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Coenocyte

A coenocyte is a multinucleate cell which can result from multiple nuclear divisions without their accompanying cytokinesis, in contrast to a syncytium, which results from cellular aggregation followed by dissolution of the cell membranes inside the mass. The word syncytium in animal embryology is used to refer to the coenocytic blastoderm of invertebrates. A coenocytic colony is referred to as a coenobium (: coenobia), and most coenobia are composed of a distinct number of cells, often as a multiple of two (4, 8, etc.).

Research suggests that coenobium formation may be a defense against grazing in some species.

Protists
Diplomonads, like Giardia, have two nuclei.

Ciliates have cells that contain two nuclei: a macronucleus and a micronucleus.

The schizont of apicomplexan parasites is a form of a coenocyte (i.e. a plasmodium in the general sense) as well as the plasmodia of microsporidian (Fungi) and myxosporidian (Metazoa) parasites.

The trophont of syndinean (Dinoflagellata) parasites.

Xenophyophorea are giant cells with numerous nuclei, and is common on the abyssal plains.

Algae
Coenocytic cells are present in diverse and unrelated groups of algae, including Xanthophyceae (e.g., Vaucheria), red algae (e.g., Griffithsia) and green algae (e.g., the internodal cells of Chara).

In the siphonous green algae Bryopsidales and some Dasycladales, the entire thallus is a single multinucleate cell, which can be many meters across (e.g. Caulerpa). However, in some cases, crosswalls may occur during reproduction.

The green algal order Cladophorales is characterized by siphonocladous organization, i.e., the thalli are composed of many coenocytic cells.

In contrast to the Cladophorales where nuclei are organized in regularly spaced cytoplasmic domains, the cytoplasm of Bryopsidales exhibits streaming, enabling transportation of organelles, transcripts and nutrients across the plant.

The Sphaeropleales also contain several common freshwater species that are coenocytic, namely Scenedesmus, Hydrodictyon, and Pediastrum.

Myxogastrids (slime molds)

 * See Plasmodium (life cycle).

Plants
The endosperm in plants begins to grow when one fertilized cell (the primary endosperm cell) becomes a coenocyte. Different species produce coenocytes with different numbers of nuclei before the PEC eventually begins to subdivide, with some growing to contain thousands of nuclei.

Fungi
Some filamentous fungi (such as Glomeromycota, Chytridiomycota and Neocalligomastigomycota) may contain multiple nuclei in a coenocytic mycelium. A coenocyte functions as a single coordinated unit composed of multiple cells linked structurally and functionally, i.e. through gap junctions. Fungal mycelia in which hyphae lack septa are known as "aseptate" or "coenocytic".

Metazoans: invertebrates
Many insects, such as the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, lay eggs that initially develop as "syncytial" blastoderms, i.e. early on the embryos exhibit incomplete cell division. The nuclei undergo S-phase (DNA replication) and sister chromatids get pulled apart and re-assembled into nuclei containing full sets of homologous chromosomes, but cytokinesis does not occur. Thus, the nuclei multiply in a common cytoplasmic space.

The early embryo "syncytium" of invertebrates such as Drosophila is important for "syncytial" specification of cell differentiation. The egg cell cytoplasm contains localized mRNA molecules such as those that encode the transcription factors Bicoid and Nanos. Bicoid protein is expressed in a gradient that extends from the anterior end of the early embryo, whereas Nanos protein is concentrated at the posterior end. At first, the nuclei of the early embryo rapidly and synchronously divide in the "syncytial" blastoderm and then migrate through the cytoplasm and position themselves in a monolayer around the periphery, leaving only a small number of nuclei in the center of the egg, which will become yolk nuclei. The position of the nuclei along the embryonic axes determines the relative exposure of different amounts of Bicoid, Nanos, and other morphogens. Those nuclei with more Bicoid will activate genes that promote differentiation of cells into head and thorax structures. Nuclei exposed to more Nanos will activate genes responsible for differentiation of posterior regions, such as the abdomen and germ cells. The same principles hold true for the specification of the dorso-ventral axis – higher concentration of nuclear Dorsal protein on the ventral side of the egg specify the ventral fate, whereas absence thereof allows dorsal fates. After the nuclei are positioned in a monolayer underneath the egg membrane, the membrane begins to slowly invaginate, thus separating the nuclei into cellular compartments; during this period, the egg is called a cellular blastoderm. The pole cells – the germline anlage – are the first cells to separate fully.

Pathological examples
Certain mutations and the activation of certain cell-cycle control genes can lead to bacteria forming "filament-like" cells with multiple chromosomes but without cellular division. These mechanisms or mistakes may lead to a similar structure to a coenocyte, though bacteria do not possess nuclei.

This fact has been used in certain synthetic biology applications, for example, to create cell-derived fibers for an organically grown concrete.

Etymology
As with much international scientific vocabulary, English got the word coenocyte (cœnocyte) from Neo-Latin, in which its combining forms, coeno- + -cyte, are based on ancient Greek: κοινός (koinós) = "common" + κύτος (kýtos) = "box, i.e. cell"). The stressed vowel is œ, which in scientific English usually sounds like long e and usually shifts a preceding c to be soft; this explains how there is a degree of regularity in "how one gets a "see-no" sound from coeno-," which might seem irregular at first glance.

title: Coenocyte


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Westminster Under School

Westminster Under School is an independent preparatory school for boys aged 7 to 13, attached to Westminster School in London.

The school was founded in 1943 in the precincts of Westminster School in Little Dean's Yard, just behind Westminster Abbey. In 1951 the Under School relocated to its own premises in Eccleston Square. Due to rising numbers of pupils in the 1960s and 1970s, the school moved again in 1981 to its present site, a former hospital, overlooking the Westminster School playing fields in Vincent Square. There are 285 pupils attending the school. The school has a strong musical tradition and provides choristers for St Margaret's Church in Westminster Abbey. It also excels in sport, drama (having produced winners of the recent Shakespeare Schools Festival), chess and Latin. Most boys attending the school move on to Westminster School after the completion of either Common Entrance or Scholarship examinations (in the case of Westminster School, the Challenge), although a number of boys each year go on to other schools, including Eton.

The previous Master was Mark O'Donnell, who retired in 2020 due to ill health. Steve Bailey came out of his retirement in the 2020/21 academic year as an interim measure. The current Master is Kate Jefferson, who recently came back from maternity leave, during which the acting Master was Michael Woodside. There are 47 members of staff.

The school fees for the 2020-21 academic year are £6,834 per term.

History
The Under School was founded in September 1943 at 2 Little Dean's Yard (now known as Grant's House) by the former Headmaster of Westminster School, John Traill Christie. There were only 6 teachers when the school was established and only 31 boys. Dean's Yard was used as a playing field for the boys and the roofless remains of the school along with the bombed school hall were used as a playground. St Faith's Chapel in Westminster Abbey served as the school chapel. For much of the Under School's history, the final year (Year 8) was known as the Upper Remove and the second to last year (Year 7) was known as the Remove.

After the war, the school moved to its own premises in Eccleston Square, and in 1981 moved to its present site in Vincent Square to cope with expanding numbers.

Entrance
Competitive entrance examinations for Westminster Under School can be taken at 7+, 8+ or 11+. Entry to Westminster Under School at 11+ attracts many pupils from the state sector. At this stage, the school also offers Music Scholarships and means-tested bursaries.

Campus
The school is housed in three buildings, listed below. As well as these buildings and the playing fields of Vincent Square, the school hires facilities at the Queen Mother Sports Centre in Victoria and at Battersea Park.

Adrian House
Adrian House is situated at 27 Vincent Square, a four-storey building in the south-east corner of Vincent Square in central London. It opened in 1951 and underwent a major rebuilding programme in 2001, when new classrooms, a new hall, an Art Department (which became more classrooms following the opening of George House) and an IT suite were built on the site of the old hall. In addition, all the classrooms and labs were refurbished. The hall, which would also serve as a canteen prior to the opening of 21 Douglas Street and space for P.E. prior to the opening of Lawrence Hall as Westminster School Sports Centre (see below), is used for theatre and drama performances by the school. It was refurbished in the 2014 and renamed the Performing Arts Studio. Adrian House provides access to two science laboratories and the basement is devoted entirely to the music department.

