text:
1794 in Canada

Events from the year 1794 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada — 1st
 * Parliament of Upper Canada — 1st

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe

Events

 * 1794 – Baranov builds first vessel in northwestern America at Voskres-senski on Kenai.
 * Jay Treaty establishes neutral commission to settle border disputes between United States and Canada; restores trade between the United States and British colonies of Canada; also guarantees Indians free movement across the border.
 * June – Close of a session of the Canadian Legislature, which began in November last. Only six acts have been passed. Public accounts are first published for tax-payers' information.
 * June 29 – Petition of Free Negroes.

Births

 * Daniel Tracey, doctor, journalist and politician (died 1832)
 * Oliver Goldsmith, poet (died in 1861)

Deaths

 * March 26 – Juan Francisco de la Bodega y Quadra, naval officer, explorer, administrator (born 1744)

Historical documents
New York newspapers say John Jay picked for negotiation with Britain, and Congress believes outcome will determine whether U.S.A. goes to war or not

London trader reports arrival of John Jay with prospects of British surrender of northwestern U.S. posts and consequences for traders there

George Washington condemns British "agents" for Indigenous "hostilities, the murders of helpless women and innocent children along our frontiers"

Joseph Brant said to have found Indigenous people "disheartened," and "that People interfering caused a Division" that will cost them their country

Jay Treaty calls for British troops to leave U.S. territory, reciprocal free passage across most borders, compensation for British creditors, etc.

Just arriving off Delaware Bay, British warships capture provisions convoy headed for France, including 11 flour-laden ships from U.S. ports

Map: British territory from Upper Canada - Lower Canada border to Newfoundland and southern Labrador (Note: click on image to enlarge it)

When French prisoners of war complain about being locked up with Caribbean Blacks, British tell them revolutionary France declares all men are alike

Elizabeth Simcoe thinks battles dramatized on stage will harden English, making them "become their friends' executioners as the French have been"

Lower Canada
Legislation sets regulations for aliens entering L.C., for detaining persons suspected of treason, and stopping seditious practices

Loyal Associations form in several towns; 658 in Quebec City sign loyalty pledge to maintain Constitution, support government and oppose sedition

Petitions to Gov. Lord Dorchester, signed by 150 Beauce residents, hope to atone for formerly following lead of "seditious characters"

"Atoyataghroughta" of Akwesasne says his people seek peace between U.S.A. and "Indians[...]but Brant[...]puts the Tommyhawk in their hands"

Men 18-60 (including immigrants of 3 months standing) must enroll in militia; families of men killed in action to receive £4 annually

Reward of $20 in New Richmond, Gaspe for return of "Negro Man named Isaac, who[...]speaks good English and some broken French and Micmac"

Advice is to not put children in cradles (because their motion can injure) —- not even if women don't want to be "suckling their children"

River travel between Montreal and Quebec City is "very pretty [but Upper Canada's warmth] gives an idea of comfort to the most uninhabited scenes"

Upper Canada
Long description of U.C.: Kingston, Newark and York/Toronto and their environs, settlement along Yonge St., and trade both to Montreal and to West

Lt. Gov. Simcoe's long report on U.C.: fur trade, smuggling, settlements, agriculture, communications and Indigenous affairs (note: "savages" used)

U.S. President Washington wants to know how residents of Canada (especially in U.C.) would react if U.S.A. and Britain went to war

Before news of Jay Treaty, Simcoe assumes frontier post evacuation and suggests U.C. military plan that will earn Indigenous peoples' respect

With Jay Treaty signed, Simcoe is told to assure Indigenous people that trade links and supplies will increase and new trading posts be developed

Militia (16- to 50-year-olds) may call up others to age 60; limited exemption also for "quakers, menonists and tunkers" who are 50 and older

"[...]nothing since my arrival in this Country has given me more uneasiness than the pernicious use of Spirits by the Inhabitants and Soldiers"

Anglican Bishop of Quebec's long report on Protestant religion in U.C. (especially need for Anglican clergy and churches; note: "savages" used)

Lt. Gov. Simcoe gives 40-year history of British-Indigenous relations to "Indian Nations Assembled"

Mississaugas and Ojibwe people at Lake Simcoe and on Thames River object to surveying as sign their land is being taken from them

Elizabeth Simcoe learns Indigenous people call Big Dipper "a marten[...]with a broken tail," and never kill wolves (as they aren't good eating or value)

Deputy Surveyor General and militia captain Augustus Jones' petition for Burlington Bay lot to make up 1,200 acres is turned down by Council

Ex-lieutenant in "Six Nation Indian Department" seeks land for 70 U.S. families who are "entire strangers to[...]deceptions[...]of Landjobers"

Ex-captain in New York City militia, compensated for war losses with Nova Scotia land "Not answering for a Farmer," petitions for 3,000 acres

Land boards settling Loyalists and veterans abolished; new settlers must be Christian, law-abiding and "inoffensive," and "capable of manual labor"

Richard Pierpoint and 17 other Black people sign Petition of Free Negroes for grant of land in Upper Canada where they can support each other

Moravian missionary on Thames River says that, despite war, "some fruit begins again to appear in the conversion of the Heathen around us"

Painting: tree used as bridge over Don River at Toronto

Nova Scotia
House of Commons debates whether Halifax is nearly defenceless or safe in hands of local militia leads to motion calling for further study

Sketch map of Halifax shows current and proposed defences (Note: click on image to enlarge it)

Though far away, war affects N.S. community by raising prices for labour and British goods and checking "growth of these new plantations"

Captured U.S. privateer "is one of the Nest of Privateers, which, to the disgrace of the [neutral] American Government," sails out of Charleston, S.C.

"Agricola" says N.S. agriculture has advanced to point that meat must no longer be imported from Boston and importation of bread will soon end

Profile of Marine Society of Halifax with its background and goals in saving lives of marine disaster victims

Act validates any past or future real estate conveyance made with her husband by any married woman, as long as judge "acknowledges" it

Reward of $20 for return of "Negro" named Belfast, native of South Carolina, who attempted boarding ship in Halifax harbour bound for Newfoundland

To avoid deterring Blacks from "binding out their Children," Shelburne grand jury seeks return of young indentured servant sold in West Indies

Reacting to extreme markups on English goods, Free Blacks in Sierra Leone threaten white government, which offers to return them to Halifax

At request of lieutenant governor's wife, classic comedy She Stoops to Conquer will be performed at Halifax Theatre

New Brunswick
Lt. Gov. Carleton says war with France is important "to the most essential interests of humanity, and even to the existence of Civil Society"

All white males 16-60 are liable to join militia, with limited exemptions for government officials, clergymen, physicians and Quakers

Miramichi letter-writer says "very little business done here [and hopes] peace may be the means of restoring us to a more flourishing situation"

Saint-John-based schooner sailing from Martinique loses its master and mate to fever, leaving landsmen aboard to find their way as far as Maine

Elsewhere
At John Graves Simcoe's request, Alexander Mackenzie summarizes his 1793 journey from Peace River to Pacific coast and back

"I am so brave, I think I could kill one myself" - Army wife Archange Meredith ready to shoot any Frenchmen who invade England

Archange Meredith in England finds apples very good, but not comparable to Montreal's pome gris, while cherries are better than Detroit's

title: 1794 in Canada


text:
1795 in Canada

Events from the year 1795 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada — 1st
 * Parliament of Upper Canada — 1st

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe

Events

 * 1790s – British create protective tariffs to encourage timber production for Navy after Napoléon Bonaparte cuts off Baltic supply of tall trees and hardwood. First in New Brunswick then in Lower and Upper Canada. Montreal merchants expand transport to handle trade.
 * A road Act is passed, in Lower Canada, though opposed by country people, who fear a return of the Statue labor of Governor Haldimand's time.

Births

 * September 5: Étienne-Paschal Taché, doctor, politician, and deputy adjutant-general of the militia (died 1865)
 * September 30: François Norbert Blanchet, missionary (died 1883)

Deaths

 * May 18: Robert Rogers, army officer and author (born 1731)

Historical documents
After Battle of Fallen Timbers, Lord Dorchester reports "Western Tribes positively demanded Assistance from the British and from the Six Nations"

After visiting Upper Canada in 1795, Duke de la Rochefoucauld explains Governor General Lord Dorchester's powers and their limitations

Dorchester lays out moves he had to make to keep U.S. Gen. Anthony Wayne from starting war at Detroit, given British diplomatic policy and U.S. politics

Indian Department official strongly recommends that Indigenous leaders not be given liquor when land deals and other business is to be done

Jay Treaty gives such advantage to British traders "that American traders will not be able to maintain a competition with them"

After crossing from British to U.S. lines and going to Cincinnati, William Kenny sends apology to former enslaver Alexander McKee for leaving him

Lower Canada
"The general failure of the crops this year" has induced Gov. Gen. Lord Dorchester to prohibit their export until December

Agricultural Society offers $40 (or gold medal or silver cup) for "largest quantity of merchantable Fall or Winter Wheat" grown on 1 arpent for 1797

Ships from places of "plague, pestilence or disease" must quarantine; guns may be used to compel, and captains hiding disease commit capital crime

Dorchester should work out with "Law Officers" and Protestant bishop how to make Church lands and Crown land productive and lucrative

Montreal notary offers cash for Lower and Upper Canada land certificates belonging to those "inclined to dispose of the same"

Teenage apprentice in Gazette printing shop dies of head wound from musket ball fired through window; coroner's verdict: willful murder

