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Moon River

"Moon River" is a song composed by Henry Mancini with lyrics by Johnny Mercer. It was originally performed by Audrey Hepburn in the 1961 film Breakfast at Tiffany's, winning an Academy Award for Best Original Song. The song also won the 1962 Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Song of the Year. In 1999, Mancini's recording was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame.

The song has been recorded by many other artists. It became the theme song for Andy Williams, who first recorded it in 1962 (and performed it at the Academy Awards ceremony that year). He sang the first eight bars of the song at the beginning of each episode of his eponymous television show and named his production company and venue in Branson, Missouri, after it; his autobiography is called "Moon River" and Me. Williams' version was never released as a single, but it charted as an LP track that he recorded for Columbia on a hit album of 1962, Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes. In 2022, Williams' rendition of the song was selected for preservation in the Library of Congress.

The song's success was responsible for relaunching Mercer's career as a songwriter, which had stalled in the mid-1950s because rock and roll had replaced jazz standards as the popular music of the time. The song's popularity is such that it has been used as a test sample in a study on people's memories of popular songs. Comments about the lyrics have noted that they are particularly reminiscent of Mercer's youth in the southern United States and his longing to expand his horizons. Robert Wright wrote in The Atlantic Monthly, "This is a love sung [ sic ] to wanderlust. Or a romantic song in which the romantic partner is the idea of romance." An inlet near Savannah, Georgia, Johnny Mercer's hometown, was named Moon River in honor of him and this song.

Original
Mercer and Mancini wrote the song for Audrey Hepburn to sing in the film Breakfast at Tiffany's. The lyrics, written by Mercer, are reminiscent of his childhood in Savannah, Georgia, including its waterways. As a child, he had picked huckleberries in summer, and he connected them with a carefree childhood and Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn. Although an instrumental version is played over the film's opening titles, the lyrics are first heard in a scene where Paul "Fred" Varjak (George Peppard) discovers Holly Golightly (Hepburn) singing the song, accompanying herself on the guitar while sitting on the fire escape outside their apartments.

There was an eruption of behind-the-scenes consternation when a Paramount Pictures executive, Martin Rackin, suggested removing the song from the film after a tepid Los Angeles preview. Hepburn's reaction was described by Mancini and others in degrees varying from her saying, "Over my dead body!" to her using more colorful language to make the same point.

An album version was recorded by Mancini and his orchestra and chorus (without Hepburn's vocal) on December 8, 1960. It was released as a single in 1961 and became a number 11 hit in December of that year. Due to unpublished charts in Billboard, Joel Whitburn's Top Adult (Contemporary) Songs variously reported the song as a number 3 or number 1 easy listening hit. Mancini's original version was also featured in the film Born on the Fourth of July (1989). In 1993, following Hepburn's death, her version was released on an album titled Music from the Films of Audrey Hepburn. In 2004, Hepburn's version finished at number 4 on AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs survey of top tunes in American cinema.

Early recordings
"Moon River" was a hit single for Jerry Butler in late 1961. Released simultaneously with Mancini's, it reached number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart and number 3 Easy Listening in December, two weeks before Mancini's recording reached the same chart ranking. British singer Danny Williams had a hit version of the song that reached number one in the UK in the final week of 1961.

Although Andy Williams never released the song as a single, his LP Moon River and Other Great Movie Themes (1962), was certified gold in 1963 for selling one million units. The album reached number 3 on the Billboard Top 200, eventually selling more than two million copies by 1967. In 2002, a 74-year-old Andy Williams sang the song at the conclusion of the live NBC special telecast celebrating the network's 75th anniversary. In 2018, Andy Williams' version on Columbia Records was inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2022, Andy Williams' recording of the song was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the National Recording Registry.

Chart history

 * Henry Mancini & Orchestra
 * Jerry Butler
 * Danny Williams

Later versions
Hundreds of versions of the song have been recorded and it has been featured in many media. Mercer recorded the song in 1974 for his album My Huckleberry Friend. In 2007, saxophonist Dave Koz recorded a version from his standards music album, At the Movies, sung by Barry Manilow. In 2013, Neil Finn and Paul Kelly performed the song on their Goin' Your Way Tour, during which their performance at the Sydney Opera House Concert Hall was recorded for the live album, Goin' Your Way, released the same year. The title of the album comes from a phrase in the song's chorus: "Wherever you're goin', I'm goin' your way". Lawrence Welk's 1961 instrumental version was featured in Mad Men season 6, episode 13, "In Care Of" (2013). A version of the song was featured in Asif Kapadia's documentary film, Amy (2015), about Amy Winehouse. Winehouse's version, sung at age 16 with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra in 2000, is the opening song in the film.

The Telegraph listed, among prominent covers of the song, those by Frank Sinatra, Judy Garland, Sarah Vaughan, Louis Armstrong, Sarah Brightman and Chevy Chase (in the comedy film Fletch). Other stars who have covered the song include Rod Stewart in Fly Me to the Moon... The Great American Songbook Volume V (2010), which charted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200, Barbra Streisand in The Movie Album (2003), a Grammy-nominated gold album, and Frank Ocean, who released a cover on Valentine's Day 2018 that debuted in the Top 10 of the Billboard Hot R&B chart. Diffuser.fm named these the "Top 5 Alt-Rock" versions of the song: Morrissey, Glasvegas, R.E.M., The Killers and Josh Ritter. Jacob Collier's a capella cover won the 2020 Grammy Award for Best Arrangement, Instrumental or A Cappella.

title: Moon River


text: Talk:Tupolev Tu-154

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Tupolev Tu-154


text:
Talk:Rapid eye movement sleep

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Introduction
In the introduction you mention that there are two categories of REM sleep: tonic and phasic. I think this article could be improved by adding information about both of those phases since after in introduction they are not mentioned again. Paula.Jacks (talk) 03:21, 4 March 2014 (UTC)

REM atonia vs Sleep Paralysis
They are not the same, at least in the most current scientific author signed and peer-reviewed literature. Regretfully a web site published anonymously uses different nomenclature. Jclerman 19:02, 19 October 2005 (UT

?
Don't people also dream in other parts of sleep? I'm sure I've heard this somewhere. Meelar 07:06, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC) Sort of. Most of what you'd call "dreams" when you wake up occur during REM sleep though. Endless
 * I read they sometimes occur in Stage 4, but aren't as vivid. They say it might be that its just easier to remember your dreams after waking up from REM sleep. jess523s

There's current discussion on this particular issue. I guess at the moment we can say that REM determines a higher dream-recall rate than Non-REM. Allan Hobson and Mark Solms have held the most significative poles of this debate.

Mark Solms claims that there is no difference in dream quality between REM and NREM sleep. Most studies however have shown that when you wake a person up from REM sleep you get a dream report 80-90 percent of time where this is only 10 % for when you wake a person up from NREM sleep. However, as mentioned before it could be the case that it is harder to remember a dream in REM sleep. Some have also argued that you only dream in REM sleep and dream reports from NREM awakenings are just memories of dreams that happened in NREM sleep. This is dubious however since Solms showed that people who have neural damage to the degree that they don't have REM sleep anymore still dream. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.235.159.180 (talk) 11:31, 5 December 2011 (UTC)

How rapid?
Does anybody know how rapid the eye movement referred to is?

Yes. Every three seconds: http://lsdbase.wordpress.com. And please feel free to update the image in the article with a more modern recording while you are there. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.9.185.137 (talk) 23:43, 21 September 2011 (UTC)

This varies. Some researches believe it is linked to the level of mental activity, so the more mental activity there is, the faster the REM will be. Darksun 11:53, 4 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Some order of magnitude figures would still be a lot more useful than the current lack of any numerical data on REM in the article. The eye movements in the graph attached to the article appear to be at a frequency of about 1 Hz, but there is no scale provided in the image to indicate amplitude of movement, say as a percentage of possible eye rotation angle. Can anyone contribute any figures like this? I've trawled a few of the archives of research papers I've got access to, but not found anything useful yet.--81.179.145.112 11:29, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

 * In my experience, its usually no more than 4 notable eye movements per epoch (30 seconds), and there can be full epochs of REM EEG activity but with no eye movements. 173.71.95.164 (talk) 14:10, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

I removed this sentence:
 *  Studies have shown that being deprived of REM sleep (but not necessarily non-REM sleep) leads to serious mental and physical health problems.

I believe this to be incorrect. Interrupting REM sleep is in fact good for depressed people, and in animals it has been done for some two months without deleterious effects; on the other hand, mice die within 10-20 days if they cannot sleep at all. People have been deprived of REM sleep for a couple of days, and nothing bad happened. AxelBoldt 23:50, 5 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, nothing bad happens to someone deprived of REM sleep for a couple days. Consistent REM sleep deprivation causes a deterioration of cognitive function and, well, a lot of other bad things, too many to list. 173.71.95.164 (talk) 14:24, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

Cleaned Up
I did my very very best to organize and clean a little.

