text:
List of cognitive biases

Cognitive biases are systematic patterns of deviation from norm and/or rationality in judgment. They are often studied in psychology, sociology and behavioral economics.

Although the reality of most of these biases is confirmed by reproducible research, there are often controversies about how to classify these biases or how to explain them. Several theoretical causes are known for some cognitive biases, which provides a classification of biases by their common generative mechanism (such as noisy information-processing ). Gerd Gigerenzer has criticized the framing of cognitive biases as errors in judgment, and favors interpreting them as arising from rational deviations from logical thought.

Explanations include information-processing rules (i.e., mental shortcuts), called heuristics, that the brain uses to produce decisions or judgments. Biases have a variety of forms and appear as cognitive ("cold") bias, such as mental noise, or motivational ("hot") bias, such as when beliefs are distorted by wishful thinking. Both effects can be present at the same time.

There are also controversies over some of these biases as to whether they count as useless or irrational, or whether they result in useful attitudes or behavior. For example, when getting to know others, people tend to ask leading questions which seem biased towards confirming their assumptions about the person. However, this kind of confirmation bias has also been argued to be an example of social skill; a way to establish a connection with the other person.

Although this research overwhelmingly involves human subjects, some findings that demonstrate bias have been found in non-human animals as well. For example, loss aversion has been shown in monkeys and hyperbolic discounting has been observed in rats, pigeons, and monkeys.

Belief, decision-making and behavioral
These biases affect belief formation, reasoning processes, business and economic decisions, and human behavior in general.

Anchoring bias
The anchoring bias, or focalism, is the tendency to rely too heavily—to "anchor"—on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (usually the first piece of information acquired on that subject). Anchoring bias includes or involves the following:
 * Common source bias, the tendency to combine or compare research studies from the same source, or from sources that use the same methodologies or data.
 * Conservatism bias, the tendency to insufficiently revise one's belief when presented with new evidence.
 * Functional fixedness, a tendency limiting a person to using an object only in the way it is traditionally used.
 * Law of the instrument, an over-reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under-valuing alternative approaches. "If all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."

Apophenia
The tendency to perceive meaningful connections between unrelated things. The following are types of apophenia:
 * Clustering illusion, the tendency to overestimate the importance of small runs, streaks, or clusters in large samples of random data (that is, seeing phantom patterns).
 * Illusory correlation, a tendency to inaccurately perceive a relationship between two unrelated events.
 * Pareidolia, a tendency to perceive a vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds, the man in the Moon, and hearing non-existent hidden messages on records played in reverse.

Availability heuristic
The availability heuristic (also known as the availability bias) is the tendency to overestimate the likelihood of events with greater "availability" in memory, which can be influenced by how recent the memories are or how unusual or emotionally charged they may be. The availability heuristic includes or involves the following:
 * Anthropocentric thinking, the tendency to use human analogies as a basis for reasoning about other, less familiar, biological phenomena.
 * Anthropomorphism is characterization of animals, objects, and abstract concepts as possessing human traits, emotions, or intentions. The opposite bias, of not attributing feelings or thoughts to another person, is dehumanised perception, a type of objectification.
 * Attentional bias, the tendency of perception to be affected by recurring thoughts.
 * Frequency illusion or Baader–Meinhof phenomenon. The frequency illusion is that once something has been noticed then every instance of that thing is noticed, leading to the belief it has a high frequency of occurrence (a form of selection bias). The Baader–Meinhof phenomenon is the illusion where something that has recently come to one's attention suddenly seems to appear with improbable frequency shortly afterwards. It was named after an incidence of frequency illusion in which the Baader–Meinhof Group was mentioned.
 * Implicit association, where the speed with which people can match words depends on how closely they are associated.
 * Salience bias, the tendency to focus on items that are more prominent or emotionally striking and ignore those that are unremarkable, even though this difference is often irrelevant by objective standards. See also von Restorff effect.
 * Selection bias, which happens when the members of a statistical sample are not chosen completely at random, which leads to the sample not being representative of the population.
 * Survivorship bias, which is concentrating on the people or things that "survived" some process and inadvertently overlooking those that did not because of their lack of visibility.
 * Well travelled road effect, the tendency to underestimate the duration taken to traverse oft-travelled routes and overestimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.

Cognitive dissonance
Cognitive dissonance is the perception of contradictory information and the mental toll of it.
 * Normalcy bias, a form of cognitive dissonance, is the refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
 * Effort justification is a person's tendency to attribute greater value to an outcome if they had to put effort into achieving it. This can result in more value being applied to an outcome than it actually has. An example of this is the IKEA effect, the tendency for people to place a disproportionately high value on objects that they partially assembled themselves, such as furniture from IKEA, regardless of the quality of the end product.
 * Ben Franklin effect, where a person who has performed a favor for someone is more likely to do another favor for that person than they would be if they had received a favor from that person.

Confirmation bias
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias:
 * Backfire effect, a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs.
 * Congruence bias, the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, instead of testing possible alternative hypotheses.
 * Experimenter's or expectation bias, the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment, and to disbelieve, discard, or downgrade the corresponding weightings for data that appear to conflict with those expectations.
 * Observer-expectancy effect, when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also subject-expectancy effect).
 * Selective perception, the tendency for expectations to affect perception.
 * Semmelweis reflex, the tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts a paradigm.

Egocentric bias
Egocentric bias is the tendency to rely too heavily on one's own perspective and/or have a different perception of oneself relative to others. The following are forms of egocentric bias:
 * Bias blind spot, the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people, or to be able to identify more cognitive biases in others than in oneself.
 * False consensus effect, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
 * False uniqueness bias, the tendency of people to see their projects and themselves as more singular than they actually are.
 * Forer effect or Barnum effect, the tendency for individuals to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general enough to apply to a wide range of people. This effect can provide a partial explanation for the widespread acceptance of some beliefs and practices, such as astrology, fortune telling, graphology, and some types of personality tests.
 * Illusion of asymmetric insight, where people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.
 * Illusion of control, the tendency to overestimate one's degree of influence over other external events.
 * Illusion of transparency, the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which their personal mental state is known by others, and to overestimate how well they understand others' personal mental states.
 * Illusion of validity, the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's judgments, especially when available information is consistent or inter-correlated.
 * Illusory superiority, the tendency to overestimate one's desirable qualities, and underestimate undesirable qualities, relative to other people. (Also known as "Lake Wobegon effect", "better-than-average effect", or "superiority bias".)
 * Naïve cynicism, expecting more egocentric bias in others than in oneself.
 * Naïve realism, the belief that we see reality as it really is—objectively and without bias; that the facts are plain for all to see; that rational people will agree with us; and that those who do not are either uninformed, lazy, irrational, or biased.
 * Overconfidence effect, a tendency to have excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.
 * Planning fallacy, the tendency for people to underestimate the time it will take them to complete a given task.
 * Restraint bias, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.
 * Trait ascription bias, the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior, and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.
 * Third-person effect, a tendency to believe that mass-communicated media messages have a greater effect on others than on themselves.

Extension neglect
Extension neglect occurs where the quantity of the sample size is not sufficiently taken into consideration when assessing the outcome, relevance or judgement. The following are forms of extension neglect:
 * Base rate fallacy or base rate neglect, the tendency to ignore general information and focus on information only pertaining to the specific case, even when the general information is more important.
 * Compassion fade, the tendency to behave more compassionately towards a small number of identifiable victims than to a large number of anonymous ones.
 * Conjunction fallacy, the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than a more general version of those same conditions.
 * Duration neglect, the neglect of the duration of an episode in determining its value.
 * Hyperbolic discounting, where discounting is the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs. Hyperbolic discounting leads to choices that are inconsistent over time—people make choices today that their future selves would prefer not to have made, despite using the same reasoning. Also known as current moment bias or present bias, and related to Dynamic inconsistency. A good example of this is a study showed that when making food choices for the coming week, 74% of participants chose fruit, whereas when the food choice was for the current day, 70% chose chocolate.
 * Insensitivity to sample size, the tendency to under-expect variation in small samples.
 * Less-is-better effect, the tendency to prefer a smaller set to a larger set judged separately, but not jointly.
 * Neglect of probability, the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.
 * Scope neglect or scope insensitivity, the tendency to be insensitive to the size of a problem when evaluating it. For example, being willing to pay as much to save 2,000 children or 20,000 children.
 * Zero-risk bias, the preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.

False priors
False priors are initial beliefs and knowledge which interfere with the unbiased evaluation of factual evidence and lead to incorrect conclusions. Biases based on false priors include:
 * Agent detection bias, the inclination to presume the purposeful intervention of a sentient or intelligent agent.
 * Automation bias, the tendency to depend excessively on automated systems which can lead to erroneous automated information overriding correct decisions.
 * Gender bias, a widespread set of implicit biases that discriminate against a gender. For example, the assumption that women are less suited to jobs requiring high intellectual ability. Or the assumption that people or animals are male in the absence of any indicators of gender.
 * Sexual overperception bias, the tendency to overestimate sexual interest of another person in oneself, and sexual underperception bias, the tendency to underestimate it.
 * Stereotyping, expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.

