text:
Virunga Mountains

The Virunga Mountains (also known as Mufumbiro ) are a chain of volcanoes in East Africa, in the area where Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), and Uganda meet. The mountain range is a branch of the Albertine Rift Mountains, which border the western branch of the East African Rift. They are located between Lake Edward and Lake Kivu. The name "Virunga" is an English version of the Kinyarwanda word ibirunga, which means "volcanoes".

The mountain range consists of eight major volcanoes. Most of them are dormant, except Mount Nyiragongo 3462 m and Mount Nyamuragira 3063 m, both in the DRC. Recent eruptions occurred in 2006, 2010 and May 2021. Mount Karisimbi is the highest volcano at 4507 m. The oldest mountain is Mount Sabyinyo, which rises 3634 m above sea level.

The Virunga Mountains are home of the endangered mountain gorilla, listed on the IUCN Red List of Endangered Species due to habitat loss, poaching, disease, and war (Butynski et al. 2003). The Karisoke Research Center, founded by Dian Fossey to observe gorillas in their native habitat, is located between Mount Karisimbi and Mount Bisoke.

National parks

 * Virunga National Park, Democratic Republic of the Congo
 * Volcanoes National Park, Rwanda
 * Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda

In culture

 * Michael Crichton's novel Congo is set mostly in the Virunga region.
 * Gorillas in the Mist, and the novel of the same name, document the work and death of primatologist Dian Fossey. The camp from which she operated, Karisoke Research Center, still exists in the Virunga Mountains.

title: Virunga Mountains


text:
Willows Gemfields

Willows Gemfields is a rural town in the locality of Willows in the Central Highlands Region of Queensland, Australia. In the, the town of Willows Gemfields had a population of 101 people.

Sapphires are mined around the town.

History
The town was named on 1 October 1979.

Demographics
In the, the town of Willows Gemfields had a population of 108 people.

In the, the town of Willows Gemfields had a population of 114 people.

In the, the town of Willows Gemfields had a population of 101 people.

Education
There are no schools in Willows Gemfields. The nearest primary school is Anakie State School in Anakie to the north-east. The nearest secondary school is Emerald State High School in Emerald to the east.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Willows Gemfields


text:
Jean-Marc de La Sablière

Jean-Marc de La Sablière (born 8 November 1946, in Athens) has been the Ambassador of France in Italy between 2007 and 2011. Prior to this, he was the Permanent Representative of France to the United Nations from 2002 to 2007.

He arrived at the UN in 2002. For the previous two years he had been diplomatic adviser to President Chirac. He is an alumnus of the École Nationale d'Administration (ÉNA). La Sablière also graduated from the Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po).

Honors

 * Officer of the Légion d'honneur
 * Chevalier of the Ordre national du Mérite

title: Jean-Marc de La Sablière


text:
Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology is the study of how social order is produced in and through processes of social interaction. It generally seeks to provide an alternative to mainstream sociological approaches. In its most radical form, it poses a challenge to the social sciences as a whole. Its early investigations led to the founding of conversation analysis, which has found its own place as an accepted discipline within the academy. According to Psathas, it is possible to distinguish five major approaches within the ethnomethodological family of disciplines (see ).

Ethnomethodology is a fundamentally descriptive discipline which does not engage in the explanation or evaluation of the particular social order undertaken as a topic of study., "to discover the things that persons in particular situations do, the methods they use, to create the patterned orderliness of social life". However, applications have been found within many applied disciplines, such as software design and management studies.

Definition
The term's meaning can be broken down into its three constituent parts: ethno – method – ology, for the purpose of explanation. Using an appropriate Southern California example: ethno refers to a particular socio-cultural group (for example, a particular, local community of surfers); method refers to the methods and practices this particular group employs in its everyday activities (for example, related to surfing); and ology refers to the systematic description of these methods and practices. The focus of the investigation used in our example is the social order of surfing, the ethnomethodological interest is in the "how" (the methods and practices) of the production and maintenance of this social order. In essence ethnomethodology attempts to create classifications of the social actions of individuals within groups through drawing on the experience of the groups directly, without imposing on the setting the opinions of the researcher with regards to social order, as is the case with other forms of sociological investigation.

Origin and scope
The approach was originally developed by Harold Garfinkel, who attributed its origin to his work investigating the conduct of jury members in 1954. His interest was in describing the common sense methods through which members of a jury produce themselves in a jury room as a jury. Thus, their methods for: establishing matters of fact; developing evidence chains; determining the reliability of witness testimony; establishing the organization of speakers in the jury room itself; and determining the guilt or innocence of defendants, etc. are all topics of interest. Such methods serve to constitute the social order of being a juror for the members of the jury, as well as for researchers and other interested parties, in that specific social setting.

This interest developed out of Garfinkel's critique of Talcott Parsons' attempt to derive a general theory of society. This critique originated in his reading of Alfred Schutz, though Garfinkel ultimately revised many of Schutz's ideas. Garfinkel also drew on his study of the principles and practices of financial accounting; the classic sociological theory and methods of Durkheim and Weber; and the traditional sociological concern with the Hobbesian "problem of order".

For the ethnomethodologist, participants produce the order of social settings through their shared sense making practices. Thus, there is an essential natural reflexivity between the activity of making sense of a social setting and the ongoing production of that setting; the two are in effect identical. Furthermore, these practices (or methods) are witnessably enacted, making them available for study. This opens up a broad and multi-faceted area of inquiry. John Heritage writes: "In its open-ended reference to [the study of] any kind of sense-making procedure, the term represents a signpost to a domain of uncharted dimensions rather than a staking out of a clearly delineated territory."

Theory and methods
Ethnomethodology has often perplexed commentators, due to its radical approach to questions of theory and method. With regard to theory, Garfinkel has consistently advocated an attitude of ethnomethodological indifference, a principled agnosticism with regard to social theory which insists that the shared understandings of members of a social setting under study take precedence over any concepts which a social theorist might bring to the analysis from outside that setting. This can be perplexing to traditional social scientists, trained in the need for social theory. A multiplicity of theoretical references by Anne Rawls, in her introduction to Ethnomethodology's Program, might be interpreted to suggest a softening of this position towards the end of Garfinkel's life. However, the position is consistent with ethnomethodology's understanding of the significance of "member's methods", and with certain lines of philosophical thought regarding the philosophy of science (Polanyi 1958; Kuhn 1970; Feyerabend 1975), and the study of the actual practices of scientific procedure. It also has a strong correspondence with the later philosophy of Ludwig Wittgenstein, especially as applied to social studies by Peter Winch.

References are also made in Garfinkel's work to Husserl (Transcendental Phenomenology), Gurwitsch (Gestalt Theory), and, most frequently, of course, to the works of the social phenomenologist Alfred Schutz (Phenomenology of the Natural Attitude), among others. On the other hand, the authors and theoretical references cited by Garfinkel do not constitute a rigorous theoretical basis for ethnomethodology. Ethnomethodology is not Durkheimian, although it shares some of the interests of Durkheim; it is not phenomenology, although it borrows from Husserl and Schutz's studies of the lifeworld (Lebenswelt); it is not a form of Gestalt theory, although it describes social orders as having Gestalt-like properties; and, it is not Wittgensteinian, although it makes use of Wittgenstein's understanding of rule-use, etc. Instead, these borrowings are only fragmentary references to theoretical works from which ethnomethodology has appropriated theoretical ideas for the expressed purposes of doing ethnomethodological investigations.

Similarly, ethnomethodology advocates no formal methods of enquiry, insisting that the research method be dictated by the nature of the phenomenon that is being studied. Ethnomethodologists have conducted their studies in a variety of ways, and the point of these investigations is "to discover the things that persons in particular situations do, the methods they use, to create the patterned orderliness of social life". Michael Lynch has noted that: "Leading figures in the field have repeatedly emphasised that there is no obligatory set of methods [employed by ethnomethodologists], and no prohibition against using any research procedure whatsoever, if it is adequate to the particular phenomena under study".