Image
I added a poly of a patient in REM sleep. In addition, I added I did a little cleaning. I am concerned about the comment about dreaming though... the one stating that "(whether dreams occur more often during this phase is not known)".... there is every indication that this is the case... The brain activities occurring in stages 2 and 4 sleep are not conducive to the organized thought that takes place in REM. While mentation does occur in NREM, the imagery that takes place in REM is what most people refer to as dreaming. MrSandman 01:06, 26 September 2005 (UTC)

The picture used is not a good example of clear-cut REM as there is a K-complex during the eye movement. In addition to this there is also no scale visible on the EEG.
 * That is not a K complex.. it is eye movement artifact...which is extremely common. Additionally, the text provided describes the record as being 30 seconds, which is the standard.. and amplitude criterion are not relevant to scoring REM, hence it's absence.

MrSandman 22:45, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

Again, I do agree with the idea that we don't know exactly the nature of the relationship between dream activity and REM. It is possible that REM periods correlate with memory functioning, and not exactly with dream activity. Dream "mentation" or "imagery" is, in my opinion, an artificial distinction from dream activity. --Amoreno22 21:14, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Saccadic?
It says REM is 'a saccadic movement of the eye.' Saccade is when your eyes are veiwing a large scene, so does that mean the REM is because your eyes are veiwing a whole picture and your brain is piecing it together. Jess523s 12:54, 24 December 2005 (PST)

.
The area of your brain that controls eye movements is creating the movements.. it has little to do with what is being "seen" in the dream. It is a bottom up process... not top down.

REM rebound
I notice there is a brief mention of the role of REM suppression with antidepressants, but I think a section, or better yet, a new page should be created to explain the REM rebound effect that occurs following suppressed REM activity. -Alex

merger
No merger warranted.  Delete the other article. It has no citations to verify the statements which, BTW contradict computational observations. Ask me details if you need them. Jclerman 23:24, 16 May 2006 (UTC)

REM sleep period
This has not been defined. Please define and insert a citation, or redraft for clarity. Jclerman 07:03, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

Sleep disorders can occur in REM sleep
Does this mean that the disorders occurs only during REM sleep? Please clarify by recasting the sentence if needed. Jclerman 07:11, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

REM sleep can occur within about 90 minutes
90 minutes counted from what? Jclerman 07:23, 22 August 2006 (UTC) From sleep onset. MrSandman 17:29, 22 August 2006 (UTC) ... I see what you mean.. that section needs a lot of work.

no disamb header
Nothing redirects here, so nothing's needed on top of the page... *falls asleep* Matt Yeager ♫ ( Talk? ) 01:24, 22 December 2006 (UTC)

Manual Rapid Eye Movement
I am able to rapidly move my eyes in a REM fashion, either with my eyes closed or open, at will. I do not mean that I simply move my eyes back and forth rapidly, but rather that my eyes do it "on their own." I know of at least one other person who can manually induce REM as well, so I imagine the ability to manually control rapid eye movement is somewhat common.

The article is not titled "Rapid Eye Movement Sleep Phase", but rather just "Rapid Eye Movement." Should mention be briefly made that some people are able to manually induce the rapid eye movement which occurs in REM sleep? Serialized 12:19, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

I have a question: Why exactly does REM the activity accompany the REM state of sleep? What's the point of moving our eyes so quickly? Is it a part of looking around in the dream or just something weird we do? Why are the eyes the one part of the body not paralyzed in sleep? 66.91.214.167

Moving your eyes does not induce REM. Read the article for more information, specifically.... pay attention to the brain-stem mechanisms that modulate REM sleep.

Added see also to Dream article
I recently added a bunch of information about the brain while dreaming to the Dream article, I noticed it overlapped quite a bit with what happens during REM since dreaming usually occurs during REM, some of the info is really more about REM Sleep than dreaming, do you think we should add it here instead of the Dream article? LilDice

What if you don't have eyes
what if you're blind or you're missing your eyes or something. can you still experience this stage? the mental effects at least? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 70.59.5.156 (talk) 15:52, 14 March 2007 (UTC).

How would you make this difference: Mental effects vs... Organic effects? The REM does not have a perceptive function. --Amoreno22 21:17, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

The eye movements are a product of what the brain is doing.. eyes or no eyes.. the brain experiences REM sleep... just like a baby does before they are born. The article explains some of this.

MrSandman 23:18, 10 July 2007 (UTC)

Rapid eye movements related to eye movement in dreams?
Lucid_Dream makes the assertion that "Scientific research has found that these eye movements correspond to the direction in which the dreamer is "looking" in his/her dreamscape; this apparently enabled trained lucid dreamers to communicate the content of their dreams as they were happening to researchers by using eye movement signals. This research produced various results, such as that events in dreams take place in real time rather than going by in a flash." While it is certainly true that lucid dreamers can give preconcerted eye signals while dreaming, I did not yet find proof for the assertion that REM is generally linked to the eye movements of the dreamer or even the lucid dreamer (I think you would need dream reports corresponding to eye activity for that, which would be somewhat hard to create). It would also be in contradiction to the fact that "events in dreams take place in real time rather than going by in a flash", because we don't move our eyes rapidly in real time.

However, I think the false idea should be mentioned in the article, because the topic seems contentious and at least two people asked about this correspondence on this talk page.--Ruben 22:03, 1 December 2007 (UTC)

Why the title "REM sleep in other animals"?
I don't understand why the sub-title is not "REM sleep in animals" - "other animals" implies that human beings are a sub-species of animals. I am not changing the sub-title as I do not want to get into fights, but I really think it's rather strange. Thanks - Todd (talk) 12:11, 9 December 2007 (UTC)
 * No "-sub", just one of the many species. Jclerman (talk) 22:31, 27 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Humans are animals the same way we aren't vegetables or minerals. Like other animals, we have guts, feet, hearts, skin, blood, and apparently, dreams.  Completely correct.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.167.248.233 (talk) 01:32, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

Pronunciation
What is the correct way to refer to REM in talking? Is it R-E-M, or rem? Could somebody who knows include this in the article? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.125.36.15 (talk) 10:06, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

Correction It is not easy to wake someone in REM sleep, in fact it is a "deep" form of sleep (Weiten, 2007) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.68.103.67 (talk) 11:36, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

REM sleep
are people more difficult to wake up during REM sleep? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.173.74.33 (talk) 19:31, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

REM sleep is a pretty deep form of sleep. I would say people are probably a bit harder to wake up in this stage since they are less sensitive to for example sounds in the enviroment compared to Stage 1 or Stage 2 sleep. Also, people who are awoken in either REM or Slow Wave Sleep will also have more intertia and arousal at awakening. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.235.159.74 (talk) 17:12, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Marijuana
Shouldn't this article mention how marijuana reduces the about of REM sleep, thus reducing dreams/nightmares? —Christopher Mann McKaytalk 19:53, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Countless drugs (as in, almost all of them) suppress SWS and REM, cannabis is not special. 173.71.95.164 (talk) 14:18, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

And by saying it reduces nightmares it should also say that it reduces some of the other beneficial effects of REM sleep such as making creative connections, improved procedural memory, improved memory for emotional items and emotional regulation (even though this has significant results in both directions) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 130.235.159.74 (talk) 17:10, 22 February 2012 (UTC)

Tonic or Phasic?
At the beginning of the first paragraph there is a brief mention of REM being divided into two phases, Tonic and Phasic.

This is not elaborated on anywhere else in the article, and the citation is too a book rather than a website.

Maybe there should be either more information added to that, or else it be removed. I don't really know, it's just kinda hanging there and might be getting lonely. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Thatmalekgirl (talk • contribs) 17:25, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

 * They aren't necessarily distinguishably separate phases, but separate aspects of REM stage sleep with variables pertaining to neurological, cardiovascular, and respiratory rates/statuses. As a polysomnographic technician, this was not something I was initially trained to distinguish, but the fact that REM is "tonic and phasic" was brought up quite a lot. I suppose it's something the doctors know more about, and is probably a necessary statistic for diagnosing more complex sleep disorders... something like that. In any case, it is relevant to define REM as being tonic and phasic, but explaining it would probably require a couple paragraphs of its own section within the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.71.95.164 (talk) 13:54, 14 November 2009 (UTC)

http://www.sleephomepages.org/sleepsyllabus/fr-m.html I think the tonic/phasic needs some elaboration in the article. I'm quite curious! - ppk80

R.E.M. in "See also"
Why is R.E.M. a "See also" link? It seems that that the band has nothing to do with this topic. 24.130.94.243 (talk) 01:38, 16 July 2009 (UTC)

monotremes
www.bu.edu

Control control control! I could find this inaccuracy because I had already read another article about the same subject... It has always been difficult for me to trust wikipedia, this is a corroboration of what I have been thinking for long time: "look for information in wikipedia only if you already know the subject of your search!"Mareczek80 (talk) 15:56, 31 August 2009 (UTC)mareczek80
 * There is a perfectly good citation that supports the claim. The J.M. Siegel fellow mentioned in your link has a paper on the topic (from 1998) that contradicts the oft-repeated old wisdom.  The information in the article is simply outdated.

