text:
Rapunzel

"Rapunzel" (, ; Persinette) is a German fairy tale most notably recorded by the Brothers Grimm and published in 1812 as part of Children's and Household Tales (KHM 12). The Brothers Grimm's story was developed from the French literary fairy tale of Persinette by Charlotte-Rose de Caumont de La Force (1698), which itself is an alternative version of the Italian fairy tale Petrosinella by Giambattista Basile (1634).

The tale is classified as Aarne–Thompson type 310 ("The Maiden in The Tower"). Its plot has been used and parodied in various media. Its best known line is, "Rapunzel, Rapunzel, let down your hair".

Plot
After years of wishing for a child, a couple is expecting a baby. The husband and wife live next to a large, extensive, high-walled flower and herb garden belonging to a sorceress. The wife craves for the rapunzel (which is either cornsalad or rampion ) that she sees growing in the garden. She refuses to eat anything else and begins to waste away. Her husband fears for her life and one night, he scales down the garden wall to steal some rapunzel for her. When the man returns home, his wife makes a salad out of the rapunzel and eats it. But the next day, the wife craves for more rapunzel, so her husband returns to the garden that night to steal some more. As he scales down the garden wall, the sorceress catches him and accuses him of theft. The man begs for mercy and explains his wife's condition. The sorceress agrees to be lenient, allowing the man to take all the rapunzel he wants on the condition that the baby be given to her when it is born. Desperate, he agrees.

When the wife gives birth to a baby girl, the sorceress takes her to raise as her own and names her "Rapunzel" after the plant her mother had craved for. Rapunzel grows up to be a beautiful child with long golden hair. When she turns twelve, the sorceress locks her up in a tower in the middle of the woods, with neither stairs nor a door, and only one room and one window at the top. In order to visit Rapunzel, the sorceress stands at the bottom of the tower and calls out: "Rapunzel! Rapunzel! Let down your hair That I may climb thy golden stair!"

Whenever Rapunzel hears that rhyme, she fastens her long braided hair to a hook in the window before letting it fall twenty yards to the ground, and the sorceress climbs up it.

A few years later, a prince rides through the forest and hears Rapunzel singing from the tower. Entranced by her ethereal voice, he searches for her and discovers the tower, but is unable to enter it. The prince returns to the tower often, listening to Rapunzel's beautiful singing, and one day sees the sorceress visit her as usual and learns how to gain access. When the sorceress leaves, the prince bids Rapunzel to let her hair down. Thinking it is the sorceress calling her again, Rapunzel lets down her hair and the prince climbs up. The two then fall in love and secretly marry. As the sorceress visits Rapunzel by day, the couple plans a means of escape: the prince will bring his wife a strand of silk every night until she has enough to make a ladder for her to climb down the tower and ride away with him on horseback.

Before the couple's escape plan can come to fruition, however, the sorceress visits one day and Rapunzel innocently asks her why all her clothes are tight around the waist (this part comes from the 1812 original edition of Kinder- und Hausmärchen or Children's and Household Tales, most commonly known in English as Grimms' Fairy Tales; in later editions, Rapunzel instead asks "Dame Gothel", in a moment of forgetfulness, why it is easier for her to draw up the prince than her ). In anger, the sorceress cuts off Rapunzel's hair and banishes her into the wilderness to fend for herself.

When the prince calls that night, the sorceress hooks Rapunzel's severed hair and lets it down to haul him up. To the prince's horror, he finds himself meeting the sorceress instead of Rapunzel. After the sorceress tells the prince in a rage that he will never see Rapunzel again, he throws himself from the tower, landing in a patch of thorns. Although the prince survives, the thorns blind him. A month later in the wilderness, Rapunzel gives birth to her twin children with the prince – a boy and a girl.

For some years, the blind prince wanders through the wastelands of the country and eventually comes to the wilderness where Rapunzel has been living with their children. One day, as Rapunzel sings, the prince hears her voice again, and they are reunited. When they fall into each other's arms, Rapunzel sheds tears, two of which fall into the prince's eyes, immediately restoring his sight. The prince leads Rapunzel and their children to his kingdom where they live happily ever after.

Another version of the story ends with the revelation that the sorceress had untied Rapunzel's hair after the prince leapt from the tower, and it slipped from her hands and landed far below, leaving her trapped in the tower.

Mythological and religious inspiration
Some researchers have proposed that the earliest possible inspiration for the "Maiden in the Tower" archetype is to the pre-Christian European (or proto-Indo-European) sun or dawn goddess myths, in which the light deity is trapped and is rescued. Similar myths include that of the Baltic solar goddess, Saulė, who is held captive in a tower by a king. Inspiration may also be taken from the classical myth of the hero, Perseus; Perseus' mother, the Princess Danaë, was confined to a bronze tower by her own father, Acrisius, the King of Argos, in an attempt to prevent her from becoming pregnant, as it was foretold by the Oracle of Delphi that she would bear a son who would kill his grandfather.

Inspiration may come from Ethniu, daughter of Balor, in Irish myth.

Inspiration may come from the story of Saint Barbara of Nicomedia, who is said to have been a beautiful woman who was confined to a tower by her father to protect her from bad influences. While in the tower, she is said to have converted to Christianity and be ultimately martyred for her faith after a series of miracles delaying her execution. Her story was included in The Book of the City of Ladies, completed by 1405 by Christine de Pizan in vernacular French, which may have been highly influential on later writers, as it was popular throughout Europe.

Literary development
The earliest surviving reference to a female character with long hair that she offers to a male lover to climb like a ladder appears in the Persian epic poem Shahnameh, written by Ferdowsi between c. 977 and 1010 CE. The heroine of the story, Rudāba, offers her hair so that her love interest Zāl may enter the harem where she lives. Zāl states instead that she should lower a rope so that she will not hurt herself.

The first written record of a story that may be recognized as Rapunzel is Giambattista Basile's Petrosinella, translating to parsley, which was published in Naples in the local dialect in 1634 in a collection entitled Lo cunto de li cunti (The Story of Stories). This version of the story differs from later versions as it is the wife not the husband who steals the plant, the maiden is taken by the villain as a child rather than a baby, and the maiden and the prince are not separated for years to be reunited in the end. Most importantly, this version of the story contains a "flight" scene in which Petrosinella uses magic acorns that turn into animals to distract the ogress while she pursues the couple fleeing the tower. This "flight" scene, with three magic objects used as distraction, is found in oral variants in the Mediterranean region, notably Sicily (Angiola), Malta (Little Parsley and Little Fennel), and Greece (Anthousa the Fair with Golden Hair).

In 1697, Charlotte-Rose de Caumont de La Force published a variation of the story, Persinette, while confined to an abbey due to perceived misconduct during service in the court of Louis XIV. Before her imprisonment, de la Force was a prominent figure in the Parisian salons and considered one of the early conteuses as a contemporary to Charles Perrault. This version of the story includes almost all elements that were found in later versions by the Grimm Brothers. It is the first version to include the maiden's out of wedlock pregnancy, the villain's trickery leading to the prince's blinding, the birth of twins, and the tears of the maiden restoring the prince's sight. The tale ends with the antagonist taking pity on the couple and transporting them to the prince's kingdom. While de la Force's claim that Persinette was an original story cannot be substantiated, her version was the most complex at the time and did introduce original elements.

German adaptation
The first known German translation of Charlotte-Rose de Caumont de La Force's tale Persinette came about in 1766 by Friedrich Immanuel Bierling under the name "Das Cabinet der Feen. Oder gesammelte Feen-Märchen in neun Theilen, Aus dem Französischen übersetzt", published in Nürenberg. More famously, Persinette was translated into German by Friedrich Schulz and appeared in 1790 in Kleine Romane (Little Novels), as it was Schulz who changed the plant and the maiden's name to Rapunzel.  Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm included the story in their first (1812) and seventh (1857) edition publications of Children's and Household Tales and removed elements that they believed were added to the "original" German fairy tale. Although the Grimms' recounting of the fairy tale is the most prevalent version of the "Maiden in the Tower" in the western literary canon, the story does not appear to have connections to a Germanic oral folktale tradition. Notably, the 1812 publication retains the out of wedlock pregnancy that reveals the prince's visits to the witch, whereas in the 1857 version edited by Wilhelm Grimm, it is Rapunzel's slip of the tongue to address criticism that the tale was not appropriate for children. It can be argued that the 1857 version of the story was the first written for a primarily child-aged audience.

Distribution
According to Greek folklorist Georgios A. Megas, fellow folklorist Michael Meracles concluded that the tale type originated in Southeastern Europe, by analysing 22 Greek variants, 2 Serbo-Croatian and 1 from Corsica.

Scholar Jack Zipes stated that the tale type is "extremely popular throughout Europe". However, scholar Ton Deker remarked that the tale type is "mainly known" in Central and South Europe, and in the Middle East. In the same vein, Stith Thompson argued for a Mediterranean origin for the story, due to "its great popularity" in Italy and nearby countries.

Scholar Ulrich Marzolph remarked that the tale type AT 310 was one of "the most frequently encountered tales in Arab oral tradition", albeit missing from The Arabian Nights compilation.

Themes and characterization
Many scholars have interpreted "Maiden in the Tower" stories, which Rapunzel is a part of, as a metaphor for the protection of young women from pre-marital relationships by overzealous guardians. Scholars have drawn comparisons of the confinement of Rapunzel in her tower to that of a convent, where women's lives were highly controlled and they lived in exclusion from outsiders.

