text:
Repressed memory

Repressed memory is a controversial, and largely scientifically discredited, psychiatric phenomenon which involves an inability to recall autobiographical information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature. The concept originated in psychoanalytic theory where repression is understood as a defense mechanism that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness. Repressed memory is presently considered largely unsupported by research. Sigmund Freud initially claimed the memories of historical childhood trauma could be repressed, while unconsciously influencing present behavior and emotional responding; he later revised this belief.

While the concept of repressed memories persisted through much of the 1990s, insufficient support exists to conclude that memories can become inconspicuously hidden in a way that is distinct from forgetting. Historically, some psychoanalysts provided therapy based on the belief that alleged repressed memories could be recovered, however, rather than promoting the recovery of a real repressed memory, such attempts could result in the creation of entirely false memories. Subsequent accusations based on such "recovered memories" led to substantial harm of individuals implicated as perpetrators, sometimes resulting in false convictions and years of incarceration.

Due to a lack of evidence for the concept of repressed and recovered memories, mainstream clinical psychologists have stopped using these terms. Clinical psychologist Richard McNally stated: "The notion that traumatic events can be repressed and later recovered is the most pernicious bit of folklore ever to infect psychology and psychiatry. It has provided the theoretical basis for 'recovered memory therapy'—the worst catastrophe to befall the mental health field since the lobotomy era."

History
Sigmund Freud discussed repressed memory in his 1896 essay, The Aetiology of Hysteria. One of the studies published in his essay involved a young woman referred to as Anna O., who had been treated by Freud's friend and colleague Josef Breuer. Among her many ailments, Anna O. had stiff paralysis on the right side of her body. Freud hypothesized that her symptoms were attached to psychological traumas; the traumatic experiences had been repressed from her conscious mind, but reappeared as physical symptoms. Breuer used hypnosis to treat Anna O. She is reported to have gained slight mobility on her right side.

The concept received renewed interest in the 1970s in relation to child sexual abuse and incest. Coming to be labelled The Recovered Memory Movement and Memory Wars or The Memory War, it became a major issue in pop culture during the 1980s and 1990s, connected to Satanic panic, and spawned a myriad of legal cases, controversies, and media. Michelle Remembers (1980), a discredited book by Canadian psychiatrist Lawrence Pazder and his wife/former patient Michelle Smith about Smith's fabricated experiences with repressed memories of childhood Satantic rituals and abuse, gained widespread popularity that persisted after debunking, influenced subsequent claims, and received promotion from media including Oprah, Geraldo Rivera, Sally Jesse Raphael, and 20/20. Starting in the 1980s, repressed memory legal cases increased rapidly. In 1989, a landmark legal case developed when George Franklin was charged and convicted in 1990 for the rape and murder of 8-year-old Susan Kay Nason on September 22, 1969, based on the account of his daughter, Eileen Franklin's recovered memories. Originally sentenced to life imprisonment, a district court judge overturned the conviction in 1995 based on several trial errors including the unreliability of hypnosis that was used. Eileen Franklin would further accuse her father of raping and murdering 18-year-old Veronica Cascio and 17-year-old Paula Baxter. George Franklin was released in July 1996 after prosecutors announced they would not retry him, and in 2018, the DNA evidence linked Rodney Lynn Halbower to the Cascio and Baxter murders. He was convicted of both murders and sentenced to life in prison. In 1991, People magazine featured Marilyn Van Derbur and Roseanne Barr's experiences with childhood abuse and repressed memory. Van Derbur's oldest sister Gwen verified her account, though Barr would later moderate her claims. Such cases and reactions led to the definition of false memory syndrome and establishment of the False Memory Syndrome Foundation in 1992. The Ramona false memory case in 1994 was another landmark case, where father Gary Ramona successfully sued for malpractice against Western Medical Center in Anaheim, its chief of psychiatry Richard Rose, and therapist Marche Isabella, for implanting false memories of child abuse while treating his daughter Holly for depression and bulimia. It was also notable for being brought by a third party not involved in the doctor-patient relationship and contributed to continued evaluation of the phenomenon. Skepticism and criticism of repressed memory continued to mount through the 1990s, 2000s, and beyond, emphasizing unreliability, false claims, and lack of examples in historical records.

Case studies
Psychiatrist David Corwin has claimed that one of his cases provides evidence for the reality of repressed memories. This case involved a patient (the Jane Doe case) who, according to Corwin, had been seriously abused by her mother, had recalled the abuse at age six during therapy with Corwin, then eleven years later was unable to recall the abuse before memories of the abuse returned to her mind again during therapy. An investigation of the case by Elizabeth Loftus and Melvin Guyer, however, raised serious questions about many of the central details of the case as reported by Corwin, including whether or not Jane Doe was abused by her mother at all, suggesting that this may be a case of false memory for childhood abuse with the memory "created" during suggestive therapy at the time that Doe was six. Loftus and Guyer also found evidence that, following her initial "recall" of the abuse during therapy at age six, Doe had talked about the abuse during the eleven years in between the sessions of therapy, indicating that even if abuse had really occurred, memory for the abuse had not been repressed. More generally, in addition to the problem of false memories, this case highlights the critical dependence of repression-claims cases on the ability of individuals to recall whether or not they had previously been able to recall a traumatic event; as McNally has noted, people are notoriously poor at making that kind of judgment.

An argument that has been made against the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memories is that there is little (if any) discussion in the historical literature prior to the 19th century of phenomena that would qualify as examples of memory repression or dissociative amnesia. In response to Harrison Pope's 2006 claim that no such examples exist, Ross Cheit, a political scientist at Brown University, cited the case of Nina, a 1786 opera by the French composer Nicolas Dalayrac, in which the heroine, having forgotten that she saw her lover apparently killed in a duel, waits for him daily. Pope claims that even this single fictional description does not clearly meet all criteria for evidence of memory repression, as opposed to other phenomena of normal memory.

Despite the claims by proponents of the reality of memory repression that any evidence of the forgetting of a seemingly traumatic event qualifies as evidence of repression, research indicates that memories of child sexual abuse and other traumatic incidents may sometimes be forgotten through normal mechanisms of memory. Evidence of the spontaneous recovery of traumatic memories has been shown, and recovered memories of traumatic childhood abuse have been corroborated; however, forgetting trauma does not necessarily imply that the trauma was repressed. One situation in which the seeming forgetting, and later recovery, of a "traumatic" experience is particularly likely to occur is when the experience was not interpreted as traumatic when it first occurred, but then, later in life, was reinterpreted as an instance of early trauma.

A review by Alan Sheflin and Daniel Brown in 1996 found 25 previous studies of the subject of amnesia of childhood sexual abuse. All 25 "demonstrated amnesia in a subpopulation", including more recent studies with random sampling and prospective designs. On the other hand, in a 1998 editorial in the British Medical Journal Harrison Pope wrote that "on critical examination, the scientific evidence for repression crumbles." He continued, "asking individuals if they 'remember whether they forgot' is of dubious validity. Furthermore, in most retrospective studies corroboration of the traumatic event was either absent or fell below reasonable scientific standards."

Authenticity
Memories can be accurate, but they are not always accurate. For example, eyewitness testimony even of relatively recent dramatic events is notoriously unreliable. Memories of events are a mix of fact overlaid with emotions, mingled with interpretation and "filled in" with imaginings. Skepticism regarding the validity of a memory as factual detail is warranted. For example, one study where victims of documented child abuse were reinterviewed many years later as adults, 38% of the women denied any memory of the abuse.

Various manipulations are considered to be able to implant false memories (sometimes called "pseudomemories"). Psychologist Elizabeth Loftus has noted that some of the techniques that some therapists use in order to supposedly help the patients recover memories of early trauma (including such techniques as age regression, guided visualization, trance writing, dream work, body work, and hypnosis) are particularly likely to contribute to the creation of false or pseudo memories. Such therapy-created memories can be quite compelling for those who develop them, and can include details that make them seem credible to others. In a now classic experiment by Loftus (widely known as the "Lost in the Mall" study), participants were given a booklet containing three accounts of real childhood events written by family members and a fourth account of a wholly fictitious event of being lost in a shopping mall. A quarter of the subjects reported remembering the fictitious event, and elaborated on it with extensive circumstantial detail. This experiment inspired many others, and in one of these, Porter et al. convinced about half of the participants that they had survived a vicious animal attack in childhood.

Critics of these experimental studies have questioned whether their findings generalize to memories for real-world trauma or to what occurs in psychotherapeutic contexts. However, when memories are "recovered" after long periods of amnesia, particularly when extraordinary means were used to secure the recovery of memory, it is now widely (but not universally) accepted that the memories have a high likelihood of being false, i.e. "memories" of incidents that had not actually occurred. It is thus recognised by professional organizations that a risk of implanting false memories is associated with some similar types of therapy. The American Psychological Association advises: "...most leaders in the field agree that although it is a rare occurrence, a memory of early childhood abuse that has been forgotten can be remembered later; however, these leaders also agree that it is possible to construct convincing pseudomemories for events that never occurred."

Not all therapists agree that false memories are a major risk of psychotherapy and they argue that this idea overstates the data and is untested. Several studies have reported high percentages of the corroboration of recovered memories, and some authors have claimed that among skeptics of idea of recovered memory there is a "tendency to conceal or omit evidence of corroboration" of recovered memories.

A difficult issue for the field is that there is no evidence that reliable discriminations can be made between true and false memories. Some believe that memories "recovered" under hypnosis are particularly likely to be false. According to The Council on Scientific Affairs for the American Medical Association, recollections obtained during hypnosis can involve confabulations and pseudomemories and appear to be less reliable than nonhypnotic recall. Brown et al. estimate that 3 to 5% of laboratory subjects are vulnerable to post-event misinformation suggestions. They state that 5–8% of the general population is the range of high-hypnotizability. Twenty-five percent of those in this range are vulnerable to suggestion of pseudomemories for peripheral details, which can rise to 80% with a combination of other social influence factors. They conclude that the rates of memory errors run 0–5% in adult studies, 3–5% in children's studies and that the rates of false allegations of child abuse allegations run 4–8% in the general population.

