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Crimson Skies

Crimson Skies is a tabletop and a video game media franchise created by Jordan Weisman and Dave McCoy, first released as a board game in 1998 and then as a PC game in 2000.

The series' intellectual property is currently owned by Microsoft Corporation through its Xbox Game Studios division. Weisman's former company, Smith & Tinker Inc., had announced in 2007 that it had licensed the electronic entertainment rights to the franchise, but no new titles were developed. The Crimson Skies trademark was renewed in 2013 by Microsoft for video games, although the trademark for other related media has been abandoned.

The series is set within an alternate history of the 1930s invented by Weisman and McCoy. Within this divergent timeline, the United States has collapsed, and air travel has become the most popular mode of transportation in North America; as a result, air pirates thrive in the world of Crimson Skies. In describing the concept of Crimson Skies, Jordan Weisman stated he wanted to "take the idea of 16th century Caribbean piracy and translate into a 1930s American setting".

Crimson Skies was first conceived as a PC game known as Corsairs!, but was released first as a board game from FASA. The franchise has since expanded to include a collectible miniatures game from Wizkids, as well as a series of books. The series also includes two arcade flight-based video games published by Microsoft Game Studios – Crimson Skies for the PC and Crimson Skies: High Road to Revenge for the Xbox. Both games were well received by critics, though only the second was commercially successful.

Crimson Skies is an example of the dieselpunk genre, though it predated the genre name.

Development history
According to series creator Jordan Weisman, the original idea for Crimson Skies came after he had completed research on the early years of aviation; the era and historical characters inspired him to create a game about the period. For their game, Weisman and Dave McCoy settled on a post WWI European setting revolving around the "knights of the air". However, a game with a similar idea came out then; Weisman and McCoy subsequently moved the setting to the U.S. and changed the concept to placing air pirates in a modern setting. From there, they crafted an alternate history to simulate the conditions that gave rise to piracy in the Caribbean in a 1930s setting. Weisman later said about the development of the universe: "Whenever I create different universes—MechWarrior, Shadowrun, Crimson Skies—to me, it's all about looking at 'What are the fantasies that excited us when we were 5?' And if we can find a new and more sophisticated way to tap into that fantasy [...] Crimson Skies is just combining two classic male fantasies: You get to be a pirate; you get to be a pilot."

Work on Crimson Skies began under the name Corsairs!. Development started for Virtual World Entertainment, and was later moved to a PC game when Virtual World merged with FASA Corporation. Although the Corsairs! project was shelved, Weisman and a group of FASA employees worked outside of business hours to create the Crimson Skies board game. According to Weisman: "The board game was borne purely out of the fact that I needed to get this universe out of our heads and into the world, and it was the best venue to do so quickly". Developer John Howard has stated that the board game was built to "showcase the Crimson Skies property, with an eye towards expanding on it in other ways".

When FASA Interactive became a part of Microsoft, Weisman and his team were able to start a new game, and work on the PC version of Crimson Skies began; the game was developed by Zipper Interactive. The game utilizes arcade flight mechanics, focusing on action, as opposed to a realistic portrayal of the physics of flight. The game's relaxed physics as well as its focus on barnstorming led GameSpot to comment that "Crimson Skies is very much based on a 'movie reality' where if it's fun and looks good, it works".

The Xbox game Crimson Skies: High Road to Revenge was later developed as a first-party title for Microsoft Game Studios by FASA Studio. Like the previous game, arcade flight elements were incorporated in order to focus gameplay on action instead of flight mechanics. Early in the game's production, developers decided upon a "playable movie" concept, but found that gameplay would be restricted by this approach. Consequently, the game's release date was pushed back by approximately one year to allow the development team time to retool the game. The results of this extra development period include more open-ended gameplay features and Xbox Live support.

After development concluded on High Road to Revenge, the developers moved to work on another Crimson Skies title for Microsoft; development, however, was cancelled shortly into the project. When FASA Studio was later shut down, Microsoft retained the video game rights to Crimson Skies, although it had no immediate plans for the IP. Weisman's latest company, Smith & Tinker, later "licensed from Microsoft the electronic entertainment rights" to Crimson Skies. Although the company has made no formal announcement as to its plans with the franchise, Weisman has assured fans that there will be a new entry in the series.

Backstory
The Crimson Skies series takes place in an alternate 1930s in which the U.S. has broken apart into a number of independent nation states. According to series creator Jordan Weisman: "I needed to create a geo-political situation that would result in air-pirates, so I looked at the real political situation that gave rise to the pirates of the Caribbean in the 16th and 17th centuries. We needed a balkanized era so that pirates could escape quickly into another country's territory, we needed things of value to be moved by air, and we needed a constantly churning political environment so that things did not settle down quickly. [...] It took only three little changes in the history of the United States to get us the dynamic world of Crimson Skies."

This alternate timeline incorporates both fictional and actual historic events. According to the series' official backstory, the divergent timeline begins after World War I, when a "Regionalist movement" gains popularity in America following the Spanish influenza pandemic, rallying behind an isolationist platform. Meanwhile, President Wilson's authority was undercut when Prohibition failed as a constitutional amendment leaving the matter to be decided on the state level. The nation soon became polarized between "wet" and "dry" states and checkpoints became a common sight on state borders to stop the flow of alcohol into "dry" states. As the decade progressed, state governments seized more authority, encroaching into areas formerly the responsibility of the federal government, and formed regional power blocs. The optimism of the Roaring Twenties was upset in 1927 when an outbreak of a deadly strain of influenza in America prompted states to close their borders, further dividing the Union. Though not as deadly as the 1918 pandemic, the epidemic had immense political fallout, bolstering regionalist "strong state" views and decreasing voter turnout in the 1928 election. Shortly after the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Texas seceded from the United States, reforming the Republic of Texas on January 1, 1930. New York was the next state to secede, and persuaded Pennsylvania and New Jersey to merge with it to form the Empire State. California followed suit, creating the Nation of Hollywood, as did Utah, which had already come in conflict with the federal government after the establishment of the Smith Law in 1928 that made Mormonism the state religion. Washington, D.C., essentially powerless, was unable to stop the country from falling apart. The federal government made its last stand against the "People's Revolt" of the bread basket states. When the US Army was defeated by the People's Collective (formerly the Midwest) forces in 1931, the fate of the United States was sealed, and the rest of the country dissolved into independent nations by the end of 1932 with the last legal remnant of the US being the neutral nation of Columbia in what used to be whatever area around Washington could be seized.

Though not directly affected by the Texas Secession, Canada found itself dragged down by the collapse of the U.S., with Quebec seceding in 1930 and the rest of the provinces siding with their nascent southern neighbors: New Brunswick and parts of Quebec joined the Maritime Provinces of Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont; Newfoundland joined Quebec; Manitoba joined the People's Collective as did parts of Saskatchewan, with the Lakota nation laying claim to the rest; British Columbia merged with Oregon and Washington in the Pacific Northwest; and Alaska claimed the Yukon territories. The core of the former Canadian government established the Protectorate of Ontario. While Ottawa's authority technically extends to Alberta and the Northwest Territories, these areas are mostly no-man's land, while Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island comprise a self-governing body, commonly referred to as the Northumberland Association.

In 1931, the Territorial Government of Hawaii was left defenseless in the wake of the fragmenting country and was overthrown in favor of reestablishing the Hawaiian monarchy with Jonah Kūhiō as its king. Likewise, America's territorial holdings overseas were surrendered following the nation's formal collapse and the formation of the Federal Republic of Columbia on March 1, 1932.

The resulting nation states that formed were no longer unified—distrust between them strained diplomatic relations to the point that several small-scale wars broke out.

After the dissolution of the United States, the country's interstate railroad and highway systems fell into disrepair or were sabotaged as they crossed hostile borders. Consequently, ground-based vehicles such as the locomotive and automobile were replaced by aircraft such as the airplane and the zeppelin as the leading mode of transportation in North America. Europe soon followed this fascination with aviation to make its own strides into the new, aerially-dominated market. Gangs of air pirates formed in turn to plunder airborne commerce. Although air militias formed to counter the threat, rivalries between the nations of North America reduced their capacity to effectively address this issue, and even encouraged the countries to sponsor pirates as privateers so as to direct their illegal operations against opposing nations. In Europe, privateers and other mercenary groups were widely adopted by nations who wished to avoid another world war, especially in the case of the Spanish Civil War.

By the end of 1937, North America was a "hotbed of conflict", with multiple pirate gangs and air militias battling for control of the skies. Europe was no better, as Germany jockeyed for power while France and Britain looked the other way. The Russian States continued to fight their civil war, which threatened to spill over into the Eastern European nations and Alaska. Asia, too, was on the brink, with Japan's recent invasion of China and the continuation of the bloody civil war in Australia.

Aircraft and technology
The planes of Crimson Skies are fictional designs created to fit within the Crimson Skies universe. Although some planes were modeled after actual 1930s era experimental aircraft and other "bizarre and outlandish designs" from the early years of aviation, they still take significant departures from conventional aviation design. Jordan Weisman has stated that the planes in Crimson Skies are designed to be the "hot rods of the air". According to IGN, "the planes in CS are built for style and not function with their redundant wing positions and rear propellers". For example, the Devastator aircraft features a pusher propeller and a biplane design.

Because of the history of the world of Crimson Skies, especially given that the nation states of North America are constantly at war with one another and that air travel is the primary means of transportation, advancements in both aircraft and weaponry technology would have proceeded at a faster pace than had actually happened in the same time period. Zeppelins with hangar launch bays that can accommodate escort fighters are featured prominently in Crimson Skies; in actuality, only a few zeppelin-based airborne aircraft carriers saw service. Zeppelins in Crimson Skies are also armed with broadside cannons and are also heavily armored. Radio-controlled rockets are also available in the Crimson Skies universe, which can be controlled remotely after launch.

Other technologies are exclusive to the world of Crimson Skies. Magnetic rockets have the ability to track planes or weapon emplacements over a short distance. Aerial torpedoes are similar to sea-based torpedoes, but are specifically designed to take out airships. Beeper/seeker rockets are designed to work in tandem. The "beeper" rocket attaches to a target and emits a homing signal; the "seeker" rocket follows the homing signal, destroying the target. The Choker rocket disables the target's engine by bursting into a fireball that burns all oxygen around it. The Tesla cannon is a tesla coil-style weapon that fires a bolt of electricity at a target, disabling it. Also featured in Crimson Skies is the wind turbine, a weather control mechanism designed to generate storms.

