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Fairey Albacore

The Fairey Albacore is a single-engine biplane torpedo bomber designed and produced by the British aircraft manufacturer Fairey Aviation. It was primarily operated by the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) during the Second World War.

The Albacore, popularly known as the "Applecore", was conceived as a replacement for the Fairey Swordfish, an earlier biplane introduced during the mid 1930s. It was typically operated by a crew of three and was designed for spotting and reconnaissance as well as level, dive, and torpedo bombing. First flown on 12 December 1938, the Albacore was in production between 1939 and 1943, and entered FAA service with 826 Naval Air Squadron during March 1940. The type was initially operated from land bases, being dispatched on attack missions against enemy shipping and harbours in the vicinity of the English Channel. The first operations on board an aircraft carrier commenced in November 1940.

At its height, 15 first-line FAA squadrons flew the Albacore. The type was much used in the Mediterranean, participating in the Battle of Cape Matapan, the Second Battle of El Alamein, as well as the landings at Sicily and Salerno. Despite the intention to replace the Swordfish, the Albacore served with it and was eventually retired before it, both aircraft having been replaced by a pair of monoplane designs, the Fairey Barracuda and Grumman Avenger. In addition to the FAA, the Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) operated the type.

Background
The origins of the Albacore can be traced back to the issuing of Specification S.41/36 by the Air Ministry on 11 February 1937, as well as the earlier Specification M.7/36. The latter had sought a three-seat TSR (torpedo/spotter/reconnaissance) aircraft with which to replace the Fairey Swordfish in Fleet Air Arm (FAA) service. It was required to be capable of speeds between 58 and 183 knots while also carrying a single 18-inch Mark XIIA torpedo; furthermore, it was to be fitted with dual flight controls, have a powered rear turret, comprehensive facilities for observation and navigation, and incorporate soundproofing and heating measures.

In response, Fairey Aviation decided to work on its own design. Early activities included the wind tunnel testing of various biplane models at RAE Farnborough between November 1936 and June 1937. These tests reportedly influenced designs regarding the fitting of flaps upon the wings. The company produced both biplane and monoplane configurations to fulfil the requirement, officials dismissed the monoplane proposal as it raised uncertainties for the role it was to be tasked with at that time. Accordingly, Fairey focused its efforts onto the biplane configuration.

The Albacore, otherwise designated TBR (torpedo/bomber/reconnaissance), was a single-bay all-metal biplane. Its fuselage was of a semi-monocoque design and was equipped with a split undercarriage. In comparison to the Swordfish, the Albacore was furnished with a more powerful engine that drove a Constant-speed propeller, while the fuselage was also more aerodynamically refined. The engine that powered the early Albacores was a single Bristol Taurus II radial engine, capable of 1,065 hp, while those built later on received the more powerful Taurus XII, capable of 1,130 hp, instead.

Furthermore, the Albacore provided numerous amenities for the benefit of its crew, such as its fully enclosed cockpit, a central heating system, a windscreen wiper for the pilot, and lavatory. In the event of a water landing, the aircraft was also fitted with an automatic liferaft deployment system to assist in the crew's survival. The armament of the Albacore typically included a single fixed forward-firing machine gun in the upper starboard wing, while the rear cockpit was provided with either a single or twin Vickers K machine gun. It could carry a maximum under-wing bomb load of four 500 lb bombs.

The wings of the Albacore were of an equal span and were foldable for more compact stowage onboard aircraft carriers. These wings, which were covered by fabric, featured relatively large flaps that were hydraulically-actuated and could also act as air brakes during dives. Akin to the preceding Swordfish, it was capable of dive bombing; it was capable of diving at speeds of up to 215 knots (400 km/h) IAS irrespective of the positioning of the flaps. According to the wartime pilot Eric Brown, the Albacore was relatively steady throughout the dive, while the recovery was typically both smooth and relatively easy to perform.

Into flight
On 12 December 1938, the first of two prototypes performed its maiden flight from the Great West Aerodrome, flown by F. H. Dixon. During April 1939, the second prototype made its first flight, joining its sibling in the flight test programme shortly thereafter. Both prototypes had not been ordered under individual contracts, but had instead been the first two of a production batch of 100 aircraft. There were some differences from subsequent production aircraft, such as their initial outfitting with non-tapered engine cowlings and wheel-spats.

While the Albacore had been developed as a carrier-capable land plane, there was interest in its potential as a floatplane, thus the first prototype was later outfitted with floats and was experimentally configured for catapult-assisted takeoffs. The Marine Aircraft Experimental Establishment (MAEE) tested it in early 1940, during which its water-handling was less than favourable, although it retained acceptable airborne characteristics, save for its reportedly poorly-harmonised flight controls.

During 1939, quantity production of the first batch of 98 aircraft commenced; the start of production had been delayed on account of production slippages of the Taurus engine. During February 1940, testing of the Albacore and Taurus II engine alike commenced at RAF Boscombe Down. During these tests, the prototype demonstrated its ability to attain a maximum speed of 160 mph, at an altitude of 4,800 ft (1,463 m), at 11,570 lb (5,259 kg), which was achieved while carrying four depth charges underneath its wings, while its maximum speed without the depth charges was 172 mph. An Albacore fitted with the Taurus II engine and carrying a torpedo weighed 11,100 lb (5,045 kg).

Some minor criticisms of the Albacore were produced during its 1940 evaluation flights; issues included the excessive heat of the forward cockpit during the summer months, while the rear cockpit was cold and subject to persistent drafts. The stall characteristics were described as uncomfortable, while the crew boarding process was also seen as somewhat hazardous. However, the only notable change in the specification was the replacement of the Taurus II engine with the improved Taurus XII counterpart.

A total of 800 Albacores were built, including the two prototypes, which were all manufactured at Fairey's Hayes factory. Production came to an end in 1943. They were typically test flown from London's Great West Aerodrome, what has since been expanded into London Heathrow Airport.

Operational history

During March 1940, No. 826 Naval Air Squadron was specially formed to operate the first Albacores; within weeks, the type had begun operations, attacking harbours and shipping in the English Channel, operating from shore bases, as well as providing convoy escort for the rest of 1940. HMS Formidable (67)'s 826 and 829 Squadrons were the first to operate the Albacore from an aircraft carrier, operations commencing in November 1940. The Albacore suffered from reliability problems with the Taurus engine, although these were later solved, so that the failure rate was no worse than the Pegasus equipped Swordfish. The Albacore remained less popular than the Swordfish, as it was less manoeuvrable, while the controls were considered to be too heavy for a pilot to perform much evasive action after dropping a torpedo.

Eventually, there were 15 first-line FAA squadrons equipped with the Albacore which operated widely in the Mediterranean. In March 1941, Albacores made torpedo attacks during the Battle of Cape Matapan, inflicting severe damage on the Italian battleship Vittorio Veneto despite the presence of heavy anti-aircraft fire. The type also played a prominent role in the ill-fated raid on Kirkenes and Petsamo during July 1941. Albacores also participated, with greater success, in the fighting at El Alamein, dropping flares to mark targets for RAF night bombers.

Between September 1941 and June 1943, No. 828 Squadron, based at RAF Hal Far, Malta, operated a squadron of Albacores under severe blitz conditions during the Siege of Malta. The type employed a mixture of mines and bombs to attack Italian shipping, including convoys, along with shore targets in Sicily, mainland Italy, and North Africa. Albacores also supported the landings at Sicily and Salerno, guarding against enemy submarines and raiding key enemy facilities such as airfields and forts.

On 9 March 1942, twelve Albacores from HMS Victorious (R38) attacked the German battleship GERMAN BATTLESHIP Tirpitz at sea near Narvik. Based on information from one of a search force of six Albacores that had been launched earlier, Albacores from 817 and 832 Squadrons launched torpedoes. One attack came within 20 yd of Tirpitz, but the attack failed for the loss of two aircraft.

During 1943, the Albacore was replaced in FAA service by the newer Barracuda. The final Albacore squadron of the FAA, No. 841 Squadron, which had flown numerous shore-based attacks against shipping in the English Channel for the whole of its career with the Albacore, was disbanded in late 1943.

The Royal Air Force deployed some Albacores; 36 Squadron based at Singapore acquired five to supplement its Vickers Vildebeests at RAF Seletar in December 1941. The remnants of the squadron was captured by the Japanese in March 1942. During 1943, No. 415 Squadron RCAF was equipped with Albacores (presumably ex-FAA) before the Flight operating them was transferred and reformed as 119 Squadron at RAF Manston in July 1944. The squadron deployed later to Belgium and their Albacores were disposed of in early 1945, due to spares shortages, in favour of the inferior but ASV radar-equipped Swordfish Mk.IIIs that the squadron kept until the end of the war on 8 May. This was to combat German mini-submarines attacking Allied shipping entering the River Scheldt on its way to the Port of Antwerp. The Aden Communication Flight used 17 Albacores between the middle of 1944 and August 1946. Some of these were delivered by sea on the SS Empire Arun in December 1945 (all from Royal Navy stock).

The Royal Canadian Air Force took over the Albacores and used them during the Normandy invasion, for a similar role until July 1944. The Albacore was the last biplane to be used in combat by the RCAF.

