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Student activism

Student activism or campus activism is work by students to cause political, environmental, economic, or social change. In addition to education, student groups often play central roles in democratization and winning civil rights.

Modern student activist movements span all ages, races, socio-economic backgrounds, and political perspectives. Some student protests focus on the internal affairs of an institution (like disinvestment); others tackle wars or dictatorships. Student activism is most often associated with left-wing politics.

Early examples
Student activism at the university level is nearly as old as the university itself.

Students in Paris and Bologna staged collective actions as early as the 13th century, chiefly over town and gown issues.

Student protests over broader political issues also have a long pedigree. In Joseon Dynasty Korea, 150 Sungkyunkwan students staged an unprecedented demonstration against the king in 1519 over the Kimyo purge.

Argentina
In Argentina, as elsewhere in Latin America, the tradition of student activism dates back to at least the 19th century, but it was not until after 1900 that it became a major political force. In 1918 student activism triggered a general modernization of the universities especially tending towards democratization, called the University Revolution (Spanish: revolución universitaria). The events started in Córdoba and were accompanied by similar uprisings across Latin America.

Australia
Australian students have a long history of being active in political debates. This is particularly true in the newer universities that have been established in suburban areas.

For much of the 20th century, the major campus organizing group across Australia was the Australian Union of Students, which was founded in 1937 as the Union of Australian University Students. The AUS folded in 1984. It was replaced by the National Union of Students in 1987.

Bangladesh
Student politics of Bangladesh is reactive, confrontational and violent. Student organizations act as the armament of the political parties they are part of. Over the years, political clashes and factional feuds in the educational institutes killed many, seriously hampering the academic atmosphere. To check those hitches, universities have no options but go to lengthy and unexpected closures. Therefore, classes are not completed on time and there are session jams.

The student wings of ruling parties dominate the campuses and residential halls through crime and violence to enjoy various unauthorized facilities. They control the residential halls to manage seats in favor of their party members and loyal pupils. They eat and buy for free from the restaurants and shops nearby. They extort and grab tenders to earn illicit money. They take money from the freshmen candidates and put pressure on teachers to get an acceptance for them. They take money from the job seekers and put pressures on university administrations to appoint them.

Brazil
On August 11, 1937, the União Nacional dos Estudantes (UNE) was formed as a platform for students to create change in Brazil. The organization tried to unite students from all over Brazil. However, in the 1940s the group had aligned more with socialism. Then in the 1950s the group changed alignment again, this time aligning with more conservative values. The União Metropolitana dos Estudantes rose up in replacement of the once socialist UNE. However, it was not long until União Nacional dos Estudantes once again sided with socialism, thus joining forces with the União Metropolitana dos Estudantes.

The União Nacional dos Estudantes was influential in the democratization of higher education. Their first significant feat occurred during World War II when they successfully pressured Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas to join the side of the Allies.

In 1964, UNE was outlawed after elected leader João Goulart was disposed of power by a military coup. The military regime terrorized students in an effort to make them subservient. In 1966, students began protesting anyway despite the reality of further terror.

All the protests led up to the March of the One Hundred Thousand in June 1968. Organized by the UNE, this protest was the largest yet. A few months later the government passed Institutional Act Number Five which officially banned students from any further protest.

Canada
In Canada, New Left student organizations from the late 1950s and 1960s became mainly two: SUPA (Student Union for Peace Action) and CYC (Company of Young Canadians). SUPA grew out of the CUCND (Combined Universities Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament) in December 1964, at a University of Saskatchewan conference. While CUCND had focused on protest marches, SUPA sought to change Canadian society as a whole. The scope expanded to grass-roots politics in disadvantaged communities and 'consciousness raising' to radicalize and raise awareness of the 'generation gap' experienced by Canadian youth. SUPA was a decentralized organization, rooted in local university campuses. SUPA however disintegrated in late 1967 over debates concerning the role of working class and 'Old Left'. Members moved to the CYC or became active leaders in CUS (Canadian Union of Students), leading the CUS to assume the mantle of New Left student agitation.

In 1968, SDU (Students for a Democratic University) was formed at McGill and Simon Fraser Universities. SFU SDU, originally former SUPA members and New Democratic Youth, absorbed members from the campus Liberal Club and Young Socialists. SDU was prominent in an Administration occupation in 1968, and a student strike in 1969. After the failure of the student strike, SDU broke up. Some members joined the IWW and Yippies (Youth International Party). Other members helped form the Vancouver Liberation Front in 1970. The FLQ (Quebec Liberation Front) was considered a terrorist organization, causing the use of the War Measures Act after 95 bombings in the October Crisis. This was the only peacetime use of the War Measures Act.

Since the 1970s, PIRGs (Public Interest Research Groups) have been created as a result of Student Union referendums across Canada in individual provinces. Like their American counterparts, Canadian PIRGs are student directed, run, and funded. Most operate on a consensus decision making model. Despite efforts at collaboration, Canadian PIRGs are independent of each other.

Anti-Bullying Day (a.k.a. Pink Shirt Day) was created by high school students David Shepherd, and Travis Price of Berwick, Nova Scotia, and is now celebrated annually across Canada.

In 2012, the Quebec Student Movement arose due to an increase of tuition of 75%; that took students out of class and into the streets because that increase did not allow students to comfortably extend their education, because of fear of debt or not having money at all. Following elections that year, premier Jean Charest promised to repeal anti-assembly laws and cancel the tuition hike.

Chile
From 2011 to 2013, Chile was rocked by a series of student-led nationwide protests across Chile, demanding a new framework for education in the country, including more direct state participation in secondary education and an end to the existence of profit in higher education. Currently in Chile, only 45% of high school students study in traditional public schools and most universities are also private. No new public universities have been built since the end of the Chilean transition to democracy in 1990, even though the number of university students has swelled. Beyond the specific demands regarding education, the protests reflected a "deep discontent" among some parts of society with Chile's high level of inequality. Protests have included massive non-violent marches, but also a considerable amount of violence on the part of a side of protestors as well as riot police.

The first clear government response to the protests was a proposal for a new education fund and a cabinet shuffle which replaced Minister of Education Joaquín Lavín and was seen as not fundamentally addressing student movement concerns. Other government proposals were also rejected.

China

Since the defeat of the Qing Dynasty during the First (1839–1842) and Second Opium Wars (1856–1860), student activism has played a significant role in the modern Chinese history.

Fueled mostly by Chinese nationalism, Chinese student activism strongly believes that young people are responsible for China's future. This strong nationalistic belief has been able to manifest in several forms such as pro-democracy, anti-Americanism and pro-communism.

In 1919, the May Fourth Movement saw over 3,000 students of Peking University and other schools gather together in front of Tiananmen and demonstrate. It is regarded as an essential step of the democratic revolution in China, and it had also given birth to Chinese Communism.

During the 1927–1937 Nanjing decade, student activism played an outsized role.

While nationalist Anti-American movements led by some students and intellectuals during the Chinese Civil War were instrumental in winning enough support for the CCP in urban areas to prevail, there remained lots of polarization on campuses in the late 1940's with a wide range of views. Ironically, America's influence in post-war China, designed to prevent Soviet influence appears to have backfired for the United States as some Chinese students were sensitive to any overt foreign influence after the Japanese occupation.

In 1989, the Tiananmen Square protests, led by students, inspired ended in a brutal government massacre of thousands, damaging the reputation of the Chinese Communist Party as it moved towards a more repressive approach to speech and dissent.

Czech Republic
Jan Palach and Jan Zajíc's protests against the end of the Prague Spring used self-immolation.

Democratic Republic of the Congo
Student activism played an important, yet understudied, role in Congo's crisis of decolonisation. Throughout the 1960s, students denounced the unfinished decolonisation of higher education and the unrealised promises of national independence. The two issues crossed in the demonstration of June 4, 1969. Student activism continues and women such as Aline Mukovi Neema, winner of 100 Women BBC award, continue to campaign for political change in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Eastern Europe and the post-Soviet Union states
During communist rule, students in Eastern Europe were the force behind several of the best-known instances of protest. The chain of events leading to the 1956 Hungarian Revolution was started by peaceful student demonstrations in the streets of Budapest, later attracting workers and other Hungarians. In Czechoslovakia, one of the most known faces of the protests following the Soviet-led invasion that ended the Prague Spring was Jan Palach, a student who committed suicide by setting fire to himself on January 16, 1969. The act triggered a major protest against the occupation.

Student-dominated youth movements have also played a central role in the "color revolutions" seen in post-communist societies in recent years.

Of the color revolutions, the Velvet Revolution of 1989 in the Czechoslovak capital of Prague was one of them. Though the Velvet Revolution began as a celebration of International Students' Day, the single event quickly turned into a nationwide ordeal aimed at the dissolution of communism. The demonstration had turned violent when police intervened. However, the police attacks garnered nationwide sympathy for the student protesters. Soon enough multiple other protests unraveled in an effort to breakdown the one party communist regime of Czechoslovakia. The series of protests were successful; they broke down the communist regime and implemented the use of democratic elections in 1990, only a few months after the first protest.

Another example of this was the Serbian Otpor! ("Resistance!" in Serbian), formed in October 1998 as a response to repressive university and media laws that were introduced that year. In the presidential campaign in September 2000, the organisation engineered the "Gotov je" ("He's finished") campaign that galvanized Serbian discontent with Slobodan Milošević, ultimately resulting in his defeat.

Otpor has inspired other youth movements in Eastern Europe, such as Kmara in Georgia, which played an important role in the Rose Revolution, and PORA in Ukraine, which was key in organising the demonstrations that led to the Orange Revolution. Like Otpor, these organisations have consequently practiced non-violent resistance and used ridiculing humor in opposing authoritarian leaders. Similar movements include KelKel in Kyrgyzstan, Zubr in Belarus and MJAFT! in Albania.

