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Cromwell tank

The Cromwell tank, officially Tank, Cruiser, Mk VIII, Cromwell (A27M), was one of the series of cruiser tanks fielded by Britain in the Second World War. Named after the English Civil War–era military leader Oliver Cromwell, the Cromwell was the first tank put into service by the British to combine high speed from a powerful, reliable engine (the Rolls-Royce Meteor) and reasonable armour. The intended dual-purpose high-velocity gun could not be fitted in the turret, so a medium-velocity dual-purpose gun was fitted instead. Further development of the Cromwell combined with a high-velocity gun led to the Comet tank.

The name "Cromwell" was initially applied to three vehicles during development. Early Cromwell development led to the creation of the A24 Cavalier. Later Cromwell development led to the creation of the competing Centaur tank (officially the Tank, Cruiser, Mk VIII, Centaur (A27L)). This was closely related to the Cromwell, both vehicles being externally similar. The Cromwell and Centaur tanks differed in the engine used; the Centaur had the 410 hp Liberty engine, the Cromwell had the significantly more powerful 600 hp Meteor; Centaur hulls were converted to Cromwells by changing the engine.

The Cromwell first saw action in the Battle of Normandy in June 1944. The tank equipped the armoured reconnaissance regiments of the Royal Armoured Corps, in the 7th Armoured Division, 11th Armoured Division and the Guards Armoured Division. While the armoured regiments of the latter two divisions were equipped with M4 Shermans, the armoured regiments of the 7th Armoured Division were equipped with Cromwells. The Centaurs were not used in combat except for a few fitted with a 95 mm howitzer, which were used in support of the Royal Marines during the amphibious landings of Normandy.

Initial designs: A23, A24
Development of the Cromwell and Centaur dates to 1940, as the Crusader tank was being readied for service. The General Staff were aware that the Crusader would become obsolete, and in late 1940 they set out the specifications for a replacement tank, expected to enter service in 1942, fitted with the QF 6 pounder gun.

Vauxhall responded with the A23, a scaled down version of their A22 Churchill infantry tank. This would have had 75 mm of frontal armour, used a 12-cylinder Bedford engine, carried a crew of five and would have had the same suspension as the A22.

Nuffield submitted the A24, heavily based on its Crusader design and powered by its version of the Liberty engine, a V-12 design dating to the late days of World War I and now thoroughly outdated. Nevertheless, as the design was based on the Crusader, it was expected it could be put into production rapidly.

The final entry was from Leyland and Birmingham Railway Carriage & Wagon (BRC&W). Their design was similar to the Nuffield, but with different suspension and tracks.

The designs were received and examined in January 1941, with Nuffield's A24 being declared the winner on 17 January. Six prototypes of the Cromwell were ordered for the spring of 1942. These arrived four months late, and by this time the design was already outdated. It was put into production anyway, but in service it proved underpowered. Only a small number were built.

Delays in the A24 program led to demands to get the QF 6 pounder into service earlier. This led to a series of up-gunned Crusaders mounting the 6 pounder.

Introduction of Meteor engine
With the start of the war, Rolls-Royce ended car production and set up a design team looking for other ways to use their design capability. The team formed under the direction of W. A. Robotham at Clan Foundry in Belper, north of Derby. They began recovering and refurbishing parts from crashed Merlin engines with the intention of using them for non-aviation purposes.

In October 1940, Robotham met Henry Spurrier of Leyland Motors to discuss British tank design. The Tank Board desperately needed a more powerful tank engine to replace the aging Liberty. Robotham and Spurrier decided to attempt to fit a refurbished and re-worked Rolls-Royce Merlin engine to a Leyland tank for testing. Design had three priorities:
 * To remove the supercharger and make the engine operate on standard fuel;
 * To fit the engine into a current Crusader tank so the engine, and the remaining elements of the tank could be tested under greater load;
 * To improve the cooling system such that the larger output engine could be cooled in the same space.

They removed the supercharger from a Merlin Mk. III to downgrade the performance to a suitable level for tank use, reversed the direction of engine rotation to match tank transmissions, and fitted the resulting engine to a Leyland-built Crusader.

Delivered to Aldershot on 6 April 1941, the test team had trouble timing its runs because it was so fast, estimating it reached 50 mph. Leyland arranged to start production of 1,000 examples of the engine as the Meteor.

With engine power doubled, it soon became apparent that the additional stresses placed on the Crusader components required significant re-work to increase reliability. Leyland had no spare capacity, and re-work commenced with the help of BRC&W. It was planned to fit this to BRC&W-built versions of their original A24 submission.

Design splits, and production commences: A24, A27L, A27M
Refitting the design of the A24 Cromwell for the Meteor engine was not acceptable to Nuffield, and hence a new specification of tank was created working with Leyland, the A27 Cromwell.

In mid-1941, Leyland changed its mind, concerned about cooling problems. This was a major concern for the Tank Board, as cooling issues had been a major problem for the previous generation of Crusader and Covenanter tanks. The Tank board was still committed to the Meteor, but to avoid dedicating all resources into a potentially flawed design, the design was split into three separate vehicles:
 * A24 Cromwell I under Nuffield, later known as "Cavalier". This was based on the existing specification of Liberty engine and Wilson steering, working from experience learned with the Crusader.
 * A27L Cromwell II initially under English Electric, but design taken over by Leyland, later known as "Centaur". This was to be based on a revised and upgraded Liberty engine from Morris Motors and the newly available Merrit-Brown gearbox as used on the Churchill tank.
 * A27M Cromwell III under BRC&W, which carried the Cromwell name through to production and service. This was to be based on the new Meteor engine and the Merrit-Brown gearbox, but was also to be designed such that the Liberty engine could be fitted if problems arose.

These early design designations of Cromwell I, II, and III are not to be confused with the later production designations of Cromwell I, II, etc. which were production variants of the A27M.

While Leyland continued with the Liberty under A27L, the Tank Board continued with the Meteor engine by placing an order directly with Rolls-Royce. Leyland also suggested using a diesel engine of their own design, although this was later abandoned. BRC&W became parent to the Cromwell in September 1941 working with David-Brown (gearbox) RR (engine) and Leyland (tracks and sprockets) and produced a pilot in January 1942.

Cromwell's cooling system was a new design and put through over nine months of testing in a variety of configurations. This included the development of new fan drives and inlet louvres, which can be seen on the Cromwell's engine deck. The resulting system for a Meteor-powered tank delivered both the necessary cooling performance, and reduced the power lost in driving the cooling system from 90 to 30 hp. This made the performance improvement of the Meteor over the Liberty even more pronounced and left room for expected development of the A27.

The first (mild steel) prototype of a Meteor-powered A27M Cromwell was delivered to the Army for trials in March 1942, several months before the A24 that was supposed to precede it, and also prior to the A27L Centaur pilot vehicle which was delivered in June 1942. With nearly 600 hp it proved to be exceptionally mobile when tested.

Orders were placed for both A27L and A27M versions as there were concerns about the production rate of the Meteor. Design also commenced on a 17-pounder armed version under specification A30, leading to parallel development of the A30 Challenger.

As all of Rolls-Royce's production capacity was engaged in producing the Merlin engine for aircraft, production of the Meteor version was initially based solely on parts recovered from crashed aircraft, with many engines still showing crash damage. Additional sources for manufacturing the Meteor engine were investigated. Even when assigned reduced production quotas, BRC&W proved unable to meet the demand for Cromwell, and Leyland became the design and production parent of both the A27L and A27M versions including subcontracted work.

Engine production
Rolls was at this time having trouble meeting demand for the Merlin, let alone the Meteor. Meanwhile, Rover was having troubles turning Frank Whittle's Power Jets W.2 jet engine design into a produceable design due to increasing animosity between the engineers at Power Jets and Rover. Things became particularly heated when Whittle learned that Rover had set up a secret project (with the approval of the Ministry of Aircraft Production) to develop a simpler-to-produce "straight-through" version of the W.2. Whittle had, though Stanley Hooker of RR's supercharger division, been in contact with Rolls for help delivering some of the required parts that Rover proved unable to produce.

At the same time MAP was frustrated with Power Jets' complaints about Rover and the lack of a usable engine and had proposed in December 1942 that RR take over Power Jets but were not in a position to force such an event. The solution came in an agreement between Rover and RR. Ernest Hives, the head of Rolls had met Whittle and was fascinated by the jet engine (Rolls-Royce's major product was piston aero engines) called a meeting with his counterpart at Rover, Spencer Wilks, and the two met late in 1942 at the Swan and Royal pub in Clitheroe. Hives offered to trade the Meteor for the W.2, an offer Wilks jumped at. With approval by the company's boards and the MAP, Rover's jet engine team and production transferred to RR while Rover set up production of the Meteor engine at their Tyseley factory, and an additional line was set up by Morris Motors in Coventry.

Production began in November 1942. In August, new names had been given to all three designs; the original A24 Cromwell I became the Cavalier, the Liberty powered A27L Cromwell II became Centaur, and the Meteor powered A27M kept the name Cromwell. It would take considerable time for Rover to make ready production lines for the Meteor, and it was not until a few months later, in January 1943, that sufficient Meteor engines were available and the A27M Cromwell began production. The official handover of the Meteor and W.2 took place on 1 January 1943.

Armament choice
To increase production of Meteor engines Rover and Morris required machine tools from the US, which took time to arrive. In the interim, Centaur production continued, to avoid closing Cromwell tank production lines. The Cromwell had - in line with the then General Staff policy - originally be armed primarily for anti-tank work and the current QF 6-pounder (a high velocity tank gun with armour piercing (AP) ammunition met the requirement. A smaller number of tanks were to have the Ordnance QF 95 mm howitzer to fire high explosive and smoke shells as close support tanks.

