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Deaf culture

Deaf culture is the set of social beliefs, behaviors, art, literary traditions, history, values, and shared institutions of communities that are influenced by deafness and which use sign languages as the main means of communication. When used as a cultural label, especially within the culture, the word deaf is often written with a capital D and referred to as "big D Deaf" in speech and sign. When used as a label for the audiological condition, it is written with a lower case d. Carl G. Croneberg coined the term "Deaf Culture" and he was the first to discuss analogies between Deaf and hearing cultures in his appendices C/D of the 1965 Dictionary of American Sign Language.

Background
Members of the Deaf community tend to view deafness as a difference in human experience rather than a disability or disease. Many members take pride in their Deaf identity. Deaf people, in the sense of a community or culture, can then be seen as a linguistic minority, and therefore some who are a part of this community may feel misunderstood by those who do not know sign language. Another struggle that the Deaf community often faces is that educational institutions usually consist primarily of hearing people. Additionally, hearing family members may need to learn sign language in order for the deaf person to feel included and supported. Unlike some other cultures, a deaf person may join the community later in life, rather than needing to be born into it.

There are several perspectives on deaf people and Deaf culture that shape their treatment and role in society. From a medical standpoint, many encourage Deaf children to undergo surgery. Especially in the past, the medical perspective discouraged the use of sign language because they believed it would distract from development of auditory and speech skills. From a social standpoint, Deaf individuals are welcomed to participate in society in the same manner as any other individual. This view discourages the idea that those who are deaf or hard-of-hearing are sick and in need of a cure. The social view also encourages making accommodations for deaf people so that they can fully participate in society. Such accommodations include the use of interpreters or improved closed captioning systems. Some feel the social view fails to recognize the unique qualities of Deaf people and Deaf culture. They believe that this perspective asks Deaf people to fit and find their own way in a predominantly hearing society, instead of recognizing their own abilities and culture. Another perspective is referred to as the cultural-linguistic view. Supporters of Deaf Culture state that this perspective appropriately recognizes Deaf people as a minority culture in the world with their own language and social norms. This standpoint is believed to promote Deaf people's right to collective space within society to pass on their language and culture to future generations.

Being involved in the Deaf community and culturally identifying as Deaf has been shown to significantly contribute to positive self-esteem in Deaf individuals. The community can provide support, easy social interaction, and "refuge from the grinding frustrations of the hearing world." Conversely, Deaf individuals who are not a part of the Deaf community may not have the same support in the hearing world, resulting in lower self-esteem. Stereotypes, lack of knowledge, and negative attitudes about Deafness cause widespread discrimination. This could lead to a lower education and economic status for deaf people.

The community may include hearing family members of deaf people and sign-language interpreters who identify with Deaf culture. It does not automatically include all people who are deaf or hard-of-hearing. As educator and American Sign Language interpreter Anna Mindess writes, "it is not the extent of hearing loss that defines a member of the deaf community but the individual's own sense of identity and resultant actions." As with all social groups that a person chooses to belong to, a person is a member of the Deaf community if they identify as a member of the community and the community accept them as a member of the community.

Deaf culture is recognized under Article 30, Paragraph 4 of the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, which states that "Persons with disabilities shall be entitled, on an equal basis with others, to recognition and support of their specific cultural and linguistic identity, including sign languages and deaf culture."

Deaf culture is as well recognized in the statement presented at the 21st International Conference on Education of the Deaf in 2010 in Vancouver, Canada, where the more than 60 countries that participated in it agreed that "Despite this 'disability mindset,' Deaf citizens positively contribute to societies that embrace diversity and creativity. They enhance their nations in areas of education, economic activity, politics, arts and literature. For Deaf people, It is an inalienable right to be acknowledged as a linguistic and cultural minority integral to every society."

In Deaf culture, "sumain" refers to people who communicate with each other using their hands. Marla Berkowitz, a Certified Deaf ASL interpreter, describes it as "a coined word from two languages – Su – your; main – hands".

Acculturation
Historically, acculturation has often occurred within schools for Deaf students and within Deaf social clubs, both of which unite deaf people into communities with which they can identify. Becoming Deaf culturally can occur at different times for different people, depending on the circumstances of one's life. A small proportion of deaf individuals acquire sign language and Deaf culture in infancy from Deaf parents, others acquire it through attendance at schools, and yet others may not be exposed to sign language and Deaf culture until college or a time after that.

Although up to fifty percent of deafness has genetic causes, fewer than five percent of deaf people have a deaf parent, so Deaf communities are unusual among cultural groups in that most members do not acquire their cultural identities from parents.

Diversity
Educator and ASL interpreter Anna Mindess notes that there is "not just one homogeneous deaf culture". There are many distinct Deaf communities around the world, which communicate using different sign languages and exhibit different cultural norms. Deaf identity also intersects with other kinds of cultural identity. Deaf culture intersects with nationality, education, race, ethnicity, gender, class, sexual orientation, and other identity markers, leading to a culture that is at once quite small and also tremendously diverse. The extent to which people identify primarily with their deaf identity rather than their membership in other intersecting cultural groups also varies. Professor Anthony J. Aramburo found in a study titled The Sociolinguistic Aspects of the Black Deaf Community (1989) that "87 percent of black deaf people polled identified with their black culture first". Deaf youth who belong to multiple minority groups face exceptional challenges. Deaf Black individuals may encounter discrimination from both hearing people of the Black community and White deaf individuals. Though racism is not greater than audism, the intersection of race and deafness (and other identities) can increase the barriers to success and compound hardship. Therefore, it is crucial to acknowledge the intersectionality of Black Deaf students as it plays a significant role in their educational success.

In his central work on Deafhood, English scholar Pady Ladd often emphasizes a strong sense of collectivity within the Deaf community, but also correctly points out that other forms of marginalization also exist within this community, e.g. towards Deaf people from other countries. Racial discrimination is also noted: Deaf schools in the USA did not admit black students for a long time. The examples mentioned by Ladd also point to tendencies towards gender discrimination. He also points out that his analyses focus strongly on the USA and the UK, and that the situation and self-definition of d/Deaf people in other countries can differ greatly. Like other authors, however, he assumes a common core of a Deaf culture that arises from experiences as a Deaf person(s). Research in Tanzania in the early 21st century resulted in differing analysis whether or not - or how much - the identify of deaf Tanzanians can be characterized as Deaf, pointing also to intersectional identities.

Education
Deaf culture is prevalent in K–12 schools for the deaf throughout the world, though higher education specifically for them is more limited.

Abbé Charles-Michel de l'Épée opened the first school for the deaf in Paris called the Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris (English: National Institute for Deaf Children of Paris) in 1760. The American Thomas Gallaudet witnessed a demonstration of deaf teaching skills from Épée's successor Abbé Sicard and two of the school's deaf faculty members, Laurent Clerc and Jean Massieu; accompanied by Clerc, he returned to the United States, where in 1817 they founded American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut. American Sign Language (ASL) started to evolve from primarily French Sign Language (LSF), and other outside influences.

In a residential school where all the children use the same communication system (whether it is a school using sign language, Total Communication or Oralism), students will be able to interact "normally" with other students, without having to worry about being criticized. An argument supporting inclusion, on the other hand, exposes the student to people who are not just like them, preparing them for adult life. Through interacting, children with hearing disabilities can expose themselves to other cultures which in the future may be beneficial for them when it comes to finding jobs and living on their own in a society where their disability may put them in the minority. These are some reasons why a person may or may not want to put their child in an inclusion classroom.

United States
In comparison to the general public, deaf people have lower levels of educational achievement. Advocates in deaf education believe that an improved recognition of American Sign Language (ASL) as an official language would improve education, as well as economic status. Some argue that by improving the recognition of ASL, better access to school materials, deaf teachers, interpreters, and video-telephone communication would take place.

Often colloquially referred to as the "Big Three" schools for the Deaf in the United States, California State University at Northridge (CSUN), National Technical Institute for the Deaf (part of Rochester Institute of Technology), and Gallaudet University are post-secondary institutions that serve a large population of Deaf students. Gallaudet University is the first and only liberal-arts college for deaf students in the world. Those who are deaf (by either state or federal standards) have access to a free and appropriate public education. If a child does qualify as being deaf or hard of hearing and receives an individualized education plan, the IEP team must consider "the child's language and communication needs. The IEP must include opportunities for direct communication with peers and professionals. It must also include the student's academic level, and finally must include the students full range of needs"

In part, the U.S. Department of Education defines deafness as "a hearing impairment that is so severe that the child is impaired in processing linguistic information through hearing, with or without amplification". Hearing impairment is defined as "an impairment in hearing, whether permanent or fluctuating, that adversely affects a child's educational performance but that is not included under the definition of deafness".

Other countries
There are colleges across the globe. Brazil has several institutions, including Instituto Santa Tersinha and Escola para Crianças Surdas Rio Branco. China's deaf universities include Beijing Union University, Special Education College of Beijing University, and Zhengzhou University. Other notable universities for the deaf across the globe include Finland School for the Deaf in Finland, Institut National de Jeunes Sourds de Paris in France, Berlin School for the Deaf in Germany, and Northwest Secondary School for the Deaf in South Africa.

Characteristics
Sign language is just one part of deaf culture. Deaf identity is also constructed around specific beliefs, values and art.

