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Claiborne, Maryland

Claiborne is an unincorporated community in Talbot County, Maryland, United States. The village is located on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake Bay near the mouth of the Eastern Bay at 38.8375°N, -76.27778°W, and uses ZIP code 21624. The 2000 U.S. Census listed the population as 147 and the number of homes as 84, slightly down from its 1941 population of 156. Between 1890 and 1930, the village was a busy port for passenger and then automobile ferry service across the Chesapeake Bay, with numerous stores and motels/resorts, including Maple Hall and the Bellfonte Hotel. A post office was added in 1893 and the Protestant Episcopal Church of Claiborne was built in 1898. In 1912, an elementary school and Methodist Church were added. Before 1912, students attended school in nearby McDaniel. The town's first school consisted of the kitchen of the local railroad pavilion, used as a classroom. In 1913, the town became home to the Claiborne Fresh Air Association, Inc., (“Miracle House”) which was formed for the purpose of providing 10 weeks of fresh air and summer vacation for children who had been exposed to tuberculosis. The role of Claiborne as a terminal for cross-Bay ferries was diminished in 1930 when the primary route shifted to Matapeake in Kent Island. It ended altogether in 1938 when the direct connection from Annapolis to Claiborne was terminated and only an auxiliary shuttle between Claiborne and Romancoke on Kent Island remained. This shuttle service ended in 1952, a few months after the opening of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge; thus ending all ferry service to Claiborne after more than six decades.

History
Prior to the 1870s, Claiborne was part of the nearby McDanieltown postal community (now McDaniel). Its name can be traced back in honor of William Claiborne, a fur trader who founded an English settlement on nearby Kent Island in 1631. Early land patents in Claiborne included "Rich Neck Manor," which was first granted 2,000 acres to Capt. William Mitchel, Esq. in 1649 Subsequent owners of Rich Neck, Philip Land, built a chapel in the 1650s. The Rich Neck Manor Chapel still stands, but is private property. Rich Neck was also home to Matthew Tilghman, the head of the Maryland delegation to the Continental Congress, and Lloyd Tilghman, Confederate general.

It was past the entrance to today's Claiborne harbor that British vessels passed during the War of 1812, landing in McDanieltown, within sight of Claiborne.

The area of town now known as "Old Claiborne," was located on Tilghman's Creek facing the Miles River. It included a steam sawmill started by John Hansel Tunis around 1867. "Bingham's Steamboat Wharf" was created in 1867 to support a planned resort at "Bingham's Mineral Springs," with thrice-weekly service between Old Claiborne and Baltimore and other destinations up the Miles River to St. Michaels. By 1877, John Tunis' son, Joseph Tunis, had added the Claiborne Oyster Company, a boatyard, a few homes, two more steamboat wharves, and expanded his father's sawmill into the Claiborne Saw and Planing Mills. At the foot of Rich Neck Road was a general store. Tunis also laid out grids for a new community of 188 lots and advertised them for between $18 and $40. A plat of it appears in an 1877 county atlas, showing eight main streets with the names: Rich Neck Road, Leeds, Ward, Progress, Monument, Tilghman, and Dom Pedro. At its center was Henry Clay Square, a large area reserved for public buildings. Joseph Tunis provided a slogan: “Young man don’t go West, but to Claiborne.” The village did not develop as Tunis had hoped and by 1893, Tunis had abandoned his plans. In later years several families from North Carolina who knew or where employed by the Tunis family in their North Carolina lumber mills relocated to "Old Claiborne", for example Ben Perry whose home in "Old Claiborne" was built in 1905.

A second community, the "new" Claiborne, was started in 1886 when Gen. Joseph B. Seth and the Baltimore & Eastern Shore Railroad Company agreed to begin ferry and railroad service between Claiborne and Bay Ridge, on the western shore of the Chesapeake Bay. Seth along with Theophilus Tunis and Frank Turner envisioned a resort community similar to Bay Ridge and laid out plans for the "new" Claiborne, calling it "Bay City”.

Although "Bay City" never developed as expected, Claiborne's importance was raised once the ferries began operating with Claiborne as a primary terminus on the Eastern Shore. In 1890 the Baltimore & Eastern Shore Railroad Company completed a railroad line from Claiborne to Easton so that passengers coming into Claiborne could continue through to Ocean City. Initially the plan was to use rail-transfer steamers to move rail cars between Bay Ridge and Claiborne but this was abandoned in late 1891 and a conventional passenger ferry service between Baltimore and Claiborne was substituted. This service failed to provide adequate cash flow to service the outstanding debt, and the Baltimore & Eastern Shore Railroad was liquidated in August 1894. The assets were purchased by the newly created Baltimore, Chesapeake and Atlantic Railway.

Steamer service by the Baltimore, Chesapeake and Atlantic Railway continued until 1924 when BC&A had shifted its traffic to Love Point. In 1927 the Baltimore, Chesapeake, & Atlantic Railway filed for bankruptcy and was sold at foreclosure on March 28, 1928. One parcel was for the company's railroad and the Claiborne ferry, and was sold for $650,000. At that point passenger rail service from Claiborne to points further east was discontinued, and the Claiborne-McDaniel section of the rail line was removed in 1938.

In 1916, the recently amended Panama Canal Act precluded the operation for ferry lines by railroad companies, with exceptions permitted only via approval of the Interstate Commerce Commission. The ICC ordered the Pennsylvania Railroad, parent of the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Atlantic Railway, to terminate its Chesapeake ferry operations, with the exception of the Love Point and Claiborne routes since those were seen as extensions of the rail lines, rather than competitors. Local merchants on the Eastern Shore protested the order to close, World War I intervened, and the order was effectively dismissed in the early 1920s.

A second ferry company, the Eastern Shore Development Steamship Company, began service in 1912 between Claiborne and Annapolis starting with the steamer "Atlantic" and then switching over in December 1912 to the steam yacht "Texas", formerly owned by Edward H. R. Green, the son of Wall Street investor Henrietta Green. That business, owned by New York investors A.J. McIntosh, B.A. Sinn and J.W.R. Crawford, failed in 1916. It had proven too difficult for the new ferry company to compete against the established railroad ferry, as the latter added capacity, shifted schedules and refused to wait for arriving ferries from the Eastern Shore Development Steamship Company, even as it would for its own ferries. The railroad also refused to sell joint tickets with the new ferry competitor and charges connecting rail passenger in Claiborne a premium compared to its own bundled rail-ferry tickets. The matter was submitted to the ICC for action and the two parties negotiated a partial solution before the ICC was forced to act.

In 1919, another competing ferry, Claiborne-Annapolis Ferry, Inc. (later the Claiborne-Annapolis Ferry Company), began service between Claiborne and Annapolis. On Sunday evening it was not uncommon for traffic to be backed up several miles into Claiborne, waiting for the return ferry trip across the Chesapeake Bay. The increased automobile traffic to Claiborne forced the state to take the then unusual step of passing a special roads bill to improve the road between Claiborne and Easton, Maryland. In 1921, bus service was added from Claiborne to Easton, Hurlock, and Cambridge. In 1926 the service was enhanced with the introduction of the first "double-ender" ferry, the "Gov. Albert C. Ritchie." At that point the ferry company began to earn strong profits.

In 1928 Claiborne-Annapolis Ferry, Inc. was restructured and renamed the Claiborne-Annapolis Ferry Company. In 1930 the primary eastern terminal for cross-Bay ferries from Annapolis was moved from Claiborne to a new ferry terminal at Matapeake, on Kent Island. This significantly shortened the distances involved for most people leaving Annapolis. While direct service between Claiborne and Annapolis was continued after 1930, by the mid-1930s that service had been downgraded significantly.

In 1938 the ferry route to Claiborne was changed to run between Claiborne and Romancoke on Kent Island. This ended direct cross-Bay service to Claiborne. In 1943 the western terminal was moved from Annapolis to Sandy Point. Ferry service stopped running in December 1952, a few months after the Chesapeake Bay Bridge was built.

Claude W. Somers was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1985.

Connecting passenger train service east
As late as 1924 the Baltimore, Chesapeake and Atlantic Railway was operating daily except Sunday passenger trains east from Claiborne to various points on the DelMarVa peninsula: Easton, Hurlock, Salisbury's Union Station, Berlin and finally, Ocean City, Maryland. In 1924 the service was changed from a steam-powered locomotive to a gasoline-powered rail car. However, by 1928 that railroad company's successor, Baltimore and Eastern Railroad had dropped passenger train service from Claiborne. Nonetheless, travelers at that time could get train connections in Easton: the B&ER was still running Love Point - Easton - Ocean City trains. This service had ended by 1938.

title: Claiborne, Maryland


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Pure Michigan Byway

A Pure Michigan Byway is the designation for a segment of the State Trunkline Highway System in the US state of Michigan that is a "scenic, recreational, or historic route that is representative of Michigan's natural and cultural heritage." The designation was created with the name Michigan Heritage Route by the state legislature on June 22, 1993, and since then six historic, seven recreational and seven scenic byways have been designated by the Michigan Department of Transportation (MDOT), and another two have been proposed. These byways have been designated in both the Upper and Lower peninsulas (UP, LP) of the state. The current name was adopted on December 30, 2014, and it references the Pure Michigan tourism marketing campaign.

To be listed as a Pure Michigan Byway, a road must be a state trunkline highway, and it must be nominated through a two-stage process. Candidates are evaluated based on a set of objective criteria by MDOT in a process that can take several years to complete. The criteria include a highway's relationship to sites or districts on the National Register of Historic Places, to recreational areas, or to scenic landscapes. Each candidate must be supported by local stakeholders, including the appropriate local units of government. Each byway has a local organization that produces a management plan for the roadway and the preservation of its surrounding environment.

