text:
Rhamnaceae

The Rhamnaceae are a large family of flowering plants, mostly trees, shrubs, and some vines, commonly called the buckthorn family. Rhamnaceae is included in the order Rosales.

The family contains about 55 genera and 950 species. The Rhamnaceae have a worldwide distribution, but are more common in the subtropical and tropical regions. The earliest fossil evidence of Rhamnaceae is from the Late Cretaceous. Fossil flowers have been collected from the Upper Cretaceous of Mexico and the Paleocene of Argentina.

Leaves of family Rhamnaceae members are simple, i.e., the leaf blades are not divided into smaller leaflets. Leaves can be either alternate or opposite. Stipules are present. These leaves are modified into spines in many genera, in some (e.g. Paliurus spina-christi and Colletia paradoxa) spectacularly so. Colletia stands out by having two axillary buds instead of one, one developing into a thorn, the other one into a shoot.

The flowers are radially symmetrical. There are 5 (sometimes 4) separate sepals and 5 (sometimes 4 or none) separate petals. The petals may be white, yellowish, greenish, pink or blue, and are small and inconspicuous in most genera, though in some (e.g. Ceanothus) the dense clusters of flowers are conspicuous. The 5 or 4 stamens are opposite the petals. The ovary is mostly superior, with 2 or 3 ovules (or one by abortion).

The fruits are mostly berries, fleshy drupes, or nuts. Some are adapted to wind carriage, but most are dispersed by mammals and birds. Chinese jujube is the fruit of the jujube tree (Ziziphus jujuba) and is a major fruit in China.

The American genus Ceanothus, which has several showy ornamental species, has nitrogen-fixing root nodules.

Economic uses of the Rhamnaceae are chiefly as ornamental plants and as the source of many brilliant green and yellow dyes. The wood of Rhamnus was also the most favoured species to make charcoal for use in gunpowder before the development of modern propellants.

Genera
• Tribe Ampelozizipheae

• *Ampelozizyphus Ducke

• Tribe Bathiorhamneae

• *Bathiorhamnus Capuron

• Tribe Colletieae

• *Adolphia Meisn.

• *Colletia Comm. ex Juss.

• *Discaria Hook.

• *Kentrothamnus Suess. & Overkott

• *Ochetophila Poepp. ex Reissek

• *Retanilla (DC.) Brongn.

• *Trevoa Miers ex Hook.

• Tribe Doerpfeldieae

• *Doerpfeldia Urb.

• Tribe Gouanieae

• *Alvimiantha Grey-Wilson

• *Crumenaria Mart.

• *Gouania Jacq.

• *Helinus E.Mey. ex Endl.

• *Johnstonalia Tortosa (originally named Johnstonia; by some treated as Gouania)

• *Pleuranthodes Weberb. – synonym of Gouania

• *Reissekia Endl.

• Tribe Maesopsideae

• *Maesopsis Engl.

• Tribe Paliureae

• *Condaliopsis (Weberb.) Suess.

• *Hovenia Thunb.

• *Paliurus Mill.

• *Ziziphus Mill.

• *Sarcomphalus P.Browne emend. Hauenschild

• Tribe Phyliceae

• *Nesiota† Hook.f. Extinct (2003)

• *Noltea Rchb.

• *Phylica L.

• *Trichocephalus Brogn.

• Tribe Pomaderreae

• *Blackallia C.A.Gardner

• *Cryptandra Sm.

• *Papistylus Kellermann, Rye & K.R.Thiele

• *Polianthion K.R.Thiele

• *Pomaderris Labill.

• *Serichonus K.R.Thiele

• *Siegfriedia C.A.Gardner

• *Spyridium Fenzl

• *Stenanthemum Reissek

• *Trymalium Fenzl

• Tribe Rhamneae

• *Auerodendron Urb.

• *Berchemia Neck. ex DC.

• *Berchemiella Nakai

• *Condalia Cav.

• *Frangula Mill.

• *Karwinskia Zucc.

• *Krugiodendron Urb.

• *Phyllogeiton (Weberb.) Herzog

• *Pseudoziziphus Hauenschild

• *Reynosia Griseb.

• *Rhamnella Miq.

• *Rhamnidium Reissek

• *Rhamnus L.

• *Sageretia Brongn.

• *Scutia (Comm. ex DC.) Brongn.

• Tribe Ventilagineae

• *Smythea Seem.

• *Ventilago Gaertn.

• Incertae sedis

• *Alphitonia Endl. (close to Colubrina)

• *Araracuara Fern.Alonso

• *Ceanothus L. (close to Pomaderreae)

• *Chaydaia Pit. – synonym of Rhamnella

• *Colubrina Rich. ex Brongn.

• *Conalma G.L.Nesom

• *Emmenosperma F.Muell. (close to Colubrina)

• *Fenghwaia G.T.Wang & R.J.Wang

• *Granitites Rye (close to Alphitonia)

• *Hybosperma Urb. – synonym of Colubrina

• *Jaffrea H.C.Hopkins & Pillon

• *Lasiodiscus Hook.f.

• *Oreorhamnus Ridl.

• *Schistocarpaea F.Muell. (maybe belonging to Colletieae)

Systematics
Modern molecular phylogenetics recommend the following clade-based classification of Rhamnaceae:

Fossil record
The fossil record of the family extends back to the Late Cretaceous, with records from Colombia and Mexico. Remains from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber of Myanmar have been suggested to belong to this family by some authors  , but this has been doubted by others. The earliest fossils of modern genera of the family date to the Eocene.

title: Rhamnaceae


text:
USS Effingham (1777)

Effingham, a 32-gun frigate of the Continental Navy named after Thomas Howard, 3rd Earl of Effingham. She was built at Philadelphia in 1776 and 1777, and Captain John Barry was ordered to command her. When the British took possession of Philadelphia in September 1777, Barry was ordered to take the uncompleted ship up the Delaware River to a place of safety.

On 25 October general George Washington asked for the crew of Effingham for use in the fleet, and two days later the ship was ordered sunk or burned. Effingham was sunk on 2 November just below Bordentown, New Jersey, to deny her use to the British. She was burned to the water's edge by a British raiding party on their way north from Philadelphia on 8 May 1778.

There was also an earlier galley named Effingham built in 1775 by the Pennsylvania Navy.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: USS Effingham (1777)


text:
USS Effingham

Two ships in the United States Navy have been named USS Effingham:

 * USS Effingham (1777), a frigate under construction for the Continental Navy, but burned before she ever saw service. Named for Thomas Howard, 3rd Earl of Effingham - an English nobleman who resigned his commission rather than fight an unjust war against the American colonists.
 * USS Effingham (APA-165), a transport used during World War II, and named for Effingham County, Georgia and Effingham County, Illinois.

title: USS Effingham


text:
Dram

Dram, DRAM, or drams may refer to:

Technology and engineering

 * Dram (unit), a unit of mass and volume, and an informal name for a small amount of liquor, especially whisky or whiskey
 * Dynamic random-access memory, a type of electronic semiconductor memory
 * Dram, Welsh term for a minecart, a small railway cargo truck used in a mine railway

Currency and geography

 * Dram, Armenian for "money"
 * Armenian dram, a monetary unit
 * Artsakh dram (formerly Nagorno-Karabakh dram), a monetary unit
 * Dram, the Tibetan name for the town of Zhangmu on the Nepal-Tibet border
 * Historic English name for Drammen, Norway

Music

 * DRAM (musician) (Shelley Marshaun Massenburg-Smith, born 1988), American rapper and actor
 * Database of Recorded American Music, an online resource
 * The Drams, an American band made up of members of Slobberbone

title: Dram


text:
Talk:Plug-in (computing)

Sandboxes?
I've removed a statement to the effect that plugins usually run in a sandbox, because I'm pretty sure it isn't true. If anyone wants to add it back in, I think we should include a source for it. I note that most of the information here is unsourced, which is possibly something that needs attention. JulesH 10:20, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

Origins?
Where does this architecture come from? Are there papers or books that talk about it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 97.124.81.121 (talk) 22:22, 12 May 2009 (UTC)

Java Based GUI for OV-operations
User Interface to operate OVO functionality. Independent of Operators Workstation. It is alternate way to Motif-GUI or platform specific commands to operate OVO.

Requirements : Java runtime engine should be available on operators workstation. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 15.219.201.75 (talk) 03:00, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

Plug-in X Software extension
There is a section in the plug-in article that lists the difference between plug-ins and extensions. What else do you want? For example, firefox supports both plug-ins and extensions. They are different. Plug-ins are very limited in scope, extensions aren't. jprikkel

The differences between plug-in and software extension are not sufficiently clear in my opinion. As it is written, it seems to me that they are synonyms. Therefore, I propose a merge. (A satisfactory alternative would be to clearly show the difference between both concepts, but AFAIK there is no such difference). --Antonielly (talk) 14:17, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

Although the Plug-in (computing) article is better developed, Software extension is in my opinion a better term, since it is more transparent with respect to the goal of the component (as contrasted with the process how the component is used). That is why I am proposing the merge to the less-developed article. --Antonielly (talk) 14:43, 6 December 2008 (UTC)

There are big differences between a plug-in and a software extension. A plug-in has well defined narrow interface. A software extension can add basically any capability to the application and the interface isn't as well defined. Also, the term software extension isn't used very much. Plug-in is widely used in the software development world. For example, Firefox supports both extensions and plug-in. They are dramatically different. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jprikkel (talk • contribs) 00:58, 9 December 2008 (UTC)

The differences are still not clear for me. I do not see big differences between those two concepts. Where does the boundary lie? Or is it a continuum? Is the differentiation "consensual" (i.e. is the difference between those concepts accepted by the "mainstream", or is it just a specific Firefox jargon)? If the concepts are indeed different and if the difference is widely recognized, I think it should be better specified in both articles, and concrete examples should be provided. While a clear differentiation is not provided, I feel I still have to keep my merge proposal. --Antonielly (talk) 01:15, 9 December 2008 (UTC)

I would suggest caution here. Looking at the Interwiki links, the term 'plug-in' is a very widely recognised term. Having skimmed the add-on (Mozilla) article, I can see how a distinction between extensions and plug-ins makes sense: plug-ins providing embedded data conversion functionality for other filetypes; extensions providing enhanced functionality in other ways (skins, search/editing facilities, etc). It may be that (only?) Mozilla makes this difference explicit, but it makes sense to me to allow the two articles to develop independently.
 * Hymek (talk) 12:51, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

In this case, given that the "plug-in X add-on" distinction is probably made only by Mozilla (unless proven by other sources), I think "Add-on" should be just a section of the "Plug-in" article that describes the (not very big) differences, and the relationship, between both concepts. If the distinction were at least more significantly widespread, then I would agree that the articles should remain separated. However, this is not the case at this moment. --Antonielly (talk) 18:52, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

I disagree both that the article about Plug-in should be merged with the article about Extensions and that the differences between them is not clear.