Ethiopia
Student movements in Ethiopia in the late 1960s, during the reign of Emperor Haile Selassie, included debates about the social sciences and social change and played a significant role in political opposition to Haile Selassie, which led to the 1974 Ethiopian Revolution. Student activism played a role in both socially progressive aspects of the revolution and in human rights violations. Student activism and their use of the social sciences played a role in the 1991 fall of the following government, the Derg, and in the implementation of the rule of Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front during the following three decades.

France
In France, student activists have been influential in shaping public debate. In May 1968 the University of Paris at Nanterre was closed due to problems between the students and the administration. In protest of the closure and the expulsion of Nanterre students, students of the Sorbonne in Paris began their own demonstration. The situation escalated into a nationwide insurrection.

The events in Paris were followed by student protests throughout the world. The German student movement participated in major demonstrations against proposed emergency legislation. In many countries, the student protests caused authorities to respond with violence. In Spain, student demonstrations against Franco's dictatorship led to clashes with police. A student demonstration in Mexico City ended in a storm of bullets on the night of October 2, 1968, an event known as the Tlatelolco massacre. Even in Pakistan, students took to the streets to protest changes in education policy, and on November 7 two college students died after police opened fire on a demonstration. The global reverberations from the French uprising of 1968 continued into 1969 and even into the 1970s.

Germany
In 1815 in Jena (Germany) the "Urburschenschaft" was founded. That was a Studentenverbindung that was concentrated on national and democratic ideas. In 1817, inspired by liberal and patriotic ideas of a united Germany, student organisations gathered for the Wartburg festival at Wartburg Castle, at Eisenach in Thuringia, on the 300th anniversary of Martin Luther's 95 theses.

In May 1832 the Hambacher Fest was celebrated at Hambach Castle near Neustadt an der Weinstraße with about 30,000 participants, amongst them many students. Together with the Frankfurter Wachensturm in 1833 planned to free students held in prison at Frankfurt and Georg Büchner's revolutionary pamphlet Der Hessische Landbote that were events that led to the revolutions in the German states in 1848.

The White Rose society in Nazi Germany lasted from 1942–1943, during which students mailed anti-nazi leaflets around the country until the leaders were caught and executed.

In the 1960s, the worldwide upswing in student and youth radicalism manifested itself through the German student movement and organisations such as the German Socialist Student Union. The movement in Germany shared many concerns of similar groups elsewhere, such as the democratisation of society and opposing the Vietnam War, but also stressed more nationally specific issues such as coming to terms with the legacy of the Nazi regime and opposing the German Emergency Acts.

Greece
Student activism in Greece has a long and intense history. Student activism in the 1960s was one of the reasons cited to justify the imposition of the dictatorship in 1967. Following the imposition of the dictatorship, the Athens Polytechnic uprising in 1973 triggered a series of events that led to the abrupt end of the regime's attempted "liberalisation" process under Spiros Markezinis, and, after that, to the eventual collapse of the Greek junta during Metapolitefsi and the return of democracy in Greece. Kostas Georgakis was a Greek student of geology, who, in the early hours of 19 September 1970, set himself ablaze in Matteotti square in Genoa as a protest against the dictatorial regime of Georgios Papadopoulos. His suicide greatly embarrassed the junta, and caused a sensation in Greece and abroad as it was the first tangible manifestation of the depth of resistance against the junta. The junta delayed the arrival of his remains to Corfu for four months citing security reasons and fearing demonstrations while presenting bureaucratic obstacles through the Greek consulate and the junta government.

Hong Kong (SAR of China)
Hong Kong Student activist group Scholarism began an occupation of the Hong Kong government headquarters on 30 August 2012. The goal of the protest was, expressly, to force the government to retract its plans to introduce Moral and National Education as a compulsory subject. On 1 September, an open concert was held as part of the protest, with an attendance of 40,000. At last, the government de facto struck down the Moral and National Education.

Student organizations made important roles during the Umbrella Movement. Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) made decisions on the Hong Kong political reform on 31 August 2014, which the Nominating Committee would tightly control the nomination of the Chief Executive candidate, candidates outside the Pro-Beijing camp would not have opportunities to be nominated. The Hong Kong Federation of Students and Scholarism led a strike against the NPCSC's decision beginning on 22 September 2014, and started protesting outside the government headquarters on 26 September 2014. On 28 September, the Occupy Central with Love and Peace movement announced that the beginning of their civil disobedience campaign. Students and other members of the public demonstrated outside government headquarters, and some began to occupy several major city intersections.

India
The Assam Movement (or Assam Agitation) (1979–1985) was a popular movement against illegal immigrants in Assam. The movement, led by All Assam Students Union (AASU) and the 'All Assam Gana Sangram Parishad' (AAGSP), developed a program of protests and demonstration to compel the Indian government to identify and expel illegal, (mostly Bangladeshi), immigrants and protect and provide constitutional, legislative and administrative safeguards to the indigenous Assamese people.

The Jadavpur University of Kolkata have played an important role to contribute to the student activism of India. The Hokkolorob Movement (2014) stirred many around the world. It took place after the alleged police attack over unarmed students inside the campus demanding the fair justice of a student who was molested inside the campus. The Movement finally led to the expulsion of the contemporary Vice Chancellor of the university, Mr. Abhijit Chakraborty, who allegedly ordered the police to do open lathicharge over the students. Some anti-social goons were also involved in the harassment of the students.

Indonesia
Indonesia is often believed to have hosted "some of the most important acts of student resistance in the world's history". University student groups have repeatedly been the first groups to stage street demonstrations calling for governmental change at key points in the nation's history, and other organizations from across the political spectrum have sought to align themselves with student groups. In 1928, the Youth Pledge (Sumpah Pemuda) helped to give voice to anti-colonial sentiments.

During the political turmoil of the 1960s, right-wing student groups staged demonstrations calling for then-President Sukarno to eliminate alleged Communists from his government, and later demanding that he resign. Sukarno did step down in 1967, and was replaced by Army general Suharto.

Student groups also played a key role in Suharto's 1998 fall by initiating large demonstrations that gave voice to widespread popular discontent with the president in the aftermath of the May 1998 riots. High school and university students in Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Medan, and elsewhere were some of the first groups willing to speak out publicly against the military government. Student groups were a key part of the political scene during this period. Upon taking office after Suharto stepped down, B. J. Habibie made numerous mostly unsuccessful overtures to placate the student groups that had brought down his predecessor. When that failed, he sent a combined force of police and gangsters to evict protesters occupying a government building by force. The ensuing carnage left two students dead and 181 injured.

Iran
In Iran, students were at the forefront of protests both against the pre-1979 secular monarchy and, in the 2000s and 2010s, against the theocratic islamic republic. Both religious and more moderate students played a major part in Ruhollah Khomeini's opposition network against the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In January 1978 the army dispersed demonstrating students and religious leaders, killing several students and sparking a series of widespread protests that ultimately led to the Iranian Revolution the following year. On November 4, 1979, militant Iranian students calling themselves the Muslim Students Following the Line of the Imam seized the US embassy in Tehran holding 52 embassy employees hostage for a 444 days (see Iran hostage crisis).

In the July 1999 Iranian student riots, liberal students clashed with the Iranian government. Several people were killed in a week of violent confrontations that started with a police raid on a university dormitory, a response to demonstrations by a group of students of Tehran University against the closure of a reformist newspaper. Akbar Mohammadi was given a death sentence, later reduced to 15 years in prison, for his role in the protests. In 2006, he died at Evin prison after a hunger strike protesting the refusal to allow him to seek medical treatment for injuries suffered as a result of torture.

At the end of 2002, students held mass demonstrations protesting the death sentence of reformist lecturer Hashem Aghajari for alleged blasphemy.

In June 2003, several thousand students took to the streets of Tehran in anti-government protests sparked by government plans to privatise some universities.

In the May 2005 Iranian presidential election, Iran's largest student organization, The Office to Consolidate Unity, advocated a voting boycott. After the election of President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, student protests against the government has continued. In May 2006, up to 40 police officers were injured in clashes with demonstrating students in Tehran. At the same time, the Iranian government has called for student action in line with its own political agenda. In 2006, President Ahmadinejad urged students to organize campaigns to demand that liberal and secular university teachers be removed.

In 2009, after the disputed presidential election, a series of student protests broke out, which became known as the Iranian Green Movement. The violent measures used by the Iranian government to suppress these protests have been the subject of widespread international condemnation. As a consequence of hash repression, "the student movement entered a period of silence during Ahmadinejad's second term (2009–2013)".

During the first term of Hassan Rouhani in office (2013-2017) several groups endeavored to revive the student movement through rebuilding student organizations.

After Mahsa Amini died on September 16, 2022, massive nationwide protests erupted throughout Iran, with schoolgirls playing a historically central role.

Israel
In Israel the students were amongst the leading figures in the 2011 Israeli social justice protests that grew out of the Cottage cheese boycott.

Japan
Japanese student movement began during the Taishō Democracy, and grew in activity after World War II. One such event was the Anpo Protests, which occurred in 1960, in opposition to the Anpo treaty. In the subsequent student uprising in 1968, leftist activists barricaded themselves in universities, resulting in armed conflict with the Japanese police force. Some wider causes were supported including opposition to the Vietnam War and apartheid, and for the acceptance of the hippie lifestyle.