Framing effect
The framing effect is the tendency to draw different conclusions from the same information, depending on how that information is presented. Forms of the framing effect include:
 * Contrast effect, the enhancement or reduction of a certain stimulus's perception when compared with a recently observed, contrasting object.
 * Decoy effect, where preferences for either option A or B change in favor of option B when option C is presented, which is completely dominated by option B (inferior in all respects) and partially dominated by option A.
 * Default effect, the tendency to favor the default option when given a choice between several options.
 * Denomination effect, the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g., coins) rather than large amounts (e.g., bills).
 * Distinction bias, the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.
 * Domain neglect bias, the tendency to neglect relevant domain knowledge while solving interdisciplinary problems.
 * Context neglect bias, the tendency to neglect the human context of technological challenges

Logical fallacy

 * Berkson's paradox, the tendency to misinterpret statistical experiments involving conditional probabilities.
 * Escalation of commitment, irrational escalation, or sunk cost fallacy, where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong.
 * G. I. Joe fallacy, the tendency to think that knowing about cognitive bias is enough to overcome it.
 * Gambler's fallacy, the tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. The fallacy arises from an erroneous conceptualization of the law of large numbers. For example, "I've flipped heads with this coin five times consecutively, so the chance of tails coming out on the sixth flip is much greater than heads."
 * Hot-hand fallacy (also known as "hot hand phenomenon" or "hot hand"), the belief that a person who has experienced success with a random event has a greater chance of further success in additional attempts.
 * Plan continuation bias, failure to recognize that the original plan of action is no longer appropriate for a changing situation or for a situation that is different from anticipated.
 * Subadditivity effect, the tendency to judge the probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.
 * Time-saving bias, a tendency to underestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively low speed, and to overestimate the time that could be saved (or lost) when increasing (or decreasing) from a relatively high speed.
 * Zero-sum bias, where a situation is incorrectly perceived to be like a zero-sum game (i.e., one person gains at the expense of another).

Prospect theory
The following relate to prospect theory:
 * Ambiguity effect, the tendency to avoid options for which the probability of a favorable outcome is unknown.
 * Disposition effect, the tendency to sell an asset that has accumulated in value and resist selling an asset that has declined in value.
 * Dread aversion, just as losses yield double the emotional impact of gains, dread yields double the emotional impact of savouring.
 * Endowment effect, the tendency for people to demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it.
 * Loss aversion, where the perceived disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it. (see also Sunk cost fallacy)
 * Pseudocertainty effect, the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.
 * Status quo bias, the tendency to prefer things to stay relatively the same.
 * System justification, the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged, sometimes even at the expense of individual and collective self-interest.

Self-assessment

 * Dunning–Kruger effect, the tendency for unskilled individuals to overestimate their own ability and the tendency for experts to underestimate their own ability.
 * Hot-cold empathy gap, the tendency to underestimate the influence of visceral drives on one's attitudes, preferences, and behaviors.
 * Hard–easy effect, the tendency to overestimate one's ability to accomplish hard tasks, and underestimate one's ability to accomplish easy tasks.
 * Illusion of explanatory depth, the tendency to believe that one understands a topic much better than one actually does. The effect is strongest for explanatory knowledge, whereas people tend to be better at self-assessments for procedural, narrative, or factual knowledge.
 * Impostor Syndrome, a psychological occurrence in which an individual doubts their skills, talents, or accomplishments and has a persistent internalized fear of being exposed as a fraud. Also known as impostor phenomenon.
 * Objectivity illusion, the phenomena where people tend to believe that they are more objective and unbiased than others. This bias can apply to itself – where people are able to see when others are affected by the objectivity illusion, but unable to see it in themselves. See also bias blind spot.

Truth judgment

 * Belief bias, an effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion.
 * Illusory truth effect, the tendency to believe that a statement is true if it is easier to process, or if it has been stated multiple times, regardless of its actual veracity. These are specific cases of truthiness.
 * Rhyme as reason effect, where rhyming statements are perceived as more truthful.
 * Subjective validation, where statements are perceived as true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences. (Compare confirmation bias.)

Association fallacy
Association fallacies include:
 * Authority bias, the tendency to attribute greater accuracy to the opinion of an authority figure (unrelated to its content) and be more influenced by that opinion.
 * Cheerleader effect, the tendency for people to appear more attractive in a group than in isolation.
 * Halo effect, the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one personality area to another in others' perceptions of them (see also physical attractiveness stereotype).

Attribution bias
Attribution bias includes:
 * Actor-observer bias, the tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (see also Fundamental attribution error), and for explanations of one's own behaviors to do the opposite (that is, to overemphasize the influence of our situation and underemphasize the influence of our own personality).
 * Defensive attribution hypothesis, a tendency to attribute more blame to a harm-doer as the outcome becomes more severe or as personal or situational similarity to the victim increases.
 * Extrinsic incentives bias, an exception to the fundamental attribution error, where people view others as having (situational) extrinsic motivations and (dispositional) intrinsic motivations for oneself
 * Fundamental attribution error, the tendency for people to overemphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior (see also actor-observer bias, group attribution error, positivity effect, and negativity effect).
 * Group attribution error, the biased belief that the characteristics of an individual group member are reflective of the group as a whole or the tendency to assume that group decision outcomes reflect the preferences of group members, even when information is available that clearly suggests otherwise.
 * Hostile attribution bias, the tendency to interpret others' behaviors as having hostile intent, even when the behavior is ambiguous or benign.
 * Intentionality bias, the tendency to judge human action to be intentional rather than accidental.
 * Just-world hypothesis, the tendency for people to want to believe that the world is fundamentally just, causing them to rationalize an otherwise inexplicable injustice as deserved by the victim(s).
 * Moral luck, the tendency for people to ascribe greater or lesser moral standing based on the outcome of an event.
 * Puritanical bias, the tendency to attribute cause of an undesirable outcome or wrongdoing by an individual to a moral deficiency or lack of self-control rather than taking into account the impact of broader societal determinants.
 * Self-serving bias, the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. It may also manifest itself as a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests (see also group-serving bias).
 * Ultimate attribution error, similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group.

Conformity
Conformity is involved in the following:
 * Availability cascade, a self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse (or "repeat something long enough and it will become true"). See also availability heuristic.
 * Bandwagon effect, the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to groupthink and herd behavior.
 * Courtesy bias, the tendency to give an opinion that is more socially correct than one's true opinion, so as to avoid offending anyone.
 * Groupthink, the psychological phenomenon that occurs within a group of people in which the desire for harmony or conformity in the group results in an irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcome. Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a consensus decision without critical evaluation of alternative viewpoints by actively suppressing dissenting viewpoints, and by isolating themselves from outside influences.
 * Groupshift, the tendency for decisions to be more risk-seeking or risk-averse than the group as a whole, if the group is already biased in that direction
 * Social desirability bias, the tendency to over-report socially desirable characteristics or behaviours in oneself and under-report socially undesirable characteristics or behaviours. See also:.
 * Truth bias is people's inclination towards believing, to some degree, the communication of another person, regardless of whether or not that person is actually lying or being untruthful.

Ingroup bias
Ingroup bias is the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups. It is related to the following:
 * Not invented here, an aversion to contact with or use of products, research, standards, or knowledge developed outside a group.
 * Outgroup homogeneity bias, where individuals see members of other groups as being relatively less varied than members of their own group.

Memory
In psychology and cognitive science, a memory bias is a cognitive bias that either enhances or impairs the recall of a memory (either the chances that the memory will be recalled at all, or the amount of time it takes for it to be recalled, or both), or that alters the content of a reported memory. There are many types of memory bias, including:

Misattribution of memory
The misattributions include:
 * Cryptomnesia, where a memory is mistaken for novel thought or imagination, because there is no subjective experience of it being a memory.
 * False memory, where imagination is mistaken for a memory.
 * Social cryptomnesia, a failure by people and society in general to remember the origin of a change, in which people know that a change has occurred in society, but forget how this change occurred; that is, the steps that were taken to bring this change about, and who took these steps. This has led to reduced social credit towards the minorities who made major sacrifices that led to a change in societal values.
 * Source confusion, episodic memories are confused with other information, creating distorted memories.
 * Suggestibility, where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.
 * The Perky effect, where real images can influence imagined images, or be misremembered as imagined rather than real

title: List of cognitive biases


text:
Talk:List of cognitive biases

Addition of Fluency Heuristic
"Fluency Heuristic" or similar appears to be missing from the list.

In contrast to the "Rhyme as Reason", the Fluency Heuristic applies to a wider set of statements beyond those that rhyme but also have an increased ease of cognitive processing (eg catchphrases), as is supported by the information on the page dedicated to the Fluency_heuristic. Thus, it appears to be an omission on the main list of cognitive biases.

Suggest adding it in the List of cognitive biases section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Minogully (talk • contribs) 19:10, 14 November 2022 (UTC)

Agency bias
Doesn't seem to be included - maybe I missed it. Could start with this paper on Motion, identity and the bias toward agency. Shtove (talk) 08:34, 20 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Could this be a synonym of agent detection bias? Paradoctor (talk) 12:23, 20 April 2023 (UTC)

Self-published encyclopedia
(Apologies, this was posted on the wrong talk page. Now moved here.) MartinPoulter (talk) 13:14, 17 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:List of cognitive biases


text:
Fellow of the Royal Society

Fellowship of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS and HonFRS) is an award granted by the Fellows of the Royal Society of London to individuals who have made a "substantial contribution to the improvement of natural knowledge, including mathematics, engineering science, and medical science".

Fellowship of the Society, the oldest known scientific academy in continuous existence, is a significant honour. It has been awarded to many eminent scientists throughout history, including Isaac Newton (1672), Benjamin Franklin (1756), Charles Babbage (1816), Michael Faraday (1824), Charles Darwin (1839), Ernest Rutherford (1903), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1918), Albert Einstein (1921), Paul Dirac (1930), Winston Churchill (1941), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1944), Dorothy Hodgkin (1947), Alan Turing (1951), Lise Meitner (1955) and Francis Crick (1959). More recently, fellowship has been awarded to Stephen Hawking (1974), David Attenborough (1983), Tim Hunt (1991), Elizabeth Blackburn (1992), Raghunath Mashelkar (1998), Tim Berners-Lee (2001), Venki Ramakrishnan (2003), Atta-ur-Rahman (2006), Andre Geim (2007), James Dyson (2015), Ajay Kumar Sood (2015), Subhash Khot (2017), Elon Musk (2018), Elaine Fuchs (2019) and around 8,000 others in total, including over 280 Nobel Laureates since 1900. , there are approximately 1,689 living Fellows, Foreign and Honorary Members, of whom 85 are Nobel Laureates.

