text:
Look Sharp!

Look Sharp! may refer to:

 * Look Sharp! (Joe Jackson album), and the title song
 * Look Sharp! (Roxette album)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Look Sharp!


text:
User talk:Hans Zarkov

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title: User talk:Hans Zarkov


text:
Talk:Eva Perón

"Allegations of fascism and antisemitism"
This section doesn't contain a single allegation of fascism or antisemitism, only a coterie of quotes from people -- including some Jews, of course -- defending Perón against accusations that are not articulated on this page. If the charges are not laid out, why does the section need to exist at all? Very bizarre... 2607:FEA8:BFA0:BD0:DC2:F940:6B82:3BA0 (talk) 21:49, 23 November 2020 (UTC)

 * Not true. The section quotes Tomas Eloy Martinez as saying that detractors accused Evita of being fascist, and they even invented stories about her conspiring with Nazis. The section also mentions that Spruille Braden had accused Juan Peron of being a Nazi (nazism being a form of fascism). It is customary for biographies of historical figures to have a criticism/legacy section. The section also quotes Tomás Eloy Martinez as clarifying that while Juan Peron did indeed allow Nazi war criminals to entire Argentina, Evita herself played no part in it. This is historically important information. Copy Editor (talk) 05:49, 30 November 2020 (UTC)

It appears that there's to be an edit-war going on. Whoever keeps editing the section just copy-pastes an older version which is clearly bias and, more importantly, poorly written, clumsy and difficult to read. As for the information itself; Antisemitism accusations are never fully developed. The edit that keeps popping up just claims that since the regime wasn't explicit antisemitic and Eva met with an Israeli diplomat there was no discrimination, furthermore, it later devolves into whataboutism claiming that since jews were prosecuted elsewhere whatever accusations levelled against the regime or Perón himself should be dismissed. Having said that, claiming outright that Eva herself was an antisemite would be equally shallow and reductionist, especially when no one has cited a reliable source that explicit accuses Eva Perón of antisemitism.

I feel that the antisemite defence is being used as a red-herring fallacy of sorts. Equating Peróns' fascist tendencies and demagoguery with Nazims and later attempting to demonstrate that since Perón was not explicitly antisemitic, by a transitive property he wasn't a fascist.

As for the fascisms accusations, the Perón regime was openly fascist, that is a fact. That is not what is up for discussion here. The discussion should be around the role Eva had in the regime as far a promoting a fascist ideology. A good example of this is the Tomás Eloy Martínez quote, wich someone keeps deleting in favour of a defence of the regime cosy relationship with Francisco Franco and Mussolini.

I would like to ask, whoever keeps copy-pasting over the section, that instead of just bulldozing over the parts you don't like try to properly edit by adding what you feel is being omitted, along with reliable citations. Rather than remove or censor what you don't like, try to add to the discussion.

Furthermore, a random thesis defence of someone that didn't believe Peron was a dictator does not count as a reliable source and fails to meet the standards for a Wikipedia articleMarch Fox (talk) 14:47, 24 March 2021 (UTC)

 * ”She was not a fascist—ignorant, perhaps, of what that ideology meant. And she was not greedy. Though she liked jewelry, furs and Dior dresses, she could own as many as she desired without the need to rob others.... In 1964 Jorge Luis Borges stated that 'the mother of that woman [Evita]' was 'the madam of a whorehouse in Junín.' He repeated the calumny so often that some still believe it or, more commonly, think Evita herself, whose lack of sex appeal is mentioned by all who knew her, apprenticed in that imaginary brothel. Around 1955 the pamphleteer Silvano Santander employed the same strategy to concoct letters in which Evita figures as an accomplice of the Nazis. It is true that (Juan) Perón facilitated the entrance of Nazi criminals to Argentina in 1947 and 1948, thereby hoping to acquire advanced technology developed by the Germans during the war. But Evita played no part.” http://www.time.com/time/magazine/1997/int/970120/cinema.the_woman.html   https://web.archive.org/web/20011221053805/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/1997/int/970120/cinema.the_woman.html

 * “Fewer antisemitic incidences took place in Argentina during Perón’s rule than during any other period in the 20th century…. Upon reading the numerous speeches that [Juan] Perón pronounced against antisemitism during his first two presidencies, it immediately becomes clear that no other president before Perón had rejected discrimination against Jews so clearly and unambiguously. The same goes for Eva Duarte de Perón. In many of her speeches, Evita argued that it was the country’s oligarchy that upheld antisemitic attitudes, but that Peronism did not.”Raanan Rein https://books.google.com/books/about/Populism_and_Ethnicity.html?id=ZX0OywEACAAJ

 * ” Peronism was not fascism", and "Peronism was not Nazism." Crassweller also refers to the comments of U.S. Ambassador George S. Messersmith. While visiting Argentina in 1947, Messersmith made the following statement: "There is not as much social discrimination against Jews here as there is right in New York or in most places at home." Crassweller" https://books.google.com/books?id=pUyGRouspbgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Crasweller+peron&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&source=gb_mobile_search&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjG4vDPnMnvAhUZJDQIHcq3CiQQ6AEwAHoECAMQAw — Preceding unsigned comment added by Copy Editor (talk • contribs) 15:18, 24 March 2021 (UTC)

 * The Crassweller mention seems somewhat disingenuous as the rest of the quote is missing, there is no context and the citation doesn't indicate even the page number in the book referenced. For instance, Crassweller is also cited elsewhere in the article comparing Perón to a caudillo (local warlord) and claiming that private business and individuals were extorted into donating money to the Eva Peróns private foundation with repercussion if the donations did not meet the foundations' expectation. The same goes for Kevin Passmore. Claiming that Peron was not authoritarian because he allowed other parties to exist despite exercising media censorship, individual political repression and maintaining a climate of subjugation is more than a technicality, if not outwrite false without more context. Not to mention "what passed for fascism under Perón never took hold in Latin America." Which is nebulous at best (what does Passmore define as fascist?) and false by most standards. Latin America has had a long history of fascist dictatorships (from both sides of the traditional political spectrum), democratically elected and otherwise, Pinochet, Vargas, Chaves and the several military dictatorships and revolution in Argentian history (some the result Peronist political manoeuvring).
 * As for the Lawrence D. Bell dissertation, it appears that no one even bothered to read the abstract. It states that far from descending into any form of direct antisemitism Perón tried to subjugate and co-opt the Jewish community under the Peronist mantle as a way to curve any descent. And that it was thanks to the creation of Israel and the Zionist movement within the Jewish community in Argentina that helped formed a localized focus of resistance and independence to Peróns co-optation by leveraging international relations. A far cry from the tone the section appears to have.

 * --March Fox (talk) 16:08, 24 March 2021 (UTC)

“Peronism was not fascism…. Peronism was not nazism….” Crassweller. Peron and the Enigmas of Argentina. Pages 220-221 https://books.google.com/books?id=pUyGRouspbgC

In the book “Populism and Ethnicity: Peronism and the Jews of Argentina,” Raanan Rein writes that the perception of the Perons as fascists and nazis is not a result of serious scholarly research, but a result of popular culture — particularly the musical Evita (musical). https://books.google.com/books/about/Populism_and_Ethnicity.html?id=ZX0OywEACAAJ As Tomas Eloy Martinez concludes in his article for Time magazine, “She was far from being a saint, despite the veneration of millions of Argentines, but she was not a villain either. Human beings are full of contradictions and labyrinthine complexities. Rarely do they resemble their portrayal in the musicals of Hollywood and Broadway.” https://web.archive.org/web/20011221053805/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/1997/int/970120/cinema.the_woman.html

“This dissertation considers the question of Jewish ethnic politics in Argentina under the Peronist regime from 1946-1955. Like other Latin American populists, Peron combined a corporatist conception of the state with ideals of popular democracy and social mobilization throughout most of his first two terms as President of Argentina. As such, his regime attempted to integrate a number of traditionally excluded groups, including Argentina’s 250,000 Jews, into its socially and politically inclusive national vision.” https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_olink/r/1501/10?clear=10&p10_accession_num=osu1039034580 — Preceding unsigned comment added by Copy Editor (talk • contribs) 05:06, 25 March 2021 (UTC)

 * From the dust jacket of Populism and Ethnicity: Peronism and the Jews of Argentina by Raanan Rein

 * “Juan Perón's decade-long regime, from 1946 to 1955, is often presented as Nazi-fascist and antisemitic - claims that are strongly rooted in Argentina's collective unconscious and popular culture. Challenging this widely held view, Raanan Rein asserts that there was greater Jewish support for Perón than previously believed, and that fewer antisemitic incidents took place in Argentina during Perón's rule than during any other period in the twentieth century. Recovering the silenced voices of Jewish Argentines who supported Peronism from the beginning, Populism and Ethnicity is a historical, sociological, and political analysis that describes the many positive changes experienced by the Jewish community as a direct result of Perón's presidencies. Perón and his wife Eva gave numerous speeches denouncing antisemitism, and Perón's Argentina was the first Latin American country to open an embassy in the newly established State of Israel. Arguing that no president before Perón so unambiguously rejected discrimination against Jews, Rein shows that many Jews secured more important posts in government in the 1940s and 1950s than in previous years, among them members of the Argentine Jewish Organization, which became a section of the ruling Peronist party. Deconstructing the myth of antisemitism during Perón's regime, Populism and Ethnicity looks deep into the heart of international memory for the truth behind Jewish-Argentine relations.” https://books.google.com/books/about/Populism_and_Ethnicity.html?id=ZX0OywEACAAJ — Preceding unsigned comment added by Copy Editor (talk • contribs) 06:53, 25 March 2021 (UTC)

