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Fiat Tipo (Type 160)

The Fiat Tipo (Type 160) is a compact car, designed by the I.DE.A Institute design house, and produced by the Italian manufacturer Fiat between 1988 and 1995.

The Tipo was initially available only as a five-door hatchback. The car was made entirely out of galvanized body panels to avoid rust, and was built on a completely new Fiat platform, which was later also used in Alfa Romeo and Lancia models.

It also stood out because of its boxy styling that gave it innovative levels of packaging, rear passenger room being greater than that in a rear wheel drive Ford Sierra, but in a car that was of a similar size to the smaller Ford Escort. This type of design was comparable to the smaller Fiat Uno, which was launched five years before the Tipo.

In 1989, the Tipo won the European Car of the Year award and the 1989 Semperit Irish Car of the Year in Ireland. The car was extremely popular in Brazil where it outsold the Volkswagen Gol, which had been the best selling Brazilian car for more than twenty years. Only the Tipo, the Fiat Uno Mille, and Fiat Palio have ever outsold the Gol as well.

Variants
Unveiled in January 1988, the Tipo went on sale in Europe during June 1988, and on the right hand drive market in the United Kingdom from 16 July 1988, initially base (i.e.), DGT, (early Italian market DGT models were badged as 'digit', presumably in recognition of the digital dash, but this was quickly changed to DGT after a dispute over ownership of the name, leading to confusion about whether the model was diesel powered) S, SX and 16v trim levels were available. "Tipo" is Italian for "type".

Power from 58 to 148 PS came from 1.1, 1.4, 1.6, 1.7, 1.8, 1.8 16v, 2.0, and 2.0 16v petrol engines, as well as a 1.7 diesel, 1.9 diesel, and 1.9 turbodiesel.

The 1.1 base engine was widely regarded as underpowered for the car, which was otherwise roomy for five adults and with above average equipment. This version was never sold in the United Kingdom. The top of the range was the 2.0 Sedicivalvole (16 valves).

The Sedicivalvole gained its engine from the Lancia Thema, and with a much smaller and lighter bodyshell to house it, this power unit brought superb performance and handling, and a top speed of around 130 mi/h, which made it faster than the Volkswagen Golf GTI of that era. The market in the United Kingdom initially received only the 1.4 and 1.6 versions of the Tipo, with the 1.8 and 2.0 petrol engines and the diesel powered units not being imported until the beginning of the 1990s.

The smaller Uno achieved remarkable success in that market throughout the 1980s, reaching its peak with over 40,000 sales in 1988. Both Fiat and the motoring press had high hopes that the Tipo would replicate this triumph, but sales fell short of expectations.

The Tipo was facelifted in 1993, and a three-door version was added, as well as minor exterior changes (the two evolutions of the car can be differentiated by their slightly different radiator grilles and headlamps) and improved specifications; safety features like stiffer bodyshells, driver's airbag, and side impact bars were added to the range. This included the new S, SX, and SLX trim levels, as well as a new eight valve 2.0 GT model.

The Tipo ceased production in the summer of 1995, and was replaced by the three door Fiat Bravo and five door Fiat Brava. The Tempra saloon and estate (station wagon) were replaced by the Marea. The Bravo and Brava were strong sellers throughout Europe, but the Marea was a disappointment in most markets.

It was a reasonably strong seller in the United Kingdom, initially winning plaudits for its innovative and practical design, as well as its good handling. It was originally sold with only 1.4 and 1.6 petrol engines, although the 16 valve 1.8 and 2.0 engines with fuel injection became available there in the early 1990s.

The digital dashboard of higher end models proved to be controversial and unreliable.

The car launched into a favourable market in the United Kingdom, where none of the "big three" carmakers (Ford, Vauxhall, and Austin Rover) had launched an all new car of this size for at least four years. However, these three marques all had new Tipo sized products within three years, and increased competition reduced the Tipo's sales.

Its fortunes outside Italy also suffered in the beginning of the 1990s, as it was launched around the same time as France's Renault 19, and was soon followed by host of other new rivals, including the Citroën ZX.

The final two years (1994 and 1995) saw a significant increase in sales, but these were mostly of the low priced 1.4 litre models.

Production elsewhere
In Brazil, it only started to be produced in 1995, in a single trim level. It had a 1.6-litre, eight-valve engine with multi point fuel injection, which offered a 10 PS increase compared to the old 1.6 litre i.e., producing 92 PS.

Previously, the Tipo had been imported from Italy and was available with three different trims that were closely associated with its engines: the basic 1.6 i.e., the luxurious 2.0 litre (eight valve), and the sporty two litre, sixteen valve Sedicivalvole. Seventeen 1.7-litre models were also brought in; they are all in Estoril Blue color and received complete equipment.

