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Ramil Safarov

Ramil Sahib oghlu Safarov (Ramil Sahib oğlu Səfərov,, born August 25, 1977) is an officer of the Azerbaijani Army who was convicted of the 2004 murder of Armenian Army Lieutenant Gurgen Margaryan. During a NATO-sponsored training seminar in Budapest, Safarov broke into Margaryan's dormitory room at night and axed Margaryan to death while he was asleep. In Azerbaijan, Safarov has become a highly celebrated figure for his killing of an Armenian.

In 2006, Safarov was convicted of premeditated murder and sentenced to life imprisonment in Hungary with a 30-year minimum. After his request under the Strasbourg Convention, he was extradited on August 31, 2012, to Azerbaijan, where he was greeted as a hero, pardoned by Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev despite contrary assurances made to Hungary, promoted to the rank of major and given an apartment and over eight years of back pay. According to Azerbaijani authorities, Safarov was pardoned in compliance with the Constitution. Following Safarov's pardon, Armenia severed diplomatic relations with Hungary and immediate protests broke out in Yerevan. The extradition was widely condemned by international organizations and governments of many countries, including the US, Russia and France.

In a 2017 investigation into the Azerbaijani laundromat money-laundering scheme, it was uncovered and revealed that several bank transfers in 2012, totalling more than USD $9 million, made to the Hungarian MKB Bank account in Budapest right around the time when the Hungarian government extradited Safarov to Azerbaijan.

Early life
Ramil Safarov was born on August 25, 1977, in the Şükürbəyli village of Jabrayil District, former Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic of the Soviet Union (now Azerbaijan), where he finished middle school. He is one of four brothers. Jabrayil was occupied by Armenian forces on August 26, 1993, and remained under the control of the self-proclaimed Armenian Republic of Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) as part of the unresolved Nagorno-Karabakh conflict until October 4, 2020. Safarov's family fled to Baku in 1991. During a court hearing, Safarov claimed to recount memories from the years of war, during which he had lost family members. This, however, contradicted another version he told the court, where he stated that he was studying in Azerbaijan's capital of Baku and in Turkey from 1992 to 1996. He continued his studies at Maltepe Military High School in İzmir, Turkey, and then at the Turkish Military Academy, graduating in 2000, after which he returned to Azerbaijan.

Budapest murder
In January 2004, the 26-year-old Ramil Safarov, along with another officer from Azerbaijan, went to Budapest, Hungary, to participate in the three-month English language courses, organized by NATO's Partnership for Peace program for military personnel from different countries. Two Armenian officers, a 25-year-old Gurgen Margaryan and Hayk Makuchyan, also participated in this program.

On the evening of February 18, Safarov bought an axe and a honing stone at Tesco, near Ferenc Puskás Stadium. He took them in the bag to his dormitory room at the Zrínyi Miklós National Defence University, where all the course participants were staying. Safarov's roommate had returned to his native Ukraine to attend the funerals of his relatives and so nobody interrupted Safarov as he sharpened the axe in his room. At around 5:00 am on February 19, Safarov took the axe and went to Margaryan's room, which he was sharing with his Hungarian roommate, Balázs Kuti. The door of their room was not locked. Safarov attacked the sleeping Margaryan with the axe and delivered 16 blows to his body, which almost severed Margaryan’s head. The noises woke up Kuti, who was shocked seeing the Azerbaijani officer standing by Gurgen’s bed with a long axe in his hands. As Kuti later testified, "By that time I understood that something terrible had happened for there was blood all around. I started to shout at the Azerbaijani urging him to stop it. He said that he had no problems with me and would not touch me, stabbed Gurgen a couple of more times and left. The expression of his face was as if he was glad he had finished something important. Greatly shocked, I ran out of the room to find help, and Ramil went in another direction".

Afterwards, Safarov headed for the room of Makuchyan, the other Armenian student, with the intention of attacking him also, but found his door locked. He shouted out Makuchyan’s name in a threatening voice. The half-sleeping Makuchyan wanted to open the door, but his Lithuanian roommate stopped him and called his compatriot next door to check what was going on. Meanwhile, Safarov went to look for Makuchyan in the room of the Serbian and the Ukrainian roommates, showing them the blood-stained axe and stating that he thirsted for nobody's blood but Armenian. Later the eyewitnesses confessed that they were afraid to approach Ramil with a blood-stained axe closer than three meters.

Soon after, the Hungarian police, which was summoned by Balázs Kuti, arrived and arrested Safarov at the scene. A Hungarian court later found that it was an attempt on Makuchyan’s life and recognized the latter also as a victim. While announcing the verdict the judge particularly emphasized that if Safarov had not been restrained by his fellow officers he would have killed the second Armenian officer as well.

Interrogation and trial
During his initial interrogation Safarov confessed to killing Margaryan and his intention to kill Makuchyan. Questioned about his motives during the interrogation, Safarov stated:

"I regret that I hadn't killed any Armenian before this. The army sent me to this training and here I learnt that two Armenians were taking the same course with us. I must say that hatred against Armenians grew inside me. In the beginning we were greeting each other, or rather they said 'hi' to me but I didn't respond. The reason why I committed the murder was that they passed by and smiled in our face. At that moment I decided to kill them, i.e. to saw their heads off...

I have been a soldier for 14 years now, but I cannot give an answer whether I would kill if I were a civil person. I haven't thought on the question whether I would kill Armenians if I were civil [sic]. My job is to kill all, because until they live we will suffer.

If not here and now, then I would do the same thing any other time and in any other place. If there were more Armenians here I would like to kill all of them. It is a pity this was the first occasion and I hadn't managed to get better prepared for this action... My calling is to kill all the Armenians."

According to Balázs Kuti, at the very beginning of the language courses, when the students got acquainted, there was a conversation about different international issues, but nobody spoke of it afterwards. Kuti also said that he had not noticed any strain in the relationship between Margaryan and the Azerbaijani officers. Makuchyan's neighbor, officer Saulius Paulius, also said that he observed nothing strange in the relationship between the Armenian and the Azerbaijani guys. The police afterwards interrogated all the students and all testified that there was no conflict between the Armenian and the Azerbaijani officers and that they did not even interact with each other.

Later in an interview to the Armenian newspaper Iravunk, Makuchyan confirmed that neither Gurgen nor him had had any contacts with any of the Azerbaijani officers. "They were not of a communicative type. Usually, after classes, they went straight to their rooms", said Makuchyan. To the question as to why he chose to attack Margaryan first, Safarov answered it was because he was big, muscular and of sportive type.

When the case went to trial Safarov's defense claimed that the murder was committed because Margaryan had insulted the Azerbaijani flag. The claim that Safarov had been somehow insulted underwent several variations among press and politicians in Azerbaijan, without any evidence. Safarov did not mention any insult in either his court trial, and made it very clear he killed Margaryan just because he was an Armenian. No witnesses were ever called during the trial to corroborate these allegations of harassment in court and prosecution lawyers strongly disputed that they had taken place. Despite the lack of evidence the Azerbaijani media, including state-owned media outlets, have circulated the version of the flag for making Safarov a national hero.

The defense also alleged that Safarov was mentally sick when committing the murder; however, the forensic medical examination, which was upheld by the judge, showed that "Safarov was sane and aware of the consequences of his act".

On April 13, 2006, a Hungarian court sentenced Safarov to life imprisonment without right of appeal for 30 years. The judge, András Vaskuti, cited the premeditated nature and brutality of the crime and the fact that Safarov showed no remorse for his deeds as the reasons for the sentence. Handing down a life sentence, the judge particularly emphasised that “the murder of a sleeping man in peace time is always a crime and cannot be an act of heroism”. On February 22, 2007, a Hungarian appeals court upheld the ruling following an appeal filed by Safarov's lawyer. While serving his sentence, Safarov translated several novels by Hungarian authors into Azeri, including Magda Szabó's The Door (Az ajtó) and The Paul Street Boys (A Pál utcai fiúk) (youth novel by the Hungarian writer Ferenc Molnár).

Reaction to the murder and the sentence
A lawyer representing the victim's family welcomed the sentence as a "good decision for the Hungarian court and for Armenian society."

Many officials in Azerbaijan publicly praised Safarov's actions, while there were also those who condemned them. Elmira Süleymanova, the human rights commissioner (ombudsman) of Azerbaijan, declared that Safarov's punishment was far too harsh and that "Safarov must become an example of patriotism for the Azerbaijani youth". The banned radical Azerbaijan National Democrat Party awarded Safarov with the title of "Man of the Year 2005" for killing an Armenian.

Fuad Agayev, a prominent Azeri lawyer, said that Azeris "...have to urgently stop this current campaign to raise Safarov to the rank of national hero. He is no hero.”

The United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs condemned Azerbaijan's reaction to the brutal murder of the Armenian officer in a hearing. A report which was published by the Committee on Foreign Affairs contained a statement by Bryan Ardouny, Executive Director of the Armenian Assembly of America, who stated that "The Azerbaijani government has also consistently failed to condemn Safarov, an Azeri military officer who in 2003 [sic] brutally murdered an Armenian participant at a NATO Partnership for Peace military training exercise in Budapest, Hungary. Instead, it has encouraged domestic media and various organizations to treat the murderer as a celebrity. That individual has since been awarded the title of 'Man of the Year' by Azerbaijan’s National-Democratic Party."

Safarov's welcome in Azerbaijan
After serving eight years of the life sentence, Safarov was extradited under the framework guidelines of the 1983 Strasbourg Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons and transferred to Azerbaijan on August 31, 2012. Although the Hungarian government stated that it had received assurances from the Azerbaijan government that the remainder of the sentence would be enforced, President Ilham Aliyev issued a pardon immediately upon Safarov's arrival in Baku and ordered that he be "freed from the term of his punishment."

Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev promoted Safarov to the rank of major and the Defense Ministry of Azerbaijan provided him with an apartment and over eight years of back pay. On September 1, Azerbaijani Foreign Ministry spokesman Elman Abdullayev said that the return of Safarov to Azerbaijan is a matter of relations between Azerbaijan and Hungary, which was resolved in the "framework of the law and is not contrary to norms and principles of the international law." He described Armenian President Serzh Sargsyan's statements as "hysterical" and accused him of being one of the leaders of the group that committed the Khojaly Massacre.

After arriving in Baku, Safarov stated: "This is restoration of justice. It was a bit of surprise for me." He then visited Martyrs' Lane to lay flowers at the tomb of Azerbaijan's former president Heydar Aliyev. He also laid flowers at the Eternal Flame monument and visited a monument to Turkish soldiers.

