text:
Review

A review is an evaluation of a publication, product, service, or company or a critical take on current affairs in literature, politics or culture. In addition to a critical evaluation, the review's author may assign the work a rating to indicate its relative merit.

Reviews can apply to a movie, video game, musical composition, book; a piece of hardware like a car, home appliance, or computer; or software such as business software, sales software; or an event or performance, such as a live music concert, play, musical theater show, dance show or art exhibition. In the cultural sphere, The New York Review of Books, for instance, is a collection of essays on literature, culture, and current affairs.

User review
A user review refers to a review written by a user or consumer of a product or service based on the author's own experience as a user of the reviewed product. Popular sources for consumer reviews are e-commerce sites like Amazon.com and Zappos and social media sites like Tripadvisor and Yelp. E-commerce sites often have consumer reviews for products and sellers separately. Usually, consumer reviews are in the form of several lines of text accompanied by a numerical rating. This text is meant to aid in shopping decision of a prospective buyer. A consumer review of a product usually comments on how well the product measures up to expectations based on the specifications provided by the manufacturer or seller. It talks about performance, reliability, quality defects, if any, and value for money. Consumer reviews, also called 'word of mouth' and 'user-generated content' differ from 'marketer-generated content' in their evaluation from consumer or user point of view. They often include comparative evaluations against competing products. Observations are factual as well as subjective in nature. Consumer reviews of sellers usually comment on service experienced, and dependability or trustworthiness of the seller. Usually, they comment on factors such as timeliness of delivery, packaging, and correctness of delivered items, shipping charges, return services against promises made, and so on.

Online consumer reviews have become a major factor in business reputation and brand image due to the popularity of TripAdvisor, Yelp, and online review websites. A negative review can damage the reputation of a business and this has created a new industry of reputation management where companies attempt to remove or hide bad reviews so that more favourable content is found when potential customers do research.

An expert review usually refers to a review written by someone who has tested several peer products or services to identify which offers the best value for money or the best set of features. An example of this is Amazon Vine. Amazon Vine is a program which was introduced to "help their fellow customers make informed purchase decisions". This program is invite-only and is designed to generate reviews for product vendors with whom Amazon works.

One type of user review can be in the physical world, such as a video reviewing a product or software. This is common on platforms such as YouTube and Vimeo.

Book review
A book review (or book report) is a form of criticism in which a book is analyzed based on content, style, and merit. It is often carried out in periodicals, as school work, or online. Its length may vary from a single paragraph to a substantial essay. In the case of a work of poetry or fiction, or of nonfiction in which the literary merits of the work are an important element, a review will commonly use the methods of literary criticism. Such a review often contains evaluations of the book on the basis of personal taste. Reviewers, in literary periodicals, often use the occasion of a book review for a display of learning or to promulgate their own ideas on the topic of a fiction or non-fiction work. At the other end of the spectrum, some book reviews resemble simple plot summaries. Reviews of non-fiction works intended for instructional or informational purposes may focus more directly on concerns such as practical usefulness and reader-friendliness.

Performance reviews
Reviews of live music performances are typically short articles that tell readers about the performers or group(s) that were involved and the pieces or songs that were performed. The comments made by reviewers fall, roughly into two categories: technical comments and subjective/artistic comments. The elements in the "technical" category include rhythmic "togetherness", intonation, errors or slip-ups, and so on. These elements are fairly "black and white"; a pianist playing a concerto either played the right notes on a climactic scale run, or she missed it. The subjective comments refer to elements which are a matter of taste. The balance between the different elements in a review (information about the performer or group; information about the pieces/songs; commentary about the technical and subjective elements of the performance) depends on the audience that a music critic is writing for. Music reviewers writing in local newspapers or general-interest magazines may not be able to assume that the readers will be familiar with music performers and pieces/songs, so they may decide to include a great deal of "background" information.

Recording reviews
Music critics and music writers also review recordings of music, including individual songs or pieces or entire albums. In the case of a review of an entire album, the reviewer will not only judge the individual songs or pieces; they will also judge how well all of the songs or pieces work together or go together.

The age of digital downloads may considerably change the album review. Where previously albums were purchased as collections of songs, often with a common theme, the rise of individual song downloads may have significant impact on consumers' exposure to an artist's music. Die-hard fans will most likely continue to explore an artist's complete work, but individuals will most likely make significantly different choices and "cherry-pick" songs they have been exposed to. The concept of "singles" or individual hits marked for retail has been around for long time; however, the price for a single in the days of CDs or 45's was much closer to the complete album price. When you consider that each song on an artist's album is often priced at the same amount, the odds of the average consumer purchase the entire album instead of selecting the "hit" songs decreases significantly.

Composition reviews
In classical music, music critics may also do reviews of compositions, even if the piece or song has never been performed and it only exists on manuscript paper in a score. To review a composition in this fashion, the critic will use music theory skills such as harmonic analysis and thematic analysis, along with their knowledge of idioms and compositional practices etc.

Motion picture, television and video reviews
A motion picture review is a work of film criticism addressing the merits of one or more motion pictures. Generally, the term "movie review" implies a work of journalistic film criticism rather than of academic criticism. Such reviews have appeared in newspapers and printed periodicals since the beginning of the film industry, and now are published in general-interest websites as well as specialized film and film review sites. Television programs and other videos are now commonly reviewed in similar venues and by similar methods.

Bought review
A bought review is the system where the creator (usually a company) of a new product pays a reviewer to review his new product. Primarily used in the car, movie, and game industry this system creates a kind of undercover advertising. Bought reviews tend to be biased due to the informative value of reviews. In some cases, a bought review may be independent, if the person that is hired to do the review has a strong reputation for independence and integrity. Even if a "bought review" from a respected critic is actually independent, the perception of potential bias will remain, due to the financial relationship between the company and the critic.

A similar type of review that may be biased is the so-called "puff piece", a review of "[a product]", film, or event that is written by a sympathetic reviewer or by an individual who has a connection to the product or event in question, either in terms of an employment relationship or other links. For example, a major media conglomerate that owns both print media and record companies may instruct one of its employees in one of its newspapers to do a review of an album which is being released by the conglomerate's record company. Although some journalists may assert their professional independence and integrity, and insist on producing an unbiased review, in other cases, writers may succumb to the pressure and pen a biased "puff piece" which praises the product or event while omitting any discussion of any shortcomings. In some cases, "puff pieces" purport to provide a review of the product or event, but instead merely provide "peacock words" ("An amazing recording"); "weasel words" and tabloid-style filler which is peripheral or irrelevant to assessing the qualities of the product or event ("During the filming, there were rumors that romantic sparks flew between the two co-leads, who were often seen talking together on the set").

Several online review manipulation strategies have also been reported, such as writing fake reviews and offering monetary compensation to remove negative reviews.

title: Review


text:
LaSalle (automobile)

LaSalle was an American brand of luxury automobiles manufactured and marketed, as a separate brand, by General Motors' Cadillac division from 1927 through 1940. Alfred P. Sloan, GM's Chairman of the Board, developed the concept for four new GM marques - LaSalle, Marquette, Viking and Pontiac - paired with already established brands to fill price gaps he perceived in the General Motors product portfolio. Sloan created LaSalle as a companion marque for Cadillac. LaSalle automobiles were manufactured by Cadillac, but were priced lower than Cadillac-branded automobiles, were shorter, and were marketed as the second-most prestigious marque in the General Motors portfolio. LaSalles were titled as LaSalles, and not as Cadillacs. Like Cadillac — named after Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac — the LaSalle brand name was based on that of another French explorer, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle.

General Motors companion marque strategy

The LaSalle had its beginnings when General Motors' CEO Alfred P. Sloan noticed that his carefully crafted market segmentation program was beginning to develop price gaps in which General Motors had no products to sell. In an era when American automotive brands were typically restricted to building a specific car per model year, Sloan surmised that the best way to bridge the gaps was to develop "companion" marques that could be sold through the current sales network.

As originally developed by Sloan, General Motors' market-segmentation strategy placed each of the company's individual automobile marques into specific price ranges, called the "General Motors companion make program". The Chevrolet was designated as the entry-level product. Next, (in ascending order), came the Pontiac, Oakland, Oldsmobile, Viking, Marquette, Buick, LaSalle, and Cadillac. By the 1920s, certain General Motors products began to shift out of the plan as the products improved and engine advances were made.

Under the companion marque strategy, the gap between the Chevrolet and the Oakland would be filled by a new marque named Pontiac, a quality six-cylinder car designed to sell for the price of a four-cylinder. The wide gap between Oldsmobile and Buick would be filled by two companion marques: Oldsmobile was assigned the up-market, V8 engined Viking, while Buick was assigned the more compact six-cylinder Marquette brand. Cadillac, which had seen its base prices soar in the heady 1920s, was assigned the LaSalle as a companion marque to fill the gap that existed between it and Buick.

Design strategy
What emerged as the LaSalle in 1927 was introduced on the GM C platform with the Cadillac V8. The 1927 LaSalle was designed by Harley Earl, who had a 30-year career at General Motors, eventually gaining control of all design and styling at General Motors.

Prior to the 1927 LaSalle, automobile design essentially followed a set pattern, with design changes driven principally by engineering needs. For example, the Ford Model T evolved only slightly over its production run; A 1927 Model T was almost identical to a 1910 Model T, while GM made yearly appearance and model name changes across all brands starting in 1908.

Earl, who had been hired by Cadillac's General Manager, Lawrence P. Fisher, conceived the LaSalle not as a junior Cadillac, but as something more agile and stylish. Influenced by the rakish Hispano-Suiza roadsters of the time, Earl's LaSalle emerged as a shorter, yet elegant, counterpoint to Cadillac's larger cars, unlike anything else built by an American automotive manufacturer.

1927–1933
Built by Cadillac to its high standards but at a dedicated factory at Wyoming Road Assembly, the LaSalle soon emerged as a trend-setting automobile. Earl was then placed in charge of overseeing the design of all of General Motors' vehicles. Earl's design even included a nod to the inspirational Hispano-Suiza H6, with the marque's circled trademark "LaS" cast into the horizontal tie bar between the front lights.