 * You're free to correct the article to include the newer information. However, shouting "control" and expressing your distrust for Wikipedia won't accomplish much.  Your time would be much better spent as an active participant in the production of quality articles.  —Preceding unsigned comment added by Drichardson (talk • contribs) 08:23, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

Contradiction (predominant sleep stage in infants)
The introduction of this page and Delta wave page claim different things:
 * A newborn baby spends more than 80% of total sleep time in REM.
 * Infants have been shown to spend a great deal of time in slow-wave sleep, and thus have more delta wave activity. In fact, delta-waves are the predominant wave forms of infants. Analysis of the waking EEG of a newborn infant indicates that delta wave activity is predominant in that age, and still appears in a waking EEG of five-year-olds.

This definitely needs looking at. --Melarish (talk) 13:21, 28 December 2011 (UTC)

REM sleep and pain
I think this article could benefit from some mention of the link between reduced REM sleep and pain. e.g. studies have shown possible links between chronic musculoskeletal pain (incl fybromyalgia) and reduced REM sleep. Experiments have been conducted wherein individuals were deprived of REM sleep; a proportion of these individuals developed fybromyalgia-like symptoms. REM sleep is often noted to be poor in people recovering from surgery, but normalisaton of sleep occurs as recovery proceeds. Splodger101 (talk) 00:14, 22 December 2012 (UTC)
 * You have a WP:reliable source for your information?  Lova Falk     talk   09:21, 28 December 2012 (UTC)

Date of discovery in the lede?
Shouldn't there be a couple of sentences in the lede giving when it was discovered and by whom? __209.179.86.123 (talk) 16:28, 14 January 2016 (UTC)

 * I just noticed that several crucial paragraphs of this article were deleted by an IP with no explanation in 2015 and never restored! These include the type of sentences requested above, and some other crucial explanation. As a result some body paragraphs got dubiously promoted to lead paragraphs. Actually kind of funny in a way. But I will rectify ASAP. groupuscule (talk) 22:53, 6 May 2017 (UTC)
 * And another IP, albeit one with a longer if not illustrious edit history, was able to commit this small but unfortunate revision, which has stood for eight months. groupuscule (talk) 23:31, 6 May 2017 (UTC)

GABA in REM
There is a problem concerning neural transmitters. It another article discussing deep sleep it says the VLPO is active and produces GABA and the implication is that GABA is also produced during REM. This article says no GABA. RDXelectric (talk) 17:55, 14 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Hello RDXelectric; usually "deep sleep" refers to (non-REM) slow-wave sleep as opposed to REM sleep. However, there may be more to the story. Can you link to the page in question? Thanks, groupuscule (talk) 18:33, 15 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Look at the article on "VLPO" under the section Functions, subsection Sleep/wakefulness. While under the article on Sleep it is stated that there are essentially 3 states, awake, REM and non-REM, the VLPO article implies that the VLPO and the arousal system toggle back and forth between awake and asleep and seem to make no distinction between REM and non-REM.RDXelectric (talk) 17:22, 16 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Someone did distinguish NREM sleep in the lead at Ventrolateral preoptic nucleus but you're right that the distinction is not made in the article body. I see also they use an illustration which doesn't differentiate between the two types of sleep. Probably someone could improve that section with reference to REM and NREM. Could that someone be you, RDX? :-)
 * By the way, some sources I'm looking at now do talk about GABA involved in regulating REM but it seems to be rather a complicated relationship, unlike the straightforward up-and-down of acetylcholine vs. monoamines. They tend to confirm that the VLPO is more active during non-REM sleep. groupuscule (talk) 17:58, 16 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Sorry, lol, my expertise is in electronics, physics and computer science and definitely not biology. I even find these articles hard to read, filled as they are with medical jargon, I come away sometimes wondering what they're saying. I was interested in the various feedback systems of neurotransmitters, hormones and such but the more I read the more confused I get. There seem to be contradictions between articles discussing the two sides and lots of information is missing. For example, it would be nice to know how long the effects last, seconds, minutes, more, less? It would be interesting to know what the concentration profiles are like, fast or slow onset and re-uptake. And there are obvious partials like GABA vs. Orexin. Orexin suppresses GABA in the VLPO but what suppresses Orexin is super vague. Anyway, these are comments and observations of a casual reader and may not be typical. Thanks. RDXelectric (talk) 19:08, 16 July 2017 (UTC)

Links to common terms
I have made a few edits to this article and in the process I have found and removed links to common everyday terms (like eyes, dream and certain other human body parts that "everyone" already knows). These links are really distracting to the reader and may be insulting to the reader's intelligence. But there are still many, many more of these links present in this article.

In fact, Manual_of_Style tells us to "Make links only where they are relevant and helpful in the context: Excessive use of hyperlinks can be distracting and may slow the reader down."

Should somebody (probably me, haha :) go through the article and remove all of these? Is there a bot for this? --Johnnie Bob (talk) 00:53, 27 August 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't think the links to basic concepts should be removed. It's an encyclopedia rather than a dictionary, yes everybody knows about basic body parts but they may be seeking additional more specific information on a general topic. (The given Manual of Style page doesn't say anything about removing links to simple concepts, just irrelevant ones.)
 * The eye and dream articles actually have a good amount of semi-technical information that may be interesting to someone reading about rapid eye movement. Linking all the relevant concepts in the lead, even the simple ones, also makes it easier to browse on mobile and establishes links between logically related articles that help search engine results. Rauisuchian (talk) 01:45, 27 August 2020 (UTC)

Frequency of rem daily basis
Rem during waking state 119.56.108.134 (talk) 23:42, 23 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rapid eye movement sleep


text:
User:Phreaki

I am primarily a systems administrator by day and night. I enjoy FreeBSD, OpenBSD, NetBSD, Debian as primary picks of Internet Systems.

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Naval War College

The Naval War College (NWC or NAVWARCOL) is the staff college and "Home of Thought" for the United States Navy at Naval Station Newport in Newport, Rhode Island. The NWC educates and develops leaders, supports defining the future Navy and associated roles and missions, supports combat readiness, and strengthens global maritime partnerships.

The Naval War College is one of the senior service colleges including the Army War College, the Marine Corps War College, and the USAF Air War College. Additionally, the U.S. Department of Defense operates the National War College.

History
The college was established on October 6, 1884; its first president, Commodore Stephen B. Luce, was given the old building of the Newport Asylum for the Poor to house it on Coasters Harbor Island in Narragansett Bay. Among the first four faculty members were Tasker H. Bliss, a future Army Chief of Staff, James R. Soley, the first civilian faculty member and a future Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and, most famously, Captain (later, Rear Admiral) Alfred Thayer Mahan, who soon became renowned for the scope of his strategic thinking and influence on naval leaders worldwide. The College engaged in wargaming various scenarios from 1887 on, and in time became a laboratory for the development of war plans. Nearly all of the U.S. naval operations of the twentieth century were originally designed and gamed at the NWC.

More than 50,000 students have graduated since its first class of 9 students in 1885 and about 300 of today's active duty admirals, and generals and senior executive service leaders are alumni. The college's joint professional military education (JPME) programs prepare leaders for the challenges of operational and strategic leadership over the remainder of their careers as decision makers and problem solvers. More than 1,900 students have graduated from the Maritime Staff Operators Course, 200 from the Executive Level OLW Course, and more than 450 U.S. and international flag and general officers from the Flag Course. Just as its educational programs have expanded in depth and reach, so have the research and analysis efforts conducted by its Center for Naval Warfare Studies. Through war games, conferences, workshops, and publications, its research arm provides direct curriculum support to its educational programs and focused, task-driven analysis for fleet customers and government agencies across the national security spectrum.

College of Naval Command and Staff
The College of Naval Command and Staff (CNCS) is a multidisciplinary program designed for U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard officers in the grade of lieutenant commander, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Army, and U.S. Air Force officers in the grade of major, and civilians of equivalent seniority from various federal agencies. This intermediate level service college course provides an initial opportunity for joint professional military education wherein students prepare for increased responsibilities as commanders / lieutenant colonels, and as junior captains / colonels.

College of Naval Command and Staff students pursue studies in each of the Naval War College's three core subject areas in the following order of presentation: Strategy and War, Theater Security Decision Making, and Joint Maritime Operations. While this basic curriculum is essentially the same as that of the more senior students enrolled in the College of Naval Warfare, individual courses are tailored to the experience level and career needs of the CNCS's mid-grade officers. Each student in the College of Naval Command and Staff is also required to enroll in one Elective Program course of his or her choice per trimester. A limited number of students may, with selection committee approval, forego up to one trimester of the core curriculum to participate in the Center for Naval Warfare Studies' Advanced Research Program.

Beginning in 1914, NWC imparts its competent, executive-level programs beyond campus through its, now web-based, College of Distance Education (CDE). The three main CDE courses are Strategy and War, Theater Security Decision Making, and Joint Maritime Operations.

