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Alkylation

Alkylation is a chemical reaction that entails transfer of an alkyl group. The alkyl group may be transferred as an alkyl carbocation, a free radical, a carbanion, or a carbene (or their equivalents). Alkylating agents are reagents for effecting alkylation. Alkyl groups can also be removed in a process known as dealkylation. Alkylating agents are often classified according to their nucleophilic or electrophilic character. In oil refining contexts, alkylation refers to a particular alkylation of isobutane with olefins. For upgrading of petroleum, alkylation produces a premium blending stock for gasoline. In medicine, alkylation of DNA is used in chemotherapy to damage the DNA of cancer cells. Alkylation is accomplished with the class of drugs called alkylating antineoplastic agents.

Nucleophilic alkylating agents
Nucleophilic alkylating agents deliver the equivalent of an alkyl anion (carbanion). The formal "alkyl anion" attacks an electrophile, forming a new covalent bond between the alkyl group and the electrophile. The counterion, which is a cation such as lithium, can be removed and washed away in the work-up. Examples include the use of organometallic compounds such as Grignard (organomagnesium), organolithium, organocopper, and organosodium reagents. These compounds typically can add to an electron-deficient carbon atom such as at a carbonyl group. Nucleophilic alkylating agents can displace halide substituents on a carbon atom through the SN2 mechanism. With a catalyst, they also alkylate alkyl and aryl halides, as exemplified by Suzuki couplings. The SN2 mechanism is not available for aryl substituents, where the trajectory to attack the carbon atom would be inside the ring. Thus, only reactions catalyzed by organometallic catalysts are possible.

C-alkylation
C-alkylation is a process for the formation of carbon-carbon bonds. The largest example of this takes place in the alkylation units of petrochemical plants, which convert low-molecular-weight alkenes into high octane gasoline components. Electron-rich species such as phenols are also commonly alkylated to produce a variety of products; examples include linear alkylbenzenes used in the production of surfactants like LAS, or butylated phenols like BHT, which are used as antioxidants. This can be achieved using either acid catalysts like Amberlyst, or Lewis acids like aluminium. On a laboratory scale the Friedel–Crafts reaction uses alkyl halides, as these are often easier to handle than their corresponding alkenes, which tend to be gasses. The reaction is catalysed by aluminium trichloride. This approach is rarely used industrially as alkyl halides are more expensive than alkenes.

N-,P-, S- alkylation
N-, P-, and S-alkylation are important processes for the formation of carbon-nitrogen, carbon-phosphorus, and carbon-sulfur bonds,

Amines are readily alkylated. The rate of alkylation follows the order tertiary amine < secondary amine < primary amine. Typical alkylating agents are alkyl halides. Industry often relies on green chemistry methods involving alkylation of amines with alcohols, the byproduct being water. Hydroamination is another green method for N-alkylation.

In the Menshutkin reaction, a tertiary amine is converted into a quaternary ammonium salt by reaction with an alkyl halide. Similar reactions occur when tertiary phosphines are treated with alkyl halides, the products being phosphonium salts.

Thiols are readily alkylated to give thioethers via the thiol-ene reaction. The reaction is typically conducted in the presence of a base or using the conjugate base of the thiol. Thioethers undergo alkylation to give sulfonium ions.

O-alkylation
Alcohols alkylate to give ethers:

When the alkylating agent is an alkyl halide, the conversion is called the Williamson ether synthesis. Alcohols are also good alkylating agents in the presence of suitable acid catalysts. For example, most methyl amines are prepared by alkylation of ammonia with methanol. The alkylation of phenols is particularly straightforward since it is subject to fewer competing reactions.
 * (with Na+ as a spectator ion)
 * (with Na+ as a spectator ion)

More complex alkylation of a alcohols and phenols involve ethoxylation. Ethylene oxide is the alkylating group in this reaction.

Oxidative addition to metals
In the process called oxidative addition, low-valent metals often react with alkylating agents to give metal alkyls. This reaction is one step in the Cativa process for the synthesis of acetic acid from methyl iodide. Many cross coupling reactions proceed via oxidative addition as well.

Electrophilic alkylating agents
Electrophilic alkylating agents deliver the equivalent of an alkyl cation. Alkyl halides are typical alkylating agents. Trimethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate and triethyloxonium tetrafluoroborate are particularly strong electrophiles due to their overt positive charge and an inert leaving group (dimethyl or diethyl ether). Dimethyl sulfate is intermediate in electrophilicity.

Methylation with diazomethane
Diazomethane is a popular methylating agent in the laboratory, but it is too hazardous (explosive gas with a high acute toxicity) to be employed on an industrial scale without special precautions. Use of diazomethane has been significantly reduced by the introduction of the safer and equivalent reagent trimethylsilyldiazomethane.

Hazards
Electrophilic, soluble alkylating agents are often toxic and carcinogenic, due to their tendency to alkylate DNA. This mechanism of toxicity is relevant to the function of anti-cancer drugs in the form of alkylating antineoplastic agents. Some chemical weapons such as mustard gas (sulfide of dichloroethyl) function as alkylating agents. Alkylated DNA either does not coil or uncoil properly, or cannot be processed by information-decoding enzymes.

Catalysts
Electrophilic alkylation uses Lewis acids and Brønsted acids, sometimes both. Classically, Lewis acids, e.g., aluminium trichloride, are employed when the alkyl halide are used. Brønsted acids are used when alkylating with olefins. Typical catalysts are zeolites, i.e. solid acid catalysts, and sulfuric acid. Silicotungstic acid is used to manufacture ethyl acetate by the alkylation of acetic acid by ethylene:

In biology
Alkylation in biology causes DNA damage. It is the transfer of alkyl groups to the nitrogenous bases. It is caused by alkylating agents such as EMS (Ethyl Methyl Sulphonate). Bifunctional alkyl groups which have two alkyl groups in them cause cross linking in DNA. Alkylation damaged ring nitrogen bases are repaired via the Base Excision Repair (BER) pathway.

Commodity chemicals
Several commodity chemicals are produced by alkylation. Included are several fundamental benzene-based feedstocks such as ethylbenzene (precursor to styrene), cumene (precursor to phenol and acetone), linear alkylbenzene sulfonates (for detergents).

Gasoline production
In a conventional oil refinery, isobutane is alkylated with low-molecular-weight alkenes (primarily a mixture of propene and butene) in the presence of a Brønsted acid catalyst, which can include solid acids (zeolites). The catalyst protonates the alkenes (propene, butene) to produce carbocations, which alkylate isobutane. The product, called "alkylate", is composed of a mixture of high-octane, branched-chain paraffinic hydrocarbons (mostly isoheptane and isooctane). Alkylate is a premium gasoline blending stock because it has exceptional antiknock properties and is clean burning. Alkylate is also a key component of avgas. By combining fluid catalytic cracking, polymerization, and alkylation, refineries can obtain a gasoline yield of 70 percent. The widespread use of sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid in refineries poses significant environmental risks. Ionic liquids are used in place of the older generation of strong Bronsted acids.

Dealkylation
Complementing alkylation reactions are the reverse, dealkylations. Prevalent are demethylations, which are prevalent in biology, organic synthesis, and other areas, especially for methyl ethers and methyl amines.

title: Alkylation


text: Template:Counties of Croatia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Counties of Croatia


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Atelidae

The Atelidae are one of the five families of New World monkeys now recognised. It was formerly included in the family Cebidae. Atelids are generally larger monkeys; the family includes the howler, spider, woolly, and woolly spider monkeys (the latter being the largest of the New World monkeys). They are found throughout the forested regions of Central and South America, from Mexico to northern Argentina.

Characteristics
The Atelidae family consists of monkeys that are small to moderate in size, usually 34 to 72 cm in head-body length, with the howler monkeys being the largest members of the group, and the spider monkeys being the smallest. They have long prehensile tails with a sensitive, almost hairless, tactile pad on the underside of the distal part. The tail is frequently used as 'fifth limb' while moving through the trees where they make their homes. They also have nails on their fingers and toes, enabling them to climb. Most species have predominantly dark brown, grey, or black fur, often with paler markings.

These are arboreal and diurnal animals, with most species restricted to dense rain forest, although some howler monkey species are found in drier forests, or wooded savannah. They mainly eat fruit and leaves, although the smaller species, in particular, may also eat some small insects. They have the dental formula:

Females give birth to a single infant (or, rarely, twins) after a gestation period of 180 to 225 days. In most species, individuals give birth every one to three years, and there is little, if any, seasonal peak in the number of births.

Atelid monkeys are typically polygamous, and live in social groups with anything up to twenty five adults, depending on species. Where groups are relatively small, as is common amongst the howler monkeys, a single male monopolises a 'harem' of females, but larger groups will contain several males, with a clear hierarchy of dominance.

Classification
Currently, 26 species of extant atelid monkey are recognized, grouped into four genera, and two subfamilies. In addition, a number of extinct species from the fossil record have been identified as being within or closely related to this family.

