text:
Genesis

Genesis may refer to:

Religion

 * Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of humankind
 * Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Book of Genesis, which describes the origin of the Earth
 * Genesis Rabbah, a midrash probably written between 300 and 500 CE with some later additions, comprising a collection of interpretations of the Book of Genesis
 * The Genesis According to Spiritism, the last book of Allan Kardec's Pentateuch, that connects religion with science.

Literature, art and comics

 * Genesis (DC Comics), a 1997 DC Comics crossover
 * Genesis (Marvel Comics), a Marvel Comics supervillain
 * Genesis, a fictional character in the comic book series Preacher
 * Genesis, a 1951 story by H. Beam Piper
 * Genesis: The Origins of Man and the Universe, a 1982 science text by John Gribbin
 * Genesis, a 1988 epic poem by Frederick Turner
 * Genesis, a 2000 story by Poul Anderson
 * Genesis (novel), a 2006 work by Bernard Beckett
 * Genesis, a 2007 story by Paul Chafe
 * Genesis (journal), a scientific journal of biology
 * Genesis (magazine), a pornographic magazine
 * Genesis Publications, a British publishing company
 * Genesis, a graphic novel by Nathan Edmondson
 * The Book of Genesis (comics), comic-book adaptation illustrated by Robert Crumb
 * Mihrab (painting), a painting by Osman Hamdi Bey also known as Genesis

Given name

 * Génesis Dávila (born 1990), Puerto Rican-American model and beauty pageant titleholder
 * Génesis Franchesco (born 1990), Venezuelan female volleyball player
 * Genesis Lynea (born 1989), Bermudian-British actress, singer, dancer, and model
 * Genesis Potini (1963–2011), New Zealand speed chess player
 * Genesis Rodriguez (born 1987), American actress
 * Génesis Rodríguez (born 1994), Venezuelan female weightlifter
 * Génesis Romero (born 1995), Venezuelan athlete
 * Genesis Servania (born 1991), Filipino professional boxer

Surname

 * Mercy Genesis (born 1997), Nigerian wrestler

Fictional characters

 * Genesis Rhapsodos, main antagonist of the video game Crisis Core: Final Fantasy VII

Artists

 * Genesis (band), English rock band
 * Génesis (band), Colombian folk rock band
 * Genesis (1971–1974), original name for American rock/metal band Vixen
 * Genesis P-Orridge (1950–2020), English musician and frontperson of Throbbing Gristle
 * Genesis Drum and Bugle Corps, a drum and bugle corp from Austin, Texas

Albums

 * Genesis (Busta Rhymes album)
 * Genesis (Charles Sullivan album)
 * Genesis, album by Coprofago
 * Genesis (Diaura album)
 * Genesis (Domo Genesis Album)
 * Genesis (Elvin Jones album)
 * Genesis (Genesis album)
 * Genesis (The Gods album)
 * Genesis, album by JJ Lin
 * Genesis (Job for a Cowboy album)
 * Genesis (Joy Williams album)
 * Genesis, album by Larry Heard
 * Génesis (Mary Ann Acevedo album)
 * Genesis (Notaker EP)
 * Génesis (Peso Pluma album)
 * Genesis (Rotting Christ album)
 * Genesis (S.H.E album)
 * Genesis (Talisman album)
 * Genesis, album by The-Dream
 * Genesis (Woe, Is Me album)
 * The Genesis, album by Yngwie Malmsteen

Songs

 * "Genesis" (Grimes song)
 * "Génesis" (Lucecita Benítez song)
 * "Genesis" (Matthew Shell and Arun Shenoy song)
 * "Genesis" (Michalis Hatzigiannis song)
 * "Genesis" (Raye song)
 * "Genesis" (VNV Nation song)
 * "Genesis", by Ambrose Slade from Beginnings
 * "Genesis", by Benjamin Clementine from And I Have Been
 * "Genesis", by Cult of Luna from The Beyond
 * "Genesis", by Deftones from Ohms
 * "Genesis", by Devin Townsend from Empath
 * "Genesis", by Dua Lipa from Dua Lipa
 * "Genesis", by Eir Aoi, from Aldnoah.Zero
 * "Genesis", by Ghost, from Opus Eponymous
 * "Genesis", by Glass Casket, from Desperate Man's Diary
 * "Genesis", by Jorma Kaukonen from Quah
 * "Genesis", by Justice, from Cross
 * "Genesis", by Mumzy Stranger and Yasmin from Journey Begins
 * "Genesis", by Northlane, from Singularity
 * "Genesis", by Running Wild, from Black Hand Inn
 * "Genesis", by Suicideboys from Sing Me a Lullaby, My Sweet Temptation, 2022
 * "Genesis", by The Ventures
 * "Génesis", by Mägo de Oz, from Jesús de Chamberí
 * "Génesis", by Vox Dei, from La Biblia

Technology

 * Genesis, the time and date of the first block of a blockchain data structure
 * GENESIS (software), GEneral NEural SImulation System
 * Genesis Framework, a theme for the WordPress CMS
 * Genesis LPMud, the first MUD of the LPMud family
 * Norton 360, codenamed Project Genesis or simply Genesis
 * X-COM: Genesis, a computer game
 * Sega Genesis, a video game console

Television

 * "Genesis" (Arrow), episode of Arrow
 * Genesis (TV series), Filipino television series
 * "Genesis" (Heroes), pilot episode of Heroes
 * "Genesis" (Quantum Leap episode)
 * "Genesis" (Sliders), episode of Sliders
 * "Genesis" (Survivors), episode of Survivors
 * "Genesis" (Star Trek: The Next Generation), episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation
 * Genesis II (film), science fiction TV movie created and produced by Gene Roddenberry
 * Genesis Awards, television awards
 * Genesis Entertainment, a News Corporation subsidiary
 * TNA Genesis, a professional wrestling pay-per-view and television program
 * Genesis (2005)
 * Genesis (2006)
 * Genesis (2007)
 * Genesis (2009)
 * Genesis (2010)
 * Genesis (2011)
 * Genesis (2012)
 * Genesis (2013)
 * Genesis (2014)
 * Genesis (2017)
 * Impact Wrestling Genesis 2018
 * Genesis (2021)
 * Zoids: Genesis, fifth anime installment of the Zoids franchise
 * Genesis (Air Gear), fictional Air Trek team in Air Gear
 * Gênesis, Brazilian telenovela broadcast by RecordTV
 * Genesis (miniseries), a 2023 animated web miniseries

Film

 * Genesis (1986 film), an Indian film directed by Mrinal Sen Sen
 * Genesis (1994 film), an Italian television film
 * Genesis (1999 film), a Malian film
 * Genesis (2004 film), a documentary
 * Genesis (2018 Canadian film), a Canadian film
 * Genesis (2018 Hungarian film), a Hungarian film
 * Rec 3: Genesis, a 2012 Spanish horror film directed by Paco Plaza
 * Project Genesis and the Genesis Planet, a fictional technology and the planet created by it in Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan and Star Trek III: The Search for Spock

Vehicles

 * Aviomania Genesis Duo G2SA, a Cypriot autogyro design
 * Aviomania Genesis Solo G1SA, a Cypriot autogyro design
 * Bertone Genesis, a concept truck
 * GE Genesis, a locomotive
 * Genesis (bikes), a British bicycle brand
 * Genesis Motor, luxury vehicle division of Hyundai Motor Company Group.
 * Genesis Transport, a bus company in the Philippines
 * Oasis class cruise ship, a class of Royal Caribbean cruise ships, formerly known as Project Genesis
 * SlipStream Genesis, kit aircraft
 * Yamaha FZR600 Genesis, a motorcycle

Spacecraft

 * Genesis (spacecraft), a NASA probe that collected solar samples
 * Genesis I, a private spacecraft produced by Bigelow Aerospace
 * Genesis II (space habitat), a follow-up to Genesis I

Companies

 * Genesis, an American cryptocurrency brokerage
 * Genesis Energy Limited, a New Zealand electricity generator and retailer
 * Genesis HealthCare, a nursing home facility operator
 * Genesis Microchip, a semiconductor company acquired by STMicroelectronics in 2007

Other uses

 * Genesis (camera), a high-definition camera by Panavision
 * Genesis Rock, a sample of lunar crust retrieved by Apollo 15 astronauts
 * Sega Genesis, a 16-bit video game console also known as the Mega Drive
 * Genesis (tournament), a Super Smash Bros. tournament in the San Francisco Bay Area

title: Genesis


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George Robert Gray

George Robert Gray (8 July 1808 – 6 May 1872) was an English zoologist and author, and head of the ornithological section of the British Museum, now the Natural History Museum, in London for forty-one years. He was the younger brother of the zoologist John Edward Gray and the son of the botanist Samuel Frederick Gray.

George Gray's most important publication was his Genera of Birds (1844–49), illustrated by David William Mitchell and Joseph Wolf, which included 46,000 references.

Biography
He was born in Little Chelsea, London, to Samuel Frederick Gray, naturalist and pharmacologist, and Elizabeth (née Forfeit), his wife. He was educated at Merchant Taylor's School.

Gray started at the British Museum as Assistant Keeper of the Zoology Branch in 1831.

He began by cataloguing insects, and published an Entomology of Australia (1833) and contributed the entomogical section to an English edition of Georges Cuvier's Animal Kingdom. Gray described many species of Lepidoptera. In 1833, he was a founder of what became the Royal Entomological Society of London.

Gray's original description of Gray's grasshopper warbler, which was named for him, appeared in 1860. The specimen had been collected by Alfred Russel Wallace in the Moluccas. In a brief biography dealing with Gray's work on phasmids, Bragg credits Gray with more than doubling the number of named species of phasmids with three publications (in 1833, 1835 and 1843); three species of phasmids were subsequently named after Gray.

