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Austin Metro

The Metro is a supermini car, later a city car that was produced from 1980 to 1998, first by British Leyland (BL) and later by the Rover Group. It was launched in 1980 as the Austin Mini Metro (styled AUSTIN miniMETRO). It was intended to complement and eventually replace the Mini, and was developed under the codename LC8. The Metro was named by What Car? magazine as "Car of The Year" in 1983 as an MG, and again as the Rover Metro in 1991.

During its 18-year lifespan, the Metro wore many names: Austin Metro, MG Metro and Rover Metro. It was rebadged as the Rover 100 (full name: "Rover 100 series") in December 1994. There was also a van version, known as the Morris Metro, and later, the Metrovan.

At the time of its launch, the Metro was sold under the Austin brand, and from 1982 MG versions became available. During 1987, the badge lost the Austin name, and the car was sold simply as the "Metro". From 1990 until its withdrawal in 1998, the Metro sported the Rover brand name.

Although the R3-generation Rover 200 (introduced in 1995 and smaller than previous 200 models) had originally been designed as a replacement for the Metro, it was not marketed as such after its launch. The Rover 100 finally ceased production in 1998, being outlived (by three years) by the original Mini that it was meant to replace. 2,078,218 Metros of all types were built.

Austin/MG Metro
Plans for a replacement for the Mini had been afoot within BL since the early 1970s, but none of the concepts conceived got beyond the initial design stages, largely due to a shortage of funds at British Leyland, and its eventual bankruptcy and government bailout in 1975. The modern supermini market had evolved during the 1970s, with earlier small cars like the Mini and Hillman Imp being followed mostly by cars two-box hatchback vehicles, beginning with the Fiat 127 in 1971 and Renault 5 in 1972, with the next five years seeing the arrival of similar cars including the Ford Fiesta and Volkswagen Polo, as well as the Vauxhall Chevette from General Motors (known in West Germany as the Opel Kadett) which was also available as a saloon and estate in addition to the hatchback. These cars gained a decent-sized market share in Britain and most other European markets.

On 8 October 1980, BL introduced the Austin Mini Metro. The roots of the Metro lay in an earlier project denoted as ADO88 (Amalgamated Drawing Office, 88-inch wheelbase), which was intended to be a direct replacement for the Mini. However, poor reception of the ADO88 design at customer clinics and the increasing dominance of superminis in the ADO88's intended market segment forced a major change in the project's focus. In late 1977, BL chairman Michael Edwardes ordered that ADO88 be given an eleventh-hour redesign to make it both larger, and less utilitarian in appearance / more upmarket in nature. It thus became BL's first supermini rather than an economy car. The revised project was given the designator LC8 (Leyland Cars Number 8), and the definitive Metro design would ultimately emerge under the leadership of BL's chief stylists David Bache and Harris Mann. LC8 would replace the more upmarket, lower-volume Clubman versions of the Mini and the lower-spec, smaller-engined variants of the Austin Allegro (which would be fully replaced in the early 1980s by project LC10, which became the Austin Maestro). The ADO88 project had experimented with new engines and suspension systems, but, with limited time and budgets, LC8 would reuse much of the Mini's engineering (the A-Series engine, front-wheel drive via a sump-mounted four-speed transmission, front and rear running gear carried in steel subframes separate from the unitary bodyshell) and borrow the Hydragas suspension system developed for the Allegro. However, while much was shared conceptually with older BL models, LC8 would see these design elements heavily re-engineered and modernised. For instance the A-Series drivetrain was extensively updated with new materials and tooling to become the A-Plus, while the new car would feature 12-inch wheels, and all LC8s would have servo-assisted four-piston front disc brakes with fully split hydraulic systems, as opposed to the standard Mini, which at the time still had 10-inch wheels and drum brakes all-round. These new drivetrains, wheels, brakes and many other featured developed for the LC8 would be introduced on the Mini not long afterwards, updating the 30-year old design at minimal extra cost, and providing highly desirable economies of scale, given the anticipated sales volumes of the new car. This would make it cost effective for the more basic versions of the Mini to remain in production as an entry-level model for BL, in place of the market niche originally intended for ADO88, while allowing LC8 to compete head-on with the existing superminis.

Following the Ryder Report, which prioritized the ADO88/LC8 project, Longbridge was expanded in 1978 with a £200mn robotised body assembly line (known as the "New West Works") to enable it to produce the new model, which it was hoped would sell 100,000 or more units a year in Britain alone. Production of the smaller Mini and larger Allegro was also pruned back to enable the plant to produce as many units of the Metro as possible, with the Allegro finally being axed in 1982 to make way for the Maestro.

The hatchback bodyshell was one of the most spacious of its time, and this was a significant factor in its popularity. The space-efficient interior was also lauded for the novel 60/40 split rear seat, which was standard on higher-specification models. The original Mk. 1 Metros also featured David Bache's signature "symmetric" dashboard design (also used on the Range Rover and the Rover SD1), where the main dashboard moulding consisted of a shelf onto which the instrument binnacle was simply mounted on the left or the right hand side: this arrangement saves the tooling cost of two separate dashboard mouldings for right and left-hand drive models. Initially, the Metro was sold as a three-door hatchback only (as were most of its competitors), with a choice of 998cc (1.0 litre) or 1275cc (1.3-litre) petrol engines. The 1.0 and 1.0L cars, and the van that came out later, had recessed headlamps with indicators and sidelights in the bumper, whereas the 1.0HLE, 1.3S, and 1.3HLS had headlight and indicator as one unit, which was flush-fitting.

The name was chosen by a ballot of BL employees. They were offered a choice of three names, "Match", "Maestro" or "Metro". Once the result was announced, the train-and-bus manufacturer Metro Cammell objected to BL's use of the Metro name. The issue was resolved by BL promising to advertise the car only as the "Mini Metro"; however, after a while "Mini" was dropped from the name.

From late 1982 there were also van versions, known as the Morris Metro. From late 1985, after BL discontinued use of the Morris name, the van was sold as the Austin Metro 310; after the Austin badge was also dropped from the car models, it became simply the Metrovan 310.

A two-door saloon model was included in the Metro's development, which would have been similar in concept to the Vauxhall Chevette saloon and the Polo-based Volkswagen Derby. However, by the time production of the Metro began, it was decided not to include a saloon version, this niche being filled by the Mini remaining in production; also because only a few of the Metro's competitors were available as a saloon.

BL's last all-new mass-produced car before the Metro's launch was the 1976 Rover SD1.

One of the consequences was that there was enormous public interest in the car from well before its launch. The company chose to stage the launch presentations for dealers and major company car buyers on board a cruise ship, the MS Vistafjord. This launch event took place over a three-week period in September 1980 sailing between West Gladstone Dock in Liverpool and the Isle of Man, where guests could drive the car, so long as sea conditions allowed them to land by tender as there was no dock facility for the ship. The news broke in the national newspapers a full year ahead of the public launch with The Sun, among others, carrying the story. It was finally revealed to the public on the press day of the British Motor Show with the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, in attendance.

The Metro quickly proved popular with buyers, a 19-year-old Lady Diana Spencer buying one of the early examples, and was regularly seen in it being hounded by the paparazzi just before her marriage to Prince Charles in July 1981. Even then, during the early part of its production life, it was the best selling mini-car in the UK, before being eclipsed by the updated Ford Fiesta in 1984. Its clever interior design made it spacious considering its dimensions, and Hydragas suspension gave surprisingly good ride and handling. Its updated A+ series 1.0 and 1.3-litre OHV engines hardly represented the cutting edge in performance, but they were strong on economy.

In its best year, 1983, more than 130,000 Metros were sold in Britain, only the Ford Escort and Sierra outsold it. This was despite the arrival of a host of new superminis on the British market that year – the Ford Fiesta received a major facelift, and four all-new superminis (the Vauxhall Nova, Fiat Uno, Nissan Micra and Peugeot 205) went on sale in Britain between April and September.

A major TV advertising campaign was created by the London agency, Leo Burnett which came up with the headline "a British car to beat the world". The advert also featured the similar-sized Fiat 127, Renault 5, Volkswagen Polo and Datsun Cherry as "foreign invaders" and the voiceover spoke of the Metro's ability to "send the foreigners back where they came from". Following the launch of the Austin Maestro in 1983, less of British Leyland's advertising was focused on the Metro. The Maestro initially sold very well, but within five years sales were declining sharply, although it remained in production until 1994.

During 1981, British Leyland confirmed that the Metro range would soon be expanded with more luxurious and high performance versions. The Metro range was expanded in May 1982 to include the luxury Vanden Plas trim level on the Austins and higher performance MG Badged versions; the MG Metro marked a quick comeback for the marque previously used on sports cars until the Abingdon plant making the MG B closed in 1980. The Metro Vanden Plas featured higher levels of luxury and equipment, while the slightly more powerful MG Metro 1.3 sold as a sports model (0–60 mph in 10.9 seconds, top speed 103 mph). The Vanden Plas variant received the same MG engine from 1984 onwards (with the exception of the VP Automatic, which retained the 63 bhp 1275 cc unit). The luxury fittings marking out the Metro Vanden Plas took the form of a radio-cassette player, electric front windows, an improved instrument panel with tachometer, and a variety of optional extras such as trip computer, leather trim, remote boot release, and front fog lamps.

