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Atmosphere (music group)

Atmosphere is an American hip-hop duo from Minneapolis, Minnesota, consisting of rapper Slug (Sean Daley) and DJ/producer Ant (Anthony Davis). Since its formation in 1996, the group has released thirteen studio albums and ten extended plays.

Members
The duo is composed of rapper Slug (Sean Daley) and DJ/producer Ant (Anthony Davis). With the exception of a few tracks on the album Lucy Ford, Ant has produced every Atmosphere record. A former member and co-founder Spawn (Derek Turner) left the group after the release of the group's first album Overcast!. Mr. Dibbs, a DJ associated with the group, toured with Atmosphere before their You Can't Imagine How Much Fun We're Having tour, at which point Ant began touring.

Before Overcast!
Sean Daley and Derek Turner met while attending Washburn High School. The pair took the names Slug and D-Spawn, respectively, as rapper names. They initially performed under the name "Mental Subjects", before changing the name to "A Rhythmic Culture", and finally settling on "Urban Atmosphere". Originally, Spawn performed as the rapper, with Slug acting as DJ. Eventually Spawn convinced Slug to start rapping as well. Through the rapper Musab (then known as Beyond), Slug was introduced to the producer Ant after they went to his house to record a track. Slug saw an opportunity to work with Ant and convinced Spawn to record further with him. They soon started recording songs with Ant, learning how to structure songs properly and practicing vocal delivery. Eventually the group dropped the "Urban" from their name.

Atmosphere, as a group, joined with other rappers Musab, Phull Surkle, Black Hole, and The Abstract Pack to form a collective known as Headshots. This group later evolved into the record label Rhymesayers. Over time, a series of cassettes was released under the Headshots name which earned some local acclaim. By 1996, Slug, Stress and Musab were making national appearances such as on NPR's All Things Considered. The start of Rhymesayers as a record label came when Siddiq, got fed up with their treatment at a number of local studios, decided to buy his own.

Overcast! (1997)
Spawn left the group three years after their first album, Overcast!, was released. Overcast! introduced Atmosphere to a wider audience, largely thanks to the airplay that the single "Scapegoat" received on college radio stations. Meanwhile, Slug improved his live performance skills at Minneapolis clubs such as The Front (Freeloaded), First Avenue and 7th Street Entry. In 1998, two albums recorded by underground rap supergroups involved Atmosphere. The Dynospectrum involved Atmosphere as well as Beyond (Musab), Swift (of Phull Surkle) and I Self Divine. Deep Puddle Dynamics released by the Oakland, California, based underground rap label Anticon, included Slug, Sole, Alias and Doseone rapping over beats by Jel.

Headshots Se7en (1999)
In 1998, Slug and Ant began to record the group's 2nd full-length album, "Headshots Se7en." At the time it was only released on cassette, and didn't see a full CD re-issue until 2005. However, it is still one of the group's most critically acclaimed albums.

Ford and Lucy Ford (2000–2001)
Now touring nationally on a more regular basis (the twenty-one date Ford One Tour brought them to the East Coast for the first time), Slug was able to leave his job at a record store, as well as a second job working overnight shifts at a department store. In 1999, the Rhymesayers-owned record store, The Fifth Element, was opened in Minneapolis. In 2001, the two EPs, Ford and Lucy, were combined and released as an LP titled Lucy Ford: The Atmosphere EPs. Originally intended as a tour-only release, it sold so well that it was later released as an official LP, making it the only Atmosphere album with producers other than Ant. In 2001, Atmosphere made three separate tours across North America and Europe. With Lucy Ford, Atmosphere also finally achieved national distribution through the independent distributor Fat Beats.

God Loves Ugly (2002)
Atmosphere planned to release their second studio album God Loves Ugly on June 11, 2002, but experienced delays in editing. The record had more straightforward, almost battle-centric, lyrics from Slug. It was distributed nationally, again through Fat Beats, and sold over 130,000 copies. The album generated two singles: "Modern Man's Hustle" and "GodLovesUgly". Atmosphere toured extensively in support of this record, going as far as Europe and Japan, playing sixty shows in seventy-one days. After the tour, Daley spent his holidays in the Australian outback. The success of the album and subsequent tours came to the attention of the major labels Interscope, Sony and Warner Brothers. Despite these overtures, Atmosphere decided to stay independent.

Seven's Travels (2003)
Atmosphere's third full-length studio album, Seven's Travels, was released on September 23, 2003, through Rhymesayers and the punk label Epitaph. It contained two singles, "Trying To Find A Balance" and "National Disgrace", both of which had music videos that received airplay on MTV2 and other stations, attracting more attention and success for Atmosphere than previous releases. The album included a guest appearance from label mate Brother Ali and was entirely produced by Ant. Several songs on Seven's Travels contain lyrics pertaining to relationship problems, alcohol and depression. The single, "Trying To Find A Balance", was used on the video game Tony Hawk's Underground 2.

The album cover for Seven's Travels was interpreted by some as an homage to The Beatles' White Album. However, that was not the case; the original planned cover depicted a nude woman lying in snow.

You Can't Imagine How Much Fun We're Having (2005)
Released in 2005, Atmosphere's fourth album You Can't Imagine How Much Fun We're Having was a departure from the sound of the previous two albums. Though production was once again entirely by Ant, the sound and lyrical content of the album had a more "raw" style than Godlovesugly and Seven's Travels. Reviews were generally positive, with Stylust saying "The result may be, in a manner of speaking, the most consistent Atmosphere album to date." The opening track "The Arrival" appeared on EA Sports' Fight Night Round 3.

The Seasons EPs and Strictly Leakage (2007–2008)
While completing the LP When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold, Atmosphere released four EPs as continuations of the "Sad Clown Bad Dub" series. These were Sad Clown Bad Summer 9, Sad Clown Bad Fall 10, Sad Clown Bad Winter 11 and Sad Clown Bad Spring 12. The EPs were popular in the Minneapolis area due to many references to local places, such as songs named after streets in the area ("66th street", "Lyndale Avenue"). The song "Sunshine", from the Bad Summer EP, was released as a single. Despite not having a music video or any promotion, the song became popular among the band's core fan base, eventually becoming a staple in live shows. Later, in 2015, the group released a music video through Rhymesayers Entertainment.

After the EPs, the group also released the free album Strictly Leakage in late 2007.

When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold (2008)
This album garnered much acclaim from local as well as international fans. Likely Atmosphere's most commonly known album of the 21st century, it has gained wide attention from a vast audience, featuring Slug's story-telling-rap style songs such as "Yesterday", a song symbolizing Slug's relationship with his father, and "The Waitress", which is interpreted differently throughout his fan-base. During the recording process of When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold, Slug was invited by Rick Rubin to Rubin's house to work through early demos of the album's tracks. No advance copies of the album were ever released online in attempts to build anticipation for the album's release.

Leak at Will (2009)
Between the release of When Life Gives You Lemons and To All My Friends, Atmosphere released another free EP in 2009 called Leak at Will, with seven original tracks. Similar to Strictly Leakage, the EP was intended to tide over fans until the release of their next album.

To All My Friends, Blood Makes The Blade Holy: The Atmosphere EPs (2010)
A combination of EPs, the album To All My Friends, Blood Makes The Blade Holy: The Atmosphere EP's was released in September 2010. The album reached #2 on iTunes top 10 album downloads during the week of September 11, 2010. The album was very favourably reviewed, with some reviews comparing it to the Lucy Ford LP. The seventh track of the album, "The Loser Wins," is on the soundtrack for EA Sports' "Fight Night Champion."

The Family Sign (2011)
After 2010's double EP, Atmosphere returned with their first full-length album in three years. The Family Sign was released in 2011, and is Atmosphere's sixth studio album. Continuing the trend of preceding albums, The Family Sign has more instrumentation and is the first album to have actual band musicians. Keyboard player Erick Anderson and guitarist Nate Collis, part of the touring band for Atmosphere (who perform live renditions of songs that are normally sampler/drum machine produced), were brought in to help record the album, leading to a much different sound than previous albums. One of the songs, "Just For Show", was put on the sound track of MLB 2K12.

Southsiders (2014)
On July 2, 2013, Atmosphere released a new single titled "Bob Seger". Earlier on in the year, Slug mentioned he was working on a new album. On March 10, 2014, Atmosphere released a video for a new single titled "Bitter". They also announced that their new album will be called Southsiders, which was released on May 6, 2014.

The album track "Kanye West" was released on April 8, 2014, to the group's YouTube channel followed by the official video on April 14.

Frida Kahlo vs Ezra Pound, Fishing Blues and Mi Vida Local (2016–2018)
During span of 2015–2016, Atmosphere released seven new songs including "Finer Things" (feat. deM atlaS), "This Lonely Rose" (feat. Blueprint and Aesop Rock), "My Best Half", "Salma Hayek", "Trying to Fly" (feat. Eric Mayson), "Fireflies" (feat. Grieves) and "Windows "(feat. Prof). These eventually were put together and called Frida Kahlo vs Ezra Pound. On June 22, 2016, the band announced the track list and release date for their upcoming album, Fishing Blues. The first single, titled "Ringo," was posted on YouTube the same day. On July 29, 2016, they released a new single titled "No Biggie". The album included guest appearances by rappers Kool Keith, MF Doom, The Grouch, Aesop Rock, and deM atlaS, as well as artists Kim Manning and I.B.E. The album was released on August 12, 2016.

In 2018, a promotional song named "Make It All Better Again" was released. Shortly after, a new album, Mi Vida Local, was announced to be released in October 2018.

Mi Vida Local (2018), Whenever (2019) and The Day Before Halloween (2020)
On October 5, 2018, Atmosphere released their ninth album, Mi Vida Local. The album features 12 tracks, including the pre-released single "Virgo" in September.

On November 8, 2019, Atmosphere released a new single "Bde Maka Ska", along with tour dates for 2020.

On December 12, 2019, Atmosphere released their tenth album, Whenever. The album features 12 tracks, including the pre-released single "Bde Maka Ska".

On September 23, 2020, Atmosphere released a new single "Blotter Acid Reflux Syndrome" and announced a new album titled The Day Before Halloween to be released on the date referenced in-title. The Day Before Halloween includes 10 tracks and was released October 30, 2020.

Word? and So Many Other Realities Exist Simultaneously (2021–2023)
On October 8, 2021, Atmosphere released their twelfth album, Word?

On May 5, 2023, Atmosphere released their thirteenth album, So Many Other Realities Exist Simultaneously.

Touring
Slug credits most of the group's success to the large amount of touring they do. In the early days, they once drove from Minneapolis to Dallas to play a show for $250.

While touring around the years of the new millennium, Slug, Eyedea, and DJ Abilities would perform shows together as Atmosphere. Eyedea would support MC, perform his own songs, and freestyle with Slug and DJ Abilities would DJ. Soon after the release of God Loves Ugly, Mr. Dibbs would tour with Atmosphere instead of Eyedea & Abilities.

