text:
Talk:Atmospheric circulation

Conservation of energy
"The poleward movement of the air in the upper part of the troposphere deviates toward the east due to the coriolis acceleration (a manifestation of conservation of energy). "

The parenthesis makes little sense. The Coriolis effect has very little to do with conservation of energy. Conservation of momentum perhaps, but really that parenthesis should just be removed. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.129.91.130 (talk) 05:51, 9 December 2016 (UTC)

naive reader question
One feature of the evening weather reports in the U.S. that is obvious to the naive viewer (me) is that fronts move from west to east. On another discussion page I asked why and was answered "Coriolis effect". I did skim that article and the present one. In a vague way I guess I see why but I would like to see the question addressed directly in a separate early section. I suspect that I am not the only one who would appreciate a full treatment.

naive reader   —Preceding unsigned comment added by 128.241.111.27 (talk) 23:07, 15 April 2008 (UTC)

March 2004 changes
(William M. Connolley 20:54, 2004 Mar 10 (UTC)) I want to make some major-ish changes to this page and a set of linked atmos pages. Just for a novelty, I thought I'd discuss them first...

There are several pages (this one; Hadley cell, wind, perhaps others) all of which have partial descriptions of the atmospheric circulation on them. I think that they should be unified, probably here, and some text stripped from those pages (not all, of course).

 * I would prefer not to see these pages blended. The problem is not that there is anything intrinsically wrong with this, but rather that as it stands, Wikipedia will not do a partial title search and has no effective index. Until those issues are resolved, I believe individual topics should stand as such. Moreover, topics such as 'Wind' are only peripherally related to 'Atmospheric circulation', and in the same way that I would find separate articles for 'hydrological cycle' and 'rain', so too ought 'wind' exist so as to discuss the finer points of advection.

 * (William M. Connolley 19:27, 2004 Mar 12 (UTC)) I've had a bit of a rethink on this. What I shall (probably) do now is to write my own page with what I want on it and see where that fits.

But also: I think there are several problems with the existing text, which needs mods: in particular:

 * The ocean transports heat too
 * Indeed. And I agree mention ought be made of that. However, I have very little knowledge of the exact nature of the ocean/atmosphere interaction except for a few special cases such as Walker circulation/ENSO/etc which have captured my imagination, and rather than just add a sentence which says "And oh, by the way, the ocean is involved too" without explaining further, I felt more comfortable in saying nothing at all.
 * OK, I shall do something then.

 * There is a load of fractal stuff in the intro to atmos circ. Firstly, this stuff is of marginal relevance: on the large aggregated scale the atmos cicr *isn't* fractal. Secondly, it isn't even true on the micro/mesoscale. The exact location of an individual cloud is *random* but on the large scale the convection is organised into patterns - not random at all. See various satellite piccies (err, I'll find one if you doubt this). And soup is the same: you tend to get a pattern of hexagonal cells. *But* this is second-order stuff: not the large scale.
 * Agreed, and no reluctance to accept changes. The main point here was that even short-term meteorological change is not predictable, and it is within chaos theory that we find the reason why.
 * OK, I'll "refactor" (Ed Poors phrase) that bit a bit then.

 * "It is a closed circulation loop, which begins at the equator with warm, moist air lifted aloft as an equatorial low pressure areas" needs rephrasing: the ascent *causes* the low pressure.
 * Again, I agree. Ascent --> low is a fundamental assumption, and I guess the wording there needs to be looked at.

 * "Some of the descending air travels equatorially" is inconsistent with the description of it as a closed cell - it needs to be all, or its not closed...
 * I'm inclined to disagree here, in the sense that I don't agree that the Hadley cell is truly closed. First, there is mixing in the subsidence zones, and while I've not seen hard data to indicate the extent, I would assume it to be measurable. (I would also note that the Nuclear Winter models of several years back show ready hemispheric mixing, with the primary mixing barrier being the ITCZ. Moreover, I found a curious lack of consensus in which way upper airflow at the Rossby/Ferrel cells travelled. I must have looked at a dozen diagrams and summaries; there was an even split between those sources which showed the upper Ferrel flow as poleward (ie, the Hadley cell contributing), and those which showed the flow moving toward the equator. Since all sources are in agreement that the Ferrel cell is a secondary circulation feature, I prefer the more conservative perspective that airflow in this region is consistent with standard models, which would have air descending at the Horse Latitudes and ascending at the Polar front.
 * I think the Ferrel cell is actually quite hard to understand. I'm planning to research this a bit before writing about it :-)

 * Phrases such as "the rising air masses contact the tropopause at about 8 km and move along its underside toward the poles" are too simplistic: this implies air moving at the tropopause and along the surface but not in the mid-atmosphere, which is wrong.
 * I agree that the wording can lead to that conclusion. I encourage you to modify it to eliminate the sense of an inert mid-atmosphere.
 * OK

 * "It can be argued that the Polar cell is the primary weathermaker for regions above the middle northern latitudes" - hmm, sounds wrong. Not for midlatitudes, surely?
 * Surely! At least in North America. Considering 45°N as the center of the mid-latitude zone, we see that it takes in the northern tier, but no more, of the American states, and contains all of Canada. In summer, this zone's weather is almost entirely the result of activity along the polar front, and in winter, that zone drops even further south. There are times during our winter when the entire nation is north of the polar front, yet at roughly the same latitude as Glasgow, I hardly consider my town northerly.
 * Oh great, I missed "above" in the text I quoted. So you're right.

Thats enough nitpicking to be going on with...
 * I'm always willing to pick a nit or two.Denni

Fractal stuff
Took a look at the changes - the article continues to look good. I remember why I included the fractal stuff. I'm sure you appreciate that fractal ≠ random. Quite the opposite, AAMOF. The point here was to help readers understand the large atmospheric movements by relating them to something human-sized. And, in fact, exactly the same rules of physics apply at the mesoscale as at the microscale. Denni 23:41, 2004 Mar 14 (UTC)

See Air mass
William, you might want to have a go at Air mass - now there's a sad little page that really needs a hand. I'll watch it for a while; if you decide not to tackle it, I'll give it a little help. Denni 05:11, 2004 Mar 15 (UTC)

 * (William M. Connolley 23:03, 2004 Mar 15 (UTC)) Tonight I seem to be busy uploading pics of Stephenson's rocket I took last weekend... so the science will have to wait a day or two.

Does the Ferrel cell exist?
A new page, Ferrel cell is currently up on VfD. It is by an anon who says Ferrel cells do not exist. I am copying the current contents of this page to Talk:Atmospheric circulation/Ferrel cell critique to preserve it for discussion here. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 15:58, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Oh, and please, by all means, anyone knowledgeable in this area please join the VfD discussion at Votes_for_deletion/Ferrel_cell. [[User:Dpbsmith|Dpbsmith (talk)]] 16:01, 16 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I am the author of the original article on atmospheric circulation, and did considerable research in preparing this article. Either the vast majority of climatologists is wrong, or the Ferrel cell exists. It is not clearly defined, since it is a secondary circulation feature, but it unambiguously occupies the space between the Hadley cell and the Polar cell, both of which have clearly defined boundaries. The Ferrel cell acts as kind of an "idle gear" between them, and, given that the Earth's circulation pattern is a closed system, is required to exist to balance the forces at work. Denni ☯ 00:51, 2004 Sep 17 (UTC)

 * Added some text on Ferrel cell, agree that it's a secondary feature, which at many times is cut by Siberian or North American Highs.

Polar cell?
I find myself dubious about the contents of the polar cell bit. Over Antarctica, at least, I think that the bulk of the circulation in this cell is katabatic driven... I might even find a pic to prove this. Not sure about the north William M. Connolley 20:45, 25 June 2006 (UTC)

Fallout hot air rises
How would the prevailing winds distribute nuclear fallout if Iran were attacked? Iran is situated in the area of the 30 parallel where air is generally sinking. However, nuclear fallout would be very hot and have a tendency to rise until it is cooled. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.139.33.158 (talk • contribs) 21:08, 7 January 2007

 * This is probably too difficult topic for you.

Coriolis strongest
Just a drive-by edit. I removed "In addition, the coriolis force is strongest in the region where the Ferrel cell is" since this is apropos of nothing and is incorrect as well.

Lkeiner 04:07, 20 March 2007 (UTC)

Orographic circulations?
Nice longitudinal and latitudinal, how about a section on orographic circulations? -- Anonymous 14:23, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

High pressure at Horse Latitudes
I read from several sources stating that there is a high pressure at Horse Latitudes. It stops the flow of aloft warm air of the Hadley cell. It also causes winds blow towards the poles at the surface, known as the Westerlies.

However, I cannot find why there is always a high pressure at Horse Latitudes. Normally locations nearer the equator would be warmer and thus there is a low pressure, just like Hadley cell and polar cell. Why is it different for Horse Latitudes? I think it is important and should be included in the article. Does anyone know the answer? Salt 10:04, 24 May 2007 (UTC)

Atmospheric circulation on other planets
I think there should be a section about this, but when I added some stuff, it got reverted. - J kasd  15:47, 9 April 2008 (UTC) Again, I think it would be useful to have more information about this here; the atmosphere page is about atmospheres in general, and the circulation section there that links to here mentions Jupiter. Any other opinions?  J kasd  00:34, 24 April 2008 (UTC)

AtmosphCirc2.png is blank
This image is black on my Windows XP Pro notebook computer. It shows no detail at all when clicked on, and probably needs to be replaced.

uriel8  (talk)  19:49, 17 January 2009 (UTC)

Number of Cells
Is there any explanation as to why there are three cells in each hemisphere? Why not four or five? Is there something special about +/- 30 and +/- 60 that leads to these divisions? 128.100.76.35 (talk) 21:25, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

Merge with Prevailing Winds
This article is talking essentially about the same phenomenon as Prevailing winds and therefore a merger of two articles should be considered.

abhishek singh (talk) 00:58, 7 March 2011 (UTC)
 * Not really. Atmospheric circulation is three dimensional, talking about vertical winds and winds aloft, while prevailing winds are only talking about surface winds which prevail at certain locations on the Earth's surface.  That means that the Prevailing winds article is a subarticle of this one.  If there was no difference or hierarchy involved, prevailing winds would win hands down since it is GA, and this one is Start class.  My vote for merger would be NO.  Thegreatdr (talk) 23:10, 16 July 2011 (UTC)

Hadley cell diagram needs work
In the Hadley cell diagram, the surface flows appear to be blue on the globe, but red in the cell diagram at the edge. That is extremely confusing. You may be trying to say something about heat transport, but it doesn't work. Burressd (talk) 20:48, 11 December 2011 (UTC)

External links modified
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Polar Easterlies
There is a discussion that the polar easterlies should be included in the section for atmosperic circulation, my experience has been that this is an important part of our atmospheric circulation between the months of September and February when the atmospheric pressure drops in the United States I am still doing research on this any input would be helpful.

