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Macbeth (1971 film)

Macbeth (also known as The Tragedy of Macbeth or Roman Polanski's Film of Macbeth) is a 1971 historical drama film directed by Roman Polanski, and co-written by Polanski and Kenneth Tynan. A film adaptation of William Shakespeare's tragedy of the same name, it tells the story of the Highland lord who becomes King of Scotland through treachery and murder. Jon Finch and Francesca Annis star as the title character and his wife, noted for their relative youth as actors. Themes of historic recurrence, greater pessimism and internal ugliness in physically beautiful characters are added to Shakespeare's story of moral decline, which is presented in a more realistic style.

Polanski opted to adapt Macbeth as a means of coping with the highly publicized Manson Family murder of his pregnant wife, Sharon Tate. Finding difficulty obtaining sponsorship from major studios, Playboy Enterprises stepped in to provide funding. Following troubled shooting around the British Isles mired by poor weather, Macbeth screened out of competition at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival and was a commercial failure in the United States. Initially controversial for its graphic violence and nudity, the film has since garnered generally positive reviews, and was named Best Film by the National Board of Review in 1972.

Plot
In the Middle Ages, a Norwegian and Irish invasion of Scotland aided by traitorous Thane of Cawdor, MacDonwald, is suppressed by Macbeth, Thane of Glamis, and Banquo. MacDonwald is sentenced to death by King Duncan and decrees Macbeth shall be awarded the title of Cawdor. Macbeth and Banquo do not hear of this news; when out riding, they happen upon Three Witches, who hail Macbeth as "Thane of Cawdor and future King", and Banquo as "lesser and greater". At their camp, nobles arrive and inform Macbeth he has been named the Thane of Cawdor, with Macbeth simultaneously awed and frightened at the prospect of usurping Duncan, in further fulfilment of the prophecy. He writes a letter to Lady Macbeth, who is delighted at the news. However, she fears her husband has too much good nature, and vows to be cruel for him. Duncan names his eldest son, Malcolm, Prince of Cumberland, and thus heir apparent, to the displeasure of Macbeth and Malcolm's brother Donalbain. The royal family and nobles then spend the night at Macbeth's castle, with Lady Macbeth greeting the King and dancing with him with duplicity.

Urged on by his wife, Macbeth steps into King Duncan's chambers after she has drugged the guards. Duncan wakes and utters Macbeth's name, but Macbeth stabs him to death. He frames the guards for the assassination and then murders them when Duncan's corpse is discovered. Fearing a conspiracy, Malcolm and Donalbain flee to England and Ireland, and the Thane of Ross realises Macbeth will be king. An opportunistic courtier, he hails Macbeth at Scone, while the noble Macduff heads back to his home in Fife. When Macbeth begins to fear possible usurpation by Banquo and his son Fleance, he sends two murderers to kill them, and then sends Ross as the mysterious Third Murderer. Banquo is killed, while Fleance escapes. Macbeth, enraged by their failure to kill Fleance, secretly has the murderers executed by drowning them. After Banquo appears at a banquet as a ghost, Macbeth seeks out the witches, who are performing a nude ritual. The witches and the spirits they summon deceive Macbeth into thinking he is invincible, as he cannot be killed except by a man not born of woman and will not be defeated until "Birnam Wood comes to Dunsinane."

Ross is sent to Fife to direct the slaughter of Macduff, however, Macduff has gone to England. Ross enters Fife castle pretending to be a friend, but leaves the heavy castle doors open, allowing Macbeth's gang of murderers in to kill Lady Macduff, the children and servants. With nobles fleeing Scotland, Macbeth chooses a new Thane of Cawdor, bestowing the title on Seyton over Ross. Disappointed, Ross leaves Scotland to join Malcolm and Macduff in England. They welcome him, unaware of his treachery. The English King has allied with Malcolm, committing forces led by Siward to overthrow Macbeth and install Malcolm on the Scottish throne.

The English forces invade, covering themselves by cutting down branches from Birnam Wood and holding them in front of their army to hide their numbers as they march on Macbeth in Dunsinane. When the forces storm the castle, Macduff confronts Macbeth, and during the sword fight, Macduff reveals he was delivered by Caesarean section. Macduff kills Macbeth by beheading him, and Ross presents the crown to Malcolm, who becomes the new King of Scotland. Meanwhile, Donalbain, out riding, encounters the witches.

Themes and interpretations
James Morrison wrote Macbeth's themes of "murderous ambition" fit in with Polanski's filmography, and saw similarities to Orson Welles's 1948 film version of Macbeth in downplaying psychology and reviving the "primitive edge". However, unlike Welles, Polanski chooses naturalism over expressionism. Author Ewa Mazierska wrote that, despite supposed realism in presenting soliloquies as voiceovers, Polanski's Macbeth was "absurdist", not depicting history as an explanation for current events, but as a "vicious circle of crimes and miseries". Each coronation occurs after the predecessor is violently dispatched, and guests and hosts always betray each other, with Polanski adding Ross leaving Fife's castle doors open.

Deanne Williams read the film as not only Polanski's reflections on the murder of Sharon Tate, but on wider issues such as the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. and the Vietnam War. Francesca Royster similarly argues the use of English and Celtic cultures in the clothes and culture of the 1960s and 1970s, pointing to the publications of The Lord of the Rings in the U.S. and the music of Led Zeppelin, ties the film's past to the present. While Playboy Enterprises role was mainly to provide funding, Williams also saw Polanski's Lady Macbeth as embodying "Playboy mythos" paradoxes, at times warm and sexy, at times a domestic servant, and at times femme fatale.

In one scene, Macbeth's court hosts bear-baiting, a form of entertainment in the Middle Ages in which a bear and dogs are pitted against each other. Williams suggested the scene communicates Macbeth and Lady Macbeth's growing callousness after taking power, while Kenneth S. Rothwell and Morrison matched the scene to Shakespeare's Macbeth describing himself as "bear-like".

Literary critic Sylvan Barnet wrote that the younger protagonists suggested "contrast between a fair exterior and an ugly interior". Williams compared Lady Macbeth to Lady Godiva in her "hair and naturalistic pallor", suggesting she could fit in at the Playboy Mansion. More "ugliness" is added by Polanski in the re-imagining of Ross, who becomes a more important character in this film. As with the leads, Ross demonstrates "evil-in-beauty" as he is played by "handsome John Stride".

Barnet also wrote the changed ending with Donalbain meeting the witches replaced the message of "measure, time and place" with "unending treachery". Film historian Douglas Brode also commented on the added ending, saying it reflected Polanski's pessimism in contradiction to Shakespeare's optimism. Likewise, Brode believed Macbeth's "Tomorrow and tomorrow and tomorrow" soliloquy becomes an articulation of nihilism in the film, while Shakespeare did not intend it to reflect his own sentiment.

Development
Director Roman Polanski had been interested in adapting a Shakespeare play since he was a student in Kraków, Poland, but he did not begin until after the murder of his pregnant wife, Sharon Tate, and three of the couple's mutual friends by members of the Manson Family at his house in Beverly Hills on the night of 9 August 1969. Following the murders, Polanski sank into deep depression, and was unhappy with the way the incident was depicted in the media, in which his films seemed to be blamed. At the time, he was working on the film The Day of the Dolphin, a project that collapsed and was turned over to another director, Mike Nichols. While in Gstaad, Switzerland during the start of 1970, Polanski envisioned an adaptation of Macbeth and sought out his friend, British theatre critic Kenneth Tynan, for his "encyclopedic knowledge of Shakespeare". In turn, Tynan was interested in working with Polanski because the director demonstrated what Tynan considered "exactly the right combination of fantasy and violence".

Around this time Richard Burton was discussing producing a version of Macbeth starring Elizabeth Taylor as Lady Macbeth from a script by Paul Dehn. "I'd rather put it together than appear in it," said Burton, adding "I'm not very confident getting it on in the present conditions in the film industry."

Scripting
Tynan and Polanski found it challenging to adapt the text to suit the feel of the film. Tynan wrote to Polanski, saying, "the number one Macbeth problem is to see the events of the film from his point of view". During the writing process, Polanski and Tynan acted out their scenes in a Belgravia, London apartment, with Tynan as Duncan and Polanski as Macbeth. As with the 1948 film version of Hamlet, the soliloquies are presented naturalistically as voiceover narration.

In one scene Polanski and Tynan wrote, Lady Macbeth delivers her sleepwalking soliloquy in the nude. Their decision was motivated by the fact that people in this era always slept in the nude. Likewise, consultations of academic research of the Middle Ages led to the depiction of the nobles, staying at Macbeth's castle, going to bed on hay and the ground, with animals present.