Maritime Advanced Warfighting School (MAWS)
Originally established in 1998 as the Naval Operational Planner Course, the Maritime Advanced Warfighting School (MAWS) is a 13-month program that educates U.S. officers of all services to:

 * Be operational planners and ultimately, operational leaders
 * Understand and apply maritime power effectively
 * Form and lead Operational Planning Teams (OPTs)
 * Think creatively and critically by developing solutions to complex, chaotic security problems

MAWS integrates the College of Naval Command and Staff core curriculum with specialized education and hands-on, real-world projects in the operational planning domain. MAWS is the U.S. Navy's peer school to the U.S. Army's School of Advanced Military Studies (SAMS), the U.S. Marine Corps' School of Advanced Warfighting (SAW), the U.S. Air Force's School of Advanced Air and Space Studies (SAASS), and the Joint Forces Staff College's Joint Advanced Warfighting School (JAWS).

College of Naval Warfare
The College of Naval Warfare is a multidisciplinary program designed for U.S. Navy and U.S. Coast Guard officers in the grades of commander or captain, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force officers in the grades of lieutenant colonel or colonel, and civilians of equivalent seniority from various federal agencies. This senior level professional military education program provides students with executive-level preparation for higher responsibilities as senior captains / colonels and as junior flag officers / general officers.

College of Naval Warfare students pursue studies in each of the Naval War College's three core subject areas in the following order of presentation: Joint Military Operations, Strategy and Policy, and National Security Decision Making. During all trimesters, College of Naval Warfare students are joined in lectures and in seminars by international students of the Naval Command College. Each College of Naval Warfare student is also required to enroll in one Elective Program course of his or her choice per trimester. A limited number of students in each class may, with selection committee approval, forego up to one trimester of the core curriculum to participate in the Center for Naval Warfare Studies' Advanced Research Program.

Accreditation and degrees
The Naval War College has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1984. Several years later the Naval War College earned the authority to award to students in some of its programs a Master of Arts in National Security and Strategic Studies. Naval War College students are also permitted to transfer up to 18 credits to the Graduate Program in International Relations at Salve Regina University. The arrangement allows Naval War College students to complete a Master of Arts degree in International Relations from Salve Regina University by taking six additional courses.

Publications
The Naval War College Press has published the scholarly quarterly journal the Naval War College Review since 1948. It also publishes the "Newport Papers", as well as an historical monograph series and occasional books.

Research and instruction
The Henry E. Eccles Library, housed in Hewitt Hall, supports the Naval War College's mission by providing information literacy training, reference tutorials and assistance, electronic literature searches, and access to over 90 databases, and interlibrary loan services to Professional Military Education/Joint Professional Military Education, faculty research and analysis, and College of Distance Education.

The library also aids curricula development by assisting faculty research, publishing bibliographies and research guides covering a wide range of topics of interest for those studying international relations, foreign area studies, contemporary and historical military topics, and security studies.

The Naval Historical Collection (NHC) is the depository for the Naval War College archives, manuscripts, oral histories, and special collections relating to the history of naval warfare and the history of the U.S. Navy in Narragansett Bay. Established in 1969 and located in Mahan Hall, the NHC's primary source material are of interest to naval historians, scholars, and students of American military and diplomatic history, Naval War College students, faculty and staff, and the general public.

Buildings and structures

Over the years, the Naval War College has expanded greatly. The original building, the former Newport Asylum for the Poor, now serves as home to the Naval War College Museum. In 1892, Luce Hall was opened as the college's new home, at a cost of $100,000. At the time, the building housed lecture rooms and a library. Wings at either end provided two sets of quarters, occupied by the president of the College and members of the faculty. When the Naval War College was enlarged in 1932, this original building was renamed Luce Hall in honor of the institution's founder and first Superintendent (later President), Stephen B. Luce. This original pair of buildings was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1964, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Luce Hall was again listed on the National Register in 1972. Mahan Hall, named after Rear Admiral Alfred Thayer Mahan (NWC President from 1886–1889 and 1892–1893), was completed and opened in 1904, and encompasses the historic Mahan Rotunda and Reading Room, as well as student study areas. The Mahan Rotunda also serves as an impromptu museum of gifts and artifacts donated by graduating international students over the years.

Pringle Hall (named after Vice Admiral Joel R. P. Pringle, Naval War College President from 1927–1930) was opened in 1934, and was the principal site for war gaming from the time of its completion in 1934 until the Naval Electronic Warfare Simulator was built in Sims Hall in 1957. The exterior facing of the building is pink Milford granite, similar in appearance to the ashlar granite of Luce Hall, to which it is connected by two enclosed bridges. Pringle Hall contains a 432-seat auditorium, the Quinn Lecture Room, the Naval Staff College, the Graphic Arts Studio, the Photography Branch, and the Naval War College Press.

In 1947, the Naval War College acquired an existing barracks building and converted it to a secondary war gaming facility, naming it Sims Hall after former War College President Admiral William Sowden Sims (Naval War College President from February to April 1917 and again from 1919–1922). In 1957 Sims Hall became the primary center for the Naval War College's wargaming department, serving as such until 1999. Sims Hall is undergoing renovations that are expected to be completed in 2021.

The 1970s saw the War College's most active expansion, with the opening of three separate buildings. In 1972, Spruance Hall, named after former NWC President Admiral Raymond A. Spruance (March 1946 – July 1948), was completed, housing faculty offices and an 1,100 seat auditorium. On March 17, 1975, Johnny Cash with The Tennessee Three including June Carter Cash and Carl Lee Perkins performed a live concert at Spruance Auditorium.

In 1974, Conolly Hall was opened and named in honor of Admiral Richard L. Conolly, Naval War College President 1950–1953. It houses the NWC Quarterdeck, Administrative and faculty offices, numerous class and conference rooms, and two underground parking garages.

1976 saw the opening of Hewitt Hall, one of two Naval War College buildings not named after a War College president, this time taking its name from Admiral Henry Kent Hewitt, an advisor to the Naval War College during his tenure as Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe, following World War II. Hewitt Hall is home to the Henry E. Eccles Library, the Trident Café, the bookstore and barbershop, and student study areas and lounge.

In 1999, the state-of-the-art McCarty Little Hall opened, replacing Sims Hall as the War College's primary wargaming facility. The other building named after a non-president is named after Captain William McCarty Little, an influential leader and key figure in refining the techniques of war gaming. This high-tech facility is used primarily by the Center for Naval Warfare Studies to conduct war games and major conferences, and for research and analysis. The building features the technology necessary to support a variety of multi-media needs essential during multiple and simultaneous war games.

Partnership with Brown University
On June 6, 2014, NWC and Brown University's Watson Institute for International Studies signed a Research and Education Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) between the two institutions. The agreement promotes collaborative research and teaching between NWC and Brown, serves as an opportunity to establish and conduct programs to improve education in science-related fields to meet long-term national defense needs, and establishes cooperative education programs for undergraduate education at Brown and postgraduate education at both Brown and NWC.

U.S. Navy

 * Admiral Jeremy Michael Boorda, 25th Chief of Naval Operations, 1994–1996
 * Admiral William J. Fallon, Commander, U.S. Pacific Command, 2005–2007; Commander, U.S. Central Command, 2007–2008
 * Admiral Mark P. Fitzgerald, Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Europe and Allied Joint Force Command Naples, 2007–2010
 * Admiral William E. Gortney, Commander, U.S. Fleet Forces Command, 2012–2014; Commander, U.S. Northern Command and Commander, North American Aerospace Defense Command, 2014–2016
 * Fleet Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., Commander, 3rd Fleet during World War II
 * Admiral Kent Hewitt, World War II decorated officer (two time recipient of the Navy Cross)
 * Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King, first Commander in Chief, United States Fleet and 9th Chief of Naval Operations, 1942–1945
 * Admiral George McMillin, 38th and final Naval Governor of Guam, one of the first WWII POWs at First Battle of Guam 1940–1941
 * Admiral Thomas H. Moorer, 18th Chief of Naval Operations, 1967–1970; Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1970–1974
 * Vice Admiral David C. Nichols Jr., Commander, U.S. Naval Forces Central Command / U.S. Fifth Fleet, 2003–2005; Deputy Commander, U.S. Central Command, 2005–2007
 * Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz, CINCPAC 1941–1945, 10th Chief of Naval Operations, 1945–1947
 * Rear Admiral Alan Shepard, first American in space, 1961; fifth man on the Moon, 1971
 * Admiral Raymond Spruance, Commander, 5th Fleet during World War II
 * Admiral James G. Stavridis, Commander in Chief, Supreme Allied Commander Europe, 2009–2013
 * Admiral Elmo Zumwalt, 19th Chief of Naval Operations, 1970–1974
 * Commander (ret.) Carlos Del Toro, 78th U.S. Secretary of the Navy, 2021–present

U.S. Coast Guard

 * Admiral John B. Hayes, USCG, Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, 1978 - 1982
 * Admiral Robert E. Kramek, USCG, Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, 1990–1994
 * Admiral Robert J. Papp Jr., USCG, Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, 2010–2014
 * Admiral Paul F. Zukunft, USCG, Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, 2014–2018

U.S. Marine Corps

 * General Walter Boomer, USMC, Assistant Commandant, U.S. Marine Corps, 1992–1994
 * General James E. Cartwright, USMC, Vice Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2007–2011
 * General Michael Hagee, USMC, Commandant of the U.S. Marine Corps, 2003–2006

