text:
Swallowtail butterfly

Swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful butterflies in the family Papilionidae, and include over 550 species. Though the majority are tropical, members of the family inhabit every continent except Antarctica. The family includes the largest butterflies in the world, the birdwing butterflies of the genus Ornithoptera.

Swallowtails have a number of distinctive features; for example, the papilionid caterpillar bears a repugnatorial organ called the osmeterium on its prothorax. The osmeterium normally remains hidden, but when threatened, the larva turns it outward through a transverse dorsal groove by inflating it with fluid.

The forked appearance in some of the swallowtails' hindwings, which can be seen when the butterfly is resting with its wings spread, gave rise to the common name swallowtail. As for its formal name, Linnaeus chose Papilio for the type genus, as papilio is Latin for "butterfly". For the specific epithets of the genus, Linnaeus applied the names of Greek figures to the swallowtails. The type species: Papilio machaon honored Machaon, one of the sons of Asclepius, mentioned in the Iliad. Further, the species Papilio homerus is named after the Greek poet, Homer.

The Mon of the Taira clan of Japan is an Agehachō (swallowtail butterfly).

Subfamilies
The genera of extant swallowtails are usually classified into three subfamilies, Baroniinae, Parnassiinae, and Papilioninae, the latter two being further divided into tribes. In swallowtails, besides morphological characteristics, the choice of food plants and ecological lifestyle reflect phylogeny and classification.

Baroniinae
The Baroniinae are a monotypic subfamily, restricted to a very small region in Mexico and are considered to be the most basal of the subfamilies. Baronia brevicornis is considered to be a relict species, and shares features with a fossil taxon Praepapilio. Baronia is unique among papilionidae' as having an Acacia species (family Leguminosae) as its food plant.

Subfamily: Baroniene.

Parnassiinae
The Parnassiinae are a subfamily of essentially Holarctic butterflies. The vast majority of species, mostly Parnassius, can be found in mountain habitats. Parnassiinines can also be found in other habitats such as "arid deserts (Hypermnestra), humid forests (Luehdorfia) and even lowland meadows (Zerynthia)". The tribes recognized in the Parnassiinae are Parnassiini, Zerynthiini, and Luehdorfiini.

Tribe Parnassiini contains two genera, Hypermnestra, largely confined to central Asia and the genus Parnassius (the Apollos), a distinctive group of many species, all of which are alpine and capable of living at high altitudes. Most Parnassius have two small reddish spots on their hindwings. The tribe Luehdorfiini contains the genera Archon of Asia minor and the genus Luehdorfia of China and Japan. These two tribes have evolved to change their food plants, while the third tribe, Zerynthiini, has retained the archetypical papilionid food plant, the lowland vine Aristolochia. Zerynthiini comprises four genera – Sericinus, Bhutanitis, Zerynthia and Allancastria.

Subfamily: Parnassiinae.

Papilioninae
The tribes recognized in the Papilioninae are Leptocircini, Teinopalpini, Troidini, and Papilionini.

Subfamily: Papilioninae.

Praepapilioninae
An additional subfamily, Praepapilioninae, consisting of a single genus Praepapilio, includes two species of extinct butterflies, each member being described from single fossils found in a middle Eocene deposit in Colorado, United States (Durden and Rose, 1978).

Phylogeny
A phylogeny of the Papilionidae based on Nazari (2007) is given:

It is now accepted that the subfamily Papilioninae is monophyletic. The swallowtail butterflies in the nominate tribe Papilionini number about 225 species and studies have been made on their host plant coevolution and phylogeny. Old morphological classifications were also found to be valid in that they formed clusters. Species belonging to the groups that use Rutaceae as host plants formed two groups corresponding to Old World and American taxa. Those that fed on Lauraceae and Magnoliaceae were found to form another cluster which includes both Asian and American taxa.

The Parnassinae, like the Papilioninae, were also believed to be monophyletic based on morphological studies but recent studies based on both morphological and molecular characteristics suggest that this is not the case. Of the Parnassiinae, the genera Parnassius and Hypermnestra were found to be extremely close based on molecular studies and are now considered to be part of the tribe Parnassiini. The two taxa, Archon and Luehdorfia, have been found to be closely related through analysis of nuclear and mitochondrial DNA, and, though they share no morphological similarities, have now been united in the tribe Luehdorfiini.

The subfamily Baroniinae is represented by the sole representative species Baronia brevicornis. They are unique in the family to use the Fabaceae (Leguminosae) as their larval host plants. The Baronninae and the extinct subfamily Praepapilioninae share many external similarities and are traditionally considered to be the most primitive subfamilies and sister to the rest of the swallowtails. Recent research suggests that this may not be the case, the Baroniinae being closely related to only the Parnassiinae, and Praepapilio to only the Papilionini and neither taxa being sister to the rest of the swallowtails.

Distribution
As of 2005, 552 extant species have been identified which are distributed across the tropical and temperate regions. Various species inhabit altitudes ranging from sea level to high mountains, as in the case of most species of Parnassius. The majority of swallowtail species and the greatest diversity are found in the tropics and subtropical regions between 20°N and 20°S, particularly Southeast Asia, and between 20°N and 40°N in East Asia. Only 12 species are found in Europe and only one species, Papilio machaon is found in the British Isles. North America has 40 species, including several tropical species and Parnassius.

The northernmost swallowtail is the Siberian Apollo (Parnassius arcticus), found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia, at altitudes of 1500 meters above sea level. In the Himalayas, various Apollo species such as Parnassius epaphus, have been found at altitudes of 6,000 meters above sea level.

Food

The caterpillars of various swallowtail butterfly species feed on a wide range of different plants, most depending on only one of five families: Aristolochiaceae, Annonaceae, Lauraceae, Umbelliferae (Apiaceae) and Rutaceae. By eating some of these toxic plants, the caterpillars sequester aristolochic acid which renders both the caterpillars and the butterflies of some of these as toxic, thus protecting them from predators. Similarly, the Parnassius smintheus sequesters sarmentosin from its host plant Sedum lanceolatum for protection from predators. Swallowtail tribes Zerynthiini (Parnassiinae), Luehdorfiini (Parnassiinae) and Troidini (Papilioninae), almost exclusively use the family Aristolochiaceae as their host plants.

For example, the eastern black swallowtail's (Papilio polyxenes) main host plant in the wild is Queen Anne's lace, but they also eat garden plants in the carrot family, including carrots, parsley, dill, and fennel.

Adult swallowtails sip nectar, but also mud and sometimes manure.

Life cycle
The detailed descriptions of morphological characteristics of the Papilionidae, as quoted in Bingham (1905) are as follows:

"Egg. "Dome-shaped, smooth or obscurely facetted, not as high as wide, somewhat leathery, opaque." (Doherty.)

Larva. Stout, smooth or with a series of fleshy tubercles on the dorsum: sometimes with a raised fleshy protuberance (the so-called hood or crest) on the fourth segment. The second segment has a transverse opening, out of which the larva protrudes at will and an erect, forked, glandular fleshy organ that emits a strong, penetrating, and somewhat unpleasant odor.

Pupa. Variable in form but most often curved backwards. It is angulate, with the head truncate or rounded and the back of abdomen is smooth or tuberculate. It is attached by the tail, normally in a perpendicular position, and further secured by a silken girth round the middle. In Parnassius, the pupa is placed in a loose silken web between leaves.

Imago. Wings extraordinarily variable in shape. Hindwing very frequently has a tail, which may be slender, or broad and spatulate, but is always an extension of the termen at vein 4. In one genus, Armandia, the termen of the hindwing is prolonged into tails at the apices of veins 2 and 3 as well as at vein 4. Forewing (except in the aberrant genera Parnassius and Hypermnestra) with all 12 veins present and in addition a short internal vein, vein 1 a, that invariably terminates on the dorsal margin."

Stages of development of a papilionid, the giant swallowtail (Papilio cresphontes)

Distinguishing characteristics
The key characteristics that differentiate the Papilionidae from the other butterfly families are:
 * The osmeterium is a forked, fleshy eversible organ found in the prothoracic segment of caterpillars.
 * Venation – in swallowtails, the second anal vein, 2A, extends up to the wing margin and does not link with the first anal vein, 1A. These veins are fused in other butterfly families and 2A does not reach the wing margin.
 * The sclerites of the cervix (membranous neck between the head and thorax) are fused beneath the neck where the muscles for head movement are anchored.

Special adaptations and defense
Swallowtail butterflies practice Batesian mimicry, a behavior in which the butterflies' appearance closely resemble that of distasteful species that prevents predation. Swallowtails differ from many animals that practice mimicry. The tiger swallowtail butterfly (Papilio glaucus), exhibits a female-limited polymorphism for Batesian mimicry and others, such as the Canadian tiger swallowtail (Papilio canadensis) do not display any form of mimicry.

Predators include the red-winged blackbird, Pennsylvania firefly, five-lined skink, green darner, goldenrod spider, Chinese mantis, fiery searcher, and striped skunk.

