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Eridanos (river of Hades)

The river Eridanos or Eridanus (Ἠριδανός) is a river in Northern Europe mentioned in Greek mythology and historiography.

Mythical stream
Hesiod, in the Theogony, calls it "deep-eddying Eridanos" in his list of rivers, the offspring of the Titans Tethys and her brother-husband Oceanus. He was called the king of the rivers.

Herodotus suspects the word Eridanos to be essentially Greek in character, and notably forged by some unknown poet, and expresses his disbelief in the whole concept—passed on to him by others, themselves not eye-witnesses—of such a river flowing into a northern sea, surrounding Europe, where the mythical Amber and Tin Isles were supposed; he upholds the belief in the abundance of natural goods at the world's ends though, to be found in the north of Europe as well as in India (east: big animals, gold, cotton) and Arabia (south: incense, myrrh, etc.). The Eridanos was later associated with the river Po, because the Po was located near the end of the Amber Trail.

According to Apollonius of Rhodes and Ovid, amber originated from the tears of the Heliades, encased in poplars as dryads, shed when their brother, Phaethon, died and fell from the sky, struck by Zeus' thunderbolt, and tumbled into the Eridanos, where "to this very day the marsh exhales a heavy vapour which rises from his smouldering wound; no bird can stretch out its fragile wings to fly over that water, but in mid-flight it falls dead in the flames"; "along the green banks of the river Eridanos," Cygnus mourned him—Ovid told—and was transformed into a swan. There in the far west, Heracles asked the river nymphs of Eridanos to help him locate the Garden of the Hesperides. Strabo commented disregardingly on such mythmaking: [...] one must put aside many of the mythical or false accounts such as those of Phaethon and of the Heliades changed into black poplars near the Eridanos (a river that does not exist anywhere on earth, although it is said to be near the Po), and of the Islands of Amber that lie off the Po, and of the guinea-fowl on them, because none of these exist in this area.

[...] τὰ δὲ πολλὰ τῶν μυθευομένων ἢ κατεψευσμένων ἄλλως ἐᾶν δεῖ͵ οἷον τὰ περὶ Φαέθοντα καὶ τὰς Ἡλιάδας τὰς ἀπαιγειρουμένας περὶ τὸν Ἠριδανόν͵ τὸν μηδαμοῦ γῆς ὄντα͵ πλησίον δὲ τοῦ Πάδου λεγόμενον͵ καὶ τὰς Ἠλεκτρίδας νήσους τὰς πρὸ τοῦ Πάδου καὶ μελεαγρίδας ἐν αὐταῖς· οὐδὲ γὰρ τούτων οὐδέν ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς τόποις. Virgil introduced it as one of the rivers of Hades in his Aeneid.

"Starry Eridanus"
When in Nonnus' fourth- or fifth-century CE Dionysiaca the vast monster Typhon boasts that he will bathe in "starry Eridanus", it is hyperbole, for the constellation Eridanus, represented as a river, was one of the 48 constellations listed by the second-century astronomer Ptolemy; it remains one of the 88 modern constellations.

Real river
There have been various guesses at which real river was the Eridanos: these include the Po River in north Italy, the Rhone in France and the Rhine. The Eridanos is mentioned in Greek writings as a river in northern Europe rich in amber (Vistula on Amber Road?). A small river near Athens was named Eridanos in ancient times, and has been rediscovered with the excavations for construction of the Athens Metro.

title: Eridanos (river of Hades)


text: Template:Paul Thomas Anderson

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Paul Thomas Anderson


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Mike O'Callaghan

Donal Neil "Mike" O'Callaghan (September 10, 1929 – March 5, 2004) was an American politician and educator who served as the 23rd Governor of Nevada from 1971 to 1979. He was a member of the Democratic Party.

Early life
Born in La Crosse, Wisconsin, O'Callaghan later moved to Sparta, where his family subsistence farmed. He lied about his age to join the U.S. Marine Corps, at the age of 16 and served from 1946 to 1948.

He attended Boise Junior College and joined the U.S. Air Force in 1950 and served as an intelligence operator in the Aleutian Islands. O'Callaghan was transferred to the U.S. Army in 1952 to see combat and lost part of his left leg after being hit by a mortar round during a battle in the Korean War. He was awarded the Silver Star and Bronze Star and returned to the United States.

O'Callaghan resumed his college studies at the University of Idaho in Moscow, where he was a member of Tau Kappa Epsilon Fraternity, and completed his bachelor's and master's degree in education in 1956, then became a high school teacher and boxing coach in Nevada. He was U.S. Senator Harry Reid's history teacher at Basic High School in Henderson and later promoted Reid's political career. From 1961 to 1963, he was the chief probation officer and director of court services for Clark County.

Political career
O'Callaghan's political career began in 1963, when Governor Grant Sawyer appointed him to head the state's new department of health and welfare. In 1964, President Lyndon B. Johnson appointed O'Callaghan to be the regional director of the Office of Emergency Preparedness.

In 1966, O'Callaghan ran in the Democratic primary for lieutenant governor, but lost. In 1970, he received the Democratic gubernatorial nomination and won a surprising victory in the general election over his Republican opponent, Edward Fike. He proved to be an extremely popular governor and was re-elected in 1974 by a four-to-one margin, the greatest landslide in a gubernatorial election in state history.

The last Nevada governor before term limits, who was eligible for an elected third term, O'Callaghan chose not to run again in 1978. After he left office O'Callaghan became the executive editor of the Las Vegas Sun, a job he held until his death in 2004. He was also the publisher of the Henderson Home News and Boulder City News. In the 1990s, O'Callaghan monitored elections in Nicaragua and northern Iraq, and was a strong supporter of the nation of Israel.

Death
Mike O'Callaghan died on March 5, 2004, of a heart attack at the age of 74, after collapsing during the morning mass hours at the Saint Viator Catholic Church in Las Vegas, Nevada. He was pronounced dead at the Desert Springs Hospital in Paradise, Nevada. His widow Carolyn, a native of Twin Falls, Idaho, died seven months later on October 7, 2004, of complications from cardiac surgery, at the age of 68. They were married on October 25, 1954, in Twin Falls, Idaho and had five children; the former governor died one month before their 50th anniversary. Both are interred at the Southern Nevada Veterans Memorial Cemetery in Boulder City, Nevada.

Legacy
O'Callaghan's legacy as Nevada politician and philanthropist survives through three structures that bear his name. Mike O'Callaghan Middle School opened on the east side of Las Vegas in 1991. The Mike O'Callaghan Federal Hospital is located on Nellis Air Force Base northeast of Las Vegas. A bridge that is a part of the highway bypass around the Hoover Dam, spanning the Colorado River between Nevada and Arizona, bears O'Callaghan's name, as well as that of former NFL Arizona Cardinals player and U.S. Army veteran Pat Tillman. Tillman died in a friendly fire incident in Afghanistan. The Mike O'Callaghan–Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge was completed on October 14, 2010. Also in 2010, The O'Callaghan Resource Integrated Oncology Network (ORION) Cancer Foundation, a nonprofit charity that assists cancer patients in Nevada was established in honor of Mike and Carolyn O'Callaghan, both cancer survivors.

title: Mike O'Callaghan


text: Template:David Cronenberg

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Gara

Gara (Basque: We Are) is a bilingual (Basque/Spanish) newspaper published in the city of Donostia-San Sebastián in the Basque Autonomous Community. The newspaper's target market comprises the area of the Basque Country, but its circulation is largely constrained to the Southern Basque territory (Spain), since Spanish is mainly used.

Gara, the third most-read newspaper in the Basque Autonomous Community and Navarre, was first published on 30 January 1999 as successor to the leftist and Basque nationalist newspaper Egin, which had been shut down by the noted prosecuting judge Baltasar Garzón in a highly controversial move on 15 July 1998. The case was dismissed and defendants acquitted, with the final verdict stating that no illicit activity was engaged by Egin (2009).

On 12 March 2004, ETA denied in a communique to Gara and the Basque public broadcaster EITB its involvement in the March 11, 2004 Madrid attacks. In July 2008, the newspaper denounced that its communications were being tapped by the police, and diverted to the Spanish National Police headquarters in Pamplona.

Despite the illegal closure of the newspapers Egin and Egunkaria by the Spanish justice courts, the €4.7 million debt incurred by Egin with the Social Security was after its shutdown shouldered over to the new daily Gara, as an "ideological successor" to Egin. By May 2019, the media outlet looks to counter the Spanish government's and justice system's attempts to subdue it by searching new subscribers and organizing special events to garner support and financial viability.

title: Gara


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Bridger Mountains (Wyoming)

The Bridger Mountains are a short subrange of the Rocky Mountains, approximately 40 mi long, in central Wyoming in the United States. The range forms a bridge between the Owl Creek Mountains to the west and the southern end of the Bighorn Mountains to the east. The Wind River passes through the gap between the range and the Owl Creek Mountains. Bridger Creek passes through the gap between the range and the Bighorns. The highest point in the range is Copper Mountain at 8317 ft. The range is named after Jim Bridger, who pioneered the Bridger Trail through the mountains from southern Wyoming into the Bighorn Basin in 1864. Bates Creek in the eastern part of the range is the location of Bates Battlefield, a significant battle on July 4, 1874, in which the U.S. Army soldiers from Camp Brown (Today's Fort Washakie) with 167 Shoshone scouts attacked the village of Chief Black Coal (Northern Arapaho), killing at least 34 Northern Arapahos.

A trail running through the mountains starts southeast of Shoshoni, Wyoming ending north of Thermopolis, Wyoming.

title: Bridger Mountains (Wyoming)


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Synthetic oil

Synthetic oil is a lubricant consisting of chemical compounds that are artificially modified or synthesised. Synthetic lubricants can be manufactured using chemically modified petroleum components rather than whole crude oil, but can also be synthesized from other raw materials. The base material, however, is still overwhelmingly crude oil that is distilled and then modified physically and chemically. The actual synthesis process and composition of additives is generally a commercial trade secret and will vary among producers.

