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Curse of the Azure Bonds

Curse of the Azure Bonds is a role-playing video game developed and published by Strategic Simulations, Inc (SSI) in 1989. It is the second in a four-part series of Forgotten Realms Advanced Dungeons & Dragons Gold Box adventure computer games, continuing the events after the first part, Pool of Radiance.

The game serves as a sequel to the 1988 novel, Azure Bonds, that was written by Kate Novak and Jeff Grubb, and is the first book of the Finder's Stone trilogy. An adventure module of the same name, coded FRC2, was written based on the game.

Gameplay
A party of up to six player characters and two non-player characters is required to complete the various quests in the game. Player characters from Pool of Radiance (POR) can be transferred to Curse of the Azure Bonds, although players do not need to have played POR to play this game. Characters can likewise be transferred from Hillsfar, another contemporaneous AD&D-based game. The paladin and ranger are two new character classes available in this game. A player can generate new characters, choosing the options for each character from six races, nine alignments, two genders, and six character classes. Multi-class characters can be created for half-elf, elf, dwarf, halfling, and gnome characters. New characters begin with 25,000 experience points, which starts single-class characters at level 5. Multi-classed characters have the total number of experience points divided equally amongst their classes, giving either 12,500 or 8,333 experience points, for two or three classes, respectively. This means multi-class characters generally start at level 4, although a triple-classed character would start as a level 3 magic-user. The player can adjust the statistics for any character before beginning the game.

Curse of the Azure Bonds uses the style from Pool of Radiance, with the main adventuring action using a first person perspective. The player uses the top left window to view the current location and move, and can view the status panel on the right and select from the commands along the bottom. Using these commands, the player can select from a range of actions and tasks including casting spells, switching weapons, or resting and preparing spells for the day. The player creates an icon to represent each character, which can be customized to taste.

During combat, the screen display changes so that the right half of the screen becomes the status panel, and the left half shows an overhead view of the combat. Characters can use spells and ranged weapons by lining up their targets.

Game differences
Curse of the Azure Bonds contained new features compared to its predecessor, Pool of Radiance. The game primarily takes place in the Dalelands, and the overland map allows a player to select an adjacent location and automatically travel there. There are random encounters with monsters when traveling to locations. The player may now choose the classes of paladin and ranger for characters in addition to fighter, thief, magic-user, and cleric. A Fix command was added to the Encamp menu, which allows a party to be healed very quickly as long as a living and conscious cleric or paladin is in the party. The graphics were improved slightly, though everything was still drawn in 16 colors.

Setting
Curse of the Azure Bonds takes place in the Forgotten Realms setting. The adventure begins in the city of Tilverton, a relatively small town that nonetheless contains sufficient shops and services to equip the party. Although the characters begin the game with no equipment, each character does receive money at the start of the game with which to buy weapons and armor. Outside the city of Tilverton, the characters may explore caverns, sewers, and the wilderness outside. Other locations include the Elven Forest, Zhentil Keep, the temple at Yulash, and the citadel at Hap, though these locations cannot be freely explored by the party. Instead, the player can use a menu to select places within the locations to visit. Yulash is under siege by marauders, and characters entering the town are also in danger from crumbling walls and sinkholes.

Plot summary
At the start of the game, the player characters are adventurers of great renown who wake up from a magic sleep to find themselves in a small inn in the city of Tilverton, with all of their possessions stolen and no memory of how it happened. A landlord passing by informs the characters that they have been unconscious for over a month after suffering an attack. Each of the player characters has five azure-colored markings similar to tattoos, called bonds, on one arm. The party had been ambushed while traveling on the road to Tilverton. They were taken captive and cursed with the magical bonds embedded on their arms; the quest for the characters is to get rid of these bonds. Characters can visit the sage Filani, who will give them information about the bonds. Each of these bonds represents a separate evil faction, and through the bonds, which glow when active and are the result of a spell with an affect similar to possession, the factions can control the actions of the characters.

The first bond forces the characters to attack the passing royal carriage, resulting in a fight with the royal guards. The characters begin searching for the first controlling faction, a band of assassins known as the Fire Knives. After defeating the Fire Knives which eliminates the first bond, the characters are banished from Tilverton for trying to kill the King. The characters may then journey to Shadowdale or Ashabenford. The player then spends the rest of the game deciding where to go next to remove another bond. As the story continues, the adventurers confront the King of Cormyr and his daughter the princess, save Dimswart the Sage, find three artifacts, and investigate Dagger Falls. Princess Nacacia of Cormyr went missing a year ago, when she fled a marriage that her father arranged, and it is up to the party to find her. The game combines mini-adventures with major adventures in the quest of the party to remove the Azure Bonds. The climax of the game features a battle against an old foe back from the dead.

The remaining four bonds are controlled by Mogion, leader of the cult of Moander, Dracandros the Red Wizard, Fzoul Chembryl and his beholder allies, and Tyranthraxus, the main antagonist from Pool of Radiance. The cult of Moander is based in Yulash, where the characters encounter Alias and Dragonbait, who can join the party. After defeating the cult, the party must also defeat three Bits O' Moander, which behave as powerful shambling mounds. Dracandros is found in the Red Tower in Haptooth, and the characters will face a beholder in Zhentil Keep, along with a group of minotaurs and a medusa.

After removing two bonds, the player gains the ability to use the Search command on the wilderness map to locate mini-dungeons under certain towns; these caverns are dangerous, but the party can gain both experience and treasure in them. When the player has successfully removed four of the bonds, the characters will need to fight Tyranthraxus, who takes the form of a storm giant, in the ruins of Myth Drannor. After defeating Tyranthraxus, the game is over.

Development
The game includes a manual to explain its game play, and an Adventurer's Journal which contains contextual paragraphs intended to be read at specific points during the game. The game also includes a 2-ply code wheel featuring runes for protection against game piracy; on occasion during play, the player will be asked to enter a letter from the wheel before the characters can continue their journey.

Curse of the Azure Bonds (1989) was the first of three sequels to Pool of Radiance (1988), and was followed by Secret of the Silver Blades (1990) and Pools of Darkness (1991). Players of Secret of the Silver Blades may begin the game by using characters previously generated in Curse of the Azure Bonds. Curse of the Azure Bonds was released on the Apple II, Commodore 64, and DOS in 1989, the Amiga and Macintosh in 1990, and the Atari ST in 1991. It was distributed in the UK by U.S. Gold. A Nintendo SNES videogame version was planned as a sequel to the NES conversion of Pool Of Radiance, but was abandoned; the publisher in both cases was FCI.

The game is linked to both an AD&D adventure module and to a novel of the same name. The adventure module is based on the computer game.

Novel
The novel Azure Bonds is a Forgotten Realms fantasy adventure book, written by Jeff Grubb and Kate Novak and published by TSR in 1988. The story begins with an adventurer named Alias awakening in an inn with amnesia and a set of magical blue sigils on her arm. She soon learns that they represent five evil masters that can control her mind, forcing her to do their owners' will. With the aid of a mysterious lizard-creature named Dragonbait, a southern mage called Akabar Bel Akash, and a halfling bard named Olive Ruskettle, she sets out to learn more about the sigils' creators, and free herself of them. It is the first book of the Finder's Stone trilogy, followed by The Wyvern's Spur in 1990 and Song of the Saurials in 1991.

Reception
Curse of the Azure Bonds was almost as successful as Pool of Radiance, with SSI selling 179,795 copies. More than one third were the Commodore 64 version, benefiting from SSI being the last major American publisher of games for the computer. By 1996, the Pool of Radiance series had reached combined global sales above 800,000 copies.

In the August 1989 edition of CU Amiga-64, Tony Dillon commented that "the graphics are more or less the same as [Pool of Radiance], which is no bad thing, and thankfully the game is still as entertaining and involving as the original". He noted that the game's first-person perspective is similar to that of The Bard's Tale, and also features an overhead view similar to that of Gauntlet. He gave the game an excellent overall score of 89%.

In the August 1989 edition of The Games Machine (issue 21), Paul Rigby previewed the upcoming release of Curse of the Azure Bonds and noted he had not been happy with Pool of Radiance, which he felt was more like basic D&D due to certain classes, spells, and other elements being unavailable. However he believed that Curse of the Azure Bonds would allay his criticism, noting that "six extra character classes, 20 extra high-level spells and a bunch of new monsters make CAB a very promising product". In the following issue of The Games Machine, Rigby reviewed the actual game, and confirmed that he considered it to be a dramatic improvement over Pool of Radiance, with introduction of new classes, better storylines, and an improved combat engine. He concluded by giving Curse of the Azure Bonds an excellent overall score of 90%: "Overall, CAB is an excellent RPG, much improved and polished over POR [...] With a good storyline and excellent graphics, CAB is recommended whatever version you have".

In the September 1989 edition of Computer Gaming World (issue 63), Scorpia reviewed the PC version and was critical of certain elements: she found the ending disappointing; believed that the game speed — which had been slow in Pool of Radiance — was still a problem; was disappointed that little was added to the game except for the ranger and paladin class; and that the emphasis was still on hack-and-slash as opposed to puzzle-solving and genuine role-playing. Scorpia concluded the review by calling the game a "standard follow-up", saying it was "better than POR in some ways", but that "combat still predominates". In a retrospective review in 1993, Scorpia called the game a "sequel to Pool of Radiance with a bit more plot" and "mainly hack'n'slash leading up to the usual 'Kill [the evil villain]' ending".

The September 1989 edition of Zzap (issue 53) featured a review of the Commodore 64 version. The reviewer felt that the addition of more character classes "allows the player more choice and a lot more scope to create a truly mixed band of adventurers, mirroring the original RPG well". The reviewer also felt the monsters were better drawn and the game's plot had more depth than previous RPGs from SSI, although some innovation was lost because the game is a sequel. However, the reviewer said that "with its intricate plot and superb player interaction Curse creates a very strong atmosphere with authenticity lent to the proceedings by the mass of options and the well executed tactical combat display". The reviewer concluded by giving the game an above-average rating of 86%.

