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Amoebozoa

Amoebozoa is a major taxonomic group containing about 2,400 described species of amoeboid protists, often possessing blunt, fingerlike, lobose pseudopods and tubular mitochondrial cristae. In traditional classification schemes, Amoebozoa is usually ranked as a phylum within either the kingdom Protista or the kingdom Protozoa. In the classification favored by the International Society of Protistologists, it is retained as an unranked "supergroup" within Eukaryota. Molecular genetic analysis supports Amoebozoa as a monophyletic clade. Modern studies of eukaryotic phylogenetic trees identify it as the sister group to Opisthokonta, another major clade which contains both fungi and animals as well as several other clades comprising some 300 species of unicellular eukaryotes. Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta are sometimes grouped together in a high-level taxon, variously named Unikonta, Amorphea or Opimoda.

Amoebozoa includes many of the best-known amoeboid organisms, such as Chaos, Entamoeba, Pelomyxa and the genus Amoeba itself. Species of Amoebozoa may be either shelled (testate) or naked, and cells may possess flagella. Free-living species are common in both salt and freshwater as well as soil, moss and leaf litter. Some live as parasites or symbionts of other organisms, and some are known to cause disease in humans and other organisms.

While the majority of amoebozoan species are unicellular, the group also includes several clades of slime molds, which have a macroscopic, multicellular stage of life during which individual amoeboid cells remain together after multiple cell division to form a macroscopic plasmodium or, in cellular slime molds, aggregate to form one.

Amoebozoa vary greatly in size. Some are only 10–20 μm in diameter, while others are among the largest protozoa. The well-known species Amoeba proteus, which may reach 800 μm in length, is often studied in schools and laboratories as a representative cell or model organism, partly because of its convenient size. Multinucleate amoebae like Chaos and Pelomyxa may be several millimetres in length, and some multicellular amoebozoa, such as the "dog vomit" slime mold Fuligo septica, can cover an area of several square meters.

Morphology
Amoebozoa is a large and diverse group, but certain features are common to many of its members. The amoebozoan cell is typically divided into a granular central mass, called endoplasm, and a clear outer layer, called ectoplasm. During locomotion, the endoplasm flows forwards and the ectoplasm runs backwards along the outside of the cell. In motion, many amoebozoans have a clearly defined anterior and posterior and may assume a "monopodial" form, with the entire cell functioning as a single pseudopod. Large pseudopods may produce numerous clear projections called subpseudopodia (or determinate pseudopodia), which are extended to a certain length and then retracted, either for the purpose of locomotion or food intake. A cell may also form multiple indeterminate pseudopodia, through which the entire contents of the cell flow in the direction of locomotion. These are more or less tubular and are mostly filled with granular endoplasm. The cell mass flows into a leading pseudopod, and the others ultimately retract, unless the organism changes direction.

While most amoebozoans are "naked," like the familiar Amoeba and Chaos, or covered with a loose coat of minute scales, like Cochliopodium and Korotnevella, members of the order Arcellinida form rigid shells, or tests, equipped with a single aperture through which the pseudopods emerge. Arcellinid tests may be secreted from organic materials, as in Arcella, or built up from collected particles cemented together, as in ''Difflugia. ''

In all amoebozoa, the primary mode of nutrition is phagocytosis, in which the cell surrounds potential food particles with its pseudopods, sealing them into vacuoles within which they may be digested and absorbed. Some amoebozoans have a posterior bulb called a uroid, which may serve to accumulate waste, periodically detaching from the rest of the cell. When food is scarce, most species can form cysts, which may be carried aerially and introduce them to new environments. In slime moulds, these structures are called spores, and form on stalked structures called fruiting bodies or sporangia. Mixotrophic species living in a symbiotic relationship with microalgae of the genus Chlorella, which lives inside the cytoplasm of their host, have been found in Arcellinida and Mayorella.

The majority of Amoebozoa lack flagella and more generally do not form microtubule-supported structures except during mitosis. However, flagella do occur among the Archamoebae, and many slime moulds produce biflagellate gametes. The flagellum is generally anchored by a cone of microtubules, suggesting a close relationship to the opisthokonts. The mitochondria in amoebozoan cells characteristically have branching tubular cristae. However, among the Archamoebae, which are adapted to anoxic or microaerophilic habitats, mitochondria have been lost.

Place of Amoebozoa in the eukaryote tree
It appears (based on molecular genetics) that the members of Amoebozoa form a sister group to animals and fungi, diverging from this lineage after it had split from the other groups, as illustrated below in a simplified diagram:

Strong similarities between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonts lead to the hypothesis that they form a distinct clade. Thomas Cavalier-Smith proposed the name "unikonts" (formally, Unikonta) for this branch, whose members were believed to have been descended from a common ancestor possessing a single emergent flagellum rooted in one basal body.[1][2] However, while the close relationship between Amoebozoa and Opisthokonta is robustly supported, recent work has shown that the hypothesis of a uniciliate ancestor is probably false. In their Revised Classification of Eukaryotes (2012), Adl et al. proposed Amorphea as a more suitable name for a clade of approximately the same composition, a sister group to the Diaphoretickes. More recent work places the members of Amorphea together with the malawimonids and collodictyonids in a proposed clade called Opimoda, which comprises one of two major lineages diverging at the root of the eukaryote tree of life, the other being Diphoda.

Subphyla within Amoebozoa: Lobosa and Conosa
Traditionally all amoebozoa with lobose pseudopods were grouped together in the class Lobosea, placed with other amoeboids in the phylum Sarcodina or Rhizopoda, but these were considered to be unnatural groups. Structural and genetic studies identified the percolozoans and several archamoebae as independent groups. In phylogenies based on rRNA their representatives were separate from other amoebae, and appeared to diverge near the base of eukaryotic evolution, as did most slime molds.

However, revised trees by Cavalier-Smith and Chao in 1996 suggested that the remaining lobosans do form a monophyletic group, to which the Archamoebae and Mycetozoa were closely related, although the percolozoans were not. Subsequently, they emended the phylum Amoebozoa to include both the subphylum Lobosa and a new subphylum Conosa, comprising the Archamoebae and the Mycetozoa.

Recent molecular genetic data appear to support this primary division of the Amoebozoa into Lobosa and Conosa. The former, as defined by Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators, consists largely of the classic Lobosea: non-flagellated amoebae with blunt, lobose pseudopods (Amoeba, Acanthamoeba, Arcella, Difflugia etc.). The latter is made up of both amoeboid and flagellated cells, characteristically with more pointed or slightly branching subpseudopodia (Archamoebae and the Mycetozoan slime molds).

Phylogeny and taxonomy within Amoebozoa
From older studies by Cavalier-Smith, Chao & Lewis 2016 and Silar 2016. Also recent phylogeny indicates the Lobosa are paraphyletic: Conosa is sister of the Cutosea.

Phylum Amoebozoa Lühe 1913 emend. Cavalier-Smith 1998 [Amoebobiota; Eumycetozoa Zopf 1884 emend Olive 1975 ]
 * Clade Discosea Cavalier-Smith 2004 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Order ?Stereomyxida Grell 1971
 * Order ?Stygamoebida Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith 2011
 * Class Centramoebia Cavalier-Smith et al. 2016
 * Order Centramoebida Rogerson & Patterson 2002 em. Cavalier-Smith 2004
 * Order Himatismenida Page 1987 [Cochliopodiida]
 * Order Pellitida Page 1987 [Cochliopodiida]
 * Class Flabellinia Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith 2011 em. Kudryavtsev et al. 2014
 * Order Thecamoebida Schaeffer 1926 em. Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith 2011
 * Order Dermamoebida Cavalier-Smith 2004 em. Smirnov & Cavalier-Smith 2011
 * Order Vannellida Smirnov et al. 2005
 * Order Dactylopodida Smirnov et al. 2005
 * Clade Tevosa Kang et al. 2017
 * Clade Tubulinea Smirnov et al. 2005 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Class Corycidia Kang et al. 2017 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Order Trichosida Moebius 1889
 * Family Microcoryciidae de Saedeleer 1934
 * Class Echinamoebia Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Order Echinamoebida Cavalier-Smith 2004 em. 2011
 * Class Elardia Kang et al. 2017 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Subclass Leptomyxia Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order Leptomyxida Pussard & Pons 1976 em. Page 1987
 * Subclass Eulobosia Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order Euamoebida Lepşi 1960 em. Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order Arcellinida Kent 1880
 * Clade Evosea Kang et al. 2017 stat. nov. Adl et al. 2018
 * Clade Cutosa Cavalier-Smith 2016 stat. nov.
 * Class Cutosea Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order Squamocutida Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Subphylum Conosa Cavalier-Smith 1998 stat. nov.
 * Infraphylum Archamoebae Cavalier-Smith 1993 stat. n. 1998
 * Class Archamoebea Cavalier-Smith 1983 stat. n. 2004
 * Family Tricholimacidae Cavalier-Smith 2013
 * Family Endamoebidae Calkins 1926
 * Order Entamoebida Cavalier-Smith 1993
 * Order Pelobiontida Page 1976 emend. Cavalier Smith 1987
 * Infraphylum Semiconosia Cavalier-Smith 2013
 * Class Variosea Cavalier-Smith et al. 2004
 * Order ?Flamellidae Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order ?Holomastigida Lauterborn 1895 [Artodiscida Cavalier-Smith 2013 ]
 * Order Phalansteriida Hibberd 1983
 * Order Ramamoebida Cavalier-Smith 2016
 * Order Profiliida Kang et al. 2017 [Protosteliida Olive & Stoianovitch 1966 em. Shadwick & Spiegel 2012 ]
 * Order Fractovitellida Lahr et al. 2011 em. Kang et al. 2017
 * Superclass Mycetozoa de Bary, 1859 ex Rostafinski, 1873
 * Class Dictyostelea Hawksworth et al. 1983
 * Order Acytosteliales Baldauf, Sheikh & Thulin 2017
 * Order Dictyosteliales Lister 1909 em. Olive 1970
 * Class Protostelea Shadwick & Spiegel et al. 2012
 * Order Protosteliida Shadwick & Spiegel et al. 2012
 * Class Ceratiomyxomycetes Hawksworth, Sutton & Ainsworth 1983
 * Order Protosporangiida Shadwick & Spiegel 2012
 * Order Ceratiomyxida Martin 1961 ex Farr & Alexopoulos
 * Class Myxomycetes Link 1833 em. Haeckel 1866
 * Subclass Lucisporomycetidae Leontyev et al. 2019
 * Superorder Cribrarianae Leontyev 2015
 * Order Cribrariales Macbr. 1922
 * Superorder Trichianae Leontyev 2015
 * Order Reticulariales Leontyev 2015
 * Order Liceales Jahn 1928
 * Order Trichiales Macbride 1922
 * Subclass Columellomycetidae Leontyev et al. 2019
 * Order ?Echinosteliopsidales Shchepin et al.
 * Superorder Echinostelianae Leontyev 2015
 * Order Echinosteliales Martin 1961
 * Superorder Stemonitanae Leontyev 2015 [Fuscisporida Cavalier-Smith 2012 ]
 * Order Clastodermatales Leontyev 2015
 * Order Meridermatales Leontyev 2015
 * Order Stemonitales Macbride 1922
 * Order Physarales Macbride 1922

