text:
Jean-Pierre Kingsley

Jean-Pierre Kingsley (born July 12, 1943) is a Canadian civil servant and businessman who served as the president and CEO of the International Foundation for Electoral Systems (IFES). He was the chief electoral officer of Elections Canada before he stepped down in December 2006. On April 28, 2009, he announced his resignation as president of IFES. He was succeeded by Bill Sweeney.

Early life and career
He was born in Ottawa in 1943. He was educated at the Académie De La Salle and went on to earn a BCom and a master's degree in Hospital Administration from the University of Ottawa. Kingsley was named chief electoral officer in February 1990 by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney. Prior to serving in that position, he served as: He also served as chairman of the Board for Ottawa's Montfort Hospital from 1982 to 1990.
 * District manager for Travelers Insurance (1966-7)
 * Head of hospital administration at the Department of Veteran Affairs (1967–71)
 * Associate and then executive director of Edmonton's Charles Camsell Hospital (1971-3)
 * President and chief executive officer of the Ottawa General Hospital (1977–81)

Late career
He served as head of the international team observing the Iraqi legislative election in January, 2005

On December 28, 2006, Prime Minister Stephen Harper announced that Kingsley would step down effective February 17, 2007. His successor as chief electoral officer was Marc Mayrand. Prior to his resignation, Kingsley and the ruling Conservative party disagreed over whether fees paid to attend political conventions should be counted as political donations.

In 2007, Kingsley was awarded the Mexican Order of the Aztec Eagle, the highest award the Mexican government bestows on foreign nationals.

In November 2011, he observed the elections in Saint Lucia, as part of a Commonwealth assessment team constituted by the Commonwealth secretary-general.

As of November 2020, Kingsley serves as the chairman of the Executive Advisory Committee for Dominion Voting Systems.

title: Jean-Pierre Kingsley


text:
Tetricus I

Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus was a Gallo-Roman nobleman who ruled as emperor of the Gallic Empire from 271 to 274 AD. He was originally the praeses (provincial governor) of Gallia Aquitania and became emperor after the murder of Emperor Victorinus in 271, with the support of Victorinus's mother, Victoria. During his reign, he faced external pressure from Germanic raiders, who pillaged the eastern and northern parts of his empire, and the Roman Empire, from which the Gallic Empire had seceded. He also faced increasing internal pressure, which led him to declare his son, Tetricus II, caesar in 273 and possibly co-emperor in 274, although this is debated. The Roman emperor Aurelian invaded in 273 or 274, leading to the Battle of Châlons, at which Tetricus surrendered. Whether this capitulation was the result of a secret agreement between Tetricus and Aurelian or that surrender was necessary after his defeat is debated. Aurelian spared Tetricus, and made him a senator and the corrector (governor) of Lucania et Bruttium. Tetricus died of natural causes a few years after 274.

Historiography
The primary sources for the Gallic Empire are substandard. According to numismatist Jerome Mairat, the most reliable contemporary sources of the Gallic Empire, are Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, although they are brief and believed to rely upon the hypothetical lost Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte. Historians Nicholson and Casey second this, describing a key source of information as being "brief notices by late 4th-century Latin authors who depended for much of their information on the lost Kaisergeschichte (Enmann's History of the Emperors)". Mairat states that Zosimus and Zonaras both reveal key information regarding the Gallic Empire in short sentences, relying upon the mostly lost works of Dexippus; Nicholson and Casey state more specifically that another main source for Tetricus, in particular, is "scattered allusions" from Zomimus' first book. Nicholson and Casey further posit another source as being "information gleaned from the rather copious coinage minted by the Gallic emperors". Lastly, Mairat states that the imperial biographies of the semi-fictional Historia Augusta provide a wealth of details regarding the Gallic Empire, with Tetricus being listed as one of the "Thirty Tyrants" within; however, this work is generally unreliable, with Nicholson and Casey stating that it the biographies "interweave fact, invention, and an idiosyncratic sense of humour." For instance, the Historia Augusta states that Tetricus was recognized in Hispania, but modern historians have rejected this.

According to historian John F. Drinkwater, Victor and Eutropius, who form the traditionalist view, cast Tetricus as being a "civilian" rather than a "soldier-emperor", therefore arguing he was not prepared to rule during a time of emergency, explaining why he was originally posted to Gallic Aquitania during his time as governor, rather than the Rhine. Eutropius states that Tetricus had to suppress rebellion when he first became emperor, which Mairat identifies with the usurper Domitian II, noting that Zosimus provides only that he rose to power at the beginning of Aurelian's reign, without providing the area of his rule, but that two coins minted in his name that have been discovered were doubtlessly made in the Gallic mints between 269-274, with the specifics of the coin suggesting a dating of c. mid 271. Mairat then suggests that Domitian's usurpation may have been an uprising of the army, based in the same areas as the mint, against Tetricus due to his civilian origin. However, Drinkwater argues the possibility that this "civilian" tradition is influenced by Emperor Aurelian's propaganda and notes that Victoria put forth significant funds to see him made emperor to secure her own position and that Aquitania was a significant province, bordered on all sides by areas (Gallia Narbonensis and Hispania) which were threatened, or had recently been re-conquered by Rome. Drinkwater goes on to state that such a position "must have required considerable ability, both administrative and military", arguing that he proved himself an able commander against the Germans, and concluding that "The last Gallic emperor should not be dismissed as a lightweight".

Epigraphic sources also provide some information: however, the epigraphic habit (the use of monumental inscriptions for public display) of the Roman Empire was in decline during the period, and many are undated. Fourteen inscriptions bearing Tetricus' name have been found in Gaul, although these are broken into two regions by a vertical line of inscriptions bearing Aurelian's name, which were made after the surrender of Tetricus; no Tetrican inscriptions overlap with Aurelianic inscriptions. There are another five inscriptions bearing his name that have been discovered in Britannia.

Background
The Gallic Empire was a state composed of the Roman provinces which made up Britannia, Hispania, Gaul, and Roman Germania, which broke away from the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor Gallienus. Gallienus had become emperor after his father, Emperor Valerian, was captured by the Sassanids in 260. Gallienus's rule occurred during the Crisis of the Third Century (235–284), a period of intense political and military power struggles. Gallienus was overwhelmed by numerous issues, including several usurpers, as well as attacks in the Balkans and along the Rhine by various tribes. Hispania was also impacted, with raids from the Franks, with historian Lukas De Blois describing the raids against Hispania Baetica as "grievous",, and the city of Tarraco (modern-day Tarragona) being sacked in the 260s, As a result of the threat to the empire, certain governors were appointed as dux (leader) of an entire border line, including Postumus in 258-259. Because Gallienus was unable to prevent the raids, Postumus rose up and declared himself emperor; at about the same time, he assassinated Saloninus, Gallenius's son and co-emperor, in Colonia (modern-day Cologne). Postumus focused on defending the Gallic Empire, and, in the words of the 4th-century Roman historian Eutropius, "restored the almost exhausted provinces through his enormous vigour and moderation."

Gallienus attempted to invade the Gallic Empire twice, in 260 and 265, but was repulsed both times, forcing him to accept the secession. Although he was unable to conquer the Gallic Empire, Gallienus did ensure that the Roman Empire was defended; he stationed Aureolus, a military commander, in northern Italia, to prevent Postumus from crossing the Alps. Postumus was killed by his soldiers in 269 in Mogontiacum (modern-day Mainz) while putting down a revolt by the usurper Laelianus, because he would not permit them to sack the city. After the army killed Postumus, they elected Marcus Aurelius Marius, an officer, as Gallic emperor. While some Roman historians, such as the 4th-century historians Aurelius Victor and Eutropius, hold that Marius reigned for only two days before being killed by Victorinus, who had served as praetorian prefect (commander of his praetorian guard) under Postumus, the number of coins issued by Marius indicate that he must have served for a longer time, a period of roughly three months. Victorinus declared himself emperor in mid-269 in Augusta Treverorum (modern-day Trier), two days after killing Marius. Victorinus's rule was recognized by the provinces of Britannia and Gaul, but not by those of Hispania.

Rise to power
Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus, commonly referred to as Tetricus I, was born in Gaul, on an unknown date, to a noble family of Gallic origin. Little of his early life is known, however, he had become a senator and occupied the post of praeses provinciae (provincial governor) of Gallia Aquitania, a province in the southwest of what is now France, by 271. In early 271, emperor Victorinus was murdered in Colonia by Attitianus, an officer in the Gallic army, allegedly because he had seduced Attitianus's wife. Because the motivation for his assassination was personal, rather than political, Victorinus's mother, Victoria, was able to retain power within the empire; as Drinkwater notes, she was unable to take the throne herself as a woman, and thus selected Tetricus as a candidate, having him appointed by the army after securing their support with large bribes; he further mentions the possibility that Tetricus was related to Victoria and Victorinus, but states that there is no direct support for this. The army proclaimed Tetricus as Gallic emperor in spring of the same year at Burdigala (modern-day Bordeaux). However, Tetricus was not present for the proclamation.

Drinkwater posits that, as he was governor of Gallia Aquitania, Victoria likely reigned for several weeks from Colonia before Tetricus assumed power, possibly issuing coins deifying Victorinus during this period. Mairat argues that, if Tetricus was absent for the proclamation, it is most likely that Victoria did order the minting of the coins, but notes that the coins of Domitian II appear to have been made in the same issue, noting that the coinage may have been created by the Gallic armies, due to political uncertainty regarding succession, or that Victoria may have minted coins in Victorinus' name, rather than Tetricus', for the same reason.

The Gallic Empire mirrored the Roman imperial administrative traditions, and as such each Gallic emperor adopted a Roman regnal title upon his accession; after becoming emperor, Tetricus adopted the regnal name and titles of Imperator Caesar Esuvius Tetricus Pius Felix Invictus Augustus Pontifex Maximus. The Gallic Empire also followed the Roman tradition of emperors appointing themselves as consul, with Tetricus appointing himself as consul in 271, 272, 273, and 274. By Roman custom, there were two consuls per year; however, the names of the other consuls for 271–273 are not known, but it is known that Tetricus's son, Tetricus II, served as his colleague in 274. Tetricus was also tribune from 271 to 274. Tetricus elevated Tetricus II as caesar in 273 to increase the legitimacy of his reign by founding a dynasty; he may have also elevated his son to co-emperor during the last days of his reign, but this is uncertain. The semi-fictional Historia Augusta, in its biography of emperor Aurelian, states that Tetricus elevated his son at an unspecified date, however, neither Aurelius Victor nor Eutropius mentions such an event.

