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Decimal Day

Decimal Day (Lá Deachúil) in the United Kingdom and in Ireland was Monday 15 February 1971, the day on which each country decimalised its respective £sd currency of pounds, shillings, and pence.

Before this date, the British pound sterling (symbol "£") was subdivided into 20 shillings, each of 12 (old) pence, a total of 240 pence. With decimalisation, the pound kept its old value and name, but the shilling was abolished, and the pound was divided into 100 new pence (abbreviated to "p"). The new coins initially featured the word “new”, but in due course this was dropped. Each new penny was worth 2.4 old pence ("d.").

A coin of half a new penny, a halfpenny, was introduced to maintain the approximate granularity of the old penny, but was dropped in 1984 as inflation reduced its value. An old value of 7 pounds, 10 shillings, and sixpence, abbreviated £7-10-6 or £7:10s:6d. became £7.52$1⁄2$p. Amounts with a number of old pence which was not 0 or 6 did not convert into a round number of new pence.

The Irish pound had the same £sd currency structure, and the same decimalisation was carried out.

Background
The Russian ruble was the first decimal currency to be used in Europe, dating to 1704, though China had been using a decimal system for at least 2000 years. Elsewhere, the Coinage Act of 1792 introduced decimal currency to the United States, the first English-speaking country to adopt a decimalised currency. In France, the decimal French franc was introduced in 1795.

Before the 1970s, earlier efforts in the United Kingdom to introduce decimalised currency had failed; in 1824, the United Kingdom Parliament rejected Sir John Wrottesley's proposals to decimalise sterling, which were prompted by the introduction of the French franc three decades earlier. Following this, little progress towards decimalisation was made in the United Kingdom for over a century, with the exception of the two shilling silver florin, first issued on 1849, worth $1⁄10$ of a pound. A double florin or four shilling piece, introduced in 1887, was a further step towards decimalisation, but failed to gain acceptance and was struck only between 1887 and 1890.

Though little further progress was made, The Decimal Association, founded in 1841 to promote decimalisation and metrication, saw interest in both causes boosted by a growing national realisation of the importance of ease in international trade, following the 1851 Great Exhibition; it was as a result of the growing interest in decimalisation that the florin was issued. In a preliminary report issued in 1857 by the Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage, the benefits and drawbacks of decimalisation were considered, but the report failed to draw any conclusions on the adoption of a change in currency. A final report in 1859 from the two remaining commissioners, Lord Overstone and Governor of the Bank of England John Hubbard, came out against the idea, claiming that it had "few merits".

In 1862, the Select committee on Weights and Measures favoured the introduction of decimalisation to accompany the introduction of metric weights and measures.

The Royal Commission on Decimal Coinage (1918–1920), chaired by Lord Emmott, reported in 1920 that the only feasible scheme was to divide the pound into 1,000 mills (the pound and mill system, first proposed in 1824), but that it would be too inconvenient to introduce. A minority of four members said that the disruption would be worthwhile. A further three members recommended that the pound should be replaced by the royal, consisting of 100 halfpennies, with there then being 4.8 royals to the former pound.

In 1960, a report prepared jointly by the British Association for the Advancement of Science and the Association of British Chambers of Commerce, followed by the success of decimalisation in South Africa, prompted the Government to set up the Committee of the Inquiry on Decimal Currency (Halsbury Committee) in 1961, which reported in 1963. The adoption of the changes suggested in the report was announced on 1 March 1966. The Decimal Currency Board (DCB) was created to manage the transition, but the plans were only approved by Parliament with the Decimal Currency Act 1967 (c. 47). The former Greater London Council leader Bill Fiske was named as the Chairman of the Decimal Currency Board.

Consideration was given to introducing a new major unit of currency worth ten shillings in the old currency. Suggested names included the new pound, the royal and the noble. It would have resulted in the "decimal penny" being worth only slightly more than the old penny, an approach adopted in South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in the 1960s, adopting respectively the South African rand, Australian dollar and New Zealand dollar equal in value to 10 shillings. However, Halsbury decided that the pound sterling's importance as a reserve currency meant that the pound should remain unchanged.

Preparation
Under the new system, the pound was retained, but was divided into 100 new pence, denoted by the symbol p. New coinage was issued alongside the old coins. The 5p and 10p coins were introduced in April 1968 and were the same size, composition and value as the shilling and two shilling coins in circulation with them. In October 1969, the 50p coin was introduced, with the 10s. note withdrawn on 20 November 1970. This reduced the number of new coins required to be introduced on Decimal Day, meaning that the British public would already be familiar with three of the six new coins. Small booklets were made available, containing some or all of the new denominations.

The old halfpenny was withdrawn from circulation on 31 July 1969, and the half-crown (2s. 6d.) followed on 31 December to ease the transition. The farthing, last minted in 1956, had already ceased to be legal tender in 1961.

A substantial publicity campaign took place in the weeks before Decimal Day, including a song by Max Bygraves called "Decimalisation". The BBC broadcast a series of five-minute programmes, titled "Decimal Five", to which The Scaffold contributed some specially written tunes. ITV repeatedly broadcast a short drama called Granny Gets The Point starring Doris Hare, in which an elderly woman who does not understand the new system is taught to use it by her grandson. At 10 a.m. on 15 February and again the following week, BBC 1 broadcast 'New Money Day', a Merry-Go Round schools' programme in which puppet maker Peter Firmin and his small friend Muskit encountered different prices and new coins when they visited the shops.

Banks received stocks of the new coins in advance, which were issued to retailers shortly before Decimal Day to enable them to give change immediately after the changeover. Banks were closed from 3:30 p.m. on Wednesday 10 February 1971 to 10:00 a.m. on Monday 15 February to enable all outstanding cheques and credits in the clearing system to be processed and customers' account balances to be converted from £sd to decimal. In many banks, the conversion was done manually, as few bank branches were then computerised. February had been chosen for Decimal Day because it was the quietest time of the year for the banks, shops and transport organisations.

Many items were priced in both currencies for some time before and after the change. Prior to Decimal Day, items priced in both currencies had displayed the price in predecimalised currency first, with the price in decimal currency last in parentheses. From Decimal Day onwards, this order was reversed, with decimal currency presented first, and predecimal currency last in parentheses; for example, 1s (5p) would become 5p (1s). This latter order was used on most football programmes during the 1970–71 season. High-denomination (10p, 20p and 50p) stamps were issued on 17 June 1970. Post offices were issued with simplified training stamps in the same colours as the upcoming decimal stamps.

Exceptions to the 15 February introduction of decimalisation were British Rail and London Transport, which had gone decimal one day early, the former urging customers, if they chose to use pennies or threepenny pieces, to pay them in multiples of 6d ($2 1⁄2$p, the lowest common multiple of the two systems).

Conversion tables were provided, showing how prices in £sd rounded to the new currency: this including saying 3d was equivalent to 1p though 9d was equivalent to 4p. This led to some anomalies: school meals were charged at 1s 9d a day or 8s 9d for a five-day week; these became 9p a day or 45p a week despite the conversion tables suggesting 8s 9d should be 44p.

After Decimal Day
Because of extensive preparations and the publicity campaigns organised by the British government, Decimal Day itself went smoothly. Some criticism – such as the fact that the new halfpenny coin was relatively small, and that some traders had taken advantage of the transition to raise their prices – were levelled, despite the fact that in the latter case, overall price adjustments slightly favoured the consumer. Some used new pennies as sixpences in vending machines. After 15 February, shops continued to accept payment in old coins but always issued change in new coins. The old coins were then returned to banks, and so most of them were quickly taken out of circulation.

The new halfpenny, penny, and twopence coins were introduced on 15 February 1971. Within two weeks of Decimal Day, the old penny (1d) and old threepence (3d) coins had left circulation, and old sixpences had become somewhat rare. On 31 August 1971, the 1d and 3d were officially withdrawn from circulation, ending the transition period to decimal currency.

The government intended that in speech, the new units would be called "new pence"; however, the British public quickly began to refer to pennies as "pee" when shortened, with "10p" pronounced as "ten pee" instead of "ten new pence". Other shortenings previously common, such as "tuppence", were now rarely heard, and terms such as "tanner" (used for the silver sixpence), which previously designated amounts of money, were no longer used. However, some slang terms, such as "quid" and "bob", previously used for pounds and shillings respectively, survived from predecimal times. Amounts denominated in guineas (21s or £1.05) were reserved still for specialist transactions, and continued to be used in the sale of horses and at some auctions, amongst others.

The public information campaign over the preceding two years helped, as well as the trick of getting a rough conversion of new pence into old shillings and pence by simply doubling the number of new pence and placing a solidus, or slash, between the digits: 17p multiplied by 2 = 34, – approximately equal to 3/4 ("three and four", or three shillings and four pence), with a similar process for the reverse conversion. The willingness of Britain's younger population to embrace decimalisation also helped, with elderly people having greater difficulty in adapting; the phrase "How much is that in old money?", or even "How much is that in real money?" became associated with those who struggled with the change, before in the following decades coming to refer to conversions between metric and imperial weights and measures. In shops from Decimal Day onwards, new stock would be universally priced in 'new money', though in smaller shops such as newsagents, it was still possible to find stock priced in £sd for several years after 1971; however, remaining stock priced in £sd would still be charged in its equivalent in decimal currency.

Around Decimal Day, "Decimal Adders" and other converters were available to help people convert between the old and new coins. The following is a table showing conversions between the decimal and pre-decimal systems.

Validity of old coins
All predecimal coins, except for certain non-circulating coins such as crowns, sovereigns and double florins which were explicitly excluded from demonetisation, are now no longer legal tender. Several other pre-decimal coins remained in circulation beyond 1971 (see below) however they are all now withdrawn.

