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Ganges river dolphin

The Ganges river dolphin (Platanista gangetica) is a species of freshwater dolphin classified in the family Platanistidae. It lives in the Ganges and related rivers of South Asia, namely in the countries of India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It is related to the much smaller Indus river dolphin which lives in the Indus River in Pakistan and the Beas River of northwestern India.

It is also known by the name susu (popular name) also hihu or huhu (শিশু, শুশুক) in Assam and shushuk (শুশুক) in West Bengal and Bangladesh. The Ganges river dolphin has been recognized by the Government of India as its National Aquatic Animal and is the official animal of the Indian city of Guwahati. Its first occurrence, within the Hooghly River, was documented by William Roxburgh.

Description
The Ganges river dolphin has a rectangular, ridgelike dorsal fin and females tend to be larger than males. Ganges river dolphins usually are tan, chocolate brown, dark grey or light blue. They have an elongated, slender snout with sharp and very pointed teeth, similar to most river dolphins. The river dolphin has a rounded belly which, combined with their rectangular dorsal fin, makes them look particularly stocky in build compared to other dolphins. Their flippers and tail flukes are large and broad. They have a large melon head used for echolocation, because they cannot see well. Their eyes are usually small due to the cloudy water. Ganges river dolphins are usually 2.2–2.6 meters long (7–8 ft). The oldest recorded animal was a 28-year-old male, 199 cm in length, although they are estimated to live up to 30 years old.

Taxonomy
The Ganges river dolphin split from the Indus river dolphin during the Pleistocene, around 550,000 years ago. The earliest fossil identified as belonging to the species is only 12,000 years old.

The Ganges river dolphin was formally classified as Delphinus gangeticus two separate times in 1801, by Heinrich Julius Lebeck and William Roxburgh. They both likely used the type specimen, caught near Calcutta in late 1797 and sent to the Hunterian Museum in London. It may have been destroyed during World War II, but castings were previously made of the rostrum and parts of the lower jaw, which survive at the Natural History Museum. Whether Lebeck or Roxburgh should be given credit has been debated over the centuries, but research by Kinze (2000) found that Lebeck's description was published on the 24 August while Roxburgh's was likely published no earlier than September, thus giving Lebeck the priority. Elisha Gray coined the species name  Platanista gangetica in 1835.

This species and the Indus river dolphin, were initially classified as a single species, Platanista gangetica, but in the 1970s both were split into distinct species. However, in the 1990s, both species were again grouped as a single species. However, more recent studies of genes, divergence time, and skull structure support both being distinct species.

Etymology
The species has multiple common names throughout its range. It is known as susu as a popular name, soons, soans, or soos in Hindi, shushuk in Bengali, hiho or hihu in Assamese, bhagirath (as a reference to the character of the same name from Hindu mythology), and shus or suongsu in Nepali. Its Sanskrit name in medieval times was likely shishumar, and during the Mughal era, it was known as pani suar.

Distribution
It lives along the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna and Karnaphuli-Sangu river systems of Bangladesh and India, and the Sapta Koshi and Karnali Rivers in Nepal. The Ganges river dolphin favours deep pools, eddy countercurrents located downstream of the convergence of rivers and of sharp meanders, and upstream and downstream of midchannel islands.

Behaviour
The Ganges river dolphins usually swim alone or in pairs, they are known to breach rarely and are shy around boats and therefore difficult to observe.

Vocalization
This species shows object-avoidance behavior in both the consistently heavily murky waters of its habitat and in clear water in captivity, suggesting it is capable of using echolocation effectively to navigate and forage for prey. Information is limited on how extensively vocalization is used between individuals. It is capable of performing whistles, but rarely does so, suggesting that the whistle is a spontaneous sound and not a form of communication. The Ganges river dolphin most typically makes echolocation sounds such as clicks, bursts, and twitters. Produced pulse trains are similar in wave form and frequency to the echolocation patterns of the Amazon river dolphin. Both species regularly produce frequencies lower than 15 kHz and the maximum frequency is thought to fall between 15 and 60 kHz.

Echolocation is also used for population counts by using acoustic surveying. This method is still being developed and is not heavily used due to cost and technical skill requirement. Given the dolphin's blindness, it produces an ultrasonic sound that is echoed off other fish and water species, allowing it to identify prey.

Reproduction
The Ganges river dolphin does not have a specific mating season. When a calf is born, 8–12 months after conception, it stays with its mother for one year.

Diet
The Ganges river dolphin finds food through echolocation and feeds on crustaceans such as prawns and fish including carp, mahseer, and even sharks such as the Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus). It also takes birds and turtles.

Threats
The Ganges river dolphin has been listed as an Endangered species on the IUCN Red List since 1996. It is threatened by habitat fragmentation due to reduced dry-season river flows, entanglement in fishing gear and by-catch mortality, targeted hunting, pollution of rivers in proximity to urban areas and intensive agricultural landscapes; it is disturbed by inland navigation and potentially threatened by seismic surveys, oil well blowouts, and the effects of climate change on hydrological dynamics. Human activity has played a large role in the reduction of its native range and population size due to stressors such as noise pollution, ship traffic and fishery bycatch, construction of dams and hydroelectric power plants. It is also endangered due to pollution and overfishing for oil. Entanglement in fishing nets as bycatch can cause significant damage to local populations, and individuals are taken each year by hunters; their oil and meat are used as a liniment, as an aphrodisiac, and as bait for catfish. Poisoning of the water supply by industrial and agricultural chemicals may also have been a contributing factor towards population decline, as these chemicals are biomagnified in the bodies of the dolphins. An immediate danger in National Chambal Sanctuary is the decrease in river depth and appearance of sand bars dividing the river course into smaller segments.

Conservation
In 2017, it was estimated that the global Gangetic river dolphin population comprised less than 3,500 individuals. The underlying surveys are temporally patchy and believed to contain uncertainty.

The Ministry of Environment and Forest declared the Gangetic dolphin the national aquatic animal of India. A stretch of the Ganges River between Sultanganj and Kahlgaon in Bihar has been declared a dolphin sanctuary and named Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary, the first such protected area.

The Uttar Pradesh government in India is propagating ancient Hindu texts in hopes of raising the community support to save the dolphins from disappearing. One of the lines being versed from Valimiki's Ramayana, highlighted the force by which the Ganges emerged from Shiva's locks and along with this force came many species such as animals, fish, and the Shishumaar—the dolphin.

On 31 December 2020, a dead adult dolphin was found at the Sharda canal in the Pratapgarh district in India. A video circulated on social media showing a dozen men beating the dolphin with sticks and an axe. On 7 January 2021, three people were arrested. Similarly, there is another news story in which a few fishermen caught one Gangetic dolphin and feasted upon it, leading to their arrest by Kaushambhi police in Uttar Pradesh.

The species is protected from international trade by its listing in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. This makes commercial international trade prohibited.

Bangladesh has established six sanctuaries in the Sundarbans.

On 20 May 2013, India's Ministry of Environment and Forests declared dolphins 'nonhuman persons' and as such has forbidden their captivity for entertainment purposes; keeping dolphins in captivity must satisfy certain legal prerequisites.

Project Dolphin
On the occasion of the 74th Independence Day, 15 August 2020, the Indian Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change announced 'Project Dolphin' to boost conservation of both river and oceanic dolphins.

In culture
The Ganges dolphin is associated with Ganga and is occasionally the depiction of her vahana, the makara.

title: Ganges river dolphin


text:
Theodora

Theodora may refer to:

 * Theodora (given name), a given name of Greek origin, meaning "God's gift"

Byzantine empresses

 * Theodora (wife of Justinian I) (c. 500 – 548), saint by the Orthodox Church
 * Theodora of Khazaria, 7th-century empress, wife of Justinian II
 * Theodora (wife of Theophilos), 9th-century empress, saint by the Orthodox Church
 * Theodora (wife of Romanos I), 10th-century empress
 * Theodora (daughter of Constantine VII), 10th-century empress, wife of John I Tzimiskes
 * Theodora Porphyrogenita (c. 980–1056), empress regnant in 1042 and 1055–1056
 * Theodora Palaiologina (Byzantine empress) (c. 1240–1303), wife of Michael VIII Palaiologos

Trebizonian empresses

 * Theodora Axuchina, empress consort of Alexios I of Trebizond
 * Theodora of Trebizond (before 1253 – after 1285), empress regnant from 1284 to 1285
 * Theodora Kantakouzene (c. 1240 – after 1290), empress consort of Alexios III of Trebizond
 * Theodora Kantakouzene (wife of Alexios IV of Trebizond), empress consort of Alexios IV of Trebizond

Others

 * Theodora of Emesa, 5th-century Neoplatonist
 * Flavia Maximiana Theodora, daughter of the Roman emperor Maximian and second wife of emperor Constantius I
 * Episcopa Theodora, mother of Pope Paschal I in the 9th century
 * Theodora (senatrix), Roman senatrix and mother of Marozia; concubine to Pope Sergius III
 * Theodora Komnene (disambiguation)
 * Theodora Tocco, despoina consort of Constantine, Despot in Morea (later Constantine XI Palaiologos).
 * Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark (1906–1969), daughter of Prince Andrew of Greece and Denmark
 * Princess Theodora of Greece and Denmark (born 1983), daughter of Constantine II of Greece
 * Theodora of Hesse-Darmstadt, daughter of Philip of Hesse-Darmstadt and Duchess consort of Guastalla
 * Theodora Sayn-Wittgenstein (born 1986), German aristocrat
 * Princess Theodora of Liechtenstein (born 2004), Liechtensteiner environmentalist
 * Theodora (Roman martyr), 2nd-century Christian martyr and saint
 * Theodora and Didymus, early Christian martyrs
 * Theodora of Alexandria, Eastern Orthodox saint
 * Theodora of Arta, 13th-century Empress of Epirus
 * Theodora of Sihla, Romanian Orthodox saint

Arts and entertainment

 * Theodora (Handel), an oratorio by George Frideric Handel
 * Theodora (1914 film), Italian silent film
 * Theodora (1921 film), Italian silent film

Other uses

 * Theodora Children's Charity, British charity
 * Theodora, a synonym of the legume genus Schotia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Theodora


text:
1779 in music

Events

 * February 16 – Composer William Boyce is buried in St Paul's Cathedral. The music at his funeral features the massed choirs of St Paul's itself, Westminster Abbey and the Chapel Royal.
 * March 7 – Griffith Jones, aged about 21, is recommended for membership of the Royal Society of Musicians.
 * April – The London Magazine reports on the organ-playing of three-year-old prodigy William Crotch.
 * December 26 – Teatro alla Scala in Milan opens its operatic carnival season with Josef Mysliveček's new opera Armida.
 * The opera house at Eszterháza burns down.
 * Mezzo-soprano Luigia Polzelli and her violinist husband Antonio arrive at the Esterházy court, where she quickly becomes the lover of Joseph Haydn.

