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Flux (metallurgy)

In metallurgy, a flux is a chemical cleaning agent, flowing agent, or purifying agent. Fluxes may have more than one function at a time. They are used in both extractive metallurgy and metal joining.

Some of the earliest known fluxes were sodium carbonate, potash, charcoal, coke, borax, lime, lead sulfide and certain minerals containing phosphorus. Iron ore was also used as a flux in the smelting of copper. These agents served various functions, the simplest being a reducing agent, which prevented oxides from forming on the surface of the molten metal, while others absorbed impurities into slag, which could be scraped off molten metal.

Fluxes are also used in foundries for removing impurities from molten nonferrous metals such as aluminium, or for adding desirable trace elements such as titanium for real.

As cleaning agents, fluxes facilitate soldering, brazing, and welding by removing oxidation from the metals to be joined. In some applications molten flux also serves as a heat-transfer medium, facilitating heating of the joint by the soldering tool or molten solder just in case.

Metal joining
In high-temperature metal joining processes (welding, brazing and soldering), fluxes are nearly inert at room temperature, but become strongly reducing at elevated temperatures, preventing oxidation of the base and filler materials. The role of flux is typically dual: dissolving the oxides already present on the metal surface to facilitate wetting by molten metal, and acting as an oxygen barrier by coating the hot surface, preventing oxidation.

For example, tin-lead solder attaches very well to copper metal, but poorly to its oxides, which form quickly at soldering temperatures. By preventing the formation of metal oxides, flux enables the solder to adhere to the clean metal surface, rather than forming beads, as it would on an oxidized surface.

Soldering
In soldering metals, flux serves a threefold purpose: it removes any oxidized metal from the surfaces to be soldered, seals out air thus preventing further oxidation, and improves the wetting characteristics of the liquid solder. Some fluxes are corrosive, so the parts have to be cleaned with a damp sponge or other absorbent material after soldering to prevent damage. Several types of flux are used in electronics.

A number of standards exist to define the various flux types. The principal standard is J-STD-004.

Various tests, including the ROSE test, may be used after soldering to check for the presence of ionic or other contaminants that could cause short circuits or other problems.

Brazing and silver soldering
Brazing (sometimes known as silver soldering or hard soldering) requires a higher temperature than soft soldering (> 450 °C). As well as removing existing oxides, rapid oxidation of the metal at the elevated temperatures has to be avoided. This means that fluxes need to be more aggressive and to provide a physical barrier. Traditionally borax was used as a flux for brazing, but there are now many different fluxes available, often using active chemicals such as fluorides as well as wetting agents. Many of these chemicals are toxic and due care should be taken during their use.

Smelting
In the process of smelting, inorganic chlorides, fluorides (see fluorite), limestone and other materials are designated as "fluxes" when added to the contents of a smelting furnace or a cupola for the purpose of purging the metal of chemical impurities such as phosphorus, and of rendering slag more liquid at the smelting temperature. Slag is a liquid mixture of ash, flux, and other impurities. This reduction of slag viscosity with temperature, increasing the flow of slag in smelting, is the origin of the word flux in metallurgy.

The flux most commonly used in iron and steel furnaces is limestone, which is charged in the proper proportions with the iron and fuel.

Drawbacks
Fluxes have several serious drawbacks:
 * Corrosivity, which is mostly due to the aggressive compounds of the activators; hygroscopic properties of the flux residues may aggravate the effects
 * Interference with test equipment, which is due to the insulating residues deposited on the test contacts on electronic circuit boards
 * Interference with machine vision systems when the layer of flux or its remains is too thick or improperly located
 * Contamination of sensitive parts, e.g. facets of laser diodes, contacts of connectors and mechanical switches, and MEMS assemblies
 * Deterioration of electrical properties of printed circuit boards, as soldering temperatures are above the glass transition temperature of the board material and flux components (e.g. glycols, or chloride and bromide ions) can diffuse into its matrix; e.g. water-soluble fluxes containing polyethylene glycol were demonstrated to have such impact
 * Deterioration of high-frequency circuit performance by flux residues
 * Deterioration of surface insulation resistance, which tends to be as much as three orders of magnitude lower than the bulk resistance of the material
 * Electromigration and growth of whiskers between nearby traces, aided by ionic residues, surface moisture and a bias voltage
 * The fumes liberated during soldering have adverse health effects, and volatile organic compounds can be outgassed during processing
 * The solvents required for post-soldering cleaning of the boards are expensive and may have adverse environmental impact

In special cases the drawbacks are sufficiently serious to warrant using fluxless techniques.

Dangers
Acid flux types (not used in electronics) may contain hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride or ammonium chloride, which are harmful to humans. Therefore, flux should be handled with gloves and goggles, and used with adequate ventilation.

Prolonged exposure to rosin fumes released during soldering can cause occupational asthma (formerly called colophony disease in this context) in sensitive individuals, although it is not known which component of the fumes causes the problem.

While molten solder has low tendency to adhere to organic materials, molten fluxes, especially of the resin/rosin type, adhere well to fingers. A mass of hot sticky flux can transfer more heat to skin and cause more serious burns than a comparable particle of non-adhering molten metal, which can be quickly shaken off. In this regard, molten flux is similar to molten hot glue.

Fluxless techniques
In some cases the presence of flux is undesirable; flux traces interfere with e.g. precision optics or MEMS assemblies. Flux residues also tend to outgas in vacuum and space applications, and traces of water, ions and organic compounds may adversely affect long-term reliability of non-hermetic packages. Trapped flux residues are also the cause of most voids in the joints. Flux-less techniques are therefore desirable there.

For successful soldering and brazing, the oxide layer has to be removed from both the surfaces of the materials and the surface of the filler metal preform; the exposed surfaces also have to be protected against oxidation during heating. Flux-coated preforms can also be used to eliminate flux residue entirely from the soldering process.

Protection of the surfaces against further oxidation is relatively simple, by using vacuum or inert atmosphere. Removal of the native oxide layer is more troublesome; physical or chemical cleaning methods have to be employed and the surfaces can be protected by e.g. gold plating. The gold layer has to be sufficiently thick and non-porous to provide protection for reasonable storage time. Thick gold metallization also limits choice of soldering alloys, as tin-based solders dissolve gold and form brittle intermetallics, embrittling the joint. Thicker gold coatings are usually limited to use with indium-based solders and solders with high gold content.

Removal of the oxides from the solder preform is also troublesome. Fortunately some alloys are able to dissolve the surface oxides in their bulk when superheated by several degrees above their melting point; the Sn-Cu1 and Sn-Ag4 require superheating by 18–19 °C, the Sn-Sb5 requires as little as 10 °C, but the Sn-Pb37 alloy requires 77 °C above its melting point to dissolve its surface oxide. The self-dissolved oxide degrades the solder's properties and increases its viscosity in molten state, however, so this approach is not optimal.

Solder preformsundefined are preferred to be with high volume-to-surface ratio, as that limits the amount of oxide being formed. Pastes have to contain smooth spherical particles, preforms are ideally made of round wire. Problems with preforms can be also sidestepped by depositing the solder alloy directly on the surfaces of the parts or substrates, by chemical or electrochemical means for example.

A protective atmosphere with chemically reducing properties can be beneficial in some cases. Molecular hydrogen can be used to reduce surface oxides of tin and indium at temperatures above 430 and 470 °C; for zinc the temperature is above 500 °C, where zinc is already becoming volatilized. (At lower temperatures the reaction speed is too slow for practical applications.) Very low partial pressures of oxygen and water vapor have to be achieved for the reaction to proceed.

Other reactive atmospheres are also in use. Vapors of formic acid and acetic acid are the most commonly used. Carbon monoxide and halogen gases (for example carbon tetrafluoride, sulfur hexafluoride, or dichlorodifluoromethane) require fairly high temperatures for several minutes to be effective.

Atomic hydrogen is much more reactive than molecular hydrogen. In contact with surface oxides it forms hydroxides, water, or hydrogenated complexes, which are volatile at soldering temperatures. A practical dissociation method is an electrical discharge. Argon-hydrogen gas compositions with hydrogen concentration below the low flammable limit can be used, eliminating the safety issues. The operation has to be performed at low pressure, as the stability of atomic hydrogen at atmospheric pressure is insufficient. Such hydrogen plasma can be used for fluxless reflow soldering.

Active atmospheres are relatively common in furnace brazing; due to the high process temperatures the reactions are reasonably fast. The active ingredients are usually carbon monoxide (possibly in the form of combusted fuel gas) and hydrogen. Thermal dissociation of ammonia yields an inexpensive mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen.

Bombardment with atomic particle beams can remove surface layers at a rate of tens of nanometers per minute. The addition of hydrogen to the plasma augments the removal efficiency by chemical mechanisms.

Mechanical agitation is another possibility for disrupting the oxide layer. Ultrasound can be used for assisting tinning and soldering; an ultrasonic transducer can be mounted on the soldering iron, in a solder bath, or in the wave for wave soldering. The oxide disruption and removal involves cavitation effects between the molten solder and the base metal surface. A common application of ultrasound fluxing is in tinning of passive parts (active parts do not cope well with the mechanical stresses involved); even aluminium can be tinned this way. The parts can then be soldered or brazed conventionally.

Mechanical rubbing of a heated surface with molten solder can be used for coating the surface. Both surfaces to be joined can be prepared this way, then placed together and reheated. This technique was formerly used to repair small damages on aluminium aircraft skins.

A very thin layer of zinc can be used for joining aluminium parts. The parts have to be perfectly machined, or pressed together, due to the small volume of filler metal. At high temperature applied for long time, the zinc diffuses away from the joint. The resulting joint does not present a mechanical weakness and is corrosion-resistant. The technique is known as diffusion soldering.

Fluxless brazing of copper alloys can be done with self-fluxing filler metals. Such metals contain an element capable of reaction with oxygen, usually phosphorus. A good example is the family of copper-phosphorus alloys.