Program
According to MDOT, the department's Pure Michigan Byway Program works with local communities, organizations, and government agencies to identify roads that access Michigan's "unique recreational, scenic and historic cultural treasures". The program also attempts to preserve the unique and irreplaceable qualities of selected corridors, improve distinct roads in a careful and considerate way, and promote a greater awareness of and appreciation for the state's scenic, recreational, historical and cultural resources, according to the Federal Highway Administration. These actions provide economic benefits by stimulating tourism. Staffers for State Representative Peter Pettalia of Presque Isle said that the point of the program, in context of the 2014 change to the Pure Michigan Byway name, was to get people to drive the selected roads and spend money at local businesses.

Additions to the system are made when local organizations apply to MDOT through a two-stage process. First, a local organization proposes the addition, verifying that the suggested byway is a state trunkline highway and noting which local governments support the designation. MDOT reviews this pre-application to determine initial eligibility. If the proposed byway is determined to be eligible, the organization is asked to submit a full application to the department for approval. The full process can take up to seven years to complete. The MDOT director compiles a report annually that is submitted to the governor, members of the Michigan Legislature and members of the State Transportation Commission; this report details any new additions in the previous year and any changes or deletions affecting the system.

Types and requirements
The three types of byways are defined in Public Act 69 of 1993, the legislation that originally established the system. The Legislature defined these types to be:
 * Historic
 * significant to the history, archeology, architecture, engineering, or culture of this state.

 * Recreational
 * facilities normally associated with leisure-time activities, including, but not limited to, parks, public access sites, wildlife refuges, forest areas, marinas, swimming areas, hiking trails, and sightseeing areas.

 * Scenic
 * an area of outstanding natural beauty whose features include, but are not limited to, significant natural features such as vegetation, land form, water, and open areas with exceptional vistas and views, that singly or in combination make that area unique and distinct in character.

In his annual report to the State Legislature at the end of 2014, MDOT Director Kirk Steudle described an additional three categories of byway not listed in the legislation setting up the system.
 * Cultural
 * A state highway traversing an area with unique cultural and/or ethnic heritage amenities such as art galleries, theaters, opera houses, restaurants, markets, and music venues.

 * Archaeological
 * A state highway traversing a corridor with ruins, artifacts, and structural remains.

 * Natural
 * A state highway that traverses a corridor with natural features that are relatively undisturbed, unique geological landforms, vegetation, water bodies, or conservation areas.

In establishing specific objective criteria related to the selection of potential byways, MDOT has set up limitations on these classifications. Regardless of classification, all byways are supported with a management plan for the corridor designed to deal with protection, preservation, and enhancement of the roadway. All routes are given specific termini points with a reasonable length. They must also have the backing of local units of government, landowners and organizations. No specific criteria have been published for cultural, archaeological or natural byways.

Historic byways are assessed based on the numbers of sites listed, or eligible for listing, on the National Register of Historic Places. These sites need to be visible from the route of the byway, or, in the case of historic districts, a "substantial portion of the district must lie adjacent to the highway". Local organizations backing a proposed historic byway must also have promotional plans and demonstrate coordination with state agencies related to state history.

Recreational byways must be used mainly for recreational purposes, connecting to one or more recreation sites. They can also connect multiple sites together with a common theme, and they are assessed on their scenic qualities with lower inclusion standards than scenic byways.

Scenic byways must exclude commercial or industrial zones adjacent to the trunkline. These roads are also assessed on qualities such as the uniqueness, vividness, intactness, unity, and viewshed of the roadway and its surrounding environment as set up in department guidelines.

History
The Michigan Heritage Route System was created after Public Act 69 of 1993 was signed into law on June 22, 1993, going into effect immediately. The law required MDOT to set up specific criteria and procedures related to selecting and maintaining heritage routes, subject to approval of the Legislature. Since the program was put into operation in 1993, 16 heritage routes have been approved by the department. The first two were approved in 1995 at opposite ends of the state: a scenic route along US Highway 41 (US 41) in the Keweenaw Peninsula region of the northern UP and a historic route along M-125 in downtown Monroe in the southeastern corner of the LP. The first recreational route was approved in 1998 along M-15 in the southeastern LP. Since 2008, local groups have proposed the creation of a heritage route along the former West Michigan Pike (US 31) on the western side of the LP and a loop around Ontonagon County in the western UP. In a department report dated December 22, 2014, the UP byway was no longer under active proposal, and the West Michigan Pike was dedicated on July 25, 2016.

The Legislature proposed another change to the system in 2013 to rename the Heritage Routes in the system to Pure Michigan Byways under a bill introduced in the state House of Representatives. The bill passed in the House in March 2014, and the state Senate during the lame duck session in December 2014. Sponsors of the bill said that including the highways in the Pure Michigan tourism advertising campaign would provide promotional benefits, and they stated that the change "allows the state to comply with federal changes, which require the word 'route' be changed to 'byway'." The bill received the governor's signature and was filed on December 30, 2014, taking effect as Public Act 445 that day. MDOT had one year from that effective date to obtain a trademark license from the Michigan Economic Development Corporation, owners of the Pure Michigan trademark, and to unveil the new signage bearing the updated program name. They unveiled the new signage as part of the dedication of the M-134 North Huron Byway in October 2015.

List
There are six historic, seven recreational and six scenic byways in Michigan, with one additional route proposed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pure Michigan Byway


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Chimaera

Chimaeras are cartilaginous fish in the order Chimaeriformes, known informally as ghost sharks, rat fish, spookfish, or rabbit fish; the last three names are not to be confused with rattails, Opisthoproctidae, or Siganidae, respectively.

At one time a "diverse and abundant" group (based on the fossil record), their closest living relatives are sharks and rays, though their last common ancestor with them lived nearly 400 million years ago. Living species are largely confined to deep water.

Anatomy

Chimaeras are soft-bodied, shark-like fish with bulky heads and long, tapered tails; measured from the tail, they can grow up to 150 cm in length. Like other members of the class Chondrichthyes, chimaera skeletons are entirely cartilaginous, or composed of cartilage. Their skin is smooth and relatively free of scales or unique features, lacking the keeled, tooth-like placoid scales (denticles) present on sharks and rays. However, there are still exceptions, as hatchlings retain a few rows of denticles on the back, and adult males bear denticulated sexual organs. The gill arches are condensed into a pouch-like bundle covered by a sheet of skin (an operculum), with a single gill-opening in front of the pectoral fins.

The pectoral fins are large enough to generate lift at a relaxed forward momentum, giving the chimaera the appearance of "flying" through the water. Further back on the body are also a pair of smaller pelvic fins, and some genera bear an anal fin in front of the tail. In chimaerids and rhinochimaerids, the tail is leptocercal, meaning that it is thin and whip-like, edged from above and below by fins of similar size. In callorhinchids, the tail is instead heterocercal, with a larger upper lobe inclined upwards, similar to many sharks. There are two dorsal fins: a large triangular first dorsal fin and a low rectangular or depressed second dorsal fin. For defense, some chimaeras have a venomous spine on the front edge of the dorsal fin.

In many species, the bulbous snout is modified into an elongated sensory organ, capable of electroreception to find prey. The cartilaginous skull is holostylic, meaning that the palatoquadrate (upper jaw cartilage) is completely fused to the neurocranium (cranial cartilage). This contrasts with modern sharks, where the palatoquadrate is movable and detachable, a trait known as hyostyly. The back of the head is supported by a complex of fused vertebrae called the synarcual, which also connects to the dorsal fin spine.

Instead of sharks' many sharp, consistently-replaced teeth, chimaeras have just six large, permanent tooth-plates, which grow continuously throughout their entire life. These tooth-plates are arranged in three pairs, with one pair at the tip of the lower jaws and two pairs along the upper jaws. They together form a protruding, beak-like crushing and grinding mechanism, comparable to the incisor teeth of rodents and lagomorphs (hence the name "rabbit fish"). Chimaera teeth are unique among vertebrates, due to their mode of mineralization. Most of each plate is formed by relatively soft osteodentin, but the active edges are supplemented by a unique hypermineralized tissue called pleromin. Pleromin is an extremely hard enamel-like tissue, arranged into sheets or beaded rods, but it is deposited by mesenchyme-derived cells similar to those that form bone. In addition, pleuromin's hardness is due to the mineral whitlockite, which crystalizes within the teeth as the animal matures. Other vertebrates with hypermineralized teeth rely on enamel, which is derived from ameloblasts and encases round crystals of the mineral apatite.

Chimaeras also differ from sharks in that they have separate anal and urogenital openings.

Behavior
Chimaeras live in temperate ocean floors down to 2600 m deep, with few occurring at depths shallower than 200 m. Exceptions include the members of the genus Callorhinchus, the rabbit fish and the spotted ratfish, which locally or periodically can be found at shallower depths. Consequently, these are also among the few species from the chimaera order kept in public aquaria. They live in all the oceans except for the Arctic and Antarctic oceans.

Diet
The usual diet of chimaeras consist of crustaceans, and more specifically, they include ophiurans and molluscs. Modern species are demersal durophages, but they used to be more diverse. The Carboniferous period had forms that lived as specialised suction feeders in the water column.

Reproduction
Chimaera reproduction resembles that of sharks in some ways: males employ claspers for internal fertilization of females and females lay eggs within spindle-shaped, leathery egg cases.

Unlike sharks, male chimaeras have retractable sexual appendages (known as tentacula) to assist mating. The frontal tentaculum, a bulbous rod which extends out of the forehead, is used to clutch the females' pectoral fins during mating. The prepelvic tentacula are serrated hooked plates normally hidden in pouches in front of the pelvic fins, and they anchor the male to the female. Lastly, the pelvic claspers (sexual organs shared by sharks) are fused together by a cartilaginous sheathe before splitting into a pair of flattened lobes at their tip.

