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House of Commons of Northern Ireland

The House of Commons of Northern Ireland was the lower house of the Parliament of Northern Ireland created under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The upper house in the bicameral parliament was called the Senate. It was abolished with the passing of the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973.

Membership
The House of Commons had a membership of 52. Until 1969, 48 were from territorial constituencies and 4 were for graduates of The Queen's University of Belfast; in that year the QUB seats were abolished and four extra territorial constituencies created on the outskirts of Belfast, where the population had grown. For the electoral constituencies used, see Northern Ireland Parliament constituencies.

Functions
The House of Commons fulfilled the normal lower house functions to be found in the Westminster System of Government. Its roles were

 * to grant Supply to the Government;
 * to grant to or withdraw confidence from the Government;
 * to provide a talent bank from which members of the Government could be chosen. The Prime Minister of Northern Ireland was chosen from its ranks by the Governor of Northern Ireland.

Electoral system
The Government of Ireland Act required that elections to the House of Commons be by the Single Transferable Vote (STV) electoral system first introduced in Ireland by the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1919. Its inclusion in the 1920 Government of Ireland Act was deliberate. It was intended to provide electoral opportunities for non-Unionists. (A similar legal requirement had been set for Northern Ireland's sister state, the non-operative Southern Ireland, and also existed in the Irish Free State).

Under the Act the Parliament of Northern Ireland was given the legislative power to alter the electoral system from three years after its first meeting. The use of STV was criticised strongly among the grassroots of the governing Ulster Unionist Party, who viewed it as "unbritish" (apart from four university constituencies, the rest of the United Kingdom used First Past the Post). The loss of eight seats by the UUP in the second parliamentary election caused a major row within the party. Rather than deal with questions as to why it faced declining popularity the party replaced STV by the non-proportional (and so less helpful to minorities) First Past the Post. However STV was retained for the election of the 4 MPs from Queens University.

The Opposition
The creation of Northern Ireland had been opposed both by many Unionists and all Nationalists, all of whom, like Unionist leader Sir Edward Carson, were opposed to the Partition of Ireland. While Unionists within Northern Ireland became reconciled to their form of home rule, Nationalists remained alienated from the structures of the state and pursued an abstentionist policy. The Nationalist Party, the main Nationalist party in Northern Ireland, which claimed descent from the pre-partition Irish Parliamentary Party, boycotted the Parliament entirely until 1925, and individual members boycotted at points thereafter. Other parties, notably the Northern Ireland Labour Party, did however take their seats. The absence of the main opposition party from parliament led to accusations of in effect "one party rule".

For many years the most effective opposition came from various independent Unionists, most notably Tommy Henderson (served 1925–1953) who was famous for his near ten hour speech on the Appropriation Bill in May 1936.

Procedure
In most of its activities the House of Commons deliberately used the same procedure as the Parliament of the United Kingdom at Westminster. Each Parliament opened with a King's (or Queen's) Speech, though only King George V in 1921 gave it in person. From 1922 the Speech from the Throne was delivered by the Governor of Northern Ireland. The Governor was the Crown's representative who formally summoned and prorogued Parliament. The Parliament emulated some of the more bizarre traditions, such as giving a First Reading to the Outlawries Bill immediately after the Speech from the Throne as a token gesture of defiance of Royal authority. The same sessional orders were then agreed relating to members returned for two constituencies.

Ministers spoke from a dispatch box in a chamber modelled on the British House of Commons chamber; though notably the benches and fixtures of the chamber were blue, rather than green. As at Westminster, members referred to each other in debate as "the honourable Member for the (X) division". Bills, introduced either in the Senate or the House of Commons, had to pass through First Reading, Second Reading, Committee Stage, and Third Reading in both Houses to become law. With a very strict divorce law, the Parliament was often asked to deal with private bills promoted by divorcing couples. Because of the much smaller size of the House, only one member was required to act as a teller for each side during a division and they were counted among those voting in the division. The Parliament established virtually the same parliamentary and committee structure as Westminster.

However, the minimal workload of Parliament, and the small number of bills that required passage, meant that Parliament could hold short sessions and meet for short working hours. The workload was so small that future Prime Minister Terence O'Neill later revealed that then Prime Minister Lord Brookeborough did not even have a desk in his de facto residence, Stormont House. (Stormont House was nominally the residence of the Speaker of the House of Commons, but as speakers chose to live elsewhere, Prime Ministers used it as their residence, and turned their official residence, Stormont Castle, into an office for their senior civil servants.)

Venue
The first assembly of the House of Commons occurred in Belfast City Hall in June 1921. King George V gave a famed address where he called for reconciliation between Irish people and for Northern Ireland to be free of discrimination against the minority.

For its first decade, Parliament met in the Presbyterian College, close to the City Hall, while new Parliament Buildings was built in East Belfast at a place called Stormont. The foundation stone at Stormont was laid by The 3rd Duke of Abercorn, 1st Governor of Northern Ireland, in the late 1920s. However, the Wall Street Crash undermined the financial viability of the building project. Plans were scaled back, with plans for a ministerial building and a court building on site being abandoned. The main building was also changed, with plans for a United States Capitol-style dome being abandoned, leaving a plainer neoclassical structure. The new Parliament Buildings was officially opened by The Prince of Wales in 1932.

The House of Commons and Senate chambers were located across the Central Hall (nowadays usually known as the Great Hall) from each other, replicating the link between the House of Commons and British House of Lords in Westminster. Between them hung a large chandelier from Windsor Castle which had been given to the King by his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, but had been put in storage during the First World War and remained so until given to Stormont.

Fathers of the House
The Parliament of Northern Ireland, including the House of Commons of Northern Ireland, was prorogued in 1972 and abolished completely in 1973 leaving the title of Father of the House defunct.

The end
Northern Ireland was dogged by allegations of Unionist misrule, and political gerrymandering at local government level, during the 1960s. At this time there was increasing demand for civil rights, voiced primarily by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association, allegations of police misbehaviour by the Royal Ulster Constabulary and ultimately the outbreak of The Troubles. In 1972, using its legal powers under the Government of Ireland Act the British government prorogued (suspended) the Northern Ireland Parliament and Government initially for a year, before in 1973 abolishing it entirely with the passing of the Northern Ireland Constitution Act 1973. The Parliament last sat on 28 March 1972.

Parliament Buildings are now the seat of the Northern Ireland Assembly, a successor legislature.

title: House of Commons of Northern Ireland


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Smith County

Smith County is the name of four counties in the United States:

 * Smith County, Kansas
 * Smith County, Mississippi
 * Smith County, Tennessee
 * Smith County, Texas

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Smith County


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Sweet Grass Creek

Sweet Grass Creek is a tributary of the Yellowstone River, approximately 50 mi (80 km) long, in south central Montana in the United States.

It rises in the Gallatin National Forest, in the Crazy Mountains in eastern Park County. It flows northeast, into Sweet Grass County, then southeast, past Melville, and south, joining the Yellowstone 2 mi (3 km) northwest of Greycliff.

Variant names
Sweet Grass Creek has also been known as: Otter River.

title: Sweet Grass Creek


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Lake Park

Several places are known as Lake Park:

Canada

 * Burns Lake Park
 * Como Lake Park (British Columbia)

Malaysia

 * Raub Lake Park

South Korea

 * Gwanggyo Lake Park

 * Ilsan Lake Park
 * Seokchon Lake Park
 * Seonam Lake Park
 * West Seoul Lake Park

United Kingdom

 * Boating Lake Park

United States

 * Beaver Lake Park (Washington)
 * Bradley Lake Park
 * Brushy Lake Park
 * Burke Lake Park
 * Chippewa Lake Park
 * Clearlake Park, California
 * Clear Lake State Park (California)
 * Clear Lake State Park (Michigan)
 * Clove Lakes Park
 * Como Lake Park
 * Conneaut Lake Park
 * Crooked Lake Park, Florida
 * Crystal Lake Park, Missouri
 * Hilltop Lake Park
 * Lake Park Estates, Dallas
 * Lake Park (California) adjacent to Sofi Stadium
 * Lake Park, Florida
 * Lake Park, Georgia
 * Lake Park High School, Roselle, Illinois
 * Lake Park, Indiana
 * Lake Park, Iowa
 * Lake Park, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, urban park designed by Frederick Law Olmsted
 * Lake Park, Minnesota
 * Lake Park, North Carolina
 * Lake Park Township, Becker County, Minnesota
 * Leisure Village West-Pine Lake Park, New Jersey
 * Lettuce Lake Park
 * Moon Lake Park
 * Mountain Lake Park (San Francisco)
 * Mountain Lake Park, Maryland
 * Onondaga Lake Park
 * Penn Lake Park, Pennsylvania
 * Pine Lake Park, New Jersey
 * Round Lake Park, Illinois
 * Ruffey Lake Park
 * Salmon Lake Park
 * Sawgrass Lake Park
 * Scriber Lake Park
 * Shady Lake Park
 * Spring Lake Park (Illinois)
 * Summit Lake Park
 * Swan Lake Park
 * Zorinsky Lake Park
 * Lake Park, original name of Grant Park (Chicago)
 * Lake Park, name sometimes applied to the Union Base-Ball Grounds of the 1870s and 1880s in Chicago
 * Lake Park, part of the Des Plaines, Illinois Park District, with Lake Opeka as its highlight

title: Lake Park


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Talk:Sedna (mythology)

Quiquern
In Rudyard Kipling's The Second Jungle Book story Quiquern, he says this:

Now Sedna is the Mistress of the Underworld, and the Inuit believe that every one who dies must spend a year in her horrible country before going to Quadliparmiut, the Happy Place, where it never freezes and the fat reindeer trot up when you call.

agb 143.43.158.178 (talk) 15:30, 24 October 2023 (UTC)

 * What's your point? How does that add to the article? CambridgeBayWeather (solidly non-human), Uqaqtuq (talk), Huliva 18:59, 29 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Sedna (mythology)


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Climate of Mumbai

The climate of Mumbai is tropical, with defined wet and dry seasons (Köppen: Aw/Am). The mean annual temperature is 27.7 °C. Average annual rainfall is 2213.4 mm in Colaba, which represents South Mumbai and 2502.3 mm in Santacruz, which represents central and suburban Mumbai. The mean maximum average temperatures is about 32 °C in summer and 30 °C in winter, while the average minimums are 26 °C in summer and 18 °C in winter. The city experiences a lengthy, practically rainless dry season, and a relatively short, but extremely rainy wet season; due to the Southwest Monsoon and orographic influences from the nearby Western Ghats.