C. A. Levingston 19:36, 6 October 2016 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Caleving (talk • contribs)

External links modified
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Inconsistent colour coding on "An idealised view of three large circulation cells showing surface winds"
Hello: the colour coding on the illustration "An idealised view of three large circulation cells showing surface winds" is misleading. For example, while the easterly wind aloft in the Hadley cell is colour-coded light blue, the same colour is used for its surface "counterpart", the westerly wind on the map. This is confusing, somehow in contrast also with the accompanying text (though no color reference is given there). Moreover, the colours used are typically coding cold and warm temperature, which does not seem to be case here (or is it?). As a scientist with experience in presentation of scientific concepts (although not in meteorology), I would correct this.(Lot56 (talk) 11:31, 20 January 2019 (UTC))

Awful
I am sure a lot of work has gone into this awfully bad article. But a quick look shows some serious problems. First, the first image showing the 3 cells (6 for both N & S latitudes) is simply bad. The list of problems is long: What the heck are the red lines supposed to be indicating? Why is there a small red oval between the Hadley & Mid-lat cells? What does the little red arrow pointing from the Hadley to the ML cells mean? Why does the red line (at about 30 N) drop almost straight down towards ground then rise into a loop-de-loop (a loop on top of a loop, a figure 8) near the edge of the polar cell? Why does the line again drop nearly vertically and then slowly rise inside the polar cell? Why does it appear to collide with itself in the polar cell? I am not asking questions because I want to know the answers but rather to point out how confusing, unclear, and irrelevant these red lines are. Surely anyone with average vision can see that the cells in the eastern half are elevated above the Earth's surface (in the diagram) while in the west they're not. Is that meaningful? What is below them? Why does the entire Hadley cell appear to be at a higher altitude than the other two cells? The southern HC drops at 30 S and logically the diagram shows the ML cell rising there, but the red line in the north suggests that's not the case there. There are a series of light-yellow lines which *might* be taken to be either surface winds (what ever that means) or E-W wind atmospheric motion. Three of the lines which seem to be showing the Northeasterly Tradewinds seem generally consistent, but one line starts above 30N and initially points to the East before curving down and to the West. There is also a problem with the lines depicting (?) the Southeasterly Trades: three of them end at the Equator (rather than the Intertropical Conv. Zone) and one actually makes it to the ICZ. Then there's an extra line which moves south instead of north and while it starts easterly, it curves around till it is westerly (and crosses over 30S) to become a Westerly. In both ML-cells, there are two sets of lines; one set nearest to 30N & 30S is predominantly Westerly and pole-wards of those lines is another set which is predominantly poleward in direction (N above 30N and S below 30S). Then there's the fact that while in the article the term Ferell cell is used (exclusively as far as I can see), in the diagram, AS WELL AS IN THE MAIN ARTICLE ON HADLEY CELLs, the term Mid-latitude cell is used. And one minor quibble, the yellow line at 60N does not lie uniformly on the Earth at 60N, someone needs to improve his photoshopping. The Third Graphic shows the 3 cells (and names the Ferrel cell) but also shows that the Hadley cell is 2.5 to 3 times as high as the other two cells, making the Earth's atmosphere American Football shaped (in cross-section). No explanation is given for this implausible shape. (I doubt if Corriolis forces and/or hot air would cause such a distortion, but I may be wrong here...) Finally, the claim is made that the Hadley cell is a "closed loop". It is not. There is *some* mixing. It is an egregious (imho) blunder to make an absolute statement - unless in context it is absolutely true.40.142.185.108 (talk) 20:36, 18 June 2019 (UTC)
 * I have left a message with commons:User talk:Kaidor inviting the uploader of the image to discuss it, here. HopsonRoad (talk) 23:02, 18 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Hi! I am the one who drew the first picture and I have to apologize for such a long delay in answering. This drawing was made after I discovered its source in the diagram_images_that_should_use_vector_graphics. This source, in turn, was made on the basis of a picture from the NASA page (now deleted, but a copy was preserved in archive.org). I must also say that I have nothing to do with meteorology or climatology. I just decided to vectorize the drawing and transferred all its flaws to the vector. But I am undoubtedly ready to fix them if you tell me exactly what needs to be changed. PS: I speak English very poorly, so all my language errors are on the conscience of Google translator. Kaidor (talk) 13:21, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your work in creating this graphic and for responding here! The more you can do to make the graphic reflect the source, the better. Here are some things that you could do to address the above editor's remarks:
 * Remove the red lines in the upper left portion of the image.
 * Flip the 30°N and 60°N lines so that they curve up, rather than down.
 * Remove the two items of text that say "Tropopause in ... zone".
 * Bring the circulation cells in the upper left portion of the image to where they are the same distance away from the planetary surface, as the other cells.
 * Restore the blue oval lines of circulation at the ends of those same cells.
 * If you can do these things, it would be much appreciated! And BTW, Google Translate was very clear! Cheers, HopsonRoad (talk) 20:20, 17 August 2019 (UTC)
 * ✅ File:Earth Global Circulation - en.svg --Kaidor (talk) 16:08, 29 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Nice job! Thanks, Kaidor! Cheers, HopsonRoad (talk) 00:58, 30 August 2019 (UTC)

mistake in first picture
the first heading picture does not show polar east-wind. --Konfressor (talk) 14:58, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Atmospheric circulation


text:
Bootsauce

Bootsauce was a Juno Award-winning Canadian rock band based in Montreal. The band was composed of Drew Ling (real name Drew Thorpe) (vocals), Pere Fume (real name Perry Johnson) (guitar), Sonny Greenwich Jr. (guitar), Alan Baculis (bass guitar), and John "Fatboy" Lalley (drums). Their style combined soul, funk and metal sounds. Two of their albums, The Brown Album and Bull achieved Gold status in Canada.

History
Bootsauce was founded in 1989 in Montreal. The band was nominated for a Juno Award as Most Promising Group in 1991, and received a Juno in 1992 for their 1991 single "Everyone's a Winner", a Hot Chocolate cover. Their songs were played on MuchMusic.

In 1992, Bootsauce was part of the cross-Canada Big, Bad & Groovy tour organized by MCA Concerts, along with Art Bergman. That year they released an album, Bull on the band's own label. In 1993, the band released the album Sleeping Bootie. The song "Sorry Whole" was released as a single and reached #1 on the RPM Cancon chart.

Discography
Albums
 * The Brown Album (1990), Next Plateau Records
 * Bull (1992), Island Records
 * Sleeping Bootie (1993), Vertigo Records
 * Bootsauce (1995), Polygram
 * Bootism: The Bootsauce Collection (1996), Vertigo Records

EPs
 * ReBoot (1991, EP), Polygram
 * Bum Steer (1992, EP), Polygram
 * Byfleet & New Haw (1995, EP), Polygram

Singles
 * "Masterstroke" (1990)
 * "Scratching the Whole" (1990)
 * "Play with Me" (1990)
 * "Sex Marine" (1991)
 * "Everyone's a Winner" (1991)
 * "Love Monkey No.9" (1992)
 * "Whatcha Need" (1992)
 * "Big, Bad & Groovy" (1992)
 * "Rollercoaster's Child" (1992)
 * "Touching Cloth" (1992)
 * "Dogpound" (1992)
 * "Sorry Whole" (1993)
 * "Automatic" (1993)
 * "Moanie" (1994)
 * "Crack of Dawn" (1994)
 * "Caught Looking at You" (1994)
 * "Hey Baby" (1995)
 * "Each Morning After" (1995)
 * "Payment Time" (1996)

Awards

 * Bootsauce was nominated as Most Promising Group at the Juno Awards of 1991. At the same ceremony, John W. Stewart was nominated for Best Album Design for The Brown Album.
 * At the Juno Awards of 1992, "Everyone's a Winner" won the Juno Award for Best Dance Recording.
 * At the Juno Awards of 1992, John W. Stewart was nominated for Best Album Design for Bull.
 * At the Juno Awards of 1996, David Andoff, Paul van Dongen, and Tara McVicar were nominated for Best Album Design for Bootsauce.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bootsauce


text:
Everlasting

Everlasting may refer to:

 * Everlasting life, the concept of physical or spiritual immortality

Plants
Everlastings (or everlasting daisies, or paper daisies), species in a group of genera in the family Asteraceae, including;

 * Antennaria (North America and other northern hemisphere areas)
 * Chrysocephalum (Australia)
 * Coronidium (Australia)
 * Edmondia (South Africa)
 * Gamochaeta (North and South America)
 * Helichrysum (Africa, Madagascar, Australasia and Eurasia)
 * Ozothamnus (Australia)
 * Phaenocoma (South Africa)
 * Rhodanthe (Australia)
 * Syncarpha (South Africa)
 * Xeranthemum (Southern Europe)
 * Xerochrysum (Australia)

Plants in the genus Limonium (family Plumbaginaceae), in particular Limonium perezii, are referred to as everlastings in South Africa.