Sign languages
Members of Deaf cultures communicate via sign languages. Sign languages convey meaning through manual communication and body language instead of acoustically conveyed sound patterns. This involves the simultaneous combination of hand shapes, orientation and movement of the hands, arms or body, and facial expressions to express a speaker's thoughts. "Sign languages are based on the idea that vision is the most useful tool a deaf person has to communicate and receive information".

There are over 200 distinct sign languages in the world. These include 114 sign languages listed in the Ethnologue database and 157 more sign languages, systems, and dialects. While the United Kingdom and the United States are both predominantly English speaking, the predominant signed languages used in these countries differ markedly. Due to the origins of deaf education in the United States, American Sign Language is most closely related to French Sign Language.

Values and beliefs

 * A positive attitude toward deafness is typical in Deaf cultural groups. Deafness is not generally considered a condition that needs to be fixed.
 * The term "Deaf Gain" is used by Deaf people, to re-frame the perceived losses of Deafness and "hearing loss" to highlight the benefits of being deaf. According to deaf scientist Michele Cooke, it describes the benefits that Deaf people provide the larger community.
 * Culturally, Deaf people value the use of natural sign languages that exhibit their own grammatical conventions, such as American Sign Language and British Sign Language, over signed versions of English or other oral languages. Spoken English, written English and signed English are three different symbolic systems for expressing the same language.
 * Deaf communities strongly oppose discrimination against deaf people.
 * Deaf culture in the United States tends to be collectivist rather than individualist; culturally Deaf people value the group.
 * The use of a sign language is central to Deaf cultural identity. Oralist approaches to educating deaf children thereby pose a threat to the continued existence of Deaf culture. Some members of Deaf communities may also oppose technological innovations like cochlear implants for the same reason.

Cochlear implants
A cochlear implant is not to be mistaken for a hearing aid, which makes noises and sounds louder for the user to hear. Instead, cochlear implants bypass the outer ear and target the inner ear where the auditory nerve fibers are stimulated. To do this, noises and sounds are transformed into electrical energy which is translated as audio information by the nerve which is then sent to the brain. An external microphone captures outside sound, a transmitter processes these sounds and sends them to a receiver embedded under the skin in the skull, and the receiver transforms these sounds into electrical impulses which stimulate the auditory nerve. The medical model of disability can be aligned with technological advancements in cochlear implants. This is due to the fact that cochlear implants can be perceived to "cure" deafness or fix an individual's hearing, when in reality those who are Deaf may not feel a need to be cured or fixed. This idea is seen in many children's books, where improved quality of life is only seen after characters obtain cochlear implants. This idea that deafness is a physiological issue that resides only within the individual and therefore should be physiologically fixed or solved counters the teachings and beliefs within Deaf culture. Often people feel as though children should make the decision if they want a cochlear implant for themselves as opposed to someone else, like their parents or caregivers, making it for them. Although ethical, this idea poses a problem since the success rate of cochlear implants is at its highest when implanted at early childhood; in other words, when the child is not able to make rather large decisions, like this one, for themselves. These critics argue forcing cochlear implants on children should be reduced and the assumption that cochlear implants offer the best quality of life for Deaf individuals should be countered. One way of doing this would be to expose children of young ages to Deaf culture and the Deaf community early on, as well as teach them American Sign Language.

Cochlear implants have been controversial around the Deaf community ever since they first were made available to the public. Those who oppose cochlear implants even refer to it as "cultural genocide," as it lessens the prevalence and importance of Deaf culture. People are against cochlear implants for a variety of reasons, including: there is value to being Deaf, being Deaf is not an illness and does not require a cure, the Deaf are not lesser than the hearing, etc. Cochlear implants also have a variety of risks associated with them, like costliness, effectiveness, and surgical requirement. Alternative solutions proposed by cochlear opponents are centered around the social model of disability, where instead of fixing the actual hearing of the individual, reform and accommodations can be made in society, education, and more to better allow the individual to be integrated into society as would any other.

Alternatively, those who support cochlear implants do not necessarily oppose Deaf culture. Culture itself is not a simple concept, but rather it has high levels of complexity and power; due to this nature, culture is not to be applied narrowly to a group of individuals. The Deaf community is composed of highly diverse Deaf individuals, and to impose narrow culture onto a group full of heterogeneous members would be rather questionable. There is room for deviation and hybridization of values and beliefs in Deaf culture as society and technology evolves. Even if they are proud of their Deaf identity, many deaf individuals wish they knew what their voices sounded like, and wish they could pick up the phone and have a conversation with ease without the need for a third-party device or interpreter. So, instead of looking at cochlear implants as identity stripping, many Deaf parents of Deaf children see cochlear implants as a way to give their children more than what they have; to offer them the pleasure of being able to hear. It has also been proven that cochlear implants help to provide opportunities for success, and help individuals to feel more connected to the world. Though most Deaf individuals agree that choosing to use a cochlear implant is a difficult decision, many say that resistance to cochlear implants has decreased since 1990, the year when it was first approved for children. By building more evidence of the benefits and limitations of cochlear implants, both Deaf and hearing individuals can be properly educated on the impact of cochlear implants, and thus unrealistic expectations and controversies can be resolved.

Behavioral patterns

 * Culturally Deaf people have rules of etiquette for getting attention, walking through signed conversations, leave-taking, and otherwise politely negotiating a signing environment.
 * Deaf people also keep each other informed of what is going on in one's environment. It is common to provide detailed information when leaving early or arriving late; withholding such information may be considered rude.
 * Deaf people may be more direct or blunt than their hearing counterparts.
 * When giving introductions, Deaf people typically try to find common ground; since the Deaf community is relatively small, Deaf people usually have other Deaf people in common.
 * Deaf people may also consider time differently. Showing up early to large-scale events, such as lectures, is typical. This may be motivated by the need to get a seat that provides the best visual clarity for the Deaf person.

Importance of technology

 * Like all other people, Deaf individuals rely on technology for communication significantly. In the United States, video relay services and an array of freestanding and software-driven video phones are often used by deaf people to conduct telephonic communication with hearing and deaf businesses, family and friends. Devices such as the teletype (known as a TTY, an electronic device used for communication over a telephone line) are far less common, but are used by some deaf people who are without access to high-speed Internet or have a preference for these methods for their telephonic communication.
 * Technology is even important in face-to-face social situations. For example, when deaf people meet a hearing person who does not know sign language, they often communicate via the notepad on their cell phones. Here, technology takes the place of a human sense, allowing deaf individuals to successfully communicate with different cultures.
 * Social media tends to be of great importance to deaf individuals. Networking sites allow deaf people to find each other and to remain in contact. Many deaf people have deaf friends throughout the entire country that they met or maintain contact with through online communities. Because of the relatively small size of the deaf community, compared to other communities, the stigma of meeting others online does not exist.
 * Closed Captioning must be available on a television in order for a deaf person to fully appreciate the audio portion of the broadcast. Conflicts arise when establishments such as restaurants, airlines, or fitness centers fail to accommodate deaf people by turning on Closed Captioning. Movie theaters are increasingly compliant with providing visual access to first-run movies through stand-alone devices, glasses and open caption technology which allow deaf people to attend movies as they are released.
 * Alert systems such as fire alarms and alarm clocks must appeal to different senses in order for a deaf individual to notice the alert. Objects such as vibrating pillows and flashing lights often take the place of the noise-based alarms.
 * Lack of understanding about technological accessibility for the deaf causes conflict and injustice for the deaf community. For example, a significant number of deaf individuals in the UK admit that they are dissatisfied with their banks because of their heavy reliance on telephone banking and lack of assistance to deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals.
 * Architecture that is conducive to signed communication minimizes visual obstructions and may include such things as automatic sliding doors to free up the hands for continuous conversation.

Literary traditions and the arts
A strong tradition of poetry and storytelling exists in American Sign Language and other sign languages. Some prominent performers in the United States include Clayton Valli, Ben Bahan, Ella Mae Lentz, Manny Hernandez, CJ Jones, Debbie Rennie, Patrick Graybill, Peter Cook, and many others. Their works are now increasingly available on video. Culturally Deaf people have also represented themselves in the dominant written languages of their nations.

Deaf artists such as Betty G. Miller and Chuck Baird have produced visual artwork that conveys a Deaf worldview. Douglas Tilden was a famous Deaf sculptor who produced many different sculptures in his lifetime. Some Deaf artists belong to an art movement called De'VIA, which stands for Deaf View Image Art.

Organizations such as the Deaf Professional Arts Network or D-PAN are dedicated to promoting professional development and access to the entertainment, visual and media arts fields for individuals who are deaf or hard-of-hearing.

Daily Moth was established by Alex Abenchuchan in 2017 to make the news accessible for Deaf ASL users.

History
In the United States, the Cobbs School, a deaf school in Virginia, was established in 1815. This school lasted only one and half years due to financial setbacks. American Deaf Community recounts the story of Laurent Clerc, a deaf educator, coming to the United States from France in 1817 to help found the first permanent school for deaf children in the country now named American School for the Deaf in Hartford, Connecticut. American School is the first official school for the deaf.

