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Rakhine State

Rakhine State (Rakhine and, Rakhine pronunciation , ), formerly known as Arakan State, is a state in Myanmar (Burma). Situated on the western coast, it is bordered by Chin State to the north, Magway Region, Bago Region and Ayeyarwady Region to the east, the Bay of Bengal to the west and the Chittagong Division of Bangladesh to the northwest. It is located approximately between latitudes 17°30' north and 21°30' north and longitudes 92°10' east and 94°50' east. The Arakan Mountains or Rakhine Yoma separated Rakhine State from central Burma from North to South. Off the coast of Rakhine State there are some fairly large islands such as Ramree, Cheduba and Myingun. Rakhine State has an area of 36762 km2 and its capital is Sittwe (formerly known as Akyab).

Names
The state was historically known as Arakan in English until the Burmese government adopted the English name Rakhine in 1990.

History

The history of the region of Arakan (now renamed Rakhine) State can be roughly divided into seven parts. The first four divisions and the periods are based on the location of the centre of power of the main polities in the northern Rakhine region, especially along the Kaladan River. Thus, the history is divided into the Dhanyawadi, Waithali, Laymro and Mrauk U. Mrauk U was conquered by the Konbaung dynasty of Burma in 1784–85, after which Rakhine became part of the Konbaung kingdom of Burma. In 1824, the first Anglo-Burmese war erupted and in 1826, Rakhine (alongside Tanintharyi) was ceded to the British East India Company as war reparations by the Burmese. Rakhine thus became part of the province of Burma in British India. In 1948, Burma was given independence and Rakhine became part of the newly independent state.

Independent kingdom
Beginning in the 900s, the Bamar began migrating westward, crossing the Arakan Mountains and settling in what is now Rakhine State. By the 1100s, they had consolidated control of the region, becoming a tributary state of the Pagan Empire until the 13th century. Over time, these Bamar migrants formed a distinct cultural identity, eventually becoming the Rakhine people (also known as the Arakanese).

According to Rakhine legend, the first recorded kingdom, centred around the northern town of Dhanyawadi, arose in the 34th century BCE and lasted until 327 CE. These polities were likely inhabited by Indo-Aryan peoples. Rakhine documents and inscriptions state that the famed Mahamuni Buddha image was cast in Dhanyawady in around 554 BCE when the Buddha visited the kingdom. After the fall of Dhanyawadi in the 4th century CE, the centre of power shifted to a new dynasty based in the town of Waithali. The Waithali kingdom ruled the regions of Rakhine from the middle of the 4th century to 818 CE. The period is seen as the classical period of Rakhine culture, architecture and Buddhism, as the Waithali period left behind more archaeological remains than its predecessor. A new dynasty emerged in four towns along the Lemyo River as Waithali waned in influence, and ushered in the Lemro period, where four principal towns served as successive capitals.

After its partial dominance by the Islamic Delhi Sultanate and Bengal Sultanate, the final Kingdom of Mrauk U was founded in 1429 by Min Saw Mon. It is seen by the Rakhine people as the golden age of their history, as Mrauk U served as a commercially important port and base of power in the Bay of Bengal region and involved in extensive maritime trade with Arabia and Europe.Part of it, along Bengal Subah's Chittagong, was later conquered by the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. The country steadily declined from the 18th century onwards after its loss to the Mughal Empire. Internal instability, rebellion and dethroning of kings were very common. The Portuguese, during the era of their greatness in Asia, gained a temporary establishment in Arakan.

Burmese rule
On 2 January 1785, the internally divided kingdom fell to invading forces of the Konbaung dynasty. The Mahamuni Image was taken away by the Burmese Forces as war loot. Thus, an expansionist Burma came into direct territorial contact with territories of the British East India Company, which set the stage for future flaring of hostility. Various geopolitical issues gave rise to the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–26). As the image of Mahamuni had been taken as war loot by the Burmese, this time the huge bell of the temple was taken by the Presidency armies and awarded to an Indian soldier, Bhim Singh, a Risaldar in the 2nd Battalion of the Bengal Army, for his bravery. This inscribed huge bell is still installed in a temple at village Nadrai near Kasganj town in present-day Kanshiram Nagar District of Uttar Pradesh India. In the Treaty of Yandabo (1826), which ended hostilities, Burma ceded Arakan alongside Tanintharyi (Tenasserim) to British India. The British made Akyab (now Sittwe) the capital of Arakan. Later, Arakan became part of the province of Burma of the British Indian Empire, and then part of British Burma when Burma was made into a separate crown colony. Arakan was administratively divided into three districts along traditional divisions during the Mrauk U period.

British rule
Rakhine was the centre of multiple insurgencies which fought against British rule, notably led by the monks U Ottama and U Seinda. During the Second World War, Rakhine was given autonomy under the Japanese occupation of Burma and was even granted its own army known as the Arakan Defense Force. The Arakan Defense Force went over to the allies and turned against the Japanese in early 1945. Rakhine (Arakan) was the site of many battles during the Second World War, most notably the Arakan Campaign 1942–43 and the Battle of Ramree Island.

Burmese independence
In 1948, Rakhine became a division within the Union of Burma, and the three districts became Arakan Division. From the 1950s, there was a growing movement for secession and restoration of Arakan independence. In part to appease this sentiment, in 1974, the socialist government under General Ne Win constituted "Rakhine State" from Arakan Division giving at least nominal acknowledgment of the regional majority of the Rakhine people.

2010 onwards (after 2008 constitution)
Since 2010, Rakhine state has had two chief ministers: Hla Maung Tin and Major General Maung Maung Ohn. Hla Maung Tin ( January 2011 – 20 June 2014) was an elected Rakhine State Hluttaw member representing USDP from Ann Township in 2010 general election. He resigned from the post after recurrent intense inter-communal conflicts between Muslims and Rakhine ethnic groups in 2012–14. In 2014, he was replaced by Major General Maung Maung Ohn (30 June 2014 – present). Ohn was Deputy Minister for Border Affairs and head of the Rakhine State's Emergency Coordination Center before he was named to become a military-appointed Rakhine State Hluttaw member by Election Commission on 21 June 2014. His appointment as Chief Minister was formalised on 30 June 2014 although Arakan National Party opposed it.

2012 Rakhine State riots
The 2012 Rakhine State riots were a series of conflicts between Rohingya Muslims and Rakhine Buddhists who are majority in the Rakhine State. Before the riots, there were widespread and strongly held fears circulating among Buddhist Rakhines (who were a large majority) that they would soon become a minority in their ancestral state. The riots finally came after weeks of sectarian disputes including the death of ten Burmese Muslims by Rakhines and murder of a Rakhine by Rohingyas. From both sides, whole villages were "decimated". According to the Burmese authorities, the violence, between ethnic Rakhine Buddhists and Rohingya Muslims, left 78 people dead, 87 injured, and up to 140,000 people have been displaced. The government has responded by imposing curfews and by deploying troops in the region. On 10 June 2012, a state of emergency was declared in Rakhine, allowing the military to participate in the administration of the region. Rohingya NGOs overseas have accused the Burmese army and police of targeting Rohingya Muslims through arrests and participating in violence. However, an in-depth research conducted by the International Crisis Group shows that both communities are grateful for the protection provided by the military. A number of monks' organisations have taken measures to block aid from NGOs that help Rohingyas. In July 2012, the Burmese Government did not include the Rohingya minority group in the census—classified as stateless Bengali Muslims from Bangladesh since 1982. About 140,000 Rohingya in Burma remain confined in IDP camps. The official of the United Nations and Human Rights Watch have described the persecution of the Rohingya as ethnic cleansing. The UN human rights envoy to Myanmar reported "the long history of discrimination and persecution against the Rohingya community... could amount to crimes against humanity", and there have been warnings of an unfolding genocide. Yanghee Lee, the UN special investigator on Myanmar, believes the country wants to expel its entire Rohingya population.

Political repression by the Myanmar government
The NLD government refused to share executive power at state level after the Arakan National Party won a majority of votes in Rakhine State in the 2015 election. The Arakanese repeatedly complained that their proposals in parliament are frequently rejected or not addressed.

On 16 January 2018, thousands of Mrauk U residents staged a protest after officials banned a memorial event to mark the 233rd anniversary of the end of the Mrauk U kingdom. Local police opened fire on the crowd, killing seven and wounding 12. Two speakers of the event-Aye Maung, a prominent Rakhine politician, was charged under section 17(1) of Unlawful Associations Act and Sections 121 and 505 of the Penal Code, which relate to high treason and incitement and Wai Hun Aung, a Sittwe-based activist, was filed with public mischief charges under the Penal Code. Eight rakhine youths who were wounded in the protest were detained and charged under Article 6 (1) for allegedly destroying government property and public asset.

In 2017, State Counselor Aung San Suu Kyi and the Tatmadaw rejected national-level political dialogue, which was a mandatory step of the Nationwide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA), where regional stakeholders discuss suggestions at large-scale public consultations, the results of which are shared by representatives at the Union Peace Conference or 21st Century Panglong, to be held in Rakhine State. In February 2017, the Arakan Liberation Party—which is one of eight NCA signatories—proposed holding ethnic-based national-level political dialogue in Rakhine State, but Aung San Suu Kyi turned down the request, saying the ALP was not yet ready. The ALP made necessary preparations and submitted letters three times to request approval to hold the dialogue, but the government did not reply, and at the Joint Implementation Coordination Meeting (JICM) Aung San Suu Kyi again declined the request, citing sensitive issues involving the Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine State.

The Union Election Committee (UEC) announced on 16 October 2020 that the 2020 Myanmar general election would not be held in the townships of Pauktaw, Ponnagyun, Rathedaung, Buthidaung, Maung Daw, Kyauktaw, Minbya, Myebon, Mrauk U; two quarters and 52 village tracts within Kyaukphyu Township, three quarters and 29 village tracts within Ann Township, four quarters within Sittwe Township, and ten quarters and 52 village tracts within Toungup Township. The UEC argued that holding a free and fair election would not be possible in the townships due to ongoing violence. With the exception of Toungup Township, Rakhine ethnic parties are overwhelmingly dominant in these townships. The Rakhine Nationalities Development Party (RNDP) and Arakan National Party (ANP) won a majority of the seats in these townships the in 2010 and 2015 general elections. An estimated 1.2 million people in Rakhine State subsequently lost their voting rights.