The added importance the film gives to Ross did not appear in the first draft of the screenplay, which instead invented a new character called the Bodyguard, who also serves as the Third Murderer. The Bodyguard was merged into Shakespeare's Ross. The screenplay was completed by August 1970, with plans to begin filming in England in October.

Finance
Paramount Pictures, Universal Pictures and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer declined to finance the project, seeing a Shakespeare play as a poor fit for a director who achieved success with Rosemary's Baby (1968). Hugh Hefner, who published Playboy, had produced a few films with Playboy Enterprises and was eager to make more when he met Polanski at a party. The budget was set at $2.4 million.

Hefner's involvement was announced in August 1970. The Evening Standard reported "I understand that this new version will have a high content of sex and violence."

In April 1971 Columbia Pictures announced they had signed a three-year deal with Playboy Enterprises to make at least four films together the first of which was Macbeth.

Casting
Due to a feeling that the characters of Macbeth were more relatable to young people in the 1960s than experienced, elder actors, Polanski deliberately sought out "young and good-looking" actors for the parts of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth. Francesca Annis and Jon Finch were 26 and 29, respectively, with Tynan remarking characters over 60 were too old to be ambitious.

Polanski wanted to cast either Victoria Tennant or Tuesday Weld in the role of Lady Macbeth. Weld rejected the role, unwilling to perform the nude scene. The role was also turned down by Glenda Jackson who said "I don't fancy six weeks on location, walking through that damned gorse for next to no money."

Casting of the role did not happen until just before the film started. Annis accepted the role after some reluctance, as she agreed the character should be older, but was easy to persuade to join the cast. Annais called the film "75 percent Shakespeare and 25 percent Polanski" saying "there is nothing to get excited about" her nude scene. "I simply walk across a room."

Polanski's first choice for Macbeth was Albert Finney, who rejected the role, after which Tynan recommended Nicol Williamson, but Polanski felt he was not attractive enough. Finch was better known for appearing in Hammer Film Productions pictures such as The Vampire Lovers and the television series Counterstrike. Finch met Polanski on a Paris-London plane and auditioned several times.

For the scene where the Three Witches and numerous others perform "Double, double, toil and trouble" in the nude, Polanski had difficulty hiring extras to perform. As a result, some of the witches are cut from cardboard. Polanski had a few of the elderly extras sing "Happy Birthday to You" while naked for a video, sent to Hefner for his 45th birthday.

Filming
Macbeth was filmed in various locations around the British Isles, starting in Snowdonia in Wales in October 1970. A considerable amount of shooting took place in Northumberland on the northeast coast of England, including Lindisfarne Castle, Bamburgh Castle and beach, St. Aidan's Church and North Charlton Moors near Alnwick. Interior scenes were shot at Shepperton Studios; filming started 2 November 1970.

The production was troubled by poor weather, and the cast complaining of Polanski's "petulance". Fight director William Hobbs likened the long rehearsals in the rain to "training for the decathlon".

Polanski personally handled and demonstrated the props and rode horses before shooting, and walked into animal feces to film goats and sheep. It was common for the director to snatch the camera away from his cameramen. He also decided to use special effects to present the "dagger of the mind", believing viewers may be puzzled or would not enjoy it if the dagger did not appear on screen, but was merely described in the dialogue. The great challenges in portraying the catapult of fireballs into the castle led to Polanski calling it "special defects".

By mid January the film was behind schedule. The completion guarantors arranged for Peter Collinson to be hired and filmed scenes in Shepperton.

Polanski justified the film's inefficiency, blaming "shitty weather", and agreed to give up one-third of the rest of his salary, on top of which Hefner contributed another $500,000 to complete the film.

Music
For the film score, Polanski employed the Third Ear Band, a musical group which enjoyed initial success after publishing their album Alchemy in 1969. The band composed original music for the film, by adding electronic music to hand drums, woodwinds and strings. Recorders and oboes were also used, inspired by Medieval music in Scotland. Additionally, elements of music in India and the Middle East and jazz were incorporated into the score.

In the scene where King Duncan is entertained as Macbeth's castle, lutes are played, and Fleance sings "Merciless Beauty" by Geoffrey Chaucer, though his lyrics did not fit the film's time frame. While the score has some Middle Ages influence, this is not found in the scenes where Duncan is assassinated and Macbeth is killed. Polanski and the band used aleatoric music for these scenes, to communicate chaos.

Release
In the United States, the film opened in the Playboy Theater in New York City on 20 December 1971. Polanski bemoaned the release near January as "cinematic suicide" given usually low ticket sales for newly released films in that month. The film opened in London in February 1972. The film was screened at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival, but was not entered into the main competition. Polanski, Finch and Annis attended the Cannes festival in May 1972.

Box office
The film was a box office bomb. According to The Hollywood Reporter, Playboy Enterprises estimated in September 1973 that it would lose $1.8 million on the film, and that it would damage the company as a whole.

Total losses were $3.5 million. The losses caused Shakespeare films to appear commercially risky until Kenneth Branagh directed Henry V in 1989. Film critic Terrence Rafferty associated the financial failure with the various superstitions surrounding the play.

Critical reception
Upon release, Macbeth received mixed reviews, with much negative attention on its violence, in light of the Manson murders, and the nudity, blamed on its Playboy associations. Pauline Kael wrote the film "reduces Shakespeare's meanings to the banal theme of 'life is a jungle'". Variety staff dismissed the film, writing, "Does Polanski's Macbeth work? Not especially, but it was an admirable try". Derek Malcolm, writing for The Guardian, called the film shocking but not over-the-top, and Finch and Annis "more or less adequate".

In contrast, Roger Ebert gave it four stars, writing it was "full of sound and fury" and "All those noble, tragic Macbeths – Orson Welles and Maurice Evans and the others – look like imposters now, and the king is revealed as a scared kid". Roger Greenspun, for The New York Times, said that despite gossip about the film, it is "neither especially nude nor unnecessarily violent", and that Finch and Annis give great performances. In New York, Judith Crist defended the film as traditional, appropriately focusing on Macbeth's "moral deterioration", and suited for youthful audiences, and drew parallel with its blood to the title of Akira Kurosawa's 1957 Macbeth film, Throne of Blood.

Literary critic Sylvan Barnet wrote that, given Shakespeare's writing, it was arguable "blood might just as well flow abundantly in a film". However, he wrote the perceived inspiration from the Theatre of Cruelty is "hard to take". Troy Patterson, writing for Entertainment Weekly, gave the film a B, calling it "Shakespeare as fright show" and Annis a better fit for Melrose Place. The Time Out review states the realistic acting did not do justice to the poetry, and the film "never quite spirals into dark, uncontrollable nightmare as the Welles version (for all its faults) does".

Opinions improved with time, with filmmaker and novelist John Sayles saying, "I think it's a great piece of filmmaking" in 2007, and novelist Martin Amis saying, "I really think the film is without weaknesses" in 2013. In his 2014 Movie Guide, Leonard Maltin gave the film three and a half stars, describing it as "Gripping, atmospheric and extremely violent". The film holds rating on the review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, based on  reviews, with the consensus "Roman Polanski's Macbeth is unsettling and uneven, but also undeniably compelling."

Home media
After a restoration by Sony Pictures Entertainment, the film was placed in the Venice Classics section in the 2014 Venice Film Festival. In Region 1, The Criterion Collection released the film on DVD and Blu-ray in September 2014.

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Khagan

Khagan or Qaghan (Mongolian:; Khaan or Khagan; 𐰴𐰍𐰣 Kaɣan) is a title of imperial rank in Turkic, Mongolic, and some other languages, equal to the status of emperor and someone who rules a khaganate (empire). The female equivalent is Khatun.

It may also be translated as "Khan of Khans", equivalent to King of Kings. In Bulgarian, the title became known as Khan, while in modern Turkic, the title became Khaan with the g sound becoming almost silent or non-existent; the ğ in modern Turkish Kağan is also silent. Since the division of the Mongol Empire, monarchs of the Yuan dynasty and the Northern Yuan held the title of Khagan. Kağan, Hakan and Kaan, Turkish equivalents of the title are common Turkish names in Turkey.

The common western rendering as Great Khan (or Grand Khan), notably in the case of the Mongol Empire, is a translation of Yekhe Khagan (Great Emperor or Их Хаан).