Family Atelidae
 * Subfamily Alouattinae
 * Genus Alouatta, howler monkeys
 * Alouatta palliata group
 * Coiba Island howler, Alouatta coibensis
 * Mantled howler, Alouatta palliata
 * Guatemalan black howler, Alouatta pigra
 * Alouatta seniculus group
 * Ursine howler, Alouatta arctoidea
 * Red-handed howler, Alouatta belzebul
 * Spix's red-handed howler, Alouatta discolor
 * Brown howler, Alouatta guariba
 * Juruá red howler, Alouatta juara
 * Guyanan red howler, Alouatta macconnelli
 * Amazon black howler, Alouatta nigerrima
 * Purus red howler, Alouatta puruensis
 * Bolivian red howler, Alouatta sara
 * Venezuelan red howler, Alouatta seniculus
 * Maranhão red-handed howler, Alouatta ululata
 * Alouatta caraya group
 * Black howler, Alouatta caraya
 * Incertae sedis
 * †Alouatta mauroi (Late Pleistocene)
 * Genus †Cartelles
 * †Cartelles coimbrafilhoi (Late Pleistocene)
 * Genus †Paralouatta, Cuban monkeys
 * †Paralouatta varonai
 * †Paralouatta marianae
 * Genus †Stirtonia
 * †Stirtonia tatacoensis
 * †Stirtonia victoriae
 * Subfamily Atelinae
 * Genus Ateles, spider monkeys
 * Red-faced spider monkey, Ateles paniscus
 * White-fronted spider monkey, Ateles belzebuth
 * Peruvian spider monkey, Ateles chamek
 * Brown spider monkey, Ateles hybridus
 * White-cheeked spider monkey,  Ateles marginatus
 * Black-headed spider monkey, Ateles fusciceps
 * Geoffroy's spider monkey, Ateles geoffroyi
 * Genus Brachyteles, muriquis (woolly spider monkeys)
 * Southern muriqui, Brachyteles arachnoides
 * Northern muriqui, Brachyteles hypoxanthus
 * Genus Lagothrix, woolly monkeys
 * Common woolly monkey, Lagothrix lagotricha
 * Yellow-tailed woolly monkey, Lagothrix flavicauda
 * Genus †Caipora
 * †Caipora bambuiorum (Late Pleistocene)
 * Genus †Protopithecus
 * †Protopithecus brasiliensis (Late Pleistocene)
 * Genus †Solimoea
 * †Solimoea acrensis (Late Miocene)
 * Subfamily Incertae sedis
 * Genus †Chilecebus
 * †Chilecebus carrascoensis (Early Miocene)
 * Genus †Mohanamico
 * †Mohanamico hershkovitzi (Middle Miocene)

Silvestro etal 2017 showed the relationship among the extinct and extant atelid genera:

title: Atelidae


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Meža

The Meža (Slovene) or Mieß (German; ) is a river in the Austrian state of Carinthia and in Slovenia, a right tributary of the Drava. It is 43 km long, of which 42 km are in Slovenia. Its catchment area is 551.7 km2, of which 543 km2 in Slovenia.

Name
The Meža River was attested as Mis in 1361, Mys in 1424, and Miß in 1476. The name is etymologically related to Czech Mže and the Russian river names Mzha and Mozha, derived from Slavic *mьz′a 'dripping, drizzling'.

Course
It has its source on the Austrian side of the border north of Mount Olševa in the Karawanks range, becomes subterranean a kilometre from its source, and reappears on the surface in Koprivna west of Črna na Koroškem in Slovenia. From Črna the river turns northwards and flows between the slopes of the Peca massif and the St. Ursula Mountain to Mežica and Poljana. From here the river again flows eastwards to Prevalje, and Ravne na Koroškem, and into the Drava at Dravograd.

In its first part the Meža falls rapidly and is a typical Alpine river with its tributaries from the Kamnik Alps and the Karawanks mountain range. After Črna it becomes a slow meandering lowland river. Its main tributary is the Mislinja River, which joins the Meža River northwest of the village of Otiški Vrh near Dravograd, only a couple hundred meters before the Meža joins the Drava River.

The Meža Valley (Mežiška dolina or Mießtal) within the southern Karawanks range was part of the Austrian Duchy of Carinthia up to 1919, before it was ceded to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes according to the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. Together with the adjacent Mislinja Valley and Upper Drava Valley, it has formed the traditional Carinthia (Koroška) region of independent Slovenia since 1991.

The Meža has been the most polluted river in Slovenia. In 1982 the singer-songwriter Marijan Smode wrote a song about it titled "Mrtva reka" (The Dead River). This song has even been published in primary school textbooks. The main polluter has been the Mežica lead mine and the Ravne Steelworks (Železarna Ravne) conglomerate.

title: Meža


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Baron Joicey

Baron Joicey, of Chester-le-Street in the County of Durham, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1906 for the coal mining magnate and former Liberal Member of Parliament for Chester-le-Street, Sir James Joicey, 1st Baronet. He had already been created a baronet, of Longhirst and of Ulgham, both in the County of Northumberland, in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom in 1893. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He was High Sheriff of County Durham in 1910. The second baron lost his son young, and on his death his younger brother succeeded to the barony. The third Baron was an army officer, whose elder son died in WWII without male issue, and he was thus succeeded by his younger son, the fourth baron. the titles are held by the latter's eldest son, the fifth Baron, who succeeded in 1993.

John Joicey, uncle of the first Baron, was a Liberal politician and coal owner.

The family seat is Etal Manor on the Ford Castle and Etal Castle estate.

Barons Joicey (1906)

 * James Joicey, 1st Baron Joicey (1846–1936)
 * James Arthur Joicey, 2nd Baron Joicey (1880–1940) Died 24 July 1940
 * Hugh Edward Joicey, 3rd Baron Joicey (1881–1966), second son of the first Baron.
 * Michael Edward Joicey, 4th Baron Joicey (1925–1993)
 * James Michael Joicey, 5th Baron Joicey (born 1953)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son the Hon. William James Joicey (born 1990)

Book cited

 * Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,
 * Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990,

title: Baron Joicey


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Micron Technology

Micron Technology, Inc. is an American producer of computer memory and computer data storage including dynamic random-access memory, flash memory, and USB flash drives. It is headquartered in Boise, Idaho. Its consumer products, including the Ballistix line of memory modules, are marketed under the Crucial brand. Micron and Intel together created IM Flash Technologies, which produced NAND flash memory. It owned Lexar between 2006 and 2017.

1978–1999
Micron was founded in Boise, Idaho, in 1978 by Ward Parkinson, Joe Parkinson, Dennis Wilson, and Doug Pitman as a semiconductor design consulting company. Startup funding was provided by local Idaho businessmen Tom Nicholson, Allen Noble, Rudolph Nelson, and Ron Yanke. Later it received funding from Idaho billionaire J. R. Simplot, whose fortune was made in the potato business. In 1981, the company moved from consulting to manufacturing with the completion of its first wafer fabrication unit ("Fab 1"), producing 64K DRAM chips.

In 1984 the company had its initial public offering.

In 1994 founder Joe Parkinson retired as CEO and Steve Appleton took over as Chairman, President, and CEO.

A 1996 3-way merger among ZEOS International, Micron Computer, and Micron Custom Manufacturing Services (MCMS) increased the size and scope of the company; this was followed rapidly with the 1997 acquisition of NetFrame Systems, in a bid to enter the mid-range server industry.

Since 2000
In 2000 Gurtej Singh Sandhu and Trung T. Doan at Micron initiated the development of atomic layer deposition high-k films for DRAM memory devices. This helped drive cost-effective implementation of semiconductor memory, starting with 90 nm node DRAM. Pitch double-patterning was also pioneered by Gurtej Singh Sandhu at Micron during the 2000s, leading to the development of 30-nm class NAND flash memory, and it has since been widely adopted by NAND flash and RAM manufacturers worldwide.

In 2002 Micron put its personal computer business up for sale. The company found the business difficult as the number 12 American computer maker with only 1.3 percent of the market.

Micron and Intel created a joint venture in 2005, based in IM Flash Technologies in Lehi, Utah. The two companies formed another joint venture in 2011, IM Flash Singapore, in Singapore. In 2012 Micron became sole owner of this second joint venture. In 2006 Micron acquired Lexar, an American manufacturer of digital media products.

The company again changed leadership in June 2007 with COO Mark Durcan becoming president. In 2008 Micron converted the Avezzano chip fab, formerly a Texas Instruments DRAM fab, into a production facility for CMOS image sensors sold by Aptina Imaging.

In 2008 Micron spun off Aptina Imaging, which was acquired by ON Semiconductor in 2014. Micron retained a stake in the spinoff. However, the core company suffered setbacks and had to layoff 15 percent of its workforce in October 2008, during which period the company also announced the purchase of Qimonda's 35.6 percent stake in Inotera Memories for $400 million. The trend of layoffs and acquisitions continued in 2009 with the termination of an additional 2,000 employees, and the acquisition of the FLCOS microdisplay company Displaytech. Micron agreed to buy flash-chip maker Numonyx for $1.27 billion in stock in February 2010.

On 3 February 2012 CEO Appleton died in a plane crash shortly after takeoff from the Boise Airport. He was the pilot and sole occupant of the Lancair IV aircraft. Mark Durcan replaced Appleton as the CEO shortly thereafter, eliminating his former title of President.

In 2013 the Avezzano chip fab was sold to LFoundry. In the 2012 to 2014 period, Micron again went through an acquisition-layoff cycle, becoming the majority shareholder of Inotera Memories, purchasing Elpida Memory for $2 billion and the remaining shares in Rexchip, a PC memory chip manufacturing venture between Powerchip and Elpida Memory for $334 million, while announcing plans to lay off approximately 3,000 workers. Through the Elpida acquisition, Micron became a major supplier to Apple Inc. for the iPhone and iPad. In December 2016 Micron finished acquiring the remaining 67 percent of Inotera, making it a 100 percent subsidiary of Micron.

In April 2017 Micron announced Sanjay Mehrotra as the new president and CEO to replace Mark Durcan. In June 2017 Micron announced it was discontinuing the Lexar retail removable media storage business and putting some or all it up for sale. In August of that year the Lexar brand was acquired by Longsys, a flash memory company based in Shenzhen, China.

In May 2018 Micron Technology and Intel launched QLC NAND memory to increase storage density. The company ranked 150th on the Fortune 500 list of largest United States corporations by revenue.

In February 2019 the first microSD card with a storage capacity of 1 terabyte (TB) was announced by Micron. As of March 2020 3.84TB Micron 5210 Ion is the cheapest large-capacity SSD in the world. In September 2020 the company introduced the world's fastest discrete graphics memory solution. Working with computing technology leader Nvidia, Micron debuted GDDR6X in the Nvidia GeForce RTX 3090 and GeForce RTX 3080 graphics processing units (GPUs). In November 2020, the company unveiled a new 176-layer 3D NAND module. It offers improved read and write latency and is slated to be used in the production of a new generation of solid-state drives.

On 22 October 2021, Micron closed the sale of IM Flash's Lehi, Utah fab to Texas Instruments for a sale price of US$900 million. With the passage of the CHIPS and Science Act, Micron announced its pledge to invest billions in new manufacturing within the US. In September 2022, Micron announced they would invest $15 billion in a new facility in Boise, Idaho. In October 2022 Micron announced a $100 billion expansion in Clay, New York.