Another well-known event is the 1880 Second International Congress on Education of the Deaf in Milan, Italy, where hearing educators voted to embrace oral education and remove sign language from the classroom. This effort resulted in pressure around the world to abandon sign language in favor of the oral approach exclusively. The intent of the oralist method was to teach deaf children to speak and lip read with limited or no use of sign language in the classroom in order to make it easier for deaf children to integrate into hearing communities, but the benefits of learning in such an environment are disputed. The Milan conference recommendations were repudiated in Hamburg a century later, and sign languages in education came back into vogue after the publication of Stokoe's linguistic analyses of ASL.

Shared institutions
Deaf culture revolves around such institutions as residential schools for deaf students, universities for deaf students (including Gallaudet University and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf), deaf clubs, deaf athletic leagues, communal homes (such as The Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf-Mutes, founded by Jane Middleton, in New York City), deaf social organizations (such as the Deaf Professional Happy Hour), deaf religious groups, deaf theaters, and an array of conferences and festivals, such as the Deaf Way II Conference and Festival and the World Federation of the Deaf conferences.

Deaf clubs, popular in the 1940s and 1950s, were also an important part of deaf culture. During this time there were very few places that deaf people could call their own– places run by deaf people for deaf people. Films were made from the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf and included styles of performances such as Vaudeville show and short comedy skills. These films survived through the 1940s. Wolf Bragg, a popular Deaf club performer through 1930 is known for interpreting sign language into "The Monkey's Paw" and Auf Weidersehen. Deaf clubs were the solution to this need. Money was made by selling alcohol and hosting card games. Sometimes these ventures were so successful that the building used by the club was able to be purchased. The main attraction of these clubs was that they provided a place that deaf people could go to be around other deaf people, sometimes sharing stories, hosting parties, comedians, and plays. Many of today's common ABC stories were first seen at deaf clubs. The clubs were found in all of the major cities, New York City being home to at least 12. These clubs were an important break from their usually solitary day spent at factory jobs.

In the 1960s, deaf clubs began their quick and drastic decline. Today there are only a few spread-out deaf clubs found in the United States and their attendance is commonly small with a tendency to the elderly. This sudden decline is often attributed to the rise of technology like the TTY and closed captioning for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.

Others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of World War II and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new cities created the need for deaf clubs. When World War II ended and the civil rights movement progressed, the federal government started offering more jobs to deaf men and women. People began switching from manufacturing jobs to service jobs, moving away from solitary work with set hours. Today, deaf clubs are rare, but deaf advocacy centers and other deaf organizations have become widespread and popular.

African-American
National Black Deaf Advocates was established in 1982 "to promote the leadership development, economic and educational opportunities, social equality, and to safeguard the general health and welfare of Black deaf and hard-of-hearing people."

LGBT
There are several major institutions supporting the Deaf queer community in the United States. The Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf (RAD), previously named National Rainbow Society of the Deaf (NRSD), is a nonprofit established in America in 1977 to, "establish and maintain a society of Deaf LGBT". The RAD hosts an annual conference "to encourage and promote the educational, economical, and social welfare of Deaf LGBTQ individuals. RAD now has chapters in the United States and Canada. The Deaf Queer Resource Center (DQRC), was founded in 1995 founded by Drago Renteria and began as a website connects people to resources nationally. The DQRC is now a nonprofit that provides "peer support, support groups, information and referrals, educational workshops, work to increase visibility, educate on accessibility and preserve Deaf LGBT history."

Support and community groups for people with intersectional LGBGTQ+ identities in the Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled and Hard of Hearing communities using ASL are held regionally and virtually. Queer ASL is an educational platform taught virtually by Deaf queer instructors focused on educating queer and trans people in a safe space. Deaf queer events include Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf conferences, the Deaf Lesbian Festival, and Deaf Queer Men Only.

Internationally, institutions include the Hong Kong Bauhinias Deaf Club, Deaf LGBTW in Fukoaka, Tohoku, Tokyo, and Osaka, Pinoy Deaf Rainbow in the Philippines, Deaf Rainbow NSW in Australia, Deaf Rainbow UK, Rainbow International Deaf at Israel, and the Greenbow LGBT Society of Ireland.

Religious
There are deaf churches (where sign language is the main language), deaf synagogues, deaf Jewish community centers, and the Hebrew Seminary of the Deaf in Illinois. In 2011 the Conservative Movement unanimously passed the rabbinic responsa, "The Status of the Heresh [one who is deaf] and of Sign Language", by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS). This responsa declared that, among other things, "The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards rules that the deaf who communicate via sign language and do not speak are no longer to be considered mentally incapacitated. Jews who are deaf are responsible for observing mitzvot. Our communities, synagogues, schools, and camps must strive to be welcoming and accessible, and inclusive. Sign language may be used in matters of personal status and may be used in rituals. A deaf person called to the Torah who does not speak may recite the berakhot via sign language. A deaf person may serve as a shaliah tzibbur in sign language in a minyan whose medium of communication is sign language."

Women's
There are 15 chapters of Deaf Women United throughout the United States; its mission is, "to promote the lives of Deaf women through empowerment, enrichment, and networking." There is also Pink Wings of Hope, an American breast cancer support group for deaf and hard-of-hearing women.

Libraries
The library at Gallaudet University, the only deaf liberal arts university in the United States, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials, with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The collection is so large that the library had to create a hybrid classification system based on the Dewey Decimal Classification System in order to make cataloging and location within the library easier for both library staff and users. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.

The American Library Association, also founded in 1876, has stated that disabled people belong to a minority that is often overlooked and underrepresented by people in the library, and the Deaf community belongs in this minority group. The ALA's Library Bill of Rights preamble states that "all libraries are forums for information and ideas" and as such libraries need to remove the physical and technological barriers which in turn would allow persons with disabilities full access to the resources available.

One notable American activist in the library community working toward accessibility for the deaf was Alice Lougee Hagemeyer, herself deaf. In 1974 she created Deaf Awareness Week, later called Deaf Heritage Week, in which programs about deaf culture are held in libraries. In 1980 she founded the unit now known as the Library Service to People who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Forum, which is a unit within the American Library Association.

Australian librarian Karen McQuigg stated in 2003 that "even ten years ago, when I was involved in a project looking at what public libraries could offer the deaf, it seemed as if the gap between the requirements of this group and what public libraries could offer was too great for public libraries to be able to serve them effectively."

In 2006 the American Library Association and the (American) National Association of the Deaf declared that they would recognize March 13 to April 15 as National Deaf History Month.

New guidelines from library organizations such as International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and the ALA were written in order to help libraries make their information more accessible to people with disabilities, and in some cases, specifically the Deaf community. IFLA's Guidelines for Library Services to Deaf People is one such set of guidelines, and it was published to inform libraries of the services that should be provided for Deaf patrons. Most of the guidelines pertain to ensuring that Deaf patrons have equal access to all available library services. Other guidelines include training library staff to provide services for the Deaf community, availability of text telephones or TTYs not only to assist patrons with reference questions but also for making outside calls, using the most recent technology in order to communicate more effectively with Deaf patrons, including closed captioning services for any television services, and developing a collection that would interest the members of the Deaf community.

Over the years, library services have begun to evolve in order to accommodate the needs and desires of local Deaf communities. For example, at the Queens Borough Public Library (QBPL) in New York, the staff implemented new and innovative ideas in order to involve the community and library staff with the Deaf people in their community. The QBPL hired a deaf librarian, Lori Stambler-Dunsmore, to train the library staff about Deaf culture, to teach sign language classes for family members and people who are involved with deaf people, and to teach literacy classes for Deaf patrons. In working with the library, Stambler-Dunsmore was able to help the community reach out to its deaf neighbors, and helped other deaf people become more active in their outside community.

Services
The library at Gallaudet University, the only Deaf liberal arts university in the world, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The library created a hybrid classification system based on an extension of the Dewey decimal system because traditional Dewey was not fine-grained enough to handle thousands of books in relatively small classification areas such as audiology or Deaf communication. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.

In Nashville, Tennessee, Sandy Cohen manages the Library Services for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (LSDHH). The program was created in 1979 in response to information accessibility issues for the Deaf in the Nashville area. Originally, the only service provided was the news via a teletypewriter or TTY, but today, the program has expanded to serving the entire state of Tennessee by providing all different types of information and material on deafness, Deaf culture, and information for family members of Deaf people, as well as a historical and reference collection.

title: Deaf culture


text:
Seymour Geisser

Seymour Geisser (October 5, 1929 – March 11, 2004) was an American statistician noted for emphasizing predictive inference. In his book Predictive Inference: An Introduction, he held that conventional statistical inference about unobservable population parameters amounts to inference about things that do not exist, following the work of Bruno de Finetti. He also pioneered the theory of cross-validation.

With Samuel Greenhouse, he developed the Greenhouse–Geisser correction, which is now widely used in the analysis of variance to correct for violations of the assumption of compound symmetry.

He testified as an expert on interpretation of DNA evidence in more than 100 civil and criminal trials. He held that prosecutors often relied on flawed statistical models. On that topic, he wrote "Statistics, Litigation and Conduct Unbecoming" in the book Statistical Science in the Courtroom, edited by Joe [Joseph Louis] Gastwirth (Springer Verlag, 2000).

Biography
He was born in New York City. He earned his Ph.D. at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in 1955 under Harold Hotelling. In 1971, he founded the School of Statistics at the University of Minnesota, of which he was the Director for more than 30 years.

