text:
Mossley

Mossley (/ˈmɒzli/) is a town and civil parish in Tameside, Greater Manchester, England. It is located in the upper Tame Valley and the foothills of the Pennines, 3 mi south-east of Oldham and 9 mi east of Manchester.

The historic counties of Lancashire, Cheshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire meet in Mossley and local government wards and church parishes correspond to their boundaries. Mossley had a population of 10,921 at the 2011 Census. It is the only parished area of Tameside, having had a parish council since 1999.

Toponymy
Believed to originate in around 1319, the name Mossley means "a woodland clearing by a swamp or bog".

Events
Mossley—alongside neighbouring Stalybridge and Uppermill in Saddleworth—helped launch the annual Whit Friday Band Contest, an internationally known brass band event. This came about when the three towns held unconnected brass band events on 6 June 1884.

Public venue
George Lawton, the son of magistrate and alderman John Lawton, inherited a family fortune and when he died in August 1949, he left the bulk of his wealth to the people of Mossley. Part of his £77,760 wealth was left to build a public meeting place, the George Lawton Hall.

Governance
Following the passing of the Public Health Act 1848 (11 & 12 Vict. c. 63) and the Local Government Act 1857, a Local Board of Health was established in Mossley in 1864. On 13 March 1885 Mossley was granted a Charter of Incorporation to become a municipal borough, replacing the local board. The council was based at Mossley Town Hall. The whole borough was unified under the administrative county of Lancashire under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1974 the borough of Mossley was absorbed under the provisions of the Local Government Act 1972 into the new metropolitan borough of Tameside in the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester. It became an unparished area.

Under the provisions of the Local Government and Rating Act 1997 local electors were given the right to request that a new parish and council be created in unparished areas. The people of Mossley exercised this right and a civil parish for Mossley was established in 1999. The civil parish council voted to adopt town status and Mossley now has a town mayor. The town has three parish wards based on the historic county borders, with four members representing the Cheshire part, three members the Lancashire part and two members the Yorkshire part. The town's unofficial coat of arms includes Cheshire's sheaf of corn, Lancashire's red rose and Yorkshire's white rose to signify the historic demarcation.

Parliament
From 1918 to 1950 the town gave its name to the Mossley constituency which returned a Member of Parliament; for most of the period, the MP was Austin Hopkinson, who was notable for being elected as an Independent candidate. The town is now represented by the MP for Stalybridge and Hyde.

Geography
Mossley lies amongst the foothills of the Pennines, on the western edge of Saddleworth Moor.

Churches
The eccesiastical parishes correspond to the boundaries of the historic counties:
 * St. Joseph's Church, in the centre of Mossley, is Roman Catholic
 * All Saints' Church is in Micklehurst, aligned to Cheshire
 * St John the Baptist Church is of Yorkshire
 * St George's Church is of Lancashire

Primary schools

 * St. Joseph's R.C. Primary School
 * Livingstone Primary School
 * St. George's Primary School
 * Milton St. John's Primary School
 * All Saints Micklehurst

Secondary school

 * Mossley Hollins High School

Transport
Mossley railway station is sited on the Huddersfield line. Services are operated by TransPennine Express to locations including Manchester Piccadilly, Stalybridge, Huddersfield, Leeds and Hull.

Several bus routes serve Mossley, including (as of March 2024): A tram network operated by the SHMD Joint Board ran lines through Mossley from 1904 to 1945, until their replacement by buses. The second-generation tramway Manchester Metrolink currently terminates at nearby Ashton-under-Lyne for connections to the city centre.
 * 343: operated by Stotts, travelling between Hyde and Oldham; this is the only bus route to connect nearby Carrbrook with Mossley. Sunday and Bank Holiday operations are managed by Nexus Move.
 * 350: operated by Stagecoach Manchester (Bee Network) between Oldham and Ashton.
 * 356: operated by Nexus Move, between Ashton-under-Lyne, Uppermill and Oldham.
 * 357: operated by South Pennine Community Transport between Ashton-under-Lyne and Holmfirth (Tuesdays only); this is the only bus service connecting the town with the nearby county of West Yorkshire.

Media
Local news and television programmes are provided by BBC North West and ITV Granada. Television signals are received from the Winter Hill TV transmitter and one of the two local relay transmitters (Saddleworth and Brock Bottom ).

Local radio stations are BBC Radio Manchester, Capital Manchester and Lancashire, Heart North West, Smooth North West, XS Manchester, Greatest Hits Radio Manchester & The North West, and Tameside Radio, a community based station.

The local newspaper is the Tameside Reporter, published on Thursdays.

Twinning
Mossley's French twin town is Hem, situated near Lille, in the Nord département.

Sport
Local sport teams include Mossley A.F.C., Mossley Mayhem Softball Club, Mossley Athletic JFC, Mossley Juniors F.C., Mossley AFC Running Club and Micklehurst Cricket Club.

Fairtrade
Mossley's Town Council passed a resolution in November 2009 to make Mossley a Fairtrade Town. A group of local campaigners and activist have started the Fairtrade Mossley group to make 2010 the year that Mossley becomes a Fairtrade Town.

Notable people

 * Ernest Sykes, recipient of the Victoria Cross
 * Melanie Sykes, TV presenter and model
 * John Mayall, mill owner and owner of the largest cotton spinning company in the world (1803–1878)
 * Jon Courtenay, Britain's Got Talent winner in 2020
 * Lee Broadbent and Eoghan Clifford, members of the hard rock band Cabbage
 * Ray Hill, anti-fascist
 * Peter McGarr - British Award winning composer, lives in Mossley.
 * Chris Cyprus - artist

title: Mossley


text:
User:BL~enwiki/Spell

 * 1) Differental equations

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:BL~enwiki/Spell


text:
Donald Margulies

Donald Margulies (born September 2, 1954) is an American playwright and academic. In 2000, he won the Pulitzer Prize for Drama for his play Dinner with Friends.

Background and education
Margulies attended John Dewey High School in Brooklyn, New York, and graduated from Purchase College where he received a BFA in Visual Arts. Margulies lives with his wife, Lynn Street, a physician, and their son, Miles, in New Haven, Connecticut.

He is a Professor in the Practice of English and Theatre & Performance Studies at Yale University.

Theater
Margulies' notable works include The Country House (2014), Time Stands Still (2009) and Brooklyn Boy (2004). Sight Unseen and Collected Stories were finalists for the Pulitzer Prize for Drama, in 1992, and 1997, respectively; Dinner with Friends was awarded the Pulitzer Prize in 2000.

Margulies said of Sight Unseen, "It's about loss, like most of my plays, and about identity." Ben Brantley noted themes in his works: "The central motifs in Brooklyn Boy have always been visible in Mr. Margulies's work, from the willed amnesia of the self-invented artist (Sight Unseen) to the hazy lines between fiction and reality (Collected Stories). And Eric's fractious, divided family, summoned in recollection in Brooklyn Boy, has been anticipated in The Loman Family Picnic and What's Wrong With This Picture?

Long Lost
The play was developed in connection with the Nashville Repertory Theatre Ingram New Works Festival. The unfinished play was given a reading in May 2015 at the Festival. The play focuses on a "long-overdue reunion between two middle-aged brothers." Long Lost opened Off-Broadway, produced by the Manhattan Theatre Club, at New York City Center — Stage I on May 14, 2019 in previews, officially on June 4. Directed by Daniel J. Sullivan, the cast features Kelly AuCoin, Annie Parisse, Lee Tergesen and Alex Wolff.

The Country House
The play takes place in the Berkshires, where Anna, an actress, is appearing at the Williamstown Theatre Festival. She is entertaining her son, a failed actor, Elliot; a handsome famous actor, Michael; her son-in-law, Walter, who was married to her deceased daughter, and his girlfriend/fiancé, Nell and his daughter Susie.

The Country House opened on Broadway on October 2, 2014, at the Manhattan Theater Club's Samuel J. Friedman Theatre. It was a co-production with the Geffen Playhouse, where it had its world premiere on June 11, 2014, directed by Daniel Sullivan and starred Blythe Danner ("Anna"), Eric Lange, David Rasche and Sarah Steele; Scott Foley and Emily Swallow originated roles played on Broadway by Daniel Sunjata and Kate Jennings Grant. It won the 2014 L.A. Ovation Award for Best Play (Large Theatre) and was selected an Applause Books Best Play of 2013–14.

Time Stands Still
Time Stands Still opened on Broadway on January 28, 2010, at the Manhattan Theatre Club's Friedman Theatre for a limited engagement. It resumed performances on September 23, 2010, at the Cort Theatre, where it ran until January 30, 2011; between its two runs, it played a total of 24 previews and 193 performances. It starred Laura Linney, Brian d'Arcy James, Eric Bogosian and Alicia Silverstone (later succeeded at the Cort by Christina Ricci), and was directed by Daniel Sullivan. The play was nominated for a 2010 Tony Award for Best Play and was a Burns Mantle Best Play of 2009–2010. Linney was nominated for a Tony Award for Best Actress in a Play.

Time Stands Still had its world premiere at the Geffen Playhouse (Los Angeles) in February 2009 which had commissioned it. Directed by Sullivan, the Geffen premiere featured Silverstone, Anna Gunn, David Harbour and Robin Thomas. Its European premiere took place in Stockholm in 2009.

Shipwrecked! An Entertainment
The play, set in the 19th Century, focuses on "Louis de Rougemont" who was shipwrecked on a Coral Sea Island and lived with Australian aborigines, or so he tells his listeners in England.

The play made its world premiere in the September 2007 Pacific Playwrights Festival at South Coast Repertory, where it starred Gregory Itzin and was directed by Bart DeLorenzo. The play went on to productions at the Geffen Playhouse, where it again was directed by DeLorenzo and starred Itzin and Long Wharf Theatre in New Haven, directed by Evan Cabnet in February 2008.

The play opened Off-Broadway at Primary Stages, directed by Lisa Peterson, running from February 8, 2009 to March 7, 2009. Michael Countryman appeared in the Long Wharf and Off-Broadway productions. It received the 2009 Outer Critics' Circle Award nomination for Outstanding New Play.

Oil Lamp Theater in Glenview, IL off-Chicago produced Shipwrecked: An Entertainment in summer 2021, which was the first production of the theater company to be produced outdoors.