Synthetic oil is used as a substitute for petroleum-refined oils when operating in extreme temperature. Aircraft jet engines, for example, require the use of synthetic oils, whereas aircraft piston engines do not. Synthetic oils are also used in metal stamping to provide environmental and other benefits when compared to conventional petroleum and animal-fat based products. These products are also referred to as "non-oil" or "oil free".

A polyalcanoate synthetic oil is widely used to lubricate pendulum clocks.

Full
Some synthetic oils are made from Group III base stock, some from Group IV while other synthetic oils may be a blend of the two. Mobil sued Castrol and Castrol prevailed in showing that their Group III base stock oil was changed enough that it qualified as full synthetic. Since then American Petroleum Institute (API) has removed all references to synthetic in their documentation regarding standards. "Full synthetic" is a marketing term and is not a measurable quality.

Group IV: PAO
Poly-alpha-olefin (poly-α-olefin, PAO) is a non-polar polymer made by polymerizing an alpha-olefin. They are designated at API Group IV and are a 100% synthetic chemical compound. It is a specific type of olefin (organic) that is used as a base stock in the production of most synthetic lubricants. An alpha-olefin (or α-olefin) is an alkene where the carbon-carbon double bond starts at the α-carbon atom, i.e. the double bond is between the #1 and #2 carbons in the molecule.

Group V: Other synthetics
Group V base oils are defined by API as any other type of oil other than mineral oils or PAO lubricants.

Esters are the most famous synthetics in Group V, which are 100% synthetic chemical compounds consisting of a carbonyl adjacent to an ether linkage. They are derived by reacting an oxoacid with a hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol. Esters are usually derived from an inorganic acid or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group, most commonly from carboxylic acids and alcohols. That is to say, esters are formed by condensing an acid with an alcohol.

Many chemically different "esters" due to their polarity and usually excellent lubricity are used for various reasons as either "additives" or "base stocks" for lubricants.

Industrial PAG
The terms polyalkylene glycol and polyglycol are used interchangeably.

Synthetic lubricants are about 4% of the lubricants market. PAGs are about 24% of the synthetic lubricants market.

Ethylene is the basic raw material used to make the synthetic lubricant polyglycols oils. When ethylene and propylene react with oxygen we obtain ethylene oxide (EO) and propylene oxide (PO), from which the polyalkylene glycols are produced by means of polymerization. Polyalkylene glycols are usually made by combining ethylene oxide and/or propylene oxide with an alcohol or water.

The mixing ratio between EO and PO, plus the oxygen bonded in the chemical structure, crucially affect the behavior of polyglycols. The gear industry predominantly uses polyglycols with an EO/PO ratio of 50:50 to 60:40, which exhibit very similar behavior. The polyglycols featuring this composition are also generally referred to as water soluble polyglycols.

Polyalkylene glycol base oils are formed by reacting an alcohol with one or more alkylene oxides: Propylene oxide provides water insolubility, Ethylene oxide provides water solubility.

PAG properties
PAGs offer properties that include: high lubricity, polarity, low traction properties, high viscosity index, controlled quenching speeds, good temperature stability and low wear. They are available in both water soluble and insoluble forms.

PAG uses
PAGs are commonly used in quenching fluids, metalworking fluids, gear oils, chain oils, food-grade lubricants and as lubricants in HFC type hydraulics and gas compressor equipment. PAG lubricants are used by the two largest U.S. air compressor OEMs in rotary screw air compressors. PAG oils of different viscosity grades (usually either ISO VG 46 or ISO VG 100) are often used as compressor lubricants for automotive air conditioning systems employing low global warming potential refrigerants.

PAG advantages
PAGs are available in a wide range of viscosity grades and additive packages for a variety of uses. Some PAGs properties such as water solubility are not commonly provided by other synthetic lubricants, such as polyalphaolefins (PAO).

PAGs prevent sludge and varnish from developing at high temperatures. PAGs have viscosity indexes that are higher than PAOs.

In large gears, PAG lubricant yielded lower friction than PAO lubricant.

PAG oils are polar, which means that an oil film easily develops upon all moving metal parts, reducing startup wear.

PAGs can be highly biodegradable, particularly the water-soluble PAGs.

PAGs perform better than in extreme weather condition.

PAG disadvantages
PAGs are not compatible with mineral oils, most seals, paints, varnishes.

Synthetic oil is more expensive than mineral oils.

PAG seal compatibility
PAG is usually compatible with fluorocarbon-based fluoroelastomer materials and vinyl methyl silicone (VMQ) silicone rubber.

PAG acts as a solvent and dissolves and removes the mineral grease which causes slower motions, air leaks, and can stop 4-way valves from operating.

Natural rubber, Buna-N, and most regular seals are incompatible with PAG oils, especially seals coated in mineral grease. PAG oils can cause seals to shrink or swell, thus causing severe leakage or seizure of the seal. Pneumatic air cylinders and 4-ways valves commonly use Buna-N rubber seals that are coated in mineral grease.

Semi-synthetic oil
Semi-synthetic oils (also called "synthetic blends") are a mixture of mineral oil and synthetic oil, which are engineered to have many of the benefits of full synthetic oil without the cost. Motul introduced the first semi-synthetic motor oil in 1966.

Lubricants that have synthetic base stocks even lower than 30% but with high-performance additives consisting of esters can also be considered synthetic lubricants. In general, the ratio of the synthetic base stock is used to define commodity codes among the customs declarations for tax purposes.

Other base stocks help semi-synthetic lubricants
API Group II- and API Group III-type base stocks help to formulate more economic-type semi-synthetic lubricants. API Group I-, II-, II+-, and III-type mineral-base oil stocks are widely used in combination with additive packages, performance packages, and ester and/or API Group IV poly-alpha-olefins in order to formulate semi-synthetic-based lubricants. API Group III base oils are sometimes considered fully synthetic, but they are still classified as highest-top-level mineral-base stocks. A synthetic or synthesized material is one that is produced by combining or building individual units into a unified entity. Synthetic base stocks as described above are man-made and tailored to have a controlled molecular structure with predictable properties, unlike mineral base oils, which are complex mixtures of naturally occurring hydrocarbons and paraffins.

Performance of synthetic oil
The advantages of using synthetic motor oils include better low-and high-temperature viscosity performance at service temperature extremes, better (higher) Viscosity Index (VI), and chemical and shear stability. This also helps in decreasing the loss due to evaporation. It is resistant to oxidation, thermal breakdown, oil sludge problems and provides extended drain intervals, with the environmental benefit of less used oil waste generated. It provides better lubrication in extreme cold conditions. The use of synthetic oils promises a longer engine life with superior protection against "ash" and other deposit formation in engine hot spots (in particular in turbochargers and superchargers) for less oil burn-off and reduced chances of damaging oil passageway clogging. The performance of automobiles is improved as net increase in horsepower and torque due to less internal drag on engine. Moreover, it can improve fuel efficiency - 1.8% to 5% as has been documented in fleet tests.

However, synthetic motor oils are substantially more expensive (per volume) than mineral oils and have potential decomposition problems in certain chemical environments (predominantly in industrial use).

title: Synthetic oil


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Sergio Ortega (composer)

Sergio Ortega Alvarado (February 2, 1938 – September 16, 2003) was a Chilean composer, pianist, poet, teacher and politician. He is recognized for having composed important Chilean left-wing politics anthems, among them are "Venceremos" and "El pueblo unido jamás será vencido", as well as the anthem of the Radical Party, Communist Youth and Workers' United Center of Chile.

Biography
Sergio Ortega Alvarado was born in Antofagasta, Chile on February 2, 1938. He had brief studies of Architecture and Literature, until he entered the National Conservatory of the University of Chile and began to study composition with Roberto Falabella and Gustavo Becerra-Schmidt. After graduating, he worked at the Institute of Musical Extension and six years as a sound engineer at the Experimental Theater of the University, at the Antonio Varas Theater.

During this period he composed music for theater and cinema. he composed music for works by Alejandro Sieveking and Isidora Aguirre, including Asunto sofisticado and La dama del canasto, respectively. In 1964, the filmmaker Pedro Chaskel heads the music project for the 1925 silent film, El Húsar de la muerte by Pedro Sienna, commissioned by Ortega himself, who made a special composition that was registered in the Hall of Honor of the University of Chile. Later he composed the soundtrack of El Chacal de Nahueltoro in 1969 by filmmaker Miguel Littin. In 2001, he also composed a song for the film Taxi para tres. Ortega's music was based mainly on a typical classical music sound, full of polyphonies and dissonances. His colleague, Luis Advis, also presented these characteristics within his music.

Pablo Neruda entrusted him with musicalizing the assembly of his translation of Romeo and Juliet. Later, he would ask her to compose the soundtrack for his only play, Fulgor y muerte de Joaquín Murieta, premiered in 1967 at the Antonio Varas Theater, under the direction of Pedro Orthous. The work, which made a successful tour of Europe, tells the story of Joaquín Murieta, a Chilean gold prospector who comes to California in search of fortune. The story had already appeared in Neruda's books as the fourth episode of La barcarola. However, Neruda writes the play, with characters, dialogues, script, etc. On December 14, 1998, the two-act opera Fulgor y muerte de Joaquín Murieta, composed by him and with a libretto based on the homonymous work by Neruda, premiered at the Municipal Theatre of Santiago.

In 1967, he worked with the singer-songwriter Víctor Jara in the musical arrangements of some of the songs on his self-titled album, at the same time he directed his orchestra that he accompanied on the tracks "El aparecido", "Solo" and "Así como hoy matan negros". Ortega was a member of the Communist Party of Chile. He together with the singer-songwriter Victor Jara and the lyricist Claudio Iturra, he composed "Venceremos" the electoral theme of the socialist president Salvador Allende and a world anthem of leftist movements. He composed the 1970 album by Inti-Illimani, Canto al programa, with contributions from Luis Advis and lyrics by Julio Rojas. He also worked on a musical version of Neruda's Canto General with Gustavo Becerra and the group Aparcoa, which was staged in 1970. About three months before the 1973 Chilean coup d'état against La Moneda, he recorded "El pueblo unido jamás será vencido" together with the group Quilapayún, a recognized worldwide protest anthem. After the coup, he took refuge in the embassy of Panama. He then moved to France, where he would continue his musical career.