Reign
During Tetricus's reign, the main threats to the Gallic Empire came from the Roman Empire and Germanic peoples. Tetricus also had to contend with dissent within the army and government. Tetricus was recognized as emperor by all of Gaul — except Gallia Narbonensis, which had been partially reconquered by Placidianus, a general under Roman emperor Claudius Gothicus — and Britannia. He was not recognized by the provinces of Hispania, including Hispania Baetica, Lusitania, and Hispania Tarraconensis, which had earlier refused to recognize Victorinus as emperor, nor by the city of Argentoratum (modern-day Strasbourg) in Germania. The provinces that did not recognize Tetricus chose instead to recognize Aurelian as Roman emperor, who had been proclaimed emperor in September 270 at Sirmium in Pannonia. By the time of Tetricus's rule, the Germanic peoples had become increasingly aggressive, launching raids across the Rhine and along the coast. Tetricus moved the capital of the Gallic Empire from Colonia to Augusta Treverorum in late 271 in order to guard against the Germanic peoples. Tetricus attacked them with some success, mainly during the early part of his reign, celebrating a triumph for one of his victories. Later in his reign, he was forced to withdraw troops and abandon forts, which allowed the border territories to be pillaged. Later Germanic raids were met with almost no opposition — one penetrated so far into Gallic territory that it reached the Loire. While Aurelian was focused on attacking the Palmyrene Empire, which had broken away from the Roman Empire in 270 under its queen, Zenobia, Tetricus was able to recover Gallia Narbonensis and southeastern parts of Gallia Aquitania. During 273–274, Faustinus, provincial governor of Gallia Belgica, rebelled against Tetricus, however, his revolt was swiftly crushed. Around this time, Tetricus also held the quinquennalia, public games that took place every four years.

Defeat and later life
After Aurelian had succeeded in his reconquest of the Palmyrene Empire, he turned his attention to the Gallic Empire, beginning preparations for an invasion in 273. In early 274, Aurelian began to march into northern Gaul, while Tetricus led his troops southward from Augusta Treverorum to meet him. The armies of Aurelian and Tetricus met in February or March 274 at the Battle of Châlons, near modern-day Châlons in north-eastern France. The higher discipline of the Roman forces, coupled with the greater military command of Aurelian, tipped the harsh battle in Roman favor, and after Tetricus was captured in the combat, the morale of the Gallic forces broke. The army of Tetricus was soundly defeated, and Tetricus surrendered either directly after his defeat or later; the latest possible date for his surrender was March 274, when the Gallic mints switched from minting coins of Tetricus I and II to those of Aurelian. Some Roman sources including Aurelius Victor, Eutropius, the Historia Augusta, and Orosius report that Tetricus had already made a deal with Aurelian, offering to surrender in exchange for an honourable defeat and no punishment, quoting the ghost of Palinurus from Virgil's Aeneid 6.365: eripe me his, invicte, malis ('pluck me out, O undefeated one, from these troubles'). However, this is believed by modern historians to be a product of Roman imperial propaganda; Aurelian, who was attempting to stabilise his fragile empire, benefited from the account that Tetricus had planned to betray his army, as his troops would then be less likely to rise up again.

Upon Tetricus's surrender, the Gallic Empire rejoined the Roman Empire, once more restored to its former borders, and Aurelian held a triumph in Rome involving many chariots; twenty elephants; two hundred beasts, including tigers, giraffes, and elk; eight hundred gladiators; and prisoners from various barbarian peoples. The leaders of the two secessionist states, Tetricus of the Gallic Empire and Zenobia of the Palmyrene Empire, were paraded during this triumph, along with Tetricus II; Tetricus and his son were not placed in chains for their march, but instead were made to wear braccae (Gallic trousers). Aurelian pardoned all three of them and made Tetricus a senator and corrector (governor) of either Lucania et Bruttium, a region of southern Italy, or all of Italy. The Historia Augusta states that he was made corrector Lucaniae (governor of Lucania) in the biography of Tetricus, but states that he was made corrector totius Italiae (governor of Italy) in the biography of Aurelian. Epigraphic evidence exists for correctores totius Italiae who predate Tetricus, whereas the first epigraphic evidence for a corrector of a smaller region comes from around 283, ten years after Aurelian appointed Tetricus as corrector. Because of the contradictions within the Historia Augusta, the opinion of modern scholars is divided. In 1921, David Magie, the editor of the Loeb edition of the Historia Augusta, favored Tetricus's having been made corrector totius Italiae, while others, such as Alaric Watson in his 1999 Aurelian and the Third Century, support his having been made corrector Lucaniae. Tetricus died of natural causes several years later in Italia.

Numismatics
The gold aurei issued during the reign of Tetricus fall into several types. Seven surviving coins feature his image on the obverse, with the reverses showing him riding a horse, him holding an olive branch and a scepter, as well as various depictions of deities standing, including: Aequitas, Jupiter, Laetitia, Pax, and Spes. One features his face on the obverse and a standing Hilaritas on the reverse. Another displays his head on the obverse and a depiction of the Roman goddess Victoria walking to the right on the reverse. There are two aureus types that depicted Tetricus I and Tetricus II together; both feature jugate (side-by-side) images of them on the obverse, with one having a standing Aeternitas on the reverse and the other having a standing Felicitas. A rare quinarius (a silver coin) issued during his reign has a three-quarter facing image of Tetricus on the obverse and Victoria standing with her foot on a globe on the reverse.

Most of the coins minted during Tetricus's reign were of low quality; his antoninianus contained so little silver content that imitations were easy to make, leading to the market being flooded with fakes, called Barbarous radiates.

The coinage of the Gallic Empire does not give any evidence of public games or festivals, as was common in the Roman Empire, although it is believed that similar games and festivals were held. There are a number of issues of coins in which the emperor's head faces left, rather than the usual right, which historians Oliver Nicholson and P. J. Casey state may have been donatives granted to soldiers upon the emperor's accession or consulship, in line with the expectations of the time.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tetricus I


text:
Chief Electoral Officer of Canada

The chief electoral officer of Canada (Directeur général des élections du Canada) is the person responsible for the administration of elections, referendums and other aspects of the electoral system in Canada. The position was established in 1920 under the Dominion Elections Act to be the chief executive of the independent agency now known as Elections Canada.

The chief electoral officer is assisted in carrying out their mandate by the assistant chief electoral officer and the broadcasting arbitrator who ensures that the provisions of the Canada Elections Act and the Canada Referendum Act are carried out, and the Commissioner of Canada Elections who enforces the act.

Stéphane Perrault was appointed chief electoral officer for Elections Canada on June 8, 2018, after having served as acting chief electoral officer from December 2016 to June 2018. Perrault is scheduled to hold this position for a 10-year term.

List of chief electoral officers of Canada

 * Oliver Mowat Biggar (1920–1927)
 * Jules Castonguay (1927–1949)
 * Nelson Jules Castonguay (1949–1966)
 * Jean-Marc Hamel (1966–1990)
 * Jean-Pierre Kingsley (1990–2007)
 * Marc Mayrand (2007–2016)
 * Stéphane Perrault acting (2016–2018) (2018–)

title: Chief Electoral Officer of Canada


text:
Rubber band

A rubber band (also known as an elastic band, gum band or lacky band) is a loop of rubber, usually ring or oval shaped, and commonly used to hold multiple objects together. The rubber band was patented in England on March 17, 1845, by Stephen Perry. Most rubber bands are manufactured out of natural rubber as well as for latex free rubber bands or, especially at larger sizes, an elastomer, and are sold in a variety of sizes.

Notable developments in the evolution of rubber bands began in 1923 when William H. Spencer obtained a few Goodyear inner tubes and cut the bands by hand in his basement, where he founded Alliance Rubber Company. Spencer persuaded the Akron Beacon Journal as well as the Tulsa World to try wrapping their newspapers with one of his rubber bands to prevent them from blowing across lawns. He went on to pioneer other new markets for rubber bands such as: agricultural and industrial applications and a myriad of other uses. Spencer obtained a patent on February 19, 1957, for a new "Method for Making Elastic Bands" which produced rubber bands in an Open Ring design.

Manufacturing
Most rubber, whether it is natural or synthetic, normally arrives at the manufacturing facility in large bales. Rubber bands are made by extruding the rubber into a long tube to provide its general shape. There are a number of different methods that can be applied at this point in the manufacturing process. Originally, and in some instances still today, the rubber tubes will then be placed on mandrels, curing the rubber with heat, and then slicing them across the width of the tube into little bands. This causes the tube to split into multiple sections, creating rubber bands. This is most commonly known as an "off-line" rubber extrusion process.

While other rubber products may use synthetic rubber, most rubber bands are primarily manufactured using natural rubber because of its superior elasticity.

Natural rubber originates from the latex of the rubber tree, which is acquired by tapping into the bark layers of the rubber tree. Rubber trees belong to the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) and only survive in hot, humid tropical climates near the equator, so the majority of latex is produced in the Southeast Asian countries of Malaysia, Thailand, and Indonesia. Once the latex has been tapped and is exposed to the air, it begins to harden and become elastic, or rubbery.

Measuring
A rubber band is usually measured in three basic dimensions: the flat length, cut width, and wall thickness. The flat length is the total unstretched length. Perpendicular to the flat length is the cut width. Wall thickness is generally measured using tools such as calipers or pin gauges. The wall thickness determines the band's strength and durability.

If one imagines a rubber band during manufacture, that is, a long tube of rubber on a mandrel, before it is sliced into rubber bands, the band's width is decided by how far apart the slices are cut, and its length by the circumference of the tube.

Size numbers
A rubber band is assigned an industry-standard number based on its dimensions. The first use of rubber band size numbers can be traced back to the early 20th century. While it is difficult to pinpoint an exact date, the practice of categorizing rubber bands by size allowed to easily select the appropriate rubber band for their specific needs. Standards for the rubber band were established in the United States in 1925 by the Department of Commerce, Bureau of Standards and is the first known publication to reference rubber band size.

