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Herbal

A herbal is a book containing the names and descriptions of plants, usually with information on their medicinal, tonic, culinary, toxic, hallucinatory, aromatic, or magical powers, and the legends associated with them. A herbal may also classify the plants it describes, may give recipes for herbal extracts, tinctures, or potions, and sometimes include mineral and animal medicaments in addition to those obtained from plants. Herbals were often illustrated to assist plant identification.

Herbals were among the first literature produced in Ancient Egypt, China, India, and Europe as the medical wisdom of the day accumulated by herbalists, apothecaries and physicians. Herbals were also among the first books to be printed in both China and Europe. In Western Europe herbals flourished for two centuries following the introduction of moveable type (c. 1470–1670).

In the late 17th century, the rise of modern chemistry, toxicology and pharmacology reduced the medicinal value of the classical herbal. As reference manuals for botanical study and plant identification herbals were supplanted by Floras – systematic accounts of the plants found growing in a particular region, with scientifically accurate botanical descriptions, classification, and illustrations. Herbals have seen a modest revival in the Western world since the last decades of the 20th century, as herbalism and related disciplines (such as homeopathy and aromatherapy) became popular forms of alternative medicine.

History
The use of plants for medicinal purposes, and their descriptions, dates back two to three thousand years. The word herbal is derived from the mediaeval Latin liber herbalis ("book of herbs"): it is sometimes used in contrast to the word florilegium, which is a treatise on flowers with emphasis on their beauty and enjoyment rather than the herbal emphasis on their utility. Much of the information found in printed herbals arose out of traditional medicine and herbal knowledge that predated the invention of writing.

Before the advent of printing, herbals were produced as manuscripts, which could be kept as scrolls or loose sheets, or bound into codices. Early handwritten herbals were often illustrated with paintings and drawings. Like other manuscript books, herbals were "published" through repeated copying by hand, either by professional scribes or by the readers themselves. In the process of making a copy, the copyist would often translate, expand, adapt, or reorder the content. Most of the original herbals have been lost; many have survived only as later copies (of copies...), and others are known only through references from other texts.

As printing became available, it was promptly used to publish herbals, the first printed matter being known as incunabula. In Europe, the first printed herbal with woodcut (xylograph) illustrations, the Puch der Natur of Konrad of Megenberg, appeared in 1475. Metal-engraved plates were first used in about 1580. As woodcuts and metal engravings could be reproduced indefinitely they were traded among printers: there was therefore a large increase in the number of illustrations together with an improvement in quality and detail but a tendency for repetition.

As examples of some of the world's most important records and first printed matter, a researcher will find herbals scattered through the world's most famous libraries including the Vatican Library in Rome, the Bodleian Library in Oxford, the Royal Library in Windsor, the British Library in London and the major continental libraries.

Shen Nung Pen Ts’ao ching of China
China is renowned for its traditional herbal medicines that date back thousands of years. Legend has it that mythical Emperor Shennong, the founder of Chinese herbal medicine, composed the Shennong Bencao Jing or Great Herbal in about 2700 BCE as the forerunner of all later Chinese herbals. It survives as a copy made c. 500 CE and describes about 365 herbs. High quality herbals and monographs on particular plants were produced in the period to 1250 CE including: the Zhenlei bencao written by Tang Shenwei in 1108, which passed through twelve editions until 1600; a monograph on the lychee by Cai Xiang in 1059 and one on the oranges of Wenzhhou by Han Yanzhi in 1178. In 1406 Ming dynasty prince Zhu Xiao (朱橚) published the Jiuhuang Bencao illustrated herbal for famine foods. It contained high quality woodcuts and descriptions of 414 species of plants of which 276 were described for the first time, the book pre-dating the first European printed book by 69 years. It was reprinted many times. Other herbals include Bencao Fahui in 1450 by Xu Yong and Bencao Gangmu of Li Shizhen in 1590.

Sushruta Samhita of India
Traditional herbal medicine of India, known as Ayurveda, possibly dates back to the second millennium BCE tracing its origins to the holy Hindu Vedas and, in particular, the Atharvaveda. One authentic compilation of teachings is by the surgeon Sushruta, available in a treatise called Sushruta Samhita. This contains 184 chapters and description of 1120 illnesses, 700 medicinal plants, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 preparations based on animal sources. Other early works of Ayurveda include the Charaka Samhita, attributed to Charaka. This tradition, however is mostly oral. The earliest surviving written material which contains the works of Sushruta is the Bower Manuscript—dated to the 4th century CE.

Hernandez – Rerum Medicarum and the Aztecs
An illustrated herbal published in Mexico in 1552, Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis ("Book of Medicinal Herbs of the Indies"), is written in the Aztec Nauhuatl language by a native physician, Martín Cruz. This is probably an extremely early account of the medicine of the Aztecs although the formal illustrations, resembling European ones, suggest that the artists were following the traditions of their Spanish masters rather than an indigenous style of drawing. In 1570 Francisco Hernández (c.1514–1580) was sent from Spain to study the natural resources of New Spain (now Mexico). Here he drew on indigenous sources, including the extensive botanical gardens that had been established by the Aztecs, to record c. 1200 plants in his Rerum Medicarum of 1615. Nicolás Monardes’ Dos Libros (1569) contains the first published illustration of tobacco.

Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece and Rome

By about 2000 BCE, medical papyri in ancient Egypt included medical prescriptions based on plant matter and made reference to the herbalist's combination of medicines and magic for healing.

Papyrus Ebers
The ancient Egyptian Papyrus Ebers is one of the earliest known herbals; it dates to 1550 BCE and is based on sources, now lost, dating back a further 500 to 2000 years. The earliest Sumerian herbal dates from about 2500 BCE as a copied manuscript of the 7th century BCE. Inscribed Assyrian tablets dated 668–626 BCE list about 250 vegetable drugs: the tablets include herbal plant names that are still in use today including: saffron, cumin, turmeric and sesame.

The ancient Greeks gleaned much of their medicinal knowledge from Egypt and Mesopotamia. Hippocrates (460–377 BCE), the "father of medicine" (renowned for the eponymous Hippocratic oath), used about 400 drugs, most being of plant origin. However, the first Greek herbal of any note was written by Diocles of Carystus in the fourth century BC—although nothing remains of this except its mention in the written record. It was Aristotle’s pupil Theophrastus (371–287 BCE) in his Historia Plantarum, (better known as the Enquiry into Plants) and De Causis Plantarum (On the Causes of Plants) that established the scientific method of careful and critical observation associated with modern botanical science. Based largely on Aristotle’s notes, the Ninth Book of his Enquiry deals specifically with medicinal herbs and their uses including the recommendations of herbalists and druggists of the day, and his plant descriptions often included their natural habitat and geographic distribution. With the formation of the Alexandrian School c. 330 BCE medicine flourished and written herbals of this period included those of the physicians Herophilus, Mantias, Andreas of Karystos, Appolonius Mys, and Nicander. The work of rhizomatist (the rhizomati were the doctors of the day, berated by Theophrastus for their superstition) Krateuas (fl. 110 BCE) is of special note because he initiated the tradition of the illustrated herbal in the first century BCE.

Dioscorides – De Materia Medica

The De Materia Medica (c. 40–90 CE; Greek, Περί ύλης ιατρικής "Peri hules iatrikes", 'On medical materials') of Pedanios Dioscorides, a physician in the Roman army, was produced in about 65 CE. It was the single greatest classical authority on the subject and the most influential herbal ever written, serving as a model for herbals and pharmacopoeias, both oriental and occidental, for the next 1000 years up to the Renaissance. It drew together much of the accumulated herbal knowledge of the time, including some 500 medicinal plants. The original has been lost but a lavishly illustrated Byzantine copy known as the Vienna Dioscurides dating from about 512 CE remains.

Pliny – Natural History
Pliny the Elder's (23–79 CE) encyclopaedic Natural History (c. 77–79 CE) is a synthesis of the information contained in about 2000 scrolls and it includes myths and folklore; there are about 200 extant copies. It comprises 37 books of which sixteen (Books 12–27) are devoted to trees, plants and medicaments and, of these, seven describe medicinal plants. In medieval herbals, along with De Materia Medica it is Pliny's work that is the most frequently mentioned of the classical texts, even though Galen's (131–201 CE) De Simplicibus is more detailed. Another Latin translation of Greek works that was widely copied in the Middle Ages, probably illustrated in the original, was that attributed to Apuleius: it also contained the alternative names for particular plants given in several languages. It dates to about 400 CE and a surviving copy dates to about 600 CE.

The Middle Ages and Arab World
During the 600 years of the European Middle Ages from 600 to 1200, the tradition of herbal lore fell to the monasteries. Many of the monks were skilled at producing books and manuscripts and tending both medicinal gardens and the sick, but written works of this period simply emulated those of the classical era.

Meanwhile, in the Arab world, by 900 the great Greek herbals had been translated and copies lodged in centres of learning in the Byzantine empire of the eastern Mediterranean including Byzantium, Damascus, Cairo and Baghdad where they were combined with the botanical and pharmacological lore of the Orient. In the medieval Islamic world, Muslim botanists and Muslim physicians made a major contribution to the knowledge of herbal medicines. Those associated with this period include Mesue Maior (Masawaiyh, 777–857) who, in his Opera Medicinalia, synthesised the knowledge of Greeks, Persians, Arabs, Indians and Babylonians, this work was complemented by the medical encyclopaedia of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037). Avicenna's Canon of Medicine was used for centuries in both East and West. During this period Islamic science protected classical botanical knowledge that had been ignored in the West and Muslim pharmacy thrived.

Albertus Magnus – De Vegetabilibus

In the thirteenth century, scientific inquiry was returning and this was manifest through the production of encyclopaedias; those noted for their plant content included a seven volume treatise by Albertus Magnus (c. 1193–1280) a Suabian educated at the University of Padua and tutor to St Thomas Aquinas. It was called De Vegetabilibus (c. 1256 AD) and even though based on original observations and plant descriptions it bore a close resemblance to the earlier Greek, Roman and Arabic herbals. Other accounts of the period include De Proprietatibus Rerum (c. 1230–1240) of English Franciscan friar Bartholomaeus Anglicus and a group of herbals called Tractatus de Herbis written and painted between 1280 and 1300 by Matthaeus Platearius at the East-West cultural centre of Salerno Spain, the illustrations showing the fine detail of true botanical illustration.

Western Europe

Perhaps the best known herbals were produced in Europe between 1470 and 1670. The invention in Germany of printing from movable type in a printing press c. 1440 was a great stimulus to herbalism. The new herbals were more detailed with greater general appeal and often with Gothic script and the addition of woodcut illustrations that more closely resembled the plants being described.