Scholars have also noted the strong theme of love conquering all in the story, as the lovers are united after years of searching in all versions after Persinette and are ultimately happily reunited as a family.

The seemingly unfair bargain that the husband makes with the sorceress in the opening of Rapunzel is a common convention in fairy tales, which is replicated in Jack and the Beanstalk, when Jack trades a cow for beans, and in Beauty and the Beast, when Beauty comes to the Beast in return for a rose. Furthermore, folkloric beliefs often regarded it as dangerous to deny a pregnant woman any food she craved, making the bargain with the sorceress more understandable, since the husband would have perceived his actions as saving his wife at the cost of his child. Family members would often go to great lengths to secure such cravings, and such desires for lettuce and other vegetables may indicate a need for vitamins.

The "Maiden in the Tower" archetype has drawn comparisons to a possible lost matriarchal myth connected to the sacred marriage between the prince and the maiden and the rivalry between the maiden, representing life and spring, and the crone, representing death and winter.

Literary media
Andrew Lang included the story in his 1890 publication The Red Fairy Book. Other versions of the tale also appear in A Book of Witches (1965) by Ruth Manning-Sanders and in Paul O. Zelinsky's Caldecott Medal-winning picture book, Rapunzel (1997).

Anne Sexton wrote a poem called "Rapunzel" in her collection Transformations (1971), a book in which she re-envisions sixteen of the Grimm's Fairy tales.

Donna Jo Napoli's novel Zel (1996) retells the Rapunzel story from three perspectives: the maiden, her mother, and the prince.

Cress is the third book in the Lunar Chronicles, a young adult science fiction series written by Marissa Meyer that is an adaptation of Rapunzel. Crescent, nicknamed "Cress", is a prisoner on a satellite who is rescued and falls in love with her hero "Captain Thorne" amidst the story about "Cinder" a cyborg version of Cinderella.

Kate Forsyth has written two books about Rapunzel, one is a fictional retelling of the tale and of the life of Mademoiselle de la Force entitled, Bitter Greens, and her second book was non-fiction describing the development of the tale entitled, The Rebirth of Rapunzel: A Mythic Biography of the Maiden in the Tower.

In Nikita Gill's 2018 poetry collection Fierce Fairytales: & Other Stories to Stir Your Soul she has several poems that reference Rapunzel or Rapunzel's story including Rapunzel's Note Left for Mother Gothel and Rapunzel, Rapunzel.

In 2022, Mary McMyne published a standalone adult historical fantasy novel The Book of Gothel, which speculates that the witch's character was inspired by the life of a medieval midwife named Haelewise, daughter-of-Hedda, who lived in 12th century Germania. The novel is a revisionist backstory for Rapunzel that also connects to elements of Snow White, Little Red Riding Hood, and other tales.

Film media

 * The Story of Rapunzel (1951), a stop-motion animated short directed by Ray Harryhausen.
 * A live action version was filmed for television as part of Shelley Duvall's series Faerie Tale Theatre, airing on Showtime. It aired on 5 February 1983. Jeff Bridges played the prince and Rapunzel's father, Shelley Duvall played Rapunzel and her mother, Gena Rowlands played the witch, and Roddy McDowall narrated.
 * A 1988 German film adaption, Rapunzel oder Der Zauber der Tränen (meaning "Rapunzel or the Magic of Tears"), combines the story with the lesser-known Grimm fairy tale Maid Maleen. After escaping the tower, Rapunzel finds work as a kitchen maid in the prince's court, where she must contend with an evil princess who aims to marry him.
 * A 1990 straight-to-video animated film adaption by Hanna-Barbera and Hallmark Cards, simply titled Rapunzel, featured Olivia Newton-John narrating the story.
 * Into the Woods is a musical combining elements from several classic fairy tales, in which Rapunzel is one of the main characters; it was also filmed for television in 1991 by American Playhouse. The story depicts Rapunzel as the adoptive daughter of the Witch. In the second half of the play, Rapunzel is killed by the Giant's Wife. A film adaptation of Into the Woods by The Walt Disney Company was released late in 2014 where Rapunzel is portrayed by MacKenzie Mauzy.
 * In Barbie as Rapunzel (2002), Rapunzel was raised by the evil witch Gothel (voiced by Anjelica Huston) and she acted as a servant for her. She uses a magic paintbrush to get out of captivity, but Gothel locks her away in a tower.
 * In Shrek the Third (2007), Rapunzel (voiced by Maya Rudolph) was friends with Princess Fiona. She is shown to be the true love of the evil Prince Charming and helps to fool Princess Fiona and her group when they try to escape from Prince Charming's wrath.
 * Walt Disney Animation Studios' Tangled (2010), which is a loose retelling and a computer-animated musical feature film. Princess Rapunzel (voiced by Mandy Moore) is more assertive in character, and was born a princess. Rapunzel also features in the short sequel, Tangled Ever After and another film, Tangled: Before Ever After.
 * Walt Disney Pictures hired Ashleigh Powell to write the script for a live-action Rapunzel movie. It is unknown if the film will be a remake of Tangled, a new adaptation, or a combination of both.

Live action television media
Shirley Temple's Storybook (1958-1961) featured an media of Rapunzel in an episode which aired on 27 October 1958. Carol Lynley played Rapunzel and Agnes Moorehead played the evil witch.

The Sesame Street Muppet sketch series Sesame Street News Flash with Kermit the Frog as reporter began with the Rapunzel fairy tale as the first such sketch. Naturally, the action turns out not to match the fairy tale's narrative, thus setting the stage for the sketch series.

The fictional TV show, "The Flora Follicle Show" on Slim Goodbody in Nutri-City had a direct reference to the Rapunzel story, as Flora Follicle played Rapunzel to Lustre Lanolin's Prince Charming.

In the American fairy tale miniseries, The Tenth Kingdom (2000), the main character, Virginia Lewis is cursed by a Gypsy witch. As a result, she grows hair reminiscent of Rapunzel's and is locked away by the Huntsman in a tower.

Rapunzel appears in the Once Upon a Time episode The Tower (2014), portrayed by Alexandra Metz. A second iteration of Rapunzel appears as one of the main antagonists in the seventh season of Once Upon a Time (Season 7, 2018), portrayed by Gabrielle Anwar and Meegan Warner in flashbacks. In this season, Rapunzel is Lady Tremaine, the wicked stepmother to Cinderella.

The Video of the song Circles (Post Malone song) is inspired by the story of Rapunzel

Animated television media
The fairy tale was spoofed twice in Jay Ward's Fractured Fairy Tales from Rocky and Bullwinkle.

The American television animated anthology series, Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child (1995-2000), the classic story is retold with a full African-American cast and set in New Orleans. The episode starred Tisha Campbell-Martin as Rapunzel, Whoopi Goldberg as Zenobia the Hoodoo Diva, Meshach Taylor as the Woodcutter, Hazelle Goodman as the Woodcutter's Wife, Donald Fullilove as Friend #1, and Tico Wells as Friend #2.

The fairy tale was enacted, hip-hop style, by Queen Rapsheeba on stage in an episode of Chalk Zone.

The Mattel cartoon Ever After High (2013–2017), features Rapunzel's identical twin daughters: Holly and Poppy O'Hair.

Tangled: The Series (2017–2020) is a 2D animated TV show based on Disney Animation's computer animated musical feature film Tangled. Mandy Moore and Zachary Levi reprise their roles of Rapunzel and Eugene Fitzherbert. A new main character named Cassandra appears, who is Rapunzel's feisty lady-in-waiting, and later revealed to be Mother Gothel's biological daughter.

The Japanese anime series Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics (1987–1989) features the tale in its second season.

title: Rapunzel


text:
Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski

Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (Andreas Fricius Modrevius) (20 September 1503 – 1572) was a Polish Renaissance scholar, humanist and theologian, called "the father of Polish democracy". His book De Republica emendanda (O poprawie Rzeczypospolitej) was widely read and praised across most of Renaissance Europe, influencing thinkers such as Jean Bodin, Hugo Grotius and Johannes Althusius.

Life
Modrzewski was born in Wolbórz (also known as Woybor, Voibor, Woibor, Wojbor, Woyborz and Wolborz), near Piotrków Trybunalski, the son of Jakub Modrzewski (1477–1529). Modrzewski family belonged to the gentry (though some authors speak of impoverished nobility), bore Jastrzębiec coat of arms, and held the hereditary title of mayor (wójt/vogt/advocatus) of Wolbórz. After graduating from the Kraków Academy, he was ordained a vicar and served under Archbishop Jan Łaski (the Elder), and later under the Bishop of Poznań, Jan Latalski. From 1530 he was connected to the court of Jan Łaski the Younger, the Primate of Poland and nephew of the elder Łaski. Having lived for a time in Germany, where he studied at the Lutheran University he met Martin Luther and other early Protestant reformers in Wittenberg. He also took care of the library of Erasmus bought by Łaski.

From 1540 onwards, he served as the titular parish priest in Brzeziny and Skoszewy. In 1541, during his stay in the capital, he met with Mikołaj Rej. Modrzewski advocated sending a mixed ecclesiastical and secular delegation to the 1545 Ecumenical Council of Trent (where he would be sent as a Polish delegate). He supported Irenicism (the importance of unity) and the democratic and ecumenical element in the Church. He became an official at the court of Sigismund II Augustus in 1547. Since he was leaning strongly towards the reformist circles (especially Calvinian and Arian/Polish brethren), he became in danger of being accused of heresy and was ultimately stripped of his ecclesiastical titles and offices. The king, however, issued a letter of protection for him. In 1553 he retired to his native Wolbórz.

