text:
China National Aviation Corporation

The China National Aviation Corporation was a Chinese airline which was nationalized after the Chinese Communist Party took control in 1949, and merged into the People's Aviation Company of China (中國人民航空公司) in 1952. It was a major airline under the Nationalist government of China until the 90s.

It was headquartered in Shanghai as of 1938.

History
On 5 April 1929 the Executive Yuan of the Nationalist government of China based in Nanjing established the Chinese National Aviation Corporation, a state owned company with an authorized capital of ten million yuan. Sun Fo, Minister of Railways and son of Sun Yat Sen served as its first chairman although the real power lay with the Minister of Communications, Wang Boqun.

Two weeks later on 17 April, the Nationalists entered into a service contract with an American firm, Aviation Exploration Inc which was to establish air routes between a few of the major treaty ports and manage all operations. Aviation Exploration Inc was a personal holding company of the U.S. aviation magnate Clement Melville Keys who at the same time was the president of Curtiss-Wright and a few other aviation firms. In June 1929, Keys set up China Airways Federal to manage the new airmail routes between Canton, Shanghai and Hankou.

This new Sino-American venture faced acute resistance from military factions in South China: warlords had their own small air forces which had ambitions to earn income from airmail service between the treaty ports. Even more ominous was the opposition from Wang Po-chun the Minister of Communications; in July 1929, he went ahead and set up an airmail service, Shanghai-Chengtu Airways, owned entirely by his ministry. Wang imported Stinson planes and competed with China Airways Federal on the Shanghai-Hankou route. He became in effect the father of China's civil aviation.

Despite all the odds, on 21 October 1929, China Airways Federal launched the airmail and passenger service with an inaugural flight from Shanghai to Hankou. It continued to face overwhelming political and financial difficulties, not least from the Ministry of Communications which not only collected airmail revenue from its own service but from that of China Airways Federal.

By the start of 1930 China Airways Federal was at the point of bankruptcy and threatened to stop operations altogether unless the Ministry of Communications released its revenue. An old China hand named Max Polin managed to broker a new deal between China Airways Federal and the Ministry of Communication. On 8 July, the two rival airmail operators merged into a reconfigured China National Aviation Corporation, which thereafter was better known by its acronym, CNAC. The Chinese government had a 55 percent share and Keys' interests had a 45 percent share in CNAC. The Keys share in CNAC wound up in Intercontinent Aviation, another holding company that he had established in 1929 to handle foreign airline investments; by that stage Intercontinent itself had become part of North American Aviation, another firm founded by Keys in 1928. From 1931 until 1948 William Langhorne Bond was operations manager and vice-president of China National Aviation Corporation

By 1933, Keys had retired under a cloud of scandal and near bankruptcy. Thomas Morgan was his successor as the head of Curtiss-Wright which through cross holdings ultimately controlled both North American and Intercontinent. After a series of disastrous accidents and disagreements with Chinese leaders, Morgan decided to sell the 45 percent stake held by Intercontinent in CNAC to Pan American Airways: on 1 April 1933. Morgan concluded the sale with PanAm president Juan Trippe. Trippe almost immediately put PanAm vice-president Harold Bixby in charge of the airline's new far east operation: Bixby was well known in banking and aviation circles as the man who had put up the money for the trans-Atlantic flight of Charles Lindbergh in the Spirit of St Louis.

Between 1937 and December 1941, CNAC flew many internal routes with Douglas Dolphin amphibians (Route No. 3, from Shanghai – Canton, via Wenzhou, Fuzhou, Amoy & Shantou), and Douglas DC-2s and DC-3s. In addition, three examples of the Vultee V-1A single-engine transport that "missed the boat" to Republican Spain ended up in China. Initially, the Nationalists maintained contact with the outside world through the port of Hanoi in French Indo-China, but the Japanese put pressure on the new pro-Vichy regime there to cut off relations with them in 1940–41. Flying in mainland China during the war with Japan was dangerous. A CNAC aircraft was the first passenger aircraft in history to be destroyed by enemy forces, in the Kweilin Incident in August 1938.

By fall 1940, CNAC operated service from Chongqing (via Kunming and Lashio) to Rangoon, Chengdu, Jiading (via Luzhou and Yibin) and Hong Kong (via Guilin).

As the Japanese blockade of materials, fuel and various supplies severely strangulated China's already-deprived war effort, particularly with the continued Battles of Chengdu-Chongqing, Lanzhou, Changsha, Kunming, the looming Japanese invasion of Burma, Major General Mao Bangchu of the Nationalist Air Force of China was tasked with leading the exploration of suitable air-routes over the dangerous Himalayas in 1941; as a result, CNAC pilot Xia Pu recorded the first flight between Dinjan, Burma, to Kunming, China in what was to become the route now known as "The Hump" in November of that year.

On 8, 9 and 10 December 1941, eight American pilots of the China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) and their crews made a total of 16 trips between Kai Tak Airport in the British Crown Colony of Hong Kong, then under attack from Japanese forces, and Chongqing, the wartime capital of the Republic of China. Together they made 16 sorties and evacuated 275 persons including Soong Ching-ling (the widow of Sun Yat-sen), and the Chinese Finance Minister H.H. Kung.

During World War II, CNAC was headquartered in India, and flew supplies from Assam, India, into Yunnan, southwestern China through the Hump Route over the Himalayas, after the Japanese blocked the Burma Road. Despite the large casualties inflicted by the Japanese and more significantly, the ever-changing weather over the Himalayas, the logistics flights operated daily, year round, from April 1942 until the end of the war. The CNAC was a smaller part of the overall re-supply operations which included the USAAF's India-China Division of Air Transport Command.

After World War II, in 1946, CNAC moved from India to Shanghai, specifically Longhua Airport, located on the western shore of the Huangpu River, 10 km from the center of Shanghai. The company was a huge organization, with departments for transportation, mechanics, medicine, food, finance, etc. The employees who numbered in the thousands were housed in dormitories located in the Shanghai French Concession. Every morning, the company took the employees by a car convoy from the dormitories to the airport.

CNAC eventually operated routes from Shanghai to Beiping, Chongqing, and Guangzhou, using Douglas DC-2 and DC-3 aircraft. Apart from purchasing war surplus planes, CNAC had also acquired brand new Douglas DC-4s, to serve the route between Shanghai and San Francisco.

The downfall of CNAC's operations came on 9 November 1949, when managing director of CNAC, Colonel CY Liu, and general manager of CATC, Colonel CL Chen with a skeleton crew defected with 12 aircraft in unauthorized take-offs from Hong Kong Kai Tak Airport to Communist-controlled China. The lead aircraft (Convair 240) was welcomed with pomp and ceremony in Beijing, while the other 11 landed safely in Tianjin. The aircraft were pursued by Nationalist fighter planes but were shielded by heavy cloud cover. The remaining airline staff with their families (a total of 3,400) snuck into China by land or sea later. The ideology behind the defection was nationalism as they believed that the Communist Party would best lead one, strong China. On 1 August 1950, both companies came back to operate services. Later they were merged to form the People's Aviation Company of China in May 1952, and eventually became part of CAAC Airlines in June 1953. Today the original Convair 240 (with one engine missing) is on display at a Military Aviation Museum in Beijing. Liu left China in 1971 for Australia where he died in May 1973.

The remaining 71 aircraft in Hong Kong were sold by the Nationalists, who had retreated to the island of Taiwan, to the Delaware-registered Civil Air Transport Inc (CAT) in an effort to save the aircraft from the Communists. After a lengthy legal battle (which went on appeal from Hong Kong to Privy Council in UK, as reported in 1951 Appeal Cases) the planes were delivered by the Hong Kong government to CAT in 1952.

Moon Fun Chin, who flew supplies over the dangerous Hump Campaign to resupply the Chinese during World War Two, was the last surviving CNAC pilot. He died on 9 May 2023 at age 110.