Apprentice "about fourteen years old, middling stout of his age, with a remarkable flat nose" is missing, but "will be well treated" if he returns

Baby lies next to hole in Lake Champlain ice where sleigh fell through; mother probably threw her to safety; good start to "a heroine's life in a novel"

In addition to schooling for young men and public, "Messieurs Tanswell and Son" offer young women education they cannot receive in schools

Montreal pastry chef offers "sweetmeats, conserves, blancmanges, gellies, and pyes hot or cold for journies, en gras et en maigre"

Upper Canada
Establishing British Constitution in U.C. offers "best method gradually[...]to disarm the spirit of democratic subversion" where it arose

Thinking it conflicts with his authority, Lt. Gov. Simcoe wants reform of Indian Department, which he finds ignorant and indolent and people distrust

Persons (including those born British subjects) from other countries must have lived in U.C. 7 years to be electable to legislature

Settlers approved by Governor in Council may receive 200–1,200 acres of land, of which 2% must be cleared in first 3 years and 5% in next 4 years

Simcoe links (pg. 349) education to "Children of the principal People[...]to qualify them for[...]leading functions in the Church and State"

Simcoe wants "Protestant Episcopal University" in U.C. (or even in U.S.A.) to raise learned and united clergy favourable to Great Britain

Simcoe wants pro-British newspapers "to counteract the baneful effects of the News Papers of the United States disseminated with great Industry"

Temporary agreement requires U.C. not to tax goods from Lower Canada, but L.C. may tax goods from U.C., returning one-eighth of net to U.C.

Early problems with bringing Pennsylvania Moravian Germans ("a moral, frugal, industrious, exemplary sect") to Upper Canada

Simcoe told that Jay Treaty "will [concentrate] your future measures and [reduce] them to the internal Regulation and security of Upper Canada"

After visiting U.C. in 1795, Duke de la Rochefoucauld alleges Simcoe's ambitions, plans and "maxims of government" at length

Joseph Brant says disposing of some Indigenous land on Grand River is needed "to relieve the distressed Indians[...]not able to help themselves"

Chabondasheam and three other Ojibwe chiefs agree to cede Penetanguishene region to British for £100 in goods Physician believes sickness in settlements comes from bad air emitted by rotting clearcut trees, and that they (including roots) should be burned

Attempts to grow wild rice in England unsuccessful, so English visitor requests seeds (manoomin; Zizania palustris) from Upper Canada

Joseph Banks reports find of "Indian earthen ware" at abandoned village near Lake Huron, and resembling pottery from Peru and Mexico

Niagara woman's children escorted to New York City by her husband, travelling for one week through winter woods (accompanied by Joseph Brant)

Painting: Niagara Falls

Nova Scotia
Lt. Gov. Wentworth says prosperity is increasing, provincial revenue will probably not need further duties and public debt will be extinguished

Agriculture Society offers prizes totalling £100 to farmers raising most or heaviest quantity of wheat, flax seed, turnips, oxen, sheep and bulls

Prohibition on further export of "Wheat and other Grain, Flour, Peas, Beef, Pork, and other Provisions" for 5 months

Inspector-General of Mines wants both "Country Gentlemen [and] the Poor-Man" to watch for coal, gold, silver, copper, lead and other minerals

Squadron commander at Halifax offers "exemption from all punishment" to deserters who return to service and possible recovery of forfeited wages

Being exempt from militia service, Quakers ages 21-50 must work 4 days each year on highways or pay 3 shilling per day fine

Loyalist with 200 acres in Shelburne County wants marshy tract where he can harvest hay for cattle that will support sawmill he plans to build

Petition submitted on behalf of group planning grist and sawmill, who as Protestants are wanted because district is more than two-thirds Roman Catholic

After militia fail to come to their aid, local inhabitants fire on its crew to drive off French privateer and rescue two ships taken by it

"This morning his Majesty sloop of War 'Lynx', Capt. Hall, with two Mast-Ships under convoy, arrived here from New-Brunswick"

Man is lost going from Chester to Windsor despite warning of "extreme badness of the road" and "changeableness and extremity of the weather"

Night school open to teach youth "Arithmetic, Vulger, Decimal and Logarithmic,[...]Trigonometry, plain and spherical" and many other subjects

Dancing school opened in Halifax "where Young Ladies and Gentlemen may be taught Minutes [sic], Country Dances, Cotillions and Hornpipes"

The Beaux' Stratagem comedy to be presented for one night only; box seats 5 shillings, pit 3s

"Umberella; Whoever has got one, on which[...]Theft is written in large Characters, is requested to return it to the Owner at Prince Edward Coffee-House"

New Brunswick
Letter to the editor reminds voters in House of Assembly election that "recent experience" shows men lacking "the shadow of capability" can win seats

At polling place to elect new Legislative Assembly, James Glenie enlightens Sunbury freeholders on work of suddenly dissolved previous Assembly

Address to Lt. Governor by Legislative Assembly notes that Saint John, St. Andrews and adjacent coast are not protected by guard ships on station

Posing as French privateer, schooner Solide, "a piratical vessel fitted out of Charleston" South Carolina, is taken by British sloop-of-war Lynx

Man says his wife "has, for this four years past, followed an excess of drinking, [and] left my Bed and Board, and her Family in great distress"

Western interior
North West Company voyageurs are "equal to any thing" and "patient, emulous; indefatigable, and capable of performing seeming impossibilities"

Unlike other Indigenous peoples, Cree receive praise from Roderick Mackenzie as "good hunters, hospitable and brave"

John MacDonell gives "Grand Diable" keg of liquor and "a Chiefs Clothing" for sending so many to trade and "giving the Fort a good name"

"The Brigade" finds many bison carcasses along Assiniboine River; "7360 Drown'd & mired along the River and in it; three to five files deep" on shore

Hudson's Bay Company
Eleven York Factory men sent 100 mi with 5 months' provisions to fell trees and saw planks, as "the Carpenters are at a stand"

York chief factor's nephew "dreadfully mutulated" when fireworks he has in shirt pockets ignite at Guy Fawkes Night bonfire

Children at Moose Factory taught reading and writing mornings and evenings, and boys work at clearing snow, setting snares, assisting men, etc.

Elsewhere
Moravian missionaries at Hopedale, Labrador "speak to the heathen, that [they] hearken [and] be translated[...]from the power of Satan to God"

British officer reports Spanish evacuation of Nootka and turnover to British forces

Chiefs of Seven Nations of Canada write to George Washington regarding return of their land in New York State

St. John's Island (Prince Edward Island) legislature prohibits geese running loose in Charlottetown, and that such geese will go to public auction

Dresses worn by Queen Charlotte, Princess of Wales, her bride's maids and various ladies are part of news coverage of Prince of Wales' wedding

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1795 in Canada


text:
1796 in Canada

Events from the year 1796 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 1st (until May 31)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 1st (until June 3)

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester then Robert Prescott
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe

Events

 * About 600 Jamaican Maroons are deported from Jamaica to Nova Scotia. They helped rebuild the Halifax Citadel. In 1800, most petition to be sent to Sierra Leone, Africa.
 * York officially becomes the capital of Upper Canada.

Births

 * March 10 – Julia Catherine Beckwith, author (d.1867)
 * May 5 – Robert Foulis, inventor, civil engineer and artist (d.1866)
 * May 8 – Jean-Baptiste Meilleur, doctor, educator and politician (d.1878)
 * June – Thomas Brown Anderson, merchant, banker and politician (d.1873)
 * December 17 – Thomas Chandler Haliburton, author, judge and politician (d.1865)

Full date unknown

 * John Redpath, Scots-Quebecer businessman and philanthropist, Born in Earlston, Scottish Borders, Scotland. (d.1869)

Deaths

 * July 10 – Joseph Fairbanks, merchant and political figure in Nova Scotia. (b. 1718)

Historical documents
Secretary of War informs Gov. Gen. Lord Dorchester that U.S. Army detachments are ordered "to take possession of the forts to be evacuated"

To objections to British subjects' right to stay on in evacuated forts, one writer says they number fewer than 3,000, most of them French Canadians

Bostonians narrowly support petition asking U.S.A. to observe Jay Treaty terms to ensure value of U.S. merchant property taken by British is restored

British preparation to evacuate western posts and French capture of U.S. vessel put American hostility toward Britain and France in "a kind of equipoise"

U.S. merchants are already benefitting from Jay Treaty guarantee of "free trade with Canada," sending "large supplies of foreign goods" for specie and furs

Lower Canada
At election time, look for "wisdom, knowledge, and experience[...]in the higher classes of Society, [not] a Carpenter or a Cook or Blacksmith"

Concerned about treason and sedition, Lieutenant Governor and Executive Council order all subjects of France who have arrived since 1794 to leave L.C.

At treason trial, prosecution witness claims accused told him he "was there for the purpose 'of bringing about a revolution in Canada'"

Importing fresh or salted beef and pork as well as hog lard from U.S.A. is to be allowed because "it is expedient[...]for and during a limited time"

Any "Guide, Conductor, Canoeman, Batteauman or Winterer" to Upper Canada or "Indian Country" must have written, notarized agreement with client

Blank forms available for insurance policies, bills of exchange, bills of lading, bonds, powers of attorney, attestations, apprentice's indentures etc.