2019 internet shutdown
The government of Myanmar authorised the shutdown of internet services in nine townships on 21 June 2019, including Ponnangyun, Kyauktaw, Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung, Mrauk U, Minbya, and Myebon in Rakhine State, as well as Paletwa in Chin State.

The restriction was lifted in five of nine townships in September 2019: four in Rakhine State – Maungdaw, Buthidaung, Rathedaung and Myebon – and one township in Chin State, Paletwa. However, the restriction was re-imposed in those five townships in February 2020.

Around 100 students gathered in Yangon on 22 February 2020 and demanded an end to the internet cut-off in Rakhine and Chin states, where civilian casualties are mounting as government troops battle ethnic rebels, the Arakan Army. A case has been filed, on nine students who organised the protest, under section 19 of the Peaceful Assembly Law, which outlaws unauthorised assemblies and carries a maximum six-month prison sentence.

Internet services were restored in Maungdaw Township on 1 May 2020.

On 1 August 2020, 2G internet services were permitted in the remaining seven townships – Buthidaung, Kyauktaw, Minbya, Mrauk U, Myebon, Ponnagyun and Rathedaung Townships in Rakhine State and Paletwa Township in Chin State. However, 3G and 4G services remained restricted.

On 2 February 2021, a day after the Tatmadaw seized power in a coup d'état, mobile internet services were restored in those eight townships in Rakhine State and Chin State.

Demographics
Rakhine State (formerly known as Arakan Province), like many parts of Burma, has a diverse ethnic population. Official Burmese figures state Arakan State's population as 3,118,963. The ethnic Rakhine make up the majority, followed by a considerable population of Rohingya Muslims. The Rakhine reside mainly in the lowland valleys as well as Ramree and Manaung (Cheduba) islands. A number of other ethnic minorities like the Thet, Kamein, Chin, Mro, Chakma, Khami, Daingnet, Bengali Hindu and Maramagri inhabit mainly in the hill regions of the state.

According to the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee's 2016 statistics, 12,943 Buddhist monks were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 2.4% of Myanmar's total Sangha membership, which includes both novice samanera and fully-ordained bhikkhu. The majority of monks belong to the Thudhamma Nikaya (88.9%), followed by Shwegyin Nikaya (3.9%), with the remainder of monks belonging to other small monastic orders. 534 thilashin were registered in Rakhine State, comprising 0.9% of Myanmar's total thilashin community.

The Rakhine are traditionally Theravada Buddhists. As per the 1983 Census, 98.63% of the Rakhine in Rakhine State were Buddhist and another 1.19% were Muslim. The Chin were the 3rd largest ethnic group, contributing 4% of the population in the 1983 Census. At that time, out of the 64,404 Chin in Rakhine, 55.76% were Buddhist and 33.79% were Animist. Muslims constituted more than 80–96% of the population near the border with Bangladesh and the coastal areas. As per the 1983 Census, 99.82% of the Rohingya, 99.24% of the "Other foreigners", 89.20% of the "Mixed races", 85.50% of the Indians and 67.51% of the "Pakistanis" in Rakhine state were Muslims.

Administrative divisions
Rakhine State consists of five districts, as below, showing areas and officially estimated populations in 2002:
 * Sittwe (12,504 km2; 1,099,568 people)
 * Mrauk-U (recently created out of Sittwe District)
 * Maungdaw (3,538 km2; 763,844 people)
 * Kyaukpyu (9,984 km2; 458,244 people)
 * Thandwe (10,753 km2; 296,736 people)
 * Total Rakhine State: 36,778 km2; 2,915,000 people

Combined, these districts have a total of 17 townships and 1,164 village-tracts. Sittwe is the capital of the state.

Transport
Few roads cross the Arakan Mountains from central Burma to Rakhine State. The three highways that do are the Ann to Munbra (Minbya in Burmese pronunciation) road in central Rakhine, the Toungup to Pamtaung road in south central Rakhine, and the Gwa to Ngathaingchaung road in far southern Rakhine. Air travel still is the usual mode of travel from Yangon and Mandalay to Sittwe and Ngapali, the popular beach resort. Only in 1996 was a highway from Sittwe to the mainland constructed. The state still does not have a rail line (although Myanmar Railways has announced a 480-km rail extension to Sittwe from Pathein via Ponnagyun-Kyauttaw-Mrauk U-Minbya-Ann). The airports in Rakhine State are
 * Sittwe Airport
 * Kyaukpyu Airport
 * Thandwe Airport
 * Ann Airport
 * Manaung Airport

With Chinese investment, a deep sea port has been constructed in Kyaukphyu to facilitate the transport of natural gas and crude oil from the Indian Ocean to China without passing through Strait of Malacca.

Rivers useful for transportation in Rakhine are
 * Naf River
 * Kaladan River
 * Lemro River
 * Mayu River

Economy
Rakhine is one of the poorest states in Myanmar. Over 69% of the population live in poverty.

Rice is the main crop in the region, occupying around 85% of the total agricultural land. Coconut and nipa palm plantations are also important. Fishing is a major industry, with most of the catch transported to Yangon, but some is also exported. Wood products such as timber, bamboo and fuel wood are extracted from the mountains. Small amounts of inferior-grade crude oil are produced from primitive, shallow, hand-dug wells, but there is yet unexplored potential for petroleum and natural gas production.

Tourism is slowly being developed. The ruins of the ancient royal town Mrauk U and the beach resorts of Ngapali are the major attractions for foreign visitors, but facilities are still primitive, and the transportation infrastructure is still rudimentary. While most places in Myanmar have chronic power shortages, in rural states like Rakhine the problem is greater. In 2009, the electricity consumption of a state of 3 million people was 30 MW, or 1.8% of the country's total generation capacity. In December 2009, the military government added three more hydropower plants, Saidin, Thahtay Chaung and Laymromyit, at a cost of over US$800 million. The three plants together can produce 687 megawatts, with surplus electricity distributed to other states and divisions.

Education
Educational opportunities in Myanmar are extremely limited outside the main cities of Yangon and Mandalay. The following is a summary of the public school system in the state in academic year 2013–2014.

Sittwe University is the main university in the state.

Health care
The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5% to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world. Although health care is nominally free, in reality, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack many of the basic facilities and equipment. In general, the health care infrastructure outside of Yangon and Mandalay is extremely poor but is worse in remote areas like Rakhine State. The entire Rakhine State has fewer hospital beds than the Yangon General Hospital. The following is a summary of the public health care system in the state.

title: Rakhine State


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Shan State

Shan State (, ; ရှမ်းပြည်နယ်, ) is a state of Myanmar. Shan State borders China (Yunnan) to the north, Laos (Louang Namtha and Bokeo Provinces) to the east, and Thailand (Chiang Rai, Chiang Mai and Mae Hong Son Provinces) to the south, and five administrative divisions of Myanmar in the west. The largest of the 14 administrative divisions by land area, Shan State covers 155,800 km2, almost a quarter of the total area of Myanmar. The state gets its name from Burmese name for the Tai peoples: "Shan people". The Tai (Shan) constitute the majority among several ethnic groups that inhabit the area. Shanland is largely rural, with only three cities of significant size: Lashio, Kengtung, and the capital, Taunggyi. Taunggyi is 150.7 km northeast of the nation's capital Naypyitaw.

The Shan state, with many ethnic groups, is home to several armed ethnic groups. While the military government has signed ceasefire agreements with most groups, vast areas of the state, especially those east of the Salween River, remain outside the central government's control, and in recent years have come under heavy ethnic-Han Chinese economic and political influence. Other areas are under the control of military groups such as the Shan State Army.

According to data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Shan State is the region that produces the most opium in Myanmar, though production has declined in recent years.

Names and etymology
Muang Tai (Shan: ) is the native name for the region as well as a term used for the Tai-inhabited parts of Myanmar outside of Shan State. Muang (မိူင်း) means country in Tai languages and is used before the names of other countries, e.g. Muang Maan (Myanmar).

Shan Pyi (ရှမ်းပြည်) derives from a Burmese corruption of the name Siam which is an old name for Lower Thailand. Pyi is a Burmese word meaning country and thus Shan Pyi can be translated as Shan State or Shanland. Officially, the region is called Shan State in English and Shan Pyine in Burmese but the ne in often dropped in colloquial speech.

History
Shan State is the unitary successor state to the Burmese Shan States, the princely states that were under some degree of control of the Irrawaddy valley-based Burmese kingdoms.

Historical Tai-Mao states extended well beyond the Burmese Shan States, ranging from full-fledged kingdoms of Assam in the northwest to Lan Xang in the east, to Lan Na and Ayutthaya in the southeast, as well as several petty princely states in between, covering present-day northern Chin State, northern Sagaing Division, Kachin State, Kayah State in Myanmar as well as Laos, Thailand and the southwestern part of Yunnan, China. The definition of Burmese Shan States does not include the Ava Kingdom and the Hanthawaddy Kingdom of the 13th to 16th centuries, although the founders of these kingdoms were Burmanized Shans and Monized Shans, respectively.

Early history
The founding of Shan States inside the present-day boundaries of Burma began during the Pagan Kingdom in the Shan Hills and accelerated after 1287, when the Pagan Kingdom fell to the Mongols. The Tai people, who came south with the Mongols, stayed, and quickly came to dominate much of northern to the eastern arc of Burma—from northwestern Sagaing Division to Kachin Hills to the present-day Shan Hills. The most powerful Shan states were Mong Yang (Mohnyin) and Mong Kawng (Mogaung) in present-day Kachin State, followed by Hsenwi (Theinni), Hsipaw (Thibaw) and Mong Mit (Momeik) in present-day northern Shan State. Smaller Shan states, such as Kale in northwestern Sagaing Division, Bhamo in Kachin State, Yawnghwe (Nyaungshwe) and Kengtung (Kyaingtong) in Shan State, and Mong Pai (Mobye) in Kayah State, played a precarious game of paying allegiance to more powerful states, sometimes simultaneously.

The newly founded Shan States were multi-ethnic, and included other ethnic minorities such as the Chin, the Kachin, the Wa, the Ta'ang, the Lisu, the Lahu, the Pa O, and the Kayah. Although Burmanised Shans founded the Ava Kingdom that ruled central Burma, other Shan states, Mohnyin in particular, constantly raided Ava territories throughout the years. A Mohnyin-led Confederation of Shan States finally conquered Ava in 1527.