Three important herbals, all appearing before 1500, were printed in Mainz, Germany. Two of these were by Peter Schoeffer, his Latin Herbarius in 1484, followed by an updated and enlarged German version in 1485, these being followed in 1491 by the Hortus Sanitatis printed by Jacob Meyderbach. Other early printed herbals include the Kreuterbuch of Hieronymus Tragus from Germany in 1539 and, in England, the New Herball of William Turner in 1551 were arranged, like the classical herbals, either alphabetically, according to their medicinal properties, or as "herbs, shrubs, trees". Arrangement of plants in later herbals such as Cruydboeck of Dodoens and John Gerard's Herball of 1597 became more related to their physical similarities and this heralded the beginnings of scientific classification. By 1640 a herbal had been printed that included about 3800 plants – nearly all the plants of the day that were known.

In the Modern Age and Renaissance, European herbals diversified and innovated, and came to rely more on direct observation than being mere adaptations of traditional models. Typical examples from the period are the fully illustrated De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes by Leonhart Fuchs (1542, with over 400 plants), the astrologically themed Complete Herbal by Nicholas Culpeper (1653), and the Curious Herbal by Elizabeth Blackwell (1737).

Anglo-Saxon herbals
Anglo-Saxon plant knowledge and gardening skills (the garden was called a wyrtzerd, literally, herb-yard) appears to have exceeded that on the continent. Our limited knowledge of Anglo-Saxon plant vernacular comes primarily from manuscripts that include: the Leechbook of Bald and the Lacnunga. The Leechbook of Bald (Bald was probably a friend of King Alfred of England) was painstakingly produced by the scribe Cild in about 900–950 CE. This was written in the vernacular (native) tongue and not derived from Greek texts. The oldest illustrated herbal from Saxon times is a translation of the Latin Herbarius Apulei Platonici, one of the most popular medical works of medieval times, the original dating from the fifth century; this Saxon translation was produced about 1000–1050 CE and is housed in the British Library. Another vernacular herbal was the Buch der natur or "Book of Nature" by Konrad von Megenberg (1309–1374) which contains the first two botanical woodcuts ever made; it is also the first work of its kind in the vernacular.

Anglo-Norman herbals
In the 12th and early 13th centuries, under the influence of the Norman conquest, the herbals produced in Britain fell less under the influence of France and Germany and more that of Sicily and the Near East. This showed itself through the Byzantine-influenced Romanesque framed illustrations. Anglo-Saxon herbals in the vernacular were replaced by herbals in Latin including Macers Herbal, De Viribus Herbarum (largely derived from Pliny), with the English translation completed in about 1373.

Fifteenth-century incunabula
The earliest printed books and broadsheets are known as incunabula. The first printed herbal appeared in 1469, a version of Pliny's Historia Naturalis; it was published nine years before Dioscorides De Materia Medica was set in type. Important incunabula include the encyclopaedic De Proprietatibus Rerum of Franciscan friar Bartholomew Anglicus (c. 1203–1272) which, as a manuscript, had first appeared between 1248 and 1260 in at least six languages and after being first printed in 1470 ran to 25 editions. Assyrian physician Mesue (926–1016) wrote the popular De Simplicibus, Grabadin and Liber Medicinarum Particularum the first of his printings being in 1471. These were followed, in Italy, by the Herbarium of Apuleius Platonicus and three German works published in Mainz, the Latin Herbarius (1484), the first herbal published in Germany, German Herbarius (1485), the latter evolving into the Ortus Sanitatis (1491). To these can be added Macer’s De Virtutibus Herbarum, based on Pliny's work; the 1477 edition is one of the first printed and illustrated herbals.

Fifteenth-century manuscripts
In medieval times, medicinal herbs were generally referred to by the apothecaries (physicians or doctors) as "simples" or "officinals". Before 1542, the works principally used by apothecaries were the treatises on simples by Avicenna and Serapion’s Liber De Simplici Medicina. The De Synonymis and other publications of Simon Januensis, the Liber Servitoris of Bulchasim Ben Aberazerim, which described the preparations made from plants, animals and minerals, provided a model for the chemical treatment of modern pharmacopoeias. There was also the Antidotarium Nicolai of Nicolaus de Salerno, which contained Galenical compounds arranged in alphabetical order.

Spain and Portugal – de Orta, Monardes, Hernandez
The Spaniards and Portuguese were explorers, the Portuguese to India (Vasco da Gama) and Goa where physician Garcia de Orta (1490–1570) based his work Colóquios dos Simples (1563). The first botanical knowledge of the New World came from Spaniard Nicolas Monardes (1493–1588) who published Dos Libros between 1569 and 1571. The work of Hernandez on the herbal medicine of the Aztecs has already been discussed.

Germany – Bock, Brunfels and Fuchs

Otto Brunfels (c. 1489–1534), Leonhart Fuchs (1501–1566) and Hieronymus Bock (1498–1554) were known as the "German fathers of botany" although this title belies the fact that they trod in the steps of the scientifically celebrated Hildegard of Bingen whose writings on herbalism were Physica and Causae et Curae (together known as Liber subtilatum) of 1150. The original manuscript is no longer in existence but a copy was printed in 1533. Another major herbalist was Valerius Cordus (1515–1544).

The 1530, Herbarum Vivae Eicones of Brunfels contained the admired botanically accurate original woodcut colour illustrations of Hans Weiditz along with descriptions of 47 species new to science. Bock, in setting out to describe the plants of his native Germany, produced the New Kreuterbuch of 1539 describing the plants he had found in the woods and fields but without illustration; this was supplemented by a second edition in 1546 that contained 365 woodcuts. Bock was possibly the first to adopt a botanical classification in his herbal which also covered details of ecology and plant communities. In this, he was placing emphasis on botanical rather than medicinal characteristics, unlike the other German herbals and foreshadowing the modern Flora. De Historia Stirpium (1542 with a German version in 1843) of Fuchs was a later publication with 509 high quality woodcuts that again paid close attention to botanical detail: it included many plants introduced to Germany in the sixteenth century that were new to science. The work of Fuchs is regarded as being among the most accomplished of the Renaissance period.

Low Countries – Dodoens, Lobel, Clusius
The Flemish printer Christopher Plantin established a reputation publishing the works of Dutch herbalists Rembert Dodoens and Carolus Clusius and developing a vast library of illustrations. Translations of early Greco-Roman texts published in German by Bock in 1546 as Kreuterbuch were subsequently translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Dodoens (1517–1585) who was a Belgian botanist of world renown. This was an elaboration of his first publication Cruydeboeck (1554). Matthias de Lobel (1538–1616) published his Stirpium Adversaria Nova (1570–1571) and a massive compilation of illustrations while Clusius's (1526–1609) magnum opus was Rariorum Plantarum Historia of 1601 which was a compilation of his Spanish and Hungarian floras and included over 600 plants that were new to science.

Italy – Mattioli, Calzolari, Alpino

In Italy, two herbals were beginning to include botanical descriptions. Notable herbalists included Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501–1577), physician to the Italian aristocracy and his Commentarii (1544), which included many newly described species, and his more traditional herbal Epistolarum Medicinalium Libri Quinque (1561). Sometimes, the local flora was described as in the publication Viaggio di Monte Baldo (1566) of Francisco Calzolari. Prospero Alpini (1553–1617) published in 1592 the highly popular account of overseas plants De Plantis Aegypti and he also established a botanical garden in Padua in 1542, which together with those at Pisa and Florence, rank among the world's first.

England – Turner, Gerard, Parkinson, Culpeper
The first true herbal printed in Britain was Richard Banckes' Herball of 1525 which, although popular in its day, was unillustrated and soon eclipsed by the most famous of the early printed herbals, Peter Treveris's Grete Herball of 1526 (derived in turn from the derivative French Grand Herbier).

William Turner (?1508–7 to 1568) was an English naturalist, botanist, and theologian who studied at Cambridge University and eventually became known as the “father of English botany." His 1538 publication Libellus de re Herbaria Novus was the first essay on scientific botany in English. His three-part A New Herball of 1551–1562–1568, with woodcut illustrations taken from Fuchs, was noted for its original contributions and extensive medicinal content; it was also more accessible to readers, being written in vernacular English. Turner described over 200 species native to England. and his work had a strong influence on later eminent botanists such as John Ray and Jean Bauhin.

John Gerard (1545–1612) is the most famous of all the English herbalists. His Herball of 1597 is, like most herbals, largely derivative. It appears to be a reformulation of Hieronymus Bock's Kreuterbuch subsequently translated into Dutch as Pemptades by Rembert Dodoens (1517–1585), and thence into English by Carolus Clusius, (1526–1609) then re-worked by Henry Lyte in 1578 as A Nievve Herball. This became the basis of Gerard's Herball or General Historie of Plantes. that appeared in 1597 with its 1800 woodcuts (only 16 original). Although largely derivative, Gerard's popularity can be attributed to his evocation of plants and places in Elizabethan England and to the clear influence of gardens and gardening on this work. He had published, in 1596, Catalogus which was a list of 1033 plants growing in his garden.

John Parkinson (1567–1650) was apothecary to James I and a founding member of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries. He was an enthusiastic and skilful gardener, his garden in Long Acre being stocked with rarities. He maintained an active correspondence with important English and Continental botanists, herbalists and plantsmen importing new and unusual plants from overseas, in particular the Levant and Virginia. Parkinson is celebrated for his two monumental works, the first Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris in 1629: this was essentially a gardening book, a florilegium for which Charles I awarded him the title Botanicus Regius Primarius – Royal Botanist. The second was his Theatrum Botanicum of 1640, the largest herbal ever produced in the English language. It lacked the quality illustrations of Gerard's works, but was a massive and informative compendium including about 3800 plants (twice the number of Gerard's first edition Herball), over 1750 pages and over 2,700 woodcuts. This was effectively the last and culminating herbal of its kind and, although it included more plants of no discernible economic or medicinal use than ever before, they were nevertheless arranged according to their properties rather than their natural affinities.

Nicholas Culpeper (1616–1654) was an English botanist, herbalist, physician, apothecary and astrologer from London's East End. His published books were A Physicall Directory (1649), which was a pseudoscientific pharmacopoeia. The English Physitian (1652) and the Complete Herbal (1653), contain a rich store of pharmaceutical and herbal knowledge. His works lacked scientific credibility because of their use of astrology, though he combined diseases, plants and astrological prognosis into a simple integrated system that has proved popular to the present day.

Legacy

The legacy of the herbal extends beyond medicine to botany and horticulture. Herbal medicine is still practiced in many parts of the world but the traditional grand herbal, as described here, ended with the European Renaissance, the rise of modern medicine and the use of synthetic and industrialized drugs. The medicinal component of herbals has developed in several ways. Firstly, discussion of plant lore was reduced and with the increased medical content there emerged the official pharmacopoeia. The first British Pharmacopoeia was published in the English language in 1864, but gave such general dissatisfaction both to the medical profession and to chemists and druggists that the General Medical Council brought out a new and amended edition in 1867. Secondly, at a more popular level, there are the books on culinary herbs and herb gardens, medicinal and useful plants. Finally, the enduring desire for simple medicinal information on specific plants has resulted in contemporary herbals that echo the herbals of the past, an example being Maud Grieve's A Modern Herbal, first published in 1931 but with many subsequent editions.