Micron Technology owed Netlist $445 million in damages for infringing Netlist's patents related to memory-module technology for high-performance computing. The jury found that Micron's semiconductor-memory products violated two of Netlist's patents willfully, potentially allowing the judge to triple the damages. Netlist had sued Micron in 2022, accusing three of its memory-module lines of patent infringement, which Micron denied, also arguing the patents' invalidity. The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office invalidated one patent in April 2024.

Fujian Jinhua
On 5 December 2017 Micron sued rivals United Microelectronics Corporation and Fujian Jinhua Integrated Circuit Co. (JHICC) in the United States District Court for the Northern District of California, alleging infringement on its DRAM patents and intellectual property rights. The U.S. Justice Department in 2018 announced an indictment against Fujian Jinhua, and authorities added the Chinese firm to the Entity List the same year. Fujian Jinhua vehemently denied the claims, saying it had not stolen any technology, and that "Micron regards the development of Fujian Jinhua as a threat and adopts various means to hamper and destroy the development of Fujian Jinhua,"

In May 2023, the Cyberspace Administration of China barred major Chinese information infrastructure firms from purchasing Micron products, citing significant national security risks. The move was seen as retaliation against US sanctions on China's semiconductor industry and related export controls. In November 2023 Chinese chipmaker Yangtze Memory Technologies Corp (YMTC) filed a lawsuit against Micron alleging infringement of eight of its patents.

On February 27, 2024, Judge Maxine Chesney of the U.S. Federal District Court in San Francisco acquitted Fujian Jinhua Integrated Circuit, whom Micron had sued for IP theft, of the charge in a non-jury verdict, believing that there was insufficient evidence to support the charge.

YMTC
In 2024, YMTC sued Strand Consult, a Danish consulting firm funded by Micron for libel. YMTC alleged that the firm, who are the publishers of the China Tech Threat (CTT) website, had spread false information to discredit YMTC, including falsely claiming that YMTC supplies to the Chinese military, and that YMTC memory chips could "steal data and transmit it to Beijing". The report points out that Micron had tried to suppress competitors and maintain their market position through improper means by funding platforms such as "China Tech Threat."

title: Micron Technology


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Baron Jeffreys

Baron Jeffreys is a title that has been created twice, once in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The first creation came in the Peerage of England on 16 May 1685 when the lawyer and later Lord Chancellor, Sir George Jeffreys, 1st Baronet, was made Baron Jeffreys, of Wem. He had already been created a Baronet, of Bulstrode in the County of Buckingham, in the Baronetage of England in 1681. The titles became extinct on the death of his son, the second Baron, in 1702, who had no male heir: his daughter, the writer Henrietta Fermor, married the 1st Earl of Pomfret. The estates passed to Jeffreys's widow, Lady Charlotte Herbert, who later remarried as Viscountess Windsor.

The next creation came in the Peerage of the United Kingdom in 1952 when General George Jeffreys was made Baron Jeffreys, of Burkham in the County of Southampton. He had also served as Conservative Member of Parliament for Petersfield. Jeffreys's father Arthur Frederick Jeffreys had previously represented Basingstoke in Parliament, and had been admitted to the Privy Council in 1902. Lord Jeffreys was succeeded by his grandson, the second Baron, his son and heir Captain Christopher John Darell Jeffreys (1907–1940) having been killed in action in May 1940. the title is held by the second Baron's eldest son, the third Baron, who succeeded in 1986.

The family seat is Bottom Farm, near Grantham, Lincolnshire.

Baron Jeffreys, first creation (1685)

 * George Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys (1645–1689)
 * John Jeffreys, 2nd Baron Jeffreys (1673–1702)

Baron Jeffreys, second creation (1952)

 * George Darell Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys (1878–1960)
 * Mark George Christopher Jeffreys, 2nd Baron Jeffreys (1932–1986)
 * Christopher Henry Mark Jeffreys, 3rd Baron Jeffreys (born 1957)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Arthur Mark Henry Jeffreys (born 1989).

Line of succession

 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg General George Darell Jeffreys, 1st Baron Jeffreys (1878–1960)
 * Captain Christopher John Darell Jeffreys (1907–1940)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Mark George Christopher Jeffreys, 2nd Baron Jeffreys (1932–1986)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Christopher Henry Mark Jeffreys, 3rd Baron Jeffreys (born 1957)
 * (1) Hon. Arthur Mark Henry Jeffreys (born 1989)
 * (2) Hon. Alexander Charles Darell Jeffreys (born 1959)
 * Hon. George Christian Darell Jeffreys (1939–2010)
 * (3) Christopher George Hugo Jeffreys (born 1984)

title: Baron Jeffreys


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Action 52

Action 52 is an unlicensed multicart video game compilation developed by Active Enterprises for the Nintendo Entertainment System and by FarSight Technologies for the Sega Genesis. The NES version was released in 1991, followed by the Genesis version in 1993. The multicart consists of 52 games in a variety of genres, mostly scrolling shooters and platformers. The "featured" game is The Cheetahmen, which was part of Active's failed attempt to create a franchise similar to the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles. Active Enterprises was legally incorporated in The Bahamas, but the offices and development were located in Miami, Florida while the company's product warehousing was located in Orlando, Florida.

The NES version of Action 52 sold poorly and became infamous among gamers for the poor quality and functionality of its games; it is often considered to be one of the worst games of all time. The Genesis version is widely considered superior, though still of subpar quality. Many video game collectors value Action 52 for its notoriety and rarity. It initially retailed for the comparatively high price of US$199.

NES
The NES version of Action 52 includes games that cover a variety of genres, the most common types being vertical shooters set in outer space, and platformers. The games have major programming flaws. Some of them freeze or crash; other issues include incomplete or endless levels, confusing design, and unresponsive controls.

Each game is given a brief description in the manual for Action 52. Some of the descriptions cover games from the early development of Action 52 that were very different from the games of corresponding titles; for example, Jigsaw is described as a game involving a jigsaw puzzle, but the game titled as such on the final product is a platformer involving a construction worker avoiding construction tools.

The Cheetahmen is the featured game of Action 52, and was intended to launch a multimedia franchise and an accompanying line of merchandise. A Cheetahmen animated television series, a comic book series and T-shirts were planned. An advertisement for action figures, which included concept art, appeared in a promotional comic book included in the Action 52 package. However, these plans were eventually cancelled due to the extremely negative reception Action 52 received.

Active Enterprises advertised a contest involving Ooze, one of the games of Action 52. Players who could complete Level 6 of the game could enter a drawing for $104,000 ($52,000 cash, and a scholarship with the same value). Ooze was reported to consistently crash on Level 2; therefore, it was impossible to qualify for the contest without using an emulator; after the contest had been cancelled, a second version of Action 52 was released which fixed this crashing problem, among some others.

The opening sequence of the NES version uses a Yeah! Woo! drum break sampled from Rob Base and DJ E-Z Rock's song "It Takes Two."

Sega Genesis
Few of the games from the NES version of Action 52 appear in the Sega Genesis version; although many of the titles have been retained, the games themselves have been rebuilt from scratch for the most part. For example, Haunted Hills appears in both versions, but the player character's gender is different (female in the NES version and male in the Genesis version), as is the setting, which is inside a haunted house in the NES version, and outside of one in the Genesis version. In the Genesis version of The Cheetahmen, the titular characters rescue cheetah cubs from Dr. Morbis and his minions.

Many - though not all - of the numerous technical issues with the NES version have been fixed in the Genesis version, which also takes advantage of the Genesis's superior hardware. Each game is color-coded on the main menu screen; "Beginner" games are green, "Intermediate" games are purple, "Expert" games are yellow, "Challenge" games are white, and multiplayer games are blue. The 52nd game, also titled Challenge, consists of a random sequence of the highest levels of the other single-player games. Also included in the Genesis version are the Randomizer, which selects a game at random, and a music demo mode.

Development
The creator of Action 52 was Vince Perri, a businessman from Miami, Florida, and the owner and founder of Active Enterprises. According to Perri, "I happened to see my son playing an illegal product made in Taiwan that had 40 games on it. The whole neighborhood went crazy over it ... I figured I'd do it legally. It's obvious when you see something like that, you know there's something there". Perri met Mario González at a recording studio in Miami, Florida where González was working as a sound engineer. He overheard Perri talking to the owner of the studio about him wanting to create a cartridge similar to the bootleg one his son had that contained 52 original games. González informed Perri that he and his friends, Javier Pérez and Albert Hernández, were into making games; the trio created a Tetris clone called Megatris as proof of their abilities. Perri was impressed with the game and, alongside Raúl Gomila, hired them as well as an unknown fourth developer to create the game, with Hernández acting as the main programmer, González composing the music, and González, Pérez, and the fourth developer working on the graphics.

In 1993, Perri showcased Action 52 at the International Winter Consumer Electronics Show. He claimed to have raised $5 million for the multicart from private backers in Europe and Saudi Arabia. The developers, who used an Atari ST, were given three months to complete Action 52, leaving little time for playtesting and fixing bugs. Technical work was contracted out to Cronos Engineering, Inc., a Boca Raton company who had previously done work for IBM. González, one of the programmers, says that Action 52's developers were flown to Salt Lake City, Utah, where they were trained for a week on using an NES development kit by a video game company, the name of which he does not remember. However, he does recall that the company was developing an NES adaptation of The Empire Strikes Back; this would identify the company as Sculptured Software. Corroborating this is Action 52's use of Sculptured Software's NES music engine. Several pieces of music in the NES version of Action 52 were plagiarized from sample music composed by Ed Bogas for The Music Studio, published by Activision for the Atari ST. The games with plagiarized music include Fuzz Power, Silver Sword, French Baker, Streemerz, Time Warp Tickers and Ninja Assault. González also confirms that, in addition to many unused tiles, Action 52 has 8 extra game templates, because the distributor configured the cartridges to contain 60 games by default.

According to González, the gaming press's characterization of Action 52 as a "scam" is incorrect. He says that Perri, inspired by his neighborhood's reaction to the Taiwanese compilation, fully intended, at least in the beginning, to create and market a legitimate multicart. However, Perri knew little about the video game business when he launched his venture, and as a result made serious errors, such as entrusting the project to programmers who had too little experience, and giving them an insufficient length of time to develop Action 52. Perri's expectation that the multicart would launch a multimedia Cheetahmen franchise was similarly not well-founded, given the game's low quality.

