text:
Talk:Rafting

Photos
It would be great to add some photos and a bit more meat to this. Mark Richards 01:40, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Classification
I'm thinking this classification system should really be in the whitewater article, since Kayaking & canoeing uses exactly the same system right? But then there'd be nothing left of the rafting article! Nojer2 12:12, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I had created the spanish article.
You can take ideas from it to enlarge this article and if you can to add rafting rivers in USA and other countries I going to thanks you so much. Regards, river team! --Gengiskanhg 23:02, 9 Feb 2005 (UTC)

hey whats up. stop by from the white water page. one suggestion you might want to break the article into a section for those interested in trying whitewater rafting. or you might not. I was just thinking that there is certin redundencies.--Stranger 09:44, 2005 Jun 12 (UTC)

NPOV in safety section
The safety section seems to imply that rafting without a paid guide is inherently more dangerous than a commercial trip:
 * "In the past there have been many accidents, but predominantly in private travel."

While a discussion of commercial outfitter certifications and licenses is certainly appropriate, I think this section should focus on "the usual safety precautions" that are alluded to but not explained as it currently stands (i.e. knowledge of current conditions, river route, ability to read rapids and pick lines, avoidance of large recirculating holes and undercuts, strainers, rescue equipment, personal safety gear including throw ropes, wetsuits, helmets, PFDs, etc). Also, the reference to the Colorado River "swallowing whole expeditions in the past" is a pretty exceptional claim to make without specific wiki links to historical examples. -- BlueCanoe 21:08, 1 May 2006 (UTC)

I get the feeling this section is a product of conflict of interest editing. Let's see if we can't wikify it a bit and remove some of the bias. Ryanx7 (talk) 03:52, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

I rewrote the first paragraph of this section to better reflect what the research shows. This included deleting the line about private boaters having more fatalities than commercial trips as I was unable to find any research to substantiate that claim. The rest of this section needs work. It looks like most of it is plagiarized from commercial rafting "about" pages. For the time being I am going to leave the the subsequent paragraphs in place, as I work my way though researching and rewriting. Ryanx7 (talk) 05:06, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

Adding external links
This article has a tendency to attract external links. For the general Wikipedia policy on external links, see WP:LINKS, and in particular this section. See also conflict of interest and what Wikipedia is not. This talk page is the appropriate place to ask other wiki users what their opinion is of any potential changes in this article. -- BlueCanoe 01:48, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

idahowhitewater.com
Hi I am working an information web page about the rafting on the Main Salmon River and the surrounding area. The site is idahowhitewater.com. I am wondering if this could be added as a link to this page?

Thanks SalmonWeb 19:05, 12 October 2006 (UTC)

 * I think that idahowhitewater.com is too commercial to be linked from Wikipedia, as it is essentially a directory of businesses with services for sale (Wikipedia guidelines here and here). I suggest removal. -- BlueCanoe 01:48, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

whitewatercampsites.com
Hi rafting editors, I have a site whitewatercampsites.com that, while it does have some advertising to offset costs, is a valuable resource of the rafting community. The link was on the Rafting topic until Katr67 deleted it last night. She suggested that I appeal here. See her talk page for our discussion. In trying to figure out why my link got deleted, I blundered into signing up as an editor. I just want to get the link restored because it was serving people. Thanks for taking a look at my case, Will
 * whitewatercampsites.com is, in my opinion, close to the line between too-commercial and acceptable. Looking through the website it appears that nothing is for sale, and the only advertisements are the sponsors on the home page and the text Google Ads throughout.  On a commercial basis, I'm willing to accept this link.  However, we must also ask: is this website directly related to the article's subject? And again, I think it is debatable, but ultimately the fact that the website is focused on rivers in the U.S. Southwest, Rocky Mountains, and Pacific Northwest (a very small subset of the popular rafting locations in the article), and focuses on river campsites rather than the act of rafting itself (which is the subject of this article) makes me think that this link would be appropriate in a different article more closely aligned with the focus of the website.  Overall I would suggest removal.  -- BlueCanoe 01:48, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

Rafting Userbox
Here's a rafting user box that you can use. Just copy this piece of code on your user page: User Rafting This will produce this: Bu b0y2007 09:37, 18 May 2007 (UTC)

The Popular rafting locations section
I'd suggest that the Popular rafting locations section is a problem for a couple of reasons. Firstly, "popular" is, by definition, a blatantly POV term. How does one objectively measure popularity in such a way as to decide if a location is "popular" enough to be included? Secondly, sections such as this generally become magnets for people to put in their own personal favourite spot and for jokesters to sneak in silly puns, etc, in the hope of not being discovered. I note that that section now takes up almost half the article space. It's hard to say how this should be treated in the long run. I can tell you that we had a similar problem at the Fly fishing article and it was resolved quite nicely by removing the section and by creating a category for destinations that could collect the various location articles under a common heading. Perhaps something similar might work here? — Dave (Talk | contribs) 15:07, 2 August 2007 (UTC)
 * Pull it. Wikipedia is not a travel guide. --jpgordon∇∆∇∆ 15:14, 2 August 2007 (UTC)
 * OK, I'll include it here, though, as an archive in case anyone has a use for its constituents. — Dave (Talk | contribs) 15:44, 2 August 2007 (UTC)

Archived section

Africa

 * Bujagali Falls on the Nile
 * Omo River
 * Tana River
 * Zambezi River

Asia and Oceania

 * Tully River in Queensland, Australia
 * Kelani River at Kitulgala in Sri Lanka
 * Ganga (Ganges River) and its tributaries in India
 * Zanskar River in India
 * Yoshino River in Japan
 * Bhote Koshi river in Nepal
 * Kali Gandaki river in Nepal
 * Karnali river in Nepal
 * Kawarau River in New Zealand
 * Shotover River in New Zealand
 * Whataroa River, New Zealand
 * Hokitika River, New Zealand
 * Chico River, Kalinga, Philippines
 * Cagayan de Oro, Philippines
 * Jeram Besu, Pahang, Malaysia
 * Padas River, Sabah, Malaysia [[Image:Padasraft c.jpg]]
 * Kiulu River, Sabah, Malaysia
 * Krishna River, Maharashtra, India

Carribean

 * Rio Yaque del Norte near Jarabacoa, Dominican Republic

Europe

 * River Findhorn near Aviemore in Scotland, United Kingdom
 * Afon Tryweryn near Bala in Wales, United Kingdom
 * Tiroler Oberland in the Landeck and Imst Region in Tirol, Austria
 * Enns River in Austria
 * Tara River (Montenegro), Montenegro
 * Una River, Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Neretva River, Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Drina River in Bosnia and Herzegovina
 * Soca River in Slovenia
 * Sjoa River in Norway
 * Lim river in Serbia

Middle East

 * Al Assi in North East Lebanon, Northern Bekaa Valley
 * Al Litani in East Lebanon, in the Bekaa Valley
 * Nahr Al Kalb in West Lebanon

Eastern

 * Black River in Watertown, New York
 * Chattooga River near Clayton, Georgia in South Carolina
 * Cheat River in Albright, West Virginia
 * Cheoah River near Robbinsville, North Carolina
 * Delaware River, along the border of New Jersey and Pennsylvania
 * Deerfield River in northwest Massachusetts
 * Nolichucky River flowing into Erwin, Tennessee (northeast Tennessee)
 * Gauley River and New River "Grand Canyon of the East" in West Virginia
 * Hudson River near Lake George, New York
 * James River in Virginia (particularly in Richmond)
 * Kennebec River, Dead River, and Penobscot River in Maine
 * Lachine Rapids in Montreal, Quebec
 * Lehigh River in Pennsylvania
 * Moose River near Old Forge, New York
 * Nantahala River in Bryson City, North Carolina
 * Ocoee River and Appalachian Mountains in the southeastern United States
 * Ocoee River flowing into Copperhill, Tennessee (southeast Tennessee)
 * Ottawa River at Calumet Island in the Whitewater Region, Ontario
 * Pigeon River flowing into Hartford, Tennessee (east Tennessee)
 * U.S. National Whitewater Center in Charlotte, North Carolina
 * Watauga River flowing into Elizabethton, Tennessee (northeast Tennessee)
 * Youghiogheny River in Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania

Western

 * American River near Coloma, California in the USA
 * Arkansas River near the Royal Gorge in Colorado
 * Colorado River, especially through the Grand Canyon starting at Lee's Ferry, Arizona
 * Denali National Park and Preserve, starting at the Denali Lodge
 * Deschutes River in central Oregon
 * Kern River in California
 * Kicking Horse River in Golden, British Columbia, Canada
 * Green River in Whistler, British Columbia, Canada
 * Klamath Riverin California, from Happy Camp down to confluence with Trinity River
 * Lochsa River in Idaho
 * Methow River near Methow, Washington
 * Rogue River near Grants Pass, Oregon
 * Salmon River and its tributaries in Idaho
 * Skagit River near Marblemount, Washington
 * Skykomish River near Gold Bar, Washington
 * Snake River near Jackson Hole, Wyoming
 * Tieton River near Naches, Washington
 * Trinity River near Weaverville, California starting at Lewiston Dam ending at the confluence of the Klamath River
 * Truckee River near Lake Tahoe, California starting at Lake Tahoe Dam
 * Tuolomne River near Groveland, California
 * Wenatchee River near Leavenworth, Washington
 * White Salmon River near Husum, Washington

Central America

 * Cahabon River in Guatemala
 * Nahualate River in Guatemala
 * Pacuare River in Costa Rica

South America

 * Futaleufu River in Chile
 * Trancura River in Pucón, Chile

Plagiarism
I am deleting the entire "History" section, as well as several sentences in the "Whitewater rafts" section due to plagiarism issues; this text has been taken with minimal re-writing from the website Rafting History @ ABC-of-Rafting, which is clearly labeled as "© 2003-2009 ABC of Rafting, part of MaxLifestyle International Inc. All rights reserved." See WP:Plagiarism for guidelines and Wikipedia policy. --BlueCanoe (talk) 16:48, 31 May 2009 (UTC)

I am seeing further evidence of this in the safety section. I will replace with new researched information as I work my way through it. Ryanx7 (talk) 05:07, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

Rubbish edits
There were a couple of rubbish edits followed by a couple of crude edits that had the effect of highlighting Nepal as a rafting tourism destination, all now reverted. BenevolentUncle (talk) 22:07, 14 February 2014 (UTC)