Works

 * 1831 The Zoological Miscellany Zool. Miscell. (1): [1] 1–40
 * 1833 The Entomology of Australia, in a series of Monographs. Part I. The Monograph of the Genus Phasma. London.
 * 1835 Synopsis of the species of insects belonging to the family of Phasmidae. London, Longmans. 48pp.
 * 1844 List of the specimens of birds in the collection of the British Museum. London, Trustees of the British Museum.
 * 1846 Descriptions and Figures of some new Lepidopterous Insects chiefly from Nepal. London, Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans.
 * 1843 Description of several species of the genus Phyllium. Zoologist, (1)1: 117–123.
 * 1852 Catalogue of Lepidopterous Insects in the British Museum. Part 1. Papilionidae. [1853 Jan], "1852" iii + 84pp., 13pls.
 * 1871 A fasciculus of the Birds of China. London, Taylor and Francis.
 * with Richard Bowdler Sharpe, The Zoology of the Voyage of HMS Erebus & HMS Terror. Birds of New Zealand., 1875. The revised edition of Gray (1846) (1875).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Robert Gray


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User:Robert Southworth

The following paragraph, submitted by an anonymous user (IP 69.203.98.109), just happens to be about a completely different person than me:

''Distinguished educator, Rob Southworth, has taught in a variety of education settings from PreK-12 public and private schools to graduate education schools in his 25-year career. He has worked nationally as a consultant and Policy advisor. Rob's goal is to explore ways to connect teaching practice to policy through Research. He founded The SchoolWorks Lab, Inc. (SWL) in 2002 to study, research and disseminate information about teaching, learning and School Reform. His website, www.edspeak.org, provides clear information about school reform ideas. CABLe, the center for arts-based learning, is a division of The SchoolWorks Lab, Inc.''

title: User:Robert Southworth


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Electronics cartridge

Electronics cartridge may refer to:

 * ROM cartridge, a removable enclosure containing read-only memory devices designed to be connected to a computer or games console
 * RAM pack, a RAM expansion cartridge
 * Data cartridge (tape), magnetic tape in a plastic enclosure
 * Tape cartridge, for use in tape drives

title: Electronics cartridge


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HMS Irresistible (1898)

HMS Irresistible—the fourth British Royal Navy ship of the name—was a Formidable-class battleship pre-dreadnought battleship. The Formidable-class ships were developments of earlier British battleships, featuring the same battery of four 12 in guns—albeit more powerful 40-calibre versions—and top speed of 19 kn of the preceding Canopus-class battleship, while adopting heavier armour protection. The ship was laid down in April 1898, was launched in December that year, and was completed in October 1901. Commissioned in 1902, she initially served with the Mediterranean Fleet until April 1908, when she was transferred to the Channel Fleet. Now outclassed with the emergence of the dreadnought class of ships, she entered service with the Home Fleet in 1911 following a refit. In 1912, she was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron.

Following the outbreak of the First World War, Irresistible, along with the squadron, was assigned to the Channel Fleet. After operations with the Dover Patrol, during which she bombarded German forces in northern France, she was assigned to the Dardanelles Campaign in February 1915. She took part in numerous unsuccessful attacks on the Ottoman forts guarding the Dardanelles in February and March. These operations included several raids by landing parties to destroy Ottoman coastal artillery batteries. On 18 March, she struck a naval mine that caused extensive flooding and disabled her engines. Without power, she began to drift into the range of Turkish guns, which laid down a withering fire. Attempts to tow her failed, so her surviving crew was evacuated and Irresistible was abandoned and eventually sank. Her crew suffered around 150 killed in the sinking.

Design

The design for the Formidable class was prepared in 1897; it was an incremental improvement over the preceding Majestic-class battleship and Canopus-class battleshipes. Formidable adopted the larger size of the Majestics, while taking the stronger Krupp armour of the Canopus design. In addition, the new design incorporated longer (and thus more powerful) main and secondary guns and an improved hull form. These characteristics produced a ship with better armour protection than either earlier class, and the same high speed of Canopus.

Irresistible was 431 ft long overall, with a beam of 75 ft and a draught of 25 ft. She displaced 14500 LT normally and up to 15800 LT fully loaded. Her crew numbered 780 officers and ratings. The Formidable-class ships were powered by a pair of 3-cylinder triple-expansion engines, with steam provided by twenty Belleville boilers. The boilers were trunked into two funnels located amidships. The Formidable-class ships had a top speed of 18 kn from 15000 ihp.

Irresistible had a main battery of four 12 in 40-calibre guns mounted in twin-gun turrets fore and aft; these guns were mounted in circular barbettes that allowed all-around loading or elevation. The ships also mounted a secondary battery of twelve 6 in 45-calibre guns mounted in casemates, in addition to ten 12-pounder 3 in guns and six 3-pounder 47 mm guns for defence against torpedo boats. As was customary for battleships of the period, she was also equipped with four 18 in torpedo tubes submerged in the hull.

Irresistible had an armoured belt that was 9 in thick; the transverse bulkheads on either end of the belt were 9 to 12 in thick. Her main battery turret sides were 8 to 10 in thick, atop 12 in barbettes, and the casemate battery was protected with 6 in of Krupp steel. Her conning tower had 14 in thick sides as well. She was fitted with two armoured decks, 1 and 3 in thick, respectively.

Pre-First World War
The keel for HMS Irresistible was laid down at Chatham Dockyard on 11 April 1898 and launched on 15 December 1898 in a very incomplete state to clear the building ways for the construction of the battleship HMS Venerable (1899). Irresistible was completed in October 1901. The ship was commissioned at Chatham Dockyard on 4 February 1902 by Captain George Morris Henderson and a complement of 870 officers and men for Mediterranean Fleet service. She left Portsmouth in late March 1902, arriving the following month at Gibraltar where she relieved the turret ship HMS Devastation (1871) as a guard ship. In May 1902 she visited Augusta, Sicily, and in August 1902 she went to Piraeus. In late December 1902 she was back in Greek waters when she visited Astakos in the Ionian Sea with HMS Bulwark and HMS Pioneer.

She suffered two mishaps during her years in the Mediterranean, colliding with the Norwegian merchant steamer SS Clive while steaming in fog on her way to her commissioning on 3 March 1902, sustaining considerable damage to the side of her hull, and running aground at Malta on 5 October 1905. She underwent a refit there after her grounding, and a second refit there between October 1907 and January 1908. In April 1908, Irresistible was transferred to the Channel Fleet, where she collided with a schooner while steaming in fog on 4 May 1908, suffering no damage. She was assigned to the Nore Division in 1909, and was reduced to a nucleus crew in May 1910. Her Channel Fleet service ended on 1 June 1910, when she paid off at Chatham Dockyard for a refit. Her refit completed, Irresistible commissioned at Chatham on 28 February 1911 to serve in the 3rd Division, Home Fleet, at the Nore. In 1912, she was assigned to the 5th Battle Squadron.

First World War
Britain entered the First World War in August 1914; the 5th Battle Squadron was based at Portland and assigned to patrol duties in the English Channel under the Channel Fleet. Irresistible covered the landing of the Plymouth Marine Battalion at Ostend, Belgium, on 25 August, and thereafter covered the occupation. In October–November 1914, Irresistible was temporarily attached to the Dover Patrol. Her duties included bombardment of German Army forces along the Belgian coast in support of Allied troops fighting on the front. On 3 November, she was detached to support East Coast Patrols during the German raid on Yarmouth, though she did not see action with German warships. Irresistible returned to the Channel Fleet later in November 1914. The 5th Battle Squadron was transferred to Sheerness on 14 November to guard against a possible German invasion. The squadron was transferred back to Portland on 30 December.

Dardanelles campaign

On 1 February 1915, Irresistible sailed from Sheerness in company with the battleship HMS Majestic (1895), bound for the eastern Mediterranean Sea. There, the British and French fleets, under the overall command of British Admiral Sackville Carden, were preparing to launch a major attack on the Dardanelles strait; the Entente commanders hoped to force the Dardanelles and enter the Sea of Marmara, where they could attack the capital of the Ottoman Empire, Constantinople, directly. She took part in the opening bombardment of the Ottoman forts guarding the entrance to the Çanakkale (Dardanelles) on 18–19 February as part of the 2nd Division, though she did not actively engage the Ottoman coastal defences during the attack.

Another attack took place on 25 February; Irresistible and the battleship HMS Agamemnon (1906) being tasked with providing long-range covering fire while other battleships closed with the fortresses to engage them directly. During their operation, the battleship HMS Albion (1898) came under fire from the 9.4 in guns from Battery "Orkaniye". Counter fire from Irresistible forced the Ottomans to cease firing, knocking out two guns in the process. By 15:00, the leading British and French battleships had silenced the Ottoman guns, allowing for minesweepers to advance and attempt to clear the minefields; most of the fleet withdrew while the minesweepers worked. By clearing these fields, Allied warships could now enter the Dardanelles themselves, opening the route to attack additional fortifications around the town of Dardanus. While other vessels shelled the forts there, Irresistible and the battleship HMS Vengeance (1899) sent men ashore to destroy an abandoned artillery battery near Kumkale, with both ships remaining off shore to support the raid. The 75-man team from Irresistible landed unopposed at Sedd el Bahr, but quickly came under attack from a superior Ottoman force and was compelled to retreat. 6-inch fire from Irresistible broke up the Ottoman attack, however, and the landing party was able to make their way to the fort, where they found four of the six heavy guns still operable. They destroyed the guns with gunpowder from the Ottoman magazine before proceeding to Fort Helles. The Ottoman defences were too strong there, and so the British party retreated after they destroyed a pair of 12-pounder guns outside the fort.

Two days later, Irresistible repeated the operation with another 78-man landing party under the command of Lieutenant F. H. Sandford, again at Sedd el Bahr. This time, the target was a battery of six 6-inch Krupp mortars. The men again came under attack from the Ottoman defenders, and again forced their way to their objective using heavy fire from Irresistible's 6-inch guns to suppress the Ottomans. All six mortars were packed with gunpowder and destroyed, and the landing party returned to the ship without a single casualty. The following day, Admiral John de Robeck, the British fleet commander, transferred his flag from Vengeance to Irresistible, while the latter was in Mudros for repairs. De Robeck ordered another attack on 28 February, though bad weather hampered British progress; later in the day, a break in the weather led him to order Irresistible's landing party, again under Sandford's direction, to go ashore. In the course of the raid, the party destroyed eight heavy guns in a battery near Kumkale, six 12-pounder field guns, and four Nordenfelt guns on the way back to the ship. Again, the men returned without a single casualty.

