text:
Talk:Bergen-Belsen concentration camp

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 19 August 2019 and 13 December 2019. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): KASAP2053.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 15:37, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Pertinent information disclosed after liberation
Nowhere mentioned is factual material historically pertinent. It being the following as related by a Bergen Belsen prisoner who survived and was there at the camp’s liberation.

The Nazi Bergen Belsen camp officials anticipating the imminent arrival of Allied troops were determined to leave no prisoners alive to provide witness testimony. They denied prisoners all food and water for three days. For the fourth day a soup was to be served that would be readily consumed by the starving and dehydrated prisoners. A soup laced with poison. British troops arrived before the soup could be served. 2601:645:4300:3BF0:89C5:9BC6:6724:142D (talk) 21:28, 16 April 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 November 2022
ADD To "Notable inmates" section - Gisella Perl - A Hungarian Jewish Gynecologist who wrote "I Was a Doctor in Auschwitz" https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gisella_Perl MiloTheCat123 (talk) 18:40, 15 November 2022 (UTC)
 * ✅ Actualcpscm (talk) 22:59, 16 November 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 6 December 2022
Rudi Oppenheimer passed away in 2019. He is referenced on this page in present tense in the following text: "This work is now continued by his brother Rudi, who shared the experiences". Please change this to past tense.

Reference: https://www.holocaust.org.uk/news/rip-rudi-oppenheimer https://www.het.org.uk/news-and-events/786-rudi-oppenheimer-bem-1931-2019 Dingbong (talk) 11:37, 6 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Done. -- Mvqr (talk) 14:27, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bergen-Belsen concentration camp


text:
Transparency (graphic)

Transparency in computer graphics is possible in a number of file formats. The term "transparency" is used in various ways by different people, but at its simplest there is "full transparency" i.e. something that is completely invisible. Only part of a graphic should be fully transparent, or there would be nothing to see. More complex is "partial transparency" or "translucency" where the effect is achieved that a graphic is partially transparent in the same way as colored glass. Since ultimately a printed page or computer or television screen can only be one color at a point, partial transparency is always simulated at some level by mixing colors. There are many different ways to mix colors, so in some cases transparency is ambiguous.

In addition, transparency is often an "extra" for a graphics format, and some graphics programs will ignore the transparency.

Raster file formats that support transparency include GIF, PNG, BMP, TIFF, TGA and JPEG 2000, through either a transparent color or an alpha channel.

Most vector formats implicitly support transparency because they simply avoid putting any objects at a given point. This includes EPS and WMF. For vector graphics this may not strictly be seen as transparency, but it requires much of the same careful programming as transparency in raster formats.

More complex vector formats may allow transparency combinations between the elements within the graphic, as well as that above. This includes SVG and PDF.

A suitable raster graphics editor shows transparency by a special pattern, e.g. a checkerboard pattern.

Transparent pixels

One color entry in a single GIF or PNG image's palette can be defined as "transparent" rather than an actual color. This means that when the decoder encounters a pixel with this value, it is rendered in the background color of the part of the screen where the image is placed, also if this varies pixel-by-pixel as in the case of a background image.

Applications include:
 * an image that is not rectangular can be filled to the required rectangle using transparent surroundings; the image can even have holes (e.g. be ring-shaped)
 * in a run of text, a special symbol for which an image is used because it is not available in the character set, can be given a transparent background, resulting in a matching background.

The transparent color should be chosen carefully, to avoid items that just happen to be the same color vanishing.

Even this limited form of transparency has patchy implementation, though most popular web browsers are capable of displaying transparent GIF images. This support often does not extend to printing, especially to printing devices (such as PostScript) which do not include support for transparency in the device or driver. Outside the world of web browsers, support is fairly hit-or-miss for transparent GIF files.

Edge limitations of transparent pixels

The edges of characters and other images with transparent background should not have shades of gray: these are normally used for intermediate colors between the color of the letter/image and that of the background, typically shades of gray being intermediate between a black letter and a white background. However, with, for example, a red background the intermediate colors would be dark red. Gray edge pixels would give an ugly and unclear result. For a variable background color there are no suitable fixed intermediate colors.

Partial transparency by alpha channels

Some image formats, such as PNG and TIFF, also allow partial transparency through an alpha channel, which solves the edge limitation problem. Instead of each pixel either being transparent or not transparent, it can be set to 254 levels of partially transparent, allowing some of the background image to show through the foreground image.

A major use of partial transparency is to produce "soft edges" in graphics so that they blend into their background. See also monochrome or with shades of gray and anti-aliasing. Partial transparency can also be used to make an image less prominent, such as a watermark or other logo; or to render something see-through, such as a ghostly apparition in a video game. Animating the alpha channel in an image-editing program can allow smooth transitions between different images.

The process of combining a partially transparent color with its background ("compositing") is often ill-defined and the results may not be exactly the same in all cases. For example, where color correction is in use, should the colors be composited before or after color correction?

Transparency by clipping path
An alternative approach to full transparency is to use a clipping path. A clipping path is simply a shape or outline, that is used in conjunction with the other graphics. Everything inside the path is visible, and everything outside the path is invisible. The path is inherently vector, but can potentially be used to mask both vector and bitmap data. The main usage of clipping paths is in PostScript files.

Compositing calculations
While some transparency specifications are vague, others may give mathematical details of how two colors are to be composited. This gives a fairly simple example of how compositing calculations can work, can produce the expected results, and can also produce surprises.

In this example, two grayscale colors are to be composited. Grayscale values are considered to be numbers between 0.0 (white) and 1.0 (black). ''To emphasize: this is only one possible rule for transparency. If working with transparency, check the rules in use for your situation.''

The color at a point, where color G1 and G2 are to be combined, is ( G1 + G2 ) / 2. Some consequences of this are: ( ( G1 + G2 ) / 2 + G3 ) / 2 = G1 / 4 + G2 / 4 + G3 / 2 ( G1 + ( G2 + G3 ) / 2 ) / 2 = G1 / 2 + G2 / 4 + G3 / 4 This is important as it means that when combining three or more objects with this rule for transparency, the final color depends very much on the order of doing the calculations.
 * Where the colors are equal, the result is the same color because ( G1 + G1 ) /2 = G1.
 * Where one color (G1) is white (0.0), the result is G2 / 2. This will always be less than any nonzero value of G2, so the result is whiter than G2. (This is easily reversed for the case where G2 is white).
 * Where one color (G1) is black (1.0), the result is ( G2 + 1 ) / 2. This will always be more than G2, so the result is blacker than G2.
 * The formula is commutative since ( G1 + G2 ) / 2 = ( G2 + G1 ) / 2. This means it does not matter which order two graphics are mixed i.e. which of the two is on the top and which is on the bottom.
 * The formula is not associative since

Although the formula is simple, it may not be ideal. Human perception of brightness is not linear - we do not necessarily consider that a gray value of 0.5 is halfway between black and white. Such details may not matter when transparency is used only to soften edges, but in more complex designs this may be significant. Most people working seriously with transparency will need to see the results and may fiddle with the colors or (where possible) the algorithm to arrive at the results they need.

This formula can easily be generalized to RGB color or CMYK color by applying the formula to each channel separately. For example, final red = ( R1 + R2 ) / 2. But it cannot be applied to all color models. For example, Lab color would produce results that were surprising.

An alternative model is that at every point in each element to be combined for transparency there is an associated color and opacity between 0 and 1. For each color channel, you might work with this model: if a channel with intensity G2 and opacity T2 overlays a channel with intensity G1 and opacity T1 the result will be a channel with intensity equal to (1 - T2) * G1 + G2, and opacity 1 - (1 - T2) * (1 - T1). Each channel must be multiplied by corresponding alpha value before composition (so called premultiplied alpha). The SVG file specification uses this type of blending, and this is one of the models that can be used in PDF.

Alpha channels may be implemented in this way, where the alpha channel provides an opacity level to be applied equally to all other channels. To work with the above formula, the opacity needs to be scaled to the range 0 to 1, whatever its external representation (often 0 to 255 if using 8 bit samples such as "RGBA").

Transparency in PDF
Starting with version 1.4 of the PDF standard (Adobe Acrobat version 5), transparency (including translucency) is supported. Transparency in PDF files allows creators to achieve various effects, including adding shadows to objects, making objects semi-transparent and having objects blend into each other or into text. PDF supports many different blend modes, not just the most common averaging method, and the rules for compositing many overlapping objects allow choices (such as whether a group of objects are blended before being blended with the background, or whether each object in turn is blended into the background).