Malaysia
Since the amendment of Section 15 of the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 (UUCA) in 1975, students were barred from being members of, and expressing support or opposition to, any political parties or "any organization, body or group of persons which the Minister, after consultation with the Board, has specified in writing to the Vice-Chancellor to be unsuitable to the interests and well-being of the students or the University." However, in October 2011, the Court of Appeal ruled that the relevant provision in Section 15 UUCA was unconstitutional due to Article 10 of the Federal Constitution pertaining to freedom of expression.

Since the act prohibiting students from expressing "support, sympathy or opposition" to any political party was enacted in 1971, Malaysian students have repeatedly demanded that the ban on political involvement be rescinded. The majority of students are not interested in politics because they are afraid that the universities will take action against them. The UUCA (also known by its Malaysian acronym AUKU) not however been entirely successful in eliminating student activism and political engagement.

In Kuala Lumpur on 14 April 2012, student activists camped out at Independence Square and marched against a government loan program that they said charged students high interest rates and left them with debt.

The largest student movement in Malaysia is the Solidariti Mahasiswa Malaysia (SMM; Student Solidarity of Malaysia). This is a coalition group that represents numerous student organizations. Currently, SMM is actively campaigning against the UUCA and a free education at primary, secondary and tertiary level.

Mexico
During the protests of 1968, Mexican military and police killed an estimated 30 to 300 students and civilian protesters. This killing is known as in the Tlatelolco massacre, and took place on October 2, 1968, in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas in the Tlatelolco section of Mexico City. The events are considered part of the Mexican Dirty War, when the government used its forces to suppress political opposition. The massacre occurred 10 days before the opening of the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City. More recent student movements include Yo Soy 132 in 2012. Yo Soy 132 was a social movement composed for the most part of Mexican university students from private and public universities, residents of Mexico, claiming supporters from about 50 cities around the world. It began as opposition to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) candidate Enrique Peña Nieto and the Mexican media's allegedly biased coverage of the 2012 general election. The name Yo Soy 132, Spanish for "I Am 132", originated in an expression of solidarity with the original 131 protest's initiators. The phrase drew inspiration from the Occupy movement and the Spanish 15-M movement. The protest movement was self-proclaimed as the "Mexican spring" (an allusion to the Arab Spring) by its first spokespersons, and called the "Mexican occupy movement" in the international press.

Following the 2014 Iguala mass kidnapping, students responded nationally in protest from marches to destruction of property. Through social media, hashtags such as #TodosSomosAyotzinapa spread and prompted global student response.

Norway
Similar to the students of Sweden, many student activists have emerged in Norway to protest climate change. While Norway is commonly viewed as a model country when it comes to combating climate change, students in Norway say there's more to be done. Though the country has put forth many internal climate combating initiatives, students worry over the country's exportation of oil and gas.

Pakistan
Historically throughout Pakistan, university students have led protests against dictatorships and militant regimes. In the 1960s, the National Student Federation and the Peoples student federation worked together to protest against their current militant regime. That regime was run by General Ayub Khan, the second president of Pakistan.

In 2012, Malala Yousafzai was shot by the Taliban when standing up for the right of girls in Pakistan to receive an education. Surviving the attack, Yousafzai continued on as an activist for women's education. She has since written two books stressing the importance of girl's education not only in her home of Pakistan, but also around the world. Her first book, I Am Malala, details her own experience; while her second book, We Are Displaced, details the lives of girls she met from refugee camps. In 2014, she became the youngest person to receive a Nobel Peace Prize. She was 17 years of age upon accepting the award.

Philippines
Student activism in the Philippines saw a surge during the Ferdinand Marcos regime in the late 1960s and early 1970s during the First Quarter Storm before the declaration of Martial Law. Until today, student activism continues for various causes such as for free education, corruption within the government, and extrajudicial killings. Some groups that lead these protests are the League of Filipino Students (LFS), National Union of Students of the Philippines (NUSP), Anakbayan, and Kabataan Party-List.

Russia
Student activism in pre-revolutionary Russia, Student activism in the Soviet Union, and Student activism in Russia have all had extensive student activist movements.

South Africa
In the 1970s, students in South Africa contributed to the movement against the apartheid. On June 16, 1976, students congregated in what would come to be known at the Soweto Uprising. Here, they led a peaceful protest in response to the Bantu Education Act of 1953. In an attempt to break apart the protest, police met the students with violence and force. The violence that ensued during the uprising led many to sympathize with the protesting students. The exposed nature of the apartheid caused an international abhorrence leading to its deconstruction.

Sweden
In 2018, Greta Thunberg caught international attention when she began missing classes to protest climate change. What began as sitting outside Sweden's parliament with fliers in hand, quickly became an international student movement. On March 15, 2019, students from more than 130 countries skipped school for the global climate strike.

Taiwan
The Sunflower Student Movement in 2014 advocated for independence from China and some of its leaders went on to form the pro-democracy New Power Party in 2015.

The Anti Black Box Movement in 2015 challenged opaque education reforms and reformers.

Thailand
The overthrow of Thai leader Field Marshall Thanom Kittikachorn was primarily led by students. Called the October 14, 1973 Uprising, students were successful in overthrowing his military dictatorship and restoring democracy. In addition to Thanom, they also overthrew deputy Field Marshall Praphas Charusathien. After Thanom was overthrown he was forced into exile, but in 1976 returned to become a monk. Although he swore to stay out of politics, the presence of him caused student protests to begin again. On October 6, 1976, many protestors died at the hands of right-wing militants that had torn through Thammasat University.

Left-wing students are now known to protest any Thanom-styled regime.

Students played a very important role in the ongoing 2020 Thai protests. Students from many parts of Thailand are participating in a series of pro-democracy movements against Thai government under Prime Minister Prayuth Chan-o-cha. One instance saw a debate between students and Education Minister Nataphol Teepsuwan who used to be a part of the anti-democratic People's Democratic Reform Committee that called for Prayuth to staged 2014 Thai coup d'état.

Uganda
Uganda has the second youngest population in the world, with rising numbers of university students seeking improved employment opportunities. Over the last 100 years since the establishment of the first Ugandan university, these students have been especially politically engaged. The structure of the university government system encourages political action, as student leadership positions are viewed as extensions of government elections and parties. During British colonialism and independence, students have played a crucial role in protesting government leadership with varied success.

United Kingdom
Student political activism has existed in U.K since the 1880s with the formation of the student representative councils, precursors of union organisations designed to present students interests. These later evolved into unions, many of which became part of the National Union of Students (NUS) formed in 1921. However, the NUS was designed to be specifically outside of "political and religious interests", reducing its importance as a centre for student activism. During the 1930s students began to become more politically involved with the formation of many socialist societies at universities, ranging from social democratic to Marxist–Leninist and Trotskyite, even leading to Brian Simon, a communist, becoming head of the NUS.

However, it was not until the 1960s that student activism became important in British universities. The Vietnam war and issues of racism initiated a focus on other local frustrations, such as fees and student representation. In 1962, the first student protest against the Vietnam War was held, with CND. However, student activism did not begin on a large scale until the mid-1960s. In 1965, a student protest of 250 students was held outside Edinburgh's American embassy and the beginning of protests against the Vietnam war in Grovesnor square. It also saw the first major teach-in in Britain in 1965, where students debated the Vietnam War and alternative non-violent means of protest at the London School of Economics, sponsored by the Oxford Union.

In 1966 the Radical Student Alliance and Vietnam Solidarity Campaign were formed, both of which became centres for the protest movement. However, the first student sit-in was held at the London School of Economics in 1967 by their Students' union over the suspension of two students. Its success and a national student rally of 100,000 held in the same year is usually considered to mark the start of the movement. Up until the mid-1970s student activities were held including a protest of up to 80,000 strong in Grosvenor Square, anti-racist protests and occupations in Newcastle, the breaking down of riot control gates and forced closure of the London School of Economics, and Jack Straw becoming the head of the NUS for the RSA. However, many protests were over more local issues, such as student representation in college governance, better accommodation, lower fees or even canteen prices.

Student protests erupted again in 2010 during the Premiership of David Cameron over the issue of tuition fees, higher education funding cuts and withdrawal of the Education Maintenance Allowance.

During the wave of School Strikes for Climate in 2019, student strikes saw up to 300,000 school children on the streets in the UK, at protests organised by a network of local groups of youth climate activists. Umbrella campaign groups such as Scottish Youth Climate Strike in Scotland, Youth Climate Association Northern Ireland in Northern Ireland, and UK Student Climate Network in England and Wales, made demands to respective governments and local authorities on the back of these protests and achieved some successes, and continue to campaign for climate justice.

In May 2024, a group of student activists at the University of Edinburgh pitched tents in the Old College Quad to protest against what they alleged was the university's failure to divest itself of investments deemed proxy support for the Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip. Eight of the protesters launched a hunger strike.

United States
In the United States, student activism is often understood as a form of youth activism that has been most notable in its role in nonviolent protests of civil rights.

Some of the first well documented, directed activism occurred on the campuses of black institutions like Fisk and Howard in the 1920s. At Fisk, students' concerns surrounding disciplinary rules designed to undermine black identity coalesced into demands for the resignation of President Fayette Avery McKenzie. Spurred by alum W.E.B. Du Bois' 1924 commencement speech, the students ignored the 10 p.m. curfew to protest, and staged subsequent walkouts. After a committee found Mckenzie's abilities and handling of the unrest poor, he resigned on April 16, 1925. Events at Fisk had wide repercussions, as black students elsewhere began to question the repressive status quo of the postwar black university.

In the 1930s, the American Youth Congress lobbied the US Congress against war and racial discrimination and for youth programs. It was heavily supported by First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.

Perhaps the most notable and accomplished student groups in US History were the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Atlanta Student Movement, predominantly African American groups that won passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965.

The Free Speech Movement in 1964–65 at UC Berkeley used mass civil disobedience to overturn restrictions on on-campus political activities. The Free Speech Movement was the first US student movement that became a focus of scholarly attention into student activism.