Generally, rubber bands are numbered from smallest to largest, width first. Thus, rubber bands numbered 8–19 are all $1/16$ inch wide, with lengths going from $7/8$ inch to $3 1/2$ inches. Rubber band numbers 30–35 are for width of $1/8$ inch, going again from shorter to longer. For even longer bands, the numbering starts over for numbers above 100, again starting at width $1/16$ inch.

 * {| class="wikitable"

 * +Rubber band sizes
 * Size
 * Length (in)
 * Width (in)
 * Thickness (in)
 * 10
 * 12
 * 14
 * 2
 * 31
 * 32
 * 3
 * 33
 * 61
 * 2
 * 62
 * 63
 * 3
 * 64
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 32
 * 3
 * 33
 * 61
 * 2
 * 62
 * 63
 * 3
 * 64
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 61
 * 2
 * 62
 * 63
 * 3
 * 64
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 63
 * 3
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 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 64
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * 117
 * 7
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

Thermodynamics
Temperature affects the elasticity of a rubber band in an unusual way. Heating causes the rubber band to contract and cooling causes expansion. Stretching a rubber band will cause it to release heat, while releasing it after it has been stretched will make it absorb heat, causing its surroundings to become a little cooler. This effect is due to the higher entropy of the unstressed state, which is more entangled and therefore has more states available. In other words, the ability to convert thermal energy into work while the rubber relaxes is allowed by the higher entropy of the relaxed state.

The result is that a rubber band behaves somewhat like an ideal monatomic gas inasmuch as (to good approximation) that elastic polymers do not store any potential energy in stretched chemical bonds. No elastic work is done to "stretch" molecules when work is done upon these bulk polymers. Instead, all work done to the rubber is "released" (not stored) and appears immediately in the polymer as thermal energy. Conversely, when the polymer does work on the surroundings (such as contracting to lift an object) it converts thermal energy to work in the process and cools in the same manner as an ideal gas, expanding while doing work.

Red rubber bands

In the UK during 2004, following complaints from the public about postal carriers creating litter by discarding the rubber bands which they used to keep their mail together, the Royal Mail introduced red bands for their workers to use: it was hoped that, as the bands were easier to spot than the traditional brown ones and since only the Royal Mail used them, employees would see (and feel compelled to pick up) any red bands which they had inadvertently dropped. As of 2006, some 342 million red bands were being used per year. The Royal Mail no longer uses red rubber bands as of about 2010. The exact date of the expunging of these is uncertain, presumably as different areas used up old stock at varying rates.

Rubber bands in orthodontics
Special rubber bands of medical-grade latex can be used (worn) for orthodontic correction of teeth position together with metal braces or clear aligners to apply additional pressure on the teeth being straightened.These rubber bands are manufactured in different sizes for use in the varying steps of Orthodontic treatment. They are often termed orthodontic elastics.

Ranger bands
This type of rubber band was popularized by use in the military. Ranger bands are essentially sections of tire inner tubing cut into various sizes. They have the advantage of being versatile, durable, and resistant to weather and abrasion. They are commonly used for lashings, and can also be used for makeshift handle grips, providing a strong high-friction surface with excellent shock absorption.

Identical loops of inner tube are used by cavers and cave divers, and in that context are called snoopy loops by the British caving and cave diving community. When they get lost they are recognizable as a common form of litter.

Snoopy loops are easily cut from discarded car and motorcycle inner tubes using a pair of scissors. A knife cut may leave a notched edge which can lead to tearing. Varying sizes of inner tube are used for different tasks. Uses in caving include sealing cuffs of oversuits and collars of boots against the ingress of water, holding kneepads and elbow pads in place or securing dive lines to small rocks. and have been used for first aid for strapping injured joints tightly in place.

Technical divers use small snoopy loops made from bicycle inner tubes to prevent backup lights clipped to a dive harness from dangling, and larger loops cut from car tubes are used to stow hoses against sling or sidemount cylinders.

The exact origin is unknown and has been subject to much speculation. The practice of using snoopy Loops has been claimed to have originated in Greece and spotted by Cave Diving Group members in the late 1970s. The practice was then propagated in Yorkshire Dales. Another claim is that snoopy loops were named by Dave Morris, a Cave Diving Group caver who noticed how they 'snooped' around boulders. It was considered a ridiculous name at the time. None of these claims are particularly plausible as the use is obvious and is likely to have originated independently in several places at earlier dates.

Elastration

In animal husbandry, rubber bands are used for docking and castration of livestock. The procedure involves banding the body part with a tight latex (rubber) band to restrict blood flow. As the blood flow diminishes, the cells within the gonads die and dehydrate. The part eventually drops off.

Model use
Rubber bands have long been one of the methods of powering small free-flight model aircraft, the rubber band being anchored at the rear of the fuselage and connected to the propeller at the front. To 'wind up' the 'engine', the propeller is repeatedly turned, twisting the rubber band. When the propeller has had enough turns, the propeller is released and the model launched, the rubber band then turning the propeller rapidly until it has unwound.

One of the first to use this method was pioneer aerodynamicist George Cayley, who used rubber band-driven motors for powering his small experimental models. These 'rubber motors' have also been used for powering small model boats.

Balls

A rubber band ball is a sphere of rubber bands made by using a knotted single band as a starting point and then wrapping rubber bands around the center until the desired size is achieved. The ball is usually made from 100% rubber bands, but some instructions call for using a marble, a crumpled piece of paper, or a ping-pong ball as a starting point.

Notable rubber band balls

The world's largest rubber band ball as of November 19, 2008, was created by Joel Waul of Lauderhill, Florida. He is currently the World Record Holder according to the Guinness World Records. The ball, which previously sat under a tarp in Waul's driveway, weighs 9,032 pounds (4,097 kg), is more than 6 ft tall (which implies about a 20.68 feet circumference), and consists of more than 700,000 rubber bands. It set the world record on November 13, 2008, in Lauderhill, Florida. The ball is now owned by Ripley's Believe It or Not!.

Steve Milton of Eugene, Oregon, previously held the record for the biggest rubber band ball beginning in 2006. During the construction of his rubber band ball, he was sponsored by OfficeMax, who sent him rubber bands to use for his ball. His ball was approximately 175,000 rubber bands, 5.479 feet tall (circumference: 18.996 feet), and weighed 2088.14 kg. He began building the ball, with help from his family, in November, 2005 and would store the ball in their garage.

Before Steve Milton, the record was held by John Bain of Wilmington, Delaware, beginning in 1998. In 2003, his ball weighed around 3120 lb, consisting of over 850,000 rubber bands and is 1.52 m tall (circumference: 4.6 m). He put the ball up for auction in 2005, but he and his ball participated in Guinness World Records Day 2006. The bands were donated by two companies: Alliance Rubber and Textrip Ltd./Stretchwell Inc.

The former world record was set in 1978.

title: Rubber band


text:
Kamen

Kamen is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, in the district Unna.

Geography
Kamen is situated at the east end of the Ruhr area, approximately 10 km south-west of Hamm and 25 km north-east of Dortmund.

Neighbouring cities, towns, and municipalities

 * Bergkamen
 * Hamm
 * Bönen
 * Unna
 * Dortmund
 * Lünen

Division of the town
The town of Kamen consists of the following 6 districts:
 * Heeren-Werve
 * Methler
 * Kamen (city centre)
 * Rottum
 * Derne
 * Südkamen

Council of the town
Elections held in May 2014.

 * SPD: 22
 * CDU: 10
 * Alliance 90/The Greens: 4
 * The Left: 2
 * FDP: 1
 * FW: 1

Mayor
Hermann Hupe (born 1950) (teacher), was elected mayor in 2003 with 55,1 % of the votes, he was reelected in 2009 and 2014.

Twin towns – sister cities
Kamen is twinned with:

 * 🇸🇪 Ängelholm, Sweden
 * 🇹🇷 Bandırma, Turkey
 * 🇩🇪 Beeskow, Germany
 * 🇮🇱 Eilat, Israel
 * 🇫🇷 Montreuil-Juigné, France
 * 🇵🇱 Sulęcin, Poland
 * 🇩🇪 Unkel, Germany

Transport
Kamen is maybe most known because of the nearby highway crossing, the Kamener Kreuz. The north-south directed A1 meets the east-west directed A2; due to the importance of both highways the crossing is prone for traffic jams.

Sports
The village Kamen-Methler is well known for its football training camps. The German football team prepared themselves for the 1990 World Cup win in Kamen-Methler. During the soccer world championship 2006 in Germany the Spanish football team lived there. The SportCentrum Kaiserau was notably used as the team base camp by the Albania national football team during the UEFA Euro 2024 tournament.

Notable people

 * Ernst Marcus (1856–1928), judge and philosopher
 * Erich Weber (1860–1933), general
 * Wilhelm Middelschulte (1863–1943), organist, composer and teacher
 * Elmar Altvater (1938–2018), political scientist
 * Hans-Heinrich Bass (born 1954), economist
 * Hartmut Weber (born 1960), athlete
 * Bastian Seidel (born 1975), Australian physician and politician
 * Frank Fahrenhorst (born 1977), football player and coach

title: Kamen


text:
Al Foster

Aloysius Tyrone Foster (born January 18, 1943) is an American jazz drummer. Foster's professional career began in the mid-60s, when he played and recorded with hard bop and swing musicians including Blue Mitchell and Illinois Jacquet. Foster played jazz fusion with Miles Davis during the 70s and was one of the few people to have contact with Davis during his retirement from 1975 to 1980. During Davis's retirement, Foster continued to play and record acoustic jazz with Sonny Rollins, Dexter Gordon, McCoy Tyner, Horace Silver, and other band leaders. Foster played on Miles Davis's 1981 comeback album The Man with the Horn, and was the only musician to play in Davis's band both before, and after, his retirement. After leaving Davis's band in the mid-80s, Foster toured and recorded with Herbie Hancock, Sonny Rollins, Joe Henderson, and many other band leaders, primarily working in acoustic jazz settings. Foster has also released several solo albums under his own name, starting with Mixed Roots in 1978.

