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Undefined behavior

In computer programming, undefined behavior (UB) is the result of executing a program whose behavior is prescribed to be unpredictable, in the language specification of the programming language in which the source code is written. This is different from unspecified behavior, for which the language specification does not prescribe a result, and implementation-defined behavior that defers to the documentation of another component of the platform (such as the ABI or the translator documentation).

In the C programming community, undefined behavior may be humorously referred to as "nasal demons", after a comp.std.c post that explained undefined behavior as allowing the compiler to do anything it chooses, even "to make demons fly out of your nose".

Overview
Some programming languages allow a program to operate differently or even have a different control flow from the source code, as long as it exhibits the same user-visible side effects, if undefined behavior never happens during program execution. Undefined behavior is the name of a list of conditions that the program must not meet.

In the early versions of C, undefined behavior's primary advantage was the production of performant compilers for a wide variety of machines: a specific construct could be mapped to a machine-specific feature, and the compiler did not have to generate additional code for the runtime to adapt the side effects to match semantics imposed by the language. The program source code was written with prior knowledge of the specific compiler and of the platforms that it would support.

However, progressive standardization of the platforms has made this less of an advantage, especially in newer versions of C. Now, the cases for undefined behavior typically represent unambiguous bugs in the code, for example indexing an array outside of its bounds. By definition, the runtime can assume that undefined behavior never happens; therefore, some invalid conditions do not need to be checked against. For a compiler, this also means that various program transformations become valid, or their proofs of correctness are simplified; this allows for various kinds of optimizations whose correctness depend on the assumption that the program state never meets any such condition. The compiler can also remove explicit checks that may have been in the source code, without notifying the programmer; for example, detecting undefined behavior by testing whether it happened is not guaranteed to work, by definition. This makes it hard or impossible to program a portable fail-safe option (non-portable solutions are possible for some constructs).

Current compiler development usually evaluates and compares compiler performance with benchmarks designed around micro-optimizations, even on platforms that are mostly used on the general-purpose desktop and laptop market (such as amd64). Therefore, undefined behavior provides ample room for compiler performance improvement, as the source code for a specific source code statement is allowed to be mapped to anything at runtime.

For C and C++, the compiler is allowed to give a compile-time diagnostic in these cases, but is not required to: the implementation will be considered correct whatever it does in such cases, analogous to don't-care terms in digital logic. It is the responsibility of the programmer to write code that never invokes undefined behavior, although compiler implementations are allowed to issue diagnostics when this happens. Compilers nowadays have flags that enable such diagnostics, for example,  enables the "undefined behavior sanitizer" (UBSan) in gcc 4.9 and in clang. However, this flag is not the default and enabling it is a choice of the person who builds the code.

Under some circumstances there can be specific restrictions on undefined behavior. For example, the instruction set specifications of a CPU might leave the behavior of some forms of an instruction undefined, but if the CPU supports memory protection then the specification will probably include a blanket rule stating that no user-accessible instruction may cause a hole in the operating system's security; so an actual CPU would be permitted to corrupt user registers in response to such an instruction, but would not be allowed to, for example, switch into supervisor mode.

The runtime platform can also provide some restrictions or guarantees on undefined behavior, if the toolchain or the runtime explicitly document that specific constructs found in the source code are mapped to specific well-defined mechanisms available at runtime. For example, an interpreter may document a particular behavior for some operations that are undefined in the language specification, while other interpreters or compilers for the same language may not. A compiler produces executable code for a specific ABI, filling the semantic gap in ways that depend on the compiler version: the documentation for that compiler version and the ABI specification can provide restrictions on undefined behavior. Relying on these implementation details makes the software non-portable, but portability may not be a concern if the software is not supposed to be used outside of a specific runtime.

Undefined behavior can result in a program crash or even in failures that are harder to detect and make the program look like it is working normally, such as silent loss of data and production of incorrect results.

Benefits
Documenting an operation as undefined behavior allows compilers to assume that this operation will never happen in a conforming program. This gives the compiler more information about the code and this information can lead to more optimization opportunities.

An example for the C language:

The value of  cannot be negative and, given that signed integer overflow is undefined behavior in C, the compiler can assume that   will always be false. Thus the  statement, including the call to the function , can be ignored by the compiler since the test expression in the   has no side effects and its condition will never be satisfied. The code is therefore semantically equivalent to:

Had the compiler been forced to assume that signed integer overflow has wraparound behavior, then the transformation above would not have been legal.

Such optimizations become hard to spot by humans when the code is more complex and other optimizations, like inlining, take place. For example, another function may call the above function:

The compiler is free to optimize away the -loop here by applying value range analysis: by inspecting , it knows that the initial value pointed to by   cannot possibly exceed 47 (as any more would trigger undefined behavior in  ); therefore, the initial check of   will always be false in a conforming program. Going further, since the result  is now never used and   has no side effects, the compiler can optimize   to be an empty function that returns immediately. The disappearance of the -loop may be especially surprising if   is defined in a separately compiled object file.

Another benefit from allowing signed integer overflow to be undefined is that it makes it possible to store and manipulate a variable's value in a processor register that is larger than the size of the variable in the source code. For example, if the type of a variable as specified in the source code is narrower than the native register width (such as  on a 64-bit machine, a common scenario), then the compiler can safely use a signed 64-bit integer for the variable in the machine code it produces, without changing the defined behavior of the code. If a program depended on the behavior of a 32-bit integer overflow, then a compiler would have to insert additional logic when compiling for a 64-bit machine, because the overflow behavior of most machine instructions depends on the register width.

Undefined behavior also allows more compile-time checks by both compilers and static program analysis.

Risks
C and C++ standards have several forms of undefined behavior throughout, which offer increased liberty in compiler implementations and compile-time checks at the expense of undefined run-time behavior if present. In particular, the ISO standard for C has an appendix listing common sources of undefined behavior. Moreover, compilers are not required to diagnose code that relies on undefined behavior. Hence, it is common for programmers, even experienced ones, to rely on undefined behavior either by mistake, or simply because they are not well-versed in the rules of the language that can span hundreds of pages. This can result in bugs that are exposed when a different compiler, or different settings, are used. Testing or fuzzing with dynamic undefined behavior checks enabled, e.g., the Clang sanitizers, can help to catch undefined behavior not diagnosed by the compiler or static analyzers.

Undefined behavior can lead to security vulnerabilities in software. For example, buffer overflows and other security vulnerabilities in the major web browsers are due to undefined behavior. When GCC's developers changed their compiler in 2008 such that it omitted certain overflow checks that relied on undefined behavior, CERT issued a warning against the newer versions of the compiler. Linux Weekly News pointed out that the same behavior was observed in PathScale C, Microsoft Visual C++ 2005 and several other compilers; the warning was later amended to warn about various compilers.

Examples in C and C++
The major forms of undefined behavior in C can be broadly classified as: spatial memory safety violations, temporal memory safety violations, integer overflow, strict aliasing violations, alignment violations, unsequenced modifications, data races, and loops that neither perform I/O nor terminate.

In C the use of any automatic variable before it has been initialized yields undefined behavior, as does integer division by zero, signed integer overflow, indexing an array outside of its defined bounds (see buffer overflow), or null pointer dereferencing. In general, any instance of undefined behavior leaves the abstract execution machine in an unknown state, and causes the behavior of the entire program to be undefined.

Attempting to modify a string literal causes undefined behavior:

Integer division by zero results in undefined behavior:

Certain pointer operations may result in undefined behavior:

In C and C++, the relational comparison of pointers to objects (for less-than or greater-than comparison) is only strictly defined if the pointers point to members of the same object, or elements of the same array. Example:

Reaching the end of a value-returning function (other than ) without a return statement results in undefined behavior if the value of the function call is used by the caller:

Modifying an object between two sequence points more than once produces undefined behavior. There are considerable changes in what causes undefined behavior in relation to sequence points as of C++11. Modern compilers can emit warnings when they encounter multiple unsequenced modifications to the same object. The following example will cause undefined behavior in both C and C++.

When modifying an object between two sequence points, reading the value of the object for any other purpose than determining the value to be stored is also undefined behavior.

In C/C++ bitwise shifting a value by a number of bits which is either a negative number or is greater than or equal to the total number of bits in this value results in undefined behavior. The safest way (regardless of compiler vendor) is to always keep the number of bits to shift (the right operand of the  and   bitwise operators) within the range: [ ] (where   is the left operand).

Examples in Rust
While undefined behavior is never present in safe Rust, it is possible to invoke undefined behavior in unsafe Rust in many ways. For example, creating an invalid reference (a reference which does not refer to a valid value) invokes immediate undefined behavior:

It is not necessary to use the reference; undefined behavior is invoked merely from the creation of such a reference.

title: Undefined behavior


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Talk:Transitional Administrative Law (Iraq)

Untitled
This needs to talk about the Shia's threatening to vote against. Secretlondon 21:35, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC) eg

Remove exile from government of Kurdistan. The government of Kurdistan has been in Kurdistan since the end of Gulf War I. Roadrunner 16:59, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The Old Iraqi Constitution
Should this article reference the old Iraqi Constitution? It was a rather republican document that might add a nice comparison/contrast to the current. -Elliott Shultz

I'm not sure about this section:

''Section A of Article 26 of the new constitution reads:

''"Except as otherwise provided in this Law, the laws in force in Iraq on 30 June 2004 shall remain in effect unless and until rescinded or amended by the Iraqi Transitional Government in accordance with this Law."

''Consequently, this makes it impossible for the Iraqis to redact any law created by the Coalition Provisional Authority when they take over on June 30th. The net result of this is that Coalition-established policy for Iraq will continue to govern it until a new constitution is drafted, which is unlikely to occur before the end of 2005.''

However, by the 1/6/04 annex, "references to the Iraqi Transitional Government and its institutions and officials in this Law will apply to the Interim Government and its institutions and officials". So the interim government (before elections), like the transitional government (after elections), can overrule cpa orders and regulations

 * The article, as quoted above, seems factually incorrect. The quoted section of the interim constitution states that the Coalition's laws can be changed ("by a three-fourths majority of the members of the National Assembly and the unanimous approval of the Presidency Council," according to Article 3). The commentary then contradicts that. Is there another restriction that prevents the National Assembly from, er, more closely tailoring the coalition laws and economic restructuring to the needs of Iraqis?