In 1978, he composed and premiered at an Austrian festival, ''Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, 1810. Poema sonoro para el padre de mi patria''. For the celebration of the bicentennial of the French Revolution, Ortegra worked on a praised operatic trilogy. Ortega worked with his eldest son, Chañaral Ortega-Miranda (later member of the French faction of Quilapayún), on an operatic version of Pedro Páramo, the novel by Mexican writer Juan Rulfo.

In 1970, he began to direct the university's TV station, Channel 9, which he continued until 1973. In 1977 Ortega visited the USSR, participated in the festival "Red Carnation". He was given permission to return to Chile in 1983, and did so several times. During his exile, Ortega directed L'Ecole Nationale de Musique, in Pantin, France.

During the 30th anniversary of the Military Coup, he was diagnosed with advanced Pancreatic cancer. In September 2003, Sergio Ortega was already in a coma at the Saint Louis hospital in Paris. He died on September 15, at the age of 65, surrounded by his wife and their three sons. On the 27th of the same month, his remains would be buried in the General Cemetery. The Workers' United Center, the Antonio Varas Theater and the Faculty of Arts of the University of Chile made official tributes. In the Municipal Theatre, the choir led by Max Valdés, interpreted the final parts of Fulgor y muerte de Joaquín Murieta.

Discography

 * La dama del canasto (1965)

 * La fragua (1973)

title: Sergio Ortega (composer)


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Talk:Albion College

Wiki Education assignment: Mass Communication
— Assignment last updated by COMStudiesProfessor (talk) 17:29, 12 October 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Albion College


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Chess middlegame

The middlegame is the portion of a chess game between the opening and the endgame. It is generally considered to begin when each player has completed the development of all or most of their pieces and brought their king to relative safety, and it is generally considered to end when only a few pieces remain on the board. However, there is no clear line between the opening and middlegame or between the middlegame and endgame. At master level, the opening analysis may go well into the middlegame; likewise, the middlegame blends into the endgame.

Theory on the middlegame is less developed than the opening or endgames. Since middlegame positions are unique from game to game, memorization of theoretical variations is not possible as it is in the opening. Likewise, there are usually too many pieces on the board for theoretical positions to be completely analyzed as can be done in the simpler endgames.

Defining the middlegame
Views vary on when the opening ends and the middlegame begins. In general, the opening is defined as ending when the development of pieces is mostly complete.

Similarly, there are differing opinions and criteria for when the middlegame ends and the endgame begins (see the start of the endgame). Factors such as control of the center are less important in the endgame than the middlegame. In endgames the number of pieces and pawns is much reduced, though even after queens are traded, it is possible to have a middlegame without queens. The endgame is often said to begin when the kings can safely play an active role.

Aims of the middlegame
The Middle Game in Chess by Reuben Fine lists three major factors in the middlegame: king safety, force (material), and mobility, although not all of these factors are of equal importance. If king safety is a serious issue, a well-executed attack on the king can render other considerations, including material advantages, irrelevant. Material is another important consideration: Fine notes that—if all other things are equal—any material advantage will usually be decisive. According to Fine, a material advantage will usually not give a direct mating attack unless the advantage is very large (a rook or more); rather, it can be used as a means of gaining more material and a decisive endgame advantage. To gain mobility is to ensure that the pieces have a wide scope of action and targets to focus on. The concept is largely strategic in nature, and involves such concepts as space, pawn weaknesses (since weak pawns can compel pieces to defensive duties, reducing their mobility), and securing outposts for the pieces.

The strategy required for middlegame play varies considerably. Some middlegame positions feature  featuring maneuvering behind the lines, while other middlegames are wide open, where both players attempt to gain the initiative. Dan Heisman noted three features which can seriously alter the way the middlegame is played.

First, if the kings are castled on opposite wings, and queens remain on the board, the position can be very violent, with both players aiming to assault the enemy king. Material considerations are often secondary to pursuing the attack, and it can even be advantageous to lose pawns in front of the enemy king in order to open up lines for the rooks and queen.

Second, positions where the pawn structure is static and locked can also feature mutual attacks, since players often elect to play on the side where they have more space (playing on the side of the board in which their pawns are pointing). Time is often less of a concern in such middlegames, allowing lengthy maneuvers. Players attempt to strengthen their positions and weaken their opponent's. Both players need to be on the lookout for pawn breaks, and the possibility of taking advantage of the open files which may arise from them.

Third, if one player has an overwhelming material advantage and is clearly winning, the stronger player can usually afford to violate several of the normal middlegame principles in order to trade down to an endgame. For example, trading queens even at the cost of a ruined pawn structure may be a viable option.

Transition to the endgame
Not all games reach the endgame, since an attack on the king, or a combination leading to large material gains can end the game while it is still in the middlegame. At other times, an advantage needs to be pursued in the endgame, and learning how to make favorable exchanges leading to a favorable endgame is an important skill.

The last thing that happens in the middlegame is the setup for endgame. Since many endgames involve the promotion of a pawn, it is usually good to keep that in mind when making trades during the middlegame. For example, World Champion Max Euwe considered a preponderance of pawns on the (queenside majority) an advantage because this might be used to create a passed pawn.

Classical middlegame textbooks
Works mostly written before 1970.
 * Euwe, Max and H. Kramer 1964; 1994. The Middlegame. 2 vols: McKay; Hays. ISBN 978-1-880673-95-9
 * Fine, Reuben [1952] 2003. The Middlegame in Chess. McKay; Random House. ISBN 0-8129-3484-9
 * Nimzowitsch, Aron [1927] 1987. My system. B.T Batsford Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7134-5655-4
 * Pachman, Ludek [1963] 1975/78. Complete chess strategy. Doubleday. 3 vols from the first edition of 2 vols. ISBN 978-0-346-12321-2; ISBN 978-1-880673-96-6; ISBN 978-0-679-13252-3.
 * Tarrasch, Siegbert [1895] 1999. Three hundred chess games. Hays. ISBN 978-1-880673-18-8
 * Tarrasch, Siegbert [1895] 1999. Three hundred chess games. Hays. ISBN 978-1-880673-18-8

Modern texts

 * Averbakh, Yuri 1996. Chess Middlegames: essential knowledge. Cadogan, ISBN 1-85744-125-7
 * Dvoretsky, Mark & Yusupov, Artur 1996. Positional play. Batsford, London. ISBN 0-7134-7879-9
 * Silman, Jeremy 1998. The complete book of chess strategy. Siles Press. ISBN 978-1-890085-01-8.
 * Tisdall, Jonathan 1997. Improve your chess now. Everyman, London. ISBN 978-1-85744-156-7
 * Watson, John 1998. Secrets of modern chess strategy: advances since Nimzowitsch. Gambit London. ISBN 1-901983-07-2
 * Watson, John. 2003. Chess strategy in action. Gambit, London. ISBN 1-901983-69-2
 * Watson, John 1998. Secrets of modern chess strategy: advances since Nimzowitsch. Gambit London. ISBN 1-901983-07-2
 * Watson, John. 2003. Chess strategy in action. Gambit, London. ISBN 1-901983-69-2

title: Chess middlegame


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User:Secretlondon/CIS languages and Wikipedias

This is a list of languages used in the CIS and corresponding wikipedias.

Armenian
ISO 639: hy Wikipedia: http://hy.wikipedia.org/

Azeri
ISO 639: az Wikipedia: http://az.wikipedia.org/

Belarusian
ISO 639: be Wikipedia: http://be.wikipedia.org/

Georgian
ISO 639: ka Wikipedia: http://ka.wikipedia.org/

Kazakh
ISO 639: kk Wikipedia: http://kk.wikipedia.org/

Kyrgyz
ISO 639: ky Wikipedia: http://ky.wikipedia.org/

Tajik
ISO 639: tj Wikipedia: http://tg.wikipedia.org/

Turkmen
ISO 639: tk Wikipedia: http://tk.wikipedia.org/

Ukrainian
ISO 639: uk Wikipedia: http://uk.wikipedia.org/

Uzbek
ISO 639: uz Wikipedia: http://uz.wikipedia.org/


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John Haynes (governor)

John Haynes (May 1, 1594 – c. January 9, 1653/4 ), also sometimes spelled Haines, was a colonial magistrate and one of the founders of the Connecticut Colony. He served one term as governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and was the first governor of Connecticut, ultimately serving eight separate terms. Although Colonial Connecticut prohibited Governors from serving consecutive terms at the time, "John Haynes was so popular with the colonists that he served alternately as governor and often as deputy governor from 1639 to his death in 1653."

Haynes was influential in the drafting of laws and legal frameworks in both Massachusetts and Connecticut. He was on the committee that drafted the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, which has been called one of the first written constitutions. He also invested most of his fortune in Connecticut, "to the ruine of his famylye in Englande".

Early life
Haynes was likely born at Messing, Essex, England, the eldest son of John Haynes and Mary Michel Haynes. The family was an armigerous gentry or 'visitation family' who had lived at Codicote, Herefordshire, and at Great Haddam. In 1605, when he was eleven, his father died, and he eventually inherited the family's many properties. It is possible that Haynes attended Cambridge; during the relevant time period, two John Hayneses are listed as attending. By about 1616, Haynes was living at Gurney's Manor, Hingham, Norfolk, a hotbed of Puritan sentiment, where Haynes was Lord of the Manor. There he married Mary Thorneton, the daughter of Norfolk nobility, with whom he had six children. In 1627, his wife Mary died and was buried at St Andrew's Church in Hingham. In the early 1620s, he purchased Copford Hall, near Colchester in Essex; this estate alone was reported to produce £1,100 per year.

Essex was also a Puritan center, and Haynes was greatly influenced by the pastor Thomas Hooker, who was a close friend. In about 1630, John Winthrop and John Humphreys, two of the founders of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, extended invitations to Hooker and Haynes to join them in the New World. Apparently leaving his minor children behind, Haynes emigrated in 1633, sailing aboard the Griffin with Hooker. They settled first at Newtowne (later renamed Cambridge), where Haynes was the guest of Thomas Dudley until his own house was ready.