FASA board game
The Crimson Skies board game was released by FASA in 1998. The base game came with card stock, assemble-yourself airplanes included, but later metal miniature planes were offered separately. While the focus was on fantasy over fact, many of the planes in Crimson Skies were modeled after real experimental aircraft of the era.

The complex universe of Crimson Skies earned many devoted fans, as dozens of different weapons, planes, nations, air forces, bands of pirates, and characters were all given detailed pasts, and several additional supplemental campaigns were published.

Microsoft PC game
The PC game Crimson Skies was developed by Zipper Interactive and released in 2000. The game's storyline is framed around a radio drama that chronicles the adventures of Nathan Zachary and the Fortune Hunters pirate gang during their rise to fame and fortune. Gameplay centers on the control of one of the game's playable aircraft, which the player can customize with different parts to alter performance. The game's flight mechanics were designed to be a compromise between realistic and arcade flight.

One of Crimson Skies' unique gameplay features was the inclusion of "danger zones"—challenging areas through which the player can fly for various effects. The game's focus on barnstorming and relaxed flight physics led GameSpot to comment that "Crimson Skies is very much based on a 'movie reality' where if it's fun and looks good, it works". However, the game's original release was plagued with numerous technical problems, most notably the unreliability of the player's saved game files. Though a patch was released to remedy this issue, the game still retains many technical issues such as long loading times and sluggish menu screens.

Crimson Skies: High Road to Revenge
Crimson Skies: High Road to Revenge is an Xbox game developed by FASA Studio and released in 2003. The game centers on Nathan Zachary and the Fortune Hunters, in their crusade to avenge the death of a close friend, Dr. Fassenbiender, at the hands of the Die Spinne organization. Developers decided early on in the game's production cycle that the game would not simply be a port of the PC title, and by the end of the development cycle, many of the story elements that linked the game to the PC game had been excised.

Although the game is similar to the PC game in that gameplay centers on controlling an aircraft, a new feature is the ability for the player to switch aircraft or man fixed weapon emplacements during a mission. The game's mission structure also features a number of other open-ended elements that have led to comparisons with the sandbox gameplay of the Grand Theft Auto games. The game additionally boasted a number of online gameplay modes over Xbox Live.

WizKids collectible miniatures game
In 2003, Wizkids released the Crimson Skies collectible miniatures game. The game utilizes collectible figures featuring both planes and pilots from the Crimson Skies universe. These miniatures use WizKids' Clix system, by which a character's or plane's statistics and abilities can be altered during gameplay by way of an adjustable dial located on the base of the figure.

The Crimson Skies miniatures game comprises two separate games, each with its own set of rules. The gameplay in Crimson Skies: Aces revolves around pilots battling each other on the ground, while the gameplay in Crimson Skies: Air Action focuses on dogfighting between squadrons of aircraft. Figures were sold in "squadron packs" and "ace packs", which were formatted in blisterpacks as opposed to the random packaging format used in other Wizkids games.

Books
In addition to the tabletop and video games, the Crimson Skies series also features a number of tie-in books and short stories.

Spicy Air Tales was published by FASA in 1999. The two-volume series featured short stories that originally appeared on the Crimson Skies website and supplemental material for using characters and planes from the stories with the boardgame.

 * Volume I
 * Fortune's Hunt, by Michael A. Stackpole
 * Volume II
 * The Great Helium War, by Robert E. Vardeman
 * Manhattan Mayhem, by Loren L. Coleman

Wings of Fortune: Pirate's Gold, by Stephen Kenson, was published by FASA in November 2000. It introduced Nathan Zachary and his famous band of air pirates, the Fortune Hunters. It follows Zachary's air exploits and daring escapes during his early days as a war pilot, and recounts a climatic confrontation with his nemesis.

Wings of Justice: Rogue Flyer, by Loren L. Coleman, was published by FASA in December 2000. It follows the transformation of Trevor Girard from a law-abiding security agent to a pirate with a heart of gold.

Crimson Skies was published by Del Rey in October 2002 to promote the future release of the Xbox game. It features three novellas, two originally published on the Crimson Skies website, one previously unpublished. Each story is preceded by a brief history lesson about the Crimson Skies universe that acts as the prelude to the following story.
 * The Case of the Phantom Prototype, by Eric Nylund - Paladin Blake must fly a top-secret aircraft into the Mojave Desert.
 * "The Manchurian Gambit, by Michael B. Lee - Jonathan "Genghis" Kahn, the leader of the Red Skull Legion pirate gang, rescues a lady in distress and fights air battles from Manhattan to Manchuria with, surprisingly, no plunder in sight.
 * Bayou Blues, by Nancy Berman and Eric S. Trautmann - Nathan Zachary and his "Fortune Hunters" square off against a Cajun sky-thief, a crooked businessman, and a pair of star-crossed lovers in a high-stakes, high-altitude con game.

title: Crimson Skies


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Chevrolet Chevette

The Chevrolet Chevette is a front-engine, rear-drive subcompact manufactured and marketed by Chevrolet for model years 1976–1987 as a three-door or five-door hatchback. Introduced in North America in September 1975, the Chevette superseded the Vega as Chevrolet's entry-level subcompact, and sold 2.8 million units over 12 years. The Chevette was the best-selling small car in the U.S. for model years 1979 and 1980.

The Chevette employed General Motors' global T platform which was co-developed by Opel and Isuzu in 1973. The first T-car model produced was the Brazilian Chevrolet Chevette released in the same year. Six months later the Opel Kadett C was released in Europe. Worldwide, GM manufactured and marketed more than 7 million T-cars – either as rebadged models or locally-built versions in different countries. T-car variants were sold internationally as the Pontiac Acadian in Canada; Pontiac T1000/1000 in the United States (1981–1987); K-180 in Argentina; Vauxhall Chevette in the United Kingdom, Austria, France, Germany, New Zealand, Sweden, and Uruguay; Opel Kadett C in Germany; Isuzu Gemini in Japan, Holden Gemini in Australia; AYMESA Cóndor in Ecuador (from 1978); Saehan Gemini and Daewoo Maepsy in South Korea; and as a coupe utility (pickup), the Chevy (or GMC) 500 in Brazil and South America. A T-car variant remained in production in South America through 1998.

Introduced on a full-color nationwide campaign in 140–150 of the country's largest daily papers, the New York Times said the "little American car holds its own with the foreigners." Looking back on the Chevette in 2011, the same publication called the Chevette "haphazardly made, sparsely trimmed and underpowered." Consumer Guide described the Chevette as “unimaginative to an extreme.”

Development
Under the direction of chief engineer John Mowrey, Chevrolet began developing the Chevette on December 24, 1973. It was a response to the federal CAFE standards and the 1973 oil crisis. The Chevette was prompted by GM's Energy Task Force, which arose out of the crisis and the resultant shift in consumer demand to smaller, foreign vehicles boasting greater fuel efficiency.

The Chevette used as its basis GM's World Car, Project 909–what would become the T-car program, so named because the vehicles shared GM's T platform. With the well-known problems of its predecessor, the Vega, which included production issues, reliability problems, and a serious propensity for corrosion, the team reworked the international platform such that the Chevette shared not a single body panel with another T-car and reworked the underbody extensively to enhance corrosion protection. The Chevette's 1.4-liter base iron-block engine weighed 59 lb less than the Vega's much-heralded aluminum-block engine.

The first North American Chevette, a two-door hatchback called the Chevette Scooter, rolled off the assembly line on August 18, 1975 and officially introduced on September 16, in Washington, DC, with the first models going on sale on October 2, just after new legislation-mandated Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards. With initial projected sales of 275,000 units in its first year, numbers were cut in half as the price of oil stabilized. The Chevette ultimately reached 2,793,353 sales for its entire production across the 12 model years 1976–1987. Global T-car sales surpassed 7 million in the end. The last Chevette was manufactured on December 23, 1986, at Lakewood Assembly – following the end of production at Wilmington Assembly in September, 1985. The last Chevette manufactured was a light-blue two-door hatchback shipped to a Chevrolet dealer in Springdale, Ohio.

The T-car had been launched internationally in Brazil under the Chevette name in 1973, as a two-door sedan and ultimately a four-door sedan, a two-door hatchback, and a two-door station wagon (named Marajó), as well as a utility (named the Chevy 500), produced until 1994.

The Chevette Engine
The origin of the Chevette Engine has been long debated.

Many reference Italian coffee table book from the Italian magazine Quattroruote.This book is cited as source for the majority of sites that give the same info.

According to those who reference that book, the engine is either a 1.4L Isuzu G140 or 1.6L G161Z. And that the inline four Isuzu engine had its block cast in Brazil.

On the other side of the debate is an article by the well respected Brazilian Automotive Journalist Bob Sharp from December 2011.

In this article, Bob speaks with 3 engineers who worked on Project 909 and what became the Chevette Engine at the Opel facility in Russelsheim, Germany.

These engineers were Carlos Beuchler, Pedro Manuchakian, and Francisco Satkunas. All 3 has long careers with GM of Brazil with both Beuchler and Satukunas later holding the position of VP of Engineering.

Translated from that article, ″Satkunas says that the design and construction of the prototypes were entirely German. The engine was designed specifically for the Kadett C — our Chevette — and would complement a 1.2-liter OHV (in-block valve timing and overhead valves). The new engine was a 1.4-liter OHC (overhead valve control) and it was the first time that Opel used a timing belt to drive the control.″

and

Buechler adds: ″The project for the new engine was led with great vigor by Fritz Lohr, who faced a lot of resistance at Opel and in the USA, as it required high investment, but without which Opel would have succumbed in the 70s/80s. The most curious thing about this story is that Lohr's specialty was chassis. But the three Brazilians, Francisco Satkunas, Pedro Manuchakian and I, actively participated in this project, with Pedro also taking care of the transmission project.″

The article gives some details on the engine, it's relation to the Family II, and some issues with the development.

Model years (1976–1987)

The Chevette itself was initially available only as a two-door hatchback with a 1.4-liter OHV or 1.6-liter OHV gasoline inline-four engine. Engines produced from 53 to 60 hp (subsequently 53 to 70 hp), driving the rear wheels. A four-speed manual transmission was standard, while a three-speed automatic transmission was optional. Other features included rack-and-pinion steering, front disc brakes, front stabilizer bar, 13-inch tires, tricolor taillights, front bucket seats, an onboard diagnostic system, extensive acoustic insulation, a single steering column-mounted stalk (integrating controls for signal indicators, wipers, and windshield washers), and factory options including swing-out rear quarter windows, AM/FM radio, analog clock, delayed wipers, and a chrome "Bright Package". Front seats featured inertia locking mechanisms that enabled entry and exit adjustment of the front seatback without using a separate release.

