text:
Talk:Abu Musab al-Zarqawi

Full Transcript Of Zarkawi Video
In the name of Allah the most Gracious the most Merciful

Mujahedeen Shura Council of Iraq

Then fight in Allah\'s cause thou are held responsible only for thyself and rouse the believers. It may be that Allah will restrain the fury of the disbelievers; for Allah is the strongest in might and in punishment (Alnisa’a:84)

O’ Banner’s holders stand, Where are the lions of Anbar? Where are the lions of Salah Aldeen? Where are Baghdad’s men? Where are the knights of Ninawah and the champions of Dyalah? Where are the courageous of Kurdustan? Where are you the lions of Monotheism?

Be fully aware of the apostate media sources.

I swear by Allah, that they have nothing with us except the sharp swords, and between them and us will only be the frightened nights.

I swear by Allah that America will be defeated in Iraq.

(Anasheed)

(Field commander is talking):

As for the developing and manufacturing, the brothers, by the grace of Allah have developed and improved two missiles in Alanbar province in particular.

(When missile was fired): Against the make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies, and others besides, whom ye may not know, but whom Allah doth know. (Alanfal:60)

(Anasheed)

A message for Mankind

(Sheikh Osama) I focus this call to the young men of Islam; gather together in fighting the crusades and the Jews, and remember Allah at all times repeatedly, by Allah, it’s either victory or martyrdom. No one will surpass his fate, and he who ever turns out to be a martyr, his sole will freely be flying around the paradise as it wishes, close to the throne of Allah; what a great difference between being near his family and/or near his lord. O’ young men of Islam every where, especially those near the battles, where the obligation is further; O’ young men in Aljazeera, Egypt, and Sham; O’ siblings of Salah Aldeen, O’ knights of Mohammad Alfateh, continue your support to your brothers in Iraq, whereby the gravest of the wars is continues, and its fire is on the rise, the crusades have invaded them, killed thousands of them, and abducted thousands, whishing to eliminate them. And they are instead, by the grace of Allah, fighting the crusades patiently, giving up all they’ve got for the sake of Allah and in order to defend themselves. May Allah be with them and those who support them.

(sheikh Abu Musaab) All praise be to Allah granting might to his religion with his victory, lowering the infidels with his supremacy. Sorting circumstances by his order; Plotting for the disbelievers with his arrangement; He who alternated the days with his divine justice. And peace be upon who Allah raised the minaret of Islam with his sword.

My treasured nation, I am conversing to you not with falsehoods, hoping to find with you open ears and prudent hearts, for the honest man does not deceive his family.

The crusade enemy, when invaded Iraq, meant to control this nation and reinforce the Zionist state, from the Nile to the Euphrates. However, Allah granted your sons the Mujahedeen by standing firm before the strongest crusaders attack to the Islamic land. They stood strong against this attack for over three years, disbursing their soles and their wealth. They stood against this massive military, media, and economical attack not for anything except to defend you, your religion, your sons, and your honor. Allah dispersed the enemies’ gathering and their defeat became clearer to who ever has eyesight and prudent heart. Here are your sons, by the grace of Allah, indulging into one battle after another, and attack after attack; they by the will of Allah hold the upper hand in the battle field now.

If it wasn’t for the continuous and ongoing media muting, you would’ve seen the astonishing. By Allah it’s the championships and the victories coming to us, and you my nation should thank Allah for this great bounty, that Allah prepared a group of your sons the Mujahedeen defending you and protecting your honor, otherwise the Sunnah in Iraq would’ve been in between a revulsion crusade and a betraying Shiite. And the women of the Sunnah would’ve been on the laps of the revulsion crusades and the betraying Shiites; Abu Ghraib and the interior ministry jails remain memorable.

My treasured nation, We are in Iraq a stone throw from the Masjed Alaqsa, we fight in Iraq and our eyes are on Alqsa which will never be freed except with a guiding Quraan and a prevailing sword; “but enough is thy Lord to guide and to help” (Alforqan:31)

The history and experience had showed that you have no one after Allah except your Mujahedeen sons; they are your protection, your strong shield, and your beating heart. They become happy to your happiness and sad to your sadness; they stay up all night for your protection and have jealousy for you. Their hearts burst in sorrow for your state, and their tongues never stop chanting: O’ Allah elevate the state of humiliation and defeat away from my nation, O’ Allah bring back victory to my nation.

As for the American administration, and to its chairman the cross banner’s holder Bush, we say to him and to whoever is swimming in his space from the Jews and the crusades and form the Shiites and others, we say that you will never be safe in the Islamic land, and by Allah you will never feel secured so long we still have a beating nerve and a moving eyelash. Previously, our leader Osama Bin Laden may Allah protect him, had offered you a long truce. It could’ve been better for you and those who are with you if you’d have accepted, but your arrogance pushed you to refuse. Here you are today, running from east to west trying to find solutions “will not stand except as stands one whom the evil one by his touch hath driven to madness” (Albaqarah:275). You turned to be a grave liar, betraying your own people that everything is under control, and then soon everyone finds out about your lies and so on. You became like the one who’s treating himself from alcohol by alcohol. You were never at any time truthful with yourself or your people, although it’s found some truth in your great grandparents you are fully detached from. Why don’t you show the truth about your soldiers and their inferior state of struggle? Why don’t you tell your people about the continuous suicides amongst your soldiers? Why don’t you tell your people that your soldiers can never go to sleep unless they take the hallucinating and drugging pills? So they become like cattle driven by your war generals, the Neozionists, to the killing fate. Why don’t you tell your people about the congregational escape and the defiance among your troops?

Listen you grave liar and insolent one; your dreams will never come true, our blood and bodies are between you and your imaginings. And what is coming your way is much greater than what passed by the will of Allah.

The game of rotten democracy that you brought to Iraq, after you gave hope to people about freedom, happiness, and the economical/personal security; all of these lies went with the winds and will never come back by the will of Allah.

There we see you today, trying with all what you got to bring together the clusters, the parties, the partners from your tails to bring about a handicapped government that it might pull you out from your crucial pitfall.

We believe that any government you place in Iraq, whether be it from the betrayal Shiites or Zionist Kurds, or your tails from the Sunnah; it will only be an apostate government that will aid the crusades, and it came only to be a poisoned dagger stabbed in the heart of the Islamic Nation.

America learned today that its planes, tanks, momentous troops, and its tails from the Shiites army will never be able to finalize the battle with Mujahedeen. Therefore, it’s trying to surround the Jehad by pushing its tails from those who are counted to Sunnah, those who accepted to play the role and be a rope that tightens around the Sunnah’s necks and pull the Americans from their defeat. They used those who use the Islamic slogans as a mask to spread their masters’ propaganda on the importance of organizing the military and the police, and confuse the Muslims with their mixed messages injecting poison in honey, forgetting intentionally or not that every occupier through out history used a cover up face from the occupied to use them in order to establish a solid base and embezzle the wealth of the country and its people. Allah has said: “And he amongst you that turns to them (for friendship) is of them” (5:51) That is by constituting for this life and the hereafter. And Allah has said: “for Pharaoh and Haman and (all) their hosts were Men of sin” (28:8)

Therefore, we repeat our warning to whoever is trying to reorganize and spread the military and the police forces, which was established only to be a tool for the occupier in their bigger plan, and to implement laws other than the law of Allah. Be extremely aware, those who join these apostate forces have nothing with us except the sharp swords, and between them and us will be nothing except grave days and nights. Allah has said;” Those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who reject faith fight in the cause of evil: so fight ye against the friends of Satan: feeble indeed is the cunning of Satan” (4:76)

Having said the previous, and having mentioned the defeat of the enemy and his paraphernalia. The enemy is trying today to seduce two kinds of people to the alleged parliamentary game to harvest the fruits of the Mujahedeen whom only trying to make the word of Allah prevails. The first kind of which is the one trying to attach oneself with the Mujahedeen, although they never lived the Mujahedeen life nor they ever supported them at the occupation time. The second of which is those who had at the beginning the honor of fighting the crusades, however what counts is the end; their efforts won’t be accepted by the law of Islam unless they strive with action to make the word of Allah prevails, using what Allah lawfully guided us with, the clean means, not by using evil parliaments striving to have the word of Allah mixed with other man made constitutions and laws. The aim does not justify the means here. Although these two kinds, and whoever follows their footsteps, allege that they are trying with these parliaments to implement the law of Allah. However, the actions and the historical experiences oppose their myth. Anyone that is following the political map in Iraq knows that the majority of the parliaments’ members are from the Shiites and the atheists of Kurds and Sunnah, not to mention those of the mixed motion believes. Therefore, the heavy side in the balance of the parliaments will always be in the hand of evil. Allah has said: “beware of them lest they beguile thee from any of that (teaching) which Allah hath sent down to thee” (5:49)

And Allah has said: “Fast thou not turned thy vision to those who declare that they believe in the revelations that have come to thee and to those before thee? their (real) wish is to resort together for judgment (in their disputes) to the evil one, though they were ordered to reject him but Satan\'s wish is to lead them astray far away (from the right” (4:60)

As for you patient truthful Mujahedeen, may Allah accept from you and us the best of deeds, and may Allah bless your Jehad. You were able by the will of Allah and his support to stop this crusades’ attack and you’ve bounded him with injuries. Thus, continue your Jehad and operations, and elevate your hits, it’s only the sign of victory and it’s the last breath of the cross worshipers in the land of two rivers. The low fighting self-esteem of the crusades’ soldiers is an only obvious sign in Iraq. Therefore, renew your intentions, and correct yourselves, and carry on together against your enemy. Your enemy is uncovered, by the will of Allah, weakened, unprotected, and broken in pieces. Do not give him a chance to take its breath, continue your stabbings one after the other, O’ Banner’s holders stand, Where’s are the lions of Anbar? Where are the lions of Salah Aldeen? Where are Baghdad’s men? Where are the knights of Ninawah and the champions of Dyalah? Where are the courageous of Kurdustan? Where are you the lions of Monotheism? O’ siblings of Khaled and Muthananh, Saad and Meqdad and Salah Aldeen. Where are the immigrants? Where are the supporters? Where are the people of Surat Altawbah and Alanfal? Where are the people of Alfath and Alqital?

O’ leaders of this nation; who is for the crying women, who is for the jailed dignified women, who is for the purified women in the jails of the Shiites. O’ Allah, there is no life except the life of the hereafter, O’ Allah grant victory to immigrants and their supporters.