Fellowship of the Royal Society has been described by The Guardian as "the equivalent of a lifetime achievement Oscar" with several institutions celebrating their announcement each year.

Fellowships
Up to 60 new Fellows (FRS), honorary (HonFRS) and foreign members (ForMemRS) are elected annually in late April or early May, from a pool of around 700 proposed candidates each year. New Fellows can only be nominated by existing Fellows for one of the fellowships described below:

Fellow

Every year, up to 52 new fellows are elected from the United Kingdom, the rest of the Commonwealth of Nations and Ireland, which make up around 90% of the society. Each candidate is considered on their merits and can be proposed from any sector of the scientific community. Fellows are elected for life on the basis of excellence in science and are entitled to use the post-nominal letters FRS.

Foreign member

Every year, fellows elect up to ten new foreign members. Like fellows, foreign members are elected for life through peer review on the basis of excellence in science. , there are around 165 foreign members, who are entitled to use the post-nominal ForMemRS.

Honorary fellow

Honorary Fellowship is an honorary academic title awarded to candidates who have given distinguished service to the cause of science, but do not have the kind of scientific achievements required of Fellows or Foreign Members. Honorary Fellows include the World Health Organization's Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus (2022), Bill Bryson (2013), Melvyn Bragg (2010), Robin Saxby (2015), David Sainsbury, Baron Sainsbury of Turville (2008), Onora O'Neill (2007), John Maddox (2000), Patrick Moore (2001) and Lisa Jardine (2015). Honorary Fellows are entitled to use the post nominal letters HonFRS.

Former statute 12 fellowships

Statute 12 is a legacy mechanism for electing members before official honorary membership existed in 1997. Fellows elected under statute 12 include David Attenborough (1983) and John Palmer, 4th Earl of Selborne (1991).

Royal Fellow
The Council of the Royal Society can recommend members of the British royal family for election as Royal Fellow of the Royal Society. there are four royal fellows:
 * 1) Charles III, elected 1978
 * 2) Anne, Princess Royal, elected 1987
 * 3) Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, elected 1990
 * 4) William, Prince of Wales, elected 2009

Elizabeth II was not a Royal Fellow, but provided her patronage to the society, as all reigning British monarchs have done since Charles II of England. Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (1951) was elected under statute 12, not as a Royal Fellow.

Election of new fellows
The election of new fellows is announced annually in May, after their nomination and a period of peer-reviewed selection.

Nomination
Each candidate for Fellowship or Foreign Membership is nominated by two Fellows of the Royal Society (a proposer and a seconder), who sign a certificate of proposal. Previously, nominations required at least five fellows to support each nomination by the proposer, which was criticised for supposedly establishing an old boy network and elitist gentlemen's club. The certificate of election (see for example ) includes a statement of the principal grounds on which the proposal is being made. There is no limit on the number of nominations made each year. In 2015, there were 654 candidates for election as Fellows and 106 candidates for Foreign Membership.

Selection
The Council of the Royal Society oversees the selection process and appoints 10 subject area committees, known as Sectional Committees, to recommend the strongest candidates for election to the Fellowship. The final list of up to 52 Fellowship candidates and up to 10 Foreign Membership candidates is confirmed by the Council in April, and a secret ballot of Fellows is held at a meeting in May. A candidate is elected if they secure two-thirds of votes of those Fellows voting.

An indicative allocation of 18 Fellowships can be allocated to candidates from Physical Sciences and Biological Sciences; and up to 10 from Applied Sciences, Human Sciences and Joint Physical and Biological Sciences. A further maximum of six can be 'Honorary', 'General' or 'Royal' Fellows. Nominations for Fellowship are peer reviewed by Sectional Committees, each with at least 12 members and a Chair (all of whom are Fellows of the Royal Society). Members of the 10 Sectional Committees change every three years to mitigate in-group bias. Each Sectional Committee covers different specialist areas including:

 * 1) Computer science
 * 2) Mathematics
 * 3) Astronomy and physics
 * 4) Chemistry
 * 5) Engineering
 * 6) Earth science and environmental science
 * 7) Molecules of Life
 * 8) Cell biology
 * 9) Multicellular organisms
 * 10) Patterns in Populations

Admission
New Fellows are admitted to the Society at a formal admissions day ceremony held annually in July, when they sign the Charter Book and the Obligation which reads: "We who have hereunto subscribed, do hereby promise, that we will endeavour to promote the good of the Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, and to pursue the ends for which the same was founded; that we will carry out, as far as we are able, those actions requested of us in the name of the Council; and that we will observe the Statutes and Standing Orders of the said Society. Provided that, whensoever any of us shall signify to the President under our hands, that we desire to withdraw from the Society, we shall be free from this Obligation for the future".

Since 2014, portraits of Fellows at the admissions ceremony have been published without copyright restrictions in Wikimedia Commons under a more permissive Creative Commons license which allows wider re-use.

Research fellowships and other awards

In addition to the main fellowships of the Royal Society (FRS, ForMemRS & HonFRS), other fellowships are available which are applied for by individuals, rather than through election. These fellowships are research grant awards and holders are known as Royal Society Research Fellows.
 * University research fellowships (URFs): Royal Society University Research Fellowships are for outstanding scientists in the UK who are in the early stages of their research career and have the potential to become leaders in their field. Previous holders of URFs to have been elected FRS at a later date include Richard Borcherds (1994), Jean Beggs (1998), Frances Ashcroft (1999), Athene Donald (1999) and John Pethica (1999). More recent awardees include Terri Attwood, Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, Brian Cox, Sarah Bridle, Shahn Majid, Tanya Monro, Beth Shapiro, David J. Wales and Katherine Willis.
 * Royal Society Leverhulme Trust senior research fellowships are for scientists who would benefit from a period of full-time research without teaching and administrative duties, supported by the Leverhulme Trust.
 * Newton advanced fellowships provide established international researchers with an opportunity to develop the research strengths and capabilities of their research group. These are provided by the Newton Fund as part of the UK's official development assistance.
 * Industry fellowships are for academic scientists who want to work on a collaborative project with industry, and for scientists in industry who want to work on a collaborative project with an academic organisation.
 * Dorothy Hodgkin fellowships are for outstanding scientists in the UK at an early stage of their research career who require a flexible working pattern due to personal circumstances. These fellowships are named after Dorothy Hodgkin.

In addition to the award of Fellowship (FRS, HonFRS & ForMemRS) and the Research Fellowships described above, several other awards, lectures and medals of the Royal Society are also given.

title: Fellow of the Royal Society


text:
HMS Arbiter

USS St. Simon (CVE-51) (originally AVG-51 then later ACV-51), an escort aircraft carrier originally classified as an auxiliary aircraft carrier, was laid down on 26 April 1943 at Tacoma, Washington, by the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation, under a Maritime Commission contract (MC hull 262); reclassified as an escort aircraft carrier, CVE-51, on 15 July 1943; launched on 9 September 1943; sponsored by Mrs. R. H. Lewis, the wife of Major General R. H. Lewis, Commanding General, Northwestern Sector, Fort Lewis, Washington; assigned to the Commercial Iron Works, Portland, Oregon, for the completion of construction; and delivered to the Royal Navy, under lend-lease, on 31 December 1943.

Renamed HMS Arbiter (D31) (while being carried on the United States' Naval Vessel Register with the classification BCVE-51), the escort carrier served in the Royal Navy for the duration of World War II. She earned "battle honors" in the Atlantic during 1944, serving on the western approaches to the British Isles, and in 1945 served as one of seven similar ships engaged in operating as an aircraft ferry supporting the British Pacific Fleet's train, bringing up replacement aircraft or providing combat air patrol for replenishment ships.

Returned to Norfolk, Virginia, on 23 February 1946, she was accepted by the United States Navy on 3 March 1946. Struck from the Navy list on 12 April 1946, the ship was sold to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company, Newport News, Virginia, on 30 January 1947. Converted to the cargo ship Coracero, the former escort carrier served under two more names, President Macapagal from 1965 to 1972 and Lucky Two in 1972 before she was scrapped in Kaohsiung, Taiwan, in 1972.

Design and description
These ships were larger and had a greater aircraft capacity than all the preceding American-built escort carriers. They were also all laid down as escort carriers and not converted merchant ships. All the ships had a complement of 646 men and an overall length of 492 ft, a beam of 69 ft and a draught of 25 ft. The ship displaced 11200 LT standard and 15390 LT full load. Propulsion was provided by a General Electric geared steam turbinefed with steam by two Foster Wheeler boilers, and driving one shaft. The machinery was rated at 8500 shp, giving a speed of 18 - 18.5 kn.

Aircraft facilities were a small combined bridge/flight control on the starboard side, two aircraft elevators 43 ft by 34 ft in size, one aircraft catapult and nine arrestor wires. Aircraft could be housed in the 260 ft by 62 ft hangar below the flight deck. Arbiter was armed with two 5"/38 caliber guns in single mounts, sixteen 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns in twin mounts and 35 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannon (14 twin and 7 single mounts). The ship could operate a maximum of 30 aircraft or carry as many as 90 in the ferry role.

Construction and service
The ship was laid down at the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation's Seattle shipyard on 26 April 1943. The carrier was originally planned to be operated by the US Navy with the name USS St Simon, with the hull number AVC-51 (for Auxiliary Aircraft Carrier), which was changed to CVE-51 (for Escort Carrier) on 15 July 1943. She was launched on 9 September 1943, sponsored by Mrs. R. H. Lewis, the wife of Major General R. H. Lewis, Commanding General, Northwestern Sector, Fort Lewis, Washington and was completed at the Commercial Ironworks of Portland, Oregon. The ship was handed over to the Royal Navy under the Lend Lease programme on 31 December 1943, commissioning as HMS Arbiter on the same day, with the Pennant number D31.