Pontiac marketed a rebadged variant in Canada as the "Acadian". In addition to being the smallest, most fuel-efficient car marketed by Chevrolet, the Chevette was the lightest car marketed in the U.S. The EPA rated the base 1.4-liter engine at 28 mpgus city and 40 mpgus highway. Chevrolet claimed that the Chevette's turning circle (30.2 feet) was one of the smallest in the world and that it was essentially a "metric" car, "international in design and heritage". The 1976–1978 Chevettes can be identified by round headlights. Chrome-rimmed, tricolor taillights were used from 1976 to 1979.

Chevrolet marketed optional "Rally" and "Woody" packages, as well as the least expensive "Scooter" model. The Rally 1.6 included a 1.6-liter (98 cu in) engine in lieu of the 1.4-liter (85 cu in) overhead-cam four-cylinder, rated at 60 hp instead of 52 hp, along with a rear stabilizer and special body graphics. The Chevette Woody (1976) featured simulated wood-grain siding and upgraded interior and exterior trim. The Scooter was offered as a base model with a $2,899 suggested retail price, two front passenger seats, an optional rear seat, deletion of most exterior chrome (e.g., window surrounds), painted rather than chrome bumpers, an open glove box, black carpeting, door-pull straps in lieu of arm rests, fiberboard door panels, and a passenger seat without fore-aft adjustment. A total of 9,810 Scooter models were manufactured, compared to 178,007 regular hatchbacks.

In 1977, the engines offered were 57 hp and 63 hp. The Scooter hatchback included a rear seat, while offering a rear-seat delete option. The Sandpiper trim package included a “reef”-patterned interior, deluxe door trim, cream gold or antique white exterior colors, and an exterior Sandpiper logo just behind each door.

In 1978, models had a revised grille with a grid design, while the grille and headlight frames were chromed for standard models, a four-door hatchback riding on a 97.3 in wheelbase was added – two inches longer than the two-door – and this version accounted for more than half of the Chevette's nearly 300,000 sales. The 1.4-liter engine and Woody package were dropped with a fuel door added. A TH-180 automatic transmission was added to replace the THM-200 series automatic. An "HO" (high output) version was available in addition to the standard 1.6-liter, featuring a modified head and a larger valves-cam profile. The HO package also included a dual-outlet exhaust manifold. Prices were dropped and more standard equipment was added for 1978. Air conditioning, radial tires, an AM/FM radio, and power brakes were optional.

In 1979, the Holley two-barrel carburetor became standard on all models. The front fascia was revised with a flat hood, no longer wrapping down to the bumper. New for 1979 was a large chrome grille with Chevrolet's "bow-tie" emblem and rectangular headlights. A new air-injection system was introduced to improve catalytic-converter function at idle. An active passenger-restraint system was introduced in small numbers as an option which featured a lower hanging dashboard, automatic seatbelts, and a center-dash console. Chevette sales totaled more than 451,000 units – a figure that would rank it second only to Chevrolet's new Citation, which had a much longer model run (sales had started in April 1979). Consumer Guide testers managed "an honest 29 mpg in the city and 39 mpg on the highway". The 1980 rear fascia was revised with a squared-off hatch, wraparound taillights with combined, single-colored turn signals, and a round gas-filler door.

In August 1981, a diesel engine option was new with a late 1981 availability – this is a 1.8-liter Isuzu unit only available coupled to an Isuzu five-speed. The 51 hp powertrain is the same as was installed in the Isuzu I-Mark. It was not available with air conditioning. New styled-steel wheels with center caps were offered, and the previous wheel and hubcap design was discontinued. Domestic models received a new computer command control feedback system on gasoline engines. The HO option was discontinued. Electronic spark timing was used on 1981 models in place of mechanical timing advance. A new engine cylinder head design (swirl-port) was introduced to improve low-end torque and fuel economy. The Pontiac T1000 was introduced in the spring of 1981 for both the U.S. and Canadian markets, which shared all body stampings with the Chevette, featuring a chrome center with black-trimmed grille and headlight buckets, as well as standard chrome window trim with black area fill. The T1000 also had additional fresh-air vents at the outer ends of the dashboard. This gave Canadian Pontiac dealers 2 versions of the T-car: the Acadian and the T1000 (later, simply "1000") concurrently from 1981 to 1985. Power steering was a new option for the Chevette, as well as a 3.36 axle ratio (standard on T1000 models). The active passenger-restraint system was discontinued. New lighter-weight bucket seats were introduced that lacked much of the lower support of the heavier "panned" seats. A new adhesive-based, thinner windshield seal replaced the lock-ring type.

In 1982, models featured a five-speed manual transmission option on gasoline-powered two-door cars (standard with diesel). The Scooter was newly available as a four-door hatchback. New GM THM-180C (THM200C for diesel model) automatic transmissions, which included a locking torque converter for greater fuel mileage, were available. Introduction of a pump-driven AIR system in the late model year replaced PAIR to help efficiency of the catalytic converter. A new catalytic converter was introduced with an air inlet for forced air injection from the air pump. A new one-piece cardboard-based headliner with an updated overhead dome light replaced the earlier vinyl liner. The Pontiac T1000 received a unique grille, body molding, and horizontal lined taillights, as well as an alloy sport wheel option. General Motors of Canada's Pontiac Acadian, a rebadged Chevette, received all the T1000's Pontiac-exclusive features from this point on. Chevrolet sold 433,000 Chevettes in 1981 and 233,000 in 1982.

In 1983, the Chevettes had a makeover for the front and rear fasciae, and the Chevette CS was introduced. A black-finished grille and trim moldings replaced most chrome pieces. Scooter and base Chevettes featured black bumpers and end caps, while the higher-end Chevette CS models included color-keyed bumpers and caps with chrome bumper inserts as an option. Scooter and base models featured a black-only grille and headlight buckets, while CS models featured argent-colored trim. The Chevette S model introduced a cosmetic package that included black-painted styled-steel wheels and a red-accented grille and moldings, as well as oversized decal emblems in red. Front bucket seats featured new adjustable knobs on the sides, but lost the reclining levers of previous years. Interior trim was also blacked out with new black door handles and black plastic window regulators. An integrated cassette deck was optional with the stereo package. A chrome strip on the dashboard was available only on CS and S models until the end of production. Deluxe door panels were discontinued and all models featured plastic door panels, but base and Scooter models still featured laminated cardboard cargo area panels. The "diagnostic connector" was removed from the wiring harness.

In 1984, the low-cost Scooter model was discontinued, but kept for Chevettes made for Canada. The T1000 was renamed Pontiac 1000 in 1983 both in the U.S. and Canada. The 1985 models carried few updates from the 1984 models. In 1986, the Chevette base model was discontinued, leaving only the CS and the S, which featured a third brake light, an instrument cluster "service engine soon" light, replacing the "check engine" light, and a new bowtie emblem on the front grille.

In 1987, Chevrolet dropped the Chevette S model and the diesel engine option (after 324 were sold in 1986, plus 264 diesel-engined Pontiac 1000). These were the last General Motors diesel passenger cars built for many decades, following the discontinuation of the Oldsmobile Diesel engine. The Chevette's price was also dropped to $4,995. Sales fell to just over 46,000 units, and production ended on December 23, 1986.

Electrovette
In 1978, General Motors Advanced Engineering developed a concept car, the Electrovette, based on the Chevette, but using an electric motor powered by lead-acid batteries. It was a strict two-seater and sat on a shortened wheelbase, with the batteries mounted in the rear. The car had a range of about 50 mi at 30 mph, and a top speed of 53 mph.

Leata Cabalero
A luxury variant of the Chevette, the Leata Cabalero, was manufactured and marketed for model years 1976 and 1977 by Stinebaugh Manufacturing Company, founded by Donald E. Stinebaugh (1916–1992) with his son Leonard D. "Sonny" Stinebaugh (1946–2001) in Post Falls, Idaho. Donald Stinebaugh named the car after his wife Hilda (Erickson) Stinebaugh, giving the car her nickname, Leata – a misspelling of lita, Norwegian for "little" in feminine form.

The Leata featured power windows, power seat and cruise control – as well as baroque styling with custom fiberglass body panels, round headlights in square bezels, a rectangular "classic" grille, and heavily styled fenders; 97 were made either in pickup or hatchback body styles.

Latin America
The Chevrolet Chevette was first launched by General Motors (Brazil) in 1973 as a two-door sedan. A four-door sedan followed in April 1978, and then a three-door hatchback was added in November 1979. The hatchback had unique bodywork for Latin America, longer than the European Kadett City and with a notch at the base à la the period Ford Escort. A three-door station wagon version, called the Marajó in Brazil, was added in September 1980, as was a sporting version of the hatchback called the 1.6 SR (with a mere four more horsepower, achieved by a somewhat higher compression ratio). In 1983, the Chevette received a thorough facelift with rectangular headlights, with the turn signals located underneath the headlights, a flatter hood, and a single-piece grille. The dash was also new, as were ventilation windows in the front doors. Mechanically, the 1.6 was now also available to run on gasoól and a five-speed manual gearbox was available as an option.

The Latin American Chevettes underwent a series of facelifts, in 1978, 1983, and a major one in 1987, which meant new headlights and a black plastic grille. Where available, the station wagon used the Chevette name outside of Brazil.

The hatchback remained in production until 1988, while the Marajó continued to be available until 1989. Marajó is an island located at the mouth of the Amazon River in Brazil. The four-door sedan version was built until 1989, mainly for export to other Latin American countries. The two-door sedan remained in production until 1993, only outlived by the pickup version (Chevy 500), which continued until 1994 after having been first launched in 1983. The four-door sedan continued to be built for a few more years in Ecuador and Colombia.

The Chevette originally appeared with a 1.4-liter single overhead cam inline-four. In 1981 this was augmented by a locally developed 1.6-liter version, it too with a single carburetor. The Brazilian 1.4 and 1.6 were similar to but not the same as the EPA compliant North American 1.4 and 1.6. For 1988, the 1.6 gained a twin-carb setup and now produced 78 PS rather than the 72 PS in earlier version. This engine remained available until the end of Brazilian Chevette production. The lower-powered 1.4 was only available for gasohol as of 1981 and was discontinued entirely after 1982. A gasohol-powered version of the 1.6 appeared in its stead for 1983.

