text:
Student's t-test

Student's t-test is a statistical test used to test whether the difference between the response of two groups is statistically significant or not. It is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a Student's t-distribution under the null hypothesis. It is most commonly applied when the test statistic would follow a normal distribution if the value of a scaling term in the test statistic were known (typically, the scaling term is unknown and is therefore a nuisance parameter). When the scaling term is estimated based on the data, the test statistic—under certain conditions—follows a Student's t distribution. The t-test's most common application is to test whether the means of two populations are significantly different. In many cases, a Z-test will yield very similar results to a t-test since the latter converges to the former as the size of the dataset increases.

History

The term "t-statistic" is abbreviated from "hypothesis test statistic". In statistics, the t-distribution was first derived as a posterior distribution in 1876 by Helmert  and Lüroth. The t-distribution also appeared in a more general form as Pearson type IV distribution in Karl Pearson's 1895 paper. However, the t-distribution, also known as Student's t-distribution, gets its name from William Sealy Gosset, who first published it in English in 1908 in the scientific journal Biometrika using the pseudonym "Student" because his employer preferred staff to use pen names when publishing scientific papers. Gosset worked at the Guinness Brewery in Dublin, Ireland, and was interested in the problems of small samples – for example, the chemical properties of barley with small sample sizes. Hence a second version of the etymology of the term Student is that Guinness did not want their competitors to know that they were using the t-test to determine the quality of raw material. Although it was William Gosset after whom the term "Student" is penned, it was actually through the work of Ronald Fisher that the distribution became well known as "Student's distribution" and "Student's t-test".

Gosset devised the t-test as an economical way to monitor the quality of stout. The t-test work was submitted to and accepted in the journal Biometrika and published in 1908.

Guinness had a policy of allowing technical staff leave for study (so-called "study leave"), which Gosset used during the first two terms of the 1906–1907 academic year in Professor Karl Pearson's Biometric Laboratory at University College London. Gosset's identity was then known to fellow statisticians and to editor-in-chief Karl Pearson.

One-sample t-test
A one-sample Student's t-test is a location test of whether the mean of a population has a value specified in a null hypothesis. In testing the null hypothesis that the population mean is equal to a specified value $μ_{0}$, one uses the statistic

 * $$ t = \frac{\bar{x} - \mu_0}{s/\sqrt{n}}, $$

where $$\bar x$$ is the sample mean, $s$ is the sample standard deviation and $n$ is the sample size. The degrees of freedom used in this test are $n − 1$. Although the parent population does not need to be normally distributed, the distribution of the population of sample means $$\bar x$$ is assumed to be normal.

By the central limit theorem, if the observations are independent and the second moment exists, then $$t$$ will be approximately normal $\mathcal{N}(0, 1)$.

Two-sample t-tests

A two-sample location test of the null hypothesis such that the means of two populations are equal. All such tests are usually called Student's t-tests, though strictly speaking that name should only be used if the variances of the two populations are also assumed to be equal; the form of the test used when this assumption is dropped is sometimes called Welch's t-test. These tests are often referred to as unpaired or independent samples t-tests, as they are typically applied when the statistical units underlying the two samples being compared are non-overlapping.

Two-sample t-tests for a difference in means involve independent samples (unpaired samples) or paired samples. Paired t-tests are a form of blocking, and have greater power (probability of avoiding a type II error, also known as a false negative) than unpaired tests when the paired units are similar with respect to "noise factors" (see confounder) that are independent of membership in the two groups being compared. In a different context, paired t-tests can be used to reduce the effects of confounding factors in an observational study.

Independent (unpaired) samples
The independent samples t-test is used when two separate sets of independent and identically distributed samples are obtained, and one variable from each of the two populations is compared. For example, suppose we are evaluating the effect of a medical treatment, and we enroll 100 subjects into our study, then randomly assign 50 subjects to the treatment group and 50 subjects to the control group. In this case, we have two independent samples and would use the unpaired form of the t-test.

Paired samples
Paired samples t-tests typically consist of a sample of matched pairs of similar units, or one group of units that has been tested twice (a "repeated measures" t-test).

A typical example of the repeated measures t-test would be where subjects are tested prior to a treatment, say for high blood pressure, and the same subjects are tested again after treatment with a blood-pressure-lowering medication. By comparing the same patient's numbers before and after treatment, we are effectively using each patient as their own control. That way the correct rejection of the null hypothesis (here: of no difference made by the treatment) can become much more likely, with statistical power increasing simply because the random interpatient variation has now been eliminated. However, an increase of statistical power comes at a price: more tests are required, each subject having to be tested twice. Because half of the sample now depends on the other half, the paired version of Student's t-test has only $n⁄2 − 1$ degrees of freedom (with $n$ being the total number of observations). Pairs become individual test units, and the sample has to be doubled to achieve the same number of degrees of freedom. Normally, there are $n − 1$ degrees of freedom (with $n$ being the total number of observations).

A paired samples t-test based on a "matched-pairs sample" results from an unpaired sample that is subsequently used to form a paired sample, by using additional variables that were measured along with the variable of interest. The matching is carried out by identifying pairs of values consisting of one observation from each of the two samples, where the pair is similar in terms of other measured variables. This approach is sometimes used in observational studies to reduce or eliminate the effects of confounding factors.

Paired samples t-tests are often referred to as "dependent samples t-tests".

Assumptions
Most test statistics have the form $t = Z/s$, where $Z$ and $s$ are functions of the data.

$Z$ may be sensitive to the alternative hypothesis (i.e., its magnitude tends to be larger when the alternative hypothesis is true), whereas $s$ is a scaling parameter that allows the distribution of $t$ to be determined.

As an example, in the one-sample t-test
 * $$t = \frac{Z}{s} = \frac{\bar{X} - \mu}{\hat\sigma / \sqrt{n}},$$

where $$\bar{X}$$ is the sample mean from a sample $X_{1}, X_{2}, …, X_{n}$, of size $n$, $s$ is the standard error of the mean, $$\hat\sigma = \sqrt{\frac{1}{n-1} \sum_i (X_i - \bar X)^2}$$ is the estimate of the standard deviation of the population, and $μ$ is the population mean.

The assumptions underlying a t-test in the simplest form above are that:
 * $\overline{X}$ follows a normal distribution with mean $μ$ and variance $σ^{2}/n$.
 * $s^{2}(n − 1)/σ^{2}$ follows a $χ^{2}$ distribution with $n − 1$ degrees of freedom. This assumption is met when the observations used for estimating $s^{2}$ come from a normal distribution (and i.i.d. for each group).
 * $Z$ and $s$ are independent.

In the t-test comparing the means of two independent samples, the following assumptions should be met:
 * The means of the two populations being compared should follow normal distributions. Under weak assumptions, this follows in large samples from the central limit theorem, even when the distribution of observations in each group is non-normal.
 * If using Student's original definition of the t-test, the two populations being compared should have the same variance (testable using F-test, Levene's test, Bartlett's test, or the Brown–Forsythe test; or assessable graphically using a Q–Q plot). If the sample sizes in the two groups being compared are equal, Student's original t-test is highly robust to the presence of unequal variances. Welch's t-test is insensitive to equality of the variances regardless of whether the sample sizes are similar.
 * The data used to carry out the test should either be sampled independently from the two populations being compared or be fully paired. This is in general not testable from the data, but if the data are known to be dependent (e.g. paired by test design), a dependent test has to be applied. For partially paired data, the classical independent t-tests may give invalid results as the test statistic might not follow a t distribution, while the dependent t-test is sub-optimal as it discards the unpaired data.

Most two-sample t-tests are robust to all but large deviations from the assumptions.

For exactness, the t-test and Z-test require normality of the sample means, and the t-test additionally requires that the sample variance follows a scaled χ distribution, and that the sample mean and sample variance be statistically independent. Normality of the individual data values is not required if these conditions are met. By the central limit theorem, sample means of moderately large samples are often well-approximated by a normal distribution even if the data are not normally distributed. However, the sample size required for the sample means to converge to normality depends on the skewness of the distribution of the original data. The sample can vary from 30 to 100 or higher values depending on the skewness. F

For non-normal data, the distribution of the sample variance may deviate substantially from a χ distribution.

However, if the sample size is large, Slutsky's theorem implies that the distribution of the sample variance has little effect on the distribution of the test statistic. That is, as sample size $$n$$ increases:
 * $$\sqrt{n}(\bar{X} - \mu) \xrightarrow{d} N(0, \sigma^2)$$ as per the Central limit theorem,
 * $$s^2 \xrightarrow{p} \sigma^2$$ as per the law of large numbers,
 * $$\therefore \frac{\sqrt{n}(\bar{X} - \mu)}{s} \xrightarrow{d} N(0, 1)$$.

Calculations
Explicit expressions that can be used to carry out various t-tests are given below. In each case, the formula for a test statistic that either exactly follows or closely approximates a t-distribution under the null hypothesis is given. Also, the appropriate degrees of freedom are given in each case. Each of these statistics can be used to carry out either a one-tailed or two-tailed test.

Once the t value and degrees of freedom are determined, a p-value can be found using a table of values from Student's t-distribution. If the calculated p-value is below the threshold chosen for statistical significance (usually the 0.10, the 0.05, or 0.01 level), then the null hypothesis is rejected in favor of the alternative hypothesis.

Slope of a regression line
Suppose one is fitting the model

 * $$ Y = \alpha + \beta x + \varepsilon, $$

where $x$ is known, $α$ and $β$ are unknown, $ε$ is a normally distributed random variable with mean 0 and unknown variance $σ^{2}$, and $Y$ is the outcome of interest. We want to test the null hypothesis that the slope $β$ is equal to some specified value $β_{0}$ (often taken to be 0, in which case the null hypothesis is that $x$ and $y$ are uncorrelated).