Properties
Fluxes have several important properties:
 * Activity – the ability to dissolve existing oxides on the metal surface and promote wetting with solder. Highly active fluxes are often acidic or corrosive in nature.
 * Corrosivity – the promotion of corrosion by the flux and its residues. Most active fluxes tend to be corrosive at room temperatures and require careful removal. As activity and corrosivity are linked, the preparation of surfaces to be joined should allow use of milder fluxes. Some water-soluble flux residues are hygroscopic, which causes problems with electrical resistance and contributes to corrosion. Fluxes containing halides and mineral acids are highly corrosive and require thorough removal. Some fluxes, especially those based on borax used for brazing, form very hard glass-like coatings that are difficult to remove.
 * Cleanability – the difficulty of removal of flux and its residues after the soldering operation. Fluxes with higher content of solids tend to leave larger amount of residues; thermal decomposition of some vehicles also leads to formation of difficult-to-clean, polymerized and possibly even charred deposits (a problem especially for hand soldering). Some flux residues are soluble in organic solvents, others in water, some in both. Some fluxes are no-clean, as they are sufficiently volatile or undergo thermal decomposition to volatile products, that they do not require the cleaning step. Other fluxes leave non-corrosive residues that can be left in place. However, flux residues can interfere with subsequent operations; they can impair adhesion of conformal coatings, or act as undesired insulation on connectors and contact pads for test equipment.
 * Residue tack – the stickiness of the surface of the flux residue. When not removed, the flux residue should have smooth, hard surface. Tacky surfaces tend to accumulate dust and particulates, which causes issues with electrical resistance; the particles themselves can be conductive or they can be hygroscopic or corrosive.
 * Volatility – this property has to be balanced to facilitate easy removal of solvents during the preheating phase but to not require too frequent replenishing of solvent in the process equipment.
 * Viscosity – especially important for solder pastes, which have to be easy to apply but also thick enough to stay in place without spreading to undesired locations. Solder pastes may also function as a temporary adhesive for keeping electronic parts in place before and during soldering. Fluxes applied by e.g. foam require low viscosity.
 * Flammability – relevant especially for glycol-based vehicles and for organic solvents. Flux vapors tend to have low autoignition temperature and present a risk of a flash fire when the flux comes in contact with a hot surface.
 * Solids – the percentage of solid material in the flux. Fluxes with low solids, sometimes as little as 1–2%, are called low solids flux, low-residue flux, or no clean flux. They are often composed of weak organic acids, with addition of small amount of rosin or other resins.
 * Conductivity – some fluxes remain conductive after soldering if not cleaned properly, leading to random malfunctions on circuits with high impedances. Different types of fluxes are differently prone to cause these issues.

Fluxes for metal joining
The composition of fluxes is tailored for the required properties - the base metals and their surface preparation (which determine the composition and thickness of surface oxides), the solder (which determines the wetting properties and the soldering temperature), the corrosion resistance and ease of removal, and others.

Fluxes for soft soldering are typically of organic nature, though inorganic fluxes, usually based on halogenides or acids, are also used in non-electronics applications. Fluxes for brazing operate at significantly higher temperatures and are therefore mostly inorganic; the organic compounds tend to be of supplementary nature, e.g. to make the flux sticky at low temperature so it can be easily applied.

The surface of the tin-based solder is coated predominantly with tin oxides; even in alloys the surface layer tends to become relatively enriched by tin. Fluxes for indium and zinc based solders have different compositions than fluxes for ordinary tin-lead and tin-based solders, due to different soldering temperatures and different chemistry of the oxides involved.

Organic fluxes are unsuitable for flame soldering and flame brazing, as they tend to char and impair solder flow.

Some metals are classified as "unsolderable" in air, and have to be either coated with another metal before soldering or special fluxes or protective atmospheres have to be used. Such metals are beryllium, chromium, magnesium, titanium, and some aluminium alloys.

Fluxes for high-temperature soldering differ from the fluxes for use at lower temperatures. At higher temperatures even relatively mild chemicals have sufficient oxide-disrupting activity, but the metal oxidation rates become fairly high; the barrier function of the vehicle therefore becomes more important than the fluxing activity. High molecular weight hydrocarbons are often used for this application; a diluent with a lower molecular weight, boiling off during the preheat phase, is usually used to aid application.

Common fluxes are ammonium chloride or resin acids (contained in rosin) for soldering copper and tin; hydrochloric acid and zinc chloride for soldering galvanized iron (and other zinc surfaces); and borax for brazing, braze-welding ferrous metals, and forge welding.

Organic fluxes
Organic fluxes typically consist of four major components:
 * Activators – chemicals disrupting/dissolving the metal oxides. Their role is to expose unoxidized, easily wettable metal surface and aid soldering by other means, e.g. by exchange reactions with the base metals.
 * Highly active fluxes contain chemicals that are corrosive at room temperature. The compounds used include metal halides (most often zinc chloride or ammonium chloride), hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, citric acid, and hydrobromic acid. Salts of mineral acids with amines are also used as aggressive activators. Aggressive fluxes typically facilitate corrosion, require careful removal, and are unsuitable for finer work. Activators for fluxes for soldering and brazing aluminium often contain fluorides.
 * Milder activators begin to react with oxides only at elevated temperature. Typical compounds used are carboxylic acids (e.g. fatty acids (most often oleic acid and stearic acid), dicarboxylic acids) and sometimes amino acids. Some milder fluxes also contain halides or organohalides.
 * Vehicles – high-temperature tolerant chemicals in the form of non-volatile liquids or solids with suitable melting point; they are generally liquid at soldering temperatures. Their role is to act as an oxygen barrier to protect the hot metal surface against oxidation, to dissolve the reaction products of activators and oxides and carry them away from the metal surface, and to facilitate heat transfer. Solid vehicles tend to be based on natural or modified rosin (mostly abietic acid, pimaric acid, and other resin acids) or natural or synthetic resins. Water-soluble organic fluxes tend to contain vehicles based on high-boiling polyols - glycols, diethylene glycol and higher polyglycols, polyglycol-based surfactants and glycerol.
 * Solvents – added to facilitate processing and deposition to the joint. Solvents are typically dried out during preheating before the soldering operation; incomplete solvent removal may lead to boiling off and spattering of solder paste particles or molten solder.
 * Additives – numerous other chemicals modifying the flux properties. Additives can be surfactants (especially nonionic), corrosion inhibitors, stabilizers and antioxidants, tackifiers, thickeners and other rheological modifiers (especially for solder pastes), plasticizers (especially for flux-cored solders), and dyes.

Inorganic fluxes
Inorganic fluxes contain components playing the same role as in organic fluxes. They are more often used in brazing and other high-temperature applications, where organic fluxes have insufficient thermal stability. The chemicals used often simultaneously act as both vehicles and activators; typical examples are borax, borates, fluoroborates, fluorides and chlorides. Halogenides are active at lower temperatures than borates, and are therefore used for brazing of aluminium and magnesium alloys; they are however highly corrosive.

Behavior of activators
The role of the activators is primarily disruption and removal of the oxide layer on the metal surface (and also the molten solder), to facilitate direct contact between the molten solder and metal. The reaction product is usually soluble or at least dispersible in the molten vehicle. The activators are usually either acids, or compounds that release acids at elevated temperature.

The general reaction of oxide removal is:
 * Metal oxide + Acid → Salt + Water

Salts are ionic in nature and can cause problems from metallic leaching or dendrite growth, with possible product failure. In some cases, particularly in high-reliability applications, flux residues must be removed.

The activity of the activator generally increases with temperature, up to a certain value where activity ceases, either due to thermal decomposition or excessive volatilization. However the oxidation rate of the metals also increases with temperature.

At high temperatures, copper oxide reacts with hydrogen chloride to water-soluble and mechanically weak copper chloride, and with rosin to salts of copper and abietic acid which is soluble in molten rosin.

Some activators may also contain metal ions, capable of exchange reaction with the underlying metal; such fluxes aid soldering by chemically depositing a thin layer of easier solderable metal on the exposed base metal. An example is the group of fluxes containing zinc, tin or cadmium compounds, usually chlorides, sometimes fluorides or fluoroborates.

Inorganic activators
Common high-activity activators are mineral acids, often together with halides, amines, water or alcohols:
 * hydrochloric acid, most common
 * phosphoric acid, less common, use limited by its polymerization at higher temperatures

Inorganic acids are highly corrosive to metals even at room temperature, which causes issues during storage, handling and applications. As soldering involves high temperatures, compounds that decompose or react, with acids as products, are frequently used:
 * zinc chloride, which at high temperatures reacts with moisture, forming oxychloride and hydrochloric acid
 * ammonium chloride, thermally decomposing to ammonia and hydrochloric acid
 * amine hydrochlorides, decomposing to the amine and hydrochloric acid

Rosin fluxes
The terms resin flux and rosin flux are ambiguous and somewhat interchangeable, with different vendors using different assignments. Generally, fluxes are labeled as rosin if the vehicle they are based on is primarily natural rosin. Some manufactures reserve "rosin" designation for military fluxes based on rosin (R, RMA and RA compositions) and label others as "resin".

Rosin has good flux properties. A mixture of organic acids (resin acids, predominantly abietic acid, with pimaric acid, isopimaric acid, neoabietic acid, dihydroabietic acid, and dehydroabietic acid), rosin is a glassy solid, virtually nonreactive and noncorrosive at normal temperature, but liquid, ionic and mildly reactive to metal oxides at molten state. Rosin tends to soften between 60–70 °C and is fully fluid at around 120 °C; molten rosin is weakly acidic and is able to dissolve thinner layers of surface oxides from copper without further additives. For heavier surface contamination or improved process speed, additional activators can be added.

There are several possible activator groups for rosins:
 * halide activators (organic halide salts, e.g. dimethylammonium chloride and diethylammonium chloride)
 * organic acids (monocarboxylic, e.g. formic acid, acetic acid, propionic acid, and dicarboxylic, e.g. oxalic acid, malonic acid, sebacic acid)

There are three types of rosin: gum rosin (from pine tree oleoresin), wood rosin (obtained by extraction of tree stumps), and tall oil rosin (obtained from tall oil, a byproduct of kraft paper process). Gum rosin has a milder odor and lower tendency to crystallize from solutions than wood rosin, and is therefore preferred for flux applications. Tall oil rosin finds increased use due to its higher thermal stability and therefore lower tendency to form insoluble thermal decomposition residues. The composition and quality of rosin differs by the tree type, and also by location and even by year. In Europe, rosin for fluxes is usually obtained from a specific type of Portuguese pine; in America a North Carolina variant is used.

Natural rosin can be used as is, or can be chemically modified by e.g. esterification, polymerization, or hydrogenation. The properties being altered are increased thermal stability, better cleanability, altered solution viscosity, and harder residue (or conversely, softer and more tacky residue). Rosin can be also converted to a water-soluble rosin flux, by formation of an ethoxylated rosin amine, an adduct with a polyglycol and an amine.

One of the early fluxes was a mixture of equal amounts of rosin and vaseline. A more aggressive early composition was a mixture of saturated solution of zinc chloride, alcohol, and glycerol.

Fluxes can be also prepared from synthetic resins, often based on esters of polyols and fatty acids. Such resins have improved fume odor and lower residue tack, but their fluxing activity and solubility tend to be lower than that of natural resins.