It was also built in Turkey, by Tofaş. The Turkish built cars generally did not feature catalytic converters and some thus have marginally more power than the models listed in the table beneath. The Turkish cars also have a small "Tofaş" logo on the bottom right side of the bootlid; production there continued at least until 2000.

Derivatives
The Tipo platform spawned nine more cars. The first of these was the Yugo Sana/Zastava Florida in November 1988, followed by the Lancia Dedra sedan in April 1989 and the Fiat Tempra in February 1990. The sporting Alfa Romeo 155 sedan, the coupé Fiat Coupé and the Lancia Delta Nuova were all introduced in 1993, and were also built on the Tipo platform, as were the Alfa Romeo 145 and 146 and the Alfa Romeo Spider and GTV (with a different rear suspension and other chassis refinements) from 1994 to 1995.

title: Fiat Tipo (Type 160)


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Baron Inverforth

Baron Inverforth, of Southgate in the County of Middlesex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1919 for the Scottish shipping magnate Andrew Weir. He was head of the firm of Andrew Weir & Co, shipowners, and also served as Minister of Munitions from 1919 to 1921. the title is held by his great-grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father in 1982.

Baron Inverforth (1919)

 * Andrew Weir, 1st Baron Inverforth (1865–1955)
 * Andrew Alexander Morton Weir, 2nd Baron Inverforth (1897–1975)
 * Andrew Charles Roy Weir, 3rd Baron Inverforth (1932–1982)
 * Andrew Peter Weir, 4th Baron Inverforth (b. 1966)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Hon. Benjamin Andrew Weir (b. 1997).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baron Inverforth


text:
Baron Iliffe

Baron Iliffe, of Yattendon in the County of Berkshire, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1933 for the newspaper magnate Sir Edward Iliffe. For many years the family controlled newspapers in Birmingham and Coventry, including the Birmingham Post, the Birmingham Mail and the Coventry Evening Telegraph, and were also part owners of The Daily Telegraph. The first Baron also represented Tamworth in Parliament as a Conservative.

, the title is held by his grandson, the third Baron, who succeeded his uncle in 1996. He is the current Commodore of The Royal Yacht Squadron of Cowes, Isle of Wight.

Lord Iliffe and the rest of the Iliffe family holds (2006) an estimated fortune (according to the Sunday Times Rich List) of £200m.

The family surname and the title of the barony is pronounced "EYE-liff".

Barons Iliffe (1933)

 * Edward Mauger Iliffe, 1st Baron Iliffe (1877–1960)
 * (Edward) Langton Iliffe, 2nd Baron Iliffe (1908–1996)
 * Robert Peter Richard Iliffe, 3rd Baron Iliffe (b. 1944)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Edward Richard Iliffe (b. 1968). The heir apparent's heir is his son, Henry Robert John Iliffe (b. 1999).

title: Baron Iliffe


text:
User talk:RapidAssistant

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks for starting Fiat Tipo. Why don't you drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself?

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CVH Engine
Thanks for the catch. I knew that, too, can't explain the brain lapse.--Pmeisel 15:45, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

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West Anglia
Just a note, this is not an area in reality. It is just given to show that it is on the west side od the Anglia area. Simply south 11:15, 4 July 2006 (UTC)

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Don't forget to claim your media! File:Trongate - Glasgow, Scotland.jpg
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title: User talk:RapidAssistant


text:
Baron Ironside

Baron Ironside, of Archangel and of Ironside in the County of Aberdeen, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1941 for Field Marshal Sir Edmund Ironside, previously Governor of Gibraltar and Chief of the Imperial General Staff. the title is held by his grandson, the third Baron, who succeeded in that year. The second baron was Deputy Chairman of the House of Lords from 1974 to 1977. However, he lost his seat in parliament after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999.

The family seat is The Priory House, near Boxted, Essex.

Barons Ironside (1941)

 * (William) Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron Ironside (1880–1959)
 * Edmund Oslac Ironside, 2nd Baron Ironside (1924–2020)
 * Charles Edmund Grenville Ironside, 3rd Baron Ironside (b. 1956)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Frederick Thomas Grenville Ironside (b. 1991).

title: Baron Ironside


text:
List of countries by GDP (PPP)

GDP (PPP) means gross domestic product based on purchasing power parity. This article includes a list of countries by their forecast estimated GDP (PPP). Countries are sorted by GDP (PPP) forecast estimates from financial and statistical institutions that calculate using market or government official exchange rates. The data given on this page are based on the international dollar, a standardized unit used by economists. Certain regions that are not widely considered countries such as Hong Kong also show up in the list if they are distinct jurisdiction areas or economic entities.

