text:
Group 9 element

! colspan=2 style="text-align:left;" | ↓ Period ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7
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Legend
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Group 9, by modern IUPAC numbering, is a group (column) of chemical elements in the d-block of the periodic table. Members of Group 9 include cobalt (Co), rhodium (Rh), iridium (Ir) and meitnerium (Mt). These elements are among the rarest of the transition metals.

Like other groups, the members of this family show patterns in electron configuration, especially in the outermost shells, resulting in trends in chemical behavior; however, rhodium deviates from the pattern.

History
"Group 9" is the modern standard designation for this group, adopted by the IUPAC in 1990. In the older group naming systems, this group was combined with group 8 (iron, ruthenium, osmium, and hassium) and group 10 (nickel, palladium, platinum, and darmstadtium) and called group "VIIIB" in the Chemical Abstracts Service (CAS) "U.S. system", or "VIII" in the old IUPAC (pre-1990) "European system" (and in Mendeleev's original table).

Cobalt
Cobalt compounds have been used for centuries to impart a rich blue color to glass, glazes, and ceramics. Cobalt has been detected in Egyptian sculpture, Persian jewelry from the third millennium BC, in the ruins of Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, and in China, dating from the Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) and the Ming dynasty (1368–1644 AD).

Swedish chemist Georg Brandt (1694–1768) is credited with discovering cobalt c. 1735, showing it to be a previously unknown element, distinct from bismuth and other traditional metals. Brandt called it a new "semi-metal". He showed that compounds of cobalt metal were the source of the blue color in glass, which previously had been attributed to the bismuth found with cobalt. Cobalt became the first metal to be discovered since the pre-historical period. All other known metals (iron, copper, silver, gold, zinc, mercury, tin, lead and bismuth) had no recorded discoverers.

Rhodium

Rhodium was discovered in 1803 by William Hyde Wollaston, soon after he discovered palladium. He used crude platinum ore presumably obtained from South America. His procedure dissolved the ore in aqua regia and neutralized the acid with sodium hydroxide (NaOH). He then precipitated the platinum as ammonium chloroplatinate by adding ammonium chloride. Most other metals like copper, lead, palladium, and rhodium were precipitated with zinc. Diluted nitric acid dissolved all but palladium and rhodium. Of these, palladium dissolved in aqua regia but rhodium did not, and the rhodium was precipitated by the addition of sodium chloride as. After being washed with ethanol, the rose-red precipitate was reacted with zinc, which displaced the rhodium in the ionic compound and thereby released the rhodium as free metal.

Iridium
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia (a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids) to create soluble salts. They always observed a small amount of a dark, insoluble residue. In 1803, British scientist Smithson Tennant (1761–1815) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal. Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide, which he believed to be of this new metal—which he named ptene, from the Greek word πτηνός ptēnós, "winged". Tennant, who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue, continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue, iridium and osmium. He obtained dark red crystals (probably of ]·n) by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid. He named iridium after Iris (Ἶρις), the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods, because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored. Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21, 1804.

Meitnerium
Meitnerium was first synthesized on August 29, 1982, by a German research team led by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg at the Institute for Heavy Ion Research (Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung) in Darmstadt. The team bombarded a target of bismuth-209 with accelerated nuclei of iron-58 and detected a single atom of the isotope meitnerium-266:

This work was confirmed three years later at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research at Dubna (then in the Soviet Union).

Properties
[*] Predicted.

The first three elements are hard silvery-white metals:

 * Cobalt is a metallic element that can be used to turn glass a deep blue color. Cobalt is primarily used in lithium-ion batteries, and in the manufacture of magnetic, wear-resistant and high-strength alloys. The compounds cobalt silicate and cobalt(II) aluminate (CoAl2O4, cobalt blue) give a distinctive deep blue color to glass, ceramics, inks, paints and varnishes. Cobalt occurs naturally as only one stable isotope, cobalt-59. Cobalt-60 is a commercially important radioisotope, used as a radioactive tracer and for the production of high-energy gamma rays. Cobalt is also used in the petroleum industry as a catalyst when refining crude oil. This is to clean it of its sulfur content, which is very polluting when burned and causes acid rain.
 * Rhodium can be used in jewelry as a shiny metal. Rhodium is a hard, silvery, durable metal that has a high reflectance. Rhodium metal does not normally form an oxide, even when heated. Oxygen is absorbed from the atmosphere only at the melting point of rhodium but is released on solidification. Rhodium has both a higher melting point and lower density than platinum. It is not attacked by most acids as it is completely insoluble in nitric acid and dissolves slightly in aqua regia.
 * Iridium is mainly used as a hardening agent for platinum alloys. Iridium is the most corrosion-resistant metal known as it is not attacked by acids, including aqua regia. In the presence of oxygen, it reacts with cyanide salts. Traditional oxidants also react, including the halogens and oxygen at higher temperatures. Iridium also reacts directly with sulfur at atmospheric pressure to yield iridium disulfide.

All known isotopes of meitnerium are radioactive with short half-lives. Only minute quantities have been synthesized in laboratories. It has not been isolated in pure form, and its physical and chemical properties have not been determined yet. Based on what is known, meitnerium is considered a homologue to iridium.

Biological role
Of the group 9 elements, only cobalt has a biological role. It is a key constituent of cobalamin, also known as vitamin B$12$, the primary biological reservoir of cobalt as an ultratrace element. Bacteria in the stomachs of ruminant animals convert cobalt salts into vitamin B$12$, a compound which can only be produced by bacteria or archaea. A minimal presence of cobalt in soils therefore markedly improves the health of grazing animals, and an uptake of 0.20 mg/kg a day is recommended, because they have no other source of vitamin B$12$.

Proteins based on cobalamin use corrin to hold the cobalt. Coenzyme B12 features a reactive C-Co bond that participates in the reactions. In humans, B12 has two types of alkyl ligand: methyl and adenosyl. MeB12 promotes methyl (−CH3) group transfers. The adenosyl version of B12 catalyzes rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase (MUT) converts MMl-CoA to Su-CoA, an important step in the extraction of energy from proteins and fats.

title: Group 9 element


text:
Talk:Dust devil

Some notes
Could we please get a disambiguation page for 'Whirlwind' as that term currently redirects here, ignoring other subjects of the same name (e.g. the computer project, the comic book character, novel, etc.)

Dust devils are known to have significant static charges, but
 * Terrestrial dust devils are known to be accompanied by significant electrical discharges on the order of 2000 to 3000 watts per meter.

does anybody have a source for this statement? silsor 03:00, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

I can field this one. The Mars Astrobiology Magazine states:

"Indeed, the Matador project measures changes in Earth's electric field that hover around 100 volts per meter but ramp up dramatically to 2,000 or 3,000 volts per meter during sudden static bursts."

The Matador project was sent to a terrestrial desert (in Arizona) to research the effects of dust devils on machines.

Interestingly, this figure of two or three thousand volts per meter amounts to only six or seven volts over the length of a human body. Dust devils are not "small" as the previous editions of this entry have stated baldly, they are tens of meters in diameter and a thousand or more meters long. - Plautus satire 03:08, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I see now I was saying "watts" when I meant "volts". I am sorry for this mistake, I will correct it. - Plautus satire 03:10, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * The article still makes no sense. The source you cited is not talking about electrical discharges, it is talking about the potential of the electric field.  Do you know what a volt is?  I am also extremely interested in your claim that "two or three thousand volts per meter amounts to only six or seven volts over the length of a human body".  By your numbers, an average human being is around 400 meters tall. silsor 03:19, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)
 * Good point about my off-the-cuff remark about volts over the length of a human body. What doesn't make sense, though? Yes, I know what a volt is. Human beings are not four hundred meters tall, my claim about six or seven volts over the length of a human body was wrong. Volts per meter in this case is referring to field strength as measured by the instruments used by Matador. - Plautus satire 03:43, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

In your version of 23:51, 24 Feb 2004 I thought "damaging to terrestrial technology" meant you were referring to dust devils on Earth, so I edited it. Specifying "terrestrial technology sent to Mars" removes the confusion. Not clear though why "robotic landers and future human explorers" doesn't cover the bases. Curps
 * The only reason I would equivocate is because the threat isn't to the human explorers per se, it is to the technology keeping them alive in such a hostile environment. Maybe nitpicking, but then we are here to pick nits, apparently. - Plautus satire 03:57, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I can state that dust devils, in common usage in the Western US, are not unequivocally 1000 meters tall; the mountains around El Paso Texas rise 1000 meters above the desert floor, and the dust devils do not rise as tall as the mountains; at most, they were 100 feet tall, just as the photograph shows. Ancheta Wis 05:42, 20 May 2004 (UTC) On this basis, I am altering the text of the article. As further evidence, I can state that I have seen dust devils on the desert floor from a mountaintop and they were not 1000 meters tall.

In the upper States of the American Midwest, they are called "whirlwinds." They range from a skirl of leaves manheight to towering pillars of dust hundreds of feet high on late spring cultivated land.

The first sentence doesn't make good grammatical sense, but I'm not quite sure how to change it. "A dust devil or whirlwind is either a large rotating updraft, anywhere from 1000 meters high or more and tens of meters in diameter, to a small vortex a few meters high." The "either" should be followed by an "or," but instead it is followed by a "to." Spleezleton 07:33, 11 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Don't know if there are any links to the volts per meter statement, but it did sound good. BurtonReingold (talk) 17:43, 22 May 2023 (UTC)

Linked on NASA's Astronomy Picture of the Day
This page is linked on 26 Apr 2005 by this picture about Martian dust devils. --Euniana/Talk/Blog 20:36, 14 May 2005 (UTC)

Don't ...
Don't underestimate these things. I have been in one, and one hour later, one killed 5 people in Texas on I - 10 by flipping some cars into opposing traffic. Martial Law 08:30, 8 April 2006 (UTC) :)

The dust devil caught the juncture where the 5th wheel trailer was hooked to a BIG pick-up and nearly flipped me and other family members. Martial Law 08:33, 8 April 2006 (UTC) :)

 * I was in a dust devil myself years ago and it was weak. It could only lift dirt and grass and other plant life that was dead but I saw a rock and the rock didn't move so I just went in one. It was cool but dusty. 216.110.254.167 22:56, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Alien on Mars cleaning rover hypothesis
I took out the line about a supposed hypothesis that existed that stated that aliens may have been responsible for cleaning the solar panels on the mars rovers, instead of dust devils. The reasoning behind this is because the referenced article did in fact mention aliens, but only jokingly theorized that aliens could have been responsible for the cleaning of the panels.

