text:
Big Diomede Island

Big Diomede Island or Tomorrow Island (Остров Ратманова; Ratmanov Island, Имэлин; Imaqłiq) is the western island of the two Diomede Islands in the middle of the Bering Strait. The island is home to a Russian military base which is located midway along the island's North shore. The island is a part of the Chukotsky District of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug of Russia. The border separating Russia and the United States runs north–south through the 2.5 mile wide strait that runs between the two Islands.

Geography

Big Diomede Island is located about 45 km southeast of Cape Dezhnev on the Chukchi Peninsula and is Russia's easternmost point by direction of travel. It is west of the International Date Line, although in the western hemisphere by longitude. The coordinates are 65.78111°N, -169.05694°W. The rocky tuya-type island has an area of about 29 km2 The International Date Line is about 1.3 km east of the island. The highest point of the island is Krysha peak standing 505 m tall. There is a weather station on the north coast at 65.81389°N, -169.03472°W. There is a helipad at 65.81°N, -169.02944°W.

History
The island was originally inhabited by Iñupiat. The First Alaskans Institute says: "The people of the Diomede and King Islands are Inupiat".

The first European to reach the islands was the Russian explorer Semyon Dezhnyov in 1648. Vitus Bering landed on the Diomede Islands on August 16, 1728, the day on which the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the martyr St. Diomede.

In 1732, the Russian geodesist Mikhail Gvozdev plotted the island's map.

In 1867, during the Alaska Purchase, the new border between the nations was drawn between the Big Diomede and Little Diomede islands.

20th century
During World War II, Big Diomede became a military base, and remained so for some time into the Cold War.

After World War II, the native population was forced off Big Diomede Island to the mainland in order to avoid contacts across the border. They first moved to the Yupik village of Naukan That village was evicted between 1954 and 1958, so residents were relocated elsewhere. In 2015, an attempt was made to reunite people from the two islands.

Today, unlike Alaska's neighboring Little Diomede Island, it has no permanent native population, but it is the site of a Russian weather station and a base of Border Service of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation troops (FSB).

During the Cold War, the section of the border between the U.S. and the USSR separating Big and Little Diomede became known as the "Ice Curtain". On 7 August 1987, however, Lynne Cox, an American long-distance swimmer, swam from Little Diomede to Big Diomede (approximately 2.2 mi) in ice-cold waters. She was congratulated jointly by Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev and U.S. President Ronald Reagan four months later at the signing of the INF Missile Treaty at the White House, when Gorbachev made a toast. He and President Reagan lifted their glasses and Gorbachev said: "Last summer it took one brave American by the name of Lynne Cox just two hours to swim from one of our countries to the other. We saw on television how sincere and friendly the meeting was between our people and the Americans when she stepped onto the Soviet shore. She proved by her courage how close to each other our peoples live".

Lisunov Li-2 crash
On 13 June 1971 a Lisunov Li-2 belonging to the Soviet Border Troops crashed in the centre of the island. All crew members were injured but survived and the green hull remains at 65.7783°N, -169.0666°W.

Fauna
Eleven species of birds including such as puffins and guillemots have been found on Big Diomede. In 1976 a rufous hummingbird was identified on the island. This finding, unique so far in Russia, was very likely due to a dispersed specimen. For mammals, pinnipeds (e.g. ringed and bearded seals, walruses ) and cetaceans (e.g. gray and rarer bowhead whales) inhabit the waters around the island.

title: Big Diomede Island


text:
Little Diomede Island

Little Diomede Island or Yesterday Island (Iŋaliq, formerly known as Krusenstern Island, остров Крузенштерна) is an inhabited island, which is off of the coast of Alaska, and is a part of Alaska. It is the smaller of the two Diomede Islands located in the middle of the Bering Strait between the Alaskan mainland and Siberia. The island's one town is also called the town of Diomede.

Big Diomede Island, is located 2.33 mi to the West of Little Diomede Island and is a part of Russia. In addition to an international boundary, the International Date Line also separates the two islands.

As of 2021, the town of Diomede had a population of 82, down from its recorded peak of 208 in 1998. All of the land of the Little Diomede Island is officially within the town of Diomede (named Iŋaliq as well). The island is not part of any organized borough, so some services are provided directly by the state. For census purposes, it is included in the Nome Census Area.

During the Cold War, the section of the border between the U.S. and the USSR separating Big and Little Diomede became known as the "Ice Curtain". In August 1987, however, Lynne Cox swam from Little Diomede to Big Diomede (approx. 2.2 mi) and was congratulated jointly by Mikhail Gorbachev and Ronald Reagan.

Etymology
The Diomede Islands are named after Saint Diomedes. Danish-Russian navigator Vitus Bering (after whom the Bering Strait is named) sighted the Diomede Islands on August 16 (O.S., August 27 N.S.), 1728, the day on which the Russian Orthodox Church celebrates the memory of the saint.

Its Inupiaq name Iŋaliq means "the other one" or "the one over there". Little Diomede island is nicknamed as "Yesterday Island," while Big Diomede Island is nicknamed as "Tomorrow Island." This is due to the fact that in addition to an international boundary separating the two islands, the International Date Line also separates the two islands, thus causing the date on Big Diomede Island to perpetually be one day ahead of the date on Little Diomede Island.

History

 * See Diomede, Alaska (town)

Geography

According to the United States Census Bureau, the island has a total area of 2.8 sqmi, all of it land. On the western shore of the island is the village of Diomede, also known as Iŋaliq.

Little Diomede Island is located about 25 km west from the mainland, in the middle of the Bering Strait. It is only 0.6 km from the International Date Line and about 2.4 mi from the Russian island of Big Diomede.

The highest point on Little Diomede Island is 494 m (about halfway along the west coast, about 1.5 mi southeast of the village, facing the southern tip of Big Diomede).

There is a heliport, the Diomede Heliport, with regular helicopter flights. In the past, locals carved a runway into the thick ice sheet so that bush planes could deliver vital products, such as medicine and grocery supplies. Due to annual variations of the ice sheet, the runway would change position every year. However, climate change has meant that sea ice has neither been thick nor stable enough to support landing a plane safely on an ice runway (minimum required sea-ice thickness was 4.5 feet, and no open water to the north of the island), so the last Bering Air flight landed here in May 2013 and there has not been an ice runway since.

Climate
Summer temperatures average 40 to 50 F. Winter temperatures average from 6 to 10 F. Annual precipitation averages 10 in, and annual snowfall averages 30 in. During summer months, cloudy skies and fog prevail. Winds blow consistently from the north, averaging 15 kn, with gusts of 60 to(-). The Bering Strait is generally frozen between mid-December and mid-June.

Geology
The Little Diomede island is composed of Cretaceous age granite or quartz monzonite. The location of the city is the only area which does not have near-vertical cliffs to the water. Behind the city and around the entire island rocky slopes rise at about 40° up to the relatively flattened top in 1148 - 1191 ft. The island has very scant vegetation.

In popular culture
Little Diomede was featured in the first episode of Full Circle with Michael Palin, a 1997 BBC documentary series in which the broadcaster Michael Palin traversed many of the countries of the Pacific Rim. The Diomede Islands are also featured in the novel Further Tales of the City, by Armistead Maupin, and the miniseries based on the book. In addition, Alexander Armstrong visited the island as part of his 2015 series Land of the Midnight Sun.

Little Diomede was also featured in the 1952 film Arctic Flight, starring Wayne Morris and Lola Albright.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Little Diomede Island


text:
List of traded commodities

The following is a list of futures contracts on physically traded commodities.