U.S. Army

 * General Randy George, Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, 2023–Present
 * General Stanley McChrystal, Commander, International Security Assistance Force/United States Forces Afghanistan, 2009–2010
 * General John Shalikashvili, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1993–1997
 * General Raymond T. Odierno, Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, 2011–2015
 * Lieutenant General Michael Flynn, Director of the Defense Intelligence Agency, 2012–2014
 * General Mark A. Milley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, 2019–2023

U.S. Air Force

 * General Bruce Carlson, USAF, Commander, Air Force Materiel Command, 2005–2008
 * General John D. W. Corley, USAF, Commander, Air Combat Command, 2007–2009
 * General Charles A. Gabriel, USAF, Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air Force, 1982–1986
 * General John A. Gordon, USAF, Deputy Director, Central Intelligence Agency, 1997–2000
 * General Richard E. Hawley, USAF, Commander, Air Combat Command, 1996–1999
 * General C. Robert Kehler, USAF, Commander, Air Force Space Command, 2007–2011; Commander, U.S. Strategic Command, 2011–2013
 * General Robert C. Oaks, USAF, Commander, Tactical Air Command, 1984–1985
 * General Jerome F. O'Malley, USAF, Commander, United States Air Forces in Europe, 1990–1994

U.S. Space Force

 * General John W. Raymond, USSF, Chief of Space Operations, 2019–2022

U.S. Foreign Service

 * Ambassador Christopher R. Hill, U.S. Ambassador to Iraq, 2009–2010; Assistant Secretary of State for East Asian and Pacific Affairs, 2005–2009
 * Ambassador James B. Smith, U.S. Ambassador to Saudi Arabia, 2009–2013
 * Department of State Special Agent Bryce Frederick, U.S. DS Special Agent, 2019–2021

U.S. Civil Service

 * Kat Cammack, U.S. Representative, Florida's 3rd congressional district, 2021-
 * Frank Jimenez, former General Counsel, U.S. Department of the Navy, 2006–2009
 * Hugo Teufel III, 2nd Chief Privacy Officer, Department of Homeland Security in the Government of the United States, 2006–2009
 * Sean Spicer, 30th White House Press Secretary, 2017–2017

Notable international graduates

 * Vice Admiral Zahir Uddin Ahmed, Chief of Naval Staff, Bangladesh Navy, 2009–2013
 * Vice Admiral Tomás Gomez Arroyo Spanish Navy, 1972–1973.
 * Admiral Panagiotis Chinofotis, Chief of the Hellenic National Defense General Staff, 2005–?.
 * Rear Admiral Benjamin Ohene-Kwapong Chief of the Naval Staff, Ghana Navy, 1985–1990.
 * Admiral Arun Prakash, Chief of the Naval Staff, Indian Navy, and Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, India, 2004–2006.
 * Vice Admiral Mohammed Farid Habib, Chief of Naval Staff, Bangladesh Navy, 2013–current
 * Vice Admiral Kamal Habibollahi, Last Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy 1975–1979.
 * Rear-Admiral Lai Chung Han, Chief of the Republic of Singapore Navy, 2014–2017.
 * Admiral Devendra Kumar Joshi, Chief of the Naval Staff, Indian Navy, 2012–2014.
 * President Émile Lahoud, 15th President of Lebanon from November 1998 to November 2007.
 * Admiral Radhakrishna Hariram Tahiliani, Chief of the Naval Staff, Indian Navy, 1984–1987.
 * Vice Admiral Mateo M Mayuga AFP Flag Officer In Command, Philippine Navy 09 Dec 10 - 09 Dec 07
 * Vice Admiral Mark Mellett, Chief of Staff of Defence Forces Ireland 2015–2021
 * Admiral Nirmal Kumar Verma, Chief of the Naval Staff, Indian Navy, 2009–2012.
 * Admiral Thisara Samarasinghe, Commander, Sri Lankan Navy (2009–2011) and Sri Lankan High Commissioner to Australia.
 * Vice Admiral Russ Shalders, Chief of Navy, Australia, 2005–2008.
 * Rear Admiral Predrag Stipanović, Commander of Croatian Navy (2015–present)
 * General Håkan Syrén, Supreme Commander of the Swedish Armed Forces, 2003–2009; Chairman, European Union Military Committee, 2009–?.
 * Vice Admiral Ko Tun-hwa former Vice Minister of Defense, Republic of China and is currently the National Policy Advisor to the President of the Republic of China (Taiwan).
 * King Tupou VI of Tonga, ʻAhoʻeitu ʻUnuakiʻotonga Tukuʻaho
 * Rear Admiral Mohan Wijewickrama, Governor of Eastern Province and former chief of staff, Sri Lanka Navy
 * Admiral Dato' Seri Panglima Ahmad Kamarulzaman, Chief of Navy, Royal Malaysian Navy, Nov 18, 2015 – present
 * Vice Admiral Edmundo Nestor Martin Felix Pimentel, Chief of Navy, Dominican Republic, Feb 2014-Feb. 2016. Currently President of the National Directorate for Drug Control (DNCD).
 * Vice Admiral Miguel E. Peña Acosta, Chief of Navy, Dominican Republic, Feb 2016–Present.
 * Rear Admiral Romulo Espaldon, first rear admiral of the Philippine Navy.
 * Rear Admiral Sinsy Nghipandua second Namibian Navy Commander
 * Vice Admiral Adeluis Bordado, Flag Officer in Command Philippine Navy
 * Issah Adam Yakubu, Chief of Naval Staff (Ghana)

Notable faculty

 * Stephen E. Ambrose, historian and biographer
 * Edward L. Beach Jr., author of Run Silent, Run Deep, inaugural holder of the Stephen B. Luce Chair of Naval Science
 * Yoram Dinstein (born 1936), Israeli President of Tel Aviv University
 * John B. Hattendorf, naval historian, Ernest J. King Professor of Maritime History
 * Alfred Thayer Mahan, historian, author of The Influence of Sea Power upon History
 * Jeffrey H. Norwitz, former John Nicholas Brown Chair of Counterterrorism
 * James R. Soley, naval historian and first civilian faculty member

title: Naval War College


text:
John Sevier

John Sevier (September 23, 1745 – September 24, 1815) was an American soldier, frontiersman, and politician, and one of the founding fathers of the State of Tennessee. A member of the Democratic-Republican Party, he played a leading role in Tennessee's pre-statehood period, both militarily and politically, and he was elected the state's first governor in 1796. He served as a colonel of the Washington District Regiment in the Battle of Kings Mountain in 1780, and he commanded the frontier militia in dozens of battles against the Cherokee in the 1780s and 1790s.

Sevier settled in the Tennessee Valley frontier in the 1770s. In 1776, he was elected one of five magistrates of the Watauga Association and helped defend Fort Watauga against an assault by the Cherokee. At the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War, he was chosen as a member of the Committee of Safety for the association's successor, the Washington District. Following the Battle of Kings Mountain, he led an invasion that destroyed several Cherokee towns in northern Georgia. In the 1780s, he served as the only governor of the State of Franklin, an early attempt at statehood by the trans-Appalachian settlers. He was brigadier general of the Southwest Territory militia during the early 1790s.

Sevier served six two-year terms as Tennessee's governor: from 1796 until 1801, and from 1803 to 1809. Term limits prevented a fourth consecutive term in both instances. His political career was marked by a growing rivalry with rising politician Andrew Jackson, which nearly culminated in a duel in 1803. After his last term as governor, Sevier was elected to three terms in the United States House of Representatives from Tennessee, serving from 1811 until his death in 1815.

Early life
Sevier was born in 1745 in Augusta County in the Colony of Virginia, near the present-day town of New Market (Sevier's birthplace is now part of modern-day Rockingham County).

John Sevier was the oldest of seven children of Valentine Sevier and Joanna Goad. His father, who was of Spanish ancestry (the surname Sevier was an anglicization of the Portuguese Xavier ), had immigrated from England to Baltimore in 1740 and gradually made his way to the back country and Shenandoah Valley. One of his brothers, Valentine Sevier, became a frontiersman, Revolutionary War officer, and the builder of the Sevier Station frontier outpost.

Sevier's father worked variously as a tavern keeper, fur trader, and land speculator; young John pursued similar work. At an early age he opened his own tavern, and he helped found New Market. The town claims Sevier as its founder.

In 1761 at age 16, Sevier married Sarah Hawkins and initially settled into a life of farming. Some sources suggest Sevier served as a captain in the Virginia colonial militia, under George Washington, in Lord Dunmore's War in 1773 and 1774.

