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Gonzalo Frasca

Gonzalo Frasca (born 1972) is a game designer and academic researcher focusing on serious and political videogames. His blog, Ludology.org, was cited by NBC News as a popular designation for academic researchers studying video games. For many years, Frasca also co-published Watercoolergames with Ian Bogost, a blog about serious games.

Frasca was born in Montevideo, Uruguay, where he established Powerful Robot Games, a video game studio. He is Chief Design Officer at DragonBox, a Norwegian pedagogy studio which produces math-learning videogames. Frasca is also a professor at Universidad ORT Uruguay.

In video game theory, Frasca belongs to the group of "ludologists" who consider video games to be simulations based on rules. They see video games as the first simulational media for the masses - which means a paradigm shift in media consumption and production.

Frasca's game studies are influenced by the work of Norwegian game academic Espen J. Aarseth. Beginning in December 2004, Frasca studied games at the Center for Computer Games Research at the IT University of Copenhagen. He received his PhD in Videogames studies in August 2007.

His most famous game is the art game, September 12, a response to the September 11 attacks. It is based on the political argument that a direct military response will only increase the likelihood of further terrorist attacks on the West. In spite of being controversial at its launch, it is now recognized as a notable early example of both political videogame and newsgame (a term Frasca is credited with coining to refer to a videogame based on real, newsworthy events). In 2009 it received a Lifetime Achievement Award by the Knight Foundation.

Simulation versus Narrative: Introduction to Ludology (2003)
This work expands on concepts of narratology and ludology as modes for framing game analysis. These concepts were established initially by Frasca in his 1999 text Ludology meets Narratology: Similitude and differences between video games and narrative. He defines ludology as the play-oriented aspects of games, such as mechanics and control schemes. Narrative aspects provide a context for the play-oriented features within the gamespace. As noted in the text's introductory paragraphs, Frasca's writing on ludology was spurred by a desire to address the inadequacies of games studies literature. He states that games studies literature of the late 1990s and early 2000s involved the framing of game analysis within dramatic and narrative frameworks. This could include the framing of games within understandings of film and written literature. There was no existing model to consider games on their own terms (namely play and interactivity); a significant limitation in academically engaging with the medium. Interactivity is an intrinsic facet of the medium, however, no formal academic discipline existed which could address it. Through the proposition of a ludic framework, Frasca aims to encourage analysts to consider how play elements interact and convey meaning. This model of game analysis works similarly to Espen Aarseth's theoretical framework of digital textual analysis involving the reading of texts as cybernetic systems.

Simulation versus representation
Frasca distinguishes between simulational and representational media, with videogames being part of the former and 'traditional' media being the latter. The key difference, he argues, is that simulations react to certain stimuli, such as configurative input data (button presses etc.), according to a set of conditions. Generally, representational media (he provides the example of a photograph) produce a fixed description of traits and sequences of events (narrative), and cannot be manipulated. He places emphasis on the importance of serious games, most notably the use of games for political purposes. Unlike traditional modes of storytelling, simulation is not binary by nature. According to Frasca, this has benefits when applied to the political propaganda simulation.

Simulation output is also discussed, with Frasca drawing attention to the argument that the sequence of signs produced by the film and the simulation look exactly the same. Frasca notes that what these commentators have failed to understand is that simulation cannot be understood solely through its output; the player's direct input is a fundamental part of simulation. This is reminiscent of Aarseth's work on user engagement in games and simulations. He argues that it is insufficient to "merely observe the audiovisual output from someone else's playing...", and that in order to fully understand an interactive digital text one must experience it first-hand.

Paidia and ludus
Frasca draws links to the game-type categorisations established by Roger Caillois in Man, Play and Games (1961). Specifically, he engages with concepts of ludus and paideia; that is, play and game, or the rule based structures of games. Frasca expands on Caillois' original definitions, and positions them in relation to narratology, ludology and contemporary games. According to Frasca, ludus is associated with more linear, narrative oriented with clearly defined goals and grounded in a set of rules. Paidia, while also based in a system of rules, is more abstract. Players are able to create their own goals within the game world in the style of emergent gameplay.

Drawing on his redefined concepts of padia and ludus, Frasca establishes varying levels in simulations which can be manipulated in order to convey ideology.

 * 1) Simulation shared with narrative and deals with representation and events. –  For example,  characteristics of objects, characters, etc. He notes that "a simple switching of character skins could turn Quake into a deathmatch between Israeli's and Palestinians...the rules of the game remain unchanged...only the characters and settings are modified. However, on an ideological level, this game completely differs from the original..."
 * 2) Manipulation of game rules. – What a player can do within a particular game model.  This relates directly to the concepts of paidia and emergence; modes of exploratory play. He notes the ideological differences between narratively guided actions and emergent, player-driven actions.
 * 3) Goal rules. – Aspects of gameplay which are a mandatory condition for 'winning'. This is in line with ludus' rule based structure.
 * 4) Meta rules – Modification of the game world. Open source, modding etc. Frasca uses the meta-rule simauthor as a point of contrast to the author of traditional narratives.

Influences and responses
While Frasca maintains the importance of play elements in games and simulation, he acknowledges the narratological paradigm should not be disregarded. He posits that it is necessary to understand the structure and elements of games, creating typologies and models for explaining game mechanics.

Since the establishment of ludology as a formal approach to reading games and simulation, numerous academics have framed their works within the ludic and narratological paradigm. However, unlike Frasca's work, scholarship has emerged which discounts the significance of the narrative. In ′Ludologists love stories, too: Notes from a debate that never took place′ (a response to misinterpretation of Frasca's position on ludology and narratology), Frasca cites Rune Klevjer's critical misunderstanding of ludic principles. Klevjer suggests that the ludologist deems anything other than pure game mechanics as essentially alien to the medium's true aesthetic form, and that games should shift toward a more abstract and play oriented models.

Frasca's ludic and narratological principles have also influenced scholarship on the cultural colonialisation of videogames. This area of study deems the common practice of framing games within filmic traditions as detrimental to game analysis, as games should "reject any intervention from other disciplines..." Furthermore, it is argued that cinema is a highly privileged medium due to the fact that it can be used to frame game analysis.

Other pro-ludic arguments have claimed that contemporary videogames are unable to effectively model player actions within the narrative. Particular areas of games studies suggest that games are unable to create a coherent ludonarrative. One of the most notable examples of this is Clint Hocking's blog post on ludonarrative dissonance. Such dissonance, according to Hocking, occurs when a game exhibits conflicting ideas expressed via narrative and gameplay means. Specifically, using the example of Irrational's Bioshock, he argues that the game's core theme of Randian self-interest (explored through the Little Sister mechanic, whereby the player has the choice to harvest a powerful substance known as ADAM from these NPCs or free them) is undermined by Jack's aiding of Atlas; a scripted and predetermined narrative sequence.

title: Gonzalo Frasca


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Baron Leigh

Baron Leigh has been created twice as a hereditary title, once in the Peerage of England and once in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The writer Jane Austen is associated with this dynasty.

The first creation came in the Peerage of England 1643 when Sir Thomas Leigh, 2nd Baronet, was created Baron Leigh, of Stoneleigh in the County of Warwick.

The Leigh Baronetcy, of Stoneleigh in the County of Warwick, had been created in 1611 for his grandfather and namesake Thomas Leigh Sr. The latter was the second son of Sir Thomas Leigh (d. 1571) and his wife Alice née Barker, an hieress of Sir Rowland Hill. Thomas Lee Sr. was Lord Mayor of London in 1558) and his third son Sir William Leigh was the grandfather of Francis Leigh, 1st Earl of Chichester.

The titles became extinct on the death of the fifth Baron Leigh in 1786.

The barony was revived in 1839 when the poet Chandos Leigh was created Baron Leigh, of Stoneleigh in the County of Warwick, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. He was a descendant of Rowland Leigh, eldest son of the aforementioned Sir Thomas Leigh (d. 1571), himself of a cadet branch of the ancient Leighs of West Hall, High Legh. Both Lord Leigh's son, the second Baron, and grandson, the third Baron, served as Lord Lieutenant of Warwickshire. The third Baron was succeeded by his nephew, the fourth Baron. the title is held by the latter's grandson, the sixth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2003.

Sir Edward Chandos Leigh, second son of the first Baron, was a cricketer and barrister. James Wentworth Leigh, third son of the first Baron, was Dean of Hereford. Gilbert Leigh, eldest son and heir of the second Baron, who sat as Member of Parliament for Warwickshire South predeceased his father. Theophilus Leigh, who belonged to a junior branch of the family, married Mary Brydges, sister of The 1st Duke of Chandos, and was the father of Thomas Leigh (died 1764): Thomas, in turn, was the father of Cassandra Leigh, mother of Jane Austen.

The family seat was Stoneleigh Abbey, near Kenilworth, Warwickshire. In 1960, a serious fire broke out at Stoneleigh Abbey and caused considerable damage to the fabric of the house. Some time thereafter the 4th Baron Leigh (1908-1979) transferred the ownership of Stoneleigh Abbey to a charitable trust. but members of the Leigh family continued to reside at Stoneleigh Abbey until 1990. The current family seat of the Barons Leigh is the Adlestrop Park Estate, near Moreton-in-Marsh, in the Gloucestershire Cotswolds. This estate was transferred by the 4th Baron Leigh to his eldest son and heir, the subsequent 5th Baron Leigh (1935-2003) in 1960, and remains in the ownership of the present 6th Baron Leigh (b.1960) and his family.