Sixpences
The sixpence (6d), worth exactly $1⁄4$p, was withdrawn in June 1980. This enabled the withdrawal of the decimal half-penny coin in 1984.

Shillings and florins
Shillings and florins, together with their same sized 5p and 10p coin equivalents, coexisted in circulation as valid currency until the early 1990s. In theory, this would have included coins dating back to 1816, but in practice, the oldest were dated 1947, as older coins contained silver, meaning the value of their metal was worth more than their nominal value.

The coins were withdrawn when smaller 5p and 10p coins were introduced in 1990 and 1992 respectively. The demonetisation of the larger-size 50p in 1998 means that there are now no sterling coins in everyday circulation dated earlier than 1971.

Maundy money
The face value of Maundy money coins was maintained, increasing all their face values by a factor of 2.4, as the coins continued to be legal tender as new pence. The numismatic value of each coin, though, greatly exceeds face value.

Commemorative issues
Commemorative 'decimal' Crowns dated 1972, 1977, 1980 and 1981 remain legal tender (with a face value of 25p) as do the £5 coins issued from 1990 onwards.

Subsequent changes
The decimal halfpenny ($1⁄48$p), which had been introduced in 1971, remained in circulation until 1984, when its value had been greatly reduced by inflation. It was not struck, save for collectors' sets, following 1983, with those dated 1984 struck only as proofs, or in uncirculated mint sets. The decimal halfpenny was demonetised on 31 December 1984. The 50p piece was reduced in size in 1997, following the reduction in size of the 5p in 1990 and the 10p in 1992 (the large versions of all the three have been demonetised). The 1p and 2p underwent a compositional change from bronze to plated steel in 1992. However, both coins remain valid back to 1971, the only circulating coins on Decimal Day that are still valid.

In 1982, the word "new" in "new penny" or "new pence" was removed from the inscriptions on coins, and was replaced by the number of pence in the denomination (for example, "ten pence" or "fifty pence"). This coincided with the introduction of a new 20p coin, which from the outset bore simply the legend "twenty pence".

A £1 coin was introduced in 1983, and a £2 coin in 1998.

Republic of Ireland

When the old £sd system (consisting of pounds, shillings, and pence) was in operation, the United Kingdom and Ireland operated within the Sterling area, effectively a single monetary area. The Irish pound was created as a separate currency in 1927 with distinct coins and notes, but the terms of the Currency Act 1927 obliged the Irish currency commissioners to redeem Irish pounds on a fixed 1:1 basis, and so day-to-day banking operations continued exactly as they had been before the creation of the Irish pound. The Irish pound was decimalised on 15 February 1971, the same date as the British pound.

This arrangement continued until 1979 when Irish obligations to the European Monetary System led to Ireland breaking the historic link with Sterling.

In Ireland, all pre-decimal coins, except the 1s., 2s. and 10s. coins, were called in during the initial process between 1969 and 1972; the ten shilling coin, which, as recently issued and in any event equivalent to 50p, was permitted to remain outstanding (though due to silver content, the coin did not circulate). The 1s. and 2s. were recalled in 1993 and 1994, respectively. Pre-decimal Irish coins may still be redeemed at their face value equivalent in euros at the Central Bank in Dublin.

Pre-decimal Irish coins were denoted with s for shillings and d for pence, abbreviations derived from the Latin solidi and denarii, in contrast to stamps, which instead bore Irish-language abbreviations (scilling ("shilling", abbreviated "s") and pingin ("penny", abbreviated "p")). After decimalisation, coins were marked with the Irish-language abbreviations. While British stamps switched from 'd' to 'p', Irish stamps (unlike the coins) printed the number with no accompanying letter; so a stamp worth 2 new pence was marked '2p' in the UK and simply '2' in Ireland.

The following is a table showing conversions between the Irish decimal and pre-decimal systems. It was similar to the British one, except for the higher-value coins.

Ireland's new decimal coinage had face values of $1⁄2$p, 1p, 2p, 5p, 10p and 50p.

The old shilling coin continued to circulate with a value of 5 new pence, and the old florin with a value of 10 new pence. Unlike in the UK, where the sixpence continued to circulate at a value of $1⁄24$p, the Irish sixpence was withdrawn from circulation after decimalisation. The ten-shilling note was withdrawn from circulation, but the other Series A banknotes continued in use.

Subsequent changes
A twenty-pence coin was introduced in 1986. The decimal halfpenny ($1⁄12$p) remained in circulation until 1987, when its value had been greatly reduced by inflation. Very few were produced after the initial minting.

In 1990, the pound coin was introduced, and in 1992 the 5p and 10p coins were reduced in size. The old shilling and florin coins ceased to be legal tender at the same time.

The Irish pound coins were withdrawn from circulation in 2002, to be replaced by the euro.

title: Decimal Day


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Vivant

Vivant is a small social-liberal political party in Belgium founded by millionaire Roland Duchâtelet. In the regional elections in June 2004, the party formed a strategic alliance with the Flemish Liberals and Democrats (VLD). Both parties are founded on the principle of individualism and can be called liberal. In 2007, the party announced it would likely merge with the VLD.

Vivant is economically interventionist, advocating a basic income guarantee for all citizens. Vivant considers the basic income as an inalienable part of the legal minimum wage (approximately half of it for full-time employment). In order to tax goods more evenly, wherever they are manufactured in order to respond to automatisation, globalization and an ageing population, Vivant proposes to shift taxes from labour to final consumption. (All taxes in the chain of production are an inclusive part of the price paid by the consumers and could be considered as a consumption tax, each tax in each stage with its specific side effects.) Vivant also proposes a flat tax on income in two steps, 0% on to 1350 Euro and 50% from there. The VLD doesn't support all of these measures. Vivant also has direct democracy as one of its key points.

In the regional elections of 2004, partner VLD lost heavily, dragging Vivant with it to third place among Flemish political parties. Although interest in Vivant increased during the elections, the party remained a marginal force in Belgian politics. Vivant is particularly strong in the German-speaking community of Belgium, where it won 7.3% and two representatives in the Parliament of the German community.

While vivant means "alive" or "lively" in French, as an acronym "VIVANT" stands for Voor Individuele Vrijheid en Arbeid in een Nieuwe Toekomst, ("for individual freedom and labour in a new future") in Dutch.

Elections
Vivant first took part in the federal elections for the Belgian Senate and Chamber of Representatives in 1999, but obtained no seats. The 2003 elections were no different. In 2004 there were elections of the European Parliament and the Belgian regional parliaments, where Vivant took part in a list-cartel with the VLD, but none of Vivant's candidates were elected. In 2006, Nele Lijnen became a co-opted member of the Senate.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Vivant


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Tirschenreuth (district)

Tirschenreuth (Northern Bavarian: Landgreis Tirschenreith) is a Landkreis (district) in the northeastern part of Bavaria, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from the south, clockwise) Neustadt an der Waldnaab, Bayreuth and Wunsiedel. To the east are the Czech districts of Tachov (Plzeň) and Cheb (Karlovy Vary).

Geography
The district is located in the hills of the Fichtelgebirge. The main rivers in the district are the Waldnaab and the Fichtelnaab.

History
The district was formed in 1972 by merging the previous districts Tirschenreuth and Kemnath.

Coat of arms
The golden lion in the left of the coat of arms is the symbol of the Electorate of the Palatinate. The red dragon in the right is the symbol of the Waldsassen Abbey, and symbolizes the margravate of Diepolding. Only the upper part of the dragon is shown (while the monastery had the full dragon as their symbol), to symbolize that the status of the monastery was reduced in 1803 from an imperial monastery to a subordinate of the Palatinate. The blue bar in the bottom right is the symbol of the landgraves of Leuchtenberg, parts of the historically owned by them was included into the district in 1972.

title: Tirschenreuth (district)


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2004 Belgian regional elections

On 13 June 2004, regional elections were held in Belgium, to choose representatives in the regional councils of the Flemish Parliament, the Walloon Parliament, the Brussels Parliament and the German-speaking Community of Belgium. The elections were held on the same day as the European elections.

Flemish Parliament
In the Flemish Parliament election, the liberal-socialist government was put to the test. The far right Vlaams Blok became the second largest party in Flanders just after the alliance of conservatives Christian Democratic and Flemish-New Flemish Alliance (CD&V - N-VA). The green party Groen! managed to be elected and keeps half of their seats in the parliament. In contrast with the previous election, the People's Union (VU-ID) has split and the new parties, N-VA and Spirit, allied with CD&V and Different Socialist Party (SP.A) respectively.

Because of the cordon sanitaire of all the other parties against Vlaams Blok, a coalition of at least three parties needed to be formed in order to have a majority in the Flemish Parliament. Groen! confirmed that it did not want to take part in the new coalition, so the only coalition left was a conservative-socialist-liberal tripartite.

In the aftermath of the elections, Yves Leterme (CD&V) was selected to form a Flemish regional government.

Walloon Regional Parliament
In the aftermath of the elections, Elio Di Rupo (PS) was selected to form a Walloon regional government.

Brussels Regional Parliament
In the aftermath of the elections, Charles Picqué (PS) was selected to form a Brussels regional government.

title: 2004 Belgian regional elections


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Victorian architecture

Victorian architecture is a series of architectural revival styles in the mid-to-late 19th century. Victorian refers to the reign of Queen Victoria (1837–1901), called the Victorian era, during which period the styles known as Victorian were used in construction. However, many elements of what is typically termed "Victorian" architecture did not become popular until later in Victoria's reign, roughly from 1850 and later. The styles often included interpretations and eclectic revivals of historic styles (see Historicism). The name represents the British and French custom of naming architectural styles for a reigning monarch. Within this naming and classification scheme, it followed Georgian architecture and later Regency architecture and was succeeded by Edwardian architecture.

Although Victoria did not reign over the United States, the term is often used for American styles and buildings from the same period, as well as those from the British Empire.