Biological basis for polymorphisms in mimicry
Not all individuals in some species are identical in appearance. For example, Papilio glaucus (eastern tiger swallowtail), Y-linkage determines whether the females are either wild-type (yellow and black) or melanic (dark melanin replaces the yellow background). This genetic difference stems from the fact that melanism is controlled by a single gene, which controls the level of dopamine in the organism. The enzyme BAS, which assists dopamine in producing the yellow pigmentation, normally found on the wings' background, is suppressed. Without the pigmentation, the butterfly appears mostly black (the melanic form) and is a Batesian mimic of Battus philenor, the pipevine swallowtail. There are also Papilio glaucus that are not wholly black; several possess an intermediate "sooty" color and are sensitive to temperature.

The different polymorphisms (wild-type, melanic, and the 'sooty' intermediate) depend upon the geographical distribution and abundance of its mimic, the Battus philenor, whose wing color varies depending on its geographical location. In order to be successfully confused for the B. philenor by predators, the Papilio glaucus's background wing color matches that of the B. philenor residing in the same regional area. Studies support this theory; in the southeastern United States, the relative abundance of melanic females has been found to geographically correlate with B. philenor.

Mimicry
Only certain subsets of swallowtails practice mimicry. Species differ in whether one or both sexes is mimetic, and whether the mimicry is monomorphic or polymorphic. A phenomenon which has received particular attention is female-limited polymorphism, in which only the females of a species are mimetic and polymorphic, often mimicking different, distantly-related aposematic butterflies. This polymorphism is seen in Papilio dardanus, the African swallowtail butterfly, whose females have three different morphs for wing color pattern: a black-and-white pattern for Batesian mimicry, a black-and-yellow pattern that resembles the males of the species, and a pattern with orange patches that resembles the elderly males of the species. Given that the males of the species, which do not have Batesian mimicry, are preyed upon much more frequently by predators than the females, an ongoing question is why females would exhibit the non-mimetic wing pattern, which would seemingly lower their fitness compared to the mimicry form. The pipevine swallowtail exhibits Batesian mimicry as well.

Several hypotheses for this phenomenon were made, the two noteworthy being the pseudosexual selection hypothesis and the male avoidance hypothesis. In the pseudosexual hypothesis, male butterflies aggressively approached the male-looking females and then mellowed their behavior into sexual behavior when they were close enough to identify them as females. In the male avoidance hypothesis, female butterflies disguise themselves in an attempt to evade male harassment, as courtship can be harmful, time-consuming, and attract predators.

One study recorded male responses to females of each morphs and found that the males consistently favored the Batesian mimics, then the black and yellow, and then the morph with orange patches. The scientists concluded that frequency-dependent selection did lead to equal success for all three alternative strategies: the Batesian females suffered the fewest predators but their fitness was reduced the most by sexual harassment, while the other two faced lower sexual harassment but also lost fitness from predators' attacks.

Mating and young
After mating, the male Parnassines produce a glue-like substance that is used to seal the female genital opening and prevent other males from mating. They lay individual eggs on the underside of the leaves of their food plants. There is no parental investment once the eggs have been laid.

The pupae are typically attached to the substrate by the cremaster but with head up held by a silk girdle. The Apollos, however, pupate in debris on the ground and also build a loose cocoon. In the temperate regions, the winters are passed in a pupal diapause stage.

In culture
Since swallowtail butterflies are large, colorful, and attractive, they have been targeted by butterfly collectors. The largest of these, the birdwing butterflies are particularly sought after and are cultured in butterfly farms to supply collectors.

Many members of the family, as larvae, feed on plants of the citrus family Rutaceae, making some of these attractive butterflies pests in citrus orchards.

The Oregon swallowtail is the state insect of Oregon. The eastern tiger swallowtail is the state insect of Virginia and the state butterfly of Georgia, Delaware, and South Carolina. The black swallowtail is the state butterfly of Oklahoma.

title: Swallowtail butterfly


text:
MreB

MreB is a protein found in bacteria that has been identified as a homologue of actin, as indicated by similarities in tertiary structure and conservation of active site peptide sequence. The conservation of protein structure suggests the common ancestry of the cytoskeletal elements formed by actin, found in eukaryotes, and MreB, found in prokaryotes. Indeed, recent studies have found that MreB proteins polymerize to form filaments that are similar to actin microfilaments. It has been shown to form multilayer sheets comprising diagonally interwoven filaments in the presence of ATP or GTP.

MreB along with MreC and MreD are named after the mre operon (murein formation gene cluster E) to which they all belong.

Function
MreB controls the width of rod-shaped bacteria, such as Escherichia coli. A mutant E. coli that creates defective MreB proteins will be spherical instead of rod-like. Also, most bacteria that are naturally spherical do not have the gene encoding MreB. Members of the Chlamydiota are a notable exception, as these bacteria utilize the protein for localized septal peptidoglycan synthesis. Prokaryotes carrying the mreB gene can also be helical in shape. MreB has long been thought to form a helical filament underneath the cytoplasmic membrane, however, this model has been brought into question by three recent publications showing that filaments cannot be seen by electron cryotomography and that GFP-MreB can be seen as patches moving around the cell circumference. It has been shown to interact with several proteins that are proven to be involved in length growth (for instance PBP2). Therefore, it probably directs the synthesis and insertion of new peptidoglycan building units into the existing peptidoglycan layer to allow length growth of the bacteria.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: MreB


text:
Julia Thorne

Julia Stimson Thorne (September 16, 1944 – April 27, 2006) was an American writer. She was the first wife of John Kerry, who was U.S. Senator during their marriage.

Biography
Thorne was born in New York City on September 16, 1944, the daughter of Alice (Barry) and Landon Ketchum Thorne Jr. Her maternal great-grandfather was journalist David S. Barry. Thorne spent much of her childhood in Rome where her father worked various jobs. She graduated from the Foxcroft School in 1962. She also took some classes at the New York School of Interior Design and at Radcliffe.

Julia Thorne was a direct eleventh generation descendant of John Bowne, a defiant activist in the struggle for religious freedom. William Thorne Sr., third signatory of the Flushing Remonstrance is also an ancestor. Thorne was also a distant cousin of her husband John Kerry through their common ancestor Elizabeth Fones.

Thorne married John Kerry on May 23, 1970, and wore a dress that was over "two centuries old." She and Kerry had two daughters together, Alexandra Forbes Kerry and Vanessa Bradford Kerry. During their marriage, Julia began showing signs of depression and later wrote that she had at one time contemplated suicide. In the 1980s, she created a nonprofit called the Depression Initiative to educate people about depression. Thorne and Kerry were divorced on July 25, 1988 after a six-year separation. She overcame depression by 1990, and by all accounts the two had an amicable relationship. She married Richard J. Charlesworth in 1997 and they moved to Bozeman, Montana. She continued to be supportive of Kerry's run for president in 2004.

Thorne died from cancer on April 27, 2006, in her home in Concord, Massachusetts.

Books
Her book, You Are Not Alone: Words of Experience and Hope for the Journey Through Depression (1993) (with Larry Rothstein) (ISBN 0-06-096977-6) collects accounts of different people who have faced depression. Ann Landers wrote that "this little book could be a lifesaver and the best $10 you will ever spend."

A Change of Heart: Words of Experience and Hope for the Journey Through Divorce (1996) (ISBN 0-06-095105-2)

title: Julia Thorne


text:
FtsZ

FtsZ is a protein encoded by the ftsZ gene that assembles into a ring at the future site of bacterial cell division (also called the Z ring). FtsZ is a prokaryotic homologue of the eukaryotic protein tubulin. The initials FtsZ mean "Filamenting temperature-sensitive mutant Z." The hypothesis was that cell division mutants of E. coli would grow as filaments due to the inability of the daughter cells to separate from one another. FtsZ is found in almost all bacteria, many archaea, all chloroplasts and some mitochondria, where it is essential for cell division. FtsZ assembles the cytoskeletal scaffold of the Z ring that, along with additional proteins, constricts to divide the cell in two.

History
In the 1960s scientists screened for temperature sensitive mutations that blocked cell division at 42 °C. The mutant cells divided normally at 30°, but failed to divide at 42°. Continued growth without division produced long filamentous cells (Filamenting temperature sensitive). Several such mutants were discovered and mapped to a locus originally named ftsA, which could be one or more genes. In 1980 Lutkenhaus and Donachie showed that several of these mutations mapped to one gene, ftsA, but one well-characterized mutant, PAT84, originally discovered by Hirota et al, mapped to a separate, adjacent gene. They named this cell division gene ftsZ. In 1991 Bi and Lutkenhaus used immunogold electron microscopy to show that FtsZ localized to the invaginating septum at midcell. Subsequently, the Losick and Margolin groups used immuno-fluorescence microscopy and GFP fusions to show that FtsZ assembled Z rings early in the cell cycle, well before the septum began to constrict. Other division proteins then assemble onto the Z ring and constriction occurs in the last part of the cell cycle.

In 1992-3 three labs independently discovered that FtsZ was related to eukaryotic tubulin, which is the protein subunit that assembles into microtubules. This was the first discovery that bacteria have homologs of eukaryotic cytoskeletal proteins. Later work showed that FtsZ was present in, and essential for, cell division in almost all bacteria and in many but not all archaea.