In the September 1989 edition of Dragon (issue 149), Patricia Hartley and Kirk Lesser found that "both the user's manual and the Adventurer's Journal [...] are extremely well written". The pair also admired the number of encounters — more than in other adventure games — and the number of hours required to play, more than 120 hours by their count. They concluded by giving the game a perfect rating of 5 out of 5: "As the adventure continues, you'll find that tearing yourself away from CAB is the most difficult decision of all".

In the November 1989 edition of Games International, Jamie Thomson commented that "the plot is good enough, although not that original for games of this kind", although he liked the role-playing aspects of the game, calling it "a role-playing computer game in one of the purist (sic) forms I have yet encountered [...] surprisingly one of the best I have tried (and one of the very few I've had the enery to play to the bitter end)". Thomson concluded by giving the game above average scores of 4 out of 5 for both game play and graphics.

In the January 1991 edition of Amiga Action (issue 16), Doug Johns and Alex Simmons reviewed the Amiga version of Curse of the Azure Bonds. Johns felt that it was a very good RPG worth getting hold of, although he felt it was a bit too similar to other AD&D computer games and less polished than Champions of Krynn. Simmons found the game decidedly average and less appealing compared to previous releases such as Champions of Krynn, but felt that RPG fanatics who enjoyed SSI's other titles should consider purchasing it. They concluded by giving it an average rating of 72%.

In the March 1991 edition of .info magazine (issue 37), Judith Kilbury-Cobb reviewed the Amiga version, and felt that the graphics and animation were noticeably improved, and that combat encounters were still emphasized while being made more manageable. She concluded by giving the game an above-average rating of four out of five, calling it "most playable AD&D game yet".

The January 1991 edition of Zzap reviewed the Amiga version, noting that this version of Curse is "a game that has fallen victim to the steady trudge of progress". The reviewer felt that the game was so dated by 1991 that Amiga AD&D devotees might want to buy the game to add it to their collections, but the reviewer could not "help but wonder why SSI have bothered to release this conversion when they should be concentrating on bringing prompt Amiga versions of their newer titles". The reviewer concluded by giving the game an average rating of 71% overall.

The January 1991 issue of the German gaming magazine Amiga Joker wrote that "Curse of the Azure Bonds is once again [Advanced Dungeons and Dragons] at its finest ... the combat is the best thing that the game has to offer, and has lots of variation therein". The reviewer criticized the small field of view as well as the sound effects and music, which they gave a poor score of 33%. They were frustrated by the dated controls and furthermore criticized its similarity to the rest of the series, saying "the presentation of the game is admittedly the same as its predecessors ... and looks more like C64 rather than Amiga. This goes for the graphics as well as the infrequent sound effects, but applies most of all to the controls, with which one must laboriously agonise through the menus". The reviewer concluded by giving the Amiga version an average overall score of 74%.

A retrospective article on the website GameSpot titled "History of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons" commented that "in terms of gameplay and structure, Curse of the Azure Bonds followed its predecessor more or less directly, though it broadened the path considerably". The reviewer mentioned that the game system benefited from material that had been missing from Pool of Radiance, such as the ability for clerics and magic-users to attain higher character levels, the ability to enlist characters of paladin and ranger character classes, and the option for human characters to become dual-class characters.

In the 2003 book High Score!: The Illustrated History of Electronic Games, Rusel DeMaria and Johnny Wilson related that SSI ran into a play balance dilemma by allowing players to import experienced characters from Pool of Radiance. In order to make the game playable for both beginners and players with built-up characters, the designers had most of the characters' weapons and equipment stolen at the beginning of the game. SSI received criticism for this decision, and had to come up with new solutions to balance play in future games.

In a retrospective review in 2004, the website GameSpy commented that Azure Bonds was a worthy addition to the series, and was, in many aspects, superior to its predecessor.

Awards
At the 1990 Origins Awards, the game was awarded Best Fantasy or Science Fiction Computer Game of 1989.

Reviews

 * White Wolf #18 (Nov./Dec. 1989)

title: Curse of the Azure Bonds


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Chasuble

The chasuble is the outermost liturgical vestment worn by clergy for the celebration of the Eucharist in Western-tradition Christian churches that use full vestments, primarily in Roman Catholic, Anglican, and Lutheran churches. In the Eastern Orthodox Churches and in the Eastern Catholic Churches, the equivalent vestment is the phelonion.

"The vestment proper to the priest celebrant at Mass and other sacred actions directly connected with Mass is, unless otherwise indicated, the chasuble, worn over the alb and stole" (General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 337). Like the stole, it is normally of the liturgical colour of the Mass being celebrated.

Origins
The chasuble originated as a sort of conical poncho, called in Latin a paenula or casula or "little house", that was the common outer traveling garment in the late Roman Empire. It was simply a roughly oval piece of cloth, with a round hole in the middle through which to pass the head, that fell below the knees on all sides. It had to be gathered up on the arms to allow the arms to be used freely.

In its liturgical use in the West, this garment was folded up from the sides to leave the hands free. Strings were sometimes used to assist in this task, and the deacon could help the priest in folding up the sides of the vestment. Beginning in the 13th century, there was a tendency to shorten the sides a little. In the course of the 15th and 16th centuries, the chasuble took something like its modern form, in which the sides of the vestment no longer reach to the ankle but only, at most, to the wrist, making folding unnecessary.

At the end of the sixteenth century the chasuble, though still quite ample and covering part of the arms, had become less similar to its traditional shape than to that which prevailed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, when the chasuble was reduced to a broad scapular, leaving the whole of the arms quite free, and was shortened also in front and back. Additionally, to make it easier for the priest to join his hands when wearing a chasuble of stiff (lined and heavily embroidered) material, in these later centuries the front was often cut away further, giving it the distinctive shape often called fiddleback. Complex decoration schemes were often used on chasubles of scapular form, especially the back, incorporating the image of the Christian cross or of a saint; and rich materials such as silk, cloth of gold or brocade were employed, especially in chasubles reserved for major celebrations.

Current usage
In the 20th century, there began to be a return to an earlier, more ample, form of the chasuble, sometimes called "Gothic", as distinguished from the "Roman" scapular form. This aroused some opposition, as a result of which the Sacred Congregation of Rites issued on 9 December 1925 a decree against it, De forma paramentorum which it explicitly revoked with the declaration Circa dubium de forma paramentorum of 20 August 1957, leaving the matter to the prudent judgement of local Ordinaries. There exists a photograph of Pope Pius XI wearing the more ample chasuble while celebrating Mass in Saint Peter's Basilica as early as 19 March 1930.

After the Second Vatican Council, the more ample form became the most usually seen form of the chasuble, and the directions of the GIRM quoted above indicate that "it is fitting" that the beauty should come "not from abundance of overly lavish ornamentation, but rather from the material that is used and from the design. Ornamentation on vestments should, moreover, consist of figures, that is, of images or symbols, that evoke sacred use, avoiding thereby anything unbecoming" (n. 344). Hence, the prevalence today of chasubles that reach almost to the ankles, and to the wrists, and decorated with relatively simple symbols or bands and orphreys. By comparison, "fiddleback" vestments were often extremely heavily embroidered or painted with detailed decorations or whole scenes depicted.

Use of scapular "Roman" chasubles, whether with straight edges or in "fiddleback" form, is often associated with traditionalism. However, some traditionalist priests prefer ampler chasubles of less stiff material.

Pope Benedict XVI sometimes used chasubles of the transitional style common at the end of the 16th century.

In the Slavic tradition, though not in the Greek, the phelonion, the Byzantine Rite vestment that corresponds to the chasuble, is cut away from the front and not from the sides, making it look somewhat like the western cope.

In Catholicism
Called in Latin casula, planeta or pænula, and in early Gallic sources amphibalus. The chasuble is the principal and most conspicuous Mass vestment, covering all the rest. It is described in prayer as the "yoke of Christ" and said to represent charity. Nearly all ecclesiologists are now agreed that liturgical costume was simply an adaptation of the secular attire commonly worn throughout the Roman Empire in the early Christian centuries. The priest in discharging his sacred functions at the altar was dressed as in civil life, but the custom probably grew up of reserving for this purpose garments that were newer and cleaner than those used in his daily ministry, and out of this gradually developed the conception of a special liturgical attire.

In Protestantism
Many, but not all, Lutheran and Anglican churches make use of the chasuble.

The chasuble has always been used by the Lutheran denominations of Scandinavia, although in earlier times its use was not directly connected to the communion. German Lutherans used it for the first two hundred years after the Reformation but later replaced it with the Geneva Gown. A variety of practices emerged in North America but by the mid-20th century, the alb and stole became widely customary. More recently, the chasuble has been readopted for Communion services in both Germany and North America.

It is the stole, not the chasuble, that is the priestly vestment. The chasuble was never used by low-church Anglicans and rarely used by high-church Anglicans until the Oxford Movement in the 19th century, and even then not until the second generation of the Oxford Movement.

It is not customary and rarely seen in Protestantism outside of the liturgical churches.

In popular culture
In Oscar Wilde's 1895 play The Importance of Being Earnest, Dr. Chasuble is a clergyman who, in the 2002 film adaptation, is seen wearing his namesake vestment.

In P.G. Wodehouse's comic short story Mulliner's Buck-U-Uppo, Anglican cleric Stanley Brandon is in "a very bad temper." "He has just had a letter from the bishop, rebuking him for wearing too many orphreys on his chasuble, and it has upset him terribly."

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Chasuble


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Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma

The Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma is a four-bladed, twin-engined medium transport/utility helicopter designed and originally produced by the French aerospace manufacturer Sud Aviation.

The Puma was developed as a new design during the mid-1960s in response to a French Army requirement for a medium-sized all-weather utility helicopter. Powered by a pair of Turbomeca Turmo turboshaft engines, it was designed to transport up to 16 seated soldiers, or a maximum of six litters with four attendants for casualty evacuation, along with carrying up to 2,500 kg of cargo either internally or using an external sling. The design of the Puma incorporated several innovations, including an automatic blade inspection system and relatively advanced anti-vibration measures integrated into the main gearbox and main rotor blades. It was also designed to be capable of operating at night, under inhospitable flying conditions and in climates from Arctic to desert. The Puma also has an intentionally high level of reserve power to permit effective flight even at its maximum weight with only a single operational engine.