Before reading the Plug-ins article, I was not even familiar with Extensions. Admittedly, I am probably not as technical as others who have contributed to this discussion. I found the explations understandable: plug-in are like extensions but more restricted in what they can do. I agree that the Plug-in article is better developed than the one about Extensions. Perhaps the latter can be improved.

A general use resource, such as Wikipedia, should include articles about widely used topics (or to paraphrase Hymek "widely recognized). The average computer user is more likely to have heard about Plug-ins than Extensions.  Therefore, Wikipedia should keep its article about Plug-ings.  The Plug-in article should have a link to a separate article about Extensions and should define "Add on."  --J B Schwartz (talk) 17:01, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Plug-ins are, as it's already been pointed out, commonly referred to as the said, specific to the subjects mentioned within the definition "also see Extensions" would be adequate for this proposal.

I'm gonna go ahead and merge the two articles. --Koolabsol (talk) 17:32, 16 March 2010 (UTC)

Plugin as a Design Pattern
Martin Fowler describes a plugin design pattern in his book Patterns of Enterprise Application Architecture. A brief description of it can be found here.

Plugins or Plug-ins?
Shouldn't it be "Plug-in"? The arcticle says the term was coined as "plug-in". Also, webster and other sources list "plug-in" as a word, but not "plugin". jprikkel

I found no entry for "plug-in" in Webster's New World College Dictionary. Interestingly, Google and Wikipedia both direct users to "plugin". I am writing a style guide for my company and am trying to discover an industry standard. The old Microsoft Manual of Style (1998) says that (in Internet usage) "plug-in" should be used only to refer to Netscape-specific components. picaraza 18:43, 29 November 2006 (UTC)

 * "Interestingly, Google and Wikipedia both direct users to 'plugin'"? Wrongggg. Google does not, at least not today.  As for Wikipee, that's mere circular reasoning.  If the title of this article were changed to "Plug-in", then with one more keystroke, WP would be made to redirect "plugin" seekers to "plug-in". Kkken (talk) 18:35, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

"Plug-in" [noun] according to Merriam-Webster dictionary is 1) something that plugs in; 2) a small piece of software that supplements a larger program (as a browser). On the other hand, "plugin" is a verb and is defined in MW as [intransitive verb]: to establish an electric circuit by inserting a plug, and [transitive verb]: to attach or connect to an electric receptacle (as an outlet). In almost all the related academic papers, "Plug-in" is used to refer to the concept that this page describes here (e.g., check "Plug-in" and "Plugin" in http://scholar.google.com and count the papers that used this word in their titles). Therefore I support changing it to "Plug-in" instead. Roozbeh Farahbod 23:36, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

 * The conversation seems to have died out some time ago, but the title hasn't been changed to "Plug-in" yet. How come? Kkken (talk) 18:35, 1 April 2008 (UTC)

Misc talk
I set off the examples in the first paragraph in a bulleted list, to make it a little easier to read for the less technically inclined. I need a definition to refer to when I'm writing for a novice audience, and this one is perfect. (Also corrected a few typos/misspellings here and there.) threecoyote

I added some clarification between main program and application. I also listed the independant nature of the main application on its plugins. jprikkel

"Pluginbrery" is a concept that is found only on this page and wikipedia-derived websites. Added here by an anon user. Can anyone provide any other links to the term. Jay 07:18, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I have deleted the "Pluginbrery" section. It can always be put back if it turns out to be right after all. Ldo 07:53, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Thought I'd mention HyperCard as possibly the first instance of the concept. Certainly the first well-known instance of the concept. Ldo 06:54, 27 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Think it would be worth it to create an entry for a list of programs that expose plugin interfaces? --Darkain Dragoon 23:05, 30 November 2005 (UTC)

"Pluginbrery" is rather a allencompassing term--asydwaters 06:10, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

I have included "VRML" viewers and players under the Plugins section.--asydwaters 06:10, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

What is a "snap-in"? It's referenced as a subset of 'add-on', but it's never defined and there's no article here by that name. --JBSegal 08:11, 14 June 2010 (UTC)

classic mac os desk acessories
A I recall, Desk Acessories (DAs) for the early Macintoshes were not just small simple user programs, they were actually plug-ins for the Finder. As plug-ins for Hypercard are mentioned and this was an earler instance on the same platform it might make sense to mention this first. Also, it strikes me as an interesting way of applying the technology as Classic Mac DAs were quite varied in terms of pupose and complexity. Some were comparable to application software.

68.38.196.235 (talk) 20:27, 12 July 2011 (UTC)

EMACS Macros?
Do EMACS modes and macros merit some mention in this article? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.38.196.235 (talk) 20:28, 12 July 2011 (UTC)

 * I would not think so. There is no corresponding page on Wikipedia, AFAICT. Additionally, a DeeperWeb search returns pages that are mostly from the EMACS knowledge space. I believe that if you are using EMACS, you don't need a general encyclopedic section entry on plug-ins and EMACS. Former Big Iron Guy (talk) 21:08, 25 July 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Plug-in (computing)


text:
Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/April 8

Suggestions

 * 1913 - The Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution is ratified requiring direct election of Senators.
 * Still unused as of 2012
 * 1341 - Petrarch was crowned poet laureate at a ceremony in Rome
 * Included
 * 1513 - French troops and Swiss mercenaries swarmed into the Sforzas' Milan after the Battle of Novara.
 * Wrong date: June 6
 * 1513 - Explorer Ponce de Leon claimed Florida for Spain.
 * Used on April 2
 * 1838 - Isambard Kingdom Brunel's steamship "Great Western", the first steamship designed for the Atlantic, crossing left Bristol, England, with 24 first-class passengers.
 * Still unused as of 2012
 * 1899 - At Sing Sing in Ossining, New York, convicted murderer Martha Place was the first woman executed in the electric chair.
 * Still unused as of 2012, but ineligible
 * 1913 - The first Western-style parliament in ''' China's history opened in Peking (Beijing).
 * History of the Republic of China does not have the exact date
 * 1939 - King Zog of Albania fled from Tirana ahead of Italy's invading troops, in a prelude to World War II.
 * Used on January 2
 * 1946 - The last session of the League of Nations met in Geneva, Switzerland.
 * Used on January 11
 * 1952 - U.S. President Harry S. Truman averted a strike at Youngstown, Ohio, by seizing control of the steel mills, a move later declared unconstitutional
 * Unused as of 2012, but not a very significant date for Truman

(Is this the "queue" I hear about? Is this the right place to suggest anniversaries? Wetman 06:31, 8 Apr 2004 (UTC))

2012 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 00:39, 8 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Ayutthaya Kingdom (moved to April 7), Elisha Otis (natural deaths can only be used on centennials)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Superconductivity (maintenance); Buddha's Birthday (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Caracalla; The Book of the Law (ineligible—maintenance); Yi So-Yeon
 * Included: Petrarch (4th appearance, last in 2010); Venus de Milo (first appearance); Government of Ireland Bill 1886; Times Square (7th appearance, last in 2010)
 * Repeats: BOAC Flight 712/Jane Harrison (GC) (BOAC: 3rd consecutive apperance, 3 total: Jane Harrison: first appearance); Arthur Ashe (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 05:12, 7 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Clint Eastwood (moved to April 30)
 * New articles (unused): Battle of Mansfield
 * Omitted: Petrarch; Venus de Milo; Government of Ireland Bill 1886; Times Square; BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison; Arthur Ashe
 * Included: Krak des Chevaliers (first appearance); HMS Princess (1740) (first appearance); The Book of the Law (6th appearance, last in 2011; rescued from Ineligible); Superconductivity (first appearance; rescued from Ineligible); Bahrain World Trade Center (first appearance)

2014 notes

 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Petrarch
 * Omitted: Krak des Chevaliers; HMS Princess (1740); The Book of the Law; Superconductivity; Bahrain World Trade Center (ineligible—maintenance)
 * Included: Caracalla (5th appearance, last in 2011); Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul (first appearance); Battle of Mansfield (first appearance; 150th anniversary); Entente cordiale (7th appearance, last in 2009; rescued from Ineligible); Yi So-Yeon (2nd appearance, last in 2011)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 08:01, 6 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Bahrain World Trade Center
 * Omitted: Caracalla; Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul; Battle of Mansfield; Entente Cordiale; Yi So-yeon
 * Included: Petrarch (5th appearance, last in 2012); HMS Princess (1740) (2nd appearance, last in 2013; 275th anniversary); Venus de Milo (2nd appearance, last in 2012); BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison (BOAC: 4th appearance; Harrison: 2nd appearance; both last in 2012); Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (first appearance)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:34, 6 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: The Book of the Law (maintenance)
 * Omitted: HMS Princess (1740); Venus de Milo; BOAC Flight 712; Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ineligible—maintenance)
 * Included: Krak des Chevaliers (2nd appearance, last in 2013); Battle of Mansfield (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Superconductivity (2nd appearance, last in 2013); Bahrain World Trade Center (2nd appearance, last in 2013)
 * Repeats: Petrarch (2nd consecutive appearance, 6 total; 775th anniversary)