Novruz Mammadov, the head of the presidential foreign relations department, said that secret talks had been going on for a year between Azerbaijan and Hungary, and that agreement had been reached on the visit of Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán.

A week before Safarov's release there came reports that the two countries were in talks over a loan from Azerbaijan to Hungary of 2-3bn euros ($2.5–3.8bn; £1.6–2.4bn) which gave way to speculations in Hungary that Orbán extradited Safarov in return for a promise that Azerbaijan would buy Hungarian bonds. In a 2017 investigation, an Azerbaijani laundromat money-laundering scheme was uncovered and revealed, among many other briberies, that several bank transfers in 2012, totalling more than USD $9 million, made to the Hungarian MKB Bank account in Budapest right around the time when the Hungarian government extradited Safarov to Azerbaijan. Several media outlets suggested a connection between Viktor Orbán's visit to Baku in June and the first instalment of $7.6 million transferred to the bank account in July, since by the end of August Safarov was handed over to Azerbaijan.

Azerbaijani high-ranking officials have praised Safarov's extradition and pardon giving him a hero's welcome. Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan Novruz Mammadov stated in the interview: "Yes, he is in Azerbaijan. This is a great news for all of us. It is very touching to see this son of the homeland, which was thrown in jail after he defended his country's honor and dignity of the people."

Elnur Aslanov, Chief of the Political Analysis and Information Department of the Presidential Administration of Azerbaijan said that "...heroes as Mubariz Ibrahimov and Ramil Safarov with their bravery brought the second breath to the Azerbaijani society and people”.

Ali Ahmedov, Deputy Chairman and Executive Secretary of the ruling New Azerbaijan Party stated that the "Order of President Ilham Aliyev to pardon Ramil Safarov is a triumph of determination, courage and justice".

Prominent public figures in Azerbaijan have made similar statements endorsing Safarov's image as a hero. Famous Azerbaijani singer and a deputy of Azerbaijani Parliament Zeynab Khanlarova made the following statement: "Safarov is not just a hero of Azerbaijan, he is an international hero! A monument should be set up to him. Not every man could do this. There are two heroes − Mr. Ilham Aliyev and Ramil Safarov. I would have done exactly as Ramil did. He did the right thing to take the life of an Armenian."

Commenting on the hero's welcome received by Safarov in Azerbaijan, Geydar Dzhemal, political scientist, the Chairman of the Islamic Committee of Russia, said, “I am absolutely convinced that the welcoming of Ramil Safarov as a hero in Azerbaijan is quite natural”.

On September 19, 2013, during the opening ceremony of the Guba Memorial Complex, President Aliyev stated that they "restored the justice" by returning Safarov to Azerbaijan. Аzeri leaders have more than once called Armenians number one enemy, while Safarov’s attorney stated at Budapest trial that "killing an Armenian is not a crime in Azerbaijan."

Armenia
President Serzh Sargsyan announced Armenia's suspension of diplomatic relations and all official communications with Hungary on the day of Safarov's release. "This is not a simple murder. It is murder on ethnic grounds," he said.

Sargsyan suggested the possibility that Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev and Hungarian prime minister Viktor Orbán had entered into a secret agreement during the latter's visit to Baku on June 30, 2012. A number of sources in the media have also speculated that Hungary's deepening economic ties with Azerbaijan may have had something to do with Safarov's release. Sargsyan concluded his statements by saying, "with their joint actions the authorities of Hungary and Azerbaijan have opened the door for the recurrence of such crimes."

Demonstrations took place in front of the Hungarian consulate in Yerevan, during which the building was pelted with tomatoes. Demonstrators also burned a Hungarian flag. A photo of Safarov was also burned by the activists. National Assembly Speaker Hovik Abrahamyan cancelled his visit to Hungary planned for late September.

Hayk Makuchyan, whom Safarov unsuccessfully planned to kill on the same night as Margaryan, stated that he will petition to all judicial instances and possibly The Hague, since the murder was committed on ethnic grounds, adding: "I had no doubt that Ramil Safarov would not have served his sentence in the case of an extradition. But the Azerbaijani leadership’s cynicism surpassed everything."

Hungary
On September 2 the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Hungary announced the country "refuses to accept and condemns the action of Azerbaijan, which contradicts the relevant rules of international law and sharply contrasts the undertaking of the Azerbaijani side in this matter, confirmed by the Deputy Minister of Justice of the Republic of Azerbaijan in his letter <...> of 15 August 2012." The Ministry of Foreign Affairs condemned the action of Azerbaijan in a diplomatic note. The press release also states that "Hungary regards the decision of Azerbaijan inconsistent with the spirit of cooperation based on mutual trust that has been achieved during the past years between our respective countries."

The opposition parties strongly criticized Viktor Orbán and his cabinet for the move. Despite government denials, opposition parties said Orbán let Safarov return to Azerbaijan in the hope of economic favors in return from the energy producer Azerbaijan.

Representatives of MSZP, the then largest opposition party, called for various subcommittees of the parliament to examine who exactly made the decision and why the procedure was kept secret. MSZP had been in power until 2010, and had refused to release Safarov. The Socialists have also called on Orbán to resign over the decision.

Other countries

 * 🇺🇸 United States: Both the United States National Security Council and the State Department expressed "deep concern" over the matter. The press statement from Washington said: "We are expressing our deep concern to Azerbaijan regarding this action and seeking an explanation. We are also seeking further details from Hungary regarding the decision to transfer Mr. Safarov to Azerbaijan." National Security Council Spokesman Tommy Vietor also stated: "President Obama is deeply concerned by today’s announcement that the President of Azerbaijan has pardoned Ramil Safarov following his return from Hungary... We are communicating to Azerbaijani authorities our disappointment about the decision to pardon Safarov. This action is contrary to ongoing efforts to reduce regional tensions and promote reconciliation." "We were appalled by the glorification that we heard in some quarters of somebody who was convicted of murder," said Philip Gordon, the U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for European and Eurasian Affairs. He called the case "a real provocation in the region." The Azerbaijani foreign ministry responded, "it is perplexing that the U.S. government interferes in the relations of two independent states – Azerbaijan and Hungary" and suggested that the U.S. response was connected to the elections in the U.S.
 * 🇷🇺 Russia: On September 3, the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs issued the following statement: "In Russia, which is the co-chairman of the OSCE Minsk Group on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict settlement, received reports with deep concern regarding the clemency of Baku Azeri serviceman Ramil Safarov, who was sentenced to life imprisonment for the commission of the murder of an Armenian officer with an extreme atrocity in Hungary in the 2004, as well as regarding the preceded decision of the Hungarian authorities to extradite him to Azerbaijan. We believe that these actions of Azerbaijan, as well as the Hungarian authorities to run counter to the efforts agreed at international level, particularly through the OSCE Minsk Group, directed to reduce tension in the region."
 * 🇫🇷 France: Foreign Ministry said that "France expresses her concern following the announcement of the pardon granted to M. Safarov by the Azerbaijani authorities". As one of the OSCE Minsk Group countries, France is "strongly committed to a peaceful solution to the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, [and] believes that this decision risks seriously damaging the negotiation efforts and the establishment of a climate of trust between the parties."
 * 🇸🇪 Sweden: Swedish Foreign Minister Carl Bildt tweeted "Strange decision in Azerbaijan to pardon man having murdered an Armenian in Hungary. Rule of law must apply."
 * 🇨🇾 Cyprus: Foreign Affairs Minister Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis's statement said "we deeply regret and deplore this Presidential pardon and the damage inflicted by the actions that followed the release, aimed at glorifying this hideous crime, to the reconciliation efforts with Azerbaijan and we are also very concerned of its effects on regional stability."

European Court of Human Rights
A court case, Makuchyan and Minasyan v. Azerbaijan and Hungary, was brought in front of the European Court of Human Rights and decided upon in 2020, the final judgement placing blame on Azerbaijan for its decisions in the treatment of Safarov (mala fide acts), but largely acquitting Hungary for its part in transferring the convicted murderer to his home country (due diligence).

Organizations

 * 🇺🇳 United Nations UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has expressed his concern over Safarov's extradition and subsequent pardon. The U.N.'s top human rights official also strongly criticized Safarov's pardon. U.N. High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay's spokesman, Rupert Colville, told reporters Friday in Geneva that "ethnically motivated hate crimes of this gravity should be deplored and properly punished – not publicly glorified by leaders and politicians... We are also in full agreement with the Co-Chairs of the OSCE Minsk Group who earlier this week expressed deep concern about “the damage the pardon and any attempts to glorify the crime have done to the [Nagorno-Karabakh] peace process and trust between the two sides.""
 * 🇪🇺 European Union: EU Foreign Affairs Representative Catherine Ashton and European Commissioner for Enlargement and European Neighbourhood Policy Štefan Füle announced that they are "concerned by the news that the President of Azerbaijan has pardoned Azerbaijani army officer Ramil Safarov". They called on Azerbaijan and Armenia "to exercise restraint, on the ground as well as in public statements, in order to prevent an escalation of the situation in the interest of regional stability and on-going efforts towards reconciliation". The EU foreign relations spokeswoman, Maja Kocjanic, told press in Brussels: "We are particularly concerned with the impact the developments might have on the wider region."
 *  European Parliament passed a resolution on the Ramil Safarov case, stating that it “deplores the decision by the President of Azerbaijan to pardon Ramil Safarov”, "the hero’s welcome accorded to Mr Safarov in Azerbaijan and the decision to promote him to the rank of major…” as well as expresses a “concern about the example this sets for future generations and about the promotion and recognition he has received from the Azerbaijani state”. As for the legitimacy of Aliyev’s pardon the European Parliament "Considers that, while the presidential pardon granted to Mr Safarov complies with the letter of the Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons, it runs contrary to the spirit of that international agreement, which was negotiated to allow the transfer of a person convicted on the territory of one state to serve the remainder of his or her sentence on the territory of another state”.

 * Flag of the Collective Security Treaty Organization.svg Collective Security Treaty Organisation: Secretary-General Nikolay Bordyuzha stated that Azerbaijan's decision to pardon Safarov is against international law. He then continued, "this move was obviously done for the sake of short-term political goals and can not be justified by anything".
 * OSCE logo.svg OSCE Minsk Group: The OSCE Minsk Group (composed of negotiators from the US, Russia and France to encourage a peaceful, negotiated resolution to the conflict between Azerbaijan and Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh) stated that Azerbaijan's pardoning of a military officer who murdered an Armenian officer has harmed attempts to establish peace between the countries.
 *  NATO: NATO likewise condemned Safarov's pardon. NATO Secretary General Fogh Rasmussen expressed his "deep concern" and stated that "The act [Safarov] committed in 2004 was a terrible crime that should not be glorified. The pardon damages trust and does not contribute to the peace process."
 * Council of Europe: "Honouring a convicted murderer and transforming him into a hero is unacceptable", Secretary General Thorbjørn Jagland has declared. Human rights commissioner Nils Muižnieks and Jean-Claude Mignon, President of the Parliamentary Assembly, also expressed their outrage at the pardon.