Watauga Association and Washington District
In the early 1770s, Sevier and his brother Valentine began making trips to various settlements on the trans-Appalachian frontier, in what is now northeastern Tennessee. In late 1773, Sevier moved his family to the Carter Valley settlements along the Holston River. Three years later, he relocated further south to the Watauga settlements, in what is now Elizabethton, Tennessee. The Wataugans had leased their lands from the Cherokee in 1772 and had formed a fledgling government known as the Watauga Association. Sevier was appointed clerk of the Association's five-man court in 1775 and was elected to the court in 1776.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 forbade English settlement on Indian lands west of the Appalachian Mountains. As the Watauga settlements were in Cherokee territory, the British colonial officials considered them illegal. In March 1775, the settlers purchased the lands from the Cherokee, with Sevier listed as a witness to the agreement. The British refused to recognize the purchase, however, and continued to demand that the settlers leave. A band of Cherokee led by Dragging Canoe disagreed with the tribe's sale of communal lands, and began making threats against the settlers.

American Revolutionary War
With the outbreak of the American Revolution, in April 1775, the Wataugans, most of whom were sympathetic to the Patriot cause, organized the Washington District and formed a 13-member Committee of Safety. The committee, which included Sevier, submitted the "Watauga Petition" to Virginia in the spring of 1776, formally asking to be annexed, but Virginia refused. (Historian J. G. M. Ramsey suggested Sevier wrote the petition, but later historians reject this). The Wataugans then petitioned North Carolina.

Fearing an invasion by Dragging Canoe, who was receiving arms from the British, the Overmountain settlers built Fort Caswell (commonly called Fort Watauga) to guard the Watauga settlements, and Eaton's Station to guard the Holston settlements. Sevier had begun building Fort Lee to guard settlements in the Nolichucky Valley. After receiving word of an impending Cherokee invasion from Nancy Ward, the Nolichucky settlers fled to Fort Caswell, and Sevier soon followed.

The Cherokee attacks began in mid-July 1776. Dragging Canoe went north to attack the Holston settlements, while a detachment led by Old Abraham of Chilhowee invaded the Watauga settlements. On July 21, Old Abraham's forces reached Fort Caswell, which was garrisoned by 75 militia commanded by John Carter, with Sevier and James Robertson as subordinates. Catherine Sherrill, Sevier's future wife, failed to make it into the fort before the gate was locked, but Sevier managed to reach over the palisades and pull her to safety. The fort's garrison beat back the Cherokee assault, and after a two-week siege, Old Abraham retreated. The Cherokee eventually sued for peace following an invasion of the Overhill country by William Christian in October 1776.

The Wataugans sent five delegates, among them Sevier, to North Carolina's constitutional convention in November 1776. The new constitution created the "District of Washington," which included most of modern Tennessee. The new district elected Sevier to one of its two seats in the state's House of Representatives. The district became Washington County, North Carolina in 1777. Sevier was appointed lieutenant-colonel of the new county's Washington County Regiment of militia.

Battle of Kings Mountain
Following the British victory, at the Battle of Camden, in August 1780, a detachment of Loyalists, under Major Patrick Ferguson, was dispatched to suppress Patriot activity in the mountains. After routing a small force, under Charles McDowell, Ferguson sent a message to the Overmountain settlements, warning them that if they refused to lay down their arms, he would march over the mountains and "lay waste the country with fire and sword." Sevier and Sullivan County militia colonel Isaac Shelby agreed to raise armies and march across the mountains to engage Ferguson.

On September 25, 1780, the Overmountain Men, as they came to be called, gathered at Sycamore Shoals to prepare for the march. This force consisted of 240 Washington County militia commanded by Sevier, 240 Sullivan County militia commanded by Shelby, and 400 Virginians commanded by William Campbell. To provide funds for the march, Sevier obtained a loan from John Adair, putting up his own property as collateral. The combined force departed across the mountains on September 26, eventually linking up with the remnants of McDowell's men.

On October 7, the Overmountain Men caught up with and surrounded Ferguson, who had entrenched his Loyalist forces atop Kings Mountain, near the present-day North Carolina-South Carolina border. Sevier's men comprised part of the south flank, along with the forces of Campbell and McDowell. Patriot forces initially failed to break through the Loyalist lines, but the frontier sharpshooters gradually decimated the American Loyalist ranks. At the height of the battle, Sevier and Campbell charged the high point of the Loyalist position, giving the Overmountain men a foothold atop the mountain. Ferguson was killed while trying to break through Sevier's line, and the Loyalists surrendered shortly afterward. Sevier's brother, Captain Robert Sevier, was mortally wounded in the battle.

Cherokee and Chickamauga wars
Upon returning from Kings Mountain, Sevier was told by Nancy Ward of an impending Cherokee attack. He organized a 300-man force and marched south. On December 16, 1780, he routed a Cherokee force at the Battle of Boyd's Creek, near modern Sevierville. A few days later, he was joined by a contingent of Virginia militia led by Arthur Campbell, and the combined forces continued south, occupying the Cherokee town of Chota on December 25. They captured and burned Cherokee towns of Chilhowee and Tallassee three days later. Sevier and Campbell proceeded as far as the Hiwassee River, where they burned the villages of Great Hiwassee and Chestoee, before beginning the march home on New Year's Day.

In February 1781, Sevier was commissioned as colonel-commandant of the Washington County militia, following the death of John Carter. Shortly afterward, he embarked on an expedition against the Cherokee Middle Towns, which lay on the other side of the mountains in the vicinity of modern Bryson City, North Carolina. Emerging from the mountains in March, his 150-man force took the village of Tuckasegee by surprise, killing about 50 and capturing several other Cherokee. Facing little opposition, he proceeded to destroy about 15 villages before returning home.

In September 1782, Sevier set out on an expedition against Dragging Canoe and his band of Cherokee, who had become concentrated in a string of villages in northern Georgia and Alabama. Because Dragging Canoe's band had earlier been settled near the Chickamauga River, settlers called them the "Chickamauga" Cherokee, but they were never a separate tribe. Sevier defeated a small force near Lookout Mountain, and destroyed several Cherokee villages along the Coosa River. Chief Oconostota helped negotiate peace between the newly founded America and the Cherokee people, bringing an end to the battles between the two nations.

State of Franklin
In June 1784, North Carolina, bowing to pressure, from the Continental Congress and eager to be rid of an expensive and unprofitable district, ceded its lands west of the Appalachian Mountains to the federal government. However, Congress did not immediately accept the lands, creating a vacuum of power in what is now Tennessee. In August 1784, Sevier served as president of a convention held at Jonesborough with the aim of establishing a new state. In March of the following year, he was elected governor of the proposed state, which was named "Franklin" in honor of Benjamin Franklin.

In October 1784, North Carolina rescinded the cession and reasserted its claim to the Tennessee region. Sevier initially supported this, in part because he was offered a promotion to brigadier general, but he was persuaded by William Cocke to remain with the Franklinites. Though Sevier had popular support, a number of men from Washington County, led by John Tipton, remained loyal to North Carolina. As a result, two parallel governments were operating in Tennessee. Both elected public officials. Relations between the two governments were initially cordial, though a rivalry developed between Sevier and Tipton.

As North Carolina and Franklin competed for the loyalties of the residents of the area, Sevier became involved in intrigues with Georgia to gain control of Cherokee lands in what is now northern Alabama. He had taken out claims on several thousand acres of land. He also considered an alliance with Spain, whose Governor Esteban Rodríguez Miró tried to sway Sevier, but the American eventually abandoned that idea.

In June 1785, Sevier negotiated the Treaty of Dumplin Creek, in which the Cherokee gave up claims to lands south of the French Broad River as far as the Little River–Little Tennessee River divide. The following year, he negotiated the Treaty of Coyatee, which extended the boundary to the Little Tennessee River. The State of Franklin created three new counties (modern Cocke, Sevier, and Blount counties). The United States Senate never ratified these treaties, however, as required to make them legal between a tribe and the government. The fate of the European-American settlers who moved into these areas remained in limbo for years.

In February 1788, the rivalry between Sevier and Tipton came to a head, in what became known as the "Battle of Franklin." While Sevier was campaigning against the Cherokee, Tipton ordered some of Sevier's slaves to be seized for taxes supposedly owed to North Carolina. In response, Sevier led 150 militia to Tipton's farm, which was defended by about 45 loyalists supporting North Carolina. Both sides demanded the other surrender, and briefly exchanged gunfire. On February 29, two days after the siege began, loyalist reinforcements from Sullivan County arrived on the scene and scattered the Franklinites. Sevier retreated, though not before two men were killed. Two of Sevier's sons and other Franklin supporters were captured, but all were subsequently released.

In the summer of 1788, several Kirke family settlers were killed by renegade Cherokee warriors, in Blount County, in what became known by European Americans as the "Nine Mile Creek Massacre". In response, Sevier invaded and destroyed several Cherokee towns in the Little Tennessee Valley. Several Cherokee leaders met with Sevier under a flag of truce to discuss peace. But John Kirke, a member of the murdered family, attacked the delegation and killed several chiefs, including Old Tassel and Old Abraham of Chilhowee. The Cherokee were enraged, resulting in new supporters for Dragging Canoe in his resistance to the European Americans.

Following the Battle of Franklin, support for Sevier and the State of Franklin collapsed among settlers in areas north of the French Broad River. North Carolina Governor Samuel Johnston issued a warrant for his arrest in July 1788. In October, after Sevier attacked David Deaderick, a Jonesborough store owner, for refusing to sell him liquor, Tipton and his men captured the leader. He was sent to Morganton, North Carolina, to stand trial for treason. He was released by Burke County Sheriff William Morrison (a Kings Mountain veteran), before the trial began.

