text:
Talk:Battle of Isandlwana

Casualties
The assertion that only about 1000 Zulu died at the Battle of Isandlwana is most certainly low. I note the source citation is to a book written about Rorke's Drift, a separate battle where probably about 1000 Zulu were killed. I've seen other articles cite Zulu casualties at Isandlwana around 3000 killed and 3000 wounded, which is probably closer to the truth. Still, a smashing victory for the Zulus which ultimately sealed their doom as a nation. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.50.98.99 (talk) 19:30, 7 October 2013 (UTC)

 * Only low in the minds of the contemporary British. There is no body count, of course, after the battle by anyone with Chelmsford, they were there at night and left early without even burying the British dead. Comparisons with other battles during the war show 3,000 is preposterous. Most historians, until Ian Knight, repeated the suppositions the British made at the time, for which there is no evidence such as there is for Kambula and Ulundi. None of the several references cited for Zulu casualties are about Rorke's Drift only, and there aren't 1,000 Zulus killed there . 351 are confirmed killed at Rorke's Drift and perhaps 500 wounded were massacred after the battle by Chelmsford's arriving troops, but it is not certain the wounded were massacred. In any case they were certainly not killed in the battle of Rorke's Drift.Tttom1 (talk) 06:48, 9 October 2013 (UTC)
 * Saying that 'most' historians chose to follow the original assertation but Ian Knight objected is itself choosing to believe revisionism over the popular view; some things genuinely do need revising, but otherwise, popular views also exist for a reason; because they are correct. Newer research, including interviewed statements from Zulu warriors present at the battle, would seem to indicate that their casualties were extremely high. 2A00:23C5:CE1C:DB01:E59C:D4D2:CE8C:3A97 (talk) 02:09, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

Ubidi boys?
Quote: Perhaps the last to die was Gabangaye, the portly chief of the amaChunu Natal Native Contingent, who was given over to be killed by the udibi boys.

Me no understand. Thanks, Maikel (talk) 11:18, 30 December 2013 (UTC)

Cadar (talk) 13:09, 16 July 2017 (UTC)
 * Udibi (the word means "porters" or "carriers") boys were adolescent boys who tagged along with the main impi, usually carrying a relative's sleeping roll and some food. They didn't usually fight, and being given to them to be murdered would have been a huge insult.

Mention "Zulu Dawn"
The article ought to mention the film "Zulu Dawn" (compare to the article about the Battle at Rorke's Drift and "Zulu"), maybe in "See Also", if not a separate section.—172.56.19.113 (talk) 14:39, 10 June 2014 (UTC)

Movies are not reliable sources
This edit is problematic because it is trying to use a movie as a reliable source and it isn't. The assertion may be overreaching but if you can find an appropriate source, you might get it in the article. To put it in the lede section is undue weight unless it could be proven that this is the majority opinion accepted by historians and academic scholars. — Berean Hunter   (talk)  20:26, 8 September 2014 (UTC)

Confederation scheme
Is calling a scheme to expand an empire an 'imperialist scheme' an example of non- NPOV description or not? I say not, and such a description is supported by Knight & others.Tttom1 (talk) 22:30, 23 September 2014 (UTC)

 * Adding the reference of the primary source of the actual act does not support the OR used to change the language of the statement. Imposing an anachronistic view of imperial activities of the British Empire is OR. However, the primary source has been added and I attributed the statement to Knight in an effort to add your view appropriately, Knight's view is of course already appropriate as is. But if you feel it needs to be pointed out more clearly that it is from Knight - that has been done. Please do not edit war. If you have secondary sources that challenge Knight on the 'Confederation policy' that was abandoned after Gladstone came in you can discuss them here and possibly add them.Tttom1 (talk) 23:11, 23 September 2014 (UTC)

 * Lock & Quantrill also describe the British Empire's 'imperial' behavior (p.23).Tttom1 (talk) 23:37, 23 September 2014 (UTC)

And what consensus do YOU have for your opinion that it is POV-neutral? And since when does one have to have consensus to edit Wikipedia? It states clearly that if you don't want to be edited, you should not contribute to Wikipedia. There is no requirement that one obtain a consensus before making an edit, or reverting an edit. If you want a consensus, get one yourself. Mike Hayes (talk) 21:12, 24 September 2014 (UTC

 * From WP:SILENCE and WP:CON: "Consensus can be presumed to exist until voiced disagreement becomes evident (typically through reverting or editing). You find out whether your edit has consensus when it sticks, is built upon by others, and most importantly when it is used or referred to by others." The statement you wish to change had consensus because it was longstanding in the article without disagreement, your changes don't have consensus because I disagreed with them. Further, in an good faith effort, I have attempted to incorporate some of your legitimate concerns, WP:CON: "Consensus on Wikipedia does not mean unanimity (which, although an ideal result, is not always achievable); nor is it the result of a vote. Decision-making involves an effort to incorporate all editors' legitimate concerns, while respecting Wikipedia's policies and guidelines.", into the paragraph while retaining the previous reliably sourced statements. If you have reliable sources for your view please add them WP:SCHOLARSHIP: "Articles should rely on secondary sources whenever possible. For example, a review article, monograph, or textbook is better than a primary research paper. When relying on primary sources, extreme caution is advised: Wikipedians should never interpret the content of primary sources for themselves. See Wikipedia:No original research and Wikipedia:Neutral point of view."Tttom1 (talk) 15:53, 25 September 2014 (UTC)

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Chelmsford culpability and aftermath
Surprised, given the article (Chelmsford failed to respond to pleas for help, dispersed his forces, did not laager the camp..) that there is either more of a critique of Chelmsford here and/or that he continued after this heavy defeat, to acquire various titles and privileges. Was there some sort of cover up on his behealf or similar? He seems to have effectively courted the disaster - yet been awarded for it? 2A01:CB05:84:5100:9B0:199B:6F31:D546 (talk) 18:49, 21 May 2018 (UTC)

 * A lot of that has to do with Chelmsford's actions; he knew he was in trouble and under normal circumstances should have held his position and awaited his replacement, however he was aware of this and pushed forward with the war, achieving victory before his replacement and recriminations arrived.
 * The British government would have happily held him accountable for the disaster, but that became difficult once he had actually won the war, something he was all too aware of. The public at large probably saw it as a man learning from his mistakes and 'fixing' them, and the government punishing him at this point would likely have been bad optics. Alooulla (talk) 21:27, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

 * Read Ian Knight's excellent book Zulu Rising. The best way to avoid admitting to a defeat is to treat it as a victory and start handing out awards.

Cadar (talk) 19:15, 21 May 2018 (UTC)

Zulu war
the zulus won Isandwala — Preceding unsigned comment added by 108.28.58.22 (talk) 22:12, 15 February 2019 (UTC)
 * The Zulus' losses, almost certainly far heavier than the British losses, were disastrous. When Cetewayo was told, he said, 'An assegai has been thrust into the belly of the nation... There are not enough tears to mourn the dead.' (Morris, 1965, p.387.) And, in short order, the king lost his crown (a crown he'd obtained by murdering most of his own family). Khamba Tendal (talk) 17:44, 29 July 2020 (UTC)

How would the Zulus have won the war that day
How would that have worked; would they have captured or killed Chelmsford? Beewellbee (talk) 19:27, 25 November 2019 (UTC)

Zulu Casualties Continued
Hello, I am looking into the claims of casualites at this battle, a debate did happen in this talk thread although it was 2 years ago so I feel right in starting a new topic. The article says 1000 to 3000 Zulu died and cites an article and a book written by Ian Knight. In the book written by Ian Knight, on the Battle of Isandlwana he says on page 21 "By mid-afternoon on 22 January the Zulu attack was largely spent, and the warriors were preparing to retire the way they had come, carrying off with them the fruits of their victory, both sweet and sour ~ all the exotic delights of the British camp and hundreds of their own wounded men." [1]. This claim of only a few hundred Zulu casualites lines up with contemporary battle casualty numbers. Furthermore in the book "Rorke's Drift and Isandlwana: Great Battles" the following claim is made on page 60, "The Zulu lost at least 1,000 killed or died of wounds." [2] This book also cites another book from 1883 called "Through the Zulu Country" in which a Zulu warrior is questioned on the battle starting at page 277. He says 2 things of note regarding this topic, firstly the claim that "We lost far more men at Kambula than at Isandlwana"[3] on page 279. He continues with "Further down the slope three or four dark spots of a different growth show the places of sepulture of the Zulu dead who were buried in hundreds after the battle" [4] The Battle of Kambula was reported as having a maximum Zulu casualty count of 2,000 men.

With all of this in mind I personally think that the article should be edited to report a few hundered to a little more over 1,000 Zulu casualites, as there is no cited evidence for the claim of 3,000. Ashemus (talk) 00:26, 9 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Isandlwana


text:
Talk:Rock

Vandalism
Changed the heading "d*ckheadpenis" back to Places and removed "f*ckf*ckf*ckf*ck".

Removed radio station
I removed this entry from the page:

 * 1) 96 Rock, an Atlanta radio station

There are probably hundreds of radio stations in the US with names like "{NUM} Rock" or "Rock {NUM}". Either we include all of them, or we include none of them. I can't see any justification to include just Atlanta-based radio stations.

Nohat 01:38, 2004 Mar 16 (UTC)

Which of these makes more sense??

 * 1) Moving Rock (geology) to Rock and this article to Rock (disambiguation)
 * 2) Moving Rock and roll to Rock and this article to Rock (disambiguation)

66.245.71.89 00:26, 16 Oct 2004 (UTC)

 * Personally, I say neither. It's useful as is. [[User:Meelar|Meelar (talk)]] 00:30, Oct 16, 2004 (UTC)

 * --СђrΐsτσρhΞr ScЋδlτξη 20:30, 1 September 2006 (UTC) Agreed. It should remain as is. On a different note, the term "Rocks" redirects to Rock (geology) rather than Rock (disambiguation). That probably also makes sense.

 * Move Rock (geology) to Rock and this article to Rock (disambiguation). The primary dictionary meaning of rock is the geological term. --Bermicourt (talk) 19:05, 13 February 2010 (UTC)

 * FWIW another decade later, it's abundantly clear to me that the primary meaning of "rock" is geological, and that this page should be "rock (disambiguation)". I've visited tens of thousands of Wikipedia pages and rarely found a dislocation of primary sense as prominent as this one. — MaxEnt 23:14, 16 December 2020 (UTC)

help with links
I can't seem to get the links right on the last section. Notably, the one linking to an internal wikipedia category and another trying to link a word to a different term. I'd appreciate is someone could help me fix them

Appropriate?

 * Rock is also urban slang for the ball used in the sport of basketball.

I added this to the culture section, what do you think?