On 15 April 1965, the first prototype performed its maiden flight; the first production standard Puma made its first flight during September 1968. Deliveries to the French Army commenced in early 1969; the type quickly proved itself to be a commercial success. Production of the Puma continued into the 1980s under Sud Aviation's successor company Aérospatiale. It was also license-produced in Romania as the IAR 330; two unlicensed derivatives, the Denel Rooivalk attack helicopter and Atlas Oryx utility helicopter, were built in South Africa. Several advanced derivatives have been developed, such as the AS332 Super Puma and AS532 Cougar, and have been manufactured by Eurocopter and its successor company Airbus Helicopters since the early 1990s. These descendants of the Puma remain in production.

Significant operations include the Gulf War, the South African Border War, the Portuguese Colonial War, the Yugoslav Wars, the Lebanese Civil War, the Iraq War, and the Falklands War. Numerous operators have chosen to modernise their fleets, often adding more capabilities and new features, such as glass cockpits, Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation, and defense measures. The type also saw popular use in the civilian field and has been operated by a number of civil operators. One of the largest civil operators of the Puma was Bristow Helicopters, which regularly used it for off shore operations over the North Sea.

Development
The SA 330 Puma was originally developed by Sud Aviation to meet a requirement of the French Army for a medium-sized all-weather helicopter capable of carrying up to 20 soldiers as well as various cargo-carrying duties. The choice was made to develop a new design for the helicopter, work began in 1963 with backing from the French government. The first of two Puma prototypes flew on 15 April 1965; six further pre-production models were also built, the last of which flew on 30 July 1968. The first production SA 330 Puma flew in September 1968, with deliveries to the French Army starting in early 1969.

In 1967, the Puma was selected by the Royal Air Force (RAF), who were impressed by the Puma's performance. It was given the designation Puma HC Mk 1. A significant joint manufacturing agreement was signed between Aerospatiale and Westland Helicopters of the UK. The close collaboration between the French and British firms would lead to purchases of Aérospatiale Gazelle by the UK and the Westland Lynx by France. Under this agreement, Westland manufactured a range of components and performed the assembly of Pumas ordered by the RAF.

The SA 330 was a success on the export market, numerous countries purchased military variants of the Puma to serve in their armed forces; the type was also popularly received in the civil market, finding common usage by operators for transport duties to off-shore oil platforms. Throughout most of the 1970s, the SA 330 Puma was the best selling transport helicopter being produced in Europe. By July 1978, over 50 Pumas had already been delivered to civil customers, and the worldwide fleet had accumulated in excess of 500,000 operational hours.

Romania entered into an arrangement with Aerospatiale to produce the Puma under license as the IAR 330, manufacturing at least 163 of the type for the Romanian armed forces, civil operators, and several export customers of their own. Indonesia also undertook domestic manufacturing of the SA 330. South Africa, a keen user of the type, performed their own major modification and production program conducted by the government-owned Atlas Aircraft Corporation to upgrade their own Pumas, the resulting aircraft was named Oryx. In the 1990s, Denel would also develop an attack helicopter for the South African Air Force based on the Puma, known as the Denel Rooivalk.

In 1974, Aerospatiale began development of improved Puma variants, aiming to produce a successor to the type; these efforts would cumulate in the AS332 Super Puma. The first prototype AS332 Super Puma took flight on 13 September 1978, featuring more powerful engines and a more aerodynamically-efficient extended fuselage; by 1980, production of the AS332 Super Puma had overtaken that of the originating SA 330 Puma. Production of the SA 330 Puma by Aérospatiale ceased in 1987, by which time a total of 697 had been sold; production in Romania would continue into the 21st Century.

Design
The Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma is a twin-engine helicopter principally intended for personnel transport and logistic support duties. As a troop carrier, up to 16 soldiers can be accommodated on foldable seats, while in a casualty evacuation configuration, the same cabin can hold up to six litters and four additional personnel. The Puma can also perform cargo transport duties, either via the external carriage of underslung payloads on a dedicated cargo hook or using the internal cabin space; up to a maximum weight of 2500 kg of cargo can be carried at a time. Civilian Pumas feature a variety of cabin layouts, typically intended for various forms of passenger transport, including VIPs. In a search and rescue capacity, a hoist is commonly installed, often mounted on the starboard fuselage.

A pair of roof-mounted Turbomeca Turmo turboshaft engines power the Puma's four-blade main rotor. The rotors are driven via a five reduction stage transmission at a typical speed of 265 rpm. The design of the transmission featured several unique and uncommon innovations for the time, such as single-part manufacturing of the rotor shaft and the anti-vibration measures integrated into the main gearbox and main rotor blades. The Puma also featured an automatic blade inspection system, which guarded against and alerted crews to fatigue cracking in the rotor blades. It is furnished with a pair of hydraulic systems that intentionally operate independently of one another, one system powering only the aircraft's flight controls while the other serves the autopilot, undercarriage, and rotor brake, as well as the flight controls.

In terms of flight performance, the Puma was designed to be capable of high speeds, exhibit great maneuverability, and possess favourable hot-and-high performance; the engines have an intentionally high level of reserve power to enable a Puma to fly effectively even at maximum weight with only one functioning engine and proceed with its mission if circumstances require. The cockpit is provisioned with conventional dual controls for both a pilot and copilot, a third seat is provided in the cockpit for a reserve crew member or commander. The Puma features a SFIM-Newmark Type 127 electro-hydraulic autopilot; the autopilot is capable of roll and pitch stabilization, the load hook operator can also directly perform corrective adjustments of the helicopter's position from their station via the autopilot.

The Puma is readily air-transportable by tactical airlifters, such as the Transall C-160 and the Lockheed C-130 Hercules; the main rotor, landing gear, and tailboom are all detachable to lower space requirements. Ease of maintenance was one of the objectives pursued in the Puma's design; many of the components and systems that would require routine inspection were positioned to be visible from ground level, use of life-limited components was minimised, and key areas of the mechanical systems were designed to be readily accessed. The Puma is also capable of operating at nighttime, in inhospitable flying conditions, or in a wide range of climates from Arctic to desert environments.

Although not included during the original production run, numerous operators of Pumas have installed additional features and modern equipment over the rotorcraft's service life. The RAF have equipped their Puma fleet with Global Positioning System (GPS) navigation equipment, along with an assortment of self-defense measures including infrared countermeasures and automatic flares/chaff dispensers, and night vision goggles for night-time flights. The French Army Light Aviation have modernised their Pumas to meet International Civil Aviation Organization standards, this involved the addition of new digital systems, including mission command and control systems, such as the Sitalat data link. Third party companies such as South Africa's Thunder City have provided life extension and modernisation programmes for the Puma, some operators have opted to refurbish their fleets with glass cockpits.

Argentina
During the Falklands War/Guerra de Malvinas of 1982, five SA 330 Pumas of the Argentine Army and one of the Argentine Coast Guard were deployed to the theatre; these could either operate from the decks of Navy vessels as well as performing missions across the breadth of the islands; all were lost in the ensuing conflict. On 3 April, while landing Argentine troops as part of the capture of South Georgia, a Puma was badly damaged by small arms fire from British ground forces and crashed into terrain shortly after. On 9 May, a single Puma was destroyed by a Sea Dart anti-aircraft missile launched from HMS Coventry (D118).

On 23 May, a pair of Royal Navy Sea Harriers intercepted three Argentine Pumas in the middle of a supply mission to Port Howard; during the subsequent engagement one Puma was destroyed by colliding with the terrain and a second was disabled and subsequently destroyed by cannon fire from the Sea Harriers, the third Puma escaped. On 30 May, a Puma was lost in the vicinity of Mount Kent under unclear circumstances, possibly due to friendly fire; an article in the Argentine newssite MercoPress reported that, on that same day, a Puma had been brought down by a Stinger missile fired by the SAS ground forces, near Mount Kent. Six National Gendarmerie Special Forces were killed and eight more wounded in the downing.

France
In September 1979, four Pumas were employed during Operation Barracuda to transport a French assault team directly upon the government headquarters of the Central African Empire; after which confiscated valuables and assorted diplomatic and political records were quickly extracted to the nearby French embassy by continuous air lifts by the Pumas.

One distinctive use of the Puma in French service was as a VIP transport for carrying the President of France both at home and during overseas diplomatic engagements; these duties were transferred to the larger AS332 Super Puma as that became available in sufficient numbers.

During the 1991 First Gulf War, France chose to dispatch several Pumas in support of coalition forces engaged in a conflict with Saddam Hussein's Iraq. Those Pumas that had been assigned to the role of performing combat search-and-rescue duties were quickly retrofitted with GPS receivers to enhance their navigational capabilities.

As part of France's contribution to the 1990s NATO-led intervention in the Yugoslav Wars, a number of French Pumas operated in the region alongside other Puma operators such as Britain and the United Arab Emirates; one frequent mission for the type was the vital provision of humanitarian aid missions to refugees escaping ongoing ethnic genocide. In April 1994, a French Puma performed a nighttime extraction of a British SAS squad and a downed Sea Harrier pilot from deep inside hostile Bosnian territory, the aircraft came under small arms fire while retreating from the area. On 18 June 1999, a single coordinated aerial insertion of two companies of French paratroopers was performed by 20 Pumas, helping to spearhead the rapid securing of Kosovska Mitrovica by NATO ground forces.

By 2010, both the French Army and French Navy have opted to procure separate variants of the NHIndustries NH90 to ultimately replace the Puma in French military service. Starting in June 2014, a pair of Pumas of Escadron d'Hélicoptères 1/67 'Pyrénées (EH 1/60) were deployed to Chad and Niger from June 2014 as part of Operation Barkhane to disrupt Islamist insurgency in the Sahel region. Initially operated from N'Djamena in Chad, the detachment later moved forwards to Dirkou and Madama in Niger, supporting ground troops and interdicting supply routes for the insurgent; the detachment returned to France in September 2015 after being relieved by other French Army assets. Roughly 20 SA 330 Pumas remained in French Air and Space Force service by 2016.

