text:
Talk:Spring (hydrology)

Opening heading
'FORMATIONS' area needs to be rewritten by a geologist. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.171.2.179 (talk) 03:30, 10 March 2008 (UTC)

Poland Spring?
Does Poland Spring actually use spring water or is it just a fib?

Image
Where's the actual spring in the image? Lisiate 23:55, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Good point, I don't know. Maybe someone could upload a known spring and label it. HereToHelp 13:53, 16 October 2005 (UTC)
 * Assuming the description attached when uploading the picture was correct I have fixed this. Sfnhltb 14:56, 2 April 2006 (UTC)

The spring is where the water comes out of the earth, through the rock. It *is* in the picture.

Bottle
What relevance does the image of the bottle really have to the article? Should be removed.--Hatch68 02:50, 14 June 2006 (UTC)
 * I suppose the relevance could be that most peple drink spring water from a bottle. -Will Beback 04:06, 14 June 2006 (UTC)
 * Well it should be in a spring water article, not in an article about springs.--Hatch68 18:38, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Biology
Seems like a section on the biology of springs might be interesting.Dmccabe 04:06, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

Mythology
Is there anywhere on Wikipedia that discusses alleged magical, healing and spiritual qualities of springs and springwater worldwide - eg. Fountain of Youth, that Catholic thing in France, modern day snakeoilers etc.

If not, would not this page be the apt place to start building such material (in an encyclopedic NPOV manner)?--ZayZayEM (talk) 02:38, 13 August 2008 (UTC)

 * See Holy well. Valerius Tygart (talk) 15:21, 27 September 2010 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved. Vegaswikian (talk) 06:33, 23 February 2012 (UTC)

Spring (hydrosphere) → Spring (hydrology) – We obviously need a disambiguator here, but since "hydrology" is a far more commonly used word than "hydrosphere", I think "hydrology" would work better as a disambiguation term. Good Ol’factory (talk) 00:20, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Rename per Good Olfactory. This arose out of a discussion at CfD discussion on Category:Springs. -- Brown HairedGirl (talk) • (contribs) 01:36, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Support  Waleswatcher  ( talk ) 04:27, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
 * Support - the article and the category should have consistent names.   Will Beback    talk    08:04, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

sp "sping"
there are probably several "sping"/"spings" typos on WP articles. corrected a few that were obvious but others with more knowledge about the particular article may be better at hand to change where appropriate.GinAndChronically (talk) 02:13, 1 June 2014 (UTC)

Merger proposal
I propose that Spring (water) be merged into Spring (hydrology). I think that the content in the Spring (water) article can easily be explained in the context of Spring (hydrology), and the Spring Hydrology article is of a reasonable size that the merging of Spring (water) will not cause any problems as far as article size or undue weight is concerned.

Apologies for the cut and paste but it seemed to fit the bill. This is only my third attempt to contribute and I hope I've got the right end of the stick. To put it another way: Spring (water) is a simplistic duplicate of what is more accurately and extensively covered in Spring (hydrology). — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dave.in.the.shire (talk • contribs) 20:30, 12 December 2015 (UTC)
 * But Spring (water) is a redirect to Spring (hydrology), so it is unclear to me what you think should be merged. + m t  23:25, 12 December 2015 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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New user comment
Hi, I would like to add some information basic about spring formation to this section. — Preceding unsigned comment added by X8OIS6 (talk • contribs) 01:03, 17 September 2020 (UTC)
 * Please provide details - or just do it. Vsmith (talk) 02:28, 17 September 2020 (UTC)

Team-B-Vital Improvement Drive
Hello all!

This article has been chosen as this week's effort for WP:Discord's #team-b-vital channel, a collaborate effort to bring Vital articles up to a B class if possible, similar to WP:Articles for Improvement. This effort will run for up to seven days, ending early if the article is felt to be at B-class or impossible to further improve. Articles are chosen by a quick vote among interested chatters, with the goal of working together on interesting Vital articles that need improving.

Thank you! -- ferret (talk) 01:13, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

Thoughts on improvements
Hello! I've started to make a few notes on possible improvements/additions in a sandbox here. Any thoughts? One of my interests (in addition to hot springs) are cultural representations of springs in art, literature, folklore, mythology. I'm wondering if it makes sense to have a section in this article for that; and if so, it would seem to make sense to move the subsection on "sacred springs" in this article there. Here's a few ideas on cultural representations in my sandbox:. I'm not married to the idea, but thought I'd put it out there. -- Netherzone (talk) 17:41, 13 November 2021 (UTC)
 * I think a section on cultural representations is a good idea. We could move the paragraph on the Fountain of Youth I wrote to such a section. The Team B Vital effort only goes for a week, but I'm happy to continue working on improving this article after that time, it's a good way for me to branch out from my usual subject matter (trains, duh). Ideally we would take this all the way to GA status. What you wrote in your sandbox looks very good to me. Trainsandotherthings (talk) 18:12, 13 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Great! I'll add the section and move the Fountain of Youth paragraph to it. (If someone objects, it can be removed and more discussion can happen.) I'd like to continue working on the article as well, and have never taken an article to GA, so it would be a good learning experience for me to collaborate with you on this. Netherzone (talk) 20:53, 13 November 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Spring (hydrology)


text:
User:Metapsyche

I am a cloud of vapor...

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Metapsyche


text:
User:Chrishester

I am a Software Developer in Texas. I am interested in Texas History, Politics and Software Developement.

title: User:Chrishester


text:
Provincetown Harbor

Provincetown Harbor is a large natural harbor located in the town of Provincetown, Massachusetts. The harbor is mostly 30 to 90 ft deep and stretches roughly 1 mi from northwest to southeast and 2 mi from northeast to southwest – one large, deep basin with no dredged channel necessary for boats to enter and exit.

A tall green buoy east of Long Point (i.e., the tip of Cape Cod) marks the entrance to Provincetown Harbor from Cape Cod Bay.

Geology
Most of Cape Cod was created by the Laurentide Glacier between 18,000 and 15,000 years ago. However, the Provincetown Spit, i.e., the land surrounding Provincetown Harbor from High Head in North Truro through all of Provincetown, consists largely of marine deposits transported from farther up the shore during the last 6,000 years.

History
A stone wall discovered in Provincetown in 1805 is thought to have been built by Viking Thorvald Eiriksson about AD 1007, when according to Norse sagas, the keel of Ericson's ship was repaired in the harbor.

Bartholomew Gosnold explored the harbor in 1602, and his mate Gabriel Archer wrote: "'The fifteenth day of May we had again sight of the land, which made ahead, being as we thought an island, by reason of a large sound that appeared westward between it and the main, for coming to the west end thereof, we did perceive a large opening, we called it Shoal Hope. Near this cape we came to anchor in fifteen fathoms, where we took great store of codfish, for which we altered the name, and called it Cape Cod. Here we saw sculls of herring, mackerel, and other small fish, in great abundance. This is a low sandy shoal, but without danger...'"

John Smith explored the harbor in 1614 and wrote: "'Cape Cod... is only a headland of high hills of sand, overgrown with shrubby pines, hurts, and such trash, but an excellent harbor for all weathers. This Cape is made by the main sea on the one side, and a great bay on the other, in form of a sickle...'"

Pilgrims' first landing
Provincetown Harbor was the initial anchoring place of the Pilgrims traveling on the Mayflower in 1620, before they proceeded to Plymouth, Massachusetts. Thoreau later observed that Smith's description of the harbor may have been less colored by the hardships of transoceanic troubles than the Pilgrims'. Mourt's Relation describes the harbor as: ""a good harbor and pleasant bay, circled round, except in the entrance, which is about four miles (6 km) over from land to land, compassed about to the very sea with oaks, pines, juniper, sassafras, and other sweet wood; it is a harbor wherein 1000 sail of ships may safely ride, there we relieved ourselves with wood and water, and refreshed our people, while our shallop was fitted to coast the bay, to search for an habitation: there was the greatest store of fowl we ever saw.""

The Mayflower held several different passengers in addition to the Pilgrims on its first transoceanic voyage. Before coming ashore at the extreme northwest corner of the harbor, the Pilgrims and other settlers signed the Mayflower Compact in the harbor on November 11, 1620. Dorothy Bradford, the first wife of William Bradford, was one of the first adult Pilgrims to die in the New World. According to the only known written description of her death from close to when it actually occurred, she fell overboard from the Mayflower in Provincetown Harbor on December 17, 1620 and drowned. Peregrine White, the first child born to the Pilgrims in New England, was born while they were in Provincetown Harbor.

Village of Long Point

From 1818 until the 1850s a fishing village existed at Long Point, complete with a post office, schoolhouse, 6 windmills for saltworks, and 38 homes for about 200 adults and 60 children. When the families left in the 1850s, they floated their homes a mile across the harbor, where many still stand today.

During the American Civil War, the military established defensive artillery battery positions at this location. The Long Point Battery would come to be known as "Fort Useless" and "Fort Ridiculous" by the local residents.

Today, Long Point is a ghost village, and nothing remains save for the Long Point Light, which had been replaced by a new light in 1875.

East Harbor
For the better part of modern history, the eastern part of Provincetown harbor was connected to yet another harbor, historically known as East Harbor. East Harbor was the most protected mooring place in the outer Cape for boats using Cape Cod Bay and the Gulf of Maine. East Harbor had a 1000 ft inlet from Provincetown Harbor, as shown in the adjacent map from 1836.

Until the late 19th century, there was not a single road leading in or out of Provincetown – the only land route connecting Provincetown to points beyond was along a thin stretch of beach along the shore to the north (locally called the "backshore"). A wooden bridge was erected over the East Harbor in 1854, only to be destroyed by a winter storm and ice two years later. Although the bridge was replaced the following year, a traveler using it still had to traverse several miles over a sand route, which, along with the backshore route, would occasionally be washed out by storms. This made Provincetown much like an island, in that it relied almost entirely upon its harbor for its communication, travel, and commerce needs.