Toungoo and Konbaung periods (1555–1885)

In 1555, King Bayinnaung dislodged Shan king Sithu Kyawhtin from Ava. By 1557 he went on to conquer all of what would become known as the Burmese Shan states under his rule, from the Assamese border in the northwest to those in Kachin Hills and Shan Hills, including the two most powerful Shan states, Mohnyin and Mogaung. The Shan states were reduced to the status of governorships, but the Saophas were permitted to retain their royal regalia and their feudal rights over their own subjects. Bayinnaung introduced Burmese customary law and prohibited all human and animal sacrifices. He also required the sons of Saophas to reside in the Burmese king's palace, essentially hostages, in order to ensure the good conduct of their fathers and to receive training in Burmese court life. Burmese kings continued this policy until 1885 when the kingdom fell to the British. (The northernmost Shan states, in Yunnan, had already fallen to the Chinese Ming dynasty by the middle of the 15th century. )

The reach of the Burmese sovereign waxed and waned with the ability of each Burmese monarch. Shan states became briefly independent following the collapse of the first Toungoo dynasty, in 1599. The Restored Toungoo dynasty under King Nyaungyan and King Anaukpetlun recovered the Shan states, including the two strongest—Monhyin and Mogaung by 1605 and Lan Na by 1615. In the early-18th century, the rule of Burmese monarchs declined rapidly and by the 1730s, the northernmost Shan states, many of which had paid dual tribute to China and Burma, had been annexed by the Qing Dynasty of China. The annexed border states ranged from Mogaung and Bhamo in present-day Kachin State to Hsenwi and Kengtung in present-day Shan State to Sipsongpanna (Kyaingyun) in present-day Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture, Yunnan.

In the middle of the 18th century, the Burmese Konbaung dynasty's reassertion of the easternmost boundaries of Burmese Shan states led to war with China. It made four separate invasions of Burma from 1765 to 1769, during the Sino-Burmese War. The Burmese success in repelling Chinese forces laid the foundation for the present-day boundary between Burma and China.

The present-day boundary of southern Shan State vis-à-vis Thailand was formed shortly thereafter. Burma lost southern Lan Na (Chiang Mai) in 1776 and northern Lan Na (Chiang Saen) in 1786 to a resurgent Bangkok-based Siam, ending more than two centuries of Burmese suzerainty over the region. It retained only Kengtung on the Burmese side. The southern border of Shan State remained contested in the following years. Siam invaded Kengtung in 1803–1804 and 1852–1854, and Burma invaded Lan Na in 1797 and 1804. Siam occupied Kengtung during World War II (1942–1945).

Throughout the Burmese feudal era, Shan states supplied much manpower in the service of Burmese kings. Without Shan manpower, the Burmans alone would not have been able to achieve their victories in Lower Burma, Siam, and elsewhere. Shans were a major part of Burmese forces in the First Anglo-Burmese War of 1824–1826, and fought valiantly—a fact that the British commanders acknowledged.

After the Second Anglo-Burmese War of 1852, the Burmese kingdom was reduced to Upper Burma alone. The Shan states—especially that east of the Salween River, were essentially autonomous entities, paying token tribute to the king. In 1875, King Mindon, to avoid certain defeat, ceded Karenni states, long part of Shan states, to the British. When the last king of Burma, Thibaw Min, ascended the throne in 1878, the rule of central government was so weak that Thibaw had to send thousands of troops to tame a rebellion in the Shan state of Mongnai and other eastern Shan states for the remainder of his six-year reign.

Colonial period (1886–1948)
On 28 November 1885, the British captured Mandalay, officially ending the Third Anglo-Burmese War in 11 days. But it took until 1890 for the British to subdue all of the various Shan states. Under the British colonial administration, established in 1887, the Shan states were ruled by their saophas as feudatory princely states of the British Crown. The British placed Kachin Hills inside Mandalay Division and northwestern Shan areas under Sagaing Division. In October 1922, the Shan and the Karenni states were merged to create the Federated Shan States, under a commissioner who also administered the Wa States. This arrangement survived the constitutional changes of 1923 and 1937.

During World War II, most of the Shan states were occupied by the Japanese. Chinese Kuomintang forces who illegally entered Burmese territory came down to northeastern Shan states to face the Japanese. Thai forces, allied with the Japanese, occupied Kengtung and surrounding areas in 1942, annexing the territory to the Thai state.

After the war, the British returned, while many Chinese KMT forces stayed inside Burmese Shan states. Negotiations leading to independence at the Panglong Conference in February 1947 secured a unitary Shan State, including former Wa states, but without the Karenni states. More importantly, Shan State gained the right of secession in 10 years from independence.

Independence (1948–2010)
Soon after gaining independence in January 1948, the central government led by U Nu faced several armed rebellions. The most serious was the Chinese Nationalist KMT invasion of Shan State in 1950. Driven out by the Chinese Communist forces, Nationalist KMT armies planned to use the region east of the Salween River as a base from which to regain their homeland. In March 1953, the KMT forces, with US assistance, were on the verge of taking the entire Shan State and within a day's march of the state capital Taunggyi. The Burmese army drove the invaders east across the Salween, but much of the KMT army and their progeny have remained in the eastern Shan State under various guises to the present day. The Burmese army's heavy-handedness fueled resentment.

In 1961, Shan saophas led by Sao Shwe Thaik, the first president of Burma and saopha of Yawnghwe, proposed a new federal system of government for greater autonomy, although the Shans had the constitutional right to secede. Though Shan leaders promised not to exercise the right, the Burmese army led by Gen. Ne Win thought the proposal was secessionist. Gen. Ne Win's coup d'état in 1962 brought an end to the Burmese experiment with democracy and with it, the call for greater autonomy for ethnic minorities. The coup fueled the Shan rebellion, started in 1958 by a small group called Num Hsük Han ('young warriors'), now joined by the Shan State Army (SSA).

By the early-1960s, eastern Shan State festered with several insurgencies and warlords, and it emerged as a major opium-growing area, part of the so-called Golden Triangle. Narcotics trafficking became a vital source of revenue for all insurgencies. Major forces consisted of the SSA and the Communist Party of Burma (CPB), as well as those of the drug lords Khun Sa, and Lo Hsing Han. By the mid-1960s, CPB had begun receiving open support from China. Thailand also began a decades-long policy of support for non-communist Burmese rebels. Families of insurgent leaders were allowed to live in Thailand, where insurgent armies were free to buy arms, ammunition, and other supplies.

In the late-1980s and 1990s, the military government signed ceasefire agreements with 17 groups, including all major players in Shan State. An uneasy truce has ensued, but all forces remain heavily armed. Today, the 20,000-strong United Wa State Army (UWSA) is the largest armed group, and is heavily involved in the narcotics trade. Under the 2008 Constitution, endorsed by the Burmese junta, certain UWSA-controlled areas were given the status of an autonomous region.

In recent decades, Chinese state and ethnic Chinese involvement in Shan State has deepened. Hundreds of thousands of immigrants from China have come to work in Upper Burma since the 1990s. Chinese investment in the state has funded everything from hydro power and mining projects to rubber plantations, logging, and wildlife trade. Wa and Kokang regions, led by local leaders, use the Chinese yuan and operate on Chinese Standard Time.

New constitution (2010–present)
In the general election of November 2010, 117 seats were open for Shan State Parliament (or Shan State Hluttaw): two each for 55 townships and seven seats for different ethnic constituencies. But elections for Mongmao, Pangwaun, Pangkham, Namphan, and Mong La Township Constituencies were canceled. Fifty-four candidates from Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP), 31 from Shan Nationalities Democratic Party (SNDP), six from PaO National Organization, four from Ta'ang (Palaung) National Party, three each from Inn National Development Party and Wa Democratic Party, four from three other parties, and two independent candidates were elected. Only one candidate from National Unity Party (Burma) was elected for Shan State Hluttaw (2011), although it was the second largest party in term of numbers of candidates.

In 2011, Aung Myat (aka Sao Aung Myat), a former military officer of the Myanmar Army and a USDP candidate of Pindaya constituencies, was named as Chief Minister of Shan State Government. Two candidates from SNDP were named for the first Shan State Government. Sai Ai Pao (aka Sai Aik Paung) was named for Industry and Mining Minister and Sai Naw Kham (aka Tun Tun Aung) was named for Construction Minister. In the Shan State cabinets (2011), one was from the Myanmar Army and six were from the Union Soldiery and Development Party (USDP).

Sai Mauk Kham (aka Maung Ohn), one of the two vice presidents of Myanmar (2011–2015), was elected from Shan State No. 3 Constituency as a National Assembly candidate in the November 2010 election.

According to data from the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), the region produces the most opium in Myanmar, accounting for 82% (331 metric tons) of the country's total output (405 metric tons) in 2020. However, opium poppy cultivation has declined year-on-year since 2015. In 2020, cultivation in Shan State declined a further 12%, with reductions taking place in East, North and South Shan with respective decreases of 17%, 10% and 9% from previous levels in 2019.

Following the 2021 coup and the ensuing civil war, Shan State saw fierce fighting between the military junta and the alliance of ethnic armed rebel groups. In November 2023, the rebels launched an offensive which overran much of Shan State, taking multiple towns, military outposts, and border crossings with China.

Geography
Most of the Shan State is a hilly plateau, the Shan Plateau, which together with the higher mountains in the north and south forms the Shan Hills system. The gorge of the Thanlwin (Salween/Namhkong) River cuts across the state. Inle Lake where the leg-rowing Intha people live in floating villages, in the great Nyaung Shwe "plain", is the second largest natural expanse of water in Burma, shallow but 14 mi long and 7 mi  wide. Pindaya Caves near Aungpan are vast limestone caverns which contain 6,226 Buddha images.

The road to Taunggyi via Kalaw and Aungpan branches off at Thazi from the main Yangon–Mandalay Road; another road via Ywangan and Pindaya branches off from Kyaukse south of Mandalay. The railhead stops short of Taunggyi at Shwenyaung, again from Thazi junction, and nearby Heho has an airport.

A severe magnitude 6.8 earthquake struck in Tarlay, Tachileik Township, the eastern part of Shan State, on 24 March 2011. It killed more than 70 and injured more than 100 people. 390 houses, 14 Buddhist monasteries, and nine government buildings were damaged.