The Sega Genesis version of Action 52 was developed by FarSight Technologies, under the direction of Jay Obernolte, using a Macintosh LC. FarSight's experienced programmers, along with the returning Pérez and Hernández (González opted not to participate, in order to spend more time with his girlfriend, whom he would eventually marry), were allowed to spend a year developing this version. FarSight insisted that Active Enterprises playtest it before its release; thus, the resulting multicart had far fewer glitches than the NES version released two years before. Mark Steven Miller and Jason Scher of Nu Romantic Productions composed the music for the Genesis version, in 48 hours. A version of the game for the SNES was planned for release in October 1993 but was canceled. Active Enterprises also planned to have FarSight develop another multicart titled Sports 5, but Active folded without releasing either game soon after, and no copies of them are known to exist.

Reception
Critical reaction to Action 52 has been consistently negative. AllGame editor Skyler Miller described the game as an "unlicensed but legal multicart" containing "NES games of extremely poor quality."

The entirety of Action 52 has also been famously reviewed by internet personality and YouTube content creator James Rolfe (as his persona, the Angry Video Game Nerd), which originally aired on YouTube on July 21, 2011. Despite his comedic exaggerations, the review pointed out severe cases of repeating themes, crashing or non-functional games, critical bugs, and misleading titles.

Destructoid called gave a highly critical review, noting that "there’s nothing worth playing in the lot."

A Rock, Paper, Shotgun retrospective review in 2019 delivered the similar criticism, stating that "all the games in the collection were creatively bankrupt rush jobs" and that the best games in the collection could be described as "minigames which functioned."

Atlas Obscura gave similar criticism and noted that there was a remake project in 2010 to remake all of the games in the cartridge due to their low quality and that 23 were completed, but no updates have come from the project since then.

title: Action 52


text:
Károly Kerényi

Károly Kerényi (Kerényi Károly, ; 19 January 1897 – 14 April 1973), also known as Karl Kerényi and Karl Kerenyi, was a Hungarian scholar in classical philology and one of the founders of modern studies of Greek mythology.

Hungary, 1897–1943
Kerényi was born in Temesvár, Austria-Hungary (now Timișoara, Romania) to Hungarian parents of partly German origin. His father’s family was of Swabian peasant descent. His mother was Karolina Halász. Kerényi learnt German as a foreign language at school, and later chose it as his language for scientific work. He identified himself with the city of Arad, where he attended secondary school, because of its liberal spirits as the city of the 13 martyrs of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848/49. He moved on to study classical philology at the University of Budapest where he mostly appreciated the teaching of the Latinist Géza Némethy as well as of the Indo-Germanist Josef Schmidt.

After graduation, he travelled extensively in the Mediterranean region and spent time as a visiting student at the Universities of Greifswald, Berlin and Heidelberg, learning from the professors of antiquity and classical philology: Eduard Norden, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff and Franz Boll. In 1919, Kerényi earned his doctorate in Budapest with a dissertation on Plato and Longinus, Investigations in Classical Literary and Aesthetic History.

Subsequently, he taught Greek and Latin in a secondary school. He earned his postdoctoral lecture qualification (habilitation) in 1927, and was asked in 1934 to become a professor of classical philology and ancient history (Griechische und Lateinische Philologie und Alte Geschichte) at the University of Pécs. In Budapest, he continued to lecture as private docent on the history of religions, classical literature and mythology. These were weekly events that were attended by many intellectuals because of their liberal connotations.

After Hungary experienced a strong move to the political right in 1940, the University system was reformed, submitting itself to political pressure. Professors who didn’t subordinate themselves were concentrated at the University of Szeged. Correspondingly, Kerényi was sent there in 1941 against his will, to teach classical antiquity.

The liberal, pro-western prime minister Miklós Kállay attempted in 1943 to reverse the Nazi-friendly politics of the prior years. He started to send liberal scientists who had already made themselves a name to Western Europe, to show that a liberal, anti-fascist Hungary also existed. As part of this push, the foreign ministry offered Kerényi the opportunity to spend a year in Switzerland with diplomatic status. He accepted on condition that he would stay in Ticino, on the shore of Lago Maggiore, instead of the capital Bern.

When the Germans entered Hungary in 1944 and installed a right-wing government, Kerényi returned his passport. Like many other Hungarians at the time residing in Switzerland with diplomatic status, he thereby became overnight a stateless, political refugee.

Switzerland, 1943–1973
Since 1941, Károly Kerényi was lecturing at the Eranos-conferences in Ascona (Switzerland), to which he had been invited by Carl Gustav Jung. This regular contact with the Swiss psychologist had originally established the connection to Switzerland, which ultimately led to the permanent emigration to the Italian-speaking canton of Ticino. During 1946/47 Kerényi lectured on Hungarian language and literature at the University of Basel. In 1947, he travelled to Hungary to give his inauguration speech at the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, with the intent of contributing to the democratic development of Hungary. However, due to warnings of the imminent communist overthrow under Mátyás Rákosi, Kerényi immediately left Budapest again. During the following Stalinist dictatorship, he was discredited and banned by the political propaganda under György Lukács, the leading communist ideologist. His academic title was withdrawn and only as late as 1989 it was reinstated post mortem.

In Switzerland, between 1945 and 1968, the substantial body of his work was written and published. Despite the fact that he was considered an academic outsider, it was during that time that he developed his largest influence as one of the latest representatives of the great tradition of humanistic scholars of antiquity. Over the course of two decades, from 1934 to 1955, Kerényi maintained an active correspondence with the German writer Thomas Mann on many topics, including mythology, religion, humanism and psychology. Since his emigration, Kerényi additionally held positions as visiting professor at several universities, including Bonn (1955/56), Oslo and Rome (1960), Zurich (1961) and Genoa (1964). Between 1960 and 1971, he held annual lectures at conferences of the institute of philosophy of the University of Rome. From 1948 until 1966, Kerényi was co-founder and research director at the C. G. Jung Institute in Küsnacht/Zurich, where he held lectures on mythology until 1962. During these years, he lived near the Monte Verità in Ascona. In 1962, he received Swiss citizenship.

Károly Kerényi died on 14 April 1973 in Kilchberg/Zurich and he is buried in the cemetery of Ascona. His second wife, Magda Kerényi, dedicated her subsequent life to the maintenance and promotion of Kerényi’s legacy. Since her death in 2004, all documentation of Kerényi’s life (photos, correspondence, manuscripts, etc.) that hadn’t been destroyed in Budapest during the war, are archived and accessible at the German Archive for Literature in Marbach (near Stuttgart). His comprehensive library and the estate of Magda Kerényi are at the University of Pécs, where a street has also been named after him.

Philological foundation
In early years, Károly Kerényi was mainly influenced by philosophers like Schopenhauer, Bachofen and Nietzsche, writers like Hölderlin and Rilke, and scholars like Wilhelm von Humboldt. At the time of his studies of classical philology, Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff was the most influential philologist. However, for Kerényi, Erwin Rohde’s line of thought on the fictional literature in antiquity was more important. This led to his first book ''Die griechisch-orientalische Romanliteratur in religionsgeschichtlicher Beleuchtung. Ein Versuch (The Greek-Oriental Romances in the Light of the History of Religions)'', with which he earned his postdoctoral qualification.

Early afterwards, in 1929, Kerényi grew weary of the official scholarly line of philology. He increasingly saw the objective of philology in critically analyzing the written record of antiquity as a representation of real life, just like archeology is dedicated to the record of antiquity through actual touch. The first steps away from the official line were his early books Apollon (a collection of essays) and Die antike Religion (Religion in Antiquity). Throughout his life, Kerényi explored every classical site of the entire Mediterranean. In 1929, he met Walter F. Otto in Greece for the first time, who would prove to influence him greatly. Otto inspired Kerényi to focus on the religious element of human life in antiquity as the core element, thereby combining the historical with the theological focus. This is highlighted in his works Mythologie der Griechen and Mysterien der Eleusis (Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter).

Dissociation from Wilamowitz and the German idea of myth
Thereafter, Károly Kerényi consciously started to distance himself from the philology taught by Wilamowitz. In Kerényi’s understanding, Wilamowitz’ approach stood for an authoritarianism that lay beneath the emergence of National Socialism in Germany, which he couldn’t ethically support. Kerényi hence developed an increasingly hostile position towards the German idea of myth, which was used as reference by Nazi-Germany. As early as 1934, he expressed his clear-sighted horror at the radicalizing developments in Germany. It became a continuous objective of Kerényi to establish a liberal and human-psychological idea of myth that could not be abused for nationalistic ideology. This also influenced his position towards several of his scientific mentors. With regards to Wilamowitz, this was most pronounced, but later, Kerényi also started to distance himself from those aspects in Otto’s and Mann’s understanding of myth that he saw reflected in German nationalism.

Psychological expansion of mythology
Károly Kerényi’s scientific interpretation of the figures of Greek mythology as archetypes of the human soul was in line with the approach of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung. Together with Jung, he endeavored to establish mythology as a science in its own right. Jung described Kerényi as having "supplied such a wealth of connections [of psychology] with Greek mythology that the cross-fertilization of the two branches of science can no longer be doubted." Kerényi compiled in collaboration with Jung the two editions Das göttliche Kind in mythologischer und psychologischer Beleuchtung (The Myths of the Divine Child) and Das göttliche Mädchen (The Divine Maiden), which were published together under the title Einführung in das Wesen der Mythologie (Essays on a Science of Mythology) in 1941. Kerényi saw the theory of religion as a human and humanistic topic which coined his reputation as humanist further. For him, every view of mythology had to be a view of man – and hence theology always had to be at the same time, anthropology. In this humanist spirit, Kerényi defined himself as philological-historical as well as psychological scholar. In later years, Kerényi evolved his psychological interpretation further and replaced the concept of archetypes with one that he labeled ’Urbild’. This became particularly clear in some of his most important publications: Prometheus, as well as in Dionysos, likely Kerényi’s most crucial work, which he had started as an idea in 1931 and finished writing in 1969. Kerényi hence looked at the appearances in Greek religion not as curiosities, but as expressions of real human experience. As a historian of myth as it was embedded in the details of Hellenic culture, its "characteristic social existence" as he put it, Kerényi opposed his "differentiated thinking about the concrete realities of human life" with the "summary thinking" that represented for him the influence of Sir James Frazer on the study of the peoples of antiquity and Greek religion especially.