Timeline inconsistency
Juan Peron's Arrest: Happened on October 9 (?) but then SIX days later he was freed on October 17. Does not compute. Martindo (talk) 13:35, 16 April 2023 (UTC)

 * @Martindo You don't know the exact time 47.203.178.72 (talk) 19:12, 23 September 2023 (UTC)
 * So tell me. It is inconsistent in the text. If not definitively known, then wording should be changed. No need to remain anonymous. Your comment is reasonable, though somewhat vague. Martindo (talk) 01:03, 24 September 2023 (UTC)

The Renunciation
As described in the text, "The Renunciation" took place on Aug 22th, 1951. The date given in the file history of the illustrating picture is Oct 17th, 1951. The date for the file of Eva's Renunciation speech is Aug 31st, 1951. As obviously this all must have happened at the same event we should need to clarify the exact date. Can someone help? Glamourqueen (talk) 07:47, 15 July 2023 (UTC)

 * @Glamourqueen I don't think anyone can help with that
 * sorry 47.203.178.72 (talk) 19:10, 23 September 2023 (UTC)

wedding of Eva and Juan Peròn
I think that it is amazing that they managed that a lot of People have not talk about it 47.203.178.72 (talk) 19:03, 23 September 2023 (UTC)

 * @47.203.178.72 It really is fascinating not a lot of People think about it.
 * I hope you agree about this!
 * thank you for your time 47.203.178.72 (talk) 19:07, 23 September 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eva Perón


text:
HPMS

HPMS may refer to:

 * Harbour Pointe Middle School, in Mukilteo, Washington, United States
 * Harrold Priory Middle School, in Bedfordshire, England
 * High proper motion star
 * Highway Performance Monitoring System, an annual report sent by each U.S. state's DOT to the FHWA

title: HPMS


text:
Og

Og (עוֹג ; عوج ; Ωγ) was, according to the Hebrew Bible and other sources, an Amorite king of Bashan who was slain along with his army by Moses and his men at the battle of Edrei. In Arabic literature he is referred to as ʿŪj ibn ʿAnāq (عوج بن عنق, "Og son of Anaq," Anaq being a daughter of Adam in Islamic tradition).

Og is introduced in the Book of Numbers. Like his neighbor Sihon of Heshbon, whom Moses had previously conquered at the battle of Jahaz, he was an Amorite king, the ruler of Bashan, which contained sixty walled cities and many unwalled towns, with his capital at Ashtaroth (probably modern Tell Ashtara, where there still exists a 70 ft mound).

The Book of Numbers, Chapter 21, and Deuteronomy, Chapter 3, continues: Next we turned and headed for the land of Bashan, where King Og and his entire army attacked us at Edrei. But the Lord told me, "Do not be afraid of him, for I have given you victory over Og and his entire army, and I will give you all his land. Treat him just as you treated King Sihon of the Amorites, who ruled in Heshbon."

So the Lord our God handed King Og and all his people over to us, and we killed them all. Not a single person survived. We conquered all sixty of his towns—the entire Argob region in his kingdom of Bashan. Not a single town escaped our conquest. These towns were all fortified with high walls and barred gates. We also took many unwalled villages at the same time. We completely destroyed the kingdom of Bashan, just as we had destroyed King Sihon of Heshbon. We destroyed all the people in every town we conquered—men, women, and children alike. But we kept all the livestock for ourselves and took plunder from all the towns.

So we took the land of the two Amorite kings east of the Jordan River—all the way from the Arnon Gorge to Mount Hermon. (Mount Hermon is called Sirion by the Sidonians, and the Amorites call it Senir.) We had now conquered all the cities on the plateau and all Gilead and Bashan, as far as the towns of Salecah and Edrei, which were part of Og's kingdom in Bashan. (King Og of Bashan was the last survivor of the giant Rephaites. His bed was made of iron and was more than thirteen feet long and six feet wide. It can still be seen in the Ammonite city of Rabbah.)

Og's destruction is told in Psalms 135:11 and 136:20 as one of many great victories for the nation of Israel, and the Book of Amos 2:9 may refer to Og as "the Amorite" whose height was like the height of the cedars and whose strength was like that of the oaks. The text states that he was the last giant of the Rephaites. His stature made him sleep on an iron bed, which was about 9 cubits in length.

Og and the Rephaim

In Deuteronomy 3:11, and later in the book of Numbers and Joshua, Og is called the last of the Rephaim. Rephaim is a Hebrew word for giants. Deuteronomy 3:11 declares that his "bedstead" (translated in some texts as "sarcophagus") of iron is "nine cubits in length and four cubits in width", which is 13.5 by according to the standard cubit of a man. It goes on to say that at the royal city of Rabbah of the Ammonites, his giant bedstead could still be seen as a novelty at the time the narrative was written. If the giant king's bedstead was built in proportion to his size as most beds are, he may have been between 9 and 13 ft in height. However, later Rabbinic tradition has it, that the length of his bedstead was measured with the cubits of Og himself.

Michael S. Heiser argues that the reference to Og's bed is a link to the sacred marriage bed of Marduk, and so the dimensions are not a reliable indicator of Og's size.

It is noteworthy that the region north of the river Jabbok, or Bashan, "the land of Rephaim", contains hundreds of megalithic stone tombs (dolmen) dating from the 5th to 3rd millennia BC. In 1918, Gustav Dalman discovered in the neighborhood of Amman, Jordan (Amman is built on the ancient city of Rabbah of Ammon) a noteworthy dolmen which matched the approximate dimensions of Og's bed as described in the Bible. Such ancient rock burials are seldom seen west of the Jordan river, and the only other concentration of these megaliths are to be found in the hills of Judah in the vicinity of Hebron, where the giant sons of Anak were said to have lived (Numbers 13:33).

Og in non-Biblical inscriptions
In 1974, Wolfgang Röllig published a Phoenician inscription from Byblos (Byblos 13) which he argued it contained a reference to a deity named "Og". According to Röllig, it appears in a damaged 7-line funerary inscription that Röllig dates to around 500 BC, and appears to say that if someone disturbs the bones of the occupant, "the mighty Og will avenge me." Frank Moore Cross disputed Röllig's interpretation, proposing that the line of the inscription in question reads instead "my decrepit/mouldering bones".

A possible connection to Og and the Rephaim kings of Bashan can also be made with the much older Canaanite Ugaritic text KTU 1.108 from the 13th century B.C., which uses the term "king" in association with the root /rp/ or "Rapah" (the Rephaim of the Bible) and geographic place names that probably correspond to the cities of Ashtaroth and Edrei in the Bible, and with which king Og is expressly said to have ruled from (Deuteronomy 1:4; Joshua 9:10; 12:4; 13:12, 31). The clay tablet from Ugarit KTU 1.108 reads in whole, "May Rapiu, King of Eternity, drink [w]ine, yea, may he drink, the powerful and noble [god], the god enthroned in Ashtarat, the god who rules in Edrei, whom men hymn and honour with music on the lyre and the flute, on drum and cymbals, with castanets of ivory, among the goodly companions of Kothar. And may Anat the powerful drink, the mistress of kingship, the mistress of dominion, the mistress of the high heavens, [the mistre]ss of the earth." Og's existence and true identity is disputed. According to Matthew McAffee, the historical reminiscenses of Ugaritic mythology indicate that the Hebrew Bible has probably preserved a genuinely ancient tradition of an Amorite king Og stemming from the 2nd millennium BC. He also argues that the description of Og as a Rephaim seems to reflect an Old Amorite theology which gave such status to their deceased kings.

In the Talmud
The Jewish Talmud embellishes the story, stating that Og was so large that he sought the destruction of the Israelites by uprooting a mountain so large, that it would have crushed the entire Israelite encampment. The Lord caused a swarm of ants to dig away the center of the mountain, which was resting on Og's head. The mountain then fell onto Og's shoulders. As Og attempted to lift the mountain off himself, the Lord caused Og's teeth to lengthen outward, becoming embedded into the mountain that was now surrounding his head. Moses, fulfilling Yahweh's injunction not to fear him, seized a stick of ten cubits length, and jumped a similar vertical distance, succeeding in striking Og in the ankle. Og fell down and died upon hitting the ground. Many great rabbis, notably Shlomo ibn Aderet, have explained this story in an allegorical manner.

In Islam
'Uj ibn Anaq ('Ûj ibn 'Anâq) is a giant in Islamic mythology. Uj is not namely mentioned in the Quran or canonical hadiths. The origins of this character lay in Jewish folklore and the Old Testament, e.g. king Og. He takes his matronymic from his mother ʿAnāq who begat him after an incestuous affair.

Famous and much-painted episodes include his fight with the Prophet Moses (see Musa va 'Uj), and his fishing and frying of whales, while he stands just about knee-deep in the ocean.

"Ogias the Giant"
The 2nd-century BC apocryphal book "Ogias the Giant" or "The Book of Giants" depicts the adventures of a giant named Ogias who fought a great dragon, and who was supposedly either identical with the Biblical Og or was Og's father.

The book enjoyed considerable currency for several centuries, especially due to having been taken up by the Manichaean religion.