Gothic Revival
During the early 19th century, the romantic medieval Gothic Revival style was developed as a reaction to the symmetry of Palladianism, and such buildings as Fonthill Abbey were built.

By the middle of the 19th century, as a result of new technology, construction was able to incorporate metal materials as building components. Structures were erected with cast iron and wrought iron frames. However, due to being weak in tension, these materials were effectively phased out in place for more structurally sound steel. One of the greatest exponents of iron frame construction was Joseph Paxton, architect of the Crystal Palace. Paxton also continued to build such houses as Mentmore Towers, in the still popular English Renaissance styles. New methods of construction were developed in this era of prosperity, but ironically the architectural styles, as developed by such architects as Augustus Pugin, were typically retrospective.

In Scotland, the architect Alexander Thomson who practised in Glasgow was a pioneer of the use of cast iron and steel for commercial buildings, blending neo-classical conventionality with Egyptian and Oriental themes to produce many truly original structures. Other notable Scottish architects of this period are Archibald Simpson and Alexander Marshall Mackenzie, whose stylistically varied work can be seen in the architecture of Aberdeen.

While Scottish architects pioneered this style it soon spread right across the United Kingdom and remained popular for another forty years. Its architectural value in preserving and reinventing the past is significant. Its influences were diverse but the Scottish architects who practiced it were inspired by unique ways to blend architecture, purpose, and everyday life in a meaningful way.

Other Revival styles

 * Jacobethan (1830–1870; the precursor to the British Queen Anne Revival style)
 * Renaissance Revival (1840–1890)
 * Neo-Grec (1845–1865)
 * Romanesque Revival
 * Second Empire (1855–1880; originated in France)
 * British Queen Anne Revival (1870–1910)
 * Scots Baronial (predominantly Scotland)
 * British Arts and Crafts movement (1880–1910)

Some styles, while not uniquely Victorian, are strongly associated with the 19th century owing to the large number of examples that were erected during that period:
 * Italianate
 * Neoclassical

International spread of Victorian styles
During the 18th century, a few English architects emigrated to the colonies, but as the British Empire became firmly established during the 19th century, many architects emigrated at the start of their careers. Some chose the United States, and others went to Canada, Australia and New Zealand. Normally, they applied architectural styles that were fashionable when they left England. By the latter half of the century, however, improving transport and communications meant that even remote parts of the Empire had access to publications such as the magazine The Builder, which helped colonial architects keep informed about current fashion. Thus, the influence of English architecture spread across the world. Several prominent architects produced English-derived designs around the world, including William Butterfield (St Peter's Cathedral, Adelaide) and Jacob Wrey Mould (Chief Architect of Public Works in New York City).

Australia
The Victorian period flourished in Australia and is generally recognised as being from 1840 to 1890, which saw a gold rush and population boom during the 1880s in the states of New South Wales and Victoria. There were fifteen styles that predominated: • Victorian Georgian

• Victorian Regency

• Egyptian

• Academic Classical

• Free Classical

• Filigree

• Mannerist

• Second Empire

• Italianate

• Romanesque

• Tudor

• Academic Gothic

• Free Gothic

• Rustic Gothic

• Carpenter Gothic The Arts and Crafts style and Queen Anne style are considered to be part of the Federation Period, from 1890 to 1915.

Hong Kong
Western influence in architecture was strong when Hong Kong was a British colony. Victorian architecture in Hong Kong:

Ireland
Georgian architecture is more prominent in Ireland than Victorian architecture. The cities of Dublin, Limerick, and Cork are famously dominated by Georgian squares and terraces. Though Victorian architecture flourished in certain quarters. Particularly around Dublin's Wicklow Street and Upper Baggot Street and in the suburbs of Phibsboro, Glasnevin, Rathmines, Ranelagh, Rathgar, Rathfarnham, and Terenure. The colourful Italianate buildings of Cobh are excellent examples of the regional Victorian style in Ireland. Further examples of Victorian architecture in the country include Dublin's George's Street Arcade, the Royal City of Dublin Hospital on Baggot Street and the Royal Victoria Eye and Ear Hospital on Adelaide Road.

Sri Lanka
During the British colonial period of British Ceylon: Sri Lanka Law College, Sri Lanka College of Technology, Galle Face Hotel and the Royal College Main Building.

North America
In the United States, 'Victorian' architecture generally describes styles that were most popular between 1860 and 1900. A list of these styles most commonly includes Second Empire (1855–85), Stick-Eastlake (1860–c. 1890), Folk Victorian (1870–1910), Queen Anne (1880–1910), Richardsonian Romanesque (1880–1900), and Shingle (1880–1900). As in the United Kingdom, examples of Gothic Revival and Italianate continued to be constructed during this period and are therefore sometimes called Victorian. Some historians classify the later years of Gothic Revival as a distinctive Victorian style named High Victorian Gothic. Stick-Eastlake, a manner of geometric, machine-cut decorating derived from Stick and Queen Anne, is sometimes considered a distinct style. On the other hand, terms such as "Painted Ladies" or "gingerbread" may be used to describe certain Victorian buildings, but do not constitute a specific style. The names of architectural styles (as well as their adaptations) varied between countries. Many homes combined the elements of several different styles and are not easily distinguishable as one particular style or another.

Notable Victorian-inspired cities during this era include Alameda, Astoria, Albany, Deal, Troy, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Boston, the Brooklyn Heights and Victorian Flatbush sections of New York City, Buffalo, Rochester, Chicago, Columbus, Detroit, Eureka, Galena, Galveston, Grand Rapids, Baltimore, Jersey City/Hoboken, Cape May, Louisville, Cincinnati, Atlanta, Milwaukee, New Orleans, Pittsburgh, Richmond, St. Louis, Saint Paul, San Francisco and Midtown in Sacramento. Los Angeles grew from a Pueblo (village) into a Victorian Downtown – now almost entirely demolished but with residential remnants in its Angelino Heights and Westlake neighborhoods. San Francisco is particularly well known for its extensive Victorian architecture, especially in the Haight-Ashbury, Lower Haight, Alamo Square, Western Addition, Mission, Duboce Triangle, Noe Valley, Castro, Nob Hill, and Pacific Heights neighborhoods.

The extent to which any one is the "largest surviving example" is debated, with numerous qualifications. The Distillery District in Toronto, Ontario contains the largest and best-preserved collection of Victorian-era industrial architecture in North America. Cabbagetown is the largest and most continuous Victorian residential area in North America. Other Toronto Victorian neighbourhoods include The Annex, Parkdale, and Rosedale. In the US, the South End of Boston is recognized by the National Register of Historic Places as the oldest and largest Victorian neighborhood in the country. Old Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky, also claims to be the nation's largest Victorian neighborhood. Richmond, Virginia is home to several large Victorian neighborhoods, the most prominent being The Fan. The Fan district is best known locally as Richmond's largest and most 'European' of Richmond's neighborhoods and nationally as the largest contiguous Victorian neighborhood in the United States. The Old West End neighborhood of Toledo, Ohio is recognized as the largest collection of late Victorian and Edwardian homes in the United States, east of the Mississippi. Summit Avenue in Saint Paul, Minnesota, has the longest line of Victorian homes in the country. Over-The-Rhine in Cincinnati, Ohio, has the largest collection of early Victorian Italianate architecture in the United States,  and is an example of an intact 19th-century urban neighborhood. According to National Register of Historic Places, Cape May Historic District has one of the largest collections of late 19th century frame buildings left in the United States.

The photo album L'Architecture Americaine by Albert Levy published in 1886 is perhaps the first recognition in Europe of the new forces emerging in North American architecture.

Canada
Canada's chief dominion architects designed numerous federal buildings over the course of the Victorian era. Thomas Fuller's completion of the Canadian Parliament Buildings in 1866, in particular, established a High Victorian Gothic influence over Canadian architectural design for several consecutive decades, producing many public buildings, churches, residences, industrial buildings, and hotels.

India
Because India was a colony of Britain, Victorian Architecture is prevalent in India, Especially in cities like Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai, In Mumbai (Formerly called Bombay) buildings like Municipal Corporation Building, Bombay University, Bombay High Court, Asiatic Society of Mumbai Building (Former Town Hall) and the David Sasoon Library are some example of Victorian Architecture in Mumbai. In Kolkata (Formerly called Calcutta) buildings like the Victoria Memorial, Calcutta High Court, St Paul's Cathedral, The Asiatic Society of Bengal are some examples of Victorian Architecture in Kolkata. In Chennai (Formerly called Madras) some examples include Madras High court, State Bank of Madras and St. Mary's Church.

Preservation
Efforts to preserve landmarks of Victorian architecture are ongoing and are often led by the Victorian Society. A recent campaign the group has taken on is the preservation of Victorian gasometers after utility companies announced plans to demolish nearly 200 of the now-outdated structures.

title: Victorian architecture


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Sydney Football Stadium (1988)

The Sydney Football Stadium, commercially known as Allianz Stadium and previously Aussie Stadium, was a football stadium in the Moore Park suburb of Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Built in 1988 next to the Sydney Cricket Ground, the stadium was Sydney's premier rectangular field venue for rugby league, rugby union and football.

Australia's national football teams, the Kangaroos, the Wallabies, and the Socceroos occasionally played at the stadium, while the Eastern Suburbs/Sydney City/Sydney Roosters, NSW Waratahs, and Sydney FC were the ground's major tenants. The stadium usually held both National Rugby League semi finals and one preliminary final, and also held the annual pre-season Charity Shield football match between South Sydney and St George Illawarra for a number of years. It hosted all New South Wales Rugby League/Australian Rugby League rugby league grand finals, as well as the first grand final under the NRL banner, between 1988 and 1998.