After French privateer schooner captures brig in Gulf of St. Lawrence, fog clears and Navy frigate retakes brig but loses privateer in fog

Surgeon "will prescribe for[...]the most inveterate venerial [sic] complaints; Hysterics or Mal de Maerice, [and contagious] mal de la baye St. Paul"

Having been severely beaten by her husband, Mrs. Smith refuses reunion and will carry on running military mess in Quebec City herself

Books in Quebec Library include "Blackstone's Commentaries; Bentham on Morals and Legislation; Priestley on Air; and Smith's Wealth of Nations"

Jobseeker knows "all kinds of Housewifery, is well skill'd in puff'd and rais'd Paste, and capable of pickling and preserving; and also[...]good Butter" -						Elizabeth Simcoe describes her intense fear while descending "Rapids of the Cedars" and Lachine rapids on St. Lawrence River

Year-old body of drowned woman found on Île aux Oies with pair of pockets containing cucumber and melon seeds, wheat grains and silver money

Canadian Theatre in Quebec City mounts Le Bourgeois gentilhomme; tickets available "at Mr. Lehoullier Perfumer's opposite to Ferguson's Hotel"

Upper Canada
Lt. Gov. Simcoe speech notes U.C.'s loyalty "during a period of awful and stupendous events [threatening] all that is valuable in civil society"

Young man seeking land is son of man with "extensive Commerce until reduced by the sudden revolution in the markets at the Close of the war"

Rodolph Roch, German who served under Riedesel, wants 300 acres for self and widow of soldier "hanged by the Americans on the Mohawk River"

Land petitioner seeks 48,000-acre grant for 38 Irish immigrants amounting to 1,200 acres each in single settlement on Thames River

Joseph Brant upset that Grand River land granted to "Five Nations" doesn't belong to them and that creation of townships has "destroyed" hunting

Camcommenania and nine other "principal Chiefs, Warriors and People of the Chippewa Nation" sell tract on Thames River near "Deleware Village"

Negig and twelve other "principal Chiefs, Warriors and People of the Chippewa Nation" sell tract along St. Clair River and Chenail Ecarté River

Elizabeth Simcoe describes log building on Don River with 16 ft. pine pillars in portico, called "Castle Frank" after her son Francis

Nova Scotia
With prices beyond ability of poor to pay, contributions needed for purchase of firewood for them, and bread prices should be further regulated

Lt. Gov. Wentworth says difficulties of Blacks brought to N.S. in 1783 have changed to health and happiness as they mostly provide for themselves

Merchant Jonathan Fowler of Digby sells "a female Negro Child named Cathranie about two years old" to John Crosscup of Granville for £5

Just arrived "about 500 Maroon negroes from Jamaica, with two gentlemen[...]to superintend the settlement of those blacks in this Province"

To connect with eastern N.S., private company authorized to gather funds for construction of Halifax Harbour drawbridge and charge tolls for 99 years

Apple River farmers, because of "deadness of the times," are in Halifax to "raise Stocks and lay in Stores" while others try to take their land

Five landowners apply for additional land in intertidal zone (amounting to 103 acres) at edge of their properties in Annapolis County

Counties authorized to set bounties and other regulations for killing wolves, bears, "loup cervier" (Canada lynx) and "wild cats" (bobcat?)

Reward of $100 for Duncan Macdonald, described as "a Highland Scot [with] the broad Highland accent and Pronunciation," and wanted for murder

Minister of Wilmot Church of England congregation explains financing of church construction by sale of pews and annual assessment on pew owners

During Sunday service in Truro, spark from Rev. Cock's chimney sets fire to his roof, and high wind pushes fire to destroy more than dozen barns

Ship sailing to Passamaquoddy struck by lightning "which so shattered her main and mizen masts[...]that they were rendered entirely useless"

Phebe Moody contracted "to keep a light in the light house at the entrance of [Halifax] Harbour"

Drug and medicine store has in stock "Salt Petre; Insinglass; Sago and salep; Essence of: Coltsfoot; Peppermint; Pennyroyal; Bergamot" etc.

Damage done to Dartmouth pastures, streets and lanes rooted up by pigs running loose causes court to restrict their movements and impose fines - St. Patrick's Day levee sees Prince Edward, Lt. Gov., Council and Assembly members in "sociability and good humour [of] liberal and enlarged minds"

New Brunswick
Ships coming to Saint John carrying contagious disease to be inspected and possibly quarantined (up to 40 days), with £200 fine for infractions

Black man Robert Ross, not given land since Loyalist arrival, wants 200 acres of "broken" land for him to find enough good land to improve

George Leonard, Christopher Billop and Abraham de Peyster are among pallbearers at funeral of Jonathan Sewall Sr.

Acadians say that at poll, candidate Stair Agnew required them to take oath which would cause them to "abjure their Religion and be forever lost"

James Glennie, long-time provincial assembly member and critic of N.B. elite, is given Freedom of the City in Saint John

Elizabeth Sweeny, 16, dead of smallpox "notwithstanding she had been innoculated three different times some years back"

Prince Edward asks Lt. Gov. Carleton for "any tall, handsome Soldiers of your Provincial Corps who should volunteer to enter into my regiment"

Elsewhere
Lt. Gov. Fanning notes Saint John Island's prosperity from "vast annual Increase" in produce exports and "valuable Articles of Wheat and black Cattle"

Kahnawake, Akwasasne and other Seven Nations of Canada leaders drop New York land claim for £1,233 6/8 one-time payment and yearly £213 6/8

Town burned and destroyed at Bay of Bulls, Newfoundland by French fleet, and elsewhere people held by French are returned under flag of truce

Homebound Elizabeth Simcoe lessens fear of meeting French warships by playing cards and taking peppermint for "an excruciating headache"

Hudson's Bay Company headquarters tells Moose Factory that war in Europe restricts number of men and goods they can send, including liquor

"Scene of horrors" - Ice driven by gale rapidly causes flood at Fort Albany, crushing bateau and threatening livestock

From Trento, General Buonaparte reports French Army's Italian successes in detail and dramatic fashion ("Cavalry sabred the Advanced Posts")

"I made the signal for a general chase" - Commodore Horatio Nelson reports on his squadron's capture of French convoy in Mediterranean Sea

title: 1796 in Canada


text:
Railway Construction Act

The Railway Construction Act (鉄道敷設法) was promulgated by the Diet of Japan on June 21, 1892, and designated government support for a network of thirty-three railway lines covering most of Japan, with the exception of Hokkaidō. On April 11, 1922, the Diet amended the law to add an additional network of regional and local routes. Today, these lines form the backbone of the national railway network, JR (although JR has relinquished control of some of the more minor ones).

Notable main lines before the Act
The lines listed below were not covered by the act, since they were already built by that time.
 * Tokyo — Gotenba — Nagoya — Gifu — Maibara — Kusatsu — Kyoto — Osaka — Kōbe (Tōkaidō Main Line)
 * Tokyo — Hachiōji (Chūō Main Line as Chūō Line Rapid)
 * Takasaki — Shinonoi — Nagano — Toyono — Naoetsu (Shin’etsu Main Line)
 * Maibara — Tsuruga (Hokuriku Main Line)
 * Ōmiya — Takasaki — Maebashi (Takasaki Line)
 * Tokyo — Ōmiya — Shirakawa — Fukushima — Iwanuma — Sendai — Kogota — Kitakami — Morioka — Aomori (Tōhoku Main Line)
 * Tokyo — Mito (Jōban Line)
 * Nagoya — Kameyama — Tsuge — Kusatsu (Kansai Main Line and Kusatsu line)
 * Osaka — Ōji — Nara (Tōkaidō Main Line and Nara Line)
 * Ōji — Takada
 * Kōbe — Himeji — Okayama — Mihara
 * Marugame — Tadotsu — Kotohira
 * Moji — Kokura — Hakata — Tosu — Kurume — Ōmuta — Kumamoto
 * Tosu — Saga
 * Wakamatsu — Iizuka

title: Railway Construction Act


text:
1797 in Canada

Events from the year 1797 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 2nd (starting January 24)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 2nd (starting June 1)

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Prescott
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe

Events

 * David Thompson leaves Hudson's Bay Company to join North West Company.
 * January 18 – This notice appears in the Quebec Gazette: "A mail for the upper counties, comprehending Niagara and Detroit, will be closed, at this office, on Monday, 30th instant, at four o'clock in the evening, to be forwarded, from Montreal, by the annual winter express, on Thursday, 2 February next."
 * July 21 – American David McLane, being convicted of high treason, is hanged on a gibbet on the glacis of the fortifications at Quebec.

Births

 * April 2 – Joseph-François Deblois, lawyer, judge and political figure (d.1860)
 * May 2 – Abraham Pineo Gesner, physician and surgeon, geologist, and inventor (d.1864)
 * June 29 – Frederic Baraga, Roman Catholic priest, missionary, and bishop (d.1868)
 * August 22 – Augustin-Magloire Blanchet, missionary (d.1887)
 * October 4 – Charles-Séraphin Rodier, mayor of Montreal (d.1876)
 * December 25 – Bernard Donald Macdonald, Roman Catholic priest, bishop, and school administrator (d.1859)

Deaths

 * January 9 – Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot, military (b. 1727)
 * August 3 – Jeffrey Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, army officer (b. 1717)
 * October 17 – Jean-François Hubert, bishop of Quebec (b. 1739)

Historical documents
With Maine–New Brunswick border commission's arrival, writer favourably compares this way of "settling national contests to that of the Bayonet!"

