text: Template:Møre og Romsdal

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Møre og Romsdal


text:
Bombacaceae

Bombacaceae were long recognised as a family of flowering plants or Angiospermae. The family name was based on the type genus Bombax. As is true for many botanical names, circumscription and status of the taxon has varied with taxonomic point of view, and currently the preference is to transfer most of the erstwhile family Bombacaceae to the subfamily Bombacoideae within the family Malvaceae in the order Malvales. The rest of the family were transferred to other taxa, notably the new family Durionaceae. Irrespective of current taxonomic status, many of the species originally included in the Bombacaceae are of considerable ecological, historical, horticultural, and economic importance, such as balsa, kapok, baobab and durian.

Current taxonomy
Recent phylogenetic research has shown that Bombacaceae as traditionally circumscribed (including tribe Durioneae) is not a monophyletic group. Bombacaceae is no longer recognized by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group I 1998, II 2003 and Kubitzki system 2003 at the rank of family, the bulk of the taxa in question being treated as subfamilies Bombacoideae and Helicteroideae within family Malvaceae sensu lato. A close relationship between Bombacaceae and Malvaceae has long been recognized but until recently the families have been kept separate in most classification systems, and continue to be separated in many references, including the reference work in classification of flowering plants: Heywood et al. 2007 and Takhtajan 2009, but have been lumped together in Angiosperm Phylogeny Website.

Heywood et al. say "although closely related to Malvaceae, molecular data supports their separation. Only pollen and habit seem to provide a morphological basis for the separation." On the other hand, they say: "One approach is to lump them [the families in the core Malvales, including Bombacaceae] all into a 'super' Malvaceae, recognizing them as subfamilies. The other, taken here, is to recognize each of these ten groups as families."

As circumscribed in its traditional sense, the family Bombacaceae includes around 30 genera (25 genera after Heywood et al. ) with about 250 species of tropical trees, some of considerable girth, so called "bottle trees". Many species grow to become large trees, with Ceiba pentandra the tallest, reaching a height to 70 m. Several of the genera are commercially important, producing timber, edible fruit or useful fibres. The family is noted for some of the softest hardwoods commercially traded, especially balsa, Ochroma lagopus. The fruit of the durian, Durio zibethinus is famous, tasting better than it smells. At one time kapok fibre from the tree Ceiba pentandra was used in making lifebuoys. The baobabs or "bottle trees" (Adansonia spp.) are important icons in certain parts of Africa, Australia and Madagascar, noted for their immensely stout trunk development, a mechanism for enhancing water storage.

Genera

 * Adansonia L.
 * Aguiaria Ducke
 * Bernoullia Oliv.
 * Bombax L.
 * Catostemma Benth.
 * Cavanillesia Ruiz & Pav.
 * Ceiba Mill.
 * Chiranthodendron Larreat. (according to Kubitzki in subf. Bombacoideae and considered more closely related to Fremontodendron by Baum et al. 2004 )
 * Eriotheca Schott & Endl.
 * Fremontodendron Coville (according to Heywood et al. )
 * Gyranthera Pittier
 * Huberodendron Ducke
 * Matisia Bonpl.
 * Neobuchia Urb.
 * Ochroma Sw.
 * Pachira Aubl.
 * Patinoa Cuatrec.
 * Pentaplaris L.O.Williams & Standl. (according to Kubitzki in subf. Bombacoideae, but incertae sedis )
 * Phragmotheca Cuatrec.
 * Pseudobombax Dugand
 * Quararibea Aubl.
 * Scleronema Benth.
 * Septotheca Ulbr.
 * Spirotheca Ulbr. (according to Heywood et al. )
 * Genera of tribe Durioneae excluded from Bombacaceae after Heywood et al. 2007 and that should be included in Durionaceae:
 * Boschia Korth.
 * Coelostegia Benth.
 * Cullenia Wight
 * Durio Adans.
 * Kostermansia Soegeng
 * Neesia Blume
 * Genus that should be excluded from Bombacaceae after Heywood et al. 2007 and that be included in Malvaceae s. s.
 * Camptostemon Mast.
 * Genera considered synonym after Kubitzki 2003
 * Bombacopsis Pittier = Pachira Aubl.
 * Chorisia Kunth = Ceiba Mill.
 * Rhodognaphalon (Ulbr.) Roberty = Pachira Aubl.
 * Genus not treated in Kubitzki
 * Lahia Hassk., synonym of Durio, according to Mabberley

title: Bombacaceae


text:
Durio

Durio is a genus of plants in the family Malvaceae. Several species produce an edible fruit known as durian, the most common species being Durio zibethinus. There are 30 recognized species in the genus Durio, but only nine produce edible fruit.

Taxonomy
Durio sensu lato has 30 recognised species. Durio sensu stricto comprises 24 of these species. The 6 additional species included in Durio s.l. are now considered by some to comprise their own genus, Boschia. Durio s.s. and Boschia have indistinguishable vegetative characteristics and many shared floral characteristics. The crucial difference between the two is that anther locules open by apical pores in Boschia and by longitudinal slits in Durio s.s. These two genera form a clade that is sister to another genus in the tribe Durioneae, Cullenia. These three genera together form a clade that is characterised by highly modified (mono- and polythecate, as opposed to bithecate) anthers.

The genus Durio is placed by some taxonomists in the family Bombacaceae, or by others in a broadly defined Malvaceae that includes Bombacaceae, and by others in a smaller family of just seven genera, Durionaceae.

Durio is often included in Bombacaceae because of the presence of monothecate anthers, as opposed to the bithecate anthers common to the rest of the mallows (and angiosperms, in general). However, the first studies to examine mallow phylogeny using molecular data found that the tribe Durioneae should be placed in the subfamily Helicteroideae of an expanded Malvaceae. The authors of these studies hypothesise that monothecate anthers have most likely evolved convergently in Durioneae and in the Malvatheca clade (comprising Malvaceae s.l. subfamilies Malvoideae and Bombacoideae).

Description
There are 30 recognized species in the genus Durio, but only nine produce edible fruit. Durian is the only species available on the international market: the other species are sold only in their local regions. The name "durian" is derived from the Indo-Malay word "duri" which refers to the fruit's many protuberances.

Often considered the king of fruits, durian is distinguished by its large size, repulsive odor, and fearsome thorny husk. The fruit can grow up to 30 centimeters long and 15 centimeters in diameter, and typically weighs one to three kilograms. Its shape ranges from oblong to round, the color of its husk from green to brown, and its flesh from pale yellow to red, depending on the species.

The edible flesh emits a distinctive odor that is strong and penetrating, even when the husk is intact. The smell, depending on the person, evokes rotting onions, turpentine, or even sewage. The persistence of its odor has led to its ban in some hotels and public transport in Southeast Asia.

On March 4, 2023, a plane flying from Istanbul to Barcelona was forced to turn back because of the nauseating odor of the tropical fruit, transported in the hold.

Species

 * Durio acutifolius (Mast.) Kosterm.
 * Durio affinis Becc.
 * Durio beccarianus Kosterm. & Soegeng.
 * Durio bukitrayaensis Kosterm.
 * Durio burmanicus Soegeng.
 * Durio carinatus Mast.
 * Durio crassipes Kosterm.
 * Durio dulcis Becc.
 * Durio excelsus (Korth.) Bakh.
 * Durio grandiflorus Kosterm. & Soegeng
 * Durio graveolens Becc.
 * Durio griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.
 * Durio kinabaluensis Kosterm & Soegeng
 * Durio kutejensis Hassk. & Becc.
 * Durio lanceolatus Mast.
 * Durio lissocarpus Mast.
 * Durio lowianus Scort. & King
 * Durio macrantha Kosterm.
 * Durio macrolepis Kosterm.
 * Durio macrophyllus Ridl.
 * Durio malaccensis Planch.
 * Durio mansoni (Gamble) Bakh.
 * Durio oblongus Mast.
 * Durio oxleyanus Griff.
 * Durio pinangianus Ridl.
 * Durio purpureus Kosterm. & Soegeng.
 * Durio singaporensis Ridl.
 * Durio testudinars Becc.
 * Durio wyatt-smithii Kosterm.
 * Durio zibethinus L.

title: Durio


text:
User:Jcobb

As of 2005, I'm a freshman in college whose interests are primarily in Mathematics and Physics. I'd been using Wikipedia for some time, so I decided to sign up and try to help the cause.

My Interests:
 * Number Theory
 * Foundational Mathematics
 * General Relativity and QFT

Contributions-Things I added actual content to
 * M-theory (simplified)
 * Spontaneous symmetry breaking
 * Robinson arithmetic
 * Stern-Brocot tree
 * Zero-sum problems
 * Space-like
 * Bicategory
 * Strain tensor
 * Bézout's lemma
 * Drag equation
 * Babylonian literature and science
 * Electroweak force
 * Quillen-Suslin theorem
 * Timeline of algorithms
 * List of integrals of area functions
 * Elliptic curves

Have a heart help some of the less fortunate.

title: User:Jcobb


text:
Talk:Lord Gort

What on earth is this page doing redirecting to the page it currently points to? Whatever happened to the principle of least surprise?

Lord Gort should unquestionably redirect to the Lord Gort who is vastly more famous than all the other Lord Gorts put together: that is, the individual currently suffering under the ridiculously arcane and longwinged handle John Standish Surteees Prendergast Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort. Tannin 10:52, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Oh, hello, now he has been moved to John Vereker, 6th Viscount Gort. Marginally better, but still as silly as schitzoid cat on amphetamines. Tannin

Seeing as the page didn't exist five minutes ago it's a bit rich to complain about it. Personally I think all Lord Whatever pages should point at the peerage or a disambiguation page, but if you want tochange it change it. Mintguy (T) 11:10, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I take your point. Nevertheless, if I say "Lord Gort" without qualification, everybody knows I mean the famous soldier and his biography should appear under his best-known name - particularly as no-one ever heard of any of the other Lord Gorts. I gather that some of the appropriate WikiProject people have been coming up with bizarre new naming conventions lately, and I'm afraid that if I move this to the correct title I'll get hammered by them. Tannin

Yes but this encyclopaedia is vastly more encyclopaedic (tautology?) than a conventional one. If this were purely an encyclopaedia of very famous persons then Lord Gort == 6th Viscount: no problem. But a now not insignificant part the Wikipedia is a project to list the complete peerage of Britain and the 6th Viscount has his place amongst the rest of them under the title Viscount Gort/Lord Gort. One of the reasons why I think that Lord Whatever should point at the peerage is because we are using any number of source materials that could pre-date the lifetime of the (currently) most famous holder of a particular peerage. If someone links reference a previous holder of a title to Lord Whatever and it ends up pointing at the wrong bloke it's very hard to discover the error and untangle the mess. I know my view is not popular though. so this is just for the record. Mintguy (T) 11:34, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Lord Gort


text:
Livio Berruti

Livio Berruti (born 19 May 1939) is an Italian former athlete who was the winner of the 200-meter dash in the 1960 Summer Olympics.