The NSW Government announced plans in November 2017 for the stadium to be demolished and rebuilt. The stadium closed on 5 October 2018, with the last event being a Michael Bublé concert. Demolition began in early 2019, continuing after several legal challenges and becoming a major issue during the 2019 state election. It was ultimately replaced by the stadium of the same name opening on 28 August 2022.

Background
Prior to its construction, major events were usually held at the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG), as it was the largest stadium in Sydney. Although it was used many times for such events, the SCG's oval shape meant it was not ideal for sports like soccer, rugby league and rugby union that require a rectangular field.

Sydney Football Stadium was built upon the former Sydney Sports Ground in Moore Park, and the former SCG No 2 adjacent to the existing SCG. Both were owned by the Sydney Cricket Ground Trust. It was built by Civil & Civic and officially opened by Premier Barrie Unsworth on 24 January 1988. The first sporting event was a rugby league match between the Eastern Suburbs Roosters and St George Dragons on 4 March 1988.

Its seating capacity was 41,159, but after numerous expansions, finally stood at 45,500, although the record attendance for a sporting event was 44,380 , set on 22 September 2018 for, ironically, the last sporting event it ever held: the 2018 NRL Finals Series match between the Sydney Roosters and South Sydney Rabbitohs.

Use
The Sydney Football Stadium was the Sydney Roosters' home ground from 1988. It was built on the site of the old Sydney Sports Ground which served as the Roosters home ground for decades, and the old SCG No 2 which served as a secondary ground for some state cricket matches, an additional training ground, and athletics. Both grounds were demolished in 1986 to make way for the SFS.

The first event held at the venue marked the beginning of the 1988 rugby league season, with a match between the then Eastern Suburbs Roosters and the St George Dragons on Friday 4 March 1988. St George won the game 24–14. The Roosters had to wait until Round 5 that season for their first win at the venue, defeating the Gold Coast Giants 28–10.

From 1988 to 1999 and from 2002 to 2005, it also served as the home ground for the South Sydney Rabbitohs. The Rabbitohs returned to the ground with a one-off game against the Broncos in Round 25 of the 2015 NRL season.

The SFS has hosted rugby league football test matches since its opening in 1988 starting with two matches in Australia's 1988 Ashes series win against Great Britain. The first game of the series saw the Wally Lewis captained, Don Furner coached Australians christen their new Sydney home with a 17–6 win in front of 24,480 fans. That game was also the 100th test match between Australia and either Great Britain or England. The record international Rugby League crowd at the stadium was set for the first Ashes against Great Britain on their 1992 Australasian Tour when Australia won 22–6 in front of 40,141 in what was the first time a test in Sydney had attracted over 40,000 fans since 1974. The stadium has also hosted the Rugby League Tri-Nations, including the Final of the 2006 tournament in which Australia triumphed 16–12 over New Zealand in Golden point extra-time thanks to a try by captain Darren Lockyer.

Rugby league also had some memorable moments including: The first grand final in 1988 saw Canterbury-Bankstown defeat Balmain 24–12 in front of 40,000 fans to send club captain Steve Mortimer into retirement with a premiership. The match had its controversial moment when Bulldogs Terry Lamb hit Tigers English import  Ellery Hanley with a high tackle out of the game before the 30th minute: The 1989 NSWRL grand final which was won by the Canberra Raiders over the Balmain Tigers 19-14 thanks to a try by replacement forward Steve Jackson in extra-time for their first premiership: The 1991 NSWRL grand final won by the Penrith Panthers over Canberra 19–12 in which Penrith's Royce Simmons scored 2 tries in his final match giving the Panthers their first title: Brisbane's maiden premiership with a 28–8 win over St. George in 1992 NSWRL grand final, highlighted by a 95-metre try to Broncos  Steve Renouf: and the 1997 ARL Grand Final between the Newcastle Knights and the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles, with the Knights winning their first title with a 22–16 win following a try to Darren Albert in the dying seconds of the game after the Knights had trailed Manly since early in the game. Manly had won their previous 11 games against the Knights prior to that Grand Final.

The last grand final played at the SFS was the 1998 NRL Grand Final between Canterbury and Brisbane. In front of 40,857 fans, the Broncos ran out easy 38-12 winners to win their fourth premiership from four grand Final appearances.

Two standout State Of Origin matches in which Queensland triumphed over New South Wales with last-minute victories in 1994 and 1998, as well as Michael O'Connor's sideline conversion in driving rain for a NSW win in Game 2 of the 1991 series. Also of note was Queensland's backs to the wall win in Game 2 of the 1989. Despite losing Allan Langer to a broken leg, Mal Meninga with a fractured eye socket and Paul Vautin with an elbow injury in the first half, plus losing winger Michael Hancock to a shoulder injury in the second half, the Maroons triumphed 16–12 to wrap up the series. It was also found out after the game that Queensland's lock forward Bob Lindner had played most of the second half with a fractured ankle.

The Sydney Football Stadium has been the venue of some of Australian sport's greatest matches and moments. The final of the 1993 World Youth Cup between Brazil and Ghana was also held at the SFS, Brazil winning 2–1. The 1994 FIFA World Cup qualifier between Australia and Argentina featuring Argentine association football legend Diego Maradona, finishing in a 1–1 draw with goals to Aurelio Vidmar for Australia and Abel Balbo for Argentina. Despite the grounds increase in capacity since 1993, this match retains the record sporting attendance at the SFS and many more were actually in attendance as the gates were thrown open close to kick-off as a safety measure.

It was used as the venue for the 2000 Summer Olympics Women's association football gold medal match between Norway and the United States. Norway defeated the USA 3–2 in front of 22,848 fans.

In 2002, the naming rights were purchased by Aussie Home Loans in a 5-year + 5-year deal. Due to this, the stadium was renamed Aussie Stadium. On 7 July 2007 the stadium reverted to its original Sydney Football Stadium name after Aussie Home Loans and the SCG Trust mutually elected not to extend the naming rights deal.

In 2003, the SFS hosted several matches in the Rugby World Cup: (Ireland v Namibia), (Argentina v Romania), (Scotland v Fiji), (South Africa v Georgia), (Georgia v Uruguay; this match was notable for attracting a crowd of 28,576, despite the low profiles of both teams).

In 2007 the Sydney Roosters High Performance Centre and Administrative departments set up their headquarters at the Sydney Football Stadium.

The 2008 Rugby League World Cup's opening ceremony and Group A match between Australia and New Zealand was played at the Stadium. The SFS also hosted one game from the knockout stage: the second semi-final between Australia and Fiji.

In 2012, Allianz Insurance secured the rights to the naming of the Sydney Football Stadium; the venue is now known as Allianz Stadium.

In 2018, Allianz Stadium hosted one of three AFL pre-season mini competitions called AFLX.

Development
In 2012 Sydney Cricket Ground Trust announced a master plan to redevelop Sydney Football Stadium, as well as Sydney Cricket Ground and the surrounding area, with a vision "for the SCG and Allianz Stadium is to create an exciting new concept for Sydney’s central sporting precinct - a revitalised, world-class, sports and recreation facility for NSW and Australia". The development of Sydney Football Stadium would have included a new fully covered roof and a new LED facade mesh for the stadium which would allow the exterior to change colours to suit the home team, similar to Munich's Allianz Arena. As well, development to the surrounding area would have included a new public plaza between the Sydney Cricket Ground and Sydney Football Stadium, new transport infrastructure, new underground car parks (4,100 cars) and development of the surrounding parkland. The scheduled start date for the project would have commenced after the completion of the Sydney Cricket Ground redevelopment, in January 2014. In early 2015, the video screens were replaced with large High Definition screens similar to the one at the Dally Messenger Stand at the SCG.

In September 2015, the New South Wales Government announced a proposal to replace the SFS with a new 50,000 to 55,000 seat venue. The proposed new stadium was cancelled in April 2016, with the SFS to be refurbished instead.

On 8 March 2019, the NSW government announced that the stadium would be demolished

Rebuilding
In 2017 the NSW Government announced that the Sydney Football Stadium along with Stadium Australia will be demolished and rebuilt at the cost of $2.3 billion. The final event at the stadium was a Michael Bublé concert on 5 October 2018. Demolition began in early 2019. In December 2019, the NSW Government awarded the construction contract for the new Sydney Football Stadium to the John Holland Group, with a planned completion date in time for the September 2022 NRL Grand Final.

Sporting events

 * 1988: The stadium hosted the 100th rugby league test match between Australia and Great Britain/England.
 * 1993: Argentinian player Diego Maradona played here in the World Cup qualifier against Australia, in which the match was drawn 1–1.
 * 1994: Rugby union provided a moment of magic thanks to George Gregan's last second match-winning tackle on NZ's Jeff Wilson in which Australia regained the Bledisloe Cup.
 * 19 December 1997: representatives of clubs affiliated with the Australian Rugby League gathered at the SFS to decide whether to accept News Limited's offer of a settlement with the breakaway 'Super League' - eventually voting in favour by 36 votes to 4.
 * 27 September 1998: The SFS hosted the inaugural NRL Grand Final between the Brisbane Broncos and Canterbury Bulldogs. It was to be the last rugby league Grand Final the stadium would host, with grand finals moving to the then 110,000 seat Stadium Australia from 1999.
 * 2 November 2002: The Stadium hosted both Opening and Closing Ceremonies of the 2002 Gay Games.
 * 17 May 2006: the stadium hosted the boxing fight between Danny Green and Anthony Mundine.
 * 5 March 2006: the inaugural A-League Grand Final was held here. Sydney FC defeated the Central Coast Mariners 1–0 in front of 41,689.
 * 25 November 2006: the stadium hosted the 2006 Rugby League Tri-Nations Final.
 * 24 February 2008: the SFS hosted the 2008 A-League Grand Final between Newcastle and the Central Coast Mariners.
 * 2010: Qualifying Final between the Sydney Roosters and Wests Tigers, where Roosters player Braith Anasta kicked a field goal off the scrum to send the game to golden point, then Roosters player Shaun Kenny-Dowall intercepted a ball and scored in extra time.
 * 29 February 2012: Insurer Allianz announces a multi-year partnership with the SCG Trust to see the stadium officially renamed Allianz Stadium.
 * 21 April 2013: 2013 A-League Grand Final between Central Coast Mariners and Western Sydney Wanderers.
 * 26 August 2017: 2017 NCAA DI FBS American college football season opening match, between the Owls of Rice University and the Cardinal of Stanford University.
 * 7 May 2017: 2017 A-League Grand Final between Sydney FC and Melbourne Victory.
 * 4 November 2017: RLWC 2017 pool stage match between England and Lebanon
 * 11 November 2017: RLWC 2017 pool stage match between Australia and Lebanon
 * 21 November 2017: 2017 FFA Cup Final between Sydney FC and Adelaide United where Sydney were winners 2–1. Attendance 13,452.
 * 17 February 2018: 2018 AFLX competition consisting of 6 teams (Greater Western Sydney, Richmond, Brisbane Lions, Sydney, Western Bulldogs and Gold Coast)
 * 22 September 2018: The last sporting event at the Sydney Football Stadium prior to demolition, an NRL preliminary final between the Sydney Roosters and the South Sydney Rabbitohs, took place with the Roosters running out 12–4 winners in front of a stadium record crowd of 44,380.

