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Talk:İzmir

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I would like to make a general comment about the "Smyrna" reference to Izmir, at least to the people that have scientific and historical and not nationalist-driven doubts about it. I think it is wrong to wonder why the name Yerevan (unknown to most, in contrast to Smyrna) is not used for Athens while Smyrna does for Izmir, in wiki. First of all, the etymology of the name Izmir itself is derived from the greek, former name. Also, they name "Smyrna" was indeed kept in use by both Muslims and Christians. In contrast, the turkish name Ayvalik was alwasys used, instead of ancient "Kydonies" term. But there is another, substantial reason: The civilization and activities developed throughout history in Izmir were almost exlusively achieved by its greek citizens. This is proved by the cultural and aesthetical fall of Izmir for many decades, after the greeks left under the Population Exchange. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, born in Salonica and not in Anatolia, was aware of that fact: He knew that there would be a significant financial and cultural downfall after the departure of the urban population of the area, but the stabilisation inside his country was of course of highsest importance at those critical times. Dimitris Chrisafinos

Population according to the cited resources.
Hi there -- I'm seeing the population of Izmir -- as a city -- as 4,320,519 in 2019. E.g., see http://www.izmir.gov.tr/istatistiklerle-izmir Am I missing something? where do you get the 2.9m number?

Text sorting
I noticed that Old Smyrna, Smyrna, and this article repeated a lot of topics especially on ancient times. Moreover much of it was not referenced and contained obvious editorial opinions. I thought a special effort should be made to define the contents of each article and move the text around accordingly. I brought it up in the talks of the other articles. There was no objection. So, I've been moving material around. I got the material out of here that belongs under Old Smyrna. Some of it is wrong. Now I'm going to concentrate on Old Smyrna. There is still some material here that belongs under Smyrna. This article should start with the Turks. I don't want to move the ancient new smyrna material into smyrna until I am ready to work on Smyrna. Later, but not too longBotteville (talk) 04:08, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

 * This article "should start with the Turks"? Then why was everything deleted until Alexander the Great? Also why would you delete everything until "the Turks" as opposed to summarizing? Bogazicili (talk) 18:58, 26 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Hi Mr. B. This reply is post my reply below. Whoa, wait a minute! Your standards are way too high to include humble me. Did I stop? Obviously, a gross error. All I did was move material to Smyrna, first pass. You're acting as though you expect to see a polished article. Not today. As for the summarizing, well, I gave some thought to that. The article is not really amenable to summarizing. You'd be summarizing half the article. I expect both articles to be large as it is. We are talking about a city of millions, the second-largest in Turkey. Do you think we could put New York Cily in a small article like this? But, Izmir is at that level. I think you will feel better about this after you check Smyrna. Right now you are asking the questions of an inquisitor. I feel like the target of a Stalinist purge trial or the trial of the perpatrators of the bomb plot against Hitler. Or worse yet, an interrogation by my wife. Oho, you've caught me, b'god. Caught me indeed. I sure am screwed now. I did say it should start with the Turks. And then I DID stop at Alexander, leaving out the Byzantines. Guilty, guilty, guilty. You got me now. I hope you are chuckling. If not, I don't know what to say, except this is not an interrogation. Why don't you put in whatever time you are going to allot for this. When I get back, maybe this year sometime, I will take a look.Botteville (talk) 01:33, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

Massive amount of deletion in article
Looks like there was a mass deletion by in 7-8 September 2023. Entire sections were deleted such as "Names and etymology" and everything in history section until Alexander the Great. This is the main article. Per Summary style, it should still have something in history until Alexander the Great. Child articles can be more detailed. The deletion of "Names and etymology" is also inexplicable. We now have an entire paragraph in the lead about:

"The modern name İzmir is the Turkish rendering of the Greek name Smyrna and "Smyrne" (Σμύρνη). In medieval times, Westerners used forms like Smire, Zmirra, Esmira, Ismira, which was rendered as İzmir into Turkish, originally written as ازمير with the Ottoman Turkish alphabet."

While the lead doesn't cover large parts of the article such as education. Not to mention large amounts of information such as Ti-smurna was also lost without being summarized. Also given the article size, the removal seems unnecessary. Bogazicili (talk) 18:54, 26 March 2024 (UTC)

 * Mr. B, Things like this are pretty much subjective. The bottom line is, I think you should follow your judgement. I can tell you what I intended and why, but of course I have no license to push that ahead of someone else's opinion. Now, Izmir is quite a large city, and there is much materal on the modern city there. There is also much material on the ancient city to be covered. It seemed to me all the material was way too much for a single article. But this is not a unique or unusual situation. There are a lot of big cities like that. The usual Wikipedia answer is to split the article. Some stuff should be offloaded to one or more other articles. In my experience, and I think you will find this to be true generally on WP, old cities like this that have gone on into the future and now have a modern history as well as an ancient are usually described by an article for the ancient and an article for the modern. I tentatively split the article. What I did NOT do is clean up and finish either one. We never finish anything around here. I do not see the point however in repeating the historical material twice! We don't need two etymologies, two archaeologies, two ancient histories, etc. My sentiment was that Izmir should cover the Turkish city. Smyrna should cover the Greek and Byzantine city. If necessary we could create a Smyrna (Byzantene) also. Why did I not continue on it? Well, I got careless and slipped in some modern opinions which when it was pointed out to me I quickly deleted. Then I thought I was too close and needed a break. Also this would give people like you a chance. I would like to say, go ahead, do your stuff. I know, however, how much work it is. Unfortunately it can't get any better unless someone does it. I'd rather not get back to this right now. There are articles worse off that I'm on to. I will eventually get there. Meanwhile I accept all your qvetches. Go ahead, do it the way YOU think it should be done. When I DO get back to it I will try to evaluate it afresh and tackle what seems to be the problems of those times. I will be starting with the same view, that the ancient material belongs primarily under Smyrna and should not be extensively under Izmir. The etylomoly for Smyrna, for example, is a Smyrna-article affair and does not belong in Izmir. The Turkish form, Izmir, however, would go under Izmir. Hope this helps. Ciao for now. Botteville (talk) 00:54, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Oh, Mr. B, looking at your evaluation again I realize that you think I just plain deleted material from Wikipedia. I did not. Check under Smyrna and if you do not find that material there let me know or put it there yourself. Also the key to making the connection is the hatnotes. "This article is about the modern city of Izmir. For the predecessor ancient city, see Smyrna." If they are not there, put them in, will you? And, you comment about how there ought to be more about education in Izmir is undoubtedly true. But, putting it in gives us all the more reason to keep the split so we can have room to put it in. Remember, the name of the game is not to find fault with botteville, which is easy to do no doubt, but to build credible articles. Right now the ball is in your court.Botteville (talk) 01:07, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * see Summary style. This is the main article for all İzmir related articles, which includes Smyrna and Old Smyrna. What you did is equivalent to deleting United_States section and moving it to Economy of the United States. All cities are comprehensive. London includes "Prehistory" and "Roman London" sections, and doesn't just start with arrival of Anglo-Saxons. I'll be restoring all removed or "moved" material. Bogazicili (talk) 07:47, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Mr. B, no, not all cities are comprehensive. That is the problem, is it not? For these large city articles, shall they be comprehensive or not? You want us to say by fiat, yes indeed they are so when the problem is still before us. That is begging the question in formal argumentation. You can't logically argue that they are ao when that is the question, whether they should be so. Your second begged issue is whether this should be "the main article for all Izmir related issues."  You say it is. I say that is the question. I appear to oppose you on both issues, but that is specious. I don't oppose you at all. Well, yes there should be one continuous article for one continuous place. It should start with the first remains of the stone age. It should govern all articles about any parts of it. So what is my problem? Unexpectedly from a logical point of view it has nothing to do with either issue. Other matters inteject themselves, matters quite unexpected and quite unwanted. That is space! Yes, SPACE is our problem. I'm saying, SPACE forces us to go beyond logic, beyond what we intended. How can we get all that material into one article without resorting to an unacceptably large article? I know you would say it isn't unacceptable. But, it will be. Athens is running into this problem right now. You just can't put every last detail about Athens into one article. Maybe you've seen these solitary gigantic articles to which no one can add anything.  The end of it is, someone puts on a tag stating the article is too large. Nobody can do anything with it. Now, Izmir has a good logical break. There was a war there between the Greeks and the Turks. The Turks won. Izmir was totally rebuilt by the street by street, name by name. I thought, this is a good breaking place. Greek Smyrna, Turkish Izmir. This is a serious break in continuity. Well, that's the end of my story.  You want a different outcome. It happens on WP. You seem rather passionate about Turkish Izmir. Well, so am I, but we have this SPACE thing hanging over us. What is realistic here? What can fit into one article's space?  Botteville (talk) 09:29, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * Again, see Article size. The article wasn't too long. Your "moving" was totally unnecessary. Again, I'll be restoring all removed or "moved" material. You haven't given a reasonable reason why not. Your edits also look biased that you removed all pre-Greek history. İzmir has 8,500 years of habitation. Bogazicili (talk) 10:01, 27 March 2024 (UTC)
 * OK. We've reached the impasse. I have too given reasonable reasons, but you don't agree. I proposed. You rejected. I got no counter-proposal. I come out on the losing end of the three reversions. We don't need to go thru that. The next move is to call for a consensus, someone to break the tie. Consider it called. As it may be some time in coming, au revoir for now. Good luck with it. Here's where I go from here: I'm mainly interested in the ancient turquoise coast, which was Anatolian and then Hellenic and then Byzantine. I'm taking a break from it for a bit. When I get back I will not be working on Izmir, as we disagree on that. The future is not an open book. The article might get much longer, as I suspect it will. You might change your mind, as I suspect you will. Someone else might take an interest. In essence you got Izmir for now. Good luck. There is one caution I would make. Not all the ancient material in Izmir is academically sound or referenced. Needs work. Once anyone gets started it might turn into something bigger than you thought. I got to go now. Got other things I want to work on. Ciao.76.23.135.216 (talk) 13:28, 27 March 2024 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 April 2024
The population resing in İzmir increased by 112.274 people compared to 2019 and became 4.479.525 in 2023 according to Turkish Statistical Institution.

Source: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=The-Results-of-Address-Based-Population-Registration-System-2023-49684 Papyrus and Parchment (talk) 12:46, 15 April 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Charliehdb (talk) 11:59, 20 April 2024 (UTC)

İ
Is this just a capital i? Why does it have the dot? It seems to be a Turkish letter, but English doesn't have it, so why would this article use it? Wikifan153 (talk) 10:44, 30 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:İzmir


text: User talk:81.212.127.249

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:81.212.127.249


text:
Blockade runner

A blockade runner is a merchant vessel used for evading a naval blockade of a port or strait. It is usually light and fast, using stealth and speed rather than confronting the blockaders in order to break the blockade. Blockade runners usually transport cargo, for example bringing food or arms to a blockaded city. They have also carried mail in an attempt to communicate with the outside world.

