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Peleg Arnold

Peleg Arnold (1751–1820) was a lawyer, tavern-keeper, jurist, and statesman from Smithfield, Rhode Island (now North Smithfield). He represented Rhode Island as a delegate to the Continental Congress in the 1787–1788 session. He later served as the chief justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court from June 1795 to June 1809, and from May 1810 to May 1812.

Personal life
Arnold was born on June 10, 1751, at Smithfield (now North Smithfield), the ninth of the fifteen children of Thomas Arnold. His mother was Patience Cook of Newport who was Thomas' third wife. After starting in the common schools, he graduated from Brown University in Providence. Like many of his generation he prospered in a number of careers at the same time, and combined these with a government service and civic efforts.

Arnold read law, was admitted to the bar and practiced at Smithfield. He opened and kept the Peleg Arnold Tavern, which still stands at 4 Woonsocket Hill Road in North Smithfield, Rhode Island.

Arnold built his home in Union Village, which is now part of North Smithfield. During the Revolutionary War he was the colonel of the 2nd regiment of the Providence County Militia.

When the need for additional troops led to the re-formation of the 1st Rhode Island regiment of the Continental Line in 1778, Arnold was one of the proponents for the idea of using a bounty and freedom to encourage the enlistment of blacks. He continued this interest after the war when in 1790 he founded the Providence Society for the Abolition of Slavery.

Arnold's concern for his community is also evidenced by the creation of the Smithfield Union Bank in 1803. He was the bank's first President, and it first conducted business from his home in Union. beginning in 1810, he served as president of a local preparatory school, the Smithfield Academy. Arnold died at Smithfield on February 13, 1820, and is buried in the Union Cemetery in today's North Smithfield. According to one source, "[t]owards the close of his life Judge Peleg was widely known, not only as an extensive dealer in, but an ardent lover of, New England Rum."

Political career
Arnold was first elected to Rhode Island's governing body, the General Assembly in 1777. He would serve again from May 1782 to 1783. He was appointed as a Rhode Island delegate to the Confederation Congress in 1787. A strong supporter of the 1787 Constitutional Convention, in 1788 he left the congress to return home and address the ratification of the United States Constitution. He served briefly as Deputy Governor of Rhode Island in 1790.

Arnold made two unsuccessful attempts to win a seat in the United States House of Representatives. In the election of 1794, he ran against the incumbent Benjamin Bourne as an Anti-Federalist (Country Party) candidate. When Bourne resigned in 1796, he ran in the special election to finish the incomplete term, this time as a member of the Republican Party, and lost to Elisha Reynolds Potter.

In 1795 Arnold was named the chief justice of Rhode Island's Superior Court of Judicature, Court of Assize and General Gaol Delivery. The name of this court was changed in 1798 to the simpler "The Supreme Judicial Court". The Assembly re-appointed him annually every year until June 1809. After a year off due to illness, they appointed him again from 1810 to 1812. Arnold served again in the General Assembly from 1817 to 1819.

title: Peleg Arnold


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User talk:80jimmylouie

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Foot chart
Nice job sorting it out! I would have done it myself only I was really short of time last night.The reaon it's better this way is twofold. The first is because the character you used is not part of the satandard font set so some computers may not display it (my computer at home didn't display it). The second is that by putting it in a table we can align the key next to the picture. Which I have done now.

I've also taken the liberty of scaling down the picture for the actual reflexology page. This is to make it less dominating of the article. Normally we like to keep pics < 300 pixels wide. I've added a link to the larger version so that readers can see it if they want to. theresa knott 11:14, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Thank you Theresa :) 80jimmylouie

Image:Akmanthor.jpg
I have some questions about this image you uploaded, and have sought input from the people at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Ancient Egypt. Just letting you know, and inviting your input. - Smerdis of Tlön 19:41, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:80jimmylouie


text:
User:79alexyuen

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text:
Elisha Reynolds Potter

Elisha Reynolds Potter (November 5, 1764 –September 26, 1835) was a statesman in the Federalist Party from Kingston, Rhode Island, who served several times as the Speaker in the Rhode Island State Assembly.

Early life
Potter was born in Little Rest (now known as Kingston) in the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations on November 5, 1764, and he resided there for all of his life Elisha Reynolds House. He was the son of Thomas Potter and Elizabeth ( Reynolds) Potter. His maternal grandparents were Elisha Reynolds and Susannah ( Potter) Reynolds and his paternal grandparents were Ichabod Potter and Margaret ( Helme) Potter.

He received a formal education at Plainfield Academy, and law instruction under Matthew Robinson.

Career
He began his career as a blacksmith's apprentice, but switched to the law in 1793. Potter was said to be a very large man; when he traveled by stagecoach, he had to purchase two seats.

Potter ran against Peleg Arnold in a special election for the U.S. House of Representatives in 1796 caused by Benjamin Bourne's resignation, and Potter won the election. He served as a United States Congressman from 1796 to 1797 and again from 1809 to 1815.

He was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815.

Potter ran for governor of Rhode Island in 1818, but lost to Nehemiah R. Knight.

Personal life
Potter was twice married and his first wife was Mary ( Gardiner) Perkins (1754–1809), daughter of Caleb Gardiner and widow of merchant Joseph Perkins in 1790. After the death of his first wife in 1809, he married her 31-year-old niece, Mary Mawney (1779–1835), in 1810. His second wife was the daughter of Pardon Mawney. Together, Elisha and his second wife were the parents of five surviving children, including:

 * Elisha Reynolds Potter Jr. (1811–1882), who was also a Congressman.
 * Thomas Mawney Potter (1814–1890), who married Loes Martin.
 * William Henry Potter (1816–1908), who married Sarah Corlis ( Whipple) Swann in 1857.
 * James Brown Mason Potter (1818–1900), who married Eliza Palmer in 1849.
 * Mary Elizabeth Potter (1820–1901)

His second wife died in July, 1835 at the house of her brother-in-law, Jeffery Davis. Potter died on September 26, 1835 and is buried in Colonel Thomas Potter Cemetery near Kingston, Rhode Island.

title: Elisha Reynolds Potter


text:
User:81vienchoi

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text:
Elisha R. Potter

Elisha Reynolds Potter (June 20, 1811 – April 10, 1882) was a politician, jurist and historian from Kingston, Rhode Island. He was a justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court, and served one term in the United States House of Representatives.

Biography
Elisha Reynolds Potter Jr. was born in Little Rest (now Kingston), Rhode Island on June 20, 1811. His father Elisha Reynolds Potter Sr. was a lawyer who served in Congress.

He attended Kingston Academy and graduated from Harvard University in 1830. He studied law while teaching school, was admitted to the bar in 1832 and practiced in South Kingstown Township.

From 1835 to 1836 Potter was adjutant general of the state militia. He served in the Rhode Island House of Representatives from 1838 to 1840. He was a delegate to the state constitutional convention of 1841 to 1842.

In 1842 Potter was elected as a Law and Order Party candidate to the Twenty-eighth Congress, and he served one term, March 4, 1843, to March 3, 1845. During his term he was Chairman of the Committee on Revisal and Unfinished Business. He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1844 to the Twenty-ninth Congress.