Operators
Royal Canadian Air Force Royal Air Force Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
 * 🇨🇦 Canada:
 * No. 415 Squadron RCAF
 * No. 36 Squadron RAF
 * No. 119 Squadron

 * 700 Naval Air Squadron
 * 733 Naval Air Squadron
 * 747 Naval Air Squadron
 * 750 Naval Air Squadron
 * 753 Naval Air Squadron
 * 754 Naval Air Squadron
 * 756 Naval Air Squadron
 * 763 Naval Air Squadron
 * 766 Naval Air Squadron
 * 767 Naval Air Squadron
 * 768 Naval Air Squadron
 * 769 Naval Air Squadron
 * 771 Naval Air Squadron
 * 774 Naval Air Squadron
 * 775 Naval Air Squadron
 * 778 Naval Air Squadron
 * 781 Naval Air Squadron
 * 782 Naval Air Squadron
 * 783 Naval Air Squadron
 * 785 Naval Air Squadron
 * 786 Naval Air Squadron
 * 787 Naval Air Squadron
 * 788 Naval Air Squadron
 * 789 Naval Air Squadron
 * 791 Naval Air Squadron
 * 793 Naval Air Squadron
 * 796 Naval Air Squadron
 * 797 Naval Air Squadron
 * 799 Naval Air Squadron
 * 810 Naval Air Squadron
 * 815 Naval Air Squadron
 * 817 Naval Air Squadron
 * 818 Naval Air Squadron
 * 820 Naval Air Squadron
 * 821 Naval Air Squadron
 * 822 Naval Air Squadron
 * 823 Naval Air Squadron
 * 826 Naval Air Squadron
 * 827 Naval Air Squadron
 * 828 Naval Air Squadron
 * 829 Naval Air Squadron
 * 830 Naval Air Squadron
 * 831 Naval Air Squadron
 * 832 Naval Air Squadron
 * 841 Naval Air Squadron

Surviving aircraft
Only one Albacore is known to survive, on display at the Fleet Air Arm Museum, which was built using parts of Albacores N4389 and N4172 recovered from crash sites.

title: Fairey Albacore


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Aiea

Aiea or Aiea may refer to:
 * Members of the Hawaiian flowering plant genus Nothocestrum
 * Nothocestrum breviflorum A.Gray - Smallflower aiea (island of Hawaii)
 * Nothocestrum latifolium A.Gray - Broadleaf aiea (Maui, Molokai, Lānai, Oahu, Kauai)
 * Nothocestrum longifolium A.Gray Longleaf aiea (island of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, Lānai, Oahu, Kauai)
 * Nothocestrum peltatum Skottsb. Oahu aiea (Kauai)
 * Ilex anomala, a species of holly that is also endemic to Hawaii
 * Aiea, Hawaii, a CDP of Honolulu on the island of Oahu
 * AIEA or IAEA, International Atomic Energy Agency, an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy, and to inhibit its use for any military purpose, including nuclear weapons

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Aiea


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Jacobus Sinapius

Jacobus Sinapius or Jacobus Horcicky (modern Jakub Hořčický; 1575 – 25 September 1622), later granted the title "de Tepenec" ("of Tepenec"; Czech: z Tepence), was a Bohemian pharmacist and personal doctor of Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. His latinized name Sinapius is a translation of his family name Hořčický, which means "mustard" in Czech.

Biography
According to his college records, Sinapius was born in Bořenovice in Moravia in a lower-class family. He initially worked as kitchen helper at the Jesuit school at Krumlov, but was eventually admitted to the Krumlov Jesuit Seminary of poor students in 1590. Sinapius eventually graduated from the Krumlov Gymnasium, where he studied poetry and rhetoric, and became a pharmacist himself. There he also worked in the college's pharmacy, on topics involving chemistry and herbalism, under the overseeing of Martin Schaffner (1564–1608).

By 1598, he started studying Aristotelian philosophy at the Clementinum college in Prague (which was later merged with Charles University), and at the same time oversaw the kitchen and pantry, but continued working in chemistry and pharmacy. However, Sinapius was not satisfied with the teachings there, musing over Barbara Celarent, instead of studying physics and the origins of nature. Because his herbal skills to treat illness impressed, he was allowed gardening near the river Vltava, under the Bräke. Here he grew herbs and set up a laboratory at Smíchov (then a village behind Prague walls), the Clementinum's botanical garden. There, or at the garden, he distilled a very popular aqua sinapis (German: sinapischen Wasser, both lit. "mustard water", perhaps in reference to his own name) whose sale made him a wealthy man.

In 1600, he became the administrator of the Jesuit college in Jindřichův Hradec, and in 1606 he became capitaneus and administrator of the properties of the St. George's Convent in the Prague Castle. In 1607 he was named imperial chemist by Rudolf II. In return for curing the emperor of a grave disease, he was ennobled with the title "de Tepenec", presumably after the medieval Tepenec Castle (destroyed in 1391) near Olomouc. He lent emperor Rudolf II money and received from him in return an estate around town Mělník. He also supported students of the studies of catholic theology financially.

In the religious disputes of the early 17th century, Sinapius strongly defended the Catholic side. He became the administrator of the Mělník Castle but was jailed in 1620, when the Protestants took charge of the town. Subsequently, was exchanged for another prisoner (the famous physician Jessenius) and exiled, but later, after the failure of the Bohemian Revolt, he returned to Mělník and lived there the rest of his life.

He died in 1622, from a horse-fall that he had suffered a year before. Two days before his death he was moved to the Clementinum in the care of the Jesuits, and left them the sum of 50,000 gold coins and his Mělník estate. He is buried in the Church of St. Salvator in the Clementinum.

Writings
In 1609 Sinapius published a pro-Catholic pamphlet which saw several reprintings. According to a 1777 source, he had written several manuscripts on chemistry and botany.

Connection to the Voynich manuscript
Book dealer Wilfrid Voynich saw Sinapius's name and title at the bottom of the first page of the Voynich manuscript. Voynich saw the faint writing and subsequently used chemicals to make it clearer but failed. It was later revealed by ultraviolet light to be Sinapius's signature and has been compared with other samples. Sinapius is thus the second person known to have owned the Voynich manuscript after Emperor Rudolf II. Its attested provenance begins with him, since the story that it was owned by Emperor Rudolf II rests on a single piece of unsubstantiated hearsay, related second hand in a letter to Athanasius Kircher.

title: Jacobus Sinapius


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Atacama Large Millimeter Array

The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) is an astronomical interferometer of 66 radio telescopes in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile, which observe electromagnetic radiation at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths. The array has been constructed on the 5000 m elevation Chajnantor plateau – near the Llano de Chajnantor Observatory and the Atacama Pathfinder Experiment. This location was chosen for its high elevation and low humidity, factors which are crucial to reduce noise and decrease signal attenuation due to Earth's atmosphere. ALMA provides insight on star birth during the early Stelliferous era and detailed imaging of local star and planet formation.

ALMA is an international partnership amongst Europe, the United States, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Chile. Costing about US$1.4 billion, it is the most expensive ground-based telescope in operation. ALMA began scientific observations in the second half of 2011 and the first images were released to the press on 3 October 2011. The array has been fully operational since March 2013.

Overview
The initial ALMA array is composed of 66 high-precision antennae, and operates at wavelengths of 3.6 to 0.32 millimeters (31 to 1000 GHz). The array has much higher sensitivity and higher resolution than earlier submillimeter telescopes such as the single-dish James Clerk Maxwell Telescope or existing interferometer networks such as the Submillimeter Array or the Institut de Radio Astronomie Millimétrique (IRAM) Plateau de Bure facility.

The antennae can be moved across the desert plateau over distances from 150 m to 16 km, which will give ALMA a powerful variable "zoom", similar in its concept to that employed at the centimeter-wavelength Very Large Array (VLA) site in New Mexico, United States.

The high sensitivity is mainly achieved through the large numbers of antenna dishes that make up the array.

The telescopes were provided by the European, North American and East Asian partners of ALMA. The American and European partners each provided twenty-five 12-meter diameter antennae, for a subtotal of fifty antennae, that compose the main array. The participating East Asian countries are contributing 16 antennae (four 12-meter diameter and twelve 7-meter diameter antennae) in the form of the Atacama Compact Array (ACA), which is part of the enhanced ALMA.

By using smaller antennae than the main ALMA array, larger fields of view can be imaged at a given frequency using ACA. Placing the antennae closer together enables the imaging of sources of larger angular extent. The ACA works together with the main array in order to enhance the latter's wide-field imaging capability.

History

ALMA has its conceptual roots in three astronomical projects: the Millimeter Array (MMA) of the United States, the Large Southern Array (LSA) of Europe, and the Large Millimeter Array (LMA) of Japan.

The first step toward the creation of what would become ALMA came in 1997, when the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO) and the European Southern Observatory (ESO) agreed to pursue a common project that merged the MMA and LSA. The merged array combined the sensitivity of the LSA with the frequency coverage and superior site of the MMA. ESO and NRAO worked together in technical, science, and management groups to define and organise a joint project between the two observatories with participation by Canada and Spain (the latter became a member of ESO later).

A series of resolutions and agreements led to the choice of "Atacama Large Millimeter Array", or ALMA, as the name of the new array in March 1999 and the signing of the ALMA Agreement on 25 February 2003, between the North American and European parties. ("Alma" means "soul" in Spanish and "learned" or "knowledgeable" in Arabic.) Following mutual discussions over several years, the ALMA Project received a proposal from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) whereby Japan would provide the ACA (Atacama Compact Array) and three additional receiver bands for the large array, to form Enhanced ALMA. Further discussions between ALMA and NAOJ led to the signing of a high-level agreement on 14 September 2004 that makes Japan an official participant in Enhanced ALMA, to be known as the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array. A groundbreaking ceremony was held on November 6, 2003 and the ALMA logo was unveiled.

During an early stage of the planning of ALMA, it was decided to employ ALMA antennae designed and constructed by known companies in North America, Europe, and Japan, rather than using one single design. This was mainly for political reasons. Although very different approaches have been chosen by the providers, each of the antenna designs appears to be able to meet ALMA's stringent requirements. The components designed and manufactured across Europe were transported by specialist aerospace and astrospace logistics company Route To Space Alliance, 26 in total which were delivered to Antwerp for onward shipment to Chile.

Funding
ALMA was initially a 50-50 collaboration between the National Radio Astronomy Observatory and European Southern Observatory (ESO) and later extended with the help of the other Japanese, Taiwanese, and Chilean partners. ALMA is the largest and most expensive ground-based astronomical project, costing between US$1.4 and 1.5 billion. (However, various space astronomy projects including the Hubble Space Telescope, the James Webb Space Telescope, and several major planet probes have cost considerably more).

 * Partners
 * European Southern Observatory and the European Regional Support Centre
 * National Science Foundation via the National Radio Astronomy Observatory and the North American ALMA Science Center
 * National Research Council of Canada
 * National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ) under the National Institutes of Natural Sciences (NINS)
 * ALMA-Taiwan at the Academia Sinica Institute of Astronomy & Astrophysics (ASIAA)
 * Republic of Chile

Construction

The complex was built primarily by European, U.S., Japanese, and Canadian companies and universities. Three prototype antennae have undergone evaluation at the Very Large Array since 2002.

General Dynamics C4 Systems and its SATCOM Technologies division was contracted by Associated Universities, Inc. to provide twenty-five of the 12 m antennae, while European manufacturer Thales Alenia Space provided the other twenty-five principal antennae (in the largest-ever European industrial contract in ground-based astronomy). Japan's Mitsubishi Electric was contracted to assemble NAOJ's 16 antennae. The antennae were delivered to the site from December 2008 to September 2013.