Brooklyn Boy
Brooklyn Boy began at the Pacific Playwrights Festival, in 2003, and was produced at South Coast Repertory in 2004, on Broadway by Manhattan Theatre Club at the Biltmore Theatre in February 2005, and in Paris at the Comedie des Champs-Élysées. It was an American Theatre Critics' Association New Play Award finalist, a 2005 Outer Critics' Circle nominee for Outstanding New Broadway Play and a Burns Mantle Best Play of 2004–2005.

The play was directed by Daniel Sullivan, and its original cast at the South Coast Rep was Adam Arkin, Arye Gross, Allan Miller, Ari Graynor, Mimi Lieber, Kevin Isola and Dana Reeve (whose role was played on Broadway by Polly Draper).

Dinner with Friends
Dinner with Friends, which received the 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Drama, was commissioned by Actors Theatre of Louisville (Kentucky), where it had its world premiere at the 1998 Humana Festival of New American Plays. A revised version was produced in October 1998 at South Coast Repertory in Costa Mesa, California.

The play opened Off-Broadway at the Variety Arts Theatre in November 1999, where it played 654 performances. In addition to the Pulitzer, Dinner with Friends received an American Theatre Critics Association New Play Citation, The Dramatists' Guild/Hull-Warriner Award, the Lucille Lortel Award for Outstanding Off-Broadway Play, the Outer Critics Circle Award for Outstanding Off-Broadway Play a Drama Desk Award nomination for Best Play and was selected a Burns Mantle Best Play of 1999–2000.

It went on to have a long run in Paris at the Comedie des Champs-Élysées, and productions in London, Berlin, Vienna, Stockholm, Tokyo, Mumbai, Seoul, Tel Aviv and Istanbul.

In 2002 it was an Emmy Award-nominated film for HBO.

Collected Stories
Collected Stories was commissioned by South Coast Repertory, where it had its world premiere in 1996. It went on to have three New York productions: its premiere Off-Broadway at Manhattan Theatre Club's City Center Stage I, in 1997, with Maria Tucci and Debra Messing, directed by Lisa Peterson; in 1998–99 at the Lucille Lortel Theatre with Uta Hagen and Lorca Simons, directed by William Carden; and on Broadway in 2010 at Manhattan Theatre Club's Friedman (formerly Biltmore) Theatre, starring Linda Lavin and Sarah Paulson, directed by Lynne Meadow. Lavin received a 2010 Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Play for her performance.

Lavin had previously played the role of Ruth Steiner in May - June 1999 at the Geffen Playhouse in a production co-starring Samantha Mathis, directed by Gilbert Cates, which was later re-produced for television broadcast by PBS Hollywood Presents in 2002.

The play has had many productions all over the country and around the world, including one in London in 1999, at the Theatre Royal Haymarket, with Helen Mirren and Anne-Marie Duff, directed by Howard Davies.

Collected Stories was a finalist for the 1997 Pulitzer Prize for Drama.

Sight Unseen
Sight Unseen was commissioned by South Coast Repertory, where it had its premiere in September 1991. The play premiered Off-Broadway in a Manhattan Theatre Club production, at City Center II on January 7, 1992 and transferred to the Orpheum Theatre on March 26, 1992 where it ran for a combined total of 293 performances. It was directed by Michael Bloom and starred Dennis Boutsikaris, Deborah Hedwall, Jon DeVries and, in the supporting role of a German art critic, Laura Linney.

Linney played "Patricia" in the play's Broadway premiere at Manhattan Theatre Club's Biltmore Theatre, running from May 6, 2004 (previews) to July 25, 2004. The cast featured Ben Shenkman, Byron Jennings and Ana Reeder, directed by Daniel Sullivan. Linney received a Tony Award nomination for Best Actress in a Play.

The play was a finalist for the 1992 Pulitzer Prize for Drama.

The Loman Family Picnic
The Loman Family Picnic was first produced by Manhattan Theatre Club (MTC) at City Center Stage II, from June 6, 1989 to July 2, 1989, with Marcia Jean Kurtz and Larry Block, directed by Barnet Kellman. The MTC revival ran from October 28, 1993 to January 9, 1994 at New York City Center Stage I. Directed by Lynne Meadow, the cast featured Christine Baranski and Peter Friedman, The play was nominated for the 1994-95 Drama Desk Award, Best Revival of a Play and was a Burns Mantle Best Play of 1988–1989.

The Model Apartment
Lola and Max are in their 60s and are Holocaust survivors. They have moved from Brooklyn to a condominium in Florida. Debby is their overweight and messy daughter, late 30s. Neil is 15, a black young man who is Debby's boyfriend.

The Model Apartment premiered at Los Angeles Theatre Center in November 1988, directed by Roberta Levitow featuring Chloe Webb as "Debby", Milton Selzer and Erica Yohn as her parents and Zero Hubbard.

The play opened Off-Broadway at Primary Stages, running from October 11, 1995 to November 12, 1995. Directed by Lisa Peterson, the cast featured Lynn Cohen (Lola), Akili Prince, Paul Stolarsky and Roberta Wallach. Margulies won the 1995-96 OBIE Award for Playwriting, and the play was a 1995-96 Drama Desk nominee for Best Play and a Dramatists' Guild/Hull-Warriner Award finalist.

The play was revived Off-Broadway by Primary Stages, from September 24, 2013 (previews), officially on October 15. Directed by Evan Cabnet, the cast featured Mark Blum, Diane Davis and Kathryn Grody. It was nominated for two Lucille Lortel Awards (Outstanding Lead Actress in a Play, Diane Davis and Outstanding Revival) and for two 2014 Drama Desk Awards (Outstanding Revival of a Play and Outstanding Featured Actress in a Play, Diane Davis).

What's Wrong with This Picture?
Shirley, a Jewish housewife and mother from Brooklyn, returns from the dead to reconcile with her family. Her husband Mort is grieving and teen son Artie can't forgive her for leaving him.

What's Wrong with This Picture? was first produced Off-Broadway by the Manhattan Theatre Club Stage 73, from January 29, 1985 to February 23, 1985, directed by Claudia Weill and starring Madeline Kahn as Shirley. It was next produced Off-Broadway by the Jewish Repertory Theatre from June 9, 1990 to August 5, 1990, directed by Larry Arrick.

The play ran on Broadway at the Brooks Atkinson Theatre from November 15, 1994 in previews, officially on December 8, 1994 and closed on December 18, 1994. Directed by Joe Mantello, the cast featured Faith Prince, Alan Rosenberg, Jerry Stiller, and David Moscow.

Found a Peanut
Found a Peanut was first produced by Joseph Papp at the New York Shakespeare Festival in June 1984, where it was directed by Claudia Weill and starred Robert Joy, Evan Handler, Peter McNicol, Greg Germann, Robin Bartlett, Nealla Spano, Kevin Geer and Jonathan Walker.

Gifted Children
Gifted Children was produced by the Jewish Repertory Theater (New York City) in December 1983, directed by Joan Vail Thorne and starring Dinah Manoff and Zohra Lampert.

Adaptations
Luna Park is a one-act play inspired by the short story "In Dreams Begin Responsibilities" by Delmore Schwartz and was his New York debut as a playwright. The play was commissioned by the Jewish Repertory Theater which produced the play in February 1982 with direction by Florence Stanley.

His play God of Vengeance, based on the Yiddish classic by Sholem Asch, was produced at ACT Theatre (Seattle) in April 2000, and in August 2002 at the Williamstown Theatre Festival, directed by Gordon Edelstein and starring Ron Leibman.

Coney Island Christmas, adapted from the short story “The Loudest Voice” by Grace Paley, was commissioned and first produced by the Geffen Playhouse in November 2012. Directed by Bart DeLorenzo the cast featured Arye Gross and Isabella Acres in this "Jewish Christmas show".

Film and television
Margulies has written pilots and episodes of several television shows. In the 1980s, he was under contract to Norman Lear's company to develop television pilots, and was a producer-writer for the television series Baby Boom.

He has adapted a wide range of material for film and television, both fiction (including Middlesex by Jeffrey Eugenides, Tom Wolfe’s A Man in Full, The Touchstone by Edith Wharton) and non-fiction (notably American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House by Jon Meacham, The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce’s “Ulysses" by Kevin Birmingham, and biographies of David O. Selznick, Robert Capa and Keith Moon), all of which are unproduced.

The End of the Tour
Margulies adapted the memoir Although of Course You End Up Becoming Yourself: A Road Trip With David Foster Wallace, by David Lipsky, as a feature film screenplay, The End of the Tour. The film, released in 2015, was directed by James Ponsoldt and stars Jason Segel as Wallace and Jesse Eisenberg as Lipsky. The film received widespread positive reviews from critics, with a 92% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.

Grants and Fellowships
Margulies has received grants from the National Endowment for the Arts, the New York Foundation for the Arts, the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation and a MacDowell Colony Fellowship.

He was playwright-in-residence at the Sundance Playwrights Conference for three summers; Collected Stories was developed there, as was an early version of Sight Unseen.

Margulies is an alumnus of New Dramatists and serves on the council of the Dramatists Guild of America.

Selected Honors

 * 2019 American Academy of Arts and Sciences inductee
 * 2018 Thornton Wilder Prize
 * 2015 William Inge Theatre Festival Distinguished Achievement in American Theater Award
 * 2014 PEN/Laura Pels International Foundation for Theater Award American Playwright in Mid-Career
 * 2005 American Academy of Arts and Letters Award in Literature
 * 2005 National Foundation for Jewish Culture Award in Literary Arts
 * 2000 Madge Evans-Sidney Kingsley Award for Outstanding Achievement in the Theatre by a Playwright
 * 2000 Pulitzer Prize for Drama

Notable works

 * Luna Park, 1982
 * Resting Place, 1982
 * Gifted Children, 1983
 * Found a Peanut, 1984
 * What's Wrong with This Picture?, 1985
 * The Model Apartment, 1988
 * The Loman Family Picnic, 1989
 * Pitching to the Star, 1990
 * Sight Unseen, 1991
 * July 7, 1994, 1995
 * Collected Stories, 1996
 * Dinner with Friends, 1998
 * God of Vengeance, 2000
 * Brooklyn Boy, 2003
 * Shipwrecked! An Entertainment, 2007
 * Time Stands Still, 2009
 * Coney Island Christmas, 2012
 * The Country House, 2014
 * Long Lost, 2019
 * Lunar Eclipse, 2023

title: Donald Margulies


text:
Paul Möhring

Paul Heinrich Gerhard Möhring (also Paul Mohr; 21 July 1710 in Jever – 28 October 1792) was a German physician, botanist and zoologist.