GDP comparisons using PPP are arguably more useful than those using nominal GDP when assessing the domestic market of a state because PPP takes into account the relative cost of local goods, services and inflation rates of the country, rather than using international market exchange rates, which may distort the real differences in per capita income. It is however limited when measuring financial flows between countries and when comparing the quality of same goods among countries. PPP is often used to gauge global poverty thresholds and is used by the United Nations in constructing the human development index. These surveys such as the International Comparison Program include both tradable and non-tradable goods in an attempt to estimate a representative basket of all goods.

The first set of data on the left columns of the table includes estimates for the year 2023 made for each economy of the 196 economies (189 U.N. member states and 7 areas of Aruba, Hong Kong, Kosovo, Macau, Palestine, Puerto Rico, and Taiwan) covered by the International Monetary Fund (IMF)'s International Financial Statistics (IFS) database. The data is in millions of international dollars and was calculated and published by the IMF in October 2023. The second table includes data, mostly for the year 2022, for 180 of the 193 current United Nations member states as well as Hong Kong and Macau (the two Chinese Special Administrative Regions). Data are in millions of international dollars; they were compiled by the World Bank. The third table is a tabulation of the CIA World Factbook GDP (PPP) data update of 2019. The data for GDP at purchasing power parity has also been rebased using the new International Comparison Program price surveys and extrapolated to 2007. Non-sovereign entities (the world, continents, and some dependent territories) and states with limited recognition (such as Kosovo, Palestine and Taiwan) are included in the list in cases in which they appear in the sources. These economies are not ranked in the charts here, but are listed in sequence by GDP for comparison. In addition, non-sovereign entities are marked in italics.

Table
The table is initially ranked by the average of the available estimates for each country or territory, and can be reranked by either of the sources.

The links in the "Country/Territory" row of the following table link to the article on the GDP or the economy of the respective country or territory.

title: List of countries by GDP (PPP)


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Baron Inchyra

Baron Inchyra, of St Madoes in the County of Perth, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 2 February 1962 for the diplomat Sir Frederick Millar, who had previously served as British Ambassador to West Germany. , the title is held by his grandson, the third Baron, who succeeded in 2011.

The family seat is Inchyra House, near Glencarse, Perth.

Barons Inchyra (1962)

 * Frederick Robert Hoyer Millar, 1st Baron Inchyra (1900–1989)
 * Robert Charles Reneke Hoyer Millar, 2nd Baron Inchyra (1935–2011)
 * (Christian) James Charles Hoyer Millar, 3rd Baron Inchyra (b. 1962)

The heir apparent is the present holder's only son, Hon. Jake Christian Robert Hoyer Millar (b. 1996).

Line of succession

 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Frederick Hoyer Millar, 1st Baron Inchyra (1900–1989)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Robert Charles Reneke Hoyer Millar, 2nd Baron Inchyra (1935–2011)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg (Christian) James Charles Hoyer Millar, 3rd Baron Inchyra (born 1962)
 * (1) Hon. Jake Christian Robert Hoyer Millar (b. 1996)
 * Hon. Alastair James Harold Hoyer Millar (1936–2023)
 * (2) Mark Cristian Frederick Hoyer Millar (b. 1975)

title: Baron Inchyra


text:
Salmiakki Koskenkorva

Salmiakki Koskenkorva, (also Salmiakkikossu for short, or Salmari more colloquially) is a pre-mixed liqueur popular in Finland. Traditionally, the cocktail consisted of Koskenkorva Viina vodka with salmiakki extract dissolved into it. Sometimes, ground-up Tyrkisk Peber is used instead of the extract.

Salmiakki Koskenkorva is a somewhat viscous black liquid, or a dark grayish brown when of a thinner consistency. Upon closer inspection, very fine particles of carbon black are visibly suspended in the liquid.

Before the 1990s, Finland had a very thin and stratified cocktail culture. Some Finnish bars started serving a cocktail made out of ground ammonium chloride-based candy (Salmiakki in Finnish). It became a trendy drink, especially among young people, and for this reason it still has a reputation as a "teenagers' vodka".

Only anecdotal evidence exists regarding the origin and the recipe of the beverage. The concept of mixing vodka and liquorice probably existed long before the 1990s, since both Koskenkorva Viina and Tyrkisk Peber were around before the alleged invention of the cocktail. On the other hand, Salmiakki Koskenkorva was one of the first pre-mixed cocktails sold in Finland. A well-known anecdote says that singer Jari Sillanpää invented the drink when he was working as a bartender in the late 1980s.