 * Is it really that common? I've never heard it before. I think it should be removed. Thoughts?
 * Why is Jesus here? Gflores Talk 05:32, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

DAB
Just a heads up, Rock is completely disambiguated as of right now.

Bearingbreaker92 04:21, 4 November 2006 (UTC)

Robert Rock
The description after this link doesn't match the article it links to. Unless this pro-golfer is also a gang leader —Preceding unsigned comment added by 206.11.112.251 (talk) 13:58, 19 November 2007 (UTC)

Rock
rock mixture of one or more minerals. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.63.34.195 (talk) 16:29, 5 October 2008 (UTC)

Merge proposal (with mineral)

 * Strongly oppose. Inappropriate & unencyclopedic: rocks and minerals are distinct things. Pete Tillman (talk) 19:56, 10 April 2010 (UTC)

Dwayne Johnson should be mentioned specifically
My issue with this article is that when someone searches "The rock" or "the rock" this page immediately comes up. Whereas if someone searches "The Rock" Dwayne Johnson comes up. Odds are that someone is looking for either Dwayne Johnson or the movie "The Rock". If Dwayne Johnson is relevent enough to have his own redirect for "The Rock", why shouldn't he be on this list. I understand you have a "Rock (name)" link, but the first or last name Rock is not nearly the same thing as the stage name "The Rock". But, I won't make the edit unless nobody disagrees with me.TBWarrior720 (talk) 06:21, 29 April 2013 (UTC)
 * You do have a point. I just don't want to see that section get out of control. I think I would be fine adding people known only as "Rock" (with or without "the"), and excluding people with rock as a first or last name. Ego White Tray (talk) 12:23, 29 April 2013 (UTC)
 * On a side note, for the last 18 months The Rock has bounced back and forth between Dwayne Johnson and Rock. I have added to a discussion at Talk:The Rock, which should probably be used to determine where The Rock should point. -Niceguyedc Go Huskies! 00:30, 3 May 2013 (UTC)

RM

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: articles not moved. Armbrust The Homunculus 12:30, 25 February 2014 (UTC)

– Umm, let's think about whether or not the article on rocks has WP:PRIMARYTOPIC over the other topics listed here, such as rock music. What possible meaning for "rock" has more "long-term significance"? Please forgive my curtness. I just don't know what else to say. When people link to rock they expect to find the information that's at rock (geology) right now. When people type in "rock" they are likewise looking for that. To link to or search for "rock" expecting rock music, Dwayne Johnson or any of the other "rocks" listed here is unfathomable. (Seriously: I cannot actually fathom a sober editor linking to the base name rock expecting any article but rock (geology).) Rock should be only about rock (geology). Red Slash 01:32, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Rock → Rock (disambiguation)
 * Rock (geology) → Rock
 * Comment while I think that rock (geology) is the leading topic, I think that many people wikilinking to rock actually mean rock music, and a significant fraction will mean hot/cool/hip/etc. And as for the searchbox, rock and roll will have a major fraction of the intended search result. Let us not forget that diamonds are also called rocks colloquially. -- 70.50.151.11 (talk) 05:39, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Comment pretty much verbatim as 70.50.151.11. There are times when practicality dictates recognizing en.wp's volunteer editor base demographics; i.e. we daily have more 2014 rock (music) album/single stubs created than 2014 rock (geology) stubs. The proposed move then would probably create a never ending chain of misdabs and work for dab bots. Therefore on the "if it isn't broke" basis, best to leave the dab as primary in this area. In ictu oculi (talk) 09:28, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose, per what both the IP and In ictu oculi said. The claim is quite fathomable if you take a look at what links here for this page. Nearly every one is for rock music. Now one might question the sobriety of the editors making such links, but it is pointless to deny that a significant number of editors will make such mistaken links on a regular basis. Far better to leave the disambiguation page where it is. older ≠ wiser 13:32, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Comment. I routinely fix incoming links to the current disambiguation page, and I would estimate that fewer than one out of twenty is for the geological topic. I would contrast this against a much stronger case like Cell, for which the greatest long-term significance is for the biological topic, and for which the vast majority of incoming links are also for the biological topic. bd2412  T 13:42, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose per Bkonrad and BD2412. The guideline says that a topic is primary if it is "highly likely" to be "the topic sought when a reader searches for that term." Contrary to Red Slash, I don't find it difficult at all to imagine readers who would be looking for musical information when they search for "rock." We can't assume that readers in general share our tastes, our interests, or our predilections. --R'n'B (call me Russ) 14:43, 18 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose: the dab page has the two major uses good and clear at the top, and is more satisfactory than a situation where large numbers of readers find they've reached a geology page when they want music. The status quo looks fine, no need to change. Pam  D  14:56, 20 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Oppose per PamD. Given that there are two particularly common but different uses for the term, keeping the existing arrangement seems suitable.  ╠╣uw [ talk ]  11:06, 22 February 2014 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The usage of is under discussion, see RfD for the discussion. It is suggested that it be repointed. -- 65.94.169.222 (talk) 06:34, 28 July 2014 (UTC)

The Rock (disambiguation)
I split of about half of the entries into The Rock (disambiguation). The entries all violated WP:PTM. Also, this page had become "inconveniently long" (WP:DPAGE). Paradoctor (talk) 12:43, 28 July 2014 (UTC)

Nickname vs. stage name
I think it doesn't make too much sense to keep nicknames and stage names apart. We should either move the nicknames here, or put stage names also into Rock (name). Paradoctor (talk) 08:34, 29 July 2014 (UTC)
 * I say move all "Rock" and "The Rock" people's nicknames/stagenames off to Rock (name) -- 65.94.169.222 (talk) 13:15, 29 July 2014 (UTC)

Move discussion in progress
There is a move discussion in progress on Talk:Rock (geology) which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you. —RMCD bot 17:16, 13 July 2016 (UTC)

Rock = basketball
Proposing to add under Sports/Other that "rock" is a common nickname for a basketball. Chiefly used in AAVE but also adopted by basketball players of all races across the USA. 176.104.110.11 (talk) 14:08, 20 August 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Rock


text:
Precisionism

Precisionism was a modernist art movement that emerged in the United States after World War I. Influenced by Cubism, Purism, and Futurism, Precisionist artists reduced subjects to their essential geometric shapes, eliminated detail, and often used planes of light to create a sense of crisp focus and suggest the sleekness and sheen of machine forms. At the height of its popularity during the 1920s and early 1930s, Precisionism celebrated the new American landscape of skyscrapers, bridges, and factories in a form that has also been called "Cubist-Realism." The term "Precisionism" was first coined in the mid-1920s, possibly by Museum of Modern Art director Alfred H. Barr although according to Amy Dempsey the term "Precisionism" was coined by Charles Sheeler. Painters working in this style were also known as the "Immaculates", which was the more commonly used term at the time. The stiffness of both art-historical labels suggests the difficulties contemporary critics had in attempting to characterize these artists.

An American movement

While influenced by European modernist artistic movements like Cubism, Purism, and Futurism, Precisionism focused on the themes of industrialization and modernization in the American landscape, using precise, sharply defined geometrical forms. Precisionist artists embraced their American identity and some were reluctant to acknowledge European artistic influences.

There is a degree of reverence for the industrial age in the movement, but social commentary was not fundamental to the style. Like Pop Art, Precisionism has on occasion been interpreted as a criticism of the de-natured society it portrays, though its artists did not often feel comfortable with this reading of their work. Elsie Driggs' Pittsburgh (1926) illustrates this gap in perception. A painting of black and gray steel-mill smokestacks, thick piping, and crisscrossing wires, with only clouds of smoke to relieve the severity of the image, viewers have been tempted to see this dark painting as a statement of environmental concern. To the contrary, Driggs always claimed that she intended an ironic beauty in the image and referred to it as "my El Greco." Upon seeing the painting, Charles Daniel dubbed her "one of the new classicists." More often than not, Precisionism implicitly celebrated man-made dynamism and new technologies. Possible exceptions to this statement are some of the darker, more claustrophobic city paintings of Louis Lozowick and the comic anti-capitalist satires of Preston Dickinson.

Varying degrees of abstraction are found in Precisionist works. The Figure 5 in Gold (1928) by Charles Demuth, an homage to William Carlos Williams' imagist poem about a fire truck is abstract and stylized, while the paintings of Charles Sheeler sometimes verge on a form of photorealism. (In addition to his meticulously detailed paintings like River Rouge Plant and American Landscape, Sheeler, like his friend Paul Strand, also created sharply focused photographs of factories and public buildings. ) Some Precisionist works tended toward a "highly controlled approach to technique and form" as well as an application of "hard-edged style to long-familiar American scenes".

Precisionist artists often focused on urban imagery: office towers, apartment houses, bridges, tunnels, subway platforms, streets, the skyline and grid of the modern city. Other artists, however, such as Georgia O'Keeffe, Charles Demuth, Niles Spencer, Ralston Crawford, Sanford Ross, and Charles Sheeler, applied the same approach to more pastoral settings and painted starkly geometric renderings of barns, cottages, country roads, and farm houses. Stuart Davis and Gerald Murphy painted still life compositions in a Precisionist style.

Precisionists

American artists whose work has been labeled as reflective of Precisionism include: George Ault, Ralston Crawford, Francis Criss, Stuart Davis, Charles Demuth, Georgia O'Keeffe, Preston Dickinson, Elsie Driggs, Louis Lozowick, Gerald Murphy, Charles Sheeler, Niles Spencer, Morton Schamberg, Joseph Stella, Charles Rosen, Dale Nichols, Millard Sheets, Edward Hopper, Virginia Berresford, Henry Billings, Peter Blume, Stefan Hirsch, Edmund Lewandowski, John Storrs, Miklos Suba, Sandor Bernath, Herman Trunk, Arnold Wiltz, Clarence Holbrook Carter, Edgar Corbridge and the photographers Paul Strand and Lewis Hine. The movement had no major presence outside the United States, although it did influence Australian art where Jeffrey Smart adopted its principles. Although no manifesto was ever created, some of the artists were friends and frequently exhibited at the same galleries. Georgia O'Keeffe's husband, photographer and art dealer Alfred Stieglitz, was a highly regarded mentor for the group and was especially supportive of Paul Strand.

Precisionism had an indirect influence on the later styles known as magic realism, pop art, and photorealism, but it was largely considered a dated "period style" by the 1950s, though its influence on advertising imagery and stage and set design continued throughout the twentieth century. Its two most famous practitioners are Charles Demuth and Charles Sheeler.

title: Precisionism


text:
Kresy

Eastern Borderlands (Kresy Wschodnie) or simply Borderlands (Kresy, ) was a term coined for the eastern part of the Second Polish Republic during the interwar period (1918–1939). Largely agricultural and extensively multi-ethnic with a Polish minority, it amounted to nearly half of the territory of interwar Poland. Historically situated in the eastern Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, following the 18th-century foreign partitions it was divided between the Empires of Russia and Austria-Hungary, and ceded to Poland in 1921 after the Treaty of Riga. As a result of the post-World War II border changes, all of the territory was ceded to the USSR, and none of it is in modern Poland.