The changes between the MG engine (taken directly from the Mini Cooper) and the standard 1275 included a modified cylinder head, with larger valves and improved porting, altered cam profile and larger carburettor leading to a 20% increase in BHP to 72 bhp. At the October 1982 Birmingham Motor Show the MG Metro Turbo variant was first shown. With a quoted bhp of 93, 0–60 mph in 9.9 seconds, and top speed of 112 mph this car had few direct competitors at the time, although the growing demand for "hot hatches" meant that it soon had a host of competitors including the Ford Fiesta XR2, Peugeot 205 GTI and Renault 5 GT Turbo. This model had a few addition modifications bolted on over the normally aspirated MG model to give an additional 21 bhp. Aside from the turbocharger and exhaust system itself, and what was (at the time) a relatively sophisticated boost delivery and control system, the MG Turbo variant incorporated stiffer suspension (purportedly with engineering input from Lotus), and an uprated crankshaft of nitrided steel and sodium-cooled exhaust valves.

Both MG variants were given a "sporty" interior with red seat belts, red carpets and a sports-style steering wheel. Early Turbo models also benefitted from a boost pressure gauge: in pre-84 models this was an in-dash LED gauge, relocating to an LCD gauge mounted in an overhead console for early Mk. 2 facelift models (with the boost gauge subsequently being deleted from production in post-85 models). The Turbo also received alloy wheels, wheel arch extensions and front spoiler, and prominent "Turbo" branding. While it retained rear drums, the front disc brakes were changed to ventilated discs, with ventilated front disks being standardised and adopted by all variants from Mk. 2 onwards. Later MG variants were emblazoned with MG branding both inside and out, which only served to fuel claims of badge engineering from some of the more steadfast MG enthusiasts. Others believed that this sentiment was unfounded, particularly in the case of the Turbo variant, due to the undeniably increased performance and handling when compared to the non-MG models. From 1983, the MG badge also found its way onto higher performance versions of the Maestro, and shortly afterwards it was adopted for higher-performance versions of the Montego.

Mark II
A Mark II version of the Metro was introduced in 1984. The October facelift saw revised styling modifications to the Metro's front end including much needed colour-coding such as body coloured bumpers on MG versions, wider suspension subframes, along with a new dashboard design featuring the switches and instruments matching that of the Maestro and Montego. The new dashboard was constructed from fewer but larger plastic mouldings, making it easier to assemble and reducing the potential for rattles and other fitting issues. A major part of the facelift was the introduction of a five-door Metro: This provided another strong selling point for the Metro in the 1980s, since not only did it already boast a spacious and practical cabin for its size, but some of its slightly larger competitors, such as the Ford Fiesta and Volkswagen Polo, did not offer the option of five doors at the time. From 1989, just before the Metro was replaced, three-door versions were given a raised fuel filler, this also coincided with the cars being able to run on unleaded petrol due to hardened exhaust valve seats, three years before EEC regulations made it compulsory for all new cars to have a catalytic converter or fuel injection.

A rear spoiler reduced drag coefficient to increase the Metro's already good fuel economy, and the hydraulic clutch (often berated as the cause of the Metro's particularly harsh gearchange) was replaced by a self-adjusting cable-operated mechanism. The lack of a five-speed gearbox would become a major drawback as time went on; the BMC sump-mounted gearbox was never developed to accommodate an extra gear ratio, which was a severe handicap against the opposition – by the mid-1980s the Ford Fiesta, Peugeot 205, Fiat Uno and Opel Corsa/Vauxhall Nova were all available with a five-speed gearbox on larger-engine models.

The Austin Metro was a huge seller in Britain, with more than 1 million being sold over a 10-year production run. The Mk. 3 Ford Escort (1980–1986) was the only model to outsell it in Britain throughout the 1980s, and by December 1989 only the Mk. 3 Ford Escort was a more common model on British roads. However, the first three generations of Ford Fiesta combined outnumbered it by this stage. It remained on sale in automatic-only form alongside the revised Rover Metro in order to cater for this market need until an automatic transmission version of the newer car was available. Some Mk2 Metros therefore have known to be registered on a J- prefix licence plate (indicating an August 1991 registration date).

October 2010 marked the 30th anniversary of the launch of the Metro, by now a very rare sight on Britain's roads.

Launch prices

 * MiniMetro 1.0 £3,095
 * MiniMetro 1.0L £3,495
 * MiniMetro 1.0HLE £3,695
 * MiniMetro 1.3S £3,995
 * MiniMetro 1.3HLS £4,296

Engines
All Metros were powered by the 4-cylinder A-Series engine, in 0.85-, 1.0- and 1.3-litre options. Outputs varied depending on year and trim level, with a low-compression 1.0-litre option available on lower-specification models suitable for 2-star petrol, an 0.85-litre option available in some South American countries; no other market existed for this engine size.

 * 1980-**: 848 cc A-Series I4, 34 bhp at 5500 rpm and 44 lb·ft (60 Nm) at 2900 rpm (** = Date last car officially sold is currently unknown)
 * 1980–83: 998 cc A-Series I4, 45 bhp at 5400 rpm and 53 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3000 rpm
 * 1983–88: 998 cc A-Series I4, 41 bhp at 5500 rpm and 54 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3250 rpm (low compression option)
 * 1983–87: 998 cc A-Series I4, 44 bhp at 5500 rpm and 54 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3250 rpm (Metro City)
 * 1983–87: 998 cc A-Series I4, 46 bhp at 5500 rpm and 54 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3250 rpm (Metro Standard/City X)
 * 1980–84: 998 cc A-Series I4, 47 bhp at 5500 rpm and 54 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3250 rpm (Metro HLE)
 * 1987–90: 998 cc A-Series I4, 47 bhp at 5500 rpm and 54 lb·ft (73 Nm) at 3250 rpm
 * 1980–83: 1275 cc A-Series I4, 60 bhp at 5250 rpm and 72 lb·ft (98 Nm) at 3200 rpm
 * 1983–90: 1275 cc A-Series I4, 62 bhp at 5300 rpm and 72 lb·ft (98 Nm) at 3100 rpm
 * 1984–89: 1275 cc A-Series I4, 71 hp (54 kW) at 6000 rpm and 75 lb·ft (99 Nm) at 4000 rpm (Metro Vanden Plas)
 * 1982–89: 1275 cc A-Series I4, 72 hp (54 kW) at 6000 rpm and 75 lb·ft (99 Nm) at 4000 rpm (MG Metro)
 * 1983–89: 1275 cc A-Series turbo I4, 93 hp (69 kW) at 6130 rpm and 85 lb·ft (115 Nm) at 2650 rpm (MG Metro Turbo)
 * 1989–90: 1275 cc A-Series I4, 69 hp (54 kW) at 5450 rpm and 75 lb·ft (99 Nm) at 4000 rpm (Metro GTa/MG Metro)

Rover Metro
At the end of 1987, the Austin marque was shelved. The Austin badge was removed from the cars, which continued to be manufactured with no marque badge, just a model name badge. Rover management never allowed Rover badges on the Montego or the Maestro in their home market, although they were sometimes referred to as "Rovers" in the press and elsewhere. They wore badges that were the same shape as the Rover longship badge, but which did not say "Rover". By this stage, Rover was in the final stages of developing the new Rover 200 Series and Rover 400 Series models in conjunction with Honda, and it was also working on a replacement for the Metro.

During the 1980s, the media had published photographs of the "Austin AR6" concept car, which would have been a completely new design, but towards the end of the decade Rover decided to restyle and re-engineer the existing Metro design instead.

The new Rover Metro was finally launched in May 1990, being a heavily revised version of the original Metro and fitted with a new range of engines.

The proven 998 cc and 1275 cc A-Series engines (the 1275cc unit was heavily modified and saw service in the classic Mini right up to the end of Mini production in October 2000) gave way to the all-new K-series engine. These were available in 1.1 litre (1118 cc 60 bhp) and 1.4 litre (1396 cc 76 bhp) 8-valve versions, while a 16-valve engine was available in the GTi (early variants are 95 bhp SPi while the later MPi version has 103 bhp) and the early GTa. All models used end-on gearboxes designed jointly by Rover and Peugeot. In 1992, a 1.4 PSA TUD diesel from the Citroën AX and Peugeot 106 was launched; this was the first time the Metro had been available with a diesel engine. At the same time an automatic version was launched with a CVT-type gearbox. The Hydragas suspension was finally modified to accept front to rear interconnection in the way that Alex Moulton had intended, to improve handling and ride quality.

A new bodyshell for the replacement car (the AR6 project) was designed. Its styling was influenced by Ital Design, with some similarity to the acclaimed Giorgetto Giugiaro-designed Fiat Punto launched in 1994, and the lower panels of the Peugeot 205, and incorporating the blacked-out pillars and 'floating roof' of the 1989 R8 Rover 200. However, this was cancelled by chairman Graham Day, because British Aerospace (then the Rover Group's new owners) refused to fund it, and the disappointing sales of the Maestro and Montego had not produced expected profits to reinvest. A mockup could be seen at the Canley, Coventry design centre in the 1990s during open days. It appeared as a 'Scoop' photo on the front cover of CAR magazine in the mid-1980s. Project R6, as it became known, would be a more modest update of the 1980 car – the basic bodyshell was retained, but was improved with the addition of new plastic front and rear bumpers, new front wings, new rear lights and bootlid, new front headlamps and bonnet. The interior was altered with a new rounded instrument binnacle and instruments (although the 1984 dashboard moulding remained), new steering wheel, new seats (from the successful Rover 200 series), new door casings and other detail improvements. General build quality, fit and finish was improved enormously from the old Metro and went on to win What Car? "Car of The Year" in 1991.

In many export markets, including Italy and France, the Rover Metro was badged as the Rover 100 series, with the 1.1 known as the Rover 111 and the 1.4 called 114.

