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Rice County

Rice County may refer to:

 * Rice County, Kansas, U.S.
 * Rice County, Minnesota, U.S.

title: Rice County


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Nismo

Nissan Motorsports International (ニッサン・モータースポーツ・インターナショナル株式会社), abbreviated as Nismo, is a division of Nissan Motorsports & Customizing focused in motorsport and performance-oriented car models for Nissan. Nismo was initially a company, Nissan Motorsports International Co., Ltd. (ニッサン・モータースポーツ・インターナショナル株式会社), formed in 1984 as a result of a merger of two motorsport departments, being the in-house tuning, motorsports and performance subsidiary of Nissan. It has competed in JSPC, JTCC, the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the 24 Hours of Daytona. They currently participate in Super GT and Formula E. Nismo ceased to be a company in April 2022 by being merged with sister company Autech into a new Nissan subsidiary, Nissan Motorsport & Customizing.

History
The Nismo story began in 1964 when a local company called Prince Motor Company realized that they could boost their sales by going into the competitive motorsport business. Nismo's first competitive motor sport debut was on 1 May 1964 − in their first race they ended up coming just short however it was bitter sweet as the Skyline took all positions from 2nd to 6th.

In 1984, Nissan decided that it wanted to merge its two motorsport divisions, founded through the 1960s, they were (known as Publication Division 3), based in its Oppama factory, responsible for the needs of privateer teams and  (Special Car Testing Division), within its Ōmori plant, responsible for its factory operations. The company's intention following the merger was to specialize in sportscar racing, but it also provided support for teams competing in the domestic F3 series.

In 1988 the first dedicated race car by Nissan debuted, and saw incredible performance in circuit races. This vehicle was the iconic Nissan Skyline R32, sporting the GT-R badge.

In 1988, Nismo built its first car, the Saurus for motorsport use for its one-make series. The following year they developed the Skyline GT-R for racing as well as building the 500 evolution editions for road use. The R34, the R32's generational grandchild was the first car to be produced with a V-Spec.

In December 2021, Nissan said it would merge Nismo and sister company Autech (a tuning and conversion operation) into a new company called Nissan Motorsports & Customizing Co., Ltd.. The merge was completed on April 1, 2022.

Products
Products include the GT-R, 370Z, Sentra, Frontier, and the Juke Nismo. Soon to be added to the range is the hatchback Nissan Pulsar Nismo and the electric Nissan Leaf

Tuning kits
Nismo designs and manufactures a range of aftermarket performance parts for Nissan cars including aerodynamics parts such as spoilers and diffusers, alloy wheels, engine and suspension parts. The 2017 Infiniti Q60, being much criticized for its mild exhaust sound, about six months after its introduction had a specially tuned Nismo muffler made available through Infiniti dealers as an aftermarket item.

Most Datsun, Nissan, and Infiniti branded cars have performance parts available from Nismo, either in production or as old stock. For example, Nismo sells parts such as unground cam billets, performance cams, pistons, etc. for the KA24E engine, which was used in the Nissan small pickup truck for several years and also used for the 1989 and 1990 model years of 240SX, a popular car among Import scene enthusiasts (especially Drifters) in North America.

In Japan, the V35 Skyline and Z33 Fairlady have both received several levels of Nismo tuning packages (E-Type, S-Tune, R-Tune, and S1 packages), with a full track spec Fairlady Z debuted at the 2005 Nismo Festival of Speed held at (formerly) Fuji International Raceway.

In February 2007, Nismo announced the launch of the Nismo 380RS. The Nismo 380RS is a factory modified version of the Nissan Z33 Fairlady Z tuned by both Nismo and Autech. Two versions were released, the first was a track-only model called the 380RS-C (C for competition), the second is a street model being sold at Nissan dealers. Both versions use a Nissan VQ series V6 engine, bored and stroked to 3.8L. The track-only 380RS-C makes 400 hp, and the street version makes approximately 350 hp. The Nismo 380RS was only sold in Japan.

Production cars

The first Nismo-branded car was the 1987 Skyline R31 GTS-R Group A evolution special limited to 823 examples. This was followed by the 1990 Skyline GT-R Nismo of which only 560 were produced. Both cars featured weight-saving, aerodynamic, performance and reliability improvements necessary for the rigours of Group A competition.

The next Nismo release was the Skyline GT-R R34 'Z-Tune'. Intended to celebrate the 2005 20th anniversary of Nismo, the 2003 cancellation of R34 production meant that Nismo was only able to create 20 cars, all based on second-hand V.spec units purchased back from customers with less than 30,000 km on the odometer. The Z Tune sold for ¥17,745,000 (US$146,600, as of December 7, 2005) in Japan. However, the parts-conversion version, where the customer's Skyline GT-R's become the base car, sells for ¥13,125,000 (US$108,500, as of December 7, 2005). Due to rarity the GT-R Z-tune can exceed US$500,000 in the car market. The engine is an RB28DETT Z2 (a normal GT-R engine with a stroked displacement of 2.8 liters & Nismo parts designed specifically for the Z2). The car weighs 1600 kg. Nismo was also responsible for the R33 Skyline 400R and S14 Silvia 270R models. Both featured comprehensive modifications to the drivetrain, suspension, brakes, chassis, and aero work. Very limited numbers of both models were sold in 1997, and both command high resale prices even today. These models stressed Nismo's link to street car tuning, and were developed (as was the Z-Tune GT-R) at their Chiba City tuning garage. Nismo street tuned vehicles have been sold at Nissan dealerships for years, and come with full warranties. Nismo also produced 21 versions of the Pulsar GTi-R, essentially these cars contained all of the NISMO Group N parts available at the time in a fully built car.

Japanese Grand Prix
In the 1960s, Nissan competed in the Japanese Grand Prix sports car race.

IMSA GT Championship

Nissan joined the IMSA GT Championship in 1979, where it competed in the GT classes with the 240SX, 280ZX and 300ZX. From 1985 to 1993, they entered the main GTP class with the GTP ZX-Turbo and NPT-90. Geoff Brabham won four GTP drivers championships with Nissan from 1988 to 1991, and the manufacturer won the 1992 24 Hours of Daytona and the 1989, 1990 and 1991 12 Hours of Sebring.

World Sports Prototype Championship

In the 1980s and 1990s, Nissan raced at the All Japan Sports Prototype Championship and 24 Hours of Le Mans with sports prototypes such as the R88C, R89C, R90C and R391. They claimed the 1990, 1991 and 1992 JSPC titles, but they never won at Le Mans. Notable Nissan drivers in this era include Masahiro Hasemi, Kazuyoshi Hoshino, Masahiko Kageyama and Toshio Suzuki.

Touring Car Racing
In the 1980s, the manufacturer entered the Fuji Grand Champion Series with Group 5 Bluebird, Skyline and Silvia silhouettes and the Japanese Touring Car Championship with production Skyline models. In the 1990s, Nissan competed in Supertouring championships around the world with the Nissan Primera, winning the 1999 British Touring Car Championship with Laurent Aïello.

Supercars Championship
From 2013 onwards Nissan competed in the Supercars Championship with Kelly Racing fielding four Nissan Altimas. The factory backing concluded at the end of 2018, although the Altimas continued to be privately entered in 2019.

International GT Racing

In 2009, Nissan entered the FIA GT1 World Championship with a Nismo-developed Nissan GT-R. Krumm and Lucas Luhr were 2011 drivers champions. Since 2011, Nismo has produced the GT-R GT3, which has competed in the Blancpain Endurance Series. Nismo has also developed production class Nissan GT-R cars for the 24 Hours of Nürburgring.