He studied medicine in Danzig and Wittenberg, and following graduation (1733), he settled as a general practitioner in his hometown of Jever. Möhring was a physician to the Prince of Anhalt. In 1752 he published Avium Genera, an early attempt to classify bird species, which divided birds into four classes and shows the beginnings of the modern groupings.

During his long career, he maintained correspondence with Albrecht von Haller, Lorenz Heister, Carl Linnaeus, Hans Sloane and Paul Gottlieb Werlhof. The plant genus Moehringia (family Caryophyllaceae) was named in his honor by Carl Linnaeus.

Principal works

 * "De inflammationis sanguineae theoria mechanica", 1733.
 * "Historiae medicinales", 1739.
 * "Avium genera", 1752.
 * Geslachten der Vogelen 1758.

title: Paul Möhring


text:
List of archive formats

This is a list of file formats used by archivers and compressors used to create archive files.

Archive formats by purpose
Archive formats are used for backups, mobility, and archiving. Many archive formats compress the data to consume less storage space and result in quicker transfer times as the same data is represented by fewer bytes. Another benefit is that files are combined into one archive file which has less overhead for managing or transferring. There are numerous compression algorithms available to losslessly compress archived data; some algorithms are designed to work better (smaller archive or faster compression) with particular data types. Archive formats are used by most operating systems to package software for easier distribution and installation than binary executables.

title: List of archive formats


text:
Denmark Hill railway station

Denmark Hill railway station is in the area of Denmark Hill in south London, England, on the South London and Catford loop lines. It is 4 mi down the line from London Victoria. It is managed by Thameslink. The station is located in London fare zone 2. The station runs services by Thameslink, Southeastern and London Overground.

History
The station was built between 1864 and 1866. Its design by Charles Henry Driver is in the Italianate style, with an extremely decorative frontage and French pavilion roofs.

In 1920 the waiting room was used by The Mystical Church of the Comforter, founded by Elizabeth Mary Eagle Skinner, who was known as "The Messenger". The waiting room was transformed by an altar, painted white and surrounded by the seven colours of the rainbow. The Nottingham Evening Post for 17 June 1926 reported that babies were baptised, funeral services were read and even a marriage was solemnised. The porters and clerks of the railway company often worked to the accompaniment of hymns sung by the congregation. The church is believed to have ceased to function after the death of Skinner in November 1929.

By the late 1970s, the structure had fallen into disrepair. Arsonists burst into the booking hall in March 1980, and the ensuing fire damaged the roof. Initial work by British Rail engineers to make the building safe by demolishing parts of the remaining building triggered a protest campaign by the Camberwell Society. Following a joint initiative between them, the Southwark Environment Trust and the British Rail Director of the Environment, Bernard Kaukas, the building was restored in 1985.

The project included the addition of a public house, initially called the Phoenix and Firkin to commemorate the fire, then called O'Neills and now the Phoenix. The building was given a Civic Trust award in 2009.

In the period 2011–2013 the station underwent a redesign with the construction of a new ticket office with access from Champion Park, new walkways and lifts to the platforms.

In September 2021, a second entrance opened on the north-eastern side of the station.

Design
The platforms are below road level, with the short Grove Tunnel at one end and Denmark Hill road bridge at the other.

Services
Services at Denmark Hill are operated by Southeastern, Thameslink and London Overground using, , , , , and  EMUs.

The typical off-peak service in trains per hour is:
 * 3 tph to London Victoria
 * 2 tph to London Blackfriars
 * 2 tph to Sevenoaks via Catford
 * 2 tph to Dartford via Bexleyheath
 * 1 tph to Gillingham via Chatham
 * 4 tph to Clapham Junction
 * 4 tph to Dalston Junction via Surrey Quays

During the peak hours, additional services between Orpington, Kentish Town and Luton call at the station. In addition, the service to London Blackfriars is extended to and from Welwyn Garden City via Finsbury Park and the services between London Victoria and Gillingham are increased to 2 tph.

The station is also served by a limited London Overground service of one train per day to and two trains per day from Battersea Park.

On Sundays, the services to Gillingham are extended to run to and from Dover Priory.

Layout
The station is on two lines:

The South London line are the Southern pair of tracks (through Platforms 1 & 2) running to London Victoria and Clapham Junction The Catford Loop Line are the Northern pair (through Platforms 3 & 4) running to London Blackfriars & beyond to the Thameslink core and Victoria.

 * Platform 1: Southeastern to Victoria and London Overground to Clapham Junction
 * Platform 2: Southeastern to Gillingham / Dover Priory and London Overground to Dalston Junction / Highbury & Islington
 * Platform 3: Thameslink to London Blackfriars, Luton, Welwyn Garden City and Kentish Town
 * Platform 4: Thameslink to Orpington, Sevenoaks and Southeastern to Dartford and Ashford International

Southeastern trains to Victoria can use both 1 & 3 and their return services to Dartford, Gillingham and Dover can use 2 & 4, above are the default.

Connections
London Buses routes 40, 176, 185 and 484 serve the station.

title: Denmark Hill railway station


text:
Wandsworth Road railway station

Wandsworth Road railway station (WWR) is a National Rail station between Battersea and Clapham in south London. It is served by London Overground services between Clapham Junction and Dalston Junction, with a limited service to Battersea Park. It is 1 mi from London Victoria.

Chatham lines
The station opened on 1 March 1863, on the London, Chatham and Dover Railway (LCDR) original double-track low-level route from Victoria via Stewarts Lane, which was opened between Victoria and Herne Hill, on 25 August 1862. The LCDR constructed a triple-track high-level route between Battersea Pier Junction and Brixton, part of which opened between Factory Junction, (100 metres north of Wandsworth Road station) and Brixton on 1 May 1866, together with three additional platforms at Wandsworth Road. Therefore, from May 1866 until April 1916, this station had five platforms. In 1879 the LCDR was running the following services that stopped at Wandsworth Road:

 * Frequent trains between Moorgate and Victoria, calling at all stations
 * Half-hourly trains between Moorgate and Clapham Junction, calling at all stations
 * Through trains from Kentish Town to Victoria, calling at all stations

The LCDR was operated as part of the joint South Eastern and Chatham Railway (SECR) from 1899.

SECR withdrew it services on 3 April 1916 and the three 1866 platforms were closed.

The former South Eastern & Chatham platforms which closed in 1916 were demolished in the late 1920s.

Atlantic lines
On 1 May 1867, the London, Chatham and Dover Railway leased the original two tracks to the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway (LBSCR) for use by its new South London line service, which ran between Victoria and London Bridge via Denmark Hill. After the SECR withdrew its service on 3 April 1916 only the original two 1863 platforms remained in operation and were served by the LBSCR. The South London line service was withdrawn for four months during the 1926 general strike with the station closed from 19 May 1926 to 20 September 1926.

A footbridge was installed by Network SouthEast in November 1988 having previously been used at Mitcham.

The London Victoria and London Bridge service continued until 8 December 2012, ultimately with a train twice-hourly and operated by Southern. This was replaced by the London Overground service between Clapham Junction and Dalston Junction.

Parliamentary trains
Following the withdrawal of CrossCountry's services from Reading to Brighton via Kensington Olympia in December 2008 the Department for Transport required a weekly parliamentary train to run on lines no longer used by other services, hence Southern operated a morning weekday service from Kensington Olympia to Clapham High Street with a corresponding service in the afternoon. This was withdrawn in December 2012. Since then the service was instead been cut back to Wandsworth Road from Kensington Olympia, and then withdrawn completely in June 2013, following the ratification of the service withdrawal request by the Department for Transport and Office of Rail and Road.

Services
London Overground operate four services per hour in each direction between Clapham Junction and Dalston Junction. There is also a limited early morning and late evening service from and to Battersea Park.

Connections
London Buses routes 77, 87 and 452 and night route N87 serve the station.

title: Wandsworth Road railway station


text:
Plestiodon fasciatus

The (American) five-lined skink (Plestiodon fasciatus) is a species of lizard in the family Scincidae. The species is endemic to North America. It is one of the most common lizards in the eastern U.S. and one of the seven native species of lizards in Canada.

Common names
Other common names for P. fasciatus include blue-tailed skink (for juveniles) and red-headed skink (for adults). It is technically appropriate to call it the American five-lined skink to distinguish it from the African skink Trachylepis quinquetaeniata (otherwise known as five-lined mabuya) or the eastern red-headed skink to distinguish it from its western relative Plestiodon skiltonianus (otherwise known as the western skink). The blue-tailed skink proper is Cryptoblepharus egeriae from Christmas Island, but in North America the juveniles of any Eumeces or Plestiodon species may be called this.

Description
The American five-lined skink is small to medium-sized, growing to about 12.5 to 21.5 cm total length (including tail). Young American five-lined skinks are dark brown to black with five distinctive white to yellowish stripes running along the body and a bright blue tail. The blue color fades to light blue with age, and the stripes also may slowly disappear. Females however, are more likely to retain the blue tail color as they age. The dark brown color fades, too, and older individuals are often uniformly brownish. The southeastern five-lined skink, P. inexpectatus, of the Southeastern United States is very similar to this species and there is some overlap in range. The two species can be distinguished by their scales. The broad-headed skink, P. laticeps, is similar, and may be difficult to distinguish from P. fasciatus. The former species usually lacks the two enlarged postlabial scales characteristic of P. fasciatus. Adult male broad-headed skinks, with their large size and swollen red head, are readily distinguished from P. fasciatus. Research suggests that are sexually dimorphic in terms of size. The males are often larger than the females, but this depends on the area they live. Their claws are short and curved downward; they make a right angle at the axis of each toe.

Geographic range
The range of the American five-lined skink extends in the north to southern Ontario, Michigan and eastern New York. The western border is in Minnesota, Missouri and eastern Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, Tennessee and Texas. P. fasciatus tends to be most abundant on the coastal plain in the southeastern United States and along the Gulf Coast. It has now been seen in increasing numbers in the northern Chesapeake Bay Region of Maryland particularly along the shores of the Elk River, and northern Virginia.It has also been seen in northern South America, such as Colombia.