The British experience in North Africa campaign was that during breakthroughs of the enemy line, tanks were encountered less but anti-tank guns and infantry were the main targets. The US-supplied M3 Grant and M4 Sherman tanks in North Africa had a dual purpose 75 mm gun which fired a more effective HE shell than the 6-pounder at the cost of a reduction in armour-piercing performance and this was seen as desirable for British tanks. Once the Vickers 75 mm HV gun was seen to be too big for the Cromwell turret, work was begun in December 1942 on the Ordnance QF 75 mm (a development of the 6-pounder that fired US ammunition) for fitting to British tanks. The new General Staff policy was announced at start of 1943; British medium weight tanks would be equipped with dual-purpose guns that were effective against current German tanks and they would be supported by tanks with high power anti-tank guns and close support weapons. Mark IV Cromwells were delivered with 75 mm guns from October 1943.

To maintain the capability to take on Axis tanks, production was to be split:
 * 10 percent fitted with Ordnance QF 95 mm howitzer;
 * 30 percent with a high velocity weapon: either 6-pounder or under the A30 development the 76mm 17-pounder;
 * 60 percent with a "dual purpose weapon".

Noting the problems with the medium velocity 75 mm dual purpose weapon, Vickers had already commenced development of a high velocity 75 mm gun that would fire American 75 mm ammunition but at a much higher velocity.

A complete move to Sherman tanks was not acceptable to British forces who would then be dependent on the US for tank production. At the same time, Cromwell with the Meteor engine and a HV weapon was shown to have superior power and armament, while US efforts to produce the Sherman replacement, the T20 medium tank, were not receiving sufficient attention.

A compromise was achieved with a reduction in British tank production during 1943 and 1944, with an increase in consumption of Sherman tanks, the remainder being delivered in parts as spares. Centaur production bore the brunt of this reduction, having only been continued to maintain factories producing Cromwell hulls while the number of Meteor engines was inadequate. It had already been arranged that Centaur production would be phased out when Meteor engine production increased. The list of machine tools required for the increase in Meteor output was also agreed upon, allowing Cromwell manufacture to scale.

At the same time as negotiations with the US, problems were being encountered with the use of the Vickers 75 mm HV gun in the Cromwell, with a larger turret ring being required. This was now expected to be introduced in mid-1944, leaving the majority of Cromwells with the medium velocity guns similar to the Shermans. Design of the high velocity variant was split to a separate specification. Intended as just another version of Cromwell, the new A34 version eventually needed significant re-engineering leading to production of the A34 Comet, which used a high velocity gun firing 17-pounder projectiles with a smaller cartridge down a shorter barrel. In the interim, the A27M version started.

Early trials
The first real field test of the design was carried out in August–September 1943, when examples of the Centaur and Cromwell were tested against Shermans (the diesel-engined M4A2 and multibank petrol-engined M4A4) in Exercise Dracula, a 2000 mi long trip around Britain. The Shermans proved to be the most reliable by far, requiring 420 hours of specialist fitter attention over a total distance travelled of 13986 mi with 199 defects. This corresponds to 0.03 hours per mile. In comparison, the Cromwells drove 11582 mi with 367 defects and required 814 hours, or 0.07 hours per mile. The Centaur managed only 8492 mi with 297 defects, due to constant breakdown, and required 742 hours, or 0.087 hours per mile.

The Cromwell and Centaur were given additional time to work out these problems. The Cromwell problems were mostly related to oil leaks and brake and clutch failures, an observer noting that these were well-known and should already have been corrected. The crews expressed their love for the design and especially its speed and handling. The Centaur was largely dismissed, with one observer expressing his hope that units were being equipped with it only for training purposes. The same reviewers unanimously supported the Sherman. A similar test in November demonstrated the Cromwell was improving, while the underpowered Centaur fared no better than in the first test.

Alongside Cromwell production, Centaur production design also allowed for the later conversion to the Meteor engine. A small number were retro-fitted for trials as Cromwell III and Cromwell X. As the Cromwell proved itself, larger numbers were fitted with the Meteor engine on the production line as Cromwell III and IV (not to be confused with the earlier Cromwell III design project).

Final specification
The production model design was finalised on 2 February 1944 when Leyland released specifications for what they called the "Battle Cromwell".

This included a number of minor changes to the basic design, including 6 mm of extra armour below the crew compartment, the introduction of an all-round vision cupola for the commander, seam welding all joints to waterproof and strengthen the tank, and standardising on the A27M version with Meteor engine and Merritt-Brown transmission.

The Cromwell Final Specification was applied part way through the production of Cromwell III and IV, changing the appearance and specification of both vehicles. The specification was later improved toward the end of the war with the Cromwell VII, resulting in an upgrade programme.

Centaur and Cavalier never met the requirements to enter front-line service. Most were used for training, although a few notable exceptions were used in action.

Production
Total A27 production consisted of 4,016 tanks, 950 of which were Centaurs and 3,066 Cromwells. In addition, 375 Centaur hulls were built to be fitted with an anti-aircraft gun turret; only 95 of these were completed.

Production was led by Leyland Motors on Centaur, and Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company (BRC&W) on Cromwell. Several other British firms also built Centaur and Cromwell tanks, however, as the numbers required were greater than any one company could deliver. Companies contracted to build the tanks included English Electric, Harland and Wolff, John Fowler & Co., LMS Railway, Metro-Cammell, Morris Motors and Ruston-Bucyrus.

Production of Cromwell and Centaur was split into two different groups. Cromwell was to be built by BRC&W and Metro-Cammell while Centaur was to be built by Leyland, English-Electric, Harland & Wolf, John Fowler & Co., LMS, Morris, Ruston-Bucyrus. Nuffield also switched production to Centaur when Cavalier completed. To increase Cromwell production capacity, English Electric switched from manufacturing Centaur to Cromwell, but remained tooled for Centaur. This resulted in a number of Cromwells being built with Centaur hulls. By January 1943, when production started, Leyland had become the production and design lead for A27 series including subcontractors producing components. Records show that John Fowler & Co. also produced both varieties.

Vauxhall produced two Cromwell pilot models—with a turret similar to that of the Churchill—in the expectation that they would build Cromwells once production of Churchill was terminated in 1943, but Churchill production was extended and Vauxhall withdrew from the Cromwell programme.

Hull
The frame was of riveted construction, though welding was used later. The armour plate was then bolted to the frame; large bosses on the outside of the plate were used on the turret.

The suspension was of the Christie type, with long helical springs (in tension) angled back to keep the hull sides low. Of the five road wheels each side, four had shock absorbers. The tracks were driven by sprocketed wheels at the rear and tension adjusted at the front idler, this being standard British practice. Some variants were produced with 14 in tracks; later, 15.5-inch tracks were used. As with previous Christie-suspension cruiser tanks, there were no track return rollers, the track being supported instead on the tops of the road wheels, known as the "slack-track" design. The side of the hull was made up of two spaced plates, the suspension units between them, and the outer plate having cutouts for the movement of the road-wheel axles.

The gearbox had five forward and one reverse gears. The first gear was for "confined spaces, on steep inclines or...sharp turns". The transmission was the new Merrit-Brown Z.5, which offered differential steering without clutching or braking, a major advance on previous designs. It gave the Cromwell superb manoeuvrability.

The Meteor engine delivered 540 hp at 2,250 rpm giving the Cromwell speed as well as manoeuvrability. This was the maximum rpm, which was limited by governors built into the magnetos. Fuel consumption on "pool" petrol (67 octane) was between 0.5 and 1.5 miles per gallon depending on terrain.

The driver sat on the right in the front of the hull, with the hull gunner on the left, separated by a bulkhead. The driver had two periscopes and a visor in the hull front. The visor could be opened fully or a small "gate" in it opened; in the latter case, a thick glass block protected the driver. The gunner had a single sighting periscope. A bulkhead with access holes separated the driver and hull gunner from the fighting compartment.

A further bulkhead separated the fighting compartment from the engine and transmission bay. The engine compartment drew cooling air in through the top of each side and the roof and exhausted it to the rear. To allow fording through up to 4 ft deep water, a flap could be moved to cover the lowermost air outlet. Air for the engine could be drawn from the fighting compartment or the exterior; it was then passed through oil bath cleaners. It was modified so that the exhaust fumes were redirected so that they were not drawn into the fighting compartment, a problem found when tanks were drawn up together, preparing to advance.

In June 1944, the Cromwell saw action during Operation Overlord, the Allied invasion of Normandy. It had a mixed reception by crews, being faster, and with a lower profile than the Sherman tank, but also being smaller and more cramped. Cromwell had 64 mm of frontal armour, compared with 2 in on the glacis of the early Shermans, though it was unsloped and hence less effective in practice. 123 Cromwells were later produced with applique armour on the hull front that reached 101 mm.

Turret and armament
Following British tank doctrine of the time, the vehicle was designed to fire on the move. The turret offered hydraulically powered turret traverse motors with proportional speed control. Later vehicles fitted an all-round view cupola for the commander to identify and track targets. Both gunner and commander had rotating and pivoting Vickers Gundlach tank periscopes, while two fixed episcopes were fitted in the rotating cupola. There was a 7.92 mm Besa machine gun mounted co-axially to the main armament, operated by the gunner. A second was gimbal mounted in the front of the hull, with 45 degrees horizontal and 25 degrees vertical movement. Sighting was by a No. 35 telescope, which was connected through a linkage to the mounting. In the top of the turret was a 2-inch "bombthrower" angled to fire forward. Thirty smoke grenades were carried for it.

Early models of the Cromwell were equipped with the QF 6-pounder (57 mm). Using the new armour-piercing discarding sabot round, which became available in quantity in early 1944, this gun could penetrate over 100 mm of steel armour at ranges on the order of 1000 yards, making it effective against all but the most heavily armoured tanks. However, British tankers had long complained about this weapon's lack of a useful high explosive (HE) round for attacking soft targets like trucks, anti-tank guns and infantry defences. A HE shell had been introduced for the 6-pounder, but it was described as being largely useless—the calibre of the gun was simply too small to carry a useful load of explosive. This was not entirely accidental; British tank policy of the time suggested that different models of the same tank, carrying different specialised weapons, was a better solution to this problem than a single weapon that attempted to do all things.