Grains, food and fiber
Symbol from

List of largest global commodities trading companies

 * 1) Vitol
 * 2) Glencore International AG
 * 3) Trafigura
 * 4) Cargill
 * 5) Salam Investment
 * 6) Archer Daniels Midland
 * 7) Gunvor (company)
 * 8) Beddu-Trading
 * 9) Mercuria Energy Group
 * 10) Noble Group
 * 11) Louis Dreyfus Group
 * 12) Bunge Limited
 * 13) Wilmar International
 * 14) Olam International
 * 15) Cannon Trading Company
 * 16) Prime Trading, LLC
 * 17) Knarr Bank

Commodity exchanges and regulators

 * Chicago Board of Trade
 * Chicago Mercantile Exchange
 * Commodity Futures Trading Commission
 * Dubai Mercantile Exchange
 * Euronext
 * ICE Futures Abu Dhabi
 * London International Financial Futures and Options Exchange
 * NASDAQ OMX Commodities
 * National Futures Association
 * New York Mercantile Exchange
 * Kansas City Board of Trade
 * New York Board of Trade
 * LedgerX
 * Dalian Commodity Exchange

title: List of traded commodities


text:
Krusenstern Island

Krusenstern Island (and similar names) is a toponym honoring the Baltic German explorer Adam Johann von Krusenstern (1770–1846). It may refer to a number of places in the Pacific Ocean:

 * Little Diomede Island (Inupiaq: Iŋaliq), Alaska, United States
 * Ailuk Atoll, Marshall Islands
 * Tikehau, Tuamotu Archipelago in French Polynesia
 * Krusenstern Islands, a small group of islands in the Middendorff Bay
 * Krusenstern Island" or "Krusenstern Reef," a phantom island in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands

title: Krusenstern Island


text:
Harry Furniss

Harry Furniss (26 March 1854 – 14 January 1925) was a British illustrator. He established his career on the Illustrated London News before moving to Punch. He also illustrated Lewis Carroll's novel Sylvie and Bruno.

Biography
Although Furniss was born in Wexford, Ireland, he identified himself as English, his father being English and his mother Scottish. He was educated at Dublin's Wesley College.

His first job as an illustrator was for the Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, and when it was purchased by the owner of The Illustrated London News he moved to that magazine. There he produced illustrations of social events such as the Boat Race, Goodwood and even the annual fancy dress ball at Brookwood Asylum, as well as acting as a special correspondent reporting on aspects of life in contemporary England, such as the scandalous divorce trial of Lady Colin Campbell. The following extract from his autobiography gives due warning that his illustrations should not always be thought of as being produced by a witness to the events depicted.

''One boat race, for example, is very much like another. Some years ago I executed a panoramic series of sketches of the University Race from start to finish, and as they were urgently wanted, the drawings had to be sent in the same day. Early in the morning, before the break of fast, I found myself at Putney, rowing up to Mortlake, taking notes of the different points on the way — local colour through a fog. Getting home before the Londoners started for the scene, I was at work, and the drawings — minus the boats — were sent in shortly after the news of the race.''

After some years Furniss moved to The Graphic, initially writing and illustrating a series of supplements titled "Life in Parliament", and he comments that "from this time forward it would be difficult to name any illustrated paper with which I have not at sometime or other been connected".

His most famous humorous drawings were published in Punch, for which he started working in 1880, and to which he contributed over 2,600 drawings. He left Punch in 1894 when its owners discovered that he had sold one of his 'Punch' drawings to Pears Soap for use in an advertising campaign. He illustrated Lewis Carroll's novel Sylvie and Bruno in 1889 and Sylvie and Bruno Concluded in 1893. Carroll and Furniss sometimes produced both pictures and text simultaneously. Carroll exerted strong control over Furniss' illustration, to such an extent that Furniss would pretend to be out when Carroll called at his home. After completing Sylvie and Bruno Concluded Furniss vowed never to work for the author again.

In 1890, he illustrated the Badminton Library's volume on Golf.

On leaving Punch Furniss brought out his own humorous magazine Lika Joko, but when this failed he moved to America where he worked as a writer and actor in the fledgling film industry and where, in 1914, he pioneered the first animated cartoon film for Thomas Edison.

His two-volume autobiography, titled The Confessions of a Caricaturist was published in 1902, and a further volume of personal recollections and anecdotes, Harry Furniss At Home, was published in 1904.

Furniss wrote and illustrated twenty-nine books of his own, including Some Victorian Men and Some Victorian Women and illustrated thirty-four works by other authors, including the complete works of Charles Dickens and William Makepeace Thackeray. On some projects, like his illustrations for G. E. Farrow's Wallypug books, Furniss collaborated with his daughter, fellow artist Dorothy Furniss (1879–1944).

Furniss married Marian Rogers in the Strand in 1877.

Written and illustrated by Harry Furniss

 * Royal Academy, an artistic joke — 1887
 * Royal Academy antics — 1890
 * M.P.'s in Session — 1889
 * Australian Sketches- Made on Tour — 1899
 * The Confessions of a Caricaturist — 1901
 * Harry Furniss At Home — 1904
 * Some Victorian Women - Good, Bad, and Indifferent — 1923
 * Some Victorian Men — 1924
 * The Two Pins Club — 1925

Works illustrated by Harry Furniss

 * Romps with verses by Horace Lennard, printed by Edmund Evans — 1885
 * Sylvie and Bruno by Lewis Carroll — 1889
 * Brayhard, The Adventures of One Ass and Seven Champions — 1890
 * Sylvie and Bruno Concluded by Lewis Carroll — 1893
 * The Wallypug of Why by G. E. Farrow; 1895
 * Gamble Gold by Judge Edward Abbott Parry — 1907
 * Charles Dickens Library by Charles Dickens — 1910
 * Lewis Carroll Alice's Adventures in Wonderland; 1885
 * A Diary of the Salisbury Parliament, 1886-1892 by Henry W. Lucy; 1892

title: Harry Furniss


text:
Félix Doh

Felix Doh (died 25 April 2003) was a rebel leader in Côte d'Ivoire. He was the leader of the Ivorian Popular Movement of the Great West (MPIGO), based in the western town of Danané, during the civil war that was fought in Côte d'Ivoire from late 2002 to early 2003. He seems to have fought alongside Liberian mercenaries initially, but fighting later erupted between the Ivorian rebels and these mercenaries in April 2003. Doh was reportedly killed by the Liberian mercenaries, who were led by Sam Bockarie, in uncertain circumstances.

title: Félix Doh


text:
Robin Curtis

Robin Curtis is an American actress. She is best known for replacing Kirstie Alley in the role of Vulcan Lieutenant Saavik in the films Star Trek III: The Search for Spock and Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home.

Film and television work
Although her first appearance as Vulcan Lieutenant Saavik in Star Trek III: The Search for Spock in 1984 was promoted as her film debut, Curtis had already made several film and made-for-television movie appearances. Her performance in the film drew a mixed reception from Trek fans. She reprised the role of Saavik for a brief appearance in Star Trek IV: The Voyage Home.

She co-starred in the 1983 episode "Short Notice" during the first season of the Knight Rider television series. In 1991, she portrayed Carol Pulaski on the soap opera General Hospital. In 1993, she portrayed an unrelated Vulcan character disguised as a Romulan (Tallera/T'Paal) in the two-part episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation "Gambit". In the Babylon 5 episode "Deathwalker" (1994), she appeared as Abbai Ambassador Kalika.

She also appeared in the television series Dream On, Herman's Head, Night Court, MacGyver, Johnny Bago, Seventh Heaven, and The Equalizer.

Curtis's other film work includes Hexed, Ghost Story, Shootdown, In Love with an Older Woman, A White Thread, A Black Thread, and LBJ – The Early Years, where she played Jacqueline Kennedy.

In 2022 Curtis was cast in the horror film Awaken the Reaper, her first film role since 1999.