Rosin flux grades
Rosin fluxes are categorized by grades of activity: L for low, M for moderate, and H for high. There are also other abbreviations for different rosin flux grades:
 * R (Rosin) – pure rosin, no activators, low activity, mildest
 * WW (water-white) – purest rosin grade, no activators, low activity, sometimes synonymous with R
 * RMA (rosin mildly activated) - contains mild activators, typically no halides
 * RA (rosin activated) – rosin with strong activators, high activity, contains halides
 * OA (organic acid) – rosin activated with organic acids, high activity, highly corrosive, aqueous cleaning
 * SA (synthetically activated) – rosin with strong synthetic activators, high activity; formulated to be easily soluble in organic solvents (chlorofluorocarbons, alcohols) to facilitate cleaning
 * WS (water-soluble) – usually based on inorganic or organic halides; highly corrosive residues
 * SRA (superactivated rosin) – rosin with very strong activators, very high activity
 * IA (inorganic acid) – rosin activated with inorganic acids (usually hydrochloric acid or phosphoric acid), highest activities, highly corrosive

R, WW, and RMA grades are used for joints that can not be easily cleaned or where there is too high corrosion risk. More active grades require thorough cleaning of the residues. Improper cleaning can actually aggravate the corrosion by releasing trapped activators from the flux residues.

Fluxes for soldering certain metals
Some materials are very difficult to solder. In some cases special fluxes have to be employed.

Aluminum and its alloys
Aluminium and its alloys are difficult to solder due to the formation of the passivation layer of aluminium oxide. The flux has to be able to disrupt this layer and facilitate wetting by solder. Salts or organic complexes of some metals can be used; the salt has to be able to penetrate the cracks in the oxide layer. The metal ions, more noble than aluminium, then undergo a redox reaction, dissolve the surface layer of aluminium and form a deposit there. This intermediate layer of another metal then can be wetted with a solder.

One example of such flux is a composition of triethanolamine, fluoroboric acid, and cadmium fluoroborate. More than 1% magnesium in the alloy impairs the flux action, however, as the magnesium oxide layer is more refractory. Another possibility is an inorganic flux composed of zinc chloride or tin(II) chloride, ammonium chloride, and a fluoride (e.g. sodium fluoride). Presence of silicon in the alloy impairs the flux effectivity, as silicon does not undergo the exchange reaction aluminium does.

Magnesium alloys
Magnesium alloys. A putative flux for soldering these alloys at low temperature is molten acetamide. Acetamide dissolves surface oxides on both aluminium and magnesium; promising experiments were done with its use as a flux for a tin-indium solder on magnesium.

Stainless steel
Stainless steel is a material which is difficult to solder because of its stable, self-healing surface oxide layer and its low thermal conductivity. A solution of zinc chloride in hydrochloric acid is a common flux for stainless steels; it has however to be thoroughly removed afterwards as it would cause pitting corrosion. Another highly effective flux is phosphoric acid; its tendency to polymerize at higher temperatures however limits its applications.

Metal salts as flux in hot corrosion
Hot corrosion can affect gas turbines operating in high salt environments (e.g., near the ocean). Salts, including chlorides and sulfates, are ingested by the turbines and deposited in the hot sections of the engine; other elements present in fuels also form salts, e.g. vanadates. The heat from the engine melts these salts which then can flux the passivating oxide layers on the metal components of the engine, allowing corrosion to occur at an accelerated rate.

List of fluxes

 * Borax – for brazing
 * Beeswax
 * Citric acid – for soldering copper/electronics
 * Tallow and lead
 * Paraffin wax
 * Palm oil
 * Zinc chloride ("killed spirits")
 * Zinc chloride and ammonium chloride
 * Olive oil and ammonium chloride – for iron
 * Rosin, tallow, olive oil, and zinc chloride – for aluminium
 * Cryolite (sodium hexafluoroaluminate)
 * Cryolite and phosphoric acid
 * Phosphoric acid and alcohol
 * Cryolite and barium chloride
 * Oleic acid
 * Lithium chloride
 * Magnesium chloride
 * Sodium chloride
 * Potassium chloride
 * Unslaked lime

Flux recovery
During the submerged arc welding process, not all flux turns into slag. Depending on the welding process, 50% to 90% of the flux can be reused.

Standards
Solder fluxes are specified according to several standards.

ISO 9454-1 and DIN EN 29454-1
The most common standard in Europe is ISO 9454-1 (also known as DIN EN 29454-1).

This standard specifies each flux by a four-character code: flux type, base, activator, and form. The form is often omitted.

Therefore, 1.1.2 means rosin flux with halides.

DIN 8511
The older German DIN 8511 specification is still often in use in shops. In the table below, note that the correspondence between DIN 8511 and ISO 9454-1 codes is not one-to-one.

J-STD-004
One standard increasingly used (e.g. in the United States) is J-STD-004. It is very similar to DIN EN 61190-1-1.

Four characters (two letters, then one letter, and last a number) represent flux composition, flux activity, and whether activators include halides:

 * First two letters: Base
 * RO: rosin
 * RE: resin
 * OR: organic
 * IN: inorganic
 * Third letter: Activity
 * L: low
 * M: moderate
 * H: high
 * Number: Halide content
 * 0: less than 0.05% in weight (“halide-free”)
 * 1: halide content depends on activity:
 * less than 0.5% for low activity
 * 0.5% to 2.0% for moderate activity
 * greater than 2.0% for high activity

Any combination is possible, e.g. ROL0, REM1 or ORH0.

J-STD-004 characterizes the flux by reliability of residue from a surface insulation resistance (SIR) and electromigration standpoint. It includes tests for electromigration and surface insulation resistance (which must be greater than 100 MΩ after 168 hours at elevated temperature and humidity with a DC bias applied).

MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571
The old MIL-F-14256 and QQ-S-571 standards defined fluxes as:
 * R (rosin)
 * RMA (rosin mildly activated)
 * RA (rosin activated)
 * WS (water-soluble)

Any of these categories may be no-clean, or not, depending on the chemistry selected and the standard that the manufacturer requires.

title: Flux (metallurgy)


text:
Baylor University basketball scandal

The Baylor University basketball scandal occurred in the early 2000s, when Baylor University's men's basketball program was investigated and punished for numerous infractions by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA). The scandal broke out after the 2003 murder of Baylor basketball player Patrick Dennehy. Dennehy's teammate Carlton Dotson pleaded guilty to the murder and was sentenced to a 35-year prison term.

Shortly after Dennehy's initial disappearance, Baylor and the NCAA began investigations into multiple allegations, ranging from drug use among players to improper payments to players by the coaching staff. Baylor self-imposed punishments, which the NCAA augmented to include extended probation for the school through 2010, the elimination of one year of non-conference play, and a ten-year show-cause penalty on resigned head coach Dave Bliss. The sanctions so crippled the basketball program that they didn't have another winning season until 2008. It is one of the harshest penalties ever imposed on a Division I program that didn't include the NCAA's "death penalty".

Disappearance and murder of Patrick Dennehy
Patrick Dennehy was a junior forward who transferred to Baylor University following his sophomore season at the University of New Mexico (UNM) in 2001–2002. In the summer of 2003, Dennehy and his new teammate Carlton Dotson indicated that they were concerned about their safety. After both men failed to attend a party, there were indications that something had gone wrong when Dennehy's family had not heard from him and Dennehy's roommate returned home to find that his dog had not been fed. On June 25, Dennehy's car was found in Virginia Beach, Virginia, with its license plates removed.

An affidavit filed on June 23, which was unsealed on June 30, which sought a search warrant for Dennehy's computer reported that an informant in Delaware told police that Dotson, who was by now at home in Hurlock, Maryland, told a cousin that he had shot and killed Dennehy during an argument while firing guns in the Waco, Texas area. On July 21, Dotson was charged with Dennehy's murder and taken into custody in Maryland. On July 26, a badly decomposed body was found in a gravel pit near Waco and was later identified as Dennehy. On July 30, his death was ruled a homicide, and on August 7, a memorial service was held for Dennehy in San Jose, California.

Following a stint in which Dotson's competency to stand trial was in question, he pleaded guilty to the murder on June 8, 2005, and was sentenced a week later to 35 years in prison. Dotson is currently an inmate of the Texas Department of Criminal Justice and will be eligible for parole after he has served about half of his sentence.

NCAA violations
In early August 2003, allegations arose concerning Dennehy's ability to remain with the Baylor basketball team during the 2002–2003 academic year without an athletic scholarship. Allegations of impropriety within Baylor's athletic department surfaced and university president Robert B. Sloan appointed an investigative panel to determine if there were any potential violations of National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) rules at the school.

Improper payments to players
Having reached the limits on team scholarships, Baylor head coach Dave Bliss had surreptitiously paid Dennehy's tuition and that of teammate Corey Herring. Herring and his family had no knowledge of this; he was under the impression that he was on scholarship. During the investigations, Bliss publicly claimed Dennehy had paid his tuition by being a drug dealer, but was soon under investigation by the university and the NCAA. Additionally, in the weeks preceding his resignation, Bliss flew to New York City—without the knowledge of anyone, including his wife—in an attempt to convince Herring's mother to lie about paying $18,641. Later, Bliss pretended to be Herring's father—in an attempt to determine what evidence school and NCAA investigators might find against him—when he called Baylor's financial aid office to check on payments made to Herring's account.

Drug use
On August 1, further allegations arose from Dotson's estranged wife, Melissa Kethley, and by Sonya Hart, the mother of Baylor athlete Robert Hart. They reported widespread abuse of marijuana and alcohol among Baylor players that was subsequently ignored by Bliss and his staff. Sonya Hart revealed that she had raised concerns about the drug use with associate athletic director Paul Bradshaw, but that no one ever got back in contact with her.

Recruiting violations
On August 5, two members of the 2002–2003 Baylor basketball team told The Dallas Morning News that members of the coaching staff were present during a pickup game involving recruit Harvey Thomas during his official visit to Baylor. One of the two players said that Bliss and assistant coach Rodney Belcher were both present during the game. NCAA rules state that staff observation of a recruit's athletic activities, directly or indirectly, during their official visit to their university constitute an "illegal tryout."

Prior violations at SMU
It was also revealed that Bliss had apparently broken several NCAA regulations during his tenure at Baylor and during his tenure at Southern Methodist University (SMU) from 1980 to 1988. At the time, both schools were members of the Southwest Conference. On August 2, an NCAA memo obtained by the Fort Worth Star-Telegram detailed major rules violations, including booster payments of $2,000 to $5,000 to center Jon Koncak during his junior and senior years. Both Bliss and SMU received no NCAA penalties for the infractions because the university had already received the death penalty for massive violations in their football program in February 1987, and the decision was made not to further punish the SMU athletic department. Shortly after the investigation, Bliss left SMU to take a position at New Mexico in 1988, before joining the Baylor program in 1999.