During the @ It Again tour, Atmosphere was accompanied by a live band, with Nate Collis on guitar (2004-2012), Brett Johnson on bass guitar (2004-2008), Erick Anderson on keyboards (2004-2012) and Patrick Armitage on drums (2004-2005). Armitage was replaced in late 2005 by Brian McLeod (2005–2008) for the "Pour Me Another" tour. The live set-up brought a jazzy, more improvisational feel to Atmosphere's sound. Slug has said he wanted to play with a live band to add more of a challenge to performing live. Atmosphere has been playing with a live band since at least 2001.

Since the Paint Your City Gold series of "release parties" in support of When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold, the live band has been re-rostered with Ant providing percussion as DJ, Nate Collis on guitar and back up vocals, Erick Anderson on keyboards and synthesizers and Mankwe Ndosi as the "human samples".

In spring 2009, Atmosphere embarked on the "When God Gives You Ugly" tour to celebrate the re-release of the 2002 album God Loves Ugly (which had been out of print) as well as their studio LP When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold. Slug and Ant were accompanied by Attracted To Gods, P.O.S, Brother Ali, Eyedea and Abilities during the tour.

In late 2016, Atmosphere toured for their album Fishing Blues. They started their forty show tour in Chicago in July and wrapped it up in Cleveland in November. Atmosphere had special guests at some of their shows, music groups like Lifter Puller, Brother Ali, deM atlaS, and Dilated Peoples.

Lyrical content
A prominent theme in Slug's lyrics is his allegorical usage of women, especially in his earlier work. A notable use of women by Slug is in the song "Woman with the Tattooed Hands", which he has said is "a metaphor for that same old shit that everybody has already made songs about. Just trying to find your place within a belief and faith as well as people that you want to have sex with." Further examples come in the song "Abusing of the Rib" from Headshots: SE7EN; it has been said that the "lover" Slug speaks of is actually an allegory for hip-hop itself. In the tour-only release Sad Clown Bad Dub II, Slug used both symbolism and metaphor with references to nature and relationships throughout each song, culminating in the album's penultimate track "The River."

The most notable example of such allegories is a character whom Slug refers to as "Lucy," who has been purported to be a symbol of a range of different entities. In earlier Atmosphere songs, it is believed that Slug used Lucy as a means of writing about ex-girlfriends. Lucy became so prominent that Atmosphere's 2001 album bore her name, Lucy Ford: The Atmosphere EPs, with the record itself concentrating fairly heavily on women and relationships in songs such as "Don't Ever Fucking Question That" and "Mama Had A Baby And His Head Popped Off." The song "Fuck You Lucy" from God Loves Ugly has been said to deal with Slug's dependency on alcohol. Slug himself has since said of Lucy that he originally believed "her" to be a representation of the dichotomy between himself and women. He acknowledges now that Lucy became a demonization ("Lucy Ford" being a play on words for Lucifer) of himself and his dependency on alcohol, drugs, sex and validation.

Slug raps in a very introspective style, as seen on the song "Little Man," in which he confronts the complaints that people have about him by looking at his relationship with his father and son. This introspective style became less prevalent with When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold (2008) in which Slug navigates through other peoples' lives. When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold has been noted as more of a dark album than previous works. Slug maintains the allegorical stance from previous records in songs such as "Your Glass House" which deals with his emotions towards the war in Iraq under the guise of a person waking up from a hangover.

Slug also dislikes some of the songs that he wrote before and does not perform them live, such as "Vampires" from 2002 album God Loves Ugly. Daley has stated, "when I did get my phase of trying to figure myself out, there was a lot of tug-of-war inside of me between wanting to hate a particular woman and then feeling guilty about that. And there's certain songs that I won't perform anymore, because the game of tug-of-war is over and I know where I'm at". Furthermore, Slug has criticized Atmosphere's first album Overcast!, saying: "It's obvious that I'm trying so fucking hard on Overcast and you can see through it and tell it's not a person it's more of an attempt at trying to fill the niche, it was like I was trying to prove to myself that I was a rapper."

Collaborations
Slug has also released three albums with Murs from the West Coast hip hop group Living Legends. The idea for Felt: A Tribute to Christina Ricci, their first album as a duo, came about while on tour. The two decided to see if they could garner some extra media attention for Ricci by dedicating their album to her, although according to Slug, Ricci has never responded to this or contacted the band. This debut studio album was produced by The Grouch from Living Legends.

Their second collaboration, Felt, Vol. 2: A Tribute to Lisa Bonet, produced by Ant, was released in 2005. Their third Felt album was announced on the duo's MySpace page, leaking the track "Protagonists" from the album and announcing the title (A Tribute to Rosie Perez), the release date (November 17, 2009) and the producer, Aesop Rock.

Slug was also part of Deep Puddle Dynamics, along with Anticon artists DoseOne, Alias and Sole. Their only full-length release together was The Taste of Rain... Why Kneel?. The album was produced by Jel, Ant, Alias and others.

Slug has also appeared on albums by Buckshot of Black Moon and KRS-ONE, Hangar 18, C-Rayz Walz, CunninLynguists, Brother Ali, Eyedea & Abilities, Evidence, Berner, Aesop Rock, Unknown Prophets, KRS-One, Oddjobs, Vakill, DoseOne, Jel, P.O.S, X-Ecutioners, Kanser, Blueprint, Illogic, Heiruspecs, Kristoff Krane, Dem Atlas, Mac Lethal, Jean Grae, Parallel Thought, Static & Nat Ill, Grieves, DJ Vadim, Booka B, El-P, MF Doom, Roosevelt Franklin, Grayskul, Minnesota indie rock band Lifter Puller, Cool-Aide (iCON the Mic King & Chum), Anomaly (a.k.a. Jason Heinrichs), and several Living Legends albums as well as Living Legends solo projects such as The CMA. Slug also took time to congratulate DJ Free Leonard on his song "Wise Words Spoken" Featuring CMA (The Grouch and Lucky I AM of the Living Legends) in a now viral moment online.

Honors and awards
Atmosphere has been honored with a star on the outside mural of the Minneapolis nightclub First Avenue, recognizing performers that have played sold-out shows or have otherwise demonstrated a major contribution to the culture at the iconic venue. Receiving a star "might be the most prestigious public honor an artist can receive in Minneapolis," according to journalist Steve Marsh.

Discography

 * Overcast! (1997)
 * God Loves Ugly (2002)
 * Seven's Travels (2003)
 * You Can't Imagine How Much Fun We're Having (2005)
 * When Life Gives You Lemons, You Paint That Shit Gold (2008)
 * The Family Sign (2011)
 * Southsiders (2014)
 * Fishing Blues (2016)
 * Mi Vida Local (2018)
 * Whenever (2019)
 * The Day Before Halloween (2020)
 * Word? (2021)
 * So Many Other Realities Exist Simultaneously (2023)

Members
Current members
 * Slug
 * Ant

Former members
 * Spawn
 * Stress
 * Beyond

Former touring members
 * Eyedea (1998–2002)
 * DJ Abilities (1998–2002)
 * Mr. Dibbs (2002–2007)
 * Brett Johnson (2004–2008)
 * Patrick Armitage (2004–2005)
 * Brian Mcleod (2005–2008)
 * Mankwe Ndosi (2008–2010)
 * Nate Collis (2004–2014)
 * Erick Anderson (2004–2014)

title: Atmosphere (music group)


text:
Snow (musician)

Darrin Kenneth O'Brien (born October 30, 1969), known by his stage name Snow, is a Canadian reggae musician, rapper, and singer. His 1992 single "Informer" spent seven weeks at No. 1 on the US Billboard Hot 100.

Early life
Snow was born and raised in North York, Ontario (now part of Toronto), one of four children born to an Irish-Canadian cabdriver and a homemaker. Following his parents' divorce, he was raised by his mother in the Allenbury Gardens public housing project where, he says, he was fascinated with the gangster lifestyle, fell in with a tough Irish-Canadian group and became involved in a cycle of fighting, drinking and stealing. He never learned to read properly and dropped out of school while in the 9th grade. Growing up he had a strong interest in rock music, but after there was an influx of Jamaican immigrants to the neighborhood in 1983, his interest turned to reggae music, and he became adept at the use of the Jamaican dialect, or Jamaican Patois. He developed his own style of music, by blending dancehall and reggae with rock and pop music.

In 1987, Snow served eight months of a one-year sentence after pleading guilty to beating a person with a crowbar during a bar brawl. Upon his release in January 1988, the Jamaican-born DJ Marvin Prince saw O'Brien deejaying at a party and the two became friends. For the next few years, they practiced in Prince's basement, and played parties, with Snow providing vocals and Prince playing records. Prince, who would claim that he helped Snow refine his reggae singing and use of the Jamaican dialect, and that he came up with the name 'Snow', told the Los Angeles Times that they passed around a lot of tapes but could not get Snow signed because he was white.

In 1988, Snow was involved in an incident at a North York pub, in which two people were stabbed "in the lane"; he was accused, and was subsequently charged with two counts of attempted murder. Rather than tell authorities who the perpetrator was, Snow served eight months in jail before a jury acquitted him on both counts. While he was in jail, he went to school and wrote music, which he performed for fellow inmates. One song was called "Informer".

Career
On a trip to New York, Prince was able to pitch Snow's music to rap star M.C. Shan. In 1991, Snow went to New York, where Shan introduced him to music producers David Eng and Steve Salem. Snow signed a contract to record on their Motorjam/Elektra record label, then they recorded his debut album 12 Inches of Snow. The album had to be recorded quickly, because Snow had to return to Canada and report to prison.

12 Inches of Snow was released in 1992, while Snow was in prison. Shan, Eng, Salem, and Prince promoted it and, by the time Snow was released, the single "Informer" was a chart-topping hit. 12 Inches of Snow sold over 8 million copies worldwide, with the "Informer" single remaining number 1 on the American Billboard charts for seven consecutive weeks. "Informer" has been recorded twice in the Guinness Book of World Records as the best-selling reggae single in US history, as well as the highest charting reggae single in history. A second single, "Girl I've Been Hurt", reached Number 19 on the Hot 100. In Japan, Snow received the Recording Industry Association of Japan's 1994 Japan Gold Disc Award for New Artist of the Year.

Origin of stage name
After one of Snow's neighbouring Jamaican families first introduced him to reggae, Snow began borrowing and ordering reggae dub tapes to perform over. After he befriended Marvin Prince, the latter gave O'Brien the stage name "Snow"—a phrased backronym meaning "Super Notorious Outrageous Whiteboy". Snow never claimed the title himself, but did continue to perform with the stage name "Snow". The origin of Snow's stage name would become a central issue in the legal battle between Prince and O'Brien.