Albums

 * Everlasting (Every Little Thing album), 1997
 * Everlasting, a 2006 instrumental work by Robin Guthrie
 * Everlasting (Natalie Cole album), 1987, or the title song
 * Everlasting (Martina McBride album), 2014
 * Everlasting (EP), a 1994 EP by Refused

Songs

 * "The Everlasting" (song), a 1998 single by Manic Street Preachers
 * "Everlasting" (BoA song), a 2006 single by BoA
 * "Everlasting", a 2007 song by Galneryus from the album One for All – All for One
 * "Everlasting", a 2012 song by Matt Brouwer from the album Till the Sunrise

Others

 * Everlasting, the official fan club of the South Korean pop girl group Brown Eyed Girls
 * The Everlasting (role-playing game), a role-playing game
 * Everlasting, the fictional TV series that is the subject of Unreal (TV series)
 * Everlasting (film), a 2016 suspense film by Anthony Stabley
 * Everlasting (food), a Filipino pork meatloaf

title: Everlasting


text:
Ellis O. Knox

Ellis O'Neal Knox (1898–1975) was the first African American to be awarded a PhD in California. Knox received his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1922 from the University of California, Berkeley and his doctorate in the history and philosophy of education from the University of Southern California in the 1931.

Biography
Knox was born in Northern California on July 6, 1898. The son of a Latin teacher, Albert P. Knox, and homemaker, Addie Knox, Ellis always had a love of education. As a young boy in the public schools of Lake County, California at the turn of the century, Ellis, the only black student in his classroom, excelled.

In 1923, shortly after graduation from UC Berkeley, Knox accepted a position on the staff of Phoenix Union High School. Soon he met his wife Lois Wynne. The couple moved to Los Angeles in 1926, where Knox began his studies at USC.

With his doctorate in hand, Knox moved to the District of Columbia to accept a position on the staff of Howard University in 1931. (In the 1940s and 1950s, Knox served as an adjunct professor at the American University, an adjunct lecturer at Yale University, and as a member of the Evaluation Committee of the Middle States Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, while retaining full professor status at Howard.)

By 1955, Knox was appointed to the President's White House Conference on Education. A decade later, he began work as a consultant to both the Peace Corps and the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights. In the tradition of his philosophical and academic focus of promoting civil rights in education, Knox worked alongside Thurgood Marshall in the campaign that led to the desegregation of the schools in the District of Columbia and also served as the Chairman of Education for the NAACP from 1945 to 1962.

In 1967, Knox ended his tenure at Howard University and retired in Los Angeles, where he served as Professor Emeritus at the University of Southern California and the University of California Los Angeles until his death in 1975.

During his lifetime, Knox published several studies on the philosophy of education. His PhD dissertation dealt with the trend of philosophical doctrines in their relation to African-American youth in the United States. Knox was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity, and was one of the founders of Alpha Epsilon Chapter at the University of California, Berkeley.

title: Ellis O. Knox


text:
Talk:Icelandic language

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): 19Diana81. Peer reviewers: Sarahaubrey13, Angelali98.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 00:14, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Unclear: "The same applied to the Allied occupation of Iceland during World War II."
Don't know what this means. Here's how the paragraph reads:

''The language of the sagas is Old Icelandic, a western dialect of Old Norse. The Danish rule of Iceland from 1380 to 1918 had little effect on the evolution of Icelandic, which remained in daily use among the general population except for a period between about 1700 and 1900 where the use of Danish by common Icelanders became popular. The same applied to the Allied occupation of Iceland during World War II.''

Does this mean that during WW2 the Icelanders stopped speaking Icelandic in daily use and spoke Danish instead, and then after the war they resumed speaking Icelandic? This seems unlikely. If someone knows what this sentence means, I suggest it be fixed to make it clear. Omc (talk) 21:39, 17 February 2013 (UTC)

Peer Feedback for LING 110
Hi,

As someone who knows nothing about the Icelandic language, I find this Wikipedia article well structured and organized and easy to understand. The pictures and tables accompanying the writing is relevant to the topic and further help readers comprehend topics such as the phonology of the Icelandic language. In addition, the writing sounds neutral, the content is well balanced, and the sources are reliable and mostly up to date. Regarding the number of Icelandic speakers in the United States, I noticed the information was taken from a census from the year 2000, which I think may be a little outdated. Also, I noticed that some sections like "Grammar" and "Cognates with English" are in need of citations, but perhaps that may be due to the fact that those sections come from other articles. I am not sure, but it is always good to double check.

Angelali98 (talk) 02:25, 28 July 2017 (UTC)Angelali98

Dialects
"Icelandic has very minor dialectal differences phonetically." Well, that seems to be true, and I'll readily assume that these differences are not very interesting compared to those found within Swedish or German. Even so, I think the article should mention these differences. If we know that Icelandic has only minor dialectal differences, this has probably been researched, and this research can be used to write a paragraph about Icelandic dialects/regional accents. Steinbach (talk) 20:19, 23 December 2017 (UTC)

Map
The map shows the interior of Iceland as not speaking the language. I realise it is largely uninhabited, but for all intents and purposes it must be the dominant language there, i.e. which signage is written in, plus it is administered by Icelandic speakers. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.136.9.158 (talk) 10:05, 10 May 2019 (UTC)

History section needs revision
The current history section only talks about the written language and nothing about the historical development of the spoken language. It also has only one source for one tiny thing. I think it's best to rewrite the section entirely, and with sources this time and give more attention to the actual spoken language.  Wandering  Morpheme   12:42, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Icelandic language


text:
Talk:Dichotomy

The history of this page is kind of funny. But I dont like the phrase "wikipedia is not a dictionary". What is wikipedia? Wikipedia is a compendium of knowledge.

New example, new "see also" and new external link
I put a new example using the term used in Dialectical Behavioral Therapy and linked it back to that page as well. The problem is I do not know enough about the therapy itself (as in, I don't have time to read the book given to therapists who work in DBT, I am a patient) to know about dichotomy in DBT enough to write about it there. I also added two new "see also" links to Dialectical Behavioral Therapy and Borderline Personality Disorder (it is used in the treatment of BPD). Hopefully all this suits others. Although, it is late, and it may not be written as well as I could have. So feel free to edit.Charmedguy18 (talk) 06:27, 1 August 2009 (UTC)

Lang stub?
Why is this a lang-stub? I don't see anything about applicable to languages. Is there a missing section on the term dichotomy as it applies to languages?

Examples
Maybe some examples would be good. Or if there are no simple examples, it could be stated so, and explained why. Just a suggestion, I can't tell what a dichotomy is from the page, so I can't provide any examples myself.

 * Ok, I just read the German article "Dichotomie", which is done somewhat better, and added a paragraph explaining the definition so also normal people will understand it, converted the enumeration of the various uses into a list for easier reading, and added an examples section - where I'm still not really sure what are good examples. Seems they always need some sort of explanation along them, which I'm too lazy to work out right now.

non-overlapping
I removed the words "non-overlapping", which appear to be redundant: if two conditions are mutually exclusive, mustn't they also be non-overlapping? — Dan | Talk 04:58, 1 October 2005 (UTC)

definition
"either" in the first sentence should be "neither", should it not? -Adam

 * Definitely. Someone who had no understanding at all of what the sentence said thought that "neither" was an ungrammatical double negative and changed it to "either".  I've rephrased it. Michael Hardy 21:27, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Is there any chance of putting in an average joe example? Dumb people need smarts too you know :p I recall the phrase 'Microsoft Works' is an oxymoron, and in fact the only reason I ever heard dichotomy was because I played Diablo 2 but it's like a whole load of other words I never look up in any dictionary because I figure dictionaries are full of too much opinion. Words change, and their meanings depend on the people who use them. I guess what we really need to do is add dictionaries to games i.e. GTA 4. They could change the tag line to 'seek your fortune, destroy a city, improve your vocabulary and get revenge!'. It's perfectly plausible that he could hijack a book mobile at some stage, maybe read clockwork orange and have an epiphany of some kind... —Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.100.51.85 (talk) 23:40, 20 May 2008 (UTC)

Theology
I added the theological definition of dichotomy to the listing of definitions. meng.benjamin March 27, 2006 16:34 EST

Merge with Binary opposition?
Merge with Binary opposition?--BMF81 22:41, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

Minor sentence correction
Refer to the sentence: "In biology, a dichotomous key divides a set of organisms into two groups smaller groups, typically based on a single characteristic present in exactly one of the groups."

The phrase in red should be into two smaller groups, shouldn't it? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 61.7.147.78 (talk) 10:25, 4 October 2007 (UTC)

Introduction
I think the introduction needs the inclusion of subdivision as a type of dichotomy. That is Dichotomies can be split into two types of dichotomies, opposites and complements (subdivision creating subsets). e.g. The subdivision example is probably best described as complementarity. http://pages.prodigy.net/lofting/dicho.html has some information on opposites vs complementarity. --Zven (talk) 02:46, 9 June 2008 (UTC)

Bogus Definition
The definition encompassing 'execution' is completely bogus, neither existing in any English dictionary nor in any known, legitimate literature. How did it get here? Why is it here? It is precisely this kind of nonsense which de-legitimizes the fine work so many Wikipedia authors do.Busterbarker2008 (talk) 18:35, 11 February 2010 (UTC)Buster Barker

Regarding Bogus definitions: Would it be bogus to define "false dichotomy" as a stratagem in sophistical reasoning which solicits equivocation? And also, I believe I came across a definition of dichotomy which pertained to rhetoric (or persuasion) which said something like "any argument that involves comparing or soliciting a comparison of two things"   So, perhaps in prose, something along the lines of " compare the rose, to the tree, now consider the road between the rose and the tree...",  and etc. I admit this could be simply my opinion. I'm certain that is simply my opinion that my first allegation is more fitting than the present one, as the page links to "borderline personality disorder." Or, is that a pun on my part? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 162.84.122.9 (talk) 20:33, 23 June 2010 (UTC)

Pronunciation
I think we ought to include the correct (IPA) pronunciation of this word in the lead, and possibly an audio recording of the same. When I was younger I always thought it was pronounced "dick-otomy". I'm sure there are a lot of other people who, if they've only read the word in print and never heard it word spoken, might tend to mispronounce it the same way, which would obviously be embarrassing. Stonemason89 (talk) 20:10, 24 January 2011 (UTC)

Removals of External Link and Sentence in Lead Section
This looks like a fan site to me, so I removed it from the external links:

Farscapeworld.com, Episode reference to the series Farscape (Season 2, Episode 22) Roseclearfield (talk) 02:27, 17 November 2011 (UTC)

Also, this sentence was removed from the lead because it doesn't make sense as a stand-alone sentence. It is clearly derived from False dilemma and needs more context here. The article is clearer without it:

"In the community of philosophers and scholars, many believe that "unless a distinction can be made rigorous and precise it isn't really a distinction."[1] ^ Jacques Derrida (1991) Afterword: Toward An Ethic of Discussion, published in the English translation of Limited Inc., pp.123-4, 126 Roseclearfield (talk) 02:37, 17 November 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:Dichotomy


text:
Combs

Combs may refer to:

France

 * Combs-la-Ville, a commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris

United Kingdom

 * Combs, Derbyshire, England
 * Combs, Suffolk, England

United States

 * Combs, Arkansas, a community
 * Combs, Kentucky, a community
 * Combs Township, Carroll County, Missouri

Other uses

 * Comb, plural form
 * Combs (surname)

title: Combs


text:
Daniels & Fisher Tower

The Daniels & Fisher Tower is a distinctive historic landmark located in Denver, Colorado.