Kerényi as cultural anthropologist
Not least as a result of his own personal experience, Károly Kerényi highlighted the role of the philologist as interpreter, whereby "the better he interprets, the more he becomes himself the subject, both as receiver as well as messenger. His whole essence and being, his structure and his own experiences, become a factor that cannot be overlooked for interpretation.” In this sense, Kerényi’s understanding of science was very modern in 1944. In a time when human sciences were trying to establish themselves as objective-scientific, he recognized that the only means by which to achieve scientific objectivity was by disclosing each scholar's own individual subjectivity. Kerényi also anticipated a paradigm shift of the late 20th century, by subscribing to an interdisciplinary approach that combined the subjects of human sciences including literature, art, history, philosophy and religion. The inclusion of fictional writing into his studies of mythology and humanism is also documented by the publications of his correspondence with Thomas Mann and Hermann Hesse. Kerényi published a further series of thoughts on European humanism in 1955 with the title Geistiger Weg Europas (Europe’s Intellectual Journey). Among the numerous personalities with whom Kerényi maintained important personal and scholarly interaction were the Hungarian poets László Németh, Antal Szerb and Pál Gulyás, the psychologist Leopold Szondi, the writer Otto Heuschele and the historian Carl Jacob Burckhardt. Thanks to his essay-style, Kerényi managed to speak a language that was easily understandable, but it also meant he remained relatively isolated in academic philology.

In Hungary, Károly Kerényi’s scientific achievements remained during his lifetime only known to a small circle of intellectuals. Of all his publications, only few have been published in Hungarian. As a prominent member of the former Hungarian intellectual establishment and the bearer of an aristocratic name, he was banished from Hungarian cultural life since the 1940s for being too liberal, first by the right-wing pro-Nazi governments, and later by the communist regime. Even though Kerényi was fiercely defended by famous Hungarian writers like Laszlo Németh and Antal Szerb, it took until the 1980s before his complete moral and scholarly rehabilitation took place. The Hungarian writer Antal Szerb has modeled some features of Károly Kerényi into the figure Rudi Waldheim in his novel Journey by Moonlight.

Honors and awards

 * 1929: Scholarship at the German Archeological Institute in Athens
 * 1931: Medal of Honor of George I of Greece
 * 1946: Baumgarten Prize
 * 1947: Fellowship of the Bollingen Foundation (maintained until 1973)
 * 1961: Member of the Royal Norwegian Society of Sciences and Letters
 * 1963: Honorary doctorate of the Theological Faculty of the University of Uppsala
 * 1969: Gold medal of the Humboldt Society
 * 1970: Pirckheimer-Ring of the City of Nuremberg
 * 1989: Post mortem: Member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
 * 1990: Széchenyi Prize of the Hungarian Government

Works and publications
First editions:
 * Apollon. Studien über antike Religion und Humanität (Apollo: The Wind, the Spirit, and the God) (1937)
 * Das ägäische Fest. Die Meergötterszene in Goethes Faust II (1941)
 * Der Mythos der Hellenen in Meisterwerken der Münzkunst (1941)
 * Einführung in das Wesen der Mythologie (C. G. Jung/Károly Kerényi) (1942)
 * Pseudo-Antisthenés, beszélgetések a szerelemről (1943)
 * Hermes, der Seelenführer (Hermes: Guide of Souls) (1943)
 * Mysterien der Kabiren (1944)
 * Töchter der Sonne, Betrachtungen über griechische Gottheiten (Goddesses of Sun and Moon) (1944)
 * Bachofen und die Zukunft des Humanismus. Mit einem Intermezzo über Nietzsche und Ariadne (1945)
 * Die Geburt der Helena samt humanistischen Schriften aus den Jahren 1943–45 (1945)
 * Prometheus. Das griechische Mythologem von der menschlichen Existenz (Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence) (1946)
 * Der Göttliche Arzt. Studien über Asklepius und seine Kultstätte (Asklepios: Archetypal Image of the Physician's Existence) (1948')
 * Niobe. Neue Studien über Antike Religion und Humanität (1949)
 * Mensch und Maske (1949)
 * Pythagoras und Orpheus. Präludien zu einer zukünftigen Geschichte der Orphik und des Pythagoreismus (1950)
 * Labyrinth-Studien (1950)
 * Die Mythologie der Griechen (The Mythology of the Greeks)
 * Volume 1: Die Götter- und Menschheitsgeschichten (Gods of the Greeks) (1951)
 * Volume 2: Die Heroen der Griechen (The Heroes of the Greeks) [later also published as Heroengeschichten or Heroen-Geschichten] (1958)
 * Die Jungfrau und Mutter der griechischen Religion. Eine Studie über Pallas Athene (Athene: Virgin and Mother in Greek Religion) (1952)
 * Stunden in Griechenland, Horai Hellenikai (1952)
 * Unwillkürliche Kunstreisen. Fahrten im alten Europa 1952 (1954)
 * Geistiger Weg Europas: Fünf Vorträge über Freud, Jung, Heidegger, Thomas Mann, Hofmannsthal, Rilke, Homer und Hölderlin, Zürich (1955)
 * Umgang mit Göttlichem (1955)
 * Griechische Miniaturen (1957)
 * Gespräch in Briefen (Mythology and Humanism: The Correspondence of Thomas Mann and Karl Kerényi) (Thomas Mann/Károly Kerényi) (1960)
 * Streifzüge eines Hellenisten, Von Homer zu Kazantzakis (1960)
 * Der frühe Dionysos (1961)
 * Prometheus – Die menschliche Existenz in griechischer Deutung (1962)
 * Die Mysterien von Eleusis (Eleusis: Archetypal Image of Mother and Daughter) (1962)
 * Tessiner Schreibtisch (1963)
 * Die Religion der Griechen und Römer (The Religion of the Greeks and Romans) (1963)
 * Die Eröffnung des Zugangs zum Mythos (1967)
 * Der antike Roman (1971)
 * Briefwechsel aus der Nähe (Hermann Hesse/Károly Kerényi) (1972)
 * Zeus und Hera. Urbild des Vaters, des Gatten und der Frau (Zeus and Hera: Archetypal Image of Father, Husband and Wife) (1972)
 * Oedipus Variations: Studies in Literature and Psychoanalysis (James Hillman/Károly Kerényi) (1991)

Complete Works:
 * Complete Works in Individual Volumes, Magda Kerényi (ed.). Eight parts in nine volumes. Langen-Müller, Munich 1966–1988
 * Volume 1: Humanistische Seelenforschung (1966)
 * Volume 2: Auf Spuren des Mythos (1967)
 * Volume 3: Tage- und Wanderbücher 1953–1960 (1969)
 * Volume 4: Apollon und Niobe (1980)
 * Volume 5: Wege und Weggenossen (2 Bde., 1985 u. 1988)
 * Volume 6: (not published)
 * Volume 7: Antike Religion (1971)
 * Volume 8: Dionysos : Urbild des unzerstörbaren Lebens (1976)
 * Complete Works in Individual Volumes, Magda Kerényi (ed.). Five volumes. Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart 1994–1998
 * Volume 1: Dionysos : Urbild des unzerstörbaren Lebens (1994)
 * Volume 2: Antike Religion (1995)
 * Volume 3: Humanistische Seelenforschung (1996)
 * Volume 4: Die Mythologie der Griechen (Two volumes, 1997)
 * Volume 5: Urbilder der griechischen Religion: Asklepios. Prometheus. Hermes. Und die Mysterien der Kabiren (1998)

References and sources

 * References

 * Sources
 * Magda Kerényi: A Bibliography of C. Kerényi, in Dionysos: Archetypal Image of Indestructible Life. Bollingen Series LXV:2, Princeton 1976, pp. 445–474
 * Giuseppe Martorana (ed.), Károly Kerényi: La storia delle religioni nella cultura del Novecento, Mythos 7, 1995
 * Luciano Arcella (ed.), Károly Kerényi: Incontro con il divino, Roma 1999
 * János Gy. Szilágyi (ed.): Mitológia és humanitás. Tanulmányok Kerényi Károly 100. születésnapjára, Budapest 1999
 * Renate Schlesier and Roberto Sanchiño Martinez (eds.): Neuhumanismus und Anthropologie des griechischen Mythos. Karl Kerényi im europäischen Kontext des 20. Jahrhunderts (Modern Humanism and Anthropology of the Greek Mythology – Károly Kerényi in the European Context of the 20th Century). (Locarno 2006), ISBN 88-85688-08-X

title: Károly Kerényi


text:
Toronto-Dominion Centre

The Toronto-Dominion Centre, or TD Centre, is an office complex of six skyscrapers in the Financial District of downtown Toronto owned by Cadillac Fairview. It serves as the global headquarters for its anchor tenant, the Toronto-Dominion Bank, and provides office and retail space for many other businesses. The complex consists of six towers and a pavilion covered in bronze-tinted glass and black-painted steel. Approximately 21,000 people work in the complex, making it the largest commercial office complex in Canada.

The project was the inspiration of Allen Lambert, former president and chairman of the board of the Toronto-Dominion Bank. Sister-in-law Phyllis Lambert recommended Ludwig Mies van der Rohe as design consultant to the architects, John B. Parkin and Associates and Bregman + Hamann, and the Fairview Corporation as the developer. The towers were completed between 1967 and 1991. An additional building was built outside the campus and purchased in 1998. As Mies was given "virtually a free hand to create Toronto-Dominion Centre", the complex, as a whole and in its details, is a classic example of his unique take on the International style and represents the end evolution of Mies's North American period.