Monthly breakdown of climate
The following is the monthly breakdown of the weather in Mumbai.

January
January is the coolest month of the year for Mumbai with the mean daily minimum being 16.4 °C and the mean daily maximum being 30.1 °C. The nightly lows may vary between 13 °C and 20 °C. Chilly northern winds during the day make the city seem cooler than it is. Generally, clear skies, with some smog – especially in the early morning – are the norm. The days are dry, the nights relatively humid. January is also associated with the deciduous trees in the city shedding their leaves. 26–27 January 2008 recorded a minimum temperature of 10.2 °C, which is the lowest recorded in 45 years. The lowest recorded temperature is 7.4 °C (45.3 °F) on 22 January 1962 which was the coldest day in Mumbai. Coastal areas are relatively cooler during the day, but they are warmer at night.

February
The fine January weather continues for the first fortnight of February. The mean daily minimum stays at 17.3 °C and the mean daily maximum is 31.3 °C with some possibility of unseasonable showers. Smog increases. 6 February 2008 recorded a minimum temperature of 9.4 °C. Just two days later, on 8 February, the minimum temperature recorded was 8.5 °C, which was the lowest temperature Mumbai had seen since January 1962.

March
The month of March sees a mean minimum temp of 20.6 °C and a mean maximum temp of 32.7 °C. During the transition from dry to humid weather in mid-March, the temperature might hit 38 to 40 °C. This high, however, is due to hot dry winds from Gujarat. By mid-March the temperatures may hit 37 °C, with the lows at 24 °C. Humidity is unbearable, and smog affects the city. New leaves sprout from deciduous trees. The all-time high day temperature for March was recorded in 2018 at 41.7 °C.

April
The temperatures and humidity are still high. However, the cooling effect of the sea breezes makes its presence felt. The high temperature stays around 35.1 °C and daily lows are around 23.2 °C. Plants are in full bloom in April.

May
May is the hottest month of the year for Mumbai with the cool sea breezes providing some relief. The daily maximum hovers around 34.5 °C and the daily low is 29.1 °C.

June
June marks the beginning of the monsoon period in Mumbai. The beginning of the month is characterized by a continuation of the summer with increased humidity. The official date for the monsoon to hit the city is 10 June. This period is marked by thunderstorms and often windy conditions as the monsoon establishes itself over the city. Rainfall activity intensifies as the month goes on, leading into the wettest month, July. The max and min mean daily temperatures are measured at 31.9 °C/26.6 °C.

July
In this month the city receives the maximum amount of rain. July and August are characterized by almost non-stop rain and weeks of no sunshine. A continuous monsoon current covers the entire western coast of India during this period. Rainfall activity is less stormy and more constant with a relatively constant breeze from the West or South West. It is not uncommon for parts of the city to be waterlogged during periods of persistent heavy rain. This affects the city's public transport system often leading to long delays. During periods of severe precipitation, the city's commuter rail system is often suspended because of water logging and poor visibility.

The average maximum temperature for the month is around 29.8 °C with the average minimum at 25.5 °C. Average monthly rainfall is 919.9 mm in Santacruz and 768.5 mm in Colaba. The highest 24-hour rainfall in the history of Mumbai was recorded at the Santacruz observatory of the India Meteorological Department on 26 July 2005. On this day, a record 944 mm rainfall fell over the city, causing large-scale flooding, claiming several lives and causing large-scale property damage.

August
The weather in August is almost identical to July. Towards the latter half of the month, rainfall activity tends to lessen. The coolest days of the monsoon season are often in August. The max temperature might drop to 29.3 °C during the day and 24.5 °C at night.

September
In September the intensity of rainfall decreases. The monsoons officially end in the 3rd week of September. September has unsettled weather. The rainfall is short and light and is not continuous. The end of the monsoon, much like the beginning can feature heavy thunderstorms associated with the withdrawal of the monsoon current from the city and surrounding areas. The mean maximum daily temperatures reach 30.1 °C while daily mean minimum temperature stays at 24.0 °C.

October
In the month of October, the mean daily maximum stays at around 32.9 °C and the mean daily minimum stays at 23.1 °C making it hot during the days and relatively mild during the nights.

November
The temperature continues to drop slowly in the month of November with the mean daily minimum staying at 20.5 °C and the mean daily maximum staying around 33.4 °C. There are a few unseasonable showers.

December
The day highs hover around 32.4 °C. The nights average around 18.2 °C. Humidity is low in December.

Climate change
As climate change and global warming are issues of rapidly increasing importance, the Mumbai Government launched the Mumbai Climate Action Plan to tackle climate change and extreme weather events.

Cyclones in Mumbai
Sitting on the coast, Mumbai is vulnerable to cyclones, but as the cyclones in the Arabian Sea turn to the Arabian Peninsula or Gujarat, Mumbai stands less affected. Cyclones that have affected Mumbai include 1618, 1698, 1702, 1740, 1742, 1762, 1799, 1854, 1882 (Which is believed to be a hoax), 1891 1940 1948, Cyclone Phyan, Cyclone Ockhi, Cyclone Vayu, Cyclone Nisarga, and Cyclone Tauktae.

The strongest cyclone ever recorded to hit Mumbai is the 1948 Mumbai Cyclone, which hit the city on November 21, 1948. Gusts in Juhu reached 151 km/h, torrential rains lashed the city reaching 5 inches in only 24 hours. Flooding occurred due to heavy rains, the city power supply was disrupted. The cyclone left 38 people dead and 47 missing, Local transport came to a standstill

In recent times, Cyclone Tauktae battered Mumbai, reaching gusts of 114 km/h with heavy rains. The storm was catastrophic, and flight operations at Mumbai's Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj International Airport halted for hours due to the cyclone.

title: Climate of Mumbai


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User talk:Dorfen

Hello, and welcome to Wikipedia! Nice job on Danderyd and Djursholm. Good job also on the uploaded images Image:Djursholmsslott.png and Image:Djursholmskapell.png, however photographs should be uploaded in JPEG format in order to conserve space. Re-uploading them in the correct format will reduce them to about a tenth of their current size. If you have any general questions you should also feel free to visit the Village pump. Cheers! -- Mic 18:22, Mar 18, 2004 (UTC)

Unverified images
Hi! Thanks for uploading the following image:

 * Image:Djursholmsslott.jpg

I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GNU Free Documentation License,  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know at my talk page where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much. [[User:Poccil|Peter O. (Talk, automation script)]] 05:55, Dec 11, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. You can help tag other images at User:Yann/Untagged_Images. Thanks again.

India project
=Nichalp  «Talk»=  09:03, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

AfD nomination of List of states and territories of India (population, area, languages)
List of states and territories of India (population, area, languages), an article you created, has been nominated for deletion. We appreciate your contributions. However, an editor does not feel that List of states and territories of India (population, area, languages) satisfies Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion and has explained why in the nomination space (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and the Wikipedia deletion policy). Your opinions on the matter are welcome; please participate in the discussion by adding your comments at Articles for deletion/List of states and territories of India (population, area, languages) and please be sure to sign your comments with four tildes ( ~ ). You are free to edit the content of List of states and territories of India (population, area, languages) during the discussion but should not remove the articles for deletion template from the top of the article; such removal will not end the deletion discussion. Thank you. aJC freak y A k  09:57, 2 October 2007 (UTC)

title: User talk:Dorfen


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Multipactor effect

The multipactor effect is a phenomenon in radio-frequency (RF) amplifier vacuum tubes and waveguides, where, under certain conditions, secondary electron emission in resonance with an alternating electromagnetic field leads to exponential electron multiplication, possibly damaging and even destroying the RF device.

Description
The multipactor effect occurs when electrons accelerated by radio-frequency (RF) fields are self-sustained in a vacuum (or near vacuum) via an electron avalanche caused by secondary electron emission. The impact of an electron to a surface can, depending on its energy and angle, release one or more secondary electrons into the vacuum. These electrons can then be accelerated by the RF fields and impact with the same or another surface. Should the impact energies, number of electrons released, and timing of the impacts be such that a sustained multiplication of the number of electrons occurs, the phenomenon can grow exponentially and may lead to operational problems of the RF system such as damage of RF components or loss or distortion of the RF signal.

Mechanism
The mechanism of multipactor depends on the orientation of an RF electric field with respect to the surface as well as the magnetic field and its orientation. There are two types of multipactor: two-surface multipactor on metals and single-surface multipactor on metal or dielectrics.

Two-surface multipactor on metals
This is a multipactor effect that occurs in the gap between metallic electrodes. Often, an RF electric field is normal to the surface. A resonance between electron flight time and RF field cycle is a mechanism for multipactor development.

The existence of multipactor is dependent on the following three conditions being met: The average number of electrons released is greater than or equal to one per incident electron (this is dependent on the secondary electron yield of the surface), and the time taken by the electron to travel from the surface from which it was released to the surface it impacts is an integer multiple of one half of the RF period, and the average secondary electron yield is greater than or equal to one.

Single-surface multipactor
The multipactor effect can take place on a single surface when magnetic fields are taken into account. A single-surface multipactor event is also possible on a metallic surface in the presence of a crossed static magnetic field. It may also occur on a dielectric surface, where often an RF electric field is parallel to the surface. The positive charge accumulated on the dielectric surface attracts electrons back to the surface.

Frequency-gap product in two-surface multipactor
The conditions under which multipactor will occur in two surface multipactor can be described by a quantity called the frequency-gap product. Consider a two surface setup with the following definitions:
 * $$ d $$, distance or gap between the surfaces
 * $$ \omega $$, angular frequency of the RF field
 * $$ V_0 $$, peak plate-to-plate RF voltage
 * $$ E_0 $$, peak electric field between the surfaces, equal to $$V_0$$/$$d$$.