As a tax cut for sub-1-liter cars appeared in late 1990, General Motors do Brasil responded with the 1.0-litre "Chevette Junior" for early 1992. This used a narrow-bore, short-stroke 50 PS version of the OHC engine with a catalytic converter. The Junior did not do particularly well in the market, competing against the much more modern Fiat Uno Mille, Volkswagen Gol, and Ford Escort Hobby. Being rather underpowered and heavy at 865 kg, with a top speed of 134 km/h, the 1.0 had a brief sales life. It only remained available until 1993, after which the Corsa took over. A 1.8-liter Isuzu diesel-engined version was also built in Uruguay, exclusively for the Uruguayan market. In the Brazilian market, both the 1.4 and the 1.6 were available in gasoline and alcohol versions.

In Argentina, the Kadett C was originally marketed as the Opel K-180, but between 1992 and 1995, the equivalent of the Brazilian Chevette was sold there as the GMC Chevette. Production in Colombia, where a special version for taxi usage was also built, continued until 1998. The Chevette was the number-one seller in Chile for some time, last in 1991. The Chevette was made locally in Chile in 2-door and 4-door form from 1976 to 1983 while the Marajo station wagon was always imported from Brazil as was the Chevy 500 pickup. After 1983, all Chevettes in Chile were imported from Brazil. When catalytic converters were made a requirement in that country, GMB was unable to develop such an engine and the Chevette was withdrawn from the Chilean market after the 1992 model year.

Around 1.6 million units were built in Brazil, with the Corsa replacing the Junior and the Chevrolet Kadett/Ipanema replacing the bigger-engined versions. About one quarter of the production was exported.

Chevy 500
The Chevrolet Chevy 500 was the coupé utility version of the Brazilian Chevette. Launched in 1983, it was the precursor to the Classic/Corsa/Montana lineup of today. It competed with offerings from several other manufacturers, including the Fiat Fiorino, Ford Pampa, and Volkswagen Saveiro. Its payload was 500 kg. Using the 1.6-liter OHC inline four rated at 70 hp, this model continued in production until 1994, and was the last Chevette version built in Brazil, where it was replaced by the coupé utility version of Chevrolet Corsa.

Grumett
Created by Horacio Torrendell, a fibreglass-bodied version (actually based on the Vauxhall Chevette's bodywork) called the Grumett was built in Uruguay. It was available either as a station wagon, as a pickup, or as a double-cab pickup. This replaced an earlier version (since 1976) which used bodywork based on that of the Vauxhall Viva, as well as Vauxhall mechanics. By 1980 the Vauxhall parts had become impossible to import and Grumett switched to Chevette parts from Brazil. The Grumett used the original 1.4-liter version of the Chevette engine. The regular Chevette was also assembled in Uruguay, by General Motors Uruguaya. It was sold there as a two- or four-door sedan, either with the 1.4 petrol or the 1.8 diesel.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chevrolet Chevette


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Talk:Vladimir Žerjavić

croatianhistory.net
In what way is croatianhistory.net a WP:RS? Peacemaker67 (click to talk to me) 00:16, 12 December 2016 (UTC)
 * I am not sure if that questions is addressed to me but after a cursory look at the site I certainly would not rely on it but whether or not it qualifies is something that if disputed would have to eventually be resolved by an admin anyway, so why not cut out the middle-man? Yours, Quis separabit?  01:16, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

RE: Žerjavić
The article states that "[A]fter 1934 he worked in the private sector, and after 1945 in various institutions of SFR Yugoslavia" -- anyone have any idea what he was doing between 1939 and 1945? Quis separabit? 01:14, 12 December 2016 (UTC)

Hidden text
I hid the following text due to inconsistencies: Professor Vladeta Vučković, Serbian author of the official 1946 Yugoslav document, agrees with Žerjavić's and Kočović's estimates. She stated that he  had calculated a demographic loss of 1,700,000, and that later that number was interpreted as actual number of victims and presented by Yugoslav delegation on peace conference later that year in Paris.

 * This does not completely make sense How could she agree with both "Žerjavić's and Kočović's estimates" when they have certain significant differences? And which is the "he" who calculated a demographic loss of 1,700,000", more than 600,000 more than either calculation shown above. Quis separabit?  01:20, 8 August 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Vladimir Žerjavić


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Talk:Dassault Rafale

Country-specific variant designations
Can anybody provide sources (other than the ones stated in the article) that mention the country-specific variant designations of the aircraft? The ones there at the moment don't appear to be reliable. Cheers --Sp33dyphil (talk) 11:30, 28 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dassault Rafale


text:
Magnolia grandiflora

Magnolia grandiflora, commonly known as the southern magnolia or bull bay, is a tree of the family Magnoliaceae native to the Southeastern United States, from Virginia to central Florida, and west to East Texas. Reaching 27.5 m in height, it is a large, striking evergreen tree, with large, dark-green leaves up to 20 cm long and 12 cm wide, and large, white, fragrant flowers up to 30 cm in diameter.

Although endemic to the evergreen lowland subtropical forests on the Gulf and South Atlantic coastal plain, M. grandiflora is widely cultivated in warmer areas around the world. The timber is hard and heavy, and has been used commercially to make furniture, pallets, and veneer.

Description
Magnolia grandiflora is a medium to large evergreen tree which may grow 120 ft tall. It typically has a single stem (or trunk) and a pyramidal shape. The leaves are simple and broadly ovate, 12 – long and 6 – broad, with smooth margins. They are dark green, stiff, and leathery, and often scurfy underneath with yellow-brown pubescence.

The large, showy, lemon citronella-scented flowers are white, up to 30 cm across and fragrant, with six to 12 petals with a waxy texture, emerging from the tips of twigs on mature trees in late spring.

Flowering is followed by the rose-colored fruit, ovoid polyfollicle, 7.5 – long, and 3 – wide.

Exceptionally large trees have been reported in the far Southern United States. The national champion is a specimen in Smith County, Mississippi, that stands 37 m. Another record includes a 35-m-high specimen from the Chickasawhay District, De Soto National Forest, in Mississippi, which measured 17.75 ft (5.4 m) in circumference at breast height, from 1961, and a 30-m-tall tree from Baton Rouge, which reached 18 ft in circumference at breast height.

Taxonomy
M. grandiflora was one of the many species first described by Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae in 1759, basing his description on the earlier notes of Miller. He did not select a type specimen. Its specific epithet is derived from the Latin words grandis "big", and flor- "flower". The genus name Magnolia honors Pierre Magnol, a French botanist.

M. grandiflora is most commonly known as southern magnolia, a name derived from its range in the Southern United States. Many broadleaved evergreen trees are known as bays for their resemblance to the leaves of the red bay (Persea borbonia), with this species known as the bull bay for its huge size or alternatively because cattle have been reported eating its leaves. Laurel magnolia, evergreen magnolia, large-flower magnolia or big laurel are alternative names. The timber is known simply as magnolia.

Distribution and habitat
Southern magnolias are native to the Southeastern United States, from Virginia south to central Florida, and then west to East Texas. The tree is found on the edges of bodies of water and swamps, in association with sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), water oak (Quercus nigra), and black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica). In more sheltered habitats, it grows into a large tree, but can be a low shrub when found on coastal dunes. It is killed by summer fires, and is missing from habitats that undergo regular burning.

In Florida, it is found in a number of different ecological areas that are typically shady and have well-draining soils; it is also found in hummocks, along ravines, on slopes, and in wooded floodplains. Despite preferring sites with increased moisture, it does not tolerate inundation. It grows on sandhills in maritime forests, where it is found growing with live oaks and saw palmetto (Serenoa repens). In the eastern United States, it has become an escapee, and has become naturalized in the tidewater area of Virginia and locally in other areas outside of its historically natural range.

Alongside a number of other magnolias, the southern magnolia has proven capable of surviving the cool winters of the British Isles. It was introduced to Great Britain in 1728, and, as well as being a popular ornamental plant, has become naturalised.

Ecology
M. grandiflora can produce seed by 10 years of age, although peak seed production is achieved closer to 25 years of age. Around 50% of seeds can germinate, and they are spread by birds and mammals. Squirrels, possums, quail, and turkey are known to eat the seeds.

Cultivation and uses
Plant collector Mark Catesby, the first in North America, brought M. grandiflora to Britain in 1726, where it entered cultivation and overshadowed M. virginiana, which had been collected a few years earlier. It had also come to France, the French having collected it in the vicinity of the Mississippi River in Louisiana. It was glowingly described by Philip Miller in his 1731 work The Gardeners' Dictionary. One of the earliest people to cultivate it in Europe was Sir John Colliton of Exeter in Devon; scaffolding and tubs surrounded his tree, where gardeners propagated its branches by layering, the daughter plants initially selling for five guineas each (but later falling to half a guinea).

It is often planted in university campuses and allowed to grow into a large tree, either with dependent branches, or with the lower branches removed to display the bare trunks. It is also espaliered against walls, which improves its frost hardiness. It is often planted ornamentally in urban areas due to its resistance to air pollutants such as sulfur dioxide

United States cultivation
M. grandiflora is a very popular ornamental tree throughout its native range in the coastal plain of the Gulf/South Atlantic states. Grown for its attractive, shiny green leaves and fragrant flowers, it has a long history in the Southern United States. Many large and very old specimens can be found in the subtropical port cities such as Houston; New Orleans; Mobile, Alabama; Jacksonville, Florida; Savannah, Georgia; Charleston, South Carolina; and Wilmington, North Carolina. M. grandiflora is the state tree of Mississippi and the state flower of Louisiana. The species is also cultivated as far north as coastal areas of New Jersey, Connecticut, Long Island, New York, and Delaware, and in much of the Chesapeake Bay region in Maryland, and eastern Virginia. On the West Coast, it can be grown as far north as the Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada area, though cooler summers on the West Coast slow its growth compared to the East Coast. In the interior of the US, some of the cold-hardy cultivars have flourished as far north as Louisville, Kentucky and Cincinnati, Ohio, where a sizable population exists. Farther north, few known long-term specimens are found due to the severe winters, and/or lack of sufficient summer heat. Seeds may promote health and prevent diseases like high blood pressure, heart disturbances and epilepsy.