Fossil record
Vase-shaped microfossils (VSMs) discovered around the world show that amoebozoans have existed since the Neoproterozoic Era. The fossil species Melanocyrillium hexodiadema, Palaeoarcella athanata, and Hemisphaeriella ornata come from rocks 750 million years old. All three VSMs share a hemispherical shape, invaginated aperture, and regular indentations, that strongly resemble modern arcellinids, which are shell-bearing amoebozoans belonging to the class Tubulinea. P. athanata in particular looks the same as the extant genus Arcella.

List of amoebozoan protozoa pathogenic to humans

 * Entamoeba histolytica
 * Acanthamoeba
 * Balamuthia mandrillaris
 * Endolimax

Meiosis
The recently available Acanthamoeba genome sequence revealed several orthologs of genes employed in meiosis of sexual eukaryotes. These genes included Spo11, Mre11, Rad50, Rad51, Rad52, Mnd1, Dmc1, Msh and Mlh. This finding suggests that Acanthamoeba is capable of some form of meiosis and may be able to undergo sexual reproduction.

In sexually reproducing eukaryotes, homologous recombination (HR) ordinarily occurs during meiosis. The meiosis-specific recombinase, Dmc1, is required for efficient meiotic HR, and Dmc1 is expressed in Entamoeba histolytica. The purified Dmc1 from E. histolytica forms presynaptic filaments and catalyzes ATP-dependent homologous DNA pairing and DNA strand exchange over at least several thousand base pairs. The DNA pairing and strand exchange reactions are enhanced by the eukaryotic meiosis-specific recombination accessory factor (heterodimer) Hop2-Mnd1. These processes are central to meiotic recombination, suggesting that E. histolytica undergoes meiosis.

Studies of Entamoeba invadens found that, during the conversion from the tetraploid uninucleate trophozoite to the tetranucleate cyst, homologous recombination is enhanced. Expression of genes with functions related to the major steps of meiotic recombination also increased during encystations. These findings in E. invadens, combined with evidence from studies of E. histolytica indicate the presence of meiosis in the Entamoeba. A comparative genetic analysis indicated that meiotic processes are present in all major amoebozoan lineages.

Since Amoebozoa diverged early from the eukaryotic family tree, these results also suggest that meiosis was present early in eukaryotic evolution.

Human health
Amoebiasis, also known as amebiasis or entamoebiasis, is an infection caused by any of the amoebozoans of the Entamoeba group. Symptoms are most common upon infection by Entamoeba histolytica. Amoebiasis can present with no, mild, or severe symptoms. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, mild diarrhoea, bloody diarrhea or severe colitis with tissue death and perforation. This last complication may cause peritonitis. People affected may develop anemia due to loss of blood.

Invasion of the intestinal lining causes amoebic bloody diarrhea or amoebic colitis. If the parasite reaches the bloodstream it can spread through the body, most frequently ending up in the liver where it causes amoebic liver abscesses. Liver abscesses can occur without previous diarrhea. Cysts of Entamoeba can survive for up to a month in soil or for up to 45 minutes under fingernails. It is important to differentiate between amoebiasis and bacterial colitis. The preferred diagnostic method is through faecal examination under microscope, but requires a skilled microscopist and may not be reliable when excluding infection. This method however may not be able to separate between specific types. Increased white blood cell count is present in severe cases, but not in mild ones. The most accurate test is for antibodies in the blood, but it may remain positive following treatment.

Prevention of amoebiasis is by separating food and water from faeces and by proper sanitation measures. There is no vaccine. There are two treatment options depending on the location of the infection. Amoebiasis in tissues is treated with either metronidazole, tinidazole, nitazoxanide, dehydroemetine or chloroquine, while luminal infection is treated with diloxanide furoate or iodoquinoline. For treatment to be effective against all stages of the amoeba may require a combination of medications. Infections without symptoms do not require treatment but infected individuals can spread the parasite to others and treatment can be considered. Treatment of other Entamoeba infections apart from E. histolytica is not needed.

Amoebiasis is present all over the world. About 480 million people are infected with what appears to be E. histolytica and these result in the death of between 40,000–110,000 people every year. Most infections are now ascribed to E. dispar. E. dispar is more common in certain areas and symptomatic cases may be fewer than previously reported. The first case of amoebiasis was documented in 1875 and in 1891 the disease was described in detail, resulting in the terms amoebic dysentery and amoebic liver abscess. Further evidence from the Philippines in 1913 found that upon ingesting cysts of E. histolytica volunteers developed the disease. It has been known since 1897 that at least one non-disease-causing species of Entamoeba existed (Entamoeba coli), but it was first formally recognized by the WHO in 1997 that E. histolytica was two species, despite this having first been proposed in 1925. In addition to the now-recognized E. dispar evidence shows there are at least two other species of Entamoeba that look the same in humans - E. moshkovskii and Entamoeba bangladeshi. The reason these species haven't been differentiated until recently is because of the reliance on appearance.

title: Amoebozoa


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Talk:Museum of Flight

Requested merger

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the merge. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The consensus was to move - BillCJ 05:44, 16 May 2007 (UTC) City of Everett → Museum of Flight
 * (See Merging and moving pages for detailes on performing meregers.)

 * Both articles are stubs, and could use expansion, so this is a start. The pics gallery is not needed, as these pics are on the 747 Commons page. City of Everett not notable enough for own page, and is only linked to this page and Boeing 747. - BillCJ 17:45, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Survey

 * ''Add  * Support   or   * Oppose   on a new line followed by a brief explanation, then sign your opinion using ~.

Survey - Support votes

 * [[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|15px]] Support - BillCJ 17:45, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
 * [[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|15px]] Support - Myasuda 19:35, 6 May 2007 (UTC)
 * [[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|15px]] Support - If there was enough material for a real article on this historic aircraft, I'd say leave it, but it doesn't seem to really justify it at this point. Akradecki 20:37, 7 May 2007 (UTC)

Survey - Oppose votes

 * [[Image:Symbol oppose vote.svg|15px]] Oppose -

Decision
The consensus was to move. Done. - BillCJ 05:44, 16 May 2007 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the . Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Bad Move
City of Everett should not redirect here; instead, it should be an article about a whaleback steam ship which was America's first in the Suez Canal, and to circumnavigate Earth. I can't see that the 'first flightworthy Boeing 747' is quite as significant. BTW, the article states the airplane was named after the city, but I suggest it is more likely she was named after the ship. Eaglizard 21:29, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

 * And what was the ship named after? -- 12.116.162.162 20:00, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Why is it more likely that it was named after a boat, instead of after a city which contains the assembly plant for the airplane? -- 12.116.162.162 20:05, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

 * The issue is currently moot, as there doesn't appear to be an article on the City of Everett ship. However, should one be created, with proper verifiable sources, City of Everett (ship) should be a suitable name. I'm sure Boeing or the Museum of Flight would be happy to provide sources on what the first 747 was named after, should we need them. - BillCJ 23:10, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

 * (copy of what I posted on Eaglizard's talk page) Regarding your comments about the redirect...if you're willing to write an article about the ship, you are welcome to write it. The name of the article would properly be, though, "SS City of Everett" with the possible addition of the year of launch in parenteses. If this is written, the redirect page can become a dab page. Please note, though, that it is somewhat bad form to come out and say, in an irritated sort of way, that there "should be an article" and expect someone else to write it. Don't complain about the output of a volunteer project if you're not willing to pitch in and volunteer yourself. The 747 was built in Everett, which is why it was named that, the plane had no connection to the ship. As for "significance", the first 747, a kind of airplane which launched major changes in air travel and became iconic, is quite a bit more significant than a steamship from the distant past, which few have ever heard of.  AK Radecki Speaketh  00:11, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

dab
well, City of Everett has become a redirect... but a dab might still be in order here... I've added a dab to SS City of Everett, and proposed one for Everett, Washington. I'd suggest something similar to this:

Comments? ++Lar: t/c 01:38, 22 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Since there are multiple cities named Everett, for the sake of simplicity I just changed City of Everett to a dab page and moved the above disambiguation lines to an other uses template. --Kralizec! (talk) 15:30, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

SomeSeattleGuy
It's not in Tukwilla. Here's the mailing address from their Home Page:

9404 East Marginal Way S. Seattle, WA 98108-4097 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 207.108.217.94 (talk) 23:59, 25 March 2009 (UTC)
 * It is a bit confusing. The museum's website http://www.museumofflight.org/visit does list it as being in Seattle while sites such as  list it as being in Tukwila.  However, Google Maps  shows the museum to be along East Marginal Way, next to Duwamish slip # 6 (see ).  As one can see from sites  and  (pages 2, 9), this area is within the Tukwila city limits. — Myasuda (talk) 23:29, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

About teh big black one?
Yeah. About that. On this page it says that it is a Lockheed A-12, but on a shirt I saw FROM the museum it says SR-71 Blackbird. Should I edit the page to be accurate? -24.18.20.248(talk)

 * No, edit the shirt. - BillCJ (talk) 16:23, 22 June 2009 (UTC)
 * Hello BillCJ, you may wish to include this message with your previous note to 24.18.20.248: "Please note that I am not trying to bite you, but trying to help you become a better Wikipedian.". Peace, rkmlai (talk) 18:42, 24 June 2009 (UTC)

 * Chomp, chomp! For the record, T-shirts are not acceptable as reliable sources. I'm off to sharpen my teeth! - BillCJ (talk) 18:53, 24 June 2009 (UTC)
 * I have reverted the article edit, as teeshirts are not RS and so I found a reference http://www.museumofflight.org/aircraft/lockheed-m-21-blackbird and thus have adjusted all to reflect what is real. Peace, rkmlai (talk) 19:44, 24 June 2009 (UTC)

 * It's an M-21, as listed in the article.Beetlecat (talk) 23:58, 1 July 2009 (UTC)
 * --for some reason nobody makes "M-21" T-Shirts... ;) Beetlecat (talk) 23:59, 1 July 2009 (UTC)

Other Large Collections of Flying Aircraft?
I'm wondering why the museum of flight's page has 50% content that points to other organizations. Especially since the museum doesn't have a notable collection of flying aircraft. :) New page for "notable collections of historic flying aircraft" perhaps? Beetlecat (talk) 21:32, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
 * A new page might be warranted. The entire section / list should definitely be removed from this article. — Myasuda (talk) 23:32, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Museum of Flight


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User:Korath

 * This page is about the Wikipedia user. For the Klingon, see Korath at Memory Alpha.  For the Kree, see Korath the Pursuer.  The Korath star system is also featured in Commander Keen.
 * Not to be confused with Shu-Korath, Gorath, or Koreth.

Korath (October 21, 2003–) is an utterly non-notable Wikipedian. Despite his deceptively high edit count, he has yet to make a significant contribution to an actual article.

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Blaming this shortcoming on a lack of anything useful to say, he instead spends his time fixing typos, copyediting, monitoring Articles for Deletion for advertisements and vanity articles such as this one, and, rarely, patrolling Recent Changes. In the past, he was active copyediting and properly formatting Current events, but has mostly given this up as a lost cause.

Korath was first attracted to Wikipedia because typographical errors and poor grammar make his blood pressure soar. Misuse of the comma and apostrophe—in particular, confusion between its and it's—especially annoys him. The ability to correct these is a great relief, and typo fixes still form the bulk of his main namespace edits. However, like most people, he has a blind spot for his own spelling, and welcomes typographical corrections even to his signed comments.

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Link [3] is far and away his favorite.

In real life
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title: User:Korath


text:
Pacific Science Center

Pacific Science Center is an independent, nonprofit science center in Seattle with a mission to ignite curiosity and fuel a passion for discovery, experimentation, and critical thinking. Pacific Science Center serves more than 1 million people each year at its campus adjacent to Seattle Center, at the Mercer Slough Environmental Education Center in Bellevue, Washington, and in communities and classrooms across the state of Washington.

Organization
Pacific Science Center sits on 7.1 acre of land at the southwest corner of Seattle Center. A satellite campus, the Mercer Slough Environmental Education Center, is a collaboration between Pacific Science Center and the City of Bellevue, Washington with educational programming for all ages about environmental stewardship, wetland ecology and nature awareness. Pacific Science Center also offers year-round youth, teen, family and adult programs, including summer camps in various Puget Sound locations, science-themed 21+ events and research weekends.

Pacific Science Center's outreach program, Science On Wheels, has a fleet of vans that bring hands-on science education to schools throughout the Pacific Northwest. The center also has a division of staff whose purpose is to assist teachers in teaching science to their students.

History
The center's original buildings were the United States Science Pavilion designed by Minoru Yamasaki for the 1962 World's Fair in Seattle. The World of Science, along with the Worlds of Art, Entertainment, Commerce and Industry, and Tomorrow were the five main theme areas that were installed the World's Fair. Located at the southernmost end of the fairgrounds and west of the Space Needle, the World of Science was located next to the arches, an easily-identifiable landmark.

The fountains located at the entrance of the center appeared in the movie It Happened at the World's Fair with Elvis Presley. After the World's Fair closed, the US Science Pavilion was re-opened as Pacific Science Center. The land and buildings were leased for $1.00 a year until 2004, when the title deed was signed over and the Pacific Science Center Foundation officially took ownership.

1960s
During the 1960s, many of the center's exhibits were carried over from the original World's Fair exhibition; only a few of these original exhibits remain today. Currently, exhibits remaining from the World's Fair are the Lens and Mirror Machine and a suspended model of the Earth's moon. One of the more notable science exhibits during the World's Fair was a ramp where the buildings were built at a tilt (the "illusion ramp"); this exhibit was reproduced in the late 1990s. The domed Spacerium, now known as the Seattle Laser Dome and used for laser light show, was designed for a wide-angle movie journey through space. Before IMAX, a previous movie theater there showed films such as NASA's Apollo 8 (to the soundtrack of Yellow Submarine) and The 21st Century with Walter Cronkite. Before being elected governor of the state of Washington, Dixy Lee Ray, served as Science Center director for many years. Ray helped promote the Science Center among school children by hosting a school-age geared science program televised on Seattle PBS station KCTS-9.

1970s
In the mid-1970s, the lower-level math area was dominated by the Mathematica: A World of Numbers... and Beyond exhibit, where demonstrators in orange jackets (known as "OJ"s) made soap bubbles and showed audiences how the stylish new Chevrolet Chevette was paving the way for the quick adoption of the Metric system. Upstairs, a giant apparatus known as the "probability machine" would ring an alarm before emptying out a bin of balls. The entire exhibition had been originally designed as an exhibit for the IBM Pavilion at the 1964-65 New York World's Fair. It was permanently removed around 1980.

An aerospace building contained a full-sized lunar module mockup from which suited astronauts would climb out. The Life Building contained the Sea Monster House, a replica of a First Nations longhouse, as well as a working hydraulic model of Puget Sound and the Mount Baker volcanic exhibit.

With the physical sciences, the physics witch on Halloween would ask "Would you like to boil blood in a paper cup?" or Groucho Marx would dump liquid nitrogen on the ponds after a demo. The presenters in question here were Janie Mann, who did dynamic combustion shows dressed as a witch circa 1977–78, and Dan Cox, who did physics demos as Groucho Marx in the same era. Cox would later go on to become a professor of physics. These staff were part of the "OJ" program (short for "Orange Jacket", the uniform of the time for Science Center tour guides and visitor assistants). The program consisted of 24 work study students, whose leader in the late 1970s and early 1980s, Carl Linde, set a format for the program that would last into the late 1990s. The Eames theater was originally created for a special multi-screen IBM movie for the World Fair. It was later converted into an IMAX screen in 1979, the first of two IMAX theaters at the center.

1980s
Pacific Science Center grew dramatically in the 1980s. A key step in its evolution was the hiring of George Moynihan as executive director in 1980. Moynihan, from the Lawrence Hall of Science in Berkeley, California, would run the center for the next two decades. His leadership team in the 1980s included Diane Carlson in public programs, Dennis Schatz in education and exhibits, and Dave Taylor in exhibits. In 1984 the science center took a gamble on hosting the exhibit China: 7000 Years of Discovery. The success of the exhibit helped put PSC on the map as a leading science center. Other notable successes later in the decade were several iterations of a traveling robotic dinosaur exhibit, which led to the center eventually installing a permanent dinosaur display in the 1990s. Pacific Science Center hosted the annual Association of Science and Technology Centers conference in October 1987 and opened several major exhibits in the same period, including Kids Works, Body Works, an animal area, and a tide pool.

Design and architecture
The Pacific Science Center complex was designed by Minoru Yamasaki; the design brought him international fame, and was featured on the front cover of Time magazine. He later became architect of the World Trade Center in New York City. The walls of each building, composed of many pre-cast concrete slabs, form an arch motif which was used by Yamasaki in a number of his other designs.

In 2013 Pacific Science Center put out a call for public art which would demonstrate the use of solar energy. The resulting installation was designed by Seattle artist Dan Corson and involves five 10 meter (33 ft) tall sculptures of flowers, inspired by the Australian firewheel tree. The work is titled Sonic Bloom and generates electricity using solar panels mounted in the flower heads. The flowers hum when people approach them and light up at night.