Let

\begin{align} \hat\alpha, \hat\beta &= \text{least-squares estimators}, \\ SE_{\hat\alpha}, SE_{\hat\beta} &= \text{the standard errors of least-squares estimators}. \end{align} $$

Then

t_\text{score} = \frac{\hat\beta - \beta_0}{ SE_{\hat\beta} } \sim \mathcal{T}_{n-2} $$

has a t-distribution with $n − 2$ degrees of freedom if the null hypothesis is true. The standard error of the slope coefficient:

SE_{\hat\beta} = \frac{\sqrt{\displaystyle \frac{1}{n - 2}\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i - \hat y_i)^2}}{\sqrt{\displaystyle \sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar{x})^2}} $$

can be written in terms of the residuals. Let

\begin{align} \hat\varepsilon_i &= y_i - \hat y_i = y_i - (\hat\alpha + \hat\beta x_i) = \text{residuals} = \text{estimated errors}, \\ \text{SSR} &= \sum_{i=1}^n {\hat\varepsilon_i}^2 = \text{sum of squares of residuals}. \end{align} $$

Then $t$score is given by

 * $$ t_\text{score} = \frac{(\hat\beta - \beta_0) \sqrt{n-2}}{\sqrt{\frac{SSR}{\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar{x})^2}}}. $$

Another way to determine the $t$score is

 * $$ t_\text{score} = \frac{r\sqrt{n - 2}}{\sqrt{1 - r^2}}, $$

where r is the Pearson correlation coefficient.

The $t$score, intercept can be determined from the $t$score, slope:

 * $$ t_\text{score,intercept} = \frac{\alpha}{\beta} \frac{t_\text{score,slope}}{\sqrt{s_\text{x}^2 + \bar{x}^2}}, $$

where $s_{x}^{2}$ is the sample variance.

Equal sample sizes and variance
Given two groups (1, 2), this test is only applicable when: Violations of these assumptions are discussed below.
 * the two sample sizes are equal,
 * it can be assumed that the two distributions have the same variance.

The $t$ statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:

 * $$ t = \frac{\bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2}{s_p \sqrt\frac{2}{n}}, $$

where
 * $$ s_p = \sqrt{\frac{s_{X_1}^2 + s_{X_2}^2}{2}}.$$

Here $s_{p}$ is the pooled standard deviation for $n = n_{1} = n_{2}$, and $s2 X_{1}$ and $s2 X_{2}$ are the unbiased estimators of the population variance. The denominator of $t$ is the standard error of the difference between two means.

For significance testing, the degrees of freedom for this test is $2n − 2$, where $n$ is sample size.

Equal or unequal sample sizes, similar variances ($1⁄2$ < $1⁄s_{X_{1}}|s_{X_{2}}|undefined$ < 2)
This test is used only when it can be assumed that the two distributions have the same variance (when this assumption is violated, see below). The previous formulae are a special case of the formulae below, one recovers them when both samples are equal in size: $n = n_{1} = n_{2}$.

The $t$ statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:
 * $$t = \frac{\bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2}{s_p \cdot \sqrt{\frac{1}{n_1} + \frac{1}{n_2}}},$$

where

 * $$ s_p = \sqrt{\frac{(n_1 - 1)s_{X_1}^2 + (n_2 - 1)s_{X_2}^2}{n_1 + n_2-2}}$$

is the pooled standard deviation of the two samples: it is defined in this way so that its square is an unbiased estimator of the common variance, whether or not the population means are the same. In these formulae, $n_{i} − 1$ is the number of degrees of freedom for each group, and the total sample size minus two (that is, $n_{1} + n_{2} − 2$) is the total number of degrees of freedom, which is used in significance testing.

Equal or unequal sample sizes, unequal variances (sX 1 > 2sX 2 or sX 2 > 2sX 1 )
This test, also known as Welch's t-test, is used only when the two population variances are not assumed to be equal (the two sample sizes may or may not be equal) and hence must be estimated separately. The $t$ statistic to test whether the population means are different is calculated as

 * $$t = \frac{\bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2}{s_{\bar\Delta}},$$

where

 * $$s_{\bar\Delta} = \sqrt{\frac{s_1^2}{n_1} + \frac{s_2^2}{n_2}}.$$

Here $s_{i}^{2}$ is the unbiased estimator of the variance of each of the two samples with $n_{i}$ = number of participants in group $i$ ($i$ = 1 or 2). In this case $$(s_{\bar\Delta})^2$$ is not a pooled variance. For use in significance testing, the distribution of the test statistic is approximated as an ordinary Student's t-distribution with the degrees of freedom calculated using

 * $$ \text{d.f.} = \frac{\left(\frac{s_1^2}{n_1} + \frac{s_2^2}{n_2}\right)^2}{\frac{(s_1^2/n_1)^2}{n_1 - 1} + \frac{(s_2^2/n_2)^2}{n_2 - 1}}.

$$

This is known as the Welch–Satterthwaite equation. The true distribution of the test statistic actually depends (slightly) on the two unknown population variances (see Behrens–Fisher problem).

Exact method for unequal variances and sample sizes
The test deals with the famous Behrens–Fisher problem, i.e., comparing the difference between the means of two normally distributed populations when the variances of the two populations are not assumed to be equal, based on two independent samples.

The test is developed as an exact test that allows for unequal sample sizes and unequal variances of two populations. The exact property still holds even with small extremely small and unbalanced sample sizes (e.g. $$n_1=5, n_2=50$$).

The statistic to test whether the means are different can be calculated as follows:

Let $$X = [X_1,X_2,\ldots,X_m]^T$$ and $$Y = [Y_1,Y_2,\ldots,Y_n]^T$$ be the i.i.d. sample vectors ($$m\ge n$$) from $$N(\mu_1,\sigma_1^2)$$ and $$N(\mu_2,\sigma_2^2)$$ separately.

Let $$(P^T)_{n\times n}$$ be an $$n\times n$$ orthogonal matrix whose elements of the first row are all $$1/\sqrt{n}$$, similarly, let $$(Q^T)_{n\times m}$$ be the first n rows of an $$m\times m$$ orthogonal matrix (whose elements of the first row are all $$1/\sqrt{m}$$).

Then $$Z:=(Q^T)_{n\times m}X/\sqrt{m}-(P^T)_{n\times n}Y/\sqrt{n}$$ is an n-dimensional normal random vector.

 * $$Z \sim N(

(\mu_1-\mu_2,0,...,0)^T , (\sigma_1^2/m+\sigma_2^2/n)I_n). $$

From the above distribution we see that

 * $$ Z_1=\bar X-\bar Y=\frac1m\sum_{i=1}^m X_i-\frac1n\sum_{j=1}^n Y_j,$$

 * $$ Z_1-(\mu_1-\mu_2)\sim N(0,\sigma_1^2/m+\sigma_2^2/n),$$

 * $$\frac{\sum_{i=2}^n Z^2_i}{n-1}\sim \frac{\chi^2_{n-1}}{n-1}\times\left(\frac{\sigma_1^2}{m}+\frac{\sigma_2^2}{n}\right)$$

 * $$Z_1-(\mu_1-\mu_2) \perp  \sum_{i=2}^n Z^2_i.$$

 * $$T_e := \frac{   Z_1-(\mu_1-\mu_2)        }{ \sqrt{ (\sum_{i=2}^{n} Z^2_i) /(n-1) }    } \sim t_{n-1}.$$

Dependent t-test for paired samples
This test is used when the samples are dependent; that is, when there is only one sample that has been tested twice (repeated measures) or when there are two samples that have been matched or "paired". This is an example of a paired difference test. The t statistic is calculated as

 * $$t = \frac{\bar{X}_D - \mu_0}{s_D/\sqrt n}, $$

where $$\bar{X}_D$$ and $$s_D$$ are the average and standard deviation of the differences between all pairs. The pairs are e.g. either one person's pre-test and post-test scores or between-pairs of persons matched into meaningful groups (for instance, drawn from the same family or age group: see table). The constant $μ_{0}$ is zero if we want to test whether the average of the difference is significantly different. The degree of freedom used is $n − 1$, where $n$ represents the number of pairs.

 * - style="vertical-align:bottom"
 * style="padding-right:2em"|
 * }
 * }

Worked examples
Let $A_{1}$ denote a set obtained by drawing a random sample of six measurements:

 * $$A_1=\{30.02,\ 29.99,\ 30.11,\ 29.97,\ 30.01,\ 29.99\}$$

and let $A_{2}$ denote a second set obtained similarly:

 * $$A_2=\{29.89,\ 29.93,\ 29.72,\ 29.98,\ 30.02,\ 29.98\}$$

These could be, for example, the weights of screws that were manufactured by two different machines.

We will carry out tests of the null hypothesis that the means of the populations from which the two samples were taken are equal.

The difference between the two sample means, each denoted by $\overline{X}_{i}$, which appears in the numerator for all the two-sample testing approaches discussed above, is

 * $$\bar{X}_1 - \bar{X}_2 = 0.095.$$

The sample standard deviations for the two samples are approximately 0.05 and 0.11, respectively. For such small samples, a test of equality between the two population variances would not be very powerful. Since the sample sizes are equal, the two forms of the two-sample t-test will perform similarly in this example.

Unequal variances
If the approach for unequal variances (discussed above) is followed, the results are
 * $$\sqrt{\frac{s_1^2}{n_1} + \frac{s_2^2}{n_2}} \approx 0.04849$$

and the degrees of freedom

 * $$\text{d.f.} \approx 7.031.$$

The test statistic is approximately 1.959, which gives a two-tailed test p-value of 0.09077.

Equal variances
If the approach for equal variances (discussed above) is followed, the results are

 * $$s_p \approx 0.08396$$

and the degrees of freedom

 * $$\text{d.f.} = 10.$$

The test statistic is approximately equal to 1.959, which gives a two-tailed p-value of 0.07857.

Alternatives to the t-test for location problems
The t-test provides an exact test for the equality of the means of two i.i.d. normal populations with unknown, but equal, variances. (Welch's t-test is a nearly exact test for the case where the data are normal but the variances may differ.) For moderately large samples and a one tailed test, the t-test is relatively robust to moderate violations of the normality assumption. In large enough samples, the t-test asymptotically approaches the z-test, and becomes robust even to large deviations from normality.

If the data are substantially non-normal and the sample size is small, the t-test can give misleading results. See Location test for Gaussian scale mixture distributions for some theory related to one particular family of non-normal distributions.

