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Handelsbanken

Svenska Handelsbanken AB is a Swedish bank providing banking services including traditional corporate transactions, investment banking and trading as well as consumer banking including insurance. Handelsbanken is one of the major banks in Sweden with a nationwide branch network.

Since the mid 1990s Handelsbanken has been expanding its universal banking operations into the other Nordic countries, and also in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands. The largest of these is in Britain with more than 150 branch offices. In October 2021 Handelsbanken announced that it would focus on its main markets Britain, Sweden and Norway and sell its operations in Finland and Denmark.

Founding as Stockholms Handelsbank
Stockholms Handelsbank ("Stockholm Commerce Bank") was created in early 1871 by several large corporations and leading Stockholm residents. Several of the initial owners had been active in Stockholms enskilda bank, the forerunner of SEB, which had opened in 1856 as the first private bank of Stockholm, and left that bank in April 1871 after a conflict. Handelsbanken began operating 1 July 1871 in rented space in the commercial and financial district in the central Old Town. The bank's first year was quite successful and soon, it was one of the city's leading financial institutions, functioning as a bank for businesses and also as an issuer of bonds. In 1873, the shares in Handelsbanken were listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange.

In 1887, the bank entered into a crisis due to considerable losses, but was able to pull through. In 1893, the banking company of Louis Frænckel was fused with Stockholms Handelsbank, with Frænckel as the CEO. Under Frænckel's tenure, which lasted until his death in 1911, the bank was expanded with a notary department in 1896 and by a securities trading department in 1899. It also developed contacts with many leading foreign banks and financial institutions, which led to the buildup of trading activities in foreign currencies. The merge of the Julius Geber & Co banking company into Handelsbanken in 1906 contributed to its prominence in the Swedish foreign exchange market.

From 1914 to 1917, Stockholm's Handelsbank bought several smaller Swedish regional banks, and was in a short time transformed from a purely Stockholm-based bank to a bank with a large number of branch offices (38 in 1914 and 143 in 1917) throughout Sweden, in particular central and northern Sweden. In 1918, new branches were opened in Gothenburg and Malmö to get better national coverage, and in 1919, a bank in southern Sweden was bought, which brought the number of branch offices to over 250. After this expansion, the name was changed to Svenska Handelsbanken ("Swedish Commerce Bank") on 15 November 1919.

1920–1945
Following the post–World War I recession, Sweden experienced deflation, which caused considerable problems for the financial sector. In 1922, Handelsbanken failed to show a profit for the first time in its existence and in 1922–1923 it consolidated its activities, and made some write-downs, reductions in dividends and reserved funds to cover losses. The second half of the 1920s were much better times for the bank. In 1926, Mälarebanken was fused into Handelsbanken, bringing the number of branch offices to 270, of which 28 in Stockholm.

The worldwide depression following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 led to reduced profits, and problems for borrowers resulted in the bank taking over stock in several industrial companies to secure their loans. Handelsbanken had however been cautious in their relation to Ivar Kreuger and his financial empire so it was not much affected by the Kreuger crash following Kreuger's death in 1932. Handelsbanken did however expand its ownership in Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget (SCA) as a result of the crash.

In the winter of 1943/1944, Handelsbanken formed a holding company for the companies owned by the bank after the financial problems of the 1920s and 1930s, as part of a plan to phase out the bank's ownership of these companies, which included L. M. Ericsson. The company was named Industrivärden ("The Industry Host" or "Industry Values"), and after the bank's shareholders had been given the opportunity to acquire shares in the holding company, it was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange in 1945.

1945–1970
Handelsbanken continued to expand by purchasing other banks in the 1940s and 1950s - Vänersborgsbanken, Norrköpings Folkbank, Luleå Folkbank and Gotlandsbanken. The mortgage company SIGAB was acquired in 1955 and renamed to Handelsbanken Hypotek. In the 1955 to 1965 period, 157 new branch offices were opened, many of these in the newly built suburbs of Stockholm, in order to increase the number of customers and to expand deposits.

Towards the end of the 1960s, the Swedish society saw increased socialist sentiments, just like many other European countries. This was particularly strong among students and other youth, and banks and industrialists in general were portrayed in a very negative way. During this time, Handelsbanken was also the subject of specific criticism from media and authorities, including foreign exchange transactions in 1969 that contravened regulations. The resulting crisis led to the resignation of the bank's management, including CEO Rune Höglund in 1970.

1970–1990
After the resignation of the previous management, Jan Wallander was recruited as the bank's new CEO. Wallander had a background as an economic researcher who had later become CEO of Sundsvallsbanken, a regional bank in northern Sweden. Under Wallander's leadership, many changes were introduced which have continued to be characteristic of Handelsbanken since that time. During 1970–1972, Handelsbanken created eight regional banks with a high degree of independence, to which the branch offices belonged. Much of the decision making was decentralised to the local and regional level, and the financial management and control system was overhauled, by focusing more on reporting and less on central budgeting. The new organisation focused on achieving profitability rather than on volume growth, which had been the case in the 1950s and 1960s.

In 1973, a particular form of profit sharing scheme was introduced. When Handelsbanken meets its goals of higher return on equity than the average of the other listed Swedish banks, a profit share is paid to a foundation named Oktogonen, which keeps its fund entirely in Handelsbanken shares. Payment only takes place after retirement, which means that all employees are interested in securing the long-term profitability of the bank. Oktogonen owns around 10 per cent of Handelsbanken's shares.

In 1970, Handelsbanken installed its first six automated teller machines (ATMs), initially as a trial.

In 1985, many aspects of the Swedish financial sector were deregulated which led to a considerable credit expansion in the following years. Handelsbanken's volume of loans doubled in three years in the end of the 1980s. Skånska Banken and its 76 branch offices was acquired in 1990.

1990–present
In 1990, Sweden entered a severe financial crisis, which was compounded by the credit expansion of the late 1980s and a financial bubble related to real estate prices. Many of the Swedish banks were hit hard by this crisis and had to be rescued by the government, which led to some of the banks being temporarily nationalised. Handelsbanken was least affected of the major Swedish banks, and was able to expand its market share in the 1990s. In 1997, Handelsbanken bought Stadshypotek, a major mortgage company, from the government.

In the 1980s Handelsbanken opened several branch offices in other countries mostly to support corporate banking activities. From 1990, several smaller Norwegian, Finnish and Danish banks were acquired to build up Handelsbanken's activities and branch networks in the other Nordic countries. In 1998, Handelsbanken's operations in Denmark, Finland and Norway were organised into regional banks, and started to operate in the same way as the regional bank organisation used by Handelsbanken in Sweden since the 1970s.

In late 1991, the bank introduced telephone banking services and on 10 December 1997 online banking followed.

In 1995, Handelsbanken acquired the vast majority of the credit and financing portfolio of the former Finnish bank SKOP Bank ( fi ; which went bust in the early-1990s Finnish banking crisis and the recession that followed), as well as SKOP's holdings in the Industrialization Fund of Finland Ltd (fi:Teollistamisrahasto).

In 1999, Handelsbanken decided to expand in the United Kingdom by organic growth. At that time the bank had three offices in the UK and opened a fourth in 2000. In 2007, the bank opened its 50th UK branch office, and in 2011 its 100th UK branch office. In 2002, the UK operations were organised as a regional bank, in the same way as the bank's Nordic operations.

On 19 October 2021 Handelsbanken announced that it will sell its operations in Finland and Denmark and exit the two markets. Of Handelsbanken's total turnover, Finland and Denmark accounted for 10% from the beginning of 2021, but the share of expenses rose to 13%. Finnish and Danish operations generated 8% of the revenue. The main markets, Sweden, Norway and the UK, accounted for 91%.

On 15 June 2022 Handelsbanken confirmed it was in discussion with Jyske Bank for the acquisition of Handelsbankens Danish operations.

On 31 May 2023 S-Bank announced to acquire the Finnish private customer, asset management and investment services operations of Handelsbanken.

Subsidiaries and branches
Home markets:
 * Sweden
 * United Kingdom
 * Finland
 * Norway
 * Netherlands

International network:
 * Luxembourg
 * United States - New York City

title: Handelsbanken


text:
1974 in LGBT rights

This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the year 1974.

Events

 * The city of Boulder, Colorado enacts an anti-discrimination ordinance that bars discrimination based on sexual preference. Following public outcry, the city council places a repeal measure up for a public vote, which results in the repeal of the ordinance.

January

 * 11 — L'Association homophile de Montréal holds first meeting.
 * 15 — New York City theatre magazine After Dark bans the use of the word "gay" in advertisements.
 * 19 — The Gay Women's Collective holds two-day lesbian conference at Montreal's women's centre.

February

 * 11 — Richard North and Chris Vogel become first couple known to be married by the Unitarian Universalist Church. The Government of Canada refuses to recognize their marriage.

November

 * 5 — Elaine Noble becomes the first openly gay or lesbian individual to be elected to a state legislature in the U.S. when she is elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives.

December

 * 9 — Allan Spear, a state senator in the U.S. state of Minnesota, comes out as gay.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1974 in LGBT rights


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Talk:History of Nicaragua

pineapples & plantains
"and pineapples were the staple foods." Hi, I am a new user....Just read this about pre-colombian nicaragua and I always thought that pineapples were introduced from Hawaii as a cash crop in the 20th century....
 * That would be much the opposite. Pineapples were introduced to Hawai'i in the mid- to late 19th century.  Pineapple is native to the South American mainland (it's a bromeliad), and was a long-established pre-Columbian food staple as far north as what is now Mexico. ...  However, plantains are native to Indomalaya and Australasia, which means the pre-Columbian natives very likely could not have eaten plantains as sustenance. Nimbvs (talk) 20:31, 4 September 2015 (UTC)

"links to international terrorists"
Which terrorists? Which groups or countries? Does anyone know? Mr. Jones 14:52, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC) Terroists??? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Manbearpig444 (talk • contribs) 22:17, 20 January 2008 (UTC)

We Americans overuse the word "terrorists"! Nicaragua was influenced by Cuba's government. The fact is that Nicaragua followed a communist idealogy during the 1980's until 1990 when they moved towards Socialism!

The Sandinista movement was influenced by the communist movement during the cold war in the mid 20th century. Today, the FSLN has evolved from a communist to more of a socialist movement. The opposition party in Nicaragua is the Constitutionalist Liberal Party. They want to follow responsible democratic capitalism like the Republicans and Democrats do in the United States. The Sandinistas have trouble conforming with that idea because of the history of the United States' occupation and involvment in Nicaragua the past century, as well as Somoza's irresponsible nondemocratic capitalist practices. Both parties in Nicaragua do want a true democracy though, whether it's socialism or capitalism.

