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University of Buenos Aires

The University of Buenos Aires (Universidad de Buenos Aires, UBA) is a public research university in Buenos Aires, Argentina. It was established in 1821. It has educated 17 Argentine presidents, produced four of the country's five Nobel Prize laureates, and is responsible for approximately 40% of the country's research output.

The university's academic strength and regional leadership make it attractive to many international students, especially at the postgraduate level. Just over 4 percent of undergraduates are foreigners, while 15 percent of postgraduate students come from abroad. The Faculty of Economic Sciences has the highest rate of international postgraduate students at 30 percent, in line with its reputation as a "top business school with significant international influence."

The University of Buenos Aires enrolls more than 328,000 students and is organized into 13 independent faculties. It administers 6 hospitals, 16 museums, 13 scientific institutes, interdisciplinary commissions, 5 high schools, the Ricardo Rojas Cultural Center, the Cosmos Cinema, the University of Buenos Aires Symphony Orchestra, and Eudeba (Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires), the country's largest university press.

Undergraduate programs at the University of Buenos Aires are free of charge for everyone, regardless of nationality. Tuition from postgraduate programs helps fund the UBA's social mission to provide free university education for all.

Early years
Unlike other major cities in the Spanish Colonial Americas, Buenos Aires did not count with a university of its own during colonial times. The Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata was relatively less important compared to other regions in Spanish South America, as most economic activity was based around the Andes range. Cultural and educational work in Buenos Aires was carried out by members of the Company of Jesus, and within the viceroyalty, Córdoba, Chuquisaca, and Santiago de Chile already counted with universities.

Following the May Revolution in 1810 and Argentina's Declaration of Independence in 1816, the push for a university in the capital of the newly independent nation strengthened. On 12 August 1821, the University of Buenos Aires was officially founded through a decree by Governor Martín Rodríguez. At the university's inaugural act, the cleric and statesman Antonio Sáenz was appointed as the first Rector.

During the university's early years of existence, the conflict between proponents of a laicist approach to the university's education and defendants of the traditional religious approach divided students and professors alike. From the start, existing institutions were merged into the university in order to guarantee a high level of professionalism and organization: courses on mathematics, drawing, nautic sciences and natural history were transferred from the Consulate of Buenos Aires, the Military Medical Institute and the Colegio de la Unión del Sud. In addition, law professors and courses were incorporated from the Academia de Jurisprudencia. This allowed the university to begin imparting medicine and law degrees from the moment of its foundation.

Developments in the mid-19th century
Free access to the university was suspended during the rule of caudillo Juan Manuel de Rosas, and the number of students decreased considerably. Budget cuts imposed by Rosas's government meant professors were no longer being paid, and the Department of Exact Sciences was nearly forced to close down. During this period, Francisco Javier Muñiz began making the first strides in the field of paleontology in Argentina, and became dean of the Faculty of Medicine. The situation normalized following the fall of Rosas at the Battle of Caseros in 1852. The new government of the State of Buenos Aires made bettering the university's conditions a priority; the political elites began seeing higher education as a necessary part of the country's upcoming consolidation and stabilization stages.

In 1863, the university established the Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires; the Escuela Superior de Comercio followed in 1890. In 1869, the first twelve Argentine engineers graduated from the University of Buenos Aires; they would henceforth be known as the "Twelve Apostles". Among them was Valentín Balbín, who would become president of the Sociedad Científica Argentina. In 1891, the department of natural sciences took the name of Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales, and, in 1896, a special doctorate for chemistry was also established. By 1909, UBA had also created the faculties of Agronomy and Veterinary Sciences, as well as the Instituto de Altos Estudios Comerciales y de Ciencias Económicas.

The federalization of Buenos Aires in 1881 made the university dependent of the Argentine national state. During the Generation of '80, a period marked by the conservative elitism of Argentina's political class, the University of Buenos Aires made great progress in its scientific research, as the governing elites followed the ideals of positivism and scientificism popular in the late 19th century. The 1880s were also marked by the university's first women graduates, Élida Passo (pharmacy) and Cecilia Grierson (medicine). These were, however, still exceptions to the rule in an otherwise male-dominated environment, as it fit the customs of Argentine society at the time.

University Reform of 1918
The newfound prosperity experienced by Argentina at the turn of the 20th century allowed the children of (primarily European) immigrants, the new Argentine middle class, to attend university for the first time. In June 1918, a political and cultural movement impulsed by students at the National University of Córdoba caused a shockwave across Latin America: students were now protesting for further autonomy in universities, democratically elected authorities and co-governance, and open contests for teaching positions. The reform set up the freedom for universities to define their own curriculum and manage their own budget without interference from the central government. This has had a profound effect on academic life at the universities through the nationalization process that boasts academic freedom and independence throughout university life.

The University Reform granted UBA (as well as all other public universities in Argentina) one of the key features of its institutional life, maintained up to this day: co-governed, democratically elected institutions and authorities.

In 1923, Ernesto de la Cárcova, a fine arts painter and academic professor, created the Extension Department of Fine Arts Education, known as the Superior Art School of the Nation in Spanish "Escuela Nacional Superior de las Artes", previously guilded in 1905 as the National Academy of Fine Arts in 1905, taking its long origins from the 1875 founding of the National Society of the Stimulus of the Arts by painters Eduardo Schiaffino, Eduardo Sívori, and others. Since 1993, this Arts Extension Department became an independent institution known as IUNA Instituto Universitario Nacional de las Artes, then, in 2014 became the Collegiate University UNA Universidad Nacional de las Artes.

1940s–1960s
The university's co-governance and autonomy were suspended during the presidency of Juan Domingo Perón, beginning in 1946. Perón's government also made access to public universities completely free of cost, through Decree 29.337, in November 1949. This represented the beginning of unrestricted access to culture, higher education and professionalization for the working class. From 1935 to 1955, the number of students enrolled at UBA grew from 12,000 to 71,823.

The 1940s also saw the creation of the Faculty of Dentistry and the Faculty of Architecture and Urbanism, both through laws passed through the National Congress.

The 1955 Revolución Libertadora re-established the university's autonomy and co-governance, but also persecuted peronists and leftists within the university, leading to the expulsion and exile of hundreds of professors. Blacklists for university professors were established, and UBA was among the most affected institutions. Further repression and persecution followed during the dictatorship of Juan Carlos Onganía, which intervened all universities and applied censorship to much of the universities' contents. On 29 July 1966, following a student-led occupation of five of UBA's faculties, state authorities dislodged the legitimately-elected authorities of said faculties and violently removed students, graduates and professors from the premises. The students were protesting the 1966 coup d'état, which had deposed constitutional president Arturo Illia. The event would be known as the Night of the Long Batons (Noche de los Bastones Largos).

The Night of the Long Batons ended with over 400 people detained, and several laboratories and libraries destroyed by state authorities. In the months that followed, hundreds of professors were fired or forced to leave their positions. Many went into exile: in total, it is estimated 301 professors, of which 215 were researchers, left Argentina following the events of 29 July 1966.

1970s
The return of Juan Domingo Perón to power through democratic elections in 1973 marked the beginning of a new age for the University of Buenos Aires. In 1974, a new law (Ley 20.654) mandated all national and public universities' right to academic autonomy and administrative and economy autarky. In contradiction with the university autonomy law, Perón's wife and successor, Isabel Perón, appointed professed fascist Alberto Ottalagano as interventor of the university in 1974. Ottalagano launched a fierce campaign of persecution within the university, targeting students and professors suspected of being sympathizers of the Peronist Left. During Ottalagano's administration, up to 4000 professors were fired (including Nobel in Chemistry laureate Luis Federico Leloir), and four students were disappeared by the State.

An enhanced period of state terrorism followed the 1976 coup d'état, which brought to power the dictatorship of the National Reorganization Process. Professors and students were disappeared regardless of their political affiliations, as public universities were suspected of being "breeding grounds" for leftist sympathizers and subversives. In addition, the university's research production and curricula were subject to systemic censorship, and hundreds upon thousands of books were burned (including up to 90,000 books published by Eudeba, UBA's own university press). The dictatorship overran the principles of co-governance and established entrance exams, diminished entrance quotas, eradicated free education, and suspended entire degrees. All of the university's buildings and establishments were put under surveillance by state security forces.

1980s to the present day
The university's autonomy and co-governance were re-established with the return of democracy in 1983. In 1985, the university established the Ciclo Básico Común (CBC; "Common Basic Cycle"), a fixed set of subjects that all aspiring UBA students must approve in order to become enrolled at the university. The CBC replaced the old entrance exams and sought to even the playing field for all students. That same year, the Faculty of Psychology was established, becoming the 12th faculty of the university.

In addition, in 1985 an agreement was signed between the university and the Federal Penitentiary System, creating what would later become the UBA XXII system. UBA XXII allows all people detained at federal prisons to enroll at UBA and study graduate courses whilst deprived of freedom. In 1988, the Faculty of Social Sciences was established, becoming the youngest faculty at UBA.