Latterly this car has attracted an enthusiastic following including use as a low-cost entry to motor racing. The basic just-over-100 bhp engine for the GTI can be boosted to over 130 hp at the flywheel. For ultimate performance the 1.8 K-series engine, with standard cams or VVC (Variable Valve Control) system can be fitted (these engines are found in the MGF and Lotus Elise sports cars, as well as various Rovers and MGs).

Rover 100
In December 1994, the revised R6 model appeared. In the United Kingdom, Rover finally scrapped the Metro nameplate, replacing it with a new name, Rover 100, which had been adopted on continental Europe on the Rover Metro's launch in 1990, due to the weakness of the Austin marque in Europe.

The mechanics of the car remained much the same with 1.1 and 1.4 petrol engines and Hydragas suspension, but there was now the option of a Peugeot-sourced 1.5 diesel rather than the previous 1.4. The exterior was altered in an attempt to disguise the car's age, meet the increased cooling requirements of the Peugeot motor and offer a reduced-format Rover family grille. This was achieved through fitment of new front and rear bumpers, sill covers, rear boot handle and headlamps, bonnet and grille.

A variety of bolder paint colours and the use of chrome trim helped give a more upmarket appearance. The interior trim was revised to give a greater impression of quality and luxury, but since the basic architecture had remained unchanged since the original 1980 car, it was considered by many as being short on space and outdated in comparison to its most modern rivals (most of which had been replaced with all-new models since the launch of the Rover Metro, and in the cases of the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Nova/Corsa, replaced with all-new models twice). It was criticised by the press for its lack of equipment, with front electric windows only available on the range-topping 114 GSi. Rear electric windows were never an option on the 100. Neither were Anti-Lock Brakes, Power Steering or a rev-counter (except the GTa and later manual 114 GSi models) One saving grace for the 100 was the option of full leather trim, a rarity in a small car and coupled with the standard wood veneer dashboard inserts, a tinted glass sunroof and the optional wood veneer door cappings, the 114 GSi made for traditional luxury motoring; an image Rover was trying to retain. The only safety efforts came in the form of an optional drivers airbag, an alarm, a passive engine immobiliser, a removable radio keypad, central locking and side intrusion beams. Overall, the 100 series was considered a rather typical facelift of a car which had been a class leader on launch some years earlier, only to be overtaken by newer cars including the Renault Clio, Fiat Punto and Volkswagen Polo. It was launched only a year before a fourth generation Ford Fiesta.

A 'warm' version of the 100 called the 114 GTa was available from launch. The main differences over the 114 SLi three-door – which has the same engine – were sports seats, red seatbelts, a rev-counter, sports suspension, a slightly higher top speed, faster acceleration, GSi alloy wheels and GTa badging. It was only available as a three-door.
 * Rover 114 GTa

In 1997, the Rover 100 gave a poor performance in Euro NCAP crash tests (despite the improved safety features, including side impact bars in the doors and an optional driver's airbag, the 1970s design was showing its age) – it was at the time the only car tested to receive a one-star Adult Occupant Rating. Other small cars tested at the same time received two or three stars out of five. The passenger compartment was subjected to severe structural damage in the frontal-offset test and results showed a high risk of injury to all body regions for the driver. Meanwhile, the side impact test also showed high injury risks.
 * End of the line

The Rover 100's dismal safety showing was not its only problem by 1997. It was fast falling behind the best cars in its sector when it came to design, build quality, refinement and specification, although it remained strong in terms of fuel economy and affordability. Unlike the Ford Fiesta, Volkswagen Polo and Vauxhall Corsa, the Rover 100 could still provide sub-£7,000 motoring.

Facing a complete collapse of sales, Rover withdrew the 100 from production – marking the end of nearly 18 years of production with the last car built on 23 December 1997.

There was no direct replacement for the Metro/100, although the 1995 Rover 200 had been developed inside Rover Cars to serve as a replacement for the 100 as well as the previous 200 model, which was slightly larger. The 100 and 200 were sold concurrently until 1998, when the 100 was withdrawn. When the Rover 200 was facelifted in late 1999 and rebadged as the Rover 25, Rover marketed this as a supermini reflecting the continued, steady, growth of all car classes. The plan was for both the 100 and the 25 to be on the market until the launch of the true replacement for the Metro in the shape of the MINI. However, BMW's sale of Rover put an end to those plans. BMW kept the MINI design and MG Rover's notional successor to the Metro was the Rover 25 and its MG ZR relative.

The gap left by the Metro as a true Rover city car was not filled until late 2003, when the Rover CityRover was launched – it was a 1.4 engined city car built in India alongside the Tata Indica. This model was nowhere near as popular as the Metro or even the Rover 100, and was not included in the revived product range by Nanjing Automobile following MG Rover's bankruptcy in 2005.

MG Metro 6R4 rally car
Created for the short-lived Group B rally category, the 4WD mid engined MG Metro 6R4 of 1984 (standing for 6-cylinder, Rally, 4-wheel-drive) was a world away from the best selling city car to which it only bears a superficial cosmetic resemblance. The competition car effectively only shared the name of the production Metro as it featured a mid-mounted engine with four-wheel drive transmission enclosed within a semi-monocoque seam-welded tubular chassis. The development of this vehicle had been entrusted to Williams Grand Prix Engineering.

The resulting car was shown to the world in May 1985. It was powered by a David Wood designed bespoke 3-litre V6 powerplant which used some of the engine architecture of the Cosworth DFV. It featured twin overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. The engine was not turbocharged as the majority of its competitors were, which considered the Metro as "unique." The engine was mounted back to front in the car, with the forward end of the engine facing the hatchback and the gearbox attached conventionally behind it and, therefore, in the middle of the vehicle. The four-wheel-drive was permanently engaged, and drove separate prop shafts to the front and rear differentials. The rear differential was mounted on the side of the engine sump with one driveshaft running through the sump to the nearside rear wheel. Much of the outer bodywork was made of GRP, with the only exception being the roof panels (which were aluminium), the steel doors, and the remaining panels from the original Metro shell. The doors were, however, concealed by plastic airboxes. Indeed, models now on show generally have stickers demonstrating where it is safe to push from when moving the vehicle, so as not to damage the bodywork. The 6R4 appeared in two guises. There was a so-called Clubman model which was the road going version which developed in the region of 250 bhp, of which around 200 were made and sold to the public for £40,000 (the homologation version). A further 20 were taken and built to International specifications which had a recorded output of over 410 bhp

At its launch in 1985, Rover announced that it would complete the necessary number of cars required for homologation by November of that year. This was undertaken at the group's large manufacturing facility at Longbridge. The car was to participate in the Lombard RAC rally in November 1985, and an example, driven by works driver Tony Pond, finished a highly respectable third, behind two Lancia Delta S4s.

This good start was unfortunately not repeated, and although a 6R4 was entered in rallies at Monte Carlo, Sweden, Portugal and Corsica during the 1986 season, none of the Metros managed to complete a course. The majority of these problems were related to the V6 powerplant which suffered teething issues. Halfway during the 1986 season, Group B was banned (following a series of fatal crashes in which both competitors and spectators lost their lives). From that point on, the 6R4 was always going to be limited in front line competition, although they were run with limited success for the remainder of the year. A number passed into private hands and have proved formidable rally and rallycross cars. Despite the expiry of the 6R4's homologation the MSA still allow the cars to run in competition although engine sizes have been limited to 2800cc (single plenum engines) and 2500cc (multi-plenum engines).

Austin Rover withdrew from the rallying scene at the end of the season, but in 1987 all the parts and engines were sold to Tom Walkinshaw Racing, whereupon the V6 engine reappeared in the Jaguar XJ220, this time with turbochargers added.

Popularity

The Metro remained one of Britain's most popular cars throughout its production life, even during its final year when it was among the oldest designs on sale in the country. During its early years, the Austin Metro was Britain's most popular small car; often outselling the Ford Fiesta. It was still one of Britain's best selling cars by the time it was replaced by the Rover 100 in late 1994, with almost 1,500,000 having been sold (an average of more than 100,000 per year). However, despite reasonable numbers being sold in France and Italy, overall sales in Europe were modest in comparison to established rivals such as the Fiesta (which typically sold 500,000 units per year across Europe), meaning that BL still could not realise the true economies of scale.

Much debate among automotive historians has taken place over whether BL's decision to push the Metro's development programme ahead of the potentially more profitable Maestro/Montego models was justified. As a result of this, both those models did not arrive on the market until 1983/84, after having been in development since 1976 with a view of being launched around 1980. By the time of their launch, they were soon out of step both stylistically and from an engineering perspective when compared to the market-leading cars in their sectors.

The Metro's popularity endured in spite of its failure to match the durability of its contemporary rivals, notably the Nissan Micra (K10) and VW Polo Mk. 2. This is well illustrated by the findings of Auto Express's 2006 survey which named the Metro as Britain's seventh-most scrapped car of the last thirty years. Just 21,468 versions of the original 1980–1990 Metro were still in working order at the time of the survey, despite around 1,000,000 being sold. Nearly seven years on, that figure has inevitably declined further, with the number remaining as of 2013 now down to less than 2,000.