Lebanon
Between 1980 and 1984, the Lebanese Air Force received from France ten SA 330C Pumas to equip its newly raised 9th transport squadron at Beirut Air Base, where it was initially based. In 1983, the squadron was relocated north of Beirut and its Pumas were dispersed across small improvised helipads around Jounieh and Adma for security reasons. On 23 August 1984, a Puma carrying the Lebanese Armed Forces' Chief-of-staff and commander of the Seventh Brigade, General Nadim al-Hakim, and eight other senior military officers crashed in thick fog near Beirut, killing all personnel aboard. On 1 June 1987, the Lebanese Prime-Minister Rachid Karami was assassinated aboard a Puma en route to Beirut when a bomb exploded in an attaché case on his lap; the explosion also injured Interior Minister Abdullah Rassi and three of the other twelve aides and crewmen on the Puma, which was severely damaged.

During the final phase of the Lebanese Civil War, the Puma fleet – now reduced to seven or six helicopters of flightworthy condition – was typically being used to conduct liaison flights with neighboring Cyprus on behalf of General Michel Aoun's interim military government, although fuel shortages and maintenance problems forced their crews to typically ground them until the end of the war on October 1990.

After the conflict, the Lebanese Air Force Command made consistent efforts to rebuild its transport helicopter squadron with the help of the United Arab Emirates and seven IAR 330 SM helicopters formerly in service with the United Arab Emirates Air Force were delivered in 2010.

In 2013, the Lebanese Air Force converted an IAR 330 SM into a helicopter gunship by mounting on hardened side-swivel mounts a single ADEN Mk 4/5 30mm revolver cannon on a modified pod and a pair of SNEB 68mm rocket launchers taken from decommissioned Hawker Hunter FGA.70 and FGA.70A fighter aircraft. Re-designated SA 330SM, the resulting Puma gunship underwent trials on October 10 that same year during aerial maneuvers held in Hamat Air Base. Although the trials were successful, the SA 300SM was not accepted for active service, with the Lebanese Air Force Command settling instead on an armed version of the Eurocopter AS532 Cougar, of which seven helicopters were scheduled to be received over the next three years.

Morocco
In 1974, Morocco made an agreement with France for the purchase of 40 Puma helicopters for their armed forces. During the 1970s and 1980s, Moroccan Pumas saw combat service against Polisario Front separatists and helped exert greater control over the Western Sahara region; use of air power by Moroccan forces was severely curtailed after several aircraft were lost or damaged due to the presence of Soviet-provided 2K12 Kub anti-aircraft missiles in rebel hands in the early 1980s.

In October 2007, as part of a €2 billion deal between Morocco and France, a total of 25 Moroccan Pumas are to undergo extensive modernisation and upgrades.

Portugal
In 1969, Portugal emerged as an early export customer for the Puma, ordering 12 of the helicopters for the Portuguese Air Force; Portugal would also be the first country to employ the Pumas in combat operations during the Portuguese Colonial War; the type was used operationally to complement the smaller Alouette III helicopter fleet during the Angola and Mozambican wars of independence, the type had the advantages of greater autonomy and transport capacity over other operated helicopters.

During the 1980s, Portugal engaged in an illicit arrangement with South Africa in order to circumvent a United Nations embargo being enforced upon South Africa under which France had refused to provide upgrades and spares for South Africa's own Puma fleet. In the secretive deal, Portugal ordered more powerful engines and new avionics with the public intention of employing them on its own Pumas, however many of the components were diverted via a Zaire-based front company to South African defense firm Armscorp, where they were used to overhaul, upgrade and rebuild the existing Pumas, ultimately resulting in the Atlas Oryx; the Portuguese Pumas also received significant upgrades which were paid for under the terms of the agreement.

In 2006, the Portuguese Air Force began receiving deliveries of the AgustaWestland AW101 Merlin, a larger and more capable helicopter, replacing the aging Puma fleet.

Starting in 2007, Portugal has been offering to sell eight of its withdrawn Pumas, they were still on sale by 2015.

South Africa

From 1972 onwards, Pumas operated by the SAAF were deployed on extended operations in South West Africa and Angola during the Border War. The Puma was involved in normal trooping; rapid deployment during "follow up" operations; acting as radio relays; evacuation of casualties; rescuing downed aircrew; insertion of Special Forces; and large scale cross border operations such as Savannah, Uric, Protea, Super, and Modular. The majority of South African Puma acquisitions, including of spare parts, were made in advance of an anticipated United Nations embargo that was applied in 1977. South Africa subsequently upgraded many of its Pumas, eventually arriving at the derived indigenous Atlas Oryx; external assistance and components were obtained via secretive transactions involving Portugal during the arms embargo era.

In December 1979, South Africa's government acknowledged the presence of its military forces operating in Rhodesia; Pumas were routinely used in support of the South African Army's ground forces. In June 1980, 20 Pumas accompanied a force of 8,000 troops during a South African invasion of Angola in pursuit of nationalist SWAPO fighters. In 1982, the government confirmed that 15 servicemen had been killed when a South African Puma was downed by SWAPO forces, it was one of the worst losses suffered in a single incident in the conflict.

During the 1990s, clandestine efforts to purchase surplus SAAF Pumas were made by then-President Pascal Lissouba of the Republic of Congo, most likely intended for use in the Congolese Civil War. When the cruise ship MTS Oceanos sank off the Wild Coast of South Africa in 1991, as many as 13 Pumas played crucial roles in the rescue efforts, winching 225 survivors to safety during bad weather conditions.

United Kingdom
The first two Pumas for the Royal Air Force were delivered on 29 January 1971, with the first operational squadron (33 Squadron) forming at RAF Odiham on 14 June 1971. The RAF would order a total of 48 Puma HC Mk 1 for transport duties; during the Falklands War, an additional SA 330J formerly operated by Argentine Naval Prefecture was captured by British forces and shipped back to Britain and used as a RAF static training aid for several years. This SA 330J was later refurbished by Westland using parts from damaged RAF Puma XW215 and put into RAF service after a lengthy rebuild as ZE449. The Puma became a common vehicle for British special forces, such as the SAS, and has been described as being "good for covert tasks".

Between the early 1970s and the 1990s, RAF Pumas were normally based at RAF Odiham (33 Squadron and 240 OCU), RAF Gutersloh (230 Squadron) and No. 1563 Flight RAF at RAF Belize. During The Troubles, it was also common for a detachment to be based at RAF Aldergrove in Northern Ireland. In 1994, 230 Squadron relocated to RAF Aldergrove to provide a permanent presence to augment the Westland Wessex of 72 Squadron. In 2009, 230 Squadron relocated to RAF Benson together with 33 Squadron from RAF Odiham.

Royal Air Force Pumas have also seen active service in Venezuela, Iraq, Yugoslavia, and Zaire. Britain has frequently dispatched Pumas on disaster relief and humanitarian missions, such as during the 2000 Mozambique flood and the 1988 Jamaican flash flood; and to conduct peacekeeping operations in regions such as Zimbabwe and the Persian Gulf.

During the climax of the First Gulf War, a joint force of Pumas from 230 and 33 Squadrons proved decisive in rapidly mobilizing and deploying troops to prevent Iraqi troops from sabotaging the Rumaila oil field. From the beginning of the Iraq War, between 2003 and 2009, RAF Pumas would be used to provide troop mobility across the theatre. On 15 April 2007, two RAF Pumas collided during a special forces mission close to Baghdad, Iraq. In November 2007, a Puma crashed during an anti-insurgent operation in Iraq; an inquest found the cause to be pilot error primarily, however the Ministry of Defence (MoD) was criticised for failing to equip RAF Pumas with night vision goggles and inadequate maintenance checks compromising safety, these shortcomings were addressed following the incident.

In 2002, six ex-South African SA 330L were purchased by Britain to extend the type's service life. An extensive upgrade programme saw the first Puma HC Mk2 enter service in late 2012 and completion in early 2014, permitting the RAF's Pumas to stay in service until 2025. In 2008, it was planned for 30 Pumas to be upgraded, this was subsequently cut to 22, and was later revised upwards for a total of 24 HC Mk2 Pumas. Upgrades include the adoption of two Turbomeca Makila engines, new gearboxes and tail rotors, new engine controls, digital autopilot, a flight management system, an improved defensive aids suite, and ballistic protection for both crew and passengers. The HC Mk2 Puma can transport double the payload over three times the range of its predecessor, and has been deployed for tactical troop transport, fast contingent combat, and humanitarian missions.

It is expected that the RAF will replace its Puma fleet in the mid-2020s, the replacement rotorcraft being procured under the New Medium Helicopter programme.

Private military companies
The American private military company EP Aviation is known to have operated numerous Pumas in Afghanistan.

Civil
One of the largest and prominent operators of the type was Bristow Helicopters, where the Puma was regularly used for off shore operations over the North Sea. During the 1970s, Bristow had sought to begin replacing their Sikorsky S-61 helicopters, and the Puma was selected after a highly competitively-priced bid had been made by Aerospatiale; Puma G-BFSV was the first of the type to enter service with Bristow. From 1979 onwards, the Puma formed the mainstay of the Bristow fleet; the type took over the duties of Bristow's retiring Westland Wessex helicopters in 1981. In 1982, Bristow opted to supplement their then-total fleet of 11 SA 330J Pumas via the introduction the more powerful Super Puma.

The American operator Erickson Inc. has operated at least four Pumas; they have been used under contract for Vertical replenishment (VERTREP) to the United States Fifth Fleet and United States Seventh Fleet.

Aérospatiale versions

 * SA 330A
 * Prototypes, originally called "Alouette IV".

 * SA 330B
 * Initial production version for the French Army Light Aviation. Powered by 884 kW (1,185 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IIIC4 engines. 132 purchased by France.

 * SA 330 Orchidée
 * SA 330 modified to carry an Orchidée battlefield surveillance radar system with a rotating underfuselage antenna, for the French Army. One demonstrator was built, flying in 1986. The Orchidée programme was cancelled in 1990, but the prototype rushed back into service in 1991 to serve in the Gulf War, leading to production of a similar system based on the Eurocopter Cougar.

 * SA 330C
 * Initial export production version. Powered by 1,044 kW (1,400 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IVB engines.

 * SA.330E
 * Version produced by Westland Helicopters for the RAF under the designation Puma HC Mk. 1.

 * SA.330F
 * Initial civilian export production version with Turbomeca Turmo IIIC4 turboshaft engines.