Massachusetts Bay Colony
As a man of some means, (Winthrop referred to him as a "man of great estate") in 1634, Haynes was admitted as a freeman and elected to the colony's council of assistants. He was also named to a committee overseeing military matters, a position that assumed some importance when war broke out with the Pequot tribe that year. The assistants were called on to consider the controversial defacement of the English flag by John Endecott in 1634. Claiming that St George's Cross was a symbol of popery, he had cut it from the Salem militia company's banner. Haynes was part of a moderate faction that disagreed with Endecott's action, claiming that the cross had been reduced to a symbol of nationalism. For his action, Endecott was censured and deprived of serving in any offices for one year.

In 1634, Haynes served in a variety of municipal capacities. He was a Cambridge selectman and served on a commission that decided the boundary between Boston and Charlestown. He was elected governor in 1635, winning an election that Roger Ludlow had been expected to win. Haynes had argued for the lowering of taxes; Ludlow also alleged that the deputies of some towns had made private agreements that concerned the vote before it occurred. Ludlow, who was not even elected as an assistant, was apparently motivated by his loss to leave the colony for a settlement on the Connecticut River.

Haynes' one-year term as governor was marked by political conflict between a faction led by Haynes, Hooker, and Dudley, and another led by Winthrop. The major disagreement between them concerned the strictness of judicial procedures and the process of rendering judgments; the Haynes faction believed that Winthrop had been lax in some of his decisions. The conservative faction was successful in enacting regulations for stricter judicial procedures; it also passed legislation banning the smoking of tobacco and restricting overly ostentatious or fashionable clothing. Haynes also presided over the trial and banishment of Roger Williams, an act that Williams reports Haynes later expressed some regret over.

Connecticut Colony
In 1635, a significant religious division began to grow in the Massachusetts colony. Anne Hutchinson and others espoused the Antinomianist view that the laws of the Church of England did not apply to them, while others argued the opposing Legalist position. Harsh reactions to the controversy may have played a role in the decision by Hooker, and consequently Haynes, to leave the colony for new settlements on the Connecticut River. Historians have also cited shortages of land and food as a reason for this migration, and political competition between Haynes and Winthrop. Winthrop recorded that Hooker's company was motivated by "the strong bent of their spirits to remove".

Haynes, while making arrangements to follow Hooker, continued to be involved in Massachusetts through 1636, serving as an assistant and as colonel of one of the colony's militia regiments. His lieutenant colonel was Roger Harlakenden, who in 1635 came over from England with his sister Mabel. John and Mabel were married in 1636; they had five children.

Haynes joined Hooker at the settlement they called Hartford in 1637. The colonial settlements on the river were established without any sort of royal charter and were not within the bounds of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. For the first two years, the few small settlements were governed by a general court of magistrates, headed by Haynes, and were likely preoccupied with the ongoing conflict with the Pequots. After the war ended in late 1638, the magistrates began drafting a body of principles and laws; these were ratified in January 1638/9. Now known as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, this document has been called the "first written constitution". The chief architects of the Fundamental Orders were Ludlow, the colony's principal legal mind, Haynes, and Thomas Hooker, who was known to advocate for the liberties the document enshrines.

Pursuant to the terms of this constitution, elections were held on April 11, 1639, and Haynes was elected as the colony's first governor. Because of restrictions in the constitution that disallowed consecutive terms, he was in and out of the office of governor a total of eight times between 1639 and his death in 1653/4. During most of the years he was not governor, he was instead the deputy governor.

Due to a lack of detailed documentation, the exact role Haynes played in the colony's political activities is unclear. One of his more notable achievements was the negotiations with some of the neighboring colonies that led to the creation of the New England Confederation in 1643. This organization was a loose confederation of the Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, New Haven, and Plymouth Colonies, principally established to coordinate defense against common threats. For Connecticut, the major threats came from Indians and from the Dutch of the New Netherlands to the west. In particular, the smaller colonies benefited from this confederation at the expense of the significantly more populous Massachusetts colony. During his terms in office, he was called upon to mediate disputes between local Indians and to negotiate with Dutch representatives of the New Netherlands, who claimed land south of Hartford on the Connecticut River. When one Dutch trader complained about the seizure by some Englishmen of land he claimed, Haynes responded that because the Dutchman had done nothing to develop the land, and that because "it was a sin to let such rich land ... lie uncultivated", he had effectively forfeited his claim. This dispute resulted in minor military confrontations between the English and Dutch in the 1640s and was resolved temporarily in the 1650 Treaty of Hartford, in which the Dutch ceded their claims on the river. Some territorial disputes continued even after the English took New Netherlands from the Dutch in 1664, and the territory described in the Duke of York's charter overlapped that of Connecticut.

Death and legacy
Contrary to the engraved date on his tombstone in Hartford's Ancient Burying Ground, Haynes did not die on March 1, 1653/4. A letter, written by John Winthrop the Younger on January 9, 1653/4, mentions his recent death. The Connecticut General Court issued a statement on March 6, calling for a "day of humiliation" following the "sudden death of our late Governor". Haynes' son, Hezekiah, a military officer who served in the English Civil War, noted that his father had invested between £7,000 and £8,000 in the colony "to the ruine of his famylye in Englande"; his estate was valued at about £1,500. Haynes was a significant landowner in the Hartford area, and he and Edward Hopkins operated a mill in the town. Haynes' daughter Ruth married Samuel Wyllys, the son of another Connecticut founder, George Wyllys. Their descendants have continued the legacy of political involvement in Connecticut and elsewhere.

title: John Haynes (governor)


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Stereocenter

In stereochemistry, a stereocenter of a molecule is an atom (center), axis or plane that is the focus of stereoisomerism; that is, when having at least three different groups bound to the stereocenter, interchanging any two different groups creates a new stereoisomer. Stereocenters are also referred to as stereogenic centers.

A stereocenter is geometrically defined as a point (location) in a molecule; a stereocenter is usually but not always a specific atom, often carbon. Stereocenters can exist on chiral or achiral molecules; stereocenters can contain single bonds or double bonds. The number of hypothetical stereoisomers can be predicted by using 2n, with n being the number of tetrahedral stereocenters; however, exceptions such as meso compounds can reduce the prediction to below the expected 2n.

Chirality centers are a type of stereocenter with four different substituent groups; chirality centers are a specific subset of stereocenters because they can only have sp3 hybridization, meaning that they can only have single bonds.

Location
Stereocenters can exist on chiral or achiral molecules. They are defined as a location (point) within a molecule, rather than a particular atom, in which the interchanging of two groups creates a stereoisomer. A stereocenter can have either four different attachment groups, or three different attachment groups where one group is connected by a double bond. Since stereocenters can exist on achiral molecules, stereocenters can have either sp3 or sp2 hybridization.

Possible Number of Stereoisomers
Stereoisomers are compounds that are identical in composition and connectivity but have a different spatial arrangement of atoms around the central atom. A molecule having multiple stereocenters will produce many possible stereoisomers. In compounds whose stereoisomerism is due to tetrahedral (sp3) stereogenic centers, the total number of hypothetically possible stereoisomers will not exceed 2n, where n is the number of tetrahedral stereocenters. However, this is an upper bound because molecules with symmetry frequently have fewer stereoisomers.

The stereoisomers produced by the presence of multiple stereocenters can be defined as enantiomers (non-superposable mirror images) and diastereomers (non-superposable, non-identical, non-mirror image molecules). Enantiomers and diastereomers are produced due to differing stereochemical configurations of molecules containing the same composition and connectivity (bonding); the molecules must have multiple (two or more) stereocenters to be classified as enantiomers or diastereomers. Enantiomers and diastereomers will produce individual stereoisomers that contribute to the total number of possible stereoisomers.

However, the stereoisomers produced may also give a meso compound, which is an achiral compound that is superposable on its mirror image; the presence of a meso compound will reduce the number of possible stereoisomers. Since a meso compound is superposable on its mirror image, the two "stereoisomers" are actually identical. Resultantly, a meso compound will reduce the number of stereoisomers to below the hypothetical 2n amount due to symmetry.

Additionally, certain configurations may not exist due to steric reasons. Cyclic compounds with chiral centers may not exhibit chirality due to the presence of a two-fold rotation axis. Planar chirality may also provide for chirality without having an actual chiral center present.

Configuration
Configuration is defined as the arrangement of atoms around a stereocenter. The Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) system uses R and S designations to define the configuration of atoms about any stereocenter. A designation of R denotes a clockwise direction of substituent priority around the stereocenter, while a designation of S denotes a counter-clockwise direction of substituent priority.

Chirality Centers
A chirality center (chiral center) is a type of stereocenter. A chirality center is defined as an atom holding a set of four different ligands (atoms or groups of atoms) in a spatial arrangement which is non-superposable on its mirror image. Chirality centers must be sp3 hybridized, meaning that a chirality center can only have single bonds. In organic chemistry, a chirality center usually refers to a carbon, phosphorus, or sulfur atom, though it is also possible for other atoms to be chirality centers, especially in areas of organometallic and inorganic chemistry.

The concept of a chirality center generalizes the concept of an asymmetric carbon atom (a carbon atom bonded to four different entities) to a broader definition of any atom with four different attachment groups in which an interchanging of any two attachment groups gives rise to an enantiomer.

Stereogenic on Carbon
A carbon atom that is attached to four different substituent groups is called an asymmetric carbon atom or chiral carbon. Chiral carbons are the most common type of chirality center.

Stereogenic on Other Atoms
Chirality is not limited to carbon atoms, though carbon atoms are often centers of chirality due to their ubiquity in organic chemistry. Nitrogen and phosphorus atoms can also form bonds in a tetrahedral configuration. A nitrogen in an amine may be a stereocenter if all three groups attached are different because the electron pair of the amine functions as a fourth group. However, nitrogen inversion, a form of pyramidal inversion, causes racemization which means that both epimers at that nitrogen are present under normal circumstances. Racemization by nitrogen inversion may be restricted (such as quaternary ammonium or phosphonium cations), or slow, which allows the existence of chirality.

Metal atoms with tetrahedral or octahedral geometries may also be chiral due to having different ligands. For the octahedral case, several chiralities are possible. Having three ligands of two types, the ligands may be lined up along the meridian, giving the mer-isomer, or forming a face—the fac isomer. Having three bidentate ligands of only one type gives a propeller-type structure, with two different enantiomers denoted Λ and Δ.