They also have a pool of drivers, known as the Nismo Global Driver Exchange. This allows factory drivers the chance to race in big events such as the Le Mans 24 Hours, the 24 Hours of Dubai and the Bathurst 12 Hour.

Prototype racing
Nissan's first LMP1 Hybrid which was unsuccessful and caused Nissan and Nismo to withdraw Le Mans entirely.

From 2011 to 2016, Nissan was involved in the FIA World Endurance Championship and European Le Mans Series as a LMP2 engine supplier. They have had success with Greaves Motorsport, Signature Team, OAK Racing, TDS Racing, G-Drive Racing and SMP Racing. In 2017, Nissan entered the DPi class of the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship with Extreme Speed Motorsports.

Nissan announced in June 2014, that Nismo will enter the LMP1 category to fight for the FIA World Endurance Championship against Audi, Toyota and Porsche. Following a disappointing performance in the 2015 24 Hours of Le Mans, the program's remaining schedule in 2015 was pushed back, with the team intending a regular rebut in the 2016 season; however on 22 December 2015, Nissan announced that it was shuttering the program altogether.

Formula E
In the inaugural season of Formula E, DAMS (as e.dams) partnered with sister company Renault to form Team e.dams Renault, where they became the first Formula E Team's Champion. At the end of the 2017-18 season, Renault decided to focus on Formula One with Nissan taking over Renault's place in the partnership with e.dams to form Nissan e.dams for the 2018-19 season. In April 2022, Nissan announced the acquisition of the e.dams race team and entered the 2022-23 season as Nissan Formula E Team.

GT500

 * Nismo
 * Nismo NDDP
 * Team Impul
 * Kondo Racing

GT300

 * HELM Motorsports
 * Kondo Racing
 * NILZZ Racing
 * Tomei Sports
 * GAINER

FIA Formula E

 * Nissan Formula E Team

Current factory drivers
• 🇯🇵 Katsumasa Chiyo

• 🇯🇵 Tsugio Matsuda

• 🇮🇹 Ronnie Quintarelli

• 🇯🇵 Ryuichiro Tomita

• 🇯🇵 Masataka Yanagida

• 🇯🇵 Mitsunori Takaboshi

• 🇯🇵 Kohei Hirate

• 🇯🇵 Keishi Ishikawa

• 🇧🇪 Bertrand Baguette

• 🇯🇵 Daiki Sasaki

Formula E
(key) (results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
 * Notes
 * $G$ – Driver was fastest in group qualifying stage and was given one championship point.
 * † – Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
 * * – Season still in progress.

World Endurance Championship
(Races in bold indicate pole position; races in italics indicate fastest lap)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nismo


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Renville County

Renville County may be:

 * Renville County, Minnesota
 * Renville County, North Dakota

title: Renville County


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List of municipalities in Ohio

Ohio is a state located in the Midwestern United States. Cities in Ohio are municipalities whose population is no less than 5,000; smaller municipalities are called villages. Nonresident college students and incarcerated inmates do not count towards the city requirement of 5,000 residents. There are currently 253 cities and 673 villages in Ohio, for a total of 926 municipalities.

Municipality names are not unique: there is a village of Centerville in Gallia County and a city of Centerville in Montgomery County; there is also a city of Oakwood in Montgomery County as well as the villages of Oakwood in Cuyahoga County and Oakwood in Paulding County. Bay Village and The Village of Indian Hill are cities despite the word "Village" in their names, and 16 villages have "City" in their names.

The most populous city by population is Columbus with 905,748 residents.

Municipalities
†

‡

title: List of municipalities in Ohio


text: Template:Municipalities of Åland

title: Template:Municipalities of Åland


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Curse of the Billy Goat

The Curse of the Billy Goat was a sports curse that was supposedly placed on the Chicago Cubs Major League Baseball (MLB) franchise in 1945, by Billy Goat Tavern owner William Sianis. The curse lasted 71 years, from 1945 to 2016. During Game 4 of the 1945 World Series at Wrigley Field, Sianis's pet goat, named Murphy, was bothering other fans, and so the pair were asked to leave the stadium. Outraged, Sianis allegedly declared, "Them Cubs, they ain't gonna win no more", which had been interpreted to mean that the Cubs would never win another National League (NL) pennant, at least for the remainder of Sianis's life.

The Cubs lost the 1945 World Series to the Detroit Tigers, and did not win a pennant or World Series championship again until 2016. The Cubs had last won the World Series in 1908. After the incident with Sianis and Murphy, the Cubs did not play in the World Series for the next 71 years until, on the 46th anniversary of William Sianis's death, the "curse" was broken when they defeated the Los Angeles Dodgers 5–0 in Game 6 of the 2016 National League Championship Series to win the NL pennant. The Cubs then defeated the American League (AL) champion Cleveland Indians 8–7 in 10 innings in Game 7 to win the World Series, 108 years after their last win.

Origins of the curse
The exact nature of Sianis's curse differs in various accounts of the incident. Some state that he declared that no World Series games would ever again be played at Wrigley Field, while others believe that his ban was on the Cubs appearing in the World Series, making no mention of a specific venue. Sianis's family claims that he dispatched a telegram to team owner Philip K. Wrigley that read, “You are going to lose this World Series and you are never going to win another World Series again. You are never going to win a World Series again because you insulted my goat.”

Whatever the truth, the Cubs were up two games to one in the 1945 World Series, but ended up losing Game 4, as well as the best-of-seven series, four games to three. The curse was immortalized in newspaper columns over the years, particularly by syndicated columnist Mike Royko. The curse gained widespread attention during the 2003 postseason, when Fox television commentators played it up during the Cubs-Marlins matchup in the National League Championship Series (NLCS). According to an account in the Chicago Sun of October 7, 1945, the goat was turned away at the gate, and Sianis left the goat tied to a stake in a parking lot and went into the game alone. There was mention of a lawsuit, but no mention of a curse.

Between their 1908 triumph, which was the Cubs' second world championship (they'd also won the Series in 1907 to become baseball's first back-to-back winners as well as the first franchise to appear in three consecutive World Series), and 1945, the first year of the alleged Billy Goat Curse, the Cubs won the National League pennant six times but failed to win the Series: in 1910, in 1918 (won by the Boston Red Sox who themselves would soon become victims of an alleged baseball curse and not win another Series for 86 years), in 1929, in 1932 (known for Babe Ruth's called shot at Wrigley Field), in 1935 (a rematch of the 1908 series against the Detroit Tigers, with the Tigers winning this time, their first Series triumph in five appearances dating back to the early 1900s), and in 1938.