Books

 * Modes of Parametric Statistical Inference, Wiley, 2006
 * Modes of Parametric Statistical Inference, Wiley, 2006

Geisser was also the principal editor of several books of papers by multiple authors.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Seymour Geisser


text:
Serra dos Órgãos National Park

Serra dos Órgãos National Park (Parque Nacional da Serra dos Órgãos: "Organs Range") is a national park in the state of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. It protects the Serra dos Órgãos mountain range and the water sources in the range. It was the third national park to be created in Brazil.

Location
The Serra dos Órgãos National Park is located about a one-hour drive from the city of Rio de Janeiro. The BR-116 highway leads through the park. The origin of the unusual name is credited to early Portuguese settlers who thought the ensemble of the hill tops resembled the pipes of organs in European cathedrals. The park is part of the larger Serra do Mar chain of mountains, and the most accepted theory about its origin is that it rose about 60 million years ago during earthquakes that caused the Andes to rise. That means it is located in a geologically unstable location, although no incident has ever been recorded in the area.

The Park's area is 10527 ha. It has ten peaks higher than 2000 m and six other peaks over 1500 m high. The lowest point in the park is located in the relatively flat municipality of Magé, at 145 m. The highest peak is Pedra do Sino (Bell Rock), at 2263 m. The most famous formation in the park is the Dedo de Deus (God's Finger) peak, which resembles a left hand with its index finger stretched, pointing towards the sky. It is 1692 m high and can be seen in the background of the [[Media:Bandeira do estado do Rio de Janeiro.svg|flag]] of Rio de Janeiro state.

History
The Serra dos Órgãos National Park was created on 30 November 1939 as the third national park in Brazil. The purpose of the park was to protect the headwaters of the rivers that flow into the Fluminense basin, and to protect the spectacular mountains. The park was created by the government of Getúlio Vargas by decree law 1822 of 30 November 1939 with an area of about 9000 ha. It covered parts of the municipalities of Magé, Petrópolis and Teresópolis.

Various buildings and other infrastructure were built in the 1940s such as the natural swimming pool, administrative buildings, warehouses, garage, staff quarters and four shelters on the Trilha do Sino (Bell Trail). The park had about 250 employees, including waiters in the mountain shelters. In the 1960s, with the national capital transferred from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia, the park lost funding and the facilities were allowed to deteriorate. The shelters and some of the staff homes were lost.

Efforts were made to restore the park from 1980, including publication of the management plan and purchase of land to regularize the park's tenure. Decree 90023 of 2 August 1984 delimited the area of the park as 10527 ha. In the 1990s the municipality of Guapimirim was split off from Magé, and also contains the biggest part of the park. From the 1990s the old buildings have been restored and new ones built. The park was included in the Central Rio de Janeiro Atlantic Forest Mosaic, created in 2006.

Environment
The climate is tropical superhumid, with 80% to 90% relative humidity caused by moist air from the Atlantic most of the year. Average temperatures range from 13 to 23 C, but may reach 38 C and may fall below freezing in the highest parts. Average rainfall is 1700 to 3600 mm, with more rain in the summer (December to March) and a dry season in the winter from June to August. The south east side facing the ocean receives more rain than the north west side.

The park is in the Atlantic Forest biome, and due to the high rainfall has rich vegetation, much of it unique to this biome. More than 2,800 species of plant have been recorded including 360 of orchids and over 100 bromeliads. Up to 500 m the lower slopes are covered by typical lowland rainforest. From 500 to 1500 m the vegetation is montane forest, with significant variations depending on the conditions in each area. In many places the upper canopy is 25 to 30 m with emergent trees reaching up to 40 m. From 1500 to 2000 m there is cloud forest, typically trees of 5 to 10 m with crooked trunks covered in epiphytic moss and plants such as bromeliads and orchids. The understory has shrubs and the outcrops are populated by ferns and mosses. There are various endemic species. Above 2000 m the vegetation is high montane, with open fields and small woody shrubs. 347 species have been found in this environment of which 66 are endemic to this ecosystem. The park is one of the few natural habitats of species of Schlumbergera, which were developed into the colourful "Thanksgiving Cactus" and "Christmas Cactus", widely grown as house plants.

title: Serra dos Órgãos National Park


text:
Hickory Dickory Dock

"Hickory Dickory Dock" or "Hickety Dickety Dock" is a popular English-language nursery rhyme. It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 6489.

Lyrics and music
The most common modern version is: Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck one, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck two, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck three, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck four, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck five, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck six, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck seven, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck eight, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck nine, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck ten, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck eleven, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Hickory dickory dock. The mouse ran up the clock. The clock struck twelve, The mouse ran down, Hickory dickory dock.

Other variants include "down the mouse ran" or "down the mouse run" or "and down he ran" or "and down he run" in place of "the mouse ran down". Other variants have non sequential numbers, example The clock struck "ten", The mouse ran down instead of the traditional "one."

Origins and meaning
The earliest recorded version of the rhyme is in Tommy Thumb's Pretty Song Book, published in London in about 1744, which uses the opening line: 'Hickere, Dickere Dock'. The next recorded version in Mother Goose's Melody (c. 1765), uses 'Dickery, Dickery Dock'.

The rhyme is thought by some commentators to have originated as a counting-out rhyme. Westmorland shepherds in the nineteenth century used the numbers Hevera (8), Devera (9) and Dick (10) which are from the language Cumbric.

The rhyme is thought to have been based on the astronomical clock at Exeter Cathedral. The clock has a small hole in the door below the face for the resident cat to hunt mice.

title: Hickory Dickory Dock


text:
User:Junkyardprince

Hi there. Now go away.

title: User:Junkyardprince


text:
Extremal graph theory

Extremal graph theory is a branch of combinatorics, itself an area of mathematics, that lies at the intersection of extremal combinatorics and graph theory. In essence, extremal graph theory studies how global properties of a graph influence local substructure. Results in extremal graph theory deal with quantitative connections between various graph properties, both global (such as the number of vertices and edges) and local (such as the existence of specific subgraphs), and problems in extremal graph theory can often be formulated as optimization problems: how big or small a parameter of a graph can be, given some constraints that the graph has to satisfy? A graph that is an optimal solution to such an optimization problem is called an extremal graph, and extremal graphs are important objects of study in extremal graph theory.

Extremal graph theory is closely related to fields such as Ramsey theory, spectral graph theory, computational complexity theory, and additive combinatorics, and frequently employs the probabilistic method.

History
Mantel's Theorem (1907) and Turán's Theorem (1941) were some of the first milestones in the study of extremal graph theory. In particular, Turán's theorem would later on become a motivation for the finding of results such as the Erdős–Stone theorem (1946). This result is surprising because it connects the chromatic number with the maximal number of edges in an $$H$$-free graph. An alternative proof of Erdős–Stone was given in 1975, and utilised the Szemerédi regularity lemma, an essential technique in the resolution of extremal graph theory problems.

Graph coloring

A proper (vertex) coloring of a graph $$G$$ is a coloring of the vertices of $$G$$ such that no two adjacent vertices have the same color. The minimum number of colors needed to properly color $$G$$ is called the chromatic number of $$G$$, denoted $$\chi(G)$$. Determining the chromatic number of specific graphs is a fundamental question in extremal graph theory, because many problems in the area and related areas can be formulated in terms of graph coloring.

Two simple lower bounds to the chromatic number of a graph $$G$$ is given by the clique number $$\omega(G)$$—all vertices of a clique must have distinct colors—and by $$|V(G)|/\alpha(G)$$, where $$\alpha(G)$$ is the independence number, because the set of vertices with a given color must form an independent set.

A greedy coloring gives the upper bound $$\chi(G) \le \Delta(G) + 1$$, where $$\Delta(G)$$ is the maximum degree of $$G$$. When $$G$$ is not an odd cycle or a clique, Brooks' theorem states that the upper bound can be reduced to $$\Delta(G)$$. When $$G$$ is a planar graph, the four-color theorem states that $$G$$ has chromatic number at most four.

In general, determining whether a given graph has a coloring with a prescribed number of colors is known to be NP-hard.

In addition to vertex coloring, other types of coloring are also studied, such as edge colorings. The chromatic index $$\chi'(G)$$ of a graph $$G$$ is the minimum number of colors in a proper edge-coloring of a graph, and Vizing's theorem states that the chromatic index of a graph $$G$$ is either $$\Delta(G)$$ or $$\Delta(G)+1$$.

Forbidden subgraphs
The forbidden subgraph problem is one of the central problems in extremal graph theory. Given a graph $$G$$, the forbidden subgraph problem asks for the maximal number of edges $$\operatorname{ex}(n,G)$$ in an $$n$$-vertex graph that does not contain a subgraph isomorphic to $$G$$.

When $$G = K_r$$ is a complete graph, Turán's theorem gives an exact value for $$\operatorname{ex}(n,K_r)$$ and characterizes all graphs attaining this maximum; such graphs are known as Turán graphs. For non-bipartite graphs $$G$$, the Erdős–Stone theorem gives an asymptotic value of $$\operatorname{ex}(n, G)$$ in terms of the chromatic number of $$G$$. The problem of determining the asymptotics of $$\operatorname{ex}(n, G)$$ when $$G$$ is a bipartite graph is open; when $$G$$ is a complete bipartite graph, this is known as the Zarankiewicz problem.

