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Pacific Fur Company

The Pacific Fur Company (PFC) was an American fur trade venture wholly owned and funded by John Jacob Astor that functioned from 1810 to 1813. It was based in the Pacific Northwest, an area contested over the decades among the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Spanish Empire, the United States of America and the Russian Empire.

Management, clerks and fur trappers were sent both by land and by sea to the Pacific Coast in the Autumn of 1810. The base of operations was constructed at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811, Fort Astoria (present-day Astoria, Oregon). The destruction of the company vessel the Tonquin later that year off the shore of Vancouver Island took with it the majority of the annual trading goods. Commercial competition with the British-Canadian North West Company began soon after the foundation of Fort Astoria. The Canadian competitors maintained several stations in the interior, primarily Spokane House, Kootanae House and Saleesh House. Fort Okanogan was also opened in 1811, the first of several PFC posts created to counter these locations. The Overland Expedition faced military hostilities from several Indigenous cultures and later had an acute provision crisis leading to starvation. Despite losing men crossing the Great Plains and later at the Snake River, they arrived in groups throughout January and February 1812 at Fort Astoria.

A beneficial agreement with the Russian-American Company was also planned through the regular supply of provisions for posts in Russian America. This was planned in part to prevent the rival Montreal based North West Company (NWC) to gain a presence along the Pacific Coast, a prospect neither Russian colonial authorities nor Astor favored.

The lack of military protection during the War of 1812 forced the sale of PFC assets to the NWC. While the transactions were not finalized until 1814, due to the distance from Fort Astoria to Montreal and New York City, the company was functionally defunct by 1813. A party of Astorians returning overland to St. Louis in 1813 made the important discovery of the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. This geographic feature would later be used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling over the Oregon, California, and Mormon routes, collectively called the Westward Expansion Trails. The emporium envisioned by Astor was a failure for a number of reasons, including the loss of two supply ships, the material difficulties of crossing the North American continent and competition from the North West Company. Historian Arthur S. Morton concluded that "The misfortunes which befell the Pacific Fur Company were great, but such as might be expected at the initiation of an enterprise in a distant land whose difficulties and whose problems lay beyond the experience of the traders."

Formation

John Jacob Astor was a merchant of New York City and founder of the American Fur Company. To create a chain of trading stations spread across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Northwest, he incorporated an AFC subsidiary, the Pacific Fur Company. The commercial venture was originally designed to last for twenty years. Unlike its major competitor the Canadian owned NWC, the Pacific Fur Company was not a Joint-stock company. Capital for the PFC amounted to $200,000 divided into 100 shares individually valued at $2,000 and was funded entirely by Astor. The American Fur Company held half of the stock and the other half divided among prospective management and clerks. The chief representative of Astor in the daily operations was Wilson Price Hunt, a St. Louis businessman with no outback experience who received five shares. Each working partner was assigned four shares with the remaining shares held in reserve for hired clerks. Fellow partners in the venture were recruited from the NWC, the members being Alexander McKay, David Stuart, Duncan McDougall, and Donald Mackenzie. Astor and the partners met in New York on 23 June 1810 to sign the Pacific Fur Company's provisional agreement.

To establish the fledgling PFC trade posts in the distant Oregon Country, Astor's plan called for an extensive movement of large groups of employees overland following the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and navally by sailing around Cape Horn. The venture was planned on methods used in the AFC for the collection of fur pelts. Complements of employees (later called "Astorians") would operate in various parts of the region to complete trapping excursions. Outposts maintained by the PFC would be freighted necessary foodstuffs and supplies by annual cargo ships from New York City. Trade goods such as beads, blankets, and copper would be exchanged with the local Native Americans for fur pelts.

Ongoing supply issues faced by the Russian-American Company were seen as a means to gain more furs. Cargo ships en route from the Columbia were planned to then sail north for Russian America to bring much needed provisions. By cooperating with Russian colonial authorities to strengthen their material presence in Russian America, it was hoped by Astor to stop the NWC or any other British presence to be established upon the Pacific Coast. A tentative agreement for merchant vessels owned by Astor to ship furs gathered in Russian America into the Qing Empire was signed in 1812. Company ships then were directed to sail to the port of Guangzhou, where furs were then sold for impressive profits. Chinese products like porcelain, nankeens and tea were to be purchased; with the ships then to cross the Indian Ocean and head for European and American markets to sell the Chinese wares.

Labor recruitment
The PFC required a sizable number of laborers, fur trappers and in particular Voyageurs to staff company locations. Recruiting for the company's two expeditions were led by Wilson Hunt and Donald Mackenzie for the overland party and Alexander McKay for the naval bound group. All three men were based out of Montreal throughout May to July 1810. Hunt was designated to lead the Overland Expedition, despite his inexperience in dealing with Indigenous cultures, or residing in the wilderness. It was suggested that Hunt instead trade positions with McKay and travel on the Tonquin. However, it was determined to keep Hunt in charge of the land party.

The customary time for free agents to be sent into the interior from Montreal was in May, leaving few men left in the city available for hire. The recruitment effort stalled in part from the bitter treatment by the NWC and Hunt's lack of prior experience as a fur merchant, the source of many issues later on. PFC contracts were atypically favorable for hired men when compared to its Montreal competitors. Terms included a forty percent larger annual salary, double the cash advanced prior to departure and a length of service lasting five years, rather than the more common two or three year employment.

McKay's efforts

During the summer of 1810, Alexander McKay hired thirteen French-Canadians for the Tonquin. The majority of the group remained in Montreal until late July, when they given directives to withdraw to New York City. A canoe provided transportation for the trip down the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. At Whitehall additional men that were employed by McKay joined the southbound party, among them Ovide de Montigny. On 3 August they reached New York City, with the group's "hats decorated with parti-colored ribands and feathers..." causing some Americans to believe them to Natives. The following day lodgings at Long Island were reached and the scene was described by clerk Gabriel Franchère:"'We sang as we rowed; which, joined to the unusual sight of a birch bark canoe impelled by nine stout Canadians, dark as Indians, and as gayly adorned, attracted a crowd upon the wharves to gaze at us as we glided along.'" While waiting to depart for the Pacific, McKay met with British diplomatic official Francis James Jackson. The official assured McKay that in the event of war between the United States and United Kingdom, all PFC employees that were British employees would be treated as such.

Hunt's efforts

Thirteen men signed contracts in Montreal to join Hunt on the journey to the Pacific coast by land. Notably only one had previously operated under a contract lasting longer than a year. The generous cash advancements were taken advantage by three men who deserted before Hunt and the remaining group left the city for Michilimackinac in July. The party reached Mackinac Island on 28 July 1810. Acting as a major depot for the regional Great Lakes fur trade, the island was where Hunt focused on hiring more men for the company. The veteran fur merchant Ramsay Crooks was convinced to join the company and assisted in recruiting additional men. Over the sixteen days spent there, a total seventeen men were recruited to the concern with sixteen being French-Canadian. This group of men, unlike those hired in Montreal, had extensive experience working in the fur trade as voyageurs and other roles. Likely suggested by Crooks, interested men already hired by other companies would have their contracts purchased from their employers.

After the men were finally gathered in early August, Hunt and the party departed for St. Louis and arrived there on 3 September. The hired voyageurs and fur trappers completed many transactions with various merchants in St. Louis and in the nearby French-Canadian settlement of Ste. Genevieve throughout September and October. These were recorded on the company ledger and particular purchases been argued as the men collecting goods to trade with various Indigenous nations they would visit. In particular, these negotiations by the French-Canadians have been thought to be steps towards later establishing themselves as independent traders in relatively unexploited fur regions. Most of the men in the Overland Party were engaged as hunters, interpreters, guides and voyageurs.

Oceanic component
The advanced party was sent to create the initial base of operations at the mouth of the Columbia River. Necessary trade goods for deals with Indigenous and needed supplies to establish the station were shipped on the same vessel In addition to beginning the company headquarters, this party would block any attempts by the NWC to create a station in the area. The ship Tonquin was purchased by Astor in 1810 to start commercial operations on the Pacific Ocean. The majority of the company partners. Duncan McDougall, David and Robert Stuart, and Alexander McKay would head this detachment. In addition, clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross would join them on the planned voyage.

The Tonquin

Under the command of Jonathan Thorn the Tonquin left New York on September 8, 1810. PFC employees numbered thirty-three men in total on board. The vessel landed at the Falkland Islands on 4 December to make repairs and take on water supplies at Port Egmont. Captain Thorn attempted to abandon eight of the crew still on shore, among them clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross. The stranded men were taken on board after Robert Stuart threatened to kill Thorn. Communication between company workers was no longer held in English to keep the captain excluded from discussions. Company partners held talks in their ancestral Scottish Gaelic and the laborers used Canadian French. On December 25 the Tonquin rounded Cape Horn and sailed north into the Pacific Ocean.

The ship anchored at the Kingdom of Hawaii in February 1811. Due to the possibility of men abandoning their posts to live in the tropical islands, Thorn assembled all of the crew and PFC employees to harass them to remain on the ship. Commercial transactions with Hawaiians saw the crew purchasing cabbage, sugar cane, purple yams, taro, coconuts, watermelon, breadfruit, hogs, goats, two sheep, and poultry in return for "glass beads, iron rings, needles, cotton cloth". Upon entering Honolulu, the crew was greeted by Isaac Davis and Francisco de Paula Marín, the latter acting an interpreter in negotiations with Kamehameha I and prominent government official Kalanimoku. 24 Native Hawaiian Kanakas were hired with the approval of Kamehameha I, who appointed Naukane to oversee their interests.