Non-governmental organizations
Amnesty International human rights organization issued a public statement on the occasion of Safarov's release, which stated, "By pardoning and then promoting Ramil Safarov, President Aliyev has signalled to Azerbaijanis that violence against Armenians is not only acceptable, but rewarded. The Azerbaijani government should rescind any privileges awarded to Safarov and publicly condemn ethnic violence."

British expert on Caucasus Thomas de Waal called President Aliyev's move to pardon Safarov "deeply provocative." In De Waal's view, "This is now a full-blown state-to-state row, with as yet unknowable consequences."

Mixed thoughts came from Azerbaijani organizations and figures in Azerbaijani society. Zardusht Alizadeh, chair of the Open Society Institute in Azerbaijan, condemned the act of pardon, saying it would not contribute positively to the peaceful solution of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. According to Alizadeh, the act was not based on any political will, respect of law or interest in conflict resolution, but instead had only "cheap fame" to it. The noted journalist Khadija Ismayilova, Radio Liberty's lead correspondent in Azerbaijan, commented that what Safarov had done was "awful" and the reaction of seeing him as a hero "happens when society is not allowed to do anything. They are angry. People of Azerbaijan lost the war, lost the territory to occupants, became refugees, lost their siblings including civilians and they were stopped and banned from restoring justice on the battle field." on her Facebook account.
 * Azerbaijan

Former deputy of the Azerbaijan National Assembly and writer Akram Aylisli refused to comment on the "campaign," but did note that he had his "own ideas of and approach to heroism." Azerbaijani media have criticized the United States' concern for Safarov's pardon and added that it should have reacted the same way when Varoujan Garabedian, a member of ASALA who was imprisoned in France, was expelled to Armenia after his pardon by France in 2001. Meanwhile, the organization Azerbaijani Americans for Democracy sent an open letter to Secretary of State Hillary Clinton, urging the United States to devote more of its attention to the human rights abuses of President Aliyev, instead of Safarov's pardon.

The leading Azerbaijani Russian-language news website Day.az called on its readers to edit the Russian Wikipedia article on Safarov to prevent it from the possible "revenge of Armenian nationalists."

Péter Erdő, the Archbishop of Esztergom-Budapest and the Hungarian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, in a letter to Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II, issued a statement expressing "full solidarity with the Armenian Christians and with the Armenian people that has so much suffered in the past."
 * Hungary

In October 2012 four Hungarian intellectuals—historian and political analyst Zoltán Bíró, rector of the John Wesley Theological College Gábor Iványi, journalist/publicist Gábor Deák and writer Rudolf Ungváry—arrived in Armenia to apologize for the extradition of Ramil Safarov. During the press conference in Yerevan they stated: “We organized the journey to inform of most of Hungarian people’s disagreement, and our discontent with the authorities’ decision to transfer a sleeping officer’s assassin back to his homeland." Mr. Iványi said, “We have come to express our regret and shame. Hungary didn’t even officially recognize the Armenian genocide as the country was in need of Turkish support then. As for the prime minister having allowed for the extradition, he would have resigned his post”.

Hungarian scientist and expert in Armenian studies Benedek Zsigmond joined in the protest organized by many NGOs in Hungary against the decision of Safarov's extradition and made a public statement of apology for the Hungarian government's action. On his Facebook page he wrote "Today I feel ashamed that I am Hungarian. I apologize to all Armenians... Today is the black day in the recent history of Hungary." He also personally apologized during his visit to Armenia calling the extradition an "unacceptable, amoral act".

On September 4, 2012, a demonstration took place in front of the Hungarian Parliament Building in Kossuth Square. It was reported that about two thousand Hungarians protested against their government's actions.

In September, the Kispest district of Budapest had a new square named after Kemal Atatürk and a statue of him was revealed among protests from local Armenians and Greeks who considered it a provocation. In the months preceding the ceremony the local government was pondering the matter, being caught between the resentment of minority groups and the will to preserve good relations with its sister city Pendik, whose representatives have already been invited to the ceremony. Only two days after its unveiling, the statue was vandalized by red paint being poured over it. The statue has been restored since.

In many cities around the world where Armenian diaspora is present, demonstrations took place against Hungarian and Azerbaijani government actions, including New York City, Ottawa, Tbilisi, Rostov-on-Don, and Nicosia.
 * Armenian diaspora

A year after Safarov had been extradited, the Armenian community in Hungary claimed that they did not feel safe and that their relationship with the Hungarian government was getting worse every day, as the authorities were making their lives there "more difficult".

title: Ramil Safarov


text:
Talk:Giovonnie Samuels

Role
http://www.tvtome.com/tvtome/servlet/PersonDetail/personid-110783

She supposedly has a role in fatherhood (2004), dunno if it actually got broadcasted though.

@ 88.98.204.58 (talk) 11:39, 11 May 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Giovonnie Samuels


text:
U.S. Route 83

U.S. Route 83 (US 83) is a major north–south United States Numbered Highway that extends 1885 mi in the central United States. Only four other north–south routes are longer: US 1, US 41, US 59, and US 87, while US 83 follows a straighter north-south path than all of these. Nearly half of its mileage is in the state of Texas. The highway's northern terminus is north of Westhope, North Dakota, at the Canadian border, where it continues as Manitoba Highway 83 (PTH 83). The southern terminus is at the Veterans International Bridge in Brownsville, Texas. Together, US 83 and PTH 83 form a continuously numbered north-south highway with a combined distance of 3,450 kilometres (2,140 mi).

Texas
US 83 is a largely north–south highway, 893 mi in length, in Texas except for a segment parallel to the Rio Grande, where it takes an east–west course, much of which runs concurrently with Interstate 2 (I-2). It enters the United States and Texas near Brownsville concurrent with US 77 and then splits from US 77 at Harlingen. Passing Weslaco with I-2, it begins to veer northward and passes the current western terminus of I-2 at Peñitas(A new short roadway designated as Spur 83 forms a branch from Business US 83 to I-2), follows the Rio Grande to Laredo where it meets I-35 in a 18 mi concurrency before heading northwestward. It meets I-10 at Junction, where it has a 5 mi concurrency with I-10, before heading almost due-north to Abilene, meeting I-20 on an expressway before heading north again on mostly undivided surface roads. It again heads slightly west of due north to meet US 287 in Childress and I-40 in Shamrock. About 5+1/2 mi north of Perryton it leaves Texas and enters Oklahoma. Except for Abilene, Laredo, and some cities in the lower Rio Grande Valley it is largely rural in nature.

Oklahoma
US 83 traverses the Oklahoma panhandle along the western border of Beaver County, but in this brief 37 mi stretch it encounters no fewer than three other federal highways. Approximately 10 mi from the Texas line, US 83 intersects US 412 in the hamlet of Bryan's Corner. Continuing its journey northward, the highway crosses the Beaver River, then intersects US 64 in Turpin. US 83 north and US 64 east are co-signed for three northbound miles, where US 64 turns eastward. At this intersection, US 270 west joins the highway, and together with US 83 proceeds northbound for the final 6 mi to the Kansas line.

Kansas
US 83 enters the Sunflower State in Seward County, approximately 4 mi south of Liberal, where it intersects US 54 and US 270 ends. North of Liberal, US 83 begins a concurrency with US 160, and the highways remain joined until reaching Sublette, the seat of Haskell County. US 83 and US 160 split north of Sublette; US 160 heads west toward Ulysses, and US 83 continues north toward Garden City.

At Garden City, US 50 and US 400 join US 83 for a brief concurrency on a bypass around the east and north sides of the city while US 83 Business follows the former routing through downtown. All three routes cross K-156, also known as Kansas Avenue, in the northwest portion of the city. At the north end of the US 50/US 83 Business route, US 83 splits and heads north toward Scott City, while US 50 and US 400 remain joined through the rest of the state. The highway passes through largely unpopulated areas of Finney County and Scott County before reaching a junction with K-96 in downtown Scott City.

In northern Scott County, K-4 has its origins at US 83, heading east toward Healy, and US 83 traverses through rolling farmlands until reaching Oakley, the seat of Logan County. US 83 reaches US 40 less than a mile west of I-70, and the two highways jog west for a brief multiplex before US 83 splits and crosses I-70.

North of I-70, US 83 intersects US 24 then curves northeast, east of Gem in Thomas County. US 83 continues its northeasterly track through Rexford and Selden. After passing through Selden, US 83 intersects the southern terminus of K-383 and the northern terminus of K-23. From here, US 83 turns north, crosses into Decatur County then continues north and intersects US 36 in Oberlin. Oberlin is the last area of significant population the highway passes in Kansas; the next city is McCook, Nebraska.

Nebraska
US 83 enters Nebraska south of McCook, where it meets US 6 and US 34. It continues northward to North Platte, where it intersects I-80 and US 30. After leaving North Platte in a northeasterly direction, it turns north near Thedford and goes north through the Sand Hills to Valentine. For 5 mi before Valentine, it runs concurrently with US 20. After passing through Valentine, it continues north to enter South Dakota.

South Dakota
US 83 enters South Dakota south of Olsonville on a segment of highway which passes through the Rosebud Indian Reservation. After a brief overlap with US 18 in Mission, the route turns north and meets I-90 at Murdo. The two routes overlap as US 83 goes east with I-90 until Vivian, where US 83 turns north. At Fort Pierre, US 83 meets US 14 and South Dakota Highway 34. The three highways overlap as they cross the Missouri River and enter Pierre. At Pierre, SD 34 separates and US 83 turns northeast with US 14. They separate near Blunt and US 83 turns northward. US 83 briefly overlaps with US 212 near Gettysburg and with US 12 through the Selby area. US 83 leaves South Dakota north of Herreid.

The South Dakota section of US 83, with the exception of concurrencies with US 18, I-90, US 14, US 212, and US 12, is defined at South Dakota Codified Laws § 31-4-180.

North Dakota
US 83 enters North Dakota at the South Dakota state line, near the town of Hague, and runs northward for approximately 68 mi, serving the small cities of Strasburg and Linton before reaching I-94. It follows I-94 west to Bismarck, where it resumes a generally northward course as a four-lane highway.