The magical and mystical side of the herbal also lives on. Herbals often explained plant lore, displaying a superstitious or spiritual side. There was, for example, the fanciful doctrine of signatures, the belief that there were similarities in the appearance of the part of the body affected the appearance of the plant to be used as a remedy. The astrology of Culpeper can be seen in contemporary anthroposophy (biodynamic gardening) and alternative medical approaches like homeopathy, aromatherapy and other new age medicine show connections with herbals and traditional medicine.

It is sometimes forgotten that the plants described in herbals were grown in special herb gardens (physic gardens). Such herb gardens were, for example, part of the medieval monastery garden that supplied the simples or officinals used to treat the sick being cared for within the monastery. Early physic gardens were also associated with institutes of learning, whether a monastery, university or herbarium. It was this medieval garden of the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries, attended by apothecaries and physicians, that established a tradition leading to the systems gardens of the eighteenth century (gardens that demonstrated the classification system of plants) and the modern botanical garden. The advent of printing, woodcuts and metal engraving improved the means of communication. Herbals prepared the ground for modern botanical science by pioneering plant description, classification and illustration. From the time of the ancients like Dioscorides through to Parkinson in 1629, the scope of the herbal remained essentially the same.

The greatest legacy of the herbal is to botany. Up to the seventeenth century, botany and medicine were one and the same but gradually greater emphasis was placed on the plants rather than their medicinal properties. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, plant description and classification began to relate plants to one another and not to man. This was the first glimpse of non-anthropocentric botanical science since Theophrastus and, coupled with the new system of binomial nomenclature, resulted in "scientific herbals" called Floras that detailed and illustrated the plants growing in a particular region. These books were often backed by herbaria, collections of dried plants that verified the plant descriptions given in the Floras. In this way modern botany, especially plant taxonomy, was born out of medicine. As herbal historian Agnes Arber remarks – "Sibthorp's monumental Flora Graeca is, indeed, the direct descendant in modern science of the De Materia Medica of Dioscorides."

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Los Van Van

Los Van Van is one of the leading musical groups of post-revolutionary Cuba. It was founded in 1969 by bassist Juan Formell, who directed the band until his death in 2014. Formell and former band members Changuito and Pupy are some of the most important figures in contemporary Cuban music, having contributed to the development of songo and timba, two popular dance music genres.

History
In 1967, Formell became musical director of Elio Revé's charanga orchestra. The sound of Orquesta Revé at that time was a unique blend of Cuban son and late-'60s rock. Formell reformed the group into Changui '68, and then founded his own group, Los Van Van, on December 4, 1969.

"[Juan Formell] was convinced that he could capture the imagination of Cuba's younger generation by infusing Revé's arrangements with elements of North American rock and roll, creating an odd new style that he called changüí 68. Early the next year, almost exactly a decade after Revé's band had jumped ship to form [Orquesta] Ritmo Oriental, . . . Formell incited the most famous of the Revé mutinies and absconded with the majority of the musicians to form a group which has stayed at the true leading edge of its country's music longer than any other . . . at first Formell relied heavily on the songs and stylistic tendencies of his previous work with Revé. The harmonies, never before heard in Cuban music, were clearly borrowed from North American pop—in some cases rather corny North American pop . . . their sudden commercial popularity shattered the formulaic limitations on harmony to which Cuban popular music had faithfully adhered for so long. . . rhythmically, the 1969 group made the transition from changüí 68 to the first incarnation of a style which Formell called songo (Moore 2011)."

The original personnel of Los Van Van were Juan Formell (leader, bass guitar, vocals); Orlando Canto (flute); Raúl "El Yulo" Cárdenas (congas); Blas Egües (drum kit); Luis Marsilli (cello); José Luis Martínez (electric guitar, vocals); Julio Noroña (güiro); Pupy Pedroso (keyboard); Miguel Angel "Lele" Rasalps (vocals); William Sánchez (electric guitar), and Gerardo Miró, Jesús Linare, Fernando Leyva, and Iván Rocha (violins).

Juan Formell states that the main piano guajeo of "La lucha"s (1969) montuno section was inspired by the Afro‐Cuban folkloric batá drum rhythm chachalokefún.

1970s
José Luis "Changuito" Quintana replaced Egües in 1970. Changuito greatly expanded the parameters of songo, and introduced a revolutionary conga and timbales technique, by incorporating snare drum rudiments. Changuito is the most influential Cuban percussionist of the latter twentieth century.

"Changuito's rhythmic contributions coincided with Formell's maturation as a songwriter and LVV launched into a six year period which alone would have been sufficient to establish them as one of Cuba's most important bands. LVV's recordings from 1970 to 1976 are the definite starting point for anyone seeking to learn about the enigmatic genre of songo (Moore 2011)."

The original single of "Pero a mi manera" (c. 1972) introduced harmonies and arranging ideas never before used in Latin music. Moore describes the chord changes as: "addictive and harmonically ambiguous vamp for the entire montuno section. Arguments could be made for various keys, but to me it sounds like bIII – IV – I – bVI in A. Like the best rock vamps, it never quite resolves, allowing for endless repetitions without losing energy."

In 1974 Los Van Van released their landmark record Tránsito (LD-3421) [Los Van Van v. II]. Also that year, vocalist Pedro Calvo left Orquesta Ritmo Oriental to join Los Van Van. Calvo fronted the band for two decades. Los Van Van v. V (Areíto LD-378) (1979) premiered compositions by Pedro Calvo, José Luis "El Tosco" Cortés, and Pupy Pedroso, who would go on to become the group's second most prolific composer after Formell.

Some of Formell's songo inventions had onbeat, rock-like guajeos as well as rock harmonies. One such song is "Con el bate de aluminio" (1979). The right hand plays steady onbeats, sounding a rock‐influenced imi – bVII – bVI chord progression.

1980s
On Los Van Van v. 6 (1980) Formell took the unusual step of adding trombones to his charanga format. Orquesta Revé did the same during the time.

On El baile del buey cansao (Areíto LD-4045) [Los Van Van v. VII] (1982), Changuito added timbales, which he altered with drum kit. With their 1984 release of Anda ven y muévete (Areíto LD-4164) [Los Van Van v. IX], Van Van began getting unprecedented international attention. The title track borrows heavily from Lionel Richie's hit "All Night Long." Salsa singer Rubén Blades later covered "Muévete."

The following piano guajeo is based on Los Van Van’s biggest hit of the 1980s, "Por encima del nivel," better known as "La sandunguera," one of Los Van Van's most popular songs from the 1980s.

2010s
In 2011, they collaborated with Carlinhos Brown to record the song "Soy Loco por Tí, América" for the Red Hot Organization's most recent charitable album Red Hot + Rio 2. The album is a follow-up to the 1996 Red Hot + Rio. Proceeds from the sales were donated to raise awareness and money to fight AIDS/HIV and related health and social issues.

Musical style
Using a charanga line-up (flute, string instruments, and rhythm section) as its base, Los Van Van added trombones, and was the first Cuban group to use synthesizers and drum machines. Initially, their sound was a fusion of son montuno, rumba, and North American rock and pop. Later the band incorporated funk, disco, and hip hop, as well as salsa. These influences would first give rise to a style known as songo, and later timba.

Los Van Van has consistently adapted its style to the times, and remains, after 35 years, Cuba's most popular dance band. Along with pianist Cesar "Pupy" Pedroso, Juan Formell has written some of the most intriguing verses in popular dance music, including stories that run over several albums and, contrary to trends in timba, all types of social commentary. Both artists are undisputed masters of double-entendre in a musical culture where multiple meanings in lyrics are pervasive. Indeed, the title of the band is probably meant to evoke the novel and compelling rhythms of the new sound of Formell's band, as van in Spanish means "they go" and so the name of the band could be translated as "those they go, they go" (it has also been suggested to translate as their name as something like "the go-gos!"). When Cesar "Pupy" Pedroso, their pianist and founding member, left the band in 2002 he founded his own band Pupy y los que son son, which is likely a name with a triple-entendre. The word son can mean both "they are" and also refers to the traditional music son (the same Latin root as "sound"), originating in the eastern provinces of Cuba, from which Cuban-style salsa may have originated. It is also a reference to the idiomatic Spanish expression "those who can, do" presumably as sort of a sly nod to the expression "those who cannot [do something], teach."

Awards
The band has a Grammy Award to their credit, the 2000 Grammy awarded to the album Van Van is Here ('Llegó Van Van').

In January 2010 "A Cali," a song from Van Van's latest album, was selected as one of the winning songs of the 2009 Cali Fair held in Cali (Colombia), a city known as Colombia's "salsa capital". The selection was made through a public poll that registered 30,742 votes. Van Van's "A Cali" received 7,905 of the votes, or 26% of the total.

The Cuban band was honored for the organizer comite of WOMEX fair with the Artist Award 2013. The laurel was given to the "Train of Cuban music" for having remained the most important and popular dance band in Cuba for more than four decades. The jury noted that "the imaginative approach in implementing its director Juan Formell, brought new sounds and ideas in Cuban dance music, which merged violins, flute charanga style with a trombone section, drums and electric guitar intro, bass and keyboards".

Juan Formell was also awarded with the Latin Grammy Award for Excellence 2013 along with other renowned Hispanic musicians, in a ceremony held on November 20, 2013 in Las Vegas.

Band members
Los Van Van has been a school for outstanding singers and musicians. Past members with successful careers as solo artists include Pedro Calvo, Angel Bonne, Changuito, José Luis "El Tosco" Cortés (founder of the first timba band NG La Banda), César "Pupy" Pedroso and others. As of 2006, Los Van Van lineup of singers: Mayito Rivera, Roberto Hernandez "Roberton", Yeni Valdes and Lele Rosales. During 2011 Mayito Rivera left the band going for a solo career and was replaced by Mandy Cantero. Since early January 2017, Yeni Valdes left the band.

Discography

 * Los Van Van Vol I (1969)
 * Los Van Van Vol II (1974)
 * Los Van Van Vol III (1974)
 * Los Van Van Vol IV (1976)
 * Los Van Van Vol V (1976)
 * Los Van Van Vol VI (1980)
 * Báilalo ¡Eh! ¡Ah! (1982)
 * Qué Pista (1983)
 * Anda, Ven y Muévete (1984)
 * La Habana Sí (1985)
 * Eso Que Anda (1986)
 * Sandunguera (1986)
 * La Titimania (1987)
 * Songo (1988)
 * El Negro No Tiene Na' (1988)
 * Songo (Mango, 1989)
 * Rico Son (1989)
 * Aquí... El Que Baila Gana (1990)
 * Esto Está Bueno (1991)
 * De Cuba Los Van Van (1991)
 * Bailando Mojao - Dancing Wet (1993)
 * Azúcar (Xenophile Records, 1994)
 * 25 Años... y seguimos ahí! Vol I (1994)
 * Lo Ultimo En Vivo (Qbadisc Records, 1994)
 * ¡Ay Dios, Ampárame! (1995)
 * Live In America (1997)
 * Te Pone La Cabeza Mala (1997)
 * Llegó Van Van (1999)
 * En El Malecón De La Habana (2003)
 * Chapeando (2005)
 * Aquí El que Baila Gana: El Concierto (DVD+CD, 2007)
 * Live From Camagüey (2009)
 * Arrasando (2009)
 * La Maquinaria (2011)
 * La Fantasía (2014)
 * Legado (2018)
 * Mi Songo (2020)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Los Van Van


text:
Lewiston–Queenston Bridge

The Lewiston–Queenston Bridge, also known as the Queenston–Lewiston Bridge, is an arch bridge that crosses the Niagara River gorge just south of the Niagara Escarpment. The bridge was officially opened on November 1, 1962. It is an international bridge between the United States and Canada. It connects Interstate 190 in the town of Lewiston, New York to Highway 405 in the community of Queenston, Ontario. The Lewiston–Queenston Bridge is architecturally similar to the Rainbow Bridge at nearby Niagara Falls.