In 1868 the mouth of the East Harbor was diked, to facilitate the laying of track for the arrival of the railroad; the wooden bridge and sand road were finally replaced by a formal roadway in 1877, as shown in the accompanying map from 1887. The East Harbor thus became a lake, connected to Provincetown Harbor only through a culvert in the dike, and in 1910, the U.S. Geologic Survey (USGS) officially renamed it Pilgrim Lake.

In the ensuing years, the dike became clogged with vegetation, beginning a trend of desalination and oxygen-depletion that resulted in the demise of native wildlife populations, occasionally in the form of fish kills. In 2004, tidal flow was successfully restored by the National Park Service, working together with other local, state, and federal agencies. In the following year, for the first time since Abraham Lincoln was president, legal-size clams were found in East Harbor. In 2008, the USGS officially renamed Pilgrim Lake, restoring the original appellation of East Harbor.

Other history
The Portland gale of 1898 destroyed several wharves and fishing vessels within the harbor.

In 2002, Provincetown Harbor Beach was selected by the US Environmental Protection Agency as one of three Flagship beaches for the state of Massachusetts that serve as models for beach managers in water quality monitoring and pollution assessments and because of its health.

The harbor is the southern boundary of the Provincetown historic district, which is on the National Register of Historic Places.

Landmarks
Two main parallel wharves dominated the center of the harbor in the late 19th century: Railroad Wharf and Steamboat Wharf. President Grant visited Provincetown for the opening of the railroad in 1874. Today, the wharves have been replaced by piers. Although rail and steamboat service to Provincetown both ended long ago, ferry service continues.

MacMillan Pier, the town pier of Provincetown, was significantly renovated and expanded during 2003-2005 with the help of a $1.95 million low interest loan from the Rural Development program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The pier primarily serves tourists and high-speed ferries to Boston and Plymouth that charge their passengers up to $44 per one-way trip. The Provincetown Public Pier Corporation (PPPC) entered into a 20-year lease agreement for MacMillan Pier operations in 2005. The pier is named after arctic explorer Donald B. MacMillan, a Provincetown native who retired to Provincetown and died there in 1970.

Immediately parallel to MacMillan Pier is Fisherman's Wharf, also known to locals as Cabral's Pier. They Also Faced the Sea is an outdoor art installation of five large portraits of local Portuguese-American women photographed by Norma Holt hanging since 2003 on one side and one end of the old fish-packing plant on Cabral Pier.

In both 1907 and 1910, when the Pilgrim Monument began construction and when it was dedicated, the entire Atlantic fleet of the U.S. Navy was inside the harbor for large ceremonies led by Presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft, respectively.

In addition to a panoramic view of the whole town, the harbor affords views of three working lighthouses: Long Point Light, Wood End Light, and Highland (or Cape Cod) Light. All three are on land within the Cape Cod National Seashore. The harbor serves as the southern boundary of the nationally registered Provincetown historic district, which consists of some 3000 acre, 1127 buildings, three structures, and five objects.

On the East End of Provincetown, Lewis Wharf was purchased by Mary Heaton Vorse, and its old fish shack converted into a theater which became the home of the Provincetown Players. Eugene O'Neill debuted his first play, Bound East for Cardiff, there in 1916.

Captain Jack's Wharf is on the West End of Provincetown.

U.S. Coast Guard has administrative buildings and barracks at the base of a concrete pier on the harbor. The current station opened in 1979 and is responsible for safety and law enforcement in over 1200 sqmi of Cape Cod Bay and the Atlantic Ocean. Noteworthy past disasters within this station's area include the wreck of the submarine S-4 in 1927. This station includes the first federal building to receive solar power. A frequent sight in the harbor is the station's 47-foot Motor Lifeboat.

The West End Breakwater, built in 1911 by the US Army Corps of Engineers, is open to the public for walking and exploring. Technically speaking, it is more of a dike than a breakwater. The harbor also has a "true" breakwater built between 1970 and 1972 and located 835 ft from the end of MacMillan Pier.

Marine life
Provincetown Harbor supports a wide variety of marine life from algae, seagrasses and plankton through bryozoa, hydroids, echinoderms, crustaceans, mollusks, fish, birds, marine mammals, and other animals.

The harbor is an amazingly diverse and productive habitat. The following tables list in no particular order 94 examples of marine life that are regularly observed within the harbor. A few landbirds are included that are common around MacMillan Pier, on the beaches, and on the breakwater.

Historic annual events
The Great Provincetown Schooner Regatta each September preserves the harbor's history as a great sailing port.

A Blessing of the Fleet ceremony is held at the end of MacMillan Pier in late June, when all the boats operating in the harbor are blessed by a visiting bishop as part of the Provincetown Portuguese Festival.

The Swim for Life occurs each September since 1988, which is a swim across the harbor to raise funds and awareness of HIV/AIDS, women's health and community health.

Commercial use

Roughly a dozen fishing trawlers (locally known as "draggers"), ferries to Boston and Plymouth, Massachusetts, several different sportfishing boats, boat rentals, and other commercial boats also use the harbor today.

East Coast whale watching on Stellwagen Bank originated as a joint effort of the Dolphin Fleet and the Center for Coastal Studies leaving from MacMillan Pier in 1975. In addition, other tour boat operators offer a variety of tours of and from the harbor, including historical sightseeing tours, harbor marine life tours, sunset cruises and more.

Further reading and other information

 * Wikipedia List of Nationally Registered Historic Places in Provincetown
 * Oldale, R. N., 1992, Cape Cod and the Islands, the geologic story: Parnassus Imprints, East Orleans, Massachusetts, 208 p. see Geologic History of Cape Cod, Massachusetts
 * Carl Christian Rafn, 1837. Antiquitates Americanæ. referred to by The Norse Wall House
 * Strahler, A. N., 1966, A Geologist's View of Cape Cod: Doubleday. Reprinted Parnassus Imprints (1988), Orleans, Massachusetts, 115 p.
 * Vorse, M.H. Time and the Town: A Provincetown Chronicle. 1942. Dial Press, New York, 372 p.
 * a Norma Holt exhibit in "Faces & Places"
 * "Shutterbug" 1999 interview with Norma Holt
 * Things to Do compiled by Provincetown Public Pier Corporation
 * Provincetown Chamber of Commerce has information about annual events, plus tourist information such as cruises and tours of the harbor.
 * old postcard of Captain Jack's wharf in West End

title: Provincetown Harbor


text:
Methylcytosine

Methylcytosine may refer to:

 * 5-Methylcytosine
 * 1-Methylcytosine, a nucleic acid in Hachimoji DNA
 * N(4)-Methylcytosine
 * 6-Methylcytosine

title: Methylcytosine


text:
Atlas Oryx

The Atlas Oryx (named after the Oryx antelope) is a medium-sized utility helicopter ostensibly developed and manufactured by the Atlas Aircraft Corporation (now Denel Aeronautics) of South Africa. Its largest operator is the South African Air Force (SAAF), having been originally developed to fulfil their needs.

Development of the Oryx commenced during the early 1980s, largely in response to the wartime demands of the Border War and the imposition of an arms embargo upon South Africa, which prevented the importing of foreign transport helicopters such as the Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma. Seeking to improve and augment the SAAF's existing fleet of rotorcraft, domestic industries examined means of improving the Puma helicopter. The Oryx is closely connected to the Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter, both rotorcraft being based on the Puma and development having been worked on in parallel around roughly the same time period. Following the conversion of a single Puma to the Oryx configuration, quantity production of the Oryx was authorised during the late 1980s.

Allegedly, the Oryx's development was greatly facilitated by the French helicopter firm Aérospatiale, the Puma's original manufacturer, who produced kits that were supplied to South Africa; Atlas Aviation had denied this involvement and claimed that the Oryx was an entirely indigenous programme. The existence of the Oryx became public knowledge during 1991, by which point it was in service with the SAAF. In the early 2000s, the SAAF opted to reduce the size of the Oryx fleet and upgrade the remainder; the scope of these upgrades was largely limited to airframe life extensions. The Oryx had been repeatedly deployed in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in support of UN-led peacekeeping operations in the country.

Background
The South African Air Force (SAAF) was a particularly prolific user of the French-sourced Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma, a medium-sized military transport helicopter. However, the nation's ability to procure further Pumas, along with many other items of military apparatus, had been greatly constrained following the enactment of an arms embargo upon South Africa under United Nations Security Council Resolution 418 due to its policy of apartheid. The inability to import new foreign military helicopters coincided with a long running military conflict between South Africa and neighbouring Angola, commonly referred to as the Border War or the Bush War. The need for capable attack helicopters beyond that of the gunship-configured Alouette series of helicopters was recognised by SAAF officials, leading to Atlas Aircraft producing an experimental attack helicopter, the XH-1 Alpha, and subsequently the more powerful XTP-1, the latter being created via the conversion of two existing Puma J airframes.

The development of an entirely new helicopter from scratch would have involved designing and developing many accompanying subsystems and components, such as the turboshaft engines and the dynamic systems, such as the main and tail rotor systems and the gearboxes. Due to the great difficulty posed by the prospects of designing and manufacturing a clean-design helicopter, which would have substantially increased the cost and timescale of the project, it was decided to base the attack helicopter upon an existing design. During this era, the SAAF operated two principal helicopter types – the Aérospatiale Alouette III and the Puma. While the Alouette III was a compact helicopter whose design originated in the 1960s, lacking in engine power and being relatively early amongst production rotorcraft and thus not a favourable candidate for further development work, the Puma was substantially larger and was equipped with more powerful engines; both factors provided a broader basis for the accommodation of additional equipment and for potential growth.

