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University of Calcutta

The University of Calcutta (informally known as Calcutta University; abbreviated as CU) is a public state university located in Kolkata, West Bengal, India. It has 151 affiliated undergraduate colleges and 16 institutes in Kolkata and nearby areas. It was established on 24 January 1857 and is the oldest multidisciplinary university of Indian Subcontinent and South East Asian Region. Today, the university's jurisdiction is limited to a few districts of West Bengal, but at the time of its establishment it had a catchment area ranging from Kabul to Myanmar. Within India, it is recognized as a "Five-Star University" and accredited an "A" grade by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC).

The university has a total of fourteen campuses spread over the city of Kolkata and its suburbs. As of 2020, 151 colleges and 21 institutes and centres are affiliated with CU. The university was fourth in the Indian University Ranking 2021 list, released by the National Institutional Ranking Framework of the Ministry of Education.

Its alumni and faculty include several heads of state and government, social reformers, prominent artists, the only Indian Dirac Medal winner, many Fellows of the Royal Society and six Nobel laureates as of 2019. The Nobel laureates associated with this university are Ronald Ross, Rabindranath Tagore, C. V. Raman, Amartya Sen, and Abhijit Banerjee.

The university has the highest number of students who have cleared the National Eligibility Test. The University of Calcutta is a member of the United Nations Academic Impact.

Pre-independence
Fredrick John, the education secretary to the British Government in India, first tendered a proposal to them in London for the establishment of a university in Calcutta, along the lines of London University. In July 1854, the Court of Directors of the East India Company sent a dispatch, known as Wood's despatch, to the Governor General of India in Council, to establish universities in Calcutta, Madras and Bombay.

The Calcutta University Act came into force on 24 January 1857, and a 41-member Senate was formed as the policy-making body of the university. The land for the establishment of the university was given by Maharaja Maheshwar Singh Bahadur, who was a Maharaja of Darbhanga. When the university was first established it had a jurisdiction from Kabul to Rangoon and Ceylon, the largest of any Indian university. Calcutta University was the first university east of Suez to teach European classics, English literature, European and Indian philosophy and Occidental and Oriental history. The first medical school in British India, the Calcutta Medical College, was affiliated with the university in 1857. The first college for women in India, Bethune College, is also affiliated with the university.

From 1836 to 1890, Government Science College, Jabalpur, the first Indian science college, was affiliated with the University of Calcutta. The first university library began functioning in the 1870s. Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay and Joddu Nath Bose became the first graduates of the university in 1858, and Kadambini Ganguly and Chandramukhi Basu were the first Indian female graduates in 1882. The first chancellor and vice-chancellor of the Calcutta University were Governor General Lord Canning and Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Sir William Colvile, respectively. Ashutosh Mukherjee was the vice-chancellor for four consecutive two-year terms (1906–1914) and a fifth two-year term in 1921–23. Initially, the university was only an affiliating and examining body. All the academic and teaching work was done in constituent colleges, which were the Presidency College, the Scottish Church College, the Sanskrit College and the Bengal Engineering College. During that period, the Council Room of the Calcutta Medical College and private residence of the vice-chancellor used to house the Senate meetings. The faculty councils generally met at the residences of the presidents of the faculties concerned, in the Civil Engineering College or in the Writers' Building. Because of the lack of space, university examinations were conducted in the Kolkata Town Hall and in tents in the Maidan urban park.

In 1866, a grant of inr 81600 for the site and inr 170561 was sanctioned to construct the new building on College Street. It opened in 1873 and was called Senate House. It had meeting halls for the Senate, a chamber for the vice-chancellor, the office of the registrar, examination rooms and lecture halls. In 1904, postgraduate teaching and research began at the university, which led to an increase in the number of students and candidates. After almost sixty years, a second building, known as the Darbhanga Building, was erected in 1912 with a donation of inr 250000 from Maharaja Maheshwar Singh Bahadur.

The Darbhanga Building housed the University Law College, its library and some university offices and afforded space to hold university examinations on its top floor. In the same year, the Government of British India granted a sum of inr 800000 for the acquisition of a market, Madhab Babu's Bazar, situated adjacent to the Senate House, and construction of a new building for the teaching departments began. It opened in 1926, and was later named the Asutosh Building, after Asutosh Mukherjee, vice-chancellor of the university in 1906–14. Between 1912 and 1914, Taraknath Palit and Rash Behari Ghosh, two eminent lawyers, donated assets totalling inr 2500000, and founded the University College of Science at Upper Circular Road (now known as Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road).

Post-independence
Before the partition of India, twenty-seven colleges from East Bengal (now Bangladesh) were affiliated with the university. The Government of West Bengal passed the Calcutta University Act of 1951, which substituted the earlier act of 1904 and ensured a democratic structure for the university. The West Bengal Secondary Education Act was passed in the same year linking the university with the school leaving examination. Gradually the requirements of the university grew, and the Senate House was becoming incapable of handling them. After the centenary of Calcutta University, the building was demolished to make space for a more utilitarian building. In 1957, the university's centenary year, it received a grant of inr 10000000 from the University Grants Commission, which aided with the construction of the Centenary Building on the College Street campus and the Law College Building on Hazra Road campus. The Economics Department got its own building in 1958 near Barrackpore Trunk Road. In 1965, the Goenka Hospital Diagnostic Research Centre for the University College of Medicine was opened as the university health service. Until 1960, Senate House was one of the city's most prominent landmarks.

In 1968, the Centenary Building opened on the former location of the Senate House. Currently, it houses the Central Library, the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art, the centenary auditorium and a number of university offices. By the mid-1970s, it had become one of the largest universities in the world. It had 13 colleges under its direct control and more than 150 affiliated colleges, along with 16 postgraduate faculties. In the year 2001, the University of Calcutta was awarded the 'Five-Star' status in the first cycle of the university's accreditation by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC). In 2009 and 2017, the NAAC awarded its highest grade of 'A' to the University of Calcutta in the second and third cycle of the university's accreditation. In 2019, the university's central library and 40 departmental libraries were opened to the public. They have over one million books and more than 200,000 journals, proceedings and manuscripts.

Seal
The seal has changed multiple times over the years. The first seal dates back to 1857. It was changed when the Government of India Act 1858 was passed by the British parliament. This brought the government and territories of the East India Company, including the University of Calcutta, under the British Crown. Seal three, four and five were introduced in 1930s, The fourth seal faced criticism locally. The current university seal is the modified version of the sixth seal. The motto Advancement of Learning has remained the same through the seal's transitions.

Campuses
The university has a total of 14 campuses spread over the city of Kolkata and its suburbs. They are referred to as Sikhsa Prangan, which means education premises. Major campuses include the Central Campus (Ashutosh Shiksha Prangan) on College Street, University College of Science, Technology and Agriculture (Rashbehari Shiksha Prangan or Rajabazar Science College or Science College) in Rajabazar, Taraknath Palit Shiksha Prangan in Ballygunge and Sahid Khudiram Siksha Prangan in Alipore. Other campuses include the Hazra Road Campus, the University Press and Book Depot, the B. T. Road Campus, the Viharilal College of Home Science Campus, the University Health Service, the Haringhata Campus, the Dhakuria Lakes (University Rowing Club) and the University Ground and Tent at Maidan.

Asutosh Siksha Prangan
Asutosh Siksha Prangan (commonly called the College Street Campus) is the university's main campus where the administrative work is done. Located on College Street, it is spread over an area of 2.7 acre. It houses the Arts and Language department, administrative offices, museum, the central library, an auditorium etc. Exhibits like folk art of Bengal are present in the Asutosh Museum of Indian Art. Senate House was the first university building situated on this campus; it opened in 1872. In 1960, it was demolished to make way for a larger building, the Centenary Building, which opened in 1968. The Darbhanga Building and the Asutosh Building are the two other buildings opened in 1921 and 1926, respectively.

Rashbehari Siksha Prangan
Rashbehari Siksha Prangan (also known as University College of Science and Technology or more commonly Rajabazar Science College), is located on Acharya Prafulla Chandra Road in Rajabazar. Established in 1914, it houses several scientific and technological departments, including pure and applied chemistry, pure and applied physics, applied optics and photonics, radio physics, applied mathematics, psychology, physiology, biophysics, molecular biology, and others.

Taraknath Palit Siksha Prangan
Taraknath Palit Siksha Prangan (also known as University College of Science or commonly Ballygunge Science College) on Ballygunge Circular Road in the southern part of the city, houses the departments of agriculture, anthropology, biochemistry, microbiology, botany, geography, genetics, statistics, zoology, neuroscience, marine science, biotechnology, and most notably geology, among others. It also houses S. N. Pradhan Centre For Neurosciences and the Institute of Agricultural Science.

Sahid Khudiram Siksha Prangan
Sahid Khudiram Siksha Prangan, commonly known as Alipore Campus, located at Alipore, is the humanities campus of the university. The departments of history, ancient Indian history and culture, Islamic history and culture, South and Southeast Asian studies, archaeology, political science, business management and museology are situated on this campus.

Technology Campus
The Technology Campus, also known as the Tech Camps, is the newest on the university. It brings together the three engineering and technical departments: the Department of Computer Science and Engineering, the A.K.C. School of Information Technology and the Department of Applied Optics and Photonics, in Sector 3, JD Block, Salt Lake.

Governance
The university is governed by a board of administrative officers, which includes the vice-chancellor, pro-vice-chancellor for academic affairs, pro-vice-chancellor for business affairs and finance, the registrar, the university librarian, the inspector of colleges, the system manager and 35 others. They monitor the operation of the university and its affiliated colleges and the university's funding. In 2017, Sonali Chakravarti Banerjee became the 51st vice-chancellor of the university. The university is funded by the University Grants Commission, the Government of West Bengal, other agencies for various research works and by the university's own initiatives like fees, sales proceeds, publications and service charges generated from endowment funds.

Jurisdiction
At one time, the university had a huge catchment area in British India, ranging from Lahore in the west to Rangoon in east and Ceylon in the south. Colleges like Thomason Engineering College (now IIT Roorkee), Muhammedan Anglo-Oriental College (now Aligarh Muslim University) etc. were affiliated to the university. Schools situated in districts like Rawalpindi, Lahore, Jaypur, Cawnpur, Lucknow, and Mussoorie used to prepare and send students for the university entrance examination. No provisions to curtail territorial control were made after establishment of University of Punjab and Allahabad in 1882 and 1887 respectively. After the Indian Universities Act of 1904 came in, however, for the first time, the university's control was curtailed to Bengal (which included Orissa and Bihar), Assam and Burma provinces. In the act, the Governor-General-in-Council was given the power to the limit territorial jurisdiction of the five universities; Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, the Punjab and Allahabad.

Following the Government of British India notification on 20 August 1904, Ceylon went under the University of Madras; provinces, states and agencies of Central India, such as the Central India Agency, Rajputana Agency, United Provinces of Agra and Oudh etc. went to the hands of University of Allahabad; Northern and North-Western provinces and states went under the University of Punjab. Jurisdiction of schools and colleges in Eastern India was retained by Calcutta University. By 1907, two colleges in Punjab, three in the Central Province, five in the State of Rajputana Agency, six in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh and seven in Ceylon were disaffiliated. A series of disaffiliations continued till 1948. Schools and colleges in Orissa and Bihar province went under University of Patna after its establishment in 1917. University of Rangoon was established in 1920 and the Burma region went under it in 1921. In the same year, University of Dacca was established and some colleges in East Bengal went under it and whole control was cut with the partition of India in 1947. In 1948, all the schools and colleges in Assam left the university after the establishment of Gauhati University.