Bliss resignation
For his part, Bliss denied all allegations saying, "We have followed the rules, however difficult they may be, for 30 years." However, on the day after Dennehy's memorial service, Bliss met with Baylor investigators and was told that Dennehy's girlfriend had accused him of paying the portions of Dennehy and Herring's tuition not covered by financial aid. Both payments violated NCAA rules. Bliss confessed to making the payments, which totaled $7,000. This, combined with the violations of Baylor's drug test policy and Bliss' presence at Thomas' official visit to Baylor, led Sloan to force his resignation on August 8, 2003. Athletic director Tom Stanton resigned on the same day. Although there was no evidence that Stanton knew of the violations, he resigned to take responsibility for what happened.

Preliminary sanctions imposed
On the same day that Bliss resigned, Baylor's investigative committee announced their preliminary findings and imposed preliminary sanctions on the basketball program. Baylor placed itself on two years' probation and withdrew from the 2003-04 Big 12 Conference tournament, effectively removing itself from postseason consideration. A full release was granted to every player in the men's basketball program; any player who wished to transfer would be allowed to do so without penalty.

Lying to investigators
On August 16, the Star-Telegram reported that Bliss had told players to lie to investigators by indicating that Dennehy had paid for his tuition by dealing drugs. These conversations were taped on microcassette by assistant coach Abar Rouse from July 30 to August 1. On the tapes, Bliss was heard instructing players to fabricate the story of Dennehy being a drug dealer to Baylor investigators and also said that talking to the McLennan County Sheriff's Department would give him the opportunity to "practice" his story. The tapes also showed that Bliss and his staff knew that Dennehy had been threatened by two teammates when they publicly denied such knowledge. Rouse taped the conversations after Bliss threatened to fire him if he did not go along with the scheme. The revelations shocked Baylor and the college basketball community. However, despite the potential allegations of extortion, obstruction of justice and witness tampering, no criminal charges were filed against Bliss.

Penalties
Baylor continued to investigate the basketball program over the next seven months and released their final report on February 26, 2004. The full list of major program violations included:

 * Bliss paying for tuition for two players, Dennehy and Herring, and attempting to conceal it.
 * Coaching staff providing meals, transportation, lodging and clothing to athletes.
 * Coaching staff paying for tuition and fees for a recruit at another school.
 * Bliss's encouragement of school boosters to donate to a foundation tied to a basketball team that included prospective Baylor recruits.
 * Failure to report positive drug test results by athletes.
 * Failure by the entire coaching staff to "exercise institutional control over the basketball program."

Other improprieties of a lesser nature were also discovered.

As a result, Baylor imposed further penalties on the basketball program. The program's probation was extended for an additional year, scholarships were reduced for the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons, expense-paid recruiting visits were also reduced for the next two seasons, other recruiting abilities were also inhibited, and one exhibition game was eliminated for the 2004–05 season. Baylor announced that it would re-certify its entire athletic department conformed to NCAA rules. Baylor forwarded its findings to the NCAA, who imposed further penalties on the school on June 23, 2005:

 * The university's probation was extended until June 22, 2010.
 * Baylor was barred from playing any nonconference games for the 2005–06 season, the first time such a "half-season" penalty had been imposed.
 * The NCAA further reduced Baylor's paid recruiting visits from twelve to nine for the 2006–07 season. (Baylor had already imposed restrictions on recruiting visits for the 2004–05 and 2005–06 seasons.)
 * In addition, other smaller penalties were also imposed on Baylor.

The NCAA also imposed a ten-year show-cause penalty on Bliss for "unethical conduct." This meant that until 2015, any NCAA member school that wanted to hire Bliss had to report to the organization every six months stating that he was in compliance with any restrictions the NCAA imposed on him, unless that school could demonstrate that Bliss had served his punishment. It is the most severe penalty the NCAA can hand a coach. As most schools will not even consider hiring someone with a show-cause order outstanding, the order had the effect of blackballing Bliss from the NCAA coaching ranks for the duration of the penalty. The NCAA found that Bliss and his staff had demonstrated "a blatant and sweeping disregard" for their rules. Besides paying parts of Dennehy and Herring's tuition, Bliss admitted that he'd concealed under-the-table payments to Herring and lied to both the NCAA and Baylor investigators. He also admitted to telling assistant coaches to file false expense reports and lie to Baylor investigators.

Doug Ash, who had been Bliss's top assistant throughout Bliss's coaching career at Oklahoma, SMU, New Mexico and Baylor, was hit with a five-year show-cause order. Another former assistant, Rodney Belcher, was hit with a seven-year show-cause order.

In its final report, the NCAA called the violations at Baylor as serious as those which occurred at SMU almost twenty years earlier. Indeed, Baylor was eligible for the death penalty since its men's tennis program was on probation for major violations; the NCAA can hand down the death penalty for a second major violation within five years, even if it occurs in a different sport. However, the organization praised Baylor for taking prompt action once the violations came to light (in marked contrast to SMU, where there was evidence that administrators knew about the violations and did nothing).

Aftermath
The scandal left Baylor's basketball program in ruins. Lawrence Roberts, John Lucas III, Kenny Taylor, and Tyrone Nelson transferred to other schools. Two of the four became immediate stars at programs that would win regular-season conference titles in 2004 – Roberts became the main inside force at Mississippi State, leading their team in scoring and rebounding and being selected as a first-team All-American, while Lucas stayed in the conference at Oklahoma State, becoming their second-leading scorer and assists leader while helping his team to reach the Final Four. Taylor transferred to the University of Texas at Austin and Nelson enrolled at Prairie View A&M University. A year later, Herring transferred to Canisius College.

Bliss' successor, Scott Drew, was hired two weeks after Bliss' ouster. Due to his unusually late hiring–two months before practice and three months before the season opener–and the crippling sanctions imposed by both the school and the NCAA, Baylor only won a total of 36 games, including only thirteen conference games, from 2003 to 2007. However, Drew quickly turned the program around after his recruits arrived; Baylor made the 2008 NCAA tournament, finished second in the 2009 NIT, and advanced to the Elite Eight of the 2010 and 2012 NCAA tournaments—the school's deepest NCAA run since going to the Final Four in 1950. In 2019–20, Drew led the Bears to the greatest season in school history at the time. Baylor finished with a 26-4 regular-season record, was ranked 4th in the final Coaches Poll, and was projected to a #1 seed in the 2020 NCAA tournament which would've been a first for the program. Unfortunately for Baylor, the 2020 Tournament was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The following season, Baylor won the Big 12 regular season title for the first time in program history, received a #1 seed for the 2021 NCAA tournament's South Region, advanced to its first Final Four appearance since 1950, and made its first title game appearance since 1948, where the Bears won their first national championship.

Rouse sued his attorney in 2005 for releasing the incriminating tapes of Bliss, claiming that it breached the attorney–client privilege. Rouse's attorney claims she did not know how the tapes got transcribed, but the journalist who published them said he got them from her.

After Baylor, Rouse worked as a graduate assistant coach at Midwestern State University in Wichita Falls, Texas. He left the position in October 2007 and has not had another basketball job since; he has said that he has been effectively blackballed from the collegiate ranks for taping Bliss's statements. Despite the near-universal revulsion at Bliss's actions, many leading members of the college basketball coaching fraternity considered Rouse's recordings a serious breach of trust. For example, Mike Krzyzewski said that if he ever found out one of his assistants had been secretly taping him, "there's no way he would be on my staff". Jeff Ray, the Midwestern coach who hired Rouse, commented: "I'm right in the middle of it, don't get me wrong. But sometimes the things you see are pretty disgusting. Why is there this black cloud hanging over him? He did nothing wrong. To me, this is all a testimony to the sad state of affairs of our profession."

Bliss eventually returned to the college basketball coaching ranks, in 2015, as head coach at Southwestern Christian University, an NAIA member. He resigned that position in April 2017, following the airing of the Showtime documentary Disgraced, which chronicled the cover-up at Baylor.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baylor University basketball scandal


text:
Order (group theory)

In mathematics, the order of a finite group is the number of its elements. If a group is not finite, one says that its order is infinite. The order of an element of a group (also called period length or period) is the order of the subgroup generated by the element. If the group operation is denoted as a multiplication, the order of an element $a$ of a group, is thus the smallest positive integer $m$ such that $a^{m} = e$, where $e$ denotes the identity element of the group, and $a^{m}$ denotes the product of $m$ copies of $a$. If no such $m$ exists, the order of $a$ is infinite.

The order of a group $G$ is denoted by $ord(G)$ or $|G|$, and the order of an element $a$ is denoted by $ord(a)$ or $|a|$, instead of $$\operatorname{ord}(\langle a\rangle),$$ where the brackets denote the generated group.

Lagrange's theorem states that for any subgroup $H$ of a finite group $G$, the order of the subgroup divides the order of the group; that is, $|H|$ is a divisor of $|G|$. In particular, the order $|a|$ of any element is a divisor of $|G$.

Example
The symmetric group S3 has the following multiplication table.
 * {| class="wikitable"

!  • ! e || s || t || u || v || w ! e ! s ! t ! u ! v ! w
 * e || s || t || u || v || w
 * s || e || v || w || t || u
 * t || u || e || s || w || v
 * u || t || w || v || e || s
 * v || w || s || e || u || t
 * w || v || u || t || s || e
 * }

This group has six elements, so $ord(S_{3}) = 6$. By definition, the order of the identity, $e$, is one, since $e ^{1} = e$. Each of $s$, $t$, and $w$ squares to $e$, so these group elements have order two: $|s| = |t| = |w| = 2$. Finally, $u$ and $v$ have order 3, since $u^{3} = vu = e$, and $v^{3} = uv = e$.

Order and structure
The order of a group G and the orders of its elements give much information about the structure of the group. Roughly speaking, the more complicated the factorization of |G|, the more complicated the structure of G.

For |G| = 1, the group is trivial. In any group, only the identity element a = e has ord(a) = 1. If every non-identity element in G is equal to its inverse (so that a2 = e), then ord(a) = 2; this implies G is abelian since $$ab=(ab)^{-1}=b^{-1}a^{-1}=ba$$. The converse is not true; for example, the (additive) cyclic group Z6 of integers modulo 6 is abelian, but the number 2 has order 3:

 * $$2+2+2=6 \equiv 0 \pmod {6}$$.