Blockade runners are often the fastest ships available, and come lightly armed and armored. Their operations are quite risky since blockading fleets would not hesitate to fire on them. However, the potential profits (economically or militarily) from a successful blockade run are tremendous, so blockade-runners typically had excellent crews. Although having modus operandi similar to that of smugglers, blockade-runners are often operated by state's navies as part of the regular fleet, and states having operated them include the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War, and Germany during the World Wars.

Ancient Greece, Peloponnesian War
There were numerous blockades and attempts at blockade running during the Peloponnesian War. With his fleet blockaded, Leon of Salamis dispatched blockade runners to seek reinforcements from Athens.

Ancient Rome, Punic Wars
During the Punic Wars, the Carthaginian Empire attempted to evade Roman navy blockades of its ports and strongholds. At one point, blockade runners brought in the only food reaching the city of Carthage.

Middle age
During the 14th century, while Queen Margaret I of Denmark's forces were besieging Stockholm, the blockade runners who came to be known as the Victual Brotherhood engaged in war at sea and shipped provisions to keep the city supplied.

American Revolutionary War
Blockade runners in the American Revolution eluded the British naval blockades in order to supply resources to the army. French naval aid was vital.

American Civil War

During the American Civil War, blockade running became a major enterprise for the Confederacy due to the Union blockade as part of the Anaconda Plan to cut off the Confederacy's overseas trade. Twelve major ports and approximately 3,500 miles of coastline along the Confederacy were patrolled by roughly 500 Union Navy ships.

The United Kingdom played a major role in Confederate blockade running. British merchants had conducted significant amounts of trade with the South prior to the war, and were suffering from the Lancashire Cotton Famine. The British Empire also controlled many of the neutral ports in the Caribbean, most notably the Bahamas and Bermuda. In concert with Confederate interests, British investors ordered the construction of steamships that were longer, narrower and considerably faster than most of the conventional steamers guarding the American coastline, thus enabling them to outmaneuver and outrun blockaders. Among the more notable was the CSS Advance that completed more than 20 successful runs through the Union blockade before being captured.

These vessels brought badly needed supplies, especially firearms, and Confederate mail. The blockade played a major role in the Union's victory over the Confederate states, though historians have estimated the supplies brought by blockade runners to the Confederacy lengthened the duration of the war by up to two years. By the end of the American Civil War, Union warships had captured more than 1,100 blockade runners and had destroyed or run aground another 355.

Cretan Revolt (1866–1869)
Greek blockade runners supplied the Christians during the Cretan revolt (1866–1869). Names of the ships include: Arkadion (named after the Arkadi Monastery, sunk by the Ottoman sloop-of-war Izzedin in August 1867); Hydra; Panhellenion; and Enosis (Unification), which was detained in Syros by Hobart Pasha in December 1868, just about the time the rebellion collapsed.

World War I
During World War I the Central Powers, most notably Germany, were blockaded by the Entente Powers. In particular the North Sea blockade made it nearly impossible for surface ships to leave Germany for the then neutral United States and other locations.

The blockade was run with cargo submarines, also called merchant submarines, Deutschland and Bremen, which reached the then neutral United States.

The Marie successfully ran the British North Sea blockade and docked, heavily damaged, in Batavia, Dutch East Indies (now called Jakarta) on May 13, 1916.

In 1917 Germany tried unsuccessfully to supply their forces in Africa by sending Zeppelin LZ104.

Axis blockade runners
On the outbreak of war, the Royal Navy imposed a naval blockade of Germany. However, the fall of France provided the German occupying forces with access to the French Atlantic coast, and between 1940 and 1942, many blockade running trips succeeded in delivering cargoes of critical war supplies - especially crude rubber - through the port of Bordeaux; a trade that increased with the entry of Japan into the war in December 1941. Allied attempts to disrupt these operations initially had only a limited effect; as in Operation Frankton. From 1943, however, improved Allied air superiority over the Bay of Biscay rendered blockade running by surface ships effectively impossible. By some counts, during the war Germans sent 32 (surface) blockade runners to Japan, only 16 of them reaching their destination. Later in the war, most of the trade between Germany and Japan was by cargo submarine.

A number of Italian ships, interned in Spain after Italy entered the war in June 1940, crossed the Bay of Biscay to Bordeaux and some of them, such as Fidelitas and Eugenio C, dashed through the English Channel bound for Germany and Norway.

To transfer technology to Imperial Japan, on 25 March 1945 Nazi Germany dispatched a submarine, GS U-234, to sail to Japan. Germany surrendered before the ship could arrive in Japan. The Japanese submarine I-8 completed a similar mission.

The German ship Ramses was in China when the war started. On Nov. 23, 1942, she attempted to sail from Batavia (now Jakarta), to Bordeaux with a cargo of rubber. The hope was that maintaining a sharp 24-hour lookout they could evade the Allied blockade. HMAS Adelaide (1918) caught and sank her.

A small number of planes succeeded in flying between the Axis-controlled Europe and the Japanese-controlled parts of Asia. The first known flight was by an Italian Savoia-Marchetti SM.75 Marsupiale, which flew in July 1942, according to various sources, either from Zaporozhye to Baotou or from Rhodes Island to Rangoon. Later, German Junkers Ju 290-A aircraft prepared for (or, according to some sources, completed) similar flights.

Allied blockade runners
During World War II, trade between Sweden (which remained neutral throughout the war) and Britain was severely curtailed by the German blockade of the Skagerrak straits between Norway and the northern tip of Denmark. In order to import vital materiel from Sweden, such as ball bearings for the British aircraft industry, five Motor Gun Boats, such as the Gay Viking, were converted into blockade runners, using winter darkness and high speed to penetrate the German maritime blockade. Larger Norwegian ships succeeded in escaping through the blockade to Britain in Operation Rubble but later attempts failed.

Modern era
In modern times, tracking equipment such as radar, sonar, and reconnaissance satellites make evading a total blockade by a world power nearly impossible. Drug smugglers and groups like the Tamil Tigers are able to run blockades due to the partial nature of the blockade, or because the navy imposing the blockade is weak and under-equipped. Reminiscent of earlier German attempts, drug smugglers have used semi-submersibles (narco-submarines) in their smuggling operations.

title: Blockade runner


text:
Pierre Eugene du Simitiere

Pierre Eugene du Simitiere (born Pierre-Eugène Ducimetière, ; 18 September 1737, Geneva – October 1784, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) was a Genevan American member of the American Philosophical Society, naturalist, American patriot, and portrait painter.

Du Simitiere served as the artistic consultant for the committees that designed the Great Seal of the United States, and submitted the first proposed design to include the Eye of Providence and suggested the adoption of the U.S. motto E pluribus unum ("Out of Many, One").

Biography
Born in Geneva, du Simitiere's original name was Pierre-Eugène Ducimetière or Pierre-Eugène du Cimetière. After leaving the Republic of Geneva, he spent more than a decade in the West Indies before moving to New York and then Philadelphia. He spelled his name Pierre-Eugène du Simitière, Pierre Eugene du Simitiere or du Symitiere after settling in Philadelphia. Elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1768, he further became one of its curators (1777–1781).

Du Simitiere served as the artistic consultant for the committees that designed the Great Seal of the United States, and in 1776 he submitted the first proposed design to include the Eye of Providence, which element was eventually adopted. Moreover, he suggested the adoption of the U.S. motto E pluribus unum ("Out of Many, One"). He also designed the Seal of New Jersey, of Delaware, and of Georgia. In 1779, du Simitiere painted the first known portrait of George Washington, later used for the 1791 one-cent coin. In 1781, he was conferred an honorary degree from Princeton University (which was still called College of New Jersey until 1896). Thomas Jefferson's daughter Martha took drawing lessons with du Simitiere.

Du Simitiere was the translator into French for the Letters to the inhabitants of Canada from the Continental Congress designed to draw the new British subjects of Quebec into the American Revolutionary War.

"His early interest in natural history had expanded to embrace geography, geology, mineralogy, archeology, numismatics, and every aspect of American history, including aboriginal, general, local, political, social, and cultural history. He collected books in English and other languages and was a bibliographer of skill and breadth. He accumulated pamphlets, newspapers, handbills, and every other kind of political publication. He strove to record the history of the Colonies, including their differences with England and their eventual struggle for independence. Perhaps oddly for a collector, he was generous in lending books and other materials from his collections. In 1781 the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) granted him an honorary degree of Master of Arts.

"All the while he continued to practice his profession of artist and painter, from which he earned a precarious living. He drew designs for a variety of state, local, and institutional seals. He drew maps, frontispieces, and technical illustrations for publications. He did pencil, chalk, and water-color portraits for a fee — though he seems not to have worked in oil. He seized every opportunity to sketch from life the notables, both American and British, who came to Philadelphia; and more often than not his sketches went into his own collection.

"His great personal vision embraced the founding of an American museum and the compiling of a history of the Colonies. In his efforts to achieve his objectives, he fought a constant battle with poverty and with the lack of interest of persons who might have helped him gather materials. In a measure he realized his vision briefly in his 'American Museum,' located in a house in Arch Street above 4th, which he advertised as early as September 1782. But the history was never written; he died destitute, and his collections were sold to pay his debts. He is now regarded as the founder of the first history museum in the United States."

First American museum of natural history
He created the first American museum of natural history from his personal collections constituted during his travels and through his purchases. He opened it to the public in 1782, four years before Charles Willson Peale's Philadelphia Museum, which is generally considered the first American public museum of natural history.

First coin auction sale in America
His coin collection was the first record in Early American history to serve as collateral on a loan granted to him by William Dilwyn. This collection later on was sold at public auction by Matthew Clarkson and Ebenezer Hazard, on March 19, 1785 at Philadelphia. Included in the sale as Lot #19 was "A Mahogany cabinet containing ancient and modern Gold, Silver, and Copper Coins and Medals." This sale precedes all sales in Atinelli's Numisgraphics by 43 years and is considered to be the first known coin auction sale in America. An advertisement for this sale reposes in the Archives of the Library Company of Philadelphia.

Du Simitiere has living descendants throughout Switzerland, France, and the US.

In a letter to his wife on August 14, 1776, John Adams wrote
"This Mr. du Simitière is a very curious Man. He has begun a Collection of Materials for an History of this Revolution. He begins with the first Advices of the Tea Ships. He cuts out of the Newspapers, every Scrap of Intelligence, and every Piece of Speculation, and pastes it upon clean Paper, arranging them under the Head of the State to which they belong and intends to bind them up in Volumes. He has a List of every Speculation and Pamphlet concerning Independence, and another of those concerning Forms of Government."

title: Pierre Eugene du Simitiere


text:
Density of air

The density of air or atmospheric density, denoted ρ, is the mass per unit volume of Earth's atmosphere. Air density, like air pressure, decreases with increasing altitude. It also changes with variations in atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity. At 101.325 kPa (abs) and 20 °C (68 °F), air has a density of approximately 1.204 kg/m3, according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). At 101.325kPa (abs) and 15 C, air has a density of approximately 1.225 kg/m3, which is about that of water, according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Pure liquid water is 1000 kg/m3.