The Columbia River was reached in March 1811. Despite stormy conditions, over several days Thorn ordered two boats dispatched to scout a safe route over the treacherous Columbia Bar. Both boats would capsize and eight men lost their lives. Finally on March 24, the Tonquin crossed the bar, passing into the Columbia’s estuary and laid anchor in Baker’s Bay. Captain Thorn stressed the urgency for the Tonquin to start trading further north along the Pacific Coast as instructed by Astor. After 65 days on the Columbia River, the Tonquin departed with a crew of 23 with McKay was aboard the ship as supercargo. At Vancouver Island she was boarded by the Tla-o-qui-aht people of Clayoquot Sound, where Thorn caused an uproar by hitting a Tla-o-qui-aht noble with a pelt. In the ensuing conflict all of men brought on the Tonquin were killed besides an interpreter from the Quinault nation and the ship was destroyed. This put the occupants of Fort Astoria in a tough position, having no access to seaborne transport until the following year.

Fort Astoria

Construction on Fort Astoria, an "emporium of the west", began in the middle of April 1811. It was built upon Point George, the location being about 5 mi from the Lewis and Clark Expedition winter camp of Fort Clatsop. The terrain and thick forests made clearing a foundation exceedingly difficult. Late in the month, McDougall reported that there was "little progress in clearing, the place being so full of half decayed trunks, large fallen timber & thick brush." No one among the party had previous experience in the logging industry and many hadn't used an axe before in general. Trees had a layer of hardened resin and were of a massive size. Four men worked as a team on platforms at least eight feet above the ground to effectively cut a tree, with it taking typically two days for a single tree to be felled. Medical issues quickly became another major issue for the party as there was not a single medical officer among the passengers brought on the Tonquin. This left treatments rudimentary at best. During the initial months on the Columbia River at any time upwards of half of the expedition was unable to perform manual labor due to illness.

Fort Okanogan

Kaúxuma Núpika, a Two-Spirit from the Ktunaxa people, and his wife arrived at Fort Astoria on 15 June 1811 with a letter from John Stuart. Kaúxuma offered accounts of the interior and recommended that the station be opened at the confluence of the Columbia and "the Okannaakken River" among the Syilx peoples. It was determined that David Stuart would take a party to with Kaúxuma to the Syilx. Before they left however the inhabitants of Astoria were surprised by the arrival of David Thompson on 15 July. Thompson later stated that his group "set off on a voyage down the Columbia River to explore this river in order to open out a passage for the interior trade with the Pacific Ocean." The competing fur traders were cordially received at Astoria.

A party of eight led by David Stuart departed on 22 July for the Syilx territories. The personnel assigned to join Stuart were eight men, including Alexander Ross, François Benjamin Pillet, Ovide de Montigny, and Naukane. The group joined David Thompson and his eight men in traveling up the Columbia, staying together until the Dalles. Upon entering Watlala Chinookan territory, Stuart failed establish favorable relations with them. Watlala men performed several military displays and stole a small amount of goods. Naukane agreed to join the NWC shortly after this episode and the two parties separated. Stuart was able to secure the protection of Wasco-Wishram leadership in early August. Groups of Chinookan laborers were used to cross the portages of the Columbia in their homeland.

Stuart's party soon began to travel through the Sahaptin nations and on the 12th of August an assembly of Walla Walla, Cayuse and Nez Perce welcomed the fur traders. Once the reception was complete, the PFC men continued up the Columbia and passed by the future site of Fort Nez Percés. Towards the end of August the party began to become troubled with Western Rattlesnake populations and rapids, almost losing one canoe and the men aboard it to a section of swift currents. Stuart and his men were greeted by Wenatchi leadership at the Wenatchee River, who gave two horses to the fur traders as a gift in addition to several more being purchased. While passing through other Indigenous homelands the PFC continued financial dealings for food supplies. Members of the Chelan nation traded "some salmon, roots, and berries" and later Methows offered their "abundance of salmon" and "many horses" to the fur trappers for sale.

While at the junction of the Columbia and Okanogan River, a large encampment of Syilx were encountered. Prominent members of the nation entreated the fur traders to reside among their people, proclaiming "themselves to be always be our friends, to kill us plenty of beavers, to furnish us at all times with provisions, and to ensure our protection and safety." The cargo of the canoes were taken to land on 1 September and work soon began on Fort Okanogan. A residence crafted from driftwood acquired from the Okanogan River. While construction of the post was ongoing, four men that included Pillet were detailed to inform the progress of inland trade. The party arrived back at the company headquarters on 11 October and gave its favorable report.

Stuart led Montigny and two other men to follow the course of the Okanogan, leaving only Ross at the post. As promised, the Syilx provided security for the station, frequently alerting Ross when intruders from other nations came near. Despite planning on exploring the Okanogan watershed for a month, Stuart and his three men did not return until 22 March 1812. Upon reaching the Okanogan headwaters the party then went over to the Thompson River. Snows in mountain passes made it exceedingly difficult for the party to travel. Detained among the Secwepemc, Stuart developed cordial relations with them. Finding their areas rich in beaver populations, he promised to return later that year to create a trading post.

The Lower Chinookan peoples

Diplomatic relationships with the Chinookan villages near the Columbia were critical for the viability of Fort Astoria. Scholars have affirmed that the American company and its "economic success depended on mutually beneficial economic exchanges with Indian groups... who controlled trade." Many of the settlements near the station were under the influence of headman Comcomly.

Assistance in exploration
Chinookans were highly important in company explorations of the Pacific Coast. In particular, they were instrumental in finding a suitable location for what became Fort Astoria. In early April 1811 McDougall and David Stuart visited Comcomly, who advised them not to return to the Columbia River as it was then quite tumultuous. The two men didn't listen and shortly afterward their canoe capsized in the river. The "timely succor" of Comcomly and his villagers ensured the partners were saved before they drowned. After recuperating there for three days, they returned to the PFC camp.

Additional services tendered was the relaying information from more distant peoples to the Astorians. Reports were circulated by them in late April 1811 of a trade post maintained by white men in the interior. This was correctly conjectured by PFC employees to be their NWC rivals, later found to be Spokane House. Departing on 2 May, McKay led Robert Stuart, Franchère, Ovide de Montigny and a number of voyaguers up the Columbia, with Clatsop noble Coalpo acting as guide and interpreter. The following day they explored the Cowlitz River and soon encountered a large canoe flotilla of Cowlitz warriors. McKay was able to request a parlay, during which the Cowlitz stated they were armed for combat against the nearby Skilloot Chinookan village near the river mouth. Reaching the Dalles on 10 May, no trade station was found at the important fishery. Due to Coalpo's fear of reprisal from his enemies among the Wasco and Wishram, the party went back to Fort Astoria, returning on 14 May.

Despite not finding the NWC post, management at Fort Astoria soon became "anxious to acquire a knowledge of the country & the prospects of trade... within our reach". On 6 June 1811, Robert Stuart went north on a tour of western Olympic Peninsula with Calpo acting as a guide again. Returning on 24 June, Stuart reported that the Quinault and nearby Quileute nations would kill Sea otters and trade their pelts for the valuable Dentalium shells sold by the Nuu-chah-nulth on Vancouver Island. Stuart felt that a company trade post in Grays Harbor offered the best location to secure these furs. Additionally he gave the opinion that Alutiiq in Russian America should be recruited to hunt various fur bearing animals at the hypothetical factory.

However, Chinookans were not always willing to help Astorians in visiting distant locations. This was a means of delaying the Astorians from making commercial connections with Indigenous peoples on the Upper Columbia. One particular incident has been described by historian Robert F. Jones as "an effort to keep Comcomly's Chinooks as middlemen between the natives of the upper Columbia and the Astorians." François Benjamin Pillet was ordered to make a trading trip along the Columbia. Accompanied by a Chinook headman, they left Fort Astoria in late June 1811. Small trade deals were completed with Skilloots near modern Oak Point. Afterwards, the headman cited the seasonal flooding as making the Columbia unsafe to travel further upriver. This forced Pillet to return to Astoria with what pelts he had purchased from the Skilloots.

Commercial ties

Consistently small stockpiles of foodstuffs at Fort Astoria created the need for frequent transactions with Chinookans for sustenance. Seasonal fish runs provided the major nutritional sources for the Columbian River-based Natives. After ceremonial rituals during each major fish run, trade for caught fish would begin in earnest with the Astorians. A constant task for Hawaiians would be to perform fisherman duties. Major fish populations active in the Columbia included the Candlefish smelt, White sturgeon, Sockeye salmon and Chinook salmon. This dependence on fish made it a primary food source for the Astorians, which caused some discontent among employees desiring a more familiar diet.

Terrestrial animals like members of the family Cervidae such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer were not found in large numbers around Fort Astoria. This made them another important source of trade for the Chinookans when visiting the PFC station. Another frequent item sold when fish supplies were low in the winter was the Wapato root. Wapato provided a common source of calories for Chinookans and other nations. The Astorians described the tuber as "a good substitute for potatoes" Purchases of Wapato occurred in such volumes that a small cellar had to be created specifically to house the produce. Other typical purchases from Chinookans included manufactured goods. In particular woven hats were frequently bought for protection against the seasonal rains. These hats were tightly interwoven, making them essentially waterproof. Of benefit to the Astorians was that they were typically wide enough to cover the shoulders. Ross described the common artwork depicted them as "chequered" with various animal designs that were "not painted, but ingeniously interwoven."