Opera

 * Johann Christian Bach – Amadis de Gaule (premiered Dec. 14 in Paris)
 * Domenico Cimarosa
 * L'infedeltà fedele
 * L'italiana in Londra (premiered Dec. 28 in Rome)
 * Il matrimonio per raggiro
 * Christoph Willibald Gluck – Iphigénie en Tauride (premiered May 18 in Paris)
 * André Ernest Modeste Grétry – L'amant jaloux (first published, premiered 1778)
 * Joseph Haydn – L'isola disabitata
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Zaide
 * Giovanni Paisiello – Demetrio, R.1.59
 * Antonio Salieri – Il Talismano

Classical music

 * Anna Amalia – Organ Trio in C major
 * Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach
 * Clavier-Sonaten für Kenner und Liebhaber, Wq.55
 * Rondo in E major, Wq. 57, H.265
 * Rondo in F major, Wq. 57, H.266
 * Claude-Bénigne Balbastre – Sonates en Quatuor, Op. 3 (Paris)
 * William Billings – Music in Miniature
 * William Boyce – 10 Voluntaries for the Organ
 * Muzio Clementi
 * 6 Sonatas, Op. 2
 * 3 Piano Duets and 3 Sonatas, Op. 3
 * François Joseph Gossec – Symphonie Concertante du Ballet de Mirza, B.90
 * Joseph Haydn
 * Symphony No. 70 in D major
 * Symphony No. 71 in B-flat major, Hob.I:71
 * Symphony No. 75 in D Major
 * Aria: "Quando la rosa"
 * Michael Haydn – Symphony No.23 in D major, MH 287, P.43
 * Johann Adam Hiller – "Lieder und Arien aus Sophiens Reise", compilation including pieces from Mozart.
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Kommet her, ihr frechen Sünder, K.146/317b
 * Mass in C major, K.317 (Composed March 23, Premiered April 4 in Salzburg)
 * Symphony No.32 in G major, K.318 (Composed April 26)
 * Symphony No.33 in B-flat major, K.319
 * Serenade in D major, "Posthorn" K.320
 * Vesperae solennes de Dominica in C. K.341
 * Church Sonata in C major, K.329/317a
 * 2 Marches, K.335/320a
 * Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra in E-flat major, K.364/320d
 * Concerto in E-flat major for Two Pianos, K.365/316a
 * Johann Heinrich Rolle – Thirza und ihre Söhne (oratorio)
 * Johann Adolph Hasse - Mass in E-flat major
 * Joseph Bologne Saint-Georges – 2 Symphonies, Op.11
 * Antonio Salieri – Organ Concerto in C major
 * William Shrubsole – "Miles's Lane (All Hail The Power of Jesus' Name)", in The Gospel Magazine and Moral Miscellany, Vol.6.
 * Maria Carolina Wolf – "Die Rose"
 * Carl Friedrich Zelter – Viola Concerto in E-flat major

Methods and theory writings

 * Joseph Amiot – Mémoire sur la musique des Chinois
 * Anton Bemitzrieder – Nouvel essai sur l'harmonie
 * François Vincent Corbelin – Méthode de Harpe
 * Franz Paul Rigler – Anleitung zum Klavier
 * Francisco Inácio Solano – Novo tratado de musica metrica, e rythmica
 * Francesco Antonio Vallotti – Della scienza teorica e pratica della moderna musica (On the scientific theory and practice of modern music)

Births

 * January 8 – John White, organist and composer
 * January 15 – Jean Coralli, ballet producer and choreographer
 * February 1 – Nikolaus von Krufft, Austrian composer (died 1818)
 * February 2 – Georg Heinrich Lux, organist and composer (died 1861)
 * February 5 – François van Campenhout, singer and composer (d. 1848)
 * February 17 – Wilhelm Friedrich Riem, composer (died 1857)
 * February 22 – Joachim Nicolas Eggert, composer (d. 1813)
 * February 23 – Johann Caspar Aiblinger, composer (d. 1867)
 * February 28 – Henry Darondeau, composer (died 1865)
 * March 1 – Jacob Gottfried Weber, composer (d. 1839)
 * March 13 – Oliver Shaw, composer (d. 1848)
 * April 11 – Louise Reichardt, German composer (died 1826)
 * April 21 – William Knyvett, composer
 * May 28 – Thomas Moore, poet and lyricist
 * June 23 – Johann Baptist Schiedermayr, composer (died 1840)
 * July 20 – Ignaz Schuster, bass and composer (died 1835)
 * August 1 – Francis Scott Key, songwriter (died 1843)
 * September 8 – Johann Philipp Samuel Schmidt, composer (died 1853)
 * September 10 – Louis Alexandre Piccinni, composer
 * October 15
 * August Ferdinand Häser, composer (died 1844)
 * Johan Olof Wallin, songwriting bishop
 * November 14 – Adam Oehlenschläger poet and lyricist (died 1850)
 * date unknown
 * Georges-Joseph-Laurent Lambert, composer (died 1852)

Deaths

 * January 20 – David Garrick, librettist (born 1717)
 * February 7 – William Boyce, composer, 69
 * February 12 – Hinrich Philip Johnsen, composer (born 1717)
 * April 6 – Tommaso Traetta, composer, 52
 * April 7 – Martha Ray, singer, 32/33 (murdered)
 * June 6 – Joseph Inchbald, actor and singer, 44
 * November 27 – Josse Boutmy, organist and harpsichordist, 82
 * December 5 – Hermann Anton Gelinek, organist and violinist, 70
 * December 28 – Gennaro Manna, composer, 64
 * December - Richard Morris, collector of folk songs, 76
 * unknown date – Edward Jones, Welsh composer, 49/50

title: 1779 in music


text:
University of Michigan Executive System

The University of Michigan Executive System, or UMES, a batch operating system developed at the University of Michigan in 1958, was widely used at many universities. Based on the General Motors Executive System for the IBM 701, UMES was revised to work on the mainframe computers in use at the University of Michigan during this time (IBM 704, 709, and 7090) and to work better for the small student jobs that were expected to be the primary work load at the university.

UMES was in use at the University of Michigan until 1967, when MTS was phased in to take advantage of the newer virtual memory time-sharing technology that became available on the IBM System/360 Model 67.

Programming languages available

 * FORTRAN
 * MAD (programming language)

title: University of Michigan Executive System


text:
Descriptive geometry

Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design and in art. The theoretical basis for descriptive geometry is provided by planar geometric projections. The earliest known publication on the technique was "Underweysung der Messung mit dem Zirckel und Richtscheyt" (Observation of the measurement with the compass and spirit level), published in Linien, Nuremberg: 1525, by Albrecht Dürer. Italian architect Guarino Guarini was also a pioneer of projective and descriptive geometry, as is clear from his Placita Philosophica (1665), Euclides Adauctus (1671) and Architettura Civile (1686—not published until 1737), anticipating the work of Gaspard Monge (1746–1818), who is usually credited with the invention of descriptive geometry. Gaspard Monge is usually considered the "father of descriptive geometry" due to his developments in geometric problem solving. His first discoveries were in 1765 while he was working as a draftsman for military fortifications, although his findings were published later on.

Monge's protocols allow an imaginary object to be drawn in such a way that it may be modeled in three dimensions. All geometric aspects of the imaginary object are accounted for in true size/to-scale and shape, and can be imaged as seen from any position in space. All images are represented on a two-dimensional surface.

Descriptive geometry uses the image-creating technique of imaginary, parallel projectors emanating from an imaginary object and intersecting an imaginary plane of projection at right angles. The cumulative points of intersections create the desired image.

Protocols

 * Project two images of an object into mutually perpendicular, arbitrary directions. Each image view accommodates three dimensions of space, two dimensions displayed as full-scale, mutually-perpendicular axes and one as an invisible (point view) axis receding into the image space (depth). Each of the two adjacent image views shares a full-scale view of one of the three dimensions of space.
 * Either of these images may serve as the beginning point for a third projected view. The third view may begin a fourth projection, and on ad infinitum. These sequential projections each represent a circuitous, 90° turn in space in order to view the object from a different direction.
 * Each new projection utilizes a dimension in full scale that appears as point-view dimension in the previous view. To achieve the full-scale view of this dimension and accommodate it within the new view requires one to ignore the previous view and proceed to the second previous view where this dimension appears in full-scale.
 * Each new view may be created by projecting into any of an infinite number of directions, perpendicular to the previous direction of projection. (Envision the many directions of the spokes of a wagon wheel each perpendicular to the direction of the axle.) The result is one of stepping circuitously about an object in 90° turns and viewing the object from each step. Each new view is added as an additional view to an orthographic projection layout display and appears in an "unfolding of the glass box model".

