text:
Rainbow Books

The Rainbow Books are a collection of CD format specifications generally written and published by standards bodies including the ISO, IEC, and ECMA.

Red Book (1980)

 * CD-DA (Digital Audio) – standardized as IEC 60908
 * CD-Text—a 1996 extension to CD-DA
 * CD-MIDI—part of the original red-book standard
 * CD+G (plus Graphics) – karaoke
 * CD+EG / CD+XG (plus Extended Graphics) – an extension of CD+G

Yellow Book (1983)

 * CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory) – standardized as ISO/IEC 10149 in 1988 and ECMA-130 in 1989
 * CD-ROM XA (eXtended Architecture) – a 1991 extension of CD-ROM

Green Book (1986)

 * CD-i (Interactive)

Orange Book (1990)
Orange is a reference to the fact that red and yellow mix to orange. This correlates with the fact that CD-R and CD-RW are capable of audio ("Red") and data ("Yellow"); although other colors (other CD standards) that do not mix are capable of being burned onto the physical medium. Orange Book also introduced the standard for multisession writing.
 * CD-MO (Magneto-Optical)
 * CD-R (Recordable) alias CD-WO (Write Once) alias CD-WORM (Write Once, Read Many) – partially standardized as ECMA-394
 * CD-RW (ReWritable) alias CD-E (Eraseable) – partially standardized as ECMA-395

Beige Book (1992)

 * PCD (Photo)

White Book (1993)

 * CD-i Bridge - a bridge format between CD-ROM XA and the Green Book CD-i, which is the base format for Video CDs, Super Video CDs and Photo CDs.
 * VCD (Video)
 * SVCD (Super Video, 1998) – a 1998 extension of VCD, standardized as IEC 62107 in 2000.

Blue Book (1995)

 * E-CD/CD+/CD Extra (Enhanced)

Scarlet Book (1999)
Scarlet color of this book is a reference to the Red Book, which defines original CDDA.

 * SACD (Super Audio)

Purple Book (2000)

 * DDCD (Double Density)

title: Rainbow Books


text:
Brockley railway station

Brockley railway station serves the south-east London district of Brockley and is on the main railway line between and Brighton. It is down the line from London Bridge.

The station is operated by London Overground, with London Overground and Southern trains serving the station. Thameslink and some Southern services pass through the station. It is in Travelcard Zone 2.

History
The line was part of the London and Croydon Railway which opened in 1839. The station was opened on 6 March 1871, although today's buildings are of a modern design: the platforms are only located on the outer, Slow lines, since the station is only served by London Overground trains between Highbury and Islington and West Croydon or Crystal Palace, local trains between London Bridge and Coulsdon Town and by the London Bridge to London Victoria loop line via Crystal Palace, plus some London Bridge to Guildford and Dorking in peak times.

At the London end the line is crossed by the Nunhead to Lewisham line. At this location adjacent to Brockley station was sited station which closed in 1917 with the original London, Chatham and Dover Railway branch to Greenwich Park. The connection of that line to Lewisham is a later development. The possibility of opening platforms on this line with direct access to Victoria Station and the Bexleyheath Line to Dartford has often been suggested, and a proposal to create a new Brockley Interchange station is included in the London Borough of Lewisham's 2019-2041 transport strategy, though with no funding as yet identified for the project.

Crofton Park, on the to Sevenoaks line, and which also runs from Nunhead, is a mile to the south. Neither of these other lines has a physical connection with Brockley station, despite the trains running over the station. The next station to the north is New Cross Gate, and the next station to the south is Honor Oak Park.

Brockley forms part of the new southbound extension of the East London line that opened on 23 May 2010 and forms part of the London Overground network. Ticket barriers were installed at this time.

Services
Services at Brockley are operated by Southern and London Overground using and  EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 * 2 tph to London Bridge
 * 8 tph to Highbury & Islington via Surrey Quays
 * 2 tph to London Victoria via Streatham Hill
 * 4 tph to Crystal Palace
 * 4 tph to West Croydon

The station is also served by a single early morning and late evening service to East Croydon via Norwood Junction, with the early morning service continuing to Tattenham Corner and Caterham.

Connections
London Buses routes 171, 172, 484 and night route N171 serve the station.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Brockley railway station


text:
Gladstone, Queensland

Gladstone is a coastal city in the Gladstone Region, Queensland, Australia. In the, the town of Gladstone had a population of 34,703 people.

It is 517 km by road north-west of the state capital, Brisbane, and 108 km south-east of Rockhampton. Situated between the Calliope and Boyne Rivers, Gladstone is home to Queensland's largest multi-commodity shipping port, the Port of Gladstone.

Gladstone is the largest town within the Gladstone Region and the headquarters of Gladstone Regional Council is located in Gladstone.

History
Before European settlement, the Gladstone region was home of the Gooreng Gooreng, Toolooa (or Tulua), Meerooni and Baiali (or Byellee) Aboriginal tribes.

In May 1770, HMS Endeavour, under the command of James Cook, sailed by the entrance to Gladstone Harbour under the cover of darkness. Matthew Flinders, during his 1801–1803 circumnavigation of Australia, became the first recorded European to sight the harbour in August 1802. He named the harbour Port Curtis, after Admiral Roger Curtis, a man who was of assistance to Flinders a year earlier at the Cape of Good Hope. John Oxley conducted further exploration of the harbour and surrounding countryside in November 1823. Oxley was dismissive of the region, noting the harbour was difficult to enter, the countryside was too dry, and the timber useless for construction purposes.

Nevertheless, in 1847 the British attempted to establish the new colony of North Australia at Port Curtis. Colonel George Barney was chosen to lead this experiment in colonisation and his expedition was eventful. On 25 January 1847, the Lord Auckland, carrying 87 soldiers and convicts, arrived off the southern entrance of Port Curtis and promptly ran aground on shoals off the southern tip of Facing Island. The settlers spent seven weeks on the island before being rescued by the supply ship Thomas Lowry and delivered the intended site of settlement, the region now known as Barney Point. On 30 January at a proclamation ceremony, Barney was sworn in as Lieutenant Governor of the colony of North Australia. The convict settlement lasted barely two months and cost the Imperial government £15,000. A change of government in Britain ordered the withdrawal of Barney and the settlers. However, interest in the region remained.

By 1853, Francis MacCabe was surveying the site of a new town on the shores of Port Curtis under the protection of several detachments of Native Police. Maurice O'Connell was appointed government resident the following year, resulting in an influx of free settlers as land became available throughout the region.

Gladstone State School opened on 1 April 1861 and is one of the oldest state primary schools in Queensland. On 14 November 1968 it was renamed Gladstone Central State School.

In 1863, the town became a Municipality with Richard Hetherington elected Gladstone's first mayor. The fledgling town was named after the British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and has a 19th-century marble statue on display in its town museum.

Development of Gladstone was slow until 1893 when a meatworks was established at Parsons Point.

Parson's Point Provisional School opened on 1 August 1898, becoming Parson's Point State School on 1 February 1913. The school was relocated and renamed Gladstone South State School in 1945.

On 2 March 1949, a major cyclone hit Gladstone, resulting in extensive damage to the town.

Gladstone State High School opened on 2 February 1953.

In 1963, Queensland Alumina Limited established its alumina refinery on the site of the old meatworks. Gladstone's port facilities were expanded and the city launched into an era of industrial development and economic prosperity.

Gladstone West State School opened on 24 January 1966.

Rosella Park State School was opened on 17 May 1971.

Clinton State School opened on 29 January 1974.

Toolooa State High School opened on 27 January 1981.

Kin Kora State School opened on 9 October 1981.

In 1985 the Gladstone Christian Community School opened as a primary school operated by the Gladstone Baptist Church. In 1998, it changed its name to Trinity College. From 2013 it offered classes from Prep to Year 12.

St Stephens Lutheran College opened in 1998, but closed at the end of 2016. The school had lost 20% of its enrolment due to families moving away to find work, leaving only 216 students in classes ranging from Prep to Year 12 making it no longer viable to operate the school.

Gladstone Cinemas, a locally owned and operated independent cinema, opened in March 2001.

The Gladstone Library building opened in 2003.