 * Coalition-established policy on the other hand is far too slippery and vague a concept to use in a simple wikipedia article (it's more likely to muddy the waters than to clear anything up, especially if we don't define what sort of policy -- debt, oil, human rights, trade, occupation, taxation, privatisation, foreign ownership of enterprises, etc -- we're talking about).

 * For now, I'll just delete the conflicting statement. -Paul 17:03, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Iraq's Transitional Administrative Law
I found this comment interesting, does any one know whether it is factually correct? "In fact, I wouldn't be surprised if the two-thirds super-majority is characteristic of only one nation on earth, i.e. American Iraq".

 * For elections, he's probably correct in that a simple majority always wins. For parliamentary votes it is quite common for a two-thirds or greater majority being necessary.  Especially for approving or amending a constitution.  The United States originally required a unanimous vote to ratify the Constitution of the United States. It was later changed to 9 of 13, just over 2/3 majority. --Klhuillier 22:07, 14 August 2005 (UTC)

Capitalism export

 * Interesting, apparently, they even wrote law governing the taxation system. How predictable? See this quote " Orders 37 and 49 slash top tax rates from 45% to 15% - one of the lowest rates in the world. Order 54 erases all duties on imports to Iraq. Order 39 allows 100% foreign ownership of Iraqi companies except in the oil, gas and banking sectors." Source

Under the section Rights

Supporters lauded the constitution's guarantees of "fundamental rights:

Is this referring to the transitional law or the constitution being drafted during the transitional period? --Klhuillier 22:04, 14 August 2005 (UTC)

Use of past tense?
I think the transitional law is still in effect:

"Article 62. This law shall remain in effect until the permanent constitution is issued and the new Iraqi government is formed in accordance with it [my emphasis -- Cam]."

The current, still-sitting president and prime minister were chosen under the transitional law. A government has not been formed by the new assembly. Thus the use of the past tense in the article to refer to the law is premature, I think. --Cam 17:55, 4 January 2006 (UTC)

Status in 2006 March
The new National Assembly elected on 15 December, 2005 is expected to meet in February 2006 to form the new government.

The article no longer reflects the current status. I would modify it, except i am not sure what the status is now. (I looked at the article to check.) --Kevin L'Huillier 04:30, 4 March 2006 (UTC)

Word(s) missing in lead
It currently reads "by referendum of the on" 15:49, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Force Five

Force Five is an American adaptation of five different anime television series. In the United States, this series was primarily shown only in New England, Pennsylvania, and Virginia, though it did make brief appearances in other markets, such as Texas, and Northern California on KICU-TV 36. It was also shown in Toronto, Ontario, Canada on CFMT channel 47 and in Asia on Star Plus during the 1990s. It was produced by Jim Terry and his company American Way, and it consisted of five imported Japanese giant robot serials (originally produced in the mid-1970s by Toei Animation) in response to the popularity of the Shogun Warriors toy collection. Mattel was one of the sponsors of the series.

In an anthology style, the five shows were broadcast simultaneously with one episode of each serial assigned a specific weekday. Additionally, all of the shows were edited into two-hour films and marketed on video tape by Family Home Entertainment. In the UK, Krypton Force released several of these programmes but under different series titles.

Force Five series
Force Five consisted of the following five series:

Originally, Great Mazinger was meant to be among the five shows, but at the last minute was swapped out for Starzinger.

title: Force Five


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Brokaw bandgap reference

Brokaw bandgap reference is a voltage reference circuit widely used in integrated circuits, with an output voltage around 1.25 V with low temperature dependence. This particular circuit is one type of a bandgap voltage reference, named after Paul Brokaw, the author of its first publication.

Like all temperature-independent bandgap references, the circuit maintains an internal voltage source that has a positive temperature coefficient and another internal voltage source that has a negative temperature coefficient. By summing the two together, the temperature dependence can be canceled. Additionally, either of the two internal sources can be used as a temperature sensor.

In the Brokaw bandgap reference, the circuit uses negative feedback (by means of an operational amplifier) to force a constant current through two bipolar transistors with different emitter areas. By the Ebers–Moll model of a transistor, The circuit output is the sum of one of the base–emitter voltages with a multiple of the base–emitter voltage differences. With appropriate component choices, the two opposing temperature coefficients will cancel each other exactly and the output will have no temperature dependence.
 * The transistor with the larger emitter area requires a smaller base–emitter voltage for the same current.
 * The difference between the two base–emitter voltages has a positive temperature coefficient (i.e., it increases with temperature).
 * The base–emitter voltage for each transistor has a negative temperature coefficient (i.e., it decreases with temperature).

In the example circuit shown, the opamp ensures that its inverting and non-inverting inputs are at the same voltage. This means that the currents in each collector resistor are identical, so the collector currents of Q1 and Q2 are also identical. If Q2 has an emitter area that is $$N$$ times larger than Q1, its base-emitter voltage will be lower than that of Q1 by a magnitude of $$\tfrac{kT}{q} \ln(N)$$. This voltage is generated across $$R2$$ and so defines the current $$I$$ in each leg as $$\tfrac{kT}{q} \ln(N) \tfrac{1}{R2}$$. The output voltage (at the opamp output) is therefore $$V_{BE_{Q1}} + 2 \cdot I \cdot R1$$, or:

$$V_{BE_{Q1}} + 2\tfrac{kT}{q} \ln(N) \tfrac{R1}{R2} \, .$$

The first term has a negative temperature coefficient; the second term has a positive temperature coefficient (from its $$T$$). By an appropriate choice of $$N$$ and $$R1$$ and $$R2$$, these temperature coefficients can be made to cancel, giving an output voltage that is nearly independent of temperature. The magnitude of this output voltage can be shown to be approximately equal to the bandgap voltage (EG0) of Silicon extrapolated to 0 K.

title: Brokaw bandgap reference


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User:Carl Smotricz

Wikipedia is très cool! I hope to contribute in the time to come.

title: User:Carl Smotricz


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Talk:Blind transmission

Untitled
I'm not convinced of tv or radio broadcast falling under this definition... --Palapala 21:49, 2004 Mar 9 (UTC)

title: Talk:Blind transmission


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President of Greece

The president of Greece, officially the President of the Hellenic Republic (Πρόεδρος της Ελληνικής Δημοκρατίας), commonly referred to in Greek as the President of the Republic (Πρόεδρος της Δημοκρατίας), is the head of state of Greece. The president is elected by the Hellenic Parliament; the role has been mainly ceremonial since the 1986 constitutional reform. The office was formally established by the Constitution of Greece in 1975, but has antecedents in the Second Hellenic Republic of 1924–1935 and the Greek junta in 1973–1974 which predated the transition to the current Third Hellenic Republic. The incumbent, since 13 March 2020, is Katerina Sakellaropoulou.

Powers
The president is the nominal commander-in-chief of the Greek Armed Forces and occupies the first place in the country's order of precedence. Although the Greek Constitution of 1974 vested the presidency with considerable powers on paper, in practice presidents took a largely ceremonial role; the prime minister of Greece is the active chief executive of the Greek government and the country's leading political figure. The president's role was formally brought into line with practice by the 1986 constitutional amendment, which reduced the official powers.

Election
According to Article 32 of the Greek Constitution, the president is elected for a five-year term by the Hellenic Parliament in a special session at least a month before the incumbent's term expires. Voting takes place in up to five ballots, separated by no more than five days.

The first and second ballots require a supermajority of 200 out of the 300-person body, dropping to 180 on the third. The fourth ballot requires a simple majority of 151 votes. The fifth and last ballot is then contested between the two candidates with the most votes and decided by a relative majority.

Oath of office
Before taking office, the president must recite an oath in front of the Parliament according to the Article 33, paragraph 2 of the Greek Constitution:

"'I swear in the name of the Holy, Consubstantial and Indivisible Trinity to safeguard the Constitution and the laws, to ensure their faithful observance, to defend the national independence and territorial integrity of the Country, to protect the rights and liberties of the Greeks and to serve the general interest and the progress of the Greek People.'"

Succession
According to the Constitution of Greece, in the event of a temporary absence of the president of Greece on account of illness, travel abroad or similar circumstances, the speaker of the parliament serves as acting president, and exercises the powers of the state president until the president resumes their functions, and in the event that the presidency falls vacant as a result of death or resignation or for any other reason, until the election of a new president. The most recent person to have served as Acting President was Ioannis Alevras, following the resignation of Constantine Karamanlis in 1985.

Official residence
The official residence of the president of Greece is the Presidential Mansion, formerly the New Royal Palace, in central Athens.

History
The current Third Hellenic Republic (Γʹ Ελληνική Δημοκρατία) was established in 1974 during the period of metapolitefsi, after the end of the Greek junta which had controlled Greece since the coup d'état of 21 April 1967.

On 1 June 1973 the then leader of the military junta and regent for the exiled King Constantine II, Georgios Papadopoulos, abolished the Greek monarchy and proclaimed himself President of the Republic. A staged referendum on 29 July 1973 confirmed the regime change, and passed a new constitution which established a presidential republic. This attempt at controlled democratization was ended by Brigadier Dimitrios Ioannidis' overthrow of Papadopoulos on 25 November 1973. The republic and its symbols (but not the semi-presidential system) were formally maintained, but they were nothing more than a façade for the military regime. Lt. General Phaedon Gizikis was appointed President of the Republic, but power was in the hands of Ioannidis, who ruled behind the scenes.

After the fall of the junta and the return to civilian rule under Konstantinos Karamanlis in August 1974, the constitutional acts of the military regime were deemed invalid, and a new referendum was held on 8 December 1974, which confirmed the abolition of the monarchy. In the interim, Gizikis, remained in office as President. After the plebiscite, he was succeeded by the first elected president, Michail Stasinopoulos.

A new constitution, promulgated on 11 June 1975, declared Greece a presidential parliamentary democracy (or republic – the Greek δημοκρατία can be translated both ways). This constitution, revised in 1985, 2001, 2008 and 2019, is still in force today.

title: President of Greece


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Parasol Stars

Parasol Stars: The Story of Bubble Bobble III (パラソルスター) is a video game by Taito released in 1991. It is a sequel to Rainbow Islands and the third game in the Bubble Bobble series.

