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October Revolution Island

October Revolution Island (Russian: остров Октябрьской Революции, ostrov Oktyabrskoy Revolyutsii) is the largest island of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the Russian Arctic. It is named after the October Revolution which led to the former Russian Empire becoming a Socialist country.

The area of this island has been estimated at 14170 km2 making it the 59th largest island in the world. It rises to a height of 965 m on Mount Karpinsky. Half the island is covered with glaciers reaching down into the sea. In the sections free from ice, the vegetation is desert or tundra.

Geography
October Revolution Island houses five domed ice caps; clockwise from north, they are named: Rusanov, Karpinsky, University, Vavilov and Albanov. The Rusanov and Karpinsky ice caps, located on the eastern side of the island, feed with glaciers the Matusevich Fjord of the Laptev Sea and the Marat Fjord of the Shokalsky Strait. The Karpinsky ice cap reaches a maximum height of 963 m and it is also the highest point in Severnaya Zemlya.

In 2015 the Vavilov Glacier accelerated dramatically due to warming. Between 2015 and 2016 the glacier front advanced 4 km and the glacier lost 4.5 km3 of ice.

Other minor ice caps on the island include the Malyutka Glacier. The Podemnaya River and the Bolshaya River drain to the northwest between the Vavilov and Albanov glaciers, and the Bedovaya and Obryvistaya Rivers drain to the north between the Albanov and Rusanov ice caps.

The coast of the island is uneven with rugged coves and headlands. The largest bays of the island are along the northern coast. The Red Army Strait separates October Revolution Island from Komsomolets Island to the north and from Pioneer Island in the northwest, while the broader Shokalsky Strait separates it from Bolshevik Island to the south. Both straits connect the Kara Sea in the west with the Laptev Sea in the east. Cape October is located in the northern part of the island facing the Red Army Strait.

Paleontology
Fossilized scales of thelodonts have been discovered on this island. Stroinolepis maenniki is described by material from the Middle and Upper Ordovician deposits of the Strojnaya River, after which it was named. Loganellia grossi, Paralogania consimilis, Thelodus calvus and Shielia multispinata were found in the younger Wenlock deposits of the Silurian. Conodonts were also collected from October Revolution Island. Aphelognathus sp. is dated to the Middle-Upper Ordovician, while Panderodus and Ozarkodina were discovered in Rhuddanian, Lower Silurian period.

History
The island was discovered by Boris Vilkitsky in 1913 during an expedition on behalf of the Russian Hydrographic Service, but its insularity was not proven until 1931, when Georgy Ushakov and Nikolay Urvantsev charted the archipelago during their 1930–1932 expedition.

The Vavilov Meteorological Station was operated from 1974 to 1988 on the northern part of the Vavilov Ice Cap.

The island had a nuclear-powered lighthouse installed in 1989, shortly after the closing of the weather station.

title: October Revolution Island


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Pioneer Island (Russia)

Pioneer Island is part of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the Russian Arctic. It measures 1527 km² in area. The island was discovered by Georgy Ushakov and Nikolay Urvantsev during their 1930-32 expedition.

This island contains the Pioneer Glacier.

Geological and biological data: &

Paleontology
Fossilized scales of thelodont Paralogania klubovi and a single scale of indeterminate Loganelliidae were found in the Llandovery deposits of the Silurian period, on Pioneer Island.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pioneer Island (Russia)


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Schmidt Island

Schmidt Island (остров Шмидта) is one of the islands of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the Russian Arctic. It was named after Soviet scientist and first head of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Otto Schmidt. Located at the far northwestern end of Severnaya Zemlya, it lies slightly south of the Arctic Cape on Komsomolets Island.There is no tourism on the island except for scientists, military personnel, and a few explorers.

Geography
Schmidt Island is significantly detached from the rest of Severnaya Zemlya regarding the relative proximity of the other main islands to each other.

It measures 467 km² and is almost entirely covered by the Schmidt Ice Cap. Owing to its exposed position, the climate in the Schmidt Island's area is much colder than in the rest of the archipelago.

title: Schmidt Island


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Fusiliers Museum of Northumberland

The Fusiliers Museum of Northumberland, formerly the Northumberland Fusiliers Museum, is a museum located within the Abbot's Tower of Alnwick Castle in Alnwick, Northumberland, England.

History
The museum was first established at Fenham Barracks in Newcastle upon Tyne in 1929 but moved to Alnwick Castle in 1970.

Collection
The museum displays the history of the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers and its predecessor regiments from 1674 to current times. It is an independent registered charity. It also displays artifacts such as the nameplate from the steam locomotive "Private E Sykes VC" which commemorated the soldier who had been awarded the Victoria Cross while serving with the regiment.

The Royal Regiment of Fusiliers was created in 1968 after the amalgamation of four Regiments. Thus the museum is part of a family of other Fusilier museums: the Royal Regiment of Fusiliers Museum (Royal Warwickshire) in Warwick, the Fusilier Museum (Lancashire) in Bury and the Fusiliers Museum (London) at the Tower of London.

Victoria Crosses held by the museum
The museum holds the Victoria Crosses awarded to the following members of the regiment:
 * Sergeant Robert Grant 5th Regiment of Foot (Indian Rebellion)
 * Second Lieutenant James Johnson 2nd Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers (First World War)
 * Private Patrick McHale 5th Regiment of Foot (Indian Rebellion)
 * Sergeant Peter McManus 5th Regiment of Foot (Indian Rebellion)
 * Private Ernest Sykes 27th Battalion, Northumberland Fusiliers (First World War)

title: Fusiliers Museum of Northumberland


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George Simpson, Baron Simpson of Dunkeld

George Simpson, Baron Simpson of Dunkeld (born Dundee, 2 July 1942) is a British businessman and former Labour - and later unaffiliated - member of the House of Lords. In the late 1980s and early 1990s Simpson gained a reputation for turning around struggling companies. However, as CEO of Marconi plc he presided over one of the largest collapses in British corporate history.

Career
Simpson joined The Rover Group from its subsidiary Leyland-DAF in 1988 and took over as managing director in January 1989. Simpson reorganised the company, replacing the three boards of Austin Rover, Land Rover and the Rover Group with one single board. By this time Rover had been privatised and sold to British Aerospace (BAe) and by early 1990 Simpson had been appointed to the BAe board. In September 1991 Simpson also assumed the role of Rover chairman when the previous chairman, Sir Graham Day, was appointed as BAe's interim chairman. Day promoted Simpson to deputy chief executive of British Aerospace in December 1991 to "toughen up" the company's management. He remained executive chairman of Rover but was replaced as managing director.

In November 1993 he was announced as CEO of Lucas Industries, which under his leadership was merged with US company Varity, which subsequently led to the company being split up and sold off. At this time Simpson was admired for his role in turning the struggling Rover business around. Before he assumed his Lucas role he was part of the sale of Rover to BMW. He had been part of negotiations which would have seen Honda increase their 20% share in Rover to 47.5% with the aim for a stock market flotation. However BMW offered £800 million for the Rover Group which would free BAe from Rover's "quite large appetite for cash", average daily debt of £200 million and £700 million of other commitments. Simpson travelled to Japan to ask if Honda could match the offer, which they refused to do.