Mechanisms
Those who argue in favor of the validity of the phenomenon of repressed memory have identified three mechanisms of normal memory that may explain how memory repression may occur: retrieval inhibition, motivated forgetting, and state-dependent remembering.

Retrieval inhibition
Retrieval inhibition refers to a memory phenomenon where remembering some information causes forgetting of other information. Anderson and Green have argued that for a linkage between this phenomenon and memory repression; according to this view, the simple decision to not think about a traumatic event, coupled with active remembering of other related experiences (or less traumatic elements of the traumatic experience) may make memories for the traumatic experience itself less accessible to conscious awareness. However, two problems with this viewpoint have been raised: (1) the evidence for the basic phenomenon itself has not consistently replicated, and (2) the phenomenon does not meet all criteria that must be met to support memory repression theory, particularly the lack of evidence that this form of forgetting is particularly likely to occur in the case of traumatic experiences.

Motivated forgetting
The motivated forgetting phenomenon, which is also sometimes referred to as intentional or directed forgetting, refers to forgetting which is initiated by a conscious goal to forget particular information. In the classic intentional forgetting paradigm, participants are shown a list of words, but are instructed to remember certain words while forgetting others. Later, when tested on their memory for all of the words, recall and recognition is typically worse for the deliberately forgotten words. A problem for viewing motivated forgetting as a mechanism of memory repression is that there is no evidence that the intentionally forgotten information becomes, first, inaccessible and then, later, retrievable (as required by memory repression theory).

State-dependent remembering
The term state-dependent remembering refers to the evidence that memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed. Based upon her research with rats, Radulovic has argued that memories for highly stressful traumatic experiences may be stored in different neural networks than is the case with memories for non-stressful experiences, and that memories for the stressful experiences may then be inaccessible until the organism's brain is in a neurological state similar to the one that occurred when the stressful experience first occurred. At present, however, there is no evidence that what Radulovic found with rats occurs in the memory systems of humans, and it is not clear that human memories for traumatic experiences are typically "recovered" by placing the individual back in the mental state that was experienced during the original trauma.

Amnesia
Amnesia is partial or complete loss of memory that goes beyond mere forgetting. Often it is temporary and involves only part of a person's experience. Amnesia is often caused by an injury to the brain, for instance after a blow to the head, and sometimes by psychological trauma. Anterograde amnesia is a failure to remember new experiences that occur after damage to the brain; retrograde amnesia is the loss of memories of events that occurred before a trauma or injury. Dissociative amnesia is defined in the DSM-5 as the "inability to recall autobiographical information" that is (a) "traumatic or stressful in nature", (b) "inconsistent with ordinary forgetting", (c) "successfully stored", (d) involves a period of time when the patient is unable to recall the experience, (e) is not caused by a substance or neurological condition, and (f) is "always potentially reversible". McNally and others have noted that this definition is essentially the same as the defining characteristics of memory repression, and that all of the reasons for questioning the reality of memory repression apply equally well to claims regarding dissociative amnesia.

Effects of trauma on memory
The essence of the theory of memory repression is that it is memories for traumatic experiences that are particularly likely to become unavailable to conscious awareness, even while continuing to exist at an unconscious level. A prominent more specific theory of memory repression, "Betrayal Trauma Theory", proposes that memories for childhood abuse are the most likely to be repressed because of the intense emotional trauma produced by being abused by someone the child is dependent on for emotional and physical support; in such situations, according to this theory, dissociative amnesia is an adaptive response because it permits a relationship with the powerful abuser (whom the child is dependent upon) to continue in some form.

Psychiatrist Bessel van der Kolk divided the effects of traumas on memory functions into four sets:
 * Traumatic amnesia; this involves the loss of memories of traumatic experiences. The younger the subject and the longer the traumatic event is, the greater the chance of significant amnesia. He stated that subsequent retrieval of memories after traumatic amnesia is well documented in the literature, with documented examples following natural disasters and accidents, in combat soldiers, in victims of kidnapping, torture and concentration camp experiences, in victims of physical and sexual abuse, and in people who have committed murder.
 * Global memory impairment; this makes it difficult for subjects to construct an accurate account of their present and past history. "The combination of lack of autobiographical memory, continued dissociation and of meaning schemes that include victimization, helplessness and betrayal, is likely to make these individuals vulnerable to suggestion and to the construction of explanations for their trauma-related affects that may bear little relationship to the actual realities of their lives"
 * Dissociative processes; this refers to memories being stored as fragments and not as unitary wholes.
 * Traumatic memories' sensorimotor organization. Not being able to integrate traumatic memories seems to be linked to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

According to van der Kolk, memories of highly significant events are usually accurate and stable over time; aspects of traumatic experiences appear to get stuck in the mind, unaltered by time passing or experiences that may follow. The imprints of traumatic experiences appear to be different from those of nontraumatic events, perhaps because of alterations in attentional focusing or the fact that extreme emotional arousal interferes with memory. van der Kolk and Fisler's hypothesis is that under extreme stress, the memory categorization system based in the hippocampus fails, with these memories kept as emotional and sensory states. When these traces are remembered and put into a personal narrative, they are subject to being condensed, contaminated and embellished upon.

A significant problem for trauma theories of memory repression is the lack of evidence with humans that failures of recall of traumatic experiences result from anything other than normal processes of memory that apply equally well to memories for traumatic and non-traumatic events. In addition, it is clear that, rather than being pushed out of consciousness, the difficulty with traumatic memories for most people is their inability to forget the traumatic event and the tendency for memories of the traumatic experience to intrude upon consciousness in problematic ways.

Evidence from psychological research suggests that most traumatic memories are well remembered over long periods of time. Autobiographical memories appraised as highly negative are remembered with a high degree of accuracy and detail. This observation is in line with psychological understanding of human memory, which explains that highly salient and distinctive events—common characteristics of negative traumatic experiences—are remembered well. When experiencing highly emotional, stressful events, physiological and neurological responses, such as those involving the limbic system, specifically the amygdala and hippocampus, lead to more consolidated memories. Evidence shows that stress enhances memory for aspects and details directly related to the stressful event. Furthermore, behavioural and cognitive memory-enhancing responses, such as rehearsing or revisiting a memory in one's mind are also more likely when memories are highly emotional. When compared to positive events, memory for negative, traumatic experiences are more accurate, coherent, vivid, and detailed, and this trend persists over time. This sample of what is a vast body of evidence calls into question how it is possible that traumatic memories, which are typically remembered exceptionally well, might also be associated with patterns of extreme forgetting.

The high quality remembering for traumatic events is not just a lab-based finding but has also been observed in real-life experiences, such as among survivors of child sexual abuse and war-related atrocities. For example, researchers who studied memory accuracy in child sexual abuse survivors 12 to 21 years after the event(s) ended found that the severity of posttraumatic stress disorder was positively correlated with the degree of memory accuracy. Further, all persons who identified the child sexual abuse as the most traumatic event of their life, displayed highly accurate memory for the event. Similarly, in a study of World War II survivors, researchers found that participants who scored higher on posttraumatic stress reactions had war memories that were more coherent, personally consequential, and more rehearsed. The researchers concluded that highly distressing events can lead to subjectively clearer memories that are highly accessible.

Legal status
Serious issues arise when recovered but false memories result in public allegations; false complaints carry serious consequences for the accused. A special type of false allegation, false memory syndrome, arises typically within therapy, when people report the "recovery" of childhood memories of previously unknown abuse. The influence of practitioners' beliefs and practices in the eliciting of false "memories" and of false complaints has come under particular criticism.

Some criminal cases have been based on a witness's testimony of recovered repressed memories, often of alleged childhood sexual abuse. In some jurisdictions, the statute of limitations for child abuse cases has been extended to accommodate the phenomena of repressed memories as well as other factors. The repressed memory concept came into wider public awareness in the 1980s and 1990s followed by a reduction of public attention after a series of scandals, lawsuits, and license revocations.

A U.S. District Court accepted repressed memories as admissible evidence in a specific case. Dalenberg argues that the evidence shows that recovered memory cases should be allowed to be prosecuted in court.

The apparent willingness of courts to credit the recovered memories of complainants but not the absence of memories by defendants has been commented on: "It seems apparent that the courts need better guidelines around the issue of dissociative amnesia in both populations."

In 1995, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled, in Franklin v. Duncan and Franklin v. Fox, Murray et al. (312 F3d. 423, see also 884 FSupp 1435, N.D. Calif.), that repressed memory is not admissible as evidence in a legal action because of its unreliability, inconsistency, unscientific nature, tendency to be therapeutically induced evidence, and subject to influence by hearsay and suggestibility. The court overturned the conviction of a man accused of murdering a nine-year-old girl purely based upon the evidence of a 21-year-old repressed memory by a lone witness, who also held a complex personal grudge against the defendant.

In a 1996 ruling, a U.S. District Court allowed repressed memories entered into evidence in court cases. Jennifer Freyd writes that Ross E. Cheit's case of suddenly remembered sexual abuse is one of the most well-documented cases available for the public to see. Cheit prevailed in two lawsuits, located five additional victims and tape-recorded a confession.

On December 16, 2005, the Irish Court of Criminal Appeal issued a certificate confirming a Miscarriage of Justice to a former nun, Nora Wall whose 1999 conviction for child rape was partly based on repressed-memory evidence. The judgement stated that:

"There was no scientific evidence of any sort adduced to explain the phenomenon of 'flashbacks' and/or 'retrieved memory', nor was the applicant in any position to meet such a case in the absence of prior notification thereof."

On August 16, 2010, the United States Second Circuit Court of Appeals in a case reversed the conviction that relied on claimed victim memories of childhood abuse stating that "The record here suggests a "reasonable likelihood" that Jesse Friedman was wrongfully convicted. The "new and material evidence" in this case is the post-conviction consensus within the social science community that suggestive memory recovery tactics can create false memories" (pg 27 FRIEDMAN v. REHAL Docket No. 08-0297). The ruling goes on to order all previous convictions and plea bargains relying in repressed memories using common memory recovered techniques be reviewed.