Accidents and incidents

 * 19 November 1931: A Stinson Detroiter (named Jinan) crashed into the mountains near Jinan city, killing all three on board, including famous Chinese writer Xu Zhimo
 * 10 April 1934: Sikorsky S-38B NC17V crashed in Hangzhou Bay, killing all four on board; some debris was found 10 days later but the body of pilot Robert H. Gast was not found until four months later. The cause of the crash was never determined.
 * 8 August 1937: Sikorsky S-43W NC16930 (named Chekiang) ditched in Bias Bay (now Daya Bay) due to weather, killing three of 11 on board; the eight survivors clung to a wing until rescued.
 * 24 August 1938: Douglas DC-2-221 32 (named Kweilin) made a forced landing after an attack by Japanese fighters; the aircraft was strafed on the ground, killing 14 of 17 on board; the aircraft was repaired and returned to service. Kweilin was the first commercial aircraft to be shot down.
 * 29 October 1940: Douglas DC-2-221 39 (Chungking) was attacked and destroyed on the ground by Japanese fighters after landing at Changyi Airfield, killing nine of 12 on board.
 * 20 January 1941: Ford AT-5-D Trimotor 23 struck a mountain in Jiangxi Province, killing five of six on board.
 * 12 February 1941: Douglas DC-2-190 XT-OBF (also registered as 40, named Kangtang) struck a mountain near Taohsien, Hunan in a thunderstorm, killing the three crew.
 * 8 December 1941: Nine aircraft (four CNAC AT-32s and two DC-2s, two Eurasia Ju 52s, and a Pan Am S-42) were destroyed on the ground at Kai Tak Airport by Japanese bombers during the Battle of Hong Kong.
 * 14 March 1942: Douglas DC-2-221 31 (named Chungshan) crashed on takeoff from Kunming Airport due to engine failure and overloading, killing 13 of 17 on board.
 * 17 November 1942: Douglas C-47 60 struck a mountain at 13,400 feet in the Cang Shan ridge, Himalayas due to icing, killing the three crew; the wreckage was found in 2011.
 * 11 March 1943: Douglas C-53 53 crashed on Kao I Kung Shan Ridge near the China/Myanmar border after encountering a downdraft, killing the three crew.
 * 13 March 1943: Douglas C-53 49 disappeared while on a Kunming-Dinjan flight with three crew on board. The aircraft encountered bad weather and crashed in the Patkai Range, Burma due to possible shifted cargo (tin bars); the wreckage has never been found.
 * 7 April 1943: Douglas C-53 58 (also registered 42-15890) crashed on a mountain peak 30 mi NE of Minzong due to weather and icing, killing one of three crew. The crew encountered heavy icing and snow shortly after takeoff from Dinjan. The pilot decided to turn around an hour later and return but while returning the pilot performed an evasive maneuver to avoid a mountain. The aircraft slid over the side of the mountain and crashed on a second mountain at 13,750 feet.
 * 11 August 1943: Douglas C-53 48 crashed in the Fort Hertz valley following an in-flight fire and wing separation, killing the three crew; the aircraft was probably shot down by a Japanese fighter.
 * 13 October 1943: Douglas C-47 72 crashed 125 km north of Myitkyina, Burma (now Myanmar), killing the three crew; the aircraft was probably shot down by Japanese fighters.
 * 19 November 1943: Two aircraft (Douglas C-53 59 and C-47 63) crashed while on approach to Wujiaba Airfield in poor weather, killing a total of five.
 * 18 December 1943: Douglas C-47A 83 crashed into a cliff near Xuzhou (Suifu) while attempting a go-around following an aborted landing below minimums, killing the three crew.
 * 20 February 1944: Douglas C-47A 75 crashed into a mountain after taking off from Dinjan Airfield after encountering turbulence while flying through a cloud, killing both pilots.
 * 26 May 1944: Douglas C-47A 82 crashed in the Himalayas in southern Tibet after overflying its destination due to weather and radio problems, killing all 12 on board.
 * 8 June 1944: Douglas C-47A 85 crashed near Dinjan Airport due to an in-flight fire and wing separation caused by improper maintenance, killing all six on board.
 * 15 June 1945: Douglas C-47A 81 disappeared while on a Yunnanyi Airport (WWII)-Xuzhou (Suifu) flight with three crew on board.
 * 20 October 1945: Douglas C-47B 104 crashed in a village 13 mi northeast of Suichang, killing all 13 on board and seven villagers.
 * 20 September 1946: A CNAC aircraft struck the side of Lochi Mountain near Hsichia, killing all 31 on board; the aircraft was either a C-46 or a C-47.
 * 16 December 1946: A CNAC DC-3 crashed into three parked aircraft at Longhua Airport, killing five.
 * 25 December 1946: Three aircraft (CNAC C-47 140, C-46 115 and Central Air Transport C-47 48) crashed near Shanghai in poor visibility, killing a total of 62 in what became known as China's "Black Christmas".
 * 5 January 1947: Curtiss C-46 XT-T51 (also registered as 121) struck a mountain near Qingdao, killing all 43 on board. The aircraft was operating a Shanghai-Qingdao-Beijing passenger service.
 * 25 January 1947: Douglas C-47 138 crashed in a mountainous area 119 mi south of Chongqing, killing all 19 on board.
 * 28 January 1947: Curtiss C-46 XT-T45 (also registered as 145) crashed 30 minutes after takeoff from Hankou due to wing separation following an engine fire, killing 25 of 26 on board.
 * 27 October 1947: A Douglas DC-3 was shot down by Communist anti-aircraft fire and crashed near Yulin, killing two of the three crew.
 * 20 January 1948: A Curtiss C-46 crashed on takeoff from Mukden Airport in a snowstorm while operating an evacuation service, killing 11 of 54 on board.
 * 12 December 1948: A Douglas DC-3 crashed on landing at Sung Shan Airport, killing two of 10 on board.
 * 21 December 1948: Douglas C-54B XT-104 struck a mountain on Basalt Island in poor visibility and poor weather, killing all 35 on board. One of the passengers killed in the accident, Quentin Roosevelt, was the grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt and son of WWII Medal of Honor recipient, Ted Roosevelt Jr.  Quentin Roosevelt who had served in WWII in France had attained the rank of Major.  Quentin was a Director of CNAC at the time of his death.
 * 30 January 1949: A CNAC aircraft was hijacked by six people and diverted to Tainan.

title: China National Aviation Corporation


text:
China Service Medal

The China Service Medal was a service medal awarded to U.S. Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard personnel. The medal was instituted by Navy Department General Order No. 176 on 1 July 1942. The medal recognized service in and around China before and after World War II.

Criteria
Served ashore in China or who were attached to any of the vessels that operated in support of the operations in China between 7 July 1937, and 7 September 1939.

1. The commemorative purposes for which the China Service Medal was established and authorized by General Order No. 176, dated 1 July 1942, are extended to include the services performed by personnel of the Navy, Marine Corps, and Coast Guard during the operations in China subsequent to 2 September 1945, and until a terminal date to be designated. It is further provided that the Secretary of the Navy may tender this medal to personnel of the Army or other components of the Armed Forces of the United States for service which he may determine to be commensurate with and consistent with the services for which the award is made to personnel in the naval service, and this provision for tender shall apply for all periods of time for which award of this medal is authorized. Served ashore in China or were attached to any of the vessels that operated in support of operations in China between September 2, 1945, and April 1, 1957. 2. The medal will be awarded to individuals who shall have been attached to, present, and serving on permanent duty with an organization of the naval service of the United States credited by the Secretary of the Navy with having participated in operations in China. Service In a passenger status, or as an observer, visitor, courier, escort, inspector, or other similar status when not permanently attached to an eligible unit, is not creditable toward eligibility for the above medal. Services performed in the Asiatic-Pacific area between 3 September 1945 and 2 March 1946, inclusive, shall not be credited toward individual eligibility for the China Service Medal unless the individual is already eligible for the Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal for services performed prior to 2 September 1945.

3. Organizations will, consistent with the above dates, be credited with qualifying service for services performed on shore in China and such adjacent islands and territories as are recognized to be Chinese, or in ships operating in such territorial waters or contiguous ocean areas, or in aircraft based upon and operating from such territories or ships.

4. The China Service Medal shall not be awarded for any service for which another service medal is authorized except as provided in paragraph 2 above and not more than one medal shall be awarded to any individual. No clasps, distinguishing devices, or other insignia are authorized to be worn on the corresponding service ribbon except that Individuals to whom the medal has been or may be awarded for service performed under General Order No. 176, of 1 July 1942, shall upon becoming eligible for this award for service performed subsequent to 2 September 1945, wear a bronze star signifying the second award on the ribbon of the medal and on the service ribbon. .

Regulations permit the wearing of a bronze service star if a service member had performed duty during both periods of eligibility. The China Service Medal is no longer awarded by the United States Navy.

Appearance
Designed by American sculptor George Holburn Snowden, the medal is bronze, 1.25 inches in diameter. The center of the obverse bears a three-sailed Chinese junk borne upon scroll waves. The boat is surrounded by the inscription in relief China Service, in an Asian-style font.

The reverse of the medal bears a bald eagle facing left. The eagle clutches laurels while perched on the horizontal shank of an anchor with its flukes to the right. On the left side of the eagle is the word For and the right side Service. Arching above the eagle is one of two inscriptions United States Navy for the version awarded to sailors or United States Marine Corps for the version awarded to Marines.

The suspension ribbon, and service ribbon, for the medal is gold with red stripes at either side.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: China Service Medal


text:
Santa Catarina (Caldas da Rainha)

Santa Catarina is one of twelve civil parishes (freguesias) in the municipality of Caldas da Rainha, Portugal. The civil parish has an area of 19.98 km² and had a population of 3,029 at the 2011 census.

Its main economic activities are leather goods industry, construction, agriculture, horticulture, livestock production, trade, but it is its cutlery industry that makes Santa Catarina known internationally.

Villages

 * Peso
 * Vigia
 * Cumeira
 * Mouraria
 * Casal do Rio
 * Casal do Bicho
 * Quinta da Ferraria
 * Casal das Freiras
 * Casal dos Nortes
 * Casal da Coita
 * Portela
 * Abrunheira
 * Casal da Marinha
 * Casal da Azenha
 * Casal das Penas
 * Mata de Porto Mouro
 * Relvas
 * Granja Nova
 * Casal da Cruz
 * Casal Torcano

Cultural Heritage

 * Parish church
 * Mansion-house
 * Pillory
 * Ancient hillfort
 * Public garden
 * Mestras forest
 * Chapels

title: Santa Catarina (Caldas da Rainha)


text:
Arlie Russell Hochschild

Arlie Russell Hochschild (born January 15, 1940) is an American professor emeritus of sociology at the University of California, Berkeley and writer. Hochschild has long focused on the human emotions that underlie moral beliefs, practices, and social life generally. She is the author of ten books, including the forthcoming Stolen Pride: Loss, Shame, and the Rise of the Right (The New Press, September 10, 2024). Stolen Pride is a follow-up to her last book, Strangers in Their Own Land: Anger and Mourning on the American Right, a New York Times Bestseller and finalist for the National Book Award. Derek Thompson described it as "a Rosetta stone" for understanding the rise of Donald Trump.

In these and other books, she continues the sociological tradition of C. Wright Mills by drawing links between private troubles and public issues. In drawing this link, she has tried to illuminate the ways we recognize, attend to, appraise, evoke, and suppress—that is to say, manage—emotion. She has applied this focus to the family, to work, and to political life. Her works have been translated into 17 languages. She is also the author of a children's book titled Coleen The Question Girl, illustrated by Gail Ashby.

