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Riboswitch

In molecular biology, a riboswitch is a regulatory segment of a messenger RNA molecule that binds a small molecule, resulting in a change in production of the proteins encoded by the mRNA. Thus, an mRNA that contains a riboswitch is directly involved in regulating its own activity, in response to the concentrations of its effector molecule. The discovery that modern organisms use RNA to bind small molecules, and discriminate against closely related analogs, expanded the known natural capabilities of RNA beyond its ability to code for proteins, catalyze reactions, or to bind other RNA or protein macromolecules.

The original definition of the term "riboswitch" specified that they directly sense small-molecule metabolite concentrations. Although this definition remains in common use, some biologists have used a broader definition that includes other cis-regulatory RNAs. However, this article will discuss only metabolite-binding riboswitches.

Most known riboswitches occur in bacteria, but functional riboswitches of one type (the TPP riboswitch) have been discovered in archaea, plants and certain fungi. TPP riboswitches have also been predicted in archaea, but have not been experimentally tested.

History and discovery
Prior to the discovery of riboswitches, the mechanism by which some genes involved in multiple metabolic pathways were regulated remained mysterious. Accumulating evidence increasingly suggested the then-unprecedented idea that the mRNAs involved might bind metabolites directly, to affect their own regulation. These data included conserved RNA secondary structures often found in the untranslated regions (UTRs) of the relevant genes and the success of procedures to create artificial small molecule-binding RNAs called aptamers. In 2002, the first comprehensive proofs of multiple classes of riboswitches were published, including protein-free binding assays, and metabolite-binding riboswitches were established as a new mechanism of gene regulation.

Many of the earliest riboswitches to be discovered corresponded to conserved sequence "motifs" (patterns) in 5' UTRs that appeared to correspond to a structured RNA. For example, comparative analysis of upstream regions of several genes expected to be co-regulated led to the description of the S-box (now the SAM-I riboswitch), the THI-box (a region within the TPP riboswitch), the RFN element (now the FMN riboswitch) and the B12-box (a part of the cobalamin riboswitch), and in some cases experimental demonstrations that they were involved in gene regulation via an unknown mechanism. Bioinformatics has played a role in more recent discoveries, with increasing automation of the basic comparative genomics strategy. Barrick et al. (2004) used BLAST to find UTRs homologous to all UTRs in Bacillus subtilis. Some of these homologous sets were inspected for conserved structure, resulting in 10 RNA-like motifs. Three of these were later experimentally confirmed as the glmS, glycine and PreQ1-I riboswitches (see below). Subsequent comparative genomics efforts using additional taxa of bacteria and improved computer algorithms have identified further riboswitches that are experimentally confirmed, as well as conserved RNA structures that are hypothesized to function as riboswitches.

Mechanisms
Riboswitches are often conceptually divided into two parts: an aptamer and an expression platform. The aptamer directly binds the small molecule, and the expression platform undergoes structural changes in response to the changes in the aptamer. The expression platform is what regulates gene expression.

Expression platforms typically turn off gene expression in response to the small molecule, but some turn it on. The following riboswitch mechanisms have been experimentally demonstrated.
 * Riboswitch-controlled formation of rho-independent transcription termination hairpins leads to premature transcription termination.
 * Riboswitch-mediated folding sequesters the ribosome-binding site, thereby inhibiting translation.
 * The riboswitch is a ribozyme that cleaves itself in the presence of sufficient concentrations of its metabolite.
 * Riboswitch alternate structures affect the splicing of the pre-mRNA.
 * A TPP riboswitch in Neurospora crassa (a fungus) controls alternative splicing to conditionally produce an Upstream Open Reading Frame (uORF), thereby affecting the expression of downstream genes
 * A TPP riboswitch in plants modifies splicing and alternative 3'-end processing
 * A riboswitch in Clostridium acetobutylicum regulates an adjacent gene that is not part of the same mRNA transcript. In this regulation, the riboswitch interferes with transcription of the gene. The mechanism is uncertain but may be caused by clashes between two RNA polymerase units as they simultaneously transcribe the same DNA.
 * A riboswitch in Listeria monocytogenes regulates the expression of its downstream gene. However, riboswitch transcripts subsequently modulate the expression of a gene located elsewhere in the genome.  This trans regulation occurs via base-pairing to the mRNA of the distal gene.  As the temperature of the bacterium increases, the riboswitch melts, allowing transcription.  Unpublished undergraduate research created a similar riboswitch or 'thermosensor' via random mutagenesis of the Listeria monocytogenes sequence.

Types
The following is a list of experimentally validated riboswitches, organized by ligand.
 * Cobalamin riboswitch (also B12-element), which binds either adenosylcobalamin (the coenzyme form of vitamin B12) or aquocobalamin to regulate cobalamin biosynthesis and transport of cobalamin and similar metabolites, and other genes.
 * cyclic AMP-GMP riboswitches bind the signaling molecule cyclic AMP-GMP. These riboswitches are structurally related to cyclic di-GMP-I riboswitches (see also "cyclic di-GMP" below).
 * cyclic di-AMP riboswitches (also called ydaO/yuaA) bind the signaling molecule cyclic di-AMP.
 * cyclic di-GMP riboswitches bind the signaling molecule cyclic di-GMP in order to regulate a variety of genes controlled by this second messenger. Two classes of cyclic di-GMP riboswitches are known: cyclic di-GMP-I riboswitches and cyclic di-GMP-II riboswitches.  These classes do not appear to be structurally related.
 * fluoride riboswitches sense fluoride ions, and function in surviving high levels of fluoride.
 * FMN riboswitch (also RFN-element) binds flavin mononucleotide (FMN) to regulate riboflavin biosynthesis and transport.
 * glmS riboswitch, which is a ribozyme that cleaves itself when there is a sufficient concentration of glucosamine-6-phosphate.
 * Glutamine riboswitches bind glutamine to regulate genes involved in glutamine and nitrogen metabolism, as well as short peptides of unknown function. Two classes of glutamine riboswitches are known: the glnA RNA motif and Downstream-peptide motif.  These classes are believed to be structurally related (see discussions in those articles).
 * Glycine riboswitch binds glycine to regulate glycine metabolism genes, including the use of glycine as an energy source. Previous to 2012, this riboswitch was thought to be the only that exhibits cooperative binding, as it contains contiguous dual aptamers. Though no longer shown to be cooperative, the cause of dual aptamers still remains ambiguous.
 * Lysine riboswitch (also L-box) binds lysine to regulate lysine biosynthesis, catabolism and transport.
 * manganese riboswitches bind manganese ions.
 * NiCo riboswitches bind the metal ions nickel and cobalt.
 * PreQ1 riboswitches bind pre-queuosine1, to regulate genes involved in the synthesis or transport of this precursor to queuosine. Three entirely distinct classes of PreQ1 riboswitches are known: PreQ1-I riboswitches, PreQ1-II riboswitches and PreQ1-III riboswitches.  The binding domain of PreQ1-I riboswitches are unusually small among naturally occurring riboswitches.  PreQ1-II riboswitches, which are only found in certain species in the genera Streptococcus and Lactococcus, have a completely different structure, and are larger, as are PreQ1-III riboswitches.
 * Purine riboswitches binds purines to regulate purine metabolism and transport. Different forms of the purine riboswitch bind guanine (a form originally known as the G-box) or adenine.  The specificity for either guanine or adenine depends completely upon Watson-Crick interactions with a single pyrimidine in the riboswitch at position Y74. In the guanine riboswitch this residue is always a cytosine (i.e. C74), in the adenine residue it is always a uracil (i.e. U74).  Homologous types of purine riboswitches bind deoxyguanosine, but have more significant differences than a single nucleotide mutation.
 * SAH riboswitches bind S-adenosylhomocysteine to regulate genes involved in recycling this metabolite that is produced when S-adenosylmethionine is used in methylation reactions.
 * SAM riboswitches bind S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) to regulate methionine and SAM biosynthesis and transport. Three distinct SAM riboswitches are known: SAM-I (originally called S-box), SAM-II and the SMK box riboswitch. SAM-I is widespread in bacteria, but SAM-II is found only in Alpha-, Beta-, and a few Gammaproteobacteria. The SMK box riboswitch is found only in the order Lactobacillales.  These three varieties of riboswitch have no obvious similarities in terms of sequence or structure.  A fourth variety, SAM-IV riboswitches, appears to have a similar ligand-binding core to that of SAM-I riboswitches, but in the context of a distinct scaffold.
 * SAM-SAH riboswitches bind both SAM and SAH with similar affinities. Since they are always found in a position to regulate genes encoding methionine adenosyltransferase, it was proposed that only their binding to SAM is physiologically relevant.
 * Tetrahydrofolate riboswitches bind tetrahydrofolate to regulate synthesis and transport genes.
 * TPP riboswitches (also THI-box) binds thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) to regulate thiamin biosynthesis and transport, as well as transport of similar metabolites. It is the only riboswitch found so far in eukaryotes.
 * ZMP/ZTP riboswitches sense ZMP and ZTP, which are by-products of de novo purine metabolism when levels of 10-Formyltetrahydrofolate are low.

Presumed riboswitches:
 * Moco RNA motif is presumed to bind molybdenum cofactor, to regulate genes involved in biosynthesis and transport of this coenzyme, as well as enzymes that use it or its derivatives as a cofactor.

Candidate metabolite-binding riboswitches have been identified using bioinformatics, and have moderately complex secondary structures and several highly conserved nucleotide positions, as these features are typical of riboswitches that must specifically bind a small molecule. Riboswitch candidates are also consistently located in the 5' UTRs of protein-coding genes, and these genes are suggestive of metabolite binding, as these are also features of most known riboswitches. Hypothesized riboswitch candidates highly consistent with the preceding criteria are as follows: crcB RNA Motif, manA RNA motif, pfl RNA motif, ydaO/yuaA leader, yjdF RNA motif, ykkC-yxkD leader (and related ykkC-III RNA motif) and the yybP-ykoY leader. The functions of these hypothetical riboswitches remain unknown.

Computational models
Riboswitches have been also investigated using in-silico approaches. In particular, solutions for riboswitch prediction can be divided into two wide categories:
 * riboswitch gene finders, i.e. systems aimed at uncovering riboswitches by genomic inspections, mostly based on motif-searching mechanisms. This group contains Infernal, the founding component of the Rfam database, and more specific tools such as RibEx or RiboSW.
 * conformational switch predictors, i.e. methods based on a structural classification of alternative structures, such as paRNAss, RNAshapes and RNAbor. Moreover, family-specific approaches for ON/OFF structure prediction have been proposed as well.