Be very aware from the embezzlers, with their masters the crusades, trying to surround you. Be aware and extremely aware from putting down your weapons, and then you will harvest nothing but the defeat, beat and crush in this life and the hereafter. You were always supplicating to Allah day and night to ease the way for you to join the Jehad in Afghanistan and Chechnya or other places. After that, Allah chose you for the trade of Jehad at your own land, and opened for you the doors of paradise. Be extremely aware of closing these blessed doors, be aware “And be not like a woman who breaks into untwisted strands the yarn which she has spun, after it has become strong”(16:92)

Do not let the trade of Jehad depart your land; otherwise you will be disgraced and you’ll be only ruled by the scum; “they set you hard tasks and punishments, slaughtered your sons and let your women folk live” (2:49)

“If ye turn back (from the Path), He will substitute in your stead another people; then they would not be like you” (47:38)

Finally, I glad tied the nation by establishing the Mujahedeen Shura Council of Iraq, which will be by the grace and will of Allah as the kernel for the establishment of an Islamic State, in which, the word of Allah prevails. All praise be to Allah, the efforts are being joined, and the hands are being extended and shaken for the obedience of Allah and his messenger and the Jehad in the cause of Allah. And this Council will be, by the will of Allah, an umbrella for every truthful Mujahed. I am honored to be one member of this blessed Council under its blessed leadership. At the same time remaining the Ameer ( leader) of the Alqaeda Organization in the land of two rivers ( Iraq).

The servant of Jehad and Mujahedeen, glorifying Allah, your brother Abu Musaab Alzarqawi. Friday, 23 Rabii Awal 1427, April 21, 2006.

All praise be to Allah.

(Anasheed)

(One of the commanders in Anbar speaking)

In the name of Allah the most gracious the most merciful, and peace be upon our prophet Muhammad his family and companions.

I welcome our beloved sheikh in the land of Anbar, the land of Jehad. And we ask Allah to keep it a thorn in the eyes of the disbelievers.

I would like to inform about the great victory in the battles of Ramadi, killing many of the disbelievers and taking over the center and headquarter of the infidels. Taking over the city for several days, preventing the crusades from even coming near it. And this operation was a clear message against the visit by the infidels’ ambassadors ( Rice and Straw). In general, the self esteem of the Mujahedeen is high, in opposite to the infidels whom are always in continuous deterioration.

As for the developing and manufacturing, the brothers, by the grace of Allah have developed and improved two missiles in Alanbar province in particular. , that will be used soon, one has the ability to travel 40km with a 50kg warhead, here’s a picture of it…

Then fight in Allah\'s cause thou are held responsible only for thyself and rouse the believers. It may be that Allah will restrain the fury of the disbelievers; for Allah is the strongest in might and in punishment (Alnisa’a:84)

And the other is anti armored vehicles, is carried on the shoulder and has been internally modified to penetrate armored vehicles, and here’s a picture of it.

(Anasheed)

فبما رحمة من الله لنت لهم ولو كنت فظا غليظ القلب لانفضوا من حولك فاعف عنهم واستغفر لهم وشاورهم في الأمر فإذا عزمت فتوكل على الله إن الله يحب المتوكلين}

“It is part of the mercy of Allah that dost deal gently with them. Wert thou severe or harsh hearted, they would have broken away from about thee: so pass over (their faults), and ask for (Allah\'s) forgiveness them in affairs (of moment). Then when thou hast taken a decision, put thy trust in Allah. For Allah loves those who put their trust (in him” (3:159)

{إن ينصركم الله فلا غالب لكم وإن يخذلكم فمن ذا الذي ينصركم من بعده وعلى الله فليتوكل المؤمنون} If Allah helps you, non can overcome you: if he forsakes you, who is there, after that, that can help you? in God, then, let believers put their trust (3:160)

Sheikh Ayman Alzahahre’s voice: O’ Islamic Nation, the turf of Iraq now is the most dangerous field of Jehad in this century. Therefore, the nation must support the courageous Mujahedeen that are fighting in the very forefront defending the honor of Islam and its dignity.

(Anasheed)

Sheikh Abu Musaab: by Allah, American will be defeated in Iraq, by the will of Allah, and it’ll leave Iraq humiliated, crushed, and defeated by the will of Allah.

Do not forget us from your supplications.

Your brothers in the Media Committee. __________________ http://www.w-n-n.com/showthread.php?t=12069

Zarqawi tribe
Zarqawi tribe In Jordan more one million

Sometime in 2001, Zarqawi was arrested in Jordan but was soon released. He was later convicted in absentia and sentenced to death for plotting the attack on the Radisson SAS Hotel
His arrest in 2001 is merely an allegation and there are no contemporary press accounts of this arrest and release, and no signs of a trial (source http://www.historycommons.org/context.jsp?item=complete_timeline_of_the_2003_invasion_of_iraq_188&scale=1#complete_timeline_of_the_2003_invasion_of_iraq_188). His link to the attack on the Radisson comes from an Associated Press article from 4 April 2001 which stated that Jordanian officials had two new suspects for the bombing of the Radisson (see Flat Earth News by Nick Davies) but the Jordanians had already tried 28 people and sentenced 6 of them to death 7 months before this press release and Zarqawi wasn't mentioned once. He was convicted in absentia but to 15 years in prison, not death.

The training camp specialized in poisons and explosives
This is directly contradicted by Luke Harding of the Observer who reached the camp and reported "The terrorist factory was nothing of the kind - more a dilapidated collection of concrete outbuildings at the foot of a grassy, sloping hill. Behind the barbed wire and a courtyard strewn with broken rocket parts, are a few empty concrete houses. There is a bakery. There is no sign of chemical weapons anywhere." ... Harding concludes that Powell's allegation is "clearly little more than cheap hyperbole". (source http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/feb/09/iraq1). Troops went to this site after the invasion of Iraq and found nothing but old rat poison.

Semi-protected edit request on 3 April 2023
Can we update the photo of this terrorist to his wanted poster? The poster has the current pic as well as two of his disguises, http://media1.s-nbcnews.com/i/msnbc/Components/Slideshows/_production/ss_060608_zarqawi_/ss_060608_Zarqawi_07.jpg Long2181998 (talk) 03:36, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: The current image is more relevant than the one you provide - the lead image in a biography should be only an image of the subject. Tollens (talk) 03:54, 3 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I mean this is literally the current image of the subject in addition to his disguises to evade prosecutions? Idk how the current image is better when the new image has both the current image + latest updates? Long2181998 (talk) 17:38, 3 October 2023 (UTC)
 * It isn't an image of him, it's an image of a poster. Per MOS:IMAGERELEVANCE, Images should look like what they are meant to illustrate - he does not look like a poster. Tollens (talk) 18:44, 3 October 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 30 June 2023
B403 Civil Affairs, CAT from Al Kisik interpreter got the first call on where Zarqāwī and his family where located Ejoseph234 (talk) 06:01, 30 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  — Paper9oll  (🔔 • 📝)  08:11, 30 June 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 30 June 2023 (2)
Zarqāwī was first reported to us forces from CAT B403 interpreter from AL Kisik Ejoseph234 (talk) 06:08, 30 June 2023 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate.  — Paper9oll  (🔔 • 📝)  08:12, 30 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abu Musab al-Zarqawi


text:
Intermediate filament

Intermediate filaments (IFs) are cytoskeletal structural components found in the cells of vertebrates, and many invertebrates. Homologues of the IF protein have been noted in an invertebrate, the cephalochordate Branchiostoma.

Intermediate filaments are composed of a family of related proteins sharing common structural and sequence features. Initially designated 'intermediate' because their average diameter (10 nm) is between those of narrower microfilaments (actin) and wider myosin filaments found in muscle cells, the diameter of intermediate filaments is now commonly compared to actin microfilaments (7 nm) and microtubules (25 nm). Animal intermediate filaments are subcategorized into six types based on similarities in amino acid sequence and protein structure. Most types are cytoplasmic, but one type, Type V is a nuclear lamin. Unlike microtubules, IF distribution in cells shows no good correlation with the distribution of either mitochondria or endoplasmic reticulum.

Structure
The structure of proteins that form intermediate filaments (IF) was first predicted by computerized analysis of the amino acid sequence of a human epidermal keratin derived from cloned cDNAs. Analysis of a second keratin sequence revealed that the two types of keratins share only about 30% amino acid sequence homology but share similar patterns of secondary structure domains. As suggested by the first model, all IF proteins appear to have a central alpha-helical rod domain that is composed of four alpha-helical segments (named as 1A, 1B, 2A and 2B) separated by three linker regions.

The central building block of an intermediate filament is a pair of two intertwined proteins that is called a coiled-coil structure. This name reflects the fact that the structure of each protein is helical, and the intertwined pair is also a helical structure. Structural analysis of a pair of keratins shows that the two proteins that form the coiled-coil bind by hydrophobic interactions. The charged residues in the central domain do not have a major role in the binding of the pair in the central domain.

Cytoplasmic IFs assemble into non-polar unit-length filaments (ULFs). Identical ULFs associate laterally into staggered, antiparallel, soluble tetramers, which associate head-to-tail into protofilaments that pair up laterally into protofibrils, four of which wind together into an intermediate filament. Part of the assembly process includes a compaction step, in which ULF tighten and assume a smaller diameter. The reasons for this compaction are not well understood, and IF are routinely observed to have diameters ranging between 6 and 12 nm.

The N-terminus and the C-terminus of IF proteins are non-alpha-helical regions and show wide variation in their lengths and sequences across IF families. The N-terminal "head domain" binds DNA. Vimentin heads are able to alter nuclear architecture and chromatin distribution, and the liberation of heads by HIV-1 protease may play an important role in HIV-1 associated cytopathogenesis and carcinogenesis. Phosphorylation of the head region can affect filament stability. The head has been shown to interact with the rod domain of the same protein.

C-terminal "tail domain" shows extreme length variation between different IF proteins.

The anti-parallel orientation of tetramers means that, unlike microtubules and microfilaments, which have a plus end and a minus end, IFs lack polarity and cannot serve as basis for cell motility and intracellular transport.

Also, unlike actin or tubulin, intermediate filaments do not contain a binding site for a nucleoside triphosphate.

Cytoplasmic IFs do not undergo treadmilling like microtubules and actin fibers, but are dynamic.

Biomechanical properties
IFs are rather deformable proteins that can be stretched several times their initial length. The key to facilitate this large deformation is due to their hierarchical structure, which facilitates a cascaded activation of deformation mechanisms at different levels of strain. Initially the coupled alpha-helices of unit-length filaments uncoil as they're strained, then as the strain increases they transition into beta-sheets, and finally at increased strain the hydrogen bonds between beta-sheets slip and the ULF monomers slide along each other.

Types
There are about 70 different human genes coding for various intermediate filament proteins. However, different kinds of IFs share basic characteristics: In general, they are all polymers that measure between 9–11 nm in diameter when fully assembled.

Animal IFs are subcategorized into six types based on similarities in amino acid sequence and protein structure:

Types I and II – acidic and basic keratins

These proteins are the most diverse among IFs and constitute type I (acidic) and type II (basic) IF proteins. The many isoforms are divided in two groups:
 * epithelial keratins (about 20) in epithelial cells (image to right)
 * trichocytic keratins (about 13) (hair keratins), which make up hair, nails, horns and reptilian scales.