There were two wheelbase choices where Fisher offered eight selections while Fleetwood Metal Body offered four coachwork choices on the shorter 128 in while only Fisher offered an additional three coachwork choices on the longer 134 in. For 1927, the most exclusive Fleetwood body was the Transformable Town Cabriolet at US$4,700 ($0 in dollars ). The LaSalles of this era were equipped with Cadillac's "Ninety Degree V-8", making the car fast, while its smaller size made it sportier and more agile.

On June 20, 1927, a LaSalle driven by Willard Rader, along with Gus Bell, on the track at the Milford Proving Grounds, achieved 952 mi, averaging 95.2 mi/h, with only seven minutes given over to refueling and tire changes. In comparison, the average speed at that year's Indianapolis 500 was 97.5 mi/h. The test at Milford would have continued, but a problem in the oil system drew the test to an early close.

The Series 303 continued for 1928, and as LaSalle sales began to progress, engineering advancements, appearance changes and optional equipment choices continued. Shock absorbers were now sourced from Lovejoy hydraulic units and the clutch was now upgraded to twin discs. The list of available coachwork choices from Fisher expanded to eleven selections on the 125" wheelbase and six choices on the 134", while Fleetwood now provided two choices on the 125" and only one choice on the 134", that being the Transformable Town Cabriolet at US$4,900 ($0 in dollars ).

The first engine upgrade to the LaSalle was introduced in 1929 with the Series 328, which had slight differences to the Cadillac V8 which was also upgraded. The Victoria and business coupe were replaced with the Landau Cabriolet from Fisher while Fleetwood choices were all cabriolet coupes or sedans. Both wheelbase choices were both available for Fisher and Fleetwood coachwork selections. September 1929 is when Cadillac introduced its all-new 1930 Series 353, one month before the Cadillac V-12 and the Wall Street Crash of 1929

The ultra-luxury Cadillac V-16 made its grand introduction January 1930, and the LaSalle received another engine upgrade introduced in the LaSalle Series 340. Fisher body selections were reduced to seven closed while Fleetwood choices expanded to six. The only wheelbase used was 134" and a radio was first introduced as a optional item for US$175 ($0 in dollars ) and all LaSalle's were prewired with an antenna imbedded in the roof. Wheels were available in hickory artillery style, wire wheels or solid pressed steel discs. The engine displacement of the 1930 LaSalle and the 1928-1929 Cadillac Series 341 were essentially identical so the LaSalle was labeled as Series 340 while the 1930 Cadillac V8 was upgraded to Series 353. In an attempt to further add exclusivity, Fleetwood convertible coachwork selections were further distinguished by the descriptions "Fleetcliffe", "Fleetlands", "Fleetway" and "Fleetwind" which didn't continue for 1931. The next vehicle choice offered by GM was the all-new Buick Series 50 coupe or sedan with a straight-eight engine with a similar appearance and a Fisher Body for US$1,540 ($0 in  dollars ) while a LaSalle Series 340 sedan was listed at US$2,565 ($0 in  dollars ).

The 1931 LaSalle's engine was again upgraded and the Series 345-A appeared with the same appearance, engineering and optional equipment changes. Fisher and Fleetwood coachwork choices were again changed based on popularity, and additional optional equipment was added retaining the 134" wheelbase used the previous year. The Cadillac Heron or Goddess hood ornament made the options list for US$20 ($0 in dollars ) while the latest fashion accessory called a radiator rock screen could be installed for US$33 ($0 in  dollars ).

From the mid-1910s, a V8 engine was regarded as a luxury expectation, while other manufacturers remained with straight-8 engines, but in 1932 the Ford V8 was introduced with a standard equipment V8 displacing 221 cuin. Body style selections and a wide arrange of Duco automotive lacquer paint color selections, introduced by DuPont, was beginning to become commonplace. The 1932 LaSalle Series 345-B and 1933 Series 345-C followed the same pattern of appearance, engineering upgrades and ever growing options list.

1934–1938
Beginning with the 1934 model year, a significant portion of the LaSalle, now called the Series 50 Model 350, was more closely related to the Oldsmobile L-Series, Buick Series 40 and Buick Series 50 while sharing an appearance with the senior Cadillac Series 355s. This was marked by a shift to the Oldsmobile- and Buick-based B platform. Again, Earl's work with the LaSalle resulted in a graceful vehicle, led by an elegantly thin grille that now concealed the previously exposed radiator, which was shared with Cadillac and Pontiac for that year. Earl's other contribution was the modern, airplane-styled, semi-shielded portholes along the side of the hood. All bodies were now made by Fleetwood. 1933 was the first year all GM vehicles were installed with optional vent windows which were initially called “No Draft Individually Controlled Ventilation” later renamed "Ventiplanes" which the patent application was filed on Nov. 28, 1932. It was assigned to the Ternstedt Manufacturing Company, a GM subsidiary that manufactured components for Fisher Body and they were introduced on the Series 50 in 1934.

The Series 50 was also no longer available with a V8, which was a distinction shared with all Cadillacs, and now only available with an Oldsmobile sourced flathead inline-eight, while Buick continued to offer the more technologically advanced overhead valve straight-eight engine exclusive to Buick. The LaSalle was the first Cadillac to use hydraulic brakes sourced from Bendix and various components were sourced from within different GM Divisions in order to cut production costs. The Oldsmobile engine was not assembled by Oldsmobile then supplied to the LaSalle factory, instead the parts were sent to the LaSalle factory and assembled by Cadillac-trained LaSalle assembly teams to authentically declare it was manufactured by Cadillac engineers. The LaSalle sales department further invited clients to witness the cars being manufactured and listed the different companies that sourced various items that were used to manufacture the 1934 LaSalle.

This LaSalle Series 50 Model 350 listed at US$1,550 ($0 in dollars ) for a choice of coupes, sedans or convertibles and was now priced US$1,000 ($0 in  dollars ) below the least expensive Cadillac. Its mission was not to fill a price gap, but to keep the luxury-car division out of the red. But as the economy began to recover, the LaSalle did not, at least not commensurate with the economy. Sales were 7,195 in 1934, 8,651 in 1935 and 13,004 in 1936 while Buick appeared to be more attractive yet frugal.

To further emphasize that the 1935 LaSalle was improved from the previous model, the name was, again, changed to Series 35-50, dropping the "model" designation, while the vehicle was largely the same with the usual appearance, options list changes, and mechanical advancements. Meanwhile, the Packard One-Twenty had been introduced in 1935 and was very successful. For 1936 the LaSalle was renamed the Series 36-50 and had additional competition from the Lincoln-Zephyr, introduced in 1936. The 1937 LaSalle was called the Series 37-50, a naming convention that would continue with the last LaSalle Series 40-50 and 40-52.

For 1937, Cadillac made the LaSalle its own again, giving it the designation Series 37-50 and the 322 cuin monobloc V8 of the Series 60, new styling, a lower price range, and a heavy promotion emphasizing that the car was completely Cadillac-built. It was too late. Model year sales of 32,000 LaSalles was a great improvement, but it remained far behind the Packard.

A 1934 LaSalle Series 50 Model 350 was chosen as the Pace Car for the Indianapolis 500, and a 1937 LaSalle Series 37-50 convertible also served as an Indy 500 Pace Car.

1939–1941
In its final years, the LaSalle Series 39-50 was once again more Cadillac-like in its appearance and details, and was essentially identical to the Cadillac Series 61. The narrow radiator grille opening was retained and was flanked by additional side grille work which aided in heat dissipation from the engine. Headlights, which had moved down and been secured to the body between the grille and the fender, were again attached to the radiator shell. LaSalle also added a sunroof, marketed as the "Sunshine Turret Top". Sales climbed from 15,501 in 1938 to 23,028 in 1939.

The final 1940 LaSalles were introduced in October 1939 with a full array of semi-custom body styles, as it had in its first year, including a convertible sedan. Earl oversaw this redesign. The LaSalle emerged with a smooth-flowing design, its thin radiator flanked by a series of thin chrome slots. In its final year, sales of the LaSalle reached the second-highest level ever at 24,133. In addition to the Series 40-50, there was also the lower, wider Series 40-52 Special using General Motors' new "Torpedo"-style body.

1941
By the time the decision was made to drop the LaSalle, at least three wood-and-metal mockups had been made for potential 1941 LaSalle models. One was based on the notchback GM C platform, which ended up being shared by the Cadillac Series 62, the Buick Roadmaster and Super, the Oldsmobile 90, and the Pontiac Custom Torpedo. A second was based on the fastback GM B platform, which was eventually shared by the Cadillac Series 61, the Buick Century and Special, the Oldsmobile 70, and the Pontiac Streamliner Torpedo. A third was a modified notchback design, derived from the fastback B-body, but described as "A-body-like", that was finally used by the Cadillac Series 63. Any or all of these could have ended up being part of the next LaSalle line. However, it is widely believed that of the three, the third design was most likely to have been a LaSalle, with that platform being assigned exclusively to LaSalle, and that the second design, whose platform was shared with the Series 61, was the next-most-likely. In 1941, sales of the Cadillac Series 61 and 63 were 29,258 and 5,030, respectively.

In retrospect, LaSalle sales initially had exceeded Cadillac's since 1933, but since its introduction in 1935, the medium priced Packard One-Twenty had consistently outsold the LaSalle by an average of 72 percent over the six-year period 1935–1940 inclusively. It was decided to fold the LaSalle into the more prestigious Cadillac marque. LaSalle did not have the time to develop a prestigious name before the onset of the Great Depression and did not have the opportunity afterward. The Great Depression, combined with LaSalle's stalling sales numbers, caused Cadillac to rethink its companion make. Both Buick and Oldsmobile had eliminated the Marquette and the Viking in 1930, their second model year. Cadillac also saw sales of its cars losing ground, as confirmed Cadillac buyers tried to trim pennies by buying the less expensive LaSalle. LaSalle sales also were falling, from a high of 22,691 models in 1929 to a low of 3,290 in 1932.