Some leading policies, methods and definitions

 * The fundamental assumption of ethnomethodological studies: As characterised by Anne Rawls, speaking for Garfinkel: "If one assumes, as Garfinkel does, that the meaningful, patterned, and orderly character of everyday life is something that people must work to achieve, then one must also assume that they have some methods for doing so". That is, "...members of society must have some shared methods that they use to mutually construct the meaningful orderliness of social situations."
 * Ethnomethodology is an empirical enterprise : Rawls states: "Ethnomethodology is a thoroughly empirical enterprise devoted to the discovery of social order and intelligibility [sense making] as witnessable collective achievements." "The keystone of the [ethnomethodological] argument is that local [social] orders exist; that these orders are witnessable in the scenes in which they are produced; and that the possibility of [their] intelligibility is based on the actual existence and detailed enactment of these orders." Ethnomethodology is not, however, conventionally empiricist. Its empirical nature is specified in the weak form of the unique adequacy requirement.
 * The unique adequacy requirement of methods (weak form) : is that the researcher should have a 'vulgar competence' in the research setting. That is, they should be able to function as an ordinary member of that setting.
 * The unique adequacy requirement of methods (strong form) : is identical to the requirement for ethnomethodological indifference.
 * Ethnomethodological indifference : This is the policy of deliberate agnosticism, or indifference, towards the dictates, prejudices, methods and practices of sociological analysis as traditionally conceived (examples: theories of "deviance", analysis of behavior as rule governed, role theory, institutional (de)formations, theories of social stratification, etc.). Dictates and prejudices which serve to pre-structure traditional social scientific investigations independently of the subject matter taken as a topic of study, or the investigatory setting being subjected to scrutiny. The policy of ethnomethodological indifference is specifically not to be conceived of as indifference to the problem of social order taken as a group (member's) concern.
 * First time through : This is the practice of attempting to describe any social activity, regardless of its routine or mundane appearance, as if it were happening for the very first time. This is in an effort to expose how the observer of the activity assembles, or constitutes, the activity for the purposes of formulating any particular description. The point of such an exercise is to make available and underline the complexities of sociological analysis and description, particularly the indexical and reflexive properties of the actors', or observer's, own descriptions of what is taking place in any given situation. Such an activity will also reveal the observer's inescapable reliance on the hermeneutic circle as the defining "methodology" of social understanding for both lay persons and social scientists.
 * Breaching experiment : A method for revealing, or exposing, the common work that is performed by members of particular social groups in maintaining a clearly recognisable and shared social order. For example, driving the wrong way down a busy one-way street can reveal myriads of useful insights into the patterned social practices, and moral order, of the community of road users. The point of such an exercise—a person pretending to be a stranger or boarder in their own household—is to demonstrate that gaining insight into the work involved in maintaining any given social order can often best be revealed by breaching that social order and observing the results of that breach—especially those activities related to the reassembly of that social order, and the normalisation of that social setting.
 * Sacks' gloss : A question about an aspect of the social order that recommends, as a method of answering it, that the researcher should seek out members of society who, in their daily lives, are responsible for the maintenance of that aspect of the social order. This is in opposition to the idea that such questions are best answered by a sociologist. Sacks' original question concerned objects in public places and how it was possible to see that such objects did or did not belong to somebody. He found his answer in the activities of police officers who had to decide whether cars were abandoned.
 * Durkheim's aphorism : Durkheim famously recommended: "our basic principle, that of the objectivity of social facts". This is usually taken to mean that we should assume the objectivity of social facts as a principle of study (thus providing the basis of sociology as a science). Garfinkel's alternative reading of Durkheim is that we should treat the objectivity of social facts as an achievement of society's members, and make the achievement process itself the focus of study. An ethnomethodological respecification of Durkheim's statement via a "misreading" (see below) of his quote appears above. There is also a textual link/rationale provided in the literature. Both links involve a leap of faith on the part of the reader; that is, we don't believe that one method for this interpretation is necessarily better than the other, or that one form of justification for such an interpretation outweighs its competitor.
 * Accounts : Accounts are the ways members signify, describe or explain the properties of a specific social situation. They can consist of both verbal and non-verbal objectifications. They are always both indexical to the situation in which they occur (see below), and, simultaneously reflexive—they serve to constitute that situation. An account can consist of something as simple as a wink of the eye, a material object evidencing a state of affairs (documents, etc.), or something as complex as a story detailing the boundaries of the universe.
 * Indexicality : The concept of indexicality is a key core concept for ethnomethodology. Garfinkel states that it was derived from the concept of indexical expressions appearing in ordinary language philosophy (1967), wherein a statement is considered to be indexical insofar as it is dependent for its sense upon the context in which it is embedded (Bar-Hillel 1954:359–379). The phenomenon is acknowledged in various forms of analytical philosophy, and sociological theory and methods, but is considered to be both limited in scope and remedied through specification operationalisation. In ethnomethodology, the phenomenon is universalised to all forms of language and behavior, and is deemed to be beyond remedy for the purposes of establishing a scientific description and explanation of social behavior. The consequence of the degree of contextual dependence for a "segment" of talk or behavior can range from the problem of establishing a "working consensus" regarding the description of a phrase, concept or behavior, to the end-game of social scientific description itself. Note that any serious development of the concept must eventually assume a theory of meaning as its foundation (see Gurwitsch 1985). Without such a foundational underpinning, both the traditional social scientist and the ethnomethodologist are relegated to merely telling stories around the campfire (Brooks 1974).
 * Misreading (a text) : Misreading a text, or fragments of a text, does not denote making an erroneous reading of a text in whole or in part. As Garfinkel states, it means to denote an "alternate reading" of a text or fragment of a text. As such, the original and its misreading do not "translate point to point" but, "instead, they go together". No criteria are offered for the translation of an original text and its misreading—the outcome of such translations are in Garfinkel's term: "incommensurable." The misreading of texts or fragments of texts is a standard feature of ethnomethodology's way of doing theory, especially in regards to topics in phenomenology.
 * Reflexivity : Despite the fact that many sociologists use "reflexivity" as a synonym for "self-reflection," the way the term is used in ethnomethodology is different: it is meant "to describe the acausal and non-mentalistic determination of meaningful action-in-context". See also: Reflexivity (social theory).
 * Documentary method of interpretation : The documentary method is the method of understanding utilised by everyone engaged in trying to make sense of their social world—this includes the ethnomethodologist. Garfinkel recovered the concept from the work of Karl Mannheim and repeatedly demonstrates the use of the method in the case studies appearing in his central text, Studies in Ethnomethodology. Mannheim defined the term as a search for an identical homologous pattern of meaning underlying a variety of totally different realisations of that meaning. Garfinkel states that the documentary method of interpretation consists of treating an actual appearance as the "document of", "as pointing to", as "standing on behalf of", a presupposed underlying pattern. These "documents" serve to constitute the underlying pattern, but are themselves interpreted on the basis of what is already known about that underlying pattern. This seeming paradox is quite familiar to hermeneuticians who understand this phenomenon as a version of the hermeneutic circle. This phenomenon is also subject to analysis from the perspective of Gestalt theory (part/whole relationships), and the phenomenological theory of perception.
 * Social orders : Theoretically speaking, the object of ethnomethodological research is social order taken as a group member's concern. Methodologically, social order is made available for description in any specific social setting as an accounting of specific social orders: the sensible coherencies of accounts that order a specific social setting for the participants relative to a specific social project to be realised in that setting. Social orders themselves are made available for both participants and researchers through phenomena of order: the actual accounting of the partial (adumbrated) appearances of these sensibly coherent social orders. These appearances (parts, adumbrates) of social orders are embodied in specific accounts, and employed in a particular social setting by the members of the particular group of individuals party to that setting. Specific social orders have the same formal properties as identified by A. Gurwitsch in his discussion of the constituent features of perceptual noema, and, by extension, the same relationships of meaning described in his account of Gestalt Contextures (see Gurwitsch 1964:228–279). As such, it is little wonder that Garfinkel states: "you can't do anything unless you do read his texts".
 * Ethnomethodology's field of investigation : For ethnomethodology the topic of study is the social practices of real people in real settings, and the methods by which these people produce and maintain a shared sense of social order.

Differences with sociology
Since ethnomethodology has become anathema to certain sociologists, and since those practicing it like to perceive their own efforts as constituting a radical break from prior sociologies, there has been little attempt to link ethnomethodology to these prior sociologies. However, whilst ethnomethodology is distinct from sociological methods, it does not seek to compete with it, or provide remedies for any of its practices. The ethnomethodological approach differs as much from the sociological approach as sociology does from psychology even though both speak of social action. This does not mean that ethnomethodology does not use traditional sociological forms as a sounding board for its own programmatic development, or to establish benchmarks for the differences between traditional sociological forms of study and ethnomethodology as it only means that ethnomethodology was not established in order to: repair, criticize, undermine, or poke fun at traditional sociological forms. In essence the distinctive difference between sociological approaches and ethnomethodology is that the latter adopts a commonsense attitude towards knowledge.

In contrast to traditional sociological forms of inquiry, it is a hallmark of the ethnomethodological perspective that it does not make theoretical or methodological appeals to: outside assumptions regarding the structure of an actor or actors' characterisation of social reality; refer to the subjective states of an individual or groups of individuals; attribute conceptual projections such as, "value states", "sentiments", "goal orientations", "mini-max economic theories of behavior", etc., to any actor or group of actors; or posit a specific "normative order" as a transcendental feature of social scenes, etc.

For the ethnomethodologist, the methodic realisation of social scenes takes place within the actual setting under scrutiny, and is structured by the participants in that setting through the reflexive accounting of that setting's features. The job of the ethnomethodologist is to describe the methodic character of these activities, not account for them in a way that transcends that which is made available in and through the actual accounting practices of the individual's party to those settings.

The differences can therefore be summed up as follows:

 * 1) While traditional sociology usually offers an analysis of society which takes the facticity (factual character, objectivity) of the social order for granted, ethnomethodology is concerned with the procedures (practices, methods) by which that social order is produced, and shared.
 * 2) While traditional sociology usually provides descriptions of social settings which compete with the actual descriptions offered by the individuals who are party to those settings, ethnomethodology seeks to describe the procedures (practices, methods) these individuals use in their actual descriptions of those settings.

Varieties
According to George Psathas, five types of ethnomethodological study can be identified (Psathas 1995:139–155). These may be characterised as:

 * 1) The organisation of practical actions and practical reasoning. Including the earliest studies, such as those in Garfinkel's seminal Studies in Ethnomethodology.
 * 2) The organisation of talk-in-interaction. More recently known as conversation analysis, Harvey Sacks established this approach in collaboration with his colleagues Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson.
 * 3) Talk-in-interaction within institutional or organisational settings. While early studies focused on talk abstracted from the context in which it was produced (usually using tape recordings of telephone conversations) this approach seeks to identify interactional structures that are specific to particular settings.
 * 4) The study of work. 'Work' is used here to refer to any social activity. The analytic interest is in how that work is accomplished within the setting in which it is performed.
 * 5) The haecceity of work. Just what makes an activity what it is? e.g. what makes a test a test, a competition a competition, or a definition a definition?

Further discussion of the varieties and diversity of ethnomethodological investigations can be found in Maynard & Clayman's work.

Relationship with conversation analysis
The relationship between ethnomethodology and conversation analysis has been contentious at times, given their overlapping interests, the close collaboration between their founders and the subsequent divergence of interest among many practitioners. In as much as the study of social orders is "inexorably intertwined" with the constitutive features of talk about those social orders, ethnomethodology is committed to an interest in both conversational talk, and the role this talk plays in the constitution of that order. Talk is seen as indexical and embedded in a specific social order. It is also naturally reflexive to and constitutive of that order. Anne Rawls pointed out: "Many, in fact most, of those who have developed a serious interest in ethnomethodology have also used conversation analysis, developed by Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson, as one of their research tools."

On the other hand, where the study of conversational talk is divorced from its situated context—that is, when it takes on the character of a purely technical method and "formal analytic" enterprise in its own right—it is not a form of ethnomethodology. The "danger" of misunderstanding here, as Rawls notes, is that conversation analysis can become just another formal analytic enterprise, like any other formal method which brings an analytical toolbox of preconceptions, formal definitions, and operational procedures to the situation/setting under study. When such analytical concepts are generated from within one setting and conceptually applied (generalised) to another, the (re)application represents a violation of the strong form of the unique adequacy requirement of methods.

Links with phenomenology
Even though ethnomethodology has been characterised as having a "phenomenological sensibility", and reliable commentators have acknowledged that "there is a strong influence of phenomenology on ethnomethodology" (Maynard and Kardash 2007:1484), some orthodox adherents to the discipline—those who follow the teachings of Garfinkel—do not explicitly represent it as a form of phenomenology.

Garfinkel speaks of phenomenological texts and findings as being "appropriated" for the purposes of exploring topics in the study of social order. Even though ethnomethodology is not a form of phenomenology, the reading and understanding of phenomenological texts, and developing the capability of seeing phenomenologically is essential to the praxis of ethnomethodological studies. As Garfinkel states in regard to the work of the phenomenologist Aron Gurwitsch, especially his Field of Consciousness (1964: ethnomethodology's phenomenological urtext): "you can't do anything unless you do read his texts".

title: Ethnomethodology


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Nyamuragira

Nyamuragira, also known as Nyamulagira, is an active shield volcano in the Virunga Mountains of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, situated about 25 km north of Lake Kivu. The name is derived from the Kinyarwanda Bantu verb Kuragira nyamu, meaning to herd animals; nyamu means animal or cows.