The SwiSpot tool somehow covers both the groups, as it uses conformational predictions to assess the presence of riboswitches.

The RNA world hypothesis
Riboswitches demonstrate that naturally occurring RNA can bind small molecules specifically, a capability that many previously believed was the domain of proteins or artificially constructed RNAs called aptamers. The existence of riboswitches in all domains of life therefore adds some support to the RNA world hypothesis, which holds that life originally existed using only RNA, and proteins came later; this hypothesis requires that all critical functions performed by proteins (including small molecule binding) could be performed by RNA. It has been suggested that some riboswitches might represent ancient regulatory systems, or even remnants of RNA-world ribozymes whose bindings domains are conserved.

As antibiotic targets
Riboswitches could be a target for novel antibiotics. Indeed, some antibiotics whose mechanism of action was unknown for decades have been shown to operate by targeting riboswitches. For example, when the antibiotic pyrithiamine enters the cell, it is metabolized into pyrithiamine pyrophosphate. Pyrithiamine pyrophosphate has been shown to bind and activate the TPP riboswitch, causing the cell to cease the synthesis and import of TPP. Because pyrithiamine pyrophosphate does not substitute for TPP as a coenzyme, the cell dies.

Engineered riboswitches
Since riboswitches are an effective method of controlling gene expression in natural organisms, there has been interest in engineering artificial riboswitches for industrial and medical applications such as gene therapy.

title: Riboswitch


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User:Itay~enwiki

shalom

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Itay~enwiki


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Ant spider

Ant spiders are members of the family Zodariidae. They are small to medium-sized eight-eyed spiders found in all tropical and subtropical regions of South America, Africa, Madagascar, Australia-New Guinea, New Zealand, Arabia and the Indian subcontinent. Most species are daytime hunters and live together with ants, mimicking their behavior and sometimes even their chemical traits. Although little is known about most zodariids, members of the genus Zodarion apparently feed only on ants; a number of other genera in the family are apparently also ant (or termite) specialists.

Genera
, the World Spider Catalog accepted the following genera:

 * Acanthinozodium Denis, 1966
 * Akyttara Jocqué, 1987
 * Amphiledorus Jocqué & Bosmans, 2001
 * Antillorena Jocqué, 1991
 * Asceua Thorell, 1887
 * Aschema Jocqué, 1991
 * Asteron Jocqué, 1991
 * Australutica Jocqué, 1995
 * Ballomma Jocqué & Henrard, 2015
 * Basasteron Baehr, 2003
 * Caesetius Simon, 1893
 * Cambonilla Jocqué, 2019
 * Capheris Simon, 1893
 * Cavasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2000
 * Chariobas Simon, 1893
 * Chilumena Jocqué, 1995
 * Cicynethus Simon, 1910
 * Colimarena Jocqué & Baert, 2021
 * Cryptothele L. Koch, 1872
 * Cybaeodamus Mello-Leitão, 1938
 * Cydrela Thorell, 1873
 * Cyrioctea Simon, 1889
 * Diores Simon, 1893
 * Dusmadiores Jocqué, 1987
 * Epicratinus Jocqué & Baert, 2005
 * Euasteron Baehr, 2003
 * Euryeidon Dankittipakul & Jocqué, 2004
 * Forsterella Jocqué, 1991
 * Habronestes L. Koch, 1872
 * Heliconilla Dankittipakul, Jocqué & Singtripop, 2012
 * Heradida Simon, 1893
 * Heradion Dankittipakul & Jocqué, 2004
 * Hermippus Simon, 1893
 * Hetaerica Rainbow, 1916
 * Holasteron Baehr, 2004
 * Indozodion Ovtchinnikov, 2006
 * Ishania Chamberlin, 1925
 * Lachesana Strand, 1932
 * Laminion Sankaran, Caleb & Sebastian, 2020
 * Leprolochus Simon, 1893
 * Leptasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2001
 * Leviola Miller, 1970
 * Lutica Marx, 1891
 * Malayozodarion Ono & Hashim, 2008
 * Mallinella Strand, 1906
 * Mallinus Simon, 1893
 * Masasteron Baehr, 2004
 * Mastidiores Jocqué, 1987
 * Microdiores Jocqué, 1987
 * Minasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2000
 * Murphydrela Jocqué & Russell-Smith, 2022
 * Neostorena Rainbow, 1914
 * Nostera Jocqué, 1991
 * Nosterella Baehr & Jocqué, 2017
 * Notasteron Baehr, 2005
 * Omucukia Koçak & Kemal, 2008
 * Palaestina O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1872
 * Palfuria Simon, 1910
 * Palindroma Jocqué & Henrard, 2015
 * Parazodarion Ovtchinnikov, Ahmad & Gurko, 2009
 * Pax Levy, 1990
 * Pentasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2001
 * Phenasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2001
 * Platnickia Jocqué, 1991
 * Procydrela Jocqué, 1999
 * Psammoduon Jocqué, 1991
 * Psammorygma Jocqué, 1991
 * Pseudasteron Jocqué & Baehr, 2001
 * Ranops Jocqué, 1991
 * Rotundrela Jocqué, 1999
 * Selamia Simon, 1873
 * Spinasteron Baehr, 2003
 * Spinozodium Zamani & Marusik, 2022
 * Storena Walckenaer, 1805
 * Storenomorpha Simon, 1884
 * Storosa Jocqué, 1991
 * Subasteron Baehr & Jocqué, 2001
 * Suffascar Henrard & Jocqué, 2017
 * Suffasia Jocqué, 1991
 * Suffrica Henrard & Jocqué, 2015
 * Systenoplacis Simon, 1907
 * Tenedos O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897
 * Thaumastochilus Simon, 1897
 * Tropasteron Baehr, 2003
 * Tropizodium Jocqué & Churchill, 2005
 * Trygetus Simon, 1882
 * Workmania Dankittipakul, Jocqué & Singtripop, 2012
 * Zillimata Jocqué, 1995
 * Zodariellum Andreeva & Tyschchenko, 1968
 * Zodarion Walckenaer, 1826

title: Ant spider


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Draco

Draco is the Greco-Latin word for serpent, or dragon.

Draco or Drako most often refers to:

 * Draco (constellation), a constellation in the northern part of the sky
 * Draco (lawgiver) (from Greek: Δράκων; 7th century BC), the first lawgiver of ancient Athens, from whom the term draconian is derived

Draco or Drako may also refer to:

People

 * Draco (physician) (from Greek: Δράκων), the name of several physicians in the family of Hippocrates
 * Draco Rosa (born 1969), a Puerto Rican songwriter and former member of Puerto Rican boy band Menudo
 * Dean Drako, American businessman

Literature, film, and television

 * Draco Malfoy, a character in the Harry Potter series
 * Drako, a character in the Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles franchise
 * Draco (Caminhos do Coração), a character from the 2008 Brazilian telenovela Os Mutantes - Caminhos do Coração
 * Draco, the name of the last dragon in the film Dragonheart.
 * Draco, a character from Hercules: The Legendary Journeys and Xena: Warrior Princess
 * Antares Draco, an Imperial Knight from Star Wars: Legacy
 * Jaq Draco, an Inquisitor who is the protagonist of Ian Watson's Inquisition War Trilogy
 * Marc Ange Draco, head of European crime syndicate and James Bond's father-in-law in Ian Fleming's novels

Games

 * Draco, a character in the fictional opera The Dream Oath: Maria and Draco in Final Fantasy VI
 * Draco, a dragon from the card game Magic: The Gathering
 * Draco Centauros, a dragon-like humanoid from the Puyo Puyo video game series, and one of the 3 main protagonists in the third main game in the series, Puyo Puyo Sun.
 * Dragonair, a Dragon-type Pokémon known as "Draco" in the French versions of the game
 * Draco, a legendary brawler from the mobile game Brawl Stars

Music

 * Draco and the Malfoys, an American rock band
 * "Draco" (song), by Future, 2017

Brand or business

 * Draco Pistol
 * Draco, a civilian version of the Pistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965
 * Draco, a guitar built by B.C. Rich guitars

History

 * Draconian constitution, or Draco's code, a 7th-century BC written law code
 * Dacian Draco, a Dacian military standard composed of a wolf head and snake tail
 * Draco (military standard), a Roman cavalry military standard in the shape of a dragon, adopted after the Dacian Wars

Science and technology

 * Draco (dwarf galaxy), a dwarf galaxy orbiting the Milky Way
 * Draco Supercluster (SCL 114), a galaxy supercluster in the constellation Draco
 * Draco (lizard), a genus of gliding lizards
 * Draco, a widely used synonym of Dracaena (plant)
 * Dracaena draco, a species of dragon tree
 * Draco (rocket engine), an orbital maneuvering thruster being built for the SpaceX Dragon and upper stage of the Falcon 9 spacecraft
 * Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO), a US DOD program
 * SuperDraco, a liquid rocket engine designed and built by SpaceX. Used for the launch escape system of the SpaceX Dragon 2
 * DRACO, camera module of NASAs DART Mission
 * Draco (programming language), a shareware programming language for CP/M and the Amiga
 * DraCo, a partly Amiga compatible computer built by MacroSystem AG
 * Draco Linux, a Linux distribution
 * DRACO, a group of experimental antiviral drugs

Other uses

 * Draco Peak, a summit in Alberta, Canada
 * Draco Racing, a motorsports team in Italy
 * Draco, name given by the U.S. cable channel The Weather Channel to the December 2012 North American blizzard
 * Draco, a prototype of a SPAA version of the Centauro 8x8 fighting vehicle of the Italian Army

title: Draco


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Draco (programming language)

Draco was a shareware programming language created by Chris Gray. First developed for CP/M systems, Amiga version followed in 1987.

Although Draco, a blend of Pascal and C, was well suited for general purpose programming, its uniqueness as a language was its main weak point. Gray used Draco for the Amiga to create a port of Peter Langston's game Empire.

title: Draco (programming language)


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Saint-Éloi, Quebec

Saint-Éloi is a parish municipality in the region of Bas-Saint-Laurent, Quebec, Canada. Its population was 310 in the Canada 2021 Census.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Saint-Éloi had a population of $310$ living in $136$ of its $151$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $286$. With a land area of 65.77 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Notable residents
Notable people born in Saint-Éloi include jazz musician Alain Caron and Quebec premier Adélard Godbout.

title: Saint-Éloi, Quebec


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Glossary of differential geometry and topology

This is a glossary of terms specific to differential geometry and differential topology. The following three glossaries are closely related:
 * Glossary of general topology
 * Glossary of algebraic topology
 * Glossary of Riemannian and metric geometry.

See also:
 * List of differential geometry topics

Words in italics denote a self-reference to this glossary.

