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Heavy equipment

Heavy equipment, heavy machinery, earthmovers, construction vehicles, or construction equipment, refers to heavy-duty vehicles specially designed to execute construction tasks, most frequently involving earthwork operations or other large construction tasks. Heavy equipment usually comprises five equipment systems: the implement, traction, structure, power train, and control/information.

Heavy equipment has been used since at least the 1st century BC when the ancient Roman engineer Vitruvius described a crane in De architectura when it was powered via human or animal labor.

Heavy equipment functions through the mechanical advantage of a simple machine, the ratio between input force applied and force exerted is multiplied, making tasks which could take hundreds of people and weeks of labor without heavy equipment far less intensive in nature. Some equipment uses hydraulic drives as a primary source of motion.

The word plant, in this context, has come to mean any type of industrial equipment, including mobile equipment (e.g. in the same sense as powerplant). However, plant originally meant "structure" or "establishment" – usually in the sense of factory or warehouse premises; as such, it was used in contradistinction to movable machinery, e.g. often in the phrase "plant and equipment".

History
The use of heavy equipment has a long history; the ancient Roman engineer Vitruvius (1st century BCE) gave descriptions of heavy equipment and cranes in ancient Rome in his treatise De architectura. The pile driver was invented around 1500. The first tunnelling shield was patented by Marc Isambard Brunel in 1818.

From horses, through steam and diesel, to electric and robotic

Until the 19th century and into the early 20th century heavy machines were drawn under human or animal power. With the advent of portable steam-powered engines the drawn machine precursors were reconfigured with the new engines, such as the combine harvester. The design of a core tractor evolved around the new steam power source into a new machine core traction engine, that can be configured as the steam tractor and the steamroller. During the 20th century, internal-combustion engines became the major power source of heavy equipment. Kerosene and ethanol engines were used, but today diesel engines are dominant. Mechanical transmission was in many cases replaced by hydraulic machinery. The early 20th century also saw new electric-powered machines such as the forklift. Caterpillar Inc. is a present-day brand from these days, starting out as the Holt Manufacturing Company. The first mass-produced heavy machine was the Fordson tractor in 1917.

The first commercial continuous track vehicle was the 1901 Lombard Steam Log Hauler. The use of tracks became popular for tanks during World War I, and later for civilian machinery like the bulldozer. The largest engineering vehicles and mobile land machines are bucket-wheel excavators, built since the 1920s.

"Until almost the twentieth century, one simple tool constituted the primary earthmoving machine: the hand shovel – moved with animal and human powered, sleds, barges, and wagons. This tool was the principal method by which material was either sidecast or elevated to load a conveyance, usually a wheelbarrow, or a cart or wagon drawn by a draft animal. In antiquity, an equivalent of the hand shovel or hoe and head basket—and masses of men—were used to move earth to build civil works. Builders have long used the inclined plane, levers, and pulleys to place solid building materials, but these labor-saving devices did not lend themselves to earthmoving, which required digging, raising, moving, and placing loose materials. The two elements required for mechanized earthmoving, then as now, were an independent power source and off-road mobility, neither of which could be provided by the technology of that time."

Container cranes were used from the 1950s and onwards, and made containerization possible.

Nowadays such is the importance of this machinery, some transport companies have developed specific equipment to transport heavy construction equipment to and from sites.

Most of the major equipment manufacturers such as Caterpillar, Volvo, Liebherr, and Bobcat have released or have been developing fully or partially electric-powered heavy equipment. Commercially-available models and R&D models were announced in 2019 and 2020.

Robotics and autonomy has been a growing concern for heavy equipment manufacturers with manufacturers beginning research and technology acquisition. A number of companies are currently developing (Caterpillar and Bobcat) or have launched (Built Robotics) commercial solutions to the market.

Types
These subdivisions, in this order, are the standard heavy equipment categorization.

Tractor
 * Bulldozer (dozer, track dozer)
 * Snowcat
 * Snowplow
 * Skidder
 * Tractor (wheel tractor)
 * Track tractor
 * Locomotive
 * Artillery tractor
 * Crawler-transporter
 * Military engineering vehicles

Grader
 * Grader

Excavator
 * Amphibious excavator
 * Compact excavator
 * Dragline excavator
 * Dredger
 * Bucket-wheel excavator
 * Excavator (digger)
 * Long reach excavator
 * Power shovel
 * Reclaimer
 * Suction excavator
 * Walking excavator
 * Trencher
 * Yarder

Backhoe
 * Backhoe
 * Backhoe loader

Timber
 * Feller buncher
 * Harvester
 * Forwarder
 * Skidder
 * Power saw
 * Track harvester
 * Wheel forwarder
 * Wheel skidder

Pipelayer
 * Pipelayer (sideboom)

Scraper Mining Articulated
 * Fresno scraper
 * Scraper
 * Wheel tractor-scraper (belly scraper)
 * Construction and mining tractor
 * Construction and mining truck
 * Dumper
 * Dump truck
 * Haul truck
 * Mining equipment
 * Articulated hauler

Compactor
 * Wheel dozer (soil compactor)
 * Soil stabilizer

Loader
 * Loader (payloader, front loader, wheel loader, integrated tool carrier)
 * Skip loader (skippy)

Track loader
 * Track loader

Skid-steer loader
 * Skid-steer loader

Material handler
 * Aerial work platform, Lift table
 * Crane
 * Block-setting crane
 * Bulk-handling crane
 * Crane vessel
 * Aerial crane
 * Container crane
 * Gantry crane
 * Overhead crane
 * Electric overhead traveling crane
 * Ring crane
 * Level luffing crane
 * Mobile crane
 * Travel lift
 * Forklift
 * Garbage truck
 * Grapple truck, Knuckleboom loader (trailer mount)
 * Straddle carrier
 * Sidelifter
 * Reach stacker
 * Telescopic handlers
 * Tow truck

Paving
 * Asphalt paver
 * Asphalt plant
 * Cold planer
 * Cure rig
 * Paver
 * Pavement milling
 * Pneumatic tire compactor
 * Roller (road roller, roller compactor)
 * Slipform paver
 * Vibratory compactor, Compactor

Underground
 * Roadheader
 * Tunnel boring machine
 * Underground mining equipment

Hydromatic tool
 * Ballast tamper
 * Attachments
 * Drilling rig
 * Horizontal directional drilling
 * Earth auger
 * Pile driver
 * Post pounder
 * Rotary tiller (rototiller, rotovator)

Hydraulic machinery

Highway
 * Tractor unit
 * Ballast tractor
 * Pushback tractor
 * Railcar mover
 * Highway 10 yard rear dump
 * Highway bottom dump (stiff), pup (belly train), triple
 * Highway end dump and side dump
 * Highway transfer, Transfer train
 * Concrete mixer
 * Concrete mix truck
 * Concrete mix dozer
 * Lowboy (trailer)
 * Street sweeper
 * Street sweep truck
 * Street sweep dozer

Implements and hydromechanical work tools

 * auger
 * backhoe
 * bale spear
 * broom
 * bulldozer blade
 * clam shell bucket
 * cold plane
 * demolition shears
 * equipment bucket
 * excavator bucket
 * forks
 * grapple
 * hydraulic hammer, hoe ram
 * hydraulics
 * hydraulic tilting bucket (4-in-1)
 * landscape tiller
 * material handling arm
 * mechanical pulverizer, crusher
 * multi processor
 * pavement removal bucket
 * pile driver
 * power take-off (PTO)
 * quick coupler
 * rake
 * ripper
 * rotating grab
 * sheep's foot compactor
 * skeleton bucket
 * snow blower
 * stump grinder
 * stump shear
 * thumb
 * tiltrotator
 * trencher
 * vibratory plate compactor
 * wheel saw

Traction: Off-the-road tires and tracks

Heavy equipment requires specialized tires for various construction applications. While many types of equipment have continuous tracks applicable to more severe service requirements, tires are used where greater speed or mobility is required. An understanding of what equipment will be used for during the life of the tires is required for proper selection. Tire selection can have a significant impact on production and unit cost. There are three types of off-the-road tires, transport for earthmoving machines, work for slow moving earthmoving machines, and load and carry for transporting as well as digging. Off-highway tires have six categories of service C compactor, E earthmover, G grader, L loader, LS log-skidder and ML mining and logging. Within these service categories are various tread types designed for use on hard-packed surface, soft surface and rock. Tires are a large expense on any construction project, careful consideration should be given to prevent excessive wear or damage.

Heavy equipment operator
A heavy equipment operator drives and operates heavy equipment used in engineering and construction projects. Typically only skilled workers may operate heavy equipment, and there is specialized training for learning to use heavy equipment.

Much publication about heavy equipment operators focuses on improving safety for such workers. The field of occupational medicine researches and makes recommendations about safety for these and other workers in safety-sensitive positions.

Equipment cost
Due to the small profit margins on construction projects it is important to maintain accurate records concerning equipment utilization, repairs and maintenance. The two main categories of equipment costs are ownership cost and operating cost.

Ownership cost
To classify as an ownership cost an expense must have been incurred regardless of if the equipment is used or not. These costs are as follows:

 * purchase expense
 * salvage value
 * tax savings from depreciation
 * major repairs and overhauls
 * property taxes
 * insurance
 * storage

Depreciation can be calculated several ways, the simplest is the straight-line method. The annual depreciation is constant, reducing the equipment value annually. The following are simple equations paraphrased from the Peurifoy & Schexnayder text:

Operating cost
For an expense to be classified as an operating cost, it must be incurred through use of the equipment. These costs are as follows:

The biggest distinction from a cost standpoint is if a repair is classified as a major repair or a minor repair. A major repair can change the depreciable equipment value due to an extension in service life, while a minor repair is normal maintenance. How a firm chooses to cost major and minor repairs vary from firm to firm depending on the costing strategies being used. Some firms will charge only major repairs to the equipment while minor repairs are costed to a project. Another common costing strategy is to cost all repairs to the equipment and only frequently replaced wear items are excluded from the equipment cost. Many firms keep their costing structure closely guarded as it can impact the bidding strategies of their competition. In a company with multiple semi-independent divisions, the equipment department often wants to classify all repairs as "minor" and charge the work to a job – therefore improving their 'profit' from the equipment.