Many Metros (particularly the pre-1990 Austin models) have been scrapped as a result of the bodyshell's vulnerability to rust. Pre-1989 cars could not run on unleaded fuel either without expensive conversion of the cylinder head or the use of additives. When lead replacement petrol was withdrawn from sale in 1997 many owners simply scrapped the cars. Metros built before 1990 use the same engine and transmission package as the Mini, hence they have become popular donor cars for Mini restorations and Mini-based kit cars; and as a result, thousands of Metros were dismantled purely for their engines and gearboxes to keep classic Minis on the road. Many Metros were written off by joyriders, as the car's minimal security made it notoriously easy to steal. The post-1990 cars were not without their problems  - the K-Series engine became notoriously prone to cylinder head gasket failure (and if the engines overheated then they were often damaged beyond repair), and the bodyshell remained vulnerable to corrosion, meaning relatively few have survived.

Official factory support for the Metro is now non-existent due to the demise of MG Rover which has ended the supply of crucial and unique parts. However, an entire industry has built up to continue support of the A-Series engine given its ubiquity in the classic Mini and other post-war British cars whilst a cottage industry exists in maintaining and providing parts for the Hydragas suspension system.

Including the post-1994 Rover 100 Series models, a total of just under 1,500,000 Metros were sold in the UK in less than twenty years, making it the seventh-most popular car ever sold there.

Lady Diana Spencer (later Diana, Princess of Wales) owned a red W-registered Metro before her engagement to the then-Prince Charles. This car is in the Museum of British Road Transport, Coventry.

title: Austin Metro


text:
Cathcart

Cathcart (Kithcart, Coille Chart) is an area of Glasgow between Battlefield, Mount Florida, King's Park, Muirend and Newlands. The White Cart Water flows through Cathcart, downstream from Linn Park. In 2014, it was rated one of the most attractive postcode areas to live in Scotland.

History
The ancient parish was formed around Cathcart Castle, the hereditary seat of the Cathcart family. The castle was built in the 15th-century on a site overlooking the White Cart Water, now part of Linn Park. The remains of the castle were demolished in 1980, having been declared unsafe, leaving only the foundations.

Originally part of the Parish of Govan in Renfrewshire, most of the ancient parish was annexed by the county of city of Glasgow in 1912. Cathcart is mainly a residential area, containing a mix of tenements, terraces and villas built from red or blonde sandstone. There are some historic buildings, including the Couper Institute (a public hall and library) and the Snuff Mill. One of Alexander Thomson's most significant buildings, Holmwood House, is situated in Cathcart, close to the Glasgow city boundary.

Local industry includes ClydeUnion Pumps (previously part of Weir Group), and Scottish Power.

Cathcart is served by Cathcart railway station on the Cathcart Circle Line, as well as numerous bus routes.

Linn Park, the second largest park in the city, is within the surrounding area. The semi natural woodland, declared a local nature reserve in 2012, has a large path network and river walk.

Churches
Cathcart contains several churches including Cathcart Baptist church, Cathcart United Free church, Cathcart Congregational church and two Church of Scotland churches; Cathcart Old and Cathcart Trinity. The present Cathcart Old building was opened in 1929 and sits across Carmunnock Road from the earlier churchyard which contains the tower from the previous church and a graveyard. Cathcart Trinity was formed in November 2002 from the union of the vacant charges of Cathcart South and New Cathcart. The former New Cathcart Church building was converted into housing in 2006. Cathcart's Catholic residents are served by St Gabriel's Church in Merrylee and by Christ the King in King's Park. Three congregations of Jehovah's Witnesses share a Kingdom Hall in Cathcart.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cathcart


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User:Bth/ToDoFeatured

This began life as a straight copy of featured articles as of 02/03/04. My basic intention is to work my way through the entire list giving them at least a basic copyedit -- whilst the quality of these articles is high, a little sprucing up can't hurt them, and it would be nice if there weren't typos, etc. in things that are in some ways the Wikipedia's "shop front". I'm going to delete things from this list as I get to them, hence it will not remain a complete list (nor will I keep tracking articles added to featured, though I may start hanging around on featured article candidates to catch them in embryo form).

Biography
Mark Antony -- Humphrey Bogart -- L. Paul Bremer -- Julius Caesar -- Leonardo da Vinci -- Paul Erdős -- Galileo Galilei -- Ernest Hemingway -- Jim Henson -- Alfred Hitchcock -- Garry Kasparov -- Rudyard Kipling -- Bruno Kreisky -- Nella Larsen -- Abraham Lincoln -- H. P. Lovecraft -- John Major -- Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart -- Joshua A. Norton -- Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. -- Rhazes -- Rembrandt -- Martha Stewart -- Gough Whitlam -- Ralph Yarborough

Biology and Medicine
Action potential -- Brolga -- Sperm Whale -- Race -- Synapse -- Mitochondrial Eve -- Cladistics -- Gene -- Platypus -- Tuberculosis -- Menstrual cycle -- Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS)

Chemistry
Periodic table -- Helium -- LSD -- Titanium

Culture and Society
Baroque -- Bathing machine -- Fancy cancels -- Freemasonry -- Lollapalooza -- Korean name -- Same-sex marriage -- Social history of the piano -- Tea -- Villain

Economics
Economics -- History of the English penny -- Euro -- London Congestion Charge

Games
Blackjack -- Chess -- Go (board game) -- Prisoner's dilemma -- Pub quiz -- Rock, Paper, Scissors

Geography
Aztalan State Park -- Montparnasse -- Newark, New Jersey -- Provinces of Thailand (includes the 76 provincial articles)

History
Adoption in Rome -- Attack on Pearl Harbor -- Battle of Aljubarrota -- Behistun Inscription -- Byzantine Empire -- Dreyfus Affair -- Éire -- First Battle of the Stronghold -- Franks -- History of Germany -- History of Scotland -- History of the Netherlands -- Indus Valley Civilization -- Operation Market Garden -- Origins of the American Civil War -- Peloponnesian War -- Sino-Soviet split -- White Rose -- World War I

Language
American English -- Leet -- Mandarin (linguistics) -- Political correctness -- Split infinitive -- Taiwanese (linguistics) -- Thou

Law
Copyright -- Crushing by elephant -- Negligence

Literature
Alliterative verse -- Crime fiction -- English poetry -- Irish poetry -- Irish theatre -- Medieval literature -- Poetry -- Poetry of the United States

Mathematics
Ackermann function -- Computational complexity theory (and related pages) -- Pythagorean theorem -- Trigonometric function -- Vacuous truth

Media
Batman -- Have I Got News For You -- Not the Nine O'Clock News -- Star Trek -- Superman -- Western movie

Music
Concept album -- Miles Davis -- Donegal fiddle tradition -- Bob Dylan -- Heavy metal music -- Charles Ives -- Jazz -- Madonna -- Roy Orbison -- Gram Parsons -- Punk rock -- Saxophone -- Sex Pistols -- Simon and Garfunkel

Philosophy
Frankfurt School -- Free will -- Law of Demeter -- Paradox (and related pages)

Physics, Astrophysics and Geophysics
Comet -- Geologic ages (and related pages) -- Geyser -- Io (moon) -- Quantum mechanics -- Rainbow -- The Palm Sunday Tornado Outbreak

Politics and Government
Hutton Inquiry -- Irish Houses of Parliament -- Japan general election, 2003 -- Libertarian socialism -- Peerage -- President of the United States -- Propaganda -- Representative peer -- U.S. Electoral College -- Zionism

Psychology
Milgram experiment -- Psychosis -- Schizophrenia

Reference
Peer review

Religion and beliefs
Anno Domini -- Bible code -- Christianity -- End times -- Greek mythology (and related pages) -- Hebrew calendar -- Original sin -- Revised Standard Version -- Shakers -- Sons of Noah -- Vampire

Sport
Bodyline -- Bulldogging -- Chariot racing -- Montreal Canadiens -- Summer Olympic Games

Technology
Analogue disc record -- Application Programming Interface (API) -- ASCII -- C programming language -- Damascus steel -- Electronic amplifier -- Fountain pen -- Horseshoe -- Hubble Space Telescope -- Illegal prime -- Jet engine -- Markup language -- Nuclear weapon -- Pattern welding -- Phonograph cylinder -- Quantum computer -- Radar -- RISC -- Road transport -- Search engine -- Secure computing -- Spacecraft propulsion -- Spamming -- Typewriter -- Telephone exchange -- World Wide Web -- Zuiderzee Works

title: User:Bth/ToDoFeatured


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User talk:Tempo2000

Gruenkern
Gruenkern is produced in a relatively small area in Southern Germany around the town of Boxberg. In short: gruenkern is roasted spelt and you can make fantastic dishes with it!! Gruenkern was invented as a response to hunger. In years of heavy thunderstorms with hail the stalks were beaten to the ground and were in danger of rotting. In order to rescue at least some grain people would harvest spelt in a green condition. They took it home and roasted it in their stove. When they ground the roasted grain they put it in soups, made hamburger-like patties or mixed it with flour to make bread. That was the birthday of gruenkern, the birthday of the best vegetarian hamburger you can imagine! More information: http://www.gruenkern.de/basic.htm

title: User talk:Tempo2000


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AkzoNobel

Akzo Nobel N.V., stylised as AkzoNobel, is a Dutch multinational company which creates paints and performance coatings for both industry and consumers worldwide. Headquartered in Amsterdam, the company has activities in more than 150 countries. AkzoNobel is the world's third-largest paint manufacturer by revenue after Sherwin-Williams and PPG Industries.

History
AkzoNobel has a long history of mergers and divestments. Parts of the current company can be traced back to 17th-century companies.

History and formation of Akzo
Akzo was formed in 1969 as merger of Algemene Kunstzijde Unie (General Artificial Silk Union; AKU) and Koninklijke Zout Organon (Royal Salt Organon; KZO).