Organization
The University of Buenos Aires is made up of thirteen self-governing faculties (facultades), which impart a number of graduate and post-graduate courses (carreras). Although not a faculty, the university also counts with the Ciclo Básico Común (CBC, "Common Basic Cycle"), a fixed set of subjects that all aspiring UBA students must pass in order to access any graduate course in the university, and that replaced entrance exams in 1985.

UBA does not count with a single, unified campus. All of its facilities are spread out throughout the City of Buenos Aires, with some (especially branches of the CBC) based in the Greater Buenos Aires metro area. The Ciudad Universitaria ("University City") complex, located in the Núñez neighborhood along the banks of the Río de la Plata, is the closest thing to a centralized campus UBA has, housing the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences, the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism, a CBC branch, and various research institutes.

The faculties are: • Faculty of Agronomy (FAUBA)

• Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism (FADU)

• Faculty of Economic Sciences (FCE)

• Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences (FCEN)

• Faculty of Medical Sciences (FMED)

• Faculty of Social Sciences (FSoc)

• Faculty of Veterinary Sciences (FVET)

• Faculty of Law (FDUBA)

• Faculty of Pharmacy and Biochemistry (FFyB)

• Faculty of Philosophy and Letters (FFyL)

• Faculty of Engineering (FIUBA)

• Faculty of Dentistry (FOUBA)

• Faculty of Psychology (PSI)

The Faculty of Economic Sciences is the largest of the UBA's constituent colleges, with over 36,000 students. In recent years, the Faculty of Medicine has attracted the most new students, with 17,004 new enrollees in 2018 compared to the 7,584 new students the Faculty of Economic Sciences added that same year.

In addition to the thirteen faculties, the university administers 6 hospitals, 16 museums, 13 scientific institutes, 6 interdisciplinary commissions, 5 high schools (Colegio Nacional de Buenos Aires, Escuela Superior de Comercio Carlos Pellegrini, Instituto Libre de Segunda Enseñanza, Escuela Agropecuaria y Agroalimentaria, and Escuela de Educación Técnica de Villa Lugano), the Centro Cultural Ricardo Rojas, the Cosmos Cinema, the University of Buenos Aires Symphony Orchestra, and Eudeba (Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires), Argentina's largest university press.

Administration and governance
Since the 1918 University Reform, the University of Buenos Aires has been ruled by the principle of co-governance. The university is headed by the Rector and the Consejo Superior ("Superior Council"). The Consejo Superior is made up of the rector, the deans of the thirteen faculties, and five representatives for each of the three constituent bodies in the university: professors, students and graduates, rounding up to 29 members. Deans and all other representatives of the Consejo Superior are elected every four years in democratic elections in which all professors, students and graduates of the university must partake.

Each of the thirteen faculties is autonomous and self-governed. The faculties have a similar governing system: each of them counts with a democratically elected dean and a Consejo Directivo ("Directive Council"). The faculties' directive councils are made up of eight representatives for the professors, four representatives for the student body, and four representatives for the graduates. The Rector is elected every four years by the University Assembly (Asamblea Universitaria), made up of all members of the Consejo Superior and all members of the directive councils of all thirteen faculties. Since 2022, the Rector of the University of Buenos Aires has been Ricardo Gelpi.

In addition to the Consejo Superior and directive councils, students in all thirteen faculties count with student unions ("Centro de Estudiantes"), which are also democratically elected by students and are organized into the Federación Universitaria de Buenos Aires (FUBA). The FUBA is part of the Argentine University Federation.

In the 21st century, diverse political forces have vyed for power across all of these democratically elected institutions. Historically, rectors have belonged to the "reformist" camp, closely related to the Radical Civic Union and its student wing, Franja Morada. Peronists and supporters of the Trotskyist left, organized into several different groups and organizations within each of the faculties, have also historically participated in the university's political life.

Rankings and reputation
The QS World University Rankings ranked the University of Buenos Aires as 66th in the world in 2021. THE's World Reputation Rankings 2020 placed it in the 176–200 range, whereas it is not listed in the performance-based THE World University Rankings.

Notable alumni
Throughout its history, a sizeable number of UBA alumni have become notable in many varied fields, both academic and otherwise. Among them are four of Argentina's five Nobel Prize laureates, seventeen presidents of Argentina, and several other notable individuals in various fields, including sciences, business, literature, philosophy, law, medicine, the arts, architecture, and others. Many more are further associated to the university as faculty or through research at UBA institutes and dependencies.

Politics
Seventeen Argentine presidents have attended the University of Buenos Aires: Carlos Pellegrini, Luis Sáenz Peña, José Evaristo Uriburu, Manuel Quintana, Roque Sáenz Peña, Victorino de la Plaza, Hipólito Yrigoyen, Marcelo T. de Alvear, Agustín P. Justo, Roberto Ortiz, Ramón Castillo, Arturo Frondizi, Arturo Illia, Raúl Alfonsín, Adolfo Rodríguez Saá, Eduardo Duhalde, and Alberto Fernández. All of them, save for Justo, an engineer, and Illia, a physician, were educated at the Faculty of Law. Manuel Quintana also served as rector of the university, while Alberto Fernández taught courses on criminal law at the graduate level for many years before being elected to the presidency.

Many political leaders and relevant figures have also been educated at UBA, such as the Marxist revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara, who enrolled at the Faculty of Medicine in 1948. Several government ministers of Argentina have received their degrees at UBA, such as the foreign ministers José Luis Murature, Ángel Gallardo (also a Rector of UBA), Bonifacio del Carril, Miguel Ángel Zavala Ortiz, Juan Atilio Bramuglia, Susana Ruiz Cerutti, Guido di Tella, Adalberto Rodríguez Giavarini, Carlos Ruckauf, and Santiago Cafiero. Economy ministers of diverse political views and pertaining to different economic schools of thought have also earned their degrees at UBA; among them José Martínez de Hoz, Roberto Lavagna, Axel Kicillof, and Nicolás Dujovne.

José Pedro Montero, the 27th president of Paraguay, was educated at UBA.

Law
A number of relevant jurists have earned their law degrees at the UBA Faculty of Law. Carlos Saavedra Lamas, noted academic and jurist and Nobel Peace Prize laureate in 1936, earned his law degree at UBA and served as rector of the university from 1941 to 1943. Luis Moreno Ocampo, Chief Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, earned his degree in 1978. International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda judge Inés Mónica Weinberg de Roca is also a UBA alumna and former faculty, having taught courses on International Private Law since 2001. Several ministers of the Supreme Court of Argentina have been UBA alumni as well, such as Enrique S. Petracchi, Carlos Fayt, Carmen Argibay, Elena Highton de Nolasco, and Carlos Rosenkrantz. Mariela Belski, Executive Director of Amnesty International Argentina is also a UBA alumni. Prominent legal philosopher Eugenio Bulygin earned his law degree and his PhD at the UBA Faculty of Law, where he also taught throughout his career. Teodosio César Brea, founder of the prominent Allende & Brea law firm, graduated UBA and taught courses at the Faculty of Law as well. Valeria Vegh Weis, criminologist, criminal attorney, and university professor, was also educated at UBA.

Medicine
The University of Buenos Aires has produced several relevant figures in the field of medicine. Two Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine laureates have been educated at UBA: Bernardo Houssay (1947) and César Milstein (1984). Houssay's work was carried out at the UBA-affiliated Instituto de Biología y Medicina Experimental, while Milstein received degree from the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences.

Élida Passo (1867–1893), the first Argentine woman to be a pharmacist and South American woman university graduate, earned her UBA degree in 1885. The first woman to receive a medical degree in Argentina, Cecilia Grierson, did so at the UBA Faculty of Medicine in 1889. Other prominent physicians educated at UBA include public sanitarist Ramón Carrillo, Teresa Ratto, surgeon Juan Rosai, Luis Agote, dentist Ricardo Guardo (credited as the founder of the UBA Faculty of Dentistry), geneticist Primarosa Chieri, and pharmacologist Augusto Claudio Cuello, professor at McGill University in Canada.

Business
Prominent businesspeople educated at the University of Buenos Aires include oil tycoon Alejandro Bulgheroni, and his brother, Bridas Corporation CEO Carlos Bulgheroni; agri-business executive Andrea Grobocopatel, and sugar magnate Robustiano Patrón Costas. The university has also produced many successful startup founders. Unicorn startups founded by the University of Buenos Aires's alumni raised the most money in venture capital funding in the Latin American region in 2020.

Engineer and manufacturer Horacio Anasagasti, who created the first Argentine-produced car (the Anasagasti), graduated from the UBA Faculty of Engineering aged 23 in 1902.

Mathematics and science
A number of prominent scientists in diverse fields have been educated at the University of Buenos Aires; many of them have also taught classes and have conducted research at UBA. Luis Federico Leloir, Argentina's first Nobel Prize in Chemistry laureate for his discovery of the metabolic pathways in lactose, earned his degree at the Faculty of Medicine in 1932, and attended classes at the Faculty of Exact and Natural Sciences early into his career as well. In the field of chemistry, UBA also educated Silvia Braslavsky, who worked extensively in the domain of photobiology and was senior research scientist and professor at the Max Planck Institute for Radiation Chemistry.