Etymology
The term is of unknown origin and possibly a loanword from the Rouran language. Canadian sinologist Edwin G. Pulleyblank (1962) first suggested that a Xiongnu title, transcribed as 護于 (Old Chinese: *hʷaʔ-hʷaʰ) might have been the original behind Turkic qaɣan ~ xaɣan. According to Vovin (2007, 2010) the term comes from qaγan (meaning "emperor" or "supreme ruler") and was later borrowed and used in several languages, especially in Turkic and Mongolic.

Turkic and Mongolic (or Para-Mongolic) origin has been suggested by a number of scholars including Ramstedt, Shiratori, Pulleyblank, Sinor and Doerfer, and was reportedly first used by the Xianbei, as recorded in Book of Song. While Sinor believes qaγan or qapγan is an intensification of qan just as qap-qara is an intensification of qara "black", in Turkic (with the eventual loss of the p), Shiratori rejects a Turkic etymology, instead supporting a Mongolic origin for both qan and the female form qatun.

According to Vovin, the word *qa-qan "great-qan" (*qa- for "great" or "supreme") is of non-Altaic origin, but instead linked to Yeniseian *qεʔ ~ qaʔ "big, great". The origin of qan itself is harder according to Vovin. He says that the origin for the word qan is not found in any reconstructed proto-language and was used widely by Turkic, Mongolic, Chinese and Korean people with variations from kan, qan, han and hwan. A relation exists possibly to the Yeniseian words *qʌ:j or *χʌ:j meaning "ruler".

It may be impossible to prove the ultimate origin of the title, but Vovin says: "Thus, it seems to be quite likely that the ultimate source of both qaγan and qan can be traced back to Xiong-nu and Yeniseian".

Dybo (2007) suggests that the ultimate etymological root of Khagan comes from the Middle Iranian *hva-kama- ‘self-ruler, emperor’, following the view of Benveniste 1966. Savelyev and Jeong 2020 note that both the etymological root for Khagan and its female equivalent Khatun may be derived from Eastern Iranian languages, specifically from "Early Saka *hvatuñ, cf. the attested Soghdian words xwt'w ‘ruler’ (< *hva-tāvya-) and xwt'yn ‘wife of the ruler’ (< *hva-tāvyani)".

History
The title was first seen in a speech between 283 and 289, when the Xianbei chief Tuyuhun tried to escape from his younger stepbrother Murong Hui, and began his route from the Liaodong Peninsula to the areas of Ordos Desert. In the speech one of Murong's generals, Yinalou, addressed him as kehan (, later ); some sources suggests that Tuyuhun might also have used the title after settling at Qinghai Lake in the 3rd century.

The Rouran Khaganate (330–555) was the first people to use the titles Khagan and Khan for their emperors, replacing the Chanyu of the Xiongnu, whom Grousset and others assume to be Turkic. The Rourans were stated to be descendants of the Donghu people, who in turn are assumed to be proto-Mongols, Mongolic-speaking, or a "non-Altaic" group.

The Avar Khaganate (567–804), who may have included Rouran elements after the Göktürks crushed the Rouran ruling Mongolia, also used this title. The Avars invaded Europe, and for over a century ruled the Carpathian region. Westerners Latinized the title "Khagan" into "Gaganus" (in Historia Francorum), "Cagan" (in the Annales Fuldenses), or "Cacano" (in the Historia Langobardorum).

Mongol khagans

The Secret History of the Mongols, written for that very dynasty, clearly distinguishes Khagan and Khan: only Genghis Khan and his ruling descendants are called Khagan, while other rulers are referred to as Khan. The title "Khagan" or "Khaan" most literally translates to "great/supreme ruler" in the Mongol language, and by extension "sovereign", "monarch", "high king", or "emperor". The title can also be expanded with the addition of "Yekhe" (meaning "great" or "grand") to produce "Yekhe Khagan", meaning "Great Emperor".

The Mongol Empire began to split politically with the Toluid Civil War during 1260–1264 and the death of Kublai Khan in 1294, but the term Ikh Khagan (Great Khan, or Emperor) was still used by the emperors of the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), who also took on the title of the Emperor of China. After the fall of the Yuan dynasty, the title continued to be used by monarchs of the Northern Yuan dynasty.

Thus, the Yuan is sometimes referred to as the Empire of the Great Khan, coexisting with the other independent Mongol-ruled khanates in the west, including the Chagatai Khanate and Golden Horde. Only the Ilkhanate truly recognized the Yuan's overlordship as allies (although it was effectively autonomous). Because Kublai founded the Yuan, the members of the other branches of the Borjigin could take part in the election of a new Khagan as the supporters of one or other of the contestants, but they could not enter the contest as candidates themselves.

Later, Yuan emperors made peace with the three western khanates of the Mongol Empire and were considered as their nominal suzerain. The nominal supremacy, while based on nothing like the same foundations as that of the earlier khagans (such as the continued border clashes among them), did last for a few decades, until the Yuan dynasty collapsed in 1368.

After the breakdown of Mongol Empire and the fall of the Yuan dynasty in the mid-14th century, the Mongols turned into a political turmoil. Dayan Khan (1464–1517/1543) once revived the Emperor's authority and recovered its reputation on the Mongolian Plateau, but with the distribution of his empire among his sons and relatives as fiefs it again caused decentralized rule. The last Khagan of the Chahars, Ligdan Khan, died in 1634 while fighting the Jurchen-led Later Jin dynasty. In contemporary Mongolian language the words "Khaan" and "Khan" have different meanings, while English language usually does not differentiate between them. The title is also used as a generic term for a king or emperor (as эзэн хаан, ezen khaan), as in "Испанийн хаан Хуан Карлос" (Ispaniin khaan Khuan Karlos, "king/khaan of Spain Juan Carlos").

The early khagans of the Mongol Empire were:
 * 1) Genghis Khan (1206–1227; 21 years)
 * 2) Ögedei Khan (1229–1241; 12 years)
 * 3) Güyük Khan (1246–1248; 2 years)
 * 4) Möngke Khan (1251–1259; 8 years)

Among Turkic peoples
The title became associated with the Ashina ruling clan of the Göktürks and their dynastic successors among such peoples as the Khazars (cf. the compound military title Khagan Bek). Minor rulers were rather relegated to the lower title of khan.

Both Khagan as such and the Turkish form Hakan, with the specification in Arabic al-Barrayn wa al-Bahrayn (meaning literally "of both lands and both seas"), or rather fully in Ottoman Turkish Hakan ül-Berreyn vel-Bahreyn, were among the titles in the official full style of the Great Sultan (and later Caliph) of the Ottoman Empire, reflecting the historical legitimation of the dynasty's rule as political successor to various conquered (often Islamised) states. (The title began: Sultan Hân N.N., Padishah, Hünkar, Sovereign of the House of Osman, Sultan of Sultans, Khan of Khans, Commander of the Faithful and Successor of the Prophet of the Lord of the Universe; next followed a series of specifically "regional" titles, starting with Protector of the Holy Cities of Mecca, Medina and Jerusalem.)

"Khagan" is the second title of Safavid and Qajar shahs (kings) of Iran. For example, Agha Muhammad Khan Qajar, Fath Ali Shah and other Qajar shahs used this title. The nickname of Shah Ismail and other Safavid shahs is Kagan-i Suleyman shan (Khagan with the glory of Solomon).

Ottoman Empire
Ottoman rulers, after the 14th century, used only two titles "shah" and "khan" until end of the empire. Sultans like Mehmed the Conqueror and Suleiman the Magnificent used the title "Khagan of the two seas". Yazıcıoğlu Ali, in early 15th century, traced Osman's genealogy to Oghuz Khagan, the mythical ancestors of Western Turks, through his senior grandson of his senior son, so giving the Ottoman sultans primacy among Turkish monarchs. Though it was not entirely an imitation of Genghis Khanid doctrine, the Oghuz claim to sovereignty followed the same pattern. Bayezid I advanced this claim against Timur, who denigrated the Ottoman lineage.

Chinese khagans
Emperor Taizong of Tang was crowned Tian Kehan, or "heavenly Khagan" after defeating the Tujue (Göktürks). A later letter sent by the Tang court to the Yenisei Kirghiz Qaghan explained that "the peoples of the northwest" had requested Tang Taizong to become the "Heavenly Qaghan". The Tang dynasty Chinese emperors were recognized as khagans of the Turks at least from 665 to 705; moreover, two appeal letters from the Turkic hybrid rulers, Ashina Qutluγ Ton Tardu in 727, the Yabgu of Tokharistan, and Yina Tudun Qule in 741, the king of Tashkent, addressing Emperor Xuanzong of Tang as Tian Kehan during the Umayyad expansion.