On 18 March 1996 Simpson was confirmed as managing director of GEC as replacement to Lord Weinstock. In reporting the appointment The Independent said, "Some analysts believe that Mr Simpson's inside knowledge of BAe, a long-rumoured GEC bid target, was a key to his appointment. GEC favours forging a national 'champion' defence group with BAe to compete with the giant US organisations." In 1999 he sold GEC's defence business, Marconi Electronic Systems, to BAe for £7.7 billion and repositioned the company as a major player in the telecommunications industry as Marconi plc.

Marconi borrowed heavily to finance expansion into this market and was especially vulnerable to the burst of the dot-com bubble. After a "botched" profits warning in July 2001 Simpson's deputy chief executive, John Mayo, resigned. A second profits warning in September 2001 saw Simpson and chairman Sir Roger Hurn resign.

The effect of this collapse was felt long after Simpson's resignation. Despite a major restructuring the company continued to struggle until 2005 when the loss of a major BT contract forced the company to seek a buyer. Marconi was purchased by Ericsson in 2005: several businesses not acquired by Ericsson formed Telent plc.

He was created a Life peer as Baron Simpson of Dunkeld, of Dunkeld in Perth and Kinross on 5 November 1997. Having been on leave of absence from the House of Lords since 2004, he resigned from the House on 30 July 2015.


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Brit Hume

Alexander Britton Hume (born June 22, 1943), known professionally as Brit Hume, is an American journalist and political commentator. He had a 23-year career with ABC News, where he contributed to World News Tonight with Peter Jennings, Nightline, and This Week. Hume served as the ABC News chief White House correspondent from 1989 to 1996.

Hume spent 12 years as Washington, D.C., managing editor of the Fox News Channel and the anchor of Special Report with Brit Hume. After retiring as the anchor of Special Report in 2008, he became a senior political analyst for Fox News and a regular panelist on Fox News Sunday. In September 2016, he was named the interim anchor of On the Record, after the abrupt resignation of the show's longtime host, Greta Van Susteren, and served in that capacity through the 2016 election.

Early life and education
He was born in Washington, D.C., the son of George Graham Hume and Virginia Powell (née Minnigerode) Hume. Through his father, Hume is of part Scottish descent, descended from George Home (1698–1760), a son of the 10th Baron of Wedderburn exiled to Virginia in the aftermath of the First Jacobite Rebellion.

Hume attended St. Albans School in Washington, D.C., at the same time as Al Gore and graduated from the University of Virginia in Charlottesville, Virginia, with a Bachelor of Arts in English in 1965.

Print journalism
Hume worked first for The Hartford Times newspaper company, and later for United Press International and the newspaper Baltimore Evening Sun. He then worked for syndicated columnist Jack Anderson from 1970 to 1972.

In 1971, Grossman Publishers published Hume's first book, Death and the mines: Rebellion and murder in the United Mine Workers, a work revolving around complicity of the U.S. Bureau of Mines, coal companies, and the United Mine Workers union resulting in the mistreatment of average miners.

Hume reported a story for Anderson's column "Washington Merry-Go-Round" that after ITT Corporation had contributed $400,000 to the 1972 Republican National Convention, President Richard Nixon's Department of Justice settled the antitrust case against ITT. Anderson published a series of classified documents indicating the Nixon administration, contrary to its public pronouncements, had favored Pakistan during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. After the revelations, Anderson and his staff, including Hume and his family, were briefly surveilled by the Central Intelligence Agency in 1972. The agents observed his family going about its daily business. The documents were revealed during President Gerald Ford's administration by congressional hearings and as a result of a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit and the so-called 'Family Jewels' revelations.

In 1973, Hume became Washington editor of MORE magazine, a press criticism journal, and in 1974 Doubleday published his second book, Inside Story.

1973-1996: ABC News
In 1973, Hume started working for ABC News as a consultant, and in 1976, he was offered a job as a correspondent, covering the U.S. House of Representatives and U.S. Senate for 11 years. In 1979, Hume earned television's first Academy Award nomination for his work on The Killing Ground for ABC's Close-Up documentary program.

Hume was assigned to report on Walter Mondale's 1984 presidential campaign, and George H. W. Bush's 1988 presidential campaign. In 1989, he became ABC's chief White House correspondent, covering the administrations of Presidents Bush and Bill Clinton and working closely with ABC anchors Peter Jennings and Charlie Gibson.

1996-present: Fox News
In 1996, Hume left ABC for the Fox News Network for which his wife had recently become chief of the Washington bureau. At his last news conference as ABC's chief White House correspondent, President Clinton told him, "I think all of us think you have done an extraordinary, professional job under Republican and Democratic administrations alike." Hume became Fox News's Washington managing editor.

Special Report w/ Brit Hume (1998–2008)
After he began at Fox News, Hume was in discussions about starting a Washington-based television news program for the 6 p.m. timeslot. The Lewinsky scandal began during January 1998, and Hume's wife told him the story was so well known that he should start the show immediately. Special Report with Brit Hume debuted that evening in that timeslot.

Hume said of the start of his time at Fox that "we made some progress and developed some audience and the Lewinsky scandal brought a lot of interest and the 2000 election brought a lot of interest, but what really did it was the Florida recount – that was tremendous for us because the people who were worried about how that would come out wanted some place where they could trust the coverage, people who were conservatives or Republicans or neither but worried. And we really made an effort to cover that story well. And that built our audience."

The show was the number one cable news program in the 6:00 p.m. Eastern timeslot for several years.

In July 2008, it was announced that Hume would retire as anchor of Special Report at the end of the year, but he would remain on Fox News in a different role. On December 23, 2008, he hosted his final episode as anchor of Special Report, announcing that Bret Baier, then the chief White House correspondent for Fox News, would be his replacement. Hume also announced that he would remain with Fox News as a senior political analyst and regular panelist for the program Fox News Sunday.

On January 3, 2010, Hume on Fox News Sunday, advised embattled golfer Tiger Woods to convert to Christianity to attempt to end his problems. Hume's comments were made after the revelation of Woods' habitual adultery and the resulting deterioration of his relationship with his family.

On the Record (2016)
On September 6, 2016, Hume was named the anchor of On the Record after that show's longtime anchor, Greta Van Susteren, abruptly left Fox News. He served as the program's anchor through the end of the 2016 elections. Hume's first show as host of On the Record drew 2.4 million viewers, a double-digit increase over Van Susteren's average viewing audience in 2016. On November 4, 2016, it was announced that Tucker Carlson would host a new show in the former On the Record timeslot from November 14, 2016.

2020 U.S. presidential election
In late May 2020, Hume criticized presumptive Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden for wearing a face mask during the coronavirus pandemic while suggesting that it was positive for President Donald Trump to not wear one. In September 2020, Hume claimed that Biden was "senile".

Hume joined Chris Wallace, Juan Williams, and Dana Perino in Bret Baier and Martha MacCallum's election night coverage of the 2020 United States Presidential election on Fox News. They won in the Nielsen ratings that night in terms of the election coverage.

Personal life
Hume is a conservative, remarking in 2006: "Sure, I'm a conservative, no doubt about it. But I would ask people to look at the work."

Hume is divorced from his first wife, Clare Jacobs Stoner. Their son, Sandy Hume, was a reporter for the newspaper The Hill and first publicized the story of the failed 1997 political attempt to replace Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich. In February 1998, Sandy Hume died by suicide. The National Press Club honors his memory with its annual Sandy Hume Memorial Award for Excellence in Political Journalism. Brit Hume has said that he committed his life to Jesus Christ "in a way that was very meaningful" to him in the aftermath of his son's suicide in 1998.

