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November-class submarine

The November class, Soviet designation Project 627 Kit (Кит, NATO reporting name November) was the Soviet Union's first class of nuclear-powered attack submarines, which were in service from 1958 through 1990. All but one have been disposed of, with the K-3, the first nuclear-powered submarine built for the Soviet Navy, being preserved as a memorial ship in Saint Petersburg.

History
This class of submarines was built as a result of a 1952 requirement to build an attack submarine with the ability to fire nuclear-tipped torpedoes at coastal American cities.

More than 135 Soviet organizations (20 design bureaus, 35 research institutes, 80 works) participated in the design and construction of this completely new type of submarine in 1952–1958. The chief designer was V.N. Peregudov and the research supervisor was academician A.P. Alexandrov. The class was originally tasked with entering American naval bases and using the battery-powered T-15 torpedo with thermonuclear warhead, to destroy them once in range. (The T-15 torpedo had the following specifications: calibre 1,550 mm, length 23.5 m, range 40–50 km.) However, after expert opinions of Soviet naval specialists were considered, the role of the class changed to torpedo attacks on enemy warships and transport ships during actions along the ocean and distant sea routes. Reflecting this change of mission, the final design of Project 627 was developed with eight 533 mm torpedo tubes instead of the initial plan for one 1,550 mm and two 533 mm torpedo tubes. Project 627/627A submarines could launch torpedoes from 100 m depth. By 1963 this class was still in service but had been overtaken by later technology.

Description
The November class were double-hulled submarines with streamlined stern fins and nine compartments (I – bow torpedo, II – living and battery, III – central station, IV – diesel-generator, V – reactor, VI – turbine, VII – electromechanic, VIII – living, IX – stern). Three compartments equipped with bulkheads to withstand 10 atm pressure could be used as emergency shelters.

The November-class attack submarines were considerably noisier than diesel submarines and the early American nuclear-powered submarines, despite the streamlined torpedo-like hull, limited number of holes in the hull, special low-noise variable-pitch propellers, vibration dampening of main equipment, and antisonar coating of the hull (used for the first time on nuclear-powered submarines). Soviet reactors were superior to American ones in compactness and power-to-weight ratio, but the vibrations of Soviet reactors were much more pronounced. Novembers detected submarine targets during active service (for example, there were 42 detections in 1965 when regular cruises of Soviet nuclear-powered submarines began). The Soviet hydroacoustic equipment on the Novembers was not intended for submarine hunting, and had relatively limited capabilities.

The reliability of the first Soviet nuclear-powered submarines was relatively low because of the short service life of the steam generators in the main propulsion machinery, which caused an increase of the radioactivity level in the second loop of the reactor after several hundred hours of reactor operation. Machinery problems were the main reason why Project 627/627A submarines were not used during the Cuban Missile Crisis in autumn 1962. The reliability of the steam generators became better over the course of construction development, handling technical problems and training of crews, so Novembers began to frequently perform Arctic under-ice cruises and patrol missions to trace nuclear delivery vessels in Atlantic Ocean in the 1960s. Despite the common opinion about the dangers of radiation in the first Novembers, the background radiation levels in the compartments was usually normal because of relatively effective iron-water radiation protection of the reactor compartment and radiation monitoring.

The first submarine of the class (Project 627), K-3 Leninskiy Komsomol was first underway under nuclear power on 4 July 1958 and became also the first Soviet submarine to reach the North Pole in July 1962, four years after USS Nautilus (SSN-571). Project 627 had much better performance specifications (for example, submerged speed and depth) than the world's first operational nuclear-powered submarine USS Nautilus. The first commander of K-3 Leninskiy Komsomol was Captain 1st Rank L.G. Osipenko (future admiral and Hero of the Soviet Union).

All other Novembers except K-3 Leninskiy Komsomol belonged to modified project – project 627A. The main visual differences of project 627A were a bow sonar dome in the keel and a hydrophone antenna over the torpedo tubes. The Project P627A design armed with nuclear cruise missile system P-20 was developed in 1956–1957 but not finished, equipment and mechanisms were used for building the usual attack submarine of project 627A (submarine K-50).

A single vessel, submarine K-27, was built as project 645 to use a pair of liquid metal-cooled VT-1 reactors. K-27 was launched on 1 April 1962 and had some additional differences from Novembers: cone-shaped hull head, new antimagnetic strong steel alloys, somewhat different configuration of compartments, and a rapid loading mechanism for each torpedo tube. A liquid metal-cooled reactor had better efficiency than the water-cooled VM-A reactor, but technical maintenance of liquid metal cooled reactors in naval base was much more complicated.

Service history
The November class served in the Soviet Navy with the Northern Fleet (in 3rd submarine division, later in 17th submarine division). Four of the class (K-14, K-42, K-115, K-133) were transferred to the Soviet Pacific Fleet in the 1960s: K-14, K-42 and K-115 performed Arctic under-ice voyages whereas K-133 transferred to Far East on south route via Drake Strait (covering 21,000 miles during 52 days of submerged running). The surviving vessels were decommissioned between 1986 and 1990. Several of them have been scrapped already. All of the survivors remain laid-up hulks in Russian naval bases (K-14, K-42, K-115 and K-133 of the Pacific Fleet; K-11 and K-21 of the Northern Fleet). There are plans to convert the first submarine of the class (K-3) into a museum ship in St. Petersburg, but the hulk of the submarine remains in Polyarny due to economic reasons and the environmental concerns of some ecological organizations.

Units
The November class included 14 submarines: Project 627 (K-3 Leninskiy Komsomol), Project 627A (K-5, K-8, K-11, K-14, K-21, K-42 Rostovskiy Komsomolets, K-50, K-52, K-115, K-133, K-159, K-181), Project 645 (K-27). K stands for Kreyserskaya podvodnaya lodka (literally "Cruising submarine").

K-3
Later named Leninskiy Komsomol. The only submarine of the class built to the original Project 627 design. Construction began at SEVMASH Shipyard, Severodvinsk, in June 1954. The keel was laid on 24 September 1955. Launched on 9 August 1957. First underway on nuclear power 4 June 1958. 17 January 1959 the unit was given to the Navy for experimental use.

There was a serious accident on board K-3 on 8 September 1967. The submarine was performing a patrol mission in the Mediterranean Sea and a hydraulic system fire occurred in compartment one on the 56th day of the cruise at a depth of 49 m during the return home. This occurred north-east of the Faeroes and 39 sailors died due to carbon monoxide poisoning (boatswain Lunya was the only person in the central station who didn't black out. He surfaced the submarine and rescued the commander and second-in-command who organized damage control). The submarine reached base successfully. K-3 performed 14 long range cruises and passed 128,443 miles over 30 years (1958–1988).

K-5
Laid down 13 August 1956. Launched 1 September 1958. Commissioned 26 December 1959.

K-8
Laid down 9 September 1957. Launched 31 May 1959. Commissioned 31 December 1959.

On 12 April 1970, after four days on the surface, K-8 sank returning from patrol and participation in the large scale "Okean-70" naval exercise. The accident occurred due to short circuits that took place in III and VII compartments simultaneously at a depth of 120 m and a subsequent fire in the air-conditioning system. This was the first loss of a Soviet nuclear-powered submarine. 52 sailors including the commander, Captain 2nd Rank Vsevolod Borisovich Bessonov, died due to poisoning and the flooding of the surfaced submarine during 80 hours of damage control in stormy conditions, 73 sailors were rescued. K-8 sank with four nuclear torpedoes on board at a depth of 4,680 m (Bay of Biscay).. There were also three small incidents with K-8 whilst on patrol before (breakdowns of steam generators in 1960–1961).

K-14
K-14 was laid down on 2 September 1958, launched on 16 August 1959, and commissioned 30 December 1959. K-14 entered service with the Northern Fleet (given to 206th separate brigade of nuclear submarines, based in Malaya Lopatka of Zapadnaya Litsa Fjord) on 31 August 1960. The submarine performed 9 cruises in 1960 (passed 1,997 miles up-top and 11,430 miles submerged), including patrol mission in Atlantic Ocean. In view of reforming of submarine units K-14 was given to 3rd division of nuclear submarines which was a part of 1st submarine flotilla in January 1961. The submarine performed 4 cruises in 1961 (passed 1,356 miles up-top and 1,967 miles submerged).

The first experimental discharging of reactor cores directly in the naval base was made on K-14 in 1961. The reactor compartment was replaced in 1962 because of a breakdown of reactor protection systems.