Potter served in the Rhode Island State Senate from 1847 to 1852, and again from 1861 to 1863. He was the state commissioner of public schools from 1849 to 1854.

On March 16, 1868, Potter became an associate justice of the Rhode Island Supreme Court, and he served until his death.

He died in Kingston on April 10, 1882, and was buried in the Colonel Thomas Potter Cemetery in South Kingstown.

Potter was a prolific author of Rhode Island history. Potter's notes and correspondence now held by the Rhode Island Historical Society "may be the best collection in the holdings of the Manuscripts Division for research on either the Dorr Rebellion or early 19th-century Rhode Island politics, including Rhode Island's role in the major national issues of the day and presidential policy-making." Potter's personally annotated copy of the printed draft of what would become the Constitution of Rhode Island is generally regarded as the best extant record, beyond the bare official minutes, of the proceedings of the 1842 constitutional convention.

title: Elisha R. Potter


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User talk:75FloraHChan

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 16:39, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:75FloraHChan


text:
User talk:22lautszlok

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 16:39, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:22lautszlok


text:
User talk:18wongngai

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 16:39, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:18wongngai


text:
Gaza–Israel barrier

The Gaza–Israel barrier (sometimes called the Iron Wall  ) is a border barrier located on the Israeli side of the Gaza–Israel border. Before the 2023-24 Israel-Hamas war, the Erez Crossing, in the north of the Gaza Strip, used to be the only crossing point for people and goods coming from Israel into the Gaza Strip, with a second crossing point, the Kerem Shalom border crossing, used exclusively for goods coming from Egypt, as Israel didn't allow goods to go directly from Egypt into Gaza through the Egypt–Gaza border, except for the Salah Al Din Gate, opened in 2018.

A fence along the border was first constructed by Israel in 1971 as a security barrier, and has been rebuilt and upgraded since. It was constructed by Israel to control the movement of people as well as goods between the Gaza Strip and Israel, which it could not achieve by normal border crossings.

There is also one crossing along the Egypt–Gaza border, the Rafah Crossing, though it is limited to the crossing of people; as per Israel's demand, any cargo or goods that are to enter Gaza must go through Israel, usually through the Kerem Shalom border crossing.

Political background
In 1993, Israel and the Palestinian Liberation Organization signed the first of the Oslo Accords establishing the Palestinian Authority with limited administrative control of the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Pursuant to the Accords, Israel continues to maintain control of the Gaza Strip's airspace, land borders (with the exception of Gaza's border with Egypt, abandoned by Israel in 2005), and territorial waters.

In 2005, Israel unilaterally withdrew its troops from the Gaza Strip, along with thousands of Israeli settlers. Israel thus claims to have ended the occupation. However, this claim has been challenged on the basis that Israel continues to exercise control over Gaza's territorial waters and airspace, despite Gaza not being part of Israel and Gazans not having Israeli passports.

The Gaza-Israel border straddles one of the starkest economic contrasts in the world (the Korean Demilitarized Zone is the other): on the Israeli side GDP per capita is $55,000 and population density is low, while on the Palestinian side, the GDP per capita is $1,250 and population density is among the highest in the world.

Commentators point out that fortifications like the Iron Wall will result in a more diabolical state of affairs not for the Gazans but for the Israeli society itself as it may never look past such metaphorical stonewalls to reach a socio-political compromise with the Palestinians.

Barrier structure
Israel started construction of the first 60 km long barrier along its border with the Gaza Strip in 1994. In the 1994 Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, it was agreed that "the security fence erected by Israel around the Gaza Strip shall remain in place and that the line demarcated by the fence, as shown on the map, shall be authoritative only for the purpose of the Agreement" (i.e. the barrier does not necessarily constitute the border). The initial barrier was completed in 1996.

Before the 2005 disengagement Israeli military maintained a one-kilometer buffer zone within Gaza along the border wall which prevented the militants to approach the border, sometimes with gunfire. After the IDF withdrawal the border became easily reachable by the Palestinians. Therefore Israel launched the construction of the enhanced security system along the Gaza border, estimated to cost $220 million and to be completed in mid-2006.

It includes a 7-meter wall with sensors, remote-control machine guns and barbed wire in the three areas where the border runs adjacent to Israeli settlements. The land taken from the corresponding kibbutzim was compensated for, with some controversies.

Overall, the first barrier is a barbed-wire fence without sensors. The second barrier codenamed Hoovers A is 20 meters off and consist of a road and a fence with sensors. These existed before 2005. A new element is a 70-150 meter wide buffer zone codenamed Hoovers B with motion sensors in the ground and surrounded by a new sensor-equipped fence with watchtowers every 2 kilometers, equipped with remote-control machine guns instead of soldiers, which could be targets of Palestinian snipers.

The barrier is patrolled both from the air and on the ground.

Response from Gaza
The barrier has met with opposition and protests from some Palestinians in Gaza.

The barrier was largely torn down by Palestinians at the beginning of the Al-Aqsa Intifada in September 2000, followed by many terror attacks. The barrier was rebuilt between December 2000 and June 2001. A one-kilometer buffer zone was added, in addition to new high technology observation posts. Soldiers were also given new rules of engagement, which, according to Ha'aretz, allow soldiers to fire at anyone seen crawling there at night illegally into Israeli territory. Palestinians attempting to cross the barrier into Israel by stealth have been shot and killed.

The barrier has been effective in preventing terrorists and suicide bombers from entering Israel from Gaza. Since 1996, virtually all suicide bombers trying to leave Gaza have detonated their charges at the barrier's crossing points and were stopped while trying to cross the barrier elsewhere. From 1994 until 2004 a suicide bomber originating from within the Gaza Strip successfully carried out an attack in Israel (on 14 March 2004 in Ashdod).

The barrier's effectiveness prompted a shift in the tactics of Palestinian militants who commenced firing Qassam rockets and mortars over the barrier.

On 27 December 2008, Israel launched the Gaza War, consisting of airstrikes and ground incursions against targets in the Gaza Strip, with the stated aim of stopping the rocket fire from and arms smuggling into the territory. The war ended on 18 January 2009, when both sides ceased military action. Israel completed its withdrawal on 21 January, and thousands of rockets and mortars have been fired from the Gaza Strip since.

Support for a similar Egypt–Gaza barrier
Palestinian Authority President Mahmoud Abbas declared support for the Egypt–Gaza barrier, adding: "It is the Egyptians’ sovereign right in their own country. Legitimate supplies should be brought through the legal crossings", although he made no such comment towards Israel's sovereign rights. The United States announced its support for the Egypt-Gaza barrier saying it would prevent weapons smuggling. Cairo's main Al-Azhar University officially backed the government's decision for an Egypt-Gaza barrier saying that it was the "state's right to build along its walls facilities and obstacles that will enhance its security."