The taste of Salmiakki Koskenkorva strongly resembles that of black liquorice and cough medicine. This is because one of the popular brands of salmiakki used for the drink, Apteekin Salmiakki, is also used in cough medicines. It has the additional effect of increasing salivation.

title: Salmiakki Koskenkorva


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Atticus Ross

Atticus Matthew Cowper Ross (born 16 January 1968) is an English musician, record producer, composer, and audio engineer. Along with Trent Reznor, he won the Academy Award for Best Original Score for The Social Network in 2010. In 2013, the pair won a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media for their soundtrack to The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo. In 2021, alongside Jon Batiste, they won the Golden Globe and Academy Award for the soundtrack for Pixar's Soul.

Ross began working with Reznor on the latter's side project Tapeworm in 2002. He later worked with Reznor's band Nine Inch Nails, first as a programmer and producer in 2005, and became the only official member of the band outside of Reznor in 2016.

Ross was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame as a member of Nine Inch Nails in 2020.

Ross is also the co-creator of the virtual supergroup, WitchGang, with Trent Reznor.

Early life
Atticus Matthew Cowper Ross was born in the Ladbroke Grove area of London on 16 January 1968, the son of Ian Cowper Ross, a founder of Radio Caroline, and Roxana Rose Catherine Naila, daughter of diplomat Miles Lampson, 1st Baron Killearn. He has five siblings, including fashion model Liberty Ross and fellow musician Leopold Ross. His great-grandfather was Italian pathologist and bacteriologist Aldo Castellani, and his uncle is British-American journalist Charles Glass. Ross was educated at Eton College and later at the Courtauld Institute of Art.

Music
Ross came to notice in the mid-1990s as a programmer for Tim Simenon's Bomb the Bass during the period of the albums Unknown Territory and Clear. He worked on a number of production and remix projects with Simenon, as well as forming a collaborative relationship with Barry Adamson. He programmed The Negro Inside Me and Oedipus Schmoedipus, and produced As Above So Below before forming his own band, 12 Rounds, with his wife Claudia Sarne and Adam Holden. They released two albums, Jitterjuice and My Big Hero. A third full-length album was produced by Trent Reznor, but was ultimately never finished. Three songs from that album have since been released on the band's website.

Ross moved to the United States in 2000, and as of 2002 was working alongside Reznor for his side project Tapeworm. He has been credited as a producer and/or programmer on the Nine Inch Nails albums With Teeth, Year Zero, Ghosts I–IV (on which he was a co-writer), The Slip, and Hesitation Marks. He has worked with Reznor in numerous other capacities, including work with Saul Williams and Zack de la Rocha, and they co-produced tracks for a reformed Jane's Addiction with Alan Moulder in 2009. Other work has included two co-productions with Joe Barresi, the Loverman EP Human Nurture and Coheed and Cambria's Year of the Black Rainbow, as well as albums for Korn. He has also produced tracks or created remixes for such artists as Grace Jones, Perry Farrell, and Telepathe. In May 2010, he appeared in a cryptic video and was named as a member of a secret project, later revealed to be How to Destroy Angels, a collaboration between Reznor and his wife Mariqueen Maandig. In 2016, Ross composed an original score titled 'The Journey' for FIFA 17 new single-player story campaign mode. In 2020, he co-produced and co-wrote one track on Jehnny Beth's To Love Is to Live. In 2021, Ross and Reznor produced and co-wrote Halsey's album If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power.

Film and television scores
Ross' work in film music began in 2004 when he scored the Hughes Brothers' TV series Touching Evil with his wife Claudia Sarne and brother Leopold Ross. He has since provided music for two further Hughes Brothers projects: Allen Hughes' vignette in the film New York, I Love You, and Ross' first feature film, The Book of Eli (2010). The latter's score was released through Reprise Records on 12 January 2010. It won at the BMI Awards and earned Ross a nomination as "Discovery of the Year" at the 2010 World Soundtrack Awards.

On 1 July 2010, Reznor announced that he and Ross were scoring David Fincher's new film The Social Network. The film's soundtrack was released on 28 September 2010, and was highly praised. On 16 January 2011, they won the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score for their score to The Social Network. On 27 February, they received the Academy Award for Best Original Score for The Social Network. Ross and Reznor again collaborated on the soundtrack to Fincher's 2011 film Girl With the Dragon Tattoo. In 2013, the pair won the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media for their Girl with the Dragon Tattoo soundtrack.

Ross was slated to work on the 2013 samurai epic 47 Ronin, but was soon replaced by Javier Navarrete. Ross and Reznor again teamed up with Fincher to score his 2014 film Gone Girl. In 2016, Ross and Reznor, along with composer Gustavo Santaolalla and the band Mogwai, collaborated to create the score to the documentary film Before the Flood.