Delete / Archive the Techniques Section
I propose we delete / archive the Techniques section for a variety of reasons. First, it contains a series of rafting related lingo that is not critical to the understanding of the sport. Second, it looks to be mostly plagiarized from commercial rafting sites. Last, it is completely unsourced. Thoughts? Ryanx7 (talk) 05:18, 11 March 2014 (UTC)
 * afaik, all the encyclopaedias I grew up with were unreferenced. Instead, readers relied upon the assumption that they were written by experts. And the publisher was careful with QA, because any scandals re accuracy badly damaged the brand. Despite that, Nature magazine's article (ref required) showed that wp was more accurate than Enc Brit, except for instances of vandalism, presumably because multiple editors had removed obvious mistakes. i.e. wp gets buffed into shape by the fact that anyone can edit it. afaik, the main reason wp 'requires' references is to constrain contributors to npov and info that is of secondary source reliability, and these touchstones are essential for resolving any edit wars in an environment in which all contributors are equal. BUT, wp can also function as a repository of the wisdom of its contributors, who may or may not have time to a) hunt up secondary references, or b) write the secondary reference themself and then quote themself. If they self-select as an expert and write material, then imho it can be left in by those who think it is reasonably accurate, with the referencing left for one fine tomorrow. Could I suggest that you only go about demanding references if you have strong reasons for doubting the accuracy / need to invoke the refing touchstone to resolve an edit war. Or if accuracy is critical, such as in wp:med.
 * I have a fair bit of Australian rafting experience, and re the Techniques section, the only pars that look doubtful to me are 'Back Pivot' and 'Troying'. There has been some vandalism, so checking for accuracy is not inappropriate. The way I would check for accuracy is to check that these are as they were when first written (a binary search makes checking this feasible), 'coz most of that stuff is authoritative.
 * BenevolentUncle (talk) 06:56, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

→I actually think there are texts that could describe some of these techniques (ie Bennett's "The Complete Whitewater Rafter"). The problem is that there are a massive amount of techniques that could be listed here (Ferrying, eddy catching, etc...). At some point it turns the article into a how to do rafting guide book, and that is not the intent of an encyclopedia article. We also run into the problem that rafting lingo, as used in this section, varies a lot based on region. I am just not sure we want to spend time listing various terms for things. Ryanx7 (talk) 17:25, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

On a side note, if we do keep this section it would be easy enough to rewrite the section to remove any plagiarism and add in references. Ryanx7 (talk) 17:26, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

While I love the encylopedic nature of wp,

 * Well, a rafting ferry glide is a bit of an oxymoron, and eddy catching is hardly a specific technique - the first time you get in any craft it is obvious that they can be caught. Except for biner, alluvial, and beam (which I will delete), the list of techniques imho nicely encapsulates most of the main ways in which rafting differs from canoeing. Ryanx7, do you have much experience in rafting yourself? Any native English speaker outside of the US will note that 'taco' is regional, even though instantly understandable - this ain't a problem, and I think we are all comfy with variant spellings and idioms. Lets not spend too much time on this, and lets concentrate on creation rather than destruction. There has already been a fair bit of vandalism which I suspect is designed to wear out wpians with the aim of inserting commercial content, so lets not wear out each other. BenevolentUncle (talk) 20:51, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

→Sorry if it came across as wearing anyone out. That said, I think debating about the relevance of sections is a worthy topic of debate. This is not a huge issue to me as I am more interested in improving the other sections. The techniques section feels out of place compared to other articles. If the consensus is to keep it I think we should add some references and clean it up a bit. Yes, I have about 15 years experience rafting in the Western United States.Ryanx7 (talk) 00:05, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

 * Cool, no worries; sorry if my frazzle at all the subtle vandalism leaked out; just as well the rafting locations section got archived, otherwise it would have been non-stop attacks. I've now rearranged the techniques section and deleted 4 items, and added a sentence to its intro; although its list format differs from other articles I think it presents useful info OK enough. btw, thanks for your refing safety of commercial vs private - that's where primary & secondary refs are particularly useful.

also btw, does the 2nd section re catamarans in the USA seem reasonable to you? If not, perhaps chop. I just google-images
 * russian rafts
 * and
 * russian rafting
 * and they do seem to use catamaran rafts a fair bit. They also seem to do a fair bit of rafting on anatomically correct inflatable dolls, but I guess we can leave that out. BenevolentUncle (talk) 02:54, 12 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I was actual thinking we should add an "Equipment" Section. The difference between round boats, cats, paddle rafts, oar boats, etc... could use some coverage.  And yes the inflatable love dolls do tend to show up...especially on bachelor party trips...but lets leave that out Ryanx7 (talk) 19:36, 12 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Cool. Although simpler would be to change the title of the section titled 'White water rafts' to 'White water rafts & equipment', and amplify that. BenevolentUncle (talk) 21:33, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

 * That works. I just dug out my copy of "The Complete Whitewater Rafter,"  I am going to work on an update of that section in my sandbox.Ryanx7 (talk) 01:01, 13 March 2014 (UTC)

Extensive subtle vandalism
I removed the list item on Troying, with my following comment:
 * /* Tricks */ Removed troying, created by 130.215.124.122 in 2013/April, almost certainly vandalism. a google of rafting troying only returned articles that have mindlessly ripped off wp. This article needs review for other subtle vandalisms.

I found who entered it by doing a manual binary search. But there are probably tools for identifying small changes made by anonymous or one-off editors. I've got to get back to my day job, but if someone could arrange to get help on how to efficiently check thru the edit history for subtle vandalisms, I would be happy to help later. BenevolentUncle (talk) 23:30, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

btw, @Ryanx7, when I googled
 * rafting troying

the first several entries were commercial websites that probably had mindlessly plagiarised wp, rather than vice versa. There is an interesting case study there for anyone who has time. BenevolentUncle (talk) 23:35, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

I have just read the entire article, and it seems reasonable, except that if
 * Jalcomulco River in Mexico, which has swallowed whole expeditions in the past, leaving only fragments of boats

was inserted by a one-off editor then I would pull it as a plug for that river, and I have no idea re Russian rafting and USA catamarans, so if they were inserted by one-off editors I suggest reverting those too. BenevolentUncle (talk) 23:48, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

OK, the Jalcomulco assertion was made by a one-topic editor and was clearly commercial vandalism. The article seems clean now. If attacks persist, I will ask if page protection is appropriate. Meanwhile, please forgive my brusqueness with future reversions, because unless you do a nice edit summary of an obviously constructive change I will be rude enough to revert first and ask questions later. BenevolentUncle (talk) 03:45, 12 March 2014 (UTC)

Right, that's it. From 5 minutes of checking, the stuff since 2014-03-12T14:40:10 is either obvious vandalism or softening up. Sorry Jain for not assuming good faith, but your additions are unnecessary, the page is being softened up for vandalism, so I am calling in a roll back to 2014-03-12T14:40:10 - otherwise I just don't have time to sort thru all the vandalism. BenevolentUncle (talk) 23:06, 7 July 2014 (UTC)

I'd like to work on adding sources if that's okay. Miguel Pena (talk) 18:16, 18 October 2014 (UTC)

I just removed an external link to a commercial outfitter. I suspect there might be more of that in the article proper. Will go though it this week. I'm not sure this article needs the external links. Better to include specific sources as references and remove the temptation. Thoughts? Ryanx7 (talk) 15:33, 24 April 2017 (UTC)

Hi Ryanx7, thanks for your work on cleaning this page up. I have attempted to clean this page up as well. There seemed little to no mention of do-it-yourself rafters and I have changed that. Do-it-yourself rafting has been happening since the 1800's if you include wooden craft. The first rubber raft in Grand Canyon was in 1938. As to safety, Myers et al have done a lot of work on rafting safety in Grand Canyon. Do it yourself folks are safer according to Myers, Becker and Stevens in Fateful Journey. Thank you again, Tom RRFWTommartin (talk) 21:58, 4 May 2017 (UTC)

Nk breezy
102.128.79.65 (talk) 08:04, 18 June 2023 (UTC)
 * 1) make Zimbabwe a better place economically

title: Talk:Rafting


text:
User talk:Patrick Grey Anderson

Hi. Glad you liked the article at tragedy of the commons. Actually, I think it could use some improvement... it doesn't mention game theory at all. Anyway, feel free to make improvements to articles while you browse. That's what Wikipedia is about. Isomorphic 01:45, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Hi. :) I saw your introduction on the new users log.  If you ever find an article you think is brilliant, you can nominate it on Featured article candidates.  Here's a few other useful links for you:

How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you want to see what other users are doing at the moment, have a look at recent changes. This is a good way to find random articles you might be interested on working on, or you can simply enjoy reading what other wikipedians have to say. Every article has a Talk page (like this one) where you can raise questions or suggest a direction for an article to take. When you make edits to a page, it's a very good idea to add a few words to the summary field to let other users know what you just did (anything from typo to rewrote article)!

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! :) fabiform | talk 01:54, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Patrick, welcome! Always good to have a new editor, especially one who likes philosophy. :) Once you get settled, there's a project I've been contemplating a while but have never gotten started on: the article on ancient philosophy is actually very meagre....mostly links, and very little content to explain what characterized it.  I don't know enough philosophy to dive in unaided, but should you take an interest in wanting to shape that article, perhaps you could let me know and we can take a shot at collaborating there.  In my own experience, the best thing I did as a new editor was to find a major article that needed huge amounts of work, and do that: it helped me focus, and made me feel I was doing something useful (Medieval literature, to my great satisfaction, became a featured article).  Maybe taking on something like that would work for you. :)  Just a thought: welcome to the Wikipedia, and enjoy your time reading and editing here! Jwrosenzweig 00:45, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Patrick,

I did create a User Page for VC. I don't know whether the etiquette is for me to put stuff in my user page or yours. I do find it odd that I can edit your user page.

> I am actually completely in agreement with your point of view and your arguments.

I am glad to hear this. I am arguing with several people on another board. Some of the stuff I wrote was in connection with that. I wanted to make use of that and added to the Determinism page.

> However, and you will see this as you go along, the entries themselves are supposed to represent a "neutral point of view."

I did read

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#What_is_the_neutral_point_of_view?

