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Lonnie Frisbee

Lonnie Ray Frisbee (June 6, 1949 – March 12, 1993) was an American Charismatic evangelist in the late 1960s and in the 1970s; he was a self-described "seeing prophet". He had a hippie appearance. He was notable as a minister and evangelist in the Jesus movement.

Eyewitness accounts of his ministry, documented in the 2007 documentary, Frisbee: The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher portray Frisbee; he became a charismatic spark igniting the rise of Chuck Smith's Calvary Chapel and the Vineyard Movement. They are two worldwide denominations and among the largest evangelical denominations beginning at that time. Reportedly, "he was not one of the hippie preachers, but rather that "there was one—Frisbee". His brand of ministry was named power evangelism'. Later he was harshly criticized for his great focus and concentrating heavily on the Holy Spirit and the gifts of the Spirit, often by individuals in the same churches which he co-founded.

Frisbee influenced prophetic evangelists including Jonathan Land, Marc Dupont, Jill Austin and several others. Frisbee co-founded the House of Miracles commune and found many converts. The House of Miracles grew into nineteen communal houses; they later moved to Oregon to form Shiloh Youth Revival Centers, the largest and one of the longest-lasting Jesus People communal groups.

Frisbee had an evangelical ministry while privately socializing as a homosexual man, before and during his evangelism career, although in interviews he said that he never believed homosexuality was anything other than sin in the eyes of God. Both denominations he helped found prohibited homosexual behavior, and he was later excommunicated by the denominations because of his active sexual life. They first removed him from leadership positions, and later fired him. He is portrayed by Jonathan Roumie in the 2023 film Jesus Revolution, which highlights his ministry with Chuck Smith and the impact he had on Greg Laurie's evangelism.

Early life and career
Frisbee was mostly raised in a single-parent home and was exposed to "sketchy, dangerous characters" as a child. While researching his documentary, Frisbee: The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher, filmmaker David di Sabatino stated Frisbee's brother claimed Lonnie was raped at the age of eight. Also revealed in the film was that Frisbee ran away frequently and entered into Laguna Beach's homosexual underground scene with a friend when he was 15. Di Sabatino further commented that an incident such as the alleged rape, "fragments your identity", and that he saw Frisbee's homosexuality as a flaw. During his childhood, Frisbee's father ended up leaving their home, and the boy, fatherless. His mother later tracked down and married the former husband of the woman Frisbee's father became involved with.

Lonnie Frisbee showed intense interest in the arts and cooking. He won awards for his paintings and even appeared as a featured dancer on Casey Kasem's mid-60s TV show Shebang. He exhibited a "bohemian" streak and regularly ran away from home. As a teen he became involved in the drug culture as part of his spiritual quest, and at fifteen he entered Laguna Beach's homosexual underground scene with a friend. His spotty high school education left him barely able to read and write. At 18 he joined thousands of other flower children and hippies for the Summer of Love in San Francisco in 1967. He described himself as a "nudist-vegetarian-hippie".

Frisbee's unofficial evangelism career began as a part of a soul-searching LSD acid-trip as part of a regular "turn on, tune in, drop out" session of getting high. He would often read the Bible while on a trip. On a pilgrimage with friends to Tahquitz Canyon outside Palm Springs, instead of looking for meaning again in mysticism and the occult, Frisbee started reading the Gospel of John to the group, eventually leading the group to Tahquitz Falls and baptizing them. A later acid-trip in the same area produced "a vision of a vast sea of people crying out to the Lord for salvation, with Frisbee in front preaching the gospel." His "grand vision of spreading Christianity to the masses" alienated his family and friends. Frisbee moved to San Francisco where he had won a fellowship to the San Francisco Art Academy. He soon met members of Haight-Ashbury's Living Room mission. At the time he talked about UFOs, practiced hypnotism, and talked about dabbling in occultism and mysticism. When Steve and Sandi Heefner and Ted and Connie Wise first met him, they said he was talking about "Jesus and flying saucers". Frisbee converted to Christianity and joined their first street Christian community, The Living Room, a storefront coffeehouse commune of four couples in the Haight-Ashbury district of San Francisco started in 1967. He quit the art academy and moved to Novato, California, where the Heefners and Wises set up a commune and later reconnected with his former girlfriend Connie Bremer, whom he then married. The community was soon dubbed The House of Acts after the community of early Christians in the Acts of the Apostles. Frisbee designed a sign to put outside the house, but was informed that if he gave it an official name, it would no longer be considered a mere guest house and would be subject to renovations. The community took the sign down to avoid the financial obligation. Frisbee continued painting detailed oils including several of missions.

Jesus movement, Calvary Chapel
Chuck Smith had been making plans to build a chapel out of a surplus school building in the city of Santa Ana, near Costa Mesa, when he met Frisbee. Smith's daughter's boyfriend John Nicholson was a former addict who had turned to Christianity. When Smith said he wanted to meet a hippie, John brought home Frisbee (who was hitch-hiking), so he could meet people to talk about Jesus and salvation. Frisbee and his wife Connie joined the fledgling Calvary Chapel congregation and Smith was struck by Frisbee's charisma. Smith said, "I was not at all prepared for the love that this young man would radiate." Frisbee became one of the most important ministers in the church when on May 17, 1968, Smith put the young couple in charge of the Costa Mesa rehab house called "The House of Miracles" with John Higgins and his wife Jackie. Within a week it had 35 new converts. Bunk beds were built in the garage to house the new converts. Frisbee led the Wednesday night Bible study, which soon became the central night for the church attracting thousands. Frisbee's attachment to the charismatic Pentecostal style caused some disagreement within the church, since he seemed focused more on gaining converts and experiencing the presence of the Holy Spirit than on teaching newer converts Biblical doctrine. Chuck Smith took over teaching and welcomed Frisbee into his church. Frisbee's appearance helped appeal to hippies and those interested in youth culture, and he believed that the youth culture would play a prominent role in the Christian movement in the United States. He cited Joel the prophet and remained upbeat despite what the young couple saw as unbalanced treatment, as Frisbee was never paid for his work and another person was hired full-time as Smith's assistant.

The country was being swept with a youth movement with California as an epicenter. The counterculture of hippies and surfers hung around the beaches; music and dancing to the music was the main form of communication. Frisbee walked on the beaches during the day to convert the young people; he brought them to church for the nightly services.

The House of Miracles grew into a series of nineteen communal houses that later migrated to Oregon to form Shiloh Youth Revival Centers, the largest and one of the longest lasting of the Jesus People communal groups which had 100,000 members and 175 communal houses spread across North America. This may have been the largest Christian communal group in U.S. history.

From 1968 to 1971, Frisbee was a leader in the Jesus movement, bringing in thousands of new converts and influencing Calvary Chapel leaders including Mike MacIntosh and Greg Laurie, whom he mentored.

Fame
"Jesus Freaks", or "Jesus People" as they were often called, were documented in media including the Kathryn Kuhlman I Believe In Miracles show; Frisbee was a featured guest on the show talking about Jesus, the prophets, and quoting scripture. By 1971, the Jesus Movement was covered in the media with major media outlets like Life, Newsweek and Rolling Stone reporting on it. Frisbee, due to his prominence in the movement, was often photographed and interviewed. Also in 1971 Frisbee and Smith parted ways because their theological differences had become too great. Smith discounted Pentecostalism, maintaining that love was the greatest manifestation of the Holy Spirit, while Frisbee was strongly involved in theology which centered on spiritual gifts and New Testament experiences. Frisbee announced that he would leave California altogether and go to a movement in Florida led by Derek Prince and Bob Mumford which taught a pyramid shepherding style of leadership and was later referred to as the Shepherding Movement.

In 1973, the Frisbees divorced because Frisbee's pastor had an affair with his wife. Frisbee mentioned that in a sermon he gave at the Vineyard Church in Denver a few years before he died. Connie later remarried and Lonnie left the organization.