Background
After the 1955 merger of the Bank of Toronto and the Dominion Bank solidified in 1962, the Toronto-Dominion bank directors decided to commission a new headquarters to demonstrate the bank's emergence as a reputable national institution. Allen Lambert, past-president and chairman of the board of the Toronto-Dominion Bank, secured a cooperative partnership in the late 1950s with the Bronfman-owned developer, Fairview Corporation (now Cadillac Fairview); this marked a first for the development process in Canada, in that a bank, rather than creating its head office alone, had aligned itself with real estate interests and the city to influence urban space. The partnership was established as a 50–50 relationship, with the bank having the final say on the design of the complex and Phyllis Lambert—sister-in-law to Allen Lambert and a member of the Bronfman family—was called in as an advisor on the TD Centre competition. Gordon Bunshaft, then chief designer of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, was hired by the consortium. His proposal called for exterior structural supports for the main office tower, which then necessitated piston-like slip joints at the roof level to deal with weather-related expansion and contraction of the structure. Phyllis Lambert objected to this submission, later stating in an interview that it "was a ridiculous proposal on many levels.... Even in a milder climate, it would have been problematic." Bunshaft, due to his refusal to redesign, was relieved of his commission.

This left John Parkin, the local architect who would have worked with the American Bunshaft, to design Toronto-Dominion Centre. His firm put forward a model showing a 100-storey, all-concrete tower—to be the largest in the Commonwealth—standing over a plaza with a sunken courtyard containing a circular banking pavilion. It was at this point that Phyllis Lambert insisted that Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (whom she knew from having been the director of planning on his Seagram Building) be called for an interview. Mies was unimpressed by Parkin's concept and wondered why one would design a building to be entered through its basement. With this, the Parkin proposal was scrapped and Allen Lambert was convinced to bring Mies on board. Though he was technically commissioned as the design consultant to the local architects (who were still John B. Parkin and Associates, but partnered with Bregman + Hamann Architects), the project was essentially Mies's design in its entirety, demonstrating all the key characteristics of the architect's unique style.

The choice of Mies and his design gave the project the added significance of being a symbol of Toronto's emergence as a major city. It also marked Mies's last major work before his death in 1969. This followed the precedent set by the previous incarnation of the Toronto-Dominion Bank: the Bank of Toronto's 1862 office at Wellington and Church Streets had been designed by William Kauffman and its 1913 Beaux-Arts headquarters were conceived by Carrère and Hastings. Both firms were the most renowned and respected architects of their times.

Construction
The development of the TD Centre required Fairview to acquire a full city block of downtown Toronto, except for some frontages on Bay Street and at the corner of King and York Streets. Among notable losses from the subsequent demolition were the Rossin House Hotel, which dated to the 1850s and was once one of the city's preeminent hotels. The Carrère and Hastings Bank of Toronto headquarters, at the southwest corner of King and Bay Streets, was also razed despite protests urging that the Beaux-Arts building be incorporated into the new centre. Fairview officials brushed these aside and said that it "did not fit in". Elements of the old edifice can still be found as relics in Guild Park and Gardens, in Scarborough.

The first structure completed was the Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower (now the TD Bank Tower) in 1967. Though the complex remained unfinished, the official opening took place on 16 May of that year to coincide with the Canadian Centennial celebrations, with Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy, presiding, accompanied by her husband, Sir Angus Ogilvy. At 222.8 m, the tower was the tallest building in Canada when completed. The completion of the banking pavilion and the Royal Trust Tower (now the TD North Tower) followed in 1968 and 1969, respectively. The Commercial Union Tower (now the TD West Tower) was added in 1974 and was the first on the site not conceived by Mies in his plan. It was followed by the IBM Tower (now the TD South Tower), built south of Wellington Street across from the original campus in 1985. The 23-storey building at 95 Wellington Street was completed in 1987 and contains 330000 sqft. Cadillac Fairview acquired it in 1998 and incorporated it into Toronto-Dominion Centre. Finally with little available space left on or near the block, the final building—the Ernst & Young Tower (now 222 Bay Street)—was constructed in 1992 over the existing 1930s Toronto Stock Exchange.

1960s–2000
From November 27–30, 1967, the 54th floor of the newly finished Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower was the venue of the centennial year Confederation of Tomorrow conference, a summit of provincial premiers (except for W.A.C. Bennett) convened by Ontario Premier John Robarts. It was an unsuccessful attempt to achieve a provincial agreement for amendments to the constitution of Canada proposed by Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.

In 1993, Garry Hoy, a 39-year-old lawyer of Holden Day Wilson, plunged 24 floors to his death after repeatedly charging a window while attempting to demonstrate its strength to a group of visiting law students.

21st century
The original three buildings and the plazas of Toronto–Dominion Centre were together recognized as a part of Ontario's built heritage in 2005, when an Ontario Heritage Trust plaque was unveiled by Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, his wife, Sophie, Countess of Wessex, and former lieutenant governor of Ontario Lincoln Alexander. The complex has been designated under Part IV of the Ontario Heritage Act since 2003. The designation notes "The Toronto-Dominion Centre is an outstanding example of the International Style of architecture." The concrete foundations, the load-bearing black-painted steel frames, the bronze-tinted glass curtain walls with mullions and a grid of exposed and painted steel I-beams, the revolving doors at the bases and, on the towers, the pilotis, are noted architectural features on the exterior of the buildings. Inside, "the interior finishes (granite, marble, travertine, and oak) and custom-built fittings in the Banking Pavilion, in the lobbies of the Toronto-Dominion Bank Tower and the Royal Trust Tower" are recognized heritage attributes.

In 2007, the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada declared the TD Centre a masterpiece of the twentieth century.

In May 2017, to mark the 50th anniversary of the complex and Canada's 150th birthday, the buildings became the canvas of an art exhibition by Montreal artist Aude Moreau in which the buildings were used as a canvas to spell out “LESS IS MORE OR,” a take on Mies van der Rohe's famous expression. While this type of installation had been done elsewhere, this was the largest undertaking of its kind in the world.

Site
As with the Seagram Building and a number of Mies's subsequent projects, the Toronto-Dominion Centre follows the theme of the darkly coloured, steel and glass edifice set in an open plaza, itself surrounded by a dense and erratic, pre-existing urban fabric. The TD Centre, however, comprises a collection of structures spread across a granite plinth, all regulated in three dimensions and from the largest scale to the smallest, by a mathematically ordered, 1.5 m2 grid. Three structures were conceived: a low banking pavilion anchoring the site at the corner of King and Bay Streets, the main tower in the centre of the site, and another tower in the northwest corner, each structure offset to the adjacent by one bay of the governing grid, allowing views to 'slide' open or closed as an observer moves across the court. The rectilinear pattern of Saint-Jean granite pavers follows the grid, serving to organize and unify the complex, and the plaza's surface material extends through the glass lobbies of the towers and the banking pavilion, blurring the distinction between interior and exterior space. The remaining voids between the buildings create space for the plaza and lawn.

Phyllis Lambert wrote of the centre and the arrangement of its elements within the site: "With the Toronto-Dominion Centre, Mies realized an architecture of movement, and yet at the same time, through proportional relations among parts and whole, and through the restrained use of fine materials, this is also an architecture of repose. The light as it moves across the building surfaces, playing the mullions like stringed instruments, and the orchestration of the various buildings are together paradigmatically symphonic."

More towers were added over the ensuing decades, outside the periphery of the original site—as they were not part of Mies's master plan for the TD Centre—but still positioned close enough, and in such locations, as to visually impact the sense of space within areas of the centre, forming Miesian western and southern walls to the lawn and a tall eastern flank to the plaza.

Pavilion
The banking pavilion is a double-height structure housing the main branch of the bank. It contains fifteen 22.9 m2 modules within a single interior space, with smaller areas inside the pavilion cordoned off using counters and cabinets, all built with the typical rich materials of Mies's palette—marble, English oak, and granite. The roof of the building is made of deep steel I-sections, each beam supported on only one steel I-section column at each end, all combined to create a waffle-grid ceiling resting on a row of corresponding, equally spaced columns around the periphery. This structure was both a further development on the post office pavilion of the Federal Center in Chicago—which has fewer expressed columns and a second level balcony—and a precursor to the Neue Nationalgalerie completed in Berlin in 1968—which had a similar roof supported on only eight large steel columns. The TD Centre pavilion was described by The Globe and Mail as "among the best spaces Mies ever made".

The banking pavilion's living roof was installed as part of Cadillac Fairview's goal of having the entire complex LEED-certified by 2013. It is intended to help protect the building from solar heat gain, reduce storm runoff, and contributes to air quality.

TD Conference Centre
The area below the Pavilion serves as the TD Bank Conference Centre, completed in 2018.

The space was originally home to a 690-seat Famous Players movie theatre, which would prove to be one of the most fertile palettes for Mies's minimalist aesthetic. The first screenings were Wait Until Dark and Reflections in a Golden Eye. The cinema was used for gala events such as the Canadian Film Awards, now the Canadian Screen Awards, and the Toronto International Film Festival. The theatre operated for approximately one decade until, in 1978, the space was repurposed in light of the proliferation of multiplexes throughout the city. The space was used for offices and storage until its eventual transformation into a conference centre.

Public space
Between the towers are two large expanses, collectively known as Oscar Peterson Place. The northern space contains a more formal tract of granite, while the southern space contains the lawn and features The Pasture, a sculpture by Saskatchewan artist Joe Fafard, who died in early 2019. In addition to serving as sanctuaries for building occupants, the plazas have hosted events spanning music, athletics, entertainment and fundraising. The plazas were the first examples of privately provided large-scale public outdoor spaces within the urban core of Toronto. The space was named as part of the Toronto Legacy Project; Montreal-born jazz legend Oscar Peterson was on-hand for the ceremony.

Towers
The height of each of Mies's two towers is proportioned to its width and depth. All, save for 95 Wellington Street West, are of similar construction and appearance: the frame is of structural steel, including the core (containing elevators, stairs, washrooms, and other service spaces), and floor plates are of concrete poured on steel deck. The lobby is a double-height space on the ground floor, articulated by large sheets of plate glass held back from the exterior column line, providing for an overhang around the perimeter of the building, behind which the travertine-clad elevator cores are the only elements to touch the ground plane. Above the lobby, the building envelope is curtain wall made of bronze-coloured glass in a matte-black painted steel frame, with exposed I-sections attached to the vertical mullions and structural columns; the modules of this curtain wall are 1.5 m by 2.7 m, thereby conforming to the overall site template.