The RF voltage varies sinusoidally. Consider the time at which the voltage at electrode A passes through 0 and starts to become negative. Assuming that there is at least 1 free electron near A, that electron will begin to accelerate to the right toward electrode B. It will continue to accelerate and reach a maximum velocity half a cycle later, just as the voltage at electrode B begins to become negative. If the electron(s) from electrode A strike electrode B at this time and produce additional free electrons, these new free electrons will begin to accelerate toward electrode A. The process may then repeat causing multipactor. We now find the relationship between the plate spacing, RF frequency, and RF voltage that causes the strongest multipactor resonance.

Consider a point in time at which electrons have just collided with electrode A at position -d/2. The electric field is at zero and is beginning to point to the left so that the newly freed electrons are accelerated toward the right. Newton's equation of motion of the free electrons is
 * $$ a(t)=\frac{F(t)}{m} $$
 * $$ \ddot{x}(t) = \frac{qE_0}{m}~\sin(\omega t) $$

The solution to this differential equation is
 * $$ x(t) = -\frac{qE_0}{m \omega^2}\sin(\omega t) + \frac{qE_0}{m \omega}t - \frac{d}{2} $$

where it is assumed that when the electrons initially leave the electrode they have zero velocity. We know that resonance happens if the electrons arrive at the rightmost electrode after one half of the period of the RF field, $$ t_{\frac{1}{2}}=\frac{\pi}{\omega} $$. Plugging this into our solution for $$x(t)$$ we get
 * $$ x(t_{\frac{1}{2}}) = -\frac{qE_0}{m \omega^2}\sin(\omega t_{\frac{1}{2}}) + \frac{qE_0}{m \omega} t_{\frac{1}{2}} - \frac{d}{2} $$
 * $$ \frac{d}{2} = -\frac{qE_0}{m \omega^2}\sin(\omega \frac{\pi}{\omega}) + \frac{qE_0}{m \omega} \frac{\pi}{\omega} - \frac{d}{2} $$

Rearranging and using the frequency $$f$$ instead of the angular frequency gives
 * $$ fd = \frac{1}{2\sqrt\pi}\sqrt \frac{qV_0}{m}$$.

The product $$ fd $$ is called the frequency-gap product. Keep in mind that this equation is a criterion for greatest amount of resonance, but multipactor can still occur when this equation is not satisfied.

Effects of geometry
Multipacting depends on the geometry of the surface and the exact distribution of the electric and magnetic fields. There are a number of geometry-based techniques to reduce or even eliminate the multipactor effect: One is through small-scale grooves which modify the direction of the electric fields exactly at the location of the electron emission, thereby kicking some of the electrons to directions that do not support the process. Another approach is through large scale corrugations of the surface which periodically alter the time of flight of the electrons in two-point multipacting, thereby disrupting the multipactor resonance condition Then there are specific changes in the curvature of a cavity's surface that spoil the chances of the electrons to return to the point of origin or cavity-beam pipe transition surface. These various surface modifications techniques provide a powerful tool for the suppression of multipacting in various geometries.

History
This phenomenon was first observed by the French physicist Camille Gutton, in 1924, at Nancy.

Multipactor was identified and studied in 1934 by Philo Farnsworth, the inventor of electronic television, who attempted to take advantage of it as an amplifier. More commonly nowadays, it has become an obstacle to be avoided for normal operation of particle accelerators, vacuum electronics, radars, satellite communication devices, and so forth.

The first application of computers to investigate multipacting is from the early 1970s when it was discovered as a major SRF cavity performance limitation.

A novel form of multipactor has been proposed, and subsequently experimentally observed, in which charging of a dielectric surface considerably changes the dynamics of the multipactor discharge.

title: Multipactor effect


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Postage stamps and postal history of Australia

This is an overview of the postage stamps and postal history of Australia. encompassing some history of the Australian colonies and the main stamp issues that followed the takeover of the colonies as well as later issues and also an precis of the external territories.

Postal history
The six self-governing Australian colonies that formed the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901 operated their own postal service and issued their own stamps – see articles on the systems on New South Wales (first stamps issued 1850), Victoria (1850), Tasmania (1853), Western Australia (1854), South Australia (1855) and Queensland (1860). Section 51(v) of the Australian Constitution empowered the Commonwealth to make laws in respect of “postal, telegraphic, telephonic, and other like services”.

The Commonwealth created the Postmaster-General's Department on 1 March 1901, which took over all the colonial mail systems and the then-current colony stamps. These stamps continued to be valid and became de facto Commonwealth stamps. Some of these stamps continued to be used for some time following the introduction in 1913 of the Commonwealth's uniform postage stamp series. These stamps continued to be valid for postage until 14 February 1966 when the introduction of decimal currency invalidated all stamps bearing the earlier currency.

Circumstances precluded the immediate issue of a uniform Commonwealth postage stamp. But there was no hindrance in respect to a Postage Due series. The first of these, the design of which was based on the current New South Wales postage due stamps, was issued in July 1902.

Postal rates became uniform between the new states on 1 May 1911 because of the extension of the United Kingdom domestic postal rate of 1d per half ounce (Imperial Penny Post) to Australia as a member of the British Empire. One penny became the uniform domestic postage rate. One penny postcards and lettercards also appeared in 1911. In the same year, the Postmaster-General's Department held a stamp design competition for a uniform series of Commonwealth postage stamps. This competition attracted over one thousand entries.

The "Roo" stamp
The first definitive stamp inscribed "Australia" was a red 1d "Kangaroo and Map" stamp, the design of which was adopted in part from the entry that won the Stamp Design Competition. Although the delay between federation and the first stamps had several causes, one of the major reasons was political wrangling regarding the design. There was a considerable amount of opposition to any inclusion of British royal symbols or profiles.

A design completion was announced in 1911, and several designs, including royal profiles were chosen. The government decided on having only one design, and Charlie Frazer, then postmaster-general, inspired the basic outline of the new design. Blamire Young, a local watercolour artist, was commissioned to produce the final design.

The first definitive issue had fifteen stamps ranging in value from ½d to £2. The Kangaroo and Map design was ordered by the Fisher Labor Government, which had in its ranks a number of republicans who strenuously opposed the incorporation of the monarch's profile on Australian stamps. One of the first acts of the Cook Liberal Government, sworn in on 14 June 1913, was to order a series of postage stamps with the profile of George V. On 8 December 1913 the first of these, an engraved 1d carmine-red, appeared. Soon after, typographed values of the design ranging from ½d (halfpenny) to 1/4d (one shilling and four pence) appeared. The Postmaster-General's Department then went on to keep both basic designs on issue – 38 years for the Kangaroo and Map design, and 23 years for the George V (upon his death).

In about 1948, H. Dormer Legge published a study of these stamps, The Kangaroo Issues of the stamps of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Later definitive stamps
With the accession of George VI in 1936 until the early 1970s, Australian definitives featured the monarch, Australian fauna and Australian flora. However, particularly in the late 1950s, the depiction of the monarch – now Elizabeth II – on Australian definitives became confined to the base domestic letter rate and the preceding minor values. With the introduction of decimal currency on 14 February 1966, 24 new definitives were issued – the monarch was featured on the minor values (1c to 3c) and on the base domestic letter rate (4c) and the remainder featured Australian birds, Australian marine life, and early Australian maritime explorers. A feature of this issue was that where there was a direct conversion of value, the design was changed to reflect the new decimal currency value – for example, the 2/6d (two shilling and sixpence) Scarlet Robin definitive (issued 21 April 1965) become the new 25c decimal currency value; likewise the £2 (two pounds) Phillip Parker King definitive (issued 26 August 1964) became the new $4 decimal currency value.

The last base domestic letter rate definitive stamp featuring the monarch appeared on 1 October 1971. Since then, the designs of all Australian definitive values have focused on fauna, flora, reptiles, butterflies, marine life, gemstones, paintings, handicrafts, visual arts, community and the like. From 1980, a stamp has been issued annually to commemorate the monarch's birthday.

First commemorative stamp
Australia's first commemorative stamp was issued on 9 May 1927 to mark the opening of the first Parliament House in Canberra. Subsequently, issues have appeared regularly commemorating Australian achievements and landmarks in Australian history. The first Australian multicoloured stamps appeared on 31 October 1956 as part of the Melbourne Olympic Games commemorative issue. These were printed by a foreign company. The first Australian-printed multicoloured stamp, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the Australian Inland Mission, was issued on 5 September 1962.

There have been many special issues. The first Christmas stamp appeared on 6 November 1957. In recent years, designs for the Christmas issue have alternated each year between the religious and the secular. From 1993, in October of every year, Australia Post has commemorated Stamp Collecting month with special issues, typically featuring topics that are of interest to children such as pets, native fauna and space. Commencing with the 2000 Sydney Olympic Games, during the Summer and Winter Olympic Games, stamps featuring Australians who have won an Olympic gold medal are issued on the next postal business day after the achievement.

Airmails
Australia's first airmail-designated stamp appeared on 20 May 1929. A special 3d (three pence) airmail stamp was available for mail sent on the Perth-Adelaide air service. The cost of this service was 3d per ½ oz plus normal postage. On 19 March 1931 and 4 November 1931, a further two airmail-designated stamps, both 6d (sixpence), appeared. After these, general definitives were used for mail sent by air.

Stamp booklets
Coin-operated vending machines were introduced in 1960 and have continued in various forms to the present day. These included Frama vending machines stamps, first issued in 1984 and discontinued in 2003, as well as various booklets. Booklet stamps were discontinued in 1973 but were reintroduced some years later. Stamp booklets were available from Advance Bank ATMs from 1984 until the bank's merger with St George Bank in 1996. These were Australia's first (and, to date, only) triangular stamp issue.

Self-adhesive stamps
Self-adhesive stamps were first issued in 1990. The first self-adhesive commemoratives appeared in 1993. Self-adhesive stamps have proved popular with users and very soon came to be in more common use than gummed stamps. Australia issues gummed versions of all self-adhesive stamps.

Prior to 1997, the only living persons to appear on stamps were the reigning monarch and other members of the royal family. Since 1997, Australia Post has issued stamps commemorating living Australians. In particular, an annual Australian Legends issue has commemorated living Australians who have made some significant contribution during their lives.

Stamps with personalized tabs were introduced in 1999. Australia Post has also used tabs to commemorate themes and individuals not considered significant enough for a stamp issue of their own.