Vineyard movement
Meanwhile in May 1977, John Wimber laid the groundwork for what would become the Association of Vineyard Churches, also known as the Vineyard Movement. He witnessed the explosive growth of Calvary Chapel and wanted to build a church which embraced the healings and miracles that he had previously been taught were no longer a part of Christian life. He began teaching and preaching about spiritual gifts and healings, but Wimber held that it wasn't until May 1979, when Frisbee gave his testimony during an evening service at what was then the Yorba Linda branch of the Calvary Chapel movement (later the Anaheim Vineyard Christian Fellowship) that the charismatic gifts of the Holy Spirit took hold of the church.

Since his early days at Calvary Chapel Costa Mesa, Frisbee shifted in his emphasis from evangelism to the dramatic and demonstrative manifestation of the power of the Holy Spirit. After speaking Frisbee invited all the young people 25 and under to come forward; he invited the Holy Spirit to bring God's power into their lives. Witnesses say it looked like a battlefield as young people fell and began to shake and speak in tongues. The young kids, many in junior high and high school, were so "filled with the Spirit" that they soon started baptizing friends in hot tubs and swimming pools around town.

The church catapulted in growth over the next few months and the event is credited with launching the Vineyard Movement. After that time Frisbee and Wimber began traveling the world, visiting South Africa and Europe. Frisbee was a much sought-after preacher with his "Jesus-like" look getting him instant recognition from South Africa to Denmark. While there, they purportedly performed many healings and miracles for people. As reported by many who were there, Frisbee was integral to the development of what would later become Wimber's "Signs and Wonders theology".

Sexuality revealed
Although Frisbee's homosexuality was documented as a "bit of an open secret in the church community" and that he would "party" on Saturday night then preach Sunday morning, many in the church were unaware of his "other life." Eventually some church officials felt that Frisbee's inability to overcome sexual immorality became a hindrance to his ministry. An article in The Orange County Weekly, headlined "The First Jesus Freak," chronicles Frisbee's life in which Matt Coker writes, "Chuck Smith Jr. says he was having lunch with Wimber one day when he asked how the pastor reconciled working with a known homosexual like Frisbee. Wimber asked how the younger Smith knew this. Smith said he'd received a call from a pastor who'd just heard a young man confess to having been in a six-month relationship with Frisbee. Wimber called Smith the next day to say he'd confronted Frisbee, who openly admitted to the affair and agreed to leave."

By his own account, Frisbee was raped by a man who had attended one of Lonnie's revival meetings six years prior. Lonnie says "Over the next few weeks, this man began to spread it around that he had a sexual relationship with Lonnie Frisbee. He told people, including church leaders, that he had sex with me. Not true. I was violently forced at knifepoint totally against my will. His lies caused me years of not being able to minister, as this accusation spread throughout the Christian community." He describes next some of the fallout. "I gave in to drugs and sexual temptation. I had become deceived and overpowered. I had been constantly accused of things, mostly of which I didn't do---so why not live up to my reputation? That was more or less my subconscious justification for crossing the lines. I blamed everyone else, including the church."

However, Frisbee stated that he never characterized himself as a homosexual: "... in the last segment of my life story. I said it was a counterfeit. But I would like to go into the subject a little more at this time... I stated 'I never lived the gay lifestyle,' I would like to add that I have never even considered myself a homosexual at all, even though I had been molested for years as a child, had sexually experimented as a part of the rebellious 'free love generation'... and there is also my disappointing backsliding days in the mid-eighties."

In 2005, film critic Peter Chattaway interviewed David Di Sabatino (director of the documentary Frisbee: The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher) for Christianity Today; they spoke about addressing Frisbee's homosexuality with his family. Di Sabatino said, "I brought to light some things that not a lot of people knew. I've been in rooms with his family where I've had to tell them that he defined himself as gay, way back. Nobody knew that. There's a lot of hubris in that, to come to people who loved him and prayed for him, and to stand there and say, 'You didn't really know this, but...'" In the same interview Di Sabatino also said, "His early testimony at Calvary Chapel was that he had come out of the homosexual lifestyle, but he felt like a leper because a lot of people turned away from him after that, so he took it out of his testimony—and I think that's an indictment of the church." Di Sabatino commented on Frisbee's homosexuality as a flaw.

Death
At the time of his death in 1993, a brain tumor was named as the cause. A source claimed Frisbee contracted AIDS and died from complications associated with the condition; At his funeral at the Crystal Cathedral, Calvary Chapel's Chuck Smith eulogized Frisbee as a spiritual son and said he was a Samson-like figure, saying that he was a man through whom God did many great works, but that he was the victim of his own struggles and temptations. Some saw this as further maligning Frisbee's work and an inappropriate characterization at the service. Others including Frisbee's friend John Ruttkay, saw the Samson analogy as being spot on, and said so at his funeral. Frisbee was interred in the Crystal Cathedral Memorial Gardens.

Frisbee: The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher
David Di Sabatino produced and directed the video documentary: Frisbee: The Life and Death of a Hippie Preacher. Narrated by Jim Palosaari, it received an Emmy Award nomination from the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (San Francisco/NorCal chapter).

Finished in March 2005, Frisbee was first accepted to the Newport Beach Film Festival where a showing at the Lido Theater was sold out. The theater is not far from the Blue Top commune, a Christian community of young hippie believers which was run by the Frisbees in the late 1960s. The documentary was also accepted to the Mill Valley (2005), Reel Heart (2005), Ragamuffin (2005), San Francisco International (2006), New York Underground (2006) and Philadelphia QFest (2006) film festivals. The edited version of the movie was shown on San Francisco's KQED in November 2006; the film was released on DVD in January 2007.

A soundtrack featuring the music of The All Saved Freak Band, Agape, Joy, and Gentle Faith was released in May 2007.

Jesus Revolution
The 2023 movie Jesus Revolution starred Jonathan Roumie as Lonnie Frisbee, and Kelsey Grammer as Pastor Chuck Smith. The movie's theme is the rise of the Jesus Movement and features Frisbee as one of the film's main characters.

title: Lonnie Frisbee


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Check digit

A check digit is a form of redundancy check used for error detection on identification numbers, such as bank account numbers, which are used in an application where they will at least sometimes be input manually. It is analogous to a binary parity bit used to check for errors in computer-generated data. It consists of one or more digits (or letters) computed by an algorithm from the other digits (or letters) in the sequence input.

With a check digit, one can detect simple errors in the input of a series of characters (usually digits) such as a single mistyped digit or some permutations of two successive digits.

Design
Check digit algorithms are generally designed to capture human transcription errors. In order of complexity, these include the following:
 * letter/digit errors, such as l → 1 or O → 0
 * single-digit errors, such as 1 → 2
 * transposition errors, such as 12 → 21
 * twin errors, such as 11 → 22
 * jump transpositions errors, such as 132 → 231
 * jump twin errors, such as 131 → 232
 * phonetic errors, such as 60 → 16 ("sixty" to "sixteen")

In choosing a system, a high probability of catching errors is traded off against implementation difficulty; simple check digit systems are easily understood and implemented by humans but do not catch as many errors as complex ones, which require sophisticated programs to implement.

A desirable feature is that left-padding with zeros should not change the check digit. This allows variable length numbers to be used and the length to be changed. If there is a single check digit added to the original number, the system will not always capture multiple errors, such as two replacement errors (12 → 34) though, typically, double errors will be caught 90% of the time (both changes would need to change the output by offsetting amounts).

A very simple check digit method would be to take the sum of all digits (digital sum) modulo 10. This would catch any single-digit error, as such an error would always change the sum, but does not catch any transposition errors (switching two digits) as re-ordering does not change the sum.

A slightly more complex method is to take the weighted sum of the digits, modulo 10, with different weights for each number position.

To illustrate this, for example if the weights for a four digit number were 5, 3, 2, 7 and the number to be coded was 4871, then one would take 5×4 + 3×8 + 2×7 + 7×1 = 65, i.e. 65 modulo 10, and the check digit would be 5, giving 48715.