While the introduction of LaSalle showed there was a market for a luxury car that was more conservative in appearance and price, GM already had Buick which filled that role very successfully. The attention given to LaSalle could have been invested in Buick as the mainstream luxury brand, and concentrated on Cadillac being more elusive and unique to protect the brand image. The introduction of the "Art and Colour Section" headed up by Harley Earl and a shared design theme in all GM products further complicated the brand distinction between the original brands in that the only differences among Oldsmobile, Buick, LaSalle, and Cadillac were exterior design appearance, wheelbase length, and colors, while charging extra due to marketing and pricing objectives.

LaSalle concept vehicles
In his 2013 article, "GM's Road Not Taken", Robert Cumberford reviewed the restoration of GM's 1955 Motorama La Salle II Roadster. Cumberford likened the Roadster to a harbinger of GM's future. While the Roadster concept showcased important new technology, including an aluminum block, double overhead cam and fuel-injected V6, the technology went unrealized. GM instead emphasized styling over engineering advancement for the decades that followed and did not bring "an aluminum block, fuel-injected, overhead-cam V-6 into production until 2004".

Cumberford described the Roadster as "a signpost to the many wrong turns that led to the bankruptcy of what was in 1955 the largest business entity in the entire world (GM)".

There was nostalgia for the LaSalle name, and at various points in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s, General Motors issued Motorama cars and proposed new consumer automobiles under the name. The year 1955 saw two Motorama concept cars, the LaSalle II four-door hardtop and the LaSalle II Roadster. Ordered to be destroyed, both the four-door hardtop and the roadster were shipped to the Warhoops Salvage Yard in Sterling Heights, Michigan; instead of being destroyed they were hidden in a corner of the facility.

In 1990, collector Joe Bortz purchased and restored the Roadster, which was featured in a 2013 article in Automobile (magazine), for which the author, Robert Cumberford won the 2013 Best Article of the Year Award from the Motor Press Guild for his Automobile magazine article, "GM's Road Not Taken" about the La Salle II Roadster.

The LaSalle name was raised again when Cadillac was developing a new small luxury sedan, but it was passed over in favor of Cadillac Seville. Early mockups of what was to become the 1963 Buick Riviera were badged "LaSalle II," as the Cadillac division was being considered for production of this successful personal luxury car.

LaSalle in media
For media outlets, when referring to the cars in visual or print media reporting the proper nomenclature is to identify them "LaSalle" as they are a separate marque, and are registered under the "Make" name of LaSalle on automobile titles. While built by the Cadillac Division of General Motors, they are not a subordinate model under the Cadillac brand, thus, to call them "Cadillac LaSalle" is improper.

In the 1967 film The St. Valentine's Day Massacre, gangster Mike Heitler (played by Leo Gordon) buys a used LaSalle for $750 (equivalent to about $12,000 in 2021), to be disguised as a Chicago police car for use in the St. Valentine's Day Massacre.

In the 1970s television show All in the Family, Archie and Edith Bunker sing, "Gee, our old LaSalle ran great" in the program's opening theme song, "Those Were the Days." Many could not understand the now-obscure reference, and the opening was re-recorded in future seasons with the word ‘LaSalle’ enunciated a little more clearly.

In Season One, episode 21 of The Streets of San Francisco, Lew Ayres mentions the hubcap he finds as being from a 1934 LaSalle.

This is the car that the character Marcus Brody drives when he visits Indiana Jones in the film Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981).

Notes and references
7. Those Were The Days theme song of tv show All in The Family   Lyrics include “gee our old LaSalle ran great.”

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: LaSalle (automobile)


text:
Joint venture

A joint venture (JV) is a business entity created by two or more parties, generally characterized by shared ownership, shared returns and risks, and shared governance. Companies typically pursue joint ventures for one of four reasons: to access a new market, particularly emerging market; to gain scale efficiencies by combining assets and operations; to share risk for major investments or projects; or to access skills and capabilities.

Most joint ventures are incorporated, although some, as in the oil and gas industry, are "unincorporated" joint ventures that mimic a corporate entity. With individuals, when two or more persons come together to form a temporary partnership for the purpose of carrying out a particular project, such partnership can also be called a joint venture where the parties are "co-venturers".

The venture can be a business JV (for example, Dow Corning), a project/asset JV intended to pursue one specific project only, or a JV aimed at defining standards or serving as an "industry utility" that provides a narrow set of services to industry participants.

Some major joint ventures include United Launch Alliance, Vevo, Hulu, Virgin Media O2, Penske Truck Leasing, and Owens-Corning.

Bad press
According to Gerard Baynham of Water Street Partners, there has been much negative press about joint ventures, but objective data indicate that they may actually outperform wholly owned and controlled affiliates. He writes, "A different narrative emerged from our recent analysis of U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) data, collected from more than 20,000 entities. According to the DOC data, foreign joint ventures of U.S. companies realized a 5.5 percent average return on assets (ROA), while those companies' wholly owned and controlled affiliates (the vast majority of which are wholly owned) realized a slightly lower 5.2 percent ROA. The same story holds true for investments by foreign companies in the U.S., but the difference is more pronounced. U.S.-based joint ventures realized a 2.2 percent average ROA, while wholly owned and controlled affiliates in the U.S. only realized a 0.7 percent ROA."

Legal definition
In European law, the term "joint venture" is an exclusive legal concept, better defined under the rules of company law. In France, the term "joint venture" is variously translated as  "association d'entreprises", "entreprise conjointe", "coentreprise" or "entreprise commune".

Company incorporation
A JV can be brought about in the following major ways:

 * Foreign investor buying an interest in a local company
 * Local firm acquiring an interest in an existing foreign firm
 * Both the foreign and local entrepreneurs jointly forming a new enterprise
 * Together with public capital and/or bank debt

In the UK, India, and in many common law countries, a joint-venture (or else a company formed by a group of individuals) must file its memorandum of association with the appropriate authority. This is a statutory document which informs the public of its existence. It may be viewed by the public at the office in which it is filed. Together with the articles of association, it forms the "constitution" of a company in these countries.

The articles of association regulate the interaction between shareholders and the directors of a company and can be a lengthy document of up to 700,000 or so pages. It deals with the powers relegated by the stockholders to the directors and those withheld by them, requiring the passing of ordinary resolutions, special resolutions and the holding of Extraordinary General Meetings to bring the directors' decision to bear.

A Certificate of Incorporation or the Articles of Incorporation is a document required to form a corporation in the U.S. (in actuality, the state where it is incorporated) and in countries following the practice. In the US, the "constitution" is a single document. The Articles of Incorporation is again a regulation of the directors by the stock-holders in a company.

By its formation, the JV becomes a new entity with the implications that:
 * it is officially separate from its founders, who might otherwise be giant corporations, even amongst the emerging countries
 * it has separate legal liability from that of its founders, except for invested capital
 * the JV can contract in its own name, acquire rights (such as the right to buy new companies), and
 * it can sue (and be sued) in courts in defense or its pursuance of its objectives.

On the receipt of the Certificate of Incorporation, a company can commence its business.

Shareholders' agreement
This is a legal area and is fraught with difficulty as the laws of countries differ, particularly on the enforceability of "heads of" or shareholder agreements. For some legal reasons, it may be called a Memorandum of Understanding. It is done in parallel with other activities in forming a JV. Though dealt with briefly for a shareholders' agreement, some issues must be dealt with here as a preamble to the discussion that follows. There are also many issues which are not in the Articles when a company starts up or never ever present. Also, a JV may elect to stay as a JV alone in a "quasi partnership" to avoid any nonessential disclosure to the government or the public.

Some of the issues in a shareholders' agreement are:

 * Valuation of intellectual rights, say, the valuations of the IPR of one partner and, say, the real estate of the other
 * The control of the company either by the number of directors or its "funding"
 * The number of directors and the rights of the founders to their appoint directors which shows as to whether a shareholder dominates or shares equality.
 * Management decisions – whether the board manages or a founder
 * Transferability of shares – assignment rights of the founders to other members of the company
 * Dividend policy – percentage of profits to be declared when there is profit
 * Winding up – the conditions, notice to members
 * Confidentiality of know-how and founders' agreement and penalties for disclosure
 * First right of refusal – purchase rights and counter-bid by a founder.

There are many features which have to be incorporated into the shareholders' agreement which is quite private to the parties as they start off. Normally, it requires no submission to any authority.

The other basic document which must be articulated is the Articles, which is a published document and known to members. This repeats the shareholders agreement as to the number of directors each founder can appoint to the board of directors; whether the board controls or the founders; the taking of decisions by simple majority (50%+1) of those present or a 51% or 75% majority with all directors present (their alternates/proxy); the deployment of funds of the firm; extent of debt; the proportion of profit that can be declared as dividends; etc. Also significant is what will happen if the firm is dissolved, if one of the partners dies, or if the firm is sold.

Often, the most successful JVs are those with 50:50 partnership with each party having the same number of directors but rotating control over the firm, or rights to appoint the Chairperson and Vice-chair of the company. Sometimes a party may give a separate trusted person to vote in its place proxy vote of the Founder at board meetings.

Recently, in a major case the Indian Supreme Court has held that Memorandums of Understanding (whose details are not in the articles of association) are "unconstitutional" giving more transparency to undertakings.

Dissolution
A JV is not a permanent structure. It can be dissolved when:

 * Aims of original venture met
 * Aims of original venture not met
 * Either or both parties develop new goals
 * Either or both parties no longer agree with joint venture aims
 * Time agreed for joint venture has expired
 * Legal or financial issues
 * Evolving market conditions mean that joint venture is no longer appropriate or relevant
 * One party acquires the other

Risks
Joint ventures are risky forms of business partnerships. Literature in business and management has paid attention to different factors of conflict and opportunism in joint ventures, in particular the influence of parent control structure, ownership change, and volatile environment.