Recovered memory therapy
The term "recovered memory therapy" refers to the use of a range of psychotherapy methods that involve guiding the patient's attempts to recall memories of abuse that had previously been forgotten. The term "recovered memory therapy" is not listed in DSM-V nor is recovered memory therapy recommended by mainstream ethical and professional mental health associations. Critics of recovered memory therapy note that the therapy can create false memories through its use of powerful suggestion techniques. It has also been found that patients who retract their claims—after deciding their recovered memories are false—may have post-traumatic stress disorder due to the trauma of illusory memories.

Summary
The Working Group on Investigation of Memories of Child Abuse of the American Psychological Association reached five key conclusions: "# Controversies regarding adult recollections should not be allowed to obscure the fact that child sexual abuse is a complex and pervasive problem in America that has historically gone unacknowledged;
 * 1) Most people who were sexually abused as children remember all or part of what happened to them;
 * 2) It is possible for memories of abuse that have been forgotten for a long time to be remembered;
 * 3) It is also possible to construct convincing pseudo-memories for events that never occurred; and
 * 4) There are gaps in our knowledge about the processes that lead to accurate and inaccurate recollections of childhood abuse."

title: Repressed memory


text:
Repression

Repression may refer to:
 * Memory inhibition, the ability to filter irrelevant memories from attempts to recall
 * Political repression, the oppression or persecution of an individual or group for political reasons
 * Psychological repression, the psychological act of excluding desires and impulses from one's consciousness
 * Social repression, the socially supported mistreatment and exploitation of a group of individuals
 * Genetic repression, the down-regulation of gene transcription by the action of repressor proteins binding to a promoter
 * "Repression" (Star Trek: Voyager), an episode of the science fiction television series Star Trek: Voyager, the fourth episode of the seventh (and final) season of the series

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Repression


text:
User:Rasoolpuri

http://rasoolpuri.webs.com

title: User:Rasoolpuri


text:
Alpha Bank

Alpha Bank is a private Greek bank. Its founder was John Kostopoulos Alpha Bank's Network in Greece has 273 branches and 783 ATMs.

The Group operates in Greece, United Kingdom, Luxembourg and Cyprus with a network of 287 retail outlets (273 in Greece, 12 in Cyprus, 1 in the United Kingdom, 1 in Luxembourg) and employs 8,487 people in Greece and abroad.

Alpha Bank has been listed on the Athens Stock Exchange since November 1925.

First years

Ioannis F. Kostopoulos, a textile merchant from Sperhogeia in Messinia, founded a commercial shop in 1882 in Kalamata and in 1885 he started to be active in foreign exchange trading. In 1916 the trading house was transformed into a bank under the "Bank I. F. Kostopoulos" with the participation of Laiki Bank of Dionysios Loverdos. In 1918 the bank was transformed from a limited partnership into a joint-stoick company called "Bank of Kalamata.

After the death of Ioannis F. Kostopoulos, the reins of the bank were taken over initially by Spyros Kostopoulos and then by Dimitrios Kostopoulos, who in 1923 merged the banking division of the commercial house "Ioannis F. Kostopoulos" with the Bank of Kalamon, creating the "Bank of Hellenic Commercial Credit" based in Athens. On 2 November 1925 the bank was listed on the Athens Stock Exchange and in 1932 the bank moved to a privately owned building on Stadiou and Pezmazoglou streets.

The economic crisis of 1929 forced the "Bank of Hellenic Commercial Credit" to reduce its network of branches and to seek financing from the National Bank of Greece, which now appointed a representative to its board of directors. Dimitris Kostopoulos was succeeded in the leadership of the bank by his sons Spyros and Stavros Kostopoulos.

The war period that would follow would lead the bank to a dead end, which would liquidate almost all its assets. The board of directors will even call an extraordinary general meeting on 19 December 1944 to dissolve the company. The dissolution would not take place due to the events of Dekemvriana and after the Treaty of Varkiza the decision of the directors would be revised.

Post-war period
In 1947 the name of the bank was changed to "Commercial Credit Bank". After the difficult 1950s, marked by a recession, the bank began to focus on developing a national network of branches. In 1965, Manufacturers Hanover Trust 15, the fourth largest bank at the time, United California Bank, and N.V. Slavenburg's Dutch Bank would join the company's capital stock.

In the 1970s, Yannis Kostopoulos, son of Spyros Kostopoulos, joined the management of the company. The bank promoted a new corporate identity, renamed itself "Credit Bank" and adopted the reverse of the silver stater of Aegina as its archetype.[17] In 1979 the bank celebrated its 100th anniversary. In 1984, after the death of his father Spyros, Yannis Kostopoulos assumed the duties of Chairman of the Board of Directors. Under his leadership, the bank expanded its activities to other sectors through the establishment of dozens of subsidiaries.

In 1989 the bank expanded its activities to London with the establishment of a Representative Office, which shortly afterwards, in 1993, would become a branch. In 1993 the bank established "Banca Bucuresti", today Alpha Bank Romania, becoming the first foreign bank to enter the Romanian banking market.

1994 - 2000
In 1994 the name of the bank was changed again to "Alpha Credit Bank". In 1997 the bank expanded into Albania with the establishment of branches in all major cities of the country. In 1998, the bank was the first in Greece to launch Alpha Web Banking, which established banking transactions via the Internet, and in the same year the bank expanded to Cyprus with the acquisition of Lombard NatWest Bank Ltd, which would later be renamed Alpha Bank Cyprus.

The following year the bank acquired a majority stake in Kreditna Banka the fourth largest bank in North Macedonia, later renamed Alpha Bank A.D. Skopje. In 1999 the Bank acquired 51% of the shares of Ionian Bank for 272 billion drachmas, making it the largest privatisation ever in Greece. The merger of the two banking institutions was completed in 2000 and the new enlarged bank was named Alpha Bank.

2000 - 2010
In 2002, Alpha Bank expands into the Serbian banking market with the establishment of a branch in Belgrade and two years later, it acquires the majority stake in Jubanka a.d. Belgrade, which is renamed Alpha Bank Srbija A.D. A milestone in the bank's course was its promotion to the status of Major National Sponsor and Official Bank of the ATHENS 2004 Olympic Games, making it the largest sponsorship ever in Greece.

In 2005 Dimitrios Mantzounis took over as CEO with Yannis Kostopoulos remaining as Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Bank. In 2008 the bank expanded into Ukraine with the acquisition of a majority stake in the newly established Ukrainian bank OJSC Astra Bank.

2010 - today
In January 2011, the National Bank of Greece submitted a written proposal to Alpha Bank for a merger of the two banks by absorbing the latter into the former. However, the Board of Directors of Alpha Bank, at its meeting on the 18th of February and after having studied the proposal, decided to reject it on the grounds that the terms were unfavorable for its shareholders. At the end of August of the same year, the agreement between the boards of directors of Alpha Bank and Eurobank EFG to merge the two organizations was announced, which was however revoked in March 2012.

In 2012 Alpha Bank acquired and absorbed Commercial Bank of Greece and in 2014 it acquired the banking activities of Citibank in Greece, including Diners Club cards. On 31 March 2014 Alpha Bank successfully completed its €1.2 billion capital increase. The Bank redeemed the total amount of the Hellenic Republic's Preference Shares on 17 April 2014.

On the 31st of May 2013, the recapitalization of the bank was successfully completed, with the required private participation being more than covered, which resulted in the preservation of Alpha Bank's private character. Since the beginning of the financial crisis, Alpha Bank has been selling its assets abroad. In 2013, Alpha Bank sold all the shares of its subsidiary JSC Astra Bank Ukraine to the Ukrainian group Delta Bank, in 2015 the Bulgarian branch to Eurobank Bulgaria AD, in 2016 Alpha Bank A.D. Skopje to Silk Road Capital and in 2017 Alpha Bank Srbija to AIK Banka A.D. Beograd.

On 31 March 2014 Alpha Bank successfully completed its €1.2 billion capital increase. The Bank redeemed the total amount of the Hellenic Republic's Preference Shares on 17 April 2014.

In May 2014, Vassilis Rapanos replaced Yannis Kostopoulos as Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Bank.

On 26 October 2014 Alpha Bank announced the successful completion of the European Central Bank's (ECB) Comprehensive Assessment in the Static Adverse Scenario with CET1 8.07% and Capital Surplus of Euro 1.3 billion. Based on the dynamic adverse assumptions, CET1 stands at 8.45% with Capital Surplus of Euro 1.8 billion. Also in 2014, Alpha Bank took over Citibank's Greek retail banking operations.

Alpha Bank requested Emergency Liquidity Assistance (ELA) from the Bank of Greece on 16 January 2015. Its total funding from the ECB (ELA and non-ELA) was €29.9 bn as of 30 September 2015. On 17 July 2015 it sold its Bulgarian branches to Postbank (Bulgaria), the subsidiary of fellow Greek bank Eurobank Ergasias.

In November 2015, it was decided to increase the share capital by EUR 2,563,000,000. The increase included a voluntary exchange of bonds for new shares, through which EUR 1,011,000,000 was raised, and a capital increase by cash payment and cancellation of preferential rights of existing shareholders for an amount of EUR 1,552,000,000. As a result of the increase in the bank's share capital, the State's participation, through the Hellenic Financial Stability Fund, was reduced to approximately 11%.

In 2021, Alpha Services and Participations S.A., 100% parent company of Alpha Bank S.A., successfully completed the Share Capital Increase of EUR 800 million by offering 800.000.000.000 new ordinary shares of nominal value of EUR 0,30 each. With the Share Capital Increase, the HFSF's stake in the bank was reduced to approximately 9%.

In July 2022, Alpha Bank completed the sale of Alpha Bank Albania to OTP Bank PLC.

In October 2023 it was announced that Alpha Bank in Romania will merge with UniCredit leaving Alpha with a 9.9% holding in the new Romanian bank.

Subsidiaries
Alpha Bank S.A. belongs to Alpha Services and Holdings S.A., which consists of companies that, in addition to retail banking, offer a wide range of financial products and services, including medium and large corporate banking, capital management and private banking, insurance distribution, investment banking, brokerage and real estate management.