Mitochondria and chloroplasts are eukaryotic organelles that originated as bacterial endosymbionts, so there was much interest in whether they use FtsZ for division. Chloroplast FtsZ was first discovered by Osteryoung, and it is now known that all chloroplasts use FtsZ for division. Mitochondrial FtsZ was discovered by Beech in an alga; FtsZ is used for mitochondrial division in some eukaryotes, while others have replaced it with a dynamin-based machinery.

In 2014, scientists identified two FtsZ homologs in archaea, FtsZ1 and FtsZ2.

Function

During cell division, FtsZ is the first protein to move to the division site, and is essential for recruiting other proteins that produce a new cell wall (septum) between the dividing cells. FtsZ's role in cell division is analogous to that of actin in eukaryotic cell division, but, unlike the actin-myosin ring in eukaryotes, FtsZ has no known motor protein associated with it. Cell wall synthesis may externally push the cell membrane, providing the force for cytokinesis. Supporting this, in E. coli the rate of division is affected by mutations in cell wall synthesis. Alternatively, FtsZ may pull the membrane from the inside based on Osawa (2009) showing the protein's contractile force on liposomes with no other proteins present.

Erickson (2009) proposed how the roles of tubulin-like proteins and actin-like proteins in cell division became reversed in an evolutionary mystery. The use of the FtsZ ring in dividing chloroplasts and some mitochondria further establishes their prokaryotic ancestry. L-form bacteria that lack a cell wall do not require FtsZ for division, which implies that bacteria may have retained components of an ancestral mode of cell division.

Much is known about the dynamic polymerization activities of tubulin and microtubules, but little is known about these activities in FtsZ. While it is known that single-stranded tubulin protofilaments form into 13 stranded microtubules, the multistranded structure of the FtsZ-containing Z-ring is not known. It is only speculated that the structure consists of overlapping protofilaments. Nevertheless, recent work with purified FtsZ on supported lipid bilayers as well as imaging FtsZ in living bacterial cells revealed that FtsZ protofilaments have polarity and move in one direction by treadmilling (see also below).

Recently, proteins similar to tubulin and FtsZ have been discovered in large plasmids found in Bacillus species. They are believed to function as components of segrosomes, which are multiprotein complexes that partition chromosomes/plasmids in bacteria. The plasmid homologs of tubulin/FtsZ seem to have conserved the ability to polymerize into filaments.

The contractile ring (the "Z ring")
FtsZ has the ability to bind to GTP and also exhibits a GTPase domain that allows it to hydrolyze GTP to GDP and a phosphate group. In vivo, FtsZ forms filaments with a repeating arrangement of subunits, all arranged head-to-tail. These filaments form a ring around the longitudinal midpoint, or septum, of the cell. This ring is called the Z-ring.

The GTP hydrolyzing activity of the protein is not essential to the formation of filaments or cell division. Mutants defective in GTPase activity often still divide, but sometimes form twisted and disordered septa. It is unclear as to whether FtsZ actually provides the physical force that results in division or serves as a scaffold for other proteins to execute division.

There are two models for how FtsZ might generate a constriction force. One model is based on the observation that FtsZ protfilaments can be straight or curved. The transition from straight to curved is suggested to generate a bending force on the membrane. Another model is based on sliding protofilaments. Computer models and in vivo measurements suggest that single FtsZ filaments cannot sustain a length more than 30 subunits long. In this model, FtsZ scission force comes from the relative lateral movement of subunits. Lines of FtsZ would line up together parallel and pull on each other creating a "cord" of many strings that tightens itself.

In other models, FtsZ does not provide the contractile force but provides the cell a spatial scaffold for other proteins to execute the division of the cell. This is akin to the creating of a temporary structure by construction workers to access hard-to-reach places of a building. The temporary structure allows unfettered access and ensures that the workers can reach all places. If the temporary structure is not correctly built, the workers will not be able to reach certain places, and the building will be deficient.

The scaffold theory is supported by information that shows that the formation of the ring and localization to the membrane requires the concerted action of a number of accessory proteins. ZipA or the actin homologue FtsA permit initial FtsZ localization to the membrane. Following localization to the membrane, division proteins of the Fts family are recruited for ring assembly. Many of these proteins direct the synthesis of the new division septum at midcell (FtsI, FtsW), or regulate the activity of this synthesis (FtsQ, FtsL, FtsB, FtsN). The timing of Z-ring formation suggests the possibility of a spatial or temporal signal that permits the formation of FtsZ filaments.

Recent super-resolution imaging in several species supports a dynamic scaffold model, in which small clusters of FtsZ protofilaments or protofilament bundles move unidirectionally around the ring's circumference by treadmilling, anchored to the membrane by FtsA and other FtsZ-specific membrane tethers. The speed of treadmilling depends on the rate of GTP hydrolysis within the FtsZ protofilaments, but in Escherichia coli, synthesis of the division septum remains the rate limiting step for cytokinesis. The treadmilling action of FtsZ is required for proper synthesis of the division septum by septal peptidoglycan synthesis enzymes, suggesting that these enzymes can track the growing ends of the filaments.

Septal localization and intracellular signaling
The formation of the Z-ring closely coincides with cellular processes associated with replication. Z-ring formation coincides with the termination of genome replication in E. coli and 70% of chromosomal replication in B. subtilis. The timing of Z-ring formation suggests the possibility of a spatial or temporal signal that permits the formation of FtsZ filaments. In Escherichia coli, at least two negative regulators of FtsZ assembly form a bipolar gradient, such that the concentration of active FtsZ required for FtsZ assembly is highest at mid-cell between the two segregating chromosomes, and lowest at the poles and over the chromosomes. This type of regulation seems to occur in other species such as Bacillus subtilis and Caulobacter crescentus. However, other species including Streptococcus pneumoniae and Myxococcus xanthus seem to use positive regulators that stimulate FtsZ assembly at mid-cell.

Communicating distress
FtsZ polymerization is also linked to stressors like DNA damage. DNA damage induces a variety of proteins to be manufactured, one of them called SulA. SulA prevents the polymerization and GTPase activity of FtsZ. SulA accomplishes this task by binding to self-recognizing FtsZ sites. By sequestering FtsZ, the cell can directly link DNA damage to inhibiting cell division.

Preventing DNA damage
Like SulA, there are other mechanisms that prevent cell division that would result in disrupted genetic information sent to daughter cells. So far, two proteins have been identified in E. coli and B. subtilis that prevent division over the nucleoid region: Noc and SlmA. Noc gene knockouts result in cells that divide without respect to the nucleoid region, resulting in its asymmetrical partitioning between the daughter cells. The mechanism is not well understood, but thought to involve sequestration of FtsZ, preventing polymerization over the nucleoid region. The mechanism used by SlmA to inhibit FtsZ polymerization over the nucleoid is better understood, and uses two separate steps. One domain of SlmA binds to a FtsZ polymer, then a separate domain of SlmA severs the polymer. A similar mechanism is thought to be used by MinC, another inhibitor of FtsZ polymerization involved in positioning of the FtsZ ring.

Clinical significance
The number of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains is currently increasing; thus, the determination of drug targets for the development of novel antimicrobial drugs is urgently needed. The potential role of FtsZ in the blockage of cell division, together with its high degree of conservation across bacterial species, makes FtsZ a highly attractive target for developing novel antibiotics. Researchers have been working on synthetic molecules and natural products as inhibitors of FtsZ.

The spontaneous self-assembly of FtsZ can also be used in nanotechnology to fabricate metal nanowires.

title: FtsZ


text:
Mississippi Sea Wolves

The Mississippi Sea Wolves were a professional hockey team based in Biloxi, Mississippi, and play in the Mississippi Coast Coliseum. The Sea Wolves were members of the ECHL.

The Sea Wolves were founded in 1996 and had considerable success over their 10 seasons in the ECHL. They reached the playoffs in five of their first seven years and a league championship in 1999, when they defeated the Richmond Renegades in a best-of-seven series to claim the Kelly Cup.

Damages from Hurricane Katrina to the Mississippi Coast Coliseum forced the team to suspend operations for the 2005–06 and 2006–07 seasons under the ECHL's hardship provisions. Hurricane Katrina resulted in extensive damage to the team’s home arena, including flood damage to team offices, locker rooms, ice-making equipment, and two Zambonis. During the 2006–07 ECHL All-Star Game, the league officially confirmed the Sea Wolves would return in 2007–08.

On March 30, 2009, the Sea Wolves announced that the organization would be suspending operations again for the 2009–10 season, but a little more than a month later the team's management announced that professional hockey would continue to be played on the Mississippi Gulf Coast in the form of the Mississippi Surge in the Southern Professional Hockey League. The Surge played at the Coast Coliseum from the 2009–10 season through 2013–14.

In 2021, the Federal Prospects Hockey League hosted three neutral site games in Biloxi. Biloxi Pro Hockey sold 20,163 tickets in the month of December and an announcement was made on December 30 that a new Sea Wolves team would return in 2022. The new team began play in the 2022–23 FPHL season.

title: Mississippi Sea Wolves


text:
Mucus

Mucus is a slippery aqueous secretion produced by, and covering, mucous membranes. It is typically produced from cells found in mucous glands, although it may also originate from mixed glands, which contain both serous and mucous cells. It is a viscous colloid containing inorganic salts, antimicrobial enzymes (such as lysozymes), immunoglobulins (especially IgA), and glycoproteins such as lactoferrin and mucins, which are produced by goblet cells in the mucous membranes and submucosal glands. Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells in the linings of the respiratory, digestive, and urogenital systems, and structures in the visual and auditory systems from pathogenic fungi, bacteria and viruses. Most of the mucus in the body is produced in the gastrointestinal tract.

