text:
Quinary

Quinary (base 5 or pental  ) is a numeral system with five as the base. A possible origination of a quinary system is that there are five digits on either hand.

In the quinary place system, five numerals, from 0 to 4, are used to represent any real number. According to this method, five is written as 10, twenty-five is written as 100, and sixty is written as 220.

As five is a prime number, only the reciprocals of the powers of five terminate, although its location between two highly composite numbers (4 and 6) guarantees that many recurring fractions have relatively short periods.

Today, the main usage of quinary is as a biquinary system, which is decimal using five as a sub-base. Another example of a sub-base system is sexagesimal (base sixty), which used ten as a sub-base.

Each quinary digit can hold $$\log_{2}5$$ (approx. 2.32) bits of information.

Usage
Many languages use quinary number systems, including Gumatj, Nunggubuyu, Kuurn Kopan Noot, Luiseño, and Saraveca. Gumatj has been reported to be a true "5–25" language, in which 25 is the higher group of 5. The Gumatj numerals are shown below:

However, Harald Hammarström reports that "one would not usually use exact numbers for counting this high in this language and there is a certain likelihood that the system was extended this high only at the time of elicitation with one single speaker," pointing to the Biwat language as a similar case (previously attested as 5-20, but with one speaker recorded as making an innovation to turn it 5-25).

Biquinary

 * In this section, the numerals are in decimal. For example, "5" means 5|five, and "10" means ten.

A decimal system with two and five as a sub-bases is called biquinary and is found in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are an early biquinary system. The numbers 1, 5, 10, and 50 are written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Seven is VII, and seventy is LXX. The full list of symbols is: Note that these are not positional number systems. In theory, a number such as 73 could be written as IIIXXL (without ambiguity) and as LXXIII. To extend Roman numerals to beyond thousands, a vinculum (horizontal overline) was added, multiplying the letter value by a thousand, e.g. overlined M̅ was one million. There is also no sign for zero. But with the introduction of inversions like IV and IX, it was necessary to keep the order from most to least significant.

Many versions of the abacus, such as the suanpan and soroban, use a biquinary system to simulate a decimal system for ease of calculation. Urnfield culture numerals and some tally mark systems are also biquinary. Units of currencies are commonly partially or wholly biquinary.

Bi-quinary coded decimal is a variant of biquinary that was used on a number of early computers including Colossus and the IBM 650 to represent decimal numbers.

Calculators and programming languages
Few calculators support calculations in the quinary system, except for some Sharp models (including some of the EL-500W and EL-500X series, where it is named the pental system  ) since about 2005, as well as the open-source scientific calculator WP 34S.

title: Quinary


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Early Edition

Early Edition is an American fantasy comedy-drama television series that aired on CBS from September 28, 1996, to May 27, 2000. Set in Chicago, Illinois, it follows the adventures of a man who mysteriously receives each Chicago Sun-Times newspaper the day before it is actually published, and who uses this knowledge to prevent terrible events every day. Created by Ian Abrams, Patrick Q. Page, and Vik Rubenfeld, the series starred actor Kyle Chandler as Gary Hobson, and it featured many real Chicago locations over the course of the series' run.

The show was canceled on May 27, 2000, after 90 episodes were made, and it began airing in syndication on Fox Family Channel that same month. Fan conventions about the show were held for multiple years. CBS Home Entertainment released the first two seasons on the DVD format in the United States in 2008 and 2009.

Plot summary
The show chronicles the life of Gary Hobson, a resident of Chicago, Illinois, who mysteriously receives the Chicago Sun-Times newspaper a day in advance, effectively giving him knowledge of the potential future. His newspaper is delivered by a mysteriously unknown entity at least once each day, and is accompanied by a ginger tabby cat, with the first copy arriving every morning at 6:30 a.m., no matter what his physical location is. Armed with knowledge of the future, he then tries to prevent tragedies described in "tomorrow's" Sun-Times from occurring, thus changing the story text and headlines in the newspaper to reflect the outcome of his actions. Often, Gary does not wish to be saddled with the responsibility of performing these deeds. The paper presents him with many moral dilemmas where he must choose between helping different people in need of assistance.

The first season begins by showing Gary coming home from his job as a stockbroker, only to be thrown out of the house (and later divorced) for no apparent reason by his wife Marsha. Upon taking up residence in the Blackstone Hotel, Gary begins receiving a copy of the Chicago Sun-Times, accompanied by "The Cat", every morning. Slowly, Gary realizes the paper's contents reflect events that are to happen during that day, and confers with his co-workers and friends Chuck Fishman (a former fellow stock broker) and Marissa Clark (the blind former receptionist at the brokerage). After deciding to use his knowledge of the future only for "good," Gary is soon consumed by trying to prevent tragedies and help people, leading him to quit his job. During the season, Chuck consistently tries to use "The Paper" to make money, while Gary develops a precarious relationship with police Detective Marion Zeke Crumb. By the season's end, Gary has begun to uncover some of the mystery surrounding the paper, including confirmation that a man named Lucius Snow received the paper from the cat before him.

Season two continues Gary's adventures with the paper and his friends. Detective Crumb sometimes joins Gary, Chuck, and Marissa after retiring from the police force. Gary is working part-time at McGinty's as a bartender. Despite being closer to the paper, Crumb does not want to know how Gary gets his so-called "hunches," and never learns of the paper. At the end of season two, Chuck (Fisher Stevens) leaves the show as a regular character, leading to some major changes in season three. Within the course of the series, Gary discovers that a few other people share his gift of receiving a newspaper early. The only people who know about his gift besides Chuck and Marissa are his parents, Meredith Carson, and Erica and Henry Paget, a single mother and her son (Gary gives Erica a job at McGinty's); several times he begins to tell a few people, such as his attorney, and various police officers (Episode 407/408, "Fatal Edition"), but ultimately changes his mind. On some occasions, he is given the ability to wake up in another time (such as in the early 20th century) to change the past. People who encounter Gary often strongly suspect (or know) that he has a secret, but do not know what it is, e.g. Crumb.

During the course of the series, it is never clearly stated where the paper comes from. In one episode, Gary meets the group of people apparently responsible for giving him (as well as others) the Paper. Nothing much is revealed about them except that they have some sort of supernatural abilities, such as being able to mysteriously appear at any location.

In season four, episode 20, "Time" (the series finale that aired a few episodes early), it is briefly explained why Gary started receiving the paper. Apparently, he was given the responsibility by Lucius Snow (the man who received the Chicago Sun-Times before Gary), after Snow saved Gary's life when Gary was a child. The responsibility is represented by a pocket knife imprinted with the initials of the person next to receive the paper (Lucius gave Gary the red Swiss Army knife). The initials mysteriously change every time the current person decides on a new person to receive the responsibility. At the end of the same episode, Gary passes on the same pocket knife to a young girl named Lindsey Romick who had just lost her grandfather, and it is implied that Lindsey will begin receiving the paper when Gary is no longer able to carry on the responsibilities.

Main

 * Kyle Chandler as Gary Hobson
 * Shanésia Davis-Williams as Marissa Clark
 * Fisher Stevens as Chuck Fishman (seasons 1–2; guest, seasons 3–4)
 * Panther, Pella, and Carl as The Cat
 * Kristy Swanson as Erica Paget (season 3)
 * Myles Jeffrey as Henry Paget (season 3)
 * Billie Worley as Patrick Quinn (seasons 3–4)

Recurring

 * Ron Dean as Detective Marion Zeke Crumb, who does a stint as Gary's bartender
 * William Devane as Bernie Hobson, Gary's father, who's crazy about Gnocchi
 * Tess Harper as Lois Hobson, Gary's mother
 * Constance Marie as Detective Toni Brigatti
 * Luis Antonio Ramos as Miguel Diaz
 * Michael Whaley as Detective Paul Armstrong
 * Fyvush Finkel as Phil Kazakian

Supporting characters
Chuck was a foil to Gary, being a somewhat cynical, wisecracking realist in contrast to Gary's growing idealism. In early episodes, Chuck seeks to parlay the advance knowledge provided by the newspaper into windfall profits (e.g., sports betting and stock-market 'insider trading'). Over time, however, he begins to take a role in helping and backing up Gary as a problem-solver.

Marissa often was the voice of reasonable conscience, balancing Gary's earnest idealism against Chuck's skeptical realism. Chuck also did the voice over narration at the opening and closing scenes of the episodes in season one, but this role would diminish during season two, save for a few episodes. Instead a standard line was used during opening credits, and a closing narration remained in a few episodes, but as season three progressed there was no narration for either the opening or closing scenes, and the episodes "Walk Don't Run" and "Deadline" had fictional Chicago Sun-Times columnist Molly Greene do the closing narration as part of her column.

Stevens's departure from the show after two seasons changed the dynamic of the show. The device of his voice-over narration was shifted to at first Gary and then Marissa in season three. This was eventually done away with, the theme music was changed, and there began a revolving door of foils for Gary, including Patrick Quinn (Billie Worley) and Erica Paget (Kristy Swanson). The latter had a romantic subplot with Gary. Stevens made several guest appearances on the show after leaving, and several of the characters stayed (such as the hard-boiled detective Crumb, and Gary's bartender Patrick).

Guest stars
During the series' run, Early Edition also featured many notable guest stars from television, feature films, and other entertainment industries.

Notable TV actors who appeared include Anna Chlumsky, Fyvush Finkel, Felicity Huffman, Ken Jenkins, Jane Krakowski, Laura Leighton, Robert Duncan McNeil, Cynthia Nixon, Pauley Perrette, Robert Picardo and Michael Shannon.

Academy Award winner Louis Gossett, Jr had a major role in the season two episode "The Medal".

Former Chicago Sun-Times publisher David Radler appeared several times as the publisher of the Sun-Times, the newspaper that was delivered to Gary, while movie reviewer Roger Ebert made a cameo as himself. Other cameos include Tara Lipinski, Coolio, Tone Loc, Dick Butkus, Pat O'Brien, and Martina McBride.