George House
George House, opposite Adrian House on 21 Douglas Street, opened in 2011 by the Dean of Westminster, the Very Reverend Dr John Hall. In 2014 it was given the name "George House". The building houses the Under School's Dining Room, Art Department, conference room, and staff meeting rooms.

Westminster School Sports Centre
In September 2012, the Royal Horticultural Society's Lawrence Hall was leased by Westminster School for 999 years, and became the School's Sports Centre. It was officially opened by HM Elizabeth II in 2015. The building is located on Elverton Street, moments from Vincent Square. The Under School uses it for sport, including P.E. and Games, and Extras (see section below).

Customs
The school, being attached to Westminster School, sends the oldest year of the school (Year 8) to take part in the annual pancake greaze on Shrove Tuesday. This is watched by the year below in the Great Hall. The school is Anglican and has a Thursday service in St Stephen's Church, Rochester Row.

The school also holds an annual Music Competition each summer in which all boys may enter one piece of music for any instrument they play. The winners and some runners-up from the Years 7 and 8 finals of the competition are invited to play in the school's annual Summer Concert in St John's, Smith Square, as well as the school's Senior String Orchestra, Senior Choir (made up of boys from Years 6, 7 and 8, also known as the Westminster Boys' Choir), the winning house choir and a number of instrumental ensembles.

There is also an annual reading competition, in which each boy chooses and optionally learns by heart a short piece of prose or poetry (fictional or otherwise), based on a given theme. The competition is held in the Lent term and is compulsory for each boy to enter. These are both house events, so points are given to houses for the results of the competition which are added to other points from other competitions or events, for trophies.

A photography competition and a model competition are held by the art department (both optional to enter). Before his recent retirement, there was also a general knowledge quiz, written by a Latin, Greek and sports teacher, S.R.H. James. S.R.H. James is also the author of the series, Latin I, Latin II and Latin III which until his retirement was used to teach Latin in the school. The quiz was held annually at the start of winter, and was scored out of 100. Boys who obtained a set mark (set for each year) are permitted to the second round. Boys who do well in the second round are entered to the SATIPS nationwide general knowledge quiz. The school’s pupils also compete regularly for the Townsend-Warner History Prize, a history competition for public schools.

Years 3 and 4
In Years 3 and 4, pupils are taught in most subjects by the same teacher (usually their form teacher), however they have specialist teachers in French, Music, Art and Design, IT, PE and Games. There is only one Year 3 form, typically of around 22 boys, and only 2 forms in Year 4 as the school typically accepts only 22 pupils per entry point. Until 2001, there was no Year 3 form, and the school accepted 42 boys into Year 4.

Years 5 and 6
In Year 5, the following subjects are taught, all by specialist teachers: Mathematics, English, Science, French, history, Geography, Religious Studies, Music, Art, Drama, IT, PE and Games but most are in their classroom. Year 5 were also formerly taught Roman and Greek mythology to prepare for when they start Latin in Year 6, however they have temporarily stopped. In Year 7, the boys are split into sets for Maths according to their performances in their Year 6 summer exams or 11+ entrance exams, depending on whether or not they were at the school in Year 6. When the list of boys who are to enter the school aged 11 the next year is confirmed, those boys begin to attend Saturday morning school so that they may begin to catch up in terms of curriculum with the Year 6s already at the school.

Year 7
Another two forms are created for the 11+ entrance. In Year 7, the curriculum remains broadly the same as in Year 6.

Year 8
Going into Year 8, the year group is split into those who will take Common Entrance or a similar exam for their chosen future school and those who embark on what is known as the "Scholarship Course", in which they prepare for scholarship papers to their chosen future schools. In Year 8, the boys are divided into four classes for each of humanities, science, languages and maths. Two of these forms are for those who will take Common Entrance, typically containing 18 or 19 boys each, and two other forms containing boys on the "Scholarship Course" – typically these forms will contain about 16 students each. One scholarship form will contain almost exclusively those preparing for the Challenge, the scholarship exam to Westminster School, whilst the other will also contain boys preparing for scholarship exams to other schools.

Greek is added as an additional subject in Year 8.

Houses
The school is organised into 4 houses, based on the charges on the Westminster Abbey, Westminster School and Westminster Under School coat of arms: Tudors (Red), Lions (Blue), Fleuries (Green) and Martlets (Yellow). There are regular inter-house competitions during the school year, including music, Scrabble and Chess. All the houses have a House Captain and Vice Captain who are changed every term. Up to 12 prefects are selected throughout the year from Year 8. This is done in such a way that most of Year 8 will be either a House Captain, Vice Captain, Head Boy or Prefect at some point during the year.

Extras
The school has many Extras (or clubs) boys can take part in. These extras include bridge, chess, swimming, fencing, judo, karate, mandarin, LAMDA, indoor and outdoor cricket, indoor football, cooking, photography, climbing, table tennis and outdoor tennis. Extras take place after school time.

Notable alumni

 * Adam Buxton (journalist and comedian)
 * Andrew Lloyd Webber (composer)
 * Julian Lloyd Webber (cellist)
 * Jason Kouchak (pianist and composer)
 * George Benjamin (composer)
 * Alfred Enoch (actor)
 * Luke McShane (chess player)
 * Dan McKenzie (academic)
 * Ben Adams (singer)
 * Hilary Benn (MP)
 * Jacob Rees-Mogg (MP)

Expansion Plans
Updated January 2024

The school is hoping to become entirely co-educational by 2030 and also is expanding into neighbouring Chapter House. Boys in the school have recently been asked to suggest architectural ideas for this new development.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Westminster Under School


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Military Sealift Command

The Military Sealift Command (MSC) is an organization that controls the replenishment and military transport ships of the United States Navy. Military Sealift Command has the responsibility for providing sealift and ocean transportation for all US military services as well as for other government agencies. It first came into existence on 9 July 1949 when the Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS) became solely responsible for the Department of Defense's ocean transport needs. The MSTS was renamed the Military Sealift Command in 1970.

Military Sealift Command ships are made up of a core fleet of ships owned by the United States Navy and others under long-term-charter augmented by short-term or voyage-chartered ships.

 * During a time charter MSC takes control of a merchant ship and operates it for the chartered amount of time. During this time the ship is crewed by civilian mariners and MSC pays for all expenses. Time chartered ships are not subject to inspections from foreign governments when in port, and MSC has operational control.
 * Voyage chartered ships are crewed by civilian mariners, and MSC only pays the fee for transporting the cargo. These ships are chartered for the voyage, subject to inspections, and MSC does not have operational control of the ship.

The Navy-owned ships carry blue and gold stack colors, are in service with the prefix USNS (United States Naval Ship), rather than in commission (with a USS prefix), have hull numbers as an equivalent commissioned ship would have with the prefix T- and are primarily civilian crewed by either civil service mariners or contract crews (see United States Merchant Marine) as is the case of the special mission ships. Some ships may have Navy or Marine Corps personnel on board to carry out communication and special mission functions, or for force protection. Ships on charter or equivalent, retain commercial colors and bear the standard merchant prefix MV, SS, or GTS, without hull numbers.

Eight programs compose Military Sealift Command: Fleet Oiler (PM1), Special Mission (PM2), Strategic Sealift (PM3), Tow, Salvage, Tender, and Hospital Ship (PM4), Sealift (PM5), Combat Logistics Force (PM6), Expeditionary Mobile Base, Amphibious Command Ship, and Cable Layer (PM7) and Expeditionary Fast Transport (PM8).

MSC reports to the Department of Defense's Transportation Command for defense transportation matters, to the Navy Fleet Forces Command for Navy-unique matters, and to the Assistant Secretary of the Navy (Research, Development and Acquisition) for procurement policy and oversight matters.