Parasites
As other fish, chimaeras have a number of parasites. Chimaericola leptogaster (Chimaericolidae) is a monogenean parasite of the gills of Chimaera monstrosa; the species can attain 50 mm in length.

Conservation and threats
Despite their secluded habits, some chimaera species may be threatened by overfishing through bycatch or commercial exploitation. No species are listed as Endangered according to the IUCN, but four are listed as Vulnerable, four more as Near Threatened, and many more as Data Deficient (too rare to evaluate). Many species have restricted ranges and practically none have had their movement patterns studied. In addition, bycatch reports are usually insufficiently precise to the species or even genus level, so it is difficult to keep track of bycatch on a species-by-species basis. This lack of data renders chimaera species especially susceptible to overlooked population declines.

Several near-shore species are purposefully caught for their meat, especially callorhinchids, Hydrolagus bemisi (pale ghost shark), and Hydrolagus novaezealandiae (dark ghost shark). Modern quotas have helped to moderate collection of these species to a sustainable level, though Callorhinchus milii (the Australian ghostshark) experienced severe overfishing in the 20th century before protections were enacted. Neoharriotta pinnata (sicklefin chimaera) is targeted along the coast of India for its liver oil, and a recent decline of catch rates may indicate a population crash. Even species without commercial exploitation can fall victim to bycatch: Callorhinchus callorynchus (American elephantfish), Neoharriotta carri (dwarf sicklefin chimaera), Chimaera monstrosa (rabbit fish), Chimaera ogilbyi (Ogilby's ghostshark), Hydrolagus colliei (spotted ratfish), and Hydrolagus melanophasma (eastern Pacific black ghostshark) all have bycatch rates exceeding 10% in certain parts of their range, and some are experiencing steep declines. Chimaeras have mostly avoided harvesting for the fin trade, which threatens many true sharks.

Another threat is habitat destruction of coastal nurseries (by urban development) or deepwater reefs (by deep sea mining and trawling). Near-shore species such as Callorhinchus milii are vulnerable to the effects of climate change: stronger storms and warmer seawater are predicted to increase egg mortality by disrupting the stable environments necessary to complete incubation.

Classification
In some classifications, the chimaeras are included (as subclass Holocephali) in the class Chondrichthyes of cartilaginous fishes; in other systems, this distinction may be raised to the level of class. Chimaeras also have some characteristics of bony fishes.

A renewed effort to explore deep water and to undertake taxonomic analysis of specimens in museum collections led to a boom during the first decade of the 21st century in the number of new species identified. A preliminary study found 8% of species to be threatened. There are over 50 extant species in six genera and three families, with other genera known from fossils. The extant species fall into three families—the Callorhinchidae, Rhinochimaeridae and Chimaeridae with the callorhinchids being the most basal clade.

Suborder Chimaeroidei Patterson 1965
 * Family Callorhinchidae Garman, 1901
 * Genus Callorhinchus Lacépède, 1798 (3 extant species) Mid-Cretaceous–recent
 * Family Chimaeridae Bonaparte, 1831
 * Genus Chimaera Linnaeus, 1758 (16 species) Eocene–recent
 * Genus Hydrolagus Gill, 1863 (26 species) Miocene–recent
 * Family Rhinochimaeridae Garman, 1901
 * Genus Harriotta Goode & Bean, 1895 (2 species)
 * Genus Neoharriotta Bigelow & Schroeder, 1950 (3 species)
 * Genus Rhinochimaera Garman, 1901 (3 species)

Evolution
Tracing the evolution of these species has been problematic given the paucity of good fossils. DNA sequencing has become the preferred approach to understanding speciation.

The group containing chimaeras and their close relatives (Holocephali) is thought to have diverged from Elasmobranchii (the group containing modern sharks and rays) during the Devonian, over 380 million years ago. The oldest known chimaeriform is Protochimaera from the Early Carboniferous (338-332 million years ago) of Russia, which is more closely related to modern chimeras (Chimaeroidei) than any other known extinct groups of Chimaeriformes. The earliest known remains attributable to modern chimaeras are known from the Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian) of Europe, but egg cases from the Late Triassic of Yakutia, Russia and New Zealand that resemble those of rhinochimaerids and callorhinchids respectively indicates that they had a global distribution prior to the end of the Triassic. Unlike modern chimaeras, Mesozoic representatives are often found in shallow water settings.

Extinct chimaeriforms include:

 * †Genus Echinochimaera Lund, 1977 United States, Lower Carboniferous (Serpukhovian)
 * †Genus Protochimaera Lebedev & Popov in Lebedev et al., 2021 Moscow Region, Russia, Lower Carboniferous (Viséan–Serpukhovian)
 * †Genus Squaloraja Europe, Early Jurassic (Hettangian–Sinemurian)
 * †Suborder Myriacanthoidei Patterson 1965 (Late Triassic–Late Jurassic)
 * †Family Chimaeropsidae
 * †Chimaeropsis Zittel 1887 Belgium, Early Jurassic (Sinemurian)
 * †Family Myriacanthidae Woodward 1889
 * †Acanthorhina Fraas 1910 Posidonia Shale Formation, Germany, Early Jurassic (Toarcian)
 * †Agkistracanthus Duffin and Furrer 1981 Austria, England and Switzerland, Late Triassic–Early Jurassic (Rhaetian–Sinemurian)
 * †Alethodontus Duffin 1983 Germany, Early Jurassic (Sinemurian)
 * †Halonodon Duffin 1984 Belgium and Luxembourg, Early Jurassic (Sinemurian)
 * †Metopacanthus Zittel 1887 Posidonia Shale Formation, Germany, Early Jurassic (Toarcian)
 * †Oblidens Duffin and Milàn 2017 Hasle Formation, Denmark, Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian)
 * †Myriacanthus Agassiz 1837 United Kingdom, Late Triassic-Early Jurassic (Rhaetian–Sinemurian)
 * †Recurvacanthus Duffin 1981 United Kingdom, Early Jurassic (Sinemurian)
 * Suborder Chimaeroidei Patterson 1965
 * †Eomanodon Ward and Duffin 1989 United Kingdom, Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian)
 * Family Callorhinchidae Garman, 1901
 * †Brachymylus A. S. Woodward 1894 Germany, Early Jurassic (Pliensbachian)
 * †Bathytheristes Duffin 1995 Posidonia Shale Formation, Germany, Early Jurassic (Toarcian)
 * †Ottangodus Popov, Delsate & Felten, 2019 France, Middle Jurassic (Bajocian)
 * †Moskovirhynchus Russia, Upper Jurassic
 * †Pachymylus United Kingdom, France, Middle Jurassic
 * Family †"Edaphodontidae"
 * †Ischyodus (40 species) Worldwide, Middle Jurassic–Miocene (also placed in Callorhinchidae)
 * †Elasmodectes Europe, Jurassic–Cretaceous
 * †Elasmodus Worldwide, Cretaceous–Paleogene
 * †Edaphodon Worldwide, Cretaceous–Neogene
 * †Ptyktoptychion Australia, Early Cretaceous
 * †Lebediodon Europe, Cretaceous
 * Family Chimaeridae Bonaparte, 1831
 * †Canadodus Popov, Johns & Suntok, 2020 Sooke Formation, Canada, Oligocene
 * Family Rhinochimaeridae Garman, 1901
 * †Amylodon Europe, Late Cretaceous–Oligocene

title: Chimaera


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Larks' Tongues in Aspic

Larks' Tongues in Aspic is the fifth studio album by the English progressive rock group King Crimson, released on 23 March 1973 through Island Records in the UK and Atlantic Records in the United States and Canada. This album is the debut of King Crimson's third incarnation, featuring co-founder and guitarist Robert Fripp along with four new members: bass guitarist and vocalist John Wetton, violinist and keyboardist David Cross, percussionist Jamie Muir, and drummer Bill Bruford. It is a key album in the band's evolution, drawing on Eastern European classical music and European free improvisation as central influences.

Background
At the end of the tour to promote King Crimson's previous album, Islands, Fripp had parted company with the three other members of the band (Mel Collins, Boz Burrell and Ian Wallace). Collins has stated that he was asked to stay on with the new lineup of the band, but that he decided not to continue. The previous year had also seen the ousting of the band's lyricist and artistic co-director Peter Sinfield. Fripp had cited a developing musical (and sometimes personal) incompatibility with the other members, and was now writing starker music drawing on influences such as Béla Bartók, Igor Stravinsky, Jimi Hendrix and free improvisation.

In order to pursue these ideas, Fripp first recruited bass guitarist/singer John Wetton (a longstanding friend of the band who had lobbied to join at least once before but had become a member of Family in the meantime). The second recruit was Jamie Muir, an experimental free-improvising percussionist who had previously been performing in the Music Improvisation Company with Derek Bailey and Evan Parker, as well as in Sunship (with Alan Gowen and Allan Holdsworth) and Boris (with Don Weller and Jimmy Roche, both later of jazz-rock band Major Surgery). Muir occasionally played a conventional drum kit, but more often used a range of small percussion instruments outlined below.

On drums Fripp recruited Bill Bruford, an original member of Yes. Another longstanding King Crimson admirer, Bruford felt that he had done all he could with Yes at that point, and was keen to leave the band before they embarked on their Close to the Edge tour, believing that the experimentation-oriented King Crimson would be a more expansive outlet for his musical ideas. The final member of the new band was David Cross, a violinist, keyboardist and occasional flute player.