Air density is a property used in many branches of science, engineering, and industry, including aeronautics;  gravimetric analysis; the air-conditioning industry; atmospheric research and meteorology;   agricultural engineering (modeling and tracking of Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere-Transfer (SVAT) models);   and the engineering community that deals with compressed air.

Depending on the measuring instruments used, different sets of equations for the calculation of the density of air can be applied. Air is a mixture of gases and the calculations always simplify, to a greater or lesser extent, the properties of the mixture.

Temperature
Other things being equal (most notably the pressure and humidity), hotter air is less dense than cooler air and will thus rise while cooler air tends to fall. This can be seen by using the ideal gas law as an approximation.

Dry air
The density of dry air can be calculated using the ideal gas law, expressed as a function of temperature and pressure: $$\begin{align} \rho &= \frac{p}{R_\text{specific} T}\\ R_\text{specific} &= \frac{R}{M} = \frac{k_{\rm B}}{m}\\ \rho &= \frac{pM}{RT} = \frac{pm}{k_{\rm B}T}\\ \end{align}$$

where:

 * $$\rho$$, air density (kg/m3)
 * $$p$$, absolute pressure (Pa)
 * $$T$$, absolute temperature (K)
 * $$R$$ is the gas constant, $8.314$ in J⋅K−1⋅mol−1
 * $$M$$ is the molar mass of dry air, approximately $0.029$ in kg⋅mol−1.
 * $$k_{\rm B}$$ is the Boltzmann constant, $1.381$ in J⋅K−1
 * $$m$$ is the molecular mass of dry air, approximately $4.81$ in kg.
 * $$R_\text{specific}$$, the specific gas constant for dry air, which using the values presented above would be approximately $287.05$ in J⋅kg−1⋅K−1.

Therefore:
 * At IUPAC standard temperature and pressure (0°C and 100kPa), dry air has a density of approximately 1.2754kg/m3.
 * At 20°C and 101.325kPa, dry air has a density of 1.2041 kg/m3.
 * At 70°F and 14.696psi, dry air has a density of 0.074887lb/ft3.

The following table illustrates the air density–temperature relationship at 1 atm or 101.325 kPa:

Humid air
The addition of water vapor to air (making the air humid) reduces the density of the air, which may at first appear counter-intuitive. This occurs because the molar mass of water vapor (18g/mol) is less than the molar mass of dry air (around 29g/mol). For any ideal gas, at a given temperature and pressure, the number of molecules is constant for a particular volume (see Avogadro's Law). So when water molecules (water vapor) are added to a given volume of air, the dry air molecules must decrease by the same number, to keep the pressure or temperature from increasing. Hence the mass per unit volume of the gas (its density) decreases.

The density of humid air may be calculated by treating it as a mixture of ideal gases. In this case, the partial pressure of water vapor is known as the vapor pressure. Using this method, error in the density calculation is less than 0.2% in the range of −10 °C to 50 °C. The density of humid air is found by: $$ \rho_\text{humid air} = \frac{p_\text{d}}{R_\text{d} T} + \frac{p_\text{v}}{R_\text{v} T} = \frac{p_\text{d}M_\text{d} + p_\text{v}M_\text{v}}{R T} $$

where:
 * $$\rho_\text{humid air}$$, density of the humid air (kg/m3)
 * $$p_\text{d}$$, partial pressure of dry air (Pa)
 * $$R_\text{d}$$, specific gas constant for dry air, 287.058J/(kg·K)
 * $$T$$, temperature (K)
 * $$p_\text{v}$$, pressure of water vapor (Pa)
 * $$R_\text{v}$$, specific gas constant for water vapor, 461.495J/(kg·K)
 * $$M_\text{d}$$, molar mass of dry air, 0.0289652kg/mol
 * $$M_\text{v}$$, molar mass of water vapor, 0.018016kg/mol
 * $$R$$, universal gas constant, 8.31446J/(K·mol)

The vapor pressure of water may be calculated from the saturation vapor pressure and relative humidity. It is found by: $$p_\text{v} = \phi p_\text{sat}$$

where:
 * $$p_\text{v}$$, vapor pressure of water
 * $$\phi$$, relative humidity (0.0–1.0)
 * $$p_\text{sat}$$, saturation vapor pressure

The saturation vapor pressure of water at any given temperature is the vapor pressure when relative humidity is 100%. One formula is Tetens' equation from used to find the saturation vapor pressure is: $$p_\text{sat} =0.61078 \exp\left(\frac{17.27 T}{T + 237.3}\right) $$ where:
 * $$p_\text{sat}$$, saturation vapor pressure (kPa)
 * $$T$$, temperature (°C)

See vapor pressure of water for other equations.

The partial pressure of dry air $$p_\text{d}$$ is found considering partial pressure, resulting in: $$p_\text{d} = p - p_\text{v}$$ where $$p$$ simply denotes the observed absolute pressure.

Troposphere
To calculate the density of air as a function of altitude, one requires additional parameters. For the troposphere, the lowest part (~10 km) of the atmosphere, they are listed below, along with their values according to the International Standard Atmosphere, using for calculation the universal gas constant instead of the air specific constant:

 * $$p_0$$, sea level standard atmospheric pressure, 101325Pa
 * $$T_0$$, sea level standard temperature, 288.15K
 * $$g$$, earth-surface gravitational acceleration, 9.80665m/s2
 * $$L$$, temperature lapse rate, 0.0065K/m
 * $$R$$, ideal (universal) gas constant, 8.31446J/(mol·K)
 * $$M$$, molar mass of dry air, 0.0289652kg/mol

Temperature at altitude $$h$$ meters above sea level is approximated by the following formula (only valid inside the troposphere, no more than ~18km above Earth's surface (and lower away from Equator)): $$T = T_0 - L h$$

The pressure at altitude $$h$$ is given by: $$p = p_0 \left(1 - \frac{L h}{T_0}\right)^\frac{g M}{R L}$$

Density can then be calculated according to a molar form of the ideal gas law: $$ \rho = \frac{p M}{R T}       = \frac{p M}{R T_0 \left(1 - \frac{Lh}{T_0}\right)} = \frac{p_0 M}{R T_0} \left(1 - \frac{L h}{T_0} \right)^{\frac{g M}{R L} - 1} $$

where:
 * $$M$$, molar mass
 * $$R$$, ideal gas constant
 * $$T$$, absolute temperature
 * $$p$$, absolute pressure

Note that the density close to the ground is $\rho_0 = \frac{p_0 M}{R T_0}$

It can be easily verified that the hydrostatic equation holds: $$\frac{dp}{dh} = -g\rho .$$

Exponential approximation
As the temperature varies with height inside the troposphere by less than 25%, $\frac{Lh}{T_0} < 0.25$ and one may approximate: $$  \rho = \rho_0 e^{\left(\frac{g M}{R L} - 1\right) \ln \left(1 - \frac{L h}{T_0}\right)} \approx \rho_0 e^{-\left(\frac{g M}{R L} - 1\right)\frac{L h}{T_0}} = \rho_0 e^{-\left(\frac{g M h}{R T_0} - \frac{L h}{T_0}\right)} $$

Thus: $$\rho \approx \rho_0 e^{-h/H_n}$$

Which is identical to the isothermal solution, except that Hn, the height scale of the exponential fall for density (as well as for number density n), is not equal to RT0/gM as one would expect for an isothermal atmosphere, but rather: $$ \frac{1}{H_n} = \frac{g M}{R T_0} - \frac{L}{T_0} $$

Which gives Hn = 10.4km.

Note that for different gasses, the value of Hn differs, according to the molar mass M: It is 10.9 for nitrogen, 9.2 for oxygen and 6.3 for carbon dioxide. The theoretical value for water vapor is 19.6, but due to vapor condensation the water vapor density dependence is highly variable and is not well approximated by this formula.

The pressure can be approximated by another exponent: $$     p = p_0 e^{\frac{g M}{R L} \ln \left(1 - \frac{L h}{T_0}\right)} \approx p_0 e^{-\frac{g M}{R L}\frac{L h}{T_0}} = p_0 e^{-\frac{g M h}{R T_0}} $$

Which is identical to the isothermal solution, with the same height scale. Note that the hydrostatic equation no longer holds for the exponential approximation (unless L is neglected).

Hp is 8.4km, but for different gasses (measuring their partial pressure), it is again different and depends upon molar mass, giving 8.7 for nitrogen, 7.6 for oxygen and 5.6 for carbon dioxide.

Total content
Further note that since g, Earth's gravitational acceleration, is approximately constant with altitude in the atmosphere, the pressure at height h is proportional to the integral of the density in the column above h, and therefore to the mass in the atmosphere above height h. Therefore the mass fraction of the troposphere out of all the atmosphere is given using the approximated formula for p: $$1 - \frac{p(h = 11\text{ km})}{p_0} = 1 - \left(\frac{T(11\text{ km})}{T_0} \right)^\frac{g M}{R L} \approx 76\%$$

For nitrogen, it is 75%, while for oxygen this is 79%, and for carbon dioxide, 88%.

Tropopause
Higher than the troposphere, at the tropopause, the temperature is approximately constant with altitude (up to ~20km) and is 220K. This means that at this layer and, so that the exponential drop is faster, with  for air (6.5 for nitrogen, 5.7 for oxygen and 4.2 for carbon dioxide). Both the pressure and density obey this law, so, denoting the height of the border between the troposphere and the tropopause as U:

$$\begin{align} p &=   p(U) e^{-\frac{h - U}{H_\text{TP}}} =    p_0 \left(1 - \frac{L U}{T_0}\right)^\frac{g M}{R L} e^{-\frac{h - U}{H_\text{TP}}} \\ \rho &= \rho(U) e^{-\frac{h - U}{H_\text{TP}}} = \rho_0 \left(1 - \frac{L U}{T_0}\right)^{\frac{g M}{R L} - 1} e^{-\frac{h - U}{H_\text{TP}}} \end{align}$$

title: Density of air


text:
STR multiplex system

An STR multiplex system is used to identify specific short tandem repeats (STRs). STR polymorphisms are genetic markers that may be used to identify a DNA sequence.

The FBI analyses 13 specific STR loci for their database. These may be used in many areas of genetics in addition to their forensic uses.

One can think of a STR multiplex system as a collection of specific STRs which are positionally conserved on a target genome. Hence these can be used as markers. A number of different STRs along with their loci in a particular genome can be used for genotyping.