Officials became keen advocates for the improvement of the SAAF's existing rotorcraft via domestic upgrade programmes. One such initiative was the development of a dedicated attack helicopter based upon the dynamic systems of the Puma, which became the Denel Rooivalk. Atlas recognised the value of, in parallel to the Rooivalk's development, a localised and improved model of the Puma, an initiative which became the Oryx. In comparison to the Puma, the Oryx would possess an increased power-to-weight ratio and yield improved performance in the high temperature climate that the rotorcraft was typically being operated in; in comparison to the Rooivalk, development of the Oryx could proceed at a far quicker pace as it was an essentially more straightforward programme. Furthermore, the supply of spare parts for the Puma was a notable exception in the sanctions, making them plentiful in a circumstance where most counterparts would be blocked.

Production and alleged international involvement
While the foreign supply of most military equipment to South Africa was in violation of Resolution 418 at that time, deterring the majority of organisations from doing so, this did not render external assistance entirely beyond the realm of possibility. According to the author Hennie Van Vuuren, South African military planners arranged for the purchase of 66 Aérospatiale AS332 Super Pumas, an improved model of the Puma already in SAAF service; following their production in France, they would be disassembled for transit and transferred to the Portuguese Air Force, who officially were to be the end recipient, but would in fact transfer the disassembled rotorcraft onto South Africa via a Portuguese intermediary, where they would be reassembled by Atlas under the Oryx name.

During the 1990s, legal action was launched by the Portuguese firm Beverley Securities Incorporated (BSI) against the multinational helicopter manufacturer Eurocopter, the successor to Aérospatiale, over allegations related to the Oryx's development and its relation to the Puma helicopter. Allegedly, from 1986, South Africa had been supplied with 50 kits for the Oryx programme from Eurocopter via BSI under a $3 billion contract; BSI claimed that the Oryx was actually developed primarily by Aérospatiale, and that the kits had been described as spares for South Africa's existing fleet of Pumas. Atlas Aviation has consistently claimed that the Oryx was an indigenous programme that was developed by Atlas itself. During the 2010s, legal action on the matter between various parties, in which political involvement was alleged by Van Vuuren, was still ongoing.

A single Puma, no. 177, was converted to the Oryx configuration and served as a prototype; reportedly the results collected were in excess of all expectations, contributing to the launch of the Oryx programme. The presence of sanctions had encouraged both the South African government and domestic industries to pursue self-sufficiency wherever possible, and this principle was particularly apparent in the production of aircraft components and, with the knowledge to assemble pre-manufactured helicopters, led to the technical skill for producing complete Puma helicopters, should the need arise. This included complete airframes and dynamic components such as gearboxes, rotor blades and turbines and hot section parts. Wherever it was feasible to do so, commonality with the Rooivalk's systems was pursued in order to simplify logistics and reduce maintenance costs for both fleets.

Design

The Oryx is an upgraded and remanufactured version of the Puma, being basically equivalent to the Eurocopter AS332 Super Puma, and offers a performance improvement over the original model, in addition to reducing the operating costs by 25 to 30%. Early examples were fitted with the latest dust filters, as were then in use on the SAAF Puma, along with a moveable auxiliary air intake directly ahead of the engine. A newly designed dust filter was subsequently fitted, facilitating the removal of this auxiliary air intake. Should one of the engines be rendered inoperable, the remaining powerplant has sufficient power for the Oryx to complete its mission. If an engine fails in flight, the management system automatically advances the power setting on the remaining engine, ensuring the Oryx sustains flight with relatively little crew input, during such an emergency.

The basic airframe is still that of the original Puma, but the structure was modernized by extensive use of locally produced carbon-composite materials. These materials result in an airframe that is lighter and more rugged, which increases the Oryx's endurance and maneuverability. The obvious external difference is the new modified tailboom which is slightly longer (50 cm), than the Puma. Most Oryx are equipped with a 50m hydraulic hoist, rated for up to 2 personnel, for use in rescue operations. Additionally a large metal A-frame structure can be fitted in the cargo bay which allows up to four personnel to rappel or abseil from the aircraft simultaneously. Oryx operating from coastal squadrons are fitted with emergency flotation gear on the sponsons and nose.

Throughout the 1990s, Atlas representatives routinely marketed the Oryx to potential export customers, focusing particularly upon existing operators of the Puma within the African sub-continent; this sales effort included the provision of an upgrade package for existing Pumas into an Oryx-equivalent configuration.

Operational service
During mid-1991, the SAAF publicly acknowledged that the Oryx was in service and that its purpose was to replace its aging fleets of Pumas and Aérospatiale Super Frelons alike. It was displayed for the first time at an open day at Potchefstroom in August 1991.

Since 2003, the South African Air Force has dispatched multiple Oryx into the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) in support of UN-led peacekeeping operations in the country. In 2003, a pair of Oryx were stationed in the Ituri/Bunia area as part of a bilateral agreement with France, being briefly used to facilitate troop movements and medium-grade transport duties. A two-year long deployment started in 2007, with two Oryx deployed at a forward operating base in Kamina for transportation purposes in the unstable Goma region; the element was subsequently relocated to a site within Goma itself and strengthened with three additional Oryx and three Rooivalk attack helicopters. By 2015, the South African Aviation Unit in the DRC involved around 140 personnel and five Oryx, amongst other assets.

Being a multirole helicopter, the Oryx's primary missions within the SAAF have included medium to heavy transport duties, communications flights, task force rapid deployment operations, fire fighting, and search & rescue missions. Each one can reportedly carry up to 20 fully equipped troops, or up to six wounded personnel on stretchers with four attendants; in terms of freight, it can carry a maximum payload of 3,000 kg within the cabin, or transport up to 4,500 kg freight on an external sling. Tasks performed for the South African Navy include general transportation, at-sea replenishment, force multiplication, reconnaissance, and search & rescue operations.

During 2003, it was announced that, as a part of a major modernisation and reequipment programme, the SAAF had declared ten of its Oryx helicopters to be surplus to requirements and would be made available for re-sale. At the time, the service was in the process of inducting several new types, including the Saab JAS 39 Gripen multirole fighter, the BAE Systems Hawk trainer/ground attack aircraft, and the AgustaWestland AW109 rotorcraft, the latter being the SAAF's modern rotary-wing component.

In 2006, the SAAF initiated a mid life upgrade for its remaining inventory of 35 Oryx; one stated aim of this work was to extend the type's service life through to the 2015 - 2020 timeframe. In large part due to ongoing budgetary restrictions, the mid-life upgrade was limited in scope to life extensions to the air frame, although limited updates were performed to both the communications and navigation suites as well. Early ambitions had reportedly involved a more comprehensive modernisation of the Oryx, which included the integration of a glass cockpit.

Oryx have been routinely deployed to perform humanitarian relief operations, such as after floods and other natural disasters.

Variants

In its basic platform the design of the Oryx offers a number of advantages and this was further developed from an early stage in the program. With the Denel Rooivalk now in service, this combat helicopter will escort the Oryx in a high threat environment. However, as an interim measure an Oryx with door mounted machine guns did appear. Oryx helicopters are constantly refined and updated. A full glass cockpit is planned for a future update. The latest addition is the fitting of flare dispensers and the update of the Threat Warning Receivers.

There is an electronic warfare (stand-off communications jamming/radar jamming) version of the Oryx that is equipped with the Grinaker Systems Technologies (GST) GSY 1501 jamming system, among others. The first Oryx variant with a large log periodic antenna on the starboard side was regarded as quite an effective EW platform. This platform is capable of disrupting key communications during various stages of modern, air-, land-, and sea battles. In addition it is used as an effective training aid to the SANDF, to test their function as an effective fighting force, despite any EW methods employed against the SA Forces. A further advantage is, EW equipment in use by the SA Forces can be effectively evaluated and calibrated under simulated battlefield scenarios. One variant has its main cabin doors replaced by dome shaped antennas.

The Oryx Mk. 2 contains such a number of differences, that a different model number is used, to distinguish the type. Although, operated and flown by 22 Squadron SAAF, these helicopters were specifically built for use by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism, as part of the South African National Antarctic Programme. Two Oryx helicopters have been modified for operations in the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic, for which they have been painted in the red and white colour scheme. Highly effective, de-icing equipment, of up rated specification, was the central requirement of the Mk. 2 program. The project received the go-ahead on 15 March 1996, with Lt Col K. Viljoen as project leader. The project was completed three weeks ahead of schedule and the two helicopters delivered to 22 Sqdn, during October 1997. One of the Mk. 2 Oryx helicopters was written off subsequent to a crash landing in July 2004.

Operators

 * South African Air Force
 * 87 Helicopter Flying School
 * 15 Squadron
 * 17 Squadron
 * 19 Squadron
 * 22 Squadron
 * 22 Squadron

title: Atlas Oryx


text:
World Vision United States

World Vision United States is a member and founding organization of World Vision International. Founded in the United States in 1950, it is an evangelical relief and development organization. It is one of the largest relief and development organizations in the US with a 1.6 billion dollar budget (2007).

History
World Vision was founded in 1950 by Dr. Robert Pierce ("Bob"), a young American evangelist minister whom the Youth for Christ missionary movement had first sent to China and South Korea in 1947. Pierce served for almost two decades at the helm of World Vision, but retired in 1967 from the organization.

During his journey he was moved by one little girl's suffering to promise to the local church of the child a monthly sum to guarantee her protection. It has created the concept of funding for children and World Vision.

At first the organization focused on   orphans and other children in need, beginning in South Korea, then expanding throughout Asia. The program soon spread throughout Latin America, Eastern Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. In the 1960s, the group started providing food, clothing, and medical care to citizens of impoverished countries after natural disasters by soliciting donations from major corporations.