Production
Larks' Tongues in Aspic showed several significant changes in King Crimson's sound. Having previously relied on saxophone and flute as significant melodic and textural instruments, the band had replaced them with a single violin. Muir's percussion rig featured eccentric instrumentation including chimes, bells, thumb pianos, a musical saw, shakers, rattles, found objects (such as sheet metal, toys and baking trays), plus miscellaneous drums and chains. The Mellotron (a staple part of King Crimson's instrumentation since their debut album) was retained for this new phase and was played by Fripp and Cross, both of whom also played electric piano. The instrumental pieces on this album have strong jazz fusion and European free-improvisation influences, and some aggressively hard-hitting portions verging on heavy metal.

The band's multi-instrumentalism initially extended to Wetton and Muir playing (respectively) violin and trombone on occasion at early gigs. Wetton and Cross contributed additional piano and flute respectively to the album sessions. Larks' Tongues in Aspic is the only studio album with this particular lineup, since Muir left the group in February 1973, shortly after the album was completed and before they could embark for touring.

"Easy Money" was composed piecemeal, with Fripp writing the verse and Wetton later adding the chorus part.

The name of the album came from Muir, who thought that the title aptly described the music. "It may or may not be an actual dish available at your neighborhood delicatessen," Fripp stated. "But what it means to me is something precious which is stuck, but visible. Something precious, which is encased in form."

The album spawned the concert staple "Exiles", whose Mellotron introduction had been adapted from an instrumental piece called "Mantra" which the band's original line up had performed throughout 1969. At that time, as well as in late 1972, the melody was played by Fripp on guitar. In addition, a section of "Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part One" was reworked from a piece entitled "A Peacemaking Stint Unrolls", which was recorded by the Islands-era band and finally released in 2010 as a bonus track on that album's 40th anniversary edition.

Release and reissues
The album peaked at number 20 on the UK charts and at number 61 in the U.S. In 2012 Larks' Tongues in Aspic was issued as part of the King Crimson 40th Anniversary Series, including the release of an expansive box set subtitled "The Complete Recordings". This CD, DVD-A and Blu-ray set includes every available recording of the short-lived 5-man line-up, through live performances and studio sessions.

Reception and legacy
In his contemporary review, Alan Niester of Rolling Stone summarized the album saying "You can't dance to it, can't keep a beat to it, and it doesn't even make good background music for washing the dishes" and recommended listeners to "approach it with a completely open mind." He described the songs on the album as "a total study in contrasts, especially in moods and tempos – blazing and electric one moment, soft and intricate the next." While not fully appreciative of the music on the record, he complimented the violin playing as "tasteful [...] in the best classical tradition."

Bill Martin wrote in 1998, "[f]or sheer formal inventiveness, the most important progressive rock record of 1973 was... Larks' Tongues in Aspic", adding that listening to this album and Yes's Close to the Edge will demonstrate "what progressive rock is all about".

AllMusic's retrospective review was resoundingly positive, marking every aspect of the band's transition from a jazz-influenced vein to a more experimental one as a complete success. It deemed John Wetton "the group's strongest singer/bassist since Greg Lake's departure," and gave special praise to the remastered edition.

Robert Christgau's retrospective review gave a more ambivalent view, saying of the band's instrumental work, "not only doesn't it cook, which figures, it doesn't quite jell either."

In the Q & Mojo Classic Special Edition Pink Floyd & The Story of Prog Rock, the album came number 22 in its list of "40 Cosmic Rock Albums".

Larks' Tongues in Aspic comes in at #20 in Rolling Stone's "50 Greatest Prog Rock Albums of All Time" list.

The album is featured in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.

The progressive metal bands Dream Theater and Murmur both covered "Larks' Tongues in Aspic Pt. II". Dream Theater's version is featured on the special edition of their album Black Clouds & Silver Linings.

Personnel

 * King Crimson
 * Robert Fripp – electric and acoustic guitars, Mellotron, Hohner pianet, devices
 * John Wetton – bass, vocals, piano on "Exiles"
 * Bill Bruford – drums, timbales, cowbell, wood block
 * David Cross – violin, viola, Mellotron, Hohner pianet, flute on "Exiles"
 * Jamie Muir – percussion, drums, "allsorts" (assorted found items and sundry instruments), autoharp on “Larks' Tongues in Aspic, Part One”

 * Additional personnel
 * Richard Palmer-James – lyrics
 * Nick Ryan – engineering
 * Tantra Designs – cover design

title: Larks' Tongues in Aspic


text: User talk:64.185.10.156

title: User talk:64.185.10.156


text:
Talk:ZIP (file format)

Are unreferenced/zombie files allowed?
The article says:

 * Because ZIP files may be appended to, only files specified in the central directory at the end of the file are valid. Scanning a ZIP file for local file headers is invalid (except in the case of corrupted archives), as the central directory may declare that some files have been deleted and other files have been updated.

However, the specification (6.3.9) says:

 * 4.3.2 Each file placed into a ZIP file MUST be preceded by a "local file header" record for that file. Each "local file header" MUST be accompanied by a corresponding "central directory header" record within the central directory section of the ZIP file.

Also, "4.3.6 Overall .ZIP file format" and "4.3.8 File Data" do not mention that arbitrary meaningless bytes may be stored between files.

I checked that 7-zip does not support unreferenced files. If I take a zip file and rewrite central directory record, removing some files from it, 7-zip still shows these files as available. If I additionally replace the signatures of their local file headers with some garbage, then 7-zip cannot open the resulting file. Discussion on 7-zip forum.

I think this claim should either be removed or a citation should be added. -- Preceding unsigned comment added by Stgatilov (talk o  contribs) 04:36, 11 May 2021 (UTC)

 * If you scan from the beginning for local file headers, then there's also the problem of an ZIP file contained uncompressed within another ZIP file (which is legal). AnonMoos (talk) 11:15, 11 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Unfortunately unreferenced files can occur depending on how the zip application changes and updates files. Writing a file signature at the location of the central directory and writing the central directory back out after it. The only thing that needs to be updated is the one entry in the central directory to locate to the new file signature. At the end of the central directory we write the end of directory signature which must have the updated position the central directory starts at.
 * If we read the zip the proper way bottom up we find the end of directory signature, then we know where the start of the central directory is. Which each central directory entire has the file path and the file signature location. Each file signature also has the file path as well. If we read from the start of the zip down we would see two file signatures with the same file name and path. The central directory only locates to one file signature added at the start of the central directory before writing the central directory back out and adjusting two values, for the entire to file signature, and the start position to the central directory. Damian Recoskie (talk) 21:37, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

How unreferenced files happen.
First of all it should be simplified so everyone can understand it rather than using words like appending files to the end of the zip.

The fast way of reading a zip is bottom up. Once the end of directory signature is found it tells you where to read the file to start reading the central directory. The central directory signatures is a listing of files paths in the zip followed by the location the file signature for the file can be found.

As a bit of a note each file signature contains the file path of the file as well. We can write a new file signature for this file at the location where the central directory starts. We then can write the central directory after this file signature and update the file signature location of just the one.

This also means you end up with two file signatures in the zip for the same file in which the one we added contains the changes. So the reality is we can add files at the start of the central directory and write it back out with the file we changed with the updated positions to the added file signature. This also means we end up with a file signature that is not referenced from the central directory. 24.150.140.42 (talk) 21:04, 1 March 2023 (UTC)

ANSI
The term "ANSI" as used in the article is technically incorrect, and will convey very little meaning to those who don't already know the term. At a minimum Windows-1252 should be linked (see the explanations on that page). AnonMoos (talk) 08:52, 12 June 2024 (UTC)

Windows version
I saw article for "Windows up to 11" I don't know if the version older support zip file. 47.234.198.142 (talk) 00:08, 16 June 2024 (UTC)

 * ZIP files themselves are not very operating-system specific. It's whether the software to compress and uncompress them is supported on an operating system.  The first PKZip version which supported "flate" compression was released before Windows 3.1, when most X86 computers were still running MS-DOS.  Info-ZIP was ported to a wide range of operating system. AnonMoos (talk) 18:33, 18 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:ZIP (file format)


text:
Talk:Cultur

This page is to help links for words like cultural that don't contain the entire word culture -- similar to other malformed links like categories.

 * So why wouldn't someone link to "cultural"? If someone knows enough about Wikipedia to know that you can do cultural, then why wouldn't they just do cultural?  (And categories is not a redirect to Walt Pohl 20:50, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Ooh, thanks for the excellent example of why I like this sort of link! See, a lot of pages like Categories are indeed used to link to Category, because you can't do Categorys like for most words. Thus we get (potentially) redirects like Categories, Categorical, Categorified, and so on. So my idea is to just create a redirect from Categori -- the root that linguistically replaces Category -- then links the above as Categories, Categorical, Categorified, and so on. Thus, I create one redirect once, rather than having to create a whole bunch one at a time. (But of course, I have no objection whatsoever if somebody prefers to create a bunch of redirects instead!) With the example of Categories, we see yet another good result -- Categori can redirect to Category even if Categories is about something else. -- Toby Bartels 19:44, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cultur


text:
Cnidoscolus stimulosus

Cnidoscolus stimulosus, the bull nettle, spurge nettle, stinging nettle, tread-softly or finger rot, is a perennial herb covered with stinging hairs, native to southeastern North America. A member of the family Euphorbiaceae (spurge family), it is not a true nettle. It prefers sandy, well-drained soil and mostly exists in pine/blackjack oak forests on sandhills, rims of Carolina bays, dunes, dry pastures, fields and roadsides.

Description
The green leaves of this plant are alternate, consisting of three to five untoothed lobes. The large, white flowers have five petals. Male and female flowers are on different plants. Flowers occur throughout the spring and summer followed by a small capsule that produces three large seeds. The entire plant above ground, including the flower petals, is covered with stinging hairs. The tap root can be used as an excellent potato substitute, tasting like pasta.