The south side of the 54th floor houses Canoe, an Oliver & Bonacini restaurant.

The 55th floor of the TD Bank Tower is now leased office space but was originally a large public indoor observation platform. This promontory allowed uninterrupted views of the development of the downtown core that the TD Centre had itself helped to spark, as well as Lake Ontario to the south. The floor was repurposed to office space when the CN Tower was completed in 1976, offering a viewing height of 447 m.

Underground concourse
The shopping concourse was seamlessly integrated beneath the towers — the first such mall in Canada — and was the genesis of Toronto's PATH system. Extending into this area was Mies's strict design sense; it was fitted in the same black aluminum and travertine as the main lobbies above. To maintain the clean and ordered aesthetic of the environment, Mies stipulated, with the backing of Phyllis and Alan Lambert, that the storefronts consist only of the glass panels and black aluminium that he specified. Even signage graphics were restricted to only white backlit letters within a black aluminium panel and only in the specific font that Mies had designed for the TD Centre. Renovations to the mall, beginning in the late 1990s, caused some controversy within the architectural community as building management, under pressure from retail tenants seeking greater visibility, relaxed the strict design guidelines and allowed more individual signage. Ceilings were also renovated from the original flat drywall planes with recessed lights to coffered ceilings.

Occupants
The Toronto-Dominion Bank serves as the anchor tenant of the office complex.

TD Gallery of Inuit Art
The TD Gallery of Inuit Art is a permanent gallery located in the southern half of the TD South Tower lobby. It is open to the public, free, through a partnership between TD Bank, the world's largest collector of Inuit art, and Cadillac Fairview, the property owner in whose lobby space the gallery is hosted.

The bank's association with Inuit art can be traced to the Northwest Territories, where branch manager Allen Lambert oversaw its Yellowknife operation from 1946 to 1947. The branch was a two-room log cabin, with Lambert working in the front and living in the back. Lambert developed a keen interest in the art being produced by local artists. Twenty years later, as Chairman of the Toronto-Dominion Bank, he launched a Centennial project that would establish the bank as a strong ally in providing Inuit art with exposure within the organization and beyond.

Design Exchange
The easternmost tower, 222 Bay Street, contains in its base the historic Toronto Stock Exchange building, built in 1937. Since 1994, it has been home to the Design Exchange (‘DX'), Canada’s only museum dedicated to "design excellence". The genesis of the Design Exchange was a citizen movement seeking a centre that would celebrate the role of design in society. The group worked with the city for several years to bring the concept to fruition and, in 1994, the Design Exchange was officially opened by Prime Minister Jean Chrétien.

Design Exchange has mounted hundreds of exhibitions, seminars, lectures, conferences and educational programs related to the role of design in culture, industry, and business. In 2017, DX launched a 10-day festival called Expo for Design, Innovation & Technology (EDIT), in partnership with the United Nations Development Programme.

Branding system and signage
The TD Centre represents one of commercial real estate's most comprehensive branding systems. Sans Copperplate Gothic was Mies's signature font, as he believed it reflected the calmness and order of the architecture, and he decreed that it be used universally throughout the TD Centre. To this day, the font is used not just on exterior signs and wayfinding, but also for such communications as artwork captions, fire hose cases and designated smoking areas.

Originally, the branding system extended to the stores in the underground shopping mall, such that all of the storefronts displayed their names in an identical font in white against black. However, in the late 1990s, under pressure from retail tenants seeking greater visibility, building management relaxed its requirements and allowed stores to customize their signage to their individual brands. This caused some controversy within the design and architecture community.

There was further controversy in 2015 when TD Bank affixed its green-and-white logo atop two of the towers. Although these signs contravene Mies's strict minimalist vision, the city could not and did not officially oppose the move because the two towers in question were built after Mies's death and are not designated as historic. TD Bank had previously been the sole member of the Big Five banks not to have its logo visible on the Toronto skyline, until a green-and-white "TD" logo was added to spire of the Canada Trust Tower in 2000.

Programs
The TD Centre often participates in the annual Doors Open Toronto, providing visitors with behind-the-scenes access to various parts of the property. The 54th-floor executive office space is often showcased but, for 2019, the focus was the recently completed conference centre.

Environment
The TD Centre has developed one of the most comprehensive environmental programs in the Canadian real estate industry, “promoting sweeping sustainability initiatives across the complex.” In 2004, the TD Centre was one of the founding sponsors of the Enwave Deep Lake Cooling System, which significantly reduces the need for air conditioning during the summer months. In 2009, a living roof consisting of 11,000 grass plants was installed atop the 22,000 ft² banking pavilion through a partnership with TD Bank. The planter boxes maintain the 1.5m² grid pattern of the pavilion's ceiling below, allowing the roof to also give new life to Mies's original vision. The property has a waste diversion rate of 84%, almost double the industry average. It has reduced its annual carbon footprint by over 50%, from 12over 50,000 tCO2e in 2008 to 19,500 tCO2e in 2018. It has reduced irrigation water usage by 60% through a wireless Nano-Climate system. It was an early adopter of daytime cleaning, which led to reduced energy usage and improved quality of life for the complex's 180 cleaning staff. By 2015, all six towers were certified to LEED EB: O&M Platinum and BOMA BEST (three Gold, three Platinum). In 2017, the 222 Bay Street Tower received WELL gold-level certification, the first existing building in North America to do so. Also in 2017, the TD Centre was the first existing building in Canada to achieve Platinum under the Wired standard. The TD Centre has been publishing an annual sustainability report since 2013.

In popular culture
The TD Bank Tower is used for exterior shots of Jabot Cosmetics' headquarters on the CBS daytime soap opera, The Young and the Restless.

The TD Bank Tower and TD North Tower are used for exterior and lobby shots of the Pierce & Pierce offices in the 2000 film American Psycho.

title: Toronto-Dominion Centre


text: User:33 Degrees

title: User:33 Degrees


text:
Talk:Night monkey

Color vision?
Quote:
 * Unusually among the New World monkeys, they are monochromats, that is, they have no colour vision [...]

Interestingly, the corresponding entry in the German Wikipedia claims that Night monkeys do have color vision and that this shows that they are descended from diurnal ancestors. What's up with this? --Naddy 14:27, 17 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Quote:
 * They are called night monkeys because they are active at night and are in fact the only truly nocturnal monkeys.[...]

This needs a reference.--joeyo 15:24, 26 June 2006 (UTC)

It's technically an oversimplification since Argentinian owl monkeys, A. a. azarae, are cathemeral (active both day and night). http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/owl_monkey Jcblackmon (talk) 00:46, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

 * Do you know if that applies to the species Aotus azarae in general or just the subspecies A. a. azarae? Rlendog (talk) 03:18, 9 August 2008 (UTC)
 * Just the subspecies. - UtherSRG (talk) 09:51, 9 August 2008 (UTC)

extinct species Insulacebus toussaintiana
I'm going to update the taxobox on Insulacebus to have the genus be in family Aotidae. I plan to also update this page to have a small amount of info on that species. Should be similar to the info at titi or Cebidae, as a couple of examples. - UtherSRG (talk) 23:29, 11 September 2022 (UTC)
 * I was wrong about this. See below... - UtherSRG (talk) 20:22, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

Fossil NWM reorganization
Please see the discussion at Talk:List_of_fossil_primates_of_South_America. Thanks! - UtherSRG (talk) 20:22, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Night monkey


text:
User:Naalayak

Naalayak (alias great Mogambo) is a Desi wikipedia user; participating in the conversion of the English html/libraries into hindi of wikipedia, Linux, coppermine photo album etc.

title: User:Naalayak


text:
1920 Carinthian plebiscite

The Carinthian plebiscite (Kärntner Volksabstimmung, Koroški plebiscit) was held on 10 October 1920 in the area in southern Carinthia predominantly settled by Carinthian Slovenes. It determined the final border between the Republic of Austria and the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia) after World War I. The predominantly Slovene-speaking plebiscite area voted to remain part of Austria with a 59% majority.

Background
After the defeat of the multi-ethnic Austria-Hungary and the ruling Habsburg dynasty in World War I, new states arose in its former territory. Among these there was an internationally unrecognized State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, which was created in the final days of the war according to the 1917 Corfu Declaration, and merged with the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes on December 1, 1918.

Determination of borders between the new countries was complex and difficult, and not always peaceful: While the northwestern border with the Kingdom of Italy along the "Julian March" was already determined by the 1915 Treaty of London, the demarcation line between Yugoslavia and the rump state of German-Austria was a difficult and highly disputed matter. The principle of self-determination, championed by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, was taken up by both Slovenes and German-Austrians in the Carinthian, Styrian and Carniolan lands of the defunct Habsburg empire. The rising tensions culminated in clashes of arms, as on Marburg's Bloody Sunday in Lower Styria and the continued fighting of paramilitary groups in southeastern Carinthia.

In particular the "Carinthian question" had become an issue in the closing days of World War I, when events developed rapidly, beginning with territorial claims by the Slovenian National Assembly on October 17, 1918. These claims were rejected by the Carinthian provisional Landtag assembly on 25 October 1918, declaring the state's accession to German-Austria. From November 5, Yugoslav forces moved into the settlement area of the Carinthian Slovenes from the Karawanks mountain range down to the Drava River and beyond. The Landtag assembly fled from Klagenfurt to the northwestern town of Spittal an der Drau and on 11 November officially demanded self-determination, which in this case amounted to demanding a plebiscite for a region with a mixed population.

With the occupation of southeastern Carinthia by Yugoslav troops, the confrontation evolved into armed clashes. The provisional Carinthian government under Governor Arthur Lemisch decided to take up arms to preserve the southern Carinthian border on the Karawanks range. The bitter fighting of paramilitary groups around Arnoldstein and Ferlach alarmed the Entente powers. They arbitrated a ceasefire, whereafter a nine-day U.S. Army commission under Lt.Col. Sherman Miles scouted the disputed region in January and February 1919 and made the crucial recommendation that the Karawanks frontier should be retained, thus opening the possibility of a plebiscite. Yugoslav representatives urged for a border on the Drava; American delegates however spoke in favor of preserving the unity of the Klagenfurt Basin and convinced the British and French delegations. Until May 7, all occupied Carinthian territories were vacated. When Yugoslav forces under General Rudolf Maister made an attempt to re-enter the region on 28 May 1919, they were forced to withdraw by the Entente authorities.