Postal rates
Since the introduction of the Goods and Services Tax, separate stamps were introduced for domestic and international postage in 2001. Stamps inscribed "International Post" are not valid for domestic postage. Domestic stamps can be used for overseas postage but contribute less than face value towards the postage (the user must deduct the tax component).

Official Service stamps
From the 1913 to 1930, Commonwealth and State Government agencies used stamps (perfins) punctured with OS (“Official Service”). In 1931 the puncturing system was abandoned and stamps for government mail were overprinted OS. In February 1933, it was decided that government mail would no longer require postage stamps. The exception to OS stamps being restricted for the use of government agencies was the 4 November 1931 6d airmail stamp. The OS overprinted stamp was sold over post office counters to prevent speculation and was valid for all types of mail.

Joint issues
Australia has had joint stamp issues with New Zealand (1958, 1963 and 1988), the United Kingdom (1963, 1988 and 2005), some of its external territories (1965), the United States of America (1988), the U.S.S.R. (1990), People's Republic of China (1995), Germany (1996), Indonesia (1996), Singapore (1998), Greece (2000), Hong Kong (2001), Sweden (2001), France (2002) and Thailand (2002).

Postal stationery
Postal stationery was first issued by the Commonwealth of Australia in April 1911. Postcards based on the design of South Australia 1893 postcards and a "Stamp" design of a full face of King George V, engraved by Samuel Reading, were issued in April 1911. Letter Cards with the same "Stamp" design were also issued. Envelopes, Registered envelopes and Newspaper wrappers were first issued in 1913, using the "Kangaroo on Map" "Stamp" design by Blamire Young. Aerogrammes were first issued in 1944.

External territories
Each Australian external territory has a specific postal and philatelic history.

Formerly administered by New South Wales, Norfolk Island used that colony's stamps after 1877. Norfolk Island used stamps of Australia between 1913 and 1947, attained postal independence and issued its own stamps on 10 June 1947. Norfolk Island lost postal independence in 2016.

The Territory of Papua, officially a British colony but administered by Australia, issued its own stamps from 1901. before this, it had used Queensland stamps. Stamps of Australia were issued there between 1945 and 1953 in the new Territory of Papua and New Guinea.

Transferred from Singapore to Australia by the United Kingdom in the 1950s, Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands were progressively and separately integrated into the Australian postal system and losing their postal and philatelic independence in the 1990s. While Christmas Island had postal independence and issued its own stamps since 1958, the Cocos Islands used stamps of Australia from 1952 until its postal independence in 1979. The first Cocos stamps were issued in 1963.

Both territories lost their postal independence to Australia Post in 1993 for Christmas Island and 1994 for the Cocos Islands. Consequently, their stamps became valid within Australia and stamps of Australia became valid in the islands.

The Australian Antarctic Territory had always been using stamps of Australia but disposed of its stamps since 27 March 1957. They are valid for postage within Australia.

Military occupations and mandates

With military operations during World War I, Australia occupied two former German colonies, German New Guinea and Nauru. German colonial stamps were overprinted, followed by Australian stamps overprinted "North West Pacific Islands" in 1915. In the 1920s, stamps were issued for these two territories as League of Nations mandates.

Nauru and New Guinea were under Japanese occupation in 1942. At the end of World War II, in 1945, stamps of Australia were used in mandate of New Guinea and in Papua until 1 March 1953. The new combined Territory of Papua and New Guinea received its own stamps bearing the name "Territory of Papua and New Guinea" until its independence in 1975.

British Commonwealth Occupation Force
Between October 1946 and February 1949, in occupied Japan, the Australian stamps used as such by the military post offices were overprinted "B.C.O.F. / JAPAN / 1946" to avoid speculation on the currency value.

References and sources

 * Notes

 * Sources
 * Australia Post Philatelic Group: Australian Stamp Bulletin. Melbourne: Australian Postal Corporation, various bulletins.
 * Higgs, John: The Australasian Stamp Catalogue. Sydney: Seven Seas Stamps, 1996.
 * Kellow, Geoffrey, and others: Australian Commonwealth Specialist’ Catalogue. Sydney: Brunsden-White, 1988–2002.
 * Pitt, Alan: Stamps of Australia. Sydney: Renniks Publications, 2005.


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Liberal Party (UK, 1989)

The Liberal Party is a liberal political party in the United Kingdom that was founded in 1989 as a continuation of the original Liberal Party (founded in 1859) by members who opposed its merger with the Social Democratic Party (SDP) to form the Liberal Democrats. The party holds five local council seats. The party promotes a hybrid of both classical and social liberal tendencies.

History
The original Liberal Party entered into an alliance with the Social Democratic Party in 1981 and merged with it in 1988 to form what became the Liberal Democrats. The Liberal Party, founded in 1859, was descended from the Whigs, Radicals, Irish Independent Party and Peelites, while the SDP was a party created in 1981 by former Labour members, MPs and cabinet ministers, but which also gained defections from Conservatives.

A small minority of the Liberal Party, notably including the former Member of Parliament (MP) Michael Meadowcroft (the last elected president of the Liberal Party), resolved to continue with the Liberal Party. They continued using the old party name and symbols, including the party anthem, The Land. Meadowcroft announced this reformation after the defeat of the traditional liberal Alan Beith to become party leader of the Liberal Democrats, although Beith himself stayed with the latter.

The continuing Liberal Party included several councillors and council groups from the pre-1988 party which had never joined the merged party and continued as Liberals (hence the disputed foundation date), but no MPs. Since then, the number of Liberal district councillors has gradually declined. However, as a result of a number of community-based politicians, defections and recruitment the party has an increased number of town and parish councillors. The party has had its greatest success in elections to Liverpool City Council. Its leadership largely comes from the Liverpool area and the party is primarily based in North Yorkshire.

Meadowcroft stepped down from the party presidency in 2002, and was replaced by Councillor Steve Radford. In 2007, Meadowcroft left the party and joined the Liberal Democrats. Radford stood down in 2009, and was replaced as president of the party by former councillor Rob Wheway, who served a year as leader. Radford was re-elected party president in 2010, and has been elected for further terms by members in ballot at assemblies and by electronic voting.

Party members take part in Liberal International (LI) activities through the Liberal International British Group.

Europe
The 1989 reformed party initially continued the Liberal Party's support for European integration but, unlike the Liberal Democrats, they came to oppose the Single European currency and the Maastricht Treaty, the latter of which was seen as disempowering the European Parliament. In the 1997 general election, they advocated turning the European Union into a "Commonwealth of Europe", which would include all European countries and focus on peace and the environment, rather than on economic issues. In Meadowcroft's book for this election, he advocated joining the Schengen agreement, an idea which did not appear in the party's manifesto. The Party in this period also opposed referendums with the line "It is dangerous to pretend that issues can be settled by a simple question with a yes or no answer", and instead preferred citizens' juries. After Radford replaced Meadowcroft as party leader, the Liberal Party became increasingly Eurosceptic.

The party put up a full slate of candidates in the North West England region for the 2004 European Parliament election, coming seventh with 4.6% of the vote (0.6% of the total British popular vote).

In the 2009 European Parliament election, the Liberal Party's Steve Radford participated in the No2EU electoral alliance.

In the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum campaign, the party let candidates express their own views, but both the National Executive and many party members supported Leave. As the party had a long-standing opposition to the use of referendums, they released a statement that ceding sovereignty was an exception to this principle, and that the Lisbon and Maastricht Treaties should have been subjected to referendums on transferring power to the European Union.

Following the referendum, the party argued that the country should leave the EU in its manifestos for the 2017 and 2019 general elections.

Ideology
The Liberal Party refers to its ideology as a "hybrid" of classical liberalism and social liberalism, and claims that the Liberal Democrats have shown contempt for "liberal principles", the "British people" and the "democratic process".

Electoral performance
In the 2011 local council elections, eight Liberal councillors held their seats, three lost their seats and five new Liberal councillors were elected: a net gain of two. In the two years leading to the May 2013 local elections, the number of Liberal councillors rose from 16 to 21.

Cllr Steve Radford received 4,442 (4.5%) of the votes in the first round of the Mayor of Liverpool 2012 election. In the 2012 United Kingdom local elections there was a net loss of six seats, in the 2013 elections the party won three seats, a gain of one.

Although the Liberal Party has retained councillors in Ryedale and Liverpool, it has not had a significant impact. However, Liberal member John Clark served as chair of Ryedale District Council's policy and resources committee, making him de facto leader of the council, from March 2021 until his death that August.

In 2014, the Liberal Party held 21 council seats at county and district level and 15 seats at community level. The party has no representation in the UK Parliament or Scottish Parliament, nor did it ever have Members of the European Parliament (MEPs). At the 2001 UK general election the party's best local result was coming second behind Labour in Liverpool West Derby, pushing the Liberal Democrats into third place. However, it was unable to repeat this at the 2005 general election; it finished third behind the Liberal Democrats in the constituency, still beating the Conservative Party, and repeated this position at the 2010 general election. In the 2015 general election the Liberal Party came fourth narrowly holding its deposit, ahead of the Liberal Democrats (who came last) and the Green Party, but behind UKIP and the Conservative Party.

At the 2015 general election, the Liberal Party in Cornwall decided to not contest any seats and urged its supporters to vote for UKIP. At the 2017 general election, the party contested four seats and received 3,672 votes.

In the 2019 general election, the party contested nineteen seats and received 10,562 votes.

At the 2021 local election, the party appears not to have won any new seats. A seat was retained on Liverpool City Council. The party lost its last remaining unitary authority seat when Chris Ash of Dogsthorpe Ward of Peterborough City Council retired and no Liberal candidate stood. In the 2021 Mayor of Liverpool election the party's candidate Steve Radford received 7,135 votes (7%).

In the 2024 general election, the party contested 12 seats and received 6,375 votes.

Elected members
The Liberal Party has never had any members in the Houses of Parliament, the Welsh Parliament, the European Parliament or the Northern Ireland and London Assemblies.

Unitary councillors

 * Liverpool (3) representing the wards of Tuebrook Breckside, Tuebrook Larkhill, and Stoneycroft.
 * North Yorkshire (1) representing the Pickering division.

District councillors

 * East Devon (1) Honiton St Michael's ward.

Parish councillors
In 2023, the party had 11 councillors on parish, town and community councils in Staffordshire, Cornwall, Gloucestershire and Lincolnshire.