It has been described as Africa's most active volcano and has erupted over 40 times since 1885. As well as eruptions from the summit, there have been numerous eruptions from the flanks of the volcano, creating new smaller volcanoes that have lasted only for a short time (e.g. Murara from late 1976 to 1977).

Recent eruptions occurred on 2 January 2010, 8 November 2011 and 23 May 2021.

Geography and geology
Nyamuragira volcano is an active volcano near the city of Goma in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, situated about 25 km north of Lake Kivu. It is in the Nord-Kivu Province. It is 13 km north-north-west of Nyiragongo, the volcano which caused extensive damage to the city of Goma in its 2002 eruption.

Nyamuragira has a volume of 500 km3, and covers an area of 1,500 km2. It has a low shield profile and contrasts with adjacent steep-sided Nyiragongo volcano.

Nyamuragira volcano is responsible for a large portion of the sulfur dioxide released into the atmosphere by volcanoes.

2010 eruption
At dawn on 2 January 2010 Nyamuragira began spewing out lava flows. There are no settlements close to the volcano, but wildlife officials feared that the eruption may threaten the chimpanzees in the area. Another danger was that the lava could have flowed into the southern sector of Virunga National Park, where there are settlements and villages.

Extensive lava flows from the 2010 eruption can be seen on satellite photographs reaching 25 km south-west to Lake Kivu, about 22 km north-west and 35 km north-north-east.

2011 eruption
The volcano erupted again on 5 November 2011.

That eruption produced a 400 m high column of lava, and it is said to have been its largest eruption in 100 years.

2014 lava lake
In 2014, a new lava lake appeared at the volcano for the first time in 75 years. The previous lava lake at the volcano was emptied in the 1938 lava flow. The formation of the new lake occurred between June and August 2014. It reached a depth of 500 m. The eruption did not affect the communities in the area but left a lot of ash and air pollution. Sulfate aerosols formed by volcanic sulfur dioxide from the eruptions were observed as far away as over the central Amazon rain forest in South America. By 2018, the lava lake had hardened and the activity appeared to have stopped. Eruptive activity continues during 2021 at the summit caldera.

2021 lava lake
In 2021, a lava lake appeared at the volcano based on a June 11 satellite image.

title: Nyamuragira


text:
Island Davaar

Island Davaar or Davaar Island (Eilean Dà Bhàrr) is located at the mouth of Campbeltown Loch off the east coast of Kintyre Peninsula, in Argyll and Bute, west of Scotland. It is a tidal island, linked to the mainland by a natural shingle causeway called the Doìrlinn near Campbeltown at low tide. The crossing can be made in around 40 minutes.

History
Davaar was known as the island of Sanct Barre between the years 1449 to 1508. The modern form Davaar is from older Do Bharre – thy St Barre. Dr Gillies in his "Place Names of Argyll" appears to accept the popular derivation, Double-pointed (Da-Bharr) Island.

In 1854, Davaar Lighthouse was built on the north of the island by the lighthouse engineers David and Thomas Stevenson. The lighthouse was automated in 1983, and today, Davaar is inhabited by the caretakers of the Island who run the holiday cottages and oversee the farming activities including Rare breed sheep, and Highland Cattle. The island is also home to feral goats.

The Lookout, a square building standing on a small knoll close to the lighthouse, was built during World War II as one of the Royal Observer Corps' (ROC)'s four Kintyre observation posts. While the men and women of the ROC watched for enemy activity around the loch, the anti-submarine net (positioned between Davaar and Trench Point) was maintained by the wrens, officers, and ratings stationed in the Boom Defence Depot on the opposite shore. Davaar's observation post has been restored and tastefully converted into a unique place to stay.

The island is also known for its seven caves, one of which contains a life size cave painting depicting the crucifixion, painted in 1887 by local artist Archibald MacKinnon after he had a vision in a dream suggesting him to do so. The painting caused uproar in the area as it was seen as a sign from God; it is said that when the townsfolk discovered it was MacKinnon, and not God, he was exiled from the town indefinitely. Restored several times since, including twice by the original artist, the painting was vandalised in July 2006, having a red and black depiction of Che Guevara painted over the original masterpiece. It has since been restored again.

Davaar Island is one of 43 tidal islands that can be walked to from the mainland of Great Britain and one of 17 that can be walked to from the Scottish mainland.

Davaar Island is owned by Kildalloig Estate, and forms part of the farming enterprise.

Staying on Davaar Island
There are four holiday cottages and cabins available for visitors to stay on Davaar Island. The Lookout (WWII Observation Post) and The Principal Lighthouse Keeper's Cottage have been sympathetically converted into holiday cottages and in 2021 two glamping cabins were constructed on the east side of Davaar.

Stamps
Local stamps were issued for Davaar in the 1964. The stamps served the many visitors to the island who wished to have their mail posted there, and carried by the boatman to the nearest GPO Post Box at Campbeltown on the mainland. The boatman service ended some time in the 2000. Postage Rates were double those of the UK.

title: Island Davaar


text:
User:Elf/Contributions

Things I want to keep track of:

Some articles written/greatly expanded
(I don't keep this up-to-date, so it's pretty incomplete.)
 * The Web Encyclopedia Song, a parody
 * Dog agility
 * List of dog sports
 * Hemangiosarcoma
 * Flyball (stub dangit)
 * Dog show (ditto)
 * Obedience training
 * seesaw (ooooooh, that's a big one)
 * Capitol Reef National Park
 * Pinnacles National Monument (expanded from stub)
 * Herding dog
 * Hound
 * Sighthound
 * Scenthound
 * Pyrenean Shepherd
 * Australian Shepherd
 * Alum Rock Park
 * Cedar Breaks National Monument
 * Tibetan Mastiff
 * Mixed-breed dog
 * Oh, boy, I've touched, edited, expanded, cleaned up, or written something in just about everything in Category:Dogs

Other Interests That I've Mucked With or am likely to

 * List of dog breeds
 * Compost
 * Glen Campbell (this is an ollllllld interest covered with dust)

Possible standard table for rocks and minerals
OK, I created a WikiProject Rocks and Minerals and moved stuff there.

Photos
To see a page filled to the brim with thumbnails of all photos, see User:Elf/photos (full view)

Dog breeds
(be warned, most are around 100K)
 * Image:IMG010biglittledogFX wb.jpg
 * Image:IMG013biglittledogFX wb.jpg
 * Rat Terrier
 * Image:AmRatTerr11_fx_wb.jpg
 * Image:AmRatTerr2_wb.jpg
 * Australian Cattle Dog
 * Image:AustrCattleDogBlueFace wb.jpg
 * Image:AustrCattleDogBlue wb.jpg
 * Image:AustrCattleDogRed wb.jpg
 * Australian Shepherd
 * Image:AustrShepherdRed2 wb.jpg
 * Image:AustrShepTri wb.jpg
 * Australian Kelpie
 * Image:AustrKelpieLiver2 wb.jpg
 * Image:AustrKelpieChocolate wb.jpg
 * Image:AustrKelpieBlackTan1 wb.jpg
 * Bedlington Terrier: Image:BedlingtonTerriers_wb.jpg
 * Boston Terrier
 * Image:BostonTerrierBrindleStand w.jpg
 * Image:BostonTerrierBegging wb.jpg
 * Image:BostonTerrierTreat wb.jpg
 * Boxer (dog): Image:BoxersBrindle9 wb.jpg
 * Border Collie: Image:BorderCollieRed3Tug wb.jpg
 * Briard: Image:Briard3_wb.jpg
 * Welsh Corgi (Cardigan): Image:CardiganCorgiBlack wb.jpg
 * Cavalier King Charles Spaniel: Image:CavalierKgChas2 wb.jpg
 * English Cocker Spaniel: Image:EnglishCockerSpaniel_wb.jpg
 * English Setter: Image:EnglishSetter9 fx wb.jpg
 * English Springer Spaniel: Image:EnglishSpringerSpan2 wb.jpg
 * Entlebucher Mountain Dog
 * Image:Entlebucher2 wb.jpg
 * Image:EntlebucherBall2 wb.jpg
 * German Shepherd Dog: Image:GermanShep1 wb.jpg
 * German Shorthaired Pointer: Image:GermanShorthPtr wb.jpg
 * German Wirehaired Pointer: Image:GermanWirehrPtr1 wb.jpg
 * Golden Retriever: Image:GoldenRetrDark4 wb.jpg
 * Dachshund: Image:MiniDachshund1 wb.jpg
 * Irish Wolfhound: Image:Wolfhound mascot wb.jpg
 * Mixed-breed dog:
 * Image:MixedBreedFace1 wb.jpg
 * Image:MuttShepherdRetriever 72.jpg
 * Image:MixedBreedBlackDogCasey wb.jpg
 * Parson Russell Terrier:Image:ParsonRuss2 wb.jpg
 * Miniature Australian Shepherd: Image:MiniAussie1 cr wb.jpg and Image:MiniAussie7 wb.jpg
 * Poodle: Image:MinPoodle wb.jpg
 * Puli: Image:PuliBlack wb.jpg
 * Pyrenean Shepherd
 * Image:PyreneanShepSmooth wb.jpg
 * Image:PyreneanShepRough wb.jpg
 * Image:PyreneanShepRoughFace wb.jpg
 * Shetland Sheepdog: Image:ShetlandShpdogBlue2 wb.jpg
 * Smooth Collie: Image:SmoothCollieTri2 wb.jpg
 * Staffordshire Bull Terrier: Image:StaffBullTerr7 wb.jpg
 * Swedish Vallhund doing dog agility: Image:SwedishVallhundAgility wb.jpg
 * Weimaraner: Image:Weimaraner wb.jpg
 * Whippet: Image:WhippetWhiteSaddled wb.jpg
 * Wirehaired Pointing Griffon: Image:WirehairedPointingGriffonwb.jpg

 * Dog agility including dog breeds
 * Image:AgilityFieldRight.jpg
 * Image:AgilityFieldLeft.jpg
 * Image:PapillonAgility4 wb.jpg
 * Image:JackRussellJump wb.jpg
 * Image:PembrokeCorgiAgility wb.jpg
 * Image:MixedBreedAgilityTunnel wb.jpg