Brit Hume's daughter, Virginia Hume (born 1965 ), was a contributor to The Weekly Standard. She worked for 25 years as a public relations, political communications and traditional marketing professional. Her political experience includes serving as a deputy press secretary for the Republican National Committee in 1996.

In 1993, Hume married Kim Schiller, who was a Fox News vice president and Washington bureau chief before she retired in 2006.

Awards and honors

 * Emmy Award for coverage of the Gulf War (1991)
 * American Journalism Review "Best in the Business" award (twice) for White House coverage
 * Sol Taishoff Award for Excellence in Broadcast Journalism (2003)
 * Writer of The Killing Ground (film), which was nominated for Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature

title: Brit Hume


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George Simpson

George Simpson may refer to:

Australia

 * George Simpson (Queensland politician) (1849–1919), member of the Parliament of Queensland
 * George Simpson (Western Australian politician) (1856–1906), member of the Legislative Assembly of Western Australia
 * George Bowen Simpson (1838–1915), politician and judge in New South Wales, Australia

Canada

 * Sir George Simpson (HBC administrator) (1792–1860), Scottish explorer of Canada, governor of Rupert's Land
 * Sir George Simpson (condominiums), Montreal, Quebec, Canada
 * George Simpson (Canadian politician) (1858–1906), politician in Prince Edward Island, Canada

United States

 * George L. Simpson (died 1907), American politician from Virginia
 * George W. Simpson (1870–1951), New York politician and judge

Sport

 * George Simpson (footballer, born 1876) (1876–1955), English football player for Doncaster Rovers and Chesterfield
 * George Simpson (footballer, born 1883) (1883–?), English footballer for Sheffield Wednesday and West Bromwich Albion
 * George Simpson (footballer, born 1933) (1933–2012), English football player for Mansfield Town and Gillingham
 * George Simpson (golfer) (1887–1920), Scottish professional golfer
 * George Simpson (sprinter) (1908–1961), American runner

Others

 * Sir George Simpson (meteorologist) (1878–1965), meteorologist for Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic expedition
 * George Simpson (botanist) (1880–1952), New Zealand botanist
 * George Simpson (Royal Navy officer) (1901–1972), British admiral
 * George Gaylord Simpson (1902–1984), American paleontologist
 * George Simpson, Baron Simpson of Dunkeld (born 1942), British businessman
 * George Buchan Simpson (1820–1892), Scottish art collector, connoisseur and patron of Scottish painters
 * George Freeland Barbour Simpson (1874–1958), Scottish physician and gynaecologist
 * George Goodman Simpson (1896–1990), Australian flying ace

title: George Simpson


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Parliament of Southern Ireland

The Parliament of Southern Ireland was a Home Rule legislature established by the British Government during the Irish War of Independence under the Government of Ireland Act 1920. It was designed to legislate for Southern Ireland, a political entity which was created by the British Government to solve the issue of rising Irish nationalism and the issue of partitionism, while retaining the whole of Ireland as part of the United Kingdom.

The parliament was bicameral, consisting of a House of Commons (the lower house) with 128 seats and a Senate (the upper house) with 64 seats. The parliament as two houses sat only once, in the Royal College of Science for Ireland in Merrion Street. Due to the low turnout of members attending, the parliament was adjourned sine die and was later officially disbanded by the Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922.

History
Under the Act of Union 1800 the separate Kingdoms of Ireland and Great Britain were merged on 1 January 1801, to form the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Throughout the 19th century Irish opposition to the Union was strong, occasionally erupting in violent insurrection.

In the 1870s the Home Rule League under Isaac Butt sought to achieve a modest form of self-government, known as Home Rule. This was considered more acceptable by British parliamentarians as Ireland would still remain part of the United Kingdom but would have limited self-government. The cause was then pursued by Charles Stewart Parnell and two attempts were made by Liberal ministries under British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone to enact home rule bills, accompanied by a revival of Ulster's Orange Order to resist any form of Home Rule. The First Home Rule Bill was defeated in the Commons by 30 votes; the second Second Home Rule Bill was passed, but then defeated in the Lords.

On 11 April 1912, the Prime Minister, H. H. Asquith, introduced the Third Home Rule Bill which allowed for more autonomy than its two predecessors had. It was defeated twice, but after its defeat for the third time in the Lords the Government used the provisions of the Parliament Act 1911 to override the Lords and send it for Royal Assent, which was received and the bill placed on the statute books on 18 September 1914. However, with the outbreak of the First World War, it was decided that the bill's implementation should be suspended, leading to the passing of the Suspensory Act 1914, which was presented for Royal Assent simultaneously with both the Home Rule Bill and the Welsh Church Act 1914, and ensured that Home Rule would be postponed for the duration of the conflict and would not come into operation until the end of the war. Initially the suspension was not considered an issue by Nationalists, who believed a form of independent self-government had finally been granted. Moreover, like almost everyone else in Europe at that time, Irish nationalists expected the war to be a short one.

Two attempts were made by the Asquith coalition ministry and the Lloyd George ministry to implement the Government of Ireland Act 1914 during the war, first in May 1916, which failed to reach agreement with Unionist Ulster, then again in 1917 with the calling of the Irish Convention chaired by Horace Plunkett. It consisted of Nationalist and Unionist representatives who, by April 1918, only succeeded in agreeing a report with an 'understanding' on recommendations for the establishment of self-government. Starting in September 1919, with the Government, now led by David Lloyd George, committed under all circumstances to implementing Home Rule, the British cabinet's Committee for Ireland, under the chairmanship of former Ulster Unionist Party leader Walter Long, pushed for a radical new idea. Long proposed the creation of two Irish home rule entities, Northern Ireland and Southern Ireland, each with unicameral parliaments. An amendment to the bill in the House of Lords submitted by Lord Oranmore and Browne added a Senate for Southern Ireland, intended to bolster representation of the southern Unionist and Protestant minorities. The government opposed this on the grounds that it would weaken the function of the inter-parliament Council of Ireland, but it was passed, as was an amendment adding a Senate of Northern Ireland.

After the 1918 general election, those elected as MPs for Sinn Féin met in Dublin in 1919 and established Dáil Éireann as an abstentionist parliament and declared independence for the Irish Republic.

House of Commons
The House of Commons consisted of 128 members who were styled as members of parliament with a presiding officer known as the Speaker of the House of Commons. The basic features of the House were modelled on those of the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The franchise was the same as for Westminster elections under the Representation of the People Act 1918: men over 21 and women over 30. The voting method for elections to the Commons was the single transferable vote with the act prescribing 16 members being elected from multi-member borough constituencies, 104 from multi-member county constituencies and 8 being elected from graduates of Irish Universities. The borough and county constituencies replaced those used for Westminster elections with new multi-member ones. The university constituencies were broken down into four seats for Dublin University and four for the National University.

Election
On 24 May 1921, elections were held for the House of Commons of Southern Ireland, the same day as the elections for Northern Ireland. No contests occurred as all 128 MPs were returned unopposed, with Sinn Féin winning all 124 seats which made up the borough and county constituencies and the seats allocated to the National University of Ireland, and Unionists the four seats for graduates of Dublin University. Dáil Éireann chose to regard that election as elections to the Second Dáil. The 124 Sinn Féin candidates elected, plus the six Sinn Féin members elected to the House of Commons of Northern Ireland elected at the same time (five of whom also had seats in Southern Ireland), assembled as the Second Dáil.