Gameplay
Bubby and Bobby (the characters' human names) star once again as the main characters, retaining their human forms from Rainbow Islands, but Parasol Stars is more of a take on Bubble Bobble than it is on Rainbow Islands.

The game takes place on a number of different worlds, each with a distinct theme. Each world features seven rounds, the last one always hosting a boss that must be defeated to progress to the next world. There are eight main worlds, but in order to complete the game properly, the player must open a secret door on the final world by collecting three of the Star items - allowing access to 2 secret worlds, themed around Bubble Bobble and Chack'n Pop that are not initially visible on the main screen. Completing these two lead to the final boss, Chaostikhan (the one responsible for stealing color from the worlds, and supposedly the mastermind behind the previous game's villains) and the true ending. According to an ACE magazine in-depth preview, the Amiga and Atari ST versions also contain a secret "Nightmare" world.

The player is armed with a parasol. While it is normally closed, the player can deploy it in two ways; either open in front of them, or open above the head. The parasol is a multipurpose device, it can block as a shield, stun enemies, capture droplets or hurl enemies. At many points it can be used as a parachute.

The rounds are simple arrangements of platforms. Almost every level has droplets which drip from points in the level. They fall under the influence of gravity and roll along the platforms within the screen. The player can capture these on their parasol and throw them at enemies.

The parasol can hold more than one droplet at once; if five are held, they merge into a large droplet with a special power. There are four different kinds of droplets, with a mostly elemental theme, some of which are carried over from Bubble Bobble.

Release
Unlike many other games in the series, Parasol Stars was never released to arcades - it was originally developed for the NEC PC Engine, and later converted to a number of other home systems. Parasol Stars was misreported as being the third coin-op in the Bubble Bobble series by many magazines at the time, and there are rumours about prototypes for an arcade version. Taito has officially stated that an arcade game was never produced. Mick West (who was the programmer of the Amiga and Atari ST versions) said that they ported the game directly from the PC Engine by playing it and that he did not know anything about an arcade version.

The game was released in limited quantities in North America for the TurboGrafx-16 by Working Designs. The Amiga, Atari ST, NES, and Game Boy versions were produced by Ocean Software and published exclusively in Europe in 1992. A ZX Spectrum port was planned, but later cancelled. The game was also planned for the Commodore 64, but was cancelled as well. Ocean initially explained that the developer's computer was stolen in a burglary, but it was later revealed that the game was scrapped after the freelance developer's wife destroyed said computer in a drunken rage, along with the backups of the work. The compilation release Bubble Bobble featuring Rainbow Islands for the Sega Saturn, Sony PlayStation, and PC was originally going to include Parasol Stars as well, but was dropped from the lineup mid-development.

Relation to other games
The game's subtitle is The Story of Bubble Bobble III, which was also used as the subtitle for Bubble Memories, released in arcades in 1995. Bubble Memories is a prequel (given the "Memories" part of the name) to the 1994 game Bubble Symphony, which was released as Bubble Bobble 2 in some countries. Nonetheless, Rainbow Islands is indeed the sequel to the original Bubble Bobble, even though said sequel doesn't retain the gameplay from the first. Since Bubble Memories was released years after Parasol Stars, it may be a retcon in which Parasol Stars never happened, whereby after the events of Rainbow Islands, the humans Bubby and Bobby are once again transformed into the bubble dragons Bubblun and Bobblun. However, it's also possible that Parasol Stars could be a side story, or "gaiden" to the series occurring after Rainbow Islands, but before Bubble Memories. The game has also been released as Parasol Stars: Rainbow Islands II, such as on the NES.

Musical reference
Much like Rainbow Islands used The Wizard of Oz's song "Somewhere Over the Rainbow", also Parasol Stars made a reference to a well known song in its soundtrack. The game's boss fight music is a variation of the 1989 summer hit "Lambada" by the French-Brazilian pop group Kaoma.

Reception
CU Amiga praised the game, giving it 95% and a "Super Star". Amiga Power was a little less enthusiastic, giving it 88%.

Entertainment Weekly picked the game as the #15 greatest game available in 1991, saying: "This one's even more fun to play than it is to describe: Bubby (or Bobby when two play simultaneously) uses his umbrella to flick bizarre meanies across the screen and turn them into pieces of cake, apples, mushrooms, etc., which he then gobbles up in order to earn points".

title: Parasol Stars


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Sitia

Sitia (Latin & Italian) or Siteia (Σητεία, ) is a port town and a municipality in Lasithi, Crete, Greece. The town has 11,166 inhabitants and the municipality has 20,438 (2021). It lies east of Agios Nikolaos and northeast of Ierapetra. Sitia's port is on the Sea of Crete, part of the Aegean Sea and is one of the economic centers of the Lasithi region. European route E75 (which ends in Vardø, Norway) starts in Sitia. Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport. Sitia has not experienced the effects of mass tourism even though there is a long beach along the road leading to Vai and several places of historical interest.

History
The settlement of the town dates to pre-Minoan times. Excavations in the Petras neighbourhood have found architectural remains from the end of the Neolithic (3000 BC) and continue through the Bronze Age 3000-1050 BC, including the Minoan palace of Petras. Several other Minoan settlements have been found within the municipality, notably Itanos and Mochlos.

According to Diogenes Laërtius, Sitia was the home of Myson of Chen, one of the Seven Sages of Greece.

Name
The ancient Itia or Etea (Ἠτεία, ) appears to correspond roughly to modern Sitia. The name Siteia itself is probably the result of rebracketing of (σε, "at") and.

Ancient Sitia
Sitia was founded by Minoans as Itia, and was a place of refuge for native Cretans after the fall of the major Minoan settlements. The city continued to prosper through the Classical, Hellenistic, Roman and Byzantine periods as one of the island's chief ports.

Venetian Era
The town was later expanded and fortified by the Venetians after their acquisition of Crete in 1204, who used it as a base of operations for the Eastern Mediterranean. During the Venetian occupation, the town was destroyed three times: first by an earthquake in 1508, then by the Turkish pirate Hayreddin Barbarossa in 1538, and finally by the Venetians themselves in 1651. This final destruction took place in the context of the Cretan War (1645–1669) in which the Venetians battled to retain their hold on the island against the Ottoman Empire. While Sitia did not fall in the initial Turkish advance the Venetians did not have the resources to withstand a long siege, and accordingly destroyed the fortifications and removed the garrison to Heraklion. The local inhabitants meanwhile removed westwards to Liopetro and the site was subsequently abandoned for the next 200 years of Turkish rule.

The main remnant of the Venetian occupation is the Kazarma (from Italian casa di arma), the old fortress overlooking the harbour.

Modern Era
After the Venetian period and subsequent abandonment the town was rebuilt until 1870 by the progressive Turkish governor Hüseyin Avni Pasha following the Cretan Revolt. It was subsequently created capital of the Sanjak of Lasit (later Lasithi, which it remains to this day). Under Turkish rule the town was renamed Avniye after its rebuilder, but as the local Greeks continued to use the traditional name of Sitia this innovation did not survive independence. Despite the turbulent history of Crete in leaving the Ottoman Empire and joining Greece, as well as the First World War, the population almost quadrupled between 1881 (570 inhabitants) and 1928 (2,100 inhabitants). Major public works were carried out by the Greek government in 1911 to modernise the town, in the course of which much of the Ottoman era town was rebuilt, as well as a fresh water supply.

Municipality
The municipality Sitia was formed at the 2010 local government reform by the merger of the three former municipalities Itanos, Lefki and Sitia, which became municipal units. In November 2011 Sitia incorporated the four communities Chrysopigi, Lithines, Perivolakia and Pefkoi, which had previously been part of the municipality Ierapetra. In 2014 these communities were grouped into the new municipal unit Analipsi.

The municipality Sitia consists of the following municipal units and communities:
 * Analipsi (Chrysopigi, Lithines, Pefkoi, Perivolakia)
 * Itanos (Karydi, Palaikastro, Zakros)
 * Lefki (Agia Triada, Apidia, Armenoi, Chandras, Pappagiannades, Ziros)
 * Sitia (Achladia, Agios Georgios, Chamezi, Exo Mouliana, Katsidoni, Krya, Lastros, Maronia, Mesa Mouliana, Myrsini, Piskokefalo, Praisos, Roussa Ekklisia, Sitia, Sfaka, Skopi, Stavromenos, Tourloti)

The municipality has an area of 627 km2, the municipal unit 277 km2.

Province
Sitia Province or Eparchy (Επαρχία Σητείας, ) was one of the provinces of Lasithi. Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipality Sitia and the municipal unit Makry Gialos. It was abolished in 2006.

Environmentally protected areas
There are a number of sites in the municipality of Sitia that are protected as National Parks, Aesthetic Forests, Wildlife Refuges etc. under national and international laws. Sitia is home to the Sitia UNESCO Global Geopark. Notable examples are:
 * Dionysades Islands which carry many rare and endangered plant species and also serve as a refuge of several animal species (mostly birds and small reptiles), including the falcon, Falco eleonorae, which finds sanctuary here.
 * Vai Palm Forest.
 * Richtis Gorge and waterfall.

Climate
Sitia has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification: Csa) with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

Infrastructure
The municipality of Sitia is served by the Sitia Public Airport which offers several domestic destinations. The first landing occurred on June 7, 1984 and the airport opened officially on June 9, 1984. Construction of new building facilities that included a control tower was completed in May 1993. Runway and apron extension works were finished in May 2003. Recently (2011), the local authorities have completed negotiations with international travel agents for organizing regular charter flights starting in May 2012. Currently (2011), local officials are under negotiations with the low-cost airline Ryanair.

In addition, Sitia is served by a port which connects Sitia and eastern Crete with several other Greek islands as well as with the port of Piraeus. The town also has a marina which accommodates smaller fishing boats and yachts.

Health services
Sitia General Hospital was founded in 1947 as a local health center and was later (1994) relocated to a new 7500m2 (110-bed capacity) building and accordingly upgraded to serve as the main hospital for the municipality of Sitia and the surrounding area.