The AKU was formed in 1929 when the Vereinigte Glanzstoff-Fabriken (est. 1899) and Nederlandse Kunstzijdefabriek (ENKA, est. 1911) merged, forming Algemene Kunstzijde Unie (AKU). The latter faced, amongst others, technical problems in the manufacturing of synthetic fibers. Its founder, Jacques Coenraad Hartogs, turned to Dutch industrialist Rento Hofstede Crull for a solution for which Hofstede Crull provided the answer. They created a joint venture, the NV I.S.E.M., whose successes and profits laid the foundation for the ENKA's subsequent acquisitions and mergers and which was eventually absorbed by the AKU in 1938.

The other part of the merger, the KZO, was formed when Koninklijke Zout Ketjen merged with Koninklijke Zwanenberg Organon in 1967. The former was itself a merger of Koninklijke Nederlandse Zoutindustrie (KNZ) and Ketjen. The KNZ was formed in 1918 by Ko Vis as a salt producing company; a business that to this day plays an important role in AkzoNobel's activities. The other part, Koninklijke Zwanenberg Organon, was formed when Zwanenberg's Fabrieken (est. 1887), a meat export factory based in Oss merged with Organon, a pharmaceuticals company founded by Saal van Zwanenberg, also in Oss.

After the merger of AKU and KZO, Akzo made a number of other critical acquisitions; Armour and Company in 1970, Levis Paints in 1985, specialty chemicals division of Stauffer in 1987 and divested its polyamides and polyesters plastics engineering business to DSM in 1992. In 1993, Akzo formed a joint venture with Harrisons Chemicals (UK) Ltd a subsidiary of Harrisons & Crosfield.

AkzoNobel formation
In 1994 Akzo and Nobel Industries agreed to merge, forming Akzo Nobel, with the new combined entity having 20 business entities a number of divestments were made: Nobel Chemicals, Nobel Biotech and Spectra-Physics. In 1995 the PET resins business was sold to Wellman, Inc.. In 1996 the group sold the crop protection business to Nufarm. In 1998 the company acquired industrial coatings and in synthetic fiber company Courtaulds, later divesting Courtaulds industrial coatings and Daejen Fine Chemicals. Courtaulds was merged with Akzo Nobel Fibres forming Acordis, which in December 1999 was divested to CVC Capital Partners. In 1999 the company acquired the pharmaceutical business of Kanebo.

In the early 2000s the company began another wave of divestitures, first in 2000 with its stake in Rovin's VCM and PVC business to Shin-Etsu Chemical. In 2001 divests ADC optical monomers business to Great Lakes Chemical, in 2002 its printing inks business, in 2004 its catalyst business to Albemarle Corp., in 2005 its Ink & Adhesive Resins to Hexion and UV/EB Resins to Cray Valley, in 2007 its Akcros Chemicals to GIL Investments. In 2006 the group acquired Canadian decorative and industrial coatings company, SICO Inc. and a year later Canadian industrial coatings company, Chemcraft International, Inc.

In 2007 Organon International was sold to Schering-Plough for €11 billion and AkzoNobel delisted its shares from the US NASDAQ stock market. In 2008 Crown Paints was sold in a management buyout.

In December 2012, AkzoNobel agrees to sell its North American Architectural Coatings business to PPG Industries for $1.1 billion.

Acquisition of Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
In 2008 AkzoNobel acquired British Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) for $15.8 billion.

ICI can trace its history back to four British-based chemical companies; British Dyestuffs Corporation, Brunner, Mond & Company, Nobel Explosives and the United Alkali Company. which merged in 1926, forming ICI. A year later, the newly merged entity employed over 33,000 employees in five main product areas: alkali products, explosives, metals, general chemicals, and dyestuffs. In 1933 the company developed polyethylene, which is later patented and sold as an insulating material. In 1986 focusses to paint and specialty products with the purchase of Beatrice's Chemicals Division and Glidden Paint.

In 1993 ICI demerged its bioscience business, splitting into two the publicly listed companies: ICI and Zeneca. The latter would later go onto merge with Astra AB, forming the current pharmaceutical company, AstraZeneca.

In April 2008 Henkel acquired from AkzoNobel the adhesive part of National Starch and in June 2010, AkzoNobel divested the starch part of National Starch business to Corn Products International.

Attempted acquisition by PPG Industries
In March 2017, PPG Industries launched an unsolicited takeover bid of €20.9 billion, which was promptly rejected by AkzoNobel's management. Days later, PPG again launched an increased bid of €24.5 billion, which was again rejected by AkzoNobel's management. A number of shareholders urged the company to explore the offer and subsequent negotiations. In April, activist investor, Elliot Investors' called for the removal of Chairman Antony Burgmans following Akzo's refusal to submit to discussing with PPG. Elliott, which has a 3.25% stake in the company, claimed it was one of a group of investors that met the Dutch legal threshold of 10% voting-share support, which is needed to call an extraordinary meeting to vote on a proposal to remove Burgmans. On 13 April, Templeton Global Equity said it was among another group of investors calling for an extraordinary meeting of AkzoNobel shareholders to discuss Burgmans continued tenure as Chairman. Later, in the same month Akzo outlined its plan to separate its chemicals division and pay shareholders €1.6 billion in extra dividends, in order to attempt to hold-off PPG. The new Akzo strategy was dismissed by PPG, which claimed that their offer represented better value for shareholders, supported by activist Akzo shareholder, Elliot Advisors. On 24 April, a day before Akzo's annual meeting of shareholders, PPG increased its final offer by approximately 8% to $28.8 billion (€26.9 billion, €96.75 per share)—with Akzo's share pricing rising 6% to a record price of €82.95 per share. Akzo shareholder, Columbia Threadneedle Investments, urged the company to open dialogue with PPG, whilst PPG claimed that the deal would add to earning within its first year. Days later one of the UK's largest pension scheme investors, Universities Superannuation Scheme (USS), urged Akzo to engage with PPG. On 2 May, Reuters revealed that the supervisory board of Azko was meeting to discuss how to deal with PPGs third offer, still maintaining it did not value the company highly enough.

In early May, Akzo again rejected PPGs bid, citing the deal still undervalued the company, as well as potentially facing antitrust risks, and not addressing other concerns such as "cultural differences". Under Dutch company law, PPG had to then decide to either make a formal bid or walkaway. In early June, PPG chose to walk away from the potential deal. As part of Akzo's defense to shareholders, many of whom pushed for the deal, chief executive Ton Büchner agreed to split Akzo in two and achieve increased financial targets. Büchner stepped down as CEO in July 2017, citing health reasons. He was succeeded by Thierry Vanlancker, former chief of the company's chemicals division.

Recent
The company AkzoNobel is focused on paints and coatings. On October 9, 2018 Specialty Chemicals was re-branded as a new company, Nouryon, after acquisition by the Carlyle Group.

International Paint Limited, owned by AkzoNobel were fined £650,000 and ordered to pay costs of £144,992 in a prosecution brought by the Environment Agency for allowing the banned highly toxic chemical tributyltin to be released into the river Yealm estuary at Newton Ferrers.

Organization
Due to high revenues from the sales of its pharmaceutical business, AkzoNobel was the world's most profitable company in 2008.

Decorative paints
AkzoNobel markets their products under various brandnames such as Dulux, Sikkens, International and Interpon.

Performance coatings
AkzoNobel is a leading coatings company whose key products include automotive coatings, specialised equipment for the car repair and transportation market and marine coatings. The coatings groups consist of the following business units:

 * Decorative Paints
 * Marine and Protective Coatings
 * Automotive and Specialty Coatings
 * Industrial Coatings
 * Powder Coatings

Expancel
Expancel is a unit producing expandable microspheres under the tradename "Expancel Microspheres" within AkzoNobel.

title: AkzoNobel


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User:Bezeh.nl

This is a start in the Englisch Wikipedia.. I do a lot more in the Dutch Wikipedia

nl:Gebruiker:Bezeh.nl

title: User:Bezeh.nl


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Bernhard Siegfried Albinus

Bernhard Siegfried Albinus (originally Weiss; 24 February 1697 – 9 September 1770) was a German-born Dutch anatomist. He served a professor of medicine at the University of Leiden like his father Bernhard Albinus (1653–1721). He also published a large-format artistic atlas of human anatomy, with engravings made by Jan Wandelaar.

Biography
Bernhard Siegfried Albinus was born at Frankfurt on the Oder where his father, Bernhard Albinus (1653–1721), was professor of the practice of medicine. In 1702 the latter was transferred to the chair of medicine at Leiden University, and it was there that Bernhard Siegfried began his studies in 1709, at the age of 12, having for his teachers such men as Boerhaave and Govert Bidloo. Having finished his studies at Leiden, he went to Paris in 1718, where, under the instruction of Sébastien Vaillant (1669–1722), Jacob Winslow (1669–1760) and Frederik Ruysch, he devoted himself especially to anatomy and botany. After a year's absence he was, on the recommendation of Boerhaave, recalled in 1719 to Leiden to be a lecturer on anatomy and surgery. Two years later, after Johannes Jacobus Rau (1668 - 1719) the former rector of the medical school died on 29 June 1719, Albinus received his position in 1721, and succeeded his father in the professorship of these subjects, and became a teacher of anatomy, his classroom being resorted to not only by students but by many practising physicians. In 1745 Albinus was appointed professor of the practice of medicine, being succeeded in the anatomical chair by his brother Frederick Bernhard (1715–1778), who, as well as another brother, Christian Bernhard (1700–1752), attained distinction. Bernhard Siegfried, who was twice rector of his university, died at Leiden.