UBA has also produced a number of prominent biologists, especially in the field of Antarctic marine biology. Among these are Irene Schloss and Viviana Alder. Patricia Ortúzar, geographist and vice chair of the Antarctic Committee for Environmental Protection, also received her degree from the University of Buenos Aires. Neuroscientist, Turing Fellow and Cambridge University lecturer Tristan Bekinschtein is a FCEN UBA graduate.

Mathematicians educated at UBA include Graciela Boente, researcher of robust statistics; Alberto Calderón, co-creator of the "Chicago School of (hard) Analysis"; Luis Caffarelli, whose work focuses on partial differential equations; Alicia Dickenstein, known for her work on toric geometry, tropical geometry, and their applications to biological systems; Miguel Walsh, known for his work in number theory and ergodic theory.

Other prominent UBA scientists include pioneering computer scientist Cecilia Berdichevsky, ecologist Enrique Chaneton, molecular biologist Alberto Kornblihtt, physicist Beatriz Susana Cougnet de Roederer, biologist María Fernanda Ceriani, solar physicist and former CONICET president, Marta Graciela Rovira, and Emma Pérez Ferreira, first female president of Argentina's National Atomic Energy Commission.

Philosophy and social sciences
UBA has produced a number of important thinkers and researchers in the fields of social science and philosophy. Raúl Prebisch, creator of the Prebisch–Singer hypothesis and a major proponent of dependency theory, studied economy at the Faculty of Economic Sciences. Social anthropologist Esther Hermitte, credited with introducing structural-functionalist anthropology in Argentina, was a Faculty of Philosophy and Letters alumna, as was post-marxist theorist Ernesto Laclau.

Political scientist Guillermo O'Donnell studied law at UBA and later pursued a political science degree in the United States; today, he is credited as a major influence in Argentine political science. Sociologist and political activist Pilar Calveiro began her studies at the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, before the creation of the Faculty of Social Sciences in 1988. Former British spy Richard Tomlinson studied political science at UBA during his stay in Argentina.

In the field of psychoanalysis, Faculty of Psychology alumna Alicia Beatriz Casullo is known for being the founder and first head of the Sociedad Argentina de Psicoanálisis.

Architecture
The University of Buenos Aires has produced a number of prominent architects, renown both nationwide and internationally. Clorindo Testa, pioneer of the brutalist movement in Argentina, earned his degree at the Faculty of Architecture, Design and Urbanism (FADU) in 1948. The rationalist Alberto Prebisch earned his degree at the School of Architecture (predecessor of FADU) in 1921; he would later become dean of FADU in 1955. New York-based urban design theorist Diana Agrest graduated from FADU in 1967. Other known UBA-educated architects include Claudio Vekstein, organic architecture proponent Patricio Pouchulu, and the Uruguayan Rafael Viñoly, who designed the Cero+infinito building at the Ciudad Universitaria complex, finished in 2022.

Arts, literature and film
Writers associated with UBA include the novelist and short story writer Julio Cortázar, one of the founders of the Latin American Boom. Cortázar began a philosophy degree aged 18, but did not complete it due to financial woes. The poet and critic Jorge Fondebrider studied literature at the Faculty of Philosophy and Letters, and later served as director of the UBA-owned Centro Cultural Ricardo Rojas. The Manipulated Man author Esther Vilar, and the poet and translator Alejandra Pizarnik, were also educated at UBA.

After receiving a degree in Natural Sciences from the university, Alicia Jurado wrote biographies of William Henry Hudson, Cunninghame Graham, and Jorge Luis Borges. The short story writer Samanta Schweblin studied film design at UBA. Elena Presser also began her studies at the University of Buenos Aires, as did film director Juan Cabral.

Media
The university operates its own radio station, Radio Universidad de Buenos Aires, broadcast on the FM 87.9 MHz frequency. Its content is mostly oriented toward academic and social topics. Launched on 20 December 2005 after being authorized by AFSCA, its motto is El saber está en el aire ("Knowledge is in the air").

title: University of Buenos Aires


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Proboscis monkey

The proboscis monkey or long-nosed monkey (Nasalis larvatus) is an arboreal Old World monkey with an unusually large nose, a reddish-brown skin color and a long tail. It is endemic to the southeast Asian island of Borneo and is found mostly in mangrove forests and on the coastal areas of the island.

This species co-exists with the Bornean orangutan and monkeys such as the silvery lutung. It belongs in the monotypic genus Nasalis.

Taxonomy
The proboscis monkey belongs to the subfamily Colobinae of the Old World monkeys. The two subspecies are: However, the difference between the subspecies is small, and not all authorities recognise N. l. orientalis.
 * N. l. larvatus (Wurmb, 1787), which occupies the whole range of the species from Cambodia to the Philippines
 * N. l. orientalis (Chasen, 1940), restricted to north-east Kalimantan

The genus name Nasalis comes from the Latin word nasus meaning "nose".

This animal was made known to Westerners by Baron Friedrich von Wurmb in 1781, he later sent specimens of it to Stamford Raffles in Europe.

Description
The proboscis monkey is a large species, being one of the largest monkey species native to Asia. Only the Tibetan macaque and a few of the gray langurs can rival its size.

Sexual dimorphism is pronounced in the species. Males have a head-body length of 66 to 76.2 cm and typically weigh 16 to 22.5 kg, with a maximum known weight of 30 kg. Females measure 53.3 to 62 cm in head-and-body length and weigh 7 to 12 kg, with a maximum known mass of 15 kg. The male has a red penis with a black scrotum.

The proboscis monkey has a long coat; the fur on the back is bright orange, reddish brown, yellowish brown or brick-red. The underfur is light-grey, yellowish, or greyish to light-orange. Infants are born with a blue coloured face that at 2.5 months darkens to grey. By 8.5 months of age, the face has become cream coloured like the adults. Both sexes have bulging stomachs that give the monkeys what resembles a pot belly. Many of the monkeys' toes are webbed.

Nose
Further adding to the dimorphism is the large nose or proboscis of the male, which can exceed 10.2 cm in length, and hangs lower than the mouth. Theories for the extensive length of their nose suggest it may be sexual selection by the females, who prefer louder vocalisations, with the size of the nose increasing the volume of the call.

The nose is smaller in the female and is upturned in the young. Nevertheless, the nose of the female is still fairly large for a primate. The skull of the proboscis monkey has specialized nasal cartilages that support the large nose.

Distribution and habitat
The proboscis monkey is endemic to the island of Borneo and can be found on all three nations that divide the island: Brunei, Indonesia and Malaysia. It is most common in coastal areas and along rivers. This species is restricted to lowland habitats that may experience tides. It favors dipterocarp, mangrove and riverine forests. It can also be found in swamp forests, stunted swamp forests, rubber forests, rubber plantations, limestone hill forests, nypa swamps, nibong swamps, and tall swamp forests, tropical heath forests and steep cliffs. This species usually stays within at least a kilometer from a water source. It is perhaps the most aquatic of the primates and is a fairly good swimmer, capable of swimming up to 20 m underwater. It is known to swim across rivers. Aside from this, the proboscis monkey is largely arboreal and moves quadrupedally and by leaps. It is known to jump off branches and descend into water.

Social behavior
Proboscis monkeys generally live in groups composed of one adult male, some adult females and their offspring. All-male groups may also exist. Some individuals are solitary, mostly males. Monkey groups live in overlapping home ranges, with little territoriality, in a fission-fusion society, with groups gathering at sleeping sites as night falls. There exist bands which arise when groups come together and slip apart yet sometimes groups may join to mate and groom. Groups gather during the day and travel together, but individuals only groom and play with those in their own group. One-male groups consist of 3 to 19 individuals, while bands can consist of as many as 60 individuals. Serious aggression is uncommon among the monkeys but minor aggression does occur. Overall, members of the same bands are fairly tolerant of each other. A linear dominance hierarchy exists between females. Males of one-male groups can stay in their groups for six to eight years. Replacements in the resident males appear to occur without serious aggression. Upon reaching adulthood, males leave their natal groups and join all-male groups. Females also sometimes leave their natal groups, perhaps to avoid infanticide or inbreeding, reduce competition for food, or elevation of their social status.

In Sabah, Malaysia, proboscis monkeys have been observed in mixed-species groups with silvery lutungs, and interspecific mating and a possible hybrid has been observed. Researchers believe this may be a result of the two species being confined to a small patch of riverine forest due to deforestation in order to plant oil palm trees.

Reproduction
Females become sexually mature at the age of five years. They experience sexual swelling, which involves the genitals becoming pink or reddened. At one site, matings largely take place between February and November, while births occur between March and May. Copulations tend to last for half a minute. The male will grab the female by the ankles or torso and mount her from behind. Both sexes will encourage mating, but they are not always successful. When soliciting, both sexes will make pouted faces. In addition, males will sometimes vocalize and females will present their backsides and shake their head from side to side. Mating pairs are sometimes harassed by subadults. Proboscis monkeys may also engage in mounting with no reproductive purpose, such as playful and same-sex mounting, and females will attempt to initiate copulation even after they have conceived. Gestation usually last 166–200 days or slightly more. Females tend to give birth at night or in the early morning. The mothers then eat the placenta and lick their infants clean. The young begin to eat solid foods at six weeks and are weaned at seven months old. The nose of a young male grows slowly until reaching adulthood. The mother will allow other members of her group to hold her infant. When a resident male in a one-male group is replaced, the infants are at risk of infanticide.