On 3 March, another attack was launched against the fortresses, and Irresistible contributed a reconnaissance party that went ashore under cover of a heavy bombardment from the fleet's battleships. During their exploration of the area around Erenköy, they discovered a battery of six 15-pounder field guns, which they destroyed. They proceeded to the main fort and found that it had been evacuated under the heavy bombardment. Again, they returned to the ship with no casualties. The next day, a larger landing force of marines went ashore; Irresistible provided support off Kumkale. After the landing party came under sniper fire from windmills above the village, Irresistible demolished them before shifting fire to the town itself. The Ottoman fire proved to be too heavy, however, and the marines had to retreat to their ships. Irresistible remained de Robeck's flagship until 6 March, when Vengeance returned.

The next attack came on 8 March; the powerful superdreadnought HMS Queen Elizabeth (1913), with her 15 inch guns, was to demolish the main Ottoman fortress at Rumili, the "Hamidieh I", "Hamidieh II", and "Namazieh" batteries, and the fortress at Chemenlik. While she attacked those objectives, Irresistible and three other battleships were tasked with covering her from mobile field guns in the straits. Poor visibility hampered British shooting and made it easy for the Ottoman field guns to continually shoot and relocate before the battleships could locate them and return fire. The repeated failures to destroy the fortresses guarding the straits convinced the British command that further attempts were pointless until the minefields protecting the fortresses could be cleared, which would allow the battleships to engage and destroy them at very close range. Accordingly, trawlers were sent in during the night to clear the minefields while the British and French fleets replenished ammunition and gathered reinforcements. While this work was ongoing, Irresistible, Albion, and the battleship HMS Prince George (1895) were sent in on 9 March to raid Ottoman defences; Irresistible inflicted damage on a bridge used to support the fort at Kumkale. The next morning, Irresistible, the battleship HMS Cornwallis (1901), the light cruiser HMS Dublin (1912), and the seaplane carrier HMS Ark Royal (1914) made another foray to attack targets of opportunity.

Loss

By mid-March, it had become clear that the plan to sweep the minefields had failed. In response, de Robeck, who had succeeded Carden as the commander of the Dardanelles campaign, proposed to launch a major daylight attack on the fortresses, suppress them as best as possible at longer range, and to clear the minefields at the same time. This would then allow the battleships to demolish the forts at close range. Ottoman opposition was expected to be very heavy, as they had been reinforcing their defences throughout the campaign; by this time, they had massed forty-two guns 8 in or larger, along with numerous mobile field guns. The attack was launched on 18 March, and Irresistible was again part of 2nd Division, which formed the second wave of the attack. Irresistible joined the fray at 14:39, shortly after the French battleship FRENCH BATTLESHIP Bouvet was mined and sunk in the straits; she and several other battleships attempted to suppress Ottoman guns that were firing on boats that were picking up survivors from Bouvet. Irresistible engaged the "Namazieh" Battery, which at that time was not actively firing. She quickly came under heavy fire from the "Hamidieh I" battery, which targeted the ship with four-shell salvos.

At 15:14, Irresistible was rocked by an explosion, and by 15:32, had begun to take on a list, prompting de Robeck to order her to withdraw to avoid further damage. At 16:15, Irresistible, having idled her engines, struck a mine that caused extensive damage to the ship. The mine detonated under her starboard engine room, flooding it and killing all but three of the men on duty there. The bulkhead that divided the starboard from the port engine room collapsed under the sudden weight of water, disabling that engine as well. Unable to maneuver, with a list of 7 degrees to starboard, and down by the stern, Irresistible became an attractive target for the Ottoman gunners. She drifted helplessly into range of Turkish guns, which laid down a heavy fire on her. Her main gun turrets began to malfunction, and she was obscured by smoke and spray. De Robeck ordered the battleship HMS Ocean (1898) to take her under tow and pull her out of range of the Ottoman guns, and the destroyer HMS Wear (1905) came alongside and rescued most of the crew—28 officers and 582 men—despite the punishing Ottoman shelling. A group of ten men remained aboard to try to secure a line from Ocean. By the time Ocean had arrived it had become clear that Irresistible could not be saved. Her list had increased and the fire from the Ottoman guns had become very heavy, so the remaining men were evacuated and Ocean began to withdraw.

With the heavy losses that day—Bouvet, Irresistible, and Ocean, which had been mined and disabled after withdrawing from her attempt to rescue Irresistible—de Robeck issued the order to break off the attack. That evening, the destroyer HMS Jed (1904) entered the Dardanelles to torpedo and sink the two abandoned battleships to prevent their capture in case they had remained afloat, but could find no sign of them. The Ottomans later reported that the derelict Irresistible had drifted closer to shore and suffered further severe damage from their shore batteries before sinking at about 19:30. Irresistible's crew suffered about 150 casualties during her sinking.

title: HMS Irresistible (1898)


text:
Drakengard (video game)

Drakengard, known in Japan as Drag-On Dragoon, (ドラッグ オン ドラグーン) is a 2003 action role-playing video game developed by Cavia and published by Square Enix for the PlayStation 2. The game is the first installment of the Drakengard series and features a mixture of ground-based hack-and-slash, aerial combat, and role-playing elements which have become a staple of the series. The story is set during a religious war between two factions—the Union and the Empire—with the war tipping in favor of the Empire. The player controls Caim, a deposed prince of the Union, in his quest for vengeance against the Empire. Wounded in battle while protecting his sister Furiae, he is forced to make a pact with a red dragon named Angelus as they journey together on a quest to prevent the Empire from destroying magical seals that keep the world in balance.

Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki conceived the game as a hybrid between the popular Dynasty Warriors series and Namco's aerial combat game Ace Combat. It was Shiba's first project as a producer. The dark story was created by director Yoko Taro and Sawako Natori, who wrote the majority of the script. The music was written by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara. A Europe-exclusive mobile adaptation was developed by Macrospace and published by Square Enix for Vodafone devices in August 2004. Drakengard sold well in Japan and received mixed to positive reviews in the west: reviewers praised the game's story and music, but were mixed about the graphics and criticized the gameplay for being repetitive.

Gameplay
Drakengard is an action role-playing video game featuring three types of gameplay: ground missions, aerial missions, and Free Expedition Mode. The gameplay modes are called Ground Mode, Strafe Mode, and Air Mode. In some levels, players can switch between ground-based and aerial combat. Ground-based gameplay primarily has the player controlling the main protagonist, Caim. He has access to three types of attack: a standard sword-slash, a magic attack and a dash attack that throws enemies to the ground. Additional weapons can be accessed and swapped via the menu. Weapons gain experience levels through use, dealing more damage as a result. Each has a four-level cap. The player can access up to eight weapons during a mission. Pressing the attack button repeatedly while in combat with enemy units triggers combos, and pressing another button mid-combo will trigger a special attack which will temporarily incapacitate enemy units in the immediate area. The player can also temporarily switch between Caim and an assigned ally, who shares similar attacks but deals more damage. These allies are gained in optional levels and can only be summoned a limited number of times.

In aerial combat missions, players control Caim's dragon partner Angelus. During these moments, players are directed against multiple aerial targets that must be destroyed in order to win. As Angelus gains experience points through combat, she levels up and is able to do more damage – similar to the weapons used in ground-based combat. Boss battles are all located in these aerial stages. Angelus has access to two types of standard fire attacks: a free-aim blast that causes high damage, and homing bolts that can hit multiple targets but do less damage. Homing shots can be dodged or countered by some enemy types later in the game. Angelus can also perform a special area-affecting magical attack that damages or kills multiple enemy units. She can be used to quickly traverse battle areas during primarily ground-based missions. Players can summon Angelus during certain ground-based missions and play her in Strafe Mode. Controls are identical to ground-based combat. Pressing the select button causes Caim to dismount Angelus. Caim and Angelus level up during combat in different ways: as Caim levels up, their shared health meter grows, while Angelus' leveling increases the damage her attacks do to enemy units.

Players can navigate the game world and select missions via a world map accessed between levels. While playing, a mini-map allows the player to see enemy locations, and a full-screen map can be switched to that covers the entire area and shows mission objectives. Drakengard's levels are called verses, and the verses are grouped across thirteen chapters. Each level has a time limit of one hour for players to complete them. Normal levels are numbered, while additional levels are marked by Roman numerals. The game features five endings: the normal ending and four additional endings which are unlocked when certain conditions are met, such as completing optional chapters or obtaining powerful weapons.

Setting and characters
Drakengard takes place in a medieval dark fantasy world called Midgard. The world is protected from falling into chaos by the Seals, objects magically linked to a woman chosen as the Goddess of the Seal. If the seals and the Goddess were destroyed, malevolent beings known as the Watchers would enter the world to destroy humanity. A key element of the world is the ability for a human and a beast to form a pact, a ritual that ties their souls together and grants great power. Their lives become bound by the pact, and the human pays a price for it in the form of some attribute (e.g. their voice, their eyesight or their ability to age). During the events of Drakengard, the Union, which protects the Seals, is in the midst of a religious war with the Empire, a power led by a cult who believe that destroying the seals will bring them good fortune.

The main characters are Caim (カイム), a deposed prince of the Union, and, a red dragon. Joining Caim and Angelus in optional sections of the story are Leonard (レオナール), a hermit who loses his brothers in an attack by the Empire; Arioch (アリオーシュ), an elf woman driven mad by the murder of her family; and Seere (セエレ), a young boy from the Empire whose village was destroyed by the cult's devotees. Other prominent characters are Furiae (フリアエ), Caim's sister and the current Goddess of the Seal; Inuart (イウヴァルト), Furiae's former fiancé; Verdelet (ヴェルドレ), a priest in charge of protecting the Goddess Seal; and Manah (マナ), Seere's sister, leader of the enemy cult and the game's main antagonist.

Plot
Drakengard opens with Caim in the midst of a battle to protect his sister from the Empire. During the battle, Caim is mortally injured, but continues to fight his way into Furiae's castle, where he finds Angelus severely wounded from torture. Despite their mutual mistrust, Caim and Angelus agree to make a pact and save each other. With the attack repelled, Caim is joined by Furiae and Inuart to find safety, encountering Verdelet on their travels. Inuart is captured, tortured and brainwashed by Manah, eventually kidnapping Furiae in the belief that he can save her from her fate as the Goddess and earn her love. Verdelet and Caim travel to each of the three Seals, but each time arrive too late to stop them being destroyed. Eventually, the Union and the Empire engage in battle, and the Union emerge victorious. After the battle, however, the Union's surviving troops are decimated by an unknown force from above, and the Empire's troops return to life. Caim and Angelus travel to an Imperial fortress that has appeared in the sky, where they find that Furiae has killed herself, breaking the final seal. Inuart, seeing her body, is released from his brainwashing and takes her away.