Systems with weights of 1, 3, 7, or 9, with the weights on neighboring numbers being different, are widely used: for example, 31 31 weights in UPC codes, 13 13 weights in EAN numbers (GS1 algorithm), and the 371 371 371 weights used in United States bank routing transit numbers. This system detects all single-digit errors and around 90% of transposition errors. 1, 3, 7, and 9 are used because they are coprime with 10, so changing any digit changes the check digit; using a coefficient that is divisible by 2 or 5 would lose information (because 5×0 = 5×2 = 5×4 = 5×6 = 5×8 = 0 modulo 10) and thus not catch some single-digit errors. Using different weights on neighboring numbers means that most transpositions change the check digit; however, because all weights differ by an even number, this does not catch transpositions of two digits that differ by 5 (0 and 5, 1 and 6, 2 and 7, 3 and 8, 4 and 9), since the 2 and 5 multiply to yield 10.

The ISBN-10 [sic] code instead uses modulo 11, which is prime, and all the number positions have different weights 1, 2, ... 10. This system thus detects all single-digit substitution and transposition errors (including jump transpositions), but at the cost of the check digit possibly being 10, represented by "X". (An alternative is simply to avoid using the serial numbers which result in an "X" check digit.) ISBN-13 [sic] instead uses the GS1 algorithm used in EAN numbers.

More complicated algorithms include the Luhn algorithm (1954), which captures 98% of single-digit transposition errors (it does not detect 90 ↔ 09) and the still more sophisticated Verhoeff algorithm (1969), which catches all single-digit substitution and transposition errors, and many (but not all) more complex errors. Similar is another abstract algebra-based method, the Damm algorithm (2004), that too detects all single-digit errors and all adjacent transposition errors. These three methods use a single check digit and will therefore fail to capture around 10% of more complex errors. To reduce this failure rate, it is necessary to use more than one check digit (for example, the modulo 97 check referred to below, which uses two check digits—for the algorithm, see International Bank Account Number) and/or to use a wider range of characters in the check digit, for example letters plus numbers.

UPC, EAN, GLN, GTIN, numbers administered by GS1
The final digit of a Universal Product Code, International Article Number, Global Location Number or Global Trade Item Number is a check digit computed as follows:

 * 1) Add the digits in the odd-numbered positions from the left (first, third, fifth, etc.—not including the check digit) together and multiply by three.
 * 2) Add the digits (up to but not including the check digit) in the even-numbered positions (second, fourth, sixth, etc.) to the result.
 * 3) Take the remainder of the result divided by 10 (i.e. the modulo 10 operation). If the remainder is equal to 0 then use 0 as the check digit, and if not 0 subtract the remainder from 10 to derive the check digit.

A GS1 check digit calculator and detailed documentation is online at GS1's website. Another official calculator page shows that the mechanism for GTIN-13 is the same for Global Location Number/GLN.

For instance, the UPC-A barcode for a box of tissues is "036000241457". The last digit is the check digit "7", and if the other numbers are correct then the check digit calculation must produce 7. Another example: to calculate the check digit for the following food item "01010101010x".
 * 1) Add the odd number digits: 0+6+0+2+1+5 = 14.
 * 2) Multiply the result by 3: 14 × 3 = 42.
 * 3) Add the even number digits: 3+0+0+4+4 = 11.
 * 4) Add the two results together: 42 + 11 = 53.
 * 5) To calculate the check digit, take the remainder of (53 / 10), which is also known as (53 modulo 10), and if not 0, subtract from 10. Therefore, the check digit value is 7. i.e. (53 / 10) = 5 remainder 3; 10 - 3 = 7.
 * 1) Add the odd number digits: 0+0+0+0+0+0 = 0.
 * 2) Multiply the result by 3: 0 x 3 = 0.
 * 3) Add the even number digits: 1+1+1+1+1=5.
 * 4) Add the two results together: 0 + 5 = 5.
 * 5) To calculate the check digit, take the remainder of (5 / 10), which is also known as (5 modulo 10), and if not 0, subtract from 10: i.e. (5 / 10) = 0 remainder 5; (10 - 5) = 5. Therefore, the check digit x value is 5.

ISBN 10
The final character of a ten-digit International Standard Book Number is a check digit computed so that multiplying each digit by its position in the number (counting from the right) and taking the sum of these products modulo 11 is 0. The digit the farthest to the right (which is multiplied by 1) is the check digit, chosen to make the sum correct. It may need to have the value 10, which is represented as the letter X. For example, take the ISBN 0-201-53082-1: The sum of products is 0×10 + 2×9 + 0×8 + 1×7 + 5×6 + 3×5 + 0×4 + 8×3 + 2×2 + 1×1 = 99 ≡ 0 (mod 11). So the ISBN is valid. Positions can also be counted from left, in which case the check digit is multiplied by 10, to check validity: 0×1 + 2×2 + 0×3 + 1×4 + 5×5 + 3×6 + 0×7 + 8×8 + 2×9 + 1×10 = 143 ≡ 0 (mod 11).

ISBN 13
ISBN 13 (in use January 2007) is equal to the EAN-13 code found underneath a book's barcode. Its check digit is generated the same way as the UPC.

NCDA
The NOID Check Digit Algorithm (NCDA), in use since 2004, is designed for application in persistent identifiers and works with variable length strings of letters and digits, called extended digits. It is widely used with the ARK identifier scheme and somewhat used with schemes, such as the Handle System and DOI. An extended digit is constrained to betanumeric characters, which are alphanumerics minus vowels and the letter 'l' (ell). This restriction helps when generating opaque strings that are unlikely to form words by accident and will not contain both O and 0, or l and 1. Having a prime radix of R=29, the betanumeric repertoire permits the algorithm to guarantee detection of single-character and transposition errors for strings less than R=29 characters in length (beyond which it provides a slightly weaker check). The algorithm generalizes to any character repertoire with a prime radix R and strings less than R characters in length.

International

 * The International SEDOL number.
 * The final digit of an ISSN code or IMO Number.
 * The International Securities Identifying Number (ISIN).
 * Object Management Group FIGI standard final digit.
 * The International CAS registry number's final digit.
 * Modulo 10 check digits in credit card account numbers, calculated by the Luhn algorithm.
 * Also used in the Norwegian KID (customer identification number) numbers used in bank giros (credit transfer),
 * Used in IMEI of mobile phones.
 * Last check digit in EAN/UPC serialisation of Global Trade Identification Number (GTIN). It applies to GTIN-8, GTIN-12, GTIN-13 and GTIN-14.
 * The final digit of a DUNS number (though this is scheduled to change, such as that the final digit will be chosen freely in new allocations, rather than being a check digit).
 * The third and fourth digits in an International Bank Account Number (Modulo 97 check).
 * The final digit in an International Standard Text Code.
 * The final character encoded in a magnetic stripe card is a computed Longitudinal redundancy check.

In the US

 * The tenth digit of the National Provider Identifier for the US healthcare industry.
 * The final digit of a POSTNET code.
 * The North American CUSIP number.
 * The final (ninth) digit of the ABA routing transit number, a bank code used in the United States.
 * The ninth digit of a Vehicle Identification Number (VIN).
 * Mayo Clinic patient identification numbers used in Arizona and Florida include a trailing check digit.
 * The eleventh digit of a Customs & Border Protection entry number.

In Central America

 * The Guatemalan Tax Number (NIT – Número de Identificación Tributaria) based on modulo 11.

In Eurasia

 * The UK NHS Number uses the modulo 11 algorithm.
 * The Spanish fiscal identification number (número de identificación fiscal, NIF) (based on modulo 23).
 * The Dutch Burgerservicenummer (BSN) (national identifier) uses the modulo 11 algorithm.
 * The ninth digit of an Israeli Teudat Zehut (Identity Card) number.
 * The 13th digit of the Serbian and Former Yugoslav Unique Master Citizen Number (JMBG). (but not all of them, due to errors or non-residency)
 * The last two digits of the 11-digit Turkish Identification Number (TC Kimlik Numarası).
 * The ninth character in the 14-character EU cattle passport number (cycles from 1 to 7: see British Cattle Movement Service).
 * The ninth digit in an Icelandic Kennitala (national ID number).
 * Modulo 97 check digits in a Belgian and Serbian bank account numbers. Serbia sometimes also uses modulo 11, for reference number.
 * The ninth digit in a Hungarian TAJ number (social insurance number).
 * For the residents of India, the unique identity number named Aadhaar has a trailing 12th digit that is calculated with the Verhoeff algorithm.
 * The Intellectual Property Office of Singapore (IPOS) has confirmed a new format for application numbers of registrable intellectual property (IP, e.g., trademarks, patents, registered designs). It will include a check character calculated with the Damm algorithm.
 * The last digit of Chinese citizen ID number (second generation) is calculated by modulo 11-2 as specified in Chinese GuoBiao (aka national standard) GB11643-1999 which adopts ISO 7064:1983. 'X' is used if the calculated checking digit is 10.
 * The 11th digit of Estonian Isikukood (Personal Identification Code).
 * The last letter on vehicle registration plates of Singapore.