As of 2020, 151 colleges and 22 institutes and centres, in West Bengal are affiliated with the university. Some of the affiliated colleges include: • Asutosh College

• Bangabasi College

• Bethune College

• City College, Kolkata

• Dinabandhu Andrews College

• Goenka College of Commerce and Business Administration

• Gurudas College

• Jogamaya Devi College

• Lady Brabourne College

• Maharaja Manindra Chandra College

• Maulana Azad College

• Sammilani Mahavidyalaya

• Scottish Church College

• Seth Anandaram Jaipuria College

• Surendranath College

• Vidyasagar College

Faculties, departments and centres
The university has 60 departments organized into seven faculties: arts, commerce, social welfare and business management, education, journalism and library science, engineering and technology, fine arts, music and home science, law and science; and an agriculture institute with six departments.

To provide agricultural education and research, the Institute of Agricultural Science was established under the University of Calcutta. It was founded by Pabitra Kumar Sen, who was the Khaira Professor of Agriculture (another endowment chair) in the early 1950s. Initial efforts began as early as 1913, but the first institute was set up only in 1939 at Barrackpore (a city near Kolkata) by the university, following the establishment of the Imperial Council of Agricultural Research (now known as the Indian Council of Agricultural Research) in 1926. Although it was shut down in 1941 due to World War II. Then, in 1954, a postgraduate department in agriculture was started in Ballygunge Science College by the university, with agricultural botany as the only subject; two years later, a Veterinary Science Institute was included and the department was upgraded into a faculty called agriculture and veterinary science. In 2002 university decided to reopen undergraduate agriculture courses in the agricultural experiment farm campus at Baruipur, a city south of Calcutta. In the same year, the department was restructured as a separate Institute of Agricultural Science.

The Faculty of Arts consists of 23 departments; commerce consists of three departments; education, journalism and library science consist of three departments; engineering and technology consist of eight departments; science has 22 departments and home science offers courses on subjects such as food and nutrition, human development, and home science. The Faculty of Law was established in January 1909 as the University College of Law. It was granted status as the university's department of law in February 1996. This campus is popularly known as Hazra Law College. The faculty has many luminaries associated with it, including Rajendra Prasad, Rashbehari Ghose, and Chittaranjan Das.

Admission
For undergraduate courses—Arts (BA), Commerce (B.Com.) and Science (BSc) streams (except engineering courses)—one can apply directly for multiple courses based on their Higher Secondary School Certificate examination or any equivalent exam results. Students are shortlisted according to their marks and the number of places available. For some departments, entrance exams may take place at the sole discretion of the head of the department. Anyone can apply within five years of passing the Higher Secondary Examination. For engineering courses, admission is based on the West Bengal Joint Entrance Examination (WBJEE) rankings. Meanwhile, for postgraduate courses and doctoral degree courses, one has to take an entrance exam or written test given by the university or any national level exam related to the subject, held by the UGC. A merit list is prepared on the basis of the exam results.

Research
Undergraduates may enroll for a three- or four-year program in engineering. Students choose a major when they enter the university, and cannot change it unless they opt later for the university's professional or self-financed postgraduate programs. Science and business disciplines are in high demand, largely in anticipation of better employment prospects. Most programs are organized on an annual basis, though some programs are semester dependent. Most departments offer master's programs of a year or a few years' duration. Research is conducted in specialized institutes as well as individual departments, many of which have doctoral programs.

The University of Calcutta has the largest research center, which started from the 100th Science Congress of India in January 2013. This is the Center for Research in Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (CRNN) on the Technology Campus of CU at Salt Lake, West Bengal. The university has 18 research centres, 710 teachers, 3000 non-teaching staff and 11,000 postgraduate students.

Libraries
The central library at the Asutosh Siksha Prangan was started around the 1870s. Apart from 39 departmental libraries, it has a central library, two campus libraries, and two libraries at the advanced centers spread across the seven campuses. Students of affiliated colleges can also access the central library. The university library has over one million books and more than 200,000 bound journals, proceedings, manuscripts, patents and other valuable collections.

Publishing
The university has its own publishing house called University Press and Publications along with a book depot, which was established in the 20th century. It publishes textbooks, treatises, journals and confidential papers for all the examinations conducted by the university. It also publishes the journal The Calcutta Review, which is one of the oldest Asian university journals. The Calcutta Review was established by Sir John Kaye in May 1844. It has been issued biannually since 1913.

They also have an associated journal with Sage Publishing, Arthaniti: Journal of Economic Theory and Practice.

Rankings
Internationally, the University of Calcutta was ranked 801–1000 in the QS World University Rankings of 2023 and 181 in Asia. It was ranked 1001–1200 in the world by the Times Higher Education World University Rankings of 2023, 401–500 in Asia in 2022 and in the same band among emerging economies. It was ranked 901–1000 in the Academic Ranking of World Universities of 2022.

In India, the University of Calcutta was ranked 23th overall by the National Institutional Ranking Framework (NIRF) in 2023 and 12th among universities.

Accreditation and recognition
In 2001, the University of Calcutta was awarded "Five-Star" status in the first cycle of the university's accreditation by the National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC). In 2009 and 2017, NAAC awarded its highest grade of 'A' to the University of Calcutta in the second and third cycle of the university's accreditation. The UGC recognized the University of Calcutta as a "University with Potential for Excellence", on 8 December 2005. It was also awarded the status of "Centre with Potential for Excellence in Particular Area" in Electro-Physiological and Neuro-imaging studies including mathematical modeling.

The Manuscript Library at the university has also been designated as a "Manuscript Conservation Centre" under the National Mission for Manuscripts, which was established in 2003. The university has the highest number of students who have cleared the doctoral entrance eligibility exam, known as National Eligibility Test, in Natural Science and Arts to become eligible to pursue research with a full scholarship awarded by the Government of India. The university is a member of the United Nations Academic Impact initiative.

Student life
The university has a ground and tent in Maidan, where various sports are played. Inter-college tournaments in sports like football, archery, basketball, and hockey are also organised. The university rowing club started in the year 1983 at Rabindra Sarobar. The Calcutta University Students' Union organises social and cultural activities occasionally, which include blood donation camps, environmental awareness programmes, relief fund collection, teachers day celebrations, and Saraswati puja, among others.

Most of the affiliated undergraduate colleges located in the city have their own student hostels. The university has 17 hostels, of which eight (two for undergraduates and six for post graduates) are for women. A total of 13 hostels are for paying guest students located across the city.

University song
In 1938, the then Vice-Chancellor Syama Prasad Mookerjee asked Rabindranath Tagore to compose a "university song" for the university. Rabindranath composed two songs instead of one— "Cholo Jai, Cholo Jai" and "Subho Karmapathe Dharo Nirvayo Gaan" (in English, "Let's go, let's go" and "Take up fearless song on the path of good deeds" respectively). The former song was adopted and sung by parading students on the university's foundation day on 24 January 1937. In the post centenary golden jubilee year of the university, the latter was adopted as the new university song.

Notable alumni and faculties
The university has produced many scientists, engineers, world leaders, Nobel laureates and teachers. As the oldest university of Bengal and India, it attracts students from diverse walks of life. Nobel laureates who either studied or worked there include Rabindranath Tagore, Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, Ronald Ross, Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee. The Academy Award winning director Satyajit Ray was an alumnus of the university, as was the composer of the national song of India, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, as was Padma Shri Award winning director Tarun Majumdar. Some of the industrialists who studied at the university include Sir Rajen Mookerjee, Rama Prasad Goenka, Lakshmi Mittal, and Aditya Birla. Notable scientists, medical doctors and mathematicians associated with the university include Jagadish Chandra Bose, Prafulla Chandra Ray, Meghnad Saha, Anil Kumar Gain, Satyendra Nath Bose, Subir Kumar Ghosh, Ashoke Sen, Sanghamitra Bandyopadhyay, C. R. Rao, Asima Chatterjee, and Ujjwal Maulik.

Fatima Jinnah, one of the leading founders of Pakistan, studied dentistry at the university. A nationalist leader and former president of the Indian National Congress, co-founder of the Indian National Army, and head of state of the Provisional Government of Free India, Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose also spent some time at the university. Other presidents of the Indian National Congress include Womesh Chandra Bonnerjee, Surendranath Banerjee, Anandamohan Bose, Romesh Chunder Dutt, Bhupendra Nath Bose and Madan Mohan Malaviya. Malaviya was also the founder of the Banaras Hindu University. Among the presidents of India associated with this university are Rajendra Prasad (who studied there) and Sarvapalli Radhakrishnan (who taught there), and Pranab Mukherjee, who both studied and taught at affiliated colleges of the university. The former vice president of India, Mohammad Hamid Ansari studied there, as did a former deputy prime minister of India, Jagjivan Ram.

Many governors of Indian states studied at the university including the first Indian governors of Bihar and Odisha, Lord Satyendra Prasanna Sinha, 1st Baron Sinha of Raipur, Chandeshwar Prasad Narayan Singh, governor of the Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, and Banwari Lal Joshi, the former governor of Delhi, Meghalaya, Uttar Pradesh and the current governor of Uttarakhand. The former rulers of the Indian princely state of Coochbehar and of Saraikela were also alumni of this university, as were colonial-era prime ministers Albion Rajkumar Banerjee of Kashmir and A.K. Fazlul Huq of undivided Bengal.

Among its former students are eight chief ministers of West Bengal: Prafulla Chandra Ghosh, Bidhan Chandra Ray, Prafulla Chandra Sen, Ajoy Mukherjee, Siddhartha Shankar Ray, Jyoti Basu, Buddhadeb Bhattacharya, and Mamata Banerjee; three chief ministers each of Assam: Gopinath Bordoloi, Bishnuram Medhi and Golap Borbora; chief ministers of Bihar: Krishna Sinha, Binodanand Jha and Ram Sundar Das; two chief ministers of Meghalaya: B.B. Lyngdoh and S.C. Marak, and two chief ministers of Madhya Pradesh: Ravishankar Shukla, Kamal Nath. The chief ministers of Manipur, Rishang Keishing, Nagaland, S.C. Jamir and Sikkim B B Gurung were also students. Among the chief justices of the Supreme Court of India associated with the University are Bijan Kumar Mukherjea, Sudhi Ranjan Das, Amal Kumar Sarkar, Ajit Nath Ray, Sabyasachi Mukharji and Altamas Kabir. Others have also served as judges in the Supreme Court, and as chief justices and judges in state high courts.

Heads of state from other countries associated with the university include four presidents of Bangladesh (Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Mohammad Mohammadullah, Abu Sadat Mohammad Sayem, and Abdus Sattar) two prime ministers of Bangladesh (Muhammad Mansur Ali and Shah Azizur Rahman), three prime ministers of Pakistan (Mohammad Ali Bogra, Hussein Shaheed Suhrawardy, and Nurul Amin), the first premier of Burma under British rule, Ba Maw, the first president of Nepal, Ram Baran Yadav, and the first democratically elected prime minister of Nepal, Bishweshwar Prasad Koirala, as well as his successor Tulsi Giri.