Alleged curse incidents
In the years that followed the alleged curse, the following incidents have been attributed to it:
 * On September 9, 1969, at Shea Stadium, the Cubs played the New York Mets in a critical pennant race game. A stray black cat walked between Cubs captain Ron Santo, who was on deck, and the Cubs dugout. The Mets would pull ahead of the Cubs in that series and eventually win both the newly formed NL East and the 1969 World Series.
 * In 1984, the Cubs’ first postseason appearance since 1945 was dashed by the San Diego Padres in the National League Championship Series. The Cubs were victorious in the first two games of the best-of-five series. However, in Game Five, first baseman Leon Durham let a ground ball get past his allegedly wet glove in the bottom of the seventh inning. The Padres went on to score four runs to win the game and the series.
 * Bill Buckner played for the Chicago Cubs for seven seasons before being traded to the Boston Red Sox halfway through the 1984 season. The Red Sox were at the time also considered a cursed franchise, and had not won a World Series since 1918 – when, coincidentally, they had beaten the Cubs. Buckner and the Red Sox advanced to the 1986 World Series against the New York Mets, and took a 3–2 series lead coming into Game 6. On October 25, 1986, in one of the most famous baseball errors of all time, Buckner allowed a ball to pass between his legs at first base, allowing the Mets to score the winning run in the 10th inning and win Game 6. Later analysis of a photograph of Buckner walking off the field after his blooper showed that he had been wearing a Cubs batting glove under his glove at the moment he committed his error.
 * In 1989, the Cubs won 93 games and faced the San Francisco Giants in the NLCS, now a best-of-seven series. After splitting the first two games at home, the Cubs headed to the Bay Area, where despite holding a lead at some point in each of the next three games, bullpen meltdowns and managerial blunders ultimately led to three straight losses.
 * In 1998, behind NL MVP Sammy Sosa, the Cubs won the Wild Card after winning a tiebreaker game versus the Giants. However, they were swept in the National League Division Series by the Atlanta Braves.
 * In 2001, the Cubs led the wild card race by 2.5 games in early September, but a three-run walk-off homer by Preston Wilson halted the team's momentum. The team ended up finishing 88–74, five games behind both the Houston Astros and St. Louis Cardinals, who tied for first.
 * In 2003, the Cubs won the NL Central and beat the Atlanta Braves in the NLDS for their first postseason win since 1908. Advancing to the NLCS to face the Florida Marlins, the Cubs held a three games to two lead in the best of seven series heading into Game 6. In the eighth inning of Game 6, with Chicago ahead 3–0, several spectators attempted to catch a foul ball off the bat of Marlins second baseman Luis Castillo. One of the fans, Steve Bartman, reached for the ball, deflecting it and disrupting a potential catch by Cubs outfielder Moisés Alou. If Alou had caught the ball, it would have been the second out in the inning and the Cubs would have been just four outs away from winning their first National League pennant since 1945. Instead, the Cubs ended up surrendering eight runs in the inning and losing the game, 8–3. When they were eliminated in the seventh game the next night, the incident was seen as the "first domino" in the turning point of the series.
 * In 2004, the Cubs were picked by many media outlets as a favorite to win the World Series. However, the team struggled with injuries and inconsistent play for most of the year. Nevertheless, by late September, the Cubs were leading the Wild Card race by 1.5 games over the San Francisco Giants and the Houston Astros, but in their game on September 25, they collapsed in extra innings and they proceeded to drop six of the last eight games as the Astros won the Wild Card.
 * The Cubs won their division in both 2007 and 2008, but were swept in the NLDS both years by the Arizona Diamondbacks and Los Angeles Dodgers respectively. Between the 1984 NLCS, the 1989 NLCS, the 2007 NLDS, the 2008 NLDS, the Cubs did not win a postseason game on the road in a West coast city.
 * In 2015, the Cubs finished second in the National League Wild Card race and defeated the Pittsburgh Pirates in the Wild Card Game and the St. Louis Cardinals in the NLDS to advance to the NLCS against the New York Mets. However, the Cubs batted an NLCS record low of .164 and lost the series in a 4-game sweep and never had a lead at all during the series. Sianis's goat was named Murphy. This was referenced by fans of the New York Mets, who joked that Daniel Murphy, the Mets second baseman and series MVP, was "not the first GOAT (Greatest of All Time, in reference to Murphy's postseason heroics to that point) named Murphy to keep the Cubs out of the World Series".

Attempts to break the curse
Before his death on October 22, 1970, William Sianis himself attempted to lift the curse. Sam Sianis, his nephew, has gone to Wrigley Field with a goat multiple times in attempts to break the curse, including on Opening Day in 1984 and again in 1989, both years in which the Cubs went on to win their division. In 1994, Sam Sianis went again, with a goat, to stop a home losing streak, and in 1998 for the Wild Card tie-breaker game, which the Cubs won.

In 2003 (the Chinese zodiac's Year of the Goat), a group of Cubs fans headed to Houston with a billy goat named "Virgil Homer" and attempted to gain entrance to Minute Maid Park, home of the Astros, division rivals of the Cubs at the time. After they were denied entrance, they unfurled a scroll, read a verse and proclaimed they were "reversing the curse". The Cubs won the division that year and then came within five outs of playing in the World Series, but were undone by the Florida Marlins' eight-run rally immediately following the Steve Bartman incident. The Cubs then lost the following game and with it the series. (The Marlins went on to win the World Series against the New York Yankees.) Further salting the wound, the Astros earned their first World Series berth two years later and their crosstown rival the Chicago White Sox won the series.

On February 26, 2004, at the Harry Caray Restaurant in downtown Chicago, the Bartman baseball was electrocuted in an attempt to break the curse, leaving nothing but a heap of string behind.

In another bizarre twist, it was reported that a butchered goat was hung from the Harry Caray statue on October 3, 2007, to which The Chicago Sun-Times noted: "If the prankster intended to reverse the supposed billy goat curse with the stunt, it doesn't appear to have worked." While the Cubs did win the NL Central division title in 2007 and 2008, they were swept in the first round of the postseason in both years: by the Arizona Diamondbacks in 2007 and the Los Angeles Dodgers in 2008. The elimination by Arizona came on October 6, the same date that the goat appeared at Wrigley Field in 1945. The act was repeated before the home opener in 2009; this time a goat's butchered head was hung from the statue. The act was futile as the Cubs were eliminated from postseason contention on September 26, 2009.

In 2008, a Greek Orthodox priest sought to end the curse during the 2008 playoffs with a spraying of holy water in and around the Cubs dugout to no avail.

On April 1, 2011, a social enterprise called Reverse The Curse, dedicated to bringing innovations to poverty by giving goats to families in developing countries, was initiated. The goats provide the families with milk, cheese, and alternative income to help lift them out of poverty. Reverse The Curse has expanded into reversing the "curses" that afflict the world's children in education and obesity.

On February 25, 2012, a group of five Chicago Cubs fans calling themselves Crack the Curse set out on foot from Mesa, Arizona (home to the Cubs' spring training facilities) to Wrigley Field. They brought along a goat named Wrigley who they believed would be able to break the Curse of the Billy Goat upon arrival at Wrigley Field. Additionally, they attempted to raise $100,000 for the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center.

On April 10, 2013, a severed goat's head was delivered to the Cubs in a possible effort to lift the curse on the team. It was addressed to Cubs owner Thomas S. Ricketts.

On September 22, 2015, Patrick Bertoletti, Tim Brown, Takeru Kobayashi, Kevin Strahle and Bob Shoudt consumed a 40-pound goat in 13 minutes and 22 seconds at Taco in a Bag restaurant in Chicago.

Former Cubs who won a World Series title elsewhere
Another factor that may have played a role in the curse was the number of players (44 of them are listed below) who won World Series titles after leaving the Cubs. (This is known as the Ex-Cubs Factor). These players include Andy Pafko (who, coincidentally, played in the 1945 World Series as a member of the Cubs), Gene Baker, Smoky Burgess, Don Hoak, Dale Long, Lou Brock (whose first title was in after a mid-season trade to the St. Louis Cardinals), Barney Schultz, Lou Johnson, Jim Brewer, Moe Drabowsky, Don Cardwell, Ken Holtzman, Billy North, Fred Norman, Bill Madlock, Manny Trillo, Greg Gross, Rick Monday, Burt Hooton, Bruce Sutter, Willie Hernández, Milt Wilcox, Joe Niekro, Dennis Eckersley (he made three consecutive World Series with Oakland, winning the middle bid in 1989), Billy Hatcher, Joe Carter, Greg Maddux, Dwight Smith, Joe Girardi (as both a player and a manager), José Vizcaíno, Glenallen Hill (after his second stint with the Cubs; his title came in  after a mid-season trade), Luis Gonzalez (who hit the walk-off bloop single that won Arizona the World Series in 2001), Mike Morgan, Mark Grace, Mark Bellhorn, Bill Mueller (drove in speedy pinch runner Dave Roberts to spark Boston's epic comeback in the 2004 ALCS), Scott Eyre (whose title came in  after he had been traded from the Cubs during the season), Tom Gordon, Matt Stairs, Jamie Moyer, Jerry Hairston Jr., Mark DeRosa, Mike Fontenot, Ryan Theriot, Ángel Pagán, and, in 2013, Ryan Dempster. Dontrelle Willis and Jon Garland were traded as minor leaguers (coincidentally, Willis won a World Series ring with the Marlins team that defeated the Cubs in the 2003 NLCS). Tim Lincecum, who went on to win three World Series titles, was originally drafted by the Cubs, but he did not sign with them.