The Polish plural term Kresy corresponds to the Russian okrainy (окраины), meaning "the border regions". During the existence of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Kresy only referred to the borderlands of the Kingdom of Poland and not the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. Kresy is also largely co-terminous with the northern areas of the Pale of Settlement, a scheme devised by Catherine II of Russia to limit Jews from settling in the homogenously Christian Orthodox core of the Russian Empire, such as Moscow and Saint Petersburg. The Pale was established after the Second Partition of Poland and lasted until the Russian Revolution in 1917, when the Russian Empire ceased to exist. In the aftermath of the Polish wars against Ukraine, Lithuania and Soviet Russia, the latter of which was ended by the Treaty of Riga, large parts of the Austrian and Russian partitions became part of Poland. As many as 12 million inhabitants lived in the Eastern Borderlands, but ethnic Poles only were a third of that population, with another third being Ukrainian. Most small towns in the Borderlands were shtetls.

Administratively, the Eastern Borderlands territory was composed of Lwów, Nowogródek, Polesie, Stanisławów, Tarnopol, Wilno, Wołyń, and Białystok voivodeships (provinces). Today, all these regions are divided between Western Ukraine, Western Belarus, and south-eastern Lithuania, with the major cities of Lviv, Vilnius, and Grodno no longer in Poland. During the Second Polish Republic, the Eastern Borderlands denoted the lands beyond the Curzon Line proposed after World War I in December 1919 by the British Foreign Office as the eastern border of the re-emerging sovereign Polish Republic, after over a century of partition. In September 1939, after Germany invaded Poland and follow-up invasion by Soviet Union, in accordance with Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact all Eastern Borderlands territories were incorporated into the Soviet republics of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania, often by means of terror.

Soviet territorial annexations during World War II were later ratified by the Allies at the Conferences of Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam and most of Poles here were expelled after the end of World War II in Europe. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, there was no change to the post-World War II borders. Despite the former provinces of the Eastern Borderlands no longer being part of Poland, a Polish minority remains.

Etymology

The Polish word kresy ("borderlands") is the plural form of the word kres meaning 'edge'. According to Zbigniew Gołąb, it is "a medieval borrowing from the German word ", which in the Middle Ages meant Kreislinie, Umkreis, Landeskreis ("borderline, delineation or circumscribed territory"). Samuel Linde in his Dictionary of the Polish Language gives a different etymology of the term. According to him, kresy meant the borderline between Poland and the Crimean Khanate, in the region of the lower Dnieper. The term kresy appeared for the first time in literature in Wincenty Pol poems, "Mohort" (1854) and "Pieśń o ziemi naszej". Pol claimed that Kresy was the line between the Dniester and Dnieper rivers, neighbouring the Tatar borderland. Coincidentally in relation to Jewish settlement in the macro region, the notion of the pale is an archaic English term derived from the Latin word palus, (which in Polish exists as pal and also means a stake), extended in this instance to mean the area enclosed by a fence or boundary.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the meaning of the term expanded to include the lands of the former eastern provinces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, east of the Lwów–Wilno line. In the Second Polish Republic, Kresy equated to historically Polish settled lands to the east of the notional Curzon line. Currently, the term applies to all the eastern lands of the Second Polish Republic that are no longer within the frontiers of modern Poland, together with lands further east, that had been integral to the Commonwealth before 1772, and where Polish communities continue to exist.

History
Polish eastern settlements date back to the dawn of Poland as a state. In 1018, King Bolesław I the Brave invaded Kievan Rus' (see Bolesław I's intervention in the Kievan succession crisis, 1018), capturing Kyiv, and annexing the Cherven Cities. In 1340, Red Ruthenia came under Polish control, which intensified defensive Polish settlement and the introduction of Catholicism. After the Union of Lublin 1569, more Polish settlers moved into the eastern borderlands of the vast Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Most of them came from the Polish provinces of Mazovia and Lesser Poland. They had moved gradually eastwards settling in sparsely populated areas, inhabited by earlier inhabitants such as Lithuanians and Ruthenians. Moreover, the indigenous upper classes of Kresy accepted Polish religion, culture and language, resulting in their assimilation and Polonization.

The Partitions of Poland
The year 1772 marked the first partition of the Commonwealth of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (see Partitions of Poland). By 1795, the whole eastern half of the state had been annexed by the Russian Empire in concert with the Habsburgs and Prussia's Hohenzollerns. The dramatic westward expansion of the Russian Empire through the annexation of Polish-Lithuanian territory substantially increased the new "Russian" Jewish population. Kresy and the superimposed Pale, in the former Polish and Lithuanian territories, had a Jewish population of over five million, and represented the largest community (40%) of the world Jewish population at that time.

From the Polish perspective, the lands came to be called the "Stolen Lands". Even though Poles were a minority in those areas, owing to forced depopulation, the "Stolen Lands" remained an integral part of Polish national identity, with Polish cultural centres and seats of learning in Vilnius University, Jan Kazimierz University and Krzemieniec Lyceum among many others. Since many local educated inhabitants had actively participated in Polish–Lithuanian national insurgencies (November Uprising, January Uprising), the Russian authorities resorted to intensified persecution, confiscations of property and land, penal deportation to Siberia, and the systematic attempt at Russification of Poles and their traditional culture and institutions.

The Pale of Settlement
From the Russian perspective the "Pale of Settlement" included all of Belarus, Lithuania and Moldova, much of present-day Ukraine, parts of eastern Latvia, eastern Poland, and some parts of western Russia, generally corresponding to the Kresy macroregion and the modern-day western border of Russia. It extended from the eastern pale, or demarcation line, to the Russian border with the Kingdom of Prussia (later the German Empire) and Austria-Hungary. It also comprised about 20% of the territory of European Russia and largely corresponded to historical lands of the former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Cossack Hetmanate, and the Ottoman Empire (with Crimean Khanate).

The area included in the Pale, with its large Roman Catholic, Eastern Catholic and Jewish populations, was acquired through a series of military conquests and diplomatic manoeuvres, between 1654 and 1815. While the religious nature of the edicts creating the Pale is clear: conversion to Russian Orthodoxy, the state religion, released individuals from the strictures - historians argue that the motivations for its creation and maintenance were primarily economic and nationalistic in nature.

Economic decline of Kresy
The Russian Empire had abandoned Kresy to decline as a vast rural backwater after the original Polish–Lithuanian landowners had been disposed of in the wake of insurrections and the Abolition of serfdom in Poland in 1864. The devastation of country estates put a halt to large scale economic activity which had depended on agriculture, forestry, brewing and small scale industries. Paradoxically, the Southern Kresy (present-day Ukraine) was famous for its fertile soil and was known as the "bread basket of Europe". Towards the end of the 19th century, the decline was so acute that trade and food supplies became problematic and large scale emigration from towns and villages began as Jewish communities, in particular, began heading West, to Europe and the United States. By the time of a newly resurgent Polish state, the provinces had been additionally disadvantaged by having the lowest literacy levels in the country, since education had not been compulsory during Russian rule. The regions had suffered a legacy of decades of neglect and underinvestment so were generally less economically developed than the western parts of interwar Poland.

Between the World Wars
The years 1918–1921 were especially turbulent for Kresy, due to the resurgence of the Polish nation-state and the formation of new borders. At that time, Poland had fought three wars to establish its eastern frontier: with Ukraine, Lithuania and Soviet Russia. In all three conflicts, Poland made territorial conquests, and as a result, it seized territories east of the Curzon line that were previously conquered by Russia, in addition to the land formerly part of the Austrian Galicia. The Kresy was the most war-devastated area in the whole of interwar Poland. The region later formed the eastern provinces of the Second Polish Republic.

Territories included in the Kresy during the interbellum period comprised the eastern parts of the Voivodeships of Lwów and Białystok and the whole of the Nowogródek, Polesie, Stanisławów, Tarnopol, Wilno, Wołyń Voivodeships. The Polish government undertook an active policy of Polonizing the Kresy to alter its ethnic profile in favour of the Poles. One of the ways to do so was through the Osadnik colonists. These military colonists were one of the most "emotionalized" parts of the Polish government's policy in the Kresy and elicited opposition from the locals. The German historian Bernhard Chiari said that the Kresy were "the poorhouse of Poland", while the Yad Vashem historian Leonid Rein even wrote that "it would not be a great exaggeration to say it was the poor-house of the whole of Europe." This led to frequent conflicts with Ukrainian nationalists in the southeastern part of Kresy, which led to the pacification of Ukrainians in Eastern Galicia.

Numerous Polish communities continued to live beyond the eastern border of the Second Polish Republic, especially around Minsk, Zhytomyr and Berdychiv. In the late 1920s and early 1930s, the Soviet authorities created two Polish National Districts in Belarus and Ukraine, but during the Polish Operation of the NKVD, most of the Poles in those areas were murdered, while those remaining were forcibly resettled in Kazakhstan (see also Poles in the Soviet Union).

During and after World War II

As a consequence of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, on 17 September 1939, the Kresy territories were annexed by the Soviet Union (see Soviet invasion of Poland), and a significant part of the ethnic Polish population of Kresy was deported to other areas of the Soviet Union including Siberia and Kazakhstan. The new border between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union was re-designated by the German–Soviet Boundary and Friendship Treaty, signed on 29 September 1939. After the elections to the People's Assemblies of Western Ukraine and Western Belarus, communist governments for Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were formed and immediately announced their intention of joining their respective republics to the Soviet Union (see also Territories of Poland annexed by the Soviet Union). After the German invasion of the USSR, the southeastern part of Kresy was absorbed into Greater Germany's General Government, whereas the rest was integrated with the Reichskommissariats Ostland and Ukraine. In 1943–1944, units of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, with the help of Ukrainian peasants, carried out mass exterminations of Poles living in southeastern Kresy (see Massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia).