One of the prominent indigenous leaders from the Tripuri Community, Birendra Kishore Roaza, also graduated from the University

title: University of Calcutta


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Martwa Wisła

The Martwa Wisła (Tote Weichsel; both literally "dead Vistula") is a river, which is one of the branches of the Vistula, flowing through the city of Gdańsk in northern Poland.

It got its name when this branch of the river became increasingly moribund. A harbor canal was dug up with the Westerplatte on one of its banks. It was constructed to flow through Danzig (Gdańsk) into the Danziger Bucht, now Gdańsk Bay. Its river mouth and environs double as a harbor channel for the Inner Port of the port of Gdańsk.

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User:Joe Grau

Hmmm.... He's an old retired codger who spent almost 30 years working for the US Government in the field of security. For 15 of those years, he taught information security and security program management at the late and lamented Department of Defense Security Institute. He now does some very occasional consulting work and is collaborating on a book on the human factors side of managing security programs.

He has a degree in English and loves to read: history, biography, mysteries and science fiction, mostly.

He wrote this in the third person because he darn well felt like it.

title: User:Joe Grau


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Oliveira de Azeméis

Oliveira de Azeméis is a city and a municipality located in Porto Metropolitan Area in Portugal. Administratively, the municipality belongs to the District of Aveiro. The population of the municipality in 2011 was 68,611, in an area of 161.10 km2. The city itself has a population of about 20,000. Oliveira de Azeméis is located 35 km to the south of Porto. It is less than 20 km far from the Atlantic Ocean. The municipal holiday is the Monday that follows the 2nd Sunday of August.

Facilities
Local facilities include:
 * Hospital de São Miguel
 * Higher education schools
 * Secondary schools
 * Basic schools
 * Regional museum
 * Hotel
 * Post Office
 * Police station
 * Clinic centres
 * Tourism office
 * Library - Biblioteca Municipal Ferreira de Castro

Economy
It is an important industrial center, producing a wide variety of goods such as injection moulds, dairy produce, shoes, car components, steel tubes and other steel materials (Ferpinta), cookware (Silampos and CELAR), springs and mattresses. Among its most well-known companies are Simoldes and Lactogal.

Transportation
It has connection by the following motorways: A1, A29 and A32; and the IC2 expressway. It is served by Francisco Sá Carneiro Airport/Oporto's airport.

Sports
Its most prominent sports club is the União Desportiva Oliveirense (U.D.O.) which fields teams in football, basketball and ring hockey as well as an affiliated cycling team that holds a UCI Continental team licence, the Kelly–Simoldes–UDO (UCI team code: KSU). One other club is Futebol Clube Pinheirense (FCP), it is a club dedicated mostly to football. They have a kids school in partnership with Benfica from Lisbon.

Parishes
Administratively, the municipality is divided into 12 civil parishes (freguesias):
 * Carregosa
 * Cesar
 * Fajões
 * Loureiro
 * Macieira de Sarnes
 * Nogueira do Cravo e Pindelo
 * Oliveira de Azeméis, Santiago de Riba-Ul, Ul, Macinhata da Seixa e Madail
 * Ossela
 * Pinheiro da Bemposta, Travanca e Palmaz
 * São Martinho da Gândara
 * São Roque
 * Vila de Cucujães

Cities and towns
There is one city in the municipality: Oliveira de Azeméis. The towns are
 * Carregosa
 * Cesar
 * Fajões
 * Loureiro
 * Nogueira do Cravo
 * Pinheiro da Bemposta
 * Vila Chã de São Roque
 * Vila de Cucujães

Marian sanctuary
In the centre there is a Marian sanctuary, La-Salette. It was built in order to honor the apparitions of Virgin Mary in the small village of La Salette, Isère, in France. The sanctuary contains the finger of a burglar that tried to steal some precious artifacts (one night a guard shot a burglar with his shotgun and only hit his finger). The finger lies inside an alcohol jar right in front of the chapel.

Notable people

 * Abel Pêra (1891 in Carregosa – 1975) a Portuguese actor based in Brazil.
 * Manuel Pêra (1894 in Carregosa – 1967) a Portuguese actor based in Brazil.
 * Ferreira de Castro (1898–1974) a Portuguese social realist writer and journalist.
 * Julieta Gandra (1917–2007) a doctor, imprisoned for supporting the Angolan War of Independence
 * Carlos da Silva Costa (born 1949) an economist, Governor of the Bank of Portugal, 2010-2020

Sport

 * Adelino Teixeira (born 1952) a Portuguese retired footballer with 322 club caps and 12 for Portugal
 * Bruno Neves (1981–2008) a Portuguese professional road racing cyclist
 * Cátia Azevedo (born 1994) a Portuguese 400 metres sprinter, competed in the 2016 Summer Olympics

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Gabby Pahinui

Philip Kunia Pahinui (April 22, 1921 – October 13, 1980), known as Gabby Pahinui, was a slack-key guitarist and singer of Hawaiian music.

Born into a struggling family, Gabby was born Charles Kapono Kahahawai Jr. and later hānaied with his brother and one of his sisters to Philip and Emily Pahinui and raised in the impoverished district of Kaka'ako in Honolulu in the 1920s ("all tin roofs and kinda falling apart"). He took the name Philip Kunia Pahinui. He spent his childhood supporting his family by selling newspapers and shining shoes. He dropped out of school after 5th grade at the Pohukaina School.

Marriage
Gabby married Emily Pulipuli Pahinui in 1938. He was 17 and she was 19. They remained married until his death. They had 12 children, six boys and six girls.

Early career
Gabby landed a gig as a back-up guitarist for Charley "Tiny" Brown. He quickly mastered the steel guitar (kīkā kila) even learning to read music. Because most musicians of the time only played in bars, Gabby also formed a drinking habit that stuck with him throughout his life.

At the 1st Annual Seattle Slack Key Guitar Festival, his son, Cyril Pahinui, related a story about how Gabby got his name. In his early career, he played steel guitar with an orchestra. The standard costume for the gig was gabardine pants—hence his name.

Cyril told another story, from when Gabby was diving for coins thrown from ships coming to the piers (a common youth activity in Kakaako) : "His hair was kinky, so after swimming and diving for coins, the water would just roll off. So everyone started calling him 'Gabardine Hair.' He also took to wearing gabardine pants, reinforcing Gabby as a nickname."

Though a skilled player of the steel guitar (invented in Hawaii before Blues slide guitar), Gabby is most known for his mastery of traditional Hawaiian slack-key guitar (Kī Hō'alu -"key slackened"- downtuned, usually to an open-string chord with low bass notes, then finger-picked) and his beautiful, expressive vocals. Gabby learned slack-key from Herman Keawe whom Gabby acknowledges as being "the greatest slack-key player of all time." Herman, like Gabby, lived in the Kaka'ako area.

In 1946, Gabby made his first recording, "Hi'ilawe," for the Bell Records label. This may be the first record of a Hawaiian song with slack-key guitar and it inspired many local musicians. The following year came "Hula Medley," the first record of a slack-key guitar instrumental. During this period he made two other influential sides for Bell, the vocal "Wai O Ke Aniani" and the instrumental "Key Koalu" (a misspelling of "Kī Hō'alu"), plus another version of "Hi'ilawe" for Aloha Records.

Pahinui's "Hula Medley," recorded in 1947, was inducted into the U.S. National Recording Registry (2011 group of 25) for cultural, historical or aesthetical significance.

Gabby played with many of the great bands and musicians of his time, including Lena Machado and Ray Kinney. He appeared on Hawaii Calls, a popular international radio show that began in the 1930s. Eventually, Gabby moved his wife Emily and their children to Waimānalo, Oahu, which had become a popular second home location for many musicians. The all-weekend jam sessions at the Pahinui home were legendary.

Examples of his session work from the late 1950s through the 1960s can be found on the two volumes of Hawaiian Slack Key Guitar (Waikiki Records 319 and 320) and two more LPs titled ''Kani Ka Pila! Let's Play Music!'' Volumes 1 and 2 (Hula Records 517, 1966; Hula 531, 1969). These are combo recordings (steel guitar, slack key guitar, uke, bass, vocals, sometimes percussion) made with bandmates such as Atta, Barney, and Norman Isaacs, Charles Kaipo Miller, and a young Peter Moon, and they reflect the style of nightclub music popular around Waikīkī at the time.

A 1961 solo session organized by Hawaii-raised Dave Guard of The Kingston Trio features just Gabby, with bass and 'ukulele backing, doing some of his classic material, including new versions of three of his four 1946–47 tracks. No record company was interested in the material, however, and it was not released until 1978. The final package was Pure Gabby (Hula 567), a two-record set, one LP consisting of the music and the second of an interview conducted by Guard.

Despite his success, Gabby still had financial trouble. He made ends meet by working for City and County of Honolulu road crews, doing pick and shovel work alongside fellow Hawaiian musician Eddie Kamae.

Later career
The Hawaiian Renaissance of the 1970s launched a cultural reawakening of all things Hawaiian. Gabby played a very important part in the rise of this Hawaiian Cultural Renaissance. First there were the albums recorded through the 1960s with the enormously popular and influential Sons of Hawaii, which he started with 'ukulele virtuoso Eddie Kamae: their self-titled debut album (Hula HS 503, 1961); Music of Old Hawai'i (Hula HS 506, 1964); and Folk Music of Hawai'i (Panini 1001, 1971).

Then, starting in 1972, he made four albums with what came to be called the "Gabby Band." The first album featured Gabby backed by four of his sons plus old friends Leland "Atta" Isaacs and bassist Manuel "Joe Gang" Kupahu, but the group eventually expanded to include Sonny Chillingworth, younger-generation players Peter Moon and Randy Lorenzo, and mainland admirer Ry Cooder. The albums are:

 * Gabby (1972; often called "Brown Gabby" or "The Brown Album" because of its sepia cover photo)
 * Rabbit Island Music Festival (1973)
 * Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band, Vol 1 (1975)
 * Gabby Pahinui Hawaiian Band, Vol 2 (1976)

Death and legacy
Gabby Pahinui died of a heart attack on October 13, 1980, aged 59.

The Honolulu Star Bulletin Newspaper reported after Pahinui's death that, "The thing about Gabby Pahinui ... was not only that he was an outstanding musician and entertainer, and a central figure – maybe THE central figure – of the Hawaiian Renaissance in the '70s, but that he was an inspiration to others. Thousands of Hawaiian kids learned that they were worthy as a people because of Gabby's example."

Gabby was mentioned in Israel Kamakawiwoʻole's famous performance of "Somewhere Over the Rainbow/What a Wonderful World" on his 1993 Facing Future album. In the opening moments of the song, Kamakawiwo'ole can be heard saying, "'Kay, this one's for Gabby."

Pahinui received the Hawai'i Academy of Recording Artists Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997. He received a second Hawai'i Academy of Recording Arts Lifetime Achievement Award in 2009 for his work as a member of the Sons of Hawaii.