Biography
Foster was born in Richmond, Virginia, United States, and grew up in New York. He began playing drums at the age of 13 and made his recording debut on Blue Mitchell's, The Thing to Do, at age 20.

He joined Miles Davis's group when Jack DeJohnette left in 1972, and played with Davis until 1985. In his 1989 autobiography, Davis described the first time he heard Foster play live in 1972 at the Cellar Club in Manhattan: "He [Foster] knocked me out because he had such a groove and he would just lay it right in there. That was the kind of thing I was looking for. Al could set it up for everybody else to play off and just keep the groove going forever."

Foster began composing in the 1970s, and has toured with his own band, including musicians such as bassist Doug Weiss, saxophonist Dayna Stephens, and pianist Adam Birnbaum.

As leader

 * Mixed Roots (CBS/Sony, 1978)
 * Mr. Foster (Better Days, 1979)
 * Brandyn (Laika, 1997)
 * Oh! (ScoLoHoFo) with Joe Lovano, John Scofield, Dave Holland (Blue Note, 2003) – recorded in 2002
 * Love, Peace and Jazz! Live at the Village Vanguard with Eli Degibri, Kevin Hays, Doug Weiss (JazzEyes, 2008)
 * The Paris Concert (Inakustic, 2008)[DVD-Video]
 * Inspirations and Dedications (Smoke Sessions, 2019)
 * Reflections (Smoke Sessions, 2022)

As sideman
With Kenny Barron
 * Landscape (Baystate, 1985) – recorded in 1984
 * Super Standard (Venus, 2004)

With Joanne Brackeen
 * Havin' Fun (Concord Jazz, 1985)
 * Fi-Fi Goes to Heaven (Concord Jazz, 1987) – recorded in 1986

With Miles Davis
 * In Concert: Live at Philharmonic Hall (Columbia, 1973)
 * Big Fun (Columbia, 1974)
 * Get Up with It (Columbia, 1974)
 * Dark Magus (Columbia, 1974)
 * Agharta (Columbia, 1975)
 * Pangaea (Columbia, 1976)
 * The Man with the Horn (Columbia, 1981)
 * We Want Miles (Columbia, 1981)
 * Star People (Columbia, 1983)
 * Decoy (Columbia, 1984)
 * You're Under Arrest (Columbia, 1985)
 * Amandla (Warner Bros., 1989)
 * Miles Davis at Newport 1955-1975: The Bootleg Series Vol. 4 (Columbia Legacy, 2015)

With Tommy Flanagan
 * The Magnificent Tommy Flanagan (Progressive, 1981)
 * Giant Steps (Enja, 1982)
 * Nights at the Vanguard (Uptown, 1986)

With Joe Henderson
 * The State of the Tenor, Vols. 1 & 2 (Blue Note, 1986) – recorded in 1985
 * An Evening with Joe Henderson (Red, 1987)
 * So Near, So Far (Verve, 1993)

With Duke Jordan
 * Duke's Delight (SteepleChase, 1976) – recorded in 1975
 * Lover Man (SteepleChase, 1979) – recorded in 1975

With Dave Liebman
 * Light'n Up, Please! (Horizon, 1976)
 * Pendulum (Artists House, 1978)

With Blue Mitchell
 * The Thing to Do (Blue Note, 1964)
 * Down with It! (Blue Note, 1965)
 * Heads Up! (Blue Note, 1967)

With Frank Morgan
 * Yardbird Suite (Contemporary, 1988)
 * Reflections (Contemporary, 1989)
 * Mood Indigo (Antilles, 1989)

With Art Pepper
 * New York Album (Galaxy, 1985) – recorded in 1979
 * So in Love (Artists House, 1979)

With Cecil Payne
 * Brooklyn Brothers (Muse, 1973) – also with Duke Jordan
 * Bird Gets the Worm (Muse, 1976)

With Chris Potter
 * Pure (Concord, 1995) – recorded in 1994
 * Sundiata (Criss Cross Jazz, 1995) – recorded in 1993

With Sonny Rollins
 * Don't Ask (Milestone, 1979)
 * Love at First Sight (Milestone, 1980)
 * Here's to the People (Milestone, 1991)
 * Sonny Rollins + 3 (Milestone, 1995)

With McCoy Tyner
 * Horizon (Milestone, 1980) – recorded in 1979
 * Quartets 4 X 4 (Milestone, 1980)
 * It's About Time with Jackie McLean (Blue Note, 1985)
 * New York Reunion (Chesky, 1991)
 * McCoy Tyner with Stanley Clarke and Al Foster (Telarc, 2000) – recorded in 1999
 * McCoy Tyner Plays John Coltrane (Impulse!, 2001) – recorded in 1997

With Cedar Walton
 * Animation (Columbia, 1978) – recorded in 1977-78
 * Soundscapes (Columbia, 1980)
 * Seasoned Wood (HighNote, 2008)

With Larry Willis
 * A New Kind of Soul (LLP, 1970)
 * Inner Crisis (Groove Merchant, 1973)
 * My Funny Valentine (Jazz City, 1988)
 * The Big Push (HighNote, 2006)

With Steve Kuhn
 * The Vanguard Date with Ron Carter (Sunnyside/E1, 1986)
 * Life's Magic with Ron Carter (Sunnyside/E1, 1986)
 * Seasons of Romance (Postcards, 1995)
 * Live at Birdland with Ron Carter (Blue Note, 2006)

With others
 * George Adams, Paradise Space Shuttle (Timeless, 1979)
 * Richie Beirach, Elegie For Bill Evans (Trio, 1981)
 * Walter Bishop Jr., Hot House (Muse, 1979) – recorded in 1977-78
 * Donald Byrd, Getting Down to Business (Landmark, 1989)
 * Eli Degibri, Israeli Song (Anzic, 2010)
 * Eliane Elias, Illusions (Denon, 1986)
 * Red Garland, Feelin' Red (Muse, 1978)
 * Dexter Gordon, Biting the Apple (SteepleChase, 1976)
 * Charlie Haden and Joe Henderson, The Montreal Tapes: Tribute to Joe Henderson (Verve, 2004) – recorded in 1989
 * Sadik Hakim, Witches, Goblins, Etc. (1978)
 * Jimmy Heath, New Picture (Landmark, 1985)
 * Shirley Horn, I Remember Miles (Verve, 1998)
 * Bobby Hutcherson, In the Vanguard (Landmark, 1987)
 * Illinois Jacquet, The Soul Explosion (Prestige, 1969)
 * Sam Jones, Visitation (SteepleChase, 1978)
 * Yusef Lateef, The Doctor is In... and Out (Atlantic, 1976)
 * Andy LaVerne and George Mraz, Time Well Spent (1994)
 * Abbey Lincoln, People in Me (Philips, 1973)
 * Fred Lipsius, Larry Willis and George Mraz, Dreaming of Your Love (MJA, 1995)
 * Lonnie Liston Smith, Make Someone Happy (Doctor Jazz, 1986)
 * Joe Lovano, Celebrating Sinatra (1996)
 * Johnny Lytle, Everything Must Change (1978)
 * Hugh Masekela, Reconstruction (Uni, 1970)
 * Ronnie Mathews, Roots, Branches & Dances (Bee Hive, 1978)
 * Tete Montoliu, I Wanna Talk About You (SteepleChase, 1980)
 * Sam Morrison, Dune (1976)
 * Mike Nock, In, Out And Around (Timeless, 1978)
 * Bud Shank, This Bud's for You... (Muse, 1985) – recorded in 1984
 * Horace Silver, Silver 'n Brass (Blue Note, 1975)
 * Reggie Workman, Cerebral Caverns (Postcards, 1995)
 * Peter Zak, Paul Gill, Peter Zak Trio (Steeple Chase, 2004) – recorded in 2004

title: Al Foster


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User:Omegium

Cut & Paste
disambiguation compact TOC No TOC Comment left float right float central redirect

title: User:Omegium


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Wikipedia talk:Wikipedians/Ohio

Wikipedia Meet Up
I invite anybody who likes to come to Shag's Tavern (937) 258-8353 1926 S Smithville Rd Dayton, OH at midnight on Sunday the 21st/Monday the 22nd of March. Meet in the rear, near to the jukebox. Feel free to contact me in regards to specifics. Cheers, User:Sam Spade / Jack

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Meetup#USA_meet_up

Sam Spade 09:14, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Wikipedia talk:Wikipedians/Ohio


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Template talk:Genomics

Mav,

I have been attempting to create these boxes in the emerging standard of article series (aka seriesboxes) which is not a standard I have invented. The format here has been used on many such pages such as the History of the United States, History of Albania and other various series. It would be best if we could keep these boxes consistent (like infoboxes). From your changes I am right to conclude that:

 * 1) You think the format for Article series is too bloated, in which case, fine, but we should discuss this on the Article series talk page, so we can have some kind of consistency (in fact on the Talk page are several designs that occupy significantly less real estate); or
 * 2) You are considering these boxes as qualitatively different from the other boxes such as the various History of... series, and are proposing a different standard for boxes like genetics, organelles, perhaps disciplineboxes ;-) (since they are more discipline-oriented than the history series), or perhaps they should be more like the page footers, again we should probably hash this out of the Talk page for article series.

Either way, it would best to have some of internal consistency to the formatting of these boxes, and some rationale for deciding what kind of format to apply to them.

Cheers, --Lexor|Talk 09:15, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Every one of these boxes are placed on different page types so I don't see a need to enforce conformity on that point (it would be like trying to make all WikiProject tables look a like - no sense in that). But yes I do think that these boxes are bloated and way too self-referential -- so I made a minor change that made it less bad. I also dislike their placement in such a prominent place in articles - IMO they should be footers and actual content-containing tables and images should go at the top of articles. Navigation links can then become part of a content-containing table (examples: carbon, Battle of Lützen (1632)). --mav

title: Template talk:Genomics


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Clyde Stubblefield

Clyde Austin Stubblefield (April 18, 1943 – February 18, 2017) was an American drummer best known for his work with James Brown, with whom he recorded and toured for six years (1965-70). His syncopated drum patterns on Brown's recordings are considered funk standards. Samples of his drum performances (particularly his break in the 1970 track "Funky Drummer") were heavily used in hip hop music beginning in the 1980s, although Stubblefield frequently received no credit.