In Oceania

 * The Australian tax file number (based on modulo 11).
 * The seventh character of a New Zealand NHI Number.
 * The last digit in a New Zealand locomotive's Traffic Monitoring System (TMS) number.

Algorithms
Notable algorithms include:

 * Luhn algorithm (1954)
 * Verhoeff algorithm (1969)
 * Damm algorithm (2004)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Check digit


text:
Atlas Cheetah

The Atlas Cheetah is a South African fighter aircraft designed and produced by the aviation company Atlas Aircraft Corporation (later Denel Aeronautics). It was developed at the behest of, and principally operated by, the South African Air Force (SAAF).

The Cheetah was developed amid the Border War of the 1980s as a major upgrade of the French-built Dassault Mirage III fleet operated by the SAAF. The programme integrated technology from the Israeli-built IAI Kfir, which had been derived from the Mirage 5/IAI Nesher. The upgrade programme, which was known as Project Cushion, produced three variants; the two-seat Cheetah D, the single-seat Cheetah E, and the single-seat Cheetah C. All three models were inducted into the SAAF, functioning for a time as the service's most capable fighter and strike aircraft. A single Cheetah R, intended for aerial reconnaissance, was built as a prototype, but this variant never entered service.

During 1992, the Cheetah E model was withdrawn from SAAF service; both the Cheetah Cs and Cheetah Ds were retired during April 2008, having been being replaced by the Swedish-built Saab Gripen. Since its retirement by the SAAF, a limited number have still operated in South Africa as flight test aircraft. Some have been exported, such as to the Ecuadorian Air Force (EAF) as a source of spare parts. The privately owned company Draken International intends to use the Cheetah as an adversarial aircraft for combat training services in the United States.

Background
The Atlas Cheetah programme originated during the 1980s out of South Africa's requirement for more capable fighter and strike aircraft. At the time, the South African Air Force (SAAF) was confronted by the need for more advanced aircraft to attain an edge over the ever-more sophisticated Soviet-built aircraft, such as the MiG-23, that were being supplied to both Angolan and Cuban forces. These aircraft were being deployed against South Africa's own military during the lengthy conflict commonly known as the Border War. Furthermore, the increasing cost of maintenance due to international sanctions and the increasing age of existing aircraft in the SAAF's inventory also needed to be addressed. As a consequence of the arms embargo being imposed at the time under United Nations Security Council Resolution 418, South Africa was prevented from purchasing new aircraft from almost any other country in the world; accordingly, the upgrading of existing aircraft became the only viable option available.

Companies involved
By the 1980s, the South African aviation industry had attained the level of technical capability to make a large and sophisticated upgrade possible. These factors contributed to the SAAF making the decision to authorise an extensive upgrade programme involving one of the existing types in service. Furthermore, the development of an advanced indigenously developed fighter, known as the Atlas Carver, was also initiated around the same time.

During the 1980s, the SAAF's fast jet fleet consisted of multiple variants of the French-built Dassault Mirage III (EZ/CZ/BZ/DZ/D2Z/RZ/R2Z) and Mirage F1 (AZ/CZ) aircraft. Although the Mirage F1 was considered to be the most modern aircraft type in the fleet, deliveries having commenced during 1977, the type comprised the primary element of South Africa's air defence and strike fleet. Withdrawing the Mirage F1 to perform an extensive upgrade would have necessitated opening a major gap in that nation's air defence and strike capability, which was deemed to be unacceptable by senior SAAF officials.

In addition, various features could be integrated into the Mirage III from related, pre-existing upgrades that had been made to similar aircraft, such as the Mirage 5/IAI Nesher/IAI Kfir lineage and Mirage 3NG project, the latter being based on the Mirage III. Consequently, the SAAF's Mirage III fleet was chosen as the recipient for this upgrade programme, which was initially referred to as Project Cushion.

The work was carried out by Atlas Aviation (formerly Atlas Aircraft Corporation and lately Denel Aviation). Atlas was also able to acquire skilled technicians with relevant knowledge from Israel, following the cancellation of an advanced Israeli fighter project, known as the IAI Lavi. Prior to the programme, Israel had already established itself as a source of military technology for South Africa, cumulating in the Israel–South Africa Agreement. The two nations had engaged in multiple arrangements specifically involving SAAF's Mirage III fleet, including the procurement of spare parts by Israel and the embedding of Israelí advisors within SAAF units. According to some aviation publications, foreign aviation company Israel Aircraft Industries had been involved in at least the initial stages of the upgrade, and that some components were sourced directly from Israel. IAI themselves have acknowledged their involvement in the joint development of related projects, such as an active-radar development programme. According to ACIG, a total of five IAI Nesher fighters may have been acquired from the Israeli Air Force for Cheetah trials and later absorbed into the existing fleet. According to aviation author John W. Golan, a potentially large number of IAI Kfirs may have been provided to South Africa for the programme.

Details
The upgrade consisted of a complete refurbishment of the airframe down to zero flight hours condition; to achieve this, roughly 50% of the original airframe was reportedly replaced, according to statements made by Atlas. Aerodynamic changes included the installation of non-moving canards just aft of the engine intakes, the Cheetah D & E models were fitted with slightly smaller (70%) canards than that of the Cheetah C and IAI Kfir. Other airframe alterations included two additional stores pylons at the wing roots, an aerial refuelling probe, new ejection seats, a new main wing spar along with a new "drooping" leading edge and a dog-tooth incision on each wing, modern elevons controlled by a twin computer-based flight control system, and strakes on the nose to improve the Cheetah's high-Angle of attack (AoA) performance. Reportedly, the Cheetah could carry three times as much ordinance (in terms of weight) as the Mirage III while possessing superior agility as well. However, according to aviation author Dick Lord, the Mirage F1 remained capable of superior performance in areas such as fuel efficiency, ease of handling, and range.

In terms of its electronics and systems, the Cheetah was provisioned with new avionics, radar set, electronic warfare (EW) and self-protection suites. As many of these were accommodated within the nose, this necessitated its lengthening to provide more internal space. The EW suite incorporated a missile approach warning system and radar warning receivers, while the aircraft's self-protection system, which consisted of electronic jammers and chaff/flare dispensers that were automatically activated. An indigenously developed helmet-mounted sight (HMS) and an oversized head-up display (HUD) were also installed in the cockpit, along with other sophisticated cockpit instrumentation. The upgrade involved the fitting of a new and capable Pulse-Doppler radar system. While both the Cheetah D and the Cheetah E were still equipped with the SNECMA Atar 9C turbojet engine, the Cheetah C used the more powerful Atar 9K50.

Operational history
On 16 July 1986, the first Cheetah D was publicly unveiled although a number of Cheetah Ds had already entered service with 89 Combat Flying School at AFB Pietersburg. During 1987, the Cheetah D was declared to be operational with the SAAF. The second and third aircraft to be delivered to Atlas were both Mirage IIIEZs, following their conversion of the Cheetah E configuration, these aircraft went into service with 5 Squadron at AFB Louis Trichardt. Early experiences with the Cheetah found it to be markedly more difficult to successfully perform in-flight refuelling than the Mirage F1 fleet. While the type had been developed in response to the increasing pressure of the Border War, there is no evidence that any Cheetahs of any variant actually conducted offensive operations in the final years of the conflict.

By 1991, 16 of each type were reported in service when the Cheetah D and E conversion lines closed. This same year, the production of the Cheetah C started, the first such aircraft being rolled out during January 1993. All the Cheetah Cs entered service with 2 Squadron, which was also stationed at AFB Louis Trichardt. The type continued to be used during the post-Apartheid peacetime, but became increasingly obsolete in comparison to international fighter aircraft over the course of two decades. The Cheetah was eventually withdrawn from SAAF service during the 2000s in favour of newly procured Swedish Saab JAS-39 Gripens, which has succeeded the Cheetah as the service's principal fast jet fighter.