Leigh Baronets, of Stoneleigh (1611)

 * Sir Thomas Leigh, 1st Baronet (d. 1626)
 * Sir Thomas Leigh, 2nd Baronet (1595–1672) (created Baron Leigh in 1643)

Barons Leigh, First creation (1643)

 * Thomas Leigh, 1st Baron Leigh (1595–1672)
 * Thomas Leigh, 2nd Baron Leigh (1652–1710)
 * Edward Leigh, 3rd Baron Leigh (1684–1738)
 * Thomas Leigh, 4th Baron Leigh (1713–1749)
 * Edward Leigh, 5th Baron Leigh (1742–1786)

Barons Leigh, Second creation (1839)

 * Chandos Leigh, 1st Baron Leigh (1791–1850)
 * William Henry Leigh, 2nd Baron Leigh (1824–1905)
 * Gilbert Henry Chandos Leigh (1851–1884)
 * Francis Dudley Leigh, 3rd Baron Leigh (1855–1938)
 * Rupert William Dudley Leigh, 4th Baron Leigh (1908–1979)
 * John Piers Leigh, 5th Baron Leigh (1935–2003)
 * Christopher Dudley Piers Leigh, 6th Baron Leigh (b. 1960)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Rupert Dudley Leigh (b. 1994).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baron Leigh


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Gallery Project

Gallery or Menalto Gallery is an open-source project enabling management and publication of digital photographs and other media through a PHP-enabled web server. Photo manipulation includes automatic thumbnails, resizing, rotation, and flipping, among other things. Albums can be organized hierarchically and individually controlled by administrators or privileged users.

History
Gallery 3 is the current release of Gallery. It is a complete rewrite of Gallery 2 intended to be small, intuitive, fast, and easily customizable. Gallery 3.0 was released on October 5, 2010. Gallery 3.0.9 was released on June 28, 2013. Since 2017, Gallery 3 development has continued on GitHub. Support was transferred to the Gallery 3 Users Forum. On November 14, 2021, Gallery 3 version 3.1.5 was released to include support for PHP 8.

Gallery 2 was publicly released on September 13, 2005. Gallery 2.3.1 included support for PHP 5.3 and was released on December 17, 2009. Development of Gallery 2 ceased in 2012.

Gallery 1 was released in April 2001 and was developed for seven years, the last release being version 1.5.10 on November 21, 2008.

Gallery participated in the Google Summer of Code in 2006, 2007, and 2008. Gallery also participated in OpenUsability's Season of Usability in 2008 and 2009.

In 2003, Gallery was SourceForge's October Project of the Month.

Requirements
Gallery 3 Requires:
 * Apache version 2.2 or greater
 * MySQL 5.0 or greater
 * PHP 5.4 or greater

Controversy
In 2010, Gallery announced the use of some proprietary Adobe tools to build some components of Gallery 3 in Adobe Flash. Several users expressed great concern that proprietary software was being used in an open-source project and that Flash components were being included in an open-source package. A rebuttal to the controversy included a disclosure that Adobe Flash objects had previously been used for file uploading functionality in Gallery only seemed to further ignite the controversy. In 2019 Gallery 3.1.0 was released which replaced the Flash-based uploader with modern open source code.

Revival
In June 2013 the developers of Gallery 3 released version 3.0.9 code-named "Chartres" and in June 2014 announced that they would suspend further development of Gallery 3. The GPL license allowed for continued development by others or the creation of a fork of Gallery based on the existing code. In 2019 a group of long-time Gallery 3 users developed and released Gallery 3.1.1 to keep the program viable on servers running PHP 7 and 8 which also included additional technical and feature improvements. Version 3.1.5 of Gallery 3 was released on November 14, 2021.

title: Gallery Project


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Dugout

Dugout may refer to:
 * Dugout (shelter), an underground shelter
 * Dugout (boat), a logboat
 * Dugout (smoking), a marijuana container

Sports

 * In bat-and-ball sports, a dugout is one of two areas where players of the home or opposing teams sit when not at bat or in the field
 * Dugout (baseball), a covered shelter near the diamond
 * Dugout (cricket), an area at either end of the field
 * In association football, the technical area contains the dugouts

Music

 * Dug Out, the seventh album by the Japanese band The Blue Hearts

Places

 * Dugout, West Virginia, USA

title: Dugout


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Candelaria, Quezon

Candelaria, officially the Municipality of Candelaria, is a 1st class municipality in the province of Quezon, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 137,881 people.

It is the third most populous settlement of Quezon after Lucena City and Sariaya. Among the municipalities in Quezon Province, Candelaria has the most desiccated coconut factories and oil refineries, such as Peter Paul Philippine Corporation, Primex Coco Products Inc., Pacific Royal Basic Foods, SuperStar Corporation, Tongsan Industrial Development Corporation, and others, which employ thousands of people.

Foundation
Prior to 1885, the pioneering barangays of Candelaria in its western part, Taguan (Bukal), Kinatihan and Masin were parts of the Municipality of Tiaong, while Malabanban, Mangilag and Santa Catalina in the east, were under the jurisdiction of the town of Sariaya. Sr. Don Ciriaco Nadres, a local leader of Barangay Masinand his wife Sra. Doña Baltazara Bustamante, with the support of Don Simeon Nadres and wife Doña Everista Ona, Don Justo Argao, Don Elino de Gala, Don Apolinario Gonzales, Don Tomas Cabuñag, Don Ignacio de Ramos, Don Domingo de Alday, Don Tomas Regidor, Don Juan del Valle, Don Ambrocio Salazar, Don Buenaventura Cedeño and Don Hipolito Martinez, proposed the establishment of an independent government over these barangays. They became known as the founding families of the town. It was on December 26, 1878, that a permit was granted by the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands, Domingo Moriones y Murillo for the establishment of an independent government over these barangays. Its boundaries were fixed by means of a treaty signed by the notable leaders of Tiaong, Sariaya and the founding families of Candelaria.

King Alfonso XII of Spain finally approved the establishment of Candelaria as an independent town on August 5, 1879.

American Era and Japanese Occupation
In 1902, after the cessation of the general hostilities against the Americans, administration of Candelaria was merged with the neighboring town of Sariaya. In 1907, Candelaria was again managed independently, as a fourth-class municipality. During the American regime, the town progressed by leaps and bounds. Many houses and public edifices were constructed, and commerce and industries grew, until the Japanese invasion brought a further wave of destruction.

Geography
Candelaria lies at the western part of the province, 108 km from the nation's capital Manila, 22 km from the provincial capital Lucena, and 61 km from Batangas City. To its northern part lies the famous Mount Banahaw, to the east is Sariaya, to the south is San Juan, and to the west are Dolores and Tiaong. The neighboring cities are Lucena, Tayabas, San Pablo and Lipa City. It is traversed by the Pan Philippine Highway and the Philippine National Railways.

Candelaria has an area of about 12,910 ha and is an agricultural municipality, situated in the southern part of Mount Banahaw. The town proper is wedged by two rivers, namely, Masin and Quiapo rivers.

Barangays
Candelaria is politically subdivided into 25 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks and some have sitios.

Climate
There are two pronounced seasons in Candelaria: Dry and hot season from March to May, Wet season from June to December. Typhoons struck the municipality every three to five years. The most remarkable are Supertyphoon Angela (Rosing) in 1995, Typhoon Xangsane (Milenyo) in 2006, and Typhoon Rammasun (Glenda) in 2014.

Normal temperatures in Candelaria range from 20 C to 32 C. The temperatures became cooler in January with a range of about 18 C, while in April, the hottest month, may rise of up to 36 C.

Topography
Candelaria is more elevated in the northern part since it lies at the southern slope of Banahaw and is predominantly agricultural. There are plantations of coconut and vegetables in its remote barangays. Most of the inhabitants are having poultry and livestock business and in the remaining part of the municipality are farmlands mostly of rice, corn, and other root crops.

Demographics
Candelaria has a population of 117,434 as of the 2015 census. The increase in population became rapid in the 1990s, in 1995, it has a population of 80,733 inhabitants, while in 2000, the population grew to 92,429, with an increase of about 15 percent.

In 2007, the official number of inhabitants in the municipality based on 2007 census is 105,997, or about 4,240 families or 21,243 households. Most Candelarians reside in Pahinga Norte and Malabanban Norte, the adjacent barangays of the town proper.

As of 2007, almost 93 percent of the population are Roman Catholics, 3.5 percent are Protestants, about 3 percent are members of Iglesia ni Cristo, 0.05 percent are of Islam, 0.97 percent are of other denominations such as Church of Christ / Christian Churches, Pentecostalists, Baptists, Latter Day Saints, Seventh-day Adventist, Jehovah's Witnesses and others.

Language
Tagalog is widely spoken by the populace. However, their accent resembles the Tagalog dialect spoken in Batangas owing to its location, and history. Most of Candelarians came from the neighboring province of Batangas.

Economy
Candelaria is one of the most progressive municipalities in Quezon Province. Rapid progress have been felt since the 1990s where most of the commercial establishments have been built such as retail merchandising, supermarkets, hardware, fastfood outlets or restaurants, shopping mall, and others. The Candelaria Public Market, though it is adjacent to Barangay Poblacion, is located on Barangay Pahinga Norte.

In 2024, there is a total inventory of 812 registered establishments. Most are in retail trade, wholesale, and real estate leasing.

In agriculture, coconut is the most dominant crop of the municipality covering 5,243.50 hectares or 30% of the town's land area. In terms of livestock production, many locals raised poultry by 73.30% from the overall animal population.

Candle Festival
The town fiesta is celebrated on February 5 to honor the patron saint San Pedro Bautista. Since 2017, Rev. Msgr. Melecio Verastigue, started a dance to honor San Pedro Bautista. It is called INDAK PUGAY. A dance to honor the martyrdom of the patron saint, San Pedro Bautista.

Since 2005, Monsignor Carlos (Charles) Pedro A. Herrera, the parish priest, started his devotion to Nuestra Senora de Candelaria and honored her with a Candle Festival every February 2. The celebration was concluded with a procession through the streets of the town featuring the street dancing by the youth of the community in honor of the Blessed Virgin. A parade of floats representing each of the 25 barangays was, also, featured during the festivities.

A project in honor of the Blessed Mother Mary that will renovate the patio of the San Pedro Bautista Parish Church had been developed on April 22, 2012. The renovated patio will convert the current parking lot into a multi-purpose open amphitheater for use of the people of Candelaria. It will provide a venue for children and toddlers playground, jogging/walking path, a rosary garden, a via Dolorosa, and a stage for performances complete with controlled theater lighting. The playground will be lit with lighting standards. The fundraising for the project will be accomplished through a 1000 Points of Light campaign where each point of light will be represented by a Candelarian or friends of Candelaria contributing Php5000 or more. Inauguration is scheduled for February 2, 2013, CANDLE FESTIVAL celebration. Ground breaking is targeted for August 4, 2012, ARAW NG CANDELARIA. The community project is expecting every Candelarians around the world to step up and bring their "POINT OF LIGHT". The SPBPC parish council for economic affairs is taking the lead with Dr. Al Cornejo at the helm.