Optional missions allow Caim to find and recruit Leonard and Seere, and take along Arioch to protect others from her madness. Subsequent playthroughs and extra chapters reveal further details about the characters. Leonard's self-imposed seclusion is because he was trying to suppress his pedophilia, and the guilt at his brothers' deaths stems from the fact that he gave in to his cravings and left them unprotected. Arioch's madness takes the form of cannibalism of children, in the belief that they would be safe from harm within her. Furiae is revealed to love Caim romantically, which led to Inuart becoming jealous and vulnerable to Manah's influence. During the events leading to the third ending, Manah reveals Furiae's feelings for Caim, who shows revulsion at the revelation: due to this and the Watchers' influence, Furiae stabs herself. Manah was abused by her and Seere's mother, but Seere was never subjected to the abuse, leading him to feel guilty. The abuse Manah received and her longing for love eventually drove her insane, and she was chosen to become the Watchers' agent.

There are five possible endings, four of which are unlocked after fulfilling certain conditions.
 * In the first ending, Caim and Angelus confront Manah and defeat her. Manah asks them to kill her, but Angelus declares that she must live with her crimes. Angelus then offers herself as the new Goddess of the Seal for Caim's sake. As Verdelet performs the ritual, Angelus tells Caim her name before fading away.
 * In the second ending. Inuart uses a magical object called a "Seed of Resurrection" to resurrect Furiae: while successful, the Seed turns her into a monster, and she kills Inuart. Caim is forced to kill her, but not before clones of her are produced from other Seeds to destroy humanity.
 * In the third ending, after Furiae's suicide, Caim and Angelus stop Inuart's attempt to resurrect her and confront Manah, who is killed by another dragon. With the dragons now being driven to destroy mankind, Angelus breaks her pact with Caim and fights him to the death. Caim then prepares to die fighting the other dragons.
 * In the fourth ending, Seere has his Golem pact partner kill the deranged Manah, causing the fortress to collapse. Caim, Seere, Leonard and Arioch escape, while Inuart and Furiae are killed inside. With Manah dead, the Watchers descend on the Imperial capital, with Leonard and Arioch dying at their hands. Caim and Angelus then sacrifice themselves to allow Seere to use his powers to seal the city and the Watchers in a timeless zone, nullifying their threat.
 * In the fifth ending, instead of using Seere's power, Caim and Angelus instead attack the queen and the three disappear through a portal. After engaging the queen monster in a rhythm game in modern-day Tokyo, the two destroy it, and are then shot down by a fighter jet.

Development
The original idea for Drakengard originated between Takamasa Shiba and Takuya Iwasaki when they were working at Cavia. It was conceived as an aerial battle game similar to Ace Combat. The four-year development was Shiba's first project as a producer. The team developing the game went under the moniker of "Project Dragonsphere". As development progressed, ground-based battles were also incorporated after the success in Japan of Dynasty Warriors 2. Creating the change from ground to aerial gameplay was exceptionally difficult for the team as they encountered problems with the PlayStation 2 hardware. Speaking in 2013, Shiba commented that Cavia had been inexperienced in creating action games, and as such it was not up to the standards of its contemporaries. The game's battle scenes were inspired by films such as the 1999 version of The Mummy and its spin-off The Scorpion King, as well as films like Dragonheart and epic films from Asia. Iwasaki was unable to take up the position of director because of other projects he was involved with: the position instead went to Yoko Taro, who was primarily responsible for the game's tone. The lead programmers were Toshiyuki Koike and Takeshi Katayama. The CGI cutscenes were created by Studio Anima. During production, the team were asked to make multiple adjustments and changes to its content by Drakengard's advisory board. It was annoying enough for Yoko that he decided at the time not to make another Drakengard. Yoko was worried that the dark tone would cause the game to go unreleased, so one of the game's external producers Yosuke Saito went to Sony with a pitch; Sony were so tired of reviewing pitches at the time that they approved the project without looking at it.

The game was originally announced in December 2002, then set to be published by Enix. Its date was announced the following year by Square Enix. It released in Japan on September 11, 2003. Drakengard was first shown off to the western public at E3 2003. Its title was changed for the Western release. The original Drag-On Dragoon title was chosen for its sound, but was not considered right for the western market. Because of this, it was changed to Drakengard. In addition, some of the more mature themes, such as references to incest and sexual taboos, were censored in the western localization. In North America, the game released on March 2, 2004. While Square Enix published the title in Japan and North America, Take-Two Interactive was chosen to publish it in European territories, releasing it on May 21. For this version, the game underwent major debugging and an alteration in the angle of the in-game camera. The mobile port was part of Square Enix's plans to branch out into the European mobile game market. It was co-developed with London-based mobile developer Macrospace as part of a collaboration between Square Enix and Vodafone, designed to function on the Vodafone live! service. It was first released in Germany, then made available in the United Kingdom, Spain and Italy.

World design
The setting, mythos and landscape were primarily inspired by the folklore of Northern Europe, while other elements drew from Japanese-style revisionism. According to Shiba, multiple elements of the story and world were created to be dark, sad and serious in tone, in contrast to the likes of Dragon Quest and Final Fantasy. One of the core narrative threads, involving romantic feelings between siblings, was inspired in Yoko's mind by the anime series Sister Princess. Another series that inspired the team was Neon Genesis Evangelion, with a comparison being drawn between them due to a shared trait: while having standard premises, darker narrative elements were hidden in its content. The central narrative theme was "Immorality", which was mostly demonstrated by writer Sawako Natori through the characters. Multiple endings were made because Yoko was told that the game would not have a sequel. The characters' stories were created by Yoko and Iwasaki, who independently created the character backgrounds: Yoko took charge of Seere, Leonard and Arioch, while Iwasaki was involved in developing Verdelet, Inuart and Caim. In an interview concerning her role in the game, Natori admitted to feeling embarrassed by her writing when hearing Sota Murakami and Natsuki Yamashita, who voiced Seere and Manah, speak their lines.

Caim, the main protagonist, was meant to be an examination of the typical action game hero, which Yoko felt should not have a happy ending in a story focused on violence. The nature of Caim and Angelus' relationship underwent changes during development: Yoko had conceived their relationship as a parasitic one, but Iwasaki wanted to create a different type of romance, and so wrote the love story for the two of them. The actor who portrayed the two was Shinnosuke Ikehata: though originally cast for the role of Caim, his versatility also got him the role of Angelus. Furiae was designed by Yoko as both an explanation for Caim and Inuart's rivalry, and as a representation of his distaste for the kind of forgettable character she represented. The relationship between Caim and Furiae, as well as their ultimate fates, was Yoko's response to the standard happy ending found in most role-playing games at the time, which he felt did not fit in with a protagonist who had killed hundreds during their quest. The second ending was principally inspired by this and his dislike for Sister Princess. Caim and Furiae were respectively based around Guts from Berserk and Rei Ayanami from Neon Genesis Evangelion, with Caim being codenamed "Guts" during development.

Inuart was originally designed as the main protagonist of Drakengard, with him being a "useless hero". A pivotal scene in the game, where he first clashes with Caim, became one of the ways Yoko was able to properly project his vision of the game's world. Verdelet was portrayed as the "despicable elder", who cared for no-one except himself: his personality was intended to be both ineffectual and bossy, even in the face of catastrophe. Manah's role in Drakengard was designed to represent unloved children. The fifth ending, a boss battle in modern-day Tokyo, was created as a joke ending in the same vein as the Silent Hill series and an unexpected twist for players who were expecting an upbeat tone after the previous endings. Titled the End of dragon sphere, this ending served as a tribute to The End of Evangelion.

Character designs were done by Kimihiko Fujisaka. Drakengard was his first job as a character designer: his designs were firmly seated within the Medieval European aesthetic. To achieve this, he imagined that he had been sent back to that historical period. His designs were inspired by the character designs of Final Fantasy and Dragon Quest. Caim was one of the earliest characters created for Drakengard. In Inuart's design, Fujisaka incorporated heavy armor into his design to give a more forceful impression for players. His ultimate role and final design were based around the idea of him being Caim's rival. The design of the black dragon, which acted as Inuart's pact beast, did not impress Shiba, who considered cutting it from the final product. Manah's red clothing was designed to evoke both its status as the game's key color, and her status as the leader of the Cult of the Watchers. Shiba approved of the design, feeling that it contrasted nicely with Furiae's predominantly white design. Fujisaka also helped design Furiae's monster form for the game's second ending. In hindsight, Fujisaka was dissatisfied with his work on Drakengard, particularly his work on Caim. The game's monsters were designed by Taro Hasegawa.

Music
The music was composed by Nobuyoshi Sano and Takayuki Aihara: the two used excerpts from pieces of classical music (selected by Aihara), then rearranged, remixed and layered them. Their main objective was to create music that emulated the gameplay, as well as the story and general narrative theme of "madness". The music was intended to be "experimental" and "expressionistic" rather than "commercial". The theme song, "Exhausted" (尽きる), was composed by Sano, written by Natori and sung by Eriko Hatsune. The soundtrack was originally released in two volumes under the names Drag-On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.1 and Drag-On Dragoon Original Soundtrack Vol.2, released on October 22 and November 21, 2003, respectively. The soundtrack was re-released on April 20, 2011, as a two-disc set under the title Drag-On Dragoon Original Soundtrack.

Reception
Drakengard sold more than 122,000 units in its first week of release in Japan, taking Mobile Suit Gundam: Encounters in Space's place at the top of the sales charts. By the end of 2003, it had sold 241,014 copies. Gaming magazine Famitsu ranked it as the 50th best-selling title of 2003, and sold well enough that it was made part of Square Enix's Ultimate Hits series, re-releases of popular titles. Its strong sales were attributed by the team to its cinematic story and similarity to the popular Dynasty Warriors series. In Europe, the game sold 110,000 units by September 2004.

According to GameSpot, Drakengard received favorable reviews in Japan. Famitsu gave it an overall score of 29/40. After the game's reveal at E3, multiple video game publications, including Official PlayStation Magazine, IGN and Game Informer, praised its promising story and mixture of gameplay genres. The game received "average" reviews, according to video game review aggregator Metacritic.