Number of councillors
Totals include any in-year by-elections and defections, held/gain/loss are the changes since the start of the last municipal year. Figure from the BBC election results before 2003 lists Liberal Party seats amongst "Others" or "Independents".

Controversy
In May 2021, the party's only candidate at the 2021 Scottish Parliament election, Derek Jackson in the Glasgow Southside constituency, was escorted from the count after arriving wearing rainbow arm-bands, yellow Star of David-style stars, and harassing Humza Yousaf, a candidate in the nearby Pollok constituency. Upon ejection from the count, the candidate and his supporters were photographed appearing to give Nazi salutes. The Liberal Party immediately suspended Jackson and issued a statement distancing itself from his comments and actions and apologising for any offence he may have caused; Jackson was expelled from the party on 9 May.

title: Liberal Party (UK, 1989)


text:
Sioux County

Sioux County is the name of three counties in the United States:

 * Sioux County, Iowa
 * Sioux County, Nebraska
 * Sioux County, North Dakota

title: Sioux County


text:
Simpson County

Simpson County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Simpson County, Kentucky
 * Simpson County, Mississippi

title: Simpson County


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Urraca of León and Castile

Urraca (León, 24 June 1081 – Saldaña, 8 March 1126), called "the reckless" (la temeraria), was Queen of León, Castile and Galicia from 1109 until her death. She claimed the imperial title as suo jure Empress of All Spain and Empress of All Galicia. She's considered to be the first European queen to reign in her own right.

Early years
Urraca was born to King Alfonso VI of León and Castile and Constance of Burgundy. Constance—Alfonso's second wife—was closely related to the French royal family and the influential Burgundian abbot Hugh of Cluny was her maternal uncle. As Constance was also related to her husband's first wife, Agnes of Aquitaine, Pope Gregory VII only confirmed their marriage after Alfonso agreed to replace the traditional Mozarabic liturgy in his realms with the Roman Rite. The place and date of Urraca's birth are unknown, but she was born likely in Sahagún or León around 1080, probably in 1081. Although she was her parents' sole child, her childhood is poorly documented. She would mention one Presbyter Pedro and a certain Domingo Falcóniz, two otherwise unknown clergymen, as her tutors in her royal diplomas. Her relationship with her paternal aunt Elvira was obviously close, as it is demonstrated by Elvira's appointment as guardian of Urraca's daughter Sancha Raimúndez. A late source, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, claims that the powerful aristocrat Pedro Ansúrez and his wife Elo Alfónsez raised Urraca in their household, but no contemporaneous document confirms this report.

First marriage and widowhood
Urraca was married to Raymond of Burgundy. Unlike her mother, who was a member of the ruling house of the Duchy of Burgundy, her husband descended from the rulers of the neighbouring County of Burgundy. Raymond was also the brother-in-law of Urraca's maternal cousin Duke Odo I of Burgundy and Odo's brother Henry. The Muslim Almoravids inflicted a heavy defeat on Alfonso VI at Sagrajas in 1086 and Urraca's marriage to Raymond was part of Alfonso's diplomatic strategy to attract cross-Pyrenees alliances. The first authentic document mentioning Urraca as Raymond's wife, a letter of grant to one Hermenegildo Rodríguez, was issued on 22 February 1093, but interpolated documents refer to them as husband and wife already before 1088. Historians Ángel Gordo Molina and Diego Melo Carrasco propose that Raymond wed Urraca likely before early 1090 when royal diplomas first present them as rulers of the "Land of Saint James", or Galicia.

Raymond reached the age of majority by the time of the marriage, but Alfonso VI continued to control the administration of Galicia. His representative in Galicia, Pedro Vimaraz, died around the time of the wedding and Alfonso appointed Arias Diaz as his successor. A talented young clergyman, Diego Gelmírez, was made the "chancellor and secretary" of Raymond and Urraca with Alfonso's consent. On the other hand, Raymond and Urraca became involved in the administration of other provinces as well. For instance, they witnessed charters on the occasion of the repopulation of Ávila, Segovia, Salamanca and Zamora. In 1093 Urraca's mother died and Alfonso's Moorish concubine Zaida of Seville gave birth to a son, Sancho Alfónsez. The birth of her illegitimate brother jeopardized Urraca's position as their father's sole heir. The power base of Raymond and Urraca weakened even more when Alfonso granted the "Land of Portugal" to his illegitimate daughter Theresa and her husband Henry of Burgundy around 1094.

As a woman, Urraca was under the tutelage of her husband. Raymond was mentioned at the first place in almost all documents issued during his rule as Count of Galicia. Two documents, both confirming privileges of the burghers of Santiago de Compostella, referred to her as "Queen Urraca" in 1095 and 1105. The use of the title may have expressed her resentment at her inferior position, although infantas, or royal princesses, were occasionally styled queens in this period. Sancho Alfónsez was regularly mentioned in royal diplomas from 1103, showing that Alfonso VI regarded his only son as his heir, although most clerics opposed the succession of an illegitimate child. By March 1107, Sancho was elected king on his father's initiative. Raymond made preparations for a succession crisis through an alliance with their brother-in-law Henry of Portugal. Their treaty was confirmed in the presence of a high-ranking monk from the Abbey of Cluny late in 1105 or early in 1106. They agreed on the division of their father-in-law's realms without referring to Sancho's claims and Henry promised to rule his portion as Raymond's vassal.

Raymond fell seriously ill and died in Grajal de Campos in September 1107. The widowed Urraca took full responsibility of the administration of Galicia. She styled herself "empress of whole Galicia" in her letter of grant to the Lugo Cathedral late in 1107 or early in 1108. The Galician clerics and aristocrats regarded Urraca's infant son by Raymond, Alfonso Raimúndez, as Raymond's lawful successor. The boy's position as his father's heir was confirmed in their presence at an assembly in León by Alfonso VI. The King also acknowledged his grandson's right to rule Galicia in case of Urraca's remarriage. Around this time Urraca began a love affair with the Castilian aristocrat Gómez González. Sancho Alfónsez died fighting against the Almoravids at Uclés on 29 May 1108. After her half-brother's unexpected death, Urraca became their father's sole heir. Her new position was ceremoniously confirmed at an assembly of "almost all nobles and counts of Spain" shortly before her father died on 30 June or 1 July 1108.

Second marriage
Urraca succeeded her father as the first queen regnant in European history. Her earliest extant diploma, issued in favour of the León Cathedral a day after her father's funeral, referred to her as "queen of whole Spain". Prominent Leonese, Castilian and Galician aristocrats and twelve bishops witnessed the document, showing that her realm's elite acknowledged her as lawful monarch. Two early sources—the Chronicle of Sahagún and the Historia Compostelana—attribute the proposal about Urraca's marriage to Alfonso I, King of Aragon and Navarre, to the Leonese aristocrats. They were reportedly convinced that a female monarch would be unable to rule and defend the kingdom against the Almoravids and forced Urraca to marry to "the bloodthirsty and cruel Aragonese tyrant" against her will. Bernard of Sédirac, Archbishop of Toledo, raised objections against the marriage, emphasising that Urraca and Alfonso were cousins. In contrast with the two chronicles, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada writes that Alfonso VI started the negotiations about his heir's marriage with Alfonso I because he wanted to prevent Urraca's marriage with her lover, Gómez González. Gordo Molina and Melo Carrasc propose that both reports could be reliable, because the selection of a suitable husband for his daughter and heir was the elderly King's most important task before his death.

Alfonso I married Urraca in the castle of Monzón in October or November 1109. In December, Urraca granted her "whole land that used to be" her father's to her husband whom she mentioned as "lord and my spouse". In the same document, she stipulated that Alfonso should respect her "like a good husband his good wife" and he could not request the annulment of their marriage referring to their kinship or excommunication. The document confirmed the right of Urraca's son by her first marriage to inherit León in case the couple died without issue. The Galician aristocrats' traditional desire for independence awakened and they used the defense of Alfonso Raimúndez's right to rule Galicia and succeed his mother as a pretext for a rebellion. After their leader Pedro Fróilaz de Traba announced that Urraca had lost her claim to rule Galicia when re-marrying, they proclaimed Alfonso Raimúndez king. Pedro Arias, Pedro Gudesteiz and other Galician nobles who remained loyal to Urraca formed a brotherhood against Pedro Fróilaz and his allies. They offered the leadership to Diego Gelmírez, who had been elevated to Bishop of Compostella, but Gelmírez remained neutral in the conflict. Alfonso I and Urraca invaded Galicia and seized the important castle of Monterroso, but reports of the cruelty of the Aragonese troops outraged the Leonese aristocrats. The relationship between Alfonso I and the high clergy grew tense. The bishop of Palencia was imprisoned, the archbishop of Toledo, the bishops of Burgos and León and the abad of Sahagún were forced to flee.

The marriage proved unfortunate. Alfonso's prejudice against women is well documented and he disliked Urraca's son. She disdained her husband for his superstitious nature, in particular for his fear of ravens and crows, and he killed a Galician noble who had sought Urraca's protection in Monterroso during their campaign in Galicia. Her husband regularly shamed her in the royal court and often went as far as beating and kicking her in public. Urraca's letter of grant to the Abbey of Santo Domingo de Silos is the earliest attestation to her will to get rid of her husband's tutelage. In the document, she styled herself as "queen of whole Spain and daughter of Emperor Alfonso" on 13 June 1110. The exact circumstances of Urraca's separation from her husband are uncertain. According to contemporaneous sources, she left Alfonso after consulting with her advisors. Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada writes that Alfonso repudiated her for her infidelity leaving her "free to do whatever she pleased". The last document mentioning Urraca in her second husband's company was issued on 22 May 1112.

The marriage of Urraca and Alfonso almost immediately sparked rebellions in Galicia and scheming by her illegitimate half-sister Theresa and brother-in-law Henry, the countess and count of Portugal. Also, they believed that the new marriage of Urraca could put in jeopardy the rights of the son of her first marriage, Alfonso Raimúndez. One of the first acts of the new spouses was to sign a pact under which the monarchs granted to each other soberana potestas over the other's kingdom, declaring heir of both their future children, and in the case that the union was childless, the surviving spouse would succeed the other one in the throne.