From 1966 onward, the organization used in business also the name "World Vision International" but from 1977 on this name was reserved for the umbrella organisation World Vision International. and the founding organization as a member of World Vision International is called World Vision United States whenever a distinction is necessary.

Later, Richard Stearns became president of World Vision US. On January 9, 2018, it was announced that Stearns would be retiring from the organization after nearly 20 years as President.

On May 31, 2018, it was announced that Edgar Sandoval would replace Stearns as World Vision's new President and CEO beginning October 1, 2018.

Organizational structure
World Vision US is an independently registered interdependent national member office of the federal umbrella organization World Vision International. The relationship with the central organization is governed by the "Covenant of Partnership", that all national members sign. It provides that the national organizations must accept policies and decisions of the umbrella organization. and must not establish an office or program outside the US without the consent of the central group and the host country. Furthermore, except for direct project founding, all funds used outside the US have to be remitted through the central organization, and its  financial   and budget principles must be accepted. Additionally, the national group must also subscribes to the core values, the mission statement, and the Statement of Faith of World Vision.

Spirituality
World Vision aims to incorporate Christian belief into their development work as well as their organization. US president Richard Stearns stated that the group has a strict policy against proselytizing, which he describes as "... - using any kind of coercion or inducement to listen to a religious message before helping someone." Like all other national members of the World Vision Partnership, World Vision US is committed to the concept of transformational development, which is cast in a biblical framework and in which evangelization is an inseparable integral part of development work.

Stearns stated that "hope" is World Vision's most lasting impression. He believes that if hope can be restored in a community it is more beneficial than adding a water well. He emphasizes that everyone lives in a religious world where more than 90% of the population believes in some faith. He claims that World Vision's understanding of faith is essential for development.

Funding
World Vision uses the Sponsor a Child method of fundraising. Individuals, families, churches, schools, and other groups sponsor specific children or specific community projects in their own country or abroad. Sponsors send funds each month, to provide support for the sponsored children or projects.

According to its annual report, in 2008 87% of its funding was spent on programs, 8% on fundraising and 5% on management and general overhead.

Activities
World Vision provides emergency relief to people whose lives are endangered by disasters or conflict and who need immediate assistance. It attempts to respond to all major emergencies around the world themselves or in cooperation with partner agencies. For example, World Vision responded to famine in Ethiopia and North Korea, hurricanes in Central America, the tsunami in the Indian Ocean nations, earthquakes in El Salvador, India, Taiwan, Turkey and the Sichuan earthquake in China, Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar and war refugees in Kosovo, Chechnya, Sierra Leone, Angola, and East Timor.

The organization encourages public awareness about the needs of others, the causes of poverty, and the nature of compassionate response. These efforts include collaboration with media and community participation in fundraising.

The organization devotes considerable effort to advocating to the US government. On March 1, 2011, along with 29 other faith-based groups, it sent a letter to the senate petitioning for the restoration of cuts made to foreign disaster assistance, global health, and food aid in the 2011 budget.

World Vision is a leading member of the U.S. Global Leadership Coalition, a Washington D.C.-based coalition of over 400 major companies and NGOs that advocates for a larger international affairs budget, which funds American diplomatic and development efforts abroad. World Vision is also a member of the Global Coalition Against Pneumonia and supports World Pneumonia Day on November 2, 2009.

Criticism
In 1999, the academic journal Development in Practice published an overview of World Vision's history focusing on the evolution of its global architecture. The document, "Pursuing Partnership: World Vision and the Ideology of Development" was written by then World Vision staff person Alan Whaites, who went on to become a  political scientist concerned with international development. He offered a picture of an organization that was often spurred to innovate and change as a result of internal reflection on external criticism.

Discrimination in hiring
In August 2010, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled that "World Vision is a 'religious corporation' and therefore exempt from federal law barring faith-based discrimination, and thus was  permitted to dismiss two employees who were fired because they did not believe in the "divinity of Jesus or the doctrine of the Trinity." Judge Marsha Berzon of that circuit dissented, arguing that "Congress did not intend to allow all religiously motivated nonprofits to be exempt from the law." She believes that the decision discriminates against employees who have the ability to do the assigned work just because of their religious views.

Same-sex marriage
On March 24, 2014, the World Vision US announced that it would hire what it defined as Christians in same-sex marriages. Facing protests from donors and the larger evangelical community after the announcement, World Vision reversed the policy change two days later.

title: World Vision United States


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The Grey King

The Grey King is a contemporary fantasy novel by Susan Cooper, published almost simultaneously by Chatto & Windus and Atheneum in 1975. It is the fourth of five books in her Arthurian fantasy series The Dark is Rising.

The Grey King won the inaugural Tir na n-Og Award from the Welsh Books Council as the year's best English-language children's book with an "authentic Welsh background". It is set in Wales and incorporates Welsh folklore as well as Arthurian material, especially that of the Brenin Llwyd (Grey King). It also won the annual Newbery Medal recognizing the year's "most distinguished contribution to American children's literature".

Characters

 * Will Stanton is a primary character in the series. Here he is recovering from hepatitis with physician's orders to remain out of school for at least a month, so his mother sends him to his uncle David Evans in Wales. There he meets Bran and their adventures begin.
 * Bran Davies (the raven boy) is an albino boy with golden eyes, near Will's age. He is a loner, without friends at school, and he is not permitted to be out after school. He has a white dog, Cafall, who is able to see the wind (Cafall was the name of King Arthur's dog).

 * Bran is Welsh for 'crow'. He may be named after King Bran Fendigaid ("Bran the Blessed"), a Celtic god known from both Welsh and Irish mythology, who was moralized as a monarch of North Wales

 * Owen Davies is Bran's adoptive father. He had admitted a mother and her baby who appeared at his farm, cared for them, and proposed marriage. She was gone the next day, leaving the baby in his care. Owen doesn't want to lose Bran, so he is very protective.
 * The Brenin Llwyd, or the Grey King, is the evil lord opposing the Light in this novel. He is said to be the most powerful (and perhaps the oldest) lord of the Dark, but he has limitations. He is not allowed to break the laws of The High Magic. He may be forced to remain at his home Cader Idris.

 * "The Breath of the Grey King" is spoken of with dread in the mountains near his home. A thick fog that descends in the space of a few heartbeats, it drives unwary travelers to their deaths by hiding the edges of precipices and scree slopes.

 * Milgwn are huge grey foxes that the Grey King has bent to his will. It is said they can walk through his fog in secret and leave no track. They are not of this world, although they walk upon it, and they are known to attack when no ordinary fox would do so. Most mortals cannot see the Milgwn. Bran, however, is privileged and can see them. Will is an Old One (or "Dewin", in Welsh) and so he too can see them.
 * Milgwn (singular: milgi) is Welsh for 'greyhounds'.

 * Caradog Prichard is a bitter and corrupt man whom the Grey King is able to manipulate, not a willing agent. According to legend, someone who spends the night on Cader Idris becomes either a poet or a madman. Caradog hoped to be a poet and spent the night on the mountain; he is not a poet and often acts as if insane.
 * He may be named after the Welsh poet Caradog Prichard.

Geography
The geography described in the book is based very closely on the real geography in and around the Dysynni Valley in Gwynedd in north-west Wales. References include the town of Tywyn, Cader Idris and Bird Rock (Craig yr Aderyn).

Critical reception
At the time of the book's publication, Kirkus Reviews said, "Cooper is clearly building towards a thumping conclusion in the fifth and next volume and even those of us who have doubts about the significance of all this thunderous moral absolutism will want to get in on the action."

In a retrospective essay about the Newbery Medal-winning books from 1976 to 1985, literary critic Zena Sutherland wrote, "While The Grey King can be read profitably on its own, it gains stature when read in sequence, and it is masterful in the meshing of the fantastic elements and their realistic matrix... It has the classic form of the quest, and its intricate yet cohesive plot is developed with a high sense of drama—and even a bit of the inevitability of a Greek tragedy. It is no small thing to make a character believable both as a mortal child and as an immortal and a powerful magician."

Karen Patricia Smith has written, "Will is assisted in his quest for a golden harp by several people, including Bran, son of King Arthur, brought forward in time. Cooper continues her exploration of the many guises of evil and reiterates the theme that the Dark is a wily foe, capable of taking many forms."

Mary Corran said that "in The Grey King, it is human emotions which are the danger—jealousy, anger and hate, which open mortal minds to the invasion of the Dark. The fourth book is strongly Arthurian in content ... Cooper deals with the innate antagonism between mortals and immortals impressively, and in The Grey King reaches great heights as she mingles the worlds and peoples of legend and the present day."

title: The Grey King


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Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus

Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus (c. 102 – 48 BC) was a politician of the Roman Republic. He was a conservative and upholder of the established social order who served in several magisterial positions alongside Julius Caesar and conceived a lifelong enmity towards him. In 59 BC, he was consul alongside Julius Caesar. Their partnership was contentious to the extent that Caesar's supporters assaulted Bibulus in Rome's main forum on the eve of an important vote. Bibulus withdrew from public politics for the rest of his term.

Between 51 and 50 BC, he was governor of Syria, where he was effective but alienated the army by taking too much personal credit for the repulse of the Parthians. In 49, after Caesar's civil war broke out, Bibulus aligned himself with Pompey and was in charge of the fleet tasked with preventing Caesar from shipping his army across the Adriatic. He failed to stop Caesar's first fleet but was successful in delaying Caesarian reinforcements from landing in Greece. While in command of the blockade in 48 BC, he died of illness.

Early years
Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus was a member of the plebeian Calpurnia gens. His cognomen is not previously attested within the gens so he appears to have been the first of the name to reach curule office, but it is unlikely he was a novus homo, based on the connections he had. He may have descended from the senatorial Pisonian branch of the Calpurnia gens.