Experience with the US M3 75 mm gun suggested this thinking was wrong, that a single gun could be used in a "dual purpose" role against both tanks and softer targets. This led Vickers to begin development of a 75 mm weapon of 50 calibres in length, which would fire the same HE shell as the US gun, but with a higher propellant load that would make its anti-tank rounds more effective. However, as examples of this weapon began to arrive in May 1943, it was clear it would not fit into any turret that could be mated to the Cromwell's turret ring.

This problem was eventually solved by the realisation that the 6-pounder could be bored out to 75 mm and fire unmodified US ammunition. While this would lead to less anti-tank performance, this was considered a reasonable trade-off in exchange for the rapid introduction of the HE rounds. The resulting ROQF 75 mm could be easily swapped out with the 6-pounder, and newly built models mounting the gun were known as the Mark V. The ROQF 75 mm would be the primary weapon for the majority of Cromwells produced.

A close support version of the Cromwell was fitted with the QF 95 mm howitzer in place of the 75 mm. This too fired HE, though its primary role was delivering smoke shells, covering the other tanks in the unit.

Some command or OP tanks had the armament removed, leaving space in the turret for further radios. These were fitted with a dummy wooden gun, so as not to appear different to the enemy and attract hostile fire.

Cromwell and Centaur differences
Aside from the engine and its ancillaries (fans, radiator, clutch, etc.), both vehicles are very similar designs. While similar however, there were a number of minor variations between the Cromwell and Centaur caused by the divergence of design and production.

Increases in the Cromwell's design weight from 24 to 27 tons resulted in a reworking of the suspension during the design process, which was not reflected on the Centaur. The Cromwell had heavier grade suspension with longer suspension arms. The Cromwell's shock absorbers and springs were improved against the Cavalier, and increased to four (compared with the Centaur's three).

The method of track tensioning is a commonly noted difference. Initially, the design based on A24 Cavalier used a worm drive for tensioning. This was noted as being slow to operate, and trapped dirt. BRC&W developed an alternative ratchet mechanism based on the Valentine tank, and this was incorporated into the A27M Cromwell design, also enabling the tank to accept wider 15.5 in tracks. Centaur under Leyland continued without this development.

Some of these differences can be seen in Cromwells built with Centaur hulls, although many were removed with the introduction of the Cromwell Final Specification. This included the Cromwell method of track tensioning.

By comparison, the Cavalier can easily be identified by the vehicle's rear armour plate, which incorporates Crusader-style horizontal angled exhaust louvres. The Cromwell and Centaur both have a flat rear armour plate, with exhaust venting to the top immediately behind the engine deck. For this reason, many Cromwell and Centaur vehicles had a cowl fitted to direct the exhaust gases back where they could not re-enter the tank fighting compartment.

Further developments
An earlier requirement for a 17-pounder armed tank became more important when the 50 calibre Vickers 75 mm HV gun failed to fit on the Cromwell. A version of the Cromwell mounting the more powerful Ordnance QF 17-pounder (76.2 mm) had been commenced by BRC&W early in the development process. This required a much larger turret ring, which in turn required the hull to be lengthened (with an additional road wheel added to each side for a total of six) and the centre hull section widened. The result was the A30 Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger, but had its limitations and only 200 were produced. While successful, production ceased in favour of the much easier conversion of Sherman Fireflys, originally developed as a safeguard for the A30 programme, allowing greater numbers to be fielded.

However, development of the Vickers HV 50 calibre 75 mm gun continued, with the bore increasing to fire modified versions of the 17-pounder ammunition. This gun and its ammunition were designed specifically to fit in a turret that a reworked Cromwell-sized design could carry. This became the 77 mm HV with only slightly lower performance than the base 17-pounder. By the time this weapon was ready, a number of other changes had been worked into the tank design, producing the Comet, which replaced both the Cromwell and Challenger.

Performance
The A24 design specification had originally been constrained by the available tank engines of the time, delivering only 300 hp and limiting the weight. The evolution to A27M increased the weight slightly, but fitting a 600 hp engine almost doubled the power-to-weight ratio and created a very fast tank. This was combined with the Merrit-Brown gearbox that allowed the tank to steer while still powering both tracks, allowing it to maintain speed while manoeuvring, while tanks like the Sherman or T-34 lost power while turning and necessarily slowed down.

The Cromwell was the fastest British tank to serve in the Second World War, with a top speed of 40 mph. This speed was extremely beneficial in both attack and defence, outmanoeuvring opponents. At least one case is known of vehicle commanders using the vehicle's fast speed to jump large gaps. In the Netherlands, a troop of three Cromwells was able to leap a 20 ft wide canal when surprised by enemy forces. This speed proved too much for even the Christie suspension and in later models the final drive ratio was changed to lower the top speed to 32 mph, which was still fast for its time.

The Cromwell's armament was changed from the 6-pounder to the dual-purpose 75 mm. This gave a significant reduction in armour penetration compared to newer 6-pounder armour-piercing discarding sabot ammunition, which was becoming available, but added the ability to fire high explosive (HE) shells, which were more capable against other targets, such as anti-tank guns. The high velocity 75 mm gun was developed in an attempt to give both good anti-tank and HE performance, but in May 1943 proved too big to be fitted to the Cromwell. This issue led to the development of the A34 Comet, while the gun bore was increased to 76.2 mm to become compatible with 17-pounder ammunition, albeit with smaller shell casings with less propellant. The lack of a high-velocity weapon proved to be a significant limitation against opponents such as the Tiger, and the Cromwell had to rely on mobility.

The dual-purpose 75 mm main gun fired the same ammunition as the US 75 mm gun as used on the Sherman, and was also fitted to the Churchill and other British tanks later in the war, it had around the same HE and armour-piercing capabilities as the 75 mm-equipped Sherman tank. The Cromwell's speed and low profile gave an advantage over the Sherman, however, giving the tank the element of surprise and making return fire more difficult. Cromwell crews in north-west Europe succeeded in outflanking the heavier and more sluggish German tanks with superior speed, manoeuvrability and reliability.

The armour on the Cromwell ranged from 8 mm to 76 mm thick overall. On all-welded vehicles built by BRC&W, the weight saved by the welding allowed for the fitting of additional appliqué armour plates on the nose, vertical driver's plate and turret front, increasing the maximum thickness there to 102 mm. These vehicles are identified by their War Department numbers carrying the suffix W, e.g. T121710W. The armour compared well with that of the Sherman, although the Cromwell did not share the Sherman's sloped glacis plate.

While the Cromwell was a match for the majority of Axis tanks in use, it was not a match for the armour and armament of the latest German heavy vehicles developed at the same time. British tank design would go through another stage, the Comet cruiser, before developing the Centurion tank.

World War II
The Cromwell tank entered front-line service with the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Cromwells landed with the following forces on D+1. They saw extensive action with the British Army, forming part of the 6th Airborne Division, 7th Armoured Division, 11th Armoured Division, Guards Armoured Division, and 1st (Polish) Armoured Division. The tank was also used by the 1st (Czechoslovakian) Independent Armoured Brigade Group as part of the First Canadian Army in Dunkirk.

Cromwells were used as the main tank in the armoured brigades of the 7th Armoured Division, while being used in the armoured reconnaissance regiments of the other British armoured divisions, Guards Armoured Division and 11th Armoured Division, in north-west Europe. It excelled at this task because of its speed and low profile. The tank was praised for its speed and reliability, while its low profile made it harder to spot.

The standard 75 mm gun could tackle the majority of German armoured vehicles, and the HE shell was effective, but could not penetrate the front of heavier German tanks such as the Tiger or Panther. Although a rare occurrence on the battlefield, during the Battle of Normandy it was in the British sector where the majority of these German machines were encountered. The issue with the 75 mm gun was perhaps most pronounced during the Battle of Villers-Bocage in which the Cromwells were unable to engage German Tiger tanks frontally with any reasonable chance of success. Several Tigers were knocked out by British forces in the battle nonetheless.

The 75 mm HV had been intended to rectify this, but prior to entering service it was found to be too large to fit in the Cromwell's turret. Instead, Cromwells fought alongside the 17-pounder-armed Sherman Fireflys or Challengers, both of which could destroy Panthers and Tigers at standard combat distances. Cromwells (and 75 mm-armed Shermans) were supplemented by these vehicles at varying ratios per troop of 1/2 to 1/3. Though this provided a good solution to the issue of heavy German tanks, it added an additional level of complexity for battlefield commanders in having to place the 17-pounder tanks tactically within a formation. However this complication was not unique to the British Army; the US employed similar methods and faced the same issue with their 75 mm Sherman tanks.

This situation persisted until the development of the A34 Comet, mounting the new 77 mm HV gun, removed the need for mixed units.

In contrast, the Centaur was chiefly used for training; only those in specialist roles saw action. The Centaur IV close support version, equipped with a 95 mm howitzer, saw service in small numbers as part of the Royal Marine Armoured Support Group on D-Day. Originally intended to be used from landing craft and serve as static pillboxes, these examples retained the engines, allowing the marines to drive the tanks inland. A number of Centaurs were also re-purposed as combat engineering vehicles, such as armoured bulldozers.

The Sherman remained the most common tank in British and other Commonwealth armoured units in Europe. The Cromwell, in turn, was succeeded by small numbers of the Comet tank. This was based on the Cromwell and shared many components but had been designed from the outset to mount a superior gun, the 77 mm tank gun (a version of the 17-pounder with different ammunition). Only the 11th Armoured Division was fully re-equipped with the Comet before the war ended.