Description and history
Built as part of the Daniels & Fisher department store in 1910, it was the tallest building between the Mississippi River and the state of California at the time of construction, at a height of 325 feet (99 m). The building was designed by the architect Frederick Sterner and modeled after The Campanile (St. Mark's Bell Tower) at the Piazza San Marco in Venice, Italy. The 20-floor clock tower has clock faces on all four sides. May Company purchased Daniels & Fisher in 1958, and the store vacated the tower. When the store was demolished (ca. 1971), the tower was saved and renovated into residential and office space in 1981. A 2½ ton bell occupies the top two floors of the building, above the observation deck.

The tower is located within Denver's Skyline Park and the basement level has been home to the Clocktower Cabaret entertainment venue since 2006.

The tower was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on December 3, 1969.

title: Daniels & Fisher Tower


text:
Caisson

Caisson (French for "box") may refer to:

 * Caisson (Asian architecture), a spider web ceiling
 * Caisson (engineering), a sealed underwater structure
 * Caisson (lock gate), a gate for a dock or lock, constructed as a floating caisson
 * Caisson (pen name), of Edward Sperling
 * Caisson (western architecture), a type of coffer
 * Caisson disease, or decompression sickness
 * Caisson lock, a type of canal lock
 * Deep foundation, also called a caisson foundation
 * Limbers and caissons, a two-wheeled cart for carrying ammunition, also used in certain state and military funerals

title: Caisson


text:
USS Tuna (SS-203)

USS Tuna (SS-203) was a United States Navy Tambor-class submarine, serving in the Pacific during World War II and earning seven battle stars for her service. After the war, she participated in the Bikini Atoll atomic testing in 1946.

Tuna was the second ship of the U.S. Navy to be named for the tuna, a vigorous, spiny-finned fish highly esteemed for sport and food.

Construction and commissioning
Tuna's keel was laid down on 19 July 1939 by the Mare Island Navy Yard at Vallejo, California. She was launched on 2 October 1940, sponsored by Mrs. Wilhelm L. Friedell, and commissioned on 2 January 1941.

Pre-World War II
Tuna departed San Diego, California, on 19 May 1941 for Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, and shakedown training. Operations in Hawaiian waters revealed that her torpedo tubes were misaligned. This problem necessitated her returning to the Mare Island Navy Yard for repairs.

Wartime operations
During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941, Tuna lay in drydock at Mare Island. She set out for Pearl Harbor on 7 January 1942.

Initial patrols
The first of Tuna’s 13 war patrols lasted from 26 January to 21 March 1942, as she roved the waters of the East China Sea. On 4 March off Kyūshū, sank one enemy freighter of about 6,000 tons, damaged and probably sunk one enemy destroyer, and damaged two other ships of undetermined type of about 2,000 tons each.

Standing out of Pearl Harbor on 14 April, Tuna once again set her course towards the Japanese home islands and the hunting off Honshū. She added another score to her tally by sinking the 805-ton cargo ship Toyohara Maru on 15 May before returning to Pearl Harbor on 16 June.

Following refit, Tuna became Task Unit 8.5.12, with orders to proceed to the Aleutian Islands. This third war patrol commenced on 13 July, but her only contact with the Japanese came on 9 August, when Tuna sighted a Japanese I-boat on the surface. She lost it shortly thereafter in heavy weather. Later in the month, she supported the Army occupation of Adak Island by transporting a colonel and six enlisted men from Dutch Harbor, Alaska, to Kuluk Bay between 25 August and 27 August. She returned to Pearl Harbor on 5 September.

Patrolling New Guinea waters
After routine overhaul, Tuna set out from Pearl Harbor on 9 November. She made only one contact during her fourth war patrol, firing two torpedoes at a Japanese destroyer operating off New Georgia Island on 12 December. Both missed their mark. Three days after Christmas 1942, Tuna arrived at her new base, Brisbane, Australia.

Setting out again on 18 January 1943 to begin patrol number five, she arrived in waters off the east coast of Vella LaVella six days later. Expending 16 torpedoes in five futile daylight attacks, Tuna pressed home determined forays only to be driven deep by intense enemy antisubmarine countermeasures. Kept on station between New Ireland and Buka after 11 February, Tuna launched further attacks – but from excessive ranges – which only resulted in still more frustration for her crew. Dispatched next to interdict traffic from reinforcing Vila Plantation and Munda, Tuna remained luckless and was forced deep and endured depth-charge attacks before ending the patrol on 7 February.

After refitting at Brisbane, Tuna set out on her sixth war patrol on 4 March to take up a position in the Bismarck Archipelago, off Lyra Reef, on the northeast side of New Ireland. En route, she patrolled west of Bougainville. On 16 March, she received orders to shift her position to a point southeast of a line between Mussau Island and Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands. Late in the afternoon of 29 March, she sighted a convoy of four merchantmen, with two escort ships and two aircraft. After stalking the convoy all night, Tuna attacked the following morning, firing three torpedoes at the largest vessel. Two hits, and the 4697-ton Kurohime Maru plunged to the bottom.

On 4 April, Tuna changed patrol zones, prowling now to the northwest of the Manus-Mussau line in the East Caroline Basin on the traffic lanes to Rabaul. After no further attack opportunities developed, Tuna returned to Brisbane on 20 April.

On 19 May, en route to her war patrol station for the seventh patrol, Tuna came under attack by a Japanese submarine which fired one torpedo at the American ship before breaking off the attack. After that brush with destruction, Tuna prepared to bombard Wakde Island with her deck guns, but the presence of Japanese subchasers forced a change in plans.

Friendly fire
On 29 July 1943, as Tuna set out from Brisbane on her eighth patrol, a Royal Australian Air Force Catalina flying boat patrol bomber attacked her, dropping four depth charges close aboard while Tuna was in the Solomon Sea 80 nmi east-northeast of Kiriwina Island and north of Woodlark Island at 8.03333°N, 152.11667°W. After Tuna crash-dived, the depth charges exploded as she passed a depth between 70 ft and 110 ft, and she plunged to a depth of 365 ft before her crew regained control of her. She surfaced with a port list of 18 degrees. The damage she sustained necessitated 17 days of major repairs at Brisbane, delaying her departure for her eighth war patrol until 21 August. Once on station for that patrol, two attack opportunities presented themselves, but neither one bore fruit.

Arriving back at Fremantle on 14 October, Tuna refitted alongside submarine tender USS Pelias (AS-14) before proceeding on her ninth patrol which commenced on 7 November. After transiting the Molucca Strait, Tuna prowled in the Java Sea and Flores Sea. Attacking a freighter in a rain squall on 21 November, Tuna launched four torpedoes, but only one hit the enemy merchantman. On 12 December, the submarine had better luck. The 5484-ton cargo ship Tosei Maru fell victim to her torpedoes, becoming the largest kill in Tuna’s war career to date.

Following her ninth patrol, Tuna proceeded across the Pacific to Hunters Point Navy Yard in California, where she arrived on 6 April 1944 for a major overhaul. After refitting, she returned to Hawaii to begin her tenth war patrol. Departing Pearl Harbor on 24 April, she surveilled the Palau Islands.

The Takima Maru
On 4 May 1944, Tuna sighted a 100-ton trawler. Bound for Wake Island with classified documents on board, Takima Maru put up a fight when taken under fire by the submarine's two 20-millimeter guns. In the face of the returned fire, Tuna opened up with her three-inch deck gun and scored a hit on the first salvo, holing Takima Maru near the stern. Ten minutes later, the trawler settled beneath the waves, stern first, leaving the waters littered with secret papers and the surviving Japanese.

Meanwhile, submarine USS Haddock (SS-231) arrived on the scene and assisted in the pickup of confidential documents and prisoners. Each submarine picked up 30 documents; Tuna fished out three prisoners, one of whom died later. The two remaining prisoners were transferred to Haddock. Tuna lost her senior enlisted man, the Chief of the Boat, who was swept overboard and drowned while recovering material from the sea.

Ten days later, Tuna bombarded the phosphate works on Fais Island with 24 rounds from her deck gun. After the remainder of her patrol proved fruitless, the submarine returned to the Marshall Islands arriving at Majuro Atoll on 21 June.

Final war patrols
After commencing her 11th patrol upon departing Majuro Atoll on 15 July 1944, Tuna roamed the sea lanes of the Japanese home islands, off Shikoku and Kyūshū. Her radar picked up tempting targets, but bad luck continued to dog the ship's efforts to make contact and launch attacks. On occasion, the superior surface speed of the hunted enabled it to easily outrun the hunter, and good antisubmarine measures by the Japanese escort ships forced Tuna to proceed cautiously. On 5 September, she arrived at Pearl Harbor empty-handed.

Following refit, Tuna departed Pearl Harbor on 8 October, bound for the western Pacific. In conjunction with Operation "King Two," the invasion and liberation of the Philippines, Tuna operated in a wolf pack, "Roach's Raiders," in company with Haddock and USS Halibut (SS-232). During this 12th patrol, Tuna contacted seven ships; but made only one unsuccessful attack before arriving at Saipan on 2 December.