He won five medals, at individual level, and three medals with the national relay team at the International athletics competitions.

Biography
Berruti was born in Turin where he attended Liceo Classico "Cavour". After high school, while pursuing a degree in chemistry, he competed in the 1960 Rome Olympics. In the semi-finals of the 200 m, spurred by the home crowd, he unexpectedly ran in 20.5 seconds, equalling the then world record for that distance. This made him a surprise outsider for the final, later that day. In that race, Berruti, who was noted for always running with black glasses and white socks, once again clocked 20.5, beating the American favourites to the gold medal.

Anchoring the Italian 4 × 100 m relay team, Berruti narrowly missed out on a second Olympic medal, finishing in 4th. His world record was not beaten until June 1962, but his performance remained a European record for a further two years, until 21 June 1964.

His Olympic victory, at the beginning of his career, would remain his best achievement. His three appearances at the European Championships only brought him a 7th place in the 1966 200 m final. He did, however, win Italian titles in both the 100 and 200 m from 1957 until 1962, and two more 200 m titles in 1965 and 1968. Berruti also made two more Olympic appearances, in 1964 and 1968. On both occasions, he reached the final of the 4 × 100 m relay, and also placed 5th in the 200 m final of 1964.

National titles
Livio Berruti has won 14 times the individual national championship.
 * 6 wins in the 100 metres (1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962)
 * 8 wins in the 200 metres (1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1965, 1968)

Awards
On 7 May 2015, in the presence of the President of Italian National Olympic Committee (CONI), Giovanni Malagò, was inaugurated in the Olympic Park of the Foro Italico in Rome, along Viale delle Olimpiadi, the Walk of Fame of Italian sport, consisting of 100 tiles that chronologically report names of the most representative athletes in the history of Italian sport. On each tile are the name of the sportsman, the sport in which he distinguished himself and the symbol of CONI. One of these tiles is dedicated to Livio Berruti.

title: Livio Berruti


text:
Pancake sorting

Pancake sorting is the mathematical problem of sorting a disordered stack of pancakes in order of size when a spatula can be inserted at any point in the stack and used to flip all pancakes above it. A pancake number is the minimum number of flips required for a given number of pancakes. In this form, the problem was first discussed by American geometer Jacob E. Goodman. A variant of the problem is concerned with burnt pancakes, where each pancake has a burnt side and all pancakes must, in addition, end up with the burnt side on bottom.

All sorting methods require pairs of elements to be compared. For the traditional sorting problem, the usual problem studied is to minimize the number of comparisons required to sort a list. The number of actual operations, such as swapping two elements, is then irrelevant. For pancake sorting problems, in contrast, the aim is to minimize the number of operations, where the only allowed operations are reversals of the elements of some prefix of the sequence. Now, the number of comparisons is irrelevant.

The original pancake problem
The minimum number of flips required to sort any stack of $n$ pancakes has been shown to lie between $15⁄14n$ and $18⁄11n$ (approximately 1.07n and 1.64n), but the exact value is not known.

The simplest pancake sorting algorithm performs at most $2n − 3$ flips. In this algorithm, a kind of selection sort, we bring the largest pancake not yet sorted to the top with one flip; take it down to its final position with one more flip; and repeat this process for the remaining pancakes.

In 1979, Bill Gates and Christos Papadimitriou gave a lower bound of $17⁄16n$ (approximately 1.06n) flips and an upper bound of $(5n+5)⁄3$. The upper bound was improved, thirty years later, to $18⁄11n$ by a team of researchers at the University of Texas at Dallas, led by Founders Professor Hal Sudborough.

In 2011, Laurent Bulteau, Guillaume Fertin, and Irena Rusu proved that the problem of finding the shortest sequence of flips for a given stack of pancakes is NP-hard, thereby answering a question that had been open for over three decades.

The burnt pancake problem
In a variation called the burnt pancake problem, the bottom of each pancake in the pile is burnt, and the sort must be completed with the burnt side of every pancake down. It is a signed permutation, and if a pancake i is "burnt side up" a negative element i` is put in place of i in the permutation. In 2008, a group of undergraduates built a bacterial computer that can solve a simple example of the burnt pancake problem by programming E. coli to flip segments of DNA which are analogous to burnt pancakes. DNA has an orientation (5' and 3') and an order (promoter before coding). Even though the processing power expressed by DNA flips is low, the high number of bacteria in a culture provides a large parallel computing platform. The bacteria report when they have solved the problem by becoming antibiotic resistant.

The pancake problem on strings
The discussion above presumes that each pancake is unique, that is, the sequence on which the prefix reversals are performed is a permutation. However, "strings" are sequences in which a symbol can repeat, and this repetition may reduce the number of prefix reversals required to sort. Chitturi and Sudborough (2010) and Hurkens et al. (2007) independently showed that the complexity of transforming a compatible string into another with the minimum number of prefix reversals is NP-complete. They also gave bounds for the same. Hurkens et al. gave an exact algorithm to sort binary and ternary strings. Chitturi (2011) proved that the complexity of transforming a compatible signed string into another with the minimum number of signed prefix reversals—the burnt pancake problem on strings—is NP-complete.

History
The pancake sorting problem was first posed by Jacob E. Goodman, writing under the pseudonym "Harry Dweighter" ("harried waiter").

Although seen more often as an educational device, pancake sorting also appears in applications in parallel processor networks, in which it can provide an effective routing algorithm between processors.

The problem is notable as the topic of the only well-known mathematics paper by Microsoft founder Bill Gates (as William Gates), entitled "Bounds for Sorting by Prefix Reversal" and co-authored with Christos Papadimitriou. Published in 1979, it describes an efficient algorithm for pancake sorting. In addition, the most notable paper published by Futurama co-creator David X. Cohen (as David S. Cohen), co-authored with Manuel Blum, concerned the burnt pancake problem.

The connected problems of signed sorting by reversals and sorting by reversals were also studied more recently. Whereas efficient exact algorithms have been found for the signed sorting by reversals, the problem of sorting by reversals has been proven to be hard even to approximate to within certain constant factor, and also proven to be approximable in polynomial time to within the approximation factor 1.375.

Pancake graphs

An n-pancake graph is a graph whose vertices are the permutations of n symbols from 1 to n and its edges are given between permutations transitive by prefix reversals. It is a regular graph with n! vertices, its degree is n−1. The pancake sorting problem and the problem to obtain the diameter of the pancake graph are equivalent.

The pancake graph of dimension n, Pn can be constructed recursively from n copies of Pn−1, by assigning a different element from the set {1, 2, …, n} as a suffix to each copy.

Their girth:

 * $$g(P_n) = 6 \text{, if } n>2$$.

The γ(Pn) genus of Pn is:

 * $$n!\left( \frac{n-4}{6} \right)+1 \le \gamma(P_n) \le n!\left( \frac{n-3}{4} \right)-\frac{n}{2}+1 $$

Since pancake graphs have many interesting properties such as symmetric and recursive structures, small degrees and diameters compared against the size of the graph, much attention is paid to them as a model of interconnection networks for parallel computers. When we regard the pancake graphs as the model of the interconnection networks, the diameter of the graph is a measure that represents the delay of communication.

The pancake graphs are Cayley graphs (thus are vertex-transitive) and are especially attractive for parallel processing. They have sublogarithmic degree and diameter, and are relatively sparse (compared to e.g. hypercubes).

Algorithm
An example of the pancake sorting algorithm is given below in Python. The code is similar to bubble sort or selection sort.

Related integer sequences

 * {| class="wikitable" align="center" style="float: center; text-align: right;"

! rowspan=2 | Height $n$ !! colspan=16 | $k$ ! width="65px" | 0 !! width="65px" | 1 !! width="65px" | 2 !! width="65px" | 3 !! width="65px" | 4 !! width="65px" | 5 !! width="65px" | 6 !! width="65px" | 7 ! width="65px" | 8 !! width="65px" | 9 !! width="65px" | 10 !! width="65px" | 11 !! width="65px" | 12 !! width="65px" | 13 !! width="65px" | 14 !! width="65px"|15 ! 1 ! 2 ! 3 ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7 ! 8 ! 9 ! 10 ! 11 ! 12 ! 13
 * + Number of stacks of given height $n$ that require unique flips $k$ to get sorted
 * 1 || || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 1 || || || || || || || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 2 || 2 || 1 || || || || || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 3 || 6 || 11 || 3 || || || || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 4 || 12 || 35 || 48 || 20 || || || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 5 || 20 || 79 || 199 || 281 || 133 || 2 || || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 6 || 30 || 149 || 543 || 1357 || 1903 || 1016 || 35 || || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 7 || 42 || 251 || 1191 || 4281 || 10561 || 15011 || 8520 || 455 || || || || || ||
 * 1 || 8 || 56 || 391 || 2278 || 10666 || 38015 || 93585 || 132697 || 79379 || 5804 || || || || ||
 * 1 || 9 || 72 || 575 || 3963 || 22825 || 106461 || 377863 || 919365 || 1309756 || 814678 || 73232 || || || ||
 * 1 || 10 || 90 || 809 || 6429 || 43891 || 252737 || 1174766 || 4126515 || 9981073 || 14250471 || 9123648 || 956354 || 6 || ||
 * 1 || 11 || 110 || 1099 || 9883 || 77937 || 533397 || 3064788 || 14141929 || 49337252 || 118420043 || 169332213 || 111050066 || 13032704 || 167 ||
 * 1 || 12 || 132 || 1451 || 14556 || 130096 || 1030505 || 7046318 || 40309555 || 184992275 || 639783475 || 1525125357 || 2183056566 || 1458653648 || 186874852 || 2001
 * }

Sequences from The Online Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences:
 * – maximum number of flips
 * – number of stacks requiring the maximum number of flips (above)
 * – maximum number of flips for a "burnt" stack
 * – the number of flips for a sorted "burnt-side-on-top" stack
 * – the above triangle, read by rows

title: Pancake sorting


text:
Talk:Howard Pollock

Untitled
Two questions: Lupo 11:07, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Where is "Perkinston, Miss."? In Stone County, Mississippi, but Wikipedia doesn't seem to have an article about it. Did the Rambot miss something?
 * How did this guy end up a representative for Alaska? Born in Chicago, went to school in MS, studied in CA, TX, MA, lived 1998 in VA... where does Alaska come in?