Command structure
Military Sealift Command is organized around eight programs:
 * Fleet Oiler Program N031 (formerly Combat Logistics Force (PM1) or Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force NFAF)
 * Special Mission Program N032 (formerly (PM2))
 * Strategic Sealift Program N033 (Formerly Prepositioning (PM3))
 * Tow, Salvage, Tender, and Hospital Ship Program N034 (Formerly Service Support (PM4))
 * Sealift Program N035 (Formerly Sealift (PM5))
 * Combat Logistics Force Program N036 (Formerly Fleet Ordnance and Dry Cargo (PM6))
 * Expeditionary Mobile Base, Amphibious Command Ship, and Cable Layer Program N037 (Formerly Afloat Staging Command Support (PM7))
 * Expeditionary Fast Transport Program N038 (Formerly Joint High Speed Vessel (PM8))

On 9 January 2012, the MSC command organization was reorganized via a realignment of its structure to increase its efficiency while maintaining effectiveness. To better manage this new program structure, MSC repositioned three of its key Senior Executive Service (SES) personnel, with one SES acting as the program executive over MSC's government-operated ships, a second SES serving as the program executive over contract-operated ships, and a third SES overseeing total force manpower management for MSC worldwide operations. Also, MSC realigned two of its four mission-driven programs (Combat Logistics Force and Special Mission) and adding a fifth program (Service Support). The Prepositioning and Sealift programs are unchanged by the 2012 reorganization.

As of June 2013, Military Sealift Command operated around 110 ships, and employed 9,800 people (88% of whom are civilians).

In 2015, the Military Sealift Command underwent further restructuring with the relocation from the former headquarters at Washington Navy Yard to Naval Station Norfolk.

Fleet Oiler Program N031

The Combat Logistics Force was the part of the MSC most associated with directly supporting the Navy. In 1972, a study concluded that it would be cheaper for civilians to man USN support vessels such as tankers and stores ships. The CLF is the American equivalent of the British Royal Fleet Auxiliary. These MSC ships are painted haze gray and can be easily identified by the blue and gold horizontal bands around the top of their central smokestack.

The Combat Logistics Force was formerly called the Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force. After a 2012 reorganization, this program now maintains the 32 government-operated fleet underway replenishment ships from the former Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force (NFAF). Fleet replenishment oilers form the Oilers Program N031, while the dry cargo/ammunition ships and fast combat support ships were separated to Explosive Program N036.

 * Fleet Oiler Program ship types;
 * Fleet Replenishment Oilers (T-AO) Henry J. Kaiser-class replenishment oiler
 * Fleet Replenishment Oilers (T-AO) John Lewis-class replenishment oiler

Special Mission Program N032
Military Sealift Command's Special Mission Program controls 24 ships that provide operating platforms and services for unique US Military and federal government missions. Oceanographic and hydrographic surveys, underwater surveillance, missile flight data collection and tracking, acoustic research and submarine support are among the specialized services this program supports. Special mission ships work for several different US Navy customers, including the Naval Sea Systems Command and the Oceanographer of the Navy. These ships like those of the NFAF are painted haze gray with blue and gold stack bands.

After a 2012 reorganization, this program now maintains all of its 24 contract-operated ships involved in missile range instrumentation, ocean surveillance, submarine and special warfare support, oceanographic survey, and navigation test support. Some of its ships were transferred to the new Service Support program.

 * Special Mission ship types;
 * Missile Range Instrumentation Ship (T-AGM)
 * Navigation Test Support Ship (T-AGS)
 * Ocean Surveillance Ships (T-AGOS)
 * Oceanographic Survey Ships (T-AGS)
 * Submarine and Special Warfare Support (T-AGSE)
 * Sea-based X-band Radar (SBX)

Strategic Sealift Program N033
Military Sealift Command's Prepositioning Program is an element in the US's triad of power projection into the 21st century—sea shield, sea strike and sea basing. As a key element of sea basing, afloat prepositioning provides the military equipment and supplies for a contingency forward deployed in key ocean areas before need. Part the prepositioning strategy is forward presence and power projection. Prepositioning extends the reach of operations, isolates conflicts away from the United States, allows for a swift response to conflict, and reduces time and resources delegated to transporting cargo. The MSC Prepositioning Program supports the US Army, Navy, Air Force and Marine Corps and the Defense Logistics Agency. Prepositioning ships remain at sea, ready to deploy on short-notice the vital equipment, fuel and supplies to initially support military forces in the event of a contingency. The Prepositioning Program consists of 34 at-sea ships plus two aviation support ships kept in reduced operating status. These ships wear civilian livery, and are only designated "USNS" if government-owned; those chartered from civilian owners are either "SS" or "MV". Two Dry Cargo/Ammunition Ships (T-AKE) are included in the program in a Reduced Operational Status (ROS).

 * Strategic Sealift Program ship types;
 * Air Force Container Ships (T-AK)
 * Army Container Ships (T-AK)
 * Dry Cargo/Ammunition Ships (T-AKE)
 * Aviation Logistics Support Ship (T-AVB)
 * Break-Bulk Ships (T-AK)
 * Large, Medium-Speed, Roll-On/Roll-Off Ships (T-AKR)
 * Marine Corps Container and Roll-On/Roll-Off Ships (T-AK/T-AKR)
 * Expeditionary Transfer Dock (T-ESD)

Tow, Salvage, Tender, and Hospital Ship Program N034
Formerly Service Support (PM4) it consists of fleet ocean tugs, rescue and salvage ships, submarines tenders, and hospitals ships formerly from the NFAF. Command ships and cable layers were transferred to the N037 program.

 * Service Support ship types;
 * Fleet Ocean Tugs (T-ATF)
 * Rescue/Salvage Ships (T-ARS)
 * Submarine Tender (AS)
 * Hospital Ships (T-AH)

Sealift Program N035
The mission of the Sealift Program is to provide ocean transportation to the Department of Defense by meeting its sealift requirements in peace, contingency, and war with quality, efficient cost effective assets and centralized management. This is achieved through the use of commercial charter vessels, Large, Medium-Speed Roll-on/Roll-off ships, and the Maritime Administration's Ready Reserve Force, including the eight former MSC fast sealift ships. Sealift is divided into three separate project offices: Tanker Project Office, Dry Cargo Project Office and the Surge Project Office.

 * Sealift Program Ship Types;
 * Dry Cargo Ships (T-AK)
 * Large, Medium-Speed, Roll-On/Roll-Off Ships (T-AKR)
 * Tankers (T-AOT)

Combat Logistics Force Program N036
Formerly the Fleet Ordnance and Dry Cargo (PM6), it is composed of twelve Dry Cargo/Ammunition ships and two Fast Combat Support ships. Dry Cargo and Ammunition ships, or T-AKEs, were designed to replenish dry and refrigerated stores as well as ordnance. They have replaced combat stores ships and ammunition ships incorporating the capabilities of both platforms into one hull. These multi-product ships increase the delivery capability to provide food, fuel, spare parts, ammunition and potable water to the U.S. Navy and allies' ships. Fast Combat Support Ships or T-AOEs provide parts, supplies and fuel at sea.

 * Combat Logistics Force Ship Types;
 * Dry Cargo/Ammunition Ships (T-AKE)
 * Fast Combat Supply (T-AOE)

Expeditionary Mobile Base, Amphibious Command Ship, and Cable Layer Program N037
Formerly the Afloat Staging Command Support (PM7) program, it is composed of the Expeditionary Mobile Base ships (replacement for the Afloat Forward Staging Base), the Amphibious Command Ship USS Mount Whitney (LCC-20), and the cable layer USNS Zeus (T-ARC-7).

 * Afloat Staging Command Support Program Ship Types;
 * Expeditionary Mobile Base (ESB) – (ESD subvariant)
 * Amphibious command ship (LCC)
 * Cable layer (T-ARC)

Expeditionary Fast Transport Program N038
This consists of the class of ships formerly known as the Joint High Speed Vessel (JHSV) program but was changed to (EPF) in September 2015. The Expeditionary Fast Transport (EPF) program is a cooperative effort for a high-speed, shallow draft vessel intended for rapid intratheater transport of medium-sized cargo payloads. The EPF will reach speeds of 35–45 knots (65–83 km/h; 40–52 mph) and will allow for the rapid transit and deployment of conventional or special forces as well as equipment and supplies.