The story received the highest amount of praise. IGN's Jeremy Dunham called it the game's "biggest strength", praising the edgy themes explored and the balance between fantasy and realism. He also praised the multiple parallels with Neon Genesis Evangelion. The reviewer for Computer and Video Games (CVG) praised "the maturity and wit of the dialogue and unfolding plot", noting that they stood alongside other Square Enix RPGs of the time. VideoGamer.com's Adam Jarvis praised the game's storytelling style, saying that while it became "a little bogged down at various points, it is deep enough to keep your interest throughout the game." GameSpot's Greg Kasavin said that "though the story itself is awkwardly paced and is sometimes difficult to keep up with, it becomes one of the main motivating factors for wanting to get all the way through to the end of the game."

The graphics received mixed responses. Kasavin said the game "looks decent but, ultimately, not all that good". He criticized the bland environments and awkward movements for enemy units and the playable character, but praised the design of the dragon. Game Informer was more positive, praising the graphical detail and cutscenes and the look of enemy units, despite finding pop-up issues and framerate dips. Jarvis praised the design of the main cast, but cited the repetitive enemy design and dark environments as detracting elements. Dunham praised the character and monster designs as well as the full-motion cutscenes, but was less impressed by the repetitive human enemy designs, bland environments and low draw distance. The full-motion videos were also praised by the CVG reviewer.

Reaction to the sound design was mixed to positive. Dunham praised the majority of the British-style voice acting, but called the music "disappointing". Game Informer cited the low number of background tracks and voice acting "straight out of a renaissance festival" as poorer parts of the game. Kasavin praised the voice acting and called the music "the most nerve-racking and most intense aspect of the game." Jarvis was also positive, praising the sound design for battles, most of the voice acting and the music, which "[helped] create a suitably dark atmosphere."

Reception of the gameplay was mixed to negative, with Dunham saying it suffered the same problems as its derivative games despite its easy entertainment value, while Jarvis called the options in gameplay "fairly limited". The CVG reviewer praised the aerial segments of gameplay, calling them the most entertaining, and found that the standard combat served to embellish the protagonist's "kick-ass persona, making him more than just another anonymous dragon rider". The main criticism was repetition in the gameplay. Kasavin was exceptionally critical, saying that the gameplay both made the process of playing laborious and detracted from the main story. Game Informer called the gameplay "fun, but [lacking] any semblance of depth."

Legacy
Drakengard received two novelizations by Emi Nagashima (writing as Jun Eishima) and Takashi Aizawa. The game's events were retold again in a special story titled Drakengard 1.3, which followed on from the spin-off manga Drag-On Dragoon: Shi ni Itaru Aka. In March 2014, Hardcore Gamer's Jahanzeb Khan favorably referred to the game as a precursor to the TV adaptation of the book series A Song of Ice and Fire in its handling of taboo themes and violence. The game was considered successful enough in Japan by Square Enix that a sequel was commissioned. Drakengard 2 was again produced by Shiba, but Yoko was replaced as director by Akira Yasui, resulting in numerous thematic changes. Originally set following the first ending of Drakengard, it was later retconned into an isolated timeline. A prequel, Drakengard 3, was released in 2013, with multiple staff members returning to their original roles.

An attempt to create another title in the series resulted in the spin-off Nier, which retains links and themes from the main series. Nier takes place over a thousand years after the events of Drakengard's fifth ending. When Cavia was absorbed by AQ Interactive after Nier's release, a future attempt by Shiba to continue the series was unsuccessful. A sequel, Nier: Automata, was developed by PlatinumGames in collaboration with previous Nier staff and released in 2017, taking place after Nier's fourth ending.

title: Drakengard (video game)


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Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was one of the original Thirteen Colonies established on the east coast of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. It was founded by Roger Williams. It was an English colony from 1636 until 1707, and then a colony of Great Britain until the American Revolution in 1776, when it became the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

First settlements

The land was first owned by the Narragansett Indians, which led to the name of the town of Narragansett, Rhode Island. European settlement began around 1622 with a trading post at Sowams, now the town of Warren, Rhode Island.

The first four European Settlements were at Providence, Portsmouth, Newport and Warwick.

Roger Williams—Providence
Roger Williams was a Puritan theologian and linguist who founded Providence Plantations in 1636 on land given to him by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. He named the settlement Providence Plantations because he believed that God had brought them there. (The term "plantation" was used in the 17th century to mean an agricultural colony.)

Williams had been exiled from the Massachusetts Bay Colony under religious persecution; he and his fellow settlers agreed on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things" with liberty of conscience on spiritual matters. He named three islands in the Narragansett Bay after Christian virtues: Patience, Prudence, and Hope Islands.

Island settlements—Portsmouth and Newport
In 1637, another group of Massachusetts dissenters settled on Aquidneck Island, which was called Rhode Island at the time. They established a settlement called Pocasset at the northern end of the island. The group included William Coddington, John Clarke, and Anne and William Hutchinson, among others. That settlement, however, quickly split into two separate settlements. Samuel Gorton and others remained to establish the settlement of Portsmouth in 1638, while Coddington and Clarke established nearby Newport in 1639. Both settlements were situated on Rhode Island.

Shawomet Purchase—Warwick
The second settlement on the mainland was Damon Salvator's Shawomet Purchase from the Narragansetts in 1642. As soon as he settled there, however, the Massachusetts Bay authorities laid claim to his territory and acted to enforce their claim. After considerable difficulties with the Massachusetts Bay General Court, Gorton traveled to London to enlist the help of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick, head of the Commission for Foreign Plantations. Damon returned in 1648 with a letter from Rich ordering Massachusetts to cease molesting him and his people. In gratitude, he changed the name of Shawomet Plantation to Warwick.

Coddington Charter attempt
In 1651, William Coddington obtained a separate charter from England setting up the Coddington Commission, which made him life governor of the islands of Rhode Island and Conanicut in a federation with Connecticut Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony.

Protest, open rebellion, and a further petition to Oliver Cromwell in London led to the reinstatement of the original 1643 Patent.

1663 Royal Charter

Following the 1660 restoration of royal rule in England, it was necessary to gain a Royal Charter from King Charles II. Charles was a Catholic sympathizer in staunchly Protestant England, and he approved of the colony's promise of religious freedom. He granted the request with the Royal Charter of 1663, uniting the four settlements together into the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

In the following years, many persecuted groups settled in the colony, notably Quakers and Jews. The Rhode Island colony was very progressive for the time, passing laws abolishing witchcraft trials, imprisonment for debt, and most capital punishment. The colony also passed the first anti-slavery law in America on May 18, 1652, though the practice remained widespread in Rhode Island and there exists no evidence that the legislation was ever enforced.

King Philip's War
Rhode Island remained at peace with the Narragansett Indians, but the relationship was more strained between other New England colonies and certain tribes. This situation frequently led to bloodshed, despite attempts by the Rhode Island leadership to broker peace.

During King Philip's War (1675–1676), Colonist and Indian fighting regularly violated Rhode Island's neutrality. The war's largest battle occurred in Rhode Island on December 19, 1675 when a force of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth militia under General Josiah Winslow invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett village in the Great Swamp.

The Narragansetts also invaded and burned several towns in Rhode Island, including Providence. Roger Williams had known both Metacom (Philip) and Canonchet since they were children. He was aware of the tribe's activities and promptly sent letters informing the Governor of Massachusetts of enemy movements. Providence Plantations made some efforts at fortifying the town, and Williams even started training recruits for protection. In one of the final actions of the war, troops from Connecticut killed Philip in Mount Hope, Rhode Island.

Dominion of New England
In the 1680s, Charles II sought to streamline administration of the English colonies and to more closely control their trade. The Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked, since merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. However, many colonial governments refused to enforce the acts, Massachusetts principally among them, and Massachusetts took matters one step further by obstructing the activities of the Crown agents. Charles' successor James II introduced the Dominion of New England in 1686 as a means to accomplish these goals. Under its provisional president Joseph Dudley, the disputed "King's Country" (now Washington County) was brought into the dominion, and the rest of the colony was brought under dominion control by Governor Edmund Andros. The rule of Andros was extremely unpopular, especially in Massachusetts. The 1688 Glorious Revolution deposed James II and brought William III and Mary II to the English throne; Massachusetts authorities conspired in April 1689 to have Andros arrested and sent back to England. With this event, the dominion collapsed and Rhode Island resumed its previous government.

The bedrock of the economy continued to be fishing and agriculture, especially dairy farming; lumber and shipbuilding also became major industries. The Rhode Island General Assembly legalized African and Native American slavery throughout the colony in 1703, and the slave trade fueled the growth of Providence and Newport into major ports. By 1755, enslaved people made up 10% of the colony's population. The Rhode Island merchants also profited by distilling rum as part of the triangular trade in slaves and sugar between Africa, America, and the Caribbean.

American Revolutionary period
Rhode Island was the first of the Thirteen Colonies to take up arms against Great Britain in the Gaspee Affair, when an armed group of men attacked and burned a British Navy ship. This impromptu attack occurred in June, 1772, more than a year before the more famous Boston Tea Party.

Leading figures in the colony were involved in the 1776 launch of the American Revolutionary War which brought American independence from the British Empire. This included Governors Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward, as well as John Brown, Nicholas Brown, William Ellery, the Reverend James Manning, and the Reverend Ezra Stiles, each of whom had played an influential role in founding Brown University in Providence in 1764 as a sanctuary for religious and intellectual freedom.

On May 4, 1776, Rhode Island became the first of the 13 colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown, and it was the fourth to ratify the Articles of Confederation among the newly sovereign states on February 9, 1778. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, and initially refused to ratify it. It relented after Congress sent a series of constitutional amendments to the states for ratification, the Bill of Rights guaranteeing specific personal freedoms and rights, clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings, and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. On May 29, 1790, Rhode Island became the 13th state and the last of the former colonies to ratify the Constitution.

Boundaries
The boundaries of Rhode Island underwent numerous changes from early Colonial times well after American independence, including repeated disputes with Massachusetts and Connecticut who contested for control of territory that ultimately belonged to Rhode Island. Rhode Island's early compacts did not stipulate the boundary on the eastern shore of Narrangansett Bay, and did not include any of Washington County, land that belonged to the Narragansett people. The original settlements were at Providence, Warwick, Newport, and Portsmouth, and the territory was expanded by purchasing land from the Narragansetts westward toward Connecticut and the smaller islands in Narrangasett Bay. Block Island was settled in 1637 after the Pequot War, became a part of the colony in 1664, and was incorporated in 1672 as New Shoreham.