He has been described as "earnest and somewhat plodding". He served as curule aedile alongside Julius Caesar in 65 BC. Two curule aediles were appointed each year and they were responsible for maintenance of public buildings (aedēs) and the regulation of public festivals. They also had powers to enforce public order. Caesar overshadowed Bibulus throughout his year in office, particularly in the provision of the ludi Romani, a religious festival involving multiple ceremonies and secular entertainments. He again served alongside Caesar in 62 BC when both were elected praetors, judicial magisterial positions. Bibulus opposed Caesar at every opportunity. Shortly before they took office, Rome was racked by the Catilinarian conspiracy, an attempt by a number of senior aristocrats to overthrow the Republic. During his term in office, Bibulus was called upon to suppress supporters of the Catilinarian conspiracy among the Paeligni, an Italic confederation from what is now Abruzzo.

Becoming a consul was considered the highest honour of the Roman Republic. Cato and the rest of the boni feared Caesar to be a radical who would destroy the way of the ancestors, the mores. Bibulus was already implacably opposed to Caesar and was married to Porcia, Cato's daughter. The boni bribed the electors heavily in order to ensure that Bibulus would be Caesar's consular colleague. They succeeded; Bibulus narrowly defeated Caesar's preferred consular candidate, Lucius Lucceius.

Consul
Caesar began his term as consul by "presenting a moderate and carefully reasoned bill" to purchase land in order to discharge and settle Pompey's soldiers who had returned from the east some years previously. The Boni, led by Cato, walked out of the Senate en masse to prevent it being heard. Caesar took the bill to the Centuriate Assembly, largely made up of ex-soldiers. Large numbers of Pompey's veterans came to Rome to participate in the expected vote. Bibulus lost popularity by treating them with aristocratic contempt, telling them that he did not care what they wanted. Bibulus was able to secure the support of three plebeian tribunes to block the passage of the bill. However, Pompey and Crassus publicly supported Caesar's bill, and the opposition to Bibulus was such that the tribunes were unwilling to exercise their veto. Immediately before the vote Bibulus ordered it suspended for religious reasons. Caesar, who was also pontifex maximus, the most significant religious official in Rome, ignored this and continued with the vote. Bibulus and two of his tribunes mounted the steps of the Temple of Castor and Pollux and attempted to denounce the bill. The crowd turned on him and his entourage, breaking his fasces (the symbols of his consulship), pushing him to the ground and pouring feces on him. Getting up, Bibulus uncovered his neck and shouted to the crowd to kill him to end his embarrassment. His fellow senators persuaded him to leave and regroup at a nearby temple, as the assembly proceeded to pass the bill.

The following day, Bibulus entered the Senate where he made a formal complaint about the treatment which he had suffered, and appealed to the Senate to annul the law, but this was not acted upon. He then resisted swearing an oath to uphold the new law, but was eventually convinced to take the oath. After this humiliation, in March 59 BC, Bibulus stopped attending meetings of the Senate, leaving Caesar with complete control over the consulship. He occasionally issued complaints against Caesar and Pompey, which led to attacks on his house from Caesar and Pompey's supporters. For the rest of the year supporters of the First Triumvirate mocked Bibulus by declaring that the two consuls were really "Julius and Caesar". Bibulus returned the insult by referring to his co-consul as the "Queen of Bithynia," an allusion to Caesar's alleged love affair with the King of Bithynia. He also alleged that Caesar had been involved in the first conspiracy of Catiline. Bibulus spent the remainder of his term sequestered in his house where he claimed he was watching for omens, an act that purported to invalidate all legislation passed that year.

By the middle of his consulship Caesar's popularity began to wane, whilst Bibulus's popularity was, according to Cicero, on the rise, mostly due to his vitriolic attacks on Caesar. Seeking to further cause trouble for Caesar and Pompey, in July he directed that the consular elections for 58 BC were to be postponed until 18October. However, in August Lucius Vettius accused Bibulus and one of the consular candidates for 58 BC, Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus, of being involved in a plot to assassinate Pompey. Bibulus responded by declaring that he had warned Pompey of the possibility of an assassination attempt on 13May. Vettius was then murdered the day before Bibulus was to be questioned about his alleged involvement in the plot. Lentulus was unsuccessful when the delayed elections finally took place. Aulus Gabinius and Lucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus won the election.

Bibulus attempted to block Caesar's five-year appointment as governor of the provinces of Cisalpine Gaul and Transalpine Gaul by declaring that no public business could be conducted whilst he observed the sky for omens, but was again rebuffed by Pompey and one of the consul-designates who supported Caesar's appointment. At the end of the year Bibulus emerged from his self-enforced retirement and presented himself before the Senate. He took the traditional oath declaring he had done his duty in his consulship. He was then about to justify his actions as consul when the new tribune of the plebs, Publius Clodius Pulcher, used his veto to prevent Bibulus from speaking further.

Senator and governor
Throughout the 50s Bibulus continued to attack Pompey in the Senate, blaming him for the fighting between Publius Clodius and Titus Annius Milo in 56 BC, to the point that Pompey was convinced that Bibulus was in league with plotters who were intent on assassinating him. He also voted against Pompey being granted permission to go to Egypt in person to restore Ptolemy XII Auletes to his throne. Nevertheless, by the end of the 50s, Pompey had been cynically embraced by the boni, who saw in him a champion to bring down Caesar. In 52 BC as a consular senator Bibulus proposed an unconstitutional and illegal resolution, which the Senate accepted, allowing Pompey to serve as sole consul to deal with the breakdown of order in Rome after the murder of Publius Clodius.

As a result of a law passed by Pompey during his sole consulship, proscribing that governorships could not be held by persons who had served as praetor or consul within five years of leaving office, Bibulus was not appointed to a post-consular governorship until 51 BC. He then became governor of Syria. He severely offended the soldiery in Syria by claiming much of the credit due to their commander Gaius Cassius Longinus, whom he outranked. Two years before Crassus had led the Roman army of the east to a calamitous defeat at Carrhae. Longinus had advised Crassus against his misguided actions and when Crassus was killed had taken command and led the survivors in a successful retreat. He then saved the province of Syria by beating the Parthians at Antioch. For this he became the darling of the army. Bibulus arrived to a situation already stabilising. He sent the Senate a report of his pursuit and mopping up of the Parthians and his reorganisation of Syria's defences. The Senate granted Bibulus a thanksgiving of twenty days. With the Parthian threat still present, Bibulus sent two of his sons to Egypt in 50 BC to demand the recall of Roman soldiers who had settled there, but they were killed by the soldiers, who refused to march. When Cleopatra sent him the murderers to be punished, he returned them saying it was up to the Senate to punish them.

Civil war and death
Completing his governorship, Bibulus returned to the west in 49 BC to find that civil war had erupted between Caesar and Pompey. Aligning himself with Pompey, he was placed in charge of Pompey's fleet in the Adriatic, to ensure that Caesar and his troops could not cross from Brundisium in Italy to Epirus to challenge Pompey's army. Having only assembled half the necessary ships, Caesar decided to take seven legions across the Adriatic, and to have the ships return and transport the remaining legions once they arrived at Brindisi. Transporting seven legions across the Adriatic Sea to Greece would ordinarily be difficult due to the winter season. But because Caesar knew that the calendar was out of step with the astronomical seasons due to his responsibilities as pontifex maximus, he had the advantage of knowing the crossing would be easier than expected. This assisted Caesar to an extent as the Adriatic was sufficiently treacherous to deter Bibulus' war galleys from venturing far from their base at Corfu.

Bibulus was caught by surprise when on the evening of 6November Caesar and his fleet successfully crossed the Adriatic, landing at Palaeste. Although Bibulus was stationed only 50 mi south of Palaeste, he had not sent out scouts and his ships were not ready to put to sea to intercept Caesar's transports. When he heard of Caesar's crossing, he ordered his crews to return to their ships, and sailed northward, hoping to capture the ships carrying Caesar's reinforcements. Again too slow, he only managed to arrive for their return journey to Italy, capturing and burning 30 of Caesar's transports. He then maneuvered to prevent any further ships crossing to reinforce or supply Caesar. He only captured one transport, which had been chartered by some private individuals and had refused to obey Bibulus's orders. Enraged, he ordered the entire crew killed.

Bibulus then blockaded all the harbors along the coast, hoping to prevent any further crossings from Italy, and leaving Caesar stranded in Epirus. He found that he could not resupply his ships without abandoning the blockade, and so he attempted to bluff Caesar's legates at Oricum into persuading Caesar to agree to a temporary truce so that he could resupply. When Bibulus refused to guarantee the safety of the envoys Caesar wished to send to discuss a peaceful settlement with Pompey, Caesar realised it was a ploy and pulled out of negotiations. Determined to continue with the blockade, Bibulus pushed himself too hard; he fell ill in early 48 BC and died near Corcyra before the end of winter.

Family
Bibulus was the son of Gaius Calpurnius. Bibulus married twice. From his first marriage he had three sons, including the later statesman Lucius Calpurnius Bibulus. His two eldest sons Marcus and Gaius were killed in Egypt by soldiers whom Aulus Gabinius had left there after restoring Ptolemy Auletes to the throne. He may have had a daughter called Calpurnia, who was the first wife of Roman senator Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus. His second wife was Cato's daughter Porcia, whom he married sometime between 58 and 53 BC, by her he had two more children, at least one of them a son who lived to adulthood. The other may have been a daughter but it is not certain. After Bibulus' death Porcia married Brutus, who was to be a ringleader of Caesar's assassins.