 * SA.330G
 * Upgraded civilian version with 1175 kW (1,575 hp) Turbomeca Turmo IVC engines.

 * SA.330H
 * Upgraded French Army and export version with Turbomeca Turmo IVC engines and composite main rotor blades. Designated SA 330Ba by the French Air and Space Force. All surviving French Army SA 330Bs converted to this standard.

 * SA.330J
 * Upgraded civil transport version with composite rotor blades and with higher maximum takeoff weight.

 * SA.330L
 * Upgraded version for "hot and high" conditions. Military equivalent to civil SA.330J.

 * SA.330S
 * Upgraded SA 330L (themselves converted from SA 330C) version for the Portuguese Air Force. Powered by Turbomeca Makila engines.

 * SA.330SM
 * Lebanese converted gunship version by mounting on hardened side-swivel mounts a single ADEN Mk 4/5 30mm revolver cannon on a modified pod and a pair of SNEB 68mm rocket launchers on each side.

 * SA.330Z
 * Prototype with "fenestron" tail rotor.

 * SA.331 Puma Makila
 * Engine test-bed for the AS.332 Super Puma series, powered by two Turbomeca Makila engines

Versions by other manufacturers

 * Atlas Aircraft Corporation Oryx: Remanufactured and upgraded SA 330 Puma built for the South African Air Force.
 * IPTN NAS 330J: Version that was assembled by IPTN of Indonesia under the local designation NAS 330J and the Aerospatiale designation of SA 330J. Eleven units were produced.
 * IAR 330: Licence-built version of the SA 330 Puma manufactured by Industria Aeronautică Română of Romania. Designated as the SA 330L by Aerospatiale.
 * IAR-330 Puma SOCAT: 24 modified for antitank warfare.
 * IAR-330 Puma Naval: 3 modified for the Romanian Navy, using the SOCAT avionics.
 * Westland Puma HC Mk 1
 * SA 330E equivalent assembled by Westland Helicopters for the RAF, first flown on 25 November 1970. Several similarities to the SA 330B employed by the French Armed Forces. The RAF placed an initial order for 40 Pumas in 1967, with a further eight attrition replacement aircraft in 1979.

 * Airbus Helicopters Puma HC.Mk 2
 * Modified Puma HC Mk1s, total of 24 upgraded with more powerful Turbomeca Makila 1A1 engines, a glass cockpit and new avionics, secure communications and improved self-protection equipment.

Current operators

 * Brazilian Air Force
 * Chilean Army
 * Democratic Congo Air Force
 * Ecuadorian Army
 * French Air and Space Force
 * Cayenne – Félix Eboué Airport, French Guiana
 * ET 00.068
 * Djibouti–Ambouli International Airport, Djibouti
 * ET 00.088
 * La Tontouta International Airport, New Caledonia
 * ET 00.052
 * Solenzara Air Base, Haute-Corse, France
 * EH 01.044
 * French Army Light Aviation
 * Military of Gabon
 * Léon-Mba International Airport, Libreville
 * Escadrille Aérienne Transport
 * Guinea Air Force
 * Kenya Air Force
 * Moi Air Base, Nairobi City County
 * Helicopter Squadron
 * Kuwait Air Force
 * 🇱🇧 Lebanon
 * Lebanese Air Force
 * Wujah Al Hajar Air Base, Hamat
 * 9 Squadron
 * Malawi Army
 * Royal Moroccan Air Force
 * First Air Base, Rabat-Salé-Kénitra
 * Escadrons de Manoeuvres Tactiques
 * Pakistan Air Force
 * Pakistan Army Aviation Corps
 * Multan International Airport, Punjab
 * 24th Army Aviation Squadron
 * Qasim Airbase, Dhamial
 * 13th Army Aviation Squadron
 * 28th Army Aviation Squadron
 * Romanian Air Force (See IAR 330)
 * 71st Air Base, Cluj County
 * Escadrila 712
 * Escadrila 713
 * 90th Airlift Base, Ilfov County
 * Escadrila 903
 * 95th Air Base, Bacău County
 * Escadrila 952
 * Romanian Navy (See IAR 330)
 * Tuzla Aerodrome, Constanța County
 * Grupul 256
 * 28th Army Aviation Squadron
 * Romanian Air Force (See IAR 330)
 * 71st Air Base, Cluj County
 * Escadrila 712
 * Escadrila 713
 * 90th Airlift Base, Ilfov County
 * Escadrila 903
 * 95th Air Base, Bacău County
 * Escadrila 952
 * Romanian Navy (See IAR 330)
 * Tuzla Aerodrome, Constanța County
 * Grupul 256
 * Grupul 256
 * Royal Air Force
 * RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus
 * No. 84 Squadron (2023–present)
 * RAF Benson, Oxfordshire, England
 * No. 22 Squadron (OEU) (2020–present)
 * No. 33 Squadron (1971–present)
 * No. 230 Squadron (1971–present)
 * RAF Odiham, Hampshire, England
 * No. 28 Squadron (OCU) (2015–present)
 * Medicina Lines, Brunei
 * No. 1563 Flight (1971–1993; 2004–2009; 2022–present)
 * No. 1563 Flight (1971–1993; 2004–2009; 2022–present)

Former operators

 * Algerian Air Force
 * Argentine Army
 * Argentine Coast Guard
 * Gendarmerie
 * Argentine Coast Guard
 * Gendarmerie
 * Gendarmerie
 * Cameroon Air Force
 * Ethiopian Air Force
 * Indonesian Air Force
 * Atang Senjaya Air Force Base, West Java
 * Wing Udara 4 - Skadron Udara 8 (Retired on 30 December 2023)
 * Iraqi Air Force
 * Irish Air Corps
 * Mexican Air Force
 * Nigerian Air Force
 * 🇴🇲 Oman
 * Royal Air Force of Oman
 * Irish Air Corps
 * Mexican Air Force
 * Nigerian Air Force
 * 🇴🇲 Oman
 * Royal Air Force of Oman
 * 🇴🇲 Oman
 * Royal Air Force of Oman
 * Philippine Air Force
 * Philippine Air Force
 * Portuguese Air Force
 * Senegalese Air Force
 * South African Air Force
 * Togolese Air Force
 * Tunisian Air Force
 * United Arab Emirates Air Force
 * Royal Air Force
 * RAF Odiham, Hampshire, England
 * No. 27(R) Squadron (OCU) (1993–1998)
 * No. 240 Operational Conversion Unit (1971–1993)
 * RAF Aldergrove, County Antrim, Northern Ireland
 * No. 72 Squadron (1997–2002)
 * Royal Air Force
 * RAF Odiham, Hampshire, England
 * No. 27(R) Squadron (OCU) (1993–1998)
 * No. 240 Operational Conversion Unit (1971–1993)
 * RAF Aldergrove, County Antrim, Northern Ireland
 * No. 72 Squadron (1997–2002)
 * No. 72 Squadron (1997–2002)

Notable accidents and incidents

 * 29 March 2022 – Eight UN peacekeepers (six Pakistanis, a Russian and a Serb), part of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the Democratic Republic of the Congo were killed in a crash of a Puma helicopter operated by the Pakistan Army Aviation Corps while on a reconnaissance mission in the troubled eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Cause of the crash is yet to be ascertained.

title: Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma


text:
Jim Oberstar

James Louis Oberstar (September 10, 1934 – May 3, 2014) was an American politician and Congressman who served in the United States House of Representatives from 1975 to 2011. Hailing from Minnesota and a member of the state's local Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party, he represented the northeastern eighth congressional district, which included the cities of Duluth, Brainerd, Grand Rapids, International Falls, and Hibbing, and consisted in an area of Minnesota known as the Iron Range. He was chaired the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee from 2007 until his departure, previously being the ranking minority member since 1995. In November 2010, he was defeated by a margin of 4,407 votes by Republican Chip Cravaack. He served the longest tenure of any Congressman from Minnesota.

Early life, education and career
Oberstar was born in Chisholm, Minnesota, and on his deathbed, he still owned his original family home in Chisholm. His father Louis, of German ancestry, was an iron ore miner and the first card-carrying member of the United Steelworkers (USW) on the Iron Range of Minnesota. Oberstar also has Slovenian ancestry.

Oberstar graduated from Chisholm High School in 1952 and went on to the College of St. Thomas (now the University of St. Thomas) in St. Paul, Minnesota where he received his B.A. degree in 1956. He received a master's degree in European Studies from the College of Europe in Bruges, Belgium in 1957, with further study at Université Laval in Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada and Georgetown University in Washington, D.C.

He spent four years as a civilian language teacher in the United States Marine Corps, teaching English to Haitian military personnel and French to American Marine officers and noncommissioned officers.

He served on the staff of Minnesota's 8th District U.S. Representative John Blatnik for 12 years, from 1963 to 1974, rising to chief of staff. He was also the administrator of the Committee on Public Works for the U.S. House of Representatives from 1971 to 1974.

U.S. House of Representatives
He was an internationally recognized expert on aviation and aviation safety. He served on the Transportation and Infrastructure Committee during his entire time in the House. (His predecessor Blatnik had chaired the committee during his last two terms in Congress, known as the Public Works Committee, with Oberstar as staff administrator). He was also a member of the President's Commission on Aviation Security and Terrorism.

In 1965, Oberstar helped create the Economic Development Administration, the only federal agency devoted to the creation and retention of jobs in economically distressed American communities. Oberstar was a strong supporter of the Duluth-based aircraft manufacturer Cirrus Aircraft and even helped bring the company to Minnesota in 1994 from its first home in Baraboo, Wisconsin. That same year, he assisted in passing the General Aviation Revitalization Act, which was said to have reinvigorated the general aviation industry nationwide.

An avid cyclist, Oberstar championed the creation of trails for cycling and hiking to promote active lifestyles. In 2005, he authored, co-sponsored, and helped to pass the SAFETEA-LU act, a $295 billion program that funds transportation infrastructure, including highways, bridges, and public transportation, such as subways, buses, and passenger ferries and which includes the Safe Routes to Schools program. At the 2007 BikeWalk California conference and other bicycling conferences, Oberstar advocated converting the U.S.'s transportation system "from a hydrocarbon-based system to a carbohydrate-based system."