Elected officials
Municipal council (2022-2025):
 * Mayor: George D. Suayan (NPC)
 * Vice Mayor: Macario D. Boongaling (NPC)
 * Councilors:
 * Aileen M. Dellosa (NPC)
 * Julius D. Maniebo (NPC)
 * Lydelle M. Dizon (Aksyon Demokratiko)
 * Rodante A. Padillo (NPC)
 * Darren P. de Gala (NPC)
 * Anatalia R. Atienza (Aksyon Demokratiko)
 * Ma. Lourdes Bernadette G. Liwanag (NPC)
 * Numeriano S. Briones (NPC)
 * ABC President: Estelito A. Sulit
 * SK Federation President: Ann Ivy Nicole B. Cuadro

Former heads and mayors (1879–2022)

 * Don Simeon Nadres, 1879–1883
 * Don Clemente Nadres, 1883–1887
 * Don Tomas Cabunag, 1887–1891
 * Don Apolinario Gonzales, 1891–1895
 * Don Pedro de Gala, 1895–1898
 * Don Benigno Nadres, 1898–1900
 * Don Elino de Gala, 1900–1902
 * Don Herminigildo Nadres, 1908–1912, 1919–1921
 * Don Juan Javier, 1912–1916
 * Don Generoso de Gala, 1916–1918
 * Don Gregorio Remata, 1918–1919
 * Don Francisco Fernandez, 1921–1922
 * Don Mansueto Javier, 1922–1925
 * Don David Reyroso, 1925–1928
 * Don Emilio de Gala, 1928–1931
 * Dr. Generoso Nadres Sr., 1931–1934
 * Dr. Vicente Macasaet, 1934–1937
 * Pastor Javier, 1937–1941, 1943–1944, 1945–1946
 * Juan Ramos, 1941
 * Francisco Malabanan, 1941–1943
 * Cresenciano de Gala, 1944–1945
 * Felix Ona, 1946–1947, 1955–1959
 * Eligio Manalo, 1947–1955
 * Venancio Dia, 1959–1967
 * Cipriano Maliwanag, 1967–1978
 * Pedro Cedeno, 1978–1986
 * David Emralino, 1986–1998, 2001–2007
 * Isidro de Gala, 1998–2001
 * Ferdinand Maliwanag, 1998, 2007-2016
 * Macario Boongaling, 2016-2022
 * George Suayan, 2022–present

Road network
There are three major highways that pass throughout the municipality and the town proper. The South Luzon Expressway Toll Road 4 (TR4) stretching from Santo Tomas, Batangas to Lucena City will pass in the northern part of the municipality, planned to be finished in 2021. The new expressway will occupy portions of Barangays Bukal Norte, Masalukot II, Masalukot I, Mayabobo, and Mangilag Norte.

 * The Pan-Philippine Highway (also known as Maharlika Highway or National Highway), passes through the municipality west–east from Barangay Bukal Sur to Barangay Mangilag Sur. It connects the municipality to its neighboring towns of Tiaong and Sariaya, and cities like San Pablo City in Laguna and Lucena City, the provincial capital.
 * Rizal Street is the two-lane main road and segment of the Pan-Philippine Highway in Barangay Poblacion. It connects Barangay Masin Norte and Sur in the west and Malabanban Norte in the east. Some landmarks located here are the Municipal Hall, Catholic Church, and Plaza Narra.
 * The Candelaria–San Juan Road (also known as Candelaria-Bolboc Road) is a 16 km two-lane highway that starts at the Pan Philippine Highway junction in Barangay Malabanban Norte going straight south to the municipality of San Juan, Batangas. This is an alternative road for commuters from Metro Manila via Batangas.
 * The Candelaria Bypass Road (also known as Candelaria Diversion Road) is a two-lane bypass road that serves as an alternative road for commuters from Metro Manila to Batangas and Bicol Region. Opened in 2012, this 7.8 km road bypasses Poblacion.

There are also major roads within the municipality.
 * Cabunag Street also in Barangay Poblacion is the municipality's main business district. Most of business establishments such as hardware stores like Licup Builders the oldest hardware store in town, RTWs, pharmacies, footwear, general merchandise, and restaurants are located here. It also serves as a thoroughfare for local commuters going to nearby barangays such as Pahinga Norte and Masalukot I.
 * Ramos Street-Masalukot Barangay Road is a road that starts at Maharlika Highway in Barangay Poblacion and ends at Barangay Masalukot III. This is also an access road to most of subdivisions located in Barangay Masalukot I such as School View Park Subdivision, Village of St. Jude (VSJ), Maria Cristina Village, St. Anthony Subdivision, Villa Macaria Country Homes, Clarisse Subdivision, Faustin Floraville, and others. There are also schools located along the road, such as Grabsum School Inc. and Dr. Panfilo Castro National High School Annex.
 * Tibanglan Road is a dirt road that serves as a main access to Barangay Mayabobo from Maharlika Highway in Barangay Malabanban Norte, in front of Iglesia ni Cristo Church.
 * Pahinga-Kinatihan Road is a barangay road that starts at Cabunag Street down south to Barangay Kinatihan II. It serves as an access road to Candelaria Bypass Road from the town proper. Some landmarks located along the road are Peter Paul Philippine Corporation, Pahinga Norte Elementary School, Cocoma, and Villa Katrina Subdivision. A junction located in Barangay Pahinga Norte right after the spillway across Quiapo River connects it towards Barangay Santa Catalina Norte.
 * Mangilag-Concepcion Road is a barangay road that starts at Maharlika Highway in Mangilag Sur and an access road to Barangays Mayabobo and Concepcion Banahaw in Sariaya, Quezon. Some landmarks found here are Dr. Panfilo Castro National High School, Mangilag Norte Elementary School, and Mount Mayabobo.

Public transport
Provincial buses to and from Metro Manila and Lucena City such as JAC Liner Inc., DLTBCo, JAM Liner, Dela Rosa Liner and Lucena Lines stop at the municipality's designated bus stops in Poblacion.

SUPREME, a bus plying Batangas City-Lucena City route and vice versa also passes through Candelaria (Sambat).

There are also jeepney terminals located in the town proper. For passengers going to Lucena City, the terminal is located at the intersection of Rizal Avenue corner Gonzales Street. For passengers going to San Pablo City, the terminal is located at the intersection of Rizal Avenue corner Del Valle Street. For passengers going to San Juan, Batangas, the terminal is located in Gonzales Street.

Tricycles are the most common mode of transportation in the municipality. There are many tricycle terminals in Barangay Poblacion, serving local commuters to the nearby barangays.

Water transport
Candelaria has no coastline and is one of the inland municipalities of Quezon, together with Dolores, Lucban, Sampaloc, San Antonio, Tayabas, and Tiaong. The seaport nearest to the municipality is Dalahican Port in Lucena City for passengers going to Marinduque, Masbate, and other island provinces. Dalahican Port is about 30 km from Candelaria. Among the international seaports in Luzon, Batangas Port in Batangas City is the nearest. It would take approximately two hours in a private vehicle to reach from Candelaria, passing through the municipalities of San Juan, Rosario, and Ibaan, Batangas.

Air transport
Candelaria has no airport, runway or any facility to accommodate air operations. The nearest airbase in the municipality is the San Fernando Airbase in Lipa City with a distance of about 32 km west of the municipality, while the nearest international airport is Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Metro Manila. It is formerly served by the Lucena Airport in Lucena that has been closed. For air travelers, you have to travel for more or less two hours to reach Metro Manila and a couple of minutes more for Ninoy Aquino International Airport in case of traffic obstructions.

Communications
Candelaria is served by General Telephone System, Inc. (GTSi) and Digitel Telecommunications (PLDT-Digitel) as the main telecommunication services providers. GTSi has started its operations in the municipality in 1981, making it the third municipality where it started its operation, the first two are Gumaca in 1977 and Atimonan in 1979.

Internet shops are commonly found in the town proper.

Healthcare
Candelaria has three hospitals: one public and two private.
 * Candelaria Municipal Hospital (known as Nursery, built in 1984) - located in Barangay Masin Norte.
 * Peter Paul Medical Center (formerly Peter Paul Hospital, built in 1948) - located in Regidor St., Barangay Poblacion.
 * United Candelaria Doctors Hospital (built in 2009) - located in Maharlika Highway near Candelaria Bypass Road, Barangay Mangilag Sur.

The Candelaria Municipal Hospital is built during the administration of then Mayor Pedro Cedeno in 1984. Peter Paul Medical Center is one of the pioneering hospitals of the municipality, established in 1948. United Candelaria Doctors Hospital is the newly built medical facility of Candelaria, opened in February 2009.

Each barangay has its own health center for free health services. More lying-in clinics are located throughout the municipality.

Pre-school

 * Brentley Montessori School
 * Brisbane Integrated School

Primary

 * Candelaria Elementary School Main
 * Candelaria Elementary School Annexes 1 and 2
 * Manuel Luis Quezon Elementary School (Cheng Hua Chinese School)
 * GRABSUM School, Inc. (School View)
 * Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation Candelaria, Inc.
 * Headstart Christian Learning Institute
 * Trinity Christian Academy
 * Buenavista East Elementary School
 * Buenavista West Elementary School
 * Bukal Norte Elementary School (Mayapyap Annex)
 * Bukal Norte Elementary School
 * Bukal Sur Elementary School
 * Kinatihan I Elementary School
 * Kinatihan II Elementary School
 * The Lady Mediatrix Institute Inc.
 * Malabanban Norte Elementary School
 * Malabanban Sur Elementary School
 * Mangilag Norte Elementary School
 * Mangilag Sur Elementary School
 * Masalukot I Elementary School
 * Masalukot II Elementary School
 * Masalukot III Elementary School
 * Masalukot IV Elementary School
 * Masalukot V Elementary School
 * Masin Elementary School
 * Mayabobo Elementary School
 * Newton Science School Inc.
 * Pahinga Norte Elementary School
 * Pahinga Sur Elementary School
 * San Andres Elementary School
 * San Isidro Elementary School
 * Santa Catalina Norte Elementary School
 * Santa Catalina Central School
 * SEACOMS (Village of St. Jude Subdivision)
 * Tayabas Western Academy
 * United Evangelical School of Candelaria, Quezon - (Formerly UCCP Pre-School)

Secondary

 * Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation Candelaria, Inc.
 * Newton Science School Inc.
 * GRABSUM School, Inc.
 * The Lady Mediatrix Institute, Inc.
 * Tayabas Western Academy
 * Santa Catalina National High School
 * Bukal Sur National High School
 * Dolores Macasaet National High School
 * Dr. Panfilo Castro National High School
 * Atty. Celso M. Reyes Integrated National High School (formerly known as DPCNHS Annex)

Tertiary

 * Manuel S. Enverga University Foundation (Candelaria Campus)
 * Tayabas Western Academy
 * Compskill Learning Academy
 * Chrisville Institute of Technology
 * GRABSUM School, Inc.