Attractions

 * Moni Toplou, founded in the mid 15th century, is one of the most significant monasteries in Crete.
 * Kazarma fortress, in the town of Sitia.
 * Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros).
 * Archaeological Museum of Sitia.
 * Folkor Museum of Sitia.
 * Various archeological sites with Minoan civilization settlements from the Bronze Age, such as in Itanos and Mochlos.

Notable people

 * Yannis Hamilakis - archaeologist
 * Myson - philosopher (one of the 7 legendary wise men of ancient Greece)
 * Vitsentzos Kornaros - poet (composer of Erotokritos)
 * Giorgos Mazonakis - singer
 * Jenny Hiloudaki - DJ
 * Manousos - Musician (bassist of Psofioi Korioi Band)

title: Sitia


text:
Cassandra Wilson

Cassandra Wilson (born December 4, 1955) is an American jazz singer, songwriter, and producer from Jackson, Mississippi. She is one of the most successful female jazz singers and has been described by critic Gary Giddins as "a singer blessed with an unmistakable timbre and attack [who has] expanded the playing field" by incorporating blues, country, and folk music into her work. She has won numerous awards, including two Grammys, and was named "America's Best Singer" by Time magazine in 2001.

Early life and career
Cassandra Wilson is the third and youngest child of Herman Fowlkes, Jr., a guitarist, bassist, and music teacher; and Mary McDaniel, an elementary school teacher who earned her PhD in education. Her ancestry includes Fon, Yoruba, Irish and Welsh. Between her mother's love for Motown and her father's dedication to jazz, Wilson's parents sparked her early interest in music.

Wilson's earliest formal musical education consisted of classical lessons; she studied piano from the age of six to thirteen and played clarinet in the middle school concert and marching bands. When she was tired of this training, she asked her father to teach her the guitar. Instead, he gave her a lesson in self-reliance, suggesting she study Mel Bay method books. Wilson explored guitar on her own, developing what she has described as an "intuitive" approach. During this time she began writing her own songs, adopting a folk style. She also appeared in the musical theater productions, including The Wizard of Oz as Dorothy, crossing racial lines in a recently desegregated school system.

Wilson attended Millsaps College and Jackson State University. She graduated with a degree in mass communications. Outside of the classroom, she spent her nights working with R&B, funk, and pop cover bands, also singing in local coffeehouses. The Black Arts Music Society, founded by John Reese and Alvin Fielder, provided her with her first opportunities to perform bebop. In 2007, Wilson received her PhD in Arts from Millsaps College.

In 1981, she moved to New Orleans for a position as assistant public affairs director for the local television station, WDSU. She did not stay long. Working with mentors who included elder statesmen Earl Turbinton, Alvin Batiste, and Ellis Marsalis, Wilson found encouragement to seriously pursue jazz performance and moved to New York City the following year.

Musical association with M-Base
In New York, Wilson's focus turned towards improvisation. Heavily influenced by singers Abbey Lincoln and Betty Carter, she fine-tuned her vocal phrasing and scat while studying ear training with trombonist Grachan Moncur, III. Frequenting jam sessions under the tutelage of pianist Sadik Hakim, a Charlie Parker alumnus, she met alto saxophonist Steve Coleman, who encouraged her to look beyond the standard jazz repertoire in favor of developing original material. She would become the vocalist and one of the founding members of the M-Base collective in which Coleman was the leading figure, a stylistic outgrowth of the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians (AACM) and Black Artists Group (BAG) that re-imagined the grooves of funk and soul within the context of traditional and avant-garde jazz. Peter Watrous in an article for The New York Times states:

"The M-Base group in Brooklyn, working with both jazz and pop forms, makes music that at first sounds like funk from the 1970s. Like the music played by Mr. Marsalis (and his brother Wynton) the music made by M-Base - Steve Coleman, with Greg Osby, Cassandra Wilson and Geri Allen – is, at its best, filled with subtle ideas working behind the mask of popular music. In Mr. Coleman's group a singer is supported by an electric bass, guitar, drums and electric keyboards, a shiny musical mix that has familiar rock and funk references; yet, because of all its rhythmic and metric manipulations, sounds new."

Although the voice – typically treated as the focal point of any arrangement in which it is included – was not an obvious choice for M-Base's complex textures or harmonically elaborated melodies, Wilson wove herself into the fabric of these settings with wordless improv and lyrics. She can be heard on Coleman's debut as a leader Motherland Pulse (1985), then as member of his Five Elements on On the Edge of Tomorrow (1986), World Expansion (1986), Sine Die (1987), and on M-Base Collective's sole recording as a large ensemble Anatomy of a Groove (1992).

At the same time, Wilson toured with avant-garde trio New Air featuring alto saxophonist Henry Threadgill and recorded Air Show No. 1 (1987) in Italy. A decade her senior and an AACM member, Threadgill has been lauded as a composer for his ability to transcend stylistic boundaries, a trait he and Wilson share.

Solo career
Like fellow M-Base artists, Wilson signed to the Munich-based, independent label JMT. She released her first recording as a leader Point of View in 1986. Like the majority of her JMT albums that followed, originals by Wilson in keeping with M-Base dominated these sessions; she would also record material by and co-written with Coleman, Jean-Paul Bourelly, and James Weidman as well as a few standards. Her throaty contralto gradually emerges over the course of these recordings, making its way to the foreground. She developed a remarkable ability to stretch and bend pitches, elongate syllables, manipulate tone and timbre from dusky to hollow.

While these recordings established her as a serious musician, Wilson received her first broad critical acclaim for the album of standards recorded in the middle of this period, Blue Skies (1988). Her signing with Blue Note Records in 1993 marked a crucial turning point in her career and major breakthrough to audiences beyond jazz with albums selling in the hundreds of thousands of copies.

Beginning with Blue Light 'Til Dawn (1993) her repertoire moved towards a broad synthesis of blues, pop, jazz, world music, and country. Although she continued to perform originals and standards, she adopted songs as diverse as Robert Johnson's "Come On in My Kitchen", Joni Mitchell's "Black Crow", The Monkees' "Last Train to Clarksville", and Hank Williams' "I'm So Lonesome I Could Cry".

Wilson's 1996 album New Moon Daughter won the Grammy for Best Jazz Vocal Performance. In 1997, she recorded and toured as a featured vocalist with Wynton Marsalis' Pulitzer Prize winning composition, Blood on the Fields.

Miles Davis was one of Wilson's greatest influences. In 1989, Wilson performed as the opening act for Davis at the JVC Jazz Festival in Chicago. In 1999 she produced Traveling Miles as a tribute to Davis. The album developed from a series of jazz concerts that she performed at Lincoln Center in November 1997 in Davis' honor, and includes three selections based on Davis' own compositions, from which Wilson adapted the original themes.

Personal life
Wilson was married to Anthony Wilson from 1981 to 1983.

She has a son, Jeris, born in the late 1980s. Her song "Out Loud (Jeris' Blues)" on the album She Who Weeps is dedicated to him. For many years she and her son lived in New York City's Sugar Hill, in an apartment that once belonged to Count Basie, Lena Horne and the boxer Joe Louis.

From 2000 to 2003 Wilson was married to actor Isaach de Bankolé, who directed her in the concert film Traveling Miles: Cassandra Wilson (2000).

Wilson and her mother are members of Alpha Kappa Alpha sorority.

Awards and honors

 * 1994–1996: Female Jazz Vocalist of the Year, Down Beat
 * 1997: Grammy Award for Best Jazz Vocal Performance, New Moon Daughter
 * 1999: Miles Davis Prize, Montreal International Jazz Festival
 * 2001: "America's Best Singer", Time
 * 2003: Honorary doctorate in the Arts, Millsaps College
 * 2009: Grammy Award for Best Jazz Vocal Album, Loverly
 * 2010: Added to Mississippi Blues Trail
 * 2010: Best Vocal Album, NPR Music Jazz Critics Poll 2010, Silver Pony
 * 2011: Best Traditional Jazz Album, BET Soul Train Award, Silver Pony
 * 2015: Honorary doctorate in Fine Arts, The New School
 * 2015: Spirit of Ireland Award, Irish Arts Centre
 * 2020: Honorary doctorate in Music, Berklee College of Music

As leader

 * Point of View (JMT, 1986)
 * Days Aweigh (JMT, 1987)
 * Blue Skies (JMT, 1988)
 * Jumpworld (JMT, 1990)
 * Live (JMT, 1991)
 * She Who Weeps (JMT, 1991)
 * Dance to the Drums Again (DIW, 1992)
 * After the Beginning Again (JMT, 1992)
 * Blue Light 'til Dawn (Blue Note, 1993)
 * New Moon Daughter (Blue Note, 1995)
 * Rendezvous with Jacky Terrasson (Blue Note, 1997)
 * Traveling Miles (Blue Note, 1999)
 * Belly of the Sun (Blue Note, 2002)
 * Glamoured (Blue Note, 2003)
 * Thunderbird (Blue Note, 2006)
 * Loverly (Blue Note, 2008)
 * Silver Pony (Blue Note, 2010)
 * Another Country (eOne, 2012) )
 * Coming Forth by Day (Legacy, 2015)

Compilations
 * Songbook (JMT, 1995)
 * Sings Standards (Verve, 2002)
 * Love Phases Dimensions: From the JMT Years (Edel, 2004)
 * Closer to You: The Pop Side (Blue Note, 2009)
 * 5 Original Albums (Blue Note, 2018)

As guest
With Steve Coleman
 * Motherland Pulse (JMT, 1985)
 * On the Edge of Tomorrow (JMT, 1986)
 * World Expansion (JMT, 1987)
 * Sine Die (Pangaea, 1988)
 * Rhythm People (The Resurrection of Creative Black Civilization) (RCA, 1990)
 * Black Science (Novus, 1991)
 * Drop Kick (Novus, 1992)
 * The Ascension to Light (BMG France, 1999)

With Wynton Marsalis
 * Blood on the Fields (Columbia, 1997)
 * Reeltime (Sony, 1999)

With The Roots
 * Do You Want More?!!!??! (DGC, 1994)
 * Illadelph Halflife (DGC, 1996)