Tuna’s final war patrol began on 6 January as she left Saipan to take position off the west coast of Borneo. From 28 January to 30 January 1945, Tuna conducted a special mission, reconnoitering the northeast coast of Borneo. She did not attempt a landing due to enemy activity. From 2 March to 4 March, Tuna accomplished her second special mission of the patrol, landing personnel and 4400 lb of stores near Labuk Bay. During the patrol, she sighted no contacts deemed worthy of torpedo fire, and Tuna returned to Fremantle on 13 March 1945.

Post-war assignments
Thereafter, based at Fremantle, Tuna operated on training duty until she sailed for Leyte in the Philippines on 13 April. The submarine touched at Subic Bay and Saipan before returning to Pearl Harbor on 5 September. From there, she proceeded to San Francisco, California, arriving on 14 September.

After moving through the Panama Canal to the East Coast, Tuna remained in commission, in the inactive fleet, to assist in the maintenance and security of other submarines sent to Portsmouth, New Hampshire, for tests. In this capacity, she served with Submarine Division 162, Submarine Squadron 16, Inactive Fleet, New London Group, until she was selected as a target vessel for the upcoming atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll in the Marshall Islands.

Atomic testing
After once again transiting the Panama Canal, Tuna arrived at Pearl Harbor on 2 March 1946 and reported for duty with Commander, Joint Task Force 1. In company with submarines USS Skipjack (SS-184), USS Skate (SS-305), and USS Searaven (SS-196), Tuna departed Pearl Harbor on 21 May 1946.

Upon her arrival at Bikini Atoll, nine days later, Tuna was assigned a place among the target vessels anchored in the atoll. The first atomic bomb was detonated on 1 July 1946, and the second followed 24 days later. Receiving only superficial damage, Tuna departed for Kwajalein on 22 August 1946 en route to Pearl Harbor and the West Coast. On 5 September, she arrived in Hawaiian waters, mooring at the submarine base.

Decommissioning
Underway for the United States West Coast on 7 October 1946, Tuna arrived at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard a week later where she moored with the 19th Fleet. Scheduled for decommissioning on 11 December 1946, she was retained as a radiological laboratory unit and subjected to numerous radiological and structural studies while remaining at Mare Island. No preservation work was undertaken on the ship, and she was decommissioned on 11 December 1946. On 20 September 1948, fleet ocean tug USS Tekesta (ATF-93) towed Tuna from Mare Island for the submarine's "last patrol." On 24 September 1948, Tuna was sunk in 1,160 fathom of water in the Pacific Ocean off the U.S. West Coast. She was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 21 October 1948.

title: USS Tuna (SS-203)


text:
USS Gar

USS Gar (SS-206) was the first of the Gar subclass of the Tambor-class submarines to be commissioned for the United States Navy just prior to the country's 7 December 1941 entry into World War II. These submarines were a slightly improved version of preceding submarines of the Tambor class. While Gar survived the war, all of her sister ships — USS Grampus (SS-207), 'USS Grayback (SS-208), USS Grayling (SS-209), USS Grenadier (SS-210), and USS Gudgeon (SS-211) — were lost. She is the only ship of the United States Navy to be named for the gar, a fish of the family Lepisosteidae.

Construction and commissioning
Gar′s keel was laid down by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched on 7 November 1940, sponsored by Mrs. Leila P. Pettengill, wife of Rear Admiral George T. Pettengill, and commissioned at New London, Connecticut, on 14 April 1941.

Depth charge tests and other operations, April 1941–January 1942
Gar conducted shakedown training along the New England seaboard from Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and New London, Connecticut.

During 1941, Gar, along with the submarines USS Tambor (SS-198) and USS Trout (SS-202), was used as a target in the study of the effectiveness of depth charges. She submerged to periscope depth and was subjected to explosions of 300 lb of TNT set at various distances from her. The data these tests generated influenced the design of shock proofing in later submarines.

Gar departed New London on 24 November and transited the Panama Canal on 3 December 1941 en route to San Diego, California, where she arrived on 10 December 1941, three days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II. She prepared for combat in the Mare Island Naval Shipyard at Mare Island, California, then departed San Francisco, California, on 15 January 1942 bound for Pearl Harbor,Hawaii.

First war patrol
Gar's maiden patrol, from 2 February to 28 March 1942, was conducted around Nagoya and the Kii Channel entrance to the Inland Sea of Japan. She torpedoed and sank the Japanese 1,520-gross register ton cargo ship Chichibu Maru on 13 March 1942.

Second, third, and fourth war patrols
During her second war patrol, from 19 April to 8 June, she fired on a freighter off Kwajalein atoll, which her commanding officer believed was hit, but the ship did not sink. West of Truk Lagoon, she fired on a supposed Q-ship, which was not one in fact. Gar terminated her patrol at Fremantle, Australia. No sinkings were confirmed by JANAC postwar.

Her third war patrol, from 3 July to 21 August, took her to the South China Sea and the Gulf of Siam, where her only contact was a hospital ship. Her fourth war patrol, from 17 September to 7 November, took her to the northernmost waters in the Gulf of Siam, where on 19 October she laid 32 mines in the entrances to Bangkok. This was one of the strategic plants covering important Japanese shipping lanes previously patrolled by American submarines. Both patrols produced few contacts, thanks to timid patrolling, and no sinkings. Gar' executive officer and third officer both requested transfers on her return, while her commanding officer received a "blistering" endorsement from his squadron commander and was relieved.

Fifth, sixth, and seventh war patrols
Gar's fifth, sixth and seventh war patrols were conducted largely in approaches to Manila, Philippine Islands, via Borneo. During her fifth, from 28 November to 19 January 1943, she drove freighter Heinan Maru onto the beach with six torpedo hits and scored hits on a seaplane tender. (Gar was credited with one ship of 600 tons by JANAC postwar.) Her sixth, from 9 February to 2 April, brought numerous contacts with targets which could not be closed to firing range because of vigilant enemy aircraft and antisubmarine patrol ships. During her seventh war patrol, from 23 April to 27 May 1943 off Manila, she sank five small craft with gunfire; torpedoed and sank the 703-ton Japanese freighter/converted gunboat JAPANESE GUNBOAT Aso Maru south of the Negros Islands on 9 May, then six days later attacked a convoy west of Mindoro, sinking the 3197-ton passenger-cargo ship Meikai Maru and the 4361-ton Indus Maru.

Captain Philip D. Quirk served on numerous ships and submarines in World War II and was also the commanding officer on USS Fort Mandan (LSD-21) following the outbreak of the Korean War. Quirk was awarded six Bronze Star Medals. As commanding officer of USS Gridley (DD-380), his first award was for assisting in the rescue of RM1/c George R. Tweed from the Japanese-held island of Guam. Tweed had been marooned there since the Japanese invasion, and later wrote a book about his adventures titled Robinson Crusoe, USN. Quirk then commanded USS Walker (DD-517), before transferring to the Submarine Service and assuming command of USS Gar. He was awarded his fifth Bronze Star Medal in 1946 for Gar's fifth patrol. Quirk was awarded the Silver Star for the seventh patrol, which sank three Japanese ships totaling 8000 tons.

Quirk complained loudly about the Navy's faulty torpedoes, and was assigned to shore duty in July 1943. This scandal was soon proven all too true and corrected. Quirk was restored to grace, but transferred back to destroyer commands.

Eighth and ninth war patrols
Her eighth war patrol, from 18 June to 23 July, was spent patrolling the Flores Sea, where she torpedoed a 500-ton motorship which ran itself aground, the crew escaping into the jungle. (Gar was not given credit for it by JANAC.) En route from Fremantle to Pearl Harbor on her ninth war patrol, from 8 August to 13 September, Gar scouted off Timor and scored hits on a freighter in Makassar Strait. She then went in for overhaul and modernization in the Mare Island Navy Yard.

Gar returned to Pearl Harbor 30 November 1943, now in the hands of George W. Lautrup, Jr. (class of 1934), to resume combat duty in the Pacific, based out of Fremantle. Her ninth patrol saw her credited with one ship of 4,000 tons (reduced to 1,000 tons in the postwar accounting).

Tenth through thirteenth war patrols
Her tenth war patrol, out of Fremantle from 16 December 1943 to 9 February 1944, was conducted off Palau, where on 20 January she sank the 5325-ton cargo ship Koyu Maru; damaged two ships of another convoy on 22 January; then attacked a third convoy the following day and sank the 3670-ton Taian Maru. She then returned to Pearl Harbor.

Her 11th war patrol, from 3 March to 21 April, found her performing lifeguard duty for aviators making the first carrier-based air strikes on Palau. She saved eight aviators, one less than two miles (3 km) off the beach and within range of enemy gun emplacements.

Her 12th patrol, from 20 May to 5 July, was spent in the Bonin Islands area, where she made gunfire attacks on a convoy of Japanese sea trucks, leaving a small freighter raging in flames and dead in the water.

Her 13th patrol (now commanded by Maurice Ferrara, the first officer of the United States Naval Academy Class of 1937 to be given a submarine command), lasted from 14 August to 9 October and was largely taken up with lifeguard duty off Yap, supporting the combined fleet-shore operations that captured the Palau Islands. She also performed reconnaissance duty off Surigao Strait. She bombarded installations on Yap from 6 to 8 September and ended her patrol at Brisbane, Australia.

Fourteenth and fifteenth war patrols
On her 14th war patrol, from 3 to 30 November, Gar landed 16 men and 25 tons of supplies at San Esteban, Ilocos Sur, Luzon, Philippine Islands, on 23 November and picked up intelligence documents. On 27 November 1944, an Allied PBY Catalina mistook her for a Japanese submarine and attacked her in the Celebes Sea 20 nmi southeast of the Sibutu Passage at 4.55°N, 119.83333°W. Gar crash-dived to a depth of 150 ft and heard three bombs explode, none of them close. She terminated her patrol in the lagoon at Mios Woendi in the Schouten Islands.