Notable personalities

 * Raimund Marasigan, rock musician of the band Eraserheads, Pedicab, Sandwich, Cambio, Project 1, Squid 9, and Gaijin
 * Ahtisa Manalo, Binibining Pilipinas International 2018 and Miss International 2018 1st Runner-Up
 * Cesar Bolaños, former Governor of Quezon and Member of Batasang Pambansa, 1984-1987
 * Edelissa Ramos, National Gawad Saka Awardee and Quezon Medalya ng Karangalan awardee
 * Rio Locsin, actress

title: Candelaria, Quezon


text:
Tonton Macoute

The Tonton Macoute (Tonton Makout)  or simply the Macoute,  was a Haitian paramilitary and secret police force created in 1959 by dictator François "Papa Doc" Duvalier. Haitians named this force after the Haitian mythological bogeyman, Tonton Macoute ("Uncle Gunnysack"), who kidnaps and punishes unruly children by snaring them in a gunny sack (macoute) before carrying them off to be consumed for breakfast. The Macoute were known for their brutality, state terrorism, and assassinations. In 1970, the militia was renamed the Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale (VSN, National Security Volunteers). Though formally disbanded in 1986, its members continued to terrorize the country.

History

After the July 1958 Haitian coup d'état attempt against President François Duvalier, he purged the army and law enforcement agencies in Haiti and executed numerous officers perceived to be a threat to his regime. To counteract such activity, he created a military force that bore several names. In 1959, his paramilitary force was called the Cagoulards ("Hooded Men"). They were renamed to Milice Civile (Civilian Militia) and, after 1962, Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale (Volunteers of the National Security, or VSN). They began to be called the Tonton Macoute when people started to disappear or were found killed for no apparent reason. This group answered to him only.

Duvalier authorized the Tontons Macoutes to commit systematic violence, terrorism, and human rights abuses to suppress political opposition. They were responsible for unknown numbers of murders and rapes in Haiti. Political opponents often disappeared overnight, or were sometimes attacked in broad daylight. Tontons Macoutes stoned and burned people alive. Many times they put the corpses of their victims on display, often hung in trees for everyone to see and take as warnings against opposition. Family members who tried to remove the bodies for proper burial often disappeared. Anyone who challenged the VSN risked assassination. Their unrestrained state terrorism was accompanied by corruption, extortion, and personal aggrandizement among the leadership. The victims of Tontons Macoutes could range from a woman in the poorest of neighborhoods who had previously supported an opposing politician to a businessman who refused to comply with extortion threats (ostensibly taken as donations for public works, but which were in fact the source of profit for corrupt officials and even President Duvalier). The Tontons Macoutes murdered between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians.

Luckner Cambronne led the Tontons Macoute throughout the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s. His cruelty earned him the nickname "Vampire of the Caribbean". He extorted blood plasma from locals for sale for his profit. Cambronne did this through his company "Hemocaribian"; he shipped five tons of plasma per month to US Labs. He also sold cadavers to medical schools after buying them from Haitian hospitals for $3 per corpse. When the Hospital could not supply bodies, he used local funeral homes.

In 1971, after Duvalier died, his widow Simone and son Jean-Claude "Baby Doc" Duvalier ordered Cambronne into exile. Cambronne moved to Miami, Florida, US, where he lived until his death in 2006.

When François Duvalier came to power in 1957, Vodou was becoming celebrated as authentic Haitian culture by intellectuals and the griots, after it had been dropped for years by those with education. The Tonton Macoute were strongly influenced by Vodou tradition and adopted denim uniforms resembling clothing like that of Azaka Medeh, the patron of farmers. They carried and used machetes in symbolic reference to Ogun, a great general in Vodou tradition.

Some of the most important members of the Tontons Macoute were Vodou leaders. This religious affiliation gave the Tontons Macoute a kind of unearthly authority in the eyes of the public. From their methods to their choice of clothes, Vodou always played an important role in the paramilitary's actions. The Tonton Macoutes wore straw hats, blue denim shirts and dark glasses, and were armed with machetes and guns. Both their allusions to the supernatural and their physical presentations were used to instill fear and respect among the common people, including any opposition actors. Their title of Tonton Macoute was embedded in Haitian lore of a bogeyman who took children away in his sack, or Makoute.

The Tontons Macoute were a ubiquitous presence at the polls in 1961, when Duvalier held a presidential referendum in which the official vote count was an "outrageous" and fraudulent 1,320,748 to 0, electing him to another term. They appeared in force again at the polls in 1964, when Duvalier held a constitutional referendum that declared him president for life.

Legacy
In 1985, the United States began to shut down funds to Haitian aid, cutting nearly a million dollars from it within a year. Nonetheless, the Baby Doc regime pushed forward and even had a national party for the Tontons Macoute. Tonton Macoute day was 29 July 1985 and amongst festivities, the group was bestowed new uniforms and was honored by all of Baby Doc's cabinet. In the exuberance, the Tonton Macoute went out into the streets and shot 27 people for the national party.

The lack of funds going to the Tonton Macoute was a result of those funds being intercepted by the Duvalier dynasty. It sometimes took nearly 80 percent of international aid to Haiti, but paid only 45 percent of the country's debts. This continued until the Tonton Macoute was left on its own when "Baby Doc" fled the country with an estimated $900 million.

The Tonton Macoute remained active even after the presidency of Baby Doc ended in 1986, at the height of the Anti-Duvalier protest movement. Massacres led by paramilitary groups spawned from the r-Macoutes continued during the following decade. The most feared paramilitary group during the 1990s was the Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti (FRAPH), which Toronto Star journalist Linda Diebel described as modern Tonton Macoutes, and not the legitimate political party it claimed to be.

Led by Emmanual Constant, FRAPH differed from the Tonton Macoute in its denial to submit to the will of a single authority and its cooperation with regular military forces. FRAPH extended its reach far outside that of the Haitian state and had offices present in New York City, Montreal and Miami until its disarmament and disbandment in 1994.

Representation in other media

 * The Comedians (1966) is a novel by Graham Greene about the struggle of a former hotel owner against the Tonton Macoute. It was adapted as a feature film starring Richard Burton, Elizabeth Taylor, Peter Ustinov and Alec Guinness.
 * Ton-Ton Macoute!, a 1970 album by Johnny Jenkins.
 * "Heaven Knows," a song by Robert Plant on his album Now and Zen, references the Tonton Macoute.
 * The Serpent and the Rainbow (1988), a horror film directed by Wes Craven, loosely based on the book of the same name, deals with Haitian Vodou and political repression under the Duvaliers.
 * The Dew Breaker (2004) is a novel by Edwidge Danticat that features the Tonton Macoute as important in the plot.
 * Prior to her solo career, Sinéad O'Connor sang in a band called Ton Ton Macoute.
 * The Tonton Macoute is also mentioned in season 1, episode 9 of the television series Dexter. In the episode, an ex-Cagoulard is recognized and killed by Miami-Dade police sergeant James Doakes, who was formerly stationed in Haiti as an Army Ranger.
 * Don Byron mentions the Tonton Macoute while describing Haitian immigrant Abner Louima's brutal interrogation by the NYC Police in his song "Morning 98 (Blinky)" from the 1998 album Nu Blaxploitation.
 * The track "Tonton Macoutes" appears on the 1987 album Coup d'État by Muslimgauze.
 * In the 2016 video game Mafia III, the New Bordeaux Haitian Mob is composed mainly of refugees who fled Haiti to escape from persecution by the Tonton Macoute.
 * In the television series The Thick of It, the character Malcolm Tucker jokes in response to why he enters a room without knocking that it is due to his "time with the Haitian death squads".
 * In NSV, the character Nasalis states that in 1974 he felt sympathetic towards the Haitian national football team, not being aware of Jean-Claude Duvalier at the time. The character Erik replied that the Tonton Macoute was already keeping an eye on him.
 * In Toni Morrison's essay, "The Habit of Art", she refers to the practice of the Tonton Macoute targeting those people who attempted to bury their loved ones who had been murdered and displayed by the paramilitary.
 * Shrunken Heads (film), features the character Aristide Sumatra, a voodoo priest and former member of the Tonton Macoute. He uses that background to train three shrunken heads to fight criminals.
 * In Shannon Mayer’s Forty-Proof series, the 4th installment (titled Midlife Ghost Hunter) uses a voodoo zombie army called the Tonton Macoutes as the main villain’s army. The story takes place in New Orleans, also a center of Vodou.
 * In the TV series Justified, Season 5 Episode 01, "A Murder of Crows", Raylan, the protagonist, mentions the Tonton Macoute while questioning a Haitian suspect. He says that the man's appearance and attitude suggests he had been a member of the paramilitary.
 * In the TV series Two and a Half Men, Season 3 Episode 17: "The Unfortunate Little Schnauzer", Archie Baldwin makes a reference to Tonton Macoute in his UN jingle for orphaned children.
 * Roxane Gay's short story "A Cool, Dry Place" (in ayiti Creole language) features characters who recall losing their parents to the Tonton Macoute.

title: Tonton Macoute


text:
User talk:66.20.28.21

Proposed deletion of Grands Caids

The article Grands Caids has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * This stub article has been there since May 2005. It is an orphan, has hardly any content, and has never cited any source.