When the normality assumption does not hold, a non-parametric alternative to the t-test may have better statistical power. However, when data are non-normal with differing variances between groups, a t-test may have better type-1 error control than some non-parametric alternatives. Furthermore, non-parametric methods, such as the Mann-Whitney U test discussed below, typically do not test for a difference of means, so should be used carefully if a difference of means is of primary scientific interest. For example, Mann-Whitney U test will keep the type 1 error at the desired level alpha if both groups have the same distribution. It will also have power in detecting an alternative by which group B has the same distribution as A but after some shift by a constant (in which case there would indeed be a difference in the means of the two groups). However, there could be cases where group A and B will have different distributions but with the same means (such as two distributions, one with positive skewness and the other with a negative one, but shifted so to have the same means). In such cases, MW could have more than alpha level power in rejecting the Null hypothesis but attributing the interpretation of difference in means to such a result would be incorrect.

In the presence of an outlier, the t-test is not robust. For example, for two independent samples when the data distributions are asymmetric (that is, the distributions are skewed) or the distributions have large tails, then the Wilcoxon rank-sum test (also known as the Mann–Whitney U test) can have three to four times higher power than the t-test. The nonparametric counterpart to the paired samples t-test is the Wilcoxon signed-rank test for paired samples. For a discussion on choosing between the t-test and nonparametric alternatives, see Lumley, et al. (2002).

One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) generalizes the two-sample t-test when the data belong to more than two groups.

A design which includes both paired observations and independent observations
When both paired observations and independent observations are present in the two sample design, assuming data are missing completely at random (MCAR), the paired observations or independent observations may be discarded in order to proceed with the standard tests above. Alternatively making use of all of the available data, assuming normality and MCAR, the generalized partially overlapping samples t-test could be used.

Multivariate testing
A generalization of Student's t statistic, called Hotelling's t-squared statistic, allows for the testing of hypotheses on multiple (often correlated) measures within the same sample. For instance, a researcher might submit a number of subjects to a personality test consisting of multiple personality scales (e.g. the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory). Because measures of this type are usually positively correlated, it is not advisable to conduct separate univariate t-tests to test hypotheses, as these would neglect the covariance among measures and inflate the chance of falsely rejecting at least one hypothesis (Type I error). In this case a single multivariate test is preferable for hypothesis testing. Fisher's Method for combining multiple tests with alpha reduced for positive correlation among tests is one. Another is Hotelling's T statistic follows a T distribution. However, in practice the distribution is rarely used, since tabulated values for T are hard to find. Usually, T is converted instead to an F statistic.

For a one-sample multivariate test, the hypothesis is that the mean vector ($μ$) is equal to a given vector ($μ_{0}$). The test statistic is Hotelling's t:

t^2=n(\bar{\mathbf x}-{\boldsymbol\mu_0})'{\mathbf S}^{-1}(\bar{\mathbf x}-{\boldsymbol\mu_0}) $$

where $n$ is the sample size, $\overline{x}$ is the vector of column means and $S$ is an $m × m$ sample covariance matrix.

For a two-sample multivariate test, the hypothesis is that the mean vectors ($μ_{1}, μ_{2}$) of two samples are equal. The test statistic is Hotelling's two-sample t:

 * $$t^2 = \frac{n_1 n_2}{n_1+n_2}\left(\bar{\mathbf x}_1-\bar{\mathbf x}_2\right)'{\mathbf S_\text{pooled}}^{-1}\left(\bar{\mathbf x}_1-\bar{\mathbf x}_2\right).$$

The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression
The two-sample t-test is a special case of simple linear regression as illustrated by the following example.

A clinical trial examines 6 patients given drug or placebo. Three (3) patients get 0 units of drug (the placebo group). Three (3) patients get 1 unit of drug (the active treatment group). At the end of treatment, the researchers measure the change from baseline in the number of words that each patient can recall in a memory test.

A table of the patients' word recall and drug dose values are shown below.

Data and code are given for the analysis using the R programming language with the  and  functions for the t-test and linear regression. Here are the same (fictitious) data above generated in R.

Perform the t-test. Notice that the assumption of equal variance,, is required to make the analysis exactly equivalent to simple linear regression.

Running the R code gives the following results.
 * The mean word.recall in the 0 drug.dose group is 2.
 * The mean word.recall in the 1 drug.dose group is 6.
 * The difference between treatment groups in the mean word.recall is 6 – 2 = 4.
 * The difference in word.recall between drug doses is significant (p=0.00805).

Perform a linear regression of the same data. Calculations may be performed using the R function  for a linear model.

The linear regression provides a table of coefficients and p-values.

The table of coefficients gives the following results.
 * The estimate value of 2 for the intercept is the mean value of the word recall when the drug dose is 0.
 * The estimate value of 4 for the drug dose indicates that for a 1-unit change in drug dose (from 0 to 1) there is a 4-unit change in mean word recall (from 2 to 6). This is the slope of the line joining the two group means.
 * The p-value that the slope of 4 is different from 0 is p = 0.00805.

The coefficients for the linear regression specify the slope and intercept of the line that joins the two group means, as illustrated in the graph. The intercept is 2 and the slope is 4.

Compare the result from the linear regression to the result from the t-test.
 * From the t-test, the difference between the group means is 6-2=4.
 * From the regression, the slope is also 4 indicating that a 1-unit change in drug dose (from 0 to 1) gives a 4-unit change in mean word recall (from 2 to 6).
 * The t-test p-value for the difference in means, and the regression p-value for the slope, are both 0.00805. The methods give identical results.

This example shows that, for the special case of a simple linear regression where there is a single x-variable that has values 0 and 1, the t-test gives the same results as the linear regression. The relationship can also be shown algebraically.

Recognizing this relationship between the t-test and linear regression facilitates the use of multiple linear regression and multi-way analysis of variance. These alternatives to t-tests allow for the inclusion of additional explanatory variables that are associated with the response. Including such additional explanatory variables using regression or anova reduces the otherwise unexplained variance, and commonly yields greater power to detect differences than do two-sample t-tests.

Software implementations
Many spreadsheet programs and statistics packages, such as QtiPlot, LibreOffice Calc, Microsoft Excel, SAS, SPSS, Stata, DAP, gretl, R, Python, PSPP, Wolfram Mathematica, MATLAB and Minitab, include implementations of Student's t-test.

title: Student's t-test


text:
Fertile, Saskatchewan

Fertile is an unincorporated community in southeastern Saskatchewan, Canada, located 3 mi west of the Manitoba border and 40 mi north of the U.S. border in the Rural Municipality of Storthoaks No. 31.

Demographics
The population was once as high as 50 people, but now is supported by surrounding farm families. Fertile once had its own school (shrined), grain elevators (2), general store, skating/curling rink, United church, community hall and post office. Only the latter two survive. Families making up the current community include; Pickard(2), Holden(2), Malin (3), Rekken, Poirier, Millions, Bouchard (2), VanderWaal, Poirier. Fall suppers and an annual event, be it a comedy act, a magician, etc., used to be held to raise money to support the community hall.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fertile, Saskatchewan


text:
Talk:East Side Gallery

[Untitled]
Christine Mac Lean is not a painter at the East Side Gallery.Source: Mauerkatalog „East Side Gallery“. Oberbaum-Verlag, Berlin 1991, ISBN 3-928254-02-2 (Literature)--Bodo SperlingBodo Sperling (talk) 07:38, 21 July 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on East Side Gallery. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20070704090928/http://www.e-cityvisit.com/berlin/eastsidegallery/index.html to http://www.e-cityvisit.com/berlin/eastsidegallery/index.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20101012130120/http://www.museumchick.com/museum-chick/2010/06/east-side-gallery-berlin-germany.html to http://www.museumchick.com/museum-chick/2010/06/east-side-gallery-berlin-germany.html
 * Added tag to http://www.openstreetmap.org/?lat=52.50529&lon=13.44131&zoom=17&layers=M

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 07:11, 16 September 2017 (UTC)

Mer1212 (talk) 16:28, 23 October 2020 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 03:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Berlin Wall6349.JPG

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:23, 5 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Berlin Wall6349.JPG

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for speedy deletion: You can see the reason for deletion at the file description page linked above. —Community Tech bot (talk) 16:08, 12 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Berlin Wall6325.JPG

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 07:53, 13 September 2021 (UTC)
 * Berlin Wall6325.JPG

title: Talk:East Side Gallery


text:
Talk:HTW Berlin

Marked for Deletion
This article itself is useless. Fachhochschule covers the important information. Listing the differents kinds of Fachhochschule in the main article would be nice not to speak of a List of Fachhochschulen. --134.2.12.48 15:08, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Now wait a moment, each school has its own speciality. The English version is just short, the German version is quite explicit. I'll see what I can do to clean it up. --WiseWoman 21:33, 8 April 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:FHTW Logo rgb.jpg
Image:FHTW Logo rgb.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 13:59, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

New name
So, the new article was necessary. --Sevilla1508 (talk) 00:26, 26 February 2010 (UTC)
 * This university changed its name form "Fachhochschule für ..." into "Hochschule für ..."!

Per WP:EN, I would like to suggest changing the title of this article to "Berlin University of Applied Sciences", followed by official German name and abbreviation (HTW). en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Universities_in_Germany has the 8 names of similar universities, in the following forms: (It also has 6 articles with the Hochschule or Fachhochschule in the title, but they are mostly universities of arts and music. ) The English version of the university's official website gives the German name, followed by simply "University of Applied Sciences". The website a bit out of date -- it still explains what a Fachhochschule is. Google doesn't have very many hits in English. In German, it seems that this school is usually referred to as "HTW Berlin". Margin1522 (talk) 07:08, 9 October 2013 (UTC)
 * Munich University of Applied Sciences (city first, 6 articles)
 * University of Applied Sciences Koblenz (city last, 2 articles)

 * The title "Berlin University of Applied Sciences" would be confusing as there are at least three larger Universities of Applied Sciences in Berlin, possibly even some more smaller ones. HTW is the largest one but does not claim to be the Berlin university. They always either go by full names or use their short name: "HTW Berlin", "HWR Berlin" and "Beuth". --93.220.98.15 (talk) 20:07, 24 January 2015 (UTC)

Requested move 18 March 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved. Andrewa (talk) 02:57, 26 March 2017 (UTC)

Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin → HTW Berlin – per WP:USEENGLISH, the majority of news sources (even the German ones) use HTW Berlin
 * https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=%22HTW+Berlin%22&pws=1&tbm=nws&* 2,660 results
 * https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=%22HTW+Berlin%22&pws=1&* 371,000 results for HTW Berlin
 * https://www.google.co.uk/search?q=%22Hochschule+f%C3%BCr+Technik+und+Wirtschaft+Berlin%22&* 141,000 results for Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Berlin Aloneinthewild (talk) 23:30, 18 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Support: Many people wouldn't even know what the initials stand for, but would know it is a term used for a university. —BarrelProof (talk) 17:49, 19 March 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on HTW Berlin. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20150915061944/http://www.htw-berlin.de/htw/standorte/ to http://www.htw-berlin.de/htw/standorte/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 15:15, 27 October 2017 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
Prior content in this article duplicated one or more previously published sources. The material was copied from: https://www.htw-berlin.de/en/university/university-profile/history/. Copied or closely paraphrased material has been rewritten or removed and must not be restored, unless it is duly released under a compatible license. (For more information, please see "using copyrighted works from others" if you are not the copyright holder of this material, or "donating copyrighted materials" if you are.)