Modrzewski debuted as a writer in 1543 with the work called Lascius, sive de poena homicidii (On The Penalty for Manslaughter; or Łaski, czyli O karze za mężobójstwo in Polish). In it, Modrzewski criticized the inequality prescribed by the law for different social classes: for example, while the penalty for killing a nobleman ranged from 120 grzywna – through life imprisonment – to death, the penalty for killing a peasant was only 10 grzywna. Yet it was On the Improvement of the Commonwealth (De Republica emendanda) that brought him eternal and international fame. In it, he advocated a strong monarchy that would protect the rights of all citizens. He postulated equality of all before the law, and criticized the 1565 ban on land-owning by non-nobles. He wrote that peasants should own the soil which they work, and that townsfolk should be able to buy land and be elected to offices (those rights were being reserved only for the nobility back then), demanded the reform (secularization) of education, and division between state and church. This treatise was translated into many European languages and earned him many enemies in the Church. Pope Paul V placed the book on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum (list of prohibited books).

De Republica emendanda
Modrzewski's crowning achievement printed in 1551 was: Commentariorum De Republica emendanda libri quinque (Five Books of Commentaries on the Improvement of Commonwealth, or Rozważań o poprawie Rzeczypospolitej ksiąg pięć in Polish) published in the printing house of Łazarz Andrysowic. Originally it was to include all five manuscripts: 1. De Moribus (On Customs); 2. De Legibus (On Laws); 3. De Bello (On War); 4. De Ecclesia (On Church), and 5. De Schola (On School). However, as some of Modrevius' theses were considered unorthodox by the Church and opposed, only the three first books were included in the original publication.

The first complete edition – consisting of all five beforementioned books, and dialogues entitled: De utraque specie Coenae Domini ('On the twofold nature of the Lord's Table') – was published in 1554 in Basel by Johannes Oporinus, after which Modrzewski was forced to leave the capital. The first Polish translation by Cyprian Bazylik was published in Łosk in 1577. The book was widely read and praised across Renaissance Europe. It was translated into German, French, Spanish, and Russian in the 17th century.

Other works

 * 1543: Lascius sive de poena homicidii (On The Penalty For Manslaughter, Polish title: Łaski albo o karze za mężobójstwo)
 * 1545: Oratio Philatelis Peripatetici in senatulo hominum scholasticorum de decreto conventus, quo pagi civibus adimi permittuntur, habita... (The Discourse Of A Truthful Peripatethic spoken among the learned men about the parliamentary decree, which allows country estates to be taken away from townfolk, Polish title ''Mowa Prawdomówcy Perypatetyka o postanowieniu sejmu zezwalającym na odbieranie mieszczanom wiejskich posiadłości, wypowiedziana w kole ludzi uczonych)
 * 1561: Narratio simplex rei novae et eiusdem pessimi exempli... (Simple story considering the curious case and the bad example which it is..., Polish title Prosta opowieść o niezwykłej sprawie stanowiącej zgubny przykład, a zarazem użalenie się na krzywdy i skarga przeciw Stanisławowi Orzechowskiemu z Rusi)
 * 1590: Silvae, including Modrevius' four theological discourses (De tribus personis et una essentia Dei, On the three Persons and one essence of God; De necessitate conventus habendi ad sedandas religionis controversias, On the necessity of gathering to cease the religious controversies; De Iesu Christo On Jesus Christ; De Homousio On Homousia")

Lineage
Descendants of Modrzewski's daughter, include Victor Modrzewski, Polish President Lech Kaczyński and Princess Mathilde, Duchess of Brabant.

Quotes

 * "Without laws there can be no true freedom." (Bez praw nie może być prawdziwej wolności.)
 * "The peasant is not your slave, he is your neighbor."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski


text: Talk:Culture of the Dominican Republic

title: Talk:Culture of the Dominican Republic


text:
Opera in English

The history of opera in the English language commences in the 17th century.

Earliest examples
In England, one of opera's antecedents in the 16th century was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play; often scandalous and consisting in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes. In this respect such afterpieces anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century. At the same time, the French masque was gaining a firm hold at the English Court, with lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery. Inigo Jones became the leading designer of these productions, and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries. These masques contained songs and dances. In Ben Jonson's Lovers Made Men (1617), "the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner, stilo recitativo".

Purcell and his contemporaries
The approach of the English Commonwealth closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera. However, in 1656, the dramatist Sir William Davenant produced The Siege of Rhodes. Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama, he asked several of the leading composers (Henry Lawes, Cooke, Locke, Coleman and Hudson) to set sections of it to music. This success was followed by The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru (1658) and The History of Sir Francis Drake (1659). These pieces were encouraged by Oliver Cromwell because they were critical of Spain. With the English Restoration, foreign (especially French) musicians were welcomed back. In 1673, Thomas Shadwell's Psyche, patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet' of the same name produced by Molière and Jean-Baptiste Lully. William Davenant produced The Tempest in the same year, which was the first Shakespeare play to be set to music (composed by Locke and Johnson).

About 1683, John Blow composed Venus and Adonis, often thought of as the first true English-language opera. Blow's immediate successor was the better known Henry Purcell. Despite the success of his masterwork Dido and Aeneas (1689), in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative, much of Purcell's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera, but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the semi-opera format, where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play, such as Shakespeare in Purcell's The Fairy-Queen (1692) and Beaumont and Fletcher in The Prophetess (1690) and Bonduca (1696). The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes, which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song. Despite these hindrances, his aim (and that of his collaborator John Dryden) was to establish serious opera in England, but these hopes ended with Purcell's early death at the age of 36.

18th and 19th centuries
Following Purcell, the popularity of opera in England dwindled. A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s, which is largely attributed to Thomas Arne both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English. Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera, unsuccessfully in The Temple of Dullness (1745), Henry and Emma (1749) and Don Saverio (1750), but triumphantly in Thomas and Sally (1760). His opera Artaxerxes (1762) was the first attempt to set a full-blown opera seria in English and was a huge success, holding the stage until the 1830s. His modernized ballad opera, Love in a Village (1762), was equally novel and began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into the 19th century. Arne was one of the few English composers of the era who, although imitating many elements of Italian opera, was able to move beyond it to create his own voice. Charles Burney wrote that Arne introduced "a light, airy, original, and pleasing melody, wholly different from that of Purcell or Handel, whom all English composers had either pillaged or imitated".

Besides Arne, the other dominating forces in English opera at this time was George Frideric Handel, whose opera serias filled the London operatic stages for decades, and influenced most home-grown composers, such as John Frederick Lampe, to write using Italian models in imitation of him.

Throughout the second half of the 18th the most popular English genre proved to be ballad opera. Some notable composers include Arne's son Michael Arne, Dibdin, Linley Jr., Arnold, Hook, Shield, the tenor Michael Kelly, Stephen Storace and Mozart's favourite pupil Attwood. The most successful composer of the late Georgian era was Henry Bishop, whose song Home! Sweet Home! from the opera Clari, or the Maid of Milan is still popular today.

While throughout the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th composers had been influenced mainly by Italian opera, later in the century Meyerbeer's grand operas and, further later, Wagner's operas came to be regarded as the major models for imitation.

The beginning of the Victorian era saw a short but particularly intense period of creativity, roughly up to the 1850s, partially thanks to the keen interest in music of the Queen and of Prince Albert. The Romantic operas of Michael Balfe (the only one whose fame spread throughout Europe ), Julius Benedict, John Barnett, Edward Loder, G. A. Macfarren and William Wallace achieved great popularity both in Great Britain and Ireland.

John Barnett made a serious attempt to follow in the footsteps of Carl Maria von Weber with his opera The Mountain Sylph (1834), often mistakenly claimed as the first sung-through (i.e. completely sung) English opera, which was his only major success (and was later parodied by Gilbert and Sullivan in Iolanthe).

Among the main lanes in London for the production of English language opera in those times were Drury Lane, the Princess's Theatre and the Lyceum. The King's Theatre and the Covent Garden, which were the two major opera houses of the city, featured mostly Italian and French opera (the latter usually translated into Italian). This was a source of continuous vexation for English composers who, until late in the century, had to see their works translated into Italian to be performed on those stages. Moreover, the constant presence of a foreign language opera season in the city meant that the operas of indigenous composers had constantly to compete with those of the great Italian composers, as well as those of Weber, Meyerbeer, Fromental Halévy and Gounod (the last three usually performed in Italian at the Covent Garden), which continued to dominate the musical stage in England. Beside Balfe, whose operas were translated into German, French and Italian (The Bohemian Girl as La Zingara, for Trieste), the only other composers to gain so renown on the Continent and to have their operas translated into a foreign language were Benedict (into his native German) and Wallace (also in German).

After the 1870s, the reputation of English Romantic Opera slowly started to decline until, by the end of the century, most critics' opinion was against them. The only works to be still performed well into the 1930s were The Bohemian Girl, Maritana and The Lily of Killarney.

Beside foreign opera and European operetta, the most popular forms of indigenous entertainment in the second half of the 19th century were burlesques and late Victorian era light operas, notably the Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan, both of which frequently spoofed operatic conventions.