MUCH better movies available
There's some great movies of the Gusev Crater dust devils on this page. I replaced a so-so press-release link from JPL with this rather dedicated list, complete with several versions of most movies, a rating system based on stars, and a color photo! Some of them show multiple devils at the same time, but I don't have the technical expertise to replace the current one. Just a suggestion. Look and you'll see what I mean.--Planetary 01:04, 18 July 2006 (UTC)

Hay Devil
I noticed that 'hay devil' forwarded to this page but isn't mentioned within it. I'm from the UK and have seen quite impressive swirls formed from loose hay on fields and even from leaves in autumn. Perhaps there could be a small mention of materials other than dust and sand which can form landspout-like phenomena.

Height
Ref edit of 03.27 20 January 2007 by me. Would a user with more Wikipedia procedure knowledge please add the following references to the text change. Reference[13] "Characteristics of Dust Devils in Australia" http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1990JApMe..29..498H. and reference [14] http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9076783/whirlwind It is known by glider pilots that the vortex of a willy-willy observed near ground level can occasionaly be 'felt' at heights up to about 15'000 feet.60.230.177.204 03:48, 20 January 2007 (UTC)

Fire Swirls
My edit of 08.21 22 January 2007 is my perception of the subject based on observation and experiment. I cannnot find any scientific literature on the subject to use as a citation.Geoffrey Wickham 08:13, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Terms
A few handy references for terms are: Evolauxia 01:40, 28 March 2007 (UTC)
 * AMS Glossary of Meteorology
 * NWS Glossary
 * A Comprehensive Glossary of Weather Terms for Storm Spotters (NWS)

merge
If whirlwind = dust devil - dust, it doen't need its own page. 70.113.4.133 02:19, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * Whirlwind is a generic term for the spectrum of whirls or vortices in the atmosphere, or in some usage specifically refers to a small whirl induced by strong winds interacting with a rough surface. The article should be cleaned up or expanded to reflect this.  Evolauxia 04:22, 11 July 2007 (UTC)

 * I support merging.Geoffrey Wickham 04:22, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

Do Not Merge
Please, don't merge whirlwind with this article. Even though they are simular, they are very different! I know that they are simular phenominons, but a wirlwind is tecnicly a debris devil, since it: "picks up debris as it goes along on it's jurney" -from whirlwind(atmospheric phenomenon)

So please listen to me, don't merge Whirlwind (atmospheric phenomenon) with dust devil!!! Thanks! --Whirlwindlover 18:46, 16 July 2007 (UTC)WhilwindloverWhirlwindlover 18:46, 16 July 2007 (UTC) -creator of the "wirlwind" article
 * A Dust devil picks up any Debris, be it dust, leaves, twigs or pieces of any material having a sufficiently low density.Geoffrey Wickham 04:29, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

I appreciate your comments, but just because it might be a separate phenomenon does not mean it warrants its own article. Additionally, Wikipedia articles must conform to a manual of style, and must especially be verifiable, meaning that the article contains reliable sources. And quoting an article which you wrote is not a very good case to keep the article. Please cite some outside sources, or else the articles must be merged, and unverifiable information deleted. - Running On  Brains  04:38, 19 July 2007 (UTC)

in Polish
http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wir_py%C5%82owy —Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.75.121.15 (talk) 06:27, 6 November 2009 (UTC)

The Mars surface images - a first?
The "movie" showing the dust devil passing in front of one of the rovers: I thought I read somewhere that this was the first time a non-Earth weather event had been visualized from the surface - can anyone confirm? I think the same might apply to the satellite shots of the Martian dust devils, too. 68.146.81.123 (talk) 23:01, 13 June 2010 (UTC)
 * "Weather event" is really a subjective term. Clouds and dust in the air had been imaged long before that sequence was taken. It's not really something that requires mention on the page, IMHO. - Running On Brains (talk) 22:14, 14 June 2010 (UTC)

no mention of the term 'sand dervish' which has roots in history & sufi whirling. also pop culture (prince of persia movie, everquest 1 & 2 game) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.189.213.238 (talk) 14:48, 29 August 2010 (UTC)

Whirl winds
I live out here in the northern Arizona desert, I'm taking a college course in meteorology and have read the cause of whirl winds but some things do not make sense to me. I have watched whirl winds start up in the same spot over and over again. I have seen up to 16 starting at the same spot and travel the same course across the flat lands. I realize the convection principle but why the same spot of origin? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.87.187.183 (talk) 03:56, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

Not all dust devils originate as a result of hot air close to the ground funneling upward through a hot-air chimney. Sometimes horizontal air currents generate dust devils even without vertical hot-air chimneys. Horizontal-air-current-induced dust devils typically are tied to local geographical irregularities. These local irregularities may involve vertical terrain or nothing more than surface differences which result in different ground temperatures between two adjoining flat areas. A common example is a large, cool grassy area adjoining an area of bare ground that is heated to a higher temperature by the sun. As the air above the bare ground heats up, the growing difference in density between that hot air and the cooler air above the grass will eventually lead to the heavier, cooler air sinking below the hot air and flowing from the grassy area out over the adjacent bare ground. This horizontal air current causes shear-induced horizontally rolling cylinders in the boundary layer between the hot and cold layers of air. Where the cold air initially begins to flow under the hot air, this "roll" starts out as a small arch over the expanding tongue of cold air. As the flow area of the advancing cold air grows, the rolling arch under which it passes is stretched to greater length, causing it to be constricted and sped up because of conservation of angular momentum. The opposing ends of the rolling arch form two counter-rotating dust devils where the ends of the arch intersect the ground. Once formed, one of the two dust devils typically dies out quickly while the other may persist for a few tens of seconds. Besides bare ground, these horizontal-air-current-induced dust devils also often occur over hot asphalt. In many cases these ground-flow-induced dust devils become the "seeds" that initiate the vertical air currents which grow into larger dust devils. That is why many dust devils seem to be geographically tied to certain locations. Natural History magazine once published an excellent article on this subject but I have been unable to find the applicable reference. Magneticlifeform (talk) 01:48, 30 November 2010 (UTC)

Alternate name
Though rare in Ireland they are known there as shee-gaoithe meaning 'fairy wind'. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.107.146.102 (talk) 09:45, 4 April 2011 (UTC)

File:Martian Dust Devil Trails.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Martian Dust Devil Trails.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on June 24, 2011. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2011-06-24. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page so Wikipedia doesn't look bad. :) Thanks!  howcheng  {chat} 16:53, 22 June 2011 (UTC)

Dust devils do damage in Las Vegas, NV, on May 8, 2012
Here are some links for the dust devils that damaged a Family Dollar store and some other random damage in Las Vegas, NV, recently. Not sure how to use these in the article. Let somebody else handle that.

http://www.8newsnow.com/story/18216176/residents-clean-up-after-wild-weather

http://www.wrh.noaa.gov/vef/projects/Destructive%20Dust%20Devils.pdf

70.180.188.238 (talk) 03:36, 12 May 2012 (UTC)

note on air pressure
The main article states that warmer air rises up through cooler air and that wind blows towards the bottom of the dust devil. Wind generally blows from high pressure to low pressure. Bouyancy of the hot air requires higher pressure underneath that air to apply the upwards force, but wind blowing towards the base seems to indicate lower pressure there. The article does mention hot air being stretched out vertically, though, which seems to explain this. The collumn of hot air reaches all the way down to the layer of heated air at the surface, so the heated air from the surface is rising as it expands, rather than the other way around. I mention this because the main article states that the warmer air loses it's bouyancy at some point. I wonder if the word bouyancy really applies at all. Air blowing across the surface towards the dust devil gains heat and therefore either pressure or volume. Outflow at the top of the dust devil increases pressure above the surrounding surface enough to keep the heated surface air from gaining volume. At the dust devil, that heated air gains volume as it expands upwards, so the bottom of the dust devil has higher pressure than the air above it, but less pressure than the surrounding surface air. Wind blows from high to low pressure. Fencelizard (talk) 14:23, 28 June 2016 (UTC)

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Duster?
Disambiguation page duster claims this to be another name of the dust devil - but it's mentioned here. Is this claim right or wrong? --KnightMove (talk) 12:18, 23 May 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Dust devil


text:
Gideon Fell

Dr. Gideon Fell is a fictional character created by John Dickson Carr. He is the protagonist of 23 mystery novels from 1933 through 1967, as well as a few short stories. Carr was an American who lived most of his adult life in England; Dr. Fell is an Englishman who lives in the London suburbs.

Dr. Fell is supposedly based upon G. K. Chesterton (author of the Father Brown stories), whose physical appearance and personality were similar to those of Doctor Fell.

Biography
Dr. Fell is a corpulent man with a moustache who wears a cape and a shovel hat and walks with the aid of two canes. His age is not specified; in his first appearance, in a 1933 novel, he is said to be "not too old" but with a kind of ancient quality about him. He is frequently described as bringing the spirit of Father Christmas or Old King Cole into a room. In his early appearances he was portrayed as a lexicographer, but this description gradually disappeared and he was thereafter mostly referred to as working on a monumental history of the beer-drinking habits of the English people.

He is an amateur sleuth, frequently called upon by the police, whom he frustrates in the usual manner of fictional detectives by refusing to reveal his deductions until he has arrived at a complete solution to the problem. The most frequently recurring police character was Superintendent Hadley. Most of Fell's exploits concern the unravelling of locked room mysteries or of "impossible crimes". When he himself becomes frustrated, he is likely to cry out, "Archons of Athens!"

When Dr. Fell is not traveling, he lives with his wife in a somewhat cluttered house. The wife's name is never given, and little of her character is revealed, except that she is rather eccentric as well. She goes unmentioned in many of the books, but an allusion to her late in the series indicates that the couple's domestic life is unchanged. The Fells have no children.

Chapter 17 of the novel The Three Coffins contains Dr. Fell's "locked room lecture", in which he delineates many of the methods by which apparently locked-room or impossible-crime murders might be committed. In the course of his discourse, he states, off-handedly, that he and his listeners are, of course, characters in a book.