Models
Die-cast metal promotional scale models of heavy equipment are often produced for each vehicle to give to prospective customers. These are typically in 1:50 scale. The popular manufacturers of these models are Conrad and NZG in Germany, even for US vehicles.

Notable manufacturers
The largest 10 heavy equipment manufacturers in 2022

Other manufacturers include:

 * Anhui Heli
 * Atlas Copco
 * BEML Limited
 * Bobcat Company
 * Case Construction Equipment
 * Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant
 * CNH Global
 * Demag
 * Fiat-Allis
 * HEPCO
 * HIAB
 * Hidromek
 * Hyundai Heavy Industries
 * Ingersoll Rand
 * Kubota
 * Kobelco
 * LiuGong
 * MARAIS
 * Navistar International Corporation
 * NCK
 * New Holland
 * Track Marshall
 * Orenstein and Koppel GmbH (O&K)
 * Paccar
 * Poclain
 * Rototilt
 * Shantui
 * ST Kinetics
 * Takeuchi Manufacturing
 * Wacker Neuson
 * Yanmar
 * Zoomlion

title: Heavy equipment


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Manuel Isidoro Belzu

Manuel Isidoro Belzu Humérez (4 April 1808 – 27 March 1865) was a Bolivian military officer and statesman who served as the 11th president of Bolivia from 1848 to 1855. Under his presidency, the current national anthem and flag of Bolivia were adopted.

Early life and education
Belzu was born in La Paz to mestizo parents Gaspar Belzu and Manuela Humérez. He was educated as a youth by Franciscan friars. However, Belzu admired the heroes of the Spanish American wars of independence such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín and hoped to emulate them. For this reason, he decided to join Army of Liberation when he was fifteen, in hopes to join the fight against the Spanish in his homeland of Upper Peru. He joined the wars of independence, fighting under Andrés de Santa Cruz at Zepita (1823). After serving as an aide-de-camp to Agustín Gamarra, he left the Peruvian army when the latter entered Bolivia in 1828.

Marriage and family
Assigned as garrison commander to Tarija, where Francisco Burdett O'Connor was military governor at the time, Belzu married "up" by wedding a beautiful and intellectual Argentine lady, Juana Manuela Gorriti, who resided there with her family. General O'Connor would be one of the witnesses to the wedding and would later be a supporter of Belzu. They had two daughters, Edelmira and Mercedes. Edelmira would later marry General Jorge Córdova, who became Belzu's successor.

Military career and plots
Belzu fought in the battles of the Peru-Bolivian Confederacy, during which he was promoted to the post of Army commander by President José Ballivián. He had fought bravely under his orders at the Battle of Ingavi (1841).

Originally a close friend and supporter of President Ballivián, Belzu turned against him about 1845. Ballivián had reportedly attempted to seduce Belzu's wife in his own Oruro home. Surprising the President there, Belzu shot at him and barely missed. The event sealed an undying enmity between the two that would never abate. Political ambitions—typical of upper-level Bolivian military officers at the time—may have played a role in addition to the personal reasons. Belzu decided at that point to try to topple the "Hero of Ingavi" from the presidency. Withdrawing to the countryside (orders for his arrest for the attempted murder of the President had been issued), Belzu never ceased to conspire against his former friend.

Ideology and rise to power
Belzu's political stance became more populist as he embraced his mestizo heritage, railed against the power of the "white" oligarchy, and vowed to advance the cause of the poor and the Indian should he come to the presidency. In his travels as a fugitive, Belzu had seen the deplorable conditions under which most of the population lived, with scarcely any improvements or public works by the government. His position established a strong base of support among the peasants, who came to know him as "Tata (Father, or Protector) Belzu."

Another, more conventional anti-Ballivián insurgent group was commanded by the ambitious former president, José Miguel de Velasco. As a warlord, he led his army in competition with that of Belzu in the race to topple the President. The embattled Ballivián found the country ungovernable, and in December 1847 he fled to exile abroad. He left the government in the hands of General Eusebio Guilarte, head of the Council of State and legally second-in-line to the presidency.

At this point Belzu made a pact with Velasco to support the latter's accession to the Presidency while Belzu took the position of Minister of War. Belzu quickly betrayed Velasco and had his troops proclaim him as President. A bloody counter-coup by General Velasco had to be put down, with Belzu commanding the troops that crushed Velasco's. By the end of the year, Belzu had destroyed the opposition (both Ballivián and Velasco) and consolidated his power as the sole de facto president of Bolivia.

President of Bolivia
As promised, Belzu led his government in undertaking populist measures, but he also wanted to maintain strong control over power. Most of Belzu's reforms were cosmetic, although his political statements were more liberal than any president's had been since Sucre. During his seven-year presidency Belzu attempted to modernize the country through division of wealth and by rewarding poor workers. Belzu also defended the small, indigenous producers by implementing protectionist economic policies as well as enacting a nationalist mining code that kept the nations resources in the hands of Bolivian companies, which in turn provoked many influential British as well as Peruvian and Chilean shipping and mining companies. Belzu also promoted communal state-sponsored social welfare projects that resonated with local Indians, since communalism was more representative of indigenous values than private property.

As a result of Belzu's appeal to the country's poor and indigenous groups, he had gained a number of powerful enemies who would want to destroy the state-run projects he created though at the same time gained large support and power. capitalizing on his relative popularity, Belzu managed to legitimize his rule by becoming democratically elected. He faced constant opposition and rebellions from the pro-Ballivián camp, from ambitious fellow military warlords, and later, from the pro-Linares faction that coalesced as a united front against military caudillism. Belzu's protectionist economic policies were opposed by Great Britain and the United States, and isolated Bolivia from the global economy and ongoing intellectual trends. Although popular with the masses due to his statist policies (contrary to prevailing notions), Belzu never lacked enemies among the powerful, whose interests he threatened. He barely survived a well-planned assassination attempt in Sucre, carried out by Agustin Morales, then an obscure mid-ranking officer but one who would later become president.

Lieut. Lardner Gibbon, US Navy, while exploring the valley of the Amazon, met with President Belzu in Bolivia and wrote the following account: "'Upon inquiring how the President came by some wounds in his face, I was told that in September, 1850, Belzu was invited to take a walk in the alameda [market] of Sucre. A friend persuaded him to continue on outside the usual promenade, where they met some persons riding on horseback, upon the report of whose pistols Belzu fell, three balls having entered his head. The ruffians escaped from the country; the friend was shot in the plaza of the capitol (sp) before Belzu was well enough to interfere in his behalf. The plan was well laid, and so sure were the intended murderers that his days were ended, they rode off, leaving him on the ground, shouting “viva Ballivián,” an ex-president, who at that time was known to be lingering along the boundary line between Bolivia and the Argentine republic. This attempt to assassinate Belzu made him the more popular. The country is taught that his escape was Providential, and he had been spared for the good of the people.' (Ch.5, p.135)"

Retirement and the presidency of General Córdova
By the early 1850s, Belzu dispensed with any pretense of democratic norms and ruled despotically. After seven years, a weary Belzu decided to "retire" in 1855. He ran elections in which he sponsored the candidacy of his loyal son-in-law, General Jorge Córdova. The latter was duly elected over José María Linares (perhaps with the help of at least some degree of official fraud), and for two years ruled Bolivia as a virtual proxy of the powerful former president. During this time, Belzu served as his country's plenipotentiary in Europe. In 1857, Córdova was overthrown in a coup d'état. Ambrosio Peñailillo was defeated by Linares' partisans, causing the surrender of the belcista army. Still acting as Belzu's proxy, he was murdered after being caught plotting against President José María de Achá in 1862. This galvanized Belzu despite his age; he returned to Bolivia and raised an army, with the hope of returning to the presidency and avenging the death of his son-in-law.

The Constitutionalist Uprising of 1865–1865
Even after Belzu had been eliminated, Melgarejo still faced widespread discontent from several sector of society and would face nearly a year of rebellions by a collective group called "Constitutionalists". Having seized power only in December 1864, less than a month later Melgarejo clashed with rebel forces in Tacaquira, located in the southern area of the Chuquisaca Department, on January 24, 1865. The rebels would win this encounter, facing government troops again in a bigger battle on the banks of the Oscara River on February 3 and ultimately retreating.

Exile and assassination
To Melgarejo's dismay, former President Manuel Isidoro Belzu, who was exiled in Europe, returned to Bolivia to dispute the rise of Melgarejo, sparking a full civil war. On March 22, 1865, Belzu's army defeated the government forces in La Paz with the help of the popular masses. On March 27, Melgarejo and Quintín Quevedo attacked La Paz with his army but was defeated, with several of his men choosing to side with Belzu.

However, as soon as Belzu entered the Palacio Quemado for the meeting, Melgarejo and his men murdered him. New investigations have come up with the theory that since Melgarejo's revolver failed (the seller found out that only 1 bullet came out of 5 shots), then the bullet that killed Belzu came from the revolver of some soldier who was behind him.

According to legend, when Melgarejo's presence was known, a crowd gathered in the Plaza Murillo, located in front of the Bolivian Government Palace, cheering Belzu's name. However, Melgarejo appeared on a balcony instead and announced, "Belzu is dead. Who lives now?" and the crowd shouted: "Long live Melgarejo!"