Daniel Ortega was influenced by the Cuban Government when he lived in Cuba for seven years. He helped overthrow the Somoza regime in the late 1970's and he has been the leader of the FSLN ever since.

I have visited the rural areas of Nicaragua and have befriended a family who once were called the "wealthy land owners" in the 1970's. This family had worked very hard and spent many years with much dedication to build a successful coffee plantation, only to be pushed out by the Sandinistas in 1981. Their home, land, and all of their possessions were confiscated by the Government and divided up between the other people. Their home was tranformed into a Government building and hospital in the 1980s. Their once profitable coffee business was now run by the other citizens of the community who had no experience with the business practices. They basically ran the business into the ground, and it was not profitable. Nicaragua's GDP dropped dramatically in the 1980's. The FSLN did change their way of thinking in 1990, when the opposing party won office. Daniel Ortega was still a big influence in the politics though! He won back his Presidency in 2006 and has been there ever since. He will never let go of his power.

The family that I mentioned above fled for their lives to Miami in 1981. They then moved to Montreal, Canada where they opened up a profitable small family store for 10+ years. In that time the family had rebuilt some of their wealth. Ironically, they took the money that they had earned in Canada and returned to Nicaragua. The government was nice enough to give them their old house back. 76.121.99.198 (talk) 18:36, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

1984 election
An anon has twice inserted a statement that the opposition refused to participate in the election. If this assertion is properly sourced, I have no problem with including it, and there may be pro and con POV's about why (they knew the election was rigged versus they knew that they'd get stomped fairly). What's clearly POV, though, is to insert it as an implicit counterargument to the certification of the election as fair. The phrasing that I'm again deleting implies the POV that the international observers should have judged the election unfair because of the opposition's attitude. JamesMLane 01:27, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Here's your reference

Scroll down to the 6th paragraph under the heading "E. The Sandanista Revolution"

de-Sandinistization
I have edited some POV wording and inserted additional sources in the section Sandinista Period. It previously read, "The fears of opposition groups were apparently well founded, as it was later discovered that the FSLN had, in fact, been actively suppressing right-wing opposition parties while leaving moderate parties alone, with Ortega claiming that the moderates "presented no danger and served as a convenient facade to the outside world." --Surcer (talk) 20:01, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

De-Sandinistization continues... Mike Del Sol

This article needs some serious editing to eliminate its Sandanista bias. I have made a start. Mike Del Sol

 * Your edits are not consistent with the NPOV policy. For example, you wrote: "While critics of U.S. policy claimed that the rebels were extremely unpopular and that their military command was almost exclusively dominated by ex-National Guardsmen, in reality a wide variety of disaffected elements of Nicaraguan society eventually join different Contra fronts . . . ."  This presentation is manifestly biased, in that one side "claimed" something, but "in reality" the opposite was true.  With regard to the 1984 election, you've removed the objective fact that international observers validated its fairness, but you assert as a fact the unattributed opinion that there was "widespread government-sponsored violence".  If you have a reference for some right-wing leader or CIA operative or whoever making this charge about the election, we can include the opinion, properly attributed to the person holding that opinion, with a citation.  Otherwise, please remember that we do not take sides in such controversies. JamesMLane 00:22, 22 Mar 2005 (UTC)

This article has degenerated into another "he said she said" mess; Kagan (Reaganite) says this, Chomsky (far-left) says that. It needs to be cleaned up. NPOV does not mean "some guy says this, but another guy says that," it means providing objective material. 64.7.89.54 04:58, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

"[...]according to the vast majority of independent observers, the 1984 elections were perhaps the freest and fairest in Nicaraguan history. A report by an Irish parliamentary delegation stated: "The electoral process was carried out with total integrity. The seven parties participating in the elections represented a broad spectrum of political ideologies." The general counsel of New York's Human Rights Commission described the election as "free, fair and hotly contested." A study by the U.S. Latin American Studies Association (LASA) concluded that the FSLN (Sandinista Front) "did little more to take advantage of its incumbency than incumbent parties everywhere (including the U.S.) routinely do."

Thirty-three percent of the Nicaraguan voters cast ballots for one of six opposition parties--three to the right of the Sandinistas, three to the left--which had campaigned with the aid of government funds and free TV and radio time. Two conservative parties captured a combined 23 percent of the vote. They held rallies across the country (a few of which were disrupted by FSLN supporters) and blasted the Sandinistas in terms far harsher than Mondale's 1984 critiques of incumbent Reagan. Most foreign and independent observers noted this pluralism in debunking the Reagan administration charge--prominent in the U.S. press--that it was a "Soviet-style sham" election.

The Washington Post (11/6/84) subsequently published portions of a "secret-sensitive" NSC briefing paper which outlined a "wideranging plan to convince Americans [that the] Nicaraguan elections were a 'sham.'" The crux of the U.S. strategy was to focus media attention away from those conservative parties actively campaigning and toward the non-candidacy of Arturo Cruz. Although he had hardly lived in Nicaragua since 1970 and had dubious popular support (LASA study), Cruz was anointed leader of "the democratic opposition" by the White House and the media. A recipient of CIA funds, Cruz was persuaded by Washington to boycott the elections and soon after joined the contras (Wall Street Journal, 4/23/85).

U.S. officials admitted to the New York Times (10/21/84) that the White House "never contemplated letting Cruz stay in the race" because "legitimate" elections would have undercut the contra war. Although the boycott strategy was exposed, it still worked to perfection on leading editorial pages. "An election without [Cruz's] participation will be judged a charade," the Washington Post (9/17/84) predicted. Sure enough, after the balloting, the New York Times (11/7/84) harumphed, "Only the naive believe the election was democratic or legitimizing proof of the Sandinistas' popularity."

La Prensa, the anti-Sandinista newspaper, also opposed the elections. Although its editor admitted he could have published "almost anything regarding politics" during the campaign (Washington Post, 7/30/84), La Prensa refused to mention any candidates running for office or accept ads from political parties. The Democratic Conservative Party, which placed second in the polls, accused La Prensa of "censorship."

Similarly most of the U.S. media boycotted the actual campaign. Leaders of all three right-of-center parties which competed for votes complained to election observers of having been pressured or bribed by the U.S. embassy to quit the race. Conservative presidential aspirant Virgilio Godoy later told the Christian Science Monitor (11/5/84): "If the U.S. administration said that the Guatemalan and Salvadoran elections were valid ones, how can they condemn elections in Nicaragua, when they have been no worse and probably a lot better? The elections here have been much more peaceful. There were no deaths as in the other two countries, where the opposition were often in fear for their lives."" http://www.fair.org/index.php?page=2479 --83.227.36.54 08:40, 16 June 2007 (UTC)

Greater Republic of Central America
In current article there's no mention of Greater Republic of Central America (1896-1898). How come? --romanm (talk) 16:58, 24 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Sandinista period
in this section, the first part of the following sentence makes no sense:

However, the primary opposition candidate was constituted by the US-backed Arturo Cruz, who succumbed to pressure not to take part in the 1984 elections, under heavy pressure from the United States government, while other opposition parties such as the Conservative Democratic Party and the Independent Liberal party were both free to denounce the Sandinista government and participate in the elections.

Can someone with the facts please fix it. Thanks Hmains 17:58, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

From my interviews from the supporters of the Constitutionalist Liberal Party, opposition to the FSLN, the Sandinistas leaned towards communism first in the 1980's before becoming accepted as a socialist party in the 1990's 76.121.99.198 (talk) 18:10, 12 August 2012 (UTC)

Comparison with Mexican Army
I removed the reference to Nicaragua's post-revolution army with 75,000 soldiers being 'larger than that of Mexico' since there was no reference. The page on the Army_of_Mexico states that the Mexican armed forces are notably small for a country of that size and number around 517,000 so the claim is unlikely unless the armed forces were much smaller even than the current levels at the time.Erik Corry 12:39, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

Date of the Boland Amendment
I corrected the date of the Boland amendment to 1982 from 1987. I would like to add something about the motivation for the amendment if a source can be found. I would also like to correct 'attempted to fund the contras' to 'funded the contras' if a reference can be found.Erik Corry 12:39, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

thanks
This is really useful. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.84.194.209 (talk) 22:08, 31 December 2006 (UTC).

History of Nicaragua
There's something wrong with the introductory statement; it's the 'Canal Zone' which lies in the middle of the Isthmus, not 'Nicaragua'. J. Peterka 04:47, 13 June 2007 (UTC)

It's still not correct. Isthmus of Panama is not geographically connected with Nicaragua. The remainder of the sentence is correct (ref to Central America) and adequate as is. I will revise the sentence if needed. J. Peterka 12:41, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Please do so =). This article really didn't have an intro so i tried to get something similar to History of the United States's intro, which looked very nice. I just ended copying the first sentence from the main Nicaragua article.  LaNicoya    •TALK•  21:12, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

 * Done! Fixed 'Nicaragua' article too.  J. Peterka 23:02, 14 June 2007 (UTC)

//a331a150.98.48.232 (talk) 16:14, 9 April 2013 (UTC)

Orphaned references in History of Nicaragua
I check hi azalea middle kids pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of History of Nicaragua's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "CA": From Sandinista National Liberation Front:  From Ronald Reagan:  From Nicaragua:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 09:59, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

Spanish Conquest: dates?
"In 1569, the first Spaniards entered the region of what would become known as Nicaragua." ..."In 1524, he established permanent settlements..." — Preceding unsigned comment added by Green daemon (talk • contribs) 21:32, 19 February 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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External links modified
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Nomination for deletion of Template:Years in Nicaragua
Template:Years in Nicaragua has been nominated for deletion. You are invited to comment on the discussion at the template's entry on the Templates for discussion page. -- M2545 (talk) 13:33, 17 January 2018 (UTC)

Merger Proposal
I propose that Political history of Nicaragua should be merged into this article, as it has many issues and duplicates much of the content in this better article. Thank you, GreyGreenWhy (talk) 19:35, 17 January 2018 (UTC)

I support that, the political history article is very small, and political history is history anyway, so it should belong in the main article. JMccoy13 (talk) 12:51, 18 April 2018 (UTC)

Support. Anyone willing to do the legwork should honestly go for it. If we're going to fork out topics, I tend to think "Political history" is really going to be one of the last things that makes sense to do; it's inevitably going to be central to the main history entry. Innisfree987 (talk) 03:18, 25 April 2018 (UTC)
 * ✅ Klbrain (talk) 12:29, 11 August 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:History of Nicaragua


text:
Municipalities of Iceland

The municipalities of Iceland (Sveitarfélög ) are local administrative areas in Iceland that provide a number of services to their inhabitants such as kindergartens, elementary schools, waste management, social services, public housing, public transportation, services to senior citizens and disabled people. They also govern zoning and can voluntarily take on additional functions if they have the budget for it. The autonomy of municipalities over their own matters is guaranteed by the Icelandic constitution.