Aside from the Orthographic, six standard principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side; Top; Bottom; Rear), descriptive geometry strives to yield four basic solution views: the true length of a line (i.e., full size, not foreshortened), the point view (end view) of a line, the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to scale, or not foreshortened), and the edge view of a plane (i.e., view of a plane with the line of sight perpendicular to the line of sight associated with the line of sight for producing the true shape of a plane). These often serve to determine the direction of projection for the subsequent view. By the 90° circuitous stepping process, projecting in any direction from the point view of a line yields its true length view; projecting in a direction parallel to a true length line view yields its point view, projecting the point view of any line on a plane yields the plane's edge view; projecting in a direction perpendicular to the edge view of a plane will yield the true shape (to scale) view. These various views may be called upon to help solve engineering problems posed by solid-geometry principles

Heuristics
There is heuristic value to studying descriptive geometry. It promotes visualization and spatial analytical abilities, as well as the intuitive ability to recognize the direction of viewing for best presenting a geometric problem for solution. Representative examples:

The best direction to view

 * Two skew lines (pipes, perhaps) in general positions in order to determine the location of their shortest connector (common perpendicular)
 * Two skew lines (pipes) in general positions such that their shortest connector is seen in full scale
 * Two skew lines in general positions such the shortest connector parallel to a given plane is seen in full scale (say, to determine the position and the dimension of the shortest connector at a constant distance from a radiating surface)
 * A plane surface such that a hole drilled perpendicular is seen in full scale, as if looking through the hole (say, to test for clearances with other drilled holes)
 * A plane equidistant from two skew lines in general positions (say, to confirm safe radiation distance?)
 * The shortest distance from a point to a plane (say, to locate the most economical position for bracing)
 * The line of intersection between two surfaces, including curved surfaces (say, for the most economical sizing of sections?)
 * The true size of the angle between two planes

A standard for presenting computer-modeling views analogous to orthographic, sequential projections has not yet been adopted. One candidate for such is presented in the illustrations below. The images in the illustrations were created using three-dimensional, engineering computer graphics.

Three-dimensional, computer modeling produces virtual space "behind the tube", as it were, and may produce any view of a model from any direction within this virtual space. It does so without the need for adjacent orthographic views and therefore may seem to render the circuitous, stepping protocol of Descriptive Geometry obsolete. However, since descriptive geometry is the science of the legitimate or allowable imaging of three or more dimensional space, on a flat plane, it is an indispensable study, to enhance computer modeling possibilities.

Finding the shortest connector between two given skew lines PR and SU
Given the X, Y and Z coordinates of P, R, S and U, projections 1 and 2 are drawn to scale on the X-Y and X-Z planes, respectively.

To get a true view (length in the projection is equal to length in 3D space) of one of the lines: SU in this example, projection 3 is drawn with hinge line H2,3 parallel to S2U2. To get an end view of SU, projection 4 is drawn with hinge line H3,4 perpendicular to S3U3. The perpendicular distance d gives the shortest distance between PR and SU.

To get points Q and T on these lines giving this shortest distance, projection 5 is drawn with hinge line H4,5 parallel to P4R4, making both P5R5 and S5U5 true views (any projection of an end view is a true view). Projecting the intersection of these lines, Q5 and T5 back to projection 1 (magenta lines and labels) allows their coordinates to be read off the X, Y and Z axes.

General solutions
General solutions are a class of solutions within descriptive geometry that contain all possible solutions to a problem. The general solution is represented by a single, three-dimensional object, usually a cone, the directions of the elements of which are the desired direction of viewing (projection) for any of an infinite number of solution views.

For example: To find the general solution such that two, unequal length, skew lines in general positions (say, rockets in flight?) appear:

 * Equal length
 * Equal length and parallel
 * Equal length and perpendicular (say, for ideal targeting of at least one)
 * Equal to lengths of a specified ratio
 * others.

In the examples, the general solution for each desired characteristic solution is a cone, each element of which produces one of an infinite number of solution views. When two or more characteristics of, say those listed above, are desired (and for which a solution exists) projecting in the direction of either of the two elements of intersections (one element, if cones are tangent) between the two cones produces the desired solution view. If the cones do not intersect a solution does not exist. The examples below are annotated to show the descriptive geometric principles used in the solutions. TL = True-Length; EV = Edge View.

Figs. 1-3 below demonstrate (1) Descriptive geometry, general solutions and (2) simultaneously, a potential standard for presenting such solutions in orthographic, multiview, layout formats.

The potential standard employs two adjacent, standard, orthographic views (here, Front and Top) with a standard "folding line" between. As there is no subsequent need to 'circuitously step' 90° around the object, in standard, two-step sequences in order to arrive at a solution view (it is possible to go directly to the solution view), this shorter protocol is accounted for in the layout. Where the one step protocol replaces the two-step protocol, "double folding" lines are used. In other words, when one crosses the double lines he is not making a circuitous 90° turn but a non-orthodirectional turn directly to the solution view. As most engineering computer graphics packages automatically generates the six principal views of the glass box model, as well as an isometric view, these views are sometimes added out of heuristic curiosity.

Figure 1: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appearing perpendicular

Figure 2: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear equal length

Figure 3: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear in specified length ratio

title: Descriptive geometry


text:
Susu

Susu may refer to:
 * Susu people or Soussou, an ethnic group in Guinea
 * Susu language, language spoken by this ethnic group
 * Sosso Empire, a twelfth-century Takrur kingdom of West Africa
 * Susu (savings), an informal savings account practiced in the Caribbean
 * Susu account, a saving scheme for poor people in Ghana

SUSU may refer to:
 * South Ural State University
 * University of Southampton Students' Union
 * Sheffield University Students' Union
 * Staffordshire University Students' Union
 * Swansea University Students' Union

title: Susu


text:
USS Harder (SS-568)

USS Harder (SS-568), a Tang-class submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the harder, a fish of the mullet family found off South Africa.

Construction and commissioning
Harder′s keel was laid down by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut, on 30 June 1950. She was launched on 3 December 1951, sponsored by Kay Logan Cole, the widow of Lieutenant S. M. Logan, executive officer of the submarine USS Harder (SS-257), lost during World War II. Harder was commissioned on 19 August 1952.

Service history
After shakedown out of Newport, Rhode Island, Harder made a 1000-mile (1600-km) submerged passage from New London, Connecticut, to Nassau, Bahamas, while snorkeling. She then engaged in tests out of New London to evaluate fast attack type submarines.

Harder began fleet operations out of New London in June 1953. Shortly thereafter Harder departed for the British Isles. During this voyage, she experienced mechanical difficulties with her then-experimental Fairbanks type 3 engines. In August 1953, her engines broke down completely off the east coast of Ireland. She was taken under tow by USS Tringa (ASR-16) and endured the longest tow in submarine history, 2100 miles (3400 km) across the Atlantic to New London, Connecticut.

During the next several years Harder carried out a schedule of training and readiness operations with ships of the Atlantic Fleet and Allied NATO nations. Operating from the North Atlantic to the Caribbean Sea, she engaged in sonar evaluation tests, supported ASW tactical exercises, and participated in submerged simulated attack operations. In March 1959 she participated in SUBICEX, during which she cruised 280 miles (450 km) beneath the ice packs off Newfoundland, further than any conventionally powered submarine had previously gone.

After completing a three-month advanced submarine exercise in the Atlantic, Harder switched her home port to Charleston, South Carolina, where she arrived 17 November and joined Submarine Squadron 4. She continued operations in the Atlantic and Caribbean for more than a year, then departed Charleston 24 May 1961 for deployment off the western coast of Europe and in the Mediterranean Sea. After reaching Bremerhaven, Germany, on 9 June, she supported ASW operations with ships of the Federal German Navy. The following month she sailed via Holy Loch, Scotland, and Rota, Spain, to the Mediterranean Sea where she supported peace-keeping operations of the 6th Fleet. Harder returned to Charleston 28 August.

Training exercises and tests evaluating ASROC and other ASW systems kept Harder busy until she entered Charleston Naval Shipyard for overhaul in October 1962.Ready for action in April 1963, she operated along the Atlantic Coast and in the Caribbean Sea for the next 2½ years polishing her underwater warfare tactics and operating with destroyer-type ships as they worked on ASW exercises.

Harder again entered Charleston Naval Shipyard on 22 October for a thorough overhaul and modernization in which she received an 18-foot hull extension to accommodate the new PUFFS passive sonar system, a redesigned superstructure, new engines, and improved electrical and electronic equipment. Modernization completed early in 1967, Harder rejoined the fleet.

Romeo Romei (S 516)
Harder was decommissioned on 31 January 1974, struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 20 February 1974, and sold to Italy.

Commissioned on 18 August 1974 as Romeo Romei, ex-Harder served the Italian Navy until she was decommissioned and scrapped in 1988.

title: USS Harder (SS-568)


text: User talk:68.224.164.104

title: User talk:68.224.164.104


text:
Talk:Mandrill

Largest?
What is meant by "The Mandrill is the world's largest species of monkey"? Does that mean the madrill is the most populous or what? If the is meant to be size wise I think it is incorrect because gorillas are certainly bigger. Does any one know what this sentence is talking about or should it be removed? Tubbablub (talk) 08:28, 17 November 2009 (UTC)
 * Gorillas are classified as apes, not as monkeys. --Kay Dekker (talk) 18:44, 7 December 2009 (UTC)
 * It seems they're similar-sized to the (closely related) Drill? 77.99.246.115 (talk) 09:19, 11 April 2011 (UTC)
 * No one has clarified this, right? The page for the Drill says males can be 50Kg.  Jokem (talk) 01:16, 18 September 2022 (UTC)
 * I checked the cited reference for Drill males being up to 50kg. That was incorrect. They can weigh up to 20kg, per the reference. I've update that. With the male Mandrills weighing up to 30kg, the "largest monkey" moniker stands. - UtherSRG (talk) 11:41, 18 September 2022 (UTC)

Wikipedia Ambassador Program course assignment
This article is the subject of an educational assignment at Washington University supported by the Wikipedia Ambassador Program during the 2012 Fall term. Further details are available on the course page.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 15:48, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Tail
In the the first paragraph under "appearance" it says that they have stumpy tails. In the last sentence it says they have long tails. So which is it? Jupe77 (talk) 07:40, 3 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mandrill


text:
Hamarkameratene

Hamarkameratene (lit. 'the Hamar Comrades'), often abbreviated to HamKam or Ham-Kam, is a Norwegian football club based in the town of Hamar. The club was founded in 1918, originally under the name Freidig.