Supplying to government
Government procurement regulations, such as the Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR) in the United States, may specify how joint ventures are to be approached as suppliers or confirm that a joint venture or other form of contractor partnering is seen as a "desirable" arrangement for supplying to government. The FAR states that"The Government will recognize the integrity and validity of contractor team arrangements [including joint ventures], provided the arrangements are identified and company relationships are fully disclosed in an offer or, for arrangements entered into after submission of an offer, before the arrangement becomes effective. The Government will not normally require or encourage the dissolution of contractor team arrangements." Under the rules applicable to public procurement in the European Union, public bodies may insist that suppliers intending to provide goods and services through a joint partnership accept joint liability for the execution of the contract.

China
According to a 2003 report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, China was the recipient of US$53.5 billion in direct foreign investment, making it the world's largest recipient of direct foreign investment for the first time, to exceed the US. Also, it approved the establishment of nearly 500,000 foreign-investment enterprises. The US had 45,000 projects by 2004 with an in-place investment of over 48 billion.

Until recently, no guidelines existed on how foreign investment was to be handled due to the restrictive nature of China toward foreign investors. Following the death of Mao Zedong in 1976, initiatives in foreign trade began to be applied, and law applicable to foreign direct investment was made clear in 1979, while the first Sino-foreign equity venture took place in 2001. The corpus of the law has improved since then.

Companies with foreign partners can carry out manufacturing and sales operations in China and can sell through their own sales network. Foreign-Sino companies have export rights which are not available to wholly Chinese companies, as China desires to import foreign technology by encouraging JVs and the latest technologies.

Under Chinese law, foreign enterprises are divided into several basic categories. Of these, five will be described or mentioned here: three relate to industry and services and two as vehicles for foreign investment. Those five categories of Chinese foreign enterprises are: the Sino-Foreign Equity Joint Ventures (EJVs), Sino-Foreign Co-operative Joint Ventures (CJVs), Wholly Foreign-Owned Enterprises (WFOE), although they do not strictly belong to Joint Ventures, plus foreign investment companies limited by shares (FICLBS), and Investment Companies through Foreign Investors (ICFI). Each category is described below.

Equity joint ventures
The EJV Law is between a Chinese partner and a foreign company. It is incorporated in both Chinese (official) and in English (with equal validity), with limited liability. Prior to China's entry into WTO – and thus the WFOEs – EJVs predominated. In the EJV mode, the partners share profits, losses, and risk in equal proportion to their respective contributions to the venture's registered capital. These escalate upwardly in the same proportion as the increase in registered capital.

The JV contract accompanied by the articles of association for the EJV are the two most fundamental legal documents of the project. The Articles mirror many of the provisions of the JV contract. In case of conflict the JV document has precedence. These documents are prepared at the same time as the feasibility report. There are also the ancillary documents (termed "offsets" in the US) covering know-how and trademarks and supply-of-equipment agreements.

The minimum equity is prescribed for investment truncated, where the foreign equity and debt levels are:
 * Less than US$3 million, equity must constitute 70% of the investment;
 * Between US$3 million and US$10 million, minimum equity must be US$2.1 million and at least 50% of the investment;
 * Between US$10 million and US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$5 million and at least 40% of the investment;
 * More than US$30 million, minimum equity must be US$12 million and at least 1/3 of the investment.

There are also intermediary levels.

The foreign investment in the total project must be at least 25%. No minimum investment is set for the Chinese partner. The timing of investments must be mentioned in the Agreement and failure to invest in the indicated time, draws a penalty.

Cooperative joint ventures
Co-operative Joint Ventures (CJVs) are permitted under the Sino-Foreign Co-operative Joint Ventures. Co-operative enterprises are also called Contractual Operative Enterprises.

The CJVs may have a limited structure or unlimited – therefore, there are two versions. The limited-liability version is similar to the EJVs in status of permissions – the foreign investor provides the majority of funds and technology and the Chinese party provides land, buildings, equipment, etc. However, there are no minimum limits on the foreign partner which allows him to be a minority shareholder.

The other format of the CJV is similar to a partnership where the parties jointly incur unlimited liability for the debts of the enterprise with no separate legal person being created. In both the cases, the status of the formed enterprise is that of a legal Chinese person which can hire labor directly as, for example, a Chinese national contactor. The minimum of the capital is registered at various levels of investment.

Other differences from the EJV are to be noted:

 * A Co-operative JV does not have to be a legal entity.
 * The partners in a CJV are allowed to share profit on an agreed basis, not necessarily in proportion to capital contribution. This proportion also determines the control and the risks of the enterprise in the same proportion.
 * It may be possible to operate in a CJV in a restricted area
 * A CJV could allow negotiated levels of management and financial control, as well as methods of recourse associated with equipment leases and service contracts. In an EJV management control is through allocation of Board seats.
 * During the term of the venture, the foreign participant can recover his investment, provided the contract prescribes that and all fixed assets will become the property of the Chinese participant on termination of the JV.
 * Foreign partners can often obtain the desired level of control by negotiating management, voting, and staffing rights into a CJV's articles; since control does not have to be allocated according to equity stakes.

Convenience and flexibility are the characteristics of this type of investment. It is therefore easier to find co-operative partners and to reach an agreement.

With changes in the law, it becomes possible to merge with a Chinese company for a quick start. A foreign investor does not need to set up a new corporation in China. Instead, the investor uses the Chinese partner's business license, under a contractual arrangement. However, under the CJV, the land stays in the possession of the Chinese partner.

There is another advantage: the percentage of the CJV owned by each partner can change throughout the JV's life, giving the option to the foreign investor, by holding higher equity, obtains a faster rate of return with the concurrent wish of the Chinese partner of a later larger role of maintaining long-term control.

The parties in any of the ventures, EJV, CJV or WFOE prepare a feasibility study outlined above. It is a non-binding document – the parties are still free to choose not to proceed with the project. The feasibility study must cover the fundamental technical and commercial aspects of the project, before the parties can proceed to formalize the necessary legal documentation. The study should contain details referred to earlier under Feasibility Study (submissions by the Chinese partner).

Wholly foreign-owned enterprises (WFOEs)
There is basic law of the PRC concerning enterprises with sole foreign investment controls, WFOEs. China's entry into the World Trade Organization (WTO) around 2001 has had profound effects on foreign investment. Not being a JV, they are considered here only in comparison or contrast.

To implement WTO commitments, China publishes from time to time updated versions of its "Catalogs Investments" (affecting ventures) prohibited, restricted.

The WFOE is a Chinese legal person and has to obey all Chinese laws. As such, it is allowed to enter into contracts with appropriate government authorities to acquire land use rights, rent buildings, and receive utility services. In this it is more similar to a CJV than an EJV.

WFOEs are expected by PRC to use the most modern technologies and to export at least 50% of their production, with all of the investment is to be wholly provided by the foreign investor and the enterprise is within his total control.

WFOEs are typically limited liability enterprises. Like with EJVs, but the liability of the directors, managers, advisers, and suppliers depends on the rules which govern the Departments or Ministries which control product liability, worker safety or environmental protection.

An advantage the WFOE enjoys over its alternates is enhanced protection of its know-how but a principal disadvantage is absence of an interested and influential Chinese party.

As of the 3rd Quarter of 2004, WFOEs had replaced EJVs and CJVs as follows:

(*)=Financial Vventures by EJVs/CJVs (**)=Approved JVs

Foreign investment companies limited by shares (FICLBS)
These enterprises are formed under the Sino-Foreign Investment Act. The capital is composed of value of stock in exchange for the value of the property given to the enterprise. The liability of the shareholders, including debt, is equal to the number of shares purchased by each partner.

The registered capital of the company the share of the paid-in capital. The minimum amount of the registered capital of the company should be RMB 30 million. These companies can be listed on the only two PRC Stock Exchanges – the Shanghai and Shenzhen Stock Exchanges. Shares of two types are permitted on these Exchanges – Types "A" and Type "B" shares.

Type A are only to be used by Chinese nationals and can be traded only in RMB. Type "B" shares are denominated in Renminbi but can be traded in foreign exchange and by Chinese nationals having foreign exchange. Further, State enterprises which have been approved for corporatization can trade in Hong Kong in "H" share and in NYSE exchanges.

"A" shares are issued to and traded by Chinese nationals. They are issued and traded in Renminbi. "B" shares are denominated in Renminbi but are traded in foreign currency. From March 2001, in addition to foreign investors, Chinese nationals with foreign currency can also trade "B" shares.

Investment companies by foreign investors (ICFI)
Investment companies are those established in China by sole foreign-funded business or jointly with Chinese partners who engage in direct investment. It has to be incorporated as a company with limited liability.

The total amount of the investor's assets during the year preceding the application to do business in China has to be no less than US$400 million within the territory of China. The paid-in capital contribution has to exceed $10 million. Furthermore, more than 3 project proposals of the investor's intended investment projects must have been approved. The shares subscribed and held by foreign Investment Companies by Foreign Investors (ICFI) should be 25%. The investment firm can be established as an EJV.

On March 15, 2019, China's National People's Congress adopted a unified Foreign Investment Law, which comes into effect on January 1, 2020.