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Manuel Isidoro Belzu


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Henry van de Velde

Henry Clemens van de Velde (3 April 1863 – 15 October 1957) was a Belgian painter, architect, interior designer, and art theorist. Together with Victor Horta and Paul Hankar, he is considered one of the founders of Art Nouveau in Belgium.  He worked in Paris with Siegfried Bing, the founder of the first gallery of Art Nouveau in Paris. Van de Velde spent the most important part of his career in Germany and became a major figure in the German Jugendstil. He had a decisive influence on German architecture and design at the beginning of the 20th century.

Early life
Van de Velde was born in Antwerp, where he studied painting under Charles Verlat at the famous Royal Academy of Fine Arts, Antwerp. He then went on to study with the painter Carolus-Duran in Paris. As a young painter he was strongly influenced by Paul Signac and Georges Seurat and soon adopted a neo-impressionist style, and pointillism. In 1889 he became a member of the Brussels-based artist group "Les XX". After Vincent van Gogh exhibited some work on the yearly exhibition of Les XX van de Velde became one of the first artists to be influenced by the Dutch painter. During this period he developed a lasting friendship with the painter Théo van Rysselberghe and the sculptor Constantin Meunier.

Career
In 1890, van de Velde wrote that "there will be no place in the society of the future for anything which is not of use to everyone."

In 1892, he abandoned painting, devoting his time to the arts of decoration and interior design (silver and goldsmith's trade, chinaware and cutlery, fashion design, carpet and fabric design). His meeting with Maria Sèthe, his future wife, was instrumental in this change. They collaborated on a number of projects together, including designing wallpapers and female clothing. Their first house, Bloemenwerf in Uccle, was van de Velde's first attempt at architecture and was inspired by the British Arts and Crafts Movement. Its exterior closely resembled the Red House of William Morris. Maria Sèthe designed the garden surrounding the house.

Henry van de Velde also designed interiors and furniture for the influential art gallery "L'Art Nouveau" of Samuel Bing in Paris in 1895, the shop from which Art Nouveau took its name. He participated in Bing's pavilion at the Paris Universal Exposition of 1900 and showed his own work.

Van de Velde was strongly influenced by John Ruskin and William Morris's English Arts and Crafts movement  and he was one of the first architects or furniture designers to apply curved lines in an abstract style, rather than based on nature.

Van de Velde's design work became known in Germany through periodicals such as Innen-Dekoration. As a result, he received commissions for interior designs in Berlin. Around the turn of the century, he designed Villa Leuring in the Netherlands, and Villa Esche in Chemnitz, two works that show his Art Nouveau style in architecture. He also designed the interior of the Folkwang Museum in Hagen (today the building houses the Karl Ernst Osthaus-Museum) and the Nietzsche Archive in Weimar.

In 1899, he settled in Weimar, Germany, where he was employed as artistic advisor to William Ernest, Grand Duke Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach. In 1907, he established the Grand-Ducal School of Arts and Crafts, under the patronage of the Grand Duke. Van de Velde designed the school's building and was the school's first director. He stepped down during World War I due to his Belgian citizenship and suggested that architect Walter Gropius succeed him. In 1919, the School merged with the Weimar Art Academy to form the famous modernist art school, Bauhaus.

Although a Belgian, van de Velde played an important role in the German Jugendstil.

In 1907, he co-founded the German Werkbund, an association to help improve and promote German design by establishing close relations between industry and designers.  He would oppose Hermann Muthesius at the Werkbund meeting of 1914 and their debate would mark the history of Modern Architecture. Van de Velde called for the upholding of the individuality of artists while Hermann Muthesius called for standardization as a key to development. Van de Velde was a proponent of incorporating logic into all facets of design, taking inspiration from engineers application of reason and calculation.

During World War I, Van de Velde, as a foreign national, was obliged to leave Weimar (although on good terms with the Weimar government) and returned to his native Belgium. Later, he lived in Switzerland and in the Netherlands where he designed the Kröller-Müller Museum in Otterlo. In 1925 he was appointed professor at the Ghent University Institute of Art History and Archaeology, where he lectured architecture and applied arts from 1926 to 1936. He was instrumental in founding in Brussels, in 1926, today's renowned architecture and visual arts school La Cambre, under the name of "Institut supérieur des Arts décoratifs."

Modernism
He continued his practice in architecture and design, which had demarcated itself significantly from the Art Nouveau phase, whose popularity was by 1910 in decline. During this period, he mentored the great Belgian architect, Victor Bourgeois. In 1933, he was commissioned to design the new building for the university library (the renowned Boekentoren). Construction started in 1936, but the work would not be completed until the end of the Second World War. For budget reasons, the eventual construction did not entirely match the original design. For instance, the reading room floor was executed in marble instead of the black rubber Van de Velde originally intended. He was also involved in the construction of the Ghent University Hospital.

He died, aged 94, in Zürich.

Auctions and exhibitions
12 October 2005, a teapot designed by van de Velde made €170,000 at a public auction at the Brussels Beaux-Arts auction house – eleven times the opening bid. It is a teapot on a chafing dish, with a wooden handle, resting on an oval basis and made of silver-plated brass. During an Art Nouveau and Design exhibition at the Brussels Cinquantenaire Museum ("Jubilee Park Museum") in 2005, Henry van de Velde's tea set, two china plates and a silver dish were badly damaged in an unfortunate accident. The silver candle stand remained unharmed. The pieces had been given on temporary loan by Krefeld's Kaiser Wilhelm Museum, the Museum für Angewandte Kunst in Cologne and a private collector.

The Manuscript on Ornament
Henry Van De Velde played the role in elaborating an aesthetic theory a synthesis of the two opposite poles of rational conception associated with particular understanding of the ornamental function. The Manuscript on Ornament sheds further light on this aesthetic theory, and the role played therein by the notion of ornament. It constitutes an important document in the sequence of his intention of publishing a ‘historical—theoretical’ treatise on design.

Selected works

 * 1895–96: "Bloemenwerf", Van de Velde's first private residence, in Uccle, Belgium
 * 1895: Interior decoration of Siegfried Bing's art Gallery "Maison de l'art nouveau" in Paris, France
 * 1898 : Monument Frédéric de Merode, Brussels, Belgium
 * 1900–02: Interior of the Folkwang Museum in Hagen, Germany
 * 1902–03, 1911 (extension): "Villa Esche" in Chemnitz, Germany
 * 1903: Extension and interior decoration of the Nietzsche Archive in Weimar, Germany
 * 1906–07: Clubhouse of the "Chemnitzer Lawn-Tennis-Club" in Chemnitz (demolished)
 * 1907–08: "Hohenhof", Mansion for Karl Ernst Osthaus in Hagen, Germany
 * 1907–08: "Haus Hohe Pappeln", Van de Velde's private residence in Weimar, Germany
 * 1909–11: "Ernst-Abbe-Denkmal", Memorial for Ernst Abbe in Jena (in collaboration with the sculptors Max Klinger and Constantin Meunier)
 * 1912–13: Palace for Graf Dürckheim in Weimar, Germany
 * 1913–14: "Werkbund-Theater", Theatre at the Deutsche Werkbund exhibition in Cologne, Germany
 * 1913–14: "Villa Schulenburg" in Gera, Germany
 * 1913–14: Wohnhaus für den Fabrikanten Dr. Theo Koerner in Chemnitz, Germany
 * 1927–28: "La Nouvelle Maison", Van de Velde's private residence in Tervuren, Belgium
 * 1929 : "Wolfers House" in Ixelles (Brussels), Belgium
 * 1929–31: Home for the elderly of the 'Minna und James Heinemann-Stiftung' in Hannover, Germany
 * 1933–35: Polyclinic and "Villa Landing" for Dr. Adriaan Martens in "Astene" near Ghent, Belgium
 * 1933–38: Library of Ghent University with "Boekentoren" in Ghent, Belgium
 * 1936–42: "Technische School", School building in Leuven, Belgium
 * 1937: Belgian Pavilion at the 1937 Paris Exposition
 * 1937: "Station Blankenberge", Train station in Blankenberge
 * 1939: Belgian Building for the 1939 New York World's Fair

title: Henry van de Velde


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Super Double Dragon

Super Double Dragon, released in Japan as Return of Double Dragon: "Sleeping Dragon" has Awoken (リターン・オブ・), is a side-scrolling beat-'em-up released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1992. It was published by Tradewest in North America and the PAL region and by Technōs Japan in Japan. Super Double Dragon is the fourth console game in the Double Dragon series developed by Technōs Japan, following Double Dragon III: The Sacred Stones for the NES. The game did not have an arcade release and was made specifically for the home market.

In 2018, a slightly enhanced Japanese version, Return of Double Dragon, was re-released by Tommo in Japan and under its Retroism brand in North America. Despite being officially licensed, this release is only guaranteed to work on third-party hardware.

Gameplay
As with previous installments of the series, the player takes control of martial artists Billy and Jimmy in their fight against the Shadow Warriors gang. The objective is to proceed through each stage and defeat all enemies, including a boss. The game consists of seven stages, which includes a casino, an airport, a martial arts dojo, a fight atop a moving truck, a city slum, a forest, and the hideout of the boss.

In addition to the punch, kick, and jump buttons, the player now has a guard button for blocking attacks. If the player times the guard button right, their character can not only defend against an enemy's punch, they can also put certain enemies in an arm grab, leaving the enemy vulnerable to successive attacks. The arm grab only works on Williams, Roper, Steve, Jackson and the Chin brothers. There's also a "Dragon Power" gauge under the life gauge, which the player can fill by holding down the L or R buttons. While the gauge is filling up, the player can perform special attacks which vary depending on how much power the player has accumulated, which includes a flying hurricane kick. If the power gauge is completely filled, then the player's regular attacks will gain extra strength for a limited period.

Super Double Dragon is one of the few games in the series where the protagonists of Billy and Jimmy Lee were differentiated, not just in their in-game character designs (where the brothers were given different hair styles), but also in their fighting abilities. Particularly, the two characters have different basic punches (in Return of Double Dragon, Jimmy's roundhouse kick is also different).