2017 births/deaths - Margaret Thatcher dropped?
Hi howcheng, just curious as to why Margaret Thatcher was removed from the births/deaths section? It's a Good Article, hasn't been on the main page since 2005, isn't listed on her birth date in October. Am I missing some reason that the article couldn't be included on April 8? TIA, MurielMary (talk) 11:20, 7 April 2017 (UTC)
 * Thatcher appears as a blurb on May 4, last in 2016. On Talk:Margaret Thatcher, it's hidden in the article history template. — howcheng  {chat} 07:25, 8 April 2017 (UTC)
 * Thanks very much for that, I will make sure to use "show" and check all those details in the templates in future. MurielMary (talk) 11:19, 8 April 2017 (UTC)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:13, 8 April 2017 (UTC)
 * New articles (ineligible): Gallaudet University (maintenance; moved from February 16)
 * Omitted: Krak des Chevaliers; Petrarch (ineligible—maintenance); Venus de Milo (ineligible—maintenance); Battle of Mansfield; Superconductivity; Bahrain World Trade Center
 * Included: Caracalla (6th appearance, last in 2014; 800th anniversary); Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Times Square (8th appearance, last in 2012); MV Dara (first appearance); Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (2nd appearance, last in 2015; rescued from Ineligible); John II Komnenos (first appearance); Philip IV of Spain (first appearance); Sara Northrup Hollister (first appearance)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 03:35, 8 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Government of Ireland Bill 1886 (maintenance); Entente Cordiale (maintenance); Superconductivity (maintenance); Bahrain World Trade Center (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Caracalla; Times Square; MV Dara; Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant; John II Komnenos; Philip IV of Spain (ineligible—maintenance); Sara Northrup Hollister
 * Included: HMS Princess (1740) (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Otto and Elise Hampel (first appearance; 75th anniversary); BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison (BOAC: 5th appearance; Harrison: 3rd appearance; both last in 2015); Yi So-yeon (3rd appearance, last in 2015; 50th anniversary); Thomas of Tolentino (first appearance); Mary Stuart (1605–1607) (first appearance); Betty Ford (first appearance; 100th anniversary)
 * Repeats: Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:15, 8 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (maintenance)
 * New articles (ineligible): Dead (musician) (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul; Otto and Elise Hampel; BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison; Yi So-yeon; Thomas of Tolentino; Mary Stuart (1605–1607); Betty Ford
 * Included: Caracalla (7th appearance, last in 2017); Krak des Chevaliers (3rd appearance, last in 2016); Entente Cordiale (8th appearance, last in 2014; rescued from Ineligible); COBOL (first appearance; 60th anniversary); Niels Juel (first appearance); Marie Byles (first appearance); Sara Northrup Hollister (2nd appearance, last in 2017)
 * Repeats: HMS Princess (1740) (2nd consecutive appearance, 4 total)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:13, 9 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Caracalla; Krak des Chevaliers; HMS Princess (1740); Entente Cordiale; COBOL; Niels Juel; Marie Byles; Sara Northrup Hollister
 * Included: Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul (4th appearance, last in 2018); Manor of Rensselaerswyck (first appearance); Winsor McCay/Little Nemo (1911 film) (both: first appearance); BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison(Flight: 6th appearance, Harrion: 4th, both last in 2018); Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (3rd appearance, last in 2017; rescued from Ineligible); John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford (first appearance); Elizabeth Bacon Custer (first appearance); Jack Tramiel (first appearance)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:29, 10 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (date not in article); Yi So-yeon (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Battle of Dayr al-'Aqul; Manor of Rensselaerswyck; John Clifford, 9th Baron Clifford; Elizabeth Bacon Custer; Jack Tramiel
 * Included: Krak des Chevaliers (4th appearance, last in 2018); Otto and Elise Hampel (2nd appearance, last in 2018); MV Dara (2nd appearance, last in 2017; 60th anniversary); Allen Butler Talcott (first appearance); Marie Byles (2nd appearance, last in 2019); Kofi Annan (2nd appearance, last in 2004; previously appeared on December 13)
 * Repeats: Winsor McCay/Little Nemo (1911 film) (both: 2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total); BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison (both: 2nd consecutive appearance; Flight: 7 total; Harrison: 5 total)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 04:08, 9 April 2022 (UTC)
 * New articles (ineligible): Dionysios Solomos (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Krak des Chevaliers; Winsor McCay/Little Nemo (1911 film); Otto and Elise Hampel; MV Dara; BOAC Flight 712/Barbara Jane Harrison; Allen Butler Talcott; Marie Byles; Kofi Annan
 * Included: Caracalla (8th appearance, last in 2019); Battle of Dayr al-Aqul (5th appearance, last in 2020); Manor of Rensselaerswyck (2nd appearance, last in 2020); Times Square (9th appearance, last in 2017); The Hump (first appearance; 80th anniversary); John II Komnenos (2nd appearance, last in 2017); Niels Juel (2nd appearance, last in 2019); Jack Tramiel (2nd appearance, last in 2020; 10th anniversary)


text:
Dassault Étendard VI

The Dassault Étendard VI was a French prototype fighter aircraft initially developed as part of the NATO NBMR-1 competition to find a standard fighter to serve amongst member air forces. Dassault took advantage of the fact that the French Air Force had issued a requirement around the same time for a new fighter-bomber and developed aircraft in parallel as variations of the same design concept for the two prospective customers.

Originally designated Mystère XXVI, the aircraft was accepted as one of the entrants to be developed to prototype stage for a fly-off with competing designs. It fared well in test flights, but was out-performed by the Aeritalia G.91 that was eventually selected as the winner of the competition.

A further development of the Étendard concept, the Étendard IV was successfully developed for French Navy service.

title: Dassault Étendard VI


text:
Semnopithecus

Semnopithecus is a genus of Old World monkeys native to the Indian subcontinent, with all species with the exception of two being commonly known as gray langurs. Traditionally only the species Semnopithecus entellus was recognized, but since about 2001 additional species have been recognized. The taxonomy has been in flux, but currently eight species are recognized.

Members of the genus Semnopithecus are terrestrial, inhabiting forest, open lightly wooded habitats, and urban areas on the Indian subcontinent. Most species are found at low to moderate altitudes, but the Nepal gray langur and Kashmir gray langur occur up to 4000 m in the Himalayas.

Characteristics
These langurs are largely gray (some more yellowish), with a black face and ears. Externally, the various species mainly differ in the darkness of the hands and feet, the overall color and the presence or absence of a crest. Typically all north Indian gray langurs have their tail tips looping towards their head during a casual walk whereas all south Indian and Sri Lankan gray langurs have an inverted "U" shape or a "S" tail carriage pattern. There are also significant variations in the size depending on the sex, with the male always larger than the female. The head-and-body length is from 51 to 79 cm. Their tails, at 69 to 102 cm are always longer than their bodies. Langurs from the southern part of their range are smaller than those from the north. At 26.5 kg, the heaviest langur ever recorded was a male Nepal gray langur. The larger gray langurs are rivals for the largest species of monkey found in Asia. The average weight of gray langurs is 18 kg in the males and 11 kg in the females.

Langurs mostly walk quadrupedally and spend half of their time on the ground and the other half in trees. They will also make bipedal hops, climbing and descending supports with the body upright, and leaps. Langurs can leap 3.6 – horizontally and 10.7 – in descending.

Taxonomy
Traditionally, only Semnopithecus entellus was recognized as a species, the remainder all being treated as subspecies. In 2001, it was proposed that seven species should be recognized. This was followed in Mammal Species of the World in 2005, though several of the seven species intergrade, and alternative treatments exist where only two species (a northern and a southern) are recognized. Phylogenetic evidence supports at least three species: a north Indian, a south Indian and a Sri Lankan one.

It has been suggested that the Semnopithecus priam thersites is worthy of treatment as a species rather than a subspecies, but at present this is based on limited evidence. During a study based on external morphology and ecological niche modelling in Peninsular India six main types were found, but continued to label all as subspecies. Coat color is highly variable, possible due to phenotypic plasticity and therefore of questionable value in species delimitation.

It has been suggested that Trachypithecus should be considered only a subgenus of Semnopithecus. If maintaining the two as separate monophyletic genera, the purple-faced langur and Nilgiri langur belong in Semnopithecus instead of their former genus Trachypithecus. At present it is unclear where the T. pileatus species group (consisting of the capped langur, Shortridge's langur and Gee's golden langur) belongs, as available mtDNA data place it in Semnopithecus, while Y chromosome data place it in Trachypithecus. A possible explanation for this is that the T. pileatus species group is the result of fairly recent hybridization between Semnopithecus and Trachypithecus.

As of 2005, the authors of Mammal Species of the World recognized the following seven Semnopithecus species
 * Nepal gray langur Semnopithecus schistaceus
 * Kashmir gray langur Semnopithecus ajax
 * Tarai gray langur Semnopithecus hector
 * Northern plains gray langur Semnopithecus entellus
 * Black-footed gray langur Semnopithecus hypoleucos
 * Southern plains gray langur Semnopithecus dussumieri
 * Tufted gray langur Semnopithecus priam

Results of analysis of mitochondrial cytochrome b gene and two nuclear DNA-encoded genes of several colobine species revealed that Nilgiri and purple-faced langurs cluster with gray langur, while Trachypithecus species form a distinct clade. Since then, two other species have been moved from Trachypithecus to Semnopithecus:
 * Purple-faced langur Semnopithecus vetulus
 * Nilgiri langur Semnopithecus johnii

In addition, Semnopithecus dussumieri has been determined to be invalid. Most of the range that had been considered S. dussumieri is now considered S. entellus.

Thus the current generally accepted species within the genus Semnopithecus are:

A 2013 genetic study indicated that while S. entellus, S. hypoleucos, S. priam and S. johnii are all valid taxa, there has been hybridization between S. priam and S. johnii. It also indicated that there has been some hybridization between S. entellus and S. hypoleucos where their ranges overlap, and a small amount of hybridization between S. hypoleucos and S. priam. It also suggested that S. priam and S. johnii diverged from each other fairly recently.

Distribution and habitat
The entire distribution of all gray langur species stretches from the Himalayas in the north to Sri Lanka in the south, and from Bangladesh in the east to Pakistan in the west. They possibly occur in Afghanistan. The bulk of the gray langur distribution is within India, and all seven currently recognized species have at least a part of their range in this country.

Gray langurs can adapt to a variety of habitats. They inhabit arid habitats like deserts, tropical habitats like tropical rainforests and temperate habitats like coniferous forests, deciduous habitats and mountains habitats. They are found at sea level to altitudes up to 4000 m. They can adapt well to human settlements, and are found in villages, towns and areas with housing or agriculture. They live in densely populated cities like Jodhpur, which has a population numbering up to a million.

Ecology and behavior
Gray langurs are diurnal. They sleep during the night in trees but also on man-made structures like towers and electric poles when in human settlements. When resting in trees, they generally prefer the highest branches. Ungulates like bovine and deer will eat food dropped by foraging langurs. Langurs are preyed upon by leopards, dholes and tigers. Wolves, jackals, Asian black bears and pythons may also prey on langurs.

Diet
Gray langurs are primarily herbivores. However, unlike some other colobines they do not depend on leaves and leaf buds of herbs, but will also eat coniferous needles and cones, fruits and fruit buds, evergreen petioles, shoots and roots, seeds, grass, bamboo, fern rhizomes, mosses, and lichens. Leaves of trees and shrubs rank at the top of preferred food, followed by herbs and grasses. Non-plant material consumed include spider webs, termite mounds and insect larvae. They forage on agricultural crops and other human foods, and even accept handouts. Although they occasionally drink, langurs get most of their water from the moisture in their food.

Social structure
Gray langurs exist in three types of groups: All-male groups tend to be the smallest of the groups and can consist of adults, subadults, and juveniles. Some populations have only multiple-male groups as mixed sex groups, while others have only one-male groups as mixed sexed groups.
 * one-male groups, comprising one adult male, several females and offspring;
 * multiple-male groups, comprising males and females of all ages;
 * all-male groups.