List of prominent joint ventures in China

 * AMD-Chinese
 * Huawei-Symantec
 * Shanghai Automotive Industry Corporation (上海汽车集团股份有限公司), also known as SAIC (上汽) and SAIC-GM (上汽通用), is a Chinese state-owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Shanghai, operating in joint venture with US owned General Motors. Products produced by SAIC joint venture companies are sold under marques including Baojun, Buick, Chevrolet, Iveco, Škoda, and Volkswagen.
 * General Motors with SAIC Motor, formerly known as Shanghai General Motors Company Ltd., makes numerous cars in China in four factories, especially Buick, but also some Chevrolet and Cadillac models. In November 2018, the company announced new Chevrolet models for the Chinese market, including an extended-wheelbase Malibu XL, a new Chevy SUV concept, and a new Monza.
 * Volkswagen Group China - The numerous VW and Audi cars manufactured in China are made under two joint-venture partnerships: FAW-Volkswagen and SAIC Volkswagen.
 * Beijing Benz Automotive Co., Ltd is a joint venture between BAIC Motor and Daimler AG. As of November 22, 2018, a full two million Mercedes-Benz vehicles had been built in China by this alliance.
 * Dongfeng Motor Corporation (东风汽车公司, abbreviated to 东风) is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Wuhan. The company was the second-largest Chinese vehicle maker in 2017, by production volume, manufacturing over 4.1 million vehicles that year. Its own brands are Dongfeng, Venucia, and Dongfen Fengshen. Joint ventures include Cummins, Dana, Honda, Nissan, Infiniti, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Renault, Kia, and Yulon. FAW Group Corporation (第一汽车集团, abbreviated to 一汽) is a Chinese state-owned automotive manufacturing company headquartered in Changchun. In 2017, the company ranked third in terms of output making 3.3 million vehicles. FAW sells products under at least ten different brands including its own and Besturn/Bēnténg, Dario, Haima, Hongqi, Jiaxing, Jie Fang, Jilin, Oley, Jie Fang and Yuan Zheng, and Tianjin Xiali. FAW joint ventures sell Audi, General Motors, Mazda, Toyota and Volkswagen.
 * GAC (Guangzhou Automobile Group), is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer headquartered in Guangzhou. They were the sixth biggest manufacturer in 2017, manufacturing over 2 million vehicles in 2017. GAC sells passenger cars under the Trumpchi brand. In China, they are more known for their foreign joint-venture with Fiat, Honda, Isuzu, Mitsubishi, and Toyota.
 * Chang'an Automobile Group (重庆长安汽车股份有限公司, abbreviated to 长安) is an automobile manufacturer headquartered in Chongqing, and is a state-owned enterprise. In 2017, the company ranked fourth in terms of output making 2.8 million vehicles in 2017. Changan designs, develops, manufactures and sells passenger cars sold under the Changan brand and commercial vehicles sold under the Chana brand. Foreign joint venture companies include Suzuki, Ford, Mazda and PSA Peugeot Citroën.
 * Chery, a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Anhui. They were the tenth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with Jaguar Land Rover for the production of Jaguar and Land Rover cars in China.
 * Brilliance Auto, is a Chinese state-owned automobile manufacturer based in Shenyang. They were the ninth biggest manufacturer in 2017. They have a foreign joint venture with BMW and also sells passenger vehicles under their own brand Brilliance and are expected to make 520,000 cars in China during 2019.
 * Honda Motor Co has a joint venture with Guangzhou Automobile Group (GAC Group)
 * Geely-Volvo, Geely, is the biggest privately owned automobile manufacturer and seventh biggest manufacturer overall in China. Their flagship brand Geely Auto became the top Chinese car brand in 2017. Currently one of the fastest growing automotive groups in the world, Geely is known for their ownership of Swedish luxury car brand, Volvo. In China, their passenger car brands include Geely Auto, Volvo Cars, and Lynk & Co. The entire Volvo Cars company has been owned by the Chinese company Geely since 2010 and manufactures most of the XC60 vehicles in China for export.

India
JV companies are the preferred form of corporate investment but there are no separate laws for joint ventures. Companies which are incorporated in India are treated on par as domestic companies.

 * The above two parties subscribe to the shares of the JV company in agreed proportion, in cash, and start a new business.
 * Two parties, (individuals or companies), incorporate a company in India. Business of one party is transferred to the company and as consideration for such transfer, shares are issued by the company and subscribed by that party. The other party subscribes for the shares in cash.
 * Promoter shareholder of an existing Indian company and a third party, who/which may be individual/company, one of them non-resident or both residents, collaborate to jointly carry on the business of that company and its shares are taken by the said third party through payment in cash.

Private companies (only about $2500 is the lower limit of capital, no upper limit) are allowed in India together with and public companies, limited or not, likewise with partnerships. sole proprietorship too are allowed. However, the latter are reserved for NRIs.

Through capital market operations, foreign companies can transact on the two exchanges without prior permission of RBI but they cannot own more than 10 percent equity in paid-up capital of Indian enterprises, while aggregate foreign institutional investment (FII) in an enterprise is capped at 24 percent.

The establishment of wholly owned subsidiaries (WOS) and project offices and branch offices, incorporated in India or not. Sometimes, it is understood, that branches are started to test the market and get its flavor. Equity transfer from residents to non-residents in mergers and acquisitions (M&A) is usually permitted under the automatic route. However, if the M&As are in sectors and activities requiring prior government permission (Appendix 1 of the Policy) then transfer can proceed only after permission.

Joint ventures with trading companies are allowed together with imports of secondhand plants and machinery.

It is expected that in a JV, the foreign partner supplies technical collaboration and the pricing includes the foreign exchange component, while the Indian partner makes available the factory or building site and locally made machinery and product parts. Many JVs are formed as public limited companies (LLCs) because of the advantages of limited liability.

Ukraine
In Ukraine, most of joint ventures are operated in the form of Limited liability company, as there is no legal entity form as Joint venture. Protection of the rights of foreign investors is guaranteed by Law of Ukraine "On Foreign Investment". In Ukraine, JV can be established without legal entity formation and act under so called Cooperation Agreement Under the Ukraine civil code, CA can be established by two or more parties; rights and obligations of the parties are regulated by the agreement. Cooperation agreement has been widely spread in Ukraine, mainly in the field of oil and gas production.

title: Joint venture


text:
John Davis

John Davis may refer to:

Academics

 * John A. G. Davis (1802–1840), professor at the University of Virginia School of Law, shot to death by a student
 * John Aubrey Davis Sr. (1912–2002), African American activist and political science professor
 * John Adelbert Davis (1871–1934), American bible college founder
 * John Davies (lecturer) or Davis (fl. 1816–1850), English chemist and lecturer
 * John Davis (academic) (1938–2017), English anthropologist and Warden of All Souls College, Oxford
 * John Emmeus Davis (born 1949), scholar, writer and community organizer
 * John J. Davis (theologian) (born 1936), American theologian, archaeologist, and Christian educator
 * John Davis (paediatrician) (born 1923), British emeritus professor of paediatrics
 * John Jefferson Davis, professor of theology and Presbyterian pastor
 * John Warren Davis (college president) (1888–1980), African American educator, college administrator, and civil rights leader

Art

 * John Davis (sculptor) (1936–1999), Australian sculptor
 * John F. Davis (artist) (born 1958), Australian artist, painter and video editor
 * John Philip Davis (1784–1862), British portrait and subject painter
 * John Scarlett Davis (1804–1845), English painter

Fictional characters

 * John Davis, character in After Many Years
 * John Davis (EastEnders), fictional character on British soap opera, Eastenders
 * Sergeant John Davis, a playable character in Call of Duty 2

Films and television

 * John Davis (producer) (born 1954), American film producer
 * John Davis (filmmaker) (1944–2015), Australian documentary filmmaker
 * John A. Davis (born 1961), American animator
 * John H. Davis (television) (born 1944), American television presenter and journalist

Music

 * John Davis (singer) (1954–2021), American singer
 * Blind John Davis (1913–1985), American blues pianist
 * John Davis (pianist) (born 1957), American classical pianist
 * John Davis (album), a 2005 album by singer-songwriter John Davis
 * John Davis and the Monster Orchestra, 1970s band
 * John Davis (singer-songwriter) (born 1974), Superdrag member
 * John David Davis (1867–1942), English composer

Video Games

 * John Davis (producer) (born 1989), American video game producer

Writers

 * John Gordon Davis (1936–2014), Rhodesian writer of adventure novels
 * John H. Davis (author) (1929–2012), American author
 * John T. Davis, American author

Law

 * John Davis (U.S. district court judge) (1761–1847), Massachusetts state representative and federal judge
 * John Davis (United States Court of Claims judge) (1851–1902), Assistant Secretary of State and judge of Court of Claims
 * John F. Davis (lawyer) (1907–2000), Clerk of the Supreme Court of the United States
 * John Warren Davis (judge) (1867–1945), NJ State legislator and Judge, Third Circuit Court of Appeals
 * Bancroft Davis (John Chandler Bancroft Davis, 1822–1907), Supreme Court Reporter of Decisions, 1883–1902

Military

 * John Davis (American Civil War sailor) (died 1863), United States Navy, Medal of Honor recipient for actions in 1862
 * John Davis (American Civil War soldier) (1838–1901), United States Army, Medal of Honor recipient for actions in 1865
 * John Davis (Medal of Honor, 1881) (1854–1903), United States Navy, Medal of Honor recipient for actions in 1881
 * John Davis (Medal of Honor, 1898) (1877–1970), United States Navy, Medal of Honor recipient for actions in 1898
 * Sir John Davis (RAF officer) (1911–1989), Royal Air Force air chief marshal
 * John Edward Davis (Royal Navy officer) (1815–1877)
 * John J. Davis (general) (1909–1997), U.S. Army, Military Intelligence
 * John K. Davis (1927–2019), U.S. Marine Corps
 * John L. Davis (1825–1889), admiral in the United States Navy
 * Sir John Davis (British Army officer) (1832–1901), British general
 * John Davis, officer of the British commando Force 136 in WWII Malaya

United States

 * John Davis (Kansas politician) (1826–1901), U.S. Representative from Kansas
 * John Davis (Massachusetts governor) (1787–1854), Governor of Massachusetts, 1834–1835; 1841–1843; U.S. senator and U.S. congressman
 * John Davis (Oregon politician), member of the Oregon House of Representatives
 * John Davis (Pennsylvania politician) (1788–1878), U.S. Representative from Pennsylvania
 * John H. Davis (diplomat) (1904–1988), U.S. assistant secretary of agriculture and Director of UNRWA
 * John E. Davis (North Dakota politician) (1913–1990), Governor of North Dakota, 1957–1961
 * John E. Davis (Texas politician) (born 1960), Texas state representative, 1999–2015
 * John G. Davis (1810–1866), U.S. Representative from Indiana
 * John J. Davis (congressman) (1835–1916), United States Representative from West Virginia
 * John Morgan Davis (1906–1984), Lieutenant Governor of Pennsylvania
 * John W. Davis (governor) (1826–1907), Governor of Rhode Island
 * John W. Davis (1873–1955), Democratic U.S. presidential candidate, 1924
 * John W. Davis (New Jersey politician) (1918–2003), speaker of the New Jersey General Assembly
 * John Wesley Davis (1799–1859), U.S. Representative from Indiana, Governor of Oregon Territory
 * John William Davis (Georgia politician) (1916–1992), U.S. Representative from Georgia
 * John C. Davis, labor economist and U.S. President Harry S. Truman staff member