June 1921 meeting
On 28 June 1921, the House of Commons and the Senate formally assembled in the Royal College of Science for Ireland, now Government Buildings, in Merrion Street, for a State Opening by Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent, the last Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Only the four Unionist MPs attended the Commons. After electing Gerald Fitzgibbon to be Speaker, the House adjourned sine die. This was the only formal meeting of the House.

January 1922 Treaty ratification meeting

The Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed in London on 6 December 1921 by representatives of the British Government and envoys of the Irish Republic who claimed plenipotentiary status. On 7 January 1922, Dáil Éireann ratified the Treaty. However, in accordance with its terms, the Anglo-Irish Treaty needed also to be ratified "at a meeting of members of the Parliament elected for constituencies in Southern Ireland" and the British Parliament.

A meeting in the Mansion House was convened on 14 January 1922 by Arthur Griffith as Chairman of the Irish Delegation of Plenipotentiaries (who had signed the Anglo-Irish Treaty) of "members of the Parliament elected for constituencies in Southern Ireland". Griffith's actions led to discussions between the Irish Treaty delegation and the British Government over who had authority to convene the 'meeting' as under the Government of Ireland Act 1920 the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (then Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent) was the office-holder with the entitlement and power to convene a meeting of the House of Commons of Southern Ireland. The meeting was attended by 64 pro-Treaty Sinn Féin TDs and four Unionist MPs from the University of Dublin; it elected Alderman Liam de Róiste, one of the representatives of Cork Borough, as chairman (although at this time Eoin MacNeill was Ceann Comhairle of Dáil Éireann), duly ratified the Treaty and nominated Michael Collins for appointment as Chairman of the Provisional Government. Collins was installed in his post by the Lord Lieutenant in Dublin Castle on 16 January 1922 and formed the Provisional Government of Ireland. The members at this meeting did not take the British Oath of Allegiance, which was required by MPs in the House of Commons.

Senate
The Senate of Southern Ireland was the upper house of the Parliament of Southern Ireland established by the Government of Ireland Act 1920. The Senate convened in 1921 but was boycotted by Irish nationalists. Fifteen members attended its first meeting, and it sat only three times.

Composition
The Fourth Home Rule Bill provided for a Senate of 64 members. The composition was specified in the Second Schedule, and the mode and time of selection in the Fourth Schedule. The bill stipulated that the membership be composed of:
 * 3 ex officio members:
 * The Lord Chancellor of Ireland, intended as the presiding officer of the Senate. The Lord Chancellor had previously been the chairman of the Irish House of Lords in the Parliament of Ireland prior to its abolition.
 * The Lord Mayor of Dublin and the Lord Mayor of Cork.
 * 17 "Representatives of Commerce (including Banking), Labour, and the Scientific and Learned Professions" to be nominated by the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland for a term of 10 years.
 * 44 members elected by various interest groups from among their respective memberships, using the single transferable vote for 10-year terms, except for county councillors.
 * 4 Archbishops or Bishops of the Catholic Church holding Sees situated wholly or partly in Southern Ireland.
 * 2 Archbishops or Bishops of the Church of Ireland holding Sees situated wholly or partly in Southern Ireland.
 * 16 Peers (not necessarily members of the Peerage of Ireland) who were taxpayers or ratepayers in respect of property and had residences in Southern Ireland.
 * 8 Members of His Majesty's Privy Council in Ireland of no less than two years standing who were taxpayers or ratepayers in respect of property in and had residences in Southern Ireland.
 * 14 Representatives of county councils, for a term of three years, with:
 * 4 from each of Leinster, Munster, and Connaught
 * 2 from the three Ulster counties not in Northern Ireland (Cavan, Donegal, and Monaghan)

In practice, however, only forty senators were selected, as the labour movement, the Catholic Church and the county councils (controlled by Sinn Féin) refused to co-operate. Of those elected, many had participated in the Irish Convention of 1917–18. Of the incomplete membership, not all attended its few sessions. Some were subsequently members of the Free State Seanad (upper house), either appointed by W. T. Cosgrave, President of the Executive Council, or elected by the members of the Dáil (lower house).

Donal O'Callaghan was Lord Mayor of Cork throughout the existence of the Senate, but was also returned for Cork Borough in the 1921 election to the House of Commons of Southern Ireland. Section 18(4) of the 1920 Act precluded anyone from sitting in both Houses at once; but since O'Callaghan boycotted both, the question was moot in his case.

Meetings
The Senate assembled three times, though its chairman, Sir John Ross, the Lord Chancellor of Ireland, was too ill to attend. Only 15 senators attended its first meeting. Since 124 of the 128 members of the House of Commons of Southern Ireland boycotted that chamber, the Parliament could not function. On 21 June 1921, the week before its first meeting, the Senate sent a petition to David Lloyd George, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, arguing for more powers for the Parliament, and stating it would not serve in the event that the elected lower house was replaced by a body appointed by the Lord Lieutenant.

Abolition
The Irish Free State (Agreement) Act 1922 was passed on 31 March 1922 by the British Parliament. It gave the force of law to the Anglo-Irish Treaty, which was scheduled to the Act. Section 1(2) of the Act provided that for the purposes of giving effect to Article 17 of the Treaty the Parliament of Southern Ireland would be dissolved within four months from the passing of the Act. The Parliament of Southern Ireland ceased to exist on 27 May 1922, when Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent, the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, formally dissolved it and by proclamation called "a Parliament to be known as and styled the Provisional Parliament". An election to this Provisional Parliament was held on 16 June 1922. On 6 December 1922, the Constitution of the Irish Free State came into force and Southern Ireland ceased to form part of the United Kingdom. The Oireachtas of the Irish Free State was a bicameral parliament consisting of Dáil Éireann and Seanad Éireann.

title: Parliament of Southern Ireland


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Bombardier (rank)

Bombardier is a military rank that has existed since the 16th century in artillery regiments of various armies, such as in the British Army and the Prussian Army. Traditionally the bombardier tended the vents at the top of breeches, handled the final assembly of ammunition and placed the ammunition in the muzzles for the gunners to fire. It is today equivalent to the rank of corporal in other branches. The rank of lance bombardier is the artillery counterpart of lance corporal.

Commonwealth armies
Bombardier (Bdr) and lance bombardier (LBdr or L/Bdr) are used by the British Army in the Royal Artillery and Royal Horse Artillery. The same applies to the Royal Australian Artillery, the Royal Regiment of New Zealand Artillery, the South African Army Artillery Formation and the Armed Forces of Malta. The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery uses the ranks of master bombardier and bombardier, corresponding to master corporal and corporal.

Originally, the Royal Artillery had corporals, but not lance corporals. Unlike a lance corporal, a bombardier, who was junior to a corporal, held full non-commissioned rank and not an acting appointment. The rank was equivalent to second corporal in the Royal Engineers and Army Ordnance Corps.

In 1920 corporals were abolished in the Royal Artillery; bombardiers became the equivalent and acquired the normal two chevrons.