The largest student strike in American history took place in May and June 1970, in response to the Kent State shootings and the American invasion of Cambodia. Over four million students participated in this action.

The Disinvestment from South Africa movement involved many universities, starting with the University of California, Berkeley, where student activism helped it to become the first institution to disinvest completely from companies implicated in and profiting from apartheid.

In the 1990s, the popular education reform movement has led to a resurgence of populist student activism against standardized testing and teaching, as well as more complex issues including military/industrial/prison complex and the influence of the military and corporations in education.

Major contemporary campaigns include work for funding of public schools, against increased tuitions at colleges or the use of sweatshop labor in manufacturing school apparel (e.g. United Students Against Sweatshops), for increased student voice throughout education planning, delivery, and policy-making (e.g. The Roosevelt Institution), and to raise national and local awareness of the humanitarian consequences of the Darfur Conflict. Antiwar activism has also increased leading to the creation of the Campus Antiwar Network and the refounding of SDS in 2006.

In February 2018 after the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, many students began to organise rallies and protests against gun violence. A huge series of protests including the March for Our Lives (MFOL) followed, drawing millions of protesters and notably attacking the NRA as well as US gun laws. A number of student activists such as X González who helped lead the protests quickly garnered media attention for their action. Later, these students created MFOL, a non-profit 501(c)(4) organization. A number of other students have followed their lead and created other youth organizations, including Team Enough, which is being overseen by the Brady Campaign, and Students Demand Action, which is being overseen by Everytown for Gun Safety.

Recent youth activism around youth voter turnout includes efforts like EighteenX18, an organization started by actress Yara Shahidi of ABC's Blacki-sh devoted to increased voter turnout in youth; OneMillionOfUs, a national youth voting and advocacy organization working to educate and empower 1 million young people to vote which started by Jerome Foster II.

Climate change has also been an issue for youth activists in the United States, including This is Zero Hour, an environmentally-focused youth organization started by Jamie Margolin.

Organizations

 * 180/Movement for Democracy and Education
 * Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad
 * Australian Student Environment Network
 * Baloch Students Organization
 * Canadian Federation of Students
 * DoSomething
 * Dwight Hall Socially Responsible Investment Fund
 * Energy Action Coalition
 * European Students' Union
 * Federation of Student Nationalists
 * Freechild Institute for Youth Engagement
 * Idealist on Campus, a program of Action Without Borders
 * Kerala Students Union
 * Muslim Students' Association
 * National Students Federation
 * National Students Union of India
 * National Youth Rights Association
 * New York Public Interest Research Group
 * North American Students of Cooperation
 * People & Planet
 * Secular Student Alliance
 * Student/Farmworker Alliance
 * Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
 * Students Coalition Against War
 * Students for a Free Tibet
 * Students for Justice in Palestine
 * Students for Sensible Drug Policy
 * Students' Federation of India
 * United States Student Association

title: Student activism


text:
Simon-Napoléon Parent

Simon-Napoléon Parent, KC (September 12, 1855 – September 7, 1920) was the 12th premier of Quebec from October 3, 1900 to March 21, 1905, as well as serving as President of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company.

Background
Parent was born in Quebec City. He was a lawyer by profession, and his son, Georges Parent, was an MP in the House of Commons of Canada and later a Senator who served as Speaker of the Senate of Canada.

Political career
Parent ran as a Liberal candidate in the district of Saint-Sauveur in the 1890 election and won. He was re-elected in 1892 and 1897.

He resigned in 1897 when he was appointed to Félix-Gabriel Marchand’s Cabinet but was re-elected in the subsequent by-election, as well as in 1900 and 1904. Marchand died in office on September 25, 1900, and Parent succeeded him. He won the 1900 election and the 1904 election and resigned in 1905 when 44 Liberal MLAs, led by Lomer Gouin, Adélard Turgeon and William Alexander Weir, pressured him to resign.

Parent also served as mayor of Quebec City from 1894 to 1906.

Death
He died in Montreal in 1920.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Simon-Napoléon Parent


text:
Talk:William Gillette

Identity of the subject
Is this the same "William Gillette" that invented the modern safety razor? According to this article from the BBC, the safety razor was invented in 1895 by an American named "William Gillette", which fits this guy's description. Any ideas? - DropDeadGorgias (talk) 03:42, Mar 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm sorry, but it was invented by King C. Gillette. --webkid 08:03, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Quality of the article
Much of this article is not written in english or anything that even resembles english. It needs to be carefully worked over by someone who at least has a basic command of the written language! Cokerwr 17:43, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

 * As opposed to someone who doesn't know how to properly capitalize proper nouns or proper adjectives? Compared to the condition that the article was in, back in early April, it's quite readable now. --JohnDBuell 18:13, 14 June 2006 (UTC)

Fresh, cursory look

 * Hello! I saw your request for additional peer reviews on this article, and I thought I might throw in a comment.  I have not "READ" the article yet, I only looked over it for layout.  I think the section 3.1 etc could use indenting - this is something that actually irritates me about wikipedia, subsections don't have indenting.  I will look over the article a little more thoroughly right away. Em3rald 11:06, 20 June 2006 (UTC)
 * A second look, slightly less cursory. First, the language is a little bit clumsy.  It's definitely readable, no question, but there is just something odd, perhaps forced, about the way the article reads.  I can make some suggestions (and fix some myself) later.  Two other points:  First, red links = no good (in my opinion).  The easy way to fix this is to create stub articles about those subjects (such as actors, etc) which would induce others to contribute.  Second, wikification.  This article is in dire need of additional wikification (links, and possibly some templates) to give it a more overall professional appeal.  I don't know if there are any Wikiprojects that apply, but that would be a logical approach.  I'll post more in the next few days. Em3rald 11:13, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I can't say I've ever heard of anyone indenting subsections on Wikipedia before. I can think of three FAs where this does not take place. There's not really anything on the subject in the Manual of Style. I'm not saying it's wrong, I just don't think that such an idea has been addressed, and current practice is not to indent, as you noticed. Second, I agree some of the language may still require rewriting. The article was largely originally written by a non-native speaker of English, and has been greatly revised by two native speakers of English, but at some point you just need to have someone else take a fresh look. Third, "to red link or not to red link" has been pretty hotly debated, at least over the last year or so (and some people have felt strongly against them even longer). I see them as "calls to action" - I don't know how much information can be found about everything with a red link in this article - I have a feeling that some real research in a library will be needed to provide proper references, which the article does still lack. The other alternative is to just remove the wikilinks altogether. Thanks for your comments! --JohnDBuell 11:35, 20 June 2006 (UTC)

Gillette Castle
I removed the link to "Robert the Devil," since neither in Wikipedia nor elsewhere online can I find a reference to a Norman fortress by this name. The link within Wikipedia points to the story of an individual, not a fortress. If someone can provide a reference to this fortress, please do so. Septegram 15:19, 30 June 2006 (UTC)

Gillette Castle Link
The link to the Gillette Castle State Park site maintained by the CT Department Of Environmental Protection was outdated so I found the correct one and replaced the old one. In addition the wording for this link was cumbersome so I changed that as well. Taglman (talk) 20:24, 10 August 2010 (UTC)

Coins “Elementary”…
The section on “Elementary” is fairly ludicrous, as it stands. There is no sense in the statement Gillette formulated the complete phrase: "Oh, this is elementary, my dear fellow", which then somehow became the much quoted “Elementary, my dear Watson!” In The Dancing Men Conan Doyle included the exchange: “‘Excellent!’ I cried. ‘Elementary,’ said he. ‘It is one of those instances where the reasoner can produce an effect which seems remarkable to his neighbour, because the latter has missed the one little point which is the basis of the deduction. The same may be said, my dear fellow, for the effect of some of these little sketches of yours, which is entirely meretricious, depending as it does upon your retaining in your own hands some factors in the problem which are never imparted to the reader.’” The elements of both dramatic lines are there; Gillette may have been a famous Holmes, but his line is not the one which has stuck in the public imagination, and “formulating the complete phrase” (as if Conan Doyle had merely been groping about for words and hadn’t completed a thought) is a weasel-worded statement to suggest more of an influence than he had in that area. Even if the Clive Brooks film was an adaptation of the Gillette play, it’s hard to see that there is any more of Gillette than Doyle in the line, and the credit should go to the film’s adaptor. Jock123 (talk) 07:46, 3 October 2014 (UTC) 2) "one of the most famous expressions in the English language." Sezwho? This might well be correct, but a very short WWW search for '"most famous expressions" in English' brought up this supporting page, but is it  NPOV and cite-worthy? http://bakerstreetbijou.com/actors/famous-sherlocks-william-gillette/ 64.53.191.77 (talk) 14:31, 24 May 2015 (UTC)
 * 1) As to the above comments, whether one agrees with the reasoning or not, the claim is made (at least) in the Chicago Tribune of 24 May, 2015, p. 4 or A&E in a longish article on his movie.

Removing tag that says "Gillette Castle" section is too long and detailed.
A tag dated 2012 says "This section may be too long and excessively detailed. Please consider summarizing the material while citing sources as needed."

As far as I know, its a pure judgement call whether a section is "too long and detailed." I haven't worked on this article myself, so I think I'm reasonably objective. I just don't see the problem here. It's a good section. And, after all, Wikipedia is not paper, and it's not as if it were too much work to scroll past the section.

As it happened I was looking for something else, but I'd expect an article on Gillette to cover Gillette Castle and this section seems fine to me. There isn't any separate article on Gillette Castle, and despite the claim of a "main article" at Gillette Castle State Park, that article is only five paragraphs long and barely more than a stub.