 * Expeditionary Fast Transport Program Ship Types;
 * Expeditionary Fast Transport [formerly Joint High Speed Vessel (JHSV)

Area commands
MSC headquarters is located at Naval Station Norfolk in Norfolk, VA. As a result of a 2012 organization, MSC's 12 worldwide MSC ship support units (SSUs) will now report to the MSC operational area commands in their respective areas of responsibility. These are responsible for crewing, training, equipping and maintaining MSC's government-owned, government-operated ships. Formerly, these SSUs had reported to MSC's Military Sealift Fleet Support Command (MSFSC), a subordinate command of Military Sealift Command and is a single Type Commander (TYCOM) execution command having worldwide responsibility to crew, train, equip and maintain MSC government-owned, government-operated ships. MSFSC officially stood up on 13 November 2005. Stand up of the Ship Support Units (SSUs) followed establishment of MSFSC, their parent command. SSU San Diego stood up in conjunction with MSFSC. By late 2008, all subordinate SSUs were fully operational.
 * MSC Atlantic in Norfolk. In October 2013, the MSCLANT Task Force Designator changed from CTF-23 to CTF-83. Missions, functions and tasks remained unchanged.
 * MSC Pacific in San Diego
 * MSC Europe & Africa in Naples
 * MSC Central in Bahrain
 * MSC Far East in Singapore

MSFSC was formed from the following MSC elements: Portions of Sealift Logistics Command Atlantic and the former Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force East; Portions of Sealift Logistics Command Pacific; Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force West (except those positions remaining in SSU San Diego); and The Afloat Personnel Management Center.

MSFSC was also responsible for providing support to other MSC assets as directed. MSFSC has ship support units, or SSUs, in Naples, Bahrain, Singapore, Guam, Yokohama and San Diego. The SSUs (except for Guam and Yokohama) are collocated with their respective numbered fleet operational logistics task force commanders and Sealift Logistics Commands, but are not within that chain of command. SSUs provide local TYCOM support to ships in their area of operations and report directly to MSFSC. MSFSC was disestablished following restructuring when Military Sealift Command relocated to Naval Station Norfolk from the Washington Navy Yard.

Sealift's capabilities are significantly hampered by biofouling. Maintenance is sometimes performed to remove fouling, but sealift maintenance must follow the Uniform National Discharge Standards for the chemicals used in this process.

Military sea transportation prior to 1949
As early as 1847, both the U.S. Army and U.S. Navy chartered American merchant ships separately. Following the Mexican–American War, Brigadier General Thomas S. Jesup, Quartermaster of the Army, recommended that the Navy be given responsibility for all water transportation requirements for the military. However, each service managed their own sea transportation throughout the nineteenth century and both World Wars.

In World War II, four government agencies conducted military sealift functions, the Naval Overseas Transportation Service (NOTS), the Army Transport Service, the U.S. Maritime Commission's War Shipping Administration, and the Fleet Support Services. To oversee these organizations, the Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) established the Joint Military Transportation Command.

Military Sea Transportation Service
On 15 December 1948, the Secretary of Defense James Forrestal issued a statement, "all military sea transport including Army transports would be placed under Navy command." Issues with funding held up the transfer of the functions to the Navy. The new Secretary of Defense, Louis Johnson, issued a memorandum on 12 July 1949 that detailed service responsibilities and the funding of the new Military Sea Transportation Service (MSTS).

MSTS became the single managing agency for the Department of Defense's ocean transportation needs. The command assumed responsibility for providing sealift and ocean transportation for all military services as well as for other government agencies. The new command set up subcomponents, for example, Military Sea Transportation Service Pacific (ComMSTSPac).

Nine months after its creation, MSTS responded to the challenge of the Korean War. On 6 July 1950, eleven days after the initial invasion of South Korea by North Korean troops, MSTS deployed the 24th Infantry Division for duty in Japan to Pusan, South Korea. In addition to transporting troops and combat equipment to and from Korea, command ships supplied US bases and Distant Early Warning line construction sites and supported US nation building efforts from Europe and Africa, to the Far East.

The 1960s brought the conflict in Southeast Asia. From 1965 to 1969 MSTS moved almost 54 million tons of combat equipment and supplies and almost 8 million long tons of fuel to South Vietnam. The Vietnam War era also marked the last use of MSC troop ships for personnel movement. Currently, most US troops are prepositioned by air.

Military Sealift Command
MSTS was renamed Military Sealift Command (MSC) in 1970. In 1971 Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Elmo Zumwalt proposed the use of MSC ships for direct support of the fleet at sea. Heretofore, these civilian-crewed ships had only been used for point to point transport of cargo. To determine the feasibility of this concept, Admiral Zumwalt directed the formation of a special study group to recommend how the navy could better utilize the MSC fleet to save both manpower and money. The high cost of training personnel after the advent of the all-volunteer navy made it imperative that seagoing personnel be assigned to complex warships of the fleet whenever possible. The study concluded that significant savings could be achieved if civilian mariners could be substituted for uniformed navy sailors in fleet support ships.

In 1972 a joint U.S. Navy-Maritime Administration project called "Charger Log" was established to test whether or not a union-crewed merchant ship could provide some or all of the fleet support services normally provided by navy oilers. Extensive trials were conducted using the civilian crewed merchant tanker SS Erna Elizabeth equipped with both alongside and astern fueling gear to test the feasibility of augmenting (not replacing) the service force with ships of the U.S. Merchant Marine. The success of 'Charger Log' contributed to the formation of the Naval Fleet Auxiliary Force.

The navy oiler USS Taluga (AO-62) was the first fleet-support ship to be placed under MSC control. Decommissioned on 4 May 1972, she was transferred to the MSC and redesignated T-AO-62. After its transfer, the ship underwent a thorough overhaul that included refurbishment of equipment, gear, and refueling rigs, modification of crew quarters, and the removal of armaments. She entered service with a crew of 105 civilian mariners hired by the government augmented by a sixteen-member naval complement.

The shortage of multiproduct replenishment ships in the early 1970s led to the development of an improvised system for dispensing fuel from ammunition and stores ships that allowed them to transfer fuel to smaller combatants. Neither type of ship had cargo fuel, but each could share its own fuel with destroyers and frigates in an emergency. The lack of sufficient numbers of AOEs or AORs precluded the deployment of these types in support of any of the surface warfare groups, which were generally composed of destroyers and frigates. The old saying that necessity is the mother of invention proved to be true when Rear Admiral John Johnson devised a practical solution to the shortage of fuel-carrying UNREP ships based on the modification of existing cargo transfer gear on ammunition and stores ships. As commander Task Force 73 (the service force of the Seventh Fleet) in 1973, Admiral Johnson had to contend with the problem of how to provide logistic support for the two Seventh Fleet destroyers deployed to the Indian Ocean for an extended period of time. The answer was to turn the USS Kiska (AE-35) into a mini multiproduct ship by adding two cargo reefer boxes as deck cargo and outfitting it with a jury-rigged fuel station. The latter was achieved by temporarily rigging a 7-inch fuel hose to the starboard side cargo station—the one closest to the ship's fuel receiving raiser. The highline was used as a span wire, and fuel hose saddles were supported from a wire whip from a nearby hauling winch or a fiber whip from a nearby gypsy. Fuel was pumped from the ship's own fuel bunkers to the receiving ship alongside using the fuel-transfer pump normally carried aboard the AE. The pumping rate was considerably less than that of a fleet oiler and, while workable, contained many drawbacks.

By the time the USNS Henry J. Kaiser (T-AO-187) entered service on 19 December 1986, the Navy had transferred the five Second World War vintage tankers of the Mispillion class and the six 1950s-built Neosho-class fleet oilers to the Military Sealift Command.

Through the 1970s and 1980s MSC provided the Department of Defense with ocean transportation. During the first Persian Gulf War, consisting of Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm, MSC distinguished itself as the largest source of defense transportation of any nation involved. Command resources delivered more than 12 million tons (11 million metric tonnes) of wheeled and tracked vehicles, helicopters, ammunition, dry cargo, fuel and other supplies and equipment during the war. At the high point of the war, more than 230 government-owned and chartered ships delivered the largest part of the international arsenal that defeated Saddam Hussein in Iraq. MSC was also involved in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, delivering 61000000 ft2 of cargo and 1100000000 USgal of fuel by the end of the first year.

In August 2017, the Government Accountability Office issued a report detailing readiness issues that limited at-sea mission capabilities, prompting an investigation from the Department of Defense's Inspector General.