End of the curse

The Cubs ended the 2016 season with a (.630) record. It was their first 100-win season since 1935 (, .640), their best since 1910 (, .670), and the sixth 100-win season in franchise history.

The Cubs won the National League Championship Series (NLCS), their first pennant in 71 years, with a 5–0 shutout in Game 6 against the Los Angeles Dodgers at Wrigley Field on October 22, 2016; the "curse" was broken on the 46th anniversary of Billy Sianis's death.

The Cubs beat the Cleveland Indians in the 2016 World Series in seven games after trailing in the series 3 games to 1. They won Game 7 by a score of 8–7 in 10 innings at Progressive Field in Cleveland, Ohio, ending their 108-year drought.

In popular culture
The 1989 film Back to the Future Part II depicts the Cubs defeating the Miami Gators, a fictional baseball team, in the 2015 World Series, which ended the longest drought in all four of the North American professional sports leagues. In reality, however, the Cubs were eliminated from the playoffs by the Mets on October 21, 2015. When the Cubs won the World Series the following year, the Back to the Future Twitter account tweeted that the prediction was one year off due to the 1994–95 Major League Baseball strike.

title: Curse of the Billy Goat


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Rage (King novel)

Rage (written as Getting It On) is a psychological thriller novel by American writer Stephen King, the first he published under the pseudonym Richard Bachman. It was published in 1977 and was collected in the 1985 hardcover omnibus The Bachman Books. The novel describes a school shooting, and has been associated with actual high school shooting incidents in the 1980s and 1990s. In response, King allowed the novel to fall out of print. In 2013, King published the anti-firearms violence essay "Guns".

Summary
Charlie Decker, a Maine high school senior, is called to a meeting with his principal about a previous incident in which he struck his chemistry teacher with a pipe wrench, leading to the teacher's hospitalization and Charlie's suspension. Charlie then subjects the principal to a series of insulting remarks, resulting in his expulsion. Charlie storms out of the office and retrieves a pistol from his locker, then sets the contents of his locker on fire. He then returns to his classroom and fatally shoots his algebra teacher, Miss Jean Underwood. The fire triggers an alarm, but Charlie forces his classmates to stay in the room, killing a history teacher, Mr. Peter Vance, when he attempts to enter. As the other students and teachers evacuate the school, the police and media arrive at the scene.

Over the following four hours, Charlie toys with the authority figures who attempt to negotiate with him, including the principal, the school psychologist, and the local police chief. Charlie gives them certain commands, threatening to kill students if they do not comply. Charlie admits to his hostages that he does not know what has compelled him to commit his deeds, believing he will regret them when the standoff is over. As his fellow students start identifying with Charlie, he unwittingly turns the class into a sort of psychotherapy group, causing his schoolmates to semi-voluntarily tell embarrassing secrets regarding themselves and each other.

Interspersed throughout are flashbacks to Charlie's troubled childhood, particularly his tumultuous relationship with his abusive father Carl. Other incidents include a violent disagreement between two female students and a police sniper's attempt to shoot Charlie through the heart. However, Charlie survives due to having earlier put the combination lock from his locker into the breast pocket of his shirt, where it stops the bullet.

Charlie finally realizes that only one student is really being held against his will: a seeming "Big Man On Campus" named Ted Jones, who is harboring his own secrets. Ted also realizes this and attempts to escape the classroom, but the other students brutally assault him, driving him into a battered catatonic state. At 1:00 p.m., Charlie releases the students, but Ted is unable to move under his own power and remains. When the police chief enters the classroom, the now-unarmed Charlie feigns shooting him, attempting suicide by cop. The chief shoots Charlie, but he survives and is later found not guilty by reason of insanity and committed to a psychiatric hospital in Augusta, Maine until he can answer for his actions.

The final chapters contain an inter-office memo concerning Ted's treatment and prognosis at the hospital where he is now a patient, and a letter from one of Charlie's friends describing developments in the students' lives during the months following this incident. The story ends with Charlie addressing the reader: "That's the end. I have to turn off the light now. Good night."

Connections to actual school shootings
The plot of Rage vaguely resembles actual high school shootings and incidents of hostage-taking that have transpired since its publication. As a result, King became uncomfortable with the idea of having it remain in print, for fear that it might inspire further such occurrences ("[Rage is] now out of print, and a good thing"). The novel has been associated with several events:

 * Jeffrey Lyne Cox, a senior at San Gabriel High School in San Gabriel, California, took a semi-automatic rifle to school on April 26, 1988, and held a humanities class of about 60 students hostage for over 30 minutes. Cox held the gun to one student when the teacher doubted Cox would cause harm and stated that he would prove it to her. At that time three students escaped out a rear door and were fired upon. Cox was later tackled and disarmed by another student. A friend of Cox told the press that Cox had been inspired by the Kuwait Airways Flight 422 hijacking and by the novel Rage, which Cox had read over and over again and with which he strongly identified.
 * Dustin L. Pierce, a senior at Jackson County High School in McKee, Kentucky, armed himself with a shotgun and two handguns and took a history classroom hostage in a nine-hour standoff with police on September 18, 1989, that ended without injury. Police found a copy of Rage among the possessions in Pierce's bedroom, leading to speculation that he had been inspired by the novel.
 * On September 11, 1991, Ryan R Harris walked into a math class at Stevens High School in Rapid City, South Dakota, pulled out a sawed-off shotgun, and ordered the teacher to leave. The teacher complied and Harris held the rest of the class hostage for the next four hours. Harris had been inspired by Stephen King's novella Rage. Harris demanded pizza and cigarettes, which were delivered, and $1 million and a helicopter, which were not. He fired a total of 10 shots in the room, at objects such as the overhead projector and intercom. No students or faculty were injured or killed. Upon receiving the cigarettes he had demanded, Harris set down his shotgun to pull out a lighter and light his cigarette. In this moment 17-year-old senior Chris Ericks picked up the shotgun and police swarmed in bringing the stand off to an end.
 * On January 18, 1993, Scott Pennington, a student at East Carter High School in Grayson, Kentucky, took a .38-caliber revolver that was owned by his father and fatally shot his English teacher Deanna McDavid in the head, during her seventh-period class. He subsequently shot and killed the school's custodian Marvin Hicks and held the class hostage for 20 minutes before releasing them. Just before the shooting, he had written an essay on Rage and was upset that McDavid had given it a C grade.
 * In December 1997, Michael Carneal shot eight fellow students, three of them fatally, at a prayer meeting at Heath High School in West Paducah, Kentucky. He had a copy of Rage in his locker as part of the Richard Bachman omnibus. This was the incident that moved King to allow the book to go out of print.
 * One school shooting was compared to Rage due to inaccurate reporting. Barry Loukaitis, a student at Frontier Middle School in Moses Lake, Washington, walked from his house to the school on February 2, 1996, and entered his algebra classroom during fifth period. He opened fire on students, killing two and wounding another. He then fatally shot his algebra teacher Leona Caires in the chest. As his classmates' shock turned to panic, Loukaitis reportedly said, "This sure beats algebra, doesn't it?"—a line erroneously reported to be from Rage. (No such line appears in King's story. The closest is when Charlie Decker quips, "This sure beats panty raids.") However, subsequently, Stephen King in his essay "Guns" wrote that it was a quote from the novel. Upon hearing the gunshots, gym coach Jon Lane entered the classroom. Loukaitis was holding his classmates hostage and planned to keep one hostage to safely exit the school. Lane volunteered to be the hostage, and Loukaitis kept Lane at gunpoint with his rifle. Lane grabbed the weapon from Loukaitis, wrestled him to the ground, and then assisted the evacuation of students.