Tunnels under the barrier
Because of the effectiveness of the barrier in stopping infiltration of Israel by militants, they adopted a strategy of digging tunnels under the barrier. On 25 June 2006, Palestinians used an 800-metre tunnel dug over a period of months to infiltrate Israel. They attacked a patrolling Israeli armored unit, killed two Israeli soldiers, and captured another one, Gilad Shalit.

Between January and October 2013, three other tunnels were identified – two of which were packed with explosives. The discovery of similarly constructed tunnels in other parts of the world have led to updated threat assessment estimates.

During the 2014 Gaza war, Israel encountered Hamas militants who popped out of tunnels into Israel and attacked soldiers along the border. After the war, Israel located and destroyed 32 tunnels. In 2018, Israel destroyed three new tunnels.

Underground anti-tunnel barrier
In response to the large number of tunnels being dug, which could be used for infiltration by militants, in mid-2017, Israel began construction of an underground border wall several meters in depth along the entire 40-km length of the border. The wall is equipped with sensors that can detect tunnel construction. The wall is located entirely on Israeli land.

In October 2020, sensors in the underground structure identified a Hamas tunnel. An Israeli military official called the tunnel "The most significant tunnel we have seen to date, both in terms of depth and infrastructure".

The anti-tunnel barrier was completed in March 2021.

Crossing points
From the Palestinian perspective, the crossings are crucial to the economy of the Gaza Strip and to the daily needs of the population. Chief Palestinian Authority negotiator Saeb Erekat analyzed the closures of the crossings and said they have "proven to be counter-productive".

Israel-Gaza
As of 2023, there were two open border crossings with Israel, with an additional option via an Israel-Egypt crossing. During the war ensuing from the October 7 Hamas attack, two more emergency gates were eventually opened for aid convoys.

Kerem Shalom Crossing
The Kerem Shalom Crossing is the main cargo crossing, used by trucks carrying goods from Israel or Egypt to the Gaza Strip. Managed by the Israel Airports Authority.

Erez or Beit Hanoun Crossing
The Erez or Beit Hanoun Crossing is the only one open for people. A pedestrian and cargo crossing into Israel, it is located in northern Gaza. The crossing is currently restricted to Arab residents under the jurisdiction of the Palestinian Authority and to Egyptian nationals or international aid officials only, and is closed to tourists. Palestinians who have a permit to work in Israel or those with permits allowing them to receive free medical treatment or to visit immediate family who are in prisons may use this crossing when it is open for pedestrian travel.

Though 5,000 Palestinians are permitted to use the Erez Crossing to go to their places of work inside Israel, the crossing was frequently closed by the Israeli authorities, impeding their ability to get to work. Additionally, the permits issued have not always been honoured by soldiers, who in some cases confiscated them at the crossing.

On 7 October 2023, Erez Crossing was attacked and destroyed by Hamas. It remained closed during the ensuing war until 1 May 2024, when it was reopened for aid transports heading into Gaza.

Gate 96 emergency crossing
On 12 March 2024, as a "pilot project", the 96th gate in the security fence (near Kibbutz Be'eri) was used by a convoy of six trucks taking humanitarian aid to northern Gaza under IDF protection. Gate 96 is slowly becoming a fixture during the war allowing aid to reach Gaza City directly, be it on a minor scale.

"Northern Crossing" emergency gate
On 12 April 2024, a newly built wartime emergency crossing for humanitarian aid was opened near Kibbutz Zikim. The content of the trucks is checked by the IDF at the Kerem Shalom border crossing facility.

From Israel via Egypt

 * Nitzana Border Crossing between Israel and Egypt is an additional nearby option. It is connected by road to Sinai and the town of El Arish, which in turn connects to Gaza via the Egyptian border crossings. During the 2023 war, aid trucks entered the Strip via El Arish, Nitzana, where the contents were inspected by Israel, and into Gaza. Nitzana crossing, however, was not designed for the processing of trucks and cargo.

Permanently closed

 * Karni Crossing (1994–2011)
 * Sufa Crossing (1994–2008)

Egypt-Gaza
These are being used for shipments from Israel in conjunction with the Nitzana Border Crossing (see above).
 * Rafah Crossing, designed primarily for pedestrians, but used during the 2023 war as the main entry for aid trucks
 * Salah al-Din Gate (area plan with gate see here ), since February 2018 a secondary commercial border crossing 4 km northwest of Rafah Crossing, and named after Salah al-Din Road, the Strip's main north-south thoroughfare. Before 2018, the gate allowed two-way humanitarian access for Gaza and Sinai residents, but didn't serve commercial purposes. It was repurposed in 2018, when Hamas militants manned the Gaza side and taxed incoming cargo, which included goods with controversial dual use (civilian and military), apparently without much external supervision. As of July 2023, "goods have also entered Gaza regularly from Egypt, via the Rafah crossing, controlled by the Egyptian authorities, and then through the adjacent Salah Ad Din Gate, controlled by the local authorities." Since 2018, the Salah Ad-Din Gate has seen a steady growth in traffic, so that in 2022/2023, over 50% of the construction materials, 25% of the food and c. 40% of non-food items entered the Strip through Salah Ad-Din Gate crossing. In 2023, c. 36% of the total imports to the Strip arrived through the Gate.

title: Gaza–Israel barrier


text:
Talk:List of political parties in Asia

What about Jordan??? Jordan holds parliamentary elections.

Move parties to national lists
I would prefer to move the names of the parties in each country to the list of political parties in these countries and not to have double listing in the European and the national list. This page would then become a list linking to the lists. Gangulf 07:33, 29 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of political parties in Asia


text:
Talk:Geography of the Faroe Islands

Elevation
882 miles above sea level? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 198.169.188.225 (talk) 16:48, 20 February 2004 (UTC)

 * It's 882 m -- meters. For the metricly challenged, that's around 2,894 ft. 131.7.251.200 09:41, 9 March 2006 (UTC)

More on construction of bridges and tunnels
... and on treeplanting, please! =J //Big Adamsky 23:50, 18 January 2006 (UTC)

 * and geol origins (volcanic I believe). Nurg 00:42, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

12 mile territorial sea
http://www.logir.fo/foldb/ano/2002/0000240.htm : From June 2002, the Faroe Islands has a 12 nautical miles territorial limit. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Abu ari (talk • contribs) 13:54, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

CIA fact book
Whilst this is a handy online reference, it's somewhat simplified to say NA for Natural hazards and Environment--current issues. Winter storms and whaling come to mind for starters. --JBellis 22:07, 10 November 2007 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Geography of the Faroe Islands


text:
William Sutherland

William Sutherland may refer to:

 * William Sutherland of Roscommon (died 1715), Member of the Scottish Parliament
 * William Sutherland, 17th Earl of Sutherland (1708–1750), Scottish nobleman
 * William Sutherland (British Army officer), fought in the American Revolutionary War
 * William Sutherland (Northwest Territories politician) (1854–1930), general merchant and political figure in the Northwest Territories, Canada
 * William Sutherland (physicist) (1859–1911), Australian physicist
 * William Charles Sutherland (1865–1940), Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan, Canada
 * William Garner Sutherland (1873–1954), American osteopath
 * William A. Sutherland (California politician) (1874–1935), American lawyer and California State Assemblyman
 * William Andrew Sutherland (1849–1908), New York lawyer and politician
 * William A. Sutherland (American football) (1876–1969), American football coach and lawyer
 * William Henry Sutherland (1876–1945), physician and political figure in British Columbia
 * Sir William Sutherland (Liberal politician) (1880–1949), Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster
 * William Sutherland (Ontario politician) (1926/7–1998), city councillor in North York, Ontario
 * Sir William Sutherland (police officer) (1933–2022), British police officer
 * Bill Sutherland (1934–2017), Canadian ice hockey player
 * William R. Sutherland, better known as Bert Sutherland (1936–2020), American technology researcher
 * T. Bill Sutherland (born 1942), American theoretical physicist
 * William J. Sutherland (born 1956), British conservation biologist

title: William Sutherland


text:
Algebraically compact module

In mathematics, algebraically compact modules, also called pure-injective modules, are modules that have a certain "nice" property which allows the solution of infinite systems of equations in the module by finitary means. The solutions to these systems allow the extension of certain kinds of module homomorphisms. These algebraically compact modules are analogous to injective modules, where one can extend all module homomorphisms. All injective modules are algebraically compact, and the analogy between the two is made quite precise by a category embedding.

Definitions
Let $R$ be a ring, and $M$ a left $R$-module. Consider a system of infinitely many linear equations
 * $$\sum_{j\in J} r_{i,j}x_j = m_i,$$

where both sets $I$ and $J$ may be infinite, $$m_i\in M,$$ and for each $i$ the number of nonzero $$r_{i,j}\in R$$ is finite.

The goal is to decide whether such a system has a solution, that is whether there exist elements $x_{j}$ of $M$ such that all the equations of the system are simultaneously satisfied. (It is not required that only finitely many $x_{j}$ are non-zero.)

The module M is algebraically compact if, for all such systems, if every subsystem formed by a finite number of the equations has a solution, then the whole system has a solution. (The solutions to the various subsystems may be different.)

On the other hand, a module homomorphism $M → K$ is a pure embedding if the induced homomorphism between the tensor products $C ⊗ M → C ⊗ K$$$ is injective for every right $R$-module $C$. The module $M$ is pure-injective if any pure injective homomorphism $j : M → K$ splits (that is, there exists $f : K → M$ with $$f\circ j=1_M$$).

It turns out that a module is algebraically compact if and only if it is pure-injective.

Examples
All modules with finitely many elements are algebraically compact.

Every vector space is algebraically compact (since it is pure-injective). More generally, every injective module is algebraically compact, for the same reason.

If R is an associative algebra with 1 over some field k, then every R-module with finite k-dimension is algebraically compact. This, together with the fact that all finite modules are algebraically compact, gives rise to the intuition that algebraically compact modules are those (possibly "large") modules which share the nice properties of "small" modules.

The Prüfer groups are algebraically compact abelian groups (i.e. Z-modules). The ring of p-adic integers for each prime p is algebraically compact as both a module over itself and a module over Z. The rational numbers are algebraically compact as a Z-module. Together with the indecomposable finite modules over Z, this is a complete list of indecomposable algebraically compact modules.

Many algebraically compact modules can be produced using the injective cogenerator Q/Z of abelian groups. If H is a right module over the ring R, one forms the (algebraic) character module H* consisting of all group homomorphisms from H to Q/Z. This is then a left R-module, and the *-operation yields a faithful contravariant functor from right R-modules to left R-modules. Every module of the form H* is algebraically compact. Furthermore, there are pure injective homomorphisms H → H**, natural in H. One can often simplify a problem by first applying the *-functor, since algebraically compact modules are easier to deal with.

Facts
The following condition is equivalent to M being algebraically compact:
 * For every index set I, the addition map M(I) → M can be extended to a module homomorphism MI → M (here M(I) denotes the direct sum of copies of M, one for each element of I; MI denotes the product of copies of M, one for each element of I).

Every indecomposable algebraically compact module has a local endomorphism ring.

Algebraically compact modules share many other properties with injective objects because of the following: there exists an embedding of R-Mod into a Grothendieck category G under which the algebraically compact R-modules precisely correspond to the injective objects in G.

Every R-module is elementary equivalent to an algebraically compact R-module and to a direct sum of indecomposable algebraically compact R-modules.

title: Algebraically compact module


text:
Talk:Mineola, Texas

A few neat facts
I have a weekend house in Mineola and I have learned some stuff about the city in the few years I lived there. edit:I am not sure if this should be added but I thought I would mention it and see what others say. theyapps 16:54, Feb 20, 2004 (UTC)
 * Texas Governer James Hogg lived in Mineola and his daughter Ima Hogg was born in a house in this city the house still stands and has a historical marker on it.
 * The town was founded for the purpose of a train city. It is beleived the man who founded the city combined his daughter Minnie and her freind Olla's names to create the city name Mineola.

Bonnie and Clyde (Movie)
Bonnie and Clyde's second bank robbery - and the first undertaken with CW Moss where he mistakenly chose to park the car and they hence had a difficult getaway culminating in Barrow commiting murder by shooting their pursuer in the face - was seen to be set in Mineola. The name of the town appears in mirror shot on the door of the bank. Worth adding?Plutonium27 21:38, 31 May 2007 (UTC) this took place at the old 1888 building ,this is now Trendz Fashions owned by Josh and Leeann Willingham —Preceding unsigned comment added by 99.191.81.90 (talk) 19:38, 26 May 2010 (UTC)

The Bonnie and Clyde clip is seen here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pb1N5TcA5to — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jakesfriend (talk • contribs) 20:25, 24 June 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mineola, Texas


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Scottish & Newcastle

Scottish & Newcastle plc was a brewing company headquartered in Edinburgh, Scotland, which expanded from its home base to become an international business with beer volumes growing almost tenfold.

The company was listed on the London Stock Exchange until it was acquired by Heineken and Carlsberg in 2008 and its assets split between them. The name Scottish & Newcastle continued to be used for the UK trading operation of Heineken International until 2009, when it was renamed Heineken UK.

The former S&N Pub Enterprises leased pub division was rebranded as S&N Pub Company after the takeover. In 2012, it was rebranded again to Star Pubs & Bars, bringing an end to Scottish & Newcastle brand.

History
The company was founded by Grizel Syme who ran her late second husband's brewery: this brewery and those of her sons developed into the firm of William Younger & Co. It merged with McEwan's in 1931 becoming Scottish Brewers. In 1960 it merged again this time with Newcastle Breweries to form Scottish & Newcastle.

By 1985, the company had become a regional brewer focused on Scotland and the North of England.

By 1995, with the purchase of rival brewing business Courage, S&N had become the UK's leading brewer.

In early 2000, S&N expanded outside the UK via a number of acquisitions in Western Europe, growing sales to over 50 Mhl per annum. Acquisitions included Kronenbourg.