Sullivan wrote only one grand opera, Ivanhoe (following the efforts of a number of young English composers beginning about 1876), but he claimed that even his light operas were to be part of an "English" opera school, intended to supplant the French operettas (usually in bad translations) that had dominated the London stage throughout the 19th century into the 1870s. London's Daily Telegraph agreed. Sullivan produced a few light operas in the late 1880s and 1890s that were of a more serious nature than most of the G&S series, including The Yeomen of the Guard, Haddon Hall and The Beauty Stone, but Ivanhoe (which ran for 155 consecutive performances, using alternating casts—a record then and now) survives as his only real grand opera.

Late in the century composers such as Isidore de Lara, Delius and Dame Ethel Smyth, owing to the difficulties of getting serious English operas staged at home, caused in part by the popularity of light opera, turned to the Continent to seek their fortune, with De Lara becoming very popular in France and in Italy (his opera Messaline being the first work by an Englishman to be produced at La Scala).

20th century – today
In the 20th century, English opera began to assert more independence, with works of Ralph Vaughan Williams and Rutland Boughton and later Benjamin Britten, who, in a series of fine works that remain in standard repertory today, revealed an excellent flair for the dramatic and superb musicality.

Nevertheless, foreign influence (now coming mainly from Wagner, Tchaikovsky and Strauss), was still strong. One example is Josef Holbrooke's The Cauldron of Annwn trilogy. The influence of Wagner's Ring can be seen in the choice of a mythological subject and also in the extensive use of leitmotivs, while harmony and orchestration are more reminiscent of Strauss.

Other British composers writing well-received operas in the late 20th century include Thomas Wilson (e.g. The Confessions of a Justified Sinner), Richard Rodney Bennett (e.g. The Mines of Sulphur), Harrison Birtwistle (Punch and Judy), Peter Maxwell Davies (Taverner) and Oliver Knussen (Where the Wild Things Are). Today composers such as Thomas Adès continue to export English opera abroad.

Also in the 20th century, American composers like George Gershwin (Porgy and Bess), Scott Joplin (Treemonisha), Gian Carlo Menotti, Leonard Bernstein (Candide), and Carlisle Floyd began to contribute English-language operas, frequently infused with touches of popular musical styles. They were followed by Philip Glass (Einstein on the Beach), Mark Adamo, John Adams (Nixon in China), and Jake Heggie. Moreover, non-native-English speaking composers have occasionally set English libretti (e.g. Kurt Weill, Street Scene; Igor Stravinsky, The Rake's Progress; Hans Werner Henze, We Come to the River; Tan Dun, The First Emperor).

title: Opera in English


text:
Talk:United States presidential primary

Simultaneous primaries
One thing this article lacks is an explanation of how it came to pass that in each state the Republicans and Democrats have their primaries at the same time. Such a high degree of co-ordination and co-operation by two rival political parties would probably be criticized as collusion in most countries. While it may seem natural to many Americans, I can't be the only non-American who finds this puzzling. Also, although this article might not be the best place for it, there seems to be no article that explains how third-party candidates get on the presidential ballot.--Indefatigable 18:03, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The high degree of coordination is due to the fact that in most states the parties don't pay for the election, the state does. So, when California, say, holds its primary, the enormous cost of setting up polling places and tabulating returns is born by the State of California.  That gives the state the ability to refuse a party's request to change the date of its primary.  Some states use this primary election date as an event to take votes on other matters as well.  For example, on primary day, a ballot initiative might be offered that all registered voters can vote on regardless of what party they are registered with.

 * Since this article is about primaries, not general elections, it doesn't mention how third parties get on the ballot. However, if a registered third party wants to have a primary to determine who among them will run in the general election, they can choose to participate in the State's primary schedule and save themselves the cost of having to operate some self-funded alternate process for picking candidates.  Once the primaries are over, however, there is no guarantee their candidates will ever appear on the general election ballot.

 * Getting on a general election ballot is a separate process with rules that vary widely from state to state. A few states try to make entry to the ballot fairly easy for any party small or large.  Typically, a small number of signatures on a petition is required.  There are many states, though, that have made ballot access nearly impossible for smaller parties.

Jg og 2 (talk) 13:53, 11 August 2011 (UTC)

Primary vs Caucus
Though I have read throughtly yet, I agree that the article lacks explantions for non-American readers. For example, I was looking for the difference between Primary and caucus but it doesn't say anything. Oh, although it is probably obviously for almost everyone that the US is two party system, the article should mention that. To my knowldge, I think theoretically possible to run for the president if you are not a member of political parties. In short, my impression is that the article is written by Americans for Americans. Any input from non-American should be helpful. -- Taku 20:42, Mar 2, 2004 (UTC)

Questions from a European.
Are primaries for members or for everyone? How does one get the right to vote in a primary for a certain party? Do all parties have primaries, or only the major parties? Is it required by law, or just common practice? Is the infrastructure for the voting party or government infrastructure, e.g. who counts the votes after a primary? Does voting in a primary have any consequences, or is it secret? How many people vote in primaries? Are they targeted via mainstream media or is it a small and dedicated, high-educated group that is targeted using special channelS? Gerrit CUTEDH 18:50, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Very good questions! The rules vary by state. In some states you have to be previously registered as a Democrat/Republican to vote in that primary. In New Hampshire, all registered Republicans and registered Independents can vote in the Republican primary, and all registered Democrats and registered Independents can vote in the Democratic primary. Entry into the primaries are controlled by the parties EXCEPT that voting ion election day is supervised by local government, which counts the votes. Voting is secret in all primaries but OPEN in the Iowa Caucus and other caucuses. The primaries are very well covered by the media if there is a contest. The minor parties choose to not have primaries. Turnout varies but in a contested race expect 35-50% turnout of those eligible. Rjensen 19:01, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

 * What Rjensen says is basically right, but I'd point out a couple of things. First, sometimes minor parties do participate. No party is actually required to pay any attention to the results of the primary (at least, not for president; the situation for state office is less clear). Parties make their own nominating rules and can pretty much do what they want; if they want to pick their presidential nominee in the classic "smoke-filled room" then as far as I know there's no law against it, and any such law would probably be unconstitutional. Presumably the parties resist the temptation to do that for fear that the public reaction to it would cost them votes. --Trovatore 19:02, 20 April 2006 (UTC)

I too am a European, impressed by the American democratic system. I have some questions on the relationship between the national parties and the 50 states: What would happen if a state defied the parties' rules on primaries, and (say) held its primary at the wrong time? California is in the process of passing a law which advances the date of its primary. Does this mean it will be punished by having its delegates' votes discounted at the party conferences? Why did the parties acquiesce in the changes made by those southern states which established Super Tuesday? Isn't Super Tuesday just bullying? Who pays for primaries and caucuses, and counting the votes - is it the states, or the parties? Why do the states have the power to determine franchise in the primaries, when the primaries are held for the benefit of the parties? Benedict Rodgers 14:27, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

 * The state committees cannot push the boundaries too far, or they would risk being decertified by the national party under the party rules. But on top of the rules, a great deal of media and campaign infrastructure is in place in Iowa and New Hampshire and there is little incentive for a candidate to spend a lot of time in Alaska or Hawaii, which regularly hold GOP caucuses before Iowa, because they count for even less in the press than at convention. And there is the example of 1996; the Louisiana Republican Party moved their caucus up trying to upstage Iowa, and Phil Gramm's campaign wanted to use it to gain early momentum. Instead, he was humiliated by Pat Buchanan and quit the race after coming in fifth in Iowa. Other than the Iowa and New Hampshire-first rule, I don't think the national parties have strict rules on scheduling, so organizing something like Super Tuesday is a matter of coordination by state legislatures and parties and not any sort of mass civil disobedience. The costs of primaries are covered by the states with public funds, and different states fund their election commissions by different means.  The government's power to regulate the primaries derives from a 1941 Supreme Court ruling, United States v. Classic, which states that even though a party is a private organization, because the state allows the parties to select candidates to hold elective office, a party primary is a state action. Also see Smith v. Allwright. -choster 03:25, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

 * I believe South Carolina does not fund its primary with public dollars. Parties pay for the election process. See: Chris Cillizza, Chris. Fundraiser to Help Underwrite S.C. Primary Washington Post,Friday, February 23, 2007; Page A08. Yellowdesk 14:44, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Also note- Several states HAVE gotten their votes stripped or halved for moving up this year, such as Florida and Michigan for the Democrats. Also, Super (Duper?) Tuesday is neither disobedience nor coordination; February Fifth is merely the earliest date allowed without permission by both parties. See http://politics.nytimes.com/election-guide/2008/primaries/democraticprimaries/index.html for more info. :-) --Cheeesemonger (talk) 11:48, 23 January 2008 (UTC)

Rewrite
I started out expanding the history section and ended up rewriting the entire article, partly to Indefatigable and Gerrit's concerns and to incorporate Rjensen's improvements. There's probably more to say in the criticisms and propsoed reforms sections, but I didn't have time to research them. Fire away. - choster 20:57, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Nice job! I rephrased it slightly. Rjensen 23:32, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

New Hampshire & Iowa
The history section looks good, but I think it would be helpful if someone could clarify how these two states got to hold their primaries first in the first place. Why were they singled out for this huge advantage? Sylvain1972 14:48, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

 * The history for New Hampshire is that thrifty yankees held their primary the same day they had their annual town meetings to establish their town budgets and taxes, in late winter/early spring, starting in 1916. The towns only need to heat the town hall one day, and everyone was already in the room. Years later the primary became more and more significant, and party-boss influence diminished. New Hampshire became a method for individuals to upset the dominant trends and thinking, and demonstrate electability.  In 1952 Eisenhower demonstrated this by defeating Taft in the Republican primary. From the 1970s  the primary became earlier and earlier, as the state legislature attempted to keep New Hampshire in the public eye, and not incidentally, have the benefit of national expenditures in an economically challenged state. See New_Hampshire_primary, which needs expansion. -- Yellowdesk 14:55, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