Communication
Proboscis monkeys are known to make various vocalizations. When communicating the status of group, males will emit honks. They have a special honk emitted towards infants, which is also used for reassurance. Males will also produce alarm calls to signal danger. Both sexes give threat calls, but each are different. In addition, females and immature individuals will emit so-called "female calls" when angry. Honks, roars and snarls are made during low-intensity agonistic encounters. Nonvocal displays include leaping-branch shaking, bare-teeth open mouth threats and erection in males, made in the same situations.

Feeding and activities
As a seasonal folivore and frugivore, the proboscis monkey eats primarily fruit and leaves. It also eats flowers, seeds and insects to a lesser extent. At least 55 different plant species are consumed, "with a marked preference for Eugenia sp., Ganua motleyana and Lophopetalum javanicum". Young leaves are preferred over mature leaves and unripe fruits are preferred over ripe fruit. Being a seasonal eater, the proboscis monkey eats mostly fruit from January to May and mostly leaves from June to December. Groups usually sleep in adjacent trees. Monkeys tend to sleep near rivers, if they are nearby. Proboscis monkeys will start the day foraging and then rest further inland. Their daily activities consist of resting, traveling, feeding and keeping vigilant. Occasionally, they chew their cud to allow more efficient digestion and food intake. As night approaches, the monkeys move back near the river and forage again. Predators (potential or confirmed) of the proboscis monkey include crocodilians likely false gharials and saltwater crocodiles, Sunda clouded leopard, sun bears and reticulated pythons as well as, for probably young or sickly monkeys, eagles, possibly larger Nisaetus, Haliaeetus, crested serpent eagle or black eagles), large owls and monitor lizards. Monkeys will cross rivers at narrows or cross arboreally if possible. This may serve as predator avoidance.

Conservation status
The proboscis monkey is assessed as endangered in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species and listed in Appendix I of CITES. Its total population has decreased by more than 50% in the past 36–40 years to 2008 due to ongoing habitat loss because of logging and oil palm plantations, and hunting in some areas due to the species being treated as a delicacy, as well as its use in traditional Chinese medicine. The population is fragmented: the largest remaining populations are found in Kalimantan; there are far fewer in Sarawak, Brunei and Sabah. The proboscis monkey is protected by law in all regions of Borneo. In Malaysia, it is protected by a number of laws including the Wildlife Protection Act (federal law), the Wildlife Protection Ordinance 1998 (Chapter 26) and Wildlife Conservation Enactment 1997 (Sabah state law).

The proboscis monkey can be found in 16 protected areas: Danau Sentarum National Park, Gunung Palung National Park, Kendawangan Nature Reserve, Kutai National Park, Lesan Protection Forest, Muara Kaman Nature Reserve, Mandor Reserve and Tanjung Puting National Park in Indonesia; Bako National Park, Gunung Pueh Forest Reserve, Kabili-Sepilok Forest Reserve, Klias National Park, Kulamba Wildlife Reserve, Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Sungei Samunsam Wildlife Sanctuary and Ulu Segama Reserve in Malaysia.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Proboscis monkey


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Carcharodon

Carcharodon (meaning "jagged/sharp tooth") is a genus of sharks within the family Lamnidae, colloquially called the "white sharks." The only extant member is the great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias). The extant species was preceded by a number of fossil (extinct) species including C. hubbelli and C. hastalis. The first appearance of the genus may have been as early as the Early Miocene or Late Oligocene.

Fossil History and Evolution
The fossil ancestry of Carcharodon is an active area of research and debate, given the dearth of the fossil record and the incompleteness of found specimens. Most fossil remains of Carcharodon are in the form of teeth, with some vertebral centra; as is the norm for fossil Chondrichthyans, since soft tissues don't preserve well, and a shark's skeleton is made of cartilage. Thus, assessing relationships between fossil species relies largely on the form of their teeth. This difficulty is compounded by the necessarily incomplete fossil record of Lamnids. However, some researchers have proffered Macrorhizodus, Isurolamna, and Cretalamna as candidates for genera ancestral to Carcharodon, taxa ranging from the Eocene to the Cretaceous.

Carcharodon is well-represented in the fossil record by the Middle Miocene. The first widespread, cosmopolitan species being C. hastalis, with fossils recovered from North America, South America, Europe, Australia, and Asia. The modern great white shark has been posited to have evolved from C. hastalis, through a transitional species, C. hubbelli. Study of white shark taxonomy is complicated by nomenclature and repeated taxonomic reassignments of various species. C. hastalis, C. subserratus, and C. planus traditionally were placed in Isurus, given their superficial similarity to the teeth of mako sharks, leading many shark tooth collectors even in the present to refer to these extinct species as "makos." They were later reassigned to a new genus, Cosmopolitodus, a genus maintained as valid in some current literature, and considered a junior synonym of Carcharodon in others. C. hastalis has also been described as two morphotypes, "broad-form" and "narrow-form," which some authors have split into two species, C. plicatilis (xiphodon) and C. hastalis, respectively. C. subserratus has also been placed in yet another related genus, Carcharomodus, as C. escheri (the historically used species name), but has recently been placed back in Carcharodon as C. subserratus.

The fossil "mega-toothed" sharks like megalodon have also traditionally been placed in Carcharodon, but most current literature refutes this position, placing mega-toothed sharks in a separate family, Otodontidae, and genus, Otodus (Carcharocles).

Species

 * Carcharodon carcharias (Linnaeus, 1758) (the great white shark)
 * †Carcharodon hubbelli ( Ehret et al., 2012) (Hubbell's white shark)
 * †Carcharodon hastalis? (Agassiz, 1843)
 * †Carcharodon planus? (Agassiz, 1856)
 * †Carcharodon subserratus (escheri)? ( Agassiz, 184  3  )
 * †Carcharodon plicatilis (xiphodon)? (Agassiz, 1843)

title: Carcharodon


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Talk:Proboscis monkey

earlier comment
It occurs to me that people who hve never heard of this monkey might think its a troll! A rare, big nosed monkey with a lot of gas sounds suspect, but I assure everyone, it exists :) --Mishac 04:08, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

an upright primate
This is the only primate besides humans known to walk upright for any length of time. Troops of proboscis monkeys have been filmed walking upright, in single file, along forest trails, with the females carrying their infants on their hips, just as we do. This presumably is related to their amphibious lifestyle, now wading in shallow water, now walking on dry land; and is interesting in light of the "aquatic ape" hypothesis of human evolution, the idea that we walk upright because our ancestors lived in a similar environment. This would certainly be worth mentioning in a full article, regardless of the merits of the aquatic ape hypothesis. --kwami

 * Added a paragraph about their arboreal/amphibious habitat. This is one of the more remarkable things about these primates. —kwami 06:09, 15 Apr 2005 (UTC)

actually aren't bonobos known for walking upright for long periods of time also. they arent habitual bipeds only humans are but many non human primates use this form of locomotion. [anon.]

 * AFAIK, apes walk upright when wading, or when making threats, etc., but don't use it as a normal mode of locomotion the way Nasalis has been seen to, certainly not carrying babies on their hips. But maybe I'm wrong about bonobos. kwami 05:08, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

picture
This article is just screaming out for a picture. Does anybody have one they'd like to contribute? --JianLi 06:25, 8 March 2007 (UTC)

 * From Commons. --84.20.17.84 17:10, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

In fiction
Would a link to Flight 714 or Rastapopoulos be off-topic? --84.20.17.84 17:15, 11 April 2007 (UTC)
 * I think it'd fit right in if there was an "In popular culture" section. Muad 16:33, 18 September 2007 (UTC)

Aquatic monkey ape hypothesis speculative pseudoscience unsourced babble content
I removed the speculation about the monkey's proboscis being somehow related to the aquatic ape theory without reading the aquatic ape Wikipedia article given as a reference. This requires a scientific citation of some sort, not an inter-article Wiki wave. I'm thinking someone will be resent my working on their monkey article (Proboscis Monkey), or any of the many short or poorly written monkey articles on Wikipedia that people aren't working on, although they're preventing others from adding things or cleaning them up. Please feel free to tell me on my talk page to f off and leave your article alone, if this is the case, and I will be happy to do so. --Amaltheus (talk) 05:02, 11 January 2008 (UTC)

What's with all the penises?
When doing a google image search for "Proboscis Monkey", EVERY SINGLE image of a male with the groin visible has an erection. I thought they might be one of the few animals with a "penis bone", meaning they'd always be like that (making them even more rediculous looking) but there's no mention on this page. If they DON'T have "penis bones", then I'd still be curious why they have erections all the freaking time. 99.246.109.131 (talk) 03:48, 13 April 2008 (UTC)

Big nose for males only?
In the text it says "The [big] nose is thought to be used in mating and is unique to the males of the species", but I googled it and found that females also have big noses too (compare to other species), just not as big as the males. Need changes here? Chakazul (talk) 19:08, 6 January 2009 (UTC)