IMAX and permanent exhibits
Today, the Pacific Science Center is composed of eight buildings, including two IMAX theaters (one of only a few places in the world with more than one IMAX theater), one of the world's largest Laser Dome theaters, a tropical butterfly house, a planetarium, and hundreds of hands-on science exhibits. In addition to a number of permanent exhibits the center also hosts a variety of traveling and temporary exhibits.

title: Pacific Science Center


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Mixed breed

A mixed breed is a domesticated animal descended from multiple breeds of the same species, often breeding without any human intervention, recordkeeping, or selective breeding. Examples include:

 * Mixed-breed dog, a dog whose ancestry is complex or not known, also colloquially known as "mutt"
 * Grade horse, a horse whose parentage is unknown, unidentifiable, or of significantly mixed breeding
 * A domestic short-haired cat or domestic long-haired cat of no particular breed, colloquially called a "moggy" or "moggie" in some dialects

title: Mixed breed


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Pierre Baillot

Pierre Marie François de Sales Baillot (1 October 1771 – 15 September 1842) was a French violinist and composer born in Passy. He studied the violin under Giovanni Battista Viotti and taught at the Conservatoire de Paris together with Pierre Rode (also a pupil of Viotti) and Rodolphe Kreutzer, who wrote the Conservatoire's official violin method (published in the early 19th century). He was sole author of the instructional L'Art du violon (1834). Baillot's teachings had a profound influence on technical and musical development in an age in which virtuosity was openly encouraged. He was leader of the Paris Opéra, gave solo recitals and was a notable performer of chamber music.

Early life
Pierre Baillot, who was associated with Rode and Kreutzer in the compilation of the celebrated Methode du Violon, was born at Passy, near Paris, and became one of the best violinists of his time. His eminence in his profession was not obtained without a long struggle against great difficulties, for at the age of twelve he lost his father, who had kept a school, and became dependent upon friends for his education. His musical talent was remarkable at an early age, and he received his first instruction from an Italian named Polidori. At the age of nine, he was placed under a French teacher named Sainte-Marie, whose training gave him the severe state and methodical qualities by which his playing was distinguished.

At the age of ten, he heard Viotti play one of his concertos, becoming his model. When his father died a year or two later, the intendant of Corsica, M. de Boucheporn, sent him, with his own children, to Rome, where he was placed with Pollani, a pupil of Nardini, under whom he made rapid progress, and soon began to play in public. He was, however, unable to follow directly in the path of his profession, and for five years he travelled with his benefactor, acting as private secretary.

Career
In 1791, he returned to Paris, and Viotti secured a place for him in the opera orchestra. But on being offered a position in the Ministère des Finances, he gave up his operatic work, and for some years devoted only his leisure to the study of the violin. He served in the army for twenty months, after which he once more determined to take up music as a profession, soon appearing in public with a concerto by Viotti. This performance established his reputation, and he was offered a professorship of violin playing at the Conservatoire, then recently opened.

His next appointment was to the private band of Napoleon, after which he travelled for three years in Russia with the violoncello player Lemare. Returning to Paris, he established concerts for chamber music, which proved successful, and built up for him a reputation as a quartet player. He frequently performed together with the Polish pianist and composer Maria Agata Szymanowska.

Baillot travelled again, visiting the Netherlands, Belgium, and England, and then he became leader of the opera band in Paris and of the royal band. In March 1825, while serving as concertmaster of the Paris Opéra, Baillot and Luigi Cherubini evaluated Felix Mendelssohn's application for admission to the Paris Conservatory by playing his Quartet for Piano and Strings in B minor. Mendelssohn was only 16 years old. An anecdote mentioned that, overcome with emotion, Baillot approached the young composer after the performance and, without uttering a word, simply embraced him.

Baillot made a final tour in Switzerland in 1833, and died in Paris in 1842.

Legacy
Baillot is considered to have been the last distinguished representative of the great classical school of violin playing in Paris. In his L'Art du Violon he points out the chief distinction between the old and the modern style of violin playing to be the absence of the dramatic element in the former, and its predominance in the latter, thus enabling the executive art to follow the progress marked out by the composer, and to bring out the powerful contrasts and enlarged ideas of more modern musical compositions. After the time of Baillot and his contemporaries, the style of Paganini became predominant in Paris, but the influence of the Paris school extended to Germany, where Spohr must be considered the direct descendant artistically of Viotti and Rode.

title: Pierre Baillot


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Charley Patton

Charlie Patton (April 1891 (probable) – April 28, 1934), more often spelled Charley Patton, was an American Delta blues musician and songwriter. Considered by many to be the "Father of the Delta Blues", he created an enduring body of American music and inspired most Delta blues musicians. The musicologist Robert Palmer considered him one of the most important American musicians of the twentieth century.

Patton (who was well educated by the standards of his time) spelled his name Charlie, but many sources, including record labels and his gravestone, use the spelling Charley.

Biography
Patton was born in Hinds County, Mississippi, near the town of Edwards, and lived most of his life in Sunflower County, in the Mississippi Delta. Most sources say he was born in April 1891, but the years 1881, 1885 and 1887 have also been suggested. Patton's parentage and race also are uncertain. His parents were Bill and Annie Patton, but locally he was regarded as having been fathered by former slave Henderson Chatmon, several of whose children became popular Delta musicians, as solo performers and as members of groups such as the Mississippi Sheiks. Biographer John Fahey described Patton as having "light skin and Caucasian features."

Patton was considered African-American, but because of his light complexion there has been much speculation about his ancestry over the years. One theory endorsed by blues musician Howlin' Wolf was that Patton was Mexican or Cherokee. It is generally agreed that Patton was of Black, White, and Native heritage. Some believe he had a Cherokee grandmother; however, it is also widely asserted by historians that he was between one-quarter and one-half Choctaw. In "Down the Dirt Road Blues", Patton sang of having gone to "the Nation" and "the Territo'", referring to the Cherokee Nation's portion of the Indian Territory (which became part of the state of Oklahoma in 1907), where a number of Black Indians tried unsuccessfully to claim a place on the tribal rolls and thereby obtain land.

In 1897, his family moved 100 mi north to the 10000 acre Dockery Plantation, a cotton farm and sawmill near Ruleville, Mississippi. There, Patton developed his musical style, influenced by Henry Sloan, who had a new, unusual style of playing music, which is now considered an early form of the blues. Patton performed at Dockery and nearby plantations and began an association with Willie Brown. Tommy Johnson, Fiddlin' Joe Martin, Robert Johnson, and Chester Burnett (who went on to gain fame in Chicago as Howlin' Wolf) also lived and performed in the area, and Patton served as a mentor to these younger performers. Robert Palmer described Patton as a "jack-of all-trades bluesman", who played "deep blues, white hillbilly songs, nineteenth-century ballads, and other varieties of black and white country dance music with equal facility". He was popular across the southern United States and performed annually in Chicago; in 1934, he performed in New York City. Unlike most blues musicians of his time, who were often itinerant performers, Patton played scheduled engagements at plantations and taverns. He gained popularity for his showmanship, sometimes playing with the guitar down on his knees, behind his head, or behind his back. Patton was a small man, about 5 feet 5 inches tall (1.65m), but his gravelly voice was reputed to have been loud enough to carry 500 yards without amplification; a singing style which particularly influenced Howlin' Wolf (even though Jimmie Rodgers, the "singing brakeman", has to be cited there primarily).

Patton settled in Holly Ridge, Mississippi, with his common-law wife and recording partner, Bertha Lee, in 1933. His relationship with Bertha Lee was a turbulent one. In early 1934, both of them were incarcerated in a Belzoni, Mississippi, jailhouse after a particularly harsh fight. W. R. Calaway from Vocalion Records bailed the pair out of jail, and escorted them to New York City, for what would be Patton's final recording sessions (on January 30 and February 1). They later returned to Holly Ridge and Lee saw Patton out in his final days.

He died on the Heathman-Dedham plantation, near Indianola, on April 28, 1934, and is buried in Holly Ridge (both towns are located in Sunflower County). His death certificate states that he died of a mitral valve disorder. The death certificate does not mention Bertha Lee; the only informant listed is one Willie Calvin. Patton's death was not reported in the newspapers.

A memorial headstone was erected on Patton's grave (the location of which was identified by the cemetery caretaker, C. Howard, who claimed to have been present at the burial), paid for by musician John Fogerty through the Mt. Zion Memorial Fund in July 1990. The spelling of Patton's name was dictated by Jim O'Neal, who also composed the epitaph.

Recognitions
Screamin' and Hollerin' the Blues: The Worlds of Charley Patton, a boxed set collecting Patton's recorded works, was released in 2001. It also features recordings by many of his friends and associates. The set won three Grammy Awards in 2003, for Best Historical Album, Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package, and Best Album Notes. Another collection of Patton recordings, The Definitive Charley Patton, was released by Catfish Records in 2001.

Patton's song "Pony Blues" (1929) was included by the National Recording Preservation Board in the National Recording Registry of the Library of Congress in 2006. The board annually selects recordings that are "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant."

In 2017, Patton's story was told in the award-winning documentary series American Epic. The film featured unseen film footage of Patton's contemporaries  and radically improved restorations of his 1920s and 1930s recordings. Director Bernard MacMahon observed that "we had a strong feeling that the music of Patton and his peers reflected the local geography, and I was struck by the extent to which that belief was already shared by people who were living in the Delta back then, when it was a center of musical innovation. Listening to interviews with H. C. Speir, who owned a furniture store in Jackson in the 1920s and was responsible for virtually all the recordings of early Delta blues, he clearly linked the music to its surroundings." Patton's story was profiled in the accompanying book, American Epic: The First Time America Heard Itself.