A self-taught musician, Stubblefield was influenced by the sound of industrial rhythms he heard in factories and trains. He began playing with local groups in his native Tennessee and later moved to Georgia, where he played with musicians such as Eddie Kirkland and Otis Redding in the early 1960s before joining Brown's band. He later settled in Madison, Wisconsin, where he was a staple of the local music scene. He has been named among the great drummers of all time by various publications. In 2017, he accepted an honorary degree from the University of Wisconsin–Madison.

Early life
Born to Frank D. and Vena Stubblefield on April 18, 1943, he grew up in Chattanooga, Tennessee. He was inspired to pursue drumming after seeing drummers for the first time in a parade. As a youngster his sense of rhythm was influenced by the industrial sounds of factories and trains around him. He practiced the rhythm patterns he heard, sometimes playing two patterns simultaneously. Years later he said if he could hum a drum pattern, he could play it. He played professionally as a teenager and performed in local bands such as Blue Shufflers, Inclines, and Cascades. In the early 1960s he moved to Macon, Georgia, and worked with guitarist Eddie Kirkland and toured with Otis Redding.

Drummer for James Brown, 1965 to 1970
In 1965, James Brown saw Stubblefield perform in Macon, Georgia, and asked him to audition. Soon after he joined Brown's band. Over the next six years the band had two drummers, Stubblefield and John "Jabo" Starks who had joined the band two weeks earlier. Starks' style was influenced by the church music he grew up with in Mobile, Alabama. The two drummers had no formal training. According to Stubblefield, "We just played what we wanted to play (...) We just put down what we think it should be." The two "created the grooves on many of Brown's biggest hits and laid the foundation for modern funk drumming in the process."

Stubblefield's recordings with James Brown are considered to be some of the standard-bearers for funk drumming, including the singles "Cold Sweat", "I Got the Feelin'", "Give It Up or Turnit a Loose", "Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud", "Mother Popcorn", "Get Up, Get into It, Get Involved", "There Was a Time", "Ain't It Funky Now", and the album Sex Machine.

His rhythm pattern on James Brown's "Funky Drummer" is among the world's most sampled musical segments. It has been used for decades by hip-hop groups and rappers such as Public Enemy, Run-DMC, N.W.A, Raekwon, LL Cool J, Beastie Boys and Prince, and has also been used in other genres. Though the sole creator of his patterns, Stubblefield was not credited for the use of the samples. He was featured in the 2009 PBS documentary, Copyright Criminals, which addressed the creative and legal aspects of sampling in the music industry.

Career, 1971 to 2017
Stubblefield lived in Madison, Wisconsin, from 1971 onward. For over twenty years he played Monday nights with his band, The Clyde Stubblefield Band, in downtown Madison. The band featured his longtime friend and keyboard-organ player Steve "Doc" Skaggs, along with soul vocalists Charlie Brooks and Karri Daley, as well as a horn section and supporting band. Stubblefield retired from the Monday shows in 2011 due to health issues, leaving the band in the hands of his nephew Bret Stubblefield.

Stubblefield worked with a variety of musicians in the Madison area such as keyboardist Steve Skaggs, guitarists Luther Allison and Cris Plata, jazz violinist Randy Sabien, rock band Garbage, country trio Common Faces and jazz group NEO. He performed and recorded with members of The J.B.'s including Bootsy Collins, Maceo Parker and "Jabo" Starks. The group released the album Bring the Funk on Down in 1999. From the early 1990s to 2015, he performed on the nationally syndicated public radio show Whad'Ya Know?

Stubblefield's first solo album The Revenge of the Funky Drummer was released in 1997. The album was produced by producer-songwriter Richard Mazda. In 1998, he released a 26 track break-beat album titled The Original Funky Drummer Breakbeat Album. Stubblefield's third solo album The Original was released in 2003. All compositions were based on Stubblefield's drum grooves and the album was produced by Leo Sidran.

Stubblefield collaborated frequently with "Jabo" Starks. As the Funkmasters, the duo released an album in 2001 called Find the Groove and an album in 2006 called Come Get Summa This. The duo also released a drumming instruction video in 1999 titled Soul of the Funky Drummers. In December 2007, the duo joined Bootsy Collins in Covington, Kentucky, for the first tribute concert in memory of James Brown. Stubblefield and Starks played on Funk for Your Ass, a tribute album by fellow James Brown orchestra alum Fred Wesley. The album was released in 2008. Later that year an expansion to the EZdrummer software was released with samples recorded by Stubblefield and Starks.

In 2009, Stubblefield was in need of a kidney transplant and underwent dialysis treatments. Musicians in the Madison area organized fundraiser events, donating the proceeds to supplement his dialysis treatment and subsequent medical bills. Stubblefield coped with health issues from the early 2000s onward including cancer. His wife Jody Hannon was a source of support in managing his health.

In 2011, Stubblefield performed "Fight the Power" on the Jimmy Fallon show along with Chuck D and members of The Roots and Eclectic Method. In 2012, he gave an autobiographical talk and performed his favorite beats at the Madison Ruby conference in Madison, Wisconsin. In 2015, a scholarship fund for music education was started and named after Stubblefield.

Recognition
In 2014, Stubblefield was named the second best drummer of all time by LA Weekly. According to the LA Weekly, "Stubblefield is one of the most sampled drummers in history, the man whose uncanny ability to deconstruct pop music's simple 4/4 rhythms into a thousand different sly syncopations laid the foundation not only for funk, but for most of hip-hop, as well." In 2013, Stubblefield and Starks received the Yamaha Legacy Award. In 2004, he received the lifetime achievement award at the Madison Area Music Awards. In 2000, he was inducted into the Wisconsin Area Music Industry hall of fame. In 1990 he was named drummer of the year by Rolling Stone magazine, and in 2016 the magazine named Stubblefield and Starks the sixth best drummer of all time. A set of Stubblefield's autographed drum-sticks are in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Drummer David Garibaldi credits Stubblefield for inventing the vocabulary of funk drumming. Garibaldi singles out the drumming on "I Got the Feelin'" as the "sign of a genius". According to Questlove, drummer of The Roots, Stubblefield is the one "who defined funk music." Chuck D said of Stubblefield's impact on hip-hop, "It was a style of repetition that was emulated as opposed to just the actual sound. You know, holding it there, and keeping steady with the vamp." Nerdcore rapper MC Frontalot paid tribute to Stubblefield in his song "Good Old Clyde". Hip hop artist Black Thought of The Roots rhymes "I'm cooler than Clyde Stubblefield, drummer for James" in the song "Stay Cool".

Ben Sisario of The New York Times writes: "On songs like 'Cold Sweat' and 'Mother Popcorn' [Stubblefield] perfected a light-touch style filled with the off-kilter syncopations sometimes called ghost notes." According to National Public Radio, "the grooves [Stubblefield and Starks] created have inspired generations of artists — not just in funk, but in hip-hop, where their steady but intricate patterns make natural material for sampling." In 2017, Stubblefield accepted an honorary doctorate of fine arts from the University of Wisconsin–Madison, which was conferred posthumously.

Death
Stubblefield died on February 18, 2017, from kidney failure. He survived cancer in 2000 and coped with kidney disease since 2002. In 2016, it was reported pop icon Prince, who deeply admired Stubblefield, paid about $80,000 of the drummer's medical costs. Stubblefield was survived by his wife Jody Hannon.

Quotations
In a 1991 interview with Isthmus, Stubblefield said: "What influenced me mainly was sounds. Train tracks. Washing machines. I just put patterns against natural sounds, and that's what I do today. I could be walking down the street in time and put a drum pattern against it while I'm walking (...) That's the same thing I'm doing now when I sit down behind the drums. I put a pattern behind what everyone else is doing."

Discography
Credits adapted from AllMusic, except as noted.

As leader

 * The Revenge of the Funky Drummer (1997)
 * The Original Funky Drummer Breakbeat Album (1998)
 * The Original (2003)

As co-leader

 * Find the Groove (2001)
 * Come Get Summa This (2006)

As sideman
With Fred Wesley
 * Funk for Your Ass (2008)

With James Brown selected works
 * Cold Sweat (1967)
 * I Got the Feelin' (1968)
 * It's a Mother (1969)
 * Say It Loud – I'm Black and I'm Proud (1969)
 * Sex Machine (1970)

With The J.B.'s
 * Bring the Funk on Down (1999)

With Ben Sidran
 * Puttin' in Time on Planet Earth (Blue Thumb, 1973)
 * Don't Let Go (Blue Thumb, 1974)

With Garbage
 * Garbage (1995)

Instructional videos

 * Soul of the Funky Drummers (1999)

title: Clyde Stubblefield


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Monochrome painting

Monochromatic painting has played a significant role in modern and contemporary Western visual art, originating with the early 20th-century European avant-gardes. Artists have explored the non-representational potential of a single color, investigating shifts in value, diversity of texture, and formal nuances as a means of emotional expression, visual investigation into the inherent properties of painting, as well as a starting point for conceptual works. Ranging from geometric abstraction in a variety of mediums to non-representational gestural painting, monochromatic works continue to be an important influence in contemporary art.

Origins
Monochrome painting was initiated at the first Incoherents exhibition in Paris in 1882, with a black painting by the poet Paul Bilhaud entitled Combat de Nègres pendant la nuit ("Battle of negroes during the night"), which had been missing since 1882 when it was rediscovered in a private collection in 2017–2018. It has been classified as a National Treasure by the French state. Although Bilhaud was not the first to create an all-black artwork: for example, Robert Fludd published an image of Darkness in his 1617 book on the origin and structure of the cosmos; and Bertall published his black Vue de La Hogue (effet de nuit) in 1843. In the subsequent exhibitions of the Incoherent arts (also in the 1880s) the writer Alphonse Allais proposed other monochrome paintings, such as Première communion de jeunes filles chlorotiques par un temps de neige ("First communion of anaemic young girls in the snow", white), or Récolte de la tomate par des cardinaux apoplectiques au bord de la Mer Rouge ("Tomato harvesting by apoplectic cardinals on the shore of the Red Sea", red). Allais published his Album primo-avrilesque in 1897, a monograph with seven monochrome artworks. However, this kind of activity bears more similarity to 20th century Dada, or Neo-Dada, and particularly the works of the Fluxus group of the 1960s, than to 20th century monochrome painting since Malevich.