Notable ships
History Military Sealift Command operated former ships of the U.S. Navy, which upon decommissioning changes prefixes from United States Ship (USS) to United States Naval Ship (USNS). In rare instances, ships were transferred from MSC to the U.S. Navy, being commissioned and receiving the USS-prefix.
 * USNS Point Barrow (T-AKD-1) was launched in 1957 and delivered to the Military Sea Transportation Service as a Cargo Ship Dock. She was later extensively modified and in 1974 reclassified a "Deep Submergence Support Ship" and renamed USS Point Loma (AGDS-2).
 * USNS Lewis B. Puller (T-ESB 3) is the first purpose-built Expeditionary Mobile Base (previously Mobile Landing Platform, then Afloat Forward Staging Base) vessel for the United States Navy. She was delivered to Military Sealift Command in 2015, then later commissioned on 17 August 2017 in Bahrain, with her prefix changing from USNS to USS and her hull designation changing from T-ESB-3 to ESB-3.[10] She is the first overseas commissioning of a U.S. Navy warship.
 * USS Coronado (AGF-11) was an Austin-class amphibious transport dock (LPD) commissioned in 1970 fitted with an additional superstructure level for command ship duties. In 2003 she was decommissioned, re-designated as USNS Coronado (T-AGF-11) with the intention of being operated by a civilian MSC crew. It was concluded shortly thereafter that the operations the ship engaged in required her to be a USS warship and thus she was transferred back to the Navy and recommissioned. She was finally decommissioned for the last time in 2006 and was later used for a SINKEX in 2012.
 * USS Ponce (AFSB(I)-15) was an Austin-class amphibious transport dock (LPD) commissioned in 1971, and was planned for decommissioning in 2012, but was converted at short notice into the Afloat Forward Staging Base and operated by Military Sealift Command. She was relieved by the USNS Lewis B. Puller (T-ESB-3) in 2017, after which she was finally retired after 46 years of service.
 * USS Card (CVE-11) was a Bogue-class escort aircraft carrier laid down in 1941 as a C-3 cargo ship, then acquired from the Maritime Commission while under construction and converted into an escort carrier, and decommissioned after World War 2. In 1958 she was placed into service with Military Sea Transportation Service as a civilian aircraft transport and later sunk pierside after being attacked by the Viet Cong in the Vietnam War, killing five civilian crew members.
 * USS Taluga (AO-62) was a Cimarron-class fleet oiler acquired by the U.S. Navy during World War II. In 1972 she was decommissioned and turned over to the Military Sealift Command for civilian operation as USNS Taluga (T-AO-62) in a then-experimental use of the Military Sea Transportation Service's ability.
 * USNS LCPL Roy M. Wheat (T-AK-3016) was originally launched in 1987 by the Black Sea Shipyard in Mykolaiv, Ukrainian SSSR as the GTS Vladimir Vaslyayev, she was acquired in 1997 by the US Navy and began conversion in 2001 for transfer to the Military Sealift Command, in 2003 this conversion was completed and she was renamed in honor of US Marine and Medal of Honor recipient Roy M. Wheat. The conversion process included a 118 ft midbody hull extension, the installation of two cargo cranes, installation of fore and aft garages, strengthening and increasing the length of the stern ramp, a stern helicopter deck, conversion of the electrical system from 50 Hz to 60  Hz, the replacement of the ship's generator and electrical switching gear replacement, new Vosper-Thornycroft machinery control systems, new and larger accommodations, and climate control systems for the cargo holds. LCPL Roy M. Wheat left service and was struck December 30, 2021

title: Military Sealift Command


text:
Curonian Spit

The Curonian (Courish) Spit (Kuršių nerija; Ку́ршская коса́) is a 98 km long, thin, curved sand-dune spit that separates the Curonian Lagoon from the Baltic Sea. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site shared by Lithuania and Russia. Its southern portion lies within Kaliningrad Oblast of Russia, and its northern within southwestern Klaipėda County of Lithuania.

Geography
The Curonian Spit stretches from the Sambia Peninsula on the south to its northern tip next to a narrow strait, across which is the port city of Klaipėda on the Lithuanian mainland. The northern 52 km long stretch of the Curonian Spit peninsula lies in Klaipėda County, Lithuania, while the rest is part of Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. The width of the spit varies from a minimum of 400 m in Russia (near the village of Lesnoy) to a maximum of 3800 m in Lithuania (just north of Nida).

Geologic history
The Curonian Spit was formed about 3rd millennium BC. A glacial moraine served as its foundation; winds and sea currents later contributed enough sand to raise and keep the formation above sea level.

The existence of this narrow shoal is inherently threatened by the natural processes that govern shoreline features. It depends on a dynamic balance between sand transport and deposition. It is, geologically speaking, an ephemeral coast element. The most likely development is that the shallow bay inside the Curonian Spit will eventually fill up with sediment, thus creating new land.

Mythology
According to folk etymology for the name of Neringa Municipality, there was a giantess girl named Neringa, who formed the Curonian Spit and helped fishermen.

Medieval period
From c. 800 to 1016, the Spit was the location of Kaup, a major pagan trading centre which has not yet been excavated. The Teutonic Knights occupied the area in the 13th century, building their castles at Memel (1252), Neuhausen (1283), and at Rossitten (1372). After the Thirteen Years' War (1454–1466), the spit became part of a Polish fief held by the Teutonic Knights. The spit may have been the home of the last living speaker of now-extinct Old Prussian, one of the Baltic languages.

Kursenieki habitation
Significant human impacts on the area began in the 16th century. From the 18th century, it was part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Deforestation of the spit due to overgrazing, timber harvesting, and building of boats for the Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf in 1757 led to the dunes taking over the spit and burying entire villages. Alarmed by these problems, the Prussian government sponsored large-scale revegetation and reforestation efforts, which started in 1825. Owing to these efforts, much of the spit is now covered with forests.

In the 19th century the Curonian Spit was inhabited primarily by Kursenieki, with a significant German minority in the south and a Lithuanian minority in the north. The population of Kursenieki eventually dwindled due to assimilation and other reasons; it is close to non-existent these days.

Artists' colony
From the late 19th century, the dune landscape around Nidden (Nida) became popular with landscape and animal painters from the Kunstakademie Königsberg arts school. The local inn of Herman Blode was the nucleus of the expressionist artists' colony (Künstlerkolonie Nidden). Lovis Corinth stayed here in 1890, followed by artists such as Max Pechstein, Alfred Lichtwark, Karl Schmidt-Rottluff, and Alfred Partikel. Painters from Königsberg such as Julius Freymuth visited the area, as did poets like Ernst Wiechert and Carl Zuckmayer. Other guests included Ernst Kirchner, and Franz Domscheit.

20th century
From 1901 to 1946 the village of Rossitten, now Rybachy, became the site of the Rossitten Bird Observatory, founded by German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann there because of the Spit's importance as a bird migration corridor.

After World War I, Nidden, together with the northern half of the Curonian Spit became part of the Klaipėda Region according to the 1919 Treaty of Versailles and was annexed by Lithuania in 1923. Officially renamed Nida, the village nevertheless remained a German-majority settlement – the border with the remaining East Prussian half of the Spit lay only a few kilometres to the south.

In 1929 Nobel Prize-winning writer Thomas Mann visited Nida while on holiday in nearby Rauschen and decided to have a summer house erected on a hill above the Lagoon, mocked as Uncle Tom's Cabin (Onkel Toms Hütte) by locals. He and his family spent the summers of 1930–1932 in the thatched cottage; parts of the novel Joseph and His Brothers (Joseph und seine Brüder) were written here. Threatened by the Nazis, Mann left Germany after Hitler's Machtergreifung in 1933 and never returned to Nida. After the Klaipėda Region was again annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939, his house was seized at the behest of Hermann Göring and served as a recreation home for Luftwaffe officers.

Following World War II, the German-occupied Lithuanian part of the spit was restored to Lithuania, while the remainder fell to Russia. The German population was expelled after the war by the occupying Soviet forces in accordance with the Potsdam Agreement. Like elsewhere in present-day Kaliningrad Oblast, the assimilation of the territory and colonization by Russian settlers was completed by changing the historic German toponyms to Russian ones throughout the Russian-controlled part of the Spit.