Regardless of the group, keratins are either acidic or basic. Acidic and basic keratins bind each other to form acidic-basic heterodimers and these heterodimers then associate to make a keratin filament.

Cytokeratin filaments laterally associate with each other to create a thick bundle of ~50 nm radius. The optimal radius of such bundles is determined by the interplay between the long range electrostatic repulsion and short range hydrophobic attraction. Subsequently, these bundles would intersect through junctions to form a dynamic network, spanning the cytoplasm of epithelial cells.

Type III
There are four proteins classed as type III intermediate filament proteins, which may form homo- or heteropolymeric proteins.
 * Desmin IFs are structural components of the sarcomeres in muscle cells and connect different cell organells like the desmosomes with the cytoskeleton.
 * Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is found in astrocytes and other glia.
 * Peripherin found in peripheral neurons.
 * Vimentin, the most widely distributed of all IF proteins, can be found in fibroblasts, leukocytes, and blood vessel endothelial cells. They support the cellular membranes, keep some organelles in a fixed place within the cytoplasm, and transmit membrane receptor signals to the nucleus.
 * Syncoilin is an atypical type III IF protein.

Type IV

 * Alpha-internexin
 * Neurofilaments – the type IV family of intermediate filaments that is found in high concentrations along the axons of vertebrate neurons.
 * Synemin
 * Syncoilin

Type V – nuclear lamins
Lamins are fibrous proteins having structural function in the cell nucleus.
 * Lamins

In metazoan cells, there are A and B type lamins, which differ in their length and pI. Human cells have three differentially regulated genes. B-type lamins are present in every cell. B type lamins, lamin B1 and B2, are expressed from the LMNB1 and LMNB2 genes on 5q23 and 19q13, respectively. A-type lamins are only expressed following gastrulation. Lamin A and C are the most common A-type lamins and are splice variants of the LMNA gene found at 1q21.

These proteins localize to two regions of the nuclear compartment, the nuclear lamina—a proteinaceous structure layer subjacent to the inner surface of the nuclear envelope and throughout the nucleoplasm in the nucleoplasmic veil.

Comparison of the lamins to vertebrate cytoskeletal IFs shows that lamins have an extra 42 residues (six heptads) within coil 1b. The c-terminal tail domain contains a nuclear localization signal (NLS), an Ig-fold-like domain, and in most cases a carboxy-terminal CaaX box that is isoprenylated and carboxymethylated (lamin C does not have a CAAX box). Lamin A is further processed to remove the last 15 amino acids and its farnesylated cysteine.

During mitosis, lamins are phosphorylated by MPF, which drives the disassembly of the lamina and the nuclear envelope.

Type VI

 * Beaded filaments: Filensin, Phakinin.
 * Nestin (was once proposed for reclassification but due to differences, remains as a type VI IF protein)

Vertebrate-only. Related to type I-IV. Used to contain other newly discovered IF proteins not yet assigned to a type.

Cell adhesion
At the plasma membrane, some keratins or desmin interact with desmosomes (cell-cell adhesion) and hemidesmosomes (cell-matrix adhesion) via adapter proteins.

Associated proteins
Filaggrin binds to keratin fibers in epidermal cells. Plectin links vimentin to other vimentin fibers, as well as to microfilaments, microtubules, and myosin II. Kinesin is being researched and is suggested to connect vimentin to tubulin via motor proteins.

Keratin filaments in epithelial cells link to desmosomes (desmosomes connect the cytoskeleton together) through plakoglobin, desmoplakin, desmogleins, and desmocollins; desmin filaments are connected in a similar way in heart muscle cells.

Diseases arising from mutations in IF genes

 * Dilated cardiomyoathy (DCM), mutations in the DES gene
 * Arrhythmogenic cardiomyopathy (ACM), mutations in the DES gene
 * Restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM), mutations in the DES gene
 * Non-compaction cardiomyopathy, mutations in the DES genes
 * Cardiomyopathy in combination with skeletal myopathy (DES)
 * Epidermolysis bullosa simplex; keratin 5 or keratin 14 mutation
 * Laminopathies are a family of diseases caused by mutations in nuclear lamins and include Hutchinson-Gilford progeria syndrome and various lipodystrophies and cardiomyopathies among others.

In other organisms
IF proteins are universal among animals in the form of a nuclear lamin. The Hydra has an additional "nematocilin" derived from the lamin. Cytoplasmic IFs (type I-IV) are only found in Bilateria; they also arose from a gene duplication event involving "type V" nuclear lamin. In addition, a few other diverse types of eukaryotes have lamins, suggesting an early origin of the protein.

There was not really a concrete definition of an "intermediate filament protein", in the sense that the size or shape-based definition does not cover a monophyletic group. With the inclusion of unusual proteins like the network-forming beaded lamins (type VI), the current classification is moving to a clade containing nuclear lamin and its many descendants, characterized by sequence similarity as well as the exon structure. Functionally-similar proteins out of this clade, like crescentins, alveolins, tetrins, and epiplasmins, are therefore only "IF-like". They likely arose through convergent evolution.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Intermediate filament


text:
List of cities in Rwanda

This is a list of cities in Rwanda:

Kigali province

 * Kigali (capital)
 * Kicukiro
 * Rutongo
 * Kacyiru

Southern province

 * Nyanza  (provincial capital)
 * Muhanga
 * Kamonyi
 * Ruhango
 * Gisagara
 * Nyaruguru
 * Nyamagabe
 * Huye

Northern province

 * Byumba (provincial capital)
 * Ruhengeri

Western province

 * Kibuye (provincial capital)
 * Cyangugu
 * Gisenyi

Eastern province

 * Rwamagana (provincial capital)
 * Kibungo

title: List of cities in Rwanda


text:
Vlad II Dracul

Vlad II (Vlad al II-lea), also known as Vlad Dracul (Vlad al II-lea Dracul) or Vlad the Dragon (before 1395 – November 1447), was Voivode of Wallachia from 1436 to 1442, and again from 1443 to 1447. He is internationally known as the father of Vlad the Impaler, or Dracula. Born an illegitimate son of Mircea I of Wallachia, he spent his youth at the court of Sigismund of Luxembourg, who made him a member of the Order of the Dragon in 1431 (hence his sobriquet). Sigismund also recognized him as the lawful Voivode of Wallachia, allowing him to settle in nearby Transylvania. Vlad could not assert his claim during the life of his half-brother, Alexander I Aldea, who acknowledged the suzerainty of the Ottoman Sultan, Murad II.

After Alexander Aldea died in 1436, Vlad seized Wallachia with Hungarian support. Following the death of Sigismund of Luxembourg in 1437, Hungary's position weakened, causing Vlad to pay homage to Murad II, which included participating in Murad II's invasion of Transylvania in the summer of 1438. John Hunyadi, Voivode of Transylvania, came to Wallachia to convince Vlad to join a crusade against the Ottomans in 1441. After Hunyadi routed an Ottoman army in Transylvania, the sultan ordered Vlad to come to Edirne where he was captured in 1442. Hunyadi invaded Wallachia and made Vlad's cousin, Basarab II, voivode.

Vlad was released before the end of the year but was forced to leave his two young sons as hostages in the Ottoman court. He was restored in Wallachia with Ottoman support in 1443. He remained neutral during Hunyadi's "Long Campaign" against the Ottoman Empire between October 1443 and January 1444, but he sent 4,000 horsemen to fight against the Ottomans during the Crusade of Varna. With the support of a Burgundian fleet, he captured the important Ottoman fortress at Giurgiu in 1445. He made peace with the Ottoman Empire in 1446 or 1447, which contributed to the deterioration of his relationship with Hunyadi. Hunyadi invaded Wallachia, forcing Vlad to flee from Târgoviște in late November, where he was killed at a nearby village.

Early life
Vlad's early life is poorly documented. He was born before 1395, and was one of the numerous illegitimate sons of Mircea I of Wallachia. Vlad's modern biographers agree that he was sent as a hostage to Sigismund of Luxembourg, King of Hungary, in 1395 or 1396. Sigismund mentioned that Vlad had been educated at his court, suggesting that he spent his youth in Buda, Nuremberg and other major towns of Hungary and the Holy Roman Empire.

Mircea I died in 1418, and his only legitimate son (and co-ruler), Michael, succeeded him. Two years later, Michael died fighting against his cousin, Dan II (the son of Mircea I's elder brother, Dan I). During the following decade, Dan II and Vlad's half-brother, Radu II Praznaglava, were fighting against each other for Wallachia.

Vlad left Buda for Poland without Sigismund's authorization in early 1423, but was captured before reaching the border. Before long, Sigismund acknowledged Dan II as the lawful ruler of Wallachia. The Byzantine historian, Doukas, recorded that Vlad was "an officer in the army" of the Byzantine Emperor, John VIII Palaiologos, and he "had access" to the imperial palace in Constantinople. Historian Radu Florescu says that Sigismund had appointed Vlad to receive John VIII (who had come to Italy to seek assistance against the Ottomans) in Venice in 1423, and Vlad accompanied the emperor back to Constantinople. After realizing that John VIII could not help him to seize Wallachia, Vlad returned to Hungary in 1429.

Sigismund made Vlad a first-class member of the Order of the Dragon (a chivalric order established by Sigismund) in Nuremberg on 8 February 1431. Other first-class members included Alfonso V of Aragon and Vytautas, Grand Duke of Lithuania. The dragon-shaped badge of the order gave rise to his Romanian sobriquet, Dracul ("the Dragon"), for which his sons became known as Dracula ("son of Dracul"). Vlad swore fealty to Sigismund who declared him the lawful prince of Wallachia. Vlad had to promise that he would protect the Roman Catholic Church. However, Sigismund did not assist him to seize Wallachia. In the summer, Vlad's half-brother, Alexander I Aldea, invaded Wallachia with Moldavian support and dethroned Dan II.

Vlad did not abandon his claim to Wallachia and settled in Transylvania. A Neo-Renaissance mural in a three-storey house in the main square of Sighișoara (which was uncovered on the 500th anniversary of the death of Vlad Dracul's son, Dracula) may depict Vlad Dracul after an original painting, according to Radu Florescu. The mural depicts a corpulent man with oval-shaped eyes and long moustaches wearing a white turban.

Alexander I Aldea went to Adrianople to do homage to the Ottoman Sultan, Murad II, in 1432. Vlad wanted to invade Wallachia with the support of Wallachian boyars (or noblemen) who had fled to Transylvania, but Alexander Aldea's principal official, Albu, prevented the invasion. Sigismund authorized Vlad to buy weapons and muster an army of exiled boyars only in 1434. In 1435, Alexander Aldea fell seriously ill and never recovered. Taking advantage of his brother's illness, Vlad broke into Wallachia, but Alexander Aldea and his Ottoman allies forced him to retreat.

First rule

Alexander Aldea died in autumn 1436, enabling Vlad Dracul to seize Wallachia with Hungarian support. He did not dismiss his predecessor's officials with the exception of Albu, who thus became his enemy. Vlad did not confirm the treaty that Alexander Aldea had concluded with the Ottomans, provoking an Ottoman incursion against Wallachia in November.