Demographics
In the, the town of Gladstone had a population of 33,418 people.

In the, the town of Gladstone had a population of 34,703 people.

Heritage listings
Gladstone has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * 94 Auckland Street: Gladstone Central State School, Block B
 * Gladstone–Monto Road: Glengarry Homestead
 * Goondoon Street: Our Lady Star of the Sea Church & School
 * 1 Goondoon Street: Port Curtis Sailing Club Clubhouse
 * 33 Goondoon Street: Gladstone Post Office
 * 40 Goondoon Street: Kullaroo House
 * 114 Goondoon Street: Commonwealth Bank Building
 * 144 Goondoon Street: Gladstone Regional Art Gallery and Museum (Old Town Hall)
 * Roseberry Street: Fig Tree
 * 6 Short Street: Port Curtis Co-operative Dairy Association Ltd Factory
 * 16 Yarroon Street: Gladstone Court House

Population
According to the 2016 census of population, there were 33,418 people in the Gladstone urban centre.
 * Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people made up 4.6% of the population.
 * 76.0% of people were born in Australia. The next most common countries of birth were New Zealand 3.7%, Philippines 2.3%, England 2.1%, India 1.3% and South Africa 1.0%.
 * 84.4% of people only spoke English at home. Other languages spoken at home included Tagalog 1.1%, Filipino 0.8%, Afrikaans 0.5%, Mandarin 0.4% and Hindi 0.4%.
 * The most common responses for religion were No Religion 29.9%, Catholic 22.2% and Anglican 15.7%.

Geography
Gladstone and Rockhampton are the two major cities in the Central Queensland region.

Suburbs

 * Gladstone Central*
 * Barney Point
 * Callemondah
 * Clinton
 * Glen Eden
 * Kin Kora
 * Kirkwood
 * New Auckland

 * O'Connell
 * South Gladstone
 * South Trees
 * Sun Valley
 * Telina
 * Toolooa
 * West Gladstone

 * – the historic centre of the city and major business district

Climate
Gladstone experiences a tropical savannah climate (Koppen: Aw), with a wet season from October to March and a dry season from April to September. Moderated by Coral Sea, the town is one of the southernmost places in Australia to have this classification. The average annual rainfall is 874.0 mm, with a summer maximum. Extreme temperatures in Gladstone have ranged from 4.4 C on the 13th of July 1960 to 42.0 C on the 12th of March 2007.

Industry

Gladstone's primary industries are mining-related. The Port of Gladstone is the fifth-largest multi-commodity port in Australia and the world's fourth-largest coal-exporting terminal. The port consists of a number of wharves and terminal facilities. Boyne Wharf is used by the Boyne Island aluminium smelter and was opened in August 1982. The western harbour basin has been expanded, primarily to allow increased exports of liquified natural gas (LNG). Furthermore, in 2016, a plant was constructed on Curtis Island to produce and export LNG, a construction project that contributed heavily to city's population and housing boom. Major exports include coal, alumina, aluminium, cement products, sodium cyanide and ammonium nitrate. Each year 50 million tonnes of coal passes through the port, making up 70% of the total exports.

Gladstone harbour is within the World Heritage Area of the Great Barrier Reef and has historically supported a thriving seafood industry. In August 2011, a Fisheries Queensland spokesman said they received reports of fish with milky eyes. A spokesman from the Gladstone Fish Markets claimed that diseased fish were still being caught in large numbers in November 2011. Losses to the local seafood industry have been estimated at A$36 million a year.

Gladstone is also a tourism destination, with cruise ships regularly docking at the port.

Education
Gladstone has a range of primary schools and secondary schools.

Gladstone Central State School is a government primary (P–6) school for boys and girls at 74 Auckland Street. In 2017, the school had an enrolment of 342 students with 24 teachers (22 full-time equivalent) and 16 non-teaching staff (12 full-time equivalent).

Gladstone West State School is a government primary (P–6) school for boys and girls at Boles Street, West Gladstone. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 647 students with 46 teachers (43 full-time equivalent) and 31 non-teaching staff (20 full-time equivalent).

Gladstone South State School is a government primary (P–6) school for boys and girls at 153 Toolooa Street, South Gladstone. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 330 students with 22 teacher (20 full-time equivalent) and 24 non-teaching staff (16 full-time equivalent).

Clinton State School is a government primary (P–6) school for boys and girls at Harvey Street, Clinton. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 912 students with 64 teachers (59 full-time equivalent) and 46 non-teaching staff (28 full-time equivalent).

Kin Kora State School is a government primary (P–6) school for boys and girls at 43 Hibiscus Avenue, Kin Kora. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 801 students with 57 teachers (51 full-time equivalent) and 27 non-teaching staff (19 full-time equivalent).

Rosella Park School is a government school for boys and girls aged from five to eighteen years who have moderate to severe intellectual impairments at 20 Park Street (corner of Rosella Street), West Gladstone. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 75 students with 20 teachers (19 full-time equivalent) and 30 non-teaching staff (19 full-time equivalent). Due to the specialised nature of the school, its students are drawn from all over Gladstone and beyond into the wider Gladstone Region.

Gladstone State High School is a government secondary (7–12) school for boys and girls at 30 Dawson Road, West Gladstone. In 2017 the school had an enrolment of 1509 students with 123 teachers (115 full-time equivalent) and 61 non-teaching staff (45 full-time equivalent).

Toolooa State High School is a government secondary (7–12) school for boys and girls at 2 Phillip Street, South Gladstone. In 2018 the school had an enrolment of 1,004 students with 85 teachers (79 full-time equivalent) and 51 non-teaching staff (33 full-time equivalent).

It has two main private schools: St Johns and Trinity College.

It also has two university campuses, Central Queensland University. Gladstone was also formerly home to CQIT (TAFE) Gladstone Campus, before it combined with Central Queensland University, becoming the Gladstone City Campus.

Community facilities
The Gladstone Regional Council operates Gladstone Library at 39 Goondoon Street, Gladstone.

The Gladstone branch of the Queensland Country Women's Association meets at the QCWA Hall at 88 Oaka Lane, Gladstone Central.

Recreation
Gladstone has direct access to Heron Island, Wilson Island, Curtis Island and other islands from the marina and local airstrips.

Boyne Island and Tannum Sands
Boyne Island and Tannum Sands have grown in popularity because of their beautiful beaches and relaxed lifestyle. The Millennium Esplanade is a big attraction where there are lots of shelters, barbecues and walking paths, and long stretches of beach. Boyne Island and Tannum Sands are not part of the Gladstone township but are part of the Gladstone region and formerly part of the Calliope Shire.

Lake Awoonga
A little further afield (25 km south of Gladstone) is Lake Awoonga. The recreation area has free barbecues, swimming, landscaped walking trails, as well as a caravan park. The lake has been stocked with several fish species since 1996, and over 2 million barramundi have been released. In addition to the fishing, Lake Awoonga has many natural attractions, especially the wildlife, with more than 225 species of birds (or over 27% of Australia's bird species) found in the region. Lake Awoonga is also the primary source of Gladstone's water supply. Awoonga dam is not part of the Gladstone township but is part of the Gladstone region and formerly part of the Calliope Shire.

Politics
In the House of Representatives, Gladstone is located within the division of Flynn, a traditionally marginal seat currently held by Liberal National MP Colin Boyce, who was first elected in 2022. At the state level, it is within the electorate of Gladstone, and is a safe Labor seat held by Glenn Butcher, who has represented it since the 2015 Queensland state election.

Transport
The Dawson Highway originates in Gladstone, and it runs westwards for approximately 400 km to Springsure.

Rail
Gladstone is a major stop on the North Coast railway line, with long-distance passenger trains operated by QR Traveltrain stopping in the area. Gladstone is also the transshipping point for export coal from the Moura and Blackwater coal basins and is one of the largest coal export ports in The Southern Hemisphere. Currently, coal trains of up to 1.7 km in length and 10,600 tonnes' gross weight are run by rail operators Aurizon and Pacific National to unload at coal terminals at Barney Point, Clinton, and Yarwun. Domestic coal is also railed to the Gladstone Power Station and the Queensland Alumina Limited refinery. An extensive rail facility is located at Callemondah to support these operations.