Chirality and Stereocenters
As mentioned earlier, the requirement for an atom to be a chirality center is that the atom must be sp3 hybridized with four different attachments. Because of this, all chirality centers are stereocenters. However, only under some conditions is the reverse true. Recall that a point can be considered a sterocenter with a minimum of three attachment points; stereocenters can be either sp3 or sp2 hybridized, as long as the interchanging any two different groups creates a new stereoisomer. This means that although all chirality centers are stereocenters, not every stereocenter is a chirality center.

Stereocenters are important identifiers for chiral or achiral molecules. As a general rule, if a molecule has no stereocenters, it is considered achiral. If it has at least one stereocenter, the molecule has the potential for chirality. However, there are some exceptions like meso compounds that make molecules with multiple stereocenters considered achiral.

title: Stereocenter


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Jarlshof

Jarlshof is the best-known prehistoric archaeological site in Shetland, Scotland. It lies in Sumburgh, Mainland, Shetland and has been described as "one of the most remarkable archaeological sites ever excavated in the British Isles". It contains remains dating from 2500 BC up to the 17th century AD.

The Bronze Age settlers left evidence of several small oval houses with thick stone walls and various artefacts including a decorated bone object. The Iron Age ruins include several different types of structures, including a broch and a defensive wall around the site. The Pictish period provides various works of art including a painted pebble and a symbol stone. The Viking Age ruins make up the largest such site visible anywhere in Britain and include a longhouse; excavations provided numerous tools and a detailed insight into life in Shetland at this time. The most visible structures on the site are the walls of the Scottish period fortified manor house, which inspired the name "Jarlshof" that first appears in an 1821 novel by Walter Scott.

The site is in the care of Historic Scotland and is open from April to September. In 2012 "Zenith of Iron Age Shetland" including Mousa, Old Scatness and Jarlshof was added to the UK's tentative list of proposed World Heritage Sites.

Location and etymology
Jarlshof lies near the southern tip of the Shetland Mainland, close to the settlements of Sumburgh and Grutness and to the south end of Sumburgh Airport. The site overlooks an arm of the sea called the West Voe of Sumburgh and the nearby freshwater springs and building materials available on the beach will have added to the location's attraction as a settlement. The south Mainland also provides a favourable location for arable cultivation in a Shetland context and there is a high density of prehistoric settlement in the surrounding area. Jarlshof is only one mile from Scatness where the remains of another broch and other ruins of a similar longevity were discovered in 1975. There is a small visitor centre at Jarlshof with displays and a collection of artefacts.

The name Jarlshof meaning "Earl's Mansion" is a coinage of Walter Scott, who visited the site in 1814 and based it on the Scottish period name of "the laird's house". It was more than a century later before excavations proved that there had actually been Viking Age settlement on the site, although there is no evidence that a Norse jarl ever lived there.

History
The remains at Jarlshof represent thousands of years of human occupation, and can be seen as a microcosm of Shetland history. Other than the Old House of Sumburgh (see below) the site remained largely hidden until a storm in the late 19th century washed away part of the shore, and revealed evidence of these ancient buildings. Formal archaeological excavation started in 1925 and Bronze Age relics were soon discovered. Jarlshof was one of two broch sites which were the first to be excavated using modern scientific techniques between 1949 and 1952. Although the deposits within the broch had been badly disturbed by earlier attempts, this work revealed a complex sequence of construction from different periods. Buildings on the site include the remains of a Bronze Age smithy, an Iron Age broch and roundhouses, a complex of Pictish wheelhouses, a Viking longhouse, and a mediaeval farmhouse. No further excavations have been undertaken since the early 1950s and no radiocarbon dating has been attempted.

Neolithic
The earliest finds are pottery from the Neolithic era, although the main settlement dates from the Bronze Age (see below). A site nearby has been dated to 3200 BC.

Bronze Age
The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2000 BC to 800 BC. The oldest known remains on the Jarlshof site date from this period, although there is evidence of inhabitation as far back as 2500 BC. The remains of several small oval houses with thick stone walls date to the late Bronze Age and the structures show some similarity to Skara Brae on Mainland, Orkney, but are smaller and of a later date. These buildings may have been partly subterranean at the earliest period of inhabitation, a technique that provided both structural stability and insulation.

There is also evidence of a cattle stall with a waste channel leading to a tank in a courtyard and a whale vertebra set into a wall that may have been used as a tethering post. Broken moulds from the smithy indicate that axes, knives, swords and pins were produced there and a bronze dagger was found at the site. The objects indicate the smith was trained in the Irish style of working. Bone pins and awls also survive and an extraordinary bone "plaque". This latter object is 5 cm long, has three holes bored into the ends and is decorated with various linear patterns. Its function is unknown. The Bronze Age structures are overlain with sterile sand, suggesting a break in occupation prior to the next phase of building.

Iron Age and Pictish period
The inhabitants of the Iron Age built part of their settlement on top of the Bronze Age one. The structures include a complex roundhouse, replaced at a later stage by an "aisled roundhouse". Neither have been dated although artefacts found at this level include querns that suggest the latter may have been constructed prior to 200 BC.

It is in this period that the broch was built. Part of the structure has been lost to coastal erosion, and modern sea defences have been erected. The tower was probably originally 13 metres (40 feet) or more high and as with many broch sites the position would have commanded fine views of the surrounding seas. During this period archaeological sites in Shetland usually exhibit defensive fortifications of some kind, and Jarlshof is no exception. An outer defensive wall associated with the broch contained a substantial (although rather poorly constructed) house and byre at one time. This wall was utilised at a later stage to build a large roundhouse in the lee of the broch. The earliest part of the wheelhouse complex has been dated to 200 BC, although other parts were built later, post-dating the 1st century BC–2nd century AD profusion of these structures in the Western Isles by several centuries. Construction used the stones of the broch itself and two of the four main structures are amongst the best examples of their type. Three successive periods of construction were undertaken, and the best preserved retains a significant proportion of the stone part of its roof and displays a series of corbelled bays. One structure was built as a circular building and the radial piers were inserted afterwards. This may have been an earlier, less stable design. In one case the piers are alternately rectangular and V-shaped, in another all are to the latter design, again suggesting a developing style. Unlike many wheelhouses elsewhere in Scotland that are built into the earth, the Jarlshof structures seem to have been built from ground level upwards.

Amongst the artefacts dated to the later Pictish period is a bone pin with a rounded head probably used as a hair or dress pin. It has been dated to AD 500–800. "Painted pebbles" are associated with more than two dozen Pictish sites and one such stone was unearthed at Jarlshof. This rectangular slate fragment had a cross painted onto it and two small S-shaped scrolls suggesting an association with Christian beliefs. One of only two Pictish symbol stones found in Shetland was found here, exhibiting a double disc shape and a Z-rod. Pottery finds include buff ware from the period after AD 10, including bowls with flat rims. The quality of the pots appears to decline in the period prior to Viking settlement, becoming thinner-walled and generally more crude in design.

In AD 43 and 77 the Roman authors Pomponius Mela and Pliny the Elder referred to the seven islands they call Haemodae and Acmodae respectively, both of which are assumed to be Shetland. Another early written reference to the Shetland islands may have been when Tacitus reported that the Roman fleet had seen "Thule" on a voyage that included the Orkney archipelago in AD 98. Watson in 1926 stated that Tacitus was referring to southern Shetland, probably the area of the brochs in Jarlshof.

Norse period
Remains from this era used to cover most of the site, and it is believed the Norse inhabited the site continuously from the ninth to the 14th centuries. Excavations in the 1930s by Alex Curle found the first confirmed Norse longhouse in the British Isles and later digs in the 1950s found evidence of fishing and farming activities. Sheep, cattle, pigs and ponies were kept, Atlantic cod, saithe and ling were eaten, and whale and seal bones have also been found along with the remains of a single dog. Chicken bones are rare in the Norse levels.

There are seven Norse-era houses at Jarlshof, although no more than two were in use at one time. There were several outbuildings, including a small square structure with a large hearth that may have been a sauna and which was later replaced by two separate outhouses. The largest house from this period is a 20 by rectangular chamber with opposing doors, timber benches along the long sides, and a hearth in the centre. Unlike the earlier structures that had conical thatched roofs, those of the Norse buildings had ridged timber frames. At a later period this large structure was also used to shelter domesticated animals (at which stage it had a paved centre and animal stalls along the sides) and later still may have become an outbuilding. The door to the byre puzzled archaeologists as it appeared to be too narrow to admit a cow. The mystery was solved when a byre door was excavated at Easting on Unst which had a narrow base similar to Jarlshof's but which widened out to become cow-shaped. Another outbuilding has been interpreted as a corn-drying room. Later houses were built at 90 degrees to the longhouse and these are of a type and size that is similar to croft houses that were common in Shetland until the mid-19th century.

One hundred and fifty loom weights were found suggesting wool was an important aspect of Norse-era life. Line weights from the later Norse period and associated evidence from elsewhere in Shetland indicates that deep-water fishing was also a regular undertaking. The Jarlshof site also produced ample evidence of the use of iron tools such as shears, scissors, sickles, and a fish-hook and knife. The ore was locally obtained bog iron. Hazel, birch and willow grew in the area at this time but the pine and oak must have been driftwood or imported timber.

Drawings scratched on slate have been found of dragon-prowed ships, portraits of an old man and of a young, bearded man and of a four-legged animal. The drawings were found in the Viking levels but are Pictish in style and may either pre-date the arrival of the Norse or indicate a continuity of art and culture from one period to the next. Similarly, although the rectangular shape of the Norse-era buildings are quite unlike the earlier rounded Pictish style, the basement courses of the two periods are constructed in the same way. The Viking-style loom weights, spindle whorls and other vessels were found with stone discs and other objects of a Pictish design. A bronze–gilt harness mounting made in Ireland in the 8th or 9th centuries has also been found and many items from this period are in the Shetland Museum. Jarlshof contains the most extensive remains of a Viking site visible anywhere in Britain.