In January 1789, Sevier defeated a large Cherokee invasion led by John Watts at the Battle of Flint Creek near Jonesborough.

Southwest Territory
In February 1789, Sevier took the oath of allegiance to North Carolina. He was pardoned by North Carolina Governor Alexander Martin and elected to the North Carolina State Senate. When the senate convened the Fayetteville Convention in November 1789, Sevier was a delegate from Greene County and worked to gain the North Carolina's ratification of the U.S. Constitution. After it was ratified on November 23, Sevier helped engineer a second cession act, which passed with little opposition in December. This transferred the territory from North Carolina, of what is now the state of Tennessee, to the federal government.

To administer the new cession, Congress created the Southwest Territory in the spring of 1790; it was administered under the Northwest Ordinance. Sevier was appointed brigadier general of the territorial militia. William Blount, a fellow land speculator and North Carolina politician, was appointed governor of the territory. In June 1791, Blount negotiated the Treaty of Holston, which resolved the land disputes with the Cherokee created by the Treaty of Dumplin Creek.

Just before the cession, the territory was designated as North Carolina's 5th congressional district. Sevier was elected to represent it in the first Congress. By the time he arrived in New York City, where the new government was temporarily situated, the cession of Tennessee had taken place. Sevier was permitted to serve out his term although he no longer represented an existing North Carolina district.

In the fall of 1793, following a Cherokee attack on Cavett's Station west of Knoxville, Sevier led the territorial militia south into Georgia to their base territory. He defeated a Cherokee force at the Battle of Hightower and destroyed several villages. The following year, President George Washington appointed Sevier to the Southwest Territory council, a body that operated similar to that of a state senate. That same year, he was appointed to the first board of trustees of Blount College, the forerunner of the University of Tennessee.

Governor of Tennessee
In 1796, the Southwest Territory was admitted to the Union as the State of Tennessee. Sevier missed the state's constitutional convention while serving on the territorial council in Washington, but he was elected the new state's first governor. Sevier made the acquisition of Indian lands a priority. He consistently urged Congress and the Secretary of War (then responsible for relations with Native American tribes) to negotiate new treaties to that end, to extinguish Indian land claims and promote European-American settlement.

During his first term as governor, Sevier developed a rivalry with rising politician Andrew Jackson. In 1796, Jackson campaigned for the position of major-general of the state militia but Sevier threw his support behind George Conway. Jackson learned that Sevier had referred to him as a "poor pitiful petty fogging lawyer" in private correspondence. In 1797, Jackson, then serving as a U.S. Senator, learned that fraud had taken place in the 1780s at what was then North Carolina's Nashville land office. He notified the governor of North Carolina. When the governor demanded the office's documents, Sevier blocked their transfer. Jackson concluded that Sevier was somehow involved in the scandal.

Sevier was a Freemason, and, while in office as governor, he helped establish the first Masonic lodge in East Tennessee. Tennessee Lodge #2 in Knoxville received its charter from the Grand Lodge of North Carolina on November 30, 1800, and John Sevier was its first Worshipful Master. Tennessee Lodge was the second Masonic lodge within the state of Tennessee, the first being St. Tammany Lodge #1, chartered in Nashville in 1796.

After Sevier's third (two-year) term as governor, term limits prevented him from seeking a fourth consecutive term. Archibald Roane was elected as his replacement. Both Sevier and Jackson campaigned for major-general of the militia: the vote ended in a tie, and Roane chose Jackson. When Sevier announced his candidacy for governor in 1803, Roane and Jackson publicized documents acquired from the Nashville land office scandal and accused Sevier of bribery. Their efforts to smear Sevier were unsuccessful, however, and the popular Sevier easily defeated Roane in the election.

Following his inauguration, Sevier encountered Jackson in Knoxville. They had an argument during which Sevier accused Jackson of adultery in his marriage to Rachel Donelson. An enraged Jackson challenged Sevier to a duel, which he accepted. The duel was to take place at Southwest Point, but Sevier's wagon stalled at Campbell's Station en route to the duel. As Jackson returned to Knoxville, he encounted Sevier's entourage. The two men loudly exchanged insults, and Sevier's horse ran away, carrying his pistols. Jackson pointed his pistol at Sevier, who hid behind a tree. Sevier's son pointed his pistol at Jackson, and Jackson's second pointed his pistol at Sevier's son. Members of both parties managed to resolve the incident before bloodshed took place.

In 1804, Sevier helped William C. C. Claiborne get appointed governor of the newly acquired Louisiana Territory, a position which Jackson had sought. Jackson supported Roane in the state's gubernatorial election in 1805, but Sevier won with nearly two-thirds of the vote. Sevier's last campaign for governor was in 1807, when he defeated William Cocke.

Later life

Barred by term limits from a fourth consecutive term as governor, Sevier sought support in 1809 from the state legislature for one of the state's U.S. Senate seats, but the legislature chose Joseph Anderson. (Popular election of senators did not happen until after a constitutional amendment in the early 20th century.) Sevier ran for the Knox County seat in the Tennessee State Senate, winning easily. In 1811, Sevier was elected to the U.S. Congress for the state's TN's 2nd congressional district. Sevier was a strong supporter of the War of 1812. President James Madison offered him a command in the army, but Sevier turned it down.

According to the early Tennessee historian Dr. J.G.M. Ramsey, Sevier attended the Lebanon In The Fork Presbyterian Church east of Knoxville with members of his family, but he was not a formal member of the church. He never served as an elder. "His last wife was a member," wrote Ramsey, "but he was Gullis-like and cared for none of these things."

In 1815, Sevier died in the Alabama Territory while conducting a survey of lands which Jackson had recently acquired from the Creek tribe (Muscogee) through the Treaty of Fort Jackson. He was buried along the Tallapoosa River near Fort Decatur.

In 1889, at the request of Governor Robert Love Taylor, Sevier's remains were re-interred in the Knox County Courthouse lawn in Knoxville. A monument was placed on the grave in 1893, in a ceremony that included a speech by historian Oliver Perry Temple. In 1922, the remains of his second wife, Catherine Sherill, were re-interred next to Sevier's. A monument recognizing his first wife, Sarah Hawkins, was placed at the site in 1946.

Legacy
In his book, The Lost State of Franklin, Kevin Barksdale says that Sevier was driven, at least in part, by a desire to acquire his own land claims in the trans-Appalachian region. For many East Tennesseans, he represented "rugged individualism, regional exceptionalism, and civic dignity." For nearly a century after his death, historians such as Ramsey and Oliver Perry Temple heaped unconditional praise upon Sevier and romanticized various events in his life. Later authors, such as Theodore Roosevelt (Winning of the West) and Samuel Cole Williams (History of the Lost State of Franklin), added a more objective perspective to accounts of this period.

Several historians argue that the rivalry between John Sevier and Andrew Jackson was the root of the factionalism that divided East Tennessee and the rest of the state in subsequent decades. But the sections were also divided by their geography, land characteristics, and settlement patterns. East Tennessee was dominated by yeoman farmers who generally owned few slaves. Middle Tennessee had numerous planters and slaveowners, who cultivated commodity crops such as tobacco and hemp based on the labor of enslaved African Americans. West Tennessee, along the lowlands of the Mississippi River, became dominated by large cotton plantations and planters who held numerous slaves. East Tennessee voters gradually developed support for the Whig Party in the 1830s, and most were Unionists during the Civil War. Following the war, majority-white East Tennessee remained one of the South's few predominantly white Republican regions into the early 20th century.

Monuments and memorials

In the 1770s, Sevier established a plantation, Mount Pleasant, along the Nolichucky River south of Jonesborough. This site inspired his nickname, "Nolichucky Jack." He moved to Knoxville in 1797, where he began construction of what later became the James Park House.

He completed only the foundation, however, before relocating to Marble Springs, a plantation he owned in South Knoxville. A log cabin still standing at this site has been attributed to Sevier. But a dendrochronological analysis of the cabin's logs, conducted by the University of Tennessee, suggests the cabin was built well after his death. Marble Springs has been designated as a state historic site associated with Sevier and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.

Numerous municipal and civic entities are named in honor of Sevier. These include Sevier County, Tennessee, and its county seat, Sevierville; Governor John Sevier Highway in South Knoxville; John Sevier Middle School in Kingsport; and John Sevier Elementary School in Maryville. Other entities named for him include a coal-fired power plant operated by the Tennessee Valley Authority near Rogersville, a railroad classification yard operated by Norfolk Southern in east Knox County, and a dormitory at Austin Peay State University in Clarksville.

The Knoxville-based Bonny Kate Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution is named for Sevier's wife, Catherine Sherrill. The later Bonny Kate Elementary in South Knoxville was also named for her. The John Sevier-Sarah Hawkins chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution in Johnson City is also named in honor of Sevier and his first wife.