Habitat
The American five-lined skink is a ground-dwelling animal. It prefers moist, hardwood areas with a permanent water source such as rivers or streams, as well as sites to bask in the sun. It can also be found in broken, rocky areas at the northern edge of its habitat. Within the northern edge of its habitat, it was found that they prefer areas with longer than average rock cover in areas with few trees. While little is known about any hibernation patterns, P.fasciatus is rarely seen throughout winter and the surrounding months. It is assumed by scientists that they are sheltered and dormant under rocks, logs, or leaves provided by the hardwood areas it inhabits. They are resistant to minor disturbances, but can be affected by the removal of woody debris in their northern habitats.

Reproduction
Fertilization in the American five-lined skink is internal, with eggs laid by the female between the middle of May and July, at least one month after mating. Males will mate with multiple females. The mating season begins in May. The female Plestiodon will lay its eggs in June, and four to six weeks after the incubation, the young hatch. Thus the birthing process consists of laying eggs and external incubation. Fertilization occur shortly after copulation, unlike many other lizard species Plestiodon fasciatus females are unable to store sperm between successive clutches. One study found that most clutches had multiple sires, but within those clutches, there was unequal sharing of paternity.

Females lay fifteen to eighteen eggs in a small cavity cleared beneath a rotting log, stump, board, loose bark, a rock, or an abandoned rodent burrow. Females prefer secluded nest sites in large, moderately decayed logs. Soil moisture is also an important factor in nest selection. Females often place nests in regions where soil moisture is higher than in adjacent areas. Vertical position of the nest also varies with moisture, with nests located deeper in a soil cavity at dry sites. Even when nesting sites are not limited, a significant amount of aggregation occurs.

The parchment-like eggs of the American five-lined skink, similar to many other reptiles, are thin and easily punctured. Freshly laid eggs range from spherical to oval in shape averaging 1.3 cm in length. Absorption of water from the soil leads to increased egg size. Egg coloration also changes over time, from white to mottled tan, after contact with the nest burrow. The incubation period ranges from 24 to 55 days, and varies due to fluctuations in temperature. Females typically brood their eggs during this time, exhibiting defensive behavior against smaller predators. Parental care ends a day or two after hatching when hatchlings leave the nest. Young American five-lined skinks, with a potential life span of up to six years, attain sexual maturity and begin reproducing within two to three years of hatching.

Behavior
Adult male American five-lined skinks exhibit complex courtship and aggressive behavior. Although males tolerate juveniles and females in their territories, they actively defend these areas against other males. It has been proposed that one of the functions of their blue tails is intraspecific communication with the purpose of preventing attacks by more aggressive males because the blue tail signifies that they are juveniles or females. Vomeronasal analysis of chemical cues and recognition of sex-specific visual stimuli, including tail and body coloration, aid in the identification of sex. Evidence suggests that males may rely more on contact pheromones than volatile airborne molecules in the identification of conspecifics. Courting males grasp the necks of receptive females in their jaws after approaching them from the side. Using the tail to align cloacal openings, males initiate copulation by inserting one of the two hemipenes into the female's cloaca. Copulation events typically last four to eight minutes.

Female American five-lined skinks demonstrate high levels of parental care which reduces egg mortality. Females exhibit several brooding positions of variant contact levels with the body placed beside, over, through, or in a coil around the eggs. Brooding position varies according to soil moisture. Maternal body contact increases at lower moisture levels potentially reducing the transpirational loss of the eggs. In communal nests, females may alternate foraging and guarding of the nests, leaving eggs protected at all times. Females may also urinate in the nests and turn eggs to maintain humidity. In addition, females transfer heat from basking through body contact. Any eggs displaced from the nest are retrieved by head or snout rolling, and rotten eggs are eaten.

American five-lined skinks also exhibit antipredation behavior. In evasion of various predators including snakes, crows, hawks, shrews, moles, opossums, skunks, raccoons, and domestic cats, skinks may disconnect their entire tail or a small segment. It is thought that the bright blue color attracts predators to the expendable tail. Skinks run to shelter to escape their death as the disconnected tail continues to twitch. Skinks may also utilize biting as a defensive strategy.

Diet
The common five-lined skink's diet consists primarily of a variety of arthropods, particularly spiders, crickets, beetles and other insects. However, they have been reported to also eat newborn mice, frogs, and other lizards. Wild skinks will make short forays into heavily used core areas to find food. Those who own a pet skink are advised to supplement the skink's diet with fruits and vegetables. In addition to eating insects, skinks enjoy a variety of fruits and vegetables. Fruits that skinks enjoy include blueberries, mangos, raspberries, papayas, cantaloupes, strawberries, and figs. Studies have indicated that the majority of the five-lined skink's diet is mostly invertebrates, which for some of the many prey species the effect is negligible, but because of its voracious diet, its predation may be a major ecological factor.

Conservation status
The Great Lakes - St. Lawrence population of P. fasciatus is listed as "special concern" in Ontario and Canada by COSSARO and COSEWIC. It is illegal to remove any of the three species of skinks found in Canada from their habitats. Skinks are at the extreme edge of their habitat range in Canada, which makes it an area of special interest to ecologists, as extreme conditions place unique evolutionary pressures upon species. The American five-lined skink has split into two phylogenetically-distinct populations in this edge habitat; the Carolinian population, also present in the United States, ends around Point Pelee National Park in southern Ontario. The Carolinian population is listed as "endangered" in Ontario and Canada by COSSARO, COSEWIC, The St. Lawrence / Great Lakes population resides in the Ottawa Valley in eastern Ontario and tends to be more tolerant to sparse or rocky conditions than its sister subspecies.

Captive care
American five-lined skinks can be maintained in captivity with minimal care. Some U.S. states impose general restrictions on taking reptiles including native American five-lined skinks from the wild without a permit or hunting license, for example Maryland (no more than 4 may be possessed without a permit), Indiana and Ohio.

A pair of skinks may live in a 25-30 US gallon terrarium, and may live for 5–10 years with adequate care.

title: Plestiodon fasciatus


text:
William Bryan

William Bryan may refer to:

People

 * William Bryan (North Carolina politician) (1725–1781), American militia general and politician
 * William James Bryan (1876–1908), U.S. Senator from Florida
 * William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925), orator and three-time Democratic nominee for U.S. President
 * Statue of William Jennings Bryan, a 1937 bronze sculpture
 * William Joel Bryan (1815–1903), Texas soldier and land owner, namesake of Bryan, Texas
 * William Joseph Bryan (1926–1977), American hypnotist
 * William Lowe Bryan (1860–1955), 10th president of Indiana University
 * William Alanson Bryan (1875–1942), American zoologist, ornithologist, naturalist and museum director
 * William C. Bryan (1852–1933), United States Army soldier and Medal of Honor recipient
 * William E. Bryan Jr. (1921–2008), United States Air Force major general and flying ace
 * William Bryan (cricketer) (1856–1933), English cricketer
 * Billy Bryan (born 1955), American football player
 * Billy Bryan (baseball) (born 1938), American former Major League Baseball catcher
 * William "Roddie" Bryan (born 1969), American convicted for the murder of Ahmaud Arbery

Ships

 * William Bryan, a New Zealand Company barque that arrived at New Plymouth, New Zealand with settlers on 31 March 1841

title: William Bryan


text:
Tandem repeat

In genetics, tandem repeats occur in DNA when a pattern of one or more nucleotides is repeated and the repetitions are directly adjacent to each other, e.g. ATTCG ATTCG ATTCG, in which the sequence ATTCG is repeated three times.

Several protein domains also form tandem repeats within their amino acid primary structure, such as armadillo repeats. However, in proteins, perfect tandem repeats are rare in naturally proteins, but they have been added to designed proteins.

Tandem repeats constitute about 8% of the human genome. They are implicated in more than 50 lethal human diseases, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and several cancers.

Terminology
All tandem repeat arrays are classifiable as satellite DNA, a name originating from the fact that tandem DNA repeats, by nature of repeating the same nucleotide sequences repeatedly, have a unique ratio of the two possible nucleotide base pair combinations, conferring them a specific mass density that allows them to be separated from the rest of the genome with density-based laboratory techniques, thus appearing as "satellite bands". Albeit, a tandem repeat array could not show up as a satellite band if it had a nucleotide composition close to the average of the genome.

When exactly two nucleotides are repeated, it is called a dinucleotide repeat (for example: ACACACAC...). The microsatellite instability in hereditary nonpolyposis colon cancer most commonly affects such regions.

When three nucleotides are repeated, it is called a trinucleotide repeat (for example: CAGCAGCAGCAG...), and abnormalities in such regions can give rise to trinucleotide repeat disorders.

When between 10 and 60 nucleotides are repeated, it is called a minisatellite. Those with fewer are known as microsatellites or short tandem repeats.

When much larger lengths of nucleotides are repeated, on the order of 1,000 nucleotides, it is called a macrosatellite.

When the repeat unit copy number is variable in the population being considered, it is called a variable number tandem repeat (VNTR). MeSH classifies variable number tandem repeats under minisatellites.

Mechanism
Tandem repeats can occur through different mechanisms. For example, slipped strand mispairing, (also known as replication slippage), is a mutation process which occurs during DNA replication. It involves denaturation and displacement of the DNA strands, resulting in mispairing of the complementary bases. Slipped strand mispairing is one explanation for the origin and evolution of repetitive DNA sequences.

Other mechanisms include unequal crossover and gene conversion.

Uses
Tandem repeat describes a pattern that helps determine an individual's inherited traits.

Tandem repeats can be very useful in determining parentage. Short tandem repeats are used for certain genealogical DNA tests. DNA is examined from microsatellites within the chromosomal DNA. Parentage can be determined through the similarity in these regions.

Polymorphic tandem repeats (alias VNTRs) are also present in microorganisms and can be used to trace the origin of an outbreak. The corresponding assay in which a collection of VNTRs is typed to characterize a strain is most often called MLVA (Multiple Loci VNTR Analysis). Using tandem repeat polymorphism, recombination has been reported in the natural transmission of monkeypox (mpox) virus genome during 2022 pandemic.

In the field of computer science, tandem repeats in strings (e.g., DNA sequences) can be efficiently detected using suffix trees or suffix arrays.

Studies in 2004 linked the unusual genetic plasticity of dogs to mutations in tandem repeats.