Some evidence suggests multiple-male groups are temporary and exist only after a takeover, and subsequently split into one-male and all-male groups.

Social hierarchies exist for all group types. In all-male groups, dominance is attained through aggression and mating success. With sexually mature females, rank is based on physical condition and age. The younger the female, the higher the rank. Dominance rituals are most common among high-ranking langurs. Most changes in social rank in males take place during changes in group members. An adult male may remain in a one-male group for 45 months. The rate of male replacement can occur quickly or slowly depending on the group.

Females within a group are matrilineally related. Female memberships are also stable, but less so in larger groups. Relationships between the females tend to be friendly. They will do various activities with each together, such as foraging, traveling and resting. They will also groom each other regardless of their rank. However, higher-ranking females give out and receive grooming the most. In addition, females groom males more often than the other way around. Male and female relationships are usually positive. Relationships between males can range from peaceful to violent. While females remain in their natal groups, males will leave when they reach adulthood. Relationships between groups tend to be hostile. High-ranking males from different groups will display, vocalize, and fight among themselves.

Reproduction and parenting
In one-male groups, the resident male is usually the sole breeder of the females and sires all the young. In multiple-male groups, the highest-ranking male fathers most of the offspring, followed by the next-ranking males and even outside males will father young. Higher-ranking females are more reproductively successful than lower-ranking ones.

Female gray langurs do not make it obvious that they are in estrous. However, males are still somehow able to deduce the reproduction state of females. Females signal that they are ready to mate by shuddering the head, lowering the tail, and presenting their anogenital regions. Such solicitations do not always lead to copulation. When langurs mate, they are sometimes disrupted by other group members. Females have even been recorded mounting other females.

The gestation period of gray langur lasts around 200 days, at least at Jodhpur, India. In some areas, reproduction is year-around. Year-round reproduction appears to occur in populations that capitalize on human-made foods. Other populations have seasonal reproduction. Infanticide is common among gray langurs. Most infanticidal langurs are males that have recently immigrated to a group and driven out the prior male. These males only kill infants that are not their own. Infanticide is more commonly reported in one-male groups, perhaps because one male monopolizing matings drives the evolution of this trait. In multiple-male groups, the costs for infanticidal males are likely to be high as the other males may protect the infants and they can't ensure that they'll sire young with other males around. Nevertheless, infanticide does occur in these groups, and is suggested that such practices serve to return a female to estrous and gain the opportunity to mate.

Females usually give birth to a single infant, although twins do occur. Most births occur during the night. Infants are born with thin, dark brown or black hair and pale skin. Infants spend their first week attached to their mothers' chests and mostly just suckle or sleep. They do not move much in terms of locomotion for the first two weeks of their life. As they approach their sixth week of life, infants vocalize more. They use squeaks and shrieks to communicate stress. In the following months, the infants are capable of quadrupedal locomotion and can walk, run and jump by the second and third months. Alloparenting occurs among langurs, starting when the infants reach two years of age. The infant will be given to the other females of the group. However, if the mother dies, the infant usually follows. Langurs are weaned by 13 months.

Vocalizations
Gray langurs are recorded to make a number of vocalizations:
 * loud calls or whoops made only by adult males during displays;
 * harsh barks made by adult and subadult males when surprised by a predator;
 * cough barks made by adults and subadults during group movements;
 * grunt barks made mostly by adult males during group movements and agonistic interactions;
 * rumble screams made in agonistic interactions;
 * pant barks made with loud calls when groups are interacting;
 * grunts made in many different situations, usually in agonistic ones;
 * honks made by adult males when groups are interacting;
 * rumbles made during approaches, embraces, and mounts;
 * hiccups made by most members of a group when they find another group.

Status and conservation
Gray langurs have stable populations in some areas and declining ones in others. Both the black-footed gray langur and Kashmir gray langur are considered threatened. The latter is the rarest species of gray langur, with less than 250 mature individuals remaining.

In India, gray langurs number at around 300,000. India has laws prohibiting the capturing or killing of langurs, but they are still hunted in some parts of the country. Enforcement of these laws has proven to be difficult and it seems most people are unaware of their protection. Populations are also threatened by mining, forest fires and deforestation for wood.

Langurs can be found near roads and can become victims of automobile accidents. This happens even in protected areas, with deaths by automobile collisions making nearly a quarter of mortality in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary in Rajasthan, India. Langurs are considered sacred in the Hindu religion and are sometimes kept for religious purposes by Hindu priests and for roadside performances. However, some religious groups use langurs as food and medicine, and parts of gray langurs are sometimes kept as amulets for good luck.

Because of their sacred status and their less aggressive behavior compared to other primates, langurs are generally not considered pests in many parts of India. Despite this, research in some areas show high levels of support for the removal of langurs from villages, their sacred status no longer important. Langurs will raid crops and steal food from houses, and this causes people to persecute them. While people may feed them in temples, they do not extend such care to monkeys at their homes. Langurs stealing and biting people to get food in urban areas may also contribute to more persecutions.

title: Semnopithecus


text:
Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/March 5

 * 1046 - Naser Khosrow begins his "itinerary" which he would later describe in Safarnameh. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 169.207.86.220 (talk • contribs) 07:41, 4 March 2004 (UTC).

re Winston Churchill
the Winston Churchill article specifically states that the term "iron curtain" was not first used in a speech by Winston Churchill --MilkMiruku 01:04, 5 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Fixed. No one said anything last year ..... Thanks for pointing this out, MilkMiruku. -- PFHLai 03:41, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

Re: References to Military Occupation are POV
I am new to Wikipedia, so forgive me if I'm talking out of turn, but surely describing the presence of British soldiers in Boston in 1770 as a "Military Occupation" is a Point of View that has no place in Wikipedia, particularly on the front page? 81.96.78.18 14:36, 5 March 2007 (UTC)
 * As it is clearly not contended, I have removed reference to Military Occupation. MJD. 82.30.249.52 (talk) 15:19, 26 December 2007 (UTC).

What?!?!
I cannot believe Wikipedia's American-centric attitude put Casimir Pulaski Day as more important than learn from Lei Feng day. What is the justification for this? That China is supposedly communist and authoritarian? Colipon+(T) 04:12, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

Boston Massacre poorly worded
Coming up with a neutral wording for this entry is a challenge, to be sure, but the current version tries so hard to avoid controversy that it avoids telling us who did what:

 * 1770 – The pelting of British soldiers with snowballs soon escalated into a riot in Boston, Massachusetts, leaving at least five civilians dead.

Left out is the fact that colonists pelted soldiers with snowballs (implied), and that soldiers shot civilians (completely unmentioned). Also curious is the phrase "at least"; wasn't the death total exactly five? (One man's death 10 years later was attributed to injuries suffered in the shooting, but of course the incident didn't "leave" him dead.) Here's a better-worded entry, short and to the point:

 * 1770 – British soldiers fire into a threatening crowd in Boston, Massachusetts, killing five civilians.

—Kevin Myers 04:09, 5 March 2009 (UTC)

Requested addition to 5 March 2011 anniversaries
I'd like to add ZX81 to the list of selected anniversaries for 5 March. It is the 30th anniversary of the ZX81's launch, and I've rewritten and expanded the article to commemorate the anniversary. The Register has already published an anniversary piece which draws quite heavily on the Wikipedia article (see ). The proposed line would be:

 * 1981 – The ZX81, a pioneering British home computer, was launched by Sinclair Research and went on to sell over 1.5 million units around the world.

However, I can't work out any way of editing the selected anniversary page, as it seems to be locked. Can someone please help? Prioryman (talk) 12:47, 4 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Article looks good. I'll be sure to include it when I go do my verifications in a little bit.  howcheng  {chat} 16:55, 4 March 2011 (UTC)

2012 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 05:47, 4 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Omitted: John Cabot, Katyn massacre, Guerrillero Heroico, ZX81, Paul Okalik
 * Included: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (first appearance), Boston Massacre (7th appearance, last in 2009; rescued from Ineligible), First Anglo-Burmese War (4th appearance, last in 2009; rescued from Ineligible), Supermarine Spitfire (first appearance), Homebrew Computer Club (first appearance)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:38, 4 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Gloster Meteor
 * Omitted: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium; Boston Massacre; First Anglo-Burmese War; Supermarine Spitfire; Homebrew Computer Club
 * Included: Battle of Aizkraukle (first appearance); Battle of Barrosa (first appearance); Aquatic ape hypothesis (3rd appearance, last in 2010; rescued from Ineligible); BOAC Flight 911 (first appearance; rescued from Ineligible); Paul Okalik (3rd appearance, last in 2011)

I was just wondering why the 60th anniversary of the Death of Joseph Stalin was not mentioned. But obviously the aquatic ape hypothesis is more important. --ÄDA - DÄP VA (talk) 10:39, 5 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Per the rules, we only include births and natural deaths on centennial anniversaries. — howcheng  {chat} 16:45, 5 March 2013 (UTC)