Penises, noses, aquatic ape, etc
All edits have been incorporated. Wikipiedia is very primate gender-friendly included is female proboscis which really is tiny compare to the male.. I did not see any erect penises- I suggest someone requires several cold showers. Any additional input would be vastly appreciated especially from the learned and primate experts.Starstylers (talk) 17:38, 1 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Feel free to upload any images to commons. I don't think there would be any resistance to including the images you propose. Shashamula (talk) 14:05, 1 May 2009 (UTC)

About the erect penises...
I'm not sure if this can be admitted into the article (I don't have a source) but the male will wave his erect penis at who or whatever he finds a threat. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.180.62.170 (talk • contribs)
 * If you can cite a verifiable and reliable source, it would be a reasonable addition to the article. - UtherSRG (talk) 15:06, 12 June 2009 (UTC)

Did a bit of hunting around. I don't know exactly if this can be cited as a reliable source, but it's something. (http://pin.primate.wisc.edu/factsheets/entry/proboscis_monkey/behav) In the very last paragraph. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.180.62.170 (talk) 10:41, 13 June 2009 (UTC)

Reference to giant pangolins?
According to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_pangolin pangolins do not walk on their legs at all. This page seems to contradict that. Someone should fix one or the other. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.93.215.90 (talk) 09:23, 5 July 2009 (UTC)

Behavior in the proboscis monkey
The Behavior section for the proboscis monkey is developing but could use some organizational changes and expansion. The social behavior section mentions differences between groups and bands in the fission-fusion society layout, but this could be clarified further. It may be useful to comment on the relatedness within groups and bands, and the inclusive fitness advantage proboscis monkeys gain from this organization. Also, mentioning some band-shared resources besides sleeping site might help if there is evidence for it. For instance, band movement or even sleeping site location may be important. This will help raise the discussion about altruism in this article. Aside from the aquatic monkey ape hypothesis speculation (see above), if citable information on the monkey’s nose size is available this can nuance this section especially if it is involved in mate selection. Noses could also be involved in kin discrimination as a “greenbeard.” Verifiable information on proboscis monkey erections (see above) is also needed in the reproduction or communication sections. In terms of uni-male groups, more information on male aggression is needed. The discussion of all-male groups may also benefit from mentioning altruism here, similar to cooperative courtship. Alarm call behavior, and the differences between genders is a point that should be expanded on, especially if this is has different implications for males and females. For example, proboscis monkeys may use altruistic alarm calls to help kin in their group, but not in a band. Also, the behavior section could also use a diet section, as the monkey’s eating habits are not really mentioned here. Nsavalia23 2:40, 21 September 2012 (UTC)

at least a kilometer from a water source?
In the range/habitat section, under ecology, it is stated that "This species usually stays at least a kilometer from a water source". Shouldn't that be "at most" instead of "at least"? The current statement makes very little sense to me.

146.50.2.194 (talk) 11:17, 27 November 2013 (UTC)Peter146.50.2.194 (talk) 11:17, 27 November 2013 (UTC)november 27th 2013

Semi-protected edit request on 21 February 2018
24.234.110.154 (talk) 22:33, 21 February 2018 (UTC) sdsddsssssssssssssssssddddddddddddddddddddddddds§dddddddsssssssssssssdddds
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. —   IVORK  Discuss 22:49, 21 February 2018 (UTC)

Hat note
I'd like to add a hat note for the other uses of Proboscis any objections (I couldn't find the mouth part from here) Sciencefish (talk) 13:29, 5 December 2020 (UTC)
 * I don't think that's needed. The hatnote makes sense at proboscis, because that is the base term, but we wouldn't want it at any of the dozen or so terms where it's just part of the expression. -- Elmidae (talk · contribs) 18:53, 5 December 2020 (UTC)

Most aquatic primate?
How is the proboscis monkey the most aquatic primate, if humans are more adapted to aquatic life in a number of anatomical features and are able to both swim and dive longer and faster without supplementary means? I am not allowed to edit that claim. TobiVega (talk) 15:04, 8 January 2022 (UTC)

Wikipedia Ambassador Program course assignment
This article is the subject of an educational assignment at Washington University supported by the Wikipedia Ambassador Program during the 2012 Fall term. Further details are available on the course page.

The above message was substituted from by PrimeBOT (talk) on 15:40, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

who discovered the proboscis monkey
who discovered the proboscis monkey Devinbellon (talk) 01:01, 10 May 2023 (UTC)
 * The native Borneans, presumably. If you mean the author of the first Western scientific description, that's already in the article. Anaxial (talk) 05:05, 10 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Proboscis monkey


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The Neutral Zone (Star Trek: The Next Generation)

"The Neutral Zone" is the season finale of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek: The Next Generation, originally aired within the United States on May 16, 1988, in broadcast syndication. The episode originated as a story submission purchased by Paramount written by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee, and was turned into a teleplay by Maurice Hurley. Because of the 1988 Writers Guild of America strike, Hurley created the script in a day and a half, and the timescale forced the abandonment of both the idea of a two-part episode and of the first appearance of the Borg, which was delayed until the following season episode "Q Who".

Set in the 24th century, the series follows the adventures of the Starfleet crew of the Federation starship Enterprise-D. In "The Neutral Zone", the Enterprise is sent to investigate the destruction of Federation outposts near space controlled by the Romulan Star Empire, discovering a derelict Earth satellite with cryonically frozen humans aboard.

This episode introduced the redesigned Romulans, with prosthetic forehead pieces designed by makeup supervisor Michael Westmore, and the first appearance of the Romulan Warbird, which was designer Andrew Probert's final work for the Star Trek franchise. The episode was mildly received by critics who viewed it after the end of the season, who criticized the two-plot nature of the episode and the general lack of excitement.

Plot
While Captain Picard (Patrick Stewart) is away at an emergency Federation conference, the Enterprise crew discovers an ancient space capsule from Earth. Inside they find three humans in cryonic chambers. Lt. Cdr. Data (Brent Spiner) asks to move the chambers to the Enterprise and Commander Riker (Jonathan Frakes) agrees. Picard returns and orders the Enterprise to the Neutral Zone, as several Federation outposts near the edges of the zone have not responded to communications. He explains that the conference was about the potential threat of the Romulans, who have not been seen for decades. As Data and Chief Medical Officer Dr. Crusher (Gates McFadden) work to thaw the cryonically preserved humans, Picard admonishes Data for bringing them aboard during a crucial time, and puts Riker in charge of looking after them.

The survivors—Claire Raymond (Gracie Harrison), a housewife; Ralph Offenhouse (Peter Mark Richman), a financier; and L. Q. "Sonny" Clemmons (Leon Rippy), a musician—are from the late 20th century. All died of incurable illnesses at the time and were placed in cryonic suspension after their deaths in the hope that cures might be found in the future. Dr. Crusher, in reviving them, easily cures them of their illnesses. They have to cope with the culture shock of awakening in a distant future with the realization that everything they knew and had are now gone. Of the three, Clemmons seems to fare the best at adapting to life in the future and befriends Data. Claire is distraught at the thought of losing everyone she ever knew, particularly her children, so Counselor Troi (Marina Sirtis) suggests searching for Claire's descendants. Offenhouse is irritated by the lack of access to news or other information, and uses the comm unit to disturb Picard on the bridge. Picard comes down to assure everyone that all questions will be answered, but that the ship's mission requires Picard's full attention.

The Enterprise reaches the Neutral Zone and confirms that the outposts have been destroyed. They are soon met by a Romulan Warbird and Commander Tebok (Marc Alaimo) questions why the Enterprise has approached the zone. As Picard tries to explain his actions, Offenhouse arrives on the bridge and threatens to disrupt the tense situation, though he correctly ascertains that the Romulans are also seeking answers. Picard and the Romulans agree to pool their resources to discover the culprit. Picard later comments that while the encounter went favorably, the Romulans may be a significant threat in future engagements. Picard arranges to transport the 20th-century humans to Earth. Troi locates one of Claire's descendants on Earth, and while Claire is unsure of her place in her new reality, Troi suggests that family is a good starting point. Clemmons expresses enthusiasm for the future, and Picard sets Offenhouse the challenge of improving himself.

Writing and casting
Due to the impending Writers Guild of America strike, writer and co-executive producer Maurice Hurley developed the teleplay in a day and a half from a story submission purchased by Paramount written by Deborah McIntyre and Mona Clee. Due to the strike, certain story ideas were removed from the plot including the planned first appearance of the Borg, which was delayed until the second-season episode "Q Who". "The Neutral Zone" was originally intended to be the first of a two-part episode but due to the strike there wasn't enough time to write the second part and so the story was shortened. The second episode would have seen the Enterprise and the Romulans unite against the Borg. The script that was shot was a first draft and due to the writer's strike, no amendments were made. Director James L. Conway later explained, "If there hadn't been a strike, I think it would have been a better script." It was the second episode of The Next Generation directed by Conway, the first being "Justice". He did not direct another episode until "Frame of Mind" during season six.