History
The origin of the municipalities can be traced back to the commonwealth period in the 10th century when rural communities were organized into communes (hreppar ) with the main purpose of providing help for the poorest individuals in society. When urbanization began in Iceland during the 18th and 19th centuries, several independent townships (kaupstaðir ) were created. The role of municipalities was further formalized during the 20th century and by the end of the century there was no longer any official distinction between urban and rural municipalities.

The trend in recent years has been to transfer more functions and power from the state to the municipalities. This has called for larger municipalities. The government encourages municipalities to merge but has taken a different approach to the issue than governments in other Nordic countries where forced amalgamation is regularly carried out (such as the municipal reform in Denmark that took effect in 2007). Instead, the process is voluntary. Municipalities negotiate possible mergers among themselves, and any merger must first receive approval from the relevant municipality's constituent voting electorate in a referendum. A similar approach is used by the Faroese government. However, municipalities having a population of below 50 may be forced to merge.

The number of municipalities peaked in the mid-20th century. There were 229 of them in 1950. By 1995, their number had been reduced to 170. In the year 2000, only 124 municipalities remained in Iceland, and since 2022 there are 64.

Government
The municipalities are governed by municipal councils which are directly elected every four years. Municipal elections were last held on 14 May 2022. The sizes of these councils vary from five members in the smallest municipalities to fifteen in the largest one. Most municipalities except for the very small ones hire an executive manager who may or may not be a member of the municipal council. These managers are usually referred to as mayors (bæjarstjóri or borgarstjóri ) in the mostly urban municipalities but "municipal manager" (sveitarstjóri ) in the rural or mixed municipalities. It is common for these executive managers to be professionally hired and politically independent.

History
Over the years, the number of municipalities in Iceland changed from 229 in 1953 to 62 in 2024:
 * 1 August 2024 (reduced to 62)
 * Skagabyggð merges with Húnabyggð.
 * 19 May 2024 (reduced to 63)
 * Tálknafjarðarhreppur merges with Vesturbyggð.
 * 14 May 2022 (reduced to 64)
 * Skútustaðahreppur merged with Þingeyjarsveit.
 * Stykkishólmsbær and Helgafellssveit merged to form Stykkishólmur.
 * Svalbarðshreppur merged with Langanesbyggð.
 * Akrahreppur merged with Skagafjörður.
 * Blönduósbær and Húnavatnshreppur merged to form Húnabyggð
 * 17 February 2020 (reduced to 69)
 * Borgarfjarðarhreppur, Djúpavogshreppur, Fljótsdalshérað, and Seyðisfjarðarkaupstaður merged to form Múlaþing.
 * 24 January 2019
 * Akureyrarkaupstaður renamed into Akureyrarbær.
 * 7 January 2019
 * Sandgerði/Garður renamed into Suðurnesjabær.
 * 26 May 2018 (reduced to 72)
 * Breiðdalshreppur merged with Fjarðabyggð.
 * Sandgerði and Garður merged to form Sandgerði/Garður.
 * 13 August 2013
 * Seltjarnarneskaupstaður renamed into Seltjarnarnesbær.
 * 1 January 2013 (reduced to 74)
 * Álftanes merged with Garðabær.
 * 1 January 2012 (reduced to 75)
 * Bæjarhreppur merged with Húnaþing vestra
 * 11 June 2010 (reduced to 76)
 * Arnarneshreppur merged with Hörgárbyggð.
 * 1 June 2009 (reduced to 77)
 * Grímseyjarhreppur merged with Akureyrarkaupstaður.
 * 15 July 2008 (reduced to 78)
 * Aðaldælahreppur merged with Þingeyjarsveit.
 * 12 September 2007
 * Höfðahreppur renamed into Skagaströnd.
 * 8 April 2006 (reduced to 79)
 * Þórshafnarhreppur and Skeggjastaðahreppur merged to form Langanesbyggð.
 * 11 March 2006 (reduced to 80)
 * Áshreppur merged with Húnavatnshreppur.
 * Hólmavíkurhreppur and Broddaneshreppur merged to form Strandabyggð.
 * 20 February 2006 (reduced to 82)
 * Saurbæjarhreppur merged with Dalabyggð.
 * 11 February 2006 (reduced to 83)
 * Gaulverjabæjarhreppur, Hraungerðishreppur, and Villingaholtshreppur merged to form Flóahreppur.
 * 28 January 2006 (reduced to 85)
 * Ólafsfjarðarbær and Siglufjarðarkaupstaður merged to form Fjallabyggð.
 * 21 January 2006 (reduced to 86)
 * Húsavíkurbær, Kelduneshreppur, Öxarfjarðarhreppur, and Raufarhafnarhreppur merged to form Norðurþing.
 * 10 January 2006
 * Vatnsleysustrandarhreppur renamed into Vogar.
 * 8 October 2005 (reduced to 89)
 * Mjóafjarðarhreppur, Fáskrúðsfjarðarhreppur, and Austurbyggð merged with Fjarðabyggð.
 * 23 April 2005 (reduced to 92)
 * Borgarfjarðarsveit, Hvítársíðuhreppur, and Kolbeinsstaðahreppur merged with Borgarbyggð.
 * 20 November 2004 (reduced to 95)
 * Bólstaðarhlíðarhreppur, Sveinsstaðarhreppur, Svínavatnshreppur, and Torfalækjarhreppur merged to form Húnavatnshreppur.
 * Hvalfjarðarstrandarhreppur, Innri-Akraneshreppur, Leirár- og Melahreppur, and Skilmannahreppur merged to form Hvalfjarðarsveit.
 * 1 November 2004 (reduced to 101)
 * Austur-Hérað, Fellahreppur, and Norður-Hérað merged to form Fljótsdalshérað.
 * 1 August 2004 (reduced to 103)
 * Hríseyjarhreppur merged with Akureyrarkaupstaður.
 * 17 June 2004
 * Bessastaðahreppur renamed into Álftanes.
 * 28 January 2004
 * Gerðahreppur renamed into Garður.
 * 10 May 2003 (reduced to 104)
 * Stöðvarhreppur and Búðahreppur merged to form Austurbyggð.
 * 9 June 2002 (reduced to 105)
 * Kirkjubólshreppur merged with Hólmavíkurhreppur.
 * 16 March 2002 (reduced to 106)
 * Holta- og Landsveit, Djúpárhreppur, and Rangárvallahreppur merged to form Rangárþing ytra.
 * 12 March 2002 (reduced to 108)
 * Húsavíkurkaupstaður and Reykjahreppur merged to form Húsavíkurbær.
 * 11 February 2002 (reduced to 109)
 * Þingvallahreppur, Laugardalshreppur, and Biskupstungnahreppur merged to form Bláskógabyggð.
 * 21 January 2002 (reduced to 111)
 * Gnúpverjahreppur and Skeiðahreppur merged to form Skeiða- og Gnúpverjahreppur
 * 31 December 2001 (reduced to 112)
 * Vindhælishreppur merged with Skagabyggð.
 * 20 November 2001 (reduced to 113)
 * Austur-Eyjafjallahreppur, Vestur-Eyjafjallahreppur, Austur-Landeyjahreppur, Vestur-Landeyjahreppur, Fljótshlíðarhreppur, and Hvolhreppur merged to form Rangárþing eystra.
 * 15 November 2001 (reduced to 118)
 * Hálshreppur, Ljósavatnshreppur, Bárðdælahreppur, and Reykdælahreppur merged to form Þingeyjarsveit.
 * 26 April 2001 (reduced to 121)
 * Engihlíðarhreppur merged with Blönduósbær.
 * 1 January 2001 (reduced to 122)
 * Skriðuhreppur, Öxnadalshreppur, and Glæsibæjarhreppur merged to form Hörgárbyggð.
 * 7 June 1998 (reduced to 124)
 * Kjalarneshreppur merged with Reykjavíkurborg.
 * Skriðdalshreppur, Vallahreppur, Egilsstaðabær, Eiðahreppur, and Hjaltastaðarhreppur merged to form Austur-Hérað.
 * Dalvíkurkaupstaður, Svarfaðardalshreppur, and Árskógshreppur merged to form Dalvíkurbyggð.
 * Neskaupstaður, Eskifjarðarkaupstaður and Reyðarfjarðarhreppur merged to form Fjarðabyggð.
 * Staðarhreppur, Fremri Torfustaðahreppur, Ytri Torfustaðahreppur, Hvammstangahreppur, Kirkjuhvammshreppur, Þverárhreppur, and Þorkelshólshreppur merged to form Húnaþing vestra.
 * Selfosskaupstaður, Stokkseyrarhreppur, Eyrarbakkahreppur, and Sandvíkurhreppur merged to form Árborg.
 * Lundarreykjardalshreppur, Reykholtsdalshreppur, Hálsahreppur, and Andakílshreppur merged to form Borgarfjarðarsveit.
 * 6 June 1998 (reduced to 145)
 * Sauðárkrókskaupstaður, Skefilsstaðahreppur, Skarðshreppur, Staðarhreppur, Seyluhreppur, Lýtingsstaðahreppur, Rípurhreppur, Viðvíkurhreppur, Hólahreppur, Hofshreppur, and Fljótahreppur merged to form Skagafjörður.
 * Bæjarhreppur, Borgarhafnarhreppur, Hofshreppur, and Hornafjarðarbær merged to form Hornafjörður.
 * 1 June 1998 (reduced to 155)
 * Grímsneshreppur and Grafningshreppur merged to form Grímsnes- og Grafningshreppur.
 * 14 February 1998 (reduced to 158)
 * Þverárhlíðarhreppur, Borgarhreppur, and Álftaneshreppur merged with Borgarbyggð.
 * 1 January 1998 (reduced to 161)
 * Skógarstrandarhreppur merged with Dalabyggð.
 * 27 December 1997 (reduced to 163)
 * Hlíðarhreppur, Jökuldalshreppur, and Tunguhreppur merged to form Norður-Hérað.
 * 1 June 1996 (reduced to 165)
 * Ísafjarðarkaupstaður, Þingeyrarhreppur, Mýrahreppur, Mosvallahreppur, Flateyrarhreppur, and Suðureyrarhreppur merged to form Ísafjarðarbær.
 * 19 April 1995 (increased to 170)
 * Helgafellssveit split from Stykkishólmur.
 * 1 January 1995 (reduced to 169)
 * Ögurhreppur and Reykjarfjarðarhreppur merged with Súðavíkurhreppur.
 * 12 June 1994 (reduced to 171)
 * Höfn, Nesjahreppur, and Mýrahreppur merged to form Hornafjarðarbær.
 * 11 June 1994 (reduced to 173)
 * Suðurdalahreppur, Haukadalshreppur, Laxárdalshreppur, Hvammshreppur, Fellsstrandarhreppur, and Skarðshreppur merged to form Dalabyggð.
 * Staðarsveit, Breiðuvíkurhreppur, Neshreppur utan Ennis, and Ólafsvíkurbær merged to form Snæfellsbær.
 * Hafnahreppur, Keflavíkurbær, and Njarðvíkurbær merged to form Reykjanesbær.
 * Norðfjarðarhreppur merged with Neskaupstaður.
 * Barðastrandarhreppur, Rauðasandshreppur, Patrekshreppur, and Bíldudalshreppur merged to form Vesturbyggð.
 * Sauðaneshreppur merged with Þórshafnarhreppur.
 * Norðurárdalshreppur, Stafholtstungnahreppur, Borgarnesbær, and Hraunhreppur merged to form Borgarbyggð.
 * Eyjarhreppur and Miklaholtshreppur merged to form Eyja- og Miklaholtshreppur.
 * Nauteyrarhreppur í Norður-Ísafjarðarsýslu and Hólmavíkurhreppur í Strandasýslu merged to form Hólmavíkurhreppur.
 * Snæfjallahreppur í Norður-Ísafjarðarsýslu merged with Ísafjarðarkaupstaður.
 * Helgafellssveit merged with Stykkishólmur.
 * 1 January 1994 (reduced to 195)
 * Fjallahreppur merged with Öxarfjarðarhreppur.
 * 1 July 1993 (reduced to 196)
 * Landmannahreppur and Holtahreppur merged to form Holta- og Landsveit.
 * 1 October 1992 (reduced to 197)
 * Beruneshreppur, Búlandshreppur, and Geithellnahreppur merged to form Djúpavogshreppur.
 * 1 January 1992 (reduced to 199)
 * Hörðudalshreppur merged with Miðdalahreppur to form Suðurdalahreppur.
 * Fellshreppur í Strandasýslu merged with Óspakseyrarhreppur to form Broddaneshreppur.
 * 17 February 1991 (reduced to 201)
 * Presthólahreppur merged with Öxarfjarðarhreppur.
 * 1 January 1991 (reduced to 202)
 * Hrafnagilshreppur, Saurbæjarhreppur, and Öngulsstaðahreppur merged to form Eyjafjarðarsveit.
 * 10 June 1990 (reduced to 204)
 * Hofsóshreppur and Fellshreppur merged with Hofshreppur.
 * Hörglandshreppur, Kirkjubæjarhreppur, Skaftártunguhreppur, Leiðvallahreppur, and Álftavershreppur merged to form Skaftárhreppur.
 * 1 April 1990 (reduced to 210)
 * Fróðárhreppur merged with Ólafsvíkurkaupstaður.
 * Auðkúluhreppur merged with Þingeyrarhreppur.
 * Seyðisfjarðarhreppur merged with Seyðisfjarðarkaupstaður.
 * 1 January 1989 (reduced to 213)
 * Selvogshreppur merged with Ölfushreppur.
 * 1 April 1988 (reduced to 214)
 * Haganeshreppur merged with Holtshreppur to form Fljótahreppur.
 * 1 January 1988 (reduced to 215)
 * Helgustaðahreppur merged with Eskifjarðarkaupstaður.
 * 4 July 1987 (reduced to 216)
 * Geiradalshreppur, Gufudalshreppur, Múlahreppur, and Flateyjarhreppur merged with Reykhólahreppur.
 * 1 July 1987 (reduced to 220)
 * Ketildalahreppur merged with Suðurfjarðarhreppur to form Bíldudalshreppur.
 * 1 January 1987 (reduced to 221)
 * Hrófbergshreppur merged with Hólmavíkurhreppur.
 * 30 July 1986 (reduced to 222)
 * Klofningshreppur merged with Fellsstrandarhreppur.
 * 1984 (reduced to 223)
 * Dyrhólahreppur merged with Hvammshreppur to form Mýrdalshreppur.
 * 1972 (reduced to 224)
 * Flateyjarhreppur merged with Hálshreppur.
 * Loðmundarfjarðarhreppur merged with Borgarfjarðarhreppur.
 * 1971 (reduced to 226)
 * Eyrarhreppur merged with Ísafjarðarkaupstaður.
 * 1 January 1964 (reduced to 227)
 * Grunnavíkurhreppur merged with Snæfjallahreppur.
 * 1953 (229 municipalities reduced to 228)
 * Sléttuhreppur is deserted and included in Ísafjarðarkaupstaður, but not officially merged until 1995.