And the tag has been there for three years and nobody has felt it was necessary to act on it.

Accordingly, I've removed the tag. Dpbsmith (talk) 18:20, 15 October 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:William Gillette


text:
Régis Loisel

Régis Loisel (born 4 December 1951) is a French cartoonist, best known for the series La Quête de l'oiseau du temps, written by Serge Le Tendre.

He worked with Walt Disney Studios on the animated films Atlantis and Mulan.

Awards

 * 1986: Lucien Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival, France
 * 1992: Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
 * 1995: Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
 * 2000: nominated for Best German-language Comic for Children and Young People at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
 * 2002: nominated for Best German-language Comic for Children and Young People at the Max & Moritz Prizes, Germany
 * 2003: nominated for the Audience Award at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
 * 2006: Grand Prix de la ville d'Angoulême at the Angoulême International Comics Festival
 * 2007: nominated for the Grand Prix, for best French language comic and for best artwork at the Prix Saint-Michel, Brussels

Resources

 * Régis Loisel official site
 * Régis Loisel biography on Lambiek Comiclopedia

title: Régis Loisel


text:
Jerome Lawrence

Jerome Lawrence (born Jerome Lawrence Schwartz; July 14, 1915 – February 29, 2004) was an American playwright and author. After graduating from the Ohio State University in 1937 and the University of California, Los Angeles in 1939, Lawrence partnered with Robert Edwin Lee to help create Armed Forces Radio while serving together in the U.S. Army during World War II. The two built a partnership over their lifetimes, and continued to collaborate on screenplays and musicals until Lee's death in 1994.

Lawrence and Lee won acclaim for the 1955 play Inherit the Wind, based on the Scopes trial. Lawrence describes their plays as "shar[ing] the theme of the dignity of every individual mind, and that mind's life-long battle against limitation and censorship". The two deliberately avoided Broadway later in their careers and formed the American Playwrights Theater in 1963 to help promote their plays. After Lee's death, Lawrence continued to write plays in his Malibu, California, home. He died in Malibu on February 29, 2004, from complications of a stroke.

Life and career
Jerome Lawrence Schwartz was born in Cleveland, Ohio, on July 14, 1915. Lawrence's father, Samuel Schwartz, operated a printing press, while his mother Sarah (née Rogen) wrote poetry and did volunteer work. After he graduated from Glenville High School in 1933, Lawrence attended the Ohio State University, where he graduated with a bachelor's degree in 1937. While a student at Ohio State, Lawrence was initiated into the Nu chapter of the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity, a historically Jewish social fraternity. Two years later, he completed graduate studies at the University of California, Los Angeles.

Lawrence worked for several small newspapers as a reporter/editor before moving into radio as a writer for CBS. In 1941, Lawrence co-created with Aleen Leslie the radio series A Date with Judy, which was based on Leslie's “One Girl Chorus” column in the Pittsburgh Press. Lawrence left the show in 1943.

With his writing partner, Robert E. Lee, Lawrence worked for Armed Forces Radio while serving together in the U.S. Army during World War II. Lawrence and Lee became the most prolific writing partnership in radio, with such long-running series as Favorite Story, among others.

Lawrence and Lee turned to the live theatre in 1955 with Inherit the Wind, which remains among the most-produced plays in the American theatre. They also collaborated on the plays Auntie Mame, The Incomparable Max, and First Monday in October, among others. In 1965, they founded the American Playwrights' Theatre, a plan to bypass the commerciality of the Broadway stage, which foreshadowed the professional regional theatre movement. Their wildly successful play, The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail, was produced through the American Playwrights Theatre, and premiered at Lawrence's alma mater, Ohio State, which also commissioned their play on the life and times of James Thurber, ''Jabberwock (1972).

In all, they collaborated on 39 works, including a 1956 musical adaptation of James Hilton's Lost Horizon, entitled Shangri-La, with the author himself. They also adapted Auntie Mame into the hit musical Mame with composer Jerry Herman, which won a Tony Award for its star, Angela Lansbury. Less successful was the Lawrence and Lee collaboration with Herman, also starring Lansbury, Dear World, a musical adaptation of Giraudoux's The Madwoman of Chaillot. They also co-wrote a script for a made-for-television Pride and Prejudice film, which was never produced.

Several of Lawrence and Lee's plays draw on events from United States history to speak to contemporary issues. Inherit the Wind (1955) addressed intellectual freedom and McCarthyism through a fictionalized version of the Scopes Monkey Trial. The Gang's All Here (1959) examined government corruption in the 1920s. The Night Thoreau Spent in Jail (1970) was a Vietnam-era exploration of Thoreau's resistance to an earlier war.

Lawrence taught playwriting in the Master of Professional Writing Program at the University of Southern California. Lawrence's one Tony Award nomination was for Best Book of a Musical for Mame.

He died due to complications from a stroke in Malibu, California.

The Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee Theatre Research Institute, a research facility and archive, was dedicated in Lawrence and Lee's honor at the Ohio State University in 1986.

His niece is flutist Paula Robison.

title: Jerome Lawrence


text:
Dave Lebling

Peter David Lebling (born October 30, 1949) is an American interactive fiction game designer (implementor) and programmer who has worked at various companies, including Infocom and Avid.

Life and career
He was born in Washington, D.C., grew up in Maryland, and attended MIT, where he obtained a degree in political science before becoming a member of its Laboratory for Computer Science.

After encountering the original Adventure game (also called Colossal Cave), he was fascinated by the concept and—together with Marc Blank, Tim Anderson and Bruce Daniels—set out to write an adventure game with a better parser, which became Zork. In 1979, he became one of the founders of Infocom.

His games include Zork I, II and III, Starcross, Suspect, Spellbreaker, The Lurking Horror, Maze and James Clavell's Shōgun.

After Infocom's end in 1989, Lebling worked on a GUI spreadsheet program, joined Avid (a company doing special effects for broadcast and film), and designed server applications at Ucentric.

Lebling currently resides in Concord, Massachusetts with his wife. He is a programmer for British defense contractor BAE Systems.

title: Dave Lebling


text:
Gunsan Hwamul Line

The Gunsan Hwamul (Cargo) Line is an abandoned cargo railway line serving North Jeolla Province in South Korea. Before January 1, 2008, this line was called Gunsan Line which connected the major railway junction of Iksan (on the Honam Line) to the city of Gunsan.

As of January 2008, New connecting line between Janghang (Janghang Line) and Daeya opened. Iksan – Daeya was included into Janghang Line,new Gunsan station opened, old Gunsan Station was renamed Gunsan Freight Station, passenger transportation between Daeya Station and Gunsan Freight Station was stopped and the line was renamed to Gunsan Hwamul (Cargo) Line.

As of December 2020, new connecting line (Gunsan Port Line) between Janghang Line, Okgu Line and Gunsan Port opened. Therefore Gunsan Hwamul Line is abandoned.

Line Data

 * Length: 8.9 km (+1.2km between Daeya and the junction)
 * Double track: Nil
 * Gauge: 1,435mm

title: Gunsan Hwamul Line


text:
Talk:Al Gore/Archive 1

Discussion
Chinadialogue editor Isabel Hilton interviews the Nobel Peace Prize winner, October 12, 2007:

On running again for office:

“I ran for president twice. I did not get the office. I haven’t ruled out possibly getting into politics again at some point. But frankly I don’t expect to, and I have no intention of doing it, because I find the whole process rather toxic”.

On national positions towards climate change mitigation and abatement:

“China and India are sometimes stereotyped unfairly. The truth is they know, or many of their leaders and scientists know full well, how much they have to lose if this climate crisis is not checked. …Twenty million people around Beijing would have to relocate, 40 million people around Shanghai, millions more in other coastal cities … other consequences have caught their attention. They have their own equities involved here. So I don’t think it’s right to just assume that they’re not going to care about solving this crisis”.

On more general actions necessary for tackling climate change:

“There are moral questions raised concerning our responsibility for what we do, now that we are on notice and have constructive knowledge of what the consequences are. But those are questions we can’t afford to entertain. We need to focus on putting together a practical solution.”

http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/413 and in Chinese: http://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/ch/413.

- Hi again. Please please put the beard thing in there.

- Dude! The BEARD debate was HILARIOUS! I mean, who gives a damn whether a bearded Gore pic is put into the article or not? Man, I can't stop laughing.

This article needs NPOV-ing. (Yes, this will be hard) --k.lee - Speaking of which: just added some poorly fact-checked junk on Gore's academic record. In fact, Gore did not "rarely get grades better than C's and D's"---he graduated cum laude from Harvard which is perhaps not spectacular but respectable nonetheless. Contrast w/ the entry on George W. Bush. If I may be so bold, a horde of anonymous cowards is conspiring to make Bush's entry a hagiography and Gore's entry a farce.

- No, actually graduating cum laude from Harvard is not respectable, considering the 94% of graduating seniors graduate with honors (ie. cum laude). Therefore, it is no special accomplishment that Gore graduated cum laude--he merely graduated in the top 94% of his class!

Some more fact checking:
 * The current commercialized private-sector Internet and the Defense Dept.'s ARPANET are not the same, and it was far from a foregone conclusion that one would become the other. See Internet, this should be obvious.
 * Winifred Skinner did not collcans as a hobby, and no media source I can find (including the conservative National Review) has claimed this. The most they have alleged is that Skinner's son could have given her money for the medication.  Sources report that her income was a little over $800 a month, and her prescription drugs cost about $250 a month, which certainly means that prescription drug costs constituted a large portion of her small income.