Retired Cheetahs were typically stored rather than scrapped, and during 2003, South Africa began seeing buyers for these surplus aircraft. Accordingly, the Cheetah has been exported to various customers. In South America, Ecuador decided to acquire the type. During late 2017, it was announced that a privately owned company, Draken International, had made a deal with Denel Aviation to procure much of the ex-SAAF fleet; the company reportedly intended to use the Cheetah as an aggressor aircraft for dissimilar combat training services for customers in the United States.

Cheetah C
The Cheetah C was the final development in the Cheetah series and was the only fighter aircraft in service with the SAAF until replaced by the Swedish-built Saab JAS 39 Gripen during 2008. In addition to the upgrades described above, the Cheetah C incorporated more sophisticated avionics and navigation suite and an improved pulse-doppler multi-mode radar (ELTA). The aircraft was also fitted with a data link and updated versions of the helmet-mounted sight, HUD and improved HOTAS controls.

Other improvements included the fitting of a single-piece wrap-around windshield in place of the previous three-piece version, a revised in-flight refuelling probe with less external piping, new undercarriage and suspension, the deletion of the wing fences, an Atar 9K50 engine and a new nose to incorporate the more sophisticated electronics and radar.

Like the Cheetah D, the Cheetah C was capable of delivering precision-guided munitions (PGMs), ranging from laser-guided bombs (LGBs), to GPS-guided weapons and TV-guided bombs. It also had the capability of using stand-off air-to-ground weapons such as the MUPSOW and TORGOS. In addition, it was able to carry a wide range of air-to-air weapons including the V4 R-Darter radar-guided missile and the A-Darter infrared (IR)-guided missile.

Cheetah D
The Cheetah D was the sole two-seater variant, and was predominantly used as a trainer for pilots converting to the Cheetah C. It also had a secondary attack capability, including the ability to deliver PGMs. Under Project Recipient, 10 Cheetah Ds were re-engined with the Atar 09K50C-11, replacing their original Atar 09C engines. After the engine modification, the remaining aircraft received an avionics upgrade to bring them to the same standard as the Cheetah C. The original three piece front windshield was also replaced with a one-piece wraparound version.

Cheetah D No.845 was based at the Test Flight and Development Centre (TFDC) as a systems testing aircraft and used in the development of the Denel Dynamics MUPSOW stand-off weapon. Denel used two Cheetah Ds for testing (844 and 847). The former was Denel's standard systems testing aircraft, while the latter was used in the evaluation of the SMR-95 engine, a development of the Soviet-built Klimov RD-33. The performance increase offered by the Russian engine was impressive, but a combination of budget cuts and problems with the aircraft's centre of gravity contributed to the program's termination.

These aircraft were retired from service in 2008, as the first Saab JAS-39D Gripen began to be delivered to the SAAF.

Cheetah E
The single-seater Cheetah E was developed as an interim fighter for use in the period before the Cheetah Cs became operational. It was fitted with a comparatively simple avionics suite and radar and retained the Atar 9C-3 engine. Its typical mission was as a standby interceptor, whereby a minimum of two aircraft armed with two V3B (later V3C) missiles, would be on permanent alert status in case of an attack from the north.

All aircraft were placed into storage with the final example (No.842) painted in a non-standard camouflage scheme and used for systems testing. No.842 is currently with the SAAF Museum, and is stored at AFB Swartkop. In 2003, Chile purchased five of the mothballed aircraft (Numbers 819, 820, 827, 832 and 833) and indicated its desire to purchase seven more aircraft (numbers 822, 823, 825, 828, 829, 831 and 834) subject to the agreement of a suitable purchase price. The Chilean Air Force (FACh) used the Cheetah E airframes as a source of spares for its similar ENAER Pantera aircraft until these planes were retired in late 2006.

Cheetah R
The Cheetah R was a feasibility study into an extension of the Cheetah upgrade programme to include a specialist reconnaissance model. An Atar 9K50-engined Mirage IIIR2Z, (855), was chosen as the airframe for the upgrade. In addition to the airframe refurbishment, 855 received a new nose design and the same radar as used in the Cheetah E, the twin DEFA 30mm cannons were removed and it was the only Cheetah type to not receive an in-flight refuelling probe. The SAAF decided not to proceed with the Cheetah R programme and 855 was assigned to the Atlas Advanced Combat Wing (ACW) where it was used as a testing and development aircraft. It was decided that rather than developing a dedicated reconnaissance airframe, that the Vinten Vicon 18 Series 610 reconnaissance pod would be used on the Cheetah C variant to provide reconnaissance capabilities.

Operators

 * 🇪🇨 Ecuador
 * Ecuadorian Air Force – On 23 September 2009, the Ecuadorian Ministry of Defense announced that Ecuador had reached a decision to buy 10 ex-SAAF Cheetah Cs and 2 Cheetah Ds to replace its aging fleet of Mirage F.1JAs in one of the Ecuadorian Air Force's two operating supersonic fighter squadrons. After some delays, a contract was signed in December 2010. The first three aircraft arrived in Ecuador in April 2011.

 * 🇿🇦 South Africa

 * Denel Aviation – As of October 2012, the state-owned enterprise operates two Cheetah D as system testbeds. They are based at Denel Aviation's facilities at O.R. Tambo International Airport.

 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * Draken International – During December 2017, it was announced that the company would buy and operate 12 ex-South African Air Force Cheetahs as an adversarial aircraft for training military pilots.

Former operators

 * 🇨🇱 Chile
 * Chilean Air Force – In 2003, Chile purchased five of the mothballed SAAF's Cheetah Es as a source of spares for its similar ENAER Pantera. Chile retired its last Pantera (and closed its Grupo 4) from active service during 2007 following the retirement of their last Mirage Elkan in 2006.

 * 🇿🇦 South Africa
 * South African Air Force – Entered service in 1986 and retired from active service in 2008.
 * 2 Squadron Cheetah C and D
 * 5 Squadron Cheetah E
 * 89 Combat Flying School Cheetah D
 * Test Flight and Development Centre Two Cheetah D

title: Atlas Cheetah


text:
Wiscon

WisCon or Wiscon, a Wisconsin science fiction convention, is the oldest, and often called the world's leading, feminist science fiction convention and conference. It was first held in Madison, Wisconsin in February 1977, after a group of fans attending the 1976 34th World Science Fiction Convention in Kansas City was inspired to organize a convention like WorldCon but with feminism as the dominant theme. The convention is held annually in May, during the four-day weekend of Memorial Day. Sponsored by the Society for the Furtherance and Study of Fantasy and Science Fiction, or (SF)³, WisCon gathers together fans, writers, editors, publishers, scholars, and artists to discuss science fiction and fantasy, with emphasis on issues of feminism, gender, race, and class.

It was announced in 2023 that there would not be a 2024 Wiscon. The convention committee announced they would "take a year to rest, plan, and make adjustments that we don’t usually have time for during the rush of putting on this life-giving feminist speculative fiction convention."

Guests of Honor
Since its inception, WisCon has invited one or more guests of honor to attend the convention every year, guiding and participating in programming and giving a speech at a ceremony in their honor. WisCon 30 (May 26–29, 2006) was an anniversary Wiscon, and 39 previous Guests of Honor attended. For WisCon 40, the convention invited a third guest of honor, Nalo Hopkinson, who was previously a guest of honor at WisCon 26. A virtual event happened on Memorial Day weekend in 2020 at WisCon XLIV. Here are the Guests of honor below:

Offshoot organizations and awards

Multiple awards and organizations have been created through or developed from conversations at WisCon that focus on various issues within science fiction and fantasy. Many of these offshoots still maintain close ties to WisCon, hosting parties or panel discussions focused on their areas of interest.