For legal reasons, we cannot accept copyrighted text or images borrowed from other web sites or published material; such additions will be deleted. Contributors may use copyrighted publications as a source of information, and, if allowed under fair use, may copy sentences and phrases, provided they are included in quotation marks and referenced properly. The material may also be rewritten, providing it does not infringe on the copyright of the original or plagiarize from that source. Therefore, such paraphrased portions must provide their source. Please see our guideline on non-free text for how to properly implement limited quotations of copyrighted text. Wikipedia takes copyright violations very seriously, and persistent violators will be blocked from editing. While we appreciate contributions, we must require all contributors to understand and comply with these policies. Thank you. Sam Sailor 15:11, 15 June 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:HTW Berlin


text:
USS Michigan (1843)

USS Michigan was the United States Navy's first iron-hulled warship and served during the American Civil War. She was renamed USS Wolverine in 1905.

Construction and design
The sidewheel steamer Michigan was built in response to the British Government arming two steamers in response to the Canadian rebellions in the late 1830s with Secretary of the Navy Abel P. Upshur selecting an iron hull partly as a test of practicability of using such a "cheap and indestructible a material" for ships. The ship was designed by Samuel Hartt, and fabricated in parts at Pittsburgh in the last half of 1842, transported overland and assembled at Erie. The launch on 5 December 1843 was unsuccessful with the ship sticking after moving some 50 ft down the ways and efforts to complete the launch ended by nightfall. On returning in the morning Hartt found Michigan had "launched herself in the night" and was floating offshore in Lake Erie.

By 1908 the ship was noted in the journal The American Marine Engineer as being the oldest metal-hulled vessel then existing and of interest to engineers because of the ship's age. The two engines were inclined simple steam engines of 36 in with a 96 in stroke that were original and running well in 1908. The first of three sets of boilers were return flue type that lasted fifty years before finally being replaced by bricked in return tube types. The operating pressure was low, 25 psi sufficient to drive the engines at 20 rpm, with engine room piping of .125 in thick copper connecting with brass flange joints. When, about 1905, the ship finally changed from kerosene lights to electric, a special engine for the dynamo had to be constructed to operate on the low pressure steam. The steam was also used in a peculiar system for repelling boarders with hot water direct from the boiler. Coal consumption before the latest modifications was two tons per hour and after the modifications was as low as one half ton per hour. The ship carried two steam launches. The ship had never made even ten knots until dispatched from the harbor at Cleveland to Buffalo to prevent riots on the assassination of President William McKinley 6 September 1901 and, with the safeties weighted, she made almost fourteen knots at 30 rpm at one point.

Early career
Michigan commissioned 29 September 1844 under the command of Commander William Inman and operated on the Great Lakes out of Erie, Pennsylvania, throughout her career. In May 1851, she assisted in the arrest of Mr. James Jesse Strang, known as "King James I", who headed a dissident Mormon colony on Beaver Island at the head of Lake Michigan, some 37 mi from the Straits of Mackinac. Strang was soon freed, but was assassinated by two of his followers on 19 June 1856. The assassins fled to Michigan for sanctuary and were taken to Mackinac and released.

In an encounter with Great Lakes "timber pirates" in the 1850s, a steamer rammed Michigan. The pirate vessel was badly damaged in the maneuver, and was captured.

Michigan was the first iron-hulled ship in the US Navy.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, Michigan was armed with a 30-pounder Parrott rifle, five 20-pounder Parrott rifles, six 24-pounder smoothbores, and two 12-pounder boat howitzers. The Confederate States of America considered launching attacks against the North from Canada. Early in 1863, Lieutenant William Henry Murdaugh, CSN, planned to lead a group of Confederate naval officers to Canada where they would purchase a small steamer, man her with Canadians and steam to Erie to board Michigan and use her against locks and shipping on the Great Lakes. However, Confederate President Jefferson Davis didn't approve the plan.

Michigan cruised on the Great Lakes during most of the war providing an element of stability and security. On 28 July 1863, a short time after New York City had been seriously shaken by riots, its Virginia-born Commander John C. Carter reported from Detroit, "I found the people suffering under serious apprehensions of a riot....The presence of the ships perhaps did something toward overawing the refractory, and certainly did much to allay the apprehensions of the excited, doubting people." During August 1863, Michigan was called on for similar service in Buffalo, New York.

During 1864, rumors of Confederate conspiracies in Canada were heard again. In March, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles ordered Michigan to be "prepared for active service as soon as the ice will permit." In the autumn, the Confederates finally struck. Led by Acting Master John Yates Beall, 20 Confederates embarked on the steamer SS Philo Parsons as passengers and soon seized her. They next captured and burned the steamer SS Island Queen. Meanwhile, Captain Charles H. Cole, CSA, a Confederate agent in the Lake Erie region, was attempting to gain the trust of Michigan's officers as the Michigan lay off Johnson's Island helping to guard Confederate prisoners. However, Commander Carter discovered Cole's duplicity and had him arrested before Beall reached Johnson's Island on Philo Parsons. When the prearranged signals from shore were not made, Beall reluctantly abandoned his plan and retired to Sandwich (now Windsor, Ontario) where he stripped and burned Philo Parsons.

Later U.S. Navy service
After the Civil War, Michigan remained in U.S. Navy service, and was the ship which intercepted and interned the army of the Fenian Brotherhood as it returned from its invasion of Canada near Buffalo in 1866. On 16 July 1902 she was rammed at dock in Erie, Pennsylvania, by ore carrier SS Maurice B. Grover moving at full steam, striking Michigan's bow a glancing blow, then driving between Michigan and the dock carrying away the hawsers. Michigan was then shoved 200 yd down the harbor. Michigan had her bowsprit, forecastle and forward bulkhead wrecked and she was scraped along the entire port side. The six pound Driggs-Schroeder rifles of the rear port battery were bent out of true and a boat on the port davits was demolished. The damage was between $10,000 and $15,000. Michigan was renamed USS Wolverine on 17 June 1905 to free up the name Michigan for use by the new battleship USS Michigan (BB-27).

Wolverine was decommissioned on 6 May 1912.

Pennsylvania Naval Militia service
Wolverine was turned over to the Pennsylvania Naval Militia, which she served for 11 years, making training cruises in the summer for the United States Naval Reserve. For the 1913 centennial of the War of 1812 Battle of Lake Erie, Wolverine towed the brig USS Niagara (1813) from port to port as part of the celebrations. In mid-1920, when the U.S. Navy adopted its modern alphanumeric hull number system, she was classified as a "miscellaneous auxiliary" and designated IX-31. On 12 August 1923, a connecting rod of Wolverine's port cylinder broke, ending her active career.

Relic
In 1927, Wolverine's hulk was pushed up onto a sandbank in Misery Bay on the Presque Isle State Park Peninsula and loaned to the city of Erie, Pennsylvania, as a relic. She was sold to the Foundation for the Preservation of the Original USS Michigan, Inc., on 19 July 1948. But when fund-raising efforts failed to acquire sufficient money for her restoration and preservation, she was cut up and sold for scrap in 1949 to the Ace Junk & Salvage Company. Sam Tanenbaum, proprietor, donated the prow back to the city of Erie.

In 1950, Wolverine's prow was erected as a monument in Wolverine Park in Erie, near the shipyard where she had been built. On 22 February 1998, the prow was moved to the Erie Maritime Museum for restoration. Today it can be viewed inside the museum.

title: USS Michigan (1843)


text:
Chamblee (surname)

Chamblee is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Andrew Chamblee (born 2004), American football player
 * Brandel Chamblee (born 1962), American golfer, commentator and writer
 * Eddie Chamblee (1920–1999), American tenor and alto saxophonist, and vocalist
 * Jim Chamblee (born 1975), American baseball player
 * Jones M. Chamblee (born 1936), American politician

title: Chamblee (surname)


text:
User:Kwi

I'm Danish, but concentrate on the English Wikipedia, where I edit articles on subjects ranging from Bencode to the Tailhook Association, and from fell beasts to Valdís Óskarsdóttir.

The username comes from the name of a long extinct bird, believed to have been called a kwi (IPA: ['kvi]) by the people of the lost city of Mohkadun (IPA: ['moʊkəˌdyun]).

I also have accounts on Meta and Commons.

Contact
If you have questions, problems, anything, with regards to an edit by me, don't hesitate to contact me, preferably by email. Alternatively, you may leave a message on my talk page.

title: User:Kwi


text:
College World Series

The College World Series (CWS), officially the NCAA Men's College World Series (MCWS), is a baseball tournament held each June in Omaha, Nebraska. The MCWS is the culmination of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Baseball Championship tournament—featuring 64 teams in the first round—which determines the NCAA Division I college baseball champion. The eight participating teams are split into two, four-team, double-elimination brackets, with the winners of each bracket playing in a best-of-three championship series.

History
The first edition of the College World Series was held in 1947 at Hyames Field in Kalamazoo, Michigan. The tournament was held there again in 1948, but was moved to Lawrence Stadium in Wichita, Kansas for the 1949 tournament. Since 1950, the College World Series (CWS) has been held in Omaha, Nebraska. It was held at Rosenblatt Stadium from 1950 through 2010; starting in 2011, it has been held at Charles Schwab Field Omaha (formerly TD Ameritrade Park Omaha). The name "College World Series" is derived from that of the Major League Baseball World Series championship; it is currently an MLB trademark licensed to the NCAA.