Transporting the antennae

Transporting the 115 tonne antennae from the Operations Support Facility at 2900 m altitude to the site at 5000 m, or moving antennae around the site to change the array size, presents enormous challenges; as portrayed in the television documentary Monster Moves: Mountain Mission. The solution chosen is to use two custom 28-wheel self-loading heavy haulers. The vehicles were made by in Germany and are 10 m wide, 20 m long and 6 m high, weighing 130 tonnes. They are powered by twin turbocharged 500 kW Diesel engines.

The transporters, which feature a driver's seat designed to accommodate an oxygen tank to aid breathing the thin high-altitude air, place the antennae precisely on the pads. The first vehicle was completed and tested in July 2007. Both transporters were delivered to the ALMA Operations Support Facility (OSF) in Chile on 15 February 2008.

On 7 July 2008, an ALMA transporter moved an antenna for the first time, from inside the antenna assembly building (Site Erection Facility) to a pad outside the building for testing (holographic surface measurements).

During Autumn 2009, the first three antennae were transported one-by-one to the Array Operations Site. At the end of 2009, a team of ALMA astronomers and engineers successfully linked three antennae at the 5000 m elevation observing site thus finishing the first stage of assembly and integration of the fledgling array. Linking three antennae allows corrections of errors that can arise when only two antennae are used, thus paving the way for precise, high-resolution imaging. With this key step, commissioning of the instrument began 22 January 2010.

On 28 July 2011, the first European antenna for ALMA arrived at the Chajnantor plateau, 5,000 meters above sea level, to join 15 antennae already in place from the other international partners. This was the number of antennae specified for ALMA to begin its first science observations, and was therefore an important milestone for the project. In October 2012, 43 of the 66 antennae had been set up.

Images from initial testing

By the summer of 2011, sufficient telescopes were operational during the extensive program of testing prior to the Early Science phase for the first images to be captured. These early images gave a first glimpse of the potential of the new array that will produce much better quality images in the future as the scale of the array continues to increase.

The target of the observation was a pair of colliding galaxies with dramatically distorted shapes, known as the Antennae Galaxies. Although ALMA did not observe the entire galaxy merger, the result is the best submillimeter-wavelength image ever made of the Antennae Galaxies, showing the clouds of dense cold gas from which new stars form, which cannot be seen using visible light.

Comet studies
On 11 August 2014, astronomers released studies, using the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) for the first time, that detailed the distribution of HCN, HNC, H2CO, and dust inside the comae of comets C/2012 F6 (Lemmon) and C/2012 S1 (ISON).

Planetary formation
An image of the protoplanetary disc surrounding HL Tauri (a very young T Tauri star in the constellation Taurus) was made public in 2014, showing a series of concentric bright rings separated by gaps, indicating protoplanet formation. , most theories did not expect planetary formation in such a young (100,000-1,000,000-year-old) system, so the new data spurred renewed theories of protoplanetary development. One theory suggests that the faster accretion rate might be due to the complex magnetic field of the protoplanetary disc.

Event Horizon Telescope
ALMA participated in the Event Horizon Telescope project, which produced the first direct image of a black hole, published in 2019.

Phosphine in the atmosphere of Venus
ALMA participated in the claimed detection of phosphine, a biomarker, in the air of Venus. As no known non-biological source of phosphine on Venus could produce phosphine in the concentrations detected, this would have indicated the presence of biological organisms in the atmosphere of Venus. Later reanalyses cast doubt on the detection, although later analyses confirmed the results. The detection remains controversial, and is awaiting additional measurements.

Global collaboration
The Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA), an international astronomy facility, is a partnership of Europe, North America and East Asia in cooperation with the Republic of Chile. ALMA is funded in Europe by the European Southern Observatory (ESO), in North America by the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) in cooperation with the National Research Council of Canada (NRC) and the National Science Council of Taiwan (NSC) and in East Asia by the National Institutes of Natural Sciences of Japan (NINS) in cooperation with the Academia Sinica (AS) in Taiwan. ALMA construction and operations are led on behalf of Europe by ESO, on behalf of North America by the National Radio Astronomy Observatory (NRAO), which is managed by Associated Universities, Inc (AUI) and on behalf of East Asia by the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (NAOJ). The Joint ALMA Observatory (JAO) provides the unified leadership and management of the construction, commissioning and operation of ALMA. Its current director since February 2018 is Sean Dougherty.

ALMA regional centre (ARC)
The ALMA regional centre (ARC) has been designed as an interface between user communities of the major contributors of the ALMA project and the JAO. Activates for operating the ARC have also divided into the three main regions involved (Europe, North America and East Asia). The European ARC (led by ESO) has been further subdivided into ARC-nodes located across Europe in Bonn-Bochum-Cologne, Bologna, Ondřejov, Onsala, IRAM (Grenoble), Leiden and JBCA (Manchester).

The core purpose of the ARC is to assist the user community with the preparation of observing proposals, ensure observing programs meet their scientific goals efficiently, run a help-desk for submitting proposals and observing programs, delivering the data to principal investigators, maintenance of the ALMA data archive, assistance with the calibration of data and providing user feedback.

Project detail

 * At least 50 antennae of 12 m diameter located at an elevation of 5,000 m at Llano de Chajnantor Observatory, enhanced by a compact array of 4 x 12 m and 12 x 7 m antennae (in 2006, consortium considered whether to build 50 or 64 of the 12 m ones. After a Tough Year, ALMA's Star Begins to Rise at Last High and dry)
 * Imaging instrument in all atmospheric windows between 350 μm and 10 mm
 * Array configurations from approximately 150 m to 14 km
 * Spatial resolution of 10 milliarcseconds (10−7 radians), 10 times better than the Very Large Array (VLA) and 5 times better than the Hubble Space Telescope, but still considerably lower than the resolution achieved with optical and infrared interferometers.
 * The ability to image sources arcminutes to degrees across at one arcsecond resolution
 * Velocity resolution under 50 m/s
 * Faster and more flexible imaging instrument than the Very Large Array
 * Largest and most sensitive instrument in the world at millimeter and submillimeter wavelengths
 * Point source detection sensitivity 20 times better than the Very Large Array
 * Data reduction system will be CASA (Common Astronomy Software Applications) which is a new software package based on AIPS++

Atacama Compact Array
The Atacama Compact Array, ACA, is a subset of 16 closely separated antennae that will greatly improve ALMA's ability to study celestial objects with a large angular size, such as molecular clouds and nearby galaxies. The antennae forming the Atacama Compact Array, four 12-meter antennae and twelve 7-meter antennae, were produced and delivered by Japan. In 2013, the Atacama Compact Array was named the Morita Array after Professor Koh-ichiro Morita, a member of the Japanese ALMA team and designer of the ACA, who died on 7 May 2012 in Santiago.

Work stoppage
In August 2013, workers at the telescope went on strike to demand better pay and working conditions. This is one of the first strikes to affect an astronomical observatory. The work stoppage began after the observatory failed to reach an agreement with the workers' union. After 17 days an agreement was reached providing for reduced schedules and higher pay for work done at high altitude.

In March 2020, ALMA was shut down due to the COVID-19 pandemic. It also delayed the cycle 8 proposal submission deadline and suspended public visits to the site.

On October 29, 2022, ALMA suspended observations due to a cyber attack. Observations were restarted 48 days later, on December 16, 2022.

title: Atacama Large Millimeter Array


text:
Slim Dusty discography

The discography of Slim Dusty (1927-2003) (AO, MBE), an Australian country music singer, consists of 122 records, 61 studio albums.

By March 1976, Dusty had achieved 37 gold and two platinum records. By November 1979, this Dusty had amassed 63 gold and platinum albums.

In 2018, it was reported Dusty had sold more than seven million records and earned over 70 gold and platinum album certifications.

Dusty had number singles with "A Pub with No Beer" (1958) and "Duncan" (1980). In 2000 his 100th album Looking Forward Looking Back won the ARIA Award for Best Country Album

NB: Chart positions prior to 1970 are unknown. Certifications prior to 1990 are unknown.