title: Municipalities of Iceland


text:
1992 in LGBT rights

This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the year 1992.

Events

 * The World Health Organization declassifies homosexuality as a mental illness in the latest edition of its list of diseases and health problems, the ICD-10.
 * U.S. state of California bans sexual orientation discrimination in the private sector.
 * U.S. states of Vermont and New Jersey ban sexual orientation discrimination in the private sector.
 * U.S. state of Oregon's Measure 8, approved in a referendum in 1988, is ruled unconstitutional by the Oregon Court of Appeals in the case known as Merrick v. Board of Higher Education, meaning that the 1987 executive order banning public-sector discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation stands.
 * The City Council of Phoenix, Arizona, prohibits discrimination based on sexual orientation in the private sector.
 * San Mateo County, California, bans employment discrimination based on sexual orientation in the private sector.

June

 * The Lesbian Avengers, a direct action group, is founded in New York City by activists from the AIDS Coalition to Unleash Power (ACT UP).

September

 * 24 — The Kentucky Supreme Court issues its holding in Kentucky v. Wasson, invalidating the state's sodomy law as unconstitutional.

October

 * 27 — The Federal Court of Canada orders the Canadian military to stop discriminating against gays.

November

 * 3
 * Denver, Aspen, and Boulder, Colorado pass ordinances to protect the rights of LGB people.
 * By a margin of 54 to 36%, voters in the U.S. state of Colorado approved Amendment 2, which prohibited bans on sexual orientation discrimination by cities in Colorado, such as the ones simultaneously enacted in Denver, Aspen, and Boulder. The amendment would never go into effect as it is soon challenged and struck down in Romer v. Evans, in which the Supreme Court of the United States ruled 6 to 3 that the Amendment did not satisfy the Equal Protection Clause of the United States Constitution.
 * Oregon Ballot Measure 9 is defeated in a referendum. The measure denounced homosexuality as "abnormal," "unnatural," and "perverse," would have prohibited sexual orientation discrimination bans in Oregon.
 * Voters in Portland, Maine rejected a ballot measure to repeal a local gay rights ordinance by a vote of 57-43%.
 * 5 — A clause prohibiting anti-gay verbal abuse in schools is repealed by the Fairfax County, Virginia board of education out of concerns that it promotes homosexuality.
 * The Cincinnati City Council passed a city ordinance forbidding housing, employment, and public accommodations discrimination based on race, age, religion, "Appalachian origin," or sexual orientation.

title: 1992 in LGBT rights


text:
Triadica sebifera

Triadica sebifera is a tree native to eastern Asia (Chinese 乌桕, wū jiù). It is commonly called Chinese tallow, Chinese tallowtree, Florida aspen, chicken tree, gray popcorn tree, or candleberry tree.

The seeds (as well as from those of Triadica cochinchinensis) are the sources of stillingia oil, a drying oil used in paints and varnishes. The fatty coat of the seeds, used for candle and soap making, is known as stillingia tallow; hence its common name. It is relevant to biodiesel production because it is the third most productive vegetable oil producing crop in the world, after algae and oil palm. The leaves are used as herbal medicine to treat boils. The plant sap and leaves are reputed to be toxic, and decaying leaves from the plant are toxic to other species of plants. The species is classified as a noxious invader in the southern U.S.

This species and T. cochinchinensis were formerly classified in the genus Stillingia, as Stillingia sebifera and Stillingia discolor (hence the name still used for the oil and tallow). The specific epithet sebifera is derived from Latin sebum (meaning "tallow" ) and fero (meaning "to bear" ), thus "tallow-bearing". At some time before 1950, this tree was reclassified into the genus Sapium as Sapium sebiferum, and many papers about the oil still refer to the tree by this name. In 2002 or so it was reclassified again into the genus Triadica with its present name.

Description
The simple, deciduous leaves of this tree are alternate, broad rhombic to ovate in shape and have smooth edges, heart shaped and sometimes with an extended tail often resembling the bo tree, Ficus religiosa. The leaves are bright green in color and slightly paler underneath. They become bright yellows, oranges, purples and reds in the autumn. The tree is monoecious, producing male and female flowers on the same plant.

The waxy green leaves set off the clusters of greenish-yellow and white flowers at bloom time. The flowers occur in terminal spike-like inflorescences up to 20 cm long. Light green in color, these flowers are very conspicuous in the spring. Each pistillate (female) flower is solitary and has a three-lobed ovary, three styles, and no petals. They are located on short branches at the base of the spike. The staminate (male) flowers occur in clusters at the upper nodes of the inflorescence.

Fruits are three-lobed, three-valved capsules. As the capsules mature, their color changes from green to a brown-black. The capsule walls fall away and release three globose seeds, about 12 mm in diameter and weighing about 0.15 g, with a white, tallow-containing covering. Seeds usually hang on the plants for several weeks. In North America, the flowers typically mature from April to June and the fruit ripens from September to October.

Range and habitat
Triadica sebifera is native to China, probably originally in the Zhejiang area, and it was described in the Tang pharmacopoeia Xinxiu bencao. Cultivation of the tree may have begun in the 7th century during the Tang dynasty in the Yangtze Delta region, and from there it spread westward and southward. The trees reached the Philippines, Taiwan, Northern Vietnam and Hainan by the 17th century. It was also introduced to Japan during the Edo period. By the 18th century, it had spread to India, the Caribbean islands, and South Carolina and Georgia in the United States through the East India Company. It is also found in Sudan, and southern France.