He was rated the third most liberal member of the Minnesota delegation in the 109th Congress, scoring 13% by a conservative group and 86% progressive by a liberal group. Minnesota Congressional Districts shows the scores for the entire delegation.

Along with John Conyers, in April 2006, Oberstar brought an action against George W. Bush and others alleging violations of the U.S. Constitution in the passing of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The case, (Conyers v. Bush), was ultimately dismissed.

Within days after the collapse of the I-35W Mississippi River bridge, Oberstar introduced and succeeded in passing legislation to appropriate $250 million to the Minnesota Department of Transportation to quickly build a replacement bridge.

In 2004, Oberstar led the opposition to the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act of 2004, a bill that established a regulatory framework for private suborbital spaceflight, arguing that the bill did not sufficiently safeguard passenger and crew safety. "I do not want to see people dead from a space experiment, and then the federal government comes in to regulate".

During his tenure in Congress, Oberstar held leadership positions on the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, was House Democratic At-Large Whip, and was a member of the executive committee of the Democratic Study Group. He also served on the International Relations Committee. He was co-chair of the Great Lakes Task Force and was a member of the Upper Mississippi Task Force and the Democratic Homeland Security Task Force. He co-chaired the Congressional Travel and Tourism Caucus and was a member of the following caucuses: the Bike Caucus; the Caucus for Sustainable Development; the Congressional Caucus on Global Road Safety; the Congressional Human Rights Caucus; the Congressional Steel Caucus; the Medical Technology Caucus; the Mississippi River Caucus; the Native American Caucus and the Renewable Energy Caucus.

Social Issues
Oberstar was an anti-abortion Democrat, and believed it should only be allowed if the pregnancy resulted from rape or incest, or if the life of the mother was endangered. He sponsored multiple constitutional amendments to enshrine a right to life provision, and to prohibit abortion services unless the mother's life was in danger.

One of his first congressional achievements was the passage of an amendment in 1976 to prohibit federal funding of the procedure. While the amendment, known as the Hyde Amendment, was officially introduced by fellow freshman member Henry Hyde (R-IL), Oberstar formulated the text himself, handwriting it on a slip of paper; due to the appeal of a Republican co-sponsor, and Hyde's seat on the House Judiciary Committee, it was determined the amendment would have an easier chance of passing if Hyde introduced it. Prohibition of federal funding of abortion services, through the amendment, was one of the first legislative gains made by the anti-abortion movement after the Roe v. Wade decision, which legalized abortion nationwide.

He voted in 2003 to ban intact dilation and extraction, also known as "partial-birth abortion", and was present at the bills' signing by President George W. Bush. He showed his full support in 2005–2006 to the National Right to Life Committee (NRLC). Oberstar voted against legislation in 2005 to require the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) to research embryonic stem cells, and again in 2007, one of the only 14 and 16 Democratic members respectively to do so. The Congressional Pro-Life Caucus was co-chaired by Oberstar, along with Republican Chris Smith of New Jersey.

Oberstar supported the bill to move the Terri Schiavo case to federal court, and appeared at a press conference with then-House Majority leader Tom DeLay to urge its passing.

During his congressional tenure, Oberstar had a generally supportive record on LGBT rights. The Defense of Marriage Act passed in 1996 with the support of 118 House Democratic members, including Oberstar. However, after that vote he started to vote more in line with LGBT advocacy groups, such as the Human Rights Campaign (HRC), which gave him ratings of 86%, 88%, 69%, and 88% for the 108-111th Congress'. He voted in favor of making crimes motivated by discrimination against sexual orientation or gender identity a federal hate crime in 2009, and cosponsored a bill in 2003 to prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation.

Economic Issues
Oberstar was a strong supporter of the Head Start Program, a national program from the HHS to promote school readiness by enhancing social and cognitive development of children through the provision of educational, health, nutritional, social, and other services. He considered it to be one of the most successful federal anti-poverty programs ever created. Oberstar also supported the American Association of University Women (AAUW), which has been a leading voice promoting education and equality for women and girls nationwide; he fully supported the AAUW in 2007 and 2008. Interest groups, like the American Association of University Women (AAUW) and the National Association of Elementary School Principals (NAESP), gave him 100 points of support. In the early 1980s, Oberstar gave federal aid to the establishment of the Natural Resources Research Institute at the University of Minnesota Duluth to provide applied research and technology development to Minnesota's natural resource-based economy.

Oberstar was rated 100 by Environment America and the League of Conservation Voters in 2009. The American Wind Energy Association also gave him a rating of 100 in 2006. He voted to pass the Energy and Environmental Law Amendments, which aimed to establish a program to regulate greenhouse gas emissions in 2009. He also voted to pass a bill, Trade-in Vouchers for Fuel-Efficient Cars, in 2009, which granted a $3,500 voucher, or document that could be exchanged for services in the place of money, for trading in an old vehicle with at least 4 miles per gallon more, the purpose of which was to increase the purchasing of fuel-efficient cars. However, Oberstar went against most Democrats and voted in favor of allowing drilling in ANWR.

Oberstar was a strong supporter of organized labor. He was given an 100% rating by the interest group AFL-CIO, a voluntary group of labor-unions working to improve the lives of working families. Oberstar was also rated 92 by the American Federation of Government in 2009 and 90 by Federally Employed Women in 2009. He voted for three unemployment benefits extension bills in 2010 and three Employment Discrimination Law Amendments in 2009.

According to the Minnesota Congressional Election 2008 Political Courage Test, Oberstar supported having taxes on corporate earnings, gasoline, and cigarettes. In 2008, Americans For Fair Taxation (AFFT) gave Oberstar their lowest possible rating, and the National Taxpayers Union gave Oberstar an "F". He supported a tax plan containing tax relief for working families, investment tax credits for small businesses, and support for the states, including incentives for transportation construction projects that will immediately put people back to work. Oberstar did not support free trade agreements, such as North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), the Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA). He believed that the free trading offers little or no economic opportunity for American workers and producers due to inadequate provisions contained in the agreements.

Political campaigns
When John Blatnik opted not to run for a 15th term in 1974, he endorsed Oberstar as his successor. Oberstar won and was reelected 16 times without serious difficulty. Democrats Blatnik and Oberstar held the seat from 1947 until 2011. Oberstar's lowest winning percentage was 59 percent in 1992, but after that, until 2010, he did not earn less than 60 percent of the vote. He is the longest-serving member of either house of Congress in Minnesota's history, having served in the 94th through the 111th Congresses from January 3, 1975, to January 3, 2011.

During the 2008 electoral campaign, Oberstar appeared alongside other public officials in a TV ad supporting the reelection of Puerto Rico Governor Aníbal Acevedo Vilá, a fellow Democrat.

During the 2006 elections, Oberstar's Republican opponent was former United States Senator Rod Grams, whose home is in the southwestern corner of the 8th. Grams was the strongest opponent Oberstar had ever faced and the first reasonably well-funded Republican to run in the 8th in decades. Although some polls showed Oberstar only ahead by two points, in the end, he won by over 30 points and did not lose a single county in his district.

During the 2008 elections, Oberstar's Republican opponent was political neophyte and businessman Michael Cummins. Cummins campaigned throughout the district but did not drum up enough support to pose a serious challenge to the veteran Democratic incumbent. Oberstar won with more than 67 percent of the vote.

During the 2010 elections, Oberstar lost a close race to political newcomer and Tea Party favorite, Chip Cravaack, who won a plurality of 48 percent of the vote. The race was seen nationwide as a major upset for Democrats.

Electoral history

 * 2010

 * 2002

Personal life
Oberstar and his first wife, the former Jo Garlick, had four children; she died in 1991. He later married Jean Kurth. The couple lived in Potomac, Maryland, and also maintained Oberstar's boyhood home in Chisholm, Minnesota. Oberstar died at his home in Potomac on May 3, 2014, at the age of 79.

Awards and honors
In 2009, Oberstar received the Tony Jannus Award for distinguished leadership in commercial aviation.

In May 2011, a Great Lakes ore carrier, of the Interlake Steamship Company, which typically transports taconite pellets from Duluth, Silver Bay and Marquette to steel mills near Detroit, Cleveland, and Chicago, was renamed after him, dubbed the MV Honorable James L. Oberstar.

On June 19, 2012, Oberstar was made Commander in the French Ordre national du Mérite.

In October 2015, the new passenger terminal of the Duluth International Airport was named in honor of Oberstar, who helped secure funding for the facility before its 2013 opening. A sculpture of him was also unveiled during the renamed terminal's introduction.

In 2016, he was posthumously inducted into the Minnesota Aviation Hall of Fame.

Papers
The Congressional Papers of James L. Oberstar are available for research use. They include photographs, sound and video recordings, legislative materials, campaign and political activities, committee work, and legislative staff topical files documenting Oberstar's service as a U. S. Representative from Minnesota's 8th Congressional District (1975–2011). The collection emphasizes Oberstar's activities on the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, demonstrated by an extensive series of staff office topical files addressing various issues, projects, and legislation related to aviation, highways and bridges, railways, waterways, and bikeways. Additional significant content focuses on economic development in the Iron Range, travel and tourism, trade, and environmental protection of Minnesota's land and water resources.

Boards and other affiliations

 * Board Member, Board of Trustees, John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, 1995–2014
 * Board Member, Mineta I.I.STPS Institute, San Jose State University, 1995–2014

title: Jim Oberstar


text:
Kölsch (beer)

Kölsch is a style of beer originating in Cologne (Köln), Germany. It has an original gravity between 11 and 14 degrees Plato (specific gravity of 1.044 to 1.056). In appearance, it is bright and clear with a straw-yellow hue.

Since 1997, the term "Kölsch" has had a protected geographical indication (PGI) within the European Union, indicating a beer that is made within 50km (31mi) of the city of Cologne and brewed according to the Kölsch Konvention as defined by the members of the Cologne Brewery Association (Kölner Brauerei-Verband). Kölsch is one of the most strictly defined beer styles in Germany: according to the Konvention, it is a pale, highly attenuated, hoppy, bright (i.e. filtered and not cloudy) top-fermenting beer, and must be brewed according to the Reinheitsgebot.