Following commissioning, Arbiter underwent modification for Royal Navy service at Esquimalt in Western Canada, before transferring to the East coast of the United States via the Panama Canal. In May 1944, she embarked the Grumman Avengers of 853 Naval Air Squadron and the Curtiss Helldivers of 1820 Naval Air Squadron, both recently formed in the United States, and crossed the Atlantic to Britain. In September 1944, Arbiter entered refit at Belfast, with changes including a modified fuel system incorporating the lessons on the loss of the carrier HMS Dasher (D37) from an internal explosion in 1943.

At the end of January 1945, Arbiter was assigned to the British Pacific Fleet (BPF) as a Ferry Carrier, supporting operations by the BPF's Fleet Carriers. She sailed for Australia on 1 March 1945, carrying the Vought Corsairs of 1843 Naval Air Squadron for the passage, arriving in Australia in May that year. She carried out her first ferry operation to the BPF in July, and later that month was fitted with hoses to act as a tanker in replenishment at sea operations using the astern method, to make up for a shortage of dedicated tankers. After the end of the war against Japan, she returned to Australia, where she was used for deck landing training for ex-RAAF pilots transferred to the nascent Australian Fleet Air Arm. From October 1945 to January 1946, Arbiter was used to repatriate Prisoners of War from Hong Kong to Australia and the Great Britain.

Arbiter was handed back to the US Navy on 3 March 1946 at Norfolk, Virginia and was struck from the US Navy on 30 April 1946. She was sold on 30 January 1947 and converted to the merchant ship Cocacero, joining the shipping company Compania Argentina de Navegacion Dodero. The ship was renamed President Macapagal in 1965 and Lucky Two in 1972, and was broken up at Kaohsiung, Taiwan from May 1972.

title: HMS Arbiter


text:
User:OttarGE

is:user:OttarGEno:Bruker:OttarGE Name: Óttar

Motto: Don't Panic

I'm from Akureyri a big town in Iceland but very very small for the rest of the world and I'm curently studying at the Norwegian School of Management and I have a web page, see http://www.kunst.is, email ottar @ kunst.is. I have a B.Sc. in Quality Management from the University of Akureyri and a diploma year in philosophy from University of Iceland.

I have an "Are You A Wikipediholic" score of 1, which may have something to do with the fact that I'm new at this.

External Links of interest

 * Morgunblaðið an Icelandic Newspaper
 * Leit.is an Icelandic search engine
 * Wikipedia in Icelandic
 * University of Akureyri
 * University of Iceland

title: User:OttarGE


text:
Sailing ship accidents

Sailing ships frequently encounter difficult conditions, whether by storm or combat, and the crew frequently called upon to cope with accidents, ranging from the parting of a single line to the whole destruction of the rigging, and from running aground to fire.

Steering
The sailboat is particularly vulnerable to capsizing or hitting a shoal or rock in the water when the steering fails. In heavy chop there is a lot of force on the rudder as it is pushed by the water. If the ship is flying a Spinnaker and it loses steering, the boat will most likely broach (head up into wind), which will, on most boats, cause a capsize in heavy weather. It is possible to sail smaller dinghies without a rudder using only sail adjustment.

Rigging
Running rigging is often subject to parting, especially during bad weather, or when attempting to carry too much sail in a strong wind. For instance, the brace on the weather side is under a considerable strain, and its parting would allow the entire yard to swing free, a rather ugly prospect for a spar up to 30 meters long. In general, for each line there is a procedure to a) reduce the forces at play, b) use other lines to bring loose items under control, and c) run a replacement line (retying is not usually an option, since the knot will not fit through the blocks). The most critical lines will sometimes have a backup in the form of a "preventer" line serving the same function.

Standing rigging is a structural element that holds up the masts, and loss of standing rigging puts them at risk of being sprung (cracked) or simply snapped off. By the end of the age of sail, most stays had preventers, and warships equipped themselves with "rigging stoppers" or "fighting stoppers", small lengths of rope arranged so they could be attached to shrouds quickly and tightened.

In the days of wooden construction, sprung masts were a serious problem, because their structural integrity was compromised, and the next gust of wind could easily bring them down. Upper masts were usually just replaced by spares carried for the purpose. The usual recourse for the lower mast was to "fish" it by lashing a special set of spars to the mast along the cracked area.

If the mast was gone altogether, it had to be replaced with a jury rig assembled from whatever spars were available.

Cargo shift
On a ship, cargo must be stowed evenly so that the ship floats upright. All ships are vulnerable to cargo shifting, causing the ship to develop a list to one side. However sailing ships are particularly vulnerable because the ship naturally heels over in reaction to the force of the wind on the sails. If the cargo is not adequately secured the cargo may fall to the leeward side of the ship. Loose cargos (e.g. grain) flow downhill like water if not adequately secured (e.g. by shifting boards) and are particularly prone to shifting. If a large quantity of cargo shifts the ship may develop such a heavy list that she capsizes. A catastrophic cargo shift caused the loss of the tall ship Pamir in 1957.

Grounding
Ship grounding is a type of marine accident that involves the impact of a ship on the seabed, resulting in damage of the submerged part of her hull and in particularly the bottom structure, potentially leading to water ingress and compromise of the ship's structural integrity and stability. Grounding induces extreme loads onto marine structures and is a marine accident of profound importance due to its impact:
 * The environmental impact, especially in the case where large tanker ships are involved.
 * The loss of human life.
 * Financial consequences to local communities close to the accident.
 * The financial consequences to ship-owners, due to ship loss or penalties. The grounding, depending on the maneuvers of the master before the impact, may result in the ship being stranded. Depending on the nature of the relief of the seabed at the location, i.e. being muddy or rocky, different measures have to be taken to release the ship and carry it to a safe harbor.

Capsizing
A capsize is when a vessel rolls over beyond the limit angle of positive static stability. The severity of a capsize depends on the size and design of a vessel. A small dinghy is designed to capsize and be righted by her crew. Yachts are typically built to right themselves even if heeled over beyond 90 degrees. However a large sailing ship will typically lose all stability at a smaller angle of heel, and will be vulnerable to downflooding and sinking if heeled beyond this point.

Ballasted monohull sailing yachts will capsize very easily if they lose their external ballast keel. Fortunately, this is rare, but if it does, it is a life-threatening danger, as seen in the case of the sunken Cheeki Rafiki.

Fire
Fire is a serious threat to all ships, but to a ship made of wood, rope, and canvas, it was the greatest danger of all. Cooking fires in the galley were watched constantly, and put out instantly if the weather turned ugly, or an enemy ship appeared in the distance. Warships had an elaborate set of procedures for handling their gunpowder; the magazines were deep in the ship and the lanterns kept in another room, with a window between.

The introduction of steam power in the mid-19th century was attended by the use of "fire-engines" consisting of pumps and hoses. Even so, fire was fatal to a ship far more often than not.

title: Sailing ship accidents


text:
Muskogee

Muskogee or Muscogee can refer to:

 * Muscogee, or Muscogee Creek, a Native American people of the southeastern woodlands
 * Muscogee (Creek) Nation, a federally recognized Muscogee tribe in Oklahoma
 * Muscogee language, a language spoken by some Muscogee and Seminole
 * Muskogean languages, a language family including Muscogee
 * Muscogee, Florida, a ghost town
 * Muskogee, Oklahoma, a city
 * Muscogee County, Georgia
 * Muskogee County, Oklahoma
 * State of Muskogee, a nation declared by William Augustus Bowles in 1799
 * The City of Muskogee, a municipal government
 * USS Muskogee, a US warship in WW2

title: Muskogee


text:
Lake Winnebago

Lake Winnebago (, Wiinibiigoo-zaaga'igan, ) is a shallow freshwater lake in the north central United States, located in east central Wisconsin. At 137,700 acres, it is the largest lake entirely within the state, covering an area of about 30 miles by 10 miles with 88 miles of shoreline, an average depth of 15.5 feet, and a maximum depth of 21 feet. It has many shallow reefs along the west shore and a drop-off type shoreline on the east. There are several islands along the west shore.

The lake has two primary tributaries, the Wolf and Fox Rivers, which combine at Lake Butte des Morts. The Fox River flows east through Oshkosh and into Lake Winnebago at its west central shore, then flows out at the northwest shore, around Doty Island at Neenah-Menasha to Little Lake Butte des Morts. The river then flows northeast and empties into Green Bay and serves as part of the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway. Lake Winnebago is part of a larger system of lakes in Wisconsin known as the Winnebago Pool.

Cities on its shores include the aforementioned Oshkosh, Neenah, and Menasha, as well as Fond du Lac at the south shore. Municipal drinking water systems serving over 200,000 people draw directly from the lake, including systems serving the cities of Oshkosh, Neenah, Menasha, and Appleton.

History
The lake is a remnant of Glacial Lake Oshkosh approximately 12,000 years ago. Ice blocked water from entering Lake Michigan at Green Bay, and the glacial lake ponded against ice since it had no outlet.

The Niagara Escarpment is a few miles east of Lake Winnebago. The softer Ordovician rocks that underlie the lake have eroded away, and the stronger Silurian rocks stand as a ridge that formed the lake basin.

In 1634, the French encountered the Ho-Chunk on the shores of Green Bay, inhabiting the area stretching to Lake Winnebago. Although "Ho-Chunk" is the people's own name for themselves, their Algonquian neighbors called them "Winnebago", which means "[people of the] stinking water." This term was used by the Algonquians because Lake Winnebago had a strong fish odor in the summer.