There was a season two cross-over with Chicago Hope with Héctor Elizondo, Jayne Brook and Rocky Carroll playing their characters from that show. Also during season three, CBS used an Early Edition episode as a promotional vehicle for the network's Martial Law TV series starring martial arts expert Sammo Hung. In the fourth and final season, professional wrestlers Tommy Dreamer and New Jack guest starred in the episode "Mel Schwartz, Bounty Hunter". A season two episode ended with a colorized clip of Rod Serling informing viewers they had just watched a tale from The Twilight Zone.

Conception
The origin of Early Edition stems from a collaborative idea between writers Vik Rubenfeld and Pat Page. After meeting each other while playing volleyball in Manhattan Beach, California, the pair began discussing ideas for feature films. While talking on the phone one day, they each contributed key parts for the idea of Early Edition. Rubenfeld believed the idea was more suited to television than a feature film, noting that, "it was a really unique way to put a character in physical jeopardy each week." The duo proceeded to write a document that described the show's characters and setting, and treatments for the first twelve episodes (a document known as a show's "bible" in the TV industry). In the process they also created a detailed treatment for the pilot episode, which entitled them to "Story By" credit when the Pilot later aired.

Despite their idea, Rubenfeld and Page still faced the daunting task of finding a way to get the show on network television with limited television production and writing experience between them. Rubenfeld decided to pitch the show to Ian Abrams, who he knew through a group called the Professional Authors Group Enterprise (PAGE). Over lunch at RJ's restaurant in Los Angeles, Rubenfeld and Page pitched the idea of "a guy who gets tomorrow's newspaper today." With Abrams's help, they decided to try to convince Tristar to pick up the show, and went about adding a few ground rules for the story, such as having the paper always accompanied by a mysterious cat. In an effort to rouse Tristar's interest in the show during their pitch meeting scheduled for August 24, 1995, Abrams had a mock newspaper created with the headline "Let's just let it end. O. J. Simpson confesses he is guilty of homicide." The catch to the mock newspaper was that it was dated the next day, August 25, 1995. After presenting the fake newspaper during the pitch meeting, a very lively conversation ensued, until someone realized the paper was dated the following day. Early Edition was green-lighted not long after.

Since its debut, the plot of Early Edition has been compared to other intellectual properties with similar themes. In particular, the 1944 feature film It Happened Tomorrow centered upon a newspaper reporter who received a newspaper a day in advance. However, Early Edition's creators claim that Early Edition is in no way based on this film.

Filming locations
The series was filmed in Chicago and many nearby towns in Illinois and Indiana, with interior sets filmed on the Early Edition Sound Stage at Studio City in Chicago. Many famous Chicago locations are seen throughout the series, such as Navy Pier in the season three episode "Play it Again, Sammo." The building used for exterior shots of McGinty's bar, a location of central importance to the series, was formerly used by the Chicago Fire Department, and is located at the northeast corner of the intersection of Franklin Street and West Illinois Street in downtown Chicago. Additionally, Hobson lived in the Blackstone Hotel during the show's first season.

Music
In the opening credits of each episode, the credit for composing Early Edition's title theme music is given to W.G. Snuffy Walden, who later wrote the theme song to another hit TV show starring Kyle Chandler, Friday Night Lights. During Early Edition's original broadcast run in the United States, an edited version of the song "Time Has Come Today" by The Chambers Brothers was used during a revamped opening title sequence from episode 403 until the series' conclusion.

Broadcast history
Early Edition premiered in the United States on CBS on September 28, 1996. A total of 90 episodes were produced over the course of the show's four seasons, with the last original episode airing in the United States on May 27, 2000. Its original time slot was Saturday night at 9pm Eastern Standard Time, sandwiched between airings of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman and Walker, Texas Ranger. When Dr. Quinn ended in May 1998, Early Edition then began airing one hour earlier at 8 pm for the remainder of the show's run. In January and February 2000, Early Edition went on temporary hiatus as the Dick Clark game show Winning Lines aired in its time slot.

Cancellation
After May 27, 2000 (the end of season 4), CBS decided to end the series' run.

U.S. syndication
The Fox Family Channel (now Freeform) was the first entity to acquire syndication rights to Early Edition, at a price of $500,000 per episode, and the show began airing on Fox Family in May 2000. The series debuted in wider syndication in September 2000, and was aired on channels including Ion Television, FamilyNet, and GMC. From May 2012 to 2013, TVGN aired the series. From May 29, 2018, to August 28, 2018, Heroes & Icons aired the show every Tuesday for eight straight episodes starting at 12PM/11AM central time. From September 3, 2018, to October 14, 2019, Start TV ran the show in the early morning. It currently airs on Decades channel mostly on weekends.

Home media

CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) released the first two seasons of Early Edition on DVD in Region 1 (US only) in 2008 and 2009.

Sony Pictures Home Entertainment owns the international DVD rights to the show, although they have not made any releases yet.

On August 31, 2018, Visual Entertainment released Early Edition: The Complete Collection on DVD in Region 1. The 16-disc set contains all 90 episodes including the release of seasons 3 and 4.

Reboot proposal
In February 2022, CBS ordered a pilot for a reboot of the original series. The project was to be a co-production between Affirm Television, Sony Pictures Television and CBS Studios, with Melissa Glenn as writer and executive producer for the pilot and DeVon Franklin as executive producer. In March 2022, it was announced that Alice Eve, Charles Michael Davis, Jay Ali and Fiona Rene were cast on the pilot. Eric Dean Seaton was to direct. However, in May 2022 CBS announced that the pilot would not be moving forward.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Early Edition


text:
Junkers G.38

The Junkers G.38 was a large German four-engined transport aircraft which first flew in 1929. Two examples were constructed in Germany. Both aircraft flew as a commercial transport within Europe in the years leading up to World War II.

During the 1930s, the design was licensed to Mitsubishi, which constructed and flew a total of six aircraft, in a military bomber/transport configuration, designated Ki-20.

The G.38 carried a crew of seven. Onboard mechanics were able to service the engines in flight due to the G.38's blended wing design, which provided access to all four power plants.

Design and development
During the 1920s, Hugo Junkers made several attempts to produce a large scale commercial transport. His initial attempt, the four-engined JG1, was developed during 1921-1922; but Junkers was forced to destroy the incomplete airplane based on post-WWI Allied demands citing the Treaty of Versailles. Later in the decade, in 1925, he published design specifications for a proposed eighty passenger trans-Atlantic aircraft - the J.1000 project. Then again, towards the end of the decade, the G.40 project was started by the Junkers design team as a trans-Atlantic mail plane. From the G.40 design, which was a seaplane configuration, Junkers also developed a landplane design, designated the G.38. Despite interest from the German armed forces in the G.40 variant, Junkers pushed forward with the landplane design which, having received financing from the Reich Air Ministry (Reichsluftfahrtministerium), was taken forward to the construction stage.

The first Junkers prototype—3301 and marked as D-2000—first flew on 6 November 1929 with four gasoline engines: two Junkers L55 V-12 engines and two 294 kW L8 inline-6 engines, with a total power rating of 1470 kW (1971 hp). The Reich Air Ministry purchased the D-2000 for demonstration flights, and took delivery on 27 March 1930. In flight tests, the G.38 set four world records including speed, distance and duration for airplanes lifting a 5000 kg payload. On 2 May 1930 Luft Hansa put the D-2000 into commercial service for both scheduled and chartered flights.

Structurally the G.38 conformed to standard Junkers' practice, with a multi-tubular spar cantilever wing covered (like the rest of the aircraft) in stressed, corrugated duraluminium. The biplane tail, found in other large aircraft of the time, was intended to reduce rudder forces; initially there were three rudders with only a central fixed fin. The undercarriage was fixed, with double tandem main wheels that were initially enclosed in very large spats. The wing had the usual Junkers "double wing" form, the name referring to the full span movable flaps which served also as ailerons in the outer part.

On 2 February 1931 the Leipzig-based Junkers' yard re-engined the D-2000 with two Junkers L8 and two L88 engines, giving a total power rating of 1764 kW (2366 hp) and increasing passenger capacity from 13 to 19.

During its early life the G.38 was the largest landplane in the world. Passenger accommodation was sumptuous by today's standards and was meant to rival that found on the competing Zeppelin service offered by DELAG. The plane was unique in that passengers were seated in the wings, which were 1.7 m (5 ft 7 in) thick at the root. There were also two seats in the extreme nose. The leading edge of each wing was fitted with sloping windscreens giving these passengers the forward-facing view usually available only to pilots. There were three 11-seat cabins, plus smoking cabins and washrooms.

In design terms the G-38 followed the blended wing body design pioneered by Louis de Monge, later followed by Vincent Burnelli in his UB14 and later CBY-3 designs, and even later considered by both NASA and Boeing as an alternative to traditional tube and wing aircraft configurations.

Operational history
On 1 July 1931 Luft Hansa initiated regularly scheduled service between Berlin and London on flights carrying up to 13 passengers. This London-Berlin service was halted in October 1931 to retrofit the aircraft and expand the passenger cabin of the D-2000. Construction lasted from this time until mid-1932, during which a second deck was built within the D-2000's fuselage—enabling an increased cargo capacity and seating for up to 30 passengers. Additionally the D-2000's engines were again upgraded to four L88s, giving a total power of 2352 kW (3154 hp). Also at this time the D-2000's registration was changed to D-AZUR.

Meanwhile, a second G.38—factory number 3302 and c/n D-2500, later changed to D-APIS—was built with a double deck fuselage and capacity for 34 passengers. Six passengers were carried three per wing in each leading edge, the remaining 22 on two levels in the fuselage. Luft Hansa used D-APIS on a scheduled service covering the cities Berlin, Hanover, Amsterdam, and London. This aircraft was named General Feldmarschall von Hindenburg.

In 1934 D-2000/D-AZUR had its engines upgraded, this time with Jumo 4 engines, giving a total power rating of 2208 kW (2960 hp).