Western boundary

The western boundary with Connecticut Colony was defined ambiguously as the "Narragansett River" in the Connecticut charter, which was decided by arbitrators in 1663 to be the Pawcatuck River from its mouth to the Ashaway River mouth, from which a northward line was drawn to the Massachusetts line. This resolved a long-standing dispute concerning the former Narragansett lands which were also claimed by Connecticut and Massachusetts, although the dispute continued until 1703, when the arbitration award was upheld. After repeated surveys, a mutually agreeable line was defined and surveyed in 1728.

Eastern boundary
The eastern boundary was an area of dispute with Massachusetts Bay Colony. Overlapping charters had awarded an area extending three miles inland to both Plymouth Colony and Rhode Island east of Narragansett Bay; this area was awarded to Rhode Island in 1741, establishing Rhode Island's jurisdiction over Barrington, Warren, Bristol, Tiverton, and Little Compton which Massachusetts had claimed. Also adjudicated in the 1741 decision was the award of most of Cumberland to Rhode Island from Massachusetts. The final establishment of the boundaries north of Barrington and east of the Blackstone River occurred almost a century after American independence, requiring protracted litigation and multiple U.S. Supreme Court decisions. In the final decision, a portion of Tiverton was awarded to Massachusetts to become part of Fall River, and two-thiirds of Seekonk (now eastern Pawtucket and East Providence) was awarded to Rhode Island in 1862.

Northern boundary
Rhode Island's northern border with Massachusetts also underwent a number of changes. Massachusetts surveyed this line in 1642, but subsequent surveys by Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut agreed that it was placed too far south. In 1718-19, commissioners for Rhode Island and Massachusetts agreed on roughly that line anyway (except the section east of the Blackstone River, which remained disputed until 1741), and this is where the line remains today.

Demographics
From 1640 to 1774, the population of Rhode Island grew from 300 to 59,607, but then declined during the American Revolutionary War to 52,946 in 1780. William Coddington and a group of 13 other men bought Aquidneck Island from the Narragansett Indians in 1639, and the population of Newport, Rhode Island grew from 96 in 1640 to 7,500 in 1760 (making Newport the fifth-largest city in the Thirteen Colonies at the time), and Newport grew further to 9,209 by 1774. The black population in the colony grew from 25 in 1650 to 3,668 in 1774 (ranging between 3 and 10 percent of the population), and like the state as a whole, declined to 2,671 (or 5 percent of the population) by 1780. In 1774, Narragansetts accounted for 1,479 of the inhabitants of the colony (or three percent).

Rhode Island was the only New England colony without an established church. Rhode Island had only four churches with regular services in 1650, out of the 109 places of worship with regular services in the New England Colonies (including those without resident clergy), while there was a small Jewish enclave in Newport by 1658. Following the First Great Awakening (1730–1755), the number of regular places of worship in Rhode Island grew to 50 in 1750 (30 Baptist, 12 Congregational, 7 Anglican, and 1 Jewish), with the colony gaining an additional 5 regular places of worship by 1776 (26 Baptist, 11 Friends, 9 Congregational, 5 Episcopal, 1 Jewish, 1 New Light Congregational, 1 Presbyterian, and 1 Sandemanian).

Puritan mass migration to New England began following the issuance of the royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company by Charles I of England in 1629 and continued until the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642. The immigration leveled off following the war's conclusion in 1651, and the population growth owed almost entirely to natural increase rather than immigration or slave importations for the remainder of the 17th century and through the 18th century. Mass migration from New England to the Province of New York and the Province of New Jersey began following the surrender of New Netherland by the Dutch Republic at Fort Amsterdam in 1664, and the population of New York continued to expand by families moving from New England in the 18th century rather than from natural increase.

Most Puritan immigrants to New England moved as families, as approximately two-thirds of the male Puritan immigrants to New England were married rather than unmarried indentured servants. By the American Revolutionary War, only two percent of the New England colonial labor force were bonded or convict laborers and another two percent were black slaves, while nine percent of the colonial black population in New England were free, as compared with only three percent in the Southern Colonies. In February 1784, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a gradual emancipation law that increased the ratio of the free black population in Rhode Island to 78 percent by the 1790 U.S. Census; slavery was completely eliminated in Rhode Island by 1842.

General and cited references

 * James, Sydney V. (1975). Colonial Rhode Island: A History.
 * James, Sydney V. (1975). Colonial Rhode Island: A History.
 * James, Sydney V. (1975). Colonial Rhode Island: A History.


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Melissus of Samos

Melissus of Samos (Μέλισσος ὁ Σάμιος; fl. 5th century BC) was the third and last member of the ancient school of Eleatic philosophy, whose other members included Zeno and Parmenides. Little is known about his life, except that he was the commander of the Samian fleet in the Samian War. Melissus’ contribution to philosophy was a treatise of systematic arguments supporting Eleatic philosophy. Like Parmenides, he argued that reality is ungenerated, indestructible, indivisible, changeless, and motionless. In addition, he sought to show that reality is wholly unlimited, and infinitely extended in all directions; and since existence is unlimited, it must also be one.

Life
Not much information remains regarding the life of Melissus. He may have been born around 500 BC; the date of his death is unknown. The little which is known about him is mostly gleaned from a small passage in Plutarch’s Life of Pericles. He was the commander of the Samian fleet in the Samian War, and defeated Pericles and the Athenian fleet in 440 BC. Plutarch claims that Aristotle says that Melissus had also defeated Pericles in an earlier battle. In his Life of Themistocles, Plutarch denies Stesimbrotus’ claim that Melissus was held in high regard by Themistocles, claiming that he is confusing Themistocles and Pericles. Melissus was reputed to have been the pupil of Parmenides, and the teacher of Leucippus, though one must regard such claims with a fair amount of skepticism.

Philosophy
Much of what remains of Melissus’ philosophical treatise, later titled On Nature, has been preserved by Simplicius in his commentaries on Aristotle’s Physics and On the Heavens, and several summaries of his philosophy have come down to us. Most of the remaining fragments can be found in Diels–Kranz. Unlike Parmenides, Melissus wrote his treatise in prose, not poetry, consequently making it easier to follow than that of his teacher. Like Parmenides, he claims that Being is one, ungenerated, indestructible, indivisible, changeless, motionless and the same. Melissus’ philosophy differs from that of Parmenides in two respects: (1) Parmenides claims that Being is limited, while Melissus claims that it is wholly unlimited; and (2) for Parmenides, Being existed in a timeless Present, while for Melissus Being is eternal. McKirahan claims that Parmenides argues for Being as spatially limited, but this is a contentious point.

Eternal
Melissus argues that since The One neither came to be nor is subject to destruction, it is therefore eternal. While fragment 1 is merely a summary of Parmenides’ arguments against coming to be and perishing (8.5-21), fragment 2 provides Melissus’ argument. Melissus’ argument is twofold, addressing the temporal aspect of The One somewhat as a timeline: granting the reality of the present moment, he argues that The One has existed eternally into the past and will exist eternally into the future.

His argument is as follows:
 * 1) Whatever comes to be must have a beginning.
 * 2) According to fragment 1, The One did not come to be.
 * 3) Therefore, The One does not have a beginning.
 * 4) Therefore, The One is eternal (has always existed in the past).

in addition:
 * 1) Whatever has a beginning must also end.
 * 2) According to fragment 1, The One did not have a beginning.
 * 3) Therefore, The One will not end.
 * 4) Therefore, The One is eternal (will always exist in the future).

He restates his argument for The One as eternal in fragments 6 and 9.1.

It is in this respect that Melissus differs from Parmenides, although some argue that the difference is not as important as it might seem. Parmenides’ view is that there is only one moment (the eternal present), while Melissus argues for an infinite number of moments. The existence of a changeless, motionless, eternal present is an arguable position (as Time, by its nature, is merely made by change and motion and that, there would exist no such thing as Time if there were no change in quality or quantity); however, the existence of a changeless, motionless, infinite succession of moments is a much more difficult position to defend as moments are distinguished from one another by the change in quality or quantity of the one space that they exist within, otherwise, there would have been an infinite number of moments of the same quality and quantity, which is, in actuality, one continuous moment as Parmenides argued.

There are several problems with Melissus’ reasoning. His second argument is based on a dubious premise (i.e., that whatever comes to be must also end at some point). Furthermore, both arguments, which can be reduced to “If A, then B; but not-A, therefore not-B”, are logically flawed.

It seems that both Parmenides and Melissus had in mind a mathematical figure of Time, though, for Parmenides, arithmetical and for Melissus, geometrical. Parmenides seems to mean that there's no end to the quantity of numbers, but the number "One" exists in all of them regardless of how great a number might become, so every other number is dependent upon the number "one", therefore, every other number is just the repetition of this "one", accumulated upon itself so there's only and only "one" continuous moment; but Melissus took the number "one" to not be accumulated atop of itself but rather being juxtaposed next to itself in order to form a "circular" figure, thus, the beginning becomes the end, though indirectly, through infinite gates of media or moments.

Unlimited
Melissus contends that The One is unlimited. Fragments 7 and 8 apparently indicate that Melissus is speaking in terms of spatial infinity, although regarding fragment 3, which first argues this point, Simplicius explicitly denies this: “But by ‘magnitude’ he does not mean what is extended in space.” Simplicius undoubtedly had more of Melissus’ treatise at his disposal, as well as other commentaries and notes which have not survived to the present day.

In any case, Melissus’ argument for this claim is unclear, and it is possible that it has not been preserved for us. Alternatively, he may intend for this argument to follow from the arguments of fragments 1 and 2, either directly or indirectly. In the former case, unless the argument is based on a now lost theory on the relationship between time and space, it is, as McKirahan says, “grossly fallacious”. In the latter case, granting the “beginning” and “end” of fragment 2 spatial as well as temporal qualities leaves Melissus open to the charge of equivocation.

In fragment 6 Melissus connects an eternal existence and the quality of being unlimited. Melissus may have argued for this quality due to certain issues arising in Parmenides’ thesis (8.42-9). The argument is as follows:

 * 1) Whatever has a beginning and end is neither eternal nor unlimited.
 * 2) Being has no beginning or end.
 * 3) Therefore, it is eternal and unlimited.