In 1931, a statue of Sevier, created by Leopold and Belle Kinney Scholz, was dedicated at the National Statuary Hall Collection of the U. S. Capitol. Other monuments include a bust on the first floor of the Tennessee State Capitol, and Daughters of American Revolution monuments at Marble Springs in Knoxville and at Myrtle Hill Cemetery in Rome, Georgia. A monument to Sevier's father, Valentine Sevier ("the immigrant ancestor," as distinguished from John's brother, also named Valentine), has been placed at Sycamore Shoals State Historic Park in Elizabethton.

Tennessee's first office building built specifically for state government offices is the John Sevier State Office Building. The six-story building opened in 1940 adjacent to the State Capital Building in downtown Nashville.

Family
A marker exists on the current grave of John Sevier on the lawn of the Old Knox County Courthouse. This marker claims his birth date was September 23, 1744, in contradiction to most sources that claim his birth year of 1745.

No evidence exists for the descent of Sevier from the royal family of St. Francis Xavier of Navarre. The name "Sevier" is an anglicized form of "Xavier" and suggests the family originated in the village of Javier, Spain. In the 17th century, some members of the Xavier family became Protestants (Huguenots). In 1685, following the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, Sevier's grandfather, Don Juan Xavier, moved to London to escape religious persecution. He changed his name to the anglicized John Sevier. Sevier's father, Valentine "The Immigrant" Sevier, was born in London and immigrated to the colonies in 1740.

John Sevier married Sarah Hawkins (1746–1780) in 1761. They had ten children: Joseph, James, John, Elizabeth, Sarah, Mary Ann, Valentine (namesake of the paternal grandfather), Rebecca, Richard, and Nancy. Following Sarah's death, Sevier married Catherine Sherrill (1754–1836). They had eight children together: Catherine, Ruthe, George Washington, Samuel, Polly, Eliza, Joanna, and Robert.

Sevier's descendants followed other migrants south and west. His grandnephew, Ambrose Hundley Sevier, served as one of the first U.S. senators from Arkansas. Sevier County, Arkansas, is named for him. The Conway family, which dominated early Arkansas state politics, were cousins of the Seviers. Henry Conway was a friend of John Sevier, and served as Treasurer of the State of Franklin. Two of Sevier's sons, James and John, married Conway's daughters, Nancy and Elizabeth, respectively. Henry Conway was the grandfather of Ambrose Sevier and James Sevier Conway, who was Arkansas's first governor.

By the mid-19th century, another branch of the Sevier descendants had settled in Madison Parish, Louisiana, in the northeast part of the state. George Washington Sevier, Sr. (1858–1925), born to a planter family, was elected as a member of the Madison Parish Police Jury. He served as the parish tax assessor from 1891 to 1916. Other members served in local offices of Tallulah, the parish seat, as well as the parish, and state legislature, through 1974. William Putnam "Buck" Sevier, Jr.,a banker, had a 44-year career in elected office, capped by serving as mayor of Tallulah from 1946 to 1974.

title: John Sevier


text:
USNA (disambiguation)

USNA may refer to:
 * United States Naval Academy
 * United Service for New Americans, an aid organization to help resettle Jewish survivor of World War II
 * United States of North America (disambiguation)
 * United States National Army

title: USNA (disambiguation)


text:
Talk:Naval War College

Untitled
Although it's tempting to add a "United States" on the front, it's not part of its full formal name (unlike USNA for example), plus there seems not to be a "Naval War College" belonging to any other country. Stan 07:13, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Master of Arts for international students
I was an international student in the Naval War College (Naval Staff College, class of 2006) and the statement is true: never has the NWC given a Master Degree to an international student, something that is usual in the other Staff Colleges (Army and Air Force)of the US. Even if you choose to participate in the whole program, and you take all the exams and complete all the tasks at the same level than the American guys (well, in some cases even better) you don't get the Master Degree, something harming for the future of the international programs (the subsidized countries excluded). So there is nothing to discuss about the current content of the article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.141.96.53 (talk) 21:19, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

 * I assume you're referring to the citation needed tag after that statement. On Wikipedia, all information should be cited from reliable sources, and any uncted info can be tagged for a citation, and removed if one is not provided. I am sure you realize that as an internet encyclopedia with open editing, anyone can claim anything, and they often do. This is one reason why WP requires Reliable Sources, as the threshold on WP is verifiability, not truth. - BillCJ (talk) 21:42, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

Merge with Naval War College Museum
I do not support merging the article Naval War College Museum with the article on the Naval War College. The museum contains a broader scope than just the history of the Naval War College. IMHO, the museum rates a separate article. Thanks. FieldMarine (talk) 01:10, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

Naval Marshal General Isoroku Yamamoto, commander-in-chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War II.
The reference from Yamamoto's own Wikipedia page says that he was part of a delegation to NWC, not a graduate. "On 13 April 1924 at the rank of captain, he was part of the Japanese delegation visiting the U.S. Naval War College.[3]" I suggest that he be removed as a graduate from NWC. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.150.213.64 (talk) 03:40, 6 July 2010 (UTC)

That really is an old picture of the Naval War College
Really! See http://www.loc.gov/pictures/resource/ggbain.13974/ The picture is from the eastern passage of the Narragansett Bay passing the War College to the west. That sea wall still exists. JMOprof (talk) 01:03, 21 August 2012 (UTC)

Article reads like a brochure for the school
Much of this article reads like a brochure for the Naval War College. (I just edited a section that said something like "the course offered here" or "the course that our students take," apparently copied directly from a brochure or other promotional piece published by the War College itself.) I cleaned up some of it but don't have the time to clean it all up. I can't find an appropriate template for an "improve this article" box to appear at the top of the article. Can anyone suggest an appropriate article flag or box? Thank you. Holy (talk) 17:57, 1 August 2013 (UTC)
 * I agree, the entire article still reads like a NWC publication (even stating "our research arm"). It's all glowing stuff about how they've expanded this or taught that.  I would not be surprised if the NWC web site had some of this material word-for-word.  This could be an interesting subject, wish I had time for it.  --Bridgecross (talk) 14:25, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

External links modified (February 2018)
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 * Added archive https://www.webcitation.org/5u5jyq3ID?url=http://www.usnwc.edu/NWCSite/images/about/NWCPastPresidents.aspx to http://www.usnwc.edu/NWCSite/images/about/NWCPastPresidents.aspx

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title: Talk:Naval War College


text:
NWC

NWC may stand for:
 * NASCAR Winston Cup
 * National War College
 * National Weather Center
 * National Whistleblower Center
 * National Working Committee
 * National Wrestling Conference, wrestling promotion
 * Native wifi calling, direct support in mobile OS for VoWifi
 * Naval War College
 * Netball World Championships
 * Network-centric warfare
 * Net working capital
 * New World Computing
 * Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection
 * Nintendo World Championships
 * Norbert Wiener Center for Harmonic Analysis and Applications
 * Northwestern College (Iowa)
 * Northwestern College (Minnesota)
 * Northwestern College (Wisconsin) now part of Martin Luther College
 * Northwest Conference
 * Northwest College in Powell, Wyoming
 * North West Company
 * NoteWorthy Composer, a graphical score editor (software used for creating sheet music) or its .nwc file extension.

title: NWC


text:
Op-ed

An op-ed piece is a short newspaper column that represents a writer's strong, informed, and focused opinion on an issue of relevance to a targeted audience. It is a written prose piece that expresses the opinion of an author or entity with no affiliation with the publication's editorial board. The term is short for "opposite the editorial page", referring to the practice of newspapers placing op-eds on the opposite side of their editorial page. The New York Times is often credited with developing and naming the modern op-ed page.

Origin
The "Page Op.", created in 1921 by Herbert Bayard Swope of The New York Evening World, is a possible precursor to the modern op-ed. When Swope took over as main editor in 1920, he opted to designate a page from editorial staff as "a catchall for book reviews, society boilerplate, and obituaries". Swope explained:

"It occurred to me that nothing is more interesting than opinion when opinion is interesting, so I devised a method of cleaning off the page opposite the editorial, which became the most important in America ... and thereon I decided to print opinions, ignoring facts."

With the development and availability of radio and television broadcasting as major information outlets, stakeholders and print journalism workers sought to increase or maintain their audience and relevance. According to the Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia, major newspapers such as The New York Times and The Washington Post began including more opinionated journalism, adding more columns and increasing the extent of their opinion pages to drive public participation and readership.

The modern op-ed page was developed in 1970 under the direction of The New York Times editor John B. Oakes. Media scholar Michael J. Socolow writes of Oakes' innovation:

"The Times' effort synthesized various antecedents and editorial visions. Journalistic innovation is usually complex and typically involves multiple external factors. The Times' op-ed page appeared in an era of democratizing cultural and political discourse and economic distress for the company itself. The newspaper's executives developed a place for outside contributors with space reserved for sale at a premium rate for additional commentaries and other purposes."The New York Times ' first op-ed page appeared on 21 September 1970.

Possible conflicts of interest
The relationship between op-eds, editors, and funding from interest groups has been a concern. In 2011, in an open letter to The New York Times, a group of U.S. journalists and academics called for conflict of interest transparency in op-eds.

title: Op-ed