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Transmittance

In optical physics, transmittance of the surface of a material is its effectiveness in transmitting radiant energy. It is the fraction of incident electromagnetic power that is transmitted through a sample, in contrast to the transmission coefficient, which is the ratio of the transmitted to incident electric field.

Internal transmittance refers to energy loss by absorption, whereas (total) transmittance is that due to absorption, scattering, reflection, etc.

Hemispherical transmittance
Hemispherical transmittance of a surface, denoted T, is defined as
 * $$T = \frac{\Phi_\mathrm{e}^\mathrm{t}}{\Phi_\mathrm{e}^\mathrm{i}},$$

where
 * Φet is the radiant flux transmitted by that surface;
 * Φei is the radiant flux received by that surface.

Spectral hemispherical transmittance
Spectral hemispherical transmittance in frequency and spectral hemispherical transmittance in wavelength of a surface, denoted Tν and Tλ respectively, are defined as
 * $$T_\nu = \frac{\Phi_{\mathrm{e},\nu}^\mathrm{t}}{\Phi_{\mathrm{e},\nu}^\mathrm{i}},$$
 * $$T_\lambda = \frac{\Phi_{\mathrm{e},\lambda}^\mathrm{t}}{\Phi_{\mathrm{e},\lambda}^\mathrm{i}},$$

where
 * Φe,νt is the spectral radiant flux in frequency transmitted by that surface;
 * Φe,νi is the spectral radiant flux in frequency received by that surface;
 * Φe,λt is the spectral radiant flux in wavelength transmitted by that surface;
 * Φe,λi is the spectral radiant flux in wavelength received by that surface.

Directional transmittance
Directional transmittance of a surface, denoted TΩ, is defined as
 * $$T_\Omega = \frac{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega}^\mathrm{t}}{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega}^\mathrm{i}},$$

where
 * Le,Ωt is the radiance transmitted by that surface;
 * Le,Ωi is the radiance received by that surface.

Spectral directional transmittance
Spectral directional transmittance in frequency and spectral directional transmittance in wavelength of a surface, denoted Tν,Ω and Tλ,Ω respectively, are defined as
 * $$T_{\nu,\Omega} = \frac{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\nu}^\mathrm{t}}{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\nu}^\mathrm{i}},$$
 * $$T_{\lambda,\Omega} = \frac{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\lambda}^\mathrm{t}}{L_{\mathrm{e},\Omega,\lambda}^\mathrm{i}},$$

where
 * Le,Ω,νt is the spectral radiance in frequency transmitted by that surface;
 * Le,Ω,νi is the spectral radiance received by that surface;
 * Le,Ω,λt is the spectral radiance in wavelength transmitted by that surface;
 * Le,Ω,λi is the spectral radiance in wavelength received by that surface.

Luminous transmittance
In the field of photometry (optics), the luminous transmittance of a filter is a measure of the amount of luminous flux or intensity transmitted by an optical filter. It is generally defined in terms of a standard illuminant (e.g. Illuminant A, Iluminant C, or Illuminant E). The luminous transmittance with respect to the standard illuminant is defined as:

 * $$T_{lum} = \frac{\int_0^\infty I(\lambda)T(\lambda)V(\lambda)d\lambda}{\int_0^\infty I(\lambda)V(\lambda)d\lambda}$$

where:
 * $$I(\lambda)$$ is the spectral radiant flux or intensity of the standard illuminant (unspecified magnitude).
 * $$T(\lambda)$$ is the spectral transmittance of the filter
 * $$V(\lambda)$$ is the luminous efficiency function

The luminous transmittance is independent of the magnitude of the flux or intensity of the standard illuminant used to measure it, and is a dimensionless quantity.

Beer–Lambert law
By definition, internal transmittance is related to optical depth and to absorbance as
 * $$T = e^{-\tau} = 10^{-A},$$

where
 * τ is the optical depth;
 * A is the absorbance.

The Beer–Lambert law states that, for N attenuating species in the material sample,
 * $$T = e^{-\sum_{i = 1}^N \sigma_i \int_0^\ell n_i(z)\mathrm{d}z} = 10^{-\sum_{i = 1}^N \varepsilon_i \int_0^\ell c_i(z)\mathrm{d}z},$$

or equivalently that
 * $$\tau = \sum_{i = 1}^N \tau_i = \sum_{i = 1}^N \sigma_i \int_0^\ell n_i(z)\,\mathrm{d}z,$$
 * $$A = \sum_{i = 1}^N A_i = \sum_{i = 1}^N \varepsilon_i \int_0^\ell c_i(z)\,\mathrm{d}z,$$

where
 * σi is the attenuation cross section of the attenuating species i in the material sample;
 * ni is the number density of the attenuating species i in the material sample;
 * εi is the molar attenuation coefficient of the attenuating species i in the material sample;
 * ci is the amount concentration of the attenuating species i in the material sample;
 * ℓ is the path length of the beam of light through the material sample.

Attenuation cross section and molar attenuation coefficient are related by
 * $$\varepsilon_i = \frac{\mathrm{N_A}}{\ln{10}}\,\sigma_i,$$

and number density and amount concentration by
 * $$c_i = \frac{n_i}{\mathrm{N_A}},$$

where NA is the Avogadro constant.

In case of uniform attenuation, these relations become
 * $$T = e^{-\sum_{i = 1}^N \sigma_i n_i\ell} = 10^{-\sum_{i = 1}^N \varepsilon_i c_i\ell},$$

or equivalently
 * $$\tau = \sum_{i = 1}^N \sigma_i n_i\ell,$$
 * $$A = \sum_{i = 1}^N \varepsilon_i c_i\ell.$$

Cases of non-uniform attenuation occur in atmospheric science applications and radiation shielding theory for instance.

title: Transmittance


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Tula Oblast

Tula Oblast (Ту́льская о́бласть) is a federal subject (an oblast) of Russia. It is geographically located in European Russia and is administratively part of the Central Federal District, covering an area of 25700 km2. It has a population of Tula is the largest city and the administrative center of the oblast.

Tula Oblast borders Moscow Oblast in the north, Ryazan Oblast in the east, Lipetsk Oblast in the southeast, Oryol Oblast in the southwest, and Kaluga Oblast in the west. Tula Oblast is one of the most developed and urbanized territories in Russia, and the majority of the territory forms the Tula-Novomoskovsk Agglomeration, an urban area with a population of over 1 million.

History
The Tula Oblast area has been inhabited since the Stone Age, as shown by the discoveries of burial mounds (kurgans) and old settlements. By the eighth century, these lands were occupied by the Vyatichi, an East Slavic tribe who cultivated the land, traded, and worked at crafts, confirmed by records in property registers which mention an "ancient settlement" located at the confluence of the Upa River and Tulitsa River. The first mention of the city of Tula in 1146 is found in the Nikon Chronicle, in reference to the campaign of Prince Svyatoslav Olgovich of Chernigov. At the time the lands belonged to the Ryazan Principality, and Prince Sviatoslav passed through a number of settlements, including Tula, while heading for Ryazan.

Geography
Tula Oblast is located in Russia's Central Federal District and borders Moscow, Ryazan, Lipetsk, Oryol, and Kaluga Oblasts.

Rivers
Tula Oblast contains more than 1,600 rivers and streams. Major rivers include:
 * Don River
 * Oka River
 * Upa River

Natural resources
The oblast is rich in iron ore, clay, limestone, and deposits of lignite (coal). The lignite deposit is part of the Moscow coal basin.

Climate
Tula Oblast has a moderate continental climate, with warm summers and cold winters. Average January temperature is -10 C in the north and -9 C in the south. Average July temperature is about +19 C to +20 C. Annual precipitation is 470 mm in the southeast and 575 mm in the northwest.

Politics
During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Tula CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.

The Charter of Tula Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Tula Oblast Duma is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Oblast Duma exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.

Local government
Representative bodies of urban and rural settlements and urban districts consist of deputies elected in municipal elections. The representative body of the municipal district consists of the heads of settlements that are part of the municipal district, and of deputies of the representative bodies of these settlements, elected by the representative bodies of the settlements from among their members in accordance with the same norm of representation, regardless of the population of the settlement. The term of office of representative bodies of cities, rural settlements, city districts, and municipal districts is 5 years, with some exceptions when the term is 3 years. Local government bodies in the Tula Oblast are headed by 103 heads of municipalities and 84 heads of municipal administrations.

In accordance with the regional law of 2017, village elders carry out activities to organize interaction between local government bodies and residents of rural settlements when resolving issues of local importance. As of 1 November 2022, 1,071 village elders operate in 23 municipal districts and urban districts. Their powers extend to the territory of more than 1,700 settlements, home to about 160,000 inhabitants.

In the Tula Oblast, regional branches of dozens of political parties are registered, the largest in terms of membership being United Russia, the Communist Party of the Russian Federation (CPRF), the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia (LDPR), Patriots of Russia, the Party of Growth, A Just Russia – For Truth, Yabloko, and the Party of Pensioners of Russia.

Since 2011, the "People's Budget" project has been implemented in the Tula Oblast, aimed at identifying and solving socially significant problems in the territories of the region’s municipalities. Project activities are financed from the budget of the Tula Oblast, the budgets of municipalities, and personal funds of residents and sponsors. The target orientation of the "People's Budget" project is to enhance the participation of residents of the Tula Oblast in solving local problems, creating comfortable living conditions, and supporting the initiatives of residents.

In 2022, an annual survey of the population was conducted in the Tula Oblast on the effectiveness of the activities of heads of local government bodies and enterprises operating at the regional and municipal levels, in which 20,141 people participated. Efficiency assessment was carried out according to the following criteria: population satisfaction with the organization of transport services and the quality of roads, housing, and communal services. The overall percentage of satisfaction in municipal areas and urban districts was 88.13% (2020 - 81.01%, 2021 - 83.14%). The highest overall satisfaction rate in the municipalities is Kamensky District - 99.75, Tyoplo-Ogaryovsky District - 99.65%, Chernsky District - 99.12%, Donskoy city - 98.86%. Low satisfaction rates were noted in the municipalities of Kireyevsky District - 73.15%, Zaoksky District - 76.34%, Shchyokinsky District - 77.19%, Tula Urban Okrug - 77.29%, Aleksin city - 77.63%.