From the start, the Galician faction was divided in two tendencies: one headed by Archbishop Diego Gelmírez of Santiago de Compostela (who defended the position of Alfonso Raimúndez as Urraca's successor) and another led by Count Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, tutor of the young prince (who was inclined to the complete independence of Galicia under the rule of Alfonso). A third group of opposition to the royal marriage was at the court and was headed by Count Gómez González, whose motivation against Urraca and Alfonso I of Aragon could have been his fear of losing power, a sensation soon confirmed when Alfonso I appointed Aragonese and Navarrese nobles for important public posts and as holders of fortresses.

From Galicia, the count of Traba began the first aggressive movement against the monarchs reclaiming the hereditary rights of Alfonso Raimúndez. In response to the Galician rebellion, Alfonso I of Aragon marched with his army to Galicia and in 1110, reestablished the order there after defeating the local troops in Monterroso Castle. The Galician rebellion against the royal power was only the beginning of a series of political and military conflicts which, with the complete opposite personalities of Urraca and Alfonso I and their mutual dislike, gave rise to a continuous civil war in the Hispanic kingdoms over the following years. Urraca did not share the governance of her realms with her husband.

As their relationship soured, Urraca accused Alfonso of physical abuse, and by May 1110 she separated from Alfonso. In addition to her objections to Alfonso's handling of rebels, the couple had a falling-out over his execution of one of the rebels who had surrendered to the queen, to whom the queen was inclined to be merciful. Additionally, as Urraca was married to someone many in the kingdom objected to, the queen's son and heir became a rallying point for opponents to the marriage.

Estrangement between husband and wife escalated from discrete and simmering hostilities into open armed warfare between the Leonese-Castilians and the Aragonese. An alliance between Alfonso of Aragon and Henry of Portugal culminated in the 1111 Battle of Candespina in which Urraca's lover and chief supporter Gómez González was killed. He was soon replaced in both roles by another count, Pedro González de Lara, who took up the fight and would father at least two further children by Urraca. By the fall of 1112 a truce was brokered between Urraca and Alfonso with their marriage annulled. Though Urraca recovered Asturias, Leon, and Galicia, Alfonso occupied a significant portion of Castile (where Urraca enjoyed large support), while her half-sister Theresa and her husband Count Henry of Portugal occupied Zamora and Extremadura. Recovering these regions and expanding into Muslim lands would occupy much of Urraca's foreign policy. Despite the annulment of their marriage (on the grounds of consanguinity), Alfonso continued his efforts for political control. While Urraca was engaged in this battle, she also had to contend with the schemes of her sister, who promoted a plan to replace the queen by her son. This particular incident, ended in a compromise between the two sisters where Theresa was granted a vast territory in Leon in exchange for agreeing that she was Urraca's vassal.

According to author Bernard F. Reilly, the measure of success for Urraca’s rule was her ability to restore and protect the integrity of her inheritance – that is, the kingdom of her father – and transmit that inheritance in full to her own heir. Policies and events pursued by Alfonso VI – namely legitimizing her brother and thereby providing an opportunity for her illegitimate half-sister to claim a portion of the patrimony, as well as the forced marriage with Alfonso I of Aragon – contributed in large part to the challenges Urraca faced upon her succession. Additionally, the circumstance of Urraca’s gender added a distinctive role-reversal dimension to diplomacy and politics, which Urraca used to her advantage.

Character
Urraca is characterized in the Historia Compostelana as prudent, modest, and with good sense. According to Reilly, the chronicle also attributes her failings to "the weakness and changeability of women, feminine perversity", and calls her a Jezebel for her liaisons with her leading magnates, with at least one relationship producing an illegitimate son. Her son Alfonso Raimúndez likewise decried the political turmoil caused by her extramarital affairs. Modern historians have given a more critical outlook to these observations, with Reilly noting that the queen was nevertheless in control of events, in contrast with earlier writers who had described her suitors as the real rulers.

Death and legacy
According to the twelfth-century "Chronicon Compostellanum", Urraca died in adulterous childbirth on 8 March 1126 in the castle of Saldaña. As queen, she rose to the challenges presented to her, and her solutions were seen by Reilly as pragmatic ones. Her delaying the accession of her son Alfonso VII nevertheless led to a turbulent transition of power, as the new king would have to face the rebellion of her lover Pedro González upon her death, followed by an attempted invasion by the king of Aragon, and the resumption of Galician revolts.

Family
Urraca's firstborn child by Raymond, Sancha, was born before 11 November 1095. She was named for Urraca's paternal grandmother Sancha of León who transmitted the claim to rule the Kingdom of León to her children. A diploma issued in Monastery of San Xulián de Samos on 24 October 1102 refers to the "children" of Raymond and Urraca, implying that their second child, Alfonso, had been born, but two nearly contemporaneous sources—the Chronicon Compostellanum and the Historia Compostelana—dates Alfonso's birth to 1105. He was named for Urraca's father.

Urraca had two illegitimate children with her lover Pedro González de Lara: Fernando Pérez Hurtado (c.1114-1156), and Elvira Pérez de Lara (c.1112-1174), who is mentioned in the Historia Compostelana in connection with her donation of the village of Arquillinos to Diego Gelmírez. Elvira would twice wed, first to García Pérez de Traba, lord of Trastámara and son of Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, then to count Beltrán de Risnel.

title: Urraca of León and Castile


text:
User talk:TimeLord mbw

I am 62.49.16.208. Thanks for your message. If you look at the page for user 62.49.16.208, you will see my response.

I can't comment on User:62.49.16.208's actions with respect to molecular masses etc. but in the field of aviation, the power of a propeller-driven aircraft is always given in kilowatts when stating it in metric. Look at any European text (or, increasingly, British, given the increasing British popular use of metric). The use of kilowatts for engine power seems odd to Americans because it's normally only used for electrical things there, but it is a universal unit of power. It's important because English speakers outside the United States are increasingly familiar only with Metric measurements. —Morven 18:36, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, I responded on the other page before I read this, but yeah, other than the precision issue, converting an older plane's power rating to kW didn't seem useful to me in the way that converting it's length to meters would be. But, if that is more meaningful to some people, then it's worth doing. -TimeLord mbw 05:36, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your message. If you look at the page for user 62.49.16.208, you will another response. 62.49.16.208 19:19, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:TimeLord mbw


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Talk:Pacifism/removed

Criticisms of pragmatic pacifism
Critics of this kind of pacifism claim that being non-violent in the face of violent criminals or armies tacitly or explicitly encourages more violence. They claim that the main reason why Gandhi succeeded was because the British were hypocrites, who preached democracy in their own country while denying self-determination to Indians, and that Gandhi turned this hypocrisy against the British. Gandhi advocated that Europeans - even Jews - should not resist the Nazis. His opponents argued that in this situation non-violence fails as the Third Reich - an openly evil empire which felt no 'need' to be liked - could murderously crush any opposition to their rule without compromising its own ideology. The science fiction author Harry Turtledove wrote a short story "The Last Article" in which Gandhi attempts to use non-violent resistance against India's Nazi occupiers after an Axis victory in World War II. According to Harry Turtledoves story, such a resistence would have failed.

It is also said that Ghandi's doctrines were apparently incapable of preventing violence during the partition of British India into today's India and Pakistan.

title: Talk:Pacifism/removed


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User:Laura Elizabeth

Lives in Trumbull, Connecticut.

title: User:Laura Elizabeth


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Diadema, São Paulo

Diadema (, Diadem) is a municipality in São Paulo state, Brazil. Belonging to the ABCD Region of Greater São Paulo, it is 17 km distant from São Paulo's central point. Initially part of São Bernardo do Campo, Diadema became a city of its own in 1959. The population is 426,757 (2020 est.) in an area of 30.76 km2. The annual mean temperature in the city is 19.6 °C. Its HDI is 0.790.

Although located in the heart of a traditionally industrial region, its main source of income is the service sector, featuring 77 healthcare installations. Diadema is home to a butterfly zoo, a botanical garden, an art museum and an observatory.

History
Since its beginning, Diadema occupation process had one fundamental factor: its geographical location between the coast - Vila de São Vicente - and the plateau - Vila de São Paulo de Piratininga (São Paulo city early name). It was the existence of a connecting road between São Bernardo do Campo and Santo Amaro that provided ways for the early inhabitants to arrive to the neighborhoods in the early 18th century. The avenues that are now known as Antonio Piranga and Piraporinha were originated from this early roads.

Until the 1940s, Diadema was constituted by four neighborhoods belonging to São Bernardo do Campo: Piraporinha, Eldorado, Taboão e Vila Conceição. Dispersed, they were only connected through roads of difficult passage and each neighborhood had its own life. Piraporinha near São Bernardo; Taboão, also connected to São Bernardo do Campo due to the proximity and to São Paulo through Água Funda Avenue. Eldorado, a neighborhood that had unique characteristics, because of the Billings Reservoir, had a greater proximity to São Paulo, to the Santo Amaro region and finally Vila Conceição formed by the farms that once belonged to the Vila Conceição Company.

Education
The municipality has several higher education facilities: a campus of the Instituto Nacional de Estudos e Pesquisas Educacionais Anísio Teixeira, a branch of the São Paulo State Technological College, and a Serviço Nacional de Aprendizagem Industrial regional department.

The campus of the Universidade Federal de São Paulo, founded in 2007, provides degrees in chemistry, chemical engineering, pharmacy, and biology. Since 2009 an industrial chemistry degree was added and in 2010 a further two courses; in environmental sciences and a science licentiate degree (a combination of physics, mathematics, biology and chemistry).

Media
In telecommunications, the city was served by Companhia Telefônica da Borda do Campo. In July 1998, this company was acquired by Telefónica, which adopted the Vivo brand in 2012. The company is currently an operator of cell phones, fixed lines, internet (fiber optics/4G) and television (satellite and cable).

Sport
EC Água Santa is the local association football club.

Notable people

 * David Luiz (1987-), professional footballer who plays for Flamengo. He also played for Chelsea for 7 years, as well as spells with PSG, and Benfica. He is a former Brazil International.
 * Denílson de Oliveira Araújo (1977-), retired footballer who played as a left winger.
 * Washington Silva, boxer, South American champion

title: Diadema, São Paulo


text:
Sierra County

Sierra County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Sierra County, California
 * Sierra County, New Mexico

title: Sierra County


text:
Quicksilver Highway

Quicksilver Highway is a 1997 television comedy horror film directed by Mick Garris. It is based on Clive Barker's short story "The Body Politic" and Stephen King's 1992 short story "Chattery Teeth". The film was originally shown on television before being released on home media.