Chronology

 * 1) 1933, Hag's Nook
 * 2) 1933, The Mad Hatter Mystery
 * 3) 1934, The Eight of Swords
 * 4) 1934, The Blind Barber
 * 5) 1935, Death-Watch
 * 6) 1935, The Hollow Man (The Three Coffins)
 * 7) 1936, The Arabian Nights Murder
 * 8) 1937, To Wake the Dead
 * 9) 1938, The Crooked Hinge
 * 10) 1939, The Black Spectacles (The Problem of the Green Capsule/Mystery in Limelight)
 * 11) 1939, The Problem of the Wire Cage
 * 12) 1940, The Man Who Could Not Shudder
 * 13) 1941, The Case of the Constant Suicides
 * 14) 1941, Death Turns the Tables (The Seat of the Scornful)
 * 15) 1944, Till Death Do Us Part
 * 16) 1946, He Who Whispers
 * 17) 1947, The Sleeping Sphinx
 * 18) 1949, Below Suspicion
 * 19) 1958, The Dead Man's Knock
 * 20) 1960, In Spite of Thunder
 * 21) 1965, The House at Satan's Elbow
 * 22) 1966, Panic in Box C
 * 23) 1967, Dark of the Moon
 * 24) 1991, Fell and Foul Play

Television
The Seat of the Scornful was adapted as a 1956 episode of the BBC Sunday Night Theatre. Fell was portrayed by Finlay Currie.

Radio
The Clock Strikes Eight, written by Carr was broadcast on On 18 May 1944, for the anthology series Appointment with Fear. Richard George played Fell.

The Hollow Man was adapted for Saturday Night Theatre, with Norman Shelley as Fell.

Donald Sinden played Dr. Fell in a series of eight BBC Radio adaptations.

title: Gideon Fell


text:
Tai Lam Country Park

Tai Lam Country Park, established on 23 February 1979, is a country park located in Tai Lam, at the south of Yuen Long Town, Kam Tin and Shek Kong and east of Tuen Mun Town, in the western New Territories of Hong Kong. This country park has an area of 54 km².

Etymology
The country park is named after Tai Lam where the park is located nearby. A river stream also named after the area as Tai Lam Chung. Due to the construction of a dam, the water flows into the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir. The reservoir is entirely surrounded by the country park. The reservoir is managed by the Water Supplies Department. Tai Lam Tunnel and Tai Lam railway tunnel pass through the country park underground. A village, as well as two prisons: Tai Lam Centre for Women and Tai Lam Correctional Institution, all outside the boundary of the country park, are named after Tai Lam.

The tai in Tai Lam means large. There is another area known as Siu Lam, which siu means small in Chinese.

Highlights
A series of barbecue and picnic sites are provided along Route Twisk, the Shek Kong, Pat Heung catchwater and the Tuen Mun catchwater. In addition, there are a lot of trails. For example, the MacLehose Trail and the Kap Lung Forest Trail start from the top of Route Twisk near the Country Park Management Centre. The Twisk Nature Trail near the Country Park Management Centre introduces the natural environment and human impacts in the area.

The fitness trail at So Kwun Wat catchwater provides 14 sets of fitness equipment for visitors and morning walkers.

title: Tai Lam Country Park


text:
Orange box

An orange box is a piece of hardware or software that generates caller ID frequency-shift keying (FSK) signals to spoof caller ID information on the target's caller ID terminal.

title: Orange box


text:
Group 12 element

! colspan=2 style="text-align:left;" | ↓ Period ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7
 * colspan="2"|
 * colspan="2"|
 * colspan="2"|

Legend
 * }

Group 12, by modern IUPAC numbering, is a group of chemical elements in the periodic table. It includes zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and copernicium (Cn). Formerly this group was named IIB (pronounced as "group two B", as the "II" is a Roman numeral) by CAS and old IUPAC system.

The three group 12 elements that occur naturally are zinc, cadmium and mercury. They are all widely used in electric and electronic applications, as well as in various alloys. The first two members of the group share similar properties as they are solid metals under standard conditions. Mercury is the only metal that is known to be a liquid at room temperature – as copernicium's boiling point has not yet been measured accurately enough, it is not yet known whether it is a liquid or a gas under standard conditions. While zinc is very important in the biochemistry of living organisms, cadmium and mercury are both highly toxic. As copernicium does not occur in nature, it has to be synthesized in the laboratory.

Physical and atomic properties
Like other groups of the periodic table, the members of group 12 show patterns in its electron configuration, especially the outermost shells, which result in trends in their chemical behavior:

The group 12 elements are all soft, diamagnetic, divalent metals. They have the lowest melting points among all transition metals. Zinc is bluish-white and lustrous, though most common commercial grades of the metal have a dull finish. Zinc is also referred to in nonscientific contexts as spelter. Cadmium is soft, malleable, ductile, and with a bluish-white color. Mercury is a liquid, heavy, silvery-white metal. It is the only common liquid metal at ordinary temperatures, and as compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity.

The table below is a summary of the key physical properties of the group 12 elements. The data for copernicium is based on relativistic density-functional theory simulations.

Zinc is somewhat less dense than iron and has a hexagonal crystal structure. The metal is hard and brittle at most temperatures but becomes malleable between 100 and 150 C. Above 210 C, the metal becomes brittle again and can be pulverized by beating. Zinc is a fair conductor of electricity. For a metal, zinc has relatively low melting (419.5 C) and boiling points (907 C). Cadmium is similar in many respects to zinc but forms complex compounds. Unlike other metals, cadmium is resistant to corrosion and as a result it is used as a protective layer when deposited on other metals. As a bulk metal, cadmium is insoluble in water and is not flammable; however, in its powdered form it may burn and release toxic fumes. Mercury has an exceptionally low melting temperature for a d-block metal. A complete explanation of this fact requires a deep excursion into quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electronic configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d and 6s subshells. As such configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury behaves similarly to noble gas elements, which form weak bonds and thus easily melting solids. The stability of the 6s shell is due to the presence of a filled 4f shell. An f shell poorly screens the nuclear charge that increases the attractive Coulomb interaction of the 6s shell and the nucleus (see lanthanide contraction). The absence of a filled inner f shell is the reason for the somewhat higher melting temperature of cadmium and zinc, although both these metals still melt easily and, in addition, have unusually low boiling points. Gold has atoms with one less 6s electron than mercury. Those electrons are more easily removed and are shared between the gold atoms forming relatively strong metallic bonds.

Zinc, cadmium and mercury form a large range of alloys. Among the zinc containing ones, brass is an alloy of zinc and copper. Other metals long known to form binary alloys with zinc are aluminium, antimony, bismuth, gold, iron, lead, mercury, silver, tin, magnesium, cobalt, nickel, tellurium and sodium. While neither zinc nor zirconium are ferromagnetic, their alloy exhibits ferromagnetism below 35 K. Cadmium is used in many kinds of solder and bearing alloys, due to a low coefficient of friction and fatigue resistance. It is also found in some of the lowest-melting alloys, such as Wood's metal. Because it is a liquid, mercury dissolves other metals and the alloys that are formed are called amalgams. For example, such amalgams are known with gold, zinc, sodium, and many other metals. Because iron is an exception, iron flasks have been traditionally used to trade mercury. Other metals that do not form amalgams with mercury include tantalum, tungsten and platinum. Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam reacts with air to give aluminium oxide, small amounts of mercury corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it forming an amalgam with exposed aluminium parts in the aircraft.

Chemistry
Most of the chemistry has been observed only for the first three members of the group 12. The chemistry of copernicium is not well established and therefore the rest of the section deals only with zinc, cadmium and mercury.

Periodic trends
All elements in this group are metals. The similarity of the metallic radii of cadmium and mercury is an effect of the lanthanide contraction. So, the trend in this group is unlike the trend in group 2, the alkaline earths, where metallic radius increases smoothly from top to bottom of the group. All three metals have relatively low melting and boiling points, indicating that the metallic bond is relatively weak, with relatively little overlap between the valence band and the conduction band. Thus, zinc is close to the boundary between metallic and metalloid elements, which is usually placed between gallium and germanium, though gallium participates in semi-conductors such as gallium arsenide.

Zinc and cadmium are electropositive while mercury is not. As a result, zinc and cadmium metal are good reducing agents. The elements of group 12 have an oxidation state of +2 in which the ions have the rather stable d10 electronic configuration, with a full sub-shell. However, mercury can easily be reduced to the +1 oxidation state; usually, as in the ion, two mercury(I) ions come together to form a metal-metal bond and a diamagnetic species. Cadmium can also form species such as [Cd2Cl6]4− in which the metal's oxidation state is +1. Just as with mercury, the formation of a metal-metal bond results in a diamagnetic compound in which there are no unpaired electrons; thus, making the species very reactive. Zinc(I) is known mostly in the gas phase, in such compounds as linear Zn2Cl2, analogous to calomel. In the solid phase, the rather exotic compound decamethyldizincocene (Cp*Zn–ZnCp*) is known.

Classification
The elements in group 12 are usually considered to be d-block elements, but not transition elements as the d-shell is full. Some authors classify these elements as main-group elements because the valence electrons are in ns2 orbitals. Nevertheless, they share many characteristics with the neighboring group 11 elements on the periodic table, which are almost universally considered to be transition elements. For example, zinc shares many characteristics with the neighboring transition metal, copper. Zinc complexes merit inclusion in the Irving-Williams series as zinc forms many complexes with the same stoichiometry as complexes of copper(II), albeit with smaller stability constants. There is little similarity between cadmium and silver as compounds of silver(II) are rare and those that do exist are very strong oxidizing agents. Likewise the common oxidation state for gold is +3, which precludes there being much common chemistry between mercury and gold, though there are similarities between mercury(I) and gold(I) such as the formation of linear dicyano complexes, [M(CN)2]−. According to IUPAC's definition of transition metal as an element whose atom has an incomplete d sub-shell, or which can give rise to cations with an incomplete d sub-shell, zinc and cadmium are not transition metals, while mercury is. This is because only mercury is known to have a compound where its oxidation state is higher than +2, in mercury(IV) fluoride (though its existence is disputed, as later experiments trying to confirm its synthesis could not find evidence of HgF4). However, this classification is based on one highly atypical compound seen at non-equilibrium conditions and is at odds to mercury's more typical chemistry, and Jensen has suggested that it would be better to regard mercury as not being a transition metal.