Amphibians, fish, snails, slugs, and some other invertebrates also produce external mucus from their epidermis as protection against pathogens, to help in movement, and to line fish gills. Plants produce a similar substance called mucilage that is also produced by some microorganisms.

Respiratory system

In the human respiratory system, mucus is part of the airway surface liquid (ASL), also known as epithelial lining fluid (ELF), that lines most of the respiratory tract. The airway surface liquid consists of a sol layer termed the periciliary liquid layer and an overlying gel layer termed the mucus layer. The periciliary liquid layer is so named as it surrounds the cilia and lies on top of the surface epithelium. The periciliary liquid layer surrounding the cilia consists of a gel meshwork of cell-tethered mucins and polysaccharides. The mucus blanket aids in the protection of the lungs by trapping foreign particles before they can enter them, in particular through the nose during normal breathing.

Mucus is made up of a fluid component of around 95% water, the mucin secretions from the goblet cells, and the submucosal glands (2–3% glycoproteins), proteoglycans (0.1–0.5%), lipids (0.3–0.5%), proteins, and DNA. The major mucins secreted – MUC5AC and MUC5B - are large polymers that give the mucus its rheologic or viscoelastic properties. MUC5AC is the main gel-forming mucin secreted by goblet cells, in the form of threads and thin sheets. MUC5B is a polymeric protein secreted from submucosal glands and some goblet cells, and this is in the form of strands.

In the airways—the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles—the lining of mucus is produced by specialized airway epithelial cells called goblet cells, and submucosal glands. Small particles such as dust, particulate pollutants, and allergens, as well as infectious agents and bacteria are caught in the viscous nasal or airway mucus and prevented from entering the system. This process, together with the continual movement of the cilia on the respiratory epithelium toward the oropharynx (mucociliary clearance), helps prevent foreign objects from entering the lungs during breathing. This explains why coughing often occurs in those who smoke cigarettes. The body's natural reaction is to increase mucus production. In addition, mucus aids in moisturizing the inhaled air and prevents tissues such as the nasal and airway epithelia from drying out.

Mucus is produced continuously in the respiratory tract. Mucociliary action carries it down from the nasal passages and up from the rest of the tract to the pharynx, with most of it being swallowed subconsciously. Sometimes in times of respiratory illness or inflammation, mucus can become thickened with cell debris, bacteria, and inflammatory cells. It is then known as phlegm which may be coughed up as sputum to clear the airway.

Respiratory tract
Increased mucus production in the upper respiratory tract is a symptom of many common ailments, such as the common cold, and influenza. Nasal mucus may be removed by blowing the nose or by using nasal irrigation. Excess nasal mucus, as with a cold or allergies, due to vascular engorgement associated with vasodilation and increased capillary permeability caused by histamines, may be treated cautiously with decongestant medications. Thickening of mucus as a "rebound" effect following overuse of decongestants may produce nasal or sinus drainage problems and circumstances that promote infection.

During cold, dry seasons, the mucus lining nasal passages tends to dry out, meaning that mucous membranes must work harder, producing more mucus to keep the cavity lined. As a result, the nasal cavity can fill up with mucus. At the same time, when air is exhaled, water vapor in breath condenses as the warm air meets the colder outside temperature near the nostrils. This causes an excess amount of water to build up inside nasal cavities. In these cases, the excess fluid usually spills out externally through the nostrils.

In the lower respiratory tract impaired mucociliary clearance due to conditions such as primary ciliary dyskinesia may result in mucus accumulation in the bronchi. The dysregulation of mucus homeostasis is the fundamental characteristic of cystic fibrosis, an inherited disease caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, which encodes a chloride channel. This defect leads to the altered electrolyte composition of mucus, which triggers its hyperabsorption and dehydration. Such low-volume, viscous, acidic mucus has a reduced antimicrobial function, which facilitates bacterial colonisation. The thinning of the mucus layer ultimately affects the periciliary liquid layer, which becomes dehydrated, compromising ciliary function, and impairing mucociliary clearance. A respiratory therapist can recommend airway clearance therapy which uses a number of clearance techniques to help with the clearance of mucus.

Mucus hypersecretion
In the lower respiratory tract excessive mucus production in the bronchi and bronchioles is known as mucus hypersecretion. Chronic mucus hypersecretion results in the chronic productive cough of chronic bronchitis, and is generally synonymous with this. Excessive mucus can narrow the airways, limit airflow, and accelerate a decline in lung function.

Digestive system

In the human digestive system, mucus is used as a lubricant for materials that must pass over membranes, e.g., food passing down the esophagus. Mucus is extremely important in the gastrointestinal tract. It forms an essential layer in the colon and in the small intestine that helps reduce intestinal inflammation by decreasing bacterial interaction with intestinal epithelial cells. The layer of mucus of the gastric mucosa lining the stomach is vital to protect the stomach lining from the highly acidic environment within it.

Reproductive system
In the human female reproductive system, cervical mucus prevents infection and provides lubrication during sexual intercourse. The consistency of cervical mucus varies depending on the stage of a woman's menstrual cycle. At ovulation cervical mucus is clear, runny, and conducive to sperm; post-ovulation, mucus becomes thicker and is more likely to block sperm. Several fertility awareness methods rely on observation of cervical mucus, as one of three primary fertility signs, to identify a woman's fertile time at the mid-point of the cycle. Awareness of the woman's fertile time allows a couple to time intercourse to improve the odds of pregnancy. It is also proposed as a method to avoid pregnancy.

Clinical significance
In general, nasal mucus is clear and thin, serving to filter air during inhalation. During times of infection, mucus can change color to yellow or green either as a result of trapped bacteria or due to the body's reaction to viral infection. For example, Staphylococcus aureus infection may turn the mucus yellow. The green color of mucus comes from the heme group in the iron-containing enzyme myeloperoxidase secreted by white blood cells as a cytotoxic defense during a respiratory burst.

In the case of bacterial infection, the bacterium becomes trapped in already-clogged sinuses, breeding in the moist, nutrient-rich environment. Sinusitis is an uncomfortable condition that may include congestion of mucus. A bacterial infection in sinusitis will cause discolored mucus and would respond to antibiotic treatment; viral infections typically resolve without treatment. Almost all sinusitis infections are viral and antibiotics are ineffective and not recommended for treating typical cases.

In the case of a viral infection such as cold or flu, the first stage and also the last stage of the infection cause the production of a clear, thin mucus in the nose or back of the throat. As the body begins to react to the virus (generally one to three days), mucus thickens and may turn yellow or green. Viral infections cannot be treated with antibiotics, and are a major avenue for their misuse. Treatment is generally symptom-based; often it is sufficient to allow the immune system to fight off the virus over time.

Obstructive lung diseases often result from impaired mucociliary clearance that can be associated with mucus hypersecretion, and these are sometimes referred to as mucoobstructive lung diseases. Techniques of airway clearance therapy can help to clear secretions, maintain respiratory health, and prevent inflammation in the airways.

A unique umbilical cord lining epithelial stem cell expresses MUC1, termed (CLEC-muc). This has been shown to have good potential in the regeneration of the cornea.

Tunable swelling capacity
Mucus is able to absorb water or dehydrate through pH variations. The swelling capacity of mucus stems from the bottlebrush structure of mucin within which hydrophilic segments provide a large surface area for water absorption. Moreover, the tunability of swelling effect is controlled by polyelectrolyte effect.

Polyelectrolyte effect in mucus
Polymers with charged molecules are called polyelectrolytes. Mucins, a kind of polyelectrolyte proteoglycans, are the main component of mucus, which provides the polyelectrolyte effect in mucus. The process of inducing this effect comprises two steps: attraction of counter-ions and water compensation. When exposed in physiological ionic solution, the charged groups in the polyelectrolytes attract counter-ions with opposite charges, thereby leading to a solute concentration gradient. An osmotic pressure is introduced to equalize the concentration of solute throughout the system by driving water to flow from the low concentration areas to the high concentration areas. In short, the influx and outflux of water within mucus, managed by the polyelectrolyte effect, contribute to mucus' tunable swelling capacity.

Mechanism of pH-tunable swelling
The ionic charges of mucin are mainly provided by acidic amino acids including aspartic acid (pKa=3.9) and glutamic acid (pKa=4.2). The charges of acidic amino acids will change with environmental pH value due to acid dissociation and association. Aspartic acid, for example, has a negative side chain when the pH value is above 3.9, while a neutrally charged side chain will be introduced as pH value drops below 3.9. Thus, the number of negative charges in mucus is influenced by the pH value of surrounding environment. That is, the polyelectrolyte effect of mucus is largely affected by the pH value of solution due to the charge variation of acidic amino acid residues on the mucin backbone. For instance, the charged residue on mucin is protonated at a normal pH value of the stomach, approximately pH 2. In this case, there is scarcely polyelectrolyte effect, thereby causing compact mucus with little swelling capacity. However, a kind of bacteria, Helicobacter pylori, is prone to producing base to elevate the pH value in stomach, leading to the deprotonation of aspartic acids and glutamic acids, i.e., from neutral to negative-charged. The negative charges in the mucus greatly increase, thus inducing the polyelectrolyte effect and the swelling of the mucus. This swelling effect increases the pore size of the mucus and decreases mucus' viscosity, which allows bacteria to penetrate and migrate into the mucus and cause disease.