2014 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:11, 4 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Boston Massacre (POTD for 2014)
 * Omitted: Battle of Aizkraukle; Aquatic ape hypothesis (ineligible—maintenance); BOAC Flight 911; Paul Okalik
 * Included: John Cabot (2nd appearance, last in 2011); De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (2nd appearance, last in 2012); Gloster Meteor (first appearance; rescued from Ineligible); ZX81 (2nd appearance, last in 2011)
 * Repeats: Battle of Barrosa (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 11:54, 3 March 2015 (UTC)
 * Omitted: John Cabot; Battle of Barrosa; Gloster Meteor; ZX81
 * Included: Boston Massacre (8th appearance, last in 2012); First Anglo-Burmese War (5th appearance, last in 2012); Guerrillero Heroico (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Homebrew Computer Club (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 40th anniversary)
 * Repeats: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:42, 3 March 2016 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Boston Massacre; First Anglo-Burmese War; Guerrillero Heroico; Homebrew Computer Club
 * Included: Battle of Aizkraukle (2nd appearance, last in 2013); Battle of Barrosa (3rd appearance, last in 2014); Supermarine Spitfire (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 80th anniversary); BOAC Flight 911 (2nd appearance, last in 2013; 50th anniversary)
 * Repeats: De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (3rd consecutive appearance, 4 total; 400th anniversary)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:06, 5 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Homebrew Computer Club (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Battle of Aizkraukle; De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (ineligible—maintenance); Battle of Barrosa; Supermarine Spitfire; BOAC Flight 911
 * Included: John Cabot (3rd appearance, last in 2014); Boston Massacre (9th appearance, last in 2015); Gloster Meteor (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Guerrillero Heroico (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Paul Okalik (4th appearance, last in 2013); Elaine Paige (first appearance); Anna Akhmatova (first appearance)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:38, 5 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Aquatic ape hypothesis (not notable enough)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Battle of Barrosa (maintenance)
 * Omitted: St Piran's Day (ineligible—maintenance); John Cabot (ineligible—maintenance); Boston Massacre (ineligible—maintenance); Guerrillero Heroico; Paul Okalik (ineligible—maintenance); Elaine Paige (ineligible—maintenance); Anna Akhmatova
 * Included: Julian's Persian War (first appearance); First Anglo-Burmese War (6th appearance, last in 2015); 1963 Camden PA-24 crash (first appearance); ZX81 (3rd appearance, last in 2014); Gerardus Mercator (first appearance); Marietta Piccolomini (first appearance); Lena Baker (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Gloster Meteor (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total; 75th anniversary)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 21:10, 5 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Supermarine Spitfire (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Julian's Persian War; First Anglo-Burmese War; Gloster Meteor; 1963 Camden PA-24 crash; ZX81; Gerardus Mercator; Marietta Piccolomini; Lena Baker
 * Included: St Piran's Day (rescued from Ineligible); Battle of Aizkraukle (3rd appearance, last in 2016); Boston Massacre (10th appearance, last in 2017; rescued from Ineligible); Battle of Barrosa (4th appearance, last in 2016; rescued from Ineligible); BOAC Flight 911 (3rd appearance, last in 2016); Homebrew Computer Club (3rd appearance, last in 2015; rescued from Ineligible); Edward Cornwallis (first appearance); Olav Bjaaland (first appearance); Ailsa McKay (first appearance)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:54, 6 March 2020 (UTC)
 * New articles (ineligible): J. R. Kealoha (TFA for 2020)
 * New articles (unused): Louis I of Hungary
 * Omitted: Battle of Aizkraukle; Battle of Barrosa; BOAC Flight 911; Homebrew Computer Club; Edward Cornwallis (ineligible—maintenance); Olav Bjaaland; Ailsa McKay
 * Included: John Cabot (4th appearance, last in 2017; rescued from Ineligible); Roberto Cofresí/Capture of the sloop Anne (both: 3rd appearance, last in 2017; moved from March 2); Guerrillero Heroico (4th appearance, last in 2017; 60th anniversary); Hermann Balk (first appearance); Michael von Faulhaber (first appearance); Elaine Paige (2nd appearance, last in 2017; rescued from Ineligible)
 * Repeats: Boston Massacre (2nd consecutive appearance, 11 total; 250th anniversary)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:55, 6 March 2021 (UTC)
 * New articles (unused): Subroto Mukerjee
 * Omitted: John Cabot; Boston Massacre; Roberto Cofresí; Guerrillero Heroico; Hermann Balk; Michael von Faulhaber; Elaine Paige
 * Included: Julian's Persian War (2nd appearance, last in 2018); Battle of Barrosa (5th appearance, last in 2019); Gloster Meteor (4th appearance, last in 2018); 1963 Camden PA-24 crash (2nd appearance, last in 2018); ZX81 (4th appearance, last in 2018; 40th anniversary); Louis I of Hungary (first appearance); J. R. Kealoha (first appearance); Mary Louise Booth (first appearance)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 08:26, 6 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Edward Cornwallis
 * Omitted: Battle of Barrosa; Gloster Meteor; 1963 Camden PA-24 crash; ZX81; Louis I of Hungary; J. R. Kealoha; Mary Louise Booth
 * Included: Battle of Aizkraukle (4th appearance, last in 2019); First Anglo-Burmese War (7th appearance, last in 2018); BOAC Flight 911 (4th appearance, last in 2019); Homebrew Computer Club (4th appearance, last in 2019); Gerardus Mercator (2nd appearance, last in 2018); Alessandro Volta (first appearance); Subroto Mukerjee (2nd appearance, last in 2021; also appeared on November 8, his death anniversary)
 * Repeats: Julian's Persian expedition (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total)

2023
Replace Anna Akhmatova with Joseph Stalin. Both are important Eastern Europeans who died in the second half of the 20th century. Both articles are rated "good". Not only was Stalin more important than Akhmatova, but his death was historically significant as it represents the beginning of a new era for the Soviet Union.

TLDR they are from the same era in the same region, both articles are of equal quality, Stalin way more important.

KommanderChicken (talk) 17:04, 5 March 2024 (UTC)


text:
Lyocell

Lyocell is a semi-synthetic fiber used to make textiles for clothing and other purposes.  It is a form of regenerated cellulose made by dissolving pulp and dry jet-wet spinning. Unlike rayon made by the more common viscose processes, Lyocell production does not use carbon disulfide, which is toxic to workers and the environment. Lyocell was originally trademarked as Tencel in 1982.

"Lyocell" has become a genericized trademark, used to refer to the Lyocell process for making cellulose fibers. The U.S. Federal Trade Commission defines Lyocell as "a fiber composed of cellulose precipitated from an organic solution in which no substitution of the hydroxy groups takes place, and no chemical intermediates are formed". It classifies the fiber as a sub-category of rayon.

Names
Other trademarked names for Lyocell fibers are Tencel (Lenzing AG), Newcell (Akzo Nobel), and Seacell (Zimmer AG). The company Birla also sells it under the brand name Excel. There are other manufacturers like Sateri which sell their product under generic name Lyocell

History
The development of Tencel was motivated by environmental concerns; researchers sought to manufacture rayon by means less harmful than the viscose method.

The Lyocell process was developed in 1972 by a team at the now defunct American Enka fibers facility at Enka, North Carolina. In 2003, the American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists (AATCC) awarded Neal E. Franks their Henry E. Millson Award for Invention for Lyocell. In 1966–1968, D. L. Johnson of Eastman Kodak Inc. studied NMMO solutions. From 1969 to 1979, American Enka tried unsuccessfully to commercialize the process. The operating name for the fiber inside the Enka organization was "Newcell", and the development was carried through a pilot plant scale before the work was stopped.

The basic process of dissolving cellulose in NMMO was first described in a 1981 patent by Mcorsley for Akzona Incorporated (the holding company of Akzo). In the 1980s the patent was licensed by Akzo to Courtaulds and Lenzing.

The fiber was developed by Courtaulds Fibres under the brand name "Tencel" in the 1980s. In 1982, a 100-kg/week pilot plant was built in Coventry, UK, and production increased tenfold (to a ton/week) in 1984. In 1988, a 25-ton/week semi-commercial production line opened at the Grimsby, UK, pilot plant.

The process was first commercialized at Courtaulds' rayon factories at Mobile, Alabama (1990 ), and at the Grimsby plant (1998). In January 1993, the Mobile Tencel plant reached full production levels of 20,000 tons per year, by which time Courtaulds had spent £100 million and 10 years on Tencel development. Tencel revenues for 1993 were estimated as likely to be £50 million. The second plant in Mobile was planned. By 2004, production had quadrupled to 80,000 tons.

Lenzing began a pilot plant in 1990, and commercial production in 1997, with 12 metric tonnes/year made in a plant in Heiligenkreuz im Lafnitztal, Austria. When an explosion hit the plant in 2003 it was producing 20,000 tonnes/year, and planning to double capacity by the end of the year. In 2004 Lenzing was producing 40,000 tons [sic, probably metric tonnes]. In 1998, Lenzing and Courtaulds reached a patent dispute settlement.

In 1998 Courtaulds was acquired by competitor Akzo Nobel, who combined the Tencel division with other fiber divisions under the Accordis banner, then sold them to private equity firm CVC Partners. In 2000, CVC sold the Tencel division to Lenzing AG, who combined it with their "Lenzing Lyocell" business, but maintained the brand name Tencel. They took over the plants in Mobile and Grimsby, and by 2015 was the largest Lyocell producer at 130,000 tonnes/year.

Uses
It is used in many everyday fabrics. Staple fibers are used in clothes such as denim, chino, underwear, casual wear, and towels. Filament fibers, which are generally longer and smoother than staple fibers, are used in items that have a silkier appearance such as women's clothing and men's dress shirts. Lyocell may be blended with a variety of other fibers such as silk, cotton, rayon, polyester, linen, nylon, and wool. When mixed with other fibers, the resulting fabric is much stronger and more resistant to wear, tear, and pilling. Lyocell also is used in conveyor belts, specialty papers, and medical dressings.

Properties
Lyocell shares many properties with other fibers such as cotton, linen, silk, ramie, hemp, and viscose rayon (to which it is very closely related chemically). Lyocell is 50% more absorbent than cotton, and has a longer wicking distance compared to modal fabrics of a similar weave.

Compared to cotton, consumers often say Lyocell fibers feel softer, and "airier", due to their better ability to wick moisture. Industry claims of higher resistance to wrinkling are as yet unsupported. Lyocell fabric may be machine washed or dry cleaned. It drapes well and may be dyed many colors, needing slightly less dye than cotton to achieve the same depth of colour.

Manufacturing process
The Lyocell process uses a direct solvent rather than indirect dissolution such as the xanthation-regeneration route in the viscose process. Lyocell fiber is produced from dissolving pulp, which contains cellulose in high purity with little hemicellulose and no lignin. Hardwood logs (such as oak and birch ) are chipped into squares about the size of postage stamps. The chips are digested chemically, either with the prehydrolysis-kraft process or with sulfite process, to remove the lignin and hemicellulose. The pulp is bleached to remove the remaining traces of lignin, dried into a continuous sheet and rolled onto spools. The pulp has the consistency of thick posterboard paper and is delivered in rolls weighing some 500 lb (230 kg).

 * [[Image:NMO.png|thumb|left|148px|[[N-Methylmorpholine N-oxide]] is a key solvent in the Lyocell process ]]

At the Lyocell mill, rolls of pulp are broken into one-inch squares and dissolved in N-methylmorpholine N-oxide (NMMO ), giving a solution called "dope". The filtered cellulose solution is then pumped through spinnerets, devices used with a variety of synthetic fibers. The spinneret is pierced with small holes rather like a shower head; when the solution is forced through it, continuous strands of filament come out. The fibers are drawn in air to align the cellulose molecules, giving the Lyocell fibers its characteristic high strength. The fibers are then immersed into a water bath, where desolvation of the cellulose sets the fiber strands. The bath contains some dilute amine oxide in a steady state concentration. Then the fibers are washed with demineralised water. Next, the Lyocell fiber passes to a drying area, where the water is evaporated from it.