The submarine performed under-ice cruise from the Northern Fleet to the Pacific Ocean Fleet between 30 August and 17 September 1966, K-14 resurfaced 19 times at the North Pole for searches the Soviet research drifting station SP-15 to apply medical aid to one of the expeditionists from the station. Captain of K-14 captain 1st rank D.N. Golubev and commander of the 3rd division of nuclear submarines (chief officer on board) captain 1st rank N.K. Ignatov were awarded with the Hero of the Soviet Union for that Arctic cruise.

K-14 was given to 10th submarine division (based in Krasheninnikov Bay) which was a part of 15th submarine squadron of the Red Banner Pacific Fleet. The submarine performed 4 patrol missions (160 days) in 1966–1970 and it was under medium repair between December 1970 and March 1973. 10th submarine division became a part of 2nd submarine flotilla of the Red Banner Pacific Fleet in November 1973. K-14 performed 3 patrol missions (135 days) in 1973–1975, participated in training cruises in 1979–1982. On 12 February 1988 a fire took place in a hold of VII compartment during maintenance work in the naval base, the fire was brought under control using submarine chemical smothering arrangement but one man was lost.

The submarine was used for training cruises since 1988 and decommissioned from the Navy's order of battle on 19 April 1990. She was laid up in Postovaya Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan) as of 2000. K-14 performed 14 long-range cruises and passed 185,831 miles (22,273 operational hours) since placed in service.

K-52
Laid down on 15 October 1959, launched on 28 August 1960, and commissioned 10 December 1960. Decommissioned in 1987.

K-21
K-21 was laid down on 2 April 1960 and launched on 18 June 1961. K-21 entered service with the Northern Fleet (given to 3rd division of nuclear submarines which was a part of 1st submarine flotilla, based in Malaya Lopatka of Zapadnaya Litsa Fjord) on 28 November 1961. The submarine performed an Arctic cruise that year (passed 2,382 miles up-top and 3,524 miles submerged) and launched four torpedoes to determine a size of an ice-hole after explosion and a possibility to surface there.

K-21 performed long-range cruise between 24 March and 14 May 1962 (51 days, passed 10,124 miles including 8,648 miles submerged), patrol mission to the Norwegian Sea and North Atlantic according to plan "Ograda" ("Protective fence") between 23 April and 21 May 1964, patrol mission in Barents Sea in 1965, 3 patrol missions in 1967–1970 (170 days total). Three interim overhauls were made in 1965–1966, 1973–1975 (including refueling in 1975) and 1983–1985. In 1975, K-21 was given to 17th submarine division which was a part of 11th submarine flotilla based in Gremikha. The submarine performed 4 patrol missions in 1976–1980 (200 days total) and combat training cruises in 1986–1989.

K-21 was decommissioned from the order of battle in 1991. She lied up in Gremikha Bay as of May 2000 waiting utilization. K-21 passed 190,831 miles (22,932 operational hours) since placed in service.

K-11
K-11 was laid down on 31 October 1960, launched on 1 September 1961, and commissioned 30 December 1961. K-11 entered service with the Northern Fleet (given to 3rd division of nuclear submarines which was a part of 1st submarine flotilla, based in Malaya Lopatka of Zapadnaya Litsa Fjord) on 16 March 1962.

In November 1964 the sail failure of fuel pins was detected during the scheduled repair in Severodvinsk and it was decided to refuel both reactors. On 7 February 1965, the ejection of radioactive steam took place during the lifting of a reactor cover. Crewmembers were evacuated from the reactor compartment, the reactor cover was lowered down and the naval staff was informed about the accident. The arriving naval specialists came to the wrong conclusion that deterioration of the radiation environment was only a result of emission of high-active reactor water and they allowed to continue refueling. On 12 February 1965, the ejection of radioactive steam took place again during the second lift of the reactor cover because of inaccurately following operational instructions, crewmembers overwatching the procedure were evacuated from the reactor compartment and the reactor cover was lowered down. The uncontrolled reactor with the unclear position of its cover remained unwatched during four hours when a fire occurred. The attempts to extinguish the fire in the reactor compartment with the use of fresh water and fire extinguishers were not successful so shipyard firefighting vehicles filled the reactor compartment with 250 tons of outside water. About 150 tons of that radioactive water spread over other submarine compartments through burnt-out sealings and deteriorated the radiation environment in the work area significantly, seven men were exposed to radiation. The only possible decision was to remove the contaminated reactor compartment and to install a new one, which was not done until August 1968.

K-11 performed five patrol missions in 1968–1970 (305 days). The submarine was modernized between November 1971 – September 1973 and given to 17th submarine division of 11th submarine flotilla based in Gremikha in 1975. K-11 performed four patrol missions in 1975–1977 (173 days) and five patrol missions in 1982–1985 (144 days). The submarine was decommissioned from the order of battle on 19 April 1990. She was laid up in Gremikha as of 2000. K-11 passed 220,179 miles (29,560 operational hours) since placed in service.

K-133
K-133 was laid down on 3 July 1961, launched on 5 July 1962, and commissioned 29 October 1962. K-133 entered service with the Northern Fleet (given to 3rd submarine division which was a part of 1st submarine flotilla, based in Bolshaya Lopatka of Zapadnaya Litsa Fjord) on 14 November 1962.

In 1963 the submarine performed a long-range cruise (51 days) to Atlantic equatorial zone for the first time for Soviet Navy. She was under current repairs between October 1964 and September 1965. K-133 together with K-116 (Project 675 submarine) for the first time in the world performed submerged voyage from the Northern Fleet to the Pacific Ocean Fleet via Drake Strait under the general command of Rear Admiral A. Sorokin from 2 Febr. to 26 March 1966. The submarines crossed the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the whole Atlantic Ocean, entered the Pacific Ocean and finished the voyage at Kamchatka. K-133 passed around 21,000 miles for 52 days of that voyage.

K-133 performed 2 patrol missions (103 days total) in 1966–1968, 2 patrol missions (93 days total) in 1971–1976, 1 patrol mission (48 days) in 1977 and 1 patrol mission in 1983–1986. The submarine was decommissioned from the order of battle on 30 May 1989. She lied up in Postovaya Bay (Sovetskaya Gavan) as of August 2006. K-11 passed 168,889 miles (21,926 operational hours) since placed in service.

K-181
Laid down 15 November 1961, launched 7 September 1962, and commissioned 27 December 1962.

K-115
Laid down 4 April 1962, launched 22 October 1962, and commissioned 31 December 1962.

K-159

On 30 August 2003, the submarine K-159 sank during stormy weather while being towed to the shipyard in Snezhnogorsk, Murmansk Oblast for scrapping (K-159 was decommissioned in 1987. ) Nine sailors died in the accident and one was rescued. K-159 was found and investigated by Russian deep-sea vehicles the same day in the point 69°22.64'N, 33°49.51'E (Barents Sea, 2.4 miles from Kildin Island) at a depth of 248 m. K-159 performed 9 missions and passed 212,618 miles since June 1963.

K-42
Laid down 28 November 1962, launched 17 August 1963, and commissioned 30 November 1963. Was located next to K-431 during the nuclear fuel accident during 10 August 1985. As a result of the accident, K-42 was also deemed damaged beyond repair and decommissioned.

K-50
K-50 was laid down on 14 February 1963 (using some mechanisms and equipment from unfinished submarine of project P627A), launched on 16 December 1963, and commissioned 17 July 1964. K-60 entered service with the Northern Fleet (given to 3rd division of nuclear submarines which was a part of 1st submarine flotilla, based in Malaya Lopatka of Zapadnaya Litsa Fjord) on 6 August 1964. The submarine was given to 17th submarine division based in Gremikha in 1969 (17th submarine division became a part of 11th submarine flotilla in 1974).

The submarine performed a number of cruises including participation in naval exercise "Ograda" (Protective fence) during 4 March 1965 – 4 April 1965, patrol mission in North Atlantic in July 1965, two patrol missions (161 days) in 1969–1973, one patrol mission in 1978 (51 days), one patrol mission in December 1983 – January 1984. Besides combat duties K-50 took place in training cruises and tests of new equipment also. Refueling was made in September 1975 during a medium repair. K-50 was renamed as K-60 in 1982.

She was decommissioned from the operational order of battle on 19 April 1990 and stored at Gremikha Bay. Between 3 and 6 September 2006 the submarine was transported by heavy lift ship Transshelf (belonged to Dutch Dockwise Shipping B.V. company) to Dockyard No. 10 (SRZ-10) in Polyarny for further scrapping. K-50 covered 171,456 miles (24,760 operational hours) since placed in service.