Charge selectivity
The high selective permeability of mucus plays a crucial role in the healthy state of human beings by limiting the penetration of molecules, nutrients, pathogens, and drugs. The charge distribution within mucus serves as a charge selective diffusion barrier, thus significantly affecting the transportation of agents. Among particles with various surface zeta potentials, cationic particles tend to have a low depth of penetration, neutral ones possess medium penetration, and anionic ones have the largest penetration depth. Furthermore, the effect of charge selectivity changes when the status of the mucus varies, i.e., native mucus has a threefold higher potential to limit agent penetration than purified mucus.

Other animals
Mucus is also produced by a number of other animals. All fish are covered in mucus secreted from glands all over their bodies. Invertebrates such as snails and slugs secrete mucus called snail slime to enable movement, and to prevent their bodies from drying out. Their reproductive systems also make use of mucus for example in the covering of their eggs. In the unique mating ritual of Limax maximus the mating slugs lower themselves from elevated locations by a mucus thread. Mucus is an essential constituent of hagfish slime used to deter predators. Mucus is produced by the endostyle in some tunicates and larval lampreys to help in filter feeding.

title: Mucus


text:
Rider (legislation)

In legislative procedure, a rider is an additional provision added to a bill or other measure under the consideration by a legislature, which may or may not have much, if any, connection with the subject matter of the bill.

Some scholars identify riders as a specific form of logrolling, or as implicit logrolling. Others distinguish riders from logrolling. Adding riders to legislation is not permitted in legislatures bound by a single-subject rule.

Federal legislation
In the U.S. Congress, riders have been a traditional method for members of Congress to advance controversial measures without building coalitions specifically in support of them, allowing the measure to move through the legislative process: "By combining measures, the legislative leadership can force members to accept a measure that might not survive alone because they want the entire bill to pass." Since the 1980s, however, omnibus bills have become more common: these bills contain provisions, sometime important provisions, on an array of policy areas, and "are powerful for focusing attention away from controversial items to other main items" that either have broad support or are viewed as necessary, "must-pass" measures (such as appropriation bills). While members of Congress often use riders to attempt to kill a piece of legislation, "omnibus bills are pursued in order to get something passed." The phrase "and for other purposes" is frequently included within bills, even if a rider is not initially attached, so as to permit riders unrelated to the original legislation to be added later.

When the veto is an all-or-nothing power as it is in the United States Constitution, the executive must either accept the riders or reject the entire bill. The practical consequence of the custom of using riders is to constrain the veto power of the executive.

The Line Item Veto Act of 1996 was passed to allow the President of the United States to veto single objectionable items within bills passed by Congress, but the Supreme Court struck down the act as unconstitutional in Clinton v. City of New York.

Riders may be unrelated to the subject matter of bills to which they are attached and are commonly used to introduce unpopular provisions. For example, a rider to stop net neutrality was attached to a bill relating to military and veteran construction projects. Another rider has been the Hyde Amendment which since 1976 has been attached to Appropriation Bills to prevent Medicaid paying for most abortions. Another was the Boland Amendment in 1982 and 1983 to restrict financing of the Contras in Nicaragua.

A recent notable example of a rider was in the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010. An amended version of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act in 2010 that was signed into law by Barack Obama only one week before, the amended bill included a rider for the Student Aid and Fiscal Responsibility Act, whose student loan reform was completely unrelated to the broader bill's primary focus on health care reform.

State legislation
Riders exist at the state level as well. For just one example, a 2005 bill in West Virginia that was primarily focused on limiting the number of members that cities can appoint to boards of parks and recreation unexpectedly included a rider that made the English language the official language of the state of West Virginia. Most members of the West Virginia Legislature did not realize that the rider had been entered into the bill until it had already passed both state houses. Then-West Virginia governor Joe Manchin, although a personal supporter of the English-only movement, promptly vetoed the bill due to a provision in the Constitution of West Virginia that limits bills to one topic, which also makes riders de facto unconstitutional in West Virginia. To counteract riders, 43 of the 50 U.S. states have provisions in their state constitutions allowing the use of line item vetoes so that the executive can veto single objectionable items within a bill, without affecting the main purpose or effectiveness of the bill.

France
The Constitutional Council of France has taken an increasingly hard view against riders, which it considers unconstitutional and contrary to the rules of procedure of the parliamentary assemblies. In 1985 the Council started striking down amendment to laws because they were unrelated to the subject of the law. Two special categories of riders merit mention: the "budgetary riders", attached to budget bills, and "social riders", attached to the budget bill for social security organizations, clauses that have no link to the budget or to the social security budgets, respectively.

Greece
Greece's constitutional provisions regarding parliamentary procedure forbid the parliamentary discussion of bills containing unrelated topics. Specifically, article 74, paragraph 5 of the Greek Constitution stipulates that a) a bill that contains provisions unrelated to its main subject is not introduced for discussion, and b) additions or amendments unrelated to the bill's main subject are not introduced for discussion.

Hungary
In 2005, the Constitutional Court of Hungary struck down the yearly national budget law in its entirety, because almost half of the paragraphs were not related to state fiscals at all, but modified 44 other existing pieces of legislation, which concerned health regulations, public education and foreign relations. This judicial ruling restricted the government's future options in bypassing due parliamentary debate and imposing certain reforms unilaterally.

United Kingdom
In some legislative systems, such as the British Parliament, riders are prevented by the existence of the long title of a bill that describes the full purpose of the bill. Any part of the bill that falls outside the scope of the long title would not be permitted. However, legislators often bypass this limitation by naming a bill vaguely, such as by appending "and for connected purposes" to the name.

The Czech Republic
Both Chamber of Deputies of The Czech Republic and Senate of The Czech Republic should respect the principles of transparent governance, and should be scrutinised by the opposition and the general public. Their final decision should follow a long and public debate on the subject of regulation. In The Czech Republic, however, this parliamentary principle is often violated by complex amendments to bills and so-called wild riders, amendments that are not substantively related to the bill in question.

In The Czech Republic, acceptance of legislative additions is contrary to the Constitution of the Czech Republic and the legislative procedure established by the Law of the Czech Republic. According to the conclusion of the Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic in its ruling Pl.ÚS 21/01, the legislative practice, when a single law amends several laws that are not directly related to each other in terms of content, does not correspond with the purpose and principles of the legislative process. Such a procedure would create an unclear legal situation which contradicts the fundamental principles of the rule of law. The basic principles of the rule of law are the principles of the predictability of the law, its comprehensibility, clarity and internal consistency, i.e. the coherence and unity of the legal order. The principle of the democratic rule of law is regulated by Articles 1 and 2 of the Constitution of the Czech Republic. According to Article 2(3), 'State power shall be at the service of all citizens and may be exercised only in the cases, within the limits and in the manner prescribed by the law '.

Up to date, there is no legislative regulation to prevent the practice of legislative riders. However, there are safeguards that should prevent the practice of wild riders. One of these safeguards is The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic itself, whose role under Section 68(2) of The Constitutional Court Act of the Czech Republic is to determine whether a bill has been adopted and passed in a constitutionally-conforming manner. The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic has taken hard view against wild riders. According to the conclusion of The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic in its rulings Pl.ÚS 21/01 and Pl.ÚS 77/06, wild riders are unconstitutional and contrary to the law of legislative procedure and its principles.

PL. ÚS 21/01: Budget Case
What occurred in this particular budget case is that several statutes were simultaneously amended by a single statute, and among these amended statutes was an act on the State Budget. The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic stated that the practice by which several diverse statutes are simultaneously amended by the adoption of a single statute is a relatively common one in legislative practice, and that this practice is in principle constitutionally conforming, but only in the case that the amended statutes bear mutual substantive connection to each other. However, in this case, the amended laws were not bearing any direct substantive connection to each other and were amended by a single act. Such practice, according to The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic, must be designated as an undesirable phenomenon, and one not corresponding to the purpose and principles of the legislative process. The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic further stated that the Rules of Procedure of the Chamber of Deputies regulate the discussion of the act on the State Budget, according to which 'The Act on the State Budget may not provide for changes, amendments or cancellations or other acts of law. '

PL. ÚS 77/06: Legislative Riders
As far as the issue of legislative riders is concerned, this ruling of The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic is considered to be the most significant. In this case, The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic had to assess whether the proposed amendment submitted by MP Michal Doktor concerned the same subject as the bill which was under consideration in the legislative process. The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic deemed necessary to distinguish two types of proposed amendments. The first type of proposed amendment has long been designated in American doctrine as "legislative riders", which is considered to be a constitutionally-conforming form of proposed amendment. However, the second type, called "wild riders", is a technique in which a legislative scheme from an entirely different statute is attached to the bill in the form of a proposed amendment. The rule of close relation (the germaneness rule) has been applied. In other words, it tests the issue as to whether, in this particular case, a proposed amendment was a proper amendment or whether it was a wild rider. In this ruling, The Constitutional Court of the Czech Republic concluded that it takes a distinctly negative view of wild riders, especially because of their potential negative impact on the principles of the democratic rule of law, which are threatened by wild riders, which turned out to be crucial as a reference for future cases concerning wild riders.