The steamer B. F. Carter made a trip from the east shore to the west shore at Oshkosh every two weeks in the 1880s during the summer season.

Lake Winnebago is known for having occasional ice shoves on very windy days in March as the winter ice breaks up. Residents have described that it "sounds like a freight train." Buildings directly on the shoreline have been wrecked by the shoves, which are up to 25 feet high.

Locks and dams
Lake Winnebago is not man-made, but its level was raised about three feet (0.9 m) by two dams on either side of Doty Island, erected in 1850 and 1930. The lake level is today regulated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to meet demands for flood control, to reduce ice damage to private property, to release water for hydropower and pollution dilution downstream, and to extend the high water season for boating.

A system of seventeen locks connects Lake Winnebago to Lake Michigan at Green Bay, an elevation drop of about 150 ft. This lock system is located along the lower Fox River and starts at the northwest corner of Lake Winnebago in the city of Menasha and ends at the mouth of Green Bay. One of the locks, the Rapid Croche Lock, is permanently sealed as a barrier to prevent the movement of sea lamprey upstream, and only three of the remaining locks were being maintained. Lock reconstruction is underway and is being supervised by the Fox River Navigation Authority.

Recreation
Many annual events take place on the Winnebago Pool, including shoreline concerts, fishing tournaments, power boat events, pleasure boating rallies, windsurfing, sail runs and ice racing.

Boating
Along with the upper lakes of Big Lake Butte des Morts, Winneconne, Poygan, the Wolf River and the upper and lower Fox River, it is a popular pleasure boating area. A 1989 survey of boating intensity by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources ranked the Winnebago Pool as the state's busiest inland waterway, surpassing the Mississippi River.

Parks
High Cliff State Park on the lake's northeast shore offers camping, hiking trails, views of the lake, a marina, beach, an observation tower, and picnic areas. Camping is available at Calumet County Park and Columbia County Park in Fond du Lac County. Effigy mounds overlook the lake at High Cliff and Calumet County Park.

Lakeside Park in Fond du Lac is a 400 acre municipal park on the southern shore of Lake Winnebago with picnic areas, shelters/gazebos, a playground, a deer park, baseball diamonds, a marina, and boat launch ramps. Train rides, an old fashioned carousel, bumper boats, aqua bikes, and canoes are available for rides. A petting zoo is open Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day. The Fond du Lac River enters Lake Winnebago on the eastern border of the park.

Menominee Park in Oshkosh features trails, fishing piers, boat launches, a zoo, a small amusement park, and softball, tennis and basketball facilities. It is the former site of the city's Sawdust Days Festival in July.

Fishing
Lake Winnebago is one of the more heavily fished lakes in the state. Many fishermen consider it one of the nation's top walleye fisheries. Other species present include bluegill, largemouth bass, muskellunge, northern pike, perch, burbot, white bass, crappie, freshwater drum, channel catfish, flathead catfish, and smallmouth bass. In June 2010, Oshkosh hosted an event recognized by Guinness World Records as history's largest fishing tournament. A 2007 study put the economic value of recreational fishing at approximately $300 million per year.

Winter
Ice fishing is popular on Lake Winnebago, and it is not uncommon for 10,000 cars to park on it during the ice fishing season. Expansion cracks on the ice are bridged, and many cities along the east and west shores plow roads on the icy surface. Sauger and walleye predominate, with rare perch and white bass catches.

The spearfishing season for lake sturgeon is in February. The first year of regulated sturgeon spearing was 1903, when an eight-pound limit was introduced. All sturgeon spearing was banned from 1915 to 1931. The lake had the largest population of sturgeon in the United States in 2003. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources regulates the number of fish taken each year.

Other seasons
Late spring (between May 5 and June 30) is dominated by walleye and sauger fishing. Sauger, also known as sand pike, bite the best in cooler water. June fishing is the peak time for white bass, and July for perch. Fishing declines in fall.

In popular culture
The setting for Dr. Seuss's classic children's book Thidwick the Big-Hearted Moose is "Lake Winna-Bango" on the "far northern shore."

title: Lake Winnebago


text:
Dinuzulu

Dinuzulu kaCetshwayo (c. 1868 – 18 October 1914, commonly misspelled Dinizulu) was the king of the Zulu nation from 20 May 1884 until his death in 1914. He succeeded his father Cetshwayo, who was the last king of the Zulus to be officially recognised as such by the British. Zululand had been broken up into thirteen smaller territories by the British government after the Anglo-Zulu War, and Cetshwayo, and subsequently Dinuzulu, administered one of them. The British later realized the futility of breaking up Zululand into the territories and restored Cetshwayo as paramount leader of the territories. However, they left one of Cetshwayo's relatives, Usibepu (Zibhebhu), alone with his lands intact. On 22 July 1883, Usibepu attacked Cetshwayo's new kraal in Ulundi, wounding the king and causing him to flee.

Dinuzulu's volunteers
To contest the succession, Dinuzulu first appealed to the British, but received no response. He then offered rewards of land to Boer farmers of the Vryheid and Utrecht districts, to come and fight on his side and restore the Zulu Kingdom. In 1884 a group of Boer farmers from the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid undertook to help restore order, in return for land for the formation of an independent republic with access to the sea. Led by General Louis Botha, they formed Dinuzulu's Volunteers and after several clashes with Zibhebhu, defeated him at the Battle of Ghost Mountain (also known as the Battle of Tshaneni) on 5 June 1884.

The Nieuwe Republiek, established in northern Natal on land awarded to Boers by Dinuzulu, was recognized by Germany and Portugal. It was later incorporated on its request by the ZAR because of financial problems, after the British annexed the coastal plains from the Thukela river (Tugela) northwards in order to prevent the Boers from building a harbor. After considerable dispute in a Natal arbitration court, Britain eventually recognized the New Republic, but reduced it in size after annexing the coastal plains to the Cape Colony, along with the republic's claims to St Lucia for a harbor. The Niewe Republiek was incorporated on its own request with the Zuid Afrikaanse Republiek in 1888. No major conflict would occur in the region until the outbreak of the Second Boer War in 1899.

Exile
In 1890 Dinuzulu was captured by the British and exiled to the island of Saint Helena for seven years, for leading a Zulu army against the British due to annexation of the coastal plains of Zululand.

When Zululand was formally incorporated into Natal in 1897, Dinuzulu was released. The following year he was installed as the British government's InDuna.

Bambatha rebellion
In 1906 the so-called Bambatha rebellion broke out. After the rebellion had been put down, Dinuzulu was accused of giving orders to Bambatha to start the rebellion and was put on trial for treason. Although he steadfastly protested his innocence, he was found guilty and sentenced to four years imprisonment in March, 1908.

Two years later an old friend of his, General Louis Botha, became Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa. Botha ordered that Dinuzulu be released and transported to the farm Uitkyk in the Transvaal, where he died on 18 October 1914 at the age of 44 or 45. After a state funeral, he was buried at Nobamba in the Khosini Valley (31°16'E; 28°26'S), which lies in the upper White Umfolozi drainage system. He was succeeded by his son Solomon kaDinuzulu.

Statue
A statue of Dinuzulu has been erected next to the statue of General Louis Botha, the first prime minister of the Transvaal colony, at the corner of Berea Road and Warwick Avenue in Durban.

Wood Badge beads
Beads from Dinuzulu's necklace—claimed to have been found by Robert Baden-Powell—were later presented to Scout leaders following Wood Badge leadership training. Today the Wood Badge beads are replicas of the original beads. To date, there is conflicting evidence as to how Baden-Powell came upon the beads as well as the specific purpose and owner of the beads. Alternative stories include that Baden-Powell took the beads improperly, and that the beads were not war beads but actually belonged to a woman, such as a wife of Dinuzulu.

title: Dinuzulu


text:
Sydney Schanberg

Sydney Hillel Schanberg (January 17, 1934 – July 9, 2016) was an American journalist who was best known for his coverage of the war in Cambodia. He was the recipient of a Pulitzer Prize, two George Polk awards, two Overseas Press Club awards, and the Sigma Delta Chi prize for distinguished journalism. Schanberg was portrayed by Sam Waterston in the 1984 film The Killing Fields based on the experiences of Schanberg and the Cambodian journalist Dith Pran in Cambodia.

Early life and career
Sydney Schanberg was born to a Jewish family in Clinton, Massachusetts, the son of Freda (Feinberg) and Louis Schanberg, a grocery store owner. He studied at Clinton High School in 1951 before receiving a B.A. in Government from Harvard University in 1955. After initially enrolling at Harvard Law School, he requested to be moved up the draft list and undertook basic military training at Fort Hood in Texas.

Schanberg joined The New York Times as a journalist in 1959. He spent much of the early 1970s in Southeast Asia as a correspondent for the Times. For his reporting, he won the George Polk Award for excellence in journalism twice, in 1971 and 1974. In 1971, he wrote about the Pakistani genocide in then-East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) as New Delhi bureau chief (1969–1973). Upon becoming Southeast Asia correspondent (1973–1975), he covered the Vietnam War.

Following years of combat, Schanberg wrote in The New York Times about the departure of the Americans and the coming regime change, writing about the Cambodians that "it is difficult to imagine how their lives could be anything but better with the Americans gone." A dispatch he wrote on April 13, 1975, written from Phnom Penh, ran with the headline "Indochina without Americans: for most, a better life."

Writing about his experiences following the Khmer Rouge takeover, Schanberg acknowledged that "I watched many Cambodian friends being herded out of Phnom Penh. Most of them I never saw again. All of us felt like betrayers, like people who were protected and didn't do enough to save our friends. We felt shame. We still do.", and utterly condemned the "maniacal Khmer Rouge guerrillas". He was one of the few American journalists to remain behind in Phnom Penh after the city fell. He and his assistant were threatened with death, and took sanctuary in the French embassy. Two weeks later, he left by truck for Thailand.