Old House of Sumburgh
The castle, now known as Jarlshof House, was built during the Scottish period. Originally a medieval stone farmhouse, it was converted into a fortified house during the 16th century, by Robert Stewart, 1st Earl of Orkney after Scotland annexed Shetland. The building was named "New Hall" at this time. It was further modernised in the early 17th century by his son Patrick Stewart, 2nd Earl of Orkney who renamed it the "Old House of Sumburgh". It then passed into the keeping of John Buchanan and Margaret Hartsyde, but was abandoned in the late 17th century. The structure was also known as "The laird's house" and "Stewart Mansion".

Cultural references
Walter Scott set part of his 1821 novel The Pirate in the Old House of Sumburgh during the 17th century, which he named Jarlshof.

 * Man, however, had in former days considered this as a remote or unlikely event; for a Norwegian chief of other times, or, as other accounts said, and as the name of Jarlshof seemed to imply an ancient Earl of the Orkneys had elected this neck of land as the place for establishing a mansion-house. It has been long entirely deserted, and the vestiges only can be discerned with difficulty; for the loose sand, borne on the temptestuous gales of those stormy regions, has overblown, and almost buried, the ruins of the buildings; but in the end of the seventeenth century, a part of the Earl's mansion was still entire and habitable. It was a rude building of rough stone, with nothing about it to gratify the eye, or to excite the imagination; a large old-fashioned narrow house, with a very steep roof, covered with flags composed of grey sandstone, would perhaps convey the best of idea of the place to a modern reader. The windows were few, very small in size, and distributed up and down the building with utter contempt of regularity. Against the main structure had rested, in former times, certain smaller compartments of the mansion-house, containing offices, or subordinate apartments, necessary for the Earl's retainers and menials. But these had become ruinous; and the rafters had been taken down for fire-wood, or for other purposes; the walls had given way in many places; and, to complete the devastation, the sand had already drifted amongst the ruins, and filled up what had been once the chambers the contained, to the depth of two or three feet.

 * Amid this desolation, the inhabitants of Jarlshof had contrived, by constant labour and attention, to keep in order a few roods of land, which had been enclosed as a garden, and which, sheltered by the walls of the house itself, from the relentless sea-blast, produced such vegetables as the climate could bring forth, or rather as the sea-gale would permit to grow; for these islands experience even less of the rigour of cold than is encountered on the mainland of Scotland; but, unsheltered by a wall of some sort of other, it is scarce possible to raise even the most ordinary culinary vegetables; and as for shrubs or trees, they are entirely out of the question, such is the force of the sweeping sea-blast.

title: Jarlshof


text:
Haworth projection

In chemistry, a Haworth projection is a common way of writing a structural formula to represent the cyclic structure of monosaccharides with a simple three-dimensional perspective. Haworth projection approximate the shapes of the actual molecules better for furanoses—which are in reality nearly planar—than for pyranoses which exist in solution in the chair conformation. Organic chemistry and especially biochemistry are the areas of chemistry that use the Haworth projection the most.

The Haworth projection was named after the British chemist Sir Norman Haworth.

A Haworth projection has the following characteristics:
 * Carbon is the implicit type of atom. In the example on the right, the atoms numbered from 1 to 6 are all carbon atoms. Carbon 1 is known as the anomeric carbon.
 * Hydrogen atoms on carbon are implicit. In the example, atoms 1 to 6 have extra hydrogen atoms not depicted.
 * A thicker line indicates atoms that are closer to the observer. In the example on the right, atoms 2 and 3 (and their corresponding OH groups) are the closest to the observer. Atoms 1 and 4 are farther from the observer. Atom 5 and the other atoms are the farthest.
 * The groups below the plane of the ring in Haworth projections correspond to those on the right-hand side of a Fischer projection. This rule does not apply to the groups on the two ring carbons bonded to the endocyclic oxygen atom. combined with hydrogen.

title: Haworth projection


text:
Morrison v. Olson

Morrison v. Olson, 487 U.S. 654 (1988), was a Supreme Court of the United States decision that determined the Independent Counsel Act was constitutional. Morrison also set important precedent determining the scope of Congress's ability to encumber the President's authority to remove Officers of the United States from office. In Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2020), the Supreme Court distinguished Morrison as a narrow exception applying only to inferior officers.

Over the years, the case has become at least as well known for its lone dissent by Justice Antonin Scalia.

Facts
The case involved subpoenas from two subcommittees of the United States House of Representatives that directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to produce documents relating to the efforts of the EPA and the Land and Natural Resources Division of the Justice Department to enforce the Superfund law. President Ronald Reagan ordered the Administrator of the EPA to withhold the documents on the grounds that they contained "enforcement sensitive information." This led to an investigation by the House Judiciary Committee that later produced a report suggesting that Theodore Olson, the Assistant Attorney General for the Watergate-era Office of Legal Counsel, had given false and misleading testimony before a House subcommittee during the early parts of the investigation.

The Chairman of the Judiciary Committee forwarded a copy of the report to the Attorney General with a request that he seek the appointment of an independent counsel to investigate the allegations against Olson and two others. Alexia Morrison was named independent counsel and given jurisdiction to investigate whether Olson had violated federal law. Olson moved to quash the subpoenas and sued Morrison in her official capacity.

Olson argued that the Office of the Independent Counsel took executive powers away from the office of the President of the United States and created a hybrid "fourth branch" of government that was ultimately answerable to no one. He argued that the broad powers of an independent counsel could be easily abused or corrupted by partisanship. Morrison in turn argued that her position was necessary in order to prevent abuses by the executive branch, which historically operated in a closed environment.

Holding
The Court held that the independent counsel provision of the Ethics in Government Act did not violate the principle of separation of powers because it did not increase the power of one branch at the expense of another. Instead, even though the President (an executive office) cannot fire Independent Counsel, he still counts as an officer of the Executive branch, i.e., he is not under the control of either the U.S. Congress or the courts.

Opinion
Justice Scalia, the lone dissenter, said that the law should be struck down because (1) criminal prosecution is an exercise of "purely executive power" and (2) the law deprived the president of "exclusive control" of that power.

In his opinion, Scalia predicted how the law might be abused in practice, writing, "I fear the Court has permanently encumbered the Republic with an institution that will do it great harm." His discussion of the separation of powers affected by Morrison v. Olson is famous for its rhetorical comparison to other Supreme Court cases on separation of powers:

"Frequently an issue of this sort will come before the Court clad, so to speak, in sheep's clothing: the potential of the asserted principle to effect important change in the equilibrium of power is not immediately evident, and must be discerned by a careful and perceptive analysis. But this wolf comes as a wolf."

Scalia's dissent in Morrison is frequently cited as one of his most memorable and rhetorically powerful opinions, and it is considered by many to be at the top of the list. Over time, Scalia's lone dissent has become far more widely accepted as the correct view and likely led to the 1999 Congressional vote to scuttle the independent counsel statute.

Agreement with the dissent from politicians and commentators
Conservatives like Senator Bob Dole shared similar concerns when Lawrence Walsh announced the re-indictment of former defense secretary Caspar Weinberger on charges related to the Iran–Contra affair four days before the 1992 U.S. presidential election. Critics also sensed partisan politics when Walsh's office leaked a note suggesting President Bush Sr. had lied about his connections to the affair.

Concerns were also raised, in line with Scalia's dissent, when independent counsel Kenneth Starr spent $40 million and more than four years investigating President Clinton's land deals and extramarital affairs.

Aftermath
Congress let the Independent Counsel Act expire in 1999. Then-Judge Samuel Alito said the decision hit the separation of powers doctrine 'about as hard as heavy-weight champ Mike Tyson usually hits his opponents.'" It seemingly "drove a stake into the heart of" Myers v. United States, the controlling case on presidential removal powers at that time. In 2013, Justice Scalia described Morrison v. Olson as the most wrenching case in which he had participated:

"Probably the most wrenching was Morrison v. Olson, which involved the independent counsel. To take away the power to prosecute from the president and give it to somebody who's not under his control is a terrible erosion of presidential power. And it was wrenching not only because it came out wrong—I was the sole dissenter—but because the opinion was written by Rehnquist, who had been head of the Office of Legal Counsel, before me, and who I thought would realize the importance of that power of the president to prosecute. And he not only wrote the opinion; he wrote it in a manner that was more extreme than I think Bill Brennan would have written it. That was wrenching.'"In April 2006, a court citing Morrison rejected I. Lewis "Scooter" Libby's argument that Special Counsel Patrick J. Fitzgerald lacked the legal authority to bring charges against him. Morrison was distinguished in Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau (2020) as being an exception to the President's generally unencumbered authority to remove officers of the United States at will. The Court held that Morrison's holding was a narrow exception only applying to inferior officers.

title: Morrison v. Olson


text:
The Fall of Gondolin

J. R. R. Tolkien's The Fall of Gondolin is a 2018 book of fantasy fiction by J. R. R. Tolkien, edited by his son Christopher. The story is one of what Tolkien called the three "Great Tales" from the First Age of Middle-earth; the other two are Beren and Lúthien and The Children of Húrin. All three stories are briefly summarised in the 1977 book The Silmarillion, and all three have now been published as stand-alone books. A version of the story also appears in The Book of Lost Tales. In the narrative, Gondolin was founded by King Turgon in the First Age. The city was carefully hidden, enduring for centuries before being betrayed and destroyed. Written in 1917, it is one of the first stories of Tolkien's legendarium.

Origins
Tolkien began writing the story that would become The Fall of Gondolin in 1917 in an army barracks on the back of a sheet of military marching music. It is one of the first stories of his Middle-earth legendarium that he wrote down on paper, after his 1914 tale, inspired by the Old English manuscript Crist 1, "The Voyage of Earendel, the Evening Star". While the first half of the story "appears to echo Tolkien's creative development and slow acceptance of duty in the first year of the war," the second half echoes his personal experience of battle. The story was read aloud by Tolkien to the Exeter College Essay Club in the spring of 1920.

Tolkien was constantly revising his First Age stories; however, the narrative he wrote in 1917, published posthumously in The Book of Lost Tales, remains the only full account of the fall of the city.