The name "Chinese khagan" (Khāqān-i Chīn, "Khagan of China") referring to the ruler of China (i.e. Emperor of China) as a symbol of power appeared in medieval Turco-Persian literature works like the great 11th-century epic poem Shahnameh, which were circulated widely in Persia, Central Asia, and Xinjiang. During the Manchu-led Qing dynasty which extended into Inner Asia by the 18th century, their Turkic Muslim subjects (and surrounding Muslim khanates like the Khanate of Kokand) associated the Qing rulers with this name and commonly referred to the Qing emperors as the "Chinese khagan" (Khāqān-i Chīn).

Among the Slavs
In the early 10th century, the Rus' people employed the title of kagan (or qaghan), reported by the Persian geographer Ahmad ibn Rustah, who wrote between 903 and 913.

It is believed that the tradition endured in the eleventh century, as the metropolitan bishop of Kiev in the Kievan Rus', Hilarion of Kiev, calls both grand prince Vladimir I of Kiev (978–1015) and grand prince Yaroslav the Wise (1019–1054) by the title of kagan, while a graffito on the walls of Saint Sophia's Cathedral gives the same title to the son of Iaroslav, grand prince Sviatoslav II of Kiev (1073–1076).

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title: Khagan


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Enceladus (Giant)

In Greek mythology, Enceladus (Ἐγκέλαδος) was one of the Giants, the offspring of Gaia (Earth) and Uranus (Sky). Enceladus was the traditional opponent of Athena during the Gigantomachy, the war between the Giants and the gods, and was said to be buried under Mount Etna in Sicily.

Mythology
Enceladus was one of the Giants, who (according to Hesiod) were the offspring of Gaia, born from the blood that fell when Uranus was castrated by their son Cronus. The Giants fought Zeus and the other Olympian gods in the Gigantomachy, their epic battle for control of the cosmos. A Giant named Enceladus, fighting Athena, is attested in art as early as an Attic black-figure pot dating from the second quarter of the sixth century BC (Louvre E732). In literature, references to the Giant occur as early as the plays of the fifth-century BC Greek tragedian Euripides, where, for example, in Euripides' Ion, the chorus describes seeing on the late sixth-century Temple of Apollo at Delphi, Athena "brandishing her gorgon shield against Enceladus". Although traditionally opposed by Athena, Virgil and others have Enceladus being struck down by Zeus. In Euripides' comic satyr play Cyclops, Silenus, the drunken companion of the wine god Dionysus, boasts of having killed Enceladus with his spear.

The third-century BC poet Callimachus has Enceladus buried under the island of Sicily, and according to the mythographer Apollodorus, Athena hurled the island of Sicily at the fleeing Enceladus during the Gigantomachy. The Latin poets Virgil, Statius and Claudian all locate his burial under Mount Etna, although other traditions had the monster Typhon or the Hundred-Hander Briareus buried under Etna. For Typhon, see Pindar, Pythian 1.15–29, Olympian 4.6–7; Aeschylus (?), Prometheus Bound 353–374; Nicander, apud Antoninus Liberalis 28 (Celoria, p. 87); Ovid, Fasti 4.491–492 (pp. 224–225), Metamorphoses 5.346 ff. (which has Typhon buried under all of Sicily, with his left and right hands under Pelorus and Pachynus, his feet under Lilybaeus, and his head under Etna); Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica 2.23 ff.; Manilius, Astronomica [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/manilius-astronomica/1977/pb_LCL469.151.xml 2.874–880 (pp. 150–151)]; Seneca, Hercules Furens [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/seneca_younger-hercules/2002/pb_LCL062.55.xml 46–62 (pp. 52–53)], Thyestes [http://www.loebclassics.com/view/seneca_younger-thyestes/2004/pb_LCL078.299.xml?result=22&rskey=QinWkK 808–809 (pp. 298–299)] (where the Chorus asks if Typhon has thrown the mountain (presumably Etna) off "and stretched his limbs"); Apollodorus, 1.6.3; Hyginus, Fabulae 152; b scholia to Iliad 2.783 (Kirk, Raven, and Schofield. pp. 59–60 no. 52); Philostratus, Life of Apollonius of Tyana 5.16 (pp.498–501); Philostratus the Elder, Imagines [https://archive.org/stream/imagines00philuoft#page/198/mode/2up 2.17.5 (pp. 198–201)]; Nonnus Dionysiaca 2.622–624 (I pp. 90–91) (buried under Sicily). For Briareus see Callimachus, Hymn 4 (to Delos) [https://archive.org/stream/callimachuslycop00calluoft#page/96/mode/2up 141–146 (pp. 96–97)]; Mineur, p. 153. For some Enceladus was instead buried in Italy.

The Latin poet Horace has Enceladus use trees as spears. The second-century geographer Pausanias reports that a Tegean statue of Athena was called "horse goddess" because, according to a local account, Athena "drove the chariot and horses against Enceladus". Claudian calls Enceladus "all powerful king of the Earth-born giants", and has Gaia, imagining the Giants victorious, propose that "Enceladus, rule the sea".

The Dionysiaca
The fifth-century Greek poet Nonnus, in his poem Dionysiaca, mentions Enceladus as one of the several Giants that Dionysus battles in the Gigantomachy. Nonnus has Gaia set the Giants against Dionysus, promising Enceladus Athena as his wife should the Giants subdue Dionysus. Dionysus fought Enceladus with fire, but Enceladus was ultimately defeated by Zeus:"'[Dionysus] roasted the Giants' bodies with a great conflagration, an image on earth of the thunderbolt cast by Zeus. The torches blazed: fire was rolling all over the head of Encelados and making the air hot, but it did not vanquish him—Encelados bent not his knee in the steam of the earthly fire, since he was reserved for a thunderbolt.'"

Cause of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes
Enceladus (like other vanquished monsters, thought to be buried under volcanos) Besides Mount Etna, Typhon was also said to be buried under the volcanic island of Ischia the largest of the Phlegraean Islands off the coast of Naples, see Lycophron, Alexandra 688–693 (pp. 550–551); Virgil, Aeneid 9.710 (calling the island "Inarime"); Strabo, 5.4.9 (calling the island "Pithecussae"); Ridgeway, pp. 35–36; Silius Italicus, Punica 8.540; Claudian, Rape of Proserpine [https://archive.org/stream/claudia02clau#page/358/mode/2up 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359)]. Prochyte, another one of the volcanic Phlegraean Islands was supposed to sit atop the Giant Mimas (Silius Italicus, Punica 12.143 ff, which also has Iapetus buried under Inarime). Under Mount Vesuvius lay the Giant Alcyoneus (Claudian, Rape of Proserpine 3.183–184 (pp. 358–359)), while Philostratus, On Heroes [https://books.google.com/books?id=R8nMVkv_lZ4C&pg=PA14 8.15–16 (p. 14)], remarks on local tales of "many giants" buried there. The Titan Atlas was identified with the volcano Mount Atlas and the Atlas Mountains, Plumptre, p. 129, note 1. See also Cook 1940, note 5, pp. 2–6; Durling, p. 495, note to Canto 31.108 "Ephialtes suddenly shook himself"; Lemprière p. 456 "MYCŎNOS"; Andrews, p. 81. was said to be the cause of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Mount Etna's eruptions were said to be the breath of Enceladus, and its tremors to be caused by him rolling over from side to side beneath the mountain. So, for example Virgil: Enceladus, his body lightning-scarred, lies prisoned under all, so runs the tale: o'er him gigantic Aetna breathes in fire from crack and seam; and if he haply turn to change his wearied side, Trinacria's isle trembles and moans, and thick fumes mantle heaven. the c. 1st-century poem Aetna (perhaps written by Lucilius Junior):"In Trinacrian waters Enceladus dies and is buried under Aetna by Jove's decree; with the ponderous mountain above him he tosses restlessly, and defiantly breathes from his throat a penal fire."and Claudian:"In the midst of the island rise the charred cliffs of Aetna, eloquent monument of Jove’s victory over the Giants, the tomb of Enceladus, whose bound and bruisèd body breathes forth endless sulphur clouds from its burning wounds. Whene’er his rebellious shoulders shift their burden to the right or left, the island is shaken from its foundations and the walls of tottering cities sway this way and that."