Kölsch is warm fermented with top-fermenting yeast, then conditioned at cold temperatures like a lager. This brewing process is similar to that used for Düsseldorf's altbier.

History

Bottom-fermented beer started to appear in the Cologne region in the early 17th century and its popularity threatened the business interest of the brewers of Cologne, who only produced top-fermented beers. In response, the town council of Cologne in 1603 forced young brewers to swear an oath "that you prepare your beer, as of old, from good malt, good cereals, and good hops, well-boiled, and that you pitch it with top-yeast, and by no means with bottom yeast." In 1676 and again in 1698, the council again tried to legislate against bottom-fermented beer by forbidding its sale within the city walls. However, by 1750, Cologne brewers were competing against bottom-fermented beers by using a hybridized brewing process, first brewing their beer using top-fermenting yeast but then aging the beer in cold cellars like bottom-fermented beer.

This type of beer was first called Kölsch in 1918 to describe the beer that had been brewed by the Sünner brewery since 1906, developed from the similar but cloudier variant Wieß (for "white" in the Kölsch dialect). By the start of World War II Cologne had more than forty breweries; only two were left by the end of the war.

In 1946, many of the breweries managed to re-establish themselves. In the 1940s and 1950s, Kölsch still could not match the sales of bottom-fermented beer, but in the 1960s the style began to rise in popularity in the Cologne beer market. From a production of only 500000 hl in 1960, Cologne's beer production peaked at 3.7 e6hl in 1980. In the 21st century, price increases and changing drinking habits caused economic hardship for many of the traditional corner bars (Kölschkneipen) and smaller breweries, and by 2005 output had declined to 2.4 e6hl.

In 1986, 24 brewers of Cologne and vicinity agreed upon the Kölsch Konvention, which set out the brewing process that had to be used, and restricted the use of Kölsch to breweries in Cologne, and outside the city, which had already acquired a valuable asset in the designation Kölsch before the Convention came into force.

Only two breweries later produce beer according to the Kölsch Konvention, Hellers from Cologne (opened 1991) and the Bischoff-Brauerei from Brühl (opened 1961, reopened 2001). Most of the brand on the list are still available, because another brewery took over the brand.

Many breweries closed in the years that followed. Only six of the breweries listed are still active, Früh, Gaffel, Reissdorf (the big three), Erzquell, Päffgen and Malzmühle – after Malzmühle announced it will take over Sünner in 2022. Once-famous brands such as Dom, Küppers and Sion are now owned by the Radeberger Gruppe, which no longer has a brewery in Cologne. They are contract brewed at Früh so that the beer can still be called Kölsch.

In 1997, Kölsch became a product with protected geographical indication (PGI), expanding this protection to the entire EU.

Exports of Kölsch to the United States, Russia, Korea, China and Brazil are increasing. Exported Kölsch does not need to strictly comply with the Provisional German Beer Law, the current implementation of the Reinheitsgebot.

Serving

In Cologne, Kölsch is traditionally served in a tall, thin, cylindrical 200 ml glass called a Stange ("pole" or "rod"). The server, called a Köbes, carries eleven or twelve Stangen in a Kranz ("wreath"), a circular tray resembling a crown or wreath. Instead of waiting for the drinker to order a refill, the Köbes immediately replaces an empty Stange with a full one, marking a tick on the coaster under the Stange. If the drinker does not want another refill, they place the coaster on top of the empty Stange and pay for the number of beers marked on the coaster.

Outside the EU
As noted above, Kölsch is a product which has a protected geographical indication (PGI) in the EU. This protection is not recognized outside the jurisdiction of the EU, and many breweries outside the EU produce and market beer as "kolsch" or "kölsch" with varying degrees of authenticity.

title: Kölsch (beer)


text:
Dalmatic

The dalmatic is a long, wide-sleeved tunic, which serves as a liturgical vestment in the Catholic, Lutheran, Anglican, United Methodist, and some other churches. When used, it is the proper vestment of a deacon at Mass, Holy Communion or other services such as baptism or marriage held in the context of a Eucharistic service. Although infrequent, it may also be worn by bishops above the alb and below the chasuble, and is then referred to as pontifical dalmatic.

Like the chasuble worn by priests and bishops, it is an outer vestment and is supposed to match the liturgical colour of the day. The dalmatic is often made of the same material and decoration as a chasuble, so as to form a matching pair. Traditional Solemn Mass vestment sets include matching chasuble, dalmatic, and tunicle.

History
In the Roman Empire, the dalmatic was an amply sleeved tunic (from Dalmatia) with wide stripes (clavi) that were sometimes worked with elaborate designs. Dalmatics had become typical attire for upper-class women in the latter part of the 3rd century AD. They are pictured in a few funerary portraits on shrouds from Antinoopolis in Roman Egypt. Literary sources record dalmatics as imperial gifts to individuals.

It was a normal item of clothing at the time when ecclesiastical clothes began to develop separately around the fourth century, worn over a longer tunic by the upper classes, and as the longest part of the dress of men of lower rank.

The dalmatic was a garment of Byzantine dress, and was adopted by Emperor Paul I of the Russian Empire as a coronation and liturgical vestment. In Orthodox icons of Jesus Christ as King and Great High Priest he is shown in a dalmatic.

Roman Church

The dalmatic is a robe with wide sleeves; it reaches to at least the knees or lower. In 18th-century vestment fashion, it is customary to slit the under side of the sleeves so that the dalmatic becomes a mantle like a scapular with an opening for the head and two square pieces of the material falling from the shoulder over the upper arm. Modern dalmatics tend to be longer and have closed sleeves, with the sides being open below the sleeve. The distinctive ornamentation of the vestment consists of two vertical stripes running from the shoulder to the hem; according to Roman usage these stripes are narrow and sometimes united at the bottom by two narrow cross-stripes. Outside of Rome the vertical stripes are quite broad and the cross-piece is on the upper part of the garment. At a Pontifical High Mass, a dalmatic (usually made of lighter material) is worn by the bishop under the chasuble. At solemn papal liturgical occasions the Pope is assisted by two cardinal-deacons each vested in a dalmatic and wearing a mitra simplex (simple white mitre).

In the Roman Catholic Church the subdeacons wore a vestment called the tunicle, which was originally distinct from a dalmatic, but by the 17th century the two had become identical, though a tunicle was often less ornamented than a dalmatic, the main difference often being only one horizontal stripe versus the two becoming a deacon's vestment. Additionally, unlike deacons, subdeacons do not wear a stole under their tunicle. Today, the tunicle is rare in the Roman Catholic Church as only certain authorized clerical societies (such as the Priestly Fraternity of St. Peter) have subdeacons.

Traditionally the dalmatic was not used in the Roman Rite by deacons during Lent. In its place, depending on the point in the liturgy, was worn either a folded chasuble or what was called a broad stole, which represented a rolled-up chasuble. This tradition went back to a time at which the dalmatic was still considered an essential secular garment and thus not appropriate to be worn during the penitential season of Lent.

Eastern tradition
In the Byzantine Rite the sakkos, which is elaborately decorated and amply cut, usually worn by the bishops as an outer vestment in place of a presbyter's phelonion and which, like the phelonion, corresponds to the western chasuble and cope, is derived from Byzantine imperial dress, and hence is identical in origin to the Western dalmatic.

In all Eastern rites the sticharion (which is analogous to the Western alb), of the ornate sort worn by deacons and lower clergy, is sometimes referred to as a dalmatic.

title: Dalmatic


text:
Colognian

Colognian or Kölsch (natively Kölsch Platt) is a small set of very closely related dialects, or variants, of the Ripuarian group of dialects of the Central German group. These dialects are spoken in the area covered by the Archdiocese and former Electorate of Cologne reaching from Neuss in the north to just south of Bonn, west to Düren and east to Olpe in northwest Germany.

Name
In the Ripuarian dialects, "kölsch" is an adjective meaning "from Cologne" or "pertaining to Cologne", thus equivalent to "Colognian". Its nominalized forms (ene Kölsche, de Kölsche etc.) denote the inhabitants of Cologne. The word "Kölsch", without an article, refers to either the dialect or the local Kölsch beer. Hence the humorous Colognian saying: "Ours is the only language you can drink!"

Speakers
In Cologne, it is actively spoken by about 250,000 people, roughly one quarter of the population. Almost all speakers are also fluent in standard or high German. It is widely understood in a region inhabited by some 10 million people (a conservative estimate).

There is a community of people who speak a variety of Kölsch in Dane County, Wisconsin, United States.

Area
There are local (decreasingly divergent) variants of Kölsch in the Quarters, most notably those only recently incorporated into the city, and the Hinterland. Sometimes, also the far more than 100 clearly distinct Ripuarian languages of Belgium, the Netherlands, and German Rhineland are incorrectly referred to as Kölsch, as well as the Rhinelandic regiolect. In fact, the regiolect is very different from Kölsch, being the regional variety of Standard German influenced only to a certain degree by the dialect. As such, many native speakers of the regiolect are in fact unaware of the fact that a “regiolect” exists, believing they speak plain Standard German.

History and classification
In its modern form, it is of comparatively recent origin. It developed from Historic Colognian, but has been under the influence of New High German since the 17th century. It was also influenced by French during the occupation of the Left Bank of the Rhine under Napoleon Bonaparte from 1794 to 1815, and therefore contains some more words from and expressions pertaining to French than does Standard German. There are also phonological similarities with French, which however may be coincidental.

Kölsch is one of the variants of the Ripuarian dialects (not part of the Rhinelandic regiolect, rheinisch), which belong to West Middle German family. It is closely related to the lower Rhineland (niederrheinisch) and Moselle Franconian (moselfränkisch) dialects and combines some features of them, as well employing a variety of words hardly in use elsewhere. Common with the Limburgish language group and other Ripuarian languages, it has a phonemic pitch accent, referred to as the 'singing' Rhinelandic tone.

Features in comparison to Standard German
This list shows only the most important differences. Most of these are not uniquely Kölsch, but true for all Ripuarian dialects.