Later life
Schanberg won the 1976 Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting for his Cambodia coverage. The citation reads, "For his coverage of the Communist takeover in Cambodia, carried out at great risk when he elected to stay at his post after the fall of Phnom Penh." His 1980 book The Death and Life of Dith Pran was about the struggle for survival of his colleague Dith Pran in the Khmer Rouge regime. The book inspired the 1984 film The Killing Fields in which Schanberg was played by Sam Waterston.

Schanberg served as the Times metropolitan editor (1977–1980) before joining the editorial pages as a columnist specializing in the New York metropolitan area in 1981. Although he was initially considered to be a leading candidate to succeed executive editor A.M. Rosenthal after receiving his Pulitzer Prize, their relationship was soon strained by Schanberg's innovative approach to local coverage (including a proposed 1977 series on upper middle class gay professionals that was ultimately suppressed by Rosenthal) and increasingly vitriolic critiques of New York's real estate industry. In September 1985, Schanberg's column was cancelled by Rosenthal after he criticized the paper's coverage of the Westway highway development. He refused a proposed writer-at-large post at The New York Times Magazine and resigned from the Times.

Between 1986 and 1995, he was an associate editor and columnist for Newsday. He covered the United States Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs hearings and became engrossed in the Vietnam War POW/MIA issue; writing for Penthouse, The Village Voice and The Nation, Schanberg became a leading advocate of the "live prisoners left behind" theory in that matter. He published many articles on the subject and outlined reasons why no POWs were ever found, alleging that government officials never seriously investigated reports of live POWs due to fear of public outrage, and to save embarrassment and prevent damage to their reputations and careers. He further said in his articles that the Vietnamese never admitted to holding prisoners in order to be accepted by the international community, and that they'd initially tried to ransom them for reparations once the war ended.

In 1992, Schanberg received the Elijah Parish Lovejoy Award as well as an honorary Doctor of Laws degree from Colby College. After leaving Newsday, he worked as head of investigations for APBNews.com, shepherding the fledgling digital publication to a 1999 Investigative Reporters and Editors award. He settled in exurban New Paltz, New York after serving as the inaugural James H. Ottaway Sr. Visiting Professor of Journalism at the State University of New York at New Paltz in 2001.

In 2006, Schanberg resigned from The Village Voice (where he had served as a staff writer and Press Clips columnist since 2002) in protest over the editorial, political and personnel changes made by the new publisher, New Times Media.

In the July 1, 2010, issue of American Conservative, Schanberg wrote an article about his struggle to advance his position that the United States government left behind hundreds of POWs being held by North Vietnam at the end of the Vietnam War. He died on July 9, 2016, after suffering a heart attack in the previous week.

title: Sydney Schanberg


text:
Byron Looper

Byron (Low Tax) Looper (born Byron Anthony Looper; September 15, 1964 – June 26, 2013) was a Democratic turned Republican politician in Tennessee and convicted murderer. In order to advance his political career, he legally changed his middle name from "Anthony" to "(Low Tax)", including the parentheses. After being convicted for the October 1998 murder of his election opponent, incumbent Tennessee State Senator Tommy Burks, he was given a life sentence in prison. He died in prison in 2013.

Early life, education and early career
Byron Looper was born in Cookeville, Tennessee. He spent most of his childhood in Georgia, where his father, Aaron Looper, was a school superintendent.

Looper attended the U.S. Military Academy at West Point from 1983 to 1985, but he was given an honorable discharge following what he said was a serious knee injury. After being discharged, he moved to Georgia, where he attended the University of Georgia and worked for the state legislature after graduation.

In 1988, Looper ran for the Georgia House of Representatives as a Democrat, losing to Wyc Orr in the Democratic primary. He enrolled as a graduate student in the Stetson School of Business and Economics at Mercer University in Atlanta. He continued his political involvement as an officer in the Georgia Young Democrats organization and as a campaign worker in Al Gore's 1988 campaign for the Democratic presidential nomination and the 1992 Clinton–Gore presidential campaign.

Career
In 1992, Looper returned to Tennessee and became a Republican. He lost a race for the Tennessee House of Representatives in 1994, when he ran against incumbent legislator Jere Hargrove.

In 1996, he legally changed his middle name from Anthony to "(Low Tax)" and ran successfully for the post of Putnam County Tax Assessor, defeating a 14-year incumbent after a campaign in which he did not make any public appearances nor participate in debates, instead relying heavily on negative campaign ads.

As Tax Assessor, Looper used his office's equipment to send numerous press releases to Tennessee news media, making positive claims about himself and alleging various shortcomings on the part of other local officials. He seldom went to work, and there were many reports of irregularities in property tax assessments.

In March 1998, following an investigation by the Tennessee Bureau of Investigation, Looper was indicted on 14 counts of official misconduct, theft of services and official oppression for theft, misuse of county property and misuse of county employees. He claimed the charges were politically motivated due to Democratic control of Putnam County politics and the Tennessee General Assembly. The Cookeville Herald-Citizen newspaper regularly reported the Republican Tax Assessor's bizarre antics and public verbal assaults of Putnam County elected officials. The Tennessee Republican Party soon claimed no connection with Looper.

The ouster suit led to Looper's removal from office in January 1999.

Looper also faced legal problems from a former girlfriend who sued him for $1.2 million, saying that she became pregnant and bore a child after he raped her and that he had used his official position to steal her house. Earlier he had run campaign ads in which he falsely represented the same girlfriend as his wife.

After Looper's removal from office and conviction for murder, prosecutors decided not to pursue the criminal indictments filed in March 1998.

1998 political candidacies
In the August 1998 primary, Looper sought the Republican nominations for both Tennessee's 6th congressional district and Tennessee's 15th Senate district. He failed to obtain the Congressional nomination, finishing third in a field of four candidates, but he was unopposed for the state senate nomination. This set up his campaign against incumbent Democratic State Senator Tommy Burks.

Burks had represented Putnam County in the state legislature for 28 years, including four two-year terms in the Tennessee House of Representatives and five four-year terms in the Tennessee State Senate. A farmer and an old-style conservative Southern Democrat, he was popular in his district. He usually won reelection with ease, and the 1998 campaign was expected to be no different.

Assassination of Tommy Burks
On the morning of October 19, 1998, authorities were called to investigate an apparent murder at the Burks farm. Tommy Burks' body was found with his head resting on the steering wheel of his pickup truck and a single bullet wound above his left eye. Burks had been speaking moments earlier with a farmhand, Wesley Rex, about work that needed to be done on the farm.

Both men had seen a black car drive by the farm on multiple occasions that morning, driven by a man in sunglasses and black gloves. The car had later sped by Rex's truck, allowing Rex to get a view of the driver.

Cumberland County authorities could not initially find anyone with a plausible motive for murdering Burks. However, after seeing a picture of Looper on television, Rex told Burks's widow, Charlotte Burks, that Looper was the man he had seen speeding away in the black car on the morning of the murder.

Looper later turned up in Hot Springs, Arkansas, where he met with a friend, United States Marine Corps recruiter Joe Bond. Bond and Looper had been friends as children, and Looper had rekindled the friendship in the summer of 1998, largely on the basis of wanting Bond's expertise in small arms. Bond would eventually become a key witness for the prosecution in Looper's murder trial. Looper had stayed with Bond for a while, talking a great deal about how he had murdered his Senate opponent and how he needed to, among other things, change the tires on the car he had used in the murder, as well as hide the car.

Looper was arraigned at a hearing that featured Bond as a surprise witness for the state. During the pre-trial phase, Looper attempted to have his former friend disgraced, and shuffled through at least six lawyers, one of whom filed a sealed court document explaining why, for ethical reasons, he could no longer be Looper's attorney.

Campaign after the murder
Tennessee state law required that the name of a candidate who died before the election be removed from the ballot, and it did not allow the candidate's party to replace a deceased candidate who died within 30 days of the election. Accordingly, after Burks's death, Looper became the only candidate listed on the official ballot for Burks's senate seat.

Several people tried to have Looper's name stricken from the ballot, claiming that Looper's arrest constituted moral turpitude. The state Republican Party distanced itself from Looper. To prevent Looper from winning the state senate seat on a technicality, Burks's widow, Charlotte was put forth as a write-in candidate for her husband's seat. Dozens of volunteers helped her campaign, including some Republicans. On election day, Charlotte Burks, as a write-in candidate, won the seat with 30,252 votes against Looper's 1,531 votes. One of her first initiatives as state senator was to introduce legislation to ensure that the name of any candidate who dies within 40 days of an election could remain on the ballot, thus preventing the situation that occurred after her husband's death. Charlotte Burks won re-election in 2002, 2006, and 2010. She retired after the 2014 election.

Murder conviction and sentence
Looper's jury trial for murder finally occurred in 2000 after several delays because he repeatedly changed attorneys, most of whom filed a variety of motions requesting a different judge, as well as change of venue. Ultimately, Looper's trial was not moved; jurors were brought in from Sullivan County to reduce the chance that they had been influenced by pre-trial publicity. By the time of the trial, a work crew had found the weapon apparently used in the murder, near the junction of Tennessee State Route 111 and I-40.

Wes Rex and Joe Bond were both prominent witnesses for the prosecution, as were two political consultants who reported having been contacted at various times by Looper, who had told both men that he wanted to run a political race, and felt the surest way to win would be to murder his opponent. Tennessee Bureau of Investigation expert Sandy Evans testified that the tire tracks at the scene came from Looper's Audi. The prosecuting attorney, Tony Craighead, told the jury that Looper had intended to "win this election with a Smith & Wesson." For his defense, Looper tried to rely on testimony from his mother and her neighbors, who said he was visiting his mother's home in Flowery Branch, Georgia, on the morning that Burks died, but witnesses he produced to support his alibi were excluded from testifying because they had not been identified to the court before the trial, as required by Tennessee law. Despite forensic and eyewitness evidence presented at trial, Looper's mother maintained her son's innocence to his death, and beyond.