The tree was said to have been introduced by Benjamin Franklin, who mentioned having obtained some seeds in a letter dated October 1772, but it may have actually been introduced to South Carolina, Georgia and Florida in early 1773 by John Bradby Blake who had access to the seeds earlier in late 1770 or early 1771. The tree has become naturalized from North Carolina southward along the Atlantic and the entire Gulf coast, where it grows profusely along ditchbanks and dikes. It grows especially well in open fields and abandoned farmland coastal prairie regions featuring disturbed ground—such as abandoned farmland, spoil banks, roadsides, and storm-damaged forests—and along the edges of the Western Gulf coastal grasslands biome, sometimes forming monocultures. The Chinese Tallow Tree is listed as an invasive species to the state of South Carolina.

Uses

The seed's white waxy aril is used in soap making. The seed's inner oil ("stillingia oil") is toxic but has industrial applications.

The nectar is non-toxic, and it has become a major honey plant for beekeepers. The honey is of high quality, and is produced copiously during the month of June, on the Gulf Coast. In the Gulf coast states, beekeepers migrate with their honey bees to good tallow locations near the gulf.

The tree is ornamental, fast growing, and a provides shade. It is especially noteworthy if grown in areas that have strong seasonal temperature ranges with the leaves becoming a multitude of colours rivaling maples in the autumn. It is not choosy about soil types or drainage, but will not grow in deep shade. It has naturalized all over in Japan, and is reasonably hardy. It should not be planted outside of its native range due to its invasive tendencies.

Invasive species
The tallow tree is a non-native species to many places around the world. Its introduced status in North America along with the harm it causes to ecosystems makes the tree considered an invasive species there. Tallow trees present a danger of expansion that can hurt local ecosystems by out-competing native vegetation and creating a monoculture. The monoculture lowers species diversity and overall resilience of the area. The tree's tenacious nature, high growth rates, and high reproductive ability contribute to its invasive success. According to the U.S. Department of Agriculture, tallow trees begin producing viable seed in as soon as three years. They can spread by root sprouts and cuttings and are quick to invade after a disturbance occurs in an area, due to the clearing out of land. A single tallow tree can produce nearly 100,000 viable seeds annually that can remain in the soil for several years before sprouting. A mature stand can produce 4,500 kilograms of seeds per hectare per year. These seeds are easily carried to different places by birds and water. Tallow trees can remain productive for 100 years. It is also extremely hard to kill—its poisonous features in its leaves and berries leave it with few to no predators, and its short generation time means even freshly cut trees can quickly regrow. Currently, herbicides and prescribed fire are the only effective treatments available to contain and control Chinese tallow. The USDA is evaluating the flea beetle (Bikasha collaris) as a natural control agent.

In the Houston area, Chinese tallow trees account for a full 23 percent of all trees, more than any other tree species and is the only invasive tree species in the 14 most common species in the area. The Texas Department of Agriculture lists Chinese Tallow as one of the 24 most invasive plants, and includes Chinese Tallow in a list of Noxious and Invasive Plants which are illegal to sell, distribute or import into Texas. Herbivores and insects have a conditioned behavioral avoidance to eating the leaves of Chinese tallow tree, and this, rather than plant toxins, may be a reason for the success of the plant as an invasive.

In Europe, the species features on the Union list of invasive alien species. This means it is now illegal to import or sell this plant in the European Union.

Biological control
In parts of the USA biological control of the Chinese tallow tree has been considered, using the flea beetle Bikasha collaris, whose larvae attack the roots, and the moth Gadirtha fusca, whose caterpillars attack the leaves. In those areas, the resulting prospect of losing the Chinese tallow as a honey source has caused concern in beekeepers.

Synonyms and former names
The species has several synonyms and former names:

 * Carumbium sebiferum (L.) Kurz, Forest Fl. Burma 2: 411, 412. 1877.
 * Croton sebiferh. ("sebiferus"), Sp. Pl.: 1004. 1753.
 * Excoecaria sebifera (L.) Müll.Arg. in DC., Prodr. 15(2): 1210. 1866.
 * Stillingia sebifera (L.) Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 2: 213. 1803.
 * Sapium chihsinianum S. K. Lee, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 5: 121, pl. 22. 1956.
 * Sapium discolor var. wenhsienensis S. B. Ho, Fl. Tsingliensis 1(3): 451, fig. 155. 1981.
 * Sapium pleiocarpum Y. C. Tseng, Acta Phytotax. Sin. 20: 105, fig. 1. 1982.
 * Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb., Fl. Ind. Ed. 1832, 3: 693. 1832.
 * Sapium sebiferum var. cordatum S. Y. Wang, Fl. Henan 2: 480. 1988.
 * Sapium sebiferum var. dabeshense B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 481. 1988.
 * Sapium sebiferum var. multiracemosum B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 480, fig. 1394. 1988.
 * ''Sapium sebiferum var. pendulum B. C. Ding & T. B. Chao, Fl. Henan 2: 481. 1988.
 * Seborium chínense Raf., Sylva Tellur.: 63. 1838, nomen superfl.
 * Seborium sebiferum (L.) Hurus., Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 61: 30. 1948.
 * Triadica sinensis Lour., Fl. Cochinch.: 610. 1790.

title: Triadica sebifera


text:
Sonata Arctica

Sonata Arctica is a Finnish power metal band from the town of Kemi, Finland. Created as a hard rock band named Tricky Beans, they later changed to Tricky Means and finally to Sonata Arctica, when they shifted to power metal. The current lineup consists of drummer Tommy Portimo, lead singer Tony Kakko, keyboardist Henrik Klingenberg, guitarist Elias Viljanen and bassist Pasi Kauppinen. All the musicians of the band's history except Portimo also acted as backing vocalists.

As of 2024, the band has released eleven full-length albums (three via Spinefarm Records and eight via Nuclear Blast), their most recent being Clear Cold Beyond in March 2024.

Formation and early years (1996–1999)
The band was founded by drummer Tommy Portimo and guitarists Jani Liimatainen and Marko Paasikoski in Kemi. At the end of 1995, lead vocalist Tony Kakko was added and bassist Pentti Peura joined in early 1996. Originally named Tricky Beans, they played hard rock rather than the power metal with which they grew to fame. Kakko explained that when he was invited to join the band, Paasikoski said the band was going to play "a mixture of Megadeth and Spin Doctors". During their early career, they recorded three demos which were never sent to a recording label — Friend 'til the End, Agre Pamppers and PeaceMaker. According to Kakko, the band's first name was based on one of their early songs, which was "about a lady who was tricky and I didn't really know what I was talking about (laughs)". Their first show was about to take place but they were still unnamed, so they had to come up with something.

In 1997 the band changed their name to Tricky Means, and from that point until 1999 their style was thoroughly worked upon and ultimately was drastically changed, acquiring a strong emphasis on the keyboard melodies and relying on an easily distinguishable rhythm line maintained both by the bass and the guitar. Vocalist Tony Kakko developed a clean singing style which relies both on falsetto and tenor voices. Kakko has stated that the change of sound was influenced by fellow Finnish power metal band Stratovarius. At that time, Pentti Peura was fired and Marko Paasikoski left due to a lack of gigging. Two months later the band got signed to a three-album deal with Spinefarm, which left Marko displeased. The band finally changed their name to Sonata Arctica, because they thought they wouldn't be able to sell metal albums with the previous name and also because Spinefarm asked them to do so. "Sonata Arctica" was suggested by a friend of the band: "sonata" for the music and "arctica" for their home (Kemi, in Northern Finland).

In 1997, they recorded a demo entitled FullMoon in Kemi's Tico Tico Studios, which was their first real metal recording. The line-up consisted of Portimo, Liimatainen, Kakko and new bassist Janne Kivilahti (who started first as second guitarist ). The demo was sent to Spinefarm Records by a friend of the band and a recording deal soon followed.

Ecliptica and Silence (1999–2002)
Later that year, Sonata Arctica's first single, entitled "UnOpened", was released in Finland. Soon after, the band had closed deals with labels from around the world, prior to the release of their debut album. The debut Ecliptica arrived by the end of 1999 and had a worldwide release. Tony Kakko then decided to focus on singing and the band began seeking a new keyboard player. Mikko Härkin (ex-Kenziner) was eventually invited to fill the position.

At the beginning of 2000, Sonata Arctica was chosen to support the well-known power metal band Stratovarius throughout their European tour. Marko Paasikoski returned to the band to play bass in the wake of Janne Kivilahti's departure after the tour. According to Kakko, Kivilahti left because he thought they weren't going anywhere and Paasikoski was their first choice as the new bassist since he left just before the band got their first record deal.

Throughout Winter 2000/2001, the band worked on composing and recording their next album — Silence — which was released in June 2001. An extensive tour followed, which included concerts throughout Europe (together with Gamma Ray) and Japan. In 2002 Sonata Arctica made its first incursion to America, putting on shows in Brazil and Chile. A live album entitled Songs of Silence was also released that year, consisting of gigs from their tour in Japan. By the end of 2002, Mikko Härkin left the band for personal reasons.

Winterheart's Guild and Reckoning Night (2003–2006)
In the search for another keyboardist, the band received many applications and two of them were invited for auditions. Since they were well aware of the candidates' ability, the band decided to pick the new member based on personality. To this end, they spent a night drinking with each of the potentials to find out which one would fit best into the band's personality and mentality. Henrik Klingenberg was eventually chosen and joined the band in time to take part in the tour that followed the release of Winterheart's Guild. With the end of their contract with Spinefarm Records, the band received invitations from most European recording labels and eventually opted for Nuclear Blast.

Their third album — Winterheart's Guild was recorded with the help of the seasoned keyboard player Jens Johansson from Stratovarius who recorded the keyboard solos, while Kakko took care of the basics. The album was released in 2003. In early 2004, the band was chosen as the opener for Iron Maiden's Japanese tour. Additionally, Tommy Portimo became a father; his wife gave birth to a baby girl in March. Reckoning Night was recorded in three months and released in October, with Klingenberg introducing the use of the organ to the band. Both the single and the EP of this release remained on the top of the Finnish charts simultaneously for over six weeks. A promotional tour was to follow, but Sonata Arctica was invited by the popular Nightwish to join their European tour, and thus made a change of plans.

In early 2005, Nightwish invited the band to open the concerts of their North American tour. This tour eventually got cancelled, but the members of Sonata Arctica opted to still make a short tour, playing concerts in Canada and the United States. On 21 October 2005, Sonata Arctica opened for Nightwish at the Hartwall Areena, Helsinki.

In 2006, the band released a live CD and DVD entitled For the Sake of Revenge, which was recorded in Tokyo in February 2005. Then, Spinefarm Records released a compilation album to get the most out of their contract with the band, since Sonata Arctica had changed to another label. The compilation is entitled The End of This Chapter and was released in Japan in August 2005 and in Europe in May 2006.

