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American International Group

American International Group, Inc. (AIG) is an American multinational finance and insurance corporation with operations in more than 80 countries and jurisdictions. As of 2023, AIG employed 25,200 people. The company operates through three core businesses: general insurance, life & retirement, and a standalone technology-enabled subsidiary. General Insurance includes Commercial, Personal Insurance, U.S. and International field operations. Life & Retirement includes Group Retirement, Individual Retirement, Life, and Institutional Markets. AIG is the title sponsor of the AIG Women's Open golf tournament. In 2023, for the sixth consecutive year, DiversityInc named AIG among the Top 50 Companies for Diversity list.

AIG's corporate headquarters are in New York City and the company also has offices around the world. AIG serves 87% of the Fortune Global 500 and 83% of the Forbes 2000. AIG was ranked 60th on the 2018 Fortune 500 list. According to the 2016 Forbes Global 2000 list, AIG is the 87th largest public company in the world. On December 31, 2017, AIG had $65.2 billion (~$ in ) in shareholder equity.

During the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the Federal Reserve bailed the company out for $180 billion and assumed controlling ownership stake, with the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission correlating AIG's failure with the mass sales of unhedged insurance. AIG repaid $205 billion (~$ in ) to the United States government in 2012.

1919–1945: early years
AIG was founded December 19, 1919 when American Cornelius Vander Starr (1892–1968) established a general insurance agency, American Asiatic Underwriters (AAU), in Shanghai, China. Business grew rapidly, and two years later, Starr formed a life insurance operation. By the late 1920s, AAU had branches throughout China and Southeast Asia, including the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia. In 1926, Starr opened his first office in the United States, American International Underwriters Corporation (AIU). He also focused on opportunities in Latin America and, in the late 1930s, AIU entered Havana, Cuba. The steady growth of the Latin American agencies proved significant as it would offset the decline in business from Asia due to the impending World War II. In 1939, Starr moved his headquarters from Shanghai, China, to New York City.

1945–1959: international and domestic expansion
After World War II, American International Underwriters (AIU) entered Japan and Germany, to provide insurance for American military personnel. Throughout the late 1940s and early 1950s, AIU continued to expand in Europe, with offices opening in France, Italy, and the United Kingdom. In 1952, Starr began to focus on the American market by acquiring Globe & Rutgers Fire Insurance Company and its subsidiary, American Home Fire Assurance Company. By the end of the decade, C.V. Starr's general and life insurance organization included an extensive network of agents and offices in over 75 countries.

1959–1979: reorganization and specialization
In 1960, C.V. Starr hired Hank Greenberg to develop an international accident and health business. Two years later, Greenberg reorganized one of C.V. Starr's U.S. holdings into a successful multiple line carrier. Greenberg focused on selling insurance through independent brokers rather than agents to eliminate agent salaries. Using brokers, AIU could price insurance according to its potential return even if it suffered decreased sales of certain products for great lengths of time with very little extra expense. In 1967, American International Group, Inc. (AIG) was incorporated as a unifying umbrella organization for most of C.V. Starr's general and life insurance businesses. In 1968, Starr named Greenberg his successor. The company went public in 1969.

The 1970s presented many challenges for AIG as operations in the Middle East and Southeast Asia were curtailed or ceased altogether due to the changing political landscape. However, AIG continued to expand its markets by introducing specialized energy, transportation, and shipping products to serve the needs of niche industries.

1979–2000: new opportunities and directions
During the 1980s, AIG continued expanding its market distribution and worldwide network by offering a wide range of specialized products, including pollution liability and political risk. In 1984, AIG listed its shares on the New York Stock Exchange (NYSE). Throughout the 1990s, AIG developed new sources of income through diverse investments, including the acquisition of International Lease Finance Corporation (ILFC), a provider of leased aircraft to the airline industry. In 1992, AIG received the first foreign insurance license granted in over 40 years by the Chinese government. Within the U.S., AIG acquired SunAmerica Inc. a retirement savings company managed by Eli Broad, in 1999.

Growth
The early 2000s saw a marked period of growth as AIG acquired American General Corporation, a leading domestic life insurance and annuities provider, and AIG entered new markets including India. In February 2000, AIG created a strategic advisory venture team with the Blackstone Group and Kissinger Associates "to provide financial advisory services to corporations seeking high level independent strategic advice". AIG was an investor in Blackstone from 1998 to March 2012, when it sold all of its shares in the company. Blackstone acted as an adviser for AIG during the 2007–2008 financial crisis.

In March 2003 American General merged with Old Line Life Insurance Company.

In the early 2000s, AIG made significant investments in Russia as the country recovered from its financial crisis. In July 2003, Maurice Greenberg met with Putin to discuss AIG's investments and improving U.S.-Russia economic ties, in anticipation of Putin's meeting with U.S. President George W. Bush later that year."

In November 2004, AIG reached a $126 million (~$ in ) settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission and the Justice Department partly resolving a number of regulatory matters, and the company needed to continue to cooperate with investigators continuing to probe the sale of a non-traditional insurance product.

Accounting scandal
In 2005, AIG became embroiled in a series of fraud investigations conducted by the Securities and Exchange Commission, U.S. Justice Department, and New York State Attorney General's Office. Greenberg was ousted amid an accounting scandal in February 2005. The New York Attorney General's investigation led to a $1.6 billion fine for AIG and criminal charges for some of its executives.

On May 1, 2005, investigations conducted by outside counsel at the request of AIG's Audit Committee and the consultation with AIG's independent auditors, PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP resulted in AIG's decision to restate its financial statements for the years ended December 31, 2003, 2002, 2001 and 2000, the quarters ended March 31, June 30 and September 30, 2004, and 2003 and the quarter ended December 31, 2003. On November 9, 2005, the company was said to have delayed its third-quarter earnings report because it had to restate earlier financial results, to correct accounting errors.

Expansion to the credit default insurance market
Martin J. Sullivan became CEO of the company in 2005. He began his career at AIG as a clerk in its London office in 1970. AIG then took on tens of billions of dollars of risk associated with mortgages. It insured tens of billions of dollars of derivatives against default, but did not purchase reinsurance to hedge that risk. Secondly, it used collateral on deposit to buy mortgage-backed securities. When losses hit the mortgage market in 2007–2008, AIG had to pay out insurance claims and also replace the losses in its collateral accounts.

AIG purchased the remaining 39% that it did not own of online auto insurance specialist 21st Century Insurance in 2007 for $749 million. With the failure of the parent company and the continuing recession in late 2008, AIG rebranded its insurance unit to 21st Century Insurance.

On June 11, 2008, three stockholders, collectively owning 4% of the outstanding stock of AIG, delivered a letter to the Board of Directors of AIG seeking to oust CEO Martin Sullivan and make certain other management and Board of Directors changes.

On June 15, 2008, after disclosure of financial losses and subsequent to a falling stock price, Sullivan resigned and was replaced by Robert B. Willumstad, Chairman of the AIG Board of Directors since 2006. Willumstad was forced by the US government to step down and was replaced by Ed Liddy on September 17, 2008. AIG's board of directors named Bob Benmosche CEO on August 3, 2009, to replace Liddy, who earlier in the year announced his retirement.