For example, the STR multiplex system AmpFlSTR Profiler Plus which analyses nine different STRs (3S1358, vWA, FGA, D8S1179, D21S11, D18S51, D5S818, D13S317, D7S820) plus Amelogenin for sex determination is used for human identification purposes.

title: STR multiplex system


text:
Eye of Providence

The Eye of Providence or All-Seeing Eye is a symbol depicting an eye, often enclosed in a triangle and surrounded by a ray of light or a halo, intended to represent Providence, as the eye watches over the workers of mankind. A well-known example of the Eye of Providence appears on the reverse of the Great Seal of the United States, which is depicted on the United States one-dollar bill.

United States
In 1782, the Eye of Providence was adopted as part of the symbolism featured on the reverse side of the Great Seal of the United States. It was first proposed as an element of the Great Seal by the first of three design committees in 1776, and is thought to be the suggestion of the artistic consultant, Pierre Eugene du Simitiere. At the time, it was a conventional symbol for God’s benevolent oversight.

In his original proposal to the committee, du Simitiere placed the Eye over shields so as to symbolize each of the original thirteen states of the Union. On the version of the seal that would eventually be approved, the Eye is positioned above an unfinished pyramid of thirteen steps (again symbolizing the original States, but also incorporating the nation's potential for future growth). Such symbolism is explained through the motto that appears above the Eye, annuit cœptis, meaning "He approves [our] undertakings" (or "has approved").

Perhaps due to its use in the design of the Great Seal, the Eye has made its way into other American seals and logos, such as, for example:

 * The Seal of Colorado
 * The city seal of Kenosha, Wisconsin
 * DARPA's Information Awareness Office

U.S. currency
The Eye of Providence has been used among various forms of currency throughout U.S. history, including:

 * the United States one-dollar bill, as part of the Great Seal
 * the Vermont Copper
 * Nova Constellatio patterns of 1783
 * Nova Constellatio coppers of 1783 and 1785
 * some Immune Columbia issues

Lithuania
The Eye of Providence appears on several Lithuanian coats of arms, including those of:

 * Alovė
 * Baisogala
 * Kalvarija
 * Plungė (and its flag)
 * Šiauliai (and its flag)

Other countries
The Eye of Providence appears on the coats of arms of Victoria, Canada; Brasłaŭ, Belarus; Neman, Russia; and Radzymin and Wilamowice, Poland. The Eye was also part of the flag and coat of arms adopted by the Confederation of the Equator, a short-lived 1824 secessionist revolt in the northeastern provinces of Brazil. In the United Kingdom, the symbol was part of the Guards Division insignia, created in 1915.

In Estonia, the 50 krooni note shows the Eye as part of a depiction of the pipe organ of the Käina church. Likewise, the (old) 500 Ukrainian hryvnia note also depicts the Eye.

The Eye was included in the original publication of France's Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, which also borrows iconography from the Ten Commandments. Similarly, the symbol is featured on the front page of the Constitution of Serbia from 1835. In Nigeria, the eye symbol is part of Nigeria Customs Service logo.

Freemasonry
Today, the Eye of Providence is often associated with Freemasonry, first appearing as part of the standard Freemason iconography in 1797 with the publication of Thomas Smith Webb's The Freemason's Monitor.

In this use, the Eye, representing the all-seeing eye of God, serves as a reminder that humanity's thoughts and deeds are always observed by God—who is referred to in Masonry as the Great Architect of the Universe. Typically, the Masonic Eye of Providence has a semicircular glory below it, and is sometimes enclosed by a triangle.

Popular among conspiracy theorists is the claim that the Eye of Providence shown atop an unfinished pyramid on the Great Seal of the United States indicates the influence of Freemasonry in the founding of the United States. However, common Masonic use of the Eye dates to 14 years after the creation of the Great Seal. Furthermore, the only Mason among the members of the various design committees for the Great Seal was Benjamin Franklin, whose ideas for the seal were not adopted. Likewise, various Masonic organizations have explicitly denied any connection to the creation of the Seal.

Christianity
The association of an eye with the concept of Divine Providence is found in Christianity. In late Renaissance European iconography, the Eye, surrounded by a triangle, was an explicit symbol of the Christian Holy Trinity. The Eye of Providence was later painted above an image of three faces in Pontormo's 1525 Supper at Emmaus. Seventeenth-century depictions of the Eye sometimes show it surrounded by clouds or sunbursts. The Eye of God in a triangle is still used in church architecture and Christian art to symbolize the Trinity and God's omnipresence and divine providence.

The Eye of Providence is notably featured on the following buildings of the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodoxy, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints:

 * The Mannheim Jesuit Church in Mannheim, Germany
 * The Kazan Cathedral in Saint Petersburg, Russia
 * The Shio-Mgvime Monastery in Mtskheta, Georgia
 * The Salt Lake Temple in Salt Lake City, Utah

University/college insignia and logos of organisations
Several universities and college fraternities use the Eye of Providence in their coats of arms, seals, or badges, notably:

 * Delta Tau Delta based in Bethany, West Virginia
 * Phi Kappa Psi based in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania
 * Phi Delta Theta based in Oxford, Ohio
 * Delta Kappa Epsilon based in Ann Arbor, Michigan
 * Princeton Theological Seminary in Princeton, New Jersey
 * The University of Chile in Santiago, Chile
 * The University of Mississippi in Oxford, Mississippi

title: Eye of Providence


text:
2003 United Kingdom local elections

The 2003 United Kingdom local elections were held on Thursday 1 May 2003, the same day as the Scottish Parliamentary and the Welsh Assembly elections. There were local elections for all councils in Scotland and in most of England. There were no local elections in Wales, Northern Ireland or London.

The ruling Labour Party lost a considerable 833 seats, while both the main opposition parties, Conservative and Liberal Democrat, polled strongly, with the Conservatives enjoying the largest share of the vote. Labour had now been in government for six years and still had a triple-digit majority, and over the summer of 2003 some opinion polls showed the Conservatives level with Labour. However, these were to be the last of the two local council elections contested by the Conservatives under the leadership of Iain Duncan Smith, who was ousted as leader later in the year and succeeded by Michael Howard due to his unpopularity as leader and doubts about his ability to win a general election.

Fifty-nine councils held electoral pilot schemes to try to boost turnout figures. Schemes included all postal voting, mobile polling stations, alterations to voting hours and various kinds of electronic voting. The most successful in raising turnout was all-postal voting which saw turnout rise to an average of 50%. In comparison, turnout across the whole of England was only 33%.

Summary of results
The Labour party lost a considerable 833 seats, losing control of councils such as Birmingham and Coventry, both of which the party had controlled for 20 years.

The Conservative party, who following the elections had the most councillors in the country (ahead of Labour by 601), extended its lead over the Labour party by 1,399 councillors. However, their celebrations were tempered by the resignation of Conservative front bencher Crispin Blunt, who described the party leader, Iain Duncan Smith as a "handicap" and called for him to be replaced.

Metropolitan boroughs
All 36 English Metropolitan borough councils had one third of their seats up for election.

Whole council
In 27 English Unitary authorities the whole council was up for election.

‡ New ward boundaries

Third of council
In 13 English Unitary authorities one third of the council was up for election.

Whole council
In 150 English district authorities the whole council was up for election.

‡ New ward boundaries

Third of council
In 82 English district authorities one third of the council was up for election.

Scotland
All 32 Scottish unitary authorities held elections. They were held at the same time as the 2003 Scottish Parliament election.

title: 2003 United Kingdom local elections


text:
Talk:Eye of Providence

Eye of Providence - God and the Sun
I tweaked the beginning of the article... The Eye of Providence (or the All-Seeing Eye of God) is a symbol that depicts an eye, often enclosed in a triangle and surrounded by rays of light or glory, meant to represent divine providence and the Sun, whereby the eye of God watches over humanity. 2603:3020:BE7:A000:34F0:3D04:1A72:1E79 (talk) 14:56, 17 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eye of Providence


text:
Cunobeline

Cunobeline or Cunobelin (Common Brittonic: *Cunobelinos, "Dog-Strong"), also known by his name's Latin form Cunobelinus, was a king in pre-Roman Britain from about AD 9 to about AD 40. He is mentioned in passing by the classical historians Suetonius and Dio Cassius, and many coins bearing his inscription have been found. He controlled a substantial portion of south-eastern Britain, including the territories of the Catuvellauni and the Trinovantes, and is called "King of the Britons" (Britannorum rex) by Suetonius. Cunobeline may have been a client king of Rome, based on the images and legends appearing on his coins. Cunobeline appears in British legend as Cynfelyn (Welsh), Kymbelinus (medieval Latin) or Cymbeline, as in the play by William Shakespeare.

Etymology
His name is a compound composed of Common Brittonic *cuno- "dog" and *belino- "strong", meaning "Strong as a Dog", or "Strong Dog".

History
From numismatic evidence, Cunobelinus appears to have taken power around AD 9 after the death of his father Tasciovanus, minting coins from both Camulodunum (Colchester, capital of the Trinovantes) and Verlamion (later the Roman town of Verulamium, now modern St Albans), capital of the Catuvellauni. Some of the Verulamium coins name him as the son of Tasciovanus, a previous king of the Catuvellauni. Some of Tasciovanus' coins bear the title rigonos, a derivative of the Brittonic root *rīgo- meaning "king". Unlike his father's, Cunobelinus' coins name no co-rulers. His earliest issues are, however, from Camulodunum, indicating that he took power there first, and some have a palm or laurel wreath design, a motif borrowed from the Romans indicating a military victory. It is possible that, following the Roman defeat in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest, in Germania in AD 9, he was emboldened to act against the Trinovantes. The Trinovantes were a Roman ally whose independence was protected by a treaty they made with Julius Caesar in 54 BC, but problems in Germania severely discouraged Augustus's territorial ambitions and ability to defend allies in Britain.

Cunobelinus appears to have maintained quite good relations with the Roman Empire. He used the title Rex (Latin 'king') and classical motifs on his coins, and his reign saw an increase in trade with the continent. Archaeology shows an increase in luxury goods imported from the continent, including Italian wine and drinking vessels, olive oil, and fish sauces from Hispania, glassware, jewellery, and Gallo-Belgic tableware, which from their distribution appear to have entered Britain via the port of Camulodunum. He was probably one of the British kings who, according to Strabo, sent embassies to Augustus. Strabo reports Rome's lucrative trade with Britain: the island's exports included grain, gold, silver, iron, hides, slaves and hunting dogs. Cunobelinus had three sons, Adminius, Togodumnus and Caratacus, and a brother, Epaticcus, known to history. Epaticcus expanded his influence into the territory of the Atrebates in the early 20s, taking the Atrebatan capital Calleva (Silchester) by about 25. He continued to expand his territory until his death in about 35, when Caratacus took over from him and the Atrebates recovered some of their territory.