Philippines
The Congress of the Philippines is prohibited to add riders in bills. According to Article VI, Section 26(1) of the Constitution of the Philippines, bills must espouse a particular subject which has to be conveyed in the title thereof.

Examples

 * CISA Act (2015)
 * REAL ID Act (2005)
 * Illicit Drug Anti-Proliferation Act (2003)
 * Lautenberg Amendment
 * Hyde Amendment
 * The rider "Confirmation of antitrust status of graduate medical resident matching programs" was attached to the Pension Funding Equity Act and gave the Association of American Medical Colleges a victory in the antitrust case Jung v. Association of American Medical Colleges.

title: Rider (legislation)


text:
New Living Translation

The New Living Translation (NLT) is a translation of the Bible in contemporary English. Published in 1996 by Tyndale House Foundation, the NLT was created "by 90 leading Bible scholars." The NLT relies on recently published critical editions of the original Hebrew, Aramaic, and Greek texts.

The origin of the NLT came from a project aiming to revise The Living Bible (TLB). This effort eventually led to the creation of the NLT—a new translation separate from the LB. The first NLT edition retains some text of the LB, but these are less evident in text revisions that have been published since.

Translation philosophy
The New Living Translation used translators from a variety of Christian denominations. The method combined an attempt to translate the original texts simply and literally with a dynamic equivalence synergy approach used to convey the thoughts behind the text where a literal translation may have been difficult to understand or even misleading to modern readers. A part of the reasoning behind adapting the language for accessibility is the premise that more people will hear the Bible read aloud in a church service than are likely to read it or study it on their own.

It has been suggested that this "thought-for-thought" methodology, while making the translation easier to understand, is less accurate than a literal (formal equivalence) method, and thus the New Living Translation may not be suitable for those wishing to undertake detailed study of the Bible.

Textual basis
The Old Testament translation was based on the Masoretic Text (Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia) and was further compared to other sources such as the Dead Sea Scrolls, Septuagint, Greek manuscripts, Samaritan Pentateuch, Syriac Peshitta, and Latin Vulgate. The New Testament translation was based on the two standard editions of the Greek New Testament (the UBS 4th revised edition and the Nestle-Aland Novum Testamentum Graece 27th edition).

Translation history
Work on this revision began in 1989 with ninety translators; it was published in July 1996, 25 years after the publication of The Living Bible. Advanced reader copies of the Epistle to the Romans were originally printed as the New Living Version, but eventually renamed the New Living Translation to avoid confusion between this new work and The Living Bible. NLV is still used to identify the New Living Translation in ONIX for Books. Soon after that, a new revision was begun and The Second Edition of the NLT (also called the NLTse) was released in 2004. A revision in 2007 comprised mostly minor textual or footnote changes. Other revisions were released in 2013 and 2015 with minor changes throughout.

In 2016, Tyndale House Publishers, the Conference of Catholic Bishops of India Commission for Bible, ATC Publishers Bengaluru, and twelve Biblical scholars collaborated to prepare a New Living Translation Catholic Edition. After reviewing the changes introduced in the Catholic edition, Tyndale subsequently approved and adopted the Indian Bishops' edits into the main body of the 2015 edition, where they appear in all subsequent editions, Protestant and Catholic alike.

Translation properties
The New Living Translation is (according to its publisher) intended to be easily accessible to readers of modern English. As part of this effort:
 * Weights and measures, money, dates and times, etc., are described in modern terms, with footnotes giving the literal translation. For example, John 6:7 reads: "Philip replied, 'Even if we worked for months, we wouldn't have enough money to feed them, with a note that the Greek text reads "Two hundred denarii would not be enough" and an explanation that a denarius was equivalent to a laborer's full day's wage.
 * Some phrases are translated into contemporary English; e.g. "they beat their breasts" (Luke 23:48) is translated as "They went home in deep sorrow", again with footnotes providing more literal interpretations.
 * Gender-inclusive language is used where the editors believed that it was appropriate, thus ἀδελφοί (adelphoi) is translated "brothers and sisters".

Circulation
In July 2008, the NLT gained the No. 1 spot in unit sales, unseating the NIV for the first time in over two decades. According to the Christian Booksellers Association (as of March 2014), the NLT is the second most popular Bible translation based on unit sales, and the fourth most popular based on sales numbers.

A Roman Catholic edition of the NLT with the Deuterocanon was published by ATC Publications in Bangalore, India. The NLT Catholic Edition (NLTCE) was granted an imprimatur by Oswald Cardinal Gracias, Archbishop of Bombay and President of the Council of Catholic Bishops of India. It was later released in North America as the Catholic Holy Bible Reader's Edition on October 17, 2017. Although the imprimatur does not extend to use of the NLTCE in the liturgy, it has been officially approved by the Catholic Church for private study and devotional use.

The NLT is available in numerous editions as well as numerous study Bible editions, including: The Life Application Study Bible, The Life Recovery Bible, The NLT Study Bible, and the NLT Illustrated Study Bible. The Cornerstone Biblical Commentary series uses the second-edition NLT text as its base. In June 2017, the Africa Study Bible, edited by Africa International University dean John Jusu, was offered to African English readers.

title: New Living Translation


text:
Talk:Remipedia

Untitled
PNAS reference is currently incomplete - not yet on website, but has been trailed by Scientific American news service so should be there in a day or two. seglea 04:08, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Fix link. Tmesipt. 3.6.04.

Low-oxygen environments
In the BBC documentary Secrets of the Maya Underworld (part 3/5, time: 7'30 '' ) it is said that remipedes are found only in "waters exceptionally low in oxygen". In the dicumentary which documents the Yuacatan cenotes it is said that the remipedes are the among the cave system's top predators "combing the water for shrimps and isopods". __meco (talk) 08:52, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

Remipedia "sister clade" to hexapods
I here reproduce 2 paragraphs of a science news that is perhaps relevant to Remipedia article. I am not a specialist, so I cannot judge if it is worth including or not:

Study finds surprising new branches on arthropod family tree - Duke University

A big surprise to tumble out of the new tree is that the closest living relatives of insects include a small and obscure group of creatures called remipedes that were only discovered in the late 1970s living in a watery cave in the Bahamas. With linear bodies like centipedes, simple legs and no eyes, it was thought that this small group -- now placed with cephalocarids in the newly-named Xenocarida or "strange shrimp" -- would be found at the base of the crustacean family tree.

Now, after analyzing 62 shared genetic sequences across all the arthropods, the researchers are putting the strange shrimp together with the six-legged insects, Hexapoda, to form a new group they dubbed Miracrustacea, or "surprising crustaceans." As a "sister clade" to hexapods, the Xenocarida likely represent the sort of creature that came onto land to start the spectacular flowering of the insect lineage, said Cliff Cunningham, a professor of biology at Duke who led the study. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Pmronchi (talk • contribs) 12:26, 15 February 2010 (UTC)
 * this is correct, thank you. However in the 7 yrs since then the message seems to have gotten distorted a bit. The two are sisters of each other, while taken together they are a sister of a certain group of crustaceans, not to crustaceans as a whole as the science mag article says. Lollipop (talk) 05:22, 1 February 2018 (UTC)

New information on the venom
http://networkedblogs.com/QiFba

this article shows new information on the venom of thee creatures and should be added to the wiki article

Vmaldia (talk) 01:02, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Just to add to the above, a similar report by the BBC (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-24625424) describes this creature as "centipede-like". Can someone add a paragraph describing the similarities and differences between remipedes and centipedes? Norman21 (talk) 05:47, 23 October 2013 (UTC)

Dr. Jill Yager
Can someone please link and create an article for Dr. Jill Yager? I feel like they deserve a little bit of recognition, plus there's not very much anywhere else on Wikipedia. This would be really helpful, thanks. Dwightol102 (talk) 13:35, 17 February 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Remipedia


text:
Association of American Railroads

The Association of American Railroads (AAR) is an industry trade group representing primarily the major freight railroads of North America (Canada, Mexico and the United States). Amtrak and some regional commuter railroads are also members. Smaller freight railroads are typically represented by the American Short Line and Regional Railroad Association (ASLRRA), although some smaller railroads and railroad holding companies are also members of the AAR. The AAR also has two associate programs, and most associates are suppliers to the railroad industry.

Creation
AAR was created October 12, 1934, by the merger of five industry-related groups:
 * The American Railway Association
 * The Association of Railway Executives
 * The Bureau of Railroad Economics
 * The Railway Accounting Officers Association
 * The Railway Treasury Officers Association

William George Besler was its first President.