Units equipped

 * 2nd Battalion Welsh Guards
 * 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars
 * 1st Royal Tank Regiment
 * 5th Royal Tank Regiment
 * 4th County of London Yeomanry (Sharpshooters) (to July 1944)
 * 5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards
 * 2nd Northamptonshire Yeomanry (to August 1944)
 * 15th/19th King's Royal Hussars (from August 1944)
 * 6th Airborne Reconnaissance Regiment, RAC, within 6th Airborne Division
 * 16th Independent Armoured Brigade (Polish)
 * 10th Mounted Rifle Regiment (Polish)
 * Royal Marines Armoured Support Group (Centaur IV)

Post-war
During the Korean War, the British had a total of 14 Cromwell tanks: six of the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars Regiment and eight of the 45th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery. The Royal Artillery Cromwells were artillery observation tanks, lacking the main gun, but with expanded observation and communication equipment.

In December 1950, 14 tanks were organized into "Cooper Force", led by Captain Donald Ashley-Cooper, and were deployed to Jangheung, Yangju to support the 1st Battalion, Royal Ulster Rifles Regiment, whose duty was to defend northwest of Seoul. On the night of 3 January 1951, the 1st Battalion of the Royal Ulster Rifles and Cooper Force retreated under orders from superior command to withdraw. During the process, 157 soldiers were killed and all the tanks were destroyed or abandoned as they escaped along the gorge without protection provided by friendly units.

One of the captured Cromwells operated by the Communist Party was destroyed by a British Centurion tank near Hangang Railway Bridge on February 1. Another captured tank, deployed to Wolmido near Incheon by the communists, was recaptured by South Korean marines on February 10. American marines helped South Korean marines to repair the recaptured Cromwell for usage. However, the Marine Cromwell only rolled for a few days until it was handed back to its original owner, the British.

Cromwell tanks were used by Czechoslovakia and Israel.

Fifty-two Centaur I tanks were donated in early 1946 to the Greek Army during the opening stages of the Greek Civil War but they were kept in storage due to the lack of trained personnel. In 1947, the first Greek officers returned from training courses in the United Kingdom and training of tank crews began. In April 1948, the Centaurs were organised in three Centaur tank companies, initially numbered II, IX and XI, but a year later were renumbered 381, 382, and 383 and temporarily attached to reconnaissance regiments 391, 392, and 393. The Centaurs saw limited service in the war because battles were fought mainly in mountainous areas, but proved useful in supporting infantry units and in defence of inhabited areas. After the end of the war, in October 1949, the three Centaur companies were organised into the 391 Tank Regiment. The Centaurs were replaced by US built M47s and in 1962 were sold and scrapped. One Centaur is preserved in the Greek Army Tank Museum.

The British Army, Austria and Jordan used the larger-gunned Charioteer development of the Cromwell post-war. Jordanian vehicles saw action in conflicts in the Middle East.

Operators

 * Czechoslovakia
 * 🇬🇷 Greece
 * 🇮🇱 Israel
 * 🇰🇵 North Korea: Handful captured from the British Cooper Force during the Korean War.
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea: 1 recaptured from North Korea then returned to the United Kingdom.
 * 🇵🇱 Poland
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom

Variants

Development of hull types and armaments occurred independently. Hull types applied to all variants. A single mark could cover up to four types, and a type up to six marks making classification complex. Combinations of mark and type were applied by different manufacturers.

Cromwell

 * Cromwell I: Early vehicles armed with the Royal Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57 mm) gun (with 64 rounds of ammunition). Only 357 produced due to the switch from the 6 pounder (57 mm) to the 75 mm gun.

 * Cromwell II: Pilot vehicle built by Vauxhall with cast turret similar to Churchill VII. This did not enter production.

 * Cromwell III: Centaur I hull fitted with Meteor V12 engine to A27M standard. Turret houses Royal Ordnance QF 6 pounder. Only ~ 200 produced due to scarcity of Centaur I's.

 * Cromwell IV: Centaur III hull re-engined with Meteor engine. Turret houses 75 mm ROQF Mk V gun. Later Cromwell IV's saw the introduction of the Final Specification, changing some features (such as track-adjuster) to normal Cromwell standard. The most numerous variant with over 1,935 units produced.

 * Cromwell V: Cromwell built to Final Specification and armed with the 75 mm gun.

 * Cromwell VI: Cromwell built to Final Specification and armed with 95 mm howitzer. 341 produced.
 * Cromwell VII: Upgrade to Cromwell IV, V, and VI armed with the 75 mm gun. Some hulls were upgraded with features from later hull types. Wider (15.5 inch) tracks, and upgraded suspension (where not fitted earlier in the production programme). These were introduced very late in the war and did not see much in the way of combat. ~ 1,500 produced, Some saw combat in the Korean War and many were later converted to FV4101 Tank, Medium Gun, Charioteer.

 * Cromwell VIII: Cromwell VI reworked with same upgrades as VII but retaining the 95 mm howitzer.

Centaur

 * Centaur I: Armed with the Royal Ordnance QF 6 pounder (57 mm) gun (with 64 rounds of ammunition). It was used only for training. 1,059 produced.

 * Centaur II: Mark I with wider tracks and no hull machine gun. Experimental only.

 * Centaur III: Centaur armed with the 75 mm ROQF Mk V gun. In 1943, most Centaur I were converted to IIIs, but a few remained as such. 233 produced.

 * Centaur IV: Centaur armed with a 95 mm howitzer (with 51 rounds of ammunition). This is the only version of the Centaur known to have seen combat, in service with the Royal Marines Armoured Support Group. The vehicles were fitted with wading gear to get them ashore. Trunking waterproofed the engine inlets and covers were fitted to the guns. 114 produced.

 * Centaur Bulldozer: A Centaur tank with the turret removed and installed a simple winch-operated bulldozer blade. Used as armoured obstacle-clearing vehicle. Issued to the 79th Armoured Division in Belgium during the latter part of 1944.

Hull variants

Hull types ranged from type A to type F. Each type applied a different package of changes to the hull design to different marks of tank. Changing the vehicle type allowed the introduction of changes without changing the overall offensive capability.

Conversions
A number of further vehicles were based on the Cromwell tank hull, either re-working existing vehicles or built from scratch with the Cromwell as the basis:

 * Cromwell command
 * The main gun was removed and it carried one each of the No. 19 (low power) and No. 19 (high power) wireless sets. These were used by brigade and divisional headquarters.

 * Cromwell observation post
 * Cromwell IV, Cromwell VI, or Cromwell VIII fitted with extra radio equipment; 2 x No. 19 and 2 x No. 38 (portable) radios. The main gun was retained.

 * Cromwell control
 * Two No. 19 low power radios. Main armament kept. Used by regimental headquarters

 * Centaur, AA Mk I: Used a Crusader III, anti-aircraft Mk II turret fitted with twin 20 mm Polsten guns instead of Oerlikons. Were originally deployed in Normandy, but withdrawn as unnecessary due to Allied air superiority. 95 were produced.
 * Centaur, AA Mk II: Same turret as Crusader III, AA Mk III but with twin 20 mm Polsten AA guns.
 * Centaur dozer: A Centaur with the turret removed and given a simple dozer blade operated by a winch. Since the winch passed over the top of the hull it was not possible to retain the turret. Issued one per Cromwell squadron and to RE. One of "Hobart's Funnies". 250 produced.
 * Centaur observation post (OP): A Centaur with a dummy main gun, and extra radio communications.
 * Centaur Kangaroo: A Centaur with turret removed to make space for passengers. (Few produced)
 * Centaur armoured recovery vehicle (ARV): A Centaur with turret removed, and replaced with winch fitted instead, and an optional A-frame.

Post-war, a number of Cromwells were upgraded to meet the new Cold War threat:
 * FV 4101 Charioteer: Cromwell hull with a QF 20-pounder gun in a tall turret, designed in the 1950s to give more fire support. 200 produced.

Designs based on the Cromwell
The Cromwell tank design was also used as the basis for the design other vehicles:
 * Cruiser Mk VIII Challenger (A30): combined a lengthened Cromwell chassis with widened superstructure to mount the 17-pounder gun in a new turret.
 * A30 Avenger SP 17pdr, a version of the Challenger using a lighter more open turret as a self-propelled gun role.
 * Excelsior (Tank, Heavy Assault, A33), an experimental design with elements of an infantry tank as a possible replacement for the Churchill tank. When the Churchill continued to meet requirements, development was halted.
 * Comet (A34), A tank based on lessons learned from the Cromwell development, incorporating a larger turret ring, enabling the use of a more powerful 76 mm gun. This tank reflects much of what was intended for the Cromwell.

The Challenger was ordered into production in limited numbers and saw service alongside the Cromwell, the Comet entered service later in the war.

The A31 and A32 were attempts to convert the Cromwell to an infantry tank that never got beyond the design stage.

The majority of following British tank designs utilised the Meteor engine and Merritt-Brown steering and gearbox combination initially developed for the Cromwell, lasting all the way through the Centurion. This proved to be one of the primary elements in the development of the main battle tank.

Surviving vehicles
Around 56 Centaur and Cromwell tanks survive, ranging from scrapyard wrecks to fully restored museum vehicles.