Jean Metzinger, following the Succès de scandale created from the Cubist showing at the 1911 Salon des Indépendants, in an interview with Cyril Berger published in Paris-Journal 29 May 1911, stated:

"We cubists have only done our duty by creating a new rhythm for the benefit of humanity. Others will come after us who will do the same. What will they find? That is the tremendous secret of the future. Who knows if someday, a great painter, looking with scorn on the often brutal game of supposed colorists and taking the seven colors back to the primordial white unity that encompasses them all, will not exhibit completely white canvases, with nothing, absolutely nothing on them. (Jean Metzinger, 29 May 1911)"

Metzinger's (then) audacious prediction that artists would take abstraction to its logical conclusion by vacating representational subject matter entirely and returning to what Metzinger calls the "primordial white unity", a "completely white canvas" would be realized two years later. The writer of a satirical manifesto entitled Manifeste de l'école amorphiste, published in Les Hommes du Jour (3 May 1913), may have had Metzinger's vision in mind when the author justified amorphism's blank canvases by claiming 'light is enough for us'. With perspective, writes art historian Jeffery S. Weiss, "Vers Amorphisme may be gibberish, but it was also enough of a foundational language to anticipate the extreme reductivist implications of non-objectivity".

In a broad and general sense, one finds European roots of minimalism in the geometric abstractions of painters associated with the Bauhaus, in the works of Kazimir Malevich, Piet Mondrian and other artists associated with the De Stijl movement, and the Russian Constructivist movement, and in the work of the Romanian sculptor Constantin Brâncuși. Minimal art is also inspired in part by the paintings of Barnett Newman, Ad Reinhardt, Josef Albers, and the works of artists as diverse as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, Giorgio Morandi, and others. Minimalism was also a reaction against the painterly subjectivity of Abstract Expressionism that had been dominant in the New York School during the 1940s and 1950s.

The wide range of possibilities (including impossibility) of interpretation of monochrome paintings is arguably why the monochrome is so engaging to so many artists, critics, and writers. Although the monochrome has never become dominant and few artists have committed themselves exclusively to it, it has never gone away. It reappears as though a spectre haunting high modernism, or as a symbol of it, appearing during times of aesthetic and sociopolitical upheavals.

Suprematism and Constructivism

Monochrome painting as it is usually understood today began in Moscow, with Suprematist Composition: White on White of 1918 by Suprematist artist Kazimir Malevich. This was a variation on or sequel to his 1915 work Black Square on a White Field, a very important work in its own right to 20th century geometric abstraction.

In 1921, Constructivist artist Alexander Rodchenko exhibited Pure Red Color, Pure Blue Color, and Pure Yellow Color: three paintings together, each a monochrome of one of the three primary colors. He intended this work to represent the "death of painting." While Rodchenko intended his monochrome to be a dismantling of the typical assumptions of painting, Malevich saw his work as a concentration on them, a kind of meditation on art's essence (“pure feeling”).

These two approaches articulated very early on in its history this kind of work's almost paradoxical dynamic: that one can read a monochrome either as a flat surface (material entity or “painting as object”) which represents nothing but itself, and therefore representing an ending in the evolution of illusionism in painting (i.e. Rodchenko); or as a depiction of multidimensional (infinite) space, a fulfillment of illusionistic painting, representing a new evolution—a new beginning—in Western painting's history (Malevich). Additionally, many have pointed out that it may be difficult to deduce the artist's intentions from the painting itself, without referring to the artist's comment.

Abstract Expressionists

 * Milton Resnick had a long career as an Abstract Expressionist painter. Initially, during the 1940s, he explored the then-current style of Action Painting. His later work, from the 1950s through the 1970s is often characterized as Abstract Impressionist—largely because he constructed his allover compositions with multiple, repetitive, and close-valued brushstrokes, in the manner of Claude Monet in the famous Waterlilies series. During the final two and a half decades of his painting career Resnick's paintings became monochromatic, albeit with thickly brushed and layered surfaces.
 * Ad Reinhardt was an Abstract Expressionist artist notable for painting nearly "pure" monochromes over a considerable span of time (roughly from 1952 to his death in 1967), in red or blue, and lastly and most (in)famously, in black. Like the Johns works mentioned below, Reinhardt's black paintings contained faint indications of geometrical shape, but the actual delineations are not readily visible until the viewer spends time with the work. This tends to encourage a state of contemplative meditation in the viewer, and to create uncertainty about perception; in terms of Frank Stella's famous quote, you may question whether "what you see" is actually what you are seeing.
 * Richard Pousette-Dart created several distinct series of paintings during his long career as an Abstract Expressionist painter, his monochromatic series called Presences spanning the late 1950s through the early 1990s, was among his most powerful.

Color field
Beginning in the 1950s and 1960s, several Abstract Expressionist / color field artists (notably: Barnett Newman, Mark Rothko, Robert Motherwell, Adolph Gottlieb, Theodoros Stamos, Sam Francis, Ludwig Sander, Clyfford Still, Jules Olitski, and others) explored motifs that seemed to imply monochrome, employing broad, flat fields of colour in large scale pictures which proved highly influential to newer styles, such as Post-Painterly Abstraction, Lyrical Abstraction, and Minimalism.

One of Barnett Newman's near monochrome paintings generated outrage and widespread ridicule (and discussion) in Canada when the National Gallery purchased his 1967 painting Voice of Fire for $1.8 million in the 1980s. Another of Barnett Newman’s very sparse (though technically not monochrome) geometric abstractions was slashed with a knife by an enraged viewer in the 1980s at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam.

Lyrical Abstraction
Lyrical Abstractionist painters such as Ronald Davis, Larry Poons, Walter Darby Bannard, Dan Christensen, Larry Zox, Ronnie Landfield, Ralph Humphrey, David Budd, David R. Prentice, David Diao, David Novros, Jake Berthot, and others also explored and worked on series of shaped and rectangular canvases that approached the monochrome—with variations especially during the 1960s and 1970s.

Shaped canvas
Since the 1960s artists as diverse as Frank Stella, Ellsworth Kelly, Ronald Davis, David Novros, Paul Mogensen, Patricia Johanson and others made monochrome paintings on various shaped canvases. While some of their monochromatic works related to minimalism none of the above were minimalists.

Neo-Dada

 * Robert Rauschenberg: "A canvas is never empty". In the early 1950s, became known for white, then black, and eventually red monochrome canvases. In the White Paintings (1951) series, Rauschenberg applied everyday house paint with paint rollers to achieve smooth "blank" surfaces. White panels were exhibited alone or in modular groupings. The Black Paintings (1951–1953) incorporated texture under the painted surface by way of collaged newspaper that sometimes indicates a grid-like structure. The Red Paintings (1953–54) incorporate still more materials such as wood and fabric under the heavily worked painted surface, and seem to foreshadow Rauschenberg's development of assemblage in his "Combine Paintings" as well as his stated intention to act in "the gap" between "Art" and "Life".
 * The white canvases became associated with the work 4'33" by the composer John Cage, which consisted of three movements of silence, and was inspired at least in part by Cage's study of Zen Buddhism. In both works attention is drawn to elements of listening / viewing which lie outside the artist's control: e.g. the sounds of the concert environment, or the play of shadows and dust particles accumulating on the 'blank' canvas surfaces ("landing strips" – Cage).
 * In a related work, his Erased de Kooning Drawing of 1953, Rauschenberg erased a drawing by abstract expressionist artist Willem de Kooning. Perhaps surprisingly, De Kooning was sympathetic to Rauschenberg's aims and implicitly endorsed this experiment by providing the younger artist with one of his own drawings which was very densely worked, taking 2 months and many erasers for Rauschenberg to (incompletely) erase.

 * Jasper Johns was a friend of Rauschenberg, and both were often categorized as Neo-Dadaist, pointing to their rejection of the Abstract Expressionist aesthetic which was dominant in the 1950s. Johns painted a number of works such as White Flag, Green Target, and Tango, in which there is only a slight indication of an image, resembling the White Square on a White Field of Malevich in technique.
 * These works often show more evidence of brushwork than is typically associated with monochrome painting. Many other works also approach monochrome, like the melancholic "grey" works of the early 1960s, but with real objects ("assemblage") or text added.