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title: Talk:Howard Pollock


text:
Ishikawajima Ne-20

The Ishikawajima Ne-20 (石川島 ネ-20) was Japan's first turbojet engine. It was developed during World War II in parallel with the nation's first military jet, the Nakajima Kikka.

Design and development
The decision to manufacture this engine came about because of the unsuitability of two earlier powerplants selected for the Kikka, the Tsu-11 and the Ne-12. The Ne-20 was made possible by Imperial Japanese Navy engineer Eichi Iwaya obtaining photographs and a single cut-away drawing of the German BMW 003 engine.

Only a small number of these engines, perhaps fifty, were produced before the end of the war. Two of them were used to power the Kikka on its only flight on August 7, 1945. Only a few of the engines under construction survived. It was also planned to use the engine to power a version of the Ohka kamikaze weapon, but this was not implemented before the end of the war.

Variants

 * Ne-20:Standard production engines
 * Ne-20-Kai: Up-rated version

Engines on display
Three Ne-20s have been preserved to the present day, one at Ishikawajima-Harima's internal company museum in Tanashi, and two at the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum in Washington, DC.

title: Ishikawajima Ne-20


text:
Talk:DICT

(top scribble)
(Comments to be added at the end of the edit window. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 07:58, 1 April 2011 (UTC))

Dict IS a network protocol, as stated right on the first line, and NOT a file format, as it is implied in the rest of the article. The article is for the most part incorrect and confuses readers. See comments down this page.

The Spanish version of the article (http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/DICT) correctly describes Dict protocol and should be translated into English.

RFC2229 (talk) 20:45, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

(webster)
(Comments to be added at the end of the edit window. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 07:58, 1 April 2011 (UTC))

What is "webster protocol"?

Why doesn't Wikipedia support DICT?--69.150.136.26 17:55, 12 July 2006 (UTC)

You can do so offline via wik2dict. JeffBurdges 19:13, 5 October 2006 (UTC)

Though the question remains: Why doesn't Wikipedia support the dict protocol? Wouldn't it be great (and faster) if Wikipedia, Wiktionary etc. would be available through dictionary applications? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 62.226.17.67 (talk) 06:33, 29 September 2008 (UTC)

The "webster protocol" was implemented by client/server software running on the NeXT machine. In the late 1990's, some NeXT owners put their server on the public internet. For example: https://stuff.mit.edu/afs/sipb/project/NeXT/Webster — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.235.35.249 (talk) 01:46, 9 October 2016 (UTC)

modifications
Removed

 * Aioe.org hosts a large collection of free ready to use DICT dictionaries and a free DICT server

because it seems dead.

Added one client and a link for the GNU server. Rearranged the dictionary lists and divided them into (monolingual) dictionaries of English and bilingual dictionaries. Rearranged external links to push the protocol's RFC to the top.

I'm not sure whether this:

 * Lingvo English-Russian and Russian-English dictionaries are not free, but when purchased, can easily be converted into DICT format

should be listed among free dictionaries, it sounds like a plug.

I don't understand the fragment: ''There are also programs that read the DICT file format directly. For example (...)'' Well, don't the other clients read DICT directly?

DICT appears to have a wiki now, but I'm not sure it's worth a separate link. HTH! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 83.6.56.63 (talk) 17:11, 10 November 2009 (UTC)

Why doesn't this protocol hit the world?
Yeah, why, truly?! Because it suffers from not sufficiently documented. WWW.dict.org provides one rfc, and users aren't served by rfcs. I have a hard time finding and setting up database urls. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 08:03, 1 April 2011 (UTC)
 * It could hit the world, if our Wikimedia projects used it
 * Wiktionnary (requires specific microformats to allow complete processing ans separation of definitions by languages and lems), Wikispecies (the "DICT definitions" could a a list of subtaxons used to define a taxon "DICT word").
 * Even Wikipedia (article contents can be seen as "definitions" of the article name) could be available under the DICT protocol.
 * We could as well enumerate other things than just the main namespace of wikis; notably we could the contents enumerate categories as if they were "DICT definitions", given their parent category name used as a "DICT word"
 * In MediaWikis, the "DICT words" are exactly what can fit within a full Wiki page name. As these names use the colon as prefixes for namespaces (or interwikis) and slash (/) to index subpages, but also reserve the question mark (?) and hash (#), these could be used under all existing MediaWiki conventions to give parsable conventions for what can fit in a "DICT word". Thus these characters allow easy derivation creation of microformats, using templates already used in Wikitionnary to format the language sections, and their subsections and lems or to access to examples, external references.
 * Wiktionnary could also be able to transclude, via a Lua module and a formatting template inserted in articles, the contents of some other free DICT databases (such as those listed in "http://www.dict.org/")
 * As the Lua module would perform external requests, this could add delay to the delivery of pages, so its effect should be to perform requests on demand, possibly using a local cache for remote DICT servers It would most probably need jQuery to modufy the content of pages.
 * An interesting option to consider in the implementation is to include MIME support since the begining, to allow "Accept:" headers in queries (so it could return data in JSON or XML format, or in HTML format matching what is already generated in rendered Wiki pages, or plain text format; only the HTML format does not require the integration of parsable microformats in wiki pages), and "Accept-Encoding:" (the returned responses should be compressible in gzip or deflate formats, just like with out current HTML output). For using the "raw" wiki format (visible in wii code editors), the best option is to use a query parameter within "DICT words", such that a DICT query of the "article-name" (may be quoted) will return the definitions of "article-name", rendered as HTML by default, the query of the quoted "article-name?format=raw" would return the wiki code without rendering the wiki page...
 * With this extension of MediaWiki, we could then register all linguisitic editions Wiktionnarywithin dict.org and allow easier interchanges (and integration in softwares that already use DICT to look for various databases, to querty definitions, lookup orthographies in correctors, suggest replacement terms, control text style and prefered terminologies in some categorized domains).
 * Another option would be to have a separate DICT server (hosted in Wikimedia Labs) querying the normal Wiktionnary server (but parsing the microformats inserted in rendered wiki page), if it's not hosted simply in a "Special:DICT" page of the wiki server.
 * Also look at Wik2dict for such attempt to use the DICT protocol on Wikimedia projects and more generally on any Mediawiki server. It failed because its only goal was to convert static dumps of Mediawiki databases to giant static DICT files (to be used then on a separate DICT server). My opinion is that this would have succeeded if if was a true DICT server performing conversions on demand (with a local cache).
 * verdy_p (talk) 19:56, 20 September 2013 (UTC)

Resources without links
The list Bilingual dictionaries is completely useless if it contains only titles and no links. OhReally (talk) 12:41, 3 May 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:DICT


text:
Talk:Peugeot 205

POV
Dispute NPOV on the comment 'King of the GTIs'! While this was certainly one of the finest hot hatches of the era, a nod should be given to its direct competitor, the faster Renault 5 GT Turbo. The Mk.1 Golf was a revoluntionary car, which started the hot hatch era. The 205 GTI was merely a fine example from the crowd of vehicles that followed, including the Vauxhall Nova GSi/GSE, Ford Fiesta XR2/RS Turbo and so on. akaDruid 11:16, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I have removed 'king of the GTis' as this is a POV statement. --TheM62Manchester 10:09, 27 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Not if it's backed up sources, which would be fairly easy actually. --kingboyk (talk) 11:32, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

Writing style
"The 205 GRD (1.8 Diesel, 59 bhp, 78 lb/ft), for instance, was as fast yet smoother than the 205 GR (1.4 Petrol, 59 bhp, 78 lb/ft - yup, same figures but the diesel was torquier lower down) while using much less fuel." - doesn't seem very formally written. GBM 00:59, 26 October 2006 (UTC)

The "History" section does not contain a single reference or citation to external material. It is also cluttered and informally written, frequently using bracketed information and exclamation marks. Abrightspark (talk) 18:06, 4 November 2008 (UTC)

Génération
Why hardly any mention of the very competitively priced and hugely successful 'last of series' 3- and 5-door 'Génération'? Perhaps they were (still) called 'Sacré Numero' or 'Forever' on some markets or perhaps they weren't available on every market anymore but they were very swift and stylish with their 1.4i or 1.8d engine and 'chique' colours, velours upholstery and 'everything electric'... And at least in the Netherlands they were reduced in price to a level seen at least a decade previously. Could anyone complete the story? Reginald P. 20:12, 17 April 2007 (UTC)

There is no information on the engines the 205 implemented in Spain. There are some references to those in the article on Poissy engines:. [BT] — Preceding unsigned comment added by 126.15.97.61 (talk) 03:24, 9 September 2020 (UTC)

Van version
There was also a minivan version called 205-F. Hektor (talk) 13:05, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

 * And a 2-person, 3-door diesel, I used to drive one. I can't remember whether it was called a 205D or 205XD ... . Flex Flint (talk) 10:40, 27 April 2008 (UTC)

UK standpoint

 * I feel that the article is written a little too much from a UK standpoint, so I have added a globalize tag. Thank you. Hektor (talk) 13:13, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

 * It's been five years and I still get the same distinctive feeling. And even though some statements are backed up by credible sources they feel somewhat biased, like the amount of space devoted to specifically British trim versions, for instance, while passing over some 'continental' trims in silence or the comparison of market demand with Uno. It sounds doubtful given that even though 205's production ran full three years longer it still sold over three quarters of a million units less than it's 'less respectable' competitor (and it seems that these numbers include European sales only). Spavatch (talk) 18:42, 25 February 2013 (UTC)

205 cti convertible 1991 automatic
Peugeot shipped to japan 205cti automatic some 1.6 and two types of mostly 1.9, detune to 99hp (to reduce tax) and a very few got GTI motors 1.9. I have seen 5 or 6 examples imported to NZ a second hand vehicles

Messy writing and language
The first few sections of this article are a little messy in terms of the content and language use. For example the information about the diesel models seems overly prominent for a 'history' section. The Peugeot 206 page has a much better progression from background and history, to range, to special models. Also the technical details about engines, and suspension (while interesting information) should be separated from the model overview. Finally, the article lacks sufficient background on the design goals Peugeot had with this model, how it was received (very well) and a little bit more details about how this model is widely regarded as the most succesful Peugeot model to date, even though the 206 sold more cars.

Especially unprofessional are the broken sentences and awkward english. Suggest cleanup by native english speaker.

CTi 2L
No mention of the 2 litre cabriolet anywhere, my friends mum had one it was incredibly quick backed up by her numerous bans and speeding tickets.