In the writers and directors' guide for the series, written by the show's creator Gene Roddenberry prior to the first season, Romulans were covered by one of the main writing rules which stated "No stories about warfare with Klingons and Romulans and no stories with Vulcans. We are determined not to copy ourselves and believe there must be other interesting aliens in a galaxy filled with billions of stars and planets." Following the perceived failure of the Ferengi as the main villains of TNG by the production staff, the Romulans became the main villains during the early years of the series. This was in addition to the Borg, who were originally developed as an insectoid race for this episode but became a race of cyborgs by the time they first appeared in "Q Who". While the Romulans made their first TNG appearance in this episode, they had been mentioned in "Angel One" and "Heart of Glory". The episode was the final one of season one to be completed, with production wrapping ten months after it began on "Encounter at Farpoint".

The episode featured an appearance by Gene Roddenberry's production assistant Susan Sackett as a Starfleet science officer. Her appearance was the result of winning a bet over her weight loss. She would go on to write two episodes of The Next Generation with Fred Bronson, "Ménage à Troi" and "The Game". Peter Mark Richman appeared as Ralph Offenhouse who had appeared in a guest star capacity in over 500 roles on television. Leon Rippy appeared as L.Q. "Sonny" Clemonds, having previously appeared alongside Jonathan Frakes in North and South. Marc Alaimo made his second Star Trek appearance in this episode, having appeared in "Lonely Among Us" as the Antican leader and would go on to appear in season four's "The Wounded" as Cardassian Gul Macet, as well as appearing in season five's finale "Time's Arrow" as card shark Frederick LaRouque, before being cast once more as a Cardassian in the recurring role of Gul Dukat on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine.

Two of the time-displaced humans returned in Star Trek literature, with Ralph Offenhouse appearing in The Next Generation novel Debtor's Planet as the Federation Ambassador to the Ferengi and again in the Star Trek: Destiny trilogy as the Secretary of Commerce for the Federation. Clare Raymond made a further appearance in the Star Trek: Department of Temporal Investigations novel Watching the Clock as a counsellor for time-displaced people. Offenhouse, Raymond and "Sonny" Clemmons also appeared in the two-part Star Trek: The Eugenic Wars by Greg Cox, which was set prior to their appearance in this episode.

Make-up and design
Michael Westmore developed a new appearance for the Romulans in this episode, necessarily taking into account the concepts introduced for them in the original series episodes "Balance of Terror" and "The Enterprise Incident". There was also a desire to ensure that they appeared different from the Vulcans, with the default appearance of the Romulans being more aggressive and warlike. Westmore developed prosthetic forehead pieces, taking careful steps to ensure that they didn't look like Neanderthals. Rather than individual designs for each forehead as with the Klingons, a number of standard designs were created.

The Romulan Warbird made its first appearance in this episode. It was the final design by Andrew Probert for the Star Trek franchise. He had previously designed both the Enterprise in Star Trek: The Motion Picture and the Enterprise-D for The Next Generation. The double-hulled nature of the starship originated in early designs, but the wings were originally vertical rather than horizontal. The ship was deliberately made to be larger than the Enterprise.

Reception
"The Neutral Zone" aired in broadcast syndication during the week of May 20, 1988. It received Nielsen ratings of 10.2. This was the highest ratings received by the series since "Symbiosis" four episodes earlier.

Several reviewers re-watched Star Trek: The Next Generation after the end of the series. Keith DeCandido on Tor.com felt that the episode did not really work, saying that the "smug moralizing with regard to the three 20th-century refugees is laid on a bit too thick", and that the appearance of the Romulans tried too hard to be reminiscent of their first appearance in "Balance of Terror". Overall he said that the "first season ends, not with a bang, but with a whimper". Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club felt that the previous episode, "Conspiracy", would have served better as an end to the first season as "The Neutral Zone" wasn't the worst so far, "but it may possibly be the most frustrating, because it has two storylines". He felt that the Romulan plot would have been sufficient alone and described the storyline featuring the cryonic survivors as "extremely painful comic relief". He gave the episode a grade of C−.

The Romulan Warbird (the "D'deridex class"), which made periodic appearances in the Star Trek franchise after this episode, was rated by Space.com as the 9th-best Star Trek spacecraft. In particular they note its debut, uncloaking before the Enterprise 1701-D after the Romulans’ half-century of isolation. The spacecraft's fictional power and elusiveness is noted in regards to the Star Trek science fiction universe.

The New Yorker, in a 2016 article for the 50th anniversary of Star Trek, noted "The Neutral Zone" as one of the defining moments of the new series. They note how when they uncover a frozen Wall Street broker, he is shocked to find a future where there is more to life than accumulating wealth. In 2017, Den of Geek ranked "The Neutral Zone" as one of top 25 "must watch" episodes of Star Trek: The Next Generation.

Media releases
The first home media release of "The Neutral Zone" was on VHS cassette on May 26, 1993, in the United States and Canada. The episode was later included on the Star Trek: The Next Generation season one DVD boxed set, released in March 2002, and was released as part of the season one Blu-ray set on July 24, 2012.


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Earth Crisis

Earth Crisis is an American metallic hardcore band from Syracuse, New York, active from 1989 until 2001, reuniting in 2007. Since 1993 the band's longest serving members are vocalist Karl Buechner, lead guitarist Scott Crouse, bassist Ian Edwards, and drummer Dennis Merrick. Their third and current rhythm guitarist Erick Edwards joined the band in 1998.

The band has released eight full-length studio albums and four studio EPs, among other releases. The band is known for supporting animal rights, promoting a straight edge and vegan lifestyle, and addressing further social and political issues. Earth Crisis is considered a crucial developer and influence for both the metalcore genre and vegan straight edge movement.

Initial career (1989–1995)
The band originally formed in 1989, after bassist Karl Buechner proposed the idea to his friend DJ Rose, whom he knew because both skateboarded together. Rose became the vocalist and they were joined by Jesse Buckley on drums and John Moseman on guitar. Established in the latter part of the youth crew heyday, where many groups disbanded and their members stopped being straight edge, they wanted to "keep that torch burning", as Buechner said. "The feeling of disappointment we had in those bands lead us to promote straight edge as being a lifetime commitment to never touch a drop of poison. We wanted people to know they can believe in us." Rose named the band after the 1984 album of the same name from the British reggae band Steel Pulse, because its cover portrayed many of the things they "would stand against", such as the starving African children, the two blocs of the Cold War and Klansmen.

Its initial lineup was short-lived; they had two or three practices and played a show in Utica, New York. After that performance, Rose decided to quit the group to spend more time booking shows. Buechner continued composing and formed a new lineup of the band in 1991, after attending a skateboard demonstration where he met members of the vegan straight edge band Framework. He switched to lead vocals in the process and was joined by four of the five members of Framework: guitarist Scott Crouse, bassist Ian "Bulldog" Edwards, guitarist Ben Read and drummer Michael Riccardi, all of who participated in Earth Crisis as a side project. Both Earth Crisis and Framework appeared on the 1992 various artists tape compilation Structure Hardcore Compilation, released by the members of Chokehold. Earth Crisis' four-song EP All Out War marked their debut release later in 1992, and shortly afterwards the band became a first priority.

In the summer of 1993, at the start of the All Out War tour, Earth Crisis recorded the Firestorm EP in the studio of Bill Korecky in Cleveland and released it through Victory Records. For this album, Riccardi was replaced by Dennis Merrick. Later on, Ben Read was replaced by Kris Wiechmann.

Destroy the Machines, their first full-length record, was released in 1995 and would eventually become the best-selling album in the history of Victory Records. Later this year, the band's touring van was involved in an accident that injured all band members, most severely Merrick. During his recovery time, the other band members began the group Path of Resistance with Riccardi, Rose and another friend to remain occupied.

Subsequent years and breakup: (1996–2001)
1996's Gomorrah's Season Ends brought a more complex and developed form of metalcore and, shortly thereafter, they were asked to take part in the inaugural Ozzfest, including one song for its live album. Their popularity grew, resulting in a deal with Roadrunner Records, and the band released Breed the Killers in 1998, the first with guitarist Erick Edwards (bassist Ian Edwards's brother) replacing Wiechmann. The album was produced by Andy Sneap and featured a guest appearance by Machine Head vocalist and guitarist Robb Flynn.

The band later returned to Victory Records, releasing 2000's Slither soon after. With more emphasis on production and a change of style steered towards nu metal, it drew mixed reactions from critics and fans but had a wider exposure in mainstream music. Their final album before their breakup was 2001's Last of the Sane, which included cover versions of songs by The Rolling Stones, Slayer, Led Zeppelin, Cream and Dead Kennedys.

In 2001, Earth Crisis disbanded on good terms because some members could no longer engage in a full-time touring band due to their personal lives. They played the final show of their initial career at Hellfest in Syracuse, New York. After the band's breakup in 2001, Buechner, Bulldog and Erick Edwards went on to form Freya, a band named for the Norse goddess of fertility. Meanwhile, Crouse and Dennis Merrick moved to California and formed the group Isolated.

Reformation (2007–2009)
On January 27, 2007, the reunited Earth Crisis played the Maryland Metal and Hardcore Festival. Although it was originally planned as a one-off concert, numerous American and European dates followed thereafter. Earth Crisis headlined the Firestorm Fest in early 2008, in the midst of a US tour.