Characters

 * Billy Lee (ビリー・リー) - player 1's character. A master of Southern So-Setsu-Ken (南派双截拳), which specializes in agility and flexibility. Billy retains his basic design from the NES versions of the previous games (red hair and blue outfit).
 * Jimmy Lee (ジミー・リー) - player 2's character. A master of Northern So-Setsu-Ken (北派双截拳), which prioritizes strength. Jimmy now has a blond flat top hairstyle to distinguish him from Billy (in previous games, Jimmy was only depicted differently in cut-scenes and promotional art).
 * Williams (ウィリアムス) and Roper (ローパー) - the two common enemy types in the game. Williams has wild blond hair and wears a yellow vest with camouflage pants, while Roper has black hair with a bandanna tied around his head and wears a white vest and pants. Sometimes they come armed with all sorts of weapons, which can be used by the player.
 * Baker (ベイカー) - another common enemy type who is always armed with twin dao blades. His attacks include single-sword slashes and helicopter-like spins. Unlike other enemies, he cannot be disarmed when knocked down. Also, unlike other weapons, the swords are unobtainable.
 * Jeff (ジェフ) - a recurring sub-boss who appears in the early stages. He's a palette swap of Billy Lee with darker skin and green clothing, and thus has most of the same techniques (including the hurricane kick).
 * Steve (スティーブ) - the boss of Mission 1. A suit-wearing martial arts master who specializes in kicks. Reappears as a sub-boss in subsequent stages.
 * Jackson (ジャクソン) - the boss of Mission 2. A former heavyweight boxing champion. Reappears as a sub-boss in subsequent stages.
 * Chin Ron Foo (チェン・ロン・フー) and Chin Ron Pyo (チェン・ロン・ピョウ) - the bosses of Mission 3. Twin martial arts masters who operate a Kenpo gym in Chinatown. They have the ability to grab the player's kicks and twist his leg. Ron Foo (in the yellow vest) specializes in kicks, while Ron Pyo (in the red vest) specializes in punches. Ron Foo claims that he and his brother are the real Double Dragons.
 * McGuire (マックガイア) - the boss of Mission 5. A clown-like fat man who can block attacks with his stomach.
 * Carlem (カーレム) - the boss of Mission 6. The giant gatekeeper of the enemy's hideout. His special technique is a middle kick feared by his comrades as "Death Leg".
 * Duke (デューク) - the final boss, who uses a flashy martial arts style.

Development
Muneki Ebinuma, who worked as the lead game designer of Super Double Dragon, published a commentary about his involvement in the development of the game in 2004, where he detailed his original plans for the game that he was unable to fully realize due to time constraints. The game was supposed to feature cut-scenes prior to boss battles and between stages, as well as a full ending sequence, in contrast to the lack of in-game plot in the retail release (where no explanation is given as to why Billy and Jimmy Lee are fighting the enemy). The plot would've involved Billy and Jimmy Lee investigating a criminal organization known as the Shadow Warriors following the disappearances of several local martial artists, eventually coming face to face with their leader Duke, who would've been revealed to had been a childhood friend of the Lee brothers. The character of Marian was also supposed to appear in the game as a policewoman who assisted the Lee brothers (an occupation she had in the Double Dragon comic book and animated series produced around the time). While Marian is still mentioned in the instruction manual and packaging description, she never actually appears in the retail version of the game. In addition to the cut-scenes, some of the stages were supposed to have more traps and obstacles, and there was supposed to an additional boss after defeating Duke.

Return of Double Dragon features several significant differences from Super Double Dragon: the title theme and most of the background music were shuffled around (e.g. the Mission 1 theme from Super Double Dragon is played during Mission 4 in Return of Double Dragon) and the player can perform certain actions which cannot be done in Super Double Dragon (such as retrieving a boomerang after throwing it or hitting an opponent more than once successively with the hurricane kick). The enemy placement is also different in both versions and weapons such as knives and incendiary bombs do less damage in Return of Double Dragon. Jimmy's punches are not as fast, but hit harder, and his roundhouse kick is performed faster than Billy's. There are times where enemies will randomly crouch, particularly when Billy or Jimmy try to finish a combo, which makes them dodge the attack. The higher the difficulty, enemies will do this more frequently. The final Mission also features two additional levels before the final battle. An Option Mode is included in Return of Double Dragon as well, allowing players to adjust the game's difficulty level, increase extra credits and also listen to the game's music and sound effects.

Reception
IGN ranked the game at 92nd in their "Top 100 SNES of All Time".

title: Super Double Dragon


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Grammy Award for Best Recording Package

The Grammy Award for Best Recording Package is one of a series of Grammy Awards presented for the visual look of an album. It is presented to the art director of the winning album. An art director in the context of a music album is a professional responsible for overseeing the visual aspects of the album's production.

Often, the performer also takes on the role of art director, rather than that of the designer. For larger projects or those associated with major labels, professional art directors and designers are typically involved, as specified by contractual agreements. Independent musicians, on the other hand, may handle these roles themselves.

This role includes designing the album cover, selecting artwork and photography, and coordinating the overall visual presentation that aligns with the music's theme and the artist's image. The art director works closely with graphic designers, photographers, and stylists to create a cohesive aesthetic that complements the music and enhances the artist's branding. This position is crucial in shaping how listeners perceive the album through its visual elements.

The Grammy Award for Best Album Cover dates back to the first Grammy Awards in 1959. From 1962 to 1965 it was separated into Classical and Non-Classical divisions. From 1966 to 1968 it was separated into Graphic Arts and Photography divisions. In 1974, the name of the award was changed to Best Album Package, and changed again in 1994 to the current name.

In 1995, boxed sets were no longer eligible, as they were split off into a separate award, currently known as the Grammy Award for Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package.

Multiple wins
The following individuals received two or more awards for Best Recording Package (or any previous iteration of the award):

title: Grammy Award for Best Recording Package


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Javanese people

The Javanese (,, ,  ; Orang Jawa; ꦮꦺꦴꦁꦗꦮ, Wong Jawa (in Ngoko register); ꦠꦶꦪꦁꦗꦮꦶ, Tiyang Jawi (in Krama register)) are an Austronesian ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java. With more than 100 million people, Javanese people are the largest ethnic group in both Indonesia and in Southeast Asia as a whole. Their native language is Javanese, it is the largest of the Austronesian languages in number of native speakers and also the largest regional language in Southeast Asia. The Javanese as the largest ethnic group in the region have dominated the historical, social, and political landscape in the past as well as in modern Indonesia and Southeast Asia.

There are significant numbers of Javanese diaspora outside of central and eastern Java regions, including the other provinces of Indonesia, as well as other countries such as Suriname, Singapore, Malaysia, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, Sri Lanka, Yemen and the Netherlands. The Javanese ethnic group has many sub-groups (based on native Javanese community on the island of Java) that can be distinguished based on their characteristics, customs, traditions, dialects, or even ways of life. These include Banyumasan, Cirebonese, Mataram, Osing, and Tenggerese. The majority of the Javanese people identify themselves as Sunni Muslims, with a small minority identifying as Christians and Hindus. With a large global population, the Javanese are considered significant as they are the largest Muslim ethnic group in the Far East and the fourth largest in the world after the Arabs, Bengalis, and Punjabis.

Javanese civilisation has been influenced by more than a millennium of interactions between the native animism Kejawen and the Indian Hindu—Buddhist culture, and this influence is still visible in Javanese history, culture, traditions, and art forms. The ancient Javanese kingdoms of Singhasari and Majapahit were among the most powerful maritime empires in the region, whose boundaries included most of Maritime Southeast Asia and parts of Indochina. Javanese heritage has created magnificent religious monuments such as Borobudur and Prambanan which are among the world's largest temples. Javanese culture has a strong influence in most of the Southeast Asian countries. In Brunei, Malaysia, and Singapore, the influence of Javanese culture can be seen in many aspects of modern Malay culture. Javanese culture has greatly influenced their traditional cuisine with many dishes such as satay, sambal, ketupat, nasi kuning (pulut kuning), and rojak. Kris weaponry, batik and ronggeng dance art, gamelan musical instruments, and wayang kulit puppetry were introduced to them through Javanese contact. Javanese culture has also spread widely beyond Southeast Asia such as Sri Lanka, South Africa, and Suriname, where many of the Javanese diaspora live there.

History
Like most Indonesian ethnic groups, including the Sundanese of West Java, the Javanese are of Austronesian origins whose ancestors are thought to have originated in Taiwan, and migrated through the Philippines to reach Java between 1,500 BC and 1,000 BC. However, according to recent genetic study, Javanese together with Sundanese and Balinese has almost equal ratio of genetic marker shared between Austronesian and Austroasiatic heritages.

Ancient Javanese kingdoms and empires
Hindu and Buddhist influences arrived through trade contacts with the Indian subcontinent. Hindu and Buddhist — traders and visitors, arrived in the 5th century. The Hindu, Buddhist and Javanese faiths blended into a unique local philosophy.

The cradle of Javanese culture is commonly described as being in Kedu and Kewu Plain in the fertile slopes of Mount Merapi as the heart of the Mataram Kingdom. The earliest Sanjaya and Sailendra dynasties had their power base there. Between the late 8th century and the mid-9th century, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical Javanese art and architecture reflected in the rapid growth of temple construction. The most notable of the temples constructed are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. At its peak, the Javanese kingdom had become a dominant empire that exercised its power—not only in Java island, but also in Sumatra, Bali, southern Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of the Philippines, and the Khmer in Cambodia.

The centre of Javanese culture and politics was moved towards the eastern part of the island when Mpu Sindok (r. 929–947) moved the capital of the kingdoms eastward to the valleys of the Brantas River in the 10th century CE. The move was most likely caused by the volcanic eruption of Merapi and/or invasion from Srivijaya.