Chinookans near Fort Astoria employed various means of retaining their valuable middle man position between various neighboring Indigenous peoples and the PFC. Additional tactics involved manipulating the perception neighboring Natives had of the American company. In August 1811, a small party of Chehalis visited Fort Astoria. In dialogue with them McDougall inquired why they would rarely directly trade with the PFC. The Chehalis merchants responded that Chinooks affiliated with Comcomly claimed that the Astorians were "very inveterate against their nation." McDougall concluded this story was used by Comcomly to continue his commercial hegemony over the area.

Fear of hostilities
It wasn't always that the Astorians, especially McDougall trusted Comcomly or Chinookans in general. His judgment of them, despite eventually marrying a daughter of Comcomly was that they were often ready to attack the fort. In particular Jones noted that he "seems to place implicit faith in any possible hostile actions by the natives."

In June 1812, the number of men at Fort Astoria were reduced to 11 Hawaiians and 39 European descendants. Fear of attack by Chinookans was high and drills were directed by McDougall frequently. A delegation of Chinookans visited Fort Astoria on 2 July quickly left after witnessing these military demonstrations. This fear by the natives convinced the Astorians that "they are not friendly disposed towards us..." having "a desire to harm us." According to Jones, this "latent distrust" of Chinookans by Astorians from this incident was probably unfounded, as they entered the post "for an innocent purpose" and were frightened by the drills.

Fears of attack didn't disappear and Astorians kept themselves guarded in dealing with natives. After the Beaver left for Russian America rumors spread of a coming attack on Astoria in August 1812. There were large numbers of Chinookans and Chehalis near Comcomly's village at the time. This expedited construction on two bastions and the fort was "put in readiness for an attack." Jones has pointed out that these movements of Indigenous was very likely a part of seasonal fishing, rather than a supposed hostile gathering.

Overland Expedition
As the leader of the expedition Hunt would make a number of decisions which were disastrous. The movement of Hunt's group has been described as "a company of traders forging westward in [a] haphazard fashion." He ordered the expedition to leave St. Louis just before the winter to reduce company expenses of supporting employees. The group departed on October 21, 1810 for Fort Osage. The expedition traveled 450 mile up the Missouri River before setting up winter camp on Nodaway Island, at the mouth of Nodaway River in Andrew County, Missouri, just north of St. Joseph. French-Canadian employees made frequent purchases from the company store during the idle season, especially those hired at Michilimackinac. Small items like blue beads, vermilion, brass rings, tobacco "carrots", small axes among others were used in transactions with Missouria neighboring the camp.

On January 1811, Hunt sailed down the Missouri River to complete several pending transactions at St. Louis. It was during this time he recruited Pierre Dorion Jr., as he was the only qualified speaker of the Sioux languages in St. Louis at the time. Notably he was in debt to Manuel Lisa and the Missouri Fur Company (MFC), something that would lead to tensions between the fur companies later in the year. In the end Hunt was able to secure Dorion, on the condition that Marie and his two children be brought along as well. Once finalized, he took British naturalists John Bradbury and Thomas Nuttall with him to the Nodaway camp, as previously agreed upon. The party left St. Louis on 12 March and reached Fort Osage on the 8th of April. Early into the travel Dorion physically abused his wife and caused her to flee for a day. At the station Ramsay Crooks was waiting for them and the group recuperated for two days. The group left Fort Osage on the 10th of April and during the day Dorion "severely beat his squaw" as Marie desired to stay with newly made Osage acquaintances rather than continue with the expedition. The group reached the winter camp on the 17th. The overland group at this point amounted to almost sixty men, forty being French-Canadian voyageurs.

Following the Missouri

Hunt's expedition broke the Nodaway winter camp on April 21. The Astorians reached a major Omaha village in early May. Active commercial transactions were completed there, with Omaha merchants offering "jerked buffalo meat, tallow, corn, and marrow" for vermilion, beads and tobacco carrots. Bradbury detailed that the Omaha village had plots of nicotiana rustica, melons, beans, squashes, and corn under cultivation. While at the Omaha settlement, Hunt received information from several visiting Yankton Sioux that a group of Sioux was gathering further up the river to stop the expedition from traveling further.

Proceeding further the Missouri River, the Sioux party was encountered on 31 May. The Sioux bands were a conglomeration of Yankton and Lakota and had around six hundred armed men. Tensions quickly arose between the two disparate groups and both took up positions by the Missouri River. The two company howitzers and single Swivel gun were loaded with powder and fired to intimidate the Sioux bands. The artillery were then loaded with live ammunition, but the Sioux across the river began to "spread their buffalo robes before them, and moved them side to side." Dorion stopped the firing of the armaments a second time, as he understood this action by the Sioux meant they desired a parley. Peace talks were held and the Sioux explained that they had formed to prevent the PFC from trading with the neighboring nations they were at war with, the Arikara, Mandan and the Gros Ventre. Hunt explained that the expedition intended to travel to the Pacific Ocean and they had no interest in the neighboring Indigenous groups. This was found to be acceptable by the Sioux leaders, and the PFC was allowed to depart further north.

On 3 June, employees of the Missouri Fur Company under the command of Manuel Lisa were encountered on the Missouri River. Lisa reminded Dorion of his pending debt to the company, and a duel between the two men was narrowly averted by Bradbury and Henry Marie Brackenridge intervening. After this incident the rival fur companies refrained from interacting and camped on opposite sides of the Missouri River. Despite this, Lisa and Hunt led their parties north towards an Arikara village and reached it on 12 June. In a council with local leadership Lisa declared that if any of Hunt's party were harmed he'd take it as an offense against him as well. In setting the standard rate for purchasing horses, "carbines, powder, ball, tomahawks knives" were in high demand as the Arikara were planning an attack upon the Sioux. Lisa and Hunt made a deal allowing for Hunt's boats to be exchanged for additional horses, kept at Fort Lisa further up the Missouri River. Crooks was sent with a small group to fetch the horses and while they reached Fort Lisa on the 23rd, they had to wait until the 25th for Lisa to arrive to finalize the transaction. The party left the following day and returned south to Hunt's camp.

The Rocky Mountains

While at the Arikara village, Hunt met and employed several American trappers that had previously worked for the MFC in modern Idaho. The men advised strongly against going into the Piikáni homelands of modern Montana. The Piikáni and other Niitsitapi nations at the time were typically unreceptive to trespass from European descendants and made a showing of military force against the Lewis and Clark Expedition. This changed Hunt's plans, who according determined it best to avoid the Niitsitapi peoples.

The expedition left their Arikara hosts in late July for the nearby Grand River. After following the Little Missouri River, the party to rest for several days while transactions were made with a band of Cheyenne. In total 36 horses were purchased from the Cheyenne. The expedition broke camp on 6 August and Hunt ordered six men to hunt Bison. Hunt's party continued southwest through the modern state of Wyoming and the hunting party rejoined on the 18th of August, having killed 8 Bison. While at the base of Cloud Peak on 30 August, a scouting party of Apsáalooke visited the camp. The following day a delegation of Apsáalooke on horseback invited them to visit their nearby village. Hunt recalled the importance of mercantile deals with the Apsáalooke stating that:"'We spent the first day of September buying some robes and belts and trading our tired, maimed horses for fresh ones... thereby augmenting the number of our horses to about 121, most of which were well-trained and able to cross the mountains.'" Continuing westward towards the Continental Divide of the Americas, the PFC party followed the course of the Wind River, crossed the Divide and followed the Gros Ventre River.

Snake River

The expedition reached Fort Henry on 8 September, made by MFC employee Andrew Henry the previous year, near present-day St. Anthony and made a camp there. The post was later abandoned. While at the location work began creating enough canoes necessary to take the party down Henry's Fork and later the Snake River or so called "Mad River" to the Columbia. This was done as it felt no longer necessary to travel with pack horses, a decision that would soon cause more issues for the party. On the 10th, four men and two Natives under the command of Joseph Miller departed to begin trapping in the area. The horses that remained in the possession of the PFC, amounting to seventy-seven, were left in the care of "two young Snakes". The party departed from Fort Henry on 19 September on the newly made canoes.

Traveling down the Snake River proved highly difficult due to the many rapids such as Caldron Linn. The party was forced to perform multiple portages due to these fierce currents. Over course of the remainder of September through early November, four incidents of canoes capsizing killed one man meant major losses in trade goods and food supplies. In addition to the hardships caused from attempting to follow the course of the Snake more problems arose due to dwindling food stockpiles. By 31 October there was enough provisions to last for five days. In early November there were not many animals in the area to gather for food, the few that were caught by the hunting parties were beaver. The traveling partners agreed to end travel by canoe, finding the mode of transportation too difficult continue using. Hunt ordered several groups go in various directions to contact neighboring Indigenous for material support. In the meantime the PFC expedition began to deposit its trade goods in small caches to lighten the workload of the men.

At the suggestion of Ramsay Crooks, the expedition was divided into two parties of nineteen men each, with each member receiving 5$$\tfrac{1}{4}$$ pounds of dried meat. A third small group was led by Donald MacKenzie to reach Fort Astoria ahead of the main contingent. All that remained in the company stores was "forty pounds of corn, twenty of fat, and nearly five pounds of bouillon tablets." On 9 November the two groups began traveling on either side of the Snake. Soon the cliffs became too steep to allow an easy descent to the river banks for water. Sources of hydration became very limited and despite intercourse with several groups of Indigenous the situation didn't improve. Water was collected on 20 November after it rained the previous night. Up to that point "several Canadians had begun to drink their urine" in desperation.