Headed toward Minot US 83 traverses mostly agricultural land, passing through the some small cities such as Wilton, Washburn and Underwood north to Max. Leaving Underwood, US 83 encounters a large strip-mining coal (lignite) operation which can be seen from the roadway in the vicinity of Falkirk. North of Coleharbor, US 83 briefly merges both roadways and shares land with an adjacent railroad line in order to cross a viaduct that separates Lake Sakakawea from Lake Audubon. North of the lakes, the surroundings return to cropland and grazing land, though a wind farm is located south of Minot.

US 83 passes directly through Minot, where it is known as Broadway, although the Minot Bypass to the west is an alternate route. From Minot, the northbound route passes Minot Air Force Base where it returns to a two-lane highway, and shares a roadway with eastbound North Dakota Highway 5 about 30 mi north of the base for about 10 mi. The highway then diverges from ND 5 to head north through Westhope to the Canadian border.

Major intersections

 * Texas
 * at the Veterans International Bridge at Los Tomates at the Mexico–United States border in Brownsville. US 77/US 83 travels concurrently to Harlingen.
 * in Brownsville. The highways travel concurrently to Harlingen.
 * in Brownsville
 * in Harlingen. I-2/US 83 travels concurrently to north of Abram-Perezville.
 * in Pharr
 * in Laredo. The highways travel concurrently to Botines.
 * in Laredo
 * in Carrizo Springs
 * in La Pryor
 * in Uvalde
 * northwest of Segovia. The highways travel concurrently to Junction.
 * in Junction. US 83/US 377 travels concurrently to north of Junction.
 * in Menard. The highways travel concurrently to north of Menard.
 * in Eden
 * in Ballinger. The highways travel concurrently through Ballinger.
 * east-northeast of Tuscola. The highways travel concurrently to Abilene.
 * in Abilene. The highways travel concurrently to north of Anson.
 * in Abilene
 * in Anson
 * in Aspermont. The highways travel concurrently to north-northwest of Aspermont.
 * south of Guthrie
 * in Paducah. US 62/US 83 travels concurrently to north of Childress.
 * in Childress
 * in Shamrock
 * south-southwest of Canadian. The highways travel concurrently to north-northeast of Canadian.

 * Oklahoma
 * in Bryan's Corner
 * south-southeast of Turpin. The highways travel concurrently to north of Turpin.
 * north of Turpin. US 83/US 270 travels concurrently to Liberal, Kansas.

 * Kansas
 * in Liberal
 * northwest of Kismet. The highways travel concurrently to north-northwest of Sublette.
 * southwest of Sublette
 * in Garden City. The highways travel concurrently to north-northwest of Garden City.
 * in Oakley. The highways travel concurrently through Oakley.
 * north-northwest of Oakley
 * south-southeast of Gem
 * in Oberlin

 * Nebraska
 * in McCook. The highways travel concurrently through McCook.
 * in North Platte
 * in North Platte
 * south-southeast of Valentine. The highways travel concurrently to Valentine.

 * South Dakota
 * in Mission. The highways travel concurrently to west-southwest of Mission.
 * southeast of Murdo. The highways travel concurrently to southwest of Vivian.
 * in Fort Pierre. The highways travel concurrently to west-southwest of Blunt
 * west of Gettysburg. The highways travel concurrently for approximately 0.9 mi.
 * south of Selby. The highways travel concurrently to north-northwest of Selby.

 * North Dakota
 * in Sterling. The highways travel concurrently to Bismarck.
 * in Minot
 * at the Canada–United States border north of Westhope

Related U.S. Routes

 * U.S. Highway 183
 * U.S. Highway 283
 * U.S. Highway 383 (former)

Related Canadian Routes

 * Manitoba Highway 83

title: U.S. Route 83


text:
Lynch

Lynch may refer to:

Australia

 * Lynch Island, South Orkney Islands, Antarctica
 * Lynch Point, Marie Byrd Land, Antarctica
 * Lynch's Crater, Queensland, Australia

England

 * River Lynch, Hertfordshire
 * The Lynch, an island in the River Thames in Berkshire
 * Lynch, a hamlet in the parish of Selworthy, Somerset

United States

 * Lynch, Kentucky, a city
 * Lynch, Maryland, an unincorporated community
 * Lynch, Nebraska, a village
 * Lynch Creek, California
 * Lynch Glacier, Washington
 * Lynch Quarry Site, North Dakota, a pre-Columbian flint quarry
 * Lynch River, Virginia
 * Lynch Township, Boyd County, Nebraska

People

 * Lynch (surname)
 * List of people with surname Lynch
 * Lynch (given name), any of several people

Other uses

 * Lynch (band) (styled lynch.), a Japanese rock band
 * 7824 Lynch, an asteroid
 * USS Lynch, any of several ships
 * Lynch School of Education and Human Development, within Boston College
 * Lynch Hotel, in Newton Hook, New York
 * Lynch syndrome, a medical condition
 * Lynch Building, former name of 11 East Forsyth in Jacksonville, Florida
 * Lynch, an Old English term for an agricultural terrace

title: Lynch


text:
Epididymal hypertension

Epididymal hypertension (EH), informally referred to as blue balls for males or blue vulva for females, is a harmless but uncomfortable sensation in the genital regions during a prolonged state of sexual arousal. It usually resolves within hours unless relieved through an orgasm.

In females, the discomfort occurs in the erectile tissue and clitoris of the vulva. In males, the phenomenon results in an uncomfortable testicular sensation. It most often describes a temporary fluid congestion in the testicles or vulva, caused by prolonged sexual arousal without orgasm.

The term epididymal hypertension is derived from the epididymis, a part of the male reproductive system. The term is also applied to females despite the lack of an epididymis in female anatomy. Professor Caroline Pukall, who co-wrote the first in-depth study on EH, has suggested using the term throbbing crotch syndrome. The term "blue balls" is thought to have originated in the United States, first appearing in 1916. Though lesser known, the equivalent of this phenomenon in females is informally referred to as "blue vulva", among other names. It is not to be confused with the inability to orgasm or the masturbatory practice of edging.

Research
The phenomenon is sometimes associated with males who are experiencing and practicing delayed, multiple, or inhibited ejaculation. There is scant information on the phenomenon in scientific literature. Little formal data exists regarding the condition. The treatment is to achieve orgasm, or alternatively strain to move a very heavy object—in essence doing a Valsalva maneuver.

Causes
The cause of epididymal hypertension is a large amount of blood circulation to the genital area, specifically the penis and testicles, without the release of tension associated with orgasm and ejaculation. When a large amount of blood flows to the genital region, the penis becomes erect and the testicles also experience increased blood flow and swelling. In the vulva, the blood flow increases in erectile tissue, causing it to expand. After orgasm, the tissue shrinks back to its initial size as most of the blood leaves. When this does not occur, it can cause mild discomfort.

Symptoms
The following indications and symptoms may be experienced by both sexes:

 * heaviness
 * aching
 * discomfort or mild pain

title: Epididymal hypertension


text:
Unification (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

"Unification" is a two-part episode of the syndicated American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation which features Leonard Nimoy as Spock. The first of the two episodes earned a 15.4 household Nielsen rating, drawing over 25 million viewers, making it one of the most watched episodes in all seven seasons of The Next Generation's run.

Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In this episode, Picard is in search of ambassador Spock who may have defected to the Romulan Empire. This episode has been praised for the "novelty and nostalgia" of seeing Spock, and noted for introducing a peace-loving Romulan faction. Story elements and appearances by Spock are included in "Unification III" in Star Trek Discovery.

Part I
Starfleet Admiral Brackett informs Captain Picard (Patrick Stewart) that Ambassador Spock (Leonard Nimoy) is missing and an intelligence scan has placed him on Romulus, raising fears that he may have defected. Picard orders the Enterprise to Vulcan to speak to Spock's ailing father, Sarek (Mark Lenard), with whom Picard shares a close bond, due to their mind meld in a previous episode. Sarek mentions Pardek, a Romulan Senator with whom Spock had been maintaining a dialogue for several decades. Lieutenant Commander Data (Brent Spiner) discovers a visual record of Pardek from a trade conference and confirms that he is the figure seen on the intelligence scan of Spock on Romulus. The Enterprise crew find the remains of a decommissioned Vulcan ship, the T'Pau, in the debris of a Ferengi ship which crashed in the Hanolin asteroid belt.

Picard calls in a favor from Chancellor Gowron (Robert O'Reilly), speaking to one of his aides and convincing him to lend them a Klingon ship that could take them to Romulus while cloaked. Picard and Data board the ship, with Picard ordering Riker to investigate the T'Pau and try to find a link to the Romulans. En route, the Klingons inform Picard that they intercepted a message of interest to him: Sarek has died.

On Romulus, Picard and Data (disguised as Romulans) locate the spot where the picture of Pardek and Spock was taken, which Data determines is an intelligence bureau building. They wait until Pardek arrives, but when they approach him they find themselves met by soldiers and taken to a cavern. Pardek arrives, explaining that Romulan security knew they were on-planet and they've been brought underground for their safety. Picard states that he is looking for Ambassador Spock, who emerges from a nearby tunnel.

Part II
Spock demands that Picard leave Romulus. Picard informs him of the Federation's concern over his "cowboy diplomacy" and tells him that Sarek has died. Spock takes the news of his father's death stoically. He explains to Picard that during the peace negotiations with the Klingons decades earlier, he felt responsible for putting Captain Kirk and his crew at risk, and so is now working alone on a "personal mission of peace" to re-unify the Vulcan and Romulan people. He is working with an underground movement to achieve that aim. Pardek has asked Spock to come to Romulus to meet with the new Proconsul of the Romulan Senate, a young idealist who has promised reforms. Picard expresses concern that the willingness of the Romulans may be part of a larger ploy. Spock agrees but points out that if a larger plot is at work, it is best they play out their roles within it to uncover it. On the Klingon ship Spock and Data work together to break a Romulan code, and complement one another. Spock remarks that Data has achieved the ideal Vulcan state of pure logic without emotion, and Data remarks that Spock feels emotion, which Data is trying achieve.

Picard, Data, and Spock are soon captured by Commander Sela (Tasha Yar's daughter), who is planning a Romulan conquest of Vulcan. The stolen Vulcan ship and two others are carrying a 2,000-strong Romulan invasion force, under the guise of escorting a peace envoy. Spock refuses to deceive his people by announcing the false news, even after Sela threatens to kill him, and she locks the three in her office and leaves to order the ships on their way. By the time she returns, Data has hacked into the Romulan computer system and created a holographic simulation that distracts her long enough for the three captives to incapacitate her and her officers.