2008 liquidity crisis and government bailout
In late 2008, the federal government bailed out AIG for $180 billion, and technically assumed control, because many believed its failure would endanger the financial integrity of other major firms that were its trading partners--Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Bank of America and Merrill Lynch, as well as dozens of European banks. In January 2011, the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission issued one of many critical governmental reports, deciding that AIG failed and was rescued by the government primarily because its enormous sales of credit default swaps were made without putting up the initial collateral, setting aside capital reserves, or hedging its exposure, which one analyst considered a profound failure in corporate governance, particularly its risk management practices. Other analysts believed AIG's failure was possible because of the sweeping deregulation of over-the-counter (OTC) derivatives, including credit default swaps, which effectively eliminated federal and state regulation of these products, including capital and margin requirements that would have lessened the likelihood of AIG's failure.

Illustrating the danger of an AIG bankruptcy, a September 17, 2008, CNN Money article stated, "But in AIG's case, the situation is even more serious. The company is much larger and complex than Lehman Brothers and its assets hitting the market all at once would likely cause worldwide chaos and send values plummeting. Experts question whether there are even enough qualified buyers out there to digest the company and its subsidiaries."

AIG had sold credit protection through its London unit in the form of credit default swaps (CDSs) on collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) but by 2008, they had declined in value. AIG's Financial Products division, headed by Joseph Cassano in London, had entered into credit default swaps to insure $441 billion worth of securities originally rated AAA. Of those securities, $57.8 billion were structured debt securities backed by subprime loans. As a result, AIG's credit rating was downgraded and it was required to post additional collateral with its trading counter-parties, leading to a liquidity crisis that began on September 16, 2008, and essentially bankrupted all of AIG. The New York United States Federal Reserve Bank (led by Timothy Geithner who would later become Treasury secretary) stepped in, announcing creation of a secured credit facility, initially of up to $85 billion to prevent the company's collapse, enabling AIG to deliver additional collateral to its credit default swap trading partners. The credit facility was secured by the stock in AIG-owned subsidiaries in the form of warrants for a 79.9% equity stake in the company and the right to suspend dividends to previously issued common and preferred stock. The AIG board accepted the terms of the Federal Reserve rescue package that same day, making it the largest government bailout of a private company in U.S. history.

In March 2009, AIG compounded public cynicism concerning the "too big to fail" firm's bailout by announcing that it would pay its executives over $165 million in executive bonuses. Total bonuses for the financial unit could reach $450 million, and bonuses for the entire company could reach $1.2 billion. Newly inaugurated President Barack Obama, who had voted for TARP as a Senator responded to the planned payments by saying "[I]t's hard to understand how derivative traders at AIG warranted any bonuses, much less $165 million in extra pay. How do they justify this outrage to the taxpayers who are keeping the company afloat?" Both Democratic and Republican politicians reacted with similar outrage to the planned bonuses, as did political commentators and journalists in the AIG bonus payments controversy.

AIG began selling some assets to pay off its government loans in September 2008 despite a global decline in the valuation of insurance businesses, and the weakening financial condition of potential bidders. In December 2009, AIG formed international life insurance subsidiaries, American International Assurance Company, Limited (AIA) and American Life Insurance Company (ALICO), which were transferred to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, to reduce its debt by $25 billion. AIG sold its Hartford Steam Boiler unit on March 31, 2009, to Munich Re for $742 million. On April 16, 2009, AIG announced plans to sell its 21st Century Insurance subsidiary to Farmers Insurance Group for $1.9 billion. In June 2009 AIG sold its majority ownership of reinsurer Transatlantic Re. The Wall Street Journal reported on September 7, 2009, that Pacific Century Group had agreed to pay $500 million for a part of AIG's asset management business, and that they also expected to pay an additional $200 million to AIG in carried interest and other payments linked to future performance of the business.

AIG then sold its American Life Insurance Co. (ALICO) to MetLife Inc. for $15.5 billion in cash and MetLife stock in March 2010. Bloomberg L.P. reported on March 29, 2010, that after almost three months of delays, AIG had completed the $500 million sale of a portion of its asset management business, branded PineBridge Investments, to the Asia-based Pacific Century Group. Fortress Investment Group purchased 80% of the interest in financing company American General Finance in August 2010. In September 2010 AIG sold AIG Starr and AIG Edison, two of its Japan-based companies, to Prudential Financial for $4.2 billion in cash and $600 million in assumption of third party AIG debt by Prudential. On November 1, 2010, AIG raised $36.71 billion from both the sale of ALICO and its IPO of AIA. Proceeds went to repay some of the aid it received from the government during the financial crisis.

AIG sold its Taiwanese life insurance company Nan Shan Life to a consortium of buyers for $2.16 billion in January 2011. Due to the Q3 2011 net loss widening, on November 3, 2011, AIG shares plunged 49 percent year to date. The insurer's board approved a share buyback of as much as $1 billion.

Nine years after the initial bailout, in 2017, the U.S. Financial Stability Oversight Council removed AIG from its list of too-big-to-fail institutions.

2012–2016: modern era
The United States Department of the Treasury announced an offering of 188.5 million shares of AIG for a total of $5.8 billion on May 7, 2012. The sale reduced Treasury's stake in AIG to 61 percent, from 70 percent before the transaction. Four months later, on September 6, 2012, AIG sold $2 billion of its investment in AIA to repay government loans. The board also approved a $5 billion stock repurchase of government-owned shares in AIA. The next week, on September 14, 2012, the Department of Treasury completed its fifth sale of AIG common stock, with proceeds of approximately $20.7 billion, reducing the Treasury's ownership stake in AIG to approximately 15.9 percent from 53 percent. Government commitments were fully recovered, and Treasury and the FRBNY to date had received a combined positive return of approximately $15.1 billion.

On October 12, 2012, AIG announced a five and a half year agreement to sponsor six New Zealand-based rugby teams, including the world champion All Blacks. The AIG logo and the Adidas logo, the league's primary sponsor, were displayed on the league's team jerseys.

The U.S. Department of the Treasury in December 2012 published an itemized list of the loans, stock purchases, special purpose vehicles (SPVs) and other investments engaged in with AIG, the amount AIG paid back and the positive return on the loans and investments to the government. The Treasury said that it and the Federal Reserve Bank of New York provided a total $182.3 billion to AIG, which paid back a total $205 billion, for a total positive return, or profit, to the government of $22.7 billion. In addition, AIG sold off a number of its own assets to raise money to pay back the government. On December 14, 2012, the Treasury Department sold the last of its AIG stock in its sixth stock sale for a total of approximately $7.6 billion. In total, the Treasury Department realized a gain of more than $22 billion from the sale of AIG common stock and $0.9 billion from the sale of AIG preferred stock. The same month, Robert Benmosche announced that he would be stepping down from his position as president and CEO due to his advancing lung cancer.

AIG began an advertising campaign on January 1, 2013, called "Thank You America," in which several company employees, including AIG President and CEO Robert Benmosche, talked directly to the camera and offered their thanks for the government assistance. Peter Hancock succeeded Benmosche as president and CEO of AIG in September 2014. While Benmosche stayed on in an advisory role, he died in February the following year.

In June 2015, Taiwan's Nan Shan Life Insurance acquired a stake in AIG's subsidiary in Taiwan for a fee of $158 million. Later that year, activist investor Carl Icahn called for a breakup of AIG, describing the company as "too big to succeed". AIG announced plans for an initial public offering of 19.9 percent of United Guaranty Corp., a Greensboro, North Carolina-based provider of mortgage insurance for lenders in January 2016. Later that year, Icahn won a seat on the board of directors and continued to pressure the company to split up its major divisions. AIG also began a joint venture with Hamilton Insurance Group and Two Sigma Investments to serve the insurance needs of small- to medium-sized enterprises. Industry veteran Brian Duperreault became the chairman of the new entity, and Richard Friesenhahn, the executive vice president of U.S. casualty lines at AIG, became CEO. In August 2016, AIG sold off United Guaranty, its mortgage-guarantee unit, to Arch Capital Group, a Bermuda-based insurer, for $3.4 billion.