PDF transparency is a very complex model, its original specification by Adobe being over 100 pages long. A key source of complication is that blending objects with different color spaces can be tricky and error-prone as well as cause compatibility issues. Transparency in PDF was designed not to cause errors in PDF viewers that did not understand it – they would simply display all elements as fully opaque. However, this was a two-edged sword as users with older viewers, PDF printers, etc. could see or print something completely different from the original design.

The fact that the PDF transparency model is so complicated means that it is not well supported. This means that RIPs and printers often have problems printing PDFs with transparency. The solution to this is either to rasterize the image or to apply vector transparency flattening to the PDF. However vector transparency flattening is extremely complex and only supported by a few specialist packages.

Transparency in PostScript
The PostScript language has limited support for full (not partial) transparency, depending on the PostScript level. Partial transparency is available with the pdfmark extension, available on many PostScript implementations.

Level 1
Level 1 PostScript offers transparency via two methods:

 * A one-bit (monochrome) image can be treated as a mask. In this case the 1-bits can be painted any single color, while the 0-bits are not painted at all. This technique cannot be generalised to more than one color, or to vector shapes.
 * Clipping paths can be defined. These restrict what part of all subsequent graphics can be seen. This can be used for any kind of graphic, however in level 1, the maximum number of nodes in a path was often limited to 1500, so complex paths (e.g. cutting around the hair in a photograph of a person's head) often failed.

Level 2
Level 2 PostScript adds no specific transparency features. However, by the use of patterns, arbitrary graphics can be painted through masks defined by any vector or text operations. This is, however, complex to implement. In addition, this too often reached implementation limits, and few if any application programs ever offered this technique.

Level 3
Level 3 PostScript adds further transparency option for any raster image. A transparent color, or range of colors, can be applied; or a separate 1-bit mask can be used to provide an alpha channel.

Encapsulated PostScript
EPS files contain PostScript, which may be level 1, 2 or 3 and make use of the features above. A more subtle issue arises with the previews for EPS files that are typically used to show the view of the EPS file on screen. There are viable techniques for setting transparency in the preview. For example, a TIFF preview might use a TIFF alpha channel. However, many applications do not use this transparency information and will therefore show the preview as a rectangle. A semi-proprietary technique pioneered in Photoshop and adopted by a number of pre-press applications is to store a clipping path in a standard location of the EPS, and use that for display.

In addition, few of the programs that generate EPS previews will generate transparency information in the preview.

Some programs have sought to get around this by treating all white in the preview as transparent, but this too is problematic in the cases where some whites are not transparent.

More recently, applications have been appearing that ignore the preview altogether; they therefore get information on which parts of the preview to paint by interpreting the PostScript.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Transparency (graphic)


text:
Respiration (physiology)

In physiology, respiration is the movement of oxygen from the outside environment to the cells within tissues, and the removal of carbon dioxide in the opposite direction to the surrounding environment.

The physiological definition of respiration differs from the biochemical definition, which refers to a metabolic process by which an organism obtains energy (in the form of ATP and NADPH) by oxidizing nutrients and releasing waste products. Although physiologic respiration is necessary to sustain cellular respiration and thus life in animals, the processes are distinct: cellular respiration takes place in individual cells of the organism, while physiologic respiration concerns the diffusion and transport of metabolites between the organism and the external environment.

Exchange of gases in the lung occurs by ventilation and perfusion. Ventilation refers to the in-and-out movement of air of the lungs and perfusion is the circulation of blood in the pulmonary capillaries. In mammals, physiological respiration involves respiratory cycles of inhaled and exhaled breaths. Inhalation (breathing in) is usually an active movement that brings air into the lungs where the process of gas exchange takes place between the air in the alveoli and the blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Contraction of the diaphragm muscle causes a pressure variation, which is equal to the pressures caused by elastic, resistive and inertial components of the respiratory system. In contrast, exhalation (breathing out) is usually a passive process, though there are many exceptions: when generating functional overpressure (speaking, singing, humming, laughing, blowing, snorting, sneezing, coughing, powerlifting); when exhaling underwater (swimming, diving); at high levels of physiological exertion (running, climbing, throwing) where more rapid gas exchange is necessitated; or in some forms of breath-controlled meditation. Speaking and singing in humans requires sustained breath control that many mammals are not capable of performing.

The process of breathing does not fill the alveoli with atmospheric air during each inhalation (about 350 ml per breath), but the inhaled air is carefully diluted and thoroughly mixed with a large volume of gas (about 2.5 liters in adult humans) known as the functional residual capacity which remains in the lungs after each exhalation, and whose gaseous composition differs markedly from that of the ambient air. Physiological respiration involves the mechanisms that ensure that the composition of the functional residual capacity is kept constant, and equilibrates with the gases dissolved in the pulmonary capillary blood, and thus throughout the body. Thus, in precise usage, the words breathing and ventilation are hyponyms, not synonyms, of respiration; but this prescription is not consistently followed, even by most health care providers, because the term respiratory rate (RR) is a well-established term in health care, even though it would need to be consistently replaced with ventilation rate if the precise usage were to be followed. During respiration the C-H bonds are broken by oxidation-reduction reaction and so carbon dioxide and water are also produced. The cellular energy-yielding process is called cellular respiration.

Classifications of respiration
There are several ways to classify the physiology of respiration:

By species

 * Aquatic respiration
 * Buccal pumping
 * Cutaneous respiration
 * Intestinal respiration
 * Respiratory system

By mechanism

 * Breathing
 * Gas exchange
 * Arterial blood gas
 * Control of respiration
 * Apnea

By experiments

 * Huff and puff apparatus
 * Spirometry
 * Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry

By intensive care and emergency medicine

 * CPR
 * Mechanical ventilation
 * Intubation
 * Iron lung
 * Intensive care medicine
 * Liquid breathing
 * ECMO
 * Oxygen toxicity
 * Medical ventilator
 * Life support
 * General anaesthesia
 * Laryngoscope

By other medical topics

 * Respiratory therapy
 * Breathing gases
 * Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
 * Hypoxia
 * Gas embolism
 * Decompression sickness
 * Barotrauma
 * Oxygen equivalent
 * Oxygen toxicity
 * Nitrogen narcosis
 * Carbon dioxide poisoning
 * Carbon monoxide poisoning
 * HPNS

title: Respiration (physiology)


text:
Cat's cradle

Cat's cradle is a game involving the creation of various string figures between the fingers, either individually or by passing a loop of string back and forth between two or more players. The true origin of the name is debated, though the first known reference is in The light of nature pursued by Abraham Tucker in 1768. The type of string, the specific figures, their order, and the names of the figures vary. Independent versions of this game have been found in indigenous cultures throughout the world, including in Africa, Eastern Asia, the Pacific Islands, Australia, the Americas, and the Arctic.

Play

The simplest version of the game involves a player using a long string loop to make a complex figure using their fingers and hands.

Another version of the game consists of two or more players making a sequence of string figures, each altering the figure made by the previous player. The game begins with one player making the eponymous figure Cat's Cradle (above). After each figure, the next player manipulates that figure and removes the string figure from the hands of the previous player with one of a few simple motions and tightens the loop to create another figure, for example, Diamonds. Diamonds might then lead to Candles (which is also known as Pinkies), for example, and then Manger—an inverted Cat's Cradle—and so on. Most of the core figures allow a choice between two or more subsequent figures: for example, Fish in a Dish can become Cat's Eye or Manger. The game ends when a player makes a mistake or creates a dead-end figure, which cannot be turned into anything else. Many players believe that Two Crowns or King's Crown is one such dead-end figure, although more experienced players recognize that it can be creatively maneuvered into Candles or Pinkies, which allows the game to continue.

History

The origin of the name "cat's cradle" is debated but the first known reference is in The light of nature pursued by Abraham Tucker in 1768. "'An ingenious play they call cat's cradle; one ties the two ends of a packthread together, and then winds it about his fingers, another with both hands takes it off perhaps in the shape of a gridiron, the first takes it from him again in another form, and so on alternately changing the packthread into a multitude of figures whose names I forget, it being so many years since I played at it myself.'"The name may have come from a corruption of cratch-cradle, or manger cradle (although this derivation is disputed by the OED). The connection between the two words, cratches and cradle, may come from the Christian story of the birth of Jesus, in which a manger is used as a cradle.

In an 1858 Punch cartoon it is referred to as "scratch cradle", a name supported by Brewer's 1898 Dictionary. As "Cat's cradle" often is used to refer to string figures and games in general, Jayne uses "Real Cat's-Cradle" to refer to the specific game.

