascent CAPCOM for STS-51F, passing up the "Abort ATO" call when Challenger's centre engine went down. Richards flew on four missions: STS-28 (August 8–13, 1989), STS-41 (October 6–10, 1990), STS-50 (June 25 – July 9, 1992), and STS-64 (September 9–20, 1994)--and logged a total of 33 days, 21 hours, 32 minutes, 15 seconds in space. In April 1995, Richards left the Astronaut Office, and was assigned to the Space Shuttle Program Office at the Johnson Space Center. He was designated as the Mission Director/Manager for the second Hubble Space Telescope Servicing Space Shuttle Mission (STS-82), and Mission Manager for the second Tethered Satellite System Space Shuttle mission (STS-75).

Spaceflight experience
On his first space flight, Richards was pilot on the crew of STS-28 aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 8, 1989. The mission carried Department of Defense payloads and a number of secondary payloads. After 80 orbits of the Earth, this five-day mission concluded with a dry lakebed landing on Runway 17 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on August 13, 1989. Mission duration was 121 hours 9 seconds.

Slightly more than one year later, Richards commanded the crew of STS-41. The five-man crew launched aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on October 6 from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on October 10, 1990. During 66 orbits of the Earth, the STS-41 crew successfully deployed the Ulysses spacecraft, starting this interplanetary probe on its four-year journey, via Jupiter, to investigate the polar regions of the Sun.

In June 1992, Richards commanded the crew of STS-50 aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia. STS-50 was the first flight of the United States Microgravity Laboratory and the first extended duration Orbiter flight. Over a two-week period, the STS-50 flight crew conducted a wide variety of experiments relating to materials processing and fluid physics in a microgravity environment. At that time this was the longest Space Shuttle flight in history.

In September 1994, Richards commanded the STS-64 crew aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery. Mission highlights included: the first use of a space based laser for environmental research; deployment and retrieval of a spacecraft in support of solar wind and corona studies; robotic processing of semiconductors; maneuvered the robotic arm in proximity to over 100 Shuttle reaction control system jet firings to measure forces imparted to a plume detection instrument in support of future Space Station/Shuttle rendezvous flights; first untethered spacewalk in 10 years to test a self-rescue jetpack. Mission duration was 10 days, 22 hours, 51 minutes.

Post-NASA career
In August 1998, Richards left NASA to join the Boeing Company. Between 1998 and 2007 he supported NASA via Boeing's Space Shuttle Sustaining Engineering Support Contract. Boeing has over 1,000 employees across the United States involved with Space Shuttle flight operations. In 2007, Richards retired from Boeing as the Deputy Program Manager for Space Shuttle, and now lives in Houston, Texas.

Awards and honors

 * Defense Superior Service Medal
 * Distinguished Flying Cross
 * Defense Meritorious Service Medal
 * National Defense Service Medals (2)
 * Vietnam Service Medal
 * NASA Distinguished Service Medal
 * NASA Exceptional Service Medal
 * NASA Space Flight Medals (4)
 * Distinguished Graduate of U.S. Naval Test Pilot School
 * Naval Air Test Center Test Pilot of the Year for 1980.

title: Richard N. Richards