 * Kölsch uses, or even  instead of standard , so when Colonians say "ich", it sounds more like "isch".
 * The Standard German phoneme is pronounced  in the beginning of a word, and, ,  or  in other positions, depending on the syllable structure. This gives rise to the erroneous belief that "im Kölschen jibbet kein Je" (Rheinlander regiolect German: "In Colognian there is no "G"); in fact Colognian does have the phoneme /g/, just not where Standard German speakers expect: rigge "to ride" (German: reiten)
 * Kölsch has three diphthongs pronounced, and , which are equivalent to but less frequent than ,  and  in the standard.
 * Voiceless stops are not aspirated, in contrast to Standard German and most varieties of English (although there are some dialects in Scotland and Northern England where voiceless stops are not aspirated).
 * The sound is "darker" than in Standard German, and is replaced by  throughout ("Kölsch": (Colognian) ; (Standard German) )
 * Words with an initial vowel are not separated from the preceding word by a glottal stop.
 * Kölsch has a larger vowel system than Standard German. In Standard German and  are always short,,  and  always long. In Kölsch all of these occur long and short, and the difference is phonemic.
 * Vowel quality often differs between standard words and Kölsch words. Sometimes the standard has the more original form, sometimes Kölsch does. Standard, , often correspond to Kölsch , , , and , ,  often correspond to , , . Standard , ,  often correspond to Kölsch ,  and , and ,  often correspond to  and . All of these patterns (and others to be found), however, have many exceptions and cannot be used to build Kölsch words blindly.
 * Kölsch is even more non-rhotic than the standard. It often vocalizes "r" completely so that any hint of it is lost, e.g. std. "kurz", ksh. "koot".
 * When it does not vocalize an "r", it will often be pronounced more strongly than in German: Sport [ɕpɔxt] (often humorously spelled "Spocht"). This carries over into the Cologne accent of German.
 * Being a Central German dialect, Kölsch has undergone some stages of the High German sound shift, but not all. Where the standard has "pf", Kölsch uses "p", as do Lower German and English. Compare: Standard German: "Apfel, Pfanne"; Kölsch: "Appel, Pann", English: "apple, pan". Moreover, where the standard has "t", Kölsch usually keeps the older "d": Standard German: "Tag, tun"; Kölsch: "Daach, donn"; English: "day, do".
 * Kölsch has shifted stem-internal and  to . Again, this sound change is shared by Lower German and English. Compare: Standard German: "leben, Ofen"; Kölsch: "levve, Ovve"; English: "live, oven" (note that this does not affect  shifted from older, e.g. Kölsch "schlofe", English "to sleep").
 * As a typically Ripuarian phenomenon, and  have changed into  and  in some cases, e.g. std. "schneiden, Wein", ksh. "schnigge, Wing".
 * Specifically, Middle High German ît, îd, în, ût, ûd, ûn , iut, iud, iun > Colognian igg, ugg, ügg; ing, ung, üng . The similar change  to  was originally near-universal, but has been lost in several words, most likely due to Standard German influence. (Münch gives for examples fryŋ̄k, kiŋ̄k "friend", "child", where modern Kölsch has Fründ, Kind. (German: Freund, Kind)
 * The word "dütsch" (German), compare German deutsch, has also been influenced by surrounding dialects and the standard, and the fully Kölsch form *düksch is unheard of.
 * In Kölsch, the final "t" after is dropped at the end of words followed by another consonant (except l, m, n, ng). When a vowel is added, a lost "t" can reoccur.
 * In Kölsch the word-final schwa is dropped and the standard ending "-en" is often shortened to schwa. Therefore, Kölsch plurals often resemble Standard German singulars, e.g., std. "Gasse" > "Gassen", ksh. "Jass" > "Jasse" (alley, alleys).
 * Kölsch has a reduced case system, where the genitive is lost. The accusative and nominative are merged (except with personal pronouns), in most cases taking the form of the nominative; Standard German Der Mann läuft die Straße entlang; ich sehe den Mann, Kölsch Der Mann läuf de Stroß elans, ich sinn der Mann.. In the case of adjectives, including possessive pronouns, determiners and indefinite articles, Kölsch takes the form of the accusative; compare Standard German: "mein Mann, meine Frau"; to Kölsch: "minge Mann, ming Frau", originally *mingen Mann, minge Frau, cf. the German accusative meinen Mann, meine Frau; English: "my husband, my wife".
 * Many regular verbs of Standard German have an irregular present tense form conjugation in Kölsch, e.g. the verb "stonn" (= std. "stehen" and English "to stand") is conjugated as follows: "ich stonn, du steihs, hä steiht, mir stonn, ehr stoht, se stonn".

Use
In comparison to most other German dialects, Kölsch is unusually well documented through the work of the Akademie för uns Kölsche Sproch and scholars such as, whose publications include a dictionary, a grammar and a variety of phrase books. While Kölsch is not commonly taught in schools (although there are often extracurricular offerings) and a lot of young people do not have a proper command of it, many theaters exist that perform exclusively in Kölsch, most notably the Volkstheater Millowitsch, named after the late Willy Millowitsch (1909–1999) and the famous puppet theater, Hänneschen-Theater. There has also recently been an increase in literature written in this dialect and both traditional music and rock in Kölsch are very popular in and beyond Cologne, especially around Carnival, including bands such as Brings,, Bläck Fööss, Höhner and others. The Kölsch rock group BAP is even among the most successful rock bands in Germany. Another noticeable phenomenon is the usage of either a watered-down Kölsch dialect or the Rhinelandic regiolect by German TV personalities, especially comedians such as and others.

The Lord's Prayer in Kölsch
This is a relatively recent, and modern, version of the Lord's Prayer in Colognian, by Jean Jenniches (1894–1979). Nota bene: This is not a literal, but an artistic rendition of the Lord's Prayer. Vatterunser

Leeve Herrjott, hellich ess Dinge Name. Vum Himmel us rejeers Do et janze Weltall noh Dingem Welle. Wie ne Vatter sorgs Do för de Minschheit, die he op de Äd Di Rich erwaden deit. Vill Nut es en der Welt, dröm bedde mer: maach doch, dat keine Minsch mieh muss Hunger ligge. Nemm vun uns alle Sündeschold, domet och jederein ess jnädich de eije Schöldner. Helf Do uns, dat meer alle Versökunge widderstonn, un halt alles vun uns fähn, wat unsem iwije Heil schade künnt.

Amen.

English translation: Nota bene: This is not a literal, but an artistic rendition of the Lord's Prayer. Our Father

Dear Lord God, holy is Your Name. From the heavens You rule all the universe according to Your will. Like a father you care for humanity, which awaits Your Kingdom here on Earth. There is much need in the world, and thus we pray: Make it so that no person should have to suffer hunger anymore. Take from us our debts, so that every one of us is merciful to his own debtors. Help us to withstand all temptation, and keep everything that could harm our eternal salvation.

Amen.

title: Colognian


text:
User talk:T McAy

Welcome
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title: User talk:T McAy


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User talk:Canadabear

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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 19:33, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

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User talk:HarpyHumming

Welcome
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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 19:33, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:HarpyHumming


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User talk:00vivienchiu

Welcome
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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 19:33, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

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text:
Volcán de Colima

The Volcán de Colima, 3,820 m, also known as Volcán de Fuego, is part of the Colima Volcanic Complex (CVC) consisting of Volcán de Colima, Nevado de Colima and the eroded El Cántaro (listed as extinct). It is the youngest of the three and as of 2015 is one of the most active volcanoes in Mexico and in North America. It has erupted more than 40 times since 1576. One of the largest eruptions was on January 20–24, 1913. Nevado de Colima, also known as Tzapotépetl, lies 5 km north of its more active neighbor and is the taller of the two at 4,271 m. It is the 26th-most prominent peak in North America.

Despite its name, only a fraction of the volcano's surface area is in the state of Colima; the majority of its surface area lies over the border in the neighboring state of Jalisco, toward the western end of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. It is about 485 km west of Mexico City and 125 km south of Guadalajara, Jalisco.

Since 1869–1878, a parasitic set of domes, collectively known as El Volcancito, has formed on the northeast flank of the main cone of the volcano.

Geological history
In the late Pleistocene era, a huge landslide occurred at the mountain, with approximately 25 km3 of debris traveling some 120 km, reaching the Pacific Ocean. An area of some 2,200 km2 was covered in landslide deposits. The currently active cone is within a large caldera that was probably formed by a combination of landslides and large eruptions. The lava is andesite containing 56-61% SiO2. About 300,000 people live within 40 km of the volcano, which makes it the most dangerous volcano in Mexico. In light of its history of large eruptions and situation in a densely populated area, it was designated a Decade Volcano, singling it out for study.

Current activity
In recent years, there have been frequent temporary evacuations of nearby villagers due to threatening volcanic activity. Eruptions have occurred in 1991, 1998–1999 and from 2001 to the present day, with activity being characterized by extrusion of viscous lava forming a lava dome, and occasional larger explosions, forming pyroclastic flows and dusting the areas surrounding the volcano with ash and tephra.

The largest eruption for several years occurred on May 24, 2005. An ash cloud rose to more than 3 km over the volcano and satellite monitoring indicated that the cloud spread over an area extending 110 nmi west of the volcano in the hours after the eruption. Pyroclastic flows travelled 4–5 km from the vent, and lava bombs landed 3–4 km away. Authorities set up an exclusion zone within 6.5 km of the summit.

On November 21, 2014, the volcano erupted again. An ash column was sent 5 km into the air, covering towns as far as 25 km away in ash. No fatalities were reported, and no evacuations took place. There were eruptions on January 10, 21 and 25, with the ash from the January 21 eruption falling in towns more than 15 mi away. On 10 July 2015, there was another eruption. Another eruption occurred on September 25, 2016, sending a plume of ash and smoke 10,000 ft into the sky. During December 2016, ash plumes occurred once or twice a day. On December 18, 2016, there were three eruptions. The biggest columns of ash reached 2 kilometers in height. Colima volcano experienced another strong explosion at 06:27 UTC (00:27 CST) on January 18, 2017. The eruption spewed volcanic ash up to 4 km (13,123 feet) above the crater.

Volcanological center
The volcano is monitored by the Colima Volcano Observatory at the University of Colima, Mexico. A team analyzes, interprets and communicates every event that occurs at this volcano.

In 2018, a webcam was installed close to the volcano, and volcanic activity can be seen in real-time.

title: Volcán de Colima