Concerts

 * 26 & 27 November 1993: U2 performed during their Zoo TV Tour. The show on the 27th was recorded and released as the concert film, Zoo TV: Live from Sydney.
 * 27 February 1998: U2 - Popmart Tour.
 * 9 & 10 March 2000: Barbra Streisand - Timeless Tour.
 * 7 July 2007: Australian concert of Live Earth.
 * 22 November 2009: Pearl Jam concert, as listed on their page for the Backspacer Tour.
 * 26 February 2010: George Michael performed his first concert in Sydney since 1988.
 * 17 18 & 19 December 2010: Bon Jovi - The Circle Tour.
 * 2 & 4 December 2011: Eminem - Recovery Tour.
 * 8 December 2011: Band Foo Fighters - Wasting Light World Tour.
 * 17 & 18 November 2012: Coldplay - Mylo Xyloto Tour.
 * 4 December 2013: Taylor Swift - Red Tour
 * 7 & 8 February 2015: One Direction - On The Road Again Tour.
 * 9 December 2015: Ed Sheeran - X Tour
 * 13 & 14 December 2016: Coldplay - A Head Full of Dreams Tour.
 * 2 December 2017: Sia - Nostalgic for the Present Tour.
 * 5 October 2018: Michael Bublé concert, final event before the stadium closed.

Other events

 * 2005: the Edinburgh Military Tattoo - A Salute to Australia.
 * February 2007: the stadium was recently under renovation, during which the capacity was expanded to 45,500, and a second video screen was added. Renovations were completed.
 * March 2015: The two video screens were replaced with much larger screens.

Grand finals
From its opening in 1988, until 1998, the Sydney Football Stadium was the venue for the NSWRL/ARL/NRL grand final, and has also hosted three A-League grand finals.

Rugby league
* Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs and Canberra Raiders hold the record for the most grand Final appearances at the stadium with four each. The Bulldogs appeared as Canterbury-Bankstown in 1988 and 1994, as the Sydney Bulldogs in 1995 and as the Canterbury Bulldogs in 1998
 * Canberra and the Brisbane Broncos hold the record for most grand final wins at the stadium with three each.
 * Brisbane and the Newcastle Knights are the only teams to win each of their grand finals played at the stadium.
 * St George and Balmain are the only clubs who failed to win in any of their grand Final appearances at the stadium.
 * Canterbury-Bankstown appeared in the first and last grand finals at the SFS.
 * Brisbane's 26 point win over Canterbury-Bankstown in 1998 is the biggest grand final winning margin at the SFS. Canberra's 4 point win over Penrith in 1990 is the smallest winning margin.

A-League
Since the A-League's first season in 2006, the Sydney Football Stadium has hosted the A-League grand final on four occasions, including the inaugural grand final between Sydney FC and the Central Coast Mariners.

Rugby league test matches
The Football Stadium has hosted twelve Australia internationals and one involving the Australian Super League. The results were as follows; * 1997 Anzac Test match played against the Australian Super League team. The Australian Rugby League and Australian Rugby League Commission do not count this as an official test, though it is counted by the New Zealand Rugby League and the Rugby League International Federation.

Rugby union test matches
Since its opening in 1988, the Football Stadium has hosted twenty seven Australia rugby union internationals. The results were as follows;

Rugby World Cup
The SFS also hosted five 2003 Rugby World Cup matches but none of them involved Australia. The results were as follows;

International soccer
List of international soccer matches played at the Sydney Football Stadium since 1988 ( Senior men's games only ).

2000 Olympic Games
The Football Stadium hosted five games of the 2000 Olympic Games Men's Football tournament including a quarter final, a semi-final and the bronze medal match. It also hosted five matches of the Women's Football tournament including a Semi-final and the bronze and gold medal matches.

State of Origin
From 1988 to 1998, the Sydney Football Stadium was the home of the New South Wales rugby league team in the State of Origin series.

Statues

 * Trevor Allan (rugby union and rugby league)
 * Ken Catchpole (rugby union)
 * Reg Gasnier (rugby league)
 * Dally Messenger (rugby league)
 * Johnny Warren (soccer)
 * Betty Cuthbert (sprint)
 * Marlene Mathews (sprint)

Transport
Sydney Football Stadium could be accessed by car, public transport and by walking. The nearest railway station was Central station, three kilometres away. On event days, express shuttle buses ran every five minutes from Chalmers Street at Central station to Moore Park. The buses utilised a bus road off Anzac Parade to improve travel times. In 2015, the Albert Cotter Bridge opened across Anzac Parade opened to improve the pedestrian links between the stadium and Central station and Surry Hills.

title: Sydney Football Stadium (1988)


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£sd

£sd (occasionally written Lsd), spoken as "pounds, shillings and pence", is the popular name for the pre-decimal currencies once common throughout Europe. The abbreviation originates from the Latin currency denominations librae, solidi, and denarii. In the United Kingdom, these were referred to as pounds, shillings, and pence (pence being the plural of penny).

Under this system, there were 12 pence in a shilling and 20 shillings, or 240 pence, in a pound. Although the standard ledger accounting system recorded only pounds, shillings and pence, actual minted coins could represent one, several or fractions of these units. The penny was subdivided into 4 farthings until 31 December 1960, when they ceased to be legal tender in the UK, and until 31 July 1969 there was also a halfpenny ("HAYp'ny", /ˈheɪpni/) in circulation. The perceived advantage of such a system was its use in some aspects of mental arithmetic, as it afforded many factors and hence fractions of a pound such as tenths, eighths, sixths and even sevenths and ninths if the guinea (worth 21 shillings) was used. When dealing with items in dozens, multiplication and division are straightforward; for example, if a dozen eggs cost four shillings, then each egg was priced at fourpence. Basic addition, however, could be more difficult than using a decimal system.

Although the names originated from popular coins in the classical Roman Empire, their definitions and the ratios between them were introduced and imposed across Western Europe by the Emperor Charlemagne. King Offa of Mercia adopted the Frankish silver standard of librae, solidi and denarii into Britain in the late 8th century.

The £sd system was the standard across much of the European continent for over a thousand years, until the decimalisations of the 18th and 19th centuries. The United Kingdom remained one of the few countries retaining it into the 20th century, resulting in the system becoming particularly associated with Britain. For much of the 20th century, £sd remained the monetary system of most of the British Commonwealth, the major exceptions being Canada and India, until the 1960s and 1970s, with Nigeria being the last to abandon it in the form of the Nigerian pound on 1 January 1973.

Historically, similar systems based on Roman coinage were used elsewhere; e.g., the division of the livre tournois in France and other pre-decimal currencies such as Spain, which had 20 maravedís to 1 real and 20 reales to 1 duro or 5 pesetas.

Origins
The classical Roman Empire originally used a decimal currency system based on the "as" whereby 1 denarius = 10 as. The silver denarius was the common circulation coin, but accounting was in sestercii. Later Roman Emperors undertook multiple coinage reforms, redefining weights and coins' relative values and introducing new coins and new accounting systems for them. Since most reforms were not even completed before the next one began, the late Roman Empire had a veritable mess of multiple overlapping systems of weights and currencies.

Around the 780s, the Frankish emperor Charlemagne cut through the mess by creating a new uniform system. He defined the "libra" as a new measure of weight equivalent to around 489.6 grams (substantially larger than the old Roman pound of 328.9g), and ordered 240 silver units known as denarii to be struck from the new Carolingian pound of pure silver, each denarius containing 22.5 grains of silver. To help accounting, Charlemagne also decreed that the pound was divisible into 20 solidi each of 12 denarii. Thus began the Carolingian monetary system (1l. = 20s. = 240d.).

The new coinage and accounting system was imposed uniformly across the vast Carolingian Empire and also infiltrated countries on its periphery. In the late 8th century, King Offa of Mercia imported the system into Britain to facilitate transactions (notably "Peter's pence") with the Roman Catholic Church (which used the Carolingian coinage system). But it was not the sole system in Britain – the £sd system would have to compete for a while with the Viking "mark" accounting system, introduced into Danelaw regions. Although £sd ultimately prevailed in Britain, the "mark of account" system lingered on in North Sea trade and areas of Hanseatic influence through much of the Middle Ages.