Perhaps you and I have different goals for this page. My goal is to make sure that the pro-determinism view gets heard. If this is all that is said, I wouldn't have a problem. Obviously, your goals are different. Also, I just want this to be a fairly quick effort. I get the impression that you want to develop this carefully over a long period of time, as a true encyclopedia entry. I am hoping that you can make use of my stuff in some way.

>>>>> It is sometimes hard to balance the presentation of what you believe to be irrefutable evidence with the opposing argument, so feel free to include sections even if they only seem to offer evidence for the deterministic viewpoint. However, they should be written in a "this is what people argue" fashion, and not in a way that makes the article read like a brief in favor of determinism. >>>>

Should we start a What Determinists Think section?

> If you want to write something explicitly pro or anti-determinism, write it on the talk page. However, the debate on the talk page is really supposed to be about the article itself, not the idea it discusses.

I am confused here. Do you want me write it on the Talk page or the article itself? How about bringing my stuff back under a What Determinists Think section?

> The coin toss analogy is correct, I believe, and helpful in explaining to people why the notion of "randomness" is not equivalent to the idea that  something can occur for no reason at all.

>>>> As for the "this stage of the article," yes, I believe the article is still too basic to be discussing some of the more elaborate examples. Also, try to avoid citations to current scholarship, because that tends to date an article, especially if the scholarship is later shown to be incorrect. As a rule of thumb, starting an article from a historical, definitional perspective is usually best. Before we get into a very specific part of the determinism debate, it would be helpful to discuss historical figures in the debate, their arguments, the religious history and implications of determinism, William James, Bertrand Russell, David Hume, Kant, etc. >>>>

Clearly your goals are different. I will be glad to work with you.

I have a user page and a user talk page. How do I provide a link to each of these?

VC

Patrick,

> You might think that you and I have different ideas about what an entry should look like, but I think most Wikipedia users would agree that a dispassionate, interesting treatment of the topic is the goal.

I do not disagree. However, my prime interest is to aggressively present the deterministic side. I may be a poor choice to work on this page for that reason.

> My main problem with what you wrote earlier was that it had a sort of urgency to it that made it read more like a letter to the editor than an encyclopedia entry.

Guilty. I am in the middle of a heated discussion with some folks on this topic, on another site.

 * And, a section of yours that someone else deleted before I could read something like, "Let's not get hung up on..." or something like that.

This is what I wrote in that paragraph:

"Human beings gather information, consider alternatives, make decisions, and act. The popular view is that this is true freedom in action. Let's not get into a discussion of whether this is really true or not but agree that this type of humanlike agency/anthropomorphic action is the only way determinism can be violated and examine what happens in the inanimate world."

Let me think where to go from here.

VC 23:19, 21 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Patrick,

Some quick thoughts.

> Just out of curiosity---where are you having this debate?

The debate is happening at

Please feel free to join this debate. I am dying of loneliness there. This site is populated almost 100% by people from India. Hinduism being right is a solid/unquestionable premise for most of them.

At this site, there are several articles by me for instance,

My Life As a Psychologist

The Camel and the Arab

B.F.Skinner

Is there a God?

VC 11:09, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Pat,

Here is a quote from Malone:

very few critics have understood Skinner’s behaviorism well enough to criticize it competently. We attempt here to present radical behaviorism clearly, showing how its interpretations apply to diverse areas. To this end, we use excerpts from one of Skinner’s writings, hoping to prevent at least some future misguided critiques. We argue that Skinner was correct in criticizing mainstream psychology, which is irretrievably damned by its failure to correct the errors of history. Traditional psychology carries the burden of basic assumptions that agree with folk psychology and, therefore, lend popular appeal to its theories (cf., Baum, 1994). Needless to say, these assumptions also feature primitive ways of casting some important questions. For example, the assumption that “we” are minds “inside” bodies agrees with millennia of popular opinion, but it is neither a necessary nor a wise psychology. Similarly, the facts of sensation and perception do not require that we take in copies of the world around us. Whatever the popular appeal, radical behaviorism does not accept such folk psychology.

VC 13:01, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Interested in an L.A.-area Wiki meetup?
It appears as though L.A. has never had a Wiki meetup. Would you be interested in attending such an event? If so, checkout User:Eric Shalov/Wikimeetup.

- Eric 06:25, 25 Jun 2005 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Patrick Grey Anderson


text:
Artinian ring

In mathematics, specifically abstract algebra, an Artinian ring (sometimes Artin ring) is a ring that satisfies the descending chain condition on (one-sided) ideals; that is, there is no infinite descending sequence of ideals. Artinian rings are named after Emil Artin, who first discovered that the descending chain condition for ideals simultaneously generalizes finite rings and rings that are finite-dimensional vector spaces over fields. The definition of Artinian rings may be restated by interchanging the descending chain condition with an equivalent notion: the minimum condition.

Precisely, a ring is left Artinian if it satisfies the descending chain condition on left ideals, right Artinian if it satisfies the descending chain condition on right ideals, and Artinian or two-sided Artinian if it is both left and right Artinian. For commutative rings the left and right definitions coincide, but in general they are distinct from each other.

The Wedderburn–Artin theorem characterizes every simple Artinian ring as a ring of matrices over a division ring. This implies that a simple ring is left Artinian if and only if it is right Artinian.

The same definition and terminology can be applied to modules, with ideals replaced by submodules.

Although the descending chain condition appears dual to the ascending chain condition, in rings it is in fact the stronger condition. Specifically, a consequence of the Akizuki–Hopkins–Levitzki theorem is that a left (resp. right) Artinian ring is automatically a left (resp. right) Noetherian ring. This is not true for general modules; that is, an Artinian module need not be a Noetherian module.

Examples and counterexamples

 * An integral domain is Artinian if and only if it is a field.
 * A ring with finitely many, say left, ideals is left Artinian. In particular, a finite ring (e.g., $$\mathbb{Z}/n \mathbb{Z}$$) is left and right Artinian.
 * Let k be a field. Then $$k[t]/(t^n)$$ is Artinian for every positive integer n.
 * Similarly, $$k[x,y]/(x^2, y^3, xy^2) = k \oplus k\cdot x \oplus k \cdot y \oplus k\cdot xy \oplus k \cdot y^2$$ is an Artinian ring with maximal ideal $$(x,y)$$.
 * Let $$x$$ be an endomorphism between a finite-dimensional vector space V. Then the subalgebra $$A \subset \operatorname{End}(V)$$ generated by $$x$$ is a commutative Artinian ring.
 * If I is a nonzero ideal of a Dedekind domain A, then $$A/I$$ is a principal Artinian ring.
 * For each $$n \ge 1$$, the full matrix ring $$M_n(R)$$ over a left Artinian (resp. left Noetherian) ring R is left Artinian (resp. left Noetherian).

The following two are examples of non-Artinian rings.
 * If R is any ring, then the polynomial ring R[x] is not Artinian, since the ideal generated by $$x^{n+1}$$ is (properly) contained in the ideal generated by $$x^n$$ for all natural numbers n. In contrast, if R is Noetherian so is R[x] by the Hilbert basis theorem.
 * The ring of integers $$\mathbb{Z}$$ is a Noetherian ring but is not Artinian.

Modules over Artinian rings
Let M be a left module over a left Artinian ring. Then the following are equivalent (Hopkins' theorem): (i) M is finitely generated, (ii) M has finite length (i.e., has composition series), (iii) M is Noetherian, (iv) M is Artinian.

Commutative Artinian rings
Let A be a commutative Noetherian ring with unity. Then the following are equivalent.
 * A is Artinian.
 * A is a finite product of commutative Artinian local rings.
 * A / nil(A) is a semisimple ring, where nil(A) is the nilradical of A.
 * Every finitely generated module over A has finite length. (see above)
 * A has Krull dimension zero. (In particular, the nilradical is the Jacobson radical since prime ideals are maximal.)
 * $$\operatorname{Spec}A$$ is finite and discrete.
 * $$\operatorname{Spec}A$$ is discrete.

Let k be a field and A finitely generated k-algebra. Then A is Artinian if and only if A is finitely generated as k-module.

An Artinian local ring is complete. A quotient and localization of an Artinian ring is Artinian.

Simple Artinian ring
One version of the Wedderburn–Artin theorem states that a simple Artinian ring A is a matrix ring over a division ring. Indeed, let I be a minimal (nonzero) right ideal of A, which exists since A is Artinian (and the rest of the proof does not use the fact that A is Artinian). Then, since $$AI$$ is a two-sided ideal, $$AI = A$$ since A is simple. Thus, we can choose $$a_i \in A$$ so that $$1 \in a_1 I + \cdots + a_k I$$. Assume k is minimal with respect that property. Consider the map of right A-modules:
 * $$\begin{cases} I^{\oplus k} \to A, \\ (y_1, \dots, y_k) \mapsto a_1y_1 + \cdots + a_k y_k \end{cases}$$

It is surjective. If it is not injective, then, say, $$a_1y_1 = a_2y_2 + \cdots + a_k y_k$$ with nonzero $$y_1$$. Then, by the minimality of I, we have: $$y_1 A = I$$. It follows:
 * $$a_1 I = a_1 y_1 A \subset a_2 I + \cdots + a_k I$$,

which contradicts the minimality of k. Hence, $$I^{\oplus k} \simeq A$$ and thus $$A \simeq \operatorname{End}_A(A) \simeq M_k(\operatorname{End}_A(I))$$.

title: Artinian ring


text:
User talk:Nherring

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

If you need editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style

Some time when you're bored, you can read through our policies and guidelines. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 01:48, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Nherring


text:
George Stewart Henry

George Stewart Henry (July 16, 1871 – September 2, 1958) was a farmer, businessman and politician in Ontario, Canada. He served as the tenth premier of Ontario from 1930 to 1934. He had acted as minister of highways while Ontario greatly expanded its highway system. Henry continued the expansion as premier, but his party did not provide relief during the Great Depression and lost the 1934 election.

Background
Henry was born in Township of King, York County, Ontario, the son of William and Louisa Henry (née Stewart).

He attended Upper Canada College for high school and moved on to the University of Toronto, where he received a Bachelor of Arts. He earned his LL.B. at Osgoode Hall Law School. He also spent a year at the University of Toronto's Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph and decided to become a farmer in East York, Ontario.

He was a member of York Township Council from 1903 to 1910, was Township reeve from 1906 to 1910, and elected warden of York County in 1909.