Both planes were in service simultaneously until 1936, when D-AZUR crashed in Dessau during a post-maintenance test flight. Luft Hansa had to write off this aircraft due to the extensive damage, but test pilot Wilhelm Zimmermann survived the crash, and there were no other casualties.

The second G.38—marked D-2500 and later D-APIS—flew successfully within the Deutsche Luft Hansa fleet for nearly a decade. With the outbreak of World War II the D-2500/D-APIS was pressed into military service as a transport craft by the Luftwaffe. It was destroyed on the ground during an RAF air raid on Athens on 17 May 1941.

Operators

 * Weimar Republic
 * Deutsche Luft Hansa
 * Nazi Germany
 * Luftwaffe

In popular culture
The G.38 was featured in the 2013 semi-fictional movie  The Wind Rises  by Japanese director Hayao Miyazaki, as was Hugo Junkers.

title: Junkers G.38


text:
Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Classical

The Grammy Award for Best Engineered Recording, Classical has been awarded since 1959. The award had several minor name changes:

 * In 1959 the award was known as Best Engineered Record (Classical)
 * From 1960 to 1962 it was awarded as Best Engineering Contribution - Classical Recording
 * From 1963 to 1964 it was awarded as Best Engineered Recording - Classical
 * In 1965 it was awarded as Best Engineered Recording
 * From 1966 to 1994 it returned to the title Best Engineered Recording, Classical
 * From 1966 to 1994 it was awarded as Best Classical Engineered Recording
 * Since 1992 it has been awarded as Best Engineered Album, Classical

This award is presented alongside the Grammy Award for Best Engineered Album, Non-Classical. From 1960 to 1965 a further award was presented for Best Engineered Recording - Special or Novel Effects.

Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.

The award is presented to engineers (and, if applicable, mastering engineers), not to artists, orchestras, conductors or other performers on the winning works, except if the engineer is also a performer.


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List of Finnish divisions in the Winter War

List of military divisions – List of Finnish divisions in the Winter War

This is a list of Finnish divisions that existed during the Winter War, 1939–1940.
 * 1st Division
 * 2nd Division – renamed from 11th Division in 1940
 * 3rd Division – renamed from 6th Division in 1940
 * 4th Division
 * 5th Division
 * 6th Division – renamed to 3rd Division in 1940
 * 7th Division – renamed from 10th Division in 1940
 * 8th Division
 * 9th Division
 * 10th Division – renamed to 7th Division in 1940
 * 11th Division – renamed to 2nd Division in 1940
 * 12th Division
 * 13th Division
 * 21st Division – formed December 19, 1939
 * 22nd Division – formed December 19, 1939
 * 23rd Division – formed December 19, 1939


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Talk:Main Page/Archive 13

Rename HTML title
I think it's bad practice for this page to have the HTML title "Main Page - Wikipedia." It should instead be "Wikipedia - Main Page", "Wikipedia - The Free Encyclopedia" or simply "Wikipedia." Kent Wang 18:34, 6 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I like "Wikipedia - The Free Encyclopedia" (translated appropriately for the other language wikipedias). Of course its the main page; I once compiled a list of the top thousand google-rank sites, and it was embarrassing how many of them had titles like " " instead of " ".  As WAP and other content-sucking devices become more popular, page titles and other mata-info will start becoming more important in people's browsing habits...
 * Likewise, I think the HTML source around the first  tag on the Main Page should read Welcome to Wikipedia the free encyclopedia instead of Main Page From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  -- +sj+ 05:08, 2004 Feb 24 (UTC)

 * Every other page on the wiki is like that ("Talk:Main Page - Wikipedia"). Is it better to keep it consistent? alerante 22:59, 13 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I understand the importance of consistency, but I think in the case of the home page, the value of a prettier title outweighs. Kent Wang 08:43, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Kent, Why? —Noldoaran (Talk) 04:32, Feb 14, 2004 (UTC)
 * Perhaps a better way to phrase it is that when I'm looking at my Windows taskbar, I would not think that a browser window entitled "Main Page..." is my Wikipedia window. Kent Wang 08:43, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * How about "Wikipedia - [article title]" then? I do see the advantages of a wiki-wide change. alerante 18:52, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I think a site wide change would be bad...if you have multiple windows or tabs, tehy would all say "wikipedia". Just changing the main page woudl be good.--Mishac 21:43, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Agreed. +sj+ 23:02, 2004 Feb 21 (UTC)
 * Agreed. Kent Wang 22:26, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Slovenian
Should the link to the Slovenian Wikipedia be labeled "Slovensko" in keeping with using the local name for the language? "Slovensko" is how it appears in other interwiki links (e.g. see Paul Dirac). --Minesweeper 13:06, 7 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Is that correct? I keep getting Slovenian and Slovakian mixed up, especially as "Czechoslovakia" was "Ceskoslovensko"! Judging from some of the "other language" links, "Slovenian" should be "Slovensko" while "Slovakian" should be "Slovenčina". I await correction! -- Arwel 13:34, 7 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * From 1993 here exist two states: Czech republic and Slovak Republic - called Slovensko. But language is called Sloven?ina.
 * Can be a link to Slovak Wikipedia added to english main page? -- Valasek 08:46, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC) - Native Slovak speaker but not a liguist

Ivrit/Hebrew
The right English name for the language עברית is Hebrew, not Ivrit (which is how the name of the language sounds like in Hebrew) -- Max Timchenko
 * Agreed and implimented. →Raul654 18:12, Feb 14, 2004 (UTC)

On the same basis, however, we should therefore also change Does anyone recall why transliterations of the local names were used originally? -- Arwel 20:31, 14 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Araby --> Arabic
 * Hangukeo --> Korean
 * Nihongo --> Japanese
 * Russkiy --> Russian
 * Srpski --> Serbian

 * N, but I agree. I think the accepted names are a much better idea than the transliterations. →Raul654 20:34, Feb 14, 2004 (UTC)

 * They should match the interwiki strings for starters. And the interwiki strings have to have that language's name for itself, not the local language's name for it. If I'm on the japanese wikipedia checking interwikis, the backlink to the english page has to say "english" and not be written as the japanese characters for english. Do I disagree with this change, as whatever the "right english name for hebrew" is irrelevant - it needs to be the right hebrew name for hebrew. -- Finlay McWalter |  Talk 01:35, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not altogether convinced of your logic, Finlay. We're talking about the "other languages" part of the Main Page, not the interwiki links. The languages in question already appear in their own language/alphabet/characters, and it's not proposed to change them, just the latin-alphabet equivalents... and since this is the English Wikipedia it's logical that the names should appear there in English. Arwel 21:02, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)

The transliterations are useful if somebody's browser isn't set up to read that script, but they still know the language and can switch browsers/settings if they want to go to that wiki. And why have "Hebrew" in English when we don't have "French" in English? We never intended to have the English names! Now that it's come up however ... it could be nice to list the English equivalents of every language. The transliterations probably aren't really necessary in that case, IMO. -- Toby Bartels 04:58, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Opening paragraph
Wikipedia is a multilingual project to create an accurate and comprehensive free-content encyclopedia. We started in January 2001 and are currently working on 206513 articles in the English version

Can I suggest changing to:

Wikipedia is a multilingual project to create an accurate and comprehensive free-content encyclopedia. We started in January 2001 and we currently have 206513 articles in the English version

→Raul654 19:21, Feb 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * I would argue against this change, on the grounds that Wikipedia is an evolving resource, and the text "are currently working on" reflects this fact. It reflects the fact that no article is considered complete or final, and that every article has room for improvement. Also, many of the articles included in that count are stubs or sub-stubs; the revised langauge could be interpreted to suggest that the Wikipedia community views those articles as satisfactory. I would, however, be curious to hear Raul's justification for the proposed change. - Seth Ilys 21:11, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * No special reason other than (IMHO) my version sounds better. →Raul654 21:45, Feb 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * I too think it's better the way it is. The rough "well, we're working on it" pages far outnumber the number of ones where we could reasonably say "Yeah, we've got an article on that subject". -- Infrogmation 21:23, 15 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Another vote for the opposition. I like "are currently working on" because it suggests bustling activity on every article (wishful thinking, I know). --Michael Snow 18:09, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)

New page moved from User space not on newpages
Hm. I moved New Orleans Mardi Gras into the article space this morning, at about 13:50 UTC. I had created a rough draft of it in my user space at User:Infrogmation/New Orleans Mardi Gras back on the 14th. It appears on Special:Newpages not at all, at either time or title. Should it have? Wondering simply, -- Infrogmation 18:36, 16 Feb 2004 (UTC)

All main pages seem ugly to me

 * See Wikipedia talk:Main Page. Optim 02:34, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Plain vanilla main page
See Plain vanilla main page. Optim 02:55, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Colosio
We've jumped the gun (sorry) on this one, to the tune of a month. The shooting was 23.Mar.1994. However, 23.Feb.1993 was the Billionaires' Banquet -- which is probably worth an article of its own (and ψ5 from my account to anyone who does). –Hajor 18:27, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Main Page/Archive 13


text:
User:57cheman

Name: Che Man Hon UID: 2003462857

title: User:57cheman


text:
Talk:Guppy

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Nc111.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 22:52, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

"adaegus" ? ? ?
What does "adaegus" mean? The article defines the guppy as "a small adaegus member of the Poecilidae family." But I cannot find any definition of the term "adaegus" in my Werriam-Webster Webster's Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary, or in the several online dictionaries that I've checked. I don't think it's appropriate to define the guppy in terms that aren't found in standard collegiate dictionaries. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Eric Alan Isaacson (talk • contribs) 18:31, 19 August 2009 (UTC)

 * Perhaps that's because aedeagus is spelled incorrectly; You can find the Merriam-Webster entry @ https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/aedeagus SRocha10 (talk) 19:33, 22 February 2024 (UTC)

Size of guppies
I have mature males that are 1.5cm to 3cm and mature females that are 2cm. I seen huge females that were well over 7cm. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.31.16.170 (talk) 14:31, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

Domestication
Are guppies generally considered domesticated? If so, could someone add a note to that effect on the page? (to solve a dispute on the Domesticated Animals list, only critters with the word "domestic" or "domesticated" on their page are being counted as "truly" domesticated...) Tamtrible (talk) 17:57, 16 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Yes, we need a ruling on whether this is a domesticated animal to improve the List of domesticated animals. Right now it's in the "iffy" column, but is it WP:SKYISBLUE enough to give this non-iffy, first list status there?  They are so distant from their wild ancestors it's hard to believe we can't cite this. Chrisrus (talk) 01:47, 21 September 2012 (UTC)

Life in the wild?
This reader was unable to find in this article really any information at all about their lives in the wild. Are there no studies about wild guppies that are worth mentioning? The article kind of implies that guppies still live in various places around the Carribean basin, is that true? Thank you for time. Chrisrus (talk) 22:37, 18 August 2012 (UTC)

Ecology and Behavior
It appears as though this section has been vandalized. The aquarium escaping bit is flagrantly wrong. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 131.123.61.122 (talk) 20:47, 6 May 2013 (UTC)

Behavior edits
Hi! I am editing the behavior section of this article as a part of a class project! (Behavioral Ecology FL2013, Wash U) I welcome any questions and comments!