Customs plazas are located on both ends of the bridge, with tolls only being charged on entering Canada ($5.00 USD or $6.50 CAD per passenger automobile). The bridge accepts E-ZPass electronic toll collection and houses the second Canadian E-ZPass collection facility, after the nearby Peace Bridge. Also, two duty-free stores are located between the two plazas.

The bridge permits no pedestrians, but licensed taxi service is permitted. The Lewiston–Queenston Bridge lacks expedited border clearance facilities for NEXUS and FAST card holders traveling from the United States into Canada, but does have a NEXUS lane for travel into the United States.

Gantries have lights indicating the direction of traffic as the lanes are reversible. Speed limit is posted in kilometres and miles per hour (15 mph limit) along the bridge. Canadian and United States flags fly at the midpoint on the south side of the bridge.

Border crossing and toll
The crossing is the fourth-busiest on the Canada–United States border, with delays of up to two hours. It is on the most direct route connecting the US Interstate system to Toronto and Detroit. Canada replaced its border inspection facilities in 2011. The United States announced plans in 2016 to spend US$50 million to upgrade the primary inspection facilities. Construction was completed in 2022. Both facilities are open 24 hours per day, 365 days per year. All commercial vehicles crossing between the US and Canada at the Niagara River must use this crossing.

The toll for use of the bridge is payable upon entering Canada only.

 * Canada-bound:
 * 10 customs booths for cars/RVs
 * 5 customs booths for trucks
 * Dedicated Bus Processing Lane
 * parking area for trucks for inspections
 * helipad
 * 6 toll booths
 * US-bound:
 * 6 customs booths for cars/buses/RVs
 * 3 customs booths for trucks
 * parking area for trucks for inspections

Passenger vehicles pay a toll only when entering Canada from the US. The cost is $5.00 USD or $6.50 CAD, as of August 1, 2022, payable by cash or E-ZPass.

High mast lighting is used on the Canadian side, with regular light standards used for bridge and the US side.

Previous suspension bridges
The first Queenston-Lewiston Bridge was built in 1851 by engineer Edward Serrell and wrecked by wind in 1864 (or 1854 ). Newspapers reported that bridge deck had been destroyed in February 1864 by wind which caused main deck to sway excessively due to earlier removal of stabilizing guy-wires by local authorities, however main suspension cables remained fully intact. Some of the cables were still in place as late as 1895. The road deck span was about 841 –. The suspension bridge design was unusual because the cables were attached to the cliff with only small towers. This made the road deck span shorter than the cable span of 1040 ft.

A second bridge called the Queenston-Lewiston Bridge, a suspension bridge was later constructed. Located 7/10 mi north of the current bridge, this suspension bridge was originally built near the present location of the Rainbow Bridge, and was moved to Queenston in 1898 by R.S. Buck and engineer L.L. Buck, after the completion of the Rainbow Bridge's predecessor, the Upper Steel Arch Bridge. The suspension bridge was dismantled in 1963 after the current bridge was completed and opened.

Reminders of the earlier bridge are still visible in the area. First is two columns that lie within the Earl W. Brydges Artpark State Park. Second is the original plaque, now located midspan alongside the road, right at the border between the two countries. The plaque is flanked by a US and a Canadian flag.

The supports are part of Owen Morrell's Omega, a steel sculpture and observation platform added in 1981. Two columns remain on the Canadian side at the foot of York Street in a wooded area now known as York Park.

Plane crash
On December 1, 1961, while the bridge was under construction, an F-100 fighter (variously reported as belonging to the United States Air Force or Air National Guard ) caught fire just after taking off from a base near Niagara Falls, New York. To protect people in the city, the pilot steered it into the Niagara River gorge before safely ejecting; but this aimed it near the construction site. It passed not far over the heads of workers near the site, missed a construction crane by about 100 feet, and crashed into the gorge side about 600 feet beyond the bridge before falling into the river.

title: Lewiston–Queenston Bridge


text:
Ilyushin Il-28

The Ilyushin Il-28 (Илью́шин Ил-28; NATO reporting name: Beagle) is a jet bomber of the immediate postwar period that was originally manufactured for the Soviet Air Forces. It was the Soviet Union's first such aircraft to enter large-scale production. It was also licence-built in China as the Harbin H-5. Total production in the USSR was 6,316 aircraft, and over 319 H-5s were built. Only 187 examples of the HJ-5 training variant were manufactured. In the 1990s hundreds remained in service with various air forces over 50 years after the Il-28 first appeared. The only H-5s in service currently are approximately 80 aircraft which operate with the Korean People's Air Force. The Il-28 has the USAF/DoD reporting name "Type 27" and ASCC reporting name "Beagle", while the Il-28U trainer variant has the USAF/DoD reporting name "Type 30" and NATO reporting name Mascot.

Design and development
After a number of attempts at a four-engined bomber (the Lyulka TR-1 powered Ilyushin Il-22 and the unbuilt Rolls-Royce Derwent powered Ilyushin Il-24), the Ilyushin Design Bureau began development of a new jet-powered tactical bomber in late 1947. Western Intelligence focused on the four-engine developments while the twin-engine Ilyushin Il-28 was created to meet a requirement for a bomber to carry a 3000 kg bombload at 800 km/h. The new design took advantage of the sale of a number of Rolls-Royce Nene jet engines by Great Britain to the Soviet Union, which allowed Soviet engineers to quickly produce an unlicensed copy of the Nene, the RD-45, with Ilyushin designing the new bomber around two RD-45s.

The Il-28 was smaller than the previous designs and carried a crew of only three (pilot, navigator and gunner). It was also smaller than the competing design from the Tupolev design bureau, the three-engined (i.e. two Nenes and a Rolls-Royce Derwent) Tupolev Tu-73, which had been started long before the Ilyushin project, and flew before the design of the Il-28 was approved.

The Il-28 design was conventional in layout, with high, unswept wings and a swept horizontal tail and fin. The engines were carried in bulky nacelles slung directly under the wings. The nosewheel retracted rearwards, while the mainwheels retracted forwards into the engine nacelles. The crew of three were accommodated in separate, pressurised compartments. The navigator, who also acted as bombardier, was accommodated in the glazed nose compartment and was provided with an OPB-5 bombsight based on the American Norden bombsight of the Second World War, while the pilot sat under a sideways opening bubble canopy with an armoured windscreen. The gunner sat in a separate compartment at the rear of the fuselage, operating a power driven turret armed with two Nudelman-Suranov NS-23 23 mm cannons with 250 rounds each. In service, the turret was sometimes removed as a weight saving measure. While the pilot and navigator sat on ejector seats, the gunner had to parachute out of a hatch in the floor in the event of an emergency. Two more fixed, forward-firing 23 mm cannon with 100 rounds each were mounted under the nose and fired by the pilot, while a bomb bay was located in the fuselage, capable of holding four 100 kg (220 lb) bombs in individual containers, or single large bombs of up to 3,000 kg (6,600 lb) slung from a beam in the bomb bay.

One unusual design feature of the Il-28 was that the wings and tail were split horizontally through the centre of the wing, while the fuselage was split vertically at the centreline, allowing the separate parts to be built individually and fitted out with systems before being bolted together to complete assembly of the aircraft. This slightly increased the weight of the aircraft structure, but eased manufacture and proved to be more economical.

The first prototype, powered by two imported Nenes, made its maiden flight on 8 July 1948, with Vladimir Kokkinaki at the controls. Testing was successful, with the Il-28 demonstrating good handling and reaching a speed of 833 km/h (518 mph). It was followed on 30 December 1948 by the second prototype, with Soviet built RD-45 engines replacing the Nenes. After the completion of state tests in early 1949 the aircraft was ordered into large scale production on 14 May 1949, with the Klimov VK-1, an improved version of the RD-45 to be used in order to improve the aircraft's performance. The first pre-production aircraft with VK-1 engines flew on 8 August 1949, and featured reshaped engine nacelles to reduce drag, while the radome for the navigation radar was moved from the rear fuselage to just aft of the nosewheel.

Full production in three factories started in September 1949, with service deliveries starting in early 1950, allowing 25 Il-28s to be displayed at the Moscow May Day parade of 1950 (as ordered by Joseph Stalin when it was ordered into production in 1949). The Il-28 soon became the standard tactical bomber in the Soviet forces and was widely exported.

Operational history
The Il-28 was widely exported, serving in the air arms of some 20 nations ranging from the Warsaw Pact to various Middle-Eastern and African air forces. Egypt was an early customer, and targeting Egyptian Il-28s on the ground was a priority for the Royal Air Force during the Suez Crisis and later by the Israeli Air Force during the Six-Day War, and Yom Kippur War.

Egyptian Il-28s also took part in the North Yemen Civil War, starting in 1963. In addition to attacks on the royalist forces, they also bombed the Saudi cities of Jizan, Najran, and Khamis Mushait. Two Egyptian Il-28s may have been shot down near Sanaa by Royal Saudi Air Force Hawker Hunters flown by British pilots, in 1966.

The Soviet Union was in the process of providing the type for local assembly in Cuba when this was halted by the Cuban Missile Crisis, after which Nikita Khrushchev agreed to remove them. The type also saw limited use in Vietnam and with the Afghan forces in Afghanistan. Four ex-Egyptian and two ex-Soviet Il-28s (all with Egyptian crews) were operated by the Nigerian Air Force in the Biafra Wars. Finland also had four examples of this type delivered between 1961 and 1966 for target-towing duties. They remained in service until the 1980s.

The Soviet Union had relegated the Il-28 to second-line duties by the late-1950s. The supersonic Yak-28 was introduced in the early 1960s to take over the Beagle's low-level attack role; some Il-28 variants lingered in Soviet service into the 1980s. The last Soviet-built examples were still flying in Egypt into the 1990s.

The People's Republic of China received over 250 Soviet-built Il-28s from 1952, and when the Sino-Soviet split occurred in the late 1950s, it decided to place the Il-28 into production, despite no manufacturing license being obtained. Chinese-built aircraft differed from the original Soviet aircraft in that they have a redesigned wing structure, abandoning the horizontal manufacturing break, saving 110 kg at the cost of a more difficult construction. Chinese aircraft also used a different tail turret based on that of the Tupolev Tu-16, and fitted with faster-firing AM-23 cannons.