Other subsidiaries of the company are the following:
 * Alpha Asset Management Mutual Fund Management S.A.
 * Alpha Finance Investment Services S.A.
 * Development Company for the Management of European Programmes of Thessaly and Central Greece
 * AlphaLife Life Insurance Company S.A
 * Alpha Leasing Unipersonal S.A. Financial Leasing
 * ABC Factors Business Claims Agency Sole Proprietorship S.A.
 * Alpha Ventures Investment Holdings S.A.
 * Alpha Supporting Services S.A. Supporting Operations
 * Alpha Urban Real Estate S.A. Real Estate, Construction, Tourism and Related Businesses
 * Alpha Real Estate Management and Investments S.A. Real Estate Management and Investments S.A.

Listing on the Athens Exchange
The company is listed on the Athens Exchange with the stock symbol ALPHA; the ISIN is GRS015013006. As of 11 August 2015, the number of securities outstanding and the number of securities listed is 12769059858 (around 12.7 billion).

The stock is one of the 25 stocks in the FTSE/Athex Large Cap index (11 August 2015).

title: Alpha Bank


text:
Saraiki language

Saraiki ( Sarā'īkī; also spelt Siraiki, or Seraiki) is an Indo-Aryan language of the Lahnda group, spoken by 26 million people primarily in the south-western half of the province of Punjab in Pakistan. It was previously known as Multani, after its main dialect.

Saraiki has partial mutual intelligibility with Standard Punjabi, and it shares with it a large portion of its vocabulary and morphology. At the same time in its phonology it is radically different (particularly in the lack of tones, the preservation of the voiced aspirates and the development of implosive consonants), and has important grammatical features in common with the Sindhi language spoken to the south. Saraiki however, does relate considerably with other Western Punjabi dialects. There is a political movement in Pakistan to declare Saraiki the administrative language of its own region.

The Saraiki language identity arose in the 1960s, encompassing more narrow local earlier identities (like Multani, Derawi or Riasati), and distinguishing itself from broader ones like that of Punjabi.

Due to effects of dominant languages in Pakistani media like Urdu, Standard Punjabi and English and religious impact of Arabic and Persian, Saraiki like other regional varieties of Pakistan are continuously expanding its vocabulary base with loan words.

Name
The present extent of the meaning of  is a recent development, and the term most probably gained its currency during the nationalist movement of the 1960s. It has been in use for much longer in Sindh to refer to the speech of the immigrants from the north, principally Siraiki-speaking Baloch tribes who settled there between the 16th and the 19th centuries. In this context, the term can most plausibly be explained as originally having had the meaning "the language of the north", from the Sindhi word siro 'up-river, north'. This name can ambiguously refer to the northern dialects of Sindhi, but these are nowadays more commonly known as "Siroli" or "Sireli".

An alternative hypothesis is that Sarākī originated in the word sauvīrā, or Sauvira, an ancient kingdom which was also mentioned in the Sanskrit epic Mahabharata.

Currently, the most common rendering of the name is Saraiki. However, Seraiki and Siraiki have also been used in academia until recently. Precise spelling aside, the name was first adopted in the 1960s by regional social and political leaders.

Classification and related languages
Saraiki is a member of Western Punjabi sub family of the Indo-Aryan subdivision of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family.

In 1919, Grierson maintained that the dialects of what is now the southwest of Punjab Province in Pakistan constitute a dialect cluster, which he designated "Southern Lahnda" within a putative "Lahnda language". Subsequent Indo-Aryanist linguists have confirmed the reality of this dialect cluster, even while rejecting the name "Southern Lahnda" along with the entity "Lahnda" itself. Grierson also maintained that "Lahnda" was his novel designation for various dialects up to then called "Western Punjabi", spoken north, west, and south of Lahore. The local dialect of Lahore is the Majhi dialect of Punjabi, which has long been the basis of standard literary Punjabi. However, outside of Indo-Aryanist circles, the concept of "Lahnda" is still found in compilations of the world's languages (e.g. Ethnologue). Saraiki appears to be a transitional language between Punjabi and Sindhi. Spoken in Upper Sindh as well as the southern Panjab, it is sometimes considered a dialect of either Sindhi or of Panjabi due to a high degree of mutual intelligibility.

Dialects
The following dialects have been tentatively proposed for Saraiki:
 * Central Saraiki, including Multani: spoken in the districts of Dera Ghazi Khan, Muzaffargarh, Leiah, Multan and Bahawalpur.
 * Southern Saraiki: prevalent in the districts of Rajanpur and Rahimyar Khan.
 * Sindhi Siraiki: dispersed throughout the province of Sindh and in Kachhi Plain region in Balochistan province.
 * Northern Saraiki, or Thali: spoken in the district of Dera Ismail Khan and the northern parts of the Thal region, including Mianwali District and Bhakkar District

The historical inventory of names for the dialects now called Saraiki is a confusion of overlapping or conflicting ethnic, local, and regional designations. One historical name for Saraiki, Jaṭki, means "of the Jaṭṭs", a northern South Asian ethnic group. Only a small minority of Saraiki speakers are Jaṭṭs, and not all Saraiki speaking Jaṭṭs necessarily speak the same dialect of Saraiki. However, these people usually call their traditions as well as language as Jataki. Conversely, several Saraiki dialects have multiple names corresponding to different locales or demographic groups. The name "Derawali" is used to refer to the local dialects of both Dera Ghazi Khan and Dera Ismail Khan, but "Ḍerawali" in the former is the Multani dialect and "Derawali" in the latter is the Thaḷi dialect.

When consulting sources before 2000, it is important to know that Pakistani administrative boundaries have been altered frequently. Provinces in Pakistan are divided into districts, and sources on "Saraiki" often describe the territory of a dialect or dialect group according to the districts. Since the founding of Pakistan in 1947, several of these districts have been subdivided, some multiple times.

Status of language or dialect
In the context of South Asia, the choice between the appellations "language" and "dialect" is a difficult one, and any distinction made using these terms is obscured by their ambiguity. In a sense both Saraiki and Standard Panjabi are "dialects" of a "Greater Punjabi" macrolanguage.

Saraiki was considered a dialect of Punjabi by most British colonial administrators, and is still seen as such by many Punjabis. Saraikis, however, consider it a language in its own right and see the use of the term "dialect" as stigmatising. A language movement was started in the 1960s to standardise a script and promote the language. The national census of Pakistan has tabulated the prevalence of Saraiki speakers since 1981.

Pakistan
Saraiki is primarily spoken in the south-western part of the province of Punjab, in an area that broadly coincides with the extent of the proposed Saraikistan province. To the west, it is set off from the Pashto- and Balochi-speaking areas by the Suleiman Range, while to the south-east the Thar desert divides it from the Marwari language. Its other boundaries are less well-defined: Punjabi is spoken to the east; Sindhi is found to the south, after the border with Sindh province; to the north, the southern edge of the Salt Range is the rough divide with the northern varieties of Lahnda, such as Pothwari.

Saraiki is the first language of 25.9 million people in Pakistan according to the 2017 census. The first national census of Pakistan to gather data on the prevalence of Saraiki was the census of 1981. In that year, the percentage of respondents nationwide reporting Saraiki as their native language was 9.83. In the census of 1998, it was 10.53% out of a national population of 132 million, for a figure of 13.9 million Saraiki speakers resident in Pakistan. Also according to the 1998 census, 12.8 million of those, or 92%, lived in the province of Punjab.

India
After Partition in 1947, Hindu and Sikh speakers of Saraiki migrated to India, where they are currently widely dispersed, though with more significant pockets in the states of Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Jammu and Kashmir. There is also a smaller group of Muslim pastoralists who migrated to India, specifically Andhra Pradesh, prior to Partition.

There are census figures available – for example, in the 2011 census, people reported their language as "Bahawal Puri", and  as "Hindi Multani". However, these are not representative of the actual numbers, as the speakers will often refer to their language using narrower dialect or regional labels, or alternatively identify with the bigger language communities, like those of Punjabi, Hindi or Urdu. Therefore, the number of speakers in India remains unknown. There have been observations of Lahnda varieties "merging" into Punjabi (especially in Punjab and Delhi), as well as of outright shift to the dominant languages of Punjabi or Hindi. One pattern reported in the 1990s was for members of the younger generation to speak the respective "Lahnda" variety with their grandparents, while communicating within the peer group in Punjabi and speaking to their children in Hindi.

Phonology
Saraiki's consonant inventory is similar to that of neighbouring Sindhi. It includes phonemically distinctive implosive consonants, which are unusual among the Indo-European languages. In Christopher Shackle's analysis, Saraiki distinguishes up to 48 consonants and 9 monophthong vowels.

Vowels
The "centralised" vowels tend to be shorter than the "peripheral" vowels. The central vowel is more open and back than the corresponding vowel in neighbouring varieties. Vowel nasalisation is distinctive: 'may you go' vs. 'may he go'. Before, the contrast between and  is neutralised. There is a high number of vowel sequences, some of which can be analysed as diphthongs.

Consonants
Saraiki possesses a large inventory of consonants:

In its stop consonants, Saraiki has the typical for Indo-Aryan four-fold contrast between voiced and voiceless, and aspirated and unaspirated. In parallel to Sindhi it has additionally developed a set of implosives, so that for each place of articulation there are up to five contrasting stops, for example: voiceless 'custom' ~ aspirated  'blister' ~ implosive  'cobweb' ~ voiced  'niche' ~ voiced aspirate  'foam'.

There are five contrasting places of articulation for the stops: velar, palatal, retroflex, dental and bilabial. The dentals are articulated with the blade of the tongue against the surface behind the teeth. The retroflex stops are post-alveolar, the articulator being the tip of the tongue or sometimes the underside. There is no dental implosive, partly due to the lesser retroflexion with which the retroflex implosive is pronounced. The palatal stops are here somewhat arbitrarily represented with and. In casual speech some of the stops, especially, and , are frequently rendered as fricatives – respectively ,  and.

Of the nasals, only and  are found at the start of a word, but in other phonetic environments there is a full set of contrasts in the place of articulation:. The retroflex is a realised as a true nasal only if adjacent to a retroflex stop, elsewhere it is a nasalised retroflex flap. The contrasts ~, and  ~  are weak; the single nasal is more common in southern varieties, and the nasal + stop cluster is prevalent in central dialects. Three nasals have aspirated counterparts.