Demographics
Population:

Settlements
Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 9,568 (6.7 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 24,860 (17.4 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.15 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 68.97 years (male — 64.05, female — 73.85)

Ethnic composition (2010):
 * Russians - 95.3%
 * Ukrainians - 1%
 * Armenians - 0.6%
 * Tatars - 0.5%
 * Azeris - 0.4%
 * Romani people - 0.3%
 * Belarusians - 0.2%
 * Germans - 0.2%
 * Others - 1.5%
 * 19,778 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.

Religion
According to a 2012 survey 62% of the population of Tula Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 2% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Muslims. In addition, 19% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 13% is atheist, and 3% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

Economy
Tula Oblast is part of the Central economic region. It is a prominent industrial center with metalworking, engineering, coalmining, and chemical industries. Major industrial cities include Novomoskovsk and Aleksin. Historical industries, such as firearm, samovar, and accordion manufacturing, still play an important role in the region.

The oblast also has a developed agricultural sector, which ranks 33rd in Russia in agricultural production. The sector includes farming grain (wheat and rye), potatoes, sugar beets, and vegetable growing, livestock raising, and dairying.

Culture

Tula Oblast has more than 100 museums. Several are located in the administrative center of the oblast, the city of Tula, notably the Tula State Arms Museum, the Tula Kremlin, and the Tula Samovar Museum. Another important cultural tourist attractions is the home and country estate of Leo Tolstoy, Yasnaya Polyana, located 12 km outside of the city of Tula.

The oblast also has four professional theaters, a philharmonic orchestra, and a circus.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Tula Oblast


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Tambov Oblast

Tambov Oblast (Тамбо́вская о́бласть) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Tambov. As of the 2010 Census, its population was 1,091,994.

Geography
Tambov Oblast is situated in a forest steppe. It borders the Ryazan, Penza, Saratov, Voronezh and Lipetsk oblasts.

History
The oldest known population of the Tambov region, the Mordovians-Moksha, formed as a nation of local ethnic groups from the 6th century BC. The first Russian settlers arrived in the pre-Mongol period, but the final settlement occurred in the 17th century. To protect the southern borders of Russia from the raids of the Tatars, and to further develop the Black Soil region, the Russian government built the walled cities of Kozlov (1635) and Tambov (1636). The cities protected the main path of nomad raids on Russian land and paved the way for a quick settlement of the region.

Kozlovsky Uyezd originally existed in the Tambov area. In the course of the administrative reforms of Peter the Great in 1708 and 1719, it became part of Azov Governorate. New administrative divisions established the Tambov Viceroyalty in 1779 and from 1796 Tambov Governorate, with an area of 66.5 thousand km2 divided into 12 uyezds. With almost no change to its boundaries, the Governorate remained in existence until 1928.

An attempt to establish Soviet control over the Tambov area led to the defeat and execution of "Red Sonya" (Sofia Nukhimovna Gel'berg) in the spring of 1918.

During the Russian Civil War, an anti-Bolshevik uprising, the Tambov Rebellion, broke out in Tambov Governorate in 1920–1921.

Tambov Oblast was finally created from the Voronezh and Samara Oblasts on September 27, 1937. The oblast attained its present form after the separation of Penza Oblast (formerly part of Kuybyshev before joining Tambov) on February 4, 1939.

Politics
The acting head of the administration of the Tambov Oblast since 4 October 2021 and Head of the Tambov Oblast since 20 September 2022 is Maxim Yegorov.

Elections to the Regional Duma were held from 17 to 19 September 2021. 25 seats were distributed by party lists and 25 by single-member constituencies. The seats at the end of the elections were distributed as follows:
 * United Russia — 42
 * Rodina — 3
 * Communist Party of the Russian Federation — 3
 * Liberal Democratic Party of Russia — 1
 * A Just Russia — 1

Demographics
Population:

Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 6,586 (6.7 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 16,358 (16.8 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.22 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 69.88 years (male — 65.41, female — 74.33)

 * Ethnic composition (2010)
 * Russians: 97%
 * Ukrainians: 0.7%
 * Armenians: 0.4%
 * Romani people: 0.4%
 * Others: 1.5%
 * 22,708 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.

Religion
According to a 2012 survey, 78.4% of the population of Tambov Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, making it the federal subject with the highest percentage of this religion in the whole country. In addition, 1% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 7% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 10% is atheist, and 3.6% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

Economy
Southeastern Railway passes through Michurinsk and connects the central regions with the southern regions. Breeding cattle, sheep, pig, and chicken is a product of animal husbandry.

title: Tambov Oblast


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Doctrine of signatures

The doctrine of signatures, dating from the time of Dioscorides and Galen, states that herbs resembling various parts of the body can be used by herbalists to treat ailments of those body parts. A theological justification, as stated by botanists such as William Coles, was that God would have wanted to show men what plants would be useful for.

Today considered pseudoscience, the practice has historically led to many deaths and severe illnesses. For instance, birthwort (so-called because of its resemblance to the uterus) was once used widely for pregnancies, but is carcinogenic and very damaging to the kidneys, owing to its aristolochic acid content. As a defense against predation, many plants contain toxic chemicals, the action of which is not immediately apparent, or easily tied to the plant rather than other factors.

History
The concept dates from the time of Dioscorides and Galen. Paracelsus (1493–1541) developed the concept, writing that "Nature marks each growth ... according to its curative benefit", and it was followed by Giambattista della Porta in his Phytognomonica (1588).

The writings of Jakob Böhme (1575–1624) spread the doctrine of signatures. He suggested that God marked objects with a sign, or "signature", for their purpose. Plants bearing parts that resembled human body-parts, animals, or other objects were thought to have useful relevance to those parts, animals, or objects. The "signature" could sometimes also be identified in the environments or specific sites in which plants grew. Böhme's 1621 book The Signature of All Things gave its name to the doctrine. The English physician-philosopher Sir Thomas Browne in his discourse The Garden of Cyrus (1658) uses the Quincunx pattern as an archetype of the 'doctrine of signatures' pervading the design of gardens and orchards, botany and the Macrocosm at large.

The 17th century botanist William Coles supposed that God had made 'Herbes for the use of men, and hath given them particular Signatures, whereby a man may read ... the use of them.' Coles's The Art of Simpling and Adam in Eden, stated that walnuts were good for curing head ailments because in his opinion, "they Have the perfect Signatures of the Head". Regarding Hypericum, he wrote, "The little holes whereof the leaves of Saint Johns wort are full, doe resemble all the pores of the skin and therefore it is profitable for all hurts and wounds that can happen thereunto."

A theological justification was made for this philosophy: "It was reasoned that the Almighty must have set his sign upon the various means of curing disease which he provided".

For the late medieval viewer, the natural world was vibrant with images of the Deity: 'as above, so below,' a Hermetic principle expressed as the relationship between macrocosm and microcosm; the principle is rendered sicut in terra. Michel Foucault expressed the wider usage of the doctrine of signatures, which rendered allegory more real and more cogent than it appears to a modern eye: "Up to the end of the sixteenth century, resemblance played a constructive role in the knowledge of Western culture. It was resemblance that largely guided exegesis and the interpretation of texts; it was resemblance that organized the play of symbols, made possible knowledge of things visible and invisible, and controlled the art of representing them. (The Order of Things, p. 17)"

Signatures of some plants used in herbalism
The concept of signatures is reflected in the common names of some plants whose shapes and colors reminded herbalists of the parts of the body where they were thought to do good, as for instance:

 * Eyebright, used for eye infections
 * Hedge woundwort, thought to have antiseptic qualities
 * Liverwort, either Marchantiophyta or Hepatica – used to treat the liver
 * Lungwort – used for pulmonary infections
 * Spleenwort, Asplenium – used to treat the spleen
 * Toothwort, Dentaria – used for tooth ailments

Concepts similar to the doctrine of signatures may be found in folk or indigenous medicines, and in modern alternative medicines.

In literature
The phrase "signatures of all things" appears in the beginning of episode 3 in James Joyce's novel Ulysses. The character Stephen Dedalus walking along the beach, thinking to himself "Signatures of all things I am here to read, seaspawn and seawrack, the nearing tide, that rusty boot". The Canadian poet Anne Szumigalski, 1922–1999, entitled her third full-length collection Doctrine of Signatures.

Scientific skepticism
The signatures are described as post hoc attributions and mnemonics, of value only in creating a system for remembering actions attributed to medical herbs. There is no scientific evidence that plant shapes and colors help in the discovery of medical uses of plants.

Another explanation is that the human mind, in trying to find patterns to explain phenomena, while lacking adequate scientific knowledge, resorts to anthropomorphism.

title: Doctrine of signatures


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Smolensk Oblast

Smolensk Oblast (Смоленская область), informally also called Smolenshchina (Смоленщина), is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative centre is the city of Smolensk. As of the 2021 Census, its population was 888,421.

Geography

The oblast was founded on 27 September 1937. It borders Pskov Oblast in the north, Tver Oblast in the northeast, Moscow Oblast in the east, Kaluga Oblast in south, Bryansk Oblast in the southwest, and Mogilev and Vitebsk Oblasts of Belarus, in the west and northwest, as part of the Belarus–Russia border.

Hydrography
The main river of the region is the Dnieper River and its tributaries, Desna, Vop, Vyazma. By the rivers of the Volga basin and its tributary Vazuza Gzhat and tributary of the Oka river, Ugra. To the north-west flows a short section of the Western Dvina River and its tributary river Kasplya.

Among the major reservoirs supplying water are Moscow Vazuzssky Yauza and reservoirs in the north-east, as well as cooling power plants, Smolensk reservoir in the north near the village of Lake and Desnogorsk Reservoir in the south area of the city near the Desnogorsk.

Climate
The climate of Smolensk Oblast is humid continental, similar to the climate of Moscow Oblast, but slightly warmer in winter due to being located further west. Summers are short, warm and rainy, while winters are long, cold and snowy. Average temperatures range from -9 C in January to 17 C in July (although in the south it ranges from -8 C in January to 18 C in July). Annual precipitation varies from 630 to 730 mm per year.