Adminius, judging by his coins, had control of Kent by this time. Suetonius tells us that in about 40 he was banished from Britain by his father and sought refuge with the emperor Caligula. Caligula treated this as if the entire island had submitted to him and prepared an invasion of Britain. He abandoned it, however, in farcical circumstances by ordering his soldiers to attack the waves and gather seashells as the spoils of victory.

Cunobelinus died about 40, probably within a year of that date. Certainly he was dead by 43. The Lexden Tumulus on the outskirts of Colchester has been suggested as his tomb (although the earlier Trinovantian king Addedomarus is another candidate for its occupant). Caratacus completed the conquest of the Atrebates, and their king, Verica, fled to Rome, providing the new emperor, Claudius, with a pretext for the conquest of Britain. Caratacus and Togodumnus led the initial resistance to the invasion. Dio Cassius tells us that the "Bodunni", a tribe who were tributary to the Catuvellauni, changed sides and supported the Romans. This is probably a misspelling of the Dobunni of Gloucestershire, indicating that Cunobelinus's hegemony extended as far as the West Country.

It is possible, based on epigraphic evidence, that Sallustius Lucullus, Roman governor of Britain in the late 1st century, was his grandson.

Legend and literature
Cunobelinus's memory was preserved in British legend and beyond. In the early 9th century Historia Brittonum, Cunobeline appears as Bellinus son of Minocannus and is described as a British king in the time of Julius Caesar. The names of Cunobeline and his son Adminius probably became corrupt due to a series of scribal errors in the transmission of the name from Suetonius' Life of Caligula to Orosius's Historia adversus Paganos, the latter of which was a primary source for the author of the Historia Brittonum:

 * 1) Suetonius, Caligula, Ch.44 (early 2nd century): Adminio, Cynobellini Brittannorum regis filio.
 * 2) Orosius, Historia adversus Paganos, vii.5.5 (early 5th century): Minocynobellinum Britannorum regis filium.
 * 3) Historia Brittonum, §19 (early 9th century): Bellinus, filius Minocanni.

In the Welsh Triads and medieval literature such as Branwen ferch Llŷr, the Dream of Macsen Wledig, and Lludd and Llefelys, the Historia Brittonum's "Bellinus son of Minocannus" was transformed into Welsh as Beli Mawr ("Beli the Great") son of Mynogan (also spelled Manogan). Beli son of Mynogan/Managan also appears in several medieval Welsh genealogies.

A mid-10th century genealogy preserved in the medieval Welsh manuscript Harleian 3859 contains three generations which read "Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant". This is the equivalent of "Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus", putting the three historical figures in the correct order, although the wrong historical context, the degree of linguistic change suggesting a long period of oral transmission. The remainder of the genealogy contains the names of a sequence of Roman emperors, and two Welsh mythological figures, Guidgen (Gwydion) and Lou (Lleu).

In Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historia Regum Britanniae (composed around 1136) Cunobeline appears multiple times. Geoffrey borrowed the Historia Brittonum's Bellinus and styles him as the general of Cassibelanus (i.e., Cassivellaunus) in his wars against Caesar (in the Welsh translations of Geoffrey's Historia, the Brut y Brenhinedd, Bellinus becomes Beli, steward of Caswallawn). The next appearance in Geoffrey's Historia is as Heli (son of Cligueillus), the father of the three brothers Cassibellanus, Lud and Nennius, who reigned forty years (in the Welsh translations, Beli Mawr is substituted for Geoffrey's Heli). He then appears as Kymbelinus, son of Tenvantius, a powerful warrior who was raised in the courts of Augustus. He was very friendly with the Roman court: his country was equipped with Roman weapons, and all tributes to Rome were paid out of respect, not out of requirement. He had two sons, Guiderius and Arvirargus. Guiderius succeeded him, but died in the early stages of Claudius's invasion, leaving Arvirargus to carry on the fight.

Geoffrey's story was incorporated into Raphael Holinshed's Chronicles in 1577, where it was found by William Shakespeare and used as the basis of his romance, Cymbeline. Beyond the name there is virtually nothing in common between the figure of Cymbeline and the historical Cunobelinus. The king, under the influence of his wicked second wife, forbids his daughter Imogen to marry Posthumus Leonatus, a low-born but worthy man, preferring that she marry his boorish stepson Cloten, leading to mistaken identity, jealousy caused by false accusations of infidelity and a war with Rome provoked by the withholding of tribute, again at the instigation of the queen. In the end peace between Britain and Rome is re-established, Cymbeline is reunited with his two sons, Guiderius and Arviragus, who were abducted in childhood by Belarius, a wrongly-banished nobleman. Imogen is reconciled with Posthumus. Cloten and his mother, the evil queen, get their just deserts.

title: Cunobeline


text:
Jeffrey Combs

Jeffrey Alan Combs (born September 9, 1954) is an American actor. He is best known for starring as Herbert West in the Re-Animator film series (1985–2003) and portraying a number of characters in the Star Trek universe, most notably Brunt and the various Weyouns on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine (1994–1999) and Thy'lek Shran on Star Trek: Enterprise (2001–2005).

Combs has been a prominent figure within the horror genre through most of his career, acting in eight films directed by Re-Animator director Stuart Gordon, such as From Beyond (1986), The Pit and the Pendulum (1991) and Castle Freak (1995). His other horror film appearances include Necronomicon (1993), Peter Jackson's The Frighteners (1996), I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998), House on Haunted Hill (1999) and Would You Rather (2012). As a voice actor, he is best known as the voice of Question on Justice League Unlimited (2004–2006) and Ratchet on Transformers: Prime (2010–2013).

Early life
Combs was born in Oxnard, California, the fifth of nine children born to Jean Owens (formerly Sullins; 1921–1986) and Eugene "Gene" Combs (1922–1999), and raised in Lompoc. Both of his parents were from the Ozarks region of Arkansas. A graduate of Lompoc High School, as a senior, Combs played the lead role of Captain Fisby in a stage production of The Teahouse of the August Moon. Combs then attended Santa Maria's Pacific Conservatory of the Performing Arts, and later developed his acting skills in the Professional Actor's Training Program at the University of Washington.

In 1980, after several years performing in playhouses on the West Coast, Combs moved to Los Angeles. He landed his first role in the film Honky Tonk Freeway (1981), playing an unnamed drive-in teller. His first horror film role came two years later in Frightmare (1983).

Career
Combs's best-known horror role is Herbert West, the main character in the film Re-Animator (1985), and its two sequels. He portrayed author H. P. Lovecraft (creator of the Herbert West character) in the film Necronomicon: Book of the Dead (1993) and has starred in eight H.P. Lovecraft adaptations. Other film credits include The Attic Expeditions (2001), FeardotCom (2002), House on Haunted Hill (1999), I Still Know What You Did Last Summer (1998) and The Frighteners (1996).

Combs has had roles in many science fiction television series. He starred as the telepath Harriman Gray in first-season episode "Eyes" (1994) of Babylon 5. In 2001, he played the sinister Dr. Ek in The Attic Expeditions. In August 2005, he appeared for the first time on the science fiction series The 4400 as Dr. Kevin Burkhoff which had become a recurring role by 2006. In early 2007, he played a highly fictionalized Edgar Allan Poe in "The Black Cat" episode of Masters of Horror. In the 2012 miniseries Dorothy and the Witches of Oz (sometimes called The Witches of Oz), he had a small role as a highly fictionalized L. Frank Baum.

Combs has also worked as a voiceover artist. His voiceover roles include the Scarecrow in The New Batman Adventures, the Question in Justice League Unlimited, Ratchet in Transformers: Prime, the Leader in The Avengers: Earth's Mightiest Heroes, the Rat King in Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles and Brainiac in Injustice 2. He also narrated the 25th anniversary of Re-Animator at the 2010 FanTasia.

In July 2009, Combs returned to his stage roots and reprised his role as Edgar Allan Poe in a one-man theatrical show, Nevermore...an Evening with Edgar Allan Poe, at The Steve Allen Theater in Hollywood, California. Although it was supposed to run for only a month, it enjoyed much success and sold-out crowds, and was extended four times, until closing in Los Angeles on December 19, 2009. The show had its East Coast debut on January 23 and 24, 2010 at Westminster Hall in Baltimore, MD, Poe's final resting place. A tour of the Saturn Award-nominated Nevermore was subsequently planned.

Combs starred with Andrew Divoff in the 2012 Screen Media Films release Night of the Living Dead 3D: Re-Animation, a prequel to the 2006 film Night of the Living Dead 3D directed by Jeff Broadstreet. In 2012, he also played the sadistic Dr. Lambrick in another horror-thriller, Would You Rather.

Star Trek
On television, Combs enjoyed popular success playing a number of alien characters on the various modern Star Trek incarnations, beginning with Star Trek: Deep Space Nine in 1994, and continuing to Star Trek: Voyager in 2000, Star Trek: Enterprise in 2001 and Star Trek: Lower Decks in 2021. He has played nine onscreen roles in the Star Trek universe. His largest science-fiction role to date was his regular guest role on Deep Space Nine as the Vorta clone Weyoun. Combs has said that Weyoun was his favorite Star Trek role, and that he had considerable input in developing the character.

On the same series, Combs had a recurring role as the Ferengi character Brunt. During the DS9 episode "The Dogs of War", he appeared as both Weyoun and Brunt, becoming one of the few Star Trek actors to play two characters in the same episode (others including Patrick Stewart and Brian Markinson ). Combs wanted the characters to appear in the same scene, but the logistics and expense worked against it.

On Enterprise, Combs had a recurring role as Shran, an Andorian military officer. Enterprise producer Manny Coto once said in an interview that he had hoped to make Combs a regular on Enterprise had the series been renewed for a fifth season.

In addition to his recurring Star Trek roles, Combs had non-recurring roles as human police officer Kevin Mulkahey, alien Tiron on Deep Space Nine, alien Penk on Voyager, and Ferengi pirate Krem on Enterprise. Along with many other actors, writers and creators of the show, Combs also had a cameo appearance as a holographic patron in Vic's Lounge in the final episode of Deep Space Nine. He also voices the character of Romulan Commander Suldok for the Star Trek: Elite Force II video game. In 2021, he had a guest voice role as AGIMUS, an evil computer, in episode 7, season 2 of Star Trek: Lower Decks, which he reprised in seasons 3 and 4.

title: Jeffrey Combs


text:
Denise Levertov

Priscilla Denise Levertov (24 October 1923 – 20 December 1997) was a British-born naturalised American poet. She was heavily influenced by the Black Mountain Poets and by the political context of the Vietnam War, which she explored in her poetry book The Freeing of the Dust. She was a recipient of the Lannan Literary Award for Poetry.