22,02,2010 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.35.94.148 (talk) 10:22, 22 February 2010 (UTC)

Pininfarina
Pininfarina claim the 205 as their design, from what I can tell (I don't speak Italian) http://www.pininfarina.it/index/storiaModelli/modelli.html?modelli.php?sl=6&cmp=anno&ord=desc&ids=2a783se2oa63fl789ie667t7d6. It was also (GTi model) credited to them on Jeremy Clarkson's The Car Years. Are there reliable sources which say it is not a Pininfarina design or indeed better sources which say it is? --kingboyk (talk) 11:30, 20 October 2011 (UTC)

205 STDT
I used to own one of these. It was a diesel version (XUD7T) and looked the same as a GTi. I remember hearing that they were GTi body’s and suspension just with an XUD7T plonked in, I do not have a reference though. Fairly late model I think, mine was on an “L” registration plate in the UK. I also had always heard that Peugeot paid Pinifarina for the styling on the 205, again though I have no reference. — Preceding unsigned comment added by WoodMel (talk • contribs) 12:47, 15 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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Pre facelift vs Facelift
I'm not an expert on the 205, but I noticed that in the history section, it has a gallery section of images listed as "pre facelift", but then in the 1990s onwards section it states "Such was the success of the 205, its exterior styling was never facelifted or significantly altered in its 15-year production run apart from details". So i'm wondering what "facelift" is the gallery referring to? Or is it incorrect? TKOIII (talk) 18:20, 29 April 2024 (UTC)
 * in late 1990 the 205 received new door design and cards, clear front indicators, new 'smoked' rear light clusters - it isn't quite a facelift, but I don't know what else to call it. Maybe change it to something like it never received anything beyond a minimal refresh?  Mr.choppers |   ✎  18:49, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Mostly I just wanted to know for the purposes of finding improved images, but yeah i'll probably change it a bit to be somewhat clearer for readers. Thanks for letting me know. TKOIII (talk) 19:40, 29 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Peugeot 205


text:
Ba Jin

Li Yaotang (25 November 1904 – 17 October 2005), better known by his pen name Ba Jin or his courtesy name Li Feigan, was a Chinese anarchist, translator, and writer. In addition to his impact on Chinese literature, he also wrote three original works in Esperanto, and as a political activist he wrote The Family.

Name
He was born as Li Yaotang, with alternate name Li Feigan or Li Pei Kan (in Wade–Giles). The first word of his pen name may have been taken from Ba Enbo, his classmate who committed suicide in Paris, which was admitted by himself, or from the first syllable of the surname of the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin; and the last character of which is the Chinese equivalent of the last syllable of Russian anarchist Peter Kropotkin (克鲁泡特金, Ke-lu-pao-te-jin).

Biography
On November 25, 1904, Li Yaotang was born in Chengdu, Sichuan Province, into a wealthy Li family. The family's wealth came mainly from the land acquired by his grandfather and father when they were officials, and Li Yaotang sometimes described his family as a "typical landlord's family". In 1919, Ba read Kropotkin's An Appeal to the Young and converted to anarchism.

It was partly owing to boredom that Ba Jin began to write his first novel, Miewang 灭亡 (“Destruction”). In France, Ba Jin continued his anarchist activism, translating many anarchist works, including Kropotkin's Ethics, into Chinese, which was mailed back to Shanghai's anarchist magazines for publication.

During the Cultural Revolution, Ba Jin was heavily persecuted as a counter-revolutionary. His wife since 1944, Xiao Shan, died of cancer in 1972. He asked that a Cultural Revolution Museum be set up in 1981. The Shantou Cultural Revolution Museum referenced the influence of Ba Jin on its establishment through displaying a depiction of his at the entrance as well as a quote of his, "Every town in China should establish a museum about the Cultural Revolution."

Ba Jin's works were heavily influenced by foreign writers, including Émile Zola, Ivan Turgenev, Alexander Herzen, Anton Chekhov, and Emma Goldman.

Ba Jin suffered from Parkinson's disease beginning in 1983. The illness confined him to Huadong Hospital in Shanghai from 1998.

English translations

 * (1954) Living Amongst Heroes. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.
 * (1958) The Family. (trans. Sidney Shapiro) Beijing: Foreign Language Press.
 * (1959) A battle for life: a full record of how the life of steel worker, Chiu Tsai-kang, was saved in the Shanghai Kwangrze Hospital. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.
 * (1978) Cold Nights (trans. Nathan K. Mao and Liu Ts'un-yan) Hong Kong: Chinese University press.
 * (1984) Random Thoughts (trans. Germie Barm&ecute). Hong Kong: Joint Publishing Company. (Partial translation of Suizianglu)
 * (1988) Selected works of Ba Jin (trans. Sidney Shapiro and Jock Hoe) Beijing: Foreign Language Press. (Includes The Family, Autumn in Spring, Garden of Repose, Bitter Cold Nights)
 * (1999) Ward Four: A Novel of Wartime China (trans. Haili Kong and Howard Goldblatt). San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc.
 * (2005) "How to Build a Society of Genuine Freedom and Equality"(1921), "Patriotism and the Road to Happiness for the Chinese"(1921) and "Anarchism and the Question of Practice"(1927) in Anarchism: A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas, Volume 1: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE-1939), ed. Robert Graham. Montreal: Black Rose Books.
 * (2012) Ward Four: A Novel of Wartime China (trans. Howard Goldblatt). San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc. ISBN 9780835100007.

Ba Jin stories in collections

 * Arzybasheff, M. (1927). "Morning Shadows?" in Tales of the Revolution. Tr. Percy Pinkerton. New York Huebsch.
 * (1927). "Workingman Shevyrev." in Tales of the Revolution, tr. Percy Pinkerton. New York: Huebsch.

Works

 * Short story collections
 * Vengeance 《复仇》, 1931
 * Dog 《狗》, 1931
 * Brightness 《光明》, 1932
 * The Electric Chair 《电椅》, 1933
 * Wiping Cloth 《抹布》, 1933
 * The General 《将军》, 1934
 * Gods, Ghosts and Men 《神·鬼·人》, 1935
 * Sinking 《沉落》, 1936
 * The Story of Hair 《发的故事》, 1936
 * Thunder 《雷》, 1937
 * Resurrection Grass 《还魂草》, 1942
 * Little People, Little Events 《小人小事》, 1943
 * Heroic Tales 《英雄的故事》, 1953
 * Pigs and Chickens 《猪与鸡》, 1959
 * Li Da-hai 《李大海》, 1961
 * Stories Outside the City, 1992

 * Children's literature
 * The Immortality Pagoda 《长生塔》, 1937
 * The Pearl and the Jade Concubine 《明珠和玉姬》, 1957

 * Novels and novellas
 * Destruction 《灭亡》, 1929
 * The Dead Sun 《死去的太阳》, 1931
 * The "Love" Trilogy 《爱情的三部曲》 (1931-5)
 * Fog 《雾》, 1931
 * Rain 《雨》, 1933
 * Lightning 《电》, 1935
 * New Life 《新生》, 1933
 * Miners 《砂丁》, 1933
 * Germination 《萌芽》, 1933
 * A Dream of the Sea 《海的梦》, 1932
 * Autumn in Spring 《春天里的秋天》, 1932
 * The "Torrents" Trilogy 《激流三部曲》
 * The Family 《家》, 1933
 * Spring 《春》, 1938
 * Autumn 《秋》, 1940
 * Lina 《利娜》, 1940
 * Fires 《火》(in three volumes), 1940–1945
 * Stars 《星》(English-Chinese bilingual), 1941
 * A Garden of Repose 《憩园》, novella, 1944
 * Ward No 4 《第四病室》, 1946
 * Cold Nights 《寒夜》, 1947

 * Autobiography and memoirs
 * Ba Jin: An Autobiography 《巴金自传》, 1934
 * I Remember 《忆》, 1936
 * Thinking Back on Childhood 《童年的回忆》, 1984

 * Non-fiction
 * (coauthor) Anarchism and its Practical Problems 《无政府主义与实际问题》, 1927
 * From Capitalism to Anarchism 《从资本主义到安那其主义》, 1930
 * A Walk by the Sea 《海行》, 1932
 * Travel Notes 《旅途随笔》, 1934
 * Droplets of Life 《点滴》, 1935
 * Confessions of Living 《生之忏悔》, 1936
 * Brief Notes 《短简》, 1937
 * I Accuse 《控诉》, 1937
 * Dreaming and Drunkenness 《梦与醉》, 1938
 * Thoughts and Feelings 《感想》, 1939
 * Black Earth 《黑土》, 1939
 * Untitled 《无题》, 1941
 * Dragons, Tigers and Dogs 《龙·虎·狗》, 1941
 * Outside the Derelict Garden 《废园外》, 1942
 * Travel Notes 《旅途杂记》, 1946
 * Remembering 《怀念》, 1947
 * Tragedy of a Still Night 《静夜的悲剧》, 1948
 * The Nazi Massacre Factory: Auschwitz 《纳粹杀人工厂—奥斯威辛》, 1951
 * Warsaw Festivals: Notes in Poland 《华沙城的节日—波兰杂记》, 1951
 * The Consoling Letter and Others 《慰问信及其他》, 1951
 * Living Amongst Heroes 《生活书局在英雄们中间》, 1953
 * They Who Defend Peace 《保卫和平的人们》, 1954
 * On Chekhov 《谈契河夫》, 1955
 * Days of Great Joy 《大欢乐的日子》, 1957
 * Strong Warriors 《坚强的战士》, 1957
 * A Battle for Life 《—场挽救生命的战斗》, 1958
 * New Voices: A Collection 《新声集》, 1959
 * Friendship: A Collection 《友谊集》, 1959
 * Eulogies: A Collection 《赞歌集》, 1960
 * Feelings I Can't Express 《倾吐不尽的感情》, 1963
 * Lovely by the Bridge 《贤良桥畔》, 1964
 * Travels to Dazhai 《大寨行》, 1965
 * Ba Jin: New Writings, 1978–1980
 * Smorching Smoke 《烟火集》, 1979
 * Random Thoughts 《随想录》, 1978–86
 * Thinking Back on Writing 《创作回忆录》 1981
 * Exploration and Memories 《探索与回忆》, 1982
 * Afterwords: A Collection 《序跋集》, 1982
 * Remembrance: A Collection 《忆念集》, 1982
 * Ba Jin: On Writing 《巴金论创作》, 1983
 * Literature: Recollections (with Lao She) 《文学回忆录》 1983
 * To Earth to Dust 《愿化泥土》, 1984
 * I Accuse: A Collection 《控诉集》, 1985
 * In My Heart 《心里话》, 1986
 * Ten Years, One Dream 《十年一梦》, 1986
 * More Thoughts 《再思录》, 1995