The relationship between the two concepts of order is the following: if we write
 * $$\langle a \rangle = \{ a^{k}\colon k \in \mathbb{Z} \} $$

for the subgroup generated by a, then
 * $$\operatorname{ord} (a) = \operatorname{ord}(\langle a \rangle).$$

For any integer k, we have
 * ak = e  if and only if   ord(a) divides k.

In general, the order of any subgroup of G divides the order of G. More precisely: if H is a subgroup of G, then
 * ord(G) / ord(H) = [G : H], where [G : H] is called the index of H in G, an integer. This is Lagrange's theorem. (This is, however, only true when G has finite order. If ord(G) = ∞, the quotient ord(G) / ord(H) does not make sense.)

As an immediate consequence of the above, we see that the order of every element of a group divides the order of the group. For example, in the symmetric group shown above, where ord(S3) = 6, the possible orders of the elements are 1, 2, 3 or 6.

The following partial converse is true for finite groups: if d divides the order of a group G and d is a prime number, then there exists an element of order d in G (this is sometimes called Cauchy's theorem). The statement does not hold for composite orders, e.g. the Klein four-group does not have an element of order four. This can be shown by inductive proof. The consequences of the theorem include: the order of a group G is a power of a prime p if and only if ord(a) is some power of p for every a in G.

If a has infinite order, then all non-zero powers of a have infinite order as well. If a has finite order, we have the following formula for the order of the powers of a:
 * ord(ak) = ord(a) / gcd(ord(a), k)

for every integer k. In particular, a and its inverse a−1 have the same order.

In any group,
 * $$ \operatorname{ord}(ab) = \operatorname{ord}(ba)$$

There is no general formula relating the order of a product ab to the orders of a and b. In fact, it is possible that both a and b have finite order while ab has infinite order, or that both a and b have infinite order while ab has finite order. An example of the former is a(x) = 2−x, b(x) = 1−x with ab(x) = x−1 in the group $$Sym(\mathbb{Z})$$. An example of the latter is a(x) = x+1, b(x) = x−1 with ab(x) = x. If ab = ba, we can at least say that ord(ab) divides lcm(ord(a), ord(b)). As a consequence, one can prove that in a finite abelian group, if m denotes the maximum of all the orders of the group's elements, then every element's order divides m.

Counting by order of elements
Suppose G is a finite group of order n, and d is a divisor of n. The number of order d elements in G is a multiple of φ(d) (possibly zero), where φ is Euler's totient function, giving the number of positive integers no larger than d and coprime to it. For example, in the case of S3, φ(3) = 2, and we have exactly two elements of order 3. The theorem provides no useful information about elements of order 2, because φ(2) = 1, and is only of limited utility for composite d such as d = 6, since φ(6) = 2, and there are zero elements of order 6 in S3.

In relation to homomorphisms
Group homomorphisms tend to reduce the orders of elements: if f: G → H is a homomorphism, and a is an element of G of finite order, then ord(f(a)) divides ord(a). If f is injective, then ord(f(a)) = ord(a). This can often be used to prove that there are no homomorphisms or no injective homomorphisms, between two explicitly given groups. (For example, there can be no nontrivial homomorphism h: S3 → Z5, because every number except zero in Z5 has order 5, which does not divide the orders 1, 2, and 3 of elements in S3.) A further consequence is that conjugate elements have the same order.

Class equation
An important result about orders is the class equation; it relates the order of a finite group G to the order of its center Z(G) and the sizes of its non-trivial conjugacy classes:
 * $$|G| = |Z(G)| + \sum_{i}d_i\;$$

where the di are the sizes of the non-trivial conjugacy classes; these are proper divisors of |G| bigger than one, and they are also equal to the indices of the centralizers in G of the representatives of the non-trivial conjugacy classes. For example, the center of S3 is just the trivial group with the single element e, and the equation reads |S3| = 1+2+3.

title: Order (group theory)


text:
Saint Mary's Academy and College

Saint Mary's Academy and College is a religious school of the Society of St. Pius X located in St. Marys, Kansas.

The original St. Mary's College
The original college at this location, St. Mary's College, was founded by the Jesuits in 1848 as an Indian mission. The school is the site of the first cathedral west of the Missouri River and east of the Rockies, the 1851 "log cathedral" of Bishop John Baptist Miège, S.J., Apostolic Vicar of Kansas under Pope Pius IX known familiarly as "The Bishop East of the Rockies".

When the Potawatomi left, the Jesuits turned it into a boarding school for boys, until it closed during the Great Depression. After 1931 the 465 acre (1.9 km²) plot hosted the divinity school of St. Louis University. With the movement of seminaries to the city after Vatican II, the land was sold and the Jesuit divinity school returned to St. Louis in 1967.

Athletics
The St. Mary's athletic teams were called the Knights. The college was a member of the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics (NAIA), primarily competing in the Kansas Collegiate Athletic Conference (KCAC) from 1902–03 to 1930–31, the season where the school closed.

Saint Mary's Academy and College
In 1978, the Society of Saint Pius X acquired the property along with 12 major buildings. The school is now incorporated in Kansas as The Society of Saint Pius X of Saint Mary's, Inc. It has no ties with the previous St. Mary's College.

As of 2024, the Academy had an enrollment of over 900 students K-12 and the two-year college has expanded to a four-year bachelors program with an enrollment of 60 in a liberal arts curriculum. St. Mary's does not have a seminary program.

In 2002, the governor of Kansas formally recognized Saint Mary's Academy and College for the excellence of its educational curriculum. While neither the Academy nor the College are accredited by any accreditation agencies, they do operate with approval from the Kansas Board of Regents.

The school operates its own radio station, KSMK-LP 98.3 FM, since 2002.

The Academy teams play in the Kansas Christian League in football and soccer and against some non-league teams.

St. Mary's Academy and College is also a traditional Catholic congregation of approximately 4,300 persons (2023).

In 2019, St. Mary's Academy and College announced plans for the construction of a new Immaculata Church, expected to hold 1500 people and to be the largest SSPX church in Kansas.

On May 3, 2023, the Immaculata Church was consecrated by Bishop Fellay.

Controversy
In February 2008, St. Mary's Academy made news when a female referee was told that she could not officiate at the high school basketball game. The other referee allegedly claimed that someone told him it was because she "could not be put in a position of authority over boys because of the academy's beliefs". The Academy denied this belief. St. Mary's Academy was removed from the Kansas State High School Activities Association list of approved schools. They were reinstated two years later.

St. Mary's official reply to the incident was in a press release:

 * This alleged reason was neither stated nor is it held by any official of St. Mary's Academy, as evidenced by the fact that the faculty and staff of St. Mary's includes many honorable ladies of talent and erudition....
 * St. Mary's Academy follows the directives of the Catholic Church regarding co-education. The Church has always promoted the ideal of forming and educating boys and girls separately during the adolescent years, especially in physical education (Cf. Divini Illius Magistri - Encyclical on the Christian Education of Youth, by Pope Pius XI, 1929 and The Instruction of the Sacred Congregation of Religious on Co-Education, A.A.S., 25 (1958) pp. 99-103). This formation of adolescent boys is best accomplished by male role models, as the formation of girls is best accomplished by women. Hence in boys' athletic competitions, it is important that the various role models (coaches and referees) be men.

In 2004, the school forfeited a football game against White City High School because the opponent had a girl on the team.

Notable people

 * Alumni
 * Robert Casey (1890–1962), combat veteran, newspaper correspondent and columnist for Chicago Daily News.
 * Charles Comiskey (1859–1931), baseball player, manager, team owner. He was the founding owner of the Chicago White Sox.  Comiskey Park was named for him.
 * Faculty
 * Ernest Quigley (1880–1960), basketball referee, umpire in Major League Baseball, football coach at Kansas Wesleyan University. At St. Mary's College, he was coach, teacher, athletic director from 1903 to 1912.

title: Saint Mary's Academy and College


text:
Benoni, South Africa

Benoni is a town on the East Rand, Gauteng, South Africa, some 26 km east of Johannesburg, within the City of Ekurhuleni municipality.

Benoni was also the setting for the MTV-inspired movie Crazy Monkey: Straight Outta Benoni, released internationally in 2005.

Geography
Benoni is situated towards the centre of the East Rand and lies on the urban fringe where the urban area dissolves into the smallholdings and farmland to the north. It borders on Kempton Park to the north-west, Boksburg to the west, Brakpan to the south and Daveyton to the east.

Benoni mainly encompasses a mixture of suburban areas and semi-rural acreage towards the north while the commercial centre (Central Business District) lies in the centre and a few industrial areas lie towards the south.

Rail
Benoni lies on the main railway line between Johannesburg and Springs and the main railway line between Johannesburg and Daveyton, both operated by Metrorail which has temporarily suspended services on these commuter lines since 2020 and have remained closed due to vandalism on these lines.

Prior to 2020, Metrorail operated services on the Johannesburg-Springs line from Benoni to Johannesburg, Germiston, Boksburg, Brakpan and Springs. Benoni is served by three Metrorail railway stations on the Johannesburg-Springs line including: Benoni station, New Kleinfontein station and Apex station.

Prior to 2020, Metrorail operated services on the Johannesburg-Daveyton line from Benoni to Johannesburg, Germiston and Boksburg. Benoni is served by three Metrorail railway stations on the Johannesburg-Daveyton line including: Avenue station, Northmead station and Van Ryn station.

Road
The N12 is the major freeway that runs through Benoni. It enters the town from Boksburg and Johannesburg in the west, bisecting the town and bypassing the CBD to its immediate north before heading east towards eMalahleni.

The R23 runs north-south from Kempton Park towards Brakpan and Heidelberg and runs through the CBD as Tom Jones Street (southbound) and Bunyan Street (northbound). The R29 runs east-west from Springs towards Boksburg and runs through the CBD as Ampthill Avenue (westbound) and Princess Avenue (eastbound). The R51 runs north-south from Bapsfontein, just outside Benoni towards Springs and barely by-passes Benoni to the east.

Benoni is also served by three metropolitan routes linking it to surrounding towns and cities in the East Rand. The M43 links Benoni with Kempton Park to the north-west and Vosloorus to the south-west. The M44 links Benoni with Boksburg to the west. The M45 links Benoni with Kempton Park to the north-west. The M53 links Benoni with Boksburg to the west and Brakpan to the south.