Ancient art
The battle between Athena and Enceladus was a popular theme in Greek vase paintings, with examples from as early as the middle of the sixth century BC. Sixth century examples include: Louvre E732 (Beazley Archive 14590, LIMC 52 (Gigantes 170): image 4 of 4 [Athena and Enceladus]), Getty 82.AE.26 (Beazley Archive 10148: Fragment: Heracles, Athena, horses of Zeus' chariot, Porphyrion and Enceladus), Lourve CA3662 (Beazley Archive 200059, LIMC 29890 (Gigantes 342)), Munich 1612 (Beazley Archive 303466), Cleveland 78.59 (Beazley Archive 5168, Perseus Cleveland 78.59 (Vase)). Fifth century examples include: Berlin F2531 (Beazley Archive 220533: detail showing Athena v. Enceladus, Cook 1940, p. 56, Plate VI); Cleveland 78.59 (Beazley Archive 5168; Perseus Cleveland 78.59 (Vase)). See also Ely, FIG. I, and p. 67 ff. and Tillyard, pp. 34–35, no. 26, Plate 3, no. 26. We know, from the description given in Euripides' Ion, that the battle was depicted on the late sixth-century BC Temple of Apollo at Delphi.

The east pediment of the Old Temple of Athena on the Acropolis of Athens, dating from the late sixth century, prominently displayed Athena standing over a fallen giant, possibly Enceladus. The battle was probably also depicted on the new peplos (robe) presented to Athena on the Acropolis of Athens as part of the Panathenaic festival.

In later art and literature
At Versailles, Louis XIV's consistent iconographic theme of the triumphs of Apollo and the Olympians against all adversaries included the fountain of Enceladus in its own cabinet de verdure, the Bosquet de l'Encélade, which was cut into the surrounding woodland and outlined by trelliswork; the ensemble has recently been restored. According to an engraving of the fountain by Le Pautre (1677), the sculptor of the gilt-bronze Enceladus was Gaspar Mercy of Cambrai.

William Shakespeare mentions "Enceladus" in Titus Andronicus, Act 4, sc. 2, L 96. "I tell you younglings, not Enceladus."

John Keats mentions Enceladus among the Titans in his "Hyperion" (1818/1819).

Porthos is likened to Enceladus when he is buried in a rock fall in The Man in the Iron Mask by Alexandre Dumas.

In Herman Melville's Pierre, the image of Enceladus appears multiple times; the protagonist identifies with Enceladus in a dream.

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, inspired by the suffering of the Second Italian War of Independence, wrote his poem "Enceladus" in 1859.

Enceladus is a main antagonist in Rick Riordan's The Lost Hero

Namesakes
Enceladus, a moon of the planet Saturn, is named after the mythological Enceladus. Its south pole is interspersed with massive geysers of ice and water vapor that shoot hundreds of miles from its interior. The moon is considered by scientists to be one of the most likely locations in the Solar System to offer some habitability potential for microscopic life.

One of two surviving Short Belfast military transport aircraft is dubbed "Enceladus".

In Antarctica, there is a grouping of nunataks (ridge) on Alexander Island called the Enceladus Nunataks—but these nunataks were named after Saturn's moon, not after the giants of Greek mythology.

The Finnish eSports organisation ENCE takes its name from Enceladus.

title: Enceladus (Giant)


text:
Itil

Itil may refer to:

 * Atil or Itil, the ancient capital of Khazaria
 * Itil (river) or Volga, the longest river in Europe
 * ITIL (IT Infrastructure Library), a set of practices for IT service management

title: Itil


text:
Play the white man

To play the white man is an idiom which is used in parts of Great Britain and it means that someone is attempting to be decent and trustworthy in his or her actions. The phrase is commonly used by natives of the Yorkshire and the Humber region.

A similar expression, which originated in the Southern United States in the 20th century, is that's mighty white of you and variations thereof, and they mean "thank you for being fair." Because of its racist connotations, since the mid-to-late 20th century, it has mostly been used ironically when it has been used at all.

In film lore, the phrase that's mighty white of you was used in the film After the Thin Man (1936) by the character Nick Charles as said to the character Dancer, the night club host, who stated that he would pay for all the drinks at Nick's table. A year later in another William Powell / Myrna Loy film Double Wedding (1937), the phrase is used by the character Mrs. Bly. It's also used in other classic-era films like Whistling in Brooklyn (1943) by the character Wally Benton, Western Union (1941) by the character Vance Shaw, and The Miracle of Morgan’s Creek (1944) by the character Constable Edmund Kockenlocker. It is also used by Clint Eastwood as Inspector Harry Callaghan in the 1976 film The Enforcer, and by Sean Penn's character, Mr. Wasey, in the 1986 movie, Shanghai Surprise. It is used as a typical 1937 Southern expression in the film O Brother Where Art Thou (2000).

title: Play the white man


text:
John Boone

John Boone may refer to:
 * John D. Boon (1817–1864), American merchant and politician
 * John H. Boone (1848–1884), lawyer and politician in Newfoundland
 * John William "Blind" Boone (1864–1927), American musician and composer
 * John Boone, fictional character in the Mars trilogy by Kim Stanley Robinson

title: John Boone


text:
March 1977 Fijian general election

General elections were held in Fiji between 19 March and 2 April 1977. As a result of a split in the ethnic Fijian vote, the ruling Alliance Party of Prime Minister Kamisese Mara suffered a narrow defeat. Although the Alliance Party received the most votes, it won only 24 seats, two fewer than the Indo-Fijian-dominated National Federation Party (NFP). One seat was won by the Fijian Nationalist Party, with the remaining seat going to an independent candidate, Osea Gavidi.

Although the NFP emerged as the largest party, Governor-General George Cakobau asked Mara to form a new government, claiming that he had the support of the majority of the House. The new government remained in office until early elections in September the same year.

Results
Around 25% of the Fijian vote went to the new Fijian Nationalist Party of Sakeasi Butadroka, an extremist organisation that ran on a "Fiji for the Fijians" platform and advocated the repatriation of Indo-Fijians to India.

Three ministers – Peniame Naqasima, Josua Toganivalu and Sakiasi Waqanivavalagi – lost their seats.

Aftermath
Following the elections Mara resigned as Prime Minister on 5 April and turned down offers from the NFP to participate in a coalition government. It was expected that the NFP would be unable to form a government without a majority, but independent MP Osea Gavidi announced that he would support the party, giving it a two-seat majority. However, Gavidi changed his mind the following day.

Four days after the election, Sidiq Koya arrived at Government House expecting to be offered the opportunity to form a government. However, he was told by Governor-General Cakobau that he had reappointed Mara. Cakobau then made a statement claiming that Mara had the support of the majority of MPs. Pacific Islands Monthly reported that following an NFP meeting to discuss the allocation of cabinet portfolios (in which Koya only narrowly won a vote to remain leader of the party), opponents of Koya had passed a message to the Governor-General stating that they would not support him as Prime Minister. Supporters of Koya subsequently blamed a faction led by NFP president Irene Jai Narayan for keeping the party out of office.

In June Mara moved a motion of confidence in his government. The NFP proposed an amendment that the Governor-General should ignore any request from Mara to dissolve parliament if the motion was defeated, and instead appoint Koya as Prime Minister. House Leader Jonati Mavoa claimed that the Governor-General had no legal right to ignore such a request. The NFP amendment passed after Butadroka voted in favour. However, Cakobau dissolved parliament at the end of June, with fresh elections later scheduled for September.

title: March 1977 Fijian general election


text:
Trailer trash

Trailer trash is a derogatory North American English term for poor people living in a trailer or a mobile home. It is particularly used to denigrate white people living in such circumstances.

History
In the mid-20th century, poor whites who could not afford to buy suburban-style tract housing began to purchase mobile homes, which were not only cheaper but could be easily relocated if work in one location ran out. These – sometimes by choice and sometimes through local zoning laws – gathered in trailer parks, and the people who lived in them became known as "trailer trash" with the term dating to at least 1952. Despite many of them having jobs, albeit sometimes itinerant ones, the character flaws that had been perceived in poor white trash in the past were transferred to trailer trash, and trailer camps or parks were seen as being inhabited by retired people, migrant workers, and, generally, the poor. By 1968, a survey found that only 13% of those who owned and lived in mobile homes had white collar jobs.