Political career
He was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1913 as a Conservative in the riding of York East. In 1918, he was appointed as Minister of Agriculture. In 1920, he ran for the leadership of the provincial Conservatives at that party's first-ever leadership convention but lost to Howard Ferguson who led the party to victory in the subsequent general election. From 1923 to 1930, Henry served as Minister of Highways in the Ferguson government and expanded on the highway system that was initiated by the previous government of Ernest C. Drury. When Ferguson stepped down in 1930, barely a year into the Great Depression, Henry succeeded him as Conservative Party leader and as Premier of Ontario. Henry continued his programme of building roads and extended Ontario's highway system from 670 km to 3888 km.

Construction of Canada's first four-lane controlled access superhighway, the Toronto to Niagara Falls Queen Elizabeth Way, was the most lasting achievement of the highway program.

Henry was opposed to government intervention to deal with the economy. Aside from building roads, his government did little to alleviate public suffering during the Great Depression, such as unemployment in the cities, or the collapse of prices for farm products in the country. Henry's government, like the federal government of RB Bennett, established work camps for jobless men. They were established not so much to provide social welfare but rather as social control: to evacuate the potentially-radical element from the cities. The work camps also provided a source of labour for the construction of Henry's highway system.

In the 1934 election, Henry sought a new mandate from the voters in his first election as Premier. Some felt that the government had little to offer beyond more road construction, and the Tories were soundly defeated by the Ontario Liberal Party, led by Mitchell Hepburn. He became the Leader of the Opposition from 1934 to 1936, when he retired as the Conservative leader.

Henry Farm
In 1898, Henry bought the farm house and property in which he would spend almost all of his adult life after he had graduated from the Ontario Agricultural College. The "Mulholland Homestead" had been settled by his great-grandfather Henry Mulholland, who sold it in the early 19th century.

The farm was located in what was then known as Todmorden, and contained 460 acre. He sold it in 1958 for approximately CA$2 million to a British construction firm that was planning on building a housing division. He died ten days after he had completed the sale, on September 2, 1958. It became a suburban housing subdivision in the 1960s, Henry Farm, in City of North York, which is now part of the amalgamated City of Toronto.

A public high school near his former homestead was named after him, George S. Henry Academy.

title: George Stewart Henry


text:
JIS

JIS may refer to:

Standards

 * Japanese Industrial Standards
 * JIS screw drive
 * JIS semiconductor designation
 * JIS encoding
 * Shift JIS

Organisations

 * Japanese international school
 * Jabriya Indian School, Kuwait
 * Jakarta International School, Indonesia
 * Jamaica Information Service
 * Jeddah International School, Saudi Arabia
 * Jerudong International School, Brunei
 * JIS University, India
 * JIS College of Engineering, India

Other uses

 * Jakarta International Stadium, stadium in Jakarta
 * Juggling Information Service, a website
 * Just in sequence, an inventory strategy
 * Journal of Integer Sequences

title: JIS


text:
Kamnik–Savinja Alps

The Kamnik–Savinja Alps (Kamniško-Savinjske Alpe) are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps. They lie in northern Slovenia, except for the northernmost part, which lies in Austria.

The western part of the range was named the Kamnik Alps (Steiner Alpen) in 1778 by the scientists Belsazar Hacquet and Franz Xaver von Wulfen, after the town of Kamnik (Stein) in the valley of the Kamnik Bistrica River. Its eastern part was named the Savinja Alps (Sanntaler Alpen) or Solčava Alps (Sulzbacher Alpen) by the mountaineer Johannes von Frischauf in 1875, after the settlement of Solčava (Sulzbach) and the main river, the upper Savinja (Sann).

Geography
The Kamnik–Savinja Alps are located south of the Karawanks range at the border of Austria and Slovenia, stretching from the Sava River in the west to the Savinja in the east, where the adjacent Slovenian Prealps with the Pohorje range, the Celje Hills at the Dravinja River, as well as the Sava Hills are located. In the northwest, the valley of Vellach Creek (at 46.3725°N, 14.56528°W) leading to Bad Vellach is the southernmost point of both the Austrian state of Carinthia and Austria as a whole.

The entire main chain is today part of Slovenia. Historically it formed the border between the Inner Austrian duchies of Carinthia, Styria, and Carniola. The tripoint was located at the Carinthia Mount Rinka (Koroška Rinka).

There is also a small glacier below Mount Skuta, which is the easternmost glacier in the Southern Alps.

Mountains and passes
The most important peaks are:
 * Grintovec – 2558 m
 * Kočna – 2540 m
 * Skuta – 2532 m
 * Ojstrica – 2350 m
 * Storžič – 2132 m
 * Planjava – 2394 m
 * Brana – 2253 m
 * Carinthia Mount Rinka – 2433 m
 * Cold Mountain – 2203 m
 * Krofička – 2083 m
 * Kalce Ridge – 2224 m

In total, 28 peaks surpass 2,000 m. The total area of the Slovene part is about 900 km2. About three-quarters of the area is covered with forest, and many of the higher peaks are bleak and rocky.

The most important passes are the Seebergsattel (Jezersko sedlo) between Austrian Carinthia and Slovenia's Municipality of Jezersko, as well as the Pavlič Pass. On the Slovenian side, there is a skiing area, whereas tourism in the Vellach Valley focuses on health spas.

title: Kamnik–Savinja Alps


text:
Chemoreceptor

A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a specialized sensory receptor which transduces a chemical substance (endogenous or induced) to generate a biological signal. This signal may be in the form of an action potential, if the chemoreceptor is a neuron, or in the form of a neurotransmitter that can activate a nerve fiber if the chemoreceptor is a specialized cell, such as taste receptors, or an internal peripheral chemoreceptor, such as the carotid bodies. In physiology, a chemoreceptor detects changes in the normal environment, such as an increase in blood levels of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) or a decrease in blood levels of oxygen (hypoxia), and transmits that information to the central nervous system which engages body responses to restore homeostasis.

In bacteria, chemoreceptors are essential in the mediation of chemotaxis.

In prokaryotes
Bacteria utilize complex long helical proteins as chemoreceptors, permitting signals to travel long distances across the cell's membrane. Chemoreceptors allow bacteria to react to chemical stimuli in their environment and regulate their movement accordingly. In archaea, transmembrane receptors comprise only 57% of chemoreceptors, while in bacteria the percentage rises to 87%. This is an indicator that chemoreceptors play a heightened role in the sensing of cytosolic signals in archaea.

In eukaryotes
Primary cilia, present in many types of mammalian cells, serve as cellular antennae. The motile function of these cilia is lost in favour of their sensory specialization.

Plant chemoreceptors
Plants have various mechanisms to perceive danger in their environment. Plants are able to detect pathogens and microbes through surface level receptor kinases (PRK). Additionally, receptor-like proteins (RLPs) containing ligand binding receptor domains capture pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPS) and damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPS) which consequently initiates the plant's innate immunity for a defense response.

Plant receptor kinases are also used for growth and hormone induction among other important biochemical processes. These reactions are triggered by a series of signaling pathways which are initiated by plant chemically sensitive receptors. Plant hormone receptors can either be integrated in plant cells or situate outside the cell, in order to facilitate chemical structure and composition. There are 5 major categories of hormones that are unique to plants which once bound to the receptor, will trigger a response in target cells. These include auxin, abscisic acid, gibberellin, cytokinin, and ethylene. Once bound, hormones can induce, inhibit, or maintain function of the target response.

Classes
There are two main classes of chemoreceptor: direct and distance.
 * Examples of distance chemoreceptors are:
 * olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory system: Olfaction involves the ability to detect chemicals in the gaseous state. In vertebrates, the olfactory system detects odors and pheromones in the nasal cavity. Within the olfactory system there are two anatomically distinct organs: the main olfactory epithelium (MOE) and the vomeronasal organ (VNO). It was initially thought that the MOE is responsible for the detection of odorants, while the VNO detects pheromones. The current view, however, is that both systems can detect odorants and pheromones. Olfaction in invertebrates differs from olfaction in vertebrates. For example, in insects, olfactory sensilla are present on their antennae.
 * Examples of direct chemoreceptors include:
 * Taste receptors in the gustatory system: The primary use of gustation as a type of chemoreception is for the detection of tasteants. Aqueous chemical compounds come into contact with chemoreceptors in the mouth, such as taste buds on the tongue, and trigger responses. These chemical compounds can either trigger an appetitive response for nutrients, or a defensive response against toxins depending on which receptors fire. Fish and crustaceans, who are constantly in an aqueous environment, use their gustatory system to identify certain chemicals in the mixture for the purpose of localization and ingestion of food.
 * Insects use contact chemoreception to recognize certain chemicals such as cuticular hydrocarbons and chemicals specific to host plants. Contact chemoreception is more commonly seen in insects but is also involved in the mating behavior of some vertebrates. The contact chemoreceptor is specific to one type of chemical.

Sensory organs

 * Olfaction: In terrestrial vertebrates, olfaction occurs in the nose. Volatile chemical stimuli enter the nose and eventually reach the olfactory epithelium which houses the chemoreceptor cells known as olfactory sensory neurons often referred to as OSNs. Embedded in the olfactory epithelium are three types of cells: supporting cells, basal cells, and OSNs. While all three types of cells are integral to normal function of the epithelium, only OSN serve as receptor cells, i.e. responding to the chemicals and generating an action potential that travels down the olfactory nerve to reach the brain. In insects, antennae act as distance chemoreceptors. For example, antennae on moths are made up of long feathery hairs that increase sensory surface area. Each long hair from the main antenna also has smaller sensilla that are used for volatile olfaction. Since moths are mainly nocturnal animals, the development of greater olfaction aids them in navigating the night.
 * Gustation: In many terrestrial vertebrates, the tongue serves as the primary gustatory sensory organ. As a muscle located in the mouth, it acts to manipulate and discern the composition of food in the initial stages of digestion. The tongue is rich in vasculature, allowing the chemoreceptors located on the top surface of the organ to transmit sensory information to the brain. Salivary glands in the mouth allow for molecules to reach chemoreceptors in an aqueous solution. The chemoreceptors of the tongue fall into two distinct superfamilies of G protein-coupled receptors. GPCR's are intramembrane proteins than bind to an extracellular ligand- in this case chemicals from food- and begin a diverse array of signaling cascades that can result in an action potential registering as input in an organism's brain. Large quantities of chemoreceptors with discrete ligand-binding domains provide for the five basic tastes: sour, salty, bitter, sweet, and savory. The salty and sour tastes work directly through the ion channels, the sweet and bitter taste work through G protein-coupled receptors, and the savory sensation is activated by glutamate.Gustatory chemosensors are not just present on the tongue but also on different cells of the gut epithelium where they communicates the sensory information to several effector systems involved in the regulation of appetite, immune responses, and gastrointestinal motility.
 * Contact Chemoreception: Contact chemoreception is dependent on the physical contact of the receptor with the stimulus. The receptors are short hairs or cones that have a single pore at, or close to the tip of the projection. They are known as uniporous receptors. Some receptors are flexible, while others are rigid and do not bend with contact. They are mostly found in the mouthparts, but can also occur on the antennae or legs of some insects. There is a collection of dendrites located near the pores of the receptors, yet the distribution of these dendrites changes depending on the organism being examined. The method of transduction of the signal from the dendrites differs depending on the organism and the chemical it is responding to.