The realisation of the alveolar tap varies with the phonetic environment. It is trilled if geminated to and weakly trilled if preceded by  or. It contrasts with the retroflex flap ( 'wire' ~  'watching'), except in the variety spoken by Hindus. The fricatives are labio-dental. The glottal fricative is voiced and affects the voice quality of a preceding vowel.

Phonotactics and stress
There are no tones in Saraiki. All consonants except can be geminated ("doubled"). Geminates occur only after stressed centralised vowels, and are phonetically realised much less markedly than in the rest of the Punjabi area.

A stressed syllable is distinguished primarily by its length: if the vowel is peripheral then it is lengthened, and if it is a "centralised vowel"  then the consonant following it is geminated. Stress normally falls on the first syllable of a word. The stress will, however, fall on the second syllable of a two-syllable word if the vowel in the first syllable is centralised, and the second syllable contains either a diphthong, or a peripheral vowel followed by a consonant, for example 'carpenter'. Three-syllable words are stressed on the second syllable if the first syllable contains a centralised vowel, and the second syllable has either a peripheral vowel, or a centralised vowel + geminate, for example 'seventy-four'. There are exceptions to these rules and they account for minimal pairs like 'informing' and  'so much'.

Implosives
Unusually for South Asian languages, implosive consonants are found in Sindhi, possibly some Rajasthani dialects, and Saraiki, which has the following series: /  /.

The "palatal" is denti-alveolar and laminal, articulated further forward than most other palatals.

The "retroflex" is articulated with the tip or the underside of the tongue, further forward in the mouth than the plain retroflex stops. It has been described as post-alveolar, pre-palatal or pre-retroflex. reports that this sound is unique in Indo-Aryan and that speakers of Multani take pride in its distinctiveness. The plain voiced and the implosive  are mostly in complementary distribution although there are a few minimal pairs, like  'doctor' ~  'mail'. The retroflex implosive alternates with the plain voiced dental stop in the genitive postposition/suffix, which takes the form of  when combined with 1st or 2nd person pronouns:  'my',  'your'.

A dental implosive is found in the northeastern Jhangi dialect, which is characterised by a lack of phonemic contrast between implosives and plain stops, and a preference for implosives even in words where Saraiki has a plain stop. The dental implosive in Jhangi is articulated with the tongue completely covering the upper teeth. It is not present in Saraiki, although contends that it should be reconstructed for the earlier language. Its absence has been attributed to structural factors: the forward articulation of and the lesser retroflexion of.

Aspirated (breathy voiced) implosives occur word-initially, where they contrast with aspirated plain stops: ' 'sit' ~ ' 'fear'. The aspiration is not phonemic; it is phonetically realised on the whole syllable, and results from an underlying that follows the vowel, thus  is phonemically.

The historical origin of the Saraiki implosives has been on the whole the same as in Sindhi. Their source has generally been the older language's series of plain voiced stops, thus Sanskrit ' > Saraiki ' 'be born'. New plain voiced stops have in turn arisen out of certain consonants and consonant clusters (for example, ' > ' 'barley'), or have been introduced in loanwords from Sanskrit, Hindi, Persian or English (' 'throat', ' 'bus'). The following table illustrates some of the major developments:

Within South Asia, implosives were first described for Sindhi by Stake in 1855. Later authors have noted their existence in Multani and have variously called them "recursives" or "injectives", while Grierson incorrectly treated them as "double consonants".

Writing system
In the province of Punjab, Saraiki is written using the Arabic-derived Urdu alphabet with the addition of seven diacritically modified letters to represent the implosives and the extra nasals. In Sindh the Sindhi alphabet is used. The calligraphic styles used are Naskh and Nastaʿlīq.

Historically, traders or bookkeepers wrote in a script known as kiṛakkī or laṇḍā, although use of this script has been significantly reduced in recent times. Likewise, a script related to the Landa scripts family, known as Multani, was previously used to write Saraiki. A preliminary proposal to encode the Multani script in ISO/IEC 10646 was submitted in 2011. Saraiki Unicode has been approved in 2005. The Khojiki script has also been in use, whereas Devanagari and Gurmukhi are not employed anymore.

In academia
The Department of Saraiki, Islamia University, Bahawalpur was established in 1989 and the Department of Saraiki, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan was established in 2006. BS Saraiki is also being offered by English department of Ghazi University, Dera Ghazi Khan and MA Saraiki is being offered by Gomal University, Dera Ismail Khan privately.It is taught as a subject in schools and colleges at higher secondary and intermediate. Saraiki is also taught at degree level at the Allama Iqbal Open University at Islamabad, and the Al-Khair University at Bhimbir have Pakistani Linguistics Departments. They offer M.Phil. and Ph.D in Saraiki. The Associated Press of Pakistan has launched a Saraiki version of its site, as well.

Arts and literature
The language, partly codified during the British Raj, derived its emotional attraction from the poetry of the Sufi saint, Khawaja Ghulam Farid, who has become an identity symbol. His poems, known as Kafi are still famous.

Shakir Shujabadi (Kalam-e-Shakir, Khuda Janey, Shakir Diyan Ghazlan, Peelay Patr, Munafqan Tu Khuda Bachaway, and Shakir De Dohray are his famous books) is a very well recognized modern poet.

Ataullah Khan Esakhelvi and Shafaullah Rokhri are considered legends of Saraiki music and the most popular singers from the Saraiki belt.

Television channels
Former Pakistan Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani had said southern Punjab is rich in cultural heritage which needs to be promoted for next generations. In a message on the launch of Saraiki channel by Pakistan Television (PTV) in Multan, he is reported to have said that the step would help promote the rich heritage of 'Saraiki Belt'.

Radio
These are not dedicated Saraiki channels but most play programmes in Saraiki.

title: Saraiki language


text:
Talk:Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science

Comment
The stuff at the bottom about "do or die" is largely false. In fact, the PhD program would often grant masters degrees to PhD students who had reached ABD status, sometimes in the interests of allowing them to get higher salaries at summer jobs. I recieved such a masters degree about half way through my study there. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 24.173.250.82 (talk • contribs).
 * Was that during the 80s? It's certainly the case now that they give masters degrees for finishing most of the PhD requirements, but I had heard that this practice is somewhat new. — brighterorange  (talk) 16:01, 4 December 2006 (UTC)

I agree with the above comment: the CS department was not "do or die" when I was there (from 1974-1978). I got my Ph.D. in 1978, but was given a Masters in 1976 because I had progressed far enough in the program by then. Unless someone can show that the policy changed in the 1980s, I have to say that the section should be removed or severely edited. strubin (talk) 17:47, 30 January 2013 (UTC)

I'm taking off that silly "citation needed" in the introduction - whoever put that there, please learn to use google AND wikipedia. CMU has a lot of research in those areas, if you really want to cite something, just go to each of the research centers and paste the links here. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Rawringtiger (talk • contribs) 02:09, 20 July 2010 (UTC)

 * These need to be provided before the citation needed template is removed. We need to provided references in the article, not direct readers to search google to verify them. Also, please see wikipedia's policy on assuming good faith. Thanks Jesstalk edits 13:28, 26 July 2010 (UTC)

POV
"It ranks as one of the best Computer Science programs in the world." seems POV to me. If such a claim is to be made, then there should be citations to actual rankings. Other similar claims seem to be made without citation as well. --Shimei 03:24, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Added link to U.S. News and World Report --Jrc 23:22, 10 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Let me guess, you must be from MIT? Well, four programs are tied for #1 for CS.
 * Either way it looks like "one of the top computer science programs" is fair so, I've removed the NPOV tag Nloth 06:43, 11 May 2006 (UTC)
 * There's other stuff that's flowery and should be fixed/made more declarative --Matt 03:38, 13 April 2006 (UTC)
 * Please point these out - it looks pretty much okay to me. Nloth 06:43, 11 May 2006 (UTC)

Merge?
Should the articles on the organizational units of the Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science be merged into that same parent article? Viriditas (talk) 07:24, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

Hello. Upon reviewing a GA nomination for the Human-Computer Interaction Institute, I came across the following related articles:
 * Details

 * Robotics Institute
 * Institute for Software Research International
 * Language Technologies Institute
 * Entertainment Technology Center

After looking closely at these articles, I'm not seeing a need for them apart from one paragraph summaries in this main article. The longest of these articles, Carnegie Mellon Human Computer Interaction Institute, is mostly promotional, duplicates some content from this article, and is sourced to primary sources. The rest are perma-stubs. Viriditas (talk) 06:51, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Comment I see no objection to merging them and if they are not merged, they really need some NPOV editing as they stand. In fact they still would need it if they were merged, preferably by someone not connected with any of those institutions. JonRichfield (talk) 08:39, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Comment I agree, it would be better to merge them. They definitely need to have some NPOV editing.JSR (talk) 10:41, 17 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Partial Support/Comment I definitely agree with merging the four stub articles. I'm not sure on the Human-Computer Interaction Institute; it might be possible to repair that one with some secondary sources (it does have one such already). Allens (talk | contribs) 19:34, 21 June 2012 (UTC)