Together with Hermann Boerhaave, he edited the works of the physicians Andreas Vesalius and William Harvey. Albinus is known for his Tabulae sceleti et musculorum corporis humani, an exquisitely illustrated volume, which was first published in Leiden in 1747, largely at his own expense. Albinus is thought to have spent 24000 florins for the work. The artist and engraver with whom Albinus did nearly all of his work was Jan Wandelaar (1690–1759). A From 1746 until his death, Wandelaar lived in Albinus's house. In an attempt to increase the scientific accuracy of anatomical illustration, Albinus and Wandelaar devised a new technique of placing nets with square webbing at specified intervals between the artist and the anatomical specimen and copying the images using the grid patterns. Albinus believed in the idea of "homo perfectus", an idealized perfect human model based on which all humans were derived as variants. In order to represent this perfect human, the illustrations were drawn from multiple specimens. Earlier anatomical drawings such as those accompanying Vesalius' work were drawn from single specimens. Albinus preferred athletic slender forms. Tabulae was criticized by such scholars as Petrus Camper, especially for the whimsical backgrounds added to many of the pieces by Wandelaar, but Albinus staunchly defended Wandelaar. Wandelaar made the first of the plates in 1742, well before the publication of the Tabulae, and this included the skeleton superposed in front of a rhinoceros. This was the famous rhinoceros Clara which at that time lived in Leiden and was extremely popular.

Publications

 * Oratio inauguralis de anatomia comparata. (Leiden, 1719, 4.)
 * Oratio inaug. qua in veram viam, quae ad fabricae corporis humanae cognitionem ducit, inquiritur. (Leiden, 1721, 4.)
 * Index supellectilis anatomicae, quam Academiae Batavae, quae Leidae est, legavit Iohannes Iacobus Ravius, rogatu Illustrissimorum et Amplissimorum academiae istius curatorum et urbis consulum confectus a Bernhard Siegfried Albino, qui et vitam ejus nec non merhodum curandi calculofos infimulque instrumentorum figuras addit. (Leiden, 1721, 4. c. fig.)
 * De ossibus corporis humani ad auditores fuos libellus. (Leiden, 1726, 8; which in Vienna, 1748 and 1757, in 8 was reprinted.)
 * Historia musculorum hominis. (Leiden, 1734, 1736, 4. c. fig. C. Möhsen portr. p. 128.
 * Dissertatio de arteriis et venis intestinorum hominis, adjecta icon coloribus distincta. (Leiden 1736, 1738, 4.)
 * Dissertatio secunda de sede et caussa coloris Aethiopum et caeterorum hominum; accedunt icones coloribus distinktae. (Leiden, 1737, 4.)
 * Icones officum foetus humani; accedit osteogeniae bevis historia. (Leiden, 1737, 4.)
 * Tabulae sceleti et musculorum corporis humani. (Leiden, 1747, 4.), greek Print London, 1749, Translated into English, London, 1752, greek print C. Moehsen Portr. p. 126
 * Uteri mulieris gravidae, cum jam parturiret, mortuae tabulae VII. (Leiden 1748), Print regional appendix, 1751, Pr. reg.
 * Tabulae ossium humanorum. (Leiden 1753), greek Print
 * Tabulae vatis chyliferi cum vena azygos, arteriis intercostalibus aliisque vicinis partibus. (Leiden 1757), Pr. reg.
 * Academicarum annotationum liber I.—VIII., (Leiden, 1754 — 1768, greek. 4.)
 * De sceleto humanum liber. (Leiden 1767, 4.), Andreae Vesalii opera omnia anatomica et chirurgica cura Herrmanni Boerhaave et Bernhardi Siegfried Albini. Tomus Primus (I.) et Secundus (II.) (Leiden, 1775), Print ca. figurative.
 * Hieronymi Fabricii ab Aquapendente opera omnia anatomica et physiologica hactenus, variis locis ac formis edita, nunc uno certo ordine digesta, et in unum volumen redacta. Accessit rerum et verhorum index complettissimus una cum praesatione B. S. Albini. (Leiden 1737, Print.)
 * Gulielmi Harvei opera, seu exercitatio anatomica de motu cordis et sanguinis in animalibus, atque exercitationes duae anatomicae de circulatione sanguinis ad Ioannes Riolanum filius et exercitationes de generatione animalum cum praefatione B. S. Albini. (Leiden 1736, 1737, 4; 2 Volumes. Leiden, 1757, 4., compare Balthasar. Eustachii Explicationes tabularum anatomicarum. Accedit nova tabularum editio, per B. S. Albinum. (Leiden, 1744, Print, Increased and improved, Leiden 1761, print.)

title: Bernhard Siegfried Albinus


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WBEN (AM)

WBEN (930 kHz) is a commercial AM radio station licensed to Buffalo, New York, featuring a news/talk format. Owned by Audacy, Inc., the station serves Western New York, the Niagara Falls region, and parts of Southern Ontario. WBEN's studios are located in Amherst, while the transmitter site is in Grand Island. In addition to a standard analog transmission, WBEN is relayed over WKSE's HD3 digital subchannel, and is available online via Audacy.

WBEN is an affiliate of ABC News Radio, and WKBW-TV provides weather forecasts. The station airs overflow sports programming from WGR, including the 'NFL on Westwood One'' and Buffalo Sabres hockey games that are played on the same day as Buffalo Bills football contests. WBEN features local talk hosts during the day; nighttime syndicated programming includes Armstrong & Getty, Our American Stories with Lee Habeeb, and Coast to Coast AM with George Noory.

1920s
WBEN has traditionally traced its history to September 8, 1930, the date when it made its first broadcast using the WBEN call sign. However, Federal Communications Commission (FCC) records list the station's first license date as September 22, 1922, tracing WBEN's origin to an earlier license, with the sequentially assigned call letters of WMAK, that was issued to Norton Laboratories in Lockport, New York. The station initially used the facility built by the Norton Laboratories organization from Boston as part of an experiment to send amplitude modulated (AM) voice transmissions between Niagara Falls, New York, and Cambridge, Massachusetts.

WMAK was a charter member of the Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) radio network, being one of the 16 stations that aired the first CBS network program on September 18, 1927. In 1928, WMAK joined with General Electric's WGY in Schenectady to demonstrate television technology. A mechanical scan system with only 30 lines of vertical resolution, it was crude compared to later electronic standards such as the 525-line NTSC analog system and subsequent 1080-line high definition digital television. But the effort was historic because GE's experimental facility was the first American television station with a regular broadcast schedule, as well as the forerunner of the current Capital District CBS-TV affiliate WRGB. The comedy duo of Stoopnagle and Budd began their careers at WMAK in 1930.

When WMAK was launched in 1922, it initially operated on the standard "entertainment" wavelength of 360 meters (833 kHz). In mid-1924 the station was reassigned to 1100 kHz and at the end of the year was shifted again, to 1130 kHz. In late 1927 the transmitter site was changed to Tonawanda, followed a few months later to Shawnee Road in Martinsville. In mid-1927 the station moved to 550 kHz.

Effective November 11, 1928, WMAK was reassigned to 900 kHz, with 750 watts of power, now with a timeshare partner, WFBL in Syracuse, as a result of the Federal Radio Commission's (FRC) General Order 40, which implemented a major realignment of American AM radio. (At this time, WMAK's previous frequency of 550 kHz was assigned to WGR). WMAK was unhappy with this new assignment because the reduced hours limited its ability to carry CBS network programming. WFBL was also unhappy, even though it was also issued an unusual second authorization for unlimited use of 1490 kHz to test "synchronized" transmissions. In practice, WFBL preferred the 900 kHz assignment and only broadcast on 1490 kHz during times when, under the timesharing agreement, 900 kHz was in use by WMAK.

Eventually, a five-way legal battle broke out over control of the 900 kHz assignment. WMAK and WFBL filed applications for full-time use of the frequency, while two other existing stations, WEBR in Buffalo and WBNY in New York City, applied for half-time assignments. A fifth application, made with support from local businesses, came from the Buffalo Evening News newspaper, which filed a request to build a new full-time station. Although it had never operated a radio station, the News had extensive experience supplying a news service to local stations, beginning in November 1920 when it provided election returns for broadcast over an amateur station operated by Charles C. Klinck, Jr. The News also had a contract to supply news for use by the Buffalo Broadcasting Company stations, however, a dispute led to the station group canceling the contract in September 1929.

The five competing station applications were evaluated at a Federal Radio Commission hearing on December 18, 1929. The FRC issued its ruling two days later, denying the WMAK, WFBL, WEBR, and WBNY applications while ordering WFBL to transmit exclusively on 1490 kHz. It also granted the Buffalo Evening News request to build a new 1,000-watt station on 900 kHz with unlimited hours. In early 1929 WMAK had been acquired by the Buffalo Broadcasting Company, based at Buffalo's Rand Building, which also controlled WGR and WKBW in Buffalo and WKEN in nearby Kenmore. The FRC saw this as pertinent to its decision, stating "There existed in Buffalo, New York, a virtual monopoly of broadcasting facilities controlled by the Buffalo Broadcasting Corporation by reason of which Buffalo and the surrounding community were given radio broadcasting service... of an unstable and unsatisfactory nature", therefore "the greatest benefit to the greatest number would result from granting the application of the Buffalo Evening News". A Construction Permit to build the new station on 900 kHz, with a sequentially assigned provisional call sign of WRDA, was issued on January 23, 1930, specifying a transmitter site in Orchard Park and studios in Buffalo.