Parks

 * Pinnacles National Monument: Image:PinnaclesParkView.jpg
 * Cedar Breaks National Monument
 * Image:CedarBrVisitorCenter wb.jpg
 * Image:CedarBrMarmotFxCr wb.jpg
 * Image:CedarBreaksPtSupr wb.jpg
 * Capitol Reef National Park
 * Image:CapReefMerged.jpg
 * Image:CapReefDome sm.jpg
 * Alum Rock Park
 * Image:AlumRockViewSiliconValley w.jpg
 * Image:AlumRockTrailsign wb.jpg
 * Image:AlumRockPenCreekBridge wb.jpg
 * Image:AlumRockGrottoArch wb.jpg
 * Disneyland
 * Image:Autopia95_wb.jpg
 * Image:DlandBandAndRR_wb.jpg
 * Image:96RocketJetsSubMonorail_wb.jpg
 * Image:MonorailOverLagoon wb.jpg
 * Image:RocketRod wb.jpg
 * Image:SmallWorldFront83 wb.jpg
 * Image:SmallWorldFront95 wb.jpg
 * Image:SmallWorldTopiary wb.jpg
 * Image:SmallWorldCanCan wb.jpg
 * Image:SubmarinesOnTrack wb.jpg
 * Image:SubmarineClam wb.jpg
 * Lighthousees
 * Image:CapeMearesLens_wb.jpg
 * Image:CapeMearesLighthouse_wb.jpg
 * Image:YaquinaHeadLighthouse wb.jpg

Compost bins

 * Image:CompostBinTube_wb.jpg
 * Image:CompostBinDoor_wb.jpg
 * Image:CompostBinStack_wb.jpg

Plants

 * Image:Anemone2 FlowerAndBud wb.jpg
 * Image:CyclamenPink wb.jpg
 * Image:DicentraFormosaFlower.jpg
 * Image:DoubleFuchsias wb.jpg
 * Image:HyacinthPink3_wb.jpg
 * Image:Lemon 8FruitAndFlower wb.jpg
 * Image:LyriopeSpicata wb.jpg
 * Image:ManzanitaTreeBranches wb.jpg
 * Image:ManzanitaShrubBranches wb.jpg
 * Image:OrangeBloss wb.jpg
 * Image:PoisonOak wb biggerLeaves.jpg
 * Image:PoisonOak wb smallerLeaves.jpg
 * Image:SacredDaturaFx Wb2.jpg

Random

 * Black-tailed Deer: Image:BlackTailedDeer fx wb.jpg
 * Wasp: Image:WaspBuildingNest_wb.jpg
 * Macintosh 512K
 * Image:Mac512KBackFixed wb.jpg
 * Image:Mac512K wb.jpg
 * Pencil sharpener: Image:PencilSharpenerBatteryOp.jpg
 * Image:PlayEquipComboPlastic wb.jpg
 * Image:CupcakesFrosted wb.jpg
 * Image:FrostLeavesGrass PC270020 w.jpg
 * Image:ChristmasStockingsHung wb.jpg
 * Image:DogYawn sm wb.jpg
 * Image:EnglishMuffinOnPlate_wb.jpg
 * Image:CannonWithSmoke.jpg
 * Image:ClickersFxwb.jpg
 * Image:ClickerDogFxwb.jpg
 * Image:YosemiteBlackBearTagged wb.jpg

Travel

 * Image:FortVerdeBuildingAndGeneral.jpg
 * Image:BoringORSign_fxwb.jpg
 * Image:EuphoniumAndTuba wb.jpg
 * Image:MtHamilton wb.jpg
 * London
 * Image:DianaMemorialDetail wb.jpg
 * Image:DianaMemorialCloseup fx wb.jpg
 * Image:BankMonumentTilework fx wb.jpg Bank-Monument Underground Station
 * Image:KingscrossTilework fx wb.jpg Kings Cross Underground Station
 * Image:GreenParkTilework fx wb.jpg Green Park Underground Station
 * Image:HolbornTilework fx wb.jpg Holborn Underground Station
 * Image:RussellSqTilework fxcr wb.jpg Russell Square Underground Station
 * Image:BondStTilework fx wb.jpg Bond Street Underground Station
 * Image:BakerStTilework fxcr wb.jpg Baker Street Underground Station

title: User:Elf/Contributions


text:
Louis Segond

Louis Segond (3 May 1810 – 18 June 1885) was a Swiss theologian who translated the Bible into French from the original texts in Hebrew and Greek.

He was born in Plainpalais, near Geneva. After studying theology in Geneva, Strasbourg and Bonn, he was pastor of the Geneva National Church in Chêne-Bougeries, then from 1872, Professor of Old Testament in Geneva.

Biography
Segond's family was of modest wealth; his father was a Catholic shoemaker while his mother was a Protestant church of Geneva member, the denomination he would be baptized into. He entered into the University of Geneva in 1826, where he studied natural sciences. Afterward, he joined the theological department of the University of Strasbourg. During that time, he spent a year and a half working in Bonn and another year in Eisenach. In 1839, he became pastor of the Genevan Church in Chêne-Bougeries.

In 1871, he returned to the University of Geneva to become a professor studying the Old Testament. The translation of the Old Testament, commissioned by the Vénérable Compagnie des Pasteurs de Genève, was published in two volumes in 1871. It was at this time that he began to work on his translation, work that would be completed in 1880. A revised edition was commissioned for and published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1910.

title: Louis Segond


text:
Amadora

Amadora is a Portuguese city and municipality in the northwest of the Lisbon metropolitan area and 10 km from central Lisbon. The population in 2011 was 175,136, in an area of 23.78 km2 (9.2 sq mi). It is the fourth biggest, and most densely populated, city in Portugal.

History
There is significant evidence of Neolithic settlements in the municipality. The Necropolis of Carenque consists of three artificial caves that served as tombs from around 3000 BCE.

Amadora was originally named Porcalhota, for being a Majorat of the daughter of a man surnamed Porcalho who was called for being a female Porcalhota.

The Aqueduto das Águas Livres, which brings water from the Sintra hills to Lisbon, and stretches 30 km, was finished in the 1770s and includes the largest masonry arch ever built, located in Campolide — the local coat of arms also displays the aqueduct (like others along its way).

At the request of its population, in 1907, a decree issued during King Carlos I reign, merged the communities of Porcalhota, Amadora and Venteira into one town named Amadora.

At the present time Amadora does not have any airfield. However, in the 1920s a small airfield (the first in Portugal) was located here. The first flight from Portugal to Brazil left from Amadora. The Captain of the airplane was Adm. Gago Coutinho, a well known Portuguese celebrity.

The municipality was formed on 11 September 1979, when it ceased being a parish of the municipality of Oeiras. A few days later, on 17 September, Amadora was granted city status.

The former Sorefame railway rolling stock factory was located in Amadora, but was closed in 2004. Most of the carriages for Portuguese Railways built during the second half of the 20th century were constructed here.

Geography
One of the largest urban communities in Portugal, Amadora forms a conurbation with Lisbon, sharing the same subway, bus and train networks. It is dominated by large apartment blocks, commercial parks, industrial areas and some headquarters of international companies.

Administratively, the municipality is divided into 6 civil parishes (freguesias):
 * Águas Livres
 * Alfragide
 * Encosta do Sol
 * Falagueira-Venda Nova
 * Mina de Água
 * Venteira

Climate
Amadora has a Mediterranean climate (Köppen: Csa) with mild, rainy winters and hot, dry summers.

Economy
Despite being a residential city, Amadora has commercial zones, industries and headquarters of international companies operating in Portugal.

As commercial zones, it has IKEA, Nokia, Decathlon, Alegro, Continente and Ubbo (one of the biggest shopping malls in Europe). Siemens and Roche are examples of international companies based in Amadora.

Transport
Amadora's public transport network is extremely far-reaching and reliable and is fully integrated with the transportation network of the Lisbon metropolitan area. It has 3 metro stations, the commuter Sintra Line with 3 stations, 2 bus services (Carris Metropolitana and Carris) and 4 motorways around the city (2ª Circular, CRIL, CREL and IC-16).

Notable people

 * Seomara da Costa Primo (1895 - 1986 in Amadora) a botany professor, educator and author of school textbooks on scientific subjects
 * Cruzeiro Seixas (1920 – 2020) a "man who paints" and a Portuguese poet
 * Maria José Valério (1933–2021) a Portuguese singer, she sang popular music and fado.
 * Marcelino da Mata (1940 in Ponte Nova – 2021 in Amadora) a highly decorated Portuguese Army officer, born in Portuguese Guinea
 * João Baião (born 1963 in Buraca) a TV presenter, entertainer and actor.
 * José Miguel Ribeiro (born 1966 in Amadora) a Portuguese film director.

Sport

 * Jorge Jesus (born 1954) a football manager and former player; former manager of Benfica
 * Rui Costa (born 1972) a retired footballer with 498 club caps and 94 with Portugal
 * Vasco Matos (born 1980) a Portuguese retired professional footballer with 405 club caps
 * Diogo Silva (born 1983 in Amadora) a Portuguese footballer with over 300 club caps
 * Nani (born 1986) a footballer with close to 400 club caps and 112 with Portugal
 * Miguel Tavares (born 1993) a volleyball player with the Portugal men's national volleyball team
 * Diana Silva (born 1995) a footballer who plays for Aston Villa W.F.C. and the Portugal women's national football team
 * Rúben Dias (born 1997) a footballer who plays for Manchester City F.C. and has 37 caps with Portugal
 * Renato Sanches (born 1997) a footballer who plays for Paris Saint-Germain F.C. and has 32 caps with Portugal

Culture
Every year, Amadora city organizes the Amadora International Comics Festival.

title: Amadora


text:
Sapphire Central, Queensland

Sapphire Central is a rural locality in the Central Highlands Region, Queensland, Australia. The town of Sapphire is within the locality (-23.46111°N, 147.7208°W). Sapphires are mined extensively in the area.

Sapphire was one of three towns within the locality of The Gemfields (the others being Anakie and Rubyvale) until 17 April 2020, when the Queensland Government decided to replace The Gemfields with three new localities (Sapphire Central, Anakie Siding and Rubyvale) based around each of the three towns respectively. The boundaries of the locality of Argyll were also modified to accommodate the introduction of the locality of Sapphire Central with an area of 140.8 km2.

In the, Sapphire Central had a population of 1,214 people.

Geography
Mount Bullock is in the north-west of the locality and west of the town (-23.4694°N, 147.6944°W). It is 335 m above sea level.

In the south-west of the locality is The Three Sisters Range (midpoint -23.5124°N, 147.6542°W) which extends south into Anakie Siding. It contains a number of unnamed peaks rising to 370 m above sea level.

Apart from the west of the locality, most of Sapphire Central is relatively flat at 230 m above sea level.

History
Sapphire Provisional School opened in 1904. On 1 January 1909 it became Sapphire State School. It closed in 1939.

Sapphire was one of three towns within the locality of The Gemfields (the others being Anakie and Rubyvale) until 17 April 2020, when the Queensland Government decided to replace The Gemfields with three new localities (Sapphire Central, Anakie Siding and Rubyvale) based around each of the three towns respectively. The boundaries of the locality of Argyll were also modified to accommodate the introduction of the locality of Sapphire Central with an area of 140.8 km2.

Demographics
In the, the town of Sapphire had a population of 550.

In the, the town of Sapphire had a population of 572 people.