The event's official name was changed to "Men's College World Series" no later than 2008. The most recent hosting agreement between the NCAA and the city of Omaha and related entities, signed in that year, states, "The official name of the [championship] shall be the NCAA Men's College World Series". However, as of October 2021, the CWS logo still appeared on the NCAA's official D-I baseball tournament bracket, and on the front page of the NCAA's official CWS website, without the word "Men's". The NCAA has since added "Men's" to the event's logo, and both the NCAA and College World Series of Omaha, Inc. (CWS Omaha), the nonprofit group that organizes the event, now consistently use the phrase "Men's College World Series" to describe it.

On March 13, 2020, it was announced that the 2020 College World Series was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the first time in the event's history it had been canceled.

Contract extension
On June 10, 2008, the NCAA and CWS Omaha announced a new 25-year contract extension, keeping the MCWS in Omaha through 2035. A memorandum of understanding had been reached by all parties on April 30.

The currently binding contract began in 2011, the same year the tournament moved from Johnny Rosenblatt Stadium to the venue now known as Charles Schwab Field Omaha, a new ballpark across from CHI Health Center Omaha.

Format history and changes

 * 1947 – Eight teams were divided into two, four-team, single-elimination playoffs. The two winners then met in a best-of-three final in Kalamazoo, Michigan.
 * 1948 – Similar to 1947, but the two, four-team playoffs were changed to double-elimination tournaments. The two winners continued to meet in a best-of-three final in Kalamazoo. The teams were selected from the NCAA's eight districts, with a local committee choosing its representative based on their own criteria, which might or might not include committee selections, conference champions, and district playoffs.
 * 1949 – The final was expanded to a four-team, double-elimination format and the site changed to Wichita, Kansas. Eight teams began the playoffs with the four finalists decided by a best-of-three district format.
 * 1950–1953 – An eight-team, double-elimination format for the College World Series coincided with the move to Omaha, Nebraska in 1950. A national baseball committee chose one team from each of the eight NCAA districts.
 * 1954–1975 – Preliminary rounds determined the eight CWS teams, and the total number of teams in the preliminary round ranged from 21 to 32. The format of the CWS remained the same as 1950.
 * 1976–1981 – The number of preliminary-round teams was increased to 34.
 * 1982–1984 – The number of preliminary-round teams was increased to 36.
 * 1985 – The number of preliminary-round teams was increased to 38.
 * 1986 – The number of preliminary-round teams was increased to 40.
 * 1987 – The number of preliminary-round teams was increased to 48, with teams split into eight, six-team regionals. The regionals were a test of endurance, as teams had to win at least four games over four days, sometimes five if a team dropped into the loser's bracket, placing a premium on pitching. In the last two years of the six-team regional format, the eventual CWS champion – LSU in 1997 and Southern California in 1998 – had to battle back from the loser's bracket in the regional to advance to Omaha. Unlike the current 64 team tournament, the CWS pairings were set after the regional tournaments.
 * 1988–1998 – The format for the CWS was changed for the first time since 1950 with the 1988 College World Series, when the tournament was divided into 2 four-team double-elimination brackets, with the survivors of each bracket playing in a single championship game. The single-game championship was designed for network television, with the final game on CBS on a Saturday afternoon.
 * 1999–2002 – With some 293 Division I teams playing, the NCAA expanded the overall tournament to a 64-team field in 1999. Teams were divided into 16 four-team double-elimination regionals. The regional winners advanced to the Super Regional round, which had 8 best-of-three series to advance to the CWS. Within each region, teams were seeded 1 to 4. Additionally, the top 8 teams in the tournament were given "national seeds" and placed in different Super Regionals so no national seeds could meet before the CWS. The 64-team bracket was set at the beginning of the championship and teams are not reseeded for the CWS. Since the 1999 College World Series, the four-team brackets in the CWS have been determined by the results of super-regional play, much like the NCAA basketball tournament.
 * 2003–2017 – The championship final became a best-of-three series between the two four-team bracket winners, with games scheduled for three consecutive evenings. In the results shown below, Score indicates the score of the championship game(s) only. In 2008, the start of the CWS was moved back one day, and an extra day of rest was added in between bracket play and the championship series.
 * 2018–present – The number of national seeds increased from 8 to 16. Each Super Regional featured the winners of regionals in which the numerical sum of those regions' national seeds totaled 17 (1 vs. 16, 2 vs. 15, etc.). No other format changes were made.

Best performances by conference

 * CIBA was California Intercollegiate Baseball Association that competed as a division under the Pacific Coast Conference which operated under its own Charter.
 * Independents = Miami Hurricanes (4) and Holy Cross Crusaders (1)
 * SCBA was Southern California Baseball Association (1977–84).
 * The Big 12 does not claim any national championships, including baseball, that were won as members of the Big Eight and makes no claim to the history or records of the Big Eight.
 * The Western Athletic Conference claims 7 national championships in baseball by former members. There are no gaps in its existence; the WAC has existed continuously since its formation in 1962.
 * Coastal Carolina won the 2016 CWS as a member of the Big South Conference less than 24 hours before officially joining the Sun Belt Conference.
 * Missouri won the 1954 CWS as a member of the Big Eight Conference.

Awards
The College World Series Most Outstanding Player award is presented to the best player at each College World Series finals (first awarded in 1949).

An All-Tournament Team consisting of the best players of the tournament has also been announced for each tournament since 1958.

title: College World Series


text:
Stillwater River (Flathead County, Montana)

The Stillwater River rises 15 miles south of the border between Montana (United States) and Alberta (Canada), west of Glacier National Park in the Kootenai National Forest. It runs mainly south to Duck Lake, then Upper Stillwater Lake, Lagoni Lake and on to Lower Stillwater Lake. It then flows south to Kalispell where it joins the Whitefish River, very near where that river enters the Flathead River.


text:
Talk:Qanat

Unnecessary content duplication
The section on Iran is almost a 100% verbatim copy of https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional_water_sources_of_Persian_antiquity, an article the section actually provides a link to.

What is the purpose of this redundancy?

The article is already a wall-of-text; maybe mark the article for clean-up. 99.225.227.193 (talk) 21:11, 22 July 2023 (UTC)

 * Sometimes, articles on Wikipedia overlap, that's not different here. ---Wikaviani  (talk) (contribs)  21:16, 22 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Paragraphs worth ~2300 words overlap. I would say that is different from any article I've encountered on Wikipedia so far.
 * In my opinion and experience, keeping so much duplicate content synchronized manually over multiple articles will lead to major problems down the road. Signs of this are already showing when affected paragraphs are carefully compared (e.g.: punctuation, grammar, word ordering).
 * This is the reason why I tried to bring the issue to the attention of those who maintain the article.
 * Anyhow, if the redundancy is deemed acceptable, then I can live with it too (as long as I am not asked to fix it :) ).
 * Thank you for following up. 99.225.227.193 (talk) 00:56, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Yeah, i get you, but we cannot remove the content from this article, maybe a merger proposal could fix that. Best. ---Wikaviani  (talk) (contribs)  03:00, 23 July 2023 (UTC)
 * The problem with a merge proposal even if consensus is gained (or if they decide to boldly do it), is that usually the original proposer has to be willing to merge the content themselves. Fork99 (talk) 13:56, 28 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Qanat


text:
User:Thealexfish

I AM A GNOME, SO I DO NOT LOG ON VERY OFTEN

thealexfish 06:36, 12 September 2006 (UTC)

title: User:Thealexfish


text:
Fillmore County

Fillmore County can refer to two real, and one fictional county in the US

 * Fillmore County, Minnesota
 * Fillmore County, Nebraska
 * The fictional Fillmore County, Kansas

title: Fillmore County


text:
Talk:Nymphaeales

Untitled
If this were combined with hierarchal taxonomy, then the Nymphaeales must be placed into their own class, Nymphaeopsida.

If integrated with a hierarchial taxonomy that rejected paraphyletic groups, that would be true. One would also need classes Austrobaileyopsida and Amborellopsida, possibly a few more. But as far as I can tell, this has never been done. Nymphaeopsida has been used, but it's really hard to tell if it's ever been used in the sense given here. Hard-core monophyletics seem content to go without classes. As such, shouldn't the above be tempered somewhat, to reflect how uncommon the system it's proposing is?

Groan. Hierarchical taxonomy is inching closer to phylogenetic correctness. I agree that the other groups you mentioned would be necessary. So what? We're using taxoboxes of hierarchical taxonomy. If you feel this way, then I guess what I need to do is to start adding a second taxobox to each page to reflect the PhyloCode. jaknouse 18:52, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I don't think I understand what you're suggesting. Are you arguing that mentioning Nymphaeopsida in the text is necessary to follow PhyloCode? Because under that system, there's nothing wrong with treating the Nymphaeales as a direct subgroup of the Magnoliophyta is entirely acceptable, and that's what seems to be done for each of the listed orders. So they don't use Nymphaeopsida, Amborellopsida, and Austrobaileyopsida either. If that isn't your objection, I'm afraid I've missed your intended point.

It may be noted that the classification listed in the taxobox is phylogenetically correct. It simply includes a paraphyletic group. Some biologists shun those, but others give good reasons for their use. In particular, if every species comes from another species, paraphyletic species are unavoidable - and so on up the line. Thus, we shouldn't treat them as if they must be dismantled or abandoned to reflect phylogeny, as the removed text suggests. -- Josh

Disagree. Since the Nymphaeales apparently diverged from the flowering plant stem line before the divergence of the Magnoliales, then placing them under the Magnoliopsida is NOT phylogenetically correct. The whole concept of hierarchical taxonomy is to reflect relationships, and a strict interpretation of that necessitates strict phylogenetic relational correctness in classification. Placing the Nymphaeales under the Magnoliopsida is thus correct only if Magnoliopsida is the same as the Magnoliophyta. I am in favor of treating the Nymphaeales as a separate class, the Nymphaeopsida. jaknouse 18:36, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

That argument amounts to saying the Magnoliopsida, as used here, aren't monophyletic. I know that, and in fact had just finished explaining about paraphyletic groups, of which they're an example. So I suggest you re-read what I wrote. I'm well aware of the classification you're propsing, but it doesn't appear in any literature, and applying the same principles elsewhere would result in things like there being over thirty classes of vertebrates. Josh

Nymphaeales is now recognised under APG-II
http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/nymphaealesweb.htm#Nymphaeales Hesperian 03:05, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

 * That's the APwebsite, not APG-II. Kingdon (talk) 14:55, 27 August 2008 (UTC)

Translation requests
I removed the two requests after obtaining Google translations that that were somewhat confusing and revealed nothing of substance to add to the article. If someone fluent in Polish or Hungarian and English wishes to do an original translation and add something worthwhile, that's another thing. Meanwhile templated requests don't do a darn thing. J.H.McDonnell (talk) 00:58, 23 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nymphaeales


text:
Talk:Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 18 August 2021 and 1 December 2021. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Jrmcnatt.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 05:31, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Ann Nzinga Mbande Merger
I requested a merger from the author of the Nzingha article, Pandora a few weeks ago but I have not had a response. I went ahead and merged the text with the article a few weeks ago. The problem with Nzinga is that she has so many different names and even more surnames, the most common spelling is Nzinga; but that is also a first name of many other people, sometimes her surname Mbande or royal title Ngola are included in her name.