With others
 * New Air, Air Show No. 1 (Black Saint, 1986)
 * Don Byron, A Fine Line: Arias & Lieder (Blue Note, 2000)
 * Terence Blanchard, Let's Get Lost (Sony, 2001)
 * Terri Lyne Carrington, The Mosaic Project (Concord Jazz, 2011)
 * Regina Carter, Rhythms of the Heart (Verve, 1999)
 * Olu Dara, Neighborhoods (Atlantic, 2001)
 * Kurt Elling, The Messenger (Blue Note, 1997)
 * Robin Eubanks, Karma (JMT, 1991)
 * Bill Frisell & Elvis Costello, The Sweetest Punch (Decca, 1999)
 * Charlie Haden Quartet West, Sophisticated Ladies (EmArcy, 2010)
 * Dave Holland, Dream of the Elders (ECM, 1995)
 * Javon Jackson, A Look Within (Blue Note, 1996)
 * Angelique Kidjo, Oremi (Island, 1998)
 * M-Base Collective, Anatomy of a Groove (Columbia, 1992)
 * David Murray Black Saint Quartet, Sacred Ground (Justin Time, 2007)
 * Meshell Ndegeocello, The Spirit Music Jamia: Dance of the Infidel (Shanachie, 2005)
 * Greg Osby, Season of Renewal (JMT, 1990)
 * Courtney Pine, Modern Day Jazz Stories (Antilles, 1995)
 * David Sanchez, Street Scenes (Columbia, 1996)
 * Steve Turre, Steve Turre (Verve, 1997)
 * Luther Vandross, I Know (EMI, 1998)
 * Count Basie Orchestra, Ella 100: Live at the Apollo! (Concord, 2020)

title: Cassandra Wilson


text:
Ziziphus

Ziziphus is a genus  of spiny shrubs and small trees in the buckthorn family, Rhamnaceae. It includes 68 species native to tropical and subtropical Africa, Eurasia, and Australia and tropical South America. The leaves are alternate, entire, with three prominent basal veins, and often aromatic. The flowers are small, inconspicuous yellow-green. The fruit is an edible drupe, often very sweet and sugary, reminiscent of a date in texture and flavour.

Well known species include the commonly cultivated Ziziphus jujuba (jujube), Ziziphus spina-christi from southwestern Asia, Ziziphus lotus from the Mediterranean region, and ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), which is found from western Africa to India.

Etymology
The generic name is derived via classical Latin from Hellenistic Greek, where it is presumed to have been borrowed from another language, perhaps from zizfum or zizafun, the Persian word for Z. lotus.

Ecology
Ziziphus species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Bucculatrix zizyphella, which feeds exclusively on the genus, and Endoclita malabaricus.

Species are distributed throughout the world in tropical and warm temperate areas, from rain forests to deserts. Some species are evergreen, others are winter or drought deciduous.

Species adapted to dry climates are smaller and have oleifera cells that produce a fragrant aroma.

Uses
The temperate Ziziphus jujuba (Chinese jujube) and the tropical Ziziphus mauritiana (Indian Jujube) are economically important fruit trees.

In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), suan zao ren (Ziziphus jujuba) is considered to be sweet and sour in taste, and neutral in action. It is believed to nourish the heart yin, augment the liver blood, and calm the spirit (TCM medical terms). It is used to treat irritability, insomnia and heart palpitations.

Mythology
The mythological lotus tree which occurs in Homer's Odyssey is often equated with Z. lotus.

The Islamic mythological lote tree of Seventh Heaven, the Sidrat al-Muntaha is often equated with either Ziziphus spina-christi.

Species
68 species are accepted.

 * Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex A.Rich. – dry zones of tropical Africa
 * Ziziphus affinis Hemsl.
 * Ziziphus andamanica Bhandari & Bhansali
 * Ziziphus angustifolia (Miq.) Hatus. ex Steenis
 * Ziziphus apetala Hook.f. ex M.A.Lawson
 * Ziziphus attopensis Pierre
 * Ziziphus borneensis Merr.
 * Ziziphus brunoniana C.B.Clarke ex A.W.Hill
 * Ziziphus budhensis Bhattarai & Pathak – Central Nepal
 * Ziziphus calophylla Wall.
 * Ziziphus cambodiana Pierre – Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam
 * Ziziphus colombiana Suess. & Overkott
 * Ziziphus cotinifolia Reissek
 * Ziziphus crebrivenosa C.B.Rob.
 * Ziziphus cumingiana Merr.
 * Ziziphus djamuensis Lauterb.
 * Ziziphus elegans Wall.
 * Ziziphus fungii Merr.
 * Ziziphus funiculosa Buch.-Ham. ex M.A.Lawson
 * Ziziphus glabrata (B.Heyne ex Schult.) B.Heyne ex Wight & Arn.
 * Ziziphus globularis Wall.
 * Ziziphus guaranitica Malme
 * Ziziphus hajarensis Duling, Ghaz. & Prend.
 * Ziziphus hamur Engl.
 * Ziziphus havilandii Ridl.
 * Ziziphus hoaensis Pierre
 * Ziziphus horrida Roth
 * Ziziphus horsfieldii Miq.
 * Ziziphus hutchinsonii Merr. – Philippines
 * Ziziphus incurva Roxb.
 * Ziziphus javanensis Blume
 * Ziziphus jujuba Mill. – Jujube
 * Ziziphus kunstleri King
 * Ziziphus laui Merr.
 * Ziziphus leucodermis (Baker) O.Schwartz
 * Ziziphus linnaei M.A.Lawson
 * Ziziphus lotus (L.) Lam. – Mediterranean region
 * Ziziphus mairei Dode
 * Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. – widespread through Old World tropics and subtropics
 * Ziziphus melastomoides Pittier
 * Ziziphus montana W.W.Smith
 * Ziziphus mucronata Willd. buffalo thorn – southern Africa
 * Ziziphus nummularia (Burm.f.) Wight & Arn. – Thar Desert of India and Pakistan
 * Ziziphus oenopolia (L.) Mill.
 * Ziziphus otanesii Merr.
 * Ziziphus oxyphylla Edgew.
 * Ziziphus papuana Lauterb.
 * Ziziphus pernettyoides Ridl.
 * Ziziphus poilanei Tardieu
 * Ziziphus pubescens Oliv.
 * Ziziphus pubinervis Rehder
 * Ziziphus quadrilocularis F.Muell. – northern Australia
 * Ziziphus ridleyana Rasingam & Karthig.
 * Ziziphus rivularis Codd
 * Ziziphus robertsoniana Beentje
 * Ziziphus rubiginosa D.G.Long & Rae
 * Ziziphus rugosa Lam.
 * Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
 * Ziziphus subquinquenervia Miq.
 * Ziziphus suluensis Merr.
 * Ziziphus talanae (Blanco) Merr. – Philippines
 * Ziziphus timoriensis DC.
 * Ziziphus trinervis (Cav.) Poir.
 * Ziziphus truncata Blatt. & Hallb.
 * Ziziphus williamii Bhandari & Bhansali
 * Ziziphus xiangchengensis Y.L.Chen & P.K.Chou
 * Ziziphus xylopyrus (Retz.) Willd.
 * Ziziphus zeyheriana Sond.

 * شکوفه درخت کنار، بهبهان.jpg, Iran]]

Other list sources:

Formerly placed here

 * Condaliopsis obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr. & A.Gray) Suess. – Lotebush (as Ziziphus obtusifolia (Hook. ex Torr. & A.Gray) A.Gray )
 * Pseudoziziphus celata (Judd & D.W.Hall) Hauenschild (as Ziziphus celata Judd & Hall )
 * Pseudoziziphus parryi (Torr.) Hauenschild – Parry's Jujube (as Ziziphus parryi Torr. )
 * Sarcomphalus mistol (Griseb.) Hauenschild (as Ziziphus mistol Griseb. )

Fossil species

 * † Ziziphus hyperboreus Heer (Greenland, Eocene fossil)
 * † Ziziphus wyomingianis Berry (Tipperary, Wind River Basin Wyoming, USA, Eocene fossil)
 * † = Extinct

title: Ziziphus


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/old table talk

Pre March 04 discussion

Start Talk
How about adopting a standard data table for aircraft? Something like the one currently on the Messerschmitt Me 163 page? -- Rlandmann 04:50, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Yeah, I'm gonna try to adapt that chart to other articles, as well. ugen64 18:12, Nov 23, 2003 (UTC)

-

Just as side-note on the units bit- in addtion to imperial and metric, some standarization of which units are used. I know I'v come across knots in a lot of places for speeed specifcations of aircraft, and since most airplane speed gauges use knots anyway it might be worth including. That would entail three colums for the speed and im not sure this is best incorporated.

Also, to be totally correct, kilogram is unit of mass not weight and the eqivelent to it is not pounds (it is slugs). Certianly as a practical matter using kilograms and pounds is preferable but I hate for the encycolopedia to perpetuate this common misconception.

A better distinction between the different tonnes that exist is needed, although this may have been previously resolved. Also, for maximum speed distinctions should be made for which altitude this is possible, and the way in which mach numbers listed probably needs to be decided as well.

As far as tables for different pages and varaints is the standard going to be to give varaints there own tables (and even pages), or use a combined graphs that list information for different planes next to eachother. Anyway I found this table one one site that I though was very good: [link here].

Perhaps we can have two tables for a given aircraft, one in the article like the current one with limited unit and baic information, and then a larger table on a separate page with full information. The idea being that a the full table is too large to include next to article- so just have an abridged version there.

So the Messerschmitt Me 163 page would have its main page also something like Messerschmitt Me 163 specifications with large table and perhaps other more esoteric information like units it served with.

Pages like List of motors of WW2 Luftwaffe Aircraft-which I view as more as part of the WW2 information set- then part of aircraft, I think are worth leaving unicorporated into other lists. In this case the page has RLM engine numbers which would not be used on a more general page.

Lastly, is there any standardization of using WW2, WWII, World War 2, World War Two, World War 2, etc. for wiki?

Greyengine5 21:16, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Not sure about how esoteric we should go with the data table - I was thinking that the level of info should be about that of an aviation book one can buy at a general bookshop, rather than a specialist military/transport/aviation bookshop. If anyone's devoted enough to add a more detailed table on a separate page, though, I'd say go for it...