K-27
K-27 was laid down on 15 June 1958 and launched on 1 April 1962. The submarine was commissioned on 30 October 1963 after full-scale builders sea trials and official tests. Design task was assigned to OKB-16, one of the two predecessors (the other being SKB-143) of the famous Malachite Central Design Bureau, which would eventually become one of the three Soviet/Russian submarine design centers, along with Rubin Design Bureau and Lazurit Central Design Bureau ("Lazurit" is the Russian word for lazurite).

The first patrol mission of the experimental submarine to Central Atlantic was performed between 21 April – 12 June 1964 (52 days). Captain of K-27, captain 1st rank I.I. Gulyaev was awarded with the Hero of the Soviet Union for mission success and record of submarine continuous underwater stay. The second patrol mission to the Mediterranean Sea took place between 29 June – 30 August 1965 (60 days), K-27 detected and performed a training attack with a nuclear torpedo against USS Randolph aircraft carrier during NATO naval maneuvers off Sardinia. US carrier force could only detect K-27 when she obtained range to the training target after the "torpedo attack" but Soviet captain P.F. Leonov skillfully disengaged. K-27 passed 12,425 miles (including 12,278 miles undersea) during the first cruise and 15,000 miles during the second one. K-27 entered service with the Red Banner Northern Fleet (given to 17th submarine division, based in Gremikha) on 7 September 1965 as the test submarine.

An emergency in the port-side reactor took place on 24 May 1968 in the Barents Sea during trials of submerged K-27 at full speed (AR-1 automatic control rod raised up spontaneously and the reactor power decreased from 83% to 7% during 60–90 sec). The responsible officers informed the command before trials that port-side reactor was not tested yet after small failure took place on 13 October 1967 but their warnings were not taken into consideration. The emergency was accompanied by gamma activity excursion in the reactor compartment (up to 150 R/hour and higher) and spread of radioactive gas along the other compartments. All crewmembers (124 men) were irradiated, and the main reason according to some crewmembers' memoirs was the fact that the submarine captain, Captain 1st Rank P.F. Leonov, believed in the reliability of a new type of the reactor too much, so he didn't give the order to resurface immediately, didn't inform crew members in other compartments about radiation hazards on board and even allowed the crew to have a usual dinner. A radiation alarm was transmitted only after a chemical officer and a doctor requested it. K-27 resurfaced and returned from training area to its home base using the starboard reactor. The submarine was placed at pier in Severomorsk and a depot ship continuously piped steam to the submarine to avoid cooling of heat-transfer metal in the reactor. The most heavily irradiated ten men (holders from the reactor compartment) were transported by aircraft to Leningrad 1st naval hospital next day but four of them (V. Voevoda, V. Gritsenko, V. Kulikov and A. Petrov) died within a month. Electrician I. Ponomarenko died on watch in the emergency reactor compartment on 29 May. More than 30 sailors participated in accident elimination died between 1968 and 2003 because of over exposure to radiation and the Soviet government held back the truth about the tragic consequences of that reactor emergency for many years.

K-27 was tied up in Gremikha Bay from 20 June 1968, with cooling reactors and different experimental works done on board, until 1973, when rebuilding or replacement of the port-side reactor was judged to be too expensive. The submarine was decommissioned on 1 February 1979 and her reactor compartment was filled with special solidifying mixture of furfurol and bitumen in summer 1981 (the work was performed by Severodvinsk shipyard No. 893 "Zvezdochka"). K-27 was towed to a special training area in the Kara Sea and scuttled there on 6 September 1982 in the point 72°31'N 55°30'E (north-east coast of Novaya Zemlya, Stepovoy Bay) at a depth of only 33 m (in contravention of an IAEA requirement that the submarine be scuttled in water at least 3,000–4,000 m deep).

title: November-class submarine


text: User talk:200.44.148.138

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:200.44.148.138


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User talk:Jesus is Lord

Hello, I'd like to call your attention to the advice given on Username, specficially the part which advises you not to choose a username which could give others a pre-concieved notion of you. I suspect that non-Christians (or Christians, potentially, if they've had a bad encounter with an evangelist) could react in a negative way to your username... And, after all, any religious names are usually a good idea to avoid on most internet forums, anyway. Though, if you decide to keep your username, just remember not to get mad at someone (at least not the first time) if they automatically revert a typo-fix you made to an article, on, say, evolution. - Bulbaboy 05:21, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Jesus is Lord


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Saint-Louis (glass manufacturer)

The Compagnie des Cristalleries de Saint Louis is a corporation, founded in 1586 in Münzthal (Saint-Louis-lès-Bitche in French) in Lorraine. It is the oldest glass manufacturer in France with roots dating back to 1586 and the first crystal glass manufacturer in continental Europe (1781).

The Musée du cristal Saint-Louis exhibits 4 centuries of technical developments and artistic creations of the Saint-Louis factory. It is housed in one of the production halls of the factory, in Saint-Louis-lès-Bitche.

title: Saint-Louis (glass manufacturer)


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Interaction design

Interaction design, often abbreviated as IxD, is "the practice of designing interactive digital products, environments, systems, and services." While interaction design has an interest in form (similar to other design fields), its main area of focus rests on behavior. Rather than analyzing how things are, interaction design synthesizes and imagines things as they could be. This element of interaction design is what characterizes IxD as a design field, as opposed to a science or engineering field.

Interaction design borrows from a wide range of fields like psychology, human-computer interaction, information architecture, and user research to create designs that are tailored to the needs and preferences of users. This involves understanding the context in which the product will be used, identifying user goals and behaviors, and developing design solutions that are responsive to user needs and expectations.

While disciplines such as software engineering have a heavy focus on designing for technical stakeholders, interaction design is focused on meeting the needs and optimizing the experience of users, within relevant technical or business constraints.

History
The term interaction design was coined by Bill Moggridge and Bill Verplank in the mid-1980s, but it took 10 years before the concept started to take hold. To Verplank, it was an adaptation of the computer science term user interface design for the industrial design profession. To Moggridge, it was an improvement over soft-face, which he had coined in 1984 to refer to the application of industrial design to products containing software.

The earliest programs in design for interactive technologies were the Visible Language Workshop, started by Muriel Cooper at MIT in 1975, and the Interactive Telecommunications Program founded at NYU in 1979 by Martin Elton and later headed by Red Burns.

The first academic program officially named "Interaction Design" was established at Carnegie Mellon University in 1994, as a Master of Design in Interaction Design. At the outset, the program focused mainly on screen interfaces, before shifting to a greater emphasis on the "big picture" aspects of interaction—people, organizations, culture, service and system.

In 1990, Gillian Crampton Smith founded the Computer-Related Design MA at the Royal College of Art (RCA) in London, which in 2005 was renamed Design Interactions, headed by Anthony Dunne. In 2001, Crampton Smith helped found the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea (IDII), a specialized institute in Olivetti's hometown in Northern Italy, dedicated solely to interaction design. In 2007, after IDII closed due to a lack of funding, some of the people originally involved with IDII set up the Copenhagen Institute of Interaction Design (CIID), in Denmark. After Ivrea, Crampton Smith and Philip Tabor added the Interaction Design (IxD) track in the Visual and Multimedia Communication at the University of Venice, Italy.

In 1998, the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research founded The Interactive Institute—a Swedish research institute in the field of interaction design.

Goal-oriented design
Goal-oriented design (or Goal-Directed design) "is concerned with satisfying the needs and desires of the users of a product or service."

Alan Cooper argues in The Inmates Are Running the Asylum that we need a new approach to solving interactive software-based problems. The problems with designing computer interfaces are fundamentally different from those that do not include software (e.g., hammers). Cooper introduces the concept of cognitive friction, which is when the interface of a design is complex and difficult to use, and behaves inconsistently and unexpectedly, possessing different modes.

Alternatively, interfaces can be designed to serve the needs of the service/product provider. User needs may be poorly served by this approach.

Usability
Usability answers the question "can someone use this interface?". Jakob Nielsen describes usability as the quality attribute that describes how usable the interface is. Shneiderman proposes principles for designing more usable interfaces called "Eight Golden Rules of Interface Design" —which are well-known heuristics for creating usable systems.

Personas
Personas are archetypes that describe the various goals and observed behaviour patterns among users.

A persona encapsulates critical behavioural data in a way that both designers and stakeholders can understand, remember, and relate to. Personas use storytelling to engage users' social and emotional aspects, which helps designers to either visualize the best product behaviour or see why the recommended design is successful.