 * Letters
 * To Our Young Friends Looking for Aspirations 《寻找理想的少年朋友》, 1987
 * The Collection of the Snow and Mud – All the Remaining Letters Written by Ba Jin to Yang Yi 《雪泥集》, 1987
 * Collected Letters of Ba Jin 《巴金书信集》, 1991

 * Others
 * A Battle For Life
 * Partial excerpt of English translation of Ba Jin's dedication to Emma Goldman
 * How Are We To Establish A Truly Free And Egalitarian Society?, 1921
 * Nationalism and the Road to Happiness for the Chinese, 1921
 * Letter from Ba Jin to the CRIA (International Anarchist Liaison Commission, Paris), 18 March 1949
 * A Museum of the "Cultural Revolution", 1986

Films

 * Return from Silence: Five prominent and controversial Chinese writers speak on their roles in the modernization of China. (1 hour video cassette available) — The life and work of five esteemed Chinese writers whose modern classics shaped China's past: Ba Jin, Mao Dun, Ding Ling, Cao Yu, and Ai Qing. Produced by Chung-wen Shih, George Washington University, 1982.

title: Ba Jin


text:
Shen Congwen

Shen Congwen (28 December 1902 – 10 May 1988), formerly romanized as Shen Ts'ung-wen, was a Chinese writer who is considered one of the greatest modern Chinese writers, on par with Lu Xun. Regional culture and identity plays a much bigger role in his writing than that of other major early modern Chinese writers. He was known for combining the vernacular style with classical Chinese writing techniques. Shen is the most important of the "native soil" writers in modern Chinese literature. Shen Congwen published many excellent compositions in his life, the most famous of which is the novella Border Town. This story is about the old ferryman and his granddaughter Cuicui's love story. Shen Congwen and his wife Zhang Zhaohe were married in 1933, Shen Congwen and Zhang Zhaohe had two sons and one daughter after their marriage.

He was slated to win the 1988 Nobel Prize in Literature, but died before he could be awarded the prize.

Early life
He was born Shen Yuehuan on 28 December 1902 in the town of Fenghuang (then known as Zhen'gan) in west Hunan Province. In late adolescence he chose the name Shen Congwen. He was the fourth of nine children born to Shen Zongsi, a Han-Miao, and Huang Suying, a Tujia. His grandfather, Shen Hongfu, was a local hero who became a decorated general before being named acting commander-in-chief of Guizhou province at the age of 25. Due in large part to his grandfather's fame and fortune, Shen Congwen was born into a relatively well-off household. Following the founding of the Republic of China in 1912, his father hoped to become elected to the provincial assembly, but was instead forced to go into hiding in Inner Mongolia after joining a failed plot to assassinate President Yuan Shikai. The fact of Shen's mother's Tujia ethnicity and his paternal grandmother's Miao ethnicity, he keep secret until the 1980s.

Owing to his father's sudden disappearance, the family fortunes gradually diminished. Most of their land was sold off, and in 1917, after graduating from primary school, Shen Congwen was made to leave home. He joined a local reserve militia before joining the regiment in Yuanling (then known as Chenzhou) working as a clerk.

Education
Many early modern writers in China were well-educated, and some studied abroad, often in Japan. Shen Congwen, however, received a modest formal education. As a child he received private tutoring at home followed by a private family school. These private tutorials were conducted in an outdated, classical scholarly style which Shen criticized as neither useful nor interesting. In 1915, he began attending the Fenghuang town primary school, from which he graduated in 1917.

As a child he disliked school. In his autobiography, he describes frequently cutting class. According to Shen, this educational experience formed the foundation of his later professional and emotional life, "Having learned to use my eyes to take in everything in this world, to live amid all life, I found school unspeakably boring." This school-of-life brand of personal education is central to the image of Shen Congwen. Mo Yan, in his Nobel lecture given after receiving the Nobel Prize for Literature in 2012, compares himself to Shen, "I left school as a child, often went hungry, was constantly lonely, and had no books to read. But for those reasons, like the writer of a previous generation, Shen Congwen, I had an early start on reading the great book of life. My experience of going to the marketplace to listen to a storyteller was but one page of that book."

In 1923, after serving five years in the militia in Hunan, Shen left for Beijing to pursue higher education. Having failed the university entrance exam, he pursued independent study while auditing classes at Peking University.

In 1949, he was attacked on big character posters at the Peking University campus for not heralding the Communist cause. Suffering from depression and social ostracization, he slit his wrists and throat with a razor blade.

Career
On 22 December 1924, the Morning Supplement first published his essay An Unposted Letter (Chinese: 一封未曾付邮的信; pinyin: Yī fēng wèi céng fù yóu dē xìn). He began publishing short stories and essays regularly in Fiction Monthly and Crescent Moon, two highly influential literary magazines of the New Culture Movement. In 1925 Shen became a student of Professor Lin Zaiping, who introduced him to the famous modernist poet Xu Zhimo. In the 1930s he gained fame with his longer works such as Border Town and The Long River. In Beijing Shen Congwen met several influential figures of the New Culture Movement including Ding Ling and her husband Hu Yepin. He lived with the couple for some time before the three writers moved to Shanghai together in 1927.

In Shanghai, Shen, Ding and Hu edited a newspaper literary supplement called Red and Black and later The Human World Monthly, the literary supplement for the Human World Bookstore in Shanghai. In early 1929 the trio published the first edition of their own literary magazine called the Red and Black Monthly. At the time a philosophical battle was begun in the Shanghai literary scene concerning the proper role of writers and art in the forming of new Chinese society. On one side were the communists represented by the Creation Society whose slogan was changed to "Literature is the tool for class struggle!" Rival literary magazine The Torrent argued strongly against "proletarian revolutionary literature." The Crescent Moon Society was decidedly anti-political, and it is with this group that Shen Congwen found his literary philosophy fitted best.

By 1929, Shen, Ding, and Hu's publications had all failed while the political situation in Shanghai was increasingly hostile to writers not wholly allied with the Nationalists (KMT). Ding and Hu left for Jinan that year fearing that their political leanings would put them in danger if they stayed in Shanghai. As his two former partners began work at a high school in Jinan, Shen Congwen took a position as instructor of Chinese Literature and writer-in-residence at the Wusong Chinese Institute. Hu Shih president of the school and a founder of the Crescent Moon Society offered him the job, making a special exception for Shen who would normally not have been eligible for the position, lacking any academic degree. Hu Shi appreciated Shen's abilities, and Shen also joined the literati circle in Beijing.

In the fall of 1930, Shen moved to Wuchang where he taught a three-hour course at Wuhan University. In the spring of the following year, Shen returned to Hunan following the death of his father. Arriving back at the university in March, was too late for a reappointment and lost his teaching job there. He then taught at Qingdao University (renamed Shandong University in 1932) for two years before returning to Beijing. In 1933, Shen moved to Beijing with his wife, Zhang Zhaohe, and began work on his masterpiece, Border Town. The same year, he became the editor for the Art and Literature section of Tianjin's Da Gong Bao, one of the most influential magazines then.

After the Japanese invasion of 1937, Shen wrote little fiction. That year he fled Beijing, living for four months in Hunan in a city on the Yuan River, before finally fleeing to Kunming following the Japanese bombardment of Wuhan. In Kunming, he taught at National Southwestern Associated University.

The war ended in 1945 and Shen returned to Beijing in the summer of 1946. He taught at Peking University until 1949, when he was removed from his position in a political purge.

Shen Congwen was a particularly apolitical writer. In the early years of the People's Republic of China his resistance to the heavy politicization of the arts lead to him being publicly attacked in big character posters and subsequently to a mental breakdown. In early 1949, Shen drank kerosene and cut his throat and wrist in a suicide attempt. He never published another work of fiction, unable to write stories fitting the political requirements of the new regime.

In 1950, he began work at the Chinese Museum of History in Beijing, labelling artifacts and giving tours. His identity also began to change from a writer to a researcher of cultural relics, the main field is ancient Chinese costumes. During the cultural revolution, his job at the museum became a cleaning position, forcing him to spend his days scrubbing toilets. Shen Congwen was finally politically rehabilitated in 1978. That year, he left the museum for work with the Institute of History of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences. In this part of his career, after 1950, he published many academic writings on Chinese art history.

In 1956, Shen was hired as a part-time consultant for the Weaving and Embroidery Research Group of the Palace Museum. In 1966, when the Cultural Revolution broke out, Shen was regarded as a "reactionary academic authority" and was subjected to criticism.

In 1980–81, Shen travelled to the United States on a study-lecture tour funded by the Chinese government. Despite the trip's government backing, he mostly avoided the subject of politics. Zhang Zhaohe's sister Zhang Chonghe and brother-in-law Hans Frankel, both of Yale University, provided the financial assistance which permitted Zhang Zhaohe to accompany him on the trip.

On 27 January 1981, after Shen arrived in the Western United States, he was invited to give lectures at three famous universities in the San Francisco Bay Area: Stanford University, University of California at Berkeley and San Francisco State University

In 1983, Shen Congwen was diagnosed with cerebral thrombosis and his left side was paralyzed. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature by the Swedish sinologist Göran Malmqvist.

Shen Congwen was twice nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature. Jeffrey Kinkley nominated Shen for the prize first in 1980 after returning from a trip to China where he interviewed the aging writer. He wrote to Swedish sinologist Göran Malmqvist inviting him to join the nomination. Later, in 1988 Malmqvist had become a member of the Swedish Academy and Shen made the list of finalists for the prize. Shen Congwen died later that year, before the prize could be awarded to him. He would have been the first Chinese writer to receive the award.

Marriage
Shen Congwen and his wife Zhang Zhaohe were married in 1933. In 1929, Shen Congwen was hired by Hu Shi to teach in Shanghai. During this period, his student Zhang Zhaohe (known as "Black Peony") attracted Shen's attention, and he became one of Zhang's many suitors. However, Zhang had a poor impression of Shen, and his constant love letters also caused her some inconvenience. Shen's persistence finally touched Zhang and her family, and the two married in 1933. After their marriage, conflicts arose between them and they lived apart for a long time. Shen Congwen's scandal also caused a rift in their relationship, but they still accompanied each other through their lives. Unfortunately, Shen Congwen was not immune to the political campaigns of the 1950s and 1960s. His apolitical stance brought abuses and taunts that in turn made him depressed, and he moved to a nursing home without Zhang Zhaohe, with whom he maintained a written relationship. Shen Congwen passed away in 1988. It was only when Zhang Zhaohe was sorting out his writings that she realized her lack of understanding of Shen Congwen and understood the hardship he had suffered.