In May, 2021, the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame posthumously inducted Patton into the 2021 class as an Early Influence.

Historical marker
The Mississippi Blues Trail placed its first historical marker at the cemetery where Patton's grave is in Holly Ridge, Mississippi, in recognition of his legendary status as a bluesman and his importance in the development of the blues in Mississippi. It placed another historic marker at the site where the Peavine Railroad intersects Highway 446 in Boyle, Mississippi, designating it as a second site related to Patton on the Mississippi Blues Trail. The marker commemorates the lyrics of Patton's "Peavine Blues", which refer to the branch of the Yazoo and Mississippi Valley Railroad which ran south from Dockery Plantation to Boyle. The marker notes that riding on the railroad was a common theme of blues songs and was seen as a metaphor for travel and escape.

Paramount recordings
≠ Vocals and guitar by Patton, with Henry "Son" Sims on fiddle.

† Willie Brown on accompanying guitar

 * 1929; Henry "Son" Sims (vocals), Patton accompanying guitar

Vocalion recordings
‡ Vocal duet with Bertha Lee

 * 1934; Bertha Lee (vocals), Patton accompanying guitar

Relevant literature

 * Sacré, Robert, ed. Charley Patton: Voice of the Mississippi Delta. 2018. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi

title: Charley Patton


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Arundinaria

Arundinaria is a genus of bamboo in the grass family the members of which are referred to generally as cane. Arundinaria is the only bamboo native to North America, with a native range from Maryland south to Florida and west to the southern Ohio Valley and Texas. Within this region Arundinaria canes are found from the Coastal Plain to medium elevations in the Appalachian Mountains.

Prior to the European colonization of the Americas, cane was an important resource for Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Early European explorers in the U.S. described vast monotypic stands of Arundinaria that were common in river lowlands and covered hundreds of thousands of hectares. In the modern era, Arundinaria canebrakes are small and isolated, but there has been interest in restoring them due to the cultural and ecological importance of the plant. Canebrakes provided land for crops, habitat for wild game, and year-round forage for livestock. The cane itself was used for construction, weapons, jewelry, medicines, fuel, and food. Canebrakes declined significantly after colonization due to clearing, farming and fire suppression.

Description
Arundinaria species have running rhizomes and have slender, woody culms that reach heights from 0.5 to 8 m. Arundinaria produce seeds only rarely and usually reproduce vegetatively, forming large clonal genets. When seed production does occur, the colony usually dies afterwards, possibly because the dense thickets of a mature canebrake would otherwise prevent seedling establishment. Only two flowering events are known for A. appalachiana. A colony of cane will expand rapidly using asexual reproduction following disturbances, particularly fire, which triggers new shoots to immediately sprout from the underground rhizomes after the above-ground part of the plant has burned. These shoots grow quickly, up to 1.5 inches per day. Among the distinctive features of the canes is a fan-like cluster of leaves at the top of new stems called a topknot, so-called because of its resemblance to topknot hairstyles.

Species
There are four species of Arundinaria accepted by the World Checklist of Vascular Plants (WCVP) as of January 2024, listed below.

Taxonomic history
The genus Arundinaria has a complex taxonomic history spanning over two centuries. The canes of the southeastern U.S. were originally described as two species of reed grasses in the genus Arundo by Thomas Walter in 1788. André Michaux, working in 1803 and unaware of Walter's work, correctly interpreted the canes as a distinct group and created the genus Arundinaria with one species. However, neither of these researchers left enough information to their successors, leading to confusion surrounding the identity of the species they had described. A decade later in 1813, G.H.E. Muhlenberg noticed the affinities between the two previous authors' work and transferred Walter's two species to Michaux's new genus, yielding a combinatio nova for each, namely Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. and Arundinaria tecta (Walt.) Muhl. . Muhlenberg considered the genus to consist of these two species in addition to Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. .

The phenotypic diversity of the American Arundinaria bamboos subsequently led to a variety of taxonomic treatments, with some authors arguing that only the North American species should be included, while others included dozens of Asian species otherwise considered members of other genera (Bashania, Oligostachyum, Sarocalamus, Fargesia, Sasa, etc.). Even African bamboos were placed in Arundinaria under broad concepts for the group. Some outdated systems during this era assigned Arundinaria more than 400 species.

A. S. Hitchcock reviewed the taxonomic state of the North American bamboos in 1951. He interpreted Michaux's Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. as a synonym of Walter's Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. , reducing the genus to two species. By the late 20th century, Floyd Alonzo McClure's 1973 survey of Arundinaria was also considered authoritative, and included only one species, Arundinaria gigantea. Most recently, in 2006 researchers from Iowa State University and the University of North Carolina recognised and described a third species, Arundinaria appalachiana Triplett, Weakley & L.G. Clark. The plants that form this species were previously thought to form part of the natural genetic diversity of Arundinaria gigantea (Walt.) Muhl. , but upon in depth analysis using modern phylogenetic methods based on morphology and amplified fragment length polymorphisms, the researchers determined that the canes form three species. Phylogenetic studies in 2006 using molecular and morphological evidence have suggested that the genus forms three natural species confined to the southeastern United States.

Systematics
Two of the three species currently placed in the genus, Arundinaria gigantea and Arundinaria tecta, were first described scientifically by Thomas Walter in his 1788 Flora Caroliniana. Walter placed them in the grass genus Arundo. In 1803, the French botanist André Michaux, unaware of the flora prepared by Walter, also published a description of the canes he encountered. Michaux recognised only one species, but created a new monotypic genus for it: Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. . The name of the genus he used is derived from the same Latin word used by Walter for the plants he described; namely arundo, meaning "reed".

Despite the work done by Walter and Michaux, subsequent researchers had difficulty interpreting their circumscriptions of species boundaries. Walter designated no type specimens, and his Latin protologues that describe the species are vague, including features that could be any of the three species currently recognized. Michaux did designate a type specimen for the species he described, but it does not include enough of the plant to determine with confidence which species it represents, while his protologues were likewise not detailed enough to avoid ambiguity. In 2009, epitypes, a new form of botanical type allowed by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature in order to clarify older ambiguous types, were designated for Arundo gigantea Walt. and Arundinaria macrosperma Michx. . This allows current and future researchers to know precisely what is being discussed when the scientific names applied to these plants are used.

Uses
Ethnobotanists consider cane to have been extremely important to Native Americans in the Southeastern Woodlands before European colonisation. The river cane basketry art is at minimum 3000 years old, and can arguably be considered "the most difficult and complex of weaving technologies." The plant was used to make structures, arrow shafts, weapons, torches, fishing equipment, jewelry, baskets, musical instruments, furniture, boats, pipe stems, and medicines. Arundinaria gigantea, or river cane, has historically been used to construct Native American flutes, particularly among tribes of the Eastern Woodlands. The Atakapa, Catawba, Muscogee Creek, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Cherokee, and other Southeastern tribes have traditionally used this material for mat and basket weaving, and the Chitimacha and Eastern Band Cherokee still widely weave with rivercane today, though basket makers have started making smaller baskets in order to use less material and preserve the increasingly rare river cane. Bean poles made from dried canes can last for several years if properly stored when not in use.

Basketry
There are several reasons river cane is favored over all other materials for crafting. It can be split into coarser sections for sturdier baskets, or split very thinly for baskets that are delicate and flexible. The smooth, satiny outer surface of the cane stems forms a natural patina when heat or friction is applied to the outer surface. Cane suitable for basket weaving is straight, with the nodes spaced far apart.

Cane is processed by splitting cut sections from top to bottom into quarters or eighths, and then carefully peeling off the smooth outer layer in a single long piece, scraping off any excess material from the inner surface until the splits are thin and flexible enough to be easily wrapped around the artisan's finger. The splits are soaked in water to keep them flexible and woven wet. Undyed cane baskets change from green, to cream, to finally yellow as they age. After this, the color of the cane does not change and a basket that is 100 years old can look the same as one that is 500 years old. Cane splits are dyed a variety of colors including black, brown, red, orange, yellow, or purple and woven into intricate geometric designs. Claude Medford Jr., a Choctaw craftsman, taught the techniques of boiling bloodroot with salt for orange dye, using black walnut for brown and black dye, soaking cane along with curly dock for yellow, and adding mussel shells to cane soaking in curly dock to change the color to red. Plaiting and twilling are the two basic weaving techniques utilized in river cane baskets, and from there many variations exist, including double-woven baskets. Different tribes of Native Americans, and often specific families, had their own unique designs and techniques, which spread around through trade. The Chitimacha and Catawba split the cane into very narrow splits and weave them with the smooth side inward, whereas the Choctaw weave with wider splits and face the smooth side outward. When Native Americans were forced into lands different than their homelands, many techniques became lost, and new techniques had to be found for dyeing and crafting. Other new techniques were adopted to be marketable to European settlers for trading. One example of knowledge that has been lost is the original Choctaw names for patterns used in basketry, which had to be planned using mathematics because they were so sophisticated. Many traditional patterns themselves, however, still survive.

Food
Food uses include flour, cereal, and even "asparagus" of young shoots; however, caution should be used whenever foraging for cane seeds, as the extremely toxic fungus ergot (Claviceps spp.) can colonize its seeds as well as those of the common cereals. Ergot-infected plants will have pink or purplish blotches or growths about the size of a seed or several times larger.

Medicinally, the Choctaw use the roots for their painkilling properties.