Crooks reunited with Hunt's party in early December alone. Crooks was so weakened from starvation that his pace would have slowed the expedition immensely. Hunt left two men to tend to Crooks while the main group pushed forward. Several villages of Northern Shoshone were visited and vitally needed food sources such as horses along with "some dried fish, a few roots, and some pounded dried cherries" were purchased. A Shoshone was convinced to act as a scout to guide the PFC group to the Umatilla River. On 23 December, thirteen men assigned to Crooks party were met who gave the unfortunate news that they hadn't seen him since he left Hunt's group.

Reaching the Columbia

Donald Stuart and his party of Robert McClellan, John Reed, Étienne Lucier, and seven other men continued to march ahead of the two main PFC groups. While traversing the lands of the Niimíipu, a stranded employee of the PFC, Archibald Pelton, was found and brought along with the party. They finally arrived at Fort Astoria on 18 January 1812. The party was described as clothed in "nothing but fluttering rags." While waiting for the main contingent under Hunt to arrive, the men informed the personnel of the overland journey's progress from St. Louis.

Hunt's group found a band of Liksiyu on 8 January, whom hosted the downtrodden expedition for a week. Meals of dried mule deer meat and loafs of pounded Camas bulbs were provided during their stay. While exploring the area, Hunt found out from particular Liksiyu that there was an active white fur trader in the area. This would turn out to be Jacques Raphaël Finlay, located at the NWC Spokane House. On 21 January, the expedition finally reached the banks of the Columbia River. Hunt soon entered discussions with the Wasco-Wishram when entering their villages. It was here he learned the destruction of the Tonquin the previous year. The remaining three horses of the party were used to purchase two canoes from Wasco merchants. Several portages were required on the Columbia, especially at the Cascade Rapids. The main body of the expedition reached Fort Astoria on 15 February to much fanfare. Besides Hunt there was thirty men, along with Marie Aioe Dorion and her two children on six canoes. McDougall was apprehensive about feeding all these additional people, a sentiment Franchère shared, as the post had recently faced issues with provisions. Due to seasonal salmon runs harvested by various Chinookans however, there was a sizable food supply at Fort Astoria.

Attempted expedition to interior
In late March, three clerks in command of fourteen men were ordered to depart for the hinterlands. Robert Stuart was take needed trade goods to Fort Okanogan. John Reed was to take food supplies to the stranded Crooks and Day, in addition to later taking dispatches for Astor to St. Louis. Russel Farnham was to retrieve the caches left by Hunt near Fort Henry. To complete several of the necessary portages at the Dalles, Wascos were hired to help freight the trade goods. Two bales of trade goods and later some personal items were however stolen. Stuart ordered his men to complete the portages during the night. A skirmish arose at sunrise between arriving Wascos and Reed, who was defending several bales of goods with one man. After being grievously injured, Reed lost the box containing the dispatches. Additional PFC arrived at the scene and two natives were reportedly killed in the struggle. The Chinookans returned in larger numbers and armed several hours later. To avoid more bloodshed Stuart was able to negotiate a settlement with the aggrieved families. In return for a reported six blankets and tobacco, the Astorians were able to continue their journey up the Columbia.

The conflict raised security concerns of crossing into further Indigenous nations, forcing the three parties to all travel to Fort Okanogan. Arriving there on the 24th of April, the clerks, voyageurs and trappers departed for Fort Astoria on the 29th, leaving Alexander Ross and two men at the station. Stockpiles of pelts accumulated there amounted to an estimated 2,500 were taken as well. Near the mouth of the Umatilla River the party was surprised to loudly hear English shouted among an assembled group of Indigenous, perhaps Umatilla. Ramsay Crooks and John Day were there them, exhausted from several months of tribulations. Wandering over a large area, the two men at one point received the help of an Umatilla noble, Yeck-a-tap-am, who "in particular treated us like a father." After being robbed by another band of Natives, Crooks and Day were able to find the Umatilla once more. Taking two worn men with them, the party reached Fort Astoria on 11 May.

The Beaver

The Beaver was the second supply ship sent by Astor to the Pacific Coast, with Cornelius Sowle as its captain. It sailed from New York City in October 1811 and reached Fort Astoria on 9 May 1812. While stopping at the Kingdom of Hawaii, more men were recruited as Kanakas for the company. After unloading necessary supplies to the Fort, the Beaver sailed to Russian America. Hunt joined the crew to negotiate with RAC governor Alexander Andreyevich Baranov at New Archangel. The cargo was purchased by the Russians amounted to ₽124,000 in value, with payment in seal skins located on Saint Paul Island. Orders from Astor dictated that the ship to return to the Columbia, but the Beaver was in poor repair and sailed for the Kingdom of Hawaii instead. Hunt was left there as the Beaver went west to Guangzhou. News of the War of 1812 kept the ship at the port for the remainder of the conflict. The Beaver then proceeded to New York City and entered the city harbor in 1816.

Second interior expedition

Failure to accomplish many of the tasks set for work the hinterland earlier in 1812 did not discourage the Astorians. The supplies and reinforcements brought aboard the Beaver made management consider "grander schemes" for the summer. New establishments would be created to challenge the NWC across the region in addition to pursuing trading expeditions among various Indigenous nations. A total of almost 60 men were directed to locations from the Willamette Valley of Oregon to the Bitterroot Valley of Montana and the vicinity of modern Kamloops in British Columbia. The movement of workers to their assigned locales began in late June. Robert Stuart led a party bound for St. Louis to send information to Astor as Reed had attempted earlier in the year. His group was composed two French-Canadians and four Americans. John Day became afflicted by mental instability and Stuart paid several Multnomah men of Cathlapotle village to transport him back to Fort Astoria. The group would make the important discovery of the South Pass, critical for the later westward movement of tens of thousands of American migrants.

Liquidation
Funds provided by Astor established several major trading stations across the Pacific Northwest. While intended to gain control of the regional fur trade, the Pacific Fur Company would ultimately flounder. This came from a variety of issues, many caused by the tumultuous diplomatic relationship between the United Kingdom and the United States. The destruction of the Tonquin left Fort Astoria under supplied and heavily reliant upon neighboring Chinookans for sustenance. Competition from the interior based North West Company threatened to the loss of major fur producing Oregon Country regions. The Overland Expedition would arrive many months later than planned by Astor. Wilson Hunt's inexperience in the outback in along with dwindling supplies would leave the majority of the expedition facing starvation.

While the arrival of the Beaver brought much needed trading goods, foodstuffs and additional employees, events would soon see the ending of the PFC. News of the War of 1812 was relayed to the Astorians at Fort Spokane, information that Donald McKenzie brought to Fort Astoria in January 1813. As Franchere recalled, a council of clerks and management noted that the Astorians were "almost to a man British subjects", forcing them to agree to "abandon the establishment" of Fort Astoria and its secondary stations. A British warship was learned from NWC clerks to be en route to capture the station. The PFC management agreed to sell its assets across the Oregon Country, formalized on 23 October 1813 with the raising of the Union Jack. On 30 November HMS Racoon (1808) arrived at the Columbia River and in honor of George III of the United Kingdom Fort Astoria was renamed Fort George. On board the Racoon was John MacDonald who oversaw the formal takeover of PFC properties. Later in March 1814, the NWC's ship Isaac Todd arrived on the Columbia, delivering much-needed supplies to Fort George. She then sailed on to China, and England. She carried some PFC personnel, many of whom were former employees of the NWC, back to England, from where they returned to Montreal.

Legacy
During a NWC shareholder meeting in July 1814, the partners declared that the sale "greatly facilitated the getting out of the [Pacific] Country our competitors the American Fur Company. They also concluded that the sale of Astoria and other PFC properties gave "considerable" advancements for their company. Plans were considered to use the stations much in the same manner Astor meant, for trade with China. The Columbia also offered a less costly means of supplying the interior NWC posts in the region.