Nested tandem repeats are described as repeating unit lengths that are variable or unknown and frequently include an asymmetric hierarchy of smaller repeating units. These repeats are constructed from distinct groups of homologous-length monomers. An algorithm known as NTRprism was created by Oxford Nanopore Technologies researchers to enable for the annotation of repetitive structures in built satellite DNA arrays. The algorithm NTRprism is developed to find and display the satellite repeating periodicity.

title: Tandem repeat


text:
Biberach

Biberach may refer to:

 * Biberach an der Riß, a town in Upper Swabia, Germany
 * Biberach (district), which has Biberach an der Riß as its capital
 * Biberach, Baden, a municipality in the Ortenaukreis, Germany
 * Biberach is a part of Roggenburg, Bavaria, Germany
 * Biberach is also a part of the town of Heilbronn, Germany

title: Biberach


text:
User:Markredmond

From Northern Ireland, now studying Zoology at the University of Aberdeen, Scotland.

title: User:Markredmond


text:
John Dickinson (inventor)

John Dickinson (29 March 1782 – 11 January 1869) invented a continuous mechanised papermaking process. He established in 1809 the English paper and stationery producer Longman & Dickinson, which later evolved into John Dickinson Stationery.

Early life
Dickinson was probably born in London, the eldest of nine children of Captain Thomas Dickinson RN (1754–1828) and his wife, Frances de Brissac (1760–1854). Thomas Dickinson was the superintendent of the Ordnance Transports at Woolwich and Frances Dickinson was the daughter of a French silk-weaver in Spitalfields. At the age of fifteen, Dickinson started a seven-year apprenticeship as a stationer with Messrs Harrison and Richardson in London. He was admitted to the Livery of the Stationers' Company in 1804 and began to trade, in stationery, in the City of London.

Inventor
Dickinson demonstrated his resourceful nature by inventing a new kind of paper for cannon cartridges. This type of paper did not smoulder after the cannon had fired, which had been the cause of constant accidental explosions in the artillery. Until his time, paper was produced using rag and esparto, instead of the conventional wood pulp Dickinson patented his invention, and it was taken up by the army. It was said to have been of great value in the battles against Napoleon, increasing the British firing rate while simultaneously reducing premature firing accidents.

Paper mills
Attempts had already been made to build a machine capable of the continuous manufacture of paper to replace the handmade techniques then used, notably by the Frenchman Henry Fourdriner. Dickinson patented his own design in 1809. In the same year he gained the financial backing from George Longman, whose family controlled the Longman publishing firm, and formed a new company, Longman & Dickinson. Money was borrowed from the printer and MP Andrew Strahan (1749–1831).

Dickinson was then able to purchase Apsley Mill which had already been converted to manufacture paper by the previous owner. George Stafford, the seller, had been one of Dickinson's suppliers. Dickinson installed his own machinery at the mill. In 1811 he bought a second paper mill in nearby Nash Mill (formerly a medieval corn-mill). Between 1828 and 1830, he built a third one in Croxley. The canal at Apsley, Nash Mills and Croxley provided power for the mills and transport for materials and product.

Penny Post, a paper containing silk threads, was produced by Dickinson, for security purposes. He also developed envelopes that had a gum-like adhesive to keep them closed. Production of those started in 1850. When Dickinson built himself a new house on the east of Nash Mills in 1836, he was his own architect. He called it Abbots Hill. It was located on a hillside site looking down upon his mills in the valley bottom.

In 1858, Dickinson passed on his thriving business to his nephew, John Evans. Over the years, the company has merged with several other stationery manufacturers. The most recent was with Hamelin Brands in 2008 From small beginnings, his company went on to become John Dickinson Stationery, one of the largest stationery manufacturers in the world.

Dickinson paper making process
The process consisted of a perforated cylinder of metal, with a closely fitting cover of finely woven wire, which revolved in a vat of wood pulp. The water from the vat was carried off through the axis of the cylinder, leaving the fibres of the wood pulp clinging to the surface of the wire. An endless web of felt passed through what was known as a 'couching roller' lying upon the cylinder drew off the layer of pulp which when dried became paper.

Family
In 1810, he married Ann Grover (1789–1874), daughter of Harry Grover (1761–1835), senior partner in the Hemel Hempstead Bank (now part of Lloyds Bank) in Hemel Hempstead. There were seven children. John Dickinson, the writer, was the eldest surviving son. One of the daughters, Harriet Ann, married her first cousin, son of Dickinson's sister Anne and her husband Arthur Benoni Evans. John Evans, Dickinson's nephew and son-in-law, took over the business, and also achieved eminence in several scholarly fields.

Dickinson's grandchildren included Sir Arthur John Evans (1851–1941), curator of the Ashmolean Museum and excavator of Minoan Crete, and his brother Lewis Evans (1853–1930), the collector. Their half-sister was Dame Joan Evans (1893–1977), a British historian of French and English mediaeval art, who was a great-niece of John Dickinson. According to family tradition the Dickinsons were distantly related to the American solicitor and politician John Dickinson (1732-1808), one of the Founding Fathers of the United States.

title: John Dickinson (inventor)


text:
John Dickinson

John Dickinson (November 13, [ O.S. November 2] 1732 – February 14, 1808), a Founding Father of the United States, was an attorney and politician from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and Wilmington, Delaware. Dickinson was known as the "Penman of the Revolution" for his twelve Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, published individually in 1767 and 1768, and he also wrote "The Liberty Song" in 1768.

As a member of the First Continental Congress, where he signed the Continental Association, Dickinson drafted most of the 1774 Petition to the King, and then, as a member of the Second Continental Congress, he wrote the 1775 Olive Branch Petition. Both of these attempts to negotiate with King George III of Great Britain failed. Dickinson also reworked Thomas Jefferson's language to write the final draft of the 1775 Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms.

While in Congress, Dickinson served on the committee that wrote the Model Treaty, a template for seeking alliances with foreign countries, but he opposed independence from Great Britain. He either abstained or was absent from the vote on the Declaration of Independence and refused to sign the document after its passage. Nevertheless, Dickinson wrote the first draft of the 1776–1777 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union and served as a militia officer during the Revolution. He later was elected president of the 1786 Annapolis Convention, which called for the Constitutional Convention of 1787, and as a delegate from Delaware, he signed the United States Constitution.

One of the wealthiest men in the British American colonies, Dickinson served as president of Delaware (1781–1783) and president of Pennsylvania (1782–1785). Upon Dickinson's death, President Thomas Jefferson referred to Dickinson as, "(a)mong the first of the advocates for the rights of his country when assailed by Great Britain" and called him "one of the great worthies of the revolution."

Together with his wife Mary Norris Dickinson, he is the namesake of Dickinson College, Penn State Dickinson Law, and the Dickinson Complex at the University of Delaware. John Dickinson High School in Wilmington, Delaware, was dedicated in his honor in 1959.

Family history
Dickinson was born at Alabama, his family's tobacco plantation near the village of Trappe in Talbot County, Province of Maryland. He was the great-grandson of Walter Dickinson who came from England as an indentured servant to the Colony of Virginia in 1654 and, having joined the Society of Friends, came with several co-religionists to Talbot County on the eastern shore of the Chesapeake Bay in 1659. There, with 400 acre on the banks of the Choptank River, Walter began a plantation, Croisadore, meaning "cross of gold." Walter also bought 800 acre on St. Jones Neck in what became Kent County, Delaware.

Croisadore passed through Walter's son, William, to his grandson, Samuel, the father of John Dickinson. Each generation increased the landholdings so that Samuel inherited 2500 acre on five farms in three Maryland counties; over his lifetime he increased that to 9000 acre. He also bought the Kent County property from his cousin and expanded it to about 3000 acre, stretching along the St. Jones River from Dover to the Delaware Bay. There he began another plantation and called it Poplar Hall. These plantations were large, profitable agricultural enterprises worked by slave labor, until 1777 when John Dickinson freed the enslaved of Poplar Hall.

Samuel Dickinson married Judith Troth (1689–1729) on April 11, 1710. They had nine children; William, Walter, Samuel, Elizabeth, Henry, Elizabeth "Betsy", Rebecca, and Rachel. The three eldest sons died of smallpox while in London seeking their education. Widowed with two young children, Henry and Betsy, Samuel married Mary Cadwalader in 1731. She was the daughter of Martha Jones, the granddaughter of Dr. Thomas Wynne, and the prominent Quaker John Cadwalader, who was the grandfather of General John Cadwalader of Philadelphia. Their sons, John, Thomas, and Philemon were born in the next few years.

For three generations the Dickinson family had been members of the Third Haven Friends Meeting in Talbot County, and the Cadwaladers were members of the Meeting in Philadelphia. But in 1739, John Dickinson's half-sister, Betsy, was married in an Anglican church to Charles Goldsborough in what was called a "disorderly marriage" by the Meeting. The couple would be the grandparents of Maryland Governor Charles Goldsborough.

Leaving Croisadore to elder son Henry Dickinson, Samuel moved to Poplar Hall, where he had already taken a leading role in the community as judge of the Court of Common Pleas of Kent County. The move also placed Mary nearer her Philadelphia relations. Poplar Hall was situated on an artificially straightened section of the St. Jones River. There was plenty of activity delivering the necessities and shipping the agricultural products produced. Much of this product was wheat that along with other wheat from the region, was milled into a "superfine" flour. Most people at this plantation were servants and slaves of the Dickinsons.

Early life and education
Dickinson was educated at home by his parents and by recent immigrants employed for that purpose. Among them was the Presbyterian minister Francis Alison, who later established New London Academy in Chester County, Pennsylvania. Most important was his tutor, William Killen, who became a lifelong friend and who later became Delaware's first chief justice and chancellor. Dickinson was precocious and energetic and in spite of his love of Poplar Hall, and his family was drawn to Philadelphia.

At age 18, Dickinson began studying law under John Moland in Philadelphia. While there, he became friends with fellow students George Read, Samuel Wharton, and others. In 1753, he went to London for three years of study at the Middle Temple. He spent those years studying the works of Edward Coke and Francis Bacon at the Inns of Court, following in the footsteps of his lifelong friend, Pennsylvania Attorney General Benjamin Chew, and in 1757 was admitted to the Pennsylvania bar beginning his career as barrister and solicitor.