Facilities and subsidiaries
The AAR is headquartered in Washington, D.C., not far from the Capitol. Its information technology subsidiary, Railinc, is based in Cary, North Carolina. Railinc IT systems and information services, including the Umler system, the Interline Settlement System and Embargoes system are an integral part of the North American rail infrastructure. Railinc delivers approximately nine million messages each day over its EDI network, including transportation waybills, advance train consists, blocking requests and responses and trip plans. Its applications support railroads, equipment owners and rail industry suppliers along every link of the supply chain. The company maintains the only industry-accepted version of the North American railroad industry's official code tables. Beginning as an information technology department within the Association of American Railroads (AAR), the company was established as a wholly owned, for-profit subsidiary of the AAR in 1999.

Another subsidiary, the Transportation Technology Center, Inc. (TTCI), operates and maintains the Transportation Technology Center, a 52 sqmi facility 21 mi northeast of Pueblo, Colorado, owned by the United States Department of Transportation. The facility is under a care, custody and control contract with the Federal Railroad Administration. TTCI has an array of specialized testing facilities and tracks. The site enables testing of freight and passenger rolling stock, vehicle and track components, and safety devices.

Functions
Where appropriate, the AAR represents its members' interests to the public at large and to Congress and government regulators in particular. The AAR works to improve the efficiency, safety and service of the railroad industry, such as through its responsibility for the industry's interchange rules and equipment specifications, e.g. for locomotive multiple unit control.

One of the AAR's duties is to oversee the assignment of reporting marks – two to four letter codes that uniquely identify the owner of any piece of railroad rolling stock or intermodal freight transport equipment (trailers, semi-trailers, containers, etc.) that can be carried on a railroad.

Reports
In November 2013 the AAR urged the U.S. Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (PHMSA) to press for improved tank car safety by requiring all tank cars used to transport flammable liquids to be retrofitted or phased out, and new cars be built to more stringent standards."

AAR Full Members

 * Alaska Railroad Corporation
 * Railroads owned by Anacostia Rail Holdings Company
 * BNSF Railway Company
 * Canadian National Railway Company
 * Canadian Pacific Kansas City
 * CSX Transportation, Inc.
 * Florida East Coast Railway
 * Railroads owned by Genesee & Wyoming Inc.
 * Indiana Rail Road Company
 * Iowa Interstate Railroad, LLC
 * Metra
 * National Railroad Passenger Corporation (Amtrak)
 * Norfolk Southern Corporation
 * Railroads owned by R.J. Corman Railroad Group, LLC
 * Union Pacific Railroad
 * Vermont Rail System
 * Railroads owned by Watco
 * Wheeling & Lake Erie Railway

AAR Special Members (Canadian and Mexican Railroads)

 * Canadian Pacific Kansas City (Mexican Operations)
 * Ferrocarril del Istmo de Tehuantepec
 * Ferrocarril y Terminal del Valle de México
 * Grupo México Transportes

Former members

 * Canadian Pacific Railway
 * Ferrosur
 * Kansas City Southern de México
 * Kansas City Southern Railway
 * Pan Am Railways

title: Association of American Railroads


text:
Microtubule organizing center

The microtubule-organizing center (MTOC) is a structure found in eukaryotic cells from which microtubules emerge. MTOCs have two main functions: the organization of eukaryotic flagella and cilia and the organization of the mitotic and meiotic spindle apparatus, which separate the chromosomes during cell division. The MTOC is a major site of microtubule nucleation and can be visualized in cells by immunohistochemical detection of γ-tubulin. The morphological characteristics of MTOCs vary between the different phyla and kingdoms. In animals, the two most important types of MTOCs are 1) the basal bodies associated with cilia and flagella and 2) the centrosome associated with spindle formation.

Organization
Microtubule-organizing centers function as the site where microtubule formation begins, as well as a location where free-ends of microtubules attract to. Within the cells, microtubule-organizing centers can take on many different forms. An array of microtubules can arrange themselves in a pinwheel structure to form the basal bodies, which can lead to the formation of microtubule arrays in the cytoplasm or the 9+2 axoneme. Other arrangements range from fungi spindle pole bodies to the eukaryotic chromosomal kinetochores (flat, laminated plaques). MTOCs can be freely dispersed throughout the cytoplasm or centrally localized as foci. The most notable MTOCs are the centrosome at interphase and the mitotic spindle poles.

Centrioles can act as markers for MTOCs in the cell. If they are freely distributed in the cytoplasm, centrioles can gather during differentiation to become MTOCs. They can also be focused around a centrosome as a single MTOC, though centrosomes can work as an MTOC absent of centrioles.

In interphase
Most animal cells have one MTOC during interphase, usually located near the nucleus, and generally associated closely with the Golgi apparatus. The MTOC is made up of a pair of centrioles at its center, and is surrounded by pericentriolar material (PCM) that is important for microtubule nucleation. Microtubules are anchored at the MTOC by their minus ends, while their plus ends continue to grow into the cell periphery. The polarity of the microtubules is important for cellular transport, as the motor proteins kinesin and dynein typically move preferentially in the "plus" and "minus" directions respectively, along a microtubule, allowing vesicles to be directed to or from the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus. Particularly for the Golgi apparatus, structures associated with the apparatus travel towards the minus end of a microtubule and aid in the overall structure and site of the Golgi in the cell.

Centrosomes
Movements of the microtubules are based on the actions of the centrosome. Each daughter cell after the cessation of mitosis contains one primary MTOC. Before cell division begins, the interphase MTOC replicates to form two distinct MTOCs (now typically referred to as centrosomes). During cell division, these centrosomes move to opposite ends of the cell and nucleate microtubules to help form the mitotic/meiotic spindle. If the MTOC does not replicate, the spindle cannot form, and mitosis ceases prematurely.

γ-tubulin is a protein located at the centrosome that nucleates the microtubules by interacting with the tubulin monomer subunit in the microtubule at the minus end. Organization of the microtubules at the MTOC, or centrosome in this case, is determined by the polarity of the microtubules defined by y-tubulin.

Basal body
In epithelial cells, MTOCs also anchor and organize the microtubules that make up cilia. As with the centrosome, these MTOCs stabilize and give direction to the microtubules, in this case to allow unidirectional movement of the cilium itself, rather than vesicles moving along it.

Spindle pole body
In yeasts and some algae, the MTOC is embedded into the nuclear envelope as a spindle pole body. Centrioles do not exist in the MTOCs of yeast and fungi. In these organisms, the nuclear envelope does not break down during mitosis and the spindle pole body serves to connect cytoplasmic with nuclear microtubules. The disc-shaped spindle pole body is organized into three layers: the central plaque, inner plaque, and outer plaque. The central plaque is embedded in the membrane, while the inner plaque is an amorphous intranuclear layer, and the outer plaque is the layer located in the cytoplasm.

In plants
Plant cells lack centrioles or spindle pole bodies except in their flagellate male gametes, and they are entirely absent in the conifers and flowering plants. Instead, the nuclear envelope itself appears to function as the main MTOC for microtubule nucleation and spindle organization during plant cell mitosis.

Signal transduction
The MTOC reorients itself during signal transduction, primarily during wound repair or immune responses. The MTOC is relocalized to a position between the edge of the cell and the nucleus in cells like macrophages, fibroblasts, and endothelial cells. Organelles like the Golgi apparatus aid in the reorientation of the MTOC which can occur rapidly. Transduction signals cause microtubules to grow or contract, as well as cause the centrosome to become motile. The MTOC is located in a perinuclear position and contains the negative ends of microtubules while the positive ends grow rapidly towards the edge of the cell. The Golgi apparatus reorients along with the MTOC, and together cause the cell to seemingly send a polarized signal.

In immune responses, upon interaction with a target cell in response to antigen-specific loaded antigen-presenting cells, immune cells, such as the T cells, natural killer cells, and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, localize their MTOCs near the contact zone between the immune cell and the target cell. For T cells, the T cell receptor signaling response causes the reorientation of the MTOC by microtubules shortening to bring the MTOC to the site of interaction of the T cell receptor.

title: Microtubule organizing center


text:
Talk:Rider (legislation)

Creation
I was surprised to see the red link under this term on the OCILLA page. However, I did create an basic entry for it. The cited Webster's 1913 dictionary is from the Debian package, which is freely distributable.

My temptation would also be to create a link to the appropriate Wiktionary entry as well. However, I lack the time for the moment.

-

Usage in US and elsewhere
The page, with references to the USA President and Constitution, makes it appear as if riders are a phenomenon primarily associated with the USA. Is this the case, or do other countries' legislatures also have this phenomenon?

Relevance
This is just an opinion, but I find it distressing that "riders" do not need to have relevance to the bill itself, that they can be tacked on in what amounts to opportunism.

GBC 22:12, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Isn't that kind of the whole point of the term - the provision is "riding" a Bill to which it doesn't "naturally" belong? Thankfully, this is not a common practice here in the UK (yet?) so I have only sources like this article to go on... - IMSoP 22:41, 16 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I find it more distressing that instead of eliminating riders, we're considering making line vetos constitutional. Talk about treating the symptom, and not the problem.. BirdbrainedPhoenix 12:57, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

"Less Important"?
In legislative practice, a rider is an additional provision annexed to a bill under the consideration of a legislature, having little connection with the subject matter of the bill.[citation needed] Riders are usually created as a tactic to pass a controversial provision which would not pass as its own bill. Occasionally, a controversial provision is attached to a less important bill not to be passed itself but to prevent the bill from being passed (in which case it is called a poison pill).