In January 1944, Soviet troops had reached the former Polish–Soviet border, and by the end of July 1944, they again re-annexed the whole territory that had been taken by the USSR in September 1939 into their control. During the Tehran Conference in 1943, a new Soviet-Polish border was established, in effect sanctioning most of the Soviet territorial acquisitions of September 1939 (except for some areas around Białystok and Przemyśl), ignoring protests from the Polish government-in-exile in London. The Potsdam Conference, via substantive recognition of the pro-Soviet Polish Committee of National Liberation, implicitly consented to the deportation of Polish people from Kresy (see Polish population transfers (1944–1946)). Most Polish inhabitants of Kresy were ordered by the Soviets to migrate west to Germany's former eastern provinces, newly emptied of their German population and renamed as the "Recovered Territories" of the Polish People's Republic, based on Polish medieval settlement of the areas. Poles from the southern Kresy (now Ukraine) were forced to settle mainly in Silesia, while those from the north (Belarus and Lithuania) moved to Pomerania and Masuria. Polish residents of Lwów settled not only in Wrocław, but also in Gliwice and in Bytom. Those cities had not been destroyed during the war. They were relatively closer to the new eastern border of Poland, which could become significant in case of a sudden hoped for a return to the East.

Frequently, whole Kresy villages and towns were deported in a single rail transport to new locations in the west. For instance, the village of Biała, near Chojnów, is still divided into two parts: Lower Biała and Upper Biała. Lower Biała was settled by people who used to live in a Bieszczady village of Polana near Ustrzyki Dolne (this area belonged to the Soviet Union until 1951: see 1951 Polish–Soviet territorial exchange), while inhabitants of the village Pyszkowce near Buczacz moved to Upper Biała. Every year in September, Biała is the scene of an annual festival called Kresowiana. In Szczecin and Polish West Pomerania, in the immediate postwar period, one-third of Polish settlers were either people from Kresy or Sybiraks. In 1948, people born in the Eastern Borderlands made up 47.5% of the population of Opole, 44.7% of Baborów, 47.5% of Wołczyn, 42.1% of Głubczyce, 40.1% of Lewin Brzeski, and 32.6% of Brzeg. In 2011, people with Kresy background made up 25% of the population of the Opole Voivodeship. The town of Jasień was settled by people from the area of Ternopil in late 1945 and early 1946, while Poles from Borschiv moved to Trzcińsko-Zdrój and Chojna. The situation was completely different in Wschowa and its county. In 1945–1948, more than 8,000 people moved there. They came from different areas of the Kresy — Ashmyany, Stanislawow, Równe, Lwów, Brody, Dzyatlava District, and Ternopil.

Altogether, between 1944 and 1946, more than a million Poles from the Kresy were moved to the Recovered Territories, including 150,000 from the area of Wilno, 226,300 from Polesia, 133,900 from Volhynia, 5,000 from Northern Bukovina, and 618,200 from Eastern Galicia. The so-called First Repatriation of Poles (1944–1946) was carried out in a chaotic, disorganized way. People had to spend weeks, even months at railroad stations, waiting for transport. During that time, they were robbed of their belongings by either locals, Soviet soldiers or Soviet rail workers. For lack of railroad cars, in Lithuania at some point the "one-suitcase policy" was introduced, which meant that Poles had to leave behind all their belongings. They travelled in freight or open wagons, and the journeys were long and dangerous, as there was no protection from the military or the police. In the years 1955–1959, the second mass repatriation of Poles from Kresy took place. As a result, in the years 1945–1960, over 2 million Polish people left Kresy. About more remained in the Kresy after 1960 (especially in the territories of the Lithuanian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR). Even today, Poles constitute the majority of inhabitants in many regions in the Grodno and Vilnius regions. Poles appear in the most recent national censuses as follows - Lithuania 183,000 (2021) ; Belarus 288,000 (2019) ; Ukraine 144,000 (2001) - the Belarus and Ukraine numbers firmly disputed in Poland.

In the immediate postwar period, Polish Communists, who ceded the Eastern Borderlands to the Soviet Union, were universally regarded as traitors, and Władysław Gomułka, First Secretary of the Polish Workers' Party, was fully aware of it. People who moved from the East to the Recovered Territories talked amongst themselves about their return to Lwów and other eastern locations, and the German return to Silesia, as a result of World War III, in which Western Allies would defeat the Soviets. One of the adages of the postwar period was: "Just one atom bomb, and we will be back in Lwów again. Just second one is small but strong and we will be back in Wilno again." ("Jedna bomba atomowa i wrócimy znów do Lwowa. Druga mała, ale silna i wrócimy znów do Wilna"). Polish settlers in former German areas were insecure about their future there until the 1970s (see Kniefall von Warschau). Eastern settlers did not feel at home in Lower Silesia, and as a result, they did not care about the machinery, households and farms abandoned by Germans. Lubomierz in 1945 was in good condition, but in the following years, Polish settlers from the area of Chortkiv in Podolia let it run down and become a ruin. The Germans were aware of it. In 1959, German sources wrote that Lower Silesia had been ruined by the Poles. Zdzisław Mach, a sociologist from the Jagiellonian University, explains that when Poles were forced to resettle in the West, which they resented, they had to leave the land they considered sacred and move to areas inhabited by the enemy. In addition, Communist authorities did not initially invest in the Recovered Territories because, like the settlers, for a long time they were unsure about the future of these lands. As Mach says, people in Western Poland for years lived "on their suitcases", with all their belongings packed in case of return to the East.

Interwar population
The population of Kresy was multi-ethnic, primarily comprising Poles, Ukrainians, Jews and Belarusians. According to official Polish statistics from the interwar period, Poles formed the largest linguistic group in these regions, and were demographically the largest ethnic group in the cities. Other national minorities included Lithuanians and Karaites (in the north), Jews (scattered in cities and towns across the area), Czechs and Germans (in Volhynia and East Galicia), Armenians and Hungarians (in Lviv) and also Russians and Tatars.

The proportions of different native languages in each voivodeship in 1931, according to the Polish census of 1931, were as follows:

 * Wilno Voivodeship; 60% Polish, 23% Belarusian, 8% Yiddish, 3% Russian, 8% Other (including Lithuanian)
 * Nowogródek Voivodeship; 53% Polish, 39% Belarusian, 7% Yiddish, 1% Russian
 * Polesie Voivodeship; 63% "Other" or Tutejszy (Polesian and other dialects), 14% Polish, 10% Yiddish, 6% Belarusian, 5% Ukrainian
 * Wołyń Voivodeship; 68% Ukrainian, 17% Polish, 10% Yiddish, 2% German, 1% Russian, 2% Other
 * Lwów Voivodeship; 58% Polish, 34% Ukrainian, 8% Yiddish
 * Tarnopol Voivodeship; 50% Polish, 45% Ukrainian, 5% Yiddish
 * Stanisławów Voivodeship; 69% Ukrainian, 23% Polish, 7% Yiddish, 1% German

In addition to ethnic Poles in former eastern Poland, there were also large Polish communities in the USSR and in the Baltic states. Polish population east of the Curzon Line before World War II can be estimated by adding together figures for Former Eastern Poland and for pre-1939 Soviet Union:

Two tables below show the linguistic (mother tongue) and religious structure of interwar South-Eastern Poland (nowadays part of Western Ukraine) and interwar North-Eastern Poland (nowadays part of Western Belarus and southern Lithuania) by county, according to the 1931 census.

South-East Poland:

North-East Poland:

Largest cities and towns
In 1931, according to the Polish National Census, the ten largest cities in Polish Eastern Borderlands were: Lwów (pop. 312,200), Wilno (pop. 195,100), Stanisławów (pop. 60,000), Grodno (pop. 49,700), Brześć nad Bugiem (pop. 48,400), Borysław (pop. 41,500), Równe (pop. 40,600), Tarnopol (pop. 35,600), Łuck (pop. 35,600) and Kołomyja (pop. 33,800).

In addition, Daugavpils (pop. 43,200 in 1930) in inter-war Latvia was also a major Polish community with 21% ethnic Polish inhabitants.

Polish minority after World War II
Despite the expulsion of most of ethnic Poles from the Soviet Union between 1944 and 1958, the Soviet census of 1959 still counted around 1.5 million ethnic Poles remaining in the USSR: According to a more recent census, there were about 295,000 Poles in Belarus in 2009 (3.1% of the Belarus population).

Notable people
A number of influential figures in Polish history were born in the area of kresy (note: the redirected list does not include Poles born in the cities of Lwów (Lviv), and Wilno (Vilnius) - see List of Leopolitans, List of people from Vilnius). The family of former President of Poland, Bronisław Komorowski, allegedly hails from northern Lithuania. The mother of Bogdan Zdrojewski, Minister of Culture and National Heritage is from Boryslav, and the father of former First Lady Jolanta Kwaśniewska was born in Wołyń, where his sister was murdered in 1943 by the Ukrainian nationalists.

Cradle of Polish culture

Since some of the most distinguished names of Polish literature and music were born in Kresy, e.g. Mikołaj Rej, Adam Mickiewicz, Juliusz Słowacki, Karol Szymanowski or Czesław Miłosz, Eastern Borderlands have featured repeatedly in the Polish Literary canon. Mickiewicz's Pan Tadeusz begins with the Polish language invocation, "O Lithuania, my fatherland, thou art like good health...." Other notable works located in Kresy, are Nad Niemnem, Sanatorium Under the Sign of the Hourglass, With Fire and Sword, Fire in the Steppe. In Communist Poland, all Kresy-related topics, such as Poland's eastern centuries old heritage, including ecclesiastical architecture, country houses and stately homes down to the Massacres of Poles in Wołyń were banned from publication for Soviet propaganda reasons, because these lands now belonged to the Soviet Union. In official documents, people born in the Eastern Borderlands were declared as born in the Soviet Union, and very few Kresy-themed books or films were passed by the state censor at that time. One of the exceptions was the immensely popular comedy trilogy by Sylwester Chęciński (Sami swoi from 1967, Nie ma mocnych from 1974, and Kochaj albo rzuć from 1977). The trilogy tells the story of two quarreling families, who after the end of the Second World War were resettled from current Western Ukraine to Lower Silesia, after Poland was shifted westwards.

After the collapse of the Communist system, the old Kresy returned as a Polish cultural theme in the form of historical polemics. Numerous books and albums were published about the Eastern Borderlands, frequently with original photos from the prewar era. Examples of such publications include:

 * Roman Aftanazy. Dzieje rezydencji na dawnych kresach Rzeczypospolitej. Wrocław: Wydawnictwo Ossolineum, 1991–1997. History of Residences in Poland's Former Eastern Borderlands, (1991–1997), listing and describing in a monumental eleven volume work the cultural heritage contained in the myriad estates and grand residences in the once Polish Kresy and Inflanty regions.
 * Kresy in Photos of Henryk Poddębski, published in May 2010 in Lublin, with a foreword by people with a Kresy background - Anna Seniuk, Krzesimir Dębski and Maciej Płażyński
 * The World of Kresy, with numerous photos, postcards and maps
 * Sentimental Journeys. Travel across Kresy with Andrzej Wajda and Daniel Olbrychski
 * The Encyclopedia of Kresy, with 3600 articles, and foreword by another famous person from Kresy, Stanisław Lem. Articles about the Eastern Borderlands frequently appear in Polish newspapers and magazines. The local office of Gazeta Wyborcza in Wrocław in late 2010 began a Kresy Family Album, stories and photos of those who were forced to move from the East.