 * Units should be those most commonly used. In everyday usage, weights are expressed in kg. Sources seem divided about metric units of thrust. The trend seems to be towards kN at the moment, rather than kg, but both are commonly found. Sources also seem divided on imperial units for speed, but mph seems more common than knots in general references. note that m/min (for climb) isn't strictly a metric unit anyway, but is commonly found. --Rlandmann 23:59, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Imperial and Metric can have there own categories of course. The issue of which magnitude and form- its largely a non-issue as as you say the common one is used. Whether knots should be shown and if its ok to perpetuate kilograms as a unit of force was what i was getting at. I suppose I would be inclinded just to let stay as is under the premise its understood that its referring to pounds mass or killograms in the sense of weight, but really this distinction is rarely made. Greyengine5 07:35, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Table Idea
I found this table and though I should show it as another example of a specifications table that was on website. It would need to be re-written in wiki form, and of course whether or not its useful to the project is its own matter.

NOTE: This table is from [this] website]] (I modfied it a little but its from that site and Im not sure if its public domain either, but if you wanted to use the format it would have to be wikified and recoded)

Talk Continued
I was realizing how different modern aircraft can be with avionics, massively joint development, and what not. Perhaps we can have different tables for older simpler aircraft and newer ones?

Greyengine5 03:13, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I don't see why all aircraft can't share the same table. If something doesn't apply to that particular type, then just don't include that row of the table... --Rlandmann 06:47, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Yea thats what I mean, dont have a bunch of "not applicable" -just change the table so it doesn't include unnecessary data. That what I mean by 'different tables'. Greyengine5 07:35, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Actually having a different table may not be such a bad idea- just so people dont have to change/remove categories so much. Perhaps one for helicopters which need a lot of different specs, and perhaps more specialzed ones for air forces or a time period. As mentioned its easy enough to remove rows, but the convience might be worth it. Greyengine5 20:55, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

OK, firstly, why was the colour of the table changed? I know that green might be considered a little psychedelic by some, but there was no explanation as to why the colour was changed.

As to the other proposal, I would have to say that I do not like it. It would be alright to deal with in a GUI HTML editor, but not with the wiki where we have to work with source code. It is difficult to see exactly where to put the text. It is also non-standards compliant in that the markup is in block capitals. David Newton 05:37, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC) ---

Hmm the color thing was rather spontaneous- just though the blue fitted better with airplanes. As for the other proposal table- thats very good points, its a non-standard table from that webisite and would certinaly need to be redone for wikicode. If it was though i dont think it would be to bad finding were to place it thouh. As it is that table has a lot of leftover stuff that does nothing. I will try to work on to see if i can get it to a more wiki-ok'd state.

Greyengine5 06:14, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Another idea, table 2
Heres a sample table from the ju87 page thats seems a nice way to show difference between variants. I added the colors in to make easier to distinguish column and it ended looking pretty good. Anyway the might be a nice base for tables of variatants planes, althgough the header colors may be to dark for some monitors. Its easy enough to choose a lighter shade though.

and without colors

I think this is both hard-to-read and ugly.

Personally, I think that the data table at the top of any aircraft page should reflect a single "typical" variant - either the most numerous in production or a particularly famous variant (if these two aren't the same in any case). There might be a place for this kind of thing at the bottom of the page, on a separate page. There's also the possibility that significant variants of major types will eventually move to their own pages, as has happened with the Panavia Tornado, in which case that's where this data will (obviously) go. --Rlandmann 06:45, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Change the colors then!

Keep in mind this was never idea as a replacement for the current table, but just to show whats out there in terms of displaying multiple variant specs ( When the need arises) in the same table. As for whether its ugly or pretty- of course feel free to change it to better colors. Keep in mined finding the right shades of hex colors can be a finicky business though. As for the general comments I mostly agree- most of the aviation books I'v follow that conceptual format. However, having a comparison table for very similair models is useful- certianly whoever made the table initially thought so, and the format has its advantages. Breaking the data up makes it harder to compare specs, and when the differences are minor I dont see the need to have it on a serpate page. Greyengine5 07:22, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Manufacturer
I've snipped the manufacturer row out of the sample table, since if nothing else, this information is one of the few facts that is included in every aircraft article, and very prominently at that. I'd feel the same about "Role", except that I think it's useful as the main data table presents a single variant, and this might differ from the roles of other variants discussed in the article... --Rlandmann 03:38, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I put 'maker' back in before I read your comment. I dont think i mean it in the sense your talking about- I mean more the construction as with a lot of modern aircraft. I mean the table are re-lists of info in articles a lot of times, but I think there's benfit to having that info concentrated. So the idea here is- only when its needs ( I mean when its company its not useful) it, to list the main orginizations that worked on it. For example if one company design and construction is split between to companies they could bothbe listed there. Also, even in the other sense, I lot of books tend to have like a 'origin' or such category where they list the full names involved in contruction. For example this book has " origin: Ernst Heinkel AG, also built by Arado Flugzeug " in a table even though they mentioned the same thing later in the text. That was the idea anyway and if doenst fit for article, by all means delete that row. Greyengine5 05:49, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Having seen it in action a couple of times now, I think I agree with you - a small price in terms of space. Speaking of which.... --Rlandmann 23:45, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Date
Well, I guess the one final piece of essential, defining information we're missing is a date - I suggest "First Flight", since it's pretty much an easily identified baseline for all aircraft (barring cancelled projects, of course!) and also a date that's most commonly cited in reference works. Thoughts? --Rlandmann 23:45, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Thats a good idea to have that. First flight is definitely a good mark. Other date related ideas-- maybe have development years and production years? If we list development years that might be useful thing for ones that did not take flight. So it could list first flight say January 3 1962 then below Develpment 1959-1963, Production 1963-1972. I'v seen a number of books inlude active service life but this may be to much for that table. As alernative to very specific date perhasps a sort of ambigious year column as is often seen? Certianly some date information is good idea though.

Ok fleshed out some ideas in table form. Surviving Aicraft is not a date but this is often shown figure for a lot of the older planes and I figured I'd through it out there as an idea. (Though probably not go in this category) (I shortened to just the top section so it would take up so much space)

 * This really to much stuff i guess (up above). I did change "first flight" to "year" in the main table to allow more leeway. The first flight can be hard to find, plus listing a first flight date other then for the airplane listing could be confusing if that is not understood to be the case. Also, a lot of sites on the internet/books often times have just a general 'year' category. This is less specific so there is some leeway, but in general its going to of the year of the first flight anyway. Greyengine5 20:05, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * "Year of what" certainly more ambigous, but the idea is to allow for that extra leeway and give some choice there. As mentioned just above:
 * One, it removes the confusion over whether its the first flight of that model or of a different aircraft of the series.
 * Two, the exact date of first flight can be very hard to find for many aircraft in general references.
 * Perhaps a explantion could be included in a link form of it.

 * Yes - way too much information. The whole point of a table like this is to try and be as concise as possible. What next? Airfoil sections?
 * If there's any date available for an aircraft, it's first flight. It's also the one most commonly cited date for any aircraft - and for a good reason - it's also a date that will apply to all aircraft that ever made it off the drawing board. Like any other data in the table - if the initial contributor can't find it, it should just be left blank. Someone else will be able to fill it in later.
 * On its own, "Year" means absolutely nothing, and just invites disparity between different entries. --Rlandmann 04:53, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * For the reason "invites disparity between different entries" Ill let it go, but I still prefer ywar as I dont like the ambiguity between the first flight of that model and of the series that exists. Inclusion of airfoil sections- captial idea! How about the dihedral as well!

 * What about listing other dates right after since there enough space there for some more text. Such year of entrance in serive- another important especially with the longer development time of some aircraft. (see revised dat table) (disregard older rows) Greyengine5 05:40, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * As I said, it's *very* simple to specify which model made that first flight. --Rlandmann 05:54, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Table Size
This is just an antempt to compact the table but maintain the same readabilty. The current table seems to have some unused space. Perhaps this will make it more feasible to inlcude more information. I used some of the code from the footer. Might be able to take some of the more critical links ( like direct versions ( A, B, etc..)) and put it at bottom as sort of 'table footer'. Well anyway a it seems pretty readable even at this level, so at least some shrinkage should be possible.

Ok i put this variant links thing in. I dont like it one the top but I could not get it go under, be separate and have text to the right. THe idea was since this data will be for only one aircraft- it would alow quickly jumping between them when your looking at tables. It may be easier to have a make singel data 'comparison' page for the variants and link to that. Greyengine5 22:33, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Much better I think. Why is there a "-" in front of the "lb" in the Imperial weights? I can't recall having seen it written that way - if it doesn't belong there, then it can only serve to confuse those of us not intimately familiar with that system of weights and measures. --Rlandmann 03:38, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I put the dash in front of lbs. It is there because pounds and inches are often linked by dashes in military history textbooks. For example, take a look at Roskill or Morison, and you will see 5-inch guns referred to for example. David Newton 04:15, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * But isn't this only when the unit is being used as an adjective? Looks to me like the hyphen in "5-inch gun" is the same as the one in "fixed-wing aircraft" (wing is a noun being used here as part of an adjective) or "well-made omelette". Like I said, I don't claim great expertise on Imperial units, but the web searching I've done doesn't seem to show this usage except in adjectival usage. Might ask at the VP --Rlandmann 06:00, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * IME, I've only ever seen the hyphen in adjectival forms. In addition, it appears to have nothing to do with whether metric or imperial units are in use: a ten-foot pole, or a two-metre pole. (Google shows instances with and without the hyphen). A number of units as a noun never has a hyphen: 12 pounds, 23 metres. Marnanel 06:29, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I notice that the table has been changed from an absolute pixel value for its width to a percentage value. Why was that done? 30% is going to be too small on some screens I would think. I use percentage values for tables quite often on the website that I run, but I feel that an absolute value is correct for this table. It also makes inclusion of photographs problematic. The standard size for thumbnails seems to have been 300 pixels, which makes a 30% table problematic on screens such as mine which run at a higher resolution (1280*1024). However, have the table at a fixed pixel size and that isn't a problem. BTW, I've fixed the Me-163 demonstration table to go to the right of the page. Having the table in the centre of the page isn't exactly condusive to readability.David Newton 21:36, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Can the table be made any smaller vertically by trimmin the space above and below the headers? Greyengine5 20:06, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Test page
As a demo, I've added this last version to the Messerschmitt Me 163 page, along with the latest version of the footer. --Rlandmann 07:00, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC) (Go to wikiproject footer for discussion)

Current Issues: ---
 * Table coding- fixed pixel sounds like a much better idea. I think that (%) resulted from using footer coding. Seems pretty much resolved know though.
 * Dates to include. Which dates? First Flight is a good start but what about development years produciton etc.
 * Kg versus Kgf. I think using slugs, newtons, or mass instead of weight are not the best routes. The real question is whether using kgf is better then kg. On one hand kg is commonly 'understood' to be referring to kgf when used as a weight and kgf is not a well known unit, but as a practical matter this distinction is not commonly understood at all and using kg is incorrect for weights. If we switch to a 'mass' instead of 'weight' (to avoid kgf) then pound is confronted with the same problem- and then pounds mass unit mass be used for it to be correct.
 * Put any footer info by table? Might be worthwhile for aircraft variants that have there own pages (.i.e the panavia tornado).
 * Future issues/goals: Customized footers for different air forces. Maybe custom but standarized footer for civilian manufacturers too? Other series category possibilites: superelatives (fastest, heaviest, etc title holders), historical series (noteworthy aircraft, 5-6 ground breaking aircraft like wright brothers- dc-3 -concorde kind of thing)Greyengine5 04:05, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Dates to include: I'd say an important date is date of last service, if withdrawn. Dates of manufacture are of secondary importance; date of service entry?