Stage and commercial work
Curtis has numerous stage credits in regional and national theatre, including Gyspy, Applause, Oliver!, ...And Other Songs in New York City. She performed in The City Suite Off Broadway and in Garden in Los Angeles. Other work includes The Nerd, The Man of La Mancha, and George Bernard Shaw's The Apple Tree. She has also appeared in several television commercials and infomercials.

Curtis made frequent appearances at Star Trek conventions in the mid-1990s, but by 2014 was appearing only occasionally. She became a residential real estate agent in 2004 and the following year debuted her one-woman show, a work-in-progress, Not My Bra, You Don't! – The Sexual Odyssey of a Forty-Nine Year Old Woman.

Television

 * Knight Rider (Season 1): Short Notice (1983) as Nicole Turner
 * MacGyver (Season 1): The Gauntlet (1985) as Kate Connelly
 * MacGyver (1985 TV series) (Season 2)
 * The Equalizer (1986 TV Series – Season 1) as Ginger Brock
 * LBJ: The Early Years (1987) as Jacqueline Kennedy
 * Night Court (Season 6) (1990) as Dr. Judith Malloy
 * General Hospital (1991) as Carol Pulaski
 * Herman's Head (1992) as Diane Shaw
 * Star Trek: The Next Generation (US TV Series) (1993) in "Gambit, Parts One And Two," as Tallera / T'Paal
 * Babylon 5 (US TV Series) (1994) as Ambassador Kalika
 * Space: Above and Beyond (US TV series) (1995) as Andrea Wilkins

title: Robin Curtis


text:
Bisect

Bisect, or similar, may refer to:

Mathematics

 * Bisection, in geometry, dividing something into two equal parts
 * Bisection method, a root-finding algorithm
 * Equidistant set

Other uses

 * Bisect (philately), the use of postage stamp halves
 * Bisector (music), a half octave in diatonic set theory
 * Bisection (software engineering), for finding code changes
 * bisection of earthworms to study regeneration

title: Bisect


text:
Maurice Loewy

Maurice (Moritz) Loewy (15 April 1833 – 15 October 1907) was a French astronomer.

Loewy was born in Vienna. Loewy's Jewish parents moved to Vienna in 1841 to escape the antisemitism of their home town. Loewy became an assistant at the Vienna Observatory, working on celestial mechanics. However, the institutions of Austria-Hungary did not permit a Jew to advance to a senior position without renouncing his faith and embracing Catholicism. The director of the observatory Karl L. Littrow was a correspondent of Urbain Le Verrier, director of the Paris Observatory and he secured a position there for Loewy in 1860. After going to France, Loewy become a naturalised French citizen.

He worked on the orbits of asteroids and comets and on the measurement of longitude, improving the accuracy of the Connaissance des Temps. He also worked on optics and the elimination of the aberration of light.

He was elected a member of the Bureau des Longitudes in 1872 and of the Académie des Sciences in 1873.

Loewy became director of the Paris Observatory in 1896, reorganising the institution and establishing a department of physical astronomy. He further spent a decade working with Pierre Puiseux on an atlas of the Moon composed of 10,000 photographs, L’Atlas photographique de la Lune (1910), the definitive basis for lunar geography for over half a century. The crater Loewy on the Moon is named after him and asteroid 253 Mathilde is believed to be named after his wife.

He died in Paris at a government meeting of a sudden and unanticipated cardiac arrest.

Honours

 * Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society, (1889)

title: Maurice Loewy


text:
River Coquet

The River Coquet runs through the county of Northumberland, England, discharging into the North Sea on the east coast at Amble. It rises in the Cheviot Hills on the border between England and Scotland, and follows a winding course across the landscape ("Coquetdale"). The upper reaches are bordered by the Otterburn Ranges military training ground, and are crossed by a number of bridges built in the 20th century. It passes a number of small villages and hamlets, and feeds one of the lakes created by extraction of gravel that form the Caistron Nature Reserve, before reaching the town of Rothbury, where it is crossed by a grade II listed bridge. Below the town is Thrum Mill, the restoration of which was featured on Channel 4 television.

It loops around Brinkburn Priory, founded in the 1130s for Augustinian Canons, and its associated mill. At Felton it is crossed by two bridges, one dating from the 15th century, and its replacement, built in 1927, both of which are listed structures. Below the bridges is a sewage treatment works, built in the 1990s. At Brainshaugh, the river passes over a large horseshoe dam, built in 1775 by the engineer John Smeaton to power an iron and tin works, which later became a woollen mill, and subsequently one of the first factories to be powered by hydroelectricity. Before it reaches Warkworth, the river passes over another dam, which is now part of the intake works for Warkworth Water Treatment Works, which supplies drinking water to some 92,000 customers in the region. Below the dam the river is tidal, and Warkworth Castle is built in a loop of the Coquet. The river reaches the sea at Warkworth Harbour in Amble, where there is a Royal National Lifeboat Institution lifeboat station.

The river has been used as a source of power, as a number of mills have been constructed along its length. One of the earliest was on Hepden Burn, a tributary in the upper reaches, which was mentioned in the early 13th century, but was not subsequently developed, due to unrest in the area. Archaeological investigation between 2010 and 2013 revealed one of the few unaltered medieval mill sites in Britain, and pushed the development of the breast-shot water wheel back by three centuries. Although most of the mills were used for grinding corn, some were used for fulling of wool, and that at Brainshaugh for an industrial process. The earliest was at Warkworth, the rent from which was used to provide a light in St Cuthbert's shrine in 1214.

The earliest known reference to the River Coquet is found in the Ravenna Cosmography, which dates from the 8th century. The water quality of the non-tidal river is good ecologically, and only in the final tidal section is the water affected by run-off from agricultural land, reducing the quality to moderate.

Course
The river, which is about 56 mi in length, rises in the Cheviot Hills close to the 1440 ft contour, to the east of Grindstone Law and to the north of Ravens Knowe. The border between England and Scotland follows it briefly, before turning northwards at Chew Green, where there are the remains of Roman camps on the north bank of the river, the course of Dere Street, locally named as Camelspath, crosses the river, and there are the remains of the medieval village of Kemylpethe. The river continues in a north-easterly direction, where it is joined by Fulhope Burn, Buckham's Walls Burn, Blind Burn and Gable Burn, before it reaches Carshope plantation. It turns to the east, to be joined by Carlcroft Burn, Rowhope Burn and Hepden Burn, and after passing between Barrow Law to the north and Tindale Law to the south, the river turns to the south. The area to the south of the river forms part of the Otterburn Ranges, which has been used as a military training ground since 1911. It is owned by the Ministry of Defence, and public access is restricted.

The Deerbush Burn joins the Dumbhope Burn before they join the Coquet, and the river turns to the south-east, to be joined by Croft Sike and Pathlaw Sike, draining boggy areas to the south, while Usway Burn and Wholehope Burn drain hilly areas to the north. When it reaches the hamlet of Linbriggs, it is joined by the Ridlees Burn and turns to the east. At the village of Alwinton, the Barrow Burn, Hosedon Burn and River Alwin all converge, and the Coquet continues in a south-easterly direction through Harbottle, where there is a Neolithic enclosure and several Bronze Age cairns. At Sharperton, the ford was replaced by a bridge around 1896, since the bridge and a weir just downstream of it appears on the 1897 map, but a ford appears on the 1895 map. The bridge was rebuilt in 1920 using concrete beams, with six spans and parapets with latticework.

The upper Coquet above Alwinton is crossed by a number of bridges, all dating from a bridge-building programme in the 20th century, as prior to 1928, fords were the main means of crossing the channel on this section. Linbriggs Bridge was the first of the new bridges, and consists of a concrete arch spanning a 70 ft gorge. Subsequent bridges were built with flat decks, and the programme was completed in 1968, when Mackendon Bridge was opened. The 1897 Ordnance Survey map shows three suspension bridges carrying footpaths over the river. There is one at Linbriggs, a second a short distance below Linbriggs and a third at Harbottle.