Cognitive dimensions
The cognitive dimensions framework provides a vocabulary to evaluate and modify design solutions. Cognitive dimensions offer a lightweight approach to analysis of a design quality, rather than an in-depth, detailed description. They provide a common vocabulary for discussing notation, user interface or programming language design.

Dimensions provide high-level descriptions of the interface and how the user interacts with it: examples include consistency, error-proneness, hard mental operations, viscosity and premature commitment. These concepts aid the creation of new designs from existing ones through design maneuvers that alter the design within a particular dimension.

Affective interaction design
Designers must be aware of elements that influence user emotional responses. For instance, products must convey positive emotions while avoiding negative ones. Other important aspects include motivational, learning, creative, social and persuasive influences. One method that can help convey such aspects is for example, the use of dynamic icons, animations and sound to help communicate, creating a sense of interactivity. Interface aspects such as fonts, color palettes and graphical layouts can influence acceptance. Studies showed that affective aspects can affect perceptions of usability.

Emotion and pleasure theories exist to explain interface responses. These include Don Norman's emotional design model, Patrick Jordan's pleasure model and McCarthy and Wright's Technology as Experience framework.

Five dimensions
The concept of dimensions of interaction design were introduced in Moggridge's book Designing Interactions. Crampton Smith wrote that interaction design draws on four existing design languages, 1D, 2D, 3D, 4D. Kevin Silver later proposed a fifth dimension, behaviour.

Words
This dimension defines interactions: words are the element that users interact with.

Visual representations
Visual representations are the elements of an interface that the user perceives; these may include but are not limited to "typography, diagrams, icons, and other graphics".

Physical objects or space
This dimension defines the objects or space "with which or within which users interact".

Time
The time during which the user interacts with the interface. An example of this includes "content that changes over time such as sound, video or animation".

Behavior
Behavior defines how users respond to the interface. Users may have different reactions in this interface.

Interaction Design Association
The Interaction Design Association was created in 2003 to serve the community. The organization has over 80,000 members and more than 173 local groups. IxDA hosts Interaction the annual interaction design conference, and the Interaction Awards.

Related disciplines

 * Industrial design
 * The core principles of industrial design overlap with those of interaction design. Industrial designers use their knowledge of physical form, color, aesthetics, human perception and desire, and usability to create a fit of an object with the person using it.

 * Human factors and ergonomics
 * Certain basic principles of ergonomics provide grounding for interaction design. These include anthropometry, biomechanics, kinesiology, physiology and psychology as they relate to human behavior in the built environment.

 * Cognitive psychology
 * Certain basic principles of cognitive psychology provide grounding for interaction design. These include mental models, mapping, interface metaphors, and affordances. Many of these are laid out in Donald Norman's influential book The Design of Everyday Things.

 * Human–computer interaction
 * Academic research in human–computer interaction (HCI) includes methods for describing and testing the usability of interacting with an interface, such as cognitive dimensions and the cognitive walkthrough.

 * Design research
 * Interaction designers are typically informed through iterative cycles of user research. User research is used to identify the needs, motivations and behaviors of end users. They design with an emphasis on user goals and experience, and evaluate designs in terms of usability and affective influence.

 * Architecture
 * As interaction designers increasingly deal with ubiquitous computing, urban informatics and urban computing, the architects' ability to make, place, and create context becomes a point of contact between the disciplines.

 * User interface design
 * Like user interface design and experience design, interaction design is often associated with the design of system interfaces in a variety of media but concentrates on the aspects of the interface that define and present its behavior over time, with a focus on developing the system to respond to the user's experience and not the other way around.

title: Interaction design


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Islamey

Islamey: Oriental Fantasy (Исламей: Восточная фантазия), is a composition for piano by Russian composer Mily Balakirev written in 1869. Harold C. Schonberg noted that Islamey was "at one time…considered the most difficult of all piano pieces and is still one of the knucklebusters." Its difficulty has led to the creation of numerous ossias (alternative passages) and made it popular as a virtuosic showpiece.

Composition
Balakirev, a committed nationalist whose music was influenced by Russian traditions, was inspired to write the piece after a trip to the Caucasus, as he relates in a letter: ...the majestic beauty of luxuriant nature there and the beauty of the inhabitants that harmonises with it – all these things together made a deep impression on me... Since I interested myself in the vocal music there, I made the acquaintance of a Circassian prince, who frequently came to me and played folk tunes on his instrument, that was something like a violin. One of them, called Islamey, a dance-tune, pleased me extraordinarily and with a view to the work I had in mind on Tamara I began to arrange it for the piano. The second theme was communicated to me in Moscow by an Armenian actor, who came from the Crimea and is, as he assured me, well known among the Crimean Tatars. (Letter to Eduard Reiss (1851–1911), 1892)

The piece was composed in the course of one month in 1869, in stark contrast to Balakirev's usual habit of taking sometimes years to complete a work. In the score he noted that he started the work on 9/21 August in Moscow, and completed it on 13/25 September in Saint Petersburg. Balakirev revised the work in 1902. It is divided into three distinct parts, an opening (Allegro agitato), which introduces the main theme, a middle (Tranquillo – Andantino espressivo) that introduces an entirely new theme (both described in the above quote), and a third (Allegro vivo – Presto furioso), which returns to the main theme.

Difficulty
The many existing editions have numerous alternative passages (ossias) – most are easier, some are more difficult. This technical difficulty made it a favourite with virtuosos such as Nikolai Rubinstein (who premiered the piece), Franz Liszt, and in recorded history, Simon Barere, Julius Katchen, György Cziffra, Boris Berezovsky, Mikhail Pletnev, Ivo Pogorelić, and Lang Lang. Balakirev, considered a virtuoso pianist in his time, once admitted that there were passages in the piece that he "couldn't manage." In addition, Alexander Scriabin seriously damaged his right hand fanatically practicing the piece along with Liszt's Réminiscences de Don Juan, though the injury eventually healed.

Legacy and influences
Islamey has had a lasting influence on piano solo music; Ravel once remarked to a friend that his goal in writing Gaspard de la nuit was to compose a piece that was "more difficult than Balakirev's Islamey." This turned out to be Scarbo, the third piece in the suite. Alexander Borodin included quotations from the piece in his opera Prince Igor, while Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov did the same in Scheherazade. The piece has been twice arranged for orchestra, by Alfredo Casella shortly before Balakirev's death, and by Sergei Lyapunov. Eugene Ormandy and the Philadelphia Orchestra recorded Casella's orchestration in stereo on February 26, 1961, for Columbia Records.

Recent musicological work has shown that the melodies that Balakirev preserved in this work are still present in folk music in the former USSR. For instance, the first theme has been found to be a variety of the Lezginka from Kabardino-Balkaria, which differs notably from Balakirev's work in its time signature. The second theme has been demonstrated to have the origins as related to Balakirev, namely that of a Tatar love song. Balakirev himself indicated in the score that the coda should be played similarly to the Russian Tropak, again a traditional Russian tune.

Recordings
Notable recordings include: Simon Barere (1947, APR), Vladimir Horowitz (1950, Sony/BMG), Emil Gilels (1951, DOREMI), Julius Katchen (1958, Decca), György Cziffra (1957 & 1970, EMI), Boris Berezovsky (1996, Teldec) and Mikhail Pletnev (2000, DG).

title: Islamey


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Cecil (programming language)

Cecil is a pure object-oriented programming language that was developed by Craig Chambers at the University of Washington in 1992 to be part of the Vortex project there. Cecil has many similarities to other object-oriented languages, most notably Objective-C, Modula-3, and Self. The main goals of the project were extensibility, orthogonality, efficiency, and ease-of-use.

The language supports multiple dispatch and multimethods, dynamic inheritance, and optional static type checking. Unlike most other OOP systems, Cecil allows subtyping and code inheritance to be used separately, allowing run-time or external extension of object classes or instances. Like Objective-C, all object services in Cecil are invoked by message passing, and the language supports run-time class identification. These features allow Cecil to support dynamic, exploratory programming styles. Parameterized types and methods (generics, polymorphism), garbage collection, and delegation are also supported. Cecil also supports a module mechanism for isolating independent libraries or packages. Cecil does not presently support threads or any other form of concurrency. A standard library for Cecil is also available and includes various collection, utility, system, I/O, and GUI classes.

The Diesel language was the successor of Cecil.

title: Cecil (programming language)


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Don't Fight It (album)

Don't Fight It is the debut album by Canadian rock band Red Rider, released in 1979 in Canada. Don't Fight It sold more than 100,000 copies in Canada and earned Cochrane and Red Rider their first gold album certification award and was later certified platinum. A United States version with a modified track list, dropping "Talkin' to Myself" and reordering the other tracks, was released in 1980.