A

 * Atlas

B

 * Bundle – see fiber bundle.

 * basic element – A basic element $$x$$ with respect to an element $$y$$ is an element of a cochain complex $$(C^*, d)$$ (e.g., complex of differential forms on a manifold) that is closed: $$dx = 0$$ and the contraction of $$x$$ by $$y$$ is zero.

C

 * Chart

 * Cobordism

 * Codimension – The codimension of a submanifold is the dimension of the ambient space minus the dimension of the submanifold.

 * Connected sum

 * Connection

 * Cotangent bundle – the vector bundle of cotangent spaces on a manifold.

 * Cotangent space

D

 * Diffeomorphism – Given two differentiable manifolds $$M$$ and $$N$$, a bijective map $$f$$ from $$M$$ to $$N$$ is called a diffeomorphism – if both $$f:M\to N$$ and its inverse $$f^{-1}:N\to M$$ are smooth functions.

 * Doubling – Given a manifold $$M$$ with boundary, doubling is taking two copies of $$M$$ and identifying their boundaries. As the result we get a manifold without boundary.

E

 * Embedding

F

 * Fiber – In a fiber bundle, $$\pi:E \to B$$ the preimage $$\pi^{-1}(x)$$ of a point $$x$$ in the base $$B$$ is called the fiber over $$x$$, often denoted $$E_x$$.

 * Fiber bundle

 * Frame – A frame at a point of a differentiable manifold M is a basis of the tangent space at the point.

 * Frame bundle – the principal bundle of frames on a smooth manifold.

 * Flow

G

 * Genus

H

 * Hypersurface – A hypersurface is a submanifold of codimension one.

I

 * Immersion

 * Integration along fibers

L

 * Lens space – A lens space is a quotient of the 3-sphere (or (2n + 1)-sphere) by a free isometric action of Z – k.

M

 * Manifold – A topological manifold is a locally Euclidean Hausdorff space. (In Wikipedia, a manifold need not be paracompact or second-countable.) A $$C^k$$ manifold is a differentiable manifold whose chart overlap functions are k times continuously differentiable. A $$C^\infty$$ or smooth manifold is a differentiable manifold whose chart overlap functions are infinitely continuously differentiable.

N

 * Neat submanifold – A submanifold whose boundary equals its intersection with the boundary of the manifold into which it is embedded.

O

 * Orientation of a vector bundle

P

 * Parallelizable – A smooth manifold is parallelizable if it admits a smooth global frame. This is equivalent to the tangent bundle being trivial.

 * Poincaré lemma

 * Principal bundle – A principal bundle is a fiber bundle $$P \to B$$ together with an action on $$P$$ by a Lie group $$G$$ that preserves the fibers of $$P$$ and acts simply transitively on those fibers.

 * Pullback

S

 * Section

 * Submanifold – the image of a smooth embedding of a manifold.

 * Submersion

 * Surface – a two-dimensional manifold or submanifold.

 * Systole – least length of a noncontractible loop.

T

 * Tangent bundle – the vector bundle of tangent spaces on a differentiable manifold.

 * Tangent field – a section of the tangent bundle. Also called a vector field.

 * Tangent space

 * Thom space

 * Torus

 * Transversality – Two submanifolds $$M$$ and $$N$$ intersect transversally if at each point of intersection p their tangent spaces $$T_p(M)$$ and $$T_p(N)$$ generate the whole tangent space at p of the total manifold.

 * Trivialization

V

 * Vector bundle – a fiber bundle whose fibers are vector spaces and whose transition functions are linear maps.

 * Vector field – a section of a vector bundle. More specifically, a vector field can mean a section of the tangent bundle.

W

 * Whitney sum – A Whitney sum is an analog of the direct product for vector bundles. Given two vector bundles $$\alpha$$ and $$\beta$$ over the same base $$B$$ their cartesian product is a vector bundle over $$B\times B$$. The diagonal map $$B\to B\times B$$ induces a vector bundle over $$B$$ called the Whitney sum of these vector bundles and denoted by $$\alpha \oplus \beta$$.


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Minzu

Minzu can refer to:

 * Minzu (民族), on the means "ethnic group", "nation" and "race".
 * Zhonghua minzu, a key political term in modern Chinese history
 * Ethnic minorities in China (Chinese: shǎoshù mínzú)
 * See also: List of ethnic groups in China
 * Minzu University of China
 * Minzu railway station (Inner Mongolia), on the Beijing–Baotou railway
 * Minzu railway station (Taiwan), on the Pingtung line in Kaohsiung
 * Minzu Township (民族乡) in Li County, Gansu, in China

title: Minzu


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Alain Caron

Alain Caron may refer to:

 * Alain Caron (ice hockey) (1938–1986), Canadian ice hockey player
 * Alain Caron (bassist) (born 1955), French Canadian jazz bassist

title: Alain Caron


text:
Talk:Labour economics

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 28 August 2019 and 4 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Morganrasco0315.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 02:04, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Ideology?
Could we please have some names behind these theories ? And could we please have a critique section ?

older entries
In writing/editing this article I have tried to present the basic concepts of LE to both non-economists and undergrad economics students. There may be one or two places near the end of the article that the non-economist will have difficulty with, and there will be some places near the beginning that the economics undergrad will find simplistic, but I hope I've acheived a reasonable balance.

This article just skims the surface of LE. I have deliberately omitted such LE concepts as:

 * labour markets and fiscal policy
 * labour markets and general equilibrium
 * aggregate supply derivation
 * employment and inflation
 * minimum wage laws
 * human capital theory
 * unions and collective bargaining
 * discrimination
 * unemployment insurance
 * income tax
 * payroll tax

I think all of these are better handled as separate articles. Firstly, because they are not central to LE fundamentals, and secondly the article is already 9 computer screens long (which is 3 screens longer than my usual self imposed limit). mydogategodshat 23:59, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I added a brief section on social networks. I don't actually know much about the subject, but it's an important critique because it questions the basic assumptions of using market-based analysis of employment. I might be biased here since I've never held a job I didn't hear about through personal connections, but it seems important to me. Isomorphic 07:46, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

---

This is a very good article on labour economics. I like the split between macro and micro economics too, it is organized nicely. Plus there is room to add the classical and Marxist views of labour too since its categorized in that fashion also.

One thing could be added to the criticisms part and is the neglected role of unpaid labour. Even though labour is unpaid it still can play an important in society, like child raising, but is often neglected in many economic models. Usually it is left out since it is difficult to incorporate it (usually because it is difficult to measure unpaid work), or the best method of incorporating it is disagreed upon. There are a few problems with not including the unpaid labour variable, or any significant variable, in a model. One is that the model’s conclusions might be biased, recommendations cannot be maid on the basis of promoting the good from unpaid labour since it is ignored.

Even though I am not necessarily a fan of Karl Marx, his views are a good contrast to neo classical - classical economics view of labour. A brief excerpt on him might be good, but if being featured on the front page is eminent then I wouldn’t worry about it in the short run. I only have partial notes on Marx / labour from my studies though since I exchanged my Marx class for a class in which the professor didn’t take attendance ;). It’s hard to find unbiased views on Marx or sites that explain his ideas in economic terms clearly.

A brief excerpt could be added on the importance of labour economics since unemployment is the macroeconomic problem that affects the public most directly and severely. You could add that full employment is a goal, i.e. normative economics, of many democracies and one role of labour economics is to try and achieve the full employment objective. That could then segway into a contrast between free market and command economies too since one benefit of command economies is constant full employment.--ShaunMacPherson 10:44, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Shaun, Thanks for the insights, I have added some of your comments to the article. Feel free to add more. mydogategodshat 04:41, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

leisure normal good ?
Removed:
 * This presupposes that leisure is a normal good, something which is not provable: lottery winners who continue in work for their own fulfilment may provide a possible counter-example.

Lottery winners do not provide a counter example unless they work more than they did before winning the lottery. In order for leisure to to be an inferior good,  if someone got more income (without a wage increase, otherwise you have the substition effect) they would want to work more. Another way to think of it would be that if say, welfare was canceled, saying leisure was inferior would imply that fewer people would now want to work. I don't think this makes sense.Jrincayc 13:23, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I take the point on the lottery winner. However there is still an unstated assumption that leisure is a normal good, i.e. that the income effect reduces labour supply, or in other words if unearned income increases and hourly wage rates stay the same then an individual will reduce the number of hours worked.  This might "make sense" but that does not make it true for everyone.  To try another example, I could imagine a mother finding that because of her husband's income she could afford to employ a childminder and get a paid job herself to provide more variety in her life, which she might not be able to do if her husband was poorer.  No doubt there are other possible examples and each might not "make sense" in itself, but the point I am trying to make is that there is an unstated assumption which should be stated. --Henrygb 15:55, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I must give you points for creativity, and it took me some time to figure out the problem with your new story. There are (at least) two ways to look at child care by a parent.  The first is to assume that it is leisure time (this is made implicitly by some aggragate statistics like GDP).  The second is to assume that it is work (unpaid accounting cost wise, paid by the cost that it would be spent to have someone else take care of the child opportunity cost wise).  In your story with parent switching to paid labour, the accounting cost of child care must be greater than the pay of the job for the mother, otherwise, the couple would have switched before the husband got the raise (since the mother was only able to switch after).  Therefore, oppertunity cost wise, the mother is paying to work.  Therefore, I think that she at least did not consider taking care of her children to be leisure (or, more probably, she had passed her saturation point of taking care of the childred being a good).  So, I would consider that the mother considered the choice to be between two forms of work, and not between the 'leisure' of taking care of kids and the 'work' of paid labour.  I do consider your example to be a good example of the problems of using the definition of leisure to be non-paid time.  I don't consider it to be an example of leisure as a inferior good.  Jrincayc 16:12, 18 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I do not agree that leisure normality (and therefore employment inferiority) is assumed in the article. This is an imperical question that is handled in the supply of labour diagram that shows leisure normality (employment inferiority) in part of the supply curve and leisure inferiority (employment normality) in another part of the curve. If there is an assumption here, it is that leisure can be either a normal or inferior good. mydogategodshat 16:41, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I read that part of the article as saying that sometimes the income effect is bigger than the substitution effect and sometimes the other way round. I do not read it as saying that they could both be pointing in the same direction.  --Henrygb 16:52, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * You are right. It dosnt address it specifically.
 * It may be possible that in the inferior case an increase in unearned income will lead to a decrease in the demand for leisure, which ,given our assumptions, will lead to an increase in the supply of labour services, but this would be a very rare occurance, in my opinion. mydogategodshat

labor or labour?