Administrative divisions

Shan State is traditionally divided into three sub-states: Southern Shan State (1–2), Northern Shan State (3–7), and Eastern Shan State (8–11). It is officially divided into 11 districts:

 * 1) Taunggyi (တောင်ကြီး)
 * 2) Loilen (Loilem) (လွလႅမ်)
 * 3) Kyaukme (ကျောက်မဲ)
 * 4) Muse (မူဆယ်)
 * 5) Laukkaing (Laogai) (လောက်ကိုင်)
 * 6) Kunlong (ကွမ်းလုံ)
 * 7) Lashio (လာရှိုး)
 * 8) Keng Tung (ကျိုင်းတုံ)
 * 9) Mong Hsat (မိုင်းဆတ်)
 * 10) Mong Hpayak (မိုင်းဖြတ်)
 * 11) Tachileik (တာချီလိတ်)

An additional district, Hopang District, was formed as the 12th district of Shan State in September 2011 by combining the townships of Mongmao, Pangwaun, Namphan, and Pansang from Lashio District with Matman Township from Kengtung District, as well as the townships and subtownships of Hopang, Panlong, and Namtit from Kunlong District.

Executive
The Shan State Government is the cabinet of Shan State in Myanmar.

Legislature
The legislature of Shan State in Burma, called Hluttaw was established on 8 February 2016. It is a unicameral body, consisting of 137 members—103 elected members and 34 military representatives. As of February 2016, Sai Long Hseng of the Union Solidarity and Development Party (USDP) leads the Hluttaw.

Judiciary
The Shan State High Court is the judiciary of Shan State.

Shan national anthem
The national anthem of Shan State (Shan: ၵႂၢမ်းၸိူဝ်ႉၸၢတ်ႈတႆး Kwam Jue Jaat Tai) was composed by Dr Panyan on 7 February 1947.

Airports

 * Heho Airport
 * Lashio Airport
 * Tachilek Airport
 * Kengtung Airport
 * Momeik Airport
 * Mong Ton Airport
 * Mong Hsat Airport
 * Nansang Airport
 * Namtu Airport

Roads

 * National Highway 4

Demographics
The people of Shan State can be divided into ten primary ethnic groups: the Shan (Tai), Pa-O, Intha, Lahu, Lisu, Taungyo, Danu, Palaung, Ahka, and Kachin (Jingpo).

The valleys and tableland are inhabited by the Shan people, who resemble the Thai, Siam, and Lao people in language and customs. They are largely Buddhists and are mainly engaged in agriculture. Among the Shans live the Bamar, Han Chinese, and Karens. The hills are inhabited by various peoples, notably the Wa, who are numerous in the north and along the Chinese border. The Palaung people are numerous in the Northern Shan State, in the townships of Namkham, Muse, Namhpaka, Kutkai, and Lashio along the China-Myanmar border, and in the middle of Shan State, in the townships of Namhsan, Kyaukme, and Hsipaw. Some of the Palaung people can also be found in Kalaw Township in the Southern Shan State.

The Lisu people are numerous in the Northern Shan State, in the townships of Mongmit, Hsipaw, Kyaukme, Namhsan, Namhpaka, Kutkai, Namtu, Lashio, Hopang, and Tangyan, as well as the Kokang region. There is also a numerous Lisu population in the Southern Shan State, in the townships of Taunggyi, Pekon, Hopon, Mongpon, Loilem, Lai-Hka, Nansang, Mong Nai, Mong Pan, and Mong Ton. The Jingpo people are numerous along the Chinese border in the Northern Shan State, in the townships of Namkham, Muse, Namhpaka, Kutkai, Mungmyit Kodawng, Kengtung, and Lashio. The Jingpo people in Shan State are estimated to number over 200,000.

There is a dwindling population of Anglo-Burmese in major hill stations, such as Kalaw and in Taunggyi, a hold-over from the colonial period.

Religion
According to the 2014 Myanmar Census, Buddhists make up 81.7% of Shan State's population, forming the largest religious community there. Minority religious communities include Christians (9.8%), Muslims (1%), Hindus (0.1%), and animists (6.6%) who collectively comprise the remainder of Shan State's population. 0.9% of the population listed no religion, other religions, or were otherwise not enumerated.

According to the State Sangha Maha Nayaka Committee’s 2016 statistics, 77,513 Buddhist monks were registered in Shan State, comprising 14.5% of Myanmar's total Sangha membership, which includes both novice samanera and fully-ordained bhikkhu. Shan State is home to Myanmar's largest samanera community.

The majority of monks belong to the Thudhamma Nikaya (97%), followed by Shwegyin Nikaya (2.9%), with the remainder of monks belonging to other small monastic orders. 3,814 thilashin were registered in Shan State, comprising 6.3% of Myanmar's total thilashin community.

Economy
Silver, lead, and zinc are mined, notably at the Bawdwin mine, and there are smelters at Namtu. Rubies are extracted in large quantity in Mong Hsu Township with output peaking in the late-1990s and early 2000s.

Teak is cut, and rice and other crops are grown. Shan State is known for its garden produce of all sorts of fresh fruit and vegetables thanks to its temperate and sunny climate. Itinerant markets that travel from place to place, setting up on every fifth day in each small town or village, are typical, although large towns have permanent markets. It is part of the Golden Triangle, an area in which some of the world's opium and heroin are still illegally produced, and it has become a leading global production area for methamphetamine. Drug trafficking is controlled by local warlords in partnership with foreign organized crime groups, some of whom have private armies amounting to thousands of soldiers. Much of the methamphetamine (ya ba) that ends up across the Mekong and wider Asia Pacific region is produced in Shan as well.

There are some border trading centers along the Shan State border and neighboring countries. Muse, the biggest border trading center along the Myanmar–China border and Tachileik, another important trading center between Myanmar and Thailand are in Shan State.

The construction project of Sino-Burma pipelines of oil and gas that passes through northern part of Shan State was started in September 2010 and was finished in June 2013.

Education
Educational opportunities in Myanmar are limited outside the main cities of Yangon and Mandalay. It is especially a problem in Shan State where vast areas are beyond government control. According to official statistics, only about 8% of primary school students in Shan State reach high school.

Taunggyi University is the main university in the state, and until recently the only four-year university in the state. The military government, which closed down universities and colleges in the 1990s to quell student unrest, has "upgraded" former colleges and two-year institutes. The government now requires that students attend their local universities and colleges, such as Lashio University, Kyaingtong University, Panglong University.

Health care
The general state of health care in Myanmar is poor. The military government spends anywhere from 0.5 to 3% of the country's GDP on health care, consistently ranking among the lowest in the world. Although health care is nominally free, patients have to pay for medicine and treatment, even in public clinics and hospitals. Public hospitals lack basic facilities and equipment. The following is a summary of the public health system in the state, in fiscal year 2002–2003.

title: Shan State


text:
Talk:Muskox

Untitled
AFAIK, the musk ox is a bovid, but not a bovine, being related to the caprines instead. Does anyone confirm? RodC 16:40, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

--- Yes, of course. It was there already. Corrected. RodC

Length height
The article gives varying length/height values: 2/1 versus 2.5/1.5. Which is correct? --chad 07:03, 20 December 2005 (UTC) A musk-ox stands at about the shoulders of a average 5'10" man and are longer then he can strech his arms and big bulls can weight 900lbs. Even when they get big like that the do not get any taller just wider. MK

''The musk ox gives highly nutritous milk, producing only 4 ounces a day. These animals do not make good pets due to their aggressive behavior. they have changed little since the ice age, and were here alongside the whooly mammoth. Also, they should not be shaves as they have 2 inportant types of hair; the inner hair is called quiviut, and is highly sought because it is solft and very warm. In the wild, the muskoxen shed the hair and it can be found on branches and on the ground. In a farm setting they need to be combed, but they will lose the quiviut on their own, called molting. The outer hair is the guard hair and does not molt; this hair need to to stay in place year round as protection. Guard hair is very long, often touching the ground.

Maturity
Female musk oxen reach sexual maturity at 2 years of age and males at 5 years old.

Wrong!
The the endangered or whatever picture below the picture of the muskox should not be low risk, it should be endangered! Because poachers are hunting them for their horns! Please correct that.
 * Well the IUCN says that are are not endangered. You need to provide sources. I've lived in the arctic for over 30 years and I know of only one occassion where a muskox was shot for the horns. I've never heard of poachers hunting them. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk) 15:44, 23 May 2007 (UTC)
 * In 2005 there were several muskoxen killed up here in Alaska by poachers in the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta. People were really upset. The Anchorage Daily News reported on it; however, muskoxen are no longer endangered. They've been reintroduced to much of their former range and are being raised commercially on three farms plus some experiment farms. They're actually doing pretty well. Deirdre 22:15, 23 May 2007 (UTC)
 * My understanding is that they are one of the few creatures to make a come back from being almost extinct. If true it might make and interesting addition to the article. I do know that several years ago there were none hunted at all but now Ulukhaktok, Northwest Territories has over a 100 tags. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk) 05:24, 24 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Whether a species are threatened or endangered is not up to if a species is hunted or not. Or whether they are hunted as trophies (which I personally condemn) or to be used as food (which I find positive – but muskoxen is dog food, I’ve tried!) as long as the hunting is controlled and practiced in a sustainable manner.  Let’s stick to the IUCN definition:  LR/lc – That is: Lower risk (of least concern).  So it is NOT threatened at all.  (see http://www.iucnredlist.org)
 * Carl S. Bj 11:51, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

 * In Nunavut and the NWT of Canada even if the muskox is hunted a trophy the meat is still retained for elders in the community. Of course that doesn't apply to poaching them. If you feel that they taste like dog food then it's not being cooked correctly. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk) 14:14, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

It's Muskox, not Musk ox
According to Jan Rowell, a scientist at the Large Animal Research Station, at the third international conference on muskoxen (in 1987), the common name was agreed on by the attending scientists as muskox (pl. muskoxen), basically because the animal is not an ox. It's in its own subfamily and most closely related to wild goats, apparently. This also makes more sense grammatically. So I recommend that this article be moved to Muskox; however, I don't want to just go do it without discussion first. Deirdre 23:00, 31 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Well according to the link on the article page that is correct. A look at IUCN Red List gives both. But I have no objection to the move. CambridgeBayWeather (Talk) 04:53, 2 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Okay, it's been a while; I'm going ahead with the move. Deirdre 19:01, 9 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, it won't let me, so now I have to figure out how to get it moved...Deirdre 19:12, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