Homomorphism density
The homomorphism density $$t(H, G)$$ of a graph $$H$$ in a graph $$G$$ describes the probability that a randomly chosen map from the vertex set of $$H$$ to the vertex set of $$G$$ is also a graph homomorphism. It is closely related to the subgraph density, which describes how often a graph $$H$$ is found as a subgraph of $$G$$.

The forbidden subgraph problem can be restated as maximizing the edge density of a graph with $$G$$-density zero, and this naturally leads to generalization in the form of graph homomorphism inequalities, which are inequalities relating $$t(H, G)$$ for various graphs $$H$$. By extending the homomorphism density to graphons, which are objects that arise as a limit of dense graphs, the graph homomorphism density can be written in the form of integrals, and inequalities such as the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and Hölder's inequality can be used to derive homomorphism inequalities.

A major open problem relating homomorphism densities is Sidorenko's conjecture, which states a tight lower bound on the homomorphism density of a bipartite graph in a graph $$G$$ in terms of the edge density of $$G$$.

Graph regularity

Szemerédi's regularity lemma states that all graphs are 'regular' in the following sense: the vertex set of any given graph can be partitioned into a bounded number of parts such that the bipartite graph between most pairs of parts behave like random bipartite graphs. This partition gives a structural approximation to the original graph, which reveals information about the properties of the original graph.

The regularity lemma is a central result in extremal graph theory, and also has numerous applications in the adjacent fields of additive combinatorics and computational complexity theory. In addition to (Szemerédi) regularity, closely related notions of graph regularity such as strong regularity and Frieze-Kannan weak regularity have also been studied, as well as extensions of regularity to hypergraphs.

Applications of graph regularity often utilize forms of counting lemmas and removal lemmas. In simplest forms, the graph counting lemma uses regularity between pairs of parts in a regular partition to approximate the number of subgraphs, and the graph removal lemma states that given a graph with few copies of a given subgraph, we can remove a small number of edges to eliminate all copies of the subgraph.

title: Extremal graph theory


text:
Talk:Royal Air Force

Proposed Merge from Royal Air Force Station page
I suggest that the Royal Air Force station page is merged with the 'Station' section within the Royal Air Force page. The RAF station article is essentially unsourced and what information it does contain is largely unencyclopaedic or would be better placed in and help improve the 'station' section of the main RAF page. Other parts of the page may be better suited to the List of Royal Air Force stations or List of former Royal Air Force stations pages. The main RAF page can then link directly to the two lists of RAF station pages rather than through this page. Thx811 (talk) 22:17, 21 December 2017 (UTC)
 * Support I have merged in a modest amount of information which is encyclopaedic and can be used. Dormskirk (talk) 11:55, 31 December 2017 (UTC)

Wikepedia entry for RAF.
The entry does not give the reasons for the formation of the RAF i.e. the Smuts Committee recommendation for the defence of London to be brought under one centre. Brotian's Radar and the Defeat of the Luftwaffe; D Zimmerman Amberley 2001 ISBN978-1-44561-1   IPR MD.  — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.23.171.254 (talk) 10:18, 5 April 2018 (UTC)

Move to Royal Air Force of the United Kingdom
To keep form with other so-called Royal Air Force (disambiguation) entities, which are several, and because there's no reason to regard one particular monarchist militia as the one and others as the lesser. If brevity is desired then United Kingdom Air Force is simple. The term "royal" is symbolic but not specific. -Inowen (nlfte) 23:58, 5 September 2018 (UTC)
 * or United Kingdom Royal Air Force

 * Oppose - Per WP:COMMONNAME, and as it is the actual name of the air force in English, and it is used more in English for the UK's air force than for any other "Royal Air Force". - BilCat (talk) 00:14, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * The argument above asserts that the binding between "Royal Air Force" with "United Kingdom Royal Air Force" is "common," when its not common in Saudi Arabia, for example, or Qatar, or other places which have a monarchy, where when they use the term "Royal" they mean their own royalty. And then the above user extends makes a linguistic imperialism argument where anyone who speaks English is also stuck with a queen, and the idea that whenever we say "royal" we mean "Royal" and then specifically the British. -Inowen (nlfte)
 * Totally irrelevant. - BilCat (talk) 01:26, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Agreed. - wolf  06:21, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - per WP:COMMONNAME. Whenever English language sources refer to the Royal Air Force it almost always, with few exceptions, refers to this RAF. Garuda28 (talk) 02:41, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - we've been over this like, a bah-zillion times, (like adding "British" to "Royal Navy"). Royal Air Force, Royal Navy and Royal Marines are all well-established as being British/UK as per commonname and sourcing. (Perhaps we could set up some kind of moratorium on these requests and maybe limit them to one a year... ) - wolf  06:21, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - This is an utter rubbish of a "suggestion" brought up once again. Nuff said~! -- Dave ♠♣♥♦™№1185©♪♫® 06:37, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - in agreement with above comments. -  L ÒÓ kingYourBest (Talk|Edits) 08:50, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - for reasons above. Dormskirk (talk) 10:46, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose particlarly for the "monarchist militia" showing bias, but mainly per other leave alone comments above. MilborneOne (talk) 14:38, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose as per WP:COMMONNAME and arguments already outlined above Thx811 (talk) 17:42, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose as per WP:COMMONNAME. The joy of all things (talk) 18:25, 6 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Oppose - WP:COMMONNAME governs here and this is by far the most common usage in English. - Ahunt (talk) 19:45, 6 September 2018 (UTC)

Nice job on the article.Cassell04 (talk) 20:00, 11 September 2018 (UTC)

The oldest independent air force in the world
The RAF was formed on April 1st, 1918. The Finnish Air Force was founded on March 6th, 1918. The FAF is almost one month older than the RAF, hence the oldest independent air force in the World. -Subjektivisti (talk) 19:56, 25 January 2019 (UTC)

 * Have you read the previous discussions at Talk:Royal Air Force/Archive 1 and Talk:Royal Air Force/Archive 2? --David Biddulph (talk) 20:29, 25 January 2019 (UTC)

 * No, I hadn't. Thank you for linking those discussions. It seems that we have to agree to disagree. I can't see the reason why being chronologically first an air force must have certain amount of aircraft or the commander's rank should be somewhat high enough or if the commander worked in cooperation with the army and/or with the navy. The independency is, however, the key matter here. Both the RAF and the FAF were independent branches of defence from the start. And this is why the British and the Finnish outdid the French and the rest of the World (Yay!). -Subjektivisti (talk) 14:47, 2 February 2019 (UTC)

It seems that the article has sometimes adopted a nationalist point of view as might be yours. Only telling the RAF or the FAF is the oldest national independant air force in the world is not the same that telling it became the first independant air force in the world or being one of the oldest air force, it is the oldest national independant one. In this post-colonial and post-brexit world, we need more than nationalism.-Chris — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.23.17.14 (talk) 15:54, 18 February 2021 (UTC)

"Roya Air Force station" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Roya Air Force station. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 May 5 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. Regards, SONIC  678  23:03, 5 May 2020 (UTC)

Space Command
The new article RAF Space Command needs to be linked in from existing articles, including this one of course. 2.25.230.56 (talk) 14:53, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * The sources say its UK Space Command and not part of the RAF though. Garuda28 (talk) 15:26, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Now corrected. Thanks. Dormskirk (talk) 15:31, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I think another editor just deleted the entire article, notwithstanding interest in the matter, without any discussion on notability, request for speedy deletion or PROD. For what it is worth, I think the command is notable and is likely to become very notable: views welcome. Dormskirk (talk) 15:50, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * The reversion to a redirect edit summary, "not a major command" is quite unjustified. A two-star's command, joint, dealing with this kind of sensitive issue, is unquestionably notable. But, most important, we're running afoul of WP:CRYSTAL: the only thing officially announced is the officer to be posted in as Commander, and brief details. It has not been established yet, nor an establishment date. Second, the entry should be at United Kingdom Space Command, as Air Commodore Paul Godfrey, when his promotion to Air Vice-Marshal is promulgated, will take up the post of Commander, United Kingdom Space Command (ref at Godfrey article). Buckshot06 (talk) 17:33, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Happy to see it at United Kingdom Space Command. Thanks for that. Dormskirk (talk) 17:37, 2 February 2021 (UTC)
 * I've added a starter United Kingdom Space Command section in Strategic Command (United Kingdom) where the other Joint Commands are listed. It is not clear from the RAF News announcement cite naming the commander if it will be called "United Kingdom Space Command", "UK Space Command" or just "Space Command" - all 3 are used; I guess we have to wait and see.  I've redirected existing UK Space Command and RAF Space Command to that section for now, rather than them unhelpfully going to the RAF article which does not explain Space Command.  Hope that's OK.  After doing that I discovered this discussion and that the history of UK Space Command redirect contains the start of an article, I've mostly reinvented - sorry. Rwendland (talk) 01:02, 22 February 2021 (UTC)::::
 * Between Godfrey's bio and the announcements it's crystal clear that it will be called United Kingdom Space Command. The other variants will be after first mention. See for example again this new event; UK Space Command is to be established on 1 April 2021. https://www.eventbrite.co.uk/e/in-conversation-with-the-uks-leading-space-commanders-tickets-145256739819. Buckshot06 (talk) 13:13, 10 March 2021 (UTC)
 * At what point do you think it makes sense for it to move out into its own article? I'm not as familiar with British Armed Forces structure, but I'm not sure its under Strategic Command like the other orgs listed, but also don't want it to be quite as much of a stub (though I have no doubts it'll grow fast). Garuda28 (talk) 00:32, 6 April 2021 (UTC)
 * I do not think there's enough information yet to create a separate article, but it does not appear to be under Strategic Command, rather, a joint service command, (1) under the auspices of the Royal Air Force/ (2) directly under Space Directorate MOD . But I'm vague about where I picked (1) up and it's not confirmed -- may have been in the online talk between Godfrey and AVM Harv Smith. Leave it where it is for the moment and keep adding material -- we can reassess when significant new material arises or in a month's time. Buckshot06 (talk) 07:57, 6 April 2021 (UTC)

has helpfully found this https://twitter.com/HarvSmyth/status/1356662328696201223

UK Space Cmd sits under the RAF and so has an RAF command chain. But it’s a Joint Command and the Cdr appt is competed Jointly. In addition UK StratCom’s equities as Cap Sponsor for MDI, ISR, PNT are enabled via the UK Space Cmd construct.