Different cultures have different names for the game, and often different names for the individual figures. The French word for manger is crèche, and cattle feed racks are still known as cratches. In Japan it is called “ayatori.” In Korea it is called "sil-tteu-gi." In Russia the whole game is called simply, the game of string, and the diamonds pattern is called carpet, with other pattern names such as field, fish, and sawhorse for the other figures—a cat isn't mentioned. The game may have originated in China. In China the game is called 翻繩 fan sheng (turning rope), In Israel the game is called "Knitting Grandmother" (in Hebrew: "סבתא סורגת", Savta Soreget). In some regions of the U.S., this game also is known as Jack in the Pulpit.

World records
Geneva Hultenius, Maryann Divona, and Rita Divona completed 21,200 changes of cat's cradles in 21 hours in Chula Vista, California between August 17–18, 1974. The Guinness Book of World Records reported it as a world record in the 1975 and 1976 editions.

Jane Muir and Robyn Lawrick completed 22,700 changes of cat's cradles in 21 hours at Calgary Market Mall, Alberta, Canada on August 25, 1976.

title: Cat's cradle


text: Template:Permit class submarine

title: Template:Permit class submarine


text:
Transshipment

Transshipment, trans-shipment or transhipment is the shipment of goods or containers to an intermediate destination, then to another destination.

One possible reason for transshipment is to change the means of transport during the journey (e.g., from ship transport to road transport), known as transloading. Another reason is to combine small shipments into a large shipment (consolidation), or the opposite: dividing a large shipment into smaller shipments (deconsolidation). Transshipment usually takes place in transport hubs. Much international transshipment also takes place in designated customs areas, thus avoiding the need for customs checks or duties, otherwise a major hindrance for efficient transport.

An item handled (from the shipper's point of view) as a single movement is not generally considered transshipped, even if it changes from one mode of transport to another at several points. Previously, it was often not distinguished from transloading, since each leg of such a trip was typically handled by a different shipper.

Transshipment is normally fully legal and an everyday part of world trade. However, it can also be a method used to disguise intent, as is the case with illegal logging, smuggling, or grey-market goods.

Transshipment at container ports or terminals
The transshipment of containers at a container port or terminal can be defined as the number (or proportion) of containers, possibly expressed in TEU, of the total container flow that is handled at the port or terminal and, after temporary storage in the stack, transferred to another ship to reach their destinations. The exact definition of transshipment may differ between ports, mostly depending on the inclusion of inland water transport (barges operating on canals and rivers to the hinterland). The definition of transshipment may: In both cases, a single, unique, transshipped container is counted twice in the port performance, since it is handled twice by the waterside container cranes (separate unloading from arriving ship A, waiting in the stack, and loading onto departing ship B).
 * include only seaborne transfers (a change to another international deep-sea container ship); or
 * include both seaborne and inland waterway ship transfers (sometimes called water-to-water transshipment). Most coastal container ports in China have a large proportion of riverside "transshipment" to the hinterland.

Transshipment at sea
Transshipment at sea is done by transferring goods from one ship to another.

Fisheries
In global fisheries transshipment is used to transfer catch to refrigerated cargo vessels that also supply fishing vessels with fuel, food, equipment and personnel allowing them to stay at sea for months or even years. This guarantees that fish quickly find their way to the market without a decrease in quality.

Since transshipment at sea encounters often happen on the high seas, in regions with poor regulation and oversight, they are also used to disguise criminal activities such as illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, forced labor, human trafficking and drug smuggling. Several states and regional fishery management organizations have therefore prohibited the practice for certain vessel types or issued a complete ban within their zone of jurisdiction.

Bulk products
Transshipment at sea also occurs in the export of bulk products. Choosing to transship reduces capital costs for port developers and can overcome problems arising from limited access to deep water. Loading barges typically specify 4 to 7 meters of draft. Since at least 2011, transshipment has been used in northern Australia in the export of bulk minerals including bauxite, iron ore and potash from mines in Queensland, Western Australia and the Northern Territory.

Transshipment at a break-of-gauge
At a break-of-gauge, cargo is transloaded from boxcars or covered goods wagons on one track to wagons on another track of a different rail gauge, or else containers are transloaded from flatcars on one track to flatcars on another track of a different gauge.

title: Transshipment


text: Template:Tambor class submarine

title: Template:Tambor class submarine


text:
Florida group

The Florida group (Sp.: grupo Florida) was an avant-garde literary-artistic group created in the 1920s in Buenos Aires, known by their embracing slogan "art for art's sake". The name refers to Florida Street, the location of a favored meeting point, the Richmond tea room.

The group was identified with the magazines Proa and Martín Fierro, the latter named after the long poem Martín Fierro, generally considered the greatest work of nineteenth-century Argentine literature. The group is also often referred to as the Martín Fierro group (Sp. "grupo Martín Fierro").

Members
Among the best-known members of the Florida group were Oliverio Girondo, Norah Lange, Ricardo Güiraldes, Norah Borges, Péle Pastorino, Francisco Luis Bernárdez, Leopoldo Marechal, Conrado Nalé Roxlo, and Raúl González Tuñón.

Güiraldes was something of a father figure to many Florida members; already a major figure, he spent the 1920s writing his masterpiece Don Segundo Sombra and studying Hindu philosophy. He died in 1927, while planning a trip to India.

Nicolás Olivari, who co-founded the more political Boedo group, later became a member of the Florida group. The fiercely independent Roberto Arlt met with both groups on an irregular basis, but committed to none.

Tendencies
Eventually, the group evolved into two branches, the Florida meeting in Downtown Buenos Aires at the Galeria Pacifico, with an artistic and literary agenda following feminist approach, and the Boedo meeting in the Offshores of the city at the futbol stadium of Club Atletico San Lorenzo, with predominantly male attendants with a socio-political agenda following an avant-garde labour approach.

Jorge Luis Borges was not a regular in Florida meetings, but was a frequent contributor to Proa and Martín Fierro. Actually, Borges claimed that the entire Florida-Boedo rivalry was a pointless imitation of European fashions and that he should indeed belong to Boedo because of geography (he lived at that time in Bulnes Street, the name Boedo Street takes after it crosses Rivadavia Avenue).

Arturo Cancela suggested in a letter to Martín Fierro that both sides merge under the common name of "Schools of Floredo street" and name Manuel Gálvez as president, as he lived on Pueyrredón street, equidistant from both groups. By 1930, all the involved parties had concluded that the perceived rivalry was no longer an issue. Girondo (for Florida) and Castelnuovo (for Boedo) wrote newspaper articles to that effect.

Members' prosecution: military coup & the Peronist Party
After the 1930 military coup that launched the "Infamous Decade", the Florida constituency gravitated towards Victoria Ocampo's Sur magazine, which thrived in spite of the ever-deteriorating state of Argentine politics — until the advent of Peronism in 1945.

During the 1960s and 1970s, left-wing and Peronist Argentine commentators identified "the Florida Group" to be a Liberalist Euro-centered movement mainly following the British and French avant-garde, cataloguing it with many of the perceived illnesses of Argentine society such as ignoring the aspirations and culture of the lower classes (which Peronism would articulate), looking towards Europe for inspiration, and being out of touch with any kind of productive work. González Tuñón alone was excepted from this treatment, because of the social themes of his poetry.

title: Florida group


text:
Talk:Air raid shelter

untitled
Have apologised to David Levinson, he was not involved int the changes of 19Feb. I have a feeling the pages may be corrupted, well, it's either that or I have gone barmy, but certain things about don't seem my style. I am asking a developer to take a look at it, the article that is, not me. ;-) --Dieter Simon 23:16, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Umlauts in hoch as in hochbunker
The German adjective hoch in the positive form never has an umlaut. It is only when it changes to the comparative höher or the superlative höchst that it receives the umlaut. Dieter Simon 00:58, 27 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Who designed the Anderson Shelter?
Many seemingly reputable websites and Encarta say the shelter was named after its designer, Dr David A. Anderson

 * Although Dr David Anderson, one of the engineers from the Institute of Civil Engineers, was involved in the evaluation of the design it was named after Sir John Anderson, the Lord Privy Seal at the time, who initiated the development of the shelter. Dieter Simon 22:21, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)
 * The problem I find is that almost all of the sources citing him as the person after whom the shelter is named, call him the designer of the shelter. In fact, it was William Patterson and Oscar Karl Kerrison who were the designers. David A was really one of the civil engineering evaluation team, not a very likely eponym of the product. Dieter Simon
 * The BBC website and the Museum of London website both quote Sir John Anderson. Dieter Simon

John Baker (designer of the Morrison shelter) in his book Enterprise versus Bureaucracy is very clear that the sectional shelter popularly know as the Anderson Shelter is named after Sir John Anderson, not David Anderson. He identifies David Anderson as 'doyen of British civil engineers, senior partner in the civil engineering consulting firm Mott, Hay and Anderson', and as one of the authors of Command Paper 5932 'Report on Air Raid Shelter Policy' December 1938.Alc59 (talk) 16:40, 9 March 2011 (UTC)

Interesting picture
Here's an interesting picture of a "bomb shelter" (as captioned) I found while browsing through the Library of Congress OWI archive:. It's essentially a ditch. Thought it might be good for this article, but there doesn't seem to be anything about ditches used for shelters in here. Maybe someone more familiar with the topic can use it better.  howcheng  {chat} 20:39, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * Good point. The 'ditch' as you call it, is better known as a 'slit trench' and were very common.  See:  --Aspro 17:45, 7 October 2007 (UTC)

Merger of "Fallout shelter" with "Air raid shelter"
If any merger is to be done at all it should be "fallout shelter" into "air raid shelter", and not the other way round. Fallout shelters are later a development of shelter after the creation of the atomic bomb, etc. My opinion is that they are totally different concepts, and therefore should not be merged at all. Fallout shelters are much more complicated in their conception, technology and the circumstances under which they were built. By all means, link the two articles but basically they are not really the same thing at all.