Early life and influences
Levertov was born and grew up in Ilford, Essex. Her mother, Beatrice Adelaide (née Spooner-Jones) Levertoff, came from a small mining village in North Wales. Her father, Paul Levertoff, had been a teacher at Leipzig University and as a Russian Hasidic Jew was held under house arrest during the First World War as an "enemy alien" by virtue of his ethnicity. He emigrated to the UK and became an Anglican priest after converting to Christianity. In the mistaken belief that he would want to preach in a Jewish neighbourhood, he was housed in Ilford, within reach of a parish in Shoreditch, in East London. His daughter wrote: "My father's Hasidic ancestry, his being steeped in Jewish and Christian scholarship and mysticism, his fervour and eloquence as a preacher, were factors built into my cells." Levertov, who was educated at home, showed an enthusiasm for writing from an early age and studied ballet, art, piano and French as well as standard subjects. She wrote about the strangeness she felt growing up part Jewish, German, Welsh and English, but not fully belonging to any of these identities. She notes that it lent her a sense of being special rather than excluded: "[I knew] before I was ten that I was an artist-person and I had a destiny." She noted: "Humanitarian politics came early into my life: seeing my father on a soapbox protesting Mussolini's invasion of Abyssinia; my father and sister both on soap-boxes protesting Britain's lack of support for Spain; my mother canvasing long before those events for the League of Nations Union; and all three of them working on behalf of the German and Austrian refugees from 1933 onwards… I used to sell the Daily Worker house-to-house in the working class streets of Ilford Lane".

When Levertov was five years old she declared she would be a writer. At the age of 12, she sent some of her poems to T. S. Eliot, who replied with a two-page letter of encouragement. In 1940, when she was 17, Levertov published her first poem. During the Blitz, Levertov served in London as a civilian nurse. Her first book, The Double Image, was published six years later. In 1947, she met and married American writer Mitchell Goodman and moved with him to the United States the following year. Although Levertov and Goodman would eventually divorce in 1975, they did have one son, Nikolai, together and lived mainly in New York City, summering in Maine. In 1955, she became a naturalised American citizen.

Levertov's first two books had comprised poems written in traditional forms and language. But as she accepted the US as her new home and became more and more fascinated with the American idiom, she began to come under the influence of the Black Mountain poets and most importantly William Carlos Williams. Her first American book of poetry, Here and Now, shows the beginnings of this transition and transformation. Her poem "With Eyes at the Back of Our Heads" established her reputation.

Later life and work
During the 1960s and 70s, Levertov became much more politically active in her life and work. As poetry editor for The Nation, she was able to support and publish the work of feminist and other leftist activist poets. The Vietnam War was an especially important focus of her poetry, which often tried to weave together the personal and political, as in her poem "The Sorrow Dance", which speaks of her sister's death. Also in response to the Vietnam War, Levertov joined the War Resisters League, and in 1968 signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the war. Levertov was a founding member of the anti-war collective RESIST along with Noam Chomsky, Mitchell Goodman, William Sloane Coffin, and Dwight Macdonald.

Much of the latter part of Levertov's life was spent in education. After moving to Massachusetts, Levertov taught at Brandeis University, MIT, Tufts University, and the University of Massachusetts Boston. She also lived part-time in Palo Alto and taught at Stanford University, as professor of English (professor emeritus). There she befriended Robert McAfee Brown, a professor of religion at Stanford and pastor. Franciscan Murray Bodo also became a spiritual advisor to her. In 1984 she uncovered notebooks of her mother and father, resolving some personal and religious conflict. In 1989 she moved from Somerville, Massachusetts to Seattle, Washington, and lived near Seward Park on Lake Washington, with a view of her beloved Mount Rainier. On the West Coast, she had a part-time teaching stint at the University of Washington and for 11 years (1982–1993) held a full professorship at Stanford University, where she taught in the Stegner Fellowship program. In 1984 she received a Litt. D. from Bates College. After retiring from teaching, she travelled for a year doing poetry readings in the US and Britain. In 1990 she joined the Catholic Church at St. Edward’s Parish, Seattle; she became involved in protests of the US attack on Iraq. She retired from teaching at Stanford.

In 1994 Levertov was diagnosed with lymphoma, and also suffered pneumonia and acute laryngitis. Despite this she continued to lecture and participate at national conferences, many on spirituality and poetry. In February 1997 she experienced the death of Mitch Goodman. In December 1997, Levertov died at the age of 74 from complications due to lymphoma. She was buried at Lake View Cemetery in Seattle, Washington. Her papers are held at Stanford University. The first full biography appeared in October 2012 by Dana Greene Denise Levertov: A Poet's Life (Chicago: University of Illinois, 2012). Donna Krolik Hollenberg's more substantial biography, A Poet's Revolution: The Life of Denise Levertov, was published by the University of California Press in April 2013.

Political poetry
Both politics and war are major themes in Levertov's poetry. Levertov was published in the Black Mountain Review during the 1950s, but denied any formal relations with the group. She began to develop her own lyrical style of poetry through those influences. She felt it was part of a poet's calling to point out the injustice of the Vietnam War, and she also actively participated in rallies, reading poetry at some. Some of her war poetry was published in her 1971 book To Stay Alive, a collection of anti-Vietnam War letters, newscasts, diary entries, and conversations. Complementary themes in the book involve the tension of the individual vs. the group (or government) and the development of personal voice in mass culture. In her poetry, she promotes community and group change through the imagination of the individual and emphasizes the power of individuals as advocates of change. She also links personal experience to justice and social reform.

Suffering is another major theme in Levertov's war poetry. The poems "Poetry, Prophecy, Survival," "Paradox and Equilibrium," and "Poetry and Peace: Some Broader Dimensions" revolve around war, injustice, and prejudice. In her volume Life at War, Levertov uses imagery to express the disturbing violence of the Vietnam War. Throughout these poems, she addresses violence and savagery, yet tries to bring grace into the equation, mixing the beauty of language and the ugliness of the horrors of war. The themes of her poems, especially "Staying Alive," focus on both the cost of war and the suffering of the Vietnamese. In her prose work, The Poet in the World, she writes that violence is an outlet. Levertov's first successful Vietnam poetry was her book The Freeing of the Dust. Some of the themes of this book of poems are the experience of the North Vietnamese, and distrust of people. She attacks the United States pilots in her poems for dropping bombs. Overall, her war poems incorporate suffering to show that violence has become an everyday occurrence. After years of writing such poetry, Levertov eventually came to the conclusion that beauty and poetry and politics can't go together. This opened the door wide for her religious-themed poetry in the later part of her life.

Religious influences
From a very young age Levertov was influenced by her religion, and when she began writing it was a major theme in her poetry. Through her father she was exposed to both Judaism and Christianity. Levertov always believed that her culture and her family roots had inherent value to herself and her writing. Furthermore, she believed that she and her sister had a destiny pertaining to this. When Levertov moved to the United States, she fell under the influence of the Black Mountain Poets, especially the mysticism of Charles Olson. She drew on the experimentation of Ezra Pound and the style of William Carlos Williams, but was also exposed to the Transcendentalism of Thoreau and Emerson. Although all these factors shaped her poetry, her conversion to Christianity in 1984 was the main influence on her religious writing. Sometime shortly after her move to Seattle in 1989, she became a Catholic. In 1997, she brought together 38 poems from seven of her earlier volumes in The Stream & the Sapphire, a collection intended, as Levertov explains in the foreword to the collection, to "trace my slow movement from agnosticism to Christian faith, a movement incorporating much doubt and questioning as well as affirmation."

Religious themes
Denise Levertov wrote many poems with religious themes throughout her career. These poems range from religious imagery to implied metaphors of religion. One particular theme was developed progressively throughout her poetry. This was the pilgrimage/spiritual journey of Levertov towards the deep spiritual understanding and truth in her last poems.

One of her earlier poems is "A Tree Telling of Orpheus" from her book Relearning the Alphabet. This poem uses the metaphor of a tree, which changes and grows when it hears the music of Orpheus. This is a metaphor of spiritual growth. The growth of the tree is like the growth of faith, and as the tree goes through life we also go through life on a spiritual journey. Much of Levertov's religious poetry was concerned with respect for nature and life. Also among her themes were nothingness and absence.

In her earlier poems something is always lacking, searching, and empty. In "Work that Enfaiths" Levertov begins to confront this "ample doubt" and her lack of "burning surety" in her faith. The religious aspect of this is the doubt vs. light debate. Levertov cannot find a balance between faith and darkness. She goes back and forth between the glory of God and nature, but doubt constantly plagues her.

In her earlier religious poems Levertov searches for meaning in life. She explores God as he relates to nothing(ness) and everything. In her later poetry, a shift can be seen. A Door in the Hive and Evening Train are full of poems using images of cliffs, edges, and borders to push for change in life. Once again, Levertov packs her poetry with metaphors. She explores the idea that there can be peace in death. She also begins to suggest that nothing is a part of God. "Nothingness" and darkness are no longer just reasons to doubt and agonise over. "St. Thomas Didymus" and "Mass" show this growth, as they are poems that lack her former nagging wonder and worry.

In Evening Train, Levertov's poetry is highly religious. She writes about experiencing God. These poems are breakthrough poems for her. She writes about a mountain, which becomes a metaphor for life and God. When clouds cover a mountain, it is still huge and massive and in existence. God is the same, she says. Even when He is clouded, we know He is there. Her poems tend to shift away from constantly questioning religion to accepting it simply. In "The Tide," the final section of Evening Train, Levertov writes about accepting faith and realizing that not knowing answers is tolerable. This acceptance of the paradoxes of faith marks the end of her "spiritual journey."

Levertov's heavy religious writing began at her conversion to Christianity in 1984. She wrote a great deal of metaphysical poetry to express her religious views, and began to use Christianity to link culture and community together. In her poem "Mass" she writes about how the Creator is defined by His creation. She writes a lot about nature and individuals. In the works of her last phase, Levertov sees Christianity as a bridge between individuals and society, and explores how a hostile social environment can be changed by Christian values.

Legacy
Levertov wrote and published 24 books of poetry, and also criticism and translations. She also edited several anthologies. Among her many awards and honours, she received the Shelley Memorial Award, the Robert Frost Medal, the Lenore Marshall Prize, the Lannan Award, a Catherine Luck Memorial Grant, a grant from the National Institute of Arts and Letters, and a Guggenheim Fellowship.

Levertov's "What Were They Like?" is currently included in the Pearson Edexcel GCSE (9–1) English Literature poetry anthology, and the Conflict cluster of the OCR GCSE (9-1) English Literature poetry anthology, Towards a World Unknown.