In August 2000, Looper was convicted of first-degree murder and sentenced to life in prison without chance of parole. The victim's family had requested that prosecutors not seek the death penalty. Following his conviction and sentencing, he was transferred to Brushy Mountain State Penitentiary in Petros, Tennessee. When the Brushy Mountain Penitentiary closed in 2009, Looper was moved to the Morgan County Correctional Complex.

In late 2001, Looper sued a TV station and individual station personnel for depicting him unfavorably in a broadcast interview. Meanwhile, Looper was also the subject of "Eliminating the Competition", episode 163 of the TV series American Justice.

He also filed a lawsuit against Tennessee Department of Correction personnel and the contractor that provided medical services in Tennessee prisons, charging that the conditions of his confinement were unconstitutional and that he was not receiving adequate medical care. In that suit he asked for $47 million in damages. He also filed several unsuccessful motions to overturn his conviction.

Death
Looper was found dead in his prison cell on June 26, 2013. A prison incident report shows that he assaulted a pregnant female counselor less than two hours before his body was found; Looper had to be restrained during that incident. An autopsy revealed that he had a heart condition caused by a combination of high blood pressure and hardening arteries; he also had a toxic level of anti-depressants in his system.

"Low Tax" name imitators
Other political candidates and public personalities have emulated Looper's adopted name or have independently adopted similar names. Among these were Something Awful founder Richard "Lowtax" Kyanka, who adopted his nickname as a reference to Byron Looper, for whom Kyanka nearly worked as an intern in the summer of 1997. In 1998, a candidate with the name Craig 'Tax Freeze' Freis ran for the California Board of Equalization. He finished in fourth place (out of six candidates running) in the Democratic primary for the office.

In Los Angeles County, a candidate named John "Lower Taxes" Loew ran in every election for county assessor from 2000 through 2018. He explained that he changed his name in order to send a message about his political positions. In 2000, Loew received less than 1% of the vote in the special election to fill a vacancy in the office. In 2002 and 2006, Loew lost the elections to incumbent Rick Auerbach by margins of 70%–11% and 77%–23% respectively. Loew ran again in 2010, where he finished in third place with 10.6% of the vote. In 2014 he finished in fourth place with 9.47% of the vote. In 2018 Loew again ran with the name "Lower Taxes" on the ballot and ended up in second place with 23.58%, forcing incumbent Jeffrey Prang into a runoff. Loew lost the runoff to Prang by a margin of a little over 20%.

title: Byron Looper


text: User talk:67.86.96.95

title: User talk:67.86.96.95


text:
HMS Smiter (D55)

USS Vermillion (CVE-52) (previously AVG-52 then later ACV-52) was laid down on 10 May 1943 by the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation as a Bogue-class escort carrier auxiliary aircraft carrier; redesignated an escort aircraft carrier, on 10 June 1943; assigned to the United Kingdom under Lend-Lease on 23 June 1943; launched on 27 September 1943; and accepted by Britain on 20 January 1944.

Service history
Commissioned in the Royal Navy as HMS Smiter (D55) (pronounced "smite·er"), designated a Ruler-class escort carrier, she served the British throughout the remainder of World War II. She returned to the United States at Norfolk Naval Base, Virginia on 20 March 1946 and was officially transferred back to the United States Navy on 6 April 1946. She was immediately determined to be surplus to the needs of the Navy and was designated for sale. Her name was struck from the Navy Registry on 6 May 1946.

On 28 January 1947, she was sold to the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company, Norfolk, Virginia, for conversion to mercantile service. She was subsequently resold to Compania Argentina de Navigacion Dodero, S.A., and entered mercantile service in 1948 at Buenos Aires as SS Artillero (renamed President Garcia in 1965). She was wrecked off Guernsey in July 1967, deemed a total loss and was scrapped at Hamburg in November of the same year.

Design and description
These ships were all larger and had a greater aircraft capacity than all the preceding American built escort carriers. They were also all laid down as escort carriers and not converted merchant ships. All the ships had a complement of 646 men and an overall length of 492 ft, a beam of 69 ft and a draught of 25 ft. Propulsion was provided by one shaft, two boilers and a steam turbine giving 9,350 shaft horsepower (SHP), which could propel the ship at 16.5 kn.

Aircraft facilities were a small combined bridge–flight control on the starboard side, two aircraft lifts 43 ft by 34 ft, one aircraft catapult and nine arrestor wires. Aircraft could be housed in the 260 ft by 62 ft hangar below the flight deck. Armament comprised: two 4"/50, 5"/38 or 5"/51 Dual Purpose guns in single mounts, sixteen 40 mm Bofors anti-aircraft guns in twin mounts and twenty 20 mm Oerlikon anti-aircraft cannon in single mounts. They had a maximum aircraft capacity of twenty-four aircraft which could be a mixture of Grumman Martlet, Vought F4U Corsair or Hawker Sea Hurricane fighter aircraft and Fairey Swordfish or Grumman Avenger anti-submarine aircraft.

title: HMS Smiter (D55)


text:
Talk:Georgy Zhukov

Terrible general
In reality Zhukov was a terrible general who lied about his role in World War II, and only won because of Lend Lease from the West. In any democracy he would have been fired for deliberately sacrificing so many of his own troops. (2A00:23C4:6384:600:3C90:B6A8:3E9A:4A23 (talk) 11:36, 15 August 2017 (UTC))
 * Really? Where on earth did you heard that? I myself come from that Soviet Union thing, and heard nothing of this kind. Maybe I am not as westernized as you are? As for the second sentence of yours, maybe. But, keep in mind if he would have come to power in the US under Truman (and some people after him wanted to come (but non did)) he would have been no better then Augusto Pinochet.--Biografer (talk) 03:10, 3 April 2018 (UTC)
 * There has been a widespread reassessment of Zhukov's supposedly great leadership since the end of the Cold War. He was undeniably a war criminal who caused the deaths of millions of Red Army soldiers. (Defence1 (talk) 13:02, 17 March 2019 (UTC))

Maybe you should continu your sourceless bickering on Twitter. --Nickdenuijl (talk) 11:48, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

Standard English usage
I propose the adoption of UK English as the prefered usage in this article. Can we get a consensus? Any comments? Roger 8 Roger (talk) 18:36, 7 July 2018 (UTC)
 * I would say no to it. Rewording every sentence in the article is rather time consuming and obscure.--Biografer (talk) 04:37, 13 November 2018 (UTC)

Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons files used on this page or its Wikidata item have been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 22:55, 17 February 2020 (UTC)
 * Командир корпуса Георгий Жуков.jpg
 * Командующий 1-й армейской группой комкор Жуков в войсках перед наступлением.jpg

The greatest Russian military mind?
I have reverted adding the following sentence to the lead:
 * He is considered one of Russia's all-time greatest military minds.

Firstly I do not think the site Russia Beyond that between "seven tastiest Russian soups" and "ten Russian rivers flowing in tunnels" have the list "!0 great Russian military leaders" is authoritative enough to make such statements. The second there are a lot of criticism of Zhukov's performance as a military leader: as the chief of the general staff in 1940-1941 he is responsible for the military catastrophe of 1941, almost all his operations during the World War 2 were excessive in military losses, etc. Still many people hold him in high regard. Any thoughts? Alex Bakharev (talk) 05:44, 10 July 2021 (UTC)
 * I agree. I do not think this website should be used for such statements. Mellk (talk) 04:26, 11 July 2021 (UTC)

Soviet russia 🇷🇺
You and me are the best thing ever 2601:CB:80:810:254C:C057:28BB:4AA8 (talk) 00:32, 4 January 2022 (UTC)

Typo among quotation marks
“On 10 June 1941, Zhukov sent a message to the Military Council of the Kiev Special Military District, after someone, most likely the commander of the Kiev district, Mikhail Kirponos, had ordered troops on the border to occupy forward positions. Zhukov ordered: "Such action could provoke the Germans into armed confrontation fraught with all sorts of consequences. Revoke this order immediately and report who, specifically, gave such an unauthorised order." On 11 June, he sent a telegram saying that his immediate superior, Timoshenko, had ordered that they were to report back by 16 June confirming that the troops had been withdrawn from their forward positions." According to the historian David E. Murphy, "the action by Timoshenko and Zhukov must have been initiated at the request of Stalin."”

This passage contains an odd number of quotation marks; the one following "positions" is either an accident or, just possibly, requires a counterpart earlier in the sentence. Harfarhs (talk) 17:46, 11 May 2022 (UTC)

"Pre-war military exercises" is hard to understand
The section titled "Pre-war military exercises" is hard to understand. There may be some Eastern confused with Western or some Red with Blue, but as it is written at this moment it is not clear. Nickdenuijl (talk) 11:52, 12 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Georgy Zhukov


text:
Dorothea L. Dix

Dorothea L Dix may refer to:-

 * Dorothea Dix, a nineteenth-century American activist.
 * USS Dorothea L. Dix an American transport ship

title: Dorothea L. Dix


text:
HMS Puncher (D79)

USS Willapa (AVG-53/ACV-53/CVE-53) was a Bogue-class escort carrier escort carrier (originally an auxiliary aircraft carrier) built during World War II for the United States Navy. Never seeing American service, the ship was transferred to the United Kingdom as part of Lend-Lease. The escort carrier was renamed HMS Puncher (D79) of the British Ruler-class escort carrier and crewed by the Royal Canadian Navy with aircrew from the Fleet Air Arm. Primarily used as an aircraft transport, Puncher took part in operations along the Norwegian coast towards the end of the war. Following the war the ship was converted for mercantile service and renamed Muncaster Castle, Bardic and Ben Nevis, before being broken up in 1973.