Vlad's patron, Sigismund of Luxembourg, died on 9 December 1437. Sigismund's death and the uprising of the Transylvanian peasants weakened Hungary, forcing Vlad to seek reconciliation with the Ottoman Empire. He went to Edirne and swore fealty to Murad II. He also promised to pay a yearly tribute to the sultan and to support the Ottomans' military campaigns at the sultan's order. Before long, Murad II decided to invade Hungary and gathered his troops at Vidin.

Albert of Habsburg (who was Sigismund of Luxembourg's son-in-law and successor) wrote a letter to Vlad, ordering him to protect Transylvania. Ignoring the king's command, Vlad joined Murad II who came to Wallachia at the head of his army in summer 1438, serving the sultan as his guide. The Ottoman and Wallachian troops broke into Hungary at Orșova. They routed the army of a local Vlach kenez, Cândea, near Hațeg. They marched along the river Mureș, capturing Câlnic and Sebeș. At Sebeș, Vlad convinced the leaders of the town to give in without resistance, promising to protect their property if they accompanied him to Wallachia. The Ottomans and Wallachians laid siege to Sibiu, but the siege lasted only for 8 days. They destroyed the outskirts of Brașov, before they left Hungary loaded with plunder and taking more than 30,000 captives.

After the Ottoman army left Wallachia, Vlad offered Albert of Habsburg to set the burghers who had been captured at Sebeș free, but the king (who regarded them traitors) refused his offer. Vlad's attempts to maintain a balance between Hungary and the Ottomans made both the king and the sultan suspicious about his true intentions. Albert allowed a pretender to the Wallachian throne, Basarab (who was a son of Dan II) to settle in Hungary. The Ottomans strengthened the fortress of Giurgiu and sent new troops to garrison the town.

Albert of Habsburg died on 27 October 1439. The majority of the Hungarian noblemen elected Władysław III of Poland king in early 1440. Władysław made the talented military commander, John Hunyadi, voivode of Transylvania in February 1441. Hunyadi who decided to restore the influence of Hungary in Wallachia ordered the burghers of Brașov to mint coins for Vlad around 15 October. Two or three weeks later, Hunyadi came to Târgoviște to meet Vlad, demanding him to join a crusade against the Ottoman Empire.

After Hunyadi defeated the Ottomans in Transylvania in March 1442, the Ottoman governor of Bulgaria accused Vlad of treachery, according to the contemporaneous Ottoman historian, Neşri. Murad summoned Vlad to Edirne to demonstrate his loyalty. Before departing, Vlad made his eldest son, Mircea, the ruler of Wallachia. Soon after he came to Edirne, he was captured at the sultan's command. He was held in captivity in Gallipoli.

Captivity and second rule

Murad sent Hadım Şehabeddin, Beylerbey (or governor) of Rumelia, to annex Wallachia in August 1442. Hunyadi annihilated the Ottoman army in the Carpathian Mountains in September, and made Vlad's cousin, Basarab, voivode of Wallachia. Before the end of the year, Murad II released Vlad. Vlad had to pledge that he would not support the enemies of the Ottoman Empire and he would pay an annual tribute and send 500 Wallachian boys to serve as janissaries in the sultan's army. He was also forced to leave his two sons, Vlad and Radu, as hostages in the Ottoman Empire.

The circumstances of Vlad's return to Wallachia are unknown. He regained his throne between March and September 1443. During Hunyadi's "Long Campaign" against the Ottoman Empire, which lasted from October 1443 to January 1444, Vlad remained neutral, especially because the sultan promised the release of his two sons. In the ensuing peace negotiations between Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, Murad II was willing to release Vlad from his obligation to personally visit his court, but the papal legate, Julian Cesarini, prevented the ratification of the peace treaty. Instead, he urged Władysław to continue the crusade against the Ottoman Empire. On the other hand, Vlad tried to dissuade Władysław III from waging war against the Ottomans, reminding him that Murad II went hunting with more retainers than Władysław had troops, according to the Polish historian, Jan Długosz. Nevertheless, he sent 4,000 horsemen under the command of his son, Mircea, to fight against the Ottomans.

The crusade ended with the catastrophic defeat of the crusaders in the Battle of Varna on 10 November 1444. After the battle Hunyadi wanted to return to Hungary through Wallachia, but he was captured by Wallachian soldiers at the Danube. Vlad only released him after Lawrence Héderváry, Palatine of Hungary, threatened him with a war. According to historian John Jefferson, Vlad held Hunyadi in captivity because he wanted to hand him over to the sultan. Camil Mureşanu writes that Hunyadi was only imprisoned because the soldiers who captured him did not recognize him. Historian Kurt W. Teptow says, Vlad held Hunyadi responsible for the catastrophe and almost killed him. After releasing Hunyadi, Vlad gave him precious gifts and accompanied him as far as the Hungarian border.

A fleet of Burgundian crusaders attacked the Ottoman fleet on the Black Sea in the spring 1445. The commander of the fleet, Walerand of Wavrin, sent envoys to Hungary to start negotiations about a joint campaign against the Ottoman Empire. At Hunyadi's request, one of Wavrin's envoys, Pedro Vasque de Saavedra, visited Vlad and convinced him to meet Wavrin. In July, Vlad went to Isaccea where he made an alliance with Wavrin. Vlad mustered an army of 4,000–6,000 strong and placed it under the command of his son, Mircea.

The Burgundian and Wallachian army laid siege to Silistra in the middle of September, but they could not capture it. Before long, however, they conquered and destroyed the small fort at Tutrakan. Vlad convinced Wavrin to attack Giurgiu, saying that whenever the Ottomans "want to harry Wallachia or Transylvania, they and their horses can cross" the Danube near the fortified island at Giurgiu, connected to the Wallachian bank by a bridge. During the siege of Giurgiu, two iron rings of a large bombard suddenly broke, killing two soldiers, because Vlad, who was in the command of the fire, did not allow the bombard to cool down between blows. The Ottoman garrison of the fortress capitulated on the condition that they were allowed to freely leave for the Ottoman Empire. However, after they left the fortress, 2,000 Wallachian soldiers attacked and massacred them at Vlad's order, because he regarded the commander of the Ottoman garrison responsible for his captivity in 1442.

Before long, the Ottoman garrison at Ruse also capitulated. Vlad gave asylum to more than 11,000 Bulgarians who had rebelled against the Ottomans, assisting them to cross the Danube into Wallachia. The Burgundian crusaders and the Wallachians approached Nicopolis, where a Hungarian army under the command of John Hunyadi joined them on 14 September. However, an early frost forced the crusaders to abandon the campaign in October, because they feared that the Danube would freeze over.

The relationship between Wallachia and Hungary soon deteriorated. In a letter written late in 1445 to the townspeople of Brașov, Vlad complained that Wallachian merchants were arrested in Transylvania, although he had left his "little children to be butchered for Christian peace so that [he] and [his] country [could] be subjects" of the king of Hungary. His words evidence that he was convinced that his two sons had been murdered in the Ottoman Empire, but the sultan did not harm the boys. In 1446 or 1447, Vlad made peace with the Ottomans, even agreeing to return the Bulgarian refugees to the Ottoman Empire. He intervened in the fight for the Moldavian throne in favor of Roman II of Moldavia in July 1447. The Poles also supported Roman, but Roman's opponent, Peter II, was Hunyadi's protégé.

On 20 July 1447, John Hunyadi ordered the burghers of Brașov to give shelter to a pretender to the Wallachian throne, Vladislav, who was a cousin of Vlad. Hunyadi unexpectedly broke into Wallachia in late November, taking with him Vladislav (also known as Dan). Vlad fled from Târgoviște, but he was captured and killed in the marshes at Bălteni. In a letter written on 4 December 1447, Hunyadi styled himself "voivode of the Transalpine land" (Wallachia) and referred to Târgoviște as his fortress, implying that he had taken control of Wallachia by that time. Hunyadi placed Vladislav on the throne of Wallachia.

The place of Vlad Dracul's burial has not been identified. Cazacu says, he was most probably buried in the Snagov Monastery. Florescu writes, Vlad Dracul was buried in a chapel in the Dealu Monastery near Târgoviște.

Family
According to a widely accepted scholarly theory, Vlad's wife was "Cneajna", a daughter of Alexander I of Moldavia. She was called Eupraxia, according to Florescu. Historian Matei Cazacu writes that she was his second wife. He does not identify Vlad's first wife. Vlad's descendants were known as Drăculești, because they adopted Vlad's sobriquet as their patronymic (Dracula). The conflict between the Drăculești and the Dănești (the descendants of Dan I of Wallachia), and strifes between the members of the Drăculești line contributed to the political instability in 15th-century Wallachia.

Vlad's eldest sons, Mircea and Vlad Dracula, were first mentioned in a charter of Vlad on 20 January 1437. Mircea was born in about 1428, Vlad between 1429 and 1431. Their brother (Vlad Dracul's third son), Radu the Fair, was born before 2 August 1439. Florescu writes that Vlad Dracul's daughter, Alexandra, married the Wallachian boyar Vintilă Florescu. Vlad Dracul also fathered illegitimate children. A Wallachian noblewoman, Călțuna, gave birth to Vlad the Monk. Almost no information is known about the life of another illegitimate son, Mircea.

title: Vlad II Dracul


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Will H. Hays

William Harrison Hays Sr. (November 5, 1879 – March 7, 1954) was an American politician, and member of the Republican Party. As chairman of the Republican National Committee from 1918 to 1921, Hays managed the successful 1920 presidential campaign of Warren G. Harding. Harding then appointed Hays to his cabinet as his first Postmaster General. He resigned from the cabinet in 1922 to become the first chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. As chairman, Hays oversaw the promulgation of the Motion Picture Production Code (informally known as the Hays Code), which spelled out a set of moral guidelines for the self-censorship of content in American cinema.

Early life
William Harrison Hays Sr. was born November 5, 1879, in Sullivan, Indiana. He attended Wabash College in Crawfordsville, Indiana.

Career
He was the manager of Warren G. Harding's successful campaign for the Presidency of the United States in the 1920 election and was subsequently appointed Postmaster General. While serving in the Harding Administration, he became peripherally involved in the Teapot Dome scandal.

Teapot Dome scandal
The oilman Harry Ford Sinclair devised a scheme in which twenty-five cents was diverted from the sale of every barrel of oil sold from the oil field leases that were the focus of the Teapot Dome scandal. Sinclair testified that he "loaned" Will H. Hays, then-chairman of the Republican National Committee, $185,000 worth of Liberty Bonds, later getting back $100,000. Sinclair also gave Hays $75,000 as an outright gift to the committee. At the time, Hays was attempting to pay off the 1920 Republican campaign debt. Hays later approached a number of wealthy men and told them that if they would contribute to pay down the committee's debt, he would reimburse them for their contributions with Liberty Bonds.

