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List of kings of Numidia

Numidia was an ancient Berber kingdom located in the region of North Africa that today comprises Algeria and parts of today Tunisia, Libya and Morocco. The kingdom existed from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. Rome established it as a client kingdom after the Second Punic War and annexed it, first in 46 BC and again in 25 BC after a brief period of restored independence under King Juba II (30 BC–25 BC).

List of kings
All dates are BC.

Kings of the Massylii (Eastern Numidia)
The last ruler of the Massylii conquered the Masaesyli and created the unified Numidian kingdom.
 * Zelalsen (Unknown, possibly shuphet)
 * Gaia (died 207 BCE)
 * Ozalces (207–206 BCE)
 * Capussa (206–206 BCE)
 * Lacumazes (206–206 BCE)
 * Masinissa (206–202? BCE)

Kings of the Masaesyli (Western Numidia)

 * Syphax (bef. 215–202)
 * Vermina (202–???)
 * Archobarzane (???–???)

Kings of Numidia
The three sons of Massinissa originally shared the kingdom, dividing responsibility. Micipsa later tried the same thing with his three heirs, but the result was a civil war. The Roman Republic defeated Numidia during the Jugurthine War. Gauda thus succeeded to a reduced Numidian kingdom. He divided the kingdom geographically between his two sons, establishing two different lines of Numidian kings. They were briefly displaced by a certain Hiarbas, but Roman intervention restored them.
 * Massinissa I (202–148)
 * Micipsa (148–118), son of Massinissa
 * Gulussa (148–145), son of Massinissa
 * Mastanabal (148–14?), son of Massinissa
 * Hiempsal I (118–117), son of Micipsa
 * Adherbal (118–112), son of Micipsa
 * Jugurtha (118–105), son of Mastanabal
 * Gauda (105–88), son of Mastanabal
 * Hiarbas (??–81)

Eastern Numidia
This was the main Numidian kingdom after 81. Annexed to Rome as province Africa Nova (46–30). Annexed to Rome as province Africa Proconsularis (25 BCE - 193 CE).
 * Hiempsal II (88–60), son of Gauda
 * Juba I (60–46), son of Hiempsal II
 * Juba II (30–25), son of Juba I

Western Numidia
This was a much smaller chiefdom than Eastern Numidia

Annexed to Rome as part of province Africa Nova (40–30). Annexed to the Kingdom of Mauretania (25 BCE - 40 CE).
 * Masteabar (88–81)
 * Massinissa II (81–46)
 * Sittius (46–44), a Roman mercenary leader
 * Arabio (44–40)
 * Juba II (30–25), son of Juba I

title: List of kings of Numidia


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Battle of Mollwitz

The Battle of Mollwitz was fought by Prussia and Austria on 10 April 1741, during the First Silesian War (in the early stages of the War of the Austrian Succession). It was the first battle of the new Prussian King Frederick II, in which both sides made numerous military blunders and King Frederick II of Prussia fled the battlefield, but the Prussian Army still managed to attain victory. This battle cemented Frederick's authority over the newly conquered territory of Silesia and gave him valuable military experience.

Background
The War of the Austrian Succession was sparked by the death of Charles VI in 1740 and the succession of his daughter Maria Theresa. The Habsburg monarchy was originally subject to Salic law, which excluded women from inheriting it; the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction set this aside, allowing Maria Theresa to succeed her father.

That became a European issue because the Habsburg monarchy was the most powerful element in the Holy Roman Empire, a loose federation of mostly-German states. Its position was threatened by the growing size and power of Bavaria, Prussia, and Saxony, as well as Habsburg expansion into lands held by the Ottoman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire was headed by the Holy Roman Emperor, which was, in theory, an elected post though it had been held by a Habsburg since 1437. France, Prussia and Saxony now challenged Austrian dominance by nominating Charles of Bavaria as Emperor.

In December 1740, Frederick II seized the opportunity to invade Silesia and begin the First Silesian War. With a population of over one million, the Silesian mining, weaving and dyeing industries produced 10% of total Imperial income. Under Kurt Christoph Graf von Schwerin, the Prussians quickly over-ran most of the province and settled into winter quarters but failed to capture the southern fortresses of Glogau, Breslau, and Brieg. Maria Theresa sent an army of about 20,000 men led by Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg to take back the province and assert herself as a strong monarch.

The Austrian army's advance north
Neipperg's army caught Frederick II completely off guard as he lingered in the province, and surged northwards past Frederick and his army to relieve the city of Neisse, which was being besieged by a small Prussian force and had not yet fallen. Both Neipperg and Frederick rushed northwards in parallel columns, in a race to reach the city first. In atrocious weather, Neipperg reached Neisse first and set up camp there. Frederick II and his entire army were now caught behind enemy lines with a large Austrian force lying between him and the rest of his kingdom and his supply and communication lines cut off. Both sides knew that battle was now inevitable.

Prussian preparations
Captured Austrian soldiers told Frederick the exact position of Neipperg's forces at Mollwitz, and the morning fog and snow allowed Frederick's army to advance undetected to within 2000 paces of Neipperg's camp. Most commanders would then have given the order to charge the camp and rout the Austrian army, but since Frederick had never fought a campaign or a battle before, he instead decided to deploy his army in a battle line. There was very heavy snow on the ground which caused snow-blindness, and Frederick miscalculated the distance to the river on his right. He deployed several of his units behind a bend in the river where they could take no part in the battle, and several more units were deployed perpendicular to his two battle lines on the right flank. It is said that Schwerin commented early on that Frederick miscalculated the distance, but he was ignored.

Austrian preparations
Neipperg was unprepared for battle when he discovered Frederick's entire army was approaching. Not only were Austrian troops still in bivouac and cooking food, but they were scattered across three villages with their front facing away from the Prussian advance. Had the Prussians attacked at this time, they would have encountered only disorganized resistance. Because of the two hour delay caused by Frederick dressing his battle lines, the Austrian army had the opportunity to concentrate its forces and form a battle line by the time the forces engaged one another just before 2 pm.

Battle
At the beginning of the battle, the Prussians had the larger army. They also had three times the field guns than the Austrians had; however, the Austrian cavalry outnumbered the Prussian cavalry two to one. The Prussian forces advanced toward the Austrians in two lines while the Prussian artillery began bombarding the Austrian line. Six regiments of Austrian cavalry on the extreme left flank of the Austrian line, numbering 4,500 to 5,000 men and horses, were goaded by the Prussian bombardment to charge the Prussian right flank without orders from Neipperg. The charge shattered the Prussian cavalry, who received the attack while at a full halt. Frederick was with the Prussian cavalry and was caught up in its rout. This left the Prussian flank open to attack, and the Austrian cavalry then turned on the unprotected infantry. Schwerin, the Prussian military commander under Frederick, now advised the king to leave the battlefield because it looked as though the Prussian army was about to be defeated; Frederick heeded this warning. Abandoning the field, he was nearly caught and almost shot. Frederick's absence allowed Schwerin, a veteran general, to take command of the troops himself.

At this point of the battle, the scene was chaotic. Having scattered the Prussian cavalry, the Austrian cavalry continued its attack on the Prussian infantry. They charged the infantry repeatedly. The firing of Prussian soldiers from the second line who were trying to stop the Austrians was also killing Prussian soldiers in the first line. When asked whether the Prussians would retreat, Schwerin answered "Over enemy bodies". In fact, the Prussian infantry, which had been rigorously drilled and trained under Frederick William I, held firm and continued firing rapid volleys into the Austrian cavalry, causing it tremendous losses and killing its commander, General Römer.

After the repulse of the Austrian cavalry, Schwerin reformed the infantry and ordered infantry units that were short on ammunition to strip the dead of theirs. He then ordered the right flank of the Prussian infantry to advance toward the Austrian infantry line, with the left flank receiving the order to advance a few minutes later. This resulted in an oblique order attack on the Austrian infantry line with the right flank of the Prussians overlapping the left flank of the Austrians. In addition, the Prussian infantry's use of the recently invented iron ramrod, allowed them to fire 4–5 shots a minute with their flintlock muskets, which was three times more rapid than any other European army at the time. This combination of discipline and firepower quickly overwhelmed the Austrian infantry, which consisted of a large number of raw recruits lacking the training of the Prussian infantry. Soon, the Austrian line collapsed from left to right, and the Austrian army was routed from the field.

Aftermath
In the end, the Prussians won a close victory against a numerically inferior enemy due to the leadership of Field Marshal Schwerin and the superior training of the Prussian infantry. After the battle, the Austrian army was not pursued and remained intact. Neipperg retreated to Neisse, remaining in Silesia to await reinforcements. Frederick returned to his army the morning after the battle, restored his lines of communication, and subsequently brought the siege of Brieg to a successful conclusion.

After the battle Frederick censured himself for his mistakes and learned from them, writing later that Mollwitz educated him and his army. The battle showed that Frederick could depend on the superior training of the Prussian infantry in a battle, which had proven itself able to withstand the charge of Austrian cavalry. Realizing that the cavalry would have to be reformed to be able to hold its own against the excellently-trained Austrian cavalry, he soon instituted a training program to discipline the Prussian cavalry in coordinated action and precision that would increase its effectiveness in both reconnaissance and battle. Mollwitz also illustrated the effectiveness of the oblique order, a tactic Frederick would use in most of his later major battles.