Allasse0927 (talk) 22:17, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

General comments
1. Support by citation needed -Under the multiple mating section, the sentence saying 'second male gains more paternity..." needs support.

2. Diet could be a separate section from behavior -Diet can be a large section like behavior, but I think foraging part of this section can stay under behavior since it is classified as behavior. -After listing the potential food source for guppies, it says 'and others.' This is ambiguous. It needs to be clarified (i.e. other fish, other plants. etc.)

3. Life history patterns section can be disintegrated -The information under this section seems to be a merge of information from different sections. So I think pieces of information in this section can be taken and be distributed to appropriate sections. For example: Development(This section can be made and more information can be added): bit about baby guppies Reproduction: Paragraph about how male and female guppies in high-predation regions mature and reproduce fast. This info can also go on     the predation section. Avoiding Predation (I think this heading can be changed to just 'Predation' to make it more general): segment about high mortality Jyn0309 (talk) 22:54, 9 October 2013 (UTC)

The lead section is concise and informative. It serves as an introduction to the fish, however I would not say it serves as an introduction to the article itself. I say this because there is a bit of information that are tangent like and is not needed, especially at the end of the paragraph. For example, there is no whole section regarding a Guppy’s fins, yet detail is given regarding them. This makes it seem redundant.EmmaGreene22 (talk) 23:43, 27 January 2024 (UTC)

Suggested Edits
This article is well written, but it could use some more information in some places. One section that would benefit from adding more information is the physical description. The only information given on this subject is the size, and I would recommend adding more like the colors found and some other prominent anatomical features. The author could also include information pertaining to some other fishes that the Guppy is related to. Also, in the “Genetics” section of the article, the author listed two other strains of the Guppy that have been produced. Perhaps the author could add a statement or two about each one indicating how it is different. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Gopara (talk • contribs) 04:52, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

Peer review
General suggestions:
 * Make your language more concise and technical.
 * Repetition and unnecessary language are possibly the weakest elements of this article. I would focus on improving this

 * It is unnecessary to talk about specific experiments. Instead, simply discuss the results and conclusions of the experiments and cite accordingly.
 * Do not say "in an experiment"

 * Fix grammatical mistakes
 * Use present tense!
 * Add more hyperlinks. These act descriptively while allowing you to avoid extraneous description, which only serves to clutter your article
 * Improve section titles and organization
 * Fix the order of sections to reflect other GAs. See mola mola or frilled shark.

Specific suggestios:
 * Taxonomy
 * Consider expanding, if possible.
 * "Tiny fish" is somewhat subjective. "Small" is sufficient.

 * Distribution
 * Consider expanding, if possible

 * Mating choice
 * Do not use "In an experiment." "It has been observed" works well.
 * Much of this information is repeated in "Avoiding predation." Consolidate

 * Multiple mating
 * The second sentence should not have subjective language like "benefits ... for males are obvious." This must be changed
 * Do not use "in an experiment"

 * Avoiding predation
 * Many grammatical mistakes
 * Much of this information is repeated in "Mating choice." Consolidate

 * Predator inspection
 * Clean up language
 * It is largely unnecessary to explain a hyperlinked term (specifically tit-for-tat here)
 * Break into 2 or more paragraphs (probably 2)

 * Diet
 * Language here is overly simplistic
 * Unnecessary reference to specific areas in Trinidad (i.e. Nanjaro, Lower Tacariqua)
 * Hyperlinks. Add them.
 * The second sentence of the third paragraph makes no sense.
 * The fourth sentence of the third paragraph is very poorly worded
 * Do not use "in an experiment"

 * Life-history patterns
 * Perhaps improve the title ("Lifecycle"?)
 * Consider relocating this to earlier in the article, as it is general/nonspecific to behavior
 * Most of this information is repeated in "Reproduction." Consolidate

 * Variations
 * This can probably be combined with the above section

 * Reproduction
 * This section needs very heavy modification
 * Much of this information is repeated in other sections. Sorting this information into those sections would be advantageous
 * Aquarium advice should be removed
 * This section should probably only include reproductive behavior of the guppy, not body size, male/female/juvenile characteristics, etc.
 * Once fixed, it can also be put under behavior
 * Lacking in citations. This will likely not be a problem when the section is gutted of irrelevant information

 * Genetics
 * Section is of questionable importance. Consider removing entirely.

 * In the aquarium
 * Consider making the executive decision of removing this section entirely
 * If you decide to keep it, remove subjective language and uncited claims

Bakerb4379 (talk) 06:21, 10 October 2013 (UTC)

Males' appearance by geographical location
I recall reading about some research which found that higher altitudes have fewer predators and therefore males can afford to either be brighter coloured or have more spots or both -- I forget which. That seems like a good addition to the discussion of male colour and predation. It's described in layman's terms in The Beak of the Finch by David(?) (& Rosemary) Grant, as a kind of appendix. Monado (talk) 21:07, 26 March 2014 (UTC)

Misnamed Predator
Shouldn't the name of one of its predators be changed to: Prochilodus hartii unstead of Rivulus hartii?

138.229.246.211 (talk) 00:54, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

 * Rivulus hartii was promoted to a separate genus as Anablepsoides hartii in 2011. I'll change the name in the article. — Huntster (t @ c) 02:18, 28 May 2015 (UTC)

Suggestions for Improvement
•Introduction •Its mentioned in the beginning of the article that the difference between male and female guppies is that females are duller in color, do the females have differences in their fins?

 * A section about sexual dysmorphism is missing in this article, that's true. Sexual dysmorphism in guppies: size, color, behaviour, fins shape, and gonopodium. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.91.248.85 (talk) 10:16, 31 December 2018 (UTC)

•Life cycle •What are some examples of consistent differences in the populations? •Senescence •Why do guppies from low predation habitats not suffer increased mortality until 16 months? •When explaining how guppies have a longer lifespan in high-predation environments, mention maybe some adaptions they developed to achieve this. This will make it clearer instead of just saying they “have longer lifespans because their reproductive lifespans are longer”. •In the aquarium •For this section it is mentioned that Guppies should not be kept as a single fish because they will shoal, but are there any negative affects for this inside a aquarium since they won’t be in the wild? (spelling error here, Guppys should be spelled Guppies)

 * It's not scientific, but only one guppy tends to be a lot less active, like a depressed fish. It's only observation, and as it's observation, it's maybe not scientifically objective, but it's widely admitted. The article mixes wild guppies and aquarium guppies. As far as I know, guppies always shoal in an aquarium. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.91.248.85 (talk) 10:16, 31 December 2018 (UTC)

Nc111 (talk) 00:24, 1 February 2016 (UTC)

Important info missing.
"The gestation period of a guppy is typically 21–30 days, varying considerably."

It means nothing without mentioning the temperature. And the sentence is mute about the factors that make it "warying considerably". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.91.248.85 (talk) 10:16, 31 December 2018 (UTC)

solved?
I added temperature info and references to this text. Carcharias taurus (talk) 18:28, 26 December 2021 (UTC)

Dubious
Senescence means to grow old, and the morbidity linked with old age, it's not about predation. It's about abnormal things physiologically, mentally, behaviourally, that happens to animals growing old. For instance, a cat with arthritis, it's senescence. It's not linked with predation. 6 months of age is definitedly not senescence, except if the animal is growing old prematurately or has prematurely failing organs, like an old fish. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.91.248.85 (talk) 10:16, 31 December 2018 (UTC)
 * I have to agree, I have added the dubious tag to this. What the linked study showed was:
 * Prior work on the evolution of post-reproductive lifespan has been dominated by speculation and correlative analyses. We show here that this component of the life history is accessible to formal study as part of experiments that quantify the different segments of an individual's life history. Populations of guppies subject to different mortality pressures from predation evolved differences in total lifespan, but not in post-reproductive lifespan. Rather than showing the direct effects of selection characterizing other life-history traits, post-reproductive lifespan in these fish appears to be a random add-on at the end of the life history. These findings support the hypothesis that differences in lifespan evolving in response to selection are confined to the reproductive lifespan, or those segments of the life history that make a direct contribution to fitness. We also show, for the first time, that fish can have reproductive senescence and extended post-reproductive lifespans despite the general observation that they are capable of producing new primary oocytes throughout their lives.
 * Probably needs rewording. - Chris.sherlock (talk) 03:27, 6 May 2020 (UTC)

Mating and Reproduction Evaluation
Overall this article seems relatively well developed with a generally appropriate outline. However, the writing style can be hard to read at times and phrasing could be more concise. Additionally, there are parts that have some jargon that would be unfriendly to a lay-person or seem like they may be close-paraphrasing results from a paper. The mating section dives right into specific details of the mating system while overlooking important background information that would be helpful to readers. For instance, the section would benefit from explaining if breeding is seasonal, if there are any courtship rituals or direct competition between males etc. Sometimes this article references ideas but doesn't fully explain or introduce them. For instance, the inbreeding avoidance section states that there are numerous pre-copulatory avoidance mechanisms but doesn't list or explain what they are. Similarly, the discussion of orange spots in male guppies could be reorganized for coherence. I found the reproduction section easy to follow, however a lot of the reproduction information would be helpful to know before reading the mating section. Perhaps it would have served the article better to make reproduction the broader heading underneath ecology and behavior and make mating behavior section as a subsection within it.