 * Neutral/Comment I am pretty neutral about it.-- Ankit Maity Talk Contribs 15:37, 23 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Source or merge Carnegie Mellon Institute for Software Research International, Language Technologies Institute, and Entertainment Technology Center. They currently have no reliable sources attesting to their independent notability and without them appear to fail WP:ORG and WP:GNG. Neutral on Carnegie Mellon Human Computer Interaction Institute and Robotics Institute because their sourcing, while still not great, is better than the other three. —David Eppstein (talk) 18:06, 25 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Merge HCII reads much like a promotional brochure and has only a few 3rd-party reference (i.e., violating WP:SELFPUB #5, "the article is not based primarily on such sources"), the others are nearly devoid of references (especially 3rd-party references). With some (NPOV) editing, I think these articles should become sections within Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science. Justin W Smith talk/stalk 19:43, 25 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Merge You're quite right, seems like a logical proposal to me. Jesse V. (talk) 17:48, 27 June 2012 (UTC)
 * Merge and remove the promotional material to comply with NPOV. — ChalkboardCowboy[T] 13:22, 4 July 2012 (UTC)
 * Merge. RI has glimmer of notability with DARPA Grand Challenge and decent book source, but is still weak. Sources for LTI are generally CMU and not independent; I don't see notability in its own right. Others are too threadbare. Glrx (talk) 16:56, 7 August 2012 (UTC)
 * Oppose - With respect to the Robotics Institute. RI is at least as notable as the SCS as a whole.  Probably more so.  Agree that RI article is sparse - need improvement not merging.  Sbs9 (talk) 16:24, 24 June 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 6 one external links on Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20130828002102/http://miis.lti.cs.cmu.edu:80/about/miis/degree.shtml to http://miis.lti.cs.cmu.edu/about/miis/degree.shtml
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080509075249/http://gatescenter.blog.cs.cmu.edu/overview/ to http://gatescenter.blog.cs.cmu.edu/overview/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090315000617/http://www.cs.cmu.edu:80/~mobot/winners.shtml to http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~mobot/winners.shtml
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120623221712/http://www.cs.cmu.edu:80/people/achievements/ to http://www.cs.cmu.edu/people/achievements/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120623221712/http://www.cs.cmu.edu:80/people/achievements/ to http://www.cs.cmu.edu/people/achievements/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20080514225448/http://www.ri.cmu.edu/labs/lab_12.html to http://www.ri.cmu.edu/labs/lab_12.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 22:27, 15 November 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 6 external links on Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://miis.lti.cs.cmu.edu/about/miis/degree.shtml
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.cs.cmu.edu/~mobot/winners.shtml
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.cs.cmu.edu/people/achievements/
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://www.cs.cmu.edu/people/achievements/
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20091212132624/http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?srt=all&awd=140 to http://awards.acm.org/homepage.cfm?srt=all&awd=140
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20110609130641/http://www.macfound.org/site/c.lkLXJ8MQKrH/b.2070789/apps/nl/content2.asp?content_id=%7B7D985462-610A-445A-B44A-6238715F94BC%7D&notoc=1 to http://www.macfound.org/site/c.lkLXJ8MQKrH/b.2070789/apps/nl/content2.asp?content_id=%7B7D985462-610A-445A-B44A-6238715F94BC%7D&notoc=1

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 08:05, 31 July 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified one external link on Carnegie Mellon School of Computer Science. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20090210210922/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_528186.html to http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/news/s_528186.html

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 12:35, 9 December 2017 (UTC)


text:
Martian packet

A Martian packet is an IP packet seen on the public Internet that contains a source or destination address that is reserved for special use by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) as defined in, Appendix B Glossary (Martian Address Filtering). On the public Internet, such a packet either has a spoofed source address, and it cannot actually originate as claimed, or the packet cannot be delivered. The requirement to filter these packets (i.e. not forward them) is found in, Section 5.3.7 (Martian Address Filtering).

Martian packets commonly arise from IP address spoofing in denial-of-service attacks, but can also arise from network equipment malfunction or misconfiguration of a host.

In Linux terminology, a Martian packet is an IP packet received by the kernel on a specific interface, while routing tables indicate that the source IP is expected on another interface.

The name is derived from packet from Mars, meaning that packet seems to be not of this Earth.

IPv4 and IPv6
In both IPv4 and IPv6, a Martian packet has a source address, a destination address, or both within one of the special-use ranges.

6to4
6to4 is an IPv6 transition technology where the IPv6 address encodes the originating IPv4 address such that every IPv4 has a corresponding, unique IPv6  prefix. Because 6to4 relays use the encoded value for determining the end site of the 6to4 tunnel, 6to4 addresses corresponding to IPv4 Martians are not routable and should never appear on the public Internet.

Teredo tunneling
Teredo is another IPv6 transition technology that encodes the originating IPv4 address in the IPv6 address. However, the encoding format encodes the Teredo server address and tunnel information before the IPv4 client address. Thus there is no definable set of prefixes more specific than for Teredo packets with Martian end-site addresses. It is, however, possible to spoof Teredo packets with the Teredo server IPv4 address set to a Martian.

Implementation
Some of the large router have functionality to filter out specifically for Martian Filtering packet and address.

 * Juniper Junos OS has martians.
 * Cisco IOS do not have Martin Filtering, and uses ip access-list
 * Cisco Small Business has Martian Addresses

title: Martian packet


text:
The Martians (scientists)

"The Martians" ("A marslakók") were a group of prominent scientists (mostly, but not exclusively, physicists and mathematicians) of Hungarian Jewish descent who emigrated from Europe to the United States in the early half of the 20th century.

Leo Szilard, who jokingly suggested that Hungary was a front for aliens from Mars, used this term. In an answer to the question of why there is no evidence of intelligent life beyond Earth (called the Fermi paradox) despite the high probability of it existing, Szilárd responded: "They are already here among us – they just call themselves Hungarians." This account is featured in György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians.

Men included in the description
Individuals named as members of The Martians group include:

 * Paul Erdős
 * Paul Halmos
 * Theodore von Kármán
 * John G. Kemeny
 * John von Neumann
 * George Pólya
 * Leó Szilárd
 * Edward Teller
 * Eugene Wigner
 * Franz Alexander
 * Peter Carl Goldmark
 * John Harsanyi
 * Peter Lax
 * George Olah
 * Egon Orowan
 * John Polanyi
 * Valentine Telegdi
 * Cornelius Lanczos

Origin of the name
The original story from György Marx's book The Voice of the Martians:

"The universe is vast, containing myriads of stars ... likely to have planets circling around them. ... The simplest living things will multiply, evolve by natural selection and become more complicated till eventually active, thinking creatures will emerge. ... Yearning for fresh worlds ... they should spread out all over the Galaxy. These highly exceptional and talented people could hardly overlook such a beautiful place as our Earth. – 'And so,' Fermi came to his overwhelming question, 'if all this has been happening, they should have arrived here by now, so where are they?' – It was Leo Szilard, a man with an impish sense of humor, who supplied the perfect reply to the Fermi Paradox: 'They are among us,' he said, 'but they call themselves Hungarians.'"

When the question was put to Edward Teller – who was particularly proud of his monogram, E.T. (abbreviation of extraterrestrial)  –  he looked worried, and said: "Von Kármán must have been talking."

According to György Marx, the extraterrestrial origin of the Hungarian scientists is proved by the fact that the names of Leó Szilárd, John von Neumann, and Theodore von Kármán cannot be found on the map of Budapest, but craters can be found on the Moon bearing their names: Szilard, Von Neumann, Von Kármán, and a crater on Mars, Von Kármán.

title: The Martians (scientists)


text:
Manitoulin District

Manitoulin District is a district in Northeastern Ontario within the Canadian province of Ontario. It was created in 1888 from part of the Algoma District. The district seat is in Gore Bay.

It comprises Manitoulin Island primarily, as well as a number of smaller islands surrounding it, such as Barrie, Cockburn, and Great La Cloche islands. Previously it included the municipality of Killarney on the mainland, until this was transferred to Sudbury District in the late 1990s. Subsequently, more mainland portions were added to Killarney and these, together with Unorganized Mainland Manitoulin District, were also transferred to Sudbury District in 2006, about 1600 km2 in all.

Geography
The district has an area of 3107.13 km2, making it the smallest district in Ontario. It is in the northern part of Lake Huron, separated from the mainland by the North Channel to the north and by the Georgian Bay to the east.

Islands included within the district are:

 * Barrie Island
 * Bedford Island
 * Burnt Islands (Big and Northwest)
 * Clapperton Island
 * Club Island
 * Cockburn Island
 * Duck Islands (Great, Middle, Outer, and Western)
 * East Rous Island
 * Fitzwilliam Island
 * Goat Island
 * Great La Cloche Island
 * Greene Island
 * Henry Island
 * Heywood Island
 * Manitoulin Island
 * Rabbit Island
 * Strawberry Island
 * Thibault Island
 * Vidal Island
 * Wall Island
 * Yeo Island

Communities

 * Advance
 * Bass Creek
 * Bidwell
 * Big Lake
 * Bowser's Corner
 * Britainville
 * Burnt Island
 * Burpee
 * Clover Valley
 * Cold Springs
 * Cook's Dock
 * Dinner Point Depot
 * Dryden's Corner
 * Eads Bush
 * Eagles Nest
 * Elizabeth Bay
 * Evansville
 * Fernlee
 * Foxey
 * Gibraltar
 * Green Bay
 * Grimsthorpe
 * Hilly Grove
 * Honora
 * Ice Lake
 * Kagawong
 * Little Current
 * Long Bay
 * Manitowaning
 * Meldrum Bay
 * Michael's Bay
 * Mindemoya
 * Monument Corner
 * Old Spring Bay
 * Perivale
 * Pleasant Valley
 * Poplar
 * Providence Bay
 * Rockville
 * Sandfield
 * Sheguiandah
 * Silver Water
 * The Slash
 * Snowville
 * South Baymouth
 * Spring Bay
 * Squirrel Town
 * Tobacco Lake
 * Tolsmaville
 * Turner
 * Vanzant's Point

Demographics
As a census division in the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, the Manitoulin District had a population of $13,935$ living in $6,144$ of its $9,302$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $13,255$. With a land area of 3073.54 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Services
Like the other districts of Northern Ontario, the Manitoulin District does not have a county or regional municipality tier of government. All services in the district are provided either by the individual municipalities or directly by the provincial government. Services are provided jointly with the Sudbury District from its district seat in Espanola.

Media
The district is served by two weekly community newspapers, the Manitoulin Expositor in Little Current and the Manitoulin West Recorder in Gore Bay; the papers are sister publications both owned and operated by the McCutcheon family.

The district is served by the commercial radio stations CFRM-FM and CHAW-FM, the First Nations community radio station CHYF-FM, and the Elliot Lake-based commercial radio station CKNR-FM. It is otherwise primarily served by media from Sudbury, including the Sudbury Star and CTV Northern Ontario.