When inputs from the environment are significant to the survival of the organism, the input must be detected. As all life processes are ultimately based on chemistry it is natural that detection and passing on of the external input will involve chemical events. The chemistry of the environment is, of course, relevant to survival, and detection of chemical input from the outside may well articulate directly with cell chemicals.

Chemoreception is important for the detection of food, habitat, conspecifics including mates, and predators. For example, the emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions. It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the brain or spinal cord. The resulting output from the CNS (central nervous system) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.

Physiology

 * Carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes primarily in pCO2 and H+ ion concentration. They also sense decrease in partial pressure of O2, but to a lesser degree than for pCO2 and H+ ion concentration.
 * The chemoreceptor trigger zone is an area of the medulla in the brain that receives inputs from blood-borne drugs or hormones, and communicates with the vomiting center (area postrema) to induce vomiting.
 * Primary cilia play important roles in chemosensation. In adult tissues, these cilia regulate cell proliferation in response to external stimuli, such as tissue damage. In humans, improper functioning of primary cilia is associated with important diseases known as ciliopathies.

Control of breathing
Particular chemoreceptors, called ASICs, detect the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood, which decrease the pH of the blood. This can be a direct consequence of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration, because aqueous carbon dioxide in the presence of carbonic anhydrase reacts to form a proton and a bicarbonate ion.

The response is that the respiratory centre (in the medulla), sends nervous impulses to the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, via the intercostal nerve and the phrenic nerve, respectively, to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation.

Chemoreceptors that regulate the depth and rhythm of breathing are broken down into two categories.

 * central chemoreceptors are located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. They have also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia (elevated, decreased O2), and eventually desensitize, partly due to redistribution of bicarbonate out of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and increased renal excretion of bicarbonate. These are sensitive to pH and.
 * peripheral chemoreceptors: consists of aortic and carotid bodies. Aortic body detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, while carotid body detects all three. They do not desensitize. Their effect on breathing rate is less than that of the central chemoreceptors.

Heart rate
The response to stimulation of chemoreceptors on the heart rate is complicated. Chemoreceptors in the heart or nearby large arteries, as well as chemoreceptors in the lungs, can affect heart rate. Activation of these peripheral chemoreceptors from sensing decreased O2, increased CO2 and a decreased pH is relayed to cardiac centers by the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves to the medulla of the brainstem. This increases the sympathetic nervous stimulation on the heart and a corresponding increase in heart rate and contractility in most cases. These factors include activation of stretch receptors due to increased ventilation and the release of circulating catecholamines.

However, if respiratory activity is arrested (e.g. in a patient with a high cervical spinal cord injury), then the primary cardiac reflex to transient hypercapnia and hypoxia is a profound bradycardia and coronary vasodilation through vagal stimulation and systemic vasoconstriction by sympathetic stimulation. In normal cases, if there is reflexive increase in respiratory activity in response to chemoreceptor activation, the increased sympathetic activity on the cardiovascular system would act to increase heart rate and contractility.

title: Chemoreceptor


text:
Pigbag

Pigbag were a British post-punk band, best known for their instrumentals, active between 1980 and 1983.

Origin and formation
Pigbag were formed in Cheltenham in late 1980 by Chris Hamlin, a fashion student at Cheltenham Art College. Hamlin recruited multi-instrumentalist Roger Freeman, an old friend from his hometown of Birmingham, along with Chris Lee on trumpet and James Johnstone, a guitarist, record shop assistant and newcomer to the alto sax, for initial jam sessions which would eventually evolve into Pigbag. The group would jam in parks and various other places, but their usual practice space was Hamlin's flat in Beech House, on the corner of St James's Square and St George's Place in Cheltenham.

After a couple of months they decided to expand the line-up, adding a rhythm section and rehearsing more seriously. They recruited Andrew "Chip" Carpenter on drums and Mark "Miff" Smith on bass, both old school friends of Johnstone's, and former members of their previous band Hardware. It was at these jam sessions that "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag" was developed from an idea Chris Hamlin and James Johnson had had before the band was formed. The song would become their signature tune.

When Hamlin heard that Simon Underwood had left The Pop Group he invited him to join the nascent band (to replace Mark Smith who had left by this point), the band then trading under the tentative name Us Corporation. Through a friend who knew Mark Stewart, The Pop Group's vocalist, Hamlin and Johnstone acquired Underwood's address and hitched down to Bristol to convince him, using tape recordings of their jam sessions. To their surprise Underwood agreed, also suggesting his friend Ollie Moore as tenor sax player.

Through Underwood's connections with Dick O'Dell, then manager of The Slits and head of Y Records, they landed their first gig, supporting The Slits at Romeo and Juliet's in Bristol on 21 October 1980. They played a twenty-minute version of what was to become "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag" to a positive reception, and the next day O'Dell invited them to record the track for Y Records. At this point they adopted the name Pigbag, in reference to Chris Hamlin's scruffy cloth bag bearing a screen-printed warthog.

Early recordings
The band made their first recordings in 1981 at Berry Street Studios in London. Later that year they released their first single, the instrumental classic "Papa's Got A Brand New Pigbag", on Y Records, distributed by Rough Trade, the title being a clear pun on James Brown's "Papa's Got A Brand New Bag". The track quickly became an underground dance hit, selling many thousands of copies and charting well. The song, and the remix "Reach Up (Papa's Got A Brand New Pigbag)" by Paul Oakenfold under the alias Perfecto Allstarz (which became a UK and Irish Top 10 hit in early 1995), has become a stadium anthem in English football (particularly in the Football League), originally adopted by Queens Park Rangers supporters in 1994 after some of their fans took it on as an anthem at a music venue in Westbourne Park, often played or chanted before a match or at half time, or after the scoring of a goal, and often incorporating the name of a player into the song.

Around this time Hamlin left the band, feeling that he had created an unmanageable group with too many egos to contend with, and that he was "losing control of the band". Soon afterwards he recorded a version of "Swinging on a Star" which was never released.

During September and October 1981, the band toured the US, playing in New York City, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Northampton, MA, San Francisco and Berkeley, California. They followed the success of "Papa..." with "Sunny Day", a similarly brash, bright and funky track for which Ed Steinberg shot a video in New York. They also recorded another single, "Getting Up", in early 1982. April 1982 saw the release of their first album Dr Heckle and Mr Jive, which was a huge success, topping the UK Indie Chart for several weeks, despite including only one of their previous singles - "Getting Up".

The band embarked on a long and gruelling college tour in the spring of 1982, which placed them under considerable strain. Roger Freeman was replaced by Brian Nevill for several gigs. Club play and the extensive tour had stimulated demand for "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag", which was consequently re-released on Stiff Records, peaking at No. 3 in the UK Singles Chart and giving the band their only significant mainstream success.

The band made two appearances on Top of the Pops, on 8 and 22 April 1982. Brian Nevill sat in on both appearances, and Paul "Nellee" Hooper (later producer for Björk, Madonna and Soul II Soul) also appeared with the band, although he was never a band member and did not play on any of the Pigbag recordings. The first Top of the Pops appearance also saw Roger Freeman's departure from the band. Already stressed from touring, Freeman refused to switch his donkey jacket for the suits which the band had decided to all wear for the show, so departed from the band the day before the recording. He went on to record the 1986 non-stop forty-minute prototype chill-out / house album Designer Beatnik with ex-Duran Duran member Stephen Duffy under the name Dr Calculus mdma (the cover photo showing the "Spirit of Ecstasy" car mascot).

Later career
On 27 April 1982, a new line-up, including Brian Nevill and Oscar Verden, started rehearsing. The band changed their sound slightly, following up with "The Big Bean", a slower track with a more Caribbean vibe, which peaked at No. 40 in the UK Singles Chart. The single was recorded at Abbey Road Studios on 5 and 6 June 1982. This was followed by a short UK tour, then a European one, and dates in New York on 9 and 10 July and in Japan from 18 to 31 July.

Soon afterwards Angela Jaeger, a New York jazz singer, joined the band. Jaeger had previously sung with a band called The Drowning Craze. The next LP, Lend An Ear, was recorded in the late summer of 1982, and the band appeared on the Christmas edition of Top of the Pops.

Underwood and Jaeger were married at Hammersmith Registry Office in 1983, attended by many notables from the music scene, including Johnny Rotten. During 1983, the band released a single, "Hit The 'O' Deck" (a reference to turntables), and the album recorded the previous year, Lend An Ear. The band toured the UK from 14 February to 13 March 1983. A European tour followed from 29 March to 16 April. Their last live gig was in Portsmouth on 28 April 1983.

Following a poor critical reception to the new direction and differences in the band, Pigbag split in June 1983, with Johnstone, Jaeger and Underwood forming Instinct. Y Records released two posthumous albums, Pigbag (including seven live tracks and one remix), and Favourite Things (including all the singles plus a few other album tracks). The press accused Dick O'Dell of releasing the albums purely to buoy Y Records' finances, which were in trouble following the failure of most of their roster to make significant sales (with the possible exception of Shriekback, who instead fell out with O'Dell and left the label).

Kaz Records (part of Castle Communications) took over Y Records' operations when the label finally went bankrupt, and have subsequently released Discology: The Best Of Pigbag on CD.