In the, the locality of Sapphire Central had a population of 1,214 people.

Education
There are no schools in Sapphire Central. The nearest primary school is in Anakie. The nearest secondary school is Emerald State High School in Emerald.

title: Sapphire Central, Queensland


text:
La Grande-3 generating station

The La Grande-3 or LG-3 is a hydroelectric dam on the La Grande River in northern Quebec, part of Hydro-Québec's James Bay Project. The station can generate 2,418 MW and was commissioned in 1982–1984. It generates electricity through the reservoir and dam system. The dam and reservoir both are named La Grande-3. The community of Sakami was founded for its construction.

title: La Grande-3 generating station


text:
User:Nathan Hamblen

I'm not very active on wikipedia anymore, but here are some photos I contributed when I was.

title: User:Nathan Hamblen


text:
User:Cyp/Will this eventually appear on Special:Wantedpages?

Yes. And it'll be gone the next time ;) Guaka 17:24, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Hrrumph... Κσυπ Cyp    20:07, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)


text:
Warren H. Wagner

Warren Herbert Wagner Jr. (August 29, 1920 – January 8, 2000) was an eminent American botanist who was trained at Berkeley with E.B. Copeland and lived most of his professional career in Michigan.

History
Wagner was instructed in the ways of plant microphotograph and embryology by Marion S. Cave. Wagner was a longtime faculty member at the University of Michigan. He was most respected among his colleagues and students for his genius in discerning and articulating the differences in form between plant species in the context of their variation with environmental factors.

He developed, in the early 1960s, the first algorithm for discerning phylogenetic relationships among species based upon their respective character states observed over a set of characters. This work was honored by James Farris and Arnold Kluge in their later appellation of related algorithms as "Wagner parsimony."

Wagner became a pteridologist later in life, specializing in ferns, especially the Botrychiaceae. Having served in the U.S. Military in the Pacific Theater in World War II, he maintained a lifelong interest in the diversity and origin of the ferns of Hawaii. Working with his wife Florence Signaigo Wagner, an accomplished cytologist, he resolved the relationships of an array of polyploid complexes in North American ferns, first the Appalachian trio of Asplenium species, then in Dryopteris and Polystichum.

He was President of the Botanical Society of America in 1977. He was elected to the United States National Academy of Sciences in 1985.

Apparently among modern phylogenetic systematists, Wagner is alone in having been mentioned in a Hollywood film − A New Leaf, starring Elaine May and Walter Matthau.

title: Warren H. Wagner


text:
Orson Squire Fowler

Orson Squire Fowler (October 11, 1809 – August 18, 1887) was an American phrenologist and lecturer. He also popularized the octagon house in the middle of the nineteenth century.

Early life
The son of Horace and Martha (Howe) Fowler, he was born in Cohocton, New York, He prepared for college at Ashland Academy and studied at Amherst College, graduating in the class of 1834.

Career
With his brother Lorenzo Niles Fowler, he opened a phrenological office in New York City. Orson wrote and lectured on phrenology, preservation of health, popular education and social reform from 1834 to 1887. Lorenzo and his wife Lydia Folger Fowler lectured frequently with Orson on the subject of phrenology. The three were "in large measure" responsible for the mid-19th century popularity of phrenology.

The practice of phrenology was frequently used to justify slavery and to advance a belief in African-American inferiority. Fowler wrote that coarse hair correlated with coarse fibers in the brain, and indicated coarse feelings; that, he wrote, suggested that people of African descent had poor verbal skills and traits that were best suited for nursing children or waiting on tables. At the same time, the phrenological journal edited by Fowler and his brother expressed strong abolitionist sentiments, calling slavery a "a monstrous evil." Fowler's writings were also anti-Semitic. For instance, in "Hereditary Descent" (1843), Fowler wrote that Jewish people were hereditarily acquisitive, deceitful, and destructive (phrenology believes that none of these "organs" are negative as such, but all can be used for good).

Orson edited and published The Phrenological Journal, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from 1838 to 1842. He was a partner with Fowler & Wells, publishers, New York, from 1846 to 1854, residing in Fishkill, New York, and Elizabeth, New Jersey. His sister, Charlotte Fowler Wells, and her husband, were involved in the publishing house, and after it became a stock company, she served as president.

He built a home during 1848–1853, later termed Fowler's Folly, which was an octagon house overlooking the Hudson River. He authored a book, The Octagon House: A Home For All, which claimed benefits to living in such a home, and which was instrumental in igniting a fad that spread fairly widely in the United States and Canada.

He moved his office to Boston, Massachusetts, in 1863, residing in Manchester from 1863 to 1880. He resided in Sharon, New York, from 1883 until August 18, 1887, when he died.

Personal life
Fowler was married three times: to Mrs. Eliza (Brevoort) Chevalier; to Mrs. Mary (Aiken) Poole; and to Abbie L. Ayres. He had three children.

Fowler was a teetotaller and vegetarian. He promoted a vegetarian diet in his book Physiology: Animal and Mental and was vice-president of the American Vegetarian Society in 1852. He defended animal rights and opposed the slaughter of animals. His magazine The American Phrenological Journal also supported vegetarianism.

Legacy
In 1856, followers of vegetarian Henry S. Clubb tried to establish Octagon City in Kansas. The design was inspired by Fowler's houses and would include octagonal houses and barns. The pioneers could not make it through the winter. The town of Fowler, Colorado, is named for Fowler. Fowler too had an influence on modern psychology. He is remembered as a man of universal reform who preached for education and temperance. Orson, like his sister-in-law Lydia Fowler, held forth for the equality for women at a time when women had virtually no legal rights in the United States. Orson stood for children's rights when child labor was quite acceptable in the burgeoning industrial factories of his country. Fowler as a book seller and publisher was crucial in the original publication of Walt Whitman's Leaves of Grass and other works.

Books

 * Memory and Intellectual Improvement (1841)
 * Physiology, animal and mental: applied to the preservation and restoration of health of body, and power of mind. Physiology: Animal and Mental] (1842)
 * Matrimony, or Phrenology applied to the Selection of Companions (1842)
 * Self Culture and Perfection of Character (1843)
 * Education and Self-improvement
 * Hereditary Descent, its Laws and Facts applied to Human Improvement (1843)
 * Religion; Natural and Revealed (1844)
 * Love and Parentage (1844)
 * Maternity: or the Bearing and Nursing of Children (1848)
 * The Octagon House: A Home for All (1848, the 1853 edition reprinted with new illustrations 1973)
 * |The Self-Instructor in Phrenology and Physiology (1849), with Lorenzo Niles Fowler
 * Sexual Science (1870)
 * Phrenology Proved, Illustrated and Applied
 * Amativeness
 * Human Science, or Phrenology (1873)
 * Creative and Sexual Science, or Manhood, Womanhood, and their Interrelations (1875)
 * Sexuality Restored, and Warning and Advice to Youth Against Perverted Amativeness, Including Its Prevention and Remedies, as Taught by Phrenology and Physiology (1870)

title: Orson Squire Fowler


text:
Yana (Buddhism)

Yāna (Sanskrit: यान and Pāli: "vehicle") refers to a mode or method of spiritual practice in Buddhism. It is claimed they were all taught by the Gautama Buddha in response to the various capacities of individuals. On an outwardly conventional level, the teachings and practices may appear contradictory, but ultimately they all have the same goal.

Nomenclature, etymology and orthography
In form, yāna is a neuter noun derived from the Sanskrit root yā- meaning to "go to" or "move" or "reach". The suffix employed to form this noun may have different values: while primarily yāna is understood to refer to the means (kara.na) through which one goes to/ reaches a location, it may technically also refer to the action itself (bhāva). Yāna is therefore primarily a "vehicle", in most contexts relevant to the Buddhist doctrine of three yānas.

"Vehicle" is often used as a preferred translation as the word that provides the least in the way of presuppositions about the mode of travel.

In specifically Buddhist contexts, the word yāna acquires many metaphorical meanings, discussed below.

Teaching story and metaphor
In the Mahāparinibbāna Sutta (1.33-34), Shakyamuni Buddha relates a story on vehicles of conveyance utilizing the sacred river Ganges, all of which may be engaged as a metaphor for yana and a gradual or direct path: 1.33    And then the Lord came to the River Ganges. And just then, the river was so full that a crow could drink out of it. And some people were looking for a boat, and some were looking for a raft, and some were binding together a raft of reeds to get to the other side. But the Lord, as swiftly as a strong man might stretch out his flexed arm or flex it again, vanished from this side of the Ganges and reappeared with his order of monks on the other shore.

1.34    And the Lord saw those people who were looking for a boat, looking for a raft, and binding together a raft of reeds to get to the other side. And seeing their intentions, he uttered this verse on the spot:
 * 'When they want to cross the sea, the lake or pond,
 * People make a bridge or raft - the wise have crossed already.'

These two verses are meant to teach that all vehicles, teachings and doctrine are skillful means (Skt.upāya).

Introduction and qualification of the term yana
The Bodhipathapradīpa of Atisha (980-1054 CE), quoted in Gampopa's (1079-1153 CE) Jewel Ornament of Liberation rendered into English by Günther, makes reference to people of three capacities: Man is to be known in three ways:

As inferior, mediocre and excellent.

He who by any means whatsoever

Provides for the pleasures of Saṃsāra

For himself alone,

Is called an inferior man.

He who turns his back to the pleasures of the world

And abstains from evil deeds,

But provides only for his own peace,

Is called a mediocre man.

He who seriously wants to dispel

All the misery of others,

Because in the stream of his own being he has understood the nature of misery,

Is an excellent man.

Yana is determined by capacity and propensity of the "precious human body" wrought by merit, not by a specific teaching or lineage, as Gampopa states: Therefore, because of the difficulty of its attainment, of the uneasiness of its breaking down, and of its great usefulness, we should think of the body as a boat and by its means escape from the ocean of Saṃsāra. As is written:
 * Standing in the boat of the human body,
 * You should cross the great flood of misery.
 * Since later this boat is difficult to get,
 * Do not sleep now, you fool.

Empowerment, initiation, intention and endeavour may leaven capacity and propensity as may a graceful benediction of a person (in the sense of mindstream), object or place endowed or invested with holiness. In the teaching story abovementioned, Shakyamuni Buddhi and his sangha traverse the continuum directly in the body of their own experience rather than constructing a gradual vehicle for passage.

Usage
In Buddhism and Hinduism, both yāna and mārga (road or path) are metaphors depicting spiritual practice as a path or journey. Ancient texts in both religions discuss doctrines and practices associated with various yānas. In Buddhism, yāna often expands the metaphor of the spiritual path with the idea of various vehicles that convey a person along that path. The yāna / mārga metaphor pervasive within Buddhism and other traditions is an analogue to the Chinese metaphor of the Tao: The Tao though is the Way as the endgoal and not just the art of wayfinding. The dialogic spiritual traditions of Indian and Chinese culture hold common cultural memes.