Chronological list of all albums

 * 1) Slim Dusty Sings (1960)
 * 2) Songs for Rolling Stones (credited to Slim Dusty and His Bushlanders) (1961)
 * 3) Along the Road of Song (1962)
 * 4) Aussie Sing Song (credited to Slim Dusty and His Bushlanders) (1962)
 * 5) Another Aussie Sing Song (credited to Slim Dusty and His Bushlanders) (1963)
 * 6) Songs in the Saddle (1963)
 * 7) Songs of Australia (1964)
 * 8) People and Places (1964) (credited to Slim Dusty and His Bushlanders)
 * 9) Australian Bush Ballads (1965)
 * 10) The Nature of the Man (1966)
 * 11) An Evening with Slim and Joy (1966) (with Joy McKean)
 * 12) Essentially Australian (1967)
 * 13) Songs My Father Sang to Me (1968)
 * 14) Songs from the Cattle Camps (1968)
 * 15) Sing Along with Dad (1968) (with Joy McKean, Anne and David)
 * 16) Cattle Camp Crooner (1969)
 * 17) Slim Dusty Encores (1969)
 * 18) Sing a Happy Song (1970)
 * 19) Songs from the Land I Love (1971)
 * 20) Glory Bound Train (1971)
 * 21) Live at Wagga Wagga (1972)
 * 22) Me and My Guitar (1972)
 * 23) Foolin' Around (1973) (with Joy McKean)
 * 24) The Best of Slim Dusty (1973)
 * 25) Live at Tamworth (1973)
 * 26) Dusty Tracks (1973)
 * 27) Tall Stories and Sad Songs (1973)
 * 28) Australiana (1974)
 * 29) Dinki Di Aussies (1974)
 * 30) The Best of Slim Dusty Volume 2 (1975)
 * 31) Lights on the Hill (1975)
 * 32) Way Out There (1975)
 * 33) Things I See Around Me (1976) (featuring The Travelling Country Band)
 * 34) Give Me the Road (1976) (featuring The Travelling Country Band)
 * 35) This Is Your Life (1976)
 * 36) Songs from Down Under (1976)
 * 37) Slim Dusty Sings His Favourite Songs (1976)
 * 38) Just Slim with Old Friends (1977) (with Barry Thornton, Paul and Colleen Trenwith and Linsday Butler)
 * 39) On the Move (1977) (with The new Travelling Country Band)
 * 40) Travellin' Country Man (1977)
 * 41) To Whom It May Concern (1978)
 * 42) The Entertainer - Live at The Sydney Opera House (1978)
 * 43) A Guitar and a Hat (1979)
 * 44) Spirit of Australia (1979)
 * 45) Slim Dusty Rarities (1979)
 * 46) Rodeo Riders (1979)
 * 47) Walk a Country Mile (1979)
 * 48) The Man Who Steadies the Lead (1980)
 * 49) Slim Dusty Family Album (1980)
 * 50) No 50 - The Golden Anniversary Album (1981)
 * 51) Where Country Is (1981)
 * 52) Vintage Album Volume 1 (1981)
 * 53) Who's Riding Old Harlequin Now (with The Travelling Country Band) (1981)
 * 54) Vintage Album Volume 2 (1982)
 * 55) On the Wallaby (1983)
 * 56) I Haven't Changed a Bit (1983)
 * 57) Trucks on the Track (1983)
 * 58) Slim Dusty Movie (Soundtrack) (1984)
 * 59) The Best of Slim Dusty (1984)
 * 60) I'll Take Mine Country Style (1985)
 * 61) Singer from Down Under (1985)
 * 62) To a Mate (1985)
 * 63) Australia Is His Name (1985)
 * 64) Stories I Wanted to Tell (1986)
 * 65) Vintage Album Volume 3 (1986)
 * 66) Beer Drinking Songs of Australia (1986)
 * 67) Cattlemen from the High Plains (1987)
 * 68) Neon City (1987)
 * 69) Country Livin' (1987)
 * 70) The Heritage Album (1988)
 * 71) Slim Dusty Sings Stan Coster (1988)
 * 72) G'day G'day! (1988)
 * 73) King of Kalgoorlie (1989)
 * 74) Vintage Album Volume 4 (1989)
 * 75) Two Singers One Song (with Anne Kirkpatrick) (1989)
 * 76) Henry Lawson and Banjo Paterson (1990)
 * 77) Coming Home (1990)
 * 78) Slim Dusty Sings Joy McKean (1991)
 * 79) Vintage Album Volume 5 (1991)
 * 80) A Land He Calls Our Own (1992)
 * 81) Live Into the '90s (1992)
 * 82) Travellin' Guitar (1992)
 * 83) That's the Song We're Singing (1992)
 * 84) Ringer from the Top End (1993)
 * 85) The Anniversary Album No. 2 (1943-1993) (1993)
 * 86) Natural High (1994)
 * 87) Country Way of Life (1995)
 * 88) Regal Zonophone Collection (1995)
 * 89) The Slim Dusty Show (Live in Townsville 1956) (1996)
 * 90) Country Classics (1996)
 * 91) 91 Over 50 (1996)
 * 92) A Time to Remember (1997)
 * 93) Talk About the Good Times (1997)
 * 94) Old Time Drover's Lament (1997)
 * 95) Makin' a Mile (1997)
 * 96) Down the Dusty Road (1998)
 * 97) The Very Best of Slim Dusty (1998)
 * 98) West of Winton (1999)
 * 99) Nighty Night (aka '99) (1999)
 * 100) Looking Forward Looking Back (2000)
 * 101) The Man Who Is Australia (2000)
 * 102) A Piece of Australia (2000)
 * 103) Ramblin' Shoes 1953-1976 (2000)
 * 104) Ramblin' Shoes Vol.2 1980-2000 (2000)
 * 105) The Men From Nulla Nulla (with Shorty Ranger) (2001)
 * 106) Travellin' Still...Always Will (with Anne Kirkpatrick) (2002)
 * 107) Columbia Lane - the Last Sessions (2004)
 * 108) Slim Dusty Live (aka Live) (2006)
 * 109) Pubs, Trucks & Plains (2007)
 * 110) Reunion (credited to The Slim Dusty Family) (2008)
 * 111) Sittin' On 80 (2009)
 * 112) I've Been There And Back Again (2011)
 * 113) 1960's Classic Albums (2012)
 * 114) 1970's Classic Albums (2012)
 * 115) 1980's Classic Albums (2012)
 * 116) 1990's Classic Albums (2012)
 * 117) The Son of Noisy Dan: A Musical Autobiography (2013)
 * 118) The Den Tapes (2015)
 * 119) Prime Movers (2016)
 * 120) Slim and I (Soundtrack) (credited to Slim Dusty and various artists)  (2020)
 * 121) Gone Fishin' (2021)
 * 122) Christmas On the Station (2022)

Charted and/or certified singles
During his career, Dusty had five top 40 hits on the Australian charts, with "A Pub With No Beer" and "Duncan" both reaching number one in 1958 and 1980 respectively.

title: Slim Dusty discography


text:
Blue Ball, Ohio

Blue Ball is a community in Butler and Warren counties, in the U.S. state of Ohio. The community was established in 1820 at the intersection of the Dixie Highway (later U.S. Route 25). Blue Ball was annexed by nearby Middletown in 1994.

Blue Ball was so named because that image appeared on its tavern's signboard for the benefit of the illiterate.

title: Blue Ball, Ohio


text:
Jan Marek Marci

Jan Marek Marci (Johannes Marcus Marci de Cronland; June 13, 1595–April 10, 1667), or Johannes Marcus Marci, was a Bohemian doctor and scientist, rector of the University of Prague, and official physician to the Holy Roman Emperors. The crater Marci on the far side of the Moon is named after him.

Career
Marci was born in Lanškroun, near the border between historical lands Bohemia and Moravia (presently parts of the Czech Republic). He studied under Athanasius Kircher, and spent most of his career as a professor of Charles University in Prague, where he served for over thirty years as a professor of medicine, eight times as Dean of the medical school and once as Rector in 1662. He was also the personal doctor of Emperors Ferdinand III and Leopold I, and distinguished himself in the defense of Prague against the Swedish armies in 1648. In October 1654 he was given the nobility title (falckrabě) "de Kronland" (anagram of "Landskron", German name for the city of Lanškroun). It is contested whether Marci was a member of the Royal Society. Some claim that he was elected as a corresponding member in 1667. Other dispute this and argue that a Fellowship was not granted due to his death in this year. Unlike in the legend spread by Jesuit order, he did not join the Jesuit order shortly before his death.

Work
Marci's studies covered the mechanics of colliding bodies, epilepsy, and the refraction of light, as well as other topics. Prior to Marci, the prevailing theory of color assumed that light was modified by the action of a medium to produce color. Most theories were based upon the assumption that color was simply a modification of light varying between whiteness and blackness. Marci preceded Isaac Newton in his belief that "Light is not changed into colors except by a certain refraction in a dense medium; and the diverse species of colors are the products of refraction." Although he thought that different colors were caused by varying angles of incidence across the 1/2 degree apparent diameter of the sun, he stated that each color was condensed or disentangled from the others after refraction into homogeneous or elementary colors of red, green, blue and purple, and that no further change in color was obtained by additional refraction of elementary colors.

Marci at some time came into possession of the Voynich Manuscript, apparently upon the death of its former owner, the alchemist Georg Baresch. He sent the book to his longtime friend Athanasius Kircher, with a cover letter dated 19 August 1666, or possibly 1665. This cover letter has remained intact and was present when the manuscript was obtained by Wilfrid Voynich.

He is remembered today by the award of an annual medal to distinguished scientists by the Slovak-Czech Spectroscopy Society.

Books
A bibliography of Marci is provided by Heinrich Wilhelm Rotermund.
 * Operatricum Idea (1635)
 * Idearum operaticum idea (1636)
 * De proportione motus seu regula sphygmica (1639)
 * Thaumantias. Liber de arcu coelesti deque colorum apparentium natura, ortu, et causis (Pragae: typis Academicis, 1648)
 * Dissertatio de natura iridis (1650)
 * De longitudine seu differentia inter duos meridianos (Praegae: Typis Georgij Schyparz, 1650)
 * Labyrinthus, in quo via ad circuli quadraturam pluribus modis exhibetur (1654)
 * Philosophia vetus restituta (1662)
 * Othosophia seu philosophia impulsus universalis (1683)

title: Jan Marek Marci


text:
Southeastern Louisiana University

Southeastern Louisiana University (Southeastern) is a public university in Hammond, Louisiana. It was founded in 1925 by Linus A. Sims as Hammond Junior College. Sims succeeded in getting the campus moved to north Hammond in 1928, when it became known as Southeastern Louisiana College. It achieved university status in 1970.

In the fall of 2019 there were 14,298 students enrolled. During the 1990s, Southeastern was one of the fastest-growing colleges in the United States. The university is the third largest in Louisiana, trailing only LSU and the University of Louisiana at Lafayette.

Southeastern's colors are green and gold, and the mascot is a lion named Roomie. Southeastern's sports teams participate in NCAA Division I (FCS for football) in the Southland Conference.

History

Hammond Junior College was created in 1925. It was managed by the Tangipahoa Parish School Board and initially offered only a teaching certificate. The college moved to the Hunter Leake estate in north Hammond in 1927 to accommodate more students. The following year, its name changed to Southeastern Louisiana College and it joined the state's educational system under the state's board of education. The campus grew in the late 1920s and 1930s with the purchase of 60 acre and the construction of McGehee Hall and a gymnasium.

Lucius McGehee Hall was built in 1935. it is the oldest building constructed by the university. McGehee Hall is on the National Register of Historic Places.

The college's curricular offerings increased significantly in 1937 when the college received approval to offer bachelor's degrees. The first ones were awarded two years later. Although Act 388 in 1938, an amendment to the 1920 Louisiana Constitution, granted the college the same legal status as other four-year colleges in the state, it did not provide for increased funding for the college.

In 1946 the college received initial accreditation from the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Subsequent enrollment growth following the end of World War II required additional expansion and construction. This included the use of two steel barracks donated to the college; these were used as dormitories and named McNeely Hall (which was demolished in 2007).

The college's curricular offerings grew again in 1960 when the college established the Division of Graduate Studies. The college awarded its first graduate degree in 1967, the Education Specialist degree. The college completed the War Memorial Student Union in the mid-1960s; it claims to be "the only student union building in the United States dedicated to alumni who died in World War II." In 1970, the institution officially became Southeastern Louisiana University.

After years of planning and fundraising, the Southeastern Louisiana University Center was constructed. An 8000-seat (more if the floor level is used) arena, the University Center hosts all home basketball games and a variety of civic, cultural, and big-name entertainment events.

Fanfare, a festival celebrating the arts, humanities, and sciences, was begun in October 1986 by university faculty. It has grown into a month-long event.

In 1996 SLU joined the University of Louisiana System.