Manufacture then follows the same route as with other kinds of fibers such as viscose. The strands pass to a finishing area, where a lubricant, which may be a soap or silicone or other agents, depending on the future use of the fiber, is applied. This step is a detangler, prior to carding and spinning into yarn. At this stage, the dried, finished fibers are in a form called tow, a large, untwisted bundle of continuous lengths of filament. The bundles of tow are taken to a crimper, a machine that compresses the fiber, giving it texture and bulk. The crimped fiber is then carded by mechanical carders, which perform a combing action to separate and order the strands. The carded strands are then cut and baled for shipment to a fabric mill. The entire manufacturing process, from unrolling the raw cellulose to baling the fiber, takes roughly two hours. After this, the Lyocell may be processed in many ways. It may be spun with another fiber, such as cotton or wool. The resulting yarn can be woven or knitted like any other fabric, and may be given a variety of finishes, from soft and suede-like to silky.

The amine oxide used to dissolve the cellulose and set the fiber after spinning (NMMO) is recycled. Typically, 99 percent of the amine oxide is recovered. NMMO biodegrades without producing harmful products. Since there is little waste product, this process is relatively eco-friendly, though it is energy-intensive.

Future research
Lyocell's lack of antibacterial properties is limiting its uses in the medical field. Due to its biodegradability, low toxicity, and comfort, Lyocell would become a useful material for antibacterial garments. Several approaches have been tested to introduce antibacterial capabilities. Three general approaches have been studied to achieve this: physical blending, chemical reaction, and post-treatment. Physical blending methods introduce antibacterial agents into the spinning dope. In chemical reaction methods, antibacterial additives are crosslinked into the Lyocell fibers and therefore giving antimicrobial properties. In post-treatment methods, antibacterial additives are being deposited on Lyocell fiber surfaces through physical coating, padding, or impregnation processes. Physical blending and post-treatment methods appear to be the most promising for large-scale manufacturing. Careful consideration of cost, preparation time, and antibacterial effectiveness is required to select the best method. Creating successful modification of Lyocell fibers to enhance antibacterial properties would allow to manufacture products for health care (such as lab coats, caps, gowns), hygiene products (scrubs, sanitary napkins), and clothing (socks, underwear).

title: Lyocell


text:
Hawaiian Pidgin

Hawaiian Pidgin (alternately, Hawaiʻi Creole English or HCE, known locally as Pidgin) is an English-based creole language spoken in Hawaiʻi. An estimated 600,000 residents of Hawaii speak Hawaiian Pidgin natively and 400,000 speak it as a second language. Although English and Hawaiian are the two official languages of the state of Hawaiʻi, Hawaiian Pidgin is spoken by many residents of Hawaiʻi in everyday conversation and is often used in advertising targeted toward locals in Hawaiʻi. In the Hawaiian language, it is called ōlelo pai ai – "hard taro language". Hawaiian Pidgin was first recognized as a language by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015. However, Hawaiian Pidgin is still thought of as lower status than the Hawaiian and English languages.

Despite its name, Hawaiian Pidgin is not a pidgin, but rather a full-fledged, nativized and demographically stable creole language. It did, however, evolve from various real pidgins spoken as common languages between ethnic groups in Hawaiʻi.

Although not completely mutually intelligible with Standard American English, Hawaiian Pidgin retains a high degree of mutual intelligibility with it compared to some other English-based creoles, such as Jamaican Patois, in part due to its relatively recent emergence. Some speakers of Hawaiian Pidgin tend to code switch between or mix the language with standard English. This has led to a distinction between pure "heavy Pidgin" and mixed "light Pidgin".

History
Hawaiian Pidgin originated on sugarcane plantations in 1835 as a form of communication used between Hawaiian speaking Native Hawaiian residents, English speaking residents, and foreign immigrants. It supplanted, and was influenced by, the existing pidgin that Native Hawaiians already used on plantations and elsewhere in Hawaiʻi. Since such sugarcane plantations often hired workers from many different countries, a common language was needed in order for the plantation workers to communicate effectively with each other and their supervisors. Hawaiian Pidgin has been influenced by many different languages, including Portuguese, Hawaiian, American English, and Cantonese. As people of other backgrounds were brought in to work on the plantations, Hawaiian Pidgin acquired even more words from languages such as Japanese, Ilocano, Okinawan and Korean.

The article Japanese loanwords in Hawaii lists some of those words originally from Japanese. Hawaiian Pidgin has also been influenced to a lesser degree by Spanish spoken by Puerto Rican settlers in Hawaiʻi. As there were eventually more immigrant families who brought their children to the plantations, these children learned the language from their parents as well as English at school. Over time, a new pidgin language developed from all of the different language backgrounds which became many of the children's first language. This was the origin of Hawaiian Pidgin, which was used and is still used by many Hawaiian and non-Hawaiian people who live there.

Hawaiian Pidgin was created mainly to provide communication and facilitate cooperation between the foreign laborers and the English-speaking Americans in order to do business on the plantations. Even today, Hawaiian Pidgin retains some influences from these languages. For example, the word stay in Hawaiian Pidgin has a form and use similar to the Hawaiian verb noho, Portuguese verb ficar or Spanish estar", which mean "to be" but are used only when referring to a temporary state or location.

In the 19th and 20th centuries, Hawaiian Pidgin started to be used outside the plantation between ethnic groups. In the 1980s, two educational programs were established which were taught in Hawaiian Pidgin to help students learn Standard English. Public school children learned Hawaiian Pidgin from their classmates and parents. Living in a community mixed with various cultures led to the daily usage of Hawaiian Pidgin, which caused the language to expand. It was easier for school children of different ethnic backgrounds to speak Hawaiian Pidgin than to learn another language. Children who grew up learning and speaking this language expanded Hawaiian Pidgin as it was their first language, or mother tongue. For this reason, linguists generally consider Hawaiian Pidgin to be a creole language.

Hawaiian Pidgin is said to have since been decreolized (Romaine, 1994), especially in Oahu, Hawaiʻi which holds the largest population of the islands. This is due to capitalism and economic changes on the islands that were implemented by the United States. Furthermore, tourism and technology have made the English language more utilized in Hawaii, which has led to the endangerment of Hawaiian Pidgin. Hawaiian Pidgin was also not taught in public education nor does it have its own writing system. Consequently, Hawaiian Pidgin was thought of as a "low social status" and is only a memory of the plantations that many want to forget. This brought upon racial discrimination to those who spoke the language, which excluded children from school who spoke Hawaiian Pidgin. Even though people were against Hawaiian Pidgin, the language has since been strengthened and supported by young people who honor Hawaiian Pidgin and its origins.

Demographics and status
A five-year survey that the U.S. Census Bureau conducted in Hawaiʻi revealed that many people spoke Hawaiian Pidgin as an additional language. As a result of this, the U.S. Census Bureau in 2015 added Hawaiian Pidgin to the list of official languages in the state of Hawaiʻi.

In the last few decades, many residents of Hawaiʻi have moved to the US mainland due to economic issues. As a result, thousands of Pidgin speakers can be found in the other 49 states.

Historically, teachers and policymakers have debated whether growing up speaking Hawaiʻi Creole English hinders the learning of Standard English.

Phonology
Hawaiian Pidgin has distinct pronunciation differences from standard American English (SAE). Long vowels are not pronounced in Hawaiian Pidgin if the speaker is using Hawaiian loanwords. Some key differences include the following:

 * Th-stopping: and  are pronounced as  or  respectively—that is, changed from a fricative to a plosive (stop). For instance, think  becomes, and that  becomes . An example is "Broke da mout" (tasted good).
 * L-vocalization: Word-final l is often pronounced  or . For instance, mental  is often pronounced ; people is pronounced [pipo].
 * Hawaiian Pidgin is non-rhotic. That is, r after a vowel is often omitted, similar to many dialects, such as Eastern New England, Australian English, and British English variants. For instance, car is often pronounced cah, and letter is pronounced letta. Intrusive r is also used. The number of Hawaiian Pidgin speakers with rhotic English has also been increasing.
 * Hawaiian Pidgin has falling intonation in questions. In yes/no questions, falling intonation is striking and appears to be a lasting imprint of Hawaiian (this pattern is not found in yes/no question intonation in American English). This particular falling intonation pattern is shared with some other Oceanic languages, including Fijian and Samoan (Murphy, K. 2013).
 * In certain words, the sound /ts/ assimilates to /s/. Examples include: what's becoming wass  and it's  becoming iss . This feature is also found in African-American Vernacular English.

Others include:, ,     and.

Grammatical features
Hawaiian Pidgin has distinct grammatical forms not found in SAE, although some of them are shared with other dialectal forms of English or may derive from other linguistic influences.

Forms used for SAE "to be":
 * Generally, forms of English "to be" (i.e. the copula) are omitted when referring to inherent qualities of an object or person, forming in essence a stative verb form. Additionally, inverted sentence order may be used for emphasis. (Many East Asian languages use stative verbs instead of the copula-adjective construction of English and other Western languages.)
 * Da behbeh cute. (or) Cute, da behbeh.
 * The baby is cute.

These constructions also mimic the grammar of the Hawaiian language. In Hawaiian, "nani ka pēpē" is literally "beautiful the baby" retaining that specific syntactic form, and is perfectly correct Hawaiian grammar with equivalent meaning in English, "The baby is beautiful."

 * When the verb "to be" refers to a temporary state or location, the word stay is used (see above). This may be influenced by other Pacific creoles, which use the word stap, from stop, to denote a temporary state or location. In fact, stop was used in Hawaiian Pidgin earlier in its history, and may have been dropped in favor of stay due to influence from Portuguese estar or ficar (ficar is literally translated to English as 'to stay', but often used in place of "to be" e.g. "ele fica feliz" he is happy).

 * Da book stay on top da table.
 * The book is on the table.

 * Da watah stay cold.
 * The water is cold.

For tense-marking of verb, auxiliary verbs are employed:
 * To express past tense, Hawaiian Pidgin uses wen (went) before the infinitive form of the modified verb.
 * Jesus wen cry. ("Da Jesus Book", John 11:35)
 * Jesus cried.

 * To express future tense, Hawaiian Pidgin uses goin (going), derived from the going-to future common in informal varieties of American English.
 * God goin do plenny good kine stuff fo him. ("Da Jesus Book", Mark 11:9)
 * God is going to do a lot of good things for him.

 * To express past tense negative, Hawaiian Pidgin uses neva (never). Neva can also mean "never" as in Standard English usage; context sometimes, but not always, makes the meaning clear.
 * He neva like dat.
 * He didn't want that. (or) He never wanted that. (or) He didn't like that.

 * Use of fo (for) in place of the infinitive particle "to". Cf. dialectal form "Going for carry me home."
 * I tryin fo tink. (or) I try fo tink.
 * I'm trying to think.