 * Do we use British spellings on this site? Labour vs. labor?
 * Both spelling systems are acceptable here. If an article's topic suggests either British or American spelling as more natural, then that spelling is favored (i.e. articles about British politicians are likely to use British spelling.) Otherwise it's a free-for-all.  Isomorphic
 * Since the US pretty much rules the universe, just go with "labor"... 124.82.13.154 19:05, 29 May 2007 (UTC)
 * The main Wikipedia policies on spelling (see WP:ENGVAR) are:
 * Each article consistently uses the same conventions of spelling and grammar (e.g., British, Canadian); for example, center and centre are not to be used in the same article.
 * and:
 * If an article has evolved using predominantly one variety, the whole article should conform to that variety, unless there are reasons for changing it on the basis of strong national ties to the topic.
 * It appears that this article was first written using British English. So by Wikipedia policy, it seems to me that the article should stay that way. --Rinconsoleao 13:48, 24 September 2007 (UTC)

 * I think that even though the field of modern labour economics has evolved in the US with the US spelling, it is still the "economics of trading one's effort for money" which is "economics of labour" or "labour economics". —Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.124.73.203 (talk) 10:05, 8 December 2009 (UTC)

 * So this was discussed three years ago, but no one corrected it since? Changed to British spelling - it was the dominant usage. It looked quite silly before, with "labour" in the title and both usages in the lead. ʝungle  jill  11:21, 14 June 2012 (UTC)

Recently the article underwent the usual labor/labour conversion again. I returned it to the "labour" spelling, as per WP:ENGVAR and the matching title.--Bookandcoffee (talk) 17:09, 7 November 2012 (UTC)

--It was originally started in American English. It was switched by some users for no apparent reason. This has been discussed many times. If there isn't a strong community response to keep this ill-begotten change, I'll change it back in late-July 2015 (it's currently June 2015). ipuser 94.14.212.141 (talk) 06:01, 23 June 2015 (UTC)

Different structures
The page doesn't include anything about different labour market structures which I think is important - ie the difference between internal labour markets where senior appointments are made internally and people tend to stay in the same firms, and occupational labour markets where people move more - I though that was an important aspect of the subject? DavidAndrew

Request for references
Hi, I am working to encourage implementation of the goals of the Verifiability policy. Part of that is to make sure articles cite their sources. This is particularly important for featured articles, since they are a prominent part of Wikipedia. The Fact and Reference Check Project has more information. Thank you, and please leave me a message when you have added a few references to the article. - Taxman 19:24, Apr 21, 2005 (UTC)

Examples?
I am an undergraduate student studying economics. I check Wikipedia to scout out possible examples for my studies. Do the contributing editors consider an example of a (for example) perfectly competitive labour market?

comment,question on first sentence?
The first sentence states this: "Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning of the market and dynamics for labour." I am not sure market in this sense has an ambiguous meaning (what kind of market? is labour economics always about markets?). Eg, would a work like this fit into the above description: Stone Age Economics by Marshall Sahlins ? Or Kautsky's Agrarian Question (specifically am thinking of the analysis of self-exploitation by peasants)? A potential revision for this sentence might be: "Labour economics seeks to understand the functioning, cost and dynamics of labour."--Goldsztajn (talk) 23:48, 25 January 2009 (UTC)

comment, question on Compensation and measurement
"Wage is a basic compensation for labour" should this not be qualified as ""Wage is a basic compensation for *paid* labour"? Unfree labour or unpaid labour does not produce wages, but surely concepts within the rubric of labour economics?--Goldsztajn (talk) 23:52, 25 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Changed.--Goldsztajn (talk) 11:34, 1 February 2009 (UTC)

dubious assertions
The section on microeconomics of labor asserts:
 * The labour market also acts as a non-clearing market. Whereas most markets have a point of equilibrium without excess surplus or demand, the labour market is expected to have a persistent level of unemployment. Contrasting the labour market to other markets also reveals persistent compensating differentials among similar workers.

 * The competitive assumption leads to clear conclusions — workers earn their marginal product of labour.

These assertions are misleading. The way they are written makes it sound as if 'non-clearing' means supply>demand. But what's emphasized instead in the modern search and matching theory that won this year's Nobel is the simultaneous existence of unemployed workers and unfilled vacancies. That is, the modern approach emphasizes frictions that prevent all transactions from occurring instantaneously. It does not claim insufficient demand for labor.

So the dubious assertions should either be deleted, or they should be rewritten in a way that emphasizes frictions (and directs the reader to the later section on search and matching theory. Rinconsoleao (talk) 08:25, 21 October 2010 (UTC)

"Core Issues in Ethics" Category?
Does anyone know why this page is in this category? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.135.37.11 (talk) 17:01, 9 January 2012 (UTC)

Please review Motivation crowding theory
A respondent to my request for peer review of Motivation crowding theory suggested that I ask for comments and article improvement ideas here. I am most interested in ideas for expansion. Please respond at Talk:Motivation crowding theory. Thank you! Selery (talk) 16:36, 22 January 2012 (UTC)

Category
Why is "Labor Economics," a major field of economics, "part of a series on Organized Labor"? Although organized labor is explored in labor economics, it is a scholarly discipline with a wide scope. I think this article would be better off as part of a series on Economics, as its current categorization suggests the Labor Economics has an ideological slant towards organized labor. Mr.glegg (talk) 14:19, 31 January 2015 (UTC)mr.glegg @Mr.glegg

Revert to original spelling please
Why is this article still in British English after it was obviously started in American English, and was changed without any consent? Shouldn't it still be at Labor economics as it was started in 2002? ipuser 94.14.212.141 (talk) 06:07, 23 June 2015 (UTC)
 * people are as well to ignore the above comment as it's posted by a well-known anti-british troll — Preceding unsigned comment added by 171.99.189.241 (talk) 11:27, 23 June 2015 (UTC)

Dr. Stancanelli's comment on this article
Dr. Stancanelli has reviewed this Wikipedia page, and provided us with the following comments to improve its quality:

"1. . If 12 individuals each take one month before they start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as a single unemployed worker. Technological advancement often reduces frictional unemployment, for example: internet search engines have reduced the cost and time associated with locating employment.

This does not clarify but complicates. II would drop this example.

2. If 4 workers each take six months off to re-train before they start a new job, the aggregate unemployment statistics will record this as two unemployed workers.

Again I would drop this example.

3. Compensating differentials among similar workers

Compensating differentials should compensate for differences in job penalties, but I am not sure that this is what is meant here. I would rather say:

earning differentials among similar workers

4. However, they are constrained by the hours available to them.

This forgets the budget constraint. Perhaps change to:

However, they are constrained by the hours and income available to them.

Or to:

Individual choices are constrained by their pay (per hour worked) and other non-labor income available to them, as well as by the hours available over their (working) lifetime. 5. Max U(wL +pgrec, A) Subject to L+A <= K

again this forgets the budget constraint, and also forgets consumption and assumes that all income is consumed (no savings)  so should read

Max U(C, A) Subject to L+A <= K & wL+ pgrec= C"

We hope Wikipedians on this talk page can take advantage of these comments and improve the quality of the article accordingly.

We believe Dr. Stancanelli has expertise on the topic of this article, since he has published relevant scholarly research:

 * Reference : Elena Stancanelli & Arthur Van Soest, 2012. "Joint Leisure Before and After Retirement : a double Regression Discontinuity Approach," Universite Paris1 Pantheon-Sorbonne (Post-Print and Working Papers) halshs-00768901, HAL.

ExpertIdeasBot (talk) 16:39, 2 August 2016 (UTC)

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Macroecnomics of Labor Section
Why are there no citations for this section? The information in this section is easily verifiable by any macroeconomics textbook. Would anyone oppose me using Mankiw's Principles of Macroeconomics text in order to rephrase and add citations to this section? Morganrasco0315 (talk) 16:48, 9 October 2019 (UTC)

Information Approaches section
Would anyone be opposed to changing the title of the section to "Asymmetric Information"? I was thoroughly confused by the title of the section and how it linked to the information provided in the section. Actually, would anyone mind if I included more information from Managerial Economics written by Froeb (and others) in order to more explain how adverse selection and its role in work? Morganrasco0315 (talk) 16:56, 9 October 2019 (UTC)

Grammatical errors / non-native speaker contribution
“The labour market in macroeconomic theory shows that the supply of labour exceeds demand, which has been proven by salary growth that lags productivity growth. When labour supply exceeds demand, salary faces downward pressure due to an employer's ability to pick from a labour pool that exceeds the jobs pool. However, if the demand for labour is larger than the supply, salary increases, as employee have more bargaining power while employers have to compete for scarce labour.“ 50.93.222.59 (talk) 02:45, 27 June 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Labour economics


text:
Christopher Condent

Condent (died 1734), born in Plymouth in Devon, was an English pirate who was best known for his piracies in the Indian Ocean.

His real name is uncertain; French sources from the time of his retirement refer to him as "Edward Congdon." He has been known under the surnames Condent, Congdon, Coudon, Comdon, Connor, Condell, or Gonwel; various given names also arise, including William, Christopher, Edmond, Edward, or John. His frequently-encountered nickname was "Billy One-Hand". He is most commonly known as Christopher Condent but "Christopher" as his given name was not seen in period sources and dates only to the 1950s.

History
Around 1718, when Woodes Rogers became governor of the Bahamas, and was tasked with ridding the Caribbean of pirates, Condent and his crew left New Providence. During a trip across the Atlantic Ocean, Condent killed an Indian crewmember, who threatened to ignite the ship's powder magazine. Shortly after, the ship captured a merchantman, the Duke of York. After a dispute, the crew split up between the two ships, with Condent elected captain of the sloop. At the Cape Verde Islands, Condent and his men captured a ship carrying Portuguese wine. Condent then sailed to Brazil, where he took more prizes, occasionally cutting off the ears and noses of Portuguese prisoners. He then returned to the area around Cape Verde, where he captured a flotilla of twenty small ships and a Dutch war sloop off Santiago. Condent kept the warship, and named it Dragon.

Condent seized the English galley, the Wright, a Portuguese ship, and a 26-gun Dutch vessel. Leaving the Wright behind, he led a fleet of three ships to the Gold Coast (Ghana) where they captured the Indian Queen, the Fame, and another Dutch ship.