In June 2017, Ross, along with Reznor, Maandig, Robin Finck, Joey Castillo, and Alessandro Cortini, appeared as "The Nine Inch Nails" in Episode 8 of Twin Peaks: The Return on Showtime, performing an alternative live rendition of the song "She's Gone Away" which previously appeared on Nine Inch Nails' 2016 EP Not the Actual Events.

In 2021, Reznor, Ross, and Jon Batiste won the Golden Globe for the soundtrack for Soul.

Personal life
Ross is married to singer and film composer Claudia Sarne and the couple live in Los Angeles with their three children.

Nine Inch Nails

 * With Teeth (2005) (Production and programming)
 * Year Zero (2007) (Production and programming)
 * Ghosts I–IV (2008) (Songwriter, production and programming)
 * The Slip (2008) (Production and programming)
 * Hesitation Marks (2013) (Production, programming, arranging and engineering)
 * Not the Actual Events (2016) (Production, performer and songwriter)
 * The Fragile: Deviations 1 (2016) (Production)
 * Add Violence (2017) (Production, performer and songwriter)
 * Bad Witch (2018) (Production, performer and songwriter)

Production

 * No Jahoda – Jahoda Witness
 * Korn – See You on the Other Side (also co-writing)
 * Korn – Untitled
 * Coheed and Cambria – Year of The Black Rainbow (with Joe Barresi)
 * Perry Farrell – "Go All the Way (Into the Twilight)"
 * Loverman – Human Nurture (with Joe Barresi)
 * Lil Nas X – "Old Town Road" (also co-writing)
 * Jehnny Beth – To Love Is to Live (also co-writing)
 * Halsey – If I Can't Have Love, I Want Power (with Trent Reznor)

Programming

 * Bad Religion – Beyond Electric Dreams
 * Barry Adamson – Oedipus Schmoedipus, The Negro Inside Me
 * From First To Last – The Levy
 * P!nk – Try This
 * Saul Williams – The Inevitable Rise and Liberation of NiggyTardust! (2007)
 * Bomb the Bass – Clear

title: Atticus Ross


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Register allocation

In compiler optimization, register allocation is the process of assigning local automatic variables and expression results to a limited number of processor registers.

Register allocation can happen over a basic block (local register allocation), over a whole function/procedure (global register allocation), or across function boundaries traversed via call-graph (interprocedural register allocation). When done per function/procedure the calling convention may require insertion of save/restore around each call-site.

Principle
In many programming languages, the programmer may use any number of variables. The computer can quickly read and write registers in the CPU, so the computer program runs faster when more variables can be in the CPU's registers. Also, sometimes code accessing registers is more compact, so the code is smaller, and can be fetched faster if it uses registers rather than memory. However, the number of registers is limited. Therefore, when the compiler is translating code to machine-language, it must decide how to allocate variables to the limited number of registers in the CPU.

Not all variables are in use (or "live") at the same time, so, over the lifetime of a program, a given register may be used to hold different variables. However, two variables in use at the same time cannot be assigned to the same register without corrupting one of the variables. If there are not enough registers to hold all the variables, some variables may be moved to and from RAM. This process is called "spilling" the registers. Over the lifetime of a program, a variable can be both spilled and stored in registers: this variable is then considered as "split". Accessing RAM is significantly slower than accessing registers and so a compiled program runs slower. Therefore, an optimizing compiler aims to assign as many variables to registers as possible. A high "Register pressure" is a technical term that means that more spills and reloads are needed; it is defined by Braun et al. as "the number of simultaneously live variables at an instruction".

In addition, some computer designs cache frequently-accessed registers. So, programs can be further optimized by assigning the same register to a source and destination of a  instruction whenever possible. This is especially important if the compiler is using an intermediate representation such as static single-assignment form (SSA). In particular, when SSA is not fully optimized it can artificially generate additional  instructions.

Components of register allocation
Register allocation consists therefore of choosing where to store the variables at runtime, i.e. inside or outside registers. If the variable is to be stored in registers, then the allocator needs to determine in which register(s) this variable will be stored. Eventually, another challenge is to determine the duration for which a variable should stay at the same location.

A register allocator, disregarding the chosen allocation strategy, can rely on a set of core actions to address these challenges. These actions can be gathered in several different categories: Many register allocation approaches optimize for one or more specific categories of actions.
 * Move insertion: This action consists of increasing the number of move instructions between registers, i.e. make a variable live in different registers during its lifetime, instead of one. This occurs in the split live range approach.
 * Spilling: This action consists of storing a variable into memory instead of registers.
 * Assignment: This action consists of assigning a register to a variable.
 * Coalescing: This action consists of limiting the number of moves between registers, thus limiting the total number of instructions. For instance, by identifying a variable live across different methods, and storing it into one register during its whole lifetime.