Conservation
The organization Revitalization of Traditional Cherokee Artisan Resources, using funding from the Cherokee Preservation Foundation, has helped establish restoration sites for Arundinaria gigantea. In 2022, the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians was awarded a $1.9 million grant by the National Fish and Wildlife Foundation to manage and restore river cane ecosystems throughout their historic homelands in Oklahoma.

title: Arundinaria


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Phyllostachys

Phyllostachys is a genus of Asian bamboo in the grass family. Many of the species are found in central and southern China, with a few species in northern Indochina and in the Himalayas. Some of the species have become naturalized in parts of Asia, Australia, the Americas, and southern Europe.

The stem or culm has a prominent groove, called a sulcus, that runs along the length of each segment (or internode). Because of this, it is one of the most easily identifiable genera of bamboo. Most of the species spread aggressively by underground rhizomes. Being pioneer plants, phyllostachys species will not spread quickly or achieve mature height without access to direct sunlight throughout most of the day.

Some species of Phyllostachys grow to 100 ft (30 m) tall in optimum conditions. Some of the larger species, sometimes known as "timber bamboo", are used as construction timber and for making furniture. Several species are cultivated as ornamental plants, though they can become invasive and troublesome in gardens, unless artificially restricted or grown in containers.

The name Phyllostachys means "leaf spike" and refers to the inflorescences.

Taxonomy
• # Phyllostachys acuta
 * Species

• # Phyllostachys angusta

• # Phyllostachys arcana

• # Phyllostachys atrovaginata

• # Phyllostachys aurea

• # Phyllostachys aureosulcata

• # Phyllostachys bambusoides

• # Phyllostachys bissetii

• # Phyllostachys carnea

• # Phyllostachys circumpilis

• # Phyllostachys dulcis

• # Phyllostachys edulis

• # Phyllostachys elegans

• # Phyllostachys fimbriligula

• # Phyllostachys flexuosa

• # Phyllostachys glabrata

• # Phyllostachys glauca

• # Phyllostachys guizhouensis

• # Phyllostachys heteroclada

• # Phyllostachys incarnata

• # Phyllostachys iridescens

• # Phyllostachys kwangsiensis

• # Phyllostachys lofushanensis

• # Phyllostachys mannii

• # Phyllostachys meyeri

• # Phyllostachys nidularia

• # Phyllostachys nigella

• # Phyllostachys nigra

• # Phyllostachys nuda

• # Phyllostachys parvifolia

• # Phyllostachys platyglossa

• # Phyllostachys prominens

• # Phyllostachys propinqua

• # Phyllostachys rivalis

• # Phyllostachys robustiramea

• # Phyllostachys rubicunda

• # Phyllostachys rubromarginata

• # Phyllostachys rutila

• # Phyllostachys shuchengensis

• # Phyllostachys stimulosa

• # Phyllostachys sulphurea

• # Phyllostachys tianmuensis

• # Phyllostachys varioauriculata

• # Phyllostachys veitchiana

• # Phyllostachys verrucosa

• # Phyllostachys violascens

• # Phyllostachys virella

• # Phyllostachys viridiglaucescens

• # Phyllostachys vivax

species now considered better suited to other genera: Bambusa Chimonobambusa Pseudosasa Semiarundinaria Shibataea • Phyllostachys fastuosa – Semiarundinaria fastuosa
 * Formerly included

• Phyllostachys kumasasa – Shibataea kumasasa

• Phyllostachys marmorea – Chimonobambusa marmorea

• Phyllostachys maudiae – Pseudosasa hindsii

• Phyllostachys mitis – Bambusa vulgaris

• Phyllostachys quadrangularis – Chimonobambusa quadrangularis

• Phyllostachys ruscifolia – Shibataea kumasasa

Ecology
Fungi and pathogens growing specifically on Phyllostachys have phyllostachydis or phyllostachydicola species epithets.

Regulations
Connecticut property owners are liable for the cost of removing Phyllostachys bamboo that grows onto neighboring property, any resulting damages, and fines of $100 per day for growing this bamboo within 40 ft of any adjoining property or public way.

New York has regulations listing P. aurea and P. aureosulcata as prohibited invasive species.

title: Phyllostachys


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Thermogenesis

Thermogenesis is the process of heat production in organisms. It occurs in all warm-blooded animals, and also in a few species of thermogenic plants such as the Eastern skunk cabbage, the Voodoo lily (Sauromatum venosum), and the giant water lilies of the genus Victoria. The lodgepole pine dwarf mistletoe, Arceuthobium americanum, disperses its seeds explosively through thermogenesis.

Types
Depending on whether or not they are initiated through locomotion and intentional movement of the muscles, thermogenic processes can be classified as one of the following:
 * Exercise activity thermogenesis (EAT)
 * Non-exercise activity thermogenesis (NEAT), energy expended for everything that is not sleeping, eating or sports-like exercise.
 * Diet-induced thermogenesis (DIT)

Shivering
One method to raise temperature is through shivering. It produces heat because the conversion of the chemical energy of ATP into kinetic energy causes almost all of the energy to show up as heat. Shivering is the process by which the body temperature of hibernating mammals (such as some bats and ground squirrels) is raised as these animals emerge from hibernation.

Non-shivering

Non-shivering thermogenesis occurs in brown adipose tissue (brown fat) that is present in almost all eutherians (swine being the only exception currently known ). Brown adipose tissue has a unique uncoupling protein (thermogenin, also known as uncoupling protein 1) that allows for the synthesis of ATP to be uncoupled from the production of protons (H+), thus enabling mitochondria to burn fatty acids and oxygen to generate heat. The atomic structure of human uncoupling protein 1 UCP1 has been solved by cryogenic-electron microscopy. The structure has the typical fold of a member of the SLC25 family. UCP1 is locked in a cytoplasmic-open state by guanosine triphosphate in a pH-dependent manner, preventing proton leak.

In this process, substances such as free fatty acids (derived from triacylglycerols) remove purine (ADP, GDP and others) inhibition of thermogenin, which causes an influx of H+ into the matrix of the mitochondrion and bypasses the ATP synthase channel. This uncouples oxidative phosphorylation, and the energy from the proton motive force is dissipated as heat rather than producing ATP from ADP, which would store chemical energy for the body's use. Thermogenesis can also be produced by leakage of the sodium-potassium pump and the Ca2+ pump. Thermogenesis is contributed to by futile cycles, such as the simultaneous occurrence of lipogenesis and lipolysis or glycolysis and gluconeogenesis. In a broader context, futile cycles can be influenced by activity/rest cycles such as the Summermatter cycle.

Acetylcholine stimulates muscle to raise metabolic rate.

The low demands of thermogenesis mean that free fatty acids draw, for the most part, on lipolysis as the method of energy production.

A comprehensive list of human and mouse genes regulating cold-induced thermogenesis (CIT) in living animals (in vivo) or tissue samples (ex vivo) has been assembled and is available in CITGeneDB.

In avians and eutherians
The biological processes which allow for thermogenesis in animals did not evolve from a singular, common ancestor. Rather, avian (birds) and eutherian (placental mammalian) lineages developed the ability to perform thermogenesis independently through separate evolutionary processes. The fact that the same evolutionary character evolved independently in two different lineages after their last known common ancestor means that thermogenic processes are classified as an example of convergent evolution. However, while both clades are capable of performing thermogenesis, the biological processes involved are different. The reason that both avians and eutherians both developed the capacity to perform thermogenesis is a subject of ongoing study by evolutionary biologists, and two competing explanations have been proposed to explain why this character appears in both lineages.

One explanation for the convergence is the “aerobic capacity” model. This theory suggests that natural selection favored individuals with higher resting metabolic rates, and that as the metabolic capacity of birds and eutherians increased, they developed the capacity for endothermic thermogenesis. Researchers have linked high levels of oxygen consumption with high resting metabolic rates, suggesting that the two are directly correlated. Rather than animals developing the capacity to maintain high and stable body temperatures only to be able to thermoregulate without the aid of the environment, this theory suggests that thermogenesis is actually a by-product of natural selection for higher aerobic and metabolic capacities. These higher metabolic capacities may initially have evolved for the simple reason that animals capable of metabolizing more oxygen for longer periods of time would have been better suited to, for example, run from predators or gather food. This model explaining the development of thermogenesis is older and more widely accepted among evolutionary biologists who study thermogenesis.

The second explanation is the “parental care” model. This theory proposes that the convergent evolution of thermogenesis in birds and eutherians is based on shared behavioral traits. Specifically, birds and eutherians both provide high levels of parental care to young offspring. This high level of care is theorized to give new born or hatched animals the opportunity to mature more rapidly because they have to expend less energy to satisfy their food, shelter, and temperature needs. The “parental care” model thus proposes that higher aerobic capacity was selected for in parents as a means of meeting the needs of their offspring. While the “parental care” model does differ from the “aerobic capacity” model, it shares some similarities in that both explanations for the rise of thermogenesis rest on natural selection favoring individuals with higher aerobic capacities for one reason or another. The primary difference between the two theories is that the “parental care” model proposes that a specific biological function (childcare) resulted in selective pressure for higher metabolic rates.

Despite both relying on similar explanations for the process by which organisms gained the capacity to perform non-shivering thermogenesis, neither of these explanations has secured a large enough consensus to be considered completely authoritative on convergent evolution of NST in birds and mammals, and scientists continue to conduct studies which support both positions.