HamKam were most recently promoted to the Eliteserien in 2021. A third-place finish in 1970 is the highest position that the team has held in the top division; the club has never progressed beyond the semifinals of the Norwegian Cup, last reaching the semifinals in 1989.

Briskeby Stadion has been the home ground of Hamarkameratene since 1936. The construction of a completely modernized stadium began in 2007 but has never been completed. Originally scheduled to be completed in 2009, the expanded Briskeby is expected to have a capacity of 10,200 spectators on completion, but currently has a capacity of approximately 8,100.

History
Hamarkameratene were founded as Freidig on 10 August 1918 by a group of teenagers. The prerequisite for joining the team was being able to pay for the football. Freidig applied for entry into the regional series in 1926, but were only admitted after their second attempt, in 1927. At the time a club by the name of "Freidig" was already playing in the series, so the boys from Hamar were forced to rename their team. The natural choice was Briskebyen Fotballag (Briskebyen Football Team), Briskeby being the name of their neighbourhood. The club had no permanent playing location until 1936, instead renting fields from various other clubs. Eventually this situation grew intolerable and ground for a stadium of their own was bought in 1934. Briskeby gressbane was inaugurated two years later and has remained the club's home ground ever since. The neighborhood was located in the municipality Vang until an expansion of Hamar's city limits in 1946.

In 1946, Briskebyen Fotballag joined up with the multimodal sports club Hamar Arbeideridrettslag (Hamar Workers' Sports Club) to form Hamarkameratene (literally meaning "Comrades of Hamar"). Because of the general reconciliation between bourgeois and workers' sports clubs, it was the wish of the municipality that all the sports clubs in Hamar merge, but in the end only these two clubs, who both considered themselves as working-class clubs and were from the same area, were able to reach an agreement. The first manager was Roy Wright, a former Wolverhampton player. His experience from English football, however, did not benefit the club and he was considered a disappointment. The Czechoslovakian Willem Cerveny, on the other hand, proved to be an influential asset to club and the development of a football culture in the region.

The first half of the 1970s was the club's most successful period to date. Having won promotion to the 1. divisjon for the first time in 1969 (the highest level in Norway at the time), the green and white placed third overall in their first season, as well as reaching the semifinals of the Norwegian Cup. HamKam remained a stable contender in the 1. divisjon until 1974, when they were relegated. The club would earn promotion to the highest division three more times before 1980.

The '80s continued in much the same fashion as the latter part of the '70s, with the club going back and forth between the two top levels in Norwegian football. In 1984, a new stand with a capacity of 2,346 was constructed at Briskeby. A considerable loan was taken up to fund the stand, of which the club would feel the effects for the decade to come, among other things because of the rise in interest rates after the 1987 stock market correction. A measure of success was still achieved, however, with the club reaching the semifinals of the cup in 1987 and 1989.

A successful season in 1991 saw Hamarkameratene once again win promotion to the highest division, under Swedish coach Peter Engelbrektsson. The club managed to avoid relegation in 1992 by virtue of a better goal difference, and entered into 1993 with renewed confidence. After a slow start, the team began climbing towards the top, and were in reach of second place and even the championship towards the end of the season, but with a slump in form a fifth place was the still-positive result.

HamKam spent another two years in the top flight before entering a recession. In 1994, the municipality bought the stadium to remove the debt which had nearly bankrupted the club. Coach Engelbrektsson left after relegation to the 1. divisjon in 1995, and the club failed to earn promotion in 1996 and 1997. Serious financial problems emerged at the beginning of 1998. This time a group of private investors prevented bankruptcy, but HamKam were unable to even retain their spot in the 1. divisjon and were relegated to the 2. divisjon. Promotion back into the 1. divisjon was won the following season, and a slow process followed to rebuild the team. In 2001 the club nearly made it back to the first tier but lost the playoff against Bryne. The following season was a disappointment, with only eighth place to show for, and the club was yet again experiencing financial problems.

After struggling for seven years, the hiring of Ståle Solbakken as the team's coach before the start of the 2003 season marked the beginning of another short stay at the top of Norwegian football for the green and white. Having won the 1. divisjon in 2003, they entered the top division for the first time since 1995. The first season in the top flight in eight years was a formidable success. Under Solbakken's leadership, HamKam were in contention for a spot among the final four and a place in the UEFA Cup qualifying rounds. They would eventually end the season in fifth place. Thought by many to be unable to cope in the company of wealthier clubs, this was an impressive feat by the team with the second-smallest budget of them all.

Expectations were high in 2005, but despite early prospects of a good season (in their first game, they defeated would-be champions Vålerenga), HamKam were unable to perform consistently and ended up in a disappointing tenth place. Soon after, Solbakken announced that he would be leaving the club to become manager of FC Copenhagen. He was succeeded by the former Norwegian national goalkeeper Frode Grodås.

Solbakken's tenure at Hamarkameratene had left the club in a much improved state from prior to his arrival. Gone were the financial problems that had plagued the club for two decades. People were once again coming to see the team play, with attendances now averaging more than 5,500, a number not seen since the '70s. Fans of the club had even gone as far as to nickname their manager Ståle "Salvatore" ("the saviour") in recognition of his achievements.

His successor failed to capitalize. HamKam picked up where they left off in 2005, scoring some spectacular wins against top teams while again being unable to perform consistently. As the season neared its end, however, Frode Grodås failed where Solbakken had succeeded, namely in keeping HamKam away from the relegation zone. Going into the final round of the season, they found themselves third from the bottom of the table and in need of a win. HamKam instead suffered a humiliating 1–5 loss at home, dropping to 13th place and relegation in 2006.

As a result, the board decided to fire Grodås from his position as head coach, and on 13 November Arne Erlandsen was hired as his replacement. Vegard Skogheim, a long-time favourite amongst the fans, was hired as assistant coach. HamKam returned to the top division in 2007 but relegated again to 1. divisjon as 14th or last in 2008. HamKam slipped down to 2. divisjon as 13th after losing 1–0 away match against Sparta Sarpsborg in 2009.

In the 2010 season, HamKam won its section of the Second Division and won promotion back to the second tier. However, economic problems came to a head, and on 21 December 2010, the board announced that the club had decided to file for bankruptcy on 30 December, unless fresh funds were raised by that time.

In the 2021 season, HamKam were promoted from the First Division as champions, returning to the Eliteserien for the first time since 2008.

Stadium

HamKam play their home games as Briskeby Stadion, an all-seater football stadium located at Briskebyen in Hamar. The venue is owned by Hamar Municipality. The new section of Briskeby has the same style and building materials as the two other main sports venues in Hamar, Vikingskipet and Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre, which were built for the 1994 Winter Olympics. The venue has capacity for 8,068 spectators and has club seating 600 people. The pitch is 105 by artificial turf. Around the pitch are 180 digital advertising board. There are two 40 m2 scoreboard screens. The stands have 13 concession stands, all which are built to allow a view of the pitch while standing in a queue.

Honours

 * Norwegian top division
 * Third place: 1970
 * 1. divisjon
 * Champions (2): 2003, 2021
 * Norwegian Cup
 * Semi-finals (6): 1969, 1970, 1971, 1973, 1987, 1989

Recent history

 * {|class="wikitable"

! Season ! ! Pos. ! Pl. ! W ! D ! L ! GS ! GA ! P !Cup !Notes
 * -bgcolor="#efefef"
 * 2003
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
 * align=right|30||align=right|19||align=right|6||align=right|5
 * align=right|60||align=right|29||align=right|63
 * 3rd round
 * Promoted to Tippeligaen
 * 2004
 * Tippeligaen
 * align=right |5
 * align=right|26||align=right|10||align=right|8||align=right|8
 * align=right|34||align=right|33||align=right|38
 * Quarterfinal
 * 2005
 * Tippeligaen
 * align=right |10
 * align=right|26||align=right|8||align=right|7||align=right|11
 * align=right|31||align=right|37||align=right|31
 * Quarterfinal
 * 2006
 * Tippeligaen
 * align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 13
 * align=right|26||align=right|7||align=right|7||align=right|12
 * align=right|35||align=right|39||align=right|28
 * Last 16
 * Relegated to 1. divisjon
 * 2007
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 2
 * align=right|30||align=right|21||align=right|5||align=right|4
 * align=right|82||align=right|36||align=right|68
 * Second round
 * Promoted to Tippeligaen
 * 2008
 * Tippeligaen
 * align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 14
 * align=right|26||align=right|5||align=right|6||align=right|15
 * align=right|22||align=right|50||align=right|21
 * Second round
 * Relegated to 1. divisjon
 * 2009
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 13
 * align=right|30||align=right|11||align=right|4||align=right|15
 * align=right|56||align=right|48||align=right|37
 * Third round
 * Relegated to 2. Divisjon
 * 2010
 * 2. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
 * align=right|26||align=right|19||align=right|2||align=right|5
 * align=right|75||align=right|25||align=right|59
 * Second round
 * Promoted to Adeccoligaen
 * 2011
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |6
 * align=right|30||align=right|14||align=right|9||align=right|7
 * align=right|52||align=right|40||align=right|51
 * Second round
 * 2012
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |8
 * align=right|30||align=right|13||align=right|6||align=right|11
 * align=right|51||align=right|49||align=right|43
 * Third round
 * 2013
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |5
 * align="right" |30||align=right|14||align=right|6|| align="right" |10
 * align="right" |49|| align="right" |43||align=right|48
 * Fourth round
 * 2014
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor="#FFCCCC"| 16
 * align="right" |30||align=right|1||align=right|4|| align="right" |25
 * align="right" |22|| align="right" |78||align=right|7
 * Third round
 * Relegated to 2. divisjon
 * 2015
 * 2. divisjon
 * align=right |4
 * align="right" |26||align=right|10||align=right|10|| align="right" |6
 * align="right" |51|| align="right" |44||align=right|40
 * Second round
 * 2016
 * 2. divisjon
 * align=right |2
 * align="right" |26||align=right|16||align=right|8|| align="right" |2
 * align="right" |63|| align="right" |27||align=right|56
 * First round
 * 2017
 * 2. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
 * align="right" |26||align=right|21||align=right|2|| align="right" |3
 * align="right" |56|| align="right" |18||align=right|65
 * First round
 * Promoted to the 1. divisjon
 * 2018
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |9
 * align="right" |30||align=right|12||align=right|6|| align="right" |12
 * align="right" |46|| align="right" |44||align=right|42
 * Fourth Round
 * 2019
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |10
 * align="right" |30||align=right|11||align=right|5|| align="right" |14
 * align="right" |43|| align="right" |47||align=right|38
 * Second Round
 * 2020
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |9
 * align="right" |30||align=right|10||align=right|9|| align="right" |11
 * align="right" |49|| align="right" |52||align=right|39
 * Cancelled
 * 2021
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
 * align="right" |30||align=right|21||align=right|6|| align="right" |3
 * align="right" |62|| align="right" |21||align=right|69
 * Third round
 * Promoted to the Eliteserien
 * 2022
 * Eliteserien
 * align=right |13
 * align="right" |30||align=right|6||align=right|13|| align="right" |11
 * align="right" |33|| align="right" |43||align=right|31
 * Third round
 * 2023
 * Eliteserien
 * align=right |11
 * align="right" |30||align=right|10||align=right|4|| align="right" |16
 * align="right" |39|| align="right" |59||align=right|34
 * Quarter Final
 * }
 * 2020
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right |9
 * align="right" |30||align=right|10||align=right|9|| align="right" |11
 * align="right" |49|| align="right" |52||align=right|39
 * Cancelled
 * 2021
 * 1. divisjon
 * align=right bgcolor=#DDFFDD| 1
 * align="right" |30||align=right|21||align=right|6|| align="right" |3
 * align="right" |62|| align="right" |21||align=right|69
 * Third round
 * Promoted to the Eliteserien
 * 2022
 * Eliteserien
 * align=right |13
 * align="right" |30||align=right|6||align=right|13|| align="right" |11
 * align="right" |33|| align="right" |43||align=right|31
 * Third round
 * 2023
 * Eliteserien
 * align=right |11
 * align="right" |30||align=right|10||align=right|4|| align="right" |16
 * align="right" |39|| align="right" |59||align=right|34
 * Quarter Final
 * }
 * Eliteserien
 * align=right |11
 * align="right" |30||align=right|10||align=right|4|| align="right" |16
 * align="right" |39|| align="right" |59||align=right|34
 * Quarter Final
 * }
 * }