Publication of versions of the story
The narrative "Of Tuor and the Fall of Gondolin" in the 1977 book The Silmarillion was the result of the editing by his son Christopher using the 1917 narrative (minus some elements all too obviously evocative of World War I warfare) and compressed versions from the different versions of the Annals and Quentas as additional sources. The later Quenta Silmarillion and the Grey Annals, the main sources for much of the published Silmarillion, both stop before the beginning of the Tuor story.

A partial later version of The Fall of Gondolin was published in the 1980 book Unfinished Tales under the title "Of Tuor and his Coming to Gondolin". Originally titled "Of Tuor and the Fall of Gondolin," this narrative shows a great expansion of the earlier tale. Christopher Tolkien retitled the story before including it in Unfinished Tales, because it ends at the point of Tuor's arrival in Gondolin, and does not depict the actual Fall.

There is also an unfinished poem, The Lay of the Fall of Gondolin, of which a few verses are quoted in the 1985 book The Lays of Beleriand. In 130 verses Tolkien reaches the point where dragons attack the city.

Publication history
In 2018, the first stand-alone version of the story was published by HarperCollins in the UK and Houghton Mifflin in the US. This version, illustrated by Alan Lee, has been curated and edited by Christopher Tolkien, J. R. R. Tolkien's son, who also edited The Silmarillion, Unfinished Tales, and the twelve-volume The History of Middle-earth.

Contents

 * Prologue
 * The Original Tale
 * The Earliest Text
 * "Turin and the Exiles of Gondolin"
 * The Story Told in the Sketch of the Mythology
 * The Story Told in the Quenta Noldorinwa
 * The Last Version
 * The Evolution of the Story
 * Conclusion

The book ends with a list of names, additional notes, and a glossary.

By Tolkien scholars
Douglas Kane writes in Journal of Tolkien Research that The Fall of Gondolin was the first of Tolkien's three "Great Tales" to be written, and the last to be published, the other two being the Great Tale of Túrin Turambar (published in The Children of Húrin, 2007, edited into a continuous story) and Beren and Lúthien (2017, presented as a set of versions of the story). That left the tale which was "arguably the one in which the world of Middle-earth is most vividly presented and in which Tolkien’s philosophical themes are most profoundly expressed." Kane adds that although the book collects material already published, "it still succeeds in rounding out that task", for instance by putting the "Sketch of the Mythology" in the prologue. He wonders, though, why the editor included part of the poem "The Flight of the Noldoli from Valinor" (already in The Lays of Beleriand), but omits the poem fragment "The Lay of the Fall of Gondolin" which is far more obviously relevant. Kane admires Alan Lee's illustrations, both in colour and in black and white, as providing "a perfect complement" to the final book in the "unique and remarkable" collaboration between Christopher Tolkien and his father.

Jennifer Rogers, reviewing the book for Tolkien Studies, writes that it "highlights the power of the Gondolin story in its own right with minimal editorial intrusion." As Tolkien's first tale and the last one to be published by his son, the book is "laden with the sense of weight such a publication brings", taking the reader back to the place where the whole Legendarium began, the story about Eärendel (later called Eärendil).

In newspapers
According to Entertainment Weekly, "Patient and dedicated readers will find among the references to other books and their many footnotes and appendices a poignant sense of completion and finality to the life's pursuit of a father and son." Writing for The Washington Post, writer Andrew Ervin said that "The Fall of Gondolin provides everything Tolkien's readers expect." According to The Independent, "Even amid the complexities and difficulties of the book—and there are many—there is enough splendid imagery and characterful prose that readers will be carried along to the end even if they don't know where they are going."

title: The Fall of Gondolin


text:
Belltown, Seattle

Belltown is the most densely populated neighborhood in Seattle, Washington, United States, located on the city's downtown waterfront on land that was artificially flattened as part of a regrading project. Formerly a low-rent, semi-industrial arts district, in recent decades it has transformed into a neighborhood of trendy restaurants, boutiques, nightclubs, and residential towers as well as warehouses and art galleries. The area is named after William Nathaniel Bell, on whose land claim the neighborhood was built.

In 2007, CNNMoney named Belltown the best place to retire in the Seattle metro area, calling it "a walkable neighborhood with everything you need."

Belltown is home to Antioch University, Argosy University, City University of Seattle, and the Seattle School of Theology & Psychology. It lies directly west of the Denny Triangle neighborhood, where online retailer Amazon's three office towers house its downtown headquarters, and where the Cornish College of the Arts is located.

Businesses
Although many new businesses have eclipsed older ones, some venerated establishments still draw crowds of loyal patrons. Some of the classic, old Seattle nightspots in Belltown are: The Rendezvous, The Lava Lounge, Ohana, The Crocodile Cafe, and Shorty's. At one time Alaska Airlines had its headquarters in what is now Belltown. The original Ace Hotel was founded in Belltown and is still active today.

Geography
The neighborhood is bounded on the north by Denny Way, beyond which lies Seattle Center, Lower Queen Anne, and Queen Anne Hill, on the southwest by Elliott Bay, on the southeast by Virginia Street, beyond which lies the Pike Place Market and the rest of Downtown, and on the northeast by 5th Avenue, beyond which lies the Denny Triangle.

All of its northwest- and southeast-bound streets are major thoroughfares (Alaskan Way and Elliott, Western, 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th Avenues); major northeast- and southwest-bound thoroughfares are Broad, Wall, and Battery Streets. The State Route 99 tunnel runs under Belltown for a number of blocks as it connects the Alaskan Freeway to Aurora Avenue North.

North on Western Avenue at Vine Street is the Belltown P-Patch and the Cottage Park. These single family homes built in 1916 are the last of 11 on the 1/4 block. The Cottages mark the 1850s shoreline and are the last remaining wood framed residences in downtown Seattle. The Belltown P-Patch provides gardening opportunities through the City of Seattle P-Patch program.

Sculpture garden
The Olympic Sculpture Park, a public sculpture garden of 9 acre adjacent to Myrtle Edwards Park, is located on the northern edge of the Belltown waterfront. The park features contemporary pieces, various ecosystems with plants indigenous to the Pacific Northwest, and a restored beach and seawall. The park's construction was funded entirely with private donations and is operated by the Seattle Art Museum. Unlike other such parks in the United States, the Olympic Sculpture Park is unwalled, and admission is free.

Transportation
Belltown is traversed by multiple high-frequency transit routes operated by King County Metro, including light Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) services branded RapidRide. As of 2022, RapidRide route E, which provides frequent service from North Seattle to Downtown Seattle via Aurora Avenue and through Belltown, has the highest ridership of all of King County Metro's transit services. Westlake Station is located just to the south of Belltown and is served by Sound Transit's 1 Line, part of the Seattle metropolitan area's regional light rail system.

"Film Row"
The Pathé Theatre at 717 1st Avenue opened around 1910 and a Pathé Exchange debuted at 2113 3rd Avenue. In August 1916, the Mutual Exchange opened at 3rd and Virginia in a building with an auditorium.

The first building constructed for Seattle's burgeoning film industry and in what would become "Film Row" in Belltown opened in 1922 in the Pathe Building designed by Julian F. Everett at 2025 3rd Avenue (which was demolished in 2016). Eventually, silent-era film exchanges in Seattle serviced approximately 470 commercial movie theaters throughout Washington, Idaho, Montana and Oregon. Concern about the flammability of nitrocellulose film resulted in the concentration of film exchanges in this single neighborhood, as a zoning issue.

Polk's 1923 Seattle City Directory shows 26 listings for "Motion Picture Machines and Supplies". All except the U.S. Army Motion Picture Service are within one block of the corner of Virginia Street and Third Avenue.

From the 1920s into at least the 1960s, Second Avenue in Belltown was home to Seattle's second "Film Row." In 1928, just after the era of talkies began, the role of the Second Avenue film row was consolidated by the erection of the terra-cotta-ornamented, art deco Film Exchange Building (FEB, also known as the Canterbury Building) designed by Seattle architect Earl W. Morrison; it covered an entire block on the west side of Second Avenue, from Battery Street to Wall Street.

By 1930, Polk lists only 18 Seattle film exchanges; while Kodascope Libraries is at 111 Cherry Street in the Pioneer Square neighborhood, all of the others are on Second Avenue within a block of Battery Street (save only Columbia Pictures at First and Battery). This situation was essentially unchanged in 1948: 19 entries under "Motion Picture Distributors and Film Exchanges", 15 of them in this same two blocks, and two of the others elsewhere in Belltown.

Nothing remains of the FEB. Universal Pictures was the last film business to pull out, in 1980. The building closed in 1991 and was demolished in 1992. Immediately south, the block of Second Avenue on the other side of Battery still contains many remnants of the Film Row era. The Jewel Box theater of the Rendezvous bar is the one remaining screening room in the neighborhood, but several other buildings remain. The McGraw-Kittenger-Case building on the southwest corner of Second and Battery was once the MGM building, and is now a bar and restaurant.

Just south of it is the former William Tell Hotel, once the film industry favorite, later low-income housing, and now a traveler's hostel. Farther down the block, the former National Theater Building now houses several small businesses. At 2332 First Avenue, Paramount's former film exchange building has housed the Catholic Seaman's Club since 1955; the ground floor is now the Sarajevo restaurant and lounge, and the Catholic Seaman's Club is upstairs.

title: Belltown, Seattle


text:
User:Trujaman

Hi! I'm no longer that new to Wikipedia — but I'm still liking it!

As a professional news translator and interpreter, I am into languages, current events, history, and politics.

I am also contributing to the Spanish Wikipedia and the Oiquipedià -- the Occitan Wikipedia.

Favorite art
Getting to know Boileau and other French writers.
 * Vermeer
 * Shakespeare
 * Nicolas Poussin
 * Wilfred Owen
 * Britten's War Requiem
 * Albert Camus
 * Jean-Paul Sartre

Links I need right now

 * How to start a page

Pages I've modified

 * Aztecs
 * Abu Hafs al-Masri Brigades
 * Aztlán

title: User:Trujaman


text:
Stornoway (residence)

Stornoway is the name of the official residence of the leader of the Official Opposition in Canada, and has been used as such since 1950. It is provided in recognition of the opposition leader's position and is located at 541 Acacia Avenue in the Rockcliffe Park area of Ottawa, Ontario. Stornoway has assessed value $4,225,000 (2008) (based on this value, which is only an approximation of the market value, the municipal property taxes are calculated) and is maintained with $70,000 a year in government funds. The property has been owned and managed by the National Capital Commission since April 1986. The lot size, with a frontage of 228 ft and depth of 225 ft, is slightly irregular.