M. grandiflora is also grown in parts of Mexico, Central America, and South America, as well as parts of Asia.

Until early 2018, an iconic southern magnolia planted by President Andrew Jackson nearly 200 years earlier grew near the South Portico of the White House. It was reputedly planted as a seedling taken from Jackson's plantation, The Hermitage in Tennessee. It was the oldest tree on the White House grounds and was so famous that it was for decades pictured on the back of the $20 bill as part of a view of the South Front. There was a tradition of giving cuttings or seedlings grown from the tree: Reagan gave a cutting to his Chief of Staff Howard Baker upon his retirement, and Michelle Obama donated a seedling to the "people's garden" of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Since the 1940s, when the tree suffered a gash that caused a large section of its trunk to rot, the tree had been supported by metal poles and cables. In 2017, it was decided on the advice of the National Arboretum to cut down and remove the magnolia because the trunk was in an extremely fragile condition and the supports had been compromised. Offshoots from the Jackson magnolia have been saved, grown up to 10ft and one was planted at the place of the original tree.

It is recommended for seashore plantings in areas that are windy but have little salt spray. The foliage will bronze, blotch, and burn in severe winters at the northern limits of cultivation, especially when grown in full winter sun, but most leaves remain until they are replaced by new foliage in the spring. In climates where the ground freezes, winter sun appears to do more damage than the cold. In the Northern Hemisphere, the south side of the tree experiences more leaf damage than the north side. Two extremes are known, with leaves white underneath and with leaves brown underneath. The brown varieties are claimed to be more cold hardy than the white varieties, but this does not appear to be proven as yet. Once established, the plants are drought tolerant, and the most drought tolerant of all the Magnolia species.

The leaves are heavy and tend to fall year round from the interior of the crown and form a dense cover over the soil surface, and they have been used in decorative floral arrangements. The leaves have a waxy coating that makes them resistant to damage from salt and air pollution.

In the United States, southern magnolia, along with sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) and cucumbertree (Magnolia acuminata), is commercially harvested. Lumber from all three species is simply called magnolia, which is used in the construction of furniture, boxes, pallets, venetian blinds, sashes, and doors, and used as veneers. Southern magnolia has yellowish-white sapwood and light to dark brown heartwood tinted yellow or green. The usually straight-grained wood has uniform texture with closely spaced rings. The wood is ranked moderate in heaviness, hardness, and stiffness, and moderately low in shrinkage, bending, and compression strength; it is ranked moderately high in shock resistance. Its use in the Southeastern United States has been supplanted by the availability of harder woods.

Cultivars
Over 150 cultivars have been developed and named, although only 30 to 40 of these still exist and still fewer are commercially propagated and sold. Most plants in nurseries are propagated by cuttings, resulting in more consistent form in the various varieties available. Many older cultivars have been superseded by newer ones and are no longer available. Some cultivars have been found to be more cold hardy, they include:
 * 'Bracken's Brown Beauty' was developed by Ray Bracken of Easley, South Carolina, in the late 1960s and patented in 1985. It is a popular cultivar that has survived long-term in West Virginia, New Jersey, and Long Island, NY. This cultivar grows in a dense and compact pattern, with narrow, medium-sized, glossy leaves. Flowers measure 5 - 6 in.
 * 'Edith Bogue' was brought to the coastal plain of New Jersey from Florida in the 1920s. The original tree sent to Edith A. Bogue from Florida helped to establish cold-hardy specimens in the Middle Atlantic states from Delaware to coastal Connecticut. Once established, 'Edith Bogue' has been known to have only minor spotting and margin burn on the leaf in temperatures as low as -5 °F. With a vigorous classic pyramidal shape, this cultivar grows to 35 ft with a 15-ft spread. The leaves are large and deep green, but lack the brown indumentum on their undersides which make other cultivars so distinctive.
 * 'Angustifolia', developed in France in 1825, has narrow, spear-shaped leaves 20 cm long by 11 cm wide, as its name suggests.
 * 'Exmouth' was developed in the early 18th century by John Colliton in Devon. It is notable for its huge flowers, with up to 20 petals, and vigorous growth. Erect in habit, it is often planted against walls. The leaves are green above and brownish underneath. The flowers are very fragrant and the leaves are narrow and leathery.
 * 'Goliath' was developed by Caledonia Nurseries of Guernsey, and has a bushier habit and globular flowers of up to 30 cm diameter. Long-flowering, it has oval leaves which lack the brownish hair underneath.
 * 'Little Gem', a dwarf cultivar, is grown in more moderate climates, roughly from New Jersey, Maryland and the Virginias southward. Originally developed in 1952 by Steed's Nursery in Candor, North Carolina, it is a slower-growing form with a columnar shape which reaches around 4.25 m high and 1.2 m wide. Flowering heavily over an extended period in warmer climate, it bears medium-sized, cup-shaped flowers, and has elliptic leaves 12.5 cm long by 5 cm wide. It flowers relatively quickly after planting compared with other cultivars.
 * "Victoria" is a form grown in the Pacific Northwest that is reportedly hardy to -12 F. It has a more open habit and shiny dark green leaves with brown undersides.

Other commonly grown cultivars include:
 * 'Ferruginea' has dark-green leaves with rust-brown undersides.
 * 'Southern Charm' is a dwarf form that grows into a bushy shrub with a pyramidal shape up to 20–25 ft high and 10 ft wide. It has dark green shiny leaves 3-6 in long and 2-4 in wide with brown undersides. It is also known as 'Teddy Bear', for the fuzzy brown undersurface of the leaves.

Chemistry
Magnolia grandiflora contains phenolic constituents shown to possess significant antimicrobial activity. Magnolol, honokiol, and 3,5′-diallyl-2′-hydroxy-4-methoxybiphenyl exhibited significant activity against Gram-positive and acid-fast bacteria and fungi. The leaves contain coumarins and sesquiterpene lactones. The sesquiterpenes are known to be costunolide, parthenolide, costunolide diepoxide, santamarine, and reynosin.

title: Magnolia grandiflora


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Dialysis (chemistry)

In chemistry, dialysis is the process of separating molecules in solution by the difference in their rates of diffusion through a semipermeable membrane, such as dialysis tubing.

Dialysis is a common laboratory technique that operates on the same principle as medical dialysis. In the context of life science research, the most common application of dialysis is for the removal of unwanted small molecules such as salts, reducing agents, or dyes from larger macromolecules such as proteins, DNA, or polysaccharides. Dialysis is also commonly used for buffer exchange and drug binding studies.

The concept of dialysis was introduced in 1861 by the Scottish chemist Thomas Graham. He used this technique to separate sucrose (small molecule) and gum Arabic solutes (large molecule) in aqueous solution. He called the diffusible solutes crystalloids and those that would not pass the membrane colloids.

From this concept dialysis can be defined as a spontaneous separation process of suspended colloidal particles from dissolved ions or molecules of small dimensions through a semi permeable membrane. Most common dialysis membrane are made of cellulose, modified cellulose or synthetic polymer (cellulose acetate or nitrocellulose).

Etymology
Dialysis derives from the Greek διά, 'through', and λύειν, 'to loosen'.

Principles
Dialysis is the process used to change the matrix of molecules in a sample by differentiating molecules by the classification of size. It relies on diffusion, which is the random, thermal movement of molecules in solution (Brownian motion) that leads to the net movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to a lower concentration until equilibrium is reached. Due to the pore size of the membrane, large molecules in the sample cannot pass through the membrane, thereby restricting their diffusion from the sample chamber. By contrast, small molecules will freely diffuse across the membrane and obtain equilibrium across the entire solution volume, thereby changing the overall concentration of these molecules in the sample and dialysate (see dialysis figure at right).

Osmosis is another principle that makes dialysis work. During osmosis, fluid moves from areas of high water concentration to lower water concentration across a semi-permeable membrane until equilibrium. In dialysis, excess fluid moves from sample to the dialysate through a membrane until the fluid level is the same between sample and dialysate.

Finally, ultrafiltration is the convective flow of water and dissolved solute down a pressure gradient caused by hydrostatic forces or osmotic forces. In dialysis, ultrafiltration removes molecules of waste and excess fluids from sample.

For example, dialysis occurs when a sample contained in a cellulose bag and is immersed into a dialysate solution. During dialysis, equilibrium is achieved between the sample and dialysate since only small molecules can pass the cellulose membrane, leaving only larger particles behind.

Once equilibrium is reached, the final concentration of molecules is dependent on the volumes of the solutions involved, and if the equilibrated dialysate is replaced (or exchanged) with fresh dialysate (see procedure below), diffusion will further reduce the concentration of the small molecules in the sample.

Dialysis can be used to either introduce or remove small molecules from a sample, because small molecules move freely across the membrane in both directions. Dialysis can also be used to remove salts. This makes dialysis a useful technique for a variety of applications. See dialysis tubing for additional information on the history, properties, and manufacturing of semipermeable membranes used for dialysis.

Diffusion dialysis
Diffusion dialysis is a spontaneous separation process where the driving force which produces the separation is the concentration gradient. It has an increase in entropy and decrease in Gibbs free energy which means that it is thermodynamically favorable. Diffusion dialysis uses anion exchange membranes (AEM) or cation exchange membranes (CEM) depending on the compounds to separate. AEM allows the passage of anions while it obstructs the passage of cations due to the co-ion rejection and preservation of electrical neutrality. The opposite happens with cation exchange membranes.

Electrodialysis
Electrodialysis is a process of separation which uses ion-exchange membranes and an electrical potential as a driving force. It is mainly used to remove ions from aqueous solutions. There are three electrodialysis processes which are commonly used - Donnan dialysis, reverse electrodialysis, and electro-electrodialysis. These processes are explained below.

Donnan dialysis
Donnan dialysis is a separation process which is used to exchange ions between two aqueous solutions which are separated by a CEM or an AEM membrane. In the case of a cation exchange membrane separating two solutions with different acidity, protons (H+) go through the membrane to the less acidic side. This induces an electrical potential that will instigate a flux of the cations present in the less acidic side to the more acidic side. The process will finish when the variation of concentration of H+ is the same order of magnitude as the difference of concentration of the separated cation.

Reverse electrodialysis
Reverse electrodialysis is a technology based on membranes which gets electricity from a mixing of two water streams with different salinities. It commonly uses anion exchange membranes (AEM) and cation exchange membranes (CEM). AEMs are used to allow the pass of anions and obstruct the pass of cations and CEMs are used to do the opposite. The cations and anions in the high salinity water moves to the low salinity water, cations passing through the CEMs and anions through the AEMs. This phenomenon can be converted to electricity.