Shen Congwen had two sons and a daughter with Zhang Zhaohe: Shen Longzhu and Shen Huchu and Shen Chaohui.

Death
Shen died of a heart attack on 10 May 1988 in Beijing at the age of 85. Despite his political rehabilitation several years earlier the state-run media in China was silent upon his death. A one-line obituary was published four days later, calling him a "famous Chinese writer" and failed to mention his political troubles, the resurgence of his work, or the importance of his work in the canon of Chinese literature. The New York Times published a detailed, paragraphs-long obituary describing him as "a novelist, short-story writer, lyricist and passionate champion of literary and intellectual independence".

Works
Although almost entirely unknown outside of China, Shen Congwen's oeuvre is considered vitally important inside China. His regional fiction with its use of folklore and local character has been compared to that of William Faulkner. He was a very prolific writer, producing more than 20 volumes of prose and fiction between 1933 and 1937. He published more than 200 stories and ten novels among other works. The more than five million characters of his written work are so diverse in both style and genre that Chinese literature scholar and Shen Congwen biographer Jeffrey Kinkley describes his work as a "Chaos of creativity". His early work includes lyric poems, one-act dramas, essays, and short stories written in a unique and varied style borrowing from regional language, naturalistic spoken dialogue, classical Chinese forms, and Western literary influences. Later, his works included several novels and novellas and eventually, after he stopped writing fiction in 1949, many scholarly, non-fiction volumes about calligraphy, art history, museum preservation and other topics relevant to the history of Chinese art and culture.

Two major thematic focal points of his early writing include military excesses and abuses in the country which he witnessed first-hand and the vanity of the urban bourgeoisie. The later is presented in contrast to his portrayal of the strength of the struggling commoner. My Education, a short personal narrative written in the summer of 1929, is exemplary of Shen's many stories about his experiences with the militia. Included in Shen's first published collection of writings, the story describes the brutality and monotony that Shen witnessed in Huaihua in 1919 while stationed with an army company there.

Shen Congwen's style of creation tends to romanticism, and he demands the poetic effect of the novel, which combines realism and symbolism together. The language is simple with strong local color, which highlights the unique charm and charm of rural human nature. Shen Congwen's rural novels are typical rural cultural novels, which are not only in contrast with the urban "modern civilization" on the whole, but also always pay attention to the rural people's living mode, life footprint and historical destiny stipulated by different cultural collisions in the process of the western Hunan world's transition to modern times.

His works of fiction set in west Hunan have attracted the most critical attention. In these works he focuses on unassimilated Miao people who live in a traditional culture in the frontier region with the dominant Han culture and the modern world. With little first-hand experience of Miao life, Shen based these stories on his own imagination, life experiences and Miao legends told to him by his nursemaid and his country relatives. The descriptive nouns in the novel contain a great deal of western Hunan folk culture and skillfully apply proverbs and folk songs into the novel.

His 1929 short story Xiaoxiao (萧萧), about the life of a child bride in rural west Hunan was first published in Fiction Monthly. Shen revised the story in 1935. A film version of the story was made in the 1950s. In 1986 another, more popular film adaptation of the story was released. The film was one of the first mainland Chinese films commercially released in the U.S., where it was published under the title A Girl from Hunan. The film was screened in 1987 at the Cannes film festival in the "Un Certain Regard" section.

Long River, written during the Sino-Japanese War, is considered the best of his long fiction while Lamp of Spring  and Black Phoenix  are his most important collections of short stories.

Border Town, published in 1934, is a short novel about the coming of age and romances of an adolescent country girl named Cuicui in a mountain village in western Hunan, near the border with Sichuan province. The love dispute that the story revolves round Cuicui. Two brothers, Tianbao and Tangsong, who were always on the boat at Chatong' Dock, fell in love with Cuicui at the same time. Cuicui only fell in love with Tansong. Her grandfather only knew that Tianbao had come to ask for a bride, but he did not know what his granddaughter was thinking. The two brothers meet to sing to get Cuicui, Tianbao know to brother also like Cui Cui, change out of the competition but unfortunately encountered an accident. . Shunshun and Tansong misunderstanding Cuicui grandfather, Shunshun looking for another rich marriage to Tansong. But Tansong still fond of Cuicui,  he left city of  Chatong along the river. Grandfather has been aware of this, depressed in the heart of a thunderstorm died one night, while Cuicui has been waiting for Tansong. A film adaption of the book was released in 1984, winning the Golden Rooster Best Director (Ling Zifeng) award and the Montréal World Film Festival Jury Special Mention the following year.

In addition, Some of Shen's works focus on religion. For example, his 1941 novel The Candle Extinguished (Zhu Xu), is concerned with religiosity: with discovering God in life.

Shen Congwen's career as a scholarly writer, beginning after 1949, has received relatively little critical attention, but the works he produced in this period of more than thirty years are still notable because there have been three branches of modern Chinese rural literature: one is the Enlightenment literature represented by Lu Xun; one is the left-wing revolutionary rural literature; another is Shen Congwen's beautiful and quiet Xiangxi style literature. Five out the thirty-two volumes of The Complete Works of Shen Congwen are devoted to his later scholarly work.

His works were banned in Taiwan and his books were burnt throughout China. By the 1990s, his works started to be re-released and his legacy was restored. In 1995, his wife Zhang Zhaohe published Family Letters of Congwen, a collection of 170 of his personal letters sent from 1930 to 1983.

Translations
As of 2010, his works had been translated into ten languages. Seventy English translations have been made from 44 of his stories. In addition to the stories published in translation in general anthologies of Chinese literature and those published in journals, several anthologies of his work and one monograph have been published in English.

 * The Chinese Earth – Stories by Shen Ts'ung-wen, translated by Jin Di, published by George Allen & Unwin, Ltd. in 1947, reprinted by Columbia University Press, 1982
 * The Border Town and Other Stories, edited by Gladys Yang, Chinese Literature Press, 1981
 * Recollections of West Hunan, translated by Gladys Yang, Panda Books, 1982
 * Imperfect Paradise, translated by Jeffrey Kinkley et al., edited by Jeffrey Kinkley, University of Hawaii Press, 1995
 * Selected Stories by Shen Congwen, edited by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang, Chinese Literature Press, 1999
 * Selected Short Stories of Shen Congwen, translated and edited by Jeffrey Kinkley, 2004
 * Border Town, translated by Jeffrey Kinkley, HarperCollins, 2009

Portrait

 * Shen Congwen. A Portrait by Kong Kai Ming at Portrait Gallery of Chinese Writers (Hong Kong Baptist University Library).

title: Shen Congwen


text:
2520 (number)

2520 (two thousand five hundred [and] twenty) is the natural number following 2519 and preceding 2521.

In mathematics
2520 is:
 * the smallest number divisible by all integers from one to ten, i.e., it is their least common multiple.
 * half of 7! (5040), meaning 7 factorial, or $$1\times 2\times 3\times 4\times 5\times 6\times 7$$.
 * the product of five consecutive numbers, namely $$3\times 4\times 5\times 6\times 7$$.
 * a superior highly composite number.
 * a colossally abundant number.
 * the last highly composite number that is half of the next highly composite number.
 * the last highly composite number that is a divisor of all following highly composite numbers.
 * palindromic in undecimal (199111) and a repdigit in bases 55, 59, and 62.
 * a Harshad number in all bases between binary and hexadecimal.
 * the aliquot sum of 1080.
 * part of the 53-aliquot tree. The complete aliquot sequence starting at 1080 is 1080, 2520, 6840, 16560, 41472, 82311, 27441, 12209, 451, 53, 1, 0.

Factors
The factors, also called divisors, of 2520 are:

 * 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 21, 24, 28, 30, 35, 36, 40, 42, 45, 56, 60, 63, 70, 72, 84, 90, 105, 120, 126, 140, 168, 180, 210, 252, 280, 315, 360, 420, 504, 630, 840, 1260, 2520.

title: 2520 (number)


text:
María de Santo Domingo

Sister María de Santo Domingo, "La Beata de Piedrahita" ("the "holy woman of Piedrahíta") was a Spanish mystic (c. 1485 – c. 1524) of the early 16th century.

Life
María was born in the village of Aldeanueva de Santa Cruz. According to her contemporaries, this peasant visionary, who was the daughter of devout farmers, spent her childhood doing charitable works and spending long hours in prayer.

Piedrahíta, near Ávila, where the Inquisitor General Torquemada had gone to live in the Dominican monastery, was María's spiritual home. As a young woman, she became a tertiary sister in the same Dominican order in Piedrahita that had fostered the young Torquemada. Taking the name María de Santo Domingo, Maria was what in Spain at that time was termed a beata, that is to say, an unmarried woman who was not a nun, but who quested after holiness by taking vows of chastity and often of poverty. Soon she transferred to Ávila.

María's charismatic personality expressed itself in numerous revelations, in which she held celestial converse with the Virgin Mary and the Savior. She informed her contemporaries that Christ was with her, that she was Christ, and that she was Christ's bride, a concept that offers parallels with her neighbor in Ávila, Saint Teresa of Ávila. Maria often spent hours in ecstatic trances—unmoving, her arms and legs rigidly extended, dissolving herself in the arms of the Deity. Though unlearned she was reputed to be the equal of the most sophisticated theologians, revelations compensating for her lack of schooling. Ávila's Dominican Provincial, Diego Magdaleno, sent Maria to Toledo to inspect the Order's houses there and initiate ascetic reforms. That administrative order was still shockingly improper to Dominican historian Beltrán in 1939.

The widowed Ferdinand II of Aragon summoned Maria to his court at Burgos. During the season of 1507–08, she impressed the king and his courtiers, including Cardinal Cisneros. However, other contemporaries were confounded and scandalised, denouncing Maria as a self-seeking fraud and labeled her ecstatic behavior "lascivious". The Dominicans' new Master General, Thomas Cajetan, suspected the devil rather than God inspired Maria. He restricted her access to the friars of Santo Domingo, who were agitating for ascetic reforms. The Duke of Alba, one of whose palaces faced the monastery at Ávila, took a patron's interest in the four trials concerning Maria's orthodoxy between 1508 and 1510.

The Duke of Alba, his cousin King Ferdinand and Cardinal Cisneros (who became regent of Castile), convinced the episcopal hierarchy that La Beata enjoyed a special inspiration available to very few. Their support proved crucial with respect to the heresy charges. Not only was Maria absolved of the charges, the inquisitors pronounced her life and doctrine exemplary. La Beata became prioress in a convent founded especially for her by the Duke of Alba in her native village in central Castile.

Antonio de la Peña and Diego Victoria transcribed Maria's stream-of-consciousness Book of Prayer, and printed it circa 1518. A copy was discovered in Zaragoza and a facsimile edition republished in Madrid (1948). An English translation appeared in 1992.