The Treaty of 1818 established a "joint occupancy" of the Pacific Northwest between the United States and the United Kingdom was confirmed, each nation agreeing not to inhibit the activities of each other's citizens. During 1821, the British Government ordered the NWC to be merged in their long time rivals, the Hudson's Bay Company. In a short time the HBC controlled the majority of the fur trade across the Pacific Northwest. This was done in a manner that "the Americans were forced to acknowledge that Astor's dream" of a multi-continent economic web "had been realized... by his enterprising and far-sighted competitors." The PFC held additional influence on the region in some particular and subtle ways. The book Astoria was written by Washington Irving in 1836, after interviewing some men connected to the venture and consulting documents held by Astor. Two surviving members of the Astorians, Étienne Lucier and Joseph Gervais, would later become farmers on the French Prairie and participate in the Champoeg Meetings.

title: Pacific Fur Company


text:
User:Spikey/To-Do/Done

Other

 * WikiProject Highways - Bring up possibility first :)
 * Didn't bother to bring it up first, but be bold, right? Interested in helping?  Hop on board!
 * Adjust Image:Two polar bears sparring.jpg.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Spikey/To-Do/Done


text:
User talk:Soldaatvanoranje

Ah, Orange, CT. I was wondering why a soldier of the House of Orange would be a wikipedian, now I have a better sense! While involved in the "restaurant" brouhaha, I chanced upon New Haven's picture tour and got jealous. We can't use their photos because of copyright, but if you ever found yourself in the right position with a digital camera, we could certainly use yours. P.S. You may not want to be too friendly to me, I could still take a lot of heat for mentioning Sally's and Pepe's and you don't want to get caught in the fallout! -- Nunh-huh 04:01, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Heehee -- you got me! Yes I am indeed from Orange, CT and its nice to see someone finally "get" my nick. Please review some of the changes I've made to the new haven article (I can't help but keep adding to it); I;'ve also created an article for the New Haven Green which you may want to add to/review. Im actually not in New Haven at the moment, but am in Miami. I am working on this entry as a way of working through being homesick of my home stompin' ground (and away from the that great pizza!) What exactly is the controversy over Sally's and Pepe's? --- Soldaatvanoranje 04:18 UTC, March 19

 * Well, Miami's nice too. People sometimes get rather exorcised over what gets included in wikipedia, but don't worry too much about it. With enough editors, things usually work themselves out. I think I will try and work on the three Churchs on the Green's organs, which are sort of interesting. Mmmm.... chicken pizza.... - Nunh-huh 04:25, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The Regicides
Ah, you're back! Thought you might be interested in John Dixwell - Nunh-huh 21:53, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Fair Haven
I see you are familliar with New Haven. I've just put together an article on Fair Haven, and your contributions are welcome. It still needs polishing and fleshing out.--StAkAr Karnak 21:05, 14 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Nice nick :)
If you haven't seen the film Soldaat van Oranje, I highly recommend it. Cheers! Jaco plane  21:43, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Thanks! I have most assuredly seen the film, and assumed its name as my Wiki nick. I've always been interested in the Netherlands and Dutch culture and history, and I figured why not spread knowledge of their exploits against the Nazi occupation with my nick. It is also a small in-joke regarding my hometown of Orange, Connecticut, which was named after Prince William of Orange. Sol. v. Oranje 21:45, 1 February 2006 (UTC)

Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
Please refrain from using personal attacks, even in your edit summaries. The debate is heated enough as it is. --DDG 19:46, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

 * My pleasure, this is a big issue for Wikipedia, lots of important issues at play, and we need the issues to be addressed as well and as decisively as possible, IMO. Thanks to you, too. I got pulled around on an innertube at Lake Candlewood, once, it was awesome. Babajobu 21:45, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

Revert war on Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy
WARNING: Stop removing the contested image from Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. If you refuse to stop revert warring over this, you will be blocked. --Durin 22:33, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Please see my comments on your talk page; I was trying to keep the image of the cartoons in the article, not remove them. It is Rajab who keeps removing them. Thanks Sol. v. Oranje 22:41, 2 February 2006 (UTC)

 * My apologies. I was trying quite hard yesterday to get the revert war shut down. I saw this diff by you, and saw it as removing the image. It's clear you did, but perhaps this was an error on your part as the last edit you made on that article prior to that was, indeed, putting the image back in. Hail and well met (I hope!) to a fellow Wikipedian originally from Connecticut! --Durin 13:19, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

East Haven, CT
Any thoughts on the East Haven article that has been updated?--dep369 18:26, 15 May 2006 (UTC)Dep369

2006 Long Island Sound Plane Crash
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New Category
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title: User talk:Soldaatvanoranje


text:
Communes of the Isère department

The following is a list of the 512 communes in the French department of Isère.

The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
 * Grenoble-Alpes Métropole
 * Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Voironnais
 * Communauté d'agglomération Porte de l'Isère
 * Communauté d'agglomération Vienne Condrieu (partly)
 * Communauté de communes Les Balcons du Dauphiné
 * Communauté de communes de Bièvre Est
 * Communauté de communes Bièvre Isère
 * Communauté de communes Cœur de Chartreuse (partly)
 * Communauté de communes des Collines du Nord Dauphiné
 * Communauté de communes Entre Bièvre et Rhône
 * Communauté de communes Le Grésivaudan
 * Communauté de communes Lyon Saint-Exupéry en Dauphiné
 * Communauté de communes du Massif du Vercors
 * Communauté de communes de la Matheysine
 * Communauté de communes de l'Oisans
 * CC Saint-Marcellin Vercors Isère Communauté
 * Communauté de communes du Trièves
 * Communauté de communes Les Vals du Dauphiné

title: Communes of the Isère department


text:
General quarters

General quarters, battle stations, or action stations is an announcement made aboard a naval warship to signal that all hands (everyone available) aboard a ship must go to battle stations (the positions they are to assume when the vessel is in combat) as quickly as possible.

According to The Encyclopedia of War, formerly "[i]n naval service, the phrase 'beat to quarters' indicated a particular kind of drum roll that ordered sailors to their posts for a fight where some would load and prepare to fire the ship's guns and others would arm with muskets and ascend the rigging as sharpshooters in preparation for combat."

Aboard U.S. Navy vessels, the following announcement would be made using the vessel’s public address system (known as the 1MC):

"General Quarters, General Quarters. All hands man your battle stations. The route of travel is forward and up to starboard, down and aft to port. Set material condition 'Zebra' throughout the ship. Reason for General Quarters: (Inbound hostile aircraft/Hostile surface contact/etc.)"

title: General quarters


text:
Talk:Mountain Jews

ATTENTION
I have PERMISSION from the people at this website. Don't say that there is suspicion of copyright infringement!

I even have the email!!!! Here it is:

 * From:  kiisu@eki.ee
 * Subject: Re: Mountain Jews
 * Date: March 18, 2004 11:16:18 PM PST

Some time ago I already gave full permission to use the whole book in Wikipedia. Please check if the contents of the Red Book are available in other sections, it may turn out that a simple link is sufficient. Anyway, you are free to use the material as you see fit.

 * Indrek Hein
 * webmaster@eki.ee

-User:Dagestan
 * This is not enough. He needs to explicitly license the material under the GFDL. And he needs to actually say those words. Then the "some text from" can be removed and the site can be used as a source. --Storkk 11:05, 4 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Storkk: I think not. "You are free to use the material as you see fit" is basically a comprehensive license. You can't get much more comprehensive. It would certainly encompass permission for Indrek Hein to release it under GFDL. - 03:08, 7 October 2006 (UTC) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jmabel (talk • contribs)
 * Hrmn... It seems not to work like that for images anyway. The actual license words need to come out of their mouth from what I've seen. The basic reason (i think) is that we're not only using it, we're explicitly licensing it to everybody to use under the GFDL. --Storkk 15:42, 8 October 2006 (UTC)
 * If so, that's a matter of Wikipedia policy, not law.
 * Dagestan, any reason you cannot get back to Indrek Hein and get that permission explicitly? - Jmabel | Talk 18:19, 8 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I'm not sure about it "not being law", because using and licensing are two very different things (IANAL)... but good luck getting Dagestan to respond... his last edit was in May 2004. If someone could contact the author, that would be great. I would, but I don't use email. I agree that the original author gave what might be construed as de facto permission, but as far as I can tell, Wikipedia needs de jure permission. This is the dual reason that: I haven't blanked it as copyvio; and also why I'm being so insistent here. --Storkk 00:58, 9 October 2006 (UTC)
 * A crux of the problem: "Simple permission is not good enough. The owner can revoke permission at any time, and the content can't be reused anywhere else: not in Wiktionary, not in Wikibooks, etc. " (adapted from comments about image deletion). --Storkk 15:51, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

I tried; the email addresses given above no longer work. So where do we go from here? Do we even know which material was taken from that source? - Jmabel | Talk 06:17, 13 October 2006 (UTC)
 * I have emailed the webmaster of the site, and will post back here and on talk:Mountain Jews/permission if and when I get permission. --Storkk 16:04, 7 November 2006 (UTC)

Interesting article
Interesting article. :)  But is there any reason for that National Geographic quote to be there?   I'd much rather see our own summary, which obviously could incorporate any relevant information from the NG piece. Markalexander100 07:08, 3 Apr 2004 (UTC)

An anon recently added "Also known as Caucasian Jews." Does anyone know, does that term also include the Gruzim? (If so, article should clarify). -- Jmabel

 * no. Geagea 17:55, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

No, it doesn't. The term Caucasian Jews refers to Mountain Jews only. Georgian Jews are Georgian Jews. Even spoken language is different. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.191.241.59 (talk) 15:47, 10 November 2011 (UTC)

"wishful thinking"
I wish I was a mountain Jew. That's the coolest name for a race of people I've ever heard of. --NoPetrol 07:57, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * & these ain't no Catskills... -- Jmabel | Talk 09:10, Dec 17, 2004 (UTC)
 * So, RF welcomes you to multinational Pyatigorsk. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.149.35.97 (talk) 09:38, 20 May 2012 (UTC)

Does anyone know if the recently anonymously added mention of National Geographic in the photo caption is correct? It's not mentioned on the image page. -- Jmabel | Talk 23:22, Jan 8, 2005 (UTC)