The rank of lance bombardier originated as acting bombardier, an appointment similar to lance corporal and also indicated by a single chevron. The appointment was renamed lance bombardier in February 1918. It became a full rank, along with lance corporal, in 1961.

title: Bombardier (rank)


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Talk:Korea Train Express

Requested move 21 April 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: Not moved  (t · c)  buidhe  01:52, 3 May 2021 (UTC)

Korea Train Express → KTX – I think this article can be renamed to KTX because its more commonly known as KTX and I never had heard of Korea Train Express before visiting this article. Other high speed rail articles, like TGV and ICE, uses intials too. My proposal: Korea Train eXpress, more commonly known as KTX... What you guys think? 𝑷𝒂𝒛 𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒐́𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒂 What's up? 17:33, 21 April 2021 (UTC) —Relisted. 2pou (talk) 19:44, 29 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Oppose A quick search suggests that this might not be the primary topic. The HSR is more familiar to me and might be more commonly known by its acronym, but there is another KTX that does not have its own Wikipedia article but appears to have some notability. LSGH (talk) (contributions) 02:06, 22 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Korea Train Express


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Dawes Plan

The Dawes Plan temporarily resolved the issue of the reparations that Germany owed to the Allies of World War I. Enacted in 1924, it ended the crisis in European diplomacy that occurred after French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr in response to Germany's failure to meet its reparations obligations.

The Plan set up a staggered schedule for Germany's payment of war reparations, provided for a large loan to stabilise the German currency and ended the occupation of the Ruhr. It resulted in a brief period of economic recovery in the second half of the 1920s, although it came at the price of a heavy reliance on foreign capital. The Dawes Plan was superseded by the Young Plan in 1929.

Because the Plan resolved a serious international crisis, the American Charles G. Dawes, who headed the group that developed it, received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1925.

Background
At the end of World War I, the Allied Powers included in the Treaty of Versailles a plan for the reparations for which Germany would be liable. It established an interim 20 billion Reichsmarks to be paid through April 1920 and left the full details to be determined by an Inter-Allied Reparation Commission. In April 1921, the Allies adopted the London Schedule of Payments that the Commission had developed. It established the total German reparations figure at 132 billion gold marks (US $442 billion in 2023 dollars). The schedule was separated into three classes, of which only the first two, amounting to 50 billion gold marks, were expected to be paid.

On 5 May 1921 the Allies delivered an ultimatum to Germany demanding that it accept the London Schedule within six days and threatening to occupy the heavily industrialized Ruhr district if it did not. The Reichstag voted to accept on 11 May, following which the government began to implement its fulfilment policy (Erfüllungspolitik), an effort to show the impossibility of meeting the payments by attempting to fulfil them. Germany made its first payment of one billion gold marks in the summer of 1921 but after that paid little in cash and fell behind in its deliveries of materials such as coal and timber. After Germany was declared in default in January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr. Germany responded with passive resistance to the occupation. The government printed money in order to pay the idled workers, which fuelled the hyperinflation that all but wrecked the German economy.

Ensuing events led the Allies to decide that the London Schedule needed to be re-examined. The Ruhr occupation had heightened tension between France and Germany. The acceptance of the London Schedule by Germany's government increased political instability. Chancellor Joseph Wirth's fulfilment policy angered many on the right, who called it traitorous. Radical right-wing groups instigated a hate campaign against representatives of the Republic that included the assassination in August 1921 of Matthias Erzberger, one of the signers of the Armistice of 11 November 1918, and in June 1922 of Foreign Minister Walther Rathenau. The United States feared a coup from either the right or the left and that if one did take place, the large amount of money it had loaned to France and England during the war – the repayment of which was in large part dependent on the receipt of German reparations – might never be recovered.

Dawes committee
In 1923 the new German chancellor Gustav Stresemann ordered an end to passive resistance, implemented a currency reform that brought an end to the hyperinflation and sought discussions with the Allied Powers which would take into consideration what Germany was financially capable of paying. The Reparations Commission set up the Dawes committee, consisting of ten expert representatives nominated by their respective countries: two each from Belgium (Baron Maurice Houtart, Emile Francqui), France (Jean Parmentier, Edgard Allix), Britain (Sir Josiah C. Stamp, Sir Robert M. Kindersley), Italy (Alberto Pirelli, Federico Flora) and the United States (Charles G. Dawes and Owen D. Young). Dawes, the head of the committee, was a former army general, banker and politician. His committee was tasked with examining the stabilization of Germany's currency, its budget and its resources. Based on the studies, the committee was to recommend a realistic schedule of payments – one taking into account Germany's ability to pay – that would replace the London Schedule.

The Plan
The Dawes Report stressed in its introduction that "the guarantees we propose are economic and not political in nature". The resulting Dawes Plan covered payment amounts and timing, sources of revenue, loans to Germany, currency stabilization and ending the Ruhr occupation:
 * Reparations payments began at one billion Reichsmarks the first year, increasing annually to two and a half billion after five years. No total sum was set. The terms included a prosperity index, based on which Germany would have to pay more under favourable economic circumstances.
 * The sources for reparation payments included taxes on customs duties, alcohol, tobacco and sugar, and revenue from railroads and the budget. As a guarantee for payments, the German National Railway was converted into a corporation under creditor-state supervision. An interest-bearing mortgage on German industry for 5 billion Reichsmarks also served as a guarantee.
 * The Reichsbank was reorganized under the supervision of the creditor states. It had seven representatives from the creditor states and seven Germans on its board and was independent of the central government.
 * Germany was loaned 800 million Reichsmarks to be the base capital of the central bank and to ensure the Reichsmark’s stability. About half of the sum was raised through Wall Street bond issues in the United States.
 * The Allied Reparations Commission was replaced by a Transfer Committee which was to take the value of the Reichsmark into consideration when making payment transfers. Payments were not to be made if they endangered the gold that backed the Reichsmark. Repayment of commercial debts took priority over reparations payments in order to maintain Germany's creditworthiness.
 * Foreign troops were to be withdrawn from the Ruhr.

Reichstag approval
The debate over the Dawes Plan in the Reichstag affected the formation of a new government following the May 1924 Reichstag election. The Communist Party of Germany (KPD) saw the Dawes Plan as economic imperialism, and the Nazi Party objected altogether to paying reparations. Many on the political right objected to it because of the limits it placed on German sovereignty (control of the Reichsbank and the national railroad). The right-wing nationalist German National People's Party (DNVP) had campaigned against the Dawes Plan and gained 24 additional seats, making it the second strongest party in the Reichstag after the Social Democrats. The party's refusal to change its stance on the Dawes Plan resulted in Chancellor Wilhelm Marx of the Centre Party remaining in office presiding over a centrist minority cabinet. Since the clause in the Dawes Plan regarding the German National Railway required a change in the Weimar Constitution and therefore a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag to pass, it was necessary for some DNVP members to vote for acceptance. A number of influential industrial and agricultural interest groups urged the DNVP to accept the Plan, with the result that it passed on 29 August 1924 with the help of 48 DNVP votes. The Dawes Plan formally went into effect on 1 September 1924.

Results
The influx of foreign credit led to the upswing in the German economy that underpinned the "Golden Twenties" of 1924–1929. Overall economic production increased 50% in five years, unemployment fell sharply and Germany's 34% share of world trade was higher than it had been in 1913, the last full year before the outbreak of World War I. By the start of the world economic crisis in 1929, Germany had received 29 billion Reichsmarks in loans. In spite of the stronger economy, Germany was unable to achieve the trade surpluses necessary to finance reparations. It met almost all of its payments under the Dawes plan but could do so only on the basis of its large foreign debt. Most loans were short term, which meant that they could be quickly called in if the creditor nation experienced an economic downturn. Germany found itself heavily reliant on foreign capital.