Trailers got their start in the 1930s, and their use proliferated during the housing shortage of World War II when the Federal government used as many as 30,000 of them to house defense workers, soldiers, and sailors throughout the country, but especially around areas with a large military or defense presence, such as Mobile, Alabama and Pascagoula, Mississippi. In her book Journey Through Chaos, reporter Agnes Meyer of The Washington Post traveled throughout the country, reporting on the condition of the "neglected rural areas", and described the people who lived in the trailers, tents, and shacks in such areas as malnourished, unable to read or write, and generally ragged. The workers who came to Mobile and Pascagoula to work in the shipyards there were from the backwoods of the South, "subnormal swamp and mountain folk" whom the locals described as "vermin"; elsewhere, they were called "squatters". They were accused of having loose morals, high illegitimacy and crime rates, and of allowing prostitution to thrive in their "Hillbilly Havens", and letting their children go undisciplined, causing high juvenile delinquency rates. The trailers themselves – sometimes purchased second- or third-hand – were often unsightly, unsanitary, and dilapidated, causing communities to zone them away from the more desirable neighborhoods, which meant away from schools, stores, and other necessary facilities, often literally on the other sides of the railroad tracks.

title: Trailer trash


text:
Foreign Service

Foreign Service may refer to:
 * Diplomatic service, the body of diplomats and foreign policy officers maintained by the government of a country
 * United States Foreign Service, the diplomatic service of the United States government
 * Foreign Service Officer
 * Foreign Service Institute
 * Foreign Service Journal
 * Foreign Service brat, term for children born or raised abroad to Foreign Service Officers
 * Indian Foreign Service, the diplomatic service of India
 * Foreign Service Institute of India now the Sushma Swaraj Institute of Foreign Service, under the Ministry of External Affairs in New Delhi, India
 * Foreign Service of Pakistan, the diplomatic service of Pakistan
 * Foreign Service Academy
 * Her Majesty's Diplomatic Service, the diplomatic service of the United Kingdom, and specifically the organisation which ran the Foreign Office in London before amalgamation with the Diplomatic Service in 1918

title: Foreign Service


text:
Royal Veterinary College

The Royal Veterinary College (informally the RVC) is a veterinary school located in London and a member institution of the federal University of London. The RVC was founded in 1791 and joined the University of London in 1949. It is the oldest and largest Veterinary school in the United Kingdom, and one of only 11 in the country where students can study to become a vet.

18th century
The Veterinary College of London was founded in 1791 by a group led by Granville Penn, a grandson of William Penn, following the foundation of the first veterinary college in Europe in Lyon, France, in 1762. The promoters wished to select a site close to the metropolis, but far enough away to minimise the temptations open to the students, who were all men. Earl Camden was just then making arrangements to develop some fields he owned to the north of London, and he replied to the college's newspaper advertisement for a suitable site with an offer to sell it some of his land. The site was rural, but urban developments appeared on all sides in the early decades of the 19th century, creating Camden Town.

Charles Benoit Vial de St Bel of the Lyon establishment was appointed as the first principal of the new college. The first students, just four of them, began their studies in 1792, and the first horse was admitted for treatment in 1793. St Bel died later that year and was succeeded by Edward Coleman, who managed the college for nearly forty six years and established its reputation. Among the first students were Delabere Pritchett Blaine and Bracy Clark. In its early years it was mainly concerned with horses, but the range of animals covered gradually increased. The original building was a quadrangle in a neoclassical style, and there was a paddock on the opposite side of Royal College Street, but this was later sold for housing development.

In 1796 John Shipp was the first qualified veterinary surgeon to join the British Army.

19th century
The college first acquired royal patronage from King George IV. In 1844 it was awarded a royal charter.

In 1865 RVC Professor James Beart Simonds was appointed as the first Chief Inspector and Veterinary Advisor to the Privy council, with particular regard to cattle plague.

In 1875 college was granted a royal charter as the Royal Veterinary College; it remains the only veterinary college in the UK to have its own royal charter.

In 1879 the Cheap Practice Clinic was established, later known as the Poor People's Out-Patients Clinic. Some veterinary surgeons were concerned that the college was threatening their livelihoods, but the college argued that poor people could not afford veterinary fees, therefore their animals would go untreated if the Clinic were closed.

The college celebrated its centenary in 1891 and in that year the Students' Union was founded. In 1895 the first X-ray machine was acquired.

20th century
There was a major renovation in 1907 of the college horse boxes, which had fund-raisers' commemorative shields hung at their doorways.

Women were admitted to the College after the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 came into force. The first women were admitted in 1927.

In 1924 the Research Institute in Animal Pathology was built, headed by Professor John McFadyean.

Various extensions were added to the Camden Town site over the years. The buildings had become obsolete and in 1927 were officially declared dangerous structures. A fund-raising scheme for the total rebuilding of the college was launched by the new principal, Professor Sir Frederick Hobday.

In 1932 the Beaumont Animals' Hospital opened.

New buildings were opened by King George VI in November 1937.

During the Second World War, the RVC evacuated to Streatley, Berkshire, although the Beaumont Animals' Hospital remained open at Camden Town.

In 1949 the RVC became a school of the University of London.

In 1958 the Hawkshead field station, in Hertfordshire, was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II.

In the 1980s the Royal Veterinary College Animal Care Trust was launched with the Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother as patron, and the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals was opened at Hawkshead by the Queen Mother. Princess Anne, the Princess Royal, and Chancellor of the University of London, opened the surgical wing of the Sefton Equine Referral Hospital.

The bicentenary celebrations were held in 1991. The skeleton of the famous racehorse Eclipse, dissected in 1789 by St. Bel was once more the property of the RVC and was placed on display in the museum at Hawkshead.

Geoffrey Mead was appointed to the "Vestey Chair of Food Safety and Veterinary Public Health" in 1992, mentioned in a 2000 book, and described by a third party as "the first post of its kind in the UK"; however a search of the RVC website in August 2020 does not reveal any mention of Vestey or such a chair.

21st century
The London BioScience Innovation Centre was opened in 2001.

The Learning Resource Centre (Eclipse Building) was officially opened at Hawkshead by the Queen in October 2003. The Large Animal Clinical Centre was officially opened by Prince Philip The Duke of Edinburgh in October 2003.

In 2005 the Duchess of Cornwall visited the Hawkshead Campus as new Patron of the Royal Veterinary College Animal Care Trust.

The LIVE Centre at Hawkshead was officially opened by The Princess Royal in February 2007.

Stuart Reid was appointed principal of the RVC in late 2010.

Campuses
The RVC has two campuses, one in Camden in Central London and the other near Potters Bar in Hertfordshire. On the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine course, students spend two years in Camden followed by three years in Potters Bar.

The 1930s buildings on Royal College Street in Camden Town, near St Pancras railway station remain, with minor extensions. Around half of the undergraduate students are based there at any one time. The Camden campus is also home to the main bulk of the RVC Student Union (RVCSU), including the main college bar, the Haxby.

The Hawkshead Campus is located in Brookmans Park, rural Hertfordshire, about 17 mi north of central London, was officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1959. The majority of the college sports teams train and play on the sports courts and fields at this campus, which is also home to the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals, Bolton's Park Farm and the Buttery (a second union-run bar).

Education
The college now provides a number of undergraduate courses, including the Bachelor of Veterinary Medicine (BVetMed) as well as accelerated graduate entry BVetMed and a combined BVetMed, Bachelor of Veterinary Science (BSc) degree. BSc degrees are also provided in veterinary nursing, bioveterinary sciences, biological sciences and veterinary pathology, and a foundation degree in veterinary nursing is also offered.

The college also offers the Gateway course; the first year of an extended six-year veterinary degree programme, created for students who are part of the UK Widening Participation cohort. It is designed to equip students with the knowledge, understanding and skills needed to join a career-building veterinary degree course. This is a widening participation programme for UK non-selective state school students whose parents have not been to university and who receive, or would have been eligible between 2004 and 2010 in England, to receive an Education Maintenance Allowance payment.

There is a distance learning department and the Graduate School provides masters courses, PhD studentships and clinical training scholarships in a wide range of disciplines. The college's Continuing Professional Development (CPD) Unit is a major academic provider of educational services to the veterinary community.

The RVC has an e-Media Unit which collaborates with other UK veterinary schools on the development of the WikiVet site.

Student life
Students are encouraged to participate in extra-curricular activities both inside and outside of the college authority. The traditional sports of rowing, rugby, netball, hockey, and football are offered for both men and women; more unusually, students take part in sports such as shooting, ice-skating, and polo. For purpose of sports, the RVC is a part of the United Hospitals, and the sports clubs compete (and sometimes socialise) with the London medical schools (such as Barts, ICSM, and RUMS).

There are also a number of academically inclined clubs, such as the Farm Animal Clinical Club, the Student Equine Veterinary Association, and the Zoological Society. Non-academic societies include the Music Society, performing arts, games society, and the International Veterinary Students' Association (IVSA).