Other countries

 * John Francis Davis (1795–1890), British Governor of Hong Kong and minor poet
 * John Davis (Australian politician) (1817–1893), Australian pastoralist in colonial Western Australia
 * John Caswell Davis (1888–1953), Canadian senator
 * Jack Davis (Canadian politician) (1916–1991), Canadian politician from British Columbia

Baseball

 * John Davis (pitcher, born 1883) (1883–1946), Negro leagues pitcher
 * John Davis (pitcher, born 1963) (born 1963), Major League Baseball player
 * Quack Davis (John Davis), Negro leagues outfielder
 * Red Davis (John Humphrey Davis, 1915–2002), Major League Baseball third baseman

Cricket

 * John Brewer Davis (1741–1817), English cricketer
 * John Davis (cricketer, born 1882) (1882–1963), English cricketer for Derbyshire
 * John Davis (Worcestershire cricketer) (1884–1951), English cricketer
 * John Davis (cricketer, born 1939), Welsh cricketer
 * John Davis (cricketer, born 1943) (1943–2000), English cricketer

Other sports

 * John Davis (footballer), soccer player
 * John Davis (offensive lineman) (born 1965), American football offensive lineman
 * John Davis (tight end) (born 1973), American football tight end
 * J. Elwood Davis (1892–1974) American football player
 * J. R. Davis (John Ryland Davis), American college football player
 * John Davis (rower) (1929–2017), American Olympic rower
 * John Davis (skier), American para-alpine skier
 * John Davis (speedway rider) (born 1954), English speedway rider
 * John Davis (swimmer) (born 1978), New Zealand swimmer
 * John Davis (weightlifter) (1921–1984), American Olympian, gold medalist
 * John S. Davis (1898–1985), American head college football coach for the Ottawa University Braves, 1930
 * John Davis, Jr., (born 1953), American professional boxer and convicted serial killer who fought under the ring name of Steve Hearon
 * John Davis (wrestler) (born 1893, date of death unknown), British Olympian

Other people

 * John Clements Davis (born 1938), American geologist
 * John Davis (British businessman) (1906–1993), English managing director of the Rank Organisation, later Chairman
 * John Davis (buccaneer) (alias of Robert Searle), English buccaneer
 * John Davis (explorer) (1550–1605), English navigator and explorer
 * John Davis (entrepreneur) (born 1953), American entrepreneur
 * John Davis (sealer) (1784–1???), English-born American who claimed to have first set foot on Antarctica
 * John Bunnell Davis (1780–1824), English physician
 * John King Davis (1884–1967), Australian explorer and navigator
 * John Marsh Davis (1931–2009), American architect
 * John P. Davis (1905–1973), African-American activist and writer
 * John H. Davis (publisher) (died 1896), African-American newspaper publisher, politician and land speculator in Roanoke, Virginia
 * John E. Davis (architect) (1891–1961), college football player and architect in Birmingham, Alabama
 * John Merle Davis (1875–1960), American missionary
 * John R. Davis Jr. (born 1927), American diplomat

title: John Davis


text:
Oʼodham language

Oʼodham (pronounced, English approximation: ) or Papago-Pima is a Uto-Aztecan language of southern Arizona and northern Sonora, Mexico,  where the Tohono Oʼodham (formerly called the Papago) and Akimel Oʼodham (traditionally called Pima) reside. In 2000 there were estimated to be approximately 9,750 speakers in the United States and Mexico combined, although there may be more due to underreporting.

It is the 10th most-spoken indigenous language in the United States, the 3rd most-spoken indigenous language in Arizona after Western Apache and Navajo. It is the third-most spoken language in Pinal County, Arizona, and the fourth-most spoken language in Pima County, Arizona.

Approximately 8% of Oʼodham speakers in the US speak English "not well" or "not at all", according to results of the 2000 Census. Approximately 13% of Oʼodham speakers in the US were between the ages of 5 and 17, and among the younger Oʼodham speakers, approximately 4% were reported as speaking English "not well" or "not at all".

Native names for the language, depending on the dialect and orthography, include Oʼodham ha-ñeʼokĭ, Oʼottham ha-neoki, and Oʼodham ñiok.

Dialects
The Oʼodham language has a number of dialects.

 * Oʼodham
 * Tohono Oʼodham
 * Cukuḍ Kuk
 * Gigimai
 * Huhuʼula (Huhuwoṣ)
 * Totoguanh
 * Akimel Oʼodham
 * Eastern Gila
 * Kohadk
 * Salt River
 * Western Gila
 * Hia C-ed Oʼodham

Due to the paucity of data on the linguistic varieties of the Hia C-eḍ Oʼodham, this section currently focuses on the Tohono Oʼodham and Akimel Oʼodham dialects only.

The greatest lexical and grammatical dialectal differences are between the Tohono Oʼodham (or Papago) and the Akimel Oʼodham (or Pima) dialect groupings. Some examples:

There are other major dialectal differences between northern and southern dialects, for example:

The Cukuḍ Kuk dialect has null in certain positions where other Tohono Oʼodham dialects have a bilabial:

Morphology
Oʼodham is an agglutinative language, where words use suffix complexes for a variety of purposes with several morphemes strung together.

Phonology
Oʼodham phonology has a typical Uto-Aztecan inventory distinguishing 19 consonants and 5 vowels.

Consonants
The retroflex consonants are apical postalveolar.

Vowels
Most vowels distinguish two degrees of length: long and short, and some vowels also show extra-short duration (voicelessness).

 * ṣe꞉l "Seri"
 * ṣel "permission"
 * ʼa꞉pi "you"
 * da꞉pĭ "I don't know", "who knows?"

Papago is pronounced  in Pima.

Additionally, in common with many northern Uto-Aztecan languages, vowels and nasals at end of words are devoiced. Also, a short schwa sound, either voiced or unvoiced depending on position, is often interpolated between consonants and at the ends of words.

Allophony and distribution

 * Extra short $\langleĭ\rangle$ is realized as voiceless and devoices preceding obstruents: cuwĭ  →  "jackrabbit".
 * is a fricative before unrounded vowels: wisilo.
 * appears before and  in Spanish loanwords, but native words do not have nasal assimilation: to꞉nk  "hill", namk  "meet", ca꞉ŋgo  "monkey"., , and  rarely occur initially in native words, and  does not occur before.
 * and are largely in complementary distribution,  appearing before high vowels,  appearing before low vowels : ñeʼe "sing". They contrast finally (ʼañ (1st imperfective auxiliary) vs. an "next to speaker"), though Saxton analyzes these as  and , respectively, and final  as in ʼa꞉ñi as . However, there are several Spanish loanwords where  occurs: nu꞉milo "number". Similarly, for the most part  and  appear before low vowels while  and  before high vowels, but there are exceptions to both, often in Spanish loanwords: tiki꞉la ("tequila") "wine", TO weco / AO veco ("[de]bajo") "under".

Orthography
There are two orthographies commonly used for the Oʼodham language: Alvarez–Hale and Saxton. The Alvarez–Hale orthography is officially used by the Tohono Oʼodham Nation and the Salt River Pima–Maricopa Indian Community, and is used in this article, but the Saxton orthography is also common and is official in the Gila River Indian Community. It is relatively easy to convert between the two, the differences between them being largely no more than different graphemes for the same phoneme, but there are distinctions made by Alvarez–Hale not made by Saxton.

The Saxton orthography does not mark word-initial or extra-short vowels. Final $\langlei\rangle$ generally corresponds to Hale–Alvarez $\langleĭ\rangle$ and final $\langleih\rangle$ to Hale–Alvarez $\langlei\rangle$:

 * Hale–Alvarez toobĭ vs. Saxton tohbi "cottontail rabbit"
 * Hale–Alvarez ʼaapi vs. Saxton ahpih "I"

Disputed spellings
There is some disagreement among speakers as to whether the spelling of words should be only phonetic or whether etymological principles should be considered as well.

For instance, oamajda vs. wuamajda ("frybread"; the spellings oamacda and wuamacda are also seen) derives from oam (a warm color roughly equivalent to yellow or brown). Some believe it should be spelled phonetically as wuamajda, reflecting the fact that it begins with, while others think its spelling should reflect the fact that it is derived from oam (oam is itself a form of s-oam, so while it could be spelled wuam, it is not since it is just a different declension of the same word).

Syntax
Oʼodham has relatively free word order within clauses; for example, all of the following sentences mean "the boy brands the pig":

 * ceoj ʼo g ko꞉jĭ ceposid
 * ko꞉jĭ ʼo g ceoj ceposid
 * ceoj ʼo ceposid g ko꞉jĭ
 * ko꞉jĭ ʼo ceposid g ceoj
 * ceposid ʼo g ceoj g ko꞉jĭ
 * ceposid ʼo g ko꞉jĭ g ceoj

In principle, these could also mean "the pig brands the boy", but such an interpretation would require an unusual context.

Despite the general freedom of sentence word order, Oʼodham is fairly strictly verb-second in its placement of the auxiliary verb (in the above sentences, it is ʼo):

 * cipkan ʼañ "I am working"
 * but pi ʼañ cipkan "I am not working", not **pi cipkan ʼañ

Verbs
Verbs are inflected for aspect (imperfective cipkan, perfective cipk), tense (future imperfective cipkanad), and number (plural cicpkan). Number agreement displays absolutive behavior: verbs agree with the number of the subject in intransitive sentences, but with that of the object in transitive sentences:

 * ceoj ʼo cipkan "the boy is working"
 * cecoj ʼo cicpkan "the boys are working"
 * ceoj ʼo g ko꞉ji ceposid "the boy is branding the pig"
 * cecoj ʼo g ko꞉ji ceposid "the boys are branding the pig"
 * ceoj ʼo g kokji ha-cecposid "the boy is branding the pigs"

The main verb agrees with the object for person (ha- in the above example), but the auxiliary agrees with the subject: ʼa꞉ñi ʼañ g kokji ha-cecposid "I am branding the pigs".