The occupation of the Ruhr ended on 25 August 1925.

Germany considered the Dawes Plan to be a temporary measure and expected a revised solution in the future. In 1928 German Foreign Minister Gustav Stresemann, the former chancellor, called for a final plan to be established, and the Young Plan was enacted in 1929.

Dawes, who was the U.S. vice president at the time, received the Nobel Peace Prize of 1925 for "his crucial role in bringing about the Dawes Plan", specifically for the way it reduced the state of tension between France and Germany resulting from Germany's missed reparations payments and France's occupation of the Ruhr. British foreign minister Austen Chamberlain shared the prize with Dawes, although his award was for the Locarno Treaties, which dealt with post-war territorial settlements.

title: Dawes Plan


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Targ

Targ or TARG may refer to:

 * Targ (video game), a 1980 arcade game
 * Targ (Star Trek), a fictional animal from Star Trek
 * In Scientology, targs are an older word for Body Thetan
 * Targe, a type of shield
 * Târg, a medieval Romanian periodic fair or a market town
 * TARG or telescoped ammunition revolver gun, manufactured by ARES Incorporated
 * Targ (short for Tarag in Mongolian) is a gene name for acetate transporter found in intestinal epithelial cells.

title: Targ


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Metre–tonne–second system of units

The metre–tonne–second (MTS) system of units was invented in France (hence the derived unit names sthène and pièze) where it became the legal system between 1919 and 1961. It was adopted by the Soviet Union in 1933 and abolished there in 1955. It was a coherent metric system of units, much as SI and the centimetre–gram–second system (CGS), but with larger units for industrial use, whereas the CGS system was regarded as suitable for laboratory use only.

Units
The base units of the MTS system are:
 * Length: metre
 * Mass: tonne,
 * 1 t = 103 kg = 1 Mg
 * Time: second

Some common derived units:
 * Volume: cubic metre or stere
 * 1 m3 ≡ 1 st
 * Force: sthène,
 * 1 sn = 1 t⋅m/s2 = 103 N = 1 kN
 * Energy: sthène-metre = kilojoule,
 * 1 sn⋅m = 1 t⋅m2/s2 = 103 J = 1 kJ
 * Power: sthène-metre per second = kilowatt,
 * 1 sn⋅m/s = 1 t⋅m2/s3 = 103 W = 1 kW
 * Pressure: pièze,
 * 1 pz = 1 t/m⋅s2 = 103 Pa = 1 kPa = 1 cbar (centibar)

title: Metre–tonne–second system of units


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Young Plan

The Young Plan was a 1929 attempt to settle issues surrounding the World War I reparations obligations that Germany owed under the terms of Treaty of Versailles. Developed to replace the 1924 Dawes Plan, the Young Plan was negotiated in Paris from February to June 1929 by a committee of international financial experts under the leadership of American businessman and economist Owen D. Young. Representatives of the affected governments then finalised and approved the plan at The Hague conference of 1929/30. Reparations were set at 36 billion Reichsmarks payable through 1988. Including interest, the total came to 112 billion Reichsmarks. The average annual payment was approximately two billion Reichsmarks (US$473 million in 1929). The plan came into effect on 17 May 1930, retroactive to 1 September 1929.

In a parallel agreement, France agreed to withdraw its troops from the occupied Rhineland in 1930, five years earlier than called for in the Treaty of Versailles.

Due to the effects of the Great Depression, the Young Plan was suspended by the Hoover Moratorium in June 1931 and payments reduced by 90% at the Lausanne Conference in July 1932. The National Socialist government under Adolf Hitler made no payments after it came to power in 1933. However, Germany continued to pay interest on Dawes and Young bonds until 1939.

Problems with the Dawes Plan
The Treaty of Versailles did not set the total amount or the terms for German reparations. It established an interim 20 billion Reichsmarks to be paid through April 1920 and left the full details to be determined by the Inter-Allied Reparations Commission. The Commission drew up the May 1921 London Schedule of Payments that fixed the total sum at 132 billion Reichsmarks. After Germany was declared in default in January 1923, French and Belgian troops occupied the Ruhr. Germany responded with passive resistance to the occupation, and the government's payments to the idled workers of the Ruhr fuelled the hyperinflation that nearly wrecked the economy. The Dawes Plan of 1924 was drafted to replace the London Schedule.

The Dawes Plan came into effect on 1 September 1924. It reopened the American capital market to Germany, and billions in long-term bonds and short-term loans flowed to the German private and public sectors in roughly equal parts. The economy of the Weimar Republic grew significantly during the Golden Twenties (1924–1929), and in spite of a negative trade balance, there was enough foreign exchange to pay the instalments of the plan. The payments came, however, at the price of a large foreign debt.

All sides began to be more uneasy about the plan from 1927 onwards. Wall Street banks and the United States Treasury grew increasingly concerned that Germany would become overindebted. Since 1924, foreign loans worth more than ten billion Reichsmarks had flowed into Germany. The question arose as to whether private loans or reparations should have priority in the event of a payment crisis. The French government also became increasingly concerned. Since 1919 the United States had been calling for the repayment of the inter-allied war debts incurred by France in 1917 and 1918. France urgently needed loans to stabilise the franc after the inflation of 1924 and 1925, but the American capital market was closed to it as long as the war debt remained unpaid. The matter was settled with the Mellon–Berenger Agreement in April 1926 that established a schedule for French repayment to the United States. The French Chamber of Deputies, however, refused to ratify it until the German reparations issue was settled. Since the money from Germany was to be used for French payments to the United States, France became more willing to agree to a new reparations plan, even to settle for less than the 132 billion gold marks demanded in the 1921 London Schedule of Payments.

Germany was not completely satisfied with the Dawes Plan either. In 1928 the full annual payment of 2.5 billion Reichsmarks was due for the first time. It corresponded to 12.4 per cent of total German government expenditure and 3.3 per cent of national income. If the economy continued to develop positively, the plan's prosperity index would have required an even higher sum, which could have threatened to exceed Germany's ability to pay.

Following extensive diplomatic consultations during the autumn meeting of the League of Nations, the six interested powers – Germany France, Great Britain, Belgium, Italy and Japan – agreed on 16 September 1928 to set up an international commission of experts under the leadership of American economist Owen D. Young to settle the reparations question and at the same time to begin negotiations on the evacuation of the occupied Rhineland. The fourteen international financial experts chosen to draw up the new reparations plan were to be independent and guided only by their economic expertise.

Hague Conference
The governments of the six powers that had commissioned the drafting of the Young Plan agreed to it in principle in June 1929. The foreign ministers of France and Germany, Aristide Briand and Gustav Stresemann, then called for a conference to be held to decide on the final settlement of all questions still arising from the First World War.

At the first session of the Hague Conference from 6 to 31 August 1929, the British chancellor of the Exchequer, Labour Party politician Philip Snowden, demanded an increase of annual reparations payments to Britain by the equivalent of 48 million Reichsmarks. Snowden signalled that he was prepared to let the Young Plan fail if necessary. A solution was reached through shifts within the creditor instalments, above all at German expense, and compromise solutions were found on the question of deliveries in kind. Briand was then prepared to give in on the evacuation of the Rhineland and agreed to 30 June 1930 as the final date for the occupation.