Vedic origins of -yāna as a spiritual journey
The use of yāna to use as a name or to refer to a spiritual journey may date to the ', possibly composed circa 1500 BCE, whose 10th Mandala makes several references to devayāna, (translators usually render this as the "path of the gods" or similar) and one reference to ' ("path of the fathers"). The first verse of the 's burial hymn (10.18) translates approximately as "O Death, take the other path, which is distinct from the way of the gods" (). The "other path" is the , referred to in hymn 10.2 and alluded to in 10.14 and 10.16.

The devayāna and  evolved from the ancient Rig Vedic concern for immortality to the classical Hindu concern with ending samsara existence. The Upanishads, which comment on the Vedas, make further reference to devayāna and . Among other distinctions, the pitryana was said to refer the religious practices of villagers, and the devayāna was said to refer to the practices of recluses living in the forest. The (II.iv.11 and IV.v.12) also makes reference to ekayāna, notably in the phrase , where ekayānam connotes "one journey". The phrase translates approximately to " Sacred Vedas - intonation - (is the) one journey/destination", in the same sense that a river's journey is to the ocean.

Yāna in early Buddhist texts
Yāna is one of ten suggested gifts (dana) that a lay person can appropriately give a monk or recluse, in the sense of providing a vehicle or transportation (e.g., see DN 7.33/PTS: A iv 59 and DN 10.177/PTS: A v 269).

The earliest explicit Buddhist use of -yāna in a metaphorical sense of a journey to awakening may be the term dhammayānam, "dharma chariot" (SN IV.4), where the vehicle itself serves as an extended metaphor for the Eightfold Path. Various parts of the chariot represent aspects of the Path (magga), e.g. axles represent meditation, the charioteer represents mindfulness, and so on.

Thus, metaphorical usage of yāna in the sense of a vehicle (as distinct from a path) emerged from a Buddhist context, and it did so relatively early in the evolution of Buddhism. Nevertheless, while the Pali Canon are very rich in images of wheels (cakka) and paths (magga) as metaphors for the journey to awakening, the Pali Canon rarely uses the term yāna for that purpose.

According to Fujita Kotatsu the term Three Vehicles does not occur in the Pâli tripitaka, however corresponding terms (trîni yânâni, triyâna, yânatraya) are used in the Ekottara Agama, the Mahavastu, and the Mahāvibhāṣa Śāstra. In these texts the Three Vehicles include the srâvakayâna, pratyekabuddhayâna, and buddhayâna.

Enumeration of yānas in Mahayana texts
Mahayana texts are very rich in images of vehicles that serve in metaphors for journeys to awakening.

The three carts of expedient means: the parable of the burning house
The tradition of Mahayana texts employing the image of different types of vehicles and conveyances as salient metaphor for the journey of novice to the awakening of adept may have begun with the Lotus Sūtra. The Lotus Sūtra holds a parable of a devoted father with three small children entranced in childhood play within the family home, oblivious that tongues of flame are ravenously engulfing the house. The father entices the children from the burning home with the half-truth gilded promise of special carts for each of them. The carts though are only an expedient means for luring the children from the house.

Katō et al. render thus into English a tract of the Saddharma Puṇḍarīka pertaining to the cart of expedient means and the parable of the burning house: "Śāriputra! Even as that elder, though with power in body and arms, yet does not use it but only by diligent tact resolutely saves [his] children from the calamity of the burning house and then gives each of them great carts made of precious things, so it is with the Tathāgata; though he has power and fearlessness, he does not use them, but only by his wise tact does he remove and save all living creatures from the burning house of the triple world, preaching the three vehicles: the śrāvaka, pratyekabuddha, and Buddha vehicle.

In the parable, the carts are explicitly identified as corresponding to the three types of Buddha: the goat-cart represents the practices leading to the attainment of Arhatship; the deer-cart, Pratyekabuddhahood; and the bullock-cart, Samyaksambuddhahood. The sutra goes on to say these that the teachings of the three vehicles are merely expedient means (upāya). Their purpose is to direct people toward ekayāna, the one vehicle, depicted in the parable as a jeweled cart driven by a white ox.

The relationship of Dharma (Law) and Yana
Tamura et al. render a section of the Innumerable Meanings Sutra (Wu-liang-i ching) that relates the relationship of the Law (Dharma) and various teachings as fundamentally determined by the audience and context: "Good sons! The Law is like water that washes off dirt. As a well, a pond, a stream, a river, a valley stream, a ditch, or a great sea, each alike effectively washes off all kinds of dirt, so the Law-water effectively washes off the dirt of all delusions of living beings.

"Good sons! The nature of water is one, but a stream, a river, a well, a pond, a valley stream, a ditch, and a great sea are different from one another. The nature of the Law is like this. There is equality and no differentiation in washing off the dirt of delusions, but the three laws, the four merits, and the two ways§ are not one and the same.

"Good sons! Though each washes equally as water, a well is not a pond, a pond is not a stream or a river, nor is a valley stream or a ditch a sea. As the Tathāgata, the world's hero, is free in the Law, all the laws preached by him are also like this. Though preaching at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end all alike effectively wash off the delusions of living beings, the beginning is not the middle, and the middle is not the end. Preaching at the beginning, in the middle, and at the end are the same in expression but different from one another in meaning.

§ The three laws are the Four Noble Truths, the Twelve Causes, and the Six Pāramitās...; the four merits are srota-āpanna, sakṛdāgāmin, anāgāmin, and arhat...; and the two ways the great vehicle, or Mahayana, and the lesser vehicle, or Hinayana.

Ekayāna (one yana)
Mahayana texts such as the Lotus Sutra and the Avatamsaka Sutra sought to unite all the different teachings into a single great way. These texts serve as the inspiration for using the term Ekayāna in the sense of "one vehicle". This "one vehicle" became a key aspect of the doctrines and practices of Tiantai and Tendai Buddhist sects, which subsequently influenced Chán and Zen doctrines and practices. In Japan, the one-vehicle teaching of the Lotus Sutra also inspired the formation of the Nichiren sect.

Two yānas
Traditionally, the two vehicles in Mahāyāna Buddhism consist of Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna. Mahāyāna Buddhists take a vow to become the third type, namely bodhisattvas. Therefore, Mahayana Buddhist texts sometimes use terms like "followers of the two vehicles" to refer to Buddhists who do not accept the Mahayana sutras.

Some Mahāyāna sutras consider that the two vehicles together comprise the Hīnayāna – literally, inferior vehicle; sometimes, small vehicle. Modern texts sometimes refer to Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna as "two vehicles". But referring to an "inferior vehicle" is often felt to be disrespectful to those Buddhists who do not consider the Mahāyāna sutras to be buddhavacana.

Three yānas
Mahāyāna Buddhists often express two different schemata of three yanas. First, here are three paths to liberation that culminate as one of the three types of Buddha:

 * Śrāvakayāna: The Hearer vehicle: A path that meets the goals of an arhat who achieves liberation after listening to the teachings of a samyaksambuddha (fully enlightened buddha).
 * Pratyekabuddhayāna: The Pratyekabuddha achieves liberation, but does not teach other beings. Pratyekabuddhas do not depend on a teacher and can discover the Dharma even if they do not encounter a buddha. They are sometimes said to remain silent and solitary.
 * Bodhisattvayāna: The bodhisattva attains liberation and wishes to benefit as many beings as possible. A bodhisattva who has accomplished this goal is called a samyaksambuddha. A samyaksambuddha can establish the Dharma and lead disciples to enlightenment.

A second classification came into use with the rise of the Vajrayāna, which created a hierarchy of the teachings with the Vajrayāna being the highest path. The Vajrayāna itself became multilayered especially in Tibetan Buddhism.

 * Hīnayāna
 * Mahāyāna
 * Vajrayāna

When the historical Buddha Shakyamuni taught, he gave teachings appropriate to the individual capacities of his students. The Hinayana was taught to those with lesser capacity with an emphasis on actions of body and speech. Mahayana was taught to those with greater capacity with an emphasis on actions of mind and Vajrayana was taught to those exceptional beings who were able to directly realise the nature of mind. Outwardly on a conventional level, these teachings and practices may appear contradictory but on an ultimate level, they all have the same goal.

Four yānas
Mahayana Buddhists sometimes refer to four yanas that subsume the two different schemes of the three yanas:
 * Śrāvakayāna
 * Pratyekabuddhayāna
 * Mahāyāna
 * Vajrayāna

Five yānas
This is a Mahāyāna list which is found in East Asian Buddhism.

 * Puruṣayāna - the human vehicle. This is the very beginning of the spiritual path
 * Devayāna - the practice of ethics and meditation
 * Śrāvakayāna - the practice of renunciation and the Four Noble Truths
 * Pratyekabuddhayāna - practice concerned with dependent arising (pratitya-samutpada)
 * Bodhisattvayāna - practice of the Six Perfections

Six yānas
The five yānas plus the Vajrayāna. This schema is associated with Shingon Buddhism in Japan. It was invented by Kūkai in order to help to differentiate the Vajrayāna teachings that he imported from China in the early 9th century. Kūkai wanted to show that the new teachings were entirely new.

Nine yānas
The Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism has nine yanas, a list made by combining the first type of three yanas, and adding the six classes of tantras.
 * Hīnayāna
 * 1. Śrāvakayāna
 * 2. Pratyekabuddhayāna
 * Mahāyāna  consisting of:
 * 3. Bodhisattvayāna
 * Vajrayāna, consisting of:
 * Outer Tantras
 * 4. Kriyatantra
 * 5. Upatantra (Tibetan spyod rgyud) ‘practice tantra’ and the Ubhayatantra (gnyis ka’i rgyud), ‘dual tantra’, because it practices the view of the next vehicle, Yogatantra, together with the action of the former.
 * 6. Yogatantra
 * Inner Tantras
 * 7. Mahāyoga
 * 8. Anuyoga
 * 9. Atiyoga (also Dzogchen)

The head of the Nyingma school, Dudjom Rinpoche emphasizes the eight lower vehicles are intellectually fabricated and contrived:

"The eight lower levels have intellectually fabricated and contrived that which is changeless solely due to fleeting thoughts that never experience what truly is. They apply antidotes to and reject that which is not to be rejected. They refer to as flawed that in which there is nothing to be purified, with a mind that desires purification. They have created division with respect to that which cannot be obtained by their hopes and fears that it can be obtained elsewhere. And they have obscured wisdom, which is naturally present, by their efforts in respect to that which is free from effort and free from needing to be accomplished. Therefore, they have had no chance to make contact with genuine, ultimate reality as it is (rnal ma'i de kho na nyid)."