Border commission member Edward Winslow writes in spirit of reconciliation to U.S. friends from before his exile at end of American Revolutionary War

Lower Canada
Anyone accused of high treason or misprision or suspicion of high treason or "Treasonable practices" shall be jailed without bail for 1 year

David McLane is convicted of treason after 14-hour trial and sentenced to death (Note: graphic description of method of execution)

Proclamation forbids trespassing on crown land and township clergy reserve lots, and requires unauthorized settlers to vacate them

Two Royal Navy commanders are "much flattered" by masters of 16 merchant ships thanking them for convoy duty "during a long and tedious traverse"

Quebec City library just opened to public is "where books are let to read by the year, half year, quarter, month, or single volume"

Midwife Mrs. Hebert of Lying-in-Hospital London gives evidence of "her ability[,] Judgement and experience" on Montreal medical board examination

Upper Canada
Anyone who has, over past 7 years, lived or been subject in any country now at war with Britain can be forced to leave U.C. on 24 hours' notice

"Principal Chiefs, Warriors and People of the Mississague Nation" sell 3,450 acres at western end of Lake Ontario to British for £75 2/6 in goods

Joseph Brant and John Deserontyon negotiate compensation of $1,000 (plus $600 expenses) from New York for Kanien’kéhà:ka lands lost there

Woman's land grants based on her wartime service carrying dispatches between British army units, including "three times thro [sic] the Rebel army"

Militia major's son and daughters, "bred up on a better line of Life," want land grant because only that can make "them Independent & Respectable"

Council president Peter Russell is against idea of granting land to wives of Assembly members because it might appear to be bribery by government

New Law Society of Upper Canada is to maintain order among lawyers and create "learned and honorable body to assist their fellow subjects"

Joseph Brant complains that inability to sell or rent out Grand River lands granted his people makes their future insecure

Nova Scotia
Wet, cold weather has made growing "Indian corn" not practical, so farmer advises growers to plant buckwheat on sandy soil for almost as good profit

Lt. Gov. John Wentworth reports on "extremely distress'd and perishing State of the Indians," who have lost both potato crop and hunting grounds

Wentworth reports Maroons in Nova Scotia are undisciplined complainers, but can be taught to be productive and successful

After many years on land not granted them, 8 Acadians petition for "Lands + small Marshes" in Guysborough; move is allowed "until further orders"

German language religious books for sale, including hymns used by Protestant Lutheran congregations and psalms used by Reformed Protestants

Lightning from widespread and powerful thunderstorm strikes Granville barn, blowing boards 100 feet upwind and forcing many 1 foot into the ground

New Brunswick
Letter-to-the-editor warns of sickness and death caused by quackery of practitioners without least knowledge of medicine - Advertisement promotes Saint John dancing school, instruction in fencing and broadsword and lessons on fortepiano, harpsichord and spinet

Hudson's Bay Company
Hudson's Bay Company traders reach Assiniboine River via York Factory and Swan River 1 month before North West Company traders can arrive

Fur trader Donald Mackay reports seeing 93 North West Company canoes headed for Grand Portage with more than 125,000 "made beaver"

Joseph Colen describes low stock of food at Fort Severn from "scarcity of game," which necessitates rationing and threatens "Natives" with starvation

Elsewhere
As epidemic causes many Labrador Inuit deaths, Moravian missionaries find both their converts and "wild heathen" turning to "sorcerers" for relief -	After 2 weeks on Lake Winnipeg (paddling 40+ miles some days), waves swamp Donald Mackay's canoe, but he saves his wife, baby and her sister -				      "[N]otwithstanding the appearances of peace, almost all the Powers of Europe make preparations for war with the greatest celerity" - Chatham Dockyard is to build 98-gun ship wholly of English oak and with "newest improvements of naval architecture"

title: 1797 in Canada


text:
Al Ain International Airport

Al Ain International Airport (مَطَار ٱلْعَيْن ٱلدَُوَلِِي, transliterated: Maṭār Al-ʿAyn Ad-Duwalī) is an airport located 8 NM west-northwest of Al Ain in the Eastern Region of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi, the United Arab Emirates. It was opened on 31 March 1994. It is the fifth busiest airport in the UAE.

Accidents and incidents

 * On 27 February 2011, a Grumman 21T eight seater aircraft crashed shortly after takeoff, killing four on board.

title: Al Ain International Airport


text:
1798 in Canada

Events from the year 1798 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 2nd
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 2nd

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Prescott
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe

Events

 * David Thompson travels to Mandan villages and charts headwaters of Mississippi River.
 * A new fur trading company is formed to compete with the North West Company. Confusingly called the New North West Company, it is nicknamed the XY Company later on.
 * Indian chiefs, in Canada, claim from Vermont an equivalent of the greater part of Addison, Chittenden, Franklin and Grand Isle counties. They get their expenses to-and-fro.

Births

 * February 19 – Allan MacNab, businessman, soldier, lawyer and politician (died 1862)
 * April 3 – Louis Lacoste, politician (died 1878)
 * April 20 – William Edmond Logan, geologist (died 1875)
 * April 26, – Charles-François Baillargeon, Archbishops of Quebec (died 1870)

Deaths

 * May 10 – George Vancouver, naval officer, explorer (b.1757)
 * December 25 – Elias Hardy, lawyer and office-holder (b.1744)

Full date unknown

 * Esteban José Martínez Fernández y Martínez de la Sierra, naval officer (b.1742)

Historical documents
Commissioners fulfilling treaty between U.S.A. and Great Britain decide in favour of river claimed by G.B. as Maine-New Brunswick border

Rundown of treaties between European powers since 1648 Treaty of Westphalia provides background to current affairs and "vicissitudes of the year"

Lower Canada
"Let us exhibit the great fundamental of Masonry, as well as of all civil Society, our Love of Order" - sermon to Montreal Masons rejects revolution

Gov. Prescott gives Executive Council directions for disposal of "waste lands," including preference for associated grant applicants seeking townships

Convicted of burglary in Court of King's Bench (Criminal), Black woman named Elizabeth Baker is sentenced to death

Indigenous person is "convicted of an assault with intent to murder, and sentenced to six months imprisonment"

For assaulting wife with "intent to murder," man gets £25 fine, pillory, and 6 months in prison plus "security for his good behaviour for 2 Years"

Book-lending service will send books to subscribers anywhere in L.C., and they may read latest newspapers in "well warmed room" at library

First French settlers on St. Lawrence River were restricted by Intendant Picard to one can of spruce beer a day, causing them to say "Can-a-day!"

Etching: Canadian calash

Painting: sleighs on ice in winter view of St. Lawrence River at Quebec City

Upper Canada
Noting his loyalty to British, Joseph Brant says their aim for ownership control of all Indigenous land seems "to put aside the old covenant chain"

Black man Henry Lewis writes one-time enslaver that he wants to purchase his freedom in £16 annual payments, and begs his pardon 10,000 times

Adolphustown Quaker meeting reports people try "to keep[...]in plainness of Speech behavior and apparel" and avoid "unnessary [sic] use" of liquor

Nova Scotia
"True British Spirit [of] the Parent country operates with resistless energy" in its dominions, causing Haligonians to raise £4,000+ for war effort

Courteous visit by U.S. Navy ships to Halifax signals "a return of harmony and reciprocal friendship"

Rev. John Wiswall says war makes farming glebe difficult because of high price of labour (with so many men away) and other things (except grain)

Halifax emergency caused by "immense quantities of Snow [in] few days" cutting off food supplies is ended by citizen and army efforts

Resident aliens ("not being natural born Subjects[...]or Denizens, nor Persons duly Naturalized") are required to get special permit from government

"Hurricane" strikes Halifax, driving ships on shore, dragging away wharves with ships moored to them, and destroying stores containing merchanise

Map: Halifax harbour, including approaches, Bedford Basin, and nearby communities (Note: north is at bottom of page)

Having built house, storehouse, shipyard and 5 wharves on Sissiboo River, petitioner requests land for grist and sawmill

Where 1792 freshet shifted Truro channel, 50 acres of marshland created could be secured "with Proper Materials," to public's and petitioner's benefit

Castaways on Sable Island survive 3 winter months in hut with chimney that they cover and line with cloth from wreck, living on ship provisions

Lady Wentworth's departure leaves N.S. deprived of her high accomplishments and her mind "informed for instructive and pleasing conversation"

Young Dartmouth man, having "discovered an attachment to Miss Russel," enters her family home, and when stopped, kills her with butcher knife

At Theatre Royal "will be Performed, A celebrated Comedy never performed here, called The Tempest, or the Inchanted Island"

Three turkey hens, one "of a very remarkable Large Size," are stolen in daylight from Prince Edward's Halifax quarters; 5 guinea reward

New Brunswick
Government extends suspension of controls on U.S. imports to allow in grains, flour etc. because of "public emergency and to prevent distress"

No one in Saint John allowed to board ships from places with "Yellow Fever, Putrid Billious Fever" etc., with master paying £50 for each infraction

Saint John River flooding caused by ice breakup; 20+ French families have evacuated their homes above Fredericton; cattle, hay etc. are swept away

Fredericton church congregation petitions for "a Glebe and other publick grounds" such as land granted to two men but abandoned

For sale: hull of ship lying on Sandy Island; has four 9-pounders, much merchandise and 40 tons of iron (ship is bolted where others have trunnels)

Elsewhere
"In the House of Commons April 3, Mr. Wilberforce moved for leave to bring in a Bill for the abolition of slavery; Ayes 83, Nays 87"

"Every virtuous man will rejoice to hear that a Negro standard is now floating" - Britain recognizes and will defend St. Domingo's independence

Saint John's Island becomes Prince Edward Island to stop its mail going to Saint John, N.B., St. John's, Newf. and "St. Johns on the Labrador Coast"