The James Tiptree, Jr. Award (now the Otherwise Award), an annual literary prize for science fiction or fantasy "that expands or explores our understanding of gender" was first discussed as part of Pat Murphy's Guest of Honor speech at WisCon 15 in 1991. The concept originated in a discussion at a prior WisCon, partly as "...a reaction to the fact that all of the science fiction awards were named after men. So they named the Tiptree for a man who was actually a woman". James Tiptree, Jr., was the pen name of Alice B. Sheldon. The Tiptree Ceremony has been held at other conventions, but is usually held at WisCon.

The Carl Brandon Society was founded in 1999 following discussions at Wiscon 23 about race, racism, and science and fantasy, inspired in part by Delany’s essay “Racism and Science Fiction” published in the New York Review of Science Fiction (August 1998). The organization is dedicated to addressing the representation of people of color in science fiction, fantasy and horror. In 2005 they created the Parallax Award, given to works of speculative fiction created by a self-identified person of color, and the Kindred Award, which is given to any work of speculative fiction dealing with issues of race and ethnicity; nominees may be of any racial or ethnic group.

Broad Universe, an organization with the primary goal of promoting science fiction, fantasy, and horror written by women, was first discussed at a panel discussion in 2000 at WisCon 24. It has since developed into a nonprofit with an online newsletter and other publications, a podcast, and a frequent presence at many conventions both to sell books written by members and to provide more information and help organize to support women writing, editing, and publishing in science fiction, fantasy, horror, and other speculative fiction.

Books about WisCon
In 2007, Aqueduct Press began issuing a series of books titled "WisCon Chronicles", with The WisCon Chronicles: Vol. 1 ISBN 978-1-933500-14-0, edited by L. Timmel Duchamp. Volume 2 was The WisCon Chronicles: Volume 2: Provocative essays on feminism, race, revolution, and the future ISBN 978-1-933500-20-1, edited by Duchamp and Eileen Gunn; followed by The WisCon Chronicles: Vol. 3: The Carnival of Feminist SF ISBN 978-1-933500-30-0, edited by Liz Henry; The WisCon Chronicles: Vol. 4: Voices of WisCon ISBN 978-1-933500-40-9 edited by Sylvia Kelso; and The WisCon Chronicles: Volume 5: Writing and Racial Identity ISBN 978-1-933500-73-7, edited by Nisi Shawl and released at WisCon 35 (May 27–30, 2011), where Shawl was Guest of Honor. Volume 5, like Volume 4 before it, was supported by a grant from the Society for the Furtherance & Study of Fantasy & Science Fiction [(SF)3]. The WisCon Chronicles 6: Futures of Feminism and Fandom ISBN 9781619760080, edited by Alexis Lothian, was issued at WisCon 36 in 2012; and The WisCon Chroncles 7: Shattering Ableist Narratives ISBN 9781619760424, edited by JoSelle Vanderhooft, was issued at WisCon 37 in late May 2013.

Helen Merrick's 2009 The Secret Feminist Cabal (ISBN 978-1-933500-33-1), a 2010 Hugo nominee, while a broader history of the topic, contains a number of mentions and descriptions of WisCon itself and of various WisCon-spawned projects such as the Tiptree Awards, Broad Universe, and the Carl Brandon Society, beginning with the author's preface and continuing throughout the book.

title: Wiscon


text:
Talk:Topics in cryptography

rotor machine
link to? (don't know where it would be appropriate) --.schwrz (talk) 08:50, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

accuracy problem
Some of the items on this page don't match their catagories. Thus Engima is/was not a stream cypher, but a polyaphabetic substitution cypher. I've changed some of these, but much remains. New categories are needed as well. JN-25 is an historically important crypto system, but is a superencyphered code, akin to some of the Royal Navy Cyphers in the interwar period. Some thought needs to be devoted to cleaning this up, for the potential for confusion amongst readers is high in an obscure technical field.

Help please.

ww

Enigma is stream cypher or Engima <> stream cypher
In a message on ww:Talk, Securiger asks why Enigma is not a stream cypher (see above). Informally, the answer is that Enigma machines are mechanical substitution cyphers in which (given a particular state of the machine -- the states being 'alphabetical' relations between some substitution alphabet and plaintext characters) some cyphertext letter is substituted for another. Some Enigma models did this more than once (the stecker arrangements were a 'fixed' substitution cypher for any given ground setting). Whereupon, the state of the machine changed (in most of the Enigma models) and the same input letter would be substituted with different output letter from a new substitution alphabet.

In a stream cypher, some key stream (for our purposes just now it doesn't matter how generated) combined (bit by bit, or nybble by nybble, or byte by byte) with the plaintext stream. No such key stream is used in any of the Engimas.

The Engimas were essentially really complex Alberti polyalphabetic cyphers, with some additions in some models. And, overall, pretty good ones too.

Does this make the reasoning clear?

ww
 * Ww, it seems to me that your definition is narrower than usual usage today. To make the distinction, the type to which you refer are sometimes called keystream, CSPRNG or XOR stream ciphers. These invest all their complexity in producing a complex keystream, then have a relatively simple combiner function to combine it with the plaintext. But there are also ciphers like WAKE and the PKZip cipher, which everyone seems happy to call stream ciphers. In these, some state function changes the process of the plaintext with every elementary symbol enciphered; nevertheless, they encipher one elementary symbol per operation, and are considered to be stream ciphers. The distinction is more semantic than anything, in that it easily blurs at the edges. For example, imagine a proto-rotor machine with only one rotor. Its next state function is a simple counter mod 26, and its combiner function is a simple tableau (albeit a scrambled one). Now we can imagine two simple ways to improve this cipher. One way would be to keep the counter (but increased to mod 676, and so on) and make the combiner more complex by adding more rotors, maybe some fixed permutations, and so. Pretty soon we have a typical rotor machine. Alternatively, we could leave just one rotor but provide a next state function more complex than a counter; we end up with a keystream generator with a simple combiner - a stream cipher as defined above. But then we can mix both ideas and come up with ideas like SIGABA. And in any case, more links are always better! Securiger 12:34, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Securiger,
 * It's possible to sufficiently abstractly define cypher classes in such a way that a block cypher (in an example from Schneier) like Skipjack is rather like a stream cypher in detailed approach. Schneier thought the NSA stream cypher tradition was permeating even its block cypher designs.
 * From a sufficiently abstract perspective, you are certainly correct in your observation. And indeed, at some sufficiently abstract level most cyphers would, presumably, be stream cyphers, (or alternatively) block cyphers, I suppose. But that perspective of limited use in this (non-specialist) context, and is more likely to cause confusion than assist in dispelling it. The more concrete a distinction, the more accessible to a less than specialist audience. Hence my reliance on a definition less abstract than what may be currently used in some circles.
 * Can you suggest a way to cover crypto in the WP in such a way as to do injustice neither to (general) reader comprehension nor to specialist perspectives? I have been unable to find satisfactory ones (or indeed any) in some years of writing on the topic. I have resolved the problem to "worry more about reader comprehension and clarity than specialist perspective". Help would be appreciated, anc comment would be interesting. Don't hold back.