King's Highways

 * #6

Secondary Highways

 * #540
 * #540A
 * #540B
 * #542
 * #542A
 * #551

title: Manitoulin District


text: Talk:Ostracod

title: Talk:Ostracod


text:
Pizza (programming language)

Pizza is an open-source superset of Java 1.4, prior to the introduction of generics for the Java programming language. In addition to its own solution for adding generics to the language, Pizza also added function pointers and algebraic types with case classes and pattern matching.

In August 2001, the developers made a compiler capable of working with Java. Most Pizza applications can run in a Java environment, but certain cases will cause problems.

Pizza's last version was released in January 2002. Its main developers turned their focus afterwards to the Generic Java project: another attempt to add generics to Java that was officially adopted as of version 5 of the language. The pattern matching and other functional programming-like features have been further developed in the Scala programming language. Martin Odersky remarked, "we wanted to integrate the functional and object-oriented parts in a cleaner way than what we were able to achieve before with the Pizza language. [...] In Pizza we did a clunkier attempt, and in Scala I think we achieved a much smoother integration between the two."

title: Pizza (programming language)


text:
Talk:Historic incorporated territories of the United States

Shouldn't this page be merged with United States territory? --mav 04:10, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Dear god no. :) We have determined that the "territory" held by the U.S. is very distinct from a territory of the United States, and we had a whole big debate that resulted in United States territory, Political divisions of the United States and then, Historic incorporated territories of the United States, which I feel strongly deserves its own page. Anyway, everybody seems pretty happy with the Pol-Div v. Territory split. jengod 04:13, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)
 * Well, I hope I haven't inadvertently stirred things up -- I went through a bunch of the historic territory articles (most are still stubs) and tried to standardize the language to include a link back to this page. However, Decumanus pointed out on my talk page that the link to Organized territory was correct rather than linking to this article. I told him that I'd put things back tomorrow. If there's still some disagreement, then perhaps I should wait? Bkonrad 04:31, 7 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * There is overlap--a territory can be both organized and incorporated, but the key is that while both Oregon Territory and Puerto Rico were/are organized (they have governments and are in some way overseen by the U.S. fed government), but of the two only Oregon Territory was incorporated--it was part of specific process guiding it toward statehood. Puerto Rico is an unincorporated territory, and historic Oregon Country was unorganized territory. This is somewhat fuzzy to the modern mind, because there just aren't any incorporated territories anymore, but an incorporated territory is something like a proto-state, and unincorporated territory is something like a possession (we're keeping it, but we don't really want it at the same time), while the difference between organized and unorganized is a legalistic distinction. Is that confusing enough? jengod 04:55, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

 * OK - fair enough. :) --mav

Regarding removal of material
I have been doing a bit of research into the exact meaning of incorporated territory (and just rewrote that article) in order to determine exactly what it means, since it is being used a lot in articles. Specifically what I have found is this:
 * Incorporated in this sense has nothing to do with creating a civil goverment entity, such as the incorporation of a city or town.
 * Rather, it is synonymous with "fully included", as in "territory that was been fully incorporated into the U.S."
 * The distinction between incorporated and unincorporated territory was moot until the acquisition of U.S. possessions in the 1890s. Before then, all U.S. territory was, in some sense, de facto incorporated territory (although see counterargument below).
 * Even after the acquisition of U.S. possessions, the distinction in law betweeen inc. and uninc. was murky until 1937 following a U.S. Supreme Court decision on the appliction of the Sherman Antitrust Law (which simply used the word "territory") to Puerto Rico, which is not an incorporated territory, although it is organized territory.
 * Following things above, organized/unorganized and incorporated/unincorporated have nothing to do with each and are complete separate systems of classification. That is, a territory can be organized without being incorporated, and vice versa.

The issue at hand is whether or not most historic territories of the U.S. were actually incorporated territories. This is a little murky, considering the definition of "incorporated territory" as elaborated in the 1937 decision and its further codification into U.S. law (I'd point to the Dept. of Interior web site on this, but it is down right now because of a court decision).

Certainly the Alaska Territory and Hawaii Territory were incorporated (and organized) territories, because they were in existence in the 20th century.

But in regard to previous ones, here's the issue: certainly territories such as the (unorganized) Northwest Territory, and the organized ones created of it (e.g. Michigan Territory), as well later ones like the Arizona Territory satisfied the criterion of being "fully included" in the U.S. The problem is that the definition of "incorporated territory" as elaborated by the Supreme Court defined such as territory as one for which the full U.S. constitution applied. Here's where it gets murky, in that it is quite arguable whether or not the framers would have intended that meaning in regard to the Michigan Territory, etc., since such issues were not actually brought before the Supreme Court.

My point is that I'm not sure what to do with this article per se, in that strictly speaking, the title of the article may refer only to three territories: Palmyra Atoll, Alaska Territory, and Hawaii Territory. I could be wrong about this, regarding the retroactive application of the term to historic territories in the 19th century. I think it might take a bit of legal research to figure this out, and it may not have even a definite answer, as I've said.

In the meantime, I've removed some of the material from the article which is really about organized territory. Some of it was in error (for example incorporated territory has nothing to do with eventual statehood). Other material is now better covered in incorporated territory. The other disincluded part is below. Some should perhaps be put into the organized territory article, but I'm not up to doing it right now. Maybe later.

I've also gone with the interpretation that historical organized territories prior to the 20th century were indeed "incorporated territories." This preserves the article as meaningful for the time being using its current title. -- Decumanus | Talk 21:00, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

disincluded material to be placed in other articles.

 * Up until 1959 and the admission of Alaska and Hawaii, large parts of the United States were under the direct control of the federal government, with nominal political autonomy at the territorial level. See the for the several present-day states that were never part of the territorial process.

 * Territories were organized by an Organic Act and statehood was made possible by an Enabling Act. The U.S. Congress granted some territorial divisions "grades", generally based on population, to move them foward on the path toward statehood--generally just first- and second-grade status, but some began at third-grade status.

 * Territories were generally governed by a territorial governor and a territorial legislature. These political institutions had to draft a state constitution, to be approved by the Congress, before admission as a state. (For most of the 19th century there was a U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Territories and a U.S. Senate Committee on Territories organized to manage the relevant legislation.)

New Title
Starting a new section here to discuss a possible new title for this article -- based on the work that Decumanus has done above (thanks again).

How about just renaming this article as Historic Organized Territories of the United States and move the bit about Palmyra Atoll to incorporated territories? Or, couldn't we just merge this with List of historic regions of the United States? I think everything on this list is also on that one. Bkonrad | Talk 00:14, 25 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The only thing I think that needs to be brought into the discussion is that there was such a thing as Philippines Territory--or some variation on that spelling and nomenclature--it would have been unincorporated, i'm pretty sure, but...I dunno. Does that fit in with Historic organized territories of the United States? I think so... There's 2c. Tired. So tired. :o) jengod 01:36, Mar 25, 2004 (UTC)~

Okay, some proposals:
 * Move to Historic organized territories of the United States
 * OR move content to List of historic regions of the United States, and maybe change that to Historic regions of the United States, to accomodate some narrative-style explanation.
 * Or...? jengod 00:58, Mar 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * I like merging with the List of historic regions of the United States and then renaming that as Historic regions of the United States. I can't see a really good reason to keep essentially the same list in two places. Bkonrad | Talk 01:20, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Some notes: We do have an article on Commonwealth of the Philippines (which I edited today after creating commonwealth (U.S. insular area), although that status covered only a portion of the period of the U.S. sovereignty over the Philippine Islands. I don't know what the status was before 1934.

 * And we also need to address the Panama Canal Zone (I'm not sure about title of that article at all. Wasn't the official name simply "Canal Zone"?. I had a high school girlfriend who was a native Zonian. I wonder what it says on her passport: but I've long since lost track of her and her personality was much like the nickname :)).

 * There is Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands which was a UN trust territory administered by the U.S. I don't know if there were any other such US trusteeships.

 * what to do with Cuba? (the age-old Yankee question)

 * -- Decumanus | Talk 01:47, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Snerkity snerk snerk snerk. And let's not even get started on Nicaragua, which we kept mildly attacking and taking over for years because we might or might not have wanted to build a canal there. Also, something about sandanistas and communism. ;) Okay, I'm being bold and moving stuff to Historic regions of the United States. Speak now or forever yaddayadda. jengod 01:51, Mar 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * Good points. I think they could all be handled on a Historic regions of the United States article. Need some new subheads, but they are historic regions of the U.S. They're definitely not incorporated territory. I suppose we could just as readily call it Historic territories of the United States. Not sure if that helps at all, though it seems that region is open to including all sorts of unofficial names people may have used to call someplace. Bkonrad | Talk 01:55, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * O.K. I guess Cuba is an easy one, since it was never officially under U.S. sovereignty of any kind, in accordance with the Teller Amendment. So it shouldn't be on the list at all, although it had a U.S. military governor for a couple years, and the U.S. wrote the Constitution. Hmmm. Sounds sort of familiar... Can't quite put my finger on it. Oh yeah, I'm thinking of Japan of course. -- Decumanus | Talk 02:51, 27 Mar 2004 (UTC)


text:
Privity of contract

The doctrine of privity of contract is a common law principle which provides that a contract cannot confer rights or impose obligations upon anyone who is not a party to that contract. It is related to, but distinct from, the doctrine of consideration, according to which a promise is legally enforceable only if valid consideration has been provided for it, and a plaintiff is legally entitled to enforce such a promise only if they are a promisee from whom the consideration has moved.

A principal consequence of the doctrine of privity is that, at common law, a third party generally has no right to enforce a contract to which they are not a party, even where that contract was entered into by the contracting parties specifically for their benefit and with a common intention among all of them that they should be able to enforce it. In England & Wales and Northern Ireland, the doctrine has been substantially weakened by the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999, which created a statutory exception to privity, providing, in certain circumstances, third parties the right to enforce terms of contracts to which they are not privy.

Third party rights
Privity of contract occurs only between the parties to the contract, most commonly contract of sale of goods or services. Horizontal privity arises when the benefits from a contract are to be given to a third party. Vertical privity involves a contract between two parties, with an independent contract between one of the parties and another individual or corporation.