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Proposed deletion of One True

The article One True has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "The coverage (references, external links, etc.) does not seem sufficient to justify this article passing General notability guideline and the more detailed Notability (fiction) requirement. WP:BEFORE did not reveal any significant English-language coverage on Gnews, Gbooks or Gscholar. If you disagree and deprod this, please explain how it meets them on the talk page here in the form of 'This article meets criteria A and B because...' and ping me back through WP:ECHO or by leaving a note at User talk:Piotrus. Thank you."

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Nomination of List of religious ideas in science fiction for deletion
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Nomination of Political ideas in science fiction for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article Political ideas in science fiction is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/Political ideas in science fiction until a consensus is reached, and anyone, including you, is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article until the discussion has finished. Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus| reply here 02:03, 10 March 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:66.20.28.21


text:
Talk:Interpreter (communication)

Isnt this more of a dictionary entry really - unsuitable for wikipedia? Ludraman, 2220, 26/02/04

I suggest the article renamed to Interpreter (natural language) or Interpreter (human language), because there are interpreters for sign languages as well and I don't see a reason to write separate articles for them. Maybe (human language) is better, because interpreting could also be done between constructed languages. --Farside 11:52, 7 Jul 2004 (UTC)
 * Ok, no objections for a month so now moved to Interpreter (communication) - it excludes computer languages but includes all languages and methods used for communication. --Farside 17:32, 8 Aug 2004 (UTC)

There seems to be no need for this entry - shouldn't we move it to the interpreting article, which is in any way dry and rather sparse? Perhaps the focus should be on adding to that.Tomes 14:35, 16 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Merge this article with interpreting. Provide a redirect so that it can be found by people who look up "interpreter" or "interpreters".  This article by itself seems to provide no additional useful information. The Bearded One 17:39, 8 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Merge this article with interpreting. — Grstain 01:03, 9 January 2006 (UTC)

While people are certainly free to merge this, I would also suggest maybe just marking this as a stub. Why? Because I can think of a number of things that could be added, such as the methods and requirements to become an intrepreter in various nations or organizations (for instance, the prerequisites for becoming an interpreter for the White House vs. for the United Nations), the average pay scales in different nations and organizations, famous interpreters (I'm sure there's a few), cases in history in which proper or improper interpretation may have dramatically changed the course of events, as well as information about unions and organizations for interpreters across the globe. However, I haven't checked out the interpreting article yet, and since the terms are so closely linked, maybe it IS best to redirect there, and include all of that kind of information in the interpreting article. 63.21.32.46 07:10, 4 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Interpreter (communication)


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Baron Londesborough

Baron Londesborough, of Londesborough in the East Riding of the County of York, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1850 for the diplomat and Whig politician Lord Albert Denison. He was the third son of Henry Conyngham, 1st Marquess Conyngham, and his wife Elizabeth Denison. Born Albert Denison Conyngham, he assumed by royal licence the surname of Denison in lieu of Conyngham in 1849 on inheriting the vast fortune of his maternal uncle William Joseph Denison (1770–1849). Before his elevation to the peerage, Denison had represented Canterbury in Parliament. His eldest son, the second Baron, sat as a Liberal Member of Parliament for Beverley and Scarborough. In 1887 he was created Viscount Raincliffe, of Raincliffe in the North Riding of the County of York, and Earl of Londesborough, in the County of York. These titles were also in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. However, the viscountcy and earldom became extinct on the death of his grandson, the fourth Earl, in 1937.

The barony was inherited by the late Earl's second cousin once removed, the sixth Baron. He was the son of Rear-Admiral the Hon. Albert Denison, second son of the first Baron. On his death this line of the family failed, and the title passed to his first cousin, the seventh Baron. He was the only son of Commander the Hon. Conyngham Albert Denison, fourth son of the first Baron. When he died this line of the family also failed. He was succeeded by his first cousin, the eighth Baron. He was the only son of the Hon. Harold Albert Denison, fifth son of the first Baron. , the title is held by his only son, the ninth Baron, who succeeded in 1968. As a male-line descendant of the first Marquess Conyngham, he is also in remainder to this peerage and its subsidiary titles.

Baron Londesborough (1850)

 * Albert Denison Denison, 1st Baron Londesborough (1805–1860)
 * William Henry Forester Denison, 2nd Baron Londesborough (1834–1900) (created Earl of Londesborough in 1887)

Earl of Londesborough (1887)

 * William Henry Forester Denison, 1st Earl of Londesborough (1834–1900).
 * William Francis Henry Denison, 2nd Earl of Londesborough (1864–1917). Married Grace Augusta Fane, daughter of the 12th Earl of Westmorland on 11 August 1887. Father of Irene Mountbatten, Marchioness of Carisbrooke.
 * George Francis William Henry Denison, 3rd Earl of Londesborough (1892 –1920 ).
 * Hugo William Cecil Denison, 4th Earl of Londesborough (1894–1937). Married Marigold Lubbock, daughter of Edgar Lubbock, brewer and banker, in 1935.

Baron Londesborough (1850; reverted)

 * Captain Ernest William Denison,, 6th Baron Londesborough (1876–1963).
 * Captain Conyngham Charles Denison,, 7th Baron Londesborough (1885–1967).
 * John Albert Lister Denison, 8th Baron Londesborough (1901–1968 ).
 * Richard John Denison, 9th Baron Londesborough (born 1959). Elected to the House of Lords in 2021.

The heir apparent and sole heir to the barony is the present holder's only son, Hon. James Frederick Denison (born 1990).

title: Baron Londesborough


text:
Dugout canoe

A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed-out tree. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. Monoxylon (μονόξυλον) (pl: monoxyla) is Greek – mono- (single) + ξύλον xylon (tree) – and is mostly used in classic Greek texts. In German, they are called Einbaum ("one tree" in English). Some, but not all, pirogues are also constructed in this manner.

Dugouts are the oldest boat type archaeologists have found, dating back about 8,000 years to the Neolithic Stone Age. This is probably because they are made of massive pieces of wood, which tend to preserve better than others, such as bark canoes.

Construction

Construction of a dugout begins with the selection of a log of suitable dimensions. Sufficient wood must be removed to make the vessel relatively light in weight and buoyant, yet still strong enough to support the crew and cargo. Specific types of wood were often preferred based on their strength, durability, and density. The shape of the boat is then fashioned to minimize drag, with sharp ends at the bow and stern.

First, the bark is removed from the exterior. Before the appearance of metal tools, dugouts were hollowed out using controlled fires. The burnt wood was then removed using an adze. Another method using tools is to chop out parallel notches across the interior span of the wood, then split out and remove the wood from between the notches. Once hollowed out, the interior was dressed and smoothed out with a knife or adze.

More primitive designs keep the tree's original dimensions, with a round bottom. However, it is possible to carefully steam the sides of the hollow log until they are pliable, then bend to create a more flat-bottomed "boat" shape with a wider beam in the centre.

For travel in the rougher waters of the ocean, dugouts can be fitted with outriggers. One or two smaller logs are mounted parallel to the main hull by long poles. In the case of two outriggers, one is mounted on either side of the hull.

Africa
The Dufuna canoe from Nigeria is an 8000-year-old dugout, the oldest boat discovered in Africa, and is, by varying accounts, the second or third-oldest ship worldwide. The well-watered tropical rainforest and woodland regions of sub-Saharan Africa provide both the waterways and the trees for dugout canoes, which are commonplace from the Limpopo River basin in the south through East and Central Africa and across to West Africa. African teak is the timber favoured for their construction, though this comprises a number of different species, and is in short supply in some areas. Dugouts are paddled across deep lakes and rivers or punted through channels in swamps (see makoro or mtumbwi) or in shallow areas, and are used for transport, fishing, and hunting, including, in the past, the very dangerous hunting of hippopotamus. Dugouts are called pirogues in Francophone areas of Africa.

A Nok sculpture portrays two individuals, along with their goods, in a dugout canoe. Both of the anthropomorphic figures in the watercraft are paddling. The Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe may indicate that Nok people utilized dugout canoes to transport cargo, along tributaries (e.g., Gurara River) of the Niger River, and exchanged them in a regional trade network. The Nok terracotta depiction of a figure with a seashell on its head may indicate that the span of these riverine trade routes may have extended to the Atlantic Coast. In the maritime history of Africa, there is the earlier Dufuna canoe, which was constructed approximately 8000 years ago in the northern region of Nigeria; as the second earliest form of water vessel known in Sub-Saharan Africa, the Nok terracotta depiction of a dugout canoe was created in the central region of Nigeria during the first millennium BCE.

The engineering and methodology (e.g., cultural valuations, use of iron tools) used in the construction of West African dugout canoes (e.g., rounded point sterns and pointed bows with 15° - 50° angle above water surface, increased stability via partly rounded or flat base, v-shaped hull, shallow draft for sailing water depths less than one foot, occasionally spanning more than one hundred feet in length) contributed to the capability of the canoes to be able to persist and navigate throughout the interconnected river system that connected the Benue River, Gambia River, Niger River, and Senegal River as well as Lake Chad; this river system connected diverse sources of water (e.g., lakes, rivers, seas, streams) and ecological zones (e.g., Sahara, Sahel, Savanna), and allowed for the transport of people, information, and economic goods along riverine trade networks that connect various locations (e.g., Bamako, Djenne, Gao, Mopti, Segou, Timbuktu) throughout West Africa and North Africa. The knowledge and understanding (e.g., hydrography, marine geography, how canoe navigation is affected by the depth of the water, tides in the ocean, currents, and winds) of West African canoers facilitated the skillful navigation of various channels of the regional river system, while engaging in activities such as trade and fishing. The construction schema for West African dugout canoes were also used among canoes in the Americas constructed by the African diaspora. The sacredness of canoe-making is expressed in a proverb from Senegambia: “The blood of kings and the tears of the canoe-maker are sacred things which must not touch the ground.” In addition to possessing economic value, West African dugout canoes also possessed a sociocultural and psychospiritual value.