In spite of the fact that the battle had been a near disaster for Frederick and was not won through his direct command, the victory raised his prestige in Europe by demonstrating that Frederick was capable of challenging the Habsburgs and emerging victorious. The Prussian victory also made it clear to Maria Theresa that she would not be able to reassert her control of Silesia easily and that Prussia was a military power that would have to be more carefully reckoned with. The defeat of Maria Theresa's army at Mollwitz encouraged other rulers to deny the Pragmatic Sanction and to claim much of the Habsburg territories amongst themselves. Within a few months, France, Spain, Bavaria, Saxony, Savoy and Prussia became allies in a loose coalition known as the  League of Nymphenburg, widening the conflict into a larger European affair that would become known as the War of the Austrian Succession.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Battle of Mollwitz


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Video Girl Ai

Video Girl Ai, known in Japan as simply Video Girl (電影少女), is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Masakazu Katsura. It was serialized in Shueisha's shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from December 1989 to April 1992. It was followed by a short sequel entitled Video Girl Len, published between April and July 1992. The manga was compiled into fifteen tankōbon volumes by Shueisha and published between July 1990 and March 1993.

A live-action film of Video Girl Ai was released in 1991. The series was also adapted into a six-episode OVA produced by IG Tatsunoko (now known as Production I.G.). The series was released in 1992 by Jump Video. It roughly covers most of the material found in the first three volumes of the manga. In 2018 a live-action television drama called Den'ei Shōjo ~Video Girl Ai 2018~ ran on TV Tokyo. Another series, Den'ei Shōjo ~Video Girl Mai 2019~, was released the following year.

In North America, the manga and the OVA have been licensed for English-language release by Viz Media. It was formerly published in the anthology Animerica Extra by Viz.

As of 2018, the manga has over 14 million copies in print.

Plot
The story starts when Yota Moteuchi finds out that the girl he likes, Moemi Hayakawa, is in love with his best friend, Takashi Niimai. Disappointed by this fact, he decides to rent a video from a mysterious video store that appears in front of him on his way home. The video store is called "Gokuraku" ('Paradise'). The unique thing about this video store was that the videos in the store contained "video girls", girls which literally come to life and out of the user's television when the video tape is played to cheer the renter up. Not knowing about the video girls, Yota chooses to rent the video 'I'll Cheer You Up!', starring Ai Amano. Ai comes to life with the purpose to brighten up Yota's life and encourage him to pursue his love.

However, Yota plays the video on a broken video recorder, which causes Ai to come out "broken"; among other effects she has the ability to feel emotions. This additional feature of Ai causes her to eventually fall in love with Yota; a feeling which, after giving up on Moemi, Yota begins to return. However, a mysterious man related to Gokuraku known as Rolex enters the story and tries to recall Ai as she is faulty, and the fact that Ai's tape is nearing the end of its playing time makes matters even worse.

From this point on, the story changes focus slightly and concentrates on Yota and Ai attempting to overcome the difficulties presented by Gokuraku. Various other complications come into the story; for example Yota's continuing love for Moemi, and his relationship with a new character, Nobuko Nizaki.

Initially, Ai spends some of her time teasing Yota mercilessly in various sexual manners i.e. pretending to initiate intercourse, or joining Yota "innocently" in the bath "to help him wash". Yota's resulting embarrassment and attempt to extricate himself from the situation results, as always, in some slapstick humor and more resulting sexual tension.

Ai Amano
She is portrayed by Kaori Sakagami in the 1991 film, and Nanase Nishino in the 2018 TV drama. Beautiful, full of boundless energy. Hard to say what she is really like, versus what she was intended to be. Video girls are generally supposed to be comforting, nubile, excellent cooks and socially graceful, but the malfunction of Yota's VCR has made her tomboyish, at times rude, prone to violence, a terrible cook (actually, she learns to cook all by herself), but full of heart and able to feel human emotion. Her chest endowment has also shrunk considerably due to said VCR malfunction.

Yota Moteuchi
He is portrayed by Ken Osawa (1991 film) and Shigeyuki Totsugi (2018 TV drama). Yota is the stereotypical loser, unable to declare his feelings to his unrequited love, Moemi, socially awkward, with a tendency to get nervous and clumsy around women. However, he is known to be also very caring, kind, and helpful to those he is close to.

Moemi Hayakawa
She is portrayed by Hiromi Hamaguchi in the 1991 film. An attractive girl, though almost hopelessly moon-eyed over Takashi, who is too popular to really appreciate Moemi's affectations.

Takashi Niimai
He is portrayed by Naoki Hosaka in the 1991 film. The typical "tall, dark and handsome" popular guy. He is one of Yota's best friends, and rejects Moemi's advances because he knows Yota's feelings for her.

Nobuko Nizaki
Nobuko Nizaki (仁崎 伸子) is a girl, one year behind Yota, who developed a crush on him in art class two years earlier and now, with Moemi and Ai temporarily sidelined, can pursue romantic ties with Yota. She first appears midway through volume 3 and only appears in the manga.

Natsumi Yamaguchi
Natsumi Yamaguchi (山口 夏美) is a girl, an orphan and a runaway, who had played with Yota in kindergarten. Her family then moved away. Her theme is misfortune. Her attribute is a hand extended to help one up. She first appears in volume 6 and only appears in the manga. She seems to have a weak heart. Later on in the series she dies in the hospital, and becomes Ai's role model in love.

Len Momono
Len Momono (ももの 連) is the star of Let's Fall in Love. A new and untested video girl. She was created by the nameless "Old Man" who once worked in the Gokuraku store. Unlike Ai and the original video girls, she is allowed to feel emotions of her own.

Hiromu Taguchi and Toshiki Karukawa
Hiromu and Toshiki are the boys who rent the tape. Hiromu is the center character of this new story arc, and is pretty much as shy as Yota used to be. He has a keen interest in Ayumi, but there are some problems in their relationship because of his shyness and because of the bad reputation she has. Later, they engage, but Hiromu becomes too happy to pay attention to Ayumi, and they break up temporarily until he can "find her again" in his memories. Toshiki, on the other hand, is more emotionally expressive and prone to teenage-typical reactions, like spying on Len (which makes her angry).

Ayumi Shirakawa
Ayumi Shirakawa (白川 歩み) is the girl Hiromu wants to love. However, their relationship is made difficult because of a rumor spread out by her ex-boyfriend, which gave her a bad reputation in her school and beyond (Hiromu and Ayumi attend different schools). Len then devised a plan to re-approach them, just to make Ayumi see who she was dealing with all along. She breaks up with her ex-boyfriend for good and starts dating Hiromu.

Yota Moteuchi
Eight years older than he was at the end of Video Girl Ai, Yota now teaches at an art school in the afternoon, which Hiromu and Ayumi attend. He is Hiromu's mentor and they talk often about Len. Yota tells Ayumi that Len went through the same experiences that she is going through. He does mention at one point in the series that Ai is doing well.

Manga
Video Girl Ai is written and illustrated by Masakazu Katsura. The manga was serialized in the shōnen manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from December 4, 1989, to April 20, 1992. It was followed by Video Girl Len, which was serialized from April 27 to July 20, 1992. Shueisha compiled the 131 individual chapters into fifteen tankōbon volumes published between July 1990 and March 1993. Shueisha re-published the series into nine bunkoban volumes between January and May 2003.

In North America, Viz Media announced the license of the manga in August 1998. It was first published in the anthology Animerica Extra by Viz until the cancelation of the magazine in December 2004. The manga was originally released in a left to right edition; this version was compiled into seven volumes published between January 2000 and January 2004. The complete series was released in a second edition of all fifteen volumes in the original right to left orientation between May 2004 and April 2006.

Live-action film
A live-action film of Video Girl Ai was released on June 29, 1991.

Original video animation
Video Girl Ai was adapted into a six-episode OVA produced by IG Tatsunoko (now Production I.G). The series was released in 1992 by Jump Video. It roughly covers most of the material found in the first three volumes of the manga.

In North America, Viz Video released the OVA on VHS in 1999 and on DVD in December 2001.

Drama
In 2018 a live-action television drama called Den'ei Shōjo ~Video Girl Ai 2018~ ran on TV Tokyo. The series is set 25 years after the original manga and the main character is the nephew of Yota Moteuchi. TV Tokyo continued the live-action adaptation with a second series Den'ei Shōjo ~Video Girl Mai 2019~ focusing on the character Mai, played by Mizuki Yamashita.

Reception
As of 2018, the manga has over 14 million copies in print.

title: Video Girl Ai


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The Hollow Men (disambiguation)

The Hollow Men is a poem by T. S. Eliot.

The Hollow Men may also refer to:
 * The Hollow Men (band), a British rock band
 * The Hollow Men (book), book by Nicky Hager about New Zealand politics
 * The Hollow Men (film), a documentary film directed by Alister Barry, based on the book by Nicky Hager about New Zealand politics
 * The Hollow Men (comedy troupe), a British comedy troupe
 * The Hollow Men (Doctor Who), a Doctor Who novel named after the poem
 * "The Hollow Men" (Dollhouse), a 2010 episode of the Dollhouse TV series
 * The Hollowmen, an Australian comedy series on ABC1

title: The Hollow Men (disambiguation)


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HMS Elephant

Three ships of the British Royal Navy have been named HMS Elephant, after the elephant. Two other ships were originally given that name, but were subsequently changed.

 * HMS Elephant (1705) - the first such named ship was a captured French store-ship purchased in 1705 and hulked 1709.
 * HMS Elephant (1776) - a 10-gun storeship purchased 1776 and sold 1779.
 * HMS Elephant (1786) - a 74-gun third-rate launched in 1786, reduced to a 58-gun fourth-rate in 1818, and broken up in 1830.
 * HMS Minotaur (1863), lead ship in her class of broadside ironclad warships and known as Elephant during construction.
 * HMS Hermes (R12) - aircraft carrier laid down in 1945 as HMS Elephant. Ship renamed Hermes before completion.

title: HMS Elephant


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User:Ans

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List of rulers of Bithynia

This is a list of kings of Bithynia, an ancient kingdom in northwestern Anatolia.