When I created the article Ann Nzinga Mbande, I tried to be as specific in the title as possible to avoid confusion. I also created several redirects to various spellings. Unfortunately, I had never come across the spelling Nzingha, interestingly it is the second most common speling, before and did not discover the previous article. I would like to propose that Nzingha become a redirect page to Ann Nzinga Mbande, since the text there has already been merged and the title is more specific.

--JCarriker 05:48, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * If her name as the Queen was Nzinga, and the other names are necessary just to identify her, then perhaps the best title would be Nzinga of Ndongo, according the nomenclature guidelines of Wikipedia.

 * If you are sure all information in Nzingha has been merged, then just make it a redirect page, delete the merger note and notice that under Duplicate articles.

==: I think "Nzinga" could be a disambiguation page (there are also different places called Nzinga, and Nzinga Hill, and probably some institutions are called after her). I think we need not mention people whose first name is Nzinga, but we probably should mention Daniel Ntoni-Nzinga, maybe Sekile Nzinga-Johnson. The name Nzinga also was given to a gorilla.
 * I found the following alternate names: Queen Nzinga, Nzinga I, Queen Nzinga Mdongo, Nzinga Mbandi, Jinga, Singa, Zhinga, Ana Nzinga, NZinga (?), Ngola Nzinga, Nzinga of Matamba (plus German Nzinga von Matamba), Nzinga Mbandi, Queen Nzingha of Ndongo, Ann Nzingha, Nxingha, Mbande Ana Nzingha, Ann Nzingha. Perhaps all of them should be redirects. I would also list them (or at least different spellings of Nzinga) in the article, as this is important information Andres 08:52, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The introduction of this article currently closes with the statemet: "Ngola was both a name and a title in Ndongo." Unfortunately, I know too little about this subject to edit an improvement to the following criticism myself: Since the term "Ngola" has not appeared in the article up to this point, in terms of style this statement lacks motivation. Moreover, considering the content of this statement one will wonder, whether this woman is called Ndongo--which the article does not. Tomeasy 08:21, 18 October 2007 (UTC)

 * I take this statement out, because their is no logical connection to the article title or the before-said up to this point. Tomeasy (talk) 21:59, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

I concur

 * I concur that Nzinga should become a disambiguation page, and that Nzingha become a redirect. I intially created redirect pages for Dona Ana de Souza, Singa, Jinga, Ginga, and Ngola Nzinga. Changing the article title to Nzinga of Ndongo would be alright with me but I do have two concerns; one that there was more than one Nzinga and to that she also ruled over Matamba. May I suggest the name, Ngola Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba. I will add the alternate spellings to the article after I finish posting, but I think we should wait until we have decided on a article name before we create any new redirect pages.

--JCarriker 10:36, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * Then I propose "Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba", since "Ngola" is not part of name. I think this would follow the nomenclature guidelines. Andres 19:56, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I would like to learn which territories Ndongo comprised? As I see, Matamba is different? And is it right to call her Queen of Angola? There are no articles about Ndongo and Matamba here. Andres 08:52, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Agreed, I will move the page. I will change Nzinga to a disambiguation page and adjust the existing reditrects first and create the new ones.

To answer your questions:

 * I would like to learn which territories Ndongo comprised?
 * I would too. I've been at it for years but I still have not been to come to a satifactory conclusion. I will tell you what I do know. The general area of both Ndongo, Mataba, and the Jaga were to the south and east of Bakongo. Bakongo was located in the area around what is now Kinshasa and Point Noire. Nzinga was a member of the Mbundu or Kimbundu ethno-linguistic group who today inhabit Northern Angola and portions of the DR Congo, therefore Ndongo was in Northern Angola.

 * OK, I see, thank you.
 * As I see, Matamba is different?
 * Yes it was, Nzinga conquered Matamba with the help of her allies and then used it in turn to reconquer Ndongo and then, I assume, ruled over them both, I assume, as seperate but unifed kingdoms, similar to Austria-Hungary or Poland-Lithuania.

 * Ok, thank you. While browsing the Web I somewhere saw a map with Matamba, but no Ndongo.

 * And is it right to call her Queen of Angola?
 * I don't beleive the article says she was, but no. She was not Queen of Angola because it did not exist and also she never dominated a majority of it's territory, so even saying what is now Angola would be misleading.

 * I saw such a formulation elsewhere.

 * There are no articles about Ndongo and Matamba here.
 * Unfortunately there aren't yet, but hopefully there will be eventually. They are on my to do list, but I have come across difficulties in defining what, where and when exactly they were. If you can understand German, perhaps you could find some additional sources and we could work togather to weed out false information.

 * --JCarriker 10:36, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * Perhaps we could create at least stubs about Ndongo and Matamba. Yes, I understand German. I got interested in the topic and I will do some research. Andres 19:56, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

With the cross referencing of two languages and the knowledge we have of Nzinga we should be able to create more than stubs, possibly three or more good paragraphs. Please post on my talk page, since those pages do not yet exist.

JCarriker 02:48, Mar 20, 2004 (UTC) ( Talk)

-- I know that I am late to this, but my research (and that of at least one noted scholar of African and African-America history) shows that "Nzinga" is a title. In your article, you note that the leader we now call "Queen Nzinga" refused to allow her people to call her "Queen," preferring to be called "King" instead. Actually, the title that she insisted upon was "Nzinga." It is a title that had been used by the chiefs or rulers of her territory before her, including at least one brother. When she took her brother's place, she insisted on being called the title that had been reserved for the top leader, Nzinga. Other names that have been added usually denote people, territory, or adopted religion. For example, to improve relations with the Portugese, Queen Nzinga became a Christian and added the name "Ann."

 * As to Nzinga being a title, I have never heard of the name used in that manner. Only the title of Ngola, though I have realized that Nzinga is also part of her brother's title/name. Might I suggest that you look up that reference and then include it in the latter part of the article as Dr. So and So said this in so and so. This way you can add the information to the article with out changeing the accuracy or neutrality of the article, as a matter of fact adding it in that manner could only improve the article.

 * -JCarriker 02:34, May 20, 2004 (UTC)

Why is this tagged "Racist - contact admin to have deleted"?
This does not seem to be a useful template as it will immediately be abused. In addition, how does it apply to this article? I'm not up on this topic. What is racist about it? - Tεx  τ  urε  22:22, 8 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * It seems to be pure unadulterated vandalism. I'm suppose to be on a wikiholiday, but as a major contributor to this article I have an intereset in any allegations that it is racist. Please keep me aprised of the situation Tεx  τ  urε, especially what happens after the ban on Mäximus Rex expires.
 * -JCarriker 02:36, Jun 9, 2004 (UTC)

Name versions
Other versions of her name include: Njinga Nbandi and Anna Nzinga

Dawn22 18:39, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Additional Information
"Anna Nzinga, Queen." African Biography. 3 vols. U*X*L, 1999.

Dawn22 18:39, 3 February 2006 (UTC)

Nzinga/Njinga's name
I wish to propose that the article be renamed spell the queen's name as Njinga, and preserve alternative spellings as alternates. My reason is that the spelling Njinga represents the correct spelling and pronounciation of the name in the modern orthography of Kimbundu. Njinga wrote about a dozen letters and in the signature line, she was quite consistent in spelling her name "Ginga". This spelling represented a Portuguese orthography (she wrote in Portuguese) that made the first sound a soft, Portuguese style "j" which is the equivalent of the French "j" or the sound made by "z" in the English word "azure". She did not put the nasal "n" in front of it because in normal spoken Kimbundu nasals are not pronounced unless they are preceded by a vowel which "hardens" them. Most modern orthographies of Kimbundu present nasals consistently in words whether they are pronounced or not. Antonio Gaeta da Napoli, an Italian priest who lived in her court, expained this nasal in any case in his book on her, published in Naples in 1669, and gave an exact account of its pronounciation. Since the 1890s when Heli Chatelain produced a modern orthography form Kimbundu, the "j" has been used consistently when soft "g" was used in previous orthographies (such as the catechism of 1661) and this has been widely accepted, for example in the small number of books and pamphlets, translations, and the like produced in Kimbundu since then. In 1980 the Instituto das Linguas in Luanda also created an official orthography of Kimbundu that uses the same rule. In Angola the queen is most often referred to as "Jinga". The street honoring her in Luanda is Rua Rainha Jinga. However, even there the modern orthography has won out, for the recently installed statue to the queen in the square at Kinixixi spells her name "Mwene Njinga Mbande". I hope that this modification will make sense and that Wikipedia will adopt what is becoming a convention among modern scholars of Njinga such as John Thornton, Beatrix Heintze, Linda Heywood, and Rosa Cruz e Silva.Beepsie 15:34, 10 February 2006 (UTC)beepsieBeepsie 15:34, 10 February 2006 (UTC)

Final Years
The paragraph under Final Years seems to be incomplete. Dawn22 08:48, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

Other Questions
I am not a scholar of African History, but this doesn't seem right:

The immediate cause of her embassy was her brother's attempt to get the Chinese to withdraw the fortress of Ambaca that had been built on his land in 3265 by the Governor