As the common names imply, the urticating hairs on this plant contain a caustic irritant that inflicts a painful sting to those who contact it with bare skin. It can cause a painful, irritating rash and can cause more serious reactions with some people.

Etymology and names
The species name stimulosus comes from the Latin stimulus, meaning "goad" or "prod". This plant is also known as bull nettle and mala mujer (Spanish for "bad woman" or witch), though the latter name is applied to several other plants with similar properties.

title: Cnidoscolus stimulosus


text:
Peacekeeper

Peacekeeper may refer to:

General

 * A person involved in peacekeeping
 * United Nations peacekeeping
 * Peace officer
 * Conservator of the peace

Military

 * The LGM-118 Peacekeeper, a land-based nuclear ICBM
 * Peacekeeper Rail Garrison, a mobile missile system for the LGM-118 Peacekeeper
 * Cadillac Gage Ranger, armored fighting vehicles
 * Cadillac Gage Peacekeeper II, one of the two models of the vehicle

Fiction

 * The Peacekeepers, a 1988 Star Trek: The Next Generation novel by Gene DeWeese
 * The Peacekeeper, a 1997 Canadian and American action film
 * Peacekeepers (Farscape), a fictional military and law enforcement organization in Farscape
 * Peacekeepers (The Hunger Games), the combined military and police force in Panem in The Hunger Games
 * "Peacekeeper" (NCIS), a 2021 television episode
 * Peacekeepers, a 1988 science fiction novel by Ben Bova

Video games

 * The Peace Keepers, a 1993 video game for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System
 * Peacekeeper Revolver, a video game gun for the Phillips Cd-i video game console

Other uses

 * Peacekeeper (benchmark), a web browser benchmark from Futuremark Corporation
 * Peacekeeper (EP), by Barkmarket, 1995
 * "Peacekeeper" (song), by Fleetwood Mac, 2003
 * Peacekeeper Park, an urban park in Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Peacekeepers Way, a highway in Nova Scotia, Canada
 * Newfoundland and Labrador Route 2, also known as Peacekeepers Way, a highway in Newfoundland, Canada

title: Peacekeeper


text:
Wikipedia talk:NPOV classroom

Okay, Martin's out and Lir took the vacancy. Now, how can we attract students? --Uncle Ed 19:44, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Aggressive marketing. CheeseDreams 21:14, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:NPOV classroom


text:
Talk:ModulE

This is a very old page from the CamelCase days that may have external links to it.

 * Why would this be Camel Case instead of just a typo? I'm not familiar with a mathematical concept, or any concept, called "Modul E". -- User:Waltpohl

 * You can tell by looking at the edit history of Module. It dates from before MediaWiki had free links, so it was impossible to create a page titled simply Module.

More to the point, as far as I'm concerned - are we really responsible for such external links (for all time)? Charles Matthews 21:39, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, of course! They are harmless, and any possibility of an external link to an old title requires us to maintain that link. This is just good Internet practice. In this case, the chance of an external link is low -- but wasting our time deleting these things is terrible policy, a policy that Wikipedia has rejected since its founding. -- Toby Bartels 19:34, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:ModulE


text:
Elizabeth Monroe

Elizabeth Monroe (née Kortright; June 30, 1768 – September 23, 1830) was the first lady of the United States from 1817 to 1825, as the wife of James Monroe, fifth president of the United States. Due to the fragile condition of Monroe's health, many of her duties as the official White House hostess were assumed by her eldest daughter, Eliza Monroe Hay.

Birth, parents, and childhood (1768–1778(86))
Monroe was born in New York City on June 30, 1768, the youngest daughter of Lawrence Kortright, a wealthy merchant, and Hannah (née Aspinwall) Kortright. Elizabeth Monroe's paternal 2nd great grandfather, Cornelius Jansen Kortright, was born in Holland, Netherlands in the year of 1645, and immigrated to New York in the year of 1663. His father, Jan Bastiaenson Van Kortrijk, was also born in Holland, Netherlands in the year of 1618 and immigrated with his son to New York. Jan Bastiaenson's father, Bastiaen Van Kortrijk, was born in the city of Kortrijk in Flanders, Spanish Netherlands in the year of 1586, and immigrated to Holland, Netherlands in the year of 1615. Monroe's father was one of the founders of the New York Chamber of Commerce. During the American Revolutionary War, he was part owner of several privateers fitted out at New York, and it has also been documented that he owned at least four slaves. He purchased land tracts in what is now Delaware County, New York, and from the sale of this land the town of Kortright, New York, was formed.

Monroe grew up in a household with four older siblings: Sarah, Hester, John and Mary. According to the parish records of Trinity Church, New York, Monroe's mother, Hannah, died on September 6 or 7, 1777, at the age of 39. The cause of death was recorded as resulting from Child Bed. An unidentified sibling of Monroe's, aged 13 months, succumbed to flux and fever a few days later. Hannah and the infant were both buried at St. George's Chapel in New York. At the time of their deaths, Monroe was nine years old. Her father never remarried.

On August 3, 1778, almost a year after the death of Monroe's mother, the home of the Lawrence Kortright family was nearly destroyed by fire during a blaze which caused damage and destruction to fifty homes near Cruger's Wharf in lower Manhattan. A historian later wrote that this blaze was due to the mismanagement of British troops while directing the firefighters. Monroe, age 10, with her father and siblings, survived the fire unscathed.

Courtship and marriage (1785–1786)
Kortright first caught the attention of James Monroe in 1785 while he was in New York City serving as a member of the Continental Congress. William Grayson, James Monroe's cousin and fellow Congressman from Virginia, described Elizabeth and her sisters as having "made so brilliant and lovely an appearance" at a theater one evening, "as to depopulate all the other boxes of all the genteel male people therein."

James Monroe, then 27 years old, married Elizabeth, then 17 years old, on February 16, 1786, at her father's home in New York City. The marriage was performed by Reverend Benjamin Moore, and recorded in the parish records of Trinity Church, New York. After a brief honeymoon on Long Island, the newlyweds returned to New York City to live with her father until Congress adjourned. Their first child, whom they named Eliza Kortright Monroe, was born in December, 1786, in Virginia.

Ambassador's wife (1794–1796)
In 1794, George Washington appointed James as United States Minister to France. In Paris, as wife of the American Minister during the Reign of Terror, she helped secure the release of Madame La Fayette, wife of the Marquis de Lafayette, when she learned she was imprisoned and scheduled to be executed by guillotine. The Monroes also provided support and shelter to the American citizen Thomas Paine in Paris, after he was arrested for his opposition to the execution of Louis XVI. While in France, the Monroes' daughter Eliza became a friend of Hortense de Beauharnais, step-daughter of Napoleon, and both girls received their education in the school of Madame Jeanne Campan. James was recalled from his Ambassadorship in 1796, due in part to his support of France in the opposition of the Jay Treaty.

Governor's wife (1799–1802)
The Monroes returned to Virginia, where James became governor, and Elizabeth became First Lady of Virginia. The couple's son, James Spence, was born in 1799 but died in 1800. During this time, Elizabeth suffered the first of a series of seizures and collapses that were possibly a product of epilepsy, which plagued her for the rest of her life and gradually caused her to restrict her social activities. The Monroe's third child, a daughter they named Maria Hester, was born in Virginia in early 1802.

Great Britain (1803–1804)
In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson appointed James as United States Minister to Great Britain and Spain. Elizabeth found the social climate in London less favorable than it had been in Paris, possibly because British society resented the United States' refusal to aid it in its conflict with France. In 1804, James was sent as a special envoy to France to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. That same year, the Monroes were invited by Napoleon Bonaparte to attend his coronation in Paris, as part of the official American delegation.

Return to Virginia and Washington (1807–1817)
The Monroes returned to Virginia in 1807. James Monroe won election and returned to the Virginia House of Delegates, and also resumed his legal career. In 1811, Monroe won election to another term as governor of Virginia, but served only four months. In April 1811, his friend President James Madison appointed Monroe Secretary of State, and he was confirmed to the position by the United States Senate. Monroe had little to do with the War of 1812, since President Madison and the war hawks in Congress were dominant. During the War, Elizabeth stayed primarily at the Monroe family estates at Oak Hill in Loudoun County, Virginia, and later at Ashlawn-Highland in Albemarle County, Virginia.

The war went very badly, so Madison turned to Monroe for help, appointing him United States Secretary of War in September 1814 after the Burning of Washington by the British, who the national capital and burned the White House. Monroe resigned as Secretary of State on October 1 but no successor was ever appointed, so he handled both offices from October 1, 1814 to February 28, 1815. As Secretary of War, Monroe formulated plans to invade Canada a second time to win the War of 1812, but a peace treaty was ratified in February 1815, before any U.S. military forced moved north. Monroe then resigned as Secretary of War and was formally re-appointed Secretary of State, where he served until March 4, 1817, when he succeeded James Madison to become the nation's fifth President of the United States.

First Lady of the United States (1817–1825)
Elizabeth began her tenure as First Lady on March 4, 1817, when her husband commenced his first term as the fifth president of the United States. However, the White House was still under reconstruction, so Elizabeth hosted the inaugural ball at their private residence on I Street, and part of the time the First Family lived in the Octagon House. Since all the White House furnishings had been destroyed, the Monroes brought some from their private residences. Her husband was re-elected to a second term in office in 1820, and Elizabeth attended the inaugural ball held in Brown's Hotel. She remained in her role of First Lady until March 4, 1825.