A computer video game was also planned, based on Sonata Arctica characters and music. The name of the game was going to be Winterheart's Guild, after the album. The game was to be developed by Zelian Games, and was to be an Action-RPG in a style between Fallout and Diablo. The game was cancelled for unannounced reasons but a demo was shown at the Leipzig video game conference in 2006, featuring Henrik Klingenberg as the playable character. In December 2006, the band began recording their fifth studio album.

Unia and The Days of Grays (2007–2011)
On 25 May 2007, Unia was released. The album's first single, "Paid in Full", was released on 27 April 2007. On 6 August 2007, the band announced on their website that guitarist Jani Liimatainen had been asked to leave the band due to problems related to his conscription. He was replaced by Elias Viljanen who had already filled in for him in the band's Finnish and Japanese shows during the spring and summer.

In October 2007, Sonata Arctica headlined the ProgPower USA VIII. Later, the band supported Nightwish across their 2008 tour of the United States and Canada and headlined at the shows that Nightwish cancelled due to Anette Olzon's sudden severe sickness.

It was announced on 4 September 2008 that the band's first two albums would be re-released with bonus tracks by Spinefarm UK on October 6. The Days of Grays was released on September 16, 2009 in Finland and September 22 in the USA. Henrik stated that the new album would be in the same vein as Unia, but not as complex and darker. Singles from this album include "Flag in the Ground" and "The Last Amazing Grays". On 28 August 2009, the music video of "Flag in the Ground" was released to the web. The limited 2CD European edition of the album featured many of the album tracks with all instruments performed by a symphony orchestra.

The band also toured with DragonForce for the third U.S. leg of the Ultra Beatdown. In early 2010 they engaged on an Australian tour with Ensiferum and Melbourne band Vanishing Point. In April 2010, Sonata Arctica embarked on their USA and Canada Headlining tour for The Days of Grays. In October they headlined in Chile in support of the same album.

Stones Grow Her Name (2011–2013)
In January 2011, the band hinted in an online interview for Metaleater magazine that they were writing songs for a new album while on their current tour. Elias is quoted as saying, "I've been working on some new riffs, quite dark. Tony's been stuck in his bed scratching notes about some girl and her 'Luna Lust'." Tommy states later, "We've just got back from Cozumel, we had a good time, had lots of beers, loads more sun and thought about putting a bit more Queen stuff back into the music again." In April, the band recorded a live DVD in Oulu, Finland, entitled Live in Finland, which was released on 11 November 2011 (11/11/11).

It was announced on 20 February 2012 through the official Sonata Arctica website that the new album entitled Stones Grow Her Name would be released on 18 May in Europe and 22 May in North America.

The Album's first single and video "I Have A Right" was released on April 18, the second single from the album, "Shitload of Money" was released on September 14.

The Stones Grow Her Name World Tour began in April with summer festivals until August.

Pariah's Child, The Ninth Hour and Talviyö (2014–2023)
In a June 2013 interview concerning Henrik Klingenberg's own band Silent Voices, Henrik confirmed Sonata Arctica would go into recording for their eighth studio album in September 2013. When pushed for more information, he assured jovially: "If it doesn't come out by next year, we're in big trouble!" Concerning the progress and style of this new album, he also mentioned "The bulk of the album, we already have the demos ..." as well as "we want to focus on making songs that work live."

During rehearsals, Henrik mentioned on his blog that songs they were rehearsing for the new album seemed to hearken towards Sonata Arctica's earlier days. He also mentioned their plan to record a 10-minute track for the new album.

On 26 August 2013 the band officially announced on their Facebook page that Marko Paasikoski had left the band due to unsolvable issues with being part of a touring ensemble, and was replaced by bassist Pasi Kauppinen. On January 9, 2014, the band officially announced via their official website that the band's next studio album, Pariah's Child, will be released on March 28, 2014.

Tony Kakko commented on the style of the new album as well as its album artwork upon the release announcement:

In summer 2014, the band re-recorded their first album, Ecliptica. It was released in October 2014. Tony stated that the band was hoping to record the songs in a manner faithful to the original, not in a manner that would completely change the feel of their original album.

On 3 September 2014, Ouergh Records announced a Sonata Arctica tribute album. The album, A Tribute to Sonata Arctica featured bands from across the globe covering Sonata Arctica songs, with a focus on newer bands that were influenced by Sonata Arctica. Prominent bands included: Xandria, Van Canto, Stream of Passion, Arven, Powerglove, and Timeless Miracle. The album was endorsed by Tony Kakko. The tribute album was released September 12, 2015.

In 2014, writer Marko J. Ollila released a biography of the band, titled simply Sonata Arctica. The book was published by Paasilinna Publishing Ltd. and was originally only in Finnish. An English translation was published on 5 December 2014 as an e-book. The book covered the band's history from its formations up to the 2014 re-record of Ecliptica. It also included a fictional short-story written by Kakko, which was the singer's debut as a writer of material other than lyrics.

On 18 December 2015, Sonata Arctica released a Christmas-themed single, Christmas Spirits.

In February 2016, the band announced their plans to start recording a new album and release it in the final quarter of 2016. In July 2016, they announced on their Facebook page that the yet-to-be-titled album was mixed. On July 21, they officially announced the album's title, album artwork, and release date on their Facebook page. Their ninth studio album, The Ninth Hour, was released on October 7, 2016. The artwork featured a future Utopian landscape with technology and nature in the balance.

In November 2018, the band revealed that they were working on a new album, which its production had finished in 2019. On 21 June 2019 they released a lyric video for "A Little Less Understanding" and revealed the name of the tenth studio album Talviyö which was released via Nuclear Blast on 6 September 2019.

Clear Cold Beyond (2023–present)
The band released "First in Line", the first single from their eleventh studio album Clear Cold Beyond on 13 October 2023; the album was released on 8 March 2024.

Musical style and influences
When asked if the band identified themselves with power metal, melodic metal or none of them, Kakko stated:

I always think that it's "Melodic Metal". That's is the easiest thing to me because melody is very important to me and we all think we sound something like metal so ... haha – Melodic Metal. They are all the same for me really ... there's so many names it's kind of confusing.

In a 2007 interview with C.B.Liddell, Tony Kakko cited the English rock band Queen as his biggest musical influence. A lot of people seem to mention a Queen influence in our music... Queen has always been the biggest band for me. He also cites Stratovarius' Visions.

Members
Current members
 * Tommy Portimo – drums (1995–present)
 * Tony Kakko – lead vocals (1996–present), keyboards (1996–2000, 2003, studio only: 2007–present)
 * Henrik Klingenberg – keyboards, keytar, backing vocals (2003–present)
 * Elias Viljanen – guitars, backing vocals (2007–present)
 * Pasi Kauppinen – bass, backing vocals (2013–present)

Former members
 * Jani Liimatainen – guitars, backing vocals 1995–2007), lead vocals, keyboards (1995–1996)
 * Marko Paasikoski – bass (1995–1996, 2000–2013), guitars (1996–1997), backing vocals (1995–1997, 2000–2013)
 * Pentti Peura – bass, backing vocals (1996–1998)
 * Janne Kivilahti – bass, backing vocals (1998–2000)
 * Mikko Härkin – keyboards, backing vocals (2000–2002)

Guest musicians
 * Nik Van-Eckmann − spoken passages (2001, 2004)
 * Timo Kotipelto − vocals (2001, 2012)
 * Jens Johansson − keyboard solos (2003)
 * Peter Engberg − acoustic guitars, bouzouki, viola caipira, banjo, chromaharp, cavaquinho, Q-chord (2007, 2012)
 * Johanna Kurkela − female vocals (2009)
 * Pekka Kuusisto – violin (2012)
 * Lauri Valkonen – double bass (2012)

Discography
Studio albums
 * Ecliptica (1999)
 * Silence (2001)
 * Winterheart's Guild (2003)
 * Reckoning Night (2004)
 * Unia (2007)
 * The Days of Grays (2009)
 * Stones Grow Her Name (2012)
 * Pariah's Child (2014)
 * The Ninth Hour (2016)
 * Talviyö (2019)
 * Clear Cold Beyond (2024)

title: Sonata Arctica


text:
1973 in LGBT rights

This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the year 1973.

January

 * 1 – Maryland becomes the first state to ban same-sex civil marriages. It does so by passing a statue restricting marriage to heterosexual couples.
 * 27 – The Metropolitan Community Church's headquarters in Los Angeles is burned to the ground by an unknown assailant. No persons are inside of the building at the time of the fire.

April

 * 22 – The first gay protest in Santiago, Chile was organised at Plaza de Armas.

June

 * 24 – The UpStairs Lounge arson attack in the French Quarter of New Orleans kills 32 members of a Metropolitan Community Church congregation meeting.

August

 * Pride Week 1973, the first major LGBT pride event in Canada, is held simultaneously in several Canadian cities.

October

 * 10 – Following a lobbying campaign by the Gay Alliance Toward Equality, Toronto City Council adopts a policy forbidding discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in municipal hiring, making the city the first jurisdiction in Canada to do so.

November

 * 5 – The Supreme Court of the United States in Wainwright v. Stone finds that the sodomy law of Florida is not unconstitutionally vague, reversing a Fifth Circuit ruling.
 * 9 – The Kentucky Court of Appeals rules in Jones v. Callahan that two women were properly denied a marriage license despite the gender neutrality of the state's marriage statute.

December

 * 13 – Washington, D.C.'s Title 34 makes discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation illegal.
 * 15 – The board of the American Psychiatric Association votes 13–0 to remove homosexuality from its official list of psychiatric disorders, the DSM-II. The resolution also urges an end to private and public discrimination and the repeal of laws discriminating against homosexuals.
 * 20 – The city council of New York City rejects a gay rights ordinance.
 * 21 – A United States federal judge issues a bulletin stating that the federal civil service may not terminate an employee based on sexual orientation alone.

title: 1973 in LGBT rights


text:
Sapium

Sapium is a genus of flowering plants in the family Euphorbiaceae. It is widespread across most of Latin America and the West Indies. Many Old World species were formerly included in the genus, but recent authors have redistributed all the Old World species into other genera.

Species are known commonly as milktrees.

Description
These are shrubs and trees. They produce latex. The leaves are alternately arranged and smooth-edged or toothed. They are monoecious, often with spikelike or raceme-shaped inflorescences that have several male flowers, plus a few female flowers near the base. The male flowers have 2 to 4 stamens. The female flowers have 2 to 4 styles which are sometimes coiled. The flowers lack petals. The fruit has 2 to 4 lobes and may split open or not.