At the end of the 13th century, The major spread of Javanese influence occurred under King Kertanegara of Singhasari. The expansionist king launched several major expeditions to Madura, Bali in 1284, Borneo, the Malay Peninsula, and most importantly to Sumatra in 1275. He also extended Javanese involvement in the lucrative spice trade with the Maluku Islands. Following the defeat of the Melayu Kingdom in eastern Sumatra, Singhasari controlled trade in the Strait of Malacca.

Singhasari dominance was cut short in 1292 by Kediri's rebellion under Jayakatwang, killing Kertanegara. However, Jayakatwang's reign as king of Java soon ended as he was defeated by Kertanegara's son-in-law, Raden Wijaya with the help of invading Mongol troops in March 1293.

Raden Wijaya would later establish Majapahit near the delta of the Brantas River in modern-day Mojokerto, East Java. Kertanegara policies were later continued by the Majapahits under King Hayam Wuruk and his minister Gajah Mada, whose reign from 1350 to 1389 was marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. This expansion marked the greatest extent of Majapahit, making it one of the most influential empires in Indonesian and Southeast Asian history.

Various kingdoms of Java were actively involved in the spice trade in the sea route of the Silk Road. Although not major spice producers, these kingdoms were able to stockpile spice by trading for it with rice, of which Java was a major producer. Majapahit is usually regarded as the greatest of these kingdoms. It was both an agrarian and a maritime power, combining wet-rice cultivation and foreign trade. The ruin of their capital can be found in Trowulan.

Javanese sultanates

Islam gained its foothold in port towns on Java's northern coast such as Gresik, Ampel Denta (Surabaya), Tuban, Demak and Kudus. The spread and proselytising of Islam among the Javanese was traditionally credited to Wali Songo.

Java underwent major changes as Islam spread. Following succession disputes and civil wars, Majapahit power collapsed. After this collapse, its various dependencies and vassals broke free. The Sultanate of Demak became the new strongest power, gaining supremacy among city-states on the northern coast of Java. Aside from its power over Javanese city-states, it also gained overlordship of the ports of Jambi and Palembang in eastern Sumatra. Demak played a major role in opposing the newly arrived colonial power, the Portuguese. Demak twice attacked the Portuguese following their capture of Malacca. They also attacked the allied forces of the Portuguese and the Sunda Kingdom, establishing in the process the Sultanate of Banten.

Demak was succeeded by the Kingdom of Pajang and finally the Sultanate of Mataram. The centre of power moved from coastal Demak, to Pajang in Blora, and later further inland to Mataram lands in Kotagede, near present-day Yogyakarta. The Mataram Sultanate reached its peak of power and influence during the reign of Sultan Agung Hanyokrokusumo between 1613 and 1645.

Colonial Java

In 1619 the Dutch established their trading headquarter in Batavia. Java slowly fell to the Dutch East India Company, which would also eventually control most of Maritime Southeast Asia. The internal intrigue and war of succession, in addition to Dutch interference, caused the Mataram Sultanate to break up into Surakarta and Yogyakarta. The further separation of the Javanese realm was marked by the establishment of the Mangkunegaran and Pakualaman princedom. Although the real political power in those days actually lay with the colonial Dutch, the Javanese kings, in their keratons, still held prestige as the supposed power centre of the Javanese realm, especially in and around Surakarta and Yogyakarta.

Dutch rule was briefly interrupted by British rule in the early 19th century. While short, the British administration led by Stamford Raffles was significant, and included the re-discovery of Borobudur. Conflict with foreign rule was exemplified by the Java War between 1825 and 1830, and the leadership of Prince Diponegoro.

Like the rest of the Dutch East Indies, Java was captured by the Empire of Japan during World War II. With Japan's defeat, independence was proclaimed in the new Republic of Indonesia.

Republic of Indonesia
When the Indonesian independence was proclaimed on 17 August 1945, the last sovereign Javanese monarchies, represented by the Sri Sultan of Yogyakarta, the Sunanate of Surakarta, Prince of Mangkunegara and Prince of Pakualaman declared that they would become part of the Republic of Indonesia.

Yogyakarta and Pakualaman were later united to form the Yogyakarta Special Region. The Sri sultan became Governor of Yogyakarta, and the Prince of Pakualaman became vice-governor; both were responsible to the President of Indonesia. The Special Region of Yogyakarta was created after the war of independence ended and formalized on 3 August 1950. Surakarta was later absorbed as part of the Central Java province.

Culture
The Javanese culture is one of the oldest civilizations and has flourished in Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It has gradually absorbed various elements and influences from other cultures, including native reverence for ancestral and natural spirits, Buddhist and Hindu dharmic values, Islamic civilization, and to a lesser extent, Christianity, Western philosophy and modern ideas. Nevertheless, Javanese culture — especially in the Javanese cultural heartland; those of highly polished aristocratic culture of the keratons in Yogyakarta and Surakarta — demonstrates some specific traits, such as particular concern with elegance and refinement (Javanese: alus), subtlety, politeness, courtesy, indirectness, emotional restraint and consciousness to one's social stature. Javanese culture values harmony and social order highly, and abhors direct conflicts and disagreements. These Javanese values are often promoted through Javanese cultural expressions, such as Javanese dance, gamelan, wayang and batik. It is also reinforced through adherence to Javanese adat (traditional rules) in ceremonies, such as Slametan, Satu Suro, Javanese weddings and Naloni Mitoni.

However, the culture of pesisiran of Javanese north coast and in Eastern Java demonstrates some slightly different traits. They tend to be more open to new and foreign ideas, more egalitarian, and less conscious of one's social stature. Some of these northern settlements — such as Demak, Kudus, Tuban, Gresik and Ampel in Surabaya — have become more overtly Islamic, traditionally because these port towns are among the earliest places that Islamic teachings gained foothold in Java. Javanese culture is traditionally centered in the Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java. Due to various migrations, it can also be found in other parts of the world, such as Suriname (where 15% of the population are of Javanese descent), the broader Indonesian archipelago region, Cape Malay, Malaysia, Singapore, Netherlands and other countries. The migrants bring with them various aspect of Javanese cultures such as Gamelan music, traditional dances and the art of Wayang kulit shadow play. The migration of Javanese people westward has created a coastal Javanese culture in West Java distinct from the inland Sundanese culture.

Language
Javanese is a member of the Austronesian family of languages and is closely related to, but distinct from, other languages of Indonesia. It is notable for its great number of nearly ubiquitous Sanskrit loans, found especially in literary Javanese. This is due to the long history of Hindu and Buddhist influences in Java.

Many Javanese in Indonesia are bilingual, being fluent in Indonesian (the standardized variant of the Malay language) and Javanese.

The Javanese language was formerly written with a script descended from the Brahmi script, natively known as Hanacaraka or Carakan. In addition, Javanese language can also written with right-to-left script descended from the Arabic script called Pegon. Upon Indonesian independence it was replaced with a form of the Latin alphabet. While Javanese was not made an official language of Indonesia, it has the status of regional language for communication in the Javanese-majority regions. The language also can be viewed as an ethnic language because it is one of the defining characteristics of the Javanese ethnic identity.

Literature and philosophy
Javanese intellectuals, writers, poets and men of letters are known for their ability to formulate ideas and creating idioms for high cultural purpose, through stringing words to express a deeper philosophical meanings. Several philosophical idioms sprung from Javanese classical literature, Javanese historical texts and oral traditions, and have spread into several media and promoted as popular mottos. For example, "Bhinneka Tunggal Ika", used as the national motto of the Republic of Indonesia, "Gemah Ripah Loh Jinawi, Toto Tentrem Kerto Raharjo", "Jer Basuki Mawa Bea", "Rawe-Rawe rantas, Malang-Malang putung" and "Tut Wuri Handayani".

Social structure
American anthropologist Clifford Geertz divided in the 1960s the Javanese community into three aliran or "streams": santri, abangan and priyayi. According to him, the Santri followed an orthodox interpretation Islam, the abangan followed a syncretic form of Islam that mixed Hindu and animist elements (often termed Kejawen), and the priyayi were the nobility.

The Geertz opinion is often opposed today because he mixed the social groups with belief groups. It was also difficult to apply this social categorization in classing outsiders, for example other non-indigenous Indonesians such as persons of Arab, Chinese and Indian descent.

Social stratification is much less rigid in northern coast area.

Calendar
The Javanese calendar is used by the Javanese people concurrently with two other calendars, the Gregorian calendar and the Islamic calendar. The Gregorian calendar is the official calendar of Indonesia, while the Islamic calendar is used by Muslims and Indonesian government for religious worship and deciding relevant Islamic holidays. The Javanese calendar is presently used mostly for cultural events (such as Siji Suro). The Javanese calendar system is currently a lunar calendar adopted by Sultan Agung in 1633, based on the Islamic calendar. Previously, Javanese people used a solar system based on the Hindu calendar.

Unlike many other calendars, the Javanese calendar uses a 5-day week known as the Pasaran cycle. This is still in use today and is superimposed with 7-day week of the Gregorian calendar and Islamic calendar to become what is known as the 35-day Wetonan cycle.

Historical temples located in Central Java and East Java

Throughout their long history, the Javanese have produced many important buildings, ranging from Hindu monuments, Buddhist stupa, mortuary temples, palace complexes, and mosques.

Before the rise of Islam, between the 5th to 15th centuries, Dharmic faiths (Hinduism and Buddhism) were the majority in the Indonesian archipelago, especially in Java. As a result, numerous Hindu temples, locally known as Candi, were constructed and dominated the landscape of Java. According to local beliefs, the Java valley had thousands of Hindu temples that co-existed with Buddhist temples, most of which were buried in the massive eruption of Mount Merapi in 1006 AD.