Relationship with the alkaline earth metals
Although group 12 lies in the d-block of the modern 18-column periodic table, the d electrons of zinc, cadmium, and (almost always) mercury behave as core electrons and do not take part in bonding. This behavior is similar to that of the main-group elements, but is in stark contrast to that of the neighboring group 11 elements (copper, silver, and gold), which also have filled d-subshells in their ground-state electron configuration but behave chemically as transition metals. For example, the bonding in chromium(II) sulfide (CrS) involves mainly the 3d electrons; that in iron(II) sulfide (FeS) involves both the 3d and 4s electrons; but that of zinc sulfide (ZnS) involves only the 4s electrons and the 3d electrons behave as core electrons. Indeed, useful comparison can be made between their properties and the first two members of group 2, beryllium and magnesium, and in earlier short-form periodic table layouts, this relationship is illustrated more clearly. For instance, zinc and cadmium are similar to beryllium and magnesium in their atomic radii, ionic radii, electronegativities, and also in the structure of their binary compounds and their ability to form complex ions with many nitrogen and oxygen ligands, such as complex hydrides and amines. However, beryllium and magnesium are small atoms, unlike the heavier alkaline earth metals and like the group 12 elements (which have a greater nuclear charge but the same number of valence electrons), and the periodic trends down group 2 from beryllium to radium (similar to that of the alkali metals) are not as smooth when going down from beryllium to mercury (which is more similar to that of the p-block main groups) due to the d-block and lanthanide contractions. It is also the d-block and lanthanide contractions that give mercury many of its distinctive properties.

Compounds
All three metal ions form many tetrahedral species, such as. Both zinc and cadmium can also form octahedral complexes such as the aqua ions [M(H2O)6]2+ which are present in aqueous solutions of salts of these metals. Covalent character is achieved by using the s and p orbitals. Mercury, however, rarely exceeds a coordination number of four. Coordination numbers of 2, 3, 5, 7 and 8 are also known.

History
The elements of group 12 have been found throughout history, being used since ancient times to being discovered in laboratories. The group itself has not acquired a trivial name, but it has been called group IIB in the past.

Zinc
Zinc has been found being used in impure forms in ancient times as well as in alloys such as brass that have been found to be over 2000 years old. Zinc was distinctly recognized as a metal under the designation of Fasada in the medical Lexicon ascribed to the Hindu king Madanapala (of Taka dynasty) and written about the year 1374. The metal was also of use to alchemists. The name of the metal was first documented in the 16th century, and is probably derived from the German zinke for the needle-like appearance of metallic crystals.

The isolation of metallic zinc in the West may have been achieved independently by several people in the 17th century. German chemist Andreas Marggraf is usually given credit for discovering pure metallic zinc in a 1746 experiment by heating a mixture of calamine and charcoal in a closed vessel without copper to obtain a metal. Experiments on frogs by the Italian doctor Luigi Galvani in 1780 with brass paved the way for the discovery of electrical batteries, galvanization and cathodic protection. In 1799, Galvani's friend, Alessandro Volta, invented the Voltaic pile. The biological importance of zinc was not discovered until 1940 when carbonic anhydrase, an enzyme that scrubs carbon dioxide from blood, was shown to have zinc in its active site.

Cadmium
In 1817, cadmium was discovered in Germany as an impurity in zinc carbonate minerals (calamine) by Friedrich Stromeyer and Karl Samuel Leberecht Hermann. It was named after the Latin cadmia for "calamine", a cadmium-bearing mixture of minerals, which was in turn named after the Greek mythological character, Κάδμος Cadmus, the founder of Thebes. Stromeyer eventually isolated cadmium metal by roasting and reduction of the sulfide.

In 1927, the International Conference on Weights and Measures redefined the meter in terms of a red cadmium spectral line (1 m = 1,553,164.13 wavelengths). This definition has since been changed (see krypton). At the same time, the International Prototype Meter was used as standard for the length of a meter until 1960, when at the General Conference on Weights and Measures the meter was defined in terms of the orange-red emission line in the electromagnetic spectrum of the krypton-86 atom in vacuum.

Mercury

Mercury has been found in Egyptian tombs which have been dated back to 1500 BC, where mercury was used in cosmetics. It was also used by the ancient Chinese who believed it would improve and prolong health. By 500 BC mercury was used to make amalgams (Medieval Latin amalgama, "alloy of mercury") with other metals. Alchemists thought of mercury as the First Matter from which all metals were formed. They believed that different metals could be produced by varying the quality and quantity of sulfur contained within the mercury. The purest of these was gold, and mercury was called for in attempts at the transmutation of base (or impure) metals into gold, which was the goal of many alchemists.

Hg is the modern chemical symbol for mercury. It comes from hydrargyrum, a Latinized form of the Greek word Ύδραργυρος (hydrargyros), which is a compound word meaning "water-silver" (hydr- = water, argyros = silver) — since it is liquid like water and shiny like silver. The element was named after the Roman god Mercury, known for speed and mobility. It is associated with the planet Mercury; the astrological symbol for the planet is also one of the alchemical symbols for the metal. Mercury is the only metal for which the alchemical planetary name became the common name.

Copernicium
The heaviest known group 12 element, copernicium, was first created on February 9, 1996, at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany, by Sigurd Hofmann, Victor Ninov et al. It was then officially named by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) after Nicolaus Copernicus on February 19, 2010, the 537th anniversary of Copernicus' birth.

Occurrence
Like in most other d-block groups, the abundance in Earth's crust of group 12 elements decreases with higher atomic number. Zinc is with 65 parts per million (ppm) the most abundant in the group while cadmium with 0.1 ppm and mercury with 0.08 ppm are orders of magnitude less abundant. Copernicium, as a synthetic element with a half-life of a few minutes, may only be present in the laboratories where it was produced.

Group 12 metals are chalcophiles, meaning the elements have low affinities for oxides and prefer to bond with sulfides. Chalcophiles formed as the crust solidified under the reducing conditions of the early Earth's atmosphere. The commercially most important minerals of group 12 elements are sulfide minerals. Sphalerite, which is a form of zinc sulfide, is the most heavily mined zinc-containing ore because its concentrate contains 60–62% zinc. No significant deposits of cadmium-containing ores are known. Greenockite (CdS), the only cadmium mineral of importance, is nearly always associated with sphalerite (ZnS). This association is caused by the geochemical similarity between zinc and cadmium which makes geological separation unlikely. As a consequence, cadmium is produced mainly as a byproduct from mining, smelting, and refining sulfidic ores of zinc, and, to a lesser degree, lead and copper. One place where metallic cadmium can be found is the Vilyuy River basin in Siberia. Although mercury is an extremely rare element in the Earth's crust, because it does not blend geochemically with those elements that constitute the majority of the crustal mass, mercury ores can be highly concentrated considering the element's abundance in ordinary rock. The richest mercury ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury (12,000 times average crustal abundance). It is found either as a native metal (rare) or in cinnabar (HgS), corderoite, livingstonite and other minerals, with cinnabar being the most common ore.

While mercury and zinc minerals are found in large enough quantities to be mined, cadmium is too similar to zinc and therefore is always present in small quantities in zinc ores from where it is recovered. Identified world zinc resources total about 1.9 billion tonnes. Large deposits are in Australia, Canada and the United States with the largest reserves in Iran. At the current rate of consumption, these reserves are estimated to be depleted sometime between 2027 and 2055. About 346 million tonnes have been extracted throughout history to 2002, and one estimate found that about 109 million tonnes of that remains in use. In 2005, China was the top producer of mercury with almost two-thirds global share followed by Kyrgyzstan. Several other countries are believed to have unrecorded production of mercury from copper electrowinning processes and by recovery from effluents. Because of the high toxicity of mercury, both the mining of cinnabar and refining for mercury are hazardous and historic causes of mercury poisoning.

Production
Zinc is the fourth most common metal in use, trailing only iron, aluminium, and copper with an annual production of about 10 million tonnes. Worldwide, 95% of the zinc is mined from sulfidic ore deposits, in which sphalerite (ZnS) is nearly always mixed with the sulfides of copper, lead and iron. Zinc metal is produced using extractive metallurgy. Roasting converts the zinc sulfide concentrate produced during processing to zinc oxide: For further processing two basic methods are used: pyrometallurgy or electrowinning. Pyrometallurgy processing reduces zinc oxide with carbon or carbon monoxide at 950 C into the metal, which is distilled as zinc vapor. The zinc vapor is collected in a condenser. Electrowinning processing leaches zinc from the ore concentrate by sulfuric acid: After this step electrolysis is used to produce zinc metal.

Cadmium is a common impurity in zinc ores, and it is most isolated during the production of zinc. Some zinc ores concentrates from sulfidic zinc ores contain up to 1.4% of cadmium. Cadmium is isolated from the zinc produced from the flue dust by vacuum distillation if the zinc is smelted, or cadmium sulfate is precipitated out of the electrolysis solution.

The richest mercury ores contain up to 2.5% mercury by mass, and even the leanest concentrated deposits are at least 0.1% mercury, with cinnabar (HgS) being the most common ore in the deposits. Mercury is extracted by heating cinnabar in a current of air and condensing the vapor.

Superheavy elements such as copernicium are produced by bombarding lighter elements in particle accelerators that induces fusion reactions. Whereas most of the isotopes of copernicium can be synthesized directly this way, some heavier ones have only been observed as decay products of elements with higher atomic numbers. The first fusion reaction to produce copernicium was performed by GSI in 1996, who reported the detection of two decay chains of copernicium-277 (though one was later retracted, as it had been based on data fabricated by Victor Ninov):

Applications
Due to the physical similarities which they share, the group 12 elements can be found in many common situations. Zinc and cadmium are commonly used as anti-corrosion (galvanization) agents as they will attract all local oxidation until they completely corrode. These protective coatings can be applied to other metals through by hot-dip galvanizing a substance into the molten form of the metal, or through the process of electroplating which may be passivated by the use of chromate salts. Group 12 elements are also used in electrochemistry as they may act as an alternative to the standard hydrogen electrode in addition to being a secondary reference electrode.