Legacy
Although never hugely commercially successful, Pigbag had a distinctive sound. Members of the band went on to record with many other bands, some still active today. Their career took place during the huge mushrooming and cross-pollination of genres that followed the punk movement, and their music can be said to incorporate elements of punk, jazz, funk, ska, reggae and even tribal world music, such as afrobeat, all accompanied with undeniable pop sensibility. Pigbag's influence can be heard today in the more funk-influenced percussive side of the post-punk revival, in such bands as !!! and LCD Soundsystem.

Their single "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag" has entered mainstream consciousness, and is considered a classic pop hit of its era. It is removed somewhat from the rest of the band's career, to the effect that Pigbag are sometimes considered one-hit wonders. It has been used extensively as soundtrack music and at sporting events, particularly by Middlesbrough Football Club and Queens Park Rangers, and is still a popular dance record in clubs. In 2003, an anthem row erupted before a play-off final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff between Cardiff and Queens Park Rangers. Eventually neither "God Save the Queen" nor "Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau" were played and the clubs could choose their own song. Cardiff opted for "Men of Harlech", while QPR went for "Papa's Got A Brand New Pigbag".

The track was sampled in Alex Gaudino's song "Watch Out" and has been covered by several other artists. It featured on the soundtrack of the 2006 film of Alan Bennet's The History Boys. English group Madness have included a cover version of the song in their live set on occasion. In Canada, the song was used as the theme for The NewMusic, a music newsmagazine show for over 25 years. British gymnast Claudia Fragapane used a remix for her floor music between 2015 and 2016.

Original line-up

 * Simon Underwood – Electric and Acoustic Bass
 * James Johnstone – Alto Saxophone and Guitar
 * Chris Lee – Trumpet and Steel Drums
 * Ollie Moore – Tenor and Baritone Saxophone
 * Roger Freeman – Trombone / Keyboards and Percussion
 * Andy 'Chip' Carpenter – Drum kit and Percussion
 * Chris Hamlin – Clarinet and Percussion
 * Mark Smith – Electric Bass

Later additions

 * Brian Nevill – Drum Kit / Percussion and soprano saxophone
 * Oscar Verden – Trombone and Keyboards
 * Angela Jaeger – Vocals

Song appearances

 * "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag" used in The Ongoing History of New Music episode "Alt-Rock's Greatest Instrumentals" from 2003.
 * "Papa's Got a Brand New Pigbag" used as intro music to Toronto TV station City TV's "The New Music" from 1980 to c. 1983.

title: Pigbag


text:
JIS encoding

In computing, JIS encoding refers to several Japanese Industrial Standards for encoding the Japanese language. Strictly speaking, the term means either:
 * A set of standard coded character sets for Japanese, notably:
 * JIS X 0201, the Japanese version of ISO 646 (ASCII) containing the base 7-bit ASCII characters (with some modifications) and 64 half-width katakana characters.
 * JIS X 0208, the most common kanji character set containing 6,879 characters, including 6,355 kanji and 524 other characters (one 94 by 94 plane)
 * JIS X 0212, a supplement for JIS X 0208 which adds 5,801 kanji, totaling 12,156 kanji (a second 94 by 94 plane)
 * JIS X 0213, which extends JIS X 0208 (two planes)
 * JIS X 0202 (also known as ISO-2022-JP), a set of encoding mechanisms for sending JIS character data over transmission media that only support 7-bit data.

In practice, "JIS encoding" usually refers to JIS X 0208 character data encoded with JIS X 0202. For instance, the IANA uses the  label to refer to JIS X 0202, and the   label to refer to the profile thereof defined by.

Other encoding mechanisms for JIS characters include the Shift JIS encoding and EUC-JP. Shift JIS adds the kanji, full-width hiragana and full-width katakana from JIS X 0208 to JIS X 0201 in a backward compatible way. Shift JIS is perhaps the most widely used encoding in Japan, as the compatibility with the single-byte JIS X 0201 character set made it possible for electronic equipment manufacturers (such as cash register manufacturers) to offer an upgrade from older cheaper equipment that was not capable of displaying kanji to newer equipment while retaining character-set compatibility.

EUC-JP is used on UNIX systems, where the JIS encodings are incompatible with POSIX standards.

A more recent alternative to JIS coded characters is Unicode (UCS coded characters), particularly in the UTF-8 encoding mechanism.

Encoding comparison
The following table compares the features of the three main encoding schemes for JIS X 0208.

title: JIS encoding


text:
Caudillo

A caudillo (, ; cabdillo, from Latin capitellum, diminutive of caput "head") is a type of personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise English translation for the term, though it is often used interchangeably with "warlord" and "strongman". The term is historically associated with Spain and Hispanic America, after virtually all of the regions in the latter won independence in the early nineteenth century.

The roots of caudillismo may be tied to the framework of rule in medieval and early modern Spain during the Reconquista from the Moors. Spanish conquistadors such as Hernán Cortés and Francisco Pizarro exhibit characteristics of the caudillo, being successful military leaders, having mutual reliance on the leader and their supporters, and rewarding them for their loyalty. During the colonial era, the Spanish crown asserted its power and established a plethora of bureaucratic institutions that prevented personalist rule. Historian John Lynch argues that the rise of caudillos in Spanish America is rooted not in the distant Spanish past but in the immediate context of the Spanish American wars of independence. The wars overthrew colonial rule and left a power vacuum in the early nineteenth century. Caudillos were very influential in the history of Spanish America and left a legacy that has influenced political movements in the modern era. The term is often used pejoratively by critics of a regime. However, Spain's General Francisco Franco (1936–1975) proudly took the title as his own during and after his military overthrow of the Second Spanish Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Spanish censors during his rule attacked publishers who applied the term to Hispanic American strongmen. Caudillos' exercise of power is a form considered authoritarian. Most societies have had personalist leaders at times, but Hispanic America has had many more, the majority of whom were not self-described caudillos. However, scholars have applied the term to a variety of Hispanic-American leaders.

Spanish American caudillos
Since Spanish American independence in the early nineteenth century, the region has been noted for its number of caudillos and the duration of their rule. The early nineteenth century is sometimes called "The Age of Caudillos", with Juan Manuel de Rosas, dictator of Argentina, and his contemporary in Mexico, Antonio López de Santa Anna, dominating national politics. Weak nation-states in Spanish America fostered the continuation of caudillismo from the late nineteenth century into the twentieth century. The formation of Mexico's Institutional Revolutionary Party in 1929 effectively ended caudillismo. Men characterized as caudillos have ruled in Cuba (Gerardo Machado, Fulgencio Batista, Fidel Castro), Panama (Omar Torrijos, Manuel Noriega), the Dominican Republic (Desiderio Arias, Cipriano Bencosme), Paraguay (Alfredo Stroessner), Argentina (Juan Perón and other military strongmen), and Chile (Augusto Pinochet). Caudillos have been the subject of literature in Spanish America.

Hispanic America is not unique in having strong leaders emerge during times of turmoil. The cause of their emergence in Spanish America is generally seen to be in the destruction of the Spanish colonial state structure after the wars of independence, and in the importance of leaders from the independence struggles for providing government in the post-independence period, when nation-states came into being. Historian John Lynch states that "Before 1810 the caudillo was unknown. … The caudillo entered history as a local hero whom larger events promoted to a military chieftain." In a rural area that lacked any institutions of the state, and where the environment was one of violence and anarchy, a caudillo could impose order, often by using violence himself to achieve it. His local control as a strongman needed to be maintained by assuring the loyalty of his followers, so his bestowing of material rewards reinforced his own position. Caudillos could also maintain their position by protecting the interests of regional elites. A local strongman who built a regional base could aspire to become a national caudillo, taking control of the state. In this situation, caudillos could bestow patronage on a large retinue of clients, who in turn gave him their loyalty. In general, caudillos' power benefited elites. But these strongmen were also mediators between elites and the popular classes, recruiting them into the power base, but also restraining them from achieving power themselves.

There were a few strongmen who either rose from a humble background to protect the interests of indigenous groups or other rural marginalized groups, or strongly identified with those groups; historian E. Bradford Burns referred to them as "folk caudillos,". In his analysis, they contrasted with Europeanized elites who viewed the lower orders with contempt. He gives examples of Juan Facundo Quiroga, Martín Güemes, and other Argentine caudillos, most importantly Juan Manuel de Rosas, who were popular and populist caudillos. Burns attributes the urban elites' bafflement and their contempt for followers of these folk caudillos for much of the negative role assigned to caudillos.

National caudillos often sought to legitimize their rule by holding titles of authority such as "President of the Republic". If the constitution put formal limits on presidential power and term limits, caudillos could bend or break the rules to maintain power, a practice dubbed continuismo.

Ideologically, caudillos could be either liberal or conservative. Liberalism had an advantage in the post-independence period, drawing on the ideas of the liberators and creating the institutional frameworks of the new nation-states via written constitutions. Free trade as an economic policy created market-oriented economies. The model that these nation-states often adopted was federalism, keeping power in the component regions. Federalism, however, tended toward centrifugalism and fragmentation and was characterized by weak central governments. Conservative caudillos also emerged around 1830. New nation-states often rejected the institutions of the colonial era as legacies to be rejected, but the Roman Catholic Church and traditional values remained strong in many regions, supported by elites seeking to maintain their power in the new order. Conservative caudillos, supported by the Church and elites, moved to the creation of strong, central governments.

Independence era
Although there was the hope of some Spanish American leaders of independence that the political contours of regions would reconstitute the former viceroyalties, but with local autonomy. The Roman Catholic Church as an institution remained strong and the militaries won victories against royalist forces. The state as an institution in most areas was weak. Conflicts over the form the new governments should take were rampant, and veterans of the wars of independence saw themselves as the leaders of the nation-states they had helped bring into being.

In the wake of the violence and political disruption, new nations were faced with widespread property destruction, the disappearance of trade, and states that lacked political authority. The first few decades after independence saw the rise of strongmen with roots in the military. Spanish America had known no other type of regime than monarchy, and Mexico established one under a royalist general-turned-insurgent Agustín de Iturbide. In Spanish America, new sovereign states grappled with the question of balancing a central authority, usually in the hands of the traditional elites, with some kind of representation of the new "citizenry" of the republics. Constitutions were written laying out the division of powers, but the rule of personalist strongmen, caudillos, dominated. Dictatorial powers were granted to some caudillos, nominally ruling as presidents under a constitution, as "constitutional dictators".