Current squad
For season transfers, see transfers winter 2022–23 and transfers summer 2023.

title: Hamarkameratene


text:
Talk:Mid-Levels

Mid-levels
Would it be possible to provide a clear geographical definition of the area known as "Mid-Levels"? For instance, I am not sure that Sheung Wan, Admiralty, and the Peak belong to this area, as the current form of the article would suggest. thanks! olivier 11:46, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

Yes, it would make things a lot clearer. Thanks for your intelligent advice.

i would like to define more clearly on the geographical definition of the area in Mid-evels, but i will try my best not to change so much Also, i 've found errors in the years that the Hong Kong Zoological &Botanical Gardens was first opened to the public. i 've changed into corrected one. Moreover, i don't think cyberpot has got any realtion to Mid-levels so i would delete that part in the page soon, in case if there is no one doing so. 78kachiu 25/2/2004

Yep. You're right about that. Cyberport is more related to Hong Kong Island in general than merely Mid-levels.

Yes. I also agree that the cyberport does not locate at the mid-levels and it should be deleted. 78jaylee

so horrible!! how can guys add stuff that are totally unrelated to Mid-level? the most horrible is Pacific Place, where is in Admiralty also please don't add any historical features that are just located near Mid-level.... such as Western Market....78kachiu 29/2/2004

i will delete the Pacific Place and Western Market soon.....in case if there is no on doing so 78kachiu 1/3/2004

Actually I think there is not much thing inside Mid-levels and I see others put these stuffs in the content. So I feel all agree that we can include the things/features near the mid-levels......... But if we only focus on Mid-levels, then I want to ask if Landmark, HKU and all similar halls are also in Mid-levels? Do we need to delete them also?78jaylee

Hmmm...the problem is, Mid-levels itself is more of a residential area and as you said, there really aren't many interesting things to focus on. May be we should pay some attention to places surrounding Mid-levels and specify that they are NOT within the Mid-levels territory but are nearby places that viewers may be interested in.

Yes, i agree with you, but those places should not be put within the column of Mid-level...they are not within the scope of discussion of Mid-level at least they should be separated as another column....or use a link for refering more information, such as the horrible "pacific place and Queen Mary hospital".......where is far away from Mid-level. Also, please please don't say there is not many interesting stuff in Mid-levels those saying that should at least go to find out 1 to 2 books that have mentioned some historical features in Mid-levels .. so many hot spots we have ignored.... how can someone saying that kind of thing and say "need to delete them also"?such as HKU!!!!so sad to hear that!!! 78kachiu 2/3/2004

so sad to see cyberpot was posted by someone else please please don't add more this kind of stuff i would delete them, also like Queen hospital how can Central police station be deleted?....no one talk about that... so irresponsible....78kachiu 2/3/2004

Oops! I deleted the piccy of the tea ware museum accidentally. Will someone kindly add that piccy again?

sorry~ I just want to say that as I think, strictly speaking, HKU and the halls (especially the Old hall) are in Pok Fu Lam, but seems not in mid-levels. So I just want to rise question here to discuss if we need to consider them in the page.But if others think it is ok to reserve it, aslo no problem.78jaylee

Errr...if we don't put HKU and the other stuff down, chances are that our page will gets more and more uninteresting and less informative. Anyway, HKU and other buildings are quite near Mid-levels and so they won't be a problem at all if we put them down...I guess.

Pardon... I really got a bit surprised when I see those UNRELATED stuff here.... I've deleted some already. And may you guys delete the remaining. Sorry to interrupt you guys, but I think it's my responsibility as a Wikipedia user.

By the way, upto my understnading, Mid-levels = areas between Hollywood Road and Conduct Road, including Bonham Road and Caine Road. I think HKU itself can be regarded as in Mid-levels too. But I can hardly say "landmark" is one of them. User:84denniswong

I've edited the links at the end of this page. Two I noticed were only in Chinese. Not sure if these belong in the English language Wikipedia but I noted the language and left them there. Jarsyl 08:59, 2004 Aug 12 (UTC)

 * Any public housing in the region? 2A00:23C5:C102:9E00:A98F:74CF:E799:43D5 (talk) 02:20, 2 May 2020 (UTC)

Mountain?
"The Mid-levels is a residential area in Hong Kong. Located halfway up the mountain, between the Peak and Central," What mountain? I came here with no knowledge of Hong Kong geography. 119 07:34, 25 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * The Peak is the top of the mountain... olivier 08:04, Jan 12, 2005 (UTC)
 * Is the new intro better? "Located halfway up Victoria Peak, directly above Central," --Breathstealer 13:47, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

After all these years the article still contains details on places outside Midlevels. I would count HKU as in, but Soho, Lang Kwai Fong, Hollywood Road and Man Ho temple are not in the midlevels. Instead of just a delete the paragraph could be moved to another suburbs article. It seems as if the midlevels were taking over most of Hong Kong Island in the earlier versions! The Midlevels are also above Sai Ying Pun and Sheung Wan (Western Midlevels). A reference to something in another language is good if it was the information the article was based on. It could however be a reference rather than just a link.

It does not matter if the page is uninteresting as it is supposed to be truthful. One area to add interest is to name the famous people who live there - I don't know anything on this topic. GB 11:21, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Reclamation
Des Voeux Road West and Bonham Strand West were lands from reclamation. Why are they "Mid-levels" ? --Hello World! 15:36, 9 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Religion all wrong
Ummm, I don't think Christianity is Hong Kong's biggest religion. One needs to remember the Buddhist and Taoist temples and other places of worship in Hong Kong as well, which actually have higher members.

 * The reason why the other religions don't appear is that they have few facilities in the midlevels. In the past the mid levels were populated by Europeans who were mostly Christians and built churches. The temples for the non Christians were built in the suburbs closer to the coast, and so they are not in the midlevels.  GB 11:21, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved. Vegaswikian (talk) 21:06, 1 October 2011 (UTC)

Mid-levels → Mid-Levels – The"L" should be capital. 218.102.69.213 (talk) 16:18, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

 * Not controversial. Just do it (or post a request for non-controversial move). Joja  lozzo  22:54, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

 * You cannot just use a new name for a category, you have to request the category be renamed as well. 70.24.247.40 (talk) 00:41, 25 September 2011 (UTC)
 * You are correct but this request just involves the page. I agree that we'll want to request the category name change once the page is changed. Thanks for the reminder. Joja  lozzo  02:40, 25 September 2011 (UTC)
 * Actually, the person who filed this move request, placed it on the article page originally, and at that time, changed the category to a capital-L, and it became a redlink, hence my comment here. 70.24.247.40 (talk) 06:34, 25 September 2011 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20071027002856/http://www.lds.org.hk/english/features/wan_chai_church_building.htm to http://www.lds.org.hk/english/features/wan_chai_church_building.htm

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title: Talk:Mid-Levels


text:
The Rule of Names

"The Rule of Names" is a short story by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin, first published in the April 1964 issue of Fantastic and reprinted in collections such as The Wind's Twelve Quarters. This story and "The Word of Unbinding" convey Le Guin's initial concepts for the Earthsea realm, including its places and physical manifestation. Most of the characters from the novels do not make an appearance, with the exception of the dragon Yevaud. Both stories help explain the foundations of the Earthsea realm, in particular the importance of true names to magic.

Plot summary
Sattins Island (among the Islands of Earthsea, though this is not mentioned in the original story) contains a rustic village and a resident wizard, nicknamed "Underhill" because he lives in a cave below a hill. Fat, shy, and largely incompetent, Underhill mostly uses simple magic to help the villagers with day-to-day minor medical and agricultural difficulties. Meanwhile, the village's teacher, the pretty Palani, introduces the concept of naming to her schoolchildren: each citizen of Earthsea has one name as a child, which they abandon at puberty in favor of their "true name", but this name must be kept private as it can be used by ill-intentioned magicians to control the individual.