The Holystone Burn joins the Coquet at Holystone. The village has a Holy Well, with a rectangular stone tank dating from Roman times, but the fact that Bishop Paulinus baptized around 3000 Northumbrians there in the year 627 is now thought to be based on a misreading of the writings of Bede. The well is a grade I listed structure, and there is a Roman road which passed through the well enclosure and then crossed the Coquet on its way from High Rochester fort to the River Aln.

There was a fourth suspension bridge near Hepple, made of iron with a 90 ft span, which cost £30 when it was constructed. By the time the river reaches Hepple bridge, which consists of modern steel beams resting on piers dating from around 1874, it has dropped below the 330 ft contour. It turns to the north-east, and then passes the hamlet of Caistron, where there are two large lakes caused by extraction of sand and gravel, which started in 1956. The largest lake covers 50 acre, and is managed as a nature reserve and fishery. Traffic from the quarry crossed a curious bridge, which consists of large metal tubes laid onto the bed of the river, above which the roadway has been constructed. The river channel has been engineered to make way for the quarrying, as it looped further to the south in 1925, and to the north-east of the first lake is a second smaller lake, fed by the river. Water supply to the upper lake is from Bickerton Burn.

Middle section
The river continues to the south of Thropton where Wreigh Burn joins from the north, and passes through Rothbury, where a bridge dating from the 16th century crosses it. Built as a packhorse bridge, it was made wider in 1759 by William Oliphant, a mason from Rothbury, to accommodate vehicles, and was further widened in the 20th century, when the parapets were removed and a concrete deck constructed on top of the original structure. Unlike many bridges, the earlier phases have not been concealed by later work. It is a scheduled monument and a grade II listed structure. Below Rothbury is a velocity-area gauging station, which measures the river's flow. Its accuracy is enhanced by a mill weir further downstream, and it has been used to collect flow data since 1972. The mean flow between 1972 and 2005 was 201 cuft/s, but the maximum flow during this period was 9382 cuft/s on 1 April 1992. Just to the east is Thrum Mill, a grade II listed three-storey mill building dating from the 18th and 19th centuries the restoration of which was featured in the Channel 4 television programme The Restoration Man. From 1870 the Rothbury Branch of the Northumberland Central Railway ran along the south bank of the river on its final approach to Rothbury. Passenger services ceased in 1952 and goods services were withdrawn in 1963. The river continues through the hamlet of Pauperhaugh, where there is a bridge with three segmental arches and a weir on the downstream side. It then loops around a finger of land, which was given by its owner, William Bertram lord of Mitford, to Augustinian canons between 1130 and 1135, who founded Brinkburn Priory. After the dissolution of the monasteries, the main building was derelict until 1858, when it was re-roofed and partly rebuilt, to be used as a parish church. Parts of the original buildings were incorporated into a manor house, which was occupied intermittently until 1953, after which it was given to the Ministry of Public Buildings and Works. Both the church and the house are now managed by English Heritage and are open for public viewing. Nearby is Brinkburn Mill, built in the 18th century, but re-using medieval masonry. A cottage for the miller was added around 1830. The wheel and stones remain, although it is now used as holiday accommodation.

After passing through Weldon, where there is a mill and a three-arched bridge dating from 1760, which is thought to have been designed by the engineer John Smeaton, the Coquet is crossed by the A1 road. As it approaches Felton, there is a dam, from which a long rock-cut leat on the north bank supplied Felton corn mill. This was first mentioned in the 13th century, but the present building dates from the 18th and 19th centuries. An undershot water wheel drove four sets of stones, used for milling corn, while a second breast-shot wheel drove an oat mill, with two sets of stones, a rotary kiln and a pearl barley machine. There was once a sawmill powered by a third wheel. The site was operational until 1970, but was subsequently converted into homes, and the wheels were broken up. At Felton, the river turns to the north-east, and is crossed by two bridges. The first dates from the 15th century, and has three arches. It was widened in the 19th and 20th centuries, but was disused after 1927, when a new concrete bridge by Considere Constructions, also with three spans, was built to replace it. It is grade II listed because it is one of the earliest bridges of its type produced by the company. Beyond the bridges, a new sewage treatment works was built on the north bank, after it was authorised in 1991. It was designed to discharge 539 m3 of treated effluent to the river each day, and replaced old inefficient works at Felton, Longframlington, Swarland and Thirston.

Near Brainshaugh, the river passes over a horseshoe dam, built in 1775 by John Smeaton for John Archbold of Acton and Edward Cook of Brainshaugh. It is built of squared stone, and was repaired and modified in 1926. The downstream face is vertical, and the water falls 8 ft. The curved dam has a radius of 170 ft and supplied a mill race to the south of the river. This originally powered an iron and tin foundry, subsequently converted to a woollen mill in 1791, and becoming derelict in 1884. From 1915, it was used to manufacture a white pigment called Hydrate of Alumina, and became one of the first factories in the country to be powered by hydroelectric power when a Gilkes water turbine was fitted into the millrace. The factory closed in 1930 when its lease was not renewed following pollution of the river. The mill building was converted into flats in 1968. At the eastern end of the site is Factory Bridge, consisting of three segmental arches, which was built of rock-faced stone in 1865. Some railings were added in the 20th century.

Lower River
Further downstream near Guyzance are the ruins of Brainshaugh Priory, which was established by Richard Tison around 1147 for Premonstratensian nuns. The community had disbanded by 1500, but the chapel remains, and is a grade II* listed structure. Another large dam provided the water supply for Guyzance Mill, on the west bank of the river. The main building has three storeys, and the undershot water wheel is located inside the building, although it may have been external when first built. Some of the machinery and the stones remain in situ. The East Coast Main Line crosses the river on a railway viaduct with nine arches, designed in Robert Stephenson and completed in 1849 or 1850. The river passes over the weir of Morwick Mill, and a little further downstream is Morwick gauging station, which has been collecting data since 1963. It uses velocity area technology, and there is a 112 ft wide concrete weir, which dates from 1973. The station replaced one at Guyzance, and while the measurements are good for most of the year, they are briefly inaccurate when the Morwick Mill weir is drained and flushed once a year. Mean flow between 1963 and 2005 was 303 cuft/s, with a high of 12913 cuft/s on 1 April 1992. Just to the west of Warkworth the river passes over a large weir, beyond which the water is tidal. The weir is bypassed by a fish pass, consisting of a series of pools with small jumps between them. The fish pass was refurbished in 2013 after lying derelict for 20 years, to prevent harm to salmon, sea trout and eels, which were being injured while trying to negotiate the main weir. On the south bank is Warkworth Water Treatment Works, which takes 9.2 e6impgal of water from the river each day to supply potable water to 92,000 customers in Alnwick, Morpeth, Ashington and the surrounding areas. A £2.2 million upgrade to the plant was completed in 2015.

On the north bank below the weir is a cave hermitage, which dates from the 14th and early 15th centuries. It was abandoned by 1567, but remains one of the best preserved and elaborate monuments of its type in the British Isles, and is a grade I listed structure. On the tidal section, a loop to the north encloses the centre of Warkworth, including its medieval castle and church. Below Warkworth is Amble half-tide weir, which maintains water levels through Warkworth when the tide is low, but is submerged at high tide. It has a central notch and a fish pass near the southern bank. In 2018, the flow through the notch was decreased, and that down the fish pass increased, as fish tended to use the notch, where they were caught in large numbers by seals. Below the weir the channel widens to form Warkworth Harbour, with the town of Amble on the south bank. There is a marina and a Royal National Lifeboat Institution lifeboat station, which houses two lifeboats, a Shannon-class all-weather boat propelled by water jets, and a D-class inflatable boat for inshore work. The crew have received 18 awards for gallantry between them, including the first ever awarded for a rescue by an inshore boat. Finally the river enters the North Sea, almost opposite Coquet Island, located 1 mi out to sea.