Early life and family background
Arlie Hochschild was born in Boston, Massachusetts, the daughter of Ruth Alene (Libbey) and Francis Henry Russell, a diplomat who served in Israel, New Zealand, Ghana, and Tunisia. In her 2016 book, Strangers in Their Own Land, Hochschild says that her first experiences reaching out and getting to know people different from her stem from her own childhood idea that she was "daddy's helper" - ( probably not an idea he shared, she later reflects).

She married Adam Hochschild in 1965 and they have two sons, David and Gabriel. In 1964, she and Adam were civil rights workers in Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Education and academic career
Hochschild graduated from Swarthmore College in 1962 with a major in International Relations. She earned her MA (1965) and PhD (1969) from the University of California, Berkeley, whose faculty she joined after teaching at the University of California, Santa Cruz from 1969 to 1971.

Areas of research
Using in-depth interviews and observation, Hochschild's research has taken her into various social worlds. She has written about residents in a low-income housing project for the elderly (The Unexpected Community), flight attendants and bill collectors who perform "emotional labor" (The Managed Heart), working parents struggling to divide housework and childcare (The Second Shift), corporate employees dealing with a culture of workaholism (The Time Bind). She has also interviewed child and eldercare workers, internet-dating assistants, wedding planners (The Outsourced Self) and Filipina nannies who've left their children behind to care for those of American families (Global Woman). Her 2013 So How's the Family and Other Essays is a collection that includes essays on emotional labor—when do we enjoy it and when not?—empathy, and personal strategies for trying to have fun and “make meaning” in a life with little family time.

Her last two research projects have focused on the rise of the political right. Strangers in Their Own Land is based on five years of immersion research among Louisiana supporters of the Tea Party. Why, she asks, do residents of the nation's second poorest state vote for candidates who resist federal help? Why, in a highly polluted state, do voters prefer politicians reluctant to regulate polluting industries? Her search for answers led her to the concept of the "deep story.” The book was a National Book Award finalist, as well as one of the top ten best non-fiction books of the decade by the Boston Public Library.

In her forthcoming Stolen Pride: Loss, Shame, and the Rise of the Right, she locates herself in the nation's whitest and second poorest congressional district, where she finds residents facing a “perfect storm.” Coal jobs had gone. A tragic drug crisis had arrived. And in 2017, a white nationalist march was coming to town—a rehearsal, as it turned out, for the deadly Unite the Right march soon to take place in Charlottesville, Virginia. Once at the political center of the country, the district voted 80% for Donald Trump in both 2016 and 2020. Hochschild explores a people’s strong culture of pride and struggle with  unwarranted shame, and finds in this a lens through which to see politics in America today, and in many other times and places.

Emotion in social life: Feeling rules and emotional labor
Hochschild proposes that human emotions—joy, sadness, anger, elation, jealousy, envy, despair—are partly social. Each culture, she argues, provides its members with prototypes of feeling which, like the different keys on a piano, attune us to different inner notes. She provides an example of the Tahitians, who have one word, "sick," for what in other cultures might correspond to envy, depression, grief, or sadness. Culture guides the act of recognizing a feeling by proposing what's possible for us to feel. In The Managed Heart, Hochschild cites the Czech novelist Milan Kundera, who writes that the Czech word "litost" refers to an indefinable longing, mixed with remorse and grief—a constellation of feelings with no equivalent in any other language. It is not that non-Czechs never feel litost, she notes; it is that they are not, in the same way, invited to lift out and affirm the feeling.

We don't simply feel what we feel, Hochschild suggests. We "try to" feel the way we wish to or think we should feel based on socially derived feeling rules. And we do this through emotional labor. For example, in The Managed Heart, Hochschild writes of how flight attendants are trained to control passengers' feelings during times of turbulence and dangerous situations while suppressing their own fear or anxiety. Bill collectors, as well, are often trained to imagine debtors as lazy or dishonest, so they can feel suspicious and intimidating. As the number of service jobs grows, so too do different forms of emotional labor. In the era of COVID-19, she argues, many front-line workers do the emotional labor of suppressing heightened anxieties about their own health and that of their families while dealing with the fear, anxiety and sometimes hostility of the public.

Emotional labor has gone global, she argues. In her essay, "Love and Gold," in Global Woman she describes immigrant care workers who leave their children and elderly back in the Philippines, Mexico or elsewhere in the global South, to take paid jobs caring for the young and elderly in families in the affluent North. Such jobs call on workers to manage grief and anguish vis-a-vis their own long-unseen children, spouses, and elderly parents, even as they try to feel—and genuinely do feel—warm attachment to the children and elders they daily care for in the North. Hochschild describes such a pattern as a global care chain.

Work and family
In other books, Hochschild applies her perspective on emotion to the American family. In The Second Shift, she argues that the family has been stuck in a "stalled revolution." Most mothers work for pay outside the home; that is the revolution. But the jobs they have and the men they come home to haven't changed as rapidly or deeply as she has; that is the stall. Hochschild traces links between a couple's division of labor and their underlying "economy of gratitude." Who, she asks, is grateful to whom, and for what?

In The Time Bind, Hochschild studied working parents at a Fortune 500 company dealing with an important contradiction. On one hand, nearly everyone she talked to told her that "my family comes first." However, when she asked informants "Where do you get help when you need it?" or "Where are you most rewarded for what you do, work or home?" for some 20 percent the answer was "at work." For them, "family becomes like work and work takes on the feel and tone of the family."

In an interview with the Journal of Consumer Culture, Hochschild describes how capitalism plays a role in one's "imaginary self"—the self we would be if only we had time.

Disengagement theory
In her earlier work, Hochschild critiqued the disengagement theory of aging. According to that theory, inevitably and universally, through disengagement, the individual experiences a social death before they experience physical death. But in the low-income housing project she studied for her PhD Dissertation and later published as The Unexpected Community, she discovered among the lively group of elderly residents a culture of continued engagement. When they died, it seemed, it was "with their boots on." Across the world, she suggests, individuals differ in their ideals of aging, in the feeling rules they apply to life, and may even differ in the very experience of death.

Honors
Hochschild has received honorary degrees from Harvard University (2021), the University of Lausanne, Switzerland (2018), Westminster College, Pennsylvania (2018), Mount St. Vincent University, Canada (2013), the University of Lapland, Finland (2012), Aalborg University, Denmark (2004), the University of Oslo, Norway (2000), and Swarthmore College (1993). She also received the Ulysses Medal from University College Dublin, Ireland (2015) and the Helmholtz Medal from the Berlin Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 2024. She was also inducted into the California Hall of Fame (2022).

Books

title: Arlie Russell Hochschild


text:
CNAC

CNAC may refer to:

 * China National Aviation Corporation
 * Canadian Numbering Administration Consortium
 * Centro Nacional Autónomo de Cinematografía
 * Centre National d'Art Contemporain, Grenoble, France; located at the Le Magasin
 * Centre National des Arts du Cirque, Châlons-en-Champagne, Marne, Grand Est, France

 * CNAC House, Hong Kong International Airport, Hong Kong, China; HQ for Air China
 * Cambridge Nonviolent Action Committee, part of the Cambridge movement (civil rights)
 * Covington Neighborhood Action Coalition, see History of Covington, Kentucky

title: CNAC


text:
Pinus muricata

Pinus muricata, the bishop pine, is a pine with a very restricted range: mostly in California, including several offshore Channel Islands, and a few locations in Baja California, Mexico. It is always on or near the coast.

In San Luis Obispo County it is found alone or in stands scattered on the coastal mountains and hills from Morro Bay to Shell Beach. A few stands of the tree are seen on the hills above the Sycamore Canyon Resort in Avila Beach. Within the City of San Luis Obispo, the Terrace Hill Open Space has several scattered specimens. Bishop pine seems to prefer already disturbed, unvegetated areas where it probably faces less competition from oaks and shrubs.

The common name "bishop pine" resulted from the tree having been first identified near the Mission of San Luis Obispo in San Luis Obispo, California. This tree has a large number of common names and other prior scientific names, due primarily to numerous variant forms. Other English names that have occasionally been used are prickle cone pine, Obispo pine, Santa Cruz pine and dwarf marine pine.

Description
Pinus muricata is a coniferous evergreen tree growing to a height of 15 to 26 m, rarely up to 34 m, with a trunk diameter of up to 1.2 m. The species is often smaller, stunted and twisted in coastal exposures. It is drought-tolerant and grows on dry, rocky soil.

The needles are in pairs, green to blue-green, and 8 – long. Cones occur in one to five clusters. The cones are strongly reflexed down the branch, 5 to 10 cm long; the scales are stiff, thin on the side of the cone facing the stem, but greatly thickened on the side facing away and with a stout 5 to 12 mm spine; both features adaptive to minimise squirrel predation and fire damage to the cones. The cones remain unopened for many years until fire or strong heat causes them to open and release the seeds.

Forms
There are two Pinus muricata forms:
 * a southern form with bright green needles
 * a northern form with dark blue-green needles.

The resin composition also differs. The dividing line between the two is very sharp, five miles (8 km) south of the boundary between Mendocino County and Sonoma County, California. Experimental attempts to hybridize the two forms have consistently failed, indicating that their taxonomic relationship may be more distant than the very small differences in appearance would suggest.

Ecology
Pinus muricata is found with several oak and cypress associates within the California Coast Ranges. There are also a number of common understory flora associates including sword fern, salal and western poison oak. Notable occurrences of P. muricata is in association with Mendocino cypress as a pygmy forest on coastal terraces in Mendocino County and Sonoma County, including one location within Salt Point State Park. It is classified an endangered species in Mexico.

Uses
Pinus muricata has been used in plantations with resultant growth rates higher than in the wild, but with adverse impacts to biodiversity.