One day, a lone handsome stranger from the distant Archipelago arrives on the island. The locals dub him Blackbeard. He hires a village lad called Birt to guide him to Underhill's home. Speaking to Birt, Blackbeard reveals his purpose: he is a powerful magician searching for his ancestors' treasure, which was stolen by a dragon. He believes Underhill to be a wizard who defeated the dragon and made off with the treasure.

Birt and Blackbeard arrive at Underhill's home. There, Blackbeard confronts Underhill, culminating in a battle in which the two magicians shapeshift into different animals and natural forces. After Underhill transforms into a massive dragon, Blackbeard reveals that he knows Underhill's true name, Yevaud, and that speaking the name will lock Underhill into his true form. This proves effective, but not as Blackbeard expected; Underhill explains that he is in fact the dragon who stole the treasure of Blackbeard's ancestors, and so his true form is indeed that of a dragon. Blackbeard, stunned, is hastily dispatched by Yevaud. Meanwhile, Birt flees the island, taking his love Palani with him. As he does so, Yevaud, embracing his predatory dragon nature, prepares to devour the villagers of Sattins Island.

In A Wizard of Earthsea, Ged knows this tale as an ancient bit of lore and makes a desperate gamble based on it.

Literary significance and criticism
Susan Wood points out that it was during the early 1960s, when Ursula K. Le Guin was selling stories such as "The Word of Unbinding" and "The Rule of Names", that she "was an accomplished writer, expressing valuable insights with grace and humour".

The story underscores the importance of language to the entire Earthsea Cycle. In particular, the use of "names" in the title, along with the use of "word" in "The Word of Unbinding", solidifies this message in the first two Earthsea stories. Specifically, within the Earthsea realm, knowing another man's or dragon's true name gives one power over them; as a result, sharing one's true name with another is an act of complete trust.

In later parts of the Earthsea Cycle, the concept of humans and dragons being akin and having been originally one species is developed, and some persons such as Tehanu have a dual human-dragon nature. However, there is no hint of that in this early story. Yevaud had turned himself into a human being for the purpose of hiding, as Ged turned into a bird in A Wizard of Earthsea and Festin into a fish in "The Word of Unbinding", and there is no suggestion that being human was inherent to him in any way.

title: The Rule of Names


text:
The Word of Unbinding

"The Word of Unbinding" is a short story by American writer Ursula K. Le Guin, first published in the January 1964 issue of Fantastic, and reprinted in collections such as The Wind's Twelve Quarters. In this story, the Earthsea realm, later made setting of the novel A Wizard of Earthsea, was first introduced. Along with the story "The Rule of Names", this story conveys Le Guin's initial concepts for the Earthsea realm, including its places and physical manifestation, but not the characters appearing in the novels.

Plot summary
At the beginning of the story, the protagonist, a wizard named Festin, finds himself imprisoned. Thinking back, he recalls his apprehension at the news that the evil wizard Voll had been marching from island to island, among the islands of Earthsea subduing all in his way, with no one able to understand or fight his magic. Festin determines that Voll must have just reached his island; thus his imprisonment.

At first Festin, a strong wizard in his own right, is confident of his power to escape and overcome Voll – but all his attempts are rebuffed more than defeated. Finally, Festin's desperate longing for his beloved countryside makes him transform himself into a fish, swimming in one of the island's cool streams. However, Voll has noticed what happened, and a troll, one of the evil one's servants, finds and takes Festin out of the water. The wizard is trapped by his own spell and cannot change back.

By now, Festin has realized that the source of Voll's power and invulnerability is that he is already dead, and controls his servants from the world of the dead. The only course left to Festin is The Word of Unbinding, the uttering of which is tantamount to suicide – but which enables Festin to get at his enemy and destroy him.

Festin has forever lost the joys of his beloved island, but his sacrifice has saved others from Voll.

Literary significance and criticism
Susan Wood writes that Le Guin's early stories of the 1960s such as "The Word of Unbinding" and "The Rule of Names" show that she "was an accomplished writer, expressing valuable insights with grace and humour."

"The Word of Unbinding" underscores the importance of language to the entire Earthsea mythos. In particular, the use of "word" in the title, along with the use of "names" in "The Rule of Names" solidifies this message in the first two Earthsea stories.

The story foreshadows The Farthest Shore in which Ged similarly goes into the world of the dead to fight a "dead" enemy threatening the world of the living, and defeats him at the cost of enormous sacrifice (though in that case, of his power rather than his life).

title: The Word of Unbinding


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Gillikin Country

The Gillikin Country is the northern division of L. Frank Baum's fictional land of Oz. It is distinguished by the color purple worn by most of the local inhabitants as well as the color of their surroundings. The inhabitants of Gillikin Country are called Gillikins.

Etymology
Martin Gardner suggests the name Gillikin may be named after the purple blossoms of the gillyflower.

Elements in Gillikin Country
Like all of the countries of Oz, the Gillikin Country contains various unusual sights, creatures, and places. Among them are:

The Wonderful Wizard of Oz
Note: The Gillikin Country is the only province of Oz not mentioned by name or visited by the characters in this particular book. The following locations are merely referenced by various characters through the story.

 * The Forest of the Winged Monkeys - A forest that is home to the Winged Monkeys that obey whoever wears the enchanted Golden Cap.
 * The Palace of the Good Witch of the North - It is never actually mentioned, but assumed to exist because the Good Witch of the North rules this particular province.
 * The Ruby Palace of Gayelette - This is where Gayelette resides.

The Marvelous Land of Oz

 * Jellia Jamb reports to have been born a Gillikin.
 * Mombi's House - The home of the witch Mombi.
 * A yellow brick road, similar to the one in the Munchkin Country, connects the Gillikin Country to the Emerald City.

The Tin Woodman of Oz

 * Loonville - A village whose balloon-like inhabitants called Loons warn strangers to stay away from their clearing. The Loons can also become too puffed-up.
 * Yoop Castle - A castle where a female giant Yookoohoo named Mrs. Yoop lived and ruled her valley.
 * Dragons - A group of Dragons live beneath the surface of Gillikin Country. They are allowed to come out from the underground once every 100 years in search of food.

The Magic of Oz

 * Magic Isle - An islet containing powerful and dangerous magical energies which is located in the remote corner of Gillikin Country.
 * The Forest of Gugu - A forest ruled by Gugu the Leopard King with his counselors Loo the Unicorn, Rango the Gray Ape, and Bru the Bear. It is the largest forest in the Land of Oz. The Forest of Gugu contains an assortment of animals ranging from animals that are found in Africa (consisting of Elephants, Hippos, Leopards, Monkeys, Rhinos, and Zebras) to animals that are found everywhere else (consisting of Bears, Bison, Donkeys, Foxes, Green Serpents, Kangaroos, Unicorns, and Wolves).

Glinda of Oz

 * Giant Purple Spiders - A race of spiders that catch travelers in their webs and make them their servants.
 * Mist Maidens - A race of fairies who live in a fog bank.
 * Flatheads - A race of people living on a mountaintop whose heads are flat and must carry their brains in a can in their pockets. Upon being freed from their fish forms, the Three Adepts magically healed the Flatheads by giving them normal heads and they were renamed the Mountaineers.
 * Skeezers - A race of anatomically normal humans that was once friends and now rivals of the Flatheads upon coming under the control of the tyrannical witch Coo-ee-oh. They live within a glass city in the middle of a lake. When Coo-ee-oh was turned into a diamond-studded swan and swam away, the Skeezers were pleased to be free of Coo-ee-oh.
 * Reera the Red - A Yookoohoo preferring her privacy who specializes in transformations.

Kabumpo in Oz

 * Pumperdink - A small elaborate kingdom Ruled by King Pompus and Queen Pozy Pink known for dipping its criminals in a large stone well filled with ink. An elephant named Kabumpo is their most famous counselor. Prince Pompadore is King Pompus and Queen Pozy Pink's son.

The Lost King of Oz

 * Back Woods - A wooded area in Gillikin Country where one must run from the woods in order to advance. It is the home of the Back-woodsmen who speak backwards and are inhospitable.
 * Blankenberg - A mysterious town led by a woman named Vanette. One must enter the Well-Come to enter Blankenberg and one must enter the Fare-Well to leave Blankenberg. Its inhabitants the Blanks wash their faces with invisibility water so that they would be invisible except for their clothes.
 * Buttonwood - A forest in Gillikin Country where its trees grow button-like fruit that is the main product of Kimbaloo.
 * Catty Corners - A fenced-off area in Gillikin Country where a selfish and hostile race of semi-anthropomorphic cats reside. They are ruled by the Maltese Majesty.
 * Hoopers - A race of 10 ft. tall humanoids that reside in the Purple Forests. They can roll themselves into hoops by grabbing their toes with their hands.
 * Inland Sea - Gillikin Country's inland sea that is south of Kimbaloo. Mombi once used a spell to temporarily turn it to gelatin so that she can cross it.
 * Kimbaloo - Ruled by King Kinda Jolly and Queen Rosa Merry. Its economy is based on buttons harvested from the trees of Buttonwood.
 * Scooters - A race of people who live on the waters of the Gillikin River. They have long boat-like feet and have sails growing from their wrists to their ribs.
 * Shadow Mountain - A shadow of a mountain that has taken on a mountainous appearance. Not much is known about it, but travelers can easily pass through it.

The Gnome King of Oz

 * Zamagoochi - A location in the Zamagoochi Mountains that is near the Deadly Desert. Wumbo the Wonder Maker lives here in a crystal cave.

The Giant Horse of Oz

 * Gilkenny - A location that is in the far north of Gillikin Country. Not much was known about it except that it was once ruled by King Gil who was to have his daughter wed to the Munchkin King's son Cheeriobed until Mombi interfered. Nobody has ever heard from King Gil or the Munchkin King since.
 * Up Town - The proclaimed the capital city of the Gillikin Country after the abandonment of post by the Good Witch of the North. It is inhabited by the Uplanders (a type of Gillikin that dress like the Scottish people). It is ruled by Joe King and Queen Hyacinth, who are famous for their horse High Boy (a large purple animal with telescoping legs).