In 1735 CE, John Atkins observed: “Canoos are what used through the whole Coast for transporting Men and Goods.” European rowboats, which frequently capsized, were able to be outmaneuvered and outperformed in terms of speed by West African dugout canoes. Barbot stated, regarding West African canoers and West African dugout canoes, the “speed with which these people generally make these boats travel is beyond belief.” Alvise da Cadamosto also observed how “effortlessly” Portuguese caravels were outperformed by Gambian dugout canoes. The skill of Kru canoers to be able to navigate the challenging conditions of the sea was also observed by Charles Thomas.

Amid the 1590s CE, Komenda and Takoradi in Ghana served as production areas for dugout canoes made by the Ahanta people. By 1679 CE, Barbot observed Takoradi to be “a major canoe-producing center, crafting dugouts capable of carrying up to eight tons.” Between the 17th century CE and 18th century CE, a production area and/or marketplace of dugout canoes was in Shama, which later became only a marketplace on Supome Island. Amid the 1660s CE, in addition to other local canoers manufacturing dugout canoes, the Fetu people were observed by Muller as having bought dugout canoes that were made by the Ahanta people.

West Africans (e.g., Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal) and western Central Africans (e.g., Cameroon) independently developed the skill of surfing. Amid the 1640s CE, Michael Hemmersam provided an account of surfing in the Gold Coast: “the parents ‘tie their children to boards and throw them into the water.’” In 1679 CE, Barbot provided an account of surfing among Elmina children in Ghana: “children at Elmina learned “to swim, on bits of boards, or small bundles of rushes, fasten’d under their stomachs, which is a good diversion to the spectators.” James Alexander provided an account of surfing in Accra, Ghana in 1834 CE: “From the beach, meanwhile, might be seen boys swimming into the sea, with light boards under their stomachs. They waited for a surf; and came rolling like a cloud on top of it. But I was told that sharks occasionally dart in behind the rocks and ‘yam’ them.” Thomas Hutchinson provided an account of surfing in southern Cameroon in 1861: “Fishermen rode small dugouts ‘no more than six feet in length, fourteen to sixteen inches in width, and from four to six inches in depth.’”

Asia

An 8000-year-old dugout canoe was found by archaeologists in Kuahuqiao, Zhejiang Province, in east China. This is the earliest canoe found in Asia.

The Moken, an ethnic group that lives in Myanmar's Mergui Archipelago and the north of Thailand as sea nomads, still builds and uses dugout canoes. According to the Moken's accounts of their people's origin, a mythical queen punished the forbidden love of their ancestral forefather for his sister-in-law by banishing him and his descendants to life on sea in dugout canoes with indentations fore and aft ("a mouth that eats and a rear that defecates"), symbolizing the unending cycle of ingestion, digestion and evacuation.

A centuries-old unfinished dugout boat, a big banca (five tons, measuring 12 m by 2 m by 1.5 m) was accidentally retrieved on November, 2010 by Mayor Ricardo Revita at Barangay Casanicolasan, Rosales, Pangasinan, Philippines, in Lagasit River, near Agno River. It is now on display in front of the Municipal Town Hall.

Dugout canoes are one of the most used traditional fishing vessels in India. Forest Department at Kolleru Lake held various contests with the dugout canoe among local fishing communities. In an era where the traditional canoe faces extinction, the boat race saw 22 participants. They also noted that within two decades, there were over 1,000 dugout canoes employed for fishing in the lake. Now, their count has dwindled to less than a hundred.

Europe

In ancient Europe many dugouts were made from linden wood, for several reasons. First, linden trees were abundant in the Paleolithic after the melting of the Weichselian glaciation and readily available. Secondly, linden grew to be one of the tallest trees in the forests of the time, making it easier to build longer boats. Linden wood also lends itself well to carving and doesn't split or crack easily. It is also lighter than most other tree types in European old-growth forests, and for this reason, boats made from linden wood have a better cargo capacity and are easier to carry.

The Pesse canoe, found in the Netherlands, is a dugout which is believed to be the world's oldest boat, carbon dated to between 8040 BCE and 7510 BCE. Other dugouts discovered in the Netherlands include two in the province of North Holland: in 2003, near Uitgeest, dated at 617-600 BC; and in 2007, near Den Oever, dated at 3300-3000 BC.

Dugouts have also been found in Germany. In German, the craft is known as Einbaum (one-tree). In the old Hanseatic town of Stralsund, three log-boats were excavated in 2002. Two of the boats were around 7,000 years old and are the oldest boats found in the Baltic area. The third boat (6,000 years old) was 12 m long and holds the record as the longest dugout in the region. The finds have partly deteriorated due to poor storage conditions.

In 1991, remains of a linden wood log-boat of nearly 6 m were found at Männedorf-Strandbad in Switzerland at Lake Zürich. The boat has since been dated to be 6,500 years old.

In 1902 an oak logboat over 15 m long and 1 m wide, was found at Addergoole Bog, Lurgan, County Galway, Ireland, and delivered to the National Museum of Ireland. The Lurgan boat radiocarbon date was 3940 +/- 25 BP. The boat has holes suggesting that it had an outrigger or was joined to another boat.

In 2012, at Parc Glyndwr, Monmouth, Monmouthshire, Wales, UK, an excavation by the Monmouth Archeological Society, revealed three ditches suggesting a Neolithic dugout trimaran of similar length to the Lurgan log boat, carbon dated to 3700+/-35 BP.

De Administrando Imperio details how the Slavs built monoxyla that they sold to Rus' in Kiev. These boats were then used against the Byzantine Empire during the Rus'–Byzantine Wars of the 9th and 10th centuries. They used dugouts to attack Constantinople and to withdraw into their lands with bewildering speed and mobility. Hence, the name of Δρομίται ("people on the run") applied to the Rus in some Byzantine sources. The monoxyla were often accompanied by larger galleys, that served as command and control centres. Each Slavic dugout could hold from 40 to 70 warriors.

The Cossacks of the Zaporozhian Host were also renowned for their artful use of dugouts, which issued from the Dnieper to raid the shores of the Black Sea in the 16th and 17th centuries. Using small, shallow-draft, and highly maneuverable galleys known as chaiky, they moved swiftly across the Black Sea. According to the Cossacks' own records, these vessels, carrying a 50 to 70 man crew, could reach the coast of Anatolia from the mouth of the Dnieper River in forty hours.

More than 40 pre-historic log-boats have been found in the Czech Republic. The latest discovery was in 1999 of a 10 m long log-boat in Mohelnice. It was cut out of a single oak log and has a width of 1.05 m. The log-boat has been dated to around 1000 BC and is kept at the Mohelnice Museum (Museum of National History). Geographically, Czech log-boat sites and remains are clustered along the Elbe and Morava rivers.

Poland is known for so-called Lewin-type log-boats, found at Lewin Brzeski, Koźle and Roszowicki Las accordingly, and associated with the Przeworsk culture in the early centuries CE. Lewin logboats are characterized by a square or trapezoidal cross-section, rectangular hull-ends and low height of the sides in relation to vessel length. In addition, nearly all the Lewin-type boats have a single hole in the bow and two at the stern. The low height is a result of the parent log being split lengthwise in half, in order to obtain two identical timbers from a single trunk. The advantage lies in the resulting identical twin hulls, which are then joined to form a double-hulled raft. The paired hulls were joined by transverse poles, which did not go through the holes in the platform ends but were fastened to the top walls or in special grooves at the hull ends. These vessels were typically 7 m–12 m in length, and the largest of them could carry up to 1.5 tons of cargo because of the special design.

Many pre-historic dugout boats have been found in Scandinavia. These boats were used for transport on calmer bodies of water, fishing and maybe occasionally for whaling and sealing. Dugouts require no metal parts, and were common amongst the Stone Age people in Northern Europe until large trees suitable for making this type of watercraft became scarce. Length was limited to the size of trees in the old-growth forests—up to 12 m in length. In Denmark in 2001, and some years prior to that, a few dugout canoes of linden wood, was unearthed in a large-scale archaeological excavation project in Egådalen, north of Aarhus. They have been carbon dated to the years 5210-4910 BCE and they are the oldest known boats in Northern Europe. In Scandinavia, later models increased freeboard (and seaworthiness) by lashing additional boards to the side of the dugout. Eventually, the dugout portion was reduced to a solid keel, and the lashed boards on the sides became a lapstrake hull.

In the United Kingdom, two log boats were discovered in Newport, Shropshire, and are now on display at Harper Adams University Newport. The Iron Age residents of Great Britain, were known to have used longboats for fishing and basic trade. In 1964, a logboat was uncovered in Poole Harbour, Dorset. The Poole Logboat dated to 300 BC, was large enough to accommodate 18 people and was constructed from a giant oak tree. It is currently located in the Poole Museum. An even older logboat (the Hanson log boat) was unearthed in 1998 in Shardlow south of Derby. It has been dated to the Bronze Ages around 1500 BCE and is now exhibited at Derby Museum and Art Gallery. There was another pre-historic boat at the same location, but it was buried in situ.

In Northern Europe, the tradition of making dugout canoes survived into the 20th and 21st centuries in Estonia, where seasonal floods in Soomaa, a 390 km2 wilderness area, make conventional means of transportation impossible. In recent decades, a new surge of interest in crafting dugouts (Estonian haabjas) has revitalized the ancient tradition. I December 2021 dugout boat culture of Estonia's Soomaa region was added to UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.

The Americas

Dugout canoes were constructed by indigenous people throughout the Americas, where suitable logs were available.

The Native Americans of the Pacific Northwest were and are still very skilled at crafting wood. Best known for totem poles up to 24 m tall, they also construct dugout canoes over 18 m long for everyday use and ceremonial purposes. In the state of Washington, dugout canoes are traditionally made from huge cedar logs (such as Pacific red cedar) for ocean travelers, while natives around smaller rivers use spruce logs. Cedar logs have a resilience in salt water much greater than spruce.

In 1978, Geordie Tocher and two companions sailed a dugout canoe (the Orenda II), based on Haida designs (but with sails), from Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada to Hawaii. The dugout was 40 ft long, made of Douglas fir, and weighed 3.5 ST. The mission was launched to add credibility to stories that the Haida had travelled to Hawaii in ancient times. Altogether, the group ventured some 7242 km after two months at sea.