This plant has ornamental value, and is cultivated in parks and gardens. It has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

title: Pinus muricata


text:
Tornada e Salir do Porto

Tornada e Salir do Porto is one of twelve civil parishes (freguesias) in the municipality of Caldas da Rainha, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the former parishes Tornada and Salir do Porto. The population in 2011 was 4,358, in an area of 29.53 km².

Villages

 * Bairro Social
 * Campo
 * Chão da Parada
 * Reguengo da Parada
 * Casais Morgados
 * Mouraria
 * Casais de Salir do Porto
 * Bouro

title: Tornada e Salir do Porto


text:
User:Hob

I'm a published cartoonist, former software engineer, former nurse, amateur writer and dilettante, currently living in San Francisco. My interests include comics, theatre, AIDS, computer programming, science fiction and fantasy, anarchism, sex, Christianity, and languages. I almost never contribute to Wikipedia these days, but you never know.

My website http://www.errorbar.net/

title: User:Hob


text:
Vidais

Vidais is one of twelve civil parishes (freguesias) in the municipality of Caldas da Rainha, Portugal. The population in 2011 was 1,155, in an area of 21.49 km2.

title: Vidais


text:
ATB

ATB may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * ATB (DJ) (born 1973), German DJ and music producer
 * Active Time Battle system, a feature of role-playing games
 * Andy Timmons Band, a band led by guitarist Andy Timmons
 * Atelier-Théâtre Burkinabé, a Burkinabè theatre group
 * After the Burial, an American extreme metal band

Banking

 * Amsterdam Trade Bank, a Dutch bank
 * Arab Tunisian Bank, a financial institution formed partly by Arab Bank
 * ATB Financial (Alberta Treasury Branches), a financial institution owned by the Alberta government

Computing and telecommunications

 * All trunks busy, the reorder tone, or fast busy tone, on public switched telephone networks
 * ATB (Advanced trace bus), a protocol in the Advanced Microcontroller Bus Architecture protocol specification.

Sports

 * All terrain bike, an off-road bicycle now best known as mountain bike
 * All terrain boarding, an extreme sport also known as mountain boarding
 * Around the Bay Road Race, a 30 km road race held every March in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

Transportation and vehicles

 * AtB, the public transit company of Trøndelag County Municipality, Norway
 * Articulated tug and barge, a type of tugboat
 * Automatische treinbeïnvloeding, a Dutch system of automatic train protection
 * Advanced Technology Bomber, the program under which the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber was developed

Other uses

 * Ability to benefit, in the United States, a measure applicable to students who have sufficient competency to benefit from post-secondary education but do not have a high school diploma or equivalent
 * ATB-Market, a Ukrainian network of retail shops
 * Red ATB, a Bolivian television channel
 * ATB Place, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada; a plaza
 * Zaiwa language (ISO 639 code: atb)

title: ATB


text:
Polistes

Polistes is a cosmopolitan genus of paper wasps and the only genus in the tribe Polistini. Vernacular names for the genus include umbrella wasps, coined by Walter Ebeling in 1975 to distinguish it from other types of paper wasp, in reference to the form of their nests, and umbrella paper wasps. Polistes is the single largest genus within the family Vespidae, with over 200 recognized species. Their innate preferences for nest-building sites leads them to commonly build nests on human habitation, where they can be very unwelcome; although generally not aggressive, they can be provoked into defending their nests. All species are predatory, and they may consume large numbers of caterpillars, in which respect they are generally considered beneficial.

Description
As part of subfamily Polistinae, Polistes wasps are covered in short and inconspicuous hair, have a clypeus with a pointed apex, have a gena that is wide throughout, tergum 1 of the metasoma is almost straight to gently arched in profile, the tibia of the mid leg has two spurs, and the legs end in simple tarsal claws. The genus can be distinguished from other Polistinae by a sessile metasoma (the first segment at most slightly longer than wide) and the fourth tarsomeres of the mid and hind legs being symmetrical.

Polistes show sexual dimorphism, with males having seven externally visible metasomal segments whereas females have six. This trait is shared with other vespid wasps.

Polistes species have single-layered nests which are shaped like an umbrella, with the cells exposed to the air from the bottom, and no layer wrapping around the nest. The nests are suspended from a surface by a petiole and are constructed from a paper-like substance made of a mix of saliva and wood fibres chewed off old and soft wood or dead twigs. Many Polistes species in general often have nests supported by a longer petiole than those of Vespula.

Biochemistry
Similar to many insects, Carlson et al 1998 finds Polistes cuticular hydrocarbons to be predominantly many branched, methyl branched alkanes. The reviews of Nelson 1978, Lockey 1988 and Nelson 1993 concur.

Life cycle
The general life cycle of Polistes can be divided into four phases:
 * 1) Founding (or pre-emergence) phase
 * 2) Worker phase
 * 3) Reproductive phase
 * 4) Intermediate phase

Founding (or pre-emergence) phase
The founding stage begins in the spring when a solitary female (the "foundress") (or a small group of related females) initiates the construction of a nest. The wasps begin by fashioning a petiole, a short stalk which will connect the new nest to a substrate (often the eave of a house or outbuilding), and building a single brood cell at the end of it. Further cells are added laterally in a hexagonal pattern, each cell surrounded by six others. Although nests can achieve impressive sizes, they almost always maintain a basic shape: petiolated (stellocyttarous), single-combed, unprotected, and open (gymnodomous).

Eggs are laid by the foundress directly into the brood cells and are guarded by the foundress and the assisting females (if present). After the first larvae hatch, the foundress feeds them via progressive provisioning, bringing softened caterpillar flesh to the larvae multiple times throughout their development (as opposed to the one-time provisioning seen in some other hymenopteran groups). Each of this first seasonal brood of new paper wasps is exclusively female and destined to a subordinate worker position inside the nest; they do not found their own nests and instead assist their mother in the care and maintenance of future sisters.

Some foundress wasps do not build their own nests, but rather attempt to usurp that of another female. These usurpation attempts may or may not be successful, but almost always result in impressive displays of aggression and violence. Females may also adopt a more peaceful alternative reproduction strategy by joining the nest of a close relative (usually a sister) and working as assisting females. In the latter case, such cofounding females are generally, but not exclusively, close relatives.

Worker phase
The worker phase usually begins in the early summer, roughly two months after colony initiation, with the emergence of the first workers. These new females take up most of the colony's work duties, foraging, caring for brood, and maintaining the structure of the nest. Around this time, those females which assisted in nest foundation (if present) are driven from the nest by aggressive behavior on the part of the foundress, and leave either to start their own late-season nests or usurp another's.

Reproductive phase
The reproductive phase of the colony begins when the first female reproductives (the gynes) emerge from their brood cells. These reproductives differ from their worker sisters by having increased levels of fat stores and cryoprotectant carbohydrate compounds (allowing them to survive the overwintering period). These reproductives contribute genes directly to the next generation, while their worker sisters normally pass along their genes indirectly.

Intermediate phase
Once male reproductives emerge and both males and females disperse from the natal nest for mating flights, the so-called intermediate phase begins. Brood care and foraging behavior decline and worker numbers drop as dying individuals are no longer replaced by new ones. Intracolonial aggression increases and the social cohesion of the nest declines. In temperate Polistes species, individuals (almost exclusively inseminated females) gather in groups of up to 50 individuals and seek a sheltered location (called a hibernaculum) in which to overwinter.

Kin selection
The reproductive behavior of Polistes wasps provided some of the first evidence for the mathematical biologist W. D. Hamilton's 1964 theory of kin selection. Hamilton showed that animals such as workers could be expected to provide assistance to relatives such as their queens according to the costs and benefits involved (K) and their degree of genetic relatedness (r), and gave the rule that now carries his name, K > 1/r. Early caution existed among researchers as to whether social insects could really assess their relatedness. Hamilton himself suggested an alternative possibility, namely that kin could become associated simply by "population viscosity" —that offspring tend not to disperse far from their birthplaces— and West-Eberhard (1969) found some evidence for this in Polistes. However, Polistes species are now known to learn and remember chemical signals (hydrocarbons) picked up from the nest to distinguish nestmates accurately from non-relatives.

Dominance hierarchy system
Morphologically, the foundress and subordinate reproductive members of the colony differ little. However, behavioral differentiation occurs among females both between and within generations. For example, in the species Polistes humilis the queen displays a "tail-wagging" behavior to assert her dominance over the worker class. Similarly, Polistes canadensis also possesses behavioral differentiation between the queen and her nestmates, with the queen often suppressing the aggressive behavior of subordinates through lateral abdominal vibrations and stroking. In contrast, unmated females are not aggressive. In Polistes exclamans queens have different amounts of glucose, fructose, and trehalose which lead to different cryoprotectant levels. This alters their survivability in different temperatures, increasing their odds of reproduction. Females in P. bellicosus are also morphologically similar between caste separations. For example, a P. bellicosus worker could become queen, and egg-layer, if all of the original foundresses die or leave the nest. This is also true for Polistes dorsalis, which also displays dominant behavior. Despite having no distinct morphological caste, roles of P. dorsalis tend to be fixed in a system with division of labor.

Nestmate recognition
Polistes spp. discriminate colony mates using an acquired (i.e. learned) cue, absorbing hydrocarbons from the natal nest at eclosion. This cuticular hydrocarbon "signature" is derived both from the plant material and the foundress-applied substances from which the nest is made. Studies of Polistes fuscatus have researched the molecular basis of the recognition "pheromone" used by the wasps, and indicate at least some of the recognizable labels have the same chemical constituents as the adult cuticular hydrocarbons. Similar recognition is found in Polistes metricus. Dominant individuals of P. dominula have differing cuticular profiles from workers, and the frequent observations of the dominant female stroking its gaster across the nest surface, combined with its staying on the nest for longer times than subordinates, suggests the dominant individual may contribute more to the nest odor.

P. carolina females do not preferentially feed their own progeny (as larvae).

Further to this recognition of nestmates, Polistes biglumis foundresses discriminate between 'alien' eggs and their own via differential oophagy.