2017
Brian Duperreault was appointed CEO of AIG on May 15, 2017. Duperreault, who previously worked at AIG from 1973 until 1994, was hired as CEO from Hamilton Insurance Group following Hancock's announcement in March 2017 that he would step down as AIG CEO under pressure after a period of disappointing financial results. Due to previous calls in 2015 and 2016 to shrink or break up AIG, Duperreault announced his intention to grow AIG and maintain its multiline structure as a provider of life and retirement solutions and non-life insurance, outlining a strategy to focus on technology, "underwriting discipline," and diversification.

2017 through early 2019 saw AIG hire a number of new upper level executives. In 2017, Duperreault named Peter Zaffino as AIG COO, later also naming him CEO of AIG's General Insurance business. Zaffino succeeded Duperreault as president of AIG in January 2020, with Duperreault remaining AIG's CEO. The company announced plans in 2017 to reorganize its Commercial and Consumer segments into General Insurance and Life & Retirement, respectively. In September 2017, the Financial Stability Oversight Council determined that AIG was no longer considered a nonbank systemically important financial institution (SIFI). Duperreault commented in response that the development reflected "the progress made since 2008 to de-risk the company."

2018–2023
AIG made a number of acquisitions in 2018. That July, AIG acquired Validus Holdings Ltd., a provider of reinsurance based in Bermuda. The company was also a Lloyd's of London syndicate, involved in insurance-linked securities, a specialist in US small commercial excess and surplus underwriting, and a provider of crop insurance. The deal "brought in fresh underwriting talent," particularly in property risk and catastrophe risk. Also in 2018 AIG acquired Ellipse, a UK life insurance business, from Munich Re. In 2018, AIG established Fortitude Re to hold most of its run-off portfolios and late in 2018 sold a minority stake to The Carlyle Group. In November 2019, a Carlyle-managed fund and T&D Holdings acquired a majority interest in Fortitude Re, leaving AIG with a 3.5% stake "subject to required regulatory approvals and other customary closing conditions."

Duperreault and Zaffino set out a turnaround strategy for the General Insurance business in 2017 and began execution. In 2019, Duperreault stated that the new executive team had restructured the business, implemented new risk and underwriting guidelines, and "overhauled its reinsurance buying strategy."

In 2019, Duperreault and Zaffino announced "AIG 200", a multi-year program to improve operations by shedding legacy processes and excess manual interventions, modernizing and digitizing workflows, and unifying operations. Also during that month, AIG reported its second consecutive quarter of underwriting profits, and AIG's Life and Retirement business, led by CEO Kevin Hogan, delivered "solid growth" and returns despite a volatile credit and equity market. In January 2020, AIG announced it was ending its decade-long sponsorship of the All Blacks in 2021.

On March 1, 2021, Peter Zaffino succeeded Brian Duperreault as AIG's CEO, with Duperreault becoming executive chairman of the board. Then, in January 2022, Zaffino also became chairman of the AIG board.

As part of AIG's 2020 plan to form an independent company of its life and retirement insurance business with a 2022 IPO, the company announced, in July 2021, that Blackstone Group would acquire 9.9% of the new unit for $2.2 billion cash. Blackstone and AIG also entered a long-term asset management agreement for about one quarter of AIG's life and retirement portfolio, set to increase in subsequent years. After the spin-off, Corebridge Financial became an independent entity, raising $1.68 billion in the largest U.S. IPO of 2022.

In February 2023, AIG and Stone Point Capital entered into an agreement to establish an independent managing general agency and relocate AIG's current private client group to the independent new company, Private Client Select Insurance Services (PCS). That May, AIG agreed to sell subsidiary Crop Risk Services to American Financial Group for $240 million, as well as Validus Re, including AlphaCat and the Talbot Treaty reinsurance business, to RenaissanceRe for $2.985 billion, in cash and RenaissanceRe common shares.

2024
In March 2024, British regulators cleared the sale of the UK arm of AIG Life Ltd to British insurer Aviva for £460 million.

Business
In Australia and China, AIG is identified as a large financial institution and provider of financial services including credit security mechanisms. In the United States, AIG is the largest underwriter of commercial and industrial insurance.

AIG offers property casualty insurance, life insurance, retirement products, mortgage insurance and other financial services. In the third quarter of 2012, the global property-and-casualty insurance business, Chartis, was renamed AIG Property Casualty. SunAmerica, life-insurance and retirement-services division, was renamed AIG Life and Retirement; other existing brands continue to be used in certain geographies and market segments.

Sponsorships
AIG was the shirt sponsor of the English football club Manchester United F.C. between 2006 and 2010. AIG was the first American shirt sponsor of the club and AIG shirts were worn for one of the most concentrated periods of success in the club's history, coinciding with Sir Alex Ferguson's third great United team, which won three Premier League titles, as well as the Champions League, in the space of four seasons.

In 2019, AIG signed a five-year contract to be the title sponsor of Women's British Open, its first deal in golf. In 2020, the contract was extended to 2025 and the championship was rebranded as the AIG Women's Open, with the largest major women's golf prize fund in 2021, totaling $US5.8 million. The AIG Women's Open set a new benchmark in 2022 of $7.3 million for women's major championship golf prize payouts, increasing the tournament's purse 125% since 2018. In 2023, AIG announced it will continue as the title sponsor of the event through 2030, along with another increase in the total purse to $9 million.

Subsidiaries

 * AIG Europe S.A.
 * American General Life Insurance Company
 * American Home Assurance Company
 * Lexington Insurance Company
 * National Union Fire Insurance Company of Pittsburgh, PA
 * The United States Life Insurance Company in the City of New York
 * The Variable Annuity Life Insurance Company (VALIC)
 * American International Group UK Ltd.
 * AIG General Insurance Co. Ltd.
 * Validus Reinsurance, Ltd.

Bailout litigation
Hank Greenberg, with lead lawyer David Boies, independently sued the U.S. Government for money damages in the United States Court of Federal Claims in 2011. The AIG board had announced on January 9 that the company would not join the lawsuit. After hearing thirty-seven days of testimony from Ben Bernanke, Timothy Geithner, Hank Paulson and others, Judge Thomas C. Wheeler ruled that the Federal Reserve payment to AIG had been an illegal exaction, as the Federal Reserve Act did not authorize the New York Fed to nationalize a corporation by owning its stock. Judge Wheeler did not award compensation to the plaintiffs, ruling that they did not suffer economic damage because "if the government had done nothing, the shareholders would have been left with 100 percent of nothing."
 * Starr International Co v U.S. Federal Circuit Court of Appeals