Gladstone was also a major terminus for rail freight and bulk fuel, with extensive marshaling yards at Gladstone, South Gladstone, and Auckland Point. As is the case in much of Queensland this traffic, declining from the 1990s, has now ceased with goods carried by road.

Air
Gladstone Airport is located in the western suburbs of Gladstone about 6 km (8-minute drive) from the centre of the city.

The main provider of scheduled passenger air services has been QantasLink, using mostly Bombardier Q400 aircraft though Flight West Airlines and Ansett also previously offered service. Strategic Airlines briefly offered services in 2011 and Virgin Australia commenced flights in October 2011 and now offers up to 6 return flights a day to Brisbane mostly on ATR 72 aircraft with Embraer 190 and Boeing 737 also a regular appearance in the schedule. New players JetGo started flying direct services from Sydney in December 2014. The service was offered twice daily, in 36-seat Embraer 135LR jets but ceased in February 2015.

In May 2009, a $65 million upgrade to the airport and nearby area was undertaken, which reached completion in 2011.

Sea
The Port of Gladstone is Queensland's largest multi-commodity port and the fifth-largest multi-commodity port in Australia. It is the world's fourth-largest coal-exporting terminal.

News Publications
Gladstone has a free fortnightly independent community newspaper called Gladstone News, delivered to 220 business hotspots and community points.

Radio
4CC is Gladstone's local AM commercial radio station, owned by Grant Broadcasters. 4CC has one full-time announcer based in Gladstone to present the station's local breakfast show. The station broadcasts to Central Queensland on four separate frequencies via three AM transmitters in Gladstone, Biloela and Rockhampton, and an FM translator in Agnes Water on the Discovery Coast.

Hit Central Queensland is Gladstone's local FM commercial radio station, owned by Southern Cross Austereo. Hot FM has two full-time announcers based in Gladstone to present the station's flagship weekday breakfast program, which is also broadcast to Rockhampton and Emerald.

Gladstone also receives radio stations that carry local programming from Rockhampton including commercial radio stations Triple M Central Queensland and 4RO. Triple M broadcasts on a separate FM frequency in Gladstone.

ABC Capricornia also broadcasts into Gladstone from Rockhampton, using a separate FM frequency. Until November 2014, ABC Capricornia maintained a local news bureau in Gladstone where a local journalist was based to cover the Gladstone region. Some local news bulletins on ABC Capricornia were also broadcast live from Gladstone. However, in what was a controversial decision, the ABC's Gladstone office was permanently closed in late 2014 as a cost-cutting measure following the Federal Government's decision to withdraw $254 million in funding to the ABC.

91.9 Fresh FM is Gladstone's local community radio radio station, which has a Christian radio format.

Television
WIN Television, Seven Queensland, Southern Cross Ten, ABC and SBS stations are all able to be received in Gladstone.

The Central Queensland editions of WIN News and Seven News, both regularly feature news content directly relating to the Gladstone region. Seven Queensland employ a journalist and camera operator in Gladstone, while WIN Television dispatch a news crew from Rockhampton to cover news stories in Gladstone.

The weekly 'What's On' segment on Seven News is also presented from Gladstone.

Sports teams
The city hosted an NRL game in Round 5 of the 2018 NRL season between the Gold Coast Titans and Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, which attracted a sell-out crowd of 5,135 to Marley Brown Oval. The local competition is the Gladstone District Rugby League. Local sports teams include:
 * Gladstone PCYC Roller Derby: Gladstone Hustlers, Gladstone Haul Stars
 * Australian rules football / AFL Capricornia: Gladstone Suns
 * Cricket / Gladstone Cricket Inc.: Gladstone Brothers, The Glen, Yaralla
 * Basketball / Queensland Basketball League: Gladstone Port City Power (Men's) & (Women's)
 * Soccer / CQ Premier League: Clinton FC
 * Soccer / Gladstone Senior Mens: Central SC, Clinton FC, Gladstone United FC, Meteors FC, Yaralla FC''.
 * Rugby league / Gladstone District Rugby League: Past Brothers, Valleys, Wallabys
 * Rugby union / Central QLD Rugby Union: Gladstone RUFC
 * Volleyball / Volleyball Queensland: Gladstone Thunder

Notable residents

 * James Henry Ashton (1819–1889) – founder of Ashton's Circus, died and buried in Gladstone
 * William Robert (Bill) Golding (1890–1985) – builder, historian, local government councillor, local government head, public servant, public service head.
 * Percival Albert Gourgaud (1881–1958) – public servant, public servant head.
 * Gary Larson (b. 1967) – Former Queensland and Australian Rugby League player.
 * Henry John (Jack) Manning (1889–1978) – company managing director, journalist, newspaper executive, newspaper owner.
 * Hayley Marsten (b. 1994) – awarded country singer/songwriter.
 * Frederick Woolnough Paterson (1897–1977) – barrister, communist, farmer, local government councillor, Member of Lower House, school teacher, soldier.
 * Valentine Thomas Vallis (1916–2006) – poet, opera critic, university reader, soldier, local government counter clerk

Sister City
As part of Sister Cities Australia Inc. (SCA) the Gladstone Region began a Sister City relationship with Saiki City, Oita Prefecture, Japan in 1996.

title: Gladstone, Queensland


text:
La forza del destino

La forza del destino (The Power of Fate, often translated  The Force of Destiny) is an Italian opera by  Giuseppe Verdi. The libretto was written by Francesco Maria Piave based on a Spanish drama, Don Álvaro o la fuerza del sino (1835), by Ángel de Saavedra, 3rd Duke of Rivas, with a scene adapted from Friedrich Schiller's Wallensteins Lager (Wallenstein's Camp). It was first performed in the Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre of Saint Petersburg, Russia, on 29 October 1862 O.S. (N.S. 10 November). La forza del destino is frequently performed, and there have been a number of complete recordings. In addition, the overture (to the revised version of the opera) is part of the standard repertoire for orchestras, often played as the opening piece at concerts.

Revisions
After its premiere in Russia, La forza underwent some revisions and made its debut abroad with performances in Rome in 1863 under the title Don Alvaro. Performances followed in Madrid (with the Duke of Rivas, the play's author, in attendance) and the opera subsequently travelled to New York, Vienna (1865), Buenos Aires (1866), and London (1867). Following these productions, Verdi made further, more extensive revisions to the opera with additions to the libretto by Antonio Ghislanzoni. This version, which premiered at La Scala, Milan, on 27 February 1869, has become the standard performance version. The most important changes were a new overture (replacing a brief prelude); the addition of a final scene to act 3, following the duel between Carlo and Alvaro; and a new ending, in which Alvaro remains alive, instead of throwing himself off a cliff to his death. The opera in this version is frequently performed in the world's opera houses today.

Recent critical editions
Critical editions of all versions of the opera (including material from the original 1861 score) have been prepared by musicologist Philip Gossett of the University of Chicago. In November 2005, the critical edition of the 1869 version was first performed by the San Francisco Opera whose program book included an essay by Gossett on the evolution of the various versions: "La forza del destino: Three States of One Opera". The Caramoor International Music Festival gave a concert performance of the critical edition of the 1862 version, plus never-performed vocal pieces from the 1861 version, in July 2008.

Instrumentation
Woodwinds:
 * 2 flutes (2nd doubling piccolo)
 * 2 oboes
 * 2 clarinets (2nd doubling bass clarinet)
 * 2 bassoons

Brass:
 * 4 horns
 * 2 trumpets
 * 3 trombones
 * cimbasso

Percussion:
 * timpani
 * side drum
 * cymbals
 * bass drum

Strings:
 * 2 harps
 * violins I, II
 * violas
 * cellos
 * double basses

Onstage:
 * organ
 * 6 trumpets
 * 4 side drums.

Synopsis

 * Place: Spain and Italy
 * Time: around 1750

Overture
The music begins with the opera's "Fate" motif, an ominous three note E unison in the brass.