The university began to implement screened admissions standards in the fall of 2000. The following year, Southeastern took ownership of the historic Columbia Theatre for the Performing Arts in downtown Hammond. The theater is operated by a separate foundation and presents a variety of theatrical works, concerts, and dance performances.

Southeastern Louisiana University played an important role in supporting students in the state and region in 2005. The university was not damaged by Hurricane Katrina so it was able to host nearly two thousand students from areas that were effected. A fountain was dedicated in 2007 to the victims of Hurricane Katrina and Hurricane Rita; it is the only such memorial fountain in existence.

Southeastern offers has its University Center for commencement exercises of high schools throughout the Northshore Region and actively encouraging area high school students to continue on to the university level.

Southeastern owns the Columbia Theatre for the Performing Arts in Hammond's Historic District. First opened in 1928, the Columbia was acquired by the university in the 1990s and renovated in the amount of $5.6 million. The large foyer is dedicated to the late State Senator John Hainkel, who was instrumental in obtaining the funding for the renovation.

Academics
Southeastern Louisiana University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools (SACS) to award degrees at the Associate, Baccalaureate and Master's levels. Southeastern has been accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools since 1946. Southeastern consists of five colleges with 18 academic departments and programs offering over 60 degree programs.

Southeastern's state-of-the-art Sims Library houses several important collections, including the Morrison Room, the Rayburn Collection, the Pineywoods People Exhibits, and the Center for Regional Studies.The Bill Evans archives are housed at the library.

The campus is also home for the state's sole commemoration of the governorship (1936–1939) of Richard W. Leche (1898–1965). It is a large medallion on the north exterior wall of the east side of Strawberry Stadium.

Southeastern offers nursing curricula in Hammond and Baton Rouge. In a consortium with the University of Louisiana at Lafayette Southeastern offers a master of science in nursing.

Southeastern became a doctoral-granting institution in 2005 with the inauguration of a doctor of education in higher education leadership.

Southeastern's business programs are accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business (AACSB). The Southeastern Business School is located in Garret Hall. Southeastern was the first institution in Louisiana to achieve AACSB's separate and special accreditation in accounting. Graduates of both the MBA program and the Executive MBA program are serving widely in education and industry.

In the aftermath of Tulane University's post-Katrina decision to close several engineering programs including computer engineering, Southeastern received approval from the Louisiana Board of Regents to develop an undergraduate curriculum in engineering technology within the Department of Computer Science & Industrial Technology.

Campus locations

 * Southeastern's main campus is located in Hammond in Tangipahoa Parish.
 * Baton Rouge Center, Baton Rouge. The focus is nursing education.
 * Livingston Parish Literacy and Technology Center, Walker
 * Turtle Cove Environmental Research Station, a field research and educational facility located in Manchac, Louisiana, to study the Lake Pontchartrain estuarine ecosystem.

Fraternities and sororities
There are 19 national or international social Greek letter organizations governed by three councils.

Panhellenic Council

 * Alpha Omicron Pi 1963
 * Alpha Sigma Tau 1940
 * Phi Mu
 * Sigma Sigma Sigma 1964
 * Theta Phi Alpha 1990

Interfraternity Council

 * Delta Tau Delta 1969
 * Kappa Alpha Order 1980 (not recognized by the university)
 * Kappa Sigma 1989
 * Pi Kappa Alpha (closed 2022)
 * Sigma Tau Gamma 1939
 * Tau Kappa Epsilon 1961 (Reinstalled 2022)
 * Theta Chi 2000
 * Theta Xi 1963 (Reinstalled 2023)

National Panhellenic Council

 * Alpha Kappa Alpha
 * Alpha Phi Alpha
 * Delta Sigma Theta 1976
 * Kappa Alpha Psi
 * Omega Psi Phi
 * Phi Beta Sigma
 * Sigma Gamma Rho
 * Zeta Phi Beta

Athletics
Southeastern Louisiana sponsors 16 NCAA Division I level varsity teams compete in the Southland Conference. Southeastern has several state-of-the-art athletic facilities, including an eight-lane all-weather running track completed in 2011 (see inset).

Media
Southeastern's major campus media and publications are the Lion's Roar (newspaper), KSLU (FM radio station), ByLion (weekly online publication), the Southeastern Channel (public access cable television channel), and Le Souvenir (official yearbook).

The Lion's Roar is the official newspaper of the students of Southeastern Louisiana University and has been in continuous publication since 1937. ByLion newsletter is published weekly online for faculty and staff. Le Souvenir is the student yearbook, published annually by students. Le Souvenir (French for "the memory") has been in continuous publication since 1929.

Southeastern's KSLU-FM radio station began operation on November 11, 1974, as a radio club at the university. In 1988, KSLU became the first radio station in the South to install a digital touchscreen operating system. The installation was featured in Broadcast Engineering magazine. In 1993, an emergency-situation room was added using amateur radio equipment purchased with grants from State Farm Insurance and Louisiana Power & Light (a subsidiary of Entergy). During critical times, this room is staffed by local ham operators, members of the Amateur Radio Emergency Service in the Florida Parishes area. In 1996 KSLU began broadcasting globally via the internet. A job at KSLU was the start of the media career of Robin Roberts.

The Southeastern Channel officially began July 9, 2002. It won four Telly Awards in 2007. Staff member Steve Zaffuto won two Bronze Tellys for animation of "Native Sounds" and "Current Events" promotions, and Josh Kapusinski won a first-place Silver Telly for animation and a Bronze Telly for editing the "Florida Parish Chronicles" promo. Josh Kapusinski's "Florida Parish Chronicles" promo won a 2006 Emmy Award in the Suncoast Region.

Alumni

 * Amir Abdur-Rahim, college basketball coach
 * Robert Alford, professional football player
 * Wilson Alvarez, professional football player
 * Christine Amertil, 3 time Olympian and World Championship Silver Medalist
 * Billy Andrews, professional football player
 * Kayla Ard, college basketball coach
 * Horace Belton, professional football player
 * Bryan Bennett, professional football player
 * Kirk Bullinger, professional baseball player
 * Jerry Davis, professional football player
 * Donald Dykes, professional football player
 * Bill Evans, jazz pianist
 * Calvin Favron, professional football player
 * Gavin Fingleson, South African-born Australian, Olympic baseball player
 * John Fred Gourrier, lead singer of John Fred & the Playboys (Judy in Disguise)
 * Kevin Hughes, professional football player
 * Kyle Keller, professional baseball player
 * Cole Kelley, professional football player, Walter Payton Award Winner
 * Nathaniel "Big Easy" Lofton, professional basketball player and member of the Harlem Globetrotters
 * Wade Miley, professional baseball player
 * Harlan Miller, professional football player
 * Kevin Morgan, professional baseball player and executive
 * Albie Reisz, professional football player
 * Robin Roberts, television broadcaster
 * Mac Sceroler, professional baseball player
 * Carl Schutz, professional baseball player
 * Charlie Smith, Louisiana lobbyist
 * Bryan Spears, film and television producer
 * Lynne Spears, author and mother of Bryan (above), Britney, and Jamie Lynn Spears
 * Devonte Upson, professional basketball player in the Israeli Basketball Premier League
 * Jeff Williams, professional baseball player
 * Maxie Williams, professional football player

Faculty

 * Rhett Allain, physicist and blogger
 * Alfred J. Cox
 * John L. Crain
 * Barbara Forrest
 * Tim Gautreaux
 * Michael L. Kurtz

title: Southeastern Louisiana University


text:
Erigeron

Erigeron is a large genus of plants in the composite family (Asteraceae). It is placed in the tribe Astereae and is closely related to the Old World asters (Aster) and the true daisies (Bellis). The genus has a cosmopolitan distribution, but the highest diversity occurs in North America.

Etymology
Its English name, fleabane, is shared with related plants in several other genera. It appears to be derived from a belief that the dried plants repelled fleas or that the plants were poisonous to fleas. The generic name Erigeron is derived from the Ancient Greek words ἦρι (êri) "early in the morning" and γέρων (gérōn) "old man", a reference to the appearance of the white hairs of the fruit soon after flowering or possibly alluding to the early appearance of the seed heads. The noun γέρων is masculine, so that specific epithets should have masculine endings (e.g. glaucus) to agree with it. However, authors have incorrectly used neuter endings (e.g. glaucum), because the ending -on resembles the ending of Ancient Greek neuter second declension nouns, as Augustin Pyramus de Candolle did in his 1836 account of the genus.

Description
The species may be annuals, biennials, or perennials. They are well-branched with erect stems, characterized by their numerous white, lavender, or pink ray flowers and yellow disc flowers. Some members of this group have no ray flowers. The pappus (=modified calyx, forming a crown) is shorter than in Aster and consists of bristles. The ray florets are narrower than in Aster but are longer than the involucre (=whorled bracts).

Cultivation
Many species are used as ornamental plants, with numerous named cultivars such as 'Wayne Roderick', 'Charity', 'Foersters Liebling', and 'Dunkelste aller' ("The darkest of all" with semi-double, deep-violet flower heads).

Ecology
Erigeron species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Bucculatrix angustata, Coleophora squamosella (which feeds exclusively on E. acris), Schinia intermontana, Schinia obscurata (both of which also feed exclusively on Erigeron), Schinia sexata (which feeds exclusively on E. glabellus) and Schinia villosa. Above-ground biomass of Erigeron in montane meadows decreases with decreased water availability/increased temperatures.