Although Elizabeth Monroe regained a measure of respect and admiration during her husband's second term, she compared poorly to her predecessor, Dolley Madison, who had captivated Washington society, setting a standard by which future First Ladies were measured. Furthermore, Elizabeth and her eldest daughter may have sought to make access to the White House more socially exclusive, reflecting French practices, which were barely tolerated given American democratic values, although President Monroe's term was also known for good feelings and relations. Still, Elizabeth had made such an impression upon General Andrew Jackson that her husband always mentioned her to him in their correspondence. Elizabeth also drew favorable reviews as the couple briefly hosted General Lafayette during his return tour through America. During Elizabeth's illnesses, some of the social duties were carried out by her daughters, as discussed below. Furthermore, James or Elizabeth destroyed her correspondence, both between themselves and with others, before her death.

Since 1982 Siena College Research Institute has periodically conducted surveys asking historians to assess American first ladies according to a cumulative score on the independent criteria of their background, value to the country, intelligence, courage, accomplishments, integrity, leadership, being their own women, public image, and value to the president. Consistently, Monroe has been ranked in the lower-half of first ladies by historians in these surveys. In terms of cumulative assessment, Monroe has been ranked:
 * 24th-best of 42 in 1982
 * 23rd-best of 37 in 1993
 * 31st-best of 38 in 2003
 * 29th-best of 38 in 2008
 * 30th-best of 38 in 2014

In the 2014 survey, Monroe and her husband were also ranked the 15th-highest out of 39 first couples in terms of being a "power couple".

Children (1786–1802)
James and Elizabeth had three children:
 * Elizabeth ("Eliza") Kortright Monroe Hay (1786–January 27, 1840): Born in Virginia in December, 1786, Eliza was educated at the school of Madame Jeanne Campan in Paris, when her father served as United States Ambassador to France. Eliza appeared to many a haughty, pompous socialite, quick to remind others of her good breeding and lofty station. In late September or early October 1808 she married George Hay, a prominent Virginia attorney who had served as prosecutor in the trial of Aaron Burr and later U.S. District Judge. Their daughter, Hortense, was named in honor of her childhood friend and classmate, Hortense de Beauharnais, step-daughter of Napoleon. During her father's presidency, Eliza alienated most of Washington society for her refusal to call on wives of the diplomatic corps, as was the custom, and caused another social furor in closing her sister's wedding to all but family and friends. For all her apparent vanity, however, she demonstrated genuine compassion during the fever epidemic that swept Washington during her father's Presidency. She spent many sleepless nights selflessly caring for victims. Following the deaths of her husband and father, Eliza moved to Paris, France, where she died on January 27, 1840.
 * James Spence Monroe (1799–1800): The only son of the Monroes, James Spence was 16 months old when he died after "several days sickness".
 * Maria Hester Monroe Gouverneur (1802–June 20, 1850) In an April 12, 1802 letter to James Madison, James Monroe states that his wife recently added a daughter to their family.  Parish records indicate that Maria was born on April 8. The following year, while still an infant, Maria accompanied her parents to London, when James Monroe became Ambassador from the United States to the Court of St. James.  Upon the family's return to the United States, Maria finished school in Philadelphia.  On March 9, 1820, she married her first cousin, Samuel L. Gouverneur, in the first wedding of a president's child at the White House. Many in Washington criticized the Monroes for keeping the wedding private; just 42 members of the family and close friends were invited. Friction between Maria's husband and her outspoken sister strained family relations thereafter. The Gouverneurs moved to New York City. Former President Monroe, upon losing his wife in 1830, moved in with them.  President John Quincy Adams appointed her husband postmaster of New York City.  Maria died on June 20, 1850, at the age of 48, at Oak Hill, in Loudon County, Virginia.

Death and legacy (1825–1830)
After Monroe's terms as president expired, he and Elizabeth faced considerable debts from their years of public service, both from non-reimbursed entertaining expenses and because Monroe was forced to manage their various properties remotely. Monroe sold his plantation, Highland in Albemarle County to pay debts, and both retired to Oak Hill in Loudoun County, nearer Washington, D.C., and their daughter Eliza and her husband (although the Hays moved to Richmond in 1825 when he became the U.S. District Judge for Virginia). Although retiring, Elizabeth managed to travel to New York to visit her younger daughter, as well as other friends and relations, but made no further social visits. Sickly and suffering several long illnesses (including severe burns from a collapse near a fireplace a year after leaving the White House), Elizabeth died at Oak Hill on September 23, 1830, aged 62, her husband following her less than a year later, aged 73.

She was interred at the estate, but her husband later died in New York under their daughter's care and was originally buried in that northern state. His remains were moved 25 years after his death to become a key attraction during the development of Hollywood Cemetery in Richmond, Virginia. Elizabeth's remains were reinterred there in 1903, where both spouses remain buried.

The First Spouse Program under the Presidential $1 Coin Act authorizes the United States Mint to issue 1/2 ounce $10 gold coins and bronze medal duplicates to honor the first spouses of the United States. Elizabeth Monroe's coin was released in February 2008.

A gown in the collection of the James Monroe Museum indicates Elizabeth was a petite woman, not taller than 5 feet.

Through her mother, she is a first cousin twice-removed to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. (Franklin D. Roosevelt's paternal grandmother, Rebecca Aspinwall Roosevelt, was a first cousin to Elizabeth Monroe.)

title: Elizabeth Monroe


text:
Split-brain

Split-brain or callosal syndrome is a type of disconnection syndrome when the corpus callosum connecting the two hemispheres of the brain is severed to some degree. It is an association of symptoms produced by disruption of, or interference with, the connection between the hemispheres of the brain. The surgical operation to produce this condition (corpus callosotomy) involves transection of the corpus callosum, and is usually a last resort to treat refractory epilepsy. Initially, partial callosotomies are performed; if this operation does not succeed, a complete callosotomy is performed to mitigate the risk of accidental physical injury by reducing the severity and violence of epileptic seizures. Before using callosotomies, epilepsy is instead treated through pharmaceutical means. After surgery, neuropsychological assessments are often performed.

After the right and left brain are separated, each hemisphere will have its own separate perception, concepts, and impulses to act. Having two "brains" in one body can create some interesting dilemmas. There was a case in which, when one split-brain patient would dress himself, sometimes he pulled his pants up with one hand (the side of his brain that wanted to get dressed) and down with the other (the side that did not). He was also reported to have grabbed his wife with his left hand and shook her violently, at which point his right hand came to her aid and grabbed the aggressive left hand (a phenomenon sometimes occurring, known as alien hand syndrome). However, such conflicts are very rare. If a conflict arises, one hemisphere usually overrides the other.

When split-brain patients are shown an image only in the left half of each eye's visual field, they cannot verbally name what they have seen. This is because the brain's experiences of the senses is contralateral. Communication between the two hemispheres is inhibited, so the patient cannot say out loud the name of that which the right side of the brain is seeing. A similar effect occurs if a split-brain patient touches an object with only the left hand while receiving no visual cues in the right visual field; the patient will be unable to name the object, as each cerebral hemisphere of the primary somatosensory cortex only contains a tactile representation of the opposite side of the body. If the speech-control center is on the right side of the brain, the same effect can be achieved by presenting the image or object to only the right visual field or hand.

The same effect occurs for visual pairs and reasoning. For example, a patient with split brain is shown a picture of a chicken foot and a snowy field in separate visual fields and asked to choose from a list of words the best association with the pictures. The patient would choose a chicken to associate with the chicken foot and a shovel to associate with the snow; however, when asked to reason why the patient chose the shovel, the response would relate to the chicken (e.g. "the shovel is for cleaning out the chicken coop").

History
Early anatomists, such as Galen (129 – c. 216 CE) and Vesalius (1514–1564 CE), identified the corpus callosum. They generally described its function as a structure holding together the two halves of the brain. In 1784, Félix Vicq-d'Azyr described the corpus callosum as allowing communication between the two halves of the brain. He proposed that eliminating the corpus callosum would divide the brain into two independent parts. In 1892, Joseph Jules Dejerine reported symptoms in a person who had destruction of part of the corpus callosum (along with damage to the visual cortex: inability to read while retaining the ability to write, now referred to as pure alexia or as Dejerine syndrome. In 1908, Hugo Liepmann observed left-sided apraxia (a motor disorder of motor planning to perform tasks or movements) and agraphia (loss of the ability to communicate through writing) following a lesion in the corpus callosum.

According to Vaddiparti et al. (2021), the first surgical cuts to the corpus callosum, partial corpus callosotomy, were made by neurosurgeon Walter Dandy in order to access and to remove tumors in the pineal gland. In 1936, Dandy described three cases in which he cut the corpus callosum from its posterior (towards the back of the head) across about two thirds of its width. He described these cuts as "bloodless" and that "no symptoms follow[ed] [the] ... division" of the corpus callosum. He concluded that his operations "dispose ... of the extravagant claims to function of the corpus callosum".

Prior to the 1960s, research on people with certain brain injuries led to the notion that there is a "language center" only in the left hemisphere of the brain. For example, people with lesions in two specific areas of the left hemisphere lost their ability to talk, to read, and to understand speech. Roger Sperry and his colleagues pioneered research showing that creating another lesion (done to relieve otherwise untreatable epilepsy), in the connections between the left and right hemispheres, revealed that the right hemisphere can allow people to read, to understand speech, and to say some simple words. Research over the next twenty years showed that the disconnected right hemisphere is superior to the disconnected left hemisphere in allowing people to understand spatial information (such as maps), music, and emotions, whereas the disconnected left hemisphere is superior in allowing analytical thinking, talking, reading, and understanding speech. This research led to a Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for Sperry in 1981.