The album was re-issued on CD July 29, 1994. The CD release restored the track "Talkin' to Myself" which was dropped on the initial vinyl release in the United States. Another newly remastered version was released in the UK in 2010 by Lemon Records.

The album reached number 146 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart while "White Hot" reached number 20 on the Canadian charts and number 48 on the Pop Singles chart in 1980 and "Don't Fight It" reached number 75.

The song "White Hot" is about poet Arthur Rimbaud and his travels through Africa. It also has a cult following on YouTube.

Personnel

 * Tom Cochrane - guitars, lead vocals (1-4, 6, 8, 10)
 * Ken Greer - guitars
 * Peter Boynton - keyboards, lead vocals (5, 7, 9)
 * Jeff Jones - bass
 * Rob Baker - drums

title: Don't Fight It (album)


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Saint-Louis, Réunion

Saint-Louis (Sin Loui) is the fifth-largest commune in the French overseas department of Réunion. It is located on the southwest part of the island of Réunion, adjacent to Saint-Pierre.

Climate
Saint-Louis has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). The average annual temperature in Saint-Louis is 22.2 C. The average annual rainfall is 1161.6 mm with January as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in February, at around 25.2 C, and lowest in July, at around 19.0 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Saint-Louis was 34.6 C on 11 February 2016; the coldest temperature ever recorded was 10.4 C on 10 August 2020.

title: Saint-Louis, Réunion


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File:Red Rider As Far as Siam.jpg

Summary
Used on Wikipedia under fair use guidelines:
 * Low resolution copy of the album cover

RedWolf 05:43, Mar 15, 2004 (UTC)

title: File:Red Rider As Far as Siam.jpg


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Kópavogur

Kópavogur is a town in Iceland that is the country's second largest municipality by population.

It lies immediately south of Reykjavík and is part of the Capital Region. The name literally means seal pup inlet. The town seal contains the profile of the church Kópavogskirkja with a seal pup underneath.

Kópavogur is largely made up of residential areas, but has commercial areas and much industrial activity as well. The tallest building in Iceland, the Smáratorg Tower, is located in central Kópavogur.

 { "type": "ExternalData", "service": "geoshape", "ids": "Q163852" }

History
Kópavogur is historically significant as the site of the 1662 Kópavogur meeting. This event marked the total incorporation of Iceland into Denmark–Norway when, on behalf of the Icelandic people, Bishop Brynjólfur Sveinsson and Árni Oddsson, a lawyer, signed a document confirming that the introduction of absolute monarchy by Frederick III of Denmark–Norway also applied to Iceland.

Kópavogur is also one of Iceland's most prominent sites for Icelandic urban legends about the huldufólk; it also features in this capacity in the 2010 film Sumarlandið, where the stone Grásteinn is portrayed as an elf-house in the Kópavogur municipality.

An independent township, Kópavogur is adjacent to Reykjavík.

Sports
Kópavogur's main sports clubs are Gerpla, Breiðablik and HK. In 2010, Breiðablik clinched their first Icelandic league title in football into; furthermore, in 2012, HK won their first Icelandic league title in team handball.

The town is also home to the hardcore strongman and powerlifting training facility 'Thor's Power Gym' owned by the strongest man of all-time Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson, which was also the venue for the iconic 501 kg (1,105 lb) World Record Deadlift on 2 May 2020.

Notable people

 * Hafþór Júlíus Björnsson (born 1988), professional strongman
 * Sverrir Ingi Ingason (born 1993), footballer
 * Eiður Guðjohnsen (born 1978), footballer
 * Emilíana Torrini (born 1977), singer
 * Diljá (born 2001), singer

Twin towns – sister cities
Kópavogur is twinned with:

 * 🇬🇱 Ammassalik, Greenland
 * 🇧🇬 Dobrich, Bulgaria
 * 🇬🇱 Tasiilaq, Greenland
 * 🇫🇴 Klaksvík, Faroe Islands
 * 🇦🇽 Mariehamn, Åland Islands, Finland
 * 🇸🇪 Norrköping, Sweden
 * Odense, Denmark
 * 🇫🇮 Tampere, Finland
 * 🇳🇴 Trondheim, Norway
 * 🇨🇳 Wuhan, China

title: Kópavogur


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User:Lunchboxhero

clarity...

title: User:Lunchboxhero


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Victor-class submarine

The Victor class, Soviet designations Project 671 Yorsh, Project 671RT Syomga and Project 671RTM/RTMK Shchuka, (NATO reporting names Victor I, Victor II and Victor III, respectively), are series of nuclear-powered attack submarines built in the Soviet Union and operated by the Soviet Navy. Since the 1960s, 48 units were built in total, of which the last remaining are currently in service with the Russian Navy. The Victor-class submarines featured a teardrop shape, allowing them to travel at high speed. These vessels were primarily designed to protect Soviet surface fleets and to attack American ballistic missile submarines. Project 671 began in 1959 with the design task assigned to SKB-143 (one of the predecessors of the Malakhit Marine Engineering Bureau).

Project 671 Yorsh (Victor I)
Soviet designation Project 671 Yorsh (ruffe)—was the initial type that entered service in 1967; 16 were produced. Each had six torpedo tubes for launching Type 53 torpedoes and SS-N-15 anti-submarine missiles and mines could also be released. Subs had a capacity of 24 tube-launched weapons or 48 mines (or a combination). They were 92.5 m long. All disposed.

Project 671RT Syomga (Victor II)
Soviet designation Project 671RT Syomga (atlantic salmon)—entered service in 1972; seven were produced in the 1970s. These were originally designated Uniform class by NATO. They had similar armament to the Victor I class and were the first Soviet submarines to introduce raft mounting for acoustic quieting. Production was truncated due to a decision to develop the improved Victor III class. They were 101.8 m long. All disposed.

Project 671RTM/RTMK Shchuka (Victor III)
Soviet designation Project 671RTM/RTMK Shchuka (pike)—entered service in 1979; 25 were produced until 1991. Quieter than previous Soviet submarines, these ships had four tubes for launching SS-N-21 or SS-N-15 missiles and Type 53 torpedoes, plus another two tubes for launching SS-N-16 missiles and Type 65 torpedoes. 24 tube-launched weapons or 36 mines could be on board. The Victor III class caused a minor furor in NATO intelligence agencies at its introduction because of the distinctive pod on the vertical stern-plane. Speculation immediately mounted that the pod was the housing for some sort of exotic silent propulsion system, possibly a magnetohydrodynamic drive unit. Another theory proposed that it was some sort of weapon system. In the end, the pod was identified as a hydrodynamic housing for a reelable towed passive sonar array; the system was subsequently incorporated into the Sierra-class submarine and Akula-class submarine SSNs. In October 1983 the towed array of SOVIET SUBMARINE K-324, a Victor III operating west of Bermuda, became tangled with the towed array of US frigate USS McCloy (FF-1038). K-324 was forced to surface, allowing NATO forces to photograph the pod in its deployed state. The Victor-III class was continuously improved during construction and late production models have a superior acoustic performance. They were 106 m long. 21 disposed.

Incidents

 * In 1981 USS Drum (SSN-677) collided with a Victor III-class submarine—K-324—while attempting to photograph the odd pod on the back. The event was covered up by the Reagan Administration and never made public, though it nearly cost the lives of the sailors on USS Drum. The incident was declassified and disclosed by the Clinton Administration in February 1993.
 * On 21 March 1984, K-314 collided with the aircraft carrier USS Kitty Hawk (CV-63) in the Sea of Japan. Neither ship was significantly damaged.
 * The Soviet cargo ship Bratstvo collided with the Soviet submarine K-53 of the Victor I-class in position Latitude 35 deg 55 min North and Longitude 005 deg 00 min West, at the exit from the Gibraltar Strait in Alboran Sea, on 18 (as per ship's time) or 19 (as per submarine time) September 1984.
 * On 6 September 2006, the Victor III-class Daniil Moskovskiy suffered an electronics fire while in the Barents Sea, killing two crew members. The boat was 16 years old and was overdue for overhaul. It was towed back to Vidyayevo. She continued to serve into the latter 2010s and was reportedly formally decommissioned on 28 October 2022.