Legal disputes over production of 12 Inches of Snow
While touring as Snow's DJ in December 1994, Marvin Prince abruptly left the tour after discovering that Snow, according to court documents, "was receiving more money from management than he was." While listed as only the writer of the song "Runway" on the 12 Inches of Snow album, Prince claimed to have co-written five songs and co-produced the album with Shan, Eng, and Salem. Prince alleged that Eng and Salem provided "a draft of a multi-album production and recording agreement" to both Snow and himself. Unable to understand the contract, Snow allegedly "sent a copy to his mother to get legal advice from her friend" and Prince "never saw the agreement again." Moreover, Prince claimed to have entered an "oral agreement" with Snow implying that the two would share profits from the album "fifty-fifty". The first agreement, Prince alleged, occurred "in 1990, when the two men began working together on songs in Prince's basement and he "allegedly suggested to" Snow, "if something comes out of this, let's be partners." The second oral agreement, according to Prince, took place in August 1991 while Snow auditioned for Shan. Snow referred to Prince as his partner in a promotional video, but claimed to have used the term "only in the slang sense." Prince "admitted that these discussions were not concrete; the parties never organized a formal business plan, nor was plaintiff in New York to advance defendant's career."

Shan, Eng, and Salem testified that they were unaware of a partnership between Snow and Prince, and Shan denied that Prince co-produced 12 Inches of Snow and co-wrote the five songs in question. "Informer", for example, was officially written by Snow, Shan, and composer Edmond Leary. Years later, after Snow and Prince had their falling out, Prince unsuccessfully sued Snow for compensation. While Prince had initially been awarded a $1.5 million settlement by a jury, the court overturned the original ruling and dismissed Prince's suit on the grounds that he had "no viable claims" to a partnership with Snow.

In a 2019 interview, Prince recounted his history with Snow and described how he mentored, recorded demos for, scheduled showcase performances for, and ultimately, arranged for Snow to audition for MC Shan. Prince recounted how he and Snow wrote "Informer" over the phone while Snow was serving his sentence at Maplehurst Correctional Complex. Prince recalled playing Junior Reid's "Foreign Mind" over the phone, and Snow used the track's flute melody as the basis for "Informer". Parts of the first verse and third verse of "Informer", according to Prince, were reworked from Eek-A-Mouse's performance of "Tell Them" at Sunsplash 1981. Originally, Prince alleges, the final verse of "Informer" was written and performed by a second vocalist named "Little Red". Prince maintains that the judge who overturned the original ruling did so illegally, and he believes race played a role in the judge's decision.

Co-producer and co-writer Edmond Leary later claimed M.C. Shan unfairly received most of the production credits for 12 Inches of Snow. He told Vice, "So actually, if you want the truth of the matter, if we hadn't done it equally and had to split up the money I would have gotten 70% of writer's [royalties] off that album they probably would have split up 30, because I wrote most of that album. Most of the words were mine, and the ideas and structures and backgrounds in the vocal booth with me telling him what keys to sing the harmonies in and what have you. So I had a lot to do with that sound that became so popular and went Platinum." After struggling with a cocaine addiction and homelessness, in 2013 Leary was a street performer at Madison Square Park and Union Square.

International success
In 1994, Snow collaborated with Cyndi Lauper on Junior Vasquez's Homegrown and Sly and Robbie's Pop Goes the Dancehall remix of "Girls Just Want to Have Fun", retitled "Hey Now (Girls Just Want to Have Fun)".

Eng had a studio in Jamaica and, in 1994, Snow recorded his second album Murder Love in Jamaica, Canada, and New York. While not a commercial success in North America, the album featured Snow performing with reggae and dancehall musicians Ninjaman, Junior Reid, Half Pint, Buju Banton, Beenie Man, Dave Kelly, and Sly and Robbie. The "Anything for You" remix became a club favorite and, according to Billboard's Elena Oumano, made Snow a figure of respect on the Jamaican music scene. "Anything For You" became the top-selling single in Jamaica in 1995 and "Si Wi Dem Nuh Know We" also reached the number one slot in Jamaica. Murder Love proved to be a popular album in Asia, with the single "Sexy Girl" remaining on Japan's Top Singles chart for 16 weeks, ultimately reaching number one.

The success of Murder Love allowed Snow to tour Asia and collaborate with Thai rap artist Joey Boy. In 1996, Eng established an office in Bangkok, founded Dimsum Entertainment, and included Snow in this expansion. In 1996, Eng produced Joey Boy's album Fun, Fun, Fun. Snow performed on the chart-topping Thai single "Fun, Fun, Fun" and appeared in the music video. Joey Boy appeared on Snow's Thai single "Me and Joey". In 2008, Snow also featured Joey Boy on the track "Catch a Kick".

By the end of 1996, Murder Love's "Si We Dem Nuh Know We" received a Juno nomination for Best Reggae Recording. Overall, the album produced three music videos: "Anything For You", "Anything For You (All Star Cast Remix)", and "Sexy Girl". In the 1995 film Klash, Snow appears performing "Rivertown".

Snow followed up Murder Love with an album named after his daughter, Justuss. The first single "Boom Boom Boogie" took Asia by storm, achieving gold status with the music video appearing on MTV Japan five to six times a day. Released in the United States and Canada in 1997, the single "If This World Were Mine" failed to chart but the video regularly appeared on The Box. The album reached number 12 on the U.S. reggae charts and in 1998 was nominated for Best Reggae album at the Juno Awards in Vancouver, British Columbia. In late 1997, Snow released a "Greatest Hits" compilation, called The Greatest Hits of Snow.

In 1999, Snow reunited with M.C. Shan, producing the album Cooler Conditions in Japan. The only single, "The Plumb Song", spent eight weeks on the Japan Singles chart, peaking at number 27. It was recorded at Metalworks Studios in Mississauga, Ontario.

Return to the Canadian charts
In 2000, Snow signed to Virgin Music Canada. Later that year, he released the album Mind on the Moon. The single "Everybody Wants to Be Like You" landed Snow back on the Canadian Singles chart and earned him three Juno nominations.

In 2002, Snow worked with Shaggy and Blu Cantrell's producer to record Two Hands Clapping. "Legal", the first single, reached number 13 on the Canadian Singles Chart.

2013–present
In 2013, after Yahoo CEO Marissa Mayer complained about the company's "hold" music during a fourth-quarter earnings call, Snow and the Jingle Punks recorded a much publicized jingle for Yahoo. The lyrics went, "You're on hold / Hold on at Yahoo / Gimme a second while I patch you through," goes the first verse. "The CEO didn't like the hold music / So Daddy Snow wrote this jam for you."

In summer 2014 while in Miami, Florida, Snow signed with Bugatti Music Entertainment and teamed up with Grammy-winning producers Cool & Dre, Kent Jones and Scott Storch and began recording again.

On October 2, 2014, Snow's new single "Shame" was released, featuring Mykal Rose (Black Uhuru). On October 11, 2014, Snow announced that all proceeds from "Shame" will be donated to the fight against cancer.

On June 19, 2017, Snow was awarded the Socan Classics 100,000 Radio Performances in Canada for commemorating more than 100k times his music has played on radio.

On January 23, 2019, Puerto Rican rapper Daddy Yankee released the reggaeton and dancehall song "Con Calma" featuring Snow, which has been described as a remake or reimagination of "Informer". The single peaked at number 22 on the Billboard Hot 100, becoming Snow's first entry on the chart since 1993, and reached number one on the US Hot Latin Songs list. Internationally, the track topped the charts of five Spanish-language countries and reached the top 10 in 10 others in Latin America. Across Europe, the song entered the charts of numerous countries, peaking at number 14 in Italy and number 23 in Switzerland. In the Netherlands, the song rose to number one in April 2019. "Con Calma" also became Snow's first entry on the Canadian Hot 100 chart after debuting at number 99 in February 2019. It eventually peaked at number 6.

On October 17, 2019, Snow and his wife Tara O'Brien attended the 5th Annual Latin American Music Awards in Hollywood, California at the Dolby Theatre. Snow was nominated for three awards. In February 2020, Snow won four awards Song of the Year with Daddy Yankee for "Con Calma" at Premio Lo Nuestro Awards.

In March 2020, Snow was given the Pop Music Award from SOCAN.

Snow and Daddy Yankee won the Top Latin Song of the Year at the 2020 Billboard Music Awards, and "Con Calma" won big at the Latin Billboard Music Awards on October 21, 2020, with Snow taking home six awards. Snow attended the awards with Tara O'Brien in Florida.

Television and film appearances
Drew Carey, a long time Snow fan, had Snow record a reggae version of The Drew Carey Show theme song, "Moon Over Parma", for the series' eighth and ninth seasons.

In 1995, Snow appears as himself in concert performance in the movie Kla$h, Snow performs onstage and does a scene in which he is interviewed by Jamaican media in the film directed by Bill Parker and produced by Kingston Pictures.

In 2001, Snow played a prison guard in the film Prison Song. Snow appears as himself in the 2012 film The Movie Out Here produced by Canadian brewing company Kokanee and Alliance Films.

In 2015, Snow and his then-fiancée, Tara Elizabeth, appeared on a CBC webseries called True Dating Stories to tell the story of one of their first dates: a walk in a ravine turned police operation. Their episode was the most watched and the entire series won Best Web Series at the Hollywood Comedy Shorts Film Festival.

Ethnicity and Canadian identity
In Ethnicity, Politics, and Public Policy: Case Studies in Canadian Diversity, Rebecca J. Haines examined Snow as a symbol of Canadian ethnic identity. Instead of hiding his "whiteness" and "Canadian-ness", Haines argues, Snow proudly boasts of his Irish heritage and pride in his family, the O'Briens, and traces his reggae roots to the diverse community of Allenbury. While other artists, such as Snoop Dogg, don a Toronto Maple Leafs jersey because of its resemblance to cannabis, "in the video for his single "Anything for You", shot on location in Jamaica, the white Canadian reggae artist Snow is seen wearing the same jersey, perhaps in an attempt to proclaim his Canadian roots among the all-black cast of this video."

Many reggae purists viewed Snow, along with Ini Kamoze, Diana King, UB40, Shaggy and Shabba Ranks, as another example of "watered-down" commercial reggae that rose to international popularity in the 1990s. The sketch comedy show In Living Color parodied "Informer" by featuring fellow Canadian Jim Carrey as Snow in a sketch titled "Imposter".

In 1996, WBLS New York disc jockey Pat McKay observed, "purists have a problem with a non-Jamaican doing reggae. But I choose to think of it as the greatest compliment to reggae culture, and Snow is a genuine, dedicated artist. He has a fine singing voice, he's a great writer, and he very generously includes other artists in all of his work. His authenticity amplifies the realities of his generation, and his sensitivity conjures up intimacy with all of his love songs."