Nouns
Three numbers are distinguished in nouns: singular, plural, and distributive, though not all nouns have distinct forms for each. Most distinct plurals are formed by reduplication and often vowel loss plus other occasional morphophonemic changes, and distributives are formed from these by gemination of the reduplicated consonant:

 * gogs "dog", gogogs "dogs", goggogs "dogs (all over)"
 * ma꞉gina "car", mamgina "cars", mammagina "cars (all over)"
 * mi꞉stol "cat", mimstol "cats"

Adjectives
Oʼodham adjectives can act both attributively modifying nouns and predicatively as verbs, with no change in form.

 * ʼi꞉da ṣu꞉dagĭ ʼo s-he꞉pid "This water is cold"
 * ʼs-he꞉pid ṣu꞉dagĭ ʼañ hohoʼid "I like cold water"

Sample text
The following is an excerpt from Oʼodham Piipaash Language Program: Taḏai ("Roadrunner"). It exemplifies the Salt River dialect.

 * Na꞉nse ʼe꞉da, mo꞉ hek jeweḍ ʼu꞉d si we꞉coc, ma꞉ṣ hek Taḏai siskeg ʼu꞉d ʼuʼuhig. Hek ʼaʼanac c wopo꞉c si wo skegac c ʼep si cecwac. Kuṣ ʼam hebai hai ki g ʼOʼodham ṣam ʼoʼoidam k ʼam ʼupam da꞉da k ʼam ce꞉ ma꞉ṣ he꞉kai cu hek ha na꞉da. ʼI꞉dam ʼOʼodham ṣam ʼeh he꞉mapa k ʼam aʼaga ma꞉ṣ has ma꞉sma vo bei hek na꞉da ʼab ʼamjeḍ hek Tatañki Jioṣ. Ṣa biʼi ʼa ma꞉ṣ mo ka꞉ke hek Taḏai ma꞉ṣ mo me꞉tk ʼamo ta꞉i hek na꞉da ha we꞉hejeḍ ʼi꞉dam ʼOʼodham. Taḏai ṣa꞉ ma so꞉hi ma꞉ṣ mo me꞉ḍk ʼamo ta꞉i g na꞉da hek Tatañki Jioṣ. Tho ṣud me꞉tkam, ʼam "si ʼi nai꞉ṣ hek wo꞉gk" k gau mel ma꞉ṣ ʼam ki g Tatañki Jioṣ.

In Saxton orthography:

 * Nahnse ehtha, moh hek jeved uhth sih vehchoch, mahsh hek Tadai siskeg uhth uʼuhig. Hek aʼanach ch vopohch sih vo skegach ch ep sih chechvach. Kush am hebai hai kih g Oʼottham sham oʼoitham k am upam thahtha k am cheh mahsh hehkai chu hek ha nahtha. Ihtham Oʼothham sham eh hehmapa k am aʼaga mahsh has mahsma vo bei hek nahtha ab amjeth hek Tatanigi Jiosh. Sha biʼih a mahsh mo kahke hek Tadai mahsh mo mehtk amo tahʼih hek nahtha ha vehhejed ihtham Oʼottham. Tadai shah ma sohhih mahsh mo mehdk amo tahʼih g nahtha hek Tatanigi Jiosh. Tho shuth mehtkam, am "sih ih naihsh hek vohgk" k gau mel mahsh am kih g Tatanigi Jiosh.

The following is a song from O'odham Hoho'ok A'agida (O'odham Legends and Lore) by Susanne Ignacio Enos, and Dean and Lucille Saxton. It exemplifies the "Storyteller dialect".

In Saxton orthography:

 * Ali s-kohmangi chemamangi wiapo'oge'eli, hemu aichu mahch k e ahnga. Wahsh ng uwi chechenga ch mu'ikko ia melopa, oi wa pi e nako. Wahshana memenada ch gahghai chum a neinahim.

English:

 * Little gray horned toad youth, he just now learned something and is telling about himself. Over there he visits a girl repeatedly. And comes many times, yet he can't make it. Over there he keeps running, trying to look across at her.

title: Oʼodham language


text:
Nemaha

Nemaha is the name of several places in the United States, including:

 * Nemaha, Iowa
 * Nemaha, Nebraska
 * Nemaha County, Kansas
 * Nemaha County, Nebraska
 * Nemaha Township, Gage County, Nebraska

title: Nemaha


text:
Redmon

Redmon may refer to:

Places:
 * Redmon, Illinois, a United States village

People:
 * Anthony Redmon
 * Dusty Redmon
 * Ginger Redmon
 * Jessie Redmon Fauset
 * Redmon & Vale

Other:
 * RedMon (software), a printer port redirecter for Windows

title: Redmon


text:
Redpath

Redpath may refer to:

Businesses

 * Redpath Motor Vehicle Company, a former Canadian automaker
 * Redpath Sugar, a Canadian sugar refining company

People

 * Redpath (surname), a list of people with the surname Redpath

Places

 * Redpath, Scottish Borders, a village in the Scottish Borders, Scotland
 * Redpath Hall, McGill University's first library building
 * Redpath Museum, a museum at McGill University
 * Redpath Sugar Refinery, Toronto, Canada
 * Redpath Township, Traverse County, Minnesota, United States

title: Redpath


text:
Danny Tamberelli

Danny Tamberelli (born February 8, 1982) is an American actor and musician. He is known for his portrayal of Little Pete Wrigley in The Adventures of Pete & Pete from 1989 to 1995 and for his work as a cast member of the Nickelodeon sketch comedy series All That. He is also known for his portrayal of Jimmy De Santa in the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V.

Early life and education
Tamberelli was raised in Maywood, New Jersey and moved to Wyckoff, New Jersey, where he attended Ramapo High School, graduating in 2000. Tamberelli is a graduate of Hampshire College, where he earned a bachelor's degree in interdisciplinary arts focusing on music performance and booking management.

Career
Tamberelli's first performance was in a Huggies commercial, according to a 1994 interview. His first regular television role, at age 4, was as Sean Novak on the ABC daytime soap opera Ryan's Hope. He originally appeared from 1986 to 1987, when his character, along with his on-screen parents, were written off the show. However, he returned to the role in the fall of 1988 when the Novak family was brought back, to help close up storylines in preparation for the Ryan's Hope finale in January 1989.

Afterwards, Tamberelli played Jackie Rodowsky on the television series The Baby-Sitters Club. It was around this time that he was cast as Little Pete Wrigley on The Adventures of Pete & Pete, which first began as a series of 60-second shorts on Nickelodeon in 1989. After progressing to a batch of specials, Pete & Pete became a regular half-hour sitcom in 1993, and brought Tamberelli more recognition. During his time in the show, he met the musicians Iggy Pop and Mark Mulcahy, who inspired him to become a musician too; Iggy would teach him how to play the song T.V. Eye (from The Stooges' album Fun House) on bass in between breaks, when Tamberelli was 11. Around that time he provided the voice for Arnold in The Magic School Bus, as well as appearing in the films Igby Goes Down and The Mighty Ducks. He was also on Nickelodeon's All That from 1997 to 2000 and Figure It Out from 1997 to 1999, and guest starred in the Space Cases episode "All You Can Eaty". In the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V, he provided the voice and physical inspiration for Jimmy Townley/Jimmy De Santa.

Tamberelli is the bassist and vocalist for the rock band Jounce, formed in Northern New Jersey. They started in the early 2000s as a jazz funk quartet, but their sound later evolved into "90s music-inspired post-punk". They released an eponymous debut album on July 18, 2006, followed by their sophomore effort, These Things on March 31, 2009. The EP titled Meet Me in the Middle was released digitally on April 4, 2011. As of 2016, the only remaining members from the original formation were Tamberelli and childhood friend and guitarist Matt DeSteno. Tamberelli was also the bassist for the folk/pop band Every Good Boy.

In 2013, he started a podcast with former The Adventures of Pete and Pete co-star Michael C. Maronna. He is also a founding member of the sketch comedy group Manboobs, along with Jeremy Balon. In May 2024, he and his wife Kate Tamberelli published their book The Road Trip Rewind.

Personal life
Tamberelli married author Katelyn Detweiler in early 2018. In 2019, they had a son, and in 2022, they had a daughter.

title: Danny Tamberelli


text:
Necrophobia

Necrophobia is a specific phobia, the irrational fear of dead organisms (e.g., corpses) as well as things associated with death (e.g., coffins, tombstones, funerals, cemeteries). With all types of emotions, obsession with death becomes evident in both fascination and objectification. In a cultural sense, necrophobia may also be used to mean a fear of the dead by a cultural group, e.g., a belief that the spirits of the dead will return to haunt the living.

The sufferer may experience this sensation all the time, or when something triggers the fear, like a close encounter with a dead animal or the funeral of a loved one or friend. The word necrophobia is derived from the Greek nekros (νεκρός) for "corpse" and the Greek phobos (φόβος) for "fear".

Causes
Necrophobia can have a variety of causes, many of which are still being researched. Many cases of Necrophobia are caused by a traumatic incident, such as a close loved one or pet dying, or encountering a dead body. It has also been found that phobias result from a cultural, or learned response, meaning that an adult's anxiety, paranoia, and fear can be taught to a child that is observing it. That being said, some children can be more prone to anxiety and things of that sort through their genetics.

Another being influence can be the type of media that an individual is consuming. Movies and books from the Horror genre tend to generate a lot of fear around the dead. Researcher Matthew Hudson points out that "our brains are continuously anticipating and preparing us for action in response to threat, and horror movies exploit this expertly to enhance our excitement." Although this is meant to be inducing feeling of excitement, it can harbor emotions of fear. In addition to this, unresolved stress tends to invoke 'defensive and escaping behavior' and can be a contributing factor in necrophobia.