Electro-electrodialysis
Electro-electrodialysis is an electromembrane process utilizing three compartments, which combines electrodialysis and electrolysis. It is commonly used to recover acid from a solution using AEM, CEM and electrolysis. The three compartments are separated by two barriers, which are the ion exchange membranes. The compartment in the middle has the water to be treated. The compartments located on the sides contain clean water. The anions pass through the AEM, while the cations pass through the CEM. The electricity creates H+ in the anions' side and OH− in the cations' side, which react with the respective ions.

Equipment
Separating molecules in a solution by dialysis is a relatively straightforward process. Other than the sample and dialysate buffer, all that is typically needed is:
 * Dialysis membrane in an appropriate format (e.g., tubing, cassette, etc.) and molecular weight cut-off (MWCO)
 * A container to hold the dialysate buffer
 * The ability to stir the solutions and control the temperature

General protocol
A typical dialysis procedure for protein samples is as follows:
 * 1) Prepare the membrane according to instructions
 * 2) Load the sample into dialysis tubing, cassette or device
 * 3) Place sample into an external chamber of dialysis buffer (with gentle stirring of the buffer)
 * 4) Dialyze for 2 hours (at room temperature or 4 °C)
 * 5) Change the dialysis buffer and dialyze for another 2 hours
 * 6) Change the dialysis buffer and dialyze for 2 hours or overnight

The total volume of sample and dialysate determine the final equilibrium concentration of the small molecules on both sides of the membrane. By using the appropriate volume of dialysate and multiple exchanges of the buffer, the concentration of small contaminants within the sample can be decreased to acceptable or negligible levels. For example, when dialyzing 1mL of sample against 200mL of dialysate, the concentration of unwanted dialyzable substances will be decreased 200-fold when equilibrium is attained. Following two additional buffer changes of 200mL each, the contaminant level in the sample will be reduced by a factor of 8 x 106 (200 x 200 x 200).

Variables and protocol optimization
Although dialyzing a sample is relatively simple, a universal dialysis procedure for all applications cannot be provided due to the following variables:
 * The sample volume
 * The size of the molecules being separated
 * The membrane used
 * The geometry of the membrane, which affects the diffusion distance

Additionally, the dialysis endpoint is somewhat subjective and application specific. Therefore, the general procedure might require optimization.

Dialysis membranes and MWCO
Dialysis membranes are produced and characterized according to molecular-weight cutoff (MWCO) limits. While membranes with MWCOs ranging from 1-1,000,000 kDa are commercially available, membranes with MWCOs near 10 kDa are most commonly used. The MWCO of a membrane is the result of the number and average size of the pores created during production of the dialysis membrane. The MWCO typically refers to the smallest average molecular mass of a standard molecule that will not effectively diffuse across the membrane during extended dialysis. Thus, a dialysis membrane with a 10K MWCO will generally retain greater than 90% of a protein having a molecular mass of at least 10kDa.

It is important to note that the MWCO of a membrane is not a sharply defined value. Molecules with mass near the MWCO limit of the membrane will diffuse across the membrane more slowly than molecules significantly smaller than the MWCO. In order for a molecule to rapidly diffuse across a membrane, it typically needs to be at least 20- to 50-times smaller than the MWCO rating of a membrane. Therefore, it is not practical to separate a 30kDa protein from a 10kDa protein using dialysis across a 20K rated dialysis membrane.

Dialysis membranes for laboratory use are typically made of a film of regenerated cellulose or cellulose esters. See reference for a review of cellulose membranes and manufacturing.

Laboratory dialysis formats
Dialysis is generally performed in clipped bags of dialysis tubing or in a variety of formatted dialyzers. The choice of the dialysis set up used is largely dependent on the size of the sample and the preference of the user. Dialysis tubing is the oldest and generally the least expensive format used for dialysis in the lab. Tubing is cut and sealed with a clip at one end, then filled and sealed with a clip on the other end. Tubing provides flexibility but has increased concerns regarding handling, sealing and sample recovery. Dialysis tubing is typically supplied either wet or dry in rolls or pleated telescoped tubes.

A wide variety of dialysis devices (or dialyzers) are available from several vendors. Dialyzers are designed for specific sample volume ranges and provide greater sample security and improved ease of use and performance for dialysis experiments over tubing. The most common preformatted dialyzers are Slide-A-Lyzer, Float-A-Lyzer, and the Pur-A-lyzer/D-Tube/GeBAflex Dialyzers product lines.

Applications
Dialysis has a wide range of applications. These can be divided into two categories depending on the type of dialysis used.

Diffusion dialysis
Some applications of the diffusion dialysis are explained below.

 * Strong aqueous caustic soda solutions can be purified of hemicellulose by diffusion dialysis. This is specific to the largely-obsolete viscose process. The first step in that process is to treat almost-pure cellulose (cotton linters or dissolving pulp) with strong (17-20% w/w) solutions of sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) in water. One effect of that step is to dissolve the hemicelluloses (low-MW polymers). In some circumstances, it is desirable to remove as much hemicellulose as possible out of the process, and that can be done using dialysis.
 * Acids can be recovered from aqueous solutions using anion-exchange membranes. That process is an alternative treatment of industrial wastewater. It is used for the recovery of mixed acid (HF+ HNO3), the recovery and concentration of Zn2+ and Cu2+, in H2SO4+ CuSO4 and H2SO4+ ZnSO4 and the recovery of H2SO4 from waste sulphuric acid solutions containing Fe and Ni ions, which are produced at the diamond manufacturing process.
 * Alkali waste can be recovered using diffusion dialysis because of its low energy cost. The NaOH base can be recovered from the aluminium etching solution applying a technique develop by Astom Corporation of Japan.
 * De-alcoholisation of beer is another application of the diffusion dialysis. Taking into account that a concentration gradient is applied for this technique, the alcohol and other small molecule compounds transfer across the membrane from higher concentrations to lower, which is water. It is used for this application for the low operation conditions and the possibility to remove alcohol to 0.5%.

Electrodialysis
Some applications of the electrodialysis are explained below.

 * The desalination of whey is the largest area of use for this type of dialysis in the food industry. It is necessary to remove crude cheese whey containing calcium, phosphorus and other inorganic salts to produce different foods such as cake, bread, ice cream and baby foods. The limit of whey demineralisation is almost 90%.
 * De-acidification of fruit juice such as grape, orange, apple and lemon are processes in which electrodialysis is applied. An anion-exchange membrane is employed in this technique implying that citrate ions from the juice are extracted and replaced by hydroxide ions.
 * Desalting of soy sauce can be done by electrodialysis. The conventional values of salt in brewed soy sauce are about 16-18 %, which is a quite high content. Electrodialysis is used to reduce the amount of salt present in the soy sauce. Nowadays diets of low salt content are very present in the society.
 * Electrodialysis allows the separation of amino acids into acidic, basic and neutral groups. Specifically, cytoplasmic leaf proteins are extracted from alfalfa leaves applying electrodialysis. When proteins are denatured, the solutions can be desalted (of K+ ions) and acidified with H+ ions.

Advantages and disadvantages
Dialysis has both advantages and disadvantages. Following the structure of the previous section, the pros and cons are discussed based on the type of dialysis used. Advantages and drawbacks of both, diffusion dialysis and electrodialysis, are outlined below.

Diffusion dialysis
The main advantage of diffusion dialysis is the low energy consumption of the unit. This membrane technique operates under normal pressure and does not have a state change. Consequently, the energy required is significantly reduced, which reduces the operating cost. There is also the low installation cost, easy operation and the stability and reliability of the process. Another advantage is that diffusion dialysis does not pollute the environment.

A disadvantage is that a diffusion dialyser has a low processing capability and low processing efficiency. There are other methods such as electrodialysis and reverse osmosis that can achieve better efficiencies than diffusion dialysis.

Electrodialysis
The main benefit of electrodialysis is the high recovery, especially in the water recovery. Another advantage is the fact that not high pressure is applied which implies that the effect fouling is not significant and consequently no chemicals are required to fight against them. Moreover, the fouling layer is not compact which leads to a higher recovery and to a long membrane life. It is also important that the treatments are for concentrations higher than 70,000 ppm eliminating the concentration limit. Finally, the energy required to operate is low due to the non-phase change. In fact, it is lower in comparison with the needed in the multi effect distillation (MED) and mechanical vapour compression (MVC) processes.

The main drawback of electrodialysis is the current density limit, the process must be operated at a lower current density than the maximum allowed. The fact is that at certain voltage applied the diffusion of ions through the membrane are not linear leading to water dissociation, which would reduce the efficiency of the operation. Another aspect to take into account is that although low energy is required to operate, the higher the salt feed concentration is, the higher the energy needed will be. Finally, in the case of some products, it must be considered that electrodialysis does not remove microorganisms and organic contaminants, therefore a post-treatment is necessary.

Suppliers

 * Thermo Scientific
 * Spectrum Laboratories
 * Fisher Scientific
 * EMD Millipore
 * Sigma-Aldrich
 * Harvard Apparatus
 * Membrane Filtration Products, Inc.
 *

title: Dialysis (chemistry)


text:
Talk:November 23

Errors on this page
I found two errors on this page. First, the 1984 football game when Doug Flutie threw "The Pass" ended 47-45 and not 45-41. Second, Billy the kid was born in 1859 and not 1860. Alan s

Blackbeard is quoted as being born on this day in 1718. But on the Blackbeard page he is shown as dying in 1718. RFG  86.144.168.208 23:40, 8 November 2007 (UTC)
 * I removed Blackbeard. Accurizer 23:53, 8 November 2007 (UTC)

Birthday of Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar,Akbar the Great is 15 October 1542 see wiki page reference http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar_the_Great —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.211.83.9 (talk) 14:36, 23 November 2010 (UTC)
 * Yep. Moved to October 15. Thanks. Winston365 (talk) 00:02, 24 November 2010 (UTC)

Black Friday
should it be put in that november 23rd is the earlist Black friday can fall out(november 29th being the latest) also the fact that this year it falls out on november 23rd? --24.193.136.253 (talk) 22:19, 19 November 2007 (UTC)
 * should it be here at all? It's a media term.--99.253.32.92 (talk) 22:32, 31 December 2017 (UTC)

JFK assassination?
Perhaps the assassination of John_F._Kennedy should be mentioned? It does seem to be a significant event in history. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.105.59.122 (talk) 20:14, 26 November 2007 (UTC)
 * You are correct. It should be mentioned.  On the correct day - which this is not.  -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 22:11, 26 November 2007 (UTC)

Miley Cyrus
Should Miley Cyrus REALLY be on a page marking significant births? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.113.16.67 (talk) 20:56, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

I half agree with you, I don't like her either, but she has influenced music. I just can't remember how.....maybe she made it worse.... Gorillazx1 (talk) 09:48, 6 November 2008 (UTC)

 * She's famous, hence her birth should be listed. Qzm (talk) 03:15, 14 September 2009 (UTC)
 * The criteria is more than just famous, to be listed on the page the person needs to be notable as a minimum, and notable on a global scale not just in the local or particular sport's community. -- Drappel (talk) 13:00, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

Matty B
Just so everyone knows - the death of YouTube rapper MattyB is a hoax (reportedly created on 4chan but the link I received was broken). He's still making Facebook posts as of about ten minutes ago, long before the death hoax was created. That, and I've seen no evidence that he's dead (and yes, I checked). I took him out of the deaths page. Sasukemario (talk) 03:40, 24 November 2011 (UTC)

All-Woman South Pole Expedition
I reluctantly removed this item from the "Events" section:
 * 1990 – The first all woman expedition to the South Pole (3 Americans, 1 Japanese and 12 Russians) sets off from Antarctica on the 1st leg of a 70 day, 1287 kilometre ski trek

I can't find any references to this expedition anywhere else in Wikipedia or on the web. If it really happened, somebody should add it back and include a link to an article that mentions it (perhaps by including the name of an expedition member and linking to her biography page). I should also point out that saying that the expedition set off "from Antarctica" makes no sense in this context. Alexbook (talk) 20:15, 23 November 2013 (UTC)

Thepsis
About Thepsis? I have to admit, I couldn’t see a specific reference to his first performance on the page about him : or one the article about the festival he took part in.