Personal life
In November 2009, Snow's then common-law wife and the subject of many of his songs, Tamei Edberg, was diagnosed with cancer; she died three weeks later on November 27, 2009, at age 41. With Tamei, Snow has a daughter, Justuss; she was born in April 1996 and he was inspired to name his third album after her. In 2018 Snow became a grandfather when Justuss gave birth to son Lyrix Tre. Justuss was featured on the song "J Dot" when she was six years old, on his sixth and most recent full-length album, Two Hands Clapping (2002). He has another daughter from another relationship who was born in January 1996, making her just three months older than Justuss.

On June 24, 2010, Snow held a fundraiser called "ClosURE For Cancer" at Alley Catz Restaurant in Toronto during which they raised $15,000. Snow founded his own nongovernmental organization called Pure Snow NGO, which assists "tenants living in non-profit housing".

In May 2016, Snow married model and actress Tara Elizabeth Singh at St. Anselm Catholic Church in Toronto. CTV covered the ceremony, and local radio station KISS 92.5 interviewed the newlyweds on The Roz and Mocha Show on May 22, 2016.

Compilation albums

 * The Greatest Hits of Snow (1997)

Remix albums

 * Best Remix of Snow (1998)

Awards and nominations
Latin Billboard Music Awards

!Ref.
 * rowspan=8|2020
 * rowspan=8|"Con Calma"
 * Latin Rhythm Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Streaming Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Airplay Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Hot Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Hot Latin Song Vocal Event of The Year
 * Won
 * Digital Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Crossover Artist of The Year
 * Nominated
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Hot Latin Song Vocal Event of The Year
 * Won
 * Digital Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Crossover Artist of The Year
 * Nominated
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Crossover Artist of The Year
 * Nominated
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * Won

Billboard Music Awards

!Ref.
 * rowspan=3|1993
 * Snow
 * Top Hot 100 Artist - Male
 * Nominated
 * rowspan=3|
 * "Informer"
 * Top Rap Song
 * Nominated
 * 12 Inches of Snow
 * Top Reggae Album
 * Nominated
 * 2020
 * Con Calma - Daddy Yankee & Snow
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won
 * 2020
 * Con Calma - Daddy Yankee & Snow
 * Top Latin Song of The Year
 * Won

Juno Awards

 * align="center"| 1994
 * "Informer"
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Won
 * align="center"| 1994
 * Snow
 * Best Male Vocalist
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 1994
 * 12 Inches of Snow
 * Best Album
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 1996
 * "Si Wi Dem Nuh Know We"
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 1998
 * "Justuss"
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2001
 * Snow
 * Best Male Artist
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2001
 * Snow/Patterson
 * Best Song Writer
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2001
 * Mind on the Moon
 * Best Pop Album
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2002
 * "The Plumb Song"
 * Best Video
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2003
 * "Two Hands Clapping"
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2002
 * "The Plumb Song"
 * Best Video
 * Nominated
 * align="center"| 2003
 * "Two Hands Clapping"
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Nominated
 * Best Reggae Recording
 * Nominated

Latin Grammy Awards

 * align="center"| 2019
 * "Con Calma" (Shared with Daddy Yankee)
 * Best Urban Fusion/Performance
 * Nominated
 * }
 * }
 * }

Lo Nuestro Awards

 * align="center" rowspan="5"| 2020
 * rowspan="5"|"Con Calma" (Shared with Daddy Yankee)
 * Song of the Year
 * Won
 * Single of the Year
 * Won
 * Crossover Collaboration of the Year
 * Won
 * Urban Song of the Year
 * Won
 * Urban Collaboration of the Year
 * Nominated
 * }
 * Won
 * Urban Collaboration of the Year
 * Nominated
 * }
 * }

MTV Video Music Awards
Recording Industry Association of Japan

 * align="center"| 1994
 * Snow
 * Best New Recording Artist
 * Won
 * Won

Society of Composers, Authors, and Music Publishers of Canada Video Award

 * align="center"| 2020
 * "Con Calma Remix"
 * Socan Pop Music Award
 * Won
 * Won

 * align="center"| 2001
 * "Everybody Wants to Be Like You"
 * Much Music Top Video
 * Won
 * Won

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Snow (musician)


text:
Jean de Thévenot

Jean de Thévenot (16 June 1633 – 28 November 1667) was a French traveller in the East, who wrote extensively about his journeys. He was also a linguist, natural scientist and botanist.

Education
He was born in Paris and received his education in the Collège de Navarre. He was a nephew of Melchisédech Thévenot, with whom he is often confused.

Early European travels (1652-1655)
Thévenot conceived a desire to travel from reading other travel writing, and his wealth allowed him to fulfill this desire. Leaving France in 1652, he first visited England, the Netherlands, Germany and Italy. At Rome he fell in with D'Herbelot, who invited him to be his companion in a projected voyage to the Levant. D'Herbelot was detained by private affairs, but Thévenot sailed from Rome in May 1655, and, after vainly waiting five months at Malta, took passage for Constantinople alone.

First travels to the Near and Middle East (1655-1663)
He remained in Constantinople until the following August, and then proceeded to Smyrna, the Greek islands, and finally to Egypt, landing at Alexandria on New Year's Day, 1657. He stayed for a year in Egypt, then visited Sinai, and, upon returning to Cairo, joined the Lent pilgrim caravan to Jerusalem. He visited the chief places of pilgrimage in Palestine, and, after being twice taken by corsairs, got back to Damietta by sea, and was again in Cairo in time to view the opening of the canal on the rise of the Nile (14 August 1658).

In January 1659 he sailed from Alexandria in an English ship, visiting Goletta and Tunis (Tunisia) on the way, and, after a sharp engagement with Spanish corsairs, one of which fell a prize to the English merchantman, reached Leghorn (Italy) on 12 April. He now spent four years at home in studies useful to a traveller.

Further travels (1663-1667)
In November 1663 again sailed for the East, calling at Alexandria and landing at Sidon, whence he proceeded by land to Damascus, Aleppo, and then through Mesopotamia to Mosul, Baghdad and Mendeli.

Here he entered Persia (27 August 1664), proceeding by Kermanshah and Hamadan to Isfahan, where he spent five months (October 1664 - February 1665), and then joining company with the merchant Tavernier, proceeded by Shiraz and Lar to Bander-Abbasi, in the hope of finding a passage to India. This was difficult, because of the opposition of the Dutch, and though Tavernier was able to proceed, Thévenot found it prudent to return to Shiraz. Having visited the ruins of Persepolis, he made his way to Basra and sailed for India on 6 November 1665, in the ship "Hopewell," arriving at the port of Surat on 10 January 1666.

He was in Mughal Empire of India for thirteen months, and crossed the country by Golconda to Masulipatam, returning overland to Surat, from which he sailed to Bander-Abbasi and went up to Shiraz. He passed the summer of 1667 at Isfahan, disabled by an accidental pistol-shot; and in October started for Tabriz, but died on the way at Mianeh on 28 November 1667.

Linguistic skills and natural sciences
Thévenot was an accomplished polyglot, skilled in Turkish, Arabic and Persian, and a curious and diligent observer. He was also well skilled in natural sciences, especially in botany, for which he made large collections in India.

Travel writing
The account of his first journey was published at Paris in 1665, under the title Relation d’un voyage fait au Levant. It forms the first part of his collected Voyages. The licence is dated December 1663, and the preface shows that Thévenot himself arranged it for publication before leaving on his second voyage. Among other things, he was one of the European travellers to include a story about the origins of the medieval Arabic document, the Achtiname of Muhammad, which claims that the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, had personally confirmed a grant of protection and other privileges to the monks of Saint Catherine's Monastery in Egypt.

The second and third parts of Thévenot's Voyages were posthumously published from his journals in 1674 and 1684 (all quarto). A collected edition appeared at Paris in 1689, duodecimos the same year and at Amsterdam in 1727 (5 vols.). There is an early English translation by A. Lovell (folio, London, 1687).

title: Jean de Thévenot


text: User talk:209.6.146.211

title: User talk:209.6.146.211


text:
Snow (ship)

In sailing, a snow, snaw or snauw is a square-rigged vessel with two masts, complemented by a snow- or trysail-mast stepped immediately abaft (behind) the main mast.

History
The word 'snow' comes from 'snauw', which is an old Dutch word for beak, a reference to the characteristic sharp bow of the vessel. The snow evolved from the (three-masted) ship: the mizzen mast of a ship was gradually moved closer towards the mainmast, until the mizzen mast was no longer a separate mast, but was instead made fast at the main mast top. As such, in the 17th century the snow used to be sometimes classified as a three-masted vessel.

The snow dates back to the late 17th century and originally had a loose-footed gaff sail; the boom was introduced somewhere in the 18th century. It was a popular type of vessel in the Baltic Sea and was employed by a large number of nations during its time. The snow was considered a handy and fast sailing vessel, typically the largest two-masted vessel around, and was employed in both navy and merchant service. When used as a naval vessel, snows were, in the early 18th century, typically fitted with 5 to 16 guns. Naval snows were mostly used for coastal patrols and privateering whereas in the merchant service snows traded all the way to the Mediterranean and sometimes even sailed as far as the West Indies.

"Snow: the largest of all old two-masted vessels. The sails and rigging on the main mast of a snow are exactly similar to those on the same masts in a full-rigged ship; only that there is a small mast behind the mainmast of the former, which carries a sail nearly resembling the mizzen of a ship."

- Captain Charles Johnson

Comparison with brig

While the snow and the brig might appear closely related, this is in fact not the case. The two rigs developed from different directions, the brig evolving from the generally smaller brigantine, and the much older snow evolving from the larger three-masted ship.

The most visible difference between the brig and the snow is the latter's "snow-mast", stepped directly behind the main mast. In contrast to the brig, where the gaff and boom attach directly to the main mast, a snow's gaff, and in later times, its boom, were attached to the snow-mast. The use of this characteristic snow-mast offered several advantages over attaching the gaff directly to the main mast.

The yoke (or jaw) of the gaff and the lacing of the gaff sail on a snow could move freely on the snow mast, unhindered by the iron bands that held together the (main) mast, nor limited by the main yard. The gaff on the snow mast could be raised higher than the main yard and independently of it. The resulting freedom allowed a snow, in contrast to a brig, to fly a main course without complications, as they typically did.

However, in the late 18th century, brigs started to set main courses as well, which gave rise to the term snow-brig. The differences lessened even further when the snow-mast was replaced by a steel cable, at which point the term "snow-brig" gradually became interchangeable with the term "brig" and the term "snow" fell in disuse.