By April 1719, Condent had reached the island of Sainte-Marie, Madagascar. There he integrated some of John Halsey's old crew into his own. After a successful cruise to the East Indies they captured a rich Arab trading ship called Faza Ramance. Condent and his crew returned to the island of Sainte-Marie, dividing their haul into around £3,000 each. While there he traded with visiting British slavers and merchants, one of whom reported that Condent and his crew had so much treasure, they "need not go to sea again as long as they lived". In 1721 Condent and forty other members of his crew sailed to the island of Bourbon where they negotiated with the French governor for a pardon; twenty or more of the men settled on the island; Condent went on to marry the governor's sister-in-law. At Réunion he was visited by pirates Levasseur, Taylor, and Seagar who had captured the Portuguese Viceroy of Goa aboard the fantastically wealthy Nossa Senhora do Cabo. Condent negotiated between the pirates and the island's Governor for the Viceroy's release. In 1723 Condent travelled to France, where he settled down with his wife in Brittany and became a wealthy merchant in Saint-Malo. The last of his surviving crew died in the Mascarene Islands in 1770. One of his former crew who remained at Madagascar was James Plaintain, who established a trading post and set himself up as a local "King" with his share of treasure from the Faza Ramance.

His Ship
At first thought to be William Kidd's Adventure Galley, the "Fiery Dragon" was claimed to have been found by Barry Clifford off the coast of Sainte-Marie, Madagascar, where it was purposely sunk in 1721. However, a UNESCO analysis of Clifford's discovery reported that Clifford had instead found an unrelated ship of Asian origin.

Flag
The Jolly Roger flag generally associated with Condent - three skulls-and-crossbones on a black flag or banner - first appeared in Mariner's Mirror in 1912, though it was not attributed to Condent and was dated to 1704. A similar design was printed in Basil Lubbock's “Blackwall Frigates” in 1922 and F. Bradlee's "Piracy in the West Indies and its suppression” in 1923, again not attributed to Condent. Charles Grey attributed it to him in 1933 in “Pirates of the Eastern Seas” but without citing any evidence. The only period source describing his flag is an article in The St. James Post from June 1718 describing his ships "who appear'd with flags having a Deaths Head on them."

title: Christopher Condent


text:
Digital printing

Digital printing is a method of printing from a digital-based image directly to a variety of media. It usually refers to professional printing where small-run jobs from desktop publishing and other digital sources are printed using large-format and/or high-volume laser or inkjet printers.

Digital printing has a higher cost per page than more traditional offset printing methods, but this price is usually offset by avoiding the cost of all the technical steps required to make printing plates. It also allows for on-demand printing, short turnaround time, and even a modification of the image (variable data) used for each impression. The savings in labor and the ever-increasing capability of digital presses means that digital printing is reaching the point where it can match or supersede offset printing technology's ability to produce larger print runs of several thousand sheets at a low price.

Process
The greatest difference between digital printing and analog methods, such as lithography, flexography, gravure, and letterpress, is that in digital printing (introduced in the 1980s) there is no need to replace the printing plate, whereas in analog printing the plates are repeatedly replaced. This results in quicker turnaround time and lower cost in digital printing, but typically a loss of detail in most commercial digital printing processes. The most popular methods include inkjet and laser printers, which deposit pigment and toner, respectively, onto substrates, such as paper, canvas, glass, metal, and marble.

In many of the processes, the ink or toner does not permeate the substrate, as does conventional ink, but forms a thin layer on the surface that may be additionally adhered to the substrate by a fuser fluid with thermal (toner) or ultraviolet curing (ink).

Fine art inkjet printing
Fine art digital inkjet printing is printing from a computer image file directly to an inkjet printer as a final output. It evolved from digital proofing technology from Kodak, 3M, and other major manufacturers, with artists and other printers trying to adapt these dedicated prepress proofing machines to fine-art printing. There was experimentation with many of these types of printers, the most notable being the IRIS printer, initially adapted to fine-art printing by programmer David Coons, and adopted for fine-art work by Graham Nash at his Nash Editions printing company in 1991. Initially, these printers were limited to glossy papers, but the IRIS Graphics printer allowed the use of a variety of papers that included traditional and non-traditional media. The IRIS printer was the standard for fine art digital printmaking for many years, and is still in use today, but has been superseded by large-format printers from other manufacturers such as Epson and HP that use fade-resistant, archival inks (pigment-based, as well as newer solvent-based inks), and archival substrates specifically designed for fine-art printing.

Substrates in fine art inkjet printmaking include traditional fine-art papers such as Rives BFK, Arches watercolor paper, treated and untreated canvas, experimental substrates (such as metal and plastic), and fabric. For artists making reproductions of their original work, inkjet printing is more expensive on a per-print basis than the traditional four-color offset lithography, but with inkjet printing the artist does not have to pay for the expensive printing-plate setup or the marketing and storage needed for large four-color offset print runs. Inkjet reproductions can be printed and sold individually in accordance with demand. Inkjet printing has the added advantage of allowing artists to take total control of the production of their images, including the final color correction and the substrates being used, with some artists owning and operating their own printers.

Digital inkjet printing also allows for the output of digital art of all types as finished pieces or as an element in a further art piece. Experimental artists often add texture or other media to the surface of a final print, or use it as part of a mixed-media work. Many terms for the process have been used over the years, including "digigraph" and "giclée". Thousands of print shops and digital printmakers now offer services to painters, photographers, and digital artists around the world.

Digital images are exposed onto true, light sensitive photographic paper with lasers and processed in photographic developers and fixers. These prints are true photographs and have continuous tone in the image detail. The archival quality of the print is as high as the manufacturer's rating for any given photo paper used. In large format prints, the greatest advantage is that, since no lens is used, there is no vignetting or detail distortion in the corners of the image.

Digital cylinder printing
Digital cylinder printing is when a machine directly lays ink onto a curved surface that usually is the wall of an object that has a circular cross section, and a constant, tapered, or variable diameter. Digital cylinder printing is a method of reproducing black-and-white or full-color images and text onto cylindrical objects, typically promotional products, through use of digital imaging systems.

The digital process is by definition faster than conventional screen printing, because it requires fewer production steps and less set-up time for multiple colors and more complex jobs. This in turn enables reduced run lengths.

The ability of digital cylinder printing machines to print full color in one pass, including primers, varnishes and specialty inks, enables multiple design techniques, which include:

 * Mirror prints: viewable on the inside and outside of glass or plastic
 * Tone on tone: solid matte-finished substrate enhanced with one ink or clear coat
 * Stained glass: color opaque enough to see through
 * Contouring
 * Etched

Full-wrap cylindrical printing also benefits from seamless borders with no visual overlap. For ease of print file preparation, original design artwork should be able to be imaged on cylinders and tapered items without the need for manipulation or distortion; i.e., flat images will print to scale on a curved surface, with software automatically making the adjustment. The more advanced systems available on the market can handle these requirements.

The digital cylindrical printing process involves inserting a cylinder-shaped item, or part, into a fixture, which securely holds it in place. The part then travels under a print head mechanism in which tiny droplets of CMYK (cyan, magenta, yellow, and black) inks are released in a specific pattern to form an image. Typically, one part is printed at a time and can require from 8 to 45 seconds to complete, depending on artwork complexity and quality. It is then finished with a UV coating to add a glossy finish and protect it from abrasion.

There are three different imaging techniques used by digital cylinder printing machines: multi-pass, single pass, and helical printing.

Multi-Pass: Multi-pass printing is when the print heads or printed object move axially in steps down the part, like a flatbed printer. The move time is inefficient and can lead to stitching artifacts between moves.

Single Pass: Single pass involves using an array of print heads to print the full image length with a single revolution of the printed object. Different colors are usually printed at different stations, leading to higher cost, increased complexity, and sensitivity to print nozzle drop-outs.

Helical Printing: Helical printing is a hybrid method between the single-pass and multi-pass approaches. Image data is mapped to allow continuous imaging in a helical pattern with a limited number of print heads. Users can optimize the print resolution, speed, and curing controls to optimize image quality or choose higher speed if quality isn't critical. Tapers can be imaged at high speed and curved vessels can be managed through the range of controls offered.

Items that can be printed using digital cylindrical processes include cups, tumblers, thermos bottles, bottles, makeup containers, machine parts, carrier tubes, pens, tubes, jars and others.

Applications
Digital printing has many advantages over traditional methods. Some applications of note include: personalization]] of printed materials
 * Desktop publishing – inexpensive home and office printing is only possible because of digital processes that bypass the need for printing plates
 * Commercial – Business Stationery - Including business cards, letterheads
 * Variable data printing – uses database-driven print files for the [[personalization|mass
 * Fine art – archival digital printing methods include real photo paper exposure prints and giclée prints on watercolor paper using pigment based inks.
 * Print on Demand – digital printing is used for personalized printing for example, children's books customized with a child's name, photo books (such as wedding photo books), or any other books.
 * Advertising – often used for outdoor vinyl banners and event signage, in trade shows, in the retail sector at point of sale or point of purchase, and in personalized direct mail campaigns.
 * Photos – digital printing has revolutionized photo printing in terms of the ability to retouch and color correct a photograph before printing.
 * Architectural Design – new media that conforms to a variety of surfaces has enabled interior and exterior spaces to be transformed using digitally printed wall murals and floor graphics.
 * Sleeking – The process of adding foil, holographic effects or even glossy and dull finishes by way of digital ink adhesion. This is done by digitally printing a rich black area where the user wants the sleeking to take place. The machine registers this and only adheres to this specific area.

title: Digital printing


text:
PL-11

PL-11 is a high-level machine-oriented programming language for the PDP-11, developed by R.D. Russell of CERN in 1971. Written in Fortran IV, it is similar to PL360 and is cross-compiled on other machines.

PL-11 was originally developed as part of the Omega project, a particle physics facility operational at CERN (Geneva, Switzerland) during the 1970s. The first version was written for the CII 10070, a clone of the XDS Sigma 7 built in France. Towards the end of the 1970s it was ported to the IBM 370/168, then part of CERN's computer centre.

A report describing the language is available from CERN.

title: PL-11


text:
Gary Jules

Gary Jules Aguirre Jr. (born March 19, 1969) is an American singer-songwriter, known primarily for his cover version of the Tears for Fears song "Mad World", which he recorded with his friend Michael Andrews for the film Donnie Darko. It became the UK Christmas number-one single of 2003.

Early life
Gary Jules was born in Fresno, California to Marie and Gary Aguirre. His family is descendant from Oklahoma, Ireland, France, Mexico and Spain. He attended The Bishop's School in La Jolla, California.

Songs
Jules recorded a cover of the song "Mad World" by Tears for Fears for the 2001 film Donnie Darko and released it as a single in December 2003. This timing allowed it to become the Christmas Number One single in the UK for that year.

He sang the cover on stage as a guest in a duet with French singer composer Mylène Farmer during her "Timeless (Mylène Farmer)" 2013 tour.