Chinese-built Il-28s designated H-5 and built by HAMC were still flying in the 1990s with several hundreds in China itself, and a smaller number in North Korea and Romania. The three main Chinese versions are the H-5 bomber, followed by the HJ-5 trainer, and the H-5R (HZ-5) long range (in comparison to the reconnaissance version of the Shenyang J-6) reconnaissance aircraft, and later, the HD-5 ECM/ESM version. The latter two types have been phased out.

The type is known to still be in active service with the North Korean Air Force, although little is known as to whether they are a mix of survivors from the batch of 24 Soviet-manufactured aircraft delivered in the 1960s and some of the newer Chinese-built H-5 variant, or are solely H-5s. Some of these are probably used for spares to maintain a small group of around a dozen serviceable aircraft. They give North Korea a means of bombing targets in South Korea and Western Japan, although they would be vulnerable to modern anti air missiles and interceptors.

Several Ilyushin Il-28s are preserved in museums and as monuments in Russia, Germany, Hungary and in other countries.

Soviet Union variants
Note: Order of variants determined chronologically by production/development dates.
 * Il-28
 * Basic three-seat bomber version, powered by two VK-1 engines.

 * Il-28U
 * Unarmed training version fitted with new nose housing cockpit for instructor, while the trainee sat in the normal cockpit. First flown 18 March 1950.

 * Il-28R
 * Three-seat tactical photo reconnaissance version, with extra fuel in bomb bay and tip-tanks, and with one forward firing cannon removed. Fitted with revised undercarriage to deal with heavier weights. First flew 19 April 1950.

 * Il-28RTR
 * ELINT version of Il-28R.

 * Il-28REB
 * Electronic warfare, electronic jamming version, fitted with wingtip electronic pods housed in the former wing tanks.

 * Il-28T
 * Torpedo bomber version for the Soviet Naval Aviation able to accommodate two small or one large torpedo (including RAT-52 rocket propelled torpedoes) in a lengthened weapons bay.

 * Il-28N
 * Nuclear bomber for the Soviet Air Force with modified bomb-bay and revised avionics. (N - Nositel - carrier, also known as Il-28A - Atomnyy - atomic).

 * Il-28P
 * Unarmed civil conversion for Aeroflot, used as jet conversion trainer and to carry high priority cargo (i.e. newspaper matrices to allow simultaneous printing of Pravda and Izvestia in Moscow, Sverdlovsk and Novosibirsk). Also designated Ilyushin Il-20.

 * Il-28S
 * Proposed swept-wing version with more powerful Klimov VK-5 engines. Unbuilt.

 * Il-28RM
 * Modified Il-28R with VK-5 engine. One prototype built plus two similarly converted bombers (which carried no special designation) but no production.

 * Il-28TM
 * Il-28T with VK-5. One converted, no production.

 * Il-28PL
 * High-speed anti-submarine conversion of Il-28 bomber or Il-28T torpedo bomber. Capable of carrying dropping sonobuoys or acoustic homing torpedoes on direction of other anti-submarine assets.

 * Il-28Sh
 * Ground attack (Shturmovik) conversion of Il-28 with 12 underwing pylons for rocket pods. Small number converted which saw limited service.

 * Il-28ZA
 * Atmospheric sampling version.

 * Il-28M
 * Target drone conversion of Il-28. Also known as M-28.

Czechoslovak variants

 * B-228
 * Czechoslovak designation of Soviet built Il-28s.

 * CB-228
 * Czechoslovak designation of Soviet built Il-28Us.

Chinese variants

 * H-5
 * (Hongzhaji - bomber) - Standard three-seat tactical bomber. The structure of the two halves of the Soviet Union's IL-28 aircraft was changed to a common structure. The engine uses WP-5. The tail turret using H-6s caused some changes in the tail structure.

 * H-5A
 * Speculative designation of for nuclear capable H-5 variant.

 * HD-5:
 * (Hongzhaji Dian - bomber/electronic reconnaissance) Chinese ECM jammer version.

 * HJ-5
 * (Hongzhaji Jiaolianji - bomber trainer) Chinese trainer version with similar layout to Il-28U.

 * HZ-5
 * (Hongzhaji Zhenchaji - bomber/reconnaissance) Tactical reconnaissance aircraft. Fitted with underwing drop tanks instead of tip tanks of Il-28R.

 * B-5
 * Export designation of the H-5.

 * B-5R
 * Export version of HZ-5.

 * BT-5
 * Export version of the HJ-5.

 * H-5 Ying
 * (Ying - eagle) Avionics testbed for Xian JH-7 programme.

 * H-5B
 * Speculative designation for unflown H-5 testbed for WS-5 aft-fan engines.

Current

 * Korean People's Army Air Force - 80 Il-28 and H-5 as of 2023.
 * Korean People's Army Air Force - 80 Il-28 and H-5 as of 2023.

Former

 * 🇦🇫 Afghanistan
 * Afghan Air Force
 * 54 aircraft acquired (including four Il-28U examples) from 1957. Only trainers were retained beyond 1994. All grounded during the civil war in the 1990s. Some were displayed during military parades such as the one in 1984.

 * 🇦🇱 Albania
 * Albanian Air Force
 * Aviation Regiment 4020 operated one Il-28 acquired in 1957 attached to 2 Skuadrilja (2nd Squadron). This aircraft was traded for an H-5, the Chinese version of the Soviet Il-28, in 1971 and retired from service in 1992.

 * Algerian Air Force
 * Fourteen Il-28s were ordered from the USSR in 1965-1966. At least twelve of them were donated to Egypt following the Six-Day War.
 * Fourteen Il-28s were ordered from the USSR in 1965-1966. At least twelve of them were donated to Egypt following the Six-Day War.

 * 🇧🇬 Bulgaria
 * Bulgarian Air Force
 * 14 Il-28Rs and one Il-28U received in 1955 and retired in 1974.

 * Hundreds of these aircraft were operated by the People's Liberation Army Air Force and People's Liberation Army Navy Air Force. Originally equipped with Soviet-built aircraft, the Chinese began full production of the H-5 by 1965. All Il-28s are retired as of 2011.
 * Second Aviation School
 * Cuban Air Force
 * A total of 42 were received in 1962, but soon returned to the Soviet Union as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis.
 * A total of 42 were received in 1962, but soon returned to the Soviet Union as a result of the Cuban Missile Crisis.

 * Czechoslovak Air Force
 * Il-28 and Il-28Us locally designated B-228 and CB-228 which operated from 1954 until 1973. 90 Il-28s, 30 Il-28RTs and an unknown number of Il-28Us were delivered.

 * East German Air Force
 * Operated 12 Il-28s and one Il-28U aircraft, primarily on target tug and engine testing duties between 1954 and 1982.
 * Operated 12 Il-28s and one Il-28U aircraft, primarily on target tug and engine testing duties between 1954 and 1982.

 * Egyptian Air Force
 * Received 70 Czechoslovakian-built Il-28s in 1956, shortly before the Suez Crisis. The IDF rated the Il-28 as a high priority target during the Six-Day War.
 * Received 70 Czechoslovakian-built Il-28s in 1956, shortly before the Suez Crisis. The IDF rated the Il-28 as a high priority target during the Six-Day War.

 * Finnish Air Force
 * Received four aircraft (one IL-28 and three Il-28Rs), coded NH-1..4, in the 1960s. The aircraft were used as target tugs and for maritime reconnaissance and patrolling as well as aerial mapping until 1981. The code letters of the type (NH) originated from Neuvostoliittolainen Hinauskone (Soviet towplane) but since they also matched initials of the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (spelled Hruštšov in Finnish), their usual nickname was Nikita.
 * Received four aircraft (one IL-28 and three Il-28Rs), coded NH-1..4, in the 1960s. The aircraft were used as target tugs and for maritime reconnaissance and patrolling as well as aerial mapping until 1981. The code letters of the type (NH) originated from Neuvostoliittolainen Hinauskone (Soviet towplane) but since they also matched initials of the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev (spelled Hruštšov in Finnish), their usual nickname was Nikita.

 * Hungarian People's Republic
 * Hungarian People's Army Air Force
 * Indonesian Air Force
 * 21st Air Squadron based at Kemayoran Air Force Base, Jakarta received 12 Il-28s acquired in 1961. Aircraft were used during Operation Trikora in 1962 (the conquest of Western New Guinea). All of the aircraft were grounded in 1969 and retired in 1970.
 * 21st Air Squadron based at Kemayoran Air Force Base, Jakarta received 12 Il-28s acquired in 1961. Aircraft were used during Operation Trikora in 1962 (the conquest of Western New Guinea). All of the aircraft were grounded in 1969 and retired in 1970.

 * Indonesian Navy
 * Received more than 30 Il-28T torpedo-bombers and six Il-28U trainers in 1961. They were based at Surabaya, in what is now Juanda International Airport. The last one was retired in 1972.

 * 🇮🇶 Iraq
 * Iraqi Air Force
 * Received twelve Il-28s, two Il-28Us and two Il-28BM target tugs starting in January 1959. Some additional aircraft may have been acquired from Egypt in the 1960s. All destroyed or grounded after Desert Storm.

 * Royal Moroccan Air Force
 * Morocco operated two Il-28s.
 * Morocco operated two Il-28s.

 * Nigerian Air Force
 * North Yemen
 * Yemen Arab Republic Air Force
 * Four Il-28s donated by Libya in October 1972.
 * Four Il-28s donated by Libya in October 1972.

 * Pakistani Air Force
 * Operated a number of H-5s under the designation B-56. These aircraft served alongside American-built Martin B-57s. The H-5s were not popular with Pakistani pilots, and they were eventually traded back to China in exchange for more Shenyang F-6s.
 * Operated a number of H-5s under the designation B-56. These aircraft served alongside American-built Martin B-57s. The H-5s were not popular with Pakistani pilots, and they were eventually traded back to China in exchange for more Shenyang F-6s.

 * Polish Air Force: Received 72 Il-28s, 15 Il-28Rs and 16 Il-28Us. The first aircraft arrived in 1952, last was retired in 1977.
 * 7 Pułk Lotnictwa Bombowo-Rozpoznawczego was based in Powidz.
 * 21 Pułk Rozpoznania Taktycznego operated Il-28R variant and was based in Sochaczew.
 * 33 Pułk Lotnictwa Bombowego was based in Modlin.
 * Polish Navy
 * Romanian Air Force
 * About 22 Il-28s, three Il-28Rs and eight Il-28Us, both Soviet- and Chinese-built, operated from 1955. All remaining Il-28s were retired from service by June 2001.
 * About 22 Il-28s, three Il-28Rs and eight Il-28Us, both Soviet- and Chinese-built, operated from 1955. All remaining Il-28s were retired from service by June 2001.

 * Somali Air Force, 4 units prior to 1977.
 * South Yemen
 * People's Democratic Republic of Yemen Air Force
 * Received a single Il-28, one Il-28R and two Il-28Us from the USSR around 1972.
 * Received a single Il-28, one Il-28R and two Il-28Us from the USSR around 1972.