Native only to North America?
The article says it is native to North America only, while the animal once thrived in Europe as well as Russia. Is there a reason for this (eg they now living animals all are descendants of those from NA)?
 * They were widespread throughout the Arctic, and the ones in Alaska are descended from muskoxen in Canada and Greenland. I'm not sure about whether they were extinct in Siberia--don't think so. Deirdre 19:30, 14 November 2006 (UTC)

If we dont't bother with the interglacials, muskoxen is not native to Eurasia. It lived there before the last glaciation, fossils shows, but that's hardly relevant by my opinion. Carl S. Bj 11:30, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

How closely / distantly related are the Himalayan Takin? 202.138.52.64 (talk) 06:33, 21 October 2008 (UTC) Ian Ison
 * Well the Takin article leads to Convergent evolution which suggests that they would have unrelated lineages. They are both related to sheep/goats. The question would be better put at Reference desk/Science. CambridgeBayWeather Have a gorilla 09:55, 21 October 2008 (UTC)

Range
The range picture that's been added to this article appears not to be consistent with the text. The way, the truth, and the light 17:25, 29 May 2007 (UTC)

I just kayaked down the Colville River on the Alaskan North Slope (north of the Brooks Range) and I saw five muskoxen just east of where the Kiligwa River enters the Colville. That is nowhere near the range indicated on your map. objetora (talk) 21:42, 26 June 2009 (UTC)

--- MAP WRONG! The introduction of muskoxen on Svalbard / Spitsbergen was no success. I worked ther three years 1986-1988, it had then already gone extinct for approx 10Y. Probably due to climate - Spitsbergen has an oceanic klimate, much warmer than its latitude should give, and episodes of thaw, rain and succeding icing of the terrain is no good for an animal adapted to the dry parts of Arctic. Carl S. Bj (talk) 13:22, 5 February 2010 (UTC)

---

I'm working about 200km south of Baker Lake in southern Nunavut at the moment, seeing herds of muskox up to 20 in number on a daily basis. Perhaps change the map... Ezkerraldean (talk) 01:27, 31 August 2011 (UTC)
 * Should it red or blue though? CambridgeBayWeather (talk) 06:44, 31 August 2011 (UTC)

---

When I was seven or eight years old (circa 2001), I saw a large group of muskoxen in northern Quebec, a few kilometres away from Kangirsuk. Although I was young, I am confident this information is correct. Perhaps I could dig up a picture to back this up. Would be interested in finding out if there are any left in northern Quebec. Nicolas Perrault (talk) 18:38, 14 October 2017 (UTC)

Ice Age Survivor and Predation
"Musk oxen (Ovibos moschatus) are considered the most "arctic" of the northern land mammals. Whereas a polar bear resembles other bears, there is really no other animal like a muskox. With impressive long, curved horns, stout body, and woolly coat, muskox are the only survivor of a group of "ice-age" oxen species from about 18,000 years ago. They are the only High Arctic mammals that seek no shelter of any kind during winter blizzards. Their thick coats (which is dark brown except for a pale cream-colored saddle) keep them warm enough so... they just stand there! Their outer coat of long guard hairs almost reach the ground and even camouflage most of their white legs underneath. Both males and females have horns which are mainly used as defense against wolves - their only natural predator.

When wolves threaten a herd, the adult musk oxen arrange themselves in a circle with their young in the middle or in a line with the young behind them. The wolves are then faced with an unbroken row of lowered heads and sharp horns. So, unless they are very quick and get a calf before the adult musk oxen are all lined up, the wolves simply just have to give up!"

Reference:

Kindly research and include these facts too in this article. Thanks

mrigthrishna (talk) 01:27, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

That it is an "Ice Age Survivor" and a "living fossil" should be in the intro itself. Predation can be a separate subheading.

mrigthrishna (talk) 01:34, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

 * If you look at the "Physical characteristics" section of the article, fourth paragraph it does discuss the circle strategy. The fifth paragraph mentions that the muskox "..migrated to North America between 200,000 and 90,000 years ago." Somewhat more than the 18,000 mention in the article. Enter CambridgeBayWeather, waits for audience applause, not a sausage 05:32, 18 August 2009 (UTC)

Musk
"...noted for its thick coat and for the strong odor emitted by males, from which its name derives. This musky odor is used to attract females during mating season."

I've read that muskoxen have no musk glands. Shouldn't this be reflected in the article? --Ifrit (talk) 09:34, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

Introduced or Reintroduced

 * "The species has also been reintroduced from Banks Island to northern Europe, including Sweden, the Dovre mountain range of Norway, and Russia"

Shouldn't this be "introduced", as the article says their native range is solely in N. America? Rojomoke (talk) 20:29, 10 September 2010 (UTC)

Muskox in Quebec
I've decided to delete the unsourced comment that muskoxen were threatened in Quebec until hunting was banned or something like that. As you can read here, muskoxen have never inhabited Quebec in the remote past, despite the habitat there being suitable, because (my guess) the Hudson Bay acted as a barrier to their expansion. A farm whith animals from Ellesmere Island was established in northern Quebec in 1967 and, when it failed to make a profit, the animals were released in the wild. Since then the muskoxen have done nothing but going up in numbers. Thus, while I don't negate the possibility that this was helped by either Quebec or Canada banning hunting (of which I personally know no evidence whatsoever) I do negate that the muskox was ever a threatened species in Quebec.--Menah the Great (talk) 12:17, 12 January 2013 (UTC)

Can someone add the spot in which muskox was introduced in northern Quebec to the range map? Besides the text, I guess these two other maps can be used as a source.--Menah the Great (talk) 18:02, 9 May 2016 (UTC)
 * There's a map in this article too. As I noted in another discussion above, for what it's worth, I saw a group of muskoxen (perhaps 20-30?) near Kangirsuk, Quebec, circa 2001. Nicolas Perrault (talk) 18:49, 14 October 2017 (UTC)
 * The map in the article you link to appears to be very inaccurate (compare, for example the range it shows in Alaska - more than half the state - to what our map shows), so I wouldn't recommend basing anything on it. WolfmanSF (talk) 19:30, 14 October 2017 (UTC)

Importance to First Peoples
I'd like to see a section on the importance of this animal to the First Peoples. Is it used for milk, meat, clothing, shelter? Thanks. I am ignorant of this topic, even though I have BeenAroundAWhile (talk) 05:11, 16 September 2017 (UTC)
 * Some relevant info is given in the Physical characteristics and Recent native range in North America sections. WolfmanSF (talk) 05:28, 16 September 2017 (UTC)

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External links modified (February 2018)
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Range map
The range attirbuted to the musk ox in this page has long been outdated or just plain wrong (underestimated in North America and Siberia, failed introduction to Svalbard shown as successful, etc).

This is an accurate range map for 2019. Photoshop wizards, please update the map.--Menah the Great (talk) 05:46, 14 April 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Environmental physiology
— Assignment last updated by Jessicaphillips10 (talk) 01:16, 3 October 2022 (UTC)

Introduction to Vermont
In the 1970s there was an attempt to raise muskox in Vermont. The adults did fine, but my understanding is that the young ones died of respiratory infections due, apparently, to the humidity being wrong. I saw them myself in Richmond or Huntington but can't supply a reference.Bill (talk) 23:25, 1 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Update: The person who did this was John Teal, who also worked on domesticating muskox in Alaska. He had some on his farm in Huntington Center, Vermont. Googling him will bring up some information about his work.Bill (talk) 18:36, 2 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Muskox


text:
Hanabiramochi

Hanabiramochi (葩餅) is a Japanese sweet (wagashi), usually eaten at the beginning of the year. Hanabiramochi are also served at the first tea ceremony of the new year.

Origin
The name "hanabiramochi" literally means "flower petal mochi". The original form of Hanabiramochi is Hishihanabira, a dessert that was eaten by the Imperial family at special events coinciding with the beginning of the year.

Hanabiramochi was first made in the Meiji Era, and is now a familiar New Year wagashi.

Form
The exact shape of hanabiramochi is strictly defined by tradition. The white mochi covering is flat and round, folded over to form a semicircular shape, and must have a pink color showing through in the center of the confection, fading to a white at the edge. Unlike a daifuku, the mochi must not completely seal the insides.

In the center of a hanabiramochi is a layer of anko, a sweet bean paste, commonly the white kind made from sweetened mung beans. In the very center is a thin strip of sweetly flavoured gobo (burdock), which protrudes from the mochi on both sides.

Significance and symbolism
Each element of the hanabiramochi is significant:

The red colour showing through the white mochi is not only appropriate to the celebration of the new year, but also evokes the Japanese apricot/plum (ume) blossom, which in turn represents the purity, perseverance, and renewal associated with the New Year.

The gobo represents pressed ayu, a fish exclusive to East Asia, and a prayer for a long life.

title: Hanabiramochi


text:
John Dillon

John Dillon (4 September 1851 – 4 August 1927) was an Irish politician from Dublin, who served as a Member of Parliament (MP) for over 35 years and was the last leader of the Irish Parliamentary Party. By political disposition, Dillon was an advocate of Irish nationalism, originally a follower of Charles Stewart Parnell, supporting land reform and Irish Home Rule.

Early life
John Dillon was born in Blackrock, Dublin, a son of the former "Young Irelander" John Blake Dillon (1814–1866). Following the premature death of both his parents, he was partly raised by his father's niece, Anne Deane. He was educated at Catholic University School, at Trinity College Dublin and at the Catholic University of Louvain in Belgium. He afterwards studied medicine at the Royal College of Surgeons in Dublin, then ceased active involvement in medicine after he joined Isaac Butt's Home Rule League in 1873, winning notice in 1879 when he attacked Butt's weak parliamentary handling of Irish Home Rule. His family's financial means enabled him to turn and devote all his energies to political life.

He became a leading land reform agitator as a member of the original committee of the Irish National Land League, spearheading the policy of "boycotting" advocated by Michael Davitt with whom he was allied in close friendship. He entered the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1880 as member for County Tipperary, and was at first an ardent supporter of Charles Stewart Parnell. He travelled to the United States with Parnell on a fund-raising mission for the Land League. On his return, he denounced William Ewart Gladstone's Land Law (Ireland) Act 1881 as achieving nothing for small farmers. His views on agrarian reform and on Home Rule led him to be branded an extremist, which resulted in his arrest from May until August 1881 under the Irish Coercion Act.