In the first half of 2011, Rzeczpospolita daily published a series called "The Book of Eastern Borderlands" (Księga kresów wschodnich). The July 2012 issue of the Uważam Rze Historia magazine was dedicated to the Eastern Borderlands and their importance in Polish history and culture.

Present day
The territory known to Poles as Kresy is now partitioned off between the states of Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania. Ethnic Poles still live in those areas: in Lithuania, they are the largest ethnic minority in the country (see Poles in Lithuania), in Belarus, they are the second largest ethnic minority in the country after Russians (see Poles in Belarus), and in Ukraine, they officially number 144,130, but some Polish organizations claim that the number of Poles in Ukraine may be as many as 2 million, most of them assimilated. (see Poles in Ukraine). Furthermore, there is a 50,000 Polish minority in Latvia. In Lithuania and Belarus, Poles are more numerous than in Ukraine. This is the result of the Polish population transfers (1944–1946) as well as Massacres of Poles in Volhynia. Those Poles who survived the slaughter begged for the opportunity to emigrate.

Many Polish organizations are active in the former Eastern Borderlands, such as the Association of Poles in Ukraine, Association of Polish Culture of the Lviv Land, the Federation of Polish Organizations in Ukraine, Union of Poles in Belarus, and the Association of Poles in Lithuania. There are Polish sports clubs (Pogoń Lwów, FK Polonia Vilnius), newspapers (Gazeta Lwowska, Kurier Wileński), radio stations (in Lviv and Vilnius), many theatres, schools, choirs and folk ensembles. Poles living in Kresy are helped by a government-sponsored organization Fundacja Pomoc Polakom na Wschodzie, and by other organizations, such as the Association of Help of Poles in the East Kresy (see also Karta Polaka). Money is frequently collected to help those Poles who live in Kresy, and there are several annual events, such as "Christmas Package for a Polish Veteran in Kresy", and "Summer with Poland", sponsored by Association "Polish Community", in which Polish children from Kresy are invited to visit Poland. Polish language handbooks and films, as well as medicines and clothes are collected and sent to Kresy. Books are most often sent to Polish schools which exist there — for example, in December 2010, University of Wrocław organized an event called "Become a Polish Santa Claus and Give a Book to a Polish Child in Kresy". Polish churches and cemeteries (such as Cemetery of the Defenders of Lwów) are renovated with money from Poland. For example, in Nysa, money is collected to renovate the Roman Catholic church in Łopatyn near Lviv, while residents of Oława collect funds to renovate the church in Sasiv, also in the area of Lviv. Also, physicians from Kraków's organization Doctors of Hope regularly visit Eastern Borderlands, and the Polish Ministry of Education runs a special program, which sends Polish teachers to the former Soviet Union. In 2007, more than 700 teachers worked in the East, most of them in Kresy. Studio East of Polish TV Wrocław organizes an event called "Save your grandfather's tomb from oblivion" (Mogiłę pradziada ocal od zapomnienia), during which students from Lower Silesia visit Western Ukraine, to clean Polish cemeteries there. In July 2011, about 150 students cleaned 16 cemeteries in the areas of Lviv, Ternopil, Podolia and Pokuttya.

Despite wars and ethnic cleansing many treasures of Polish culture still remain in the East. In Vilnius, there is the Wróblewski Library, with 160,000 volumes and 30,000 manuscripts, which now belong to the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. In Lviv, there is the Ossolineum, one of the most important Polish culture centres. Adolf Juzwenko, current president of Wrocław's office of the Ossolineum, says that in 1945, there was a mass public campaign in Poland, aimed at transporting the whole Ossolineum to Wrocław. It succeeded in recovering only 200,000 volumes, as the Soviets decided that the bulk of the library had to remain in Lviv.

In contemporary Poland
Even though Poland lost its Eastern Borderlands in the aftermath of World War II, Poles connected with the Kresy still have some affection for those lands. Since Poles from current Western Ukraine mostly moved to Silesia. The cities of Wrocław and Gliwice are regarded as miasta lwowskie (cities of Lwów affinity), while Szczecin, Gdańsk and Olsztyn are regarded as miasta wileńskie (cities of Wilno affinity). Lwów's Ossolineum Foundation, its collections and famous library are now located in Wrocław. Polish academics from Lwów established the Polish University of Wrocław (taking over from the old German University of Breslau) and Silesian University of Technology in Gliwice. At the same time, Polish academics from Vilnius founded Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń (even though Toruń belonged to Poland before the outbreak of World War II before 1939).

There are numerous Kresy-oriented organizations, with the largest one, World Congress of Kresy Inhabitants (Światowy Kongres Kresowian), located in Bytom, and branches scattered across Poland, and abroad. The Congress organizes annual World Convention and Pilgrimage of Kresy Inhabitants to Jasna Góra Monastery.

Other important Kresy organizations, active in contemporary Poland, include:
 * Polskie Towarzystwo Miłośników Miasta Krzemieńca i Ziemi Krzemienieckiej (Polish Association of Lovers of Krzemieniec and Krzemieniec Land) from Poznań.
 * Stowarzyszenie Kresowe "Podkamień" (Kresy Association "Podkamien") from Wołów,
 * Stowarzyszenie Odra-Niemen (Association Odra - Niemen) from Wrocław,
 * Stowarzyszenie Przyjaciół Ziemi Drohobyckiej (Association of Friends of Drohobycz Land) from Legnica,
 * Stowarzyszenie Rodzin Osadników Wojskowych i Cywilnych Kresów Wschodnich (Association of Families of Osadniks of Eastern Borderlands) from Warsaw,
 * Towarzystwo Miłośników Kultury Kresowej (Association of Friends of Kresy Culture) from Wrocław,
 * Towarzystwo Miłośników Wołynia i Polesia (Association of Lovers of Wołyn and Polesie) from Warsaw,
 * Towarzystwo Miłośników Lwowa i Kresów Południowo-Wschodnich (Association of Lovers of Lwów and Southeastern Kresy) from Wrocław, with branches in Brzeg, Bydgoszcz, Bytom, Chełm, Gdańsk, Jelenia Góra, Kłodzko, Kraków, Leszno, Lublin, Poznań, Szczecinek, Świdwin, Warszawa, Węgliniec and Zabrze,
 * Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Grodna i Wilna (Association of Friends of Grodno and Wilno), with branches in Białystok, Ełk, Gdańsk, Giżycko, Lublin, Łódź, Ostrołęka, Stargard Szczeciński, Warszawa, Węgorzewo, Wrocław,
 * Związek Sybirakow (Association of Sybiraks) from Warsaw, with branches scattered across Poland and abroad.

Every year, in the Masurian town of Mrągowo, there is a Festiwal Kultury Kresowej (Festival of Kresy Culture), sponsored among others by the Senate of the Republic of Poland and the Minister of Culture, with the patronage of the First Lady. The Festival is broadcast by TVP2 and TVP Polonia, and in 2011 it was organized for the 17th time. Among participants of the 2011 Festival, there were such artists, as Folk Ensemble Mozyrzanka from Mozyr, Children and Youth Band Tęcza from Minsk, Folk Band Kresowianka from Ivyanets, Polish Academic Choir Zgoda from Brest, Instrumental Band Biedronki from Minsk, Vocal Duo Wspólna wędrówka from Minsk, Children's Polonia Ensemble Dolinianka from Stara Huta (Ukraine), Ensemble Fujareczka from Sambir, Ensemble Boryslawiacy from Boryslav, Ensemble Niebo do Wynajecia from Stralhivci (Ukraine), Polish Dance and Song Ensemble Wilenka from Vilnius, Dance and Song Band Troczenie from Trakai, Band Wesołe Wilno from Vilnius, Song and Dance Ensemble Kotwica from Kaunas, and Folk and Polish Folklore Dance and Song Ensemble Syberyjski Krakowiak from Abakan in Siberia.

Other notable Kresy-oriented festivals are:
 * Dzień Kresowiaka (Kresy Inhabitant Day) in the village of Lagiewniki near Malbork,
 * Dzień Kresowy (Kresy Day) in Wschowa,
 * Dzień Kultury Kresowej (Day of Kresy Culture) in Kędzierzyn-Koźle,
 * Dni Kultury Kresowej (Days of Kresy Culture) in Białystok,
 * Dni Kultury Kresowej (Days of Kresy Culture) in Brzeg,
 * Dni Kultury Kresowej (Days of Kresy Culture) in Prochowice,
 * Kaziuki (Kaziuko mugė), an annual folk arts and crafts fair, which takes place in Vilnius, is organized in several Polish cities (Gdańsk, Olsztyn, Poznań, Suwałki, Warsaw ), on initiative of Poles resettled from Vilnius,
 * Kresowy Festiwal Polonijny Młodzieży Szkolnej (Kresy Festival of Polonia Schoolchildren) in Zamość,
 * Legnickie Dni Kultury Kresowej (Legnica Days of Kresy Culture) in Legnica, Lubin, Jawor, Chojnów,
 * ''Lipcowy Festiwal Kresowy (July Kresy Festival) in Rejowiec,
 * Międzynarodowy Festiwal Kultury Kresowej (International Festival of Kresy Culture) in Jarosław,
 * Prezentacja Kultury Polaków z Kresów Wschodnich i Bukowiny (Show of Culture of Poles from Eastern Borderlands and Bucovina) in Zielona Góra, Szprotawa, Nowa Sól, Kożuchów, Żagań
 * Świdnicki Dzień Kultury Kresowej i Lwowa (Świdnica Day of Kresy and Lwów Culture) in Świdnica.

In Lubaczów is a Museum of Kresy, and there is a project, supported by local government, to create a Museum of Eastern Borderlands in Wrocław, the city where a number of Poles from Kresy settled after World War II. Numerous photo albums and books, depicting cities, towns and landscapes of Kresy are published every year in Poland. In Chełm, there is Kresy Bicycle Marathon, Polish Radio Białystok every week broadcasts Kresy Magazine, dedicated to the history and present times of the Eastern Borderlands. Every Sunday, Polish Radio Katowice broadcasts a program based on famous prewar Lwów's Merry Wave, every Tuesday, Polish Radio Rzeszów broadcasts a program Kresy Landscapes. In Wrocław, the Association of Remembrance of Victims of Ukrainian Nationalists publishes Na Rubieży (On the Border) magazine. Among best known Kresy activists of contemporary Poland are Father Tadeusz Isakowicz-Zaleski, and Dr. Tadeusz Kukiz, father of popular singer Paweł Kukiz. Since 2007, annual medals Heritage of Eastern Borderlands are awarded in Wrocław. The 2011 recipient was emeritus Archbishop of Wrocław, Henryk Gulbinowicz. Participants of annual Katyń Motorcycle Raid (Motocyklowy Rajd Katyński) always visit Polish centers in Kresy, giving presents to children, and meeting local Poles.