Primary works

 *  The Double Image (London: The Cresset Press, 1946)
 *  Here and Now (San Francisco, Calif.: City Lights Pocket Book Shop, The Pocket Poets Series: Number Six, 1956)
 *  Overland to the Islands (Highlands, N.C.: Jonathan Williams, Publisher, 1958)
 *  With Eyes at the Back of Our Heads (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1959)
 *  The Jacob's Ladder (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1961)
 *  O Taste and See: New Poems (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1964)
 *  The Sorrow Dance (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1967)
 *  Relearning the Alphabet (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1970)
 *  To Stay Alive (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0811200876
 *  Footprints (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1972) ISBN 0811204553
 *  The Freeing of the Dust (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1975) ISBN 978-0811205818
 *  Life in the Forest (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1978) ISBN 978-0811206921
 *  Collected Earlier Poems 1940–1960 (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1979) ISBN 978-0811207171
 *  Pig Dreams: Scenes from the Life of Sylvia (Woodstock, Vt.: The Countryman Press, 1981), Pastels by Liebe Coolidge ISBN 978-0914378822
 *  Candles in Babylon (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1982) ISBN 978-0811208307
 *  Poems 1960–1967 (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1983) ISBN 0-8112-0859-1
 *  Oblique Prayers: New Poems (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1984) ISBN 0-8112-0909-1
 *  Poems 1968–1972 (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1987) ISBN 978-0811210041
 *  Breathing the Water (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1987) ISBN 978-0-8112-1027-0
 *  A Door in the Hive (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1989) ISBN 0-8112-1119-3
 *  Evening Train (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1992) ISBN 978-0-8112-1220-5
 *  A Door in the Hive / Evening Train (1993) ISBN 1-85224-159-4
 *  Sands of the Well (New York: New Directions Publishing, 1996) ISBN 0-8112-1361-7
 *  This Great Unknowing: Last Poems (New York: New Directions Publishing, 2000), With a Note on the Text by Paul A. Lacey ISBN 978-0-8112-1458-2
 *  Poems 1972–1982 (New York: New Directions Publishing, New Directions Paperbook NDP913, 2001) ISBN 0-8112-1469-9

Collections

 * "The Collected Poems of Denise Levertov (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 11/2013), Edited and Annotated by Paul A. Lacey and Anne Dewey, with an Introduction by Eavan Boland, Afterword by Paul A. Lacey & Anne Dewey ISBN 978-0-8112-2173-3
 * The Life Around Us: Selected Poems on Nature (1997) ISBN 0-8112-1352-8
 * Making Peace (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, New Directions Bibelot NDP1023, 2005), Edited, with an Introduction, by Peggy Rosenthal
 * The Stream & the Sapphire: Selected Poems on Religious Themes (1997) ISBN 978-0-8112-1354-7
 * Selected Poems (UK: Bloodaxe Books, 1986). ISBN 0-906427-85-1
 * This is not to be confused with the 2002 US volume of the same title. From Neil Astley, of Bloodaxe Books:

 * "Selected Poems (1986) had no editor as such: the book was edited by Bloodaxe Books in consultation with Denise Levertov, with helpful suggestions made by Linda Anderson and Cynthia Fuller. It was originated by Bloodaxe Books for publication in the UK and there was no corresponding US edition.  It had no introduction or preface."

 * Selected Poems (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 2002), preface by Robert Creeley, edited with an afterword by Paul A. Lacey
 * New Selected Poems (UK: Bloodaxe Books, 2003), preface by Robert Creeley, edited with an afterword by Paul A. Lacey

 * The latter two volumes are identical in contents. From Neil Astley, of Bloodaxe Books:

 * "New Selected Poems was first published in the US by New Directions in 2002 under the title Selected Poems, and published by Bloodaxe Books in the UK in 2003 under the title New Selected Poems to avoid confusion with the previous UK edition called Selected Poems. It was edited with an afterword by Paul A. Lacy and has a preface by Robert Creeley.  So it is the same book as New Directions' Selected Poems."

Prose

 * The Poet in the World (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1973) ISBN 0811204928
 * Light Up the Cave (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1981) ISBN 978-0811208130
 * New & Selected Essays (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1992) ISBN 0-8112-1218-1
 * Tesserae: Memories & Suppositions (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1995) ISBN 0-8112-1337-4

Letters

 * The Letters of Denise Levertov and William Carlos Williams, Edited by Christopher MacGowan (1998).
 * The Letters of Robert Duncan and Denise Levertov (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2004), Edited by Robert J. Bertholf & Albert Gelpi.

Translations

 * Black Iris: Selected Poems by Jean Joubert (Port Townsend, WA: Copper Canyon Press, 1988), Translated from the French by Denise Levertov ISBN 978-1556590153
 * In Praise of Krishna: Songs from the Bengali (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, Anchor Books, 1967), Translated by Edward C. Dimock, Jr. and Denise Levertov, with an introduction and notes by Edward Dimock, Jr., Illustrated by Anju Chaudhuri
 * No Matter No Fact (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, February 1988), Alain Bosquet, Translated by Samuel Beckett, Eduard Roditi, Denise Levertov, and Alain Bosquet ISBN 978-0811210393
 * Selected Poems by Eugene Guillevic (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, 1969)
 * White Owl and Blue Mouse (Cambridge, MA: Zoland Books, 1991), Jean Joubert, Illustrations by Michel Gay ISBN 978-0944072134

Edited by Denise Levertov

 * The Collected Poems of Beatrice Hawley, The (Cambridge, MA: Zoland Books, 1989), Edited and with an Introduction by Denise Levertov ISBN 9780944072080
 * Out of the War Shadow: An Anthology of Current Poetry (NY: War Resisters League, 1967), compiled and edited by Denise Levertov
 * Songs from an Outcast (Los Angeles, CA: UCLA American Indian Studies Center, 2000), John E. Smelcer ISBN 978-0935626452

Interviews

 * Conversations with Denise Levertov (Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi, Literary Conversations Series, 1 November 1998), Edited by Jewel Spears Brooker.
 * "Con-versing with Denise Levertov" (Kalliope: A Journal of Woman's Art and Literature, Spring/Summer 1979), William Slaughter.

Criticism

 * Critical Essays on Denise Levertov (Boston, MA: G. K. Hall & Co., Critical Essays on American Literature, January 1991), Edited by Linda Wagner-Martin.
 * Denise Levertov (DeLand, FL: Everett/Edwards, 1972), Charles Molesworth.
 * Denise Levertov (NY: Twayne Publishers, Inc., Twayne's United States Authors Series 113, 1967), Linda Welshimer Wagner.
 * Denise Levertov: In Her Own Province (NY: New Directions Publishing Corporation, Insights, Working Papers in Contemporary Criticism, Paper, May 1979), Edited by Linda W. Wagner.
 * Denise Levertov: New Perspectives (West Cornwall, CT: Locust Hill Press, 2000), Edited by Anne Colclough Little and Susie Paul.
 * Denise Levertov Revisited (Boston, MA: Macmillan Library Reference/Twayne Publishers, Inc., 30 July 1997), Diana Surman Collecott.
 * Denise Levertov: Selected Criticism (Ann Arbor, MI: The University of Michigan Press, Paper, 1993), Edited, with an Introduction, by Albert Gelpi.
 * Denise Levertov: The Poetry of Engagement (Rutherford, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, Associated University Presses, Inc., March 1993), Audrey T. Rodgers.
 * From Out of the Vietnam Vortex: a study of poets and poetry against the war (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1974), James F. Mersmann.
 * ''A House of Good Proportion: Images of Women in Literature (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1973), Michele Murray.
 * Levertov's Poetry of Revelation, 1988–1998: The Mosaic of Nature and Spirit (Athens, Greece: George Dardanos, Paper, June 1999/February 2002), Liana Sakelliou.
 * Our Last First Poets: Vision and History in Contemporary American Poetry (Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1981), Cary Nelson.
 * The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Poetry in English (NY: Oxford University Press, 1994), Edited by Ian Hamilton.
 * The Oxford Companion to Women's Writing in the United States (NY: Oxford University Press, 1995), Edited by Cathy N. Davidson and Linda Wagner-Martin.
 * Poetics of the Feminine: Authority and Literary Tradition in William Carlos Williams, Mina Loy, Denise Levertov, and Kathleen Fraser (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, Cambridge Studies, March 1994), Linda A. Kinnahan.
 * The Poetry of Politics, the Politics of Poetry (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, Paper, 2006), Edited by Albert Gelpi and Robert J. Bertholf.
 * Poets in Progress: Critical Prefaces to Thirteen Modern American Poets (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1967), Edited by Edward Buell Hungerford.
 * Revelation and Revolution in the Poetry of Denise Levertov (London: Binnacle Press, 1981), Peter Middleton.
 * Understanding Denise Levertov (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1988), Harry Marten.
 * Writing in a Nuclear Age (Hanover, NH: New England Review and Bread Loaf Quarterly: Distributed by University Press of New England, 1984), Edited by Jim Schley.

Biography

 * Green, Dana. Denise Levertov: A Poet's Life (Chicago: University of Illinois, 2012). First full biography of the author. ISBN 978 0 252 03710 8
 * Hollenberg, Donna Krolik, A Poet's Revolution: The Life of Denise Levertov (Berkeley: University of California Press, 17 April 2013). More authoritative biography of the author. ISBN 978 0 520 27246 0

title: Denise Levertov


text:
European Law Students' Association

The European Law Students' Association (ELSA) is an international, independent, non-political, non-profit, non-governmental organisation run by and for law students. ELSA-activities comprise a large variety of academic and professional events that are organised to fulfill the stated vision of ELSA.

History
Five law students from Austria, Hungary, Poland and West Germany founded ELSA on 4 May 1981.

Organization
ELSA is organized into local member groups active at university level (Local Group), national member groups active on a national level (National Group), and ELSA International active on an international level.

Membership of ELSA for individual law students is possible through the Local Groups (for instance ELSA Leiden or ELSA Tilburg ). The Local Groups are member of a National Group (for instance ELSA the Netherlands ). The National Groups are part of the international ELSA network, which is managed by ELSA International with headquarters in Brussels, Belgium. ELSA International consists of the International Board, the ELSA International Team, and the Auditors of ELSA.

The International Board is the supreme executive body of the association. Its members are elected at an International Council Meeting (ICM) (which consists of all the National Groups) for a one-year period. The International Board's responsibilities include the overall co-ordination of the organisation as a whole including the support of member groups both locally and nationally. The International Board also co-ordinates and develops ELSA's collaboration with various international organisations and institutions, governments, law firms, and companies across Europe.

Institutional relations
ELSA has gained consultative status with several United Nations bodies. In 1994, ELSA was granted Consultative Status in Category C in UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), and in 1997 ELSA obtained Special Consultative Status with ECOSOC (United Nations Economic and Social Council). In addition UNCITRAL (United Nations Commission on International Trade Law) is inviting ELSA delegations to participate in their sessions.