Greenberg and the U.S. Government appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which ruled that Greenberg had no legal right to challenge the bailout because that right belonged to AIG, which in this case, chose not to sue. AIG filed suit against the Federal Reserve Bank of New York in January 2013 in order to maintain the former's right to sue Bank of America and other issuers of bad mortgage debt. The specific issue was whether the Federal Reserve Bank of New York transferred $18 billion in litigation claims on troubled mortgage debt through Maiden Lane Transactions, entities created by the Fed in 2008. This transaction, AIG argued, prevented them from recouping losses from insured banks. Owing to events which allowed AIG to proceed in another related case, AIG Inc. v. Bank of America Corporation LLC, AIG withdrew the Maiden Lane case "without prejudice" on May 28, 2013. On May 7, 2013, Los Angeles U.S. District Judge, Mariana Pfaelzer, ruled in a case between AIG and Bank of America concerning possible misrepresentations by Merrill Lynch and Countrywide as to the quality of the mortgage portfolio, that $7.3 billion of the disputed claims had not been assigned. The two parties settled in July 2014, with Bank of America paying out $650 million to AIG, who in turn dismissed their litigation.
 * AIG Inc. et al. v. Maiden Lane II LLC
 * AIG Inc. v. Bank of America Corporation LLC

Board of directors
In July 2023, the AIG board includes:
 * Paola Bergamaschi – former executive at State Street, Credit Suisse and Goldman Sachs
 * James Cole Jr. – chairman and CEO, The Jasco Group
 * John Rice – former vice chairman of GE, former president and CEO of the GE Global Growth Organization
 * W. Don Cornwell – former chairman and CEO, Granite Broadcasting Corporation
 * Linda A. Mills – former vice president of operations, Northrop Grumman Corporation
 * Diana M. Murphy – managing director, Rocksolid Holdings; former president, USGA
 * Peter R. Porrino – former executive vice president and CFO, XL Group Ltd
 * Therese M. Vaughn – former CEO, the National Association of Insurance Commissioners
 * Vanessa A. Wittman – former CFO, Glossier, Dropbox, Marsh McLennan
 * Peter Zaffino – chairman and CEO, AIG

title: American International Group


text:
List of jazz organists

This is an alphabetized list of notable musicians who play or played jazz organ. Category is listed as: .

A

 * Tihomir "Pop" Asanović
 * Brian Auger

B

 * Count Basie
 * Pat Bianchi
 * Judy Blair
 * Carla Bley
 * André Brasseur
 * Gary Brunotte
 * Milt Buckner

C

 * Doug Carn
 * Mike Carr
 * Brian Charette
 * Ray Charles
 * Clifton "Jiggs" Chase
 * Call Cobbs Jr.
 * Alice Coltrane
 * Tom Coster

D

 * Jackie Davis
 * Wild Bill Davis
 * Lenny Dee
 * Joey DeFrancesco
 * 'Papa' John DeFrancesco (born 1940)
 * Barbara Dennerlein
 * Bill Doggett
 * Dr. John

E

 * Charles Earland

F

 * Georgie Fame
 * Clare Fischer
 * Dan Fogel
 * Chris Foreman

G

 * Jared Gold
 * Larry Goldings

H

 * Atsuko Hashimoto
 * Herbie Hancock
 * Alan Haven
 * Cory Henry
 * Milt Herth
 * Ingfried Hoffmann
 * Richard "Groove" Holmes
 * John Hondorp
 * Wayne Horvitz

J

 * Booker T. Jones

K

 * Wojciech Karolak
 * Bruce Katz
 * Charles Kynard

L

 * Eddie Landsberg
 * Mike LeDonne
 * Ron Levy
 * Ed Lincoln
 * Eddy Louiss
 * Gene Ludwig
 * Bobby Lyle

M

 * Jack McDuff
 * Jimmy McGriff
 * John Medeski
 * Tony Monaco
 * Amina Claudine Myers

P

 * Don Patterson
 * John Patton
 * Clarence Palmer
 * Trudy Pitts
 * Roy Powell
 * Billy Preston
 * Don Pullen

R

 * Sun Ra
 * Mike Ratledge
 * Mel Rhyne
 * Doug Riley
 * Freddie Roach

S

 * Merl Saunders
 * Paul Shaffer
 * Rhoda Scott
 * Shirley Scott
 * Jimmy Smith
 * Johnny "Hammond" Smith
 * Lonnie Smith
 * Ståle Storløkken

T

 * James Taylor
 * Charles Thompson
 * Akiko Tsuruga

W

 * Paul Wagnberg
 * Dan Wall
 * Fats Waller
 * Robert Walter
 * Walter Wanderley
 * Baby Face Willette
 * Reuben Wilson
 * Lyman Woodard
 * Klaus Wunderlich

Y

 * Sam Yahel
 * Larry Young

Z

 * Joe Zawinul

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of jazz organists


text:
Voiced bilabial plosive

The voiced bilabial plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨b⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is. The voiced bilabial stop occurs in English, and it is the sound denoted by the letter $⟨b⟩$ in obey.

Features

Features of the voiced bilabial stop:

title: Voiced bilabial plosive


text:
Voiced dental and alveolar plosives

The voiced alveolar, dental and postalveolar plosives (or stops) are types of consonantal sounds used in many spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiced dental, alveolar, and postalveolar plosives is ⟨d⟩ (although the symbol ⟨d̪⟩ can be used to distinguish the dental plosive, and ⟨d̠⟩ the postalveolar), and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is.

There are only a few languages that distinguish dental and alveolar stops, among them Kota, Toda, Venda and some Irish dialects.

Features
Features of the voiced alveolar stop:

 * There are three specific variants of :
 * Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
 * Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.

title: Voiced dental and alveolar plosives


text:
Bukoba

Bukoba is a city with a population of 144,938 (2022 census), situated in the northwest of Tanzania on the south-western shores of Lake Victoria. It is the capital of the Kagera region, and the administrative seat for Bukoba Urban District.

The city is served by Bukoba Airport and regular ferry connections to and from Mwanza, as well as roads to Uganda's Rakai District for cross-border commuters. Plans are underway for a standard gauge railway to Uganda.

Bukoba City
Situated on the south-western shores of Lake Victoria, Bukoba lies only 1 degree south of the Equator.

Bukoba is situated on the south-western shores of Lake Victoria in the north-western region of Tanzania. The regional capital and Kagera's biggest town is the gateway to the region.

It boasts a white sandy beach, a large market, a port tennis courts and a swimming pool. It has 13 banks, 5 of which take VISA cards in the ATM.

Bukoba Town itself has the status of a municipal Council. It has a municipal Director and other local government officials like other district councils in the region.

Ports
Bukoba is currently Tanzania's second largest port on Lake Victoria after Mwanza.

Utility
Bukoba is served by the National Electric Utility Company TANESCO.

Economy
Kagera's Regional Commissioner resides and has his head office in The Bukoba Central Business District.

Bukoba is the leading district in Tanzania with a high percentage of people with middle-class incomes. The percentage of people living under the poverty line is the lowest in the country. Bukoba has a new mall named Bakwata Complex that will start operation in September 2024.

The city is flat, compact, and surrounded by hills. The town has a bus stand, an airport, and a port. A ferry used to travel from Bukoba via Kemondo Bay Port to Mwanza on Monday, Wednesday and Friday nights, and soon a newly built ship, the second largest lake ship in Africa, will make ferry voyages to Bukoba daily.

Bukoba Airport
The Airport is located south east of the city. The address on Sokoine Road.

Auric Air flies three times a day to Mwanza. In 2010 the airport was extended as more flights were expected in line with capacity growth milestones of The Air Terminal reviewed after published reports every quarter of the year. Air Tanzania (ATCL) also have scheduled flights to Bukoba throughout the week with connecting flights through Mwanza to Dar es Salaam.

Bus
A bus leaves for Kampala at 7 am every day (about 6 hours) and from Kampala for Bukoba at 11 am every day.