• # Sapium adenodon - Cuba
 * Species

• # Sapium allenii - Costa Rica

• # Sapium argutum - Fr Guiana, Suriname, Amapá, Fernando de Noronha

• # Sapium ciliatum - Fr Guiana, Suriname, Pará

• # Sapium cuneatum - Jamaica

• # Sapium daphnoides - Cuba, Hispaniola

• # Sapium glandulosum - Mexico, West Indies, Central + S America to Uruguay

• # Sapium haematospermum - Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay, N Argentina, Uruguay

• # Sapium haitiense - Massif de la Hotte, Haiti

• # Sapium jenmannii - Guyana, Venezuela, Colombia, NW Brazil; naturalised in Trinidad

• # Sapium lateriflorum - C + S Mexico, Central America

• # Sapium laurifolium - Chiapas, Greater Antilles, Central America, NW South America

• # Sapium laurocerasus - Puerto Rico

• # Sapium leucogynum - Cuba

• # Sapium macrocarpum - Mexico, Central America

• # Sapium marmieri - Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, NW Brazil

• # Sapium obovatum - Brazil, Bolivia, Paraguay

• # Sapium pachystachys - Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Panama

• # Sapium pallidum - Bahia, Minas Gerais

• # Sapium parvifolium - Cuba

• # Sapium paucinervium - NE South America

• # Sapium sellowianum - Minas Gerais, São Paulo

• # Sapium stylare - Costa Rica, Panama, Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador

Toxicity
The milky sap of Sapium biloculare is poisonous if it comes into contact with the eyes, mucus membranes, stomach or bloodstream. It was used in arrow poison and to stupefy fish.

title: Sapium


text:
Talk:Angkor

Names written in Khmer letters?
Please give Angkor Wat & Angkor Thom in Khmer.

 * As far as I know, there is no current Unicode standard for Khmer, as the Cambodian government rejected the proposed encoding - effectively keeping their script offline for another few years. You can enter Khmer against the proposed standard but last time I tried I could not find a font which worked correctly. --prat 21:17, 2004 Feb 28 (UTC)

 * This is incorrect. Unicode encodes Khmer at U+1780 to U+17FF. See .  Certainly various people are whining about the standard, but it is still a standard, and the complaints only started after it had been approved.  Morwen 21:21, Feb 28, 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure you can input it, but my (unclear) point was you can't always look at it! --prat 04:56, 2004 Feb 29 (UTC)

This hAPPEND IN 2003

Question
When I saw in the opening paragraph that the name Angkor is a name of Sanskrit origin, I was intrigued and surprised that there was no explanation as to why a Sumerian language influenced the name of a monument in Cambodia. At first I thought that it had been named a Sanskrit name by some archeologist in the 20th century. Then after a little research, I found that the Sumerians themselves influenced this area.

There should be a section dedicated to the name of this site because the name itself is EXTREMELY interesting.

The term "Angkor" is derived from the Sanskrit word "nagara," meaning capital city, and that the term Angkor itself is a "cultural artifact" revealing its long history marked by both phonetic and semantic evolution. Source: http://www.autoriteapsara.org/en/angkor/term_angkor.html

This fascinating fact needs to be stated! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.131.96.197 (talk) 15:48, 7 June 2009 (UTC)

Answer: Sanskrit is not an Sumerian language, it's an old Indo-European language once spoken in India. Because Ankor was Hinduistic and the Hindu religion comes from India, it's not really surprising to find Sanskrit in Ankor.

Sumerian is a language from old Irak, there's no family known of that language. Other languages from old Irak - Babylonian, Assyric - are old Arabic languages. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.53.116.127 (talk) 11:50, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

J.J. van de Gruiter, The Netherlands

I double whether "Nagara" is the origin for "Angkor". Rather, I think "Angkor" is a modification of "Omkar" (Om), and "Angkor Thom" is actually "Omkar Dhaam". Dhaam means place, so Omkar Dham means place of Omkar (or worship). I am not very sure about this, though.

 * I think the part about Angkor being from Sanskrit should be reworded. I'm not sure how exactly, because I don't know for sure what part of Khmer it comes from. Lets see, if Angkor is a word of Middle Khmer origin, then perhaps we should point it that it comes from nokor rather than directly from the Sanskrit word Nagara. Yes, they are related, but they are two different words. As nokor in Khmer is a 'loanword that comes from Sanskrit and it's uses and definition may vary as a loanword.
 * Maybe I'm digging to much into semantics, but I think it may give the wrong impression, linguistic-wise. It may not seem much, but this brings up a complex issue with Old Khmer, Middle Khmer, Modern Khmer. If this word has it's origin in Middle Khmer, then it may be more correct to say it is derived from Pali rather than from Sanskrit? --Dara (talk) 00:08, 30 May 2011 (UTC)

 * Pali only became a source language for borrowings into Khmer after Buddhism became prominent (around the 14th century) since Pali was/is considered THE language of Theravada Buddhism. Prior to this, as the religion of the Royal Court and ostensibly, the kingdom, was Hinduism (more specifically, a Shiva cult), Sanskrit was the source of borrowings.  In Hinduism, the Sanskrit of the Vedas is considered the perfect language of the gods and as such, the King, the elite class, the Brahmans and Royal Fortune Tellers used Sanskrit much the same as medieval Europe used Latin.  So Sanskrit borrowings are seen in words relating to Government, Administration, Fortune Telling, etc. This is a simplification of a complex process, but suffice to say that "Nokor" was borrowed into Old Khmer directly from Sanskrit and as the Khmer language evolved into Middle Khmer after the fall of the Khmer empire and the knowledge of Sanskrit waned, the name of the historical kingdom and building complex came to be pronounced as "Angkor" while "Nokor" continues to be used in it's original sense as an improper noun "a city".

Assessment
A beautiful start, though I'm not sure how complete this is. It would be good, I think, to provide a short summary of the architectural styles and significances of the sites, in addition to just providing a link to the deeper article. LordAmeth 14:39, 9 February 2007 (UTC)

War with the Thai
Somebody has written that some historians believe the Thai found Angkor devastated by an "infestation" as opposed to conquering it. I have not heard this theory. Somebody should support it with a footnote citing sources, or the paragraph advancing the theory should be deleted. DoktorMax (talk) 04:41, 20 December 2007 (UTC)

Javanese designed Angkor
More information required especially on the Javanese influence, design and perhaps funding of the Angkor complex, is required. Jayavarman 2 spent his early years as a hostage prince in the court of Majapahit in Java. He was sent to Camdoia to establish a new Javanese colony- but instead rebelled- which lead to his military defeat and the sacking of his cities by the Javanese. Angkor Wat was also designed and supervised by Javanese architects, a scaled-up model of Prambanan. three are several insciptijs on Ankor which give thanks and tribute to the Javanese architects.Starstylers (talk) 13:18, 9 May 2009 (UTC)

 * The inscription about Jayavarman II was written by Kings centuries after Jayavarman II's time period. It is a vague description. It said he grew up in a place called "Java".  Although historians think this can be many places including neighboring Champa.  The other fluff is assumption.  Angkor Wat was constructed centuries after Jayavarman II.  HarimauCampo (talk) 08:22, 5 April 2022 (UTC)

National Geographic
The July 2009 issue of National Geographic, page 32, in the article "Divining Angkor: After rising to sublime heights, the sacred city may have engineered its own downfall", notes, "As many as 750,000 people lived in Angkor, (the Khmer kingdom's) capital, which sprawled across an area the size of New York City's five boroughs, making it the most extensive urban complex in the world." That makes it smaller than the size reported in this article, though. 68.32.48.221 (talk) 12:00, 24 June 2009 (UTC)

^^ The whole entire complex is 3000 square kilometers (1,150) square miles, but the main urban district of Angkor covers 1000 square kilometers (400) square miles! But the real size is actually 1,150 square miles of urban sprawl! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.97.190.245 (talk) 04:33, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Historic city of angkor
Shouldn't a distinction be made between the historic city of angkor (how it was in 1200 BC) and the present Angkor city (of which some basins have run dry, the drain is destroyed at the dam, new buildings placed?, ...) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.182.165.179 (talk) 18:13, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

Historic Angkor city map
The map in the previously mentioned National Geographic magazine of July 2009 should be included as the main image. I'm guessing that this map isnt complete however? The drain at the dam should probably be continued to the waterway running to the north. Tonlé Sap isnt mentioned on the map neither —Preceding unsigned comment added by 91.182.165.179 (talk) 18:16, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

Unsustainable Tourism
The description "original research" for this section is a polite one for tendentious opinion. This section should be removed; there is no way in which the opinions expressed could be supported by reference. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.99.71.124 (talk) 04:37, 8 April 2013 (UTC)

Strange Language in Restoration, preservation, and threats
This section opens with "Although there is evidence to the contrary (Leonowens, 1870), many scholars believe the great city and temples remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century" but the Leonowens source confirms, rather than opposes, this viewpoint. Leonowens is a first-hand account of visiting Angkor Wat and describes it as being cloaked by the forest. The opening line does seem to imply, but does not state, that the Thai were unaware of the ruins, and the source contradicts this view. Perhaps a better phrasing would be "While the city was regularly visited by nearby residents and even made a destination for travellers such as Anna Leonowens, the ruins remained largely cloaked by the forest until the late 19th century." A proper citation for Leonowens' book An Englishwoman in the Siamese Court would also be a welcome addition. 76.168.38.238 (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 00:55, 3 November 2014 (UTC)

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Unencyclopedic
Hi! SuggestBot got me here. There the article is tagged as unencyclopedic. I presume this only applies to section "Unsustainable Tourism" - right? All the Best. Wikirictor (talk) 12:18, 3 December 2016 (UTC)

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'Alternate name' change to 'Alternative name'?
'Alternate' is a verb meaning 'to occur in turn repeatedly', or an adjective meaning 'every other; every second.' Whereas 'Alternative' means 'of one or more things available as another possibility or choice'. Where it says in the info box 'Alternate name', it seems clear it should actually be 'alternative name'. Should this be changed? 149.5.89.168 (talk) 11:15, 8 October 2018 (UTC)
 * No objection from me; it also seems to have been resolved some time ago! Klbrain (talk) 17:36, 30 July 2022 (UTC)

Are there any live angkors people left today
And if so where are they migrated at 174.213.161.112 (talk) 21:55, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Angkor


text:
Scarf

A scarf (: scarves or scarfs) is a long piece of fabric that is worn on or around the neck, shoulders, or head. A scarf is used for warmth, sun protection, cleanliness, fashion, religious reasons, or to show support for a sports club or team. Scarves can be made from materials including wool, linen, silk, and cotton. It is a common type of neckwear and a perennial accessory.