Species
203 species were described in the genus by 1996, and new species continue to be described. There are nine species in Europe.

224 species and 126 subspecies are as follows:

 * Polistes actaeon Haliday, 1836
 * Polistes adelphus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes adustus Bingham, 1897
 * Polistes affinis Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes africanus Palisot de Beauvois, 1818
 * Polistes albicinctus de Saussure, 1890
 * Polistes albocalcaratus du Buysson, 1905
 * Polistes angulinus Richards, 1951
 * Polistes angusticlypeus Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes annularis (Linnaeus, 1763)
 * Polistes apachus (de Saussure, 1857)
 * Polistes apicalis de Saussure, 1858
 * Polistes aquilinus du Buysson, 1905
 * Polistes arizonensis Snelling, 1954
 * Polistes arthuri Cameron, 1901
 * Polistes assamensis Bingham, 1897
 * Polistes associus Kohl, 1898
 * Polistes asterope Cameron, 1901
 * Polistes asterope arvidi Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes asterope asterope Cameron, 1901
 * Polistes asterope narupi Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes aterrimus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes atrimandibularis Zimmermann, 1930
 * Polistes atrox Richards, 1978
 * Polistes aurifer de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes austroccidentalis Van Achterberg & Neumeyer, 2017
 * Polistes badius Gerstaecker, 1871
 * Polistes bahamensis Bequaert & Salt, 1931
 * Polistes balder Kirby, 1888
 * Polistes bambusae Richards, 1978
 * Polistes bambusae bambusae Richards, 1978
 * Polistes bambusae humboldti Richards, 1978
 * Polistes bellicosus Cresson, 1872
 * Polistes bequaertellus Snelling, 1983,
 * Polistes bequaerti von Schulthess, 1921
 * Polistes bequaertianus Willink, 1954
 * Polistes bicolor Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes biglumis (Linnaeus, 1758)
 * Polistes biguttatus Haliday, 1836
 * Polistes billardieri Fabricius, 1804
 * Polistes billardieri biglumoides Ducke, 1904
 * Polistes billardieri billardieri Fabricius, 1804
 * Polistes billardieri ruficornis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes binotatus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes bischoffi Weyrauch, 1937
 * Polistes bituberculatus du Buysson, 1905
 * Polistes boharti Snelling, 1983
 * Polistes brevifissus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes brunus Nguyen & Carpenter, 2017
 * Polistes bucharensis Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes buruensis Erichson, 184
 * Polistes buyssoni Brèthes, 1909
 * Polistes callimorphus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes canadensis (Linnaeus, 1758)
 * Polistes canadensis borientalis Richards, 1978
 * Polistes canadensis canadensis (Linnaeus, 1758)
 * Polistes candidoi von Ihering, 1903
 * Polistes capnodes van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes capnodes capnodes van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes capnodes incomptus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes capnodes quadrifasciatus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes carnifex (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes carnifex boliviensis Bequaert, 1936
 * Polistes carnifex carnifex (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes carnifex carnifex Latreille, 1817
 * Polistes carolina (Linnaeus, 1767)
 * Polistes cavapyta de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes cavapytiformis Richards, 1978
 * Polistes chinensis (Fabricius, 1793)
 * Polistes chinensis antennalis Pérez, 1905
 * Polistes chinensis chinensis (Fabricius, 1793)
 * Polistes cinerascens de Saussure, 1854
 * Polistes claripennis Ducke, 1904
 * Polistes clavicornis van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes comanchus de Saussure, 1857
 * Polistes comanchus comanchus de Saussure, 1857
 * Polistes comanchus navajoe Cresson, 1868
 * Polistes communalis Nguyen, Vu, & Carpenter, 2017
 * Polistes consobrinus de Saussure, 1858
 * Polistes contrarius Cheesman, 1951
 * Polistes crinitus (Felton, 1765)
 * Polistes crinitus americanus (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes crinitus crinitus (Felton, 1765)
 * Polistes crinitus multicolor (Olivier, 1792)
 * Polistes cubensis Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes davillae Richards, 1978
 * Polistes dawnae Dover & Rao, 1922
 * Polistes deceptor Schulz, 1905
 * Polistes defectivus Gerstaecker, 1871
 * Polistes delhiensis Das & Gupta, 1984
 * Polistes diabolicus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes diakonovi Kostylev, 1940
 * Polistes dominicus (Vallot, 1802)
 * Polistes dominula (Christ, 1791)
 * Polistes dorsalis (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes dorsalis californicus Bohart, 1949
 * Polistes dorsalis clarionensis Bohart, 1949
 * Polistes dorsalis dorsalis (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes dorsalis maritimus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes dorsalis neotropicus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes ebsohinus Sonan, 1943
 * Polistes eburneus Bequaert, 1943
 * Polistes elegans Smith, 1859
 * Polistes ellenbergi du Buysson, 1908
 * Polistes ephippium Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes erythrinus Holmgren, 1868
 * Polistes erythrocephalus Latreille, 1813
 * Polistes exclamans Viereck, 1906
 * Polistes extraneus Kirby, 1883
 * Polistes facilis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes fastidiosus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes ferreri de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes flavobilineatus (Cameron, 1902)
 * Polistes flavus Cresson, 1868
 * Polistes foederatus Kohl, 1898
 * Polistes fordi van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes formosanus Sonan, 1927
 * Polistes franciscanus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes fuscatus (Fabricius, 1793)
 * Polistes gallicus (Linnaeus, 1767)
 * Polistes geminatus Fox, 1898
 * Polistes geminatus geminatus Fox, 1898
 * Polistes geminatus guyanensis Cameron, 1912
 * Polistes gigas (Kirby, 1826)
 * Polistes goeldii Ducke, 1904
 * Polistes haugi du Buysson, 1906
 * Polistes hebridensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes hebridensis erromangensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes hebridensis hebridensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes hebridensis malekulensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes hebridensis vilensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes helveticus Neumeyer, 2014
 * Polistes hirsuticornis Buck, 2012
 * Polistes horrendus Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes huacapistana Richards, 1978
 * Polistes huisunensis Kuo, 1987
 * Polistes humeralis Polašek, 2023
 * Polistes humilis (Fabricius, 1781)
 * Polistes humilis centrocontinentalis Giordani Soika, 1975
 * Polistes humilis humilis (Fabricius, 1781)
 * Polistes humilis synoecus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes incertus Cresson, 1865
 * Polistes indicus Stolfa, 1934
 * Polistes infuscatus Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes infuscatus anduzei Bequaert, 1943
 * Polistes infuscatus ecuadorius Richards, 1978
 * Polistes infuscatus infuscatus Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes infuscatus mariae Richards, 1978
 * Polistes infuscatus metensis Richards, 1978
 * Polistes instabilis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes intermedius Kojima, 1988
 * Polistes iranus Guiglia, 1976
 * Polistes japonicus de Saussure, 1858
 * Polistes jokahamae Radoszkowski, 1887
 * Polistes kaibabensis Hayward, 1932
 * Polistes khasianus Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes laevigatissimus Giordani Soika, 1975
 * Polistes lanio (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes lanio lanio (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes lanio satanulus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes lanio weberi Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes lateritius Smith, 1857
 * Polistes latinis Das & Gupta, 1984
 * Polistes legnotus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes lepcha Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes lineonotus Bohart, 1949
 * Polistes loveridgei Bequaert, 1938
 * Polistes lycus Cameron, 1901
 * Polistes macrocephalus Bequaert, 1918
 * Polistes madecassus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes madiburensis von Schulthess, 1921
 * Polistes major Palisot de Beauvois, 1818
 * Polistes major bonaccensis Bequaert, 1937
 * Polistes major castaneicolor Bequaert, 1936
 * Polistes major colombianus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes major major Palisot de Beauvois, 1818
 * Polistes major weyrauchi Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes mandarinus de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes maranonensis Willink, 1964
 * Polistes marginalis (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes marginalis baidoensis Giordani Soika, 1944
 * Polistes marginalis lindensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes marginalis marginalis (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes marginalis meruensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes maroccanus Schmid-Egger, 2017
 * Polistes meadeanus von Schulthess, 1913
 * Polistes melanopterus Cameron, 1911
 * Polistes melanosoma de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes melanotus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes mertoni du Buysson, 1913
 * Polistes metricus Say, 1831
 * Polistes mexicanus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes minor Palisot de Beauvois, 1818
 * Polistes mongolicus Buysson, 1911
 * Polistes moraballi Richards, 1951
 * Polistes myersi Bequaert, 1934
 * Polistes myersi curassavicus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes myersi myersi Bequaert, 1934
 * Polistes mysteriosus Bequaert, 1938
 * Polistes niger Brèthes, 1903
 * Polistes nigrifrons Smith, 1859
 * Polistes nigrifrons nigrifrons Smith, 1859
 * Polistes nigrifrons obdurus Cheesman, 1951
 * Polistes nigrifrons stotherti Meade-Waldo, 1916
 * Polistes nigritarsis Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes nimpha (Christ, 1791)
 * Polistes ninabamba Richards, 1978
 * Polistes nipponensis Pérez, 1905
 * Polistes notatipes Richards, 1978
 * Polistes obscurus de Saussure, 1863
 * Polistes occipitalis Ducke, 1904
 * Polistes occultus Kojima, 1988
 * Polistes oculatus Smith, 1857
 * Polistes olivaceus (DeGeer, 1773)
 * Polistes opacus Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes ornatus Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes pacificus Fabricius, 1804
 * Polistes palmarum Bequaert, 1936
 * Polistes paraguayensis Bertoni, 1921
 * Polistes parametricus Buck, 2012
 * Polistes penai Richards, 1978
 * Polistes penthicus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes penthicus ater Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes penthicus malaitensis van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes penthicus penthicus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes perflavus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes peruvianus Bequaert, 1934
 * Polistes philippinensis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes philippinensis funebris Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes philippinensis philippinensis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes poeyi Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes poeyi haitiensis Bequaert and Salt, 1931
 * Polistes poeyi poeyi Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes praenotatus Kohl, 1908
 * Polistes pseudoculatus Snelling, 1955
 * Polistes quadricingulatus Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes ridleyi Kirby, 1890
 * Polistes riekii Richards, 1978
 * Polistes riparius Yamane & Yamane, 1987
 * Polistes rossi Bohart, 1949
 * Polistes rothneyi Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes rothneyi carletoni van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi engeli van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi grahami van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi gressitti van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi hainanensis van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi helvenacus van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi ingrami van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi iwatai van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi koreanus van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi krombeini van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi quatei van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi robinsoni van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi rothneyi Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes rothneyi sikkimensis van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi tibetanus van der Vecht, 1968
 * Polistes rothneyi vechti Das and Gupta, 1984
 * Polistes rothneyi rothneyi Matsumura, 1911
 * Polistes rubellus Gusenleitner, 2006
 * Polistes rubiginosus Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes rufidens de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes rufiventris Ducke, 1904
 * Polistes rufodorsalis Yamane & Kusigemati, 1985
 * Polistes sagittarius de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes santoshae Das & Gupta, 1984
 * Polistes satan Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes saussurei Dalla Torre, 1894
 * Polistes schach (Fabricius, 1781)
 * Polistes semenowi Morawitz, 1889
 * Polistes semiflavus Holmgren, 1868
 * Polistes sgarambus Giordani Soika, 1975
 * Polistes shirakii Sonan, 1943
 * Polistes sikorae de Saussure, 1900
 * Polistes similis Das & Gupta, 1984
 * Polistes simillimus Zikán, 1951
 * Polistes simulatus Smith, 1860
 * Polistes simulatus halmaheirensis Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes simulatus morotaiensis Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes simulatus obiensis Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes simulatus simulatus Smith, 1860
 * Polistes smithii de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes smithii neavei von Schulthess, 1921
 * Polistes smithii smithii de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes snelleni de Saussure, 1862
 * Polistes stabilinus Richards, 1978
 * Polistes stenopus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes stenopus brandti van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes stenopus ganonganus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes stenopus manni van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes stenopus stenopus van der Vecht, 1972
 * Polistes stigma (Fabricius, 1793)
 * Polistes stigma alagari Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma bernardii Le Guillou, 1841
 * Polistes stigma dubius de Saussure, 1867
 * Polistes stigma galatheae Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma goestai Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma jani Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma maculipennis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes stigma madsi Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma manillensis de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes stigma nebulosus Yamane & Kusigemati, 1985
 * Polistes stigma novarae de Saussure, 1867
 * Polistes stigma papuanus Schulz, 1905
 * Polistes stigma pouli Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma sauiensis Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma stigma (Fabricius, 1793)
 * Polistes stigma svendi Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes stigma tamulus (Fabricius, 1798)
 * Polistes stigma townsvillensis Giordani Soika, 1975
 * Polistes stigma tualensis Petersen, 1987
 * Polistes strigosus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes strigosus atratus Das and Gupta, 1989
 * Polistes strigosus mimus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes strigosus strigosus Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes subsericeus de Saussure, 1854
 * Polistes takasagonus Sonan, 1943
 * Polistes tenebricosus Lepeletier, 1836
 * Polistes tenebris Nguyen & Lee 2017
 * Polistes tenellus du Buysson, 1905
 * Polistes tenellus lahejensis Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes tenellus minutissimus Giordani Soika, 1981
 * Polistes tenellus tenellus du Buysson, 1905
 * Polistes tenuispunctia Kim, 2001
 * Polistes tepidus (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes tepidus batjanensis Cameron, 1911
 * Polistes tepidus malayanus Cameron, 1906
 * Polistes tepidus manusensis Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes tepidus picteti de Saussure, 1853
 * Polistes tepidus speciosus du Buysson, 1913
 * Polistes tepidus tepidus (Fabricius, 1775)
 * Polistes tepidus theodori Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes testaceicolor Bequaert, 1937
 * Polistes thoracicus Fox, 1898
 * Polistes torresae Silveira, 1994
 * Polistes tristis Meade-Waldo, 1911
 * Polistes tullgreni Schulz, 1906
 * Polistes utakwae Meade-Waldo, 1916
 * Polistes variabilis (Fabricius, 1781)
 * Polistes veracrucis Richards, 1978
 * Polistes versicolor (Olivier, 1792)
 * Polistes versicolor flavoguttatus Bequaert, 1934
 * Polistes versicolor kaieteurensis Bequaert, 1934
 * Polistes versicolor versicolor (Olivier, 1792)
 * Polistes wattii Cameron, 1900
 * Polistes watutus Kojima, 1988
 * Polistes weyrauchorum Willink, 1964
 * Polistes williamsi Petersen, 1990
 * Polistes xanthogaster Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes xanthogaster willei Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes xanthogaster xanthogaster Bequaert, 1940
 * Polistes xantholeucus van der Vecht, 1984