The second session of the conference took place from 3 to 20 January 1930. Issues of a mostly technical nature were clarified, specifically the establishment of the Bank for International Settlements to handle the transfer of reparations payments and the question of whether, as provided for in the Treaty of Versailles, creditors could continue to impose sanctions in the event of a German default. It was agreed that the creditor nations would regain their "full freedom of action" if the International Court of Justice found that Germany was in the process of "tearing up" the Young Plan. The French saw in the statement the chance to fall back on the robust sanctions possibilities of the Versailles Treaty, while the Germans recognised in it merely the freedom of action to which every sovereign state was entitled under international law.

Due to the New York stock market crash of 24 October 1929, which had occurred between the two sessions at The Hague, it had become apparent that for the foreseeable future the American capital market would be unable to pre-finance the entire value of the German reparations debt for the European creditor powers. They had wanted to use mobilisation bonds to be able to repay the inter-Allied war debt to the US in a lump sum. The "New Plan", as the Young Plan was officially called, and the agreement on the evacuation of the Rhineland were nevertheless signed by the heads of government of the six powers on 20 January 1930.

Plan content
The Young Plan provided for a German reparation debt of the equivalent of 36 billion Reichsmarks. It was to be repaid with interest through 1988, resulting in a total sum of 112 billion Reichsmarks. The annual instalments were to rise rapidly from 1.7 billion to 2.1 billion Reichsmarks, falling to 1.65 billion after 1966. Taking 1930 as a basis, Germany would be required to pay annually, on average, the equivalent of about 12 per cent of its exports, 2.5 per cent of its net national product and 7.3 per cent of all public revenues. The transfer protection of the Dawes Plan was abolished, meaning that in future Germany was responsible for ensuring that the sum raised from tax revenue could be transferred in foreign currency or in kind to the Bank for International Settlements. The institution took over the functions of the Reparation Commission, which was abolished, as was the office of the general agent for reparations payments. The control that the creditor powers had secured in the Dawes Plan over the German National Railway and the Reichsbank were also dropped, as was the prosperity index, which meant that Germany could be sure that it would not have to pay more if the economic situation was favourable.

The deliveries in kind (as, for example, coal), which had often competed with companies in the creditor countries, were to expire after ten years. The remaining payment obligation in foreign currency was divided into an unprotected instalment, which had to be transferred in foreign currency under all circumstances and amounted to a constant 600 million Reichsmarks. The protected instalment, which was more than twice as large, could initially be transferred in Reichsmarks in the event of a "relatively short depression", but the foreign currency had to be delivered within two years. The protected instalment was closely linked to inter-allied war debts through the Concurrent Memorandum that the creditor powers attached to the Young Plan.

On 17 May 1930, the Young Plan came into force retroactively to 1 September 1929. At the same time, the Young bond was put on the market. Germany borrowed 1.47 billion Reichsmarks (300 million gold marks) at 5.5 percent interest for 35 years. Two-thirds of the sum went to the reparation creditors and to support the German economy and one-third to the postal service and the national railway. In spite of the poor capital market after the Wall Street crash, the bond was a success with the international public.

France
The Young Plan was mostly welcomed in France. The left-wing and liberal press judged it positively; only on the political right was criticism levelled that the plan and its accompanying withdrawal from the Rhineland affected both the financial and military security of the French Republic. Since all the governments from 1926 to 1932 were based on the political centre in coalition with the nationalists and right-wing Catholics, difficulties arose in the French parliament. It had not been possible to complete the Young Plan by July 1929, the deadline for ratification of the agreement on inter-allied war debts. Poincaré therefore had to ask the parliament to ratify the Mellon–Berenger Agreement on French debt owed to the United States before Germany had agreed to the Young Plan. Both the political right and the opposition Socialists, who otherwise supported Briand's foreign policy, insisted on linking the two debts, a position that the United States strongly opposed. By a narrow majority, the Chamber of Deputies approved the Mellon–Bérenger Agreement on 12 July 1929 with the reservation that it would only be serviced as long as sufficient reparations were collected from Germany. Since a conditional ratification would not be recognised by the United States, the reservation did not acquire legal force and only the debt agreement became legally binding. Poincaré resigned a few days later.

He was succeeded by Aristide Briand, whose attempt to pass the Young Plan also failed. After he too resigned, André Tardieu of the Democratic Republican Alliance became prime minister. He succeeded on 29 March 1930 in securing a majority for the ratification of the Young Plan. Following the wishes of several deputies of the Republican Federation, he had delayed the parliamentary debate until the German Reichstag had given its approval. The speech of the new finance minister Paul Reynaud expressed a highly positive balance: the Young Plan had put reparations on an equal footing with Germany's private debt and thus secured them, it covered the inter-allied war debts and generated a surplus for the reconstruction of French territories destroyed in the war. Although Versailles' original sum of 132 billion gold marks plus interest had had to be dropped, "the sacrifice is the price of the permanent solution". He did not mention the original goal of mobilising reparations on a large scale and repaying the inter-allied debt as a lump sum because a financial operation of such a magnitude had become impossible after the New York Stock Exchange crash.

After the adoption of the Young Plan, the French sought closer cooperation with Germany. Tardieu told the German ambassador that "conscious rapprochement with Germany" was the goal of his government. With the seemingly permanent solution to the reparations question and the withdrawal from the occupied Rhineland, the last points of contention stemming from the Treaty of Versailles appeared to have been resolved and the way cleared for a secure and peaceful future.

Germany
Although the Young Plan had effectively reduced Germany's obligations, it was opposed by parts of the political spectrum in Germany. Nationalist parties had been most outspoken against reparations and seized on the Young Plan as an issue. A committee was formed of various nationalist groups under the leadership of Alfred Hugenberg, a media baron and head of the German National People's Party. One of the groups that joined was the Nazi Party led by Adolf Hitler.

The committee's goal was the enactment of what it called the "Law Against the Enslavement of the German People", or in its shortened form, the "Freedom Law". It would renounce all reparations and make it a criminal offense for any German official to sign a treaty that imposed new reparations obligations. It would also renounce the German acknowledgement of war guilt and the occupation of German territory, both of which were terms of the Treaty of Versailles The Freedom Law proposal was officially presented on 16 October 1929. The committee succeeded in collecting enough signatures to put the proposal before the Reichstag, which voted the bill down by a 318–82 margin. In the subsequent Freedom Law referendum, 94.5% of the votes cast were in favour of the proposed law, but voter turnout was just 14.9%, meaning that only 13.8% of eligible voters had voted in favour of the law. The referendum therefore failed, since it needed 50% of all eligible voters to pass.

The Young Plan was accepted by the Reichstag on 12 March 1930.

Subsequent events
The Wall Street Crash of October 1929 had occurred between the initial agreement and the adoption of the Young Plan. With the severe world-wide economic downturn that heralded the Great Depression, United States President Herbert Hoover won support for a one-year moratorium on reparations payments from 15 nations by July 1931. A final effort to resolve the reparations issue was made at the Lausanne Conference of 1932. It essentially ended Germany's reparations payments.

However, Germany continued to pay interest on both Dawes and Young bonds, issued in 1924 and 1930. These were traded on the London Stock Exchange until the end of World War II, with Germany only stopping interest payments at the outbreak of war in 1939. In November 1934, Britain and Germany made what is known as the Anglo-German Payments Agreement, wherein among other terms, Germany agreed to continue paying interest on both Dawes and Young bonds in sterling.