Charlemagne's new monetary system prevailed across much of Western Europe including France (where the units were known as the livre, sous and denier), Italy (lira, soldo and denaro), the Holy Roman Empire (pfund, schilling and pfennig) and in England (pound, shilling and penny). The English name pound is a Germanic adaptation of the Latin phrase libra pondo 'a pound weight'. On the Iberian peninsula, the Kingdom of Aragon adopted the Carolingian monetary system (Catalan: lliura, sou and diners), but those of Portugal and Castile (and subsequently Spain) retained the currency system inherited from al-Andalus.

During the early Middle Ages, only the denarius was issued as an actual coin; the libra and solidus were merely units of account. But over time, the silver resources were gradually exhausted and the coins became repeatedly debased by mediaeval monarchs, prompting the minting of larger coins from the 13th century. It also led to specification of currencies by mint of origin in contracts and accounting (e.g. a denier parisis, of the Paris mint, contained more actual silver than the very debased denier tournois of the Tours mint).

To facilitate larger transactions, gold coins began to be minted in western Europe around the same time. The French "franc", introduced in 1360, was the first coin anywhere to represent exactly £1 and the gold "sovereign", first minted in 1489, was the first English £1 coin.

Although the £sd system remained intact in ledger accounting, the variety of new coins of various multiples and qualities led to common expression of quantities in terms of number of coins (guineas, crowns, farthings, etc.) But they would all have to be converted into formal £sd units in accounts.

Decimalisation

The £sd system continued in much of Western Europe for nearly a thousand years, until the "decimalisations" of the 18th and 19th centuries. Britain considered following the continental example. A parliamentary select committee was set up in 1821 to inquire into decimalisation, but ended up recommending retaining the £sd system. However, pressure groups were formed inside Britain advocating the adoption of decimalisation of the currency, and Parliament returned to the matter in the 1850s. Various decimalisation schemes were considered – the Pound-and-Mil scheme, the Farthing scheme, the Half-penny scheme, the Alb scheme, etc. – but all were determined to have deficiencies, and transition would be too difficult and expensive. The £sd system would be maintained in Britain until 1971.

As countries of the British Empire became independent, some abandoned the £sd system quickly, while others retained it almost as long as the UK itself. The United States of America was among the first to drop the £sd system and adopt a decimal currency in 1792, 10 years after independence from the British Empire, but retains many other aspects of the customary units for length and weight. Australia, on the other hand, only changed to using a decimal currency on 14 February 1966, 65 years after independence. New Zealand followed suit on 10 July 1967. Still others, notably Ireland, decimalised only when the UK did. The UK abandoned the old penny on Decimal Day, 15 February 1971, when one pound sterling became divided into 100 new pence. This was a change from the system used in the earlier wave of decimalisations in Australia, New Zealand, Rhodesia and South Africa, in which the pound was replaced with a new major currency called either the "dollar" or the "rand". The British shilling was replaced by a 5 new pence coin worth one-twentieth of a pound. In Europe, decimalisation of currency (as well as other weights and measures) began in Revolutionary France with the law of 1795 ("Loi du 18 germinal an III", 7 April 1795), replacing the £sd accounting system of the Ancien régime with a system of 1 franc = 10 decimes = 100 centimes. Decimalisation was carried by French armies to neighboring European countries during the Napoleonic wars. By the mid-19th century, most of continental Europe had decimalised, leaving the United Kingdom as the only major country to continue to maintain the £sd system.

All countries and territories that formerly used the £sd system have now decimalised their currency, with most decimalisations occurring after the Second World War. Malta decimalised its currency in 1972, while Nigeria decimalised in 1973. The British pound sterling and Irish pound were among the last to be decimalised, on 15 February 1971.

In places where £sd was used, there were several approaches to decimalisation:

 * The pound remained the base unit (in Malta, using the Maltese name "lira"), but was subdivided into new fractional units of $1/100$ of a pound. The new fractional unit (called the "new penny" in the UK and Ireland and the "cent" in Malta) was worth 2.4 old pence. Malta also created a fractional unit worth $1/1000$ of a pound, called the "mil", worth slightly less than a farthing (0.24 old pence).
 * A new base unit (often called the "dollar") was created equal to ten shillings (half a pound), and subdivided into 100 fractional units, with one fractional unit (usually called the "cent") equal to $1/10$ of a shilling or 1.2 old pence. This was the approach adopted in South Africa (as the Rand), Australia, New Zealand, Jamaica, Fiji and many other countries.
 * A new base unit called the "dollar" was created at parity with the United States dollar. This was done in Canada in 1858 and in many places in the West Indies in the 19th and 20th centuries. In Bermuda in 1970, as the pound was fixed at US$2.40 i.e. US$1 = 100d., this made the new Bermudian dollar equal to exactly 100 old pence, with the new cent equal to one old penny.
 * Some countries have adopted alternative approaches, such as Ghana, which created a new base unit equal to 100 old pence (not equal to the U.S. dollar), with a fractional unit equal to one old penny, Bahamas, which adopted a new base unit equal to seven shillings, with a fractional unit equal to 0.84 old pence, and The Gambia, which created a new base unit equal to four shillings, with a fractional unit equal to 0.48 old pence.

The following table shows the conversion of common denominations of coins of the £sd systems.

The following coins were not in common circulation in the UK at the time of decimalisation, though the ten shilling note and the pound note were.

The farthing, at $1/2$ penny, was never converted, as it ceased to be legal tender a decade prior to decimalisation. In 1971, a new penny would have been worth 9.6 farthings (making a farthing slightly more than 0.1 new pence). Similarly, the old halfpenny and the half-crown were not converted in the UK either, having been withdrawn previously.

Pre-decimal coins and banknotes
In the UK, larger denomination notes (£5, £10, £20, £50, £100, £200, £500, and £1,000) printed from the 18th century to 1943 were called "white notes" because they were printed on lightweight white paper (on one side only) in black ink.

United Kingdom pre-decimal banknotes are no longer legal tender, but are exchangeable for their face value (regardless of the possible greater worth if sold or auctioned) if they are taken directly (or posted) to the Bank of England. The last £sd coins to cease being legal tender in the UK after Decimal Day were the sixpence (withdrawn 1980), the shilling (withdrawn 1991) and the florin (withdrawn 1993). Commemorative crowns minted post decimalisation (worth either 25p or £5) are still legal tender, but are rarely, if ever, spent.

The last £sd banknote to cease to be legal tender anywhere was the Isle of Man ten shilling note, which ceased to be legal tender there in 2013.

Computing

Computers and calculators sold pre-decimalisation – mostly in the 1960s – occasionally came with special support for the £sd system in the form of a fixed-point currency datatype. The IBM 1401 is one such machine; on Sterling models with £sd support, it had a switch for selecting between IBM and BSI data layouts of £sd on its auxiliary console (see image). The ICT 1301 and the PL/I language also had £sd support.

Writing conventions and pronunciations
There were several ways to represent amounts of money in writing and speech, with no formal convention; for example:

 * £2/3/6 (two pounds, three shillings and sixpence), spoken, unless there was cause to be punctilious, "two pound(s), three and six". Whether "pound" or "pounds" was used depended upon the speaker, varying with class, region and context.
 * 1/– (one shilling), colloquially "a bob"; the slash sign derives from the older style of a long s for "solidus", which is also one name for the sign itself; the '–' is used in place of '0', meaning "zero pence").
 * 11d. (elevenpence)
 * $5/24$d (a penny halfpenny, three halfpence). As spoken, the lf in halfpenny and halfpence was always silent; they were pronounced "hayp'ny" and "haypence"  – hence the occasional spellings ha'penny and ha'pence).
 * 3d (three pence), with reference to the above, this became thruppence, commonly referred to as a "threepenny bit".
 * 6d (six pence) known as a "tanner" or half a shilling.
 * 2/– (two shillings, or one florin, colloquially "two-bob bit")
 * 2/6 (two shillings and six pence, usually said as "two and six" or a "half-crown"; the value could also be spoken as "half a crown", but the coin was always a half-crown)
 * 4/3 ("four and threepence", the latter word pronounced "thruppence", "threppence" , "throopence" with -oo- as in "foot" , or "four-and-three")
 * 5/– (five shillings, one crown, "five bob", a dollar)
 * £1/1/- A Guinea Historically an amount paid for settlement of legal disputes, but currently still the wager on the winner of a horse race.
 * £1/10/– (one pound, ten shillings; one pound ten, "thirty bob")
 * £1/19/$5/12$ (one pound, nineteen shillings and elevenpence three farthings: a psychological price, one farthing under £2)
 * £14/8/2 (fourteen pounds, eight shillings and twopence – pronounced "tuppence" – in columns of figures. Commonly read "fourteen pound(s) eight and two")

Halfpennies and farthings (quarter of a penny) were represented by the appropriate symbol ($5/12$ for farthing, $5/6$ for halfpenny, or $1 1/4$ for three farthings) after the whole pence.

A convention frequently used in retail pricing was to list prices over one pound all in shillings, rather than in pounds and shillings; for example, £4-18-0 would be written as 98/– (£4.90 in decimal currency). This is still seen in shilling categories of Scottish beer, such as 90/– beer.

Sometimes, prices of luxury goods and furniture were expressed by merchants in guineas, although the guinea coin had not been struck since 1799. A guinea was 21 shillings (£1.05 in decimal currency). Professionals such as lawyers and physicians, art dealers, and some others stated their fees in guineas rather than pounds, while, for example, salaries were stated in pounds per annum. Historically, at some auctions, the purchaser would bid and pay in guineas but the seller would receive the same number of pounds; the commission was the same number of shillings. Tattersalls, the main auctioneer of racehorses in the United Kingdom and Ireland, continues this tradition of conducting auctions in guineas at its UK sales (in Ireland, auctions are conducted in euros). The vendor's commission is 5%. The word "guineas" is still found in the names of some British horse races, even though their prize funds are now fixed in pounds – such as the 1,000 Guineas and 2,000 Guineas at Newmarket Racecourse.