It seems biased to say that poison pills are attached to "less important bills" when the truth is that they're attached to bills who certain interests in the legislature don't want to pass. That has nothing to do with the actual importance of the bill, which this article shouldn't be making judgment on. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ramorum (talk • contribs) 18:08, 12 February 2008 (UTC)
 * I believe the implication was that a poison pill wouldn't be effective at preventing an important bill from being passed anyway - but I suppose that depends on how powerful the poison is. Removing the "less important" anyway. Dcoetzee 19:35, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Situation in Europe
I've removed a paragraph claiming to state the situation in continental Europe. Let me explain why, should anyone be tempted to reverse it.

 * In continental Europe,

"Continental Europe" consists of some 40 odd nations, with rather varied backgrounds. To give just a few examples to underline my statement, consider the history of the revolutionary French Republic, the Scandinavian constitutional monarchies, the "everything, and I really mean everything, is decided by referendum"-confederation of Switzerland, the federal state of Germany, the lilleputian co-principality of Andorra, the province of Kosovo proclaimed republic only on February 17th 2008 and the former soviet states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. My absolute favourite is Belgium, a country with 1 federal, 3 regional and 3 community governments, all with their own set of rules and in a faboulos overlap. To what parts of that multitude of political systems does this passage refer, I wonder?

 * ...rider activity is known as creating "salad laws" and the practice is generally unconstitutional.

The European Union (which only counts 27 of 48 European countries as its members) have 23 official languages, from four major language families: Romance, Slavonic, Germanic and Finno-Ugric. I'm pretty sure that terms like 'salad law' does not translate well into all of them, much less so if we add the languages spoken in the additional 20 nations (in which several other language groups are represented).

 * Upon appeal constitutional courts will closely evaluate the full body of the law as well as the title.

I am told that Germany has an excellent constitutional court, but my current country of residence, France, only has a constitutional council and my native Sweden has no such thing as a constitutional court.

 * Should the courts determine that certain "ingredients of the salad" have no connection or significance to the bulk of the law, those provisions will be annulled (in serious cases with retroactive effect).

I might be reading this the wrong way, but annulling a promulgated law and adding retroactive effect to that annulment seems to be the same as retroactive legislation, a no-no in democratic and free states. It would also be legislation by court rather than the expected repeal of a legislators decision, a no-no in the European version of separation of powers. I would very much like to see a reference that prooves this, before stating that all of Europe except Britain and Hungary disregard due process and the rule of law.

OJH (talk) 22:42, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

As a Hungarian citizen and native speaker of Hungarian I can assert that the phrase "salad law" is indeed in use in journalism and discussion of politics. However, looking at the Wikipedia articles, the meaning would be closer to "Omnibus bill", understood as a law where a mixture (hence the name) of unrelated or almost unrelated topics are addressed. 2A01:36D:1000:E1A:B990:8395:2A4F:3C97 (talk) 21:00, 26 October 2020 (UTC)

Who adds riders?
How is it decided (in the US House of representatives) if a rider will be attached to a bill, and how the rider is formulated? --Austrian (talk) 16:20, 10 April 2010 (UTC)

 * According to the article, this does not happen in the House, but rather in the Senate. Still, the question is the same there.   Apparently  a majority is not needed (otherwise the majority could just vote on the rider as a separate bill).  But somebody who knows what he/she is talking about should really add a few lines to the article.  -- 79.177.51.43 (talk) 20:50, 22 March 2015 (UTC)

"Rider(politics)" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Rider(politics) and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Mdewman6 (talk) 20:40, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

"Legal clause" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Legal clause and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Mdewman6 (talk) 20:46, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

"Salad law" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Salad law and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Mdewman6 (talk) 23:27, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

"Nongermane Amendments" listed at Redirects for discussion
An editor has identified a potential problem with the redirect Nongermane Amendments and has thus listed it for discussion. This discussion will occur at until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Mdewman6 (talk) 23:39, 2 February 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rider (legislation)


text:
Nocodazole

Nocodazole is an antineoplastic agent which exerts its effect in cells by interfering with the polymerization of microtubules. Microtubules are one type of fibre which constitutes the cytoskeleton, and the dynamic microtubule network has several important roles in the cell, including vesicular transport, forming the mitotic spindle and in cytokinesis. Several drugs including vincristine and colcemid are similar to nocodazole in that they interfere with microtubule polymerization.

Nocodazole has been shown to decrease the oncogenic potential of cancer cells via another microtubules-independent mechanisms. Nocodazole stimulates the expression of LATS2 which potently inhibits the Wnt signaling pathway by abrogating the interaction between the Wnt-dependent transcriptional co-factors beta-catenin and BCL9.

It is related to mebendazole by replacement of the left most benzene ring by thiophene.

Use in cell biology research
As nocodazole affects the cytoskeleton, it is often used in cell biology experiments as a control: for example, some dominant negative Rho small GTPases cause a similar effect as nocodazole, and constitutively activated mutants often reverse or negate the effect.

Nocodazole is frequently used in cell biology laboratories to synchronize the cell division cycle. Cells treated with nocodazole arrest with a G2- or M-phase DNA content when analyzed by flow cytometry. Microscopy of nocodazole-treated cells shows that they do enter mitosis but cannot form metaphase spindles because microtubules (of which the spindles are made) cannot polymerise. The absence of microtubule attachment to kinetochores activates the spindle assembly checkpoint, causing the cell to arrest in prometaphase. For cell synchronization experiments, nocodazole is usually used at a concentration of 40–100 ng/mL of culture medium for a duration of 12–18 hours. Prolonged arrest of cells in mitosis due to nocodazole treatment typically results in cell death by apoptosis.

Another standard cell biological application of nocodazole is to induce the formation of Golgi ministacks in eukaryotic cells. The perinuclear structural organization of the Golgi apparatus in eukaryotes is dependent on microtubule trafficking, but disrupting the trafficking of Golgi elements from the endoplasmic reticulum treatment with nocodazole (33 μM for 3 hours) induces numerous Golgi elements to form adjacent to ER exit sites. These functional Golgi ministacks remain distributed about the cell, unable to track forward to form a perinuclear Golgi since nocodazole has depolymerized the microtubules.

Also used with Mad2p protein as an anti-microtubule drug.

title: Nocodazole


text:
Template talk:Cellular structures

Ribosomes
Has anybody else noticed that Ribosome is listed under the section reading "sub-organelle, found within the nucleus"? Am I incorrect that ribosomes are not found within the nucleus, but a localized on the rough endoplasmic reticulum and free in the cytoplasm? – ClockworkSoul 11:14, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
 * "Sub-organelle, found within the nucleus" isn't a section, it's referring to the organelle directly before it (the nucleolus). 218.186.9.6 10:07, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

Cilium/Flagellum
, the Organelles template includes "Cilium/Flagellum". Since cilia and flagella are structurally identical, and their two distinct names hearken back to when their microstructure and function were unknown, the biology community seems to have now given the common name Undulipodium to the set of two structurally identical organelles.

My question, should we consider changing the name in the organelle template from "Cilium/Flagellum" to Undulipodium? Or would it be better to wait for the term to be more widely used, and more widely understood by the lay public? N2e (talk) 02:45, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I like the recent changes to the template made by Arcadian. Good work!

 * I have an additional question. While the flagella and motile cilia are structurally identical (9+2 axoneme) and should be represented, as they are, in a single term in the template like Undulipodium, with sub-selections possible to "Cilium/Flagellum", I don't think that will quite do for the primary cilium (sometimes, but rarely, called the immotile cilium).  The Primary cilium is a 9+0 axoneme.  Ought we to have some way in the template to reflect the quite different primary cilium?  N2e (talk) 14:30, 25 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Support. --Arcadian (talk) 15:28, 25 November 2010 (UTC)

Undulipodium
Eukaryotic cilia/flagella are intracellular organelles not extracellular. --kupirijo (talk) 10:53, 6 November 2020 (UTC)

Macromolecular complexes
If one starts to mention the macromolecular complexes found within the cells (e.g. ribosomes, spliceosomes, proteasomes, vaults...) then where would one stop? Anything larger than 10 nm? Anything about which article exists (even protein dimer is a complex, sometimes macro-molecular complex)? Only the articles about the complexes which have Good or Featured article status? Kazkaskazkasako (talk) 20:12, 14 October 2013 (UTC)

Spitzenkörper
There's been the discussion to not add more obscure organelles as that would make the list of organelles too long, but could we include Spitzenkörper or Polysomes? These two are somewhat obscure compared to more famous organelles like the Golgi, but as Spitzenkörper is limited to hyphae, so are parenthesomes. Tridwoxi (talk) 14:33, 8 December 2019 (UTC)

Edit on 18 April 2024 added Nitroplast
Are nitroplasts notable enough to include in the template? There are other cases of vertically-inherited endosymbionts with reduced genomes that are not included. Arctostaphylospallida (talk) 05:44, 21 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Cellular structures