Early nineteenth-century caudillos
There were a number of strongmen who went beyond raw struggles for power and its spoils and established "integrative dictatorships". These regimes attempted to curtail centrifugal forces, often termed "federalism", where regions or states of a nation-state had more autonomy and instead established the hegemony of the central government. According to political scientist Peter H. Smith, these include Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina; Diego Portales of Chile, whose system lasted nearly a century; and Porfirio Díaz of Mexico. Rosas and Díaz were military men, who continued to rely on armed forces to maintain themselves in power.

Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean
This region was vulnerable to stronger powers, particularly the United States and the United Kingdom. Cuba remained in the hands of the Spanish crown until 1898. The United States seized a huge part of Mexico. Britain attempted to set up a protectorate on the Mosquito Coast of Central America. The two strongmen of this early century were Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico and Rafael Carrera in Guatemala. Mexico began its revolt against Spain in 1810, gaining independence in 1821. Political divisions in the post-independence period were labeled federalist, seeking a weak central government and often associated with liberalism, and centralist, who sought a strong central state and defense of traditional institutional structures, particularly the Mexican Army and the Roman Catholic Church. Many regional strongmen were in the Federalist-Liberal camp, which supported local control and the continuation of their power. The quintessential Mexican caudillo, who gained national power for decades, was Santa Anna, who was initially a Liberal but became a Conservative and sought strengthening of the central government. Following the Mexican–American War, regional caudillos such as Juan Álvarez of the state of Guerrero and Santiago Vidaurri of Nuevo León-Coahuila ousted Santa Anna in the Revolution of Ayutla, bringing Liberals to power. Álvarez follows the pattern of the "folk caudillo", whom historian François Chevalier calls a "good cacique, [who] protected the mainly indigenous and mestizo peasants of Guerrero, who in turn gave him their loyalty". Álvarez briefly served as President of Mexico, returning to his home state, leaving ideological liberals to institute the era of La Reforma. During the era of the Mexican Reform and the French intervention in Mexico, there were a number of generals who had regional personal followings. Important figures whose local power had consequences nationally included Mariano Escobedo in San Luis Potosí; Ramón Corona in Jalisco and Durango; and Porfirio Díaz in parts of Veracruz, Puebla, and Oaxaca. There were other caudillos whose power was more local but still important, including Gerónimo Treviño and Francisco Narajo in Nuevo León, Servando Canales and Juan Cortina in Tamaulipas, Florencio Antillón in Guanajuato, Ignacio Pesqueira in Sonora, Luis Terrazas in Chihuahua, and Manuel Lozada in Tepic. Following the defeat of the French in 1867, the government of Benito Juárez and his successor following his death, Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, faced opponents who objected to their increasingly Centralist administrations. Those opponents gravitated to supporting Díaz, a military hero of the French intervention, who challenged Juárez and Lerdo by attempting rebellions, the second of which, the Plan of Tuxtepec, was successful in 1876. Juárez and Lerdo removed some caudillos from office, but this prompted them to rebel. These included Trinidad García de la Cadena in Zacatecas, Luis Mier y Terán in Veracruz, Juan Haro in Tampico, Juan N. Méndez in Puebla, Vicente Jiménez in Guerrero, and Juan Cortina in Matamoros. "That they slowly gathered around Porfirio Díaz is the story of the rise of Porfirian Mexico."

Bolivarian republics: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Venezuela
Simón Bolívar, the foremost leader of independence in Spanish America, attempted to recreate the Viceroyalty of New Granada in the nation of Gran Colombia. As with other areas of Spanish America, centrifugal forces caused the country to fragment into separate nation-states. Bolivar saw the need for political stability, which could be put into effect with a president-for-life and the power to name his successor. In 1828 his supporters called on him to assume dictatorial powers and "save the republic". However, the political turmoil continued and Bolívar stepped down in 1830, going into self-imposed exile and dying shortly thereafter. "He is revered as the one person who made the greatest contribution to Spanish American independence" and admired by both the political left for opposing slavery and distrust of the U.S. and the right, which admires his authoritarianism.

Veterans of the wars of independence assumed the leadership of the newly created nation-states, each with a new constitution. Despite constitutions and ideological labels of liberals and conservatives, personalist and opportunistic leaders dominated the early nineteenth century. As with Mexico and Central America, the political turmoil and penury of the governments of the Bolivarian republics prevented foreign investors from risking their capital there.

One caudillo who was progressive for his time was Bolivia’s Manuel Isidoro Belzu, who served as the fourteenth president from 1848 until 1855. The former president, Jose Miguel de Velasco, executed a coup for the presidency in 1848, promising the position of Minister of War to Belzu. Belzu seized power for himself once the coup was completed and cemented his position as president by quashing a counter-coup by Velasco. During his presidency, Belzu instituted several reforms to the country's economy in an effort to redistribute wealth more equitably. He rewarded the work of the poor and dispossessed. Like Paraguay’s Jose Gaspar Rodriguez de Francia, Belzu chose to enact the aforementioned welfare programs because the idea of communalism was more in tune with the traditional values of native populations than the emphasis on private property that other caudillos embraced. Belzu was also known for his nationalization of the country's profitable mining industry – he enacted protectionist policies to reserve Bolivian resources for Bolivian use, provoking the ire of British, Peruvian, and Chilean shipping and mining interests. Many of Belzu's policies won him favor among the long-downtrodden indigenous peoples of Bolivia, but came at the cost of enraging wealthy Creole Bolivians as well as foreign countries like Britain that sought to use resources from Bolivian mines. Belzu took steps to legitimize his leadership, and was at one point democratically elected. Despite his popularity in many sectors, Belzu had many powerful enemies and he survived 40 assassination attempts. His enemies wanted to destroy the state-run projects that helped nationalist program but likewise improved the public sphere on which the country's poor were reliant. However, the despotism that is so rife among the caudillos also found a home with Belzu – from the early 1850s until his abdication of power in 1855, he is said to have ruled despotically, making himself very wealthy in the process. Belzu considered returning to the presidency in 1861, but he was gunned down by one of his rivals by the time he tried to run for presidency again. He was unable to leave a legacy and his populist programs died with him. After Bolivia's independence, Bolivia lost half of its territory to neighboring countries including Argentina, Chile, Peru, and Brazil through the war and agreements reached under the threat of invasion.

Southern Cone: Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay
In contrast to most of Spanish America, post-independence Chile experienced political stability under the authoritarian rule of conservatives, backed by the landowning class. Although he never sought the presidency, cabinet minister Diego Portales (1793–1837) is credited with creating a strong, centralized regime that lasted 30 years. In general, Chile prospered with an export-oriented economy based on agriculture and mining, an exception to most of the Spanish-American regimes.

In the former Viceroyalty of Río de la Plata, political instability and violence were more typical of the era. In Argentina, Juan Manuel de Rosas (r. 1829–1852) dominated the Argentine confederation. He came from a wealthy landowning family, but also acquired large tracts of land in Buenos Aires Province. Rosas despised "the principles of political democracy and liberty [and] provided order in a region that had known near-anarchy since independence".

During his two-decade reign, Rosas rose to power and created an empire. He used his military experience to gain support from gauchos and estancias to create an army that would challenge the leadership of Argentina. After his rise to power using the rural workers, he changed his system in favor of using the military. He attempted to impose a ban on imported goods to help and win the support of the artisans in Argentina, but failed. He was forced to lift the ban on certain imports, like textiles, which opened a trade with Great Britain. Through his power over the imports and exports, the military, the police, and even the legislative branch of government, Rosas created a monopoly that would ensure his remaining in power for over two decades. By the 1850s, Rosas was under attack by the very people who had helped him gain power. He was driven out of power and eventually ended up in Great Britain, where he died in 1877.

Uruguay attained independence from Brazil and Argentina and was ruled by Fructuoso Rivera. In Paraguay, José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia (r. 1814–1840) was Supreme Dictator of the Republic, maintaining the landlocked country's independence from Argentina and other foreign powers. Sealed off from outside trade, Paraguay developed economic self-sufficiency under Francia. He based society on communal properties, rather than centralized authoritarianism, attempting to revert to the methods of the communal Indian society that existed previously in Paraguay. After independence the state gained control of the land which was once under control of the Church and the Spanish state. Francia created state ranches and rented out land for the use of citizens who were able to pay a fee. Francia's repressive measures included crushing the power of the elite American-born Spaniards and curbing the power of the Roman Catholic Church. Francia allowed for religious freedom and abolished the tithe. He actively encouraged miscegenation. He has been a controversial figure in Hispanic American history: many modern historians credit him with bringing stability to Paraguay, preserving independence, and "bequeathing to his successors an egalitarian, homogeneous nation". However, because of his crackdown on the wealthy elite and the subsequent weakening of their power, he was accused of anti-clericalism. Nevertheless, Paraguay prospered under Francia in terms of economics and trade through a trade route with Buenos Aires, which was opposed by the wealthy Argentinian elites. "Sometimes counted among the dictators of the era, contemporary history has viewed Francia as an honest, populist leader who promoted sovereign economic prosperity in a war-torn Paraguay."

Caudillos in the late nineteenth and twentieth centuries
In the late nineteenth century, regimes in Spanish America were more stable and often less dominated by military men. Foreign investors, particularly the British, began building infrastructure in countries of greatest interest to the UK's economic needs. Such projects included railways, telegraph lines, and port facilities, which cut transportation time and costs and sped up communications. Stable political regimes that could ensure the security of foreign investments, facilitate extraction of resources, and production of agricultural crops and animals were the necessary structures. Industrialization also took hold in a few countries (Mexico, Argentina, Colombia) to produce consumer goods locally. In general, foreign governments and entrepreneurs had no interest in directly administering countries of Hispanic America in a formal colonial arrangement so long as their interests could be nurtured by modernizing national governments, often seen as neocolonialism. There are a number of examples of continuismo in Hispanic America whereby presidents continue in office beyond the legal term limits, with constitutional revision, plebiscites, and the creation of family dynasties, such as the Somoza family in Nicaragua.