In 1924, after his resignation from the Harding administration and while he was serving as President of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America, Hays was called to testify before the Senate Committee on Public Lands. When asked how much money Sinclair had contributed to the Republican Party, Hays testified that his contribution was $75,000. In 1928, after more details of Sinclair's scheme had emerged, Hays was called to testify again. Hays then told the full story of Sinclair's contribution, including the donation of $185,000 in Liberty Bonds and the $75,000 cash contribution. He stated that he had not mentioned the bonds in his earlier testimony because the Committee "had not asked about any bonds." While there was some public perception that Hays was attempting to conceal Sinclair's large contribution to the Republican National Committee, he testified that he was "using the bonds to raise money for the deficit."

Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America
Hays resigned his cabinet position on January 14, 1922, to become Chairman of the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America shortly after the organization's founding. He began his new job, at a $35,360 annual salary, on March 6 of that year. There was speculation that he would be paid between $100,000 and $150,000 a year.

The goal of the organization was to improve the image of the movie industry in the wake of the scandal surrounding the alleged rape and murder of model and actress Virginia Rappe, of which film star Roscoe "Fatty" Arbuckle was accused, and amid growing calls by religious groups for federal censorship of the movies. Hiring Hays to "clean up the pictures" was, at least in part, a public relations ploy and much was made of his conservative credentials, including his roles as a Presbyterian deacon and past chairman of the Republican Party.

In his new position in Hollywood, Hays' main roles were to persuade individual state censor boards not to ban specific films outright and to reduce the financial impact of the boards' cuts and edits. At that time, the studios were required by state laws to pay the censor boards for each foot of film excised and for each title card edited; in addition, studios also had the expense of duplicating and distributing separate versions of each censored film for the state or states that adhered to a particular board's decisions.

Hays attempted to reduce studio costs (and improve the industry's image in general) by advising individual studios on how to produce movies to reduce the likelihood that the film would be cut. Each board kept its "standards" secret (if, indeed, they had any standardization at all), so Hays was forced to intuit what would or would not be permitted by each board. At first he applied what he called "The Formula" but it was not particularly successful; from that he developed a set of guidelines he called "The Dont's and Be Carefuls". In general his efforts at pre-release self-censorship were unsuccessful in quieting calls for federal censorship.

Catholic bishops and lay people tended to be wary of federal censorship and favored the Hays approach of self-censorship; these included the outspoken Catholic layman Martin J. Quigley, publisher of Exhibitors Herald-World (a trade magazine for independent exhibitors). For several months in 1929, Martin Quigley, Joseph Breen, Father Daniel A. Lord S.J., Father FitzGeorge Dinneen S.J., and Father Wilfred Parsons (editor of Catholic publication America) discussed the desirability of a new and more stringent code of behavior for the movies. With the blessing of Cardinal George W. Mundelein of Chicago, Father Lord authored the code, which later became known as "The Production Code", "the code", and "The Hays Code". It was presented to Will Hays in 1930 who said, "My eyes nearly popped out when I read it. This was the very thing I had been looking for".

The studio heads were less enthusiastic but they agreed to make the code the rule of the industry, albeit with many loopholes that allowed studio producers to override the Hays Office's application of it. From 1930 to 1934, the production code was only slightly effective in fighting back calls for federal censorship. However, things came to a head in 1934 with widespread threats of Catholic boycotts of "immoral" movies, as well as reduced funding from Catholic financiers such as A. P. Giannini of the Bank of America. As a result, the studios granted Hays' organization full authority to enforce the production code on all studios, creating a relatively strict regime of self-censorship which endured for decades (the code was set aside in the 1960s when the age-based rating system in force today was adopted). Hays hired Joseph Breen, a Catholic and anti-Semite who was able to use his position to censor films expressing sentiments against Nazism or fascism. In 1934, to deal with "inappropriate" industry personnel (alongside the Code's concern with the industry's output), Hays created a list of 117 names of performers whose personal lives he thought made them unfit to appear in films.

As an example of Hays' philosophy, he reportedly said to a movie director: "When you make a woman cross her legs in the films, maybe you don't need to see how she can cross them and stay within the law; but how low she can cross them and still be interesting".

Hays worked with the U.S. government, particularly the State Department and the Department of Commerce, to maintain Hollywood's domination of overseas movie markets.

Central Casting
When the entertainment industry started to take off in the early 1920s, thousands of people flocked to Hollywood with hopes of becoming the next big star. These hopefuls were called "extras" because they were the extra people who filled out scenes. The main way to find work at this time was to wait outside the gates of studios, hoping to be hired on the spot. With little regulation on hiring film extras, many people were exploited while looking for work. In an effort to fix the employment issues and exploitation that plagued the industry, Hays commissioned several studies of the employment conditions in Hollywood, including one from Mary van Kleeck, a prominent sociologist with the Russell Sage Foundation. After reviewing the results of the studies, Hays adopted a suggestion of van Kleeck's and created the Central Casting Corporation in 1925 as a way to regulate the hiring of extras in Hollywood.

Production Code
The production code enumerated three "General Principles":

 * 1) No picture shall be produced that will lower the moral standards of those who see it. Hence the sympathy of the audience should never be thrown to the side of crime, wrongdoing, evil or sin.
 * 2) Correct standards of life, subject only to the requirements of drama and entertainment, shall be presented.
 * Law, natural or human, shall not be ridiculed, nor shall sympathy be created for its violation.

Specific restrictions were spelled out as "Particular Applications" of these principles:

 * Nudity and suggestive dances were prohibited.
 * The ridicule of religion was forbidden, and ministers of religion were not to be represented as comic characters or villains.
 * The depiction of illegal drug use was forbidden, as well as the use of liquor, "when not required by the plot or for proper characterization."
 * Methods of crime (e.g. safe-cracking, arson, smuggling) were not to be explicitly presented.
 * References to sex perversions such as homosexuality and venereal disease were forbidden, as were depictions of childbirth.
 * The language section banned various words and phrases that were considered to be offensive.
 * Murder scenes had to be filmed in a way that would discourage imitations in real life, and brutal killings could not be shown in detail.
 * "Revenge in modern times" was not to be justified.
 * The sanctity of marriage and the home had to be upheld.
 * "Pictures shall not infer that low forms of sex relationship are the accepted or common thing."
 * Adultery and illicit sex, although recognized as sometimes necessary to the plot, could not be explicit or justified and were not supposed to be presented as an attractive option.
 * Portrayals of miscegenation were forbidden.
 * "Scenes of Passion" were not to be introduced when not essential to the plot.
 * "Excessive and lustful kissing" was to be avoided, along with any other treatment that might "stimulate the lower and baser element."
 * The flag of the United States was to be treated respectfully, and the people and history of other nations were to be presented "fairly."
 * "Vulgarity", defined as "low, disgusting, unpleasant, though not necessarily evil, subjects" must be "subject to the dictates of good taste."
 * Capital punishment, "third-degree methods", cruelty to children and animals, prostitution and surgical operations were to be handled with similar sensitivity.

Death
After his retirement, Will H. Hays returned to Sullivan, Indiana, where he died on March 7, 1954. His widow died in 1960.

In popular culture
In their 1940 short No Census, No Feelings, The Three Stooges refer to Will Hays and his position as censor czar in a joke, when Moe tells Curly, "We have a job now, we're working for the Census"; Curly replies "You mean Will Hays?" in a word association of "census" and "censors".

In 1942 Looney Tunes Abbott and Costello parody cartoon “A Tale of Two Kitties,” two cats Babbit and Catstello try to eat a naked “tweety” bird. During the ladder scene, Babbit yells "Give me the bird!" To which Catstello replies, "If the Hayes Office would only let me, I'd give him the boid alright!"

title: Will H. Hays


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Talk:Ohio University

Endowment
It appears that there is some disagreement as to what Ohio University's endowment figures are.

The Board document that is currently cited shows "The University and Foundation currently hold investments with a total market value of $1.2 billion." However, not all investments are permanently endowed.

Multiple parts of the cited document (pages 234, 240, 241) show the "endowment market value" of $650.2 million at the end of FY22. This matches up with endowment figures in citations for other universities that report figures to the National Association of College and University Business Officers. Note that the $746,956k figure reported by NACUBO matches the $747.0 million figure on page 240 in the Board document. This $747.0 million figure (2021) is updated to $650.2 million in 2022. When the NACUBO reports FY22 endowments, they will report $650.2 million.

The $1.2 billion number is not the university's endowment, it is the market value of their investments. Hope this clears up any confusion! SkiesWillReign (talk) 02:38, 2 December 2022 (UTC)
 * https://catmailohio.sharepoint.com/ is a private site, not publicly accessible, so cannot be used as a source for figures here.  General Ization Talk  02:47, 2 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the comment! It looks like your reversion linked the source to the sharepoint site, so I've corrected the figures and citation to the NACUBO figures. The sharepoint website is directly linked to from the Board of Trustees website for future reference and discussion. SkiesWillReign (talk) 02:59, 2 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, I didn't note that the content before your edit also sourced a document hosted at catmailohio.sharepoint.com, though that agenda appears to be publicly accessible. The NACUBO site is probably a better source.  General Ization  Talk  03:02, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

User:Jams18, the information above provides additional context to the $1.2 billion figure and why this number is either inaccurate (if referring to total investments) or unsourced (otherwise). The $747.0 million 2021 figure, while more outdated than $650.2 million (2022), is reliably sourced through the NACUBO report. SkiesWillReign (talk) 14:55, 2 December 2022 (UTC)

Wikipedia Ambassador Program course assignment
This article is the subject of an educational assignment at Ohio University supported by the Wikipedia Ambassador Program during the 2011 Q4 term. Further details are available on the course page.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 15:48, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Bekierski
Anna Bekiersky Giel.zinken (talk) 14:58, 28 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ohio University


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Papilio glaucus

Papilio glaucus, the eastern tiger swallowtail, is a species of butterfly native to eastern North America. It is one of the most familiar butterflies in the eastern United States, ranging north to southern Ontario, Canada, and is common in many different habitats. It flies from spring until fall, during which it produces two to three broods. Adults feed on the nectar of many species of flowers, mostly from those of the families Apocynaceae, Asteraceae, and Fabaceae. P. glaucus has a wingspan measuring 7.9 to 14 cm. The male is yellow with four black "tiger stripes" on each forewing. Females may be either yellow or black, making them dimorphic. The yellow morph is similar to the male, but with a conspicuous band of blue spots along the hindwing, while the dark morph is almost completely black.

The green eggs are laid singly on plants of the families Magnoliaceae and Rosaceae. Young caterpillars are brown and white; older ones are green with two black, yellow, and blue eyespots on the thorax. The caterpillar will turn brown prior to pupating. It will reach a length of 5.5 cm. The chrysalis varies from a whitish color to dark brown. Hibernation occurs in this stage in locations with cold winter months.