Hudson's Bay Company concerned that Canadian traders are in "the very heart of York & Severn Bungee Country," making two posts "great sufferers"

Moravians in Labrador find "some time is required before these poor heathen, so deeply sunk in the mire of sin, [truly accept] our Savior"

"Admiral Nelson, in consequence of the loss of his arm, is to return from actual service" and go on rear admirals' superannuated list

France's gathering invasion force includes 50 "Philosophers [who] are to be furnished with instruments[...]for making discoveries" in Britain

title: 1798 in Canada


text:
1799 in Canada

Events from the year 1799 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 2nd
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 2nd

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Prescott then Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Wentworth
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: John Elliot
 * Governor of St. John's Island: Edmund Fanning
 * Governor of Upper Canada: John Graves Simcoe then Peter Hunter

Events

 * David Thompson marries Charlotte Small
 * North West Company establishes a fur post at Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. The nearby Hudson's Bay Company fur post which is also established at this time is called Acton House.
 * Alexander Mackenzie resigns from North West Company
 * George Vancouver's Journeys to the North Pacific Ocean published in London
 * Handsome Lake, a Seneca chief, founds the Longhouse religion
 * Russian-American Fur Company chartered; launches aggressive policy in Aleutians and on Northwest Coast.
 * American competition for West Indies trade kills Liverpool, Nova Scotia's merchant fleet.
 * Alexander Baranov establishes Russian post known today as Old Sitka; trade charter grants exclusive trading rights to the Russian American Company.
 * Vermont answers Indian chiefs, in Canada, that their claims were extinguished by treaties of 1763 and 1783 between France, Great Britain and the United States.
 * Two cases are filed challenging slavery in New Brunswick: R v Jones and R v Agnew.

Births

 * September 8 – Sir William Young, Premier of Nova Scotia (d.1887)
 * October 30 – Ignace Bourget, bishop of the Diocese of Montreal (d.1885)

Full date unknown

 * Joseph Cunard, merchant, shipbuilder and politician (d.1865)

Deaths

 * January 15 – Alexander McKee, agent for the Indian Department (b.1735)

Full date unknown

 * Philip Turnor, HBC inland surveyor (b.1751)

Historical documents
Lumber is rafted from Upper Canada to Montreal for shipment overseas, and carrying grain or potash, which can be kept as dry as in boats

Joseph Brandt gets intelligence from Delaware about French attempts to recruit "Southern and Western Indians" to invade Canada

"It is evident to every honest man, that it must be the wish of the people of the provinces, to be at peace with the people of the States"

President Adams' remarks on "first instance of" British impressment of U.S. sailors, and his orders to U.S. Navy to resist such action by force

Prince Edward to replace Robert Prescott as General and Commander in Chief of the Forces in British North America, occupying Halifax headquarters

Map: British North America from Atlantic Ocean to Rocky Mountains and Hudson Bay

Lower Canada
While hoping fever in L.C. is in decline, Gazette publishes "Rules of Prevention and Suppression of Epidemic[...]for the use of the Poor"

After recounting legal history of slavery, Montreal petitioners ask that "whenever any Panis or Negro Slave" escapes, they shall be jailed and returned

"[With] our Mother Country [opposing] the enemies of religion, rational liberty and good government, [it is] our duty to aid according to our abilities"

Auction sale: "937 Ship Timbers, 130 Oak Knees, 3,461 feet Pine Plank, and 8,346 feet Oak [plank, enough for 2 vessels of about 150 tons each]"

Call for bids to build court house, including masonry, carpentry, labourers, and Pointe-aux-Trembles, Beauport and Ange Gardien, and Cape stone

Visitor admires Catholic churches' "historic scripture paintings," providing rich, instructive scenes that Protestants stripped from their own churches

Gazette print shop offers for sale "Patent Piano Fortes with French frame,[...]German Flutes, Fifes, Clarinets and Hautboys and Reeds [for same]"

For sale: "About 50 Boxes Lemons and Oranges, just arrived[...]from Fayal [Azores]. The vessel having a short passage, they are in excellent order"

Quebec City furrier advertises "Gentleman's and Lady's Muff and Tippets" in wolf, bear, wolverine, fox, lynx, marten and other kinds of skin

Owner of mineral spring in "St. John Suburbs" of Quebec City publishes Dr. Nooth's certificate that waters may be remedy for various diseases

Upper Canada
"Dreading revolutions," Britain encourages U.S. farmers and labourers more than clergy and teachers, limiting new congregations and schools

Persons occupying land without "any Authority, Licence, or Title" must vacate it, and failing to do so will disqualify them from land grants

Widow whose eldest son left country wants late husband's deed put in her and other children's names in case son returns to claim father's land

"From unavoidable events," woman wants to sell Yonge Street lot granted her, but must get permission, which also includes 200-acre grant elsewhere

Woman's husband's land was taken in 1778 and he imprisoned, she escaped to U.C. where she is "old & infirm & very poor;" petition for land rejected

York, "beautifully situated" and "increasing very rapidly," has beach "considered so healthy by the Indians, that they go there whenever indisposed"

Dereham and Norwich townships, between Thames River and Lake Erie, are to be divided and sold in 3,000-acre lots, with bidders paying 50% down

Joseph Brant says Lt. Gov. Simcoe's obstruction of land rights promised Six Nations when Haldimand gave them Grand River causes "much anxiety"

Brant glad high Indian Department official is willing to send provisions to at least 90 "distressed" Indigenous people on Grand River

Brant wishes to sell 69,120 acres to government for transfer to Count de Puisaye, or "it would appear that our former freedoms is taken from us"

Visitor to Kingston profiles Molly Brant as "a faithful and useful friend in Indian affairs, [and who] receives a pension and compensation for losses"

Town wardens can take into apprenticeship any child whose parent has died or abandoned them, though children age 14 and older must consent

Nova Scotia
Doctors' offer to inoculate Haligonians against smallpox turned down, but any wanting their children inoculated are to be permitted (away from town)

Loyalist Thomas Henry Barclay arrives at Halifax from Annapolis en route to New York City to be Consul General for the Eastern States of America

"God is marvellously visiting" - Ministers in N.S. tell of great revival of Protestantism, with scores of baptisms and one church lengthened

Wilmot minister notes "wild spirit of Enthusiasm [in] greater part of the people in this neighbourhood" and "swarm of lay teachers" upholding it

Rev. Houseal, "Missionary to the Germans," dies at age 71 after 47 years of ministry to "Dutch" (Deutsch) of Maryland and then Halifax

Reward of £300 offered by government, plus another £300 from admiral commanding, for information on persons trying to burn Halifax dockyard

Digby man offers $20 reward for return of "Negro" Frances Zebb (28) who "has lost all the Toes off one of his Feet, and walks somewhat lame"

Newfoundlander John Richards and Irishman Edward Power deserted Royal Newfoundland Regiment in Halifax; 10 guinea reward for each

Call for proposals to deliver materials for new government buildings, including 30,000 square feet of "free-stone" and 80,000 bricks

Inspector of hospitals will no longer pay for articles he has not ordered or received

Day labourer, "a very poor man" unable to support 6 children under 12 years old, wants 500 acres outright or by occupation until he can pay for it

Day labourer asks for land grant to help support half-siblings he has taken charge of since his father died and mother remarried

Louisbourg veteran, 35 years in N.S., has spent last 17 years on land abandoned by rebel but pays latter's mother £3/yr., and wants that land granted

Windsor Township gristmill for sale or lease has barley shelling mill and oat kiln on 300-acre farm with soft and hard wood and freestone quarry

Margaret Doucett of Clare claims to have cured cancer "with the most trifling pain to the Person afflicted"

New Brunswick
Ward Chipman and S.S. Blowers agree that slavery has no basis in either statute or common law, but that it persists because courts favour enslavers

"Principal Mechanics of Fredericton" resolve that work day will amount to 10 hours, 6am–6pm with breakfast and dinner breaks

To keep out "Desolating Disorders," persons coming from U.S. places with yellow fever or other disease must have JP's written approval to land

Miramichi fishers ask Assembly to amend law allowing large nets in lower river and bay that kill so many fish that they can't support their families

Indigenous man Lewis Joseph granted land on Grand Lake to make harbour for his vessel carrying coal for government

Saint John mayor asks those "who wish to become Freemen of this City" to take "Oath of a free Citizen" before aldermen at city hall

Young ("about 19") Black woman and child for sale; she "is well acquainted with a Dairy, and understands all kinds of House-work"

Because of "jibing the sail," five men drown in mail boat that is upset while crossing to Saint Andrews

Hudson's Bay Company
HBC canoeists at Edmonton House refuse to work, some demanding higher wages, even when chief factor explains punishment they must expect

Ship supplying Fort Albany runs aground, leaving that post without any shot, which they try to make until supplied by other posts

Albany post cow led out "to endeavour to entice home the Cattle," but only old bull comes - "the rest are as wild as ever"

Elsewhere
Moravian missionaries pray "Esquimaux nation" in Labrador will be as "generally desirous of hearing the Gospel" as people in Antigua and St. Kitts

HMS Zenophon (22 guns) assigned 23 ships to convoy from England "for the Davis's Straights and Greenland trade"

title: 1799 in Canada


text:
User:Gamera2

About Me
I'm not much. Just a humble editor. Below are the promises I make to all my fellow editors. If anyone has anything else they'd like me to add, I'd be happy to, just use my talk page. ^.^

Editing Vows
I will:
 * Aim for literal and expressive neutrality in all of my edits.
 * Avoid un-doing or destroying other good (although occasionally less than stellar) edits, and instead aim to improve upon their thoughts and ideas, adding insight and cross-refrencess where possible.
 * Move content to other pages when appropriate.
 * Be cautious and sensitive, and avoid at almost all costs insulting or demeaning the inteligence and compentency of my fellow editors and contributors.
 * Voice my opinion on issues I feel strongly about relating to wikipedia, following all of the rules I have set for myself.
 * Revert obvious vandalisim.
 * Consult my fellow editors using the talk pages if I am uncertian of a statement's validity (even if it's mine).