Common problems raised in register allocation
Register allocation raises several problems that can be tackled (or avoided) by different register allocation approaches. Three of the most common problems are identified as follows:

 * Aliasing: In some architectures, assigning a value to one register can affect the value of another: this is called aliasing. For example, the x86 architecture has four general purpose 32-bit registers that can also be used as 16-bit or 8-bit registers. In this case, assigning a 32-bit value to the eax register will affect the value of the al register.

 * Pre-coloring: This problem is an act to force some variables to be assigned to particular registers. For example, in PowerPC calling conventions, parameters are commonly passed in R3-R10 and the return value is passed in R3.

 * NP-Problem: Chaitin et al. showed that register allocation is an NP-complete problem. They reduce the graph coloring problem to the register allocation problem by showing that for an arbitrary graph, a program can be constructed such that the register allocation for the program (with registers representing nodes and machine registers representing available colors) would be a coloring for the original graph. As Graph Coloring is an NP-Hard problem and Register Allocation is in NP, this proves the NP-completeness of the problem.

Register allocation techniques
Register allocation can happen over a basic block of code: it is said to be "local", and was first mentioned by Horwitz et al. As basic blocks do not contain branches, the allocation process is thought to be fast, because the management of control-flow graph merge points in register allocation reveals itself a time-consuming operation. However, this approach is thought not to produce as optimized code as the "global" approach, which operates over the whole compilation unit (a method or procedure for instance).

Graph-coloring allocation
Graph-coloring allocation is the predominant approach to solve register allocation. It was first proposed by Chaitin et al. In this approach, nodes in the graph represent live ranges (variables, temporaries, virtual/symbolic registers) that are candidates for register allocation. Edges connect live ranges that interfere, i.e., live ranges that are simultaneously live at at least one program point. Register allocation then reduces to the graph coloring problem in which colors (registers) are assigned to the nodes such that two nodes connected by an edge do not receive the same color.

Using liveness analysis, an interference graph can be built. The interference graph, which is an undirected graph where the nodes are the program's variables, is used to model which variables cannot be allocated to the same register.

Principle
The main phases in a Chaitin-style graph-coloring register allocator are:
 * 1) Renumber: discover live range information in the source program.
 * 2) Build: build the interference graph.
 * 3) Coalesce: merge the live ranges of non-interfering variables related by copy instructions.
 * 4) Spill cost: compute the spill cost of each variable. This assesses the impact of mapping a variable to memory on the speed of the final program.
 * 5) Simplify: construct an ordering of the nodes in the inferences graph
 * 6) Spill Code: insert spill instructions, i.e. loads and stores to commute values between registers and memory.
 * 7) Select: assign a register to each variable.

Drawbacks and further improvements
The graph-coloring allocation has three major drawbacks. First, it relies on graph-coloring, which is an NP-complete problem, to decide which variables are spilled. Finding a minimal coloring graph is indeed an NP-complete problem. Second, unless live-range splitting is used, evicted variables are spilled everywhere: store instructions are inserted as early as possible, i.e., just after variable definitions; load instructions are respectively inserted late, just before variable use. Third, a variable that is not spilled is kept in the same register throughout its whole lifetime.

On the other hand, a single register name may appear in multiple register classes, where a class is a set of register names that are interchangeable in a particular role. Then, multiple register names may be aliases for a single hardware register. Finally, graph coloring is an aggressive technique for allocating registers, but is computationally expensive due to its use of the interference graph, which can have a worst-case size that is quadratic in the number of live ranges. The traditional formulation of graph-coloring register allocation implicitly assumes a single bank of non-overlapping general-purpose registers and does not handle irregular architectural features like overlapping registers pairs, special purpose registers and multiple register banks.

One later improvement of Chaitin-style graph-coloring approach was found by Briggs et al.: it is called conservative coalescing. This improvement adds a criterion to decide when two live ranges can be merged. Mainly, in addition to the non-interfering requirements, two variables can only be coalesced if their merging will not cause further spilling. Briggs et al. introduces a second improvement to Chaitin's works which is biased coloring. Biased coloring tries to assign the same color in the graph-coloring to live range that are copy related.

Linear scan
Linear scan is another global register allocation approach. It was first proposed by Poletto et al. in 1999. In this approach, the code is not turned into a graph. Instead, all the variables are linearly scanned to determine their live range, represented as an interval. Once the live ranges of all variables have been figured out, the intervals are traversed chronologically. Although this traversal could help identifying variables whose live ranges interfere, no interference graph is being built and the variables are allocated in a greedy way.