The Hidden Valley of Oz

 * Bookville - A town containing a race of animated books. Lawbreakers are sentenced to be pressed into books.
 * Equinots - A race of hostile centaurs.
 * Icetown - A frozen town that is home to a race of snowmen.
 * Terp the Terrible's Castle - A castle that is home to a 50 ft. giant named Terp the Terrible. His courtyard contains a muffin tree that is guard by an unnamed guardian beast that has the head of both a nocturnal owl and a diurnal wolf, the body of an elephant, and the tail of an alligator.
 * Unidentified Jungle - A jungle where the Leopard with the Changeable Spots lives.

The Purple Prince of Oz

 * Regalia - The sister city to Pumperdink which is the home of Prince Randy.

Yankee in Oz

 * Upandup Mountain - The home of Badmannah.
 * The Village of the Lanternesians -
 * Dinker's Shop of Smokables -

Dorothy of Oz

 * Candy County - A county where lollipops grow out of the ground, the fields are like cake crumbs, the clouds are like cotton candy, and its inhabitants are made out of candy (like candy apples, marshmallows, etc.). It is illegal to pick the lollipops or eat anything made of candy. Candy County is ruled by the Great Royal Marshmallow.
 * Talking Trees - A group of trees that talk which reside on the banks of the Munchkin River. They donate their limbs so that Dorothy and her group can make a large boat that talks (who is later named Tugg).
 * Purplefield - A small village of small people and purple flowers. The Wicked Witch of the West cast a spell that caused Purplefield to disappear and a maze run by a Gamekeeper to appear in its place where anyone who doesn't make it out of the maze in 24 hours vanishes forever. Purplefield was restored when Dorothy, Scarecrow, Tin Man, and Cowardly Lion made it out of the maze.

Appearances in modern works
In Gregory Maguire's revisionist Oz novels Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West and Son of a Witch, the Gillikin Country is simply called 'Gillikin'. It is portrayed as more prosperous and industrially developed than other regions of Oz, and is home of Shiz University. Located around northern Oz, the Yellow Brick Road emerges from the Emerald City's northern Shiz Gate up to the gillikinese capital, Shiz; from here, most of Gillikin cities are interconnected by the Great Gillikin Railway, running all over the province, along with the Gillikin River, it is implied that the railway was built above the Yellow Brick Road's remains, from the Pertha Hills on the west, a mountainous region, home of dripping dales, dairy farms, ancient pagan temples dedicated to worship fairy queen Lurline and Mount Rouncible, the tallest mountain in Oz; at the east, the Great Gillikin Forest stands, being home to a tribe of northern bears and lions living on the shores of Lake Corge, the railway keeps running further east to The Glikkus, a place full of emerald mines, the workplace of miner trolls.

Galinda (i.e. Glinda) hails from Gillikin, as do (according to some) the ruling Ozma family. The people of this province are referred to as 'Gillikinese', and are distinguishable by their prominent foreheads and slightly gapped front teeth. They often have heads of curling blond hair, and are believed to be temperamental by non-Gillikinese.

Much of both of Edward Einhorn's modern Oz novels, Paradox in Oz and The Living House of Oz, are set in Gillikin Country, specifically in the kingdom of Tonsoria, homes to Princesses Ayala and Talia, and in Absurd City, home of the Parrot-Ox.

title: Gillikin Country


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Lake St. Clair

Lake St. Clair (Lac Sainte-Claire) is a freshwater lake that lies between the Canadian province of Ontario and the U.S. state of Michigan. It was named in 1679 by French Catholic explorers after Saint Clare of Assisi, on whose feast day they first saw the lake.

It is part of the Great Lakes system (although not considered one of the five Great Lakes), and along with the St. Clair River and Detroit River, Lake St. Clair connects Lake Huron (to the north) with Lake Erie (to the south). It has a total surface area of about 430 sqmi and an average depth of just 11 ft; to ensure an uninterrupted waterway, government agencies in both countries have maintained a 30 ft shipping channel through the shallow lake for more than a century.

Geography
This lake is situated about 6 mi northeast of the downtown areas of Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario. Along with the St. Clair River and Detroit River, Lake St. Clair connects Lake Huron (to its north) with Lake Erie (to its south). The area is notable for the fact that the Canadian territory around the lake (Windsor metropolitan area) lies south of the adjacent United States territory.

Lake St. Clair measures about 22.5 nmi from north to south and about 21 nmi from east to west. Its total surface area is about 430 sqmi. This is a rather shallow lake for its size, with an average depth of about 11 ft, and a maximum natural depth of 23 ft. However, it is 27 ft deep in the navigation channel which is dredged for lake freighter passage by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The lake is fed by the St. Clair River, which flows to the south from Lake Huron and has an extensive river delta where it enters Lake St. Clair. This is the largest delta of the Great Lakes System.

Other rivers which feed Lake St. Clair are the Thames and Sydenham rivers which originate in Southwestern Ontario, and the Clinton River, which originates in Michigan. The outflow from Lake St. Clair travels from its southwestern end into the Detroit River, and then into Lake Erie.

The tarry time (i.e., the time between entering and leaving) of the water in Lake St. Clair averages about seven days, but this can vary from as little as two to as many as thirty days, depending on the direction of the winds, the water circulation patterns, and the amount of water that is flowing out of Lake Huron. For water flowing through the navigation channel, the time period is only about two days.

Lake St. Clair is part of the Great Lakes system, but very rarely included as one; the smallest Great Lake, Lake Ontario, is 17 times larger by surface area, and more than 80 times by volume. It is occasionally referred to as "the sixth Great Lake". Scattered proposals have called for it to be officially recognized as a Great Lake, which might enable it to attract greater public funding for scientific research and other projects.

Naming
First Nations/Native Americans used the lake as part of their extensive navigation of the Great Lakes. The Mississauga called it Waawiyaataan(ong), meaning "(at) the whirlpool". The Wea derived their name from a Miami cognate: Waayaahtanonki.

In the latter part of the 17th century, the Mississauga established a village near the lake. Early French mapmakers had identified the lake by a variety of French and Iroquoian-language names, including Lac des Eaux de Mer [Seawater Lake]; Lac Ganatchio ("kettle," for its shape), in French Lac de la Chaudière. A variety of Native names were associated with sweetness, as the lake was freshwater as opposed to saltwater. These included Otsiketa (sugar or candy), Kandequio or Kandekio (possibly candy), Oiatinatchiketo (probably a form of Otsiketa), and Oiatinonchikebo. Similarly, the Iroquois nations called present-day Lake Huron a term meaning "The Grand Lake of the Sweet Sea" (fresh water as opposed to salt water.)

The French expressed this association on their maps as Mer Douce (sweet sea) and the Dutch identified it in Latin as Mare Dulce.

On August 12, 1679, the French explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle arrived with an expedition. He named the body of water Lac Sainte-Claire, as the expedition sighted it on the feast day of Saint Clare of Assisi. The historian on the voyage, Louis Hennepin, recorded that the Iroquoian tribes referred to the lake as Otseketa.

As early as 1710, the English adopted the French name, identifying the lake on their maps as Saint Clare. By the Mitchell Map in 1755, the spelling appeared as the shorter "St. Clair," the form that became most widely used. Some scholars credit the name as honoring the American Revolutionary War General Arthur St. Clair, later Governor of the Northwest Territory, but the name Lake St. Clair was in use with this current spelling long before St. Clair became a notable figure. Together the place name and general's name likely influenced settlers' naming a proliferation of nearby political jurisdictions: the Michigan county and township of St. Clair, as well as the cities of St. Clair and St. Clair Shores.

Some local historians attributed the namesake to Patrick Sinclair, a British officer who purchased land on the St. Clair River at the outlet of the Pine River. There, in 1764, he built Fort Sinclair, which was in use for nearly twenty years before being abandoned.

Unlike most smaller lakes in the region—but like the Great Lakes—Lake comes at the front of its proper name, rather than the end; this is reflective of its French origins.

Human history
The Crawford Knoll Site located on the eastern branch of the St. Clair River delta uncovered bone and projectile points dating back to 1500 to 1000 BCE which suggest seasonal usage by the local Indigenous population.

Water quality
Lake St Clair's location, downstream from the largest freshwater delta in the Great Lakes, has a large effect on its turbidity (clarity). Current water quality is quite good despite past incidents and a history of chemical bio-accumulation. A number of cities source drinking water from or just downstream of the lake and quality is closely monitored.

In the early 1970s, the Canadian and American governments closed the commercial fishery over concerns of bio-accumulation of mercury. The industry responsible for this contamination was the Dow Chemical Chlor-Alkali Plant in Sarnia, Ontario. Since 1949, Dow Chemical had been operating mercury cell plants for the production of chlorine and other chemicals. Through its production process, it discharged mercury into the river and contaminated the fishery. The fishery has since not been re-opened, although studies have now confirmed mercury levels are well within the safe range.

Sport fishing remains popular in the lake. The governments on both sides of the lakes continue to monitor and publish guides for sport fish consumption.