People from Benoni

 * Nomuzi Mabena, South African rapper
 * Urzila Carlson, New Zealand based comedian, from Benoni
 * R. Graham Cooks, chemist
 * Charlene, Princess of Monaco (née Wittstock), swimmer, and consort of Prince Albert II of Monaco
 * Bryan Habana, former Springboks rugby player
 * Philip Holiday, IBF World Champion Boxer
 * Morris Kahn (born 1930), Israeli billionaire, founder and chairman of Aurec Group
 * Denis Lindsay, cricketer
 * Mildred Mangxola, singer and member of the Mahotella Queens
 * Frith van der Merwe, schoolteacher at Benoni High and the most prolific female runner in the history of the Comrades Marathon
 * Pops Mohamed, jazz musician
 * Genevieve Morton, top model
 * Grace Mugabe, former First Lady of Zimbabwe
 * Bradley Player, cricketer
 * Oliver Reginald Tambo, anti-apartheid politician
 * Charlize Theron, Oscar-winning actress (Academy Awards: Best Actress Monster)
 * Vic Toweel, former undisputed World bantamweight champion and South African boxing champion.
 * Jill Trappler, visual artist
 * Nibs van der Spuy, guitarist, singer, songwriter

title: Benoni, South Africa


text:
Sworn virgin

Sworn virgin may refer to:
 * Celibacy, the state of voluntarily being unmarried and/or sexually abstinent
 * Albanian sworn virgins, women in parts of Albania who take a vow of chastity and present as male
 * Sworn Virgin (film), 2015 drama directed by Laura Bispuri
 * Sworn Virgins, studio album by Omar Rodríguez-López

title: Sworn virgin


text:
Zeebra

Hideyuki Yokoi (横井英之), known professionally as Zeebra (ジブラ), is a Japanese hip hop rapper and DJ who made his first appearance in 1995. Zeebra is a former member of the hip-hop group King Giddra, which also included DJ Oasis and K Dub Shine. He went on to pursue a solo career shortly after in 1997, and signed with the Future Shock record label.

Zeebra is one of the most popular rappers in Japan, and his popularity is not specific to either gender. He appears not only in hip-hop magazines, but also in fashion and street culture magazines. He often features in and produces other rappers' songs, and appears in their videos. He has also performed live with various rappers from America.

In 1998 Zeebra undertook his first solo tour. He became recognized as an individual rapper for the first time, making hip-hop more familiar to Japanese listeners. In the same year he started the radio program in Japan, titled Beats to the Rhyme. One of Zeebra's songs was used in a Nike promotion video for NBA Japan games. The following year Zeebra released the single "Mr. Dynamite", the first hip-hop single to break into the top 50 on the Japanese pop charts. In June 2000, he released his new album Based on a True Story, which sold 250,000 copies. At the end of that year Zeebra started his first Japan tour, the first hip-hop event to sell out. In 2001 Zeebra released the single "Never Enuff", the theme song for a Japanese movie called Brother, directed by Takeshi Kitano and starring Claude Maki and Omar Epps. In 2002 he temporarily rejoined King Giddra, but has been doing solo work since 2003 and has released many songs. At present, he is producing songs not only for rap artists, but also for pop stars like Namie Amuro.

Early life
Zeebra was born and raised in Tokyo. During his childhood, he lived in the United States for a brief time while trying to become a professional tennis player.

He is the grandson of businessman Hideki Yokoi, former president of the Hotel New Japan. The hotel's flagship property in central Tokyo caught fire in 1982, disgracing Hideki Yokoi and causing Zeebra to be bullied by his classmates. Zeebra eventually dropped out of high school during his first year.

He married around the age of 20 and fathered two sons, Kento and Ren Yokoi, before divorcing his first wife. Ren is a DJ who plays a mixture of House and Techno, where he is also a main MC for Tokyo Scene; Tokyo’s radio show by Inter FM 89.7. He kept custody of both sons, and later remarried to Miwa Nakabayashi, to whom he fathered two daughters, Kanon and Rima Nakabayashi of NiziU. In November 2020, Zeebra and Nakabayashi announced their divorce.

Pioneer of Japanese Hip Hop
Zeebra began his hip hop career in 1993, joining the rap group King Giddra. Zeebra, along with his group King Giddra, played an important role in the development of the Japanese hip hop scene. In the mid 1990s, King Giddra, then an underground rap group, began addressing social issues of the time. King Giddra's 1995 album "The Power from the Sky" discussed contemporary issues, particularly the economic recession and the inability of many Japanese college graduates to find employment. Zeebra addressed this issue of working towards a good education and being unable to find employment in his song "Bullet of Truth". Through their music, Zeebra and King Giddra "challenged youth not only to recognize the difficulties faced by Japanese society but also to speak up about them."

King Giddra's popularity grew in Japan. In 1996, he recorded his first solo track "Untouchable" produced by Gang Starr producer DJ Premier. By 1997 Zeebra left King Giddra to start a solo career, appearing frequently in trendy hip hop and street culture magazines and TV shows about hip hop. In 1999 he released the single "Mr. Dynamite", which became the first hip-hop single to make it into the top 50 on the Japanese Oricon pop charts. Through his early and newer work, Zeebra became one of the most popular and influential, yet controversial, Japanese hip hop artists.

In 2008, after the MTV Video Music Awards Japan Ceremony, an unhappy Zeebra went onto YouTube and published a video criticizing the MTV Japan for not appreciating musicians.

Albums

 * [1998.06.17] "The Rhyme Animal"
 * [2000.06.14] "Based on a True Story"
 * [2002.05.29] "The First Struggle"
 * [2003.09.18] "Tokyo's Finest"
 * [2006.02.15] "The New Beginning"
 * [2007.10.17] "World of Music"
 * [2011.12.14] "Black World/White Heat"
 * [2013.11.20] "25 to Life"

Singles

 * [1997.07.25] "Mappiruma"
 * [1998.12.16] "The Rhyme Animal Remix E.P.1"
 * [1999.02.24] "The Rhyme Animal Remix E.P.2"
 * [2000.03.23] "Mr. Dynamite"
 * [2001.01.25] "Neva Enuff" feat. Aktion
 * [2001.08.08] "Baby Girl"
 * [2003.01.22] "Big Big Money" feat. Hiro
 * [2003.04.23] "Supatech (What's My Name)"
 * [2003.07.30] "Perfect Queen"
 * [2005.06.01] "Street Dreams"
 * [2005.09.21] "Oh Yeah"
 * [2006.12.06] "Stop Playin' A Wall"
 * [2007.07.18] "My People" feat. Miliyah Kato
 * [2007.09.19] "Not Your Boyfriend" feat. Jesse (RIZE)
 * [2008.03.05] "Bushido"
 * [2010.03.17] "Butterfly City" feat. RYO the SKYWALKER, Mummy-D & DOUBLE
 * [2010.11.17] "Fly Away"
 * [2011.07.27] "Blue" feat. AI
 * [2013] "I Do It"
 * [2013] "Mr. Miyagi"

Compilations

 * [2008.9.17] The Anthology
 * [2010] "Z – The Best of Zeebra"
 * [2013.12.25] "100 Feat-Zeebra 25th Anniversary Box"

Awards and nominations
2002
 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Video from a Film – Neva Enuff (feat. Aktion)

2003
 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Hip Hop Video – F.F.B. (with King Giddra)

2004
 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Hip Hop Video – Touch The Sky (Winner)
 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Male Video – Touch The Sky

2006
 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Hip Hop Video – Street Dreams

2008

 * MTV Video Music Awards Japan – Best Hip Hop Video – Not Your Boyfriend (feat. Jesse (RIZE))

Music videos

 * 1997
 * "真っ昼間" (Daytime)

 * 1998
 * "PARTEECHECKA" [Bright Light Mix]

 * 2000
 * "ZEUS 2000" (feat. Sugar Soul)
 * "MR.DYNAMITE"
 * "Children's Story"

 * 2001
 * "Neva Enuff" (feat. AKTION)
 * "Baby Girl"
 * "城南ハスラー 2" (Seongnam Hustler 2) (feat. DABO, UZI, GKMARYAN)

 * 2002
 * "UNSTOPPABLE" (Zeebra with K Dub Shine & DJ OASIS as 'King Giddra')
 * "FFB" (Zeebra with K Dub Shine & DJ OASIS as 'King Giddra')
 * "911" (Remix) (Zeebra with K Dub Shine & DJ OASIS as 'King Giddra')
 * "Generation Next" (Zeebra with K Dub Shine & DJ OASIS as 'King Giddra')

 * 2003
 * "Big Big Money" (feat. HIRO [from 'Full of Harmony]')
 * "Supatech (What's My Name?)"
 * "Perfect Queen"
 * "Touch The Sky"
 * "GOLDENMIC" (w/ DJ MASTERKEY)

 * 2005
 * "Street Dreams"
 * "Oh Yeah!"

 * 2006
 * "Do What U Gotta Do" (feat. Namie Amuro, AI & Mummy-D [from 'RHYMESTER'])
 * "Stop Playin 'A Wall"

 * 2007
 * "My People" (feat. Kato Miliyah)
 * "Not your Boyfriend" ''(feat. JESSE [from 'RIZE])"
 * "Shinin' Like A Diamond" (feat. May J & Sphere of Influence)

 * 2008
 * "Bushido"
 * "Jackin '4 Beats"

 * 2010
 * "Butterfly City" (feat. Double, RYO the SKYWALKER & Mummy-D [from 'RHYMESTER'])
 * "Fly Away"

 * 2011
 * "Gang On The Backstreet" (feat. TOKYO SKA PARADISE ORCHESTRA)
 * "Blue" (feat. AI)

 * 2012
 * "Money In My Pocket" (feat. NaNa)

 * 2013
 * "Moonlight"
 * "Young Soldier"
 * "Mr. Miyagi"

 * 2014
 * "Hate That Booty" (feat. Y's & KOHH)
 * "Diamond In The Sand" (feat. May J)

title: Zeebra


text:
Talk:Magnolia acuminata

Comments
Google hits:

Cucumber tree 120,000 2,000

(see also Talk:Cucumbertree for more discussion)

It should perhaps be noted that searching on google for "cucumber tree" only returns ~3000 hits. i.e. many of the hits when searching for 'cucumber tree' without the quotes are pages which mention both the words cucumber and tree but not one after the other. --Ams80 20:47, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Magnolia acuminata


text:
Template talk:New Religious Movements

Bringing this up again. NRM ≠ Cult
This is an issue that has not been resolved and really needs to.