Pacific Islands
The Pacific Ocean has been the nursery for many different forms of dugout sailing craft. They differ in their sail plan (i.e., crab-claw or half-crab-claw, Latin, or triangular), hull formats (single, double, catamaran or proa), the absence or presence of a beam (a bridge for a double hull). Hull shapes and end forms vary greatly. Masts can "be right or made of double spars." Hulls can be constructed by assembling boards or digging out tree trunks. Intended use (fish, war, sea voyage) and geographical features (beach, lagoon, reefs) are reflected in the design. Importantly, there is an important dividing line: some craft use a tacking rig; others "shunt" that is change tack "by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other." Tacking rigs are similar to those seen in most parts of the world, but shunting rigs change tack by reversing the sail from one end of the hull to the other and sailing in the opposite direction (the "Pushmi-pullyu" of the sailing world).

In the Pacific Islands, dugout canoes are very large, made from whole mature trees and fitted with outriggers for increased stability in the ocean, and were once used for long-distance travel.

New Zealand
The very large waka is used by Māori people, who came to New Zealand probably from East Polynesia in about 1280. Such vessels carried 40 to 80 warriors in calm sheltered coastal waters or rivers. It is believed that trans-ocean voyages were made in Polynesian catamarans and one hull, carbon-dated to about 1400, was found in New Zealand in 2011. In New Zealand smaller waka were made from a single log, often totara, because of its lightness, strength and resistance to rotting. Larger waka were made of about seven parts lashed together with flax rope. All waka are characterized by very low freeboard. In Hawaii, waa (canoes) are traditionally manufactured from the trunk of the koa tree. They typically carry a crew of six: one steersman and five paddlers.

Australasia
The Australian Aboriginal people began using dugout canoes from around 1640 in coastal regions of northern Australia. They were brought by Buginese fishers of sea cucumbers, known as trepangers, from Makassar in South Sulawesi. In Arnhem Land, dugout canoes are used by the local Yolngu people, called lipalipa or lippa-lippa.

Torres Strait Islander people used a double outrigger, unique to their area and probably introduced from Papuan communities and later modified. It was about 14 metres long, with two bamboo masts and sails made of pandanus-mat. They could sail as far as 80 km and carry up to 12 people.

Solomon Islanders
The Solomon Islanders have used and continue to use dugout canoes to travel between islands. In World War II these were used during the Japanese occupation - with their small visual and noise signatures these were among the smallest boats used by the Allied forces in World War II. After the sinking of PT-109, Biuku Gasa reached the shipwrecked John F. Kennedy by dugout.

title: Dugout canoe


text:
Talk:Folies Bergère

'In 1936, Derval brought'
That paragraph needs work. Otherwise nice job!

Who else notable performed at the Folies Bergères? Did Edith Piaf? Wondering, -- Infrogmation 22:20, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Can't say she never appeared there, but she was certainly more associated with the Comédie Française. We probably should put people more identified with the Folies here. -- Nunh-huh 22:33, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Those GPS coordinates
Does anyone know why "48°52′27″N, 2°20′42″E" is at the top of the page? --tess 19:06, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

 * I think it is the coordinates to Folies Bergère. I've made it look more like coordinates I've seen on other pages. --tess 20:13, 6 March 2007 (UTC)

On the name of "folies"
The idea that folie is from the Latin word for leaf is a historical fantasy. The relevant French word in that case is feuille. Folie has an entirely different etymology. See here

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/feuille

here

http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/folie

here —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.21.106.137 (talk) 11:38, 25 December 2009 (UTC)

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=folly

and here

http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fool.

Thank you. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.21.106.137 (talk) 11:32, 25 December 2009 (UTC)

External links modified
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Location
Why are you showing the location on a map of France, instead of a map of Paris? Valetude (talk) 23:37, 5 August 2018 (UTC)

On This Day
According to the On This Day for 1st May, the place actually opened on the 1st May, 1869.

Is it possibly for someone to double check this, and correct the relevant articles?

Thanks.

Cuddy2977 (talk) 16:47, 14 April 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Folies Bergère


text:
Lamport

Lamport may refer to:

Places

 * Lamport, Buckinghamshire, England, a former hamlet
 * Lamport, Northamptonshire, England, a village and civil parish

Other uses

 * Lamport (surname)
 * Lamport Hall, Lamport, Northamptonshire, a Grade I Listed House
 * Lamport railway station, Northamptonshire
 * Lamport Stadium, an arena in Toronto, Canada

title: Lamport


text:
Land Ordinance of 1785

The Land Ordinance of 1785 was adopted by the United States Congress of the Confederation on May 20, 1785. It set up a standardized system whereby settlers could purchase title to farmland in the undeveloped west. Congress at the time did not have the power to raise revenue by direct taxation, so land sales provided an important revenue stream. The Ordinance set up a survey system that eventually covered over three-quarters of the area of the continental United States.

The earlier Land Ordinance of 1784 was a resolution written by Thomas Jefferson calling for Congress to take action. The land west of the Appalachian Mountains, north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River was to be divided into ten separate states. However, the 1784 resolution did not define the mechanism by which the land would become states, or how the territories would be governed or settled before they became states. The Ordinance of 1785 put the 1784 resolution in operation by providing a mechanism for selling and settling the land, while the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 addressed political needs.

The 1785 ordinance laid the foundations of land policy until passage of the Homestead Act of 1862. The Land Ordinance established the basis for the Public Land Survey System. The initial surveying was performed by Thomas Hutchins. After he died in 1789, responsibility for surveying was transferred to the Surveyor General. Land was to be systematically surveyed into square townships, 6 mi on a side, each divided into thirty-six sections of 1 mi2 or 640 acre. These sections could then be subdivided for re-sale by settlers and land speculators.

The ordinance was also significant for establishing a mechanism for funding public education. Section 16 in each township was reserved for the maintenance of public schools. Many schools today are still located in section sixteen of their respective townships, although a great many of the school sections were sold to raise money for public education. In later States, section 36 of each township was also designated as a "school section".

The Point of Beginning for the 1785 survey was where Ohio (as the easternmost part of the Northwest Territory), Pennsylvania and Virginia (now West Virginia) met, on the north shore of the Ohio River near East Liverpool, Ohio. There is a historical marker just north of the site, at the state line where Ohio State Route 39 becomes Pennsylvania Route 68.

History
The Confederation Congress appointed a committee consisting of the following men:

 * Thomas Jefferson (Virginia)
 * Hugh Williamson (North Carolina)
 * David Howell (Rhode Island)
 * Elbridge Gerry (Massachusetts)
 * Jacob Read (South Carolina)

On May 7, 1784, the people reported "An ordinance for ascertaining the mode of locating and disposing of lands in the western territories, and for other purposes therein mentioned." The ordinance required the land be divided into "hundreds of ten geographical miles square, each mile containing 6086 and 4-10ths of a foot" and "sub-divided into lots of one mile square each, or 850 and 4-10ths of an acre", numbered starting in the northwest corner, proceeding from west to east, and east to west, consecutively. After debate and amendment, the ordinance was reported to Congress April 26, 1785. It required surveyors "to divide the said territory into townships seven miles square, by lines running due north and south, and others crossing these at right angles. —  The plats of the townships, respectively, shall be marked into sections of one mile square, or 640 acres." This is the first recorded use of the terms "township" and "section."

On May 3, 1785, William Grayson of Virginia made a motion seconded by James Monroe to change "seven miles square" to "six miles square." The ordinance was passed on May 20, 1785. The sections were to be numbered starting at 1 in the southeast and running south to north in each tier to 36 in the northwest. The surveys were to be performed under the direction of the Geographer of the United States (Thomas Hutchins). The Seven Ranges, the privately surveyed Symmes Purchase, and, with some modification, the privately surveyed Ohio Company of Associates, all of the Ohio Lands were the surveys completed with this section numbering.

The Act of May 18, 1796, provided for the appointment of a surveyor-general to replace the office of Geographer of the United States, and that "sections shall be numbered, respectively, beginning with number one in the northeast section, and proceeding west and east alternately, through the township, with progressive numbers till the thirty-sixth be completed." All subsequent surveys were completed with this boustrophedonical section numbering system, except the United States Military District of the Ohio Lands which had five mile (8 km) square townships as provided by the Act of June 1, 1796, and amended by the Act of March 1, 1800.

Howe and others give Thomas Hutchins credit for conceiving the rectangular system of lots of one square mile in 1764 while a captain in the Sixtieth, or, Royal American, Regiment, and engineer to the expedition under Col. Henry Bouquet to the forks of the Muskingum, in what is now Coshocton County, Ohio. It formed part of his plan for military colonies north of the Ohio, as a protection against Indians. The law of 1785 embraced most of the new system. Treat, on the other hand, notes that tiers of townships were familiar in New England, and insisted on by the New England legislators.

Public education
Support for public schooling was established in the Land Ordinance through school lands which granted Section 16 (one square mile) of every township to be used for public education: "There shall be reserved the Lot No. 16, of every township, for the maintenance of public schools within said township." Section 16 was located near the center of the township. (For states surveyed under the federal rectangular system, survey townships and civil townships usually have the same boundaries, but there are many exceptions.) Section 36 was also subsequently added as a school section in western states. The various states and counties ignored, altered or amended this provision in their own ways, but the general (intended) effect was a guarantee that local schools would have an income and that the community schoolhouses would be centrally located for all children.

The School Lands are part of the Ohio Lands, comprising land grants in Ohio from the United States federal government for public schools. According to the Official Ohio Lands Book, "by 1920, 73,155,075 acres of public land had been given by the federal government to the public land states in support of public schooling."

In the Land Ordinance of 1785 provision was also made by land grant for higher education (the College Lands).

Layout of townships
Each western township contained thirty-six square miles of land, planned as a square measuring six miles on each side, which was further subdivided into thirty six lots, each lot containing one square mile of land. The mathematical precision of the planning was the concerted effort of surveyors. Each township contained dedicated space for public education and other government uses, as five of the thirty six lots were reserved for government or public purposes. The thirty six lots of each township were numbered accordingly on each township's survey. The centermost land of each township corresponded to lot numbers 15, 16, 21 and 22 on the township survey, with lot number 16 dedicated specifically to public education. As the Land Ordinance of 1785 stated: "There shall be reserved the lot No. 16, of every township, for the maintenance of public schools within the said township."