Radical reformer
Again imprisoned for agitation in October 1881 together with Parnell, William O'Brien and others in Kilmainham Gaol, he signed the No Rent Manifesto in solidarity although not fully in agreement with it. Parnell sought to end the Land War by agreeing to the Kilmainham Treaty after which they were released from prison in May 1882. Shortly afterwards they received the freedom of the city of Dublin. Unhappy with Parnell's "New Departure" and because his health had suffered, he resigned his seat in Parliament on 6 March 1883, and retired from politics to Colorado in America where his brother lived. Returning in 1885, Parnell nominated him as the Irish Parliamentary Party candidate for East Mayo in the general election in November 1885, where he was returned unopposed. He represented the constituency without a break until 1918.

He was one of the prime movers in the Irish Land League's famous Plan of Campaign instigated by Timothy Healy and organised by Timothy Harrington, which provided, that in the case of excessive rents the tenant should pay his rent to the Land League instead of the landlord, and in case of eviction be supported by the general fund. Dillon was compelled by the Court of Queens Bench in December 1886 to find securities for good behaviour, but two days later he was arrested while receiving rents on Lord Clanricarde's estate at Portumna, County Galway. In this instance, the jury disagreed, but in April 1887 he was again imprisoned under Coercion and upon release, he resumed agrarian agitation with a speech during a demonstration in September where O'Brien was on trial in Mitchelstown during which the crowd threw stones at the police who then shot three civilians, known as the "Mitchelstown massacre". When in 1888 he defended Munster farmers he was again imprisoned for six months under the provisions of the new Criminal Law Procedure Bill, or Coercion Act. In all he was imprisoned six times.

Anti-Parnellite course
He was released in September, and in the spring of 1889 sailed for Australia and New Zealand, where he collected funds for the Nationalist party. On his return to Ireland he was again arrested, but, being allowed bail, sailed to America, and failed to appear at the trial. He returned to Ireland by way of Boulogne, where he and William O'Brien held long and indecisive discussions with Parnell after his divorce crisis over his continued leadership of the Irish Parliamentary Party. When these broke down they surrendered to the police in February, and were interned in Galway gaol from where they were released in July 1890.

Both he and O'Brien had become increasingly perturbed with the tenor of Irish politics as epitomised by Timothy Healy. After Parnell's divorce case, the leader refused to step down and the party split. Dillon was one of his strongest opponents and joined the majority anti-Parnellite block, the Irish National Federation (INF), with Justin McCarthy becoming its leader. John Redmond led the minority pro-Parnellite Irish National League (INL) after Parnell's death later in 1891. When the Liberals reclaimed office in 1892 Dillon took part in the negotiations on the second Home Rule Bill, the Irish Government Bill 1893, which was rejected by the House of Lords. Although he never lost sight of home rule or the land question, particularly the evicted tenants, he now concentrated on the day-to-day running of the INF as deputy chairman.

Party manoeuvrings
When home rule became postponed after the Conservative Party returned to power in 1895, Dillon took the opportunity to expel Healy from his influence in the party. He also opposed Horace Plunkett in his attempts to bring Unionists and Nationalists together, and his efforts to help small farmers through his cooperative movement. In November Dillon married Elizabeth Mathew at the Brompton Oratory who bore him six children. In February 1896 he took over as chairman of the INF on McCarthy's resignation. That autumn he arranged a convention of the Irish race, which included 2,000 delegates from various parts of the world. In 1897 Dillon opposed in the House of Commons the Address to Queen Victoria on the occasion of the Diamond Jubilee, on the ground that her reign had not been a blessing to Ireland, and he showed the same uncompromising attitude in 1901 when a grant to Lord Roberts was under discussion, accusing him of systematised inhumanity. He was suspended on 20 March 1902 for violent language addressed to Joseph Chamberlain, calling the then Colonial Secretary a "damned liar".

Dillon was present in January 1898 when William O'Brien launched his "United Ireland League" (UIL) from an agrarian platform in Ballina, County Mayo. Though helping to establish its constitution Dillon was very ambivalent about this new association, marking the first strains in the O'Brien-Dillon relationship. The year was also eventful with the attainment of the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 which put the administration of local affairs into Irish hands, not at all favoured by Dillon before attaining full Home Rule. O'Brien's UIL spread rapidly, forcing the divided factions, the INL and the INF, of the Irish Parliamentary Party to reunite under Redmond in 1900, with Dillon as deputy Party leader. He faithfully supported Redmond in the following years.

Conciliation unthinkable
Dillon played a decisive role in opposing O'Brien's "doctrine of conciliation" in Irish politics, especially during the 1902 Land Conference and after O'Brien won the subsequent Wyndham Land Purchase (Ireland) Act 1903. O'Brien was viciously attacked by Dillon, who bore an instinctive dislike of negotiations with landlords, unwilling to accommodate the landlord class, he never shed his mistrust of dialogue with Unionists. His theory was that agrarian unrest better favoured achieving Home Rule by putting relentless pressure on landlords and the government. His attacks and those of the party's Freeman's Journal alienated O'Brien who left the Party in November 1903. O'Brien's engagement during 1904–5 with the Irish Reform Association and his appraising of the 1907 Irish Council Bill were equally condemned by Dillon who despised all dealings with the "hereditary enemy". The ensuing breach never healed. Dillon subsequently gained control of the UIL through his protégé, its new secretary Joseph Devlin, MP for Belfast West, with whom Dillon always maintained a close alliance.

With the UIL and the IPP practically fused into a single body, Dillon later had MP members associated with O'Brien's policy of conciliation, amongst them Thomas O'Donnell and D. D. Sheehan, expelled as "factionists" from the party. The Home Rule Movement, influenced very greatly by Dillon, reverted to a narrow traditional stand, which opposed any chance of an inclusive nationalism and failed to include new interests within Catholic society. His Home Rule Movement was largely a confessional ethnic body, sustained largely by the Ancient Order of Hibernians, an exclusively Catholic and secret fraternity, largely under the control of his close associate Joe Devlin. Dillion's Home Rule Movement was characterised by permanent class war and did not facilitate the working of the Wyndham Land Act; conflict above victory.

Dillon suffered occasional health incapacities causing irregular attendance at Westminster, particularly when his wife died in 1907 though after the Liberals returned to power in 1906, he was more often consulted. Between 1910 and 1914 the Irish Home Rule question re-emerged, introduced by Prime Minister H. H. Asquith. In his approach to Irish self-government under Home Rule took a more uncompromising stand than Redmond's, who during the Ulster crisis of 1913 was prepared to concede a large measure of local autonomy to Ulster. On 15 and 16 January Dillon spent lunch at the Commons with one of his closest supporters, Guardian editor, C. P. Scott, and ardent home ruler, he urged the Irish leader to lobby the new Labour MPs. It was unthinkable for Dillon, who put the integrity of Ireland foremost: he poured scorn on Edward Carson's Ulster Unionist Party and their Ulster Volunteers' threat of civil war as being a gigantic bluff. Scott courted Dillon's opinion most assiduously at the Bath Club and his Manchester home in favour of "gradual strengthening of the military force in Ulster", without support the police might "cave in altogether". "Incredibly weak" Dillon was unable to prevent Carson's amendments to Crewe's Home Rule bill. Likewise Dillon condemned O'Brien's new All-for-Ireland League's proposals for concessions to Ulster as encouraging their demands. He remained inflexible at various meetings, including the Buckingham Palace Conference's endeavour to settle the problem of Ulster. He agreed only reluctantly to Redmond conceding to six counties temporarily opting out of the Home Rule Act 1914, which in September received Royal Assent but was suspended for the duration of World War I.

Dillon was a strong opponent of giving women the vote, telling a group of women that "women's suffrage will I believe, be the ruin of our western civilisation. It will destroy the home, challenging the headship of man, laid down by God. It may come in your time - I hope not in mine."

Uncompromising stand for peace
With the outbreak of the Great War Dillon accepted Redmond's decision to follow Britain's support of the Allied war effort, but he abstained from recruiting for the Irish divisions. The 1916 Rising took the Irish Party by surprise. He intervened with David Lloyd George to halt the 90 sentences of execution pronounced by "field court-martial" (in camera without defence or jury) under martial law by General Maxwell after he declared the rebellion "treason in time of war". He told Scott his party must support Conscription or lose the election. But on 10 January, they did just that "to make their protest" with Lib-Lab assistance. Dillon insisted that if they went ahead they would "fill the whole country" with the same type of radicals, as opposed to imprisonment. This would leave the radicals with as many supporters as could "fit in a single gaol cell". He attacked the Government in the House of Commons and declared that the rebels were "wrong", but had fought "a clean fight". Intervention to halt the executions after the 15th; an unbridgeable chasm in Anglo-Irish relations. The secret trials and executions had changed public opinion into sympathy for the rebels. He was involved in May 1916 with Lloyd George's futile attempt to implement Home Rule after the Rising, which failed in July on the issue of the exclusion or not of Ulster. He declined a nomination to the Irish Convention on Home Rule in 1917.

After Redmond's death on 6 March 1918, Dillon returned to Ireland to take up the party leadership. When the allied armies on the Western Front were hit and thrown into a temporary severe retreat by the German spring offensive, which decimated the 10th and 16th Irish divisions, the Government attempted a month later in panic to extend conscription to Ireland, which Dillon opposed with tenacity, and in protest withdrew all Irish Members from the House of Commons. The attempt to impose conscription jointly linked with implementing Home Rule disgusted the wider Irish public and resulted in an immediate swing of support to Sinn Féin which precipitated their election landslide after the war.

Dillon attempted to persuade the Government in July 1918 to implement Irish self-government by introducing a motion for self-determination in the Commons. He made clear in September that the goal of Home Rule could only be "the establishment of national self-government, including full and complete executive, legislative and fiscal power", and that national solidarity was essential. But he completely underestimated the need to offer provisions for Ulster concerns, a fatal misjudgement shared by most Nationalists and Republicans alike.