Language/ethnicity
"here is some debate on the origin of the Jewish Tats, with some defending that they are not Tat at all but simply Jews that took the Tat language, while others argue that they are the descendants of Tats that converted to Judaism." What does this mean? They have to have come from somewhere. Being 'Jew' alone doesn't indicate an ethnicity, unless what is meant is that they are Afro-Asiatic->Canaanite->Hebrew! --Alif 03:05, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Jew indeed indicates ethnicity, among other things; read the article on Jew for more information. Jayjg (talk) 04:41, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * The article 'Jews' syas:
 * "Most Jews regard themselves as a people, members of a nation, descended from the ancient Israelites and those who joined their religion at various times and places. The term Jew came into being when the Kingdom of Israel was split between the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah. Hence, the Israelites (who were later largely destroyed by the Assyrians) were those of the northern kingdom and the Jews (who survived) were those of the southern kingdom. Over time, the word Jew has come to refer to those of the Jewish faith rather than those from Judah. In modern usage, Jews include both those Jews actively practicing Judaism, and those Jews who, while not practicing Judaism as a religion, still identify themselves as Jews by virtue of their family's Jewish heritage and their own cultural identification."
 * Adding to this what this article says:
 * "There is some debate on the origin of the Jewish Tats, with some defending that they are not Tat at all but simply Jews that took the Tat language, while others argue that they are the descendants of Tats that converted to Judaism."
 * This makes it more accurate and NPV to not assert such ethnical connonations. What do you think? --Alif 18:05, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * But Tat Jews are a specific ethnic group, with their own language, customs, etc., regardless of their origins. Why do you object to this? Jayjg (talk)  18:11, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * Not quite true. According to the article, they use Tat language. Even when/if their dialect is affected by their religion in the form of loanwords, usage, it is still the same language as their neighbours. Also, from the article: "Any specific Mountain Jew features, distinguishing them from the Islamic environment, originate in Judaism", which means that their daily life details, costumes, customs, are due to their different religion. A Catholic Irish person isn't ethnically different from an Protestant Irish person, even though they may be affected with English culture to different extents, or even live in a different country.
 * What I'm objecting to is using religion as a race-establishing factor, because it isn't logical. Saying a different prayer does not change one's genetic ancestry. Not that there's something as a "pure race", or "superior/inferior" nation or anything, but rather because it simply defies logic. --Alif 19:44, 6 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't have strong opinions on most of this, but "ethnicity" is not just a code word for "race". Ethnicity is a mix of language, culture, physical type, self-identification, etc. as its etymology suggests, it is more like nationality. It is malleable. -- Jmabel | Talk 21:11, Mar 6, 2005 (UTC)
 * They spoke Judeo-Tat , they have different customs etc.  Catholic Irish and Protestant Irish are quite arguably different ethnicities; Protestant Irish originate mostly from Scotland, and have been separate from Catholic Irish for at least 400 years.  And as Jmabel points out, ethnicity and race are different matters. (Jayjg 6 Mar 2005)

The Tat/Juhuri language is definitely NOT closely related to "Middle Persian". Middle Persian is an older stage of Persian, and Tat is not any closer to it than Modern Persian/Farsi. Haspelmath 20:18, 24 September 2006 (UTC)--

I agree with Alif, they're not a separate ethnicity. - —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 65.35.11.39 (talk • contribs) 29 November 2006.

Mountain Jews are clearly a separate ethnicity. Why is it even discussed? We have our own customs, beliefs, language, traditions, history. Attempts to generalize on term "Mountain Jews" are doomed to fail. Our ethnicity goes back to the days of Khazars. How can this be denied? Whether Khazars are the nowadays Mountain Jews are still an open debate. Partial integration following the fall of Khazaria definitely seems possible.

Re: "Groups connected to the Khazars"
Either add all other Jewish groups, who were living in the area of Khazar Empire (Ashkenazi and Georgian Jews, Russian and Hungarian Subbotniks - Selezny), or remove Caucasian Jews from this group. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 85.65.248.4 (talk • contribs) 4 Feb 2006.

 * The relationship between the Mountain Jews and the Khazars stems from the fact that the Mountain Jews' ancestors lived in the Caucasus prior to the rise of Khazaria, were probably subject to it, and may have contributed to its conversion to Judaism. See, e.g., Blady, Ken. Jewish Communities in Exotic Places.
 * this is a very different relationship than that of the Ashkenazim, whose Khazar descent is an extreme minority view being disproven by genetic studies, or the other groups you mention, whose relationship with the Khazars is largely apocryphal. --Briangotts (Talk) (Contrib) 16:22, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Not exotic
First, I do not like ignorant authors. Calling Transcuacasia "exotic place" in relation of anything Jewish is a top of ignorance. Transcaucasia, is known from ancient Mesopotamian, Hebrew, Persian and Greek sources. Anybody knows from the Megilat Esther, that Jews, were living in ALL satrapies of Persian Empire (including Caucasian Albania). From the point view of Jews - Western Europe ('Lands of Franks"), India and Ethiopia - are indeed exotic places.

Second, the name "Groups connected to the Khazars" implies, that those groups descended from the Khazars. For the sake of NPV I propose, to rename this group to "Groups supposedly connected to the Khazars", then you may include there all the groups, who at some point of view, where living in the area of Khazar Empire. This also include following Jewish sub-ethnic groups: Ashkenazim (or the earlier populations assimilated into Ashkenazim), Sepharadim in Bulgaria and Turkey (there is documented facts, that some Jewish Khazars moved to Byzantium), Crymchaks, Crimean Karaims, Hungarian Sabbatarins, Russian Subbotniks, East Caucasian Jews and Georgian Jews.

Nothing yet proven or disproven 100%. The DNA research of East Caucasian Jews doesn't show Khazar ancestry neither. Yet Ashkenazim not included into this group, and Caucasian Jews included. As Crimean Jews (Krymchaks) included, and anybody knows, that they were largely assimilated by Ashkenazim (that's one of reasons why they are almost extinct commnunity now), so Ashkenazim should be included too.

Anyway, I not removed all the old and long ago disproven theories about origin of Caucasian Jews. As I trying to preserve neutral point of view. But it hard to do, when other editors don't.

For example in the article about Juhuri language, written:

"The language is closely related to Middle Persian; it belongs to the Iranian division of the Indo-European languages. A similar, but still different language is spoken by the Muslim Tats of Azerbaijan, a group to which the Mountain Jews have sometimes been considered to belong. Speakers of Juhuri are called Juhuro, which simply means "Jews"."

The style of writing implies ancestral relation between Jews and Tats. It's like if I will write in the article about Yiddish:

"The language is closely related to High German; it belongs to the Germanic division of the Indo-European languages. A similar, but still different language is spoken by the Christian Germans of Germany, a group to which the European Jews have sometimes been considered to belong. Speakers of Yiddish are called Yiddn, which simply means "Jews"."

But nobody sane will imply conection between European Jews and Germans, while they freely doing this in case of Caucasian Jews. This was just example of not providing NPV. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 85.65.47.98 (talk • contribs) 11 Feb 2006.

 * BTW, clearly some (perhaps many) hold precisely the view about Jewish Germans that you are putting forward as absurd. For example, I've been fighting a losing battle to describe Henry Kissinger as a Jewish American rather than a German American. -- Jmabel | Talk 00:45, 18 February 2006 (UTC)

Juhurim / Juhuro
I see that "Juhurim" was changed to "Juhuro" without comment. A quick Google search suggests that they do, indeed call themselves "Juhuro"; does "Juhurim" also exist? It would follow the pattern of the naming of similar subgroups of the Jews ("Ashkenazim", "Sephardim", "Mizrahim"…). - Jmabel | Talk 06:46, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

RESPONSE: (IM NOT REALLY SURE HOW TO ADD AN ACTUAL RESPONSE SO I WILL DO IT THIS WAY

In our language we call ourselves "Juhuro" (which itself is plural in Caucasi for "Juhur"(Jew)). The "im" is a Hebrew ending added to words to indicate the plural. So in Hebrew if one were to use the word "Juhur" to refer to us, they would add the "im" to talk about more than one "Juhur". "Juhurim" is neither an actual Hebrew word nor Caucasi. A direct translation in hebrew (i.e. hebrew of Jews) would be "Yehudim" (plural for Yehudi).

—The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.136.21.126 (talk • contribs) 26 July 2006.

Mountain Jews call themselves - Juhuro, not Juhurim. Please - keep it to the facts and stop twisting Mountain Jews history to fit your own predefined mindset or belief. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.191.241.59 (talk) 16:08, 10 November 2011 (UTC)

"IM"
66.81.74.75 01:25, 23 March 2006 (UTC)"im" is a noun suffix in Hebrew for the bulk of masculine plural nouns.--66.81.74.75 01:25, 23 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Exactly. So is this change from a Hebrew plural to their own language what we want to do? - Jmabel | Talk 00:53, 29 March 2006 (UTC)

"Juhurim" / "Gruzim" / etc. are artificial terms. They are only used here in Wikipedia.

The only similar term, which is used in Hebrew is "Bukharim", meaning Bukharan Jew. East-Caucasian Jews called in Hebrew "Kavkazim". Georgian "Gruzinim" (not "Gruzim"!). Both have sometimes pejorative meaning, because they frequently used in jokes (mostly about "Gruzinim"). The Georgian Jews themselves preffer to be called "Georgian Jews" - "Georgim". Jews (and non-Jews) from Russia are called "Russim" in Hebrew. But I do not see any Wikipedia page calling Russian Jews - "Russim". —This unsigned comment was added by 212.25.107.145 (talk • contribs) 29 March 2006.

Can this subject be closed? Juhuro call themselves Juhuro. Period. Is that that difficult to understand? Stop calling us "Juhurim". These are fake artificial names.