Anyway, I suggest we reorganize this page substantially; breakdown:
 * "42nd vice president..."
 * Gore birthdate and family. (1-2 sentences)
 * 1-paragraph summary of Gore's career (just facts: went to Harvard, Vietnam, reporter, elected senator, attempts to get Presidential nomination, VP.)
 * Short section on (alleged) accomplishments of Gore political career
 * Long section on Gore biographical controversies: academics, Vietnam
 * Long section on 2000 campaign: alleged lies and character problems, media coverage thereof
 * Short section on political presence after 2000 election

--k.lee

---

The "poorly fact checked junk" came from the washington post. THe source is listed on the page. If it's incorrect, it can be deleted. Although, I've seen it backed up on a number of news pages.

The Bush page is full of criticisms (for example, he's the only president I've seen on Wiki that has an entire section of his page devoted to how he's "ruining" the environment), so I don't see why a few negative things shouldn't be added to Gore's page in fairness. I don't care about criticizing any politician, but let's do it to all of them if we're going to do it to one.

The thing about Skinner: Her son said himself said that he has offered on many occasions to pay for her perscription drugs, but she refuses it because she enjoys picking up the cans. Those were the son's words, not mine. There is a quote from her son on one of the cable news websites. I'll see if I can find it again. - jazz77 - The exact information from the Washington Post has been documented by many pages: Gore got a number of C's in college, including one bad year in which he got several C's and a D. This does not justify your phrasing of the matter: I defy you to explain to me how someone could graduate from Harvard cum laude while "rarely" doing better than C's and D's.  All the other citations on conservative magazines and websites appear to be echo chamber ramblings. For some rare actual facts, see the following:.

BTW I am entirely in favor of criticism of Al Gore. I simply prefer that the criticisms be grounded in fact and given appropriate proportional time in a balanced article---Gore's undergraduate transcript does not belong in the second real paragraph, ahead of his entire political career. (I would prefer even more that the criticisms be of his political positions rather than miscellaneous random trivialities, but perhaps that's a bit much to hope for.) Anyway, talk is cheap. I'll be editing the entry myself soon enough, and then you can edit my edit. --k.lee

--- I was under the impression that I was quoting exact information as reported by the Washington Post. Anything I added to the article was found on multiple websites for news organizations, so I assumed they knew what they were talking about (not that being a news organization means that you know what you're talking about of course). The information I saw said that he "rarely did better" than Cs and Ds.. that was exactly how it was posted on the news article. Do not assume that I am not interested in "actual facts". I thought I was quoting "actual facts" and did my best to make sure I could find more than one source for each addition I made. -jazz77

I haven't researched Gore's education at all, but based on the article as it is at the moment, I can't even verify that he completed a bachelor's degree, much less what sort of degree it is. At a minimum, please indicate what degree(s) he did earn and from what universities; whether those degrees were also cum laude or whatever would be relevant, as well as what his major was for his bachelor's degree. Wesley

Wesley, here's the result of a bit of Google searching (Ed Poor):

"Gore received a degree in government with honors from Harvard University in 1969."

Gore received a degree in government with honors from Harvard University in 1969. After graduation, he volunteered for enlistment in the U.S. Army and served in Vietnam. Returning to civilian life, Vice President Gore became an investigative reporter with The Tennessean in Nashville. He attended Vanderbilt University Divinity School and Vanderbilt Law School. , , Gore got bad grades at Harvard, flunked out of Vanderbilt twice. Boston Globe column

 * Thanks Ed, now we're getting somewhere. So what was the degree? Was it a B.S., a B.A., an M.A.?? I'm guessing B.A., but could be B.S. for all I know. Wesley

 * I don't know. I suspect it's BS (wink), because all 4 sites I cited used the same wording -- one copying the other, no doubt. No, seriously, it's unclear whether the "honors" degree was undergraduate or graduate -- although generally postgraduate degrees name the School (like Yale Law School or Harvard Business School), so we could guess that it was undergrad. Then, we could take further guesses on whether "goverment" is considered science or liberal arts. The point is, though, that Bush's educational career clearly outstrips Gore's -- despite Democratic Party propagandizing to the contrary. (Although Gore rightfully gets credit for pushing Internet funding.) --Ed Poor

Thanks, Soulpatch. As a liberal myself, I would have found it hard to consider Gore a liberal, but I was afraid of changing that paragraph for fear of being NPOV. -- Zoe

 * You're welcome. :)  soulpatch

OK, finally got my promised rewrite done. There are probably parts that edge off NPOV, but I make no apologies. The prior Gore piece had a number of strong ideological slants, and I did a lot of fact checking for my rewrite. This may not be purely NPOV but it's way fairer than it was before. I encourage you to edit at will, but do your fact checking, and by that I mean more than copying and pasting from random partisan Geocities pages (yes, prior editors of both this page and Gore-ism clearly did exactly that). The Washington Post series on Al Gore's life is excellent, BTW (I linked it up at bottom).

It's a pure right-wing smear to claim that Gore "flunked" out of Vanderbilt Law School. He left law school to run for Congress, a detail that all conservative sources I've seen omit. As for flunking in Divinity School, that seems legit. BTW the fact that people are posting about the merits of Gore's academic career without even knowing basic facts about it does not give me warm fuzzy feelings.

Also, I am hard-pressed to find the "rarely got better than C's and D's" wording anywhere on Google. Perhaps jazz was confused by the Boston Globe, which wrote that Gore's transcript was "riddled with C's". This is a sneaky way of phrasing the matter: the propositional content is simply that Gore's transript had some unspecified number of C's, but it makes it sound as if Gore's transcript consisted mostly of C's without actually saying so (which would be an outright lie). In any case, until someone cites sources that give more details on Gore's transcript, I will go on what I have.

Finally, regarding my edits on Gore-ism, those may also be non-NPOV, but frankly the old page was a wholesale copy-and-paste from conservative hit pieces (Google will turn them up) so I make no apologies there either. It's less slanted than before, and I will stand by that.

k.lee

What an awful article right now (11/13/02), written from the perspective of Gore-haters vs. Gore-defenders, rather than attempting to write a comprehensive history of Gore's career. I may try to slog through this mess, but it may take someone more daring than I.--The Cunctator
 * Gee, thanks. If you go back to the old version prior to my edits, you'll see it was disogranized, slanted, and factually incorrect.  I went and did some research to flesh out the article and decrease the bogosity level, rather than deleting the previous NPOV nonsense about his academic career and his military service (which would have been my first inclination).  If you think this is now too much, then go ahead and edit it down.  I would not mind if the sections on "controversies about Gore's personal life" and "controversies about Gore's political views and career" were substantially trimmed. k.lee

Somebody should add the fact that he said he was quitting politics a few days ago. Lduperval

Posting more of your un-fact-checked right-wing talking points, huh Jazz?
 * The 2003 Florida Statistical Abstract census asked how people voted in the 2000 election. The results showed that Gore received over 1000 fewer votes than President George W. Bush.

Given the margin of error and the margin of victory, this number is as statistically meaningless as every other statistic that has been compiled regarding the votes in the 2000 election, and falls under the umbrella of the "confusing results" mentioned in the previous paragraph.

 * Actually no, the margin of error was far less than the 1000. According to the "ultra-right wing" CNN.

 * In early 2003, Gore was embarrassed by a statement made by former campaign strategist Michael Whouley, where it was revealed that Gore's 2000 presidential campaign deliberately caused a traffic jam on a major road in southern New Hampshire on primary day to keep Bill Bradley voters away from the polls. Whouley said that the Gore campaign team had seen exit polls that suggested that a large number of independents living in southern New Hampshire suburbs, were turning out to vote for Bradley. Gore's campaign team organized a caravan to clog traffic along Interstate 93, to keep potential Bradley voters away.

Oh really? http://www.dailyhowler.com/dh021203.shtml k.lee

 * Tell it to CNN.

 * You can blather all you like about CNN. Given your past edit history on this article, I will assume you are lying or misremembering, and delete any edits you introduce that contain these "facts", until you produce a link to credible documentation.  k.lee

 * Time to stop being a jerk, K. Lee. I added the information minutes after they made a HUGE deal about it on CNN. I don't give a rats ass if its here or it isn't.

 * Likewise, I don't give a shit about cable news, which I consider about as generally reliable as the supermarket tabloids. Call me whatever names you like; it doesn't change the fact that your edits are unreliable and slanted.  k.lee

-- WHy is this page protected, like homelessness, and me censored? If you think that my points are so well laid out that it might acutally get a liberal or a socialist to start to think for the first time in their life, why don't you rewrite all my points in a subtle manner, like the other writers did on Islamofascism? Please, don't censor all POVs that aren't left-wing liberal. JoeM

STOP THE LEFTWING CENSORSHIP OF THIS ARTICLE RIGHT NOW!!!!

Are you kidding me
Chris isn't just POVing this article shamelessly, he's also deleting the interwiki links and the table formatting. RickK 05:37, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

"Stop reverting, I'm not done"
Indeed. This article is a shambles. I'd suggest looking at a [reputable entry in an encyclopedia|entry in a reputable encyclopedia] before continuing the consistent blather that has become this article's edit history. We're capable of doing this in an NPOV manner, and it would be nice if we could do so before my grandson's elected president. ;) - Hephaestos 06:05, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Most of this article used to contain the text at Gore Personal and Political Controversies. In my opinion, that article is a complete POV waste (maybe 10% salvageable). It has been listed on vfd and should be deleted. Therefore, reverting to the pre-Chris version is not fine. I've tried to trim some of his POV text. What is needed now? --Jiang 06:16, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Stating pure facts is not POV, this is what the page should look like: http://www.internet-encyclopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=Al_Gore --Chris

 * It should be noted that you wrote that page http://www.internet-encyclopedia.org/wiki.phtml?title=Al_Gore&action=history. Maximus Rex 07:18, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

No, not presenting all facts, selectively presenting pure facts, or distorting pure facts by using certain words is POV. I will restore your last two edits:

''in 1998. He also supported the bombing campaign (Operation Desert Fox) in Iraq in response to Saddam Hussein's unwillingness to cooperate with UN inspectors.''