 * "Cult" is a subjective term that can apply to any group, depending on which group or individual you ask - inclusion of groups in the template is contentious, since the term, as used by the Chtistian countercult movement, the anti-cult movement, and assorted "specialists" is usually used in a negative context.
 * "Cult" has also been used historically
 * Cult and NRMs are not interchangeable terms

The template should be renamed "New religious movements" and all references to cult should be moved to a separate template (or templates, since the definition varies so vastly)

Zambelo (talk) 07:28, 26 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Note there are problems with organising anything under the term "cult" per se so I wouldn't recommend creating a new template under that name, see some recent history here. Helen  Online  07:24, 17 May 2014 (UTC)

title: Template talk:New Religious Movements


text:
Mark Kennedy (politician)

Mark Raymond Kennedy (born April 11, 1957) is an American businessman, politician, and university administrator. Following a career as a business executive, he was a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota from 2001 to 2007. Kennedy did not seek reelection in 2006, instead running in the 2006 election for U.S. Senate. He lost to Democratic–Farmer–Labor nominee Amy Klobuchar.

Afterward, he became director of The Graduate School of Political Management in 2012, until serving as the 12th president of the University of North Dakota from 2016 to 2019, and then becoming the 23rd president of the University of Colorado (CU) system, in office from 2019 to 2021.

Kennedy now serves as Director of the Wilson Center’s Wahba Institute for Strategic Competition.

Early life and business career
Kennedy graduated from Pequot Lakes High School in 1975 and St. John's University in 1979. He began his career as a certified public accountant and went on to receive his M.B.A. with distinction from the University of Michigan's Ross School of Business in 1983.

Kennedy's business career included working for the Pillsbury Company, assisting with its acquisition of Häagen-Dazs and arranging for financing to support its international expansion. As a senior executive at Federated Department Stores, he helped the company position itself for growth to become, as Macy's, the world's leading department store. He was profiled in May 1992's Institutional Investor Magazine, which featured him as one of "America's top CFOs". At ShopKo Stores, he was responsible for merchandising, marketing and store management.

U.S. House of Representatives
In 2000 Kennedy won the Republican nomination for the 2nd district and faced four-term Democratic incumbent David Minge. He had never run for political office before. In the second closest congressional race of that cycle, Kennedy defeated Minge by 155 votes.

Leading up to the 2002 elections, although Minnesota did not gain or lose any districts, Kennedy's 2nd district—an enormous 28-county district stretching from the southwestern corner of the state to the fringes of the Twin Cities—was dismantled. Its territory was split up among four neighboring districts. Kennedy's home outside Watertown was just inside the reconfigured 6th district, in the Twin Cities' northern suburbs.

In 2002 Kennedy initially expected to face the 6th district's three-term Democratic incumbent, Bill Luther. But the new 6th was somewhat more Republican than its predecessor, and Luther opted to move to the reconfigured 2nd district, where he eventually lost to John Kline. Kennedy instead faced Janet Robert, a lawyer and longtime Democratic activist. In one of the most expensive congressional races in Minnesota history, Kennedy was elected with 57% of the vote.

In 2004, Kennedy faced child safety advocate Patty Wetterling. He received 54% percent of the vote to Wetterling's 46%.

2006 U.S. Senate election
Kennedy did not seek reelection to the House in 2006. Instead he ran against DFL nominee and Hennepin County Attorney Amy Klobuchar for the U.S. Senate seat being vacated by DFL incumbent Mark Dayton. Also in the race were the Independence Party nominee, Robert Fitzgerald; the Green Party nominee, Michael Cavlan; and the Constitution Party nominee, Ben Powers.

Klobuchar won the election, receiving 58% of the vote to Kennedy's 38%.

Political positions
Kennedy's support of the proposed surge in the Iraq War during the 2006 Senate election was described as "bold and smart" on the Brit Hume show on Fox News (Fox News, Brit Hume Show, 12-27-06). Anderson Cooper, an anchor on CNN, said that "Kennedy doesn't ignore the elephant in the room. To the contrary, he looks it straight in the eye" (CNN, Anderson Cooper 360°, 10-25-06).

A proponent of free trade, Kennedy voted for giving the president fast-track authority and for the Central America Free Trade Agreement.

Kennedy supported the Bush tax cuts and voted for the Medicare Prescription Drug Plan and the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005, while co-sponsoring three other bipartisan bills that year that would expand stem cell research. His also sponsored a line-item veto, a lifetime ban on all members of Congress becoming lobbyists, full deductibility of medical expenses, no parole for sex offenders, and Medicare Plan Enrollment Fraud Protection.

Kennedy's record of bipartisanship included partnering with 20 Democrats to lead legislation and having more than half the Democrats in the House co-sponsor bills he introduced. Such bills included:
 * the Teachers for Tomorrow's Careers Act with Rush Holt from New Jersey,
 * the Fair Care for the Uninsured Act with Dan Lipinski from Illinois,
 * the Rural Access to Emergency Services Act with Earl Pomeroy from North Dakota,
 * the Clean Alternatives for Energy Independence Act with Mark Udall from Colorado,
 * the Emergency Wetlands Loan Act with Mike Thompson from California,
 * the Child Support Enforcement Act with Juanita Millender-McDonald from California, and
 * the SLAM Act (to increase penalties on those who traffic and sell methamphetamines) with Darlene Hooley from Oregon.

Kennedy called himself "100% pro-life". He voted in favor of the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act and the Unborn Victims of Violence Act. He voted to sustain Bush's veto of the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act of 2005 while co-sponsoring three other bipartisan bills that year that would expand stem cell research.

Community activities
In 2007 Kennedy was appointed to the President's Advisory Committee on Trade Policy and Negotiation (ACTPN). Part of the Office of the United States Trade Representative, ACTPN considers trade policy issues in the context of overall national interest.

In 2008 Kennedy, along with former Representatives Tim Penny and Bill Frenzel of Minnesota, founded the Economic Club of Minnesota (ECOM), a nonpartisan platform for national and international leaders in business, government, and public policy to present their ideas on how Minnesota can better compete in an increasingly globalized economy. The Economic Club sponsors the Bill Frenzel Champion of Free Trade Award.

Also, in 2008 he established the Frontiers of Freedom Lecture Series at the Eugene J. McCarthy Center for Public Policy at his alma mater, St. John's University.

Kennedy became a member of the Economic Club of Washington in 2013.

In 2015 Kennedy was elected to the Council on Foreign Relations.

In 2021 Kennedy was appointed as a United States Air and Space Forces Civic Leader supporting the Secretary of the Air Force.

Employment
From 2007 to 2010 Kennedy served as the global retail business development lead at Accenture, a global management consulting and technology services firm. In 2010 he formed Chartwell Strategic Advisors LLC. Kennedy's activities through Chartwell include speaking on applying 360° Vision to bridge differences between business and society; the political left and right; the United States and the world.

From 2011 to 2013 Kennedy served as an executive in residence at Johns Hopkins University's Carey Business School in Baltimore, Maryland, teaching MBA courses on corporate statesmanship, global economic systems, as well as global immersion courses in Brazil and Turkey.

In January 2012 Kennedy accepted the position of director and professor at the George Washington University Graduate School of Political Management. During his tenure the school launched two new master's programs—one in Spanish with a Latin American focus and one focused on advocacy in the global environment —and was designated as the PR Education Program of the Year by PR Week.

Between 2012 and 2017, Kennedy has also been an adjunct faculty member at Koç University in Istanbul, Turkey.

Kennedy introduced the concept of "Shapeholders" to the field of business strategy—the political, regulatory, media, and activist actors that shape a firm's opportunities and risks. Kennedy teaches how to effectively engage shapeholders both at home and abroad to profitably advance business strategies while benefiting society.

University of North Dakota President (2016–2019)
On March 15, 2016, the North Dakota State Board of Higher Education announced that Kennedy had been selected as the twelfth President of the University of North Dakota. Kennedy, who had filed his application on January 2, 2016, was in February the third of six finalists to visit the school. He succeeded president Robert Kelley, who retired in January 2016, and Ed Schafer, who served as interim President until Kennedy took office on July 1. He was inaugurated on October 10, 2016.

Notable achievements by UND during Kennedy's tenure include being ranked by U.S. News as one of the 25 Most Innovative Schools and being awarded the 2017 Big Sky Conference Presidents' Cup for outstanding student-athlete academic achievement while winning four conference championships in one year.

On May 9, 2017, Kennedy's book Shapeholders: Business Success in the Age of Activism was published by Columbia Business School.

On April 9, 2019, Kennedy was named the sole finalist for the position of President at the University of Colorado. On April 10, he stated in an email that he would accept the position.

University of Colorado President (2019–2021)
In April 2019, the University of Colorado Board of Regents named Kennedy the sole finalist for the university presidency in a 9–0 vote. After several contentious public hearings, the Board of Regents elected him to the position in a partisan 5–4 vote. Members of the CU community expressed concerns that Kennedy had insufficient experience to lead CU, and many raised specific concerns about Kennedy's ability to lead the university on issues related to diversity, equity, and inclusion. A Denver Post editorial observed, "We are displeased and a little sickened by the orchestrated opposition to Kennedy based not on his qualifications but on his political affiliation. The CU Faculty Council has set out to demonize Kennedy in a disturbing manner that bodes poorly for attracting top candidates for this role in the future. What sane individual with a résumé worthy of any world-class institution would willfully subject himself or herself to the kind of ridicule and public haranguing that Kennedy has faced in recent weeks?" Kennedy started as an employee on June 15 for a transition period with outgoing president Bruce Benson and became president on July 1.

Kennedy’s presidency was marked by several historic milestones for the university in advancing diversity and inclusion, including hiring its first systemwide chief diversity officer, the development of its first Indigenous lands recognition statement, providing support for CU Denver fulfilling its role as newly named Hispanic Servicing Institution, and expanding scholarships for less represented communities, including authorizing match funding for the Charles J. Blackwood, MD, Endowed Memorial Scholarship honoring the School of Medicine's first black graduate. Kennedy drew criticism, however, for enacting changes to university policies that some believed might limit staff and faculty members' ability to publicly support vulnerable communities and to advocate for social change. CU Boulder’s Center for Native American and Indigenous Studies issued a public rebuke after Kennedy used the phrase "trail of tears" colloquially to describe the challenges CU would face if it did not expand online education opportunities. The written rebuke noted that Kennedy's use of this term, demonstrated “ignorance of these atrocities at best, and willful verbal harm at worst.” Kennedy issued a formal apology within an hour of concern being raised. In 2021, two actions occurred in Boulder, ranked as America's most liberal small town, that were not replicated at the other three communities hosting CU Campuses. CU Boulder's Faculty Assembly cited the above examples and others in formally censuring Kennedy for “failure of leadership with respect to diversity, equity, and inclusion,” with 35 Assembly members supporting and 20 members opposing the motion (one abstaining). The other three campuses did not join the action. Kennedy received another rebuke from NAACP Boulder County, which in May 2021 conducted a vote of no confidence and urged the Regents to remove Kennedy from his position. Again, neither the counties that represented CU’s other three campuses, nor the statewide organization, joined the action.