This argument, as fragment 3, is logically flawed, being basically: “If not-A, then not-B”.

One
Melissus’ argument for the oneness of what-is, given mainly in fragments 7 and 8, is undoubtedly his best. His argument is clearer and more concise than the one provided by Parmenides. Melissus argues that, because what-is is unlimited, it must also be one, because if it were more than one it would have limits (namely, the boundaries between what-is and the other existing objects). His argument is founded on the premises that what-is is both spatially and temporally unlimited and is as follows:

 * 1) What-is is temporally unlimited.
 * 2) Therefore, nothing else temporally unlimited could exist at the same time.
 * 3) What-is is spatially unlimited.
 * 4) Therefore, nothing else spatially unlimited could exist at a different time.
 * 5) Therefore, what-is is one.

The same
In On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias, Pseudo-Aristotle states that Melissus made a claim that The One is qualitatively the same. The validity of the argument depends on the nature of unity intended by Melissus. It is possible for one, single thing to have different parts: a human has a head, a body, two arms and two legs, but it is still one human. In most respects, Melissus is following in Parmenides’ footsteps, and so it is likely that Melissus is arguing for the same type of unity as Parmenides, namely, that The One is completely unified, with no parts to subdivide it. His argument is as follows:

 * 1) If what-is has qualitative differences, it is plural.
 * 2) What-is is one.
 * 3) What-is is whole in and of itself.
 * 4) Therefore, what-is has no qualitative differences (i.e., is the same).

This is not provided in the second-hand report by Pseudo-Aristotle; however, the quality of wholeness is a major claim in Parmenides’ thesis, and it is likely that Melissus either made the argument for this point in a fragment that has not come down to us or expected it to be understood or inferred from his other arguments.

Changeless
Melissus argues that The One cannot undergo any change. He specifically states that The One cannot be rearranged, become greater or smaller, or undergo any kind of distress, but we may safely expand his argument to include all kinds of change. If The One underwent any kind of change whatsoever, it would become different and thus would no longer be unified or whole. His argument is as follows:

 * 1) Whatever undergoes change is altered.
 * 2) Whatever is altered is not unified or whole.
 * 3) The One is unified and whole.
 * 4) Therefore, The One does not undergo any type of change.

Motionless
In fragment 9.7-10 Melissus makes the argument for motionless with the qualities of full and empty. He states that The One is full, because if it were empty it would be nothing, and what is nothing doesn’t exist. He then states that because The One is full, it can’t move. The argument is as follows:

 * 1) To be empty is to be nothing.
 * 2) What is nothing does not exist.
 * 3) The One exists.
 * 4) Therefore, The One is not empty.
 * 5) What is not empty must be full.
 * 6) Therefore, The One is full.

and further:
 * 1) Whatever has motion is not full.
 * 2) Whatever is full (i.e., has no empty spaces) must be motionless.
 * 3) The One is full.
 * 4) Therefore, The One is motionless.

Incorporeal
In fragment 5, Melissus makes the remarkable claim that The One is incorporeal. Just as his insistence that The One is unlimited, this claim may also be his attempt to address a potential problem inherent in Parmenides’ philosophy (8.42-9). His argument is as follows:

 * 1) The One is whole in and of itself.
 * 2) Therefore, The One has no parts.
 * 3) Therefore, The One has no thickness.
 * 4) Therefore, The One does not have a body.

This argument, on the surface, does not coincide with Melissus’ claim that The One is extended and full. After all, why can something that is extended not have any parts, and how can something that is full have no thickness? McKirahan offers an interesting interpretation for what Melissus may have been arguing. A body not only has extension, but also limits, and something infinitely large, such as The One, is unlimited; an object, then, with no limits, is not a body. Furthermore, thickness is simply the measure of the distance between a body’s limits. Since The One is unlimited, it cannot have thickness.

Influence
Melissus' version of Eleatic philosophy was the chief source for its presentation in the works of Plato and Aristotle. Aristotle characterised Melissus' work as "a bit crude" and stated that Melissus made "invalid arguments starting from false assumptions". The later Peripatetic philosopher, Aristocles of Messene, also had little admiration for Melissus, calling several of his arguments "absurd". Melissus has fared somewhat better in the eyes of modern scholars, he was an inventive philosopher and had the good quality of offering clear and direct arguments. Although he follows Parmenides in his general views and the framework of Eleaticism, he made original contributions and innovations to the substance of Eleatic philosophy.

Life

 * A1.
 * A2. Suda
 * A3. Plutarch, Life of Pericles

Writings

 * A4.

Doctrines

 * A5. Pseudo-Aristotle, On Melissus, Xenophanes, and Gorgias
 * A6. Hippocrates, The nature of man
 * A7. Aristotle, Metaphysics, 986b
 * A8. Aristotle, Physics, 213b12
 * A9. Cicero, Academica Book II, 37,118
 * A10. Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations, 213b12
 * A11. Aristotle, Physics, 185a32
 * A12. Epiphanius, Against Heresies
 * A13. Aetius, Placita, Book I, 7,27
 * A14. Philodemus, On Rhetoric

Fragments

 * B1.
 * B2.
 * B3.
 * B4.
 * B5.
 * B6.
 * B7.
 * B8.
 * B9.
 * B10.

Not in DK

 * Philoponus, Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics, 50.30-52.11.

Secondary

 * Baird, Forrest E. and Walter Kaufmann, Ancient Philosophy, 4th Ed., Philosophic Classics, Volume I. Prentice Hall, 2003.
 * Barnes, Jonathan, The Presocratic Philosophers. Routledge, New York, 1982.
 * Diels, Hermann and Walther Kranz, Die Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, (1903), 7th Ed. Berlin: Weidmann, 1954.
 * Kirk, G.S., J.E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
 * Makin, Stephen, "Melissus and his opponents : the argument of DK 30 B 8", Phronesis 2005 50 (4), pp. 263–288.
 * McKirahan, Richard D., Philosophy before Socrates, Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1994.
 * Rapp, Christof, "Zeno and the Eleatic anti-pluralism", in Maria Michela Sassi (ed.), La costruzione del discorso filosofico nell'età dei Presocratici / The Construction of Philosophical Discourse in the Age of the Presocratics, Pisa: Edizioni della Normale, 2006, pp. 161–182.

title: Melissus of Samos


text:
Melissus

Melissus may refer to:

 * Melissus of Samos, (fl. c. 500 BC), Greek philosopher
 * Melissus of Thebes, Greek athlete contrasted to Orion by Pindar
 * Gaius Maecenas Melissus (fl. early 1st century AD), Roman writer
 * Paulus Melissus (1539–1602), humanist Neo-Latin writer, translator and composer
 * Melisseus (or Melissus), father of the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, the nurses of Zeus on Crete
 * Melissus (another mythological figure), father of Actaeon; see Archias of Corinth

title: Melissus


text:
Linjeflyg

Linjeflyg was a Swedish domestic airline, formed in 1957 as a domestic subsidiary by Scandinavian Airlines System and Airtaco as well as by newspaper publishers Dagens Nyheter AB and Stockholms-Tidningen AB.

History
Airtaco (founded in August 1950 as Aero Scandia) can be considered as Linjeflyg's predecessor and was merged into the new airline, including its entire fleet. When Linjeflyg was founded, Airtaco's four Lockheed Model 18 Lodestars and four Douglas DC-3s were integrated into the new fleet.

In October 1983 Linjeflyg moved from Stockholm-Bromma Airport in the central part of Stockholm to Stockholm-Arlanda Airport in the north of Stockholm. Bromma had been the main hub for Linjeflyg since 1957. On 10 September 1990 Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) sold their 50% in Linjeflyg to Bilspedition for 475 million Swedish crowns (SEK). Approximately six months later SAS bought it back.

In February 1992 Linjeflyg became too big a threat for SAS, because it planned a strategic alliance with Braathens and Maersk Air. Such an alliance would have been too competitive for SAS on the intra-Scandinavian capital routes and on domestic flights. Consequently SAS bought the 50% of Linjeflyg that it did not already own, to maintain its market dominance. On 1 January 1993 Linjeflyg was merged into SAS. Linjeflyg was Sweden's largest domestic airline. It served over 20 domestic airports and carried over 5 million people annually. Linjeflyg had 2200 employees in 1992, and was at that time the largest Fokker F28 operator in the world.

Incidents and accidents

 * On 20 November 1964 Flight 267V, operated by Convair 440 SE-CCK, crashed during an approach to Ängelholm joint civil/military Airport. In instrument conditions, the crew abandoned the set procedure and began the final approach too early. The reason for this must have been that the crew allowed themselves to be misled by an arrangement of lights peculiar to the airfield with which, apart from certain information received during the approach, they were not acquainted. Thirty-one of the 43 people aboard were killed in Sweden's worst air disaster.
 * On 15 January 1977 Flight 618, operated by Vickers Viscount SE-FOZ leased from Skyline, crashed at Kälvesta on approach to Bromma Airport, Stockholm owing to ice accretion on the tailplane leading to a loss of control. All 22 people on board were killed.

title: Linjeflyg


text:
Hasan-i Sabbah

Hasan-i Sabbah (c. 1050 – 12 June 1124), also known as Hasan I of Alamut, was a religious and military leader, founder of the Nizari Ismai'li sect widely known as the Hashshashin or the Order of Assassins, as well as the Nizari Ismaili state, ruling from 1090 to 1124 AD.

Alongside his role as a formidable leader, Sabbah was an accomplished scholar of mathematics, most notably in geometry, as well as astronomy and philosophy, especially in epistemology. He and each of the later Assassin leaders came to be known in the West as the Old Man of the Mountain, a name given to the sect's leader in the writings of Marco Polo that referenced the sect's possession of the commanding mountain fortress of Alamut Castle.

Qom and Rayy

The possibly autobiographical information found in Sargozasht-i Seyyednā is the main source for Hasan's background and early life. According to this, Hasan-i Sabbāh was born in the city of Qom, Persia in the 1050s to a family of Twelver Shia. His father, a Kufan Arab reportedly of Yemenite origins, had left the Sawād of Kufa (located in modern Iraq) to settle in the town of Qom, one of the first centres of Arab settlement in Persia and a stronghold of Twelver Shia.

Early in his life, his family moved to Rayy. Rayy was a city that had a history of radical Islamic thought since the 9th century, with Hamdan Qarmaṭ as one of its teachers.