Design and description
The Bogue class were larger and had a greater aircraft capacity than all the preceding American-built escort carriers. They were also all laid down as escort carriers and not converted merchant ships. The Ruler type vessels were essentially a repeat version of the Attacker-class escort carrier. Based on the Type C3 design, the Ruler class were acquired by the Royal Navy as part of Lend-Lease after delays in the construction of the Casablanca-class escort carrier, which the Royal Navy had intended to acquire. All the vessels in the class had a complement of 646 officers and ratings and an overall length of 492 ft, a beam of 69 ft at the waterline and 108 ft total with a mean draught of 25 ft. The escort carriers had a standard displacement of 11400 LT and a deep load displacement of 15390 LT. Propulsion was provided by one shaft turned by an Allis-Chalmers geared steam turbine powered by two Foster Wheeler boilers, rated at 8500 shp, which could propel the ship at maximum 18 kn. The escort carrier could carry 3160 LT of fuel oil and had a maximum range of 27500 nmi at 11 kn or 18750 nmi at maximum speed.

Aircraft operations were commanded from a small combined bridge–flight control on the starboard side of the ship. The flight deck was 450 ft long and 80 ft wide. The H4C hydraulic aircraft catapult was capable of launching 16000 lb aircraft at 74 kn. To receive aircraft the ship was equipped with nine arrestor wires capable of taking 19800 lb aircraft at 55 kn, backed up by three aircraft barriers. Two aircraft elevators accessed the hangar, with the forward elevator being 42 ft long by 34 ft wide and the aft elevator being 34 feet wide and 42 feet long with both capable of taking 14000 lb aircraft. Aircraft could be housed in the 260 by hangar below the flight deck. However, the sloping contour of the hangar combined with the elevator arrangement made handling and storage of aircraft difficult and time-consuming. The escort carriers could store 3600 impgal of avgas. They had a maximum aircraft capacity of twenty-four aircraft which could be a mixture of fighter and anti-submarine (ASW) aircraft, though up to 90 could be ferried.

Armament comprised two Mark 9 5 in/51 calibre guns, eight twin-mounted 40 mm Bofors guns, fourteen twin-mounted 20 mm Oerlikon cannon and seven single-mounted 20 mm Oerlikon cannon. Since the escort carriers came as part of Lend-Lease, they retained their American radar systems, with the SG 10 in surface radar and the SK 1.5 cm air search radar.

Construction and career
Willapa was laid down on 21 May 1943 at Seattle, Washington, by the Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation and reclassified CVE-53 on 10 June 1943. Willapa was launched on 8 November 1943. The ship was completed and transferred under lend-lease to the Royal Navy on 5 February 1944 and commissioned as HMS Puncher with the pennant number D79. On 15 March 1944, Puncher arrived at Vancouver to undergo conversion to Royal Navy standards. The British Admiralty had determined that, post-World War II, the Royal Canadian Navy would have its own aircraft carriers. For this reason, Puncher and HMS Nabob (D77) were crewed by Royal Canadian Navy personnel to establish the knowledge base for the future carriers. However, as the Royal Canadian Navy lacked trained air personnel, the aircrew was from the Fleet Air Arm. Puncher remained under British control due to stipulations in the Lend-Lease act that prevented the Royal Navy from transferring Lend-Lease equipment to a third party.

Puncher spent the war in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. In June 1944, the escort carrier transported motor launches from New Orleans to New York. The following month, the ship transported United States Army Air Force aircraft from Norfolk, Virginia, to Casablanca in North Africa, then returned to Norfolk. From there, Puncher made two more ferry trips, taking the Vought Corsairs meant for 1845 Naval Air Squadron to the United Kingdom. Following the ferry trips, Puncher put in for repairs to builder's defects. On 21 November 1944, Puncher embarked 821 Naval Air Squadron for trials in the Clyde area. However, on 22 November, the ship suffered a main gear failure and was forced to return to port for repairs. The gearbox proved too damaged for repair, and her sister ship, Nabob, had been laid up at Firth of Forth due to being torpedoed off Norway in August 1944, so a gearbox was removed from Nabob and installed aboard Puncher.

On 1 February 1945, Puncher joined the British Home Fleet at Scapa Flow, embarking 881 Naval Air Squadron in Grumman Wildcats and 821 Naval Air Squadron in Fairey Barracudas. Initially serving in a training role, within the year, Puncher was re-tasked to both airstrike and convoy air protection (CAP), as the damaged Nabob had been decommissioned. Puncher's CAP service included protection of six different Arctic convoys on the Murmansk/Arkhangelsk route. Operations also included strikes against German occupied Norway, hitting industrial and shipping targets such as the steel works at Narvik. On 11 February, Puncher's Wildcats formed part of the fighter escort for a minelaying airstrike along the western coast of Norway. The escort carrier's aircraft then provided fighter cover for a British minesweeping mission clearing German-laid mines along the Norwegian coast. On 24 March, Puncher's aircraft took part in an airstrike in the area of Trondheim. A second strike was planned for 3 April but was cancelled due to bad weather. Beginning on 25 June 1945, following the surrender of Germany, Puncher was utilized as a troop transport, carrying Canadian soldiers back to Canada. Her hangar had bunks welded into them and was used in this role until the end of 1945.

Paid off on 16 February 1946 at Norfolk, Virginia and returned to American custody that day, the escort carrier was struck from the Navy Registry on 12 March 1946, having never seen active service with the United States Navy. The vessel was initially sold to William B. St. John, of New York City, on 9 January 1947. The ship was subsequently resold to the British firm J. Chambers & Co on 4 February 1947 and converted for mercantile service. The ship reappeared as Muncaster Castle in 1949 and was renamed Bardic in 1954. The vessel was sold to Ben Line Steamers in 1959 and renamed Ben Nevis (sometimes spelled as Bennevis). The vessel sailed under that name until she was sold for scrap and broken up at Kaoshiung, Taiwan on 11 June 1973 by Swie Horng Steel Enterprise Co.

title: HMS Puncher (D79)


text:
Claudia J. Kennedy

Claudia Jean Kennedy (born July 14, 1947) is a retired lieutenant general in the United States Army. She is the first woman to reach the rank of three-star general in the United States Army. She retired in 2000 after 31 years of military service.

Early life
Claudia Kennedy was born on July 14, 1947, in Frankfurt, during the American occupation of southern Germany after World War II. She attended Southwestern at Memphis (now Rhodes College), where she became a member of Kappa Delta sorority and earned a bachelor's degree in philosophy in 1969. She was commissioned a second lieutenant in the United States Army in June 1969.

Military career
After receiving her commission in 1969, Kennedy served two tours in Germany and one tour in South Korea and focused much of her military career in the fields of intelligence and cryptology.

On May 21, 1997, Kennedy became the first woman in the United States Army to hold a three-star rank. (United States Air Force Lieutenant General Leslie F. Kenne, United States Navy Vice Admiral Patricia Tracey, United States Coast Guard Vice Admiral Vivien Crea, and United States Marine Corps Lieutenant General Carol Mutter held equal ranks in other branches of the military.) She was named Army Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence.

Kennedy is a member of the Military Intelligence Hall of Fame.

Accusation against another general
In 1999, Kennedy made a sexual harassment claim against fellow officer, Major General Larry Smith, stemming from an incident in 1996 when she was a major general and he was a brigadier general. Kennedy made the accusation after Smith was slated for promotion to the position of army Deputy Inspector General, the position responsible for investigation of sexual harassment claims. Kennedy claimed that Smith had attempted to grope and kiss her; Smith's appointment to the inspector general's office was later withdrawn. In 2000, an inquiry by the United States Army's Inspector General concluded that Kennedy was a victim of inappropriate sexual advances from Smith.

Awards and decorations
Kennedy's awards include the National Intelligence Distinguished Service Medal, Army Distinguished Service Medal, Legion of Merit (three Oak Leaf Clusters), the Defense Meritorious Service Medal, the Meritorious Service Medal (three Oak Leaf Clusters), the Army Commendation Medal (three Oak Leaf Clusters), and the Army Staff Identification Badge.

After retirement
Kennedy retired from the military in June 2000 after 31 years. During the 2000 United States presidential election, Kennedy was critical of George W. Bush's proposed military policies, especially as they related to the status of women in the armed forces. According to Kennedy: "If Mr. Bush becomes president, his campaign platform says he will move us back to a much earlier time." In other matters of military policy, Kennedy supported repealing the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy.

In 2002, Democrats actively sought to recruit Kennedy to challenge Senator John Warner, a Republican from Virginia. Kennedy passed on the race.

She contributed the piece "Redefining the Warrior Mentality: Women in the Military" to the 2003 anthology Sisterhood Is Forever: The Women's Anthology for a New Millennium, edited by Robin Morgan.

Kennedy endorsed Senator John Kerry for the 2004 Democratic presidential nomination in September 2003, and served as an advisor to the Kerry campaign. She sometimes was mentioned as a possible nominee for Secretary of Defense in a Kerry administration. She endorsed military veteran candidates Eric Massa and Patrick Murphy in 2006. In 2007 and 2008 she endorsed Senator Hillary Clinton and Senator Barack Obama in their respective campaigns for the presidency. She was discussed as a potential vice presidential choice for the Democratic presidential nominee, Barack Obama.

In June 2010, she was appointed as chairwoman of the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, a committee which is appointed by the United States Secretary of Defense and which reports to the United States Department of Defense.

Kennedy also served as co-chair of the Platform Committee of the 2012 Democratic National Convention.

title: Claudia J. Kennedy