Pahinui was inducted into the Hawaiian Music Hall of Fame in 2002.

Gabby's children are active in the Hawaiian music scene, notably Cyril Pahinui, James "Bla" Pahinui and Martin Pahinui, all of whom played on the Gabby Band recordings and have since become professional musicians. (Philip, who played on the first two "Gabby Band" albums, chose not to pursue music professionally.)

Final resting place
Hawaiian Memorial Park Cemetery

45-425 Kamehameha Highway

Kaneohe, Hawaii 96744

Lakeside Garden musician area, Lot 8, Section B, Site 4

title: Gabby Pahinui


text:
List of invasions

An invasion is a military offensive in which sizable number of combatants of one geopolitical entity aggressively enter territory controlled by another such entity, generally with the objectives of establishing or re-establishing control, retaliation for real or perceived actions, liberation of previously lost territory, forcing the partition of a country, gaining concessions or access to natural resources or strategic positions, effecting a change in the ruling government, or any combination thereof.

World War I (1914–1918)
See also: World War I timeline

French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1792–1815)
See also: French Revolutionary Wars, Napoleonic Wars

1600–1699

 * 1694 invasion of Lan Xang by Vietnam
 * 1693 invasion of Mongolia by China
 * 1692 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1688–1689 invasion of Britain by the Dutch Republic
 * 1683 invasion of Kingdom of Tungning by the Qing dynasty
 * 1683 invasion of Austria by Ottoman Empire
 * 1677 invasion of Vietnam by a Mạc army
 * 1674 invasion of Brandenburg by Sweden
 * 1673 invasion of Poland by Ottoman Turks
 * 1672 invasion of Dutch Republic by France with English support
 * 1670–1671 invasion of Spanish Panama by the English privateer Henry Morgan
 * 1668 invasion of Spanish Panama by the English privateer Morgan
 * 1668 invasion of Spanish Cuba by the English privateer Morgan
 * 1664 invasion of Austria by Ottoman Empire
 * 1662 invasion of Assam by Bengal
 * 1661–1662 invasion of Dutch Formosa by the Ming loyalists
 * 1655 invasion of western Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by Sweden
 * 1654 invasion of eastern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by Russia
 * 1653 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1650 invasion of Scotland by England
 * 1647 invasion of Ireland by England
 * 1647 invasion of Crete by Ottoman Empire
 * 1644 invasion of the Ming dynasty by the Qing dynasty
 * 1636 invasion of Korea by the Qing dynasty
 * 1630 invasion of Germany by Sweden
 * 1627 invasion of Iceland by Barbary pirates
 * 1627 invasion of Korea by the Later Jin
 * 1625 invasion of western England by Barbary pirates
 * 1625 invasion of Ottoman Istanbul by Zaporozhian Cossacks
 * 1621 invasion of Poland by Ottoman Turks
 * 1609 invasion of Russia by the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth

1500–1599

 * 1596 invasion of Austria by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1594 invasion of Cambodia by Siam
 * 1592 invasion of Burma by Siam
 * 1592–1598 invasion of Korea by Japan
 * 1589 invasion of Poland by the Crimean Khanate
 * 1585 invasion of Lanzarote of the Canary Islands by Barbary pirates
 * 1578 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1563–1569 invasion of Siam by Burma
 * 1573 invasion of Venetian Corfu by Ottoman Turks
 * 1572 invasion of Spanish Nombre de Dios by the English privateer Drake
 * 1571 invasion of Russia by Crimean Khanate
 * 1571 invasion of Venetian Corfu by Ottoman Turks
 * 1565 invasion of Malta by Ottoman Empire
 * 1552 invasion of Kazan Khanate by Russia
 * 1551 invasion of Tripoli by Ottoman Empire
 * 1551 invasion of Gozo by Ottoman Empire
 * 1548–1549 invasion of Siam by Burma
 * 1537 invasion of Venetian Corfu by Ottoman Turks
 * 1537 invasion of Vietnam by a Ming army
 * 1527–1543 invasion of Ethiopia by Adal Sultanate
 * 1529 invasion of Austria by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1526 invasion of Hungary by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1522 invasion of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1515 invasion of Duchy Of Milan by France
 * 1513 invasion of Duchy Of Milan by Papal-hired Swiss mercenaries and Republic of Venice
 * 1512 invasion of Spain by Barbary pirates
 * 1506 invasion of Poland by Crimean Tatars

1300–1499

 * 1499 invasion of Duchy Of Milan by France

 * 1492 invasion of the Americas by Spain
 * 1492 invasion of Granada by Spain
 * 1480 invasion of Rhodes by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1478 invasion of Kingdom of Lan Xang by Vietnam
 * 1471 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1453 invasion of Byzantium by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1446 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1431 invasion of Venetian Corfu by Ottoman Turks
 * 1429 invasion of Malta by the Hafsids
 * 1427 invasion of Vietnam by a Ming army
 * 1421 invasion of Egypt by the Kingdom of Cyprus
 * 1415 invasion of France by the Kingdom of England.
 * Turkoman invasions of Georgia 1407–1502
 * 1407 invasion of Vietnam by China
 * 1403 invasion of Venetian Corfu by the Republic of Genoa

 * 1402 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1389 invasion of Serbia by the Ottoman Empire
 * 1389 invasion of Vietnam by the Kingdom of Champa
 * 1385–1387 invasion of Caucasus and Northwest Iran by the Golden Horde
 * 1382–1383 invasion of Russia by the Golden Horde
 * 1377 invasion of Vietnam by the Kingdom of Champa
 * 1372 invasion of Vietnam by the Kingdom of Champa
 * 1361 invasion of Vietnam by the Kingdom of Champa
 * 1333 invasion of Scotland by "The Disinherited" and England
 * 1332 invasion of Scotland by "The Disinherited" from England
 * 1312 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1300 invasion of Flanders by France

Timurid invasions

 * 1386–1403 Timur's invasions of Georgia
 * 1400–1402 invasion of Iraq, Syria and Anatolia
 * 1399 invasion of Ukraine
 * 1398–1399 invasion of northern India
 * 1394–1396 invasion of Golden Horde (second)
 * 1389–1391 invasion of Golden Horde (first)
 * 1380–1393 invasion of Persia
 * 1370s invasion of Transoxiana and Khwarezm

1200–1299

 * 1297 invasion of Monaco by an Italian army
 * 1296 invasion of Scotland by England
 * 1291 invasion of Acre by the Mamluks
 * 1268 invasion of Antioch by the Mamluks
 * 1246 invasion of Thessaloniki by the Byzantine Empire
 * 1224 invasion of the Kingdom of Thessaloniki by the Byzantine Despotate of Epirus
 * 1218 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1216 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1204 invasion of Thessaloniki by the Fourth Crusade
 * 1204 invasion of Constantinople by Venice and the Fourth Crusade
 * 1203 invasion of Constantinople by Venice and the Fourth Crusade
 * 1202 invasion of Hungary-Croatia by Venice and the Fourth Crusade

Mongol invasions

 * 1299 invasion of Syria (third invasion)
 * 1293 invasion of Java
 * 1288 raid against Vietnam
 * 1287 raid against Poland
 * 1287 invasion of Vietnam (third attempt)
 * 1285 raid against Bulgaria
 * 1285 raid against Vietnam
 * 1284–1285 invasion of Hungary
 * 1284 invasion of Vietnam (second attempt)
 * 1283 invasion of Kingdom of Champa
 * 1281 invasion of Syria (second invasion)
 * 1281 invasion of Japan
 * 1279 invasion of Southern China
 * 1277, 1287 invasion of Myanmar
 * 1275 raid against Lithuania
 * 1274 raid against Bulgaria
 * 1274 invasion of Japan
 * 1259 invasion of Syria (first invasion)
 * 1259 raid against Lithuania and Poland
 * 1258–1259 invasion of Halych-Volynia
 * 1258 raid against Vietnam
 * 1258 invasion of Baghdad
 * 1257 invasion of Vietnam (first attempt)
 * 1254 invasions of Korea (sixth campaign)
 * 1251–1259 invasion of Persia, Syria and Mesopotamia (Timour)
 * 1251 invasion of Korea (fifth campaign)
 * 1247 invasion of Korea (fourth campaign)
 * 1244 invasion of Anatolia
 * 1242 invasion of Serbia, Bulgaria, Wallachia
 * 1241 invasion of Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, Bohemia, Austria
 * 1240 Mongol invasions of Tibet
 * 1240 invasion of Ukraine
 * 1237–1238 invasion of Russia
 * 1235 invasion of Korea (third campaign)
 * 1232 invasion of Korea (second campaign)
 * 1231 invasion of Korea (first campaign)
 * 1222, 1241, 1257, 1292, 1298, 1306, 1327 invasion of India
 * 1220–1224 invasion of Georgians and the Cumans of the Caucasus, the Kuban, Astrakhan, Russia, Ukraine
 * 1218–1220 invasion of Khwarizm (Iran)
 * 1211–1234 invasion of Northern China
 * 1205–1209 invasion of Western China

900 AD –1199 AD

 * 1195 invasion of Spain by Almohads
 * 1191 invasion of Jaffa by England (Third Crusade)
 * 1191 invasion of Acre by France, Conrad of Montferrat and England (Third Crusade)
 * 1191 invasion of Cyprus by England (Third Crusade)
 * 1189 invasion of Iconium by the Holy Roman Empire (Third Crusade)
 * 1189 invasion of Kingdom of Jerusalem by Ayyubids (Egypt)
 * 1177 invasion of Angkor by Rival Chams based in Central Vietnam
 * 1171, 1173, 1177, 1183, 1187 invasion of Kingdom of Jerusalem by Ayyubids (Egypt)
 * 1169 Invasion of Ireland by the Anglo-Normans
 * 1167 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1163, 1164, 1167, 1168 invasion of Egypt by Kingdom of Jerusalem
 * 1161–1165 invasion of the Southern Song dynasty by the Jin dynasty
 * 1132 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1128 invasion of Vietnam by Kingdom of Champa
 * 1125–1142 invasion of the Northern Song dynasty by the Jin dynasty
 * 1115–1118 invasion of Egypt by Kingdom of Jerusalem
 * 1113 invasion of Kingdom of Jerusalem by Seljuk Turks
 * 1110 invasion of Kalinga by Chola
 * 1104 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1102,1103,1105 invasion of Kingdom of Jerusalem by Egypt
 * 1099 invasion of Jerusalem by the First Crusade
 * 1097–1098 invasion of Antioch by the First Crusade
 * 1097 invasion of Kalinga by Chola
 * 1091 invasion of Malta by the Normans
 * 1091 invasion of Byzantine Empire by Petchenegs
 * 1086 Invasion of Spain by Almoravids
 * 1085 invasion of Antioch by the Seljuk Turks
 * 1080s invasions of the Georgian Kingdom by the Seljuk Turks
 * 1075 invasion of China by Vietnam
 * 1074–1075 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1071 invasion of Byzantine Empire by Seljuk Turks
 * 1069 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1068 invasion of Egypt by the Seljuk Turks
 * 1066 invasion of England by Norwegian and Norman forces
 * 1053–54 invasion of Malta by the Byzantine Empire
 * 1044 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1043 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1028–1029 invasion of Norway by Canute the Great from Anglo-Saxon England
 * 1025 invasion of Srivijaya by Chola
 * 1020 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 1019 invasion of Kyushu, Japan by Jurchen pirates
 * 1018 invasion of Lanka (Sri Lanka) by Chola
 * 1015–1016 invasion of Anglo-Saxon England by Danish, Norwegian, Jomsviking and Polish forces led by Canute the Great
 * 1000 invasion of North America by Vikings
 * 993–1019 invasion of Korea by Khitan
 * 982 invasion of Kingdom of Champa by Vietnam
 * 981 invasion of Vietnam by Song forces
 * 969 invasion of Antioch by the Byzantine Empire
 * 968 invasion of Kievan Rus by Petchenegs
 * 955 invasion of Germany by Magyars
 * 938 invasion of Vietnam by Southern Han forces
 * 919–921 Second Fatimid invasion of Egypt
 * 914–915 First Fatimid invasion of Egypt