 * Kg versus kgf -- pedantry, IMO. We should use pounds and kilograms, just like everyone else, even if it's not strictly speaking 'correct'.  Like it or not, in actual usage, kilograms and pounds are treated as measurements of weight by practically everyone.  It is not Wikipedia's job to change the world, just to document it.

 * Overall I'm liking the format. I've put the new table onto C-141 Starlifter to see how it looks there.  I'll probably trial out a US military footer table there, too. —Morven 22:40, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Please see my comments on the footer page --Rlandmann 23:53, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Dates- date of service entry i like, not sure i like last date though as theres often such ambiguity about that. I think some of the problems arise form the fact the table is for a specific type, but the articles are often for a whole series. Development years (say 1926-1928), then years it was in proudciton (1928-1934), and end of major use (1945) really apply to a whole aircraft line ( or just a model). The question arises should data not specific to given model be included on table for it? Even first flight- is that to mean 1s flight of the "'d' models or of the type itself. Its seems the table data set is bumping into a split between data for the line as a whole and for the aircraft its giving numbers for.  The debate already exits in the form of arament listing--just weapons of that model (a,b ,c,d..) or the whole line?
 * Format- is there way to reduce the length of the first column and make the data colums wider
 * Weight- certainly kg is the common form and it certainly easier to leave it that. Its still incorrect usage though if its not understood to mean kgf, which on the whole is bad for the pedia to perpetuate. However, rather then using kgf everywhere why not just make a note at the top of the weight column? Just say kg is used in place of kgf. Anyone who knows of the distinction who see kg for a weight knows it mean kgf- but its worthwhile to inform people who do not- especially worthwhile job for a encylopedia. (even the kgf debate here has already resulted in one convert!)
 * Just as a side note- it seems airships were used as bombers in ww1, and a lot of other places. Has anyone made a table for airships?
 * Greyengine5 04:05, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * First flight date - if the first flight of the type was not made by the version shown in the table, then it's best to be unambiguous and state the version that made that flight. See the Me 163 page for an example. I suggest leaving first flight as the only date in the actual table - I think the table is already starting to bloat out of control.
 * In common usage, kilogram is a unit of weight. It is not "incorrect" - it is just a difference between the scientific usage of the word and the common usage of the word. There are other words that also differ in meaning depending if they are being used in science or in colloquial use.
 * At least one airship, USS Akron, has the WikiProject Ships data table. That's the only one I've come across.--Rlandmann 07:32, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Note on Mig abbreviations, "Soviet fighters prototypes are given an "I-" prefix. When they're accepted for production, they're issued with a prefix derived from the manufacturer's name. If the I-270 had been accepted for production it might have been the MiG-17". the form MiG is reserved for these types. MiG could be used as a 'unofficial' acronym for the correct full name, but this is to be avoid unless necessary for space. Keep in mind doing this is a conncession to both space on the popular recognition of the MiG name (somtimes seen MIG).

Linking?
I changed many of the terms into links for people to click if they did know what given categoty was. For example 'wing loading' is link now so you could have page explaining the term. There could be one page to explain them all, or just link to individual pages. I dont know if there is way to keep a links text black though so it does not mar the look of the table. Greyengine5 19:53, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 I'm very much opposed to including any of these links in a table of this nature. I think it's unnecessary clutter. How do others feel? --Rlandmann 05:57, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)


text:
James G. Fair

James Graham Fair (December 3, 1831 – December 28, 1894) was an Irish immigrant to the United States who became a highly successful mining engineer and businessman. His investments in silver mines in Nevada made him a millionaire, and he was one of the famous "silver kings" who became wealthy on the Comstock Lode. Fair later became a real estate investor and railroad builder in California. In 1881, he was elected a United States Senator from Nevada. Nearly all other major so-called robber barons were Protestants (Episcopal or Presbyterian) while Fair himself died a Roman Catholic though born into poverty to Anglican parents.

Early life
Born to a poor Irish family in Clogher, County Tyrone, James Fair came with his father to the United States in 1843 and grew up on a farm in Illinois. There he received an extensive education in business before moving to California in 1850, where he prospected the Feather River country for gold embedded in quartz rather than pan for placer gold. His attention shifted to Nevada, where he operated a stamp mill on the Carson River and landed various mine superintendent positions around the Comstock Lode region. He became superintendent of the Hale and Norcross Mine in Virginia City, Nevada in 1867.

He formed a partnership with three fellow Irishmen: John William Mackay and the San Francisco saloon owners James C. Flood and William S. O'Brien. The company was formally Flood and O'Brien, but popularly known as the "Bonanza Firm". The four made large fortunes in shares in silver mines on the Comstock Lode, the first major silver district discovered in the United States. In twenty years time the Comstock Lode produced over one hundred million dollars. The partners controlled and operated various mines on the Comstock, but their greatest success came in 1873 when miners in their Consolidated Virginia mine found the large ore body that became known as "the big bonanza."

Fair invested his portion in railroads and real estate, bringing his private fortune up to $50 million. Although Fair was acknowledged to be a capable mine superintendent and a shrewd businessman, he was not well liked, and carried the nickname "Slippery Jim." He invested much of his income from the Comstock in railroads and San Francisco real estate. Fair and Mackay owned the Nevada Bank of San Francisco, a rival to William Chapman Ralston's Bank of California; after the collapse of Ralston's financial empire, the Nevada Bank was for a time the largest bank in America at the height of the silver boom.

South Pacific Coast Railroad
In 1876, in partnership with several others, Fair established the narrow-gauge South Pacific Coast Railroad. From its beginning near present-day Newark, the line extended down the east side of San Francisco Bay, through San Jose and Los Gatos and southward over the Santa Cruz Mountains over a route that entailed a 6,200-foot tunnel, another 5,000-foot tunnel and six shorter ones. Some six hundred Chinese workers were employed in clearing, grading, laying track and tunneling. In that last activity, thirty-one workers lost their lives, primarily from explosions of underground natural gas. At its southern end, the railroad acquired the Santa Cruz & Felton Railroad in Felton. The line over the mountains was completed in May 1880.

The South Pacific Coast Railroad was immediately successful and soon profitable. In 1886, Southern Pacific purchased SPC for six million dollars. Southern Pacific later converted it to standard gauge and operated it until 1940, when the over-the-mountains portion of the line was abandoned.

Political career
Fair was elected by the Nevada legislature to the U.S. Senate in 1881. He was not much interested in Washington, where he promoted silver issues in the Senate at a time when a movement was afoot to demonetize silver. Fair served one term after which he moved back to San Francisco in 1887.

Personal life
In 1861, Fair married Theresa Rooney, who had been keeping a boarding house. She divorced him in 1883 on grounds of "habitual adultery" and brought up their four children on her own, with a very considerable settlement.

In 1890, his eldest daughter "Tessie" was married to Hermann Oelrichs of Norddeutsche Lloyd shipping lines in the grandest wedding that San Francisco had seen. Fair remained in his hotel suite without an invitation. He gave Tessie a million dollars as a wedding gift nonetheless.

His will left $40 million in trust to his two daughters, Mrs. Hermann Oelrichs (née Theresa "Tessie" Alice Fair) and Virginia Graham Fair (who later married William Kissam Vanderbilt II), and his surviving son, Charles Lewis Fair, who died in a car accident in France on August 14, 1902, at age 35, having been disinherited by his father.

After Fair's death, Mrs. Nettie Cravens came forward claiming to be his wife. She presented her evidence to a court at trial, but lost the case. She moved to Iowa and lived in obscurity, spending her last days in a mental institution. Later, women's rights advocate Phoebe Couzins also claimed a relationship with Fair.

Death and legacy
Fair died on 1894 in San Francisco, California, and was originally buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery; after the cemetery closed he was re-buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California.

The Fairmont San Francisco hotel was built as a grand monument to Fair by his daughters Theresa Fair Oelrichs and Virginia Fair Vanderbilt, who named it in honor of their father. Construction began in 1902, but they sold their interests in 1906, days before the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.

Fair is remembered in Santa Cruz, California in the naming of Fair Avenue, and in San Francisco with Fair Avenue in Bernal Heights.

title: James G. Fair


text:
Kirby's Dream Land

Kirby's Dream Land (星のカービィ) is a 1992 platform video game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy. It is the first game in the Kirby series and marks the debut of Kirby. It introduced many conventions that would appear in later games in the series. The game follows Kirby as he goes through five levels to retrieve the Sparkling Stars and food of Dream Land from King Dedede.

Kirby's Dream Land was designed by Masahiro Sakurai in his debut game, who intended it to be a simple game that could be easy to pick up and play by those unfamiliar with action games. For more advanced players, he offered additional optional challenges such as a hard mode and the ability to edit Kirby's maximum HP and starting number of lives. Kirby's Dream Land was re-released on the Nintendo 3DS via the Virtual Console in 2011 and is also one of the games included in the compilation game Kirby's Dream Collection for the Wii, released to celebrate the series' 20th anniversary. The game was included as part of the Nintendo Switch Online service in February 2023. The game was the highest grossing in the series, with 5,130,000 copies sold, until being beaten out 30 years later by Kirby and the Forgotten Land.