Meanwhile, the Enterprise arrives at Galorndon Core, discovering the three Vulcan ships, and moves to block their approach to Vulcan. A medical distress signal comes in—a distraction created by Sela—but as Riker orders the ship toward its source, they receive a broadcast from Romulus in which Spock reveals the true nature of the Vulcan ships. A Romulan Warbird de-cloaks, destroys the ships, and re-cloaks, killing the troops instead of allowing them to be captured.

On Romulus, Data and Picard bid farewell to Spock. The Ambassador is intent upon his goal, realizing that it cannot be achieved through diplomacy or politics but that the Vulcan philosophy is beginning to spread among the young of Romulus. Picard offers Spock a chance to touch what Sarek shared with him, and the two mind-meld.

Background
This episode was aired in the weeks before the release of Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country. Spock makes reference to the events of the movie when he asks Picard if he was aware of Spock's role in the first peace overtures to the Klingons. Picard is aware of the public history of Spock's role, but not the whole story. Spock says that he forced Captain Kirk to accept the mission, and that he felt responsible for what happened to Kirk and his crew. This time, Spock only wants to risk his own life, which is why he came to Romulus on his own.

Leonard Nimoy had previously requested $1 million to cameo in the series, but he took minimum SAG pay to reprise the role of Spock to publicize Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, on which he was executive producer.

The Star Trek: Discovery episode "Unification III" is a sequel to this two-parter; it sees Romulan and Vulcan societies united and living on the (now-renamed) 31st Century Vulcan homeworld Ni'Var.

Production
This episode is one of four times that an original series character reprised his role in The Next Generation; the other three being "Encounter at Farpoint" (DeForest Kelley), "Sarek" (Mark Lenard), and "Relics" (James Doohan).

The episode was dedicated to the late Gene Roddenberry, who had died shortly prior to its broadcast.

Reception
In 2012, Keith DeCandido of Tor.com gave Part I of "Unification" a rating of six out of ten, and Part II a rating of four out of ten.

In 2017, Den of Geek included "Unification" as one of their 25 recommended episodes to watch of Star Trek: The Next Generation. In 2017, Den of Geek also ranked Mark Lenard as Sarek in Star Trek: The Next Generation as one of the top ten guest star roles on Star Trek: The Next Generation, noting his performances in "Sarek" and "Unification" (Part I).

In 2016, Empire ranked this the 29th best out of the top fifty episodes of all the 700-plus Star Trek television episodes, praising actor-director Leonard Nimoy reprising the character Spock, and his scenes with Jean-Luc Picard.

In 2018, CBR rated the "Unification" as the ninth best multi-episode story arc of Star Trek.

In 2019, the Edmonton Journal ranked this as having one of the top ten Spock character moments, pointing out the presentation of Spock with Spock's line "Indeed you have found him", references to Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country, and advancing the narrative between Spock and Sarek that began with the original series episode "Journey to Babel".

In 2019, Nerdist included this episode on their "Best of Spock" binge-watching guide. They suggested that Spock's devotion to uniting the Romulan and Vulcan people as depicted in this episode was a "metaphor for his own personal struggle".

In 2020, SyFy also recommended watching "Unification, Part I" and "Unification, Part II" as background on the Romulans for Star Trek: Picard.

In 2020, Space.com recommended watching this episode as background for Star Trek: Picard.

Home video
Parts I and II of "Unification" were released on LaserDisc on February 18, 1997, in the United States.

Both parts of "Unification" were released in the United Kingdom on one VHS cassette (catalog number VH4104).

The episode was released in the United States on November 5, 2002, as part of the Season 5 DVD box set.

On November 19, 2013, "Unification" was released in high-definition video on Blu-Ray disc, as a standalone product. (It was also released in the season box set)

The first Blu-ray release was in the United States on November 18, 2013, followed by the United Kingdom the next day, November 19, 2013.

Novel
A novelization of this episode was published by Pocket Books, it was one of five novelizations to be made of The Next Generation episodes, alongside "Encounter at Farpoint", "Descent", "Relics" and "All Good Things...".

The 1995 Star Trek novel "Crossover" by Michael Jan Friedman is a story that follows up on the events in "Unification"; Spock continues to work on Vulcan, and once again Picard is involved, but also Ambassador McCoy and Scotty. The events of the novel are set after "All Good Things...", but before the movie Generations.


text:
State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry

The State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry (ESF) is a public research university in Syracuse, New York focused on the environment and natural resources. It is part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system. ESF is immediately adjacent to Syracuse University, within which it was founded, and with which it maintains a special relationship. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity".

ESF operates education and research facilities also in the Adirondack Park (including the Ranger School in Wanakena), the Thousand Islands, elsewhere in Central New York, and Costa Rica. The college's curricula focus on the understanding, management, and sustainability of the environment and natural resources.

Founding
The New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University was established on July 28, 1911, through a bill signed by New York Governor John Alden Dix. The previous year, Governor Charles Hughes had vetoed a bill authorizing such a college. Both bills followed the state's defunding in 1903 of the New York State College of Forestry at Cornell. Originally a unit of Syracuse University, in 1913, the college was made a separate, legal entity.

Syracuse native and constitutional lawyer Louis Marshall, with a summer residence at Knollwood Club on Saranac Lake and a prime mover for the establishment of the Adirondack and Catskill Forest Preserve (New York), became a Syracuse University Trustee in 1910. He confided in Chancellor James R. Day his desire to have an agricultural and forestry school at the university, and by 1911 his efforts resulted in a New York State bill to fund the project: the aforementioned appropriation bill signed by Governor Dix. Marshall was elected president of the college's board of trustees at its first meeting, in 1911; at the time of his death, eighteen years later, he was still president of the board.

The first dean of the college was William L. Bray, a Ph.D., graduate from the University of Chicago, botanist, plant ecologist, biogeographer and Professor of Botany at Syracuse University. In 1907 he was made head of the botany department at Syracuse, and in 1908 he started teaching a forestry course in the basement of Lyman Hall. Bray was an associate of Gifford Pinchot, who was the first Chief of the United States Forest Service. In 1911, in addition to assuming the deanship of forestry, Bray organized the Agricultural Division at Syracuse University. He remained at Syracuse until 1943 as chair of botany and Dean of the Syracuse Graduate School.

In 1915, the same year that Dr. Bray published The Development of the Vegetation of New York State, he became one of the founding members, along with Raphael Zon and Yale School of Forestry's second dean, James W. Toumey, of the Ecological Society of America. In 1950, the 1917 "activist wing" of that Society formed today's The Nature Conservancy.

Most of the professors in the early years of the College of Forestry at Syracuse and the Department of Forestry at Cornell's New York State College of Agriculture were educated in forestry at the Yale School of Forestry. The forestry students at Syracuse but not at Cornell were referred to as "stumpies" by their classmates.

Fifty-two students were enrolled in the school's first year, the first 11 graduating two years later, in 1913. Research at the college commenced in 1912, with a study of New York state firms using lumber, including from which tree species and in what quantities.

Expansion
In 1912, the college opened its Ranger School in Wanakena, New York, in the Adirondacks. The college began enrolling women as early as 1915, but the first women to complete their degrees—one majoring in landscape engineering and two in pulp and paper—graduated in the late 1940s.

In January 1930, Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, recommending an allocation of $600,000 towards construction of the college's second building, in honor of Louis Marshall, recently deceased, noted that: "under [Marshall's] leadership and the leadership of its late dean, Franklin Moon, the School of Forestry made giant strides until it became recognized as the premier institution of its kind in the United States". The cornerstone of Louis Marshall Memorial Hall was laid in 1931 by former Governor and presidential candidate Alfred E. Smith who was elected to assume the presidency of the college's board of trustees.

Affiliation with SUNY
With the formation of the State University of New York (SUNY) in 1948, the college became recognized as a specialized college within the SUNY system, and its name was changed to State University College of Forestry at Syracuse University. In 1972, the college's name was changed yet again to State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry. Unlike other state-supported degree-granting institutions which had been created at private institutions in New York State, the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University was an autonomous institution not administratively part of Syracuse University. In 2000, SUNY System Administration established ESF's "primacy" among the 64 SUNY campuses and contract colleges for development of new undergraduate degree programs in Environmental Science and Environmental Studies.

Syracuse

ESF's main campus, in Syracuse, New York, is where most academic, administrative, and student activity takes place. The campus is made up of nine main buildings:

 * Baker Laboratory: Named after Hugh P. Baker, dean of the college from 1912 to 1920 and again 1930–33. The building is the location of several computer clusters and auditorium-style classrooms. It is home to the Department of Environmental Resources Engineering and the Division of Environmental Science. The building underwent a $37 million overhaul in the early 2000s, providing updated space for the Tropical Timber Information Center and the Nelson C. Brown Center for Ultrastructure Studies. Baker Lab is the site of ESF's NASA-affiliated Research Center. Baker Laboratory houses two multimedia lecture halls, a "smart" classroom outfitted for computer use and distance learning, and two construction management and planning studios. It also has a full-scale laboratory for materials science testing, including a modern dry kiln, a wood identification laboratory, shop facilities (including portable sawmill) and wood preservation laboratory.
 * Bray Hall: The building is the oldest on campus, completed in 1917, the largest building devoted to Forestry at the time. It is named after William L. Bray, a founder of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University and its first dean, 1911–1912. It is the location of most administrative offices and the Department of Sustainable Resources Management. The State University Police department is in the basement.
 * Gateway Center: The campus' newest building, opened in March 2013, "sets a new standard for LEED buildings, producing more renewable energy than it consumes," according to Cornelius B. Murphy, Jr. The building is "designed to achieve LEED Platinum Certification". The ESF College Bookstore, Trailhead Cafe, and Office of Admissions are in the Gateway Center.
 * Illick Hall: The building was completed in 1968, and is home to the Department of Environmental and Forest Biology. It is named after Joseph S. Illick, a dean of the State University College of Forestry at Syracuse University. There is a large lecture hall (Illick 5) on the ground floor. Several greenhouses are on the fifth floor. The Roosevelt Wildlife Museum is also in the building.
 * Jahn Laboratory: Named after Edwin C. Jahn, former head of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. The building was completed in 1997. Home to the Department of Chemistry.
 * Marshall Hall: Named after Louis Marshall, one of the founders of the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University. The Alumni (Nifkin) Lounge and Marshall Auditorium are within. Twin brass plaques commemorate the contributions of Marshall and his son, alumnus Bob Marshall. Home of the Department of Environmental Studies, the Department of Landscape Architecture, and the Division of General Education.
 * Moon Library: Dedicated to F. Franklin Moon, an early dean of the college. Completed in 1968, along with Illick Hall. A computer cluster and student lounge are in the basement.
 * Walters Hall: Named after J. Henry Walters, who served on the college's board of trustees. Completed in 1969. Home to the Department of Chemical Engineering. The pilot plant in the building includes two paper machines and wood-to-ethanol processing equipment.
 * Centennial Hall: ESF's on-campus student dormitory, commemorating the college's 100th anniversary. The facility is capable of accommodating 280-300 freshman (in double or triple studio rooms with private bath), 116 upperclassmen (in single bedroom suits with private bath), and an additional 56 upperclassmen (in 4-bedroom, 2-bath apartments). A $31 million project, Centennial Hall opened in 2011.