Eight months into Kennedy’s presidency saw the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Despite the challenges associated with navigating a global pandemic, 36 Kennedy, working with the regents, advanced several key initiatives including shepherding a coordinated approach to expanding the university’s online offerings and strengthening its technological infrastructure. The university’s other notable achievements during this time include keeping net tuition flat; 39 garnering $1.4 billion in sponsored research funding and gifts in 2020; 40 increasing graduation and retention rates; creating the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion Innovation Fund; 41 completing a strategic plan for the university; and achieving the second highest fundraising year in the university’s history – $455 million in 2020.

In January 2021, the University of Colorado Board of Regents switched partisan control for the first time in 40 years, with Democrats in the majority. On May 10, 2021, Kennedy announced that given changes in the board’s makeup and its focus, he was making plans to leave his position. On June 1, 2021, the Board of Regents announced that administrator Todd Saliman would serve as interim president of the university effective July 1, 2021. On June 17, 2021, the Board of Regents passed a resolution of appreciation for Kennedy, commending him for his service to the university and conferring upon him the title of president emeritus.

Wilson Center (2022–present)
Kennedy joined the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, a non-partisan Washington DC based think tank, as a Global Fellow focused on geopolitical strategic competition. Kennedy was named Director of the Wilson Center’s newly established Wahba Institute for Strategic Competition aimed at shaping conversations and proposing meaningful policy reforms to strengthen American leadership in the era of great power competition.

Electoral history

 * 2006 Race for U.S. Senate
 * Amy Klobuchar (DFL), 58%
 * Mark Kennedy (R), 38%
 * Robert Fitzgerald (I), 3%
 * 2004 Race for U.S. House of Representatives – 6th District
 * Mark Kennedy (R) (inc.), 54%
 * Patty Wetterling (DFL), 46%
 * 2002 Race for U.S. House of Representatives – 6th District
 * Mark Kennedy (R) (inc.), 57%
 * Janet Robert (DFL), 35%
 * Dan Becker (I), 7%
 * 2000 Race for U.S. House of Representatives – 2nd District
 * Mark Kennedy (R), 48%
 * David Minge (DFL) (inc.), 48%
 * Gerald Brekke (I), 3%

title: Mark Kennedy (politician)


text:
Matmos

Matmos is an experimental electronic music duo formed in San Francisco and currently based in Baltimore. M. C. (Martin) Schmidt and Drew Daniel are the core members, but they frequently include other artists on their records and in their performances, including notably J Lesser. Apart from releasing twelve full-length studio albums and numerous collaborative works, Matmos is also well known for their collaboration with Icelandic singer and musician Björk, both on studio recordings and live tours. After being signed to Matador Records for nine years, Matmos signed with Thrill Jockey in 2012. The name Matmos refers to the seething lake of evil slime beneath the city Sogo in the 1968 film Barbarella.

Notable work
In 1998, Matmos remixed the Björk single "Alarm Call". Subsequently, the duo worked with Björk on her albums Vespertine (2001) and Medúlla (2004), as well as the Vespertine and Greatest Hits tours. In November 2004, Matmos spent 97 hours in the Yerba Buena Center for the Arts as artists-in-residence, performing music with friends, musical guests and onlookers. The live album Work, Work, Work, essentially a "best of" collection of the session, was released as a free download from their website.

Matmos gained notoriety for their use of unconventional samples including "freshly cut hair" and "the amplified neural activity of crayfish" on their first album and "recorded the snips, clicks, snaps, and squelches of various surgical procedures, then nipped and tucked them into seven remarkably accessible, melodic pieces of experimental techno" for their album A Chance to Cut Is a Chance to Cure.

In 2011, Matmos participated in a programmed evening of events with the visual arts organisation Auto Italia South East. The event was produced in collaboration with record label Upset The Rhythm and included contributions from experimental electronic musicians Jon Wiese and Birds of Delay. Matmos have since collaborated with a large number of visual artists and arts organisations, including Cafe Oto and Metal.

In 2015, Matmos appeared in the documentary Soundhunters directed by Beryl Koltz and broadcast on the Franco-German channel arte as well as on many channels abroad.

In September 2023, the duo announced their forthcoming album Return to Archive, marking the seventy-fifth anniversary of the Smithsonian Folkways label, with a three-hour free concert at the Hirshhorn Museum in Washington, D.C. in which they remixed field recordings from the label's catalogue in octophonic sound.

Personal lives
Schmidt and Daniel are a couple.

Daniel received a Ph.D. in English from the University of California, Berkeley with a dissertation on the literary cult of melancholy directed by Janet Adelman. He is currently an associate professor in the Department of English at Johns Hopkins University. This brought the band to relocate from San Francisco to Baltimore in August 2007. Daniel also has a personal dance music project, the Soft Pink Truth. He is a contributing writer to the online music magazine Pitchfork, and has written the 33 1/3 book on Throbbing Gristle's 1979 album 20 Jazz Funk Greats as well as two books of literary criticism.

Schmidt formerly worked as a teacher in the New Genres Department at the San Francisco Art Institute, and is now a professor of music technology at Johns Hopkins University's Peabody Institute and the president of the High Zero Foundation, which organizes Baltimore's annual High Zero festival of improvised music.

Both Schmidt and Daniel appeared in the Sagan music film Unseen Forces by Ryan Junell.

EPs

 * Full On Night Split Disc with Rachel's (2000, Quarterstick)
 * California Rhinoplasty (2001 Feb 12, OLE-501)
 * Rat Relocation Program (2004)
 * For Alan Turing (2006)
 * The Ganzfeld EP (2012, on Thrill Jockey 315)

Limited edition

 * Matmos Live with J Lesser (2002)
 * A Viable Alternative to Actual Sexual Contact, as Vague Terrain Recordings (2002, Piehead Records)
 * "A Paradise of Dainty Devices: interludes, micromedia & sound edits" (limited edition of 100, for their "Wet Hot EuroAmerican Summer Tour", 2007)
 * Polychords : Promo Single released on Matador
 * I Want Snowden/Sheremetyevo Breakdown Blues, split single with the Disco Yahtzee Empire (2013)

title: Matmos


text:
Talk:Float glass

Lead float glass?
So, I seem to recall (and it's briefly mentioned) that there was a prior float glass method, utilizing lead. Unfortunately, this is the only article on float glass (since the bulk of the information is not in an article on the Pilkington process, with this as a redirect). I'd like the other methods of float glass put into this article. And/or this article separated out to discuss the various methods independently. ~ender 2011-07-28 19:13:PM MST

Historical development
"Float glass became a goal after the American Civil War and was finally developed in separate processes about the time of World War I" - No. It was invented by Sit Alaister Pilkington in the 1950s.

Pilkington's is a continuous process, that does not require the tin to be cooled, and the chamber to be opened. It's the first production line of float glass. Small pieces of high quality glass, such as telescope lenses, had be made by float methods many years beforehand. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.244.85.10 (talk) 09:56, 17 September 2012 (UTC)

Glass factory website www.cardinalcorp.com

The article states that iron oxide is used in the production of float glass but it does not specify which kind or if it does not matter. It might be helpful to include that.

Valerie 21:46, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

I would like to write an article on the actual float bath and float bath process, eventually including the melting furnace, bath, lear, cutting and packing, batch plant, mixing station, etc. I am new to Wiki, as a contributor; is this something to be a separate article? I fear adding a reasonable description of the float process would take up a greater amount of space than the current article on float glass it’s self. --Horseatingweeds 02:09, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

So who cares! I've read plenty of "derivative" entries that are longer than the "parent" article, it's not an important consideration, and, in a way, it's natural - the "spin off" articles usually provide more detail (and that's lacking a bit in this one). Go ahead and do it (with some good diagrams, if poss.!) - but watch your English - "it's self" above should be "itself", and "eventually" should probably be "possibly" - are you French or German, perhaps - in those languages, "eventuel" means "possible" or "possibly", and it probably does in a few other languages that I don't speak!Maelli (talk) 08:08, 26 August 2010 (UTC)

Cooling lehr
Need we go beyond http://www.google.com/search?q=cooling+lehr in establishing a definition for lehr? For that matter, I like what pops up at http://www.answers.com/lehr. But no matter how you slice it, it slows down the reading to have search separately on an unfamiliar term.

--C-U RPCV 22:18, 16 May 2007 (UTC) It does not seem to be possible to edit higher on the talk page. Now that tin costs several thousand dollars per ton, I suspect, new float glass factories are rarely being built. Other methods of making glass need to detailed in this or separate articles. Ccpoodle 03:26, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

US' inferior process
I removed this sentence from the History section: This inferior process continued to be used in the US for some time after the UK invented float glass manufacture. Because If anyone can revert it back into something useful, by all means...99.241.176.150 (talk) 23:48, 4 December 2007 (UTC)
 * it seems to just exist to make a jab at the US
 * the UK didn't invent a glass manufacture (a (group of) individuals did), which further makes this seem like a pointless attempt to glorify the UK
 * it doesn't say anything useful (even if the US started using float glass later, it doesn't quantify that, rather it just says "some time")

Photo
We need a photo of the process in action. It's hard to imagine. 173.9.52.69 (talk) 18:59, 29 May 2009 (UTC) We don't just need a photo of the process in action, we need a (maybe animated) diagram, and we also need more details of the plant - I find this article a typical example of the lack of detail found in English-language entries compared to, say, the German equivalent - I'm British, but I read and speak fluent German. "a bath of tin" is a bit vague - what about the construction of the bath, how is the tin kept molten, why tin, how does the bath withstand the heat; etc., etc.85.181.249.206 (talk) 14:35, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

Yes, a photo or diagram is sorely needed. An animation would be great. JKeck (talk) 23:21, 6 September 2010 (UTC)

"Resulting in windows divided by transoms into rectangular panels"
The 'cylinders' were 6 to 8 feet (180 to 240 cm) long and 10 to 14 inches (25 to 36 cm) in diameter

I note that the given dimensions would produce panels of about six foot square, which seems large enough for any ordinary window to be made from a single pane, so this doesn't really add up as the reason to divide the window with transoms. Card Zero (talk) 03:29, 14 January 2023 (UTC)

“Passes through a Lehrer kiln for approximately 100 m”
Minutes or meters? 173.79.209.155 (talk) 03:50, 11 January 2024 (UTC)

 * I'm inclined to think metres because Lehr (glassmaking) says a lehr oven is a long kiln with an end-to-end temperature gradient (bold original), implying the oven's length is its defining feature. I hesitate to edit this article to clarify because there is no source cited that supports my supposition. Rotideypoc41352 (talk · contribs) 04:19, 11 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Float glass