Hurtaly
In Pantagruel, Rabelais lists Hurtaly (a version of Og) as one of Pantagruel's ancestors. He describes Hurtaly as sitting astride the Ark, saving it from shipwreck by guiding it with his feet as the grateful Noah and his family feed him through the chimney.

title: Og


text:
American Pastoral

American Pastoral is a Philip Roth fiction novel published in 1997 concerning Seymour "Swede" Levov, a successful Jewish American businessman and former high school star athlete from Newark, New Jersey. Levov's happy and conventional upper middle class life is ruined by the domestic social and political turmoil of the 1960s during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, which in the novel is described as a manifestation of the "indigenous American berserk". It is the first in Roth's American Trilogy, followed by I Married a Communist (1998) and The Human Stain (2000).

The framing device in American Pastoral is a 45th high school reunion attended by frequent Roth alter ego Nathan Zuckerman, who is the narrator. At the reunion, in 1995, Zuckerman meets former classmate Jerry Levov who describes to him the tragic derailment of the life of his recently deceased older brother, Seymour "Swede" Levov. After Seymour's teenage daughter Merry, in 1968, set off a bomb in protest against American involvement in the Vietnam War, killing a bystander, and subsequently went into hiding, Seymour remained traumatized for the rest of his life. The rest of the novel consists of Zuckerman's posthumous recreation of Seymour's life, based on Jerry's revelation, a few newspaper clippings, and Zuckerman's own impressions after two brief run-ins with "the Swede." In these encounters, which take place early in the novel, Zuckerman learns that Seymour has remarried and has three young sons, but Seymour's daughter Merry is never mentioned. In Zuckerman's reimagining of Seymour's life, this second marriage has no part; it ends in 1973 with Watergate unraveling on TV while the previous lives of the protagonists completely disintegrate.

American Pastoral won the Pulitzer Prize in 1998. Seven years later, the novel was included in Time List of the 100 Best Novels, a list covering the period between 1923 and 2005. The film rights to it were later optioned, though a film version was not made until 2016. In 2006, it was one of the runners-up to Toni Morrison's Beloved in the "What is the Best Work of American Fiction of the Last 25 Years?" contest held by the New York Times Book Review along with Don DeLillo's Underworld, Cormac McCarthy's Blood Meridian and John Updike's collected Rabbit Angstrom (consisting of Rabbit, Run, Rabbit Redux, Rabbit is Rich and Rabbit at Rest.)

Plot
Seymour Irving Levov is born and raised in the Weequahic section of Newark, New Jersey, in 1927 as the elder son of a successful Jewish American glove manufacturer, Lou Levov, and his wife Sylvia. Called "the Swede" because of his anomalous blond hair, blue eyes and Nordic good looks, Seymour is a star athlete in high school, a two-year veteran of the Marine Corps, and the narrator Nathan Zuckerman's idol and hero. Zuckerman and Seymour's younger brother, Jerry—who grows into a curmudgeonly, irascible heart surgeon with little empathy for the Swede—are schoolmates and close friends. The Swede eventually takes over his father's glove factory and marries Dawn Dwyer, a former beauty queen from nearby Elizabeth, whom he met in college. Following the death of the Swede from prostate cancer, Zuckerman writes an account of what he imagines the Swede's experiences would have been based on the little background information he receives from Jerry.

Seymour establishes what he believes to be a perfect American life with a beloved wife and daughter, a satisfying business career, and a magnificent house in the idyllic hamlet of Old Rimrock. Yet, as the Vietnam War and racial unrest wrack the country and destroy inner-city Newark, his precocious teenage daughter Meredith ("Merry"), beset by an emotionally debilitating stutter and outraged by the war, becomes increasingly radical in her beliefs. In February 1968, Merry plants a bomb in the Old Rimrock post office, which kills a bystander; she goes into permanent hiding. Seymour finds Merry five years later, living in deplorable conditions in inner-city Newark. During this reunion, Merry reveals that she was responsible for several more bombings, killing three more people. Although Merry informs him that her actions were deliberate, Seymour decides to keep their meeting a secret, believing Merry has been manipulated by an unknown political group and a mysterious woman named Rita Cohen.

At a dinner party, Seymour discovers that his wife Dawn has been having an affair with Princeton-educated architect William Orcutt III, for whom she undergoes a facelift. Seymour then realizes that his wife is planning to leave him for Orcutt. It is revealed that Seymour himself previously had a short-term affair with Merry's speech therapist, Sheila Salzman, and that she and her husband Shelly hid Merry in their home after the post office bombing. Seymour sadly concludes that everyone he knows may have a veneer of respectability, but each engages in subversive behavior and that he cannot understand the truth about anyone based upon the conduct they outwardly display. He is forced to see the truth about the chaos and discord rumbling beneath the "American pastoral", which has brought about profound personal and societal changes he no longer can ignore. Simultaneously, the dinner party underscores the fact that no one ever truly understands the hearts of other people.

Historical setting
The novel alludes extensively to the social upheavals of the late 1960s and early 1970s. It refers to the 1967 Newark riots, the Watergate scandal, the sexual revolution and Deep Throat, the code name of the secret source in the Watergate scandal and the title of a 1972 pornographic film. In the novel's final scene, both the Watergate scandal and the pornographic film are discussed at a dinner party during which the first marriage of "the Swede" begins to unravel when he discovers that his wife is having an affair. The novel also alludes to the rhetoric of revolutionary violence of the radical fringe of the New Left, the Black Panthers, the trial of the leftist African-American activist Angela Davis, and the bombings carried out between 1969 and 1973 by the Weathermen and other radicals opposing the US military intervention in Vietnam. The novel quotes from Frantz Fanon's A Dying Colonialism, which Zuckerman imagines as one of the texts that inspires Merry to carry out her bombing of a local post office.

In the novel, there is a slight plot/historical anomaly since a "Weatherman motto" is tacked to Merry's wall about two years before the phrase was actually uttered: Merry's bombing takes place in February 1968, during the presidency of Lyndon B. Johnson, after which she flees her parental home. By that time she has had a "Weathermen motto" tacked up in her room for many months. In reality this would have been impossible. The Weathermen group was, in fact, formed in the summer of 1969. The lines of the "motto" which appear in the novel ("We are against everything that is good and decent in honky America. We will loot and burn and destroy. We are the incubation of your mothers' nightmares.") allude to a speech by John Jacobs at a Weathermen "war council" in December 1969.

The inspiration for the Levov character was a real person: Seymour "Swede" Masin, a legendary all-around Jewish athlete who, like the Levov character, attended Newark's Weequahic High School. Like the book's protagonist, Swede Masin was revered and idolized by many local middle-class Jews. Both "Swedes" were tall and had distinctively blond hair and blue eyes, which stood out among the typically dark-haired, dark-complexioned local residents. Both attended a teachers' college in nearby East Orange; both married out of their faith; both served in the military and, upon their return, both moved to the suburbs of Newark.

American Pastoral was a scrupulously researched book: Roth traveled to Gloversville, New York to learn about the glove-making industry and interviewed Yolande Fox, the winner of the 1951 Miss America pageant, while developing the character of Dawn Dwyer. Roth later said, of his conversations with Fox, "She was very smart, very funny. ... She just opened up whole ideas for me that I couldn't have had on my own."

The book cover features a photo of the post office in Brookside, New Jersey.

Reception
After Roth's death, The New York Times asked several prominent writers to pick their favorite work by Roth, and many picked American Pastoral. Richard Ford, in his response, wrote: "The fusing powers of Roth’s imagination, conviction and raging intelligence are everywhere evident and exhilarating. There is about it a profound and heartening sense (and it is a profound book) that the verbal construction you’re undertaking as a reader represents absolutely the only way this mighty story could ever be brought into existence. American Pastoral stares back at me audaciously unblinking as a great novel. And although such a rambunctious piece of artifice can inevitably not be perfect, it is nonetheless in all its ways right." Stephen King also chose it as his favorite Roth novel, writing: "American Pastoral is one of the five best novels I have ever read, maybe the best. It is muscular storytelling complemented by characters — especially Swede Levov — who burn their way into one’s memory. The scope is relatively small, but the ambition is epic. Few can handle the passing years as well as Roth does here. It ranks with the greatest of American fiction." Harold Bloom named Roth one of the greatest living American authors, alongside Cormac McCarthy, Thomas Pynchon and Don DeLillo, naming their respective masterpieces as Sabbath's Theater and American Pastoral; Blood Meridian; The Crying of Lot 49, Gravity's Rainbow, and Mason & Dixon; and Underworld.

Film adaptation
Ewan McGregor directed and starred in the film along with Jennifer Connelly and Dakota Fanning. Filming began in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in September 2015, and the film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival in September 2016.

title: American Pastoral


text:
Unam sanctam

Unam sanctam is a papal bull that was issued by Pope Boniface VIII on 18 November 1302. It laid down dogmatic propositions on the unity of the Catholic Church, the necessity of belonging to it for eternal salvation, the position of the Pope as supreme head of the Church and the duty thence arising of submission to the Pope in order to belong to the Church and thus to attain salvation. The Pope further emphasized the higher position of the spiritual in comparison with the secular order. The historian Brian Tierney calls it "probably the most famous" document on church and state in medieval Europe. The original document is lost, but a version of the text can be found in the registers of Boniface VIII in the Vatican Archives. The bull was the definitive statement of the late medieval theory of hierocracy, which argued for the temporal as well as spiritual supremacy of the pope.