Pest status

Along with the German and common wasps, the Asian and Australian paper wasps (P. chinensis and P. humilis) are considered pests in New Zealand. Arriving in 1979, the Asian paper wasp has established itself in both the North Island and the northern parts of the South Island. Because it competes with native species (such as the kaka) for insects, nectar, and honeydew, it is a hindrance to conservation efforts.

In North America, the introduced European species Polistes dominula has rapidly colonized a significant area, and is considered an invasive pest. It is a concern for cherry and grape growers in British Columbia, as it injures the fruit by biting off the skin. It also spreads yeast and fungi that harm fruit and can be a nuisance to workers and pickers at harvest. There is evidence it has also displaced native paper wasp species by outcompeting them.

Parasites
Various other insects are parasites or parasitoids of Polistes, including flies (e.g., Sarcophagidae), mantispids, and wasps in the families Torymidae, Mutillidae (rarely), Braconidae, and Ichneumonidae (e.g. Latibulus argiolus). Some more specialized groups are more intimately associated with Polistes; this includes strepsipterans in the family Stylopidae (genus Xenos), wasps of the genus Elasmus (formerly placed in their own family, "Elasmidae"), and wasps in the family Trigonalidae.

The nests of many species of this wasp genus are invaded by the parasitoid caterpillars of the moth Chalcoela iphitalis which feed on the wasp larvae and pupas at night, spinning their cocoons in empty cells.

Within the subgenus Polistes are four known social obligate parasites: P. atrimandibularis, P. austroccidentalis, P. maroccanus, and P. semenowi, which parasitize other Polistes wasps. Known host species of these parasites are P. dominulus, P. gallicus, P. nimphus, P. associus, and P. biglumis. Although these parasites differ in their host invasion strategies, their end goal is to successfully infiltrate the host nest and reproduce at the host's expense.

title: Polistes


text:
Sunglass Hut

Sunglass Hut is an international retailer of sunglasses and sunglass accessories founded in Miami, Florida, United States, in 1971. Sunglass Hut is part of the Italian-based Luxottica Group, the world’s largest eyewear company.

As of December 31, 2008, the Luxottica Group operated 2,286 stores around the world, most of those as part of the Sunglass Hut brand.

Sunglass Hut stores are located in India, the United States, Mexico, Canada, the Caribbean, Brazil, continental Europe, the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong, Singapore, South Africa and the Middle East.

History
The first Sunglass Hut store opened in 1971 when optometrist Sanford L. Ziff set up in a freestanding kiosk in Miami's Dadeland Mall. The success of this kiosk prompted Ziff to open other Sunglass Hut locations in Miami, and by 1986, Ziff had opened approximately 100 Sunglass Hut outlets, achieving sales of $24 million a year.

In 1986 Ziff sold a 75% stake in Sunglass Hut to Connecticut investment firm Kidd, Kamm & Co. for $35 million. Ziff retained the company’s existing management team and shifted part ownership to his son, Dean. Following the partial acquisition, the business was incorporated under the name Sunglass Hut International, Inc. Ziff retired from Sunglass Hut in 1989. He and his family retained a 25 percent stake in the business, but were no longer involved in its day-to-day operation. They retained the stake until 1991, when the company's annual sales surpassed $100 million, and the Ziff family sold the portion of Sunglass Hut that remained in their control.

In 1993, Sunglass Hut International, Inc. became a public company, with an initial public offering of US$70-million,

Sunglass Hut entered eCommerce when it added the ability to purchase sunglasses to its US website.

In February 2001, the Luxottica Group acquired Sunglass Hut, paying US$653 million including debt and taking possession of 1,300 Sunglass Hut stores, 430 Sunglass Hut-Watch Station combination stores, and 228 stores that operated under either the Watch Station or Watch World banner.

Under Luxottica's control, Sunglass Hut repositioned its brand identity to emphasize the fashion of the sunglasses it sold. The repositioning began in 2003.

The Watch Station International chain was sold to Fossil Inc. in December 2007.

Stores and locations
Sunglass Hut operates 2,000 retail outlets in 20 countries: 1,562 in North America, 157 in Australia, 44 in New Zealand, 15 in Asia, 123 in South Africa, 81 in the United Kingdom and Ireland, 33 in the Middle East, and 35 in India. , it is the most common store in American shopping malls.

Sunglass Hut store types include normal retail stores and shopping centre kiosks, retailers in airports, hotels and outlet centres, and premium "global" stores. Sunglass Hut has entered into a partnership with Macy’s to open stores within their department stores.

Sunglass Hut stores have opened in Australia, China, Thailand, Lebanon, India, the United Arab Emirates, Czech Republic, Bahrain and Saudi Arabia. In 2011, they continued to grow within Central and South America, opening up stores in Mexico and Brazil.

title: Sunglass Hut


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King of the Ring

King and Queen of the Ring, formerly and still commonly known as King of the Ring, is a professional wrestling event produced by WWE, a Connecticut-based professional wrestling promotion. The event was established in 1993 and centers on the men's King of the Ring tournament, which had been established in 1985, and beginning in 2024, the women's Queen of the Ring tournament, which was established in 2021 and originally known as the Queen's Crown tournament.