By acquiring Hartwall in 2002, Finland's leading beverage company business, S&N became 50% owners of Baltic Beverages Holding (BBH) encompassing brewing interests in Russia, Ukraine, Kazakhstan and the Baltic Countries of Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. The remaining 50% of BBH was owned by Carlsberg, which gained full control after the takeover of S&N in 2008.

In July 2003, S&N acquired the Bulmers cider business, adding the Strongbow, Scrumpy Jack and Woodpecker brands to its portfolio, together with the UK's biggest cider mill and orchards in Hereford.

In November 2003, S&N sold its remaining pub estate to the Spirit Group – retaining a successful tenanted pub management business (S&N Pub Company ) with contracts to look after some 2,000 pubs on behalf of banks and other pub companies.

In 2004 some radical cost-cutting measures were introduced, particularly within the UK where it was noted by analysts that the cost base was too high. During the year, the Fountain Brewery in Edinburgh was closed, followed some months later by the Tyne Brewery in Newcastle. This was followed in 2005 by the closure of distribution depots at Bow, Chelmsford and Maidstone with the task being integrated into Dagenham Regional Distribution Centre and depots at Hackbridge and Croydon with the remainder of the London accounts being served by Greenford. The company began to use transit points in Chelmsford and Faversham as cheap logistical alternatives to full working depots. Reciprocal acquisitions saw the Caledonian Brewery in Edinburgh and the Northern Clubs' Federation Brewery in Gateshead added to the business.

In February 2005, Scottish & Newcastle and Carlsberg UK finalised a joint venture to carry out Technical Services work in the UK. Service Dispense Equipment Limited (SDEL) was formed from the dispense assets of both businesses.

In 2006, S&N entered into a joint venture with the Swiss-based freight company, Kuehne and Nagel to set up a UK drinks distribution company (K+N Drinks Logistics). Some 3,000 S&N employees transferred to the new business.

On 17 October 2007, Heineken International and Carlsberg jointly announced that they were considering forming a consortium to bid for, and acquire the total capitalisation of Scottish & Newcastle. No formal offer had been put to S&N at the time. On 25 October, however, Heineken and Carlsberg announced that they had submitted a written proposal to S&N. They invited S&N to discuss a possible offer, the terms as to which they were prepared to proceed included a bid of 720 pence per share. The offer was immediately rejected by the Board of S&N, who believed that it significantly undervalued the worth of the S&N group. On 31 October, S&N announced that it had requested the Danish Courts to begin arbitration proceedings between itself and Carlsberg A/S in relation to the latter's alleged contractual infringements, relating to the joint ownership of Baltic Beverages Holdings (BBH). Carlsberg immediately countered that it believed S&N's claims were "spurious and without merit".

A new offer was made public on 15 November 2007 by Carlsberg and Heineken, raising the offer to 750 pence per share. The partners claimed this was "substantially in excess of the standalone independent value of S&N". On 17 January 2008, S&N announced that it was now in formal discussions with the consortium, following a revised proposal to purchase the business for £8 per share.

On 25 January 2008, following limited due diligence and discussions with S&N, the consortium announced a formal cash offer for the entire S&N business at £8 per share. This offer had the full support of the S&N Board and was recommended to shareholders.

On 31 March 2008, shareholders approved the £7.8 billion takeover by Heineken and Carlsberg. The acquisition was completed on 29 April 2008 as S&N's shares were delisted from the London Stock Exchange.

On 23 November 2009, the company changed its name to Heineken UK Ltd. to reflect the owner's name.

Breweries
Scottish & Newcastle employed 40,000 people in the United Kingdom and mainland Europe, brewing beer at:
 * The Fountain Brewery, Edinburgh – closed 2004
 * Caledonian Brewery, Edinburgh – closed 2022
 * The Tyne Brewery, Newcastle upon Tyne – closed 2005
 * The Federation Brewery, Gateshead – bought 2004, closed 2010
 * T & R Theakston's Brewery, Masham (S&N had a majority holding in this brewery. It is now once again owned by the Theakston family)
 * John Smith's Brewery, Tadcaster
 * The Berkshire Brewery, Reading (closed April 2010)
 * The Royal Brewery, Manchester
 * Beamish Brewery, Cork
 * Crawford Brewery, Cork

Operations
S&N owned or co-owned three of the top ten beers in Europe.
 * Baltika (stake acquired by Carlsberg)
 * Foster's (European rights, now owned by Heineken)
 * Kronenbourg 1664. (now owned by Carlsberg, although S&N UK/Heineken retain UK rights on a 50-year supply contract)

In addition to these key brands, its portfolio included other well-known drinks brands (acquirer in brackets):
 * John Smith's (Heineken)
 * Strongbow Cider in the UK. (Heineken)
 * Sagres in Portugal (Heineken)
 * Lapin Kulta in Finland (Heineken)
 * Mythos in Greece (stake acquired by Carlsberg)
 * Maes pils in Belgium (Heineken)
 * Kingfisher in India (stake acquired by Heineken)
 * Beamish Stout in Ireland (Heineken)
 * Bulmers Cider in the UK. (Heineken)
 * Newcastle Brown Ale, heartland in the North East of England. (Heineken)
 * Grimbergen, a Belgian Abbey beer. (Carlsberg)
 * McEwan's in Scotland. (Heineken)
 * Younger's in Edinburgh, Scotland. (Heineken)
 * Simonds of Reading, Berkshire. (Wells & Young)

Brands licensed to them included:
 * Beamish
 * Courage
 * Foster's
 * Kronenbourg
 * McEwan's
 * Newcastle Brown Ale
 * John Smith's
 * Websters

The Hofmeister brand was a 3.2% abv pale lager produced by Scottish Courage (later Scottish & Newcastle) from the 1980s to 2003. The brand was marketed in the 1980s with a series of advertisements featuring a bear, George, with a shiny, yellow jacket and a pork pie hat. The first batch of the adverts in 1983 were the final directorial work of legendary film director Orson Welles. In 2016, the Hofmeister brand returned with a new 5% recipe.

Division of the business between the Carlsberg/Heineken consortium
Heineken acquired:

S&N UK; Beamish and Crawford – ROI; Hartwall – Finland; Alken Maes – Belgium; Central de Cervejas – Portugal; Indian JV with UB; US export business and other venture markets.

Carlsberg acquired:

Remaining 50% of Baltic Beverages Holdings; Kronenbourg – France; Mythos (beer) – Greece; Chongqing joint venture in China; Venture markets:- Switzerland; Africa; Hungary; Luxembourg; Indian Ocean; South and Central America and Asia.

title: Scottish & Newcastle


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Vijayanagara

Vijayanagara was a city at the modern location of Hampi, in the Indian state of Karnataka. Vijayanagara was the capital city of the historic Vijayanagara Empire. Located on the banks of the Tungabhadra River, it spread over a large area and included sites in the Vijayanagara district, the Ballari district, and others around these districts. A part of Vijayanagara ruins known as the Group of Monuments at Hampi has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Hampi, an ancient human settlement mentioned in Hindu texts, houses pre-Vijayanagara temples and monuments. In the early 14th century, the dominant Kakatiyas, Seuna Yadavas, Hoysalas, and the short-lived Kampili kingdom, who inhabited the Deccan region, were invaded and plundered by armies of Khalji and later Tughlaq dynasties of the Delhi Sultanate.