On September 10, 2008 it was announced that they had signed a worldwide deal with Century Media. They entered the studio on October 16, 2008 to record a new record, and Tue Madsen was hired to mix the project. The finished album, To the Death, was released in Europe on April 20, 2009 and in North America on May 5, 2009.

In August and September 2009, Earth Crisis played America and Europe on the Hell on Earth Tour, alongside Sworn Enemy, Neaera, Waking the Cadaver, War of Ages, Thy Will Be Done and War from a Harlots Mouth.

Latest releases: (2010–present)
In March 2010, they announced that drummer Andy Hurley of Fall Out Boy and formerly Racetraitor would serve as a touring musician for a portion of the band's upcoming tour, as Merrick would only be available for certain dates.

In July 2011, Earth Crisis released their seventh studio album, Neutralize the Threat. The album was mixed and mastered by Zeuss. The tracks "Raise" and "Total War" were released online as an album teaser.

Earth Crisis released their eighth studio album Salvation of Innocents on March 4, 2014. A comic book of the Liberator series published by Black Mask Studios was made in collaboration with the band and released simultaneously with the album, sharing similar conceptual ideas and artwork.

Musical style and influences
Although ideologically tied to the straight edge movement, the initial musical influences of Earth Crisis were mainly from New York hardcore bands such as Agnostic Front, Cro-Mags and Sick of It All. After the All Out War EP, they developed an increasingly technical and heavier style, citing death metal bands Napalm Death, Bolt Thrower and Obituary as prime inspirations. Buechner's vocals became rougher with each release as well, culminating in the completely gutturally screamed Gomorrah's Season Ends. Terrorizer magazine referred to this album as "heavy hardcore taken to a new level, all the blackness that was hinted at on Firestorm realized in all its formidable glory." In this period, many of their songs were built on Merrick's drum beats.

Their third studio album, Breed the Killers, maintained the previous aggressiveness and its growled vocals were "taken about as far as possible", but it followed a structure more akin to the "post-Judge hardcore of the Path of Resistance record Who Dares Wins", according to Shawn Macomber of Decibel. Dennis Merrick said: "On Breed the Killers I think we achieved the most honest representation of our sound without sounding too raw or too slick". Its follow-up, Slither, had a change of style that steered towards nu metal. Buechner declared that, rather than being influenced by other styles, they "resurrected" the sound of All Out War in a proper way, which also had melodic choruses and spoken word verses.

Their first post-reunion album, To the Death, was described by Buechner as "a mixture between Destroying the Machines and Breed the Killers." According to Stereo Killer, it was "arguably the band's heaviest offering" but with "more traditional verse/chorus/verse" material. Neutralize the Threat followed a similar path, but "with a Gomorrah's Season Ends vibe thrown in", the band stated. Scott Crouse said that he always tried "to get the perfect blend of heaviness, imagery and listenability" and that these two albums were the first to "hit that mark". Salvation of Innocents included, in addition, some clean vocals that were compared by one reviewer to the sludge metal band Crowbar, as well as "some elements of melodic metalcore" and faster songs.

When asked what ten bands inspired Earth Crisis over the years in a 2016 interview, Scott Crouse named DYS, Judge, Corrosion of Conformity, Agnostic Front, Slayer, Sepultura, Metallica, Conviction, Zero Tolerance and Iron Maiden.

Lyrics, views and activism
The name of the band, Earth Crisis, indicates how their members see the current state of the planet and in their lyrics they seek to offer solutions to it; these are either "educational" or encourage direct-action. Most of them focus on rejection of recreational drugs, animal products, animal testing, industrial livestock production, illegal drug trade and an impending earth's doom caused by wars or an ecological collapse. On the other hand, they promote straight edge, veganism, self-empowerment and organizations such as Earth First!, Sea Shepherd Conservation Society and the Animal Liberation Front. In the words of the academic Jonathan Pieslak, some of their lyrics "read like passages" taken from "direct-action essays" of these institutions. Other subjects include criticism against white supremacy and, especially on Breed the Killers, oppressive governments. 2000's record Slither incorporated more topical issues, such as genetic engineering and second amendment rights. Their seventh and eighth albums, Neutralize the Threat and Salvation of Innocents, are concept albums entirely dedicated to real-life vigilantes and animal rights/anti-vivisection, respectively. The albums All Out War, Gomorrah's Season Ends  and Breed the Killers included essays that delve into their lyrics and beliefs. According to the sociologist Ross Haenfler, Earth Crisis combined "youth crew's outspoken commitment to straight edge with Manliftingbanner's direct politics".

In a 1998 interview with Roadrunner Records, Karl Buechner described Earth Crisis' philosophy: "I want to boil it down to one notion: personal accountability. Respect for yourself, respect for the lives of innocent beings around us." He added that "Just being drug-free doesn't make you a good person, you need to use that clarity of the mind to become actively involved in the struggle that is being waged for earth, human and animal liberation." Their message disjoined from the "posicore" attitudes in its advocation for violent direct action. However, they believe that it must be used only as a last resort: "destruction and violence are the last thing I want to see but tragically, they are sometimes necessary. We place so far greater value on the lives of the innocent beings than any type of worth that could be put upon someone who's sadistic or greedy and doesn't want to change their profit system", said Buechner.

The band cited authors Peter Singer, John Robbins and Huey P. Newton as inspirations. In their live shows, there is usually literature about PETA, Greenpeace and others distributed. They have been longtime supporters for organizations such as the Animal Defense League, having done several benefit concerts for them. Nevertheless, they are not part of any of these groups or a political party: "We're about things we're interested in and we sing about things that happen politically, but we're not left-core or right wing. We don't want to get tangled up in someone else's agenda, which can happen if you join up in certain organizations."

Earth Crisis was occasionally misidentified with the hardline subculture, but they are not against homosexuality and believe that abortion should remain as an option in some instances. They also do not have a religious agenda and think that that is mainly a personal choice.

Legacy
Earth Crisis had a huge impact on both the hardcore punk music and its ideals. MetalSucks said: "For anybody who was not in the hardcore scene back then, it is hard to describe the impact they had or how controversial they were. You either loved them or hated them for bringing both metal and veganism into the hardcore scene". Sociologist Ross Haenfler stated in The Vinyl Factory that "Earth Crisis became the face of straight edge throughout the 1990s" through "the convergence of 'radical' animal rights activism, a more aggressive 'metalcore' sound, and hardcore crews", becoming "one of the most controversial bands in the scene's history."

Their albums Firestorm, Destroy the Machines and Gomorrah's Season Ends were particularly influential for the emerging metalcore genre. According to Andrew O'Neill, "Earth Crisis inspired a much more heavy metal sound in hardcore" and "the distinction between the two [genres] started to crumble" shortly after those records were released.

To a large extent, Earth Crisis was responsible for the rising of vegan straight edge militancy in the mid- to late 90s, when veganism was rarely present in mainstream culture. Haenfler said that, while "earlier straight edge bands advocated vegetarianism – for example Youth of Today, Insted and Manliftingbanner", Earth Crisis "made animal rights (and environmentalism) central to the scene" as a "self-described 'vegan straight edge' band", "inspiring thousands of kids to give up animal products entirely." They also spawned many activists in the scene because their message "imparted the sense of urgency in a way that nothing else that ever come before had", according to Peter Daniel Young.

Some of their songs went on to be considered by some as anthems, such as "Firestorm" for straight edge and "Ultramilitance" for eco-terrorists. They also drew major media attention, having been featured and interviewed by CNN, CBS and The New York Times, while lead singer Karl Buechner was invited to address the Congress about teens and substance abuse.

Comments from other musicians
Many artists have cited Earth Crisis as an influence or have expressed their admiration for them, including Davey Havok and Jade Puget of AFI and XTRMST, Hatebreed,  Throwdown, Robb Flynn of Machine Head, Jona Weinhofen of I Killed the Prom Queen and Bring Me the Horizon, Jeremy Bolm of Touché Amoré, Tim McIlrath of Rise Against, Tim Lambesis of As I Lay Dying, Glassjaw, Andy Hurley and Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy and Racetraitor,  Igor Cavalera of Sepultura, Paul Waggoner and Thomas Giles of Between the Buried and Me, Matt Fox of Shai Hulud, Heaven Shall Burn, Unearth,  Brian Cook of Botch, Code Orange,  Guy Kozowyk of The Red Chord, Greg Bennick of Trial,  Maroon, Deadlock, Marc Görtz of Caliban, Born from Pain, Saving Grace, Twelve Tribes, Dan Smith of The Dear & Departed, First Blood, No Innocent Victim and Clear; as well as activists such as Peter Daniel Young.