Sports
Bukoba is represented in the Tanzanian Premier League by football club Kagera Sugar. It is the home to several charities - including SHARE in Africa and Jambo Bukoba. Both are focused on the educational sector.

The Kaitaba Stadium is also found in south east of Bukoba on Jamhuri Road. The stadium has the capacity of 15000 people and supports football games day and night.

Climate
Bukoba has an upland tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Amb, because every month has a normal mean temperature of between 18 °C and 22 °C) although it is milder than most climates with that classification due to its altitude. It can sometimes get cool especially in the evenings during the two rainy seasons, but never as cold as the winter season in Europe.

Sister cities

 * 🇩🇰 Nykøbing Mors

title: Bukoba


text:
Treaty of Nerchinsk

The Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689 was the first treaty between the Tsardom of Russia and the Qing dynasty of China. The Russians gave up the area north of the Amur River as far as the Stanovoy Range and kept the area between the Argun River and Lake Baikal. This border along the Argun River and Stanovoy Range lasted until the Amur Annexation via the Treaty of Aigun in 1858 and the Convention of Peking in 1860. It opened markets for Russian goods in China, and gave Russians access to Chinese supplies and luxuries.

The agreement was signed in Nerchinsk on 27 August 1689. The signatories were Songgotu on behalf of the Kangxi Emperor and Fyodor Golovin on behalf of the Russian tsars Peter I and Ivan V.

The authoritative version was in Latin, with translations into Russian and Manchu, but these versions differed considerably. There was no official Chinese text for another two centuries, but the border markers were inscribed in Chinese along with Manchu, Russian and Latin.

Later, in 1727, the Treaty of Kiakhta fixed what is now the border of Mongolia west of the Argun and opened up the caravan trade. In 1858 (Treaty of Aigun) Russia annexed the land north of the Amur and in 1860 (Treaty of Beijing) took the coast down to Vladivostok. The current border runs along the Argun, Amur and Ussuri rivers.

Names
Treaty of Nerchinsk is written in other languages as follows:
 * Pactum Nertschiae
 * Нерчинский договор (transliteration: Nerčinskij dogovor)
 * Manchu:, (Möllendorff transliteration: nibcu-i boji bithe)

History
From about 1640, Russians entered the Amur basin from the north, into land claimed by the Qing dynasty which at this time were just beginning their conquest of the Ming dynasty. The Qing had, by the 1680s, completed the conquest of China proper and eliminated the last Ming successor states in the south. With the Qing dynasty now firmly in control of China, it was in a position to deal with what they saw as Russian encroachment in Manchuria, the ancient homeland of the ruling Aisin Gioro clan. By 1685 most of the Russians had been driven out of the area. See Sino–Russian border conflicts for details.

After their first victory at Albazin in 1685, the Qing government sent two letters to the Tsar (in Latin) suggesting peace and demanding that Russian freebooters leave the Amur. The Russian government, knowing that the Amur could not be defended and being more concerned with events in the west, sent Fyodor Golovin east as plenipotentiary. Golovin left Moscow in January 1686 with 500 streltsy and reached Selenginsk near Lake Baikal in October 1687, from whence he sent couriers ahead. It was agreed the meeting would be in Selenginsk in 1688. At this point the Oirats (western Mongols) under Galdan attacked the eastern Mongols in the area between Selenginsk and Peking and negotiations had to be delayed. To avoid the fighting Golovin moved east to Nerchinsk where it was agreed that talks would take place. Qing troops with a size of 3,000 to 15,000 soldiers under the command of Songgotu left Peking on June 1689 and arrived in July. Talks went on from August 22 to September 6.

The language used was Latin, the translators being, for the Russians, a Pole named Andrei Bielobocki and for the Chinese the Jesuits Jean-Francois Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira. To avoid problems of precedence, tents were erected side by side so that neither side would be seen as visiting the other. Russian acceptance of the treaty required a relaxation of what had been, in Ming times, an iron rule of Chinese diplomacy, requiring the non-Chinese party to accept language which characterized the foreigner as an inferior or tributary. The conspicuous absence of such linguistic gamesmanship from the Treaty of Nerchinsk, together with the equally conspicuous absence of Chinese language or personnel, suggests that the Kangxi Emperor was using the Manchu language as a deliberate end-run around his more conservative Han bureaucracy. The Yuan dynasty's rule of Mongol tribes living around Lake Baikal was claimed by the Qing, who incited the defection of the Nerchinsk Onggut and Buryat Mongols away from the Russians.

The Qing dynasty wished to remove the Russians from the Amur. They were interested in the Amur since it was the northern border of the original Manchu heartland. They could ignore the area west of the Argun since it was then controlled by the Oirats. The Kangxi Emperor of China also wished to settle with Russia in order to free his hands to deal with the Dzungar Mongols of Central Asia, to his northwest. The Qing dynasty also wanted a delineated frontier to keep nomads and outlaws from fleeing across the border.

The Russians, for their part, knew that the Amur was indefensible and were more interested in establishing profitable trade, which the Kangxi Emperor had threatened to block unless the border dispute were resolved. Golovin accepted the loss of the Amur in exchange for possession of Trans-Baikalia and access to Chinese markets for Russian traders. The Russians were also concerned with the military strength of the Qing dynasty, who had demonstrated their capability, in 1685 and 1686, by twice overrunning the Russian outpost at Albazin.

At this time, Russia could not send large forces to the Far East, as they were launching a war with the Ottoman Empire. At the same time, the Dzungars captured Mongolia, threatening the Qing dynasty, so Russia and Qing dynasty were inclined to sign a peace treaty as soon as possible.

The border
The agreed boundary was the Argun River north to its confluence with the Shilka River, up the Shilka to the "Gorbitsa River", up the Gorbitsa to its headwaters, then along the east-west watershed through the Stanovoy Mountains and down the Uda River (Khabarovsk Krai) to the Sea of Okhotsk at its southwest corner.

The border west of the Argun was not defined (at the time, this area was controlled by the Oirats). Neither side had very exact knowledge of the course of the Uda River. The Gorbitsa is hard to find on modern maps.

Treaty details
The treaty had six paragraphs: 1 and 2: definition of the border, 3. Albazin to be abandoned and destroyed. 4. Refugees who arrived before the treaty to stay, those arriving after the treaty to be sent back. 5. Trade to be allowed with proper documents. 6. Boundary stones to be erected, and general exhortations to avoid conflict.

Economic aspects
The treaty was "a triumph of intercultural negotiation" that gave Russians access to Chinese markets for expensive furs; Russians purchased porcelain, silk, gold, silver, and tea as well as with provisions for the northern garrisons. The cross-border trade created a multiethnic character to Nerchinsk and Kyakhta in Siberia. They became locales for the interaction of Russian, Central Asian, and Chinese cultures. The trade extended European economic expansion deep into Asia. Profitable trade fell off in the 1720s because the policies of Peter I limited private initiative and ended Siberia's role as a major economic link between the West and East.

Later developments
Russian interest in the Amur River was revived in the 1750s. In 1757 Fedor Ivanovich Soimonov was sent to map the area. He mapped the Shilka, which was partly in Chinese territory, but was turned back when he reached its confluence with the Argun. In 1757 Vasili Fedorovich Bradishchev was sent to Peking to investigate the possibility of using the Amur. He was received cordially and given a definite no. After that the matter was dropped.