Mills
For most of England, the Domesday Book which was produced in 1086 provides the first comprehensive survey of mills, but the Domesday survey did not cover Northumberland or County Durham, and so documentary records for the Coquet are not available from that period. The first known records are from the 12th century, when water mills were normally owned by the Lord of the Manor or by Religious establishments. While most mills were used for grinding corn, they were also employed in the fulling of wool. This process, which removed grease and other impurities from the woollen fabric and knitted the fibres together to form a denser product, was a manual one until the 12th century, with the cloth put into tubs and trampled by foot, before it was washed in a stream. The fulling mill used a rotating shaft with cams to raise and drop mallets onto the cloth, which was immersed in tubs. The Newminster Chartulary, which records the activities of a Cistercian abbey near Morpeth lists two fulling mills on the Coquet, including one between Rowhope Burn and Hepden Burn. This is thought to have been on the Hepden Burn, a tributary which was known as Barrow Burn in 1866, and the mill site is now known as Barrowburn. Archaeological investigation of the site was carried out between 2010 and 2013 by members of Coquetdale Community Archaeology.

As some time between 1226 and 1245, the monks of Newminster Abbey were granted a licence to erect a fulling mill at Barrowburn. They also built dykes to mark the boundaries of the land they had been given. It is not clear how long the mill was operational, as there are no further documentary records, and the area was turbulent with Scottish incursions in the 14th century, which may have contributed to its demise, but the site of the mill was identified by Dippie Dixon in 1903. The archaeological investigations found the remains of a wheel pit for a breast-shot water wheel, and a wooden structure in the river bed which was probably part of a sluice. The wheel was unusual, since documentary evidence for breast-shot wheels begins in the 16th century, but the finds push their history back by three centuries. The unrest in the area may have had unexpected consequences, as the site was never developed subsequently, and is one of very few medieval mill sites to be excavated in Britain.

Barrow Mill was a corn mill located upstream of Alwinton, and was first documented in 1712. It is shown with a large weir, a sluice feeding a mill race, and an exit leat on an 1895 map, but only the buildings are shown by 1897. It was built on lands owned by Holystone Priory, and appears to have been disused by 1887. Although there is no evidence from early Ordnance Survey maps for further mills above Rothbury, there were two mills at Alwinton in 1623, one of which may have been a fulling mill, as a fulling mill was confiscated from Sir Edward Widdrington in 1654. Widdrington also lost a corn mill and a fulling mill at Harbottle, which were sold in 1655, but later recovered following the Restoration. There were two mills at Holystone, a corn mill which was mentioned when Holystone Nunnery was dissolved in 1539, and Holystone Walk Mill, both of which are shown on a map dating from 1765. A fulling mill at Caistron was the other mill on the Coquet mentioned in the Newminster Chartulary, and there was at least one mill at Tosson, as a corn mill was documented in 1290 and 1436, but a fulling mill was mentioned in 1622.

There were four mills at various times in Rothbury. Debdon Mill was a woollen mill on the Debdon Burn, and was first documented in 1762. It was shown on the Ordnance Survey map of 1879, but not on that of 1897. East Mill was a corn mill of unknown date, located just upstream from the site of Thrum Mill. Thrum Mill itself is known to have existed before 1841, while Little Mill dates from 1827, and was located just below the confluence with Whitton Burn. Both were corn mills. Brinkburn Mill, which was owned by Brinkburn Priory, was documented in 1535, and although its main function was grinding corn, it may also have been used to generate electricity in the 20th century. Wheldon Mill was another corn mill first documented in 1668. It was just upstream of Wheldon Bridge, and the downstream mill race rejoined the river below the bridge. At Felton, there is a mill upstream of the bridges, which was operational until 1970, and another just below the bridge, of which there is no trace.

Smeaton's dam at Guyzance fed the iron and tin works, which was later converted to a woollen mill, producing blankets. Guyzance Mill was a corn mill further downstream, which may have been used as a fulling mill in its early days. It is first attested to in 1336. There was also a corn mill on the Hazon Burn, which joins the Coquet just below Smeaton's weir. Hazon Mill was near the hamlet of Hazon, and was documented in the 16th century. Morwick Mill, on the outskirts of Warkworth, was a corn mill first documented in 1284. The weir is still extant, and the modern map shows a mill cottage, but not the mill itself. Warkworth Mill was one of the earliest on the river, as the rent from it was used to provide a light in St Cuthbert's shrine in 1214, and this was still the arrangement in 1400. Two mills were recorded at the site in 1567 and 1607, while the last record of rents being collected was in 1855. The building was damaged by fire in 1860, and was probably not used afterwards. A number of buildings remain, although not the mill building, while the weir has been incorporated into the intake works for Warkworth Water Treatment Works. There were also two mills on Grange Burn, a tributary that joins the Coquet above Warkworth Mill site. Grange Mill was near the medieval village of Low Buston, and Houndean Mill was just to the east of the railway bridge over the burn.

History
The earliest known reference to the River Coquet is found in the 8th century Ravenna Cosmography, where it is known as Coccuueda. Bede referred to Cocuedi fluminis. This can be roughly translated to 'Red River', perhaps reflecting the red porphyritic pebbles found here in large numbers. Alternatively, a recent emerging theory proposes the river took its name in the Anglo-Saxon period after an area of land between the Coquet and river Wansbeck called the "Cocwudu" meaning "cock wood", with the river therefore taking its name via a process of back-formation.

The area provides the background to William Gibson's poem The Sailor or the Coquet Cottage. This and other poems, some in the Scottish dialect, were published in 1828. Copies of this very rare book are in the British Library and also in the Duke of Northumberland's library at Alnwick Castle.

Water quality
The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail.

The water quality of the River Coquet system was as follows in 2019. The reasons for the tidal section being less than good are physical modification of the channel and run-off of nutrients from agricultural land. Like most rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE), perfluorooctane sulphonate (PFOS) and mercury compounds, none of which had previously been included in the assessment.

title: River Coquet


text:
Tobias Hume

Tobias Hume (possibly 1579 – 16 April 1645) was a Scottish composer, viol player and soldier.

Little is known of his life. Some have suggested that he was born in 1579 because he was admitted to the London Charterhouse in 1629, a prerequisite to which was being at least 50 years old, though there is no certainty over this. He had made his living as a professional soldier, serving as an officer with the Swedish and Russian armies.

His published music includes pieces for viols (including many solo works for the lyra viol) and songs. They were gathered in two collections, The First Part of Ayres (or Musicall Humors, 1605) and Captain Humes Poeticall Musicke (1607). He was a particular champion of the viol over the then-dominant lute, something which caused John Dowland to publish a rebuttal of Hume's ideas.

Hume was also known as a prankster, as some of his somewhat unusual compositions illustrate. His most notorious piece was "An Invention for Two to Play upone one Viole", also known as Prince's Almayne. Two bows are required and the smaller of the two players is obliged to sit in the lap of the larger player. This work was notated in tablature and is indeed technically possible to play. His instructions to "drum this with the backe of your bow" in another piece, "Harke, harke," from the First Part of Ayres, constitute the earliest known use of col legno in Western music.

At Christmas 1629 he entered Charterhouse as a poor brother. His mind seems to have given way, for in July 1642 he published a rambling True Petition of Colonel Hume to parliament offering either to defeat the rebels in Ireland with a hundred 'instruments of war,' or, if furnished with a complete navy, to bring the king within three months twenty millions of money. He styles himself 'colonel,' but the rank was probably of his own invention, for in the entry of his death, which took place at Charterhouse on Wednesday, 16 April 1645, he is still called Captain Hume.