The property is 5.1 km from Ottawa's Parliament Buildings, whereas the prime minister's official residence is only 3.0 km away from Parliament. It is located in an area which contains many ambassadorial residences.

History
The house was built by architect Allan Keefer in 1914 for Ottawa grocer Ascanio J. Major and was given the name "Stornoway" by the second occupants, Irvine Gale Perley-Robertson and Ethel Lesa Perley, after the ancestral home of the Perley family in the Outer Hebrides in Scotland.

During the Second World War, from summer 1941 to 1945, Mrs. Perley-Robertson offered Stornoway to (then) Princess Juliana of the Netherlands as a temporary home-in-exile for the Dutch royal family, including the future Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands.

Stornoway has served its present role as the Official Opposition leader's residence since 1950, when it was purchased by a group of concerned citizens and later transferred to the Government of Canada.

Although the Bloc Québécois were the official Opposition from 1993 to 1997, party leader Lucien Bouchard declined to move into the residence as a mark of protest against the federal government, choosing instead to live in nearby Gatineau, Quebec. His successor, Gilles Duceppe, likewise did not reside in Stornoway.

Following the 1997 election, when the Reform Party of Canada displaced the Bloc Québécois to become the Official Opposition, Reform leader Preston Manning also declined to move in, but for a different reason. Manning protested that Stornoway was too extravagant and a waste of taxpayer money, even joking that it should be used as a bingo hall to pay off the national debt. He asked to be provided with a more "modest" residence, but soon moved into Stornoway after his refusal to do so began to be portrayed in the media as a mark of disrespect for his position as the leader of the Opposition.

Renovations from 2002 to 2006 included an overhaul of the living room and kitchen, repair of the chimney, replacement of carpets, refinishing of hardwood floors, and painting, among other things.

Jack Layton, who had led the New Democratic Party to official Opposition status in the May 2, 2011 election, moved in a month later, but stated that he would continue to live in Toronto when Parliament was out of session. He died on August 22 of cancer; it was subsequently revealed that Layton and his wife Olivia Chow actually spent just one night in the house. His interim successor as NDP leader, Nycole Turmel, also did not formally move into the house, though she used Stornoway for entertaining purposes and slept over on occasion.

Of the leaders of the Opposition, John Reynolds, Bill Graham, Rona Ambrose, and Candice Bergen are the only interim party leaders to have resided at Stornoway; Bergen was the most recent resident after being selected as interim leader of the Conservative Party of Canada after Erin O'Toole was ousted as leader in a vote by Conservative MPs according to the terms of the Reform Act. Permanent Conservative leaders Andrew Scheer and Erin O'Toole moved in after their party elected them as leaders in its 2017 and 2020 leadership elections, respectively.

List of residents
Completed in 1914, the building had three occupants prior to its acquisition by the Government of Canada. Ascanio Joseph Major, a local grocer, was the original occupant of Stornoway, residing there from 1914 to 1923. In 1923, the Perley-Robertson family acquired the home. From 1941 to 1945, during the Second World War, the Dutch royal family leased the home from the Perley-Robertson family. In 1950, the building was acquired by a private trust, and later transferred to the Government of Canada. Since 1950, Stornoway has been used as the official residence of the leader of the official opposition in the House of Commons of Canada. Official opposition leaders (including interim leaders) who resided in Stornoway include:

 * George A. Drew 1950–56
 * Vacant, 1956–58 as John Diefenbaker did not move in during the six months he was Opposition leader and as Louis St. Laurent declined to use the house, due to his intending to step down as Liberal leader following his government's defeat 1957–58
 * Lester B. Pearson 1958–63
 * John Diefenbaker 1963–67
 * Robert Stanfield 1968–76
 * Joe Clark 1976–79
 * Pierre Trudeau 1979–80
 * Joe Clark 1980–83
 * Brian Mulroney 1983–84
 * John Turner 1984–90
 * Jean Chrétien 1990–93
 * Vacant, 1993–97 as Bloc Québécois leaders Lucien Bouchard, Gilles Duceppe, and Michel Gauthier refused to use the house
 * Preston Manning 1997–2000
 * Stockwell Day 2000–01
 * John Reynolds 2001–02
 * Stephen Harper 2002–06
 * Bill Graham February–December 2006
 * Stéphane Dion 2006–08
 * Michael Ignatieff 2008–11
 * Jack Layton May–August 2011
 * Nycole Turmel 2011–12
 * Tom Mulcair 2012–15
 * Rona Ambrose 2015–17
 * Andrew Scheer 2017–20
 * Erin O'Toole 2020–22
 * Candice Bergen February–September 2022
 * Pierre Poilievre 2022–present

Architecture
Stornoway is a 19-room mansion with eight bedrooms, five bathrooms, living room, sitting room (2nd floor), and dining room, and sits on extensive grounds.

Besides the residents in the home, Stornoway is served by a staff of three: a chef, chauffeur, and household administrator. Like 24 Sussex and Rideau Cottage the public is not allowed to visit Stornoway.

title: Stornoway (residence)


text:
Diastereomer

In stereochemistry, diastereomers (sometimes called diastereoisomers) are a type of stereoisomer. Diastereomers are defined as non-mirror image, non-identical stereoisomers. Hence, they occur when two or more stereoisomers of a compound have different configurations at one or more (but not all) of the equivalent (related) stereocenters and are not mirror images of each other. When two diastereoisomers differ from each other at only one stereocenter, they are epimers. Each stereocenter gives rise to two different configurations and thus typically increases the number of stereoisomers by a factor of two.

Diastereomers differ from enantiomers in that the latter are pairs of stereoisomers that differ in all stereocenters and are therefore mirror images of one another. Enantiomers of a compound with more than one stereocenter are also diastereomers of the other stereoisomers of that compound that are not their mirror image (that is, excluding the opposing enantiomer). Diastereomers have different physical properties (unlike most aspects of enantiomers) and often different chemical reactivity.

Diastereomers differ not only in physical properties but also in chemical reactivity — how a compound reacts with others. Glucose and galactose, for instance, are diastereomers. Even though they share the same molar weight, glucose is more stable than galactose. This difference in stability causes galactose to be absorbed slightly faster than glucose in human body.

Diastereoselectivity is the preference for the formation of one or more than one diastereomer over the other in an organic reaction. In general, stereoselectivity is attributed to torsional and steric interactions in the stereocenter resulting from electrophiles approaching the stereocenter in reaction.

Syn / anti
When the single bond between the two centres is free to rotate, cis/trans descriptors become invalid. Two widely accepted prefixes used to distinguish diastereomers on sp³-hybridised bonds in an open-chain molecule are syn and anti. Masamune proposed the descriptors which work even if the groups are not attached to adjacent carbon atoms. It also works regardless of CIP priorities. Syn describes groups on the same face while anti describes groups on opposite faces. The concept applies only to the Zigzag projection. The descriptors only describe relative stereochemistry rather than absolute stereochemistry. All isomers are same.

Erythro / threo
Two older prefixes still commonly used to distinguish diastereomers are threo and erythro. In the case of saccharides, when drawn in the Fischer projection the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on the same side and the threo isomer has them on opposite sides. When drawn as a zig-zag chain, the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on different sides of the plane (anti). The names are derived from the diastereomeric four-carbon aldoses erythrose and threose. These prefixes are not recommended for use outside of the realm of saccharides because their definitions can lead to conflicting interpretations.

Another threo compound is threonine, one of the essential amino acids. The erythro diastereomer of it is allothreonine.

Multiple stereocenters
If a molecule contains two asymmetric centers, there are up to four possible configurations, and they cannot all be non-superposable mirror images of each other. The possibilities for different isomers continue to multiply as more stereocenters are added to a molecule. In general, the number of stereoisomers of a molecule can be determined by calculating 2n, where n = the number of chiral centers in the molecule. This holds true except in cases where the molecule has meso forms. These meso compounds are molecules that contain stereocenters, but possess an internal plane of symmetry allowing it to be superposed on its mirror image. These equivalent configurations cannot be considered diastereomers.

For n = 3, there are eight stereoisomers. Among them, there are four pairs of enantiomers: R,R,R and S,S,S; R,R,S and S,S,R; R,S,S and S,R,R; and R,S,R and S,R,S. There are many more pairs of diastereomers, because each of these configurations is a diastereomer with respect to every other configuration excluding its own enantiomer (for example, R,R,R is a diastereomer of R,R,S; R,S,R; and R,S,S). For n = 4, there are sixteen stereoisomers, or eight pairs of enantiomers. The four enantiomeric pairs of aldopentoses and the eight enantiomeric pairs of aldohexoses (subsets of the five- and six-carbon sugars) are examples of sets of compounds that differ in this way.

Diastereomerism at a double bond
Double bond isomers are always considered diastereomers, not enantiomers. Diastereomerism can also occur at a double bond, where the cis vs trans relative positions of substituents give two non-superposable isomers. Many conformational isomers are diastereomers as well.

In the case of diastereomerism occurring at a double bond, E-Z, or entgegen and zusammen (German), is used in notating nomenclature of alkenes.

Applications
As stated previously, two diastereomers will not have identical chemical properties. This knowledge is harnessed in chiral synthesis to separate a mixture of enantiomers. This is the principle behind chiral resolution. After preparing the diastereomers, they are separated by chromatography or recrystallization. Note also the example of the stereochemistry of ketonization of enols and enolates.

title: Diastereomer


text:
User:Marlonbraga

My name is Marlon Braga, i live in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.

My Interests:

 * Mathmatics
 * Aviation
 * Computer Languages
 * Idioms

title: User:Marlonbraga


text:
Propeller head

Propeller head may refer to:

 * Propeller beanie, a seamed cap with a decorative propeller on top.
 * Propellerheads, a British big beat musical ensemble, formed in 1995.
 * An alternate term for a propeller hub, the part of a ship or aircraft propeller where the blades attach.

title: Propeller head