In protest to the Townshend Acts, Dickinson published Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, which were first published in the Pennsylvania Chronicle. Dickinson's letters were reprinted by numerous other newspapers, and they emerged among the most influential American political documents prior to the American Revolution. Dickinson argued that the British Parliament had the right to regulate commerce but lacked the right to levy duties for revenue. Dickinson further warned that if the colonies acquiesced to the Townshend Acts, Parliament would lay further taxes on the colonies in the future. After publishing these letters, he was elected in 1768 to the American Philosophical Society as a member.

On July 19, 1770, Dickinson married Mary Norris, known as Polly, a prominent and well educated 30-year-old woman in Philadelphia with a substantial holding of real estate and personal property, including a 1,500 volume library, one of the largest in the colonies at the time, who had been operating her family's estate, Fair Hill, for several years by herself with some support from her sister. She was the daughter of wealthy Philadelphia Quaker and Speaker of the Pennsylvania General Assembly Isaac Norris and Sarah Logan, the daughter of James Logan. She was also cousin to the Quaker poet Hannah Griffitts. Dickinson and Norris had five children, but only two survived to adulthood: Sarah Norris "Sally" Dickinson and Maria Mary Dickinson. Dickinson never formally joined the Quaker Meeting because, as he explained, he believed in the "lawfulness of defensive war". He and Norris were married in a civil ceremony.

In Philadelphia, they lived at Fair Hill near the present-day Germantown neighborhood in Philadelphia, which they modernized through their combined wealth. Meanwhile, Dickinson built an elegant mansion on Chestnut Street, but never lived there because the mansion was confiscated and turned into a hospital during his 1776–77 absence in Delaware. It then became the residence of the French ambassador and then the residence of Dickinson's brother, Philemon Dickinson. On October 4, 1777, Fair Hill was burned by the British during the Battle of Germantown. While in Philadelphia as state president, Dickinson lived at the confiscated mansion of Joseph Galloway at Sixth and Market Streets, which is now the State Presidential Mansion.

Dickinson lived at Poplar Hall for extended periods from 1776 to 1777 and from 1781 to 1782. In August 1781, Poplar Hall was sacked by Loyalists and was badly burned in 1804. It is now owned by the state of Delaware and is open to the public. In 1785, following his service as president of Pennsylvania, Dickinson lived in Wilmington, Delaware, and built a mansion at the northwest corner of 8th and Market Streets in Center City Philadelphia.

Continental Congress
Dickinson was one of the delegates from the Province of Pennsylvania to the First Continental Congress in 1774 and the Second Continental Congress in 1775 and 1776. In support of the cause, he continued to contribute declarations in the name of the Congress. Dickinson wrote the Olive Branch Petition as the Second Continental Congress' last attempt for peace with King George III, who did not even read the petition. But through it all, agreeing with George Read and many others in Philadelphia and the lower counties, Dickinson's objective at first was reconciliation, not independence and revolution. Dickinson prepared the first draft of the Articles of Confederation in 1776, after others had ratified the Declaration of Independence despite his concerns that the Declaration would escalate the Revolutionary War, which began in 1775 at the Battle of Lexington and Concord. At the time, he chaired the committee charged with drafting the Articles of Confederation, Dickinson was serving in the Continental Congress as a delegate from the Province of Pennsylvania.

When the Second Continental Congress began the debate on the Declaration of Independence on July 1, 1776, Dickinson reiterated his opposition to declaring independence at that time. Dickinson believed that the Congress should complete the Articles of Confederation and secure a foreign alliance before issuing a declaration. Dickinson also objected to violence as a means for resolving the Thirteen Colonies' dispute with Britain. He abstained or absented himself from the votes on July 2 that declared independence and absented himself again from voting on the wording of the formal declaration on July 4. Dickinson understood the implications of his refusal to vote saying, "My conduct this day, I expect will give the finishing blow to my once too great and, my integrity considered, now too diminished popularity." Dickinson refused to sign the declaration, and since a proposal had been brought forth and carried that stated "for our mutual security and protection", no man could remain in the Continental Congress without signing it, so Dickinson voluntarily departed and joined the Pennsylvania patriot militia. John Adams, a fierce advocate for independence and Dickinson's adversary on the floor of Congress, remarked, "Mr. Dickinson's alacrity and spirit certainly become his character and sets a fine example."

Dickinson is one of only two members of the First Continental Congress who actively took up arms during the Revolutionary War.

In the Pennsylvania militia, known as the Associators, Dickinson was given the rank of brigadier general and led 10,000 soldiers to Elizabeth, New Jersey, to protect that area against British attack from Staten Island. But because of his unpopular opinion abstaining from supporting independence, two junior officers were promoted above him.

Return to Poplar Hall
Dickinson resigned his commission in December 1776 and went to stay at Poplar Hall in Kent County. While there, Dickinson learned that his home on Chestnut Street in Philadelphia had been confiscated and converted into a hospital. He stayed at Poplar Hall for more than two years. The Delaware General Assembly tried to appoint him as their delegate to the Second Continental Congress in 1777, but he refused. In August 1777, he served as a private with the Kent County militia at Middletown, Delaware, under General Caesar Rodney to help delay General William Howe's march to Philadelphia during the Philadelphia campaign. In October 1777, Dickinson's friend Thomas McKean appointed him brigadier general of the Delaware Militia, but Dickinson again declined the appointment. Shortly after, he learned that the British had burned down his Fair Hill property in the Battle of Germantown.

In 1777, Dickinson, then Delaware's wealthiest farmer and largest slaveholder, decided to free his slaves. While Kent County was not as large a slave-holding area as southern colonies and Dickinson had only 37 slaves, his action represented considerable courage. The strongly abolitionist Quaker influences around them likely were influential in his decision, and his action was facilitated by the fact that his farm had moved away from farming tobacco to less labor-intensive crops, including wheat and barley. Dickinson was the only Founding Father to free his slaves prior to 1786 when others also began doing so. Benjamin Franklin had freed his slaves by 1770.

President of Delaware
On January 18, 1779, Dickinson was appointed to be a delegate for Delaware to the Second Continental Congress, which was convening at what today is Independence Hall in Philadelphia. During this term, he signed the Articles of Confederation, which he authored while serving in the First Continental Congress as a delegate from Province of Pennsylvania. In August 1781, while still a delegate in Philadelphia, he learned that Poplar Hall had been severely damaged by a Loyalist raid. Dickinson returned to the property to investigate the damage, and remained there for several months.

In October 1781, while at Poplar Hall, Dickinson was elected to represent Kent County in the State Senate. Shortly after, the Delaware General Assembly elected him president of Delaware. The General Assembly's vote was nearly unanimous; the only dissenting vote was cast by Dickinson himself. Dickinson took office on November 13, 1781, and served until November 7, 1782. Beginning his term with a "Proclamation against Vice and Immorality," he sought ways to bring an end what he perceived to be the disorder of the American Revolution. It was a popular position and enhanced his reputation both in Delaware and Pennsylvania. Dickinson then successfully challenged the Delaware General Assembly to address lagging militia enlistments and to properly fund the state's assessment to the Confederation government. Recognizing the delicate negotiations then underway to end the American Revolution, Dickinson secured the Assembly's continued endorsement of the French alliance, with no agreement on a separate peace treaty with Great Britain.

On October 10, 1782, Dickinson was elected to the Supreme Executive Council of Pennsylvania. On November 7, 1782, a joint ballot by the Council and the Pennsylvania General Assembly elected him as president of the council and thereby president of Pennsylvania. But he did not actually resign as president of Delaware. Even though Pennsylvania and Delaware shared the same governor until very recently, attitudes were changing, and many in Delaware were upset at seemingly being cast aside so readily, particularly after Philadelphia newspapers began criticizing Delaware for permitting its office holders to be non-residents. Dickinson's constitutional successor, John Cook, was considered too weak in his support of the Revolution. On January 12, 1783, Cook called for a new election to choose a replacement, leading Dickinson to formally resign.

President of Pennsylvania
When the American Revolution began, Dickinson fairly represented centrist views in Pennsylvania politics at a time when views varied over independence. The Pennsylvania General Assembly at the time was dominated by the Loyalists and moderates who, like Dickinson, did little to support the burgeoning Revolution or independence, except protest. The Radicals took matters into their own hands, using irregular means to write the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, which by law excluded from the franchise anyone who would not swear loyalty to the document or the Christian Holy Trinity. In this way, all Loyalists, moderate Whigs, and Quakers were kept out of government. This peremptory action seemed appropriate to many during the crises of 1777 and 1778 but less so in the later years of the Revolution, and the moderate Whigs gradually became the majority.

Dickinson's election to the Supreme Executive Council was the beginning of a counterrevolution against the Constitutionalists. He was elected president of Pennsylvania on November 7, 1782, garnering 41 votes to James Potter's 32. As president he presided over the intentionally weak executive authority of the state and was its chief officer but always required the agreement of a majority to act. He was re-elected twice and served the constitutional maximum of three years; his election on November 6, 1783, was unanimous. On November 6, 1784, he defeated John Neville, who also lost the election for vice president the same day. Working with small majorities in the General Assembly in his first two years and with the Constitutionalists in the majority in his last year, all issues were contentious. At first he endured withering attacks from his opponents for his alleged failure to fully support the new government in large and small ways. He responded ably and survived the attacks. He managed to settle quickly the old boundary dispute with Virginia in southwestern Pennsylvania but was never able to satisfactorily disentangle disputed titles in the Wyoming Valley resulting from prior claims of Connecticut to those lands. An exhausted Dickinson left office October 18, 1785. On that day a special election was held in which Benjamin Franklin was unanimously elected to serve the ten days left in Dickinson's term.

Perhaps the most significant decision of his term was his patient, peaceful management of the Pennsylvania Mutiny of 1783. This was a violent protest of Pennsylvania veterans who marched on the Continental Congress demanding their pay before being discharged from the Continental Army. Somewhat sympathizing with their case, Dickinson refused Congress's request to bring full military action against them, causing Congress to vote to remove themselves to Princeton, New Jersey. And when the new Congress agreed to return in 1790, it was to be for only 10 years, until a permanent capital was found elsewhere.