..which provides further information, though as a tweet it does not seemingly meet standards for WP:RS. I have copied this over from Talk:Strategic Command (United Kingdom) so the information is available for the discussion - it was a useful, good find. I have also found and referenced a February source which says UKSC will 'sit' under the Royal Air Force, seemingly at a roughly equivalent status to a group. Buckshot06 (talk) 07:37, 28 April 2021 (UTC)

"RAF" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect RAF. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2021 May 30 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. LenaAvrelia (talk) 22:37, 30 May 2021 (UTC)

"Air Seeker"
The main article Boeing RC-135 also uses this name supported by a few sources. Was this used only in the early days? Martinevans123 (talk) 19:21, 19 January 2022 (UTC)

First World War / Second World War v. World War I / World War II
WWI/WWII are the terms used in the vernacular and most modern educational settings in the U.K. “The Second World War” is an archaic term generally used by older people. Let’s keep history accessible to the young and the curious and avoid older terms purely for the sake of tradition. I’ll change it back, any major objections please discuss here first. 2A02:C7F:3A65:BE00:9CDA:E890:A407:7AC8 (talk) 23:05, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

 * An editor keeps changing "First World War" / "Second World War" to "World War I" / "World War II", both in this article and elsewhere. I appreciate that World War I / World War II are in widespread use in the US, but in the UK both the UK Government and UK Parliament still refer to First World War / Second World. See here and here so, in my view there is no need to change it. Dormskirk (talk) 23:08, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

 * This editor has now changed the terminology three times without consensus. Dormskirk (talk) 23:30, 11 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Please don’t be confrontational I am new here. WWII is the modern term used in schools even in the U.K.
 * sure the older generation still use Second World War but it sounds very archaic and is not used in conversation or in teaching. I think we should keep with modern terminology not past tradition for the sake of the youth who are studying.
 * I don’t know why you’re saying things about me like “without consensus” because I went straight to the talk page to explain my rationale as soon as someone asked me to. Thanks. 2A02:C7F:3A65:BE00:9CDA:E890:A407:7AC8 (talk) 23:54, 11 February 2023 (UTC)

 * As I have already explained above both the UK Government and the UK Parliament use "First World War" / "Second World War". I don't think it is helpful to suggest that those who take a different position to you are the "older generation". Securing consensus requires you persuade other editors of the merits of your case before you make the change a second time (see WP:BRD) and I for one am not persuaded. Dormskirk (talk) 00:01, 12 February 2023 (UTC)
 * Well I’m just saying that largely the Second World War term is a more dated expression which is naturally used by older people - nothing wrong with that it’s just natural evolution of language possibly because of transatlantic media influence I’m not sure. My only experience is as a teaching assistant and we refer to it for the children as world war 2 and in the same way we discuss it in the curriculum materials as WW2.
 * Just because a Parliamentarian used a term doesn’t mean it’s the best term to use in an educational setting like an encyclopaedia. I feel that we should be accessible to all and use the most recognisable term globally (as an international publication).
 * Would you be kind enough to give me a bit more detail about why you support continuing to describe the conflict as the (more multi syllabic) term instead of WWII? Best wishes 2A02:C7F:3A65:BE00:9CDA:E890:A407:7AC8 (talk) 00:08, 12 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Sure, quite about from the fact the "First World War" / "Second World War" are used by the UK Government and UK Parliament, my biggest concern is that the terminology is in widespread use across wikipedia (see British Army during the First World War and British Army during the Second World War) and this change would affect many articles: there would need to be widespread support from the wikipedia community for such a change. Best wishes. Dormskirk (talk) 00:16, 12 February 2023 (UTC)
 * OK well I shall defer to your greater experience of how Wikipedia works, just wanted to keep the content accessible to the young generation who would benefit most from it academically 2A02:C7F:3A65:BE00:9CDA:E890:A407:7AC8 (talk) 01:23, 12 February 2023 (UTC)v

Flags in infobox
An editor keeps adding flags to the infobox contrary to MOS:INFOBOXFLAG. In my opinion, we should comply with that guideline. Dormskirk (talk) 15:28, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

 * That is me. I see your point about the MOS:INFOBOXFLAG] guidelines, however I believe that they should be allowed. They are visual information that allow further accessibility to the somewhat bland infobox. Furthermore, flag icons are a widespread technique in infoboxes, regardless of what the guidelines say. A good example of this is the [[United States Air Force page, which features a national flag and individual flags for the commanding officers. I think you will find that this infobox is a huge amount more visually interesting and in no way affects the transfer of information. In my opinion, my flag icons (national flag, commander flags and organisation flags) should be reinstated. Please have a look at the earlier version of the page to see what it would look like. Cheers. J.Weir3 (talk) 17:03, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

 * I have seen your earlier version and still believe that the guideline should be complied with. Dormskirk (talk) 18:38, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I understand that you think this, but it is in the name; guidelines, not a rule. A vast number of other pages have flag icons in the infoboxes so this page would not be an ‘outlaw’. I believe adding flag icons will massively improve the overall appearance of the infobox; I know the same can be said about the United States Air Force infobox. I invite any other editors to share their opinion on the matter. J.Weir3 (talk) 19:27, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * No flags. BilCat (talk) 19:38, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * No flags. No flags. No flags. --McSly (talk) 19:41, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * May I tempt you with a small, 25px Union Jack next to ‘United Kingdom’? J.Weir3 (talk) 20:24, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * You have a flag on your user page infobox… J.Weir3 (talk) 20:26, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I have one national flag, not a flag on every other line. One national flag would be acceptable here too. BilCat (talk) 21:28, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Ok thanks for that J.Weir3 (talk) 22:25, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * According to editor @Oknazevad, the use of multiple flags in the infobox is ‘Military representing the country. Flags are correct and appropriate.’ and that they are a ‘military exception’ and to ‘actually read the guidelines’. Is that enough support/evidence to allow their use here? J.Weir3 (talk) 22:37, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * They've been part of these infoboxes forever, and it is usually understood that at least the country flag is an appropriate use for an entity that actively represents the country in an international sphere. We could ditch the things like flags for secretaries or chiefs off staff with no issue, but to remove the national flag is not what was ever intended. And the idea that the guideline bans something that's always been a part of the infobox tells me that the guideline needs to be changed to reflect actual practice, which guidelines are supposed to summarize, not dictate. oknazevad (talk) 22:43, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you very much for that; well said. J.Weir3 (talk) 22:48, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I see J.Weir3 has now re-inserted flags. I am aware that a couple of editors have voiced support for J.Weir3's position but that does not imply consensus. My reading of MOS:INFOBOXFLAG is that "Generally, flag icons should not be used in infoboxes, even when there is a "country", "nationality" or equivalent field: they could be unnecessarily distracting and might give undue prominence to one field among many." It does go on to say that "Examples of acceptable exceptions include infobox templates for military conflicts". However this article is about a military organisation, the RAF, not a military conflict i.e. battle. Views from other editors welcome. Dormskirk (talk) 12:57, 16 April 2023 (UTC)
 * The use of flags in military infoboxes has long standing precedence. I support it. Garuda28 (talk) 13:47, 16 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Yep, they've been there a long time. I don't see a need a to make mass unnecessary changes just for the sake of some guideline. - w o lf  18:34, 16 April 2023 (UTC)
 * I would support the inclusion of the national flag only, as that would seem consistent with how countries are displayed when featured in most infoboxes. The flags associated with commanders just adds clutter to what is becoming a very long infobox and in the case of the RAF commanders listed, the flag is just the same one repeated over and over for no real benefit. Thx811 (talk) 14:56, 16 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Sorry, that was an earlier version I believe. The latest version includes individual flags, eg ACM, AM, WO of the RAF etc. J.Weir3 (talk) 15:31, 16 April 2023 (UTC)