Vijayanagara was founded from these ruins by the Sangama brothers, who were working as soldiers in the Kampili Kingdom under Kampalidevaraya. The city grew rapidly. The Vijayanagara-centred empire functioned as a barrier to the Muslim sultanates in the north, leading to the reconstruction of Hindu life and scholarship, multi-religious activity, rapid infrastructure improvements, and economic activity. Along with Hinduism, Vijayanagara accepted communities of other faiths such as Jainism and Islam, leading to multi-religious monuments and mutual influences. Chronicles left by Persian and European travellers state Vijayanagara to be a prosperous and wealthy city.

By 1500 CE, Hampi-Vijayanagara was the world's second largest medieval era city (after Beijing) and probably India's richest at that time, attracting traders from Persia and Portugal.

Wars between nearby Muslim Sultanates and Hindu Vijayanagara continued, however, through the 16th century. In 1565, the Vijayanagara leader Aliya Rama Raya was captured and killed, and the city fell to a coalition of Muslim Sultanates of the Deccan. The conquered capital city of Vijayanagara was looted and destroyed for 6 months, after which it remained in ruins.

Location and history
Vijayanagara is located in the modern era Indian state of Karnataka, along the banks of the Tungabhadra River. The city rapidly grew from being an ancient pilgrimage centre in the 13th century, to the capital of the Vijayanagara Empire in the early 14th century, and becoming a metropolis of approximately 650 km2 by the early 16th century. By 1500 CE, It became the world's second largest city, after Beijing. Memoirs by foreigners estimate the population was about 500,000, but others find this estimate to be either generous or too conservative.

The architecture of the capital, Vijayanagara, is purposefully aligned with the natural features of the city from the time of Rama. Vijayanagara was founded around the religious Hindu temple complex, Pampa Tirtha, and Kishkindha that already existed at Hampi. The name of the city centre, Hampi, is derived from Pampa, another name of goddess Parvati in Hindu theology. According to Sthala Purana, Parvati (Pampa) pursued her ascetic lifestyle to win over and bring ascetic Shiva back into householder life on the banks of Tungabhadra river, on Hemakuta hill, now a part of Hampi. Shiva is also called Pampapati (lit. "husband of Pampa"), and the river came to be known as Pampa river. The Sanskrit word Pampa morphed into the Kannada word Hampa, and the place Parvati pursued what she wanted came to be known as Hampe or Hampi. Its Hindu significance also comes from the Kishkindha chapters of the Hindu epic Ramayana, where Rama and Lakshmana meet Hanuman, Sugriva, and the monkey army in their search for kidnapped Sita. The Hampi area has many close resemblances to the place described in the epic. Traditionally understood to be the place described in the Ramayana, the region attracts many pilgrims.

Prior to its founding, Hindus and kings of various kingdoms visited Hampi. Hoysala Empire's Hindu kings built and supported the Hampi pilgrimage centre before the 14th century. At the start of the 14th century, the armies of Delhi Sultanate, first those of Alauddin Khalji and later of Muhammad bin Tughlaq invaded and pillaged South India. The Hoysala Empire and temple cities such as those in Halebidu, Belur and Somanathapura were plundered in early 14th century. From the ruins of this collapse and destruction emerged Vijayanagara Empire and its new capital Vijayanagara. The city was founded by Harihara I and Bukka, the Sangama brothers.

The city was already a sacred site of pilgrimage for devotees of Shiva in the 10th century. It became the most powerful urban centre in the Deccan between 14th to 16th centuries and one of the ten largest cities of the world. The Renaissance Portuguese and Persian traders reported it as a marvellous achievement.

The city was a powerful urban centre in South India from 14th to 16th century and one of the ten largest cities of the world. It stood as a bastion of Hindu values dedicated to fighting back the encroachments of the Muslim sultans from the north, who soon came to be operating from Golkonda. The Sangama dynasty was involved in repeated conflicts with the Bahamani Sultanate. The Bahamanis had later disintegrated into five sultanates which formed a Deccan alliance. Krishnadevaraya after the Battle of Raichur allowed one sultan to stay in power rather than let it split into smaller kingdoms. However, later Vijayanagara kings had to contend with multiple Sultanates to their north. The Vijayanagara kingdom befriended and allowed the Portuguese to take control of Goa and western territories of the Bahamani Sultanate. The sultanates united against the Vijayanagara Empire.

An ongoing war between Muslim Sultanates and the Hindu Vijayanagara Empire led to the Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, fought about 175 km north. It resulted in the capture and beheading of Vijayanagara leader Aliya Rama Raya, mass confusion within the Vijayanagara forces and a shock defeat. The Sultanate army then reached Vijayanagara, looted, destroyed and burnt it down to ruins. This is evidenced by the quantities of charcoal, the heat-cracked basements and burnt architectural pieces found by archaeologists in Vijayanagara region. The urban Vijayanagara was abandoned and remained in ruins ever since. Vijayanagara never recovered from the ruins.

The Italian Cesare Federici writing two years after the empire's defeat states that "The Citie of Bezeneger (Vijayanagara) is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but empty, and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts."

Archaeological evidence suggests that while the urban settlement was abandoned, a number of rural settlement in the metropolitan region were not fully emptied. Some population remained in the region (though there is no good assessment of how much), and a number of settlements founded in the Vijayanagara period remain occupied up to the present.

Description

The name translates as "City of Victory", from vijaya (victory) and nagara (city). As the prosperous capital of the largest and most powerful kingdom of its time in South India, Vijayanagara attracted people from all around the world. "After Timur's sack of Delhi, North India remained weak and divided. South India was better off, and the largest and most powerful of the southern kingdoms was Vijayanagar. This state and city attracted many of the Hindu refugees from the north. From contemporary accounts, it appears that the city was rich and very beautiful—The city is such that "eye has not seen nor ear heard of any place resembling it upon earth", says Abdur-Razzak from Central Asia. There were arcades and magnificent galleries for the bazaars, and rising above them all was the palace of the king surrounded by "many rivulets and streams flowing through channels of cut stone, polished and even." The whole city was full of gardens, and because of them, as an Italian visitor in 1420, Nicolo Conti writes, the circumference of the city was sixty miles. A later visitor was Paes, a Portuguese who came in 1522 after having visited the Italian cities of the Renaissance. The city of Vijayanagar, he says, is as "large as Rome and very beautiful to the sight"; it is full of charm and wonder with its innumerable lakes and waterways and fruit gardens. It is "the best-provided city in the world" and "everything abounds." The chambers of the palace were a mass of ivory, with roses and lotuses carved in ivory at the top--"it is so rich and beautiful that you would hardly find anywhere, another such."

- Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India

The ruined city is a World Heritage Site, known in that context as the Ruins of Hampi. In recent years there have been concerns regarding damage to the site at Hampi from heavy vehicular traffic and the construction of road bridges in the vicinity. Hampi was listed as a "threatened" World Heritage Site by the UNESCO but was later removed from the list after appropriate corrective measures were taken.

Traveller memoirs before 1565 CE record it as a large and developed metropolitan area. The Italian Cesari Federici writing two years after the Vijayanagara Empire's military defeat in 1565 describes the city after its ruin, "is not altogether destroyed, yet the houses stand still, but emptie [sic], and there is dwelling in them nothing, as is reported, but Tygres and other wild beasts."

Recent commentaries state:

"The massive walls, which can still be traced, enclosed an area of more than sixty square miles, much of which was occupied by fields and gardens watered by canals from the river. The population cannot be estimated with precision, but it was certainly very large when judged by the standards of the fifteenth century. The great majority of the houses were naturally small and undistinguished, but among them were scattered palaces, temples, public buildings, wide streets of shops shaded by trees, busy markets, and all the equipment of a great and wealthy city. The principal buildings were constructed in the regular Hindu style, covered with ornamental carving, and the fragments which have survived suffice to give point to the enthusiastic admiration of the men who saw the city in the days of its magnificence."

Sanjay Subrahmanyam states that Vijayanagara was arguably one of the only three centres during this period with a population of over 100,000 in South India and that from the contemporary accounts and what remains of its expanse, the city proper and the suburbs had a population of 500,000 to 600,000. He notes that Domingo Paes had estimated its size at 100,000 houses.

Area
Vijayanagara includes:
 * Hampi, now UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 * Anegundi, on the north side of the Tungabhadra River, in Koppal district.
 * Kamalapura, a small temple town to the southeast of the Royal Centre, also houses an archaeological museum.
 * Hospet, a city and railhead, to the southwest.
 * Monuments spread Vijayanagara and nearby districts.

title: Vijayanagara


text:
Fiat 127

The Fiat 127 is a supermini car produced by Italian car manufacturer Fiat from 1971 to 1983. It was introduced in 1971 as the replacement for the Fiat 850. Production of the 127 in Italy ended in 1983 following the introduction of its replacement, the Fiat Uno, although the nameplate continued to be used on cars imported from Brazil.

The 127 is generally regarded as one of the most influential small cars of all time, and more than any other as the car which defined the modern supermini – with its body configuration and engineering template being followed in almost all B-segment cars that followed. Superminis typically emulate the 127's transverse engine layout, with an end-on mounted transmission and front wheel drive, and are sold overwhelmingly in hatchback format.

Series 1
Developed towards the end of the 1960s, the Fiat 127 was launched as a two-door saloon in April 1971. A three-door hatchback, using an identical body profile but with a full-depth rear door and folding rear seat, was launched in March of the following year; this would prove to be the most popular version of the 127. This was Fiat's first supermini-sized hatchback. The 127 featured a state-of-the-art transverse-engine/front-wheel-drive layout, with the transmission mounted on the end of the engine. Both design ideas had been fully vetted by Fiat, using its Autobianchi subsidiary 1964 Primula, 1969 A112 and A111 — precisely because the models were not targeted for large production. The larger Fiat 128, launched in 1969, was the first Fiat-badged car to use the same transverse powertrain layout. The 127, like the A112, used a shrunken version of the 128 platform, as well as the rugged Fiat OHV 100 series 903 cc engine that had powered the Autobianchi and, with various cylinder capacities, earlier generations of Fiat cars. The 127 also featured a unique transverse leaf spring suspension at the rear. Safety was another area of innovation: the 127 included an articulated steering column and crumple zones for progressive deformation under impact.

The car was one of the first of the modern superminis, and won praise for its use of space (80 percent of the floor space was available for passengers and luggage) as well as its road-holding. It was launched a year before the comparable Renault 5, and before the end of the 1970s most mass market European manufacturers were producing similar cars, including the Ford Fiesta and Volkswagen Polo, while General Motors added a three-door hatchback to the Opel Kadett range, which was reworked for British production and sold as the Vauxhall Chevette. The 127 was also one of the more popular imported cars on the UK market, peaking at more than 20,000 sales in 1978.

It was also the first car fitted with an all-polypropylene bumper on steel support. The 127 was an instant success, winning the European Car of the Year award for 1972, and quickly became one of the best-selling cars in Europe for several years. It was the third Fiat in six years to receive this accolade.

In June 1974, slightly over three years after the model's introduction, Fiat reported that the one millionth 127 had been completed at the Mirafiori plant in Turin, after just over three years in production. The (in its time) hugely successful Fiat 600 had taken seven years to reach that same milestone.

The Series 1 car changed little during its lifetime. However, in May 1973 saloons became available in both standard and deluxe versions. In 1975 the 127 Special variant was released which featured a restyled front grille and detail changes to the interior. The deluxe version was differentiated by its reclining front seats and opening hinged rear side windows as standard equipment. In early 1976, the 127's engine was lightly modified to help it meet new emissions standards. A new carburetor and adjusted valve timing lowered power by two horsepower but also increased fuel economy by about ten percent.

Series 2
The Series 2 version of the 127 debuted in May 1977. Although the bodyshell remained fundamentally the same, the Series 2 hinted towards a more angular styling direction which would be seen in the Ritmo/Strada the following year. It featured a restyled front and rear and larger rear side windows, losing the upswept belt line of the Series 1, as well as adding a distinctive "Hofmeister kink" on the C-pillar. The new rear quarter pressings were derived from those used on the Brazilian market Fiat 147, although without the rear quarter extraction vent used in South America. The Series 2 also offered the option of the 1049 cc engine - uniquely for the 127 this was the five-bearing OHC "Brazil" engine from the 147 rather than the Fiat OHC unit from the 128. The tailgate was extended and now reached nearly to the rear bumper, addressing complaints about the high lip over which luggage had to be lifted for loading into the earlier 127 hatchbacks. The interior was revised with a new dashboard which was identical in layout to the original car but was plainer in appearance and lost the wood embellishment of the Series 1. The underside of the dashboard was tidied up with new cover panels to enclose the steering column, brake master cylinder (on right hand drive versions) and the pedal mechanisms.

A new Sport model was available from June 1978 which featured a high output 70 PS version of the standard 1049 cc engine. This was achieved by incorporating Abarth revisions to the head with larger valves and an Abarth exhaust system and the use of a twin choke Weber carburetor. Changes were also made to the gearbox final ratio to improve the performance. The Sport model has bespoke high back sporty cloth seats with either blue or orange piping and bespoke racing wing mirrors as well as a rev counter, sports wheels, sports leather steering wheel and sport three-piece stripe with 127 Sport decals. It was available in three colours, Black with orange stripes, Silver with black stripes and Orange with black stripes.

In March 1980, the 147 Panorama went on sale in several European markets with "127" badging, originally only with the 1050 engine. The Panorama used the 147's recently updated "Europa" front, with reverse-angled rectangular headlights and blocky combined markerlights/turn signals wrapping around the corners. There was also a "high-cube" panel van version, known as the Fiorino, which was based on the Series 2 bodyshell. This remained in production until the end of 1987, when a new Uno-based Fiorino debuted.