Politics

During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Smolensk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.

The Charter of Smolensk Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Smolensk is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia. From July 1941-September 1943 part of region fell to Germany.

Administrative divisions

Smolensk Oblast is divided into 25 districts (raions) and two cities, which are further divided into 15 towns, 12 urban-type settlements, and 302 rural okrugs.

Demographics
Population:

Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 5,478 (6.1 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 14,825 (16.4 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.08 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 68.00 years (male — 63.28, female — 72.83)

Ethnic composition (2010):
 * Russians: 94.6%
 * Ukrainians: 1.3%
 * Belarusians: 1.3%
 * Armenians: 0.5%
 * Others: 2.3%
 * 41,457 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.

Religion
According to a 2012 survey 19.5% of the population of Smolensk Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 7% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 3% are Orthodox Christian believers who do not belong to church or belong to other (non-Russian) Orthodox churches, 2% are Old Believers, 1% are adherents of the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery) movement, 0.4% are members of the Catholic Church. In addition, 45% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 13% is atheist, and 9.1% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

Economy
Smolensk Oblast has a diverse economy, and exports large amounts of ammonium nitrate, fertilizers, wheat, and wood. The top exports in 2021 were fertilizers (19.2%, $284M), wood products (13.2%, $194M), wheat (9.8%, $144M), and machinery (7.6%, $112M).

Notable people

 * Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), an American writer and professor of biochemistry, born in Petrovichi
 * Yuri Gagarin (1934–1968) a Soviet pilot and cosmonaut, born in Klushino
 * Shmuel Schneersohn (1834–1882) an Orthodox rabbi, born in Lyubavichi
 * Ivan Sidorenko (1919–1994) a Red Army officer and sniper, born in Glinkovsky District
 * Andrey Nikolayevich Tikhonov (1906–1993) a Russian mathematician and geophysicist, born in Gagarin
 * Mikhail Tukhachevsky (1893–1937) nicknamed the Red Napoleon by foreign newspapers, a Soviet general

title: Smolensk Oblast


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Anti-Confederation Party

Anti-Confederation was the name used in what is now the Maritimes by several parties opposed to Canadian Confederation. The Anti-Confederation parties were accordingly opposed by the Confederation Party, that is, the Conservative and Liberal-Conservative parties.

Nova Scotia
In 1867 in Nova Scotia, Anti-Confederates won 36 out of 38 seats in the provincial legislature, and formed a government under William Annand (See 24th General Assembly of Nova Scotia). The Anti-Confederation Party was opposed by the Confederation Party of Charles Tupper. Prominent Anti-confederates included the noted shipbuilder William D. Lawrence, Alfred William Savary and the wealthy merchant Enos Collins.

Federally, in the 1867 federal election, the Anti-Confederates won 18 of Nova Scotia's 19 seats in the House of Commons of Canada. Joseph Howe won the federal seat in Hants County, Nova Scotia, while William D. Lawrence won the Hants County provincial seat. Britain, however, refused to allow Nova Scotia to secede.

While many anti-confederationists threatened to secede and join the United States, Howe was a pragmatist and ultimately accepted Confederation as a fact. He was soon persuaded to join the Cabinet of Sir John A. Macdonald, leading to the movement's collapse (1869).

"'...the scheme [confederation with Canada] by them assented to would, if adopted, deprive the people [of Nova Scotia] of the inestimable privilege of self-government, and of their rights, liberty and independence, rob them of their revenue, take from them the regulation of trade and taxation, expose them to arbitrary taxation by a legislature over which they have no control, and in which they would possess but a nominal and entirely ineffective representation; deprive them of their invaluable fisheries, railways, and other property, and reduce this hitherto free, happy, and self-governed province to a degraded condition of a servile dependency of Canada.'"

New Brunswick
There was also an Anti-Confederation Party in New Brunswick led by Albert James Smith, whose coalition of Conservatives and Reformers won the 1865 election. It was, however, soundly defeated in the 1866 election by the Confederation Party led by Peter Mitchell. The legislature that resulted from that election approved Confederation by a margin of 38 to 1. Accordingly, in the 1867 federal election the Anti-Confederates did not win any of New Brunswick's fifteen seats in the House of Commons of Canada.

While in Nova Scotia and elsewhere, opponents of confederation were predominantly Liberals and supporters were predominantly Tories, in New Brunswick the debate blurred party lines. Anti-Confederate leader Albert Smith and Confederate Peter Mitchell were both Conservatives, while one of the most prominent leaders of the pro-Confederation forces, Samuel Leonard Tilley, was a Liberal. Tilley later joined the government of Sir John A. Macdonald. Both Anti-Confederate and Confederate forces were mixtures of Tories and Reformers (Liberals).

By 1870, the Confederate and Anti-Confederate parties had dissolved and were replaced by the old Liberal and Tory parties.

title: Anti-Confederation Party


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Ryazan Oblast

Ryazan Oblast (Рязанская область, ) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Ryazan, which is also the oblast's largest city.

Geography
Ryazan Oblast borders Vladimir Oblast (N), Nizhny Novgorod Oblast (NE), the Republic of Mordovia (E), Penza Oblast (SE), Tambov Oblast (S), Lipetsk Oblast (SW), Tula Oblast (W), and Moscow Oblast (NW).

In terms of physical geography, Ryazan Oblast lies in the central part of the Russian Plain between the Central Russian and Volga uplands. The terrain is flat, with the highest point of no more than 300 m above sea level. Soils are podzolic and boggy on the left bank of the Oka, changing southward to more fertile podzolic and leached black-earths (chernozyom).

Hydrography

Most of the Ryazan Oblast lies within the Volga basin, with the Oka the principal river of the area.

History
Human occupation of the area of the Ryazan Oblast dates from at least the Upper Paleolithic period. East Slavs, Volga Finnic, Tatar tribes inhabited the area and merged into an ethnos, a process virtually completed by the 13th century CE. In 830 the Ryazan area became part of Rus' Khaganate.

Later the Ryazan area became part of the Kievan Rus' political system and came under the domination of the Principality of Chernigov (founded in 988). The Principality of Ryazan operated as a separate entity from 1097 to 1521, when the area became part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, though with the Qasim Khanate district retaining some autonomy until the 1550s.

The Ryazan Governorate became separate from the Moscow Governorate in 1796.

Soviet Union
Ryazan Oblast was formed out of the Moscow and Voronezh oblasts in 1937. It took its present form in 1954 when some of its southern districts were ceded to the newly established Lipetsk Oblast. Also in 1954, it was ceded parts of southern Moscow Oblast and no border changes happened afterward.

Soviet Union
In the post-war period of the Soviet Union recovery in the wake of growing competition between USSR and US several ambitious plans severely undermined the economical stability of the region. In Ryazan Oblast, at the behest of central government led by Nikita Khrushchev a regional administration ordered slaughter of livestock in a futile attempt to boost productivity rates (plans included tripling of meat and milk production). Because of series of misjudgement and overestimations these plans resulted in disastrous failure which is known today as Ryazan miracle (Рязанское чудо).

Modern
Ryazan Oblast is a part of the Central economic region. The oblast is economically favorable due to the water and land routes that pass through it and provide stable domestic and foreign economic ties. It is considered both an industrial and agricultural Oblast. The agriculture in the region is represented by livestock farming and plants cultivation. Livestock farming specializes in raising and fattening cattle and breeding pigs, sheep, and poultry. Beekeeping is also well developed in the region.

Transportation

 * Solotchinskoye peat narrow gauge railway is located in Ryazansky District
 * Mesherskoye peat narrow gauge railway is located in Klepikovsky District

Demographics
Population:

Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 6,971 (6.5 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 17,684 (16.4 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.14 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 68.61 years (male — 63.96, female — 73.31)

Ethnic composition (2010):
 * Russians - 95.1%
 * Ukrainians - 0.8%
 * Armenians - 0.5%
 * Mordvins - 0.5%
 * Tatars - 0.5%
 * Azeris - 0.4%
 * Uzbeks - 0.3%
 * Others - 1.9%
 * 74,419 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.

Religion
According to a 2012 survey 63% of the population of Ryazan Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 3% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to church or belonging to non-Russian Orthodox churches, 1% are Muslims, and 1% are adherents of the Rodnovery (Slavic native faith) movement. In addition, 15% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 9% is atheist, and 7% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

Tourism

 * Eurleno Mansion, an 18th century mansion built by wealthy local trader and farmer.

Arts

 * Alexander Alexandrov (1883–1946), composer
 * Erast Garin (1902–1980), comic actor
 * Alexander Genis (born 1953), writer, broadcaster and cultural critic
 * Yuri Kholopov (1932–2003), musicologist, music theorist, doctor of arts, and professor of the Moscow Conservatoire
 * Maximilian Kravkov (1887–1937), writer
 * Andrei Mironov (born 1975), painter
 * Konstantin Paustovsky (1892–1968), writer
 * Alexander Pirogov (1899–1964), bass opera singer
 * Yakov Polonsky (1819–1898), writer
 * Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin (1826–1889), satirist
 * Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn (1918–2008), writer
 * Sergei Yesenin (1895–1925), poet
 * Semen Zhivago (1807–1863), historical painter

Athletics

 * Anton Belov (born 1986), professional ice hockey defenceman
 * Olga Kaliturina (born 1976), high jumper
 * Maria Kalmykova (born 1978), basketball player
 * Yuri Kuleshov (born 1981), professional football defensive midfielder
 * Irina Meleshina (born 1982), long jumper
 * Ivan Nifontov (born 1987), judoka
 * Sergei Panov (born 1970), basketball player
 * Konstantin Selyavin (born 1974), former Russian professional football player
 * Kirill Sosunov (born 1975), long jumper
 * Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), figure skater

Engineering and science

 * Andrey Arkhangelsky (1879–1940), geologist
 * Victor Balykin (born 1947), Russian physicist
 * Vladimir Gulevich (1867–1933), biochemist
 * Aleksei Kozhevnikov (1836–1902), neurologist and psychiatrist
 * Nikolai Kravkov (1865–1924), pharmacologist
 * Sergey P. Kravkov (1873–1938), soil scientist
 * Sergey V. Kravkov (1893–1951), psychologist and psychophysiologist
 * Andrey Markov (1856–1922), mathematician
 * Ivan Michurin (1855–1935), biologist
 * Sergey Nepobedimy (1921–2014), designer of rocket weaponry
 * Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936), physiologist
 * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857–1935), engineer

Others

 * Dmitry Andreikin (born 1990), chess grandmaster
 * Roman Putin (born 1977), businessman

title: Ryazan Oblast


text:
Oryol Oblast

Oryol Oblast (Орло́вская о́бласть), also known as Orlovshchina (Орловщина), is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). Its administrative center is the city of Oryol. Population:

Geography
It is located in the southwestern part of the Central Federal District, in the Central Russian Upland.