Contradiction
Currently the lead says the RAF is the second-oldest independent air force and the body says it is the oldest. I see that this has been discussed plenty before, but whatever the outcome I find it intolerable that the article has been left disagreeing with itself and I wonder why the last editor responsible didn't try for consistency. Is this worth one of those FAQ-ish notes at the top of the Talk page? DBaK (talk) 08:04, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree that it should be consistent: there is a lot of evidence here that it is second-oldest independent air force, although some editors have argued otherwise (on the basis that the Finnish Air Force, which was founded earlier, was not truly independent). Dormskirk (talk) 18:26, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I have amended the main text to make it consistent with the lead. It may need further amendment but let's do that in both places (the lead and the main text) to maintain consistency. Dormskirk (talk) 18:12, 2 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the edit and for your helpful response here. I don't feel qualified to have an opinion on the question itself, and what I see of previous discussions suggests that some other editors find it somewhat complex; but I am very happy that the article is restored to consistency! DBaK (talk) 18:37, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Royal Air Force


text:
Triumph the Insult Comic Dog

Triumph the Insult Comic Dog is a puppet character created, puppeteered, and voiced by actor/comedian/director Robert Smigel. As his name indicates, Triumph's comedic style is almost exclusively insult comedy. A Montenegrin Mountain Hound, Triumph often is seen with a cigar in his mouth, which usually falls out of it when he starts talking. He first appeared in 1997 on NBC's Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and also appeared on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien from time to time, as well as the short-lived TV Funhouse, TBS's Conan, Adult Swim's The Jack and Triumph Show, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert, and The Daily Show. Smigel and Triumph have been ejected from several events for Triumph's antics, including the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, the Honolulu line for auditions for American Idol, and the 2004 Democratic National Convention (while shooting an aborted movie project).

Creation and debut
The dog puppet was found, in an assortment of animal puppets, at a country furniture store, by Robert Smigel and his newlywed-wife, which Smigel used in-store to jokingly "smell" his newlywed-wife's rear end. She bought an assortment of seven of those animal puppets, and later presented them to Smigel as a birthday gift.

For four years, Late Night with Conan O'Brien had done remote segments parodying the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show.

On 13 February 1997, Triumph, the character, created by Robert Smigel, was first used for a segment on Late Night with Conan O'Brien parodying the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, where Triumph (Ch. Triumph's Honor of Whitehall, Yugoslavian Mountain Hound) appeared as a Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show winner (Hound division) in a vaudeville stage, with an Insult Comic talent, telling "for me to poop on" jokes. later used in post-interview segments with ill-informed guests.

Triumph speaks with a nebulous Eastern European accent, which Smigel based on his grandparents who were immigrants from Russia.

Triumph first became a "viral video" at iFilm.

Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show
In 1999, Jordan Schlansky    and the Triumph entourage crashed the 123rd annual Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show at Madison Square Garden, New York City, and after some video shooting, was later ejected by security guards.

Star Wars
In May 2002, Triumph paid a visit to Star Wars fans lining up for the premiere of Star Wars: Episode II – Attack of the Clones outside the Ziegfeld Theater in New York, airing 2002-05-17, mocking their actions and stereotypical nerd culture. Notable moments include a wedding that took place at the line, and the appearances of Blackwolf the Dragonmaster (Richard Washington),   a real-life fantasy gaming fan and the "Unofficial Wizard of New York", and Spock who gave everyone the finger. Smigel has said "It's still the Triumph sketch I hear the most about and I'd say it's still the best. The simplest explanation is that it features the funniest straight men Triumph's ever encountered. So you're laughing not only at the jokes but the faces, the costumes and committment [sic]. There's so much to enjoy."

Space Ghost Coast to Coast
In 2004, Triumph appeared as the guest star on the hit Adult Swim series Space Ghost Coast to Coast in the episode "Dreams". Triumph offhandedly mentions having anal sex with Lassie, which causes friction between Space Ghost and Moltar over such topics being brought up on television.

MTV Video Music Awards and incident with Eminem
In 2001 and 2002, Triumph appeared in the audience at the MTV Video Music Awards. In 2001, Triumph interviewed Carson Daly before spotting Jennifer Lopez and asking if he could sniff her butt.

In 2002, Triumph interviewed Moby before spotting Eminem, who covered Triumph with his hand, saying "I already got my TV time". Triumph was then shoved away by Eminem's bodyguards. The following day, Triumph appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien, and gave a press conference about the incident while wearing a neck brace. Triumph later appeared in Eminem's music video for "Ass Like That", and at the 2004 MTV Video Music Awards, Eminem began his performance by voicing a lookalike puppet.

2004 presidential campaign
Triumph filmed a number of segments during the 2004 US presidential election cycle. In November 2003, in the early days of the 2004 U.S. presidential primary campaign, Triumph was the "lead guest" on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno the same night that Democratic candidate John Kerry also appeared on the show. Kerry made a dramatic entry, riding his Harley-Davidson motorcycle onto the stage; but Triumph, in characteristic style, poked fun at him with a series of scathingly rude remarks, to Kerry's evident discomfort. (Among his jibes: "The poop I made in the dressing room had more heat than John Kerry!")

In July and August 2004, Triumph followed up with visits to both major parties' national conventions. During the Democratic National Convention in Boston (from which he was ejected), Triumph and Michael Moore attempted to crash Bill O'Reilly's set. O'Reilly, having his makeup applied at the time, shouted, "If I have to come out there, Insult Dog, you're gonna be talking a lot higher than you are now." He also gained entry to the Republican convention in New York, and even debated actor Ron Silver during the wrap-up on MSNBC.

2008 presidential election
In September 2008, Triumph traveled to St. Paul, Minnesota to attend that year's Republican National Convention, where he filed a series of reports as he joked around with delegates inside the hall and protesters in the streets outside the convention. He also conducted a $6 1/2$-minute interview (at a hotel across the street) with independent candidate Ralph Nader.

In October 2008, Triumph made an appearance at Hofstra University in Hempstead, New York during the final presidential debate between John McCain and Barack Obama. He interviewed and made jokes with political party supporters and with other members of the press, including the host of Fox News Channel's On the Record with Greta Van Susteren, making a surprise appearance on her show with Mr. Met, the mascot of the New York Mets.

The Jack and Triumph Show
Triumph was a main character in the short-lived Adult Swim series The Jack and Triumph Show with Jack McBrayer and June Squibb. It premiered on February 20, 2015, and lasted until April 3, 2015.

2016 and 2020 presidential elections
In February 2016, Triumph starred in Triumph's Election Special 2016, sponsored by Hulu and Funny or Die, traveling on the election trail. The program was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Variety Special. In November 2016, after the election of Donald Trump as president, Triumph appeared on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert to discuss Trump's victory. In November 2018, Triumph covered the Texas Senate campaign between Ted Cruz and Beto O'Rourke for The Late Show. In February 2020, Triumph appeared on The Late Show to attempt to interview congresspeople during the first Trump impeachment trial. After holding up a sign behind Senator Lindsey Graham during a CNN interview, he was escorted out of the building before finishing the segment outside.

2022 U.S. Capitol arrest
In June 2022, Smigel and six staffers from The Late Show with Stephen Colbert were arrested by the United States Capitol Police for an alleged unlawful entry in the Longworth House Office Building while filming a segment with Triumph during the January 6 Attack hearings.

Trademark lawsuit
In 1999, after Triumph accused Pets.com's sock puppet mascot of being a "rip-off" of Triumph on television shows, in print media, online, and in a letter, the company sent lawsuit threats and cease and desist letters to Smigel claiming "unfair competition, dilution and potentially tortious interference with contract in violation of federal and state laws" and the following year filed a lawsuit against Late Night and Smigel. The bankruptcy and closing of the company during the dot-com bust of 2000 ended the lawsuit. Triumph humped the Pets.com dog in a bathroom during a segment of Late Night as an act of revenge.

Discography
Triumph's 2003 album, Come Poop with Me, was released by Warner Bros. Records, and featured adult comedy and songs, plus a bonus DVD of live performances by Triumph. The album was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Album. Appearing with Triumph on the album and the DVD were singer-actor Jack Black, comic actor Adam Sandler, Saturday Night Live cast members Maya Rudolph and Horatio Sanz; Blackwolf the Dragonmaster from the Star Wars skit; and Conan O'Brien. Notable songs include "I Keed", "Underage Bichon", "Lick Myself" and "Cats are Cunts".

On August 10, 2004, NBC released a DVD, Late Night with Conan O'Brien: The Best of Triumph, the Insult Comic Dog featuring select Triumph appearances from Late Night.

title: Triumph the Insult Comic Dog


text:
Transplant rejection

Transplant rejection occurs when transplanted tissue is rejected by the recipient's immune system, which destroys the transplanted tissue. Transplant rejection can be lessened by determining the molecular similitude between donor and recipient and by use of immunosuppressant drugs after transplant.

Types
Transplant rejection can be classified into three types: hyperacute, acute, and chronic. These types are differentiated by how quickly the recipient's immune system is activated and the specific aspect or aspects of immunity involved.

Hyperacute rejection
Hyperacute rejection is a form of rejection that manifests itself in the minutes to hours following transplantation. It is caused by the presence of pre-existing antibodies in the recipient that recognize antigens in the donor organ. These antigens are located on the endothelial lining of blood vessels within the transplanted organ and, once antibodies bind, will lead to the rapid activation of the complement system. Irreversible damage via thrombosis and subsequent graft necrosis is to be expected. Tissue left implanted will fail to work and could lead to high fever and malaise as the immune system acts against foreign tissue.