The motivation for this approach is speed; not in terms of execution time of the generated code, but in terms of time spent in code generation. Typically, the standard graph coloring approaches produce quality code, but have a significant overhead, the used graph coloring algorithm having a quadratic cost. Owing to this feature, linear scan is the approach currently used in several JIT compilers, like the Hotspot client compiler, V8, Jikes RVM, and the Android Runtime (ART). The Hotspot server compiler uses graph coloring for its superior code.

Pseudocode
This describes the algorithm as first proposed by Poletto et al., where:
 * R is the number of available registers.
 * active is the list, sorted in order of increasing end point, of live intervals overlapping the current point and placed in registers.

LinearScanRegisterAllocation active ← {} for each live interval i, in order of increasing start point do ExpireOldIntervals(i) if length(active) = R then SpillAtInterval(i) else register[i] ← a register removed from pool of free registers add i to active, sorted by increasing end point ExpireOldIntervals(i) for each interval j in active, in order of increasing end point do if endpoint[j] ≥ startpoint[i] then return remove j from active add register[j] to pool of free registers '''SpillAtInterval(i) spill ← last interval in active if endpoint[spill] > endpoint[i] then register[i] ← register[spill] location[spill] ← new stack location remove spill from active add i to active, sorted by increasing end point else location[i] ← new stack location

Drawbacks and further improvements
However, the linear scan presents two major drawbacks. First, due to its greedy aspect, it does not take lifetime holes into account, i.e. "ranges where the value of the variable is not needed". Besides, a spilled variable will stay spilled for its entire lifetime. Many other research works followed up on the Poletto's linear scan algorithm. Traub et al., for instance, proposed an algorithm called second-chance binpacking aiming at generating code of better quality. In this approach, spilled variables get the opportunity to be stored later in a register by using a different heuristic from the one used in the standard linear scan algorithm. Instead of using live intervals, the algorithm relies on live ranges, meaning that if a range needs to be spilled, it is not necessary to spill all the other ranges corresponding to this variable.

Linear scan allocation was also adapted to take advantage from the SSA form: the properties of this intermediate representation simplify the allocation algorithm and allow lifetime holes to be computed directly. First, the time spent in data-flow graph analysis, aimed at building the lifetime intervals, is reduced, namely because variables are unique. It consequently produces shorter live intervals, because each new assignment corresponds to a new live interval. To avoid modeling intervals and liveness holes, Rogers showed a simplification called future-active sets that successfully removed intervals for 80% of instructions.

Coalescing
In the context of register allocation, coalescing is the act of merging variable-to-variable move operations by allocating those two variables to the same location. The coalescing operation takes place after the interference graph is built. Once two nodes have been coalesced, they must get the same color and be allocated to the same register, once the copy operation becomes unnecessary.

Doing coalescing might have both positive and negative impacts on the colorability of the interference graph. For example, one negative impact that coalescing could have on graph inference colorability is when two nodes are coalesced, as the result node will have a union of the edges of those being coalesced. A positive impact of coalescing on inference graph colorability is, for example, when a node interferes with both nodes being coalesced, the degree of the node is reduced by one which leads to improving the overall colorability of the interference graph.

There are several coalescing heuristics available:

 * Aggressive coalescing: it was first introduced by Chaitin original register allocator. This heuristic aims at coalescing any non-interfering, copy-related nodes. From the perspective of copy elimination, this heuristic has the best results. On the other hand, aggressive coalescing could impact the colorability of the inference graph.
 * Conservative Coalescing: it mainly uses the same heuristic as aggressive coalescing but it merges moves if, and only if, it does not compromise the colorability of the interference graph.
 * Iterated coalescing: it removes one particular move at the time, while keeping the colorability of the graph.
 * Optimistic coalescing: it is based on aggressive coalescing, but if the inference graph colorability is compromised, then it gives up as few moves as possible.

Hybrid allocation
Some other register allocation approaches do not limit to one technique to optimize register's use. Cavazos et al., for instance, proposed a solution where it is possible to use both the linear scan and the graph coloring algorithms. In this approach, the choice between one or the other solution is determined dynamically: first, a machine learning algorithm is used "offline", that is to say not at runtime, to build a heuristic function that determines which allocation algorithm needs to be used. The heuristic function is then used at runtime; in light of the code behavior, the allocator can then choose between one of the two available algorithms.

Trace register allocation is a recent approach developed by Eisl et al. This technique handles the allocation locally: it relies on dynamic profiling data to determine which branches will be the most frequently used in a given control flow graph. It then infers a set of "traces" (i.e. code segments) in which the merge point is ignored in favor of the most used branch. Each trace is then independently processed by the allocator. This approach can be considered as hybrid because it is possible to use different register allocation algorithms between the different traces.