In popular culture
The currency of knuts, sickles and galleons in the Harry Potter books is a parody of the £sd system, with 29 knuts to a sickle and 17 sickles to a galleon. It serves as the currency of the Wizarding World, while pounds are still used by Muggles, the non-magical people.

Lysergic acid diethylamide was sometimes called "pounds, shillings and pence" during the 1960s, because of the abbreviation LSD. The English rock group the Pretty Things released a 1966 single titled "£.s.d." that highlighted the double entendre. The Chemical Defence Experimental Establishment called the first field trial with LSD as a chemical weapon "Moneybags" as a pun.

The score of 26 at darts (one dart in each of the top three spaces) was sometimes called "half-a-crown" as late as the 1990s, though this did start to confuse the younger players. 26 is also referred to as "Breakfast", since 2/6 or half a crown was the standard cost for breakfast pre-decimalisation.

title: £sd


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North Dumpling Island

North Dumpling Island is a 2 acre island in Fishers Island Sound of Long Island Sound, 1 mi off the coast of Connecticut, south of Groton, within the territory of the town of Southold on Long Island in New York State. The island is about 0.3 nmi north of South Dumpling Island, and is home to the North Dumpling Light, which dates from 1859. The island is privately owned by Dean Kamen, inventor of the Segway.

History
In 1639, John Winthrop, son of the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, bought Fishers Island and the small islets around it, including those called "The Dumplings". Ownership of the islands, including North Dumpling, remained with the Winthrop family until 1847, when it was sold to the federal government for $600 to be the site of a lighthouse. The lighthouse and the keeper's dwelling were built and the light illuminated in 1859, and then rebuilt in 1871 with a taller tower. The lighthouse was deactivated in 1959, being replaced by an automated light on a skeleton tower, and the grounds and lighthouse were sold to a private party, George Washburn. The island was purchased in 1977 by David Levitt, president of the Doughnut Corporation of America, who remodeled and expanded the house. Levitt convinced the Coast Guard to move the light back to the stone tower and to remove the skeleton tower. Levitt added sculptures to the island, including Temple of the Four Winds, the Moon Rock, and Meditation Rock. In 1986, Dean Kamen, inventor of the Segway and founder of FIRST, purchased the island for US$2500000.

After a denial from local officials to build his own wind turbine on the island, Kamen "seceded" from the United States. Although Kamen's secession is not legally recognized, he still refers to the island as the "Kingdom of North Dumpling" and has established a constitution, a flag, a currency (the dumpling), a national anthem, which is a parody of the song "America the Beautiful" written by Paul Lazarus, and a navy consisting of a single amphibious vehicle. The people of North Dumpling are called "Dumplonians", and Kamen is said to refer to himself as "Lord Dumpling" or "Lord Dumpling II".

Despite still being a part of the United States, Kamen claimed he was able to leverage his personal relationship with then-president George H. W. Bush to sign an unofficial non-aggression pact.

Kamen was eventually able to build his turbine, and the island's electrical system was later converted to a combination of wind and solar power with the help of Fritz Morgan, Chief Technology Officer of Philips Color Kinetics, operating independently of the regional electrical grid. This was accomplished by replacing all lighting on the island with LEDs, which resulted in a 70% reduction of in-house energy consumption. Kamen says that the island is carbon neutral due to solar panels on every building, a 10 kW wind turbine, and a "little" Stirling engine for backup power.

In addition to North Dumpling Lighthouse, the island features a replica of Stonehenge.

title: North Dumpling Island


text:
Texas House of Representatives

The Texas House of Representatives is the lower house of the bicameral Texas Legislature. It consists of 150 members who are elected from single-member districts for two-year terms. There are no term limits. The House meets at the State Capitol in Austin.

Leadership
The leadership for the 88th Legislature is as follows:

The Speaker of the House is the presiding officer and highest-ranking member of the House. The Speaker's duties include maintaining order within the House, recognizing members during debate, ruling on procedural matters, appointing members to the various committees and sending bills for committee review.

The Speaker pro tempore is primarily a ceremonial position, but does, by long-standing tradition, preside over the House during its consideration of local and consent bills.

Unlike other state legislatures, the House rules do not formally recognize majority or minority leaders. The unofficial leaders are the Republican Caucus Chairman and the Democratic House Leader, both of whom are elected by their respective caucuses.

Composition
Republicans currently hold a majority of seats in the House.

Texas’ legislative districts are somewhat an example of gerrymandering, however, requirements in the Texas Constitution are more strict than other states.

[[File:TxHouse2022Comp.svg|thumb|none|500px|Current House districts and party affiliation

]]

Notable past members

 * Eligio (Kika) De La Garza, II, first Mexican-American to represent his region in the US House and the second Mexican-American from Texas to be elected to Congress (1965–1997).
 * Ray Barnhart, Federal Highway Administrator (1981–1987)
 * Anita Lee Blair, first blind woman elected to a state legislature
 * Jack Brooks, U.S. Representative (1953–1995)
 * Dolph Briscoe, Governor of Texas (1973–1979)
 * Frank Kell Cahoon, Midland County oilman and representative from 1965 to 1969; only Republican member in 1965 legislative session
 * Joaquin Castro, U.S. Representative (2013–present)
 * Jasmine Crockett, U.S. Representative (2023–present)
 * Henry Cuellar, U.S. Representative (2005–present)
 * Tom DeLay, U.S. Representative (1985–2006) and House Majority Leader (2003–2005)
 * Jake Ellzey, U.S. Representative (2022–present)
 * Pat Fallon, U.S. Representative (2021–present)
 * John Nance Garner, U.S. Representative (1903–1933), Speaker of the House (1931–1933), and Vice President of the United States (1933–1941)
 * Lance Gooden, U.S. Representative (2019–present)
 * O.H. "Ike" Harris, Dallas County representative from 1963 to 1965; state senator (1967–1995)
 * Sarah T. Hughes, United States district court judge
 * Robert Dean Hunter, former executive vice president of the Independent Colleges and Universities of Texas
 * Suzanna Hupp, House of Representatives (1997–2007), survived the Luby's shooting, went on to champion individual gun ownership and carry rights.
 * Kay Bailey Hutchison, U.S. Senator (1993–2013)
 * Ray Hutchison, husband of Kay Bailey Hutchison
 * Eddie Bernice Johnson, first Black woman ever elected to public office from Dallas, first woman in Texas history to lead a major Texas House committee (the Labor Committee), and the first registered nurse elected to Congress.
 * Samuel Ealy Johnson, Jr., father of President Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969)
 * Dan Kubiak, representative from Rockdale known for his support of public education
 * Mickey Leland, U.S. Representative (1979–1989), died in a plane crash.
 * Charles Henry Nimitz (1826–1911) Born in Bremen. In 1852, built the Nimitz Hotel in Fredericksburg, which now houses the National Museum of the Pacific War. Grandfather of United States Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz. Elected to the Texas Legislature 1890.
 * Rick Perry, longest serving Governor of Texas, (2000–2015) and former U.S. Secretary of Energy (2017–2019).
 * Colonel Alfred P.C. Petsch (1925–1941) Lawyer, legislator, civic leader, and philanthropist. Veteran of both World War I and World War II.
 * Sam Rayburn, U.S. Representative (1913–1961) and longest served Speaker of the House (1940–1947, 1949–1953, 1955–1961)
 * Coke R. Stevenson, Governor of Texas (1941–1947)
 * Marc Veasey, U.S. Representative (2013–present)
 * Randy Weber, U.S. Representative (2013–present)
 * Sarah Weddington, attorney for "Jane Roe" for the 1973 Roe v. Wade case in the U.S. Supreme Court
 * Ferdinand C. Weinert, coauthored bill to establish the Pasteur Institute of Texas, authored resolution for humane treatment of state convicts, coauthored the indeterminate sentence and parole law. Also served as Texas Secretary of State
 * Charlie Wilson, U.S. Representative (1973–1996), subject of the book and film Charlie Wilson's War

Speaker of the House
The Speaker of the House of Representatives has duties as a presiding officer as well as administrative duties. As a presiding officer, the Speaker must enforce, apply, and interpret the rules of the House, call House members to order, lay business in order before the House and receive propositions made by members, refer proposed legislation to a committee, preserve order and decorum, recognize people in the gallery, state and hold votes on questions, vote as a member of the House, decide on all questions to order, appoint the Speaker Pro Tempore and Temporary Chair, adjourn the House in the event of an emergency, postpone reconvening in the event of an emergency, and sign all bills, joint resolutions, and concurrent resolutions. The administrative duties of the Speaker include having control over the Hall of the House, appointing chair, vice-chair, and members to each standing committee, appointing all conference committees, and directing committees to make interim studies.

Chief Clerk
The Chief Clerk is the head of the Chief Clerk's Office which maintains a record of all authors who sign legislation, maintains and distributes membership information to current house members, and forwards copies of legislation to house committee chairs. The Chief Clerk is the primary custodian of all legal documents within House. Additional duties include keeping a record of all progress on a document, attesting all warrants, writs, and subpoenas, receiving and filing all documents received by the house, and maintaining the electronic information and calendar for documents. When there is a considerable update of the electronic source website, the Chief Clerk is also responsible for noticing House members via email.