The name of alumbrados ("illuminati"), says the orthodox Catholic Encyclopedia (1907–1914), was assumed by some 16th-century Spanish "false mystics" who claimed — like La Beata de Piedrahíta — to have a direct connection with God. "They held that the human soul can reach such a degree of perfection that it contemplates even in the present life the essence of God and comprehends the mystery of the Trinity. All external worship, they declared, is superfluous, the reception of the sacraments useless, and sin impossible in this state of complete union with Him Who is Perfection Itself. Carnal desires may be indulged and other sinful actions committed freely without staining the soul." The Catholic Encyclopedia specifically states that although La Beata de Piedrahíta "is cited among the early adherents of these errors...it is not certain that she was guilty of heresy". Furthermore, many recent scholars, like Álvaro Huerga, question, on chronological and other grounds, the tendency to consider La Beata de Piedrahíta one of the alumbrados, placing her rather among the "pre-alumbrados"

La Beata was not alone. At Toledo, Isabel de la Cruz actively proselytized, and Magdalena de la Cruz, a Poor Clare of Aguilar, near Córdoba, was even more famous. The Inquisition, however, convinced the latter to abjure her heretical errors in 1546. Their ideas found wide responses among Spanish Catholics, though the Inquisition proceeded with relentless energy against all suspects, citing before its tribunal even St. John of Avila and St. Ignatius of Loyola.

title: María de Santo Domingo


text:
Fallacy of the undistributed middle

The fallacy of the undistributed middle (non distributio medii) is a formal fallacy that is committed when the middle term in a categorical syllogism is not distributed in either the minor premise or the major premise. It is thus a syllogistic fallacy.

Classical formulation
In classical syllogisms, all statements consist of two terms and are in the form of "A" (all), "E" (none), "I" (some), or "O" (some not). The first term is distributed in A statements; the second is distributed in O statements; both are distributed in "E" statements, and none are distributed in I statements.

The fallacy of the undistributed middle occurs when the term that links the two premises is never distributed.

In this example, distribution is marked in boldface:

 * 1) All Z is B
 * 2) All Y is B
 * 3) Therefore, all Y is Z

B is the common term between the two premises (the middle term) but is never distributed, so this syllogism is invalid. B would be distributed by introducing a premise which states either All B is Z, or No B is Z.

Also, a related rule of logic is that anything distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in at least one premise.

 * 1) All Z is B
 * 2) Some Y is Z
 * 3) Therefore, all Y is B

The middle term—Z—is distributed, but Y is distributed in the conclusion and not in any premise, so this syllogism is invalid.

Pattern
The fallacy of the undistributed middle takes the following form:
 * 1) All Z is B
 * 2) Y is B
 * 3) Therefore, Y is Z

This may be graphically represented as follows:

where the premises are in the green box and the conclusion is indicated above them.

B is the middle term (because it appears in both premises), and it is not distributed in the major premise, "all Z is B".

It may or may not be the case that "all Z is B," but this is irrelevant to the conclusion. What is relevant to the conclusion is whether it is true that "all B is Z," which is ignored in the argument. The fallacy is similar to affirming the consequent and denying the antecedent. However, the fallacy may be resolved if the terms are exchanged in either the conclusion or in the first co-premise. Indeed, from the perspective of first-order logic, all cases of the fallacy of the undistributed middle are, in fact, examples of affirming the consequent or denying the antecedent, depending on the structure of the fallacious argument.

Examples
For example:

The middle term is the one that appears in both premises—in this case, it is the class of backpack carriers. It is undistributed because neither of its uses applies to all backpack carriers. Therefore, it cannot be used to connect students and my grandfather—both of them could be separate and unconnected divisions of the class of backpack carriers. Note below how "carries a backpack" is truly undistributed:

 * grandfather is someone who carries a backpack ; student is someone who carries a backpack

Specifically, the structure of this example results in affirming the consequent.

However, if the latter two statements were switched, the syllogism would be valid:

 * 1) All students carry backpacks.
 * 2) My grandfather is a student.
 * 3) Therefore, my grandfather carries a backpack.

In this case, the middle term is the class of students, and the first use clearly refers to 'all students'. It is therefore distributed across the whole of its class, and so can be used to connect the other two terms (backpack carriers, and my grandfather). Again, note below that "student" is distributed:

 * grandfather is a student and thus carries a backpack

In popular culture
The fallacy of the undistributed middle is referenced in Edgar Allan Poe's detective story The Purloined Letter:

"This functionary, however, has been thoroughly mystified; and the remote source of his defeat lies in the supposition that the Minister is a fool because he has acquired renown as a poet. All fools are poets; this the Prefect feels, and he is merely guilty of a non distributio medii in thence inferring that all poets are fools."

The fallacy is also referenced by Christopher Hitchens and William F. Buckley Jr. on Episode S0629 of Firing Line recorded on December 11, 1984, at the 34 minute and 26 second (34:26) mark.

title: Fallacy of the undistributed middle


text:
Von Neumann architecture

The von Neumann architecture—also known as the von Neumann model or Princeton architecture—is a computer architecture based on a 1945 description by John von Neumann, and by others, in the First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC. The document describes a design architecture for an electronic digital computer with these components:
 * A processing unit with both an arithmetic logic unit and processor registers
 * A control unit that includes an instruction register and a program counter
 * Memory that stores data and instructions
 * External mass storage
 * Input and output mechanisms

The term "von Neumann architecture" has evolved to refer to any stored-program computer in which an instruction fetch and a data operation cannot occur at the same time (since they share a common bus). This is referred to as the von Neumann bottleneck, which often limits the performance of the corresponding system.

The von Neumann architecture is simpler than the Harvard architecture (which has one dedicated set of address and data buses for reading and writing to memory and another set of address and data buses to fetch instructions).

A stored-program computer uses the same underlying mechanism to encode both program instructions and data as opposed to designs which use a mechanism such as discrete plugboard wiring or fixed control circuitry for instruction implementation. Stored-program computers were an advancement over the manually reconfigured or fixed function computers of the 1940s, such as the Colossus and the ENIAC. These were programmed by setting switches and inserting patch cables to route data and control signals between various functional units.

The vast majority of modern computers use the same hardware mechanism to encode and store both data and program instructions, but have caches between the CPU and memory, and, for the caches closest to the CPU, have separate caches for instructions and data, so that most instruction and data fetches use separate buses (split-cache architecture).

History
The earliest computing machines had fixed programs. Some very simple computers still use this design, either for simplicity or training purposes. For example, a desk calculator (in principle) is a fixed program computer. It can do basic mathematics, but it cannot run a word processor or games. Changing the program of a fixed-program machine requires rewiring, restructuring, or redesigning the machine. The earliest computers were not so much "programmed" as "designed" for a particular task. "Reprogramming"—when possible at all—was a laborious process that started with flowcharts and paper notes, followed by detailed engineering designs, and then the often-arduous process of physically rewiring and rebuilding the machine. It could take three weeks to set up and debug a program on ENIAC.

With the proposal of the stored-program computer, this changed. A stored-program computer includes, by design, an instruction set, and can store in memory a set of instructions (a program) that details the computation.

A stored-program design also allows for self-modifying code. One early motivation for such a facility was the need for a program to increment or otherwise modify the address portion of instructions, which operators had to do manually in early designs. This became less important when index registers and indirect addressing became usual features of machine architecture. Another use was to embed frequently used data in the instruction stream using immediate addressing.

Capabilities
On a large scale, the ability to treat instructions as data is what makes assemblers, compilers, linkers, loaders, and other automated programming tools possible. It makes "programs that write programs" possible. This has made a sophisticated self-hosting computing ecosystem flourish around von Neumann architecture machines.

Some high-level languages leverage the von Neumann architecture by providing an abstract, machine-independent way to manipulate executable code at runtime (e.g., LISP), or by using runtime information to tune just-in-time compilation (e.g. languages hosted on the Java virtual machine, or languages embedded in web browsers).

On a smaller scale, some repetitive operations such as BITBLT or pixel and vertex shaders can be accelerated on general purpose processors with just-in-time compilation techniques. This is one use of self-modifying code that has remained popular.

Development of the stored-program concept
The mathematician Alan Turing, who had been alerted to a problem of mathematical logic by the lectures of Max Newman at the University of Cambridge, wrote a paper in 1936 entitled On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem, which was published in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society. In it he described a hypothetical machine he called a universal computing machine, now known as the "Universal Turing machine". The hypothetical machine had an infinite store (memory in today's terminology) that contained both instructions and data. John von Neumann became acquainted with Turing while he was a visiting professor at Cambridge in 1935, and also during Turing's PhD year at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey during 1936–1937. Whether he knew of Turing's paper of 1936 at that time is not clear.

In 1936, Konrad Zuse also anticipated, in two patent applications, that machine instructions could be stored in the same storage used for data.

Independently, J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, who were developing the ENIAC at the Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the University of Pennsylvania, wrote about the stored-program concept in December 1943. In planning a new machine, EDVAC, Eckert wrote in January 1944 that they would store data and programs in a new addressable memory device, a mercury metal delay-line memory. This was the first time the construction of a practical stored-program machine was proposed. At that time, he and Mauchly were not aware of Turing's work.

Von Neumann was involved in the Manhattan Project at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. It required huge amounts of calculation, and thus drew him to the ENIAC project, during the summer of 1944. There he joined the ongoing discussions on the design of this stored-program computer, the EDVAC. As part of that group, he wrote up a description titled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC based on the work of Eckert and Mauchly. It was unfinished when his colleague Herman Goldstine circulated it, and bore only von Neumann's name (to the consternation of Eckert and Mauchly). The paper was read by dozens of von Neumann's colleagues in America and Europe, and influenced the next round of computer designs.

Jack Copeland considers that it is "historically inappropriate to refer to electronic stored-program digital computers as 'von Neumann machines. His Los Alamos colleague Stan Frankel said of von Neumann's regard for Turing's ideas "I know that in or about 1943 or '44 von Neumann was well aware of the fundamental importance of Turing's paper of 1936.... Von Neumann introduced me to that paper and at his urging I studied it with care. Many people have acclaimed von Neumann as the "father of the computer" (in a modern sense of the term) but I am sure that he would never have made that mistake himself. He might well be called the midwife, perhaps, but he firmly emphasized to me, and to others I am sure, that the fundamental conception is owing to Turing—in so far as not anticipated by Babbage.... Both Turing and von Neumann, of course, also made substantial contributions to the "reduction to practice" of these concepts but I would not regard these as comparable in importance with the introduction and explication of the concept of a computer able to store in its memory its program of activities and of modifying that program in the course of these activities."