Graft failure secondary to hyperacute rejection has significantly decreased in incidence as a result of improved pre-transplant screening for antibodies to donor tissues. While these preformed antibodies may result from prior transplants, prior blood transfusions, or pregnancy, hyperacute rejection is most commonly from antibodies to ABO blood group antigens. Consequently, transplants between individuals with differing ABO blood types is generally avoided though may be pursued in very young children (generally under 12 months, but often as old as 24 months) who do not have fully developed immune systems. Shortages of organs and the morbidity and mortality associated with being on transplant waitlists has also increased interest in ABO-incompatible transplantation in older children and adults.

Acute rejection
Acute rejection is a category of rejection that occurs on the timescale of weeks to months, with most episodes occurring within the first 3 months to 1 year after transplantation. Unlike hyperacute rejection, acute rejection is thought to arise from two distinct immunological mechanisms as lymphocytes, a subset of white blood cells, begin to recognize antigens on transplanted organ/graft. This recognition occurs due to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), which are proteins on cell surface that are presented to the T-cell receptor found on T-cells. In humans, this is known as the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) system and over 17,000 HLA alleles or genetic variants have been described such that it is extremely uncommon for any two people to have identical alleles. Other non-HLA proteins, known as minor histocompatibility antigens, do exist but generally are unable to cause acute rejection in and of themselves unless a multitude of non-HLA proteins are mismatched. As such, HLA matching (in addition to matching ABO groups) is critical in preventing acute rejection.

This process of recognition by T-cells can happen directly or indirectly and lead to acute cellular and acute humoral rejection respectively. Direct allorecognition is a phenomenon within transplant immunology where the dendritic cells, which are the body's antigen-presenting cells (APCs), migrate from donor tissue to lymphoid tissue (lymphoid follicles and lymph nodes) in the recipient and present their MHC peptides to recipient lymphocytes. In comparison, indirect allorecognition is more analogous to how foreign antigens are recognized by the immune system. Dendritic cells of the recipient come across peptides from donor tissue whether in circulation, lymphoid tissue, or in donor tissue itself. Since not the result of direct antigen presentation, these may not necessarily be intact MHC molecules but instead other proteins that are deemed different enough from recipient may engender a response. This process leads to the priming of T-cells to respond to the peptides secondarily going forward. A third semi-direct pathway has been described in which recipient APCs present fully intact donor MHCs, yet its relative contribution to acute rejection is not as well understood.

Acute cellular rejection occurs following direct allorecognition of mismatched donor MHC by cytotoxic T-cells that begin to secrete cytokines to recruit more lymphocytes as well as cause apoptosis or cell death directly. The greater the difference in MHC between donor and recipient, the more cytotoxic T-cells are recruited to damage the graft, which may be seen via biopsy in solid organ transplants, with increased lymphocyte infiltration indicative of more severe acute cellular rejection. Acute humoral rejection is a process usually initiated by indirect allorecognition arising from recipient helper T-cells. These helper T-cells have a crucial role in the development of B-cells that can create donor-specific antibodies. The antibodies deposit themselves within the donor graft and lead to activation of the complement cascade alongside antibody-mediated cytotoxicity with neutrophils, a type of white blood cell separate from lymphocytes, predominantly infiltrating into tissues.

Barring genetically identical twins, acute rejection is to be expected to some degree. Rates of clinically significant acute rejection that could endanger transplant have decreased significantly with the development of immunosuppressive regimens. Using kidney transplants as an example, rates of acute rejection have declined from >50% in the 1970s to 10-20%. Singular episodes of acute rejection, when promptly treated, should not compromise transplant; however, repeated episodes may lead to chronic rejection.

Chronic rejection
Chronic rejection is an insidious form of rejection that leads to graft destruction over the course of months, but most often years after tissue transplantation. The mechanism for chronic rejection is yet to be fully understood, but it is known that prior acute rejection episodes are the main clinical predictor for the development of chronic rejection. In particular, the incidence increases following severe or persistent acute rejection, whereas acute rejection episodes with return to function back to baseline do not have major effects on graft survival. Chronic rejection is generally thought of as being related to either vascular damage or parenchymal damage with subsequent fibrosis. While it is unknown the exact contribution of the immune system in these processes, the indirect pathway of allorecognition and the associated antibody formation seems to be especially involved.

Chronic rejection has widely varied effects on different organs. At 5 years post-transplant, 80% of lung transplants, 60% of heart transplants and 50% of kidney transplants are affected, while liver transplants are only affected 10% of the time. Therefore, chronic rejection explains long-term morbidity in most lung-transplant recipients, the median survival roughly 4.7 years, about half the span versus other major organ transplants. Airflow obstruction not ascribable to other cause is labeled bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (BOS), confirmed by a persistent drop—three or more weeks—in forced expiratory volume (FEV1) by at least 20%. First noted is infiltration by lymphocytes, followed by epithelial cell injury, then inflammatory lesions and recruitment of fibroblasts and myofibroblasts, which proliferate and secrete proteins forming scar tissue. A similar phenomenon can be seen with liver transplant wherein fibrosis leads to jaundice secondary to the destruction of bile ducts within the liver, also known as vanishing bile duct syndrome.

Rejection due to non-adherence
One principal reason for transplant rejection is non-adherence to prescribed immunosuppressant regimens. This is particularly the case with adolescent recipients, with non-adherence rates near 50% in some instances.

A pilot study conducted by Michael O. Killian PhD from Florida State University and Dr. Dipankar Gupta from University of Florida published in April 2022 in Pediatric Transplantation studied the acceptability and feasibility of an asynchronous directly observed therapy mobile health application among adolescent heart transplant recipients. Patients in the study utilized emocha Health's digital medication adherence program which included asynchronous video messages and chat messages exchanged with a care team. Patients completing the study achieved a 90.1% adherence rate. The researchers noted that further randomized trials are required to confirm the initial findings. However, the results were very promising considering few options exist to support pediatric patients in taking their medications.

Rejection detection
Diagnosis of acute rejection relies on clinical data—patient signs and symptoms but also calls on laboratory data such as blood or even tissue biopsy. The laboratory pathologist generally seeks three main histological signs: (1) infiltrating T cells, perhaps accompanied by infiltrating eosinophils, plasma cells, and neutrophils, particularly in telltale ratios, (2) structural compromise of tissue anatomy, varying by tissue type transplanted, and (3) injury to blood vessels. Tissue biopsy is restricted, however, by sampling limitations and risks/complications of the invasive procedure. Cellular magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of immune cells radiolabeled in vivo might—similarly to Gene Expression Profiling (GEP)—offer noninvasive testing.

Rejection treatment
Hyperacute rejection manifests severely and within minutes, and so treatment is immediate: removal of the tissue. Acute rejection is treated with one or several of a few strategies. Despite treatment, rejection remains a major cause of transplant failure. Chronic rejection is generally considered irreversible and poorly amenable to treatment—only retransplant generally indicated if feasible—though inhaled ciclosporin is being investigated to delay or prevent chronic rejection of lung transplants.

Immunosuppressive therapy
A short course of high-dose corticosteroids can be applied, and repeated. Triple therapy adds a calcineurin inhibitor and an anti-proliferative agent. Where calcineurin inhibitors or steroids are contraindicated, mTOR inhibitors are used.

Immunosuppressive drugs:
 * Corticosteroids
 * Prednisolone
 * Hydrocortisone
 * Calcineurin inhibitors
 * Ciclosporin
 * Tacrolimus
 * Anti-proliferatives
 * Azathioprine
 * Mycophenolic acid
 * mTOR inhibitors
 * Sirolimus
 * Everolimus

Antibody-based treatments
Antibody specific to select immune components can be added to immunosuppressive therapy. The monoclonal anti-T cell antibody OKT3, once used to prevent rejection, and still occasionally used to treat severe acute rejection, has fallen into disfavor, as it commonly brings severe cytokine release syndrome and late post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder. (OKT3 is available in the United Kingdom for named-patient use only.)

Antibody drugs:
 * Monoclonal anti-IL-2Rα receptor antibodies
 * Basiliximab
 * Daclizumab
 * Monoclonal anti-IL-6R receptor antibodies
 * Tocilizumab
 * Polyclonal anti-T-cell antibodies
 * Anti-thymocyte globulin (ATG)
 * Anti-lymphocyte globulin (ALG)
 * Monoclonal anti-CD20 antibodies
 * Rituximab

Blood transfer
Cases refractory to immunosuppressive or antibody therapy are sometimes treated with photopheresis, or extracorporeal photoimmune therapy (ECP), to remove antibody molecules specific to the transplanted tissue.

Marrow transplant
Bone marrow transplant can replace the transplant recipient's immune system with the donor's, and the recipient accepts the new organ without rejection. The marrow's hematopoietic stem cells—the reservoir of stem cells replenishing exhausted blood cells including white blood cells forming the immune system—must be of the individual who donated the organ or of an identical twin or a clone. There is a risk of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD), however, whereby mature lymphocytes entering with marrow recognize the new host tissues as foreign and destroy them.

Gene therapy
Gene therapy is another method that can be used. In this method, the genes that cause the body to reject transplants would be deactivated. Research is still being conducted, and no gene therapies are being used to date to treat patients. Current research tends to focus on Th1 and Th17 which mediate allograft rejection via the CD4 and CD8 T cells.

title: Transplant rejection