United States Constitution
After his service in Pennsylvania, Dickinson returned to Wilmington, Delaware, where he was quickly appointed to represent Delaware at the Annapolis Convention, where he served as its president. In 1787, Delaware sent him as one of its delegates to the Constitutional Convention of 1787, along with Gunning Bedford Jr., Richard Bassett, George Read, and Jacob Broom. There, he supported the effort to create a strong central government but only after the Great Compromise assured that each state, regardless of size, would have an equal vote in the future United States Senate. As he had done with the Articles, he also carefully drafted it with the term "Person" rather than "Man" as was used in the Declaration of Independence. He prepared initial drafts of the First Amendment. Following the Convention he promoted the resulting Constitution in a series of nine essays, written under the pen name Fabius.

Dickinson himself did not sign the constitution as he left early due to chronic illness but instead a colleague, George Read signed his name.

In 1791, Delaware convened a convention to revise its existing Constitution, which had been hastily drafted in 1776. Dickinson was elected president of this convention, and although he resigned the chair after most of the work was complete, he remained highly influential in the content of the final document. Major changes included the establishment of a separate Chancery Court and the expansion of the franchise to include all taxpayers. Dickinson remained neutral in an attempt to include a prohibition of slavery in the document, believing the General Assembly was the proper place to decide that issue. The new Constitution was approved June 12, 1792. Dickinson had freed his slaves conditionally in 1776 and fully by 1787.

Dickinson returned to the State Senate for the 1793 session but served just one year before resigning because of his declining health. In his final years, he worked to further the abolition movement and donated a considerable amount of his wealth to the "relief of the unhappy". In 1801, Dickinson published two volumes of his collected works on politics.

Death and legacy
Dickinson died at Wilmington, Delaware, and was buried in Friends Burial Ground in Wilmington. Shortly before his death he unconditionally freed all of his slaves. While he had been economically reliant on them, he also wanted slavery to end. By freeing all of his slaves upon his death, he thought this would contribute to the United States having a future without slavery. Like many of the founders he believed slavery would die "a natural death."

In an original letter discovered November 2009 from Thomas Jefferson to Joseph Bringhurst, caretaker of Dickinson in his later years, Jefferson responds to news of Dickinson's death: "A more estimable man, or truer patriot, could not have left us. Among the first of the advocates for the rights of his country when assailed by Great Britain, he continued to the last the orthodox advocate of the true principles of our new government and his name will be consecrated in history as one of the great worthies of the revolution."

He shares with Thomas McKean the distinction of serving as chief executive of both Delaware and Pennsylvania after the Declaration of Independence. Dickinson College and Dickinson School of Law (now of the Pennsylvania State University), separate institutions each operating a campus located in Carlisle, Pennsylvania, on land inherited and managed by his wife Mary Norris, were named for them. Dickinson College was originally named "John and Mary's College" but was renamed to avoid an implication of royalty by confusion with "William and Mary." And along with his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, Dickinson also authored The Liberty Song.

Dickinson Street in Madison, Wisconsin, is named in his honor, as is John Dickinson High School in Milltown, Delaware, and Dickinson Hall at the University of Delaware.

An original stage play Except, Mr. Dickinson was presented at the 15th Street Meeting House in an off-Broadway setting. The show was written by August Nigro.

Social and religious views
Dickinson was a self-taught scholar of history, and spent most of his time in historical research. As an intellectual, he thought that men should think for themselves, and his deepening studies led him to refuse to sign the Declaration of Independence, which was subsequently unanimously adopted by the remaining delegates to the Second Continental Congress. Dickinson did not consider it wise to plunge into immediate war; rather, he thought it best to use diplomacy to attain political ends and used the insights he gained from his historical studies to justify his caution. Given that Dickinson was raised in an aristocratic family, his cautious and thoughtful temperament was influenced by his Quaker affiliation and upbringing. As Dickinson grew to learn more about historical movements, however, he came to embrace the Revolutionary cause. Dickinson was very careful and refined in thought. Dickinson wrote in 1767, "We cannot act with too much caution in our disputes. Anger produces anger; and differences, that might be accommodated by kind and respectful behavior, may, by imprudence, be enlarged to an incurable rage." He did not behave rashly, insisting that prudence was the key to great politics. Dickinson used his study of history and furthered his education to become a lawyer, which exposed him to more historical schooling. His education and religion allowed him to make important political decisions based on reason and sound judgment. John Powell states, "...these forces of Puritanism had a vigorous expression. It is precisely because Dickinson epitomized the philosophic tenets of the Puritan Revolution that his theories were of enormous importance in the formation of the Constitution, and have considerable meaning for us today." His studies of history and religious viewpoints had a profound impact on his political thought and actions.

Dickinson incorporated his learning and religious beliefs to counteract what he considered the mischief flowing from the perversion of history and applied them to its proper use according to his understanding. His religiosity contributed heavily to his discernment of politics. Quakers disseminated their theologico-political thought aggressively and retained a significant measure of political influence. Dickinson's political thought, given his education and religion, was influential towards the founding of the United States. The political theory of Quakers was informed by their theology and ecclesiology, consequently Dickinson applied his religious beliefs and his belief in adhering to the letter of the law in his approach to the Constitution, referring to his historical knowledge as he did so. Quakers did use secular history as a guide for their political direction, and they considered scripture the most important historical source.

Jane Calvert has argued that Dickinson was an early feminist, partly attributable to Quaker culture. He believed that women were spiritually equal to men and deserved equal religious rights. Unlike many men of the era, Dickinson sought and took political counsel from women, particularly from his wife and his mother. Dickinson was also good friends with Quaker feminist Susanna Wright and corresponded with Catharine Macaulay and Mercy Otis Warren. He encouraged both Warren and Macaulay to continue writing. He bought books that detailed the lives of strong Quaker women. As a lawyer, Dickinson often defended poor women in court, including Rachel Francisco, a "free mollato" who had been charged with infanticide. In 1776, while drafting the Articles of Confederation, Dickinson proposed the first gender inclusive language in an American constitution. In the proposed religious liberty clause, he wrote "No person or persons in any Colony living peaceably under the Civil Government shall be molested or prejudiced in his or their {his or her} persons or Estate for his or her religious persuasion or Practise, nor be compelled to frequent or maintain or contribute to maintain any religious Worship, Place of Worship, or Ministry, contrary to his or her Mind."

Almanac
Delaware elections were held October 1 and members of the General Assembly took office on October 20 or the following weekday. The State Legislative Council was created in 1776, and its legislative councilmen served a three-year term. Beginning in 1792, it was renamed the State Senate. State Assemblymen had a one-year term. The whole General Assembly chose the state president for a three-year term.

Pennsylvania elections were also held in October. Assemblymen had a one-year term. The Pennsylvania Supreme Executive Council was created in 1776, and counsellors were popularly elected for three-year terms. A joint ballot of the Pennsylvania General Assembly and the Council chose the president from among the twelve counsellors for a one-year term. Both assemblies chose the Continental Congressmen for a one-year term as well as the delegates to the Constitutional Convention, which convened in Philadelphia from May 25 to September 17, 1787.

title: John Dickinson


text:
TRON project

TRON (acronym for The Real-time Operating system Nucleus) is an open architecture real-time operating system kernel design. The project was started by Ken Sakamura of the University of Tokyo in 1984. The project's goal is to create an ideal computer architecture and network, to provide for all of society's needs.

The Industrial TRON (ITRON) derivative was one of the world's most used operating systems in 2003, being present in billions of electronic devices such as mobile phones, appliances and even cars. Although mainly used by Japanese companies, it garnered interest worldwide. However, a dearth of quality English documentation was said to hinder its broader adoption.

The TRON project was integrated into T-Engine Forum in 2010. Today, it is supported by popular Secure Socket Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer Security (TLS) libraries such as wolfSSL.

Architecture
TRON does not specify the source code for the kernel, but instead is a "set of interfaces and design guidelines" for creating the kernel. This allows different companies to create their own versions of TRON, based on the specifications, which can be suited for different microprocessors.

While the specification of TRON is publicly available, implementations can be proprietary at the discretion of the implementer.

Sub-architectures
The TRON framework defines a complete architecture for the different computing units:
 * ITRON (Industrial TRON): an architecture for real-time operating systems for embedded systems; this is the most popular use of the TRON architecture
 * JTRON (Java TRON): a sub-project of ITRON to allow it to use the Java platform
 * BTRON (Business TRON): for personal computers, workstations, PDAs, mainly as the human–machine interface in networks based on the TRON architecture
 * CTRON (Central and Communications TRON): for mainframe computers, digital switching equipment
 * MTRON (Macro TRON): for intercommunication between the different TRON components.
 * STRON (Silicon TRON): hardware implementation of a real-time kernel.

Character encoding

 * TRON (encoding), a way that TRON represents characters (as opposed to Unicode).

History
In 1984, the TRON project was officially launched. In 1985, NEC announced the first ITRON implementation based on the ITRON/86 specification. In 1986, the TRON Kyogikai (unincorporated TRON Association) was established, Hitachi announced its ITRON implementation based on the ITRON/68K specification, and the first TRON project symposium is held. In 1987, Fujitsu announced an ITRON implementation based on the ITRON/MMU specification, Mitsubishi Electric announced an ITRON implementation based on the ITRON/32 specification, and Hitachi introduced the Gmicro/200 32-bit microprocessor based on the TRON VLSI CPU specification.

In 1988, BTRON computer prototypes were being tested in various schools across Japan as the planned standardized computer for education. The project was organized by both the Ministry of International Trade and Industry and the Ministry of Education. However, Scott Callon of Stanford University writes that the project ran into some issues, such as BTRON being incompatible with existing DOS-based PCs and software. At the time NEC controlled 80–90% of the education market with DOS infrastructure, so adopting BTRON would have meant getting rid of all existing infrastructure. The existing incompatible PC software had also been personally written by school personnel, who opposed BTRON for this incompatibility with their earlier projects. There was also no software yet for the brand new computer. The project was additionally at least a year behind schedule and didn't perform better than earlier systems although that had been promised, which was possibly affected by the OS having been made by a firm that hadn't written one before. Because of these reasons, at the end of 1988 the Ministry of Education decided that it would not support the project unless BTRON was also made compatible with DOS. The Ministry of International Trade and Industry had hoped to avoid supporting NEC's domination of the PC market with DOS.