Twelve yānas
Another schema associated with Mahāyāna and Vajrayāna sources:

 * 1) Śrāvakayāna
 * 2) Pratyekabuddhayāna
 * 3) Bodhisattvayāna
 * 4) Kriyayoga
 * 5) Charyayoga (or Upayoga)
 * 6) Yogatantra
 * 7) Mahayoga
 * 8) Anuyoga
 * 9) Atiyoga
 * 10) Semde
 * 11) Longdé
 * 12) Mengagde

title: Yana (Buddhism)


text:
Talk:Base (chemistry)

Comments

 * The amino group (NH2−) acts as a base by accepting a H+ ion from the solution. It does this by forming a coordinate covalent bond with the unshared pair of electrons belonging to the nitrogen atom. This decreases the hydrogen ion concentration.

This subject is rather 'basic', so I think the article should be targeted at readers with little chemical background. Therefore I replaced the above example with the simpler case of ammonia. —Herbee 17:28, 2004 Mar 9 (UTC)

I really liked this page it was very helpful!

THe reactions show hydrogen ions, but the wording says hydronium

maybe we should change the equations to have H30+

I had not seen H3O+ before. I am much more familiar with hydrogen nuclei, H+, in acids - Andrew.

Out of curiosity, are strong bases just as dangerous (if not more) as strong acids to objects and, more importantly, humans? —Jay

 * I believe so, yes. Amonia (I think) is a base, and I know it's dangerous when inhaled. Also, drinking a base could kill you. ;)

The Slash 05:21, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

can denature proteins?
therefore more dangerous than acids? acids can too — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.229.64.229 (talk) 02:55, 28 February 2012 (UTC)

strong base merger
There is not much content in strong base, hence why I put the merger up. Thoughts? Olin 22:15, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. There isn't any point to having an article devoted to 'strong bases'. Jgassens 17:36, 14 March 2006 (UTC)

 * they should be merged, as strong bases are learnt when you learn about bases.

 * I agree, but I also think that [Strong acid] should be merged with [Acid] as well, for consistency's sake

The Slash 05:19, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree. But what about Superbase and Superacids ? Cubbi 16:35, 4 April 2007 (UTC)

 * If so, strong/weak bases would have to be merged into Base, and strong/weak acid would have to be merged with acid. It may be easier to get information if all were kept separate. As a student looking for information on strong bases in particular, the link on the sideba was very useful. This information would be less easily found if merged. Belenus 20:43, 29 May 2006 (UTC)

info in acids page
there is info in acids page about bases that could be put here. thoughts? --nkayesmith 10:41, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

i agree also!

 * I too agree that the section on Definitions of Acids & Bases could be basically copied here and then eggs are so delicious. --Dawn Burn 04:37, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

About soap
Is really soap is a kind of alkali?Martin 04:24, 14 May 2006 (UTC)

No, bases actually react with your hand oils to make a kind of soap. So they are only soapy when you touch them with bare hands.

I knew that, but why the article says that soap is a kind of base?

Well, soap is definitely slippery (that stuff does actually eat away the oils from your skin, why it is so slippery), bitter tasting (don't swallow!), and I believe one of its ingredients persay is lye, a really strong base. Does that explain anything? David Martin Chao 04:08, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

 * soap (in its simplest form) is simply a salt of a fatty acid, for example sodium stearate. It has a basic pH because it's a salt of a weak acid and a strong base. Lye (NaOH or KOH) isn't an ingredient, it's a reagent used to neutralize the fatty acids when making soap. And yes, that's what seems to happen on your skin when you touch a strong base - it reacts with your oils making soap (which is slippery because it's a surfactant which has nothing to do with its pH) Cubbi 04:56, 8 May 2007 (UTC)

No merger plz
It should stay.

Actually, if you want real justification, the reason I looked in wikipedia for this particular answer is that you can count the number of strong acids or bases (under standard conditions) on two hands. Therefore as a seperate page, it is a comprehensive resource.

this is a plus for me, if I wanted to know about acids or bases in general, I would look in my chemistry textbook. k. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 129.96.142.18 (talk • contribs).

Undecided
I dont think that the pages should be merged, but that the strong bases page should be made more comprehensive. They are both useful, and I have used them and the Acid pages to help me with a chemistry project.

However, a merge would have benefits. If they were combined, then finding what you wanted may be easier.

I don't know.

Could be good, could be bad.

Probably useful, though.

Commander Bubble 11:12, 13 September 2006 (UTC)

decision time merge!
I am counting 4 editors in favor of merge, one against and one undecided, so unless there are objections the proposed merge will take place within 48 hours and try to keep merge discussion within one discussion please..V8rik 20:11, 29 September 2006 (UTC)

Sodium Hydroxide + Water
When NaOH is dissolved in water, doesn't it actually produce Na+ and H3O2-?
 * actually it produces a hydrated sodium cation and a hydrated hydroxide anion, which are commonly written as Na+ and OH-. Or, if you want to be pedantic, as Na+(aq) and OH-(aq) Cubbi 16:11, 4 April 2007 (UTC)
 * doesn't that depend on the definition of acid-base chem you're working with?

Strong bases
The stronger the base, the smaller the pKb value. Therefore the claim that strong bases are those with pKb GREATER than 13 doesn't make sense. Perhaps you meant pH?

Ranking of strong hydroxide bases?
In the article, it states that KOH is stronger than CsOH. Is this true? I've heard that CsOH is the strongest hydroxide base. It readily dissolves glass, but KOH can't. Also, it's hard to believe that RbOH is weaker than LiOH. It seems like there is no trend in strength of the alkali hydroxides in this ranking.

BTW, tetramethylammonium hydroxide is also a strong hydroxide base. So you can add it if you wish. Warut 21:05, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

 * strength has to do with a base's equilibrium constant; a weak base goes back and forth ( BOH<->B+ + OH-) while a strong only goes 1 way (BOH --> B+ +OH-). or are you talking about pure concentrations?????

 * A strong base (or acid) is one that disassociates completely (or close enough that you can't tell otherwise). That means that CsOH is equal to NaOH is equal to KOH.  Ba(OH)2 is stronger, as are any strong bases that have two hydroxides.  N.B. Not everything with a OH attached is a strong base, for example Mg(OH)2 is a weak base (and fairly insoluable to boot).  one/zero 03:15, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Then why is Ba(OH)2 listed as weaker than KOH? Warut (talk) 11:14, 5 December 2007 (UTC)

 * I think we should drop any pretense of such a ranking's existence. If it exists, it is not widely known, and at any rate it would be fairly pointless. Also, there is the question of what relative strength means at all. In ranking acids, we use only the first dissociation, since subsequent dissociations change the pH very little. But here we cannot ignore the fact that a base like Ba(OH)2 produces two moles of hydroxide ions. So we'd have to ask ourselves: Is one base stronger than another because it can raise the pH more at a fixed concentration, or because its first dissociation is more complete? And how meaningful would such a decision be anyway? Like I said, it's better not to try to rank at all. Bbi5291 (talk) 17:01, 24 October 2009 (UTC)

Strong AND weak?
Under Base Definitions: "Bases may also be weak bases such as ammonia" Then Neutralization of Acids: "Neutralizing acid spills with strong bases, such as lye or ammonia..." Yeah... I'll just change the latter, feel free to argue that ammonia is actually a strong base(about 1% of it is protonated, although don't check the ammonia article on that; it says the exact opposite and I've posted there as well) Lowe--81.233.253.191 12:25, 14 January 2007 (UTC)

Tasting a base
Acid solutions taste sour, even dilute solutions of weak acids such as acetic acid. Thus, I'd expect you can taste sodium bicarbonate to get the taste of a base. To my palate, the taste of baking soda is not bitter. I taste bitter when I taste alkaloids. My schooling used the term "brackish" to define the taste of a base. Perhaps, there's a better term. However, I'd like to see something other than "bitter" describing the taste of a base.

Chemperson 23:08, 25 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Strong bases taste bitter, from my experience. Cubbi 00:44, 26 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Baking soda is not a base, it is a salt (chemistry). --Chemicalinterest (talk) 00:39, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

Dissociation constant
I think the value of the dissociation constant is incorrect, well for 23°C anyway.

"The concentration, measured in molarity (M or moles per dm³), of the ions is indicated as [H3O+] and [OH−]; their product is the dissociation constant of water with and has the value 10−7 M."

Should this not be 10−14 M, with [H3O+] being 10−7 M, giving you a pH of -log 10−7 = 7.

Another Overtechnical Wikipedia Page
It's just plain confusing to read. Can someone who knows what this is about please make it easier to understand? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.20.200.74 (talk) 01:19, 20 November 2008 (UTC)
 * I personally think the page is quite clear. While I might be judging this article's standards by the little chemistry I know, I do not think we can clarify it further. Although, reading over the introduction to the article, it could use some cleanup, and a little merger of sentences rather than short fragmented sentences, with special conditions written in brackets, rather than specifically emphasized on. Do keep in mind that Wikipedia is not a Textbook, and thus can only present facts, not teach it. Aly89 (talk) 02:32, 20 November 2008 (UTC)

Some Confusion
An IP editor raised "Bases are different from alkalis" in the article. I have moved it here. Is this difference adequately dealt with? -- Bduke   (Discussion)  04:41, 9 April 2009 (UTC)

Etymology?
Is it known who came up with this word in chemistry? Why are bases called bases? Is the root meaning the same as in a baseball base or a space base, or is this "base" really a totally different word? www.etymonline.com doesn't have anything on this. Please include this info if you have it. -- 92.229.71.18 (talk) 14:47, 9 May 2010 (UTC)
 * See Definitions section, second paragraph re the 18th century French chemist Rouelle who introduced the word. Dirac66 (talk) 01:02, 8 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Apperently Rouelle is no longer mentioned in the article. Still, I'm sure etymology is important. This article (Jensen, William B. (2006). "The origin of the term "base"". The Journal of Chemical Education 83 (8): 1130. doi:10.1021/ed083p1130, http://www.che.uc.edu/Jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/129.%20Base.pdf) would probably help, I'll add it to the article.95.25.177.242 (talk) 02:40, 22 June 2014 (UTC)
 * Thanks for pointing out that it was gone. I searched the Revision history and found that the paragraph on etymology was deleted on 8 Apr 2013, along with the rest of the Definitions section whose content is duplicated elsewhere in the article. In fact the source for this paragraph was the same paper by Jensen, so I have restored the paragraph to the Wiki article, and used your formatting for the reference for easier reader access to Jensen's paper. Dirac66 (talk) 03:17, 22 June 2014 (UTC)

Question
why do we use strong bases to clean? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.71.228.48 (talk) 12:44, 18 May 2010 (UTC)
 * They can dissolve hair and grease. --Chemicalinterest (talk) 00:40, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

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Definition
The definition of base at the beginning, is not so good , compared to the definition of acid. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Wholecube (talk • contribs) 14:58, 9 November 2017 (UTC)

Strong Base vs Superbase
Should "Very strong bases can even deprotonate very weakly acidic C–H groups in the absence of water." be moved from the strong base to the superbase section? --Robert Rossi (talk) 12:07, 1 December 2017 (UTC)

Merger proposal
proposes that Alkali should be merged into Base (chemistry). Sassygamer483, please state why you think the articles should be merged. Mdewman6 (talk) 02:45, 18 December 2021 (UTC)

Close the merger proposal. I just realised that alkalis and bases are different substances. All this text should be mentioned in both articles: 1. All alkalis are water-soluble bases and but all bases are not alkalis. 2. Alkalis are metal hydroxides and metal oxides of Group IA and Group IIA of the Periodic Table whereas bases are substances that neutralize acids to form salts and water. Examples of water-insoluble bases (that are not alkalis) are copper oxide, ferrous oxide, ferric oxide, zinc carbonate. SassyGamer483 (talk) 06:15, 18 December 2021 (UTC)

Active editors may add on to the text SassyGamer483 (talk) 06:17, 18 December 2021 (UTC)

Adequate distinction between bases and alkalis needed
Both articles need more detailed distinction between bases and alkalis. I have made some already below, and active editors may add on to the text to make it detailed.