In 1799, when Adam Johann von Krusenstern visited Canton he saw an English ship that had brought furs from Russian America in five months as opposed to the two years or more for the Okhotsk–Yakutsk–Kyakhta route. He saw that this could replace the overland trade. He submitted a memoir to the Naval Ministry which led to his command of the first Russian circumnavigation. He was able to sell American furs at Canton after some official resistance. Only when he returned to Kronstadt did he learn that his presence in Canton had provoked an edict making clear that Russian trade with the Middle Kingdom would be confined to Kyakhta.

For the rest see Treaty of Kyakhta and Amur Annexation.

title: Treaty of Nerchinsk


text:
Talk:Imaginary country

Are imaginary countries only important in mail art? Surely this is one of the main significances but there are others that might even be more important. --Daniel C. Boyer 16:19, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Imaginary country


text:
Tosyl group

In organic chemistry, a toluenesulfonyl group (tosyl group, abbreviated Ts or Tos ) is a univalent functional group with the chemical formula \sSO2\sC6H4\sCH3. It consists of a tolyl group, \sC6H4\sCH3, joined to a sulfonyl group, \sSO2\s, with the open valence on sulfur. This group is usually derived from the compound tosyl chloride, CH3C6H4SO2Cl (abbreviated TsCl), which forms esters and amides of toluenesulfonic acid, CH3C6H4SO2OH (abbreviated TsOH). The para orientation illustrated (p-toluenesulfonyl) is most common, and by convention tosyl without a prefix refers to the p-toluenesulfonyl group.

The toluenesulfonate (or tosylate) group refers to the \sO\sSO2C6H4CH3 (–OTs) group, with an additional oxygen attached to sulfur and open valence on an oxygen. In a chemical name, the term tosylate may either refer to the salts containing the anion of p-toluenesulfonic acid, TsO-M+ (e.g., sodium p-toluenesulfonate), or it may refer to esters of p-toluenesulfonic acid, TsOR (R = organyl group).

Applications
For S$N$2 reactions, alkyl alcohols can also be converted to alkyl tosylates, often through addition of tosyl chloride. In this reaction, the lone pair of the alcohol oxygen attacks the sulfur of the tosyl chloride, displacing the chloride and forming the tosylate with retention of reactant stereochemistry. This is useful because alcohols are poor leaving groups in S$N$2 reactions, in contrast to the tosylate group. It is the transformation of alkyl alcohols to alkyl tosylates that allows an S$N$2 reaction to occur in the presence of a good nucleophile.

A tosyl group can function as a protecting group in organic synthesis. Alcohols can be converted to tosylate groups so that they do not react. The tosylate group may later be converted back into an alcohol. The use of these functional groups is exemplified in organic synthesis of the drug tolterodine, wherein one of the steps a phenol group is protected as its tosylate and the primary alcohol as its nosylate. The latter is a leaving group for displacement by diisopropylamine:
 * Tolterodine Synthesis.png

The tosyl group is also useful as a protecting group for amines. The resulting sulfonamide structure is extremely stable. It can be deprotected to reveal the amine using reductive or strongly acidic conditions.

Amine protection – tosyl (Ts)
Tosyl (Ts) group is commonly used as a protecting group for amines in organic synthesis.

Most common amine protection methods

 * Tosyl chloride and pyridine in dichloromethane

Most common amine deprotection methods

 * HBr and acetic acid at 70 °C Ts_deprotect.png
 * Refluxing with TMSCl, sodium iodide and acetonitrile
 * Reduction with SmI2
 * Reduction with Red-Al

Related compounds
Closely related to the tosylates are the nosylates and brosylates, which are the abbreviated names for o- or p-nitrobenzenesulfonates and p-bromobenzenesulfonates, respectively.

title: Tosyl group


text:
Talk:Pictorial cancellation

Untitled
This should be expanded to discuss Canadian system and other pictorial cancellations. --Daniel C. Boyer 16:20, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The complexity of this subject makes it difficult to properly approach. Some machine cancels or hand cancels used daily by post offices or stations (chiefly in countries other than the United States) are pictorial, but are they so called? Officially in the United States, pictorial cancellations commemorate specific events at temporary stations, but there are slugs with pictures, such as the "Spirit" and "Cat in the Hat" slugs. And so forth. --Daniel C. Boyer 18:59, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

In France, illustrated "Flammes postales" are collected. During 20th Century until 2007, they were for touristic, social or postal use, temporary or permanently. See the article in French for more intel and the last two external links at the end to see lots of examples of French pictorial cancellation. Sebjarod 19:15, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Merge
I've merged Pictorial cancellation to Cancellation. —Quarl (talk) 2007-02-26 04:40Z

title: Talk:Pictorial cancellation


text:
Eligiusz Niewiadomski

Eligiusz Niewiadomski (1 December 1869 – 31 January 1923) was a Polish modernist painter and art critic who sympathized with the right-wing National Democracy movement. In 1922 he assassinated Poland's first President, Gabriel Narutowicz, in his first week in office as president.

Life
Niewiadomski was born into a family of gentry descent. His father, Wincenty Niewiadomski, of the Prus coat-of-arms, was a veteran of the January Uprising and a worker at the Warsaw mint. At the age of two, Eligiusz lost his mother Julia, and was raised by his elder sister Cecylia. After graduating from a local trade school in 1888, Niewiadomski moved to St. Petersburg, where he continued his studies at the Imperial Academy of Arts. He graduated in 1894 with honors, and won a scholarship to the École Supérieure des Beaux-Arts in Paris. After his return to Warsaw, he became a student of Wojciech Gerson, one of the best-known Polish artists of the age.

After 1897, he taught drawing at the Warsaw Polytechnic. He also collaborated with a number of Warsaw-based magazines and newspapers as a journalist and art critic, which gave him considerable notoriety, mostly among the artists themselves. He became involved in various artistic movements, among them the "re-discovery" of the Tatra Mountains, which at the time attracted some of the most renowned Polish painters, poets and writers as a source of inspiration. Niewiadomski prepared and published a map of the Tatras, one of the first tourist maps of the area. He also prepared a set of historical maps of Poland, Album of the History of Poland (1899). He also became involved in the reorganization of the Zachęta art society. Using contacts acquired there, he promoted the idea of creating a separate Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw. However, when the school was finally opened in 1903, Niewiadomski was not invited to teach there.

Politically, Niewiadomski was a strong supporter of nationalism, particularly the National League. In 1901 he was arrested by the Tsarist police for smuggling nationalist propaganda booklets from Galicia into Vistula Land. Though released after several months in the Pawiak Prison, he lost his job at Warsaw Polytechnic and fell into an impoverished state. This further radicalized his political beliefs. During the Russo-Japanese War he promoted the idea of perpetrating anti-Russian sabotage, for which he was excluded from the National League.

To make a living, Niewiadomski began teaching art classes at numerous schools and churches in Poland. He also made frescoes in Konin's St. Bartholomew's Church. However, his two-volume monograph On Mediaeval Art sold poorly, and Niewiadomski was on the verge of being forgotten by his contemporaries.

After the outbreak of World War I he remained in Warsaw, where he published brochures and manifestos describing his views on the role of art. He also continued teaching art history and artistic technique at various schools. On 1 March 1918 he was appointed director of painting and sculpture at the Regency Council's Ministry of Culture, a post that had previously been turned down by numerous artists.

After Poland regained independence, Niewiadomski joined the newly reborn country's Ministry of Culture. In 1920, during the Polish-Soviet War, he tried to join the Polish Army but was turned down as too old. However, he was accepted by Polish intelligence and served as a translator of Russian documents. During the last months of the war, he finally managed to convince his superiors to transfer him to front-line service and fought in the 5th Legions' Infantry Regiment.