Plot
The main story is centered on Aaron Quicksilver (played by Christopher Lloyd), a travelling showman who tells horror stories to the people he meets. He first runs into a newly married couple who are hitchhiking, to whom he tells the story "Chattery Teeth", about a man who is saved from a dangerous hitchhiker by a set of wind-up toy teeth. He later runs into a pickpocket to whom he tells "The Body Politic", a story about a man whose hands rebel against him.

Cast

 * Christopher Lloyd: Aaron Quicksilver
 * Matt Frewer: Charlie/Dr. Charles George
 * Raphael Sbarge: Kerry Parker/Bill Hogan
 * Melissa Lahlitah Crider: Olivia Harmon Parker/Lita Hogan
 * Silas Weir Mitchell: Bryan Adams
 * Bill Nunn: Len
 * Veronica Cartwright: Myra
 * Bill Bolender: Scooter
 * Amelia Heinle: Darlene
 * Cynthia Garris: Ellen George
 * Kevin Grevioux: Sergeant
 * Christopher Hart: Lefty
 * William Knight: Rhinoplasty Man
 * Shawn Nelson: Driver
 * Sherry O'Keefe: Harriet DaVinci
 * Clive Barker: Anesthesiologist
 * Constance Zimmer: Patient
 * Mick Garris: Surgeon
 * John Landis: Surgical Assistant

Production
Creative Artists Agency met with Garris about him writing the pilot script for a possible horror television series directed by John McTiernan and produced by his wife, Donna Dubrow. The agency suggested multiple ghost stories and urban legends to write about, but Garris had another idea. The series would follow a mysterious character who describes himself as "only a storyteller" but is actually much more than that. Each episode would be set in a different location, with the same actors playing different characters. Just after Brandon Tartikoff signed on as producer, Garris pitched the idea to staff at the American Broadcasting Company; the heads of the network weren't interested as they didn't want any horror material in their broadcast schedule, but a couple of the network's executives like Greer Shephard got on board. After writing a pilot script based on Stephen King's short story "Chattery Teeth," Garris pitched the series to Fox. However, Fox wanted a two-hour television film. He wrote a screenplay of Clive Barker's "The Body Politic" to serve as the film's second part after "Chattery Teeth." Casting director Lynn Kressel, who previously worked with Garris on The Stand (1994) and The Shining (1997), came up with the idea of Christopher Lloyd as Quicksilver; while the network loved the decision, Garris was a bit skeptical, reasoning that he want a "little more seductive" actor to play the part. In the end, however, Garris loved the decision.

The moment Fox began developing the project, McTiernan left the director's seat on the project, leaving Garris to have to direct the screenplay himself. "The Body Politic" was filmed at the Santa Monica Pier, while "Chattery Teeth" was filmed in Lancaster, California. When playing Dr. Charles George, Matt Frewer had a tough time making the hand move as if it had a separate mind; it took around three days for him to master the trick, and by the third day was having "hand nightmares" while resting between shoots. Steve Johnson handled the chattery teeth effects, while Flash Film Works and Bill Mesa was responsible for the moving hands. Around 90% of the hands were digitally animated with LightWave 3D and composed in the shots with the Chyron program Liberty. The more practical hand effects, such as George's left hand, were performed by Christopher Hart, whose work as a magician got him hand-only characters in projects such as three Addams Family films. The same trick for composing Hart's hand into the shots of The Addams Family films was used in Quicksilver Highway; Hart wore a rubber prosthetic on the top of his hand and a green sleeve, and by using green screening and footage that matched the background of the shots of Hart's hand, his arm was removed. Four days were spent shooting Hart's hand.

Home media
The home media version of Quicksilver Highway switched the orders of the two stories from the television version, where "The Body Politic" comes first and "Chattery Teeth" last. Fox required this change, which Garris disliked as he felt "The Body Politic" was more climactic than "Chattery Teeth."

title: Quicksilver Highway


text:
User:Kadzuwo~enwiki

&

Kadzuwo J. SHIMIDZU*.

Guest member of the Japan Anti-Pseudoscience Activities Network. Executive member of the Academy of Outrageous Books (see Tondemo).

 * My passport name is Kazuo SHIMIZU, and there are great many Kazuo SHIMIZUs in various Kanji characters, so I'm using the Spelling: Kadzuwo SHIMIDZU.

My Best favorite Science Fiction:
 * "The Teacher from Mars", by Eando Binder (Thrilling Wonder Stories Feb 1941)
 * in My Best Science Fiction Story, ed. Leo Margulies & Oscar J. Friend, Merlin Press 1949, Pocket 1954.

For Your Info:

 * Cross Translation (You can translate Japanese to/from English by various translation sites)

 * Automatic selection form (You can translate many languages to your language by various translation sites. Please click "English")

 * Japan's ODA (Official pages of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan)

 * BBC Poll Attitudes towards Countries (mirror) about Japan

 * The truth about the three Japanese hostages in Iraq (The Straits Times) mirror

 * "Chinese censors block access to Wikipedia" (IDG News Service)

 * Beijing tragedy: Daughter of slain Filipino also killed

 * "China Accuses Japan of Distorting History" (The Washington Post)

 * "What Chinese textbooks don't say" (CNN/AP) mirror
 * 中国の歴史教科書が書かないこと (Japanese text page of the above) mirror
 * 美联社：中共歪曲历史因为中共要维护统治 (Chinese text from AP)

 * "China's Selective Memory" (The Washington Post)

 * "China's Textbooks Twist and Omit History" (The New York Times) mirror

 * Textbooks of Japan and China that You have Not Know... (Flash movie)
 * English version
 * Chinese version

 * Chinese Crisis in 2005 (Pics)

 * Acts of Japanese soldiers in wartime China

On Yasukuni Shrine

 * Yasukuni Shrine has been visited by many important dignitaries and military officials

 * World's VIP at Yasukuni Shrine (Part 1)

 * World's VIP at Yasukuni Shrine (Part 2)

On Tanaka Memorial
These sites deny the authenticity of the "documents" as Anti-Japanese version of "The Protocols of the Elders of Zion".

 * encyclopedia.com
 * Japan Speaks about Conspiracy of Japan in 1932 (revealed by Kiyoshi Kawakami)
 * "Tanaka Memorial"
 * Conspiracy of Japan in the Tokyo Trial

These sites accept the authenticity of the "documents" as "Japan's Mein Kampf".

 * The Tanaka Memorial (complete text) Japan's Plan For Conquest
 * Viking Phoenix Web Page Japan, Incorporated - Tanaka Memorial
 * Profound lessons in past incidents (a mirror of Chinese statement page of 1997)

On Tongzhou Incident

 * Tongzhou Incident at Tokyo Trial (a mirror of lost page)

毛泽东感谢日本侵略中国，称日本皇军是大恩人！
（1）老毛感谢日本皇军是大恩人，大救星 一九六-四年七月十日，日本社会党委员长佐佐木更三偕委员黑田寿男去北京，与毛泽东有下面一段对话∶ 毛∶我曾经跟日本朋友谈过. 他们说，很对不起，日本皇军侵略了中国. 我说∶不！没有你们皇军侵略大半个中国，中国人民就不能团结起来对付蒋介石，中国共产党就夺取不了政权. 所以，日本皇军是我们中国共产党人的好教员，也可以说是大恩人，大救星. 佐佐木∶今天听了毛主席非常宽宏大量的说话. 过去，日本军国主义侵略中国，给你们带来了很大的损害，我们大家感到很抱歉. 毛∶没有什么抱歉. 日本军国主义给中国带来了很大的利益，使中国人民夺取了政权. 没有你们的皇军，我们不可能夺取政权. 这一点，我和你们有不同的意见，我们两个人有矛盾. （众笑，会场活跃）. 佐佐木∶谢谢. 毛∶不要讲过去那一套了. 日本的侵略也可以说是好事，帮了我们的大忙. 请看，中国人民夺取了政权，同时，你们的垄断资本、军国主义也帮了我们的忙. 日本人民成百万、成千万地醒觉起来. 包括在中国打仗的一部份将军，他们现在变成我们的朋友了. （摘自《毛泽东思想万岁》，第五三三至五三四页. ）

"I have talked to my Japanese friends. They said, 'We are sorry, the Imperial Japanese army invaded China.' I told them, 'No! If your Imperial army did not occupy half of China, the people of China would not have united against you, and the Chinese Communist Party will not be in power today.'" -- Mao Zedong (1964.Jul.10)

http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Mao_Zedong

（2）毛泽东感谢日本侵略中国，因此，不要日本赔偿！ 1972年，中日建交的时候，日本首相田中角荣就向毛泽东道歉，“啊，对不起啊，我们发动了侵略战争，是中国受到很大的伤害. ” 　　毛泽东说“不是对不起啊，你们有功啊，为啥有功呢？因为你们要不是发动侵华战争的话，我们共产党怎么能够强大？我们怎么能够夺权哪？怎么能够把蒋介石打败呀？”他感谢田中角荣. “我们如何感谢你们？我们不要你们战争赔偿！” （翻译摘自〈田中角荣传〉日语原版） http://blog.sina.com.cn/u/4a84d4450100063x

title: User:Kadzuwo~enwiki


text:
Sherman County

Sherman County is the name of four counties in the United States:

 * Sherman County, Kansas
 * Sherman County, Nebraska
 * Sherman County, Oregon
 * Sherman County, Texas

title: Sherman County


text:
Stellar atmosphere

The stellar atmosphere is the outer region of the volume of a star, lying above the stellar core, radiation zone and convection zone.