"Classic" primary states
I was wondering what the states were that held primaries between 1932 and 1968. The current article says 13 or 14, but it would be useful, I think, to list them all (and even to have articles about each one and their history). I can glean from various wikipedia articles on presidential elections in this period that there were, in one election or another, primaries in the following states:

 * 1) California
 * 2) Florida
 * 3) Illinois
 * 4) Indiana
 * 5) Maryland
 * 6) Massachusetts
 * 7) Nebraska
 * 8) New Hampshire
 * 9) New Jersey
 * 10) Ohio
 * 11) Oregon
 * 12) Pennsylvania
 * 13) Texas
 * 14) West Virginia
 * 15) Wisconsin

This, unfortunately, appears to be 15 states. I will note, though, that I'd never heard of a Texas primary other than in the wikipedia article on the 1964 election. The rest of them are more or less familiar to me. Are any of these wrong? Are there any others? What states had primaries in 1920, but got rid of them by 1932? Are there any good online sources on this stuff? john k 19:07, 24 April 2007 (UTC)

 * A visit to a college library and researching the political science and American political history journals is your best bet. It's a hot topic. It would be fabulous to have a good article on the changing influence of primaries, the downfall of party-boss-centered selection of candidates during the 20th century. Even the last 25 years has a big story. With all of the big states moving their dates, the influence of Iowa and New Hampshire is effectively over, since the candidates need to have huge fundraising enterprises, and a national campaign already in place, more than six months ahead of the events in 15 big states for subsequent post-Iowa and post-New Hampshire primaries. The days of someone like Jimmy Carter organizing a silently successful initial primary / caucus are over. -- Yellowdesk 14:36, 4 May 2007 (UTC)

Has anyone been able to find a list of delegates assigned to each state? I've been looking online to no avail. I downloaded the PDF file of Democratic Party Selection Rules and even that had nothing about the exact delegate counts. Anyone else have a better idea of where to look? Standard101 (talk) 13:45, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

Controversies
I think this article needs to be marked as biased. The primary system is not without controversies, and the comments about Iowa and New Hampshire seems to support the status quo. Comments about how Iowa and NH's early causes and primaries allegedly helps dark horse candidates or give campaigning a more person sense should be reserved for a "Controversies" section. There is a debate about the current system. For example, New Hampshire voters having disproportionally large influence is not universally viewed as a positive attribute. SiriusAlphaCMa 03:28, 29 August 2007 (UTC)

hard to understand
this article is hard for non americans to understand. i suggest that it should be simplified for the benifit of the rest of the world. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.43.236.16 (talk) 02:40, 22 November 2007 (UTC)

 * agreed. what about a full list of primary dates, or at least a link to the full list where this article mentions key dates? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 172.189.1.192 (talk) 10:07, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree, as a Canadian I find this article quite incomplete and jumpy. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.184.193.28 (talk) 18:59, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

 * There's a list of dates at http://politics.nytimes.com/election-guide/2008/primaries/democraticprimaries/index.html if anyone still wants it. --Cheeesemonger (talk) 11:49, 23 January 2008 (UTC

 * OK, that's a list of dates but I found THIS article impossible to understand. Wkipedia is a world-wide source and an article should stand up in its own right. Robertcornell68 (talk) 10:12, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I realise that wasn't a helpful criticism. I think the article assumes knowledge of USA political institutions and that simply naming a state will trigger a response. (wrt it's "importance") - also it concentrates on the 2008 elections, it needs to be more general.Robertcornell68 (talk) 10:20, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

Also totally agree. ALL I WANTED TO KNOW, simply, was the difference between a primary and a caucus. For once, I'm going to have to look outside of wiki 131.172.4.44 (talk) 02:31, 3 March 2008 (UTC)snaxalotl

This article shouldn't have a list of dates. We have articles on the 2008 primaries which give full schedules. This article should be about presidential primaries, generally, and throughout their existence. john k (talk) 07:05, 3 March 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree. This is hard to understand for non-Americans, and probably for some Americans. There is a lot of assumed knowledge.--Jack Upland (talk) 03:32, 14 January 2020 (UTC)

Missing Information: Why Primaries/Caucuses
This article needs to explain why some states only hold cacuses (which seems to be of lesser value) and others hold primaries - especially since some articles (in 2008) suggested that basically anybody could join an Iowa cacus by pretending to live there and vote for of a candidate - ie, not a very serious voting system. --IceHunter (talk) 21:06, 7 January 2008 (UTC)

I'm also confused about the state legislatures' roles in setting primary dates. What is the legal basis for state governments involving themselves with the internal workings of the 2 parties? Is this a role the parties cede to the legislature? Bills relating to party workings are effectively party work, not government work. Is this recognised as a state subsidy to the parties? 209.87.224.87 (talk) 18:20, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I just came here to ask a similar question. Can someone add information explaining how state governments came to have a role in dictating to parties how they will select their candidates? I get the impression, for example, that primaries are held mostly by Democrats and Republicans, and that minor parties in the same states are small groups who automatically nominate their leader or what have you and don't have state primaries at all. Is it that some states have decreed the means of selection of Democrats and Republicans but not other parties? Or is it that if a party decides to have its nominees selected by convention delegates and decides to have those delegates selected by some process that involves asking the state to make its election facilities available for use by the public to vote in those primaries, then in those cases the states have rules governing how those primaries using its facilities will operate? I'm asking this particularly in light of Newt Gingrich's lawsuit against Virginia, claiming that the rule that signature gatherers be Virginia residents is unconstitutional. What is the source of this rule, and what constitutional restrictions can there possibly be on the right to have such a rule? To understand this, I feel I need to understand in the first place how Virginia has a role at all in dictating how the Republican Party will determine who can run in the Republican Primary in Virginia. —Largo Plazo (talk) 13:28, 11 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Primaries are run by the states, caucuses are run by the parties. The party decides which process to use, but if it's a primary, it's run by the state. So the date of a primary is set by the state, but the date of a caucus is set by the party. And the rules of primaries are set by the state, subject to federal law, of course, hence Virginia's ballot access rule, and the subsequent lawsuit. Now why states get to run primaries - I don't know the history. But the parties like having the state run the primary, as then the party doesn't have to pay for it. Simon12 (talk) 03:25, 12 January 2012 (UTC)

 * Related to "why primaries/caucus," I would like to read why the popular vote does not determine the candidate (both in primaries and general elections, mind you). I was surprised that there isn't such an explanation in the Controversy section, that's the biggest criticism I can find for the primaries as they are held today. 181.169.142.88 (talk) 12:01, 2 March 2016 (UTC)

Michigan Primary
I just noticed that the piped link for Michigan Primary in the article directs to Michigan Democratic primary, 2008, thus ignoring the Republican primary. I added a see-also section to the Democratic page, and also created a disambiguation page Michigan Presidential Primary, 2008 (disambiguation) to sort out the difficulties. This article's link now goes to the disambig page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by MatthewLiberal (talk • contribs) 00:23, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

Scoring?
Dumb question from someone unfamiliar with the US election process.

Is there some type of point scoring... I see news about this and that candidate "winning" a state. Do they get 1 point per state, or how does it work? Is there a tally of points won?

I read somewhere that the california vote "doesn't matter"... why is that?

Thanks for any clarification.

--Popoi (talk) 17:45, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

 * It's not exactly "points" -- they get delegates pledged to vote for them that go to the party's national convention. How many delegates from each state is completely up to the party. The parties are free to completely ignore the primaries if they want. --Trovatore (talk) 17:54, 16 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The way I heard it, each state is allowed the same number of delegates as congressional representatives. Some states send delegates proportional to the percentage of votes cast for each candidate (although they are not obligated to vote for anyone), others are winner-take-all.  The national party conventions can refuse to seat anyone they want, which sometimes leads to a free for all.  The whole process seems quite irrational, since the US Constitution never mentions parties.--W8IMP (talk) 03:40, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * It's more complicated than that, and the rules are different for different parties (the rules are made by the party, not by law). The formula used by the Democrats takes into account the Democratic vote in the last election (last presidential election? last congressional election? I don't really know). The Republicans have their own formula; don't know if it's simpler or more complicated. The Dems also have superdelegates, which can be viewed as a compromise between totally respecting the primary outcomes and entirely ignoring them. Minor parties often nominate their candidate before the primaries even happen. --Trovatore (talk) 03:46, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

I'm not sure why someone would say California doesn't count. Florida and Michigan currently don't count for the Democrats because they held their primaries earlier than allowed by party rules. To the question, after the early primaries and caucuses, it doesn't matter who wins the state; it is the winner of the delegates that matters. Because determining who has the most delegates is so difficult, reporters talk about who "won" a state. Delegate counts are hard to calculate because the rules vary from state to state and because the actual delegates (or some of them, depending on the state) are not chosen until state conventions weeks or months after the primary.