Knepper notes: "Sections number 8, 11, 26, and 29 in every township were reserved for future sale by the federal government when, it was hoped, they would bring higher prices because of developed land around them. Congress also reserved one third part of all gold, silver, lead, and copper mines to its own use, a bit of wishful thinking as regards Ohio lands." The ordinance also said "That three townships adjacent to Lake Erie be reserved, to be hereafter disposed of by Congress, for the use of the officers, men, and others, refugees from Canada, and the refugees from Nova Scotia, who are or may be entitled to grants of land under resolutions of Congress now existing." This was not possible, as the area next to Lake Erie was property of Connecticut, so the Canadians had to wait until the establishment of the Refugee Tract in 1798.

Influence
Many historians recognize the influences of the colonial experience in the land ordinances of the 1780s. The committees that formulated these ordinances were inspired by the individual colonial experiences of the states that they represented. The committees attempted to implement the best practices of such states to solve the task at hand. The surveyed townships of the Land Ordinance of 1785, writes historian Jonathan Hughes, "represented an amalgam of the colonial experience and ideals." Two geographically and ideologically distinct colonial land systems were competing at such time in history – the New England system and the Southern system. While the primary influence on the Land Ordinance of 1785 was the New England land system of the colonial era, marked by its emphasis on community development and systematic planning, the exceedingly individualistic Southern land system also played a role.

Even though Jefferson's committee had a Southern majority, it recommended the New England survey system. The highly planned and surveyed western townships established in the Land Ordinance of 1785, were heavily influenced by the New England settlements of the colonial era, particularly the land grant provisions of the Ordinances which dedicated land towards public education and other government uses. In colonial times, New England settlements contained dedicated public space for schools and churches, which often held a central role in the community. For instance, the 1751 royal charter for Marlboro Vermont provides: "one Shear [share] for the First Settled Minister one Shear for the benefit of the School forever." By the time the Land Ordinance of 1785 was enacted, the New England states had used land grants for over a century to support public education and build new schools. The clause in the Land Ordinance of 1785 which dedicated "Lot Number 16" of each western township for public education reflected this regional New England experience.

In addition, the use of surveyors to precisely chart out the new townships in the westward expansion was directly influenced by the New England land system, which similarly relied on surveyors and local committees to clearly delineate property boundaries. Defined property boundary lines and an established land title system, provided colonials with a sense of security in their land ownership, by minimizing the likelihood of ownership or boundary disputes. This was an important consideration in the Land Ordinance of 1785. One of the primary purposes of the Ordinance was to raise funds for the increasingly insolvent government. Providing land speculators security in their purchases encouraged additional demand for the western lands. In addition, the organized and communal nature of the western settlements, allowed the government to reserve a number of well-defined plots of land for future government development. Since the rest of the township would have been developed by the time the government decided to develop such reserved lands, there was an already built-in assurance of land value appreciation for the reserved lands. This had the effect of increasing the value of government assets without much further investment by the government.

The New England land system, while the primary influence on the great land ordinances of the 1780s, was not the only land system influence. The Southern land system, marked by individualism and personal initiative, also helped shape the ordinance. While the New England land system was premised on community-based development, the Southern land system was premised on individual frontiersman appropriating undeveloped land to call their own. The Southern pioneer claimed property and the local surveyor would demarcate it for him. The system did not protect people from competing claims or set up an orderly chain of title. The process was called 'indiscriminate location". This system encouraged individuals to amass large plantations instead of settling into dense communal development. This system was supported by the use of slave labor. Perhaps the committee's resistance against indiscriminate location and support for limited and disciplined land settlement was an implicit attempt to create a structural barrier to developing a plantation economy that was dependent on slave labor. The committee could have been attempting to effectively eradicate slavery in the West after Jefferson failed to outlaw it in the Land Ordinance of 1784.

While the Land Ordinance of 1785 created a New England style land system, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 determined how the townships would be administered. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787, like the Land Ordinance of 1785, was inspired by the New England colonial settlements, and manifested this influence by further encouraging the worship of religion and the spread of education. The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 stated, "Religion, morality, and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall forever be encouraged." However, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also contained Southern characteristics of municipal governance. The Southern influence can be felt in the Western townships in that once the federal land was dedicated to the particular township, the township was relatively free of the influence of the federal government, and the local municipality was left to govern itself. This manifested itself in public education as well. Once the land was dedicated, the actual development of the public schools was the responsibility of the local township or the particular state. Although the great Ordinances of the 1780s set the framework for a national system of schools by dedicating land across the West, the devolved development and administration by the state and local government led to unique results.

Motives
Retaining central land in each township ensured that these lands would create value for the federal government and the safety of the people. Instead of disbursing funds to the new states to create public education systems, dedicating a central lot in each township provided the new townships with the means to develop educational institutions without any transfer of funds. This was a practical and necessary way to achieve the committee's goal in a pre-Constitution America. Aside from raising funds for a financially struggling government, the westward expansion outlined in the Land Ordinances of the 1780s also provided a framework for spreading democratic ideals. Jefferson proposed an article in the Ordinance that would have outlawed slavery in the new states after the year 1800. However he could not amass enough votes to pass the anti-slavery article. Later Jefferson did succeed, however, in ensuring public funding of education by dedicating land to education in the Land Ordinance of 1785. Public education was an ideal already developed in the New England colonial settlements. New Englanders provided for public education in their land grants due to a belief that public education could be used to further unite the young nation and spread democratic ideals.

The systematic and highly organized westward settlements, with their local governments and central square dedicated towards public education, were a concerted effort to inspire civic duty and participation in the democratic process. Usher relates this initiative to "the Supreme Court in Cooper v. Roberts (1855), 'plant in the heart of every community the same sentiments of grateful reverence for the wisdom, forecast, and magnanimous statesmanship of those who framed the institutions of these new States." The westward expansion therefore was not only a tool for raising much needed funds, but also a tool in a grand socializing experiment to inoculate the settlers to democratic ideals. The hope was that the unique planning of each township with a public school centrally located, coupled with the obligation of each township's local citizens to take part in the civic process of governing the township, teaching and building the schools, and maintaining order, would instill the democratic ideals crucial to the nation's success.

References and further reading

 * Johnson, Hildegard Binder. Order upon the Land: The U.S. Rectangular Land Survey and the Upper Mississippi Country (1977)
 * Geib, George W.. "The Land Ordinance of 1785: A Bicentennial Review," Indiana Magazine of History, March 1985, Vol. 81 Issue 1, pp 1–13
 * Johnson, Hildegard Binder. Order upon the Land: The U.S. Rectangular Land Survey and the Upper Mississippi Country (1977)
 * Geib, George W.. "The Land Ordinance of 1785: A Bicentennial Review," Indiana Magazine of History, March 1985, Vol. 81 Issue 1, pp 1–13
 * Johnson, Hildegard Binder. Order upon the Land: The U.S. Rectangular Land Survey and the Upper Mississippi Country (1977)
 * Geib, George W.. "The Land Ordinance of 1785: A Bicentennial Review," Indiana Magazine of History, March 1985, Vol. 81 Issue 1, pp 1–13
 * Johnson, Hildegard Binder. Order upon the Land: The U.S. Rectangular Land Survey and the Upper Mississippi Country (1977)
 * Geib, George W.. "The Land Ordinance of 1785: A Bicentennial Review," Indiana Magazine of History, March 1985, Vol. 81 Issue 1, pp 1–13

title: Land Ordinance of 1785


text:
Latin American wars of independence

The Latin American wars of independence may collectively refer to all of these anti-colonial military conflicts during the decolonization of Latin America around the early 19th century:
 * Spanish American wars of independence (1808-1833), multiple related conflicts that resulted in the independence of most of the Spanish Empire's American colonies
 * Brazilian War of Independence (1821-1824), which resulted in Brazil separating from the Portuguese Empire

title: Latin American wars of independence


text:
Jerzy Samp

Jerzy Samp (23 March 1951 in Gdańsk – 16 February 2015) was a Polish writer, publicist and historian of the literature and culture of Pomerania and especially of the Kashubian literature. He was also an activist in the Kashubian-Pomeranian Association (chairman of Gdańsk Branch 1986–1989, 1995–1998).

Born Gdańsk, Poland, he studied Polish philology in the University of Gdańsk graduating in 1975, received a doctorate in 1982, doctor habilitowany title in 1992 and the title of professor in 1995. Since 1975 he has worked in Gdańsk University in the department of the History of Literature and Culture of 19th and 20th century Pomerania. He was also a member of the Gdańsk Scientific Society (Gdańskie Towarzystwo Naukowe), the Folklore Commission of the Polish Literature Commission of the Polish Academy of Science (Polska Akademia Nauk), the Kashubian Institute (Instytut Kaszubski), and Polish Writers Associations (Stowarzyszenie Pisarzy Polskich).

Publications

 * Cyrografy (1977)
 * Smętek. Studium kreacji literackich (1984)
 * Baśniokrąg pomorski w pisarstwie Lecha Bądkowskiego (1984)
 * Motywy skandynawskie w tradycji, kulturze i piśmiennictwie kaszubsko-pomorskim (1988)
 * Poezja rodnej mowy (1985)
 * Zaklęta stegna. Bajki kaszubskie (1985)
 * Gdańsk w relacjach z podróży 1772–1918 (1991)
 * Z woli morza. Bałtyckie mitopeje
 * Gdańsk. Przewodnik po mieście (1991)
 * Orunia, Zabytkim historia, kultura (1992)
 * Wrzeszcz. Kościół na Czarnej (1992)
 * Legendy gdańskie. Baśnie, podania i przypowieści (1992)
 * Bedeker gdański (1994)
 * Uczta stulecia. Dawne i nowe legendy gdańskie (1994)
 * Przygoda Królewianki i inne bajki z Kaszub (1994)
 * Miasto czterdziestu bram. Gdańskie mitopeje (1996)

Awards

 * Medal Stolema (1985)

title: Jerzy Samp