Regional varieties
The grammar and vocabulary of Hawaiian Pidgin is largely uniform though there are slight changes depending on the region it’s spoken in.

For instance, while standard Pidgin uses “wen” as a past tense verb marker, Kauai speakers are more likely to use “had”.
 * She had go awready. (Kauai)
 * She wen go awready. (Standard)
 * She went already.

Another example is shave ice being “ice shave” on the Big Island.

Sociolinguistics
The language is highly stigmatized in formal settings, for which American English or the Hawaiian language are preferred. Many researchers believe the continued delegitimization of this creole is rooted in the language’s origin story and colonial past, as it was once a plantation language. Therefore, its usage is typically reserved for everyday casual conversations. Studies have proven that children in kindergarten preferred Hawaiian Pidgin, but once they were in grade one and more socially conditioned they preferred Standard English. Hawaiian Pidgin is often criticized in business, educational, family, social, and community situations as it might be construed as rude, crude, or broken English among some Standard English speakers. However, many tourists find Hawaiian Pidgin appealing – and local travel companies favor those who speak Hawaiian Pidgin and hire them as speakers or customer service agents.

Most linguists categorize Hawaiian Pidgin as a creole, as a creole refers to the linguistic form "spoken by the native-born children of pidgin-speaking parents". However, many locals view Hawaiian Pidgin as a dialect. Other linguists argue that this "standard" form of the language is also a dialect. Based on this definition, a language is primarily the "standard" form of the language, but also an umbrella term used to encapsulate the "inferior" dialects of that language.

The Pidgin Coup, a group of Hawaiian Pidgin advocates, claims that Hawaiian Pidgin should be classified as a language. The group believes that the only reason it is not considered a language is due to the hegemony of English. "Due to the hegemony of English, a lack of equal status between these two languages can only mean a scenario in which the non-dominant language is relatively marginalized. Marginalization occurs when people hold the commonplace view that HCE and English differ in being appropriate for different purposes and different situations. It is this concept of 'appropriateness' which is a form of prescriptivism; a newer, more subtle form." These Hawaiian Pidgin advocates believe that by claiming there are only certain, less public contexts in which Hawaiian Pidgin is only appropriate, rather than explicitly stating that Hawaiian Pidgin is lesser than Standard English, masks the issue of refusing to recognize Hawaiian Pidgin as a legitimate language. In contrast, other researchers have found that many believe that, since Hawaiian Pidgin does not have a standardized writing form, it cannot be classified as a language. Many linguists argue for the need to destigmatize Pidgin. One way to do so, linguists argue, includes the use of Pidgin in the classroom.

Literature and performing arts
In recent years, writers from Hawaiʻi such as Lois-Ann Yamanaka, Joe Balaz, and Lee Tonouchi have written poems, short stories, and other works in Hawaiian Pidgin. A Hawaiian Pidgin translation of The Bible (called Da Good an Spesho Book) has also been created, in 2020, by Wycliffe Bible Translators, Inc. Also an adaptation of William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night, or What You Will, titled in Hawaiian Pidgin "twelf nite o' WATEVA!"

Several theater companies in Hawaii produce plays written and performed in Hawaiian Pidgin. The most notable of these companies is Kumu Kahua Theater.

The 1987 film North Shore contains several characters, particularly the surfing gang Da Hui, that speak Hawaiian Pidgin. This leads to humorous misunderstandings between the haole protagonist Rick Kane and several Hawaiian locals, including Rick's best friend Turtle, who speaks Hawaiian Pidgin.

Hawaiian Pidgin has occasionally been featured on Hawaii Five-0 as the protagonists frequently interact with locals. A recurring character, Kamekona Tupuola (portrayed by Taylor Wiley), speaks Hawaiian Pidgin. The show frequently displays Hawaiian culture and is filmed at Hawaii locations.

Another film that features Hawaiian Pidgin is Netflix’s Finding ‘Ohana, a film that depicts the story of a brother and sister duo from Brooklyn who embark on a journey to reconnect with their Hawaiian heritage, this includes learning about Hawaiian Pidgin, as it was integral to their family history.

Milton Murayama's novel All I asking for is my body uses Hawaiʻi Pidgin in the title of the novel. R. Zamora Linmark employs it extensively in his semi-autobiographical novel Rolling the R's; two of the major characters speak predominately in Pidgin and some chapters are narrated in it. The novel also includes examples of Taglish.

Two books, Pidgin to Da Max and Pidgin to Da Max: Hana Hou, humorously portray Hawaiian Pidgin through prose and illustrations.

As of March 2008, Hawaiian Pidgin has started to become more popular in local television advertisements as well as other media. When Hawaiian Pidgin is used in advertisements, it is often changed to better fit the targeted audience of the kamaāina.

title: Hawaiian Pidgin


text:
Stalingrad station (Paris Métro)

Stalingrad is a Paris Métro station on the border between the 10th arrondissement and 19th arrondissement at the intersection of Lines 2, 5 and 7, located at the Place de la Bataille-de-Stalingrad, which is named after the Battle of Stalingrad.

History
The Line 2 station opened as Rue d'Aubervilliers, named after a nearby street, on 31 January 1903 as part of the extension of line 2 from Anvers to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas). On 5 November 1910, a separate underground station was opened as part of the first section of line 7 between Opéra and Porte de la Villette a short distance away in the Boulevard de la Villette and named after it.

In 1942, the two stations combined to form Aubervilliers – Boulevard de la Villette. The line 5 opened its corresponding station on 12 October 1942 as part of its extension from Gare du Nord to Église de Pantin. In 1946, the section of the Boulevard de la Villette near the station was named the Place de Stalingrad in honour of the Soviet victory at the Battle of Stalingrad and the station's name was changed to Stalingrad at the same time.

The location remained unchanged until line extensions resumed: Line 7 was extended from Porte de la Villette to Fort d'Aubervilliers in 1979 and La Courneuve – 8 mai 1945 in 1987; a branch was created in the south in 1982 to Le Kremlin-Bicêtre and Villejuif – Louis Aragon in 1985. Line 5 was extended to Bobigny – Pablo Picasso the same year.

The platforms on Line 7 were chosen to be the prototype of Ouï-dire style installation, which were completed in December 1988 before being introduced to twenty other stations being renovated.

In 2018, it saw 7,342,659 travelers enter the station, which places it at the 38th position of metro stations for its attendance.

Platforms
The stations of the three lines are of a standard configuration with two platforms separated by the railway lines. The platforms of Line 2 are above-ground, located on a viaduct, while those of Lines 5 and 7 are underground, under an elliptical arch. Line 2 platforms are equipped with glass awnings, as are all above-ground stations on the line. Lighting is achieved through white neon lighting tubes. The steel pillars and spandrels incorporate ground glass windows which sit atop white and flat ceramic tiles. The platforms, devoid of advertising, are equipped with white Motte style benches and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enamelled plates.

The platforms of Line 5 are arranged in the Andreu-Motte style blue colour: they have two lighting strips in this shade, as well as seating and spandrels covered with flat tiling of the same hue. They are equipped with Motte blue and white seats. This decoration is married with the white bevelled tiling which covers the pillars, vault, and the outlets of the corridors. The name of the station is inscribed in faience in the original CMP style. The advertising frames are special: in brown faience and with simple patterns, they are surmounted by the letter M. These same frames are only present in seven other Paris metro stations.

The platforms of Line 7 are laid out in the Ouï-dire style blue colour: the two lighting strips of the same colour, are supported by curved shaped false consoles. The direct lighting is white, while unlike most bands of this style, there is no multi-coloured indirect lighting present yet. The flat white ceramic tiles cover the pillars, vault, and the tunnel exits but not the outlets of the corridors which are covered with white bevelled tiles, this last point also constituting an exception to the Ouï-dire style. The name of the station is written in Parisine font on enamelled plates and the Motte seating is blue. Advertising frames are metallic instead of the blue half-circle, which is another exception to the Ouï-dire style.

Bus connections
The station is served by Lines 48 and 54 of the RATP bus network and at night, by Lines N13, N41, N42 and N45 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby attractions
Nearby are the Rotonde de la Villette (part of the Barrière Saint-Martin, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General between 1784 and 1788), the Bassin de la Villette (an artificial lake) and the Canal Saint-Martin.

title: Stalingrad station (Paris Métro)


text:
Jaurès station

Jaurès is a station on Paris Métro line 2, line 5, and line 7bis in the 10th and 19th arrondissements.

History
The station was opened on 23 February 1903, three weeks after line 2 was extended from Anvers to Bagnolet (now Alexandre Dumas) on 31 January 1903. Line 7bis platforms opened on 18 January 1911 as part of the first section of line 7 between Opéra and Porte de la Villette, more than two months after the opening of the line on 5 November 1910. Line 5 platforms opened on 12 October 1942 with the opening of the first section of the line between Gare du Nord and Église de Pantin. On 3 December 1967 the branch to Pré Saint-Gervais was separated as 7bis with the new service terminating at Louis Blanc.

The station was originally called Rue d'Allemagne ("Street of Germany"). On 1 August 1914, just before the outbreak of World War I, the name of the street and the station were changed to Jaurès as a result of the rising tensions with Germany, a day after the assassination of Jean Jaurès (1859–1914). Boulogne–Jean Jaurès on line 10 is also named in honour of him. The station Berlin on line 13 was also renamed to Liège for similar reasons.

As part of the "Renouveau du métro" programme by the RATP, the station was renovated and modernised in 2014.

In 2019, the station was used by 5,836,196 passengers, making it the 64th busiest of the Métro network out of 302 stations.

In 2020, the station was used by 3,148,221 passengers amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the 54th busiest of the Métro network out of 305 stations.

In 2021, the station was used by 4,055,461 passengers, making it the 52nd busiest of the Métro network out of 305 stations.

Access
The station has six accesses:

 * Access 1: Boulevard de la Villette
 * Access 2: Quai de la Loire
 * Access 3: avenue Jean Jaurès
 * Access 4: avenue Secrétan
 * Access 5: Quai de Jemmapes
 * Access 6: rue de Chaumont

Platforms
The stations of consisting three lines are of a standard configuration with two platforms separated by the railway track, with the platforms for line 2 being elevated and the rest underground. Line 2 platforms are equipped with glass awnings, as are all elevated stations on the line. The steel pillars and tunnel exits incorporate stained glass windows which sit atop white and flat ceramic tiles. On the platform in the direction of Nation, part of the glass supports a stained glass work consisting of abstract patterns, dominated by the blue-white-red French flag, depicting the crowd that seized the Bastille prison on 14 July 1789, which is represented in white in the centre of the work. Created in 1989 by the visual artist Jacques-Antoine Ducatez, it is visible both from the inside and outside the station. The presence of this window in this station is explained by the proximity of the quays of Valmy and Jemappes, whom reference two decisive victories of the revolutionary wars following the overthrow of the French Monarchy. The stained glass also pays tribute to the pacifist Jean Jaurès. At the corner of the canopy and the piers, ivies were planted in 2017 by Les Jardins de Babylone as part of the revegetation of RATP spaces.