In the US, zinc is used predominantly for galvanizing (55%) and for brass, bronze and other alloys (37%). The relative reactivity of zinc and its ability to attract oxidation to itself makes it an efficient sacrificial anode in cathodic protection (CP). For example, cathodic protection of a buried pipeline can be achieved by connecting anodes made from zinc to the pipe. Zinc acts as the anode (negative terminus) by slowly corroding away as it passes electric current to the steel pipeline. Zinc is also used to cathodically protect metals that are exposed to sea water from corrosion. Zinc is also used as an anode material for batteries such as in zinc–carbon batteries or zinc–air battery/fuel cells. A widely used alloy which contains zinc is brass, in which copper is alloyed with anywhere from 3% to 45% zinc, depending upon the type of brass. Brass is generally more ductile and stronger than copper and has superior corrosion resistance. These properties make it useful in communication equipment, hardware, musical instruments, and water valves. Other widely used alloys that contain zinc include nickel silver, typewriter metal, soft and aluminium solder, and commercial bronze. Alloys of primarily zinc with small amounts of copper, aluminium, and magnesium are useful in die casting as well as spin casting, especially in the automotive, electrical, and hardware industries. These alloys are marketed under the name Zamak. Roughly one quarter of all zinc output, in the United States (2009), is consumed in the form of zinc compounds, a variety of which are used industrially.

Cadmium has many common industrial uses as it is a key component in battery production, is present in cadmium pigments, coatings, and is commonly used in electroplating. In 2009, 86% of cadmium was used in batteries, predominantly in rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. The European Union banned the use of cadmium in electronics in 2004 with several exceptions but reduced the allowed content of cadmium in electronics to 0.002%. Cadmium electroplating, consuming 6% of the global production, can be found in the aircraft industry due to the ability to resist corrosion when applied to steel components.

Mercury is used primarily for the manufacture of industrial chemicals or for electrical and electronic applications. It is used in some thermometers, especially ones which are used to measure high temperatures. A still increasing amount is used as gaseous mercury in fluorescent lamps, while most of the other applications are slowly phased out due to health and safety regulations, and is in some applications replaced with less toxic but considerably more expensive Galinstan alloy. Mercury and its compounds have been used in medicine, although they are much less common today than they once were, now that the toxic effects of mercury and its compounds are more widely understood. It is still used as an ingredient in dental amalgams. In the late 20th century the largest use of mercury was in the mercury cell process (also called the Castner-Kellner process) in the production of chlorine and caustic soda.

Copernicium has no use other than research due to its very high radioactivity.

Biological role and toxicity
The group 12 elements have multiple effects on biological organisms as cadmium and mercury are toxic while zinc is required by most plants and animals in trace amounts.

Zinc is an essential trace element, necessary for plants, animals, and microorganisms. It is "typically the second most abundant transition metal in organisms" after iron and it is the only metal which appears in all enzyme classes. There are 2–4 grams of zinc distributed throughout the human body, and it plays "ubiquitous biological roles". A 2006 study estimated that about 10% of human proteins (2800) potentially bind zinc, in addition to hundreds which transport and traffic zinc. In the U.S., the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) is 8 mg/day for women and 11 mg/day for men. Harmful excessive supplementation may be a problem and should probably not exceed 20 mg/day in healthy people, although the U.S. National Research Council set a Tolerable Upper Intake of 40 mg/day.

Mercury and cadmium are toxic and may cause environmental damage if they enter rivers or rain water. This may result in contaminated crops as well as the bioaccumulation of mercury in a food chain leading to an increase in illnesses caused by mercury and cadmium poisoning.

title: Group 12 element


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List of bookstore chains

This is a list of bookstore chains with brick-and-mortar locations.

In the United Kingdom and many parts of the English speaking world, they are known as "Bookshops" and "newsagents".

In American English, they are called "bookstores", or sometimes "newsstands", as they also usually carry newspapers and magazines. This list includes both current and defunct businesses, and also includes large independent bookstores that have multiple locations, but that use a different business model than most business chains.

Australia

 * Angus & Robertson
 * Borders - defunct
 * Collins Booksellers
 * Dymocks Booksellers
 * Koorong
 * Queensland Book Depot
 * The Co-op Bookshop - defunct
 * WHSmith

Brazil

 * Livraria Cultura

Canada

 * Archambault
 * Book City
 * Chapters
 * Coles
 * Indigo Books and Music
 * Kobo eBookstore
 * McNally Robinson
 * Renaud-Bray

China

 * Joint Publishing
 * Page One
 * Popular
 * The Commercial Press

Estonia

 * Rahva Raamat

Finland

 * Academic Bookstore (Akateeminen Kirjakauppa, Akademiska bokhandeln)
 * Suomalainen Kirjakauppa ("The Finnish Bookstore")

France

 * Fnac - 78 stores with book departments in France, 65 in 8 other countries
 * Hachette Distribution Services
 * Furet du Nord

Germany

 * Hugendubel - 34 book-department-stores
 * Thalia
 * Weltbild - includes Weltbild Plus, Weltbild, Weltbild best, Jokers, Wohlthat (circa 350-400 shops)

Greece

 * Ianos

Iceland

 * Eymundsson

India

 * A. H. Wheeler
 * Crossword Bookstores
 * DC Books
 * Higginbotham's
 * Landmark Bookstores
 * Odyssey
 * Oxford Bookstore
 * Sapna Book House

Indonesia

 * Gramedia
 * Gunung Agung

Ireland

 * Eason & Son
 * Hodges Figgis - part of the UK Waterstone's brand

Israel

 * Comikaza - former chain, still exists as a stand-alone store
 * Steimatzky
 * Tzomet Sfarim

Italy

 * Feltrinelli
 * Arnoldo Mondadori Editore

Japan

 * Book Off
 * Books Kinokuniya
 * Culture Convenience Club - operates Tsutaya Bookstores
 * Libro
 * Yurindo

Korea, South

 * Jongno Seojeok - bankrupt, and name changed to Bandi & Luni's when re-opened
 * Kyobo Book Centre
 * Young Poong Books

Latvia

 * Valters un Rapa

Malaysia

 * MPH Group - operates MPH Bookstores
 * myNEWS.com
 * Popular
 * Times Bookstores

Mexico

 * Fondo de Cultura Económica
 * Librerias Gandhi - 28 bookstores
 * Librería Porrúa

Netherlands

 * Audax Groep - Operates Amsterdamsche Kiosk Onderneming (AKO), Bruna, and Read Shop
 * De Slegte – small independent chain

New Zealand

 * Paper Plus
 * Whitcoulls

Pakistan

 * Ferozsons

Philippines

 * National Book Store
 * Rex Book Store

Poland

 * Empik
 * Kolporter

Portugal

 * Livraria Bertrand

Saudi Arabia

 * Jarir Bookstore

Singapore

 * Page One
 * Popular
 * Times Bookstores

South Africa

 * Exclusive Books

Switzerland

 * Orell Füssli

Taiwan

 * Eslite Bookstore

Thailand

 * Asia Books
 * Dokya
 * Naiin

United Kingdom

 * Blackwell's - owned by Waterstones since 2022
 * Borders UK - defunct in December 2009
 * Daunt Books
 * Dillons the Bookstore - all stores were rebranded as Waterstones in 1999
 * Foyles - owned by Waterstones since 2018
 * Ottakar's - bought out by HMV, rebranded as Waterstones in 2006
 * The Works
 * WHSmith
 * Waterstones

United States

 * Amazon Books - defunct 2022
 * Barnes & Noble
 * B. Dalton - defunct 2013
 * Bookmans
 * Books-A-Million - 2nd & Charles
 * Borders Books and Music - closed all locations in 2011
 * Brentano's - closed all locations in 2011
 * Crown Books - closed all locations in 2001
 * Deseret Book - also operates Seagull Book
 * Encore Books - defunct 1999
 * Family Christian Stores - closed all locations in 2017
 * Follett's
 * Half Price Books
 * Hastings Entertainment - closed all locations in 2016
 * Hudson Group - chiefly located at airports and train stations
 * Joseph-Beth Booksellers - also operates Davis-Kidd Booksellers in Nashville and Memphis
 * Kroch's and Brentano's - defunct 1995
 * Media Play - defunct 2006
 * Powell's Books - world's largest independent new and used bookstore
 * Schuler Books & Music
 * Tattered Cover
 * Waldenbooks - defunct 2011

title: List of bookstore chains


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Transboundary protected area

A transboundary protected area (TBPA) is an ecological protected area that spans boundaries of more than one country or sub-national entity. Such areas are also known as transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs) or peace parks.

TBPAs exist in many forms around the world, and are established for various reasons. The preservation of traditional animal migration patterns, ensuring sufficient food and water sources for population growth, is a critical reason for the creation of TBPAs. However, TBPAs also encourage tourism, economic development and goodwill between neighbouring countries, as well as making it easier for indigenous inhabitants of the area to travel.

Types of transboundary protected areas
TBPAs exist in various types of geographic configuration, with various levels of ecological protection, and with various levels of international cooperation. Additionally, different organizations employ different definitions for TBPAs. Julia Marton-Lefevre broadly defines TBPAs as "areas that involve a degree of cooperation across one or more boundaries between (or within) countries." The Southern Africa Development Community's Protocol on Wildlife Conservation and Law Enforcement defines Transfrontier Conservation Area as "the area or the component of a large ecological region that straddles the boundaries of two or more countries, encompassing one or more protected areas, as well as multiple resources use areas." The Global Transboundary Protected Areas Network (GTPAN) lists four types of "transboundary conservation areas:"

 * Type 1: transboundary protected area;
 * Type 2: transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape;
 * Type 3: transboundary conservation migration area; and
 * Special designation: park for peace.

GTPAN defines a transboundary protected area as "a clearly defined geographical space that includes protected areas that are ecologically connected across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation." GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation landscape and/or seascape as "an ecologically connected area that includes both protected areas and multiple resource use areas across one or more international boundaries and involves some form of cooperation."

GTPAN defines a transboundary conservation migration area as "wildlife habitats in two or more countries that are necessary to sustain populations of migratory species and involve some form of cooperation."