Background
The bull was promulgated during an ongoing dispute between Boniface VIII and King Philip IV of France (Philip the Fair). Philip had levied taxes on the French clergy of half their annual income. On 5 February 1296, Boniface responded with the papal bull Clericis laicos that forbade clerics, without authority from the Holy See, to pay taxes to temporal rulers, and threatened excommunication on rulers who demanded such payments.

King Edward I of England defended his own taxing powers by putting defiant clergy under outlawry, a Roman law concept withdrawing their protection under the English common law, and confiscated the temporal properties of bishops who refused his levies. As Edward was demanding an amount well above the tenth offered by the clergy, Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Winchelsey left it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit.

In August 1296 King Philip imposed an embargo forbidding export of horses, arms, gold, and silver, effectively keeping the French clergy from sending taxes to Rome and blocking a main source of papal revenue. Philip also banished from France papal agents raising funds for a new crusade.

In September 1296 the pope sent a protest to Philip headed Ineffabilis Amor that declared that he would rather suffer death than surrender any of the rightful prerogatives of the Church. While threatening a papal alliance with England and Germany, the pope soothingly explained that his claims were not intended against the customary feudal dues, and that reasonable taxation of Church revenue would be permitted. To assist their king against the Anglo-Flemish alliance, the French bishops asked permission to make contributions for the defense of the kingdom. In February 1297, Boniface issued Romana mater ecclesia, declaring that when the clergy consented to make payments and delay could cause grave danger, papal permission could be dispensed, and ratified the French payments in the encyclical Corum illo fatemur. While insisting that Church consent was required for subsidies to the state, he recognised that the clergy in each country must evaluate such claims. In July 1297, Boniface, further beset by an uprising in Rome by the Colonna family, again moderated his assertions in Clericis laicos. The bull Etsi de statu allowed lay authorities to declare emergencies to tax clerical property.

The Jubilee year of 1300 filled Rome with fervent masses of pilgrims who supplied the lack of French gold in the treasury. The following year, Philip's ministers overstepped their bounds. In the Albigensian Crusade, the suppression of the Cathar heresy had brought much of Languedoc under French royal control, but in the farthest south, heretics still survived, and Bernard Saisset, Bishop of Pamiers in Foix, was recalcitrant and insolent with king. Philip's ministry decided to make an example of the bishop, who was brought before the royal court on 24 October 1301. The chancellor, Pierre Flotte, charged him with high treason, and put the bishop in the keeping of his metropolitan, the archbishop of Narbonne. Before Saisset could be tried, the royal ministry needed the Pope to strip the bishop of his office and protections, a "canonical degradation". Instead, in December 1301 Boniface ordered the bishop to Rome to justify himself before his pope rather than his king. In the bull Ausculta Fili ("Give ear, my son"), he scolded Phillip: "Let no one persuade you that you have no superior or that you are not subject to the head of the ecclesiastical hierarchy, for he is a fool who so thinks." At the same time, Boniface sent out the general bull Salvator mundi strongly reiterating Clericis laicos.

With his customary tactlessness, Boniface then summoned the French bishops to Rome to reform their national Church matters. Philip forbade Saisset or any bishop to attend, and organized a counterassembly of his own in Paris in April 1302. Nobles, burgesses and clergy met to denounce the Pope and pass around a crude forgery, Deum Time ("Fear God"), in which Boniface supposedly claimed feudal suzerainty over France, an "unheard-of assertion". Boniface denied the document and its claims, but reminded Phillip that previous popes had deposed three French kings.

This was the atmosphere in which Unam sanctam was promulgated weeks later. Reading of the "two swords" (the spiritual and temporal powers), one of Philip's ministers is alleged to have remarked, "My master's sword is steel; the Pope's is made of words". As Matthew Edward Harris writes, "The overall impression gained is that the papacy was described in increasingly exalted terms as the thirteenth century progressed, although this development was neither disjunctive nor uniform, and was often in response to conflict, such as against Frederick II and Philip the Fair".

Content
Most significantly, the bull proclaimed the doctrine extra ecclesiam nulla salus ("outside of the Church, there is no salvation)". The phrase is first found in Cyprian of Carthage (d. 258) discussing the validity of baptisms by heretical clergy. Gregory of Nazianzus also held that view but, with his father as an example, recognized men whose devout conduct anticipates their faith: by the charity of their life they were united to Christ, even before explicitly professing Christianity. Subsequent commentators such as Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, and Bede cited the doctrine in an ecclesiastical context.

Boniface interpreted it as a form of the concept of plenitudo potestatis (plenitude of power), that those who resist the Roman Pontiff resist God's ordination. In the 13th century, the canonists used the term plenitudo potestatis to characterize the power of the Pope within the church or, more rarely, his prerogative in the secular sphere. The bull declares that the Church must be united and the Pope was its sole and absolute head: "Therefore, of the one and only Church there is one body and one head, not two heads like a monster".

The bull also stated, "We are informed by the texts of the gospels that in this Church and in its power are two swords; namely, the spiritual and the temporal." The metaphor refers to the swords yielded by the Apostles upon Christ's arrest (Luke 22:38; Matthew 26:52). Early theologians believed that if there are two swords, one must be subordinate to the other, rungs in a spiritual hierarchical ladder: the spiritual judges the secular "on account of its greatness and sublimity", and the higher spiritual power judges the lower spiritual power etc. Thus, the bull concluded, the temporal authorities must submit to the spiritual authorities, not merely on matters concerning doctrine and morality: "For with truth as our witness, it belongs to spiritual power to establish the terrestrial power and to pass judgment if it has not been good". The bull ended, "Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff"

The bull reiterated the declarations of popes since Gregory VII, as well as the writings of Bernard of Clairvaux, Hugh of Saint Victor and Thomas Aquinas. The bull also contained passages from the letters of Pope Innocent III, who mainly reasserted the spiritual power and the "plenitudo potestatis" of the papacy. A voice heavily noticed in the bull is Giles of Rome, who some hold might have been its actual writer. Giles, in On Ecclesiastical Power, voiced the supremacy of the Roman Pontiff over the material world. He argued that since the body is governed by the soul, and the soul is governed by the spiritual ruler, the Roman Pontiff is the governor of both soul and body.

According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, on the margin of the text of the record, the last sentence is noted as its real definition: Declaratio quod subesse Romano Pontifici est omni humanae creaturae de necessitate salutis ("A declaration that it is necessary for salvation that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff"); thus this phrase, like some in canonical scripture, may have moved from an original position as a marginal gloss to an integral part of the text as it has been accepted. Some believe that this is the only intended dogmatic definition in the bull because the rest is based on differing "papal claims of the thirteenth century". Eamon Duffy finds most of the claims in the encyclical to be similar to those made by every pope since Gregory VII. However, what made his claim "notorious" was that Boniface "insisted that the Pope wielded both the spiritual and secular sword, [...] the culminating blow in a propaganda war against the French crown."

Aftermath
Boniface's reputation for overweening papal claims made it difficult to accept such an extreme declaration. His assertion over the temporal was seen as hollow and misguided, and it is said that the document was not seen as authoritative because the body of the faithful did not accept it.

Philip had the Dominican John of Paris issue a refutation. Boniface reacted by excommunicating Philip, who then called an assembly which made 29 accusations against the pope, including infidelity, heresy, simony, gross and unnatural immorality, idolatry, magic, loss of the Holy Land and the death of Pope Celestine V. Five archbishops and 21 bishops sided with the king.

Boniface could respond only by denouncing the charges, but it was already too late for him. On 7 September 1303, the king's advisor, Guillaume de Nogaret, led a band of 2000 mercenaries on horse and foot who joined locals in an attack on the palaces of the Pope and his nephew at the papal residence at Anagni, which was later referred to as the Outrage of Anagni. The Pope's attendants and his beloved nephew Francesco all soon fled; only the Spaniard Pedro Rodríguez, Cardinal of Santa Sabina, remained at his side to the end.

The palace was plundered, and Boniface escaped murder only upon Nogaret's explicit order. Boniface was subjected to harassment and held prisoner for three days without food or drink. Eventually, the townsfolk expelled the marauders. According to a late and unverified tradition, the locals were rallied and led by Cardinal Luca Fieschi. Boniface pardoned those who were captured and was escorted back to Rome on 13 September 1303.

Boniface was shaken by the incident. He developed a violent fever and died on 11 October 1303. In A Distant Mirror: The Calamitous Fourteenth Century, Barbara W. Tuchman stated that his close advisors would later maintain that he had died of a "profound chagrin".

Boniface's successor, Pope Benedict XI, reigned for only nine months. He removed himself and the Roman Curia from the violence of Rome as soon as the Easter celebrations of 1304 were completed. However, on 7 June 1304, from Perugia, he excommunicated Guillaume de Nogaret, Reynald de Supino, his son Robert, Thomas de Morolo, Peter of Gennazano, his son Stephen, Adenulph and Nicolas, the sons of a certain Matteo, Geoffrey Bussy, Orlando and Pietro de Luparia of Anagni, Sciarra Colonna, John the son of Landolph, Gottifredus the son of John de Ceccano, Maximus de Trebes, and other leaders of the factions who had attacked Boniface. He died on 7 July 1304. The conclave to pick his successor was in deadlock for eleven months before deciding, under the intimidation of King Charles II of Naples, on Archbishop Bertrand de Got of Bordeaux, who took the name Pope Clement V. To please Philip IV of France, Clement moved his residence to Avignon. From then until around 1378, the Church fell under the domination of the French monarchy. Philip was said to have held a vendetta against the Holy See until his death.