The twin brigs USS Lawrence (1813) and USS Niagara (1813), American warships which participated in the Battle of Lake Erie in 1813, were both snow-brigs.

title: Snow (ship)


text:
Talk:United States two-dollar bill

King of England Smoking Tobacco
There is a clip concerning one of the earlier versions of the bill including the King of England smoking tobacco and an eagle on the reverse of the bill. This looks like vandalism but I can't verify that it is. Can anyone help here? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 148.170.181.199 (talk) 13:11, 20 June 2024 (UTC)
 * It's not vandalism, it's actually supported by the source. It's describing this version of the $2 bill. -  ZLEA  T \ C 14:42, 20 June 2024 (UTC)

Two Dollar Bill Taco Bell
There is story about a customer going to taco bell and the employee didn't accept it? Can that be added? I'm sure it is just a made-up story. http://www.bestshortstories.com/story/233961/2-bill-at-taco-bell/ https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/taco-bell-two-dollar/ Cwater1 (talk) 01:41, 6 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I doubt that source would pass WP:RS. Even if it did, I don't see any merit in including the story.  Wikipedia is not an indiscriminate collection of information. -  ZLEA  T \ C 02:10, 6 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I thought I could ask on the talk page before making an edit on the article. I don't think it is needed as it is trivial.Cwater1 (talk) 02:30, 6 November 2022 (UTC)

Small-sized bill date
I'm wondering which date we should go with for the first bills. They were authorized (and the Series Date) is 1928, but they weren't released into circulation until April 1929. To my mind, either of those dates would work, but I figured this was one of those small things that should be set by consensus. Almostfm (talk) 07:47, 13 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:United States two-dollar bill


text:
User talk:209.232.148.107

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title: User talk:209.232.148.107


text:
List of individual weapons of the U.S. Armed Forces

This is a list of weapons served individually by the United States armed forces. While the general understanding is that crew-served weapons require more than one person to operate them, there are important exceptions in the case for both squad automatic weapons (SAW) and sniper rifles. Within the Table of Organization and Equipment for both the United States Army and the United States Marine Corps, these two classes of weapons are considered as crew-served; the operator of the weapon has an assistant who carries additional ammunition and associated equipment, acts as a spotter, and is also fully qualified in the operation of the weapon. These weapons are listed under the List of crew-served weapons of the U.S. armed forces.

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * Aircrew Survival Egress Knife (US Army Aircrew and USMC Aircrew)
 * M9 bayonet (M16 series compatible)
 * M7 bayonet (M16 series compatible)
 * M11 knife (EOD)
 * OKC-3S bayonet (USMC)
 * Ka-Bar combat knife (USMC)
 * Gerber Mark II dagger
 * Mk 3 knife (USN SEALs)
 * Mission Knives MPK Knife (USN SEALs, USN EOD, and USMC)
 * Strider SMF (USMC)
 * SEAL Knife 2000 (USN SEALs)
 * Tomahawk (VTAC)
 * Entrenching tool

Out of service (obsolete)

 * Knife LC-14-B/Type IV Survival Ax (Woodman's Pal)
 * Marine Corps Raiders stiletto by Camillus
 * Mk 1 Utility Knife (Navy)
 * Mk 2 Machete (Navy)
 * Mk 2 Utility Knife (Marine Corps/Navy)
 * M1 bayonet (M1 Garand/M1903)
 * M3 Trench Knife
 * M4 Bayonet (M1 Carbine)
 * M5 Bayonet (M1 Garand)
 * M6 Bayonet (M14)
 * M1795 Bayonet
 * M1812 Bay
 * M1816 Bayonet
 * M1819 Hall Breech-Loading Rifle Socket Bayonet
 * M1841 Mississippi Rifle Bayonet
 * M1847 Musketoon Bayonet
 * M1849 Rifleman's Knife
 * M1855 Socket Bayonet
 * M1861 Navy Rifle Bayonet
 * M1868 Trowel Bayonet
 * M1873 Trowel Bayonet
 * M1880 Hunting Knife (a.k.a. Entrenching knife)
 * M1887 Hospital Corps Knife
 * M1898 Bolo Bayonet
 * M1898 Bowie Bayonet
 * M1892 Bayonet (Krag)
 * M1895 Lee Rifle Bayonet
 * M1904 Hospital Corps Knife
 * M1905 Bayonet (M1903/M1 Garand)
 * M1909 Bolo Knife
 * M1917 Bayonet (M1917 Rifle, M1897, M12 and M1200 Shotguns)
 * M1917 Bolo Knife
 * M1917/M1918/Mark I Trench Knife
 * M1939 Machete
 * M1942 Bayonet (M1903 Springfield/M1 Garand)
 * M1942 Bolo Knife (United States Navy Hospital Corpsman)
 * M1942 Machete
 * Sykes-Fairbairn Commando Knife
 * V-42 combat knife (Case V-42 'Stiletto')
 * V44 Knife

In active service

 * M67 fragmentation grenade
 * AN/M14 thermite grenade
 * AN/M8 white smoke grenade
 * AN/M18 colored smoke grenade
 * M7A3 CS Gas Grenade
 * M25A2 Riot Control Grenade
 * M47 Riot Control Grenade

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * AN/M83 White Smoke Grenade
 * M84 stun grenade
 * M116/A1 "Flash Crash"
 * Mk 141 Mod 0
 * M100 Grenade Rifle Entry Munition (GREM)
 * Scalable Offensive Hand Grenade (SOCOM)

Out of service (obsolete)

 * MK3/3A1/3A2 Concussion Grenade
 * M25/A1
 * M7/A1/A2
 * M6/A1
 * Mk 1 Mod 0/1/2/3
 * M34
 * M16
 * M15
 * M8
 * M33
 * M61
 * M26/A1
 * Mk II/IIA1 (aka Mk 2/2A1) (Frag)
 * M1 Frangible
 * Ketchum Grenade (Civil War era)
 * V40 Mini-Grenade
 * XM48/E1/E2/E3
 * XM58
 * EX 1 Mod 0
 * EX 2 Mod 0
 * Model 308-1 (Never standardized)
 * Kilgore/Schermuly Stun
 * T13 Beano Grenade
 * F1 (M1916 Billant Fuse)

In active service

 * Beretta M9 (9×19mm)
 * SIG Sauer M11 (P228) (9×19mm)
 * SIG Sauer M17 Modular Handgun System (P320 Full-Size) (9×19mm) – Was selected by the US Army to replace the M9 after winning the XM17 Modular Handgun System competition
 * SIG Sauer M18 Modular Handgun System (P320 Carry) (9×19mm) – Was selected by the US Army, Navy, Marines and Air Force to replace the M11 after winning the XM17 Modular Handgun System competition.

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * Beretta M9A1 (9×19mm) (USMC)
 * Colt M1911A1 (.45 ACP) (as the M45A1 CQBP)
 * Heckler & Koch P11 (Underwater Pistol) (7.62×36mm rocket-propelled darts) (USSOCOM)
 * SIG Sauer P229R DAK (.40 S&W) (USCG)
 * Glock Mk 26 Mod 0 (Glock 26) (9×19mm) (USSOCOM)
 * Glock Mk 27 Mod 0 (Glock 19) (9×19mm) (USSOCOM)
 * Glock Mk 28 Mod 0 (Glock 17) (9×19mm) (USSOCOM)
 * Glock Mk 29 Mod 0 (Glock 34) (9×19mm) (USSOCOM)
 * M45A1 CQBP (Close Quarters Battle Pistol) (.45 ACP) (USMC)
 * Heckler & Koch MK 23 Mod 0 (.45 ACP) (USSOCOM)

Out of service (obsolete)

 * AAI QSPR (Quiet Special Purpose Revolver, .44 Magnum) (never issued)
 * Beretta 92SB (9×19mm) (JSSAP winner)
 * Browning Hi-Power (9×19mm) (Special Forces)
 * Colt Dragoon Revolver (1st/2nd/3rd) (.44)
 * Colt M1900 (.38 ACP) (never issued)
 * Colt M1902 (.38 ACP) (never issued)
 * Colt M1903 (.32 ACP) (General Officers)
 * Colt M1905 (.45 ACP) (never issued)
 * Colt M1908 (.380 ACP) (General Officers)
 * Harpers Ferry Model 1805 (.54)
 * High Standard HDM (.22 LR) (Navy SEALs and USMC Force Recon)
 * Kimber ICQB (Interim Close Quarter Battle) (.45 ACP) (MARSOC)
 * Misc. JSSAP/XM9/XM10 entrants (9×19mm) (never issued)
 * LeMat Revolver (.41/.63, .35/.5)
 * M15 General Officers (.45 ACP)
 * M1799 flintlock pistol (.69)
 * M1805 Harper's Ferry flintlock pistol (.54)
 * M1816 flintlock pistol (.54)
 * M1836 flintlock pistol (.54)
 * M1842 Navy (.54)
 * M1842 Pistol (.54)
 * M1847 Revolver (.44)
 * M1848 Revolver (.44)
 * M1849 Pocket Revolver (.31)
 * M1851 Navy (.36)
 * M1860 Army Revolver (.44)
 * M1861 Navy Revolver (.36)
 * M1873 (.45 Colt)
 * M1889 Navy (.38 Long Colt)
 * M1892/M1894/M1896 Army (.38 Long Colt)
 * M1902 Revolver (.38 Long Colt)
 * M1900 (DWM "American Eagle Luger"; 7.65×22mm, 9×19mm, .45 ACP) (never issued)
 * M1903 Army (.38 Special/.38 Long Colt)
 * M1905 Marine (.38 Long Colt)
 * M1908 Army (.38 Special)
 * M1909 Army (.45 Colt)
 * M1917 (.45 ACP)
 * Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun (Mk 59 Mod 0) (Navy SEALs)
 * Mk 22 Mod 0 (9×19mm Parabellum) (Special Forces)
 * Objective Personal Defense Weapon (canceled)
 * Remington-Beals Revolver (.36)
 * Remington M1858 (.44)
 * Remington M53 (.45 ACP) (never issued)
 * Remington M1865/M1867 Navy (.50)
 * Ruger MK II (.22 LR) (Navy SEALs)
 * Savage Arms .45 pistol (.45 ACP) (never issued)
 * Savage Figure Eight (.36)
 * Schofield Model 3 (.45 Schofield)
 * Smith & Wesson Model 10 (.38 Special)
 * Smith & Wesson Model 12 (.38 Special)
 * Smith & Wesson Model 15 (.38 Special) (USAF)
 * Smith & Wesson No. 2 (.32)
 * Spiller and Burr (.36)
 * Starr Model 1863 (.44)
 * Steyr Mannlicher M1894 (7.65×21mm) (never issued)

Canceled experiments and competitions

 * Joint Combat Pistol and related (.45 ACP) (was suspended and later superseded by the XM17 Modular Handgun System competition)
 * Colt OHWS (.45 ACP) (never issued)
 * Colt SCAMP (.22 SCAMP) (never issued)
 * Gyrojet handgun (13mm) (never issued)

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * FN 303 semi-automatic less-lethal riot gun
 * M37 MRCD (Mid-size Riot Control Disperser) compressed air weapon

Out of service (obsolete)