It is estimated that Germany's total reparations payments up to 1931 came to about 36.1 billion marks.

After Germany's defeat in World War II, an international conference (London Agreement on German External Debts, 1953) decided that Germany would pay the remaining debt only after the country was reunified. West Germany nevertheless paid off the principal by 1980; then in 1995, after reunification, the new German government announced it would resume payments of the interest, including on the Young bonds. Germany was due to pay off the interest to the United States in 2010, and to other countries in 2020. In 2010, Time magazine reported that Germany made "final reparations-related payment for the Great War on Oct. 3, nearly 92 years after the country's defeat by the Allies".

title: Young Plan


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Hypercharge

In particle physics, the hypercharge (a portmanteau of hyperonic and charge) Y of a particle is a quantum number conserved under the strong interaction. The concept of hypercharge provides a single charge operator that accounts for properties of isospin, electric charge, and flavour. The hypercharge is useful to classify hadrons; the similarly named weak hypercharge has an analogous role in the electroweak interaction.

Definition
Hypercharge is one of two quantum numbers of the SU(3) model of hadrons, alongside isospin $I$$3$. The isospin alone was sufficient for two quark flavours — namely up quark and down quark — whereas presently 6 flavours of quarks are known.

SU(3) weight diagrams (see below) are 2 dimensional, with the coordinates referring to two quantum numbers: $I$$3$ (also known as $I$$z$), which is the $z$ component of isospin, and $Y$, which is the hypercharge (defined by strangeness $S$, charm $C$, bottomness $B′$, topness $T′$, and baryon number $B$). Mathematically, hypercharge is

 * $$Y = B + S - \frac{C - B' + T'}{3} ~. $$

Strong interactions conserve hypercharge (and weak hypercharge), but weak interactions do not.

Relation with electric charge and isospin
The Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula relates isospin and electric charge

 * $$ Q = I_3 + \tfrac{1}{2}Y,$$

where I3 is the third component of isospin and Q is the particle's charge.

Isospin creates multiplets of particles whose average charge is related to the hypercharge by:
 * $$ Y = 2 \bar Q.$$

since the hypercharge is the same for all members of a multiplet, and the average of the I3 values is 0.

These definitions in their original form hold only for the three lightest quarks.

SU(3) model in relation to hypercharge
The SU(2) model has multiplets characterized by a quantum number J, which is the total angular momentum. Each multiplet consists of 2J + 1 substates with equally-spaced values of Jz, forming a symmetric arrangement seen in atomic spectra and isospin. This formalizes the observation that certain strong baryon decays were not observed, leading to the prediction of the mass, strangeness and charge of the baryon.

The SU(3) has supermultiplets containing SU(2) multiplets. SU(3) now needs two numbers to specify all its sub-states which are denoted by λ1 and λ2.

(λ1 + 1) specifies the number of points in the topmost side of the hexagon while (λ2 + 1) specifies the number of points on the bottom side.

Examples

 * The nucleon group (protons with $1⁄2$ = +1 and neutrons with $3⁄2$ = 0) have an average charge of $Q$, so they both have hypercharge $Q$ = 1 (since baryon number $+ 1⁄2$ = +1, and $Y$ = $B$ = $S$ = $C$ = 0). From the Gell-Mann–Nishijima formula we know that proton has isospin $B′$$T′$ = $I$ , while neutron has $3$$+ 1⁄2$ = $I$.
 * This also works for quarks: For the up quark, with a charge of $3$, and an $− 1⁄2$$+ 2⁄3$ of $I$, we deduce a hypercharge of $3$, due to its baryon number (since three quarks make a baryon, each quark has a baryon number of $+ 1⁄2$).
 * For a strange quark, with electric charge $1⁄3$, a baryon number of $+ 1⁄3$, and strangeness −1, we get a hypercharge $− 1⁄3$ = $+ 1⁄3$, so we deduce that $Y$$− 2⁄3$ = 0. That means that a strange quark makes an isospin singlet of its own (the same happens with charm, bottom and top quarks), while up and down constitute an isospin doublet.
 * All other quarks have hypercharge $I$ = 0.

Practical obsolescence
Hypercharge was a concept developed in the 1960s, to organize groups of particles in the "particle zoo" and to develop ad hoc conservation laws based on their observed transformations. With the advent of the quark model, it is now obvious that strong hypercharge, $3$, is the following combination of the numbers of up ($Y$$Y$), down ($n$$u$), strange ($n$$d$), charm ($n$$s$), top ($n$$c$) and bottom ($n$$t$):

 * $$ Y = \tfrac{1}{3} n_\textrm{u} + \tfrac{1}{3} n_\textrm{d} - \tfrac{2}{3} n_\textrm{s} ~.$$

In modern descriptions of hadron interaction, it has become more obvious to draw Feynman diagrams that trace through the individual constituent quarks (which are conserved) composing the interacting baryons and mesons, rather than bothering to count strong hypercharge quantum numbers. Weak hypercharge, however, remains an essential part of understanding the electroweak interaction.

title: Hypercharge


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YTHT

Yi Ta Hu Tu (YTHT BBS) is a bulletin board system which was created on September 17, 1999, by student Lepton in Peking University, Beijing, China. Prior to blocking by the government, it was one of the largest BBS communities in China.

In Chinese, Yi Ta Hu Tu means 'extremely messy' literally. However, the name itself is a pun; Ta, Hu, and Tu also mean "tower" "lake" "picture" respectively, and they are used to refer to three famous sites inside Peking University: Porter Tower, Weiming ("nameless") Lake, and the Peking University Library (the Chinese word for "library" is 图书馆 tu-shu-guan, with "tu" as its first character). Yi means "one".

YTHT was originally set up by Lepton, a graduate student at the physics department in Peking University (PKU), on September 17, 1999, serving mainly as a communication platform for the students of PKU. Since the former PKU bulletin board system, the Unknown Space, was forced to be closed as required by the censorship of the Chinese government, PKU has not been able to hold a BBS of its own for a long term. When YTHT was born, it soon attracted the attentions of many PKU native students. Despite the fact that PKU launched its official BBS later on, Wei Ming station, YTHT still managed to burgeon into one of the best and biggest BBS systems in the education network in China with more than 300,000 users, mainly students and well-educated professionals. This figure compares to some of the largest Internet forums in the United States.

On September 20, 1999, the login screen was changed to the one with a tower, a lake and the famous library of PKU. The three Chinese names combined forms a homonym of YTHT. On March 24, 2000, the URL changed to ytht.net. On May 3, 2000, the first YTHT Committee was democratically elected by YTHT members, for the first time in China's history.

In the history of the development of YTHT, the spirit of freedom and democracy was a priority, although its popularity resulted in huge political pressure and YTHT was banned a few times.

On August 19, 2004, YTHT was required by the government to be in a status of emergency. Several boards on political topics were shut down.

Finally, on September 13, 2004, the Beijing Communication Administration shut down YTHT. At the same time, all the Internet forums in China were required by law to remove all discussion about YTHT. The words "ytht", "一塌糊涂", and "糊涂" are now blocked from Chinese ISPs. One of the major Chinese search engines also blocks these words.

It was reopened in April 2007. As of May 2007, the BBS is still in working order. However, since the Chinese education network is segregated from the overseas backbone, the mainland students have difficulties connecting to the BBS, which actually hurts its popularity.

title: YTHT