Two important religious monuments are the Hindu temple of Prambanan and the Buddhist temple of Borobudur. Both of them are 9th century temples and UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Both are located near Yogyakarta in the slope of Mount Merapi.

Meanwhile, examples of secular buildings can be seen in the ruins of the former capital city of the Majapahit Kingdom (14th to 16th century AD) in Trowulan, East Java. The complex covers an area of 11 km x 9 km. It consists of various brick buildings, a canal ranging from 20 to 40 meters wide, purification pools, temples and iconic split gates. The capital complex is currently being considered as a candidate for becoming a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Traditional Javanese buildings
Traditional Javanese buildings can be identified by their trapezoid shaped roofs supported by wooden pillars. Another common feature in Javanese buildings are pendopo, pavilions with open-sides and four large pillars. The pillars and other parts of the buildings can be richly carved. This architecture style can be found at kraton, or palaces, of the Sultanates of Yogyakarta (palaces of Hamengkubuwono and Pakualaman) and Surakarta (palaces of Pakubuwono and Mangkunegaran).

Traditional mosques in Java maintain a distinctive Javanese style. The pendopo model is used as the main feature of mosques as prayer halls. A trapezoidal roof is used instead of the more typically Muslim dome. These roofs are often multi-tiered and tiled. In addition to not using domes, traditional Javanese mosques also often lack minarets. The split gate from earlier Hindu-Buddhist period is still used in many mosques and public buildings in Java.

Some notable examples of mosques using traditional Javanese architecture include the Agung Demak Mosque, the Menara Kudus Mosque and the Great Mosque of Banten. The Kudus Mosque is also of note because it incorporates Hindu-style stone architecture.

Cuisine

Rice is the staple crop of Javanese cuisine; a meal in Java is not considered a meal without it. It is also an important part of the Javanese cultural identity, differentiating them from residents of other Indonesian islands who eat sago (for example Moluccans) and expatriates from western countries who tend more towards bread. Rice is seen as a symbol of development and prosperity, whereas tuber vegetables like cassava are associated with poverty.

Javanese cuisine varies by region. Eastern Java has a preference for hot and salty foods, while the Central Javanese tend to prefer sweeter foods.

A famous food in Javanese cuisine is Rujak Cingur, marinated cow lips and noses served with vegetable, shrimp prawn and peanut sauce with chili. Rujak Cingur is considered a traditional food in Surabaya in East Java.

Gudeg is a traditional food from Yogyakarta and Central Java which is made from young Nangka (jack fruit) boiled for several hours with palm sugar, and coconut milk.

Pecel, a type of peanut sauce with chili is a common ingredient in Javanese cuisine. It is used in various types of Rujak and Gado-gado. It can also be used as stand-alone sauce with rice, prawns, eggs and vegetables as Nasi Pecel (Pecel rice).

Tumpeng, is a rice served in the shape of a conical volcano, usually with rice coloured yellow using turmeric. It is an important part of many ceremonies in Java. Tumpeng is served at landmark events such as birthdays, moving house, or other ceremonies. Traditionally, Tumpeng is served alongside fried chicken, boiled egg, vegetables, and goat meat on a round plate made from bamboo called besek.

A notable food in Java is tempeh, a meat substitute made from soybean fermented with mould. It is a staple source of protein in Java and popular around the world as a meat substitute for vegetarians.

Names
Javanese do not usually have family names or surnames, with only a single name. Javanese names may come from traditional Javanese languages, many of which are derived from Sanskrit. Names with the prefix Su-, which means good, are very popular. After the advent of Islam, many Javanese began to use Arabic names, especially coast populations, where Islamic influences are stronger. Commoners usually only have one-word names, while nobilities use two-or-more-word names, but rarely a surname. Some people use a patronymic. Due to the influence of other cultures, many people started using names from other languages, mainly European languages. Christian Javanese usually use Latin baptism names followed by a traditional Javanese name.

Religion
Today, most Javanese officially follow Sunni Islam as their religion, first recorded instance of Islamic contact in Java is dated from 475 Hijri (1082 AD), as attested in the grave of Fatimah binti Maimun. However Islamic development only became more intensive during the Majapahit period, when they traded or made tributary relations with various states like Perlak and Samudra Pasai in modern-day Aceh. In the Troloyo/Tralaya cemetery of Trowulan (the capital of Majapahit), there are several Muslim tombstones with dates from the 14th century (1368 AD, 1376 AD). The close proximity of the site with the kraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court.

A sizeable minority of Javanese (around 3%) also follow Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism), which are concentrated in Central Java (particularly Semarang, Surakarta, Salatiga, Magelang) and Yogyakarta for Catholicism. Native Christian churches such as the Javanese Christian Church (Gereja Kristen Jawa) and East Java Christian Church (Gereja Kristen Jawi Wetan) also exist. On a smaller scale, Hinduism and Buddhism are also found in the Javanese community. The Javanese of the Tengger tribe continue to practice Javanese-Hindu today, and live in villages on the slope of Mount Bromo.

Kebatinan, also called Kejawèn, Agama Jawa and Kepercayaan is a Javanese religious tradition, consisting of an amalgam of animistic, Hindu-Buddhist, and Islamic, especially Sufi, beliefs and practices. It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity, syncretising aspects of different religions.

Occupations
In Indonesia, Javanese people can be found in all occupations, especially in the government and the military.

Farming
Traditionally, most Javanese people are farmers. Farming is especially common because of the fertile volcanic soil in Java. The most important agricultural commodity is rice. In 1997, it was estimated that Java produced 55% of Indonesia's total output of the crop. Most farmers work in small-scale rice fields, with around 42% of farmers working and cultivating less than 0.5 hectares of land. In region where soil is less fertile of where rainy season is short, other staple crops is cultivated, such as cassava.

Merchant-sailor
Javanese merchants and sailors were already in frequent voyage in the seas between India and China as early as 1st century CE.

Champa was assaulted by Javanese or Kunlun vessels in 774 and 787. In 774 an assault was launched on Po-Nagar in Nha-trang where the pirates demolished temples, while in 787 an assault was launched on Phang-rang. Several Champa coastal cities suffered naval raids and assault from Java. Java armadas was called as Javabala-sanghair-nāvāgataiḥ (fleets from Java) which are recorded in Champa epigraphs.

The Javanese may have contacted Australia in 10th century AD, and migrated there, their settlement existing until early 1600s. According to Waharu IV inscription (931 AD) and Garaman inscription (1053 AD), the Mataram Kingdom and Airlangga's era Kahuripan (1000–1049 AD) of Java experienced a long prosperity so that it needed a lot of manpower, especially to bring crops, packings, and send them to ports. Black labor was imported from Jenggi (Zanzibar), Pujut (Australia), and Bondan (Papua). According to Naerssen, they arrived in Java by trading (bought by merchants) or being taken prisoner during a war and then made slaves. According to Chiaymasiouro, the king of Demak, in 1601 AD a subgroup of Javanese people already settled in a land called Luca Antara, which is believed to be Australia. But when Eredia's servant went to Luca Antara in 1610, the land had seemingly been abandoned.

The 10th century Arab account Ajayeb al-Hind (Marvels of India) gives an account of invasion in Africa by people called Wakwak or Waqwaq, probably the Malay people of Srivijaya or Javanese people of Mataram kingdom,   in 945–946 CE. They arrived in the coast of Tanganyika and Mozambique with 1000 boats and attempted to take the citadel of Qanbaloh, though eventually failed. The reason of the attack is because that place had goods suitable for their country and for China, such as ivory, tortoise shells, panther skins, and ambergris, and also because they wanted black slaves from Bantu people (called Zeng or Zenj by Arabs, Jenggi by Javanese) who were strong and make good slaves. The existence of black Africans was recorded until the 15th century in Old Javanese inscriptions and the Javanese were still recorded as exporting black slaves during the Ming dynasty era.

The Malagasy people have genetic links to various Maritime Southeast Asian groups, particularly from southern Borneo. Parts of the Malagasy language are sourced from the Ma'anyan language with loan words from Sanskrit, with all the local linguistic modifications via Javanese or Malay language. As the Ma'anyan and Dayak people are not a sailor and were dry-rice cultivators while some Malagasy are wet rice farmers, it is likely that they are carried by the Javanese and Malay people in their trading fleets, as labor or slaves.

During the Majapahit era, almost all of the commodities from Asia were found in Java. This is because of extensive shipping by the Majapahit empire using various type of ships, particularly the jong, for trading to faraway places. Early 16th century European accounts noted the places which the Javanese merchants visited, which include Maluku Islands, Timor, Banda, Sumatra, Malacca, China, Tenasserim, Pegu (Bago), Bengal, Pulicat, Coromandel, Malabar, Cambay (Khambat), and Aden. There were also those who went to the Maldives, Calicut (Kozhikode), Oman, Aden, and the Red Sea. Ma Huan (Zheng He's translator) who visited Java in 1413, stated that ports in Java were trading goods and offer services that were more numerous and more complete than other ports in Southeast Asia. It was also during Majapahit era that Nusantaran exploration reached its greatest accomplishment. Ludovico di Varthema (1470–1517), in his book Itinerario de Ludouico de Varthema Bolognese stated that the Southern Javanese people sailed to "far Southern lands" up to the point they arrived at an island where a day only lasted four hours long and was "colder than in any part of the world". Modern studies have determined that such place is located at least 900 nautical miles (1666 km) south of the southernmost point of Tasmania. When Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, the Portuguese recovered a chart from a Javanese maritime pilot, which already included part of the Americas. Regarding the chart Albuquerque said:

"...a large map of a Javanese pilot, containing the Cape of Good Hope, Portugal and the land of Brazil, the Red Sea and the Sea of Persia, the Clove Islands, the navigation of the Chinese and the Gores, with their rhumbs and direct routes followed by the ships, and the hinterland, and how the kingdoms border on each other. It seems to me. Sir, that this was the best thing I have ever seen, and Your Highness will be very pleased to see it; it had the names in Javanese writing, but I had with me a Javanese who could read and write. I send this piece to Your Highness, which Francisco Rodrigues traced from the other, in which Your Highness can truly see where the Chinese and Gores come from, and the course your ships must take to the Clove Islands, and where the gold mines lie, and the islands of Java and Banda, of nutmeg and mace, and the land of the King of Siam, and also the end of the land of the navigation of the Chinese, the direction it takes, and how they do not navigate farther."