 * M234 Riot Control Launcher

Rifles
Includes muskets, musketoons, etc., as well as rifles

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * XM7 (6.8×51mm Common Cartridge) (US Army)
 * M16A4 (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC, US Army)
 * M16A3 (5.56×45mm NATO) (Navy SEALs and USN Seabees)
 * M16A2 (5.56×45mm NATO) (USAF, USCG, and US Army Training/Reserve/National Guard)
 * M27 IAR (Infantry Automatic Rifle) (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC Automatic Rifleman)
 * M38 SDMR (Squad Designated Marksman Rifle) (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC Designated Marksmen)

 * M110A1 SDMR (7.62×51mm NATO) (US Army Designated Marksmen)
 * Mk 14 EBR (Enhanced Battle Rifle) (7.62×51mm NATO) (USCG, US Army, USAF Designated Marksmen/EOD)
 * M39 Enhanced Marksman Rifle (7.62 NATO) (USMC Designated Marksmen/Scout Snipers)
 * Mk 11 (KAC SR-25) (7.62×51mm NATO) (USMC, US Army, USAF, USCG, USSOCOM, USN SEALs)
 * HK417 (7.62x51mm NATO) (Naval Special Warfare Development Group, USSOCOM))
 * SIG Sauer 716 G2 (7.62×51mm NATO) (JSOC)
 * Mk 17 Mod 0 (FN SCAR-H) (7.62×51mm NATO) (USSOCOM, USMC Automatic Rifleman)

Semi and fully automatic

 * FN FAL (battle rifle, trialled as T48 against the T44 and T47 to replace the M1: lost to the former)
 * Olin/Winchester Salvo Rifle (battle rifle, 5.56mm duplex)
 * M14E1 (Selective Fire Rifle, 7.62×51mm NATO) (never standardized)
 * M16A1 (5.56×45mm NATO)
 * M16 (5.56×45mm NATO)
 * XM16E1 (5.56×45mm NATO)
 * M16A2 (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC)
 * Heckler & Koch HK33 (Selective Fire Rifle, 5.56×45mm NATO) (Used by the United States Navy Seals during the Vietnam War)
 * Armalite/Colt Model 601/602 (5.56×45mm NATO rifle) (USAF and SOF use only)
 * XM22/E1 Rifle (Selective Fire Rifle, 5.56×45mm NATO)
 * Mk 4 Mod 0 (Suppressed Rifle, 5.56×45mm NATO)
 * Misc. M1 Garand Variants (E1-E6 and E9-E14) (Semi-Automatic Rifle, .30-06)
 * Mk 2 Mod 0/1/2 (Semi-Automatic Rifle, 7.62×51mm NATO)
 * M1 Garand (Semi-automatic rifle, .30-06)
 * M1941 Johnson rifle (Semi-Automatic Rifle, .30-06)
 * Model 45A
 * M1946 rifle (never used in active duty)
 * M1947 Johnson auto carbine (Semi-Automatic Rifle, .30-06)
 * Pedersen Rifle (.276) (competed unsuccessfully with M1 Garand to become primary service rifle)
 * Pedersen Device (attachment for Springfield M1903, .30 conversion)
 * M1918 BAR (.30-06)
 * ArmaLite AR-18 (Trial purposes only)
 * Mk 12 Mod 0/1 Special Purpose Rifle (5.56×45mm NATO) (US Navy, USMC, SOCOM)

Bolt action

 * M1903/A1/A3 (Bolt-action rifle; .30-03, .30-06)
 * M1917 Enfield (Bolt-action rifle)
 * Model 1907/15 Berthier rifle (Bolt-action rifle)
 * M1895 Navy (Navy Lee, 6 mm Navy)
 * M1892/M1896/M1898 Rifle (a/k/a Krag Bolt Action Rifle; .30-40 Krag)
 * M1885 Remington-Lee (Bolt-action rifle; .45-70 Gov)
 * M1882 Short Rifle (.45-70 Gov.)
 * M1882 Remington-Lee (Bolt-action rifle; .45-70 Gov.)
 * M1879 Remington-Lee (Bolt-action rifle; .45-70 Gov.)
 * Remington–Keene rifle (Bolt-action rifle; .45-70 Gov.)

Breech loading

 * M1875 Officers' Rifle (.45-70 Gov.)
 * M1873/M1879/M1880/M1884/M1888/M1889 Springfield (a/k/a Trapdoor Springfield;.45-70 Gov..: .45-55-405 & .45-70-500)
 * M1872 Springfield (a/k/a Rolling Block Springfield; .50-70 Gov.)
 * 1867 Rolling Block Remington .50-45 centerfire
 * M1865/M1866/M1868/M1869/M1870 Springfield (a/k/a Trapdoor Springfield and Allin conversions; .50-70 Government)
 * Sharps carbine/rifle (Breech-loader; .42-60-410) (.52 caliber issued to Berdan's 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters in the US Civil War)
 * Burnside Carbine (Breech loader, .54 Burnside, percussion lock) third most common Union cavalry carbine in the US Civil War

Lever action

 * Henry rifle (Lever-action; .44-26-200)
 * Spencer rifle (Lever-action; 56-56 (.52-45-350))

Rifled muskets

 * M1863 Springfield
 * M1861 Springfield (.58)
 * Colt revolving rifle (Colt Model 1855; 6/5-shot revolver rifle;.44/.56)
 * Greene rifle (Bolt-action breech-loader)
 * P53 Enfield (.577)
 * P51 Enfield Musketoon ("Artillery Carbine"; 24" barrel, .69)
 * Model 1854 Lorenz rifle (Rifle-musket, .54, .58)
 * M1859 Sharps ('New model 1859', breech loader; .52, .56)
 * M1855 Rifle-Musket
 * M1855 Rifle (Percussion muzzle-loader; 58-60-500)
 * M1841 Rifle "Mississippi Rifle" (percussion muzzle-loader;.54, .58)
 * M1819 Hall rifle (Harper's Ferry;Breech-loader)
 * Model 1817 Rifle ('Common rifle';Derringer, Johnson, North and Starr; Flintlock rifle, .54) (later percussion)
 * Model 1814 Common Rifle (Deringer, Johnson; Flintlock rifle; later percussion; .54)
 * Harper's Ferry Model 1803 Rifle (Flintlock rifle; .54)
 * 1792 contract rifle (Flintlock rifle; .49)
 * Kentucky Rifle (Flintlock rifle)

Smoothbore muskets

 * M1847 Musketoon (Springfield, .69)
 * M1842 Musket (Percussion musket, .69)
 * M1840 Musket (flintlock musket;.69)(later percussion)
 * M1835 Springfield (flintlock musket; .69 cal)
 * Model 1822 Musket (Flintlock Musket) .69 (later percussion)
 * Model 1816 Musket (Flintlock musket; .69) (Later Percussion)
 * Springfield Model 1812 Musket (Flintlock musket; .69)
 * Model 1808 Contract Musket (Flintlock musket; .69)
 * Model 1795 Musket (Flintlock musket; .69)
 * Charleville musket (Flintlock musket; .69)
 * Brown Bess (Musket; .75)
 * Ferguson rifle (Flintlock breech-loader; .69)

Experimental

 * NGSW-R (Next Generation Squad Weapon - Rifle) (6.8 Common Cartridge) -- Sig Sauer MCX Spear rifle and cartridge selected and ordered by US Army as the XM7 rifle and 6.8 Common Cartridge.
 * MRGG-A (Mid-Range Gas Gun - Assaulter) (6.5mm Creedmoor) (USSOCOM)
 * Mk 17 Mod 1 (FN SCAR-H) (6.5mm Creedmoor) (USSOCOM)
 * LMT MARS-H 6.5 DMR (6.5mm Creedmoor) (USSOCOM)
 * LaRue Tactical PredatOBR 6.5 Creedmoor (6.5mm Creedmoor) (USSOCOM)

Canceled experiments

 * Textron CT System (Olin Winchester CT 6.8mm polymer-cased telescoped cartridge) (US Army) - not selected for NGSW program.
 * General Dynamics RM277 (True Velocity .277 TVCM polymer-cased cartridge) (US Army) - not selected for NGSW program.
 * Desert Tech MDRx (PCP Ammunition 6.8mm polymer case-metal cartridge) (US Army) - not selected for NGSW program
 * LSAT rifle (not adopted, superseded by NGSW-R).
 * FN-America HAMR (Federal Cartridge Company 6.8mm cartridge) (United States Marine Corps) - not selected for IAR program
 * XM8 rifle - not adopted (5.56×45mm NATO)
 * XM29 (5.56×45mm NATO and 20 mm airburst munition (XM1018)(early)/25 mm airburst munition) - program canceled
 * Advanced Combat Rifle program entries (concluded 1991)
 * Misc. Future Rifle Program entries (canceled)
 * Special Purpose Individual Weapon (SPIW) program entries - concluded/canceled)

In active service

 * M4A1 (5.56×45mm NATO)
 * XM7 (6.8×51mm) (US Army)

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * M4 (5.56×45mm NATO) (the U.S. Army was upgrading and retrofitting their existing stock of M4 carbines to the specifications of the M4A1, starting in 2014 and was predicted to be completed by 2020)
 * Mk 18 Mod 0 CQBR (Close Quarters Battle Receiver) (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC Recon, USCG DSF, USN SEALs, USSOCOM, and USASOC)
 * M231 FPW (Firing Port Weapon) (5.56×45mm NATO) (US Army Bradley M2A3 Crew)
 * GAU-5A ASDW (Aircrew Self-Defence Weapon) (5.56×45mm NATO) (US Air Force)
 * Mk 16 Mod 0 (5.56×45mm NATO) (US Army Rangers)
 * SCAR-L (CQC, STD)(5.56×45mm NATO) (US Army Rangers, USSOCOM)
 * Heckler & Koch HK416 (5.56×45mm NATO) (JSOC)
 * Sig Sauer MCX Rattler (Reduced Signature Assault Rifle) (USSOCOM)
 * Low Visibility Assault Weapon (USSOCOM)

Out of service (obsolete)

 * Colt Model 723 (Carbine version of M16A2, 5.56×45mm NATO) (US Navy)
 * M4E2 Carbine (Automatic Carbine, 5.56×45mm NATO) (never standardized)
 * CAR-15 Survival Rifle (5.56×45mm)
 * Colt Model 653 (Carbine version of M16A1, 5.56×45mm NATO)
 * GAU-5/A and A/A ("SMG," 5.56×45mm)
 * XM177E1 and XM177E2 ("SMG," 5.56×45mm)
 * Colt Model 733 (5.56×45mm NATO) (USMC Force Recon)
 * XM23 Carbine (Selective Fire Carbine, 5.56×45mm NATO)
 * GUU-4/P ("Arm Gun," .221 Remington Fireball)
 * CAR-15 SMG (CAR-15 w/ 10" barrel, 5.56 mm)
 * CAR-15 Carbine (M16 w/ 15" barrel, 5.56×45mm)
 * AR-7 (.22 LR)
 * M1/M1A1 Carbine (Semi-Automatic Carbine, .30 Carbine)
 * M2 Carbine (Full-Automatic Carbine, .30 Carbine)
 * M3 Carbine ( Infrared Scoped, Full-Automatic Carbine, .30 Carbine)
 * Thompson Light Rifle (Full-Automatic Carbine, .30 Carbine)
 * M50 Reising
 * T38/M4 (Survival Rifle; .22 Hornet)
 * T39/M6 (Survival Rifle; .22 Hornet/.410 Gauge)
 * MA-1 (AR-5 Survival Rifle; .22 Hornet)
 * M1892/M1896/M1898/M1899 Carbine (a/k/a Krag Bolt Action Carbine; .30-40 Krag)
 * M1873/M1877/M1879/M1884/M1886 Carbine (.45-70 Gov.: .45-55-405 & .45-70-500)
 * Smith carbine (Breech-loader (break-open); .50-50-360)
 * Burnside carbine (Breech-loader, .58-60-500)
 * Starr Carbine (Breech-loader, .54)
 * Springfield Model 1863 (Breech-barrel carbine, .52-cal.)