It was in this religious centre that Hasan developed a keen interest in metaphysical matters and adhered to the Twelver code of instruction. During the day he studied at home, and mastered palmistry, languages, philosophy, astronomy and mathematics (especially geometry).

Rayy was also the home of Isma'ili missionaries in the Jibal. At the time, Isma'ilism was a growing movement in Persia and other lands east of Egypt. The Persian Isma'ilis supported the da'wa ("mission") directed by the Fatimid caliphate of Cairo and recognized the authority of the Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir (d. 1094), though Isfahan, rather than Cairo, may have functioned as their principal headquarters. The Ismā'īlī mission worked on three layers: the lowest was the fida'i or foot soldier, followed by the rafīk or comrade, and finally the dā‘ī or missionary. It has been suggested that the popularity of the Ismā'īlī religion in Persia was due to the people's dissatisfaction with the Seljuk rulers, who had recently removed local rulers.

Conversion to Ismailism and training in Cairo
At the age of 17, Hasan converted and swore allegiance to the Fatimid caliph in Cairo. Hasan's studies did not end with his crossing over. He further studied under two other dā‘iyyayn, and as he proceeded on his path, he was looked upon with eyes of respect.

Hasan's austere and devoted commitment to the da'wa brought him in audience with the chief missionary of the region: 'Abdu l-Malik ibn Attash. Ibn Attash, suitably impressed with the young seventeen-year-old Hasan, made him Deputy Missionary and advised him to go to Cairo to further his studies.

However, Hasan did not initially travel to Cairo. Some historians have postulated that Hasan, following his conversion, was playing host to some members of the Fatimid caliphate, and this was leaked to the anti-Fatimid and anti-Shī‘a vizier Nizam al-Mulk. This prompted his abandoning Rayy and heading to Cairo in 1076.

Hasan took about 2 years to reach Cairo. Along the way he toured many other regions that did not fall in the general direction of Egypt. Isfahan was the first city that he visited. He was hosted by one of the Missionaries of his youth, a man who had taught the youthful Hasan in Rayy. His name was Resi Abufasl and he further instructed Hasan.

From here he went to Arran (current Azerbaijan), hundreds of miles to the north, and from there through Armenia. Here he attracted the ire of priests following a heated discussion, and Hasan was thrown out of the town he was in.

He then turned south and traveled through Iraq, reached Damascus in Syria. He left for Egypt from Palestine. Records exist, some in the fragmentary remains of his autobiography, and from another biography written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in 1310, to date his arrival in Egypt at 30 August 1078.

It is unclear how long Hasan stayed in Egypt: about 3 years is the usually accepted amount of time. He continued his studies here, and became a full missionary.

Return to Persia
Whilst he was in Cairo, studying and preaching, he incurred the displeasure of the Chief of the Army, Badr al-Jamalī. This may have been a result of the fact that Hasan supported Nizar, the Ismaili Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir's elder son, as the next Imam. Hasan was briefly imprisoned by Badr al-Jamali. The collapse of a minaret of the jail was taken to be an omen in favor of Hasan and he was promptly released and deported. The ship that he was traveling on was wrecked. He was rescued and taken to Syria. Traveling via Aleppo and Baghdad, he terminated his journey at Isfahan in 1081.

Hasan's life now was totally devoted to the mission. Hasan toured extensively throughout Persia. In northern Persia, touching the south shore of the Caspian Sea, are the mountains of Alborz. These mountains were home to a people who had traditionally resisted attempts by both Arabs and Turkish subjugation; this place was also a home of Shia leaning. The news of this Ismā'īlī's activities reached Nizam al-Mulk, who dispatched his soldiers with the orders for Hasan's capture. Hasan evaded them, and went deeper into the mountains.

Capture of Alamut

His search for a base from which to guide his mission ended when in 1088 he found the castle of Alamut in the Rudbar area (modern Qazvin, Iran). It was a fort that stood guard over a valley that was about fifty kilometers long and five kilometers wide. This fortress had been built about the year 865; legend has it that it was built by a king who saw his eagle fly up to and perch upon a rock, a propitious omen, the importance of which this king, Wah Sudan ibn Marzuban, understood. Likening the perching of the eagle to a lesson given by it, he called the fort Aluh Amu(kh)t: the "Eagles' Teaching".

Hasan's takeover of the fort was conducted without any significant bloodshed. To effect this transition Hasan employed a patient and deliberate strategy, one which took the better part of two years to effect. First Hasan sent his Daʻiyyīn and Rafīks to win over the villages in the valley, and their inhabitants. Next, key people amongst this populace were converted, and finally, in 1090, Hasan took over the fort by infiltrating it with his converts. Hasan gave the former owner a draft drawn on the name of a wealthy landlord and told him to obtain the promised money from this man; when the landlord saw the draft with Hasan's signature, he immediately paid the amount to the fort's owner, astonishing him. Another, probably apocryphal version of the takeover states that Hasan offered 3000 gold dinars to the fort's owner for the amount of land that would fit a buffalo's hide. The terms having been agreed upon, Hasan cut the hide into strips and linked them into a large ring around the perimeter of the fort, whose owner was thus undone by his own greed.

While legend holds that after capturing Alamut Hasan thereafter devoted himself so faithfully to study that in the nearly 35 years he was there he never left his quarters, excepting only two times when he went up to the roof, this reported isolation is highly doubtful, given his extensive recruiting and organizational involvement in the growing Ismā'īlī insurrections in Persia and Syria. Nonetheless, Hasan was highly educated and was known for austerity, studying, translating, praying, fasting, and directing the activities of the Daʻwa: the propagation of the Nizarī doctrine was headquartered at Alamut. He knew the Qur'ān by heart, could quote extensively from the texts of most Muslim sects, and apart from philosophy, was well versed in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, architecture, and the major scientific disciplines of his time. In a major departure from tradition, Hasan declared Persian to be the language of holy literature for Nizaris, a decision that resulted in all the Nizari Ismā'īlī literature from Persia, Syria, Afghanistan and Central Asia to be transcribed in Persian for several centuries.

Hassan received a special message promising good fortune from Imam al-Mustansir Billah, persuading the garrison to continue their resistance. The Ismailis eventually emerged victorious when Yurun-Tash died of natural causes. Alamut was nicknamed baldat al-iqbāl (lit. 'the city of good fortune') after this victory.

Foreign views: Marco Polo and China

The leaders of Nizari Isma'ilis in Persia, were designated by Marco Polo using a Syrian equivalent term known in Europe at that time, as Elder or Old Man of the Mountain. Polo's travelogue (ca. 1300) describes the Old Man of the Mountain as a charlatan who devised plots to convert young men to his sect. At the court of the Old Man of the Mountain "they were educated in various languages and customs, courtly etiquette, and trained in martial and other skills". At Alamut they had "impressive libraries whose collections included books on various religious traditions, philosophical and scientific texts, and scientific equipment".

Xishiji （Chinese: 西使記）, a Chinese manuscript completed in 1263, relates a story similar to that of Polo. The sect leaders "ordered to send assassins to hide in those kingdoms which did not surrender. They stabbed their lords, and women as well, and they died".

Nizari doctrine
Historians and scholars identify Hasan-i Sabbah as the founder of the Nizari Assassins and their doctrine. It developed during the struggle for succession of Nizar to the Fatimid throne in Cairo that eventually laid the foundation of the Nizari Isma'ilism Shia Islam. Since then, as a basic element of conservative nature, the Ismaili Imamate includes a hidden imam, in addition to the visible (or hazar, meaning apparent) imam of the time, acting as such in a community. An important task of the latter is the proliferation of the doctrine, and of the undisclosed imam's spiritual guidance, in learning centers having instructors proficient in teaching techniques.

Devotion of the "true believers" having "absolute faith" in the beliefs is another element originating from the times of Sabbah in Northern Iran, who reportedly "was so devout that he even had one of his sons executed after he was accused of drunkenness."

A Nizari assassin is identified as fida'i or devotee, "who offers his life for others or in the service of a particular cause."

Personal life
Hasan is known for his ascetic and austere religious lifestyle. At his modest living quarters in the Alamut Castle, he spent most of his time reading, writing, and administration. During his 45 years of residence in Alamut, he apparently left his quarters only twice to ascend the rooftop.

Hasan-i Sabbah probably had one wife, two daughters, and two sons. Hasan's wife and daughters were sent to Gerdkuh as a safe place during Shirgir's campaign against Alamut; they never returned. They lived on spinning. He had both his sons executed, Muhammad for khamr and Ustad Husayn for his suspected role in the murder of da'i Husayn Qa'ini.

Hassan was highly revered by the Nizari community, whose members called him Sayyidna ("Our Master") and regularly visited his mausoleum in Rudbar before it was demolished by the Mongols.

In popular culture

 * Betty Bouthoul published a popular book in French titled Le grand maître des assassins (Master of the Assassins) about Hasan-i Sabbāh in 1936.
 * A 1938 novel named Alamut by Vladimir Bartol is based on Hasan's rise to power.
 * The British "space rock" group Hawkwind recorded a song called "Hassan I Sahba" on its 1977 album, Quark, Strangeness and Charm. This song was also recorded by the Brain Surgeons on their album Malpractise.
 * Hasan-i Sabbāh is mentioned, often by his moniker 'The Old Man of the Mountain', in many of William S. Burroughs's novels, including Nova Express, Cities of the Red Night, The Place of Dead Roads and The Western Lands. According to Barry Miles book The Beat Hotel Burroughs was introduced to Hasan through Betty Bouthoul's book while staying in Paris, France. The full story of Burroughs' interest in Hassan Sabbah was told in the 2023 book, Two Assassins, by Oliver Harris and Farid Ghadami.
 * He is portrayed in the Turkish TV series Uyanış: Büyük Selçuklu by Gürkan Uygun.
 * He is portrayed in the Egyptian TV series El-Hashashin by Karim Abdel Aziz.
 * There are various Assassin class Servants who go by the name of "Hassan-i Sabbah" in the "Fate/stay night" anime-and-visual novel-franchise. It is established that "Hassan-i-Sabbah" is a title used by each of the nineteen leaders of the Hashshashin. The founder of the Order, identified as the "First Hassan", appears in "Fate/Grand Order with the title of "Grand Assassin due to being the origin of the word itself.

title: Hasan-i Sabbah