Brazilian-built versions
The 147 itself went on sale in Italy under the name of 127 Rustica in 1979. This was a version meant for light off-road work, and received a spartan appearance and equipment. The 127 Rustica benefitted from the 147's stronger body, 1050 cc engine, reinforced suspension ("tropical" type springs front and rear), and a skid plate. The front and rear lights were protected by mesh grilles mounted on model-specific tubular metal bumpers, while it had the Brazilian dashboard and specific, lightly padded seats with a tubular structure and covered in brown leatherette. The Rustica was only offered with semi-matte military beige paint, black rims without hubcaps and winter tires, with the only option being a metal luggage rack. Noisy and very particular, the Rustica was removed from price lists in 1981 without a proper replacement until the 1983 introduction of the Panda 4x4. The Rusticas were assembled in Lamborghini's Sant'Agata Bolognese plant.

At the 1981 Geneva Motor Show, a diesel-engined version of the 127 was introduced with hatchback or Panorama bodywork. The diesel Series 2 was only built in Brazil and is technically a rebadged 147; it uses that model's headlight treatment which it shared with the 127 Panorama. The 147 had a stronger structure to better handle Brazilian roads and was considered more suitable for the additional weight and vibrations of the diesel engine. The Panorama and Diesel versions retained this design even as the Italian-made 127 changed over to the Series 3. From 1983, the "127 Unificata" introduced the same design across the entire 127/147 lineups.

Series 3
Despite a completely new replacement being only a year away, the Series 3 was presented in November 1981 and launched in Italy in January 1982, soon thereafter reaching other European markets. It is distinguishable from the Series 2 by its grille. The third series received a completely new dashboard design and interior, following the design language first seen in the Ritmo. Body panels are all as before, except for a longer bonnet required to clear the larger headlights. The 1301 cc Fiat Fiasa engine replaced the earlier 1050 in the Series 3 Sport. New for the Series 3 was also the option of a five-speed manual transmission, a first for the 127 as it had not fit in earlier models. It was available in the 1050 Super (called "Comfort" in some markets) and was also installed in the 127 Sport. The new 127 Sport cost less than its more highly strung predecessor, and had more power from its larger engine. It remained on sale in Italy until December 1983, when the Uno Turbo replaced it.

In nations like Norway, Denmark and Finland this generation was particularly successful. For 1983, Swiss buyers received the Autobianchi A112's 965 cc engine rather than the 903 cc unit in the 127 Special, so that the importer would not have to make two similar engines pass local emissions standards. Fiat also bumped up the compression ratio and installed a somewhat larger carburetor in the 1.05-litre 127 Super, increasing power somewhat so as to maintain its power advantage over the lesser 127 Special.

The 127 was replaced as Fiat's high volume product in this sector by the Fiat Uno in January 1983, though Italian manufacture continued until the end of 1983 and it continued in production in South America until 1995. The 127 disappeared from the right-hand drive British market soon after the Uno went on sale there in June 1983.

127 Unificata
After Italian production ended, Fiat imported the South American 127 Unificata to Europe until 1987, albeit only for left-hand drive markets. It is called "Unificata" (unified) as all models now received the same design; until then, Brazilian-made cars had their own design, meaning that 127 Diesel and Panorama models had been of very different appearance than their Series 2 and Series 3 siblings. The Unificata range was condensed, leaving only the 1050 petrol engine and the diesel. The five-door version was also discontinued, although SEAT kept offering this bodystyle on their Fura until 1986.

SEAT 127
As happened with other Fiat models of that era, SEAT made a Spanish version of this car called the SEAT 127. Due to SEAT design policy, a 4-door variant of the car was also produced, as well as a later five-door version. The second series' change to the side profile was also applied to these four-door versions, with a flatter and more angular rear side window line. SEAT also produced a unique variant of the 127 OHV engine. This had 1010 cc instead of 903 cc and produced 50 bhp. The four-door SEAT 127 was exported to certain markets with Fiat badging.

When their licence from Fiat expired, SEAT redesigned some parts of the car and created the SEAT Fura Dos. Some design parts of this model were also used in the Ibiza mark 1. SEAT produced 1,238,166 units of the 127 between 1972 and 1984.

Polski Fiat 127p
Fiat 127 was also produced under Fiat license by Polish automobile manufacturers FSO (between 1973 and 1975) and FSM (between 1974 and 1975) under the name Polski Fiat 127p. These were assembled using both Italian and Polish parts. Originally the Polski Fiat 127p was to be produced in large numbers as a people's car, but when it became apparent that it would be about 30% more expensive than the 126p it was decided to concentrate on the latter while the larger 127p was only produced in very small numbers.

Fiat 147
In Brazil the car was known as the Fiat 147 (later Spazio), a three-door station wagon version called "Panorama". There was also a conventional two-door three-box saloon available, "Fiat Oggi", a pick-up called "City" and a van called "Fiorino" was also produced there. The Brazilian-built versions utilized a 1050 cc engine and a 1300 cc engine called "Fiasa" and also utilized a 1.3 L Diesel engine (for export markets only). From 1981 this variant (called a 127) was exported to Europe, to be sold alongside the 127 sedans and hatchbacks. A total of 1,169,312 units were built from 9 July 1976 to the end of 1986 in Brazil and 232,807 units were also built in Argentina between 1982 and 1996, as the Fiat 147, Spazio, and Vivace. It was also assembled in the CCA in Colombia.

Although the car achieved reasonable selling figures, the model was titled as "low-level" and "not so reliable" by early buyers, because Fiat was just starting to sell cars in Brazil in the late 1970s and early 1980s. It was the first model produced by FIAT in Brazil, in 1976.

VAZ-1101
The Soviet manufacturer VAZ expanded its existing collaboration with Fiat in the early 1970s to develop a 127-derived supermini which would have slotted below the existing Fiat 124-based Zhiguli sedan. The car, designated VAZ-1101 however never made production, but formed the basis of the later Lada Niva (VAZ-2121) off-roader, which as a result, retained key styling features of the Fiat 127 - most notably the distinctive forward-opening 'clamshell' hood; with the stepped beltline and glasshouse also bearing a strong resemblance to the 127.

Specials
Italian coachbuilder Moretti made a canvas-topped version in the style of the Renault Rodeo and Citroën Méhari called the "Midimaxi" (to set it apart from the smaller, 126-based Minimaxi). In spite of its rugged appearance, the front-wheel drive underpinnings remained the same. The Midimaxi was first shown at the 1971 Turin Motor Show, which was also when the very similar Fissore 127 Scout first appeared.

Another special was a station wagon derivative (127 Familiare) developed by small Turinese coachbuilders Coriasco, first shown in 1971. Coriasco also developed a panel van derivative. In 1978, Coriasco presented a high-roofed leisure vehicle version, akin to the Talbot Matra Rancho, called the Coriasco 127 Farm. Coriasco displayed two 127 Coupés but these never entered production.

title: Fiat 127