I will not:
 * Let my temper stew in an inappropriate manner.
 * Make weasel edits.
 * Edit-discrimitate based on my opinion of a user.
 * Make lots of small edits when I have the time to sit down and make one large one.

title: User:Gamera2


text:
Heirisson Island

Heirisson Island is an island in the Swan River in Western Australia at the eastern end of Perth Water, between the suburbs of East Perth and Victoria Park. It occupies an area of 285600 m2, and is connected to the two foreshores by The Causeway and the under-construction Causeway Pedestrian and Cyclist Bridges. The next upstream island is Kuljak Island, then Ron Courtney Island, with no islands in the Swan River downstream between Heirisson Island and the Indian Ocean other than the artificial islet in Elizabeth Quay.

Before development, there were several small islands, surrounded by mudflats. Over the years, dredging and reclamation has created a single island, which is now a landscaped nature reserve, with a 2 km walking path. The Noongar name for the area is Matagarup (meaning "leg deep"), which has been retained for the single island after reclamation.

Heirisson Island is listed on the Western Australia Department of Aboriginal Affairs' Register of Aboriginal Sites, as ID 3589.

History

Heirisson Island originally consisted of six separate smaller islands surrounded by mudflats. By the 1940s, land reclamation and dredging of the Swan River to create two navigable channels saw the islands coalesce into one large island.

The area around Heirisson Island is traditionally associated with the Beeloo people, a subgroup of the Whadjuk Noongar, who knew the small islands and mudflats as Matagarup, referring to the river as being "one leg deep". The island located on either side of the current causeway bridge was known as Kakaroomup. The Matagarup mudflats were the first major crossing point upriver from the river's mouth (at Fremantle) and were an important seasonal access way over which the Beeloo gave other groups right of passage across the river.

The first European to visit the Heirisson Island area was the Flemish explorer Willem de Vlamingh in January 1697. He was exploring the Swan River in longboats but only got as far as the Heirisson Island(s) because the mudflats impeded any further progress. Heirisson Island was subsequently named after French midshipman François-Antoine Boniface Heirisson, who was on the French ship Le Naturaliste on a scientific expedition led by Nicolas Baudin between 1801 and 1804. The expedition made several journeys up the river from Fremantle in longboats and made the first maps of the Swan River. The islands were named in June 1801. Captain James Stirling later investigated the area in 1827 just before the Swan River Colony was settled in 1829.

Before becoming a reserve the islands had been host to a shanty town and animals were seen grazing on the islands as late as the 1920s. In the late-1940s plans were drawn for the development of an extensive sporting complex on the now singular island which was envisioned to feature an athletics stadium, an Olympic swimming pool, and 18 tennis courts; however the venture was dropped following a potential cost blowout. Other proposals for the island throughout the years include those for a motel, a golf course, a caravan park, and a cultural centre with museums and concert halls. In 1966, it was proposed to develop Heirisson Island into an aerodrome for VTOL aircraft. There were also plans to fill in the western channel of the Swan River and join the island to East Perth.

In September 1984 the Government of Western Australia erected a statue of Aboriginal warrior Yagan on the island. In 1997 the statue's head was twice removed by vandals.

In 1998, five female western grey kangaroos were introduced onto the island, followed by a female with a male joey in 2000.

In 2008 a new master plan for Heirisson Island was adopted by the City of Perth which proposed establishing an international quality sculpture park on the island as well as constructing an amphitheatre and a footbridge that would link Point Fraser to Heirisson Island. The plan faced opposition from Aboriginal elders, and as of December 2022 the sculpture park and amphitheatre have yet to be established.

In December 2022, the construction of the Causeway Pedestrian and Cyclist Bridges was approved that will connect Point Fraser and McCallum Park in Victoria Park via Heirisson Island. The $100 million bridge project began construction in November 2023 for an intended late 2024 opening.

Aboriginal protests
Heirisson Island has been the site of a number of protests by Australian Aboriginal activists.

Tent embassy
In 2012, the island was the site of a tent embassy, set up in February by Noongar people to raise community awareness about problems with a government plan to extinguish most of the native title land in the southwest of Western Australia that was recognised in 2006 by Justice Murray Wilcox of the Federal Court of Australia. The Noongar Tent Embassy was intended to be a peaceful affirmation of native title to Noongar country and legitimate use of a state-registered Aboriginal Heritage Site, and was inspired by the Aboriginal Tent Embassy in Canberra. However, there were many claims made of rocks being thrown at passing boats. The tent embassy was removed by police in March 2012.

Refugee camp
In early March 2015, a group of Aboriginal activists set up what they referred to as a refugee camp after the state government announced plans to close some remote Western Australian Aboriginal communities. The camp was removed ten days later by City of Perth rangers, with police support, but gradually reassembled and was occupied by about 100 people when it was dismantled again by police and City of Perth rangers in late April 2015.

In January 2016 a group of about 60 people – including some non-indigenous homeless people – were camping on the island again. By April 2016, the camp had grown to over 100 and it was again removed by police and rangers.

title: Heirisson Island


text:
Libéral Bruant

Libéral Bruant (c. 1635 – 22 November 1697) was a French architect best known as the designer of the Hôtel des Invalides in Paris. Bruant was the most notable member in a family that produced a long series of architects active from the 16th to the 18th century.

Biography
In 1660, Bruant was the architect chosen for rehabilitations to Louis XIII's old arsenal (the Salpêtrière), which was being converted into what would become the world's largest hospice. It is now the Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital.

He designed the Hôtel des Invalides in Paris, which is now dominated by the dome erected by Jules Hardouin Mansart, his collaborator in earlier stages of the construction.

In the Marais district of Paris, the hôtel particulier Bruant built for himself in 1685, at 1 rue de la Perle now houses the Bricard Lock Museum (Musée de la Serrure). Its Baroque façade of golden limestone is enlivened by windows set into blind arches that march across its front and busts in oval reserves, all under a richly-sculptured pediment that is pierced by an oval window.

In 1671, he became one of the first eight members of the Académie royale d'architecture, created by Louis XIV.

Bruant died on 22 November 1697, in Paris.

Architectural style
A comparison of Bruant's central entrance to the Invalides, under an arched cornice packed with military trophies with Mansart's Église du Dome, gives a clear idea of the difference between Bruant's High Baroque and Hardouin-Mansart's restrained and somewhat academic Late Baroque.

title: Libéral Bruant


text:
Talk:Fiddlehead

Untitled
BOB THE ANGRY FLOWER SAYS IT'S MEANS IT IS —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.54.203.46 (talk) 16:26, 8 May 2009 (UTC)

Title
could somebody make Fiddleheads relocate to Fiddlehead —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 85.64.134.190 (talk • contribs).

Vernation
Probably needs to be merged with vernation. Tmesipt 4.24.04.
 * I don't think so; vernation is more general botany; fiddlehead is specific to ferns, culinary, and folkloric, as well as botanical ... Carter 16:39, 8 Apr 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 21:52, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Merge of fiddlehead greens
That article seems to be quite a short one, just describing one specific type of fern that's eaten in North America. I think it would be better merged here. I'll do it in a few days if no-one objects (and if I remember). Thomas Kluyver (talk) 16:33, 14 December 2010 (UTC)

Black Season?
What is this supposed to mean: "As fiddleheads are harvested early in the black season [...]" I cannot find "Black Season" in any dictionary. 192.102.160.170 (talk) 09:22, 14 February 2012 (UTC)

Health hazard of eating raw
On August 8th someone added the bit "although some have attributed eating raw fiddleheads to sickness." This supported by Facts on Fiddleheads, an external link on the Fiddlehead_fern page. ClueBot NG erroneously thought it was vandalism and reverted it. I would put the health warning back myself; but, as I am not a regular contributor, I don't know how to do this without avoid running afoul of ClueBot. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.254.100.95 (talk) 12:35, 2 September 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 4 external links on Fiddlehead fern. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20111109071540/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fern to http://www.eoearth.org/article/Fern
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.gracelinks.org/2296/real-food-right-now-and-how-to-cook-it-fiddleheads
 * Corrected formatting/usage for https://www.thestar.com/life/2008/05/21/attuned_to_fiddleheads.html
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Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 08:50, 31 December 2016 (UTC)

Requested move 13 January 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Fiddlehead fern → Fiddlehead – The article is about a part of a fern and its use in cooking. The proposed name is less confusing. Srnec (talk) 01:58, 13 January 2021 (UTC)

 * I would be fine with the plural Fiddleheads as well. Let me also note that the OED does not recognize "head of a violin" as a meaning of fiddlehead. Srnec (talk) 02:00, 13 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Please stick with WP:SINGULAR, e.g. as with Bean. — BarrelProof (talk) 04:09, 15 January 2021 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

title: Talk:Fiddlehead


text:
Talk:Parchment

Etymology
'Parchment was developed in Pergamon, alternately Pergamo [3] from which name it is believed the word "parchment" evolved'

It's called Pergament in German, the English isn't far off. That's just my opinion of course, I'm no language scholar ;) --95.33.205.0 (talk) 10:25, 30 December 2014 (UTC)