End of publication
When King decided to let Rage fall out of print in the United States, it remained available only as part of The Bachman Books. In contrast, the other novels that appeared in that compilation—The Long Walk, Roadwork, and The Running Man—are available separately in the US. Rage remained available in the United Kingdom and other countries in The Bachman Books for a time, but later appeared to become unavailable. New editions of The Bachman Books do not include Rage. In a footnote to the preface of the novel Blaze, dated January 30, 2007, King wrote of Rage: "Now out of print, and a good thing."

King said, in his keynote address at the VEMA Annual Meeting on May 26, 1999: "The Carneal incident was enough for me. I asked my publisher to take the damned thing out of print. They concurred." King went on to describe his view on this subject, which acknowledged the role that cultural or artistic products such as Rage play in influencing individuals, particularly troubled youths, while also declaring that artists and writers should not be denied the aesthetic opportunity to draw upon their own culture—which is suffused with violence, according to King—in their work. King went on to describe his inspiration for stories such as Rage, which drew heavily upon his own frustrations and pains as a high school student.

In an article on the ominous writings of Virginia Tech shooter Seung-Hui Cho for Entertainment Weekly, King said: "Certainly in this sensitized day and age, my own college writing—including a short story called 'Cain Rose Up' and the novel Rage—would have raised red flags, and I'm certain someone would have tabbed me as mentally ill because of them..." After the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, he elaborated in a non-fiction essay, titled "Guns" (2013), on why he let Rage go out of print. King's website states: "All profits from 'Guns' will benefit the Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence."

title: Rage (King novel)


text: User talk:192.91.75.29

title: User talk:192.91.75.29


text:
Talk:Dakar Rally

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 25 January 2021 and 14 May 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): JamesHuynh0304.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 18:59, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

not a fact
"Many other African non-participants are said to have been killed because of the Dakar rally, but unlike the participants, no official figures are available and the names of the victims are usually not given" "are said" is not a fact and, therefore, it shouldn't be in an Encyclopedia. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.45.73.175 (talk) 10:05, 26 June 2010 (UTC)

deaths
Why are there no subnotes of all the African deaths attributed to this race? I was in Mali a few years back and met a mother whose 7-year-old was killed by a rally driver speeding through their village.

 * I added a note about this year's deaths, but I can't immediately find any more on previous deaths. I've read that the civilian death toll is somewhere between 30-40 for the history of the race.  --Dewet 08:27, 26 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * If there is going to be a separate section on deaths, it needs to be more complete. I would prefer to NOT list individual deaths unless we can get all or most of them. Benthatsme 12:47, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

Some years have individual pages. I just updated details of the death of a rider in the 2007 race on the page for that year. Perhaps just linking to each year for the details of the death? Benthatsme 12:47, 30 June 2007 (UTC)

I for one really don't care about the winners. The list of winners here took a lot of work, does anyone really need it and would it be in a standard encyclopedia? But I don't even care about the winners when I'm watching the race; I'd like to see more coverage of the privateers and the support crews that scraped together all they had to make it out there. --justfred

 * Yeah, I also feel that the work is maybe unnecessary. I think that winners are the trivia that history will forget, but I guess there are a lot of people who are interested in exactly that. Dewet 20:49, 11 May 2005 (UTC)

Several deaths are missing from the 1986 race including the other occupants of the helicopter and at least one participant -- Anon. User, 23 December 2006

hellloooo
the race is open to amatures, so its not just proffesional--GregLoutsenko 14:16, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

small error
I'm not sure but there seems to be an internal contradiction. It says the last race from Paris to Dakar was organized in 1994, but there was a race in 2001 going from Paris to Dakar as is stated just above the apparently erroneous assertion that the route was last run in 1994.

The Dakar Rally
Since the rally is no longer called the "Paris Dakar Rally," perhaps the article should be changed to reflect this? 203.132.66.72 05:15, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

Incidents and statistics
A number of news sources suggest that Andy Caldecott's death was the 23rd in the rally's history

 * CNN says Meoni's death made 22 deaths in total
 * Sydney Morning Herald says Caldecott was 23rd competitor death

Yet the current Wikipedia article talks about Meoni's death being the 45th

OZ_Rhett 02:02, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

 * I suppose implying not all deaths attributed to the rally consist of those competing. ozzmosis 18:50, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

Winners
Missing one stage and already the Dakar have a winner? strange...

DiogoMartins 23:05, 14 January 2006 (UTC)

Notable participants?
Perhaps a short list of notable participants should be included. Loads of significant racers have run it over the years without winning...

How do you enter the rally
Can someone update me on how to enter the race? I would love to participate, but I do not know where to turn.
 * Try looking at the website.. --^pirate 16:10, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

Thanks. This should be my first step and I have never thought of it. Norum 20.Jan.2007

Good Article nomination has failed
The Good article nomination for has failed
 * The article fails to meet most of the criteria for a good article. Bugmuncher 05:07, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

A good article has the following attributes.

1. It is well written. In this respect:
 * (a) it has compelling prose, and is readily comprehensible to non-specialist readers;
 * FAIL - the prose could use a little work. "Sabine...decided this would be a good location" seems awkward. Sentences should be complete. Specific nouns should replace nonspecific ones. "manufacturers represented" might be better than "examples" in Vehicles and classes section, for example. The incidents section doesn't read well; the Mark Thatcher topic sentence could be tweaked, and it's not clear how a participant in a road rally can die in a helicopter crash if helicopters aren't a class of vehicle allowed to race. Racers are described as being "KTM motorcyclists", etc. but the article doesn't clarify whether each entrant is affiliated somehow with the manufacturer, or whether it just means that's what they drive.

 * (b) it follows a logical structure, introducing the topic and then grouping together its coverage of related aspects; where appropriate, it contains a succinct lead section summarising the topic, and the remaining text is organised into a system of hierarchical sections (particularly for longer articles);
 * FAIL - the lead does not cover the scope of the article. It should probably describe where the race is held, too. The section about vehicles and classes could have a paragraph for each class, but facts about cars appear in the car paragraph and the motorcycle paragraph. The sponsors section is too short, and could easily be replaced by a sentence. It's also not clear whether these are the only soponors ever, or if they're the only current ones.
 * (c) it follows the Wikipedia Manual of Style;
 * FAIL - List of winners section name could be just "winners". Punctuation is inconsistent. See also the part on pronunciation.
 * (d) necessary technical terms or jargon are briefly explained in the article itself, or an active link is provided.
 * FAIL - Terms like "T4" should be explained.

2. It is factually accurate and verifiable. In this respect:
 * (a) it provides references to any and all sources used for its material;
 * FAIL - only the section on criticism appeaars to be referenced.
 * (b) the citation of its sources is essential, and the use of inline citations is desirable, although not mandatory;
 * FAIL Only the section on criticism uses citations.
 * (c) sources should be selected in accordance with the guidelines for reliable sources;
 * PASS= all sources are mainstream news outlets.
 * (d) it contains no elements of original research.
 * FAIL - The only way to demonstrate that you are not doing original research is to cite reliable sources...