BTRON integration with NEC DOS architecture was difficult but possible with negotiation. In April 1989 the Office of the U.S. Trade Representative issued a preliminary report accusing BTRON of being a trade barrier, as it only functioned in Japan, and asked the Japanese government not to make it standard in schools. TRON was included along with rice, semiconductors, and telecommunications equipment in a list of items targeted by Super-301 (complete stop of import based on section 301 of the Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988). It was removed from the list after the USTR inspection team visited the TRON Association in May. In June the Japanese government expressed their regret at U.S. intervention but accepted this request not to make it standard in schools, thus ending the BTRON project. Callon opines that the project had nevertheless run into such difficulties that the U.S. intervention allowed the government to save face from cancelling the project.

According to a report from The Wall Street Journal, in 1989 US officials feared that TRON could undercut American dominance in computers, but that in the end PC software and chips based on the TRON technology proved no match for Windows and Intel's processors as a global standard. In the 1980s Microsoft had at least once lobbied Washington about TRON until backing off, but Ken Sakamura himself believed Microsoft wasn't the impetus behind the Super-301 listing in 1989. Known for his off the cuff remarks, in 2004 governor of Tokyo Shintaro Ishihara mentioned in his column post concerning international trade policy that TRON was dropped because Carla Anderson Hills had threatened Ryutaro Hashimoto over it.

On 10 November 2017, TRON Forum, headquartered in Tokyo, Japan, which has been maintaining the TRON Project since 2010, has agreed with the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, headquartered in the US, to transfer ownership of TRON μT-Kernel 2.0, the most recent version of ITRON, for free. Stephen Dukes, Standards Committee, vice chair, IEEE Consumer Electronics Society said that IEEE will "accelerate standards development and streamline global distribution" through the agreement. By the agreement, TRON Forum has become an IP licensee of embedded TRON.

Administration
The TRON project was administered by the TRON Association. It was integrated into T-Engine Forum in 2010 and subsequently the TRON project activities have been taken over and continued by the forum. As of 10 November 2017, TRON μT-Kernel 2.0 is jointly managed by the IEEE and the Forum.

T-Engine
T-Engine Forum is a non-profit organization which develops open specifications for ITRON, T-Kernel, and ubiquitous ID architecture. The chair of T-Engine Forum is Ken Sakamura. In July 2011, there were 266 members in T-Engine forum. Executive committee members includes top Japanese giants like Fujitsu, Hitachi, NTT DoCoMo, and Denso. A-level members who are involved in design and development of specifications for T-Engine and T-Kernel, or of Ubiquitous ID technology include companies such as eSOL, NEC and Yamaha Corporation. B-level members who are involved in development of product using T-Engine specification and T-Kernel include companies like ARM, Freescale, MIPS Technologies, Mitsubishi, Robert Bosch GmbH, Sony Corporation, Toshiba, and Xilinx. The supporting members and academic members involved with the forum include many universities such as University of Tokyo in Japan and Dalian Maritime University in China.

TRON project

 * TRON Web
 * TRON specifications in English
 * TRON Web
 * TRON specifications in English
 * TRON specifications in English

BTRON

 * B-Free in Japanese; Free BTRON OS project; archived
 * EOTA in Japanese; Free BTRON "EOTA"
 * BTRON introduction (pre-emptive multitasking feature mentioned amongst others)
 * Seiko Brainpad TiPO Plus (URL translated to English / PC Watch article / PDA running BTRON / launched 1998 / 640x240 4-grayscale LCD, IrDA, PCMCIA Type II, 170 × 100 × 20 mm)
 * Chokanji, aka Cho Kanji. From Personal Media Corporation (PMC) . A BTRON-specifications OS which runs on PC hardware. The PMC laptop "Cho Kanji Note W2B", announced on October 30, 2003, includes a Cho Kanji partition with a full suite of productivity applications, including a word processor, spreadsheet, drawing software, card database software, communications software, and an e-mailer and browser . Chokanji V screenshot with English language kit.
 * Pictures of laptops running Chokanji:
 * R1 (from 2003–04; Pentium III M, 866 MHz)
 * T2 (from 2003–06; Pentium M, 900 MHz)
 * W2B (from 2003–10; Pentium M, 1.0 GHz)
 * Y2C (from 2004-03; Pentium M, 1.2 GHz)
 * R3EG (from 2004–11; Pentium M, 1.1 GHz)

MTRON

 * T-Engine Forum in English
 * Ubiquitous ID Center in English; What is ubiquitous computing?

TOPPERS project

 * TOPPERS project in English

title: TRON project


text:
List of Pakistani musicians

This is an alphabetical list of musicians from Pakistan. The list includes musical bands, some groups and solo artists that were and are in the industry today. The list also includes film singers, folk singers, pop/rock singers, jazz musicians, rap artists, dj, qawwal and ghazal traditional artists. Pakistani singers and bands became very popular and started to spring up during the early nineties, with pop, rock and Ghazal becoming more fashionable with the younger generations.

A

 * A. Nayyar
 * Ali Zafar
 * Aziz Mian
 * Aamir Zaki
 * Aaroh
 * Abdullah Qureshi
 * Atish Raj
 * Abrar-ul-Haq
 * Abida Parveen
 * Adil Omar
 * Ahmed Ghulamali Chagla
 * Ahmed Jahanzeb
 * Ahmed Rushdi
 * Alam Lohar
 * Alamgir
 * Ali Alam
 * Ali Azmat
 * Ali Baba Khan
 * Ali Haider
 * Allan Fakir
 * Atif Aslam
 * Alamgir
 * Amjad Bobby
 * Amjad Farid Sabri
 * Arham
 * Annie Khalid
 * Arieb Azhar
 * Arif Lohar
 * Arshad Mehmood
 * Asad Amanat Ali Khan
 * Asif Sinan, guitarist and composer
 * Awaz
 * Attaullah Khan Esakhelvi
 * Asim Azhar
 * Aima Baig

B

 * Badnaam (band)
 * Bayaan
 * Benjamin Sisters
 * Bilal Maqsood (Strings)
 * Bilal Khan
 * Bohemia The Punjabi Rapper
 * Brian O'Connell (Junoon)
 * Bilal Saeed
 * Badar Miandad

E

 * Entity Paradigm
 * Emad Rahman

F

 * Faisal Kapadia (Strings)
 * Farhad Humayun
 * Faakhir Mehmood
 * Farhan Saeed
 * Farrukh Fateh Ali Khan
 * Fariha Pervez
 * Farooq Haider

G

 * Ghulam Abbas (singer)
 * Ghulam Farid Sabri (Qawwali Singer)
 * Ghazala Javed
 * Ghulam Ali
 * Ghulam Haider
 * Goher Mumtaz
 * Gulshan Ara Syed
 * Gul Panra

H

 * Habib Wali Mohammad
 * Hadiqa Kiyani
 * Haider Rahman (Laal)
 * Hamid Ali Khan
 * Haroon
 * Haroon Shahid
 * Hasan Jahangir
 * Humera Arshad

I

 * Imran Khan
 * Inayat Hussain Bhatti
 * Irene Perveen
 * Irteassh
 * Iqbal Bano

J

 * Jawad Ahmad
 * Jawad Bashir (Dr. aur Billa)
 * Jay Dittamo (Junoon)
 * Jal
 * Jehangir Aziz Hayat
 * Junaid Jamshaid
 * Junaid Khan
 * Junoon
 * Jupiters
 * JoSH

K

 * Kashif Hasni
 * Karavan
 * Kashan Admani
 * Karan Sharma
 * Kami Paul
 * Kamal Ahmed
 * Komal Rizvi

L

 * Laila Khan (Singer)
 * Laal
 * Leo Twins

M

 * Mala
 * Malika Pukhraj
 * Maqbool Ahmed Sabri
 * Masood Rana
 * Master Muhammad Ibrahim
 * Mehdi Hassan
 * Mehnaz Begum
 * Momina Mustehsan
 * Mohammad Aizaz Sohail
 * Mumtaz Ahmed
 * Mujeeb Alam
 * Mustafa Zahid
 * Mohammed Ali Shehki
 * Munawar Sultana (singer)
 * Munni Begum

N

 * Nabeel Shaukat Ali
 * Nadia Ali
 * Naheed Akhtar
 * Najam Sheraz
 * Naseebo Lal
 * Naseem Begum
 * Naseer & Shahab
 * Naser Mestarihi
 * Niaz Ahmed
 * Nazia Hassan
 * Nazia Iqbal
 * Nisar Bazmi
 * Nizar Lalani
 * Noori
 * Noor Jehan
 * Nouman Javaid
 * Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
 * Nusrat Hussain
 * Nayyara Noor

O

 * Overload

P

 * Pathanay Khan

Q

 * Qurat-ul-Ain Balouch
 * Qayaas

R

 * Rabi Pirzada
 * Rahim Shah
 * Rahat Fateh Ali Khan
 * Reshma
 * Rohail Hyatt
 * Roxen
 * Rangeela

S

 * Sabri Brothers
 * Sajjad Ali
 * Sajid Ghafoor (Sajid & Zeeshan)
 * Salma Agha
 * Saleem Raza
 * Salman Ahmad
 * Sanam Marvi
 * Sara Haider
 * Sara Raza Khan
 * Shae Gill
 * Shafqat Amanat Ali
 * Shahid Akhtar Qalandar
 * Shahram Azhar (Laal (band))
 * Shehzad Roy
 * Shallum Asher Xavier (Fuzön (band))
 * Sain Zahoor
 * Saturn (band)
 * Shiraz Uppal
 * Salman Ali
 * Sahir Ali Bagga
 * Shani Arshad
 * Shuja Haider
 * Shamim Nazli
 * Sohail Rana
 * Suraiya Multanikar
 * Syed Zaheer Rizvi

T

 * Tahira Syed
 * The Band Call
 * Taimur Rahman (Laal)
 * Tassawar Khanum

U

 * Ustad Amanat Ali Khan
 * Ustad Muhammad Juman
 * Ustad Muhammad Yousuf
 * Ustad Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan
 * Umair Jaswal
 * Uzair Jaswal

V

 * Vital Signs

W

 * Wajid Ali Nashad
 * Waqar Ali
 * Waris Baig

Y

 * Yasir Jaswal
 * Yatagan (Fakhre Alam)

Z

 * Zeeshan Ali
 * Zeeshan Parwez (Sajid & Zeeshan)
 * Zeek Afridi
 * Zohaib Hassan
 * Zoe Viccaji
 * Zeb & Haniya
 * Zulfiqar Jabbar Khan
 * Zayn Javadd Malik
 * Zubaida Khanum

title: List of Pakistani musicians