In terms of how delegates are allocated to states, for Republicans, each state receives 10 automatically plus a number of delegates based upon the state's population. In addition, the state gets bonus delegates for having Republicans in certain key offices (e.g., having a Republican governor), having a majority in the state's congressional delegation, and the like. Finally, the state's party chair, co-chair, and national party committee member are each delegates. How these delegates are allocated among presidential candidates is up to the states. Some give all delegates to the winner of the statewide popular vote, while allocate theirs by proportional representation. Most apportion the delegates based on population using the vote in congressional districts. Some actually allocate the three party-official delegates as pledged delegates. -Rrius (talk) 09:11, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

Democratic
The article isn't particular clear why Florida and Michigin are punished by the Democratic Party. If they have a similar rule to the Republican party in not allowing primaries before 5th February, then why do South Carolina and New Hampshire escape? Nil Einne (talk) 13:44, 24 January 2008 (UTC)

Still terrible on the history
Man, our coverage of the history of this stuff is still pretty bad - not so much this article, but the fact that we give no detailed accounts of primary results anywhere on Wikipedia is pretty disgraceful. We give winners, but no indication of the dates and order of primaries, whether they were primaries and caucuses, etc. It's pretty bad. john k (talk) 22:19, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

Other parties
I know the Green party of the United States has primary elections http://www.gp.org/index.php probably other "third" parties have them too. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.212.193.29 (talk) 09:52, 21 April 2008 (UTC)

Needs Citations and Further Detail on the Following Statement
"In recent elections, the Iowa caucuses and New Hampshire primary have garnered over half the national and international media attention paid to the entire selection process."

Please clarify what the "half" is related to. For example, does it mean half of the column space in newspapers with a circulation of over a certain size? Or, perhaps, over half of the air time on cable programs with a viewership of over a certain size?Evonline (talk) 04:29, 24 May 2008 (UTC) Nancy Volle

Criticism of the Primary System
I believe there should be a consolidated section on criticism of the primary system. An obvious flaw, which I didn't see mentioned anywhere in the article, is that primary elections are not held on the same day nationwide and, therefore, primary election results are not independent of each other. For example, if a candidate loses a series of early primaries in "small states" (with few actual delegates to the convention), support for him or her tends to plummet in subsequent polls, possibly forcing him/her out of the race even though he/she might have been otherwise originally competitive in other parts of the country. 161.24.19.112 (talk) 19:36, 4 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Too, some sources (38) are no longer properly linked to — Preceding unsigned comment added by 65.129.76.203 (talk) 00:51, 3 March 2016 (UTC)

Conservative Bias in Primaries
An analysis of the 2012 Republican presidential primaries shows that not one West Coast or Mid-Atlantic state (New Hampshire is hardly representative of the NorthEast Corridor) votes before Super Tuesday, and only Washington and Massachusetts vote in the roughly-dozen Super Tuesday states (Washington votes only three days before Super Tuesday and no one will drop out because of poor results there, so it should be lumped into Super Tuesday). This obviously tends to weed out the candidates that the higher-electoral-vote Democratic-heavy states would feel good about falling in behind. 69.253.135.39 (talk) 23:05, 19 October 2011 (UTC)

 * Interesting as that is, unless it leads to some proposal for improving the article, this talk page is not the place to discuss it. --Trovatore (talk) 00:17, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

Calendar schedule out-of-date
The calendar schedule is out-of-date. It features the races for 2008, not the upcoming race in '12. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 147.188.254.223 (talk) 11:54, 9 January 2012 (UTC)

Merging all U.S. states presidential primary and election articles
You are invited to join the discussion at Talk:Republican Party presidential primaries, 2012. Jack Bornholm (talk) 17:01, 21 May 2012 (UTC)

Legal status and clarity
Its really not clear from this article how much of the primary process is governed by State or Federal Law of the US and how much is just governed by the by-laws of the major parties. For comparison here in Australia we have a similar kind (though much much much less important) of party based vote for parliamentary leader for the Labour party but this is entirely governed by the party themselves, the government doesn't have anything to do with it. It would be good if someone with knowledge of the topic could clarify what is party policy, what is US law (state or federal) and perhaps even what is simply convention or tradition.

Also noticeable is the lack of reference to other parties and independent candidates. I know that like in Australia no third party candidate is likely to win in the current system but if any of this is covered by US law then you would think it would apply to other parties as well? Unless there are regulations written which specifically refer to the republican and democratic parties? 130.56.214.142 (talk) 05:51, 14 September 2015 (UTC)

 * Apparently the answer is, none of the process is covered by law, it is all up to the parties. In fact the statement on the page about most states having "pledged" delegates that are "legally bound" to vote a certain way is a pile of garbage and should be removed.  Actually there are no laws, in any state, which require any delegate to vote a certain way, ever.  That's why they use the vague term "pledged."  It's like if you pledge to send $50 to a charity, it doesn't mean you really have to. Safulop (talk) 19:20, 4 May 2016 (UTC)

 * The Federal Government is not involved at all in the primary process. Even matching funds don't kick in until after a candidate becomes a nominee. There are literally no two states alike with the same laws, and the parties differ in party rules as well. As to Safulop's point about being "legally bound", you may be correct. The state cannot legally bind a delegate to a candidate in an open primary, as I understand it. Nobs01 (talk) 20:22, 21 May 2016 (UTC)

Super Tuesday

 *  The first successful regional primary was Super Tuesday of March 8, 1988, in which nine Southern states united in the hope that the Democrats would select a candidate in line with Southern interests.[7] It failed as all but two of the eight major candidates won at least one primary on that day.
 * (1) How can it be "successful" and "failed" at the same time?
 * (2) A click on the Super Tuesday link says the first Super Tuesday was in 1984, not 1988. Nobs01 (talk) 20:14, 21 May 2016 (UTC)

Entitlement to stand
This article does not discuss who is entitled to stand as a candidate -- other than via links to ballot access, but that page explains only the requirements for being on a ballot in general and not whether a person needs, for example, to be a member of a particular political party in order to stand for that party's primary. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rosbif73 (talk • contribs) 10:46, 13 October 2016 (UTC)

 * Probably complicated, likely to vary from state to state and party to party, but sure, would be good to include. Just a note though:  Naturally this article is in American English, so the correct word is "run", not "stand". --Trovatore (talk) 14:10, 13 October 2016 (UTC)

Front-loading
The text says:
 * A major reason states try to increase their influence, and vie for earlier primaries, is that in recent years the races have usually been decided before the primary season has ended in June. For example, John McCain officially clinched the 2008 Republican presidential nomination in March,[10] while during that same month Barack Obama held a substantial lead in pledged delegates in the Democratic Party primaries.[11] In 2012, Obama faced no major challenger in the Democratic Party primaries since he had the advantage of incumbency (see below), while Mitt Romney gained enough delegates to be declared the presumptive Republican nominee by late April.[12]

As it stands, this is basically original research, but it is also badly expressed. Obama's incumbency in 2012 is basically irrelevant. Romney is a bad example. This is also cherry-picking because the 2016 primaries were not decided early. The use of the phrase "in recent years" is therefore misleading. Also, the first sentence is illogical. "A major reason states try to increase their influence"... is to increase their influence. I also don't know what is meant by "states" here. Is it state voters, state party bosses, state legislatures...?--Jack Upland (talk) 03:42, 14 January 2020 (UTC)

Maine Presidential Primary System
Purpose. The purpose of this system is to determine the state order of the 2024 Presidential Primaries (and beyond) based on overall voter participation in each state.

Voter Participation Index The Maine Presidential Primary System (MPPS) creates a Voter Participation Index (VoPI) based off of the 2020 Census. The VoPI is calculated on the number of a each state’s citizens 18 years and older (C)tabulated by the 2020 census, divided into the number of registered voters (R) or (R/C), plus the percentage of the number of voters participating in the Congressional Mid-term elections (M) divided by the number of registered voters (R) or (M/R). The final formula is VoPI =(R/C) + (M/R).

Order. After the results of the 2022 Mid-term elections, the order of the 2024 presidential primary states (and territories) are determined by the highest to lowest VPI ranking. The Iowa Caucus and New Hampshire Primary will no longer automatically go first and second, respectively; both states are subject to the VoPI in 2024.

2024 Presidential Primary Schedule. Beginning Saturday, February 17th, the first seven of the VoPI ranked states begin the primary season. D.C. or any territory are included if any are ranked above the seventh highest state on the VoPI ranking. Each round of primaries is every two weeks, with seven states each, and the last round having eight. For each round of primaries, the D.C. or territory condition applies to the 14th, 21st, 28th, 35th, 42nd state. The 2024 Presidential Primary Schedule is as follows: February 17th, March 9th, March 30th, April 20th, May 11th, June 1st and June 15th.

Vote By Mail. A state’s presidential primary order may change every four years; therefore, a separate presidential primary election, conducted by mail or by voting polls, may be necessary. Voting by mail is less expensive than having polls, more secure with a paper ballot, and generates more voter participation. It also counterbalances states without a gubernatorial election during the mid-terms, when voter turnout is usually higher. All registered voters are mailed a ballot three weeks before their state’s primary, with an 18-day voting period is available to cast their ballots. Each ballot lists all of the major political party candidates. A voter selects a party, chooses one of that party’s candidates, places the ballot back in the envelope, marks on the envelope what party they voted for, and puts the ballot in the mailbox or stops by a drop off location. The paper ballots are tabulated with a Scantron. (NOTE: Voting by Mail offsets states that do not have a gubernatorial election coinciding with the mid-term elections.)