Overview
The stellar atmosphere is divided into several regions of distinct character:

 * The photosphere, which is the atmosphere's lowest and coolest layer, is normally its only visible part. Light escaping from the surface of the star stems from this region and passes through the higher layers. The Sun's photosphere has a temperature in the 5,770 – range. Starspots, cool regions of disrupted magnetic field, lie in the photosphere.
 * Above the photosphere lies the chromosphere. This part of the atmosphere first cools down and then starts to heat up to about 10 times the temperature of the photosphere.
 * Above the chromosphere lies the transition region, where the temperature increases rapidly on a distance of only around 100 km.
 * Additionally, many stars have a molecular layer (MOLsphere) above the photosphere and just beyond or even within the chromosphere. The molecular layer is cool enough to contain molecules rather than plasma, and may consist of such components as carbon monoxide, water vapor, silicon monoxide, and titanium oxide.
 * The outermost part of the stellar atmosphere, or upper stellar atmosphere, is the corona, a tenuous plasma which has a temperature above one million Kelvin. While all stars on the main sequence feature transition regions and coronae, not all evolved stars do so. It seems that only some giants, and very few supergiants, possess coronae. An unresolved problem in stellar astrophysics is how the corona can be heated to such high temperatures. The answer is believed to lie in magnetic fields, but the exact mechanism remains unclear.
 * The astrosphere, which is in the case of the Sun the heliosphere, can be in a broader understanding considered the furthest part of a stellar atmosphere, before interstellar space begins at the heliopause. The astrosphere is not to be confused with the Solar System and its outermost region the Oort cloud, which extends much further than the astrosphere, therefore far into interstellar space.

During a total solar eclipse, the photosphere of the Sun is obscured, revealing its atmosphere's other layers. Observed during eclipse, the Sun's chromosphere appears (briefly) as a thin pinkish arc, and its corona is seen as a tufted halo. The same phenomenon in eclipsing binaries can make the chromosphere of giant stars visible.

title: Stellar atmosphere


text:
Sheridan County

Sheridan County is the name of five counties in the United States, each named for Philip Sheridan, a general in the American Civil War and the Indian Wars:

 * Sheridan County, Kansas
 * Sheridan County, Montana
 * Sheridan County, Nebraska
 * Sheridan County, North Dakota
 * Sheridan County, Wyoming

title: Sheridan County


text: File:LaylaCover.jpg

title: File:LaylaCover.jpg


text:
Libera

Libera may refer to:
 * Libera (mythology), a Roman goddess of fertility
 * Libera (choir), a boy vocal group from London
 * Libera (film), a 1993 comedy film
 * "Libera" (song), a song by Italian artist Mia Martini
 * Libera (gastropod), a genus of gastropods in the family Endodontidae
 * Libera Awards for music
 * Libera. Associazioni, nomi e numeri contro le mafie, Italian association against mafias
 * Libera Chat, IRC network created in 2021 by former Freenode staff members
 * Libera Università Mediterranea, an Italian university
 * Libera Carlier, Belgian writer
 * Libera Trevisani Levi-Civita, Italian mathematician
 * 771 Libera, an asteroid

title: Libera


text:
Talk:Windom Township, Mower County, Minnesota

I think this page is cool from CP (my nickname)
 * Well, this page is kind of cool, but I'm working on making it better as we speak.--Hraefen 02:37, 4 January 2006 (UTC)


text:
Crash incompatibility

Crash incompatibility, crash compatibility, vehicle incompatibility, and vehicle compatibility are terms in the automobile crash testing industry. They refer to the tendency of some vehicles to inflict more damage on another vehicle (the "crash partner vehicle") in two-car crashes. Vehicle incompatibility is said to lead to more dangerous, fatal crashes, while compatibility can prevent injury in otherwise comparable crashes.

Causes
The most obvious source of crash incompatibility is mass; a high-mass vehicle such as a large MPV or SUV will tend to cause much more serious damage in a crash with a lighter vehicle such as a typical sedan or compact car. In particular, research by Michael Anderson and Maximilian Auffhammer suggests that "controlling for own-vehicle weight, being hit by a vehicle that is 1,000 pounds heavier generates a 40-50% increase in fatality risk." Incompatibility may also result from the specific shape, stiffness, or other design aspects of the impacting vehicles. For example, some SUVs and pickup trucks ride higher than cars and lack crumple zones to absorb impact energy. Another source of incompatibility is that heavier vehicles are required to have stronger front ends because of today's test requirements like the NCAP test.

The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration has done studies of the "aggressiveness" of vehicle designs. The term "aggressiveness" is used to denote the average injury risk a vehicle imposes on occupants of other vehicles during collisions. A 2003 NHTSA study estimated that in vehicle to vehicle crashes, the design of minivans was 1.16 times as aggressive as cars, pickups were 1.39 times more aggressive, and SUVs were 1.71 times more aggressive than cars. When weight was included in the analysis, light trucks (including SUVs) were estimated to be 3.3 times more aggressive than cars in head-on crashes and perhaps more so in side impact crashes.

Controversy
These studies have been controversial as they affect public perception and policy decisions on CAFE standards and light truck safety test standards as they exist today. NHTSA does not define a car or a light truck based on weight (e.g., the Chrysler PT Cruiser is classified as a light truck whereas a Lexus LS 600h L, a vehicle that weighs 66% more per published specifications, is classified as a car). So while there have been no proposals to eliminate light trucks (which includes minivans, SUVs and pickups), doing so would not eliminate incompatibility because there would still be lighter vehicles crashing into heavier vehicles.

Solutions
There has been extensive research and testing done by NHTSA, other governments, research organizations as well as automobile manufacturers to find solutions that improve safety in the small cars when colliding with larger vehicles. In the United States, a group of experts proposed major steps to improve compatibility and these have been accepted as a voluntary regulation by American automotive manufacturers as well as by most other companies selling vehicles in the U.S. The Canadian government has also accepted these recommendations. The recommendations require all manufacturers to either (a) lower the height of the primary structure (also called frame rail) of all SUV and pickup trucks so that they overlap the primary structure of the cars; or (b) add another structure (called Secondary Energy Absorbing Structure) to the SUVs and pickup truck that cannot meet the first option. Latest studies have shown that these have improved the safety in cars when struck by SUVs. However, no such benefit has been observed in pickup truck to car crashes. It is unclear whether or not certain aftermarket modifications are taken into account, such as "lift kits" which raise the frame or suspension of a vehicle for increased ground clearance. Such modifications would likely greatly reduce the effectiveness of modern auto-safety advances due to causing the rigid parts of a pickup or SUV to strike the weaker parts of lower vehicles, rather than the reinforced regions in an accident. State laws regarding the use of such modifications vary widely, and many have laws that aren't enforced. As of now, there are no Federal laws regarding the bumper height of trucks and SUV's.

History
Although much of the crash incompatibility debate in recent years has centered on SUVs, the concept has been around far longer. When subcompact cars were introduced in the 1970s, there was a fear that incompatibilities of mass and design could lead to more serious injuries for drivers of these smaller, lighter vehicles. Crash incompatibility remains an area of active study.

title: Crash incompatibility


text:
Shannon County

Shannon County is the name of a county in the United States:

 * Shannon County, Missouri

as well as:

 * Oglala Lakota County, South Dakota, formerly Shannon County

title: Shannon County


text:
Sarto Fournier

Sarto Fournier (15 February 1908 – 23 July 1980) was a Canadian politician. He served as mayor of Montreal from 1957 to 1960.

Biography
Born in East Broughton, Quebec to a family of Quebecois and Italian-Canadian origin, he graduated in law from McGill University and formally entered law practice in 1938. Fournier was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal in the 1935 election and was subsequently re-elected in 1940, 1945, and 1949. He became the youngest member of the Senate in 1953 and served until his death.

He studied law at McGill University and at the Université de Montréal. He was only 27 when he became the Liberal MP for Maisonneuve-Rosemont. He was re-elected in 1940, 1945, and 1949. He was called to the bar in 1938. In 1953, he entered the senate, called by Prime Minister Louis Saint-Laurent.

After two previous attempts in 1950 and 1954, he was elected mayor of Montreal in 1957. He initiated the Expo 67 project.

He had been interested in municipal politics since 1950. Although he ran for mayor five times between 1950 and 1962, he won only once, in 1957, against Jean Drapeau. At this election, Fournier was heading a new municipal party, the Ralliement du Grand Montréal (Greater Montreal Movement), which brought together Drapeau's opponents. Fournier took also advantage of the support of Québec's premier, Maurice Duplessis.

During his term as mayor, Fournier confined himself to representative functions and acted more as a spectator, mainly because Drapeau's Civic Action League still held a majority on city council. Partly due to this, Drapeau, now running under the banner of the Civic Party of Montreal, defeated him in a 1960 rematch.

His administration was especially marked by the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway, the Boulevard Métropolitain and the candidacy of Montréal for the 1967 World's Fair. After his attempts to run for mayor, Fournier decided to return to the Senate.

title: Sarto Fournier


text:
Seward County

Seward County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Seward County, Kansas
 * Seward County, Nebraska

title: Seward County


text:
Sevier County

Sevier County is the name of several counties in the United States:

 * Sevier County, Arkansas
 * Sevier County, Tennessee
 * Sevier County, Utah

title: Sevier County


text:
List of municipalities in Mississippi

Mississippi is a state in the Southern United States. According to the 2020 United States Census, Mississippi is the 32nd-most populous state, with inhabitants and the 31st largest by land area, spanning 46923.27 sqmi of land. Mississippi is divided into 82 counties and contains 300 municipalities, consisting of cities, towns, and villages. Mississippi's municipalities cover 4.3% of the state's land mass and are home to 50.5% of its population.

Municipalities in Mississippi are classified according to population size. At time of incorporation, municipalities with populations of more than 2,000 are classified as cities, municipalities containing between 301 and 2000 persons are classified as towns, and municipalities between 100 and 300 persons are classified as villages. Places may be incorporated to become a city, town, or village through a petition signed by two-thirds of the qualified voters who reside in the proposed municipality. The major function of municipal governments are to provide services for its citizens such as maintaining roads and bridges, providing law, fire protection, and health and sanitation services.

, the largest municipality by population in Mississippi is Jackson, with 153,701 residents, and the smallest is Satartia, with 41 residents. The largest municipality by land area is Jackson, which spans 111.05 mi2, while Sidon is the smallest, at 0.12 mi2. The city of Natchez is the oldest municipality in Mississippi, incorporated on March 10, 1803, and the city of Gluckstadt is the state's newest municipality, incorporated in June 2021.

title: List of municipalities in Mississippi