Selected species
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew's Plants of the World Online lists around 460 species of plants in the genus Erigeron. Selected species include:

• Erigeron abajoensis – Abajo fleabane

• Erigeron acomanus – Bluewater fleabane

• Erigeron aequifolius – Hall's fleabane, Hall's daisy

• Erigeron algidus – stalked fleabane

• Erigeron aliceae – Alice Eastwood's fleabane

• Erigeron allocotus – Big Horn fleabane

• Erigeron alpinus – alpine erigeron

• Erigeron anchana – Sierra Ancha fleabane

• Erigeron annuus – eastern daisy fleabane

• Erigeron aphanactis – rayless shaggy fleabane

• Erigeron arenarioides – sand fleabane

• Erigeron argentatus – silver fleabane

• Erigeron arisolius – Arid Throne fleabane

• Erigeron arizonicus – Arizona fleabane

• Erigeron asperugineus – Idaho fleabane

• Erigeron atticus - Greek fleabane

• Erigeron aurantiacus – orange daisy

• Erigeron aureus – alpine yellow fleabane

• Erigeron barbellulatus – shining fleabane

• Erigeron basalticus – basalt fleabane

• Erigeron bellidiastrum – western daisy fleabane

• Erigeron bigelovii – Bigelow's fleabane

• Erigeron biolettii – Biolett's erigeron

• Erigeron blochmaniae – Blochman's erigeron

• Erigeron bloomeri – Scabland fleabane

• Erigeron bonariensis - horseweed

• Erigeron breviscapus – life flower

• Erigeron breweri – Brewer's fleabane

• Erigeron caespitosus – tufted fleabane

• Erigeron canadensis – Canadian horseweed

• Erigeron canus – hoary fleabane

• Erigeron cascadensis – Cascade fleabane

• Erigeron cervinus – Siskiyou fleabane

• Erigeron chrysopsidis – golden daisy/fleabane

• Erigeron clokeyi – Clokey's fleabane

• Erigeron compactus – fern-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron compositus – cut-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron concinnus – Navajo fleabane

• Erigeron consimilis – foothill fleabane

• Erigeron coulteri – large mountain fleabane

• Erigeron cronquistii – Cronquist's fleabane

• Erigeron cuneifolius – wedge-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron darrellianus – Darrell's fleabane

• Erigeron decumbens – Willamette fleabane

• Erigeron disparipilus – white cushion fleabane

• Erigeron divergens – spreading fleabane

• Erigeron eatonii – Eaton's fleabane

• Erigeron elatior – tall fleabane

• Erigeron elegantulus – blue dwarf fleabane

• Erigeron engelmannii – Engelmann's fleabane

• Erigeron evermannii – Evermann's fleabane

• Erigeron eximius – spruce-fir fleabane

• Erigeron filifolius – thread-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron flabellifolius – fan-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron flagellaris – trailing fleabane

• Erigeron flettii – Flett's fleabane

• Erigeron foliosus – leafy fleabane

• Erigeron formosissimus – beautiful fleabane

• Erigeron garrettii – Garrett's fleabane

• Erigeron geiseri – Geiser's fleabane

• Erigeron glabellus – streamside fleabane

• Erigeron glaucus – beach aster, beach daisy, seaside daisy

• Erigeron goodrichii – Uinta Mountain fleabane

• Erigeron gracilis – quill fleabane

• Erigeron grandiflorus – large-flower fleabane

• Erigeron heliographis – Heliograph Peak fleabane

• Erigeron hessii – Hess' fleabane

• Erigeron howellii – Howell's fleabane

• Erigeron humilis – arctic-alpine fleabane

• Erigeron hyssopifolius – hyssop-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron inornatus – California rayless fleabane

• Erigeron jamaicensis – Jamaica fleabane

• Erigeron jonesii – Jones' fleabane

• Erigeron kachinensis – Kachina fleabane

• Erigeron karvinskianus – Latin American fleabane

• Erigeron kuschei – Chiricahua fleabane

• Erigeron lanatus – woolly fleabane

• Erigeron lassenianus – Mt. Lassen fleabane

• Erigeron latus – broad fleabane

• Erigeron leibergii – Leiberg's fleabane

• Erigeron leiomerus – rockslide yellow fleabane

• Erigeron lemmonii – Lemmon's fleabane

• Erigeron linearis – desert yellow fleabane

• Erigeron lobatus – lobed fleabane

• Erigeron lonchophyllus – shortray fleabane

• Erigeron maguirei – Maguire's fleabane

• Erigeron mancus – depauperate fleabane

• Erigeron maniopotamicus – Mad River fleabane

• Erigeron melanocephalus – Black-head fleabane

• Erigeron miser – starved fleabane

• Erigeron miyabeanus – Japanese fleabane

• Erigeron modestus – plains fleabane

• Erigeron muirii – Muir's fleabane

• Erigeron multiceps – Kern River fleabane

• Erigeron multiradiatus – Himalayan fleabane

• Erigeron nanus – dwarf fleabane

• Erigeron nauseosus – Marysvale fleabane

• Erigeron nematophyllus – needle-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron neomexicanus – New Mexico fleabane

• Erigeron ochroleucus – buff fleabane

• Erigeron oreganus – gorge fleabane

• Erigeron oreophilus – chaparral fleabane

• Erigeron ovinus – sheep fleabane

• Erigeron oxyphyllus – wand fleabane

• Erigeron parishii – Parish's fleabane

• Erigeron peregrinus – wandering fleabane

• Erigeron petrophilus – cliff fleabane, rock daisy

• Erigeron philadelphicus – Philadelphia fleabane/daisy

• Erigeron pinnatisectus – feather-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron piperianus – Piper's fleabane

• Erigeron piscaticus – Fish Creek fleabane

• Erigeron poliospermus – purple cushion fleabane

• Erigeron pringlei – Pringle's fleabane

• Erigeron procumbens – Corpus Christi fleabane

• Erigeron pubescens – hairy fleabane

• Erigeron pulchellus – Robin's plantain

• Erigeron pulcherrimus – basin fleabane

• Erigeron pumilus – shaggy fleabane

• Erigeron purpuratus – purple fleabane

• Erigeron pygmaeus – pygmy fleabane

• Erigeron quercifolius – oak-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron radicatus – tap-root fleabane

• Erigeron religiosus – Clear Creek fleabane

• Erigeron rhizomatus – Zuni fleabane

• Erigeron roylei – Royle's fleabane

• Erigeron rybius – royal fleabane

• Erigeron rydbergii – Rydberg's fleabane

• Erigeron salishii – Star Peak fleabane

• Erigeron salmonensis – Salmon River fleabane

• Erigeron sanctarum – saints fleabane

• Erigeron saxatilis – rock fleabane

• Erigeron sceptrifer – scepter-bearing fleabane

• Erigeron scopulinus – Winn Falls fleabane

• Erigeron sionis – Zion fleabane

• Erigeron speciosus – aspen fleabane

• Erigeron strigosus – prairie fleabane

• Erigeron subglaber – hairless fleabane

• Erigeron subtrinervis – three-nerve fleabane

• Erigeron sumatrensis – Guernsey fleabane

• Erigeron supplex – supple fleabane

• Erigeron tenellus – Rio Grande fleabane

• Erigeron tener – slender fleabane

• Erigeron tenuis – slender-leaf fleabane

• Erigeron thunbergii – Thunberg's fleabane

• Erigeron tweedyi – Tweedy's fleabane

• Erigeron uintahensis – Uinta fleabane

• Erigeron uncialis – lone fleabane

• Erigeron uniflorus – one-flowered fleabane

• Erigeron untermannii – Indian Canyon fleabane

• Erigeron ursinus – Bear River fleabane

• Erigeron utahensis – Utah fleabane

• Erigeron vagus – rambling fleabane

• Erigeron vernus – early white-top fleabane

• Erigeron versicolor – Sonora fleabane

• Erigeron vetensis – early blue-top fleabane

• Erigeron watsonii – Watson's fleabane

• Erigeron wilkenii – Wilken's fleabane

• Erigeron yukonensis – Yukon fleabane

The following names are not accepted in Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew's Plants of the World Online database:

 * Erigeron acer – blue fleabane
 * Erigeron corymbosus – long-leaf fleabane
 * Erigeron greenei
 * Erigeron hultenii – Hulten's fleabane

title: Erigeron


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God of the gaps

"God of the gaps" is a theological concept that emerged in the 19th century and revolves around the idea that gaps in scientific understanding are regarded as indications of the existence of God. This perspective has its origins in the observation that some individuals, often with religious inclinations, point to areas where science falls short in explaining natural phenomena as opportunities to insert the presence of a divine creator. The term itself was coined in response to this tendency. This theological view suggests that God fills in the gaps left by scientific knowledge, and that these gaps represent moments of divine intervention or influence.

This concept has been met with criticism and debate from various quarters. Detractors argue that this perspective is problematic as it seems to rely on gaps in human understanding and ignorance to make its case for the existence of God. As scientific knowledge continues to advance, these gaps tend to shrink, potentially weakening the argument for God's existence. Critics contend that such an approach can undermine religious beliefs by suggesting that God only operates in the unexplained areas of our understanding, leaving little room for divine involvement in a comprehensive and coherent worldview.

The "God of the gaps" perspective has been criticized for its association with logical fallacies, specifically the argument from ignorance fallacy. This fallacy asserts that just because something is not currently explained by science, it must be attributed to a supernatural cause. This type of reasoning is seen as inherently flawed and does not provide a robust foundation for religious faith. In this context, some theologians and scientists have proposed that a more satisfactory approach is to view evidence of God's actions within the natural processes themselves, rather than relying on the gaps in scientific understanding to validate religious beliefs.

Origins of the term
From the 1880s, Friedrich Nietzsche's Thus Spoke Zarathustra, Part Two, "On Priests", said that "into every gap they put their delusion, their stopgap, which they called God". The concept, although not the exact wording, goes back to Henry Drummond, a 19th-century evangelist lecturer, from his 1893 Lowell Lectures on The Ascent of Man. He chastises those Christians who point to the things that Science has not explained as presence of God — "gaps which they will fill up with God" — and urges them to embrace all nature as God's, as the work of "an immanent God, which is the God of Evolution, is infinitely grander than the occasional wonder-worker, who is the God of an old theology."

In 1933, Ernest Barnes, the Bishop of Birmingham, used the phrase in a discussion of general relativity's implication of a Big Bang:

"Must we then postulate Divine intervention? Are we to bring in God to create the first current of Laplace's nebula or to let off the cosmic firework of Lemaître's imagination? I confess an unwillingness to bring God in this way upon the scene. The circumstances which thus seem to demand his presence are too remote and too obscure to afford me any true satisfaction. Men have thought to find God at the special creation of their own species, or active when mind or life first appeared on earth. They have made him God of the gaps in human knowledge. To me the God of the trigger is as little satisfying as the God of the gaps. It is because throughout the physical Universe I find thought and plan and power that behind it I see God as the creator."

During World War II, the German theologian and martyr Dietrich Bonhoeffer expressed the concept in similar terms in letters he wrote while in a Nazi prison. Bonhoeffer wrote, for example:

"how wrong it is to use God as a stop-gap for the incompleteness of our knowledge. If in fact the frontiers of knowledge are being pushed further and further back (and that is bound to be the case), then God is being pushed back with them, and is therefore continually in retreat. We are to find God in what we know, not in what we don't know."