GTPAN defines a "park for peace" as "any of the three types of transboundary conservation areas [that is] dedicated to the promotion, celebration and/or commemoration of peace and cooperation."

In many instances, individual TBPAs are part of broader international environmental or cultural programs. TBPAs can be World Heritage Sites, Ramsar Wetlands, and/or UNESCO Biosphere Reserves.

History of transboundary protected areas
In 1932, the governments of Canada and the United States passed legislation creating the first international peace park: Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park. This action followed from a joint resolution of the Rotary Clubs of Montana and Alberta calling for the creation of the peace park.

On 1 February 1997, Anton Rupert, together with Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands and Nelson Mandela, founded the Peace Parks Foundation as a nonprofit organisation to facilitate the establishment of transfrontier conservation areas (TFCAs).

A 2001 study by the World Conservation Union found "there were 166 existing transboundary protected area complexes worldwide comprising 666 individual conservation zones."

In 2007, the Global Transboundary Conservation Network published a global inventory of transboundary protected areas identifying 227 transboundary protected areas.

Transboundary World Heritage Sites

 * Maloti-Drakensberg Park is a World Heritage Site on the border of Lesotho and South Africa. Sehlabathebe National Park in Lesotho and uKahlamba Drakensberg Park form the core of the site.
 * Mosi-oa-Tunya/Victoria Falls is a World Heritage Site on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.
 * Mount Nimba Strict Nature Reserve is a World Heritage Site on the border of Côte d'Ivoire and Guinea.
 * Sangha Trinational is a World Heritage Site on the borders of Cameroon, the Central African Republic, and the Republic of Congo. Lobeke National Park, Dzanga-Ndoki National Park, and Nouabale-Ndoki National Park in the respective nations comprise the core of the site, with additional forested buffer zones extending beyond the parks. A Trinational Monitoring and Action Committee provides ministerial level coordination between the nations.
 * Virunga Volcanoes Transboundary Conservation Area is a UNESCO World Heritage complex on the border of Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda and Uganda. It is partially composed of Democratic Republic of Congo's Virunga National Park, Uganda's Rwenzori Mountains National Park and Queen Elizabeth National Park, and Rwanda's Volcanoes National Park.
 * W-Arly-Pendjari is a World Heritage Site on the borders of Niger, Burkina Faso, and Benin. The site is also designated as a Ramsar wetland and a UNESCO biosphere reserve.

Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands

 * Complexe Kokorou-Namga is a transfrontier Ramsar wetland between Burkina Faso and Mali.
 * Complexe Transfrontalier Lac Tele-Grands Affluents-Lac Tumba is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Congo and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
 * Niumi-Saloum is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Gambia and Senegal. It is composed of Niumi National Park in Gambia and Delta du Saloum National Park in Senegal.
 * A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex covers Lake Chad, composed of sites in Niger, Chad, Nigeria, and Cameroon.
 * Zone Humide du Moyen is a transfrontier Ramsar wetland on the border of Benin and Nigeria.

Transboundary Biosphere Reserves

 * Delta du Fleuve Senegal is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Mauritania and Senegal.
 * Mono is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Benin and Togo.

Transboundary Conservation Complexes

 * ǀAi-ǀAis/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Namibia and South Africa.
 * Chimanimani Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation area on the border of Mozambique and Zimbabwe, made up of Mozambique's Chimanimani National Reserve and Zimbabwe's Chimanimani National Park.
 * Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Zimbabwe. It is partially composed of Mozambique's Limpopo National Park, South Africa's Kruger National Park and Zimbabwe's Gonarezhou National Park and Sengwe Corridor.
 * Greater Mapungubwe is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe.
 * Kavango Zambezi is a transboundary conservation complex on the borders of Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe. It is the world's largest TBPA and encompasses the Mosi-oa-Tunya World Heritage site listed above.
 * Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Botswana and South Africa.
 * Kidepo is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of South Sudan and Uganda. It is composed of South Sudan's Kidepo Game Reserve and Uganda's Kidepo Valley National Park.
 * Kilimanjaro is a transboundary conservation complex centered around Mount Kilimanjaro and on the border of Kenya and Tanzania. It is composed of Tanzania's Kilimanjaro National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage site, and Kenya's Amboseli National Park.
 * Lower Zambezi - Mana Pools is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Zambia and Zimbabwe.
 * Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation Area is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Mozambique, South Africa and Eswatini.
 * Malawi-Zambia TFCA is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Malawi and Zambia. It crosses the border at multiple locations.
 * Niokolo Koba-Badiar is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Guinea and Senegal.
 * Serengeti-Masai is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Kenya and Tanzania.
 * A transboundary conservation complex crosses the border of Burkina Faso and Côte d'Ivoire. It is composed partially of a Ramsar wetland in Burkina Faso and the National Park of Comoe in Côte d'Ivoire.
 * The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
 * Liberia and Sierra Leone;
 * Guinea and Liberia;
 * Côte d'Ivoire and Liberia;
 * Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana at three locations;
 * Cameroon and Nigeria at two locations;
 * Cameroon and Equatorial Guinea;
 * Central African Republic and Sudan;
 * Congo and Gabon;
 * Democratic Republic of the Congo and what is now South Sudan;
 * What is now South Sudan and Uganda;
 * Kenya and Uganda;
 * Kenya and Somalia;
 * Burundi and Rwanda;
 * Rwanda and Tanzania;
 * Tanzania and Uganda;
 * Tanzania and Zambia;
 * Mozambique and Tanzania; and
 * Angola and Namibia.

Asia

 * Govater Bay and Hur-e-Bahu - Jiwani Coastal Wetland is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Iran and Pakistan.
 * Hamun-e-Puzak, south end - Hamun-e-Saberi & Hamun-e-Helmand is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Afghanistan and Iran.
 * Landscapes of Dauria is a World Heritage Site on the border of Mongolia and Russia on the Daurian Steppe. It is composed of Dornod Mongol Biosphere Reserve in Mongolia and Daursky Nature Reserve in Russia.
 * Labi Hills/Gunung Pulu Transboundary Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Brunei and Malaysia.
 * The Lanjak Entimau/Batang/Ai/Betung Kerihun Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Indonesia and Malaysia. The countries have two additional TBPAs on their border.
 * Taxkorgan is a transboundary protected area on the border of Afghanistan, China, and Pakistan. Afghanistan's Wahan National Park, China's Taxkorgan Nature Reserve, and Pakistan's Khunjerab National Park form the site.
 * Turtle Island Heritage Protected Area (also known as Turtle Islands Wildlife Sanctuary) is a transboundary protected area between Malaysia and the Philippines.
 * Uvs Nuur Basin is a World Heritage Site on the border of Mongolia and Russia covering Uvs Nuur Lake and protecting its wetlands. Mongolia and Russia have two more bilateral TBPAs on their border.
 * Wasur-Tonda Transboundary Conservation Area is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Indonesia and Papua New Guinea.
 * The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists an additional 49 TBPAs in Asian nations.
 * The Heart of Borneo is a transboundary protected area on the island of Borneo which includes the nations of Brunei, Malaysia, and Indonesia.

Transboundary World Heritage Sites

 * Bialowieza Forest is a World Heritage Site on the border of Belarus and Poland.
 * Caves of Aggtelek Karst and Slovak Karst is a World Heritage Site on the border of Slovakia and Hungary. It is formed by Aggtelek National Park in Hungary and Slovak Karst National Park in Slovakia. The site protects 712 karstic caves for ecology, paleontology and tourism.
 * Curonian Spit is a World Heritage Site on the border of Lithuania and Russia. Lithuania's Curonian Spit National Park and Russia's Kurshskaya National Park form the site.
 * Monte San Giorgio is a World Heritage Site on the border of Italy and Switzerland.
 * Muskauer Park/Park Muzakowski is a World Heritage Site on the border of Germany and Poland. The site preserves a historically significant landscape park originally created in the 19th century.
 * Pyrenees-Mont Perdu is a World Heritage Site on the border of France and Spain. France's Pyrenees National Park and Spain's Parque Nacional de Ordesa y Monte Perdido form the core of the site.
 * Rhaetian Railway in the Albula/Bernina Landscapes is a World Heritage Site in Italy and Switzerland.
 * Wadden Sea is a World Heritage Site running through the maritime territories of Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands. It is composed of multiple national parks across the participating nations, covering the world's largest contiguous system of mudflats and intertidal sand. The Trilateral Cooperation on the Protection of the Wadden Sea coordinates the site's conservation. Wadden Sea is also designated as a transboundary Ramsar wetland.

Transboundary Ramsar Wetlands

 * Adutiškis-Vileity is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.
 * Austrian-Bavarian Wildalm is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Austria and Germany.
 * Baradla Cave System and Domica Ramsar Sites are cooperatively managed transboundary wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia. This was the first declaration of a transboundary wetland under the Ramsar Convention.
 * Bistret-Ibisha Island is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. It is composed of Ibisha Island in Bulgaria and Bistret in Romania.
 * Gornje Podunavije - Gemenc - Kopacki Rit is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Croatia, Hungary and Serbia.
 * Ipoly Valley and Poiplie are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Hungary and Slovakia.
 * Kotra and Čepkelai are transboundary Ramsar wetlands on the border of Belarus and Lithuania.
 * Krkonose/Karkonosze subalpine peatbogs is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of the Czech Republic and Poland. The site is also a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve.
 * Lake Calarasi-Srebarna is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. Srebarna Nature Reserve is the Bulgarian component of this complex and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 * Mannavuoma - Lätäseno-Hietajoki Mire is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Finland and Sweden.
 * North Livonian Transboundary Ramsar Site is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Estonia and Latvia. It is composed of Nigula Nature Reserve and Sookuninga Nature Reserve in Estonia and Northern Bogs in Latvia.
 * Olmany-Perebrody mires is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Ukraine.
 * Prespa Basin is a cooperatively managed Ramsar wetland on the border of Albania, Greece and Macedonia.
 * Rhin supérieur/Oberrhein—Oberrhein/Rhin supérieur is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of France and Germany. It is composed of Rhin superieur/Oberrhein in France and Oberrhein/Rhin superieur in Germany.
 * Stokhid-Prypiat-Prostyr is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belarus and Ukraine. It is composed of the Prostyr site in Belarus and the Prypiat River Floodplains and Stokhid River Floodplains in Ukraine.
 * Storkölen-Kvisleflået is a transboundary Ramsar complex on the border of Sweden and Norway.
 * Suhaia-Belene Islands Complex is a transboundary Ramsar site on the border of Bulgaria and Romania. It is composed of Belene Islands Complex in Bulgaria and Suhaia in Romania.
 * Trilateral Ramsar Site Floodplains of the Morava-Dyje-Danube Confluence is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border Austria, the Czech Republic, and Slovakia.
 * Transboundary Ramsar Site Neusiedler See-Seewinkel-Ferto-Hansag is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Austria and Hungary.
 * Upper Tisza Valley is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Hungary and Slovakia. It is composed of the Feslo-Tisza site in Hungary and the Tisa River site in Slovakia.
 * Vallée de la Haute-Sure is a transboundary Ramsar wetland on the border of Belgium and Luxembourg, composed of sites of the same name in both countries.