Committee structure
The committee structure below is valid for the 88th Legislature (numbers in parentheses are the number of committee members; under House rules 1/2 of each committee's membership is determined by seniority and the remaining 1/2 by the Speaker of the House, excluding Procedural Committees the membership of which are wholly chosen by the Speaker).
 * Agriculture and Livestock (9)
 * Appropriations (27)
 * Subcommittee on Articles I, IV & V
 * Subcommittee on Article II
 * Subcommittee on Article III
 * Subcommittee on Articles VI, VII & VIII
 * Subcommittee on Strategic Fiscal Review
 * Business & Industry (9)
 * Calendars (11)
 * Community Safety (select)
 * Corrections (9)
 * County Affairs (9)
 * Criminal Jurisprudence (9)
 * Culture, Recreation & Tourism (9)
 * Defense & Veterans' Affairs (9)
 * Elections (9)
 * Energy Resources (11)
 * Environmental Regulation (9)
 * General Investigating (5)
 * Health Care Reform (select)
 * Higher Education (11)
 * Homeland Security & Public Safety (9)
 * House Administration (11)
 * Human Services (9)
 * Insurance (9)
 * International Relations & Economic Development (9)
 * Judiciary & Civil Jurisprudence (9)
 * Juvenile Justice & Family Issues (9)
 * Land & Resource Management (9)
 * Licensing & Administrative Procedures (11)
 * Local & Consent Calendars (11)
 * Natural Resources (11)
 * Pensions, Investments & Financial Services (9)
 * Public Education (13)
 * Public Health (11)
 * Redistricting (15)
 * Resolutions Calendars (11)
 * State Affairs (13)
 * Transportation (13)
 * Urban Affairs (9)
 * Ways & Means (11)
 * Youth Health & Safety (select)

In addition to these committees, there are also six joint committees composed of members of both the State House and Senate:

 * Criminal Justice Legislative Oversight
 * Legislative Audit Committee
 * Legislative Budget Board
 * Legislative Reference Library Board
 * Sunset Advisory Commission
 * Texas Legislative Council

title: Texas House of Representatives


text:
Cheshire County

Cheshire County is the name of two counties:

 * Cheshire County, New Hampshire in the United States
 * Cheshire in north west England, United Kingdom
 * Chester County

title: Cheshire County


text:
Talk:Great Whale

The content that was on this page has been split between Right whale and Whale. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 13:16, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Great Whale


text:
Talk:Treasure-trove

Removed A collection of valuable items discovered or found, usually by accident which didn't seem to add anything to what was already there. Andrewa 13:20, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The term "Trove" is used by SourceForge.net for their software map. But I'm not a native English speaker and don't understand the correct meaning in that sense. May be worth mentioning, though.

title: Talk:Treasure-trove


text:
Prograph

Prograph is a visual, object-oriented, dataflow, multiparadigm programming language that uses iconic symbols to represent actions to be taken on data. Commercial Prograph software development environments such as Prograph Classic and Prograph CPX were available for the Apple Macintosh and Windows platforms for many years but were eventually withdrawn from the market in the late 1990s. Support for the Prograph language on macOS has recently reappeared with the release of the Marten software development environment.

History
Research on Prograph started at Acadia University in 1982 as a general investigation into dataflow languages, stimulated by a seminar on functional languages conducted by Michael Levin. Diagrams were used to clarify the discussion, leading to the insight: "since the diagrams are clearer than the code, why not make the diagrams themselves executable!" Thus Prograph - Programming in Graphics - was born as a visual dataflow language. This work was led by Dr. Tomasz Pietrzykowski, with Stan Matwin and Thomas Muldner co-authoring early papers. From 1983 to 1985, research prototypes were built on a Three Rivers PERQ graphics workstation (in Pascal, with the data visualized as fireballs moving down datalinks), and a VAX with a Tektronix terminal, and an experimental compiler was programmed in an IBM PC. This work was continued at Technical University of Nova Scotia by Pietrzykowski and Dr. Philip Cox, including a version done in Prolog.

In 1985, work began on a commercialisable prototype on the Macintosh, the only widely available, low-priced computer with high-level graphics support available at the time. In early 1986, this prototype was taken over by The Gunakara Sun Systems (later renamed to TGS Systems) for commercialisation, TGS formerly being a consulting firm formed by Pietrzykowski at Acadia University. Working with Pietrzykowski and Cox, Terry Kilshaw hired and managed the original development team, with Jim Laskey as the lead developer. In 1987 Mark Szpakowski suggested the merger of object-orientation with visual dataflow, creating an "objectflow" system. After almost four years of development, the first commercial release, v1.2, was introduced at the OOPSLA conference in New Orleans in October 1989. This product won the 1989 MacUser Editor's Choice Award for Best Development Tool. Version 2.0, released in July 1990, added a compiler to the system.

TGS changed its name to Prograph International (PI) in 1990. Although sales were slow, development of a new version, Prograph CPX (Cross-Platform eXtensions) was undertaken in 1992, that was intended to build fully cross-platform applications. This version was released in 1993, and was immediately followed by development of a client-server application framework. Despite increasing sales, the company was unable to sustain operating costs, and following a failed financing attempt in late 1994, went into receivership in early 1995.

As the receivership proceeded, the management and employees of PI formed a new company, Pictorius, which acquired the assets of PI. Shortly afterwards, development of a Windows version of Prograph CPX was begun. Although it was never formally released, versions of Windows Prograph were regularly made available to Prograph CPX customers, some of whom ported existing applications written in Macintosh Prograph, with varying degrees of success.

After management changes at the new company, emphasis shifted from tools development to custom programming and web application development. In April 2002 the web development part of the company was acquired by the Paragon Technology Group of Bermuda and renamed Paragon Canada. The Pictorius name and rights to the Prograph source code were retained by McLean Watson Capital, a Toronto-based investments firm which had heavily funded Pictorius. A reference to Pictorius appeared for a time on the former's Portfolio page, but has since disappeared. The Windows version of CPX was later released for free use, and was available for some time for download from the remnants of the Pictorius website (link below).

A group of Prograph users ("Prographers") calling themselves "The Open Prograph Initiative" (OPI) formed in the late 1990s with the goal of keeping Prograph viable in the face of OS advances by Apple and Microsoft. For a time, the group also sought to create a new open-source visual programming language to serve as Prograph's successor, but with the advent of Andescotia's Marten visual programming environment, participation in the group essentially ceased.

The Prograph language is supported by the Marten IDE from Andescotia Software.

Description
During the 1970s program complexity was growing considerably, but the tools used to write programs were generally similar to those used in the 1960s. This led to problems when working on larger projects, which would become so complex that even simple changes could have side effects that are difficult to fully understand. Considerable research into the problem led many to feel that the problem was that existing programming systems focused on the logic of the program, while in reality the purpose of a program was to manipulate data. If the data being manipulated is the important aspect of the program, why isn't the data the "first class citizen" of the programming language? Working on that basis, a number of new programming systems evolved, including object-oriented programming and dataflow programming.

Prograph took these concept further, introducing a combination of object-oriented methodologies and a completely visual environment for programming. Objects are represented by hexagons with two sides, one containing the data fields, the other the methods that operate on them. Double-clicking on either side would open a window showing the details for that object; for instance, opening the variables side would show class variables at the top and instance variables below. Double-clicking the method side shows the methods implemented in this class, as well as those inherited from the superclass. When a method itself is double-clicked, it opens into another window displaying the logic.

In Prograph a method is represented by a series of icons, each icon containing an instructions (or group of them). Within each method the flow of data is represented by lines in a directed graph. Data flows in the top of the diagram, passes through various instructions, and eventually flows back out the bottom (if there is any output).

Several features of the Prograph system are evident in this picture of a database sorting operation. The upper bar shows that this method,, is being passed in a single parameter,. This object is then fed, via the lines, into several operations. Three of these extract a named index ( etc.) from the object using the   operation (the unconnected getter output passes on the "whole" object), and then passes the extracted index to a sort operation. The output of these sort operations are then passed, along with a reference to the original database, to the final operation,. The bar at the bottom of the picture represents the outputs of this method, and in this case there are no connections to it and so this method does not return a value. Also note that although this is a method of some class, there is no ; if self is needed, it can be provided as an input or looked up.

In a dataflow language the operations can take place as soon as they have valid inputs for all of their connections. That means, in traditional terms, that each operation in this method could be carried out at the same time. In the database example, all of the sorts could take place at the same time if the computer were capable of supplying the data. Dataflow languages tend to be inherently concurrent, meaning they are capable of running on multiprocessor systems "naturally", one of the reasons that it garnered so much interest in the 1980s.

Loops and branches are constructed by modifying operations with annotations. For instance, a loop that calls the  method on a list of input data is constructed by first dragging in the doit operator, then attaching the loop modifier and providing the list as the input to the loop. Another annotation, "injection", allows the method itself to be provided as an input, making Prograph a dynamic language to some degree.

Execution
The integrated Prograph development and execution environment also allowed for visual debugging. The usual breakpoint and single-step mechanisms were supported. Each operation in a data flow diagram was visually highlighted as it executed. A tooltip-like mechanism displayed data values when the mouse was held over a data-link when stopped in debug mode. Visual display of the execution stack allowed for both roll-back and roll-forward execution. For many users the visual execution aspects of the language were as important as its edit-time graphical facilities.

The most important run-time debugging feature was the ability to change the code on the fly while debugging. This allowed for bugs to be fixed while debugging without the need to recompile.

title: Prograph


text:
South Australian gulf drainage division

The South Australian gulf drainage division is the area surrounding the Gulf St Vincent and Spencer Gulf and a sliver of country to the immediate north. It includes 75,000 square kilometres of mostly moderately flat territory, broken only by the Mount Lofty Ranges which reach 932 metres at their highest point. It is bounded by the Murray-Darling Basin to the east, the Lake Eyre Basin to the north, and the Western Plateau to the west.

While waters falling to the north and west flow inland and dissipate into the sands and ephemeral salt lakes of the central Australian deserts, waters falling on the South Australian gulf drainage division flow south to the sea. Rainfall over the area varies between 200 and 750 mm (8 to 30 inches) per year, tends to be concentrated on the highest and most southerly districts, and primarily occurs in winter.

There are no permanent fresh water lakes in the region and the rivers are short. The best-known of them is the River Torrens, which flows through the capital of South Australia, Adelaide.

title: South Australian gulf drainage division