Should that be Portuguese and some year during his lifetime? I've seen what can best be called "micro-vandalism" like this on other articles. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 162.42.126.18 (talk) 23:57, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

The Destruction of Black Civlization
I noticed a few sentences in the defeat paragraph were taken directly from the book The Destruction of Black Civilization. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Pentalityism (talk • contribs) 18:39, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

Addressing the Williams insertion
I have altered the section to remove the Chancellor Williams material and its editoralizing on Njinga's motives. I have also added what I think is a more accurate assessment of Njinga' attitude to Christianity based on my reading of the original sources. As for her name, Njinga usually used the name Ana (or Anna) often with the "de Sousa" surname as well. She frequenly also used the term "Rainha Ginga" (queen Njinga) in signing these letters. This leads me be believe that Williams' assertions concerning her attitude toward Christianity and the question of Portuguese names was not correct in her case. One should remember that Kongo, always an independent country during the whole period, had also accepted Christianity and its people adopted Portuguese names. Kongo was no great friend of Portugal but at least in abstract was a great friend of Christiainity Beepsie (talk) 13:02, 9 May 2008 (UTC)

Early Rulers?
Why is Queen Nzinga classified as an "Early Ruler" she lived only 354 years ago. Surely this can't be considered early for Africa. vap (talk) 17:09, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

Vandalism
This page seems to be suffering from substantial vandalalims (e.g. dutch alliance paragraph has been deleted)Ackees (talk) 06:39, 6 May 2010 (UTC)

Sentence doesn't make sense
I'm struggling to understand the first sentence of the section 'Succession to Power'. It really isn't helped by the nested long brackets, but even without them it doesn't make sense:

"Mendes de Vasconcelos, to have some of his subjects who had been taken captive by Governor Mendes de Vasconcelos' campaigns returned and to persuade the governor to stop the marauding of Imbangala mercenaries in Portuguese service."

87.242.137.177 (talk) 01:14, 26 March 2011 (UTC) David Forster

Statue Citation
There is no citation for the information written about the statue of Njinga erected in Luanda except to say that is exists. I have done some outside research and cannot find any mention of any of the information included in this article from any source that is not a direct copy of the text in this article. Wherever that information came from it should be cited because it does not appear to exist. Green25 (talk) 07:36, 11 December 2017 (UTC)

I have found a citation for the existence of the statue- https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/19/magazine/history-slavery-smithsonian.html but the article mentions a inscription so that needs a citation also Rhagfyr (talk) 14:24, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

Name consistency in article
The variations on her name (as previously referred to here ), there are various uses of ‘Nzingha’ with a H in the article, if anyone has a moment to check and fix the consistency, i recommend to: Nzinga. Rhagfyr (talk) 14:27, 16 October 2022 (UTC)

Link Update
Some of the source links go to dating websites. 2601:281:8400:5E70:F9FE:AB3B:7FD2:88EF (talk) 16:59, 19 February 2023 (UTC)

Why is there a Swahili pronunciation?
She lived in West Central Africa, not in or near the Swahili Coast. 2804:1684:111:EA68:780C:EAD9:63AA:20E (talk) 05:52, 30 March 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba


text:
Talk:Nzingha

There is a parallel article about here: Ann Nzinga Mbande. Andres 00:18, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Ann Nzinga Mbande Merger
I requested a merger from the author of the Nzingha article, Pandora a few weeks ago but I have not had a response. I went ahead and merged the text with the article a few weeks ago. The problem with Nzinga is that she has so many different names and even more surnames, the most common spelling is Nzinga; but that is also a first name of many other people, sometimes her surname Mbande or royal title Ngola are included in her name.

When I created the article Ann Nzinga Mbande, I tried to be as specific in the title as possible to avoid confusion. I also created several redirects to various spellings. Unfortunately, I had never come across the spelling Nzingha, interestingly it is the second most common speling, before and did not discover the previous article. I would like to propose that Nzingha become a redirect page to Ann Nzinga Mbande, since the text there has already been merged and the title is more specific.

--JCarriker 05:49, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

If no one objects this page is to become a redirect to Nzinga of Ndongo and Matamba, as was agreed to at the talk page of Ann Nzinga Mbande, which is also now a redirect page.

title: Talk:Nzingha


text:
Macon County

Macon County may refer to:

United States

 * Macon County, Alabama
 * Macon County, Georgia
 * Macon County, Illinois
 * Macon County, Missouri
 * Macon County, North Carolina
 * Macon County Airport
 * Macon County, Tennessee

Medieval France

 * County of Mâcon

title: Macon County


text:
Waziristan

Waziristan (Pashto, وزیرستان, lit. 'land of the Mehsud, The Wolves, & Wazir') is a mountainous region covering the North Waziristan and South Waziristan districts of the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Waziristan covers around 11585 sqkm and is mainly populated by the Mehsud, The Wolves, & Wazir Pashtun tribe, who speak the Waziri dialect of the Pashto language.

Etymology
The name "Waziristan" is associated with the ancestor of the Pashtun tribes, Wazir and Mehsud (The Wolves), named Wazir. Both tribes descended from him and are predominantly settled in the Waziristan region.

Overview and history
Waziristan lies between the Kurram River and the Gomal River. It borders the Kurram Agency in the north, Bannu in the northeast, Tank in the east, Dera Ismail Khan in the southeast, Sherani and Musakhel districts of Balochistan in the south and Khost, Paktia, and Paktika provinces of Afghanistan in the west.

Waziristan is divided into two districts: North Waziristan and South Waziristan. According to the 2017 census report, the population of North Waziristan was 543,254 while that of South Waziristan was 674,065. The two parts have quite distinct characteristics, though both are inhabited by the Wazir and Mahsud (or Maseed The Real wolves) tribes. They are above average fighters and warriors but lacking in multiple areas.

British Era
The British entered Waziristan in 1894, when the boundary with Afghanistan, known as the Durand Line was determined. They divided Waziristan into two agencies, North Waziristan and South Waziristan; they also introduced a regular system of land record and revenue administration for the most fertile part of the Tochi valley. After the British military operations, a Political Agent for South Waziristan was permanently appointed with its headquarters at Wanna; another was appointed for North Waziristan with headquarters at Miranshah.

Most Known People (Mashar & Malak) of Waziristan (1950–2000)
Ramajan GigaKhel, Mehsud, Sub-tribe, Nano Khel, A well known mashar of Dre Maseed of his time from 1960s to 1999.

Waziristan Revolt (1919–1920)
In the rugged and remote region of Waziristan on British India's northwest border with Afghanistan, mountain tribes of Muslim fighters rebelled against the British Indian Army in numerous operations. The Waziristan Revolt of 1919–1920 was sparked by the Afghan invasion of British India in 1919. Though the British made peace with the Afghans, the Waziri and Mahsud tribesmen gave the imperial (almost entirely Indian) forces a very difficult fight. Some of the tribesmen were veterans of the British-organised local militias that were irregular elements of the British Indian Army, and used some modern Lee–Enfield rifles against the British Indian forces sent into Waziristan. One aspect of this conflict was the effective use of air power against the Waziris and Mahsuds. This is similar to Royal Air Force tactics in suppressing the Arab Revolt in Iraq in 1920 and 1921.

Faqir of Ipi
In 1935–36, a Hindu-Muslim clash occurred over a Hindu girl of Bannu, who was abducted and forced to convert to Islam. The tribesmen rallied around Mirzali Khan, a Tori Khel Wazir, who was later given the title of "the Faqir of Ipi" by the British. Jihad was declared against the British. Mirzali Khan, with his huge lashkar (force), started a guerrilla warfare against the British forces in Waziristan.

In 1938, Mirzali Khan shifted from Ipi to Gurwek, a remote village on the Durand Line, where he declared an independent state and continued the raids against the British forces. In June 1947, Mirzali Khan, along with his allies, including the Khudai Khidmatgars and members of the Provincial Assembly, declared the Bannu Resolution. The resolution demanded that the Pashtuns be given a choice to have an independent state of Pashtunistan, composing all Pashtun majority territories of British India, instead of being made to join Pakistan. However, the British Raj refused to comply with the demand of this resolution. After the creation of Pakistan in August 1947, Mirzali Khan and his followers refused to recognise Pakistan, and launched a campaign against Pakistan. They continued their guerilla warfare against the new nation's government. He didn't surrender to the government of Pakistan throughout his life but his movement diminished after 1954 when his Commander-in-chief Mehar Dil Khan Khattak surrendered to the Pakistani authorities. Towards the end of his life, he expressed regret and said that Afghanistan deceived and used him for its political gains in the name of Islam. He also instructed his supporters that they should never help Afghanistan against Pakistan with any plots made against Pakistan.

U.S. War on Terror
In the early stage of the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan, when the Taliban started fleeing into Pakistan, the local leaders, or Maliks, began a campaign among their locals to host the foreigners. Since then, around 200 Maliks have been assassinated by the local Taliban through targeted killings.

To end the Waziristan war, Pakistan signed the Waziristan Accord with chieftains from the self-styled Islamic Emirate of Waziristan on 5 September 2006. The Islamic militants in Waziristan are said to have close affiliations with the Taliban. Waziristan is often mentioned as a haven for al-Qaeda fighters. There is speculation that some al-Qaeda leaders have found refuge in the area controlled by the Emirate, which is a staging ground for militant operations in Afghanistan.

On 4 June 2007, the National Security Council of Pakistan met to decide the fate of Waziristan and take up a number of political and administrative issues to control the "Talibanization" of the area. The meeting was chaired by President Pervez Musharraf and attended by the Chief Ministers and Governors of all four provinces. They discussed the deteriorating law and order situation and the threat posed to state security. The government decided to take a number of actions to stop the "Talibanization" and to crush the armed militancy in the Tribal regions and the NWFP.

Due to the ongoing military operations against the Taliban, nearly 100,000 people have already fled to Afghanistan's Khost province to seek shelter. The UN and other aid agencies are helping more than 470,000 people who have been displaced from Pakistan's North Waziristan region due to the ongoing military operations.