Demobilized in 1921, Niewiadomski returned to the Ministry of Culture and continued his work there as a clerk. However, on 8 November 1921, after Antoni Ponikowski's government refused to grant Niewiadomski's department a higher budget, he resigned his post. He then devoted himself to writing and prepared several monographs on 19th- and 20th-century Polish painting, and on the theory of art. He made his living illustrating books.

Assassin

On 9 December 1922 Gabriel Narutowicz was elected by the National Assembly as the first President of Poland. After a heated debate, Narutowicz's candidacy managed to gather 289 votes, including 113 votes of various national minority MPs. The defeated candidate of the National Democratic Party Maurycy Zamoyski gathered 227 votes, yet the National Democrats decided to boycott the President and announced that he was elected by the "Reds, Jews, and Germans" rather than Poles. This started a period of civil unrest in Warsaw, where the supporters of nationalist ideas protested against the election of their president.

On 16 December 1922 the newly-elected president attended the opening of an art exhibition at the Zachęta Art Gallery. Niewiadomski, a frequent guest at such gatherings, pulled out his revolver, approached Narutowicz and shot him. The president died instantly. Arrested on December 30, he demanded a death penalty for himself, and was sentenced to death by firing squad, and the sentence was carried out at the Warsaw Citadel on 31 January 1923. He was 53 years old. His body was interred at Warsaw's Powązki Cemetery. A few months after his death, a renowned psychiatrist Maurycy Urstein called Niewiadomski’s execution a judiciary homicide, as the perpetrator was mentally ill and clinically insane but the court disregarded the need to provide specialistic psychiatric expertise during court proceedings to establish that.

After his execution, Niewiadomski remained a controversial figure. His funeral was attended by 10,000 people.

title: Eligiusz Niewiadomski


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Talk:Romanization of Korean

Untitled
"Romanization" should be spelled with a lower-case "r," hence my moving of this page to "Korean romanization." --Sewing 16:29, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Hangulisation
Is there a systematic way to "hangulise" foreign words, especially English words, into Korean? — Instantnood 21:52, 23 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Yes.
 * http://www.korean.go.kr/search/grammar/rule/foreign_rule1.html
 * http://www.korean.go.kr/search/grammar/rule/foreign_rule2.html
 * Wikipeditor

 * Thanks. Would be great if we've an article on Wikipedia on it. — Instantnood 09:17, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

 * If you want to look at a hard copy and have access to a university's Korean Studies library, you might find quite a few books that contain the same guidelines. I think some people at the Korean WP over yonder are fairly good at hangulisation following that system. I haven't taken the time yet to read it all through; it doesn't always seem to yield the closest approximation of a foreign sound in some cases—e.g. German +consonant is hangulised as 르+consonant (e.g. 베를린, 함부르크, 아르바이트) even though there's no audible [ɣ] involved in most speakers' speech—instead, I think (northern) standard German pronunciation changes the quality of the vowel towards [ɐ̯] where it fades into the consonant, so perhaps 아 would come closer to actual pronunciation, while 어 would be more consistent with the custom of hangulising the same sound as 어 when it is not followed by a consonant. So, while it looks fairly systematic to me, it does have its oddities. Merry Christmas! Wikipeditor 13:03, 25 December 2005 (UTC)

Joseon Gwahagwon (조선민주주의인민공화국 과학원) romanization
Can anyone provide any additional information on this romanization? --Lukobe 01:19, 30 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Anybody? --Lukobe 18:29, 7 December 2006 (UTC)
 * I think I've added the entry. As far as I recall, it was based on one of the PDF tables or another article, without any background information. I guess the people over at the 조선민주주의인민공화국 과학원 would be happy to provide more information if somebody asked them, though. Wikipeditor 20:31, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

More exact references
Say which ones, not just "The first two systems vary mainly in the". We can only see so much on our PDA etc.

/th/ in RR
Any guesses as to whether -렷하-, where not in a “noun”, should be -ryeota- or -ryeotha- in RR? The rules only mention “ㄱ, ㄷ, ㅂ, and ㅈ”, but not ㅅ, so I used -th- in the table. Wikipeditor 13:21, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

 * I think that the official explanation is less than honest about the "noun" business (예: 잡힘); but anyway... I think that 뚜렷하다 is more akin to words like 같이 and 잡히다 than to compounds like 오죽헌, and so would lean toward t in this case.  One could make a good argument either way, though, as far as I can tell. -- Visviva 13:53, 11 April 2006 (UTC)
 * NB: The Korean version specifies the no-h version for 체언, an evil grammatical term generally translated as "substantive," not noun.  If I understand it right, something like 입학 is a substantive, even when it is (arguably) part of a verb in 입학하다 (so we would write "iphakhada" and not "ipakada").  On the other hand, 뚜렷하다 isn't a substantive by any stretch, and 뚜렷 isn't even a word by itself... so I'm sticking by "tturyeotada."  Still, one wishes we had more thorough guidelines.  -- Visviva 14:05, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

What are the ad-hoc romanisations are based on?
Is there a system, on which the ad-hoc romanisations like Samgyupsal or names etc. are based on? Why is that way of romanisation that popular in Korea? This should be pointed out in the article. -- iGEL (talk) 09:56, 11 July 2006 (UTC)

 * Many people probably use such spellings to increase the possibility that an average (i.e. ko-0 ) American, when trying to read the word out loud as if it were an English one, comes close to a native speaker's pronunciation. This can help to avoid embarassing situations to the American.

 * Another reason may be the Korean sound inventory's and writing system's unfitness for easy transcription, compared to Japanese where there may be fewer issues to solve. When we look at Pinyin's success, however, you do have a point.

 * I don't think the following aberrations are based on a system, but from what I've seen they are popular:
 * Not indicating sound assimilation
 * Putting spaces between the syllables of even word stems
 * a→ah
 * ae→e (and vice versa)
 * eo→u(h)
 * yeong→young
 * eu→u
 * hui→hee
 * i→ee
 * j→ch, z
 * jj→zz?
 * u→oo
 * Should we include these in the article? Would a list of this kind be helpful to people stumbling across such romanisations?
 * Wikipeditor 23:45, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

Korean transliteration online free service
Planning to add Korean free transliteration online service (http://www.latkey.com/translit) which conforms to wiki guidelines, is free and it makes sense to have it here. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by DanIssa (talk • contribs).

 * It does not matter if it's "free" or "useful". Linking to download sites for Microsoft Office plugins to use the online service of a company is not appropriate. There is no encyclopedic content on the site, and it does promote other products of that comany. If you reference and the corresponding user contributions, you'll see that there were repeated attempts to place links in several articles, despite all warnings not to re-add them (including the ignored warning on your own talk page). Not only to the transliteration service but also to the company main page, with link descriptions promoting the keyboard stickers. You will not add any more links to latkey.com, i-keyboard.com, or related domains. Femto 13:18, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Online Korean Romanization Tool
http://yuefu.org/tools/korean_romanization/

The external link is on-topic, although it is created by me. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Hzy (talk • contribs) 15:28, 7 December 2006 (UTC).

 * This is an encyclopedia article, not a link directory to web tools (especially not ad-supported ones added by their owner). Femto 16:46, 7 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Even if it were legitimate (which it is not), a link would do more harm than good, as your site's automated conversion leaves a lot to be desired. It is neither RR nor any other system. Wikipeditor 20:35, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

Opinions
Hangul Romanization Revision Proposed Foreigners Get Confused Over Current System By Ryu Jin, Staff Reporter, The Korea Times —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 59.5.239.47 (talk) 10:15, 15 April 2007 (UTC).