Today
After the breakup of the Soviet Union, tourism flourished; many Germans, mostly the descendants of the inhabitants of the area, choose the Curonian Spit (especially Nida, as no visas are needed for Germans in Lithuania) as their holiday destination. In 2019 the making of Curonian Lagoon Boats’ Weathervanes was inscribed into The Intangible Cultural Heritage Inventory of Lithuania as a form of folk art, traditional craftsmanship or agricultural activities.

Kursenieki
While today the Kursenieki, also known as Kuršininkai, are a nearly extinct Baltic ethnic group living along the Curonian Spit, in 1649 Kuršininkai settlement spanned from Memel (Klaipėda) to Gdańsk. The Kuršininkai were eventually assimilated by the Germans, except along the Curonian Spit where some still live. The Kuršininkai were considered Latvians until after World War I, when Latvia gained independence from the Russian Empire, a consideration based on linguistic arguments. This was the rationale for Latvian claims over the Curonian Spit, Memel and other territories of Prussia, which would be later dropped.

Current state

The Curonian Spit is home to the highest moving (drifting) sand dunes in Europe. Their average height is 35 m, but some attain a height of 60 m. Several ecological communities are present on and near the Spit, from its outer beaches to dune ridges, wetlands, meadows, and forests. Its location on the East Atlantic Flyway means it is frequently visited by migratory waterfowl. Between 10 and 20 million birds fly over the feature during spring and fall migrations, and many pause to rest or breed there.

Both the Russian and Lithuanian parts of the spit are national parks.

The settlements of the Curonian Spit (from north to south) are:

 * Smiltynė
 * Alksnynė
 * Juodkrantė
 * Pervalka
 * Preila
 * Nida
 * Morskoe
 * Rybachy
 * Lesnoy

The first six are on the Lithuanian side, while the last three are on the Russian side. The Russian side of the Curonian Spit belongs to Zelenogradsky District of the Kaliningrad Oblast, while the Lithuanian side is partitioned among Klaipėda city municipality and Neringa municipality in Klaipėda County.

There is a single road that traverses the whole length of the Curonian Spit. Car ferries provide a transportation link between Smiltynė, located on the spit, and the port town of Klaipėda.

Since 2000, the Curonian Spit has been on UNESCO's World Heritage List under cultural criteria "V" ("an outstanding example of a traditional human settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a culture [...], or human interaction with the environment especially when it has become vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change").

As of March 2012, there was a demand to tear down a number of homes on the Curonian Spit. These homes are owned by people who were given permits to build by corrupt local government officials. The demand to tear the homes down is based on the fact that the Spit is a UN World Heritage Site and the only structures that were to be allowed outside official settlements were fishing shacks.

Tourism
The largest town on the spit is Nida in Lithuania, a holiday resort, mostly frequented by Lithuanian and German tourists.

Parnidis dune and sundial
Parnidis sand dune, subjected to drift by harsh winds, is rising up to 52 m above sea level. Local residents believe that the name Parnidis comes from the phrase meaning "passed across Nida", because this wind-blown dune has several times passed through the village of Nida. Scientists estimated that each person climbing or descending on the steep dune slopes moves several tons of sand, so hikers are allowed to climb only in designated paths.

There is a granite sundial built on Parnidis dune in 1995 that accurately shows the time. The sundial was rebuilt in 2011 following storm damage. The sundial is a stone pillar 13.8 m high and weighing 36 t. It consists in small steps covered with granite slabs, carved with hour and half-hour notches, as well as one notch for each month, and four additional notches for solstices and equinoxes. From the astronomical point of view Parnidis dune is an ideal place for the sundial in Lithuania.

Environmental concerns
There are environmental concerns related to the Curonian Spit, which is often promoted as a refuge of clean nature.

Due to the importance of tourism and fishing for the regional economy, pollution of sea and coastlines may have disastrous effects for the area as the unique nature and the economy would be damaged. The construction of an offshore drilling facility (the Kravtsovskoye (D-6) oilfield) in the territorial waters of Russia, 22.5 km from the coastline of the Curonian Spit raised concerns over possible oil spills. Between 2002 and 2005 local environmentalists in Kaliningrad Oblast and Lithuania protested against Lukoil's plans to exploit the oilfield, objecting to the possible great damage to the environment and tourism (a vital source of income in the area) in case of oil leakage. These concerns did not engender support in the government of Russia. They were, however, supported by the government of Lithuania. The oilfield is about 4 km from the boundary of Lithuanian territorial waters; the prevailing northward currents means that the Lithuanian coastlines would receive much potential damage in case of leakage. Opposition to the operation of D-6 met little international support, and the oil platform was opened in 2004. During the first decade of the 21st century the two states agreed to a joint environmental impact assessment of the D-6 project, including plans for oil spill mitigation. The assessment and mitigation project had not been completed as of 2010.

Another concern is that increased tourism destroys the very nature that attracts it. For this reason, protective measures have been taken, such as banning tourists from hiking in certain areas of the spit.

Natural hazards are more dangerous in the Curonian Spit than elsewhere in Lithuania or the Kaliningrad Oblast. For example, storms tend to be stronger there. Due to the importance of trees in preventing soil erosion, forest fires that happen in summer are more dangerous to the ecology.

title: Curonian Spit


text:
User:Afnan~enwiki

AFNAN IS A GIRL WHO GOES TO SCHOOL WITH ME UNFORTUANTELY AND SHE THINKS SHE IS ALL THAT WHEN IN FACT SHE IS JUST A DUMBO WHO LIKES TO EAT BABY FOOD AND SHE SUCKSSSSS SO MUCH Humph << :P

title: User:Afnan~enwiki


text:
User:DontMessWithThis

Lay up not treasures on earth.

title: User:DontMessWithThis


text:
Talk:Wilson Pickett

Untitled
Wilson Pickett is a good example of the differences between today's artists and 'yesterday's; Young men such as Pickett, Redding, (and yes , even Ray Charles was still fairly young in the mid-sixties), trying to achieve, and succeeding at, a mature sound, while today, artists in their forties strive for a pre-pubescent sound and image. (unsigned comment by User:24.12.167.31 15:25, 15 March 2004)

Distinctly Soul
Nothing against Mr. Pickett, but "In The Midnight Hour" was not one of the first distinctively soul songs. Sam Cooke, already dead by the time that song was recorded, had been recording soul music for some time, as had James Brown, Jackie Wilson, the Impressions and the Motown artists. Otis Redding had not reached his peak popularity yet but was certainly doing identifiable soul records before 1965. Ray Charles, although certainly not confined to the soul genre, did work in that genre for several years prior. This is why I changed the article. (unsigned comment by User:4.231.178.209 05:47, 22 May 2005)

 * To whoever wrote the above comment: while not the first 'distinctly soul' song, "In The Midnight Hour" remains an extremely popular song, and is one of the oldest songs of such popularity to reflect the kind of sound later popularized by Staxx and such. Sam Cooke is better remembered today, by oldies stations and the general public alike, for calmer, teenage-oriented pop like "Wonderful World," and early Motown is also better known for fairly mainstream pop songs a la the Supremes.  'Soul' is a fairly general term, which in this case I think I was meant to see Pickett as a mainstream influence for subsequent acts, such as Edwin Starr or Rare Earth, the more raw, gravelly, bluesier style.  In any event, I'm leaving the article as it was; given Mr. Pickett's recent demise, I suspect this article is going to be tinkered with heavily over the next few weeks by others more eloquent than myself.  Wencer 01:48, 20 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Since when is elequence a requirement. Such standards you have for us. (online help:sarcasm) Rmhermen 04:32, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Going to be missed
Wilson Pickett was one of the greatest singers of our generation. He had a style all his own. Rest in Peace, Wicked Pickett! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.79.248.244 (talk) 05:10, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

Pickett in film
The Commitments, a 1987 novel by Roddy Doyle and a successful 1991 film adaptation by Alan Parker), is about an Irish soul band and prominantly features Pickett's music. Although Pickett himself did not appear in the film, he is an off-screen character, as band members claim to know him and the band performs as though Pickett is in the audience.  Towards the end of the film, Pickett rides off in a limo (though we don't see his face).  I seem to remember a small revival in Pickett's music, and American soul in general, during the film's popularity.  Perhaps this warrants a mention in the article?  --buck 15:58, 24 January 2006 (UTC)