In popular culture
Tobias Hume is the main character of the novel Loot and Loyalty written by Jerzy Pietrkiewicz.

title: Tobias Hume


text:
Fayetteville State University

Fayetteville State University (FSU) is a public historically black university in Fayetteville, North Carolina, United States. It is part of the University of North Carolina System and the Thurgood Marshall College Fund.

History
The second oldest state-supported school in North Carolina had humble beginnings. Immediately following the Civil War in 1865, a robust education agenda was begun in Fayetteville's African American community with the founding of the Phillips and Sumner Schools for primary and intermediate learning. In 1867, the schools consolidated to form the Howard School, following the vision of the Freedmen's Bureau chief General Oliver O. Howard who erected a building on a tract of land generously donated by seven prominent African American men – Matthew N. Leary, Andrew J. Chestnutt, Robert Simmons, George Grainger, Thomas Lomax, Nelson Carter, and David A. Bryant – who together paid $136 for two lots on Gillespie Street in Fayetteville and formed among themselves a self-perpetuating Board of Trustees to maintain the property for the education of local black youth. In 1877, an act of the North Carolina legislature provided for the establishment of the first teacher-training institution for African Americans in the state. Recognized for its successful record of educating black youth, the Howard School was selected for this designation and in that year became the State Colored Normal School and the first state-sponsored institution for the education of African American teachers in the South.

Following a succession of leaders, in 1883, Dr. Ezekiel Ezra Smith, a graduate of Shaw Collegiate Institute (later Shaw University) in Raleigh, N.C., was appointed Principal and Chief Administrative Officer of the State Colored Normal School and began a fifty-year commitment of leadership and affiliation interrupted only by opportunities to honorably serve his country – once as Resident Minister and Consul General of the United States to Liberia and later as Regimental Adjutant of the Third North Carolina Volunteer Infantry during the Spanish–American War. During his distinguished tenure, Dr. Smith oversaw the school's move to a permanent site on Murchison Road and personally deeded additional land to bring its holdings to 92 acres, including a physical plant of several major buildings and cottages. It was also under his leadership that, in 1929, all high school work was suspended, and the title of Principal changed to president. On June 30, 1933, Dr. Smith retired and became the school's first President Emeritus. Following Dr. Smith's retirement, Dr. J. Ward Seabrook assumed the presidency of what would, under his leadership, become Fayetteville State Teachers College in 1939, a state and regionally accredited four-year college granting the Bachelor of Science degree in education. Later, in 1959, under the presidency of Dr. Rudolph Jones, a revision of the school's charter authorized a curricular expansion to include programs leading to degrees outside the teaching field. It was also during Dr. Jones' presidency that the school became Fayetteville State College in 1963 and significant additions were made to the physical plant to accommodate a rapidly growing enrollment. In 1969, Dr. Charles Lyons Jr. became president and in that year the college was formally renamed Fayetteville State University and designated a regional university by an act of the state legislature. Later, in 1972, Dr. Lyons became the first chancellor of FSU when it was made a constituent institution of The University of North Carolina by legislative act. It was also under the chancellorship of Dr. Lyons that the school became a Comprehensive Level I institution offering a variety of baccalaureate and master's degree programs. Additionally, several innovative initiatives sprang forth under the leadership of Dr. Lyons including the Fort Bragg-Pope Air Force Base Extension Center that, in collaboration with the newly established Weekend and Evening College, provided military personnel and other full-time employees the opportunity to further their education. In 1988, Dr. Lloyd Hackley was named chancellor of FSU and began an active pursuit of initiatives to further expand both undergraduate and graduate program offerings, including the establishment of the university's first doctoral program in Educational Leadership in 1994. Continuing the spirit of innovation pioneered by his predecessors, Dr. Hackley strengthened FSU's commitment to community outreach with programs aimed at at-risk children in the public schools and oversaw the completion of the university's first major public capital campaign to increase privately funded scholarships available to students. Upon his departure from FSU, Dr. Hackley became the first African American President of the North Carolina Community College System. Another first for the university came in 2003 when Dr. Thelma Jane "T.J." Bryan was elected by the University of North Carolina Board of Governors to become the first female chancellor of the school and the first African American woman to head a UNC institution. Under her leadership, the university greatly expanded undergraduate and graduate program offerings, secured important specialized accreditations, and became third in the UNC system in distance-learning enrollments. In 2008, Bryan was succeeded by Dr. James Anderson. Upon the departure of Dr. Anderson, Dr. Peggy Valentine was appointed Acting Chancellor in July 2019. In March 2021, Darrell T. Allison was selected as the 12th chief executive officer and Chancellor of Fayetteville State University.

Academics
The primary mission of Fayetteville State University is to provide quality education to its students through a basic liberal arts foundation, specialized professional training, and specific graduate programs. The university offers bachelor's degrees in 43 areas, master's degrees in 23 areas, and one doctoral degree in educational leadership. The university is fully accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools.

Library
The Charles W. Chesnutt Library supports the university in its academic and cultural endeavors. Services are available onsite and virtually. In addition, the Chesnutt Library assumes its special role as a major cultural resource for the community and the region at large. The library is named for Charles W. Chesnutt, a founder of the university.

The library currently holds over 192,000 volumes; 20,700 reels of microfilm; 631,000 pieces of microfiche; 2,769 periodicals; and 56 newspapers. It is a selective member of the U.S.Federal Depository Library Program. The Library hosts a Digital Commons for research and scholarly output.

The Archives and Special Collections on the library's fourth-floor house the university's archives, dissertations, and special collections. These include the Charles Waddell Chesnutt Collection with his correspondence, letters, and records of his sisters Anne C. Waddell and Sara Chesnutt, pictures of family and friends, newspaper and magazine clippings, and postcards. The papers of Ezekiel Ezra Smith, educator, diplomat, and former President of the Fayetteville State University are also in the archives.

In 2022 the library underwent a transition incorporating a One Stop for Advising and Student Success and an Adult Learning Center. This transition includes a transformation of spaces, collections, and services. Another focus is the development of new partnerships on campus. Also, in 2022 the American Library Association awarded the Chesnutt Library a grant of $20,000 to purchase laptops for students.

The Library is a member of the HBCU Library Alliance.

Journal
The College of Education and Office of Research sponsor the Journal of Research Initiatives which is published by this University. This is an independent peer-reviewed and methodologically diverse open-access journal edited by Dr. Linda Wilson-Jones.

Student organizations
Fayetteville State University students may participate in over 78 registered student organizations, including sororities and fraternities. An active intramural program offers students the opportunity to participate in flag football, basketball, track and field, soccer, and swimming. Many other organizations are continually added on a yearly basis at this school.

Athletics
Fayetteville State University currently participates in 10 NCAA sports, including men's football, basketball, cross-country/track, and golf. The women's programs include basketball, volleyball, softball, cross-country/track, tennis, and bowling. The university is a member of the Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association (CIAA).

Student media
Bronco-iRadio is the student online radio station. It is operated and managed by FSU students.

Fayetteville State University's students publish a bi-weekly newspaper, The Voice, which covers a variety of topics including student life, arts and entertainment, and sports, among others.

Performing and fine arts
Fayetteville State University enjoys a robust performing and fine arts program that has featured artists including Dance Theatre of Harlem, Take 6, Mitch Capel, and many others.