Minimalists

 * Ellsworth Kelly spent a lot of time in both Paris and New York. Not strictly a minimalist, he has made a number of monochrome paintings on shaped canvases and single color rectangular panels. His abstractions were "abstracted" from nature. His interest in nature extends so far that he has made a series of plant lithographs in an impressive and sincerely realistic style.
 * Mino Argento monotones, white on white paintings were variations on the gridded, rectangle on rectangle themes, but were enlivened with differences in rhythm and conception. One composition included grayed grids and vertical rectangles in several, more opaque whites, clustered centrally.
 * Agnes Martin whose works of the 1950s and 1960s are serene meditations on "perfection", and hence "beauty", are typically white, off-white or pale grey canvases with faint evidence of pencil dragged in lines or grids across the painted surface.
 * Robert Ryman in works such as Ledger (1982) purposely draws attention to supports, framing, and the artist's signature as important elements of works which are usually white, or off-white, and in square format. Abstract Expressionist brushwork is used as formal material in these minimalist constructions. Ryman exhibits a tour de force of variation on a deliberately limited theme.
 * Brice Marden in his earliest mature works explored a reductive strategy which seemed similar to that of Jasper Johns's and Ellsworth Kelly's contemporaneous works, yet more formalist: paintings such as Return 1 consist of subtly grey fields painted in encaustic (wax-medium) with a narrow strip along the bottom of the canvas where Marden left bare evidence of process (i.e., drips and spatters of paint). During the late 1980s Brice Marden, who held a spiritual/emotional view of abstraction, began a more multi-colored and calligraphic form of abstract painting.
 * Frank Stella echoed composer Igor Stravinsky's famous assertion that "music is powerless to express anything but itself" when he said "What you see is what you see", a remark he later qualified by saying his early paintings were influenced to a degree by the writing of Samuel Beckett (see above). In his work he was attempting to minimize any inference of "spiritual" or even "emotional" response on the part of the viewer, and this is perhaps most striking in his pinstripe beginning in the late 1950s, where the pinstripes are articulated by unpainted canvas. Later, Stella abandoned not only monochrome, but also eventually geometric painting.
 * John McCracken is characteristically Minimalist in that his "objects" aren't adequately categorized as "painting" or "sculpture". Famous since 1965 for "slabs, columns, planks ... Neutral forms", his meticulously finished, polished monochrome objects are often simply leaned up against gallery walls, in what some critics describe as a casual "West Coast-lean". Although he draws from techniques characteristic of surfboard manufacture, his works are personally and meticulously handcrafted, unlike those of John M. Miller and other more recent artists, which are typically factory-made according to the artist's specifications.
 * Allan McCollum determined in the mid-1970s that the social forces that give paintings meaning may be better understood if the "painting" itself could be reduced to a generic form—a painting that could read as a "sign" for a painting", which could function of a "placeholder", or a kind of "prop". In the 1970s and early 80s he painted what he called Surrogate Paintings, and ultimately began casting them in plaster, frame and all. These hundreds of objects that looked like framed, matted, fields of painted blackness, worked as neutral, "generic signs" that might inspire the viewer to think about the social expectations that constructed the "idea" of a painting, more than the actual painting itself. By reducing paintings to mere signs of themselves, McCollum turned the gallery and the museum setting into a kind of theater, highlighting the drama of presenting, displaying, buying and selling, exchanging, photographing, assessing, criticizing, choosing, and writing about the works; the object-paintings at the center of the action were purposely rendered moot, in order to turn one's attention to the supplementary devices and social practices that, in the end, bestow the value on the work. Paradoxically, as time went by, these neutral objects became valuable in themselves, as symbols of an anthropological way of looking at art.
 * Anne Truitt was an American artist of the mid-20th century; she is associated with both minimalism and Color Field artists like Morris Louis and Kenneth Noland. Primarily thought of as a minimalist sculptor, and as a colorist who painted her sculpture, throughout her career Truitt produced several series of Monochromatic paintings.
 * She made what is considered her most important work in the early 1960s anticipating in many respects the work of minimalists like Donald Judd and Ellsworth Kelly. She was unlike the minimalists is some significant ways. She named, for instance, many of her works after places and events that were important to her—a practice suggesting a narrative beyond and yet somehow contained by the sculpture.
 * The sculpture that made her significant to the development of Minimalism were aggressively plain and painted structures, often large. The recessional platform under her sculpture raised them just enough off the ground that they appeared to float on a thin line of shadow. The boundary between sculpture and ground, between gravity and verticality, was made illusory. This formal ambivalence is mirrored by her insistence that color itself, contained a psychological vibration which when purified, as it is on a work of art, isolates the event it refers to as a thing rather than a feeling. The event becomes a work of art, a visual sensation delivered by color.

Europe

 * Lucio Fontana started from 1949 the so-called Spatial Concept or slash series, consisting in holes or slashes on the surface of monochrome paintings, drawing a sign of what he named "an art for the Space Age" (Concetto spaziale (50-B.1), 1950, MNAM, Paris).

Monochrome works: The Blue Epoch

"From the reactions of the audience, [Klein] realized that...viewers thought his various, uniformly colored canvases amounted to a new kind of bright, abstract interior decoration. Shocked at this misunderstanding, Klein knew a further and decisive step in the direction of monochrome art would have to be taken...From that time onwards he would concentrate on one single, primary color alone: blue." The next exhibition, Proposte Monochrome, Epoca Blu (Proposition Monochrome; Blue Epoch) at the Gallery Apollinaire, Milan, (January 1957), featured 11 identical blue canvases, using ultramarine pigment suspended in a synthetic resin Rhodopas. Discovered with the help of Edouard Adam, a Parisian paint dealer, the effect was to retain the brilliance of the pigment which tended to become dull when suspended in linseed oil. Klein later patented this recipe to maintain the "authenticity of the pure idea". This colour, reminiscent of the lapis lazuli used to paint the Madonna's robes in medieval paintings, was to become famous as "International Klein Blue" (IKB). The paintings were attached to poles placed 20 cm away from the walls to increase their spatial ambiguities.
 * Yves Klein: although Klein had painted monochromes as early as 1949, and held the first private exhibition of this work in 1950, his first public showing was the publication of the artist's book Yves: Peintures in November 1954. Parodying a traditional catalogue, the book featured a series of intense monochromes linked to various cities he had lived in during the previous years. Yves: Peintures anticipated his first two shows of oil paintings, at the Club des Solitaires, Paris, October 1955 and Yves: Proposition monochromes at Gallery Colette Allendy, February 1956. These shows, displaying orange, yellow, red, pink and blue monochromes, deeply disappointed Klein, as people went from painting to painting, linking them together as a sort of mosaic.

The show was a critical and commercial success, traveling to Paris, Düsseldorf and London. The Parisian exhibition, at the Iris Clert Gallery, May 1957, became a seminal happening; As well as 1001 blue balloons being released to mark the opening, blue postcards were sent out using IKB stamps that Klein had bribed the postal service to accept as legitimate. An exhibition of tubs of blue pigment and fire paintings was held concurrently at Gallery Collette Allendy.
 * Gerhard Richter is an artist who is probably best known for his technically stunning photo-realist paintings, which overshadow his abstract and monochrome works. Both his abstract and representational works seem to cover similar emotional terrain, a kind of ironic pessimism which made his work very fashionable in the late 1980s. His grey paintings, are made by drawing "expressive" gestures in wet paint.
 * Olivier Mosset also has spent considerable time in New York and Paris. In Paris in the 1960s he was a member of the BMPT group, along with Daniel Buren, Michel Parmentier, and Niele Toroni. The group brought forth questions about the notions of authorship and originality, implying that they often did each other's works, and that the art object was more important than its authorship. Later, in New York in the late 1970s, Mosset undertook a long series of monochrome paintings, during the heyday of Neo-expressionism. He became a founding member of the New York Radical Painting group, radical referring both to an implied radical social stance, as well as a returning to the radical "root" of painting. This re-assertion of social relevance for abstraction, and even the monochrome, hadn't been emphasized to such a degree since Malevich and Rodchenko. 1980s neo-geo artists such as Peter Halley who assert a socially relevant, critical role for geometric abstraction, cite Mosset as an influence.

Asia
Dansaekhwa (Korean: 단색화), is a style of South Korean "monochrome painting" beginning in the mid 1970s. Dansaekhwa artists often exhibited together, yet they were not part of an official artistic movement. Some artists associated with the style are: Cho Yong-ik, Chung Chang-sup, Chung Sang-Hwa, Ha Chong Hyun, Kim Tschang-yeul, Lee Dong-Youb, Lee Ufan, Park Seo-Bo, and Yun Hyong-keun.

Others

 * Sally Hazelet Drummond (b. 1924, USA), exhibited her monochromatic paintings during the late 1950s in New York City at the Tanager Gallery, one of the first Tenth Street cooperative galleries. As of 2007 she continues to paint monochrome paintings.
 * Alan Ebnother is an American painter who explores the heritage of momochrome painting, confining himself to the single color green.
 * Florence Miller Pierce was a member of the TAOS Transcendental Painting Group in the 1930s, currently residing in Albuquerque, New Mexico. Her square monochromes, made with translucent resin poured onto mirrored plexiglass, seem to glow of their own accord.
 * Blažej Baláž with his "double monochrom". Colour versus filings of coins, junk, soil or poppy seed. Painting Poppy Seed Field / Makové pole 2001/02.
 * Marcia Hafif has exhibited monochrome paintings for over 50 in New York, Los Angeles, and Europe. She has created monochromatic works with oil, enamel, egg tempera, watercolor, glaze, acrylic, and ink. Her work was included in the 2014 biannual at the Hammer Museum where the artist exhibited 24 monochrome paintings, each one tinged with black.

Monochrome painting in popular culture

 * The 1998 Tony award winning Broadway play  'Art'  employed a white monochrome painting as a prop to generate an argument about aesthetics which made up the bulk of the play.
 * The 1995 Cesar award winning movie The Three Brothers featured a white monochrome painting by fictitious artist Whiteman (inspired by K. Malevich White on White masterpiece).

Monochrome paintings most expensive sales
The following sales marked record prices for monochrome paintings:

 * 1) R. Rauschenberg, White Painting [three panel], 1951– SFMoMa, San Francisco - sold for $88,8m in 2019
 * 2) K. Malevitch, White on White, 1918– MoMa, New York - sold for $60m in 2008
 * 3) R. Ryman, Untitled oil on canvas, 1961 - sold for $15m in 2014

title: Monochrome painting


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User:ToddBishop

I'm a jazz drummer from Portland, OR.

http://www.lowermonumental.com http://www.originarts.com

title: User:ToddBishop


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Talk:Gallic Empire

Untitled
The dates of this period in time are not concrete and the written evidence is often unreliable. Recent scholarship indicates that earlier accepted date for the reigns of the Gallic emperors (which are used on this page) are too early by several months to about a year. Unless someone can convince me otherwise, I will update the dates to reflect the latest scholarship, which will essentially push back most of the dates on this, and the related pages, by about 1 year. Maximus Rex, 09:24, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Wouldn't Imperium Gallorum be more correct? But was this formula ever actually used? No sense in creating a modern Latin formula. What's on the coins? Wetman 01:31, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I don't know Latin. I saw "Imperium Galliarum" here. The coins make no mention of a "Gallic empire" and do not distinguish the Gallic emperors from the "true" Roman emperors. Maximus Rex 02:59, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I know some Latin, and Imperium Gallorum seems correct. It means "Empire of the Galli," as opposed to Imperium Galliarum, which would mean "Empire of the Galliae." The difference is gender (the first is masculine, the second feminine), and I'm pretty sure the Romans would have used the masculine form for the Gauls. Hallmark 01:39, 4 Oct 2004 (UTC)

David S. Potter in The Roman empire at bay uses the term Imperium Galiarum so that would appear to be correct. However he also says that it's capital was at Cologne, not Trier. Does anyone know how Trier got into this story?

Postumus moved the Capital (along with his Mint) to Cologne from Trier in about 268.