It was not only the French monarchy and clergy who disapproved of Boniface and his assertions. Writers throughout Europe attacked the bull and Boniface's bold claims for the power of the papacy over the temporal, most notably the Florentine poet Dante Alighieri, who expressed his need for another strong Holy Roman Emperor. Dante's treatise De Monarchia attempted to refute the Pope's claim that the spiritual sword had power over the temporal sword. Dante pointed out that the Pope and Roman Emperor were both equally human, and thus peers. The two "equal swords" were given power by God to rule over their respective domains.

title: Unam sanctam


text:
Anjin

Anjin is the Japanese word for pilot (of ships, airplanes and similar things). It may also refer to:

 * Anjin Miura, an honorific name given to the sailor William Adams (1564-1620)
 * The name given to the character Blackthorne in James Clavell's 1975 novel Shōgun
 * "Chapter One: Anjin", the first episode of the 2024 television miniseries Shōgun

title: Anjin


text:
Djanet Sears

Djanet Sears is a Canadian playwright, nationally recognized for her work in African-Canadian theatre. Sears has many credits in writing and editing highly acclaimed dramas such as Afrika Solo, the first stage play to be written by a Canadian woman of African descent; its sequel Harlem Duet; and The Adventures of a Black Girl in Search of God. The complexities of intersecting identities of race and gender are central themes in her works, as well as inclusion of songs, rhythm, and choruses shaped from West African traditions. She is also passionate about "the preservation of Black theatre history," and involved in the creation of organizations like the Obsidian Theatre and AfriCanadian Playwrights Festival.

Early life and education
Djanet Sears was born in 1959 in England, to a Guyanese father and a Jamaican mother. She lived there until 1974 when her family moved to Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, and then settled in Oakville, Ontario, in 1975. Her birth name was Janet — she added the D after a trip to West Africa where she came across a plateau called "Djanet," inspiring her to change her name as a nod to her African ancestry.

Sears attended York University, where she obtained an Honours Bachelor of Fine Arts in theatre in 1999, followed by studies at the Canadian Film Centre and New York University.

Career
After returning from a trip to West Africa, Sears wrote her stage play Afrika Solo, which premiered in 1987, and sparked the creation of many other full-length plays like Double Trouble, and Harlem Duet. Sears is not only a writer for theatre but also has many credits in acting, directing, and editing multiple volumes of an anthology of Canadian African plays called Testifyin': Contemporary African Canadian Drama.

Sears contributed to the creation of the AfriCanadian Playwrights Festival in 1997, which is a culmination of African-centred plays on the Canadian stage. It was held in Toronto in 2003 as well as 2006. Sears also belongs to and is a founding member of the Obsidian Theatre, "dedicated to producing works by authors of African descent living or working in Canada."

Sears as an educator worked as an adjunct professor teaching drama at University College, University of Toronto. Additionally she has held many positions like the international artist-in-residence at Joseph Papp Public Theatre, the writer-in-residence at the University of Guelph, and playwright-in-residence at Nightwood Theatre.

Plays

 * Afrika Solo is primarily a one-woman show, along with a two-man chorus. It is a semi-autobiographical play that tells a story about a young woman trying to find herself getting through what new information she is learning along the way. The main character, Djanet, and her experiences are the focal point of the play.
 * Harlem Duet takes inspiration from Shakespeare's OthelloOthello. The play is set on the corner of Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X Boulevards. Sears choose this location because she wanted the audience to grasp the concept of race in Canada, and these streets were more familiar to the play's North American audience. The story follows Othello and Billie and their withering marriage as Othello begins to lean towards a white identity, mostly because of his affair with a character named Mona, who is a white woman. The story paints a picture of North America dominated by whiteness.
 * The Adventures of a Black Girl in Search of God follows character Rainey, who is an African-Canadian doctor, and her hardships while living in Western Ontario. Rainey deals with losing a close family member, a failing marriage and tension between her and her father, who even with poor health and old age is on a mission to maintain his ethnic pride in his community.
 * Who Killed Katie Ross
 * Double Trouble
 * The Mother Project

Awards and honours
Sears full-length play Afrika Solo won the International Armstrong Award for Outstanding Radio Play (1991), and the Silver Prize at the International Radio Festival of New York (1991); its sequel Harlem Duet has acquired multiple Dora Mavor Moore Awards, and The Adventures of a Black Girl in Search of God was shortlisted for the Trillium Book Award (2004). Sears's other distinctions include an even more extensive list, including Canada's highest literary award.
 * Sears won The Governor General's Literary Award (1998)
 * Floyd S. Chalmers Canadian Play Award (1998)
 * Martin Luther King Jr. Achievement Award (2004)
 * The Harry Jerome Award (1998)
 * Phenomenal Woman of the Arts Award
 * Timothy Findley Award (2004)

Directing credits

 * The Adventures of a Black Girl in Search of God', Mirvish Productions, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (2003/2004)
 * Harlem Duet, Blue Heron Theatre, New York, NY. (2002)
 * The Wonder of Man, Nightwood Theatre, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1992)
 * Dark Diaspora... in Dub, Toronto Fringe Festival, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1990)
 * Princess Pocahontas and the Blue Spots, Groundswell, May Works and From the Ground Up, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1989)
 * Ella and Jennifer, Groundswell, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1989)
 * AStreetcar Named Desire, Canadian Actor's Equity Association, Talent over Tradition, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1989)
 * CopperTin Can, Groundswell, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1988)
 * Shakes, Cabaret Productions, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. (1982)

Discography

 * "Playsongs and Lullabies" Teds Records, Toronto Canada, (1989)
 * "Conditions Critical" Verse to Vinyl Records, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, (1989)
 * "Winterlong" Teds Records, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, (1991)
 * "Daysongs and Nightsongs" Teds Records, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, (1993)

title: Djanet Sears


text:
Hypoventilation

Hypoventilation (also known as respiratory depression) occurs when ventilation is inadequate (hypo meaning "below") to perform needed respiratory gas exchange. By definition it causes an increased concentration of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) and respiratory acidosis. Hypoventilation is not synonymous with respiratory arrest, in which breathing ceases entirely and death occurs within minutes due to hypoxia and leads rapidly into complete anoxia, although both are medical emergencies. Hypoventilation can be considered a precursor to hypoxia and its lethality is attributed to hypoxia with carbon dioxide toxicity.

Causes
Hypoventilation may be caused by:
 * A medical condition such as stroke affecting the brainstem
 * Voluntary breath-holding or underbreathing, for example, hypoventilation training or the Buteyko method.
 * Medication or drugs, typically when taken in accidental or intentional overdose. Opioids and benzodiazepines in particular are known to cause respiratory depression. Examples of opioids include pharmaceuticals such as oxycodone and hydromorphone and examples of benzodiazepines include lorazepam and alprazolam.
 * Hypocapnia, which stimulates hypoventilation
 * Obesity; see Obesity hypoventilation syndrome

 * Chronic mountain sickness, a mechanism to conserve energy.

 * Paralyzing venom, such as that of the blue ringed octopus.

Medications
As a side effect of medicines or recreational drugs, hypoventilation may become potentially life-threatening. Many different central nervous system (CNS) depressant drugs such as ethanol, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, GHB, sedatives, and opioids produce respiratory depression when taken in large or excessive doses, or mixed with other depressants. Strong opiates (namely fentanyl, heroin, and morphine), barbiturates, and certain benzodiazepines (such as alprazolam) are known for depressing respiration. In an overdose, an individual may cease breathing entirely (go into respiratory arrest) which is rapidly fatal without treatment. Opioids, in overdose or combined with other depressants, are notorious for such fatalities. Nevertheless, appropriate use of opioids in the right setting, as seen in patients with advanced cancer have been shown to be helpful, but must be monitored very carefully, nonetheless.

Treatment
Respiratory stimulants such as nikethamide were traditionally used to counteract respiratory depression from CNS depressant overdose, but offered limited effectiveness. A new respiratory stimulant drug called BIMU8 is being investigated which seems to be significantly more effective and may be useful for counteracting the respiratory depression produced by opiates and similar drugs without offsetting their therapeutic effects.

If the respiratory depression occurs from opioid overdose, usually an opioid antagonist, most likely naloxone, will be administered. This will rapidly reverse the respiratory depression unless complicated by other depressants. However an opioid antagonist may also precipitate an opioid withdrawal syndrome in chronic users. Mechanical ventilation may still be necessary during initial resuscitation.

Associated conditions
Disorders like congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) and ROHHAD (rapid-onset obesity, hypothalamic dysfunction, hypoventilation, with autonomic dysregulation) are recognized as conditions that are associated with hypoventilation. CCHS may be a significant factor in some cases of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), often termed "cot death" or "crib death".

The opposite condition is hyperventilation (too much ventilation), resulting in low carbon dioxide levels (hypocapnia), rather than hypercapnia.

title: Hypoventilation


text:
Mashed Potato (dance)

The Mashed Potato is a dance move which was a popular dance craze of 1962. The dance move and mashed potato song were first made famous by James Brown in 1959 and used in his concerts regularly. It was also a dance done to songs such as Dee Dee Sharp's "Mashed Potato Time". The move vaguely resembles that of the twist, by Sharp's fellow Philadelphian Chubby Checker. The dance was first popularized internationally after being named in the lyrics of Motown's first mega-hit in the song "Do You Love Me" written by Berry Gordy Jr. and performed by The Contours in 1962.