1930s
Both WMAK and WFBL appealed this ruling. WFBL complained that 1490 kHz was an "undesirable" assignment, and the FRC eventually agreed for the station to use 1360 kHz instead. Following plaintiff arguments, but prior to the appeals court making a ruling, the Buffalo Evening News and the Buffalo Broadcasting Company devised a settlement, and agreed that instead of building a completely new station, the newspaper would purchase WMAK and upgrade its existing transmitter site. The assignment of WMAK's license to the Buffalo Evening News was made on June 25, 1930, and WMAK's call letters were changed to WBEN. The original construction permit for a (never built) new station was modified to specify that it was now an upgrade to the existing Martinsville transmitter site. At the same time, WMAK's call sign and intellectual property were transferred to the former WKEN in Kenmore, where it would operate until its deletion in 1932. Following the repeal of the Davis Amendment, in 1948 WMAK's vacated frequency assignment was licensed to a new station in Kenmore, now WUFO in Amherst.

WBEN remained off the air while the upgrades were being made, until it made its debut broadcast on September 8. A new studio complex was built at the Statler-Hilton Hotel in downtown Buffalo, chosen primarily for access to the live orchestra there, which served WBEN, its sister FM station, and a television station opened in the spring of 1948, for more than 25 years.

In 1934, WBEN continued the station's tradition of innovation, launching the ultra-shortwave experimental station W8XH on the Apex radio band, as the first station of its kind to broadcast a regular schedule. In December 1938, WBEN began an experimental facsimile service, transmitting overnight newspaper extracts printed with special receivers in subscribing homes. In April 1939, the facsimile service was transferred to an "experimental facsimile broadcasting station", W8XA, which employed much of the equipment originally used by W8XH. The facsimile service was ended in December 1940.

1940s
In 1941, WBEN moved to its current frequency of 930 kHz as a result of the North American Regional Broadcasting Agreement (NARBA) reassignments. The station also relocated its transmitter to Grand Island at this time, increasing full-time power to its current 5,000 watts. The Grand Island transmitter and two towers are still in use today.

Buffalo, in general, and WBEN in particular, was an incubator of national radio and television talent. In the early 1940s, WBEN's morning host was comedian and future national late-night television star Jack Paar (he left the station when drafted into the military in 1943 during World War II and opted not to return to Buffalo after the war). Paar's place was taken by Clint Buehlman, who was recruited from competing station WGR. Buehlman remained for 34 years until retiring in 1977.

WBEN was also the station where longtime national commercial spokesman Ed Reimers launched his career, In 1946, WBEN was one of the first radio stations in the United States to launch an FM radio station, which originally was located at 106.5 MHz on the dial. In May 1948, it launched what would become WIVB, the first television station in Buffalo and the second in Upstate New York, following WRGB in Schenectady/Albany. The original WBEN-FM would later move to 102.5, increase its signal strength to 110 kilowatts to become the most powerful FM station in New York State, and eventually become WBKV.

1950s-1960s
As many national network radio programs moved to television, WBEN shifted to a middle-of-the-road format and developed a stable talent to lead the market in ratings. The station's affiliation with CBS brought Arthur Godfrey, "The World Tonight" and other network programming, but the station was primarily live and local.

In addition to morning host Clint Buehlman, other on-air voices included Al Fox, John Corbett, Ken Phillips, Bill Masters, and John Luther. Sports personalities Van Miller, Stan Barron and Dick Rifenburg shared various duties, including hosting and interview programs, while familiar news voices Jack Ogilvie, Gene Kelley, Lou Douglas, Virgil Booth, and others were heard during this period. Most of these personnel also handled TV duties, anchoring, announcing the news, weather, and sports, and hosting game shows and other programming at WBEN-TV.

1970s-1980s
When the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) disallowed same market co-ownership of newspapers and broadcast licenses in the early 1970s, the combination of the Buffalo Evening News and WBEN-AM/FM/TV was grandfathered under the new rule. However, the 1974 death of Katherine Butler (longtime owner and publisher of the Evening News) led to the placement of the Evening News's properties in a blind trust (since Katherine Butler left no heirs). This trust company then sold the newspaper. This sale ended the Butler family's ownership of the Evening News. With the loss of the WBEN stations' grandfathered protection, WBEN-TV was sold to newspaper publisher Robert Howard. WBEN-TV's new owner changed channel 4's callsign to WIVB, which stands for "We're IV (4) Buffalo".

By the time of this transition period, WBEN radio's demographics had grown older with its folksy personalities and middle-of-the-road music. With the Butler family no longer owning the newspaper or broadcast properties, WBEN attempted to contemporize the sound during the mid-late 1970s by firing some of its longtime on-air institutions, hiring DJs, and playing Top-40 music. The station went from being known as "WBEN Radio 9-3-0" to "93/WBEN". DJs Jay Fredericks (Fritz Coleman), Chris Tyler, and Charlie Warren joined the station from other markets. Within months the ratings dropped as longtime listeners were angered, yet Top-40 listeners were already entrenched at WKBW and WYSL. Jefferson Kaye, however, had remained successful as the afternoon personality during this period (he succeeded the retiring Clint Buehlman as a morning show host in 1977; Buehlman's retirement was in part prompted by poor reviews for his handling of coverage of the Great Lakes Blizzard of 1977). Buehlman's 34-year run at the station was the longest in WBEN history, a benchmark that would eventually be surpassed by Susan Rose in 2019. Kaye, who had been program director of crosstown rival WKBW, originally came to Buffalo via WBZ in Boston.

As the newspaper and TV station became part of other companies, WBEN-AM and FM were sold to Algonquin Broadcasting, a company led by longtime Buffalo radio executive Laurence "Larry" Levite. Levite assembled a group of managers and talent that returned WBEN to prominence. The line-up was changed, and the format shifted from Full-Service, playing Top-40 to Full-Service with Adult Contemporary music. Jefferson Kaye hosted mornings, while Larry Hunter, Bill Lacey, and Kevin O'Connell and Tom Kelly were heard on middays, and Jack Mindy hosted afternoons. Stan Barron returned to the station, bringing back his "Free-Form Sports" program, and overnights eventually shifted from Dick Rifenburg's music show to Mutual's syndicated Larry King talk show. Bob Wood served as the station's program director. Helicopter traffic reports were added, featuring reporters Dave May and Debbie Stamp, the news department staff was increased - and Levite brought Buffalo Bills broadcasts back to WBEN after a three-year hiatus on WKBW. Van Miller also returned to the Bills' broadcast booth, replacing WKBW announcer Al Meltzer. WBEN, WJYE (with a beautiful music format), and Top 40 outlet WKBW all fought for the top spot during this era, but WBEN had consistently solidified the number one position by 1980. Stan Barron died in 1984 and was succeeded by John Murphy. By the mid-1980s, Kaye departed WBEN's morning show, moving to Philadelphia to become the voice of NFL Films and WPVI-TV. Midday host Bill Lacey, later joined by Kevin Keenan, assumed morning hosting duties.

1990s
The station won numerous regional and statewide awards for its news and public-service efforts. Levite presided over the gradual transition of WBEN from an adult contemporary station to its current news and talk format. The local talk continued, along with the addition of Rush Limbaugh. In 1994, Levite sold the WBEN stations to Kerby Confer's Keymarket Communications organization and retired from the broadcasting business (Levite later moved to print media and took over the monthly Buffalo Spree magazine until his 2017 death). Keymarket later sold the properties to River City Broadcasting, which then merged with Sinclair Broadcast Group. In 1999, Entercom Communications bought WBEN, as well as its competitor WGR and most of Sinclair's other radio stations as Sinclair exited the radio business.

2000-2010
WBEN and WGR had been competing for news/talk/sports stations during the 1990s. In 2000, under common ownership, the stations rearranged personnel. WGR became the market's all-sports station, while WBEN became the market's principal commercial news/talk station.

With sister station WGR's move to sports talk, WBEN solidified its position as the dominant news/talk station. Market veterans John Zach and Susan Rose replaced Bill Lacey (who currently hosts mornings at WHTT) to host "Buffalo's Morning News". Tom Bauerle moved from WGR to host a mid-morning talk show, Limbaugh's program continued, and market veteran Sandy Beach moved from sister station WMJQ to host afternoon talk on the station, while evening hours were filled by syndicated lifestyle hosts Laura Schlessinger and Joy Browne; Browne and Schlessinger were later replaced by The Sean Hannity Show and Jim Bohannon, respectively.

2010-present
From April 5, 2011, to September 26, 2013, Entercom switched its Classic Rock/Triple-A hybrid sister station WLKK to a simulcast of WBEN. Entercom's WLKK was not able to assume the WBEN-FM call letters, since the company had previously released the WBEN-FM call letters. They are in use on a Beasley Broadcast Group station in the Philadelphia area. The "Lake" format continued on WLKK's HD2 digital subchannel.

In July 2013, WBEN made its first major change to its daytime lineup in over a decade. The lineup change moved afternoon drive host Sandy Beach to midday, while midday host Tom Bauerle moved to afternoon drive and expanded his show to four hours. The station's evening news magazine, Buffalo's Evening News (which incorporated a simulcast of the first part of the CBS Evening News), was canceled as part of the expansion, a move made to better coordinate with Arbitron's dayparting practices. (Buffalo's Evening News is expected to return in 2018 after Bauerle's show was cut back to three hours as part of a contract extension. ) After a very brief stint in which David Bellavia filled the shift from 10pm to 1am, the station added The Savage Nation to its syndicated offerings in early 2014. It was explained at the time that Bellavia's other employer objected to him being on WBEN, so Savage was replacement programming for that slot. Bellavia would however return in late 2016 as Bauerle's co-host and eventually moved to middays with his own show in 2020. Buffalo's Evening News would be revived in 2021 after the death of Rush Limbaugh. WBEN's parent company also added Dana Loesch on a tape-delay, which was dropped two years later in favor of an even further tape-delayed airing of Armstrong & Getty.