Modern

 * Bringmann, Klaus, A History of the Roman Republic (2007) Cambridge, UK ; Malden, MA: Polity OCLC 318972410
 * Broughton, T. Robert S., The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, Vol II (1952) New York : American Philological Association. OCLC 868514975
 * Holland, Tom, Rubicon: The Triumph and Tragedy of the Roman Republic (2004) London: Abacus. ISBN 978-0-349-11563-4
 * Holmes, T. Rice, The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, Vol. I (1923) Cambridge: The Clarendon Press. OCLC 2845034
 * Holmes, T. Rice, The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, Vol. II (1923) Cambridge: The Clarendon Press. OCLC 163400823
 * Holmes, T. Rice, The Roman Republic and the Founder of the Empire, Vol. III (1923) Cambridge: The Clarendon Press. OCLC 889250448
 * Morrell, Kit, Pompey, Cato, and the Governance of the Roman Empire (2017) Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-875514-2
 * Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Vol I (1867). London: J. Murray. OCLC 490058450
 * Syme, Ronald, The Roman Revolution (1939) Oxford: Clarendon OCLC 185188894

title: Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus


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Talk:1997 Constitution of Fiji

Votes for Deletion

 * Constitution of Fiji and linked articles. Original source material without any additions. TwoOneTwo 15:30, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd be very grateful if you wouldn't delete it. I am not intending to keep the full text there.  I plan to write a commentary on each of the constitutional chapters, quoting selectively from each chapter.  The full text included is just the raw material that I intend to work with over the next few days; it's nothing like what it's going to look like in the end.  So, once again, I'd be very grateful if you'd kindly leave it there.  Davidcannon 20:37, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Wouldn't it therefore be better referred to Possible copyright infringements? --Phil 15:40, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * Copyright infringements? The Fijian Constitution is not copyright, any more than the American Constitution is.  What are you talking about? Davidcannon 20:37, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * If Britain had a constitution it would probably be under Crown Copyright Secretlondon 22:51, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)
 * I'd rather see it moved to Wikisource. RickK 16:35, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * The full text is already on Wikisource. But I've deliberately posted the chapters on Wikipedia because, as I said, I intend to write articles about each of them.  Each article will quote SELECTIVELY from the full text; the remaining text will be deleted.  But I've started by pasting it all up there so that I don't have to go to the hassle of looking up the individual quotes when I'm writing the articles.  Davidcannon 20:37, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Let David work. If it's not going to stay, then I'm ok with it.  Isomorphic 00:43, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * It's fine if the article stays. Wait and watch. AY 05:25, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks to both of you-) I have made a start - the article on Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 1 is now written.  As you can see, it's about 95 percent my own work, summarizing the main points together with commentary on the historical and social reasons why the various clauses were included.  Except for two or three brief quotes, the original text is gone now.  The main article and all of the lined articles (chapters) are going to look just like Chapter 1.  So once again, I beg you all to be patient with me and give me a few days.  If building materials are lying about, it's reasonable to wait until the builder does something with them before removing them.  Thanks to all of you.  Davidcannon 12:15, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. De-legalspeak and historical reasoning are well worth an article, just make sure it doesn't get POV. Oberiko
 * Keep. I agree we shouldn't have the full text here, but in light of Constitution of Fiji: Chapter 1, which is now a very good encyclopedia article without the full text, give David some time to work on the rest. --Delirium 23:00, Feb 24, 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. David has finished the preamble and chapters 1 and 2, and is doing an excelllent job. As a note for the future, David, you can use apostrophes for bold text and italics, like so. I'm removing this from VfD. - Arthur George Carrick 00:22, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Thank you so much, Arthur. I'm very grateful for your encouraging words, and also for the effort you've made to put the index into an artistic-looking box.  You've brightened my day. Davidcannon 03:35, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Done: Preamble, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. To do : Chapters 6-17; also main article. I'm getting there at the rate of about a chapter a day; next week I'll have a bit more time than I've had this week, so progress should hopefully be faster. Davidcannon 13:16, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Update: I haven't forgotten about this project - I've just been up to my ears in other stuff this week (I thought I'd have plenty of free time, but I was wrong). Nevertheless, Chapter 6 (The parliament) should be uploaded tomorrow:-) Davidcannon 11:21, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Update: At last I've been able to "finish" Chapter 6. (I put the word in quotes, because nothing on Wikipedia is ever really finished). Chapter 6 required a lot more writing on my part than the other chapters, which partly explains why you've heard nothing from me for a while. Now done : Preamble, Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. To do : Chapters 7-17; also main article. Davidcannon 13:23, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Update: Please don't think I've forgotten about this project. I'm a bit delayed on Chapter 7, because I'm doing some background research about it. In the course of my research, I've come across a lot of information about side issues, which have generated a lot of new articles (which some of you will have noticed) - but please don't think I've forgotten about this CONSTITUTION project. I haven't. Chapter 7 will be up and running in the next couple of days. I've done quite a bit of reading to see how the relationship between the executive and legislative branches of government have related to each other, not only in constitutional theory but also in practice, over the years. Davidcannon 01:02, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

At last!
I have resumed my work on the Constitution of Fiji, after an incredibly long six-month break. I never intended to leave it so long, but I've just been so busy with other things. This morning I uploaded commentaries on Chapters 7 and 8, and will begin work later today on Chapter 9 (The Judiciary). David Cannon 01:11, 24 Sep 2004 (UTC)

He never finished
Looks like Davidcannon finished chapters 1-11, and 17, but not 12-16. Would be nice if someday someone wrote articles on 12-16. Right now they contain the complete source text of those sections of the constitution, which is not acceptable. --Xyzzyplugh 13:27, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

New Constitution
The new Constitution of the Republic of Fiji has been adopted and came in force on 6th September 2013. The article should be rewrited. Aotearoa (talk) 08:09, 12 September 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:1997 Constitution of Fiji


text:
Ergodic (disambiguation)

Aside from its generic use as the generic adjective ergodic, ergodic may relate to:
 * Ergodicity, mathematical description of a dynamical system which, broadly speaking, has the same behavior averaged over time as averaged over the space of all the system's states (phase space)
 * Ergodic hypothesis, a postulate of thermodynamics
 * Ergodic theory, a branch of mathematics
 * Ergodic literature, literature that requires special effort to navigate
 * Ergodic process, a particular type of stochastic processes

title: Ergodic (disambiguation)


text:
Zarahemla

Zarahemla is a land in the Book of Mormon that for much of the narrative functions as the capital of the Nephites, their political and religious center. Zarahemla has been the namesake of multiple communities in the United States, has been alluded to in literature that references Mormonism, and has been portrayed in artwork depicting Book of Mormon content.

Most adherents of the Latter Day Saint movement regard the Book of Mormon as a translation of a genuinely historical text from the ancient Americas (a belief that mainstream academic archaeology does not corroborate). Some adherents have speculated about where Zarahemla would have been located or attempted to find archaeological evidence of it. Such attempts have been unsuccessful.

Background
The Book of Mormon, published in 1830, is one of the central scriptures of Mormonism, also called the Latter Day Saint movement. Founder Joseph Smith said that an angel of the Christian God directed him to uncover metal plates inscribed with the history of a Christian people in the ancient Americas and that by miraculous means he translated them, producing the Book of Mormon. Most in the Latter Day Saint movement regard the Book of Mormon as being genuinely ancient and historical. Mainstream academic archaeology considers Book of Mormon historicity implausible and unproven.

Setting
In the Book of Mormon, the "land of Zarahemla" is populated by the "people of Zarahemla", so called for Zarahemla, their ruler at the time of the Nephites' encounter with them. Zarahemla is identified as a descendant of Mulek, who according to the Book of Mormon is a son of the biblical king Zedekiah. 350 years earlier, around the same time as the Nephites' ancestor Lehi's flight from Jerusalem, Mulek had led a group from Jerusalem, guided by God, to the same new continent as the Nephites.

When the Nephite king Mosiah leads a group of Nephite refugees, in response to divine direction, out from the land of Nephi and into the land of Zarahemla, encountering the people of Zarahemla, they and the Nephites unite their societies, and Mosiah becomes king of them all. Zarahemla becomes the second capital city of the Nephites. Literary scholar Jared Hickman calls it "the Nephite home base for the rest of the narrative" after the Nephites migrate there. The Nephites who remain in the land of Nephi, rather than follow Mosiah to the land of Zarahemla, never reappear in the Book of Mormon, and the land of Nephi becomes Lamanite territory.

A temple features in the narrative as the apparent geographic, ceremonial, and societal center of Zarahemla.

Narrative
When the Nephite king Mosiah leads Nephite refugees, in response to divine direction, out from the land of Nephi, they encounter a city inhabited by a people called the "people of Zarahemla", the name of their ruler, in a place called the "land of Zarahemla". Zarahemla is identified as a descendant of Mulek, narrated to be a son of the biblical king Zedekiah; Mulek

According to the Book of Mormon, the Nephite Mosiah and his followers "discovered that the people of Zarahemla came out from Jerusalem at the time that Zedekiah king of Judah, was carried away captive into Babylon" (about 587 B.C.). The people descended from a group led by Mulek, a son of the biblical king Zedekiah, who left Jerusalem at the time of the Babylonian conquest and also crossed the ocean and arrived at the same continent as the party led by Lehi. The book of Omni in the Book of Mormon tells how Zarahemla and his people came to settle the land of Zarahemla in the New World. Mosiah and his refugee people presumably united with the people of Zarahemla sometime between 279 and 130 B.C. "Mosiah was appointed to be their king." Mosiah thereafter presided in the land of Zarahemla over a people called collectively "the Nephites". The Land of Zarahemla was the Nephite capital for many years.

Notable Book of Mormon descendants of the leader Zarahemla include Ammon the venturer and Coriantumr the dissenter. Ammon led a quest in search of a colony that had left the land of Zarahemla in order to resettle a city named Lehi-Nephi. The dissenter Coriantumr led the Lamanites in battle against the Nephites in the first century B.C.