Too "fanboy"-ish?
Anyone else finding this article gets way too simpering fanboy-ish in spots? For instance, the stuff about his 'inevitable' rise to fame, or the assertion that "Pickett devoted his life to embodying the notion of soul at its ferocious, unbridled best" -- neither seem particularly NPOV (or even factual) to me... 172.163.111.22 16:26, 19 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Good grief, yes. This is literally overflowing with fan gushing. This whole article desperately needs to be toned down a few notches. I can't even read some parts of it without laughing. Matt S. 20:10, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I liked it and thought it was an informative and interesting article.Risssa (talk) 03:37, 8 October 2012 (UTC)

Ad a Pick
why doesnt somebody ad a pic ? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.200.208.83 (talk) 16:30, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

Songwriter\Collaborator?
As he did write many compositions with others in the industry, a section should be added with a list of specifically which artists he wrote with, or for. I'm suprised and fascinated that he wrote with "Hootie and the Blowfish". With all due respect to Darius Rucker's talent, I always thought that besides him, the rest of his band were nothing more than nerdy, bland college boys who were lucky to hook onto a competent "front man" like Rucker. And too, the music, and especially Darius' soulful lead vocal style was sooo down-home bluesy in a way that DEFINTELY no white group could have done, nor even replicated in the 90s. It is again suprising that these were due to the "Wicked Pickett"'s contribution. And true, there should be a picture of Wilson in the article. The guy, like Otis Redding, was devilishly handsome.

I didn't know that he was involved in a vehicular homicide (though he was let off easy). This was reprehensible, and as much as I like Wilson's work, he should have been given significant prison time for taking a life so callously, under the influence or not!!!! --64.134.99.70 (talk) 19:01, 14 May 2011 (UTC)Veryverser

Sweet Soul Music
I thought this song, "Sweet Soul Music (Do You Like Good Music)," was one of Pickett's hits but I couldn't find it in the article. Am I wrong about this or did it get left off the discography? Risssa (talk) 03:43, 8 October 2012 (UTC)

 * Arthur Conley sang "Sweet Soul Music." Jtyroler (talk) 22:56, 23 January 2014 (UTC)

Stag-O-Lee
Regarding this edit: Apparently Atlantic released the 45 under both name:  Kendall-K1 (talk) 17:42, 16 January 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Wilson Pickett


text:
ISDN User Part

The ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) User Part or ISUP is part of Signaling System No. 7 (SS7), which is used to set up telephone calls in the public switched telephone network (PSTN). It is specified by the ITU-T as part of the Q.76x series.

When a telephone call is set up from one subscriber to another, several telephone exchanges could be involved, possibly across international boundaries. To allow a call to be set up correctly, where ISUP is supported, a switch will signal call-related information like called party number to the next switch in the network using ISUP messages.

The telephone exchanges may be connected via T1 or E1 trunks which transport the speech from the calls. These trunks are divided into 64 kbit/s timeslots, and one timeslot can carry exactly one call. Regardless of what facilities are used to interconnect switches, each circuit between two switches is uniquely identified by a circuit identification code (CIC) that is included in the ISUP messages. The exchange uses this information along with the received signaling information (especially the called party number) to determine which inbound and outbound circuits should be connected together to provide an end to end speech path.

In addition to call related information, ISUP is also used to exchange status information for, and permit management of, the available circuits. In the case of no outbound circuit being available on a particular exchange, a release message is sent back to the preceding switches in the chain.

ISUP variants
Different ISUP variants exist. ITU-T specifies the variant used in the international network. In Europe ETSI releases its own ISUP specification which is close that of the ITU-T. ITU-T ISUP is used for international connections and is the base for some national ISUP variants. Most countries have their own variation of ISUP to cover national requirements. ANSI specifies variations of ISUP utilized under the North American Numbering Plan; however, some countries under the NANP differ in their support of some procedures (for example, LATA is meaningless within Canada. Also, RBOCs support Telcordia procedures not fully specified by ANSI.) Some countries outside the NANP support ANSI-based variants (e.g. Mexico).

While these variations of ISUP differ in subtle ways, the vast majority of ISUP message type, parameter type, and parameter field code-points, and related fundamental call processing procedures, agree across all variants.

ITU-T specification versions

 * 1980 – ISUP Yellow Book
 * 1984 – ISUP Red Book
 * 1988 – ISUP Blue Book
 * 1991 – ISUP Q.767
 * 1992 – ISUP'92 White Book (segmentation, compatibility, new supplementary services)
 * 1997 – ISUP'97 (new procedures, IN CS1, new supplementary services)

According to ITU-T Q.761 section 2.4.1 ISUP interworking ISUP'92 is backwards compatible with ISUP Blue Book and Q.767 for basic call procedures and supplementary services except for some procedures (e.g. number portability). Additionally the compatibility features introduced in this version ensure forward compatibility with newer versions.

Message types
An ISUP message contains a fixed header containing the circuit identification code and the ISUP message type, followed by a mandatory fixed-length parameter part, a mandatory variable-length parameter part, and an optional parameter part that are dependent on the type of message being sent. ISUP messages can be sent using the services of the Message Transfer Part, or, less often, the Signalling Connection Control Part. These messages are transmitted in various stages of call setup and release. The most common messages are:
 * Initial address message (IAM) — First message sent to inform the partner switch that a call has to be established on the CIC contained in the message. Contains the called number, type of service (speech or data) and optional parameters.
 * Subsequent address message (SAM) — For networks that support overlap dialing procedures, and then in the case that the IAM did not contain the full called number, one or more SAMs follow containing additional digits. This message is not supported by networks that only support en bloc dialing procedures.
 * Address complete message (ACM) — Message returned from the terminating switch when the subscriber is reached and the phone starts ringing, or when the call traverses an interworking point and the intermediate trunk is seized.
 * Call progress (CPG) — Contains additional information about the progress of a call. Normally sent after the ACM when the status of the call changes from that reported in the ACM.
 * Answer message (ANM) — Sent when the subscriber picks up the phone, a resource is connected or answer supervision is returned by an interworking point. Normally charging starts at this moment. It is required that the call be cut through in both directions by this point.
 * Connect (CON) — Sent when the call is answered by an automatic terminal. This message replaces the ACM, CPG and ANM for calls that are answered by automatic terminals.
 * Release (REL) — Sent to clear the call when a subscriber goes on hook. This is also sent (in direct response to an IAM) if the terminating switch determines that the call cannot be completed. In either case, the terminating switch provides a cause value in the message to explain the reason for the release, e.g., "User busy".
 * Release complete (RLC) — Acknowledgment of the release – the circuit is idle afterward and can be used again.

Sample call flow
This is a very basic call flow involving only two telecom switches which exchange the ISUP messages. The subscriber interfaces are not covered here and are only listed for a better understanding.

 A subscriber    telco switch A    telco switch B     B subscriber Off hook Dial digits ---> -- IAM --> -Ringing -> <-- ACM --                   Off hook <-- ANM -- ---   Conversation    --- On hook                    -- REL -->                  On hook <-- RLC --

Detailed call flows are provided in ITU-T Recommendation Q.784.1.

Below is a detailed exchange of ISUP messages involving two ISDN telecom switches. The report was from an Alcatel S12 digital switch.