Before the Common Era
Scarves have been worn since ancient times. In 1350 BC, in Ancient Egypt, Queen Nefertiti is said to have worn a tightly woven headscarf, and a 9th-century BC statue of Ashurnasirpal II depicts the emperor wearing a shawl.

In 500 BC in Athens, women wore scarves to enhance their seductive charm; in the same period, Indian women wore them flirtatiously as headgear.

During the reign of the Chinese Emperor Cheng, from 259 to 210 BC, scarves were used as military markers to identify the rank of Chinese warriors or their status as officers; many of the Terracotta Warriors are depicted wearing them.

In the Common Era
In Ancient Rome, around AD 10, the garment was used for cleanliness rather than warmth. It was called a focale or sudarium and was used to wipe sweat from the neck and face in hot weather. Scarves were originally worn by men around their necks or were tied to belts.

In the 1200s, Egyptian belly dancers wore a scarf-like belt low on the hips to highlight their body movements.

Around the 17th century in Croatia, soldiers of all ranks wore scarves; officers wore silk scarves while other ranks were issued with cotton scarves. Some Croatian soldiers served as mercenaries with the French forces; their scarves were sometimes referred to as "cravats" (from the French cravate, meaning "Croat"), and were the precursor to the necktie. The modern British "cravat" is called an "ascot" in American English.

During the French Revolution, women and men wore differently coloured scarves to display their political affiliations to democratic principles of Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité; and Cravates. The French epitomised the elegant scarf style. The French word for "scarf" is a derivative of the Croatian word Karvata.

In the New England region of North America, bereaved families were given a scarf as a thank-you gift, as a mark of respect.

Napoleon Bonaparte found Egyptian scarves attractive and bought them as gifts for his wife. After this gift, Empress Josephine Bonaparte is believed to have acquired over 400 scarves in the following three years costing about £80,000. Following this, the people of Paisley, Scotland, started manufacturing their own scarves.

The scarf became a real fashion accessory by the early 19th century for both men and women.

In the 20th century
During World War I and II, women in the USA considered it a patriotic duty to knit scarves for the soldiers, along with other necessities. During these two wars, fighter pilots wore scarves to keep themselves warm in high altitudes and to cover their necks.

By the middle of the 20th century, scarves became one of the most versatile clothing accessories for both men and women. Throughout the 20th century, the fashion industry adopted the scarf. Thierry Hermès of Hermès created silk scarves that were modelled on those Napoleon's soldiers wore in battle. Hermes started making scarves that were designed by some of the biggest names in the fashion and music industries in Hollywood; actor Grace Kelly sported one of Hermes's scarves. Hermes imported raw silk from China that was made into long-lasting high-quality fabric with hand print; the process involved 43 screens to produce colour effects, and this printed scarf design was exhibited in a picture by two women in white wigs playing a game.

Silk scarves were also modelled by actors Faye Dunaway in Bonnie and Clyde (1967) and Diane Keaton in Annie Hall (1977). Madonna, in the 1980s, corralled her perm with a scarf. Alexander McQueen's much-copied silk-skull scarves have generated rage among celebrities and fans.

Uses and types

There are four functional types of scarf; the headscarf, the neck scarf, the beach scarf, and the winter scarf; these are hand-painted, block-printed, dyed, embellished, embroidered, beaded, or laced.

Winter scarves are used in cold climates; these are thick and knitted; and are often made of wool or alpaca, or other similar warm materials. A winter scarf is tied around the neck to conserve warmth. The winter scarf is sometimes called a muffler, and is usually accompanied by a heavy jacket or coat. The winter scarf can be wrapped around the face and ears for additional protection from cold.

In dry, dusty, warm climates or environments with airborne contaminants, a thin headscarf, kerchief or bandanna is often worn over the eyes, nose, and mouth to keep the hair clean. This custom has evolved into a fashionable item in many cultures, particularly among women. The cravat, an ancestor of the necktie and bow tie, evolved from scarves of this sort in Croatia

In India, woollen scarves with Bandhani work adopting tie-and-dye techniques are commonly worn in Bhuj and Mandvi in the Kutch District of Gujarat. In India and elsewhere there is a trend of wearing a scarf or dupatta as a safeguard against pollution.

In Indonesia and Malaysia the slenddang is a native scarf or sash, 20 to 21 inches wide and 85 to 86 inches long that is worn principally by the Malaysian women, being draped over one shoulder and across the body diagonally. They are both printed and coloured.

Scarves that are used to cover the lower part of the face, and in particular the neck, are sometimes called cowls. Scarves can colloquially be called a neck-wrap.

Scarves can be tied in many ways, including the pussy-cat bow, the square knot, the cowboy bib, the ascot knot, the loop, the necktie, and the gipsy kerchief. Scarves have also been tied on the head as a headscarf. Monarchs, including Queen Victoria and Queen Elizabeth I, have worn the headscarf. During the late 1990s, it was a fashion trend with hip hop and R&B artists. During the period of silent films, actors Anna May Wong and Evelyn Brent wore headscarves of sophisticated silks and popularised them. In Islamic religious culture, wearing a head scarf is linked to the Quran. In Saudi Arabia, wearing a head scarf is necessary to face the harsh climate and intense heat, even before Islam was adopted. During the same period, Christians and Jews also covered their hair with veils as dictated by their sacred texts.

Scarves are also used as fashion accessories with evening gowns by draping them over the shoulders or arms; one example is the feather boa.

In religious or cultural use

The ecclesiastical scarf was originally a loose wrap or muffler (band) that was worn around the neck when out of doors. In the English Church, in post-Reformation times, the minister wore the scarf over the surplice, which was a broad band of black silk with fringed ends arranged like the stole around the neck but falling nearly to the feet. The scarf's use has been almost entirely replaced by that of the stole, with which it has sometimes been confused.

Several Christian denominations include a scarf known as a stole as part of their liturgical vestments. In the English Church, the scarf of colour made of black silk, which is twice the width of a stole, is worn around the neck of chaplains, doctors of religion, and other clergy. Mourners at funerals wear a black scarf made of silk or crape over the right shoulder. Scarves of coloured silk are worn on public occasions, and in the courts and lodges by members of many social orders, such as Foresters and Odd fellows.

In a procession organised by the Masonic Lodge, marshals wear a cocked hat, sword, and scarf. In the procession, the colour of the scarf is mandatorily blue for Subordinate Lodge and purple for the Grand Lodge.

In uniforms
Pilots of early aircraft wore white, silken scarves and knitted scarfs to keep oily smoke from the exhaust out of their mouths while flying. Pilots of closed-cockpit aircraft wore scarves to prevent neck chafing, especially by fighter pilots, who were constantly turning their heads from side to side, watching for enemy aircraft. Today, military flight crews wear scarves imprinted with unit insignia and emblems for esprit-de-corps and heritage reasons rather than practical purposes.

The dress code adopted by pilots and cabin crew has changed over time. In the early years of flying, aircraft pilots copied the pilots of World War I, and adopted silk scarves and gloves as part of their outfit of flying boots and leather bomber jackets. Modern commercial airline pilot's uniform has a nautical look. The flight attendant's uniform has also undergone substantial changes; many female uniforms include a scarf. The modern trend is to follow national traditions of dress. In this context, female cabin crew of Emirate Airlines wear a drape scarf. Thai Airways female cabin crew wear pink and purple silks with sashes; Fiji Airways female crew wear scarves with bula prints. Air Canada's dictum is; "Wear your scarf at all times".

Students in the United Kingdom and Ireland traditionally wear academic scarves with distinctive combinations of striped colours identifying their university or college. This scarf is made from Saxony wool and usually measures 2 m in length, with a rectangular shape with tassels, and two or more coloured stripes.

Members of the Scouting movement wear a scarf-like neckerchief, which is sometimes referred to as a scarf, with a slide as part of their uniform. Scouting's founder Robert Baden-Powell introduced it in 1908. The scout could use the neckerchief if they encountered someone with a bleeding injury or needed to make a splint, a sling, or a bandage. In some socialist countries, Young Pioneers wore a neckerchief called a red scarf.

In sport

At football matches, supporters wear scarves and shirts in club colours. Scarves have been worn in the UK since at least the early 1930s, when the phenomenon of scarves began in Britain. Scarf-wearing became common in 1970s. Team scarves in football matches represent fans' loyalty and are an insignia rather than a protective piece of clothing. They are usually about 3 to 5 feet long and 6 to 10 inches wide. Scarf sales are an important part of the football economy throughout Europe. In the late 1990s, coloured scarves have been traditional supporter wear for fans of association football (soccer) teams across the world, even those in warmer climates. These scarves come in a wide variety of sizes and are made in team colours, and designs may include:

 * The club or team crest
 * Pictures of renowned players
 * Various slogans relating to the club's history and its rivalry with others

Initially, two-coloured scarves were called granny scarves because the players' grandmothers knitted them. At some clubs, supporters sometimes perform a "scarf wall" in which all supporters in a section of the stadium will stretch out their scarves above their heads, creating a wall of colour.

This scarf wall is usually accompanied by the singing of a club anthem, such as "You'll Never Walk Alone" at Liverpool F.C. matches, or national anthems such as "La Marseillaise" at France national football team matches. The socio-cultural anthropology of football is compared to a religious service by way of raising hands, singing the club's anthem, shouting slogans, jumping up, and whistling and clapping. By the end of the 19th century, in Britain, football had changed from an amateur game of the bourgeois into a professional, working class sport, and later an international spectacle.

Half-and-half scarves, where each half of the design represents one of the teams playing, are also sold at matches. Also known as friendship or matchday scarves, they are popular with neutral spectators as souvenirs, but are the subject of some controversy among more partisan fans.

Under Aussie rules, the Australian Football League (AFL) commands the country's largest sport audiences. At matches, fans wear apparel including scarves, knitted hats, and shirts.

Manufacture
The knitting garments such as scarves is an important trade in some countries. Hand-knitted scarves are still common as gifts.

Printed scarves are offered internationally through high-fashion design houses, including Burberry, Missoni, Alexander McQueen, Valentino,Cole Haan, Chanel, Etro, Lanvin, Louis Vuitton and Prada.

Hermès, which made its first scarf in 1937, has produced more than 2,000 designs. In 1937, Hermès designed a woodblock scarf made of Chinese silk that was worn by Queen Elizabeth II of England, American First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, and Grace Kelly.

The basic scarf shapes are square, triangular, and rectangular. The most common type is the square scarf, which can be folded to form a rectangular or triangular scarf. A sash is usually a long, narrow rectangle. The size of either can range from mini to maxi. The style of the garment with which the finished scarf is worn will make a difference, as will the way it is tied.

title: Scarf


text: Template:Balao class submarine

title: Template:Balao class submarine