The cover also featured as background music in various television programs such as drama General Hospital, as well as individual episodes of Without a Trace, The O.C., Smallville, Jericho, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, House and Riverdale. The cover was used in the trailer for the 2010 film, The Crazies, and the Cavaliers Drum and Bugle Corps' 2010 Production, "Mad World".

In 2016, the cover was used in a commercial for Lloyd's Bank, which featured a horse galloping through different stages in people's lives.

Adam Lambert sang a cover of "Mad World" that was heavily influenced by Jules's version at two different points in his American Idol competition, as well as during the American Idols Live! 2009 tour. Following its appearance on the popular television show, Jules's cover of the song rose to No. 11 on the iTunes Store.

Electronic music producer Phutureprimitive remixed the Gary Jules version of "Mad World" and released it as an mp3 in 2011 with an accompanying video.

The song "Something Else" was featured on the Season 5 episode "My Fallen Idol" of the NBC show Scrubs.

The song "Gone Daddy" is based upon an experience that led to Jules relocating his family from Southern California to North Carolina. A neighbor was gunned down one night in Los Angeles and while the police were investigating the shooting, Jules approached one of the officers, explained that his child was napping, and asked if the officer knew when they would be finished. The officer said he did not know, but that the family could leave Los Angeles if they didn't like it. Jules took the advice to heart and relocated shortly thereafter.

Jules's song "Wichita" was inspired by a class he took at UCLA regarding Native American history. During the class he read a story about Native Americans following herds of bison around the nation to survive.

Jules was a surprise guest on a series of Parisian concerts of French singer Mylène Farmer, called Timeless 2013 (September 2013). In all the performances that take place in the Palais omnisport de Bercy, Gary Jules sings his cover of Mad World joined by Mylène Farmer. They follow by the duet song "Les Mots" that Mylène Farmer originally released in 2001 with Seal. So far Gary Jules is also part of the tour, as he was also performing during the concerts in Lyon.

Music videos

 * "Mad World" Directed by Michel Gondry (2004)
 * "Broke Window"
 * "Beautiful". Stop animation by Tony Clavelli. (2009)

Television placements

 * CBS CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ("Mad World", Season 1, episode 1-Pilot. Aired October 6, 2000.)
 * The WB Smallville ("Mad World", Season 2, episode 11-Visage. Aired January 14, 2003.)
 * NBC Third Watch ("Mad World", Season 4, episode 15-Collateral Damage: Part 2. Aired February 10, 2003.)
 * CBS Without A Trace ("Mad World", Season 2, episode 1-The Bus. Aired September 25, 2003.)
 * ABC Alias ("Something Else", Season 3, episode 3-Reunion. Aired October 12, 2003.)
 * CBS CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ("Mad World", Season 6, episode 2-Room Service. Aired September 29, 2005.)
 * CBS CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ("Mad World", Season 6, episode 14-Killer. Aired February 2, 2006.)
 * NBC Scrubs ("Something Else", Season 5, episode 21-My Fallen Idol. Aired May 2, 2006.)
 * CBS CSI: Crime Scene Investigation ("Mad World", Season 6, episode 24-Way To Go. Aired May 18, 2006.)
 * ABC Grey's Anatomy ("Falling Awake", Season 3, episode 12-Six Days: Part 2. Aired January 4, 2007.)
 * CBS Jericho ("Mad World", Season 1, episode 17-One Man's Terrorist. Aired April 4, 2007.)
 * ABC Brothers & Sisters ("Falling Awake", Season 1, episode 21-Grapes of Wrath. Aired May 6, 2007.)
 * TV3 Colors en sèrie (Spain) ("Mad World", Negre: El túnel al final de la llum.2007)
 * A&E The Cleaner ("Mad World", Season 1, episode 6-To Catch a Fed. Aired August 26, 2008.)
 * CW 90210 ("Greetings from the Side", Season 1, episode 9-Secrets and Lies. Aired November 4, 2008.)
 * NBC Friday Night Lights ("Beautiful", Season 3, episode 13-Tomorrow Blues. Aired January 14, 2009.)
 * NBC Life ("Been A Long Time", Episode 215-I Heart Mom. Aired February 18, 2009)
 * FX- Nip/Tuck ("Mad World", Season 6, episode 2 Enigma Aired October 21, 2009.)
 * CW Life Unexpected ("Falling Awake", Season 1, episode 1-Pilot. Aired January 18, 2010.)
 * ABC Private Practice ("The Old Days Are Gone", Season 3, episode 12-Best Laid Plans. Aired January 21, 2010.)
 * ABC General Hospital ("Mad World" – 23 episodes as Franco)
 * FOX So You Think You Can Dance? ("Mad World" (alternate version) (Season 7, week 7. Aired July 28, 2010.)
 * ID Investigation Discovery Stolen Voices, Buried Secrets ("Mad World (2011)
 * SYFY Being Human ("Mad World", Season 1, Episode 9 Aired March 2011.)
 * SYFY Helix ("Mad World", Season 1, Episode 9 "Level X" Aired February 28, 2014.)
 * SoHo (Australia) Wentworth ("Mad World", Season 2, episode 9 "The Fixer" Aired May 20, 2014.)
 * FOX Family Guy ("Mad World", Season 15, Episode 16 "Saturated Fat Guy" Aired March 19, 2017.)

Movie placements

 * Digging to China – "Greetings from the Side" (1997)
 * Donnie Darko (2001) ("Mad World")
 * Catch and Release – "Pills" (2006)
 * Lost Islands – "Mad World" (2008)
 * Fireflies in the Garden – "Greetings from the Side" (2008)
 * The Boondock Saints II: All Saints Day – "Mad World" (2009)
 * I Will Follow You into The Dark – "Mad World" (2010)
 * Bez naslova, Serbian movie – "Mad World "(2011)
 * Mad World – "Mad World "(2010)

Trailers

 * Xbox 360 Gears of War- "Mad World" (2006)
 * The Cleaner – "Mad World" (2008)
 * The Crazies – "Mad World" (2009)

Documentaries

 * Michel Gondry 2: More Videos (Before and After DVD 1) (2009)
 * appears in the "Mad World" segment
 * Joseph Aguirre's Next Year Country (2009)
 * soundtrack music

Theater
The playwright Stephen Adly Guirgis refers to Gary Jules in his play The Little Flower of East Orange. This show, directed by Philip Seymour Hoffman and starring Ellen Burstyn, premiered at the Public Theater in New York on April 6, 2008. The songs "Goodnight Billie" and "Little Greenie" were featured in the production. Specifically, in Act 1, Scene 3, the character Nadine plays "Little Greenie" and says "Okay...One time, I was gonna kill myself, but then I played this Gary Jules song like twenty-seven times." In the acknowledgments section of the Faber & Faber, Inc. published version of the play, Guirgis writes, "SPECIAL THANKS TO GARY JULES FOR THE MUSIC."

Albums

 * Greetings from the Side (1998)
 * Trading Snakeoil for Wolftickets (2001) - U.S. No. 144
 * Gary Jules (2006)
 * Bird (2008)

EPs

 * Live at Lime Presents Gary Jules (2009)
 * Daytrotter Session (2009)

Collaborations

 * Michael Andrews – Donnie Darko (2001)
 * Track 17 "Mad World" and Track 18 "Mad World (Alternate Mix)" (featured)
 * Jim Bianco – Handsome Devil (2004)
 * Track 6 "Tennessee Wedding" (background vocals)
 * Esquimaux – perfecto! (2005)
 * Track 12 "Honey & Dear" (featured)
 * Jim Bianco – Sing (2008)
 * Track 2 "Sing" and Track 6 "If Your Mama Knew" (background vocals)
 * Angel Taylor – Love Travels (2009)
 * guitar, mandolin, background vocals
 * Mylène Farmer – Timeless 2013 (2013)
 * Track 8 "Mad World" and Track 9 "Les mots" (live duets with Mylène Farmer)
 * Equal - 'Lost in the Evening" (feat Gary Jules) (2013)
 * vocals

title: Gary Jules


text:
Talk:Left-handedness

Hasty Conclusion
To start off, I am new here, and I apologize if I am not formatting this correctly. In the negative association of language section, there is an example of two Korean words sounding similar. The fact that they sound the simlar should not be an evidence given to support the idea of negative association. It'd be appropriate to point out that the root of the word, "right had" actually came from "correct hand" Thank you! (Please disregard my last post-brain cramp!)

Preference?
Left-handedness is not a preference, as falsely claimed in the lead. It is something born with, and cannot be chosen. AD 19:07, 17 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Response: There are degrees, some like myself are ambidextrous - I could probably have been set on the path to write with either hand - so I think preference is a good choice.

Lloque Yupanki
Early chronicles depict him in positive colors, as a skillful diplomat (see es:Lloque Yupanqui). The epithet "Yupanqui" also had only favorable connotations in the Inca era, it was a part of many Inca names such as Capac Yupanqui and Tupac Yupanqui. Raoul NK (talk) 10:49, 25 July 2011 (UTC)

Accident rate
This article discusses the problems caused by tools and machinery often being designed for right-handed operation but it does not go on to discuss the consequently increased accident rate for left-handed people. See Left-Handedness and Accident-Related Injury Risk Roger (talk) 09:17, 19 August 2011 (UTC)

The article also fails to mention specific design features that cause increase risk, as opposed to merely not being optimal. For example a lock button for an electric drill may end up under the palm of a left handed user instead of being positioned for an optional finger press; thus an inadvertent locking can cause the drill to fly out of control. The current article overlooks tools that are difficult to impossible to operate safely with the left hand. Hagrinas (talk) 23:09, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

Alternative Sexuality
Restored the alternative sexuality section. The Rahman & Symeonides abstract clearly states, "elevated paraphilic interests were correlated with elevated non-right handedness". In the introduction section of article (pg 166 Archive of Sexual behavior) the researchers reference pedophilia.