The eastern tiger swallowtail is the state butterfly of Alabama (as well as state mascot), Delaware, Georgia, North Carolina and South Carolina, and is the state insect of Virginia.

Description

The wingspan ranges from 7.9 to 14 cm with females being the larger sex. Southern individuals are larger than northern ones. Males are yellow with four black "tiger stripes" on each forewing. The outer edge of the forewing is black with a row of yellow spots. The veins are marked with black. The postmedian area of the hindwing is black with yellow spots along the margin. The inner margin of the hindwing has small red and blue spots. The ventral forewing margin has a yellow bar that is broken into spots. This broken bar is present in both sexes, and is used to distinguish P. glaucus from its close relatives.

Females are dimorphic. The yellow morph differs from the male in having a blue postmedian area on the dorsal hindwing. In the dark morph, the areas that are normally yellow are replaced with dark gray or black. The bluish postmedian area on the ventral hindwing has one row of orange spots. A shadow of the "tiger stripes" can be seen on the underside of some dark females.

Taxonomy
The first known drawing of a North American butterfly was of an eastern tiger swallowtail. It was drawn by John White in 1587, during Sir Walter Raleigh's third expedition to Virginia. White named his drawing "Mamankanois" which is believed to be a Carolina Algonquian word for "butterfly". This species was later described by Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758. Some taxonomists place P. glaucus, along with the other tiger swallowtails, in the genus Pterourus.

The eastern tiger swallowtail was formerly considered a single species with a vast range into northern Canada and the eastern United States. In 1991, the subspecies Papilio glaucus canadensis was elevated to species level, thus reducing the range of P. glaucus to south of Canada. In 2002, another closely related species, P. appalachiensis, was described by H. Pavulaan and D. M. Wright from the southern Appalachian Mountains. These two species can be separated from P. glaucus by size; P. canadensis is smaller and P. appalachiensis is larger. These two also have a solid yellow bar along the margin of the ventral forewing. P. canadensis females are not dimorphic, and P. appalachiensis females are rarely black.

Similar species for the dark P. glaucus female include the pipevine swallowtail (Battus philenor), the spicebush swallowtail (Papilio troilus), and the female black swallowtail (Papilio polyxenes). B. philenor differs from the dark morph P. glaucus by the row of light-colored spots on each wing margin. P. troilus is more greenish, and has two rows of orange spots on the ventral hindwing. P. polyxenes is smaller, and the ventral hindwing has two rows of yellow-orange spots.

Distribution and habitat
P. glaucus is found in the eastern United States from southern Vermont to Florida west to eastern Texas and the Great Plains. It is common throughout its range, although is rarer in southern Florida and absent from the Florida Keys. In 1932, a single specimen was collected in County Wicklow, Ireland. It is believed to have been an accidental introduction from North America.

P. glaucus can be found almost anywhere deciduous forests occur. Common habitats include woodlands, fields, rivers, creeks, roadsides, and gardens. It will stray into urban parks and city yards. Because it has adapted to many different habitats and host plants, P. glaucus is a generalist, and is not considered threatened. Papilio glaucus is considered to be one of the most polyphagous of all swallowtail species. This is likely due to genetic traits and differential detoxification abilities. However, as compared to Papilio canadensis, at the northern overlap between the two species, P. glaucus survive very poorly through their first larval instar when settling on a quaking aspen (Populus tremeloides) tree and their survival rate under those conditions are approximately 15%, whereas P. canadensis thrives on this food plant.

Adults are seen from spring to fall, although the exact date varies depending on the location. In the south, they are seen from February to November; in the north, they are seen from May to September. P. glaucus produces two broods in the north and three in the south. The first broods yield the smallest adults.

Behavior
Eastern tiger swallowtails are diurnal, and are usually solitary. Adults are known to fly high above the ground, usually seen above the tree canopy. Males seek females by patrolling habitats containing the larval host plants. During courtship, the male and female fly about each other prior to landing and mating. The male releases perfume-like pheromones during courtship to entice the female into mating.

Adults use a wide range of food sources, most preferring to nectar on sturdy plants with red or pink flowers. Many members of the families Apocynaceae, Asteraceae and Fabaceae are used as common nectar sources. Males participate in a behavior called puddling, in which they congregate on mud, damp gravel or puddles. They extract sodium ions and amino acids from these sources which aid in reproduction. Males that puddle are typically fresh, and puddle only for their first couple of days. Females will occasionally puddle, but do not form congregations. Adults have also been seen feeding on dung, carrion, and urine.

The eastern tiger swallowtail, Papilio glaucus, is probably the most polyphagous of all 560+ species of swallowtail butterflies in the world.

Life cycle
The butterfly may have one or two generations in the north, while southern areas may have three. Time duration for various stages is as follows:
 * Egg - It takes three to five days for eggs to hatch.
 * Larva - The caterpillar has five instars.
 * Pupa - The chrysalis stage lasts nine to eleven days, or over winter hibernation.

Egg
Females lay their eggs singly on the host plant leaves, preferring to oviposit on host plants near nectar sources. The egg is round and green, later turning yellowish green with reddish dots. The size of the egg is large for a butterfly, being 0.8 millimeters (0.03 in) in height and 1.2 millimeters (0.05 in) in width. It takes between 4 and 10 days to hatch.

Caterpillar

The caterpillar eats the leaves of the host plant. It will rest on a silk pad on a leaf, with the edges of the leaf folded over itself and held together with silk. The first three instars are brown. A large white spot, known as a saddle, is found on the abdomen. After molting to the fourth instar, the caterpillar becomes green. The swollen thorax has two black, yellow, and blue eyespots. These eyespots are much smaller than those of the similar-looking spicebush swallowtail caterpillar. A yellow and black transverse stripe is present between the first and second abdominal segments. It is concealed between the folds of the segments when the caterpillar is at rest. The abdomen is spotted transversely with light blue. Before pupating, the caterpillar will turn dark brown. It will reach a length of 5.5 cm. The caterpillar of P. glaucus is impossible to distinguish from the caterpillars of P. canadensis and P. appalachiensis.

Chrysalis

The chrysalis measures 3.2 cm. It hangs from a surface by a silk girdle around the thorax and a silk pad at the base. The chrysalis varies in color, ranging from off white to dark brown. It is often spotted with green and dark brown. Lighter-colored chrysalids often have a dark lateral stripe along each side of the body. Two horn-like projections are present on the head; one is found on the thorax. P. glaucus chrysalids can be found in a variety of places, but are commonly found on tree trunks, fence posts, and in ground litter. It hibernates in locations with cold winters.

Host plants
The caterpillar feeds on host plants of many different families. Common host plants used are those of the families Magnoliaceae and Rosaceae, with species including tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), sweet bay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana) and wild black cherry (Prunus serotina). It also feeds on other members of the family Rosaceae, as well as members from the families Lauraceae, Oleaceae, Rutaceae, and Tilioideae. Aspens (Populus sect. Populus), birches (Betula), and willows (Salix) have been recorded in older literature as host plants, but these are used by P. canadensis. Host plants of P. glaucus include:
 * Wild black cherry (Prunus serotina)
 * Ash (Fraxinus species)
 * Cottonwood (Populus species)
 * Wafer ash or hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata)
 * Common lilac (Syringa vulgaris)
 * Sweet bay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana)
 * Tulip poplar or tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera)
 * Willow (Salix species)

Defense against predators
The first three instars of the caterpillar are bird dropping mimics, coloration that helps protect it from predators. In later instars, the eyespots on the thorax serve to deter birds. Like all members of the family Papilionidae, the caterpillar of P. glaucus possesses an osmeterium, an orange, fleshy organ that emits foul-smelling terpenes to repel predators. Normally hidden, the osmeterium is located on the first segment of the thorax, and can be everted when the caterpillar feels threatened. The combination of eyespots and osmeterium makes the caterpillar resemble a snake.

Since adults are palatable, dark morph females use Batesian mimicry to protect themselves from vertebrate predators by mimicking the poisonous pipevine swallowtail. Dark morph females are more prevalent in the south, where B. philenor is more common.

title: Papilio glaucus


text:
List of cities, towns and villages in Samoa

This article shows a list of cities, towns and villages in Samoa.

Main townships

 * Apia, capital of Samoa situated on Upolu island.
 * Salelologa, main 'township' & ferry terminal on Savai'i island.

Villages

 * Afega
 * Afiamalu
 * Alafua
 * Alamagoto
 * Aleipata
 * Aleisa

Olosega (vaisaili, satui, vaiapi, pouono) Ta’u(fitiuta, faleasao,luma,Siufaga)
 * Amaile
 * Amouli
 * Aopo
 * Apai
 * Apolima Tai
 * Apolima Uta
 * Asaga
 * Asau
 * Auala
 * A'ufaga
 * Aele
 * Elisefou
 * Faiaai
 * Faatoia
 * Faga
 * Fagali'i
 * Fagaloa
 * Fagamalo
 * Falealili
 * Falealupo
 * Faleasiu
 * Faleatiu
 * Falefa
 * Falelatai
 * Falelima
 * Fale'olo
 * Falease'ela, Lefaga
 * Faletagaloa
 * Faleu
 * Faleula
 * Falevao
 * Faleapuna
 * Fasito'otai
 * Fasito'iuta
 * Fatausi
 * Foailuga
 * Foailalo
 * Fogapoa
 * Fogasavai'i
 * Fogatuli
 * Fuailoloo
 * Fusi
 * Gataivai
 * Iva
 * Lalomauga
 * Lano
 * Lalomalava
 * Lalomanu
 * Lalovaea
 * Laulii
 * Leauva'a
 * Lefaga
 * Lefagoali'i
 * Lepea
 * Lepa
 * Letava
 * Letogo
 * Leiifiifi
 * Leufisa
 * Leulumoega
 * Leulumoega Fou
 * Lotofaga, Aleipata
 * Lotofagā, Safata
 * Lona, Fagaloa
 * Luatuanu'u
 * Lufilufi
 * Magiagi
 * Malie
 * Malifa
 * Malua
 * Manase
 * Manono
 * Manunu
 * Matafaa
 * Matatufu
 * Matautu
 * Matautu, Falealili
 * Matautu, Lefaga
 * Matautu-tai
 * Matautu-uta
 * Moata'a
 * Moamoa
 * Motootua
 * Mulinu'u
 * Musumusu
 * Mutiatele
 * Magiagi
 * Neiafu
 * Nofoali'i
 * Palauli
 * Patamea
 * Poutasi
 * Puapua
 * Puipa'a
 * Pesega
 * Saaga
 * Saasaai
 * Saipipi
 * Safotu
 * Safotulafai
 * Safune
 * Sagone
 * Salailua
 * Salamumu
 * Salani
 * Saleamua
 * Saleaula
 * Saleilua
 * Saleimoa
 * Salelologa
 * Saletele
 * Salesatele
 * Salua
 * Samamea
 * Samata I Tai
 * Samata Uta
 * Samatau
 * Samusu
 * Safaato'a, Lefaga
 * Saoluafata
 * Sapapali'i
 * Sapunaoa
 * Sapo'e
 * Satalo
 * Sataoa
 * Satapuala
 * Sataua
 * Satitoa
 * Sato'alepai
 * Satupa'itea
 * Satuimalufilufi
 * Sauniatu
 * Savalalo
 * Savaia
 * Siufaga
 * Siuniu
 * Siumu
 * Sinamoga
 * Sogi
 * Solosolo
 * Tafatafa
 * Tafua
 * Tafagamanu
 * Tafaigata
 * Tafitoala
 * Tafuna
 * Taga
 * Tanugamanono
 * Tapueleele
 * Toomatagi
 * Tuana'i
 * Tufulele
 * Uafato
 * Utualii
 * Utulaelae, Falealili
 * Vaiala
 * Vaigaga
 * Vailima
 * Vailoa
 * Vailu'utai
 * Vaimoso
 * Vaiola
 * Vaisala
 * Vaisigano
 * Vaiee
 * Vaito'omuli
 * Vaitele
 * Vaiusu
 * Vaivase Tai
 * Vaivase Uta
 * Vavau
 * Vailele
 * Vaipu'a
 * Vaipuna
 * Vaoala
 * Ulutogia
 * Ulai
 * Vaitogi
 * Aasufou
 * Nua ma Se'etaga
 * Toamua
 * Puipaa
 * Sagapu
 * Fagagasi
 * Salu
 * Saina
 * Tia'vea
 * Saleapaga
 * Taufusi