Other connections
The station is also served by lines 26 and 48 of the RATP bus network, and at night, by lines N13, N41, N42, and N45 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby

 * Bassin de la Villette
 * Rotonde de la Villette (part of the Wall of the Farmers-General, built between 1784 and 1788)

Culture
This neighborhood of Paris was mentioned in the Henri-Georges Clouzot film "L'Assassin habite au 21" released in 1942. Vincent Dieutre's French Docudrama film Jaurès was released in 2012, it was named after the station.

title: Jaurès station


text:
Colonel Fabien station

Colonel Fabien is a station on Paris Métro Line 2, on the border of the 10th and 19th arrondissements under the Boulevard de la Vilette.

Location
The station is located under Boulevard de la Villette, to the southeast of Place du Colonel Fabien. Oriented approximately along a northwest/southeast axis, it is positioned between the Jaurès and Belleville metro stations. In the direction of Porte Dauphine, this is the last underground station before the above-ground section of the line.

History
The station was opened on 31 January 1903 as part of the extension of line 2 from Anvers to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas). It was originally named Combat after the Place du Combat, which was named after the Barrière du Combat, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished after the Paris Commune of 1871. Its name reflected the animal fighting held there between 1778 and 1850. On 19 August 1945, the Place and station were renamed after Colonel Pierre-Georges Fabien, who shot a German soldier to death at Barbès – Rochechouart metro station, marking the beginning of the armed French Resistance in Paris.

As part of the RATP  Renouveau du métro program, the station was renovated in the course of the 2000s.

In 2020, with the COVID-19 crisis, 2,378,863 passengers entered this station, which places it at the 94th position of metro stations for its use.

Access
The station has a single entrance called Boulevard de la Villette, leading to the central median of this boulevard facing no. 83. Made up of a fixed staircase, it is adorned with a Guimard entrance designed in 1900 and is registered as a historical monument by the decree of 29 May 1978.

Platform
Colonel Fabien is a standard configuration station. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is of the style used for the majority of the metro stations, with beveled white ceramic tiles covering the walls, the vault, the tunnel entrances, and the outlets of the corridors, while the lighting is provided by two tube canopies. The advertising frames are metallic, and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enameled plates. The seats are the Motte style in blue.

Bus connections
The station is served by lines 46 and 75 of the RATP Bus Network.

title: Colonel Fabien station


text:
Belleville station (Paris Métro)

Belleville is a station on Paris Métro Line 2 and Line 11. The station is in the district of Belleville at the corner of the 10th, 11th, 19th and 20th arrondissements.

Location
The station is located at the crossroads formed by Rue de Belleville, Boulevard de la Villette, Rue du Faubourg-du-Temple and Boulevard de Belleville, with the platforms positioned:

 * on line 2, approximately a north-west / south-east axis under the start of Boulevard de la Villette, between the Couronnes and Colonel Fabien metro stations;
 * on line 11, approximately a northeast / southwest axis under the end of Rue du Faubourg-du-Temple, between Goncourt and Pyrénées metro stations.

History
The station was opened on 31 January 1903 as part of the extension of line 2 from Anvers to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas). The line 11 platforms opened as part of the original section of the line from Châtelet to Porte des Lilas on 28 April 1935. The station is named after the commune of Belleville that was annexed by Paris in 1860. It was the location of the Barrière de Belleville, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished during the 19th century.

Like a third of the stations in the network, between 1974 and 1984, the platforms were modernised in Andreu-Motte style, in orange for line 2 and green for line 11.

As part of RATP's Renouveau du métro program, its corridors were renovated on 29 July 2005.

In 2015, local elected officials proposed to change the station's name to Belleville–Commune de Paris 1871, commemorating the area as the last redoubt of the Paris Commune.

Since 2020, as part of the extension of line 11 to Rosny-sous-Bois, three new entrances have been put into service: no. 7 and no. 9 on 17 September and no. 8 at the end of that year.

In 2020, with the COVID-19 crisis, 5,680,933 passengers entered this station, which placed it in twelfth position among metro stations for its use.

Access
The station has nine entrances:
 * entrance 1 - Boulevard de Belleville, consisting of a fixed staircase, leading to the right side no. 130-132 of the boulevard;
 * entrance 2 - Rue de Belleville, also made up of a fixed staircase, facing no. 2 on Boulevard de la Villette;
 * entrance 3 - Boulevard de la Villette, made up of an ascending escalator allowing exit only, located to the right of no. 4 of this boulevard;
 * entrance 4 - Terre-plein central du boulevard de la Villette, made up of a fixed staircase adorned with a Dervaux candelabra, leading to said central reservation facing no. 1, 2 and 3 of this boulevard;
 * entrance 5 - Rue du Faubourg-du-Temple, also made up of a fixed staircase decorated with a Dervaux mast, located to the right of no. 1 on Boulevard de la Villette;
 * entrance 6 - Rue Louis-Bonnet, consisting of a fixed staircase fitted with a Dervaux candelabra, located at the corner formed by Rue Faubourg-du-Temple and Louis-Bonnet, facing no. 79 of the Boulevard de Belleville;
 * entrance 7 - Rue de la Presentation, consisting of a fixed staircase with a Dervaux candelabra, that opened in 2020, located at the corner of said street and Rue du Faubourg-du-Temple; this access is only connected to the platform bound for the Mairie des Lilas on line 11;
 * entrance 8 - Rue de l'Orillon, consisting of an escalator going up only, allowing exit from the platform in the direction of Mairie des Lilas, located to the right of no. 8 of Rue de la Presentation;
 * entrance 9 - Cour de la Grâce-de-Dieu, consisting of a fixed staircase allowing only an exit from the platform, direction Châtelet, located to the right of no. 127 of the street Rue du Faubourg-du-Temple.

Platforms
The platforms of the two lines are of a standard configuration. There are two per stopping points, separated by the metro tracks located in the centre and the vault is elliptical.

Line 2 station is fitted out in the Andreu-Motte style with two light canopies and orange Motte seats. The bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, the tunnel exits and the vault. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enamelled plaques.

Line 11 station is also decorated in the Andreu-Motte style with two light canopies and green Motte seats. As on the platforms of line 2, the white ceramic tiles cover the walls, the tunnel exits and the vault. In contrast, the advertising frames are honey-colored earthenware and the name of the station is also written on the earthenware in the style of the original CMP.

Bus connections
The station is served by lines 20 and 71 of the RATP Bus Network, and, at night, by lines N12 and N23 of the Noctilien network.

Modernisation
As part of the line 11 extension project, and to meet the station's evacuation standards, plans were created for new accesses at the western end of the platforms, leading to Rue de la Présentation.

title: Belleville station (Paris Métro)


text:
Couronnes station

Couronnes is a station on Line 2 of the Paris Métro, on the border of the 11th and 20th arrondissements.

History
The station was opened on 31 January 1903 as part of the extension of line 2 (known at the time as "2 Nord") from Anvers to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas). It is named after the Rue des Couronnes, which was named after either the local village of Les Couronnes-sous-Savies, or from a tavern called Les Trois Couronnes. It was the location of the Barrière des Trois-Couronnes, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished during the 19th century.

In 2020, with the COVID-19 crisis, 1,623,475 passengers entered this station, that places it in 157th position for metro stations in terms of attendance.

1903 disaster

The station was the site of a fire and stampede that caused the worst catastrophe in the history of the Paris Métro, killing 84 people on 10 August 1903 (earlier estimates had put the number of fatalities at over 100).

Access
The station has a single entrance that leads to the central reservation of Boulevard de Belleville, facing no. 37.

Platforms
Couronnes is a station of standard configuration. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is of the style used for the majority of metro stations: the lighting canopies are white and rounded in the Gaudin style of the metro renovation of the 2000s, and the bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls, the vault, and the tunnel exits. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is in Parisine font on an enamel plate. The seats are red Motte style.

Bus connections
The station is served by lines 20, 71 and 96 of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N12 and N23 of the Noctilien network.

title: Couronnes station


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Ménilmontant station

Ménilmontant is a station on Line 2 of the Paris Métro, on the border of the 11th and 20th arrondissements.

Location
The station is established at the start of Boulevard de Ménilmontant at its junction with Boulevard de Belleville, at the intersection with Rue de Ménilmontant and Rue Oberkampf. Oriented approximately along a north-west / south-east axis, it is located between the Couronnes and Père Lachaise stations.

History
The station was opened on 31 January 1903 as part of the extension of line 2 (known at the time as "2 Nord") from Anvers to Bagnolet (now called Alexandre Dumas). It is named after the Boulevard de Ménilmontant, which was named after a hamlet, annexed by Belleville before the French Revolution and in turn by Paris in 1860. It was the location of the Barrière de Ménilmontant, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished during the 19th century.

On 10 August 1903, the station was one of the locations of the most serious accident on the Paris metro. A fire in a wooden train, empty of passengers, killed seven people in the station, but the spread of toxic fumes and heat to the neighboring station at Couronnes would claim the lives of 77 others.

As part of the RATP's Metro Renewal program, the entire station was renovated around the year 2000.

On 9 October 2019, half of the nameplates on the station's platforms are temporarily replaced by the RATP in order to celebrate the 60th anniversary of Astérix and Obélix, as in eleven other stations. Taking up in particular the typography characteristic of the comics of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo, Ménilmontant is humorously renamed Menhirmontant in reference to the animated film Asterix and the Big Fight (Astérix et le coup du menhir).

In 2019, 3,943,809 travelers entered the station which placed it at the 120th position of the metro stations for its usage.

Access
The station has a single access entitled Boulevard de Ménilmontant, leading to the central reservation of this boulevard facing no. 137. Consisting of a fixed staircase, it is adorned with a Guimard entrance, which was subject to a registration as historic monument by the decree of 12 February 2016.

Platforms
Ménilmontant is a metro station with a slight curve with a standard configuration. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is of the style used for the majority of metro stations with bevelled white ceramic tiles covering the walls, the vault, the tympans and the end of the corridors, while the lighting is provided by two tube strips. The advertising frames are metallic and the name of the station is written in Parisine font on enameled plates. The seats are in the blue Motte style. Access is via the northwest end.

Bus connection
The station is served by lines 20, 71 and 96 of the RATP Bus Network and, at night, by lines N12 and N23 of the Noctilien bus network.

title: Ménilmontant station