Before 900 AD

 * 870 invasion of Malta by the Aghlabids
 * 793 invasion of BritainLindisfarne by Vikings
 * 782 Abbasid invasion of Asia Minor by Arabs
 * 772 invasion of Saxony by Charlemagne
 * 763 invasion of Tang China by Tibetans
 * 732 invasion of France by Arabs
 * 718 invasion of Byzantine Empire by Arabs
 * 711–718 invasion of Visigothic Hispania by a Moorish army of the second caliphate
 * 657 invasion of the Western Turkic Khaganate by China
 * 651 invasion of Champa and Vietnam by the third caliphate
 * 648 invasion of Karasahr by the Tang dynasty
 * 645–668 invasion of Korea by the Tang dynasty
 * 644 invasion of Karasahr by the Tang dynasty
 * 642–711 invasion of Algeria by the Umayyads
 * 640 invasion of Karakhoja by the Tang dynasty
 * 639–640 invasion of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate by China
 * 639–641 invasion of Egypt by the second caliphate
 * 636 invasion of Antioch by the second caliphate
 * 633–651 invasion of Sasanian Empire by the first caliphate
 * 602 invasion of Vietnam by a Sui army
 * 600 invasion of Antioch by the Byzantine Empire
 * 586 invasion of Byzantine Empire by Persia
 * 598–614 invasion of Korea by China
 * 544 invasion of Vietnam by Chen Baxian
 * 543 invasion of Vietnam by Kingdom of Champa
 * 543 Roman invasion of Persarmenia by the Byzantine Empire
 * 540 invasion of Antioch by the Sasanid Empire
 * 520 or 525 invasion of Yemen by Ethiopia (Kingdom of Aksum)
 * 440 Huns invade the Eastern Roman Empire
 * 429 invasion of the Iberian peninsula by the Visigoths
 * 409 invasion of the Iberian peninsula by Vandals and Alans
 * 409 invasion of the NW of the Iberian peninsula by Suebians
 * 406 invasion of Gallia by Vandals, Alans and Suebians
 * 363 invasion of Persia by the Roman Empire
 * 349 invasion of Meroe by Ethiopia (Kingdom of Aksum)
 * 249 invasion of Roman Empire by Persia
 * 43 AD invasion of Vietnam by a Han army
 * 43 AD invasion of Britain by the Roman Empire
 * 56 and 55 BC invasions of Britain by the Roman Republic
 * 58 and 57 BC invasions of France (Gaul) by the Roman Republic
 * 65 BC invasion of Georgia (Colchis and Iberia) by the Roman Republic
 * 111 BC invasion of Vietnam by a Han army
 * 121 BC invasion of France (Celtic Gaul) by the Roman Republic
 * 149 BC invasion of Carthago by the Roman Republic
 * 208 BC invasion of Vietnam by China
 * 218 BC invasion of Vietnam by a Qin army
 * 219 BC invasion of Lusitania by the Roman Republic
 * 221 BC invasion of Vietnam by Qin Shi Huang
 * 258 BC invasion of Vietnam by Âu Việt tribe led by Thục Phán
 * 279 BC invasion of Balkans by Gauls
 * Approximately between 18th–13th century BC invasion of Canaan by Joshua and the Israelites
 * Approximately between 22nd–21st century BC invasion of Vietnam by Ân tribes.

Peloponnesian War
431–404 BC multiple invasions of Athens and allies by Sparta and allies; multiple invasions of Spartan allies by Athens and allies

Persian invasions of Greece

 * 480–479 BCE Second Persian invasion of Greece
 * 492–490 BCE First Persian invasion of Greece

title: List of invasions


text:
Hans Peter Keller

Hans-Peter Keller (11 March 1915 – 11 May 1988) was a German poet who authored several poem collections, e.g. Auch Gold rostet (Even Gold Rusts) or Panoptikum aus dem Augenwinkel (Panopticum seen from the corner of the eye). In the 1960s Hans-Peter Keller was teacher of literature at the vocational school for librarians in Düsseldorf.

title: Hans Peter Keller


text:
Alfred Romer

Alfred Sherwood Romer (December 28, 1894 – November 5, 1973) was an American paleontologist and biologist and a specialist in vertebrate evolution.

Biography
Alfred Romer was born in White Plains, New York, the son of Harry Houston Romer and his wife, Evalyn Sherwood. He was educated at White Plains High School.

He studied at Amherst College for his Bachelor of Science Honours degree in biology, then at Columbia University for an M.Sc. in biology and a doctorate in zoology in 1921. Romer joined the department of geology and paleontology at the University of Chicago as an associate professor in 1923. He was an active researcher and teacher. His collecting program added important Paleozoic specimens to Chicago's Walker Museum of Paleontology. In 1934 he was appointed professor of biology at Harvard University. In 1946, he became director of the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ). Romer was elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1937. In 1951, he was elected to the American Philosophical Society. In 1954 Romer was awarded the Mary Clark Thompson Medal from the National Academy of Sciences, of which he was a member. He was awarded the academy's Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal in 1956. In 1961, Romer received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement.

Evolutionary research
Romer was a keen practical student of vertebrate evolution. Comparing facts from paleontology, comparative anatomy, and embryology, he taught the basic structural and functional changes that happened during the evolution of fishes to ancestral terrestrial vertebrates and from these to all other tetrapods. He always emphasized the evolutionary significance of the relationship between form and function of animals and their environment.

Through his textbook Vertebrate Paleontology, Romer laid the foundation for the traditional classification of vertebrates. He drew together the then widely scattered taxonomy of the different vertebrate groups and combined them into a single scheme, emphasizing orderliness and overview. Based on his research into early amphibians, he reorganised the labyrinthodontians. Romer's classification has been followed by many subsequent authors, notably Robert L. Carroll, and is still in use.

Taxonomic patronyms
In honor of Alfred Romer, several taxonomic patronyms were given in animals:
 * Romeriida is the name for a clade that contains the diapsids and their closest relatives.
 * Romeria is a genus of early captorhinids.
 * Romeriscus is a genus from the early Pennsylvanian (Late Carboniferous) initially described as the oldest known amniote, but this is because limnoscelids were, at that time, considered amniotes by some authors. A subsequent study showed that the fossil lacks diagnostic characters and can only be assigned to Tetrapoda.
 * Dromomeron romeri is a species of non-dinosaurian dinosauromorph named in July 2007. The genus name means 'running femur,' and the species name honors the paleontologist, a key figure in evolution research. The finding of these fossils was hailed as a breakthrough proving dinosaurs and other dinosauromorphs "lived together for as long as 15 to 20 million years."

Romer's gap
Romer was the first to recognise the gap in the fossil record between the tetrapods of the Devonian and the later Carboniferous period, a gap that has borne the name Romer's gap since 1995.

Romerogram
A romerogram, also called spindle diagram, or bubble diagram, is a diagram popularised by Alfred Romer. It represents taxonomic diversity (horizontal width) against geological time (vertical axis) in order to reflect the variation of abundance of various taxa through time.

Books

 * Romer, A.S. 1933. Vertebrate Paleontology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (2nd ed. 1945; 3rd ed. 1966)
 * Romer, A.S. 1933. Man and the Vertebrates. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (2nd ed. 1937; 3rd ed. 1941; 4th ed., retitled The Vertebrate Story, 1949)
 * Romer, A.S. 1949. The Vertebrate Body. W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia. (2nd ed. 1955; 3rd ed. 1962; 4th ed. 1970)
 * Romer, A.S. 1949. The Vertebrate Story. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. (4th ed. of Man and the Vertebrates)
 * Romer, A.S. 1956. Osteology of the Reptiles. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
 * Romer, A.S. 1968. Notes and Comments on Vertebrate Paleontology. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
 * Romer, A.S. & T.S. Parsons. 1977. The Vertebrate Body. 5th ed. Saunders, Philadelphia. (6th ed. 1985)

title: Alfred Romer


text:
User:Alem~enwiki

Hi. My name is Alem Jasarevic, 22 years old, and I study at BI - Norwegian School of Management -

title: User:Alem~enwiki


text:
Deba bōchō

Deba bōchō (出刃包丁) are Japanese style kitchen knives primarily used to cut fish, though also used when cutting meat. They come in different sizes, sometimes up to 30 cm (12 inches) in length. The deba bōchō first appeared during the Edo period in Sakai. It is designed to behead and fillet fish. Its thickness, and often a more obtuse angle on the back of the heel allow it to cut off the heads of fish without damage. The rest of the blade is then used to ride against the fish bones, separating the fillet.

Maintenance
Traditionally, deba knives are made of carbon steel, which needs regular maintenance and oiling to prevent rust. However, many modern knives are also available in stainless steel. The carbon steel blades can be honed into a sharper cutting edge. The deba is not intended for chopping large diameter bones.

title: Deba bōchō


text:
Donabe

Donabe (Japanese: 土鍋, literally "earthenware pot") are pots made out of a special clay for use over an open flame in Japanese cuisine, and in the case of semi-stoneware Banko ware of high petalite content. Often, the food is cooked at the table on a gas burner for various nabemono dishes such as shabu-shabu and dishes served simmering including nabeyaki udon. They are sized by sun, one of the Japanese units of measurement.

The donabe is usually glazed on the inside and porous on the outside. While the material is similar to earthenware or stoneware, donabe can be used over an open flame as well as in an oven if three precautions are taken. First, the outside of the donabe should be dry before use, as moisture within the clay will expand in the heat and may chip or crack the pot. Secondly, the pot should be heated gradually to reduce the possibility of cracks due to heat stress. Third, the pot should never be left over the flame while empty.

Donabe is a traditional cooking vessel. It is made from a clay that is porous and coarse. In the area around Iga, Iga-yaki (Iga-style) donabe, have been made since 1832; Iga-yaki pottery in general dates back to the 7th century and is highly valued. It became particularly popular for donabe during the Edo Period. The highest-quality donabe can take two weeks to make. There are multiple styles of donabe made for the preparation of different dishes. Donabe can be used over an open flame, and food is often served out of the donabe.

A culture surrounding donabe developed called "nabe o kakomu", which means "surrounding the pot" or a communal meal. The concept has been featured repeatedly in the media and in donabe cookbooks.