The Students' Union runs a number of events throughout the year. In the past, these have included a May Ball, Christmas Ball and Sports Ball, as well as a Halfway Dinner (which takes place in the second term of third year for students on the BVetMed course), Burns Night, an elaborate Freshers' Week and Raising and Giving (RAG) Fortnight. The union itself is steadily growing and includes representatives of the Association of Veterinary Students and IVSA; based out of Hawkshead House on the Hawkshead Campus, it provides social and academic opportunities for students of all cohorts and courses. A 'Camden vs. Hawkshead' competition, traditionally taking place between pre-clinical and clinical students, is traditionally held in spring each year. Since 2018, a 'varsity' weekend has also taken place between the RVC and the veterinary school at the University of Surrey; the inaugural event was hosted at Surrey but won by the RVC.

Students on the BVetMed course are invited to attend events organised by the Association of Veterinary Students (AVS) such as Sports Weekend (where the schools compete against each other in unisex football, rugby, netball, and other games) and the annual academic Congress. These allow veterinary students from the UK veterinary schools and the University College Dublin veterinary faculty to convene once or twice a year to socialise, network and compete. Sports Weekend was last held at the RVC in 2016, and Congress in 2019.

RVC students are also invited to participate in societies run by other universities in London; the University of London Union offers a selection of sports and societies, as does the Imperial College School of Medicine Students' Union, and students tend to take advantage of these opportunities as well as being involved in RVC societies.

Research
The Research Assessment Exercise in 2008 ranked the RVC as England's best veterinary school of those institutions whose research is exclusively veterinary related. 55% of their submitted academic staff were viewed as producing "world class" or "internationally excellent" research. It is a self-governing college within the University of London and its scientists work together in interdisciplinary teams within one research division.

The disciplines of Epidemiology, Microbiology, Pathology, Immunology and Clinical Science are drawn together in the Centre for Emerging, Endemic and Exotic Diseases (CEEED Centre), opened in 2008.

Animal Welfare and the Animal Welfare unit situated at the college are fundamental to the RVC's research mission and underpins their research programmes. The Structure and Motion Laboratory of the college also has facilities to study locomotion. Understanding how animals and people move is fundamental to musculoskeletal health and diseases that result from ageing, physical activity and the environment. The leaders of this Centre of Excellence are at the forefront of developing technologies to study animal movement, which are used in both basic and applied research.

The RVC has a Clinical Investigation Centre, co-ordinating disciplined study of its clinical caseload through its electronic patient record system and undertaking Phase II Clinical Trials under a Home Office license. They aim to translate research into solutions for veterinary and human medicine and use their expertise and veterinary patient caseload to undertake comparative research of both biomedical and veterinary significance.

Clinical services
The RVC runs three animal hospitals and three first opinion practices, all based in London and Hertfordshire. The hospitals treat over 20,000 patients per year.

For small animals, the RVC runs the Beaumont Sainsbury Animal Hospital, a first-opinion hospital based at the RVC's Camden campus, and the Queen Mother Hospital for Animals, an animal referral hospital which provides clinical services in a wide range of specialities.

The equine services include the Equine Practice which is a first opinion ambulatory service, serving Hertfordshire and other local areas and the Equine Referral Hospital which provides referral clinical services to equine practices and horse owners throughout the south of England.

The RVC operates a referral farm animal hospital at its Hawkshead Campus, which provides full hospitalisation, diagnostic and surgical facilities for individual farm animals. The college has a collaboration with the Dairy Development centre, the Welsh Regional Veterinary Centre (WRVC), which provides a farm health investigation service to vets and farmers in the South Wales region.

Alumni

 * Mary Brancker, CBE, DUniv, FRCVS, (1914–2010). The first woman to become president of the British Veterinary Association, after whom Mary Brancker House was named.
 * Walter Plowright, CMG, FRCVS, FRS (1923-2010), whose work led directly to the worldwide eradication of the viral disease rinderpest in 2001.
 * Sir Gordon Shattock (1928-2010)
 * Dr Rory Cowlam (2010-2015)
 * Liz Bonnin, Science broadcaster
 * Clare Bryant, Professor of Veterinary Science

title: Royal Veterinary College


text:
Fokino, Primorsky Krai

Fokino (Фо́кино) is a closed town in Primorsky Krai, Russia, located on the coast of the Peter the Great Gulf, on the Abrek Bay, about 45 km south of Vladivostok, the administrative center of the krai. Population:

It was previously known as Tikhookeansky (until 1980), Shkotovo-17 (until 1994).

History
The village of Promyslovka was founded on the current site of Fokino in 1891. Promyslovka was granted urban-type settlement status in 1958, and the nearby naval village of Tikhookeansky followed suit in 1963. The settlements grew together, were merged, and were granted town status on October 4, 1980. However, due to its status as a base for the Russian Pacific Fleet, the town was closed, and referred to officially under the code name Shkotovo-17. Since 1994, Fokino has been the official name of the town.

After the APEC-2012 Summit was held in Vladivostok, Fokino will become the main naval base at the Russian Far East, where the Russian Pacific Fleet will be attached.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, it is, together with two urban-type settlements (Dunay and Putyatin), incorporated as Fokino Town Under Krai Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Fokino Town Under Krai Jurisdiction is incorporated as Fokino Urban Okrug.

Tourism
It is a closed town because the Russian Pacific Fleet is based there. Foreigners must have a special permit to visit the town. However, the Islands of Putyatin and Askold, which are a part of the territory administered by the town, are open for visits by tourists. Up to two thousand tourists visit Putyatin every year. They are attracted by the unique flora and fauna in the waters surrounding this island and its underwater landscape. Approximately 2,400 people inhabit Putyatin Island. Their main occupation is catching and processing sea products, breeding mink and spotted deer.

There is no permanent population on Askold. It is rarely visited by tourists because of the absence of regular transport connections with the mainland, and the status of the island which until 1995 had formed part of the Reserve where no economic activity was allowed. There are deposits of gold estimated at dozens of tonnes on Askold.

title: Fokino, Primorsky Krai


text:
Ferdinand Tönnies Society

The Ferdinand Tönnies Society (Ferdinand-Tönnies-Gesellschaft e. V., FTG) was founded in 1956 in Kiel, Germany. Its main purpose is to further sociological research, especially on Ferdinand Tönnies (1855–1936), the founder of German sociology.

Activities
The society publishes an edition of Tönnies' complete works which has been reconstructed using the "textual criticism" technique (Ferdinand Tönnies Gesamtausgabe, 24 vols., edited by Lars Clausen ( -2010), Alexander Deichsel, Cornelius Bickel, Rolf Fechner ( -2006,), Dieter Haselbach, Carsten Schlüter-Knauer, and Uwe Carstens (2006–2020); Berlin and New York, Walter de Gruyter 1998- ). The FTG also publishes the bi-annual Tönnies-Forum magazine.

It also organizes publications and research conferences on sociological topics, namely the "Tönnies Symposia", which have so far taken place in Kiel 1980, 1983, and 1987, in Klagenfurt 2004, in Kiel 2005, in Paris 2007, in Husum 2011, 2013 and 2015, in Kiel 2019.

Furthermore, the FTG owns the Ferdinand-Tönnies-Haus (a student residence) in Kiel and organizes as well public lectures on academic and political topics for the public.

President is at present [since 2020] Dieter Haselbach.

title: Ferdinand Tönnies Society


text: User talk:81.226.107.45

title: User talk:81.226.107.45


text:
Michael Smith (Irish politician)

Michael Smith (born 8 November 1940) is an Irish former Fianna Fáil politician who served as Minister for Defence from 1997 to 2004, Minister for Education from November 1994 to December 1994, Minister for the Environment from 1992 to 1994 and a Minister of State in various governments. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Tipperary North constituency from 1969 to 1973, 1977 to 1981 and 1987 to 2002. He also served as a Senator for the Cultural and Educational Panel from 1983 to 1987 and for the Agricultural Panel from May 1982 to December 1982.

Background and education
Smith was born in Roscrea, County Tipperary in 1940. He was educated at CBS Templemore in County Tipperary. Smith worked as a farmer before entering Dáil Éireann at the 1969 general election as a Fianna Fáil TD for the Tipperary North constituency.

He lost his seat at the 1973 general election but was re-elected to Dáil Éireann at the 1977 general election.

1980s
In 1980, the Taoiseach Charles Haughey appointed him Minister of State at the Department of Agriculture. Smith lost his Dáil seat again at the February 1982 general election, and failed to regain it at the November 1982 general election. He spent the next five years as a Senator in Seanad Éireann, elected first by the Agricultural Panel and then by the Cultural and Educational Panel, before his re-election to the Dáil at the 1987 general election.