Before Zipoetes I of Bithynia assumed the Greek title of Basileus ("king") in 297 BCE, the positions of him and his predecessors are variously described as "prince", "chieftain", "ruler", and "king". One of the primary sources for the monarchs of Bithynia is About Hericlea (Περί Ηρακλείας) of Memnon of Heraclea.

List

 * Doedalsus (Δοιδαλσοῦ or Δυδαλσοῦ). Memnon of Heraclea wrote about him: " [ Astacus ] achieved great glory and strength, when Dudalsos had the dominion of the Bithynians." (Δυδαλσοῦ τηνικαῦτα τὴν Βιθυνῶν ἀρχὴν ἔχοντος·). Andrew Smith (2004) translated this as "when Doedalsus was the ruler of the Bithynians." The only other mention of this person is found in Strabo's Geographica 12.4.2, where his name is spelt as ̇Δοιδαλσοῦ, but he is not identified with the Bithynians, only with the city of Astacus. Slavova (2015) called him a "Bithynian king". According to Olmstead (2022), he was "the first-known semi-independent king of Bithynia".
 * Boteiras d. c. 376 BCE. He is mentioned only by Memnon as a successor of Dudalsos.
 * Bas c. 376–326 BCE. Memnon wrote: "The life of this [Bas] became 71 years, of which he reigned as king 50." (Τούτου βίος μὲν ἐγεγόνει ἐτῶν αʹ καὶ οʹ, ὧν ἐβασίλευσε νʹ.. Smith (2004) translated this passage as: "He lived for 71 years, and was king for 50 years."
 * Zipoetes I c. 326–278 BCE. Memnon of Heraclea called him "Zipoites the eparch of the Bithynians" (Ζιποίτης δὲ ὁ Βιθυνῶν ἐπάρχων). Andrew Smith (2004) translated this as "Zipoetes, the ruler of the Bithynians". According to Williams (1990), Zipoetes was a "chieftain" before he assumed the Greek title of basileus ("king") in 297 BCE. Memnon of Heraclea appeared not to make such a distinction when he described Zipoetes' entire reign: "The life of this one [Zipoites] was 76 years, and he ruled the dominion 48." (Οὗτος βιοὺς μὲν ἔτη Ϛʹ καὶ οʹ, κρατήσας δὲ τῆς ἀρχῆς ηʹ καὶ μ,). Smith (2004) translated the passage as "Zipoetes lived for 76 years and ruled the kingdom for 48 years." Slavova (2015) called him a "Bithynian king".
 * Zipoetes II 278–276 BC
 * Nicomedes I 278–255 BC. Memnon described him as "...the Bithynians, whose basileus Nicomedes..." (...Βιθυνῶν, ὁ τούτων βασιλεὺς Νικομήδης...) and "the basileus of Bithynia Nicomedes" (ὁ τῆς Βιθυνίας βασιλεὺς Νικομήδης); Smith (2004) rendered basileus as "king".
 * Etazeta (regent) 255–254 BC
 * Ziaelas 254–228 BC
 * Prusias I Cholus 228–182 BC
 * Prusias II Cynegus 182–149 BC
 * Nicomedes II Epiphanes 149–127 BC
 * Nicomedes III Euergetes 127–94 BC
 * Nicomedes IV Philopator 94–74 BC
 * Socrates Chrestus who ruled briefly in about 90 BC

The coinage of these kings show their regal portraits, which tend to be engraved in an extremely accomplished Hellenistic style.

title: List of rulers of Bithynia


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Interstate 535

Interstate 535 (I-535) is a 2.78 mi auxiliary Interstate Highway spur route of I-35 in the US states of Minnesota and Wisconsin. It is paired with U.S. Highway 53 (US 53) along its entire route. The Interstate was part of the original 1956 Interstate Highway System and was completed in 1971. Since then, weight limits have been added to the Blatnik Bridge that carries the highway over Saint Louis Bay between Superior, Wisconsin, and Duluth, Minnesota.

Route description
I-535 begins in the city of Superior, Wisconsin, at the junction of US 53 and State Trunk Highway 35 (WIS 35) and continues northwest across the Blatnik Bridge over the Saint Louis Bay of Lake Superior. The freeway crosses from Wisconsin into Minnesota on the bridge and then meets an interchange for Garfield Avenue and the Port Terminal in the city of Duluth. I-535 ends at the junction of US 53 and I-35, known locally as the "Can of Worms" interchange, which features a pair of left exits from I-35, a stoplight, and lane drops over the I-35 bridge.

In 2007, the Wisconsin Department of Transportation (WisDOT) surveys measured a traffic along their segment of I-535 at 21,800–29,500 vehicles daily, on average. The Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) measured 29,500 vehicles daily in their 2009 survey. As an Interstate Highway, I-535 is a part of the National Highway System, a network of roads important to the country's economy, defense, and mobility. I-535 is part of the Falls-to-Falls Corridor, a federally recognized trade corridor spanning from Eau Claire–Chippewa Falls, Wisconsin, to International Falls, Minnesota–Fort Frances, Ontario.

History
I-535 was authorized in 1957 as part of the original Interstate Highway System. The Blatnik Bridge was opened in 1961, and the ramps to I-35 were completed in 1971. I-535 and the Blatnik Bridge replaced a swinging toll bridge at generally the same location. That bridge existed from 1897 to 1962 and carried US 53 from Connor's Point in Superior to Garfield Avenue in Duluth.

In November 2011, both MnDOT and WisDOT installed new signs to remind drivers that trucks over 40 ST gross vehicle weight cannot use the Blatnik Bridge; these vehicles will be rerouted to the nearby Bong Bridge. According to the press release, permitted, overweight vehicles have been restricted from using the Blatnik Bridge since early 2008 when inspections showed that corrosion and time were starting to affect the structure. Transportation officials say that the bridge is aging, and restriction of overweight vehicles will help to extend the life of the bridge. Drivers who disregard the posted weight limits will be ticketed.

title: Interstate 535


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Auxin

Auxins ( plural of auxin ) are a class of plant hormones (or plant-growth regulators) with some morphogen-like characteristics. Auxins play a cardinal role in coordination of many growth and behavioral processes in plant life cycles and are essential for plant body development. The Dutch biologist Frits Warmolt Went first described auxins and their role in plant growth in the 1920s. Kenneth V. Thimann became the first to isolate one of these phytohormones and to determine its chemical structure as indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Went and Thimann co-authored a book on plant hormones, Phytohormones, in 1937.

Overview
Auxins were the first of the major plant hormones to be discovered. They derive their name from the Greek word αυξειν (auxein – "to grow/increase"). Auxin is present in all parts of a plant, although in very different concentrations. The concentration in each position is crucial developmental information, so it is subject to tight regulation through both metabolism and transport. The result is the auxin creates "patterns" of auxin concentration maxima and minima in the plant body, which in turn guide further development of respective cells, and ultimately of the plant as a whole.

The (dynamic and environment responsive) pattern of auxin distribution within the plant is a key factor for plant growth, its reaction to its environment, and specifically for development of plant organs (such as leaves or flowers). It is achieved through very complex and well-coordinated active transport of auxin molecules from cell to cell throughout the plant body—by the so-called polar auxin transport. Thus, a plant can (as a whole) react to external conditions and adjust to them, without requiring a nervous system. Auxins typically act in concert with, or in opposition to, other plant hormones. For example, the ratio of auxin to cytokinin in certain plant tissues determines initiation of root versus shoot buds.

On the molecular level, all auxins are compounds with an aromatic ring and a carboxylic acid group. The most important member of the auxin family is indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which generates the majority of auxin effects in intact plants, and is the most potent native auxin. And as native auxin, its equilibrium is controlled in many ways in plants, from synthesis, through possible conjugation to degradation of its molecules, always according to the requirements of the situation.

 * Five naturally occurring (endogenous) auxins in plants include indole-3-acetic acid, 4-chloroindole-3-acetic acid, phenylacetic acid, indole-3-butyric acid, and indole-3-propionic acid.  However, most of the knowledge described so far in auxin biology and as described in the sections which follow, apply basically to IAA; the other three endogenous auxins seems to have marginal importance for intact plants in natural environments. Alongside endogenous auxins, scientists and manufacturers have developed many synthetic compounds with auxinic activity.
 * Synthetic auxins fall into four classes:
 * dicamba
 * quinolinecarboxylic acids, which includes quinclorac
 * derivatives of pyridinecarboxylic acids, which includes picloram, triclopyr, clopyralid
 * phenoxyacetic acid, phenoxypropionic acid, and phenoxybutyric acid, 1-naphthaleneacetic acid derivatives 2,4-D, 2,4-DP 2,4-DB 2,4,5-T MCPA MCPB, mecoprop

Some synthetic auxins, such as 2,4-D and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), are sold as herbicides. Broad-leaf plants (dicots), such as dandelions, are much more susceptible to auxins than narrow-leaf plants (monocots) such as grasses and cereal crops, making these synthetic auxins valuable as herbicides.

Charles Darwin
In 1881, Charles Darwin and his son Francis performed experiments on coleoptiles, the sheaths enclosing young leaves in germinating grass seedlings. The experiment exposed the coleoptile to light from a unidirectional source, and observed that they bend towards the light. By covering various parts of the coleoptiles with a light-impermeable opaque cap, the Darwins discovered that light is detected by the coleoptile tip, but that bending occurs in the hypocotyl. However the seedlings showed no signs of development towards light if the tip was covered with an opaque cap, or if the tip was removed. The Darwins concluded that the tip of the coleoptile was responsible for sensing light, and proposed that a messenger is transmitted in a downward direction from the tip of the coleoptile, causing it to bend.