The program of 2011 Days of Kresy Culture (October 22–23) in Brzeg covered such events, as: Kresy themed cabaret, promotion of Kresy books, Eastern Borderlands cuisine, mass in a local church, meetings with Kresy activists and scholars, and theatre shows of Brzeg's Garrison Club as well as Lwów Eaglets Middle School number 3 in Brzeg. Organizers of the festival assured that for the two days Brzeg would turn into the "capital of interwar Polish Kresy".

In January, February and March 2012, Centre for Public Opinion Research did a survey, asking Poles about their ties to Kresy. It turned out that almost 15% of the population of Poland (4,3 - 4,6 million people) declared that they either were born in the Kresy, or have a parent or a grandparent from that region. The number of Kresowiacy is high in northern and western Poland – as many as 51% of inhabitants of Lubusz Voivodeship, and 47% of inhabitants of Lower Silesian Voivodeship stated that their family has ties to the Kresy. Furthermore, Kresowiacy now make 30% of the population of Opole Voivodeship, 25% of the population of West Pomeranian Voivodeship, and 18% of the population of Warmian–Masurian Voivodeship.

Polish regional dialects
Since Poles have lived in Kresy for hundreds of years, two groups of Kresy Polish dialects emerged: the northern (dialekt północnokresowy), and the southern (dialekt południowokresowy). Both dialects have been influenced either by Ukrainian, Belarusian or by Lithuanian. To Polish speakers in Poland, Kresy dialects are easy to distinguish, as their pronunciation and intonation are markedly different from standard Polish. Before World War II, the Kresy provinces were part of Poland, and both dialects were in common usage, spoken by millions of ethnic Poles. After the war and Soviet annexation of Kresy, however, the majority of ethnic Poles were deported westward, resulting in a severe decline in the number of native speakers. The northern Kresy dialect is still used along the Lithuanian-Belarusian border, where Poles still live in large numbers, but the southern Kresy dialect is endangered, as Poles in western Ukraine do not form a majority of the population in any district. Particularly notable among the Kresy dialects is the Lwów dialect which emerged early in the 19th century and was spoken in the city gaining much recognition in the 1920s and 1930s, partly due to the countrywide popularity of numerous Kresy-born and trained actors and comedians whose native speech it was (see also: Dialects of the Polish language).

title: Kresy


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Talk:Category of magmas

What is the precise relationship between a magma and a groupoid? Is magma just a synonym for groupoid, or is there some difference between the two? Revolver 01:42, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * A magma is a set with a binary operation defined on the set. The operation need not have identity, inverse, or be associative.  A groupoid is a set for which there is no operation defined on the whole set.  There is a product only between certain privileged pairs of elements.  When that product does make sense, the operation has identity, inverse, and is associative.  Thus, a magma and a groupoid are about as different as they can be, although some people call magmas groupoids, which may have been the source of your confusion.   I don't think I can describe succinctly the precise relationship between a groupoid and a magma; neither is a special case or generalization of the other.  I'm having trouble even thinking of some superstructure that they are both special cases of.  A groupoid can be defined as a special kind of a category, whereas a magma cannot (as far as I can see.  composition in categories is always associative).  None of this applies of course to the unrelated use of the word groupoid to mean magma.  In that usage, they are the same. -Lethe | Talk 18:17, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

 * I think historically magmas were called groupoids by some people, but then the category theory definition of groupoid came into vogue so people needed a name for the old groupoids, hence magma. Besides, magma is a very cool name for such "primordial" objects. I remember wondering as an undergraduate how many axioms one could throw out and still have interesting mathematics. :-) - Gauge 00:55, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

"Category of monoids" listed at Redirects for discussion
A discussion is taking place to address the redirect Category of monoids. The discussion will occur at Redirects for discussion/Log/2020 November 14 until a consensus is reached, and readers of this page are welcome to contribute to the discussion. 𝟙𝟤𝟯𝟺𝐪𝑤𝒆𝓇𝟷𝟮𝟥𝟜𝓺𝔴𝕖𝖗𝟰 (𝗍𝗮𝘭𝙠) 22:28, 14 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Category of magmas


text:
HMCS Protector

Royal Canadian Navy base HMCS Protector, also known as the Point Edward Naval Base, was located next to Sydney Harbour, on Nova Scotia's Cape Breton Island. It was founded in 1940 and used by the navy during the Second World War. It was mainly used to provision, protect and repair the various merchant marine convoys to Quebec, Halifax, and the United Kingdom. It was a main combat zone during the Battle of the St. Lawrence and the more general Battle of the Atlantic. It continued to be utilized during the Cold War's early stages. It was decommissioned in 1964 and became the initial facility to house the Canadian Coast Guard College that same year. Currently, the Sydport Industrial Park utilizes the base's former piers and land.

Second World War 1939–1945
During the months prior to the Second World War being declared in 1939, the RCMP Patrol Vessel Protector was stationed at Sydney for various policing duties. On 28 August 1939 the Royal Canadian Navy established a small shore facility on the Sydney waterfront. On 22 July 1940, this facility was commissioned as HMCS Protector, taking its name from Patrol Vessel Protector. At the time, navy regulations stated that a naval shore base's designation must use a seaborne ship's name.

HMCS Protector saw intensive use during the war, as Sydney Harbour became the assembly port for the SC (Slow Convoy) series Atlantic convoys, as well as convoys to other major ports in Canada, namely Halifax (SH) and Quebec (SQ). Other convoys that were marshaled by Protector were Sydney-Corner Brook (SB), Sydney-Port aux Basque (SPAB) and Sydney-Greenland (SG). It was the base for the warships that escorted the SC convoys in the western Atlantic. Protector was the focal point for the extensive Sydney Harbour defences that were established to protect against German U-boat attack.

HMCS Protector was initially stationed on the Sydney waterfront and used commercial wharves and buildings along Esplanade Street, where the present armouries and marine terminal are located. On 15 March 1943, a new custom-built shore facility and extensive piers was opened at Point Edward on the opposite western shore of the harbour, and was named HMCS Protector II, while the original was then renamed HMCS Protector I. A Canadian National Railways line linked this new base to the mainline to Point Tupper. Numerous convoy supply ships and warships were loaded and serviced at Protector by ship chandlers such as Sydney Ship Supply; at the same time, the navy maintained use of the commercial facilities on the eastern shore in Sydney proper. The base specialised in repair and fitting.

Post-war era: 1945 to the present
After the war's end, the navy stopped using the commercial facilities on the Sydney waterfront (eastern side of the harbour). It continued to use HMCS Protector at Point Edward, on the western side of the harbour. During the 1950s, the base was renovated and it became Sydney's second largest employer, after the Dominion Steel and Coal Company's steel plant, with about 650 personnel stationed there. The Progressive Conservative Diefenbaker government tried to close it in 1958, but it was deemed useful by NATO allies during the early stages of the Cold War. It was finally decommissioned in 1964. In 1965, following the base's closure, the Canadian Coast Guard College was located in some of the unused navy facilities, and used the base's jetties. The college continued to use these facilities throughout the 1970s and early 1980s, until a custom-built campus opened on an adjacent property in Edwardsville in 1981. The former navy base is now used as an industrial park called Sydport.

title: HMCS Protector


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Goddard College

Goddard College was a private college with three locations in the United States: Plainfield, Vermont; Port Townsend, Washington; and Seattle, Washington. The college offered undergraduate and graduate degree programs. With predecessor institutions dating to 1863, Goddard College was founded in 1938 as an experimental and non-traditional educational institution based on the idea that experience and education are intricately linked.

For many years, Goddard College operated a mix of residential, low-residency, and distance-learning programs. Goddard's intensive low-residency model was first developed for its MFA in Creative Writing Program in 1963.

In April 2024, Goddard announced that the college would close at the end of the spring semester, due to financial issues and a decline in enrollment.

The college was accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

History
Goddard College began in 1863 in Barre, Vermont, as the Green Mountain Central Institute. In 1870, it was renamed Goddard Seminary in honor of Thomas A. Goddard (1811–1868) and his wife Mary (1816–1889). Goddard was a prominent merchant in Boston, and was one of the school's earliest and most generous benefactors.

Founded by Universalists, Goddard Seminary was originally a four-year preparatory high school, primarily affiliated with Tufts College. For many years the Seminary prospered. But the opening of many good public high schools in the 20th century made many of the private New England academies obsolete. To attempt to save it, the trustees added a Junior College to the Seminary in 1935, with a Seminary graduate, Royce S. "Tim" Pitkin, as President.

In 1936, under his leadership, the Seminary concluded that in order for Goddard to survive, an entirely new institution would need to be created. A number of prominent educators and laymen agreed with him. Pitkin was supported by Stanley C. Wilson, former governor of Vermont and chairman of the Goddard Seminary Board of Trustees; Senators George Aiken and Ralph Flanders, and Dorothy Canfield Fisher. Pitkin persuaded the Board of Trustees to embrace a new style of education, one that substituted individual attention, democracy, and informality for the traditionally austere and autocratic educational model.

On March 13, 1938, Goddard College was chartered. In July 1938 the newly formed Goddard College moved to Greatwood Farm in Plainfield, Vermont.

The new Goddard was an experimental and progressive college. For its first 21 years of operation, Goddard was unaccredited and small, but it built a reputation as one of the most innovative colleges in the country. Especially noteworthy were Goddard's use of discussion as the basic method in classroom teaching; its emphasis on the whole lives of students in determining personal curricula; its incorporation of practical work into the life of every student; and its development of the college as a self-governing learning community in which everyone had a voice.

In 1959 Goddard College was accredited. One of the founding principles of Goddard was that it should provide educational opportunities for adults. There was a great need for a program for adults who had not completed college, to obtain degrees without disrupting their family lives or careers. The Adult Degree Program (ADP), created by Evalyn Bates, was established in 1963. It was the first low-residency adult education program in the country.

Over the years many experimental programs were designed at Goddard. These programs included the Goddard Experimental Program for Further Education, Design Build Program, Goddard Cambridge Program for Social Change, Third World Studies Program, Institute for Social Ecology, Single Parent Program and many others.

Based on its use of narrative transcripts instead of traditional letter grades, as well as learner-designed curricula, Goddard was among the founding members of the Union for Experimenting Colleges and Universities.

In 2002, after 54 years, the college terminated its residential undergraduate degree program and became an exclusively low-residency college.