As regards to "Blast shelter", again all the original air raid shelters were created under entirely different circumstances, they came in assembly kits, or were built according to the sudden dire needs of an actual ongoing war, were the development of pre-existing structures such as cellars, basements, underground stations, etc. rather than according to pre-conceived ideas of a war that might or might not happen such as a nuclear war. It's almost like merging "cavalry" with "tanks". Dieter Simon 01:24, 12 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Do not merge. These are different classes of shelter and are better off as separate articles. All the different shelters are only a click away anyway.--Aspro 17:45, 7 October 2007 (UTC)
 * Do not merge. They are different types of shelters, and both articles stand on their own. AndyBQ (talk) 22:02, 7 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Do not merge. Spot87 (talk) 23:08, 7 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Do not Merge. Even though they are somewhat alike they are two different types of shelters, as by the difference in names suggests. Fallout shelters protect from nuclear fallout as air-raid shelters protect from aerial attacks. If some distinctions that are in the article which there are major similarities then see WP:POV Letter 7/Caleb (talk) 23:20, 7 May 2008 (UTC)

Problem with this article
I seem to have lost the last sections of this article "air-raid shelter" while trying to correctly enter the sources of the various sections. I am trying to get some help to fix this Dieter Simon (talk) 01:10, 9 April 2008 (UTC)
 * I fixed it, it was a missing > on a closing ref tag. DuncanHill (talk) 22:52, 9 April 2008 (UTC)

Protection notice
Air-raid shelter article protected [edit=autoconfirmed] (expires 22:49, 23 October 2009 (UTC)) [move=autoconfirmed] (expires 22:49, 23 October 2009 (UTC)) (Excessive vandalism)> Dieter Simon (talk) 22:57, 9 October 2009 (UTC)

London Underground
I have made substantial amendments to this section, based on current researches for a new book. Some background can be read in Angus Calder's "The People's War", which makes it clear that the shelter policy was extremely contentious. A review of the contemporary Hansard, War Cabinet Conclusions, and newspaper cuttings throughout the period showed that the situation was extremely tense. War Cabinet minutes record Winston Churchill wanting to take "strong action" against campaigners who were demonstrating for better protection.

I do not have a current user account, and having had earlier work savaged, I am not inclined to open up one, so these additions will have to remain anonymous. The do, however, represent the best (short) account or what was going on then. If the account remains, substantially unchanged, I may add to it in the future. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.12.71.146 (talk) 13:23, 7 March 2011 (UTC)

 * This seems rather a shame. In my experience it is much more likely to have an edit vandalised or removed if added by anonymous contributors. As long as you include the necessary source citations you should be OK. Surely you can create a nick for the sake of your valuable edits. Many thanks for them. Dieter Simon (talk) 01:53, 8 March 2011 (UTC)

Expansion Needed
There needs to be more information on other shelters worldwide instead of just those in Britain. There is a photo of one in Israel but additions of other shelters constructed like in the United States, Germany, Japan, France, etc are needed. While fallout shelters are not "directly" known as air-raid shelters there should be some differentiation at the beginning of the article denoting Air-raid, blast and fallout shelters and links to those articles. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.23.130.121 (talk) 03:01, 27 April 2011 (UTC)

Very large UK WWII section
At the moment this article is very unbalanced and dominated by the UK section. I suggest that the UK sections are moved out into a new UK WWII specific article and the contents are summarised in this article. If this were done then other sections could be expanded until such time as they need to be moved out to specific articles and the and summarised here.

Anyone have a good idea for a name for a UK article (it would probably need a mention of UK World War I and cold war shelters, so how about Air-raid shelter (United Kingdom)? -- PBS (talk) 02:23, 11 March 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 3 one external links on Air-raid shelter. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20040401070746/http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk:80/ewm/ic1/05.html to http://www.manchesteronline.co.uk/ewm/ic1/05.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20080403035111/http://www.worldwar2exraf.co.uk:80/Online%20Museum/Museum%20Docs/airraidshelterspage7.htm to http://www.worldwar2exraf.co.uk/Online%20Museum/Museum%20Docs/airraidshelterspage7.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20101228044832/http://www.lgfl.net/lgfl/accounts/holnet/upload/learningzone/londonatwar/shelter/index.html to http://www.lgfl.net/lgfl/accounts/holnet/upload/learningzone/londonatwar/shelter/index.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers. —cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 05:46, 19 October 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Air-raid shelter. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20040505233512/http://www.geocities.com:80/lupinpooter/berlin.htm to http://www.geocities.com/lupinpooter/berlin.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 13:34, 6 January 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Air-raid shelter. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20090306043354/http://www.fortunecity.co.uk:80/meltingpot/oxford/330/shel/shel3.html to http://www.fortunecity.co.uk/meltingpot/oxford/330/shel/shel3.html
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20120315214008/http://www.stantonironworks.co.uk/main_stanton_dir/books/STANTON%20AT%20WAR%201939%20_%2045.pdf to http://www.stantonironworks.co.uk/main_stanton_dir/books/STANTON%20AT%20WAR%201939%20_%2045.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true to let others know.

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 05:35, 9 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on Air-raid shelter. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20121105054434/http://www.oref.org.il/sip_storage/FILES/9/1309.pdf to http://www.oref.org.il/sip_storage/FILES/9/1309.pdf

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at Sourcecheck).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 10:26, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 5 one external links on Air-raid shelter. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.geocities.com/lupinpooter/berlin.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100303081715/http://www.daveh.org.uk:80/hwyard/arches/ to http://www.daveh.org.uk/hwyard/arches/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080828204751/http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/homefront/bombing/shelters/source2.htm to http://www.learningcurve.gov.uk/homefront/bombing/shelters/source2.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20140227050534/http://ashdowncamp.webs.com:80/stantonshelter.htm to http://ashdowncamp.webs.com/stantonshelter.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20100528221413/http://www.scdf.gov.sg/Building_Professionals/FAQ/cd_shelter.html to http://www.scdf.gov.sg/Building_Professionals/FAQ/cd_shelter.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 05:19, 6 October 2016 (UTC)

function of the Winkeltürme

 * The theory behind the Winkeltürme was that the curved walls would deflect any bomb hitting the tower, directing it down towards the base.

Seems to me the advantage of convex walls is to direct a falling bomb away from the base. (One needn't direct a bomb downward.) —Tamfang (talk) 02:02, 23 October 2017 (UTC)

Anderson shelter
Would anyone object to me spinning out Anderson shelter as a separate article? It's currently a redirect here, which I think is odd given how well known they are in the UK. BubbleEngineer (talk) 11:52, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Article in today’s Guardian newspaper, new uses for abandoned shelters Article --palmiped | Talk  14:10, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Spinout- good idea. I have seen the Gu article. I would suggest there are a few leads there.--ClemRutter (talk) 14:23, 21 August 2018 (UTC)

Turns out this was a bad idea. Apologies, I'll wait for more consensus next time BubbleEngineer (talk) 19:16, 27 August 2018 (UTC)

 * I agree in Anderson Shelter as a separate article. But I suggest developing and expanding it in draftspace first so that it isn't simply a copy of what can be found here already. Polyamorph (talk) 12:38, 28 August 2018 (UTC)

,, , – is this split proposal dead for the time being? I note BubbleEngineer appears to have stopped editing, so it seems he/she won't be taking on this project anytime soon. If this proposal is currently not active, does anyone object to me removing the "split proposal" tag from the article and closing this discussion? Richard3120 (talk) 15:18, 1 February 2019 (UTC)
 * No objection --palmiped | Talk  15:34, 1 February 2019 (UTC)
 * No objection- In the circumstances. It appears that by over aggressive criticism we have lost a potentially good editor. I do wish that editor retention was higher up some peoples tick lists. ClemRutter (talk) 16:49, 1 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Air raid shelter


text:
Robert Balling

Robert C. Balling, Jr. is a professor of geography at Arizona State University, and the former director of its Office of Climatology. His research interests include climatology, global climate change, and geographic information systems. Balling has declared himself one of the scientists who oppose the consensus on global warming, arguing in a 2009 book that anthropogenic global warming "is indeed real, but relatively modest", and maintaining that there is a publication bias in the scientific literature.