On her 15th and final war patrol, from 4 to 27 December, she landed 35 tons of supplies on the west coast of Luzon, near Darigayos Inlet on 11 December, returning to Pearl Harbor with urgent intelligence documents including maps locating enemy gun emplacements, beach defenses, troop concentrations, and fuel and ammunition dumps on Luzon. Some of those supplies and personnel made their way to Donald Blackburn's guerrilla force.

End of World War II and fate
After overhaul in the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard, Gar put to sea 2 April 1945 to serve the remainder of the war as a target trainer for antisubmarine ships at Saipan and Guam, Marianas Islands. She departed Apra Harbor, Guam, on 7 August 1945, proceeding via Hawaii, San Francisco, California, and the Panama Canal to the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine, where she arrived 20 October.

She decommissioned there 11 December 1945 and remained in reserve until September 1948, when she began an overhaul in the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard which lasted until through October. She was then transferred as a United States Naval Reserve training submarine for the 4th Naval District at Cleveland, Ohio, arriving there via the Mississippi River and the Chicago Canal on 28 November 1948. She continued her reserve training until her name was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 May 1959. She was sold for scrapping 18 November 1959 to Acme Scrap Iron and Metal Company.

Honors and awards
Gar received 11 battle stars for service in World War II.

title: USS Gar


text:
USS Tambor

USS Tambor (SS-198), the lead ship of her class of submarine, was the only ship of the United States Navy to be named for the tambor.

Construction and commissioning
Tambor′s keel was laid down on 16 January 1939 by the Electric Boat Company in Groton, Connecticut. She was launched on 20 December 1939, sponsored by Miss Lucia Ellis, and commissioned on 3 June 1940 with Lieutenant commander John W. Murphy Jr. in command.

1940-1941
After fitting out at New London, Tambor got underway on 6 August 1940 for her shakedown cruise which took her to New York City, Washington, D.C., Morehead City, North Carolina, and Houston, Texas. Following further training off Colón, Panama, the submarine returned to New London, Connecticut, before holding her acceptance trials and undergoing a post-shakedown overhaul at the Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine. After conducting live-fire trials on the effectiveness of depth charges, the first of their kind in the U.S. Navy, Tambor reported in May 1941 to the Submarine Force, Pacific Fleet, and the command of Rear Admiral Thomas Withers ( COMSUBPAC ). Tambor began a routine peacetime patrol in late November 1941.

December 1941–March 1942
Tambor was off Wake Island when hostilities with Japan broke out with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. She was forced to return to Pearl Harbor with one diesel engine out of commission. Routed back to Mare Island Navy Yard at Mare Island, California, where the damage was repaired, she returned to Pearl Harbor in March 1942.

First war patrol
Tambor began her first war patrol on 15 March 1942 when she stood out of Pearl Harbor to reconnoiter the areas around Wake Island, Truk, New Ireland, New Britain, and Rabaul. In all, she made nine attacks; on 16 April, she fired two torpedoes at tanker Kitami Maru. One hit, and she was credited with a sinking; this was not verified by postwar examination of Japanese records. Tambor returned to Pearl Harbor on 12 May, where her skipper criticized the torpedoes.

Second war patrol
After refitting, she was then assigned to Task Group 7.1. The group of six submarines sailed for Midway Island on 21 May 1942 to begin patrolling a 150 mi circle in anticipation of the invasion fleet intelligence had reported was en route there. At 07:15 on 4 June 90 minutes after first reported contact, COMSUBPAC, Admiral Robert H. English, informed his submarines, waiting until after 11:00 to order them to close. Running surfaced, Tambor was strafed by aircraft

At 02:15 on 5 June, Tambor radioed sighting "four large ships" 90 nmi north of Midway, at a range of 3 nmi. The ships were far enough away to make identification difficult, and the subs on patrol had been warned that "friendlies" might be on patrol in that area. Murphy changed course to keep contact until he could be sure of their identity.

Shortly after this sighting, Yamamoto ordered the cruisers to turn north, away from their original course for Midway. Tambor soon sighted them again, at 0238. The sub was now in front of the Japanese ships, which changed heading again, to the northwest. At 0258, Murphy turned due west, hoping to put them between him and the moon so their silhouettes would make them easier to identify. After losing and regaining sight of the cruisers in the dark, Murphy made an educated guess, turning left again, and re-sighted the ships.

At 0400, with the approach of dawn and improving visibility, the general shape of the ships became clear, but it was still not possible to see enough detail to determine exactly whose ships they were. At 0412, Murphy ordered the signalman to use the signal light to send an ID signal. When the response was unintelligible, the sub crash-dived. When there was no attack, the sub was brought to periscope depth, where damage to the cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Mogami's bow was easily visible.

When Tambor had sailed across in front of the line of cruisers in an effort to see them more clearly, the lead ship had sighted the sub and ordered a change of course. Mogami had turned a bit late and had collided with JAPANESE CRUISER Mikuma, sailing just in front of her, and 40 feet of her bow was compressed and pushed nearly perpendicular to the rest of the ship. The next day, based on Tambor's report, and following the oil slick, dive bombers found the two damaged cruisers and their destroyer escorts and were able to sink Mikuma—the largest Japanese non-carrier sunk to that point in the war. This proved to be Tambor's best (and among her only) contribution to the battle.

The captain ordered the sub to pursue the cruisers. Since surface pursuit would have been suicide, as the cruisers could have easily destroyed Tambor with their guns, the sub was forced to submerge. Since best speed while submerged was only nine knots, and the cruisers were estimated as making seventeen knots, they were soon lost. Tambor played no further role in the battle.

On 7 June, responding to a radar contact, Tambor dived. An exploding bomb damaged both her periscopes and cracked all four battery blower motors. The bomb probably came from an American B-17; a similar incident had happened the day before, when another B-17 had bombed the submarine USS Grayling, mistaking it for a Japanese cruiser. Tambor returned to Pearl Harbor on 16 June for repairs.

Along with several other sub skippers, Lt.Cdr. Murphy was promptly relieved of command, for timidity in the face of the enemy in light of Tambor 's failure to close with and attack the enemy, or at least identify and properly shadow the Japanese cruiser force so aircraft could be vectored to the location (a regular task for both Japanese and American submarines and the primary purpose for which Tambor was there at all). Lt.Cdr. Murphy's lack of aggressiveness had hampered Spruance's intelligence of the battle and had played an important role in allowing JAPANESE CRUISER Suzuya, JAPANESE CRUISER Kumano and JAPANESE CRUISER Mogami to escape almost certain destruction from air attack. Murphy was sent to a shore post, being replaced in command of Tambor by Lt.Cdr. Steven H. Armbruster.

Third war patrol
Her next patrol (now in the hands of Stephen H. Ambruster) began on 24 July 1942 at Pearl Harbor, ending on 19 September at Fremantle, Australia. Tambor searched for enemy shipping in the Marshall Islands. On 7 August near Wotje Atoll, she sank the converted net tender Shofaka with one torpedo which broke her in half. Tambor remained in the Marshalls until 19 August when she was ordered to patrol the southern passages to Truk. As there was time to spare before she was to take station there, she prowled through the Caroline Islands. On 21 August near Ponape, the submarine fired a spread of three torpedoes at a freighter and her escort. The first hit the target amidships and the other two aft, blowing off the stern. Shinsei Maru No. Six quickly sank. On 1 September, she fired four torpedoes at a tanker off Truk and damaged it with one hit. She was credited with two ships for 12,000 tons; this was reduced to 5,800 tons postwar.

Fourth war patrol
Tambor sailed for Hainan Strait on 12 October 1942 and (in part due to torpedo shortages) laid mines. On 3 November, she fired three torpedoes at a freighter, but all missed. The submarine eluded detection and, 30 minutes later, fired two more. One hit amidships, and Chikugo Maru went under by the stern. On 6 November, she fired two torpedoes at a cargo-passenger ship flying the French flag, but both missed. On 10 November, she closed on an unarmed sampan, took its crew on board and sank it by gunfire. Credited with one ship for 10,000 tons (reduced to 2,500 tons postwar), Tambor returned to Fremantle on 21 November for refit, during which her deck gun was replaced by a five-inch (127 mm)/25cal gun.

Fifth war patrol
From 18 December 1942 to 28 January 1943, Tambor patrolled Sunda Strait between Krakatau and Thartway Island. The only target sighted was an enemy destroyer which she attacked on 1 January 1943. The submarine's spread of four torpedoes missed, and she went deep to avoid the 18 depth charges that followed. On 29 December 1942, Fukken Maru was sunk by a mine laid by Tambor.

Sixth war patrol
Tambor sailed from Fremantle on 18 February 1943 to carry out a special mission in the Philippine Islands, in support of "MacArthur's Guerrillas". On 5 March, she landed a small party headed by Lt.Cdr. Charles Parsons with 50,000 rounds of .30 (7.62 mm) ammunition, 20,000 rounds of .45 ACP (11.4 mm) ammunition, and $10,000 in currency on southern Mindanao. On 22 March, she fired three torpedoes at a tanker southwest of Apo Island. {This was the Bugen Maru, which was damaged} Seven days later, she scored one hit on a freighter out of three torpedoes fired and believed it sank; it was not confirmed. The submarine returned to Fremantle on 14 April for refit in which a 20-millimeter gun was installed forward of the bridge.

Seventh war patrol
Tambor's seventh patrol (now under Russell Kefauver) took her north of the Malay Barrier from 7 May to 27 June 1943. On 26 May, she fired a spread of three torpedoes at a tanker that all missed. Three days later, three more missed a cargo ship. She tried again several hours later, saw two of the three torpedoes fired score hits, and heard three explosions. As the target was sinking, she fired another spread of three at an accompanying freighter. Some of the crew of Eiski Maru escaped in two lifeboats. On 2 June and on 6 June, she fired spreads of three torpedoes at cargo ships. The first appeared to break in half, and the second seemed to sink; there is no record of the sinkings in Japanese official records. {Eika Maru was sunk 2 June.} On 16 June, Tambor fired her last three torpedoes at a tanker off Cam Ranh Bay but all missed. Her score for the patrol postwar was one ship of 2,500 tons.