"Cinema Bob" Stilson, Entercom's creative services director, had a one-hour "Movie Show" that discussed upcoming theatrical releases and aired Fridays during Beach's program from 1997 until Entercom cut Stilson's budget and ended the program in 2017; Stilson later joined WEBR in 2020. Morning host John Zach was permanently laid off at the end of 2016 and later emerged at WECK. Until 2016, WBEN carried news from CBS News Radio, an affiliation the station had held for 76 years. Sandy Beach, whose Beach and Company show had been part of the WBEN lineup since 1997, announced his departure from the station in July 2020.

Today, WBEN competes with country-formatted WYRK for the leadership in total audience in most quarterly ratings surveys.

 * Portions of the above come from the Buffalo Broadcast Pioneers Web site.

Simulcasts
Between 1946 and 1960, WBEN simulcast on co-owned WBEN-FM, which started on 106.5 MHz. From 1960 (when the station moved to 102.5 MHz) until 1973, the morning show continued to be simulcast.The 106.5 frequency was reallocated, switching its call letters to WADV and eventually WYRK. The co-owned TV station, WBEN-TV 4, was sold separately to become WIVB in 1977. WBEN-FM later became WMJQ in 1987, WTSS in 2000, and—after WBEN's parent company sold 102.5 to a religious broadcaster in 2023—WBKV.

On April 5, 2011, WBEN began simulcasting on co-owned FM station WLKK at 107.7 MHz, relayed by translator W297AB at 107.3 MHz from Williamsville, New York. On September 26, 2013, WLKK dropped the simulcast.

WBEN was simulcast on the second HD Radio subchannel of WTSS from 2011 to 2015. It is now heard on the HD3 subchannel of WKSE 98.5 MHz.

title: WBEN (AM)


text:
A. V. Dicey

Albert Venn Dicey, (4 February 1835 – 7 April 1922) was a British Whig jurist and constitutional theorist. He is most widely known as the author of Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885). The principles it expounds are considered part of the uncodified British constitution. He became Vinerian Professor of English Law at Oxford, one of the first Professors of Law at the LSE Law School, and a leading constitutional scholar of his day. Dicey popularised the phrase "rule of law", although its use goes back to the 17th century.

Biography
Dicey was born on 4 February 1835. His father was Thomas Edward Dicey, senior wrangler in 1811 and proprietor of the Northampton Mercury and Chairman of the Midland Railway. His mother was Annie Marie Stephen, daughter of James Stephen, Master in Chancery. Per his own words, Dicey owed everything to the wisdom and firmness of his mother. His elder brother was Edward James Stephen Dicey. He was also a cousin of Leslie Stephen and Sir James Fitzjames Stephen.

Dicey was educated at King's College School in London and Balliol College, Oxford, graduating with Firsts in classical moderations in 1856 and in literae humaniores in 1858. In 1860 he won a fellowship at Trinity College, Oxford, which he forfeited upon his marriage in 1872.

He was called to the bar by the Inner Temple in 1863, subscribed to the Jamaica Committee around 1865, and was appointed to the Vinerian Chair of English Law at Oxford in 1882, a post he held until 1909. In his first major work, the seminal Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, he outlined the principles of parliamentary sovereignty for which he is most known. He argued that the British Parliament was "an absolutely sovereign legislature" with the "right to make or unmake any law". In the book, he defined the term constitutional law as including "all rules which directly or indirectly affect the distribution or the exercise of the sovereign power in the state". He understood that the freedom British subjects enjoyed was dependent on the sovereignty of Parliament, the impartiality of the courts free from governmental interference and the supremacy of the common law. In 1890, he was appointed Queen's Counsel.

He later left Oxford and went on to become one of the first Professors of Law at the then-new London School of Economics. There he published in 1896 his Conflict of Laws. Upon his death on 7 April 1922, Harold Laski memorialised him as "the most considerable figure in English jurisprudence since Maitland."

Political views

Dicey was receptive to Jeremy Bentham's brand of individualist liberalism and welcomed the extension of the franchise in 1867. He was affiliated with the group known as the "University Liberals", who composed the Essays on Reform and was not ashamed to be labeled a Radical. Dicey held that "personal liberty is the basis of national welfare." He treated Parliamentary sovereignty as the central premise of the British constitution.

Dicey became a Liberal Unionist and a vigorous opponent of Home Rule for Ireland and published and spoke against it extensively from 1886 until shortly before his death, advocating that no concessions be made to Irish nationalism in relation to the government of any part of Ireland as an integral part of the United Kingdom. In March 1914 Dicey stated that if a Home Rule Bill was passed it "would be a political crime lacking all moral and constitutional authority...the voice of the present House of Commons was not the voice of the nation." He was thus bitterly disillusioned by the Anglo-Irish Treaty agreement in 1921 that Southern Ireland should become a self-governing dominion (the Irish Free State), separate from the United Kingdom.

Dicey was also vehemently opposed to women's suffrage, proportional representation (while acknowledging that the existing first-past-the-post system was not perfect), and to the notion that citizens have the right to ignore unjust laws. Dicey viewed the necessity of establishing a stable legal system as more important than the potential injustice that would occur from following unjust laws. In spite of this, he did concede that there were circumstances in which it would be appropriate to resort to an armed rebellion but stated that such occasions are extremely rare.

title: A. V. Dicey


text:
Tulip tree (disambiguation)

A tulip tree is a member of the genus Liriodendron in family Magnoliaceae.

Tulip tree may also refer to:
 * Markhamia lutea or Nile tulip tree, in family Bignoniaceae
 * Magnolia, a genus in the family Magnoliaceae, especially,
 * Magnolia × soulangeana, the saucer magnolia
 * Spathodea or African tulip tree, a genus in family Bignoniaceae

title: Tulip tree (disambiguation)


text:
San Andreas

San Andreas is an archaic variation of the Spanish language San Andrés (Saint Andrew, the apostle).

It may also refer to:

Places

 * San Andreas, California, an unincorporated town
 * San Andreas Fault, a geologic fault that runs through California
 * San Andreas Lake, a lake near San Francisco, California for which the fault is named

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * San Andreas (novel), a 1984 novel by Alistair MacLean
 * San Andreas (film), a 2015 film directed by Brad Peyton
 * San Andreas, a fictional setting in several games in the Grand Theft Auto series, and the subtitle of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas

title: San Andreas


text:
George Frederick Marter

George Frederick Marter (6 June 1840 – 10 May 1907) was a politician in the Canadian province of Ontario. He led the Ontario Conservative Party from 1894 to 1896. Marter and Patrick Brown are the only permanent Ontario Conservative leaders who did not lead the party into an election.

Early career
After graduating from grammar school in Brantford Marter became a merchant and county councillor in Norfolk County, but later moved to operate a general store Bracebridge, Ontario.

Politics
Marter was elected for the riding of Muskoka from 1886 to 1894 and Toronto North from 1894 to 1902.

In 1894, Marter became Conservative leader following William Ralph Meredith's acceptance of the position of Chief Justice of the Common Pleas. The Conservative Party he led was aligned with the Protestant Protective Association in the legislature, and was divided by religious conflict and narrow bigotry. Marter was essentially an interim leader.

In 1896, he was replaced as leader by James P. Whitney. He was defeated when he ran as an Independent in the 1902 election.

Later life
Following his political career Marter became an insurance agent/manager of the London and Lancashire Insurance Company of Toronto and later co-founder of Marter Hall Company Limited with his son. Marter died in Toronto in 1907.

Legacy
Marter Township, Ontario is named for him.

title: George Frederick Marter


text:
User:75FloraHChan

Gruenkern
Gruenkern is produced in a relatively small area in Southern Germany around the town of Boxberg. In short: gruenkern is roasted spelt and you can make fantastic dishes with it!! Gruenkern was invented as a response to hunger. In years of heavy thunderstorms with hail the stalks were beaten to the ground and were in danger of rotting. In order to rescue at least some grain people would harvest spelt in a green condition. They took it home and roasted it in their stove. When they ground the roasted grain they put it in soups, made hamburger-like patties or mixed it with flour to make bread. That was the birthday of gruenkern, the birthday of the best vegetarian hamburger you can imagine! More information: http://www.gruenkern.de/basic.htm

title: User:75FloraHChan


text:
Jadeclaw

Jadeclaw is a role-playing game set in the same world as Ironclaw, in a far off kingdom called Zhongguo (lit: Mandarin for "China"), inspired by Chinese Mythology, where anthropomorphic fantasy creatures control the fates of both Heaven and Earth.

Description
Jadeclaw uses the same system as the prior Ironclaw RPG. Changes include more "traits" (martial arts), and there are now non-mammalian "races". There are now Birds, Reptiles (Snakes and Tortoises), and races from Chinese Mythology (such as Dragons). There are also some strange servitor races of insects (scorpions, centipedes, etc.), which are strictly NPC's (Non-Player Characters).

Publication history
Eos Press published Jadeclaw in 2007 for Sanguine Productions.

After the publication of Ironclaw 2nd edition Jadeclaw was updated for the new edition in the form of the Book of Jade supplement by Sanguine Productions.

title: Jadeclaw