With use, donabe develop a patina of crackling of the interior glaze called kannyu. This patina is valued as a sign of character.

If properly treated, these pots should last for decades and a few special ones have survived for centuries. When a new donabe is obtained, one should let the donabe boil water for hours and dry before using it for cooking. Other sources suggest that the user should simply fill the donabe with water and let it sit overnight. This process should be repeated if the donabe has been unused for a long time.

In old ryoutei of Kyoto, decades-old donabe would be stored and only used for special guests. Young donabe would be used for preparing lunch menus and food for cooks, to age them for this purpose.

Donabe is produced by potters of Banko ware, Iga ware, Shigaraki ware, and Mashiko ware.

The pots are made by kneading clay, then forming and trimming the formed vessels. They are partially dried and then knobs and handles applied. After another period of drying, they are fired, glazed, and fired again.

title: Donabe


text:
Suribachi

Suribachi (擂鉢, lit. "grinding-bowl") and surikogi (擂粉木, lit. "grind-powder-wood") are a Japanese mortar and pestle. These mortars are used in Japanese cooking to crush different ingredients such as sesame seeds.

The suribachi is a pottery bowl, glazed on the outside and with a rough pattern called kushi-no-me on the unglazed inside. This surface is somewhat similar to the surface of the oroshigane (grater). The surikogi pestle is made from wood to avoid excessive wear on the suribachi. Traditionally, the wood from the sanshō tree (Japanese prickly ash) was used, which adds a slight flavor to the food, although nowadays other woods are more common. The bowls have a diameter from 10 to 30 cm. To use the suribachi the bowl is set on a non-slip surface, such as a rubber mat or a damp towel, and the surikogi is used to grind the material. Recently, plastic versions of the suribachi have also become popular, but they have a much shorter lifespan. The suribachi and surikogi arrived in Japan from China around 1000 AD. The mortar was first used for medicine, and only later for food products. A larger sized Japanese mortar used to pound rice is an usu with a pestle called kine.

The highest mountain on Iwo Jima, Mount Suribachi, was named after this kitchen device.

title: Suribachi


text:
List of Japanese cooking utensils

The following items are common Japanese cooking tools used in preparing Japanese cuisine. For a list of general cooking tools see the list of food preparation utensils.

Knives

 * Deba bōchō: kitchen carver for meat and fish
 * Fugu hiki, Tako hiki, and yanagi ba: sashimi slicers
 * Nakiri bōchō and usuba bōchō: vegetable knives for vegetables
 * Oroshi hocho and hancho hocho: extremely long knives to fillet tuna
 * Santoku: general purpose knife influenced by European styles
 * Udon kiri and soba kiri: knife to make udon and soba
 * Unagisaki hōchō: eel knife

Pots, pans, and bowls

 * Abura kiri: drainer tray for oils
 * Agemono nabe: deep frying pot
 * Donabe: ceramic pot for use on an open flame
 * Hangiri: rice barrel
 * Makiyakinabe: rectangular pan for tamagoyaki
 * Mushiki and seiro: steamers
 * Otoshi buta: drop lid
 * Suihanki/rice cooker: electric appliance for cooking rice
 * 'suribachi and surikogi': grinding mortar and pestle
 * Takoyaki pan: frying pan for takoyaki
 * Tetsubin: cast iron kettle
 * Tetsunabe: cast iron pot (common for sukiyaki)
 * Usu and kine: large mortar and pestle for pounding rice

Other kitchen tools

 * Ami jakushi: scoop with a net bottom
 * Iki jime: awl or spike, used on fish's brain
 * Katsuobushi kezuriki: mandoline-like device traditionally used to shave katsuobushi
 * Kushi: skewers
 * Makisu: bamboo mat for sushi rolls
 * Oroshigane: graters
 * Oshizushihako: boxes for pressed sushi
 * Saibashi: Japanese kitchen chopsticks
 * Shamoji: rice paddle
 * Tsukemonoki and tsukemonoishi: Japanese-style pickle press
 * Urokotori: fish scaler
 * Zaru: bamboo draining basket

Serving tools

 * Jūbako: tiered boxes
 * Shokado bento: bento box

title: List of Japanese cooking utensils


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Oroshigane

"grating metal" (おろし金/下ろし金), also known as oroshiki (下ろし器), are graters used in Japanese cooking.

differ significantly from Western-style graters, as they produce a much finer grating. Traditionally, these graters were tin-coated copper plates with many small spikes gouged out of the metal, but no actual perforations through the metal. These graters are still considered the best and are used by professional chefs. For preparing wasabi and, graters with the surface made from shark skin were exclusively used. These have an even finer grating surface than a metal one; much closer to a sanding paper. However, nowadays non-professional cooks usually use much less expensive graters made from other metals, plastic, or ceramics. A modern variation of these graters also has perforations and may come with a matching box so that the grated material drops through the grater into the box.

There are two versions of the grater in common use with different coarseness. The coarse grater is used to grate and similar foodstuffs, whereas the fine graters are used for grating wasabi or ginger. The fine graters are also sometimes sold as a wooden board covered with shark skin, which has many tiny teeth (dermal denticles) and give it a feel similar to sandpaper.

title: Oroshigane


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Abura kiri

Abura kiri (油きり) is a shallow tray used in Japanese cooking to place food on after deep frying. The shallow tray or pan has a rack and an absorbent paper towel to remove excess oil from the food after frying, as for example in tempura.

The Abura kiri is usually used in combination with metal ended Japanese kitchen chopsticks, a net ladle or scoop ami shakushi, and a heavy frying pot agemono nabe.

title: Abura kiri


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Zaru

A zaru (笊, ざる) is generally a flat or shallow basket made from bamboo used in the preparation and presentation of Japanese cuisine. It also has variations made of plastic or metal similar to a strainer, sieve or colander.

Zaru are air dried after use to prevent the growth of bacteria or fungi on the mat and extend their lifespan. However, drying in harsh sunlight can cause the bamboo of the zaru to crack.

Reflecting the zaru's capacity to soak up liquid, this term is also used as slang for a person who can drink a lot of alcohol without showing signs of inebriation.

title: Zaru


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Agemono nabe

Agemono nabe (Japanese: 揚げ物鍋, literally: pot for fried things) are very thick pots used for deep frying in the Japanese kitchen. They are made usually of either cast iron or heavy brass. The thickness ensures an even temperature of the oil inside of the pot.

The agemono nabe is usually used in combination with metal-ended Japanese kitchen chopsticks, a net ladle or scoop ami shakushi, and a tool to drain the oil after frying abura kiri.

title: Agemono nabe


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Ami jakushi

Ami jakushi (網杓子) is a skimmer used in the Japanese kitchen. The skimmer is made from a fine wire mesh and is used to remove small pieces of unwanted food or foam from a liquid. For example, in deep frying, the ami jakushi is used to remove small drops of batter during the frying of tempura. Another example would be the removal of foam from a miso soup to achieve a more pleasing aesthetic.

title: Ami jakushi


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Makisu

In Japanese cooking, a makisu (巻き簾) is a small mat woven from bamboo and cotton string that is used in food preparation. Makisu are most commonly used to make a kind of rolled sushi called makizushi (巻き寿司), commonly called maki. They are also used to shape other soft foods such as omelets, and to squeeze excess liquid out of food.

A makisu is usually 25 cm × 25 cm, although they come in various sizes. Generally, there are two variations, one with thin flat bamboo strips and the other with small cylindrical strips (see attached photo). Some cooks cover the makisu with plastic film before use to reduce the cleaning effort. This is especially necessary for producing uramaki (裏巻), a kind of maki with the rice on the outside of the roll. After use, a makisu should be scrubbed to remove food particles and thoroughly air dried to avoid the growth of bacteria and fungi. Makisu are inexpensive so people can simply dispose of them after use.

Makisu is called 김발 (Kimbal) or 김밥말이 (Kimbap Mali) in Korea and is used to roll 김밥 (kimbap).

title: Makisu


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Makiyakinabe

Makiyakinabe are square or rectangular cooking pans used to make Japanese-style rolled omelettes (tamagoyaki). The pans are commonly made from metals such as copper and tin, and can also be coated with a non-stick surface. Dimensions and proportions of the pan vary among regions of Japan, but it is always rectangular. Rolled omelettes made with makiyakinabe are commonly used as a side dish in sushi and bentō.

Etymology
Several names are used to refer to the pan, such as makiyakinabe (巻き焼き鍋), tamagoyaki-ki (玉子焼き器), and tamagoyakinabe (玉子焼き鍋). Occasionally, the implement is simply referred to as a Japanese omelette pan. The term makiyakinabe derives from the Japanese words maki (巻き), meaning "roll", yaki (焼き), which is an umbrella term for "cooking over heat", and nabe (鍋), which means "pan". The terms tamagoyaki-ki and tamagoyakinabe both refer to the rolled omelettes that are typically made with the pan, with ki (器) meaning "implement" in the former phrase.

Design and use
The rectangular shape of the pan facilitates a constant diameter over the length of the omelette, giving the omelette its bar-like shape once rolled. Most professional pans are made of heavy copper coated or lined with tin, with these materials being preferred for their heat conduction. A cheaper, nonstick variety is a common alternative to the copper pan. There are three types of makiyakinabe: Kantō-type, Kansai-type, and Nagoya-type. Kantō-type pans are square, Kansai-type pans are tall-and-thin rectangles, and Nagoya-type pans are short-and-wide rectangles. In the Kantō region, makiyakinabe is typically used with a thick wooden lid that is used to help flip the omelette. In Japanese cuisine, makiyakinabe pans are used for making sweet or savory tamagoyaki, sometimes called dashimaki tamago when dashi is used, or usuyaki tamago (thin, one-layer omelette).

A tamagoyaki dish starts as a single layer of rectangular omelette, but before it fully cooks and sets, it is folded over perhaps a third of a way onto itself by picking up a flap by the edge using Japanese kitchen chopsticks; the doubled layer is flipped onto the remaining sheet. More of the beaten egg mixture is added, and the flipping/ rolling process is repeated. The finished product is a rectangular block of layered omelette.

The pan must be slicked with only a very thin coating of oil. To achieve this, the pan is wiped with a paper towel or piece of cloth daubed with oil. A piece of absorbent cotton ball (or cotton pad) is also sometimes utilised for this purpose.

Some recipes caution that the egg should not be allowed to brown at all, but this depends on the type of omelette, in other recipes the egg is allowed to turn golden-brown on its layers. Among the tamagoyaki stalls formerly at the Tsukiji Market, there are offerings with slight searing (焼き目) or browning on them.

Tamagoyaki
The rolled omelette made in makiyakinabe can be used as a topping for nigirizushi. Some sushi chefs make versions of the omelette using eggs mixed with shrimp paste and grated (a cultivar of the Chinese yam Dioscorea polystachya); this thick mixture is not cooked in layers but poured entirely up to the brim of the pan, cooked for perhaps 30 minutes, then flipped so the top and bottom are caramelized to a brown color and the omelette remains yellow and pliable within.