In terms of area, at 24652 km2 it is one of the smallest federal subjects. From north to south, it extends for more than 150 km, and from west to east—for over 200 km.

Kaluga Oblast border it to the north-west; Tula Oblast is located to the north; Lipetsk Oblast — to the east; Kursk Oblast — to the south, and Bryansk Oblast is to the west.

There are 4800 km2 of black earth soils (chernozems) in the oblast, which amounts to three-quarters of the world chernozem reserves.

Climate
The climate is temperate (Köppen: Dfb). The winter is moderately cold, with an average January temperature from -9 to -11 C. Summers are warm and humid, with an average July temperature from 19 to 21 C. Rainfall averages 520 to 630 mm, and snow cover averages 120 days.

Hydrography
On the territory of the Oryol region there are more than 2 thousand rivers and streams with a total length of 9100 km, but there are no navigable water ways. The rivers of the region belong to the basins of three rivers: Volga, Don, Dnieper.

The Oka river, one of Europe's largest rivers, flows through the oblast for part of its course (190 km) and the source of it is in the south of the region. Main tributaries: Zusha (with tributary Neruch), Vytebet, Nugr, Tson, Orlik, Rybnitsa, Kroma.

Sosna flows in the eastern part of the region. Main tributaries: Trudy, Tim, Lyubovsha, Kshen, Olym.

In the west of the region originate rivers Nerussa, Navlya, Swapa.

1100 lakes and artificial reservoirs of the region cover a total area of about 55 km2 (0,22%).

History
In the 12th century, chronicles mention Mtsensk, known as Novosil then. Then modern Orlovschina was part of the Chernigov Principality. After the death of Mikhail of Chernigov Novosil Principality was formed on these territories. By the end of the 15th century it had disintegrated into four separate principalities and, along with all the other fragments of the Chernigov principality, became a part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania. In the 16th century, the fortress town of Oryol was founded, and the town of Livny, destroyed in the 13th century, was restored. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the territory of modern Oryol was the borderland of the Tsardom of Russia, with many fortifications of the Great Abatis Line. With the reduction of the threat posed by the Tatars, agricultural activity of the area had intensified. It was created in 1937 by uniting a selection of territories of three other oblasts: Kursk Oblast, Western Oblast, and Voronezh Oblast. It also included present Bryansk Oblast between 1937 and 1944.

Politics
During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Oryol CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament.

The Charter of Oryol Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Oryol Oblast Council of People's Deputies is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor of Oryol Oblast, who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.

The head of administration of Oryol Oblast between 1993 and 2009 was Yegor Stroyev. Stroyev led the region for more than 20 years. In 1985 he became the first secretary of the regional committee of the CPSU, and after three years (in 1989-1991 he worked as secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU), in 1991 he returned to Oryol, worked as the director of the Institute of Horticultural Crops Selection, and later was elected governor. On February 16, 2009 Russian President Dmitry Medvedev accepted Stroyev's voluntary retirement and nominated Alexander Kozlov as his replacement, which was approved by the Oryol Regional Council of People's Deputies.

Legislature
The Oryol Oblast Council of People's Deputies is a permanent representative and legislative body of state power in the Oryol Oblast. It consists of 50 deputies elected by residents of the region for 5 year terms according to a mixed-member proportional representation: 25 deputies according to party lists (proportional representation) and 25 in single-mandate constituencies (majoritarian representation) on the basis of universal equal and direct suffrage by secret ballot.

The current 7th Council of People's Deputies was elected in the 2021 Russian regional elections and will last until 2026. Of the 50 deputies, 27 are from United Russia, 11 from the Communist Party of the Russian Federation, 6 from A Just Russia – For Truth, 3 from the Liberal Democratic Party of Russia, 1 from New People, 1 from the Russian Party of Pensioners for Social Justice, and 1 independent. Leonid Muzalevsky (United Russia) was elected Chairman of the Council.

Administrative divisions

 * 3 cities under the oblast's jurisdiction
 * 24 districts
 * 13 urban-type settlements
 * 223 rural settlements

Economy
The main industries in Oryol Oblast are the food and light industries, engineering and metalworking, and ferrous and nonferrous metallurgy. The engineering and metalworking industries manufacture production equipment for various industries, forklift trucks, construction and agricultural equipment, and machinery for municipal services. Numerous companies in the instrument-making and electronics sectors maintain high scientific and technical potential with the latest high-end technologies and experienced specialists. First digital telephone exchange was introduced in the oblast in 1998.

Agriculture
Most of the oblast's agricultural land is used for plant cultivation. Grain growing is very important, with winter wheat and rye being the main crops. Buckwheat, oats, barley, and potatoes are also grown, and sugar beets are in great demand. The area planted in feed grains is increasing due to the expansion of livestock farming, which includes beef and dairy cattle farming, pig farming, sheep farming for meat and wool, poultry farming, and horse breeding.

Transport
Pipelines and power transmission lines are routed through the region's largest oil-trunk pipeline Druzhba (202 km in area). In the southwestern part of the area lies a small section of the Urengoy - Pomary - Uzhgorod pipeline.

Oryol is a major hub of pipelines exporting to Belarus, Western Ukraine and the Baltic states, with branches passing through Bryansk and Kursk.

Automotive
As of 2016, the motorization level of the area was of 314 cars per 1000 people, which is the 15th of any region of Russia and above the national average (285).

Main roads of the region:
 * "Crimea" (152 km through Mtsensk, Oryol, Kromy, Trosna)
 * Oryol — Tambov (151 km through Livny)
 * Oryol — Vitebsk (57 km through Naryshkino)
 * Kaluga — Oryol (67 km through Bolkhov)
 * Trosna — Kalinovka (12 km)
 * 54А-1 Oryol — Yefremov (158 km through Zalegoshch, Novosil)

Railway
The main line is the double track electrified main line Moscow - Kharkiv - Simferopol (136 km through Mtsensk, Oryol, Zmievka and Glazunovka).

Other lines:
 * Oryol — Yelets (130 km through Zalegoshch, Verkhovye, Khomutovo and Krasnaya Zarya)
 * branch in Livny and Dolgoye
 * historical Riga — Oryol (64 km through Naryshkino and Khotynets)
 * Oryol — Dmitriyev (83 km through Kromy)
 * Kursk Oblast — Kolpna (20 km)

Demographics
Population:

Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 4,973 (7.0 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 12,247 (17.2 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.21 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 68.97 years (male — 64.04, female — 73.81)

 * Ethnic composition (2010):'''
 * Russians - 96.1%
 * Ukrainians - 1%
 * Others - 2.9%
 * 17,468 people were registered from administrative databases, and could not declare an ethnicity. It is estimated that the proportion of ethnicities in this group is the same as that of the declared group.

 * Religion

According to a 2012 survey, 40.9% of the population of Oryol Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 5% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Orthodox Christian believers who don't belong to church or belong to non-Russian Orthodox churches, 1% are adherents of the Rodnovery (Slavic native faith) movement, and 1% are Old Believers. In addition, 34% of the population declares to be "spiritual but not religious", 8% is atheist, and 9.1% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

title: Oryol Oblast


text:
12P/Pons–Brooks

12P/Pons–Brooks is a periodic comet with an orbital period of 71 years. Comets with an orbital period of 20–200 years are referred to as Halley-type comets. It is one of the brightest known periodic comets, reaching an absolute visual magnitude of about 5 in its approach to perihelion. Comet Pons-Brooks was conclusively discovered at Marseilles Observatory in July 1812 by Jean-Louis Pons, and on its next appearance in 1883 by William Robert Brooks. There are ancient records of comets that are suspected of having been apparitions of 12P/Pons–Brooks.

The last perihelion passage was 21 April 2024, with closest approach to Earth being 1.55 AU on 2 June 2024. The comet is expected to brighten to about apparent magnitude 4.5. The comet nucleus is estimated to be around 30 km in diameter, assuming it was not producing too much dust and gas during the 2020 photometric measurements.

12P/Pons–Brooks is hypothesized to be the parent body of the weak December $1$ Draconids meteor shower that is active from about 29 November to 13 December.

Before 1812
Comet 12P/Pons–Brooks has been identified as a comet observed in 1385 and in 1457. The 1385 apparition was very favourable and the comet was recorded by the Chinese in Ming Shilu and was also mentioned in some European sources. A comet observed by Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli in January 1457 and mentioned in Chinese sources is also identified as comet 12P/Pons-Brooks. In both apparitions the comet had magnitude 3 or brighter, not accounting for possible outbursts. It is possible that it was also a comet recorded in Chinese sources in September 245 CE.

So-Yeon Park & Jong-Chul Chae (2007) suggested that comet 12P/Pons–Brooks was also the comets recorded in Asian sources in 1313 and 1668. However, Meyer et al. argue that in the 1313 apparition, the comet would have been difficult to observe, being dim and close to the Sun, while the suggested position in Gemini contradicts the calculated location of comet Pons-Brooks in Aries. The March 1668 comet described by Koreans is probably the bright sungrazing comet observed by Europeans, whose orbit is no way compatible with that of comet 12P/Pons–Brooks.