Bray Hall, Marshall Hall, Illick Hall, and Moon Library border the quad. Other buildings on the Syracuse campus include one for maintenance and operations, a garage, and a greenhouse converted to office space. Among planned new buildings is a research support facility.

The historic Robin Hood Oak (photo below) is behind Bray Hall. The tree is said to have grown from an acorn brought back by a faculty member from the Sherwood Forest in England. It was the first tree listed on the National Registrar of Historic Trees in the United States.

Wanakena

Students in the forest and natural resources management curriculum may spend an academic year (48 credits) or summer at the Ranger School, in Wanakena, New York, earning an Associate of Applied Science (A.A.S.) degree in forest technology, surveying, or environmental and natural resources conservation. The campus, established in 1912, is on the east branch of the Oswegatchie River that flows into Cranberry Lake, in the northwestern part of the Adirondack Park. It includes the 3000 acre James F. Dubuar Memorial Forest, named after a former director of the Ranger School.

Field stations and forests

 * New York
 * Cranberry Lake: The college's environmental and forest biology summer field program is at the Cranberry Lake Biological Station, on Cranberry Lake in the Adirondack Park.
 * Newcomb: The Adirondack Ecological Center and Huntington Wildlife Forest, a 6000 ha field station in the central Adirondack Mountains, are near Newcomb, New York. The site includes the Arbutus Great Camp, bunkhouses, and a dining center, among other facilities.
 * Syracuse: The Lafayette Road Experiment Station is in the City of Syracuse.
 * Thousand Islands: The Thousand Islands Biological Station and Ellis International Laboratory are in the Thousand Islands, New York.
 * Tully: ESF's Tully Field Station and the Svend O. Heiberg Memorial Forest, a 3800 acre research forest, are in Tully, New York.
 * Warrensburg: The Charles Lathrop Pack Demonstration Forest and NYS Department of Environmental Conservation's Environmental Education Camp are near Warrensburg, New York.
 * Follensby: Follensby Park, the 14,600-acre property near Tupper Lake where Ralph Waldo Emerson held his historic philosophers camp. The announcement was made during a virtual press conference on Tuesday,February 13,2024.
 * Costa Rica
 * The Arturo and Maria Sundt Field Station, ESF's first international field station, is used for research and teaching. A former farm, it is near the town of Coyolito, in the province of Guanacaste, Costa Rica, approximately 1 mi from the Gulf of Nicoya on the country's west coast.

Academics
The ESF mission statement is "to advance knowledge and skills and to promote the leadership necessary for the stewardship of both the natural and designed environments." ESF is a "specialized institution" of the State University of New York, meaning that curricula focus primarily on one field, the college's being environmental management and stewardship. Students may supplement their education with courses taken at Syracuse University. ESF has academic departments in the fields of chemistry; environmental and forest biology; environmental resources engineering; environmental studies; sustainable resources management; landscape architecture; and chemical engineering. Environmental science programs offer students integrative degrees across the natural sciences.

The admission rate for applicants to ESF is 70 percent (Fall 2022). ESF is ranked at 58th in the 2023 US News & World Report rankings of the top public national universities. Furthermore, ESF is tied for 115th in the 2023 US News & World Report list of the best National Universities (both public and private). U.S. News & World Report ranked ESF as 64th best graduate school in Environmental/ Environmental Health Engineering category in 2016. The Washington Monthly College Guide ranked ESF No. 49 among the nation's top service-oriented colleges and universities for 2012 (and sixth in "community service participation and hours served").

Forbes Magazine ranked ESF #54 in its listing of "America's Best College Buys" for 2012. Forbes.com has also ranked ESF at No. 3 on its 2010 list of the 20 best colleges for women in science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). ESF is listed at No. 2, ahead of top programs like Duke, Cornell and Yale, among the best college environmental programs in the nation by Treehugger.com, a website devoted to sustainability and environmental news. In 2007, DesignIntelligence magazine ranked ESF's undergraduate and graduate programs in "Landscape Architecture", respectively at No. 12 and No. 9 in the United States.

The Online College Database ranked ESF at No. 6 on its list of "50 Colleges Committed to Saving the Planet" for 2013. The ranking relates in part to one of the school's newest programs, Sustainable Energy Management. Launched in 2013, the program focuses on energy markets, management, and resources. Global issues such as responsible energy use and development of sustainable energy sources are critical focal points in the STEM major.

Research
ESF is classified as a "Carnegie R2 Doctoral Universities: High Research Activity" institution. The first research report published in 1913 by the College of Forestry was the result of the above noted USDA Forest Service supported study of the wood-using industries of New York State. Since that time, the research initiatives of the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry (ESF) have expanded greatly as faculty and students conduct pioneering studies, many with a global reach. ESF researchers delve into topics well beyond the boundaries of central New York. Recent international sites of research interest include Madagascar, the Amazon floodplains, Mongolia and the Galapagos Islands. Vermont and the Sierra Nevada are other locales within the US where recent research has focused. Current research efforts include the Willow Biomass Project and the American Chestnut Research and Restoration Project which produced the Darling 58 chestnut tree.

Campus life

Many students identify themselves as a "Stumpy" (or "Stumpie"). The nickname was given to students by their neighbors at Syracuse University, probably in the 1920s, and most-likely refers to forestry "stump jumpers". Although originally used as an insult, today, most students embrace the nickname with pride.

Students at the Syracuse campus enjoy many activities on and off campus. There are a number of student clubs and organizations at ESF, including the Mighty Oaks Student Assembly (formerly United Students Association), Graduate Student Association, the Guy A. Baldassare Birding Club, the Student Environmental Education Coalition, the Woodsmen Team, Bob Marshall Club, Alpha Xi Sigma Honor Society, Soccer Team, Sigma Lambda Alpha, The Knothole (weekly newspaper), Papyrus Club, The Empire Forester (yearbook), Landscape Architecture Club (formally the Mollet Club), Forest Engineers Club, Environmental Studies Student Organization, Habitat for Humanity, Ecologue (yearly journal), the Bioethics Society, Green Campus Initiative, Baobab Society, and the Sustainable Energy Club. Wanakena students have their own woodsmen and ice hockey teams. A number of professional organizations are also open to student membership, including the Society of American Foresters, The Wildlife Society, Conservation Biology club, American Fisheries Association, and the (defunct) American Water Resources Association.

ESF has an agreement with adjacent Syracuse University that allows ESF students to enjoy many amenities offered by SU. ESF students take courses at their sister institution, can apply for admission to concurrent degree and joint certificate programs, and may join any SU organization except for NCAA sports teams. SU students are also welcome to enroll in ESF classes. Because of this, students feel a certain degree of integration with the Syracuse University community. Every May, ESF holds a joint commencement ceremony with Syracuse University in the Carrier Dome. ESF's baccalaureate diplomas bear the seals of the State University of New York and Syracuse University.

Students also enjoy a variety of shops, restaurants, museums, and theaters in Syracuse, and nearby Marshall Street and Westcott Street.

Gateway Center
ESF has launched several programs, within the confines of campus and other locations, to reduce its carbon emissions. The Gateway Center utilizes sustainable energy resources to generate power and heat utilized across the campus. The building includes a state-of-the-art, combined heat-and-power (CHP) system, producing 65% of campus heating needs along with 20% of its electrical needs. The CHP system uses biomass to drive a steam turbine and produce electricity, while natural gas is used for steam heating along with additional electricity. It has been estimated this building alone is responsible for reducing ESF's carbon footprint by 22%.

Increased global awareness of global warming and reduced nonrenewable resources has driven ESF to invest in biomass. Biomass is a renewable resource that draws light energy, carbon dioxide, and water from the environment; in return oxygen is released. It can be harvested without negatively affecting the environment. For this reason, ESF launched a program to grow its own biomass, known as the Willow Biomass Project. Benefits of woody willow include, high yields and fast growth times, quick re-sprouting, and high heat energy is produced when burned. Woody willow also increases habitat diversity significantly contributes to carbon neutrality.

The Gateway Center was one of the final stages in the school's Climate Action Plan, that encompasses the vision of carbon neutrality and reduced fossil fuel dependence by 2015. Currently, the school rests in Phase III of the program and is on track to reach its goal. Included in Phase III is the opening of The Gateway Center, retrofits to Illick Hall, and rooftop greenhouse replacement. One other advancement towards carbon neutrality can be seen on top of the campus's buildings. Rooftop gardens provide reduced energy consumption and water runoff. Shrubbery, soil thickness, and moisture content all can contribute to increased energy savings. Gateway and other buildings on campus utilize rooftop gardens to reduce energy consumption and water runoff.

Athletics
The SUNY ESF athletic teams are called the Mighty Oaks. The college is a member the United States Collegiate Athletic Association (USCAA), primarily competing in the Hudson Valley Intercollegiate Athletic Conference (HVIAC) since about the 2004–05 academic year.

ESF competes in 11 intercollegiate varsity sports: Men's sports include basketball, cross country, golf, soccer and track & field; while women's sports include cross country, soccer and track & field; and co-ed sports include bass fishing and timber sports.

Cross country
The school's men's cross-country team are six-time USCAA national champions (2011-2014; 2021-2022). The women's cross-country team are three-time USCAA national champions (2018; 2021-2022). The men's soccer team was invited to the 2012 USCAA National Championship Tournament in Asheville, North Carolina, making it to the semifinals.

Timber sports
ESF has a long tradition of competing in intercollegiate woodsman competitions in the northeastern US and eastern Canada. The team came in first in both the men's and women's divisions of the northeastern US and Canadian 2012 spring meet. Students at the SUNY-ESF Ranger School, in Wanakena, compete as the Blue Ox Woodsmen team.

Club sports
In addition to the intercollegiate USCAA and woodsman teams, ESF students participate on club sports teams at both ESF and Syracuse University, including ESF's competitive bass fishing team,  and SU's quidditch team. Students at the Ranger School participate in the Ranger School Hockey Club.