But what is the relevance. As a member of the administration, isn't it expected that he support its position? What was his specific role here? --Jiang 07:21, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

It is relevant because he has recently opposed the 2003 Iraq war, which was included in my version of PRIVATE Citizen:

Under private citizen, it ends by saying he vowed to stay invovled. That doesnt even go there. Please revert it to this:

Private citizen
Following his election loss, Gore accepted visiting professorships at Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism and Middle Tennessee State University. In 2002, Al Gore accepted a consulting job with a Los Angeles law firm and become an adviser to Google. Following the November 5, 2002 midterm elections Gore re-emerged into the public eye with a 14-city book tour and a well-orchestrated "full Gore" media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches. On September 23rd, Gore delivered a speech on the impending War with Iraq and the War on Terrorism that generated a fair amount of commentary. Less than two weeks later, on October 2, he made a speech on Bush's handling of the economy to the Brookings Institution. Also, during this time period Gore guest starred on several programs such as the David Letterman Show and Saturday Night Live appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office. Gore ended his media blitz on December, 15th 2002 when he announced that he would not seek his party's nomination. (See 2004 election for more)

The following year Gore joined the board of directors of Apple Computer. He also made the news around this time when it was reported that he was looking to buy the Vivendi Cable Network to start a news station that would have a combination of CNN and MTV and would try to reach to young viewers. However, till this point in time, no deal has been struck between the Gore led group and Vivendi. Gore also assumed an elder statesman like role in the Democratic Party when he challenged the Bush Administration on issues such as The War with Iraq, civil liberties, and terrorism.

Again, I don't see where you two say that is biased towards anyone. -ChrisDJackson

The Iraq War and Operation Desert Fox are under different cirumstances. Desert Fox was not a full-fledged invasion and had UN backing and support. Therefore, it's not entirely illogicial for him to support one but not the other. If there's irony, the irony must be explcicit, but I dont see it.

The last sentence of your second paragraph can be avoided because it is basically a summary of your first paragraph, which is a listing of all the major speeches he made. Just find the first link for "2003 invasion of Iraq" to see what I'm talking about. There's no need to mention things twice.

And please sign your posts. --Jiang 07:35, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

They are two different conflicts, but many criticized him for supporting one and not the other. I think that should be put in the endorsement area of Dean. He said that that is the major reason he endorsed Dean. ( Not supporting the war)

The two set of speeches mentioned is two differnt things and times. The first set was when he was making up his mind to run or not, that was in 2002. The second set with civilv liberties and such was in 2003.

--ChrisDJackson

Ok, went back and revised so it is not redundant:

Private citizen
Following his election loss, Gore accepted visiting professorships at Columbia University's Graduate School of Journalism and Middle Tennessee State University. In 2002, Al Gore accepted a consulting job with a Los Angeles law firm and become an adviser to Google. Following the November 5, 2002 midterm elections Gore re-emerged into the public eye with a 14-city book tour and a well-orchestrated "full Gore" media blitz which included a pair of policy speeches. On September 23rd, Gore delivered a speech on the impending War with Iraq and the War on Terrorism that generated a fair amount of commentary. Less than two weeks later, on October 2, he made a speech on Bush's handling of the economy to the Brookings Institution. Also, during this time period Gore guest starred on several programs such as the David Letterman Show and Saturday Night Live appearing much more relaxed and funnier as a private citizen than he did while holding public office.

The following year Gore joined the board of directors of Apple Computer. He also made the news around this time when it was reported that he was looking to buy the Vivendi Cable Network to start a news station that would have a combination of CNN and MTV and would try to reach to young viewers. However, till this point in time, no deal has been struck between the Gore led group and Vivendi. Gore also assumed an elder statesman like role in the Democratic Party when he denounced the Bush Administration on issues such as the Occupation of Iraq, USA Patriot Act, and the environment.

How is that?

Also, I like the rest of the page. You just need to include the above; IMHO.

Thanks, ChrisDJackson

Again, Gore also assumed an elder statesman like role portrays him as something not all people share. Avoid peacock terms --Jiang 10:13, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)

We only care about his pre-politican profession. The World Book Encyclopedia (the only other source that tabulates date like this) lists his profession as journalist. If you really want to cite that he teaches, list him as a teacher, like Woodrow Wilson. "Clinton Administration" has almost 1,100,000 more links to it that "Clinton-Gore Administration". That's the term we'll use. --Jiang 08:16, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Old VfD discussion
The page in question has been reintegrated into this article, the WP:VfD discussion is below:

 * Gore Personal and Political Controversies. Besides an ill-advised title, hopelessly POV.  RickK 04:18, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Content was moved from Al Gore. Delete, but do not move all this POV crap back, salvage whatver is relevant for a biographical article, not some anti-Gore political rant. --Jiang 04:53, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Any NPOV content on the subject belongs in the Al Gore article itself, not swept under the carpet like this. Salsa Shark 20:12, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete. Removing controversy to a seperate article is not acceptable. Given the user's edits, calling this an attempt to "sweep under the carpet" seems plausible. Information about Gore should stay in the Al Gore page. Maximus Rex 05:59, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * I learned quite a bit from this article and found it NPOV. Content is good, does it belong on the Al Gore page?  Or was it moved from there because Al Gore was getting too big?  No vote on the page, but I vote to keep the content. moink 19:01, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep the information! I strongly agree with Moink that this is an informative, useful, even necessary addition to an accurate and full article on Gore. While some may have an agenda and prefer one type of (flattering) information, if you sincerely find the tone rather than the content POV, please edit the article. If you are looking to remove facts which you dislike, find a new subject, your POV has gotten out of hand here. Jack 21:01, 1 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. Appears NPOV and informative.  Or perhaps move contents back to the full article. Coren 21:10, Jan 1, 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge and delete. Davodd 00:13, Jan 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * Yeah, I think it would be fine to return this to the original article, but without removing any of the content. Jack 00:22, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Merge into main Gore article. Interesting and overwhelmingly NPOV. -- stewacide 11:17, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is not a soapbox, nor is it located at snopes.com. In writing an encyclopedic biography, it is not in our interests to dispell rumors, only to state the hard and basic facts. Just because it's factual doesn't mean it should stay. --Jiang 12:56, 2 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep. A very good article. I went presuming a heap of nonsense based on comments made here. But it is well sourced, well written, and unambiguously NPOV and encyclopædic. Rumours and conspiracies are part and parcel of politics and a credible encyclopædia should have no problem explaining what are the claims, who makes them and what the factual evidence is. We do it about JFK, Bush and others. Gore warrants the same. FearÉIREANN 03:02, 3 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Keep the content. -- Cyan 06:01, 3 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Delete, as it stands now. This article has potential, but it is currently a mess. If I were grading this as a paper, I'd give it a D. It is formatted poorly and organized weakly. It quotes items second and third hand without citing references. Parts were paraphrased from other sites. Its title is sloppy. It should really be named Personal and political controversies of Al Gore. In order to save this article, someone has to do some heavy overhauls. Kingturtle 06:31, 3 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * Remerged into Al Gore article, needs organ

Controversies
I haven't followed this debate, but the controversies clearly belong in this article, preferably in the sections where the historical events they relate to are discussed (and with an even level of detail throughout). Having separate controversies articles is increasingly recognized as POV, and the same is the case here.—Eloquence 20:17, Jan 3, 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Al Gore/Archive 1


text:
Janghang Line

The Janghang Line is a railway line serving South Chungcheong Province in South Korea. The line connects Cheonan (on the Gyeongbu Line) to the railway junction city of Iksan. The Janghang Line is served by frequent Saemaeul-ho and Mugunghwa-ho passenger train services between Seoul and Iksan. There is also a link from Asan station to the KTX network at Cheonan-Asan station.

History
The original Janghang Line was opened along its full length running between Cheonan and Janghang by the Chosen Gyeongnam Railway on June 1, 1922.

Upgrade
The entire Janghang Line is being electrified, double-tracked, and upgraded for higher speeds with a straighter alignment. Work started in 1997 from Cheonan. By the end of 2008, the new alignment was in service from Cheonan via Asan and Hongseong to Sinseong, from Jupo to Nampo, and from Ganchi to Janghang, and electrification was put in service on the first 19.4 km between Cheonan and Sinchang, after Asan, on December 15, 2008. The 17.1 km section near Janghang, opened in December 2007, also linked up the Janghang Line with the previously isolated Iksan-Gunsan line via a new bridge over the Geum River, with alignment built for two tracks but initially only one track was laid. In 2010, the remaining sections were slated to be completed by 2018, but complete double-tracking and electrification was no longer planned on the short term due to expected low demand. The realigned 14.2 km Nampo-Ganchi section, including the relocated Ungcheon station, was opened on January 5, 2021. As of April 2023, the double-tracking of the Sinchang-Hongseong section was 85% completed and expected to be opened in the second half of 2024. Also as of April 2023, the double-tracking of the Hongseong-Daeya section, including the 18.8 km Sinseong-Jupo realignment that was scheduled to begin construction in 2023, was in advanced planning, with a 2027 completion targeted.

The Janghang Line will link up with the Seohae Line at Hongseong station. The Seohae Line will connect Hongseong to Hwaseong in Gyeonggi-do when it opens in the second half of 2024. It will be connected to southern extension of the Sosa–Wonsi Line and Sinansan Line. Seohae Line will serve 250 km/h speed, which will dramatically reduce travel time between Seoul and Hongseong.