 * — Letter of Albuquerque to King Manuel I of Portugal, 1 April 1512.

The Javanese people, like other Austronesian ethnicities, use a solid navigation system: Orientation at sea is carried out using a variety of different natural signs, and by using a very distinctive astronomy technique called "star path navigation". Basically, the navigators determine the bow of the ship to the islands that are recognized by using the position of rising and setting of certain stars above the horizon. In the Majapahit era, compasses and magnets were used, and cartography (mapping science) was developed. In 1293 AD Raden Wijaya presented a map and census record to the Yuan Mongol invader, suggesting that mapmaking has been a formal part of governmental affair in Java. The use of maps full of longitudinal and transverse lines, rhumb lines, and direct route lines traveled by ships were recorded by Europeans, to the point that the Portuguese considered the Javanese maps were the best map in the early 1500s.

European colonial presence diminished the range of the Javanese merchant-sailors. In 1645, Diogo do Couto noted that the Javanese had communicated with the east coast of Madagascar. The decision of Amangkurat I of the Mataram Sultanate to destroy ships in coastal cities and close ports to prevent them from rebelling in the mid-17th century further reduced the Javanese people's ability in long-distance sailing. In 1705 there is an agreement signed by VOC and Pakubuwana I of Mataram, which forbade the Javanese to sail to the east of Lombok, to the north of Kalimantan, and to the west of Lampung. In the second half of the 18th century, most of the Javanese merchant-sailors were restricted to only short-range travel.

Shipbuilder
The Javanese were known to produce large ships called K'un-lun po (po of the K'un-lun people). These ships already plied the seas between India and China as early as 2nd century CE, carrying up to 1000 people alongside 250–1000 tons of cargo. The characteristics of this ship are that it is large (more than 50–60 m long), the hull is made of multiple plankings, has no outrigger, mounted with many masts and sails, the sail is in the form of a tanja sail, and has a plank fastening technique in the form of stitching with plant fibers.

Javanese trading and slaving activities in Africa caused a strong influence on boatbuilding on Madagascar and the East African coast. This is indicated by the existence of outriggers and oculi (eye ornament) on African boats.

Another large ship built by the Javanese was the jong, first recorded in an Old Javanese inscription from the 9th century AD. Although the characteristics may be similar, it has some differences from the po that it was using wooden dowels for joining the planks and has double passenger-to-deadweight ratio. During the Majapahit era, a jong usually carried 600–700 men with 1200–1400 tons deadweight, and was about 69.26–72.55 m LOD and 76.18–79.81 m LOA. The largest ones, carried 1000 men with 2000 tons deadweight, was about 80.51 m LOD and 88.56 m LOA. The jong was mainly constructed in two major shipbuilding centres around Java: north coastal Java, especially around Rembang–Demak (along the Muria strait) and Cirebon; and the south coast of Borneo (Banjarmasin) and the adjacent islands. Pegu, which is a large shipbuilding port at the 16th century, also produced jong, built by Javanese who resided there.

Impressed by the Javanese's skill in shipbuilding, Afonso de Albuquerque hired 60 Javanese carpenters and shipbuilders to work in India for the Portuguese. They never arrived in India, as they mutinied and took the Portuguese ship they boarded to Pasai, where they were welcomed extraordinarily. The Dutch also realized Javanese proficiency in shipbuilding, in the 18th century, shipbuilding yards in Amsterdam employed Javanese people as the foremen. The shipbuilding in Java was hampered when the VOC gained a foothold in Java starting in the early 17th century. However, in the 18th century, the Javanese shipbuilding areas (particularly Rembang and Juwana) started building large European-styled vessels (bark and brigantine type), such ships may reach 400–600 tons burthen, with an average of 92 lasts (165.6–184 metric tons). In 1856, John Crawfurd noted that Javanese shipbuilding activity still existed on the north coast of Java, with the shipyards supervised by Europeans, but all of the workers were Javanese. The ships that were built in the 19th century had a maximum tonnage of 50 tons and were used for river transport.

Blacksmith
Blacksmiths are traditionally valued. Some blacksmiths fast and meditate to reach perfection. Javanese blacksmiths create a range of tools and farming equipment, and also cultural items such as gamelan instruments and kris. The art of kris-making provided the technical skills applied to gunmaking. Cannon and firearms required special expertise and may have been made by the same individuals. The blacksmith's spiritual power was said to be transferred to the guns. Majapahit under Mahapatih (prime minister) Gajah Mada (in office 1331–1364) utilized gunpowder technology obtained from Yuan dynasty for use in the naval fleet. Pole gun (bedil tombak) was recorded as being used by Javanese people in 1413.

Duarte Barbosa ca. 1514 said that the inhabitants of Java are great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen. They make many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, spingarde (arquebus), schioppi (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works. Every place are considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it. In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus, sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca "with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, exceeding what they have in India".

Zhang Xie in Dong Xi Yang Kao (1618) mentioned that city of Palembang, which has been conquered by Javanese, produces the furious fiery oil (meng huo yu), which according to the Hua I Kao is a kind of tree secretion (shu chin), and is also called mud oil (ni yu). Zhang Xie wrote: "It much resemble camphor, and can corrode human flesh. When ignited and thrown on water, its light and flame become all the more intense. The barbarians use it as a fire-weapon and produce great conflagrations in which sails, bulwarks, upperworks and oars all catch fire and cannot withstand it. Fishes and tortoises coming in contact with it cannot escape from being scorched."Because there was no mention of projector pump, the weapon is probably breakable bottles with fuses.

Kris knives are important items, with many heirloom kris holding significant historical value. The design of the kris is to tear apart an opponent's abdomen, making the injury more severe.

Kota Gede is famous for its silverworks and silver handicrafts.

Javanese people made several types of armor such as karambalangan, kawaca, siping-siping, and waju rante. They also made steel helmets called rukuh. Armor is probably only used by high-ranking soldiers and trained/salaried troops, with salaried standing army numbering as many as 30,000 existing during the Singhasari and Majapahit era (1222 to 1527 CE), with the first mention being in the Chinese record Zhu Fan Zhi of 1225 CE. A part of the Javanese armies usually consisted of peasant levies who fought bare-chested.

Batik making
Batik are worn by both men and women, with patterns varying to denote social stature. Batik are also used ceremonially, with certain designs used to bring good luck to a newborn infant or a newly wed couple and their families. Some towns and villages have specialized in making batik, such as Pekalongan, Kauman, Kampung Taman and Laweyan.

Wood carving
The Javanese art of wood carving is traditionally applied to various cultural attributes such as statues, (wayang-)dolls, and masks. Woodcarving also prominent as house ornamentation and details. The elaborately carved Omah Kudus is a fine example of Javanese woodcarving mastery. The Central Java town of Jepara is famous as a center of Javanese woodcarving workshops, where artists and carpenters especially working on Javan teak wood.

Migrations
The Javanese were probably involved in the Austronesian migration to Madagascar in the first centuries C.E. While the culture of the migration is most closely related with the Ma'anyan people of Borneo, a portion of the Malagasy language is derived from loanwords from the Javanese language. It is possible that Ma'anyan people (or other indigenous people of Kalimantan closely related to the Ma'anyans) were brought as labourer and slaves by their Javanese masters in their trading fleets, which reached Madagascar by ca. 50–500 AD.

A Portuguese account described how the Javanese people already had advanced seafaring skills and had communicated with Madagascar in 1645:

"The Javanese are all men very experienced in the art of navigation, to the point that they claim to be the most ancient of all, although many others give this honor to the Chinese, and affirm that this art was handed on from them to the Javanese. But it is certain that they formerly navigated to the Cape of Good Hope and were in communication with the east coast of the island of São Lourenço (San Laurenzo — Madagascar), where there are many brown and Javanese-like natives who say they are descended from them. — Diogo do Couto, Decada Quarta da Asia"

Since the Hindu kingdom period, Javanese merchants settled at many places in the Indonesian archipelago. In the late 15th century, following the collapse of Majapahit and the rise of Muslim principalities on the northern coast of Java, many Hindu nobilities, artisans and courtiers migrated to Bali, where they would contribute to the refined culture of Bali. Others who refused to convert to Islam retreated to Tengger mountain, retaining their Hindu religion and becoming the Tenggerese people.

In the conflicts during the transitions of power between the Demak, the Pajang and the Mataram in the late 16th century, some Javanese migrated to Palembang in southern Sumatra. There they established a sultanate and formed a mix of Malay and Javanese culture. Palembang language is a dialect of Malay language with heavy influence of Javanese. Declaraçam de Malaca e India Meridional com o Cathay by Manuel Godinho de Eredia (1613), described what he called India Meridional (Meridional India — Southern/South India). In his book he relates about the voyage of Chiaymasiouro (or Chiay Masiuro), king of Damuth (Demak) in Java, to a Southern land called Luca Antara (or Lucaantara, a peninsula in North Australia). The book explained that in Meridional India already settled a subgroup of Javanese people. A brief description of this country is given in a letter written by Chiaymasiouro to the King of Pahang and in a certificate made by Pedro de Carvalhaes at Malacca on 4 October 1601. In Report of Meridional India (1610) Eredia mentioned that the Javanese people of Luca Antara in all of their customs and in figure resemble the Javanese of Sunda (west Java), only a slight difference in the language, which he described as "much the same as between the Castillian and the Portuguese". The hair extends as far as the shoulders, the tonsure resembles the tonsure of Balinese people, with a curiously curved contour.