Varieties of the omelette depend on its thickness. Thinner varieties are used as garnishes or as wrappers which are formed into pouches that are filled with sushi rice. Thicker omelettes are more common and are used for nigirizushi and chirashizushi'' bowls.  When shredded and used as a garnish, the omelette is called kinshi tamago, or golden thread egg. ''

Tamagoyaki can be eaten as a snack, side dish, or breakfast food. The omelettes are a common inclusion in bentō boxes.

title: Makiyakinabe


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Japanese kitchen knife

A Japanese kitchen knife is a type of kitchen knife used for food preparation. These knives come in many different varieties and are often made using traditional Japanese blacksmithing techniques. They can be made from stainless steel, or hagane, which is the same kind of steel used to make Japanese swords. Most knives are referred to as hōchō (包丁/庖丁) or the variation -bōchō in compound words (because of rendaku) but can have other names including -kiri (〜切り). There are four general categories used to distinguish the Japanese knife designs: handle (Western vs. Japanese), blade grind (single bevel vs. double bevel), steel (stainless vs. carbon), and construction (laminated vs. monosteel).

Handles
Western handles typically have a bolster and a full or partial tang. These handles are often heavier but are smaller in volume and surface area than most Japanese handles. The scale materials are often synthetic or resin-cured wood and are non-porous. Chefs who prefer the feel of a Western handle enjoy a more handle-heavy balance and grip the handle closer to the blade. This allows for more weight in the cut.

Japanese handles, on the other hand are often made of ho wood which is burned in and friction fitted to a hidden tang. A buffalo horn bolster caps the handle-blade junction and helps to prevent splitting. This allows easy installation and replacement. The wood is porous and fine-grained, which makes it less likely to split, and helps retain its grip. More decorative woods, such as ebony, yew, cherry, or chestnut, may be made into handles, though they are heavier and often charred on the outside to improve grip and water resistance. If they are not cured well or properly cared for, these decorative woods will crack more easily when exposed to moisture. Pak, or Pakka wood is a laminated wood also used on less expensive knives commonly replacing either the buffalo horn bolster or both the bolster and the handle. As it is held in a synthetic resin it is not porous and is waterproof. The most common wood variant is chestnut.

The most common shape is an octagon which is made with a slight taper towards the blade. Another common shape is the d shape, which is an oval handle with a ridge running along the same side as the edge bevel (right side of handle for a right handed knife). A chef that prefers a knife with more weight in the blade, their knife to be lighter overall, to have a larger handle, or one who wants to replace their knife handle more easily, will often turn to a Japanese handle.

Blades
Traditional Western knives are made with a double bevel, which tapers symmetrically to the cutting edge on each side. Single bevel knives, which only taper to one side (typically the right), can require more care and expertise when both using and in sharpening. Japan adopted French and German cutlery ideas during the Meiji period in the late 19th century, integrating them into Japanese cutting techniques and culture. Japanese knives are often flatter than their European counterparts.
 * katsuobushi-kiri (鰹節 切): This knife is used to slice thin scales of bonito (katsuobushi) in preparation to use it as an ingredient in many dishes. The blade is short, about 65mm in length and resembles a wood carving knife.

 * Gyuto (牛刀): (beef-knife) This knife is known as the chef's knife used for professional Western cuisine. When preparing vegetables, it is used in the form of chopping or thrust-cutting near the heel of the knife. The gyuto is used to rock-chop stiffer produce and to make fine cuts at the tip of the knife. It is used for many different cuts of meat. For larger cuts it is used to saw back and forth. It is used to pull-cut softer meats and push-cut more muscular cuts of meat. There is usually a slope from the heel of the knife to the tip, causing the wrist to point down and the shoulder to raise when cutting. The blade size ranges from 210 mm to 270 mm, with a shorter blade being more nimble, a longer blade giving more slicing power, and a middle length for general use.

 * Santoku (三德): This is often translated as three (san) 'virtues', or often (and probably more relevant for English speakers): "three-uses/purposes", as the santoku can be used for cutting meat, fish, and/or vegetables, vs. more specialized knives such as the Nakiri, Deba, Hankotsu, etc. The santoku, also called bunka bocho (culture knife), is a multipurpose knife primarily used for vegetables and fish. These knives are generally flatter than gyuto knives and have a less pointy tip. Since they are flatter, the wrist is in a more natural position and the shoulder does not need to be raised as high. These knives do not require as much room to cut. These are the most popular knives in most Japanese homes. The general size ranges from 165 mm to 180 mm.

 * Nakiri (菜切): (vegetable knife) The square tip makes the knife feel more robust and secure than the pointed tip of the santoku or gyuto, which allows it to cut dense products at the tip. This knife has a flat edge. Some varieties of a nakiri have a slightly tilted blade profile towards the handle. This makes the grip more comfortable, causing the hand tilt up slightly and enabling one to use strength from their forearm when cutting. The general size ranges from 165 mm to 180 mm.
 * Petty: This is a smaller knife often used to accompany the gyuto for paring or for smaller produce. The general sizes range from 120 mm to 180 mm.
 * Sujihiki (筋引): (muscle cutter) These are long knives used to cut meat, often in the form of a draw cut. The general sizes range from 240 mm to 300 mm.
 * Hankotsu: This is a butchering knife used for cattle to cut hanging meat from the bone. The general size is 150 mm.
 * Chukabocho (中華包丁): Commonly known as the Chinese chef knife, the chukabocho has a short handle, flat profile, and a tall blade used to gain mechanical advantage. The blade is usually thicker behind the edge to cut denser ingredients and sometimes even bone.

Single bevel knives are traditional Japanese knives. They have an omote (an edge on the right for right-handers), a shinogi (where the front bevel meets the flat of the blade face) and an urasuki (a hollow backside that releases food). These knives are usually a little thicker at the spine and body than Japanese double bevels but are thinner right behind the edge. While they leave a better surface finish, the produce must bend further because of the thickness of the blade. These are the knives of the established traditional Japanese cuisine and were originally developed from the Chinese double bevel knives. They are sharpened along the single bevel by applying pressure to both the shinogi and the edge. Honbazuke is the initial sharpening that forms a flat surface along the perimeter of the urasuki strengthening it. This practice also straightens the backside and lays a shape for future sharpening. The omote is sharpened much more than the urasuki in order to maintain the function of the single bevel. Kansai style knives usually have pointed tip for vertical cuts, which helps in decorative tip work. Edo style knives have a square tip used for horizontal cuts, rendering a more robust working knife. The standard Japanese knife kit includes the yanagiba, deba, and usuba. They are essential to Washoku (和食 Japanese cuisine).

 * Yanagiba: (literally willow blade). The most popular knife for cutting fish, also known as shobu-bocho (sashimi knife). It is used to highlight different textures of fish in their techniques: hirazukuri to pull cut vertically, usuzukuri to pull cut thin vertically, and sogizukuri to pull cut at an angle. It is used to skin and sometimes scale and de-bone certain fish (for instance salmon). Yanagiba have angled tips and are generally heavier and have less sloping. A regional variant, takohiki (literally octopus cutter) is lighter, thinner, flatter, and shorter in blade height than yanagiba to allow easier cutting through dense flesh such as that of an octopus. General size is 270 mm to 330 mm.

 * Deba: Thick knives to cut through resilient fish flesh for fillet and to cut through rib bones, behind the head, and through the head. They are 5mm to 9mm thick depending on size. They include hon-deba (literally true deba), ko-deba (small deba), ajikiri (for aji), funayuki (a smaller more pointed for use on boats), and mioroshi deba (hybrid between deba and yanagiba that are intermediate in thickness, weight, and length). The smaller sizes are less thick, allow the knife to move through flesh easily, and are much more nimble. They are still much thinner behind the edge and more fragile than a Western butcher knife. The general size is 120 mm to 210 mm.
 * Usuba: (literally thin blade). Thinnest of the three general knife shapes, which utilizes a flat edge profile. It is used for push cutting, katsuramuki (rotary cutting thin sheets) and sengiri (cutting thin strips from those sheets). There is edo-usuba (square tip) and kamagata-usuba (round tip). General sizes are 180 mm to 240 mm.
 * Kiritsuke: hybrid with the length of yanagiba and the blade height and profile of usuba with an angled tip as a compromise. Requires great knife control because of the height, length, and flatness. General size is 240 mm to 300 mm.
 * Mukimono: Used along with usuba for vegetables. It has an angled tip for decorative vegetable cutting. General size is 150 mm to 210 mm.
 * Hamokiri: (literally pike conger cutter). It is a knife intermediate in thickness and length between deba and yanagiba to cut the thin bones and flesh of pike conger. General size is 240 mm to 300 mm.
 * Magurokiri: (literally tuna knife). It is used to cut perpendicular (shorter) or parallel (longer and more flexible) to the tuna and is sized accordingly. Sizes range from 400 mm to 1500 mm.
 * Honesuki: Used to debone chicken. A thicker version called garasuki is used to cut through bones. Most have an angled tip to slip between tendons and cut them. General size is 135 mm to 180 mm.
 * Sobakiri: (literally soba cutter). A variant is udonkiri (udon cutter). General size is 210 mm to 300 mm.
 * Unagisaki: Eel knife. Comes in variants from Kanto, Kyoto, Nagoya, and Kyushu.
 * Mochikiri: (literally mochi cutter). Used in preparation of mochi (Japanese rice cake). Comes in double handle or single handle variants

Steel
Defining characteristics of Japanese kitchen knives are toughness (resistance to breaking), sharpness (smallest carbide and grain for smallest apex reduce force in cutting), edge life (an index for the length of time an edge will cut based on lack of edge rolling or chipping), edge quality (toothy with large carbides or refined with small carbides), and ease of sharpening (steel easily abrades in stone and forms a sharp edge). Although each steel has its own chemical and structural limits and characteristics, the heat treatment and processing can bring out traits both inherent to the steel and like its opposite counterparts.

Stainless steel is generally tougher, less likely to chip, and less sharp than carbon. At the highest end, they retain an edge longer and are similarly sized in carbides to carbon steel. Variants include:
 * Powdered steel which has large carbides broken up by powdering process and sintered together under high pressure and temperature.
 * Semi stainless which has a less chromium-free to prevent rust of the iron and intermediate properties between carbon and stainless.
 * Tool steel which is heavily alloyed and may or may not be stainless.

Carbon steel is generally sharper, harder, more brittle, less tough, and becomes corroded more easily.
 * White steel: purified from phosphorus and sulfur and unalloyed. Comes in variants 1, 2, and 3 (from higher to lower carbon).
 * Blue steel: purified and alloyed with chromium and tungsten for edge life and toughness. Comes in variants 1, 2.
 * Super blue steel: blue steel alloyed with molybdenum and vanadium and more carbon for longer edge life but a little more brittle.