Gameplay

Kirby's Dream Land is a side-scrolling action-platformer. Like many other platformers of the 8-bit and 16-bit era of video games, levels are played on a two-dimensional plane in which the protagonist, Kirby, can move left or right as well as jump. Kirby's main method of attack is to inhale enemies and objects into his mouth, after which the player can choose to swallow or spit them out as a star-shaped projectile attack. In addition to running and jumping, Kirby can fly by inflating himself with a mouthful of air and flapping his arms. Flying can be done indefinitely; however, while flying, Kirby's only method of attack is to release the air puff held in his mouth which cancels his flight.

The game consists of a total of five levels. Levels are made up of a series of large "rooms" connected by doors that lead Kirby to different areas, rather than the single continuous corridors typical of platformers at the time. Some of these doors lead to hidden areas or alternate pathways through the level. The doors act as checkpoints returning the player to the beginning of a "room" should they die rather than starting the level over. The goal of the game is to clear the level by defeating the boss at the end. If Kirby touches an harmful enemy or obstacle, he loses one or more of his health points, depending on the enemy or obstacle he touched. The player starts with a number of lives, which are lost if Kirby loses all of his health or falls into a bottomless pit. Kirby can recover lost health by eating food, found across the stage. The player will receive a Game Over upon losing all of their lives, although they can continue from the beginning of the current stage by selecting "Continue".

Unlike the copy abilities of later games, Kirby's Dream Land has more traditional power-ups that offer Kirby temporary abilities when he picks them up, although they are not a big part of gameplay. These often appear in the form of food, such as Spicy Curry that gives Kirby fire breath or a Mint Leaf (Sweet Potato in the Japanese version) that lets Kirby fire air puffs rapidly without losing flight. At the end of each level is a boss Kirby must fight to obtain one of the Sparkling Stars. Most bosses are fought by sucking up small objects or projectiles created by the boss' attacks and spitting them back at the boss. The third boss, Kaboola, is fought using an unlimited version of the Mint Leaf item, incorporating shoot 'em up elements. The last level before the final boss consists of a boss rush, where Kirby must fight all of the game's bosses again going through a short area based on that boss's home level. There are also many mini-bosses during the levels.

Like many 1980s-era platformers, the player can accumulate points by defeating enemies and collecting items, with an extra life granted when the player has enough points. However, because Kirby's Dream Land lacks a save function, scores are not recorded. Also, there are no save files, so the player has to start over again when the Game Boy is turned off, if the player chooses to return to the title screen after a game over, or if the player resets the game. Once the game has been completed, a code is offered to play an optional extra game, in which the difficulty is significantly increased. Completing the extra game offered a second code that lets the player adjust lives and vitality settings to play an easier or even harder game, and listen to music and sound effects freely.

Plot
Kirby's Dream Land is set in the fictional country of Dream Land, which is located on a tiny star-shaped planet far, far away from Earth, named "Planet Popstar" in later games. The Dream Landers are a very peaceful and carefree people that use their magical Sparkling Stars to play and work among the heavens. One night, under the cover of darkness, the gluttonous King Dedede and his minions swoop down from his castle on Mt. Dedede and steal all the food in Dream Land, as well as the Sparkling Stars, which the King distributes among his minions. Without the Sparkling Stars, the Dream Landers can no longer harvest food, and begin to go hungry. As the residents are discussing what to do, a spry little boy named Kirby flies in on the spring breeze, and volunteers to defeat King Dedede and retrieve the food and Stars. Upon successfully doing so, he uses the magic of the Sparkling Stars to transform into a hot air balloon and return the King's stolen food back to the people of Dream Land.

Development
Kirby's Dream Land was developed by Masahiro Sakurai of HAL Laboratory. Much of the programming was done on a Twin Famicom, a Nintendo-licensed console produced by Sharp Corporation that combined a Famicom and a Famicom Disk System in one unit. As the Twin Famicom did not have keyboard support, a trackball was used in tandem with an on-screen keyboard to input values; Sakurai described the process, which he assumed was "the way [game programming] was done" at the time, as similar to "using a lunchbox to make lunch."

Kirby initially was a dummy character that the developers used until they could define a more sophisticated image. However the designers grew to like Kirby so much that they decided to keep him instead of using a more advanced character. At the time he was to be named Popopo (ポポポ), and the game was named Popopo of the Spring Breeze (はるかぜポポポ). The title was later changed to Twinkle Popo (ティンクル・ポポ), which was still being used late enough in development that box art and advertising material was produced with this name.

Originally, HAL Laboratory was to publish the game independently, but due to the low number of advance orders, the release was delayed, and HAL asked Nintendo to publish the game. Under Nintendo's supervision, the game received an extensive marketing campaign, and its title was changed. In order to give the character more international appeal, the developers decided to change Popopo's name, so they polled Nintendo of America for suggestions, and eventually chose Kirby. The final Japanese title of the game was Hoshi no Kirby, or Kirby of the Stars, which became the name of the greater franchise.

During the development of what was referred to as Twinkle Popo, there was some initial confusion over the color scheme of Popopo/Kirby. Sakurai had always intended him to be pink, and the concept art reflects this, but Kirby was not pink in the game itself, as the Game Boy system had a monochrome display. Other members of the development team were unaware of Kirby's coloration; in particular, Shigeru Miyamoto initially thought that he was yellow. Although pink is still Kirby's main color, later games have used a yellow Kirby to represent the second player in multiplayer. When Kirby of the Stars was released in Japan, it featured a pink Kirby on its box art. However, Nintendo of America designed the North American box art and advertisements with a white Kirby based on the game's grey-scale visuals.

The music was composed by Jun Ishikawa. He has been a regular composer in the Kirby series, composing for several subsequent titles.

Reception
Kirby's Dream Land has received a generally positive reception. Upon release, Nintendo Power editors George and Bob shared generally positive opinions of the game; George stated that it is a really fun game, owing its quality to its excellent play control and well thought out concept, while Bob stated that it is deceptively simple looking, when it in fact features a decent challenge for more experienced gamers.

Kirby's Dream Land topped the Japanese Famitsu sales charts from May 1992 to June 1992,  and in the United States topped Babbage's Game Boy sales chart in October 1992. The game sold more than 1 million units worldwide as of March 1993. By 1997, 4.6 million units had been sold. , it has sold in excess of 5 million copies worldwide; Gamasutra cited its new style of gameplay for its success. At the time, it was HAL Laboratory's most successful game. Gamasutra's Osamu Inoue attributed the game's success to Satoru Iwata, formerly an employee of HAL Laboratory, who Inoue comments has a "simple-minded passion for creating games".

Retrospectively, it holds an aggregate score of 62% on GameRankings with nine reviews, making it the 17th best Game Boy game. Game Informer's Ben Reeves called it the 14th best Game Boy game and felt that it was a relaxing game. Author Wendy Despain used Kirby's Dream Land's plot as an example of how early platform games' plots progressed, which she collectively described as "the main character needing to reach a villain to put right a wrong." Humongous Life's Jonathan Wahlgren called it a strong game, but felt it to be "too elementary". GamesRadar's Brett Elston did an article on its music, specifically giving praise to the final boss music, stating that it is the "only song in the original Kirby that had a sense of challenge or conflict instead of skipping through a field of floating cakes." Nadia Oxford of 1UP.com praised it for its unique platforming mechanics, describing it as the start of a "gluttonous legend". Allgame's Joshua Crystal called it a "great game for beginner players and ones that enjoy a fun, but short, experience."

In an article detailing various Kirby series video games, IGN stated that it was a decent platformer, but basic compared to later games. IGN's Lucas M. Thomas and Craig Harris included Kirby's Dream Land in their wishlist for a hypothetical "Virtual Console" for the Nintendo 3DS, commenting that its inclusion would be based on nostalgia rather than it feeling "new and sensational". They also added that original characters like Kirby were the stars of the Game Boy rather than established characters such as Link, Mario, Samus Aran, and Pit. They would again praise Kirby's Dream Land for being an original game in their "History of the Game Boy" article, adding that while "attitude" was common in new platforming mascots, Kirby was cheery and adorable, while the game featured "breezy, casual gameplay and lighthearted atmosphere". GameSpy's Gerald Villoria, Brian Altano, and Ryan Scott called it "basic" compared to later games in the series, adding that it lacked a sense of danger because Kirby could fly. GamesRadar listed Kirby's Dream Land and its sequel as two of the games they want in the 3DS Virtual Console.

Sequels
Kirby's Dream Land has spawned numerous of sequels across several video game consoles. The first direct sequel, Kirby's Adventure, released on the Nintendo Entertainment System, introduced the ability to steal powers from enemies, an ability which would become a staple of the series following it. The series has featured several spin-offs, in differing genres including a racing game Kirby Air Ride, pinball game Kirby's Pinball Land, and an action-golf hybrid game Kirby's Dream Course. Kirby's Dream Land would receive a Game Boy sequel in 1995, Kirby's Dream Land 2, which incorporated the copy mechanic from Kirby's Adventure.

The Super NES game Kirby Super Star contains a shortened remake of Kirby's Dream Land, "Spring Breeze". It features Kirby's copy ability from later games and the ability to summon helpers for co-op, but is missing the Castle Lololo stage and Kaboola boss fight, Lololo and Lalala becoming the boss for Float Island instead. Kirby Super Star Ultra expanded upon this with "Revenge of The King", a harder version of "Spring Breeze" that takes heavy inspiration from Kirby's Dream Land's extra mode and features longer levels more in line with the original game. Although Castle Lololo is still absent, Kaboola's boss fight returns in a reimagined form.

Kirby and King Dedede appear as playable characters in the fighting game series Super Smash Bros. Both characters have alternate costumes that give them a monochrome appearance reminiscent of the Game Boy's graphics. The "Green Greens" stage, first appearing in Super Smash Bros. Melee, is based on this game's first level. The "Dream Land GB" stage, introduced in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS, transitions between multiple locations from Kirby's Dream Land as displayed through a monochromatic Game Boy screen.

title: Kirby's Dream Land