 * ww

esoteric construct?
This may be more esoteric than is necessary to accomodate, but my memory suggests that there are several ways to build block cyphers, not all of which use symmetric keys. A block cypher built using, for instance, RSA, might be impractically slow, but would be possible I seem to remember. First is my memory of theoretical constructs (admittedly dim at this moment) correct, and second, should this be noted here as a possibility. Perhaps, as I began, it may be too esoteric a point. On the other hand, accuracy is a Good Thing, so... ww

 * Schneier defines block ciphers to be a subclass of symmetric ciphers, so RSA proper would be excluded. You could coerce RSA (or any asymmetric cipher) into behaving as a symmetric cipher, though: just make the shared key be the public key / private key pair. As you note, noone does this in practice because RSA et al. are dog slow; if you don't need public key, you might as well use a fast symmetric primitive. So real world block ciphers are all bit-twiddly things like DES, without exception, it would seem. I think most people in practice use "block cipher" to mean "DES-like thing", rather than the more general textbook definitions of "something which operates on a block". Matt 17:11, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Let's leave it so then. What is my memory telling me?? Ah well, the glories of unreliable wetware.... ww

typo & weird names/humour??
Matt, Thanks for catching the sneferu typo. I've had digital discussions with my fingers numerous times, but... ww

 * Ah, no problem; why can't cryptographers give their designs nice, reasonable names? Snefru is better than Snafu, at any rate...! — Matt 17:00, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Matt, It's an amusement thing, I'm confident. Donnish humor or something like it. See the entry on magic in the Jargon file for a particularly amusing instance. As for choosing Snefru, I'm also reasonably confident that the resemblance to snafu is not unconnected. (reasonable / unreasonable) = (tasty / non tasty).
 * We have an instance in your recent edit at the cryptographer list. The intro noted that home pages would be given when known (and we can discuss why -- or why not -- that was included), and in several of the medieval entries, I noted explicitly that there is no home page. Same sort of harmless humor, of which you disapprove I gather. Do you like limericks, or maybe puns, or knock knock jokes, or ... instead? You certainly hastened to correct an unintended pun recently. I take the position, with Douglas Adams, that it's "mostly harmless". ww 18:39, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * --> Reply at Talk:List of cryptographers, — Matt 19:42, 23 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Magenta not AES finalist?
Matt, Just off the top of my head, I seem to remember that Magenta was broken at the first (or maybe second) AES conference and never became a finalist. Are you sure? ww 17:28, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)
 * Didn't make it past the first round; my brain was on auto cut and paste .... — Matt 17:32, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Microsoft's "special" characters
I noticed that the last editor changed several instances of '--' to '—'. What is the Wikipedia policy on these non-standard characters? Do they match Wikipedia's character encoding? Would it be better to use the standard html escape sequence '&emdash;'? --jdege (talk) 21:35, 21 May 2009 (UTC)
 * I believe that the editor did that along the lines of WP:ENDASH, as this is a list that "& n dash ;" would be the preferred markup. Minnecologies (talk) 20:17, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Topics in cryptography


text:
Fate (magazine)

Fate is a U.S. magazine about paranormal phenomena. Fate was co-founded in 1948 by Raymond A. Palmer (editor of Amazing Stories) and Curtis Fuller. Fate magazine is the longest-running magazine devoted to the paranormal. Promoted as "the world's leading magazine of the paranormal", it has published expert opinions and personal experiences relating to UFOs, psychic abilities, ghosts and hauntings, cryptozoology, alternative medicine, divination methods, belief in the survival of personality after death, Fortean phenomena, predictive dreams, mental telepathy, archaeology, warnings of death, and other paranormal topics.

Though Fate is aimed at a popular audience and tends to emphasize personal anecdotes about the paranormal, American writer and frequent Fate contributor Jerome Clark says the magazine features a substantial amount of serious research and investigation, and occasional debunking of dubious claims. Subjects of such debunking articles have included Atlantis, the Bermuda Triangle, and the Amityville Horror.

History
Established in 1948 by Clark Publishing Company, the first edition of Fate hit world newsstands in the spring. Co-founded by Ray Palmer, editor of the Amazing Stories magazine, and Curtis Fuller, an accomplished editor in his own right, the magazine's inaugural edition featured an article by Kenneth Arnold who recounted in it his UFO encounter in 1947. Arnold's sighting marked the beginning of the modern UFO era, and his story propelled the magazine to national recognition. The headquarters is in Lakeville, Minnesota.

In 1953, Curtis Fuller and his wife Mary took full control of Fate when Palmer sold his interest in the venture. The Fullers expanded the magazine's focus, and increased readership to well over 100,000 subscribers.

In 1988, Fate was sold to Llewellyn Publications (now Llewellyn Worldwide). In his farewell column, Curtis Fuller wrote, "Our purpose throughout this long time has been to explore and to report honestly the strangest facts of this strange world and the ones that don't fit into the general beliefs of the way things are."

Fate underwent a facelift in 1994, when Llewellyn decided to change it from digest size to a full-size, full-color magazine.

In 1998, the magazine celebrated its 50th year of publication. When asked to comment on how a magazine like Fate survived through five decades, Carl Llewellyn Weschcke said, "No product, especially a magazine, can stay around for fifty years unless it meets a need. Fate recognizes that the impossible can be possible; we explore the unknown so that it can be known."

In September 2001, Galde Press, Inc., owned by editor-in-chief Phyllis Galde, purchased Fate. Galde has continued Fate 's reporting of unusual events and active reader involvement in shaping the content of the magazine.

In May 2003, Fate returned to its pre-1994 digest size. In 2008, it moved to a bi-monthly format with its July/August issue. True to its origins, in many issues Fate magazine continues the tradition of having retro looking art appear on the cover.

title: Fate (magazine)


text:
Charles Kay Ogden

Charles Kay Ogden (1 June 1889 – 20 March 1957) was an English linguist, philosopher, and writer. Described as a polymath but also an eccentric and outsider,  he took part in many ventures related to literature, politics, the arts, and philosophy, having a broad effect particularly as an editor, translator, and activist on behalf of a reformed version of the English language. He is typically defined as a linguistic psychologist, and is now mostly remembered as the inventor and propagator of Basic English.

Early life and education
Charles Kay Ogden was born at Rossall School in Fleetwood, Lancashire, on 1 June 1889 to Charles Burdett Ogden (13 July 1849 – 10 December 1923) and Fanny Hart (1850 – 21 December 1944), who were married in 1888 at Chorlton, Lancashire. His father was employed in various capacities at the Rossall School during the years 1873–1909.

Charles Kay Ogden was educated at Buxton and Rossall, won a scholarship to Magdalene College, Cambridge, and commenced his undergraduate study of Classics in 1908.

He visited continental Europe to investigate methods of language teaching in 1912 and 1913. Ogden obtained a M.A. in 1915.

The Heretics Society
In 1909, while still an undergraduate, Ogden co-founded the Heretics Society in Cambridge which questioned traditional authorities in general and religious dogmas in particular, in the wake of the paper Prove All Things, read by William Chawner, Master of Emmanuel College, a past Vice-Chancellor. The Heretics began as a group of 12 undergraduates interested in Chawner's agnostic approach.

The Society was nonconformist and open to women, and Jane Harrison found an audience there, publishing her inaugural talk for the Society of 7 December 1909 as the essay Heresy and Humanity (1911), an argument that warned of the dangers of group-think and implored the audience to realize that we are constantly negotiating the line between egotism and herd instinct, but that how we navigate that line matters. Investigating the origins of the word 'heresy'; her lecture, later published in Alpha and Omega (1915), challenged many of the religious restrictions and rules of the Anglican Church and its connections with the university. The talk of the following day was from J. M. E. McTaggart, and was also published, as Dare to Be Wise (1910). Another early member with anthropological interests was John Layard; Herbert Felix Jolowicz, Frank Plumpton Ramsey and Philip Sargant Florence were among the members. Alix Sargant Florence, sister of Philip, was active both as a Heretic and on the editorial board of the Cambridge Magazine.

Ogden was President of the Heretics from 1911, for more than a decade; he invited a variety of prominent speakers and linked the Society to his role as editor. In November 1911 G. K. Chesterton used a well-publicised talk to the Heretics, titled The Future of Religion, to reply to George Bernard Shaw, who in May had talked on The Religion of the Future. On this occasion Chesterton produced one of his well known bons mots:
 * Questioner: ... I say it is perfectly true that I have an intuition that I exist.
 * Mr. Chesterton: Cherish it.

In 1912 T. E. Hulme and Bertrand Russell spoke. Hulme's talk on Anti-Romanticism and Original Sin was written up by Ogden for the Cambridge Magazine, where in 1916 both Hulme and Russell would write on the war, from their opposite points of view. Rupert Brooke addressed them on contemporary theatre, and an article based on his views of Strindberg appeared in the Cambridge Magazine in October 1913. Another talk from 1913 that was published was from Edward Clodd on Obscurantism in Modern Science. Ogden was very active at this period in seeing these works into print.

On 4 February 1923, the biologist J.B.S. Haldane lectured the Society on "Daedalus; or, Science and the Future", a speculative vision that enjoyed some success in print and spurred in 1924 a less optimistic response from Bertrand Russell entitled "Icarus or the Future of Science".