Split allocation
Split allocation is another register allocation technique that combines different approaches, usually considered as opposite. For instance, the hybrid allocation technique can be considered as split because the first heuristic building stage is performed offline, and the heuristic use is performed online. In the same fashion, B. Diouf et al. proposed an allocation technique relying both on offline and online behaviors, namely static and dynamic compilation. During the offline stage, an optimal spill set is first gathered using Integer Linear Programming. Then, live ranges are annotated using the  algorithm which relies on the previously identified optimal spill set. Register allocation is performed afterwards during the online stage, based on the data collected in the offline phase. In 2007, Bouchez et al. suggested as well to split the register allocation in different stages, having one stage dedicated to spilling, and one dedicated to coloring and coalescing.

Comparison between the different techniques
Several metrics have been used to assess the performance of one register allocation technique against the other. Register allocation has typically to deal with a trade-off between code quality, i.e. code that executes quickly, and analysis overhead, i.e. the time spent determining analyzing the source code to generate code with optimized register allocation. From this perspective, execution time of the generated code and time spent in liveness analysis are relevant metrics to compare the different techniques.

Once relevant metrics have been chosen, the code on which the metrics will be applied should be available and relevant to the problem, either by reflecting the behavior of real-world application, or by being relevant to the particular problem the algorithm wants to address. The more recent articles about register allocation uses especially the Dacapo benchmark suite.

title: Register allocation


text:
Talk:List of countries by GDP (PPP)

Would be helpful to include EU as a whole
Would be helpful to include EU as a column in the graph and as a row in table (with a footnote to avoid double-counting), or at least as a note in the text. While this is stated to be a list of countries, the EU acts together and showing how the total economy of the EU compares to USA and China (and others - Japan, UK, Russia) would be helpful to readers. Thanks. UsuallyWizard (talk) 19:50, 21 April 2024 (UTC)

Russia's GDP PPP
According to the latest IMF data, Russia is now the fourth largest economy in terms of PPP GDP. That needs to be updated in the tables. 203.81.240.105 (talk) 14:01, 6 June 2024 (UTC)

World map is totally illegible at a glance
Could we replace the world map with the original version, currently used in 13 other languages' versions of this article?

The original is far more legible without having to zoom in and look at the legend. If you want to know a specific country's GDP, it's listed in the article. The original also better shows the global north-south divide.

I'd happily fix it myself but it's unclear which parts of the article are contentious/restricted. Apfelmaische (talk) 00:45, 7 June 2024 (UTC)

First picture is outdated
Title 5.44.169.117 (talk) 17:12, 7 June 2024 (UTC)

 * Assuming this is a reply to my topic. I've gone ahead and updated the colors without changing any of the data. If this is contentious I'll eat my hat. Went with a new color scheme that should be even easier to read? Maybe?
 * GDP (PPP) 2022 World Map (June 2024 Recolor).svg Apfelmaische (talk) 00:09, 19 June 2024 (UTC)

Italics
In the section called Table, there is no need for the first two sentences to be in italics, per MOS:ITALICS. Perhaps someone might change them back to body text. 14.2.193.105 (talk) 11:00, 22 June 2024 (UTC)

Inconsistencies between related pages
There are a total of 4 Wikipedia pages related to list of countries by gdp.

List of countries by GDP (nominal),

List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita,

List of countries by GDP (PPP),

List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita.

The problem is that even though all the pages use the data released by the IMF and sort and order the data by that, they treat countries like Taiwan and Kosovo very differently on each page.

On the GDP and PPP per capita pages, Taiwan and Kosovo have a grey background,

while on the GDP per capita and PPP pages, Taiwan and Kosovo have a white background like the other countries.

In former versions of GDP and PPP per capita pages, the criteria was simply "whether or not there is individual IMF data", regardless of whether the region was a country or not, or whether it was not a limited recognition.

In other words, the condition for a grey background and no ranking number to be displayed was. In that version, countries with individual IMF data, such as Taiwan and Kosovo, were properly ranked, and countries without IMF data, such as North Korea and Syria, had a grey background.

To resolve this current strange situation, I would like to make a suggestion.

In all four pages of GDP, GDP per capita, PPP, and PPP per capita, the criteria for not ranking numbering is set to .

This is the same state as the previous version.

No matter what conclusion is reached regarding how to number the rankings in this discussion, I hope that the handling on all four pages will be unified.

This discussion was started here. Talk:List of countries by GDP (nominal) Minchuchui (talk) 12:25, 22 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of countries by GDP (PPP)


text: Template:Forrestal-class aircraft carrier