MJ in Germany
someone or me should add that a bunch of (don't know the number) of MJs live in berlin, just like me. -- Michael-O 2006-07-30

LEZGINKA
I put up http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lezginka, if anyone wants to add to it or rewrite it so its not copying britanica, you can do so. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Shulbek (talk • contribs) 13 August 2006.

Jews in Azerbaijan
The Jews in Azerbaijan and the Bukharan Jews are not the same

and in this "" you have mistake.

—The preceding unsigned comment was added by 85.250.174.211 (talk • contribs) 1 September 1, 2006.

Who removed Khazanov from the celebrity list?
He is a Mountain Jew from Derbent. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.68.168.228 (talk) 07:11, 12 January 2007 (UTC).
 * Khazanov has no relation to Mountain Jews or the Caucasus whatsoever. His mother was an Ashkenazi and his biological father was also an Ashkenazi. Considering the surname Khazanov as far as I'm aware it's his mother's maiden surname. http://bozaboza.narod.ru/hazanova.html Russian Wikipedia says that "khazan" is an ancient Jewish word, not specific to the Caucasus. --Yomal Sidoroff-Biarmskii (talk) 12:22, 14 May 2020 (UTC)

There is no Mountain Jews in Armenia or in Kazakhsthan
Please search carefully and amend them. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.63.173.243 (talk) 13:12, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

I second that. No Mountain Jews in Armenia and Kazakhstan. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.191.241.59 (talk) 15:43, 10 November 2011 (UTC)

Citations needed
All the "citations needed" can be removed. 1. as a soldier in IDF i know axactly the origins of our generals. more of that one of my best friends is relative to them. 2. about Illiazarov - well, my moms uncle wrote a book about him. they was good friends. (rip) 3. zhasmine: she's my mom's cousine. 4. as our number is small, many of us are relatives in some sort... ru:user:david_tm —Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.154.197.51 (talk) 20:46, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

mountain jews realy live in iran? there are only persian jews in iran —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.64.228.237 (talk) 18:24, 17 February 2008 (UTC)

Copyright violation
The last two paragraphs of the lead were copied word for word from the Telegraph article originally used as the citation for the second paragraph, which made it a copyright violation. I have added quotation marks and citations for both paragraphs. Editors are not supposed to copy material directly, especially without full quotation, but to use sources for facts. See Wiki policies on plagiarism and copyright violation.Parkwells (talk) 15:02, 8 December 2010 (UTC)

 * I tried to trace these sections to the original editor but did not find who had added them. They are at least two years old.Parkwells (talk) 15:14, 8 December 2010 (UTC)

Robert Tiviaev
he should be mentioned in the list as a member of the knesset i think — Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.132.81.21 (talk) 15:16, 25 June 2011 (UTC)

Russian Billionaire
I don't think 'billionaire' or 'millionaire' are useful designations so have been deleting those terms from the list of notable Mountain Jews.

Compare, for instance: Michael Bloomberg: American billionaire to Mike Bloomberg: American businessman and politician, founder of media company Bloomberg L.P.  Bloomberg could lose all his money tomorrow, but he'd still have founded his company, been mayor etc. Otherwise we'll need yearly audits.

Dustin Diamond: Television star. Or Dustin Diamond: Actor. Better? You make the call. 67.250.51.204 (talk) 00:56, 24 November 2011 (UTC)

Incorrect title
Name of this group of Jews comes from the russian "gorskij evrej" that literally translates "highland jew", "mountain jew" translates to russian "gornyj evrej". — Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.149.35.62 (talk) 13:50, 19 May 2012 (UTC)

No one calls us East Caucasian Jews
Mountain Jews populate both Eastern and Northern slopes of Caucasus. Please stop twisting facts. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.172.169.87 (talk) 16:55, 14 September 2012 (UTC)

The article needs some color photos of mountain jews
thanks. 79.182.150.47 (talk) 02:18, 10 September 2012 (UTC)

Mountain Jews population estimation
Hello, I have a question on references for the Mountain Jews population figures. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_Jews Could the author share with me the citations from which he got the figures for the total population in 2004: 150,000 to 270,000 (estimated) Israeli population - 100,000 to 140,000 I appreciate your help. Many thanks,

Hagit Baris, M.D. Medical Geneticist Deputy Director of The Recanati Genetic Institute Rabin Medical Center, Beilinson Hospital Petach-Tikva, Israel email: barish@clalit.org.il Phone: 972-3-9377659 Fax: 972-3-9377660 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.114.146.227 (talk) 12:07, 28 October 2012 (UTC)

Guba grave
The Guba mass grave is a heavily disputed article. As the article says, the possibility of Jews being among it, and even if the bones are of murdered people at all, are based off the claims of one person who has refused investigations. No foreign experts have examined the human remains, and that no documentary or archival evidence has been presented that mentions a massacre. The section should be removed. --216.125.48.225 (talk) 16:53, 3 April 2014 (UTC)

Many grammar mistakes and tone not encyclopaedic.
I corrected some grammar and capitalisation mistakes in the lead but I bet there are many more in the article. This article might need a cleanup after all. Jewnited (talk) 13:56, 10 December 2015 (UTC)

Juhuri vs Judeo-Tat
Keeping both denominations (and two different links to the same page) seems rather superfluous when there is an existing article on the subject. Trimming an article isn't removing information, curious people can find the synonym at Judeo-Tat. - Olybrius (talk) 10:24, 2 July 2016 (UTC)
 * I agree, but the disruptive user who reverted your edit out of principle never edits talk pages. Their vision is that Wikipedia is not a collaborative project.--Ymblanter (talk) 10:31, 2 July 2016 (UTC)
 * I agree too. (Hope this is sufficient for a consensus.) --Off-shell (talk) 11:54, 2 July 2016 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your support, I will judeo-tatify once again :) - Olybrius (talk) 08:49, 19 July 2016 (UTC)

90's emigration from former Soviet Union
According to the article: "Mountain Jews left Chechnya because of nationalism and kidnappings" is a distortion of reality, because Mountain Jews had good relations with their Chechen neighbors, thus they were not affected by Chechen aspirations for independence. Mountain Jews have left Chechnya because of the commencement of Russo-Chechen war. Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 14:52, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * What I originally wrote in the edit summary: can you corroborate that with a reliable source? El_C 15:01, 10 March 2017 (UTC)

To expand a bit I'm just interested in you corroborating that removal with a reliable source, because what you are removing is sourced and we have a policy against original research. If what you are saying is true, someone must have been disputing that claim, and making that distinction (i.e. Russo-Chechen war per se.). We are interested in representing reality, but it must be contingent on what reliable published sources say. You can also try to show that those sources are not reliable. But the basis for your effort has to be referenced to something reliable and above all other things, verifiable. Hope all that is making sense to you, and am looking forward to your contributions. El_C 15:12, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I would suggest neutrality and that's what I have done by reformulating the paragraph. This way we do not mention neither of them (Russians and Chechens), Fair for Jews, Chechens and Russians.Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 15:58, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Please read what I wrote carefully. You can't argue neutrality when it is only based on your own original research. Your edit needs to be tied to reliable sources. El_C 16:22, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I have suggested neutrality in order to avoid using true but antagonizing phrases like: Jews left because of Russian invasion and indiscriminate bombardment of civilian population by the Russian army. Source: "American Jewish Year Book, 1998" page 14, line six from the end.Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 16:31, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * We don't care that it's antagonizing, we only care that it is verified. Please stop removing that passage until this matter is resolved(!). You are edit warring. El_C 16:55, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I have added a source and edited accordingly. Did you read it? Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 17:02, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * But does that book further contain anything that refutes what you are removing? Was the rise of nationalism and kidnapping on the part of militants not a factor? Or are you simply finding it "antagonizing"? Because that would not be good enough. El_C 17:13, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * It makes the impression that you do not understand, again. "antagonizing" not for me, but might be for Russian readers if it will be quoted from the book that Jews left Chechnya because of "the bloody Russian attack". So I suggest removing the current false paragraph in the article and replace it by simply writing: "Given the marked changes in the 1990s following the dissolution of the Soviet Union many Mountain Jews emigrated to Israel or the United States".Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 17:43, 10 March 2017 (UTC)

Even if it is antagonizing for them or you or anyone, we are not here to censor or placate for any reason whatsoever; we are here only to follow what, in all due weight, is verifiable, by citing reliable sources. Unless you show the passage to be false, you can't argue for its removal. Simply citing a source that confirms what we already know but doesn't touch (refutes) the rise of nationalism or kidnapping by militants as being non-factors, is simply not good enough. If it's true—if it's verifiable, then it must stay. El_C 17:51, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Again, you conveniently ignore the facts. The article falsely states that Jews left because of "militants", while it ignores the fact that Jews left because of Russian invasion, as stated in the book. It ignores the fact of evacuation due to Russian attack and bombardment of Grozny.Hebrew Mountain Man (talk) 18:11, 10 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Then feel free to clarify that point. *** Please do not remove this discussion(!) I'm not even sure why you did it (frustration?)—at any case, that is not permitted, even if you are walking away, which for the sakes of the article I encourage you not to do. El_C 19:24, 10 March 2017 (UTC)

I think I was able to implement the changes you asked for, using your source as reference. El_C 21:39, 10 March 2017 (UTC)

8,000,000 Mountain Jews in Switzerland?
Didn't seem to match the numbers of global MJ and there is no reference in the article to a Swiss community. Not to mention that 8 million is about the entire population of Switzerland. Yoweiner (talk) 01:14, 24 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Yeah if it says that, it's quite obviously false. --Yalens (talk) 01:16, 24 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Improved since then, it has been. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2A00:23C4:7C87:4F00:DC82:503:3851:1F2 (talk) 15:48, 6 July 2020 (UTC)

External links modified
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Gorskie Yevrey
Gorskie Yevrey is not right! The first word is plural form, but the second is singular. It's not grammatically correct in Russian. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 109.252.29.70 (talk) 21:27, 26 February 2019 (UTC)

Related ethnic groups in question: Tat people (Caucasus), Armeno-Tats
Do they really belong here: Tat, Armeno-Tats? Should the recent change get reverted? YCH2277 (talk) 22:54, 20 June 2019 (UTC)
 * "Related ethnic groups" should just be retired, period. Actually I thought there was already a discussion that closed in favor of that...--Calthinus (talk) 00:03, 15 May 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mountain Jews


text:
51826 Kalpanachawla

51826 Kalpanachawla (provisional designation ) is an Eoan asteroid in the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 7 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 19 July 2001, by astronomers of the Near-Earth Asteroid Tracking program at Palomar Observatory in California, United States. The asteroid was named for Indo-American astronaut and mission specialist Kalpana Chawla, who died in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster.