Construction

Monosteel blades are usually harder to sharpen and thinner than laminated blades. 3 Kinds of monosteel blades are:
 * Zenko – stamped out;
 * Honyaki – forged down from carbon steel with differential hardening;
 * Forged down from a billet without differential hardening

Laminated blades come in 3 different types: awase (meaning mixed, for mixed steel), kasumi (meaning misty, referring to the misty look of iron after sharpening), and hon-kasumi (higher quality kasumi). Forming a laminated blade involves 2 pieces of steel, the jigane and the hagane. The jigane refers to soft cladding, or skin, and hagane refers to hard cutting steel. Both commonly contain carbon or stainless steel. This combination of metals makes laminated blades corrosion-resistant with the stainless steel, and strong with the high carbon steel. Constructions like stainless cladding over a carbon steel core are less common due to manufacturing difficulty. The jigane allows the knife to be sharpened more easily and absorb shock. It also makes the hagane harder without making the whole blade fragile. The two forms of laminated blades are:

 * Ni-mai – jigane with hagane;
 * San-mai – hagane sandwiched between jigane

A variation on the traditional laminated blade style is to form an artistic pattern in the jigane. Patterns include:
 * Suminagashi;
 * Damascus;
 * Kitaeji;
 * Mokume-gane;
 * Watetsu

Production
A great deal of high-quality Japanese cutlery originates from Sakai, the capital of samurai sword manufacturing since the 14th century. After the Meiji Restoration in 1868, the samurai were banned from carrying swords as part of an attempt to modernize Japan. Though a demand for military swords remained and some sword-smiths still produced traditional samurai swords as art, the majority of sword-smiths refocused their skill to cutlery production, following the cultural shift.

The production of steel knives in Sakai began in the 16th century, when tobacco was introduced to Japan by the Portuguese and Sakai craftsmen started to make knives for cutting tobacco. The Sakai knife industry received a major boost from the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), which granted Sakai a special seal of approval and enhanced its reputation for quality.

Today, Seki, Gifu is considered the home of modern Japanese kitchen cutlery. Many major cutlery-making companies are based in Seki, producing kitchen knives in both the traditional Japanese style and western styles, such as the gyuto and the santoku. Knives and swords are so integral to the city that it is home to the Seki Cutlery Association, the Seki Swordsmith Museum, the Seki Outdoor Knife Show, the October Cutlery Festival, and the Cutlery Hall. Most manufacturers are small family businesses where craftsmanship is more important than volume, and they typically produce fewer than a dozen knives per day.

Design and use

Unlike western knives, Japanese knives are often only single ground, meaning that they are sharpened so that only one side holds the cutting edge. As shown in the image, some Japanese knives are angled from both sides, while others are angled only from one side with the other side of the blade being flat. It was traditionally believed that a single-angled blade cuts better and makes cleaner cuts, though requiring more skill to use than a blade with a double-beveled edge. Generally, the right-hand side of the blade is angled, as most people use the knife with their right hand. Left-handed models are rare and must be specially ordered and custom made.

Since the end of World War II, western-style, double-beveled knives have gained popularity in Japan. One example of this transition is the santoku, an adaptation of gyoto. Other knives that have become widely used in Japan are the French chef's knife and the sujihiki, roughly analogous to a western carving knife. While these knives are usually sharpened symmetrically on both sides, their blades are still given Japanese-style acute-angle cutting edges of 8-10 degrees per side with a very hard temper to increase cutting ability.

Most professional Japanese cooks own their personal set of knives. After sharpening a carbon-steel knife in the evening after use, the user may let the knife "rest" for a day to restore its patina and remove any metallic odor or taste that might otherwise be passed on to the food. Some cooks choose to own two sets of knives for this reason.

Japanese knives feature subtle variations on the chisel grind. Usually, the back side of the blade (i.e. the left side, for a right-handed user) is concave to reduce drag and adhesion so the food separates more cleanly (this concave feature is known as urasuki ). The kanisaki deba, used for cutting crab and other shellfish, has the grind on the opposite side (left side angled for right-handed use), so that the meat is not cut when chopping the shell.

title: Japanese kitchen knife


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Bamboo steamer

Bamboo steamers, called zhēnglóng in Chinese, are a type of food steamer made of bamboo. They are used commonly in Chinese cuisine, especially dim sum, and usually come in two or more layers. Bamboo steamers have also spread to other East Asian and Southeast Asian countries.

History

From the Neolithic period, ceramic steamers known as yan have been found at the Banpo site, dating to 5000 BC. In the lower Yangzi River, zeng pots first appeared in the Hemudu culture (5000–4500 BC) and Liangzhu culture (3200–2000 BC) and were used to steam rice.

The zhenglong in its current form originated in Southern China during the Han dynasty, possibly around Guangdong. During the reign of Emperor Gaozu, general Han Xin is said to have used bamboo and wood to make cooking utensils, and steam to cook food, in order to avoid filling the barracks with smoke. Steaming was used to cook dried foods, which were easier to store and preserve. An Eastern Han dynasty (25–220 AD) kitchen mural depicted in Dahuting Tomb No.1 in Mi County, Henan Province, is the earliest evidence of the origin of modern steamers.

Bamboo steamers are commonly used in Cantonese cuisine, such as for dim sum. They are also known in the Western world for its role in cooking and serving dim sum particularly during the practice of yum cha.

Construction
Steamers are produced by removing the skin from the bamboo, soaking it in water, shaping it into a circle, and hammering it in with nails. The base is made up of woven bamboo strips, and production can take anywhere from 15 minutes to several hours depending on its size. Each layer has holes on the bottom for steam to rise up. Finally a lid is made to keep the steam in during cooking.

Most steamers are designed to be stacked on top of each other so that the steam can cook multiple servings simultaneously, as well as fit on the table (often on a Lazy Susan) while being served.

In recent years, alternatives to bamboo have been developed, including silicone.

title: Bamboo steamer


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Trema (plant)

Trema is a genus of about 15 species of evergreen trees closely related to the hackberries (Celtis), occurring in subtropical and tropical regions of southern Asia, northern Australasia, Africa, South and Central America, and parts of North America. They are generally small trees, reaching 10 - 20 m tall.

Taxonomy
Previously included either in the elm family, Ulmaceae, or with Celtis in the Celtidaceae, genetic analysis has shown the Celtidaceae are best placed in the hemp family, Cannabaceae.

Description
The leaves are alternate, simple, 7 - 15 cm long, ovate-acuminate to lanceolate with a long pointed tip, and evenly serrated margins. The fruit is a small drupe 3 - 5 mm in diameter.

Species associations
Trema species are sometimes used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genera Aenetus, including A. splendens, which burrow horizontally into the trunk then vertically down, and Endoclita, including E. malabaricus.

Some Trema species unusually able to live in symbiosis with rhizobia for nitrogen fixation as a non-legume. In this case it is customary to mention these species as a separate genus Parasponia.

Uses
Trema orientale is widely planted for land reclamation in southern Asia, valued for its tolerance of poor soils due to its ability to fix nitrogen. It is also an invasive species on some Pacific Ocean islands.

Species
Trema comprises the following species:

 * 1) Trema andersonii (Planch.) Byng & Christenh.
 * 2) Trema angustifolium (Planch.) Blume
 * 3) Trema cannabina Lour. – type species - Lesser trema (many synonyms including T. vieillardii (Planch.) Schltr. )
 * 4) Trema cubense Urb.
 * 5) Trema discolor (Brongniart) Blume
 * 6) Trema domingense Urb.
 * 7) Trema eurhynchum (Miq.) Byng & Christenh.
 * 8) Trema humbertii J.-F.Leroy
 * 9) Trema lamarckianum (Roem. & Schult.) Blume – West Indian trema, Lamarck's trema
 * 10) Trema levigatum Hand.-Mazz.
 * 11) Trema melastomatifolium (J.J.Sm.) Byng & Christenh.
 * 12) Trema micranthum (L.) Blume – Jamaican nettle tree
 * 13) Trema nitidum C.J. Chen
 * 14) Trema orientale (L.) Blume – Pigeon wood (synonym T. affinis (Planch.) Blume, T. orientalis)
 * 15) Trema parviflorum (Miq.) Byng & Christenh.
 * 16) Trema politoria (Planch.) Blume
 * 17) Trema simulans (Merr. & L.M.Perry) Byng & Christenh.
 * 18) Trema tomentosum (Roxb.) H.Hara – Poison peach
 * 19) var. tomentosum (Roxb.) H.Hara
 * 20) var. viride (Planch.) Hewson – eastern Australia (synonym T. asperum (Brongn.) Blume )

Species names with uncertain taxonomic status
The status of the following species is unresolved:

 * Trema acuminatissima Boerl.
 * Trema argentea Blume
 * Trema blancoi Blume
 * Trema bracteolata Blume
 * Trema burmanni Blume
 * Trema carinata Blume
 * Trema crassifolia Liebm.
 * Trema glabrescens Blume
 * Trema glomerata Blume
 * Trema griffithii Blume
 * Trema guinensis Priemer
 * Trema imbricata Blume
 * Trema lancifolia Ridl.
 * Trema malaccensis Gand.
 * Trema morifolia Blume
 * Trema pallida Blume
 * Trema philippinensis Elmer
 * Trema pubigera Blume
 * Trema rigida Blume
 * Trema rugosa Blume
 * Trema scaberrima Blume
 * Trema sieberi Blume
 * Trema strigilosa Lundell
 * Trema strigosa Blume
 * Trema viridis Blume
 * Trema vulcanica Merr.

title: Trema (plant)


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Nakiri bōchō

Nakiri bōchō (菜切り包丁, translation: knife for cutting greens) and usuba bōchō (薄刃包丁, thin knife) are Japanese-style vegetable knives. They differ from the deba bōchō in their shape, as they have a straight blade edge suitable for cutting all the way to the cutting board without the need for a horizontal pull or push. These knives are also much thinner. While the deba bōchō is a heavy blade for easy cutting through thin bones, the blade is not suitable for chopping vegetables, as the thicker blade can break the vegetable slice. The nakiri bōchō and the usuba bōchō have a much thinner blade. This does not help with cutting small bones in fish or meat, but is useful for cutting vegetables.

Nakiri bōchō are knives for home use, and sometimes have a black finished, or Kurouchi, blade. The cutting edge is angled from both sides, called ryōba in Japanese. This makes it easier to cut straight slices.

Usuba bōchō are vegetable knives used by professionals. They differ from the Nakiri bōchō in the shape of the cutting edge. While the nakiri bōchō is sharpened from both sides, the usuba bōchō is sharpened only from one side, a style known as kataba in Japanese. The highest quality kataba blades have a slight depression on the flat side. This kataba style edge gives better cuts and allows for the cutting of thinner slices than the ryōba used for nakiri bōchō, but requires more skill to use. The sharpened side is usually the right side for a right hand use of the knife, but knives sharpened on the left side are available for left hand use. The usuba bōchō is heavier than a nakiri bōchō, although still much lighter than a deba bōchō.

title: Nakiri bōchō


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Otoshi buta

Otoshi buta (落し蓋, literally: drop-lid) are Japanese-style drop-lids for use in Japanese cooking. These round lids float on top of the liquid in a pot while simmering foods. They ensure that the heat is evenly distributed and reduce the tendency of liquid to boil with large bubbles. This reduces the mechanical stress on the food and keeps fragile ingredients in their original shape.

Otoshi buta are almost always made from wood, so they have to be soaked in water for a few minutes before use to avoid absorbing the flavor of the dish and disturbing the flavor of the next dish cooked using the otoshi buta. After use, the otoshi buta is washed and dried completely before storing.

Though it depends on the recipe and food being cooked, otoshi buta may be substituted with a sheet of tough cooking paper or aluminum foil.

title: Otoshi buta