text:
Papilio

Papilio is a genus in the swallowtail butterfly family, Papilionidae, as well as the only representative of the tribe Papilionini. The word papilio is Latin for butterfly.

It includes the common yellow swallowtail (Papilio machaon), which is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere and the type species of the genus, as well as a number of other well-known North American species such as the western tiger swallowtail (Papilio rutulus). Familiar species elsewhere in the world include the Mormons (Papilio polytes, Papilio polymnestor, Papilio memnon, and Papilio deiphobus) in Asia, the orchard and Ulysses swallowtails in Australia (Papilio aegeus, Papilio ulysses, respectively) and the citrus swallowtail of Africa (Papilio demodocus).

Older classifications of the swallowtails tended to use many rather small genera. More recent classifications have been more conservative, and as a result a number of former genera are now absorbed within Papilio, such as Achillides, Eleppone, Druryia, Heraclides (giant swallowtails), Menelaides, Princeps, Pterourus (tiger swallowtails), and Sinoprinceps. The genus as recognized by modern systems has about 200 members. The genus Chilasa is regarded as a subgenus of Papilio by some workers, as are the baggy-tailed swallowtails (Agehana), although the latter taxon is usually considered a subgenus of Chilasa.

Many of the larvae resemble bird droppings during a development stage. Adults are edible to birds and some species are mimics.

Ecology
In their larval form, members of Papilio typically feed upon plants of Rutaceae including common ornamental and agriculturally important species such as Citrus species, Murraya species, Choisya species and Calodendrum species. Caterpillars sequester terpenoids from their diet to produce a foul smelling oil used in defence.

Species
Listed alphabetically within groups.

subgenus: Papilio Linnaeus, 1758
 * species group: machaon

 * Papilio alexanor Esper, 1800 – southern swallowtail
 * Papilio brevicauda Saunders, 1869 – short-tailed swallowtail
 * Papilio hospiton Géné, 1839 – Corsican swallowtail
 * Papilio indra Reakirt, 1866 – Indra swallowtail, short-tailed black swallowtail, or cliff swallowtail
 * Papilio joanae J. Heitzman, 1973 – Ozark swallowtail
 * Papilio machaon Linnaeus, 1758 – Old World swallowtail, common yellow swallowtail, or artemisia swallowtail
 * Papilio polyxenes Fabricius, 1775 – black swallowtail, eastern black swallowtail, American swallowtail, or parsnip swallowtail
 * Papilio saharae Oberthür, 1879 – Sahara swallowtail
 * Papilio zelicaon Lucas, 1852 – anise swallowtail or western swallowtail

subgenus: Princeps Hübner, [1807]
 * species group: antimachus
 * Papilio antimachus Drury, 1782 – Antimachus swallowtail or giant African swallowtail

 * species group: zalmoxis
 * Papilio zalmoxis Hewitson, 1864 – giant blue swallowtail

 * species group: nireus

 * Papilio aristophontes Oberthür, 1897
 * Papilio charopus Westwood, 1843 – tailed green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio chrapkowskii Suffert, 1904 – broad green-banded swallowtail or Chrapkowski's green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio chrapkowskoides Storace, 1952 – broadly green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio desmondi van Someren, 1939 – Desmond's green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio hornimani Distant, 1879 – Horniman's green-banded swallowtail or Horniman's swallowtail
 * Papilio interjectana Vane-Wright, 1995 – Van Someren's green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio nireus Linnaeus, 1758 – green-banded swallowtail, narrow-banded green swallowtail, or African blue-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio sosia Rothschild & Jordan, 1903 – medium green-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio thuraui Karsch, 1900
 * Papilio ufipa Carcasson, 1961
 * Papilio wilsoni Rothschild, 1926

 * species group: cynorta
 * Papilio arnoldiana Vane-Wright, 1995
 * Papilio cynorta Fabricius, 1793 – mimetic swallowtail
 * Papilio plagiatus Aurivillius, 1898 – mountain mimetic swallowtail

 * species group: dardanus

 * Papilio constantinus Ward, 1871 – Constantine's swallowtail
 * Papilio dardanus Brown, 1776 – mocker swallowtail, flying handkerchief, or African swallowtail
 * Papilio delalandei Godart, [1824]
 * Papilio phorcas Cramer, [1775] – apple-green swallowtail or green banded swallowtail
 * Papilio rex Oberthür, 1886 – regal swallowtail

 * species group: zenobia
 * Papilio cyproeofila Butler, 1868 – common white-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio fernandus Fruhstorfer, 1903
 * Papilio filaprae Suffert, 1904
 * Papilio gallienus Distant, 1879 – narrow-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio mechowi Dewitz, 1881
 * Papilio mechowianus Dewitz, 1885
 * Papilio nobicea Suffert, 1904 – Volta swallowtail
 * Papilio zenobia Fabricius, 1775 – Zenobia swallowtail

 * species group: demodocus

 * Papilio demodocus Esper, 1799 – citrus swallowtail, citrus butterfly, orange dog, or Christmas butterfly
 * Papilio demoleus Linnaeus, 1758 – (common) lime swallowtail or lime butterfly
 * Papilio erithonioides Grose-Smith, 1891
 * Papilio grosesmithi Rothschild, 1926
 * Papilio morondavana Grose-Smith, 1891 – Madagascan emperor

 * species group: echerioides
 * Papilio echerioides Trimen, 1868 – white-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio fuelleborni Karsch, 1900
 * Papilio jacksoni Sharpe, 1891 – Jackson's swallowtail
 * Papilio sjoestedti Aurivillius, 1908 – Kilimanjaro swallowtail

 * species group: oribazus

 * Papilio epiphorbas Boisduval, 1833
 * Papilio nobilis Rogenhofer, 1891 – noble swallowtail
 * Papilio oribazus Boisduval, 1836

 * species group: hesperus
 * Papilio euphranor Trimen, 1868 – forest swallowtail or bush kite
 * Papilio hesperus Westwood, 1843 – emperor swallowtail
 * Papilio horribilis Butler, 1874
 * Papilio pelodurus Butler, 1896

 * species group: menestheus

 * Papilio lormieri Distant, 1874 – central emperor swallowtail
 * Papilio menestheus Drury, 1773 – western emperor swallowtail
 * Papilio ophidicephalus Oberthür, 1878 – emperor swallowtail

 * species group: incertae sedis

 * Papilio andronicus Ward, 1871
 * Papilio chitondensis Bivar de Sousa & Fernandes, 1966
 * Papilio leucotaenia Rothschild, 1908 – cream-banded swallowtail
 * Papilio luzviae Schröder & Treadaway, 1991
 * Papilio mackinnoni Sharpe, 1891 – MacKinnon's swallowtail
 * Papilio mangoura Hewitson, 1875 – Mangoura swallowtail
 * Papilio manlius Fabricius, 1798
 * Papilio microps Storace, 1951
 * Papilio nobicea Suffert, 1904
 * Papilio phorbanta Linnaeus, 1771 – papillon la pature

 * species group: noblei
 * Papilio antonio Hewitson, [1875]
 * Papilio noblei de Nicéville, [1889]

 * species group: demolion
 * Papilio demolion Cramer, [1776] – banded swallowtail
 * Papilio euchenor Guérin-Méneville, 1829
 * Papilio gigon C. Felder & R. Felder, 1864
 * Papilio liomedon Moore, [1875] – Malabar banded swallowtail

 * species group: anactus
 * Papilio anactus MacLeay, [1826] – dingy swallowtail
 * Papilio natewa Tennent et al., [2018] – Natewa swallowtail

 * species group: aegeus
 * Papilio aegeus Donovan, 1805 – orchard swallowtail
 * Papilio bridgei Mathew, 1886
 * Papilio erskinei Mathew, 1886
 * Papilio gambrisius Cramer, [1777]
 * Papilio inopinatus Butler, 1883
 * Papilio ptolychus Godman & Salvin, 1888
 * Papilio tydeus C. Felder & R. Felder, 1860
 * Papilio weymeri Niepelt, 1914
 * Papilio woodfordi Godman & Salvin, 1888 – Woodford's swallowtail

 * species group: godeffroyi
 * Papilio amynthor Boisduval, 1859 – Norfolk swallowtail
 * Papilio godeffroyi Semper, 1866 – Godeffroy's swallowtail
 * Papilio schmeltzi Herrich-Schäffer, 1869

 * species group: polytes

 * Papilio ambrax Boisduval, 1832 – Ambrax butterfly
 * Papilio phestus Guérin-Méneville, 1830
 * Papilio polytes Linnaeus, 1758 – common Mormon

 * species group: castor
 * Papilio castor Westwood, 1842 – common raven
 * Papilio dravidarum Wood-Mason, 1880 – Malabar raven
 * Papilio mahadeva Moore, [1879] – Burmese raven

 * species group: fuscus
 * Papilio albinus Wallace, 1865
 * Papilio diophantus Grose-Smith, 1883
 * Papilio fuscus Goeze, 1779 – Canopus butterfly
 * Papilio hipponous C. Felder & R. Felder, 1862
 * Papilio jordani Fruhstorfer, 1906 – Jordan's swallowtail
 * Papilio pitmani Elwes & de Nicéville, [1887]
 * Papilio prexaspes C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865 – Andaman Helen
 * Papilio sakontala Hewitson, 1864

 * species group: helenus
 * Papilio helenus Linnaeus, 1758 – red Helen
 * Papilio iswara White, 1842 – great Helen
 * Papilio iswaroides Fruhstorfer, 1898
 * Papilio nephelus Boisduval, 1836 – yellow Helen
 * Papilio nubilus Staudinger, 1895
 * Papilio sataspes C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865