Non-shivering thermogenesis
Brown Adipose Tissue (BAT) thermogenesis is one of the two known forms of non-shivering thermogenesis (NST). This type of heat-generation occurs only in eutherians, not in birds or other thermogenic organisms. BAT NST occurs when Uncoupling Protein 1 (UCP1) performs oxidative phosphorylation in eutherians’ bodies resulting in the generation of heat (Berg et al., 2006, p. 1178). This process generally only begins in eutherians after they have been subjected to low temperatures for an extended period of time, after which the process allows an organism's body to maintain a high and stable temperature without a reliance on environmental thermoregulation mechanisms (such as sunlight/shade). Because eutherians are the only clade which store brown adipose tissue, scientists previously thought that UCP1 evolved in conjunction with brown adipose tissue. However, recent studies have shown that UCP1 can also be found in non-eutherians like fish, birds, and reptiles. This discovery means that UCP1 probably existed in a common ancestor before the radiation of the eutherian lineage. Since this evolutionary split, though, UCP1 has evolved independently in eutherians, through a process which scientists believe was not driven by natural selection, but rather by neutral processes like genetic drift.

Evolution of Skeletal-Muscle Non-Shivering Thermogenesis
The second form of NST occurs in skeletal muscle. While eutherians use both BAT and skeletal muscle NST for thermogenesis, birds only use the latter form. This process has also been shown to occur in rare instances in fish. In skeletal muscle NST, Calcium ions slip across muscle cells to generate heat. Even though BAT NST was originally thought to be the only process by which animals could maintain endothermy, scientists now suspect that skeletal muscle NST was the original form of the process and that BAT NST developed later. Though scientists once also believed that only birds maintained their body temperatures using skeletal muscle NST, research in the late 2010s showed that mammals and other eutherians also use this process when they do not have adequate stores of brown adipose tissue in their bodies.

Skeletal muscle NST might also be used to maintain body temperature in heterothermic mammals during states of torpor or hibernation. Given that early eutherians and the reptiles which later evolved into avian lineages were either heterothermic or ectothermic, both forms of NST are thought not to have developed fully until after the K-pg extinction roughly 66 million years ago. However, some estimates place the evolution of these characters earlier, at roughly 100 mya. It is most likely that the process of evolving the capacity for thermogenesis as it currently exists was a process which began prior to the K-pg extinction and ended well after. The fact that skeletal muscle NST is common among eutherians during periods of torpor and hibernation further supports the theory that this form of thermogenesis is older than BAT NST. This is because early eutherians would not have had the capacity for non-shivering thermogenesis as it currently exists, so they more frequently used torpor and hibernation as means of thermal regulation, relying on systems which, in theory, predate BAT NST. However, there remains no consensus among evolutionary biologists on the order in which the two processes evolved, nor an exact timeframe for their evolution.

Regulation
Non-shivering thermogenesis is regulated mainly by thyroid hormone and the sympathetic nervous system. Some hormones, such as norepinephrine and leptin, may stimulate thermogenesis by activating the sympathetic nervous system. Rising insulin levels after eating may be responsible for diet-induced thermogenesis (thermic effect of food). Progesterone also increases body temperature.

title: Thermogenesis


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Pleioblastus

Pleioblastus is an East Asian genus of monopodial bamboos in the grass family Poaceae. They are native to China and Japan, and naturalized in scattered places in Korea, Europe, New Zealand, and the Western Hemisphere.

The plant spreads by vigorous underground rhizomes which run along just beneath the soil surface, producing plantlets at the nodes. These can be used to propagate new plants, but if not removed they can become invasive.

The species Pleioblastus variegatus (green and cream stripes), and P. viridistriatus (green and yellow stripes) have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Genetic research suggests that this genus may properly be part of the genus Arundinaria.

• # Pleioblastus altiligulatus – Fujian, Hunan, Zhejiang
 * Species

• # Pleioblastus amarus – southern China

• # Pleioblastus argenteostriatus – Japan

• # Pleioblastus fortunei – Japan

• # Pleioblastus gramineus – Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu Is)

• # Pleioblastus guilongshanensis – Fujian

• # Pleioblastus hattorianus – Honshu

• # Pleioblastus hsienchuensis – Zhejiang

• # Pleioblastus incarnatus – Fujian

• # Pleioblastus kodzumae – Kyushu

• # Pleioblastus linearis – Nansei-shoto (Ryukyu Is)

• # Pleioblastus maculatus – southern China

• # Pleioblastus matsunoi – Honshu

• # Pleioblastus nagashima – Honshu, Kyushu

• # Pleioblastus pseudosasaoides – Honshu

• # Pleioblastus rugatus – Zhejiang

• # Pleioblastus sanmingensis – Fujian

• # Pleioblastus simonii – Japan

• # Pleioblastus solidus – Jiangsu, Zhejiang

• # Pleioblastus truncatus – Zhejiang

• # Pleioblastus viridistriatus – Japan

• # Pleioblastus wuyishanensis – Fujian

• # Pleioblastus yixingensis – Jiangsu see Acidosasa Ampelocalamus Chimonocalamus Drepanostachyum Oligostachyum Pseudosasa Sasaella Sinobambusa Yushania • Pleioblastus actinotrichus – Ampelocalamus actinotrichus
 * formerly included

• Pleioblastus acutiligulatus – Acidosasa notata

• Pleioblastus altiligulatus var. spongiosus – Oligostachyum spongiosum

• Pleioblastus asanoi – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus baviensis – Chimonocalamus baviensis

• Pleioblastus distichus – Pseudosasa disticha

• Pleioblastus dolichanthus – Sinobambusa tootsik

• Pleioblastus falcatus – Drepanostachyum falcatum

• Pleioblastus globinodus – Oligostachyum gracilipes

• Pleioblastus hashimotoi – Sasaella masamuneana

• Pleioblastus hindsii – Pseudosasa hindsii

• Pleioblastus hispidulus – Pseudosasa hindsii

• Pleioblastus humilis – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus hupehensis – Oligostachyum hupehense

• Pleioblastus intermedius – Acidosasa notata

• Pleioblastus koshisimonii – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus lasiochlamys – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus leucorhodus – Sasaella leucorhoda

• Pleioblastus longifimbriatus – Sinobambusa intermedia

• Pleioblastus longifolius – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus maculosoides – Acidosasa notata

• Pleioblastus masamuneanus – Sasaella masamuneana

• Pleioblastus nabeshimanus – Pseudosasa nabeshimana

• Pleioblastus naibunensis – Ampelocalamus naibunensis

• Pleioblastus niitakayamensis – Yushania niitakayamensis

• Pleioblastus oedogonatus – Oligostachyum oedogonatum

• Pleioblastus ohmiensis – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus oiwakensis – Yushania niitakayamensis

• Pleioblastus pandus – Pseudosasa hindsii

• Pleioblastus ryokeanus – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus sadoensis – Sasaella sadoensis

• Pleioblastus sawadae – Sasaella sawadae

• Pleioblastus tanegasimensis – Sasaella masamuneana

• Pleioblastus toyokensis – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus usawae – Pseudosasa japonica

• Pleioblastus usuiensis – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus virens – Pseudosasa humilis

• Pleioblastus yakusimensis – Sasaella masamuneana

• Pleioblastus yamakitensis – Sasaella hisauchii

title: Pleioblastus


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Replicator (band)

Replicator was an American noise rock band from Oakland, California. The band consisted of Conan Neutron (electric guitar/vocals/tape deck operation), Ben Adrian (bass guitar/vocals/keyboard), and Chris Bolig (drums). The band was joined by Todd Grant on rhythm guitar for live performances in later years.

The band members were advocates of the DIY punk ethic, as popularized by bands such as Fugazi and The Minutemen. Replicator started as a bay area Indie rock band of little distinction before finding their signature sound, often compared to bands such as Shellac, The Jesus Lizard, Steel Pole Bathtub, and the Melvins. The band had multiple songs influenced by literary works, including those of Kurt Vonnegut, Stephen King, Philip K. Dick and Neal Stephenson. Largely ignored by both the mainstream and underground music world, their irreverent attitude, and "cleverness" won them over a very small but dedicated fanbase, including a handful of famous fans, including comedian Patton Oswalt and comic book author Warren Ellis.

Music
Replicator had a sound based on unusual and urgent time signatures, dissonance, repetitive heavy rhythms, an often angular guitar sound, and Neutron and Adrian's urgent, sometimes dueling vocals. The songs did not have traditional verse/chorus/verse structure and the arrangements were, at times sparse and at other times chaotic. Replicator's sound was often associated with science fiction, paranoia, and somewhat obscure pop culture references, the band frequently cited the fact that they did not have any love songs in their press materials.

Straddling the fine line between "social commentary and smart ass revelry" as well as "technical precision and reckless abandon," Replicator used analog tape deck to play samples live until switching to a laptop computer with the Bludgeonsoft software Back to Basics for sampling. Song titles such as: Bawkbakwak Bawkbagone, Warrior Needs Food, Badly, Frank Lloyd Wrong and Login with my fist, rarely conformed to standard structure, however according to band members in multiple interviews, the song titles almost always are inspired by or inspire the lyrical content of the songs, unlike other bands with lengthy song titling such as Don Caballero (who do not have vocals) and Minus the Bear.

The band recorded their first record Winterval with Bob Weston of the band Shellac, triggering understandable comparisons to that band. Shortly afterwards, bass player Dan Kennedy left the band. The lineup solidified in 2001 when Indiana expatriate Ben Adrian joined the band on bass guitar. Adrian often joked that he was still "filling in" on bass 6 years later. 2002 and 2003 saw the band tinker with sound effects, taking the sampling (or "grand theft audio" as Neutron put it) practices of Steel Pole Bathtub and adding this to their developing aggressive and chaotic sound, as well as keyboard. "While Replicator admittedly wears its influences — harsh-but-concise rockers Shellac, progressive punk trio Unwound, and noise pioneers Sonic Youth — on its sleeve, the band's music is more than just a cheap knockoff."