At the time that the "First Draft" report was circulated, Turing was producing a report entitled Proposed Electronic Calculator. It described in engineering and programming detail, his idea of a machine he called the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE). He presented this to the executive committee of the British National Physical Laboratory on February 19, 1946. Although Turing knew from his wartime experience at Bletchley Park that what he proposed was feasible, the secrecy surrounding Colossus, that was subsequently maintained for several decades, prevented him from saying so. Various successful implementations of the ACE design were produced.

Both von Neumann's and Turing's papers described stored-program computers, but von Neumann's earlier paper achieved greater circulation and the computer architecture it outlined became known as the "von Neumann architecture". In the 1953 publication Faster than Thought: A Symposium on Digital Computing Machines (edited by B. V. Bowden), a section in the chapter on Computers in America reads as follows: The Machine of the Institute For Advanced Study, Princeton

In 1945, Professor J. von Neumann, who was then working at the Moore School of Engineering in Philadelphia, where the E.N.I.A.C. had been built, issued on behalf of a group of his co-workers, a report on the logical design of digital computers. The report contained a detailed proposal for the design of the machine that has since become known as the E.D.V.A.C. (electronic discrete variable automatic computer). This machine has only recently been completed in America, but the von Neumann report inspired the construction of the E.D.S.A.C. (electronic delay-storage automatic calculator) in Cambridge (see p. 130).

In 1947, Burks, Goldstine and von Neumann published another report that outlined the design of another type of machine (a parallel machine this time) that would be exceedingly fast, capable perhaps of 20,000 operations per second. They pointed out that the outstanding problem in constructing such a machine was the development of suitable memory with instantaneously accessible contents. At first they suggested using a special vacuum tube—called the "Selectron"—which the Princeton Laboratories of RCA had invented. These tubes were expensive and difficult to make, so von Neumann subsequently decided to build a machine based on the Williams memory. This machine—completed in June, 1952 in Princeton—has become popularly known as the Maniac. The design of this machine inspired at least half a dozen machines now being built in America, all known affectionately as "Johniacs".

In the same book, the first two paragraphs of a chapter on ACE read as follows: Automatic Computation at the National Physical Laboratory

One of the most modern digital computers which embodies developments and improvements in the technique of automatic electronic computing was recently demonstrated at the National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, where it has been designed and built by a small team of mathematicians and electronics research engineers on the staff of the Laboratory, assisted by a number of production engineers from the English Electric Company, Limited. The equipment so far erected at the Laboratory is only the pilot model of a much larger installation which will be known as the Automatic Computing Engine, but although comparatively small in bulk and containing only about 800 thermionic valves, as can be judged from Plates XII, XIII and XIV, it is an extremely rapid and versatile calculating machine.

The basic concepts and abstract principles of computation by a machine were formulated by Dr. A. M. Turing, F.R.S., in a paper1. read before the London Mathematical Society in 1936, but work on such machines in Britain was delayed by the war. In 1945, however, an examination of the problems was made at the National Physical Laboratory by Mr. J. R. Womersley, then superintendent of the Mathematics Division of the Laboratory. He was joined by Dr. Turing and a small staff of specialists, and, by 1947, the preliminary planning was sufficiently advanced to warrant the establishment of the special group already mentioned. In April, 1948, the latter became the Electronics Section of the Laboratory, under the charge of Mr. F. M. Colebrook.

Early von Neumann-architecture computers
The First Draft described a design that was used by many universities and corporations to construct their computers. Among these various computers, only ILLIAC and ORDVAC had compatible instruction sets.
 * ARC2 (Birkbeck, University of London) officially came online on May 12, 1948.
 * Manchester Baby (Victoria University of Manchester, England) made its first successful run of a stored program on June 21, 1948.
 * EDSAC (University of Cambridge, England) was the first practical stored-program electronic computer (May 1949)
 * Manchester Mark 1 (University of Manchester, England) Developed from the Baby (June 1949)
 * CSIRAC (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) Australia (November 1949)
 * MESM at the Kiev Institute of Electrotechnology in Kiev, Ukrainian SSR (November 1950)
 * EDVAC (Ballistic Research Laboratory, Computing Laboratory at Aberdeen Proving Ground 1951)
 * IAS machine at Institute for Advanced Study (1951)
 * ORDVAC (University of Illinois) at Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland (completed November 1951)
 * MANIAC I at Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory (March 1952)
 * ILLIAC at the University of Illinois, (September 1952)
 * BESM-1 in Moscow (1952)
 * AVIDAC at Argonne National Laboratory (1953)
 * ORACLE at Oak Ridge National Laboratory (June 1953)
 * BESK in Stockholm (1953)
 * JOHNNIAC at RAND Corporation (January 1954)
 * DASK in Denmark (1955)
 * WEIZAC at the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot, Israel (1955)
 * PERM in Munich (1956)
 * SILLIAC in Sydney (1956)

Early stored-program computers
The date information in the following chronology is difficult to put into proper order. Some dates are for first running a test program, some dates are the first time the computer was demonstrated or completed, and some dates are for the first delivery or installation.
 * The IBM SSEC had the ability to treat instructions as data, and was publicly demonstrated on January 27, 1948. This ability was claimed in a US patent. However it was partially electromechanical, not fully electronic. In practice, instructions were read from paper tape due to its limited memory.
 * The ARC2 developed by Andrew Booth and Kathleen Booth at Birkbeck, University of London officially came online on May 12, 1948. It featured the first rotating drum storage device.
 * The Manchester Baby was the first fully electronic computer to run a stored program. It ran a factoring program for 52 minutes on June 21, 1948, after running a simple division program and a program to show that two numbers were relatively prime.
 * The ENIAC was modified to run as a primitive read-only stored-program computer (using the Function Tables for program ROM) and was demonstrated as such on September 16, 1948, running a program by Adele Goldstine for von Neumann.
 * The BINAC ran some test programs in February, March, and April 1949, although was not completed until September 1949.
 * The Manchester Mark 1 developed from the Baby project. An intermediate version of the Mark 1 was available to run programs in April 1949, but was not completed until October 1949.
 * The EDSAC ran its first program on May 6, 1949.
 * The EDVAC was delivered in August 1949, but it had problems that kept it from being put into regular operation until 1951.
 * The CSIR Mk I ran its first program in November 1949.
 * The SEAC was demonstrated in April 1950.
 * The Pilot ACE ran its first program on May 10, 1950, and was demonstrated in December 1950.
 * The SWAC was completed in July 1950.
 * The Whirlwind was completed in December 1950 and was in actual use in April 1951.
 * The first ERA Atlas (later the commercial ERA 1101/UNIVAC 1101) was installed in December 1950.

Evolution

Through the decades of the 1960s and 1970s computers generally became both smaller and faster, which led to evolutions in their architecture. For example, memory-mapped I/O lets input and output devices be treated the same as memory. A single system bus could be used to provide a modular system with lower cost. This is sometimes called a "streamlining" of the architecture. In subsequent decades, simple microcontrollers would sometimes omit features of the model to lower cost and size. Larger computers added features for higher performance.

Von Neumann bottleneck
The shared bus between the program memory and data memory leads to the von Neumann bottleneck, the limited throughput (data transfer rate) between the central processing unit (CPU) and memory compared to the amount of memory. Because the single bus can only access one of the two classes of memory at a time, throughput is lower than the rate at which the CPU can work. This seriously limits the effective processing speed when the CPU is required to perform minimal processing on large amounts of data. The CPU is continually forced to wait for needed data to move to or from memory. Since CPU speed and memory size have increased much faster than the throughput between them, the bottleneck has become more of a problem, a problem whose severity increases with every new generation of CPU.

The von Neumann bottleneck was described by John Backus in his 1977 ACM Turing Award lecture. According to Backus:

"Surely there must be a less primitive way of making big changes in the store than by pushing vast numbers of words back and forth through the von Neumann bottleneck. Not only is this tube a literal bottleneck for the data traffic of a problem, but, more importantly, it is an intellectual bottleneck that has kept us tied to word-at-a-time thinking instead of encouraging us to think in terms of the larger conceptual units of the task at hand. Thus programming is basically planning and detailing the enormous traffic of words through the von Neumann bottleneck, and much of that traffic concerns not significant data itself, but where to find it."

Mitigations
There are several known methods for mitigating the Von Neumann performance bottleneck. For example, the following all can improve performance:
 * providing a cache between the CPU and the main memory;
 * providing separate caches or separate access paths for data and instructions (the so-called Modified Harvard architecture);
 * using branch predictor algorithms and logic;
 * providing a limited CPU stack or other on-chip scratchpad memory to reduce memory access;
 * implementing the CPU and the memory hierarchy as a system on chip, providing greater locality of reference and thus reducing latency and increasing throughput between processor registers and main memory.

The problem can also be sidestepped somewhat by using parallel computing, using for example the non-uniform memory access (NUMA) architecture—this approach is commonly employed by supercomputers. It is less clear whether the intellectual bottleneck that Backus criticized has changed much since 1977. Backus's proposed solution has not had a major influence. Modern functional programming and object-oriented programming are much less geared towards "pushing vast numbers of words back and forth" than earlier languages like FORTRAN were, but internally, that is still what computers spend much of their time doing, even highly parallel supercomputers.

As of 1996, a database benchmark study found that three out of four CPU cycles were spent waiting for memory. Researchers expect that increasing the number of simultaneous instruction streams with multithreading or single-chip multiprocessing will make this bottleneck even worse. In the context of multi-core processors, additional overhead is required to maintain cache coherence between processors and threads.

Self-modifying code
Aside from the von Neumann bottleneck, program modifications can be quite harmful, either by accident or design. In some simple stored-program computer designs, a malfunctioning program can damage itself, other programs, or the operating system, possibly leading to a computer crash. However, this problem also applies to conventional programs that lack bounds checking. Memory protection and various access controls generally safeguard against both accidental and malicious program changes.

title: Von Neumann architecture


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Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise

Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (illicit negative) is a formal fallacy that is committed when a categorical syllogism has a positive conclusion and one or two negative premises.

For example:
 * No fish are dogs, and no dogs can fly, therefore all fish can fly.

The only thing that can be properly inferred from these premises is that some things that are not fish cannot fly, provided that dogs exist.

Or:
 * We don't read that trash. People who read that trash don't appreciate real literature. Therefore, we appreciate real literature.

This could be illustrated mathematically as
 * If $$A \cap B = \emptyset$$ and $$B \cap C = \emptyset$$ then $$A\subset C$$.

It is a fallacy because any valid forms of categorical syllogism that assert a negative premise must have a negative conclusion.