Cromwell tanks
Around 26 Cromwell tanks exist in various states.
 * Cromwell I. Royal Australian Armoured Corps Memorial and Army Tank Museum, Puckapunyal, Victoria, Australia. Cromwell MkI shipped to Australia to assist with the up gunning of the Australian Cruiser tanks but did not arrive before that programme had been terminated. Repainted with the markings it arrived in Australia with, it is now under cover on display at the museum.
 * Cromwell IV. The Tank Museum, Bovington, Dorset, England.
 * Cromwell IV Command Tank T187617. Imperial War Museum Duxford, Cambridgeshire, England.
 * Cromwell IV on A1065 road Thetford Forest, Norfolk, England, as part of a memorial to 7th Armoured Division ("Desert Rats") whose armoured regiments had trained there prior to embarking for Normandy.
 * Cromwell IV Rick Wedlock Collection, UK. In running condition.
 * Cromwell IV. National War and Resistance Museum, Overloon, Netherlands. Recovered after the Battle of Overloon in October 1944.
 * Cromwell IV. Heintz Barracks, Bastogne, Belgium. In running condition.
 * Cromwell IV Wilrijk, Antwerp, Belgium. This was unveiled in September 2014 for the 70th anniversary of the liberation of the city in 1944.
 * Cromwell IV. Army Technical Museum, Lesany, Czech Republic. In running condition.
 * Cromwell IV "Faust". Private collection, Czech Republic. In running condition.
 * Cromwell IV. Kubinka Tank Museum, Russia.
 * Cromwell IV. Museum of Zadorozhniy Tec, Russia.
 * Cromwell IV and a Cromwell III. Yad la-Shiryon Museum, Latrun, Israel. Were used by the IDF in War of Independence (1948–1949).
 * Cromwell IV "Blenheim". American Heritage Museum, Stow, Massachusetts, USA. In running condition.
 * Cromwell IV. Private Collection, St. Louis, Missouri, USA.
 * Cromwell IV. The Wheatcroft Collection, UK. Unrestored wreck.
 * Cromwell IV(A27M). Adrian Barrell Collection, UK. Currently just a restored hull with no turret.
 * Cromwell IV. Rex & Rod Cadman Collection, UK. Unrestored wreck.
 * Cromwell IV. Heintz Barracks, Bastogne, Belgium. A wreck and not restored.
 * Cromwell IV. Army Technical Museum, Lesany, Czech Republic. A wreck with no turret.
 * Cromwell IV. Handmet Military, Gostyń, Poland. A wreck with no turret.
 * Cromwell IV. Vojenské Museum, Králíky, Czech Republic. A wreck with no turret.
 * Cromwell IV. Smržovka private tank museum, Czech Republic. Currently a wreck and not restored.
 * Cromwell IV. Smržovka private tank museum, Czech Republic. A wreck with no turret.
 * Cromwell IV.The Wheatcroft Collection, UK.
 * Cromwell IV. Private collection, Czech Republic. This Cromwell hull was a spare parts donor for the restoration of the Cromwell nicknamed "Faust"

Centaur tanks
Around 17 Centaurs and 9 Centaur Dozers exist in various states.

 * Centaur I. Muzeum Broni Pancernej Centrum Szkolenia Wojsk Lądowych, Poznań, Poland. Being restored to running condition (as of March 2015).
 * Centaur I. Hellenic Army Armor Museum, Athens, Greece. The Greek Army received 52 Centaur I tanks from the British in 1946.
 * Centaur IV T215477. Cobbaton Combat Collection, Devon, England. In running condition.
 * Centaur IV. Musée des Blindés, Saumur, France.
 * Centaur IV T185102 Vidette 95mm. Memorial Pegasus Bridge Museum, Ranville, France.
 * Centaur IV T185075 . La Brèche d'Hermanville (Sword Beach), France. A Cromwell dozer with Cavalier turret to resemble Centaur support tank.
 * Centaur IV. Calcada da Ajuda, Lisboa, Portugal. About 24 tanks were sold to Portugal.
 * Centaur IV. Portuguese Army Cavalry School Museum, Santarém, Portugal. Mounted on a plinth in the town
 * Centaur IV. Portuguese Army Cavalry School Museum, Santarém, Portugal.
 * Centaur IV. Santa Margarida da Coutada, Portugal.
 * Centaur IV. Amadora, Portugal. Two at Military Academy.
 * Centaur IV. Two found 8 miles offshore in Bracklesham Bay, West Sussex, England. Discovered in a good state of preservation in the Solent, but are unlikely to be recovered.
 * Centaur IV. Dennis Roberts Collection, UK. In running condition.
 * Centaur VII. Rex & Rod Cadman Collection, Kent, England. Wreck of a Mark VII.
 * Centaur VII T217875. Kevin Powles Collection. Vehicle under restoration.
 * Centaur VII. Salisbury Plain Training Area, England. Used as live fire target.
 * Centaur VII. Oberhoffen-sur-Moder, France. Wreck of Centaur VII stored outside with other tank wrecks.
 * Centaur Dozer. Private Collection, UK. Tank restored to working order.
 * Centaur Dozer T186642. The Tank Museum, Dorset, England. Restored.
 * Centaur Dozer. Isle of Wight Military Museum, Hampshire, England. Restored, 79th Armoured Division insignia painted on hull front.
 * Centaur Dozer. formerly of Isle of Wight Military Museum, Hampshire, England. Not restored in bad condition.
 * Centaur Dozer T185462. Ian Galliers Collection UK. Unrestored in bad condition.
 * Centaur Dozer. Armoured Corps Museum, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India.
 * Centaur Dozer T185484. Armoured Corps Museum, Ahmednagar, Maharashtra, India.
 * Centaur Dozer. Rex & Rod Cadman Collection, UK. Unrestored in bad condition.
 * Centaur Dozer. Rex & Rod Cadman Collection, UK. Unrestored in bad condition.

Others
There are also a few chassis of indeterminate origin which might be either Centaur or Cromwells.
 * Two hulls at The Tank Museum, Dorset, England.
 * A hull in the Rex & Rod Cadman Collection, UK
 * A hull and a dozer hull owned by Staman International Trading, Nijverdal, Netherlands.
 * A dozer hull, Defence Services Museum, Myanmar

Tanks of comparable role, performance, and era

 * Australia Thunderbolt
 * Canadian Grizzly I
 * German Panzer IV
 * Hungarian Turán III
 * Italian Carro Armato P 40
 * Italian P43 (proposal)
 * Japanese Type 3 Chi-Nu
 * Romanian 1942 medium tank (proposal)
 * Soviet T-34
 * Swedish Stridsvagn m/42
 * United States M4 Sherman

title: Cromwell tank


text: File:Of Moths and Men.jpg

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: File:Of Moths and Men.jpg


text:
User:Chris 73/CompletedWork

This is a list of pages with major contributions from me. All pages created by me from scratch are highlighted as new (N). For a list of my complete contributions see also my List of images I contributed (also available as a Gallery. For Images from other sources which I found for wikipedia see the List of my public domain images.

Pages related to Swimming

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title: User:Chris 73/CompletedWork


text:
User:Dawidl

Contact

General

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=My Image Contributions=

=My Interests and Expertise=

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I am a Software Engineer, Graphic designer and aspiring photographer. I currently work with:
 * Java
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 * XML
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 * etc...

=Equipment=

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title: User:Dawidl


text:
Chinese noodles

Chinese noodles vary widely according to the region of production, ingredients, shape or width, and manner of preparation. Noodles were invented in China, and are an essential ingredient and staple in Chinese cuisine. They are an important part of most regional cuisines within China, and other countries with sizable overseas Chinese populations.

Chinese noodles can be made of wheat, buckwheat, rice, millet, maize, oats, soybeans, mung beans, yams, cassava, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and meats such as fish and shrimp. There are over 1,200 types of noodles commonly consumed in China today, with tens of thousands of noodle dish varieties prepared using these types of noodles.

Chinese noodles have also entered the cuisines of neighboring East Asian countries such as Korea and Japan, as well as Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Vietnam, Cambodia, the Philippines and Thailand.

Nomenclature
Nomenclature of Chinese noodles can be difficult due to the vast spectrum available in China and the many dialects of Chinese used to name them. In Mandarin, miàn (often transliterated as "mien" or "mein" ) refers to noodles made from wheat flour, while fěn (粉) or "fun" refers to noodles made from other starches, particularly rice flour and mung bean starch. Each noodle type can be rendered in pinyin for Mandarin, but in Hong Kong and neighboring Guangdong it will be known by its Cantonese pronunciation ("meen" or "mien" for wheat noodles, "fun" for non-wheat). Taiwan, Malaysia, Singapore and many other Overseas Chinese communities in Southeast Asia may use Hokkien (Min Nan) instead (e.g. "mee" for wheat noodles, "hoon" or "hun" for non-wheat). Wheat noodles, for example, are called mian in Mandarin, mein in Cantonese, men in Japanese, mee in Thai and guksu in Korean.

Sometimes, the principal ingredient used in the preparation such as wheat, buckwheat, rice, potato, corn flour, bean, soybean flour, yam flour, mung-bean starch, sweet potato, cassava, etc. may also form the basis of naming noodles.

History
The earliest written record of noodles is from a book dated to the Eastern Han period (25–220 AD). Noodles, often made from wheat dough, became a prominent staple of food during the Han dynasty. In the Western Han dynasty, due to demand by the military, it was necessary for the government to implement food processing technologies that would make the food storage easier and more affordable. During this time, “Laomian” emerged, it was made with starch-rich buckwheat, millet and pea flours with lower water content, making it easier to store and transport.

During the Song dynasty (960–1279) noodle shops were very popular in the cities, and remained open all night. During the earlier dynastic periods Chinese wheat noodles were known as "soup cake", as explained by the Song dynasty scholar Huáng Cháo Yīng (黃朝英) mentions in his work "A delightful mixed discussion on various scholarly topics" (, Scroll 2) that in ancient times bready foods like pasta are referred collectively as "bing" and differentiated through their cooking methods. ·

Up until 1992, most dried Chinese noodles in the United States could not be sold labelled as "noodles". This is due to fact that many Chinese noodles are made without eggs and do not always use wheat as starch, thus resulting in the United States Department of Agriculture obliging manufacturers to label them as "imitation noodles" or "alimentary paste".

Production
Chinese noodles are generally made from either wheat flour, rice flour, or mung bean starch, with wheat noodles being more commonly produced and consumed with the ancient wooden noodles mold technology in northern China and rice noodles being more typical of southern China. Egg, lye, and cereal may also be added to noodles made from wheat flour in order to give the noodles a different color or flavor. Egg whites, arrowroot or tapioca starch are sometimes added to the flour mixture in low quantities to change the texture and tenderness of the noodles' strands. Although illegal, the practice of adding the chemical cross-linker borax to whiten noodles and improve their texture is also quite common in East Asia. In general, the Chinese noodles cooking method involves making a dough with flour, salt, and water; mixing the dough by hand to form bar shapes; bending the bars for proofing; pulling the bars into strips; dropping the strips into a pot with boiling water; and removing the noodles when finished cooking. Chinese type noodles are generally made from hard wheat flours, characterized by bright creamy white or bright yellow color and firm texture.