Sinchang-Hongseong section will be double track electrifed when Seohae Line open.

Seoul Metropolitan Subway
Seoul Subway's Line 1 services run on the line between Cheonan–Sinchang stations.

title: Janghang Line


text:
Cuban cuisine

Cuban cuisine is largely based on Spanish cuisine with influence from Taino, African and other Caribbean cuisines. Some Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish, Taino and African cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. This results in a blend of several different cultural influences. A small but noteworthy Chinese influence can also be accounted for, mainly in the Havana area. There is also some Italian influence. During colonial times, Cuba was an important port for trade, and the Spanish ancestors of Cubans brought with them the culinary traditions of different parts of Spain.

Overview
As a result of the colonization of Cuba by Spain, one of the main influences on the cuisine is from Spain. Other culinary influences include the Taíno, the indigenous people of Cuba, Africa, from the Africans who were brought to Cuba as slaves, and French, from the French colonists who came to Cuba from Haiti. Another factor is that Cuba is an island, making seafood something that greatly influences Cuban cuisine. Another contributing factor to Cuban cuisine is that Cuba is in a tropical climate, which produces fruits and root vegetables that are used in Cuban dishes and meals.

A typical meal consists of rice and beans, cooked together or apart. When cooked together the recipe is called "congri" or "Moros" or "Moros y Cristianos" (black beans and rice). If cooked separately it is called "arroz con frijoles" (rice with beans) or "arroz y frijoles" (rice and beans).

Cuban sandwich
A Cuban sandwich (sometimes called a mixto, especially in Cuba ) is a popular lunch item that grew out of the once-open flow of cigar workers between Cuba and Florida (specifically Key West and the Ybor City neighborhood of Tampa) in the late 19th century and has since spread to other Cuban American communities.

The sandwich is built on a base of lightly buttered Cuban bread and contains sliced roast pork, thinly sliced Serrano ham, Swiss cheese, dill pickles, and yellow mustard. In Tampa, Genoa salami is traditionally layered in with the other meats, probably due to the influence of Italian immigrants who lived side by side with Cubans and Spaniards in Ybor City. Tomatoes and lettuce are available additions in many restaurants, but these are considered by traditionalists as an unacceptable Americanization of the sandwich.

After assembly, the Cuban sandwich may be pressed in a grooveless panini-type grill called a plancha, which both heats and compresses the contents.

List of Cuban dishes and foods

 * Arroz Imperial
 * Arroz con leche
 * Arroz con maiz
 * Arroz con pollo
 * Bistec de palomilla
 * Boliche
 * Brazo gitano
 * Buñuelo
 * Butifarra
 * Camarones
 * Casabe
 * Chicharrón
 * Chiviricos
 * Churros
 * Croqueta
 * Cucurucho
 * Dulce de leche
 * Empanada
 * Flan de calabaza
 * Flan de coco
 * Flan de guayaba
 * Flan de huevos
 * Elena Ruz
 * Frijoles negros
 * Frita
 * Fufú de plátano
 * Guayaba
 * Lechón
 * Majarete
 * Medianoche
 * Mermelada
 * Mojo criollo
 * Morcilla
 * Moros y Cristianos
 * Natilla
 * Papa rellena
 * Papitas fritas
 * Pasteles
 * Pernil
 * Picadillo
 * Platano maduro frito
 * Pudín de pan
 * Pulpeta
 * Rabo Encendido
 * Ropa vieja
 * Sandwich Cubano
 * Sopa de pollo
 * Tamal
 * Tortilla de patatas
 * Tasajo
 * Torrejas
 * Tostada
 * Tostones
 * Tres leches cake
 * Turrones
 * Vaca frita
 * Yuca con mojo
 * Yuca frita

List of Cuban drinks

 * Batido – Milkshake coming in flavors such as guanabana and trigo (wheat)
 * Cafe Cubano – Cuban espresso
 * Cuba Libre – Rum, Coca-Cola, sugar, and lime
 * Daiquiri – Rum, Lime, syrup (variations with fruit)
 * El Presidente
 * Guarapo – juice made from pressed sugar cane
 * Hatuey beer
 * Ironbeer
 * Malta (soft drink) – malt beverage
 * Materva
 * Mojito – Rum, mint, sugar, lime, and club soda
 * Jupiña – pineapple soda
 * Cortadito – Cuban espresso and steamed evaporated milk
 * Carajillo – Cuban Espresso, Liquor 43
 * Cuban Piña colada – Aged rum, lime, pineapple, and sugar

title: Cuban cuisine


text:
Talk:Janghang Line

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Robert Burren Morgan

Robert Burren Morgan (October 5, 1925 – July 16, 2016) was an American politician. He was a Democratic United States Senator from the state of North Carolina for a only single term from 1975 to 1981.

Life and career
Born in Lillington, North Carolina, Morgan attended Lillington public schools and later East Carolina College and Wake Forest University School of Law.

Morgan's political career began early when political leaders in his home county of Harnett County, including highly respected Democratic stalwart Veneble Baggett, visited him at the Wake Forest Law School and urged him to run for Clerk of Court. Morgan did so and was elected. After building a reputation in that office, he went into the private practice of law. His skill as a trial lawyer caused his practice to grow, and he soon established a reputation that extended across the state. Personal injury, real property and antitrust law were among his specialties.

He next ran for the North Carolina State Senate and won. He rose to the Senate's highest office, President Pro Tempore, and chaired key committees.

In 1968, Morgan challenged long-time incumbent Attorney General Wade Bruton in the Democratic Party primary, defeated him, and then won the General Election. He served one four-year term and then was re-elected. Under Morgan, the office was split into five divisions each responsible to a deputy attorney general, with a sixth division later added. He served two years of that term and then resigned to run for the U.S. Senate.

Early in his political career, Morgan was considered a supporter of segregation because of his allegiance to his former Wake Forest law professor, politician I. Beverly Lake, Sr., who ran an unsuccessful pro-segregation campaign for governor in 1960 against the progressive supporter of civil rights, Terry Sanford. But later, as an influential state senator, as North Carolina attorney general from 1969 to 1974, and as the successful candidate to succeed Democratic U.S. Senator Sam Ervin, Morgan was considered a moderate.

After winning the Democratic primary for U.S. Senate in 1974, Morgan resigned as attorney general effective August 26. He then won the general election over Republican William Stevens, garnering 63% of the vote.

Morgan was defeated for re-election in 1980 by Republican John Porter East in an extremely close race. Morgan returned to the practice of law and also served as director of North Carolina's State Bureau of Investigation under Attorney General Lacy Thornburg.

From 2000 to 2003, Morgan served as founding president of the North Carolina Center for Voter Education, a Raleigh, North Carolina based nonprofit and nonpartisan organization that seeks to increase civic engagement in North Carolina. Morgan was president emeritus of that organization.

Morgan died at the age of 90 at his home in Buies Creek, North Carolina on July 16, 2016.

title: Robert Burren Morgan


text: Talk:Gunsan Hwamul Line

title: Talk:Gunsan Hwamul Line


text:
Talk:Donghae Nambu Line

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John Porter East

John Porter East (May 5, 1931 – June 29, 1986) was an American Republican politician who served as a U.S. senator from the state of North Carolina from 1981 until his suicide in 1986.

A paraplegic since 1955 because of polio, East was a professor of political science at East Carolina University in Greenville.

Early life and education
John Porter East was born in Springfield, Illinois, on May 5, 1931, the son of an employee of the State of Illinois. He received his Bachelor of Arts degree from Earlham College in Indiana where he was left tackle on the football team. After his graduation in 1953, he married Priscilla Sherk and was commissioned as an officer in the United States Marine Corps. In 1955, East contracted polio while serving at Camp Lejeune. He would never walk again. He received a LL.B. degree from the University of Illinois College of Law and practiced law in Naples, Florida, for one year. He went on to receive his M.A. and Ph.D. in political science from the University of Florida.

Political career
East was a protégé of conservative Senator Jesse Helms. In 1966, East ran unsuccessfully for a vacancy in the United States House of Representatives in a special election, a race won by Walter B. Jones Sr.

In 1980, East narrowly defeated incumbent Democratic Senator Robert Burren Morgan.

In the Senate, he earned a reputation as a staunch social conservative, especially on the issue of abortion. Alongside Jesse Helms, East led opposition to the bill to create a federal holiday to honor Martin Luther King Jr. in 1983.

East was also a national security hawk, and was a member of the Judiciary Subcommittee on Security and Terrorism along with Orrin Hatch and Jeremiah Denton. The committee is notable for its accusations of Soviet infiltration of left-wing think tanks, publications and activist groups such as the Institute for Policy Studies and the magazine Mother Jones. East's primary national security staffer on the committee, Samuel T. Francis, later a prominent columnist for The Washington Times, has been cited as an intellectual fore-bearer of the alt-right movement.

In 1986, East announced that he would not seek re-election, and would instead return to his teaching position.

Death
On Friday, June 27, 1986, East completed work on the book galleys of his collected essays. He met with Supreme Court nominee Antonin Scalia. Then, commitments met, East drove to Greenville with his aide, John Petree, and arrived home about noon on Saturday. Petree stayed with him until daughter Kathryn arrived for a visit. Kathryn left her father "in good spirits" about midnight. Petree returned to East's house on Sunday morning, June 29. He found the front door ajar. The senator was dead in his garage, a victim of suicide by carbon monoxide poisoning. He left a note that blamed his doctor for failing to diagnose hypothyroidism, which he believed had robbed him of his intellectual abilities. North Carolina Governor James G. Martin appointed U.S. Representative Jim Broyhill to serve out the rest of East's term.

East is buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

title: John Porter East