Transboundary Biosphere Reserves
Of the world's twenty transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserves, twelve are in Europe. Spain, Portugal, Poland, and Ukraine each contribute to three reserves.
 * Danube Delta is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Romania and Ukraine.
 * East Carpathians is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Poland, Slovakia, and Ukraine.
 * Geres - Xures is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
 * Meseta Iberica is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
 * Mont Viso / Area della Biosfera del Monviso is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Italy.
 * Mura Drava Danube is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Croatia and Hungary.
 * Tatra is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Slovakia and Poland.
 * Tejo/Tajo Internacional is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Portugal and Spain.
 * Vosges du Nord / Pfalzerwald is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of France and Germany.
 * West Polesie is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the borders of Belarus, Poland, and Ukraine.

Transboundary Conservation Complexes

 * The European Green Belt running along the former Iron Curtain is considered a peace park.
 * A peace park has been established in the Red Sea between Israel and Jordan.
 * Interprovincial Park of Montoni (Livorno/Grosseto, Italy)

Canada and the United States

 * Kluane/Wrangell-St. Elias/Glacier Bay/Tatshenshini-Alsek is a World Heritage Site on the border of Canada and the United States. It is composed of Kluane National Park and Reserve in the Yukon Territory, Wrangell-St.Elias National Park and Glacier Bay National Park in Alaska, and Tatshenshini-Alsek Provincial Park in British Columbia. The site includes the world's largest non-polar ice field.
 * Klondike Gold Rush International Historical Park – Alaska, Washington, British Columbia and Yukon
 * The Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park across the United States/Canada border was the first peace park in the Americas, formed by the merger of Waterton Lakes and Glacier National Parks in 1932. In contrast to other peace parks, the primary purpose of the union was to serve as a symbol of friendship and peace between the two countries.
 * Roosevelt Campobello International Park – Maine, United States/New Brunswick, Canada
 * Peace Arch Park, lies on the British Columbia/Washington border, and is famous for the Peace Arch, a large peace structure straddling the border itself.
 * The border of Canada and the United States has multiple additional transboundary conservation complexes, including complexes composed of:
 * Canada's Ivvavik National Park and Vuntut National Park, the Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation, and the United States' Arctic National Wildlife Refuge;
 * British Columbia's Chilliwack Lake Provincial Park, Skagit Valley Provincial Park, and EC Manning Provincial Park, and the United States' Mt. Baker-Snoqualmie National Forest, North Cascades National Park, and Ross Lake National Recreation Area;
 * North Dakota's Lake Metigoshe State Park, Manitoba's Turtle Mountain Provincial Park, the United States' Rabb Lake National Wildlife Refuge and the International Peace Garden; and
 * Ontario's Sandpoint Island Provincial Park and Quetico Provincial Park, the United States' Voyageurs National Park and Superior National Forest, and Minnesota's Kabetogama State Forest.

Canadian interprovincial Parks

 * Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park (Alberta–Saskatchewan)
 * Kakwa-Willmore Interprovincial Park (Alberta–British Columbia)
 * Manitoba–Ontario Interprovincial Wilderness Area
 * Parc linéaire interprovincial Petit Témis (Quebec–New Brunswick)

United States interstate parks

 * Interstate Park (Minnesota–Wisconsin)
 * Palisades Interstate Park (New York–New Jersey)
 * Breaks Interstate Park (Kentucky–Virginia)

Mexico and the United States

 * Dry Borders-Sonoran Desert Biosphere Reserve Network is a transboundary conservation complex composed of Mexico's El Picante y Gran Desierto de Altar Biosphere Reserve and the United States' Organ Pipe Cactus National Monument.
 * El Carmen-Big Bend Complex is a transboundary conservation complex composed of Mexico's Parque Nacional Canon de Santa Elena and Area Natural Protegida Maderas del Carmen, the United States' Big Bend National Park, and Texas' Big Bend Ranch State Park.

Latin America

 * Maya Tropical Forest Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Belize, Guatemala and Mexico. It is partly composed of Guatemala's Sierra Del Lacandon National Park, Laguna del Tigre National Park, El Mirador and Maya Biosphere Reserve, Mexico's Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, and Belize's Rio Bravo Conservation and Management Area.
 * Montecristo Trifinio Transboundary Protected Area Complex (also known as Trifinio Fraternidad) is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve on the border of El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. It is composed of El Salvador's Montecristo National Park, Guatemala's Trifinio Biosphere Reserve, and Honduras' Montecristo Trifinio National Park.
 * Parque Internacional La Amistad is a UNESCO World Heritage Site on the border of Costa Rica and Panama. A bi-national Transboundary Protected Area Commission coordinates conservation efforts in the area.
 * San Juan River Basin is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Costa Rica and Nicaragua. It is composed of Costa Rica's Tortuguero National Park and Barra del Colorado Wildlife Refuge, and Nicaragua's Reserva Biologica Indio Maiz and Reserva Natural Punta Gorda.
 * Volcan Tacana is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve on the border of Guatemala and Mexico.
 * A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex lies on the border of Costa Rica and Panama, and is composed of the Jairo Mora Sandoval Gandoca-Manzanillo Mixed Wildlife Refuge site in Costa Rica and the San San-Pond Sak site in Panama. The Global Transboundary Conservation Network includes this site as part of Parque International La Amsted in its 2007 global inventory.
 * A transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex lies on the on border of Belize and Guatemala, and is composed of Belize's Reserva de Usos Multiples Rio Sarstun and Guatemala's Sarstoon Temash National Park.
 * The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
 * Belize, Guatemala, Honduras and Mexico;
 * Guatemala and Honduras; and
 * Honduras and Nicaragua at two locations.

 * Cordillera del Condor is a transboundary protected area on the border of Ecuador and Peru. It is composed of Ecuador's Parque Nacional Podocarpus and Peru's Zona Reservada Santiago-Comaina. The countries agreed to create the protected area as part of a settlement to a border conflict in the 1990s.
 * Glaciares-Torres del Paine-O'Higgins Complex is a transboundary conservation complex on the border of Argentina and Chile. It is composed of Chile's O'Higgins National Park and Torres del Paine National Park and Argentina's Los Glaciares National Park.
 * Iguacu-Iguazu is a transboundary World Heritage complex on the border of Argentina and Brazil. It is composed of Argentina's Iguazu National Park and Brazil's Iguaçu National Park.
 * Lago Titicaca is a transboundary Ramsar wetlands complex on the border of Bolivia and Peru.
 * The Global Transboundary Conservation Network's 2007 inventory lists additional TBPAs on the borders of:
 * Colombia and Venezuela;
 * Brazil and Colombia;
 * Colombia, Ecuador and Peru;
 * Brazil and Venezuela;
 * French Guiana and Suriname;
 * Brazil and Suriname;
 * Brazil and Peru;
 * Bolivia and Brazil;
 * Bolivia, Brazil and Paraguay;
 * Argentina and Brazil;
 * Bolivia and Chile;
 * Argentina, Bolivia and Chile;
 * Argentina and Bolivia at two locations;
 * Bolivia and Paraguay; and
 * Argentina and Chile at four locations.

Intercontinental TBPAs

 * Great Atlay is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere reserve crossing the border of Kazakhstan and Russia.
 * Intercontinental Biosphere Reserve of the Mediterranean is a transboundary UNESCO biosphere crossing the border of Morocco and Spain. It is a contiguous site, combining land in Morocco and Spain connected by the Strait of Gibraltar.
 * A transboundary UNESCO World Heritage complex is on the border of Colombia and Panama. It is composed primarily of Colombia's Los Katios National Park and Panama's Darien National Park.

Areas in the conceptual phase
TBPA advocates by 2006 had identified additional sites for protection. Professor Saleem Ali of the University of Vermont noted that "numerous ecologically sensitive areas remain unprotected" and cites a 2006 "geographic information systems (GIS) study" that "found 104 transboundary wild areas involving 61 countries that are not formally part of any conservation park." Specific sites for proposed TBPAs include:

 * Liuwa Plain – Kameia TFCA (Angola/Zambia)
 * Niassa Reserve – Selous TFCA (Mozambique/Tanzania)
 * Mnazi Bay – Quirimbas Transfrontier Marine Conservation Area (Mozambique/Tanzania)
 * The demilitarised zone between North and South Korea is a potential TBPA/peace park. Professor Salem Ali notes that the DMZ has "become a sanctuary for wildlife, since there is no development activity occurring in the area." Nelson Mandela traveled to South Korea to promote such an idea. Ted Turner likewise traveled to the Korean peninsula to promote the idea in 2005.
 * The Siachen Glacier region between India and Pakistan has been proposed as a peace park.
 * A project for the Green Line Peace Park in Cyprus, between the Turkish Cypriot and Greek Cypriot territories, is being researched by Dr Anna Grichting at Harvard University.

As awareness of the importance of conserving the pristinity and ecology of Arctic region has increased, there has been a global call to declare the Arctic region as a global sanctuary/international peace park. The Save the Arctic campaign by Greenpeace, an environmental nonprofit organisation, has received online support from more than 5 million citizens from around the world.

Areas with treaty signed

 * Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park (Botswana/South Africa), opened on 12 May 2000.
 * Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park (Namibia/South Africa) (see also Nama people: Namaqua and Ai-Ais Hot Springs), signed on 17 August 2001.
 * Great Limpopo Transfrontier Park, signed on 10 November 2000.