In media

 * A depiction of a Victor III-class submarine (Valentin Zukovsky's nephew Nikolai's own submarine) was used prominently in the James Bond film The World Is Not Enough as a key element in the film's antagonists (Elektra King and Viktor "Renard" Zokas) plan.

title: Victor-class submarine


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Saint-Louis, Senegal

Saint Louis or Saint-Louis (Ndar), is the capital of Senegal's Saint-Louis Region. Located in the northwest of Senegal, near the mouth of the Senegal River, and 320 km north of Senegal's capital city Dakar. It had a population of 254,171 in 2023. Saint-Louis was the capital of the French colony of Senegal from 1673 until 1902 and French West Africa from 1895 until 1902, when the capital was moved to Dakar. From 1920 to 1957, it also served as the capital of the neighboring colony of Mauritania.

The town was an important economic center during French West Africa, but it is less important now. However, it still has important industries, including tourism, a commercial center, a center of sugar production, and fishing. The tourism industry is in part due to the city being listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000. However, the city is also vulnerable to climate change—where sea level rise is expected to threaten the city center and potential damage historical parts of the city. Moreover, other issues such as overfishing are causing ripple effects in the local economy.

Names
Saint Louis (Saint-Louis) is named after LouisIX, a canonized 13th-century king of France. Obliquely, the name also honored LouisXIV, the reigning king of France at the time of the island's settlement in 1659. It was originally known as Saint Louis of the Fort (St-Louis-du-Fort) after its stronghold and to distinguish it from other places of the same name. The Langue de Barbarie takes its name from the French for "Barbary Tongue", after an old name for the land of the Berbers.

The local name Ndar or N'dar is Wolof for a kind of island and has been borne by the island since before the French settlement. Ndar Tout or Toute is a Gallicized form of a Wolof name meaning "Little" or "Lesser Saint Louis". The neighborhood of Guet Ndar takes its name from a Wolof word for "pasture".

Geography
Saint-Louis is situated in northern Senegal, on the border with Mauritania, although the nearest border crossing is at Rosso, 100 km up the Senegal River.

The heart of the old colonial city is located on a narrow island a little more than 2 km long but only about 400 m wide. The island lies in the Senegal River. It is 25 km north of its mouth, but is only separated from the Atlantic Ocean to its west by the Langue de Barbarie, a 300 m wide sand spit. The Langue de Barbarie is the location of the seaside neighborhoods Ndar Toute and Guet Ndar. On the mainland, the east bank of the river is the site of Sor, an older settlement now considered a suburb of Saint-Louis. It is nearly surrounded by tidal marshes.

Three characteristics give Saint-Louis its distinctive geographic appearance: the Sahel, the marshes and the Langue de Barbarie.

Part of the Sahel, a transitional desertic band that separates "[...] the dunes of the Sahara from the baobabs of the savanna", Saint-Louis' landscape is characterized by occasional acacias and is disturbed by sand storms during the dry season.

The marshes are flood basins that form during the rainy season when the river overflows into the countryside, creating ponds and stretches of mangroves that attract birds like flamingos and pelicans.

The Langue de Barbarie, over a stretch of 25 km, separates the lower Senegal River from the Atlantic Ocean. Its vegetation mainly consists of Filao trees, propagated to prevent soil erosion in sandy and salty soils.

Climate
Saint-Louis has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh). It only has two seasons, the rainy season from June to October, characterized by heat, humidity and storms, and the dry season from November to May, characterized by cool ocean breeze and dust from the Harmattan winds. A 2011 documentary described Saint-Louis as the African city most threatened by rising sea levels. Flooding is becoming worse, and by 2080 80% of the city will face flood risks.

Founding
A Wolof settlement at what is now known as Guet Ndar dates from around 1450 and was a meeting and departure point for Muslim pilgrims traveling to Mecca in Arabia. Portuguese, Dutch, and English traders visited the area over the next two centuries but the first nearby colonial fortification was erected by the French in 1638 on Bocos Island, about 25 km away.

Repeated flooding prompted the removal of the fort to the island known to locals as Ndar in 1659. The island was uninhabited at the time, supposedly because the local people believed it to be haunted by spirits. The Diagne of Sor, the local leader, permitted French settlement on the island for annual payments of "three pieces of blue cloth, a measure of scarlet cloth, seven long iron bars, and 10 pints of eau de vie."

Colonial capital
The fortification permitted its factory to command foreign trade along the Senegal River. Slaves, gold, hides, beeswax, ambergris and, later, gum arabic were exported. During the Seven Years' War, British forces captured Senegal in 1758. In February 1779, French forces recaptured Saint-Louis. In the late 18th century, Saint-Louis had about 5,000 inhabitants, not counting an indeterminate number of slaves in transit.

Between 1659 and 1779, nine chartered companies succeeded one another in administering Saint-Louis. As in Gorée, a Franco-African Creole, or Métis, merchant community characterized by the famous "signares", or bourgeois women entrepreneurs, grew up in Saint-Louis during the 17th and 18th centuries. The Métis were important to the economic, social, cultural and political life of the city. They created a distinctive urban culture characterized by public displays of elegance, refined entertainment and popular festivities. They controlled most of the up-country river trade and they financed the principal Catholic institutions. A Métis mayor was first designated by the Governor in 1778. Civic franchise was further consolidated in 1872, when Saint-Louis became a French "commune".

After the decline of the Atlantic slave trade after 1790, the trade in gum arabic replaced it as the major economic engine of Saint Louis. Trade was increasingly concentrated in the lower river valley and the desert-side escales, rather than further upriver in Gajaaga as it had been previously. The city was again captured by the British during the Napoleonic Wars, and returned to France in 1817. Facing a near-total dependence on gum, the French authorities tried to promote plantation agriculture in Waalo from 1819 to 1830, but this failed. At the same time, Saint Louis grew massively during this period in both population in commercial activity.

Throughout the 19th century, the French periodically warred with the Emirate of Trarza and other Hassani tribal states, which disrupted the flow of gum. Nevertheless, with the removal of trade restrictions in 1848 and in 1853, exports soared. When war again broke out in 1854, the Arab Emirs forbade the Berber zwaya merchants from selling to the French, but this had little effect. In the 1855 Battle of Leybar Bridge a small force of French Marines defended the town from a large Trarza force. With the French victory in 1858, they were able to set the terms of trade on the river.

Louis Faidherbe, who became the Governor of the Colony of Senegal in 1854, contributed greatly to the development and modernization of Saint Louis. His large-scale projects included the building of bridges, provisioning of fresh drinking water, and the construction of an overland telegraph line to Dakar. Saint-Louis became capital of the federation of French West African colonies in 1895, but relinquished this role to Dakar in 1902.

Saint-Louis's fortunes began to wane as those of Dakar waxed. Access to its port became increasingly awkward in the age of the steamship and the completion of the Dakar-Saint Louis railroad in 1885 meant that up-country trade effectively circumvented its port. Large French firms, many from the city of Bordeaux, took over the new commercial networks of the interior, marginalizing the Métis traders in the process. Saint-Louis nonetheless maintained its status as capital of the Colony of Senegal even after Dakar assumed the role of capital of the French West Africa federation. The colonial institutions set up in the city in the 19th century, such as the Muslim Tribunal and the School for Chiefs' Sons, were to play important roles in the history of French Africa. Though relatively small in size (population of 10,000 in 1826; 23,000 in 1914, and 39,000 in 1955) Saint-Louis dominated Senegalese politics throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries, not least because of its numerous political parties and associations and its independent newspapers.

Independence
Following independence, when Dakar became sole capital of the country, Saint-Louis slipped into a state of lethargy. As its French population and military departed, many of the town's shops, offices and businesses closed. The loss of jobs, human potential, and investment caused its economic decline. The loss of its past status meant less recognition and lack of interest from the colony's officials and, after Senegal's independence, from the Senegalese government. When its most famous political son, the French-educated lawyer Lamine Guèye, died in 1968, the city lost its strongest proponent.

Since 1993, the city has hosted the Saint Louis Jazz Festival, a major tourist draw.

Environmental issues
Between 2016 and 2017, Saint-Louis experienced a large decline in the catch of fish brought in, causing ripple effects on nutrition and food supply in the country, where 75% of animal protein comes from fish. Fisherman from the community spend twice as much time for catching smaller hauls, and are now competing with foreign fishing vessels.

Rising sea levels, as well as water levels flowing out of the Senegal River now threaten the low-lying islands which make up the city. In June 2008, Alioune Badiane of the United Nations' UN-Habitat agency designated Saint-Louis as "the city most threatened by rising sea levels in the whole of Africa", citing climate change and a failed 2004 river and tidal canal project as the cause. Since the coast of the community has eroded by 1–2 meters a year.