Is it possible to clarify the date?

Or, if not, to remove the mention … ?

Thanks.

Cuddy2977 (talk) 14:07, 10 November 2014 (UTC)

Non‐notable entries
This article has a number of birth entries (many tagged with citation needed) which I don't think would be considered notable under WP:BIRTHDOY. That states "being the subject of a Wikipedia article is only a minimum requirement for inclusion in a Wiki-calendar article. Not all people meet the more stringent notability requirements for Wiki-calendar articles". I may have been a little bold in some of the cases I removed, but some on here are just not notable enough, outside of their field, to be included e.g. Kevin Clancy, Sebastian Nachreiner or Igor Kuzmin. The majority of articles on people are not included within a Wiki-calendar list, it should only be the most notable cases or it would become unnavigable. ‐‐ Voello  talk  14:20, 18 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Hi, that article is presently a complete cop-out in terms of what it actually deems suitable, you are right in what it says, but then there is a tag requesting Specify. "Not all people meet the more stringent notability requirements for Wiki-calendar articles" is entirely ambiguous without further clarification. The editing template states only that the inclusions must not be a redirect, non-article or redlink and must be sourced, which should be addressed via the tag if at all possible rather than immediate removal - as demonstrated with Wes Burns, the referencing of the DOB is certainly possible and easily rectified for some of these entries, I just don't really want to do all of them. If you want to quote WP:BIRTHDOY I would suggest you focus on seeking consensus on what those criteria should be, or if they do exist somewhere, link to it directly, otherwise it's very much a subjective opinion. Crowsus (talk) 16:25, 18 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks,, I do agree that the guideline is presently a bit of a vague cop-out. I don't, though, think we need to go about creating a lengthy discussion on the wikiprojects MOS to resolve this. The intent of WP:BIRTHDOY is that only the most notable should be included, and the best place to discuss that is each article's talk page. So I purpose, that the three cases I mentioned above should be removed from the article as, in my opinion, they are not notable enough to warrant a mention here. -- Voello  talk  01:24, 20 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I agree. All of those should be removed. Deb (talk) 06:41, 20 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:November 23


text:
Talk:November 25

--mav 00:52, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Births and deaths
As with other dates, I have been removing entries for people who have few or no articles in other language wikipedias and thus not internationally well known. This makes the section more manageable. Where possible, those that have been removed have been transferred to the relevant Year in Topic articles. See Days of Year Project talk pages for discussion as to how best to separate births and deaths sections from these articles.Deb (talk) 07:45, 14 June 2015 (UTC)

Holidays
Sorry, I didn't know where else to write this, but today should be E=mc2 day or something. If you could put this where it should be, thanks. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.230.160.188 (talk) 14:57, 26 November 2015 (UTC)
 * Need some more details. Where did you read this? Deb (talk) 16:18, 26 November 2015 (UTC)

Evacuation day (New York)
This is not an observance but a historical event. Perhaps it used to be an observance but it doesn't fit under Holidays and Observances. I'll remove it. --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 13:41, 25 November 2016 (UTC)

Day name format
Is there a reason that Wikipedia named the pages with the month then the day and not the day then the month? Eshaan011 (talk) 15:27, 25 November 2020 (UTC)
 * See Date format by country.-- Laun chba ller 15:32, 25 November 2020 (UTC)
 * I know, but not all countries are MM/DD/YYYY. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Eshaan011 (talk • contribs) 16:34, 2 December 2020 (UTC)

Albert Ayler
The great "Free Jazz" (or "New Thing") Musician Albert Ayler died on Nov. 25, 1970.--Ralfdetlef (talk) 06:00, 25 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:November 25


text:
Hatchery (Star Trek: Enterprise)

"Hatchery" is the seventeenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise, the 69th overall. It was written by André Bormanis and Michael Sussman, and was directed by Michael Grossman; his first episode of Star Trek.

Set in the 22nd century, the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise, registration NX-01. Season three of Enterprise features an ongoing story following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi. In this episode, Captain Jonathan Archer (Scott Bakula) discovers an Insectoid egg hatchery on a downed Xindi ship and becomes obsessed with protecting the eggs. In response to his increasingly erratic behavior, Commander Charles "Trip" Tucker III (Connor Trinneer) leads a mutiny to relieve Archer of his command.

Plot
The Enterprise investigates a lifeless Insectoid vessel crashed on a barren planet, hoping to find helpful information on its computer database. Archer leads an away team to explore the wreckage and discovers an Insectoid hatchery with several dozen surviving eggs, but a failing bio-support system. He is sprayed in the face by one of the eggs. Doctor Phlox concludes it was a defense mechanism and treats him with an analgesic. Dead Insectoids and one of their shuttles are then taken aboard for analysis, and computer logs reveal the survivors cut off their own life support in order to save the ship's hatchery.

Despite objections, Archer keeps Enterprise at the planet and orders Commander Tucker to repair the hatchery's bio-support. Incompatibilities with Starfleet portable power generators cause an overload, prematurely hatching one of the eggs, but Phlox cannot save it. Increasingly obsessive, Archer soon orders the transfer of one-third of Enterprise's antimatter supply to the Xindi ship so that full power can be restored. With the success of the mission in mind, Sub-Commander T'Pol refuses to carry out his order, so he relieves her of duty and confines her to quarters. Soon after, Lieutenant Reed, in control of the bridge, destroys an escaping Xindi ship. Archer relieves him as well, saying that the alien crew could have helped to save the eggs.

Archer promotes Major Hayes, non-Starfleet leader of the MACOs (Military Assault Command Operations), to First Officer. Hayes questions nothing about Archer's behavior, and has his MACOs man a number of critical positions on the ship. Archer orders Ensign Sato to prepare an Insectoid-language distress signal. With time running out, Tucker and Phlox conclude that a mutiny is in order, and they free T'Pol and Reed to assist. After a tense standoff and shootout with the MACOs, the Enterprise crew capture the bridge. Meanwhile, Tucker beams down to the hatchery and stuns Archer. Back on Enterprise, a thorough medical scan by Phlox reveals that the egg had sprayed Archer with a "nurturing hormone", making him focus on preserving them. In the end, Archer is fully treated, Hayes confirms that he did not have a medical reason for thoughtlessly following questionable orders, and the ship resumes at full warp-speed towards Azati Prime.

Production
The script for "Hatchery" was written by André Bormanis and Michael Sussman, and directed by Michael Grossman. This was the first episode in the Star Trek universe to be directed by Grossman, who had previously directed episodes of the science fiction and fantasy television shows Firefly, Buffy the Vampire Slayer and Angel. "Hatchery" saw the return of several of the recurring cast members portraying MACO marines; Steven Culp as Major Hayes, Daniel Dae Kim as Corporal Chang and Sean McGowen as Corporal Hawkins. The other MACOs seen were portrayed by stunt workers.

"Hatchery" required several new sets to be built under the supervision of production designer Herman Zimmerman, to represent the crashed Xindi-Insectoid vessel and the hatchery chamber. The special effects seen in the episode, such as the egg sacs and the dead Insectoids, were created by the makeup team under the leadership of Michael Westmore. The work of these two teams, combined with the smoke and lighting effects, create the hatchery set seen throughout the episode. Further effects were added in post-production, which included the addition of newborn Insectoids. Filming was completed on December 19, 2003, the final episode to be filmed that year. The cast and crew took a two-week break following "Hatchery" over Christmas, returning on January 5, 2004.

Reception
"Hatchery" was first aired in the United States on UPN on February 25, 2004. According to Nielsen Media Research, it received a 2.4/4 percent share among adults. This means that it was seen by 2.4 percent of all households, and 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast. Both the previous and following episodes, "Doctor's Orders" and "Azati Prime", received higher ratings, each of 2.6/4 percent. "Hatchery" was not the least viewed installment of the series, which came two episodes later when "Damage" received a rating of 2.0/3 percent.

Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation enjoyed the episode and said it had thrilling moments but was disappointed that it did nothing to further the Xindi plot arc. "It's good, but it's not quite striving for greatness."

Baz Greenland of The Digital Fix said this was a "decent" episode in season 3, but thought it delayed resolving the Xindi story arc.

Home media release
The first home media release of "Hatchery" was as part of the season three DVD box set, released in the United States on September 27, 2005. The Blu-ray release of the third season of Enterprise took place on January 7, 2014.

title: Hatchery (Star Trek: Enterprise)


text:
Smeerenburg

Smeerenburg was a whaling settlement on Amsterdam Island in northwest Svalbard. It was founded by the Danish and Dutch in 1619 as one of Europe's northernmost outposts. With the local bowhead whale population soon decimated and whaling developed into a pelagic industry, Smeerenburg was abandoned around 1660.