Dance movement
The dance move begins by stepping backward with one foot with that heel tilted inward. The foot is positioned slightly behind the other (stationary) foot. With the weight on the ball of the starting foot, the heel is then swiveled outward. The same process is repeated with the other foot: step back and behind with heel inward, pivot heel out, and so on. The pattern is continued for as many repetitions as desired. The step may be incorporated in various dances either as a separate routine or as a styling of standard steps.

Songs
Several songs inspired by the dance were hits, including "(Do the) Mashed Potatoes" by Nat Kendrick and the Swans (with vocals by Carlton "King" Coleman), "Mashed Potatoes U.S.A." by James Brown, and "Mashed Potato Time" and "Gravy (For My Mashed Potatoes)", both by Dee Dee Sharp. In Australia the dance underwent a revival with Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs' version of "Mashed Potato" in 1964 and in France a song called "C'est le mashed potatoes" was performed by Johnny Hallyday in the early 1960s.

Dance variations and cultural references
The dance was also referred to in Connie Francis' 1962 hit "V-A-C-A-T-I-O-N" ("...we'll Mashed Potato to a jukebox tune..."), "Do You Love Me" by the Contours, "Let's Dance" by Chris Montez, "Harry the Hairy Ape" a 1963 Top-20 pop and R&B novelty hit by Ray Stevens, "Land of a Thousand Dances", "Having a Party" by Sam Cooke, "Do the Strand" by Roxy Music and in Ray Charles' version of "Shake a Tail Feather". The dance is also referenced in The Orlons song "Wah Watusi". (1962)

A variation on the Mashed Potato was danced to Bobby "Boris" Pickett's novelty hit "Monster Mash", in which the footwork was the same, but "monster gestures" were made with the arms and hands.

The dance was one of the inspirations for the Exodus song "The Toxic Waltz", from their 1989 album Fabulous Disaster.

title: Mashed Potato (dance)


text:
Leonard Hayflick

Leonard Hayflick (born 20 May 1928) is a Professor of Anatomy at the UCSF School of Medicine, and was Professor of Medical Microbiology at Stanford University School of Medicine. He is a past president of the Gerontological Society of America and was a founding member of the council of the National Institute on Aging (NIA). The recipient of a number of research prizes and awards, including the 1991 Sandoz Prize for Gerontological Research, he has studied the aging process for more than fifty years. He is known for discovering that normal human cells divide for a limited number of times in vitro (refuting the contention by Alexis Carrel that normal body cells are immortal). This is known as the Hayflick limit. His discoveries overturned a 60-year old dogma that all cultured cells are immortal. Hayflick demonstrated that normal cells have a memory and can remember at what doubling level they have reached. He demonstrated that his normal human cell strains were free from contaminating viruses. His cell strain WI-38 soon replaced primary monkey kidney cells and became the substrate for the production of most of the world's human virus vaccines. Hayflick discovered that the etiological agent of primary atypical pneumonia (also called "walking pneumonia") was not a virus as previously believed. He was the first to cultivate the causative organism called a mycoplasma, the smallest free-living organism, which Hayflick isolated on a unique culture medium that bears his name. He named the organism Mycoplasma pneumoniae.

In 1959, Hayflick developed the first inverted microscope for use in cell culture research. To this day, all inverted microscopes used in cell culture laboratories worldwide are descended from this prototype. His microscope was accessioned by the Smithsonian Institution in 2009.

Hayflick developed the first practical method for producing powdered cell culture media in 1965. This method is now used worldwide for the production of many tons of powdered media annually for use in research laboratories and commercial production facilities. The technique is not patented and Hayflick receives no remuneration from this invention.

Hayflick is the author of the book, How and Why We Age, published in August 1994 by Ballantine Books, New York City and available since 1996 as a paperback. This book has been translated into nine languages and is published in Brazil, the Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Japan, Poland, Russia, and Spain. It was a selection of the Book of the Month Club and has sold over 50,000 copies worldwide.

Hayflick and his associates have vehemently condemned "anti-aging medicine" and criticized organizations such as the American Academy of Anti-Aging Medicine. Hayflick has written numerous articles criticizing both the feasibility and desirability of human life extension, which have provoked responses critical of his views.

Biography
Leonard Hayflick was born 20 May 1928 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He received his Ph.D. at the University of Pennsylvania in 1956. After receiving a post-doctoral fellowship for study at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston under the tutelage of the renowned cell culturist Charles M. Pomerat (1905–1964), he returned to Philadelphia, where he spent ten years as an Associate Member of the Wistar Institute and two years as an Assistant Professor of Research Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania.

In 1968, Hayflick was appointed Professor of Medical Microbiology at the Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California. Hayflick resigned from Stanford in 1976 in protest to the behavior of a few of its administrators who were later shown to have wrongly accepted the beliefs of an NIH accountant who was unable to understand the unique concept of title to a self-duplicating biological system. Hayflick sued the NIH, who later agreed that the issue was in dispute. The behavior of Stanford and the NIH was later condemned by 85 prominent biologists who viewed him as having been "exonerated" by subsequent events. In 1982 he moved to the University of Florida, Gainesville, where he became Director of the Center for Gerontological Studies and Professor of Zoology in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences and Professor of Microbiology and Immunology in the College of Medicine.

In 1988, Hayflick joined the faculty of the University of California, San Francisco, where he is currently Professor of Anatomy. Hayflick is a member of numerous national and international scientific and public boards of directors and committees. He is now, or has been, on the Editorial Boards of more than ten professional journals. Hayflick was Editor-in-Chief of the international journal "Experimental Gerontology" for 13 years.

He is a member of twenty scientific and professional societies in which he has held several high offices including President of the Gerontological Society of America from 1982 to 1983. He was a founding member of the Council of the National Institute on Aging, NIH, and chairman of its executive committee. He was a consultant to the National Cancer Institute and the World Health Organization, and is now a member of several scientific advisory boards. He was Chairman of the Scientific Review Board of the American Federation for Aging Research where he was also a vice president and a Member of the board of directors. He was also recruited by Michael D. West, founder of Geron (nasdaq: GERN) and current CEO of BioTime, to join the company's Scientific and Clinical Advisory Board, on which he served from 1991–2000. Hayflick was also a consultant at Genentech from a year after its founding and for the next 25 years. He developed their technology for growing animal cells in fermentation tanks in which most of their products were produced.

Hayflick is one of several prominent biologists featured in the 1995 science documentary Death by Design: The Life and Times of Life and Times.

Research
Hayflick is known for his research in cell biology, virus vaccine development, and mycoplasmology. In 1962 he discovered that, contrary to the prevailing belief at the time, cultured normal human and animal cells have a limited capacity for replication. This discovery, known as the Hayflick limit, overturned a long-held belief bolstered by Alexis Carrel's work in the early 20th century that claimed that normal cells would proliferate continuously in culture. Hayflick found that only cancer cells are immortal and that normal cells have a mechanism for remembering what replication level they are at. He interpreted his finding that normal cells are mortal, to be an indication of aging at the cellular level. Hayflick demonstrated for the first time that mortal (normal) and immortal (malignant) mammalian cells existed.

Hayflick developed the first normal human diploid cell strains for studies on human aging and for research use throughout the world. Prior to his seminal research, all cultured cell lines were immortal and aneuploid. One of these new cell strains, developed by Hayflick and his colleague Paul Moorhead at the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, called WI-38, has become the most widely used and highly characterized normal human cell population in the world. Hayflick had found that his normal cell strain WI-38 was capable of growing all of the then known human viruses. He hypothesized that because WI-38 was free from contaminating viruses, it could replace the then widely used primary monkey kidney cells, which contained several dangerous contaminating viruses. Indeed, WI-38 became used worldwide for human virus vaccine manufacture, to the benefit of billions of people.

Hayflick produced the first oral polio vaccine ever made on his normal human cell strain WI-38. WI-38 is now used for the production of all of the Rubella Virus vaccine used in the Western Hemisphere. WI-38, or new diploid cell strains, are used today for the manufacture of most human virus vaccines produced throughout the world including those for poliomyelitis, rubella, rubeola, varicella, mumps, rabies, adenoviruses and hepatitis A. Over one billion vaccinees have received vaccines produced on WI-38 or foreign versions of Hayflick's original WI-38.

Hayflick is also known for his discovery of the cause of primary atypical pneumonia ("walking pneumonia") in humans. The etiological agent was first thought to be a virus, but Hayflick showed that it was, in fact, a mycoplasma, a member of the smallest free-living class of microorganisms. The etiological agent was named by him as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, and was first grown by Hayflick on a medium he developed and that bears his name. It is now used worldwide for mycoplasma isolation and research.

Hayflick is the recipient of more than twenty-five major awards including the $20,000 Brookdale Award and the Kleemeier Award from the Gerontological Society of America, the Biomedical Sciences and Aging Award from the University of Southern California, The Karl August Forster Lectureship of the Academy of Sciences and Literature and the University of Mainz, Germany, the Samuel Roberts Noble Foundation Research Recognition Award, the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Society for In Vitro Biology, the Sandoz Prize from the International Association of Gerontology, and the Presidential Award from The International Organization for Mycoplasmology. Hayflick, together with Paul Moorhead, were awarded the prestigious John Scott Award in 2014. This is the oldest scientific award in the United States, established in 1823 in honor of Benjamin Franklin.