Peter Boysen Jensen
In 1910, Danish scientist Peter Boysen Jensen demonstrated that the phototropic stimulus in the oat coleoptile could propagate through an incision. These experiments were extended and published in greater detail in 1911 and 1913. He found that the tip could be cut off and put back on, and that a subsequent one-sided illumination was still able to produce a positive phototropic curvature in the basal part of the coleoptile. He demonstrated that the transmission could take place through a thin layer of gelatin separating the unilaterally illuminated tip from the shaded stump. By inserting a piece of mica he could block transmission in the illuminated and non-illuminated side of the tip, respectively, which allowed him to show that the transmission took place in the shaded part of the tip. Thus, the longitudinal half of the coleoptile that exhibits the greater rate of elongation during the phototropic curvature, was the tissue to receive the growth stimulus.

In 1911, Boysen Jensen concluded from his experimental results that the transmission of the phototropic stimulus was not a physical effect (for example due to a change in pressure) but serait dû à une migration de substance ou d’ions (was caused by the transport of a substance or of ions). These results were fundamental for further work on the auxin theory of tropisms.

Frits Went
In 1928, the Dutch botanist Frits Warmolt Went showed that a chemical messenger diffuses from coleoptile tips. Went's experiment identified how a growth promoting chemical causes a coleoptile to grow towards the light. Went cut the tips of the coleoptiles and placed them in the dark, putting a few tips on agar blocks that he predicted would absorb the growth-promoting chemical. On control coleoptiles, he placed a block that lacked the chemical. On others, he placed blocks containing the chemical, either centered on top of the coleoptile to distribute the chemical evenly or offset to increase the concentration on one side.

When the growth-promoting chemical was distributed evenly the coleoptile grew straight. If the chemical was distributed unevenly, the coleoptile curved away from the side with the cube, as if growing towards the light, even though it was grown in the dark. Went later proposed that the messenger substance is a growth-promoting hormone, which he named auxin, that becomes asymmetrically distributed in the bending region. Went concluded that auxin is at a higher concentration on the shaded side, promoting cell elongation, which results in coleoptiles bending towards the light.

Hormonal activity
Auxins help development at all levels in plants, from the cellular level, through organs, and ultimately to the whole plant.

Molecular mechanisms
When a plant cell comes into contact with auxin, it causes dramatic changes in gene expression, with many genes up- or down-regulated. The precise mechanisms by which this occurs are still an area of active research, but there is now a general consensus on at least two auxin signalling pathways.

Perception
The best-characterized auxin receptors are the TIR1/ AFB family of F-box proteins. F-box proteins target other proteins for degradation via the ubiquitin degradation pathway. When TIR1/ AFB proteins bind to auxin, the auxin molecule acts as a 'molecular glue', a term coined by Ning Zheng, that allows these proteins to then bind to their targets (see below). The atomic structure of the perception mechanism of auxin by TIR1 was determined by X-ray crystallography.

Another auxin-binding protein, ABP1 is now often regarded as an auxin receptor (at the apoplast), but it is generally considered to have a much more minor role than the TIR1/AFB signaling pathway, and much less is known about ABP1 signaling.

Aux/IAA and ARF signalling modules
Auxin response factors (ARFs) are a large group of transcription factors that act in auxin signaling. In the absence of auxin, ARFs bind to a class of repressors known as Aux/IAAs. Aux/IAA suppress the ability of ARFs to enhance gene transcription. Additionally, the binding of Aux/IAA to ARFs brings Aux/IAA into contact with the promoters of auxin-regulated genes. When at these promoters, Aux/IAA repress the expression of these genes through recruiting other factors to make modifications to the DNA structure.

The binding of auxin to TIR1/AFBs allows them to bind to Aux/IAAs. When bound by TIR1/AFBs, Aux/IAAs are marked for degradation. The degradation of Aux/IAA frees ARF proteins, which are then able to activate or repress genes at whose promoters they are bound.

The large number of Aux/IAA and ARF binding pairs possible, and their different distributions between cell types and across developmental age are thought to account for the astonishingly diverse responses that auxin produces.

In June 2018, it was demonstrated that plant tissues can respond to auxin in a TIR1-dependent manner extremely quickly (probably too quickly to be explained by changes in gene expression). This has led some scientists to suggest that there is an as yet unidentified TIR1-dependent auxin-signalling pathway that differs from the well-known transcriptional response.

On a cellular level
On the cellular level, auxin is essential for cell growth, affecting both cell division and cellular expansion. Auxin concentration level, together with other local factors, contributes to cell differentiation and specification of the cell fate.

Depending on the specific tissue, auxin may promote axial elongation (as in shoots), lateral expansion (as in root swelling), or iso-diametric expansion (as in fruit growth). In some cases (coleoptile growth), auxin-promoted cellular expansion occurs in the absence of cell division. In other cases, auxin-promoted cell division and cell expansion may be closely sequenced within the same tissue (root initiation, fruit growth). In a living plant, auxins and other plant hormones nearly always appear to interact to determine patterns of plant development.

Organ patterns
Growth and division of plant cells together result in the growth of tissue, and specific tissue growth contributes to the development of plant organs. Growth of cells contributes to the plant's size, unevenly localized growth produces bending, turning and directionalization of organs- for example, stems turning toward light sources (phototropism), roots growing in response to gravity (gravitropism), and other tropisms originated because cells on one side grow faster than the cells on the other side of the organ. So, precise control of auxin distribution between different cells has paramount importance to the resulting form of plant growth and organization.

Auxin transport and the uneven distribution of auxin
To cause growth in the required domains, auxins must of necessity be active preferentially in them. Local auxin maxima can be formed by active biosynthesis in certain cells of tissues, for example via tryptophan-dependent pathways, but auxins are not synthesized in all cells (even if cells retain the potential ability to do so, only under specific conditions will auxin synthesis be activated in them). For that purpose, auxins have to be not only translocated toward those sites where they are needed but also they must have an established mechanism to detect those sites. Translocation is driven throughout the plant body, primarily from peaks of shoots to peaks of roots (from up to down).

For long distances, relocation occurs via the stream of fluid in phloem vessels, but, for short-distance transport, a unique system of coordinated polar transport directly from cell to cell is exploited. This short-distance, active transport exhibits some morphogenetic properties.

This process, polar auxin transport, is directional, very strictly regulated, and based in uneven distribution of auxin efflux carriers on the plasma membrane, which send auxins in the proper direction. While PIN-FORMED (PIN) proteins are vital in transporting auxin in a polar manner, the family of AUXIN1/LIKE-AUX1 (AUX/LAX) genes encodes for non-polar auxin influx carriers.

The regulation of PIN protein localisation in a cell determines the direction of auxin transport from cell, and concentrated effort of many cells creates peaks of auxin, or auxin maxima (regions having cells with higher auxin – a maximum). Proper and timely auxin maxima within developing roots and shoots are necessary to organise the development of the organ. PINs are regulated by multiple pathways, at both the transcriptional and the post-translational levels. PIN proteins can be phosphorylated by PINOID, which determines their apicobasal polarity and thereby the directionality of auxin fluxes. In addition, other AGC kinases, such as D6PK, phosphorylate and activate PIN transporters. AGC kinases, including PINOID and D6PK, target to the plasma membrane via binding to phospholipids. Upstream of D6PK, 3'-phosphoinositide dependent protein kinase 1 (PDK1) acts as a master regulator. PDK1 phosphorylates and activates D6PK at the basal side of plasma membrane, executing the activity of PIN-mediated polar auxin transport and subsequent plant development. Surrounding auxin maxima are cells with low auxin troughs, or auxin minima. For example, in the Arabidopsis fruit, auxin minima have been shown to be important for its tissue development.

Auxin has a significant effect on spatial and temporal gene expressions during the growth of apical meristems. These interactions depend both on the concentration of Auxin as well as the spatial orientation during primordial positioning. Auxin relies on PIN1 which works as an auxin efflux carrier. PIN1 positioning upon membranes determines the directional flow of the hormone from higher to lower concentrations. Initiation of primordia in apical meristems is correlated to heightened auxin levels. Genes required to specify the identity of cells arrange and express based on levels of auxin. STM (SHOOT MERISTEMLESS), which helps maintain undifferentiated cells, is down-regulated in the presence of auxin. This allows growing cells to differentiate into various plant tissues. The CUC (CUP-SHAPED COTYLEDON) genes set the boundaries for growing tissues and promote growth. They are upregulated via auxin influx. Experiments making use of GFP (GREEN FLUORESCENCE PROTEIN) visualization in Arabidopsis have supported these claims.

Organization of the plant
As auxins contribute to organ shaping, they are also fundamentally required for proper development of the plant itself. Without hormonal regulation and organization, plants would be merely proliferating heaps of similar cells. Auxin employment begins in the embryo of the plant, where the directional distribution of auxin ushers in subsequent growth and development of primary growth poles, then forms buds of future organs. Next, it helps to coordinate proper development of the arising organs, such as roots, cotyledons, and leaves and mediates long-distance signals between them, contributing so to the overall architecture of the plant. Throughout the plant's life, auxin helps the plant maintain the polarity of growth, and actually "recognize" where it has its branches (or any organ) connected.

An important principle of plant organization based upon auxin distribution is apical dominance, which means the auxin produced by the apical bud (or growing tip) diffuses (and is transported) downwards and inhibits the development of ulterior lateral bud growth, which would otherwise compete with the apical tip for light and nutrients. Removing the apical tip and its suppressively acting auxin allows the lower dormant lateral buds to develop, and the buds between the leaf stalk and stem produce new shoots which compete to become the lead growth. The process is actually quite complex because auxin transported downwards from the lead shoot tip has to interact with several other plant hormones (such as strigolactones or cytokinins) in the process on various positions along the growth axis in plant body to achieve this phenomenon. This plant behavior is used in pruning by horticulturists.