Act 1
The mansion of Leonora's family, in Seville Don Alvaro, a young nobleman from South America (presumably Peru), has settled in Seville, Spain, where he is looked down on by many because of his Inca background. There, he and Donna Leonora, the daughter of the haughty Marchese di Calatrava, have fallen in love. But her father the Marchese violently opposes a match he feels is dishonorable and beneath her, believing her to have been seduced. Notwithstanding her tender regard for her father, who until now has always been kind to her, Leonora is ready to give up family and country in order to elope with Alvaro. Aided by her confidante, Curra (Me pellegrina ed orfana – "Exiled and orphaned far from my childhood home"), she prepares to leave. When Alvaro arrives to fetch her, however, Leonora hesitates, begging for one last day with her father. Alvaro, stunned, releases her from their engagement, saying that she cannot love him as much as he loves her. Leonora then relents and they agree to escape as planned. At that moment the Marchese suddenly enters and discovers the couple together. Assuming the worst, he draws his weapons and threatens the young man with death. To remove any suspicion as to Leonora's purity, Alvaro surrenders himself. As he flings down his pistol, it goes off, mortally wounding the Marchese, who dies, uttering a curse on his daughter. The horrified lovers rush out of the room.

Act 2
Scene 1: An inn in the village of Hornachuelos About a year has passed since the death of the Marchese di Calatrava. In their flight, Leonora and Alvaro were separated and have lost track of each other, unable to reunite or learn of each other's whereabouts. The act opens in the crowded dining room of an inn, where the guests include the alcalde (town mayor) and several muleteers among others gathered in the dining room as dinner is about to be served. Leonora's brother Don Carlo di Vargas then enters, bent on avenging the family honor and the death of his father. Carlo has disguised himself as a student from Salamanca by the name of Pereda. (Son Pereda son ricco d'onore – "I am Pereda, of honorable descent"). During the supper, Preziosilla, a pretty gypsy fortune teller, joins them and sings a song urging them to enlist in the army (Al suon del tamburo – "When side drums rattle") for Italy's freedom. Leonora arrives in male attire accompanied by Trabuco, a muleteer, on their way to a Franciscan monastery where Leonora plans to seek refuge. Recognizing her brother, who she knows wants to kill her, she hides. Carlo/"Pereda" grills Trabuco about the identity of his traveling companion, but the company lets him know they don't like his prying questions. They turn the tables by asking Carlo who he is. He claims to be a University student helping a friend track down the friend's sister and her seducer, who, he claims has returned to his native America. The gypsy girl laughs and says she doesn't believe this story. Overhearing this, Leonora realizes that Alvaro is still alive. She concludes he has betrayed and abandoned her, and she slips away without being discovered. Scene 2: A monastery nearby Outside the monastery of the Madonna of Angels, Leonora, seeking sanctuary and solitary atonement, has come to take refuge in the monastery intending to live the rest of her life as a hermit (Son giunta! Grazie, o Dio! Estremo asil quest'è per me! ... Madre, pietosa Vergine, – "I've arrived! Thank heaven! My last resort and hope"... "Mother, merciful Virgin".) After a somewhat surly reception by Fra Melitone, she tells the abbot, Padre Guardiano, her true name and her wish to spend the remainder of her life in the monastery's hermitage. The abbot recounts the trials she will have to undergo. Padre Guardiano agrees to direct her to a secret cave in the mountains, where he alone will bring her food and where she will find a bell which she is to ring only in times of great danger or if she is on the point of death. Leonora, Padre Guardiano, Fra Melitone, and the other monks join in prayer as she is formally accepted as tenant of the hermitage.

Act 3
Scene 1: A forest near Velletri, in Italy Meanwhile, Alvaro, believing Leonora to be dead, has joined the Spanish army under the name of Don Federico Herreros and has distinguished himself for bravery (La vita è inferno all'infelice ... O tu che in seno agli angeli – "Life is a hell to an unhappy man." ... "Oh, you who dwell with the angels"). He is interrupted by cries for help and rescues a man from two assassins. It is Don Carlo, who has newly joined the same regiment, also under an assumed name: Don Felix Bornos. The two become friends and march off side by side to fight in the Battle of Velletri, an historical event which occurred in 1744. Scene 2: The officers' quarters Alvaro is brought into the officers' quarters, gravely wounded in the chest. Thinking he is about to die, he entrusts the key to a casket to his friend "Don Felix" (Carlo). The box contains a packet of letters, which Alvaro says contain a secret. He makes his friend swear to burn them without reading them: (Solenne in quest'ora, giurarmi dovete far pago un mio voto – "You must swear to me in this solemn hour, to carry out my wish."). Felix/Carlo assures Alvaro that he won't die and that he will be decorated with the Order of Calatrava for his bravery. At the name Calatrava Alvaro shudders and exclaims, "No!". Carlo is taken aback. He is afraid that "Don Federico" (Alvaro) may, in truth, be the mysterious seducer who killed his father. He resolves to look at the letters to settle his doubts. (Morir! Tremenda cosa! ... Urna fatale del mio destino – "To die! An immense thing... Begone, fatal vessel of my destiny!"). As his wounded friend is taken away on the surgeon's stretcher, he opens the casket, finds his sister's portrait, and realizes Alvaro's true identity. At that moment a surgeon brings word that Don Alvaro may recover. Don Carlo exults at the prospect of avenging his father's death.

Scene 3: A camp near the battleground Having recovered, Alvaro is confronted by Carlo. They begin to duel, but are pulled away from each other by the soldiers. As they restrain Carlo, the anguished Don Alvaro vows to enter a monastery. The soldiers gather. Trabucco, the peddler, tries to sell them his wares; Fra Melitone chastises them for their godless ways; and Preziosilla leads them in a chorus in praise of the military life (Rataplan, rataplan, della gloria – "Rum-tum-tum on the drum is the music that makes a soldier's martial spirit rise").

Act 4
Scene 1: The monastery Impoverished peasants from the region approach Fra Melitone at the monastery at Hornachuelos for food and Padre Guardiano gently scolds Melitone for his less than charitable behavior towards them. Don Carlo then approaches, having learned of the presence of Don Alvaro there. Under the name of Father Raphael, Alvaro has indeed entered the monastery, near which is Leonora's cave. Alvaro offers peace, but when Carlo taunts him as a half-breed Alvaro takes up the challenge and the two rush from the monastery. (Le minacce, i fieri accenti – "May the winds carry off with them"). Scene 2: A desolate spot near Leonora's hermitage Leonora, longing for the peaceful release of death, restates her love for Alvaro and begs God for peace. (Pace, pace, mio Dio! – "Peace, O mighty Father, give me peace!"). The duel between the two men spills over onto the neighboring crags in the vicinity of Leonora's isolation. Upon hearing the clashing of swords she takes refuge in her cave. Carlo is mortally wounded by Alvaro, who invades the hermit's sanctuary to request the last offices for the dying man. Leonora and Alvaro recognize each other. Alvaro tells her of what has happened, and she rushes to embrace her dying brother. As she bends over him, he stabs her in the heart. The Father Superior, who has come in answer to Leonora's alarm bell, orders Alvaro to stop cursing fate and to humble himself before God. The dying Leonora joins him in this plea, and Alvaro declaims that he is now redeemed.
 * [Original version: Overcome by the guilt at having killed or caused the death of all the Calatravas, Alvaro jumps to his death into the nearby ravine, cursing humankind, over the protests of Father Guardiano].

Superstition
Over the years La forza has acquired a reputation for being cursed, following some unfortunate incidents. In 1960 at the Metropolitan Opera, the noted baritone Leonard Warren collapsed and died during a performance of the opera. The supposed curse reportedly kept Luciano Pavarotti from ever performing the opera, and the tenor Franco Corelli used to follow small rituals during performances to avoid bad luck.

Other media
The main theme in the musical scores for the films Jean de Florette and Manon des Sources (both 1986) was adapted by Jean-Claude Petit from the duet "Invano, Alvaro" in La forza del destino. The Korean film The Scarlet Letter (2004) opens with "Pace, pace mio Dio", introducing a film about intensely powerful obsession which brings its lovers to the brink of madness. La forza del destino also plays a thematic role in the novel series A Series of Unfortunate Events (1999–2006).

title: La forza del destino


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Cacique

A cacique, sometimes spelled as cazique (feminine form: cacica), was a tribal chieftain of the Taíno people, who were the indigenous inhabitants of the Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles at the time of European contact with those places. The term is a Spanish transliteration of the Taíno word kasike.