Notable alumni

 * Chris Armstrong – former professional football player, Canadian Football League
 * Darrell Armstrong – former professional basketball player, current assistant coach with the NBA's Dallas Mavericks
 * Jim Bibby – former MLB player
 * Affion Crockett – American actor, writer, dancer, rapper, comedian, music producer
 * Brasheedah Elohim – American Israeli professional women's basketball player
 * Algeania Freeman – American academic administrator
 * Michele S. Jones – first woman in the United States Army Reserve to reach the position of command sergeant major of the U.S. Army Reserve
 * Marvin W. Lucas – member of the North Carolina General Assembly
 * Richard Medlin – former NFL player
 * Sylvester Ritter – former NFL player and professional wrestler (known as "Junkyard Dog")
 * Johnathan Michael Porter (Blueface) – Rapper and former quarterback for Fayetteville (did not graduate)
 * Joshua Williams – NFL player

title: Fayetteville State University


text:
Brodmann area 6

Brodmann area 6 (BA6) is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated just anterior to the primary motor cortex (BA4), it is composed of the premotor cortex and, medially, the supplementary motor area (SMA). This large area of the frontal cortex is believed to play a role in planning complex, coordinated movements.

Brodmann area 6 is also called agranular frontal area 6 in humans because it lacks an internal granular cortical layer (layer IV). It is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined precentral region of cerebral cortex. In the human brain, it is located on the portions of the precentral gyrus that are not occupied by Brodmann area 4; furthermore, BA6 extends onto the caudal portions of the superior frontal and middle frontal gyri. It extends from the cingulate sulcus on the medial aspect of the hemisphere to the lateral sulcus on the lateral aspect. It is bounded rostrally by the granular frontal region and caudally by the gigantopyramidal area 4 (Brodmann, 1909).

Other animals
Brodmann area 6 is a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Brodmann-1909 regarded it as topographically and cytoarchitecturally homologous to the human agranular frontal area 6 and noted that, in the monkey, area 4 is larger than area 6, whereas, in the human, area 6 is larger than area 4. Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): It is thick relative to other cortical areas; the transition from cortex to subcortical white matter is gradual; cell layers are indistinct; and the internal granular layer (IV) is absent.

title: Brodmann area 6


text:
SSSR

SSSR may refer to:
 * Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik, the Latin alphabet transliteration of Союз Советских Социалистических Республик (СССР), the name of the Soviet Union in its official language, Russian
 * Society for the Scientific Study of Reading, a learned society promoting the study of reading and literacy
 * Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, a learned society for a social scientific perspective on religious institutions and experiences
 * Smallest Set of Smallest Rings, a cheminformatics term for the minimal cycle basis of a molecular graph

title: SSSR


text:
Brodmann area 8

Brodmann area 8 is one of Brodmann's cytologically defined regions of the brain. It is involved in planning complex movements.

Human
Brodmann area 8, or BA8, is part of the frontal cortex in the human brain. Situated just anterior to the premotor cortex (BA6), it includes the frontal eye fields (so-named because they are believed to play an important role in the control of eye movements). Damage to this area, by stroke, trauma or infection, causes tonic deviation of the eyes towards the side of the injury. This finding occurs during the first few hours of an acute event such as cerebrovascular infarct (stroke) or hemorrhage (bleeding).

Guenon
The term Brodmann area 8 refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal lobe of the guenon. Located rostral to the arcuate sulcus, it was not considered by Brodmann-1909 to be topographically homologous to the intermediate frontal area 8 of the human.

Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): compared to Brodmann area 6-1909, area 8 has a diffuse but clearly present internal granular layer (IV); sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) has densely distributed medium-sized pyramidal cells; the internal pyramidal layer (V) has larger ganglion cells densely distributed with some granule cells interspersed; the external granular layer (II) is denser and broader; cell layers are more distinct; the abundance of cells is somewhat greater.

Functions
The area is involved in eye movements and possibly in the management of uncertainty. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study demonstrated that Brodmann area 8 activation occurs when test subjects experience uncertainty, and that with increasing uncertainty there is increasing activation.

An alternative interpretation is that this activation in the frontal cortex encodes hope, a higher-order expectation positively correlated with uncertainty.

title: Brodmann area 8


text:
Suncake (Taiwan)

A suncake, or taiyang bing, is a popular Taiwanese dessert originally from the city of Taichung, in central Taiwan. The typical fillings consist of maltose (condensed malt sugar), and they are usually sold in special gift boxes as souvenirs for visitors. Some famous suncake pastry shops always have long lines of people waiting to buy boxed suncakes.

Suncakes are round, and they may vary in size. They are characterized by flaky crusts. Most people eat them with tea, and some people dissolve them in hot water to make a porridge-like dessert.

Origin
The first suncakes were made by the Lin family in the Shekou area of Shengang Township, Taichung County (now part of Taichung City). The Lin family used condensed malt sugar as a filling for cake pastries. Later, pastry maker Wei Qing-hai modified the cakes to their current form.

Though not originally called "suncakes", they were given the name by the owner of "Sun Booth", one of the most famous pastry shops that sells them. The name was not trademarked, and other pastry shops have used the same name for their own suncakes.

title: Suncake (Taiwan)


text:
Guðmundur G. Hagalín

Guðmundur Gíslason Hagalín (Lokinhömrum in Arnarfjörthur, October 10, 1898 – Akranesi, February 26, 1985) was an Icelandic writer who came from the sea-girt Western Fiords of Iceland, where he was a fisherman before attending secondary school. Later, he lectured on Iceland in Norway for a few years (1924–27), and became a superintendent of public libraries. His home was fairly near Reykjavík. His best work concerned portrayals of the simple sturdy seamen and countryfolk of his native region, which are often refreshingly arch in manner. He tended to do this better in short form than long. Hagalín also did well as a narrator able to capture the living speech and characteristic mode of expression of his characters. Strandbúar is one of his collections of short stories. He also had success in recording and editing biographies of very diverse people, based on first-hand accounts of their own lives. In 1960 he was still alive and working on his autobiography.

title: Guðmundur G. Hagalín


text:
Brodmann area 9

Brodmann area 9, or BA9, refers to a cytoarchitecturally defined portion of the frontal cortex in the brain of humans and other primates. Its cytoarchitecture is referred to as granular due to the concentration of granule cells in layer IV. It contributes to the dorsolateral and medial prefrontal cortex.

Functions
The area is involved in short term memory, evaluating recency, overriding automatic responses, verbal fluency, error detection, auditory verbal attention, inferring the intention of others, inferring deduction from spatial imagery, inductive reasoning, attributing intention, sustained attention involved in counting a series of auditory stimuli, and displays lower levels of energy consumption in individuals suffering from bipolar disorder.

The area found on the left hemisphere is at least partially responsible for empathy, idioms, processing pleasant and unpleasant emotional scenes, self criticisms and attention to negative emotions.

On the right hemisphere the region is involved in attributing intention, theory of mind, suppressing sadness, working memory,  spatial memory,  recognition,   recall,  recognizing the emotions of others, planning, calculation,  semantic and perceptual processing of odors, religiosity, and attention to positive emotions.

Guenon
Brodmann area 9 also exists in the frontal lobe of the guenon. Brodmann-1909 regarded it on the whole as topographically and cytoarchitecturally homologous to the granular frontal area 9 and frontopolar area 10 in the human. Distinctive features (Brodmann-1905): Unlike Brodmann area 6 (Brodmann-1909), area 9 has a distinct internal granular layer (IV); unlike Brodmann area 6 or Brodmann area 8 (Brodmann-1909), its internal pyramidal layer (V) is divisible into two sublayers, an outer layer 5a of densely distributed medium-size ganglion cells that partially merges with layer IV, and an inner, clearer, cell-poor layer 5b; the pyramidal cells of sublayer 3b of the external pyramidal layer (III) are smaller and sparser in distribution; the external granular layer (II) is narrow, with small numbers of sparsely distributed granule cells.

title: Brodmann area 9


text:
Brodmann area 10

Brodmann area 10 (BA10, frontopolar prefrontal cortex, rostrolateral prefrontal cortex, or anterior prefrontal cortex) is the anterior-most portion of the prefrontal cortex in the human brain. BA10 was originally defined broadly in terms of its cytoarchitectonic traits as they were observed in the brains of cadavers, but because modern functional imaging cannot precisely identify these boundaries, the terms anterior prefrontal cortex, rostral prefrontal cortex and frontopolar prefrontal cortex are used to refer to the area in the most anterior part of the frontal cortex that approximately covers BA10—simply to emphasize the fact that BA10 does not include all parts of the prefrontal cortex.