Symptoms
When experiencing effects from necrophobia, symptoms can vary for each individual. Some people can experience physical symptoms caused by triggers (e.g. encountering a dead body/animal, portrayal of death, etc.). These symptoms can include:

 * Dizziness or lightheadedness
 * Choking sensations
 * Shortness of breath
 * Sweaty palms
 * Racing heart
 * Prickly sensations like pins and needles
 * Excessive sweating
 * Tightness in chest
 * Hot and cold flashes
 * Trembling or shaking

 * Numbness

As well as some psychological symptoms, such as:

 * An intense feeling of fear and discomfort
 * Feeling of losing control or fainting
 * Fear of dying
 * Inability to distinguish reality
 * Feeling of detachment from one’s body
 * An urge to escape or avoid the situation

Origin
Necrophobia's known origins stem from Ancient Greek culture and have been present since the Neolithic period. At this time, it was a believed fear that the dead would arise in a state that was "neither living or dead, but rather 'undead.'" They believed that the purpose for this was to harm the living. Because of this fear, many or corpses have been uncovered with stones and amphora fragments placed on them. This was done as a way to pin down the body as a means of ensuring that it will not rise.

The fear that the dead will rejoin the living seemingly connect to their belief in the body and soul separating at death, implying that the soul lives on in another form (e.g., reincarnation, afterlife, etc.). This belief lead people to think that the soul can also be reconnected to the body, or that another spirit could take its place.

Treatment
Although there are no known ways to prevent or cure Necrophobia, there are several treatment options that can help people that people that experienced it. Many treatments involve psychotherapy, such as Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, and Exposure Therapy. Exposure therapy has actually been found to be the most effective at treating this disorder through desensitization. Medication can also be prescribed to treat this phobia. The antibiotic D-cycloserine is believed to facilitate fear extinction, and can be administered to treat specific phobias.

There are also ways to help yourself cope with phobias as well. These include:

 * Practice relaxation techniques such as meditation, yoga, deep breathing, etc.
 * Confide in a trusted person about your feelings.
 * Join a support group to share and learn from the experiences of others.
 * Try adopting mindfulness.
 * Don’t isolate yourself as that can lead to further complications.

title: Necrophobia


text:
User:Lascaux~enwiki

Greetings, friend! I really hope you are having a wonderful day!

(My pathetic excuse for a livejournal)

title: User:Lascaux~enwiki


text:
Leslie Orgel

Leslie Eleazer Orgel FRS (12 January 1927 – 27 October 2007) was a British chemist. He is known for his theories on the origin of life.

Biography
Leslie Orgel was born in London, England, on January 12, 1927. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree in chemistry with first-class honours from the University of Oxford in 1948. In 1951 he was elected a Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford and in 1953 was awarded his PhD in chemistry.

Orgel started his career as a theoretical inorganic chemist and continued his studies in this field at Oxford, the California Institute of Technology, and the University of Chicago.

Together with Sydney Brenner, Jack Dunitz, Dorothy Hodgkin, and Beryl M. Oughton he was one of the first people in April 1953 to see the model of the structure of DNA, constructed by Francis Crick and James Watson, at the time he and the other scientists were working at Oxford University's Chemistry Department. According to the late Dr. Beryl Oughton, later Rimmer, they all travelled together in two cars once Dorothy Hodgkin announced to them that they were off to Cambridge to see the model of the structure of DNA. All were impressed by the new DNA model, especially Brenner who subsequently worked with Crick; Orgel himself also worked with Crick at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies.

In 1955 he joined the chemistry department at Cambridge University. There he did work in transition metal chemistry and ligand field theory, published several peer-reviewed journal articles, and wrote a textbook entitled Transition Metal Chemistry: Ligand Field Theory (1960). He developed the Orgel diagram showing the energies of electronic terms in transition metal complexes.

Orgel formulated his protein-translation error-catastrophe theory of aging in 1963, (prior to the use of the term by Manfred Eigen for mutational error catastrophe) which has since been experimentally challenged.

In 1964, Orgel was appointed senior fellow and research professor at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, where he directed the Chemical Evolution Laboratory. He was also an adjunct professor in the Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at the University of California, San Diego, and he was one of five principal investigators in the NASA-sponsored NSCORT program in exobiology. Orgel also participated in NASA's Viking Mars Lander Program as a member of the Molecular Analysis Team that designed the gas chromatography mass spectrometer instrument that robots took to the planet Mars.

Orgel's lab came across an economical way to make cytarabine, a compound that is one of today's most commonly used anti-cancer agents.

Together with Stanley Miller, Orgel also suggested that peptide nucleic acids – rather than ribonucleic acids – constituted the first pre-biotic systems capable of self-replication on early Earth.

His name is popularly known because of Orgel's rules, credited to him, particularly Orgel's Second Rule: "Evolution is cleverer than you are."

In his book The Origins of Life, Orgel coined the concept of specified complexity, to describe the criterion by which living organisms are distinguished from non-living matter. He published over three hundred articles in his research areas.

In 1993, Orgel presented at the "What is Life?" Conference at Trinity College in Dublin, Ireland along with many other prominent scientists exploring the origin of life research such as Manfred Eigen, John Maynard Smith and Stephen Jay Gould. Orgel's talk was on "Molecular Structure and Disordered Crystals."

Orgel died of pancreatic cancer on 27 October 2007 at the San Diego Hospice & Palliative Care in San Diego, California.

Nucleobase synthesis
Orgel proposed a novel solution to a problem with Juan Oro's proposed mechanism of nucleobase synthesis on the early Earth, which relied on the reaction of five molecules of hydrogen cyanide (HCN) to form adenine. The problem with this was that it would require much more concentrated hydrogen cyanide than evidence suggested was present.

Orgel suggested that the hydrogen cyanide was frozen in solution. This would concentrate HCN molecules in the spaces in between the crystal lattice of ice, and also solve the problem of HCN being too volatile in a liquid water solution.

Nucleoside formation
For nucleoside (nucleobase + ribose sugar) synthesis, Orgel suggested an almost opposite approach, heating a mixture of ribose and the purine nucleobases hypoxanthine, adenine, and guanine to dryness in the presence of magnesium ions. This reaction puts the glycosidic bond in the correct position in two ways: the nucleobase attaches to the correct carbon on ribose, and in the correct orientation (the beta anomer).

However, the synthesis was later criticised because it only worked most with hypoxanthine, a nucleobase that is not relevant to current life on Earth, and because it was not specific for the ribose sugar and could instead be applied to other sugars.

RNA polymerization
Continuing his work studying the prebiotic synthesis of RNA, Orgel explored mechanisms by which inorganic phosphate and nucleotide phosphoryl groups could be chemically activated for condensation into nucleic acid polymers. Starting in the 1960s, Orgel explored a variety of cyanide-based activating agents which could have plausibly been present on a young earth. A carbodiimide reagent was found to be effective at activating nucleotide phosphoryl groups and promoting the formation of short Adenosine dimers and trimers. In 2018, John D. Sutherland and co-workers proposed that methyl isocyanide and acetaldehyde could combine to form a pre-biotic phosphate activating agent which could plausibly have formed under early-earth conditions.

Orgel also theorised that one single strand of RNA could have been the template for the first life on Earth and that these imidazole-activated nucleotides could have used this RNA template strand to polymerise and replicate. Lohrmann and Orgel reported that the phosphorimidazolide derivative of adenosine monophosphate (in which a phosphoryl group oxygen is substituted by an imidazole ring) forms short adenosine oligomers in the presence of poly-uridine templates. They further discovered that the divalent metal cation used to catalyze the reaction influenced the regiochemistry of the inter-nucleotide linkage. Pb2+ gave primarily 5’-2’ linked nucleotides while Zn2+ gave primarily 5’-3’ linked nucleotides from guanosine phosphorimidazolides in the presence of a poly-cytidine template. Montmorillonite clay was also shown to promote the polymerization of adenosine phosphorimidazolide into oligonucleotides tens of bases in length starting from a poly-adenosine 10-mer primer. In the absence of montmorillonite, the primer was capped through the formation of a 5’ adenosine pyrophosphate.

The oligonucleotide products in early studies were typically characterized through a combination of 14C radiolabeling, gel electrophoresis, and paper electrophoresis. Enzymatic digestion was used to differentiate regioisomers. The advent of HPLC allowed the characterization of long oligomers of guanosine.

Directed panspermia
Though he later downplayed the hypothesis, Orgel, along with Francis Crick, proposed a detailed panspermia scenario for the origin of life on Earth, going so far as to suggest that life on Earth was designed by an alien species and sent to Earth. They proposed a design for the spaceship that aliens could have used to seed life on Earth.

RNA world
In the late 1960s, Orgel proposed that life was based on RNA before it was based on DNA or proteins. His theory included genes based on RNA and RNA enzymes. This view would be developed and shaped into the now widely accepted RNA world hypothesis.

Almost thirty years later, Orgel wrote a lengthy review of the RNA World hypothesis. This review highlighted many proposed syntheses for RNA and its parts in abiotic conditions, noted the significance of the discovery of ribozymes (RNA molecules that function as enzymes just as Orgel had once predicted) and at the same time, demonstrated nucleic acid polymers with alternatives to ribose such as threose nucleic acid (TNA) and peptide nucleic acid (PNA).

In conclusion, Orgel wrote, "One must recognize that, despite considerable progress, the problem of the origin of the RNA World is far from being solved."

Awards

 * Elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 1990.
 * Elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society of London in 1962.
 * American Academy of Arts and Sciences

Books

 * Leslie E. Orgel, An Introduction to Transition-Metal Chemistry. The Ligand Field Theory, 1961
 * Leslie E. Orgel, The Origins of Life: Molecules and Natural Selection, 1973
 * Leslie E. Orgel and Stanley L. Miller, The Origins of Life on the Earth, 1974

title: Leslie Orgel