Before the automatic noodle machine was invented in 1950s, the processing of Chinese noodles were made with four steps, including:
 * Fresh – The noodles are often consumed within 24 hours of manufacture due to quick discoloration. Their shelf life can be extended to 3–5 days if stored under refrigeration;
 * Dried – Fresh noodle strands are dried by sunlight or in a controlled chamber;
 * Boiled – Fresh noodle strands are either parboiled or fully cooked. After parboiling, Chinese noodles are rinsed in cold water, drained and covered with 1–2% vegetable oil to prevent sticking;
 * Steamed – Fresh alkaline noodle strands are steamed in a steamer and softened with water through rinsing.

The dough for noodles made from wheat flour is typically made from wheat flour, salt, and water, with the addition of eggs or lye depending on the desired texture and taste of the noodles. Rice or other starch-based noodles are typically made with only the starch or rice flour and water. After the formation of a pliable dough mass, one of five types of mechanical processing may be applied to produce the noodles:

While cut and extruded noodles can be dried to create a shelf-stable product to be eaten months after production, most peeled, pulled and kneaded noodles are consumed shortly after they are produced.

Cooking
Noodles may be cooked from either their fresh (moist) or dry forms. They are generally boiled, although they may also be deep-fried in oil until crispy. Boiled noodles may then be stir fried, served with sauce or other accompaniments, or served in soup, often with meat and other ingredients. Certain rice-noodles are made directly from steaming the raw rice slurry and are only consumed fresh.

Unlike many Western noodles and pastas, Chinese noodles made from wheat flour are usually made from salted dough, and therefore do not require the addition of salt to the liquid in which they are boiled. Chinese noodles also cook very quickly, generally requiring less than 5 minutes to become al dente and some taking less than a minute to finish cooking, with thinner noodles requiring less time to cook. Chinese noodles made from rice or mung bean starch do not generally contain salt.

Wheat
These noodles are made only with wheat flour and water. If the intended product is dried noodles, salt is almost always added to the recipe.

Lye-water or egg
These wheat flour noodles are more chewy in texture and yellow in color either due to the addition of lye (sodium carbonate, potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide, or potassium hydroxide) or egg (either using only the egg white, yolk, or both). This class of lye-water noodles has a subtle but distinctive smell and taste, described by some as being "eggy".

Rice
Rice-based noodles can be: These noodles are typically made only with rice and water without the addition of salt. Although unorthodox, some producers may choose to add other plant starches to modify the texture of the noodles.
 * 1) Extruded from a paste and steamed into strands of noodles
 * 2) Steamed from a slurry into sheets and then sliced into strands

Starch

These noodles are made using various plant starches. Mung bean starch noodles will often be cut with tapioca starch to make them more chewy and reduce production costs.

Oat

In China, particularly in western Inner Mongolia and Shanxi province, oat (Avena nuda) flour is called yóu miàn (莜面), and is processed into noodles or thin-walled rolls, which are consumed as staple food. The process of making oat noodles relies on twisting them on a marble plate to ensure the dough will not stick on it, and turning them into strips and thin-rolls. It can be boiled or steamed, then served with different sauces to eat.

Millet
The oldest archaeological evidence of noodles shows that they came from China and were made from millet, which is an indigenous crop to northern China. In 2005, a team of archaeologists reported finding an earthenware bowl that contained 4000-year-old noodles at the Lajia archaeological site. These noodles were said to resemble lamian, a type of Chinese noodle. Analyzing the husk phytoliths and starch grains present in the sediment associated with the noodles, they were identified as millet belonging to Panicum miliaceum and Setaria italica.

Chinese noodle dishes
The following are a small portion of Chinese dishes that incorporate noodles:
 * Ban mian
 * Beef chow fun
 * Cart noodle
 * Char kway teow
 * Chow mein
 * Laksa
 * Lo mein
 * Re gan mian
 * Wonton noodles
 * Zhajiangmian

title: Chinese noodles


text:
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy

In physics, a ferromagnetic material is said to have magnetocrystalline anisotropy if it takes more energy to magnetize it in certain directions than in others. These directions are usually related to the principal axes of its crystal lattice. It is a special case of magnetic anisotropy. In other words, the excess energy required to magnetize a specimen in a particular direction over that required to magnetize it along the easy direction is called crystalline anisotropy energy.

Causes
The spin-orbit interaction is the primary source of magnetocrystalline anisotropy. It is basically the orbital motion of the electrons which couples with crystal electric field giving rise to the first order contribution to magnetocrystalline anisotropy. The second order arises due to the mutual interaction of the magnetic dipoles. This effect is weak compared to the exchange interaction and is difficult to compute from first principles, although some successful computations have been made.

Practical relevance
Magnetocrystalline anisotropy has a great influence on industrial uses of ferromagnetic materials. Materials with high magnetic anisotropy usually have high coercivity, that is, they are hard to demagnetize. These are called "hard" ferromagnetic materials and are used to make permanent magnets. For example, the high anisotropy of rare-earth metals is mainly responsible for the strength of rare-earth magnets. During manufacture of magnets, a powerful magnetic field aligns the microcrystalline grains of the metal such that their "easy" axes of magnetization all point in the same direction, freezing a strong magnetic field into the material.

On the other hand, materials with low magnetic anisotropy usually have low coercivity, their magnetization is easy to change. These are called "soft" ferromagnets and are used to make magnetic cores for transformers and inductors. The small energy required to turn the direction of magnetization minimizes core losses, energy dissipated in the transformer core when the alternating current changes direction.

Thermodynamic theory
The magnetocrystalline anisotropy energy is generally represented as an expansion in powers of the direction cosines of the magnetization. The magnetization vector can be written $M = M_{s} ( α,β,γ )$, where $M _{s}$ is the saturation magnetization. Because of time reversal symmetry, only even powers of the cosines are allowed. The nonzero terms in the expansion depend on the crystal system (e.g., cubic or hexagonal). The order of a term in the expansion is the sum of all the exponents of magnetization components, e.g., $α β$ is second order.

Uniaxial anisotropy
More than one kind of crystal system has a single axis of high symmetry (threefold, fourfold or sixfold). The anisotropy of such crystals is called uniaxial anisotropy. If the $z$ axis is taken to be the main symmetry axis of the crystal, the lowest order term in the energy is

 * $$E/V = K_1 \left(\alpha^2+\beta^2\right) = K_1\left(1-\gamma^2\right). $$

The ratio $α^{2}+β^{2}+γ^{2} = 1$ is an energy density (energy per unit volume). This can also be represented in spherical polar coordinates with $E/V$, $α = cos $\phi$ sin θ$, and $β = sin $\phi$ sin θ$:

 * $$\displaystyle E/V = K_1 \sin^2\theta.$$

The parameter $γ = cos θ$, often represented as $K _{1}$, has units of energy density and depends on composition and temperature.

The minima in this energy with respect to $K _{u}$ satisfy

 * $$\frac{\partial E}{\partial \theta} = 0 \qquad \text{and} \qquad \frac{\partial^2 E}{\partial \theta^2} > 0.$$

If $θ$, the directions of lowest energy are the $K _{1} > 0$ directions. The $± z$ axis is called the easy axis. If $z$, there is an easy plane perpendicular to the symmetry axis (the basal plane of the crystal).

Many models of magnetization represent the anisotropy as uniaxial and ignore higher order terms. However, if $K _{1} < 0$, the lowest energy term does not determine the direction of the easy axes within the basal plane. For this, higher-order terms are needed, and these depend on the crystal system (hexagonal, tetragonal or rhombohedral).

Hexagonal system
In a hexagonal system the $K _{1} < 0$ axis is an axis of sixfold rotation symmetry. The energy density is, to fourth order,

 * $$E/V = K_1 \sin^2\theta + K_2 \sin^4\theta + K_3\sin^6\theta \cos 6\phi, $$

The uniaxial anisotropy is mainly determined by these first two terms. Depending on the values $c$ and $K _{1}$, there are four different kinds of anisotropy (isotropic, easy axis, easy plane and easy cone):

 * $K _{2}$: the ferromagnet is isotropic.
 * $K _{1} = K _{2} = 0$ and $K _{1} > 0$: the $K _{2} > − K _{1}$ axis is an easy axis.
 * $c$ and $K _{1} > 0$: the basal plane is an easy plane.
 * $K _{2} < − K _{1}$ and $K _{1} < 0$: the basal plane is an easy plane.
 * $K _{2} < − K _{1}/2$: the ferromagnet has an easy cone (see figure to right).

The basal plane anisotropy is determined by the third term, which is sixth-order. The easy directions are projected onto three axes in the basal plane.

Below are some room-temperature anisotropy constants for hexagonal ferromagnets. Since all the values of $−2 K _{2} < K _{1} < 0$ and $K _{1}$ are positive, these materials have an easy axis.

Higher order constants, in particular conditions, may lead to first order magnetization processes FOMP.

Tetragonal and rhombohedral systems
The energy density for a tetragonal crystal is

 * $$\displaystyle E/V = K_1 \sin^2\theta + K_2 \sin^4\theta + K_3\sin^4\theta \cos 4\phi $$.

Note that the $K _{2}$ term, the one that determines the basal plane anisotropy, is fourth order (same as the $× 10^{4} J/m^{3}$ term). The definition of $K _{3}$ may vary by a constant multiple between publications.

The energy density for a rhombohedral crystal is

 * $$\displaystyle E/V = K_1 \sin^2\theta + K_2 \sin^4\theta + K_3\cos\theta\sin^3\theta \cos 3\phi $$.

Cubic anisotropy
In a cubic crystal the lowest order terms in the energy are

 * $$ E/V = K_1 \left(\alpha^2\beta^2+\beta^2\gamma^2+\gamma^2\alpha^2\right) + K_2\alpha^2\beta^2\gamma^2.$$

If the second term can be neglected, the easy axes are the ⟨100⟩ axes (i.e., the $K _{2}$, $K _{3}$, and $K _{1} > 0$, directions) for $K _{1} < 0$ and the ⟨111⟩ directions for $K _{1} > 0$ (see images on right).