The Ministry of the Interior has played a large part in the information gathering for the operations against the militants and their institutions. The Ministry of the Interior has prepared a list of militant commanders operating in the region and they have also prepared a list of seminaries for monitoring. (Waziristan is a tribal area, and in any tribal area of Pakistan, nobody can deploy police. There are other options like frontier corps (militia) and Khasadar (local tribesmen force).) The government is also trying to strengthen law enforcement in the area by providing the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Police with weapons, bullet-proof jackets, and night-vision devices. The paramilitary Frontier Corps is to be provided with artillery and APCs. State agencies are actively exploring methods to disrupt unauthorized FM radio channels through jamming techniques.

The US drone strikes programme has been responsible for numerous bombings in Waziristan, carried out with the approval of the Pakistani government.

The Wazir tribes are divided into clans governed by male village elders who meet in a tribal jirga. Socially and religiously, Waziristan is an extremely conservative area. Women are carefully guarded, and every household must be headed by a male figure. Tribal cohesiveness is also kept strong by means of the so-called Collective Responsibility Acts in the Frontier Crimes Regulations, which has since been repealed following the merger of FATA to Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in May, 2018.

Taliban presence in the area has been an issue of international concern in the War on Terrorism particularly since the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. In 2014, about 929,859 people were reported to be internally displaced from Waziristan as a result of Operation Zarb-e-Azb, a military offensive conducted by the Pakistan Armed Forces along the Pakistan - Afghanistan border.

North Waziristan
North Waziristan's capital is Miranshah. The area is mostly inhabited by the Dawar Tribe and the Utmanzai branch of the Darwesh Khel Waziris, who are related to Ahmedzai Waziris of South Waziristan, who live in fortified mountain villages, including Razmak, Datta Khel, Spin wam, Dosali, Shawa and Shawal. The Dawars (also known as Daurr or Daur), who live in the main Tochi Valley, farm in the valleys below in villages including Miranshah, Hamzoni, Darpakhel, Muhammadkhel, Boya, Degan, Banda, Ngharkali, Palangzai, Mirali, Edak, Hurmaz, Mussaki, Hassukhel, Ziraki, Tapi, Issori, Haiderkhel and Khaddi irrigated by the river Tochi. They are related to the Banuchis who live in the neighboring Bannu District.

South Waziristan
The South Waziristan has its district headquarters at Wanna. South Waziristan, comprising about 6500 km2, previously was the most volatile agency of Pakistan. Up until 2021 it was not under the direct administration of the government of Pakistan, South Waziristan was previously and indirectly governed by a political agent, who has been either an outsider or a Waziri—a system inherited from the British Raj. Since January 2021, South Waziristan has been incorporated as a district of the adjacent KPK province. In south Waziristan Agency, there are three tribes, Wazir, Maseed and Burki. Burki and Urmarh are the same tribe.

title: Waziristan


text:
International Game Developers Association

The International Game Developers Association (IGDA) is a nonprofit professional association whose stated mission is to "support and empower game developers around the world in achieving fulfilling and sustainable careers."

The IGDA is incorporated in the United States as a 501(c)(6) nonprofit organisation. It has over 12,000 members from all fields of game development. In recognition of the wide-ranging, multidisciplinary nature of interactive entertainment, everyone who participates in any way in the game development process is welcome to join the IGDA.

History
The beginnings of the IGDA emerged from several other organisations for computer game developers which were forming in the late 1980s and early 1990s:
 * The Computer Game Designers Symposium, later known as the Computer Game Developers Conference, was started in 1988 by Chris Crawford. He had already been producing a bimonthly newsletter for game developers, The Journal of Computer Game Design, since 1987. One of the subscribers, game programmer Nicky Robinson, suggested that he hold a gathering. Crawford took her suggestion, made announcements in two issues of the journal, and hosted the first event in April 1988 in his living room in San Jose, California.
 * The Los Angeles Computer Game Developers meetings, 1989–1991, created by Richard Pferdner and David Walker
 * The Bay Area Computer Entertainment Developers meetings, 1991–1993, created by Tim Brengle and David Walker, which met monthly
 * In 1992, in response to a need for a professional organisation, Brengle and Walker also created the Computer Entertainment Developers Association. Dues were $75/year, and included a subscription to Crawford's Journal of Computer Game Design. CEDA gained members both locally and internationally.

Crawford's living room event in April 1988, the CGDC, had brought in 26 or 27 game developers. It was such a success that on the spot a steering committee was formed to host a larger event six months later at a Holiday Inn in Milpitas, California, which drew 127 developers. Then this event continued to be held each Spring. It grew rapidly, by 50% or more each year, moving to larger and larger venues. Early conference directors included developers such as Crawford, Brenda Laurel, Nicky Robinson, Anne Westfall, and Ernest W. Adams.

In 1994 the CGDC then sponsored its own association, the Computer Game Developers Association, or CGDA, taking over the membership list from Walker and Brengle's CEDA. Initial board members included David Walker, Tim Brengle, Anne Westfall, and Ernest Adams, who became Chair. Jennifer Pahlka became the first Executive Director. In 1997 when elections were held, Noah Falstein became the first elected chair.

A separate organisation was also created in 1996, the IGDN, International Game Developers Network, run by people such as Marc Mencher and Gordon Walton. It had its own conference, the International Game Developers Network Conference, launched in 1998 in Austin, Texas.

The two organisations, the CGDA and the IGDN, ran more or less in parallel for a while, and then merged in 1999 as the International Game Developers Association, with David Walker and Tim Brengle as members No. 1 and 2.

Structure
The board of directors is the governing body of the IGDA. As of 2023, Margaret Krohn is the chair of the board of directors.

Day-to-day operations of the IGDA are handled by Executive Directors. Since 1994, these have been:

 * Jennifer Pahlka, 1994
 * Jason Della Rocca, 2000
 * Joshua Caulfield, 2009
 * Gordon Bellamy, 2010
 * Kate Edwards, 2012
 * Jennifer MacLean, 2017
 * Renee Gittins, 2019–2022
 * Jakin Vela, 2022–present

Other structures within the IGDA include:

 * Chapters, intended to provide an informal way to connect game developers within local communities. Chapters vary greatly in size and meeting attendance. They provide forums, for example, for discussions on current issues in the computer gaming industry and demos of the latest games.
 * Special Interest Groups, better known as SIGs, are intended to spark developer interest in a specific topics or disciplines. For example, the Game Education SIG has a stated mission "To create a community resource that will strengthen the academic membership of the IGDA while enhancing the education of future and current game developers." Some SIGs sponsor events, such as creating the Global Game Jam.
 * Committees are generally formed by the IGDA to conduct research into a subject, normally for a short period, leading to a single report. Some, however, are semi-permanent, and produce yearly reports. Some of these reports lead to gaming industry standards.

Advocacy
Aside from bringing game developers together, the IGDA focuses on the following issues present in the game development industry:

 * Quality of life – making the process of game development easier and more pleasant for everyone.
 * Diversity – ensuring that people from a wide range of backgrounds and their needs are represented in the game development industry
 * Anti-Censorship – recognising games as an art form, and as a medium of expression
 * Business and Legal Issues – empowering the development community with business knowledge and advocating for developers
 * Student and Academic Relations – setting curriculum guidelines, enhancing collaboration between industry and academia and providing guidance to students wanting a career in games

Starting in 2014, the association has been working with the FBI to deal with the online harassment of developers.

The IGDA introduced the first annual Global Industry Game Awards (GIGA) in August 2021, in collaboration with devcom, a branch of the annual Gamescom convention devoted to video game development. The awards were designed "to celebrate the contributions of individuals and discipline teams across the many facets of game development", with several awards given in each category of Art, Audio, Design, Engineering and Technology, Support, Writing and Narrative, and other awards, rather than focusing on the whole studio behind a given game.

Programs
The IGDA, through its chapters and SIGs, organises hundreds of events for members of the game development industry including chapter meetings and meetups. However, there are larger events that are organised that bring IGDA's international members together:
 * IGDA Summit – The IGDA Summit highlights the expertise, insights and experience of the global IGDA membership – from board members and staff to key volunteers and engaged members.
 * IGDA Scholars Program – The IGDA Scholars Program is a program that awards promising students in game development and related disciplines passes to key conferences related to game development (e.g. Game Developers Conference and the Electronic Entertainment Expo) and includes mentorship from key members of the game development industry, opportunities to visit local studios or meetings with senior figures in the industry.
 * IGDA Leadership Track at Southern Interactive Entertainment and Game Expo (SIEGE) – The IGDA Leadership Track at SIEGE will encompass a broad range of topics pertinent to the heads of game studios.
 * IGDA Global Mentorship Program – As described on the IGDA website: it "provides a way for IGDA members to support each other and to progress their career. The program allows for mentees to get advice from people in their field and mentors to practice mentorship and build relationships."

Events

 * Global Game Jam – Now managed by the Global Game Jam, Inc., the Global Game Jam is an event that organises developers, artists and game designers to create games within a 48-hour period.
 * IGDA Leadership Forum – Focuses on advancing the state of the art in game production and management, and encompasses a broad range of leadership topics relevant to game development.

Controversies
In 2009, Timothy Langdell resigned from the IGDA board after a movement to remove him due to his activities in enforcing the trademark name "Edge" used by Edge Games.

During the GDC 2013 a party was hosted by co-presenters IGDA and the start-up incubator YetiZen. The event featured at least three girls in white outfits dancing, one was in a shorter t-shirt, another in a furry outfit. Backlash over the presence of these female dancers resulted in the several people resigning in protest, most notably Brenda Romero from the IGDA's Women in Games Special Interest Group steering committee. On the day following the party IGDA Executive Director Kate Edwards issued an apology stating "We regret that the IGDA was involved in this situation. We do not condone activities that objectify or demean women or any other group of people."

On 20 November 2014 the IGDA added a link to "A Twitter tool to block some of the worst offenders in the recent wave of harassment" to their Online Harassment Resources web page. However, due to the method of the list's generation several IGDA members including the Chairman of IGDA Puerto Rico Roberto Rosario were added to the list of harassers. These errors resulted in the IGDA removing the link to the tool on 22 November.


text:
Ashby, Virginia

Ashby, Virginia is a region located in Cumberland County, Virginia. Ashby is widely known for its various paranormal incidents during the 19 century. Many of the incidents are poorly reported, however recently discovered photographs have confirmed a number of these incidents. thumb
 * Ashby, Cumberland County, Virginia
 * Ashby, Warren County, Virginia

title: Ashby, Virginia