Memorandums of agreement signed

 * Limpopo-Shashe TFCA (Botswana/South Africa/Zimbabwe), originally signed on 22 June 2006. Now renamed, see: Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area.
 * Lubombo Transfrontier Conservation and Resource Area (Mozambique/South Africa/Eswatini)
 * Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Conservation and Development Area (Lesotho/South Africa), signed on 11 June 2001.
 * Iona – Skeleton Coast Transfrontier Conservation Area (Angola and Namibia), signed on 3 May 2018.
 * Kavango–Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA) (Angola, Botswana, Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe), signed on 7 December 2006. This will be the world's largest peace park, covering areas in 5 different countries.
 * Malawi – Zambia TFCA (Malawi/Zambia), signed on 13 August 2004.
 * Chimanimani TFCA (Mozambique/Zimbabwe)

Impacts on peace and conflict
Transboundary protected areas are also termed peace parks. They are supposed to facilitate cooperation and exchange between (adversary) countries, to improve livelihoods of local populations, to demonstrate the possibility of positive-sum interactions, and hence to support more peaceful international relations. There are several cases documented in which trans-boundary conservation contributed to conflict resolution (although it was not the main driver), such as in the Virunga region between the DR Congo, Rwanda and Uganda, around the Trifinio region between El Salvador and Honduras, and in the Cordillera del Cóndor region between Ecuador and Peru. According to a statistical analysis published in 2014, states that share a trans-boundary protected area are slightly less likely to engage with militarized disputes with each other. But the question remains whether the TBPA is a driver or consequence on better interstate relations in these cases. A more recent analysis triangulates data from various sources to show that international environmental cooperation (in the form of TBPAs and water treaties) increases the likelihood for reconciliation between states in conflict. The effect is, however, modest and contingent on a number of context factors such as high levels of environmental attention, internal political stability, a tradition of environmental cooperation and already ongoing processes of reconciliation.

However, a number of authors criticize that peace parks have a very limited impact on formal relations between states, but can accelerate conflicts on the local level, for instance by extending (authoritarian) state control, by prioritizing business and tourism over the interests of local populations, and by excluding local people from the protected areas. TBPAs can also stimulate (low-level) international conflicts, for instance about the sharing of revenues or the presence of human populations in the parks.

Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management
A Massive Online Open Course on Peace Park Development and Management was developed by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD), its Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative in partnership with UNDP and the NBSAP Forum. This free three-week course offered in five languages: English, French, Spanish, Russian and Arabic. Financial support is provided by the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity's Peace and Biodiversity Dialogue Initiative funded by the Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Korea.

This course will:
 * offer a comprehensive guide on Peace Park establishment;
 * teach participants to make a strong case for Peace Park development;
 * develop the skills to effectively plan, establish and manage Peace Parks;
 * address the challenges associated with the creation and management of these transboundary protected areas.

The course is designed for Peace Park development practitioners and environmental peacebuilding enthusiasts but is open to everyone. Participants must create an account on Learning for Nature before registering for the course.

title: Transboundary protected area


text:
Group 10 element

! colspan=2 style="text-align:left;" | ↓ Period ! 4 ! 5 ! 6 ! 7
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Legend
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Group 10, numbered by current IUPAC style, is the group of chemical elements in the periodic table that consists of nickel (Ni), palladium (Pd), platinum (Pt), and darmstadtium (Ds). All are d-block transition metals. All known isotopes of darmstadtium are radioactive with short half-lives, and are not known to occur in nature; only minute quantities have been synthesized in laboratories.

Chemical properties
The ground state electronic configurations of palladium and platinum are exceptions to Madelung's rule. According to Madelung's rule, the electronic configuration of palladium and platinum are expected to be [Kr] 5s2 4d8 and [Xe] 4f14 6d2 5d8 respectively. However, the 5s orbital of palladium is empty, and the 6s orbital of platinum is only partially filled. The relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital is the explanation to the predicted electron configuration of darmstadtium, which, unusually for this group, conforms to that predicted by the Aufbau principle. In general, the ground state electronic configurations of heavier atoms and transition metals are more difficult to predict.

Group 10 elements are observed in oxidation states of +1 to +4. The +2 oxidation state is common for nickel and palladium, while +2 and +4 are common for platinum. Oxidation states of -2 and -1 have also been observed for nickel and platinum, and an oxidation state of +5 has been observed for palladium and platinum. Platinum has also been observed in oxidations states of -3 and +6. Theory suggests that platinum may produce a +10 oxidation state under specific conditions, but this remains to be shown empirically.

Physical properties
Darmstadtium has not been isolated in pure form, and its properties have not been conclusively observed; only nickel, palladium, and platinum have had their properties experimentally confirmed. Nickel, platinum, and palladium are typically silvery-white transition metals, and can also be readily obtained in powdered form. They are hard, have a high luster, and are highly ductile. Group 10 elements are resistant to tarnish (oxidation) at STP, are refractory, and have high melting and boiling points.

Occurrence and production
Nickel occurs naturally in ores, and it is the earth's 22nd most abundant element. Two prominent groups of ores from which it can be extracted are laterites and sulfide ores. Indonesia holds the world's largest nickel reserve, and is also its largest producer.

Nickel
The use of nickel, often mistaken for copper, dates as far back as 3500 BCE. Nickel has been discovered in a dagger dating to 3100 BCE, in Egyptian iron beads, a bronze reamer found in Syria dating to 3500–3100 BCE, as copper-nickel alloys in coins minted in Bactria, in weapons and pots near the Senegal river, and as agricultural tools used by Mexicans in the 1700s. There is evidence to suggest that the use of nickel in antiquity came from meteoric iron, such as in the Sumerian name for iron an-bar ("fire from heaven") or in Hittite texts that describe iron's heavenly origins. Nickel was not formally named as an element until A. F. Cronstedt isolated the impure metal from "kupfernickel" (Old Nick's copper) in 1751.  In 1804, J. B. Richter determined the physical properties of nickel using a purer sample, describing the metal as ductile and strong with a high melting point. The strength of nickel-steel alloys were described in 1889 and since then, nickel steels saw extensive use first for military applications and then in the development of corrosion- and heat-resistant alloys during the 20th century.

Palladium
Palladium was isolated by William Hyde Wollaston in 1803 while he was working on refining platinum metals. Palladium was in a residue left behind after platinum was precipitated out of a solution of hydrochloric acid and nitric acid as (NH4)PtCl6. Wollaston named it after the recently discovered asteroid 2 Pallas and anonymously sold small samples of the metal to a shop, which advertised it as a "new noble metal" called "Palladium, or New Silver". This raised doubts about its purity, source, and the identity of its discoverer, causing controversy. He eventually identified himself and read his paper on the discovery of palladium to the Royal Society in 1805.

Platinum
Prior to its formal discovery, platinum was used in jewelry by native Ecuadorians of the province of Esmeraldas. The metal was found in small grains mixed with gold in river deposits, which the workers sintered with gold to form small trinkets such as rings. The first published report of platinum was written by Antonio de Ulloa, a Spanish mathematician, astronomer, and naval officer who observed "platina" (little silver) in the gold mines of Ecuador during a French expedition in 1736. Miners found the "platina" difficult to separate from gold, leading to the abandonment of those mines. Charles Wood (ironmaster) brought samples of the metal to England in 1741 and investigated its properties, observing its high melting point and its presence as small white grains in black metallic sand. Interest in the metal grew after Wood's findings were reported to the Royal Society. Henrik Teofilus Scheffer, a Swedish scientist, referred to the precious metal as "white gold" and the "seventh metal" in 1751, reporting its high durability, high density, and that it melted easily when mixed with copper or arsenic. Both Pierre-François Chabaneau (during the 1780s) and William Hyde Wollaston (during the 1800s) developed a powder metallurgy technique to produce malleable platinum, but kept their process a secret. However, their platinum ingots were brittle and tended to crack easily, likely due to impurities. In the 1800s, furnaces capable of sustaining high temperatures were invented, which eventually replaced powder metallurgy and introduced melted platinum to the market.

Applications
The group 10 metals share several uses. These include:
 * Decorative purposes, in the form of jewelry and electroplating.
 * Catalysts in a variety of chemical reactions.
 * Metal alloys.
 * Electrical components, due to their predictable changes in electrical resistivity with regard to temperature.
 * Superconductors, as components in alloys with other metals.

Biological role and toxicity
Platinum complexes are commonly used in chemotherapy as anticancer drugs due to their antitumor activity. Palladium complexes also show marginal antitumor activity, yet its poor activity is labile compared to platinum complexes.

title: Group 10 element


text:
User talk:58carlyauyeung

Welcome
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Again, welcome! - Mark Richards 03:21, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:58carlyauyeung


text:
The Case of the Constant Suicides

The Case of the Constant Suicides, first published in 1941, is a detective story by John Dickson Carr. Like much of Dickson Carr's work, this novel is a locked room mystery, in addition to being a whodunnit. Unlike most of the other Dr. Fell novels, this story has a high humour level, reminiscent of the Henry Merrivale works.

Plot summary
Members of a large and widespread Scottish family are brought together at a highland castle in order to resolve various pieces of family business following a death. Suspicious events soon begin to occur, the body count rises, and a verdict of suicide is not necessarily to be trusted. Enter the gargantuan Doctor Gideon Fell, who applies his substantial powers of deduction to the problem of how men can be indirectly murdered while they're inside locked, sealed and inaccessible rooms.

Characters in "The Case of the Constant Suicides"

 * Gideon Fell – medical doctor and amateur detective, protagonist
 * Dr. Alan Campbell (M.A. Oxon, Ph.D. Harvard) – professor of history
 * Dr. Kathryn Campbell – teaches history at the Harpenden College for Women
 * Dr. Colin Campbell
 * Miss Elspat Campbell
 * Charles E. Swan
 * Alec Forbes
 * Alistair Duncan
 * Walter Chapman
 * Jock Fleming

Literary significance and criticism
"This has been called 'Carr at his best' by someone in the Saturday Review. The statement is true, for this tale offers a few characters and a few problems that are soberly and adroitly dealt with, instead of being enveloped in a mixture of highjinks and red herrings as the author likes to do with his good situations and brilliant solutions."

title: The Case of the Constant Suicides