Old & irrelevant
In the museum at Colonial Williamsburgh, VA. there are crafters, re-enacters in the garb of the day making products of the time in the way it was done then. In the paper making arena there is a very interesting exhibit. They make paper by boiling wood, making wood pulp and add cotton cloth, which is boiled down into it's base fibers. They dip a screen into the vat, and then lay it on a pad made of leather. The sheet dries between layers of cotton cloth, kind of like a primitive denim. Once it is dried, it has the consistency of a course paper. 66.53.73.115 06:06, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Cleanup Needed
The layout of this article is awful. The table of contents does not appear until 70% of the way into the article. It obviously needs to be restructured. Furthermore, the introductory definition does not include household parchment paper, which is addressed later in the article, but probably does not belong here. Perhaps at the top, something could be added like:

''This article is about animal skins which have been prepared for use in writing. For the material which is used in baking, see parchment paper.'' I am adding a cleanup template tag.--Mm35173 13:56, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

 * I have taken a moment to address both these points. I am removing the cleanup template tag. any other issues? --Wetman 19:36, 5 August 2005 (UTC)
 * This appears to still be an issue. "Parchment paper" as a baking term is a completely different topic which deserves it's own article.  I'm creating Parchment paper (baking), adding a disambiguation tag here, and reducing the plant-based parchment section appropriately. -Verdatum (talk) 17:32, 17 April 2009 (UTC)

Distracting blank spaces
Formatting that encases the framed table of contents in text, in just the way a framed map or image is enclosed within the text, is now available: in the HTML does the job.

Blank space opposite the ToC, besides being unsightly and distracting, suggests that there is a major break in the continuity of the text, which may not be the case. Blanks in page layout are voids and they have meanings to the experienced reader. The space betweeen paragraphs marks a brief pause between separate blocks of thought. A deeper space, in a well-printed text, signifies a more complete shift in thought: note the spaces that separate sub-headings in Wikipedia articles.

A handful of thoughtless and aggressive Wikipedians revert the "TOCleft" format at will. A particularly aggressive de-formatter is User:Ed g2s

The reader may want to compare versions at the Page history. --Wetman 19:46, 9 August 2005 (UTC)

What is "thin"?
We say it's "thin"; what does that mean? Can someone be more specific? Is parchment as thin as paper? --Doradus (talk) 04:23, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

 * thinner than leather, thicker than most paper. Johnbod (talk) 13:14, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Ok, thanks. Want to add that to the article?  --Doradus (talk) 22:24, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

Parchment Craft?
Is the section outlining the history of the Columbian woman who started the Parchment Craft company all that important? I see from google that they're a a relatively big player in what must be a very small game, but this part of the article reads more like an advertisement. I would have just deleted it, but I don't know enough about parchment in general and parchment craft specifically. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.234.199.244 (talk) 00:48, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

A concern about content
In the text it says:

Though the Assyrians ate the Babys to impress their cuneiform on clay tablets, they also wrote on parchment from the 6th century BC onward.

The phrase "ate the Babys" is quite disconcerting to me. I have done some research and find no other similar such reference on the net. WHAT did the author intend to say.

John A. Kunecke —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jkunecke (talk • contribs) 03:32, 9 January 2009 (UTC)

 * There appear to be several instances of vandalism in this article. I just removed one reference to 'penis parchment' that was missed in several edits and am concerned about the validity of sentence related to uterine vellum.  Could someone be kind enough to go through and add appropriate citations  or remove anything that appears factually questionable? 67.247.67.149 (talk) 04:01, 23 December 2009 (UTC)

Vellum Merge
Looking at the content, I'm generally opposed to the merge, I see no problem with both articles existing. However, much of the content of vellum is redundant to that of this article. Since vellum is a complete subset of parchment, the article only needs to describe aspects of it that are unique from regular parchment. -Verdatum (talk) 20:41, 20 May 2009 (UTC)

I agree that the two articles should not be merged. However, I think that vellum and parchment are different materials, not different grades of the same material. The difference is in the manufacture, and it would take an expert in that process to clarify the difference. I will approach someone from William Cowley Ltd (the only UK manufacturers of vellum and parchment) to see if they can give some advice. Paulwnash (talk) 11:52, 26 May 2009 (UTC) As I see from the sources I obtained and so the article self says, it is completely the same thing, but of a better quality. Therefor I suggested the important information to be merged, and the clarified the difference. -shoteh (talk) 02:17, 28 May 2009 (UTC)

Comment. For now, redirects here to. If this merge goes ahead, that would change the scope of this article, perhaps enough that Calfskin should no longer redirect here. --Una Smith (talk) 03:34, 11 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Personally calfskin means shoes to me; but is there a more appropriate article? Johnbod (talk) 08:57, 11 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Can one explain what relation "tanned" calfskin used for shoes, has to parchment or vellum which are never tanned? BTW Why is the article under the Judaism scope and not in any industrial and/or scientific one? - shoteh (talk) 02:25, 12 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Only the obvious. What is the point of your question? The issue was where calfskin should redirect to. Feel free to add appropriate projects. Johnbod (talk) 02:31, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

 * It sounds like should not redirect to Vellum.  Should it be an article, a redirect to another article, or a disambiguation page?  Below is a list of the articles that currently link to . --Una Smith (talk) 19:16, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

Parchment, Vellum, Black tie, Scutum (shield), Index of fashion articles, Chukka boot
 * Actually Calf, which I have added to, is better, & I've changed it to there. Johnbod (talk) 03:25, 13 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Sorry, I missed the question which was addressed to me. My point was that we should look for editors with some knowledge, are we should educate ourselves before editing something here. -shoteh (talk) 04:02, 18 June 2009 (UTC)

Vellum is made of calfskin, while parchment is made of sheep or goatskin. The article on parchment is therefore inaccurate. Vellum and parchment are very different media, though the techniques by which they are finished are fairly similar. Neither is tanned, as that would harden the hide, so it could not be rolled, as it would loose all flexibility. It would also darken it, so that the ink would not make a good contrast on the surface. I think rather than merging these two articles, they should be cleaned up and kept separate. 98.216.0.130 (talk) 02:01, 18 August 2009 (UTC)
 * Could you back these claims up with sources? Regardless of whether or not tanning is used in parchment, tanning does not irreparably harden leather; if it did, leather clothing would not exist.  tanned leather can be extremely soft. While the chemicals used in tanning generally change the skin's color, it is not always to a darker color. -Verdatum (talk) 14:34, 18 August 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm highly dubious about the claim re species - while calf is certainly a source of good vellum, the skin of other animals is often so described as well. AFAIK, it takes dna testing to tell the species used for sure. [http://library.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/pdf_extract/s4-XVI/4/439 This article addresses the issue, but I can only see p1. And this Johnbod (talk) 17:31, 21 August 2009 (UTC)

I'm sorry, but this is silly. Wikipedia articles should be about things not about words. There is a wide variety of materials made that fit this general category, varying by many factors such as animal uses, process used, split or non-split etc. Different people divide up this variety using these two words "vellum" and "parchment" in different ways, and some not at all. There is no single authoritative way to do so. (For a good discussion of this see: Parchment vs Vellum.) These should become a single article with some discussion of the different ways that people apply these two words. --Ericjs (talk) 02:11, 4 August 2010 (UTC)

Citation in German about quality of medieval parchment
The article features a citation from Eisenlohr (1996) supporting the claim that medieval parchments offered a writing surface unsurpassed by paper or other materials since. I think it needs a good translation into English; however, I'm nothing more than a dabbler in matters both Germanic and pergamentary, and would like some help from those better qualified! The original runs thus:
 * Die Qualität der mittelalterlichen Pergamente mit geschlossenen Oberflächen für eine beiderseitige Beschriftung und Bemalung, ungewöhnlicher Strapazierfahigkeit und Haltbarkeit über viele Jahrhunderte ist bislang weder erreicht noch übertroffen worden.

I freely admit to largely basing my attempt on Google Translate's rendering:
 * The quality of medieval parchments with closed surfaces for a mutual inscription and painting, unusual Strapazierfahigkeit and durability over many centuries has so far not reached yet been surpassed.

Replacing the words that Google failed to translate, and paraphrasing where I saw fit, got me this:
 * The quality of medieval parchments, with surfaces prepared for both writing and painting, extraordinary strength, and durability over many centuries, has not yet been surpassed.

Iblardi has since come along and reworked several points, like so (edits bolded):
 * The quality of the medieval parchments, with closed surfaces for writing and painting on both sides, extraordinary strength, and durability over many centuries, has not yet been matched or surpassed.