Cacique was initially translated as "king" or "prince" for the Spanish. In the colonial era, the conquistadors and the administrators who followed them used the word generically to refer to any leader of practically any indigenous group they encountered in the Western Hemisphere. In Hispanic and Lusophone countries, the term has also come to mean a political boss, similar to a caudillo, exercising power in a system of caciquism.

Spanish Colonial-Era Caciques
The Taíno word kasike descends from the Taíno word kassiquan, which means "to keep house". In 1555 the word first entered the English language, defined as "prince". In Taíno culture, the kasike rank was hereditary and sometimes established through democratic means. As the Taínos were mostly a peaceable culture the kasike 's importance in the tribe was determined by the size of his clan rather than his skills in warfare. The Taíno kasikes also enjoyed several privileges that marked them as the elite class of Taíno society: they lived in a larger rectangular hut in the center of the village, rather than the peripheral circular huts of other villagers, and they had reserved places from which to view the areítos (ceremonial dances) and ceremonial ball game. Most importantly, the kasike 's word was law and they exercised this power to oversee a sophisticated government, finely involved with all aspects of social existence.

The Spanish transliterated kasike and used the term (cacique) to refer to the local leader of essentially any indigenous group in Spanish America. Caribbean caciques who did not initially oppose the Spanish became middlemen, serving as the interface between their communities and the Spanish. Their cooperation was frequently provisional. Most of the early caciques eventually revolted, resulting in their deaths in battle or by execution. Two of the most famous of these early colonial-era caciques are Hatuey from what is now Cuba and Enriquillo on the island of Hispaniola. Both are now respective national heroes in Cuba and the Dominican Republic.

The Spanish had more success when they drafted the leaders of the far more hierarchically organized indigenous civilizations of Central Mexico. These Central Mexican caciques served as more effective, and loyal, intermediaries in the new system of colonial rule. The hierarchy and nomenclature of indigenous leadership usually survived within a given community and the Spaniards' designation of caciques did not usually correspond to the hereditary or likely candidate from a given system of indigenous leadership.

As a consequence, elite indigenous men willing to cooperate with the colonial rulers replaced their rivals who had better hereditary or traditional claims on leadership. The Spanish recognized indigenous nobles as a European-style nobility, within the newly established colonial system and a cacique's status among the colonizers (along with that of his family) was buttressed by their being permitted the Spanish noble honorifics don and doña.

As colonial middlemen, caciques were often the first to introduce European material culture to their communities. This is seen in the Spanish-style houses they built, the Spanish furnishings that filled them and the European fashions they wore everywhere. They engaged in Spanish commercial enterprises such as sheep and cattle ranchers and sericulture. Many even owned enslaved Africans to operate these concerns. The caciques also acquired new privileges, unknown before contact. These included the right to carry swords or firearms and to ride horses or mules. Some caciques had entailed estates called cacicazgos. The records of many of these Mexican estates are held in the Mexican national archives in a section Vínculos ("entails"). The establishment of Spanish-style town government (cabildos) served as a mechanism to supplant traditional rule. Spanish manipulation of cabildo elections placed compliant members of the traditional, hereditary lineages on such cabildos town councils.

By the late colonial era in central Mexico, the term cacique had lost any dynastic meaning, with one scholar noting that "cacique status could in some degree buttress a family's prestige, but it could no longer in itself be regarded as a rank of major authority." In a 1769 petition by a cacique family to the Viceroy of New Spain, appealing for the restoration of its privileges, the following expectations were listed: "that, the cacique should be seated separately from commoners at public functions; he was excused from serving in town government; he was exempted from tribute and other exactions; he was excused from Sunday worship and payments of the half real; his servants were not liable for community labor; he was exempt from incarceration for debt and his property from sequestration; he could be imprisoned for serious crime but not in the public jail; the caciques' names were to be listed among the nobles in official registers; and "all these privileges are to apply equally to the caciques' wives and widows." With Mexican independence in 1821, the last of the special privileges of colonial-era caciques were finally abolished.

In contrast to the rest of the Spanish Colonial Americas, in the Andean region the local term kuraka was preferred to cacique. After conquering the Inca Empire the Spaniards administering the new Peruvian viceroyalty had allowed the kurakas or caciques to maintain their titles of nobility and perquisites of local rule so long as they swore fealty to the Spanish monarch.

In 1781, the Tīpac Amaru rebellion was led by a kuraka who claimed to be a descendant of the Inca royal line, that of the final Inca, Túpac Amaru. At independence in 1825, Simón Bolívar abolished noble titles, but the power and prestige of the kurakas were already in decline following the Great Rebellion. Kuraka rebellions had been waged since the beginning of the Spanish colonial rule, and decades after Túpac Amaru II's 1781 uprising other insurrections such as the Túpac Katari or the Mateo Pumakawa uprisings were often the first major engagements of the South American Wars of Independence.

Cacicas in Colonial Mexico
Cacicas played significant roles as female leaders and entrepreneurs within indigenous Mexican communities. These women held titles independently, distinct from their husbands, and did not lose their status if they married outside their rank. Cacicas possessed financial insight, engaging in business transactions like property dealings and managing financial networks. They owned valuable assets including land, homes, and livestock, often securing the best and most fertile territories.

Despite their entrepreneurial focus, cacicas also wielded considerable authority, acknowledged by native communities, the Spanish Crown, and the Catholic Church. Their status rivaled high-ranking Spanish men, with privileges like special treatment at religious ceremonies and even distinguished burial sites. This recognition extended beyond their ancestors, surpassing the rank of notable figures such as Isabel Moctezuma and her lineage.

The multifaceted roles of cacicas highlight their integral contributions to Mexican society under Spanish rule, demonstrating their adeptness in economic enterprise, societal leadership, and cultural influence across indigenous communities.

Caciquismo and Caudillismo
An extension of the term cacique, caciquismo ("boss rule") can refer to a political system dominated by the power of local political bosses, the caciques. In the post-independence period in Mexico, the term retained its meaning of "indigenous" leaders, but also took on a more general usage of a "local" or "regional" leader as well. Some scholars make a distinction between caudillos (political strongmen) and their rule, caudillismo, and caciques and caciquismo. One Argentine intellectual, Carlos Octavio Bunge viewed caciquismo as emerging from anarchy and political disruption and then evolving into a "pacific" form of "civilized caciquismo", such as Mexico's Porfirio Díaz (r. 1876–1911). Argentine writer Fernando N.A. Cuevillas views caciquismo as being "nothing more than a special brand of tyrant".

In Spain, caciquismo appeared in the late 19th-century and early 20th-century Spain. Writer Ramón Akal González views Galicia in northwest of Spain, as having remained in a continual state of strangulated growth over centuries as a result of caciquismo and nepotism. "Galicia still suffers from this anachronistic caste of caciques." Spanish strongman El Caudillo Francisco Franco (1892-1975) was born in Ferrol in Galicia.

In the Philippines, the term cacique democracy was coined by Benedict Anderson. It has been used to describe the political system where in many parts of the country local leaders remain very strong, with almost warlord-type powers. The Philippines was a colony of Spain from the late sixteenth century until the Spanish–American War of 1898, when the United States assumed control. The U.S. administration subsequently introduced many commercial, political and administrative reforms. They were sometimes quite progressive and directed towards the modernization of government and commerce in the Philippines. However, the local traditional Filipino elites, being better educated and better connected than much of the local population, were often able to take advantage of the changes to bolster their positions.

There is no consensus in the scholarly literature about the origins of caciquismo. Murdo J. MacLeod suggests that the terms cacique and caudillo "either require further scrutiny or, perhaps, they have become so stretched by the diversity of explanations and processes packed into them that they have become somewhat empty generalizations".