 * Just a note that Imperium Galliarum would mean "Empire of the Gauls" using Gaul in the geographic sense--that is, "Empire of the Gallic provinces". Much like "Emperor of All the Russias" or like you sometimes see pre-1866/1871 authors refer to "the Italies" or "the Germanies".  But yes, I too would like to see an incidence of its use in ancient sources--or at the very least, an acknowledgement that such a term never appears in the sources, even if it's being used by modern historians.  Binabik80 05:56, 9 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Anybody who has ever studied Caesar in Latin should know that Gaul is divided into three parts, so I think that makes sense.Tsunomaru 06:56, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I've now added a note attributing the phrase Galliarum ... imperium to Eutropius. Binabik80 is exactly right about why it's Galliarum (≈ of the Gaulish lands) rather than Gallorum (≈ of the Gauls as a people). Q·L·1968 ☿ 18:54, 30 October 2013 (UTC)

Ambicatus
This orphan stub page Ambicatus claims "Ambicatus was a Gallic king, as reported by Livy, who lived around 400 BC. Most likely he was the leader of the most powerful tribe in a military alliance." If this is true seems like this page should link to his page. Jeepday 04:04, 30 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Not really, as 400 BC is about 650 years before the events described here ... --Jfruh (talk) 23:29, 14 July 2007 (UTC)

Completeness?
Is there a reason this page doesn't make any mention of the fall of the Gallic Empire? Is there a dearth of sources on that subject? Jtmorgan (talk) 06:37, 16 October 2008 (UTC)
 * Just came here wondering the same thing. Even if there is a lack of sources, that should be mentioned. However, Crisis of the Third Century suggests it was reconquered by Aurelian Modest Genius talk 17:03, 17 October 2008 (UTC)
 * I was wondering the same thing 118.208.219.125 (talk) 11:59, 29 May 2009 (UTC)

Nationalist historians
In the "Causes" section: "...although the extent of "Gaulish" self-identification that nationalist historians have inferred is probably inflated." Which historians made this identification? Which historian said it is probably inflated? Besides the citing issue, there is one of neutrality. "Nationalist historians" sounds awfully like it's supposed to discredit the idea. I'm not really an expert on the subject, so I can't fix it myself. 217.120.178.21 (talk) 21:50, 22 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Note this complaint is over a year old now. Technically, the statement may be removed in the article.  I don't have any reference that supports the statement in the article and would also like to know where it came from. HammerFilmFan (talk) 11:59, 23 October 2013 (UTC)
 * I'm pretty sure Drinkwater says something along these lines, though his premise is that there was both separatism and continuity in the Gallic Empire. I'll reread the relevant section and see. (For "nationalist historians", presumably read Jules Michelet and others sharing a similar construction of Gaulish history as presaging the development of French nationhood. Agreed, it's not the most sympathetic-sounding phrase.) Q·L·1968 ☿ 21:02, 28 October 2013 (UTC)
 * Couldn't find anything, so I've rewritten that section with references. More remains to be done. Q·L·1968 ☿ 02:21, 30 October 2013 (UTC)

Other map
Is there a map that shows the Gallic Empire at its maximum extent under Postumus, rather than under Tetricus in 271? --Whoop whoop pull up Bitching Betty 21:20, 25 July 2011 (UTC)
 * I came here to say the same thing - I see it has already been said. Does anyone know if such a map exists that can be used? The Gallic Empire is mentioned in a number of other articles and each time it is the map on this article that is used, showing only a small part of the empire at its maximum extent. Regards; Thanks Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 12:51, 4 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I checked Commons for another map and didn't find one. I think it may just be that no one has made one yet.--Cúchullain t/ c 12:12, 5 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Thanks, Cuchullain. Regards, Rui ''Gabriel'' Correia (talk) 07:08, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

Actually it looks like they just weren't well organized. I went over to Commons and created a category with all the maps and images I could find (here). There are some maps (including some in other languages) that apparently show the Gallic Empire under its fullest extent, but they're inaccurate in other ways. First is the date: they claim to depict 271, but Claudius Gothicus (re)took eastern Gallia Narbonensis in 269 and Hispania returned very shortly after. The Gallic Empire boundaries may be more or less accurate for the Empire's greatest extent in (say) 268, but the maps also show the Palmyrene Empire under its greatest extent, though Zenobia didn't conquer Egypt and Anatolia until 269. The best solution will probably be just making some new maps.--Cúchullain t/ c 14:31, 7 October 2011 (UTC)

Last gallic emperor?
The list in the infobox lists faustinius but the infobox of tetricus I lists none. Koopinator (talk) 05:10, 9 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Faustinius rebellled while Tetricus was still emperor, but did not successfully overthrow him and so did not succeed him as emperor. Psychotic   Spartan  123  20:52, 9 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Alright, I removed him from the infobox. Koopinator (talk) 10:37, 10 January 2017 (UTC)

Roman Hispania
Just a question, did Roman Hispania actually break away from the Gallic Roman Empire after the death of Postumus? Because some say that it did or it didn't but might have some signs of discontent. I would agree with the latter one saying that the Provinces of Iberia nominally stayed as a part of the Gallic Roman Empire until it's collapse at the hands of Aurelian. Since the Gallic Roman Army would have simply march on to Spain and scare the locals into rejoining their side. Since there was only one Legion in Spain, the Legio VII Gemina. I believe that some of the locals disliked the Government of the Gallic Roman Empire but they never realigned with the forces of Aurelian until the aftermath of the battle of chalons. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Slapnut1207 (talk • contribs) 00:32, 17 April 2018 (UTC)

Imperium Galliarum
I propose that this name be removed from the lede and infobox of this article. It implies that contemporary Latin-speakers had a "name" for this administration as a separate state, which is simply not true -- we note that the Latin phrase comes from Eutropius and isn't used as a name there, but rather as a phrase meaning "command over the Gallic provinces", but this is buried in a footnote. I'm not saying we should get rid of the article or even change its name -- the name "Gallic Empire" is well established in English-language historiography -- but to assert at the top of the article that there was a Latin name for this entity is false. --Jfruh (talk) 19:43, 16 September 2018 (UTC)
 * Since nobody has objected to this, I've gone ahead and made the change. --Jfruh (talk) 09:38, 4 March 2021 (UTC)

What's about Raetia?
Raetia was a part of the Gallic Empire, too. There is the Augsburger Siegesaltar, which mentions Postumus. He later was erased(damnatio memoriae). But because of the fact that Postumus is mentioned in Augsburg - which was the Capital of Raetia - all of Raetia belonged to the Gallic Empire. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augsburger_Siegesaltar http://www.ubi-erat-lupa.org/monument.php?id=6338 There you can see the latin inscription. 2003:CD:3724:9174:FD73:9575:CC45:705A (talk) 18:20, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gallic Empire


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North Karelia

North Karelia (or Northern Karelia, Pohjois-Karjala; Norra Karelen) is a region in eastern Finland. It borders the regions of Kainuu, North Savo, South Savo and South Karelia, as well as Russia's Republic of Karelia. It is the easternmost region of Finland and shares a 300 km border with Russia. The city of Joensuu is the capital and the largest settlement of the region.

North Karelia has successfully reduced chronic diseases through public health measures. In the 1960s Finland led industrialized nations in heart disease mortality rates; North Karelia had Finland's highest incidence. In 1972 a long-term project was undertaken which targeted this risk in North Karelia. The resulting improvement in public health is still considered remarkable, a model for the rest of the nation. North Karelia is also known as the most sociable region in Finland.

History
The borders of remote North Karelia were formed gradually. Important border foundations were the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617) for the eastern border and the Treaty of Teusina (1595) for the western border. The border was finally established in the Treaty of Nystad (1721), where North Karelia was separated from the "other Karelias" that remained on Russia's side.

Regional identity began to form gradually in the 18th century. In 1767, the häradshövding (judge) used the name Pohjois-Karjala (North Karelia). The residents also called themselves the men of the province and drew up their own regulations in Finnish for the border guard, showing their separateness. Administratively, North Karelia belonged to different counties in the 18th century, but it had its own "North Karelia county". This self-administration set it apart from other regions. The separation was further strengthened when North Karelia was formed into its own province in 1960. North Karelia became its own region in 1994. Instead, North Karelia province was abolished in 1997 and its functions were transferred to the Eastern Finland province.

Heraldry
The coat of arms of North Karelia is composed of the arms of Karelia.

Municipalities
The region of North Karelia consists of 13 municipalities, five of which have city status (marked in bold).

Sub-regions
Joensuu sub-region
 * Heinävesi.vaakuna.svg Heinävesi
 * Ilomantsi.vaakuna.svg Ilomantsi (Ilomants)
 * Joensuu.vaakuna.svg Joensuu
 * Juuka.vaakuna.svg Juuka (Juga)
 * Kontiolahti.vaakuna.svg Kontiolahti (Kontiolax)
 * Liperi.vaakuna.svg Liperi (Libelits)
 * Outokumpu.vaakuna.svg Outokumpu
 * Polvijärvi.vaakuna.svg Polvijärvi

Central Karelia sub-region Pielinen Karelia sub-region
 * Kitee.vaakuna.svg Kitee (Kides)
 * Rääkkylä.vaakuna.svg Rääkkylä
 * Tohmajärvi.vaakuna.svg Tohmajärvi
 * Lieksa.vaakuna.svg Lieksa
 * Nurmes.vaakuna.svg Nurmes

Education
Institutions of higher education in North Karelia include:
 * University of Eastern Finland
 * North Karelia University of Applied Sciences
 * Riveria Vocational Education and Training

Politics
Results of the 2019 Finnish parliamentary election in North Karelia:

 * Centre Party 24.46%
 * Social Democratic Party 21.41%
 * Finns Party 18.83%
 * Green League 9.93%
 * National Coalition Party 9.01%
 * Christian Democrats 6.68%
 * Left Alliance 5.26%
 * Blue Reform  2.24%
 * Movement Now  0.96%
 * Seven Star Movement  0.21%
 * Other parties  1.01%

In popular culture
The song "Pohjois-Karjala" ("North Karelia") by the Finnish pop rock band Leevi and the Leavings tells the story of an urban man who dreams of returning to his native region of North Karelia. It has become such a big hit in North Karelia that it is almost perceived as a regional song.

title: North Karelia