BENIN            2005-07-15  16:49:16  FR                                  00121  00000000   G159CA01   L6X8AA47 SWA-ORJ-OBSERVATION SYSTEM REPORT -      OBSERVATION/CALL SAMPLING                                    SUCCESSFUL ---      TYPE OF OBSERVATION: ORIGINATING DATE           = 2005-07-15        TIME = 16:48:23:09 CALLING DN     = 52250000 CALLING CAT    = PRIORITY SUBSC INC EQ NBR     = H'31   & 1 RCVD DIGITS    = 012625729 CALLED DN      = 012625729 OTG TRNKGRP    = LAGOS_SC OTG EQ NBR     = H'1111 & 16 BEARER         = AUDIO31 XFER MODE      = CIRCUIT SWITCHED CAUSE          = NORMALUN TERM SEIZED    = 0: 0: 2: 3 THROUGH SWITCH = 0: 0: 4: 3 ANSWER         = 0: 0:14: 6 RELEASE        = 0: 0:46: 3 TAXATION INFO -       CHARGED DN      = 52250000 CALL DURATION  = 0: 0:31: 6 COUNTS         = 2 TARIFF GRP     = 4                    TARIFF ID      = 7 RATE           = 20                   RANDOM CNT     = 0 SURCH UNITS    = 0                    CAT UNITS      = 0 TARIFF REG     = 1 RECEIVER SZD   = 0: 0: 0: 0      RECEIVER RLSD  = 0: 0: 4: 2 REC EQ NBR     = H'13   & 6       REC RLS INFO   = FORCED RLSE REC SIGNAL          DIRECTION          TIME -       -                  REG-I-10             RECEIVED        0: 0: 1: 3 REG-I-1             RECEIVED        0: 0: 1: 6 REG-I-2             RECEIVED        0: 0: 1: 8 REG-I-6             RECEIVED        0: 0: 2: 1 REG-I-2             RECEIVED        0: 0: 2: 3 REG-I-5             RECEIVED        0: 0: 2: 5 REG-I-7             RECEIVED        0: 0: 3: 0 REG-I-2             RECEIVED        0: 0: 3: 3 REG-I-9             RECEIVED        0: 0: 3: 7 INC SIG TYPE   = ANALOG-SUBSCR SIGNAL           DIRECTION          TIME -       -                  SEIZURE              RECEIVED        0: 0: 0: 0 DIAL-TONE           SENT            0: 0: 0: 0 CLEAR-FW-FW         RECEIVED        0: 0:46: 1 OTG SIG TYPE   = ISUP-NAT MESSAGE           DIRECTION          TIME            LENGTH -       -                      --        IAM                  SENT            0: 0: 2: 3            29 85014040007000010020000B03020604019010620A0603132552000000 SAM                 SENT            0: 0: 2: 4            13 85014040007000020200028002                                            SAM                  SENT            0: 0: 2: 6            13 85014040007000020200028005                                            SAM                  SENT            0: 0: 3: 1            13 85014040007000020200028007                                            SAM                  SENT            0: 0: 3: 4            13 85014040007000020200028002                                            SAM                  SENT            0: 0: 3: 8            13 85014040007000020200028009                                            ACM                  RECEIVED        0: 0: 4: 1            15 850141000070000616040129010100                                        ANM                  RECEIVED        0: 0:14: 6            18 8501410000700009012D02000039022DC000 SUS                 RECEIVED        0: 0:45: 4            10 850141000070000D0100 REL                 SENT            0: 0:46: 1            13 850140400070000C020002849F RLC                 RECEIVED        0: 0:46: 3             9 850141000070001000                                                    UNSOLICITED REPORT   NO = 00121

Cause codes
Release cause codes are used to identify and debug any events occurring in ISDN User Part signaling. Every event in ISUP signaling generates a cause code number. Even for a normal ISUP call, a cause code is generated. There are lot of applications developed based on the cause code from ISUP signaling. Similarly Telecom operators trace for Causecodes to debug any call failures.

Following are the list of cause codes used. Cause codes only defined by number are effectively undefined, and may be used for proprietary solutions.

 * 1) Unallocated (unassigned) number
 * 2) No route to specific transit network
 * 3) No route to destination
 * 4) Send special info tone
 * 5) Misdialed trunk prefix
 * 6) Channel unacceptable
 * 7) Call awarded and being delivered in established channel
 * 8) Preemption
 * 9) Preemption – circuit reserved for reuse
 * 10
 * 11
 * 12
 * 1) Suspend
 * 2) Resume
 * 15
 * 1) Normal call clearing
 * 2) User busy
 * 3) No user responding
 * 4) No answer from user (user alerted)
 * 5) Subscriber absent
 * 6) Call rejected
 * 7) Number changed
 * 8) Redirect to new destination (unallocated destination number ANSI)
 * 9) Unknown business group (ANSI)
 * 10) Exchange routing error (ANSI)
 * 11) Non-selected user clearing
 * 12) Destination out of order
 * 13) Invalid number format
 * 14) Facility rejected
 * 15) Response to STATUS ENQUIRY
 * 16) Normal, unspecified
 * 32
 * 33
 * 1) No circuit/channel available
 * 35
 * 36
 * 37
 * 1) Network out of order
 * 2) Permanent frame mode connection out of service
 * 3) Permanent frame mode connection operational
 * 4) Temporary failure
 * 5) Switching equipment congestion
 * 6) Access information discarded
 * 7) Requested channel/circuit not available
 * 8) Preemption (ANSI)
 * 9) Precedence call blocked
 * 10) Resources unavailable, unspecified
 * 48
 * 1) Quality of service unavailable
 * 2) Requested facility not subscribed
 * 3) Call type incompatible with service request (ANSI)
 * 52
 * 1) Outgoing calls barred within CUG
 * 2) Call blocked due to group restrictions (ANSI)
 * 3) Incoming calls barred within CUG
 * 56
 * 1) Bearer capability not authorized
 * 2) Bearer capability not presently available
 * 59
 * 60
 * 61
 * 1) Inconsistency in designed outgoing access information and subscriber class
 * 2) Service or option not available, unspecified
 * 64
 * 1) Bearer capability not implemented
 * 2) Channel type not implemented
 * 67
 * 68
 * 1) Requested facility not implemented
 * 2) Only restricted digital bearer capability is available
 * 71
 * 72
 * 73
 * 74
 * 75
 * 76
 * 77
 * 78
 * 1) Service or option not implemented, unspecified
 * 80
 * 1) Invalid call reference value
 * 2) Identified channel does not exist
 * 3) A suspended call exists, but this call identity does not
 * 4) Call identity in use
 * 5) No call suspended
 * 6) Call having the requested call identity has been cleared
 * 7) User not member of CUG
 * 8) Incompatible destination
 * 89
 * 1) Non-existing CUG
 * 2) Invalid transit network selection
 * 92
 * 93
 * 94
 * 1) Invalid message, unspecified
 * 2) Mandatory information element is missing
 * 3) Message type non-existing or not implemented
 * 4) Message incompatible with call state or message type non-existent or not implemented
 * 5) Information element non-existent or not implemented
 * 6) Invalid information element contents
 * 7) Message not compatible with call state
 * 8) Recovery on timer expiry
 * 9) Parameter non-existent or not implemented - passed on
 * 10) 104
 * 11) 105
 * 12) 106
 * 13) 107
 * 14) 108
 * 15) 109
 * 16) Message with unrecognized parameter discarded
 * 17) Protocol error, unspecified
 * 18) 112
 * 19) 113
 * 20) 114
 * 21) 115
 * 22) 116
 * 23) 117
 * 24) 118
 * 25) 119
 * 26) 120
 * 27) 121
 * 28) 122
 * 29) 123
 * 30) 124
 * 31) 125
 * 32) 126
 * 33) Interworking, unspecified.

Message format
The Signalling Information Field (SIF) for all ISUP Message Signal Units (MSU) contain the following components:
 * Routing Label
 * Circuit Identification Code
 * Message Type
 * Mandatory Fixed Part
 * Mandatory Variable Part
 * Optional Part

The Routing Label indicates the Point Codes of the originating and destination nodes in the network; it also includes the Signalling Link Selection field that is used to select between the multiple routes an MSU could take between two nodes.

The Circuit Identification Code is used to specify which trunk between two switches is used to carry a particular call. Note that some versions of ANSI ISUP permit a CIC with 14 significant bits instead of the 12 that are shown.
 * 1) The Message Type indicates the ISUP message type. The presence and form of the remaining 3 components are determined by this message type.
 * 2) The Mandatory fixed part, when present, contains the mandatory, fixed-length parameters associated with the message type.
 * 3) The Mandatory variable part, when present, contains the mandatory, variable-length parameters associated with the message type.
 * 4) The Optional part, when present, contains the optional parameters permitted to be included in the message type.

When sent using the services of the Signalling Connection Control Part, ISUP messages passed to SCCP in the User Data parameter (NSDU) consist of only the last 4 components (Message Type, Mandatory fixed part, Mandatory variable part, Optional part). The routing label and circuit identification code are not included in the user data passed to SCCP.

title: ISDN User Part