Finally, the sum of auxin arriving from stems to roots influences the degree of root growth. If shoot tips are removed, the plant does not react just by the outgrowth of lateral buds — which are supposed to replace to original lead. It also follows that smaller amount of auxin arriving at the roots results in slower growth of roots and the nutrients are subsequently in higher degree invested in the upper part of the plant, which hence starts to grow faster.

Effects

Auxin participates in phototropism, geotropism, hydrotropism and other developmental changes. The uneven distribution of auxin, due to environmental cues, such as unidirectional light or gravity force, results in uneven plant tissue growth, and generally, auxin governs the form and shape of the plant body, direction and strength of growth of all organs, and their mutual interaction. When the cells grow larger, their volume increases as the intracellular solute concentration increases with water moving into the cells from extracellular fluid. This auxin-stimulated intake of water causes turgor pressure on the cell walls, causing the plant to bend.

Auxin stimulates cell elongation by stimulating wall-loosening factors, such as expansins, to loosen cell walls. The effect is stronger if gibberellins are also present. Auxin also stimulates cell division if cytokinins are present. When auxin and cytokinin are applied to callus, rooting can be generated with higher auxin to cytokinin ratios, shoot growth is induced by lower auxin to cytokinin ratios, and a callus is formed with intermediate ratios, with the exact threshold ratios depending on the species and the original tissue. Auxin also induces sugar and mineral accumulation at the site of application.

Wound response
Auxin induces the formation and organization of phloem and xylem. When the plant is wounded, the auxin may induce the cell differentiation and regeneration of the vascular tissues.

Root growth and development
Auxins promote root initiation. Auxin induces both growth of pre-existing roots and root branching (lateral root initiation), and also adventitious root formation. As more native auxin is transported down the stem to the roots, the overall development of the roots is stimulated. If the source of auxin is removed, such as by trimming the tips of stems, the roots are less stimulated accordingly, and growth of stem is supported instead.

In horticulture, auxins, especially NAA and IBA, are commonly applied to stimulate root initiation when rooting cuttings of plants. However, high concentrations of auxin inhibit root elongation and instead enhance adventitious root formation. Removal of the root tip can lead to inhibition of secondary root formation.

Apical dominance
Auxin induces shoot apical dominance; the axillary buds are inhibited by auxin, as a high concentration of auxin directly stimulates ethylene synthesis in axillary buds, causing inhibition of their growth and potentiation of apical dominance. When the apex of the plant is removed, the inhibitory effect is removed and the growth of lateral buds is enhanced. This is called decapitation, usually performed in tea plantations and hedge-making. Auxin is sent to the part of the plant facing away from the light, where it promotes cell elongation, thus causing the plant to bend towards the light.

Fruit growth and development
Auxin is required for fruit growth and development and delays fruit senescence. When seeds are removed from strawberries, fruit growth is stopped; exogenous auxin stimulates the growth in fruits with seeds removed. For fruit with unfertilized seeds, exogenous auxin results in parthenocarpy ("virgin-fruit" growth).

Fruits form abnormal morphologies when auxin transport is disturbed. In Arabidopsis fruits, auxin controls the release of seeds from the fruit (pod). The valve margins are a specialised tissue in pods that regulates when pod will open (dehiscence). Auxin must be removed from the valve margin cells to allow the valve margins to form. This process requires modification of the auxin transporters (PIN proteins).

The evolutionary transition from diploid to triploid endosperms - and the production of antipodal cells - may have occurred due to a shift in gametophyte development which produced a new interaction with an auxin-dependent mechanism originating in the earliest angiosperms.

Flowering
Auxin plays also a minor role in the initiation of flowering and development of reproductive organs. In low concentrations, it can delay the senescence of flowers. A number of plant mutants have been described that affect flowering and have deficiencies in either auxin synthesis or transport. In maize, one example is bif2 barren inflorescence2.

Ethylene biosynthesis
In low concentrations, auxin can inhibit ethylene formation and transport of precursor in plants; however, high concentrations can induce the synthesis of ethylene. Therefore, the high concentration can induce femaleness of flowers in some species.

Auxin inhibits abscission prior to the formation of the abscission layer, and thus inhibits senescence of leaves.

Synthetic auxins
In the course of research on auxin biology, many compounds with noticeable auxin activity were synthesized. Many of them had been found to have economical potential for human-controlled growth and development of plants in agronomy.

Auxins are toxic to plants in large concentrations; they are most toxic to dicots and less so to monocots. Because of this property, synthetic auxin herbicides, including 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T), have been developed and used for weed control.

However, some exogenously synthesized auxins, especially 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), are also commonly applied to stimulate root growth when taking cuttings of plants or for different agricultural purposes such as the prevention of fruit drop in orchards.

Used in high doses, auxin stimulates the production of ethylene, also a native plant hormone. Excess ethylene can inhibit elongation growth, cause leaves to fall (abscission), and even kill the plant. Some synthetic auxins, such as 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T are marketed also as herbicides. Dicots, such as dandelions, are much more susceptible to auxins than monocots, such as grasses and cereal crops. So these synthetic auxins are valuable as synthetic herbicides. 2,4-D was the first widely used herbicide, and it is still in use. 2,4-D was first commercialized by the Sherwin-Williams company and saw use in the late 1940s. It is easy and inexpensive to manufacture.

Triclopyr (3,5,6-TPA), while known as an herbicide, has also been shown to increase the size of fruit in plants. At increased concentrations, the hormone can be lethal. Dosing down to the correct concentration has been shown to alter photosynthetic pathways. This hindrance to the plant causes a response that increases carbohydrate production, leading to larger fruit.

Herbicide manufacture
Synthetic auxins are used as a kind of herbicide and overdosing of auxins will interrupt plants' growth and lead to their death. The defoliant Agent Orange, used extensively by British forces in the Malayan Emergency and American forces in the Vietnam War, was a mix of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. The compound 2,4-D is still in use and is thought to be safe, but 2,4,5-T was more or less banned by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in 1979. The dioxin TCDD is an unavoidable contaminant produced in the manufacture of 2,4,5-T. As a result of the integral dioxin contamination, the use of 2,4,5-T products has been implicated in leukemia, miscarriages, birth defects, liver damage, and other diseases.

title: Auxin


text:
Cytokinin

Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant hormones that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots. They are involved primarily in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf senescence.

There are two types of cytokinins: adenine-type cytokinins represented by kinetin, zeatin, and 6-benzylaminopurine, and phenylurea-type cytokinins like diphenylurea and thidiazuron (TDZ). Most adenine-type cytokinins are synthesized in roots. Cambium and other actively dividing tissues also synthesize cytokinins. No phenylurea cytokinins have been found in plants. Cytokinins participate in local and long-distance signalling, with the same transport mechanism as purines and nucleosides. Typically, cytokinins are transported in the xylem.

Cytokinins act in concert with auxin, another plant growth hormone. The two are complementary, having generally opposite effects.

History
The idea of specific substances required for cell division to occur in plants actually dates back to the German physiologist J. Wiesner, who, in 1892, proposed that initiation of cell division is evoked by endogenous factors, indeed a proper balance among endogenous factors. Somewhat later, the Austrian plant physiologist, G. Haberlandt, reported in 1913 that an unknown substance diffuses from the phloem tissue which can induce cell division in the parenchymatic tissue of potato tubers. In 1941, Johannes Van Overbeek found that the milky endosperm of immature coconut also had this factor, which stimulated cell division and differentiation in very young Datura embryos.

Jablonski and Skoog (1954) extended the work of Haberlandt and reported that a substance present in the vascular tissue was responsible for causing cell division in the pith cells. Miller and his co-workers (1954) isolated and purified the cell division substance in crystallised form from autoclaved herring fish sperm DNA. This active compound was named as Kinetin because of its ability to promote cell division and was the first cytokinin to be named. Kinetin was later identified to be 6-furfuryl-amino purine. Later on, the generic name kinin was suggested to include kinetin and other substances having similar properties.

The first naturally occurring cytokinin was isolated and crystallised simultaneously by Miller and D.S. Lethum (1963–65) from the milky endosperm of corn (Zea mays) and named Zeatin. Lethem (1963) proposed the term Cytokinins for such substances.

Function
Cytokinins are involved in many plant processes, including cell division and shoot and root morphogenesis. They are known to regulate axillary bud growth and apical dominance. According to the "direct inhibition hypothesis", these effects result from the ratio of cytokinin to auxin. This theory states that auxin from apical buds travels down shoots to inhibit axillary bud growth. This promotes shoot growth, and restricts lateral branching. Cytokinin moves from the roots into the shoots, eventually signaling lateral bud growth. Simple experiments support this theory. When the apical bud is removed, the axillary buds are uninhibited, lateral growth increases, and plants become bushier. Applying auxin to the cut stem again inhibits lateral dominance. Moreover, it has been shown that cytokinin alone has no effect on parenchyma cells. When cultured with auxin but no cytokinin, they grow large but do not divide. When cytokinin and auxin are both added together, the cells expand and differentiate. When cytokinin and auxin are present in equal levels, the parenchyma cells form an undifferentiated callus. A higher ratio of cytokinin induces growth of shoot buds, while a higher ratio of auxin induces root formation.

Cytokinins have been shown to slow aging of plant organs by preventing protein breakdown, activating protein synthesis, and assembling nutrients from nearby tissues. A study that regulated leaf senescence in tobacco leaves found that wild-type leaves yellowed while transgenic leaves remained mostly green. It was hypothesized that cytokinin may affect enzymes that regulate protein synthesis and degradation.

Cytokinins have recently been found to play a role in plant pathogenesis. For example, cytokinins have been described to induce resistance against Pseudomonas syringae in Arabidopsis thaliana and Nicotiana tabacum. Also in context of biological control of plant diseases cytokinins seem to have potential functions. Production of cytokinins by Pseudomonas fluorescens G20-18 has been identified as a key determinant to efficiently control the infection of A. thaliana with P. syringae..