Canceled experiments and competitions

 * Individual Carbine (US Army)
 * XM8 Compact Carbine (5.56×45mm) (never issued)

In active service

 * M500 (pump-action 12 Gauge)
 * M590 (pump-action 12 Gauge)
 * M590A1 (pump-action 12 Gauge)
 * Saiga-12 (USCG, various U.S. Military Police units)

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * M870 (pump-action 12 gauge) (USCG and USAF)
 * M1014 (semi-automatic 12 gauge)  (US Army and USMC)
 * M26 (Modular Accessory Shotgun System) (bolt-action 12 gauge attachment) (US Army)

Out of service/Canceled

 * Ithaca Model 37 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Pancor Jackhammer (gas-operated 12 gauge)
 * Remington 7188 (full-auto 12 gauge) (Navy SEALs)
 * Remington Model 10 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Remington Model 11 (semi-automatic 12 gauge)
 * Remington Model 31 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Springfield Model 1881 Forager (20 gauge)
 * Stevens Model 520-30 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Stevens Model 620 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Winchester 1200 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Winchester Model 1912 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * Winchester Model 1897 (pump-action 12 gauge)
 * CAWS entrants, specifically HK CAWS

Experimental

 * Maxwell Atchisson AA-12 (semi-automatic/Full-automatic 12 gauge) (USSOCOM, primarily USN SEALs)

In active service (some branches or limited roles)

 * B&T APC9 Pro-K Sub Compact Weapon (SCW) (9×19mm) (Military Police, US Air Force)
 * Heckler & Koch MP5-N/MP5K-N/MP5SD-N (9×19mm) (USSOCOM)
 * Heckler & Koch MP7A1 (4.6×30mm) (DEVGRU, JSOC)
 * SIG Sauer MPX (9×19mm) (US Army, JSOC)
 * Colt RO635 SMG (9×19mm) (USMC)

Out of service (obsolete)

 * HK SMG II (9×19mm Parabellum) (never issued)
 * HK 54A1 (9×19mm Parabellum) (never issued)
 * HK MP2000 (9×19mm Parabellum) (never issued)
 * M3/M3A1 Grease Gun (.45 ACP/9×19mm Parabellum)
 * Madsen M50 (9×19mm Parabellum)
 * Walther MPL/MPK (9×19mm Parabellum)
 * Mk 24 Mod 0 (Smith & Wesson Model 76; 9×19mm Parabellum)
 * Carl Gustav M/45 (9×19mm Parabellum)
 * Model 50/55 Reising (.45 ACP)
 * M2 submachine gun (Hyde-Inland M2, .45 ACP)
 * M42 submachine gun (United Defense M42, .45 ACP/9×19mm Parabellum)
 * M1/M1A1 Thompson (.45 ACP)
 * M1928/M1928A1 Thompson (.45 ACP)
 * M1921 Thompson (.45 ACP) (not type classified)
 * Uzi/Mini Uzi (9×19mm Parabellum)

In active service

 * Model 1840 Army Noncommissioned Officers' Sword A modern version of this sword with steel scabbard is currently permitted for wear by US Army platoon sergeants and first sergeants; in practice it is rarely seen outside the 3rd Infantry Regiment and honor guards.
 * Model 1852 Navy Officers' Sword
 * Model 1860 Navy CPO Cutlass (authorized only for ranks of Chief to Master Chief)
 * Model 1902 Army Officers' Sword
 * Coast Guard Officers' Sword
 * Marine Noncommissioned Officers' Sword, 1859–Present
 * Marine Officers' Mameluke Sword, 1825–present (discontinued shortly from 1859 to 1875)
 * Air Force Academy Cadets' Sword, c. 1955–present
 * West Point Cadets' Sword, c. 1922–present

Out of service

 * Model 1832 Foot Artillery Sword
 * Model 1840 Light Artillery Saber
 * Model 1872 Mounted Artillery Officers' Saber
 * Model 1840 Army Musicians' Sword
 * Model 1812/13 Starr Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1818 Starr Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1833 Dragoon Saber
 * Model 1840 Heavy Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1860 Light Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1872 Light Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1906 Light Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1913 "Patton" Cavalry Saber
 * Model 1832 Army Foot Officers' Sword
 * Model 1832 Army General & Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1832 Army Medical Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1839 Army Topographical Engineer Officers' Sword
 * Model 1840 Army Foot Officers' Sword
 * Model 1840 Army General & Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1840 Army Medical Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1840 Army Pay Department Officers' Sword
 * Model 1840 Army Engineer Officers' Sword
 * Model 1850 Army Foot Officers' Sword
 * Model 1850 Army Staff & Field Officers' Sword
 * Model 1860 Army Field & Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1872 Army Line & Staff Officers' Sword
 * Model 1830 Navy Officers' Sword
 * Model 1841 Navy Officers' Sword
 * Model 1834 Revenue Cutter Service Officers' Sword
 * Model 1870 Revenue Cutter Service Officers' Sword
 * Model 1797 Starr Naval Cutlass
 * Model 1808 Starr Naval Cutlass
 * Mayweg & Nippes "Baltimore" Naval Cutlass, c. 1810
 * Model 1816 Starr Naval Cutlass
 * Model 1826 Starr Naval Cutlass
 * Model 1841 Naval Cutlass
 * Model 1861 Naval Cutlass
 * Model 1917 Naval Cutlass
 * Marine Noncommissioned Officers' Sword, c.1832–1859
 * Marine Officers' Mameluke Sword, 1826–59
 * West Point Cadets' Sword, Model 1872
 * West Point Cadets' Sword, c. 1837


text:
Yukawa potential

In particle, atomic and condensed matter physics, a Yukawa potential (also called a screened Coulomb potential) is a potential named after the Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa. The potential is of the form:

 * $$V_\text{Yukawa}(r)= -g^2\frac{e^{-\alpha m r}}{r},$$

where $$g$$ is a magnitude scaling constant, i.e. is the amplitude of potential, $m$ is the mass of the particle, $r$ is the radial distance to the particle, and $α$ is another scaling constant, so that $$r \approx \tfrac{1}{\alpha m}$$ is the approximate range. The potential is monotonically increasing in $r$ and it is negative, implying the force is attractive. In the SI system, the unit of the Yukawa potential is (1/meters).

The Coulomb potential of electromagnetism is an example of a Yukawa potential with the $$e^{-\alpha mr}$$ factor equal to 1, everywhere. This can be interpreted as saying that the photon mass $m$ is equal to 0. The photon is the force-carrier between interacting, charged particles.

In interactions between a meson field and a fermion field, the constant $$g$$ is equal to the gauge coupling constant between those fields. In the case of the nuclear force, the fermions would be a proton and another proton or a neutron.

History
Prior to Hideki Yukawa's 1935 paper, physicists struggled to explain the results of James Chadwick's atomic model, which consisted of positively charged protons and neutrons packed inside of a small nucleus, with a radius on the order of 10−14 meters. Physicists knew that electromagnetic forces at these lengths would cause these protons to repel each other and for the nucleus to fall apart. Thus came the motivation for further explaining the interactions between elementary particles. In 1932, Werner Heisenberg proposed a "Platzwechsel" (migration) interaction between the neutrons and protons inside the nucleus, in which neutrons were composite particles of protons and electrons. These composite neutrons would emit electrons, creating an attractive force with the protons, and then turn into protons themselves. When, in 1933 at the Solvay Conference, Heisenberg proposed his interaction, physicists suspected it to be of either two forms:

 * $$J(r) = ae^{-br} \quad \textrm{or}\quad J(r) = ae^{-br^2}$$

on account of its short-range. However, there were many issues with his theory. Namely, it is impossible for an electron of spin $1⁄2$ and a proton of spin $1⁄2$ to add up to the neutron spin of $1⁄2$. The way Heisenberg treated this issue would go on to form the ideas of isospin.

Heisenberg's idea of an exchange interaction (rather than a Coulombic force) between particles inside the nucleus led Fermi to formulate his ideas on beta-decay in 1934. Fermi's neutron-proton interaction was not based on the "migration" of neutrons and protons between each other. Instead, Fermi proposed the emission and absorption of two light particles: the neutrino and electron, rather than just the electron (as in Heisenberg's theory). While Fermi's interaction solved the issue of the conservation of linear and angular momentum, Soviet physicists Igor Tamm and Dmitri Ivanenko demonstrated that the force associated with the neutrino and electron emission was not strong enough to bind the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

In his February 1935 paper, Hideki Yukawa combines both the idea of Heisenberg's short-range force interaction and Fermi's idea of an exchange particle in order to fix the issue of the neutron-proton interaction. He deduced a potential which includes an exponential decay term ($$e^{-\alpha mr}$$) and an electromagnetic term ($$1/r$$). In analogy to quantum field theory, Yukawa knew that the potential and its corresponding field must be a result of an exchange particle. In the case of QED, this exchange particle was a photon of 0 mass. In Yukawa's case, the exchange particle had some mass, which was related to the range of interaction (given by $$\tfrac{1}{\alpha m}$$). Since the range of the nuclear force was known, Yukawa used his equation to predict the mass of the mediating particle as about 200 times the mass of the electron. Physicists called this particle the "meson," as its mass was in the middle of the proton and electron. Yukawa's meson was found in 1947, and came to be known as the pion.

Relation to Coulomb potential

If the particle has no mass (i.e., $m = 0$), then the Yukawa potential reduces to a Coulomb potential, and the range is said to be infinite. In fact, we have:

 * $$m=0 \Rightarrow e^{-\alpha m r}= e^0 = 1.$$

Consequently, the equation
 * $$V_{\text{Yukawa}}(r)= -g^2 \;\frac{e^{-\alpha mr}}{r}$$

simplifies to the form of the Coulomb potential
 * $$V_{\text{Coulomb}}(r)= -g^2 \;\frac{1}{r}.$$

where we set the scaling constant to be:

 * $$g^2 = \frac{q_1 q_2}{4 \pi \varepsilon_0}$$

A comparison of the long range potential strength for Yukawa and Coulomb is shown in Figure 2. It can be seen that the Coulomb potential has effect over a greater distance whereas the Yukawa potential approaches zero rather quickly. However, any Yukawa potential or Coulomb potential is non-zero for any large $m$.