Taínos

 * Agüeybaná (The Great Sun)
 * Agüeybaná II (The Brave)
 * Anacaona
 * Arasibo
 * Brizuela
 * Caguax
 * Comerío
 * Enriquillo
 * Guacanagarix
 * Guamá
 * Guarionex
 * Habaguanex
 * Hatuey
 * Hayuya
 * Huarea
 * Jumacao
 * Loquillo
 * Orocobix
 * Urayoán

Notable native caciques of the Americas

 * Agüeybaná I of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Agüeybaná II of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Aquiminzaque of the Muisca of Chunsa
 * Arariboia of the Temininós of Espírito Santo
 * Arasibo of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Atlácatl of the Pipil of El Salvador
 * Carlos of the Calusa
 * Catacora of Acora and Puno
 * Caguax of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Chacao of Venezuela
 * Correque of the Huetar of Costa Rica
 * Cunhambebe of the Tupinambás of São Paulo
 * Diriangén of the Chorotega of Nicaragua
 * El Guarco of the Huetar of Costa Rica
 * El Quibían of the Ngäbe of Panama
 * Felipe Camarão of the Potiguara
 * Garabito of the Huetar of Costa Rica
 * Gonzalo Mazatzin Moctezuma of Mexico
 * Guaicaipuro of the Teques and Caracas
 * Guamá of the Taino of Cuba
 * Guaicaipuro of Venezuela
 * Guarionex of the Taino of Hispaniola
 * Hatuey of the Taino of Hispaniola
 * Idacansás of the Muisca of Colombia
 * Inacayal of the Tehuelche
 * Jumacao of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Juan de Lebu of the Moluche of Chile
 * Lempira of the Lenca of Honduras
 * Macuilmiquiztli of the Nicarao of Nicaragua
 * María of the Tehuelche of Patagonia
 * Orocobix of the Taino of Puerto Rico
 * Saguamanchica of the Muisca of Muyquytá
 * Saturiwa of the Timucua
 * Sepé Tiaraju of the Guarani Missions
 * Tamanaco of the Mariches and Quiriquires
 * Tibiriçá of the Tupiniquims of São Paulo
 * Urracá of the Ngäbe of Panama
 * Urriparacoxi of central Florida

title: Cacique


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Talk:Koszul complex

Untitled
Thanks for that. Aside from your homological program I was wondering if you knew stuff about Fitting ideals, which I've wanted to understand myself. Also, from the point of view of the geometry, we really need an article about Kähler differentials.

Charles Matthews 12:23, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Hi Charles, I do know something about Fitting ideals and years ago I wrote up a longish thing on Kaehler differentials which I never finished and is now long gone. It would be good to do something on it but it will take some time.

Bernard Johnston 12 Mar 2004

The matricies in the example Koszul complex were denoted by psi and phi. I changed this to the more standard d_1 and d_2. Note that the complex has its differentials slightly in the wrong position, wiki doesn't seem to accept the \overset command.

If anyone feels qualified to add this material, it would be nice to see a bit about (a) Koszul relations and (b) the Koszul complex and self-duality. Courtney Gibbons 24 Mar 2011 —Preceding undated comment added 18:33, 24 March 2011 (UTC).

Too technical
I have tagged this article as too technical, as one needs to know what is a chain complex, and a tensor product of complexes for understanding the given definition. Even if one knows these definitions, but one is not an expert in homological algebra, it remains very difficult to realize what Koszul complex really is.

For a less technical definition, see Hilbert's syzygy theorem, that I needed to write because this article is not convenient. D.Lazard (talk) 00:16, 11 November 2016 (UTC)

 * Maybe it's just me, but I think the definition in terms of exterior powers is more standard (and is at least more familiar to me). So, I've added one. I note Serre's "Algèbre locale, multiplicités" (excuse my French) uses the definition similar to the one given previously. I suppose that one gives a better motivation (but is somehow more cumbersome.) -- Taku (talk) 09:53, 11 November 2016 (UTC)
 * It should be noted that Serre's "Algèbre locale, multiplicités" is not a textbook, but a research book; therefore, his objective was not to be pedagogical, but to introduce as shortly as possible the technical tools he needed. Moreover, this book was about local behavior, where tensor product plays an important role. Nevertheless, as far as I remember, the term "complex of exterior algebra" were often used in place of "Koszul complex", in France and at that time.
 * About the context, the relation with Hilbert's syzygy theorem is worth to be mentioned. This is far to be the only occurrence of Koszul complex in the theory of homogeneous polynomial ideals: The homology of Koszul complex is a key tool in my proof that a zero-dimensional systems of homogeneous polynomials of degree d in n variables may be solved in time $$d^{O(n)}.$$ The theory of the dimension and the degree of projective varieties, as presented in Hilbert series and Hilbert polynomial is also strongly related. D.Lazard (talk) 11:02, 11 November 2016 (UTC)

It's wikipedia, you can always link back to other articles explaining what you don't understand. Also, why in the world would you want to read about the Koszul complex if you don't know what a chain complex or the tensor product are? It's a more advanced subject. --345Kai (talk) 22:01, 8 October 2017 (UTC)

 * The lede is overcomplex. I find the definition to be reasonably understandable (in fact, far more understandable than D.Lazard's claimed "less technical" description in Hilbert's syzygy theorem.) This article is linked from the end of exterior algebra, It is reasonable for a college sophomore who has read all of the exterior algebra article, and have some reasonable understanding of it, to click through to here, and go "wtf is a ring? wtf is a module?" cause all they've had is reals and complex numbers and vector spaces. (I got exterior algebra in multivariate calculus as a college sophomore) In some later years, one might learn about Lie derivatives (say in physics class, in classical mechanics), and maybe even develop some grasp of Lie algebra cohomology ... which article, BTW, has a really pretty decent "motivation" section that really gets the point across. This article needs a comparable "motivation" or "informal description" section. Using reals, not rings, maybe even mostly repeating what the Lie algebra cohomology "motivation" says. The goal is to informally explain "how to think about it, what to think about it." Something that might say "whenever you have a derivation you can define this exact sequence", and "its great because this means you can have an BRST thing going as a result."

 * This should include statements about what one can do with it, beyond just saying "its a great tool for homological algebra". Pointers to a few fundamental results that followed from it. (This motivates the reader: "if I want to understand X I first have to understand the Koszul complex"). 67.198.37.16 (talk) 20:40, 18 November 2020 (UTC)

Imho this complaint is basically that the previous introduction was too long, and hopefully that's been resolved enough to remove the complaint at the top of the page now. 26 Sep 2023 - MM. — Preceding unsigned comment added by MeowMathematics (talk • contribs) 18:11, 26 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Koszul complex


text:
Talk:Płock

Alternate spelling: Plotzk?
While researching Plock city, I understand it is also known (or was known) as Plotzk. Can you advise if this is correct. Is it just another spelling or is it a name change? jamie_trauntner@hotmail.com
 * This is quite likely a transcription (writing the word as it sounds) without using Polish diacritics (the barred "l"), and according to English orthography. English speakers unfamiliar with Polish pronunciation would mispronounce the "ck" as [k] rather than [tsk]. This is, however, no reason to alter the spelling of the city's name. See below. -- Deborahjay 17:44, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

How to spell the name of town?
Somoene asked how to spell the name of town and this is the answer: the correct name of town is Płock, but we spell that "Puotzk" - I think it will be the most correct spelling.