All alkalis are water-soluble bases and but all bases are not alkalis. 2. Alkalis are metal hydroxides and metal oxides of Group IA and Group IIA of the Periodic Table whereas bases are substances that neutralize acids to form salts and water. Examples of water-insoluble bases (that are not alkalis) include copper oxide, ferrous oxide, ferric oxide, zinc carbonate, etc. SassyGamer483 (talk) 06:25, 18 December 2021 (UTC)

Comment
I think there is a key error in the "Reactions between bases and water" section in this article: when bases react with water and take a proton, thus outcompeting the resulting hydroxide ions for that proton, that indicates that it is a stronger base, not weaker, and its equilibrium constant value should be larger, not smaller. The pKb value, however, would be smaller.
 * Above comment added by user 204.84.6.15 on 4 March 2022 (and then moved down to end of talk page)

 * Reply: The point is that for a weak base B in (pure) water, only a very small fraction of B molecules take a proton from water to become BH+. If only 1% of B is protonated to BH+, then B is indeed considered a weak base as the article says. Dirac66 (talk) 01:25, 27 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Base (chemistry)


text:
Gorenstein ring

In commutative algebra, a Gorenstein local ring is a commutative Noetherian local ring R with finite injective dimension as an R-module. There are many equivalent conditions, some of them listed below, often saying that a Gorenstein ring is self-dual in some sense.

Gorenstein rings were introduced by Grothendieck in his 1961 seminar (published in ). The name comes from a duality property of singular plane curves studied by (who was fond of claiming that he did not understand the definition of a Gorenstein ring). The zero-dimensional case had been studied by. and publicized the concept of Gorenstein rings.

Frobenius rings are noncommutative analogs of zero-dimensional Gorenstein rings. Gorenstein schemes are the geometric version of Gorenstein rings.

For Noetherian local rings, there is the following chain of inclusions.

Definitions
A Gorenstein ring is a commutative Noetherian ring such that each localization at a prime ideal is a Gorenstein local ring, as defined below. A Gorenstein ring is in particular Cohen–Macaulay.

One elementary characterization is: a Noetherian local ring R of dimension zero (equivalently, with R of finite length as an R-module) is Gorenstein if and only if HomR(k, R) has dimension 1 as a k-vector space, where k is the residue field of R. Equivalently, R has simple socle as an R-module. More generally, a Noetherian local ring R is Gorenstein if and only if there is a regular sequence a1,...,an in the maximal ideal of R such that the quotient ring R/( a1,...,an) is Gorenstein of dimension zero.

For example, if R is a commutative graded algebra over a field k such that R has finite dimension as a k-vector space, R = k ⊕ R1 ⊕ ... ⊕ Rm, then R is Gorenstein if and only if it satisfies Poincaré duality, meaning that the top graded piece Rm has dimension 1 and the product Ra × Rm−a → Rm is a perfect pairing for every a.

Another interpretation of the Gorenstein property as a type of duality, for not necessarily graded rings, is: for a field F, a commutative F-algebra R of finite dimension as an F-vector space (hence of dimension zero as a ring) is Gorenstein if and only if there is an F-linear map e: R → F such that the symmetric bilinear form (x, y) := e(xy) on R (as an F-vector space) is nondegenerate.

For a commutative Noetherian local ring (R, m, k) of Krull dimension n, the following are equivalent:
 * R has finite injective dimension as an R-module;
 * R has injective dimension n as an R-module;
 * The Ext group $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_R(k,R) = 0$$ for i ≠ n while $$\operatorname{Ext}^n_R(k,R) \cong k;$$
 * $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_R(k,R) = 0$$ for some i > n;
 * $$\operatorname{Ext}^i_R(k,R) = 0$$ for all i < n and $$\operatorname{Ext}^n_R(k,R) \cong k;$$
 * R is an n-dimensional Gorenstein ring.

A (not necessarily commutative) ring R is called Gorenstein if R has finite injective dimension both as a left R-module and as a right R-module. If R is a local ring, R is said to be a local Gorenstein ring.

Examples

 * Every local complete intersection ring, in particular every regular local ring, is Gorenstein.
 * The ring R = k[x,y,z]/(x2, y2, xz, yz, z2−xy) is a 0-dimensional Gorenstein ring that is not a complete intersection ring. In more detail: a basis for R as a k-vector space is given by: $$\{1,x,y,z,z^2\}.$$ R is Gorenstein because the socle has dimension 1 as a k-vector space, spanned by z2. Alternatively, one can observe that R satisfies Poincaré duality when it is viewed as a graded ring with x, y, z all of the same degree. Finally. R is not a complete intersection because it has 3 generators and a minimal set of 5 (not 3) relations.

 * The ring R = k[x,y]/(x2, y2, xy) is a 0-dimensional Cohen–Macaulay ring that is not a Gorenstein ring. In more detail: a basis for R as a k-vector space is given by: $$\{1,x,y\}.$$ R is not Gorenstein because the socle has dimension 2 (not 1) as a k-vector space, spanned by x and y.

Properties

 * A Noetherian local ring is Gorenstein if and only if its completion is Gorenstein.

 * The canonical module of a Gorenstein local ring R is isomorphic to R. In geometric terms, it follows that the standard dualizing complex of a Gorenstein scheme X over a field is simply a line bundle (viewed as a complex in degree −dim(X)); this line bundle is called the canonical bundle of X. Using the canonical bundle, Serre duality takes the same form for Gorenstein schemes as in the smooth case.

 * In the context of graded rings R, the canonical module of a Gorenstein ring R is isomorphic to R with some degree shift.

 * For a Gorenstein local ring (R, m, k) of dimension n, Grothendieck local duality takes the following form. Let E(k) be the injective hull of the residue field k as an R-module. Then, for any finitely generated R-module M and integer i, the local cohomology group $$H^i_m(M)$$ is dual to $$\operatorname{Ext}_R^{n-i}(M,R)$$ in the sense that:
 * $$H_m^i(M) \cong \operatorname{Hom}_R(\operatorname{Ext}_R^{n-i}(M,R), E(k)).$$

 * Stanley showed that for a finitely generated commutative graded algebra R over a field k such that R is an integral domain, the Gorenstein property depends only on the Cohen–Macaulay property together with the Hilbert series
 * $$f(t) = \sum\nolimits_j \dim_k(R_j)t^j.$$
 * Namely, a graded domain R is Gorenstein if and only if it is Cohen–Macaulay and the Hilbert series is symmetric in the sense that
 * $$f\left(\tfrac{1}{t} \right)=(-1)^n t^s f(t)$$
 * for some integer s, where n is the dimension of R.

 * Let (R, m, k) be a Noetherian local ring of embedding codimension c, meaning that c = dimk(m/m2) − dim(R). In geometric terms, this holds for a local ring of a subscheme of codimension c in a regular scheme. For c at most 2, Serre showed that R is Gorenstein if and only if it is a complete intersection. There is also a structure theorem for Gorenstein rings of codimension 3 in terms of the Pfaffians of a skew-symmetric matrix, by Buchsbaum and Eisenbud. In 2011, Miles Reid extended this structure theorem to case of codimension 4.

title: Gorenstein ring


text:
Caniapiscau, Quebec

Caniapiscau is a vast unorganized territory in the Côte-Nord region of Quebec, Canada, part of Caniapiscau Regional County Municipality.

The territory is home to the huge Caniapiscau Reservoir, the largest body of water in Quebec and the second-largest reservoir in Canada. The reservoir was named after Lake Caniapiscau that was flooded in 1981 during the formation of the reservoir. The name comes from the Cree or Innu term kaniapiskau or kaneapiskak which means "rocky point" or "place where there is a rocky point". Albert Peter Low had noted in 1895 that "a high rocky headland jutts into the lake." He probably referred to the northwest facing peninsula that gives the reservoir the shape of an arc as we know it now.

In the 19th century, Lake Caniapiscau was frequented by hunters and fur traders. In 1834, the Hudson's Bay Company opened there an outpost to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay. The Kaniapiskau Post closed in 1870.

Community
Caniapiscau ( 54.86781°N, -69.83625°W ) is a small community without a permanent population, just north of the Caniapiscau Reservoir. It was formed as a temporary worksite in 1974 for workers involved in the construction of the dams and floodgates of this reservoir. The reservoir was built as part of the James Bay Project that gave rise to the La Grande hydroelectric complex. The worksite was closed after construction ended towards 1984.

Accessible only by air from 1974 to 1976, when a temporary landing strip was cleared on a nearby frozen lake, by an ice road from James Bay from 1977 to 1979 and, since late 1979, by the 666 km long gravel Trans-Taiga Road (French: Route Transtaïga) which branches off the James Bay Road (French: Route de la Baie James). The 84 km between Caniapiscau and Brisay is only recommended for four-wheel drive vehicles due to large rocks on the coarse-gravel surface.

The site is now used by an outfitter (fishing and caribou hunting) and the commercial Lac Pau Seaplane Base allows floatplanes to launch, subject to seasonal conditions.

Transport
Caniapiscau is accessible by car via the Trans-Taiga Road. Located approximately 75 km south of Radisson, the Trans-Taiga highway is an unpaved gravel road. Along the road there are several campgrounds where users are able to spend the night. Donations are accepted, but not required. There are also several outfitters located along the way. Some are only open during certain times of the year, however Pourvoirie Mirage is open all year round at km 358. Food and gas may be purchased at this location. Caniapiscau Aerodrome is located in this region.

title: Caniapiscau, Quebec


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