3. It is broad in its coverage, addressing all major aspects of the topic (this requirement is slightly weaker than the "comprehensiveness" required by WP:FAC, and allows shorter articles and broad overviews of large topics to be listed);.
 * PASS - I think I understand this topic now after reading about it.

4. It follows the neutral point of view policy. In this respect:
 * (a) viewpoints are represented fairly and without bias;
 * FAIL there is detectable bias in the article, especially in the part about the commentator and TV coverage. But to the article's credit, criticisms section is well-sourced.
 * (b) all significant points of view are fairly presented, but not asserted, particularly where there are or have been conflicting views on the topic.
 * FAIL - opinions are asserted in the article.

5. It is stable, i.e., it does not change significantly from day to day and is not the subject of ongoing edit wars.
 * I did not check this criterion because there are so many other reasons to fail the GA nomination.

6. It contains images, where possible, to illustrate the topic. In this respect:
 * (a) the images are tagged and have succinct and descriptive captions;
 * FAIL Captions should be one or more complete sentences. the selection of pictures is good.
 * (b) a lack of images does not in itself prevent an article from achieving Good Article status.

Thanks, and I hope you find these observations useful, Bugmuncher 05:07, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

Sponsors section delete
Is sponsors section really needed? Sponsors are changing every year, i would prefer to delete section then endless list of annual sponsors. Some comments? --Jklamo 15:32, 3 September 2006 (UTC)

Draw me a map
Can somebody find & add, or link, historic route maps? Also, is there a reliable list of finishers? I've seen nothing that includes full names, nationality, & team. Trekphiler 23:11, 20 November 2006 (UTC)

Routes distance?
What is the average total distance for each historical route, in km? Something like this should be listed. —pfahlstrom 22:30, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

All stage winners
I have all the stage winners for the Dakar Rally since 1979 to present. With their full names and nationality and makes. —Andreasu 12:40, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * It would be great if you could create yearly articles similar to 2007 Dakar Rally and put the results into each article. Gasheadsteve 08:02, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

 * Certainly probably will give that a go, however I will go through the stats over and over in case I find some data error. I also have good connection with the Autosport Magazine who I also do historic stats for them, mainly in Formula 1 and Nascar. —Andreasu 21:02, 31 January 2007 (UTC)

Seems overly negative
Nearly half the text is about negative 'incidents' and 'deaths' of (both racers and spectators). The Dakar Rallye is much much more. This should be shortened to one simple paragraph. 26 racers have died, but that doesnt mean we need to dwell on it. Over 200 have died scaling Everest. Dozens have died at the Baja 1000--yet neither would get so much negative attention. The comments by the pope, the far left in France, are not worth mentioning. The fact is more people fallow the Dakar Rally than the Tour de France. More watch this event than the French Open. It is the largest sporting event in January, and one of the top 10 in the world. (www.dakar.com)It is an inspiration to hundreds of millions in 180 countries who marvel at the racers and the scenery. There are numerous educational and development projects financed by the events promoter (ASO) each year. There are litterally dozens of fundraising campaigns done by the individual racers each year--everything from breast cancer awareness to orphanages are helped by this event. There is also the incredible media attention focused on the remote regions of the sahara and the sahel during the event. Putting pictures of that rarely visited part of the world into the psyche of 500 million or more TV viewers is a great service to humanity.

While there is no time for racers to stop in villages and buy things--a very large amount of the food and other supplies for the rally is sourced locally. (www.dakar.com) This is a huge boon the local economies. Hotels, gas stations, government services and tourist facilities along the route, both in europe and africa do significant business during the rally. Portugal alone sees over 300,000 tourists out on the race course. (www.dakar.com) Tourism to the Sahel region is certainly growing and this event more than anything else brings in tourists from Europe, both during and long after the rally is over. So perhaps a bit less dwelling on the negative and a bit more on the positive would go a long way to fairly presenting the Dakar Rally on Wikipedia.--Ekim Yak (talk) 23:52, 2 January 2008 (UTC)

From Russia with sand.
The 1983 entry lists the winner as Mercedes. If I remember correctly the actual winner was the french Lada Niva team. The Mercedes, which arrived first at the finish line, was disqualified for replacing the broken engine block during the race (such major components were not allowed to be replaced back then). In fact they actually arranged for a NATO cargo plane to land in the desert overnight and bring a whole new replacement engine direct from Germany, such was the fear of shame if a communist-made car won the Dakar. 82.131.210.162 (talk) 09:06, 10 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, even the Russin wikipedia page lists Mercedes. Please provide some references.`'Míkka>t 21:41, 10 January 2008 (UTC)

Missing people

 * was the 11th motorcyclist and the 45th competitor overall to die in the history of the race.

This is mentioned in 2003. But quite clearly the number of people listed before then doesn't come close. Where these incidents particularly notable, the people particularly notable, are we lacking sources or it just adhoc who we mention? Nil Einne (talk) 17:12, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Television Coverage
I deleted most of the Television Coverage section on the grounds that most of it just read as pure advertising "In Australia, the Dakar is covered by Fox Sports, with daily morning and afternoon recaps of the recent day's action." What remains is quite sufficient. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.179.134.81 (talk) 22:57, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

INFOBOX
I think that this major Rally race need a INFOBOX (like other many sport infoboxes e.g. Template:Infobox Cycling race report, and many others...) (Who wants to create one?? Template:Infobox Dakar Rally —TouLouse (talk) 17:43, 16 January 2009 (UTC)

Map
Since the Dakar has now moved to South America, perhaps it would be appropriate to update the map? bobrayner (talk) 18:16, 6 January 2012 (UTC)
 * It is impossible to add South America to the Africa map. But feel free to create map for South America and add it to the article. --Jklamo (talk) 23:27, 6 January 2012 (UTC)

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more info
It would be beneficial to add to the list of winners
 * columns for number of crews entered (finished) for cars, motorcycles and trucks separately
 * column for number of stages
 * column for total length in km or miles 213.149.62.224 (talk) 14:23, 23 January 2019 (UTC)

Mistake at the map
There is a mistake at the African map. The race never held in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire in 1992). In 1992 after the finish of the stage 15 in Pointe Noire (Republic of the Congo) the rally goes to the start of the stage 16 in Lobito (Angola) by ships. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.72.102.4 (talk) 01:15, 2 December 2019 (UTC)

Nazca Lines
Nothing about the damage to the Nazca Lines? 2602:306:C539:2000:15FF:E658:B9DB:D243 (talk) 01:53, 11 March 2021 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dakar Rally


text:
Caspar Peucer

Caspar Peucer (, ; January 6, 1525 – September 25, 1602) was a German reformer, physician, and scholar of Sorbian origin.

Early life
Caspar Peucer was born on January 6, 1525, in Bautzen, (Sachsen, Germany) and died on September 25, 1602, in Dessau, (Sachsen-Anhalt, Germany). He was the child of Gregor Peucer, a known craftsman, and Ottilie Simon. Peucer's father, Gregor, was trusted with certain tasks from the Bautzen elite regarding the city quarters between the town council and burghers. The Bautzen elite was an interconnected family with relational ties, this indicates that Peucer himself was also related to Gregorius Mattig, who was a highly respected humanist and intellectual during this time. Mattig himself, was a director of Upper Lusatia representing the Estate town during their uprising in the early 15th century. Peucer's education began in his hometown of Sachsen where he began studying at a local Protestant grammar school. This education system was excelling under the Joachim Knemiander administration, originating from the Upper Lusatian town which, is now present day Poland.