 * The spelling is in the article header, both in IPA and in ogg sound file. Halibutt 11:43, Nov 29, 2004 (UTC)

 * Similar to other pages for place names using non-English diacritics, the page name includes the proper spelling and diacritics of the source language (in this case, the barred "l" and the letter "c" that Polish pronounces differently than English). Throughout the body of the article's text, however, the conventional English alphabet is used. The orthographic convention for Polish letters in English is to use the letter "l" for "ł", "e" for "ę", and so on. Changing the spelling to accomodate English pronunciation is inappropriate. Ideally, readers of English will learn the Polish pronunciation, that sounds close to [pwotsk], without unnecessary alteration of the name's spelling. -- Hope that helps, Deborahjay 17:52, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

Religion
I see that the part related to the jewish presence in Plock has been deleted. I am not a frequent contributor to en:wiki, so I positively do not want to start even the shadow of an edit war. But I remark that this deletion is tantamount to deleting one quarter of the history of Plock. Some result, indeed. --UbUb 17:43, 10 June 2007 (UTC)[| bla bla]

Name
Jews were a quarter of the city population until WW2. According to WP:Place, the Yiddish name should be in the lead.--Mikej007 (talk) 00:11, 31 August 2009 (UTC)

 * They constituted 48% of the city's population in the early 19th century, and often more than 30% during the 19th century. Have added to the section on Jewish history and plan to do more.Parkwells (talk) 16:29, 29 October 2013 (UTC)

Make polish version of the name a redirect
There seriously needs to be a cleanup of polish city names so that their english articles are actually linkable in english (that is: without a ton of clunky diacritics which do not exist in english) - I'm still unsure how to do redirects, though. As it stands, searching Plock doesn't lead to this page. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.55.58.242 (talk) 00:19, 21 May 2010 (UTC)

Merge Princely Capital City of Płock
It was proposed in 2011 to merge Princely Capital City of Płock with this article. I agree, as the other article is really a stub and there has been little activity on it. No active Talk page.Parkwells (talk) 16:37, 29 October 2013 (UTC)

Fate in the Prussian Partition
I'm just an amateur looking for information about this town in the 19th century, but I think there may be an error where it says "the city was included within the region controlled by the Russian Empire, when Poland was divided among it, Prussia, and Austria-Hungary"—the Encyclopedia Britannica says control of Plock actually passed to Prussia, not Russia. In addition, the main illustration of the Prussian Partition used on Wikipedia taken by Prussia. Am I missing something obvious? Rabdill (talk) 05:05, 4 June 2017 (UTC)

It impressed people as forced laborers
Is it standard English? Xx236 (talk) 11:38, 26 June 2018 (UTC)

One history of the town
The town had common history. Now there are two parts - the Polish history and the Jewish history in Culture section. Ther exist two separate descriptions of Nazi occupation. Hermann Schaper should be probably mentioned.Xx236 (talk) 11:53, 26 June 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Płock


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World Single Distances Speed Skating Championships

The World Single Distances Speed Skating Championships  are a series of speed skating competitions organised by the International Skating Union.

History
Since the late 19th century, speed skating championships were always decided by racing multiple distances – four different distances for the Allround Championships, and two different distances (which have to be skated twice) for Sprint Championships. However, the speed skating events at the Olympic Games were always individual distances, no medals are awarded for a combined event (the only exception being the 1924 Winter Olympics).

Towards the end of the 20th century, skaters started to specialize and it became rare that a skater was able to dominate both the short and the long distances. Perhaps the last skater able to do so was Eric Heiden, who won all five distances at the 1980 Winter Olympics. As a consequence of this specialization, the difference between the Olympic Games and the regular championships, and the popularity of both the Speed skating World Cup and Single Distance Championships held nationally in several countries, the International Skating Union decided to organise the World Single Distance Championships.

Starting in 1996, this originally was an annual event, but in 1998 it became clear that having World Single Distance Championships and the Single Distance Championships as held at the Winter Olympics during the same year was too much, so since 1999, the World Single Distance Championships are no longer held in (Winter) Olympic years.

Distances
The skaters compete in the following distances:

Medal summary
The medal table by nations is the total number of the 16 distances (men and women) at all of the 23 championships (1996–2024). The individual tables are about the eight distances by gender.

Nations
All medals, click on the nation to go to the list of medallists.

Updated after the 2024 World Championships.

Men
Top 10, including team pursuit and team sprint. Boldface denotes active skaters and highest medal count among all skaters (including those who are not included in these tables) per type.

Women
Top 10, including team pursuit and team sprint. Boldface denotes active skaters and highest medal count among all skaters (including those who are not included in these tables) per type.


text:
Azra Akın

Azra Akın (born 8 December 1981) is a Turkish-Dutch actress, dancer, model and beauty queen who was crowned Miss World 2002 in London on 7 December 2002. She is best known for series Yağmur Zamanı

Biography
Akın was born in Almelo, Netherlands, to Turkish parents. Her father (Nazım) and mother (Ayda) emigrated from Turkey to the Netherlands in 1971. Akın has one younger sister named Doruk. In 1998, at the age of 17, Akın was selected Elite Model of Turkey; she then participated in the Europe Elite Model competition in Nice, France, where she reached the final 15. She continued modelling in Germany for the German catalogue Otto.

In 2002, Azra won Star TV's Miss Turkey. Thus, she represented Turkey in the Miss World beauty pageant which was held on December 7, 2002, at Alexandra Palace, London, which she also won. Akin accepted the tiara and $156,000 prize from the previous year's winner Agbani Darego. During her reign, Akın travelled to the United Kingdom, Turkey, the United States, New Zealand, Ireland, Jamaica, Australia, China and many more countries.

In 2003, she won a gold medal when she participated in the British reality TV show The Games.

In 2004, Akın modelled for the postcards of the Eurovision Song Contest 2004 which were shown before each song.

In 2010, she won on the TV dance show Yok Boyle Dans, the Turkish version of Dancing With the Stars.

In 2017, she married Turkish male dancer and model Atakan Koru. The couple has two children.

title: Azra Akın


text:
Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey

Henry George Grey, 3rd Earl Grey (28 December 1802 – 9 October 1894), known as Viscount Howick from 1807 until 1845, was an English statesman and cabinet minister in the government of the United Kingdom.

Background
Grey was the eldest son of Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey, who served as Prime Minister in the 1830s, by his wife The Honorable Mary Ponsonby, daughter of William Ponsonby, 1st Baron Ponsonby.

He matriculated at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1821, graduating with a nobleman's MA in 1823.

Political career
He entered parliament in 1826, under the title of Viscount Howick, as Whig member for Winchelsea, and then briefly for Higham Ferrers before settling for a northern constituency. Northumberland in 1831 was followed by North Northumberland after the Great Reform Act 1832. He remained in the parliaments dominated by his party and later by Lord Melbourne as Prime Minister.

On the accession of the Whigs to power in 1830, when his father became prime minister, he was made Under-Secretary of State for War and the Colonies. This gave him responsibility for Britain's colonial possessions and laid the foundation of his intimate acquaintance with colonial questions. He belonged at the time to the more advanced party of colonial reformers, sharing the views of Edward Gibbon Wakefield on questions of land and emigration, and resigned in 1834 from dissatisfaction that slave emancipation was made gradual instead of immediate. In 1835 he entered Lord Melbourne's cabinet as Secretary at War, and effected some valuable administrative reforms, especially by suppressing malpractices detrimental to the troops in India. After the partial reconstruction of the ministry in 1839, he again resigned, disapproving of the more advanced views of some of his colleagues.

These repeated resignations gave him a reputation for crotchetiness, which he did not decrease by his disposition to embarrass his old colleagues by his action on free trade questions in the session of 1841.

After being returned unopposed at the first three general elections in Northern division of Northumberland, Howick was defeated at the 1841 general election. He returned to the Commons after a few months absence, when he was elected for the borough of Sunderland at by-election in September 1841.

During the exile of the Liberals from power he went still farther on the path of free trade, and anticipated Lord John Russell's declaration against the corn laws. When, on Sir Robert Peel's resignation in December 1845, Lord John Russell was called upon to form a ministry, Howick, who had become Earl Grey by the death of his father in the preceding July, refused to enter the new cabinet if Lord Palmerston were foreign secretary. He was greatly censured for perverseness, and particularly when in the following July he accepted Lord Palmerston as a colleague without remonstrance. His conduct, nevertheless, afforded Lord John Russell an escape from an embarrassing situation.

Becoming colonial secretary in 1846, he found himself everywhere confronted with arduous problems, which in the main he encountered with success. His administration formed an epoch. He was the first minister to proclaim that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and not for the mother countries; the first systematically to accord them self-government so far as then seemed possible; the first to introduce free trade into their relations with Great Britain and Ireland. The concession by which colonies were allowed to tax imports from the mother-country ad libitum was not his; he protested against it, but was overruled. In the West Indies he suppressed, if he could not overcome, discontent; in Ceylon he put down rebellion; in New Zealand he suspended the constitution he had himself accorded, and yielded everything into the hands of Sir George Grey. The least successful part of his administration was his treatment of the convict question at the Cape of Good Hope, which seemed an exception to his rule that the colonies were to be governed for their own benefit and in accordance with their own wishes, and subjected him to a humiliating defeat.