In 2005, the college expanded to the West Coast and established a residency site in Port Townsend, Washington. In July 2011 Goddard began to offer their non-licensure education program in Seattle, Washington.

Goddard was placed on probation in 2018 by the New England Commission of Higher Education (NECHE) because of a perceived "[lack of] stability of executive leadership" and concerns about the college's financial resources. The probation was lifted in 2020 after the college satisfied the commission that it had rectified those issues.

In January 2024, Goddard announced that it would temporarily end its low-residency programs in favor of online learning.

Goddard College closed at the end of the spring semester in 2024, due to a precipitious decline in enrollment from 1,900 in the 1970s to less than 250 in 2024. Its campus was put up for sale, and is under contract at a price of $3.4 million, although an ad hoc group of alumni and townspeople are attempting to block the sale.

Main campus, Greatwood: Plainfield, Vermont
The campus in Plainfield was founded in 1938 on the grounds of a late 19th-century model farm: The Greatwood Farm & Estate consisted of shingle-style buildings and gardens designed by Arthur Shurcliff. The Village of Learning, consisted of eleven dormitory buildings, was constructed adjacent to the ensemble of renovated farm buildings in 1963 to accommodate an increasing student population. The Pratt Center & Library, designed to be at the heart of a larger campus, was constructed in 1968. No other significant new construction were added after 1968.

On March 7, 1996 the Greatwood campus was recognized for its historic and architectural significance by its inclusion on the National Register of Historic Places.

Fort Worden State Park, Port Townsend, Washington campus
A US Army post from 1902 to 1953, much of the fort was renovated and adapted as a year-round, multi-use facility dedicated to lifelong learning. It housed several organizations that comprise Fort Worden State Park. The fort was located on a bluff overlooking the Strait of Juan de Fuca and Admiralty Inlet near Port Townsend, Washington.

Columbia City, Seattle campus
The MA in Education program, originally held in the Plainfield-based low-residency program, expanded in 2011 into Columbia City, a neighborhood of Seattle, Washington.

The program trained students in bilingual preschool education. Students focused on areas such as intercultural studies, dual language, early childhood, cultural arts, and community education, and created their plan of studies for each semester. The program was designed to serve students who could not leave their families and communities for the residency.

Academics
Each Goddard student designed their own curriculum in accordance with their program's degree criteria.

In addition to fulfilling academic criteria in the subjects of the arts, the humanities, mathematics, natural sciences and social sciences, undergraduate students needed to demonstrate critical thinking and writing, understanding of social and ecological contexts, positive self-development, and thoughtful action within their learning processes.

The college used a student self-directed, mentored system in which faculty issue narrative evaluations of student's progress instead of grades. The intensive low-residency model required that students come to campus every six months for approximately eight days. During this period, students engaged in a variety of activities and lectures from early morning until late in the evening, and created detailed study plans. During the semester, students studied independently, sending in "packets" to their faculty mentors every few weeks.

When low-residency education began at Goddard, packets were made up of paper documents sent via the mail. Since advances in the internet and related technology, in the 21st century most packets were sent electronically. They contained artwork, audio files, photography, video and web pages, in addition to writing. The schedule and format of these packets differed from program to program, and content varied with each student-faculty correspondence. The focus was generally on research, writing, and reflection related to each student's individualized study plan.

At regular intervals students compiled their work into "learning portfolios" to submit as part of a Progress Review before a cross-program board of faculty. The board ensured that all students' work was in compliance with the college's degree criteria. Undergraduates had to complete a yearlong Senior Study, accompanied by final graduating presentations of work, before being awarded a degree.

Eliot D. Pratt Center and Library
The Eliot D. Pratt Center and Library, located in Plainfield, Vermont, served the entire Goddard College community. It was also open to the public. Its holdings contained over 70,000 physical items. The building also housed several administrative offices, an Archives room with artifacts from the 1800s to present, an Art Gallery, and WGDR (91.1 FM), a college/community radio station serving Central Vermont since 1973.

Goddard College Community Radio (WGDR and WGDH)
Until 2021, Goddard was home to Goddard College Community Radio, a pair of community-based, non-commercial, listener-supported educational radio stations. WGDR, 91.1 FM, is licensed to Plainfield, Vermont. Its sister station, WGDH, 91.7 FM, is licensed to Hardwick, Vermont. Goddard College Community Radio was the largest non-commercial community radio station in Vermont. It ws the only non-commercial station in the state other than the statewide Vermont Public Radio network, which received funding from the Corporation for Public Broadcasting. On May 10, 2021, Goddard donated the licenses for WGDR and sister station WGDH to Central Vermont Community Radio Corporation.

Haybarn Theatre
This structure was originally built as a barn in 1868 by the Martin Family and was one of the largest barns in Central Vermont. The Haybarn was originally used to store hay, grain and livestock. In 1938, when Goddard College purchased Greatwood Farm, they began the process of adapting the farm buildings into academic and student spaces. The Haybarn was renovated to provide a space for the performing arts.

For almost 75 years the Haybarn Theatre was a place where the local community and the College came together to enjoy and appreciate the arts. The Haybarn hosted educational conferences, student and community performances, and the Goddard College Concert Series. Prior to reaching widespread fame, Phish played multiple concerts there in 1986 and 1987.

Alternative Media Conference
In June 1970 Goddard hosted the Alternative Media Conference; it attracted more than 1,600 radio DJs and others involved in independent media from all over the United States. Featured presenters included Yippie founder Jerry Rubin, spiritual leader Ram Dass, Larry Yurdin, and Danny Fields, Bob Fass and Paul Krassner from The Realist.

A music roster of up-and-coming bands was curated by Atlantic Records and included Dr. John and the J. Geils Band. The conference embodied both the political activism and the free-love atmosphere of the time: a coalition affiliated with the Panther 21, The Guardian, Newsreel, Radio Free People, Liberation News Service, Media Women, and The New York Rat put together a packet highlighting the political side of alternative media.

A second Alternative Media Conference was held on campus in 2013 to commemorate the college's 150th anniversary. Thom Hartmann and Ellen Ratner were featured speakers.

2014 undergraduate commencement
In 2014, the graduating class of the college's undergraduate program selected convicted murderer and Goddard alumnus Mumia Abu-Jamal as commencement speaker. Abu-Jamal, who had attended Goddard as an undergraduate in the 1970s, completed his Goddard degree from prison via mail while serving a sentence for the 1982 murder of Philadelphia police officer Daniel Faulkner. Faulkner's widow criticized the selection of Abu-Jamal as a speaker, as did US Senator Pat Toomey, the Vermont Troopers Association, the Vermont Police Chiefs Association, the Fraternal Order of Police, and the Pennsylvania Department of Corrections. The college's interim President, Bob Kenny, supported the right of students to select a commencement speaker of their choice.

On October 5, the school released Abu-Jamal's pre-recorded commencement speech.

Alumni

 * Alan Briskin – organizational consultant
 * Ann Gillespie – actor (Beverly Hills, 90210)
 * Anna Lee Walters — author
 * Archie Shepp – saxophonist
 * Blakeley White-McGuire – Principal dancer of Martha Graham Dance Company
 * Bradford Graves – sculptor, musician, professor (fine arts, sculpture)
 * Cara Hoffman – novelist
 * Caroline Finkelstein – poet
 * Charlie Bondhus – poet
 * Chris Spirou — politician
 * Christopher Dell - historian, author, literary critic, and employee at the Library of Congress
 * Conrad Herwig – jazz trombonist
 * Daniel Boyarin – professor of Jewish Studies
 * David Gallaher – graphic novelist
 * David Helvarg – journalist and environmental activist
 * David Mamet – writer, director, Pulitzer prize winner in drama (Glengarry Glen Ross)
 * Deborah Tall — poet
 * Donald Kofi Tucker – politician
 * Ed Allen – American short story writer
 * Elaine Terranova – poet
 * Ellen Bryant Voigt – MacArthur Genius, former State Poet of Vermont
 * Ellen Ratner — White House correspondent
 * Ellis Avery – novelist and poet
 * Esther Wertheimer – sculptor
 * Evalyn Bates – progressive educator, developed the first low-residency American adult degree program
 * Frances Olsen – professor of law at UCLA
 * Geraldine Clinton Little – poet
 * Helen Landgarten – art therapy pioneer
 * Howard Ashman – actor, playwright (Little Shop of Horrors), lyricist (The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast)
 * J. Ward Carver – Vermont Attorney General, 1925–1931
 * Jacqueline Berger — poet
 * James Gahagan – abstract artist
 * Jane O'Meara Sanders – former president of Burlington College, wife of Senator Bernie Sanders
 * Jane Shore – poet
 * Jared Carter – poet
 * Jared Pappas-Kelley – curator, writer, and artist
 * Jay Craven – Vermont film director, screenwriter, and professor
 * Jeff McCracken — film and television actor, director, writer, and producer
 * Jennifer McMahon — novelist
 * Jerri Allyn — performance artist
 * John Kasiewicz – guitarist
 * Jon Fishman – rock band member (Phish)
 * Jonathan Katz – comedian, writer, actor, producer (Dr. Katz)
 * Judith Arcana — writer
 * Karen Essex — author, journalist, screenwriter
 * Kenneth R. Timmerman – correspondent, author, activist
 * Kiara Brinkman — author
 * Kris Neely – artist and educator
 * Larry Feign – cartoonist (The World of Lily Wong)
 * Laura McCullough – poet and writer
 * Linda McCarriston – poet and professor
 * Linnea Johnson – poet
 * Lisa Brooks – historian of New England's Native American history
 * Lucia Capacchione — art therapist
 * Madeline Stone — songwriter
 * Mark Doty – poet, National Book Award winner, 2008
 * Martin Hyatt — author
 * Mary Johnson – author and director of A Room of Her Own Foundation
 * Mary Karr – author
 * Matthew Quick – American author of young adult and fiction novels
 * Mayme Agnew Clayton – librarian, and the founder of the Western States Black Research and Education Center
 * Michael Lent – visual artist and curator
 * Miriam Hopkins — film and television actor
 * Monica Mayer – Mexican artist
 * Mumia Abu Jamal – journalist, former Black Panther Party member, convict, author
 * Neil Landau – (former faculty) screenwriter, playwright, television producer
 * Norman Dubie – poet
 * Oliver Foot – British actor, philanthropist, charity worker
 * Page McConnell – rock band member (Phish)
 * Pamela Stewart – poet
 * Paul Zaloom – puppeteer, host of television show Beakman's World
 * Peter Hannan – artist, writer, producer (CatDog)
 * Philip Zuchman – American painter
 * Piers Anthony – English American author
 * Robert Louthan — poet
 * Robert M. Fisher – abstract artist
 * Ronnie Burrage — jazz percussionist
 * Roo Borson —poet
 * Russell Potter – Arctic historian, author
 * Stephen C. Smith – economist, professor, author
 * Sue Owen — poet
 * Susan Tichy — poet
 * Susie Ibarra – contemporary composer and percussionist
 * Suzi Wizowaty – author and politician
 * Taina Asili — musician
 * Tim Costello (1945–2009), labor and anti-globalization advocate and author
 * Tobias Schneebaum – artist, anthropologist, AIDS activist
 * Tom Griffin – playwright of The Boys Next Door
 * Tommie Smith – athlete, activist, educator, gold medal winner at the 1968 Summer Olympics who set seven individual world records
 * Tony Curtis (Welsh poet) (born 1946) – Welsh poet and author
 * Trey Anastasio – guitarist, singer, songwriter, member of the band Phish
 * Walter F. Scott – (Goddard Seminary) Vermont State Treasurer
 * Walter Klenhard — film director, writer and actor
 * Walter Mosley – author
 * Wayne Karlin – author
 * William H. Macy – actor
 * William L. White – addiction studies
 * William Wildman Campbell — United States House of Representatives
 * Yadira Guevara-Prip — stage and television actor.