During the reign of Sultan Agung (1613–1645), some Javanese began to establish settlements in coastal West Java around Cirebon, Indramayu and Karawang. These Javanese settlements were originally commissioned by Sultan Agung as rice farming villages to support the Javanese troop logistics on his military campaign against Dutch Batavia.

The Javanese were also present in Peninsular Malaya since early times. The Link between Java and Malacca was important during spread of Islam in Indonesia, when religious missionaries were sent from Malacca to seaports on the northern coast of Java. Large migrations to the Malay Peninsula occurred during the colonial period, mostly from Central Java to British Malaya. Migration also took place from 1880 to 1930 from other parts of Java with a secondary migration Javanese from Ponorogo, East Java and Sumatra. Those migrations were to seek a new life away from the Dutch colonists who ruled Indonesia at that time. Today these people live throughout Peninsular Malaysia and are mainly concentrated in parts of inland, west and northwest coasts of Johor, southwest Perak, west coast of Selangor, plus cities such as Kuala Lumpur.

Today, the Malaysian government classifies the descendants of these Javanese residing in Malaysia under the "Malay" label along with other native Indonesian ethnic groups which allows for socioeconomical privileges allocated for the so-called bumiputera, this assimilation is factored by integration under similar socioreligious infrastructures like mosques and intermarriage with the local Malay ethnic population in the Peninsular. Many immigrants of the colonial period retain their Javanese identity, and the Javanese language is still spoken, although the younger generation in urban centers mostly has shifted to Malay.

In Singapore, approximately 50–60% of its "Malay" population have some degree of Javanese ancestry, concentrated in Yishun, Ang Mo Kio, Serangoon, Sengkang and Hougang. Most of them have identified themselves as "Malays", rather than Javanese.

Javanese merchants were also present in the Maluku Islands as part of the spice trade. Following the Islamisation of Java, they spread Islam in the islands, with Ternate being a Muslim sultanate circa 1484. Javanese merchants also converted coastal cities in Borneo to Islam. The Javanese thus played an important part in transmitting Islam from the western part to the eastern part of the Archipelago with trade based from northern coast of Java.

New migration patterns emerged during colonial periods. During the rise of VOC power starting in the 17th century, many Javanese were exiled, enslaved or hired as mercenaries for the Dutch colonies of Ceylon in South Asia and the Cape colony in South Africa. These included princes and nobility who lost their dispute with the company and were exiled along with their retinues. These, along with exiles from other ethnicities like Bugis and Malay became the Sri Lankan Malay and Cape Malay ethnic groups respectively. Other political prisoners were transported to closer places. Prince Diponegoro and his followers were transported to North Sulawesi, following his defeat in Java War in the early 19th century. Their descendants are well known as Jaton (abbreviation of "Jawa Tondano"/Tondano Javanese).

Major migrations started during the Dutch colonial period under transmigration programs. The Dutch needed many labourers for their plantations and moved many Javanese under the program as contract workers, mostly to other parts of the colony in Sumatra. They also sent Javanese workers to Suriname in South America. As of 2019, approximately 13.7% of the Suriname population is of Javanese ancestry. Outside of the Dutch colonies, Javanese workers were also sent to plantations administered by the Dutch colonial government in New Caledonia, a French territory.

The transmigration program that was created by the Dutch continued following independence. A significant Javanese population can be found in the Jabodetabek (Greater Jakarta) area, Lampung, South Sumatra and Jambi provinces. Several paguyuban (traditional community organisation) were formed by these Javanese immigrants, such as "Pujakesuma" (abbreviation of Indonesian: Putra Jawa Kelahiran Sumatera or Sumatra-born Javanese).

title: Javanese people


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Double Dragon II: The Revenge

Double Dragon II: The Revenge (II ザ・リベンジ) is a side-scrolling beat 'em up produced by Technōs Japan originally released as a coin-operated arcade game in 1988. It is the first sequel to Double Dragon, released during the previous year. The sequel involves Billy and Jimmy Lee in a mission to avenge Billy's girlfriend Marian after she is shot to death by the Black Warriors leader Willy, who is retaliating against the Lee brothers after his defeat at the end of the previous game. Double Dragon II was initially developed as an upgrade kit for the original Double Dragon, but evolved into a stand-alone game due to an increase in memory size, resulting in the developers reusing assets for both games.

Gameplay
The arcade version of Double Dragon II: The Revenge begins with Marian, the damsel in distress from the original Double Dragon, being shot to death by the leader of the Black Warriors. Once again, the players assume the role of brothers Billy and Jimmy Lee, who are now tasked with the duty of avenging Marian's death. The arcade version of the game is essentially an improved version of the original title. The biggest change in the game's controls are in the replacement of the original's punch and kick buttons with two directional-based attack buttons (Left Attack and Right Attack) similar to Renegade. Pressing the attack button of the player's current direction will do a standard series of punches, while pressing the opposite attack button will perform a back kick. A few new moves are added as well, including a Hurricane Kick.

Similar to Double Dragon, the game is divided into four areas or "missions": a heliport, a lumber storehouse, a farm, and the gang's new hideout. The player must defeat a boss at the end of each mission, as well as one or more sub-bosses along the way. Many of the enemy characters from the first game return for this one, but with altered appearances and new attacks, and the variety of weapons they use has been altered. Weapons carried by enemies include shovels, knives, chain whips, and grenades; in addition, crates, logs, and steel balls can be picked up and thrown. The enemies are as follows:

 * Williams: Low-ranking member of the gang, who uses knives and shovels.
 * Roper: Another low-ranking member, who can also use knives and shovels and throw crates/logs/balls.
 * Linda: The only female member, who uses whips, knives, and grenades. She is the only enemy who will pick up or carry a whip.
 * Oharra: A head-swap of Abobo from the first game; tall, bare-chested, with a crew cut.
 * Burnov: A large man in a steel mask who is the boss of the first mission. His body vanishes when he is defeated, leaving his clothes behind. Later in the game, he gains the ability to rematerialize himself and continue fighting.
 * Bolo: A head-swap of Oharra, with longer hair.
 * Abore: The boss of Mission 2; a large blond man in a white shirt, red pants, and sunglasses.
 * Jeff: A palette-swap of Billy and Jimmy, who can perform all of their moves.
 * Chin Taimei: The boss of Mission 3; an agile martial artist who fights with kali sticks, which he never drops when knocked down.
 * Willy: The leader of the Black Warriors, who uses a machine gun and never drops it when knocked down.
 * Doppelganger: A shadowy clone of Billy/Jimmy that the player must fight after defeating Willy in Mission 4, as the final battle of the game. He can perform all of the player's attacks, and can also drain the player's energy if he gets close enough. If two players reach the end together, they must each face their own clone.

The player has a life meter that depletes upon being hit, and a timer runs during each mission. One life is lost if either of these reaches zero, or if the player falls off the bottom of the screen or into a pit or bed of spikes.

Ports
A console version was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System on January 15, 1990, developed by Technōs themselves, although it is a very distinct product from the arcade game. It was remade by Naxat Soft for the PC Engine in 1993, known by fans as "Double Dragon II PCE".

Virgin Mastertronic released ports of the arcade version for the ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, IBM PC compatibles, Amiga, Amstrad CPC, and Atari ST in 1989. The computer ports were developed by Binary Design, the same studio that handled the computer ports of the first game. In 2013, the Internet Archive put the undeleted assembly sources (DRGNSRC.LZH) of the DOS version available for download.

The Mega Drive version of Double Dragon II: The Revenge was released by Palsoft exclusively in Japan on December 20, 1991. Unlike the NES version, the Mega Drive version is a straight port of the original arcade game, featuring the same stages, techniques and weapons, as well as almost every enemy character, with Jeff being the lone omission. The only significant change to the level designs was in Mission 2, which was substantially changed in order to make it a longer and more complex stage. However, the characters were redesigned to much smaller proportions and are less colorful than the ones featured in the original arcade version or even the Genesis port of the original Double Dragon by Accolade released a year later in North America and Europe. The game has compatibility issues when played with a 6-button controller, suffering from slight input lag when the players move their characters with the directional pad.

An unrelated Game Boy game was released under the Double Dragon II name in North America and Europe in 1991. It was originally released in Japan in 1990 as part of the Kunio-kun series but the graphics, music, and storyline were changed for the English version of the game.

Double Dragon II was re-released in 2013 alongside the other two arcade games in a compilation titled Double Dragon Trilogy produced by DotEmu, which was released on iOS, Android and Steam platforms.

The NES version of Double Dragon II was re-released in North America as a downloadable title on all three systems available for the service: Wii, 3DS and Wii U. It was also released for the Virtual Console in Japan and Europe.

The NES version of Double Dragon II was re-released worldwide as a free downloadable title for the Nintendo Switch on June 12, 2019, provided the user has subscribed to the Nintendo Switch Online service.

Reception
In Japan, Game Machine listed Double Dragon II: The Revenge on their April 1, 1989 issue as being the seventh most-successful table arcade unit of the month.

In the United Kingdom, the game was number three on the Atari ST sales chart in early 1990. In 2013, Arcade Sushi placed the game 9th on their "10 Best Retro Beat 'Em Ups".

Legacy
Double Dragon II: Wander of the Dragonsis a beat 'em up loosely based on the arcade game Double Dragon II: The Revenge, developed by Korean game studio GRAVITY and published by Barunson Creative Co. Ltd. The title was first announced in 2011, but was shelved for release for two years. It was eventually released on April 5, 2013 as a digital download for the Xbox 360 via the Xbox Live Arcade service. The game was met with an overwhelmingly negative reception, being considered as one of the worst games of all time.

title: Double Dragon II: The Revenge