 * About 1,500 served with the Soviet Air Forces and the Soviet Navy (Soviet Naval Aviation), with operations beginning in 1950. Front line operations continued through the 1950s, with a few examples remaining into the 1980s. A small number of demilitarized aircraft were provided to Aeroflot.
 * About 1,500 served with the Soviet Air Forces and the Soviet Navy (Soviet Naval Aviation), with operations beginning in 1950. Front line operations continued through the 1950s, with a few examples remaining into the 1980s. A small number of demilitarized aircraft were provided to Aeroflot.

 * Syrian Air Force
 * Syria operated six Il-28s. Two were destroyed during the Six-Day War. The other four were dumped in airbases around Syria. Replaced in 1980s by Su-24
 * Syria operated six Il-28s. Two were destroyed during the Six-Day War. The other four were dumped in airbases around Syria. Replaced in 1980s by Su-24

 * Vietnam People's Air Force Retired.
 * Vietnam People's Air Force Retired.

title: Ilyushin Il-28


text:
Ahmed Adaweyah

Ahmed Adaweyah (احمد عدويه) is a prominent Egyptian actor and singer of Egyptian Sha'abi music. He also starred in 27 Egyptian films.

Biography
Adaweyah was born in 1945 in Minya Governorate, Egypt, to a livestock dealer, and he lived with 14 siblings, He later moved to Cairo and started his career as a cafe waiter, while he also performed songs in Cairo in 1969, full of working class slang and double entendres. His recordings outsold many others and were circulated via audiocassette in the streets. Among them, "Salamit Ummih Hassan" referred to Egypt (as Umm Hassan) and its defeat in 1967; "Zahma ya Dunia, Zahma" lamented the crowded and hectic conditions in Cairo, "Ya Bint el-Sultan" became a favorite song performed for dancers. Like many Sha'abi singers, Adaweyah was capable of delivering a strong mawal (vocal improvisation). Despite the disapproval of the music establishment and the exclusion of his songs from television or radio, they became popular as they spread on audiocassettes. He advanced to singing in five-star hotels and the best nightclubs of the time. He also had some copyright issues with his song "essah eddah embo" with other performers.

In 1989, Adaweyah was drugged and attacked by a jealous Kuwaiti emir, Talal bin Nasser. Officials claimed that he was found comatose after an overdose of heroin administered by person(s) connected to the jealous husband. Adawiyya recovered sufficiently to sing again, although he is partially paralyzed. He has since appeared on various music programs. In 2009, he had a duet with Ramy Ayach, singing "Alnas Alrayiqa". In 2018, he released a new song "Helw Wasl". Ukrainian dancer Alla Kushnir appears in the music video for the song.

Personal life
Adaweyah married in 1976, he has a daughter, Warda, and a son, Mohammed, who is also a singer.

title: Ahmed Adaweyah


text:
User talk:Bad faith

whatever, I figure the article only existed because you put a link to it on your sig. delete it for all i care.

Nomination of But to bring a sword for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article But to bring a sword is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/But to bring a sword until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. Jonnymoon96 (talk) 02:56, 13 March 2017 (UTC)

title: User talk:Bad faith


text:
Talk:Not peace, but a sword

Untitled
Removed text: A human born of a mortal woman and the son of a patriach in a nation whose prophets had warned against patriarchy, jesus declined to rise to the throne of israel, dashing his countrymens hopes of overturning the occupying forces. Instead, the son of royalty advocated an approach that confronted his own cultures religious leaders for their idolatry and hypocricy.

I like it, but it needs work to fit the scope of the article - generally we leave articles this specific without much in the way of background - the link to Jesus should do that. - SV (talk) 06:52, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Just a minor point - can we fix the highlighting? It's SO ugly! Mark Richards 06:53, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

While you're working on it, please attribute who the "some" is in "Some believe the sword represents war" - Nunh-huh 23:07, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Still seems to be arguing against a straw-man (sword=war). I'm not convinced that an article interpreting a paraphrase of a saying attributed to Jesus in the Book of Matthew, all without a single attributed viewpoint, is a wise addition to Wikipedia. - Nunh-huh 00:52, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Stevertigo, I'm not sure why you replaced the paragraphs I removed. They are at best original research that interpret the passage in a way I have never before seen. I have reworked the article again and would support deleting everything in the "Sword equals Truth explanation" section. - SimonP 08:22, Mar 10, 2004 (UTC)

Verse-specific articles & VfD questions
On the VfD page I was asked about objections to verse-specific pages. As a rule, I support inclusion of almost any well-written WP article, particularly those that I can learn from. My rule of thumb whether the topic is the Bible, Star Trek, Sexology or Taxonomy is this question: "Whould an exhaustive encyclopedia on this topic have an entry on this matter?" I do believe that this article qualifies as a "yes."

But, I do think special attention needs to be taken in naming the article for 1. Clarity for the honest ignorance of the potential reader; and 2. NPOV. This doesn't exclude verses being redirects to an article. Maybe even Interpretations of Matthew 10:34 would be better than a direct quote. Davodd 06:15, Mar 14, 2004 (UTC)

I come to bring a sword

 * Jesus here isn't advocating violence- he clearly lays out his stance on violence in earlier chapters when he says to "love thine enemies" and "turn the other cheek". He is saying that truth is so often controversial. Because Christianity often seems from the outside to not be benefitial, people will try to validate the wish that it is false so that they don't feel guilty about doing what they wish, so it will naturally cause much division among people. Many will have to give up things- even be at odds with their family if their family doesn't support their beliefs, like many Muslim-to-Christian converts face. And somethings are going to hurt, like a sword! But everything in life, even the painful, inconvenient, not peaceful things, happen for a reason. They teach us so many great lessons and bring us to depend on God, to lean on him when it hurts. When Jesus came, he set the world on fire! He is telling us that its not a religion of passivity, but of fighting a spiritual battle, being "prayer warriors", figting everyday against what drags us down and what stands against.

 * I'm not convinced that an article interpreting a paraphrase of a saying attributed to Jesus in the Book of Matthew, all without a single attributed viewpoint, is a wise addition to Wikipedia. Contains many "facts" (such as this being "the most quoted" phrase, etc. that have no basis. - Nunh-huh 00:51, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Important saying of Christ but the article title is not a quote and even if it were I doubt that this is a good title for an article on, say, different views of this saying, analysis by different POVs, the context of the saying, &c. Delete.  --Daniel C. Boyer 18:52, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I agree that the article in its present version is something other than encyclopedic, but let's try to rehabilitate it before we seriously consider deletion. I can fix it up a little, but I haven't the resources to do the real work.  This much I know:  There is an ongoing debate about the passage, and there are undoubtedly sources that could be cited on the various viewpoints described.  Someone just has to find them.

 * If we keep hitting it and nothing happens, then yes, it should go. But it's too early to decide that. - Sara 01:08, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Somehow I don't think a philosophy of "write first, get facts later" will produce anything of value. It certainly hasn't so far. - Nunh-huh 01:15, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Well said. - Texture 01:44, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - Texture 01:44, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Neutral. If kept, move to the most familiar and quoted version, the KJV rendition of the Bible title: I came not to send peace, but a sword. There surely must be somewhere this can be merged to.  Smerdis of Tlön 16:21, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't believe Wikipedia should contain an exposition of every Bible verse, or even every major bible verse. The current article is biased towards a non-standard interpretation. Most of this stuff is probably better discussed in Pacifism or Christian pacifism. No vote yet. DJ Clayworth 16:49, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Being the central author of the article, I do have an opinion - I agree with some of the criticisms - yes, it is rather poorly titled (as often are the quotations, tranlsations, and transliterations - this was Aramaic to begin with, kids). I do think it has a place here, and would characterise some of the above people as holding the view that Wikipedia be purged by some secular divine right, of all religiously-contextualized works. Take a look at our articles on other religions?  There is nothing wrong or NPOV for using biblespeak in an article about a well-documented term in human culture, as long as its reasonably describes the general context. I might also add that someone with a name like Nuh-uhh, might be prejudiced toward disagreement rather than consensus. - SV  (talk) 23:28, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * You have no basis for that personal attack. -- Nunh-huh 23:33, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep: significant. Article needs heavy clean up & reworking, including citations. Wile E. Heresiarch 06:35, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep, but rename to a stubby part of a larger article on Christian views on war and peace. Davodd 07:24, Mar 12, 2004 (UTC)
 * It might be a good solution for now, David, but would that mean that this represents an opjection to passage-specific articles? I understand that we dont want each passage of the bible to be entered into wiki - but maybe it would be a good idea. I dont remember any consensus on that - was one of the original discussions. I wouldnt think it problematic to include only those passages that were interesting - meaning no -database dumps, just hand-input articles for (assumingly) the passages that present the most interest.  We have had articles on specific idioms, statements, speeches, etc. Maybe this discussion points to new Policy -- SV  (talk) 17:18, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Comment on Davodd's proposal above -- I don't recommend merging into a broader topic. I think there can be a solid, well focused article if we stick to that one verse. Wile E. Heresiarch 14:29, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * The most important word in my comment is the first one. I'll take other discussion to the article TALK page. ;-) Davodd 06:05, Mar 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. This is a well-done article, except TITLE. It's important as an explanation of the verse. (See the misconception mentioned on the page). The Bible was one of the first printed books. Why should it be limited here? Plenty of less worthy articles out there folks! Zoney 14:14, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete - I'm curious: Why does an encyclopedia need an entry for a sepcific controversial bible verse? There are probably thousands of controversial bible verses! Should there be an entry for every one? And what about other holy books like the Q'uran or Book of Mormon? This article specifically seems quite unbalanced as it is written. It seems more like an advocacy of a specific non-violent interpretation of the bible verse than a write-up of some critical historical phenomenon as should be documented in an encyclopedia.

Changes
I'd like to cut the Romans quote down to just verses 20-21, or just 21, or remove it entirely. Comments? One-dimensional Tangent 23:54, 15 May 2005 (UTC)
 * sounds good. excellent work, btw.  Ungtss 23:55, 15 May 2005 (UTC)

 * Thanks. If I cut out anything that you consider important, do put it back. I admit that I don't understand the relevance (to this topic) of that passage. One-dimensional Tangent 00:15, 16 May 2005 (UTC)

The external links that I came up with for "In support of the 'advocacy of violence' interpretation, non-Christian" are terrible. I'd appreciate it if someone could come up ones that aren't so caustic. One-dimensional Tangent 05:36, 16 May 2005 (UTC)

basically
basically, the overwhelming majority of jesus quotes on the gospels are anti-war and anti-violence. it's therefore ridiculous trying to prove the opposite simply by one sentence - most probably taken out of context - since that would mean that either jesus doesn't know what he's talking about or that someone copied the gospels wrong.

retitle
I think this should be retitled Not Peace, but a Sword, Matthew 10:34-39, Luke 12:51-53,14:26-27. This is the name given by Kurt Aland's United Bible Societies' Greek New Testament, the current standard reconstructed Greek text, edited by, among others, Bruce Metzger.