 * species group: memnon

 * Papilio acheron Grose-Smith, 1887 – Acheron swallowtail
 * Papilio ascalaphus Boisduval, 1836 – Ascalaphus swallowtail
 * Papilio deiphobus Linnaeus, 1758
 * Papilio forbesi Grose-Smith, 1883
 * Papilio lampsacus Boisduval, 1836
 * Papilio lowi H. Druce, 1873 – Asian swallowtail or great yellow Mormon
 * Papilio mayo Atkinson, 1873 – Andaman Mormon
 * Papilio memnon Linnaeus, 1758 – great Mormon
 * Papilio oenomaus Godart, 1819
 * Papilio polymnestor Cramer, [1775] – blue Mormon
 * Papilio rumanzovia Eschscholtz, 1821 – scarlet Mormon or red Mormon

 * species group: protenor
 * Papilio alcmenor C. Felder & R. Felder, [1864] – redbreast
 * Papilio macilentus Janson, 1877
 * Papilio protenor – spangle
 * Papilio taiwanus Rothschild, 1898 – Formosan swallowtail

 * species group: bootes
 * Papilio bootes Westwood, 1842 – tailed redbreast
 * Papilio elwesi Leech, 1889
 * Papilio maraho Shiraki & Sonan, 1934

subgenus: Chilasa Moore, [1881]
 * species group: agestor
 * Papilio agestor Gray, 1831 – tawny mime
 * Papilio epycides Hewitson, [1864] – lesser mime
 * Papilio slateri Hewitson, 1853 – blue-striped mime

 * species group: clytia
 * Papilio clytia Linnaeus, 1758 – common mime
 * Papilio paradoxa (Zincken, 1831) – great mime

 * species group: veiovis
 * Papilio veiovis Hewitson, [1865]

 * species group: laglaizei
 * Papilio laglaizei Depuiset, 1877
 * Papilio moerneri Aurivillius, 1919
 * Papilio toboroi Ribbe, 1907

 * species group: unnamed
 * Papilio carolinensis Jumalon, 1967
 * Papilio osmana Jumalon, 1967

subgenus: Achillides Hübner, [1819]
 * species group: paris
 * Papilio arcturus Westwood, 1842 – blue peacock
 * Papilio bianor Cramer, [1777] – Chinese peacock
 * Papilio chikae Igarashi, 1965 – Luzon peacock swallowtail
 * Papilio dialis Leech, 1893 – southern Chinese peacock
 * Papilio doddsi Janet, 1896
 * Papilio elephenor Doubleday, 1845 – yellow-crested spangle
 * Papilio hoppo Matsumura, 1908
 * Papilio karna C. Felder & R. Felder, 1864
 * Papilio krishna Moore, 1857 – Krishna peacock
 * Papilio longimacula Z.G. Wang & Y. Niu, 2002
 * Papilio maackii Ménétriés, 1859 – alpine black swallowtail
 * Papilio paris Linnaeus, 1758 – Paris peacock
 * Papilio polyctor Boisduval, 1836 – common peacock

 * species group: palinurus
 * Papilio blumei Boisduval, 1836 – peacock or green swallowtail
 * Papilio buddha Westwood, 1872 – Malabar banded peacock
 * Papilio crino Fabricius, 1793 – common banded peacock
 * Papilio palinurus Fabricius, 1787 – emerald swallowtail

 * species group: unnamed
 * Papilio lorquinianus C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865
 * Papilio neumoegeni Honrath, 1890
 * Papilio peranthus Fabricius, 1787
 * Papilio pericles Wallace, 1865

 * species group: ulysses
 * Papilio montrouzieri Boisduval, 1859
 * Papilio syfanius Oberthür, 1886
 * Papilio ulysses Linnaeus, 1758 – Ulysses, mountain blue, blue emperor, or blue mountain swallowtail

subgenus: Heraclides Hübner, [1819]
 * species group: anchisiades

 * Papilio anchisiades Esper, 1788 – ruby-spotted swallowtail or red-spotted swallowtail
 * Papilio chiansiades Westwood, 1872
 * Papilio epenetus Hewitson, 1861
 * Papilio erostratus Westwood, 1847 – Erostratus swallowtail
 * Papilio hyppason Cramer, 1775
 * Papilio isidorus Doubleday, 1846
 * Papilio oxynius (Geyer, [1827])
 * Papilio pelaus Fabricius, 1775
 * Papilio rogeri Boisduval, 1836

 * species group: thoas

 * Papilio andraemon (Hübner, [1823]) – Bahaman swallowtail
 * Papilio androgeus Cramer, [1775] – Androgeus swallowtail, queen page, or queen swallowtail
 * Papilio aristodemus Esper, 1794 – Schaus' swallowtail or island swallowtail
 * Papilio aristor Godart, 1819 – scarce Haitian swallowtail
 * Papilio astyalus Godart, 1819 – broad-banded swallowtail or Astyalus swallowtail
 * Papilio caiguanabus Poey, [1852] – Poey's black swallowtail
 * Papilio cresphontes Cramer, [1777] – giant swallowtail
 * Papilio homothoas Rothschild & Jordan, 1906
 * Papilio machaonides Esper, 1796
 * Papilio melonius Rothschild & Jordan, 1906
 * Papilio ornythion Boisduval, 1836 – Ornythion swallowtail
 * Papilio paeon Boisduval, 1836
 * Papilio rumiko (Shiraiwa & Grishin, 2014)
 * Papilio thersites Fabricius, 1775 – Thersites swallowtail or false Androgeus swallowtail
 * Papilio thoas Linnaeus, 1771 – Thoas swallowtail or king swallowtail

 * species group: torquatus
 * Papilio garleppi Staudinger, 1892 – Garlepp's swallowtail
 * Papilio hectorides Esper, 1794
 * Papilio himeros Hopffer, 1865 – Himeros swallowtail
 * Papilio lamarchei Staudinger, 1892
 * Papilio torquatus Cramer, 1777 – Torquatus swallowtail

 * species group: unnamed
 * Papilio okinawensis Fruhstorfer, 1898

subgenus: Pterourus Scopoli, 1777
 * species group: troilus

 * Papilio palamedes Drury, [1773] – Palamedes swallowtail or laurel swallowtail
 * Papilio troilus Linnaeus, 1758 – spicebush swallowtail

 * species group: glaucus

 * Papilio alexiares Höpffer, 1866 – Mexican tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio appalachiensis (Pavulaan & Wright, 2002) – Appalachian tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio canadensis Rothschild & Jordan, 1906 – Canadian tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio esperanza Beutelspacher, 1975 – Esperanza swallowtail
 * Papilio eurymedon Lucas, 1852 – pale swallowtail or pallid tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio glaucus Linnaeus, 1758 – eastern tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio multicaudata Kirby, 1884 – two-tailed swallowtail
 * Papilio pilumnus Boisduval, 1836 – three-tailed tiger swallowtail
 * Papilio rutulus Lucas, 1852 – western tiger swallowtail

 * species group: zagreus
 * Papilio bachus C. Felder & R. Felder, 1865
 * Papilio neyi Niepelt, 1909
 * Papilio zagreus Doubleday, 1847

 * species group: scamander
 * Papilio birchallii Hewitson, 1863
 * Papilio hellanichus Hewitson, 1868
 * Papilio scamander Boisduval, 1836
 * Papilio xanthopleura Godman & Salvin, 1868

 * species group: homerus
 * Papilio cacicus Lucas, 1852
 * Papilio euterpinus Salvin & Godman, 1868
 * Papilio garamas (Geyer, [1829])
 * Papilio homerus Fabricius, 1793 – Homerus swallowtail
 * Papilio judicael Oberthür, 1888 (tentatively placed here, may be hybrid)
 * Papilio menatius (Hübner, [1819])
 * Papilio warscewiczii Hopffer, 1865

subgenus: Sinoprinceps Hancock, 1983
 * Papilio benguetanus Joicey & Talbot, 1923

 * species group: xuthus Hancock, 1983
 * Papilio xuthus Linnaeus, 1767 – Asian, Xuthus, or Chinese yellow swallowtail

Former species
Many species originally described in the genus Papilio have now been reclassified. For a list of selected former species see List of former species in the genus Papilio.

title: Papilio


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Paid inclusion

Paid inclusion is a search engine marketing product where the search engine company charges fees related to inclusion of websites in their search index. The use of paid inclusion is controversial, and paid inclusion's popularity has decreased over time among search engines.

Definition of paid inclusion
The FTC defined paid inclusion as "Paid inclusion can take many forms. Examples of paid inclusion include programs where the only sites listed are those that have paid; where paid sites are intermingled among non-paid sites; and where companies pay to have their Websites or URLs reviewed more quickly, or for more frequent spidering of their Websites or URLs, or for the review or inclusion of deeper levels of their Websites, than is the case with non-paid sites."

Note that paid inclusion is different from paid placement. With paid placement, companies pay search engines to rank higher than they would have ranked if relevancy was the only ranking factor. Paid placement also gives companies guaranteed top rankings if they pay for it. With paid inclusion, top rankings are not guaranteed, and only inclusion within the search engine is. Therefore, a company who paid for inclusion within a search engine will still have its rankings determined by relevancy.

History of paid inclusion
In the early days of search, paid inclusion was a convenient way for search engines, such as Inktomi, Microsoft, Ask, Yahoo, Overture, AltaVista, and FAST, to obtain revenue. Unlike the other major search engines, Google decided to avoid paid inclusion and, instead, pursue higher relevancy using AdSense as its revenue source. As time went by, search engines such as Microsoft and Ask moved away from paid inclusion—both search engines ended paid inclusion programs in 2004.

Google's incorporation of paid inclusion
In 2012, Google re-incorporated paid inclusion within its search, though in a different form. Google Flights, Google Hotel Finder, and Google Shopping all have new forms of paid inclusion programs. Some critics, such as Danny Sullivan, founder of Search Engine Watch, criticize this move as a step away from the Founder's Letter that was a part of Google's IPO. Aaron Wall of the popular SEO site SEOBook.com criticize Google's use of paid inclusion as a way to push almost all organic rankings below the fold.

Mixed views on paid inclusion
Paid inclusion has its advantages and drawbacks. The advantage of a paid inclusion search engine is that spam is reduced while relevancy improves. However, detractors of paid inclusion allege that it causes searches to return results based more on the economic standing of the interests of a web site, and less on the relevancy of that site to end-users. Ask Jeeves reported that paid inclusion reduced relevancy and, in 2004, ended its paid inclusion program.

Guidelines for paid inclusion
The FTC has advised search engines to clearly mark paid placement and paid inclusion in accordance with Section 5 of the FTC Act. For this is only a guideline and not a law, companies with search algorithms such as Nextag and Google are not legally bound to follow it.

title: Paid inclusion