Education and career
Balling was born and raised in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, and moved to Springfield, Ohio in 1970 to attend Wittenberg University. Balling gained bachelor's and master's degrees in geography in 1974 (Wittenberg University, BA) and 1975 (Bowling Green State University, MA), before gaining his PhD in geography from the University of Oklahoma in 1979. He was assistant professor at the University of Nebraska (1979–1984), before joining the Office of Climatology at Arizona State University. He gained tenure there in 1987, and served as the director of the Office of Climatology until 2004.

Research
Balling has published much research pertaining to various factors that influence the Earth's climate. In 1988, Balling published a study which found that the construction of golf courses around Palm Springs, CA may have cooled the city over the preceding 15 years, in contrast to the warming effect usually associated with urban areas (also known as the urban heat island effect). Seven years later, Balling and Randall S. Cerveny, one of his ASU colleagues, published a study which found that the moon, when it is full, can cause Earth's troposphere to warm by more than 0.03 °F. However, it remained unclear why the moon might be able to do this. When interviewed by the New York Times, Balling suggested the main reason might be that infrared radiation from the Sun is reflected towards Earth by the full moon. In 1998, Balling and Cerveny published a letter to Nature which found that man-made air pollutants, especially ozone and carbon monoxide, were influencing weather patterns on the East Coast of the United States. Their study also concluded that this effect was the strongest on Saturdays, and that this was so because "...the end of the week brings worse air pollution than the beginning."

Funding controversy
Balling was mentioned as a fossil fuel industry – funded scientist in Ross Gelbspan's 1997 book The Heat is On. This led the Minnesota Star Tribune to run an editorial speaking of a "disinformation campaign" by some climatologists. Balling and his colleague Patrick Michaels took a complaint against the Star Tribune to the Minnesota News Council. By a 9–4 decision the council "voted to sustain the complaint that the Star Tribune editorial unfairly characterized the scientific reputations of Patrick Michaels and Robert Balling." At the 1998 hearing, Balling "acknowledged that he had received $408,000 in research funding from the fossil fuel industry over the last decade (of which his University takes 50% for overhead)."

Between December 1998 and September 2001 Balling was listed as a "Scientific Adviser" to the Greening Earth Society, a group that was funded and controlled by the Western Fuels Association (WFA), an association of coal-burning utility companies. WFA founded the group in 1997, according to an archived version of its website, "as a vehicle for advocacy on climate change, the environmental impact of CO2, and fossil fuel use." In 2001, while it was directed by Balling, ASU's office of climatology received $49,000 from ExxonMobil.

From 1989 to 2002, Balling received more than $679,000 from fossil-fuel-industry organizations; as of 2007, he also had received more than $7 million in research funding from the National Science Foundation and the EPA. He has also come under scrutiny because he was listed as a tentative author of the Heartland Institute's NIPCC report; however, ASU's vice president of public affairs, Virgil Renzulli, pointed out that this did not imply that Balling had been receiving money from Heartland. Balling himself added that his prior involvement with the Heartland Institute's activities amounted only to appearing at a luncheon they held in 2008.

On February 24, 2015, Arizona State Representative Raúl Grijalva wrote letters to seven universities where climate change deniers (including Balling) worked, citing concerns about these scientists' conflicts of interest and non-disclosure of corporate funding. In these letters, Grijalva requested records on the funding and testimony prepared before a government body.

Books

 * Robert C. Balling, The Heated Debate: greenhouse predictions versus climate reality, Pacific Research Institute for Public Policy, April 1992, ISBN 0-936488-47-6
 * Robert C. Balling, and Martin A. J. Williams, Interactions of Desertification & Climate, Oxford University Press, October 1995, ISBN 0-340-63217-8
 * Patrick Michaels and Robert C. Balling, The Satanic Gases: clearing the air about global warming, Cato Institute, 2000 ASIN: 1882577914
 * Patrick Michaels and Robert C. Balling, Climate of extremes: global warming science they don't want you to know, Cato Institute, 2009

Views on global warming
Balling believes that humans are increasing the level of CO2 in Earth's atmosphere, and that the Earth should warm as a result. Balling also considers the mainstream description of climate change to be "a vastly overrated threat whose proposed solutions are worse than the problem." In particular, he has dismissed the idea that use of renewable energy could be an effective strategy for combating global warming as "absurd." In the book Climate of Extremes, Balling, along with his co-author Patrick Michaels, contend that certain phenomena usually attributed to anthropogenic global warming have actually been occurring for more than a century. The phenomena named include the loss of ice on Mount Kilimanjaro. Balling has made similar statements about current sea level rise; namely, that it has been occurring for 8,000 years and it is therefore "quite a stretch" to blame it on global warming.

Reaction to Balling's views on global warming
In the December 1995 issue of Harper's Magazine, Ross Gelbspan described Balling and other global warming deniers as "extraordinarily adept at draining the [global warming] issue of all sense of crisis." Climate of Extremes was reviewed in Foreign Affairs by Richard N. Cooper, who concluded that "Even if the authors have cherry-picked their scientific papers, this book is a useful antidote to the heavy dose of hype to which the public is regularly subjected." By contrast, The Satanic Gases, another Balling-Michaels collaboration which was published in 2000, received a scathing review from American Scientist. Reviewer John Firor argued that the book "does not fulfill" its claim (on the dust jacket) that global warming predictions are "simply wrong", that Michaels and Balling criticized the Kyoto Protocol without having read it, and that they quoted a well-known scientist out of context. After Balling wrote an article for TCS Daily harshly criticizing An Inconvenient Truth as scientifically inaccurate, his article was itself criticized as inaccurate by Judd Legum, who said that the article used "misleading scientific arguments." Legum's critique was endorsed by geochemist Eric Steig, a contributor to RealClimate, who said that "All those points are accurate," and that "Some of them could probably have been stronger; that is, Balling is even more wrong that Legum indicates."

title: Robert Balling


text:
Kappa Alpha Theta

Kappa Alpha Theta (ΚΑΘ), commonly referred to simply as Theta, is an international women’s fraternity (the term "sorority" had not yet been invented) was founded on January 27, 1870, at DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana. It was the first Greek-letter fraternity established for women. The organization has 147 chapters at colleges and universities in the United States and Canada. The organization was the first women's fraternity to establish a chapter in Canada. Theta's total living initiated membership, as of 2020, was more than 250,000. There are more than 200 alumnae chapters and circles worldwide.

Kappa Alpha Theta is a member of the National Panhellenic Conference (NPC), an umbrella organization that encompasses 26 social sororities found throughout North America. The organization's own headquarters are located in Indianapolis, Indiana.

History
The Alpha chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta was founded at Indiana Asbury University, now DePauw University in Greencastle, Indiana, on January 27, 1870. The university began admitting women in 1867 after 30 years of a male-only student body. However, women were excluded from male-only clubs and societies. In response to the lack of women's organizations, the fraternity's founding members established the first Greek letter women's organization. The Founders were:
 * Elizabeth McReynolds Locke Hamilton (Bettie Locke)
 * Alice Olive Allen Brant (Alice Allen)
 * Elizabeth Tipton Lindsey (Bettie Tipton)
 * Hannah Virginia Fitch Shaw (Hannah Fitch)

Bettie Locke developed the idea for a Greek letter women's society through the encouragement of her father, a professor at Indiana Asbury and a member of Beta Theta Pi, and the members of Phi Gamma Delta (FIJI) at Indiana Asbury, which included her brother. Initially, the collegiate men of FIJI offered Locke their badge as a token of their friendship, but voted against initiating her as a member. Locke refused to wear the badge as she did not know the secrets and purposes the badge represented, since she was unable to become a member. Ultimately, the fraternity gifted her a symbolic silver fruit basket instead to represent their relationship and fondness for her.

Upon discovering that there were no Greek letter fraternities for women in existence (only literary societies for women existed at the time), Locke decided to create her own Greek letter fraternity for women. Kappa Alpha Theta's ritual, organizational structure, badge, and coat of arms were influenced by those of Beta Theta Pi and Phi Gamma Delta due to her familial connections. Locke and her friend Alice Allen wrote a constitution, planned rituals, designed a badge, and sought out women on campus to become members. Along with Hannah Fitch and Bettie Tipton, the first initiation was held in secret on January 27, 1870, establishing the Alpha chapter of Kappa Alpha Theta.