In his 1955 book Science and Christian Belief Charles Alfred Coulson (1910−1974) wrote:

"There is no 'God of the gaps' to take over at those strategic places where science fails; and the reason is that gaps of this sort have the unpreventable habit of shrinking."

and "Either God is in the whole of Nature, with no gaps, or He's not there at all."

Coulson was a mathematics professor at Oxford University as well as a Methodist church leader, often appearing in the religious programs of British Broadcasting Corporation. His book got national attention, was reissued as a paperback, and was reprinted several times, most recently in 1971. It is claimed that the actual phrase 'God of the gaps' was invented by Coulson.

The term was then used in a 1971 book and a 1978 article, by Richard Bube. He articulated the concept in greater detail in Man come of Age: Bonhoeffer’s Response to the God-of-the-Gaps (1978). Bube attributed modern crises in religious faith in part to the inexorable shrinking of the God-of-the-gaps as scientific knowledge progressed. As humans progressively increased their understanding of nature, the previous "realm" of God seemed to many persons and religions to be getting smaller and smaller by comparison. Bube maintained that Darwin's Origin of Species was the "death knell" of the God-of-the-gaps. Bube also maintained that the God-of-the-gaps was not the same as the God of the Bible (that is, he was not making an argument against God per se, but rather asserting there was a fundamental problem with the perception of God as existing in the gaps of present-day knowledge).

General usage
The term "God of the gaps" is sometimes used in describing the incremental retreat of religious explanations of physical phenomena in the face of increasingly comprehensive scientific explanations for those phenomena. Dorothy Dinnerstein includes psychological explanations for developmental distortions leading to a person believing in a deity, particularly a male deity.

R. Laird Harris writes of the physical science aspect of this: "The expression, 'God of the Gaps,' contains a real truth. It is erroneous if it is taken to mean that God is not immanent in natural law but is only to be observed in mysteries unexplained by law. No significant Christian group has believed this view. It is true, however, if it be taken to emphasize that God is not only immanent in natural law but also is active in the numerous phenomena associated with the supernatural and the spiritual. There are gaps in a physical-chemical explanation of this world, and there always will be. Because science has learned many marvelous secrets of nature, it cannot be concluded that it can explain all phenomena. Meaning, soul, spirits, and life are subjects incapable of physical-chemical explanation or formation."

Usage in referring to a type of argument
The term God-of-the-gaps fallacy can refer to a position that assumes an act of God as the explanation for an unknown phenomenon, which according to the users of the term, is a variant of an argument from ignorance fallacy. Such an argument is sometimes reduced to the following form: One example of such an argument, which uses God as an explanation of one of the current gaps in biological science, is as follows: "Because current science can't figure out exactly how life started, it must be God who caused life to start." Critics of intelligent design creationism, for example, have accused proponents of using this basic type of argument.
 * There is a gap in understanding of some aspect of the natural world.
 * Therefore, the cause must be supernatural.

God-of-the-gaps arguments have been discouraged by some theologians who assert that such arguments tend to relegate God to the leftovers of science: as scientific knowledge increases, the dominion of God decreases.

Criticism
The term was invented as a criticism of people who perceive that God only acts in the gaps, and who restrict God's activity to such "gaps". It has also been argued that the God-of-the-gaps view is predicated on the assumption that any event which can be explained by science automatically excludes God; that if God did not do something via direct action, that he had no role in it at all.

The "God of the gaps" argument, as traditionally advanced by scholarly Christians, was intended as a criticism against weak or tenuous faith, not as a statement against theism or belief in God.

According to John Habgood in The Westminster Dictionary of Christian Theology, the phrase is generally derogatory, and is inherently a direct criticism of a tendency to postulate acts of God to explain phenomena for which science has not (at least at present) given a satisfactory account. Habgood also states:

"It is theologically more satisfactory to look for evidence of God's actions within natural processes rather than apart from them, in much the same way that the meaning of a book transcends, but is not independent of, the paper and ink of which it is comprised."

It has been criticized by both theologians and scientists, who say that it is a logical fallacy to base belief in God on gaps in scientific knowledge. In this vein, Richard Dawkins, an atheist, dedicates a chapter of his book The God Delusion to criticism of the God-of-the-gaps argument. He noted that:

"Creationists eagerly seek a gap in present-day knowledge or understanding. If an apparent gap is found, it is assumed that God, by default, must fill it. What worries thoughtful theologians such as Bonhoeffer is that gaps shrink as science advances, and God is threatened with eventually having nothing to do and nowhere to hide."

title: God of the gaps


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Wikipedia talk:Topics

This is a bad idea that is noting more than a very laborious way to add categories to articles. These tables add nothing substantive to articles - they contain no content on the subject except its relation to other topics. A more technological solution is needed such as Magnus' cateory system that is still in testing. The area that these tables take up would be much better used by images and tables that add content to the articles. I will start removing these messages later this weekend. If somebody converts these into footers, then I will just move them to the bottom of articles. But the best solution is to link to articles, like religion, that should have such a list. --mav 06:32, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * When Mav says something "is bad" (as he has a number of times about my ideas over the last two years) it generally lacks some substantiation. If you could only say "I think" in front of "this is bad" then you might be gaining some territory. - SV (talk) 11:23, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * See discussion at Wikipedia talk:Article series. --Jiang 06:39, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I already have. And my fear that that idea would spread like a cancer seems to have been proved by the creation of very general category-like tables such as the ones on this page. Note that I don't have such a bad reaction to footers (most of which can and should be replaced as soon as we get a category system). --mav

 * Like cancer? - Only bad ideas spread like cancer, eh? Good ideas, no doubt spread like wildfire and cinnamon blossoms, eh? - SV (talk) 11:23, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I think this is a bad idea, too, along with the idea of article series. I seem to have accidentally filled up Wikipedia talk:Article series just complaining about them. I agree with mav that the best solution is to link to pages with lists on them, rather than duplicating the lists all over the place. Unfortunately, I'm not convinced that this new category system is going to be much better. Is it too late to have any say about that...? -- Oliver P. 03:23, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I didn't like the idea of article series from the start, but could not really put my finger on exactly why until now. Unfortunately they have spread all over the place and are being used in highly inappropriate ways (only for navigation and categorization). Footers are OK - at least they don't push valid content down the page. Magnus is known for almost bringing ideas to the point where they could be implemented, but often doesn't do the needed finishing work to make his features happen. From what I surmise, the issue has been how to display the results of such a category system. You will have to join WikiTech-l if you want to be part of the process. --mav

 * I agree there are some design problems - a left-right option would be a big improvement. - SV (talk) 11:23, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)~
 * Thanks for the reply. I'm not sure I like footers much more than the boxes at the top... I suppose they're easier to ignore down there, if nothing else. ;) But most of the problems I had with article series (listed on Wikipedia talk:Article series) were independent of the method of display. I don't know how many of the problems I perceived are real, though, and how many were just me being in a bad mood... I'll think about it some more. As for joining WikiTech-l, I'm not sure I could get up to speed with it all now. Maybe I should just resign myself to accepting whatever appears... -- Oliver P. 06:08, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

"The pages should not be protected and if you think they do, then you've been living in a hole for the past few weeks."I thought they were supposed to be. Sorry.

"trying to list every religion in the world in a sidebar was on obviously ridiculous (and not issue with the entire sidebar scheme), as i've demonstrated by populating the list with polythestic religions." Yes, you do know how to go to silly extremes, to prove an obvious point, mr Jiang.-SV

"Now that you've changed it, I am less strongly for deleting as I once was, but prefer that this goes as a footer since it is no different from see also lists, which are placed towards the bottom of an article." Now this is more like it - you see now the potential that wiki (collaboration made easy) can bring - perhaps we can apply this constructive collaboration idea to a task of some sort... like removing those mediawiki:articles on VFD. That would go a long way toward smoothing things over with me. Danke shein- SV (talk) 11:23, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Topics


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Talk:Chavito Guerrero III

My suggestion: Redirect this page to "Chavo Guerrero, Jr.", because that's the name this wrestler is best known as today.

title: Talk:Chavito Guerrero III


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Hawaii State Capitol

The Hawaii State Capitol is the official statehouse or capitol building of the U.S. state of Hawaii. From its chambers, the executive and legislative branches perform the duties involved in governing the state. The Hawaii State Legislature—composed of the twenty-five member Hawaii State Senate led by the President of the Senate and the fifty-one member Hawaii State House of Representatives led by the Speaker of the House—convenes in the building. Its principal tenants are the Governor of Hawaii and Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii, as well as all legislative offices and the Legislative Reference Bureau.

Located in downtown Honolulu, the Hawaii State Capitol was commissioned and dedicated by John A. Burns, second Governor of Hawaii. It opened on March 15, 1969, replacing the former statehouse, the Iolani Palace.

Monuments
Burns designed the restoration of the royal palace built by King David Kalākaua and Queen Kapiolani; as part of that effort, the Queen Liliuokalani Statue in the Capitol Mall between the capitol building and Iolani Palace was dedicated on April 10, 1982. The site was once Haimoeipo, the royal residence of Queen Dowager Kalama and later King Lunalilo, who died there.

Several other capitol building monuments decorate the statehouse grounds. The Beretania Street entrance features the Liberty Bell, a gift of the President of the United States and the United States Congress to the Territory of Hawaii in 1950 as a symbol of freedom and democracy. One of the more prominent monuments on the statehouse grounds is the Father Damien Statue—a tribute to the Roman Catholic priest who died in 1869 after sixteen years of serving patients afflicted with leprosy. Father Damien was beatified by Pope John Paul II in 1995, and canonized on October 11, 2009, by Pope Benedict XVI. His feast Day is celebrated on May 10. In Hawaiʻi, it is celebrated on the day of his death, April 15.

The Eternal Flame on Beretania Street is a metal sculptured torch that burns endlessly as a tribute to all men and women from Hawaii who served with the Air Force, Army, Coast Guard, Marines, and Navy in the major and minor conflicts in which the United States was engaged. Likewise, the Korean-Vietnam War Memorial pays tribute to service members who died in those conflicts. Dedicated on July 24, 1994 by Benjamin J. Cayetano, fifth Governor of Hawaii, the monument consists of 768 black marble pedestals engraved with the names of 312 service members of the Vietnam War. A larger marble slab bears a Hawaiian language inscription of remembrance.