Sperry's initial colleagues included his Caltech PhD students, Michael Gazzaniga and Jerre Levy. Even though Sperry is considered the founder of split-brain research, Gazzaniga's clear summaries of their collaborative work are consistently cited in psychology texts. In Sperry and Gazzaniga's "The Split Brain in Man" experiment published in Scientific American in 1967 they attempted to explore the extent to which two halves of the human brain were able to function independently and whether or not they had separate and unique abilities. They wanted to examine how perceptual and intellectual skills were affected in someone with a split brain. At Caltech, Gazzaniga worked with Sperry on the effects of split-brain surgery on perception, vision and other brain functions. The surgery, which was a treatment for severe epilepsy, involved severing the corpus callosum, which carries signals between the left-brain hemisphere, the seat of speech and analytical capacity, and the right-brain hemisphere, which helps recognize visual patterns. At the time this article was written, only ten patients had undergone the surgery to sever their corpus callosum (corpus callosotomy). Four of these patients had consented to participate in Sperry and Gazzaniga's research. After the corpus callosum severing, all four participants' personality, intelligence, and emotions appeared to be unaffected. However, the testing done by Sperry and Gazzaniga showed the subjects demonstrated unusual mental abilities. The researchers created different types of tests to analyze the range of cognitive capabilities of the split-brain subjects. These included tests of their visual stimulation abilities, a tactile stimulation situation, and a test that involved both visual and tactile information.

Visual test
The first test started with a board that had a horizontal row of lights. The subject was told to sit in front of the board and stare at a point in the middle of the lights, then the bulbs would flash across both the right and left visual fields. When the patients were asked to describe afterward what they saw, they said that only the lights on the right side of the board had lit up. Next, when Sperry and Gazzaniga flashed the lights on the right side of the board on the subjects left side of their visual field, they claimed not to have seen any lights at all. When the experimenters conducted the test again, they asked the subjects to point to the lights that lit up. Although subjects had only reported seeing the lights flash on the right, they actually pointed to all the lights in both visual fields. This showed that both brain hemispheres had seen the lights and were equally competent in visual perception. The subjects did not say they saw the lights when they flashed in the left visual field even though they did see them because the center for speech is located in the brain's left hemisphere. This test supports the idea that in order to say one has seen something, the region of the brain associated with speech must be able to communicate with areas of the brain that process the visual information.

Tactile test
In a second experiment, Sperry and Gazzaniga placed a small object in the subject's right or left hand, without the subject being able to see (or hear) it. When the object was placed in the right hand, the isolated left hemisphere perceived the object and could easily describe and name it. However, when the object was placed in the left hand, the isolated right hemisphere could not name or describe the object. Questioning this result, the researchers found that the subjects could later match it from several similar objects; tactile sensations limited to the right hemisphere were accurately perceived but could not be verbalized. This further demonstrated the apparent location (or lateralization) of language functions in the left hemisphere.

Combination of both tests
In the last test the experimenters combined both the tactile and visual test. They presented subjects with a picture of an object to only their right hemisphere, and subjects were unable to name it or describe it. There were no verbal responses to the picture at all. If the subject however was able to reach under the screen with their left hand to touch various objects, they were able to pick the one that had been shown in the picture. The subjects were also reported to be able to pick out objects that were related to the picture presented, if that object was not under the screen.

Sperry and Gazzaniga went on to conduct other tests to shed light on the language processing abilities of the right hemisphere as well as auditory and emotional reactions as well. The significance of the findings of these tests by Sperry and Gazzaniga was extremely telling and important to the psychology world. Their findings showed that the two halves of the brain have numerous functions and specialized skills. They concluded that each hemisphere really has its own functions. One's left hemisphere of the brain is thought to be better at writing, speaking, mathematical calculation, reading, and is the primary area for language. The right hemisphere is seen to possess capabilities for problem solving, recognizing faces, symbolic reasoning, art, and spatial relationships.

Roger Sperry continued this line of research up until his death in 1994. Michael Gazzaniga continues to research the split brain. Their findings have been rarely critiqued and disputed; however, a popular belief that some people are more "right-brained" or "left-brained" has developed. In the mid-1980s Jarre Levy, a psychobiologist at the University of Chicago, was at the forefront of scientists who wanted to dispel the notion we have two functioning brains. She believes that because each hemisphere has separate functions that they must integrate their abilities instead of separating them. Levy also claims that no human activity uses only one side of the brain. In 1998 a French study by Hommet and Billiard was published that questioned Sperry and Gazzaniga's study that severing the corpus callosum actually divides the hemispheres of the brain. They found that children born without a corpus callosum demonstrated that information was being transmitted between hemispheres, and concluded that subcortical connections must be present in these children with this rare brain malformation. They are unclear about whether these connections are present in split-brain patients though. Another study by Parsons, Gabrieli, Phelps, and Gazzaniga in 1998 demonstrated that split-brain patients may commonly perceive the world differently from the rest of us. Their study suggested that communication between brain hemispheres is necessary for imaging or simulating in one's mind the movements of others. Morin's research on inner speech in 2001 suggested that an alternative for interpretation of commissurotomy according to which split-brain patients exhibit two uneven streams of self-awareness: a "complete" one in the left hemisphere and a "primitive" one in the right hemisphere.

Hemispheric specialization
The two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex are linked by the corpus callosum, through which they communicate and coordinate actions and decisions. Communication and coordination between the two hemispheres is essential because each hemisphere has some separate functions. The right hemisphere of the cortex excels at nonverbal and spatial tasks, whereas the left hemisphere is more dominant in verbal tasks, such as speaking and writing. The right hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the left side of the body. In a cognitive sense the right hemisphere is responsible for recognizing objects and timing, and in an emotional sense it is responsible for empathy, humor and depression. On the other hand, the left hemisphere controls the primary sensory functions of the right side of the body and is responsible for scientific and math skills, and logic. The extent of specialized brain function by an area remains under investigation. It is claimed that the difference between the two hemispheres is that the left hemisphere is "analytic" or "logical" while the right hemisphere is "holistic" or "intuitive". Many simple tasks, especially comprehension of inputs, require functions that are specific to both the right and left hemispheres and together form a one-direction systematized way of creating an output through the communication and coordination that occurs between hemispheres.

Role of the corpus callosum
The corpus callosum is a structure in the brain along the longitudinal fissure that facilitates much of the communication between the two hemispheres. This structure is composed of white matter: millions of axons that have their dendrites and terminal boutons projecting in both the right and left hemisphere. However, there is evidence that the corpus callosum may also have some inhibitory functions. Post-mortem research on human and monkey brains shows that the corpus callosum is functionally organized. This organization results in modality-specific regions of the corpus callosum that are responsible for the transfer of different types of information. Research has revealed that the anterior midbody transfers motor information, the posterior midbody transfers somatosensory information, the isthmus transfers auditory information, and the splenium transfers visual information. Although much of the inter-hemispheric transfer occurs at the corpus callosum, there are trace amounts of transfer via commissural pathways, such as the anterior commissure, posterior commissure, habenular commissure, and the hippocampal commissure.

Studies of the effects on the visual pathway on split-brained patients has revealed that there is a redundancy gain (the ability of target detection to benefit from multiple copies of the target) in simple reaction time. In a simple response to visual stimuli, split-brained patients experience a faster reaction time to bilateral stimuli than predicted by model. A model proposed by Iacoboni et al. suggests split-brained patients experience asynchronous activity that causes a stronger signal, and thus a decreased reaction time. Iacoboni also suggests there exists dual attention in split-brained patients, which implies that each cerebral hemisphere has its own attentional system. An alternative approach taken by Reuter-Lorenz et al. suggests that enhanced redundancy gain in the split brain is primarily due to a slowing of responses to unilateral stimuli, rather than a speeding of responses to bilateral ones.

The simple reaction time in split-brained patients, even with enhanced redundancy gain, is slower than the reaction time of normal adults.

Functional plasticity
Following a stroke or other injury to the brain, functional deficiencies are common. The deficits are expected to be in areas related to the part of the brain that has been damaged; if a stroke has occurred in the motor cortex, deficits may include paralysis, abnormal posture, or abnormal movement synergies. Significant recovery occurs during the first several weeks after the injury. However, recovery is generally thought not to continue past six months. If a specific region of the brain is injured or destroyed, its functions can sometimes be transferred and taken over by a neighboring region. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies; however, much more plasticity can be seen in infant patients receiving a hemispherectomy, which suggests that the opposite hemisphere can adapt some functions typically performed by its opposite pair. A study performed by Anderson et al. (2005) proved a correlation between the severity of the injury, the age of the individual, and their cognitive performance. It was evident that there was more neuroplasticity in older children—even if their injury was extremely severe—than in infants who suffered moderate brain injury. In some incidents of any moderate to severe brain injury, it mostly causes developmental impairments and in some of the most severe injuries it can cause a profound impact on their development that can lead to long-term cognitive effects. In the aging brain, it is extremely uncommon for neuroplasticity to occur; "olfactory bulb and hippocampus are two regions of the mammalian brain in which mutations preventing adult neurogenesis were never beneficial, or simply never occurred".

Corpus callosotomy
Corpus callosotomy is a surgical procedure that sections the corpus callosum, resulting in either the partial or complete disconnection between the two hemispheres. It is typically used as a last-resort measure in treatment of intractable epilepsy. The modern procedure typically involves only the anterior third of the corpus callosum; however, if the epileptic seizures continue, the following third is lesioned prior to the remaining third if the seizures persist. This results in a complete callosotomy in which most of the information transfer between hemispheres is lost.

Due to the functional mapping of the corpus callosum, a partial callosotomy has fewer detrimental effects because it leaves parts of the corpus callosum intact. There is little functional plasticity observed in partial and complete callosotomies on adults; the most neuroplasticity is seen in young children but not in infants.