1812 discovery
Comet 12P/Pons–Brooks was discovered on 12 July 1812, by Jean-Louis Pons. Independently, this comet was later found by Vincent Wisniewski on 1 August, and Alexis Bouvard on 2 August the same year. The comet was spotted with the naked eye on 13 August and by the end of the month a tail measuring 2 degrees in length was reported. Shortly after its initial discovery it was found to have an orbital period of about 70 years with an error of about 5 years. Johann Franz Encke determined a definitive orbit with a period of 70.68 years. This orbit was used to generate an ephemeris for the 1883–1884 return.

1884
On 2 September 1883 a (faint) comet was accidentally discovered by William Robert Brooks and later identified with the comet of 1812. An outburst was observed on 21–23 September 1883, as the comet brightened from magnitude 10–11 to 8–8.5, and its appearance changed from diffuse to star-like. The comet became visible with naked eye in 20 November and brightened up to magnitude 3. The comet was reported to experience outbursts on 1 January and 19 January. This year it traveled from Scheat and Markab in western Pegasus, 13 January 1884; southward (through Pisces) to reach perihelion below Iota and Beta Ceti (~RA 0h, dec. -10°) around 24 January. It was last seen in June 1884.

1954
The comet was recovered on 20 June 1953 when it was 4.5 AU from the Sun. The comet outburst from magnitude 18 to magnitude 13 on 1 July 1953. Another outburst occurred in March 1954, the fourth observed in that apparition. On 23 April the comet was estimated magnitude 6.4, and its tail was half a degree long. Pons–Brooks came to perihelion on 22 May 1954 when it was 1.7 AU from Earth. After perihelion it became better visible from the south hemisphere. It was last observed on 4 September 1954 when it was 1.9 AU from the Sun. On 10 December 1954, the meteor stream of comet Pons–Brooks passed about 0.12 AU from Earth, resulting in potential meteors impacting Earth's atmosphere at relative velocity 45 km/s.

2024 passage
On 10 June 2020 Pons–Brooks was recovered at apparent magnitude 23 by the Lowell Discovery Telescope when the comet was beyond the orbit of Saturn at 11.9 AU from the Sun, with the uncertainty in the comet's heliocentric distance being roughly ± 10 000 km at the time. The comet underwent an outburst from magnitude 16–17 to magnitude 11–12 (brightening by ~100×) on 20 July 2023 when it was 3.9 AU from the Sun. The outburst resulted in the comet having a horseshoe shaped coma. It was probably created by the release of about 10 billion kilograms of dust and ice into space. The coma had expanded to a diameter of 600,000 kilometers by 5 August, having an expansion rate of 220 m/s. Although initially spherical, the coma became asymmetrical due to the effects of radiation pressure on the dust. The comet outburst again on 5 October 2023 from magnitude 15 to magnitude 11 (brightening by ~40×). Two more outbursts were recorded on 1 November and 14 November, with the comet brightening to apparent magnitude 9.3 after the later. Outbursts were also observed on 14 December and 18 January 2024.

By mid February the comet had brightened to magnitude 7.5 and had developed an ion tail about two degrees long that featured jets and filaments. A minor outburst took place on 29 February, with the comet brightening by 0.9 magnitudes. By 7 March the comet had brightened to magnitude 5.5 and was located about 10 degrees from the Andromeda Galaxy. In the following days the comet was reported to be visible by naked eye and featured a tail about 5 degrees long. Another outburst occurred on April 3, with the comet brightening to a magnitude of about 3.8. There was a solar eclipse on 8 April 2024 with the comet 25 degrees from the Sun. The perihelion passage was on 21 April 2024 at 0.781 AU from the Sun with a velocity with respect to the Sun of 47.1 km/s. The closest approach to Earth will be later on 2 June 2024 when it will be 1.55 AU from Earth. Near perihelion passage the comet was expected to brighten to about magnitude 4.5 (around 400× brighter than the July 2023 outburst). In early June Earth crossed the comet's orbital plane, resulting to an anti-tail becoming visible.

Orbit
Libration is locked at a 6:1 resonance with Jupiter. The Tisserand invariant with respect to Jupiter (J) is 0.60. Aphelion (furthest point from the Sun) is just beyond the orbit of Neptune at 33.6 AU.

With a steep orbital inclination of 74.2° this comet does not spend a lot of time near the ecliptic. The Jet Propulsion Laboratory's (JPL) website shows that between the years 1900 and 2200, that the comet was and will be most significantly perturbed by Saturn on July 29, 1957. At that point it passed within 1.6AU of the giant planet's influence; even this approach had negligible effect. The comet's orbit appears to be stable between 1740 and 2167, with no strong perturbations by any of the planets.

Before the 2020 recovery, while the last observation was in 1954, Kinoshita calculated that the comet would come to a future perihelion passage (closest approach to the Sun) on 10 August 2095. Accounting for observations in 2020–2023, the nominal time of perihelion passage is now calculated to be 15 August 2095.

Kirkwood in 1884 noticed that Pons-Brooks shares elements with De Vico's comet of 1846. He suggested that the latter had calved off Pons-Brooks some centuries prior. Later he identified the two comets' capture into their elliptical orbits (or their parent body's capture) with their shared aphelion close to Neptune 991 CE.

Other comets with a similar orbital period include 13P/Olbers, 23P/Brorsen-Metcalf, and 1P/Halley.

Meteor showers
12P/Pons-Brooks is hypothesized to be the parent body of the weak December $1$ Draconids meteor shower (#336) that is active from about 29 November to 13 December and generates less than 2 meteors/hour. This is the most abundant of the meteor showers predicted to be related to the comet. One more nighttime meteor shower has been tentatively associated with 12P/Pons-Brooks, the northern June Aquilids, although most probably isn't the parent body. Comet Pons-Brooks could also be the source of a meteor shower on Venus, along with periodic comets 122P/de Vico and 27P/Crommelin.

title: 12P/Pons–Brooks


text:
Talk:Circuit rider

I moved this page to the singular version, as I believe is standard Wikipedia policy. Pollinator 22:14, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Major edit
I split up the original circuit rider page into three parts, and made it a disambiguation for clarity. --Jeffrey O. Gustafson 06:23, 12 May 2005 (UTC)

title: Talk:Circuit rider


text:
Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies

The Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies (FARMS) was an informal collaboration of academics devoted to Latter-day Saint historical scholarship. The organization was established in 1979 as a non-profit organization by John. W. Welch. In 1997, the group became a formal part of Brigham Young University (BYU), which is owned and operated by the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). In 2006, the group became a formal part of the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship, formerly known as the Institute for the Study and Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts, BYU. FARMS has since been absorbed into the Maxwell Institute's Laura F. Willes Center for Book of Mormon Studies.

FARMS supported and sponsored what it considered to be "faithful scholarship", which includes academic study and research in support of Christianity and Mormonism, and in particular, the official position of the LDS Church. This research primarily concerned the Book of Mormon, the Book of Abraham, the Old Testament, the New Testament, early Christian history, ancient temples, and other related subjects. While allowing some degree of academic freedom to its scholars, FARMS was committed to the conclusion that LDS scriptures are authentic, historical texts written by prophets of God. FARMS has been criticized by scholars and critics who classify it as an apologetics organization that operated under the auspices of the LDS Church.

History
FARMS was organized by John W. Welch in California in 1979 as a private, not-for-profit educational organization, and Welch brought the foundation with him when he came to teach at BYU in 1980. In 1997, FARMS was invited to become part of BYU by Gordon B. Hinckley, LDS Church president and chairman of the BYU Board of Trustees. Hinckley noted: "FARMS represents the efforts of sincere and dedicated scholars. It has grown to provide strong support and defense of the Church on a professional basis. I wish to express my strong congratulations and appreciation for those who started this effort and who have shepherded it to this point."

In 2001, BYU consolidated FARMS with the Center for the Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts (CPART) and the Middle Eastern Texts Initiative (METI) to form the Institute for the Study and Preservation of Ancient Religious Texts (ISPART). In 2006, ISPART was renamed as the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship. Welch was tasked with editing BYU Studies, which was originally slated to join the Maxwell Institute with FARMS. BYU Studies did not ultimately join the Maxwell Institute, however, and Welch's role with FARMS diminished. FARMS continued as a nominal sub-unit of the Maxwell Institute without a distinctive cluster of BYU faculty and staff. It has since been subsumed into the Laura F. Willes Center for Book of Mormon Studies, which "deals principally with the Book of Mormon in ancient and modern settings, as well as with the Doctrine and Covenants, the Pearl of Great Price, and related subjects."

As of 2013, M. Gerald Bradford was the director of the Maxwell Institute, with Brian M. Hauglid as the director of the Willes Center.

In late 2010, Daniel C. Peterson, editor of the FARMS Review for over twenty years, announced the journal would be renamed Mormon Studies Review to reflect "readjustments over the past several years in what is now known as the Neal A. Maxwell Institute for Religious Scholarship; the old title, FARMS, no longer reflects the way we're organized. ... We look forward to continuing under the new name." In mid-2012, the director of the Maxwell Institute removed Peterson from editorship of the Review. Peterson retained his title of editor-in-chief of the Institute's Middle Eastern Texts Initiative until resigning from that post in September 2013. In March 2013, J. Spencer Fluhman was named as the new editor of the Mormon Studies Review, along with a new board featuring a variety of scholars interested in Mormon studies.

Peer review and scholarly credentials
Work produced under FARMS's auspices has been critiqued by Mormons, ex-Mormons, secular scholars, and evangelical Christians.

FARMS has stated that the work it supported "conforms to established canons of scholarship, is peer reviewed, and reflects solely the views of individual authors and editors." John A. Tvedtnes, formerly with FARMS and now retired, claims that "the academic credentials of people who publish with FARMS are questioned only by the critics, never by bona fide scholars," noting that "[t]he list of articles and books published in non-LDS scholarly presses by FARMS authors is impressive indeed. If the critics do not accept FARMS authors as scholars, those authors are at least so acknowledged by the world's scholarly community."