Orbit and classification
Kalpanachawla is a member the Eos family (606), the largest family in the outer asteroid belt consisting of nearly 10,000 asteroids. It orbits the Sun in the outer asteroid belt at a distance of 2.8–3.3 AU once every 5 years and 5 months (1,968 days; semi-major axis of 3.07 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.09 and an inclination of 10° with respect to the ecliptic.

The body's observation arc begins with a precovery taken by Spacewatch at Kitt Peak Observatory in April 1994, more than 7 years prior to its official discovery observation at Palomar.

Physical characteristics
The asteroid's spectral type is unknown. Members of the Eos family are typically K-type asteroids.

Diameter and albedo
According to the survey carried out by the NEOWISE mission of NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer, Kalpanachawla measures 6.947 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo of 0.160.

Rotation period
As of 2017, no rotational lightcurve of Kalpanachawla has been obtained from photometric observations. The asteroid's rotation period, poles and shape remain unknown.

Naming
This minor planet was named after Indo-American astronaut and mission specialist Kalpana Chawla, who was killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster on 1 February 2003. The approved naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 6 August 2003 (M.P.C. 49283). The following asteroids were also named in memory of the other six members of STS-107: 51823 Rickhusband, 51824 Mikeanderson, 51825 Davidbrown, 51827 Laurelclark, 51828 Ilanramon and 51829 Williemccool.

title: 51826 Kalpanachawla


text:
New Haven Green

The New Haven Green is a 16 acre privately owned park and recreation area located in the downtown district of the city of New Haven, Connecticut, United States. It comprises the central square of the nine-square settlement plan of the original Puritan colonists in New Haven, and was designed and surveyed by colonist John Brockett. Today the Green is bordered by the modern paved roads of College, Chapel, Church, and Elm streets. Temple Street bisects the Green into upper (northwest) and lower (southeast) halves.

The green is host to numerous public events, such as the International Festival of Arts and Ideas and New Haven Jazz Festival, summer jazz and classical music concerts that can draw hundreds of thousands of people, as well as typical daily park activities. The New Haven Green Historic District was designated a National Historic Landmark District for the architectural significance of the three 19th-century churches located there.

The New Haven Green is one of the oldest and most well-known town greens in the nation, dating back to at least 1638. As of July 2017, the City of New Haven offers free public WiFi on the Green.

History
The Green is a traditional town green (common) and was originally known as "the marketplace". It was completed in 1638. The Puritans were said to have designed the green large enough to hold the number of people who they believed would be spared in the Second Coming of Christ: 144,000.

In its early years, the Green held a watch house, a prison and a school. The upper Green also once held the First Methodist Church. The church was removed from the Green in 1848 with a new church built across Elm Street (designed by Henry Austin). The Green also held a succession of statehouses, dating from the time when New Haven was joint capital of Connecticut with Hartford. The most recent state house was erected in 1837, designed by Ithiel Town in a Greek Revival style. Ultimately, Hartford was declared the sole capital and the building was demolished in 1889.

The Green served as the parade grounds for the New Haven militia, who, under the leadership of Benedict Arnold, rushed to Massachusetts after hearing of the Battle of Lexington and Concord and participated in the Battle of Bunker Hill in the American Revolution. This indirectly led to the burning of most of the city by the British when they landed in New Haven in 1779.

The Green was used as the main burial grounds for the residents of New Haven during its first 150 years, but by 1821 the practice was abolished and many of the headstones were moved to the Grove Street Cemetery. However, the remains of the dead were not moved, and thus still remain below the soil of the Green. It is conservatively estimated that between 4,000 and 5,000 people remain buried there, including Benedict Arnold's first wife, members of President Rutherford B. Hayes' family, Reverend James Pierpont (founder of Yale University), and Theophilus Eaton, one of the founders of New Haven and the church and governor of the New Haven Colony for 19 years.

On the evening of October 29, 2012, winds from Hurricane Sandy knocked over an oak tree on the Upper Green. Intertwined in the dirt and roots was a human skeleton. The police and medical examiner were called to the scene. The bones likely date back to colonial times, when the Green was used as a cemetery. The Grove Street cemetery that replaced it was chartered in 1797. A small portion of the burial ground is now preserved in The Center Church Crypt.

The Committee of the Proprietors of Common and Undivided Lands at New Haven
A self-electing group of private individuals, the Committee of the Proprietors of Common and Undivided Lands at New Haven, maintain ownership of the green. This five-member committee oversees the large, main portion of the green. The proprietors are drawn from the ranks of prominent city residents. Members are appointed for life, and when one dies the four remaining members convene to select a replacement.

On the Green

Located on the upper Green are three historic early 19th century churches which reflect the city's theocratic roots. Two of the three churches are the work of the influential early-19th century architects Ithiel Town and Asher Benjamin, and one of them is the nation's first large-scale Gothic Revival structure. Because of this architectural legacy, the green was designated a National Historic Landmark District in 1970. The three churches are:

 * United Church on the Green (United Church of Christ / Congregational), or North Church, was built in Federal style by David Hoadley in 1814.
 * "Center Church on the Green", or The First Church of Christ (United Church of Christ / Congregational) was established in 1639. The current church, designed in Georgian style by architect Ithiel Town, was built in 1812. The Center Church Crypt contains the identified remains of about 137 people, and the likely remains of over 1,000 that are unidentified. Sarah Rutherford Trowbridge has the oldest dated stone (1687) in the Crypt.
 * Trinity Church on the Green is an Episcopal congregation founded in 1752, and was also designed by Ithiel Town in 1813, and built between 1814 and 1815. It is the first Gothic Style church identified in the United States. It was consecrated in 1816.

In the lower Green are the Bennett Fountain (built in 1907 and designed after the Choragic Monument of Lysicrates in Athens) and the flagpole with granite World War I memorial (designed by Douglas Orr in 1928) and fountain (added in 2003).

While once the edges of the Green were covered with a glorious canopy of elms, planted originally by James Hillhouse, most died of dutch elm disease. In the 1980s, through the efforts of the Garden Club of New Haven, disease-resistant elms were planted in an attempt to memorialize the legacy of the trees that gave New Haven the nickname "Elm City".

Around the Green
Bordering the Green are municipal, commercial and university structures. On the northwest side of the Green, across College Street, stand Phelps Gate and the Yale University buildings bordering Old Campus. Before the Old Campus was built, the buildings of Yale's Old Brick Row bordered the Green here. On the southwest side along Chapel Street are stores, bars, and such popular restaurants as Claire's Corner Copia. On the southeast side of the green, across Church Street is The Exchange Building (1832, restored in 1990) and the Richard C. Lee United States Courthouse (James Gamble Rogers, 1913). This was once the site of the Tontine Hotel, built by David Hoadley. New Haven's Victorian City Hall (by Henry Austin in 1861; restored and added to by Herbert S. Newman and Partners) and the Amistad Memorial are also at this end of the Green. The memorial stands on the site of the jail that held the Amistad captives during their time in New Haven. Spectators came to see them when they were brought out to exercise on the Green and paid 12 and a half cents to view them in the jail.

Opposite the eastern corner of the lower green is the Union and New Haven Trust Building (now Wells Fargo and The Union apartments) designed by Cross and Cross in colonial revival style in 1927. The design is a tribute to the federal churches on the green and even borrows the cupola from the United Church. On the northeast side along Elm Street by the lower Green is the New Haven Free Public Library (Cass Gilbert, 1908). The library was once the site of the Bristol House, also designed by David Hoadley, whose doorway is now at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Next to the library is the Beaux-Arts, neoclassical New Haven County Courthouse. The courthouse was designed by New Haven architects William Allen and Richard Williams, modeled after St. George's Hall in Liverpool, England. The statuary in front of the courthouse is by the sculptor J. Massey Rhind and murals and lunettes inside the courthouse are by the painter T. Thomas Gilbert.

The upper Green on Elm is bordered by "Quality Row", containing some of the oldest structures in New Haven: the federal style white clapboard Nicholas Callahan house, once a tavern (now the Yale Elihu Senior Society), the federal Eli W. Blake House (now the Graduate Club), the federal John Pierpont house (now the Yale University Koerner Center) built in 1767 and the brick Greek Revival Governor Ralph Isaacs Ingersoll House, designed in 1829 by Town and Davis.

title: New Haven Green