If a third party gets a benefit under a contract, it does not have the right to go against the parties to the contract beyond its entitlement to a benefit. An example of this occurs when a manufacturer sells a product to a distributor and the distributor sells the product to a retailer. The retailer then sells the product to a consumer. There is no privity of contract between the manufacturer and the consumer.

This, however, does not mean that the parties do not have another form of action: for instance, in Donoghue v. Stevenson –  a friend of Ms. Donoghue bought her a bottle of ginger beer, which contained the partially decomposed remains of a snail. Since the contract was between her friend and the shop owner, Mrs. Donoghue could not sue under the contract, but it was established that the manufacturer was in breach of a duty of care owed to her. Accordingly, she was awarded damages in the tort of negligence for having suffered gastroenteritis and "nervous shock".

History
Prior to 1861 there existed decisions in English Law allowing provisions of a contract to be enforced by persons not party to it, usually relatives of a promisee, and decisions disallowing third party rights. The doctrine of privity emerged alongside the doctrine of consideration, the rules of which state that consideration must move from the promise, that is to say that if nothing is given for the promise of something to be given in return, that promise is not legally binding unless promised as a deed. 1833 saw the case of Price v. Easton, where a contract was made for work to be done in exchange for payment to a third party. When the third party attempted to sue for the payment, he was held to be not privy to the contract, and so his claim failed. This was fully linked to the doctrine of consideration, and established as such, with the more famous case of Tweddle v. Atkinson. In this case the plaintiff was unable to sue the executor of his father-in-law, who had promised to the plaintiff's father to make payment to the plaintiff, because he had not provided any consideration to the contract.

The doctrine was developed further in Dunlop Pneumatic Tyre v. Selfridge and Co. Ltd. through the judgment of Lord Haldane.

Privity of Contract played a key role in the development of negligence as well. In the first case of Winterbottom v. Wright (1842), in which Winterbottom, a postal service wagon driver, was injured due to a faulty wheel, attempted to sue the manufacturer Wright for his injuries. The courts however decided that there was no privity of contract between manufacturer and consumer.

This issue appeared repeatedly until MacPherson v. Buick Motor Co. (1916), a case analogous to Winterbottom v Wright involving a car's defective wheel. Judge Cardozo, writing for the New York Court of Appeals, decided that no privity is required when the manufacturer knows the product is probably dangerous if defective, third parties (e.g. consumers) will be harmed because of said defect, and there was no further testing after initial sale. Foreseeable injuries occurred from foreseeable uses. Cardozo's innovation was to decide that the basis for the claim was that it was a tort not a breach of contract. In this way he finessed the problems caused by the doctrine of privity in a modern industrial society. Although his opinion was only law in New York State, the solution he advanced was widely accepted elsewhere and formed the basis of the doctrine of product liability.

Common law exceptions
There are exceptions to the general rule, allowing rights to third parties and some impositions of obligations. These are:
 * Collateral Contracts (between the third party and one of the contracting parties)
 * Trusts (the beneficiary of a trust may sue the trustee to carry out the contract)
 * Land Law (restrictive covenants on land are imposed upon subsequent purchasers if the covenant benefits neighbouring land)
 * Agency and the assignment of contractual rights are permitted.
 * Third-party insurance - A third party may claim under an insurance policy made for their benefit, even though that party did not pay the premiums.
 * Contracts for the benefit of a group, where a contract to supply a service is made in one person's name but is intended to sue at common law if the contract is breached; there is no privity of contract between them and the supplier of the service.

Attempts have been made to evade the doctrine by implying trusts (with varying success), constructing the Law of Property Act 1925 s. 56(1) to read the words "other property" as including contractual rights, and applying the concept of restrictive covenants to property other than real property (without success).

 * 1) in case of trust/beneficiary
 * 2) in case of family arrangement
 * 3) in case of acknowledgment of debts
 * 4) in case of assignment of contract.

Statutory exceptions
In England and Wales, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999 provided some reform for this area of law which has been criticised by judges such as Lord Denning and academics as unfair in places. The act states:

 * 1. - (1) Subject to the provisions of this act, a person who is not a party to a contract (a "third party") may in his own right enforce a term of the contract if-
 * (a) the contract expressly provides that he may, or
 * (b) subject to subsection (2), the term purports to confer a benefit on him.
 * (2) Subsection (1)(b) does not apply if on a proper construction of the contract it appears that the parties did not intend the term to be enforceable by the third party.

This means that a person who is named in the contract as a person authorised to enforce the contract or a person receiving a benefit from the contract may enforce the contract unless it appears that the parties intended that he may not.

The Act enables the aim of the parties to be fully adhered to. In Beswick v Beswick, the agreement was that Peter Beswick assign his business to his nephew in consideration of the nephew employing him for the rest of his life and then paying a weekly annuity to Mrs. Beswick. Since the latter term was for the benefit of someone not party to the contract, the nephew did not believe it was enforceable and so did not perform it, making only one payment of the agreed weekly amount. Yet the only reason why Mr. Beswick contracted with his nephew was for the benefit of Mrs. Beswick. Under the Act, Mrs. Beswick would be able to enforce the performance of the contract in her own right. Therefore, the Act realises the intentions of the parties.

The law has been welcomed by many as a relief from the strictness of the doctrine, however it may still prove ineffective in professionally drafted documents, as the provisions of this statute may be expressly excluded by the draftsmen.

In Hong Kong, the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Ordinance provided for a similar legal effect as the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.

Third-party beneficiaries
In Australia, it has been held that third-party beneficiaries may uphold a promise made for its benefit in a contract of insurance to which it is not a party (Trident General Insurance Co Ltd v. McNiece Bros Pty Ltd (1988) 165 CLR 107). The decision in Trident had no clear ratio, and did not create a general exemption to the doctrine of privity in Australia.

Queensland, the Northern Territory and Western Australia have all enacted statutory provisions to enable third party beneficiaries to enforce contracts, and limited the ability of contracting parties to vary the contract after the third party has relied on it. In addition, section 48 of the Insurance Contracts Act 1984 (Cth) allows third-party beneficiaries to enforce contracts of insurance.

Although damages are the usual remedy for the breach of a contract for the benefit of a third party, if damages are inadequate, specific performance may be granted (Beswick v. Beswick [1968] AC 59).

The issue of third-party beneficiaries has appeared in cases where a stevedore has claimed it is covered under the exclusion clauses in a bill of lading. In order for this to succeed, three factors must be made out:
 * The bill of lading must clearly intend to benefit the third party.
 * It is clear that when the carrier contracts with the consignor, it also contracts as an agent of the stevedore. That is, either the carrier must have had authority by the stevedore to act on its behalf, or the stevedore must later ratify (endorse) the actions of the carrier.
 * Any difficulties with consideration moving from the stevedores must be made out.

The last issue was explored in New Zealand Shipping Co Ltd v. A M Satterthwaite & Co Ltd [1975] AC 154, where it was held that the stevedores had provided consideration for the benefit of the exclusion clause by the discharge of goods from the ship.

New Zealand has enacted the Contracts Privity Act 1982, which enables third parties to sue if they are sufficiently identified as beneficiaries by the contract, and in the contract it is expressed or implied they should be able to enforce this benefit. An example case of not being "sufficiently identified" is that of Field v Fitton (1988).

title: Privity of contract


text:
Waldemar Bonsels

Waldemar Bonsels (21 February 1880 in Ahrensburg – 31 July 1952 in Ambach, Münsing) was a German writer and creator of Maya the Bee.

Bonsels's most famous work is the children's book Die Biene Maja und ihre Abenteuer (The Adventures of Maya the Bee). This work served the basis for a Japanese animated television series Maya the Honey Bee in the mid-1970s, as well as a Croatian opera for children written by Bruno Bjelinski. The opera was staged in 2008 in Villach, Austria at the Carinthian Summer Music Festival. Himmelsvolk (People in the Sky) is a sequel with a more philosophical focus, describing in mystical terms the unity of all creation and its relationship to God.

He wrote a number of novels and shorter stories dealing with love as Eros and the higher level of divine love in the spirit of romanticism (Eros und die Evangelien, Menschenwege, Narren und Helden, etc.), and about the relationship between man and nature in a simple life unchanged by modern civilisation (Anjekind, etc.). Bonsels also wrote a historical novel about the time of Jesus (Der Grieche Dositos).

He travelled extensively in Europe and Asia, which resulted in the book Indienfahrt (Voyage in India).

Bonsels was an outspoken antisemite and expressed his approval of Nazi politics against Jews in 1933, calling the Jew "a deadly enemy" who was "poisoning the culture" in an article (NSDAP und Judentum) which was widely published.

Books

 * Die Biene Maja und ihre Abenteuer (1912) (Maya the Bee and her Adventures, translated as The Adventures of Maya the Bee)
 * Himmelsvolk: Ein Buch von Blumen, Tieren und Gott (1915) (People of the Sky)
 * Indienfahrt (1916)
 * Menschenwege: Aus den Notizen eines Vagabunden (1917)
 * Das Unjekind: Eine Erzählung (101.-120. edition, 1922)
 * Eros und die Evangelien: Aus den Notizen eines Vagabunden (67.-90. thousand, 1922)
 * Wartalun: eine Schlossgeschichte (101.-114. edition, 1922)
 * Weihnachtsspiel: eine Dichtung (1922)
 * Jugendnovellen (1923)
 * Narren und Helden: Aus den Notizen eines Vagabunden (24.-26. thousand, 1924)
 * Mario und die Tiere (1928) (Mario and the Animals, translated as The Adventures of Mario)
 * Dositos: Ein mythischer Bericht aus der Zweitwende (1949)
 * Der Reiter in der Wüste: Eine Amerikafahrt (1935)
 * Mario Ein Leben im Walde (1939) (Mario A Life in the Woods)
 * Efeu: Erzählungen und Begegnungen (1953)
 * Translations

Short stories

 * Die Winde
 * Angelika
 * Scholander
 * Die Stadt am Strom
 * Asja

Essays

 * NSDAP und Judentum (1933)

title: Waldemar Bonsels


text:
List of Hobart suburbs

This is a List of suburbs of Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.

title: List of Hobart suburbs