Two evangelical Christian scholars, Carl Mosser and Paul Owen, examined the scholarship produced by FARMS. Their subsequent report at the April 25, 1997, Far West Annual Meeting of the Evangelical Theological Society, praised the high quality of FARMS' scholarship, concluding that their fellow evangelicals had lost the apologetic battle against the Mormons largely due to excellent research and publication by FARMS.

Apologetics
FARMS was an important center for producing work that analyzed the Book of Mormon as an ancient text. It also produced work which critiqued claims by both Mormon enthusiasts, disaffected Mormons, and opponents from evangelical Christianity. Such work has been published in the FARMS Review until 2010, when it was replaced by Mormon Studies Review.

Scholars, such as John L. Sorenson, say that the publications of FARMS represented a new trend within Mormonism: the emergence of progressive forms of Mormon orthodoxy. While its scholars are committed to literal interpretations of Mormon faith claims, they are willing to rethink traditional understandings of those claims. For example, FARMS has published a limited geography model for the Book of Mormon. This suggests that the events chronicled in the Book of Mormon occurred in a much smaller region than the traditional understanding, which argues the same events occurred across the entire Western hemisphere. Sorenson writes that supporters of the limited geography idea, including some high-ranking church leaders, believe this model is consistent with anthropological, archaeological and genetic findings about indigenous peoples in the Americas, as well as with the text of the Book of Mormon.

Controversies
FARMS has also been a focus of some controversy both inside and outside the Mormon community, often in response to negative critiques of the works of various scholars. For instance, after his work was reviewed in a FARMS publication, molecular biologist Simon Southerton, a former member of the LDS Church and author of Losing a Lost Tribe: Native Americans, DNA, and the Mormon Church,  claimed the organization existed merely to "prop up faith in the Book of Mormon" and that its work "stretched the bounds of credibility to breaking point on almost every critical issue."

Polemics
Some have accused FARMS of engaging in mean-spirited polemics. One example of this occurred with Signature Books' publication of Grant H. Palmer's book An Insider's View of Mormon Origins. The publication of this book immediately resulted in five negative book reviews by FARMS. Ron Priddis of Signature Books responded to these reviews by stating: "Is nothing beyond the reach of sarcasm by FARMS polemicists?" Priddis refers to the book reviews by FARMS as "tabloid scholarship."

Some authors associated with FARMS have been accused of making ad hominem attacks. FARMS has also been criticized for employing the label "anti-Mormon", and then discounting such works as biased based largely on this pronouncement. In a speech offered before the Sunstone Symposium (titled "Why I No Longer Trust the FARMS Review of Books"), John Hatch said, "After reading the (FARMS) reviews myself, it appears to me, and is my opinion, that FARMS is interested in making Mormonism's past appear as normal as possible to readers by attacking history books that discuss complex or difficult aspects of the church's past. As one who hopes to some day contribute to the body of the New Mormon History, I am deeply troubled by what I see as continued efforts to attack honest scholarly work."

Publications
The following periodicals were published under the FARMS imprint, which was phased out as FARMS was absorbed into BYU's Neal A. Maxwell Institute.

FARMS has republished much work by the LDS scholar Hugh Nibley in the 19-volume Collected Works of Hugh Nibley. It has also published other books, as well as audio and video recordings.


text:
Magadan Oblast

Magadan Oblast is a federal subject (an oblast) of Russia. It is geographically located in the Far East region of the country, and is administratively part of the Far Eastern Federal District. Magadan Oblast has a population of 136,085 (2021 Census), making it the least populated oblast and the third-least populated federal subject in Russia.

Magadan is the largest city and the capital of Magadan Oblast with the majority of the oblast's inhabitants living in the city itself. The coastline has a less severe climate than the interiors, although both are very cold for its latitude.

It borders Chukotka Autonomous Okrug in the north, Kamchatka Krai in the east, Khabarovsk Krai in the south and the Sakha Republic in the west. The economy is primarily based on mining, particularly gold, silver and other non-ferrous metals.

History
Magadan Oblast was established on December 3, 1953 in what had popularly been known as Kolyma. As a result of considerable raw resources, especially gold, silver, tin, and tungsten deposits, mining activities and road building had been developed during the Stalin era in the 1930s and 1940s under the coordination of Dalstroy and its forced labor camps. Upon Stalin's death, Dalstroy was disbanded and the regional administration took over many of its former responsibilities.

From then on, paid labor replaced most of the convict-based manpower, attracted by the region's rapid economic expansion, especially the gold-mining interests.

The indigenous peoples of the region, including the Evens, Koryaks, Yupiks, Chukchis, Orochs, Chuvans and Itelmens, who had traditionally lived from fishing along the Sea of Okhotsk coast or from reindeer herding in the River Kolyma valley, suffered from the industrialization of the area but were able to rely on institutional support until 1987 when Perestroika started to cause many of the older structures to close. As a result, many of those who can no longer rely on traditional sources of income are now unemployed.

Chukotka Autonomous Okrug was formerly administratively subordinated to Magadan Oblast, but declared its separation in 1991.

On 4 July 1997, Magadan, alongside Bryansk, Chelyabinsk, Saratov, and Vologda signed a power-sharing agreement with the government of Russia, granting it autonomy. The agreement would be abolished on 30 January 2002.

Geography

Magadan Oblast consists principally of mountainous desert, tundra, and taiga. The southern part of the region is partly forested with birch, willow, mountain ash, larch and alder.

Inland there are mountain ranges belonging to the Kolyma Mountains, as well as the Chersky Range, including the Okhandya Range with the highest point of Magadan Oblast, an unnamed 2337 m high peak. There are a number of peninsulas along the oblast's coast, the chief ones being (north to south) the Taygonos Peninsula, Pyagina Peninsula, Koni Peninsula, Staritskogo Peninsula, Onatsevicha Peninsula, Khmitevskogo Peninsula and the Onara Peninsula.

The main islands of Magadan Oblast are (north to south) Telan Island, the Yam Islands, Zavyalov Island, Nedorazumeniya Island and the Spafaryev Islands.

Wildlife
The animal species in the south include snow sheep, reindeer, moose and brown bears. There are also many varieties of birds, including ducks and seabirds. Coastal waters of the Sea of Okhotsk host notable biodiversity where large vertebrates such as bowhead whales may appear, and have rich fishing grounds for pollock, herring, cod, flounder and salmon, as well as crabs and shellfish.

Economy
The economy is centered on mining interests for gold, silver and other non-ferrous metals. The city of Magadan is the only large industrial center. Agriculture is not well developed in the region. In April 2014 the Russian government has endorsed bills for extending the operations of the Special Economic Zone (SEZ) in Magadan Oblast through to December 31, 2025.

Mining
Magadan Oblast is considered one of the world's richest mining areas. Gold is the region's main resource, although silver and tin deposits are also being developed. There are nearly 2,000 placer gold deposits, 100 gold ore deposits, and 48 silver ore deposits in the territory.

Recently, there has been interest in exploiting the coal resources in the region. Over the medium term, there seem to be excellent opportunities for petroleum and natural gas exploitation.

Fishing
The fishing industry is the region's only food sector and is second in importance after mining. The 600000 km2 area of the Sea of Okhotsk that borders on Magadan Oblast is one of the most productive regions of the world's oceans. Magadan Oblast has more than 15900 km of coastline and 29016 km of rivers of commercial importance. The catching vessels of the oblast's fishing companies operate mainly in Russia's economic zone, the Sea of Okhotsk and the Bering Sea, and to some extent in the Sea of Japan. Most of the catch comes from coastal waters. Fishing industry companies are concentrated in Magadan, Ola, Yamsk, and Evensk. The most important commercial fish are pollock, herring, cod, navaga (a member of the cod family), flounder, and various kinds of salmon. Crabs, squid, shrimp, and whelks are also caught.

Agriculture
Owing to the severe climate, agriculture is Magadan Region's least developed economic sector; as a result, 50% of all food products must be supplied from outside. The agricultural complex consists of companies producing agricultural products, the food and processing industries, a production infrastructure, and farm enterprises. The particular areas of specialization are reindeer herding, fur farming, and traditional hunting, fishing, and fur trapping activities. Companies involved in food processing and production include Gormolzavod, a distillery, a pasta factory, a sausage factory, the Dukcha state poultry farm, and the Khasynsky state farm.

Present situation
Despite rich natural resources, the economy has not prospered as much as might have been expected in recent years. The severe climate and poorly developed infrastructure are partly to blame, but the difficult transition from Soviet times has led to the collapse of a number of companies with the result that many inhabitants have left the region. Recently, there does seem to have been renewed efforts to encourage foreign investment which could lead to improvements in the economy. Indeed, on a visit to Magadan in November 2005, President Vladimir Putin supported the extension of special tax advantages for the region in order to encourage gold exploitation.

Demographics
Population: Vital statistics for 2022:
 * Births: 1,174 (8.5 per 1,000)
 * Deaths: 1,709 (12.4 per 1,000)

Total fertility rate (2022):

1.43 children per woman

Life expectancy (2021):

Total — 67.41 years (male — 62.48, female — 72.51)

Demographics for 2006 and later
Magadan is a federal subject that has the highest rate of depopulation in the Russian Federation. Its population, which stood at 384,525 in 1991, stood at 165,820 on January 1, 2008 (according to the State Committee of the Russian Federation on Statistics), falling at a rate of around 2% per year. The rural population, which had stood at 59,151, was just 8,833 in 2008 and decreasing at a rate of around 10% per year. Entire villages are being emptied out and the population of the rural areas of the districts is simply disappearing. The rural population of Yagodninsky District was reduced from 13,843 (1991) to 445 (2007). The Omsukchansky District saw its rural population plummet from 1,301 to 79. Especially extreme is the example of Susumansky District, where the rural population almost disappeared: from 9,764 in 1991 to just 116 in 2007. Emigration is evident from the fact that for the 20-24 age group, there were only 66 females living in rural areas, compared to 202 males. Male life expectancy for rural areas rose to 53.73 years in 2006 from 51.88 in 2005. In 2021 the depopulation continues with approximately the same rate, as the population is about 139,000 people.

Although Magadan Oblast is a part of the program of resettlement of ethnic Russian families.