It was left to Dillon to fight a last campaign in the general election of December 1918. After a failure to reach a pact with Sinn Féin, his party was swept into oblivion. He was defeated in East Mayo by Éamon de Valera's 8,975 votes to his 4,514. Retiring from politics, Dillon was not spared witnessing the violent epoch of the Anglo-Irish War, the implementation of Home Rule in Northern Ireland, the ensuing Partition of Ireland endorsed by the Irish Free State and the resulting Irish Civil War.

Family background
He got married in 1895 to Elizabeth, daughter of Lord Justice J. C. Mathew, who bore him six children. Tall and slim he cut an imposing figure, his personal reputation hampered at times by a pessimistic and gloomy nature as well as conservative views on labour and women. He died in a London nursing home at the age of 76, on 4 August 1927, and was buried four days later in Glasnevin cemetery, Dublin. There is a street named after him in Dublin's Liberties, beside the old Iveagh Market.

One of his six children was James Mathew Dillon (1902–1986), a prominent Irish politician and leader of the National Centre Party and of Fine Gael (1957–1966), also Minister for Agriculture.

Commemoration
John Dillon Street in Dublin city is named after him.

title: John Dillon


text:
Administrative divisions of Myanmar

Myanmar is divided into 21 administrative divisions, which include seven regions, seven states, one union territory, one self-administered division, and five self-administered zones.

Table
Following is the table of government subdivisions and its organizational structure based on different regions, states, the union territory, the self-administered division, and the self-administered zones:

The regions were called divisions prior to August 2010, and four of them are named after their capital city, the exceptions being Sagaing Region, Ayeyarwady Region and Tanintharyi Region. The regions can be described as ethnically predominantly Burman (Bamar), while the states, the zones and Wa Division are dominated by ethnic minorities.

Yangon Region has the largest population and is the most densely populated. The smallest population is Kayah State. In terms of land area, Shan State is the largest and Naypyidaw Union Territory is the smallest.

Regions and states are divided into districts (MY ခရိုင်; kha yaing or khayaing, ). These districts consist of townships (MY မြို့နယ်; myo-ne, ) that include towns (MY မြို့; myo, ), wards (MY ရပ်ကွက်; yatkwet, )) and village tracts (MY ကျေးရွာအုပ်စု; kyayywa oksu, ). Village tracts are groups of adjacent villages (MY ကျေးရွာ; kyayywa, ).

Structural hierarchy

 * Some townships are divided into Subtownships (MY မြို့နယ်ခွဲ), which are semi-official parts of a township administered separately. Many reports will use subtownships, especially more established subtownships used by the main townships themselves.

System of administration
The administrative structure of the states, regions and self-administering bodies is outlined in the new constitution adopted in 2008.

Regions and States
Executive authority is held in each state or region by a Regional or State Government consisting of a Chief Minister, other ministers and an Advocate General. The President appoints the Chief Minister from a list of qualified candidates in the regional or state legislature; the regional or state legislature must approve the President's choice unless they can prove that he or she does not meet the constitutional qualifications.

Legislative authority resides with the State Hluttaw or Regional Hluttaw made up of elected civilian members and representatives of the Armed Forces. Both divisions are considered equivalent, the only distinction being that states have large ethnic minority populations and regions are mostly populated by the national majority Burmans / Bamar.

Naypyidaw Union Territory
The constitution states that Naypyidaw shall be a Union Territory under the direct administration of the President. Day-to-day functions would be carried out on the President's behalf by the Naypyidaw Council led by a Chairperson. The Chairperson and members of the Naypyidaw Council are appointed by the President and shall include civilians and representatives of the Armed Forces.

Self-Administered Division and Self-Administered Zones
Self-Administered Zones and Self-Administered Divisions are administered by a Leading Body. The Leading Body consists of at least ten members and includes State or Regional Hluttaw members elected from the Zones or Divisions and other members nominated by the Armed Forces. The Leading Body has both executive and legislative powers. A Chairperson is head of each Leading Body.

Within Sagaing Region:

 * Naga (Leshi, Lahe, and Namyun townships)

Within Shan State:

 * Danu Self-Administered Zone (Ywangan and Pindaya townships),
 * Kokang Self-Administered Zone (Konkyan and Laukkai townships)
 * Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone (Namshan and Manton townships)
 * Pa'O Self-Administered Zone (Hopong, Hshihseng, and Pinlaung townships),
 * Wa Self-Administered Division (Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Pangsang, Naphan, and Metman townships)

Districts and Townships
Districts are the second-order divisions of Myanmar and are often named after a population center within the district of the same name. Shan State has the most districts, even excluding Self-Administered Zones and Divisions. Naypyidaw Union Territory and Mon State have the least with just 2 districts. The District's role is more supervisory as the 330 townships are the basic administrative unit of local governance and are the only type of administrative division that covers the entirety of Myanmar. A District is led by a District Administrator and a Township is administered by a Township Administrator. Both are appointed civil servants through the General Administration Department (GAD) of the Ministry of Home Affairs (MOHA). The Minister of Home Affairs is to be appointed by the military according to the 2008 constitution.

Most local governance services are offered at the Township level; few services are offered at the District level. The Township Administrator is the key focal point for most interactions with the government and the Township Administrator serves as a representative of the State or Region government and executes functions on behalf of the State or Region. All Township governments are staffed by 34 GAD civil servants regardless of population, although larger townships may have several Township committees that coordinate with the Township and report to the District. Subtownships exist for many but not all townships. They can be created for many reasons including, townships with large areas, townships with a large natural barrier or townships with a lopsided population distribution. These subtownships are unofficial, but can be used by the Township administration and national ministries for data collection and administrative ease.

Wards, Village Tracts and Municipalities
The fourth and lowest level of administration is the ward for urban areas and village tract for rural areas. Some townships include areas not part of any ward or village tract. Village Tracts may contain up to 8 distinct villages. Most townships contain at least one ward/town, and are usually named after the population center. As of reforms in 2012 and 2013, Ward and Village Tract administrators are now typically elected, but report to the appointed Township Administrator. Ward Administrators and Village Tract Administrators (also called just Village Administrators) are supported by 100-household-heads and 10-household-heads who are collectively called area leaders.

Most cities in Myanmar are contained within one township like Pathein. In some cases, the rural portions of the township may be administered semi-independently as sub-townships. In larger cities, like Mandalay, the municipality may be functionally administered at a district level with townships acting de facto as subdivisions of a city. In Yangon, the administrative jurisdiction of the Yangon City Development Committee overlap across 33 townships and all 4 of Yangon Region's districts.

British colonisation
In 1900, Burma was a province of British India, and was divided into two subdivisions: Lower Burma, whose capital was Rangoon with four divisions (Arakan, Irrawaddy, Pegu, Tenasserim), and Upper Burma, whose capital was Mandalay with six divisions (Meiktila, Minbu, Sagaing, North Federated Shan States and South Federated Shan States).

On 10 October 1922, the Karenni States of Bawlake, Kantarawaddy, and Kyebogyi became a part of the Federated Shan States. In 1940, Minbu division's name was changed to Magwe, and Meiktila Divisions became part of Mandalay District.

Post-independence
Upon independence, on 4 January 1948, the Chin Hills area was split from Arakan Division to form Chin Special Division, and Kachin State was formed by carving out the Myitkyina and Bhamo districts of Mandalay Division. Karen State was also created from Amherst, Thaton, and Toungoo Districts of Tenasserim Division. Karenni State was separated from the Federated Shan States, and Shan State was formed by merging the Federated Shan States and the Wa States.

In 1952, Karenni State was renamed Kayah State. In 1964, Rangoon Division was separated from Pegu Division, whose capital shifted to Pegu. In addition, Karen State was renamed Kawthoolei State.

In 1972, the Hanthawaddy and Hmawbi districts were moved under Rangoon Division's juridstiction.

In 1974, after Ne Win introduced a constitution, Chin Special Division became a state, and its capital moved from Falam to Hakha. Kawthoolei State's name was reverted to Karen State. Mon State was created out of portions of Tenasserim Division and Pegu Division. Mon State's capital became Moulmein, and Tenasserim Division's became Tavoy. In addition, Rakhine Division was granted statehood.

In 1989, after the coup d'état by the military junta, the names of many divisions in Burma were altered in English to reflect Burmese pronunciations.

After 1995, in Kachin State Mohnyin District was created out of Myitkyina District as part of the peace agreement with the Kachin Independence Army.

2008 Constitution
The 2008 Constitution stipulates the renaming of the 7 "divisions" (MY တိုင်း in Burmese) as "regions" (MY တိုင်းဒေသကြီး in Burmese). It also stipulates the creation of Union territories, which include the capital of Nay Pyi Taw and ethnic self-administered zones (MY ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရဒေသ in Burmese) and self-administered divisions (MY ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရတိုင်း in Burmese). These self-administered regions include the following:

 * Danu Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Ywangan and Pindaya townships in Shan State
 * Kokang Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Konkyan and Laukkai townships in Shan State
 * Naga Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Leshi, Lahe, and Namyun townships in Sagaing Region
 * Pa Laung Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Namhsan and Manton townships in Shan State
 * Pa-O Self-Administered Zone: consisting of Hopong, Hsihseng, and Pinlaung townships in Shan State
 * Wa Self-Administered Division: consisting of Hopang, Mongmao, Panwai, Nahpan, Metman, and Pangsang (Pankham) townships in Shan State

On 20 August 2010, the renaming of the 7 divisions and the naming of the 6 self-administered zones was announced by Burmese state media.

title: Administrative divisions of Myanmar


text:
Richard Taylor (filmmaker)

Sir Richard Leslie Taylor (born 8 February 1965) is the founder, creative director and head of New Zealand film prop and special effects company Wētā Workshop.

Early life
Taylor was born in Cheadle, Cheshire, England, on 8 February 1965, and emigrated as a child to New Zealand, where his family lived at Te Hihi, and later the Auckland suburb of Patumahoe. He was naturalised as a New Zealand citizen in 1974. Taylor studied at Wesley College, Paerata, and then became a graduate of the former Wellington Polytechnic.

Career
Peter Jackson, Taylor and his company created all of the props, costumes, prosthetics, miniatures and weaponry for Jackson's epic The Lord of the Rings film trilogy. For his work on the three films, he shared in winning four Academy Awards. This included two for The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring in Make Up and Visual Effects, and two for The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King in Costume Design and Make Up. He was nominated for Costume Design for The Fellowship of the Ring.