While cytokinin action in vascular plants is described as pleiotropic, this class of plant hormones specifically induces the transition from apical growth to growth via a three-faced apical cell in moss protonema. This bud induction can be pinpointed to differentiation of a specific single cell, and thus is a very specific effect of cytokinin.

Mode of action
Cytokinin signaling in plants is mediated by a two-component phosphorelay. This pathway is initiated by cytokinin binding to a histidine kinase receptor in the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. This results in the autophosphorylation of the receptor, with the phosphate then being transferred to a phosphotransfer protein. The phosphotransfer proteins can then phosphorylate the type-B response regulators (RR) which are a family of transcriptions factors. The phosphorylated, and thus activated, type-B RRs regulate the transcription of numerous genes, including the type-A RRs. The type-A RRs negatively regulate the pathway.

Biosynthesis
Adenosine phosphate-isopentenyltransferase (IPT) catalyses the first reaction in the biosynthesis of isoprene cytokinins. It may use ATP, ADP, or AMP as substrates and may use dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) or hydroxymethylbutenyl pyrophosphate (HMBPP) as prenyl donors. This reaction is the rate-limiting step in cytokinin biosynthesis. DMADP and HMBDP used in cytokinin biosynthesis are produced by the methylerythritol phosphate pathway (MEP).

Cytokinins can also be produced by recycled tRNAs in plants and bacteria. tRNAs with anticodons that start with a uridine and carrying an already-prenylated adenosine adjacent to the anticodon release on degradation the adenosine as a cytokinin. The prenylation of these adenines is carried out by tRNA-isopentenyltransferase.

Auxin is known to regulate the biosynthesis of cytokinin.

Uses
Because cytokinins promote plant cell division and growth, they have been studied since the 1970s as potential agrochemicals, however they have yet to be widely adopted, probably due to the complex nature of their effects. One study found that applying cytokinin to cotton seedlings led to a 5–10% increase in yield under drought conditions. Some cytokinins are utilized in tissue culture of plants and can also be used to promote the germination of seeds.

title: Cytokinin


text:
Gibberellin

Gibberellins (GAs) are plant hormones that regulate various developmental processes, including stem elongation, germination, dormancy, flowering, flower development, and leaf and fruit senescence. GAs are one of the longest-known classes of plant hormone. It is thought that the selective breeding (albeit unconscious) of crop strains that were deficient in GA synthesis was one of the key drivers of the "green revolution" in the 1960s, a revolution that is credited to have saved over a billion lives worldwide.

Chemistry
All known gibberellins are diterpenoid acids that are synthesized by the terpenoid pathway in plastids and then modified in the endoplasmic reticulum and cytosol until they reach their biologically active form. All gibberellins are derived via the ent-gibberellane skeleton, but are synthesised via ent-kaurene. The gibberellins are named GA1 through GAn in order of discovery. Gibberellic acid, which was the first gibberellin to be structurally characterized, is GA3.

, there are 136 GAs identified from plants, fungi, and bacteria.

Gibberellins are tetracyclic diterpene acids. There are two classes based on the presence of either 19 or 20 carbons. The 19-carbon gibberellins, such as gibberellic acid, have lost carbon 20 and, in place, possess a five-member lactone bridge that links carbons 4 and 10. The 19-carbon forms are, in general, the biologically active forms of gibberellins. Hydroxylation also has a great effect on the biological activity of the gibberellin. In general, the most biologically active compounds are dihydroxylated gibberellins, which possess hydroxyl groups on both carbon 3 and carbon 13. Gibberellic acid is a dihydroxylated gibberellin.

Bioactive GAs
The bioactive GAs are GA1, GA3, GA4, and GA7. There are three common structural traits between these GAs: hydroxyl group on C-3β, a carboxyl group on C-6, and a lactone between C-4 and C-10. The 3β-hydroxyl group can be exchanged for other functional groups at C-2 and/or C-3 positions. GA5 and GA6 are examples of bioactive GAs that do not have a hydroxyl group on C-3β. The presence of GA1 in various plant species suggests that it is a common bioactive GA.

Biological function
Gibberellins are involved in the natural process of breaking dormancy and other aspects of germination. Before the photosynthetic apparatus develops sufficiently in the early stages of germination, the stored energy reserves of starch nourish the seedling. Usually in germination, the breakdown of starch to glucose in the endosperm begins shortly after the seed is exposed to water. Gibberellins in the seed embryo are believed to signal starch hydrolysis through inducing the synthesis of the enzyme α-amylase in the aleurone cells. In the model for gibberellin-induced production of α-amylase, it is demonstrated that gibberellins (denoted by GA) produced in the scutellum diffuse to the aleurone cells, where they stimulate the secretion α-amylase. α-Amylase then hydrolyses starch, which is abundant in many seeds, into glucose that can be used in cellular respiration to produce energy for the seed embryo. Studies of this process have indicated gibberellins cause higher levels of transcription of the gene coding for the α-amylase enzyme, to stimulate the synthesis of α-amylase.

Gibberellins are produced in greater mass when the plant is exposed to cold temperatures. They stimulate cell elongation, breaking and budding, seedless fruits, and seed germination. Gibberellins cause seed germination by breaking the seed's dormancy and acting as a chemical messenger. Its hormone binds to a receptor, and calcium activates the protein calmodulin, and the complex binds to DNA, producing an enzyme to stimulate growth in the embryo.

Biosynthesis
GAs are usually synthesized from the methylerythritol phosphate (MEP) pathway in higher plants. In this pathway, bioactive GA is produced from trans-geranylgeranyl diphosphate (GGDP). In the MEP pathway, three classes of enzymes are used to yield GA from GGDP: terpene syntheses (TPSs), cytochrome P450 monooxygenases (P450s), and 2-oxoglutarate–dependent dioxygenases (2ODDs). There are eight steps in the MEP pathway:

 * 1) GGDP is converted to ent-copalyl diphosphate (ent-CDP) by ent-copalyl diphosphate synthase (CPS)
 * 2) ent-CDP is converted to ent-kaurene by ent-kaurene synthase (KS)
 * 3) ent-kaurene is converted to ent-kaurenol by ent-kaurene oxidase (KO)
 * 4) ent-kaurenol is converted to ent-kaurenal by KO
 * 5) ent-kaurenal is converted to ent-kaurenoic acid by KO
 * 6) ent-kaurenoic acid is converted to ent-7a-hydroxykaurenoic acid by ent-kaurenoic acid oxidase (KAO)
 * 7) ent-7a-hydroxykaurenoic acid is converted to GA12-aldehyde by KAO
 * 8) GA12-aldehyde is converted to GA12 by KAO. GA12 is processed to the bioactive GA4 by oxidations on C-20 and C-3, which is accomplished by 2 soluble ODDs: GA 20-oxidase and GA 3-oxidase.

One or two genes encode the enzymes responsible for the first steps of GA biosynthesis in Arabidopsis and rice. The null alleles of the genes encoding CPS, KS, and KO result in GA-deficient Arabidopsis dwarves. Multigene families encode the 2ODDs that catalyze the formation of GA12 to bioactive GA4.

AtGA3ox1 and AtGA3ox2, two of the four genes that encode GA3ox in Arabidopsis, affect vegetative development. Environmental stimuli regulate AtGA3ox1 and AtGA3ox2 activity during seed germination. In Arabidopsis, GA20ox overexpression leads to an increase in GA concentration.

Sites of biosynthesis
Most bioactive GAs are located in actively growing organs on plants. Both GA20ox and GA3ox genes (genes coding for GA 20-oxidase and GA 3-oxidase) and the SLENDER1 gene (a GA signal transduction gene) are found in growing organs on rice, which suggests bioactive GA synthesis occurs at their site of action in growing organs in plants. During flower development, the tapetum of anthers is believed to be a primary site of GA biosynthesis.

Differences between biosynthesis in fungi and lower plants
Arabidopsis, a plant, and Gibberella fujikuroi, a fungus, possess different GA pathways and enzymes. P450s in fungi perform functions analogous to the functions of KAOs in plants. The function of CPS and KS in plants is performed by a single enzyme, CPS/KS, in fungi. In fungi, the GA biosynthesis genes are found on one chromosome, but in plants, they are found randomly on multiple chromosomes. Plants produce low amount of GA3, therefore the GA3 is produced for industrial purposes by microorganisms. Industrially the gibberellic acid can be produced by submerged fermentation, but this process presents low yield with high production costs and hence higher sale value, nevertheless other alternative process to reduce costs of the GA3 production is solid-state fermentation (SSF) that allows the use of agro-industrial residues.

Catabolism
Several mechanisms for inactivating GAs have been identified. 2β-hydroxylation deactivates GA, and is catalyzed by GA2-oxidases (GA2oxs). Some GA2oxs use C19-GAs as substrates, and other GA2oxs use C20-GAs. Cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase, encoded by elongated uppermost internode (eui), converts GAs into 16α,17-epoxides. Rice eui mutants amass bioactive GAs at high levels, which suggests cytochrome P450 mono-oxygenase is a main enzyme responsible for deactivation GA in rice. The Gamt1 and gamt2 genes encode enzymes that methylate the C-6 carboxyl group of GAs. In a gamt1 and gamt2 mutant, concentrations of GA is developing seeds is increased.

Homeostasis
Feedback and feedforward regulation maintains the levels of bioactive GAs in plants. Levels of AtGA20ox1 and AtGA3ox1 expression are increased in a GA deficient environment, and decreased after the addition of bioactive GAs,   Conversely, expression of AtGA2ox1 and AtGA2ox2, GA deactivation genes, is increased with addition of GA.