Faculty, staff and administration

 * Arisa White – faculty advisor in the BFA Creative Writing Program
 * Caryn Mirriam-Goldberg – American writer and third Kansas Poet Laureate who founded Goddard's Transformative Language Arts program
 * David Mamet – American playwright, essayist, screenwriter, and film director
 * Donald Hall — poet and literary critic
 * Ellen Bryant Voigt — helped found Goddard's first low-residency program before starting a similar program at Warren Wilson College
 * Ernie Stires — composer
 * Frank Conroy — author
 * Geoffrey Wolff — author
 * Hameed Sharif “Herukhuti” Williams – African-American sociologist, cultural studies scholar, sex educator, playwright/poet, and award-winning author
 * Heather McHugh — poet
 * James Gahagan — sculptor, chairman of Goddard's art department from 1971–79
 * Jane O'Meara Sanders – served one year as interim president of Goddard
 * John Irving — author
 * John Froines – one of the Chicago Seven, taught chemistry in the early 1970s
 * Lisel Mueller – poet
 * Louise Gluck — Nobel Laureate, poet, winner of the National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize for Poetry
 * Marilyn Salzman Webb — activist and journalist who founded Goddard's women's studies program
 * Marvin Bell — first Poet Laureate of the State of Iowa
 * Michael Ryan — poet
 * Murray Bookchin (1921–2006) – American anarchist author, orator, and philosopher
 * Peter Schumann and his Bread and Puppet Theater were the theatre-in-residence at Goddard College from 1970–1974
 * Raymond Carver — author
 * Richard Ford — author
 * Richard Grossinger — author, publisher - taught interdisciplinary studies (including alchemy, Melville, Classical Greek, Jungian psychology, and ethnoastronomy), 1972-1977
 * Robert Hass — poet
 * Stephen Dobyns — poet and novelist
 * Thomas Yamamoto – art instructor
 * Tobias Wolff — author
 * Walter Butts – American poet and the Poet Laureate of New Hampshire.

title: Goddard College


text:
HMAS Psyche

HMAS Psyche (formerly HMS Psyche) was a Pelorus-class cruiser protected cruiser built for the Royal Navy at the end of the 19th century. Initially operating on the North America and West Indies Station, the cruiser was transferred to the Australian Squadron in 1903, and remained there until the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) took over responsibility in 1913. After a stint in New Zealand waters and involvement in the Occupation of German Samoa, Psyche was paid off in 1915.

At the recommendation of the Australian government, the ship was commissioned into the RAN in 1915, and assigned to patrol the coast of Burma, in response to the threat of a German-instigated uprising. Psyche operated in the Bay of Bengal and around Sumatra until 1916, when she was docked at Hong Kong for refit. During this, personnel from the ship were used to commission and man the river gunboat HMS Moorhen (1901). After the refit's conclusion, Psyche patrolled in Chinese waters, before returning to the Bay of Bengal. Psyche returned to Sydney and was paid off in October 1917, but recommissioned a month later for patrols in Australia's northern waters. She was decommissioned for the final time in early 1918. The ship was sold for use as a timber lighter in 1922, and sank in 1940 at Salamander Bay, New South Wales following a storm.

Design and construction
Psyche was a third-class protected cruiser of the nine-ship Pelorus- or P-class. She had a displacement of 2,135 tons, was 313 ft long overall and 300 ft long between perpendiculars, had a beam of 36 ft, and a draught of 15 ft. Propulsion was supplied by inverted three-cylinder triple expansion steam engines, built by Keyham, providing 7000 ihp to two propeller shafts. Psyche was capable of reaching 20 kn, although she normally operated at the more economical speedo of 8 kn.

The cruiser was armed with eight single QF 4 in guns, eight single QF 3-pounder guns, two 4.7-inch guns, two field guns, three Maxim machine guns, and two 14 in torpedo tubes sited above the waterline. Armour protection was limited to 50 mm thick section of deck plating over vital areas. The ship's company initially stood at 220, but this was later reduced to 188; 12 officers, and 176 sailors.

Psyche was laid down for the Royal Navy at HM Devonport Dockyard, Plymouth on 15 November 1897. She was launched on 19 July 1898 by Miss E. Carr, sister of the dockyard's admiral superintendent. The cruiser was completed on 28 April 1899, and was placed in reserve until her commissioning on 2 May 1899.

Operational history
Psyche was commissioned on 2 May 1899 by Captain Francis Raymond Pelly, for service on the North America and West Indies Station, based at the Royal Naval Dockyard in the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda. Ships of the station's squadron exercised together in Bermudian waters and were maintained at the dockyard between extensive cruises around the western North Atlantic and the West Indies, visiting various British and foreign ports to "show the flag". Commander Edmund Moore C. Cooper-Key replaced Pelly in command in June 1901. She was at Bermuda in March 1902, visited Colón, Panama in early May, and Havana in late May 1902; and was in Nicaragua in July 1902, when the government captured revolutionists from an attempted coup. The following month she left Bermuda homeward bound, returning to Devonport on 20 August, to pay off on 5 September when she was placed in the D division of the dockyard reserve.

In December 1903, she was transferred to the Royal Navy's Australian Squadron, where she served until October 1913, when the Australia Station was handed to the control of the fledgling RAN. Psyche was then assigned to New Zealand waters. In 1914, Psyche formed part of the escort for the New Zealand Force which occupied German Samoa (now Samoa). Psyche also escorted troop ships heading from New Zealand to the Middle East. She returned to Sydney in late 1914, and was decommissioned on 22 January 1915.

In May 1915, the Australian government suggested to the Admiralty that Psyche be reactivated and loaned to the RAN as a training ship. Approval was granted on 1 June, but before the ship's 1 July commissioning as HMAS Psyche, the Admiralty instead requested that the Australian Commonwealth Naval Board orchestrate a patrol of the Bay of Bengal, in response to the threat of a German-inspired uprising in India and Burma. Psyche was hastily fitted out, provided with a ship's company consisting primarily of untrained sailors, and sailed on 16 August with HMAS Fantome for Singapore. From there, the ships sailed to Ragoon, arriving on 10 September with Psyche's captain, Commander Henry Feakes, under instructions to establish patrols along the Burmese coast with the two warships, plus three British India Steam Navigation Company vessels. Command of the Burma Coast Patrol was passed to Captain George Hutter of HMS Diana (1895) on 20 September, with Feakes appointed as Senior Naval Officer Burma and overall commander of the three British India vessels and ten coastal launches. For Psyche, 10- to 12-day patrols along the Burmese coast were the norm, interspersed with crew training duties.

On 17 January 1916, the demobilisation of the Burma Coast Patrol was ordered, as the threat of insurrection in India and Burma had ceased, and German machinations had focused on the Malay Peninsula. Psyche arrived at Penang on 28 January, then sailed three days later for Port Blair. From here, the ship performed patrols of Sumatra. On 12 February, seven stokers refused duty in protest over the poor quality of food being provided to the sailors aboard. All seven were found guilty of disobeying orders, and were punished with prison sentences between 12 and 14 months, plus dismissal from the RAN. The remaining stokers were supplemented by native personnel until 25 April, when replacement RAN personnel arrived. During March, the ship patrolled the Gulf of Siam, and escorted a Russian troop convoy sailing to Europe. During April, further patrols of the Bay of Bengal were made, before Psyche sailed to Hong Kong for inspection and refit. During the period from late 1915 to early 1916, Psyche served as escort to two ships carrying Turkish prisoners of war, was responsible for the transportation of two Chinese spies (one of whom escaped), and helped capture the ringleaders of an Indian soldiers' mutiny in Singapore.

During the refit period, personnel from Psyche were used to commission the river gunboat HMS Moorhen (1901) on 6 July, and then man her to evacuate European civilians from Canton. The gunboat was halfway up the Pearl River Delta when it was learned that the civilians had been recovered by another vessel, and returned to Hong Kong, where Moorhen decommissioned on 23 July. Also during July, sickness ran through the ship, with 67 personnel sent to the naval hospital ashore, while another 41 were treated aboard: about 60% of the ship's company were unfit for duty during this period. Recurring illnesses had been a problem while the ship operated in tropical climates, and the ship's surgeon recommended the ship be deployed to cooler regions. For one day, the reassignment of flag officers meant that Psyche was Flagship of the China Squadron.

Released from dockyard hands on 14 August, Psyche began patrols along the Chinese coast, with a marked improvement of the health of all aboard. These continued until 14 October, when the cruiser was assigned to Singapore for further patrols of the Bay of Bengal and Sumatra. In March and April 1917, she was assigned to escort duties between Burma and India. On 11 August, Psyche was relieved by HMS Suffolk (1903), and sailed to Sydney, where she arrived on 28 September.

The ship was paid off on 16 October 1917. Psyche was reactivated on 20 November 1917 for service along Australia's north-east coast, but after uneventful patrols, she was decommissioned for the final time on 26 March 1918.

Fate
The ship was sold to the Moreland Metal Company on 21 July 1922, who used her as a timber lighter. Psyche sank in 1940 at Salamander Bay, New South Wales, during a heavy storm, which rolled the ship onto her side. The wreck was used by RAN clearance divers for training between 1950 and 1973, and was later broken up during an underwater demolitions exercise. The remains sit 4.2 m below sea level, around 200 m off Roy Wood Reserve.

A memorial to the ship was unveiled at Roy Wood Reserve on 27 June 2015.

title: HMAS Psyche


text:
Talk:Lysithea (moon)

Untitled
Two different values are given for the mass. I'll probably get around to figuring out which is more accurate sometime, but if someone wants to beat me to it, go right ahead. --Bkell 01:47, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Lysithea (moon)