Middle life
After some time Peucer was later sent to a Latin school (named 'Trotzendorf') of Valentin Friedland. It was here he learned more regarding the new and developing Lutheran education, here he met other students who were interested in the same ideologies. Not too long after Peucer was at Trotzendorf, he was recommended to attend the University of Saxon Wittenberg. Wittenberg was a university where many Lutherans enrolled, this was also the place that the main disputes of the Reformation occurred. Then, Peucer enrolled in the University of Wittenberg in March 1543, after he finished his undergraduate he went on to graduate with his masters in September 1545. After graduation Peucer quickly became a professor at the University of Wittenberg, replacing Erasmus Reinhold following his death in 1553. Peucer began as a lower math professor in 1550 then, worked his way up to higher mathematics in 1554. While working as a professor at Wittenberg, Peucer taught alongside notable other mathematicians of the time and graduates of Wittenberg such as Erasmus Reinhold and Michael Maestlin. In his time at Wittenberg, Peucer was also one of the main promoters, along with Philipp Melanchthon, of the astrological department/program. After, he accepted the name of the rector of the Leucorea. In this time he continued going to school to ultimately gain his title as a doctor of medicine in 1560. It was during this time that Peucer began thinking more critically about his astrology views. He believed astrology was not only a practical art but an essential part of natural philosophy. The idea is that astrology fits perfectly into the teleological worldview in which it shows the critical work of God's creation, the stars being a secondary asset. After his research and schooling he later graduated with his master's degree. Peucer went on to marry his first wife, Magdalena, daughter of theologian and humanist Philipp Melanchthon. During their marriage she gave birth to three sons and seven daughters, she later died in 1575.

Later life
Around 1570, Peucer became the doctor to the Elector of Saxony, Augusts, who was a significant figure during the time of the Schmalkaldic war. In the position he became one of August's trusted advisors and acted as the head of the Philipistic. The main goal was to gain followers of the Lutheran church, this quickly created some suspicion that there was a connection with Peucer and Calvinism. Created by John Calvin, a Protestant reformer, Calvinism was an immediately popular religion that quickly spread throughout Europe. It came at the perfect time when religion began expanding, and freedom of searching religion was brought forth. Calvinism was thought to be against the views of astrology; as Peucer was thinking more critically about astrology fitting into a teleological world, this was a stepping stone indicating his views were differing from society. Peucer was soon accused of a Calvinism plot and was captured on April 1, 1574, in Wittenberg; it was there that Peucer's works were searched, and he had to explain his religious and political ties in front of the Dresden Consistory. His accusation stems from his interpretation of the Lord's Supper because strict Lutherans believe that Christ was in the Eucharist. It was the Consistory that charged Peucer with Calvinism and suspected he tried to expand his teaching to Saxony. He pleaded not guilty but, after countless trials, he was found guilty from his own personal writings. This was the start of Peucer's twelve years in prison, it began in the Rochlitz castle, where Magdalena could stay with him. But, later he was moved to Leipzig, where he stayed for the rest of his sentence. At this point, he was unable to teach math, astronomy, or medicine. So, Peucer turned towards writing poetry. It was here that wrote his poem, Idyllium, and his longest poem reflecting on his birthplace in Upper Lusatia. During this time he was waiting for his family to bring forth a petition to get him out of his sentence early, which was granted in 1586. After his release he became the personal doctor to Anhalt princess in Desseau, he died in the capitol on September 25, 1602.

While not as well known as Tycho Brahe, Peucer worked with Brahe in a few instances, including intervening by letter on Brahe's behalf in a dispute between the latter and Christoph Rothman surrounding his invention of the Tychonic system.

Official titles/professions

 * Professor at the University of Wittenberg (1550–1559)
 * Rector of the University of Wittenberg
 * Philosopher
 * Medical doctor (achieved in 1560)
 * Physician to August of Saxony (1570)
 * Astronomer
 * Astrological correspondent

Religious ideology
Caspar Peucer was a practicing Protestant who believed in Divine Providence, this just meant that God is able to and does intervene with nature. The Protestant astrologers of the time held the belief that before the original sin, nature did not deviate from its expected laws. But then after the Fall, God and the devil began to send supernatural messages through nature. This could be seen through medical diagnoses, astrological horoscopes, and meteorology, according to Peucer. As a Christian, Peucer believed in divine intervention, be it by God or the Devil. The ideas of what was considered official divination seemed to differ in opinion from person to person. Peucer upheld that God was the only divine entity with the capability of changing the course or essence of nature. Caspar Peucer extensively recorded how the constellations and meteorological events were signs or warnings of historical events that occurred near the time of the astronomical events.

Divine providence in astrology was in opposition to what many of the Catholics and Orthodox Lutherans believed. They would say that pairing natural signs with historical events or future events does not work with the belief that God gave humankind freewill. The accepted view for science and philosophy was to follow an Aristotilian approach, which includes using empirical evidence and reason to come to conclusions. That is definitely the standard goal for philosophers when coming up with any theories or ideas. Peucer tried to link his ideas of astrology with a strong Aristotelian argument through one of his writings, but it does not seem like he ever really convinced the Catholics of his ideas, and others abandoned the ideas of horoscopes as a science fairly quickly after the height of its popularity. Additionally, Peucer believed in both angles and demons which can be found in some of his astrological ideology. Specifically, Peucer thought that both of these entities could affect and even explain some serious astrological phenomena such as comets in the atmosphere to produce many particular effects that he had no other explanation for. That being said, in his texts, Peucer believed that these event could somewhat predict the future as they were signs that appeared not only to our world, but also the sublunar world. He justified this on the basis that, there would be no point in astrological signs appearing from unknown sources if they did not mean anything.

Peucer's thinking about meteorology was that it had two purposes: a natural one and a divine one. He believed that the energy from the weather caused an effect on human behavior, which he called the "natural efficient cause". He believed that the divine cause, which he called the "final cause" gave warnings or signs. This can be seen in his belief of angels and demons as Peucer thought that these entities, for reasons both good and bad, could be the source of some phenomena such earthquakes. From this, they were able to draw a lot of knowledge about God that corresponds to Protestantism. Ideas such as how God is transcendent and cares enough to intervene in nature. The religious perspective through which meteorology and astrology was looked at was important in gaining acceptance and support for the ideas. There were different levels that meteors were classified by. Because of Peucer's belief that only God can actually go against nature, lesser powers, like the devil, were able to cause rare meteorological events. But, Peucer also recognized that it can be rather unclear to recognize in nature who is causing rare meteorological events as it could be God, the devil, angels, demons, or even just natural causes. It could These rare events were not technically against nature; they held more meaning than everyday normal weather, but were not placed on the same level as miracles.

During this time, science and religion were used in ways that supported each other. Peucer's Christianity pressured him to teach a geocentric model of the universe, which led him to the common and comfortable theory of Ptolemy. In 1543, Copernicus released his model of the universe which was heliocentric, the sun was in the center, but Peucer did not attach to Copernicus' model because the Christians at the time believed the Earth had to be the center of the cosmos.

Religious conflict
There is evidence that there were strict rules regarding the Lord's Supper, any mishandling or deviations from the traditions of taking it were seen as something that could be punishable by law. Peucer's denial of Christ's physical presence in the bread got him in trouble. Because Peucer held such a high power position in education, he was also able to hire chairmen that were not Orthodox Lutherans, they were known as Philippists (followers of Philip Melanchthon).