Economy
Saint Louis has economically declined since the transfer of the capital to Dakar, but has remained an important tourist and trading center. The city's economy, though not entirely recovered, is gradually reviving.

The city was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 and cultural tourism has become an engine of growth. As a result, a process of gentrification has set in, with many historic buildings on the island being turned into restaurants and hotels.

Beyond tourism, Saint-Louis is also a commercial and an industrial centre for sugar production. Its other economic activities are fishing, irrigated alluvial agriculture, pastoral farming, trading and exportation of peanut skins. It is important to note that each of these economic activities is assured by a particular ethnic group. The Wolofs and Lebous who are the main inhabitants of Saint-Louis are mostly fishermen that live in fishing communities like Guet-Ndar on the Langue de Barbarie. The Fulas live in the inland and practice pastoral farming. The Maures who are migrants from Mauritania (Saint-Louis is less than 6 mi south of the border with Mauritania) are mostly merchants, traders and shopkeepers found everywhere in Saint Louis.

Culture

Culture constitutes an important part of Saint-Louis' economy. The city preserves much of its 19th-century morphology, reminiscent of other cities of the "Creole Atlantic": Bahia, Cartagena, Havana and New Orleans. Thanks to its distinctive appearance, numerous sites of attraction and its international music festivals and cultural exhibitions, Saint-Louis attracts many tourists each year.

Saint-Louis remains the most characteristically French colonial destination in West Africa along with Gorée Island.

Museums
Saint-Louis' Research Center and Documentation Museum of Senegal offers interesting panoramas of Senegal's history and ethnic movements over the years, expositions of traditional clothes and musical instruments, etc.

Events and festivals
Saint Louis is famous for its urban culture. The heritage of the signares lives on in the city's many festivals and its cultivated sense of public display, and it is helping Saint-Louis emerge from decades of neglect. "Fanals", which are night-time processions of giant paper lanterns, take place at Christmas time.

The Saint-Louis Jazz Festival is the most important jazz festival in Africa. Jazz first became popular in the 1930s when records produced in Cuba were aired on the radio. After World War II, visiting U.S. GIs popularized jazz bands and by the 1950s local groups had adopted a "Cuban" sound. Another music festival, 1, 2, 3 musiques, exhibits various genres of music.

The Festival Métissons, held for the first time in 2010, is a grassroots music festival organized by local communities and small businesses. Every edition sports international, national and local musical talent.

The annual reggata, or pirogue race organized by teams of fishermen from Guet-Ndar, takes place on the "little branch" of the river, between Ndar Island and the Langue de Barbarie.

The Magal of the Niari Rakas, a yearly commemoration of Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba Mbacké's (the founder of Mouridism) two prayers in the Governor's Palace in 1895, is the city's largest religious gathering.

UNESCO World Heritage Site
Saint-Louis' characteristic colonial architecture along with its regular town plan, its location on an island at the mouth of the Senegal River and the system of quays, gives Saint-Louis the distinctive appearance and identity that have raised the Island to the rank of world heritage since 2000. The Island of Saint-Louis is inscribed on the World Heritage list on the basis of criteria ii and iv:

Criterion ii The historic town of Saint-Louis exhibits an important exchange of values and influences on the development of education and culture, architecture, craftsmanship, and services in a large part of West Africa.

Criterion iv The Island of Saint-Louis, a former capital of West Africa, is an outstanding example of a colonial city, characterized by its particular natural setting, and it illustrates the development of colonial government in this region.

Architecture
Among interesting and attractive monuments and edifices are the Governor's Palace, the Gouvernance where are located the town's administrative offices, the Parc Faidherbe named for the French governor at the centre of town Louis Faidherbe, colonial-era hotels, the historic airport at Dakar-Bango on the mainland, the Faidherbe Bridge that connects the island to the Langue de Barbarie and the Gaol and Servatius bridges that connect the island to the continent.

Places of worship
The places of worship are predominantly Muslim mosques. There are also Christian churches and temples: Roman Catholic Diocese of Saint-Louis du Sénégal (Catholic Church), Assemblies of God, Universal Church of the Kingdom of God.

Natural sites
Among Saint-Louis' numerous natural sites are the National Park of the Langue de Barbarie, the National Park of the Birds of Djoudj, the Fauna Reserve of Gueumbeul, beaches like that of the Langue de Barbarie, the colonial waterworks at Makhana, the palace of at Richard-Toll, the Diama Dam, and various hunting lodges on the south side of the Senegal River.

This park, which is 20 square kilometres large, occupies the southern point of the Langue de Barbarie, the estuary of the Senegal river and part of the continent. It hosts thousands of water birds like cormorants, brushes, pink flamingos, pelicans, herons and ducks each year.

The world's third largest ornithological park, it is located 60 kilometers north of Saint-Louis. This park occupies over 120 km2 and includes part of the river, and many lakes, basins, and marshes. About 3 million migrating birds of 400 species visit it each year.

Located at a dozen kilometers south of the city of Saint-Louis, this reserve has an area of 7 square kilometres and shelters birds and endangered species such as the dama gazelle, the Patas monkey and the African spurred tortoise.

Education

With a large influence over education in colonial times, Saint Louis is now a center of educational excellence. It is home to the Gaston Berger University and The Military Academy Charles Ntchorere.

Gaston Berger University, created in 1990, offers studies organized in a number of general education and research faculties.

The Military Academy Charles Ntchorere, commonly known as the Prytanee Militaire of Saint Louis, was created in 1922.

The École française Antoine-de-Saint-Exupéry, a French international school serving preschool through collège (junior high school), is located in Saint-Louis.

Notable inhabitants
Saint Louis has been the birthplace or home of:
 * El Hadj Malick Sy
 * Cheikh Ahmadou Bamba Mbacké
 * Alfred-Amédée Dodds
 * Jean-Baptiste Labat, Abbé David Boilat, Daniel Brattier, the fathers
 * Michel Adanson, naturalist
 * Louis Faidherbe
 * Blaise Diagne, Lamine Guèye, politicians
 * Mbarick Fall aka Battling Siki boxer
 * El Hadji Diouf football player
 * BK VEF Rīga center Bamba Fall
 * the French photographer François-Edmond Fortier
 * Badara Ndiaye (born 1986), Senegalese visual concept developer and fashion designer
 * Ismaïla Sarr football player
 * Abdoulaye Seye Senegalese Sprinter & Footballer

Twin towns – sister cities
Saint-Louis is twinned with:
 * 🇫🇷 Lille, France (1978)
 * 🇲🇦 Fez, Morocco (1979)
 * 🇧🇪 Liège, Belgium (1980)
 * 🇮🇹 Bologna, Italy (1991)
 * 🇺🇸 St. Louis, United States (1994)

title: Saint-Louis, Senegal


text:
Talk:Why 10 dimensions?

Why Why 10 dimensions?
B-) How is this encyclopedic? Why isn't the title nominal? --ESP 06:02, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

What is Encyclopedic?
"Anything academic - Someone or something that would be mentioned in a textbook or research paper, and which is notable or famous at least within its field."

"Why 10 dimensions?" is a topic that is discussed in books such as Michio Kaku's book "Hyperspace" and on prominant websites dealing with string theory. The existing Wikipedia pages on string theory do not cover this issue.

Name of the page.

"Generally, article naming should give priority to what the majority of English speakers would most easily recognize with a reasonable minimum of ambiguity, while at the same time making linking to those articles easy and second nature."

This "name" was taken from sources that discuss this issue such as: http://www.ecf.toronto.edu/~quanv/String/string9.html

If there was a better name in use I would be glad to use it. "Dimensionality of the universe" or "Dimensionality of String Theory" are possibilies, but I have not seen these terms used in the string theory literature in relation to the issue discussed here. JWSchmidt 07:56, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The problem isn't just the name but the entire "talkyness" that pervades the article. Do something, please! HereToHelp (talk) 14:37, 5 November 2005 (UTC)

Wikibooks for "education"?
I was initially inspired to start the "Why_10_dimensions?" page when I saw this page. However, I have now become aware of the possibility of putting "educational" information into Wikibooks. I am exploring the idea of moving the Why 10 dimensions page to this book. JWSchmidt 15:39, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * That sounds like a good idea. --ESP 02:57, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Considering the article's style, it would probably be appropriate for Wikibooks. An article with the name "Reasons for the number of dimensions of the universe" or something similar would however have its place on Wikipedia, so it would be best not to move it but to copy it. Fredrik (talk) 03:34, 15 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Ramanujan function
Does anyone have a source of the "Ramanujan function" that has terms (D-24) or another "generalized" form with (D-8)?