These sections seemed to be well-cited, primarily referencing peer-reviewed articles, however, most seem to be relatively old so It would good to incorporate any significant new findings from the last few years. The content also seems unbiased (although I'm not sure what biases you can have related to guppy reproduction) and effectively used links to other articles so it was easy to find more information. Finally, the pictures and videos were effective aids although more impactful images could probably be found for the mating section. Cat&Donkey (talk) 21:10, 3 February 2021 (UTC)

This section was well done however it could be improved by adding more detail about the logistics of guppy reproduction.Curlygirl897 (talk) 01:45, 30 August 2022 (UTC)

There are a few technical words that could have be linked to other Wikipedia pages such as “fitness”, “flank”, “courtship behavior”, “sperm-storage”, and “hybrids” to facilitate reader understaing of such terms. Huginnscientia (talk) 04:04, 30 August 2022 (UTC)

The reference for the hybrid guppy male fish being sterile is from an article from a cancer research journal and it cannot be accessed to verify. Nica88 (talk) 04:21, 30 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Guppy


text: User:Alibaba

title: User:Alibaba


text:
User talk:Hpc

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

If you need editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style

Some time when you're bored, you can read through our policies and guidelines. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 08:54, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Seventh Ave
Why did you delete so much from the 7th Ave article?Dinopup 22:11, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * That's strange that you say you only changed Valli's name, because huge sections of the article were deleted, including the photo and quotations. Someone did a lot of "editing/vandalism."  I believe you, I'm sure it was a software bug that showed you as responsible.Dinopup 14:36, 9 Mar 2005 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Hpc


text:
User:Danio

Danio the fish.

title: User:Danio


text:
Tanaka Memorial

The Tanaka Memorial (田中上奏文) is an alleged Japanese strategic planning document from 1927 in which Prime Minister Baron Tanaka Giichi laid out a strategy to take over the world for Emperor Hirohito. The authenticity of the document was long accepted and it is still quoted in some Chinese textbooks, but historian John Dower states that "most scholars now agree that it was a masterful anti-Japanese hoax."

Background
The Tanaka Memorial was first published in the December 1929 edition of the Chinese publication "時事月報" (Current Affairs Monthly) in Nanking, a Nationalist Chinese publication. It was reproduced on 24 September 1931 on pp. 923–34 of China Critic, an English publication in Shanghai. The memorial contains the assertions:

"*In order to take over the world, you need to take over Asia;
 * In order to take over Asia, you need to take over China;
 * In order to take over China, you need to take over Manchuria and Mongolia.
 * If we succeed in conquering China, the rest of the Asiatic countries and the South Sea countries will fear us and surrender to us.
 * Then the world will realize that Eastern Asia is ours."

The English translation of this document was in circulation before February 1934, and formed the foundation of the lead article on the front page of the first edition of The Plain Truth magazine published by Herbert W. Armstrong in February of that year, although it had first appeared in the less widely circulated Communist International magazine in 1931.

The Tanaka Memorial was depicted extensively by United States wartime propaganda as a sort of Japanese counterpart to Mein Kampf. The installments The Battle of China and Prelude to War of Frank Capra's Academy Award-winning movie series Why We Fight describe the Tanaka Memorial as the document that was the Japanese plan for war with the United States. The Tanaka Memorial was depicted the same way in Know Your Enemy: Japan, also directed by Capra during the war. As presented in these movies, the five sequential steps to achieve Japan's goal of conquests are:

 * 1) Conquest of Manchuria
 * 2) Conquest of China
 * 3) Conquest of the Soviet Union or Siberia
 * 4) Establishment of bases in the Pacific
 * 5) Conquest of the United States

Its authenticity is not accepted by scholars today, but the Tanaka Memorial was widely accepted as authentic in the 1930s and 1940s because Japan's actions appeared to correspond with these plans. The authenticity seemed to be confirmed by the 1931 Mukden Incident, 1937 Second Sino-Japanese War, 1939 Battles of Khalkhin Gol, 1940 Japanese invasion of French Indochina, the 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor, and the subsequent Pacific War. Historian Barak Kushner states:
 * There were several critical historical mistakes in the Tanaka Memorial that clearly demonstrate it a fake, but the fact that the message overlapped with Japan's general aims to militarily subdue China coincided with the belief elsewhere that the Memorial was genuine.

In 1940, Leon Trotsky published an account of how the document allegedly came to light. Soviet intelligence had obtained it from a high-placed mole in Tokyo but did not want to compromise their own security by publishing it openly, so they had leaked it through contacts that they had in the United States.

Journalist and popular historian Edwin P. Hoyt wrote that the Tanaka Memorial was an accurate representation "of what Prime Minister Tanaka had said and what the supernationalists had been saying for months." Iris Chang adds that the Japanese government at that time was so faction-ridden that it would have been impossible to carry out such a plan in any case. Historian Meirion Harries wrote that the Tanaka Memorial "was one of the most successful 'dirty tricks' of the twentieth century – a bogus document so brilliantly conceived that thirty years later Westerners were still taken in by it". Likewise, historian William G. Beasley states that "the nature of this document, as published variously in English and Chinese, does not carry conviction as to its authenticity". Dr. Haruo Tohmatsu, Professor of Diplomacy and War History of International Relations at the National Defense Academy of Japan, states that "The 'Tanaka Memorial' never existed, but the Dalian conference of that year adopted resolutions that reflected these ideas."

Speculation of forgery
In the summer of 1927 (June 27 – July 7 ), Tanaka convened a "Far East Conference" with members of the Japanese Foreign Ministry, Army Ministry, Navy Ministry, and Finance Ministry. However, instead of producing a master plan for world domination, the result of the Conference was a rough consensus that Japan should support the Kuomintang government of China against the Chinese Communists, as long as the Japanese could convince General Zhang Zuolin to consolidate his base in a virtually autonomous Manchuria, which would serve as a buffer state, and would fall eventually within Japanese domination. It is alleged that the Tanaka Memorial is a secret report of this Conference.

When the Allies searched for incriminating documents to support war crime charges following the surrender of Japan, no drafts or copies of anything corresponding to the Tanaka Memorial appeared among them; a Japanese language "original" has never been produced despite extensive research efforts.

The origin of the Memorial is still in question. Because the initial edition of the Memorial was in Chinese, some Japanese historians have attributed it to Chinese sources, probably either Chinese Nationalists or Chinese Communists.

There have been claims of forgery by the Soviet Union to encourage war between China and Japan, and so to advance Soviet interests. The two theories are not mutually exclusive, as the Chinese Communist Party was a member of the Comintern under control of the Soviet Union, and Soviet policy from the 1930s was to wage a propaganda war against Japanese expansionism. Also, the first translation of the Memorial into English was done by the Communist Party USA and published in the December 1931 issue of Communist International magazine. It was later re-printed in book format.

In 1939, Peter Fleming claimed to have produced an "update" to the Tanaka Memorial, by writing an imaginary report on a secret Allied strategy conference attended by Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai-shek, and having it leaked to the Japanese. This indicates that the Tanaka Memorial was known to be a forgery by the British prior to World War II.

While the Tanaka Memorial is often treated as a real document by newspapers and school textbooks in China, historians have reached a consensus that the document is a forgery.

title: Tanaka Memorial


text:
List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War

List of military corps – List of Finnish corps in the Continuation War

This is a list of Finnish corps that existed during the Continuation War, 1941–1944.
 * I Corps
 * II Corps
 * III Corps
 * IV Corps
 * V Corps
 * VI Corps
 * VII Corps


text:
List of closed railway stations in Melbourne

A number of railway lines and stations which formed part of the greater Melbourne railway network have been closed over time, either in part or in full. The decision to close a railway station has historically been made by the department responsible for rail transport within the Government of Victoria.

Over the history of the Melbourne railway network, a total of eleven complete railway lines, as well as 71 railway stations, have been closed. The most recent railway stations to close are Surrey Hills and Mont Albert stations, which closed on 17 February 2023, due to the level crossing removal project which will see the two stations merge and become Union station, while the most recent railway line to close to traffic is the Port Melbourne railway line, which was closed on 11 October 1987, and was subsequently converted to light rail. A number of stations have also been closed and rebuilt at another location, such as West Footscray, which was rebuilt 160 metres away as part of the Regional Rail Link project.

Most closed railway lines have been converted to other uses, such as rail trails or linear parkland. In addition, a number of closed railway stations have been converted for other uses, such as retail stores.

Rebuilt
These stations previously existed in slightly different locations, and/or at a higher or lower level (for example, originally at ground level then lowered into a cutting), to their modern-day counterparts. They may be considered the closed predecessors of today's stations.