Frustrated that plans for a loan to relieve the Irish famine and fund emigration schemes from the area had failed, Grey developed his plans for an alternative currency system to the Bank of England central bank model. It became known as a currency board and he set up the first one in cooperation with James Wilson and the Mauritian colonial government in Mauritius.

In 1848 Grey was elected to the New South Wales Legislative Council representing the City of Melbourne despite never visiting the colony; his seat was declared vacant in 1850 due to his non-attendance. This election was a protest against rule from Sydney and in 1850 Grey introduced the Australian Colonies Government Act which separated the district from New South Wales to become the colony of Victoria.

After his retirement he wrote a history and defence of his colonial policy in the form of letters to Lord John Russell (Colonial Policy of Lord John Russell's Administration, 1853). He resigned with his colleagues in February 1852. No room was found for him in the Aberdeen ministry formed in December that year, and although during the Crimean struggle public opinion pointed to him as the fittest man as minister for war, he never again held office. During the remainder of his long life he exercised a vigilant criticism on public affairs. In 1858 he wrote a work (republished in 1864) on parliamentary reform; in 1888 he wrote another on the state of Ireland; and in 1892 one on the United States tariff. In his latter years he was a frequent contributor of weighty letters to The Times on land, tithes, currency and other public questions. His principal parliamentary appearances were when he moved for a committee on Irish affairs in 1866, and when in 1878 he passionately opposed the policy of the Beaconsfield cabinet in India. He nevertheless supported Lord Beaconsfield at the dissolution, regarding William Ewart Gladstone's accession to power with much greater alarm. He was a determined opponent of Gladstone's Home rule policy.

Family
Lord Grey married on 9 August 1832, to Maria, daughter of Sir Joseph Copley, 3rd Baronet of Sprotborough. They had no children. She died in September 1879. Lord Grey survived her by fifteen years and died on 9 October 1894, aged 91. He was succeeded in the earldom by his nephew, Albert Grey (born 1851). The suburb of Howick in Auckland, New Zealand, is named after the earl.

Legacy
He was author of several books, including:

- Colonial Policy of the Administration of Lord John Russell (1853)

- Parliamentary government considered with reference to a reform of Parliament (1858)

- Parliamentary government considered with reference to a reform of Parliament. A new edition containing suggestions for improvement of our representative system...(1864)

title: Henry Grey, 3rd Earl Grey


text:
Kawanishi H6K

The Kawanishi H6K was an Imperial Japanese Navy flying boat produced by the Kawanishi Aircraft Company and used during World War II for maritime patrol duties. The Allied reporting name for the type was Mavis; the Navy designation was "Type 97 Large Flying Boat" (九七式大型飛行艇). Developed in the 1930s, it was used for reconnaissance, transport, bombing, naval warfare, and executive transport by the Imperial Japanese Navy. The national airline also used it as commercial airliner. The British mistakenly identified this aircraft as the Kawanishi Navy 97 Mavis.

Design and development
The aircraft was designed in response to a Navy requirement of 1934 for a long-range flying boat and incorporated knowledge gleaned by a Kawanishi team that visited the Short Brothers factory in the UK, at that time one of the world's leading producers of flying boats, and from building the Kawanishi H3K, a license-built, enlarged version of the Short Rangoon. The "Type S", as Kawanishi called it, was a large, four-engined monoplane with twin tails, and a hull suspended beneath the parasol wing by a network of struts. Three prototypes were constructed, each one making gradual refinements to the machine's handling both in the water and in the air, and finally fitting more powerful engines. The first of these flew on 14 July 1936 and was originally designated "Navy Type 97 Flying Boat", later H6K. Eventually, 217 were built.

Production & engines
Four prototypes were produced leading to the production version, with ten H6K2 built, then 124 H6K4 were produced which had better fuel capacity. All H6K were powered by 4 radial piston engines of different types. Some aircraft were upgraded with the 1000 hp Kinsei 46, and the H6K5 had the 1300 hp Kinsei 51/53.

The H6K prototype was powered by four 9-cylinder Nakajima Hikari 2 with 840 hp.

Additionally production:

Sixteen (16) aircraft were civilian air transports operated by Dai-Nippon Airways (the Imperial Japanese National airline), with on board toilet, galley, and room for 18 passengers. They had civil registration and were used for mail and passenger service to the Pacific.
 * Sixteen H6K2-L unarmed transports
 * Two (2) H6K4-L VIP transports
 * Twenty (20) H6K4-L unarmed transports with the Kinsei 46 engines
 * Thirty-six H6K5s with Kinsei 51/53

Combat H6K were armed with various combinations of Type 92 machine guns, and it could also carry two torpedoes or 1000kg of bombs.

Operational history
H6Ks were deployed from 1938 onwards, first seeing service in the Sino-Japanese War and were in widespread use when the Pacific War began in December 1941. At the start of the war, four Kōkūtai (naval air groups) operated a total of 66 H6K4s. Also, 16 were used by the Imperial Japanese airline for mail and passenger service to the Pacific.

On 12 December 1941, during the Battle of Wake Island, an H6K bombed Wake island, but was shot down by an F4F Wildcat.

On 15 February 1942, a P-40 Warhawk intercepted an H6K about 190 km west of Darwin, Australia, which  had attacked Allied shipping; both the P-40 and H6K were shot down.

The type had some success over southeast Asia and the southwest Pacific. H6Ks had excellent endurance, flying up to 24-hour patrols, and were often used for long-range reconnaissance and bombing missions. From bases in the Dutch East Indies, they could fly over a large portion of Australia.

However, the H6K became vulnerable to a newer generation of more heavily armed and faster fighter aircraft. In front-line service, it was replaced by the Kawanishi H8K. It continued in service throughout the war, but in areas where the risk of interception was low.

Variants

 * H6K1
 * Evaluation prototypes with four Nakajima Hikari 2 engines, four built.

 * H6K1 (navy flying boat Type 97 Model 1)
 * Prototypes with 746 kW (1,000 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 engines, three converted from the original H6K1 prototypes

 * H6K2 Model 11
 * First production model. Includes two H6K2-L officer transport modification, 10 built.

 * H6K2-L (navy transport flying boat Type 97)
 * Unarmed transport version of H6K2 powered by Mitsubishi Kinsei 43 engines, 16 built

 * H6K3 Model 21
 * Modified transport version of H6K2 for VIPs and high-ranking officers, 2 built

 * H6K4 Model 22
 * Major production version, modified H6K2 with revised weapons, some with 694 kW (930 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 46 engines. Fuel capacity increased from 7,764 L (1,708 Imp gal) to 13,410 L (2,950 Imp gal). Includes two H6K4-L transport versions, 100 to 127 (if other numbers are all correct) built.

 * H6K4-L
 * Transport version of H6K4, similar to H6K2-L, but with Mitsubishi Kinsei 46 engines, 20 built and another two converted from the H6K4

 * H6K5 Model 23
 * Fitted with 969 kW (1,300 hp) Mitsubishi Kinsei 51 or 53 engines and new upper turret replacing the open position, 36 built

Operators

 * Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
 * Imperial Japanese Airways
 * Used on the routes Yokohama-Saipan-Koror (Palau)-Timor, Saigon-Bangkok and Saipan-Truk-Ponape-Jaluit
 * Used on the routes Yokohama-Saipan-Koror (Palau)-Timor, Saigon-Bangkok and Saipan-Truk-Ponape-Jaluit

 * Air Service Volunteer Corps - A single H6K5 flying boat was restored to flight by British and Indonesian forces during the Indonesian War of Independence.
 * Air Service Volunteer Corps - A single H6K5 flying boat was restored to flight by British and Indonesian forces during the Indonesian War of Independence.

title: Kawanishi H6K


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Kortelisy

Kortelisy is a village in Ukraine which was destroyed on September 23, 1942, by Germany during the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II. Almost the entire population of Kortelisy, then amounting to 2,892 people, were killed by the German forces. The Nazis were assisted by local Ukrainian police.

The village was later rebuilt. Less well-known are reports that the German Army destroyed a total of 459 villages in Ukraine, killing many or all of their residents.

title: Kortelisy