In the mid-1990s, Hayflick was recruited by Geron founder Michael D. West to join the company's Scientific Advisory Board. In 1997, Hayflick was elected Academician and Foreign Member of the Ukrainian Academy of Medical Sciences. In 1998 he was elected corresponding member of the Société de Biologie of France. In 1999, he was presented with the van Weezel Award by the European Society for Animal Cell Technology and the Lord Cohen of Birkenhead Medal by the British Society for Research on Ageing. The American Aging Association established an Annual Hayflick Lectureship in 1997. A second Annual Hayflick Lecture was established by the University of Alabama at Birmingham in 2000. Hayflick was the recipient of the 2001, $10,000 Life Extension Prize and Laureate Diploma from the Regenerative Medicine Secretariat for his "...discovery of the finite replicative capacity of normal human diploid cells..." A third Annual Hayflick Lecture was established at the Friedrich Schiller University in 2013.

Hayflick is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, an Honorary Member of the Tissue Culture Association and, according to the Institute of Scientific Information, is one of the most cited contemporary scientists in the world in the fields of biochemistry, biophysics, cell biology, enzymology, genetics and molecular biology. Hayflick is the author of over 275 scientific papers, book chapters and edited books of which four papers are among the 100 most cited scientific papers of the two million papers published in the basic biomedical sciences from 1961 to 1978.

The inverted microscope that Hayflick modified for use in his tissue culture and mycoplasma work and on which all other such microscopes have been modeled has been acquired by the Smithsonian National Museum of American History.

title: Leonard Hayflick


text:
Eileen Farrell

Eileen Farrell (February 13, 1920 – March 23, 2002) was an American soprano who had a nearly 60-year-long career performing both classical and popular music in concerts, theatres, on radio and television, and on disc. NPR noted, "She possessed one of the largest and most radiant operatic voices of the 20th century." While she was active as an opera singer, her concert engagements far outnumbered her theatrical appearances. Her career was mainly based in the United States, although she did perform internationally. The Daily Telegraph stated that she "was one of the finest American sopranos of the 20th century; she had a voice of magnificent proportions which she used with both acumen and artistry in a wide variety of roles." And described as having a voice "like some unparalleled phenomenon of nature. She is to singers what Niagara is to waterfalls."

Farrell began her career in 1940 as a member of the CBS Chorus on CBS Radio. In 1941 CBS Radio offered Farrell her own program, Eileen Farrell Sings, on which she performed both classical and popular music for 5 years. In 1947 she launched her career as a concert soprano and nine years later began performing on the opera stage. The pinnacle of her opera career was five seasons performing at the Metropolitan Opera from 1960 to 1966. She continued to perform and record both classical and popular music throughout her career, and is credited for releasing the first successful crossover album: I've Got a Right to Sing the Blues (1960). After announcing her retirement from performance in 1986, she still continued to perform and record music periodically up into the late 1990s. She was also active as a voice teacher, both privately and for nine years at Indiana University.

Early life and education
Farrell was born in Willimantic, Connecticut, the youngest of three children born to Irish American Catholics Michael Farrell and Catherine Farrell (née Kennedy). Her parents were vaudeville singers who had performed under the name 'The Singing O'Farrells' prior to having children. The family moved quite frequently during Farrell's childhood to various towns in Connecticut. Eileen's first clear memories were of her family's home in Storrs, Connecticut which was where her parents were working as teachers of music and drama at Storrs Agricultural College (now the University of Connecticut).

When Farrell was five years old, her family moved back to Willimantic. After she attended first grade there, her family moved once again to Norwich, Connecticut, after her mother obtained the post of organist at St. Mary's Church in that city. The family remained in Norwich for almost the next 10 years, with Farrell completing her freshman year of high school at Norwich Free Academy in 1935. The family then moved to Woonsocket, Rhode Island, and Farrell entered Woonsocket High School in Fall 1936. She graduated from the school in 1939.

Farrell received her early vocal training from her parents during her childhood. Her mother, a talented coloratura soprano, was her primary teacher, but her father, a baritone, also occasionally taught her. Miss Farrell's early singing career was greatly encouraged by her local pastor, Father Cornelius J. Holland, at St. Charles Borromeo Church in Woonsocket, Rhode Island. After graduating from high school, she moved to New York City in August 1939 to study with retired Metropolitan Opera contralto Merle Alcock. While studying singing with Alcock, she received language coaching from Charlie Baker, who was the music director of Rutgers Presbyterian Church. After working with him for a few months, he hired her as a paid singer at Rutgers. When her radio career took off, Baker became Farrell's vocal coach and helped her prepare most of her music. In her autobiography, Can't Help Singing: The Life of Eileen Farrell (1999), she credits Baker with helping her succeed during the early years of her career on radio. Farrell later was a student of vocal and opera coach Eleanor McLellan, whom she credited for giving her a solid technique.

Early career in radio
In 1940 Farrell began her career as a member of the CBS Chorus. After three months with the chorus, CBS offered her a weekly half-hour radio program, Eileen Farrell Sings (also sometimes called Eileen Farrell Presents), on which she would perform both classical and popular music accompanied by the CBS Orchestra under conductor Howard Barlow. The program was coordinated by music director Jim Fassett and was mostly recorded at what is now the Ed Sullivan Theater. On the program she got to sing with several notable guest artists, including Margaret Harshaw, Frank Sinatra, Martial Singher, and Risë Stevens. The program first aired in early 1941 and quickly became popular. It ran through 1946.

While singing on her own program, Farrell also appeared as a guest on several other radio programs. She was a regular guest on Andre Kostelanetz's The Pause That Refreshes and Bernard Herrmann's Invitation to Music. She also made appearances on The Bell Telephone Hour, The Prudential Family Hour, Songs of the Centuries, and Your Hit Parade among others. In 1944 she made a special Christmas recording that was for the American soldiers stationed abroad during World War II, with Shirley Temple as mistress of ceremonies.

Concert and opera career
During 1947–1948, she toured the US as a concert singer, and in 1949 she toured South America.

Farrell's song recital in New York in October 1950 was enthusiastically acclaimed and gained her immediate recognition. That year, she also appeared in a concert performance of Berg's Wozzeck as Marie. In 1952, she was engaged by Arturo Toscanini for his first and only RCA Victor studio recording of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony, with the NBC Symphony Orchestra.

In the 1955 film Interrupted Melody, which starred Eleanor Parker as Australian soprano Marjorie Lawrence, Eileen Farrell supplied the singing voice. As early as 1956 she appeared before an audience of over 13,000 under the direction of the conductor Alfredo Antonini in a performance of arias from Verdi's Ernani at the Lewisohn Stadium in New York City.

In 1956, she made her stage debut as Santuzza in Mascagni's Cavalleria rusticana with the San Carlo Opera in Tampa, Florida. In 1957 she debuted with the Lyric Opera of Chicago; in 1958, with the San Francisco Opera. She made her Metropolitan Opera debut on December 6, 1960, singing the title role in Gluck's Alceste. She opened the 1962–63 Met season as Maddalena in Giordano's Andrea Chénier, opposite Franco Corelli. She remained on the Met roster through the 1963–64 season, singing forty-four performances in six roles, then returned in March 1966 for two final performances as Maddalena. Her other roles at the Met included the title role in Ponchielli's La Gioconda, Leonora in Verdi's La forza del destino, Isabella in de Falla's Atlàntida, and Santuzza.

Farrell was equally at home singing pop material and opera. She recorded four albums of popular music for Columbia Records: I've Got a Right to Sing the Blues, Here I Go Again, This Fling Called Love and Together with Love.

Throughout the 1960s she was a frequent soloist with the New York Philharmonic under the direction of Leonard Bernstein; she was also a favorite of Thomas Schippers. With Eugene Ormandy, the Philadelphia Orchestra, and the Mormon Tabernacle Choir, she was a featured soloist in an abridged recording of Handel's Messiah. The other featured soloists were Martha Lipton, Davis Cunningham and William Warfield.

From 1971 to 1980, Farrell was professor of music at the Indiana University School of Music in Bloomington. From 1983 to 1985, she was professor of music at the University of Maine in Orono. She also made several recordings of blues music late in her career, as well as a well-received duet with Frank Sinatra on his Trilogy album (1979), in which they sang a version of the country music hit "For the Good Times". This introduced her to a new group of fans, especially Sinatra expert Charles Fasciano, who considered this song his personal favorite. She published a memoir, Can't Help Singing, in 1999.

Beginning in 1987 she began to record pop albums again. Her first was for the Audiophile label called With Much Love. She later recorded several albums for the Reference label that were well received.

Farrell was married to a New York Police Department officer, Robert Reagan, with whom she maintained homes in the Grymes Hill and Emerson Hill areas of Staten Island, New York. They had a son and daughter. He died in 1986. She was elected to Woonsocket's Hall of Fame. A resident of Cliffside Park, New Jersey, Farrell died at a nursing home in Park Ridge, New Jersey, on March 23, 2002, aged 82.