It's also the title of a NYT op-ed piece, March 1, 2004, by William Safire: — Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.78.20.90 (talk • contribs) 04:54, 2 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I have belatedly acted on this, but using lowercase: Not peace, but a sword. – Fayenatic  L ondon 09:20, 21 March 2017 (UTC)

Matthew 15:4
Thats a pretty controversial verse, kinda.....

 * It's only controverial if you misread it, ignoring its context. Jesus is simply saying that he comes not to allow the status quo ('peace') but to cause change (using the metaphorical 'sword' to divide the flock). It is a powerful statement of His purpose; any controversy is simply a case of mistranslation and misinterpretation. In any case, it is certainly not a call to violence. --137.186.216.108 (talk) 16:38, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

Yupp, if a quote is something positive then Jesus meant it. But if a quote is stating something evil then Jesus did not mean it that way and it has to be wildly translated. ... Using that logic I can make Hitlers Mein Kampf or the Quran promote pacifism... Jesus meant something violent with this, especially considering what he has promised on judgement day for all who reject him.

--90.149.188.205 (talk) 21:32, 20 November 2013 (UTC)

Different translations?
Shouldn't there be some info on this page about the various different translations of this passage? I'd love to see some analysis of the actual Greek (or Aramaic, or Latin), and I can't help but wonder whether or not this whole thing is just a misread intention that was lost in translation.

 * Assuming you're expert in Koine Greek, you can find it easily enough online, or pick up a Greek interlinear Bible. Online: interlinear, interlinear (needs free font), or raw text. They don't always say what text they're using (Nestle, Westcott-Hort, etc), though.

 * Assuming you're not and expert in Koine Greek, stop now and don't bother looking at the interlinear stuff--you'll just end up reading the English fragments and interpreting them in un-Greek ways. You're still going to need to rely on existing translations, which are typically prepared by large bodies of people who are experts.
 * —One-dimensional Tangent (Talk) 04:51, 16 October 2007 (UTC)

 * User:One-dimensional Tangent, shouldn't we be looking for the work of the "large bodies of people who are experts" and simply citing that research in the article? Otherwise it violates WP::OR. Crasshopper (talk) 06:18, 23 August 2012 (UTC)

The question of correctly interpreting the Greek is all important. The expression βαλεῖν εἰρήνην ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν literally means cast the peace onto the ground. As far as I can ascertain, βαλεῖν has never meant "to bring". It is much more logical here to treat it as equivalent to καταβαλεῖν which means "to overthrow". In other words, Jesus is here saying that his purpose is not to overthrow the peace (the pax Romana) but rather to overthrow war, μάχαιρα being a metaphor for war. The expression ἐπὶ τὴν γῆν also repays detailed examination. It is used 15 times in the New Testament, in several cases it refers to coming from the sea to the shore. Among the other instances, there is the one of seed falling on the ground, one of Saul falling to the ground and yet another, a few verses earlier than the one in question, to sparrows falling to the ground. Arguably, its only true meaning in the New Testament is "onto the ground", or "on the ground". When correctly interpreted, Matthew 10:34, is therefore completely consistent with the Messianic mission as we understand it.
 * —Mantovano (talk) 11:29, 12 November 2009 (UTC)

Sapiential interpretation
There is a less robust but better sourced stub on a similar verse. Perhaps this could be used uniquely, and the rest of the "interpretation" sourced or removed.74.74.191.241 (talk) 03:31, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

Interesting Fact
10-34 is actually a police '10 code' meaning riot — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.26.185.144 (talk) 19:54, 17 March 2012 (UTC)

Original language
I agree with User:Mantovano, there can't be a realistic exegesis of a controversial subject like this without considering the original language. Comparing different English translations is much less direct and adds another layer of indeterminacy.

Crasshopper (talk) 06:12, 23 August 2012 (UTC)

Luke 19:27
"This verse makes it more clear regarding the sword, Jesus clearly says (New International Version ©1984) But those enemies of mine who did not want me to be king over them--bring them here and kill them in front of me.'" (Luke 19:27)"

Jesus is telling a parable, and it's a character in the parable who uses those words.

"11 While they were listening to this, he went on to tell them a parable, because he was near Jerusalem and the people thought that the kingdom of God was going to appear at once. 12 He said: “A man of noble birth went to a distant country to have himself appointed king and then to return. 13 So he called ten of his servants and gave them ten minas. ‘Put this money to work,’ he said, ‘until I come back.’

14 “But his subjects hated him and sent a delegation after him to say, ‘We don’t want this man to be our king.’

15 “He was made king, however, and returned home. Then he sent for the servants to whom he had given the money, in order to find out what they had gained with it.

16 “The first one came and said, ‘Sir, your mina has earned ten more.’ 17 “ ‘Well done, my good servant!’ his master replied. ‘Because you have been trustworthy in a very small matter, take charge of ten cities.’

18 “The second came and said, ‘Sir, your mina has earned five more.’

19 “His master answered, ‘You take charge of five cities.’

20 “Then another servant came and said, ‘Sir, here is your mina; I have kept it laid away in a piece of cloth. 21 I was afraid of you, because you are a hard man. You take out what you did not put in and reap what you did not sow.’

22 “His master replied, ‘I will judge you by your own words, you wicked servant! You knew, did you, that I am a hard man, taking out what I did not put in, and reaping what I did not sow? 23 Why then didn’t you put my money on deposit, so that when I came back, I could have collected it with interest?’

24 “Then he said to those standing by, ‘Take his mina away from him and give it to the one who has ten minas.’

25 “ ‘Sir,’ they said, ‘he already has ten!’

26 “He replied, ‘I tell you that to everyone who has, more will be given, but as for the one who has nothing, even what they have will be taken away. 27 But those enemies of mine who did not want me to be king over them—bring them here and kill them in front of me.’ ”

I haven't edited the text, just providing some context I think is important. SicTim (talk) 17:57, 16 July 2013 (UTC)

Why not divide the article in two sections with...
Why not divide the article in two sections with the first one presenting arguments about the violent viewpoint and the other talking about the apologetic one? It would certainly be better, mainly because the article is about a wildly-discussed topic. In addition, it is uncyclopedic to spam the article with the apologetic version and ignoring the other points of views.

--90.149.188.205 (talk) 21:28, 20 November 2013 (UTC)

Original research
From what I can see this article is almost entirely OR and should be pared back to a stub until proper sources can be found to support a start quality article. (The Bible is not a reliable source for this content.) It seems editors here have continued piling more OR on top of what's there already rather than finding sources that would address the refimprove and OR tags that have been posted since 2007 and 2009. If a clarification of what constitutes OR would be useful, I'll do my best to provide it. Joja lozzo  21:00, 10 January 2014 (UTC)

IMHO, WP:NOR is a good defense tactic, for WP-defending NOR warriors, and for mature articles' defenses. It is not a good reason to delete an article with such a widely discussed, perennial topic. Rather let it grow and compete and merge with
 * The Bible and violence
 * Christianity and violence
 * Live by the sword, die by the sword
 * Sell your cloak and buy a sword

There are over 900 articles in 2007 and over 1700 articles with "May contain Original Research" tags currently on the wiki. Is our article being singled out as an general example for them, by "paring it back to a stub"? Or is there a specific passage you wish to point out?

I hope you understand, I'm only trying defend, in general, my initial weeks long effort. I eventually added one cite (from a bible.com scholar). (You removed another cite by a relevant remark concerning ridiculous literalistic interpretations.) I improved the "pile of quotations" style that had crept back in. In general, much of what was "pared back to a stub" by Editor2020 (see next discussion) contain my thought, but it did not qualify, in general, as violating NP:NOR. So in general, I say no. But in particular I am very open to saying yes after reasonable criticism and discussion. Thanks. — Cp i r al  Cpiral  06:49, 12 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Sorry, I do not understand your first sentence.
 * I mean that although a few seasoned WP:NOR practitioners could cleanup ALL NOR-tagged articles in defense of Wikipedia's stature, or one amateurish WP:NOR "call" could stave off a watched article's contamination, that neither applied here. It already had WP:NOR tags. (As you know those are common growing pains for the start class.) It had other problems that started my involvement which I was defending.

 * I do understand that you recently spent weeks entering unsourced (therefore very likely OR) content here. Please do not continue entering anything that is not sourced. Most of what you have added appears to be your own interpretation of scripture. If it's not, whose interpretation is it and why didn't you include the sources.
 * Well, I've just finished studying about 140 pp. of scholarly material (you'll see), and intend to slowly incorporate only sourced material. It is important to note that much of my educated guessing is now cite-able, but then I knew that as I appealed for more time.
 * In my opinion filling in educated guesses just to create flow is as important a growth process as deciding where a missing scholarly fact needs to go, once it is discovered. When the inline citation tags are removable, then the NOR is given citation needed tags, then is finally removed, but not until then.  This assumes active work and active watching. Cheers. —  Cp i r al  Cpiral  06:12, 23 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Per your question whether the number of other similarly tagged articles means this article is being singled out, please read WP:OTHERSTUFF.
 * Thanks for that.

 * I am happy to see some sources have been added. That suggests progress, indicates an ability to find sources and reinforces the identification of remaining unsourced content as OR. Joja  lozzo  20:40, 13 January 2014 (UTC)

Gutted article
About the recent edits made by Editor2020, please, let us make one cut at a time, and then the additions. I added one edit at a time, carefully, over many weeks. At first I proceeded cautiously, knowing Editor2020's presence and editing style.

After three weeks attending to the article, I felt Editor2020 was accepting my good faith edits the same way I accepted Jojalozzo's cut.

The amount of material that was recently removed was excessive. The version that was leftover, with its "massive 19 minute rewrite effort", I had issues with.— Cp i r al  Cpiral  05:27, 12 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Did I reach too far? At least I didn't strip it to a stub, as suggested above. Sorry, I'll try to do it step at a time. Editor2020 (talk) 05:34, 12 January 2014 (UTC)
 * He, he. Thank you. — Cp i r al  Cpiral  07:41, 12 January 2014 (UTC)

 * I see that you're right about violence begets violence and the synoptic problem being poor seed, and I am happy to see them rooted out by you, Editor2020. — Cp i r al  Cpiral  07:55, 12 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Woah, fellas. What happened here?  This page has clearly been steralized by somebody with an agenda.  There used to be so much info on 10:34, not it's just a confusing sub-heading that minimizes its importance.  Are we okay with people with agendas monkeying with the repository of human knowledge? DigitalPants (talk) 08:03, 8 February 2019 (UTC)

The part about Richard Dawkins' views
I think the part about Richard Dawkins' views are entirely unrelated to the topic of wiki article.