At some point before Mosiah discovered Zarahemla, the people of Zarahemla had discovered Coriantumr (not to be confused with the later Nephite dissenter of the same name). According to the Book of Mormon, Coriantumr was the last of a destroyed nation called the Jaredites. Coriantumr stayed with the people of Zarahemla "for the space of nine moons" before dying and being buried by them.

Benjamin succeeded his father Mosiah as the second Nephite king of Zarahemla. King Benjamin was victorious in driving Lamanites enemies from the Zarahemla region.

At the time of the crucifixion of Christ, the Book of Mormon records that "there were exceedingly sharp lightnings, such as never had been known in all the land. And the city of Zarahemla did take fire." "And it came to pass that there was a voice heard among all the inhabitants of the earth ... 'because of their iniquity and abominations ... that great city Zarahemla have I burned with fire, and the inhabitants thereof ... I am Jesus Christ, the Son of God.'" (3 Nephi, 9: 1, 2, 3, 15.) The Book of Mormon indicates that "the great city of Zarahemla" was rebuilt sometime in the first century A.D. As his doomed nation retreated northward from their enemies, the 4th century prophet and historian Mormon recorded that Nephite "towns, and villages, and cities were burned with fire." The Book of Mormon does not indicate whether the city of Zarahemla survived to be occupied by Lamanites after the destruction of the Nephite nation.

Namesakes
In 1841, Joseph Smith dictated a revelation instructing Latter-day Saints in Iowa to establish a city across the Mississippi River from Nauvoo, Illinois and name it after Zarahemla. A settlement of Latter-day Saints, located across the Mississippi River from Nauvoo and south of Montrose, Iowa, was called Zarahemla. The Zarahemla Stake in Iowa was abandoned in 1842. In the nineteenth century, Blanchardville, Wisconsin was called Zarahemla. In 1850, under the direction of Zenas H. Gurley, Latter Day Saints who lived there and were unaffiliated with Brigham Young's Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints organized into the Yellowstone Branch. Zarahemla was the location of the Reorganization's first or second conference, held in 1853. The congregation at Zarahemla dissolved in 1860.

Zarahemla, Utah is named after the city from the Book of Mormon. The second book in author Gary Stewart's Gabe Utley detective series, published in 1986, is titled The Zarahemla Vision. Its narrative is set in Salt Lake City and involves the apparent kidnapping of the LDS Church president. As part of appropriating Mormon themes of revelation and ideas about indigenous resurgence, Kanaka Maoli author Matthew Kaopio's 2005 novel Written in the Sky invokes the name Zarahemla to allude to the Book of Mormon. One of the novel's characters, Dr. Owlfeathers, is from the nonexistent Zarahemla University.

Speculating locations
Responding to their belief in the Book of Mormon's ancient historicity, Latter-day Saints throughout the nineteenth century believed archaeological evidence would emerge to corroborate the Book of Mormon; many regarded scholarship on the ancient Americas as vindication of the book. There has been no actual archaeological discovery of Zarahemla.

In 1842, Latter-day Saint newspaper the Times and Seasons associated Zarahemla with the ruins of Quiriguá. Artist George M. Ottinger opined that the Maya city-state Palenque was one and the same as Zarahemla. In an elaborate geography constructed from the Book of Mormon's text, Latter-day Saints George Reynolds and Janne M. Sjödahl supposed Zarahemla was located along the Magdalena River in Colombia. Classically trained, Sjödahl followed the "signature style of biblical archaeology", in the words of religious studies scholar Matthew Bowman, trying to corroborate Book of Mormon text with archaeological data, to draw his conclusions for associating Zarahemla with the Maya.

Benjamin Cluff, then president of Brigham Young Academy, from 1900 to 1901 led an expedition, mostly comprising students, to try to discover evidence of the city of Zarahemla in Colombia, in accord with Reynolds and Sjödahl's proposed geography. Six of the group reached the Magdalena, but they turned back after learning that civil conflict had destabilized the region, ending their expedition.

Margarito Bautista in his 1936 La evolución de Mexico: sus verdaderos progenitores y su origen: el destino de America y Europa expressed his belief that Book of Mormon peoples were the ancestors of indigenous Mexicans, and he superimposed Zarahemla onto the region north of Panama, somewhere in Guatemala, Honduras, or southern Mexico.

In 2021, a group of Mormons called the Heartland Research Group believed they had found the location of Zarahemla outside Montrose, Iowa and searched the soil for evidence of human habitation using lidar. They also took core samples with the aim of using carbon dating to identify evidence of fires. The Heartland Research Group holds to what has been called the "Heartland model", a belief among certain Mormons that the events of the Book of Mormon took place specifically in the Heartland of the United States, the emergence of which coincided with growth in LDS Church membership in Central and South America. Religion Dispatches reports that the Heartland model movement rests on American nationalism and espouses white supremacy and Euro-American colonialism.

Visual art
George M. Ottinger's oil painting Destruction of Zarahemla took cues for its composition from Benjamin West's Death on a Pale Horse and for its visualization of Zarahemla from archaeological illustrations, including a Maya stelae resembling one from Quiriguála. The horses, chariot, clouds, and fleeing crowd also resemble those of Nicolas Poussin's paintings The Conversion of St. Paul and The Death of Hippolytus. It was published in December 1888 as an illustration in The Story of the Book of Mormon.

title: Zarahemla


text:
Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily

Maria Amalia Teresa of Naples and Sicily (26 April 1782 – 24 March 1866) was Queen of the French by marriage to Louis Philippe I, King of the French. She was the last queen of France.

Among her grandchildren were the monarchs Leopold II of Belgium, Empress Carlota of Mexico, with whom Maria Amalia regularly corresponded while she was in Mexico, Ferdinand I of Bulgaria, and Queen Mercedes of Spain.

Early years
Maria Amalia was born on 26 April 1782 at the Caserta Palace just outside Naples. She was the tenth of eighteen children of Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies and Maria Carolina of Austria.

As a young Italian princess, she was educated in the Catholic tradition, which she appears to have taken to heart. Maria Carolina, like her mother, Maria Theresa, made an effort to be a part of her daughter's life, though she was cared for daily by her governess, Vincenza Rizzi. As a child, Maria Amalia's mother and her aunt, Marie Antoinette, arranged for her engagement to Marie Antoinette's son, Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France, her cousin, the future king of France. Her young fiancé died in 1789.

Maria Amalia faced chaos and upheaval from a young age. The death of her aunt Marie Antoinette during the French Revolution and her mother's subsequent dramatic actions emblazoned the event in her memory. During the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789, the Neapolitan court was not hostile to the movement. When the French monarchy was abolished and her aunt Marie Antoinette and uncle Louis XVI were executed, Maria Amalia's parents joined the First Coalition against France in 1793. Although peace was made with France in 1796, by 1798 conflict again erupted and the royal family fled to the Kingdom of Sicily, leaving Naples on 21 December 1798 aboard HMS Vanguard (1787), a British Royal Navy vessel protected by two Neapolitan warships. Maria Amalia spent the years 1800 to 1802 with her mother in Austria. In 1802, she finally returned to Naples with her mother. After the invasion of Naples by Napoleon in 1806, the royal family was once more forced to flee to Sicily, where they again settled in Palermo under the protection of British troops.

While in exile, Maria Amalia encountered her future husband, Louis Philippe d'Orléans, also forced from his home in France due to political complications of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon. Louis-Philippe's father, the previous Duke of Orléans, had been guillotined during the French Revolution, though he had advocated it in the early years.

The two were married in 1809, three years after they met in Italy, whereupon Marie-Amelie became Duchess of Orléans. The ceremony was celebrated in Palermo 25 November 1809. The marriage was considered controversial, because she was the niece of Marie Antoinette, while he was the son of a man who was considered to have played a part in the execution of her aunt. Her mother was skeptical to the match for the same reason, but she had given her consent after he had convinced her that he was determined to compensate for the mistakes of his father, and after having agreed to answer all her questions regarding his father.

Duchess of Orléans
During the first years of her marriage, Marie-Amelie and Louis Philippe lived under British protection in Palermo, in a palace given to them by her father, the Palazzo Orléans.

Marie-Amelie went to France with her new husband in 1814, where she attempted to make a home with her growing family, but with Napoleon's brief return, she was forced to flee yet again. Prior to her husband's rise to power, Marie-Amelie and her husband had to cope with a persistent money problem due to the fact that they had no income aside from that which they were given by the British crown. The family was given permission to return to France again in 1817.

During the Orléans' time in France prior to Louis-Philippe's accession, the family lived in the Palais-Royal, which had been the home of her father-in-law, Louis Philippe II, Duke of Orléans. Despite the monetary worries of the family, the house was returned to its original splendor at a cost to the couple of eleven million francs. During their tenure as Duke and Duchess of Orléans, her spouse made Palais-Royal a center of high society in Paris when the aristocracy found the royal court, which was organized according to revived l'ancien regime-etiquette, too stiff. However, it was rather her sister-in-law Madame Adelaide who was regarded the hostess at Palais-Royal, while Marie-Amelie was described as dignified but silent and withdrawn. In 1825, the Duke and Duchess met with her sister and brother-in-law, the King and Queen of Sardinia in Chambéry, and in May 1830, they hosted her brother and sister-in-law, the King and Queen of the Two Sicilies, at Palais-Royal.

Tenure as queen
In 1830, following what is known as the July Revolution, Louis-Philippe became king of the French, with Maria Amalia as queen of the July Monarchy. Maria Amalia did not approve of Louis-Philippe's acceptance of the crown and reportedly described it as a catastrophe.