I disagree with the addition of "the" and the use of "closed" (I was just guessing on "prepared", and wonder if "sealed" isn't the sense meant, but "closed" is just poor English as far as I can tell), but the other two are clearly correct: beiderseitige seems to be "both sides", not just "both" as I had it, and I forgot erreicht "matched" altogether. Anyone else want to help? -- Perey (talk)
 * I would guess it means "prepared" here. I think we have, here or at vellum, enough English sources on the durability of parchment/vellum (I'm not sure if German distinguishes between the two). Johnbod (talk) 17:43, 29 April 2010 (UTC)
 * I agree that "closed surface" looks like bad English, but I did find some instances when doing a Google query, for instance "Carbon-based inks are very stable, but bind poorly to the smooth closed surface of parchment", "This technique works well on a skin with a closed surface". I took it to refer to the smooth(ish) structure of an animal's skin in comparison with the more absorbant fibrous structure of paper, but I am not completely sure. I suppose that a synonym is to be preferred if a literal translation makes the footnote incomprehensible. Or probably better, a source written in English. Iblardi (talk) 19:17, 29 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Apart from Insular vellum, high-quality material was heavily polished, which may be what is meant. Johnbod (talk) 22:07, 29 April 2010 (UTC)

I added dubious to this quote: It seems to take the hyperbole of a translated work, and apply it as fact. It is also quite sweeping: No one in the modern age has produced better quality parchment? This seems unlikely. Also, what is the metric that dictates quality? I would remove this sentence. - mikedh —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.112.64.18 (talk) 04:52, 4 July 2010 (UTC)

Jewish parchment
The cited passage from the Talmud does NOT say that Moses wrote the Torah on parchment...

http://halakhah.com/pdf/nezikin/Baba_Bathra.pdf

--Teacherbrock (talk) 15:00, 11 May 2011 (UTC)

If no one objects I will remove the dubious statement about Moses. --Teacherbrock (talk) 15:49, 11 May 2011 (UTC)

Contradictory reasoning given for parchment's decline
Paragraph stating parchment's heyday had ended with the end of the 15th century Renaissance gives a flawed argument supporting this.

Here is the phrasing in question:

"This was partly due to its expense and partly due to its unusual working properties. Parchment consists mostly of collagen. When the water in paint media touches parchment's surface, the collagen melts slightly, forming a raised bed for the paint, a quality highly prized by some artists."

This is disconcerting in that instead of supporting the claim that the unusual working properties were a drawback, it contradicts itself and claims that these properties are of great value. Requires rephrasing to separate the issues of (1) why did it decline? and (2) why does there continue to be a core of support based on an alternate point of view of those properties?

Note that item (2) may not belong here and could be discarded or moved into its own discussion or section.

A citation would be helpful as well.

96.42.93.148 (talk) 07:21, 22 September 2014 (UTC)

Another explanation for extensive use of parchment in Pergamon
instead of "As prices rose for papyrus and the reed used for making it was over-harvested towards local extinction in the two nomes of the Nile delta that produced it, Pergamon adapted by increasing use of parchment. "

In Medieval and Renaissance book production Richard W. Clement Utah State University 1997, page 4 it reads:

"Actually, supplies of papyrus were disrupted by the invasion of Egypt by Antiochus Epiphanes (170-168 BC), and so parchment was adopted as an alternative writing surface, not only in Pergamum but across the Mediterranean world"

This refers to Syrian Wars However, here too there's is no reference to sustain a long term shortage especially as Epiphanes ultimately lost the war Hexagone59 (talk) 20:18, 20 January 2019 (UTC)

Sskinning vs. Flaying
Wikipedia describes skinning as being used on dead animals, and flaying as an execution method for humans. Why then use "flaying" here? Arminden (talk) 14:55, 6 June 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Parchment


text:
Cerebrum

The cerebrum (: cerebra), telencephalon or endbrain is the largest part of the brain containing the cerebral cortex (of the two cerebral hemispheres), as well as several subcortical structures, including the hippocampus, basal ganglia, and olfactory bulb. In the human brain, the cerebrum is the uppermost region of the central nervous system. The cerebrum develops prenatally from the forebrain (prosencephalon). In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres.

With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the human body.

Structure
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Depending upon the position of the animal, it lies either in front or on top of the brainstem. In humans, the cerebrum is the largest and best-developed of the five major divisions of the brain.

The cerebrum is made up of the two cerebral hemispheres and their cerebral cortices (the outer layers of grey matter), and the underlying regions of white matter. Its subcortical structures include the hippocampus, basal ganglia and olfactory bulb. The cerebrum consists of two C-shaped cerebral hemispheres, separated from each other by a deep fissure called the longitudinal fissure.

Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex, the outer layer of grey matter of the cerebrum, is found only in mammals. In larger mammals, including humans, the surface of the cerebral cortex folds to create gyri (ridges) and sulci (furrows) which increase the surface area.

The cerebral cortex is generally classified into four lobes: the frontal, parietal, occipital and temporal lobes. The lobes are classified based on their overlying neurocranial bones. A smaller lobe is the insular lobe, a part of the cerebral cortex folded deep within the lateral sulcus that separates the temporal lobe from the parietal and frontal lobes, is located within each hemisphere of the mammalian brain.

Cerebral hemispheres
The cerebrum is divided by the medial longitudinal fissure into two cerebral hemispheres, the right and the left. The cerebrum is contralaterally organized, i.e., the right hemisphere controls and processes signals (predominantly) from the left side of the body, while the left hemisphere controls and processes signals (predominantly) from the right side of the body. According to current knowledge, this is due to an axial twist that occurs in the early embryo. There is a strong but not complete bilateral symmetry between the hemispheres, while lateralization tends to increase with increasing brain size. The lateralization of brain function looks at the known and possible differences between the two.

Development
In the developing vertebrate embryo, the neural tube is subdivided into four unseparated sections which then develop further into distinct regions of the central nervous system; these are the prosencephalon (forebrain), the mesencephalon (midbrain) the rhombencephalon (hindbrain) and the spinal cord. The prosencephalon develops further into the telencephalon and the diencephalon. The dorsal telencephalon gives rise to the pallium (cerebral cortex in mammals and reptiles) and the ventral telencephalon generates the basal ganglia. The diencephalon develops into the thalamus and hypothalamus, including the optic vesicles (future retina). The dorsal telencephalon then forms two lateral telencephalic vesicles, separated by the midline, which develop into the left and right cerebral hemispheres. Birds and fish have a dorsal telencephalon, like all vertebrates, but it is generally unlayered and therefore not considered a cerebral cortex. Only a layered cytoarchitecture can be considered a cortex.

Functions
Note: As the cerebrum is a gross division with many subdivisions and sub-regions, it is important to state that this section lists only functions that the cerebrum as a whole serves. (See main articles on cerebral cortex and basal ganglia for more information.) The cerebrum is a major part of the brain, controlling emotions, hearing, vision, personality and much more. It controls all precision of voluntary actions.

Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of the cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.

It functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; the cerebrum also functions as the center of voluntary motor activities.

Sensory processing
The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information. Together with association cortical areas, these brain regions synthesize sensory information into our perceptions of the world.

Olfaction
The olfactory bulb, responsible for the sense of smell, takes up a large area of the cerebrum in most vertebrates. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique since the neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Olfaction is also the only sense that is represented by the ipsilateral side of the brain. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of olfaction (the sense of smell).

Language and communication
Speech and language are mainly attributed to parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These two regions are interconnected by a large white matter tract, the arcuate fasciculus. Damage to the Broca's area results in expressive aphasia (non-fluent aphasia) while damage to Wernicke's area results in receptive aphasia (also called fluent aphasia).

Learning and memory
Explicit or declarative (factual) memory formation is attributed to the hippocampus and associated regions of the medial temporal lobe. This association was originally described after a patient known as HM had both his left and right hippocampus surgically removed to treat chronic [temporal lobe epilepsy]. After surgery, HM had anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new memories.

Implicit or procedural memory, such as complex motor behaviors, involves the basal ganglia.

Short-term or working memory involves association areas of the cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the hippocampus.

Other animals
In the most primitive vertebrates, the hagfishes and lampreys, the cerebrum is a relatively simple structure receiving nerve impulses from the olfactory bulb. In cartilaginous and lobe-finned fishes and also in amphibians, a more complex structure is present, with the cerebrum being divided into three distinct regions. The lowermost (or ventral) region forms the basal nuclei, and contains fibres connecting the rest of the cerebrum to the thalamus. Above this, and forming the lateral part of the cerebrum, is the paleopallium, while the uppermost (or dorsal) part is referred to as the archipallium. The cerebrum remains largely devoted to olfactory sensation in these animals, in contrast to its much wider range of functions in amniotes.

In ray-finned fishes, the structure is somewhat different. The inner surfaces of the lateral and ventral regions of the cerebrum bulge up into the ventricles; these include both the basal nuclei and the various parts of the pallium and may be complex in structure, especially in teleosts. The dorsal surface of the cerebrum is membranous, and does not contain any nervous tissue.

In the amniotes, the cerebrum becomes increasingly large and complex. In reptiles, the paleopallium is much larger than in amphibians and its growth has pushed the basal nuclei into the central regions of the cerebrum. As in the lower vertebrates, the grey matter is generally located beneath the white matter, but in some reptiles, it spreads out to the surface to form a primitive cortex, especially in the anterior part of the brain.

In mammals, this development proceeds further, so that the cortex covers almost the whole of the cerebral hemispheres, especially in more developed species, such as the primates. The paleopallium is pushed to the ventral surface of the brain, where it becomes the olfactory lobes, while the archipallium becomes rolled over at the medial dorsal edge to form the hippocampus. In placental mammals, a corpus callosum also develops, further connecting the two hemispheres. The complex convolutions of the cerebral surface (see gyrus, gyrification) are also found only in higher mammals. Although some large mammals (such as elephants) have particularly large cerebra, dolphins are the only species (other than humans) to have cerebra accounting for as much as 2 percent of their body weight.

The cerebra of birds are similarly enlarged to those of mammals, by comparison with reptiles. The increased size of bird brains was classically attributed to enlarged basal ganglia, with the other areas remaining primitive, but this view has been largely abandoned. Birds appear to have undergone an alternate process of encephalization, as they diverged from the other archosaurs, with few clear parallels to that experienced by mammals and their therapsid ancestors.

title: Cerebrum