Theta's grand convention voted to establish a magazine in 1885 and to place its editorship with Kappa chapter at Kansas. In the intervening years, Kappa Alpha Theta's magazine has undergone a change of title from The Journal to The Kappa Alpha Theta Magazine and a change of publication schedule (from monthly to quarterly). The Kappa Alpha Theta Magazine currently is published in April, June, September, and December of each year.

In 1887, Theta became an international organization with the establishment of the Sigma chapter at the University of Toronto. This became the first Canadian women's fraternity.

G. William Domhoff, writing in Who Rules America?, listed Kappa Alpha Theta as one of "the four or five sororities with nationwide prestige" in the mid-1960s.

Symbols
Kappa Alpha Theta's colors are black and gold. The official symbols are both the kite and twin stars, while the official flower is the black and gold pansy. The fraternity does not recognize an official stone. The badge is a black and gold kite with a white chevron in the middle.

Chapters
Kappa Alpha Theta has more than 143 active college chapters and more than 212 alumnae chapters across the United States and Canada. Alumnae chapters are alumnae groups that have been granted charters from Grand Council. The following is a list of the chapters of Kappa Alpha Theta:

Philanthropy
The Kappa Alpha Theta Foundation was founded in 1960 and is the philanthropic arm of the organization. The Theta Foundation awards annual undergraduate and graduate scholarships to its members, awarding more than $1.1 million per year. In addition to scholarships, the Theta Foundation also supports the sorority's educational programs as well as its international philanthropy, Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA). Court Appointed Special Advocates (CASA's) are community volunteers who serve as the voice for abused and neglected foster care children who are going through the court system. CASA's are appointed by a judge and their purpose is to ensure all legal actions made are in the child's best interest. In order to directly volunteer at CASA you must be 21 years of age or older.

Notable members
Some notable alumni of Kappa Alpha Theta include Agnes de Mille, Laura Bush, Barbara Bush, Jenna Bush, Tory Burch, Melinda French Gates, Amy Holmes, Sheryl Crow, Gretchen Whitmer, Kerri Strug, Rue McClanahan, Amy Grant, and Jennifer Cook O'Toole.

Laura Bush was a member of the Beta Sigma chapter at Southern Methodist University in University Park, Texas. Her daughters Barbara and Jenna Bush were members at Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin, respectively. Tory Burch, an American fashion designer, businesswoman, and philanthropist was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta at the University of Pennsylvania, an Ivy League university in Philadelphia. Amy Holmes, an American journalist and political commentator, was a member of Kappa Alpha Theta at Princeton University. Sheryl Crow was a member at the University of Missouri in Columbia, Missouri. Gretchen Whitmer, Michigan's current governor, was a Theta at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan. Amy Grant, an American singer, was a member of the Alpha Eta chapter at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, Tennessee.

The first women admitted to Phi Beta Kappa honor society were Thetas.

Local chapter misconduct
In 2000, the chapter at the University of Cincinnati in Cincinnati was temporarily suspended for hazing. The pledges were forced to endure several demeaning tasks, one of which included crawling up the steps of the sorority house for the amusement of their big sisters.

In 2000, the chapter at Rollins College in Winter Park, Florida was shut down after a drinking party sent newly pledged members to the hospital. One member passed out and was placed on a respirator that night.

In 2008, the chapter at Colgate University in Hamilton, New York was suspended for four years after an alcohol-hazing related incident.

In 2014, the chapter at Columbia University in New York City was under national scrutiny after hosting a racially and ethnically insensitive event that went viral. Some of the costumes worn by sorority members were based on stereotypes meant to represent Mexico, Japan, the Netherlands, Ireland, Jamaica, and other countries. The sorority publicly apologized for the event.

In 2016, the 137-year old chapter at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan was suspended by the university for underage drinking and hazing. The chapter was disbanded by the national organization a few weeks later for violating the suspension.

In 2018, chapters at the University of Mississippi in Oxford, Mississippi and Clemson University in Clemson, South Carolina were closed for failure to meet quota. There was a great deal of opposition, since members felt they were being unfairly punished, simply for being less popular than other National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) sororities on campus, and not for risk management or academic issues.

In February 2022, the members of the Eta Mu chapter at Occidental College in Los Angeles voted to disband the chapter following a controversy with a member, who reportedly sent anti-Asian and anti-Black messages in a private group chat among friends in a December 2020 incident that did not surface until two years later.

In February 2022, the chapter at Southern Methodist University (SMU) was placed on a two-year suspension by the university for pressuring pledges to drink large amounts of alcohol and other hazing activities that endangered their safety and mental health. The chapter was sanctioned for a similar violation in 2020. After being suspended in 2022, members of the chapter created an off-campus based organization known as "The Society" to continue to recruit new members and uphold the chapter's legacy. SMU officials stated "The Society" was another violation of the Student Code of Conduct and worked to disband the organization and penalize fraternities seen socializing with them. Also the CEO of Kappa Alpha Theta, Jennifer Schmaltz, delayed the return of the chapter an additional year because she did not like its similarities to the sorority. Parents of "The Society" members hired lawyers on behalf of their daughters to fight to keep the organization until the official return of Kappa Alpha Theta at SMU.

title: Kappa Alpha Theta


text:
John Marshall Harlan

John Marshall Harlan (June 1, 1833 – October 14, 1911) was an American lawyer and politician who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1877 until his death in 1911. He is often called "The Great Dissenter" due to his many dissents in cases that restricted civil liberties, including the Civil Rights Cases, Plessy v. Ferguson, and Giles v. Harris. Many of Harlan's views expressed in his notable dissents would become the official view of the Supreme Court starting from the 1950s Warren Court and onward.

Born into a prominent, slave-holding family near Danville, Kentucky, Harlan experienced a quick rise to political prominence. When the American Civil War broke out, Harlan strongly supported the Union and recruited the 10th Kentucky Infantry. Despite his opposition to the Emancipation Proclamation, he served in the war until 1863, when he was elected attorney general of Kentucky. Harlan lost his re-election bid in 1867 and joined the Republican Party in the following year, quickly emerging as the leader of the Kentucky Republican Party. In 1877, President Rutherford B. Hayes appointed Harlan to the Supreme Court.

Harlan's jurisprudence was marked by his life-long belief in a strong national government, his sympathy for the economically disadvantaged, and his view that the Reconstruction Amendments had fundamentally transformed the relationship between the federal government and the state governments. He was the sole dissenter in both the Civil Rights Cases (1883) and Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which permitted state and private actors to engage in ethnic segregation. He also wrote dissents in major cases such as Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895), which struck down a federal income tax; United States v. E. C. Knight Co. (1895), which severely limited the power of the federal government to pursue antitrust actions; Lochner v. New York (1905), which invalidated a state law setting maximum working hours on the basis of substantive due process; and Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States (1911), which established the rule of reason. He was the first Supreme Court justice to advocate the incorporation of the Bill of Rights, and his majority opinion in Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago (1897) incorporated the Takings Clause.

Harlan was largely forgotten in the decades after his death, but many scholars now consider him to be one of the greatest Supreme Court justices of his era. His grandson John Marshall Harlan II later served on the Supreme Court from 1955 to 1971.

Early life and education
Harlan was born in 1833 at Harlan's Station, 5 miles (8.0 km) west of Danville, Kentucky, on Salt River Road. He was born into a prominent slaveholding family whose earliest members had settled in the region in 1779. Harlan's father was James Harlan, a lawyer and prominent Whig politician who represented Kentucky in the United States House of Representatives and served as Secretary of State of Kentucky. Harlan's mother, Elizabeth, née Davenport, was the daughter of a pioneer from Virginia. Harlan grew up on the family estate near Frankfort, Kentucky. He was named after Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall, whom his father admired. The first ancestor of the Harlan family was George Harlan, an Englishman who arrived to the American Colony of Pennsylvania in the 1600s.

John had several older brothers, including a mixed-race half-brother, Robert James Harlan, born in 1816 into slavery, and whom his father raised in his own household and had tutored by Richard and James Harlan, two of John Marshall Harlan's older brothers. According to historian Allyson Hobbs, Robert became highly successful, making a fortune in the California Gold Rush before returning east and settling in Cincinnati, Ohio. He "remained close to the other Harlans"; she suggests this might have influenced his half-brother John Marshall Harlan, "who argued on behalf of equal rights under the law in Plessy v. Ferguson."