Regulation by other hormones
The auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) regulates concentration of GA1 in elongating internodes in peas. Removal of IAA by removal of the apical bud, the auxin source, reduces the concentration of GA1, and reintroduction of IAA reverses these effects to increase the concentration of GA1. This phenomenon has also been observed in tobacco plants. Auxin increases GA 3-oxidation and decreases GA 2-oxidation in barley. Auxin also regulates GA biosynthesis during fruit development in peas. These discoveries in different plant species suggest the auxin regulation of GA metabolism may be a universal mechanism.

Ethylene decreases the concentration of bioactive GAs.

Regulation by environmental factors
Recent evidence suggests fluctuations in GA concentration influence light-regulated seed germination, photomorphogenesis during de-etiolation, and photoperiod regulation of stem elongation and flowering. Microarray analysis showed about one fourth cold-responsive genes are related to GA-regulated genes, which suggests GA influences response to cold temperatures. Plants reduce growth rate when exposed to stress. A relationship between GA levels and amount of stress experienced has been suggested in barley.

Role in seed development
Bioactive GAs and abscisic acid levels have an inverse relationship and regulate seed development and germination. Levels of FUS3, an Arabidopsis transcription factor, are upregulated by ABA and downregulated by GA, which suggests that there is a regulation loop that establishes the balance of GA and ABA.

Receptor
In the early 1990s, there were several lines of evidence that suggested the existence of a GA receptor in oat seeds that was located at the plasma membrane. However, despite intensive research, to date, no membrane-bound GA receptor has been isolated. This, along with the discovery of a soluble receptor, GA insensitive dwarf 1 (GID1) has led many to doubt that a membrane-bound receptor exists. GID1 was first identified in rice and in Arabidopsis there are three orthologs of GID1, AtGID1a, b, and c. GID1s have a high affinity for bioactive GAs. GA binds to a specific binding pocket on GID1; the C3-hydroxyl on GA makes contact with tyrosine-31 in the GID1 binding pocket. GA binding to GID1 causes changes in GID1 structure, causing a 'lid' on GID1 to cover the GA binding pocket. The movement of this lid results in the exposure of a surface which enables the binding of GID1 to DELLA proteins.

DELLA proteins: Repression of a repressor
DELLA proteins, such as SLR1 in rice or GAI and RGA in Arabidopsis are repressors of plant development. DELLAs inhibit seed germination, seed growth, flowering and GA reverses these effects. DELLA proteins are characterized by the presence of a DELLA motif (aspartate-glutamate-leucine-leucine-alanine or D-E-L-L-A in the single letter amino acid code).

When GA binds to the GID1 receptor, it enhances the interaction between GID1 and DELLA proteins, forming a GA-GID1-DELLA complex. When in the GA-GID1-DELLA complex, it is thought that DELLA proteins undergo changes in structure that enable their binding to F-box proteins (SLY1 in Arabidopsis or GID2 in rice). F-box proteins catalyse the addition of ubiquitin to their targets. The addition of ubiquitin to DELLA proteins promotes their degradation via the 26S-proteosome. The degradation of DELLA proteins releases cells from their repressive effects.

Transcription factors
The first targets of DELLA proteins identified were PHYTOCHROME INTERACTING FACTORs (PIFs). PIFs are transcription factors that negatively regulate light signalling and are strong promoters of elongation growth. In the presence of GA, DELLAs are degraded and this then allows PIFs to promote elongation. It was later found that DELLAs repress a large number of other transcription factors, among which are positive regulators of auxin, brassinosteroid and ethylene signalling. DELLAs can repress transcription factors either by stopping their binding to DNA or by promoting their degradation.

Prefoldins and microtubule assembly
In addition to repressing transcription factors, DELLAs also bind to prefoldins (PFDs). PFDs are molecular chaperones, meaning they assist in the folding of other proteins. PFDs function in the cytosol but when DELLAs bind to PFDs, it restricts them to the nucleus. An important function of PFDs is to assist in the folding of β-tubulin. As such, in the absence of GA (when there is a high level of DELLA proteins), PDF function is reduced and there is a lower cellular pool of β-tubulin. When GA is present the DELLAs are degraded, PDFs can move to the cytosol and assist in the folding of β-tubulin. β-tubulin is a vital component of the cytoskeleton (in the form of microtubules). As such, GA allows for re-organisation of the cytoskeleton, and the elongation of cells.

Microtubules are also required for the trafficking of membrane vesicles. Membrane vesicle trafficking is needed for the correct positioning of several hormone transporters. One of the most well characterized hormone transporters are PIN proteins, which are responsible for the movement of the hormone auxin between cells. In the absence of GA, DELLA proteins reduce the levels of microtubules and thereby inhibit membrane vesicle trafficking. This reduces the level of PIN proteins at the cell membrane, and the level of auxin in the cell. GA reverses this process and allows for PIN protein trafficking to the cell membrane to enhance the level of auxin in the cell.

title: Gibberellin


text:
Service of process

In the U.S. legal system, service of process is the procedure by which a party to a lawsuit gives an appropriate notice of initial legal action to another party (such as a defendant), court, or administrative body in an effort to exercise jurisdiction over that person so as to force that person to respond to the proceeding before the court, body, or other tribunal.

Notice is furnished by delivering a set of court documents (called "process") to the person to be served.

Service
Each jurisdiction has rules regarding the appropriate service of process. Typically, a summons and other related documents must be served upon the defendant personally, or in some cases upon another person of suitable age and discretion at the person's residence or place of business or employment. In some cases, service of process may be effected through the mail as in some small claims court procedures. In exceptional cases, other forms of service may be authorized by procedural rules or court order, including service by publication when an individual cannot be located in a particular jurisdiction.

Proper service of process initially establishes personal jurisdiction of the court over the person served. If the defendant ignores further pleadings or fails to participate in the proceedings, then the court or administrative body may find the defendant in default and award relief to the claimant, petitioner or plaintiff. The defendant may contest the default in the defendant's home state. Service of process must be distinguished from service of subsequent documents (such as pleadings and motion papers) between the parties to the litigation.

Service of process in cases filed in the United States district courts is governed by Rule 4 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. In England and Wales, the rules governing service of documents are contained within Part 6 of the Civil Procedure Rules 1998 (as well as the Practice Directions). In Canada the rules vary from province to province and can be governed differently depending on what the type of case (i.e. family, small claims, criminal, etc.).

Service on a defendant who resides in a country outside the jurisdiction of a court must comply with special procedures prescribed under the Hague Service Convention if the recipient's country is a signatory. Service on defendants in many South American countries and some other countries is effected through the letter rogatory process. Where a defendant's whereabouts are unknown, a court may permit service by publication, usually in a newspaper.

Substituted service
When an individual party to be served is unavailable for personal service, many jurisdictions allow for substituted service. Substituted service allows the process server to leave service documents with another responsible individual, called a person of suitable age and discretion, such as a cohabiting adult or a teenager. Under the U.S. Federal Rules, substituted service may only be made at the abode or dwelling of the defendant. California, New York, Illinois, and many other United States jurisdictions require that in addition to substituted service, the documents be mailed to the recipient. Substituted service often requires a serving party show that ordinary service is impracticable, that due diligence has been made to attempt to make personal service by delivery, and that substituted service will reach the party and effect notice.

Another method of substituted service is "service by publication" also called "constructive service" in some jurisdictions. Service by publication is used to give "constructive notice" to a defendant who is intentionally absent, in hiding, or unknown (such as a possible descendant of a former landowner), and only when allowed by a judge's order based on a sworn declaration of the inability to find the defendant after "due diligence". Service by publication is commonly used in a divorce action to serve a spouse who has disappeared without leaving a forwarding address. Service by publication usually involves placing the petition for divorce and the summons to a missing spouse in a local newspaper.

In divorce cases, most states that permit service by publication will require due diligence to locate the missing spouse, which can include verifying with the post office that there is no forwarding address; contacting in writing all friends, relatives, and former employers of a spouse who may know the spouse's current address; checking all jails and prisons for any record of a spouse; and checking military records for a spouse. In addition, in some jurisdictions, substituted service may be effected through motion and public notice, followed by sending the documents by certified mail.

Courts in at least two Canadian provincial jurisdictions have allowed for substituted service via Facebook. In 2018, the Ontario Superior Court of Justice allowed service via Instagram and LinkedIn's built-in messaging systems.

Service by mail
Service by mail is permitted by most U.S. jurisdictions for service on defendants located in other U.S. states or foreign countries. Service by mail is not available if the country of destination has filed objections to service by mail pursuant to the multinational Hague Service Convention. In California, "Any person providing the [ California Department of Motor Vehicles ] with a mailing address shall consent to receive service of process".

Voluntary acceptance of service (United States)
As a substitute for personal service by a process server, some jurisdictions may allow voluntary acceptance of service, also called waiver of service. It means that the served party agrees to voluntarily acknowledge receipt of the complaint or petition without the need to engage a process server.

Acceptance or waiver of service is encouraged by some court systems, especially U.S. federal courts. Under the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 4(d)(2), when a defendant refuses to waive service "without good cause", the defendant can be held liable for the cost of personal service.

Personal service by court services process server
Personal service is service of process directly to a party named on the summons, complaint, or petition. In most lawsuits in the United States, personal service is required to prove service. Most states allow substituted service in almost all lawsuits unless a corporation, LLC, LLP, or other business entity is being served; in those cases, personal service must be achieved by serving the documents to the registered agent of a business entity. Some states, e.g. Florida, do not require that the documents actually be handed to the individual. In California and most other states, the documents must be visible to the person being served, i.e., not in a sealed envelope. If the individual refuses to accept service, flees, closes the door, etc., and the individual has been positively identified as the person to be served, the documents may be "drop served" (placed as close to the individual as possible); this is considered a valid service. In the US, personal service of process has been the hallmark for initiating litigation for nearly 100 years, primarily because it guarantees actual notice to the defendant of a legal action.