It is known that when the corpus callosum is severed during an experimental procedure, the experimenter can ask each side of the brain the same question and receive two different answers. When the experimenter asks the right visual field / left hemisphere what they see the participant will respond verbally, whereas if the experimenter asks the left visual field / right hemisphere what they see the participant will not be able to respond verbally but will pick up the appropriate object with their left hand.

Memory
It is known that the right and the left hemisphere have different functions when it comes to memory. The right hemisphere is better at recognizing objects and faces, recalling knowledge that the individual has already learned, or recalling images already seen. The left hemisphere is better at mental manipulation, language production, and semantic priming but was more susceptible to memory confusion than the right hemisphere. The main issue for individuals that have undergone a callosotomy is that because the function of memory is split into two major systems, the individual is more likely to become confused between knowledge they already know and information that they have only inferred.

In tests, memory in either hemisphere of split-brained patients is generally lower than normal, though better than in patients with amnesia, suggesting that the forebrain commissures are important for the formation of some kinds of memory. This suggests that posterior callosal sections that include the hippocampal commissures cause a mild memory deficit (in standardized free-field testing) involving recognition. This makes first-person accounts hard to consider and to assess as scientists don't know if the consciousness was split as well.

Control
In general, split-brained patients behave in a coordinated, purposeful, and consistent manner, despite the independent, parallel, usually different, and occasionally conflicting processing of the same information from the environment by the two disconnected hemispheres. When two hemispheres receive competing stimuli at the same time, the response mode tends to determine which hemisphere controls behavior.

Often, split-brained patients are indistinguishable from normal adults. This is due to the compensatory phenomena; split-brained patients progressively acquire a variety of strategies to get around their interhemispheric transfer deficits. One issue that can happen with their body control is that one side of the body is doing the opposite of the other side, called the intermanual effect.

Attention
Experiments on covert orienting of spatial attention using the Posner paradigm confirm the existence of two different attentional systems in the two hemispheres. The right hemisphere was found superior to the left hemisphere on modified versions of spatial relations tests and in locations testing, whereas the left hemisphere was more object based. The components of mental imagery are differentially specialized: the right hemisphere was found superior for mental rotation, the left hemisphere superior for image generation. It was also found that the right hemisphere paid more attention to landmarks and scenes whereas the left hemisphere paid more attention to exemplars of categories.

Surgery procedure
The surgical operation to produce this condition (corpucallosotomy) involves transection of the corpus callosum, and is usually a last resort to treat refractory epilepsy. To lower the degree and ferocity of epileptic convulsions, partial callosotomies are first done; if these are unsuccessful, a callosotomy is next carried out to reduce the risk of unintentional bodily harm. Epilepsy is first managed with medications rather than callosotomies. Neuropsychological evaluations following surgery are frequently carried out.

Patient WJ
Patient WJ was the first patient to undergo a full corpus callosotomy in 1962, after experiencing fifteen years of convulsions resulting from grand mal seizures. He was a World War II paratrooper who was injured at 30 years old during a bombing raid jump over the Netherlands, and again in a prison camp following his first injury. After returning home, he began to suffer from blackouts in which he would not remember what he was doing or where, and how or when he got there. At age 37, he suffered his first generalized convulsion. One of his worst episodes occurred in 1953, when he suffered a series of convulsions lasting for many days. During these convulsions, his left side would go numb and he would recover quickly, but after the series of convulsions, he never regained complete feeling on his left side.

Before his surgery, both hemispheres functioned and interacted normally, his sensory and motor functions were normal aside from slight hypoesthesia, and he could correctly identify and understand visual stimuli presented to both sides of his visual field. During his surgery in 1962, his surgeons determined that no massa intermedia had developed, and he had undergone atrophy in the part of the right frontal lobe exposed during the procedure. His operation was a success, in that it led to decreases in the frequency and intensity of his seizures.

Patient JW
Funnell et al. (2007) tested patient JW some time before June 2006. They described JW as

"a right-handed male who was 47 years old at the time of testing. He successfully completed high school and has no reported learning disabilities. He had his first seizure at the age of 16 and the age of 25, he underwent a two-stage resection of the corpus callosum for relief of intractable epilepsy. Complete sectioning of the corpus callosum has been confirmed by MRI. Post-surgical MRI also revealed no evidence of other neurological damage."

Funnell et al.'s (2007) experiments were to determine each of JW's hemisphere's ability to perform simple addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. For example, in one experiment, on each trial, they presented an arithmetic problem in the center of the screen for one second, followed by a central crosshair JW was to look at. After one more second, Funnell et al. presented a number to one or the other hemisphere / visual field for 150 ms—too fast for JW to move his eyes. Randomly in half the trials, the number was the correct answer; in the other half of the trials it was the incorrect answer. With the hand on the same side as the number, JW pressed one key if the number was correct and another key if the number was incorrect.

Funnell et al.'s results were that performance of the left hemisphere was highly accurate (around 95%)—much better than performance of the right hemisphere, which was at chance for subtraction, multiplication, and division. Nevertheless the right hemisphere showed better-than-chance performance for addition (around 58%).

Turk et al. (2002) tested hemispheric differences in JW's recognition of himself and of familiar faces. They used faces that were composites of JW's face and Dr. Michael Gazzaniga's face. Composites ranged from 100% JW, through 50% JW and 50% Gazzaniga, to 100% Gazzaniga. JW pressed keys to say whether a presented face looked like him or Gazzaniga. Turk et al. concluded there are cortical networks in the left hemisphere that play an important role in self-recognition.

Patient VP
Patient VP is a woman who underwent a two-stage callosotomy in 1979 at the age of 27. Although the callosotomy was reported to be complete, a follow-up MRI in 1984 revealed spared fibers in the rostrum and splenium. The spared rostral fibers constituted approximately 1.8% of the total cross-sectional area of the corpus callosum and the spared splenial fibers constituted approximately 1% of the area. VP's postsurgery intelligence and memory quotients were within normal limits.

One of the experiments involving VP attempted to investigate systematically the types of visual information that could be transferred via VP's spared splenial fibers. The first experiment was designed to assess VP's ability to make between-field perceptual judgments about simultaneously presented pairs of stimuli. The stimuli were presented in varying positions with respect to the horizontal and vertical midline with VP's vision fixated on a central crosshair. The judgments were based on differences in color, shape or size. The testing procedure was the same for all three types of stimuli; after presentation of each pair, VP verbally responded "yes" if the two items in the pair were identical and "no" if they were not. The results show that there was no perceptual transfer for color, size or shape with binomial tests showing that VP's accuracy was not greater than chance.

A second experiment involving VP attempted to investigate what aspects of words transferred between the two hemispheres. The set up was similar to the previous experiment, with VP's vision fixated on a central crosshair. A word pair was presented with one word on each side of the crosshair for 150 ms. The words presented were in one of four categories: words that looked and sounded like rhymes (e.g. tire and fire), words that looked as if they should rhyme but did not (e.g. cough and dough), words that did not look as if they should rhyme but did (e.g. bake and ache), and words that neither looked nor sounded like rhymes (e.g. keys and fort). After presentation of each word pair, VP responded "yes" if the two words rhymed and "no" if they did not. VP's performance was above chance and she was able to distinguish among the different conditions. When the word pairs did not sound like rhymes, VP was able to say accurately that the words did not rhyme, regardless of whether or not they looked as if they should rhyme. When the words did rhyme, VP was more likely to say they rhymed, particularly if the words also looked as if they should rhyme.

Although VP showed no evidence for transfer of color, shape or size, there was evidence for transfer of word information. This is consistent with the speculation that the transfer of word information involves fibers in the ventroposterior region of the splenium—the same region in which VP had callosal sparing. VP is able to integrate words presented to both visual fields, creating a concept that is not suggested by either word. For example, she combines "head" and "stone" to form the integrated concept of a tombstone.

Kim Peek
Kim Peek was arguably the most well-known savant. He was born on November 11, 1951, with an enlarged head, sac-like protrusions of the brain and the membranes that cover it through openings in the skull, a malformed cerebellum, and without a corpus callosum, an anterior commissure, or a posterior commissure. He was able to memorize over 9,000 books, and information from approximately 15 subject areas. These include: world/American history, sports, movies, geography, actors and actresses, the Bible, church history, literature, classical music, area codes/zip codes of the United States, television stations serving these areas, and step-by-step directions within any major U.S. city. Despite these abilities, he had an IQ of 87, was diagnosed as autistic, was unable to button his shirt, and had difficulties performing everyday tasks. The missing structures of his brain have yet to be linked to his increased abilities, but they can be linked to his ability to read pages of a book in 8–10 seconds. He was able to view the left page of a book with his left visual field and the right page of a book with his right visual fields so he could read both pages simultaneously. He also had developed language areas in both hemispheres, something very uncommon in split-brain patients. Language is processed in areas of the left temporal lobe, and involves a contralateral transfer of information before the brain can process what is being read. In Peek's case, there was no transfer ability—this is what led to his development of language centers in each hemisphere.

Although Peek did not undergo corpus callosotomy, he is considered a natural split-brain patient and is critical to understanding the importance of the corpus callosum. Kim Peek died in 2009.

title: Split-brain


text:
Live and Let Die

Live and Let Die may refer to:
 * Live and Let Die (novel), a James Bond novel by Ian Fleming
 * Live and Let Die (film), a 1973 film starring Roger Moore
 * Live and Let Die (video game), a video game
 * Live and Let Die (soundtrack)
 * "Live and Let Die" (song), a song by Paul McCartney and Wings from the film
 * Live and Let Die (adventure), a 1984 module for the James Bond 007 role-playing game
 * Live and Let Die (album), an album by Kool G Rap & DJ Polo

title: Live and Let Die