After attending school in Frankfort, John Harlan enrolled at Centre College. He was a member of Beta Theta Pi and graduated with honors. Though his mother wanted Harlan to become a merchant, James insisted that his son follow him into the legal profession, and Harlan joined his father's law practice in 1852. While James Harlan could have trained his son in the office, as was the norm of "reading the law" in that era, he sent John to attend law school at Transylvania University in 1850, where George Robertson and Thomas Alexander Marshall were among his instructors. Harlan finished his legal education in his father's law office and was admitted to the Kentucky Bar in 1853.

Rise: 1851–1863
A member of the Whig Party like his father, Harlan got an early start in politics when, in 1851, he was offered the post of adjutant general of the state by governor John L. Helm. He served in the post for the next eight years, which gave him a statewide presence and familiarity with many of Kentucky's leading political figures. With the Whig Party's dissolution in the early 1850s, Harlan shifted his affiliation to the Know Nothings, despite his discomfort with their opposition to Catholicism. Harlan's personal popularity within the state was such that he was able to survive the decline of the Know Nothing movement in the late 1850s, winning election in 1858 as the county judge for Franklin County, Kentucky. The following year, he renounced his allegiance to the Know Nothings and joined the state's Opposition Party, serving as their candidate in an unsuccessful attempt to defeat Democrat William E. Simms for the seat in Kentucky's 8th congressional district.

Throughout the 1850s, Harlan criticized both abolitionists and pro-slavery radicals. Like many other anti-secession Southerners, he supported the Constitutional Union ticket of John Bell and Edward Everett in the 1860 presidential election. Harlan agreed to serve as a presidential elector for Bell, and he delivered speeches on behalf of the party throughout Kentucky during the campaign. In the secession crisis that followed Republican candidate Abraham Lincoln's victory in the 1860 election, Harlan sought to prevent Kentucky from seceding. He wrote several pro-Union editorials, represented the Union in state court, and joined a militia known as the Crittenden Union Zouaves.

After the state legislature voted to expel all Confederate forces from the state, Harlan recruited a company that was mustered into the service as the 10th Kentucky Infantry. Harlan served in the Western Theater of the American Civil War until the death of his father James in February 1863. At that time, Harlan resigned his commission as colonel and returned to Frankfort to support his family.

Party leader: 1863–1877
Weeks after leaving the army, Harlan was nominated by the Union Party to run for Attorney General of Kentucky. Campaigning on a platform of vigorous prosecution of the war, he won the election by a considerable margin. As attorney general for the state, Harlan issued legal opinions and advocated for the state in a number of court cases. Party politics, however, occupied much of his time. Though still a committed unionist, he opposed Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and supported Democratic candidate George B. McClellan's unsuccessful campaign in the 1864 presidential election. Harlan also opposed ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment, attacking it as a "direct interference, by a portion of the states, with the local concerns of other states."

After the end of the Civil War in 1865, Harlan initially refused to join either the Democratic Party, which he viewed as too accepting of former rebels, or the Republican Party, whose Reconstruction policies he opposed. He sought re-election in 1867 on a third party ticket, but lost his office in a Democratic sweep of the state. In the aftermath of his defeat, Harlan joined the Republican Party, and he supported Ulysses S. Grant's candidacy in the 1868 presidential election. Moving to Louisville, Harlan formed a successful partnership with John E. Newman, a former circuit court judge, and like Harlan, a Unionist turned Republican. In 1870, Harlan and Newman briefly took on a new partner, Benjamin Bristow, but President Grant appointed Bristow as U.S. solicitor general later that year.

While growing his legal practice, Harlan also worked to build up the Republican Party organization in the state. He served as the Republican nominee for governor of Kentucky in 1871; though he finished a distant second to incumbent Democratic Governor Preston Leslie, Harlan nonetheless established himself as the leader of the Kentucky Republican Party during the campaign. Harlan's views on Reconstruction shifted in the early 1870s, and he came to support Reconstruction measures such as the Enforcement Act of 1870, though he still opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as a federal overreach. Harlan reluctantly accepted the party's gubernatorial nomination in 1875, and he once again lost by a substantial margin, this time to Democrat James B. McCreary. The following year, Harlan worked to nominate Bristow at the 1876 Republican National Convention, seeking to position Bristow as a more electable alternative to Republican front-runner James G. Blaine. When Rutherford B. Hayes instead emerged as the compromise candidate, Harlan switched his delegation's votes and subsequently campaigned on Hayes' behalf in the 1876 election.

Nomination
Though Harlan was considered for several positions in the new administration, most notably Attorney General, initially the only job he was offered was as a member of a commission sent to Louisiana to resolve disputed statewide elections there. Justice David Davis, however, had resigned from the Supreme Court in January 1877 after being elected to the Senate by the Illinois General Assembly. Seeking to appoint a Southerner to the Supreme Court in the aftermath of the acrimonious and disputed 1876 presidential election, Hayes settled on Harlan. Though Harlan's nomination prompted some criticism from Republican Stalwarts, he was confirmed unanimously by the Senate on November 29, 1877, and took the judicial oath of office on December 10, 1877.

Life on the Court
Harlan greatly enjoyed his time as a justice, serving until his death in 1911. From the start, he established good relationships with his fellow justices and he was close friends with a number of them. Though Harlan often disagreed with the other justices, occasionally quite vociferously, he was able to separate differences over legal matters from personal relationship. During his tenure, money problems continually plagued him, particularly as he began to put his three sons through college. Debt was a constant concern, and in the early 1880s, he considered resigning from the Court and returning to private practice. He ultimately decided to remain on the Court, but supplemented his income by teaching constitutional law at the Columbian Law School, which later became the George Washington University Law School.

When Harlan began his service, the Supreme Court faced a heavy workload that consisted primarily of diversity and removal cases, with only a few constitutional issues. Justices also rode circuit in the various federal judicial circuits; though these usually corresponded to the region from which the justice was appointed, due to his junior status, Harlan was assigned the Seventh Circuit based in Chicago. Harlan rode the Seventh Circuit until 1896, when he switched to his home circuit, the Sixth, upon the death of its previous holder, Justice Howell Edmunds Jackson. Harlan became the senior associate justice on the Court following the retirement of Stephen Johnson Field in 1897, and he served as acting chief justice after the death of Melville Fuller in 1910.

Jurisprudence
During Harlan's tenure on the Supreme Court, major Supreme Court decisions tended to address issues arising from industrialization and the Reconstruction Amendments. Beginning in the 1880s, the Supreme Court increasingly began to adopt a laissez-faire philosophy, striking down economic regulations while at the same time allowing states to curtail the rights of African Americans. Harlan differed from many of his colleagues, often voting to uphold federal regulations and to protect the civil rights of African Americans. His judicial opinions were influenced by his life-long belief in a strong national government, his sympathy for the economically disadvantaged, and his view that the Reconstruction Amendments had fundamentally transformed the relationship between the federal government and the state governments. Though Harlan believed the Court had the power to review state and federal actions on a broad array of topics, he tended to oppose judicial activism in favor of deference to legislatures.

Earlier cases, 1877–1896
Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875 in the waning days of Reconstruction, outlawing segregation in public accommodations such as railroads. The Supreme Court did not rule on the Civil Rights Act of 1875 until 1883, when it struck down the law in Civil Rights Cases. In his majority opinion, Justice Joseph P. Bradley held that the Thirteenth Amendment "simply abolished slavery," and that the Fourteenth Amendment did not authorize Congress to bar racial discrimination by private actors. Only Harlan dissented, vigorously, charging that the majority had subverted the Reconstruction Amendments: "The substance and spirit of the recent amendments of the constitution have been sacrificed by a subtle and ingenious verbal criticism." Harlan argued that the Fourteenth Amendment gave Congress the authority to regulate public accommodations, and further argued that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to "eradicate" the vestiges of slavery, such as restrictions on freedom of movement.

Harlan joined the Court's unanimous decision in Pace v. Alabama (1883), which ruled that anti-miscegenation laws were constitutional.

Harlan was the first justice to argue that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporated the Bill of Rights (making rights guarantees applicable to the individual states), in Hurtado v. California (1884).

Harlan was one of four justices to file a dissenting opinion in Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. (1895), which struck down a federal income tax levied by the Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act of 1894. Harlan described the majority opinion as a "disaster to the country" because it "impairs and cripples the just powers of the national government." He was the sole dissenter in another 1895 case, United States v. E. C. Knight Co., in which the Court severely curtailed the power of the federal government to pursue antitrust actions under the Sherman Antitrust Act. In his dissent, he wrote that "the common government of all the people is the only one that can adequately deal with a matter which directly and injuriously affects the entire commerce of the country." During the 1890s, he also wrote several dissents in cases where Court decisions curtailed the regulatory powers of the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC).