Open or Closed Primary. States have the option for an open or closed primary. Political parties may argue that an open-primary violates the First Amendment’s Right of Association; the Supreme Court has ruled otherwise in favor of Washington State’s open primary process. (Washington State Grange v. Washington State Republican Party 2008). (Note states with vote-by-mail elections have higher participation rates; For instance, Oregon participation rate in the 2018 Mid-term elections was 63% as opposed to the national average of 49%.)

Winner Take All by Congressional District Populat Vote. The candidate who wins each congressional district’s popular vote receives seven delegates. The candidate with the highest overall popular vote in each state receives an additional 14 delegates. The total number of delegates available is 3,787 (only seven for D.C. and each of the territories or 42 total). The first candidate to reach 1,894 (50% + 1) becomes the party’s nominee. To ensure the will of the voters, there are no super, automatic, or at-large delegates. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mike Turcotte (talk • contribs) 22:48, 4 March 2020 (UTC)

What the Heck is a Presidential Primary?
Is it Kindergarten for future presidents? Okay, I'm joking - I can work it out from context, and from the first sentence. What I'm actually getting at is that the page launches into things too fast. It should really start with a potted definition of a presidential primary. I'm going to add my own, but I'm not American. It will not be good. Tiggy The Terrible (talk) 08:15, 18 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:United States presidential primary


text:
Xerography

Xerography is a dry photocopying technique. Originally called electrophotography, it was renamed xerography—from the Greek roots ξηρός xeros, meaning "dry" and -γραφία -graphia, meaning "writing"—to emphasize that unlike reproduction techniques then in use such as cyanotype, the process of xerography used no liquid chemicals.

History
Xerography was invented by American physicist Chester Carlson, based significantly on contributions by Hungarian physicist Pál Selényi. Carlson applied for and was awarded on October 6, 1942.

Carlson's innovation combined electrostatic printing with photography, unlike the dry electrostatic printing process invented by Georg Christoph Lichtenberg in 1778. Carlson's original process was cumbersome, requiring several manual processing steps with flat plates.

In 1946, Carlson signed an agreement with Haloid Photographic Company to develop it as a commercial product. Before that year, Carlson had proposed his idea to more than a dozen companies, but none was interested. Haloid's president, Joseph C. Wilson, saw the promise of Carlson's invention, and saw to it that Haloid diligently worked to produce a working commercial product.

It was almost 18 years before a fully automated process was developed, the key breakthrough being the use of a cylindrical drum coated with selenium instead of a flat plate. This resulted in the first commercial automatic copier, the Xerox 914, being released by Haloid/Xerox in 1960.

Xerography is now used in most photocopying machines and in laser and LED printers.

Process
The first commercial use was hand processing of a flat photosensor (an electrostatic component that detects the presence of visible light) with a copy camera and a separate processing unit to produce offset lithographic plates. Today this technology is used in photocopy machines, laser printers, and digital presses which are slowly replacing many traditional offset presses in the printing industry for shorter runs.

By using a cylinder to carry the photosensor, automatic processing was enabled. In 1960, the automatic photocopier was created and many millions have been built since. The same process is used in microform printers and computer output laser or LED printers. A metal cylinder called the drum is mounted to rotate about a horizontal axis. The drum rotates at the speed of paper output. One revolution passes the drum surface through the steps described below.

The end-to-end dimension is the width of print to be produced plus a generous tolerance. The drums in the copiers originally developed by Xerox Corporation were manufactured with a surface coating of amorphous selenium (more recently ceramic or organic photoconductor or OPC), applied by vacuum deposition. Amorphous selenium will hold an electrostatic charge in darkness and will conduct away such a charge under light. In the 1970s, IBM Corporation sought to avoid Xerox's patents for selenium drums by developing organic photoconductors as an alternative to the selenium drum. In the original system, photocopiers that rely on silicon or selenium (and its alloys) are charged positively in use (hence work with negatively charged "toner" powder). Photoconductors using organic compounds are electrochemically charged vice versa to the preceding system in order to exploit their native properties in printing. Organic photoconductors are now preferred because they can be deposited on a flexible, oval or triangular, belt instead of a round drum, facilitating significantly smaller device build size.

Laser printer photo drums are made with a doped silicon diode sandwich structure with a hydrogen-doped silicon light-chargeable layer, a boron nitride rectifying (diode-causing) layer that minimizes current leakage, and a surface layer of silicon doped with oxygen or nitrogen; silicon nitride is a scuff-resistant material.

The steps of the process are described below as applied on a cylinder, as in a photocopier. Some variants are described within the text. Every step of the process has design variants. The physics of the xerographic process are discussed at length in a book.

An electrostatic charge of −600 volts is uniformly distributed over the surface of the drum by a corona discharge from a corona unit (Corotron), with output limited by a control grid or screen. This effect can also be achieved by using a contact roller with a charge applied to it. Essentially, a corona discharge is generated by a very thin wire $1/4$ to $1/2$ inch (6.35 to 12.7 mm) away from the photoconductor. A negative charge is placed on the wire, which will ionize the space between the wire and conductor, so electrons will be repelled and pushed away onto the conductor. The conductor is set on top of a conducting surface, kept at ground potential.
 * Step 1. Charging

The polarity is chosen to suit the positive or negative process. Positive process is used for producing black on white copies. Negative process is used for producing black on white from negative originals (mainly microfilm) and all digital printing and copying. This is to economize on the use of laser light by the "blackwriting" or "write to black" exposure method.

The document or microform to be copied is illuminated by flash lamps on the platen and either passed over a lens or scanned by a moving light and lens, such that its image is projected onto and synchronized with the moving drum surface. Alternatively, the image may be exposed using a xenon strobe illuminating the surface of the moving drum or belt, fast enough to render a perfect latent image. Where there is text or image on the document, the corresponding area of the drum will remain unlit. Where there is no image the drum will be illuminated and the charge will be dissipated. The charge that remains on the drum after this exposure is a 'latent' image and is a negative of the original document.
 * Step 2. Exposure

Whether in a scanning or a stationary optical system, combinations of lenses and mirrors are used to project the original image on the platen (scanning surface) onto the photoconductor. Additional lenses, with different focal lengths or zooming lenses are utilized to enlarge or reduce the image; the scanning speed must adapt to elements or reductions.

A drum is inferior to a belt in the sense that although it is simpler than a belt, it must be buffered gradually in parts rolling on the curved drum, while the flat belt efficiently uses one exposure to make a direct passage.

In a laser or LED printer, modulated light is projected onto the drum surface to create the latent image. The modulated light is used only to create the positive image, hence the term "blackwriting".

In high-volume copiers, the drum is presented with a slowly turbulent mixture of toner particles and larger, iron, reusable carrier particles. Toner is a powder; its early form was carbon powder, then melt-mixed with a polymer. The carrier particles have a coating which, during agitation, generates a triboelectric charge (a form of static electricity), which attracts a coating of toner particles. In addition, the mix is manipulated with a magnetic roller to present to the surface of the drum or belt a brush of toner. By contact with the carrier each neutral toner particle has an electric charge of polarity opposite to the charge of the latent image on the drum. The charge attracts toner to form a visible image on the drum. To control the amount of toner transferred, a bias voltage is applied to the developer roller to counteract the attraction between toner and latent image.
 * Step 3. Development

Where a negative image is required, as when printing from a microform negative, then the toner has the same polarity as the corona in step 1. Electrostatic lines of force drive the toner particles away from the latent image towards the uncharged area, which is the area exposed from the negative.

Early color copiers and printers used multiple copy cycles for each page output, using colored filters and toners. Modern units use only a single scan to four separate, miniature process units, operating simultaneously, each with its own coronas, drum and developer unit.

Paper is passed between the drum and the transfer corona, which has a polarity that is the opposite of the charge on the toner. The toner image is transferred from the drum to the paper by a combination of pressure and electrostatic attraction. On many color and high-speed machines, it is common to replace the transfer corona with one or more charged bias transfer rollers, which apply greater pressure and produce a higher quality image.
 * Step 4. Transfer

Electric charges on the paper are partially neutralized by AC from a second corona, usually constructed in tandem with the transfer corona and immediately after it. As a result, the paper, complete with most (but not all) of the toner image, is separated from the drum or belt surface.
 * Step 5. Separation or detack

The toner image is permanently fixed to the paper using either a heat and pressure mechanism (hot roll fuser) or a radiant fusing technology (oven fuser) to melt and bond the toner particles into the medium (usually paper) being printed. There also used to be available "offline" vapor fusers. These were trays covered in cotton gauze sprinkled with a volatile liquid, such as ether. When the transferred image was brought into proximity with the vapor from the evaporating liquid, the result was a perfectly fixed copy without any of the distortion or toner migration which can occur with the other methods. This method is no longer used due to emissions of fumes.
 * Step 6. Fixing or fusing

The drum, having already been partially discharged during detack, is further discharged by light. Any remaining toner, that did not transfer in step 6, is removed from the drum surface by a rotating brush under suction, or a squeegee known as the cleaning blade. This 'waste' toner usually is routed into a waste toner compartment for later disposal; however, in some systems, it is routed back into the developer unit for reuse. This process, known as toner reclaim, is much more economical, but can possibly lead to a reduced overall toner efficiency through a process known as 'toner polluting' whereby concentration levels of toner/developer having poor electrostatic properties are permitted to build up in the developer unit, reducing the overall efficiency of the toner in the system.
 * Step 7. Cleaning

Some systems have abandoned the separate developer (carrier). These systems, known as monocomponent, operate as above, but use either a magnetic toner or fusible developer. There is no need to replace worn-out developer, as the user effectively replaces it along with the toner. An alternative developing system, developed by KIP from an abandoned line of research by Xerox, completely replaces magnetic toner manipulation and the cleaning system, with a series of computer-controlled, varying biases. The toner is printed directly onto the drum, by direct contact with a rubber developing roller which, by reversing the bias, removes all the unwanted toner and returns it to the developer unit for reuse.