The Heretics continued as a well-known forum, with Virginia Woolf on 18 May 1924 using it to formulate a reply to criticisms from Arnold Bennett arising from her Jacob's Room (1922), in a talk Character in Fiction that was then published in The Criterion. This paper contains the assertion, now proverbial, that "on or about December 1910 human character changed". The Heretics met in November 1929, when Ludwig Wittgenstein lectured to it on ethics, at Ogden's invitation, producing in A Lecture on Ethics a work accepted as part of the early Wittgenstein canon.

Cambridge Magazine
In 1912 Ogden founded the weekly Cambridge Magazine, which he edited until it ceased publication in 1922. The initial period was troubled. Ogden was studying for Part II of the Classical Tripos when offered the chance to start the magazine by Charles Granville, who ran a small but significant London publishing house, Stephen Swift & Co. Thinking that the editorship would mean giving up first class honours, Ogden consulted Henry Jackson, who advised him not to miss the opportunity. Shortly after, Stephen Swift & Co. went bankrupt. Ogden continued to edit the magazine during World War I, when its nature changed, because rheumatic fever as a teenager had left him unfit for military service.

Ogden often used the pseudonym Adelyne More (add-a-line more) in his journalism. The magazine included literary contributions by Siegfried Sassoon, John Masefield, Thomas Hardy, George Bernard Shaw and Arnold Bennett.

It evolved into an organ of international comment on politics and the war, supported in the background by a group of Cambridge academics including Edward Dent (who sent Sassoon's work), Theo Bartholomew and Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson. A survey of the foreign press filled more than half of each issue, being the Notes from the foreign press supplied by Dorothy Buxton which appeared there from October 1915 onwards until 1920, and its circulation rose to over 20,000. Buxton was in fact then leading a large team translating and collating articles from up to 100 foreign newspapers; for instance, Italian articles were supplied in translation in numbers by Dent. This digest of European press coverage was exclusive to the Magazine, and gave it disproportionate influence in political circles. For example, Robert Reid, 1st Earl Loreburn, used the Notes from the foreign press to advocate to the Marquess of Lansdowne in 1916 against bellicose claims and attitudes on the British side.

During 1917 the Magazine came under heavy criticism, with its neutral use of foreign press extracts being called pacifism, particularly by the pro-war patriotic Fight for Right Movement headed by Francis Younghusband. Dorothy Buxton's husband Charles Roden Buxton was closely associated with the Union of Democratic Control. Sir Frederick Pollock, who chaired Fight for Right, wrote to The Morning Post in February 1917 charging the Magazine with pacifist propaganda, and with playing on its connection with the university as if it had official status. Gilbert Murray, a supporter of Fight for Right but also a defender of many conscientious objectors and the freedom of the press, intervened to protest, gaining support from Bennett and Hardy. John George Butcher, Conservative Member of Parliament for the City of York, asked a question in Parliament about government advertising in the Magazine, during November 1917. The parliamentary exchange had two Liberal Party politicians, William Pringle and Josiah Wedgwood, pointing out that the Magazine was the only way they could read German press comments.

The Cambridge Magazine continued in the post-war years, but wound down to quarterly publication before closing in 1922. When Claude McKay arrived in London in 1919 he had a letter of introduction to Ogden from Walter Fuller. He contacted Ogden in March 1920 and Ogden published his poetry in the Magazine.

Author, bookseller and editor
Ogden published four books during WWI. One was The Problem of the Continuation School (1914), with Robert Hall Best (1843–1925) of the Best & Lloyd lighting company of Handsworth, and concerned industrial training. He also translated a related work by Georg Kerschensteiner (1854–1932) who had introduced him to Best, which appeared as The Schools and the Nation (1914). Militarism versus Feminism (1915, anonymous) was co-written with Mary Sargant Florence mother of Alix. Uncontrolled Breeding, or, Fecundity versus Civilization (1916) was a tract in favour of birth control, published under his pseudonym Adelyne More.

Ogden ran two bookshops in Cambridge as well as a gallery where he sold works of art by members of the Bloomsbury Group. One of his bookshops was looted on the day the First World War ended.

Ogden built up a position as editor for Kegan Paul, publishers in London. In 1920, he was one of the founders of the psychological journal Psyche, and later took over the editorship; Psyche was initially the Psychic Research Quarterly set up by Walter Whately Smith, but changed its name and editorial policy in 1921. It appeared until 1952, and was a vehicle for some of Ogden's interests.

Also for Kegan Paul he founded and edited what became five separate series of books, comprising hundreds of titles. Two were major series of monographs, "The History of Civilization" and "The International Library of Psychology, Philosophy and Scientific Method"; the latter series included about 100 volumes after one decade. From its launch in 1924, he edited the "To-day and To-morrow" series, another extensive series running to about 150 volumes, of popular books in essay form with provocative titles. The first of the series after an intervention by Fredric Warburg was Daedalus; or, Science and the Future by J. B. S. Haldane, an extended version of a talk to the Heretics Society. Other series were "Science for You" and "Psyche Miniatures".

Language and philosophy
Ogden helped with the English translation of Wittgenstein's Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. The translation itself was the work of F. P. Ramsey; Ogden as a commissioning editor assigned the task of translation to Ramsey, supposedly on earlier experience of Ramsey's insight into another German text, of Ernst Mach. Ogden adopted the Latinate title now given to the work in English, with its nod to Baruch Spinoza's Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, which is attributed to G. E. Moore.

Ogden's most durable written work is his monograph (with I. A. Richards) titled The Meaning of Meaning (1923), which went into many editions. This book straddled the boundaries among linguistics, literary analysis, and philosophy. It drew attention to the significs of Victoria Lady Welby of whom Ogden was a disciple and the semiotics of Charles Sanders Peirce. A major step in the "linguistic turn" of 20th century British philosophy, The Meaning of Meaning set out principles for understanding the function of language and described the so-called semantic triangle. It included the inimitable phrase "The gostak distims the doshes."

Advocacy for Basic English
From 1925 until his death in 1957, the advocacy of Basic English became Ogden's primary activity. Basic English is an auxiliary international language of 850 words comprising a system that covers everything necessary for day-to-day purposes. These 850 words, together with its five combinatory rules, were designed to do the work of some 20,000 English words, which appealed to many of the leading communications philosophers and theorists of the time, including Otto Neurath and Willard C. Brinton. To promote Basic English, Ogden in 1927 founded the Orthological Institute, from orthology, the abstract term he proposed for its work (see orthoepeia). Its headquarters were on King's Parade in Cambridge. From 1928 to 1930 Ogden set out his developing ideas on Basic English and Jeremy Bentham in Psyche.

In 1929 the Orthological Institute published a recording by James Joyce of a passage from a draft of Finnegans Wake. In summer of that year Tales Told of Shem and Shaun had been published, an extract from the work as it then stood, and Ogden had been asked to supply an introduction. When Joyce was in London in August, Ogden approached him to do a reading for a recording. In 1932 Ogden published a translation of the Finnegans Wake passage into Basic English.

By 1943 the Institute had moved to Gordon Square in London.

Ogden was also a consultant with the International Auxiliary Language Association, which presented Interlingua in 1951. He furthermore was the editor for Kenneth Searight's book Sona (constructed language).

Personal life and death
Ogden died on 20 March 1957 in London, at a private clinic. He never married.

Collections
Ogden collected a large number of books. His incunabula, manuscripts, papers of the Brougham family, and Jeremy Bentham collection were purchased by University College London in 1953 with the help of a grant from the Nuffield Foundation. His personal papers and the remaining 100,000 books in his collection were purchased after his death by the University of California - Los Angeles.

Legacy
Although neither a trained philosopher nor an academic, Ogden had a material effect on British academic philosophy. The Meaning of Meaning enunciated a theory of emotivism. Ogden went on to edit as Bentham's Theory of Fictions (1932) a work of Jeremy Bentham, and had already translated in 1911 as The Philosophy of 'As If' a work of Hans Vaihinger, both of which are regarded as precursors of the modern theory of fictionalism.

In 1973 Georg Henrik von Wright edited Wittgenstein's Letters to C.K. Ogden with Comments on the English Translation of the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, including correspondence with Ramsey.

title: Charles Kay Ogden