Mexico
A major example of a modernizing caudillo of the late nineteenth century is Díaz (r. 1876–1911), whose period of control is known as the Porfiriato. His slogan was “order and progress”, which was enforced by armed men controlled by the president, the Rurales. Díaz was averse to being dependent on the Mexican army, since as a general and leader of a coup d'état himself, he knew their potential for intervening in national politics. Díaz coopted or crushed regional opposition to his regime, creating a political machine to forward his vision of modern Mexico. Desirous of economic development that necessitated foreign investment, Díaz sought capital and expertise from European powers (Britain, France, and Germany) to offset the closer power of the United States. Although elections were held in Mexico at regular intervals, they were by nature not democratic. The huge rural, illiterate, and mostly indigenous populations were more to be feared by the government than as a source for regime support. When Díaz failed to find a political solution to his succession, the Mexican Revolution erupted after the fraudulent 1910 general election.

Diaz came to power by a coup under the Plan of Tuxtepec and became president of Mexico 1876–1880, succeeded by his military and political compadre Manuel González (1880–1884) and returned to the presidency until he was overthrown in 1911 in the Mexican Revolution.

During the decade-long civil war, a number of regional caudillos arose. Pascual Orozco helped oust Díaz at the early stage of the Revolution, but then turned against Francisco I. Madero, who had been elected to the presidency in 1911. Pancho Villa also helped oust Díaz, supported Madero, and following his murder in 1913, became a general in the Constitutionalist Army commanded by civilian Venustiano Carranza. Emiliano Zapata, peasant leader from the state of Morelos, opposed to Díaz and every subsequent Mexican government until his murder in 1919 by Carranza's agents. Álvaro Obregón emerged as another brilliant general from northern Mexico, defeating Villa's Division of the North in 1915 after Villa had broken with Carranza. Obregón and fellow Sonoran generals Plutarco Elías Calles and Adolfo de la Huerta overthrew Carranza in 1920 under the Plan of Agua Prieta, with the presidency in the 1920s going in turn from de la Huerta, to Obregón, to Calles, and back to Obregón. During Calles's presidency (1924–1928), he stringently enforced the anticlerical laws of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, leading to the Cristero War, a failed major uprising under the leadership of some regional caudillos, including Saturnino Cedillo of San Luis Potosí. Obregón was elected again in 1928, but was assassinated before he could again resume the presidency. In 1929, Plutarco Elías Calles founded a political party, then known as the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR), and became the jefe máximo (maximum chief), the power behind the presidency in a period known as the Maximato (1928–1934); PNR's iteration as the Institutional Revolutionary Party dominated Mexican politics until 2000 and functioned as a brake on the personalist power of regional caudillos in Mexico.

Central America
With the improvement of transportation, tropical products such as coffee and bananas could be transported to a growing consumer market in the United States. In Guatemala Justo Rufino Barrios ruled as a Liberal autocrat and expanded coffee cultivation.

Caudillos in literature
Fictional Hispanic American caudillos, sometimes based on real historical figures, are important in literature. Colombian Nobel Prize winner Gabriel García Márquez published two works with strongmen as main characters: The Autumn of the Patriarch and The General in his Labyrinth, the latter a controversial novel about Simón Bolívar. In 1946, Nobel Prize laureate Miguel Ángel Asturias published El Señor Presidente, based on the life of Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1898–1920), which was translated to English in 1975. In 1974, Augusto Roa Bastos published I, the Supreme based on Francia's life. In Mexico, two fictional caudillos are depicted by Mariano Azuela's 1916 novel Los de Abajo and Carlos Fuentes's novel The Death of Artemio Cruz. In 1929, Mexican writer Martín Luis Guzmán published his novel La sombra del caudillo, a powerful critic of such strongmen. An outlier in terms of subject matter is Rómulo Gallegos's Doña Bárbara, depicting a woman caudillo.

Definitions, theories, and contexts

 * Alexander, Robert J. "Caudillos, Coroneis, and Political Bosses in Latin America." In Presidential Power in Latin American Politics, ed. Thomas V. DiBacco. New York: Prager 1977.
 * Beezley, William H. "Caudillismo: An Interpretative Note." Journal of Inter-American Studies 11 (July 1969): 345–52.
 * Collier, David, ed. The New Authoritarianism in Latin America. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1979.
 * Dealy, Glenn Cudill. The Public Man: An Interpretation of Latin America and other Catholic Countries. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press 1977.
 * DiTella, Torcuato S. Latin American Politics: A Theoretical Framework. Austin: University of Texas Press 1989.
 * Hale, Charles A. "The Reconstruction of Nineteenth-Century Politics in Spanish America: A Case for the History of Ideas." Latin American Research Review 8 (Summer 1973), 53–73.
 * Hamill, Hugh, ed. Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1992.
 * Humphreys, R.A. "The Caudillo Tradition." in ''Tradition and Revolt in Latin America, 216–28. New York: Columbia University Press 1969.
 * Johnson, John J. "Foreign Factors in Dictatorship in Latin America". Pacific Historical Review 20 (1951)
 * Kern, Robert, ed. The Caciques: Oligarchical Politics and the System of Caciquismo in the Luso-Hispanic World. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1973.
 * Loveman, Brian. The Constitution of Tyranny: Regimes of Exception in Spanish America. Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press 1993.
 * Lynch, John, Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1992.
 * Pleasants, Edwin Hemingway, The Caudillo: a Study in Latin-American Dictatorships. Monmouth, IL: Commercial Art Press 1959.
 * Smith, Peter H. "Political Legitimacy in Spanish America" in New Approaches to Latin American History, Richard Graham and Peter Smith, eds. 1974.
 * Wolf, Eric R. and Edward C. Hanson, "Caudillo Politics: A Structural Analysis." Comparative Studies in Society and History 9 (1966–67): 168–79.
 * Wolf, Eric R. and Edward C. Hanson, "Caudillo Politics: A Structural Analysis." Comparative Studies in Society and History 9 (1966–67): 168–79.

Regions and individuals

 * Balfour, Sebastian (1990). Castro.
 * Brading, D.A., ed. Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1980.
 * Gilmore, Robert L. Caudillism and Militarism in Venezuela, 1810–1910. 1994.
 * Haigh, Roger M. Martin Güemes: Tyrant or Tool? A Study of the Sources of Power of an Argentine Caudillo. 1968.
 * Hamill, Hugh M., ed. Caudillos: Dictators in Spanish America. Selections on Hidalgo, Quiroga, Moreno, Díaz, Trujillo, Perón, Castro, Pinochet, and Stroessner. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press 1992.
 * Lynch, John. "Bolívar and the Caudillos". Hispanic American Historical Review 63 No. 1 (1983), 3–35.
 * Lynch, John. Argentine Dictator: Juan Manuel de Rosas, 1829–1852. 1981.
 * Lynch, John. Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800–1850. Chapters on Rosas, Páez, Santa Anna, and Carrera. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1992.
 * Page, Joseph A. Perón: A Biography. 1983.
 * Park, James William. Rafael Núñez and the Politics of Colombian Regionalism, 1863–1886. (1985)
 * Smith, Peter H. Democracy in Latin America: Political Change in Comparative Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press 2005.
 * Wiarda, Howard. Dictatorship and Development: The Methods of Control in Trujillo's Dominican Republic. 1968.
 * Woodward, Ralph Lee. Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871. 1993.
 * Woodward, Ralph Lee. Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871. 1993.
 * Woodward, Ralph Lee. Rafael Carrera and the Emergence of the Republic of Guatemala, 1821–1871. 1993.

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Arthur Sturgis Hardy

Arthur Sturgis Hardy,  (December 14, 1837 – June 13, 1901) was a Canadian lawyer and Liberal politician who served as the fourth premier of Ontario from 1896 to 1899.

Early life
Born in Mount Pleasant, Brant County, in 1837, Hardy was the son of Russell and Juletta (Sturgis) Hardy, United Empire Loyalists. He studied at the Rockwood Academy in Rockwood, Province of Canada, and he became town solicitor for Brantford in 1867, a bencher of the Law Society of Upper Canada in 1875, and a QC in 1876. On January 19, 1870, he married Mary Morrison, daughter of Judge Joseph Curran Morrison.

Political career
First elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario in 1873, he was promoted to the Cabinet of Sir Oliver Mowat in 1877 as Provincial Secretary. In 1889, as Commissioner of Crown Lands, Hardy established the Algonquin and Rondeau provincial parks. Well known for his support of Mowat's liberalism, he was described in Grip as a hard-nosed and down-to-earth politician in Mowat's service:

The more wickeder he is, playing euchre and swearing and entertaining thirsty strangers, the brighter does the virtue of Mowat shine by contrast.

Entering his sixties and having been in government for over twenty years, Hardy lacked the energy and strength to take the government forward or excite the populace when he succeeded Mowat as both Premier and Attorney-General in 1896. Initially reluctant to accept the positions, he said:

you know how very difficult it is in this wicked world to let high honours pass.

Aware of his weakness, he relied heavily on his minister of education, George William Ross.

Because there were Liberal governments in both Ottawa and Ontario, Hardy was urged to reassure French-speaking Catholics' concerns over the Manitoba Schools Question by appointing François-Eugène-Alfred Évanturel as Speaker of the Legislative Assembly. In the 1898 election, Hardy's government was returned with a narrow six seat majority due to the collapse of the agrarian Patrons of Industry party which had served as the Liberal's allies in the legislature, as well as the rise of Catholic and urban support for the Conservatives under James Pliny Whitney.

Hardy's most significant—and controversial—achievement occurred in 1898 with passage of an Act providing for all pine cut under licence on crown lands to be sawn into lumber in Canada. Michigan lumbermen sought to have the amendment disallowed for encroaching on the federal trade and commerce power, but Wilfrid Laurier's government refused to do so.

Exhausted and needing money, Hardy retired from politics in 1899 and died two years later from appendicitis. Hardy's body was originally interred at Greenwood Cemetery, however 34 years after his death, his son Senator Arthur Charles Hardy had the remains of Hardy, his wife, and their daughter Gladys Mary Starr moved to Farringdon Burial Ground.

Legacy
An Ontario Historical Plaque was erected in Brantford, Ontario, by the province to commemorate Hardy's role in Ontario's history. On June 25, 2009, a new plaque was unveiled to commemorate Hardy under the initiative of Premiers' Gravesites Program. Local politicians, guests and family members paid tribute to the former politician. The family included his great-great-great-granddaughter and the children of his great-nephew Hagood Hardy.

title: Arthur Sturgis Hardy