Members
Current members
 * Karl Buechner – vocals (1991–2001, 2007–present), bass (1989)
 * Scott Crouse – lead guitar (1991–2001, 2007–present)
 * Ian "Bulldog" Edwards – bass (1991–2001, 2007–present)
 * Dennis Merrick – drums (1993–2001, 2007–present)
 * Erick Edwards – rhythm guitar (1998–2001, 2007–present)

Former members
 * DJ Rose – vocals (1989)
 * John Moseman – guitar (1989)
 * Jesse Buckley – drums (1989)
 * Ben Read – rhythm guitar (1991–1994)
 * Kris Wiechmann – rhythm guitar (1994–1998)
 * Michael Riccardi – drums (1991–1993)

Former touring musicians
 * Jim Winters – rhythm guitar (1993–1996)
 * Andy Hurley – drums (2010)

Timeline

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * Destroy the Machines (1995, Victory Records)
 * Gomorrah's Season Ends (1996, Victory Records)
 * Breed the Killers (1998, Roadrunner Records)
 * Slither (2000, Victory Records)
 * Last of the Sane (2001, Victory Records)
 * To the Death (2009, Century Media Records)
 * Neutralize the Threat (2011, Century Media Records)
 * Salvation of Innocents (2014, Candlelight Records)

 * Studio EPs
 * All Out War (1992, Conviction Records)
 * Firestorm (1993, Victory Records)
 * The Discipline (2015, Bullet Tooth Records)
 * Vegan for the Animals (2022, Fiveonone Music)

 * Live and compilation albums
 * The California Takeover (1996, Victory Records); split live album with Strife and Snapcase
 * The Oath That Keeps Me Free (1998, Victory Records); live album
 * Forever True (1991–2001) (2001, Victory Records); retrospective compilation
 * All Out War/Firestorm (2007, Victory Records); combination of two EPs
 * The Return of the California Takeover (2021, Fiveonone Music); second split live album with Strife and Snapcase

 * Singles
 * "Broken Foundation" (1996, Victory Records)
 * "Nemesis" (2000, Victory Records)
 * "Slither" (2000, Victory Records)
 * "Killing Brain Cells" (2000, Victory Records)
 * "Forced to Kill" (2009, Seventh Dagger Records)
 * "Into a Sea of Stone" (2011, Century Media Records)
 * "Smash or Be Smashed" (2021, Decibel Flexi)

 * Music videos
 * "Broken Foundation" (1996)
 * "Killing Brain Cells" (2000)
 * "Provoke" (2000)
 * "Nemesis" (2000)
 * "To Ashes" (2009)
 * "Total War" (2011)

title: Earth Crisis


text:
John DeFrancis

John DeFrancis (August 31, 1911 – January 2, 2009) was an American linguist, sinologist, author of Chinese language textbooks, lexicographer of Chinese dictionaries, and professor emeritus of Chinese Studies at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.

Early life
John DeFrancis was born in Bridgeport, Connecticut in a family of modest Italian immigrant origins. His father, a laborer who had changed his name from DeFrancesco, died when DeFrancis was a young child. His mother was illiterate.

Professional life
After graduating from Yale College in 1933 with a Bachelor of Arts in economics, DeFrancis sailed to China with the intent of studying Chinese and working in business. In 1935, he accompanied H. Desmond Martin, a Canadian military historian, on a several-thousand-mile trip retracing the route of Genghis Khan through Mongolia and northwestern China. His book In the Footsteps of Genghis Khan (University of Hawai'i Press, 1993) describes this journey riding camels across the Gobi Desert, visiting the ruins of Khara-Khoto and rafting down the Yellow River. Along the way, he met the Chinese Muslim Ma Clique warlords Ma Buqing and Ma Bukang. DeFrancis returned to the United States in 1936 and did not visit China again until 1982.

DeFrancis began graduate studies in Chinese, first at Yale under George A. Kennedy and then at Columbia University due to Columbia's larger graduate program in sinology. He received an MA from Columbia in 1941, then a Ph.D in 1948 with a dissertation entitled "Nationalism and Language Reform in China", which was published by Princeton University Press in 1950. He began his academic career teaching Chinese at Johns Hopkins University during the height of the Red Scare, and was blacklisted for defending his colleague Owen Lattimore from unsubstantiated allegations of being a Russian spy, and eventually laid off in 1954.

After an unhappy stint as a vacuum-cleaner salesman, DeFrancis eventually returned to teaching, notably at Seton Hall University from 1961 to 1966, and the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa from 1966 to 1976. In the 1960s, at the request of John B. Tsu, he wrote 12 volumes of textbooks and readers for Mandarin Chinese, popularly known as the "DeFrancis series "and published by Yale University Press, which were widely used in Chinese as a foreign language classes for decades; DeFrancis was one of the first educators outside China to use Hanyu Pinyin as an educational aid, and his textbooks are said to have had a "tremendous impact" on Chinese teaching in the West. He served as Associate Editor of the Journal of the American Oriental Society from 1950 to 1955 and the Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association from 1966 to 1978.

Retirement
DeFrancis retired from teaching in 1976, but remained an important figure in Chinese language pedagogy, Asian sociolinguistics, and language policy, as well as a prolific author. One of his most well-known books, The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy (University of Hawai'i Press, 1984) attempts to debunk a number of what DeFrancis considered "widespread myths" about the language—including what he referred to as the "ideographic myth". Another influential work of his was Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems, which addressed more myths about the Chinese writing system, and has been called his magnum opus by colleague Victor H. Mair. DeFrancis spent his final years diligently working as Editor in Chief of the "ABC (Alphabetically Based Computerized) series" of Chinese dictionaries, which feature innovative collation by the pinyin romanization system.

While celebrating Christmas at a Chinese restaurant in Honolulu, DeFrancis choked on a piece of Peking duck. He died on 2 January 2009, in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi, at the age of 97.

Works
John DeFrancis was the author and editor of numerous publications.

The "DeFrancis series"
Textbooks (Yale Language Series, Yale University Press):

 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9
 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9
 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9
 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9
 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9
 * 1)  Part 1: ISBN 0-300-00065-0. Part 2: ISBN 0-300-00066-9

Supplementary series
Accompanying Supplementary Readers for the Intermediate Chinese Reader, (Yale University Press, 1976):

Books and monographs

 * Chinese Agent in Mongolia, translated from the Chinese of Ma Ho-t'ien (Johns Hopkins Press, 1949)
 * Report of the Second Round Table Meeting on Linguistics, Language Teaching Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics, Number 1 (Georgetown University Press, 1951)
 * Bibliography on Chinese Social History, by E-tu Zen and John DeFrancis (Yale University, Far Eastern Publications, 1952)
 * Talks on Chinese History (with Elizabeth Jen Young) (Far Eastern Publications, 1952)
 * Chinese Social History, by E-tu Zen and John DeFrancis (American Council of Learned Societies, 1956)
 * Chinese-English Glossary of the Mathematical Sciences (American Mathematical Society, 1964)
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006
 * "The Prospects for Chinese Writing Reform", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 171, 2006

Dictionaries
Editor of bilingual Chinese dictionaries (University of Hawai'i Press), which are used as databases for software such as Wenlin:
 * ABC Chinese-English Dictionary (1996, pocket edition 1999) ISBN 0-7007-1190-2.
 * ABC Chinese-English Comprehensive Dictionary (2003) ISBN 0-8248-2766-X.
 * ABC Chinese-English/English-Chinese Dictionary (2010) ISBN 0-8248-3485-2

title: John DeFrancis


text:
Jules Asner

Jules Asner (born Julie Ann White; February 14, 1968) is an American screenwriter, author, former entertainment journalist, television personality, and model.

Early life
Asner was born Julie Ann White in Tempe, Arizona. At age 16, she was discovered at a modeling convention in Scottsdale, Arizona. She began her career as an Elite model. She shared a bunk-room with Cindy Crawford during the early years of her career. In 1986, she graduated from McClintock High School in Tempe.

She attended UCLA.

Career
Asner was a longtime E! personality. During her peak with the network, she hosted six hours of programming daily. Among the series she hosted were Revealed with Jules Asner, E! News Live and Wild On!. She also hosted many live specials. Asner received a Prism Award and a Gracie Award for her interview show Revealed with Jules Asner.

Before joining E! Asner was an entertainment reporter for Reuters Television Good Morning England, The Entertainment Show on Sky Television, and Extra. She hosted Live by Request on A&E and was a segment director and producer on Hard Copy.

Miramax Books purchased the publishing rights to her first novel, Whacked. The novel recounts the story of a woman who plots revenge on a former lover. Asner said that the plot was based on a breakup she'd been through. Released on June 3, 2008, Whacked was a top-ten fiction bestseller on Amazon and was in its third printing within its first month of release.

Asner wrote the screenplay for husband Steven Soderbergh's film Logan Lucky. She chose to use the pseudonym Rebecca Blunt because she did not want the "story" surrounding the film to be that "Soderbergh was directing his wife's script." In 2018, a Twitter account belonging to TheRebeccaBlunt posted photos of Asner and Soderbergh behind the scenes working on Logan Lucky. Asner previously did uncredited rewrite work on Magic Mike and several of Soderbergh's other films.

Personal life
From 1992 to 1996, she was married to Matthew Asner and took his surname, making her the daughter-in-law of actor Ed Asner.

She married film director Steven Soderbergh in their New York apartment on May 10, 2003. Soderbergh often credits his wife with influencing his female characters.

title: Jules Asner