Plessy v. Ferguson

In 1896, Associate Justice Henry Billings Brown delivered the majority decision in Plessy v. Ferguson, which established the doctrine of "separate but equal." Whereas the Civil Rights Cases had struck down a federal law barring segregation by private actors, the Court's opinion in Plessy allowed state governments to engage in segregation. Rejecting the argument that segregation violated the Thirteenth Amendment, Brown wrote that "a statute which implies merely a legal distinction between the white and colored races has no tendency to destroy the legal equality of the two races, or reestablish a state of involuntary servitude." In response to the plaintiff's claims regarding the Fourteenth Amendment, Brown wrote that the Fourteenth Amendment was designed to "enforce the absolute equality of the two races before the law," but added that the amendment "could not have been intended to abolish distinction based upon color, or to enforce social, as distinguished from political, equality, or a commingling of the two races upon terms unsatisfactory to either."

Harlan, the lone dissenting justice, strongly disapproved of the majority opinion, writing that "the judgement this day rendered, will, in time, prove to be quite as pernicious as the decision made by this tribunal in the Dred Scott Case." He accepted the appellant's argument that the Thirteenth Amendment barred segregation in public accommodations, as he believed that segregation imposed "badges of slavery or servitude" upon African Americans. He also accepted the appellant's argument that the segregation in public accommodations violated the Fourteenth Amendment on the basis that these accommodations constituted "public highway[s]." He further wrote that "our Constitution is color-blind, and neither knows nor tolerates classes among citizens." Harlan rejected the idea that the law in question was race-neutral, writing that "everyone knows that the statute in question [was intended] to exclude colored people from coaches occupied by or assigned to white persons," adding that the law was "cunningly devised" to overturn the results of the Civil War.

Later cases, 1897–1911
Harlan did not embrace the idea of full social racial equality. While he had appeared to advocate for equality among those of different races and for a color-blind Constitution, in his Plessy dissent, he also stated "[t]here is a race so different from our own that we do not permit those belonging to it to become citizens of the United States.... I allude to the Chinese race." In United States v. Wong Kim Ark (1898), Harlan joined Chief Justice Fuller's dissent proclaiming the dangers of having large numbers of Chinese immigrants in the United States. The Court's holding was that persons of Chinese descent born in the United States were citizens by birth. Fuller and Harlan argued that the principle of jus sanguinis (that is, the concept of a child inheriting their father's citizenship by descent regardless of birthplace) had been more pervasive in U.S. legal history since independence. In the view of the minority, excessive reliance on jus soli (birthplace) as the principal determiner of citizenship would lead to an untenable state of affairs in which "the children of foreigners, happening to be born to them while passing through the country, whether of royal parentage or not, or whether of the Mongolian, Malay or other race, were eligible to the presidency, while children of our citizens, born abroad, were not".

Harlan was also the most staunchly anti-imperialist justice of the Supreme Court, arguing consistently in the Insular Cases (from 1901 to 1905) that the Constitution did not permit the demarcation of different rights between citizens of the states and the residents of newly acquired territories in the Philippines, Hawaii, Guam, and Puerto Rico, a view that was consistently in the minority. In Hawaii v. Mankichi (1903) his opinion stated: "If the principles now announced should become firmly established, the time may not be far distant when, under the exactions of trade and commerce, and to gratify an ambition to become the dominant power in all the earth, the United States will acquire territories in every direction... whose inhabitants will be regarded as 'subjects' or 'dependent peoples,' to be controlled as Congress may see fit... which will engraft on our republican institutions a colonial system entirely foreign to the genius of our Government and abhorrent to the principles that underlie and pervade our Constitution."

Harlan delivered the majority opinion in Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad Co. v. City of Chicago (1897), holding that due process required fair compensation to be given for any private property seized by the state. The decision incorporated the Fifth Amendment's Takings Clause, representing the first time that part of the Bill of Rights was applied to state governments. The Court would not incorporate another provision of the Bill of Rights until Gitlow v. New York (1925). Harlan wrote the majority opinion in Northern Securities Co. v. United States, the first time the Court upheld the use of the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up a large corporation. Harlan also wrote the majority opinion in Adair v. United States (1908), holding that Congress did not have the power to ban "yellow-dog contracts".

During his final years on the Court, Harlan continued to write dissents in major cases, such as Giles v. Harris (1903), a case challenging the use of grandfather clauses to restrict voting rolls and de facto exclude blacks. He also dissented in Lochner v. New York (1905), but he agreed with the majority "that there is a liberty of contract which cannot be violated even under the sanction of direct legislative enactment." In his dissent in Hodges v. United States (1906), Harlan reiterated his belief that the Thirteenth Amendment empowered Congress to protect African Americans from discrimination and violence. He was the lone dissenter in Ex parte Young (1908), arguing that the Eleventh Amendment prevented suits against state officials acting on behalf of the state. In his partial dissent in the 1911 case of Standard Oil Company of New Jersey v. United States, Harlan argued against the Court's establishment of the rule of reason, which held that in some extenuating circumstances a trust should not be broken up even if it has a monopoly. In both Standard Oil and United States v. American Tobacco Co. (1911), Harlan strongly criticized the majority opinion for adopting the rule of reason; as the rule was not present in the original legislation, he believed that the Court was usurping Congress's legislative prerogatives.

Death
Harlan died on October 14, 1911, after 33 years serving on the Supreme Court, the third-longest tenure on the court up to that time and sixth-longest ever. He was the last veteran of the Waite Court to remain on the bench. He was buried in Rock Creek Cemetery, Washington, D.C., where his body resides along with those of three other justices. Harlan, who suffered from financial problems throughout his tenure on the Court, left minimal assets for the support of his widow, Malvina Shanklin Harlan, and two unmarried daughters. In the months following Harlan's death, leading members of the Supreme Court Bar established a fund for the benefit of the Harlan survivors.

Family
In December 1856, Harlan married Malvina French Shanklin, the daughter of an Indiana businessman. According to friends and Shanklin's memoirs, theirs was a happy marriage, which lasted until Harlan's death. They had six children, three sons and three daughters. Their eldest son, Richard, became a Presbyterian minister and served as president of Lake Forest College. Their second son, James S. Harlan, practiced in Chicago and served as attorney general of Puerto Rico and chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission. Their youngest son, John Maynard Harlan, also practiced in Chicago and served as an alderman. John Maynard's son, John Marshall Harlan II, served as a Supreme Court Associate Justice from 1955 until 1971.

Religious beliefs
Harlan was fervently religious, and legal scholar James W. Gordon argued that his faith ”was the most important lens through which he viewed the people and events of his life”. A conservative Presbyterian, he favored the Old School branch of that denomination, opposed higher criticism, and stridently adhered to Calvinism. During his tenure as a justice, he was an elder at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church in Washington, D.C., and there he taught a Sunday school class of middle-aged men from 1896 until his death in 1911.

Legacy
Harlan was largely forgotten in the decades after his death, but his reputation began to improve in the mid-twentieth century, and many scholars now consider him to be one of the greatest Supreme Court justices of his era. He is most known for his reputation as the "Great Dissenter," and he is especially remembered for his dissent in Plessy v. Ferguson. Historian D. Grier Stephenson writes that "more than any justice with whom he served, Harlan understood the Reconstruction Amendments to establish a nationally protected right against racial discrimination, although it is a measure of the Court that he frequently articulated those promises in dissent." Legal scholar Bernard Schwartz writes that "Harlan's key dissents have generally been affirmed in the court of history. A century later, his rejection of the narrow view toward civil rights adopted by the Court majority has been generally approved." Harlan's view that the Fourteenth Amendment made the provisions of the Bill of Rights applicable to the states has also largely been adopted by the Supreme Court.

Harlan is commemorated by John Marshall Harlan Community Academy High School, a Chicago public high school, as well as by John Marshall Harlan High School in Texas. During World War II the Liberty ship SS John M. Harlan was built and named in his honor. Centre College, Harlan's alma mater, instituted the John Marshall Harlan Professorship in Government in 1994 in honor of Harlan's reputation as one of the Supreme Court's greatest justices. Named for Justice Harlan, the "Harlan Scholars" of the University of Louisville/Louis D. Brandeis School of Law is an undergraduate organization for students interested in attending law school. Collections of Harlan's papers are at the University of Louisville and at the Library of Congress in Washington. Other papers are collected at many other libraries.

On March 12, 1906, Harlan donated a King James Version Bible to the Supreme Court. This Bible had become known as the "Harlan Bible", and as of 2015, has been signed by every succeeding Supreme Court justice after taking the oath of office.

title: John Marshall Harlan