The King of the Ring event was originally established in 1993 and was held annually in June as a pay-per-view (PPV) event. During the event's original run as a PPV, it was considered one of the promotion's five biggest events of the year, along with the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Five". The 2002 event was the final King of the Ring produced as a PPV. To coincide with the brand extension introduced earlier that same year, the 2002 event featured wrestlers from both the Raw and SmackDown brand divisions. In 2003, the event's PPV slot was replaced by Bad Blood.

The tournament endured a four-year hiatus until its return in 2006 as an exclusive tournament for wrestlers of the SmackDown brand. Instead of a dedicated PPV, however, this tournament concluded at that year's Judgment Day. While subsequent tournaments were periodically held as a non-PPV event and included WWE's other brands, the conclusion to the 2015 tournament was livestreamed exclusively as an event on the WWE Network and also occurred when a brand extension was not in effect; the brand split was then reintroduced in 2016. While the tournaments continued to be held periodically, the event itself was to be revived in May 2023 and rebranded as "King and Queen of the Ring" to incorporate the women's tournament; however, these plans were scrapped as WWE instead held a revived Night of Champions. The rebranded "King and Queen of the Ring" event that was intended for 2023 was rescheduled for May 2024 in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. This will be the first King of the Ring event since 2015, the first to air on traditional PPV since 2002, the first held outside of the United States, as well as the first dedicated event for the women's tournament, which was renamed to Queen of the Ring for its 2024 return.

History
The King of the Ring tournament is a men's single-elimination tournament in which the winner is crowned the "King of the Ring". The tournament was established in 1985 by the then-World Wrestling Federation (WWF) and was held annually until 1991, with the exception of 1990. These early tournaments were held as special non-televised house shows in an effort to boost attendance at these events.

In 1993, the WWF began to produce an annual June pay-per-view (PPV) event titled King of the Ring. The inaugural PPV took place on June 13, 1993, at the Nutter Center in Dayton, Ohio. Unlike the previous non-televised events, the PPV did not feature all of the tournament's matches. Instead, several of the qualifying matches preceded the event with the final few matches then taking place at the pay-per-view. There were also other matches that took place at the event as it was a traditional three-hour pay-per-view. The King of the Ring event was considered one of the promotion's "Big Five" PPVs of the year, along with the Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, up until its disestablishment after the 2002 event —it was the only event of the five to never be hosted at least once at Madison Square Garden. In 2003, the event's PPV slot was replaced by Bad Blood.

In early 2002, the WWF was renamed World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) following a lawsuit from the World Wildlife Fund over the "WWF" initialism. Also around this time, the promotion introduced the brand extension, in which the roster was divided between the Raw and SmackDown! brands where wrestlers were exclusively assigned to perform. The 2002 tournament and PPV was in turn held for wrestlers from both brands.

After a four-year hiatus, the tournament returned in 2006 and was held exclusively for wrestlers from the SmackDown! brand. Unlike the previous years, however, there was not an associated pay-per-view. Instead, tournament matches took place across episodes of SmackDown! with the finale being held at Judgment Day. While WWE continued to periodically hold the tournament across their other programs, the semifinals and final of the 2015 tournament aired exclusively as an event on WWE's online streaming service, the WWE Network, which launched in February 2014. This 2015 tournament also occurred when the brand extension was not in effect; the brand split was reinstated in 2016.

In October 2022, Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter reported that WWE was planning to resurrect the King of the Ring event in 2023 to replace the Hell in a Cell event. This was officially confirmed by WWE on March 6, 2023, with the company announcing that the event would be rebranded as "King and Queen of the Ring" to incorporate the women's Queen's Crown tournament that was established in 2021. This would have seen the event's return to PPV, in addition to airing on WWE's livestreaming platforms. It was scheduled for May 27, 2023, and would have been the ninth event that WWE held in Saudi Arabia in support of Saudi Vision 2030. However, on April 13, it was revealed that WWE decided to scrap the revival and would instead hold Night of Champions, thus reviving the Night of Champions event. According to Mike Johnson of PWInsider, the decision to change the event to Night of Champions was a creative choice to revive and bring that event to an international market. Fightful later reported that WWE did not have plans to reschedule King and Queen of the Ring for later that year, but the event could possibly be used for a future Saudi show. In April 2024, WWE announced that they would hold the King and Queen of the Ring event in Saudi Arabia in May 2024, thus being the 11th event in the Saudi Arabian partnership. The women's tournament was also renamed as Queen of the Ring, with this also being the first dedicated event for the women's tournament.

title: King of the Ring


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List of royal families on the Arabian Peninsula in the 20th century

This is a list of royal families on the Arabian Peninsula in the 20th century.
 * Bahrain (independent since 1971): House of Khalifa (Al Khalifah).
 * Hejaz (1916–1925): Hashemites (Al Hashim).
 * Idrisid Emirate of Asir (1908–1934): Idrisid dynasty.
 * Jabal Shammar (1836–1921): House of Rashīd (Rasheed, Rashidi): historical Arabian dynasty ruling Hail, northern Nejd.
 * Kuwait: House of Sabah (Al Sabah).
 * Oman: House of Busaid (Al Bu Said).
 * Saudi Arabia: House of Saud (Al Saud).
 * Qatar (independent since 1971): House of Thani (Al Thani), originally bedouin from Nejd.
 * House of Al-Daweesh the ruling branch of the Mutayr tribe ruled Najd for a time
 * United Arab Emirates (Trucial States until 1971) – royal families:
 * Abu Dhabi: House of Nahyan (Al Nahyan).
 * Ajman: House of Nuaimi (Al Nuaimi).
 * Dubai: House of Maktoum (Al Maktoum).
 * Fujairah: House of Sharqi (Al Sharqi).
 * Ras Al Khaimah and Sharjah: House of Qasimi (Al Qasimi).
 * Umm Al Quwain: House of Mualla (Al Mualla).

 * Yemen:
 * Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967): see "House" under "Federation of South Arabia § List of rulers". Abolished in 1967 and replaced by the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (South Yemen; Aden).
 * Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen (1918–1970): the Rass House (al-Rassi), abolished in 1970 after being defeated by the Yemen Arab Republic (North Yemen, Sanaa) in the North Yemen Civil War (1962–1970).


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Theosebia

Theosebia (Θεοσέβεια Theosebeia), also known as Theosebia the Deaconess, was a 4th-century Christian leader, who is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church. As a saint she is referred to as Blessed Theosebia the Deaconess.

Life
Her life and identification is ambiguous: her years of birth and death are uncertain (probably subsequent to 381). However, she is thought to have played an important role in the church in Nyssa, where she was called diakonissa, the deaconess or wife of a deacon.

Gregory Nazianzen wrote a letter of condolence on her death to Gregory of Nyssa in which Gregory Nazianzen mentioned "your sister Theosebia" and "true yoke-fellow of a priest". Hither comes the ambiguity of her identification. Some historians supposed Theosebia was the wife of Gregory of Nyssa, others suppose she was one of his sisters like Macrina the Younger. If so, then Theosebia was the sister of Basil the Great as well.

Gregory of Nyssa—unlike the other Cappadocian Fathers—was married, according to his own testimony in his work On Virginity that he could not benefit from the subject of his own work. This, combined with Nazianzen's statement that Theosebia was buried by the other Gregory in the aforementioned letter, suggest that she was indeed either Gregory of Nyssa's wife or sister, whose funeral he would have been obliged to oversee.

The St Theosevia Centre for Christian Spirituality is in Oxford. Donald Allchin was director of the centre from 1987 to 1994.

The Cappadocian Gregory of Nazianzus wrote to Gregory of Nyssa about Theosebia, “the pride of the church, the ornament of Christ, the finest of our generation, the free speech of women, Theosebia, the most illustrious among the brethren, outstanding in beauty of soul. Theosebia, truly a priestly personage, the colleague of a priest, equally honored and worthy of the great sacraments."

title: Theosebia


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Jack Masters

John Gerald Masters (born John Gerald Mastrangelo, 27 September 1931 – 5 January 2024) was a Canadian politician. He served as mayor of the city of Thunder Bay, Ontario, and as a federal Member of Parliament.

Biography
John Gerald Mastrangelo was born in Fort William, Ontario on 27 September 1931. He was elected to the House of Commons of Canada as a Liberal for the constituency of Thunder Bay—Nipigon in the 1980 federal election and served as the parliamentary secretary to the Minister of State (Mines) and the Minister of Communications in the final government of Pierre Trudeau. He was defeated in the 1984 federal election by Ernie Epp. Masters died in Thunder Bay on 5 January 2024, at the age of 92.

title: Jack Masters


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Gainesville High School

Gainesville High School is the name of several high schools in the United States:

 * Gainesville High School (Florida)
 * Gainesville High School (Georgia)
 * Gainesville High School (Missouri), Gainesville, Missouri
 * Gainesville High School (Texas)
 * Gainesville High School (Virginia)

title: Gainesville High School


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OPSM

OPSM (Optical Prescription Spectacle Makers) is a retailer of eye glasses in Australia and New Zealand, with locations in Hong Kong, Singapore, and Malaysia. It is owned by EssilorLuxottica, a French-Italian eyewear conglomerate.

OPSM's CEO since October 2020 is Matteo Accornero.

History
OPSM was founded in Sydney in 1932, and was floated on the Australian Securities Exchange in 1962. In May 2001, OPSM sold its Protector Safety Supply Group to Howard Smith. Luxottica acquired a controlling interest in 2003 and in February 2005, OPSM was delisted from the Australian Securities Exchange.