 * Ardeer (August 1956) – on the Melton line (greater metropolitan line)
 * Boronia (1998) – on the Belgrave line; track lowered station rebuilt (with a significantly larger capacity than before the rebuild) lowered as part of grade separation under the intersection of Dorset/Boronia Roads. Surface areas and carpark now integrated with Boronia Junction Shopping Centre.
 * Bentleigh (11 June – 29 August 2016) – on the Frankston line; rebuilt as part of the level crossing removal works at North Road, McKinnon Road and Centre Road.
 * Box Hill (1983–1985) – on the Belgrave/Lilydale line; track lowered and station incorporated into Box Hill Central shopping centre.
 * Canterbury (19 June 1966) – on the Belgrave/Lilydale line; current high level station opened on 15 September 1968 and was completed and the Canterbury Road level crossing closed on 22 December 1968
 * Dandenong – Built 8 October 1887, upgraded in 1994–1995 – Change over for the Pakenham and Cranbourne Lines
 * Elsternwick (October 1960) – on the Sandringham line; grade separated to remove the level crossing and tram square at Glen Huntly Road.
 * Epping (29 November 1959) – terminus of the Epping line until 2012; current station opened on 30 November 1964
 * Fawkner (13 July 1903) – on the Upfield line; current station opened on 10 December 1906
 * Footscray 1900 – two separate stations for the Williamstown and Sunbury lines were merged into the current site
 * Flinders Street
 * Originally Melbourne Terminus (built 1854)
 * Current Flinders Street station (built 1910)
 * Gardiner (18 January 2016) – lowered into cutting as part of the removal of a Glen Waverley line rail crossing at Burke Road.
 * Glen Waverley (24 February 1964) – terminus of the Glen Waverley line
 * Heatherdale (2015 - 6 February 2017) track lowered into cutting and station rebuilt as part of the Level Crossing Removal Project.
 * Hoppers Crossing (1983) – Originally located on the Western Side of Old Geelong Road (1970–1983) for country trains, rebuilt with longer platforms to cater for Electric Trains on the Eastern Side of Old Geelong Road.
 * Laburnum (January 2007) – on the Belgrave/Lilydale line; track lowered to create a rail underpass replacing the level crossing at Middleborough Road.
 * Lalor (5 August 1952) – on the Mernda line
 * McKinnon (25 March – 1 August 2016) – on the Frankston Line; rebuilt as part of the level crossing removal works at North Road, McKinnon Road and Centre Road.
 * Mitcham (25 December 1882 – 2 January 2014) – on the Belgrave/Lilydale line; track lowered to create a rail underpass replacing two level crossings at Mitcham Road and Rooks Road. New station opened 25 January 2014.
 * Moorabbin 1959 – on the Frankston line; new station lowered below road level and provision made for the third track (which did not occur for some 20 years), road underpasses established for South Road and the Nepean Highway
 * Mornington (1987) – on the Mornington line; new station located on the demolished Stopping Place 16 station and opened 2000
 * Narre Warren (3 June 1995) – on the Pakenham line
 * Nunawading (January 2010) – on the Belgrave/Lilydale line; track lowered and station rebuilt with a provision made for a third track as part of the Springvale Road grade separation project.
 * Officer (13 May 1956) – on the Pakenham line
 * Ormond (11 June – 29 August 2016) – on the Frankston line; rebuilt as part of the level crossing removal works at North Road, McKinnon Road and Centre Road.
 * Richmond (the gateway to the city for all eastern lines) has had several incarnations:
 * Punt Road low level (8 February 1859 – 12 December 1859)
 * Swan Street low level (12 December 1859 – 1885)
 * Richmond high level (1885 – 26 March 1960) – the opening of this station overlapped with the closure of Swan Street
 * Sandown Park (16 May 1955) – on the Pakenham and Cranbourne lines; current station opened on 19 June 1965
 * Southern Cross, the main terminus of regional and interstate services in Victoria.
 * Progressively expanded until 1960.
 * Rebuilt station building and platform layout beginning in 1960 as part of the works providing a standard-gauge railway link to Sydney.
 * Beginning 2002, Spencer Street has been substantially rebuilt and renamed Southern Cross. While maintaining the previous platform layout, the station bears no resemblance to the former station.
 * Tottenham low level (27 July 1982) – on the Sunbury line
 * Watergardens (Sydenham) (2002) – on the Sydenham line
 * Watsonia was lowered into a cutting when the line between Macleod and Greensborough was duplicated. (Hurstbridge line)
 * West Footscray (14 October 2013) – on the Sunbury line; rebuilt as part of the Regional Rail Link project.


text:
Pama–Nyungan languages

The Pama–Nyungan languages are the most widespread family of Australian Aboriginal languages, containing 306 out of 400 Aboriginal languages in Australia. The name "Pama–Nyungan" is a merism: it is derived from the two end-points of the range, the Pama languages of northeast Australia (where the word for "man" is pama) and the Nyungan languages of southwest Australia (where the word for "man" is nyunga).

The other language families indigenous to the continent of Australia are occasionally referred to, by exclusion, as non-Pama–Nyungan languages, though this is not a taxonomic term. The Pama–Nyungan family accounts for most of the geographic spread, most of the Aboriginal population, and the greatest number of languages. Most of the Pama–Nyungan languages are spoken by small ethnic groups of hundreds of speakers or fewer. Many languages, either due to disease or elimination of their speakers, have become extinct, and almost all remaining ones are endangered in some way. Only in the central inland portions of the continent do Pama–Nyungan languages remain spoken vigorously by the entire community.

The Pama–Nyungan family was identified and named by Kenneth L. Hale, in his work on the classification of Native Australian languages. Hale's research led him to the conclusion that of the Aboriginal Australian languages, one relatively closely interrelated family had spread and proliferated over most of the continent, while approximately a dozen other families were concentrated along the North coast.

Typology
Evans and McConvell describe typical Pama–Nyungan languages such as Warlpiri as dependent-marking and exclusively suffixing languages which lack gender, while noting that some non-Pama–Nyungan languages such as Tangkic share this typology and some Pama–Nyungan languages like Yanyuwa, a head-marking and prefixing language with a complicated gender system, diverge from it.

Reconstruction
Proto-Pama–Nyungan may have been spoken as recently as about 5,000 years ago, much more recently than the 40,000 to 60,000 years indigenous Australians are believed to have been inhabiting Australia. How the Pama–Nyungan languages spread over most of the continent and displaced any pre-Pama–Nyungan languages is uncertain; one possibility is that language could have been transferred from one group to another alongside culture and ritual. Given the relationship of cognates between groups, it seems that Pama–Nyungan has many of the characteristics of a sprachbund, indicating the antiquity of multiple waves of culture contact between groups. Dixon in particular has argued that the genealogical trees found with many language families do not fit in the Pama–Nyungan family. Using computational phylogenetics, posit a mid-Holocene expansion of Pama–Nyungan from the Gulf Plains of northeastern Australia.

Phonotactics
Pama–Nyungan languages generally share several broad phonotactic constraints: single-consonant onsets, a lack of fricatives, and a prohibition against liquids (laterals and rhotics) beginning words. Voiced fricatives have developed in several scattered languages, such as Anguthimri, though often the sole alleged fricative is and is analysed as an approximant  by other linguists. An exception is Kala Lagaw Ya, which acquired both fricatives and a voicing contrast in them and in its plosives from contact with Papuan languages. Several of the languages of Victoria allowed initial, and one—Gunai—also allowed initial and consonant clusters  and , a trait shared with the extinct Tasmanian languages across the Bass Strait.

Classification
At the time of the European arrival in Australia, there were some 300 Pama–Nyungan languages divided across three dozen branches. What follows are the languages listed in and ; numbers in parentheses are the numbers of languages in each branch. These vary from languages so distinct they are difficult to demonstrate as being in the same branch, to near-dialects on par with the differences between the Scandinavian languages.

Traditional conservative classification
Down the east coast, from Cape York to the Bass Strait, there are:
 * Kala Lagaw Ya (1)
 * Paman (41)
 * Yidiny (1)
 * Dyirbalic (5)
 * Maric (26)
 * Waka–Kabic (5)
 * Durubulic (5)
 * Bandjalangic (4)
 * Gumbaynggiric (2)
 * Anewan (Nganyaywana) (1)
 * Wiradhuric (Central NSW; inland of Yuin–Kuric) (5)
 * Yuin–Kuric (14)
 * Gippsland (5)

Continuing along the south coast, from Melbourne to Perth:
 * Yotayotic (somewhat inland) (2)
 * Kulinic (13)
 * Lower Murray (9)
 * Thura-Yura (8)
 * Mirniny (2)
 * Nyungic (SW) (11)

Up the west coast:
 * Kartu (5)
 * Kanyara–Mantharta (8)
 * Ngayarta (12)
 * Marrngu (3)

Cutting inland back to Paman, south of the northern non-Pama–Nyungan languages, are
 * Ngumpin–Yapa (10)
 * Warumungu (1)
 * Warluwaric (5)
 * Kalkatungic (2)
 * Mayi (Mayabic) (7)

Encircled by these branches are:
 * Wati (15), the large inland expanse in the west
 * Arandic (9), in the north centre
 * Karnic (18), in the west
 * Yardli (Yarli) (3), in the west
 * Muruwari (1)
 * Baagandji (Darling; inland of Lower Murray) (2)

Separated to the north of the rest of Pama–Nyungan is
 * Yolŋu (10)

Some of inclusions in each branch are only provisional, as many languages became extinct before they could be adequately documented. Not included are dozens of poorly attested and extinct languages such as Barranbinja and the Lower Burdekin languages.

A few more inclusive groups that have been proposed, such as Northeast Pama–Nyungan (Pama–Maric), Central New South Wales, and Southwest Pama–Nyungan, appear to be geographical rather than genealogical groups.