History
During the first intensive phase of the Spitsbergen whale fishery, Smeerenburg served as the centre of operations in the north. The name Smeerenburg is a Dutch word literally meaning "blubber town". The whalers were taking the "Greenland right whale", now known as the bowhead whale, which were then prevalent in Fram Strait. At that time, oil was rendered from whale blubber using try pots on shore, rather than on ships at sea, so the whalers needed a shore station for the try works. The image at right shows the concretised remnants of whale oil that built up around the large (ca. 2-3m diameter) copper kettles in which the blubber was rendered. Leftover blubber was used as fuel for the fires.

The site of Smeerenburg was first occupied by the Dutch in 1614, when ships from the Amsterdam chamber of the Noordsche Compagnie (Northern Company) established a temporary whaling station here with tents made of canvas and crude, temporary ovens. In 1615, 1616, and 1618 the Dutch again occupied the site. In 1619, a 500-ton ship with timber and other materials was sent to Spitsbergen. The tents and temporary ovens were replaced with wooden structures and copper kettles "set in a permanent fashion on a brick foundation, with a brick fireplace beneath and a chimney for the smoke."

In its first year only Amsterdam and the Danes occupied Smeerenburg, the former to the east and the latter to the west. In 1619 and 1620 the Danish ships that went to Smeerenburg were sent by merchants from Copenhagen, while those that went there in 1621 and 1622 were sent by a royal undertaking. In 1623 two Basque ships employed by the Danes arrived at Smeerenburg and began taking whaling gear from the Danish huts before they were driven away by the Dutch. In 1625, when the Danish-employed Basque ships arrived at their place in Smeerenburg they found that their station had been damaged, the work of the Dutch and English in the previous season. After 1625 the Danes were expelled by the Dutch, their place being occupied by the Hoorn, Enkhuizen, and Vlissingen chambers. By 1626 there were five big "huts" at Smeerenburg, and by 1633 all the chambers of the Northern Company were represented at the settlement.

In its heyday (1630s), Smeerenburg was made up of 16–17 buildings, including a fort at its centre, built in or before 1631 to ward off the Danish and other interlopers. The alleys between the buildings were cobbled with drainage gullies, allowing the men to walk dry-shod. There were seven double (and one single) ovens situated in front of the buildings. Amsterdam had three of the buildings and two of the double ovens, while to the west were the stations of the Middelburg, Veere, Vlissingen, Enkhuizen, Delft, and Hoorn chambers. During this time there were as many as 200 men working ashore, boiling blubber into oil, flensing whales, and coopering casks to pour the oil into.

Following the destruction of a Dutch station in Jan Mayen by Danish-employed Basque ships in 1632, the Dutch sent seven men, led by Jacob Segerszoon van der Brugge, to over-winter at Smeerenburg in 1633–34. All seven men survived, prompting another wintering by another group of seven sailors in 1634–35. All of them died, and the experiment was abandoned.

Smeerenburg's decline began in the early to mid-1640s, as whales became scarce in the bays and sounds off Spitsbergen. We hear of it still in use by the Hoorn chamber as late as 1657. Around 1660, with the transition to processing blubber into oil on return to port and expansion into pelagic whaling, the settlement was finally abandoned.

In 1973 the ruins of Smeerenburg became part of Norway's North-West Spitsbergen National Park.

Myth
The size of Smeerenburg has been greatly exaggerated by many authors. William Scoresby (1820) claimed 200 to 300 ships and 12,000 to 18,000 men visited Smeerenburg during the short summer season. The Norwegian explorer Fridtjof Nansen (1920) made similar claims, stating that hundreds of ships anchored along the flat of Smeerenburg where ten thousand people visited a complete town with stalls and streets. Besides the tryworks, smithies and workshops, there were shops, churches, fortifications, gambling dens and even brothels.

Such claims have no basis in reality, as noted above. No more than fifteen ships and 400 men would have visited Smeerenburg during its peak in the 1630s. There were no shops, churches or brothels, though there was a single fort with two guns. Despite the results of archaeological excavations that took place in the period 1979–81, modern authors still sometimes repeat the fabulous legends told of Smeerenburg.

The 2019 animated film Klaus takes place in the town of "Smeerensburg", on a distant northern Scandinavian island, an intentional misspelling, according to producer Sergio Pablos.

title: Smeerenburg


text:
Talk:December 5

Operation Crossbow
Original article stated "US Army Air Force begins attacks" but the linked article clearly states RAF and RCAF involvement (to a greater degree than USAAF). Therefore revision to "Allied air forces" seems a reasonable edit. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.168.151.159 (talk) 18:24, 5 December 2014 (UTC)

rubbish ?
"Day of the Ninja"? really? will anyone care in 50 years? or, indeed, 10? I can't see why this should be in here.--Robert EA Harvey (talk) 10:57, 23 January 2011 (UTC)
 * since noticed that the original page was the subject of a delete discussion Articles_for_deletion/Day_of_the_Ninja--Robert EA Harvey (talk) 11:00, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

repeal day
Is this a holiday or recurrent event in the US? If not, it should surely be just a bullet point in the list, under 1933?--Robert EA Harvey (talk) 11:04, 23 January 2011 (UTC)

fraternitys
anyone else sick of fraternity's popping up on this day? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 95.83.201.54 (talk) 19:46, 5 December 2011 (UTC) for whom? Americans? "now one of the most respected honor societies" Is this a fact or your opinion "makes me think you're the only one who is "sick" of it" have you conducted a poll of all/some users of wikipedia? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.204.189.156 (talk) 12:46, 7 December 2011 (UTC)
 * The establishment of the first collegiate fraternity (now one of the most respected honor societies) at one of the oldest universities in the United States is clearly listworthy per WP:DOY. The repeated removal by you and other 95.83.*.* IPs (probably the same individual with dynamic IPs) makes me think you're the only one who is "sick" of it. -- Kinu  t/c 00:20, 7 December 2011 (UTC)
 * Same ISP via mobile. Revert and ignore. Considering it's been on the list for nine years, this repeated removal is clearly against consensus. -- Kinu  t/c 17:53, 7 December 2011 (UTC)

 * Kinu: Thanks for trying to keep the daily list interesting. I saw this little conflict and followed your link to a previous version of today's list, and I see that after all, the Phi Beta Kappa note was deleted, as well as the first broadcast day for Monty Python.  Speaking for myself, I like the On This Day section because it sometimes spurs my interest to do a bit of reading in an area I wouldn't have thought of otherwise.  Seeing the anniversary of Phi Beta Kappa's creation, or the Monty Python first broadcast would have been very welcome for me.  What's left after their deletion is a list mainly of politicians and battles.  I'm disappointed.Cellodont (talk) 14:45, 5 December 2018 (UTC)

Removed events
I reluctantly removed the following events:

 * 1914 – The Italian Parliament proclaims the neutrality of the country.
 * 1976 – The United Nations General Assembly adopts Pakistan's resolution on security of non-Nuclear States.
 * 1983 – ICIMOD is established and inaugurated with its headquarters in Kathmandu, Nepal, and legitimised through an Act of Parliament in Nepal in the same year.

I can't find sources for the first two, and the third doesn't seem notable to me. Alexbook (talk) 06:46, 5 December 2013 (UTC)

Einstein's visa
I can't find a source for it being Dec. 5, but The Guardian has Dec. 7. Thoughts? Rkaufman13 (talk) 15:20, 14 November 2017 (UTC)

Death of Jayalalithaa
The article includes the death of J. Jayalalithaa, but according to the article on Jayalalithaa, she died on December 4. Should it be moved to the December 4 page? The section J Jayalalithaa says "On 5 December 2016, the hospital announced her death around 23:30 and she became the first female chief minister to die in office in India" so I'm reluctant to move it myself. NonNerd (talk) 04:49, 11 November 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ Removed. Thank you. Toddst1 (talk) 05:08, 11 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:December 5


text:
Talk:December 7

Major events
Pearl Harbor 1941 was a major event. It should be mentioned in the intro. For September 11, the 2001 event is mentioned and rightly so. I can assure you that December 7 and entry of the allies into the war against Japan had greater significance for the American and Japanese people than September 11 had for the American people - or don't you think so?. Wallie (talk) 12:29, 15 November 2008 (UTC) Please do not revert without discussing this. Wallie (talk) 13:30, 15 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Please centralize these discussions at WT:DAYS. -- Mufka (u) (t) (c) 15:46, 15 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Pearl Harbor is in the Events section of this article. Lkjhgfdsa 0 (talk) 17:48, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

Bible
Please do not delete the fact about what happened in the bible without discussing it here. There is no reason that it should be deleted. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Joshim5 (talk • contribs) 18:19, 7 December 2009 (UTC)
 * What are you talking about, and how are sure it was something that happened on Dec 7? Lkjhgfdsa 0 (talk) 17:48, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

Random Event Removed
I found this:

"2013 – a garage door fell on Harry Styles and Kendall Jenner. god doesn't ship it bye." and removed it.

Cheers! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jacob843 (talk • contribs) 03:03, 8 December 2013 (UTC)

Quema del Diablo
Q d D is not mentioned at the link. My understanding is that everything mentioned here needs a supporting Wiki article, so I will remove it. --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 19:47, 4 December 2016 (UTC)

Pacific Southwest Airlines Flight 1771
I wanted to change "...then shoots both pilots and himself." to "shoots both pilots and steers the plane into the ground." The reason is that I believe the article never says that the attacker shoots himself. Instead it says that evidence indicates that he was alive until the crash and deliberately steered the plane into the ground. Here are some quotes from the article: "There was speculation that Burke shot himself, though this seems unlikely, because a fragment of Burke's fingertip was lodged in the trigger when the investigators found the revolver. This indicated that he was alive and he was holding the gun until the moment of impact." and "The remains of the flight data recorder (FDR) indicated Burke had pushed the control column forward into a dive." has reverted my change with the comment "It's clearly written he shoots himself". I have just re-read the article and did not find any mention of of the attacker shooting himself. What am I missing? Is it in one of the cited sources? Spike (talk) 16:28, 7 December 2017 (UTC)

 * I had a quick look and agree. If no-one makes a good objection in a day or so I'll re-instate your edit. Nortonius (talk) 16:43, 7 December 2017 (UTC)

 * Hello I have changed the line to "steers the plane into the ground". Later I had some misunderstanding. Thanks for letting me know! ·•· 1997  kB  18:07, 7 December 2017 (UTC)

Benjamin Zephaniah
He's been added to the list of those who died on this day with a citation referencing a BBC report, but the main article gives his date of death as 6 December, citing a report in The Guardian. JezGrove (talk) 12:36, 7 December 2023 (UTC)
 * After some back-and-forth, the main article currently matches this page. JezGrove (talk) 17:35, 7 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:December 7