Taylor can be seen and heard on all of The Lord of the Rings DVDs, in behind-the-scenes documentaries and on the audio commentaries on the extended edition DVDs. He also appeared on set to give direction to actors and stunt personnel in several fight scenes.

Both Richard Taylor and Wētā Workshop appear in the documentary film Reclaiming the Blade, where they discussed the creative and technical process of how movie props (specifically swords) are created at Wētā Workshop. Swords created by Wētā for films such as The Lord of the Rings and The Chronicles of Narnia are featured in the film as well.

In the 2004 New Year Honours, Taylor was appointed an Officer of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to design and the film industry. In the 2010 Queen's Birthday Honours, Taylor was promoted to Knight Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit, for services to film.

Wētā Workshop has also worked on The Chronicles of Narnia: The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe. Richard Taylor and his crew designed and built all the armor, weapons and special props for the film. The company were also heavily involved in the making of Peter Jackson's interpretation of King Kong for which he won his fifth Academy Award, in Visual Effects.

In April 2009, Richard Taylor won the supreme award at the World Class New Zealand Awards. The awards honour New Zealand's tall poppies who are successful on an international level.

In February 2012 Taylor was named New Zealander of the year, beating finalists World of Wearable Art founder Suzie Moncrieff and Auckland plastic surgeon Sharad P. Paul, nominated for his work on skin cancer.

By 2014, Taylor's company, Wētā Workshop, was involved with Magic Leap, a startup company reported to be working on projects relating to augmented reality and computer vision that received over USD $4.5 billion of venture funding by 2024.

In May of 2020, due to economic fallout resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, the relationship between Taylor's Weta Workshop and Magic Leap came to an end, when the latter company laid off about 1,000 staff members worldwide. All of the Magic Leap employees in New Zealand were laid off, and the partnership with Weta Workshop was dissolved.

Awards and nominations

 * Nominated: Best Costume Design, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 * Won: Best Makeup, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 * Won: Best Visual Effects, The Lord of the Rings: The Fellowship of the Ring (2001)
 * Won: Best Makeup, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
 * Won: Best Costume Design, The Lord of the Rings: The Return of the King (2003)
 * Won: Best Visual Effects, King Kong (2005)

title: Richard Taylor (filmmaker)


text:
Bruce Vento

Bruce Frank Vento (October 7, 1940 – October 10, 2000) was an American politician, a Democratic-Farmer-Labor member of the United States House of Representatives from 1977 until his death in 2000, representing Minnesota's 4th congressional district.

Early life
Vento was born in Saint Paul, Minnesota, and was educated at the University of Minnesota Twin Cities in Minneapolis, where he received his BA in 1961. He later, in 1965, received a B.S with honors, from the University of Wisconsin River Falls. He was a public school teacher in St. Paul, Minnesota prior to entering politics.

Career
Vento served in the Minnesota House of Representatives from 1971 until 1976 before entering the House. Vento is recognized for his efforts in cleaning the environment and promoting affordable housing. He is also widely known for the McKinney-Vento Homeless Assistance Act of 1986, which provides federal money for shelter programs.

Honors
The Bruce Vento Regional Trail runs through St. Paul, Minnesota. Along this path, by the Johnson Parkway just north of Phalen Avenue, a memorial grove has also been named in his honor. The Bruce Vento Nature Sanctuary, a former railroad yard and informal trash dumping area in Lowertown St. Paul is also named for the Congressman, who lived nearby and supported this model reclamation project. East Consolidated Elementary School in St. Paul was renamed Bruce Vento Elementary School in 2000.

Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act
Vento introduced the first bill in the US Congress to grant honorary U.S. citizenship to Laotian and Hmong veterans who served in the "U.S. Secret Army" in Laos during the Vietnam War. The legislation, the Hmong Veterans' Naturalization Act of 2000 was passed by the House and Senate following his death and signed into law by President Bill Clinton. Vento worked with the Lao Veterans of America, the Lao Veterans of America Institute, the Center for Public Policy Analysis and others to research and advance the legislation in Congress, Washington, D.C., and the Lao- and Hmong-American community. Vento worked with Hmong elders and community leaders in the Twin Cities and across the United States, including Cherzong Vang, Colonel Wangyee Vang and others to build support for the legislation which took over 10 years to gain the bipartisan support for passage on Capitol Hill, Congress and the White House.

Death
Vento died in 2000 while still a member of Congress from pleural mesothelioma, a rare form of lung cancer, as a result of exposure to asbestos. He had already announced that he would not run for a 13th term in 2000. Since he died a month before the election, no special election or new candidates were needed to replace him. State Representative Betty McCollum, a fellow DFLer, succeeded him.

title: Bruce Vento


text:
Pointe-au-Père, Quebec

Pointe-au-Père is a district (secteur) of the city of Rimouski, Quebec, which is located in the central part of the Bas-Saint-Laurent region in eastern Quebec at the mouth of the St. Lawrence River. Its population was 4,240 in 2002, the year it merged with Rimouski. It is named after Father Henri Nouvel, who celebrated the first mass there in 1663.

Pointe-au-Père lighthouse along with the Site historique maritime de la Pointe-au-Père museum are major regional tourist attractions.

Murderer Dr Crippen was arrested when the steam ship SS Montrose (1897), on which he was trying to escape with his mistress, who was disguised as his son, reached Pointe-au-Père.

On May 29, 1914, the RMS Empress of Ireland sank in the Saint Lawrence River near this village, with a loss of 1,012 lives.

Pointe-au-Père tide station serves as the reference point for measuring mean sea level for the North American Vertical Datum of 1988, which is the reference point for determining altitude in North America.

Since 1986, the Government of Canada officially created the Pointe-au-Père National Wildlife Area, which houses a variety of fauna and flora, very popular for bridwatchers.

title: Pointe-au-Père, Quebec


text:
Solanum dulcamara

Solanum dulcamara is a species of vine in the genus Solanum (which also includes the potato and the tomato) of the family Solanaceae. Common names include bittersweet, bittersweet nightshade, bitter nightshade, blue bindweed, Amara Dulcis, climbing nightshade, felonwort, fellenwort, felonwood, poisonberry, poisonflower, scarlet berry, snakeberry,  trailing bittersweet, trailing nightshade, violet bloom, and woody nightshade.

It is native to Europe and Asia, and widely naturalised elsewhere, including North America.

Overview
It occurs in a very wide range of habitats, from woodlands to scrubland, hedges and marshes.

Solanum dulcamara is a very woody herbaceous perennial vine, which scrambles over other plants, capable of reaching a height of 4 m where suitable support is available, but more often 1–2 m high. The leaves are 4–12 cm long, roughly arrowhead-shaped, and often lobed at the base. The flowers are in loose clusters of 3–20, 1–1.5 cm across, star-shaped, with five purple petals and yellow stamens and style pointing forward. The fruit is an ovoid red berry about 1 cm long, soft and juicy, with the aspect and odour of a tiny tomato, and edible for some birds, which disperse the seeds widely. However, the berry is poisonous to humans and livestock, and the berry's attractive and familiar look makes it dangerous for children.

It is native to northern Africa, Europe, and Asia, but has spread throughout the world. The plant is relatively important in the diet of some species of birds such as European thrushes, which feed on its fruits, being immune to its poisons, and scatter the seeds abroad. It grows in all types of terrain with a preference for wetlands and the understory of riparian forests. Along with other climbers, it creates a dark and impenetrable shelter for varied animals. The plant grows well in dark areas in places where it can receive the light of morning or afternoon. An area receiving bright light for many hours reduces its development. It grows more easily in rich wet soils with plenty of nitrogen. When grown for medicinal purposes, it is best grown in a dry, exposed environment.

It is a nonnative species in the United States.

History
Solanum dulcamara has been valued by herbalists since ancient Greek times. In the Middle Ages the plant was thought to be effective against witchcraft, and was sometimes hung around the neck of cattle to protect them from the "evil eye". It has been suggested that the plant was used both medicinally and to induce altered states of mind in Anglo-Saxon England.

John Gerard's Herball (1597) states that "the juice is good for those that have fallen from high places, and have been thereby bruised or beaten, for it is thought to dissolve blood congealed or cluttered anywhere in the intrals and to heale the hurt places."

Biological activity
This plant is one of the less poisonous members of the Solanaceae. Instances of poisoning in humans are very rare on account of the fruit's intensely bitter taste. Incidentally, the fruit has been reported to have a sweet aftertaste, hence the vernacular name bittersweet.

The poison in this species is believed to be solanine. The alkaloids, solanine (from unripe fruits), solasodine (from flowers) and beta-solamarine (from roots) have been found to inhibit the growth of E. coli and S. aureus. Solanine and solasodine extracted from Solanum dulcamara showed antidermatophytic activity against Chrysosporium indicum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes and T. simil, thus it may cure ringworm.

The stems are approved by the German Commission E for external use as supportive therapy in chronic eczema.

Medicinal use
Solanum dulcamara has a variety of documented medicinal uses, all of which are advised to be approached with proper caution as the entirety of the plant is considered to be poisonous. Always seek advice from a professional before using a plant medicinally. There have only been records of medicinal use for adults (not children) and it is possible to be allergic to Solanum dulcamara; medicinal use is not advised in these cases.

Use of stem
The stem of Solanum dulcamara is believed to be considerably less poisonous than the rest of the plant, and it has mostly been used in treatment for conditions of the skin. There are records of it being used to treat mild recurrent eczema, psoriasis, scabies, and dermatomycosis. Stems are harvested when they do not yet have leaves (or the leaves have already fallen) and are shredded into small pieces. They are mostly known to be applied in the form of liquid onto the skin, but infusing it into a drink is also possible, though not recommended. The stem has also been used in treatment for bronchitis, asthma, and pneumonia.

Use of leaves, fruit, and root
The leaves of Solanum dulcamara have been known to treat warts and tumors, while the fruit can treat conditions of the respiratory tract and joints. It has been documented that Indigenous people of North America used the roots for relief of fever and nausea.

Symbolism
Solanum dulcamara has been used as a symbol of fidelity. This is in reference to its curious property of combining extreme bitterness with surprising sweetness – hence its common name "bittersweet". This symbolism is seen in Christian art from the Middle Ages as well as in bridal wreaths.

title: Solanum dulcamara