In 2010, OPSM opened the Eye Hub concept store in the Melbourne suburb of Hawthorn, blending optometry and ophthalmology into one practice. As to 2018, it operated 330 stores and 41 franchises.

Laubman & Pank
Laubman & Pank became at one stage the largest eye care business in Australia. It began operations in 1908 with two optometrists deciding to set up their own business. The group was acquired by OPSM in 2001 and is now run by Luxottica, the world's biggest eye care and eye wear conglomerate. Laubman & Pank has 38 stores in Australia.

Hong Kong
OPSM acquired The Optical Centre from Michael Miu in 2002. At that time OPSM also owned another Hong Kong based chain The Optical Shop (known in Chinese under the brand ). Nowadays Luxottica group runs the Hong Kong chain under dual-brand LensCrafters. It also used the brand Sunglass Hut.

title: OPSM


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Wilhelm von Kaulbach

Wilhelm von Kaulbach (15 October 1805 – 7 April 1874) was a German painter, noted mainly as a muralist, but also as a book illustrator. His murals decorate buildings in Munich. He is associated with the Düsseldorf school of painting.

Education
He was born in Bad Arolsen, Waldeck. His father combined painting and engraving with the goldsmith's trade. The family was so poor that he and his sister were glad to accept even stale bread from the peasantry in exchange for the father's engravings. This is said to have suggested to him his earliest work, The Fall of Manna in the Wilderness. But means were found to place Wilhelm, a youth of seventeen, in the Düsseldorf Academy of Fine Arts, to which the sculptor Rauch had obtained him admission. The academy was then becoming renowned under the directorship of Peter von Cornelius, of whom he became a distinguished pupil. Young Kaulbach contended against hardships, even hunger. But his courage never failed and, uniting genius with industry, he was soon foremost among the young national party which sought to revive the arts of Germany.

Munich murals

The ambitious work by which Ludwig I of Bavaria sought to transform Munich into a German Athens afforded the young painter an appropriate sphere. Cornelius had been commissioned to execute the enormous frescoes in the Glyptothek, and his custom was in the winters, with the aid of Kaulbach and others, to complete the cartoons at Düsseldorf, and in the summers, accompanied by his best pupils, to carry out the designs in colour on the museum walls in Munich. In 1824 Cornelius became director of the Munich Academy of Fine Arts. Kaulbach, not yet twenty, followed, took up his permanent residence in Munich, worked hard on the public works, executed independent commissions, and in 1849, when Cornelius left for Berlin, succeeded to the directorship of the academy, an office which he held till his death.

Kaulbach matured, after the example of the masters of the Middle Ages, the practice of mural or monumental decoration; he once more conjoined painting with architecture, and displayed a creative fertility and readiness of resource scarcely found since the era of Raphael and Michelangelo. Under the direction of Cornelius, he designed (1825–1828) many frescoes for the new buildings at Munich, including "Apollo and the Muses", for the ceiling of the Odeon; designs from Klopstock's Battle of Hermann", and from Goethe's and Wieland's poems, for the royal palace; purely classical illustrations of the story of Amor and Psyche, for the palace of Duke Max; and many allegorical figures for the arcades of the palace garden.

Early in the series of his multitudinous works came the famous Narrenhaus, the appalling memories of a certain madhouse near Düsseldorf; the composition all the more deserves mention for points of contact with Hogarth. Somewhat to the same category belong the illustrations to Reineke Fuchs. After Narrenhaus, his next great work, the Battle of the Huns, or Spectre Battle, representing the legend of the continued combat in mid-air between the spirits of the Huns and of Romans who had fallen before the walls of Rome, exhibited on the largest scale his talent for the symbolical and allegorical. Count Raczynski commissioned him to paint the work in sepia, and he finished it in 1837. The king of Saxony now offered him the direction of the academy of Dresden, with a salary of 2,000 thalers; but Kaulbach preferred to remain in Munich, although he received only 800 florins from the king of Bavaria.

These works, together with occasional figures or passages in complex pictorial dramas, show how dominant and irrepressible were the artists sense of satire and enjoyment of fun; character in its breadth and sharpness is depicted with keenest relish, and at times the sardonic smile bursts into the loudest laugh. Thus occasionally the grotesque degenerates into the vulgar, the grand into the ridiculous, as in the satire on "The Pigtail Age", a fresco outside the New Pinakothek. Yet these exceptional extravagances came not of weakness but from excess of power. Kaulbach tried hard to become Grecian and Italian; but he never reached Phidias or Raphael; in short the blood of Dürer, Holbein and Martin Schöngauer ran strong in his veins. The art products in Munich during the middle of the 19th century were of a quantity to preclude first-rate quality, and Kaulbach contracted a fatal facility in covering wall and canvas by the acre.

History of Mankind

Having hitherto worked almost exclusively in fresco, he spent some time in Venice and a year in Rome to prepare himself for painting the cartoon in oil for the new Pinakothek, completing it in 1846. About the same time he commenced his famous designs illustrative of the history of mankind for the Neues Museum at Berlin, which were executed by his pupils and completed in 1860. They consist of six frescoes, representing The Tower of Babel, Homer and the Greeks, The Destruction of Jerusalem, The Battle of the Huns (Hunnenschlacht—a painting that inspired the 1857 symphonic poem Hunnenschlacht by Liszt), The Crusaders at the gates of Jerusalem, and The Age of the Reformation.  The Destruction of Jerusalem was a copy of an earlier oil painting, much admired by Friedrich Wilhelm I of Prussia, which was by then already in the collection of Ludwig I of Bavaria.

These major tableaux, severally 30 feet long, and each comprising over one hundred figures above life-size, were surrounded by minor compositions making more than twenty in all. The idea was to congregate around the world's historic dramas the prime agents of civilization; thus here were assembled allegoric figures of Architecture and other arts, of Science and other kingdoms of knowledge, together with lawgivers from the time of Moses, not forgetting Frederick the Great. The chosen situation for this imposing didactic and theatric display was the Treppenhaus or grand staircase in the Neues Museum, Berlin; the surface was a granulated, absorbent wall, specially prepared; the technical method was that known as "water-glass," or "liquid flint," the infusion of silica securing permanence. The same medium was adopted in the later murals in the Palace of Westminster. The staircase was severely damaged during the Second World War, and only traces of Kaulbach's work remain.

His perspicuous and showy manner also gained him abundant occupation as a book illustrator. Among his engraved designs are the Shakespeare gallery, the Goethe gallery and a folio edition of the Gospels. With regard to these examples of the Munich school, it was asserted that Kaulbach had been unfortunate alike in having found Cornelius for a master and King Ludwig for a patron, that he attempted subjects far beyond him, believing that his admiration for them was the same as inspiration; and supplied the lack of real imagination by a compound of intellect and fancy. Nevertheless, in such compositions as the Destruction of Jerusalem and the Battle of the Huns, Kaulbach shows creative imagination. As a dramatic poet he tells the story, depicts character, seizes on action and situation, and thus as it were takes the spectator by storm. The manner may be occasionally noisy and ranting, but the effect after its kind is tremendous. The cartoon, which, as usual in German art of the time, is superior to the ultimate picture, was executed in the artist's prime at the age of thirty. At this period, as here seen, the knowledge was little short of absolute; subtle is the sense of beauty; playful, delicate, firm the touch; the whole treatment artistic.

Late work

The painter's last period brings no new departure; his ultimate works stand conspicuous by exaggerations of early characteristics. The series of designs illustrative of Goethe, which had an immense success, were melodramatic and pandered to popular taste. The vast canvas, more than 30 ft. long, the Sea Fight at Salamis, painted for the Maximilianeum, Munich, evinces wonted imagination and facility in composition; the handling also retains its largeness and vigour; but in this astounding scenic uproar moderation and the simplicity of nature are thrown to the winds, and the whole atmosphere is hot and feverish.

His fervent Protestantism – which alienated him in the latter part of his life from Cornelius, who was as decided a Catholic – is most strongly expressed in his Don Pedro de Arbuez, the Inquisitor, which, appearing at the time of the ecumenical council (1869-70), produced a great sensation, and gave rise to many controversies. Shortly hefore his death he was at work upon a large cartoon of The Deluge; and he had finished his St. Michael, the Patron Saint of Germany, in the garb of a heavenly messenger with a radiant air of triumph, and with Napoleon III and his son and several Jesuits cowering at his feet.

A trace has shown that he lived at Obere Garten Gasse 16½ in Munich around 1850. Kaulbach was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1870. He died on 7 April 1874 in Munich and is buried there in the Alter Südfriedhof. His son Hermann (1846–1909) also became a distinguished painter.

Style
Kaulbach's style was eclectic; in the Age of Homer the types and the treatment are derived from Greek marbles and vases; then in the Tower of Babel the severity of the antique gives place to the suavity of the Italian Renaissance; while in the Crusades the composition is let loose into modern Romanticism, and so the manner descends into the midst of the 20th century. And yet this scholastically compounded art is so nicely adjusted and smoothly blended that it casts off all incongruity and becomes homogeneous as the issue of one mind. But the public craved change; and so in later years Kaulbach's popularity declined, and he had to witness, not without inquietude, the rise of an opposing party of naturalism and realism. He is perhaps best known for his unusual representation of death, destruction and madness.

title: Wilhelm von Kaulbach


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HMAS Shepparton

Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Shepparton, after the city of Shepparton, Victoria.

 * HMAS Shepparton (J248), a Bathurst-class corvette launched in 1942 and sold for scrap in 1958
 * HMAS Shepparton (A 03), a Paluma-class survey vessel launched in 1989 and active as of 2016

Battle honours
Ships named HMAS Shepparton are entitled to carry two battle honours:
 * Pacific 1943
 * New Guinea 1943–44

title: HMAS Shepparton