BA10 is the largest cytoarchitectonic area in the human brain. It has been described as "one of the least well understood regions of the human brain". Present research suggests that it is involved in strategic processes in memory recall and various executive functions. During human evolution, the functions in this area resulted in its expansion relative to the rest of the brain.

Size
The volume of the human BA10 is about 14 cm3 and constitutes roughly 1.2% of total brain volume. This is twice what would be expected in a hominoid with a human-sized brain. By comparison, the volume of BA10 in bonobos is about 2.8 cm3, and makes up only 0.74% of its brain volume. In each hemisphere, area 10 contains an estimated 250 million neurons.

Location
BA10 is a subdivision of the cytoarchitecturally defined frontal region of cerebral cortex. It occupies the most rostral portions of the superior frontal gyrus and the middle frontal gyrus. In humans, on the medial aspect of the hemisphere it is bounded ventrally by the superior rostral sulcus. It does not extend as far as the cingulate sulcus. Cytoarchitecturally it is bounded dorsally by the granular frontal area 9, caudally by the middle frontal area 46, and ventrally by the orbital area 47 and by the rostral area 12 or, in an early version of Brodmann's cortical map (Brodmann-1909), the prefrontal Brodmann area 11-1909.

Area 10 lies underneath the air filled frontal sinus of the skull, which has limited electrophysiology research until 2009.

Relation to frontal pole
In humans the frontal pole area of the prefrontal cortex includes not only area 10 but part of BA 9. BA 10 also extends beyond the pole area into its ventromedial side. In Guenon monkeys, the pole area is filled by BA 12 (and its BA 10 is found in the orbital prefrontal region).

Cytoarchitecture
In humans the six cortical layers of area 10 have been described as having a "remarkably homogeneous appearance". All of them are readily identified. Relative to each other, layer I is thin to medium in width making up 11% of the depth of area 10. Layer II is thin and contains small granular and pyramidal medium to dark staining cells (in terms of Nissl staining) which colors RNA and DNA. The widest layer is III. Its pyramidal neurons are smaller nearer the above layer II than the below layer IV. Like layer II its cells are medium to dark. Layers II and III make up 43% of the cortex depth. Layer IV has clear borders with layers III above and V below and it is thin. Its cells are pale to medium in staining. Layer V is wide and contains two distinct sublayers, Va and Vb. The density of cells Va is greater than in Vb and have darker staining. Layers IV and V make up 40% of cortical thickness. Layer VI below layer V and above the white matter contains dark pyramidal and fusiform neurons. It contributes 6% of area 10 thickness.

Area 10 differs from the adjacent Brodmann 9 in that the latter has a more distinct layer Vb and more prominent layer II. Neighbouring Brodmann area 11 compared to area 10 has a thinner layer IV with more prominent layers Va, Vb and II.

Area 10 in humans has the lowest neuron density among primate brains. It is also unusual in that its neurons have particularly extensive dendritic arborization and are highly dense with dendritic spines. This situation has been suggested to enable integration of inputs from multiple areas.

Subareas
BA 10 is divided into three sub-areas, 10p, 10m and 10r. 10p occupies the frontal pole while the other two cover the ventromedial part of the prefrontal cortex. Area 10m has thin layers II and IV and a more prominent layer V. In contrast, area 10r has a prominent layer II and a thicker layer IV. Large pyramidal cells are also present in 10r layer III and even more so in area 10p. But it is noted that the "differences between the three areas are gradual, however, and it is difficult to draw sharp boundaries between them". Medial frontopolar (Area 10m) cortex also contains fewer parvalbumin- and calbindin-immunoreactive neurons relative to other frontal lobe regions, especially Area 14 in orbitofrontal cortex and Area 46 in PFC.

Connections
Research upon primates suggests that area 10 has inputs and output connections with other higher-order association cortex areas particularly in the prefrontal cortex while having few with primary sensory or motor areas. Its connections through the extreme capsule link it to the auditory and multisensory areas of the superior temporal sulcus. They also continue in the medial longitudinal fasciculus in the white matter of the superior temporal gyrus areas on the superior temporal gyrus (areas TAa, TS2, and TS3) and nearby multisensory areas on the upper bank of the superior temporal sulcus (TPO). Another area connected through the extreme capsule is the ventral region of the insula. Connections through the cingulate fasciculus link area 10 to the anterior, posterior cingulate cortex, and retrosplenial cortex. The uncinate fasciculus connects it with the amygdala, temporopolar proisocortex and anterior most part of the superior temporal gyrus. There are no connections to the parietal cortex, occipital cortex nor inferotemporal cortex

Its connections have been summarized as "it seems not to be interconnected with ‘downstream’ areas in the way that other prefrontal areas are. .. it is the only prefrontal region that is predominantly (and possibly exclusively) interconnected with supramodal cortex in the PFC, anterior temporal cortex and cingulate cortex." It has been proposed that due to this connectivity that it can "play a major role in the highest level of integration of information coming from visual, auditory, and somatic sensory systems to achieve amodal, abstract, conceptual interpretation of the environment .. and may be the anatomical basis for the suggested role of the rostral prefrontal cortex in influencing abstract information processing and the integration of the outcomes of multiple cognitive operations".

Evolution
Katerina Semendeferi and colleagues has suggested that "During hominid evolution, area 10 underwent a couple of .. changes: one involves a considerable increase in overall size, and the other involves a specific increase in connectivity, especially with other higher-order association areas."

Cranial endocasts taken from the inside of the skull of Homo floresiensis  show an expansion in the frontal polar region suggesting enlargement in its Brodmann's area 10.

Function
Although this region is extensive in humans, its function is poorly understood. Koechlin & Hyafil have proposed that processing of 'cognitive branching' is the core function of the frontopolar cortex. Cognitive branching enables a previously running task to be maintained in a pending state for subsequent retrieval and execution upon completion of the ongoing one. Many of our complex behaviors and mental activities require simultaneous engagement of multiple tasks, and they suggest the anterior prefrontal cortex may perform a domain-general function in these scheduling operations. Thus, the frontopolar cortex shares features with the central executive in Baddeley's model of working memory. However, other hypotheses have also been proffered, such as those by Burgess et al.. These also take into consideration the influence of the limbic system, to which the frontopolar cortex is connected through the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. A 2006 meta-analysis found that the rostral prefrontal cortex was involved in working memory, episodic memory and multiple-task coordination. This area has also been implicated in decision making prior to the decision being available to conscious awareness

title: Brodmann area 10


text:
Rankin

Rankin may refer to:

Australia

 * Division of Rankin, an electoral district in the Australian Federal House of Representatives, in Queensland

Canada

 * Rankin Inlet, Nunavut
 * Rankin Inlet Airport, Nunavut
 * Rankin River, Ontario
 * Rankin Location 15D, Batchawana First Nation, Ontario
 * Rankin Lake, Nova Scotia

United States

 * Rankin, Illinois
 * Rankin, Missouri
 * Rankin, Oklahoma
 * Rankin, Pennsylvania
 * Rankin Bridge, a bridge in Pennsylvania
 * Rankin (Ellis County), Texas
 * Rankin (Upton County), Texas
 * Rankin, Wisconsin
 * Rankin County, Mississippi
 * Rankin Independent School District, Texas

Other uses

 * Rankin (name), a last name and given name and list of people with the name
 * Rankin (photographer)
 * HMAS Rankin (SSG 78)
 * USS Rankin (AKA-103)
 * Modified Rankin scale, a measure of disability

title: Rankin