Eighth war patrol
Tambor stood out of Fremantle for the last time on 20 July 1943 en route to Lombok Strait. On 27 July the Teiken Maru was sunk by a mine laid by the Tambor On 3 August, she sighted five cargomen and a destroyer in Palawan Passage. Three shots at a freighter produced two hits, and one fired at another target missed; Japanese records do not indicate any sinking. On 21 August, she sighted an unescorted convoy of three tankers and five freighters. She fired five torpedoes at a pair of freighters, but scored no hits. Two more sped toward a tanker and produced one explosion but no apparent damage. The next day, she sighted another convoy heading in the opposite direction. Making a submerged attack, Tambor fired five torpedoes at a large freighter. Three made perfect hits amidships but all failed to explode, and she sank no ships. The submarine set sail for Midway, arriving 7 September. She transited through Pearl Harbor on her way to San Francisco, on 20 November for major overhaul.

Ninth war patrol
Tambor returned to Pearl Harbor on 15 December 1943 and held refresher training during the remainder of the month. She began her ninth war patrol on 5 January 1944. Her assigned area was in the East China Sea. She sighted a Natori-class cruiser on 22 January, but lost contact in a rain squall. Six days later, she contacted a convoy of nine ships heading north and tracked it until 01:56 the next day. She then fired two torpedoes at a cargo ship in a surface attack. Both hit and sent Shuntai Maru down by the bow. An escort headed straight for the submarine and ramming seemed inevitable. Tambor opened fire with her aft 20-millimeter gun and turned hard to port causing the escort to pass 20 yd astern. After evading the escort, the submarine tried to regain contact with the convoy but failed.

On 2 February, she began tracking two ships. The following morning, she fired two torpedoes at a cargo ship, and both hit amidships. She directed two more at a tanker, and one hit forward of the target's stack. Both Ariake Maru and Goyo Maru sank. Tambor went deep and remained on the bottom under depth charge attack from 04:18 to 13:15. Ten days later, she encountered another three-ship convoy. In a night surface attack, the submarine fired a spread of three torpedoes at a cargo ship. As Tambor submerged, her crew heard one hit and sank the passenger-cargo ship Ronsan Maru. Her patrol was a success, with four ships confirmed sunk, a total of 18,400 tons.

Tenth war patrol
After refit at Pearl Harbor, Tambor put to sea on 9 April 1944 en route to the Mariana Islands. On 18 April, she attacked a 250-ton trawler loaded with food and fresh vegetables. A boarding party from the submarine killed seven members of the Japanese vessel's crew and captured the second officer. The Americans removed the ship's papers and left her afire and sinking. {This was the gunboat "Shinku Maru No. 3"} On 10 May, she contacted an eight-ship convoy, escorted by five destroyers and two destroyer escorts. In a submerged attack, Tambor fired four torpedoes at a cargo ship and heard two explosions, then went deep, taking 50 depth charges from the escorts. Tambor surfaced later and attempted to close the convoy once more. However, a destroyer picked her up and subjected her to another depth charge attack.{The sunk ship was the "Keiyo Maru"} On 26 May she scored two hits which sank Chigo Maru (650 tons). Tambor's tenth patrol ended at Midway on 2 June.

Eleventh war patrol
The submarine (now in the hands of William J. Germershausen) conducted her next patrol in the waters off southern Hokkaidō and the Kuril Islands from 16 July to 23 August 1944. She fired three torpedoes at a freighter on 28 July and heard three explosions. However, a dense fog prohibited her seeing the results. {possibly the escort JAPANESE ESCORT Kunashiri reported to have been damaged by "unknown cause"} On 13 August, Tambor made a surface attack against a cargo ship and then photographed Toei Maru (2,300 tons) as she lowered two lifeboats and sank in 20 minutes. After returning to Midway, Tambor continued to Pearl Harbor for refit.

Twelfth war patrol
Tambor returned to Midway on 6 October 1944, and sailed the next day for the Tokyo Bay area. On 15 October, she fired four torpedoes at three radar pips and heard one explosion. She was forced to go deep to evade 26 depth charges. She emerged with no damage. Four days later, she attacked an escort with four torpedoes and heard four explosions, but no sinking was verified. The submarine returned to Saipan from 8 to 10 November, then resumed her patrol, now one of six members of the wolfpack "Burt's Brooms" (named for Thomas B. Klakring, commanding SubDiv 101).

Shortly before midnight on 15 November, Tambor fired three torpedoes at a patrol boat, but scored no hits. Forty-five minutes later, three more missed. At 06:10, the submarine's commander decided to battle on the surface with his deck guns; the escort fired back, and a Tambor crewmen was severely wounded. Thirty minutes later, as the target began to sink, Tambor's crew took two prisoners from the water. She transferred them and the wounded crewman to USS Grayson (DD-435) on 18 November. {The sunken vessel was the guardship "Takashiro Maru"} Tambor ended her last war patrol at Pearl Harbor on 30 November 1944, to be retired from combat.

Routed onward to the United States, Tambor arrived at San Francisco on 10 December 1944. After an extended overhaul, the submarine sailed for Puget Sound on 9 March 1945. Upon her arrival, Tambor began training operations with Navy patrol aircraft under Fleet Air Wing 6. World War II ended with the cessation of hostilities with Japan on 15 August 1945 (14 August on the other side of the International Date Line in Hawaii).

Post-World War II
On 17 September 1945, Tambor departed the United States West Coast for Portsmouth Naval Shipyard. She was decommissioned there on 10 December 1945 and placed in reserve.

In April 1947, Tambor was assigned to the Ninth Naval District to train United States Naval Reserve personnel, and reported to the Naval Reserve Training Center, Detroit, Michigan, on 8 December 1947. Tambor remained on this station until 1959.

Tambor was drydocked at Toledo, Ohio, on 2 October 1953, the first-ever drydocking of a submarine on the Great Lakes. The shipyard had to remove her deck guns to get her light enough to fit on the blocks. She spent five weeks in drydock for a routine overhaul, being covered in 7,000 lb of paint, including six coats on her anchor chain.

Disposal
In 1959 a Board of Inspection and Survey found Tambor unfit for further naval service. She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 September 1959 and subsequently sold for scrap.

Honors and awards

 * Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal with 11 battle stars for World War II service

title: USS Tambor


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New Zealand falcon

The New Zealand falcon (kārearea or kāiaia; Falco novaeseelandiae) is New Zealand's only falcon. Other common names for the bird are bush hawk and sparrow hawk. It is frequently mistaken for the larger and more common swamp harrier. It is the country's most threatened bird of prey, with only around 3000–5000 breeding pairs remaining.

Taxonomy
The New Zealand falcon was formally described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's Systema Naturae. He placed it with the falcons and eagles in the genus Falco and coined the binomial name Falco novaeseelandiae. Gmelin based his description on the "New-Zealand falcon" that had been described and illustrated in 1781 by the English ornithologist John Latham. Latham had examined specimens both in the British Museum and in the Leverian Museum.

Ornithologists variously described the New Zealand falcon as an aberrant hobby or as allied to three South American species – F. deiroleucus (orange-breasted falcon), F. rufigularis (bat falcon), and F. femoralis (aplomado falcon); molecular phylogenetic studies show that it is most closely related to the aplomado falcon. Two forms are apparent from their significantly different sizes, with the larger race in the South Island and the smaller in the North Island. Although neutral genetic markers show a recent history of these two forms, the substantial size difference is likely to be driven by ecological adaptation. Conservation management had already avoided mixing of the North Island (Falco novaeseelandiae ferox) and South Island (Falco novaeseelandiae novaeseelandiae) populations.

Description
With a wingspan between 63 cm and 98 cm and weight rarely exceeding 450 g, the New Zealand falcon is slightly over half the size of the swamp harrier, which it usually attacks on sight. (Unlike the swamp harrier, the New Zealand falcon catches other birds in flight, and rarely eats carrion.) The male is about two-thirds the weight of the female.

Distribution and habitat
The New Zealand falcon is mainly found in heavy bush and the steep high country in the South Island, and is rarely seen north of a line through the central area of the North Island. A small population also breeds on the Auckland Islands; the species is known from the Chatham Islands from fossil remains.

The New Zealand falcon also sometimes nest on the ground of logged pine plantations, because pine plantations tend to attract small birds which they prey upon. After about four years after a plantation is logged, regeneration causes the area to become unsuitable for the New Zealand falcon.

Behaviour
An aggressive bird that displays great violence when defending its territory, the New Zealand falcon has been reported to attack dogs, as well as people.

Breeding
The New Zealand falcon nests in a scrape in grassy soil or humus in various locations: under a rock on a steep slope or on a rock ledge, among epiphytic plants on a tree branch, or under a log or branch on the ground, or on bare ground, making the two or three eggs that they lay vulnerable to predators such as stray cats, stoats, weasels, possums, and wild dogs.

Food and feeding
In common with other falcons, the prey of the New Zealand falcon is mostly other birds, such as pigeons, parakeets, seabirds and pheasants. However, it is opportunistic and will also take stoats, hares and rabbits. It also preys upon insects, including cicadas, beetles and dragonflies. It will sometimes feed on carrion.

Falconry
The Wingspan National Bird of Prey Centre in the Ngongotahā Valley is a captive breeding facility and visitor centre. Wingspan undertakes conservation, education and research activities related to birds of prey found in New Zealand, and provides demonstrations of falconry.

Falcons for Grapes programme
In 2005, funding was given by the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry towards a programme that uses the falcons to control birds that damage grapes and act as pests in vineyards as well as monitoring the birds and establishing a breeding population in the vicinity of the Marlborough wine region. Initially, four falcons were relocated to the vineyards from the surrounding hills. After the release of a further 15 birds breeding began to occur – the first time it is thought to have happened since land clearance 150 years ago.

Cardrona Kārearea Conservation Project
The Cardrona Valley in the South Island has a small population of kārearea. The five-year project that started in 2019 will focus on collecting data on the kārearea to gather knowledge of sightings, locate breeding pairs, locate and monitor nests, and gain insights on breeding population, habitat use, and territory size.