If $± x$ is not assumed to be zero, the easy axes depend on both $± y$ and $± z$. These are given in the table below, along with hard axes (directions of greatest energy) and intermediate axes (saddle points) in the energy). In energy surfaces like those on the right, the easy axes are analogous to valleys, the hard axes to peaks and the intermediate axes to mountain passes.

Below are some room-temperature anisotropy constants for cubic ferromagnets. The compounds involving Fe2O3 are ferrites, an important class of ferromagnets. In general the anisotropy parameters for cubic ferromagnets are higher than those for uniaxial ferromagnets. This is consistent with the fact that the lowest order term in the expression for cubic anisotropy is fourth order, while that for uniaxial anisotropy is second order.

Temperature dependence of anisotropy
The magnetocrystalline anisotropy parameters have a strong dependence on temperature. They generally decrease rapidly as the temperature approaches the Curie temperature, so the crystal becomes effectively isotropic. Some materials also have an isotropic point at which $K _{1} > 0$. Magnetite (Fe3O4), a mineral of great importance to rock magnetism and paleomagnetism, has an isotropic point at 130 kelvin.

Magnetite also has a phase transition at which the crystal symmetry changes from cubic (above) to monoclinic or possibly triclinic below. The temperature at which this occurs, called the Verwey temperature, is 120 Kelvin.

Magnetostriction
The magnetocrystalline anisotropy parameters are generally defined for ferromagnets that are constrained to remain undeformed as the direction of magnetization changes. However, coupling between the magnetization and the lattice does result in deformation, an effect called magnetostriction. To keep the lattice from deforming, a stress must be applied. If the crystal is not under stress, magnetostriction alters the effective magnetocrystalline anisotropy. If a ferromagnet is single domain (uniformly magnetized), the effect is to change the magnetocrystalline anisotropy parameters.

In practice, the correction is generally not large. In hexagonal crystals, there is no change in $K _{1} < 0$. In cubic crystals, there is a small change, as in the table below.

title: Magnetocrystalline anisotropy


text:
Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen

is a Landkreis (district) in the west of Bavaria, Germany with a population of 95,000. Neighbouring districts are (from the north clockwise) Ansbach, Roth, Eichstätt and Donau-Ries. It is located in the south of Middle Franconia, 50 kilometres south of Nuremberg. Largest city and the administrative center is Weißenburg in Bayern.

Geography
The district is located on the Hahnenkamm and on the Franconian Alb in the North of the Altmühltal. In the north there are several lakes of the Franconian Lake District. The highest point of the district is the Dürrenberg. The Altmühl flows through the district. From here comes the Solnhofen limestone. Among its nature reserves is the Brombachmoor.

History
The district was formed in 1972 by a merger of the districts of Gunzenhausen, Weißenburg, and the previously independent urban district of Weißenburg.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms of the district is divided into three fields: left, right and bottom. The bottom of the coat of arms (silver kettle hats on blue) derives from the Counts of Pappenheim, and was taken from the coat of arms of the former district Weißenburg. The half eagle (black on yellow) in the right stands for the city of Weißenburg, and the red-yellow horizontal bars in the left are taken from the coat of arms of the former district Gunzenhausen.

Sights

 * Gelbe Burg, a mountain and site of an old hill castle.
 * Ellinger Tor, a city gate in Weißenburg in Bayern.
 * Wülzburg, a fortress.
 * Bürgermeister-Müller-Museum in Solnhofen
 * Ellingen Residence
 * Fossa Carolina

title: Weißenburg-Gunzenhausen


text:
Talk:Ontario

Climate map shows that Niagara-On-The-Lake has a humid subtropical climate?
According to the edit history that map was uploaded by the user Mhecky on December 10th, 2021. Prior to that the climate maps did not show anywhere in Ontario with a humid subtropical climate. Is this accurate? Is Niagara-On-The-Lake actually subtropical, and if so, how come I can't find any other sources for this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Speyeker (talk • contribs) 22:54, 30 April 2022 (UTC)  Speyeker (talk) 20:04, 1 May 2022 (UTC)

 * It is a hoax by Usee:Mhecky, who has vandalized and abused numerous accounts along with their sock User:Screendeemer. It has been removed and was completely a lie based on a source from a German site of a microclimate in Lake Ontario, not mainland Ontario. Lakersfan89 (talk) 20:11, 27 May 2023 (UTC)

Article preview error
When I preview this page by clicking on a link to it from another article, it has a mistake that says that Ontario is owned by Cal Raleigh. Could someone please fix this? I don't know how to edit previews. Image of the error: https://imgur.com/a/b65QWco MGJohn-117 (talk) 06:11, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * This was some vandalism that only lasted less than a minute. The preview will fix itself soon enough. Canterbury Tail talk 11:29, 23 July 2023 (UTC)

indigenous
I don’t think indigenous should be capitalized. However, I don’t know what the MOS says, and I’m not going to change all 16 occurences. Humphrey Tribble (talk) 05:08, 5 August 2023 (UTC)
 * In Canada when referring to the people it is capitalized by all government agencies and bodies, so it's a capitalized proper collective noun just like any other group of peoples. We capitalize French, German, Canadian etc and Indigineous is just a collective people group like those. If used just to describe someone or something native to an area, it's not a proper noun. Canterbury Tail talk 11:42, 5 August 2023 (UTC)
 * The Canadian Style of the federal government recommends capitalising "Indigenous", when referring to Indigenous peoples of Canada. Mr Serjeant Buzfuz (talk) 14:54, 5 August 2023 (UTC)

Area of province
I don't understand the numbers given as the area of Ontario:

Area (2021 land) • Total 1,076,395 km2 (415,598 sq mi) • Land 892,411.76 km2 (344,562.11 sq mi) • Water 158,654 km2 (61,257 sq mi)

The total area is greater than the land area plus the water area. Is there an error here? Hughdbrown (talk) 15:39, 6 January 2024 (UTC)

 * The land figure is the only one given in the present source, and matches what that source says. The other two figures are from an older source which gives a different figure for land - so someone updated the land figure and didn't change the other two. I don't know if the water figure from the older source remains accurate. Nikkimaria (talk) 15:51, 6 January 2024 (UTC)

Extremely serious omission
How could someone, in an article called "Ontario" in a supposedly "encyclopedic" project, have failed to include a useful map showing the primary administrative divisions and major settlements of the province of Ontario? Please fix. 98.123.38.211 (talk) 04:13, 14 June 2024 (UTC)

Including the Haudenosaunee Confederacy in the history section
It'd be nice if this article touched more on the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. It probably deserves at least a short subsection. While the confederacy didn't encompass all of present-day Ontario, its largest territorial extent did encompass all of the most populous region of Ontario and it's generally a very historically significant element of the history of the region that continues to exist today. Meanwhile, it's not given much attention here and is largely grouped in with pre-history. 2001:569:FB27:9A00:7891:647B:318:EA76 (talk) 16:01, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

 * Hi, I'm (somewhat) working on a rewrite of the History section, and rewrote the pre-history section a few weeks ago, but I'll see what I can do when I get to the other parts. I'm not sure if a subsection is necessary though, since the headers seem to be grouped by years. Maybe a paragraph or two? Idk I'll see how much coverage it needs when I start doing another rewrite. ARandomName123 (talk)Ping me! 16:29, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ontario


text:
List of tallest buildings in Melbourne

Melbourne is home to approximately 758 completed high-rise buildings. Of those completed and or topped-out, 77 buildings are defined as "skyscrapers"–buildings which reach a height of at least 150 m; more than any other city in Australia. Overall, Melbourne's skyline ranks the tallest in the Oceania region and the 24th tallest in the world by the number of completed skyscrapers. Melbourne comprises five of the ten tallest buildings in Australia and the city has routinely hosted the tallest building in Australia to architectural feature or roof. , the tallest building in Melbourne is the 100-storey Australia 108, which stands 317 m in height and whilst the second–tallest building in Australia, it is the tallest to roof.

Geographically, most of Melbourne's tallest skyscrapers are concentrated in the City Centre precinct; however, other locations of prominent skyscrapers and tall buildings in Melbourne include Box Hill, Carlton, Docklands, Southbank, South Melbourne, South Yarra and St Kilda Road. The Melbourne central business district, defined by a grid of streets known as the Hoddle Grid, has a historically low central shopping area with high rise cluster in the western financial district, and another cluster in eastern end. Buildings are more densely packed in the west than the east, although the east has two of the city's tallest buildings to architectural feature—120 Collins Street and 101 Collins Street, respectively, whilst the Rialto Towers (located on the west side) is tallest by roof. In the 2010s, another skyscraper cluster rose in the northern section, with Aurora Melbourne Central the tallest.

Historically, Melbourne has represented several "firsts" and been the holder of various records, both in Australia and internationally. The city is notable for being one of the first cities in the world to build numerous tall office buildings, alongside New York City and Chicago in the United States, though Melbourne's first skyscraper boom was very short lived, 1888–1892. Melbourne was the location for Australia's first high–rise, the APA Building, constructed during this boom in 1889. Melbourne was also the location for the first modern post World War II high-rise in Australia, ICI House built in 1958. From 1986 to 2005, Melbourne's held the title of tallest building in Australia, with the Rialto Towers (1986–1991), 101 Collins Street (1991), and 120 Collins Street (1991–2005). Since 2006, the city has been home to the second-tallest building in the country, the Eureka Tower (2006–2020) and Australia 108 (2020–present); surpassed only by the Gold Coast's Q1, both the Eureka Tower, and later Australia 108, have maintained the title of tallest building in Australia to roof.