SKATS/SCATS? Strictly Speaking Is Not a Romanization and Doesn't Belong Here
Here is the Wikipedia defintion of Romanization: "In linguistics, romanization (or Latinization, also spelled romanisation or Latinisation) is the representation of a word or language with the Roman (Latin) alphabet, or a system for doing so, where the original word or language uses a different writing system (or none). Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and transcription, for representing the spoken word. The latter can be subdivided into phonemic transcription, which records the phonemes or units of semantic meaning in speech, and more strict phonetic transcription, which records speech sounds with precision. Each romanization has its own set of rules for pronunciation of the romanized words.

Examples of languages to which this process is often applied are Chinese, Japanese and Korean (CJK).

Cyrillization is the similar process of representing a language using the Cyrillic alphabet +"

SKATS/SCATS does not fit this definition as it is a system for one-to-one representation of hangeul characters without regard to phonemic or phonetic values of the charactersDoc Rock 13:08, 11 July 2007 (UTC)
 * SKATS very strictly fits the definition:
 * "Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text..."
 * SKATS represents every Hangǔl letter by a standard Latin letter such that the exact plain-text, if you will, could be recovered from a SKATS text. The full definition quite clearly lists methods, not a complete set of requirements that every romanization must satisfy. In fact SKATS plays its particular—transliteration—rôle better than any of the other romanization—transcription—systems do theirs. For example, how do you phonetically represent written ' ㅐ' ? If one is talking about making it 'sound' sorta like a Korean pronounces it, it varies from idiolect to dialect to native word to loan word, and is too often indistinguishable from the 'sound' of 'ㅔ'
 * The only way to do a thorough job is to run high quality speech samples through PRAAT, derive objective phonetic representations of each element and do a close IPA transcription. That sort of thing is really only of interest to linguists, Korean speech-therapy theorists and practitioners and the like. It is far from the main interest of romanization, which is to give non-Koreans and students of Korean some approximation of how texts would sound if spoken, or a rough idea of what they are listening to, or should listen for, in Korean recorded speech and speech in videos and instructional material. JohndanR (talk) 22:36, 22 May 2016 (UTC)

Question
Is there a computer input method that allows one to type in Revised Romanization, and the text appears in hangul (the way I do with pinyin in the Simplified Chinese IME from Microsoft)? The Korean IME doesn't seem to allow for this, and the hangul keyboard configuration takes time to figure out. If not, is there a way I could reconfigure the hangul keyboard so the letters match the English keyboard? Thanks, Badagnani (talk) 04:16, 12 February 2008 (UTC)

Transliteration versus transcription
Based on these Wikipedia definitions:

"Transliteration attempts to be exact, so that an informed reader should be able to reconstruct the original spelling of unknown transliterated words."

"Transliteration is opposed to transcription, which specifically maps the sounds of one language to the best matching script of another language."

I changed, in the "Examples" chart, "RR transliteration in brackets" to "RR transcription in brackets", since the bracketed examples are phonetic representations.Jrmcconvey (talk) 00:36, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

Potential reference
Korean romanization was recently in the news:. At the moment the article is ill-structured to integrate this and I have little time at the moment, but perhaps another editor could fit it in well. FYI. Bendono (talk) 15:02, 30 June 2009 (UTC)

IPA in table
Any chance an IPA column could be added to the table, to compare the romanizations with the actual sounds [more or less...IPA is about the closest approximation there is]? I know the IPA and I'm familiar enough with Hangul that I could make guesses at a lot of these, but it would really be better if an actual Korean speaker did it. r ʨ anaɢ talk/contribs 20:00, 1 July 2009 (UTC) The IPA transcriptions seem questionable based on my knowledge of Korean phonology... could anyone give some clarification? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jan Kaninchen (talk • contribs) 05:52, 31 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm also requesting this. Funny that it's been over three years without anyone addressing this.--84.75.202.245 (talk) 05:58, 19 January 2014 (UTC)

Other North Korean variant romanization schemes
I had heard about the new DPRK twitter account when I noticed that "우리 민족끼리" was romanized "uriminzokkiri". I wondered if this "z" was a typo at first but it seemed consistent across the other accounts they made. So I looked up the official DPRK website (very 'Web 0.5') when I got to their geography page: "Korea is situtated in the central part in the East of Asia, between the 43deg 00' 36" (Fungso, Onsong district, North Jamkiong Province), the 33deg 06' 32" (Mara island, Namzezu district, Zezu province) of northern latitude and the 124deg 10' 47*' (Bidan island, Riongchon district, North Piong-an province) and 131deg 52' 40" (Doh island, Ulung district, North Kiongsang province) of eastern latitude. … Korea has borders in the North with the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation through the rivers Amrok and Duman, and at the East, West and South is surrounded by sea."

- DPRK government

Understandably I was a tad confused as to what those represent but I think I figured them out:
 * {| class="wikitable"

! DPRK !! Hangeul !! RR !! !! DPRK !! Hangeul !! RR !! !! DPRK !! Hangeul !! RR As I finish the table I realize other pages on the website have yet more names romanized this way, of course. So my question: what is this romanization system? What is its history? I don't see it anywhere on Wikipedia, to my knowledge anyway. - MK (t/c) 06:19, 2 September 2010 (UTC)
 * Fungso || 풍서 || Pungseo ||  || Onsong || 온성 || Onseong ||   || Jamkiong || 함경 || Hamgyeong
 * Mara || 마라 || Mara ||  || Namzezu || 남제주 || Namjeju ||   || Zezu || 제주 || Jeju
 * Bidan || 비단 || Bidan ||  || Riongchon || 룡천/용천 || (R)yongcheon ||   || Piong-an || 평안 || Pyeongan
 * Doh || (도) || Do? ||  || Ulung || 울릉 || Ulleung ||   || Kiongsang || 경상 || Gyeongsang
 * Amrok || 압록 || Amnok ||  || Duman || 두만 || Duman
 * }
 * Doh || (도) || Do? ||  || Ulung || 울릉 || Ulleung ||   || Kiongsang || 경상 || Gyeongsang
 * Amrok || 압록 || Amnok ||  || Duman || 두만 || Duman
 * }
 * Amrok || 압록 || Amnok ||  || Duman || 두만 || Duman
 * }

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was moved. --BDD (talk) 23:25, 10 January 2014 (UTC)

Korean romanization → Romanization of Korean – Like for all the other languages or writing systems: Romanization of Arabic, Romanization of Cyrillic, Romanization of Japanese, etc. Androoox (talk) 00:21, 3 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Support natural. In ictu oculi (talk) 04:34, 3 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. -- Ե րևանցի talk  03:30, 4 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Support Standard form. Jaqeli (talk) 21:48, 4 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Support following consensus after discussion of categories for other scripts at WP:CFDS, see – Fayenatic  L ondon 22:51, 5 January 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

romaja/romanization
Early in the article we're told "'romaja' is not to be confused with 'romanization'". So why are "romaja" (and "romacha" in McCune/Reischauer) given in the information box on the right as direct translations of "romanization"? That seems to imply that the terms at least overlap to a great extent, or that "romaja" has two separate meanings, as indicated in the two definitions given in the main text. Either way, I'm sure this could be expressed more clearly!213.127.210.95 (talk) 14:49, 27 June 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Romanization of Korean