Illegal shooting
New Zealand falcon are fully protected under the Wildlife Act 1953. However, there are many reported instances of falcons being illegally shot. The founder of Wingspan, Debbie Stewart, says: “Most of the birds we get in here have been shot. It’s criminal.” She has also said that human activities lead to the deaths of three-quarters of falcons in their first year. Both Stewart and the Department of Conservation have claimed that people shooting New Zealand falcons have interests in chickens or racing pigeons.

Electrocution threat
Another ongoing threat to the birds from human activity is electrocution. Both a five-year radio tracking study of released birds in Marlborough and an observational study in Glenorchy have attributed nearly half of the bird deaths to electrocution on 11,000 volt distribution transformers and structures.

Cultural references
The New Zealand falcon features on the reverse of the New Zealand $20 note and has twice been used on New Zealand stamps. It was also featured on a collectable $5 coin in 2006.

The Royal New Zealand Air Force's aerobatic team is called the Black Falcons.

The proverb "Me te kopae kārearea" or "like the nest of kārearea" means 'rarely seen'.

The kārearea was voted Bird of the Year winner in 2012. The Forest & Bird competition aims to raise awareness about New Zealand's native birds, their habitats, and the threats they face.

title: New Zealand falcon


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User:MikaelSorlin

Hello, my name is Mikael Sörlin.

title: User:MikaelSorlin


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Language of flowers

Floriography (language of flowers) is a means of cryptological communication through the use or arrangement of flowers. Meaning has been attributed to flowers for thousands of years, and some form of floriography has been practiced in traditional cultures throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Interest in floriography soared in Victorian England, North America and France during the 19th century. Gifts of blooms, plants, and specific floral arrangements were used to send a coded message to the recipient, allowing the sender to express feelings of romance and courtship which could not be spoken aloud in Victorian society. Armed with floral dictionaries, Victorians often exchanged small "talking bouquets" or "word poesy,” called nosegays or tussie-mussies, which could be worn or carried as a fashion accessory. The word "nosegay" was used because the flowers would smell nice and the word "gay" meant ornament. These accessories were originally worn to mask the scent of the streets and body odor, and were often composed of fragrant herbs and flowers such as lavender, lemon balm and roses. During the 16th century, the purpose of the tussie-mussies changed. They were commonly gifted to a love interest. The meaning of flowers was determined by their cultural meanings along with legends and myths. In England and America, courses such as botany, painting flowers, and floral arranging became popular in education, especially for young women. Tussie-mussies are still used in modern-day as corsages and boutonnieres.

History

According to Jayne Alcock, grounds and gardens supervisor at the Walled Gardens of Cannington, the renewed Victorian era interest in the language of flowers finds its roots in Ottoman Turkey, specifically the court in Constantinople and an obsession it held with tulips during the first half of the 18th century. In the 14th century, the Turkish tradition sélam had an influence on the language of flowers. Sélam was a game of gifting flowers and objects to send a message, the interpretation of the message revealed through rhymes. During the Victorian age, the use of flowers as a means of covert communication coincided with a growing interest in botany. The floriography craze was introduced to Europe by the Englishwoman Mary Wortley Montagu (1689–1762), who brought it to England in 1717, and Aubry de La Mottraye (1674–1743), who introduced it to the Swedish court in 1727. Joseph Hammer-Purgstall's Dictionnaire du language des fleurs (1809) appears to be the first published list associating flowers with symbolic definitions, while the first dictionary of floriography appears in 1819 when Louise Cortambert, writing under pen name Madame Charlotte de la Tour, wrote Le langage des Fleurs.

Robert Tyas was a popular British flower writer, publisher, and clergyman, who lived from 1811 to 1879; his book, The Sentiment of Flowers; or, Language of Flora, first published in 1836 and reprinted by various publishing houses at least through 1880, was billed as an English version of Charlotte de la Tour's book.

In the United States the first appearance of the language of flowers in print was in the writings of Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, a French-American naturalist, who wrote on-going features under the title "The School of Flora", from 1827 through 1828, in the weekly Saturday Evening Post and monthly Casket; or Flowers of Literature, Wit, and Sentiment. These pieces contained the botanic, English and French names of the plant, a description of the plant, an explanation of its Latin names, and the flower's emblematic meaning, therefore readers could select flowers appropriately to send a message. However, the first books on floriography were Elizabeth Wirt's Flora's Dictionary and Dorothea Dix's The Garland of Flora, both of which were published in 1829, though Wirt's book had been issued in an unauthorized edition in 1828.

During its peak in the United States, the language of flowers attracted the attention of popular writers and editors. Sarah Josepha Hale, longtime editor of the Ladies' Magazine and co-editor of Godey's Lady's Book, edited Flora's Interpreter in 1832; it continued in print through the 1860s. Catharine H. Waterman Esling wrote a long poem titled "The Language of Flowers", which first appeared in 1839 in her own language of flowers book, Flora's Lexicon; it continued in print through the 1860s. Lucy Hooper, an editor, novelist, poet, and playwright, included several of her flower poems in The Lady's Book of Flowers and Poetry, first published in 1841. Frances Sargent Osgood, a poet and friend of Edgar Allan Poe, first published The Poetry of Flowers and Flowers of Poetry in 1841, and it continued in print through the 1860s.

Meanings
The significance assigned to specific flowers in Western culture varied – nearly every flower had multiple associations, listed in the hundreds of floral dictionaries – but a consensus of meaning for common blooms has emerged. Often, definitions derive from the appearance or behavior of the plant itself. For example, the mimosa, or sensitive plant, represents chastity. This is because the leaves of the mimosa close at night, or when touched. Likewise, the deep red rose and its thorns have been used to symbolize both the blood of Christ and the intensity of romantic love, while the rose's five petals are thought to illustrate the five crucifixion wounds of Christ. Pink roses imply a lesser affection, white roses suggest virtue and chastity, and yellow roses stand for friendship or devotion. The black rose (in nature, a very dark shade of red, purple, or maroon, or may be dyed) may be associated with death and darkness due to the traditional (Western) connotations of the shade.

"A woman also had to be pretty precise about where she wore flowers. Say, for instance, a suitor had sent her a tussie-mussie (a.k.a. nosegay). If she pinned it to the 'cleavage of bosom', that would be bad news for him, since that signified friendship. Ah, but if she pinned it over her heart, 'That was an unambiguous declaration of love'." Details such as positioning of flowers and their buds were very important and carried different messages.

The action of giving flowers served as a silent answer to a question. If flowers were presented with the right hand it would indicate the answer to the question was "yes", if the flowers were given with the left hand it meant "no". Important details such as which side the bow was tied determined if the message applied to the person presenting the flowers or the person receiving them.

Later authors inspired by this tradition created lists that associate a birthday flower with each day of the year.

In literature
William Shakespeare, Jane Austen, Charlotte and Emily Brontë, and children's novelist Frances Hodgson Burnett, among others, used the language of flowers in their writings.

Shakespeare used the word "flower" more than 100 times in his plays and sonnets. In Hamlet, Ophelia mentions the symbolic meanings of flowers and herbs as she hands them to other characters in Act 4, Scene 5: pansies, rosemary, fennel, lilies, columbine, rue and daisy. She regrets she has no violets, she says, "... but they wither'd all when my father died". In The Winter's Tale, the princess Perdita wishes that she had violets, daffodils, and primroses to make garlands for her friends. In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Oberon talks to his messenger Puck amidst a scene of wild flowers.

In J. K. Rowling's 1997 novel Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, Professor Severus Snape uses the language of flowers to express regret and mourning for the death of Lily Potter, his childhood friend and Harry Potter's mother, according to Pottermore.

Flowers are often used as a symbol of femininity. John Steinbeck's short story "The Chrysanthemums" centers around the yellow florets, which are often associated with optimism and lost love. When the protagonist, Elisa, finds her beloved chrysanthemums tossed on the ground, her hobby and womanhood have been ruined; this suffices the themes of lost appreciation and femininity in Steinbeck's work.

Hajime Isayama frequently used various types of flowers for symbolism and foreshadowing in his manga series Attack on Titan, which also includes Hanakotoba (花言葉), the Japanese form of floriography.

In art
Several Anglican churches in England have paintings, sculpture, or stained glass windows of the lily crucifix, depicting Christ crucified on or holding a lily. One example is a window at The Clopton Chantry Chapel Church in Long Melford, Suffolk, England, UK.

The Victorian Pre-Raphaelites, a group of 19th-century painters and poets who aimed to revive the purer art of the late medieval period, captured classic notions of beauty romantically. These artists are known for their idealistic portrayal of women, emphasis on nature and morality, and use of literature and mythology. Flowers laden with symbolism figure prominently in much of their work. John Everett Millais, a founder of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, used oils to create pieces filled with naturalistic elements and rich in floriography. His painting Ophelia (1852) depicts Shakespeare's drowned stargazer floating amid the flowers she describes in Act IV, Scene V of Hamlet. The Edwardian artist John Singer Sargent spent much time painting outdoors in the English countryside, frequently utilizing floral symbolism. Sargent's first major success came in 1887, with Carnation, Lily, Lily, Rose, a large piece painted on site in the plein air manner, of two young girls lighting lanterns in an English garden.

Contemporary artist Whitney Lynn created a site-specific project for the San Diego International Airport employing floriography, utilizing flowers' ability to communicate messages that otherwise would be restricted or difficult to speak aloud. Lynn previously created a work, Memorial Bouquet, utilizing floral symbolism for the San Francisco Arts Commission Gallery. Based on Dutch Golden Age still-life painting, the flowers in the arrangement represent countries that have been sites of US military operations and conflicts.

In the 21st century
Floriography in the 21st century has been reduced but has been displayed in different ways. For example, tattoos of flowers and plants may carry symbolism and significance which relate to their historical meaning. The same can be said for jewelry designed and worn based on what the flowers represent. Floriography can still be found in traditional ways through bouquets, a common example of this would be the common practice of gifting red roses on Valentine's Day to represent love and romance and wearing poppies for remembrance. The gifting of flowers is not always personal, businesses and organizations may send floral arrangements to communicate professionalism and success. While the traditional use of floriography may have changed, the symbolism of flowers continues to provide a connection between humans and nature.

title: Language of flowers