Athletics history
In one notable part of the college's history, Laurie D. Cox, professor of Landscape Architecture, was responsible for establishing Syracuse University's renowned lacrosse program in 1916, including players from the New York State College of Forestry.

Affiliation with Syracuse University
ESF was founded in 1911 as the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, under the leadership of Syracuse University Trustee Louis Marshall, with the active support of Syracuse University Chancellor Day. Its founding followed several years after the cessation of state funding to the earlier New York State College of Forestry at Cornell.

ESF is an autonomous institution, administratively separate from Syracuse University, while some resources, facilities and infrastructure are shared. The two schools share a common Schedule of Classes; students may take courses at both institutions, and baccalaureate diplomas from ESF bear the Syracuse University seal along with that of the State University of New York. A number of concurrent degree programs and certificates are offered between the schools. ESF receives an annual appropriation as part of the SUNY budget and the state builds and maintains all of the college's educational facilities. The state has somewhat similar financial and working relationships with five statutory colleges that are at Alfred University and Cornell University, although unlike ESF, these statutory institutions are legally and technically part of their respective host institutions and are administered by them as well.

ESF faculty, students, and students' families join those from Syracuse University (SU) in a joint convocation ceremony at the beginning of the academic year in August and combined commencement exercises in May. ESF and SU students share access to library resources, recreational facilities, student clubs, and activities at both institutions, except for the schools' intercollegiate athletics teams, affiliated with the USCAA and NCAA, respectively.

Traditions
The best known tradition among ESF students is that walking across the quad is shunned. The tradition, which dates back to at least the early 1960s, is intended to inhibit tracks from being worn into the lawn. Hecklers have been known to yell and even tackle people walking across the quad. However, other activities such as frisbee and soccer are encouraged on the Quad.

Eustace B. Nifkin, ESF's previous mascot, is an unofficial student. He first appeared in the 1940s after a group of students summering in the Adirondacks thought him up. Ever since, he has appeared on class rosters, written articles for The Knothole, and sent mail to the college from around the world. He has a girlfriend, the lesser-known Elsa S. Freeborn. SUNY granted him a bachelor's degree in 1972. The Alumni Lounge in Marshall Hall is dedicated to Nifkin.

Another well known legend is that of Chainer or Chainsaw who supposedly graduated in 1993.

Traditional events include:

 * Earth Week events
 * Spring Banquet
 * December Soiree
 * Friends and Family BBQ
 * Coffee Haus
 * Festival of Places
 * Paper run
 * Donut Hours
 * Waste Audit
 * Free Movies Nights
 * Insomniacs
 * Woodsman Team (Forestry Club)
 * ESF Day of Service
 * Quadstock Music and Arts Festival

Notable alumni
More than 19,000 have graduated from ESF since its founding in 1911. The college's Alumni Association was founded 14 years later, in 1925. Notable alumni include:

 * Reginald E. Balch, MS '28, Canadian photographer and scientist
 * Thomas Balsley, BLA '68, founder and principal designer of Thomas Balsley Associates, a New York City-based landscape design firm
 * Diana J. Knight Bendz, BS '68, an American polymer scientist and environmental and industrial engineer
 * Bruce C. Bongarten, BS '73, former Provost and Vice President for Academic Affairs, ESF
 * Joseph Buongiorno, MS '69, Class of 1933 Bascom Professor of Forest Economics, University of Wisconsin-Madison
 * Roger Donlon, first man to receive the Medal of Honor in Vietnam
 * Christopher Dunn, BS '76, Director of Cornell Plantations
 * Ronald J. Eby, BS '69, PhD '74, National Medal of Technology award, 2007 for his work in pediatric medicine. A polysaccharide / carbohydrate chemist whose career was devoted to vaccine development.
 * Frank Edwin Egler, plant ecologist and pioneer in the study of vegetation science
 * Patrick Flood, BS '74, Maine state legislator
 * Sol Feinstone, '15, historian, businessman, conservationist
 * Jean Fréchet, MS '69, PhD '71, Henry Rapoport Chair of Organic Chemistry and Professor of Chemical Engineering, UC Berkeley - Dendritic Polymers: Dendrimers; 2013 Japan Prize Laureate His PhD student, Will Dichtel professor of chemistry at Cornell, earns MacArthur 'Genius Award' 9/2015
 * Delfin Ganapin Jr., PhD '87, Global Manager, Global Environmental Facility Small Grants Program, United Nations Development Program
 * William M. Harlow, BS '25, MS '26, PhD '28, SUNY ESF Professor in the field of wood technology
 * Avery Yale Kamila, American journalist, vegan columnist and community organizer.
 * David Kaplan, PhD '78, Director, Cellular Agriculture, Tufts University {the only stand-alone institute for Cellular Agriculture in the world}
 * Edwin Ketchledge, BS '49, Distinguished Teaching Professor of Botany and Dendrology, ESF
 * Robin Wall Kimmerer, BS '75, author of Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses; Professor of Biology and Director, Center for Native Peoples, ESF
 * Michael Kudish, PhD '71, author, historian, forester and professor.
 * Raymond (Ray) Leonard, Ph.D., skipper of the ill-fated sailboat S. V. Satori made famous in the book and movie, The Perfect Storm; a pioneering forest ecologist at Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in W. Thornton, NH.
 * Moshe Levy, PhD '55, professor of chemistry, discoverer of living polymerization, and solar energy researcher
 * Mark Marquisee, in the seminal 1965 'Science' paper describing the structure of alanine transfer RNA, linking DNA and protein synthesis for which Robert W. Holley shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1968 a member of his team was Mark Marquisee. He graduated from SUNY ESF (NYS College of Forestry) in forest chemistry in either 1959 or 1960 coming to Cornell for his PhD in biochemistry.
 * Bob Marshall, BS '24, forester, writer and wilderness activist
 * Joe Martens, MS '81, former Commissioner, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation
 * Donald E. Moore III, BS, PhD '76, animal behaviorist, zoo-based wildlife biologist, associate director of Animal Care Sciences, Smithsonian National Zoo, Washington, DC
 * James D. Morrissey, BS '58, "first American to climb the east face of Mt. Everest"
 * Clarence Petty, BS '30, forest ranger, conservationist and outdoorsman
 * Harry Frederick Recher, ornithologist
 * Bruce Shelley, BS '70, computer game designer
 * Sgt. William Shemin, Ranger School 1914, BS after the war, Medal of Honor recipient for bravery in World War I
 * Earl Lewis Stone, Jr., BS '38, In 1948, he became the first endowed Charles Lathrop Pack Professor of forest soils at Cornell University. Retired 1979
 * Lissa Widdoff, BS '79, executive director, Robert and Patricia Switzer Foundation

Environmental leadership
From soon after its founding, ESF affiliated individuals have been responsible for establishing and leading prominent scientific and advocacy organizations around the world focused on the environment. Others have provided leadership to governmental environmental agencies.

 * Adirondack Council – Clarence Petty, '30, co-founder, 1975, director
 * Adirondack Park Agency – Ross S. Whaley, former ESF President, chair, 2003–07
 * Association for the Protection of the Adirondacks – Louis Marshall, President, ESF Board of Trustees, trustee; Paul Schaefer, Trustee and V.P. for 50 years
 * Ecological Society of America – Dean William L. Bray, and Professor Charles C. Adams, co-founders, 1915
 * Finger Lakes Land Trust – Summer 2011: Cornelius B. Murphy Jr. named to Advisory Council along with Lynn Leopold, widow of A. Carl Leopold, Founding President
 * National Parks Association – Bob Marshall, '24, board member, 1930s
 * The Nature Conservancy – Dean William L. Bray, co-founder, 1950
 * Onondaga Environmental Institute — Ed Michalenko, PhD '91, President
 * Society of American Foresters – Ross S. Whaley, former ESF President, president, 1991
 * Taiwan Environmental Action Network – Wen-ling Tu, MS '96, co-founder
 * Union of Concerned Scientists – Howard "Bud" Ris, Jr., MLA '75, executive director, president, 1984-2003
 * United States Society for Ecological Economics – Dr. Karin Limburg, ESF faculty member, president, 2006–07; Dr. Valerie Luzadis, ESF faculty member, president, 2012-14
 * The Wilderness Society – Bob Marshall, '24, co-founder, 1935


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Raphael Sobiehrd-Mnishovsky

Raphael Sobiehrd-Mnishovsky of Sebuzin and of Horstein (Rafael Soběhrd Mnišovský; 1580 in Horšovský Týn – 21 November 1644 in Prague) was a Bohemian lawyer and writer. He held various secretarial, diplomatic, and judicial posts under Rudolf II, Mathias, Ferdinand II, and Ferdinand III, under whom Raphael was the attorney-general.

Mnishovsky was also a poet and cryptographer, and is associated with the mystery of the Voynich manuscript. According to a 1666 letter which was stored with the manuscript, Raphael had told the letter's writer, Marcus Marci, that the manuscript had originally belonged to Rudolf, who had purchased it for 600 gold ducats.

title: Raphael Sobiehrd-Mnishovsky


text:
Rootless cosmopolitan

Rootless cosmopolitan (безродный космополит) was a pejorative Soviet epithet which referred mostly to Jewish intellectuals as an accusation of their lack of allegiance to the Soviet Union, especially during the antisemitic campaign of 1948–1953. This campaign had its roots in Joseph Stalin's 1946 attack on writers who were connected with "bourgeois Western influences", culminating in the "exposure" of the non-existent Doctors' Plot in 1953.

The term is considered to be an antisemitic trope.

Origin
The expression was coined in the 19th century by Russian literary critic Vissarion Belinsky to describe writers who lacked Russian national character.

Use under Stalin
According to the journalist Masha Gessen, a concise definition of rootless cosmopolitan appeared in an issue of Voprosy istorii (The Issues of History) in 1949: "The rootless cosmopolitan [...] falsifies and misrepresents the worldwide historical role of the Russian people in the construction of socialist society and the victory over the enemies of humanity, over German fascism in the Great Patriotic War." Gessen states that the term used for "Russian" is an exclusive term that means ethnic Russians only and so they conclude that "any historian who neglected to sing the praises of the heroic ethnic Russians [...] was a likely traitor". According to Cathy S. Gelbin: "From 1946 onwards, then, when Andrei Zhdanov became director of Soviet cultural policy, Soviet rhetoric increasingly highlighted the goal of a pure Soviet culture freed from Western degeneration. This became apparent, for example, in a piece in the Soviet weekly Literaturnaya Gazeta in 1947, which denounced the claimed expressions of rootless cosmopolitanism as inimical to Soviet culture. From 1949 onwards, then, a new series of openly antisemitic purges and executions began across the Soviet Union and its satellite countries, when Jews were charged explicitly with harbouring an international Zionist cosmopolitanist conspiracy."