Bowern & Atkinson
use computational phylogenetics to calculate the following classification:

 * Pama–Nyungan
 * Southeastern
 * Victorian
 * Lower Murray languages
 * Victorian
 * Eastern Victoria
 * Yorta-Yorta
 * Gunai
 * Pallanganmiddang
 * Macro-Kulin
 * Kulin languages
 * Bungandidj
 * New South Wales
 * Yuin-Kuric languages
 * Central New South Wales languages
 * North Coast
 * Durubalic languages
 * Yugambeh-Bundjalung languages
 * Gumbaynggiric languages
 * Waka-Kabic languages
 * Northern
 * Gulf
 * Kalkatungic languages
 * Mayabic languages
 * Pama-Maric (weak support)
 * Paman languages
 * Kalaw Lagaw Ya
 * Maric languages
 * (?) Dyirbalic languages
 * Central
 * Arandic–Thura-Yura
 * Arandic languages
 * Thura-Yura languages
 * Southwest Queensland
 * Karnic languages
 * Northwest NSW
 * Yarli
 * Paakantyi
 * Western
 * Yolŋu-Ngarna (weak support)
 * Yolŋu languages
 * Ngarna languages
 * Nyungic languages
 * Desert Nyungic
 * Marrngu languages
 * Ngumpin–Yapa languages
 * Warumungu languages
 * Wati languages
 * Southwest Nyungic
 * Pilbara languages
 * Ngayarda languages
 * Kanyara-Mantharta languages
 * Kartu–Nhanda languages
 * Mirning languages
 * Nyunga languages
 * Yinggarda language

External relations
According to Nicholas Evans, the closest relative of Pama–Nyungan is the Garawan language family, followed by the small Tangkic family. He then proposes a more distant relationship with the Gunwinyguan languages in a macro-family he calls Macro-Pama–Nyungan. However, this has yet to be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the linguistic community.

Dixon's scepticism
In his 1980 attempt to reconstruct Proto-Australian, R. M. W. Dixon reported that he was unable to find anything that reliably set Pama–Nyungan apart as a valid genetic group. Fifteen years later, he had abandoned the idea that Australian or Pama–Nyungan were families. He now sees Australian as a Sprachbund. Some of the small traditionally Pama–Nyungan families which have been demonstrated through the comparative method, or which in Dixon's opinion are likely to be demonstrable, include the following:

 * North Cape York (Northern Paman, Umpila, Wik/Middle Paman: part of Paman)
 * Yidinic (Dyaabugai and Yidiny: rejected by Bowern)
 * Maric (extinct languages uncertain)
 * Wiradhuric
 * Yolngu
 * Ngarna, a clear connection between Yanyuwa and Warluwara, Wagaya, Yindjilandji, Bularnu.
 * Part of Yura

He believes that Lower Murray (five families and isolates), Arandic (2 families, Kaytetye and Arrernte), and Kalkatungic (2 isolates) are small Sprachbunds.

Dixon's theories of Australian language diachrony have been based on a model of punctuated equilibrium (adapted from the eponymous model in evolutionary biology) wherein he believes Australian languages to be ancient and to have—for the most part—remained in unchanging equilibrium with the exception of sporadic branching or speciation events in the phylogenetic tree. Part of Dixon's objections to the Pama–Nyungan family classification is the lack of obvious binary branching points which are implicitly or explicitly entailed by his model.

Mainstream rejoinders
However, the papers in demonstrate about ten traditional groups, including Pama–Nyungan, and its sub-branches such as Arandic, using the comparative method.

In his last published paper from the same collection, Ken Hale describes Dixon's scepticism as an erroneous phylogenetic assessment which is "so bizarrely faulted, and such an insult to the eminently successful practitioners of Comparative Method Linguistics in Australia, that it positively demands a decisive riposte." In the same work Hale provides unique pronominal and grammatical evidence (with suppletion) as well as more than fifty basic-vocabulary cognates (showing regular sound correspondences) between the Proto-Northern-and-Middle Pamic (pNMP) family of the Cape York Peninsula on the Australian northeast coast and Proto-Ngayarta of the Australian west coast, some 3,000 km apart (as well as from many other languages), to support the Pama–Nyungan grouping, whose age he compares to that of Proto-Indo-European.

Bowern (2006)
Bowern offered an alternative to Dixon's binary phylogenetic-tree model based in the principles of dialect geography. Rather than discarding the notion that multiple subgroups of languages are genetically related due to the presence of multiple dialectal epicentres arranged around stark isoglosses, Bowern proposed that the non-binary-branching characteristics of Pama–Nyungan languages are precisely what we would expect to see from a language continuum in which dialects are diverging linguistically but remaining in close geographic and social contact. Bowern offered three main advantages of this geographical-continuum model over the punctuated equilibrium model: "First, there is a place for both divergence and convergence as processes of language change; punctuated equilibrium stresses convergence as the main mechanism of language change in Australia. Second, it makes Pama-Nyungan look much more similar to other areas of the world. We no longer have to assume that Australia is a special case. Third, and related to this, we do not have to assume in this model that there has been intensive diffusion of many linguistic elements that in other parts of the world are resistant to borrowing (such as shared irregularities)."

Bowern & Atkinson (2012)
Additional methods of computational phylogenetics employed by Bowern and Atkinson uncovered that there were more binary-branching characteristics than initially thought. Instead of acceding to the notion that Pama–Nyungan languages do not share the characteristics of a binary-branching language family, the computational methods revealed that inter-language loan rates were not as atypically high as previously imagined and do not obscure the features that would allow for a phylogenetic approach. This finding functioned as a kind of rejoinder to Dixon's scepticism.

"Our work puts to rest once and for all the claim that Australian languages are so exceptional that methods used elsewhere in the world do not work on this continent . The methods presented here have been used with Bantu, Austronesian, Indo-European, and Japonic languages (among others). Pama-Nyungan languages, like all languages, show a mixture of histories that reflect both contact and inheritance."

Bowern and Atkinson's computational model is currently the definitive model of Pama–Nyungan intra-relatedness and diachrony.

title: Pama–Nyungan languages


text:
List of Finnish corps in the Winter War

List of military corps – List of Finnish corps in the Winter War

This is a list of Finnish corps that existed during the Winter War, 1939–1940.
 * I Corps – formed February 19, 1940
 * II Corps
 * III Corps
 * IV Corps
 * Swedish Volunteer Corps – Svenska Frivilligkåren, arrived in 1940

title: List of Finnish corps in the Winter War


text:
Foveon X3 sensor

The Foveon X3 sensor is a digital camera image sensor designed by Foveon, Inc., (now part of Sigma Corporation) and manufactured by Dongbu Electronics. It uses an array of photosites that consist of three vertically stacked photodiodes. Each of the three stacked photodiodes has a different spectral sensitivity, allowing it to respond differently to different wavelengths. The signals from the three photodiodes are then processed as additive color data that are transformed to a standard RGB color space. In the late 1970s, a similar color sensor having three stacked photo detectors at each pixel location, with different spectral responses due to the differential absorption of light by the semiconductor, had been developed and patented Kodak.

The X3 sensor technology was first deployed in 2002 in the Sigma SD9 DSLR camera, and subsequently in the SD10, SD14, SD15, SD1 (including SD1 Merrill), the original mirrorless compact Sigma DP1 and Sigma DP2 in 2008 and 2009 respectively, the Sigma dp2 Quattro series from 2014, and the Sigma SD Quattro series from 2016. The development of the Foveon X3 technology is the subject of the 2005 book The Silicon Eye by George Gilder.

Operation

The diagram to the right depicts how the Foveon X3 sensor works. The image on the left shows the absorption of colors for each wavelength as it passes through the silicon wafer. The image on the right shows a layered sensor stack depicting the colors it detects at each absorption level for each output pixel. The sensor colors shown are only examples. In practice, the color attributes of each output pixel using this sensor result from the camera's image processing algorithms, which use a matrix process to construct a single RGB color from all the data sensed by the photodiode stack.

The depth of the silicon wafer in each of the three sensors is less than five micrometers that creates a negligible effect on focusing or chromatic aberration. However, because the collection depth of the deepest sensor layer (red) is comparable to collection depths in other silicon CMOS and CCD sensors, some diffusion of electrons and loss of sharpness in the longer wavelengths occurs.

Use
The first digital camera to use a Foveon X3 sensor was the Sigma SD9, a digital SLR launched in 2002. It used a 20.7 × 13.8 mm, 2268 x 1512 × 3 (3.54 × 3 MP) iteration of the sensor and was built on a Sigma-designed body using the Sigma SA mount. The camera was followed in 2003 by the improved but technically similar Sigma SD10, which was in turn succeeded in 2006 by the Sigma SD14, which used a higher-resolution, 2640 × 1760 × 3 (4.64 × 3 MP) sensor. The SD14's successor, the Sigma SD15, was released in June 2010 and used the same 2640 × 1760 × 3 sensor as the SD14. The Sigma SD1 was released in June 2011 with a new 23.5×15.7mm APS-C 4800 × 3200 × 3 (15.36 × 3 MP) sensor developed for the professional market.

In 2004, Polaroid Corp. announced the Polaroid x530, a compact camera with a 1408 × 1056 × 3, 1/1.8-in. sensor. The camera had a limited release in 2005 but was recalled later in the year for unspecified image quality problems. Sigma announced a prototype of its Foveon-based compact camera in 2006, the Sigma DP1, using the same 14 MP sensor as the SD14 DSLR. A revised version of the prototype was exhibited in 2007, and the camera was eventually launched in spring 2008. Unlike the Polaroid x530, the DP1 had an APS-C-sized sensor with a 28mm equivalent prime lens. The camera was revised as the DP1s and the DP1x. In 2009, the company launched the DP2, a compact camera using the same sensor and body as the DP1 but with a 41 mm-equivalent f/2.8 lens.

Comparison to Bayer-filter sensors
The operation of the Foveon X3 sensor is different from that of the Bayer filter image sensor, which is more commonly used in digital cameras. In the Bayer sensor, each photosite in the array consists of a single light sensor (either CMOS or CCD) that, as a result of filtration, is exposed to only one of the three primary colors: red, green, or blue. Constructing a full-color image from a Bayer sensor requires demosaicing, an interpolative process in which the output pixel associated with each photosite is assigned an RGB value based in part on the level of red, green, and blue reported by those photosites adjacent to it. However, the Foveon X3 sensor creates its RGB color output for each photosite by combining the outputs of each of the stacked photodiodes at each of its photosites. This operational difference results in several significant consequences.

Color artifacts
Because demosaicing is not required for the Foveon X3 sensor to produce a full-color image, the color artifacts ("colored jaggies") associated with the process are not seen. The separate anti-aliasing filter commonly used to mitigate those artifacts in a Bayer sensor is not required; this is because little aliasing occurs when the photodiodes for each color, with the assistance of the microlenses, integrate the optical image over a region almost as big as the spacing of sensors for that color. On the other hand, the method of color separation by silicon penetration depth gives more cross-contamination between color layers, meaning more issues with color accuracy.