Religion
According to a 2012 survey 29.6% of the population of Magadan Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 3% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 3% is an Orthodox Christian believer without belonging to any church or adheres to other Orthodox churches, 2% of the population adheres to the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery) or to Siberian shamanism, 1% to Islam, 1% to the Old Believers. In addition, 27% of the population declares itself to be "spiritual but not religious", 13% is atheist, and 20.4% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.

title: Magadan Oblast


text:
Little Kennesaw Mountain

Little Kennesaw Mountain is a mountain in Cobb County, Georgia, northwest of Marietta and south of Kennesaw. It is a sub-peak of Kennesaw Mountain, the site of the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in the 1864 Atlanta Campaign of the American Civil War.

The defensive-minded Confederate general Joseph E. Johnston constructed a series of trenches from Kennesaw Mountain to Kolb Farm to prevent or delay Union general William T. Sherman's approach towards Atlanta, Georgia. For the purpose of defending the Confederate line, the Confederates constructed Fort McBride here, but Little Kennesaw Mountain experienced only skirmishes, with most of the fighting occurring to the south. Now a part of Kennesaw Mountain National Battlefield Park, the mountain is part of a popular trail that strings from Burnt Hickory Road to the park visitor center, traversing Pigeon Hill and both mountains.

title: Little Kennesaw Mountain


text:
Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate properly during cell division (mitosis/meiosis). There are three forms of nondisjunction: failure of a pair of homologous chromosomes to separate in meiosis I, failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis II, and failure of sister chromatids to separate during mitosis. Nondisjunction results in daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers (aneuploidy).

Calvin Bridges and Thomas Hunt Morgan are credited with discovering nondisjunction in Drosophila melanogaster sex chromosomes in the spring of 1910, while working in the Zoological Laboratory of Columbia University.

Types
In general, nondisjunction can occur in any form of cell division that involves ordered distribution of chromosomal material. Higher animals have three distinct forms of such cell divisions: Meiosis I and meiosis II are specialized forms of cell division occurring during generation of gametes (eggs and sperm) for sexual reproduction,  mitosis is the form of cell division used by all other cells of the body.

Meiosis II
Ovulated eggs become arrested in metaphase II until fertilization triggers the second meiotic division. Similar to the segregation events of mitosis, the pairs of sister chromatids resulting from the separation of bivalents in meiosis I are further separated in anaphase of meiosis II. In oocytes, one sister chromatid is segregated into the second polar body, while the other stays inside the egg. During spermatogenesis, each meiotic division is symmetric such that each primary spermatocyte gives rise to 2 secondary spermatocytes after meiosis I, and eventually 4 spermatids after meiosis II. Meiosis II-nondisjunction may also result in aneuploidy syndromes, but only to a much smaller extent than do segregation failures in meiosis I.

[[File:Mitotic nondisjunction.png|600px|thumb|Nondisjunction of sister chromatids during mitosis:

Left: Metaphase of mitosis. Chromosome line up in the middle plane, the mitotic spindle forms and the kinetochores of sister chromatids attach to the microtubules.

Right: Anaphase of mitosis, where sister chromatids separate and the microtubules pull them in opposite directions.

The chromosome shown in red fails to separate properly, its sister chromatids stick together and get pulled to the same side, resulting in mitotic nondisjunction of this chromosome. ]]

Mitosis
Division of somatic cells through mitosis is preceded by replication of the genetic material in S phase. As a result, each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids held together at the centromere. In the anaphase of mitosis, sister chromatids separate and migrate to opposite cell poles before the cell divides. Nondisjunction during mitosis leads to one daughter receiving both sister chromatids of the affected chromosome while the other gets none. This is known as a chromatin bridge or an anaphase bridge. Mitotic nondisjunction results in somatic mosaicism, since only daughter cells originating from the cell where the nondisjunction event has occurred will have an abnormal number of chromosomes. Nondisjunction during mitosis can contribute to the development of some forms of cancer, e.g., retinoblastoma (see below). Chromosome nondisjunction in mitosis can be attributed to the inactivation of topoisomerase II, condensin, or separase. Meiotic nondisjunction has been well studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This yeast undergoes mitosis similarly to other eukaryotes. Chromosome bridges occur when sister chromatids are held together post replication by DNA-DNA topological entanglement and the cohesion complex. During anaphase, cohesin is cleaved by separase. Topoisomerase II and condensin are responsible for removing catenations.

Central role of the spindle assembly checkpoint
The spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) is a molecular safe-guarding mechanism that governs proper chromosome segregation in eukaryotic cells. SAC inhibits progression into anaphase until all homologous chromosomes (bivalents, or tetrads) are properly aligned to the spindle apparatus. Only then, SAC releases its inhibition of the anaphase promoting complex (APC), which in turn irreversibly triggers progression through anaphase.

Sex-specific differences in meiosis
Surveys of cases of human aneuploidy syndromes have shown that most of them are maternally derived. This raises the question: Why is female meiosis more error prone? The most obvious difference between female oogenesis and male spermatogenesis is the prolonged arrest of oocytes in late stages of prophase I for many years up to several decades. Male gametes on the other hand quickly go through all stages of meiosis I and II. Another important difference between male and female meiosis concerns the frequency of recombination between homologous chromosomes: In the male, almost all chromosome pairs are joined by at least one crossover, while more than 10% of human oocytes contain at least one bivalent without any crossover event. Failures of recombination or inappropriately located crossovers have been well documented as contributors to the occurrence of nondisjunction in humans.

Age-related loss of cohesin ties
Due to the prolonged arrest of human oocytes, weakening of cohesive ties holding together chromosomes and reduced activity of the SAC may contribute to maternal age-related errors in segregation control. The cohesin complex is responsible for keeping together sister chromatids and provides binding sites for spindle attachment. Cohesin is loaded onto newly replicated chromosomes in oogonia during fetal development. Mature oocytes have only limited capacity for reloading cohesin after completion of S phase. The prolonged arrest of human oocytes prior to completion of meiosis I may therefore result in considerable loss of cohesin over time. Loss of cohesin is assumed to contribute to incorrect microtubule-kinetochore attachment and chromosome segregation errors during meiotic divisions.

Consequences
The result of this error is a cell with an imbalance of chromosomes. Such a cell is said to be aneuploid. Loss of a single chromosome (2n-1), in which the daughter cell(s) with the defect will have one chromosome missing from one of its pairs, is referred to as a monosomy. Gaining a single chromosome, in which the daughter cell(s) with the defect will have one chromosome in addition to its pairs is referred to as a trisomy. In the event that an aneuploidic gamete is fertilized, a number of syndromes might result.

Monosomy
The only known survivable monosomy in humans is Turner syndrome, where the affected individual is monosomic for the X chromosome (see below). Other monosomies are usually lethal during early fetal development, and survival is only possible if not all the cells of the body are affected in case of a mosaicism (see below), or if the normal number of chromosomes is restored via duplication of the single monosomic chromosome ("chromosome rescue").

Turner syndrome (X monosomy) (45, X0)

Complete loss of an entire X chromosome accounts for about half the cases of Turner syndrome. The importance of both X chromosomes during embryonic development is underscored by the observation that the overwhelming majority (>99%) of fetuses with only one X chromosome (karyotype 45, X0) are spontaneously aborted.

Autosomal trisomy
The term autosomal trisomy means that a chromosome other than the sex chromosomes X and Y is present in 3 copies instead of the normal number of 2 in diploid cells.

Down syndrome (trisomy 21)
[[File:Down Syndrome Karyotype.png|300px|thumb| Karyotype of trisomy 21 (Down syndrome)

Note that chromosome 21 is present in 3 copies, while all other chromosomes show the normal diploid state with 2 copies. Most cases of trisomy of chromosome 21 are caused by a nondisjunction event during meiosis I (see text).]] Down syndrome, a trisomy of chromosome 21, is the most common anomaly of chromosome number in humans. The majority of cases result from nondisjunction during maternal meiosis I. Trisomy occurs in at least 0.3% of newborns and in nearly 25% of spontaneous abortions. It is the leading cause of pregnancy wastage and is the most common known cause of intellectual disability. It is well documented that advanced maternal age is associated with greater risk of meiotic nondisjunction leading to Down syndrome. This may be associated with the prolonged meiotic arrest of human oocytes potentially lasting for more than four decades.

Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13)
Human autosomal trisomies compatible with live birth, other than Down syndrome (trisomy 21), are Edwards syndrome (trisomy 18) and Patau syndrome (trisomy 13). Complete trisomies of other chromosomes are usually not viable and represent a relatively frequent cause of miscarriage. Only in rare cases of a mosaicism, the presence of a normal cell line, in addition to the trisomic cell line, may support the development of a viable trisomy of the other chromosomes.

Sex chromosome aneuploidy
The term sex chromosome aneuploidy summarizes conditions with an abnormal number of sex chromosomes, i.e., other than XX (female) or XY (male). Formally, X chromosome monosomy (Turner syndrome, see above) can also be classified as a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy.

Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY)
Klinefelter syndrome is the most common sex chromosome aneuploidy in humans. It represents the most frequent cause of hypogonadism and infertility in men. Most cases are caused by nondisjunction errors in paternal meiosis I. About eighty percent of individuals with this syndrome have one extra X chromosome resulting in the karyotype XXY. The remaining cases have either multiple additional sex chromosomes (48,XXXY; 48,XXYY; 49,XXXXY), mosaicism (46,XY/47,XXY), or structural chromosome abnormalities.

XYY Male (47, XYY)
The incidence of XYY syndrome is approximately 1 in 800–1000 male births. Many cases remain undiagnosed because of their normal appearance and fertility, and the absence of severe symptoms. The extra Y chromosome is usually a result of nondisjunction during paternal meiosis II.

Trisomy X (47,XXX)
Trisomy X is a form of sex chromosome aneuploidy where females have three instead of two X chromosomes. Most patients are only mildly affected by neuropsychological and physical symptoms. Studies examining the origin of the extra X chromosome observed that about 58–63% of cases were caused by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis I, 16–18% by nondisjunction in maternal meiosis II, and the remaining cases by post-zygotic, i.e., mitotic, nondisjunction.