I got the homosexual reference from the wiki page /Handedness and sexual orientation, but that page had the % wrong, I corrected the % to align with the research. That is homosexual men have 82% greater odds of being non-right-handed than heterosexual men

Will expand negative correlations with left handedness to include stuttering, dyslexia, autism, when time permits. Witch Hazell (talk) 17:46, 25 September 2011 (UTC)

 * That article is probably where any mention belongs, not here. Since the small amount of 'research' being cited has 'suggested' but not verified any relationship, it definitively does not belong here, or any other article not associated with the claim. Dave Dial (talk) 22:14, 25 September 2011 (UTC)

Redirect
Should we redirect this to Handedness like we did to Right-handed? Just a thought. Levonscott User talk:Levonscott User:Levonscott 06:08, 21 October 2011 (UTC)
 * I think it should be kept separate and not a redirect. Somedifferentstuff (talk) 14:28, 7 February 2012 (UTC)
 * I oppose a redirect - there's simply too much in this article to easily incorporate into the 'Handedness' article. In fact, if all of this information was on that article I'd 100% support that it be moved to a new article. --Peter (Talk page) 23:12, 19 February 2012 (UTC)

 * Support. Difficult call to make, but there is a problem here that should be addressed.  I appreciate what Peter says, but most of what is on Handedness is already discussing left-handedness, as it differs from the more usual right-handedness.  So each article covers a great deal of the same ground and Wikipedia shouldn't have both.  The Handedness article is not as good an article.  (Compare 35 refs on Left-handedness to 25 on Handedness, for instance, and the large section on sports is primarily unsourced tangential waffle about baseball).  So if we were to merge then I'd suggest that much of the uncited stuff on Handedness be removed and replaced by this article. -- Escape Orbit  (Talk) 16:00, 26 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Having several articles discussing the same topic is not a problem, if one of them is a subtopic of the other. If there's enough content for two articles of course we can have both. Instead of merging and deleting, I suggest creating new articles for specific subtopics like theories of handedness and left-handedness and sports, and make good use of summary style linking them from both handedness and left-handedness. Another option is, instead of merging into Handedness, moving those sections to left-handedness. Given that most content is about left-handedness, that article should be the preferred place to have most of it. Diego (talk) 07:54, 13 May 2012 (UTC)

 * Oppose, and move the sections about left-handedness from handedness here. Diego (talk) 07:55, 13 May 2012 (UTC)

Hemispheric brain damage
The article fails to mention brain damage as a cause. It's important because physical hemispheric damage has a 50/50 chance of disabling the left or right side if it's the type that causes physical impairment. Therefore about half of the 90% naturally right handed individuals would end up left handed as a result, but only 5% of the overall population would become right handed as a result. Also, there's a strong correlation between such damage and impaired cognitive ability.

Thus sections of the article such as those on intelligence and income lack context. If the percentage of left handed individuals is artificially high at the "low" end, and statistically high at the "high" end, it would put lefties and righties on par with each other on average. But it would also explain why lefties with college educations do better financially (as is stated) and why increased intelligence can be possible among those without damage induced left handedness yet the same groups might show no statistical advantage overall.

This in not some sort of new theory that needs to be introduced, but merely a mention of what's already known based on an equal likelihood of damage to either side of the body in a random accident, in utero or otherwise. Hagrinas (talk) 23:24, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Left-handedness


text:
Talk:Color/Archive 1

Apparently pre-2003 contributions
White and Black are not truely colors, but the presence or absence of color.

When someone asks you what color snow is, you say white, not none. Black, white, and gray are not hues, but I think it is hard to say they are not colors.

The definition here is good, but the rest of this article (including the silly semantic dispute above) seems uninformed, culturally biased, and generally useless. The individual colors should have their own top-level pages as well, with dictionary-like entries and perhaps some coverage of cultural associations and specific uses.

A more thorough treatment should mention color spaces and standards, additive and subtractive mixing, digitization, optical effects, vision and perception in other animals, etc. The one standard reference on the non-biological science that everyone cites is The Reproduction of Colour by Dr. R. W. G. Hunt. Perhaps someone else can recommend a reference for the biological end of things? --LDC -- Is cyan (500 nm) a "familiar" spectral color in other cultures? Not in my U.S. ROYGBIV experience, but perhaps elsewhere, pending the results of an exhaustive search I have moved it out of the spectrum table and placed it here for safe-keeping -- FretPorpTine

I think it should go on the table since it is definitely a pure spectral color. The more we list, the better; I don't see how it helps to omit some pure spectral colors. The Encyclopedia Britannica lists it, but omits indigo. --AxelBoldt

Why were the colors made subpages of the color page? I don't see any good reason for this at all. I'm going to change it if someone doesn't convince me not to. (Actually, I hope someone else will change it.) --LMS

That colored text on the previous page hurts my eyes. Just wondering if the following table (or some variant of it) would be better or worse. --KQ

 * I like it a lot better and will steal it right away :-) --AxelBoldt

You can't steal what someone gives freely. :-) --KQ

I like the table, but I think using numeric values rather than color names would be more consistent across browsers ("green", for example, is a deep forest green on my browser, not a pure rainbow green), and I'd make it a little clearer that the English color names are only approximations, not actual distinct bands (though our brains do chop it up for us perceptually sometimes--but that's another article). I'd do it this way (with colors at 30° hue intervals):

--LDC

Violent and Magenta aren't really quite the same thing - it's a minor difference (like between indigo and blue), but magenta is not a spectral color.

I agree; this article is "color" not "electromagnetic spectrum". To me, that means it should focus on the human subjective experience of color. That's why I include all 360 degrees of the color wheel, and explicitly mention that the purples are mixtures rather than pure spectral colors. --LDC

 * But the table is about the rainbow spectrum of chromatic colors; maybe we should mention the color wheel and HSV space separately --Axel

I think that's an improvement, Lee. But it seems less than a 30° interval in the greens; the differences between green and either blue-green or yellow-green seems very subtle compared with the difference between any two other neighboring colors. I wonder if that's a problem with browsers on winME (I've tried Netscape 6.1, IE 5.5, and Opera 5.0) or with human perception. Does anyone know?

Oh, and in the top table Indigo does not show up in Opera 5.0. I guess they don't recognize that tag, which IIRC should mean it's not technically W3C compliant. --KQ

This one's better, but the wavelenghts seem to be a bit different from the ones we have now. I don't know which ones are right of course; I got the current ones from EB. --Axel

The "correctness" of the wavelengths will also vary with browser/video settings, so I might leave them out entirely (or put them into an article about the electromagnetic spectrum). My 11 colors are 30° intervals in HSV space converted to RGB; a different conversion might yield slightly different results. Until we get more info in here (like a CIE Lab chart), I think it's sufficient. --LDC

I'd prefer the (correct) wavelengths to be there. After all, how else can you define "blue" if not by giving its wavelength? --Axel

You misunderstand my point--the wavelengths are correct, for some monitor with certain settings on some video card on some coomputer with some software. It is not possible for it to be correct on all of them, because HTML doesn't specify colors as wavelengths--as well it shouldn't, because that's not how human eyes perceive it anyway. --LDC I'm not so concerned about the HTML colors -- of course they will be off on most machines. But I want the right color names for the right wavelengths. So if we call it cyan, it should be listed with cyan's wavelength and some vaguely cyan-like HTML RGB mixture. Also, the table occurs in the physics section of the article, and spectral colors are cleanly defined physically by their wavelengths. --Axel

The article is actually wrong when it describes how color is percieved. It is right about the human eye having three types of cones, but it is wrong about what wavelengths these cones are sensitive to. The "Red" cone doesn't correspond to the color red, in fact its sensitivity is at 560 nm (somwhere around where green is in the charts given). "Green" is sensitive to 530nm, and "blue" is sensitive to 430nm. These are peak sensitivities, of course, since the sensitivities are skewed bell curves ("Red" and "Green" have tails that extend in to the shorter wavelengths, and "Blue" has a tail that extends in to the longer wavelengths. They all of other tails, but they aren't as long).

 * I don't understand why you say the article is wrong. The three wavelengths you mention above are given in the article; the overlap of the sensitivity curves is mentioned as well. I don't see how the fact that the cone's outputs are already preprocessed in the eye does affect the three-dimensionality of the color space. It should definitely be written up in an article on color vision though. --AxelBoldt

 * The problem with the article is that it characterizes color vision as positive mixing of the signal inputs. Signal preprocessing in the eye means that some of the inputs are subtractive as well. This is why we don't percieve only three colors and mixes of them. Yellow, for instance, is distict from both blue and green even though, chomatically, they it is a mixture of the two. Also worth noting is that I have never seen indigo in a color spectrum. My source isn't the most reliable (high school physics teacher), but he claimed, "The spectrum isn't ROY G BIV, it is actually ROY G BV. People added indigo because they thought that the number seven was a special number, i.e. seven orifices on your head." So that the color space, as detected by our eyes, can be represented as a linear combination of red green and blue (although our eyes are actually sensitive to a full spectrum). Perceptually, in our minds, the color space has, potentially, 6 distinct colors.

 * Perhaps it would be nice if someone would take a good picture of an actual spectrum and label it instead of using internet tags.--BlackGriffen

Color perception isn't a binary operation where if a cone detects a color it sends a positive signal to the brain. In fact, image processing starts right in the eye itself. Rods and cones are divided in to roughly circular receptive fields. Each field represents input to bipolar cell, the type of neuron that carries visual signals back to the brain. I don't know whether or not the fields can overlap. In the center of each field is a circle whose diameter is about half the diameter of the field. The cells in the center of the field are either a type of cone or a rod. The outer ring of the field consists of rods if the inner field has rods, or cones that may not be of the same type if the inner fields have cones (in fact, I believe that the cones must be of a different type, since rods detect brightness). The inner field of cells inputs directly to the bipolar cell, and stimulating only that field increases the number of action potentials to the brain (n.b. there is a base line action potential frequency in the absence of light). The outer field inputs to a cell called the horizontal cell. The horizontal cell takes that stimulus and sends an inhibitory signal to the bipolar cell. This means that if only the outer field is stimulated the input to the brain can go down below baseline. If the entire field is stimulated, the exitatory signal will be greater than the inhibitory one because the number of cells giving the bipolar cell exitatory input outnumber the single cell giving the bipolar cell inhibitory input. Their numbers even outweigh the fact that the horizontal cell inputs closer to the axon hillock (still above the cell body, though).

Ok, so we have a physical description of the "pixel" of the eye, we're almost done explaining color. The trick is to realize that the surround will actually subtract its sensitivity from the sensitivity of the center to create the sensitivity profile of the field. So, when "Green" cones surround "Red" cones, subtraction of their sensitivity curves (with possible weight factors inherent in the physical design of the eye) yields a field with a peak sensitivity at 650 nm. Just by changing the arrangement of the cones ("green" center, "red" surround) yields a field with a peak sensitivity to about 500nm, a genuinely green field. Using this model, it is easy to demonstrate that the eye is sensitive to 6 different colors (9 if it is possible to have the same types of cones in center and surround).

Also note that this shows that some optical illusions are possible because of a design flaw in the eye itself: this field arrangement exaggerates high contrast boundaries in the signal to the brain. --BlackGriffen

I wouldn't call that a design "flaw"--that's just a built-in edge-detection filter, that works much the same way a digital convolution would. Edge and motion information is generally more important to survival than color, so it's natural that we would have evolved to favor it. In other words, that's not a bug, it's a feature. :-) --LDC

 * If we plot the spectral colors on a chart showing the corresponding stimuli of the receptors, we find they define a curve, and that only colors inside the curve can be observed. Also, given lights corresponding to two or more points, we can duplicate all the points (up to human perception) in the region of the chart they bound by mixing them.