Light gathering and low-light performance
Theoretically, the Foveon X3 photosensor can detect more photons entering the camera lens than a mosaic sensor, because each of the color filters overlaying each photosite of a mosaic sensor passes only one of the primary colors and absorbs the other two. However, the individual layers in a Fovean sensor do not respond as sharply to the respective colors; thus color-indicating information in the sensor's raw data requires an "aggressive" matrix (i.e., the removal of common-mode signals) to produce color data in a standard color space, which can increase color noise in low-light situations.

Spatial resolution
According to Sigma Corporation, "there has been some controversy in how to specify the number of pixels in Foveon sensors." The argument has been over whether sellers should count the number of photosites or the total number of photodiodes, as a megapixel count, and whether either of those should be compared with the number of photodiodes in a Bayer filter sensor or camera as a measure of resolution.

For example, the dimensions of the photosite array in the sensor in the Sigma SD10 camera are 2268 × 1512, and the camera produces a native file size of those dimensions (times three color layers), which amounts to approximately 3.4 million three-color pixels. However, it has been advertised as a 10.2 MP camera by taking into account that each photosite contains stacked red, green, and blue color-sensing photodiodes, or pixel sensors (2268 × 1512 × 3). By comparison, the dimensions of the photosite array in the 10.2 MP Bayer sensor in the Nikon D200 camera are 3872 × 2592, but there is only one photodiode, or one-pixel sensor, at each site. The cameras have equal numbers of photodiodes and produce similar raw data file sizes, but the Bayer filter camera produces a larger native file size via demosaicing.

The actual resolution produced by the Bayer sensor is more complicated than the count of its photosites, or its native file size might suggest; the demosaicing and the separate anti-aliasing filter are both commonly used to reduce the occurrence or severity of color moiré patterns that the mosaic characteristic of the Bayer sensor produces. The effect of this filter blurs the image output of the sensor which produces a lower resolution than the photosite count would seem to imply. This filter is mostly unnecessary with the Foveon X3 sensor and is not used. The earliest camera with a Foveon X3 sensor, the Sigma SD9, showed visible luminance moiré patterns without color moiré.

Subsequent X3-equipped cameras have less aliasing because they include micro-lenses, which provide an anti-aliasing filter by averaging the optical signal over an area commensurate with the sample density. This is not possible in any color channel of a Bayer-type sensor. Aliasing from the Foveon X3 sensor is "far less bothersome because it's monochrome," said Norman Koren. In theory, it is possible for a Foveon X3 sensor with the same number of photodiodes as a Bayer sensor and no separate anti-aliasing filter to attain a higher spatial resolution than that Bayer sensor. Independent tests indicate that the "10.2 MP" array of the Foveon X3 sensor (in the Sigma SD10) has a resolution similar to a 5 MP or 6 MP Bayer sensor. At low ISO speed, it is even similar to a 7.2 MP Bayer sensor.

With the introduction of the Sigma SD14, the 14 MP (4.7 MP red + 4.7 MP green + 4.7 MP blue) Foveon X3 sensor resolution is compared favorably by reviewers to that of 10 MP Bayer sensors. For example, Mike Chaney of ddisoftware says "the SD14 produces better photos than a typical 10 MP DSLR because it is able to carry sharp detail all the way to the 'falloff' point at 1700 LPI, whereas contrast, color detail, and sharpness begin to degrade long before the 1700 LPI limit on a Bayer based 10 MP DSLR."

Another article judges the Foveon X3 sensor as roughly equivalent to a 9 MP Bayer sensor.

A visual comparison between a 14 MP Foveon sensor and a 12.3 MP Bayer sensor shows Foveon has crisper details.

Noise
The Foveon X3 sensor, as used in the Sigma SD10 camera, has been characterized by two independent reviewers as noisier than the sensors in some other DSLRs using the Bayer sensor at higher ISO film speed equivalents, chroma noise in particular. Another noted higher noise during long exposure times. However, these reviewers offer no opinion as to whether this is an inherent property of the sensor or the camera's image-processing algorithms.

With regards to the Sigma SD14, which uses a more recent Foveon X3 sensor, one reviewer judged its noise levels as ranging from "very low" at ISO 100 to "moderate" at ISO 1600 when using the camera's Raw image format.

Sample images
Sigma's SD14 site has galleries of full-resolution images showing the color produced by the Foveon technology. The 14 MP Foveon chip produces 4.7 MP native-size RGB files; 14 MP Bayer filter cameras produce a 14 MP native file size by interpolation (i.e., demosaicing). Direct visual comparison of images from 12.7 MP Bayer sensors and 14.1 MP Foveon sensors show Bayer images are superior on fine monochrome detail, such as the lines between bricks on a distant building, but the Foveon images are superior in color resolution.

Further development
As of May 2023, the Foveon X3 sensor is less favoured by the average photographer, being overtaken by CMOS sensors which can be made at lower cost with higher resolution and lower noise.

However it was reported in February 2021 that Sigma has been working on a new Foveon sensor but that a critical flaw was found in their development to date and they had to restart development from scratch.

In February 2022 it was reported that Sigma was in the second stage of prototyping the new full frame Foveon sensor. Second stage prototyping in this case is the evaluation of a small image sensor prototype with the same pixel size as the product specifications but with a reduced total pixel count to verify the performance characteristics of the image sensor in practice. Third stage prototyping will evaluate a full-frame image sensor with the same specifications as the mass production devices including the AD converter etc. It is unlikely that mass production will commence before 2024.

title: Foveon X3 sensor


text:
Solanum carolinense

Solanum carolinense, the Carolina horsenettle, is not a true nettle, but a member of the Solanaceae, or nightshade family. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, native to the southeastern United States, though its range has expanded throughout much of temperate North America. The plant is an invasive in parts of Europe, Asia, Africa and Australia. The stem and undersides of larger leaf veins are covered with prickles.

"Horsenettle" is also written "horse nettle" or "horse-nettle", though USDA publications usually use the one-word form. Though there are other horsenettle nightshades, S. carolinense is the species most commonly called "the horsenettle". Other common names include radical weed, sand brier or briar, bull nettle, tread-softly, Solanum mammosum ("apple of Sodom"), devil's tomato and wild tomato.

Description
Leaves are alternate, elliptic-oblong to oval, 2+1/2 to 4+1/2 in long, and each is irregularly lobed or coarsely toothed. Both surfaces are covered with fine hairs. Leaves smell like potatoes when crushed. The flowers have five petals and are usually white or purple with yellow centers, though there is a blue variant that resembles the tomato flower. The fruits are berries that resemble tomatoes. The immature fruit is dark green with light green stripes, turning yellow and wrinkled as it matures. Each fruit contains around 60 seeds. It flowers throughout the summer, from April to October (on the northern hemisphere). The plant grows to 3 ft tall, is perennial, and spreads by both seeds and underground rhizome. Stems of older plants are woody.

Toxicity
Many parts of the plant have historically been used to create medicines to treat various conditions. It was listed in the United States National Formulary from 1916 to 1936 for use by pharmacists. However all parts of the plant, including its tomato-like fruit, contain toxins in varying degrees due to the presence of solanine glycoalkaloids which is a toxic alkaloid and one of the plant's natural defenses. While ingesting any part of the plant can cause fever, headache, scratchy throat, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, ingesting the fruit can cause abdominal pain, circulatory and respiratory depression, or even death.

Habitat
These plants can be found growing in pastures, roadsides, railroad margins, and in disturbed areas and waste ground. They grow to about 1 m tall, but are typically shorter, existing as subshrubs. They prefer full sun, but can tolerate both wet or dry conditions. They grow readily in sandy or loamy soils, and may also tolerate a wide range of soil types. They are most vigorous and most likely to become weedy or dominate on disturbed sites, but can also be found in less disturbed habitats.

Faunal associations and diseases
Bumble bees pollinate the flowers of this species.

At least thirty-two insects, as well as the meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus, have been recorded feeding on this species in Virginia alone. The caterpillars of the Synanthedon rileyana moth and the Manduca sexta (tobacco hornworm) moth feed on the plant. Manduca sexta moths prefer inbred plants to outbred plants. The beetle Leptinotarsa juncta specializes on this plant, and the beetle Epitrix fuscula (eggplant flea beetle) eats it as well. These two beetles are its two primary herbivores, and can reduce fruit production by as much as 75% relative to plants protected from all insects. Anthonomus nigrinus feeds on the flowers, and Trichobaris trinotata bores into the stems. This plant is also eaten by Leptinotarsa decemlineata (the Colorado potato beetle) and has been recorded as being eaten at very low rates by pupae of an unidentified species of the family Gelechiidae.

Parasitic nematodes of the genus Pratylenchus have been found on lesions on its roots, however causing little damage. The fungus Rhizoctonia solani was found causing root rot, particularly under wet conditions in plants damaged by trampling. The plant is also affected by Erysiphe cichoracearum, causing powdery mildew.

Fruits are eaten by a variety of native animals, including ring-necked pheasant, bobwhite, wild turkey, and striped skunk. Most mammals avoid eating the stems and leaves due to both the spines and toxicity of the plant.

Weed
Carolina horsenettle is considered a noxious weed in one US state (Alaska). It can spread vegetatively by underground rhizomes as well as by seed. It is resistant to many postemergent herbicides and somewhat resistant to broad-spectrum herbicides such as glyphosate and 2,4-D. In fact, herbicide use often selects for horsenettle by removing competing weeds. It is an especially despised weed by gardeners who hand-weed, as the prickles tend to penetrate the skin and then break off when the plant is grasped. The deep root also makes it difficult to remove.

title: Solanum carolinense


text:
User:Wikighost~enwiki

wikighost is a kid

title: User:Wikighost~enwiki