For about a decade of his life, Peucer was imprisoned and expelled from the University of Wittenberg along with several other teachers who were also expelled (1576-1586). This was mainly on account of secretly being a Calvinist along with a few other theological differences with the elector, August of Saxony. August of Saxony ultimately had the largest hand in Peucer's imprisonment due to his intolerance of Calvinism, which was a Protestant Christian reform led by John Calvin in the 1500s that differed from Catholicism and Lutheranism which were the two dominant religions in Germany at the time. Peucer was finally released from his imprisonment in 1587 after August of Saxony died. That being said, philosophical teachings during the period of Peucer's imprisonment were affected and progress was greatly slowed. The imprisonment resulted in damaged reputation, loss of credibility, and the loss of most of their power at Wittenburg for Peucer and his colleagues.

Works (incomplete)

He wrote on mathematics, astronomy, geometry, and medicine, and edited some of Melanchthon's letters (1565 and 1570):
 * De dimensione terrae (1550)
 * Elementa doctrinae de circulis coelestibus et primo motu (1551)
 * Tractatus historicus de Ph. Melanchthonis sententia de controversia coenae Domini, 1553 (printed 1596)
 * Commentarius de praecipuis divinationum generibus, 1553 - this writing was Peucer's attempt to prove astrology was a science
 * Logistice regulae arithmeticae, quam Cossam et Algebram vocant (1556)
 * Corpus Doctrinae Philippicum, 1560
 * Chronicon Carionis (1560-1565)
 * Opera Melan, 1562–65
 * Epistolae, 1565
 * De Essentia et ortu animae 1590 - about the connection of the constellations to the immaterial soul and the mortal soul
 * Idyllion de Lusatia, 1583 (printed 1594)
 * Idyllion de Lusatia, 1583 (printed 1594)

De Dimensione Terrae (1550)
Peucer's De Dimensione Terra [On the Dimensions of the Earth] was first published in 1550, when Peucer was 25. was intended as a textbook of mathematical geography for the study of philosophy by students of the Lutheran University of Wittenberg. This octavo covers matters of physics, astronomy, astrology, and history. It built upon Melancthon's work, in the form of relatively simple figures for the ease of comprehension for its intended audience; however, mathematics calculations in the latter part of the book were far above the capability of the average Wittenberg student. Although it was originally published in 1550, it was subsequently updated 3 times in 1554, 1579, and 1587.

The original 1550 edition incorporated figures explaining the measurement of spheres and the determination of geographical coordinates. The 1554 edition adds to this by providing the calculations necessary for discerning the distance between two points from coordinates. The works found in this book are based on the trigonometric tables of Copernicus, the flat and spherical geometry developments of Georg Joachim Rheticus, and works of Johnannes Regiomantus. Another interesting addition to the 1554 version is the inclusion of two works that describe the Holy Land by Burchard of Mount Sion and an explanation of Biblical place names. The religious tie-in arises from Peucer's belief that the ability of man to calculate the nature of the earth reveals the "action of Divine Providence in the world."

In the first chapter, this point is hammered home as it implies that history must be inferred or understood in terms of its Christian context. Thus, Geography should then be thought of in mainly mathematical terms as opposed to historical or ethnic descriptions. Furthermore, in the second part of his work, he reiterates a foundation of longitude and latitude known by many at the time. However, in his work he aims to inspire his audience to make inferences of their own and improve the status quo of cartography to a certain extent. First, the calculation of longitude required two people in different places to record the same celestial event as well as the time it occurred to calculate the difference of longitude in units of time. This highlights many problems including the need for an accurate depiction of time and coordination between many people in different places. In other words, many maps of the time were the product of an accumulation of knowledge and surveys over time, but some may be slightly inaccurate or not scientific enough. He is more concerned with the systematic measurement and calculations of distances, of maps and areas, inspiring him to attempt to improve maps from mere descriptions of general locations of areas with possible errors, to in-depth mathematical and descriptive maps that can withstand the test of time. He then goes on to describe the methods in depth for calculating the distance between two fixed points using the equators, poles, meridians, longitude, and latitude to create an imaginary triangle. Then using relatively simple trigonometric functions using angles, you can reach a mathematically deduced number.

Peucer recognized that the advanced mathematics used in the latter parts of his work may have been inaccessible to many of his students. In the end of his book essentially suggested to students that they might reject his overly complicated methods and use the pre-established way of calculating distances to better suit their needs. This in turn allowed classes that would use his work the option to stop at the foundational level of mathematics mentioned in the beginning or to go on to the latter part of the book which has math compared to that of a master's degree or higher in terms of complexity. While the work as a whole seems ever too complicated for a common student to understand, there seems to be evidence of the use of this work in mathematics classes until the late 1580s with many copies of the book distributed around libraries throughout Europe.

Influences
Caspar Peucer studied a variety of topics throughout his life, but some of his most recognized work are his contributions to the arts and sciences, particularly astrology and medicine. Although some of his views are not completely in line with these figures, his work was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Copernicus. He, along with many of his peers, was more receptive to the ideologies of Aristotle and Ptolemy. He took a liking to the geocentric world system of Aristotle and Ptolemy, rather than the heliocentric world system created by Copernicus. In the Copernican world system, the sun is the center of the universe, rather than the earth, and everything rotates around the sun. Peucer formulated a geometrical construction of the universe to illustrate the movement of heavenly bodies. Despite the differences in the view of the world system, like Copernicus, Peucer used the significance of light and optics as a means of explaining natural law.

Another figure that not only influenced Peucer, but also directly contributed to a great deal of his work is Philipp Melanchthon. Melanchthon is best known for his works in theology, particularly, his work on the theory of natural law. Peucer was a part of Melanchthon's inner circle of pupils, and later became his son-in-law after marrying his daughter, Magdalena. Melanchthon's pupils also included members Erasmus Reinhold, Hieronymous Wolf, Jacob Milich, and many others. Melanchthon's inner circle or those who closely followed his teachings are respectfully referred to as the 'Philippists'. They studied and formulated many works under the teaching of Melanchthon. The pupils viewed Melanchthon as one of the only scholars who could actually properly interpret the divine providence and celestial writing through his knowledge of astrology. The Philippists studied or were rather inspired by the works of Girolamo Cardano. Cardano was a professor of medicine known in the Republic of Letters for his medical, philosophical, mathematical, and astrological works. In the mid-1540s, he published a formula for solving cubic equations in his Ars Magna. However, this group was mainly influenced by Cardano's contribution to the studies of horoscopes. Cardano is famous for drawing horoscopes for both the living and dead. He later was tried by the Roman Inquisition, which found his astrological ideas especially problematic.

Tycho Brahe, another well-known astronomer during this period, was not so much an influence to Peucer's work, but they did share their views with each other. Tycho very much disagreed with some aspects of Ptolemy's view of the cosmos. He did not like his approach to the motions of the heavens, and use of the equant point. Peucer, on the other hand, took a liking to Ptolemy's views. In 1588, Brahe wrote a letter to Peucer addressing where he felt Ptolemy fell short, and how the Copernican system provided a resolution for the shortcomings. Despite Brahe's letter to Peucer criticising Ptolemy and defending Copernicus, both he and Peucer disapproved earth's movement in the Copernican system. Brahe and Peucer have a history of exchanges, where they share their views on particular aspects of natural philosophy, but it is unclear if they actually contributed to or worked together to learn more about the cosmos.

authors: نوفاك اتشمان

title: Caspar Peucer


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Talk:Eyebrow

Images to distinguish eyebrow and eyelashes
I can see that the images center around the brows, but it may be helpful to encircle/label the portions that actually make up the eyebrows. If not, I can imagine that some may think that eyelashes are included in the definition of the eyebrow. What do you think? Jiaminglimjm (talk) 05:02, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

Dead Link
Link #9 no longer links to the cited material. 2601:182:C00:F5D0:5824:637B:385F:E74C (talk) 04:02, 10 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Eyebrow