Fourier transform
The easiest way to understand that the Yukawa potential is associated with a massive field is by examining its Fourier transform. One has

 * $$V(\mathbf{r}) =

\frac{-g^2}{(2\pi)^3} \int e^{i\mathbf{k \cdot r}} \frac {4\pi}{k^2+(\alpha m)^2} \,\mathrm{d}^3 k$$

where the integral is performed over all possible values of the 3-vector momenta $r$. In this form, and setting the scaling factor to one, $$\alpha = 1$$, the fraction $\frac{4 \pi}{k^2 + m^2}$ is seen to be the propagator or Green's function of the Klein–Gordon equation.

Feynman amplitude
The Yukawa potential can be derived as the lowest order amplitude of the interaction of a pair of fermions. The Yukawa interaction couples the fermion field $$\psi(x)$$ to the meson field $$\phi(x)$$ with the coupling term

 * $$\mathcal{L}_\mathrm{int}(x) = g~\overline{\psi}(x)~\phi(x)~\psi(x)~.$$

The scattering amplitude for two fermions, one with initial momentum $$p_1$$ and the other with momentum $$p_2$$, exchanging a meson with momentum $k$, is given by the Feynman diagram on the right.

The Feynman rules for each vertex associate a factor of $$g$$ with the amplitude; since this diagram has two vertices, the total amplitude will have a factor of $$g^2$$. The line in the middle, connecting the two fermion lines, represents the exchange of a meson. The Feynman rule for a particle exchange is to use the propagator; the propagator for a massive meson is $\frac{-4\pi}{~k^2+m^2~}$. Thus, we see that the Feynman amplitude for this graph is nothing more than

 * $$V(\mathbf{k})=-g^2\frac{4\pi}{k^2+m^2}~.$$

From the previous section, this is seen to be the Fourier transform of the Yukawa potential.

Eigenvalues of Schrödinger equation
The radial Schrödinger equation with Yukawa potential can be solved perturbatively. Using the radial Schrödinger equation in the form
 * $$\left[\frac{\mathrm{d}^2}{\mathrm{d}r^2} + k^2 - \frac{\ell(\ell + 1)}{r^2} - V(r)\right] \Psi\left(\ell,k;\,r\right) = 0,$$

and the Yukawa potential in the power-expanded form
 * $$V(r) = \sum_{j = -1}^{\infty} M_{j + 1} \, (-r)^j,$$

and setting $$K = jk$$, one obtains for the angular momentum $$\ell$$ the expression
 * $$\ell + n + 1 = -\frac{\,\Delta_n(K)\,}{2K}$$

for $$|K| \to \infty$$, where
 * $$\begin{align}

&\Delta_n(K) = M_0 - \frac{1}{\,2K^2\,}\Bigl[\,n(n + 1)\,M_2 + M_0\,M_1\,\Bigr] - \frac{\,2n + 1\,}{4K^3}\,M_0\,M_2 ~+ \\ &\qquad\qquad\quad + \frac{1}{\,8K^4\,}\,\Bigl[\,3(n-1)n(n+1)(n+2)\,M_4 + 2 (3n^2 + 3n - 1)\,M_3\,M_0 ~+ \\ &\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad\qquad ~+~ 6n(n + 1)\,M_2\,M_1 + 2\,M_2\,M_0^2 + 3M_1^2\,M_0\,\Bigr] ~+ \\ &\qquad\qquad\quad + \frac{\,2n + 1\,}{\,8K^5\,}\,\Bigl[\,3(n^2 + n - 1)\,M_4\,M_0 + 3\,M_3\,M_0^2 + n(n + 1)\,M_2^2 + 4\,M_2\,M_1\,M_0\,\Bigr]~+ \\ &\qquad\qquad\quad +~ \operatorname{\mathcal O}\Bigl(\,\frac{1}{\,K^7\,}\,\Bigr) ~. \end{align}$$

Setting all coefficients $$M_j$$ except $$M_0$$ equal to zero, one obtains the well-known expression for the Schrödinger eigenvalue for the Coulomb potential, and the radial quantum number $$\,n\,$$ is a positive integer or zero as a consequence of the boundary conditions which the wave functions of the Coulomb potential have to satisfy. In the case of the Yukawa potential the imposition of boundary conditions is more complicated. Thus in the Yukawa case $$\nu = n$$ is only an approximation and the parameter $$\nu$$ that replaces the integer $k$ is really an asymptotic expansion like that above with first approximation the integer value of the corresponding Coulomb case. The above expansion for the orbital angular momentum or Regge trajectory $$\ell(K)$$ can be reversed to obtain the energy eigenvalues or equivalently $$\bigl|K\bigr|^2$$. One obtains:
 * $$\begin{align}

&\bigl|K\bigr|^2 ~=~ - M_1 ~+~ \frac{1}{\,4(\ell+n+1)^2\,}\,\biggl\{\; M_0^2 - 4n(n+1)(\ell+n+1)^2 \,M_2\, M_0 + 4(2n+1)(\ell+n+1)^2\frac{M_2}{\;M_0\,} ~+ \\ &\quad +~4\frac{\;(\ell+n+1)^4\,}{M_0^3}\,\Bigl[\,3(n-1)n(n+1)(n+2+3)\,M_4\,M_0 ~+ \\ & \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad - ~ 3 n^2(n+1)^2\,M_2^2 + 2(3n^2+3n-1)\,M_3\,M_0^2 + 2\,M_2\,M_0^3\,\Bigr] ~+ \\ &\quad - ~ 24\frac{\,(2n+1)(\ell+n+1)^5\,}{M_0^4}\,\Bigl[\,(n^2 + n - 1)\,M_0\,M_4 + M_0^3\,M_3 -  n(n+1)\,M_2^2\,\Bigr] ~+ \\ &\quad - ~ 4\,\frac{\,(\ell + n + 1)^6\,}{M_0^7}\,\Bigl[~10(n-2)(n-1)n(n+1)(n+2)(n+3)\,M_6\,M_0^2 ~+ \\ &\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad + ~ 4\,M_3\,M_0^5 + 2\Bigl(\,5n(n+1)(3 n^2 + 3n - 10) + 12\,\Bigr)\,M_5\,M_0^3 ~+\\ &\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad + ~ 2 (6 n^2 + 6n - 11)\, M_4\,M_0^4 + 2(9 n^2 + 9n - 1)\,M_2^2\,M_0^3 ~+ \\ &\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad - ~ 10 n(n+1)(3 n^2 + 3n + 2)\, M_3\,M_2\,M_0^2 + 20 n^3(n+1)^3\, M_2^3 ~+ \\ &\qquad \qquad \qquad \qquad - ~ 30 (n-1)n^2(n+1)^2(n+2)\,M_4\,M_2\,M_0\,\Bigr] \quad + \quad \cdots \biggr\} \quad. \end{align}$$

The above asymptotic expansion of the angular momentum $$\ell(K)$$ in descending powers of $$K$$ can also be derived with the WKB method. In that case, however, as in the case of the Coulomb potential the expression $$\ell(\ell+1)$$ in the centrifugal term of the Schrödinger equation has to be replaced by $$\left(\ell+\tfrac{1}{2}\right)^2$$, as was argued originally by Langer, the reason being that the singularity is too strong for an unchanged application of the WKB method. That this reasoning is correct follows from the WKB derivation of the correct result in the Coulomb case (with the Langer correction), and even of the above expansion in the Yukawa case with higher order WKB approximations.

Cross section
We can calculate the differential cross section between a proton or neutron and the pion by making use of the Yukawa potential. We use the Born approximation, which tells us that, in a spherically symmetrical potential, we can approximate the outgoing scattered wave function as the sum of incoming plane wave function and a small perturbation:

 * $$\psi(\vec{r}) \approx A \left[(e^{ipr}) + \frac{e^{ipr}}{r} f(\theta) \right]$$

where $$\vec{p} = p \hat{z}$$ is the particle's incoming momentum. The function $$f(\theta)$$ is given by:

 * $$f(\theta) = \frac{-2\mu}{\hbar^2 \left|\vec{p}-\vec{p}' \right|} \, \int_{0}^{\infty} r \, V(r) \, \sin\left(\left|\vec{p}-\vec{p}'\right| r \right) ~ \mathrm{d}r$$

where $$\vec p' = p \hat r$$ is the particle's outgoing scattered momentum and $$\mu$$ is the incoming particles' mass (not to be confused with $$m,$$ the pion's mass). We calculate $$f(\theta)$$ by plugging in $$V_\text{Yukawa}$$:

 * $$f(\theta) = \frac{2\mu}{\hbar^2 \left|\vec{p}-\vec{p}'\right|} \, g^2 \int_{0}^{\infty} e^{-\alpha m r} \, \sin \left(\left|\vec{p} - \vec{p}'\right| \, r \right) \, \mathrm{d}r$$

Evaluating the integral gives

 * $$f(\theta) = \frac{2 \mu g^2}{\hbar^2\,\left[(\alpha m)^2 + \left| \vec{p} - \vec{p}' \right|^2\right]}$$

Energy conservation implies

 * $$\bigl|\vec p\bigr| = \bigl|\vec p'\bigr| = p~$$

so that

 * $$\left|\vec p - \vec p'\right| = 2\,p\,\sin\left(\tfrac{1}{2}\theta\right)~$$

Plugging in, we get:

 * $$f(\theta) = \frac{2 \mu g^2}{\hbar^2 \left[(\alpha m)^2 + 4\,p^2\,\sin^2\left({\frac{1}{2}\theta}\right)\right]}$$

We thus get a differential cross section of:

 * $$\frac{\mathrm d \sigma}{\mathrm d \Omega} = \left|f(\theta)\right|^2 = \frac{4 \mu^2 g^4}{\hbar^4\ \left[ (\alpha m)^2 + 4 p^2 \sin^2\left(\frac{1}{2}\theta\right) \right]^2}$$

Integrating, the total cross section is:
 * $$ \sigma = \int \frac{\mathrm{d} \sigma}{\mathrm{d} \Omega} \mathrm{d}\Omega

= \frac{4 \mu^2 g^4}{\hbar^4} \int_0^\pi \frac{2\pi \sin(\theta) \mathrm{d}\theta}{\left[(\alpha m)^2 + 4 p^2 \sin^2\left(\frac{1}{2}\theta\right) \right]^2} = \frac{4 \mu^2 g^4}{\hbar^4} \frac{4\pi}{(\alpha m)^2 \left[(\alpha m)^2 + 4p^2 \right]}$$

title: Yukawa potential


text:
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