Uniparental disomy
Uniparental disomy denotes the situation where both chromosomes of a chromosome pair are inherited from the same parent and are therefore identical. This phenomenon most likely is the result of a pregnancy that started as a trisomy due to nondisjunction. Since most trisomies are lethal, the fetus only survives because it loses one of the three chromosomes and becomes disomic. Uniparental disomy of chromosome 15 is, for example, seen in some cases of Prader-Willi syndrome and Angelman syndrome.

Mosaicism syndromes
Mosaicism syndromes can be caused by mitotic nondisjunction in early fetal development. As a consequence, the organism evolves as a mixture of cell lines with differing ploidy (number of chromosomes). Mosaicism may be present in some tissues, but not in others. Affected individuals may have a patchy or asymmetric appearance. Examples of mosaicism syndromes include Pallister-Killian syndrome and Hypomelanosis of Ito.

Mosaicism in malignant transformation
[[File:Two hit malignant transformation with chromosome loss.png|700px|thumb| Loss of a tumor suppressor gene locus according to the two-hit model:

In the first hit, the tumor suppressor gene on one of the two chromosomes is affected by a mutation that makes the gene product non-functional. This mutation may arise spontaneously as a DNA replication error or may be induced by a DNA damaging agent. The second hit removes the remaining wild-type chromosome, for example through a mitotic nondisjunction event. There are several other potential mechanisms for each of the two steps, for example an additional mutation, an unbalanced translocation, or a gene deletion by recombination. As a result of the double lesion, the cell may become malignant because it is no longer able to express the tumor suppressor protein.]]

Development of cancer often involves multiple alterations of the cellular genome (Knudson hypothesis). Human retinoblastoma is a well studied example of a cancer type where mitotic nondisjunction can contribute to malignant transformation: Mutations of the RB1 gene, which is located on chromosome 13 and encodes the tumor suppressor retinoblastoma protein, can be detected by cytogenetic analysis in many cases of retinoblastoma. Mutations of the RB1 locus in one copy of chromosome 13 are sometimes accompanied by loss of the other wild-type chromosome 13 through mitotic nondisjunction. By this combination of lesions, affected cells completely lose expression of functioning tumor suppressor protein.

Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD or PIGD) is a technique used to identify genetically normal embryos and is useful for couples who have a family history of genetic disorders. This is an option for people choosing to procreate through IVF. PGD is considered difficult due to it being both time consuming and having success rates only comparable to routine IVF.

Karyotyping
Karyotyping involves performing an amniocentesis in order to study the cells of an unborn fetus during metaphase 1. Light microscopy can be used to visually determine if aneuploidy is an issue.

Polar body diagnosis
Polar body diagnosis (PBD) can be used to detect maternally derived chromosomal aneuploidies as well as translocations in oocytes. The advantage of PBD over PGD is that it can be accomplished in a short amount of time. This is accomplished through zona drilling or laser drilling.

Blastomere biopsy
Blastomere biopsy is a technique in which blastomeres are removed from the zona pellucida. It is commonly used to detect aneuploidy. Genetic analysis is conducted once the procedure is complete. Additional studies are needed to assess the risk associated with the procedure.

Lifestyle/environmental hazards
Exposure of spermatozoa to lifestyle, environmental and/or occupational hazards may increase the risk of aneuploidy. Cigarette smoke is a known aneugen (aneuploidy inducing agent). It is associated with increases in aneuploidy ranging from 1.5 to 3.0-fold. Other studies indicate factors such as alcohol consumption, occupational exposure to benzene, and exposure to the insecticides fenvalerate and carbaryl also increase aneuploidy.

title: Nondisjunction


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Münchhausen am Christenberg

The municipality of Münchhausen is found 20 km north of Marburg on the northern edge of Marburg-Biedenkopf district. It has 3,286 inhabitants (2020) and has had its current boundaries since 1974. The municipality's area is roughly 41 km².

Location
West of the community lies the Rothaargebirge, a low mountain range. The municipal area is bounded on the east by the Burgwald, another low mountain range. The constituent communities of Münchhausen and Simtshausen lie in the Wetschaft valley. Wollmar lies on the like-named river Wollmar, which empties into the Wetschaft in Münchhausen. Through the constituent communities of Oberasphe and Niederasphe flows the river Asphe.

Neighbouring communities
Münchhausen's neighbours are Burgwald, Rosenthal, Wetter, Biedenkopf and Battenberg.

Constituent communities

 * Münchhausen (1285 inhabitants) (as of January 2004)
 * Niederasphe (914 inhabitants)
 * Oberasphe (356 inhabitants)
 * Simtshausen (495 inhabitants)
 * Wollmar (701 inhabitants)

History
Münchhausen am Christenberg officially came into being on 1 July 1974 when the formerly independent places of Münchhausen, Simtshausen, Niederasphe, Oberasphe and Wollmar were united.

Municipal representation
Results of municipal election on 26 March 2006:
 * CDU 11
 * SPD 10
 * Independent Green List (UGL) 2

Coat of arms
The civic coat of arms might be described thus: Party per chevron; above in gules a cross argent fused with the chevron; below in argent, a five-spoked wheel sable.

The coat of arms symbolizes the nearby mountain, the Christenberg, with its mediaeval church. The wheel with its five spokes stands for Münchhausen's five constituent communities.

Personalities

 * Euricius Cordus, German humanist

title: Münchhausen am Christenberg


text:
Sugarcult

Sugarcult is an American rock band from Santa Barbara, California, formed in 1998. The band currently consists of Tim Pagnotta (vocals, rhythm guitar), Airin Older (bass), Marko DeSantis (lead guitar), and Kenny Livingston (drums).

Formation (1998-99)
Tim Pagnotta met ex-drummer Ben Davis during a cigarette break at school. Davis (who then played bass) and Pagnotta started to play together on a regular basis. Pagnotta met Airin Older in a music class where Pagnotta was copying Older's work. They became good friends and Pagnotta invited Older to join his band. Davis moved to the position of drummer and Older filled in for Davis on bass. Marko DeSantis was added into the band after meeting Pagnotta backstage at a Superdrag concert.

Early releases (1999–2003)
Sugarcult released their first collection of demo recordings, Eleven, in 1999. Their second collection, Wrap Me Up in Plastic, was released in 2000. In 2001, the band released their debut album, Start Static, which featured the hit singles "Pretty Girl", "Bouncing Off The Walls" (also featured in the movie and soundtrack to National Lampoon's Van Wilder) and "Stuck in America". In early 2003, "Stuck in America" won the Los Angeles Regional Poll in The 2nd Annual Independent Music Awards. Start Static featured several songs that had previously been released as demos on Wrap Me Up in Plastic. In May 2001, the band re-released Wrap Me Up in Plastic with a new track listing that included songs from both Eleven and the original Wrap Me Up in Plastic, as well as new artwork. In 2003, Davis officially left Sugarcult. Davis had been regularly missing shows since the release of Start Static, and left Sugarcult to enter rehab to get help for his alcoholism. Pagnotta was close to Davis, and wrote the song "Champagne" about his addictions when he was forced to leave the band.

Later releases (2004–2008)
On April 13, 2004, Sugarcult released Palm Trees and Power Lines and performed on Late Night with Conan O'Brien. This album featured the MTV hits "Memory" and "She's the Blade". Sugarcult successfully landed a spot on the Warped Tour 2004 main stage and they also supported Green Day on their American Idiot tour and Blink-182 on their December 2004 European tour. They released Back to the Disaster, a feature-length documentary film (with a bonus live EP), in late 2005. Lights Out, their latest studio album, was released on September 12, 2006. The release of Lights Out was immediately followed by two tours, a fall tour and a winter tour. Their fall tour included So They Say, Maxeen, Halifax, and The Spill Canvas. Their winter tour included such bands as Meg and Dia, Damone, The Pink Spiders, All Time Low, and The Adored. In 2006, Sugarcult song "Do It Alone" was featured on the CW's show One Tree Hill during Season and in the film Employee of the Month. Sugarcult played at the Soundwave Tour in 2008.

Hiatus and occasional shows (2009–present)
The band members took a year off in 2009 from Sugarcult for their 10-year anniversary to do their own side-projects. They were neither broken up, nor were known to be working on new Sugarcult material as of mid-2010.

At the end of 2010, they announced that they would play at least two shows in the United Kingdom and then perform at the Belgium music festival Groezrock, all at the end of April.

Sugarcult (with Davis) played a one-off show at the Chain Reaction in Anaheim, California on December 10, 2011, where they celebrated the tenth anniversary of the release of Start Static. More recently, members of the group performed with members of 5 Seconds of Summer (who have cited Sugarcult as a primary influence on their band) and past tourmate Goldfinger frontman and acclaimed record producer John Feldmann for Strange '80s, a benefit concert on May 14, 2017, at the Fonda Theatre.

Band members

 * Current members
 * Tim Pagnotta – lead vocals, rhythm guitar (1998–present)
 * Airin Older – bass guitar, backing vocals (1998–present)
 * Marko DeSantis – lead guitar (1999–present)
 * Kenny Livingston – drums (2003–present)

 * Former members
 * Ben Davis – drums, backing vocals (1998–2003, 2011)

Demo collections

 * Eleven (1999)
 * Wrap Me Up in Plastic (2000)

Studio albums

 * Start Static (2001) No. 194 US
 * Palm Trees and Power Lines (2004) No. 46 US
 * Lights Out (2006) No. 64

DVDs/retrospectives/live albums

 * Action DVD (2002)
 * Back to the Disaster: A Film About Sugarcult DVD/EP (2005)
 * Rewind 2001–2008 Japanese Exclusive (2008)

EPs

 * Five Demo (1998)
 * Get Street Cred Demo (1999)
 * A Hard Day's Night Japanese Exclusive (2006)

Media appearances

 * Burnout 3: Takedown (2004)
 * "Memory" was featured on the soundtrack.
 * Burnout Paradise (2008) and Burnout Paradise Remastered (2018)
 * Dead Living was featured on the soundtrack.

title: Sugarcult