Maybe one of the references here? I'm not sure how to find these physics articles online.

I could not access online:

A. M. Polyakov, Quantum geometry of bosonic strings, Phys. Lett. B103 (1981), 207.

But this: "Quantum geometry of bosonic strings : revisited" has the following equation:

$$Z=\int_{}^{} D^F [\rho(\xi)]\exp\left(-\frac{26-D}{12\pi} \int_{\xi}^{} \left[ \frac{1}{2} \frac{(\delta_\alpha \rho)^2}{\rho^2} \right] + \int_{\xi}^{} \mu_R^2 \rho^2 \right) $$

and cites another article by A. M. Polyakov, Phys. Lett. B103 (1981), 211.

as the source of an equation with D = 10 as the critical dimension for a supersymmetric bosonic quantum field. JWSchmidt 03:56, 7 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Energy loss to higher dimensions
Could someone explain why energy conservation laws works in 3 dimensions (i.e.: no "escape" of energy to higher level dimensions) ? Rama 23:02, 29 Sep 2004 (UTC)

____

In the November 26, 2004 issue of Science magazine, there is an article about attempts to link string theory to experiments:

"a few of string theory's extra dimensions might be wound loosely enough to be detected in {the Large Hadron Collider facility at CERN that should become operational in 2007}. If those dimensions are big enough, matter and energy might disappear into them when high-energy particles collide."

Apparently, string theory predicts that the compact dimensions are only able to take in energy under high-energy conditions that do not normally exist at the low temperature conditions familiar to us on Earth. I think that according to the idea of suppersummetry, under the high-energy conditions of the early universe, there was free exchange of energy between all the dimesions. When the universe cooled, the symmetry broke and some of the spatial dimensions collapsed and could no longer freely exchange energy with our 3 extended spatial dimensions Memenen 04:29, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

____

Hmmm, interesting, something like these dimension being "small", and high energy being related to high frequency, so small wavelength, so... makes sense. I should be less lazy and go interview specialists which are available next to me, actually :p Thanks for caring to write ! Rama 07:21, 14 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Extra Dimentions.
I read with interest the theory that extra spatial dimentions exist. However, this view is at variance with one expressed by Professor Stephen Hawking, who remarked that " if there were more than three spatial dimentions, the orbits of planets around the sun or electrons around a nucleus would be unstable and they would tend to spiral inward." - Derek R Crawford.
 * The extra dimensions would be far too small to be relevant to planetary orbits, or even atomic orbits. -Lethe | Talk 11:03, Jun 20, 2005 (UTC)

Lorentz invariance
First, let me say that I agree this is an important topic worthy of encyclopedic discussion, though I'm not sure the title chosen is the best one. Second, I think this article definitely needs a discussion like that in Zwiebach's A First Course in String Theory, where the dimensionality of spacetime is deduced by mandating that string equations of motion be Lorentz invariant. This would give the article a much more solid grounding than a discourse on modular forms. Not that I think the modular form stuff should go! I prefer to have complementary approaches whenever possible; it's just that a bright physics undergraduate could probably grok the Lorentz-invariance explanation in fullness. I've even had some luck explaining 10- or 26-dimensional theories that way to non-science people; lawyers, even.

Anville 12:56, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

The original title of the article was a request for help from a biologist. My hope was that someone who knew the answer would fix the article and give it a new title. --JWSchmidt 13:16, 31 October 2005 (UTC)

Peer review? Where?
The box at the top of this page has been removed, there is no archived peer review that I can see... QmunkE 08:53, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

Neccesary road map?
Why 10, 11, or 26 physical dimensions in string theory?

The small section under this subheading is a road-map, not something that is often found in an encyclopedia. I don't think its neccesary, even though published articles might have them.

I'll leave it upto other people to edit, although I would integrate some of the information in that paragraph into the introduction.

Where is the answer?
I expected to find an explanation of why 10, 11, or 26 dimensions should be more favoured than other numbers, but I can't find the answer in the article. Maybe it is too complicated math, but then what is the relevance of this article? Apus 13:17, 5 September 2006 (UTC)

 * No kidding. While it's probably dubious to try to bring something so obviously technical into everyday language, the fact that this article exists (and a book, too, apparently) seems to refute that. So, unless some editors here can prove us wrong, I nominate this article for deletion. Those interested in the technical details of string theory can find it at the article about string theory. If there's any extra info available here, merge it into that article, and delete the rest. As it stands now, this article is not accessible to lay audiences. -69.47.186.226 05:06, 8 August 2007 (UTC)

One problem I see is that the "Conformal anomaly" section is an explanation as to why the universe should have 26 dimensions, at variance with the title of the article! Of course that's for bosonic string theory, and superstrings want 10 dimensions. But still... isn't it a bit weird to have more information about 26-dimensional theories than 10-dimensional theories in an article with this title? The section entitled "Modular functions" is also secretly about 26 dimensions, though I can't imagine most readers will see that!

I could write an explanation of "why 10 dimensions" that lay people could get some rough understanding of... but it would require some serious work. Right now the article seems like a mess to me. John Baez 22:08, 25 August 2007 (UTC)

The "Wikipedia Serious Tone"
To be honest, I'm tired of reading articles from Wikipedia that have no tone to them whatsoever. I congratulate the person who wrote this article, because it's not as boring as the rest.

Nice article
I think this article should be moved to Wikibooks (but keep a link here). Anyway, I think that it isn't clear for the non-mathematician or non-physicist yet; The main author could extend it. --Lucas Gallindo 18:09, 9 October 2006 (UTC)

Advertising
The book is mentioned a little too early for my liking.
 * I think it's just fine. The book is mentions nearly nowhere else. The article does not resemble an advertisement at all.Leon math 19:24, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

should be deleted
It's original research. It's a compilation of multiple information sources filtered through the editors' interpretations, it's not the straight dope. Much of it is good, interesting, and useful information, but it doesn't belong in an encyclopedia. A blog, yes, magazine, yes, but not an encyclopedia. 69.137.223.153 06:19, 3 March 2007 (UTC)

lacking information and is also wrong
Being someone who understands the theoretical background, I absolutely can't see where the article is explaining anything. Where's the x % 4 = 2, x < 10 from the Ricci compactification? Oh, and you know, x=6 is also a viable solution, beside creating somewhat harder equations and being considered as unlikely.

title: Talk:Why 10 dimensions?


text:
As Far as Siam

As Far as Siam is the second studio album by the Canadian rock band Red Rider. The majority of the album was recorded at Sunset Sound in Los Angeles and produced by Richard Landis; two tracks were produced in Toronto by Michael James Jackson. The album was released by Capitol Records on June 30, 1981.

The album reached #65 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart in 1981. The single "What Have You Got to do (To Get Off Tonight)" peaked at #16 on the Canadian charts.

Background and writing
"Lunatic Fringe", the band's most famous song, is about what composer Tom Cochrane saw as an alarming rise of anti-Semitism in the 1970s, and was inspired by a book he read about Raoul Wallenberg. The song is featured in the 1985 high-school wrestling movie Vision Quest, the Miami Vice episode "Smuggler's Blues", the My Name Is Earl episode "The Bounty Hunter" and on an episode of Eastbound & Down. The beginning of the song is used as a part of a bump for the Cincinnati radio station, WEBN. It is also the inspiration for Kurt Angle's entrance theme in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. It is also used as American Mixed Martial Artist Dan Henderson's and Randy Couture's entrance theme as of late. American guitarist Gary Hoey covered "Lunatic Fringe" on his 2006 album American Made.

The distinctive guitar solo in "Lunatic Fringe" was performed by Kenny Greer on a lap steel, also seen in the song's music video.

Personnel

 * Tom Cochrane – lead vocals, rhythm guitar
 * Ken Greer – lead electric, steel and six string guitars, piano, organ
 * Jeff Jones – bass guitar, background vocals
 * Peter Boynton – piano, synthesizers, organ, vocals
 * Rob Baker – drums, percussion, harmonica

 * Additional personnel
 * Peter Wolf – synthesizers
 * Jai Winding – keyboards
 * Tom Sowell – theremin
 * George Doering – acoustic guitar
 * Charlie Calello – string arrangements on "Ships"

title: As Far as Siam


text:
File:Red Rider Neruda.jpg

Used on Wikipedia under fair use guidelines:
 * Low resolution copy of the album cover

RedWolf 06:07, Mar 15, 2004 (UTC)

title: File:Red Rider Neruda.jpg