When tumult followed the publication of the Ordinances in 1830 and erupted in the July revolution in Paris, the Orléans family was at the country estate Neuilly. Her sister in-law, Adélaïde, convinced Louis-Philippe that the moment was right for him to place himself as the leader of the opposition against the absolute monarchy of Charles X, and present himself as the candidate of a constitutional monarchy, in between the unpopular absolute monarchy and the republicanism. In this, she defeated the view of her sister in-law, Maria Amalia, who was loyal to the reigning older branch. When rumors arrived that the royalists were going to arrest Louis-Philippe, he evacuated to Raincy and the children were sent to Villers-Cotterêts, but Adélaïde and Maria Amalia remained at Neuilly. When a delegation reached Neuilly and offered Louis-Philippe the crown, Maria Amalia refused the offer on behalf of herself and her spouse, reproaching Ary Scheffer and Adolphe Thiers for insulting them by having made it. Adélaïde, however, accepted it with the argument that her brother would do anything to prevent the country he loved from anarchy. Thiers accepted the answer of Adélaïde rather than the one from Maria Amalia with the words: "Madame, you have given the crown to your family". After this, several other visits followed from people asking Louis-Philippe to accept the crown: to all, Maria Amalia answered that Louis-Philippe was an honest man and thus could not do it, while Adélaïde contradicted her by stating, that the offer should be made to Louis-Philippe by the chamber of deputies; and if he should hesitate, she would herself go to Paris and accept the crown for him. Soon after, the Chamber of Deputies called Louis-Philippe to Paris to formally present him their offer. It has been estimated that he accepted the crown largely because of Adélaïde. When the news arrived that Louis-Philippe had accepted the crown, Maria Amalia reportedly cried and sobbed: "What a catastrophe! They will call my husband an usurper!" She refused to return to Paris with her children in an open state carriage, as this would give an impression of triumph. When she did arrive to the Palais-Royal, which was at that time wide open to the public, it was noticed that she looked as if she had been crying, which attracted attention. She and her sister-in-law visited those who had been wounded during the revolution, and supported them financially.

Maria Amalia was to say that she could see no advantages of the crown, only the destruction of a peaceful family life and an insecurity for the lives of her family. However, she concluded, as God has given them the crown, they must do the best of the matter: "Since by God's will this Crown of Thorns has been placed upon our heads, we must accept it and the duties it entails". At 6 August 1830, she and her sister-in-law were present at the tribune on the ceremony at the chambers when Louis-Philippe were declared King of the French. She herself was never honored with any form of official ceremony, though she was automatically given the honorary title Queen of the French.

Maria Amalia did not play an active role in politics and in fact made a concentrated effort to remove herself from it. In 1832, after the failed coup of Marie-Caroline de Bourbon-Sicile, duchess de Berry, Marie-Caroline appealed to her from her prison at Blaye, as did one of Marie-Caroline's followers, Mesnard; however Maria Amalia refused to even receive the petition of the first nor to promise anything to the second, despite being personally attached to the Duchess de Berry. It was with his sister rather than with his wife that the King discussed state affairs.

As Queen, Maria Amalia became foremost known for her simple personal life style and her charity. For political reasons, King Louis-Philippe did not wish to have any representation or court life of the more elaborate kind but, rather wished to give the impression of his family living a life of the burgher class, and during her tenure as Queen, the royal court was relatively subdued to its outward appearance. The court etiquette at the Tuileries was therefore simplified, and the royal family lived a life which was to be modeled after the ideal life of a wealthy burgher class family of the time, with few state occasions, though they did regularly host smaller gala dinners for the representatives of the people. This domestic life did suit Maria Amalia, who was already devoted to this life style. The household included her lady-in-waiting, the Marquise de Dolomieu.

The Queen's daily routine centered around family dinners, religious duties and charitable work: she kept a strict guard over her daughters and later her daughters-in-law, sewing with them in the drawing room when she was not occupied with her charitable work. After having heard Mass and received private audiences, she worked with her secretaries receiving, personally reading and attending to petitions from the poor. Reportedly, Maria Amalia received a personal allowance of 500.000 franc, and spent 400.000 franc of that sum on charity. In one instance, she responded to a request from French missionary sister Saint Mother Theodore Guerin of the Sisters of Providence of Saint Mary-of-the-Woods by saying, "Ah, yes, sisters, let us save souls!" She gave Guerin and her fellow Sister of Providence Mary Cecilia Bailly funds for their schools in the United States, as well as covered their travel expenses. Reportedly, however, she did give contributions to the needing regardless of their political or religious convictions. As queen she was named Protector of several charity organizations, notably the Société de Charité Maternelle.

She was regarded to have performed her representational duties with dignity. In 1843, she hosted British Queen Victoria at the Château d'Eu in Normandy. She did not, however, follow Louis-Philippe on his visit to England in 1844.

While Maria Amalia had accepted the crown unwillingly, she regarded it her duty to keep it after it had once been given to her by God. During the Revolution of 1848, Maria Amalia made an attempt to get Louis-Philippe to take control of the troops, rally the National Guard, subdue the riots on the streets and defend his crown with his life. Reportedly, he did not answer her, but only asked her to trust his judgement. When a mob marched toward the Tuileries, Louis Philippe was convinced by his ministers to flee, and he signed his abdication in favor of his grandson against the consent of Maria Amalia. When the family left the palace, Maria Amalia reportedly turned to minister Thiers and commented: "Ah Monsieur, you were not worthy of such a good king!" The family left under somewhat chaotic circumstances, and Maria Amalia reportedly fainted and had to be lifted into her carriage. The couple were accompanied by their son Antoine, Duke of Montpensier; their daughter-in-law the Duchess of Nemours; their daughter Princess Clementine and her spouse, as well as six grandchildren. Their eldest son's widow the Duchess of Orléans and her sons were left at the palace in the company of their son the Duke of Nemours to fight for the right to the crown of their grandson, the Count of Paris.

The family left Paris for Saint-Cloud and from there to Dreux, where they parted and made their way to England in different groups. Maria Amalia and Louis Philippe lived for a while in the cottage of a friend in Honfleur, before they left in secret by Le Havre for Newhaven in England.

Exile and death
In England, Louis Philippe and Maria Amalia were well received by Queen Victoria, who let them live in Claremont House in Surrey for life. As the French state had decided not to confiscate their property, they did not have money problems.

Louis Philippe died two years later. After the death of her husband, Maria Amalia continued to live in England where she attended daily Mass and was well known to Queen Victoria. She spent her remaining years living a private family life, and was joined by most of her children with the exception of the Duke of Montpensier. Maria Amalia regarded the elder branch of the Bourbon to have superior right to the French throne, and she supported her son the Duke of Nemours when he reconciled with the head of the elder Bourbon line, Henri, Count of Chambord, on behalf of the Orléans line. At her death, she also asked to be called Duchess of Orléans on her grave stone rather than Queen of the French.

Maria Amalia died on 24 March 1866, aged 83. She was the last surviving grandchild of Empress Maria Theresa of Austria. After her death, the dress she had kept since 1848 when her husband had left France was put on her, according to her last wishes.

title: Maria Amalia of Naples and Sicily


text:
Driving band

A driving band or rotating band is a band of soft metal near the base of an artillery shell, often made of gilding metal, copper, or lead. When the shell is fired, the pressure of the propellant swages the metal into the rifling of the barrel and forms a seal; this seal prevents the gases from blowing past the shell and engages the barrel's rifling to spin-stabilize the shell.

Purpose
The rotating band has three essential functions:
 * Center the rear end of the projectile in the gun barrel.
 * Seal the bore to prevent burning powder gas from moving through the rifling grooves past the projectile.
 * Engage with the rifling of the barrel to spin the projectile and stabilize its flight.

Characteristics
The shell is stabilized for yaw in the barrel by a smaller bourrelet band near the front of the projectile. This band keeps the projectile travelling straight in the bore supported by the lands between the rifling grooves, but doesn't engage the rifling.

As shell weight increases, it becomes more difficult to engineer a driving band that prevents propellant gases from either blowing past it, or blowing it off the shell. Tougher alloys like cupronickel may be used on major-caliber projectiles. Rotating band width of about one-third of the projectile caliber provides superior performance, but two narrower bands, separated by a short distance, have been used to conserve strategic metals in wartime. Each band is secured in a dovetailed notch machined into the projectile. Waved ridges, longitudinal nicks, or knurling is machined into the bottom of the notch to prevent the band from slipping around the projectile as the projectile accelerates down the gun barrel. The rotating band is made of a ring of slightly greater diameter than the projectile, slipped into position while thermally expanded, and pressed radially into place with a powerful hydraulic banding press.

The forward edge of the band may be conically tapered to fit into a coned seat at the start of the gun barrel rifling. The central portion of the band is roughly cylindrical with a diameter slightly larger than the groove diameter of the gun barrel to ensure a tight fit in gun barrels worn by firing previous projectiles. The rear portion of the band may include a flared skirt of even larger diameter in front of a groove to hold the skirt as it is compressed by barrel dimensions. The skirt is intended to provide a gas seal in the most heavily eroded portion of the bore near the powder chamber.

Variations
Driving bands pre-cut for the rifling have been used for muzzle loaded weapons, e.g. some mortars. Freely rotating bands can be used to reduce the spin imparted to the round as is preferable for HEAT warheads or fin-stabilised projectiles fired from general-purpose rifled barrels.

Gerald Bull worked extensively on ways to eliminate the driving band, leading to the development of his Extended Range, Full Bore ammunition using an inversion of the pre-cut rifling for his GC-45 howitzer.

Some weapons that operate at high rates of fire, such as the GAU-8 Avenger Gatling cannon, use plastic driving bands instead of soft metal. Using plastic as a swage material reduces wear on the barrel's rifling, and extends the life and average accuracy of the weapon.

In a small-arms rifle, the entire bullet is typically covered in copper or another soft alloy, making the entire bullet its own driving band.

During World War II, German ammunition sometimes used iron driving bands instead of copper due to material shortages. Porous iron bands were favored over solid ones.

title: Driving band