The development of xerography has led to new technologies that have the potential to eventually eradicate traditional offset printing machines. These new machines that print in full CMYK color, such as Xeikon, use xerography but provide nearly the quality of traditional ink prints.

Durability
Xerographic documents (and the closely related laser printer printouts) can have excellent archival durability, depending on the quality of the paper used. If low-quality paper is used, it can yellow and degrade due to residual acid in the untreated pulp; in the worst case, old copies can literally crumble into small particles when handled. High-quality xerographic copies on acid-free paper can last as long as typewritten or handwritten documents on the same paper. However, xerographic copies are vulnerable to undesirable toner transfer if they are stored in direct contact or close proximity to plasticizers, which are present in looseleaf binders made with PVC. In extreme cases, the ink toner will stick directly to the binder cover, pulling away from the paper copy and rendering it illegible.

Uses in animation
Ub Iwerks adapted xerography to eliminate the hand-inking stage in the animation process by printing the animator's drawings directly to the animation cels. The first animated feature film to use this process was One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961), although the technique was already tested in Sleeping Beauty, released two years earlier. At first, only black lines were possible, but in 1977, gray lines were introduced and used in The Rescuers and in the 1980s, colored lines were introduced and used in animated features like The Secret of NIMH.

Uses in art
Xerography has been used by photographers internationally as a direct imaging photographic process, by book artists for publishing one-of-a-kind books or multiples, and by collaborating artists in portfolios such as those produced by the International Society of Copier Artists founded by American printmaker and book artist, Louise Odes Neaderland. Art critic Roy Proctor said of artist/curator Louise Neaderland during her residency for the exhibition Art ex Machina at 1708 Gallery in Richmond, Virginia, "She's living proof that, when a new technology begins to be mass-produced, artists will be curious enough—and imaginative enough—to explore its creative uses.

title: Xerography


text:
Steven Hawley

Steven Alan Hawley (born December 12, 1951) is a former NASA astronaut who flew on five U.S. Space Shuttle flights. He is professor of physics and astronomy and director of engineering physics at the University of Kansas.

Early life
Hawley was born December 12, 1951, in Ottawa, Kansas, to Dr. and Mrs. Bernard Hawley. One of Hawley's brothers, John F. Hawley, was a theoretical astrophysicist at the University of Virginia and shared the Shaw Prize in Astronomy in 2013.

Hawley graduated from Salina High School Central, Salina, Kansas, in 1969; he regards Salina as his home town. Hawley attended the University of Kansas, graduating with highest distinction in 1973 with Bachelor of Science degrees in Physics and in Astronomy. He spent three summers employed as a research assistant: 1972 at the U.S. Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C., and 1973 and 1974 at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Green Bank, West Virginia. He attended graduate school at Lick Observatory, University of California, Santa Cruz, principal advisor was William L. Burke graduating in 1977 with a Doctorate in Astronomy and Astrophysics.

Career
Hawley's research involved spectrophotometry of gaseous nebulae and emission-line galaxies, with particular emphasis on chemical abundance determinations for these objects. The results of his research have been published in major astronomical journals. Prior to his selection by NASA in 1978, Hawley was a post-doctoral research associate at Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in La Serena, Chile. He is a Professor (Emeritus) of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Kansas.

Space flight experience
Hawley logged a total of 770 hours and 27 minutes in five space flights. He served as a mission specialist on STS-41D in 1984, STS-61C in 1986, STS-31 in 1990, STS-82 in 1997 and STS-93 in 1999. Hawley was the last member of NASA Astronaut Group 8 to make a space flight. He was also the first and only astronaut to fly on both the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) deployment mission and on an HST servicing mission (STS-31 and STS-82, respectively).

Discovery 41D
STS-41-D Discovery (August 30 to September 5, 1984) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on its maiden flight and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the seven-day mission, the crew successfully activated the OAST-1 solar cell wing experiment, deployed the SBS-D, SYNCOM IV-2, and TELSTAR 3-C satellites, operated the CFES-III experiment, the student crystal growth experiment, as well as photography experiments using the IMAX motion picture camera. The mission was completed in 96 orbits of the Earth in 144 hours and 57 minutes.

Following an aborted attempt to launch STS-41-D where two main engines were stopped shortly after they started because the third failed to start, Hawley is reported to have broken the tense atmosphere in the shuttle cabin, saying, "Gee, I thought we'd be a lot higher at MECO!"

Columbia 61C
STS-61-C Columbia (January 12–18, 1986) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida, and returned to a night landing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the six-day flight, the crew deployed the SATCOM K1 satellite and conducted experiments in astrophysics and materials processing. Mission duration was 146 hours and 03 minutes.

Discovery 31
STS-31 Discovery ( April 24–29, 1990) was launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida, and also returned to land at Edwards Air Force Base, California. During the five-day mission, the crew deployed the Hubble Space Telescope, and conducted a variety of middeck experiments involving the study of protein crystal growth, polymer membrane processing, and the effects of weightlessness and magnetic fields on an ion arc. They also operated a variety of cameras, including both the IMAX in-cabin and cargo bay cameras, for Earth observations from their record-setting altitude of 380 miles. The mission was completed in 76 orbits of the earth in 121 hours.

Discovery 82
STS-82 Discovery (February 11–21, 1997), the second Hubble Space Telescope (HST) maintenance mission, was launched at night and returned to a night landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida. During the flight, Hawley's primary role was to operate the Shuttle's 50-foot robot arm to retrieve and redeploy the HST following completion of upgrades and repairs. Hawley also operated the robot arm during five spacewalks in which two teams installed two new spectrometers and eight replacement instruments. They also replaced insulation patches over three compartments containing key data-processing, electronics and scientific-instrument telemetry packages. HST was then redeployed and boosted to a higher orbit. The flight was completed in 149 orbits covering 3.8 million miles in 9 days, 23 hours, 37 minutes.

Columbia 93
STS-93 Columbia (July 22–27, 1999) was launched at night from the Kennedy Space Center on a five-day mission returning to KSC for the 12th night landing in the Shuttle Program's history. Hawley served as Columbia's flight engineer. The primary mission objective was the successful deployment of the Chandra X-ray Observatory, the third of NASA's Great Observatories after Hubble Space Telescope and the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Hawley also served as the primary operator of a second telescope carried in the crew module and used for several days to make broadband ultraviolet observations of a variety of Solar System objects. The mission completed 79 orbits in 4 days, 22 hours, and 50 minutes.

Organizations
Hawley is a member of the American Astronomical Society, the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Sigma Pi Sigma, and Phi Beta Kappa. Now retired, he resides in Lawrence, Kansas, where his parents also live.

Personal life
Hawley married fellow astronaut Sally Ride in 1982. The couple divorced in 1987. Subsequently, he married Eileen M. Keegan of Redondo Beach, California, a former public-affairs officer at NASA who was appointed as spokeswoman for then-Kansas Governor Sam Brownback in 2013.

He enjoys basketball, softball, golf, running, playing bridge, and umpiring. Hawley appeared on an episode of Home Improvement, alongside Space Shuttle Commander, Kenneth Bowersox.

Honors

Following is a list of scholarships, honors, and awards conferred on Hawley:
 * Evans Foundation Scholarship, 1970
 * University of Kansas Honor Scholarship, 1970
 * Summerfield Scholarship, 1970–1973
 * Veta B. Lear Award, 1970
 * Stranathan Award, 1972
 * Outstanding Physics Major Award, 1973
 * University of California Regents Fellowship, 1974
 * Group Achievement Award for software testing at the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory, 1981
 * NASA Outstanding Performance Award, 1981
 * NASA Superior Performance Award, 1981
 * Group Achievement Award for Second Orbiter Test and Checkout at Kennedy Space Center, 1982
 * Quality Increase, 1982
 * NASA Space Flight Medal (1984, 1986, 1990, 1997, 1999)
 * Group Achievement Award for JSC Strategic Planning, 1987
 * NASA Exceptional Service Medal (1988, 1991)
 * Special Achievement Award, 1988
 * Exceptional Service Medal for Return to Flight, 1988
 * Outstanding Leadership Medal, 1990
 * Special Achievement Award, 1990
 * Haley Flight Achievement Award, 1991
 * Kansan of the Year Award, 1992
 * Group Achievement Award for ESIG 3000 Integration Project, 1994
 * Presidential Rank Award (1994, 1999)
 * Group Achievement Award for Space Shuttle Program Functional Workforce Review, 1995
 * Group Achievement Award for SFOC Contract Acquisition, 1997
 * Kansas Aviation Hall of Fame, 1997
 * University of Kansas Distinguished Service Citation, 1998
 * NASA Distinguished Service Medal (1998, 2000)
 * Aviation Week & Space Technology Laurel Citation for Space, 1998
 * V.M. Komarov Diploma from the FAI (Federation Aeronautique Internationale) (1998, 2000)
 * Inductee, Astronaut Hall of Fame (2007)
 * Distinguished Alumni Award, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, University of Kansas, (2007)
 * Distinguished Alumni Award, UC Santa Cruz, 1991
 * Communication and Leadership Award (2015), Toastmasters District 22

title: Steven Hawley