When Smith was returned to the Dáil in 1987, he was appointed Minister of State at the Department of Energy. He was appointed to cabinet as the Minister for Energy in 1988. His stay in cabinet was brief; following the 1989 general election he was demoted to Minister of State at the Department of Industry and Commerce.

1992–2007
In February 1992, he returned to cabinet for two years as Minister for the Environment. He held office until Fianna Fáil left government in December 1994.

After the 1997 election, Fianna Fáil returned to government and Smith was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of Education and Science. In October 1997, he replaced David Andrews as Minister for Defence, and held that position until he was dropped from the cabinet in a reshuffle in 2004. During his tenure Smith dealt with the Army deafness compensation issue that ultimately resulted in claims of €300 million against the State.

At the 2007 general election he lost his seat to Noel Coonan of Fine Gael.

title: Michael Smith (Irish politician)


text:
Fair (disambiguation)

Fair is a type of market, or fête.

Fair or FAIR (acronym) may also refer to:

As an acronym

 * Factor analysis of information risk, a framework for understanding, analyzing, and measuring information risks by the company Risk Management Insight
 * FAIR data, data which meet standards of findability, accessibility, interoperability and reusability
 * First article inspection report, a formal method of providing a measurement report for a given manufacturing process

Germany

 * Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research, an international accelerator facility for the research using antiprotons and ions

United Kingdom

 * Families Acting for Innocent Relatives, in Northern Ireland
 * Family Action Information Resource, a British anti-cult group, reorganized as The Family Survival Trust
 * Forum Against Islamophobia and Racism

United States

 * Facebook Artificial Intelligence Research, now called Meta AI
 * Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting, a progressive media criticism organization based in New York City
 * Federation for American Immigration Reform
 * Forum for Academic and Institutional Rights
 * Foundation Against Intolerance and Racism
 * FAIR (Mormon apologetics organization), formerly known as FairMormon and the Foundation for Apologetic Information & Research

Other uses

 * Trade fair, or expo, a trade show
 * Fair, a level in coin grading
 * Fair, hair color of a fair haired (blonde) person
 * Fair (band), a music group
 * "Fair" (song), a 2022 song by Normani
 * Fair ball, in baseball, a batted ball which is in play
 * Fair Isle, a Scottish island

title: Fair (disambiguation)


text:
UoSAT-2

UoSAT-2, which is also known as UO-11 and OSCAR-11, is a British satellite orbiting in Low Earth Orbit. The satellite functions as an amateur radio transmitter (known as an OSCAR) and was built at the University of Surrey. It launched into orbit in March 1984 and remains orbital and active, though unstable with irregular periods of transmission. All of the analogue telemetry channels failed in 2005, but as of 2014 the status channels were still operational. The satellite was still heard transmitting telemetry in 2023, thirty-nine years after launch.

It was operated by Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd.

Characteristics
The satellite was the second in the UoSAT series of satellites built by University of Surrey; preceded by UoSAT-1 and followed by UoSAT-3.

The satellite carries a Digitalker speech synthesiser, magnetometers, a CCD camera, a Geiger-Müller tube, and a microphone to detect the vibrations of micrometeoroid impacts. Like UoSAT-1 it transmits telemetry data on the VHF beacon at 1200 baud, using asynchronous AFSK, though now all analogue telemetry channels have failed; on an FM receiver the audio signal resembles the cassette data format of the contemporary BBC Micro computer. Actually it is a BASICODE signal, but no citation. Slight modulation had also been observed on the S band beacon.

UoSAT-2's solar arrays were bought at a premium compared to those of UoSAT-1, the design having been space tested by its predecessor.

Support
The British affiliate of AMSAT distributed a library of software for the BBC Micro to track UoSAT-2 and other satellites and analyse telemetry broadcasts. A commercial fixed-frequency receiver, Astrid, was also produced by British firm MM Microwave for the education market, with accompanying BBC Micro software to display raw telemetry frames. For versatility the Astrid set included a demodulator to load signals through the serial port of any computer.

South Atlantic anomaly
As it went around the Earth it encountered data upsets, geo-located around the South Atlantic anomaly.

Status
According to a February 2008 status report the satellite had no viable battery backup, operating only from its solar panels, and a watchdog timer on board was suspending activity for up to three weeks following any power anomaly. At the time of the report it was experiencing continuous sunlight for the last time, with the prediction that "permanent eclipses" in its orbit would begin in the middle of March 2008, limiting transmissions to "a short time, possibly less [than] a single orbit, every 21 days." By April 2008 the updated prediction was that eclipses would continue until 2019.

After a 21-month gap in observations, UoSAT-2 resumed sending telemetry sometime before 10 December 2009, and is apparently continuing the watchdog-controlled transmission regime, though now on a ten-days-on, ten-days-off schedule. Its condition has not otherwise improved apart from some recovery of battery power, allowing broadcasts to continue into each eclipse.

Current observation reports for UoSAT-2 can be viewed and logged at the Oscar Satellite Status Page.

1988 Ski-Trek arctic expedition
The satellite was instrumental in providing a communications link, known as Nordski Comm, from the Ski-Trek support teams to the expedition party. The position of the skiers' emergency beacon was calculated daily by Cospas-Sarsat ground stations and relayed to them, and thousands of amateur radio listeners, as a spoken message from the Digitalker on board UoSAT-2. The message could also serve as an emergency channel to the skiers in the event that all other radio links failed.

title: UoSAT-2


text:
User:Avaragado

AKA David Smith.

No longer active as an editor due to real life.

title: User:Avaragado


text:
UltraHLE

UltraHLE is a discontinued emulator for the Nintendo 64. Emulating the Nintendo 64 (which was only three years old at the time) made it the first of the N64 emulators to run commercial titles at a playable frame rate on the hardware of the time, and the first emulator for a currently-sold console system, which drew Nintendo to seek legal action against the developers.

The Ultra High-level (UHLE) technique
Earlier emulators had sought to accurately emulate all low-level operations of a target machine; this worked well for consoles such as the Super NES and Genesis that were substantially simpler than the computer running the emulator.

HLE was done even before the UltraHLE emulator (to emulate the BIOS, and the SNES enhancement chips). But UltraHLE introduced aggressive optimization and time-savers which go beyond traditional HLE.

Co-authors Epsilon and RealityMan realized that since N64 games were programmed in C, they could intercept (the far fewer) C library calls rather than machine-level operations, and simply reimplement the libraries. Thus UltraHLE is an emulator that is partly implemented as a simulator, in contrast to projects such as MAME. However it paved the way for playable emulators of recent consoles that require considerable graphical computational power which could be simulated easily with available PC graphic cards.

The final implementation was written in C and used the Glide API, specific to 3dfx adapters. Due to the emulator's popularity, several Glide to DirectX translation utilities were made specifically for UltraHLE for non-3dfx video cards.

UltraHLE's high-level emulation had its drawbacks; at the time of its release it was able to emulate only approximately 20 games to a playable standard as it emulated and simulated only those calls required by those specific games; it was necessary to adapt the emulator for games that used different parts of the N64 hardware. Nevertheless it supported many more titles than other contemporaneous N64 emulation projects such as Project Unreality.

The technique was taken over by the Cxbx-Reloaded emulator, which emulates the Microsoft Xbox, uses HLE to reimplement the Video, and audio DSP.

Emulators other than UltraHLE eventually adopted variants of high-level emulation as well. For example, the Dolphin emulator, which emulates the GameCube and Wii, uses HLE to reimplement the Wii's IOS operating system, and it also has an option for HLE of the GameCube's audio DSP.

Nintendo's response and UltraHLE's discontinuation
Also notable for its time, UltraHLE was capable of playing commercial games while the console was still commercially viable, a feat which was ultimately noticed by Nintendo. In February 1999, Nintendo began the process of filing a lawsuit against the emulator's authors, along with the website hosting the emulator. Speaking to PC Zone, Nintendo representative Beth Llewellwyn commented: "Nintendo is very disturbed that RealityMan and Epsilon have widely distributed a product designed solely to play infringing copies of copyrighted works developed by Nintendo and its third-party licensees. We are taking measures to further protect and enforce our intellectual property rights which, of course, includes the bringing of legal action." Despite this, UltraHLE had grown beyond either its authors' or Nintendo's control. Subsequently, Epsilon and RealityMan abandoned their pseudonyms and went silent.

After the source code was leaked in 2002, an OpenGL version of UltraHLE called UltraHLE 2064 was released, though it garnered little acclaim, as several more powerful emulators had subsequently been released. UltraHLE 2064 was available at its official site until the site was de-registered.

title: UltraHLE