Boat clubs
Many yacht clubs (boating and sailing clubs) are located along the shores. Some of these include:
 * The Great Lakes Yacht Club, St. Clair Shores, Michigan
 * Grosse Pointe Yacht Club in Grosse Pointe Shores, Michigan
 * The Old Club, on Harsens Island, Michigan
 * North Channel Yacht Club, on Harsens Island, Michigan
 * Crescent Sail Yacht Club in Grosse Pointe Farms, Michigan
 * Grosse Pointe Club (Little Club) in Grosse Pointe, Michigan
 * Clinton River Boat Club (Club Island), near Harsens Island, Michigan
 * Albatross Yacht Club, Anchor Bay, Michigan
 * North Star Sail Club, on the Clinton River, Harrison Twp, Michigan
 * Lake St. Clair Powerboat Club, Saint Clair Shores, Michigan
 * Lakeshore Sail Club, St. Clair Shores, Michigan
 * Windsor Yacht Club in Windsor, Ontario
 * Southport Sailing Club, Windsor, Ontario
 * St. Clair Sail Club, Belle River (now Lakeshore), Ontario
 * Thames River Yacht Club, Lighthouse Cove (now Lakeshore), Ontario

Public beaches

 * Mitchell's Bay Beach, Mitchell's Bay, Ontario, is a small community located on the east shore of Lake St. Clair.
 * New Baltimore, beach at Walter and Mary Burke Park in Downtown New Baltimore, Michigan.
 * Sandpoint Beach, located in Windsor, Ontario near Riverside Dr. East and Florence Ave.
 * Lakeview Park West Beach, located in Belle River, Ontario. The shallow water is great for cooling down in the summer.
 * Marine City Beach, north end of Water Street in Marine City, Michigan.
 * Lake St Clair Metropark, Harrison Township, Michigan.
 * Belle Isle Beach, Belle Isle, Michigan; located on the west side of the island, this beach provides a safe swimming area away from the currents of the Detroit River. The beach is well manicured with clear water and sandy bottom. Nice shade trees and grass border the beach.

title: Lake St. Clair


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User talk:36noelchan

When you upload an image with the same name as one that already exists it replaces the old one. That is why people are undoing your work. You need to change the name to something more specific eg chinesewhitedolphin.jpg Secretlondon 19:24, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:36noelchan


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List of dukes and kings of Croatia

This is a complete list of dukes and kings of Croatia (knez, kralj) under domestic ethnic and elected dynasties during the Croatian Kingdom (925–1918). This article follows the monarch's title number according to Hungarian succession for convenience. For example, the Hungarian monarch Béla IV is according to Croatian succession correctly titled Béla III. This is because Hungarians had a king named Béla prior to the incorporation of Croatia under the Hungarian Crown but the Croats did not.

Early history
The details of the arrival of the Croats in the Balkans are sparsely documented by more or less reliable historical sources. Around late 6th and early 7th century, Croats migrated from White Croatia (around present-day Galicia). According to a legend recorded in the 10th-century De Administrando Imperio, the Croats came to their present region under the leadership of five brothers (called Kloukas, Lobelos, Kosentzis, Mouchlo, and Chrobatos) and of two sisters (called Touga and Bouga), and successfully fought and expelled the Pannonian Avars influence in the Roman province of Dalmatia.

It is theorized that one of the brothers, Chrobatos (Hrvat) gave his name to the Croats (Hrvati) as a whole, although mainstream historians dismiss this notion as not verifiable. The Croats started gradually converting to Christianity under the rule of Porga in the 7th century.

Dukes of Lower Pannonia (8th century–896)
The areas of modern-day Croatia located in the Pannonian plain had also been settled by Slavic tribes in the early Middle Ages, and history recorded some of their rulers.

Dukes of Croatia (8th century–925)
Slavic tribes known as the Croats settled to areas of present-day Croatia around the beginning of the 7th century, and their rulers started to be recorded in historical records in the late 8th century.

Višeslav left behind a baptismal font, surviving to this day, which mentioned him being a duke. Višeslav used to be considered by Croatian historiography as a duke of the Croats, but the evidence for most of the claims regarding him is too scarce.

Kings of Croatia (925–1102)
In his letter from 925, Pope John X refers to Tomislav I of Trpimirović dynasty as Rex Chroatorum (King of the Croats). All Croatian rulers after Tomislav I held the title of King of Croatia. This is confirmed by epigraphic inscription mentioning the earliest known Croatian queen (regina) Domaslava dated to first half of 10th century.

Under the Hungarian Crown (1102–1527)
From 1102, the reigning King of Hungary was also the ruler of the Kingdom of Croatia in agreement with the Croatian nobles. Croatia was governed on his behalf by a viceroy (ban) and a parliament (sabor). In 1409 Ladislaus of Naples sold his rights to Dalmatia to Republic of Venice for 100,000 ducats.

Under the Habsburg monarchy (1527–1918)
On 1 January 1527, the Croatian Parliament met in Cetin to elect Ferdinand I of Habsburg as the new King of Croatia. The Habsburg monarchy had annexed the lands of Dalmatia after the Napoleonic War of the First Coalition. The Kingdom of Dalmatia was a crown land of the Austrian Empire (1815–1867) and the Cisleithanian half of Austria-Hungary (1867–1918).

Kings of Yugoslavia (1918–1945)
After the World War I and the breakup of Austria-Hungary, Croatia joined a newly formed State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. Following a brief period of self-rule, that state became part of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes under the Karađorđević dynasty. The name of the kingdom was changed in 1929, amid unitarianist reforms, to the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After the Treaty of Rapallo in 1920 Istria and parts of Dalmatia were annexed to Kingdom of Italy. On the basis of the Cvetković–Maček Agreement, and the Decree on the Banate of Croatia dated 24 August 1939, the Banate of Croatia was created. Under the Agreement elected Sabor and a crown-appointed ban would decide internal matters in Croatia.

King of the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1943)
In 1941, Croatia was occupied by the Axis powers along with the rest of Yugoslavia. The Independent State of Croatia was set as a puppet state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. Soon after its creation, the state government passed three laws on the creation of the Crown of Zvonimir, which made the country de jure a kingdom. Three days later the Treaties of Rome were signed. The Italian Prince Aimone of Savoy-Aosta was designated King of Croatia. Numerous Adriatic islands and a portion of Dalmatia were annexed by Italy, which all combined to become the Italian Governonate of Dalmatia. On September 10, 1943 Independent State of Croatia declared that the Treaties of Rome were null and void and annexed the portion of Dalmatia that had been ceded to Italy.

After WWII

 * List of heads of state of Yugoslavia (1945–1991)
 * List of presidents of Croatia (1991–present)
 * List of prime ministers of Croatia (1991–present)

"Duke of Croatia"
The title Duke of Croatia has been used widely:
 * The Doges of Venice used it, with Byzantine approval, from c. 1100, when Hungary was in the process of absorbing the Kingdom of Croatia, until the Treaty of Zadar with Hungary in 1358.
 * The Dukes of Merania, whose territory bordered Croatia, were sometimes called Dukes of Croatia in contemporary chronicles.
 * Various Hungarian noblemen granted authority in the South Slav lands added Croatia to their title of Duke of Slavonia in the 13th and 14th centuries.

title: List of dukes and kings of Croatia


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Freight Elevator Quartet

The Freight Elevator Quartet (FEQ) were a music performance group specializing in improvised electronic music active in and around New York City. They performed and recorded continuously from 1996 to 2003, and collaborated extensively with experimental music artists such as DJ Spooky and Elliott Sharp, and avant-garde videographer Mark McNamara.

In addition to using electronic instruments (originally analog synthesizers and drum machines, later laptops and samplers), they also sported fairly unusual acoustic instrumentation, having a cellist and a didjeridoo player in their regular line-up. FEQ began as a house band for a series of warehouse parties on 125th Street in New York City, famously playing their first gig in a freight elevator. Their eponymous first record, released in 1997, was completely made of live recordings from shows played in their first year of performing, featuring the lineup of Stephen Krieger on drum machine, Rachael Finn on amplified cello, Paul Feuer on didjeridoo, and R. Luke DuBois on Buchla and Serge analog synthesizers. Their second and subsequent records saw the gradual expansion of their instrumentation (starting with Feuer doubling on keyboards and DuBois playing guitars) until by the time of their break-up in 2003 the entire band was effectively composed of multi-instrumentalists.

As a conceptual project the Freight Elevator Quartet combined influences from experimental music and conceptual art as well as a strong interest in musical Futurism (played out in their joint recording with DJ Spooky, File Under Futurism). In their liner notes, they referred to themselves as a group of musicians in the present imagining the past imaging the future, a concept akin to the literary conceit of Steampunk; by combining cutting-edge digital (computers, samplers), obsolescent solid state (analog synthesizers), classical 18th century (cello), and aboriginal (didjeridoo) instrumentation, the group deliberately confused the temporal reference point of their music. Stylistically FEQ was known to appropriate whatever genres they felt like, working to fuse different styles of breakbeat, drum and bass, downtempo, digital hardcore, rock, hip hop, classical, and, most conspicuously, academic computer music. Though always billing themselves as an electronica act, their music has many stylistic similarities to the later genre of post-rock. Most of their recordings are culled from composite takes of live performances, though they have released two studio albums as well, both of which feature songs with guest vocalists, including Lorraine Lelis of the band Mahogany and Spezialmaterial recording artist Josh Druckman (as JMD).

The Freight Elevator Quartet were for many years the unofficial ensemble-in-residence of the Computer Music Center, Columbia University. Following their breakup, DuBois remained active as a laptop musician and conceptual artist, working extensively with contemporary and avant-garde music performance composers and groups, such as LEMUR, Christian Marclay, Bang on a Can composer Michael Gordon, vocalist Lesley Flanigan, and violinist/composer Todd Reynolds.

Members
also
 * R. Luke DuBois - analog synthesizers, Max/MSP programming, laptop performance, guitars, bass, keyboards
 * Paul Feuer - didjeridoo, digital synthesizers, banjo, percussion
 * Rachael Finn - cello, effects processing, drum programming
 * Stephen Krieger - drum programming, sampler performance, synthesizers, music production
 * Johnathan F. Lee - bass guitar, drum programming
 * Ken Thomson - saxophone
 * Mark McNamara - video artist

Discography

 * The Freight Elevator Quartet (Electronic Music Foundation, 1997)
 * The Freight Elevator Quartet's Jungle Album (Electronic Music Foundation, 1998)
 * DJ Spooky vs. the Freight Elevator Quartet: File Under Futurism (Caipirinha/Sire, 1999)
 * File Under Futurism EP (with DJ Spooky and A Guy Called Gerald) (Caipirinha/Sire, 1999)
 * The Freight Elevator Quartet Becoming Transparent (Caipirinha/Sire, 2000)
 * Exasperation EP (with JMD, Kit Clayton, Datach'i) (Caipirinha/Sire, 2000)
 * The Freight Elevator Quartet Fix it in Post (Cycling'74 Music, 2001)

title: Freight Elevator Quartet