I think we need a picture here, maybe DrBob can help? The way the chart is set up is not clear to me. Are the colors modeled as points in three dimensional space, the three coordinates of every color point being the responses of the three receptors? --AxelBoldt

I set up a primary colors and primary pigments page so that a more detailed (or specific perhaps) treatment can be given to both. Really, so that eventually I could isolate printing and painting issues from science issues. There is some duplicated information in them as of right now.

Also as this can resolve the "are black and white colors" since in light white is, and in pigment black is.

--Alan D

The recent changes added a mentioning of a "Zone theory" involving six primary colors. If anybody knows anything about this, it should be added, or a separate article written. I am highly skeptical though: if the input from the eyes is 3-dimensional, then no matter what trickery the brain does, it will never create a six-dimensional signal out of it (a lower-dimensional signal would be possible, but pointless). AxelBoldt, Saturday, May 25, 2002

title: Talk:Color/Archive 1


text:
Ancient Agora of Athens

The ancient Agora of Athens (also called the Classical Agora) is the best-known example of an ancient Greek agora, located to the northwest of the Acropolis and bounded on the south by the hill of the Areopagus and on the west by the hill known as the Agoraios Kolonos, also called Market Hill. The Agora's initial use was for a commercial, assembly, or residential gathering place.

North side of the agora

 * Stoa Poikile (Painted stoa), a building built in the 5th century B.C. used purely for socialising unlike many other buildings in the agora.
 * Altar of the Twelve Gods
 * Stoa Basileios (Royal stoa)
 * Temple of Aphrodite Urania
 * The south end of what is believed to be a Basilica has been uncovered near Hadrian Street and is dated to the mid 100s C.E.

East side of the agora

 * The Stoa of Attalos, a stoa lined with shops built in the 2nd century B.C. which has since been reconstructed for use as the Museum of The Ancient Agora.
 * The Square Peristyle was a law court originally located under the northern end of the Stoa of Attalos.
 * A collection of buildings were added to the south-east corner: the East stoa, the Library of Pantainos, the Nymphaeum and a temple.
 * The Library of Pantainos was more than just a library, the west and north wings were series of rooms that were used for other purposes other than storing books. With the construction of the Library of Pantainos, the official entrance into the agora was now between the Library and the Stoa of Attalos.
 * The Mint, a building which was used for the minting of bronze coinage in the 2nd and 3rd centuries B.C. but there is no evidence for it being used for the minting of Athenian silver coinage.
 * The Monopteros was located south of the Basilica and also dated to the mid 100s C.E. It had no walls, was a dome supported by columns and was about 8 meters in diameter.
 * The Bema was a speakers platform and was located near the Stoa of Attalos.

South side of the agora

 * The Middle stoa which was the most extensive monument built during the 2nd century B.C.
 * The Southwest Temple, built with material from Thorikos in the early first century AD.
 * South-east Fountain House
 * South Stoa I
 * Aiakeion

West side of the agora

 * Strategeion
 * Agoraios Kolonos
 * Tholos
 * Boundary stone
 * Monument of the Eponymous Heroes, a monument for the ten heroes of the tribes of Athens which was also used as a notice board for new legislation, public events and military conscription.
 * Metroon (Old Bouleuterion)
 * Bouleuterion
 * Temple of Hephaestus (Hephaestion)
 * Temple of Apollo Patroos
 * Stoa of Zeus
 * The Temple of Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria dated to the 300s B.C. and is located near the Temple of Apollo Patroos.
 * A statue of the Roman emperor Hadrian was located near the metroon.

Other notable monuments
A number of other notable monuments were added to the agora. Some of these included:
 * An Altar of Zeus Agoraios was added just to the east of the Monument to the Eponymous Heroes.
 * The Temple of Ares, dedicated to Ares, the god of war, was added in the north half agora, just south of the Altar of the Twelve Gods.
 * The Odeon of Agrippa and accompanying gymnasium were added in the centre of the agora.
 * There is evidence of a Synagogue in the Agora of Athens in the 3rd century.

Professions
In the 4th and 5th centuries, there was significant evidence of women being innkeepers and merchants selling their products in the market of the Athenian agora. Some of the products they sold included fruits, clothes, pottery, religious and luxury goods, perfume, incense, purple dye, wreaths, and ribbons.

Rituals
The Athenian calendar boasted several religious festivals that were held in the Athenian agora. These festivals were significant as they provided Ancient Athenian women with the opportunity to socialize outside of the home. Additionally, some of these festivals were performed by women; these duties included officiating the worship of goddess Athena, patron goddess of the city. Performing these rituals for goddesses was a prerequisite for the daughters of aristocratic families. Women of all ranks and classes could be seen making offerings at the small shrines in the agora. Some women also set up substantial memorials to their piety within the agora. Religious festivals were a significant opportunity for the women of Athens to participate in their social culture.

Marble-workers in the Athenian Agora
As of the early 5th century, the Ancient Agora of Athens was known as glorious and richly decorated, set with famous works of art, many of them sculpted from marble. The buildings of the Athenian Agora had marble decoration and housed dedications in the form of marble statues. Finds from the agora excavations identified that generations of marble-workers made the agora of Athens an important center for the production of marble sculptures. Marble-workers made sculptures, marble weights, sundials, furniture parts, and an assortment of kitchen utensils. Excavations of the Athenian agora revealed the remains of many marble-working establishments, various unfinished statues, reliefs, and utilitarian objects.

Marble workshops in the Agora
Excavations of the Athenian agora have proved that marble-workers were very active, the earliest workshops being established in the early 5th century. The earliest areas used by marble workers were the residential and industrial districts southwest of the agora. Another area where marble-workers set up shop was in the South Square, after the sack of Athens by the Roman general Sulla in 86 BC. As the South Square was in ruins, marble-workers were attracted to the remains of the marble temples. A workshop from the southern corner of the agora was also important, the Library of Pantainos rented out rooms to marble-workers.

Famous marble-workers in the Agora
Literacy and evidence from excavations give a sense of statues and famous marble sculptors in the Athenian agora. These famous marble-workers of the Agora include, the 5th-century master Phidias and his associate Alkamenes, and the 4th-century sculptors Praxiteles, Bryaxis, and Euphranor.

Phidias
Phidias was the most well known marble-worker to have worked in the agora. He was famous for his gold and ivory cult statue of Zeus at Olympia, and for his three lost sculptures of Athena.

Alcamenes
A well-known associate of Phidias was Alcamenes, whose most important works in the agora were the bronze cult statues of Hephaestus and Athena in the Temple of Hephaestus.

Praxiteles and Bryaxis
These famous sculptors are attested in the agora by the discovery of signed pieces of work that could no longer be preserved. A marble statue signed and possibly carved by Bryaxis was found in the agora behind the Royal Stoa.

Euphranor
The 4th century marble-worker known for his sculptures, made a colossal statue of Apollo for the Temple of Apollo Patroos on the west side of the agora.

Excavations
The ancient Athenian agora has been excavated by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA) since 1931 under the direction of Thomas Leslie Shear, Sr. His wife Josephine Platner Shear who supervised the digging and led the study and conservation of numismatics from the site, as well as making the discovery of a new 2nd-century C.E. Athenian coin. The excavation was negotiated and directed by the ASCSA's chair of the agora excavation committee, Edward Capps, whom the school would honor with a memorial overlooking the project. John McK Camp served as Director of the excavations since 1994, until his retirement in 2022. John K. Papadopoulos is now in the position of Director following Camp's retirement.

After the initial phase of excavation, in the 1950s the Hellenistic Stoa of Attalos was reconstructed on the east side of the agora, and today it serves as a museum and as storage and office space for the excavation team.

A virtual reconstruction of the Ancient Agora of Athens has been produced through a collaboration of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens and the Foundation of the Hellenic World, which had various output (3d video, VR real-time dom performance, and Google Earth 3d models).

During a 1974 excavation, a lead tablet was discovered. The tablet was a letter written by Lesis, a slave. It is was one few recorded instances of slave literacy.

Flora
Evidence of planting was discovered during the excavations and on 4 January 1954, the first oak and laurel trees were planted around the Altar of Zeus by Queen Frederika and King Paul as part of the efforts to restore the site with plants that would have been found there in antiquity.

Museum of the Ancient Agora
The museum is housed in the Stoa of Attalos, and its exhibits are connected with Athenian democracy. The collection of the museum includes clay, bronze and glass objects, sculptures, coins and inscriptions from the 7th to the 5th century B.C., as well as pottery of the Byzantine period and the Turkish occupation. The exhibition within the museum contains works of art which describe the private and public life in ancient Athens. In 2012, a new sculpture exhibition was added to the museum which includes portraits from Athenian Agora excavations. The new exhibition revolves around portraits of idealized gods, officially honored people of the city, wealthy Roman citizens during the Roman occupation (1st and 2nd century A.D.), 3rd-century citizens and finally on works of art from private art schools of late antiquity.

title: Ancient Agora of Athens


text:
Half Moon Hotel

The Half Moon Hotel in Coney Island, Brooklyn, New York, was a 225-foot-tall, 14-story hotel that opened on May 5, 1927, on the Riegelmann Boardwalk at West 29th Street. The Half Moon was built to help Coney Island compete with the beach resort Atlantic City, New Jersey. The hotel was designed by the architectural firm of George B. Post and Sons and built by the Cauldwell-Wingate Co.

It is best known as the location where Abe Reles, informant for the FBI who brought down numerous members of Murder, Inc., either jumped, fell or was pushed to his death on November 12, 1941, from room 623, where he was in protective custody of the New York City Police Department, a few hours before he was scheduled to testify against Albert Anastasia. Reles's death signified the reach that organized crime had into the police department – he was guarded by six police detectives. There was little doubt that Reles was defenestrated.

The name "Half Moon" refers to the name of explorer Henry Hudson's ship, which anchored off Gravesend Bay in Brooklyn (the location of Coney Island), while searching for a short cut to Asia.

During World War 2, the hotel was operated by the U.S. Navy and became known as the "U. S. Naval Special Hospital Sea Gate, NY", a convalescent hospital.

In the 1950s, it became a senior citizens' home called the Metropolitan Jewish Geriatric Center. They moved to another building and it was demolished in 1995. Today the Seagate Rehabilitation and Nursing Center is on the site.

title: Half Moon Hotel