This sound was represented in the album You Are Under Surveillance. Frequently cited as chaotic, dense and paranoid, Surveillance was apparently a loose concept album based upon the ideas of "paranoia, lost freedom of choice, airborne revenge, the end of the world, the problems and consequences of an overgrown consumerist, bottom line-oriented culture; and the merits of applied righteous indignation".

In September 2004, on one of their "ReplicaTours", Replicator's van was broken into and their guitars and keyboards were stolen. Luckily they were able to borrow the equipment of their tourmates Greenlight the Bombers and continue. This theft occurred during the 2004 rash of equipment thefts that plagued many working musicians.

The end of the Arctic Monkeys 2006 song "Perhaps Vampires Is A Bit Strong But", bears a resemblance to Replicator's 2001 song "Ka-Tet". A song of little distinction or notoriety, but was released 5 years earlier. Some fans of the band have questioned if it is a case of simultaneous inspiration, or a case of (likely) musical plagiarism.

2007's Machines Will Always Let You Down, seems to also be a loosely based concept album, this time around the conflict between man and machine. The press materials state that it is: 10 songs about Nanotechnological assassination, time travel, building sex robots, the eternal battle of man vs. machine and other things.

This record was recorded by Vern Rumsey of the band Unwound, and was released on Olympia's Radio Is Down record label.

2008 also saw several more US Tours, including a full us tour documented in a tour journal on the music website superstarcastic.com. These shows were largely well received, with the band's energy and "gleefully chaotic" sound often cited in reviews

On January 2, 2008, an announcement was made on the Replicator website that "After 8 years, 3 albums, 2 eps, 4 vans, almost 200 shows, a handful of compilation appearances, and countless floors" the band had agreed to an amicable mutual break up with plenty of warning. After recording a final ep, (Including a cover of Babyland's Arthur Jermyn), released again on Radio Is Down, Replicator played their last show at The Hemlock Tavern in San Francisco on April 5.

In 2013, the French webzine gave an exhausting and detailed review to the Replicator discography "Replicator is not content to be maniacs of an impeccable and indestructible rhythm, to ping the air like neurasthenic robots. They also offer a more natural mess, a propensity to confuse the tracks, a complexity of which one wonders where they will end up landing, while offering unsuspected melodies.""Replicator keeps the optics of an aggressive sound in songs where fun is not absent "

The band convened for a "one off reunion" in May 2015 for the PRF BBQ West Coast, with no plans for future reunions. In an interview with Shiny Grey Monotone, Neutron said: "I loved that band and loved my time in it. We did everything exactly the way we wanted to do it and did a bunch of weird stuff that some people seemed to enjoy. It was completely on our terms and ended when it should have, cool. It meant something to some people, and I'm pretty sure we left the world a wee but better than how it was when that band came into being, or at least more confused."

Post-Replicator activities
After the break-up former members of Replicator started two new bands with Ben Adrian forming a post-punk/shoegazing group called Guitar vs. Gravity while Conan Neutron and Chris Bolig formed the short lived classic rock meets noise rock band Mount Vicious. After the break-up of Mount Vicious, Chris Bolig began playing drums for Adrian's "small format rock band" Cartographer and Neutron started the band Victory and Associates (2009-2014).

In 2015 Neutron began Conan Neutron & the Secret Friends with Melvins drummer Dale Crover, Tony Ash and producer Toshi Kasai. In 2020, it was revealed he was also part of the band Household Gods with David Pajo of Slint and Vern Rumsey of Unwound.

Neutron runs the podcast Conan Neutron's Protonic Reversal, which is considered one of the definitive information sources for artists in the noise-rock, post-punk and "weird music" genres.

Adrian works at Line 6 and is a key player behind their Helix unit amongst other offerings and is considered a leading voice in the field of sound design.

Albums

 * Winterval (2001)
 * You Are Under Surveillance (2004)
 * Machines Will Always Let You Down (2007)

Singles and EPs

 * "EP" (2002)
 * "DDBBLLVVZZNN" split EP with Lower Forty-Eight (2003)
 * "Whangbar Province EP" Whangbar Province EP (2008)

Compilations

 * "Tired of Standing Still" (Journey to the End of the Night, Pt. 2) Highpoint Lowlife, 2001
 * "bEASTfest 2001" (Ka-Tet) Whole Enchilada, 2001
 * "bEASTfest 2002" (ft. Jesus ) Whole Enchilada, 2002
 * "Wäntage USA's 21st Release Hits Omnibus" 2XCD (Alert Status: 0), Wantage USA, 2004

title: Replicator (band)


text:
Orlando Innamorato

Orlando Innamorato (known in English as "Orlando in Love"; in Italian titled "Orlando innamorato" as the "I" is never capitalized) is an epic poem written by the Italian Renaissance author Matteo Maria Boiardo. The poem is a romance concerning the heroic knight Orlando (Roland). It was published between 1483 (first two books) and 1495 (third book published separately, first complete edition).

Composition and publication
To material largely quarried from the Carolingian and Arthurian cycles, Boiardo added a superstructure of his own making. As the plot is not woven around a single pivotal action, the inextricable maze of most cunningly contrived episodes are seen to be linked, first, with the quest of beautiful Angelica by love-smitten Orlando and the other enamored knights, then with the defense of Albracca by Angelica's father, the King of Cathay, against the beleaguering Tartars, and, finally, with the Moors' siege of Paris and their struggle with Charlemagne's army.

The poem, written in the ottava rima stanza rhythm, consists of 68 cantos and a half. Boiardo began the poem when he was about 38 years old, but interrupted it for a time because of the Ottoman–Venetian War (1463–1479). He is believed to have continued till 1486, but then left the poem unfinished. The last verses say:

"Mentre ch'io canto, Iddio Redentore vedo l'Italia tutta a fiamma e foco."

meaning "While I sing, Redemptor God,                                                                                I see Italy covered in flame and fire."The first two books were published sometime between 1482 and 1483, most likely by Pietro Giovanni di San Lorenzo in Reggio; but all copies were lost. It most likely bore the title L'innamoramento de Orlando. The third book first appeared in 1495 (Venice: Simone Bevilacqua) under the title El fin del inamoramento de' Orlando. The first complete edition was published later in 1495 (Scandiano: Camillo Boiardo). Like the editio princeps (first two books), the first complete edition of 1495 has been completely lost. The oldest copy which came down to us is the 1487 reedition of the first two books (Venice: Pietro de' Piasi); only one copy exists, kept at the Biblioteca Marciana. There is also only one extant copy of the 1495 Venetian edition of the third book, located in Monaco. The oldest complete edition we have is dated 1506 (Venice: Giorgio de' Rusconi); there also remains only one copy, kept at the Marciana.

Plot
The beautiful Angelica, daughter of the king of Cataio (Cathay), comes to Charlemagne's court for a tournament in which both Christians and Pagans can participate. She offers herself as a prize to whoever will defeat her brother, Argalia, who in the consequent fighting competition imprisons one of the Christians. But the second knight to fight, Ferraguto (a.k.a. Ferraù), kills Argalia and Angelica flees, chased by leading paladins, especially Orlando and Rinaldo. Stopping in the Ardenne forest, she drinks at the Stream of Love (making her fall in love with Rinaldo), while Rinaldo drinks at the fount of hate (making him conceive a passionate hatred of Angelica). She asks the magician Malagigi to kidnap Rinaldo, and the magician brings him to an enchanted island, while she returns to Cataio where she is besieged by King Agrican, another of her admirers, in the fortress of Albraccà. Orlando comes to kill Agrican and to free her, and he succeeds. Afterwards, Rinaldo, who has escaped from the enchanted island, tries to convince him to return to France to fight alongside Charlemagne: consequently, Orlando and Rinaldo duel furiously.

In the meantime the Saracen king Agramante has invaded France with a massive army (along with Rodomonte, Ferraù, Gradasso, and many others), to avenge his father Troiano, previously killed by Orlando. Rinaldo rushes back to France, chased by Angelica in love with him, in turn chased by Orlando. Back in the Ardenne forest, this time Rinaldo and Angelica drink at the opposite founts. Orlando and Rinaldo duel again for Angelica, and Charlemagne decides to entrust her to the old and wise duke Namo, offering her to the one who will fight most valorously against the infidels. In the meantime, the Saracen paladin Ruggiero and Rinaldo's sister, Bradamante, fall in love. The poem stops there abruptly, with Boiardo's narrator explaining that he can write no more because Italy has been invaded by French troops headed by king Charles VIII.

Influence
In spite of its unfinished state and some deficiencies in rhythm, Boiardo's Orlando is considered a notable work of art. The story of Angelica's struggles and Orlando's pursuit were continued in Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto in 1516. The immediate success of the new poem easily surpassed the fame of Orlando Innamorato. Furthermore, in 1531 a minor Tuscan poet, Francesco Berni, re-wrote the poem in an elegant and regular Italian, since in the sixteenth century the vernacular traces found in Boiardo's work were no longer accepted. The original text, no longer read or published, was newly discovered by Antonio Panizzi in the British Museum Library (1830).

Another Renaissance poet, Torquato Tasso, borrowed many of Boiardo's epic conventions, although his Jerusalem Delivered does not use the Orlando frame.

An unabridged English translation was performed by Charles Stanley Ross, published in 2004 by Parlor Press.

title: Orlando Innamorato