According to Margarita Levantovskaya: "The campaign against cosmopolitanism of the 1940s and 1950s [...] defined rootless cosmopolitans as citizens who lacked patriotism and disseminated foreign influence within the USSR, including theater critics, Yiddish-speaking poets and doctors. They were accused of disseminating Western European philosophies of aesthetics, pro-American attitudes, Zionism, or inappropriate levels of concern for Jewry and its destruction during World War II. The phrase 'rootless cosmopolitan' was synonymous with 'persons without identity' and 'passportless wanderers' when applied to Jews, thus emphasizing their status as strangers and outsiders."

title: Rootless cosmopolitan


text:
Product churning

Product churning is the business practice whereby more of the product is sold than is beneficial to the consumer. An example is a stockbroker who buys and sells securities in a portfolio more frequently than is necessary, in order to generate commission fees.

Dollar cost averaging is a form of product churn under certain conditions. In this strategy, an investor is advised to repeatedly buy or sell small lots of a security as the price changes. Each transaction carries a commission fee. In this way the overall cost is averaged down as prices fall, and the investor is protected from market fluctuations which can be very difficult to accurately predict. The effectiveness of this as an investing strategy is open to debate, but it involves many transactions, creating brokerage commissions for the brokerage firm. Frequent trading in fee-based accounts is not an example of churning, since no commissions are generated in those transactions. However, the practice of putting clients who trade infrequently into a fee-based brokerage account is known as "reverse churning", since clients are charged fees in accounts with few if any transactions.

Another form of product churning is sometimes practiced by maintenance service providers. By replacing worn-out parts with inferior quality parts, they are assured of a greater frequency of service requests.

Companies sometimes intentionally deliver products which are not durable or reliable, so that the customer will have to replace them, in what is known as planned obsolescence. Similarly, new models might be made incompatible with accessories used with old models to force consumers to purchase replacements.

Another example is refreshments and snacks sold in theaters, fairs, and other venues. Small servings are proportionally more expensive than large servings. Customers choose the bigger size even if it is more than they would like to eat or drink because it seems like a better deal.

Textbook publishers are often accused of product churning for their practice of frequently publishing new editions of their texts (thus rendering previous editions obsolete, forcing students to purchase the new editions as required texts and minimizing or eliminating the prices paid for the old editions by bookstore buyback programs), often while making insignificant changes to the information presented in the text.

Product churning is similar to the razor and blades business model. This involves selling a basic product at a loss (or low profit margin), but receiving very high profit margins on associated products that are necessary for the basic product's continued usage. Examples of this strategy include razors (and their blades), computer printers (and their ink cartridge refills), cell phones (and their usage time), and cameras (and film).

title: Product churning


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Auckland Island

Auckland Island (Mauka Huka) is the main island of the eponymous uninhabited archipelago in the Pacific Ocean. It is part of the New Zealand subantarctic area. It is inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage list together with the other New Zealand Subantarctic Islands in the region.

Geography
The island has a land area of about 442.5 km2, and is 42 km long. It was formed 25 to 10 million years ago from a huge volcanic pile which formed two domes – one centred around Carnley Harbour in the south and another (the Ross Dome) around Disappointment Island to the west. The island is made of volcanic scoria, blanketed in over 2m of peat. It is notable for its steep cliffs and rugged terrain, which rises to over 600 m. Prominent peaks include Cavern Peak, at 659 m; Mount Raynal, at 635 m; Mount D'Urville, at 630 m; Mount Easton, at 610 m; and the Tower of Babel, at 550 m.

The southern end of the island broadens to a width of 26 km, encompassing Carnley Harbour. At the western side a very narrow channel known as Victoria Passage separates the main island from the smaller Adams Island. Adams Island and the southern part of the main island form the crater rim; 3 km north of Carnley Harbour's mouth lies Cape Lovitt, the westernmost point of New Zealand.

Flora
There are distinct vegetation zones. There is a band of Southern rata Metrosideros umbellata around the coast apart from on the western side, the height of which is determined by the shelter, aspect and degree of the slope. The rata forest may extend into the Chionochloa tussock grasslands but in most places merges into a thick band of low, tight scrub dominated by Dracophyllum longifolium, Ozothamnus vauvilliersii and Myrsine divaricata. This scrub band is almost impenetrable and in places is dense enough to walk on top of.

An expedition report from 1907 describes the scrub thusly: "The subalpine scrub at 400 ft. made our advance extremely toilsome, the thick masses of Suttonia divaricata scrub had to be cut through before any progress could be made. Throughout our stay on the island this scrub was one of the worst drawbacks we had to encounter; from four to six feet high it is quite impassable with reasonable exertion; walking on the top can be undertaken only by a very light man. Only with the severest exertion can it be pushed aside to enable a man to pass, crawling under it is out of the question."

The scrub band breaks into patches and transitions into extensive grassland of Chionochloa antarctica which in turn merges into a sparsely vegetated fellfield community on the most exposed alpine areas. The megaherbs Anisotome antipoda, Anisotome latifolia, Bulbinella rossii, Pleurophyllum criniferum, Pleurophyllum hookeri, Pleurophyllum speciosum and Stilbocarpa polaris were historically found from the coast into the alpine, however the distribution and populations of these species have been severely impacted by the actions of introduced pigs.

Marine mammals
Port Ross at the north end of Auckland Island is the only breeding site for the New Zealand population of southern right whales. Up to 400 may be found in the harbour during the winter months, and are regularly surveyed by the University of Otago.

A breeding population of New Zealand sea lions is found on the island. 80% of the total population live and breed in the archipelago. The New Zealand Department of Conservation has conducted an annual survey of the population on the islands since 1994.

Bird life
The island is part of the Auckland Island group Important Bird Area (IBA), identified as such by BirdLife International because of the significance of the group as a breeding site for several species of seabirds.

The Gibson's albatross Diomedea antipodensis gibsoni, Auckland shag Leucocarbo colensoi, Auckland teal Anas aucklandica, Auckland rail Lewinia muelleri and Auckland snipe Coenocorypha aucklandica are all endemic to the Auckland Island group. Of these only shags are currently breeding on main Auckland Island, in areas where introduced cats and pigs cannot access their nests.

The Auckland Island merganser Mergus australis went extinct in 1902. The population is thought to have been 20–30 breeding pairs prior to predation by introduced pigs and cats. The last specimen was collected as a museum specimen in January 1902.

Introduced species
There are currently introduced pigs, cats and mice on Auckland Island. Auckland Island is the only island within the New Zealand Subantarctic Island Area with invasive mammalian pests. A project proposed by the Department of Conservation aims to remove these pests from the island, with feasibility trials started in 2018.

DNA analysis suggests that mice—Mus musculus—did not colonise Auckland Island from a New Zealand population but instead arrived with whalers or sealers from North America. They eat invertebrates, seeds, other plant material, native fish eggs and can eat bird eggs and chicks. They severely deplete invertebrate populations, reduce the seedbank, eat seedlings & plants and compete with birds for food resources.

Domestic cats—Felis catus—were first recorded at Terror Cove in 1840, presumably introduced by sealers, but most likely arrived in the two decades prior to this. The impact of cats on the birds of Auckland Island was first noted by the Coastwatchers, who tamed some for company – the Ranui Station cats were recorded to kill 60 Antarctic prions over three months in 1942. Ornithologist Brian Bell found that prions were confined to cliff faces at Crozier Point in 1962 and noted "any bird landing...[fell] an immediate prey to the feral cats.". Gut content and scat analysis show that cats are feeding on small passerines and seabirds. A cat was seen feeding on a pre-fledging juvenile white-capped mollymawk at South West Cape.

Goats were introduced to the Auckland Islands several times in the second half of the nineteenth century, to serve as a source of food for castaway sailors, with at least one liberation in 1865 on the main Auckland Island. By the 1970s, only one population remained, a group of about 100 based on the northwest side of Port Ross, in the north-east of the main island. Browsing by goats caused significant damage to lowland tussock Chinochloa antarctica in particular. In 1986 and 1987, over 60 animals were removed from the island for captive breeding in New Zealand. A decision was made to eradicate the remaining animals, an operation which was completed by 1992. An investigation in 1999 into the fate of the translocated animals in New Zealand found that the breed had become extinct.

Pigs—Sus scrofa—were first introduced at Port Ross in the north of Auckland Island in 1807 by Captain Abraham Bristow and several further liberations occurred in the 19th century. The pigs were intended as a food source for shipwreck survivors and sealers. Auckland Island pigs are a feral race of domestic pigs which are considered a distinct breed by the Rare Breeds Conservation Society of New Zealand. Pigs have had a severe impact on populations of megaherbs, with populations of these plants on Auckland Island being almost totally depleted by the early 1900s.

Dunnocks, common redpolls, Eurasian blackbirds, song thrushes and common starlings which were introduced onto mainland New Zealand have naturally established on Auckland Island.

Oleria lyalli is a tree asterad native to New Zealand which may have arrived with humans in the 19th century. It is spreading from a historic settlement site at Erebus Cove and covers neighbouring Ewing Island. Harakeke Phormium tenax is found at Erebus Cove, Sealer's Creek, Ranui Cove and Tandy Inlet, and was introduced probably by the second wave of sealers to visit the island, to make rope, twine, baskets, mats etc. Kormiko, Veronica salicifolia, was first reported in 1975 around the Lindley Point farmhouse site at Deas Head, built in 1851.

Human presence on the island
There is archaeological evidence that the Auckland Islands were briefly settled and abandoned by Polynesians around 600–700 years ago. Māori and Moriori from the Chatham Islands settled at Ranui Cove from 1842 till 1856. Auckland Island was the site of the failed settlement of Hardwicke, which was founded in 1849 but survived only three years before being disbanded in 1852.

Both the Grafton and the  Invercauld were wrecked on Auckland Island in 1864, and groups of survivors lived unaware of each other on opposite ends of the island. The Grafton survivors lived for 18 months on the island before building a boat and sailing to New Zealand; the Invercauld survivors camped in the remains of Hardwicke; and all but three died before being rescued.

The German transit of Venus expedition of 1874 made observations from Terror Cove in Port Ross.

Coastwatchers from the Cape Expedition were stationed on the island from March 1941 to October 1945. Two stations were constructed: One at Ranui Cove in outer Port Ross and another at Tagua, on Musgrave Peninsula in Carnley Harbour. A base at Waterfall Inlet was the mooring point for the Ranui which serviced the stations.

title: Auckland Island