ELSA was part of the Diplomatic Conference of 1998 in Rome where the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court was adopted to establish the International Criminal Court. ELSA participated with a delegation as an NGO represented by an observer.

In 2000, ELSA was granted Participatory Status with the Council of Europe. This cooperation was further widened with the signing of a Human Rights Partnership between Council of Europe and ELSA in 2008.

Furthermore, ELSA has a co-operation agreement with UNHCR (United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees). In October 2005, ELSA obtained Observer Status with WIPO (World Intellectual Property Organization). Since 2002, ELSA organizes the John H. Jackson Moot Court Competition (formerly known as ELSA Moot Court Competition) with the support of the WTO. The final round is held at the WTO headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland. Since 2012, it organizes the European Human Rights Moot Court Competition in cooperation with the Council of Europe; the final round is held onsite at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg.

ELSA Network
ELSA has members and observers in Albania, Armenia, Austria, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Iceland, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Malta, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Serbia, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Ukraine and the United Kingdom.

Furthermore, ELSA co-operates with other student organisations across the world, for instance the Asian Law Students' Association (ALSA) in Asia.

title: European Law Students' Association


text:
Talk:Primordial black hole

Grams?
This article measures mass in both g and kg. We should pick one unit and adjust the others to match. I suggest kg, since I've never seen grams used to measure a mass greater than a few kg. (Similar to how the distance from New York to Chicago is measured in kilometers or miles, never meters or yards.) Piojo (talk) 01:50, 15 September 2016 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Astroparticle Physics
— Assignment last updated by Jvega1314 (talk) 04:49, 21 April 2023 (UTC)

in fiction
In case there's ever an "in fiction" section, I'll mention two stories by Larry Niven: "The Borderland of Sol" (1976) and "The Hole Man" (1975). —Tamfang (talk) 05:09, 23 April 2023 (UTC)

 * In "Borderland", iirc, someone guessed that the Tunguska event was the passage of a black hole, traced its likely trajectory, found it and made use of it. —Tamfang (talk) 05:06, 7 November 2023 (UTC)

And a short novel by Greg Egan, Perihelion Summer (2019?). —Tamfang (talk) 00:04, 2 July 2023 (UTC)

Planet 9
I'm on the fence as to whether including this would be WP:UNDUE weight: https://phys.org/news/2020-08-planet-primordial-black-hole.html I'll leave it here for a while asking for guidance. Sandizer (talk) 00:11, 14 May 2023 (UTC)

Preprints to add after peer review
What it says on the tin; just putting these here to remember to check in on later: All four are pretty juicy, which is why I'm a bit reluctant to add until they pass review. Sandizer (talk) 02:21, 5 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Oncins (2022) "Constraints on PBH as dark matter from observations: a review", comes with a video
 * Bernard Carr et al. (2023) "Observational Evidence for Primordial Black Holes: A Positivist Perspective"
 * Su, Li, and Feng (2023) "An inflation model for massive primordial black holes to interpret the JWST observations"
 * Depta et al. (2023) "Do pulsar timing arrays observe merging primordial black holes?"

 * Carr et al. (2024) made it into Physics Reports: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0370157323003976 -- very ambitious with 68 pages and 451 references! It sort of calls itself a review in the first sentence of the Abstract, and I don't see how anyone could argue. Sandizer  (talk) 10:36, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Primordial black hole


text:
Maud Menten

Maud Leonora Menten (March 20, 1879 – July 17, 1960) was a Canadian physician and chemist. As a bio-medical and medical researcher, she made significant contributions to enzyme kinetics and histochemistry, and invented a procedure that remains in use. She is primarily known for her work with Leonor Michaelis on enzyme kinetics in 1913. The paper has been translated from its written language of German into English.

Maud Menten was born in Port Lambton, Ontario and studied medicine at the University of Toronto (B.A. 1904, M.B. 1907, M.D. 1911). She was among the first women in Canada to earn a medical doctorate.

Since women were not allowed to participate in research in Canada at the time, Menten looked elsewhere to continue her work. In 1912, she moved to Berlin where she worked with Leonor Michaelis and co-authored their paper in Biochemische Zeitschrift, demonstrating that the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction is proportional to the amount of the enzyme-substrate complex. This relationship between reaction rate and enzyme–substrate concentration is known as the Michaelis–Menten equation.

After working with Michaelis in Germany she entered graduate school at the University of Chicago where she obtained her Ph.D. in 1916. Her dissertation was entitled "The Alkalinity of the Blood in Malignancy and Other Pathological Conditions; Together with Observations on the Relation of the Alkalinity of the Blood to Barometric Pressure".

Menten joined the faculty of the University of Pittsburgh in 1923 and remained there until her retirement in 1950. She became an assistant professor and then an associate professor in the School of Medicine and was the head of pathology at the Children's Hospital of Pittsburgh. Her final promotion to full professor, in 1948, was at the age of 69 in the last year of her career. Her final academic post was as a research fellow at the British Columbia Medical Research Institute.

Early life and work
Menten was born in Port Lambton, Ontario, Canada. Her family moved to Harrison Mills, British Columbia, where her mother worked as a postmistress. After completing secondary school, Menten attended the University of Toronto where she earned a bachelor of arts degree in 1904 and a master's degree in physiology in 1907. While earning her graduate degree, she worked as a demonstrator in the physiology laboratory at the university.

Menten wanted to further her medical research, but found that opportunities for women in Canada were scarce at the time. As a result, she accepted a fellowship at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research and left Canada, arriving in New York City in 1907. There she studied the effect of radium bromide on cancerous tumors in rats. Menten and two other scientists published the results of their experiment, authoring the first monograph published by Rockefeller Institute. Menten worked as an intern at the New York Infirmary for Women and Children. After a year at the Institute, Menten returned to Canada and began her studies at the University of Toronto where, in 1911, she became one of the first Canadian women to qualify as a medical doctor.

The Michaelis-Menten Equation
In 1912, Menten returned to medical research, working with renowned surgeon George Crile, in whose honour the Crile crater on the Moon is named. Their work concentrated on the control of acid-base balance during anaesthesia. Around this time she became acquainted with Leonor Michaelis, who was one of the world's leading experts in pH and buffers. Menten became attracted to early work of Michaelis in enzyme kinetics. Despite his modest laboratory establishment in Berlin, she made the difficult decision to cross the sea to work with Michaelis.

Menten and Michaelis used an equation to express the relationship they were investigating:

 * $$v = \frac{Va}{K_\mathrm{m} + a}$$

for a steady-state rate $$v$$ in terms of the substrate concentration $$a$$ and constants $$V$$ and $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ (written with modern symbols). A decade earlier, Victor Henri had included an equivalent equation in his doctoral thesis, but he did not appreciate the importance of the steady state nor the simplification that would result from considering the initial rate, and did not use it. The equation shows not only that each enzyme is specific for its substrate, but also that the rate of reaction rate increases to saturation as the substrate concentration increases. The constant $$K_\mathrm{m}$$ used in expressing this rate is now called the Michaelis constant. The paper deriving the Michaelis–Menten equation is Menten's most famous work.

Other work
After her research in Berlin, Menten enrolled in University of Chicago, where in 1916, she obtained a Ph.D. in biochemistry. In 1923, she still could not find an academic position for a woman in Canada; she took a position as part of the faculty of the medical school at the University of Pittsburgh while serving as a clinical pathologist at Children's Hospital in Pittsburgh. Despite the demands both jobs had, Menten found time to maintain an active research program,  authoring or coauthoring more than 70 publications. Although her promotion from assistant to associate professor was timely, she was not made a full professor until she was 70 years old, within one year of her retirement.

As part of extensive work on alkaline phosphatase,  Menten invented the azo-dye coupling reaction, which is still used in histochemistry. This was described in a major textbook of the 1950s in the following terms:

"It is not too much to say that the use of this principle was a stroke of genius."

She characterised bacterial toxins from B. paratyphosus, Streptococcus scarlatina, and Salmonella ssp. that were used in a successful immunisation program against scarlet fever in Pittsburgh in the 1930s - 1940s. She also conducted the first electrophoretic separation of blood haemoglobin proteins in 1944. In this she anticipated the results of Linus Pauling and his collaborators by several years; however, he is usually credited with the discovery.

Menten also worked on the properties of hemoglobin, regulation of blood sugar level, and kidney function.

She continued to work on cancer, especially in children, as well as other illnesses of children.

After her retirement from the University of Pittsburgh in 1950, she returned to Canada where she continued to do cancer research at the British Columbia Medical Research Institute (1951–1953).

Poor health forced Menten's retirement in 1955, and she died July 17, 1960, at the age of 81, in Leamington, Ontario.

Personal life
Rebecca Skloot portrays Menten as a petite dynamo of a woman who wore "Paris hats, blue dresses with stained-glass hues, and Buster Brown shoes". She drove a Model T Ford through the University of Pittsburgh area for some 32 years and enjoyed many adventurous and artistic hobbies. She played the clarinet, created paintings worthy of art exhibitions, climbed mountains, went on an Arctic expedition, and enjoyed astronomy. By the time of her death, she had mastered several languages, including Russian, French, German, Italian, and at least one Native-American language, Halkomelem. Although Menten did most of her research in the United States, she retained her Canadian citizenship throughout her life.

Honors
Throughout her career Menten was affiliated with many scientific societies.

At Menten's death, colleagues Aaron H. Stock and Anna-Mary Carpenter honored the Canadian biochemist in an obituary in Nature: "Menten was untiring in her efforts on behalf of sick children. She was an inspiring teacher who stimulated medical students, resident physicians, and research associates to their best efforts. She will long be remembered by her associates for her keen mind, for a certain dignity of manner, for unobtrusive modesty, for her wit, and above all for her enthusiasm for research."

In 1998, she was posthumously inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame. She also was honored at the University of Toronto with a plaque. At the University of Pittsburgh she was honored with a named chair and memorial lectures. Port Lambton, Canada, where Menten was born, installed a commemorative bronze plaque about her in 2015.

title: Maud Menten


text:
Bith

Bith may refer to:

 * Bith (Celtic mythology), a character from Goidelic Celtic mythology
 * Bith (Star Wars), an alien race in Star Wars

title: Bith


text:
User:HeraldicBot

HeraldicBot was a bot, based on Robbot, which uploaded coats of arms for the civic heraldry project. Zir work is now finished; you might like to see User:HeraldicBot/Gallery for thumbnails of all the pictures.

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 * Image:Arms-wilmslow.jpg
 * Image:Arms-northam.jpg
 * Image:Arms-benfleet.jpg
 * Image:Arms-southborough.jpg
 * Image:Arms-tenterden.jpg
 * Image:Arms-farnworth.jpg
 * Image:Arms-huyton-roby.jpg
 * Image:Arms-thornton-cleveleys.jpg

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title: User:HeraldicBot