Common law systems in the United States
In most states a person that serves the process simply must be 18 years of age or older and not a party to the litigation.

Most jurisdictions require or permit process to be served by a court official, such as a sheriff, marshal, constable, or bailiff. There may be licensing requirements for private process servers, as is the case in New York City, Alaska, Arizona, California, Georgia, Illinois, Montana, Nevada, and Oklahoma. Arizona process servers are required to apply for certification with the clerk of the Superior Court in the county in which they reside. Non-resident applicants may apply in any county. Texas process servers are currently certified by order of the Texas Supreme Court and are regulated through the Process Server Review Board, consisting of members of the industry authorized by the supreme court.

Other jurisdictions require a court order allowing a private person to serve process. Many private investigators perform process serving duties. Texas and Florida also have a required training course which must be completed prior to certification.

An example of such a license would be in Rhode Island, where an applicant must complete 90 days of training with a constable that has 'full powers'. Once the 90 days of training is complete, a test is given at the local courthouse from the laws included in the constable manual. Once an applicant passed the written exam, one will be scheduled for an oral interview with the disciplinary board. If they find the applicant to be competent, they will pass a recommendation to the chief judge who will then swear in one with 'limited power'. These constables can only serve within the county they are appointed. After one year, a limited power constable can apply for his/her full powers to arrest, evict, and be able to serve statewide.

In New York State, personal process is required in divorce and similar matrimonial law actions, absent court permission. Specific practice is that: "The defendant must be personally served with the divorce papers, unless the court grants some other means of service. Note that there are special requirements for service of process in a divorce action." See CPLR 308 and DRL 232.

Federal (United States)
The service of federal civil process in the United States is governed by Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 4. Any person who is at least 18 years of age and is not a party to the case may serve a federal civil summons and complaint. This general rule also applies to the service of federal subpoenas under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, Rule 45.

Civil law systems
In civil law jurisdictions, which include all of Continental Europe and most Asian, African, and South American countries, service of process is generally performed by the court. This may be done in person by a bailiff, or by mail, depending on the jurisdiction.

International service
International service of foreign judicial and extrajudicial documents is governed in general by the 1965 Hague Service Convention. Prior to the enactment of the Hague Service Convention, service of process in civil cases was generally effected by a letter rogatory, a formal request from the court in the country where proceedings were initiated or underway to a court in another country where the defendant resided. This procedure generally required the use of consular and diplomatic channels as the request had to be made to the foreign minister (the Secretary of State in the United States) of the defendant's country by the foreign minister of the originating court.

Since 1965, member states designate a central authority for service of process and requests go directly there. In addition, many states allow some type of service directly by mail or personal service by a person otherwise authorized to service process without involvement of local courts.

Agent for acceptance of service
In some instances, delivery to an agent for acceptance of service or "registered agent" can substitute for personal service on the principal party to be served. The registered agent is a person or company authorized in advance to accept service on behalf of the served party. For example, most corporations are required by local law to maintain a local agent of record for acceptance of service in each jurisdiction where they actively conduct business with the public. The identity of the agent for service can usually be ascertained by searching company filings with appropriate state corporate records or business registration agencies (often the business entity division of a state's secretary of state. Generally, these business registration records are searchable by the public on the secretary of state's website.

In the UK an agent for acceptance of service is generally known as a process agent and is a contractual relationship rather than a statutory one.

Return of service
Once service of process has been effected, the responsible officer or process server must typically file a return of service or proof of service or affidavit of service with the court (or convey one to the plaintiff to file with the court). The return of service indicates the time and place at which service was effected, the person served, and any additional information needed to establish that service was properly made. It is signed by the process server, and operates as prima facie evidence that service of process was effectively made.

Arizona Court Rules also require that any return or affidavit of service filed by a process server other than a sheriff or constable shall clearly state the county in which the process server is registered. Many Arizona process servers include their certification number on their returns/affidavits. Certification numbers are assigned by the clerk of the superior court in each county.

Process serving laws (United States)
Many states have process serving laws that govern the way service of process is effected, the licensing requirements to effect service, the forms to be used and the time deadlines that service of process may be accomplished upon individual respondents and corporations. These differences may be vast. For example, in New York, service of process may require licensing of the process server; in Pennsylvania, process may only be served by the sheriff or a sheriff's deputy in most cases (except in Philadelphia, where process may be served "by any competent adult"); and in New Jersey, process is effected if, after making an affidavit that diligent efforts to effect personal service had failed, the party sends two copies of the pleading by mail—one by regular mail and one by certified mail, return receipt requested—and either the certified mail receipt is returned signed or the certified mail envelope is returned unclaimed and the regular mail is not returned to the sender. Generally, there are specific procedures and rules for most courts, from local small claims courts to United States District courts. Each court has specific rules, forms, guidelines and procedures which must be followed in order to successfully effect service of process. Failure to follow these guidelines may deem the attempted service improper. Indeed, many defendants in court hearings use the affirmative defense of "I was not served" as an often successful line of defense in any lawsuit. Not surprisingly, this defense tends to be effective in many cases because service of process upon defendant did not follow legal procedure. As for United States federal courts, service of process rules are in the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, upon which most state service of process laws are based.

Jurisdiction
It is universal that the laws of service of process must follow the laws that apply to the court that issues the process. A bias or confusion occurs in many jurisdictions where service is made. In Florida, for example, process servers seem to suggest Florida laws apply to all service of process made within the territory of Florida. In this reference, section 48.195 implies an authority of Florida process servers to serve foreign process. This was added to allow sheriffs to serve foreign process within limitations as the section provides, but it does not, and cannot give exclusivity, to state-sanctioned licensed approved process servers to foreign process. This interpretation, however prevalent and beneficial to Florida process servers, is false.

Florida governs only those processes that are issued from Florida courts. An example would be a Wisconsin court process to be served upon a person in Florida. Wisconsin statutes would dictate the service requirements to the Florida participant. Simply, a person must be uninterested, a resident of Florida, and over the age of 18. This is not a popular position as many process servers who have a local Florida license prefer, for reasons of economics, to be considered the only legitimate process server for such a cause. This Wisconsin example is in the majority for all states in the US regarding out of state service in their jurisdiction. There are however a small number of states, such as Arizona, that permit a person of one state (e.g. Arizona) to serve another person in another state (e.g. Florida). The aforementioned Arizona rule is an exception to the majority of other states that require a process server to be 18 and over and an uninvolved party to serve its process in another state. Arizona law has never been challenged on the grounds of sovereignty as Arizona's statutes appear to give its courts legislative and judicial authority for its people to serve a person in a foreign state.

In states where Indian reservations are located, the state generally has no legal jurisdiction over Indian territory – recognized tribes enjoy legal status as a sovereign nation. Thus a process server certified under the authority of the state (i.e. Arizona) cannot serve a party to a case while that person is on the reservation unless the tribal council consents to permit service.

Trespassing
In nearly every state of the United States, process servers are restricted from trespassing on property as a means of serving process. Such invasions, no matter how innocuous, are regarded as not only invalid, but illegal and may result in penalties for offenders. Gated communities and apartment buildings have created a difficulty for process servers; however, most are required to allow process servers to enter them. However, this fact may be overcome where the process server is in the direct employment of a law enforcement agency, such as the U.S. Marshals Service, a county sheriff's department, or other law enforcement agency having responsibility to serve documents.

In California, "Registered Process Servers" are granted "...a limited exemption against trespassing in gated communities." This allows servers to enter a private property for a reasonable period of time to attempt service of process. In California, gated communities which are "...staffed by a security guard, or where access is controlled, must allow a Registered Process Server to enter for service of process upon presenting valid identification, and indicating to which address the process server is going." This does not prevent the security guard from contacting the resident and alerting them that a process server is on his way to their residence.

"(a) Notwithstanding any other provision of law, any person shall be granted access to a gated community ... for the purpose of performing lawful service of process, upon identifying to the guard the person or persons to be served, and upon displaying a current driver's license or other identification, and one of the follow: (1) a badge [applies to sheriffs and marshals] (2) evidence of current registration as a process server... (b)This section shall only apply to a gated community which is staffed, at the time service of process is attempted, by a guard or other ... personnel assigned to control access .. .it does not apply to a private residence that has posted no trespassing signs'"

In Washington, "Registered Process Servers" are granted a limited exemption or affirmative defense against trespassing: "The actor was attempting to serve legal process which includes any document required or allowed to be served upon persons or property, by any statute, rule, ordinance, regulation, or court order, excluding delivery by the mails of the United States. This defense applies only if the actor did not enter into a private residence or other building not open to the public and the entry onto the premises was reasonable and necessary for service of the legal process."

Deadlines
Most states have a deadline for completing service of process after filing of the summons and complaint. In New York, for example, service must be completed in 120 days after filing for almost all cases, and Hawaii state circuit courts require service in a civil lawsuit must be effected within six months from commencing suit.

Dies non juridicum
Some states prohibit the delivery or serving of documents on Sundays, holidays or election days (dies non juridicum). However, some states will allow the service of documents under special circumstances. One such circumstance is when the service of process is pursuant to a court order.

According to various laws, service of process cannot be performed on Sundays in Florida (unless with a court order), Maine, Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, South Dakota, Tennessee (unless with a court order), Texas, Virginia, or West Virginia. It can also not be performed on election days or at a place of religious service on Sunday in Michigan, or on holidays in Minnesota. Finally, in New York, process cannot be served on Saturday upon a person who keeps Saturday as holy time.

GPS certification
In 2011, New York's City Council enacted a regulation requiring process servers to use GPS to prove that they attempted to locate someone. The data is stored for seven years. Those who attempt the deceit of “sewer service" (dumping papers) can be sued.

title: Service of process