GreenOrca (talk) 16:45, 18 January 2014 (UTC)

 * I agree. Someone with militant atheist views is not going to provide much of value in the discussion other than representing the most extreme viewpoint. He is also not, to my knowledge, a subject matter expert in the Bible or Christianity. 173.2.236.247 (talk) 19:33, 30 September 2015 (UTC)

what the heck?
I have never seen such a blatant violation of WP:OR and WP:NOT! We don't do essays in mainspace. I merged what was useable to The Bible and violence. I suggest that anybody who cares about this idea develop actual Wikipedia content (you know, sourced, NPOV, reflecting what mainstream authorities say, and not what pops out of some editor's head) in that article, and if it becomes big enough that it needs splitting out, we can re-fill this article with the split-off content. Happy to discuss, over there. Jytdog (talk) 02:09, 2 September 2014 (UTC)

What happened to this article?
Why was this article gutted of content? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.192.103.31 (talk) 21:11, 28 September 2016 (UTC)
 * The content that was removed was unsourced original research. Content in Wikipedia needs to be sourced from reliable sources - it cannot be editors' reflections on anything. Jytdog (talk) 01:33, 29 September 2016 (UTC)
 * I fixed it a little. Right now this is at least brief and understandable. The sourcing could be a lot better, but I do not have time. My very best wishes (talk) 20:50, 19 March 2017 (UTC)

Context: "variance"
This verse is in the context of the subject "variance" ("division"), and should not be detached therefrom.

Also, whether the "peace", or "sword" is "sent" or "brought" is irrelevant to the moral of the passage. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 174.118.60.146 (talk) 12:38, 14 January 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Not peace, but a sword


text:
Filefish

The filefish (Monacanthidae) are a diverse family of tropical to subtropical tetraodontiform marine fish, which are also known as foolfish, leatherjackets or shingles. They live in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans. Filefish are closely related to triggerfish, pufferfish and trunkfish.

The filefish family comprises approximately 102 species in 27 genera. More than half of the species are found in Australian waters, with 58 species in 23 genera.

Their laterally compressed bodies and rough, sandpapery skin inspired the filefish's common name.

Description
Appearing very much like their close relatives the triggerfish, filefish are rhomboid-shaped, with beautifully elaborate cryptic patterns. Deeply keeled bodies give a false impression of size when the fish are viewed facing the flanks. Filefish have soft, simple fins, with comparatively small pectoral fins and truncated, fan-shaped tail fins; a slender, retractable spine crowns the head. Although there are usually two of these spines, the second spine is greatly reduced, being used only to lock the first spine in the erect position. That gives rise to the family name Monacanthidae, from the Greek monos meaning "one" and akantha meaning "thorn". Some species also have recurved spines on the base of the tail (caudal peduncle).

The small terminal mouths of filefish have specialized incisor teeth on the upper and lower jaw. In the upper jaw there are four teeth in the inner series and six in the outer series. In the lower jaw, there are four to six in an outer series only. The snout is tapered and projecting and the eyes are located high on the head. Filefish have rough non-overlapping scales with small spikes, which is why they are called filefish. Although scaled, some filefish have such small scales that they appear scaleless. Like the triggerfish, filefish have small gill openings and greatly elongated pelvic bones, creating a "dewlap" of skin running between the bone's sharply keeled termination and the belly. The pelvis is articulated with other bones of the "pelvic girdle" and is capable of moving upwards and downwards in many species to form a large dewlap, which is used to make the fish appear much deeper in the body than is actually the case. Some filefish erect the dorsal spine and pelvis simultaneously to make it more difficult for a predator to remove them from a cave.

The largest filefish species is the scrawled filefish (Aluterus scriptus) at up to 110 cm in length. Most species are less than 60 cm in length. There is marked sexual dimorphism in some species, with the sexes possessing different coloration, different body shapes, and the males with larger caudal spines and bristles.

Habitat and life history

Adult filefish are generally shallow water fish, inhabiting depths of no more than about 30 metres. They may be found in lagoons or associated with seaward reefs and seagrass beds; some species may also enter estuaries. Some species are closely associated with dense mats of sargassum, a particularly ubiquitous "sea weed"; these filefish, notably the planehead filefish (Stephanolepis hispidus) are also coloured and patterned to match their weedy environments.

Either solitary, in pairs or small groups depending on the species, filefish are not terribly good swimmers; their small fins confine the fish to a sluggish gait. Filefish are often observed drifting head downward amongst stands of seaweed, presumably in an effort to fool both predator and prey alike. When threatened, filefish may retreat into crevices in the reef.

The feeding habits of filefish vary among the species, with some eating only algae and seagrass; others also eat small benthic invertebrates, such as tunicates, gorgonians, and hydrozoans; and some species eat corals (corallivores). It is the latter two habits which have largely precluded the introduction of filefish into the aquarium hobby.

Filefish spawn at bottom sites prepared and guarded by the males; both he and the female may guard the brood, or the male alone, depending on the species. The young filefish are pelagic; that is, they frequent open water. Sargassum provides a safe retreat for many species, both fish and weed being at the current's mercy. Juvenile filefish are at risk from predation by tuna and dolphinfish.

Filefish as food
In FAO fisheries statistics, the largest category of filefish are Cantherhines spp. with annual landings around 200,000 tonnes in recent years, mostly by China. Landings of threadsail filefish (Stephanolepis cirrhifer) and smooth leatherjacket (Meuschenia scaber) are reported at species level, with the rest as "Filefishes, leatherjackets nei" (nei=not elsewhere included).

Threadsail Filefish (Stephanolepis cirrhifer) is a popular snack food in Korea. It is typically dried and made into a sweet and salty jerky called jwipo (쥐포), which is then roasted before eating.

Genera

 * Acanthaluteres
 * Acreichthys
 * Aluterus
 * Amanses
 * Anacanthus
 * Arotrolepis
 * Brachaluteres
 * Cantherhines
 * Cantheschenia
 * Chaetodermis
 * Colurodontis
 * Enigmacanthus
 * Eubalichthys
 * Lalmohania
 * Meuschenia
 * Monacanthus
 * Navodon
 * Nelusetta
 * Oxymonacanthus
 * Paraluteres
 * Paramonacanthus
 * Pervagor
 * Pseudalutarius
 * Pseudomonacanthus
 * Rudarius
 * Scobinichthys
 * Stephanolepis
 * Thamnaconus

title: Filefish


text:
List of subcamps of Mittelbau

The list of subcamps of Mittelbau identifies locations of Konzentrationslager (concentration camp) Mittelbau (Central Construction). The location of the KZ Mittelbau headquarters was originally only the Block 17/3 Buchenwald subcamp, but at the end of September 1944 the SS administration ordered the camp to become the center of a complex separate from the Buchenwald concentration camp. KZ Mittelbau became operational on November 1, 1944 with 32,471 prisoners.

 * 1) Alfred
 * 2) Artern
 * 3) Ballenstedt
 * 4) Blankenburg
 * 5) Dora
 * 6) Ellrich
 * 7) Großwerther
 * 8) Harzungen
 * 9) Hohlstedt
 * 10) Ilfield
 * 11) Ilsenburg
 * 12) Kelbra
 * 13) Kleinbodungen
 * 14) Langenstein-Zwieberge
 * 15) Niedersachswerfen
 * 16) Nordhausen (Boelcke-Kaserne)
 * 17) Osterode am Harz
 * 18) Rossla
 * 19) Rottleberode
 * 20) Salza/Thüringen
 * 21) Sangerhausen
 * 22) Sollstedt
 * 23) Wieda
 * 24) Woffleben

 * Construction labor teams that detained Poles
 * 1) Baubrigade 4
 * 2) Baubrigade 7
 * 3) Baubrigade I
 * 4) Baubrigade III
 * 5) Baubrigade IV
 * 6) Baubrigade V - West
 * 7) Baubrigade VI

title: List of subcamps of Mittelbau


text:
Maine (river)

The Maine is a river, a tributary of the Loire, 11.5 km long, in the Maine-et-Loire département in France.

It is formed by the confluence of the Mayenne and Sarthe rivers north of Angers. It flows through this city and joins the Loire southwest of Angers.

The river's name is derived from the ancient Meodena, as is Mayenne, and is unrelated to Maine, the province.

title: Maine (river)


text:
Afro-Cuban All Stars

Afro-Cuban All Stars is a Cuban band led by Juan de Marcos González. Their music is a mix of all the styles of Cuban music, including bolero, chachachá, salsa, son montuno, timba, guajira, danzón, rumba and abakua.

They are known internationally for their 1997 album A Toda Cuba le Gusta, which was recorded at the Buena Vista Social Club sessions. Members have included Rubén González, Orlando "Cachaíto" López, Ibrahim Ferrer, Raúl Planas, Pío Leyva, Manuel "Puntillita" Licea, Félix Baloy, Yanko Pisaco and more recently Caridad Hierrezuelo and Pedro Calvo.

History
In early 1996 Nick Gold, head of World Circuit Records, invited Ry Cooder to participate in an experiment combining Cuban and African musicians. A group of Cuban musicians had already been assembled, including Rubén González as the pianist. However, since the African musicians had experienced difficulties in obtaining visas, the focus changed to recording Cuban music instead.

In March 1996, Gold and Juan de Marcos González (previously the tres player of Sierra Maestra) produced A Toda Cuba le Gusta, the first album by the Afro-Cuban All Stars. It was recorded at the EGREM Studios in Havana and featured Rubén González (piano), Orlando "Cachaíto" López (bass), and a big band of veteran Cuban musicians and singers, most of whom had careers that went back to the 1950s Havana scene: Ibrahim Ferrer, Pío Leyva, Manuel 'Puntillita' Licea, Raúl Planas, Félix Baloy, and José Antonio "Maceo" Rodríguez. Cooder also played slide guitar on one track, "Alto Songo". In the sleeve notes, de Marcos González, who directed the project and played tres, wrote: "This album is dedicated to Rubén González, genius of Cuban piano".

During follow-on sessions also held at EGREM Studios in March 1996, Cooder then produced the Grammy winning Buena Vista Social Club, featuring Rubén González (piano), Compay Segundo, Ibrahim Ferrer, Omara Portuondo and Eliades Ochoa, supported by much of the same band that had recorded the Afro-Cuban All Stars album, and with Juan de Marcos González now acting as A & R Consultant. Cooder played guitars on all but one track.

Finally, in April 1996 and using left over studio time after the sessions that had produced the previous two albums, the solo album Introducing...Rubén González was recorded in just two days, live with no overdubs. On the album's outer cover, Cooder is quoted as saying: "The greatest piano soloist I have ever heard in my entire life. A Cuban cross between Thelonious Monk and Felix the Cat". All three albums were released on Nick Gold's World Circuit Records in 1997. In early 1998, Wim Wenders filmed a documentary entitled Buena Vista Social Club, and the entire group of Cuban artists became famous worldwide.

Discography

 * A Toda Cuba le Gusta (1997)
 * Distinto, Diferente (1999)
 * Baila mi Son (Featuring Felix Baloy) (2000)
 * Bajando Gervasio (Featuring Amadito Valdes) (2002)
 * Live in Japan (2005)
 * Step Forward (2005)
 * Absolutely Live (2009)
 * Absolutely Live II (2017)

title: Afro-Cuban All Stars