Architecture
The Hawaii State Capitol is an American adaptation of the Bauhaus style termed "Hawaiian international architecture". It was designed by a partnership between the firms of Belt, Lemon and Lo (Architects Hawaii Ltd.), and John Carl Warnecke and Associates. Unlike other state capitols modeled after the United States Capitol, the Hawaii State Capitol's distinct architectural features symbolize various natural aspects of Hawaii. Among them:

 * The building is surrounded by a reflecting pool, symbolizing the Pacific Ocean.
 * The two legislative chambers are cone-shaped, symbolizing volcanoes that formed the Hawaiian Islands.
 * The columns around the perimeter of the building have shapes resembling royal palm trees. There are eight columns in four rows at either side of the building, representing the eight main islands of Hawaii; sets of eight items appear in other places inside and along the outside of the building.
 * The Capitol is built with an open-air design, allowing sun, wind, and rain to enter; the central atrium opens to the sky and rainbows can sometimes be seen inside the building when it rains.
 * Four kukui nut trees (Hawaii's state tree) are a numerical reference to the four main counties in the State of Hawaii and the four major Hawaiian gods (Kukailimoku, Kane, Lono, and Kanaloa). Sets of four items appear in many other places in the building.
 * When standing in the center of the structure, the chandeliers from both legislative chambers, which represent the sun and moon, can be seen through the glass walls, while the area that is normally reserved for a rotunda in most capitol buildings is left open to the sky. It is said that the sky is Hawaii's capitol dome.
 * German-American artist Otto Piene designed the chandeliers, which are kinetic sculptures made of small objects. The Sun chandelier in the House is made of dozens of gold-plated globes, and the Moon chandelier in the Senate is made of 620 white chambered nautilus shells.

Reflecting pool algae issue
From the time the Capitol was completed in 1969, the reflecting pool has had a persistent algae growth problem, due partly to the fact the pool is fed with brackish water from on-site wells. Attempts by the state to fix the problem included introducing tilapia fish into the pool and installing an ozone treatment system. The state currently has the pool lining scrubbed manually with enzymes added to the water to combat growth. Some Capitol regulars say the algae growth has come to represent the pollution of the Pacific Ocean, in an ironic twist of the original symbolic meaning of the pool.

title: Hawaii State Capitol


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User:Proxy blocker

This open proxy port scanner was in operation from March 2004 to January 2005.

If your IP address is currently blocked from editing Wikipedia and you are certain that your computer has been secured, then please contact a Wikimedia developer or the Wikitech-l mailing list to unblock you. Do not request unblocking through the usual means as Adminstrators do not have superuser access to the wikimedia.org servers where Proxy blocker's block list is located.

de:Benutzer:Proxy blocker nl:Gebruiker:Proxy blocker pl:Wikipedysta:Proxy blocker sv:Användare:Proxy blocker zh:User:Proxy blocker

title: User:Proxy blocker


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List of dukedoms in the peerages of Britain and Ireland

This article lists all dukedoms, extant, extinct, dormant, abeyant, or forfeit, in the peerages of England, Scotland, Great Britain, Ireland and the United Kingdom.

Introduction of dukedoms into England
Edward III of England created the first three dukedoms of England (Cornwall, Lancaster, and Clarence). His eldest son Edward, the Black Prince, was created Duke of Cornwall, the first English Duke, in 1337. Two weeks after the Prince's death the dukedom was recreated for his 9-year-old son Richard of Bordeaux, who would eventually succeed his grandfather as Richard II. The Dukes of Cornwall are not numbered as part of their style.

The second dukedom was originally given to Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster, but upon his death was re-created for the 3rd son of Edward III, John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster. On that same day Edward III also created a dukedom for his second son, Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence. When Richard II reached majority, he created dukedoms for his last two uncles on the same day: Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, and Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester.

Originally, dukedoms were created for those who had royal blood, either by descent or marriage (see below, list of surnames). By the end of the Middle Ages, traditionally marked by the Battle of Bosworth Field on 22 August 1485, a total of 31 dukedoms (with 16 distinct titles) had been created; yet only those of Cornwall, Lancaster and Suffolk remained. The Duchy of Cornwall was permanently associated with the heir apparent, and the Duchy of Lancaster became Crown property.

The first Duke of Norfolk had died in the battle of Bosworth Field in 1485. Three decades later the Dukedom of Norfolk was restored to his son by Henry VIII. Thus when Elizabeth I came to power the only living duke was Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk. Elizabeth did not create any dukes, and she beheaded Thomas Howard at the age of 36 for plotting to wed Mary, Queen of Scots and overthrow her. By 1572, this class of peerage was extinct, and there were no dukes in the last 30 years of her reign. The extant dukedoms in the Peerage of England were all created (or restored, in the cases of Norfolk and Somerset) in the Stuart period, beginning with James I's re-creation of the dukedom of Buckingham in 1623 for George Villiers.

With the possible exception of the Duchy of Cornwall and the Duchy of Lancaster (which come with great territories attached), all ducal titles in England have been created and held by royal patent or charter, and not by tenure. As a result, the rules of succession to a ducal title are usually explicitly laid out in the patent, and are not necessarily consistent, nor do they coincide with common inheritance laws on property. For instance, an heir does not usually inherit the ducal title by virtue of being the heir of the last holder, but by virtue of descent from the first person to whom the title was given, so a full-blood daughter of a duke may be superseded by a half-blood male relative who can prove direct descent from the first holder.

Dukedoms in the Peerage of England, 1337–1707
(continues below Scotland as Dukedoms of Great Britain)

Dukedoms in the Peerage of Great Britain, 1707–1801
(continues below Ireland as Dukedoms of the United Kingdom)


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Character structure

A character structure is a system of secondary traits manifested in the specific ways that an individual relates and reacts to others, to various kinds of stimuli, and to the environment. A child whose nurture and/or education cause them to have conflict between legitimate feelings, living in an illogical environment and interacting with adults who do not take the long-term interests of the child to heart will be more likely to form these secondary traits. In this manner the child blocks the unwanted emotional reaction that would have normally occurred. Although this may serve the child well while in that dysfunctional environment, it may also cause the child to react in inappropriate ways, by developing alternate ways in which the energy compulsively surfaces, ways damaging to his or her own interests, when interacting with people in a completely independent environment. Major trauma that occurs later in life, even in adulthood, can sometimes have a profound effect on character. See post-traumatic stress disorder. However, character may also develop in a positive way according to how the individual meets the psychosocial challenges of the life cycle (Erikson).

Freud
Freud's first paper on character described the anal character consisting of stubbornness, stinginess, and extreme neatness. He saw this as a reaction formation to the child's having to give up pleasure in anal eroticism. The positive version of this character is the conscientious, inner directed obsessive. Freud also described the erotic character as both loving and dependent. And the narcissistic character as the natural leader, aggressive and independent because of not internalizing a strong super-ego.

Fromm
For Erich Fromm character develops as the way in which an individual structures modes of assimilation and relatedness. The character types are almost identical to Freud's but Fromm gives them different names: receptive, hoarding, and exploitative. Fromm adds the marketing type to describe individuals who continually adapt the self to succeed in the new service economy. For Fromm, character types can be productive or unproductive. Fromm notes that character structures develop in each individual to enable him or her to interact successfully within a given society and adapt to its mode of production and social norms (see social character), and may be very counter-productive when used in a different society.

Fromm got his ideas about character structure from two associates/students of Freud, Sándor Ferenczi and Wilhelm Reich. It is Reich who really developed the concept from Ferenczi, and added to it an exploration of character structure as it applies to body structure and development as well as mental life.

Reich
For Wilhelm Reich, character structures are based upon blocks—chronic, unconsciously held muscular contractions—against awareness of feelings. The blocks result from trauma: the child learns to limit their awareness of strong feelings as their needs are thwarted by parents who meet cries for fulfillment with neglect or punishment. Reich argued for five basic character structures, each with its own body type developed as a result of the particular blocks created due to deprivation or frustration of the child's stage-specific needs:

 * 1) The schizoid structure, which could result in full blown schizophrenia: this is the result of not feeling wanted by hostile parents, even in the womb. There is a fragmentation of both body and mind with this structure.
 * 2) The oral structure is an adaptation to an early wound of deprivation around the basic need for nourishment from birth to approx. 18 months. The oral structure as an adult will sometimes adopt an attitude of "you do it for me," as a reaction to not having been nurtured when young. At other times the defense is one of compensation where the individual denies their own needs in the belief that needing will result in abandonment. The person loses touch with their healthy natural assertion and aggression and energy tends to collapse and be difficult to sustain. The body adopts a posture where shoulders are usually hunched which contracts the chest and limits breath and therefore the amount of energy the body takes in. The head juts forward,  This posture limits energy flow to the arms which then feel weak. The body of the oral structure defends against receiving and thus confirms the belief that they cannot get their needs met, which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy unless the defense can be challenged in both mind and body and the individual can mobilize their energy, stand on their own two feet and own the right to need and to receive.
 * 3) The psychopath or upwardly displaced structure: this wound, around the age of 3, is around the parent manipulating, emotionally molesting the child by seducing them into feeling "special" for the parent's own narcissistic needs. The child resolves to never again permit themselves to be vulnerable, and so decides to instead manipulate and overpower others with their will. The body is well developed above, weak below, as the psychopath pulls away from the ground and attempts to overpower from above. This structure has variations, depending on the admixture with prior wounds: the overbearing is the pure type, the submissive is mixed with oral, the withdrawing, with schizoid.
 * 4) The masochist structure: this wound occurs when the parent refuses to allow the child to say "no," the first step in setting boundaries. The child seeks relief from the rage that builds up underneath bounded muscle and fat, by provoking punishment from others.
 * 5) The rigid: this wound occurs around the time of the first puberty, the age of 4. The child's sexuality is not affirmed by the parent, but instead shamed or denied. This structure seeks to prove to the parents and others that the child is worthy of love. The rigid structure is often beautifully harmonious, but there is a physical split around the diaphragm between heart and pelvis: love and sex. This person has trouble with being aware of their emotions, which are strong, yet buried. The rigid structure has many substructures, depending on the exact nature of the wound, the admixture with other pre-rigid (oedipal) structures, and the gender: in women, the masculine aggressive, hysterical, and the alternating; in men, the phallic narcissist, the compulsive, and the passive feminine.

While each of these structures has blocks, and these blocks to some degree resemble "armour", it is only the rigid structure that truly has what Reich called "character armour": a system of blocks all over the body. Depending on which version of rigid one is, the rigid character possesses either 'plate' (i.e. clanky) or 'mesh' (much more flexible) character armour.

title: Character structure