History and specifications
The late 1880s 'land boom' saw the construction of approximately a dozen 'lofty edifices' of 8 to 10 floors, made possible by the introduction of a pressurised hydraulic power network to operate lifts, and taking load bearing brickwork to great heights. The APA Building (Australian Building) at 12 floors plus spire, was by far the tallest, and can claim to be Australia's first 'skyscraper' and amongst the tallest building in the world when completed in 1889. Aside from the APA Building, a total of 11 'skyscrapers' were located in the Melbourne city centre during this period, including the Finks Building and 3 matching 'Prell's Buildings'. They were all built in an elaborate High Victorian style, with facades of stucco Renaissance Revival elements, except the APA building which was in red brick Queen Anne, prompting architectural historian Miles Lewis to comment that Melbourne had become a "Queen Anne Chicago". All except two were torn down in the post war boom of the 1960s and 1970s, with the APA controversially demolished in 1981.
 * 19th century
 * 20th century

Following much discussion, a 40 m height limit was introduced to Melbourne in 1916, along with regulations concerning fire-proof construction. This height is often said to have been the limit of fire ladders at the time, but this was an idea that the then fire chief allowed to be widely circulated even though the tallest ladder rose to only 25 m, in order to ensure that fire safety was paramount. The main reasons for the limit, as well as fire proofing, were the preservation of light and air to the streets, avoiding congestion, and the influence of the City Beautiful movement, preferring evenly scaled streetscapes over those with buildings of varying heights. The height limit remained in force for nearly 40 years, allowing only uninhabited 'architectural features' to project beyond the 40 metre limit. The Manchester Unity Building (1932), for instance, achieved a total height of 64 m to the top of its corner tower.

Melbourne was the first city in Australia to undergo a post-war high-rise boom beginning in the late 1950s, (though Sydney in the following decades built more) with over 50 high-rise buildings constructed between the 1970s and 1990s. ICI House (1955) was constructed after being granted a variation to the height limit; at a height of 81 m, the building was Australia's first modern high-rise. Its variation was on the basis that the design included an open garden space at ground level, introducing the concept of floor area ratio, where a total allowable floor area is used instead of a specific height limit. This was formalised by 'plot ratios' of 1:8 to 1:12 for different areas of the CBD in the "Borrie Report" in 1964, which was modified into a series of 'plot ratio benefit' scheme in the early 1980s, where the upper level of floor area could only be achieved in return for certain public benefits, such as a public arcade. Plot ratios remained in force for every site until 1999, when the 'New Format' Planning Scheme included plot ratios for entire city blocks rather than individual sites, a control that was mostly ignored.

In 1972, 140 William Street (formerly BHP House) became Melbourne's first building to surpass the height of 150 m, and thus, Melbourne's first "skyscraper". The William Street building was the city's tallest for a few years, and remains one of the few heritage registered skyscrapers in Melbourne. Slightly taller, the Optus Centre was completed in 1975; and then in 1977 Nauru House was crowned the tallest building in Melbourne, at a height of 182 m. In 1978, what would be the first of two Collins Place towers was opened, at a height of 188 m.

By the early 1980s, Melbourne had a total of 6 buildings above 150 m, with the completion of the Wentworth (later Regent then Sofitel) Hotel at Collins Place in 1980. In 1986, the Rialto Towers surpassed Sydney's MLC Centre as the tallest building not only in Australia but in the Southern Hemisphere, with a height of 251 m. At the time of its opening, it was the 25th–tallest building in the world. The 1990s brought Melbourne another 9 buildings over 150 m; 5 of which exceed heights of 200 m. Specifically, 1991 saw the construction of the 260 m 101 Collins Street, which was crowned the tallest building in Australia and the Southern Hemisphere; it was surpassed in height later that year with the completion of the nearby 120 Collins Street. The skyscraper, which stands at 266 m in height, held the titles for tallest building in Australia and the Southern Hemisphere for fourteen years, until the completion of the Gold Coast's Q1 in 2005.

During the 2000s, over 20 high-rise structures were completed, including the Eureka Tower (2006), which overtook 120 Collins Street as the tallest building in Melbourne, and further became the second-tallest in Australia (although tallest to its roof). Eureka Tower was also the tallest residential building in the world to roof, until surpassed by Ocean Heights and the HHHR Tower in Dubai. It is currently the 15th-tallest apartment building in the world.
 * 21st century

Construction trends significantly increased throughout the 2010s, which included the completion of Prima Pearl (2014) and Aurora Melbourne Central (2019), both of which exceed 250 m in height. Throughout the decade, the city experienced an "unprecedented" skyscraper construction boom,  with 22 skyscrapers constructed between 2010 and 2019. This feat had been described as the "Manhattanization of Melbourne".

During this period, new towers in the CBD had average plot ratios of 37:1. In September 2015, the Minister for Planning, Richard Wynne, introduced a 12-month height limit of approximately 229 m for all buildings proposed in the Melbourne central business district and segments of Southbank, along with interim planning laws that re-introduced a floor area ratio of 18:1, which could be exceeded up to a maximum of 24:1 only with the provision of certain public benefits. Should projects exceed the plot ratio, developers will need to make a special case to the Minister, outlining the proposal's state significance. These controls were made permanent in September 2016. Buildings proposed prior to September 2015, such as Australia 108, which has a plot ratio of 46.6:1, were exempt from the new law.

The beginning of the 2020s saw the completion of Australia 108, which surpassed Eureka Tower as the tallest building in Melbourne and the tallest building in Australia to roof in 2020. It also became the Southern Hemisphere's first skyscraper to comprise at least 100 floors, and Melbourne's first building to be defined as a "supertall" skyscraper (buildings between the heights of 300 m to 599 m). In 2021, 12 skyscrapers were completed in the city — five more than the previous peak in 2020, and more than double prior peaks in 2017, 2005, and 1991. Among the tallest built in 2021 were West Side Place Tower A and Queens Place North Tower, both of which exceed 250 m in height. Of future skyscrapers, 6 have topped-out, 7 are under-construction, over 20 have received approval, and another few have been proposed. The tallest of these is the currently approved dual-skyscraper project STH BNK by Beulah. Tower 1 will rise to 354 m in height —supplanting Australia 108 as the tallest building in Melbourne and Q1 as the tallest building in Australia— whilst Tower 2 will rise to 273 m, taller than any other completed building in Australia outside of Melbourne and the Gold Coast.

The proliferation of skyscrapers in Australia over the past decades has also contributed to the city rivalry between Sydney and Melbourne. Whilst the first skyscraper in Australia was constructed in Sydney in 1967 (Australia Square), Melbourne has had the most skyscrapers in the country and indeed within Oceania, for over 35 years in total; from 1972 to 1989 (equal first with Sydney during 1972–74 and 1976–77), from 1991 to 1999, in 2006 (shared with Sydney), and again since 2015 (equal to Sydney from 2015 to 2016).

Precincts

The central business district skyline is broken down into two distinct sections: the east and west, divided by Swanston Street. The tallest buildings on the eastern side of the skyline are 120 Collins Street and 101 Collins Street, whilst the tallest on the western side are the Rialto Towers, 568 Collins Street, and Bourke Place.

Significant new skylines have emerged outside of the Melbourne central business district, especially within the inner-city suburb of Southbank. This precinct, located adjacent to the City Centre, includes some of the tallest buildings in Melbourne, such as Australia 108, Eureka Tower, and Prima Pearl.

South Yarra, St Kilda Road (a locality adjacent to the City Centre), the inner-city suburbs Carlton, and Docklands each comprise a skyscraper. Other inner-city suburbs, such as Port Melbourne and South Melbourne each have skyscrapers in proposed or approved stages of development.

Functions
Most of Melbourne's skyscrapers constructed by the 1990s were built for commercial purposes—specifically, used as offices. Exceptions to this, include the mixed-use building Sofitel Hotel (1980) on Collins Place, and the all-hotel Crown Towers (1997) in Southbank. 2005 ushered in the first residential skyscrapers in Melbourne, with two built that year. By 2010, 72% of skyscrapers built in Melbourne were of commercial use, 12% residential, 12% mixed-use, and 4% hotel. The trend towards residential skyscrapers has continued significantly; in 2015, 58% of skyscrapers present within the city were of commercial use, 26% residential, 13% mixed-use and 3% hotel. These figures are set to change dramatically by 2020; when factoring those buildings still under-construction (but to be completed by 2020), 44% of the city's skyscrapers will be of residential use, 35% commercial, 18% mixed-use, 2% hotel, and 2% government.

Overall
Melbourne has 77 skyscrapers completed or topped out within the city, which stand at least 150 m tall, based on standard height measurement. Such measurement includes spires and architectural details, but does not include antenna masts. An equal sign (=) following a rank indicates the same height between two or more buildings. An asterisk (*) indicates that the building is still under construction, but has topped out. The "built" column indicates the year in which a building was completed. Height: S = Spire, R = Roof. {{legend|#ddffdd|Was Melbourne's tallest building when completed|border=solid 1px #AAAAAA}}

Tallest buildings by precinct
This lists the tallest building in each precinct of Melbourne based on standard height measurement.

Tallest buildings by function
This lists the tallest buildings in Melbourne by their respective functions—office, hotel, residential and mixed-use—based on standard height measurement.

Skyscrapers at least 200 metres in height
Melbourne comprises 29 skyscrapers (completed or topped-out) which reach a height of at least 200 m—more than any other city within Australia and Oceania. Of those, twenty-three skyscrapers are located within the City Centre, five are located within Southbank, and one in Carlton.

<!--===Historical tallest buildings=== This section lists the ten tallest buildings in Melbourne at the start of every decade beginning with 1990. By 1980, all buildings within the top-10 listing reached a height of 100 m; in 1995, the threshold increased to 150 m; and again in 2015, to 200 m.

Timeline of tallest buildings
This lists buildings that once held the title of "tallest building in Melbourne".

Future skyscrapers
This is a list of currently topped out, under construction, approved and proposed skyscrapers set for Melbourne.

Major cancelled, revised, or vision projects
This is a list of cancelled, revised or vision skyscraper proposals that were previously set for Melbourne.

title: List of tallest buildings in Melbourne