Selected discography

 * Eileen Farrell Sings Torch Songs, Arrangements by Loonis McGlohon, Reference Recordings, 1990
 * Rodgers: The Sound of Music, conducted by Erich Kunzel, Telarc 1988
 * Carols for Christmas Eve, conduct every single by Luther Henderson and His Orchestra, Sony BMG Masterworks, 1960
 * I Gotta Right to Sing the Blues, conducted by Luther Henderson and his Orchestra, Sony Classics 1959 & 1961
 * Eileen Farell—Puccini Arias, conducted by Max Rudolf and the Columbia Symphony Orchestra, Sony Classics 1959 & 1960
 * Eileen Farrell sings Verdi, conducted by Max Rudolf and Fausto Cleva, Columbia Symphony Orchestra 1960& 1961
 * Wagner—Wesendonck Lieder, Siegfried, Act III, Scene 3; Eileen Farrell and Set Svanholm; Leopold Stowkowski and Erich Leinsdorf, conductors;Testament SBT 1415
 * Eileen Farrell sings Opera Arias & Songs, conducted by Thomas Schippers and the Philharmonia Orchestra 9/1957;Testament 1073

title: Eileen Farrell


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Coalition to Stop Gun Violence

The Coalition to Stop Gun Violence (CSGV) and the Educational Fund to Stop Gun Violence (EFSGV or Ed Fund), its sister organization, were two parts of a national, non-profit gun control advocacy organization opposed to gun violence. Since 1974, it supported reduction in American gun violence via education and legislation. They ceased operations in 2022 after the EFSGV merged with the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Prevention and Policy to become the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Solutions.

History
In 1974, the United Methodist General Board of Church and Society formed the National Coalition to Ban Handguns, a group of thirty affiliated religious, labor, and nonprofit organizations, with the goal of addressing "the high rates of gun-related crime and death in American society" by requiring licensing of gun owners, registering firearms, and banning private ownership of handguns. "Reasonable limited exceptions" were to be allowed for “police, military, licensed security guards, antique dealers who have guns in unfireable condition, and licensed pistol clubs where firearms are kept on the premises.” In the 1980s and 1990s, the coalition expanded to 44 member groups.

In 1989, following the Cleveland Elementary School shooting in Stockton, California, the National Coalition to Ban Handguns changed its name to the Coalition to Stop Gun Violence, in part because the group believed that assault weapons as well as handguns, should be outlawed.

In 2022, the EFSGV merged with the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Prevention and Policy to become the Johns Hopkins Center for Gun Violence Solutions.

Mission
According to CSGV, its mission was: "We believe that all Americans have a right to live in communities free from gun violence. We pursue this goal through policy development, strategic engagement, and effective advocacy." The organization had nine areas of focus, regarding issues and campaigns:

 * 1) Opposition to the National Rifle Association's interpretation of Second Amendment rights.
 * 2) Support for firearm microstamping, a ballistic identification technology intended to allow law enforcement to trace the serial number of a firearm from ejected cartridge cases recovered from crime scenes.
 * 3) Ban the private sale of guns by instituting universal background checks.
 * 4) Ban concealed carry.
 * 5) Opposition to the sale of what it classifies as assault weapons to private citizens.
 * 6) Support for "countermarketing", a strategy intended to force changes in gun industry's marketing and distribution practices.
 * 7) Opposition to removing the duty to retreat in self-defense law (i.e., stand your ground laws).
 * 8) Support for stricter mental health screening for firearm purchases.
 * 9) Support for the repeal of the Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act.

Former leadership

 * Joshua Horwitz was the Executive Director of CSGV/EFSGV. He is an attorney who joined the Education Fund in 1989 as Legal Director.
 * Michael K. Beard was the founding President of the CSGV/EFSGV.

Membership
CSGV consisted of 47 organizations in March 2016. Among them were religious organizations, child welfare advocacy groups, public health professionals, social justice, and political action organizations.

The member groups were:

 * American Academy of Pediatrics
 * American Association of Suicidology
 * American Ethical Union
 * American Jewish Committee
 * American Jewish Congress
 * American Psychiatric Association
 * American Public Health Association
 * Americans for Democratic Action
 * Association of Japanese Families of Gun Violence Victims in the U. S. A.
 * Baptist Peace Fellowship of North America
 * The Bible Holiness Movement, International
 * Center for Science in the Public Interest
 * Central Conference of American Rabbis
 * Children's Defense Fund
 * Child Welfare League of America, Inc.
 * Church of the Brethren
 * The Communitarian Network
 * The Council of The Great City Schools
 * DC for Democracy
 * The DISARM Education Fund
 * Fellowship of Reconciliation
 * Friends Committee on National Legislation
 * Jesuit Conference - Office of Social Ministries
 * Jewish Community Center Association
 * Jewish Women International
 * Loretto Community
 * National Association of School Psychologists
 * National Association of Social Workers
 * National Council of Jewish Women
 * National Council of Negro Women
 * National Urban League
 * North American Federation of Temple Youth
 * Pan American Trauma Association
 * Peace Action of Washington
 * Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.)
 * Union for Reform Judaism
 * Unitarian Universalist Association
 * UNITE HERE
 * United Church of Christ
 * United Federation of Teachers
 * United Methodist Church Board of Church & Society
 * United States Conference of Mayors
 * United States Student Association
 * United Synagogue of Conservative Judaism
 * Woman's National Democratic Club
 * Women's League for Conservative Judaism
 * YWCA of U. S. A.

title: Coalition to Stop Gun Violence


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List of bridges to the Island of Montreal

Like most major cities, Montreal needs easy highway access from its suburbs and surrounding areas. However, because Montreal was built on an island surrounded by three rivers, it can be entered by land only on a bridge or through a tunnel. Although the city was founded in 1642, it was not until 1847 that the first fixed link to the outside was established when a wooden bridge was built across Rivière des Prairies to Île Jésus, on the site of what is now Ahuntsic Bridge. Another bridge was built immediately afterward, a few kilometers west, which became Lachapelle Bridge, and another in 1849, Pont des Saints-Anges, to the east. The latter bridge collapsed in the 1880s and was never rebuilt.

With the advent of the railroad, Montreal got a fixed link to the mainland; in 1854 railroad bridges were built in Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, across both channels of the Ottawa River, linking Montreal Island to Ontario and the Vaudreuil-Soulanges peninsula through Perrot Island. In 1860, Montreal got its first link to the South Shore with the construction of Victoria Bridge, which was, at the time of its opening, the longest bridge in the world. Indirect links to the North Shore also had to wait for railroad construction, but this took longer; the Canadian Pacific Railway opened its link to Saint-Jérôme in 1876, through Île Jésus.

Crossings
This list of bridges and other fixed links serving the Island of Montreal proceeds counter-clockwise around the island from southwest, at the exit of Lake Saint-Louis, downstream along the St. Lawrence River, then upstream along Rivière des Prairies all the way to Lake of Two Mountains, then downstream again along the East Channel of the Ottawa River until it reaches Lake Saint-Louis. The year of construction is that of the structure currently in place, accompanied by the year of construction of the original structure if the current one replaced an older span.

Spanning the Saint Lawrence River and Saint Lawrence Seaway
The crossing of the Saint Lawrence River has always proved problematic for engineers due to width, depth, currents, and ice cover. The construction of Victoria Bridge for the Grand Trunk Railway, which, at 2 km, was the longest bridge in the world when it first opened in 1860, highlighted the problems presented by this natural obstacle. Not to be outdone by its rival, however, the Canadian Pacific Railway built its own span, the Saint-Laurent Railway Bridge, upstream from the Lachine Rapids in 1886 for which the Mohawks of Kahnawake were hired to erect the steel superstructure. Although Victoria Bridge was also used as a road crossing since 1898, it was not before the 1930s that two fully dedicated road bridges, Jacques-Cartier and Mercier, were built. More spans, including Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine Bridge–Tunnel and Champlain Bridge, were built in the 1960s. No new span was built for over 50 years, until a replacement Champlain Bridge was constructed at the cost of several billion dollars. It opened in 2019, while the previous span was closed to traffic to be demolished.

The construction of the Saint Lawrence Seaway in the 1950s required extensive modifications for all spans that existed at the time. Those are not reflected in the table below.

Spanning the Rivière des Prairies
Although the Rivière des Prairies is much smaller than the Saint Lawrence, bridge construction there did not begin until the 1840s—when rapid construction began on three wooden toll bridges to what is now Laval, one of which, Pont des Saints-Anges, collapsed in the 1880s and was never rebuilt. The existence of regular ferry services across the river is attested from 1813, but these ferries were discontinued when the bridges opened. The first railroad across the river was opened in 1876, and the Bordeaux Railway Bridge is the oldest fixed link to Laval that is still standing. (Another bridge across Rivière des Mille Îles, which was part of the same line, collapsed in 1882 but was immediately rebuilt. ) The highway construction boom of the 1960s and 1970s led to the construction of four new freeway bridges across the river, and the upgrading of the existing Pie IX Bridge to freeway standards.

Spanning the Lake of Two Mountains and the Ottawa River East Channel
The first railway bridge to Montreal Island was the Grand Trunk Railway bridge across the Ottawa River East Channel. Along with another bridge built simultaneously across the West Channel, this bridge provided the first fixed link from Montreal to the mainland. It was not until 1925, however, that a fixed road link, formed by Galipeault Bridge and Taschereau Bridge, was built across the Ottawa River from Montreal Island. Île Perrot was the only way out of Montreal to the West before the construction of Île aux Tourtes Bridge, which goes directly to Vaudreuil across the Lake of Two Mountains.

All three spans across the Ottawa River East Channel are twinned by another span, built simultaneously, across the West Channel.


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User talk:Yakkity0

WikiProject Houston
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Wiki Loves Pride: Houston
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title: User talk:Yakkity0