The question was whether the considerable Slovene-speaking majority in the state's southeastern region, adjoining the Karawanks range, would carry the vote for union with Austria or whether that majority wished to join a newly created South Slavic state. This was to a large extent a consequence of rising romantic nationalism under the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy and the idea of an autonomy of the "Slovene lands", referring to the early medieval Slavic principality of Carantania, which had perished in the ninth century. A common state with other South Slavic peoples seemed the most acceptable compromise toward fulfillment of nationalist strivings.

Plebiscite
The Treaty of Saint-Germain with the Republic of Austria, signed on 10 September 1919, should have determined the Austrian-Yugoslav border. It ascertained that some small parts of Carinthia—i.e. the Meža Valley (Mießtal) with the town of Dravograd (Unterdrauburg) and the Jezersko (Seeland) municipal area—should be incorporated into the new Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, while the fate of wider southeastern Carinthia area down to the Klagenfurt basin was to be determined by a plebiscite.

Wanting to resolve the conflict peacefully, the Allied victors in World War I divided southeastern Carinthia into two zones, "A" in the south and "B" in the north. A two-stage referendum was to be held to determine annexation by either Austria or the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, in the smaller Zone B only if a majority of the people in Zone A had voted for Yugoslavia. The population of Zone A was predominantly Slovene-speaking: according to the pre-war Austrian census of 1910, people in these municipalities who used Slovene as their primary language represented nearly 70% of the population; while the number of ethnic Slovenes was probably higher. German speakers were concentrated in the town of Völkermarkt and certain smaller localities, especially around Bleiburg (Pliberk) and Ferlach (Borovlje).

Before the plebiscite, both sides waged intensive propaganda campaigns. Austrian propaganda emphasized the economic benefits of maintaining the unity of the Klagenfurt Basin and appealed to feelings of Carinthian unity and brotherhood between the Slovene- and German-speaking peoples of Carinthia. Conducted in the Slovene Carinthian dialect, Austrian propaganda promised that the Slovene language and national identity would be treated as equal to the German in Austria, officially confirmed by the Carinthia Landtag assembly two weeks before the plebiscite was held. It nevertheless also had an anti-Yugoslav tendency, picturing the conditions in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes as chaotic. Yugoslav propaganda almost exclusively used arguments emphasizing Slovene national awareness. It took an aggressive anti-German view from the beginning and turned to economic issues only in the last few weeks before the plebiscite. The campaigners were not capable of using the political instability of the young Austrian republic and its then unenviable position in the international community for advantage.

Despite the six-months term determined by the Treaty of Saint-Germain, the referendum was not held in Zone A until October 10, 1920. In addition to changing the date of the plebiscite, other terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain allegedly were ignored or changed: an Austrian representative was accepted into the commission, and the plebiscite commission changed rules by not allowing the Yugoslav military to control the border between Zones A and B on 8 June 1920. Instead the Yugoslav army had to withdraw from Zone A in accord with the decision of the plebiscite commission on 18 September 1920. Changes may also have been made in electoral registers which allowed people from northern Zone B voting in Zone A, backing the Austrian side. In the following decades both sides would continue to interpret and instrumentalize the plebiscite's circumstances in their own way.

Results
The outcome of the plebiscite held on 10 October, was 22,025 votes (59.1% of the total cast) in favor of adhesion to Austria and 15,279 (40.9%) in favor of annexation by the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. Assuming that the whole German-speaking minority had voted for Austria, half of all Carinthian Slovenes had also decided to remain with the Republic. While a majority in the remote Alpine villages on the slopes of the Karawanks range voted for Yugoslavia, the inhabitants of the densely settled Klagenfurt Basin were motivated by their evolved social and cultural, not least economic ties to the central Carinthian region. After the Austrian option had gained a majority of votes in predominantly Slovene Zone A, the second stage of the referendum in northern Zone B, populated chiefly by German speakers, was not carried out. Another Yugoslav foray was fiercely rejected by the Entente powers. The Carinthian Plebiscite region was placed under Austrian administration on 18 November 1920 and declared part of the sovereign Austrian Republic on November 22. Up to today, October 10 is a public holiday in the State of Carinthia.

The plebiscite ultimately determined the border between Austria and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. The border remained unchanged after World War II, even as the Kingdom of Yugoslavia gave way to Tito's Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, though at the end of the war Yugoslav Partisans again briefly occupied the area, including the capital city of Klagenfurt. Since the disintegration of Yugoslavia, the border has separated Austria and Slovenia.

Yugoslav resistance
The Yugoslav government in Belgrade initially declared victory in the plebiscite. After it became clear that the residents had voted in favor of Austria, Yugoslavia moved troops into the zone and occupied several towns; the military commanders stated that they did not recognize the authority of the plebiscite commission. At the same time, it was reported that there were riots, looting of shops, and beatings of ethnic Germans in nearby Maribor, which had a large German population but had been awarded to Yugoslavia in 1919. In late October, the Yugoslav government agreed to honor the outcome of the plebiscite and withdraw its troops from the zone.

Libeliče
The residents of Libeliče (Leifling), the easternmost village of Zone A, were pro-Yugoslav and helped organize pro-Yugoslav rallies throughout Zone A prior to the plebiscite. On the day of the plebiscite, a large majority of the village voted for Yugoslavia; however, along with the rest of Zone A it was placed under Austrian administration. The people of the village were unwilling to accept the outcome. On a daily basis, the barbed wire on the border was cut and boundary stones were removed. Regular rallies in the village and its surroundings encouraged increasingly more people to join the rebellion, deliberately ignoring any Austrian law passed after the plebiscite. The coordinators of the rebellion managed to establish contact with high-ranking politicians in Ljubljana and later also in Belgrade. Finally, the governments of Austria and Yugoslavia managed to agree on a territorial exchange: Austria ceded to Yugoslavia the territory of Libeliče and received in compensation an equally sized area on the left bank of the Drava, consisting of the predominantly German-speaking settlements of Rabenstein (Rabštajn pri Labotu) and Lorenzenberg (Šentlovrenc), which are today cadastral communities within the market town of Lavamünd. The handover of the territories took place on October 1, 1922. This was the final demarcation between Austria and Yugoslavia (and its current legal successor Slovenia), still effective as of today.

title: 1920 Carinthian plebiscite


text:
GOST (block cipher)

The GOST block cipher (Magma), defined in the standard GOST 28147-89 (RFC 5830), is a Soviet and Russian government standard symmetric key block cipher with a block size of 64 bits. The original standard, published in 1989, did not give the cipher any name, but the most recent revision of the standard, GOST R 34.12-2015 (RFC 7801, RFC 8891), specifies that it may be referred to as Magma. The GOST hash function is based on this cipher. The new standard also specifies a new 128-bit block cipher called Kuznyechik.

Developed in the 1970s, the standard had been marked "Top Secret" and then downgraded to "Secret" in 1990. Shortly after the dissolution of the USSR, it was declassified and it was released to the public in 1994. GOST 28147 was a Soviet alternative to the United States standard algorithm, DES. Thus, the two are very similar in structure.

The algorithm
GOST has a 64-bit block size and a key length of 256 bits. Its S-boxes can be secret, and they contain about 354 (log2(16!8)) bits of secret information, so the effective key size can be increased to 610 bits; however, a chosen-key attack can recover the contents of the S-boxes in approximately 232 encryptions.

GOST is a Feistel network of 32 rounds. Its round function is very simple: add a 32-bit subkey modulo 232, put the result through a layer of S-boxes, and rotate that result left by 11 bits. The result of that is the output of the round function. In the adjacent diagram, one line represents 32 bits.

The subkeys are chosen in a pre-specified order. The key schedule is very simple: break the 256-bit key into eight 32-bit subkeys, and each subkey is used four times in the algorithm; the first 24 rounds use the key words in order, the last 8 rounds use them in reverse order.

The S-boxes accept a four-bit input and produce a four-bit output. The S-box substitution in the round function consists of eight 4 × 4 S-boxes. The S-boxes are implementation-dependent, thus parties that want to secure their communications using GOST must be using the same S-boxes. For extra security, the S-boxes can be kept secret. In the original standard where GOST was specified, no S-boxes were given, but they were to be supplied somehow. This led to speculation that organizations the government wished to spy on were given weak S-boxes. One GOST chip manufacturer reported that he generated S-boxes himself using a pseudorandom number generator.

For example, the Central Bank of Russian Federation used the following S-boxes:

However, the most recent revision of the standard, GOST R 34.12-2015, adds the missing S-box specification and defines it as follows.

Cryptanalysis of GOST
The latest cryptanalysis of GOST shows that it is secure in a theoretical sense. In practice, the data and memory complexity of the best published attacks has reached the level of practical, while the time complexity of even the best attack is still 2192 when 264 data is available.

Since 2007, several attacks have been developed against reduced-round GOST implementations and/or weak keys.

In 2011 several authors discovered more significant flaws in GOST, being able to attack the full 32-round GOST with arbitrary keys for the first time. It has even been called "a deeply flawed cipher" by Nicolas Courtois. Initial attacks were able to reduce time complexity from 2256 to 2228 at the cost of huge memory requirements, and soon they were improved up to 2178 time complexity (at the cost of 270 memory and 264 data).

In December 2012, Courtois, Gawinecki, and Song improved attacks on GOST by computing only 2101 GOST rounds. Isobe had already published a single key attack on the full GOST cipher, which Dinur, Dunkelman, and Shamir improved upon, reaching 2224 time complexity for 232 data and 236 memory, and 2192 time complexity for 264 data.

Since the attacks reduce the expected strength from 2256 (key length) to around 2178, the cipher can be considered broken. However, this attack is not feasible in practice, as the number of tests to be performed 2178 is out of reach.

Note that for any block cipher with block size of n bits, the maximum amount of plaintext that can be encrypted before rekeying must take place is 2n/2 blocks, due to the birthday paradox, and none of the aforementioned attacks require less than 232 data.

title: GOST (block cipher)