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Alice's Restaurant

"Alice's Restaurant Massacree", commonly known as "Alice's Restaurant", is a satirical talking blues song by singer-songwriter Arlo Guthrie, released as the title track to his 1967 debut album Alice's Restaurant. The song is a deadpan protest against the Vietnam War draft, in the form of a comically exaggerated but largely true story from Guthrie's own life: while visiting acquaintances in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, he is arrested and convicted of dumping trash illegally, which later endangers his suitability for the military draft. The title refers to a restaurant owned by one of Guthrie's friends, artist Alice Brock. Although Brock is a minor character in the story, the restaurant plays no role in it aside from being the subject of the chorus and the impetus for Guthrie's visit.

The song inspired the 1969 film Alice's Restaurant, which starred Guthrie and took numerous liberties with the story. The work has become Guthrie's signature song and he has periodically re-released it with updated lyrics. In 2017, it was selected for preservation in the National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".

Characteristics
The song consists of a protracted spoken monologue, with a constantly repeated fingerstyle Piedmont blues ragtime guitar backing and light brush-on-snare drum percussion (the drummer on the record is uncredited). This is bookended by a short chorus about the titular diner. Guthrie has used the brief "Alice's Restaurant" bookends and guitar backing for other monologues bearing the Alice's Restaurant name.

The track lasts 18 minutes and 34 seconds, occupying the entire A-side of the Alice's Restaurant album. Due to Guthrie's rambling and circuitous telling with unimportant details, it has been described as a shaggy dog story.

Guthrie refers to the incident as a "massacree", a colloquialism originating in the Ozark Mountains that describes "an event so wildly and improbably and baroquely messed up that the results are almost impossible to believe". It is a corruption of the word massacre, but carries a much lighter and more sarcastic connotation, rather than describing anything involving actual death.

Prologue
Guthrie states that the song is titled "Alice's Restaurant" but clarifies that this is only the name of the song, not the business owned by his friend Alice. He then sings the chorus, which is in the form of a jingle for the restaurant, beginning with "You can get anything you want at Alice's restaurant" twice, and continuing with directions to it before restating the slogan once more.

Part One
Guthrie recounts events that took place in 1965 (two years prior to the time of the original recording), when he and a friend spent Thanksgiving Day at a deconsecrated church on the outskirts of Stockbridge, Massachusetts, which their friends Alice and Ray Brock had been using as a home. As a favor to them, Guthrie and the friend volunteered to take their large accumulation of garbage to the local dump in their VW Microbus, not realizing until they arrived there that the dump would be closed for the holiday. They eventually noticed another pile of trash that had previously been dumped off a cliff near a side road, and added theirs to the accumulation before returning to the church for Thanksgiving dinner.

The next morning, the church received a phone call from the local policeman, Officer Obie, saying that an envelope in the garbage pile had been traced back to them. Guthrie, stating "I cannot tell a lie" and with tongue in cheek, confessed that he "put that envelope underneath" the garbage. He and his friend drove to the police station, expecting a verbal reprimand and to be required to clean up the garbage, but they were instead arrested, handcuffed, and taken to the scene of the crime. There, Obie and a crew of police officers from the surrounding areas collected extensive forensic evidence of the litter, including "twenty-seven 8-by-10 color glossy pictures with circles and arrows and a paragraph on the back of each one explaining what each one was, to be used as evidence against us" amid a media circus of local media trying to get news stories on the littering. The young men were briefly jailed, with Obie taking drastic precautions to prevent Guthrie from escaping or committing suicide. After a few hours, Alice bailed them out and held another Thanksgiving dinner.

Guthrie and his friend stood trial the next day. When Obie saw that the judge relied upon a seeing-eye dog, he realized that the officers' meticulous work had been foiled by a literal "case of American blind justice", as the judge would not be able to see the evidence. Guthrie and his friend paid a $50 fine to the court and were ordered to pick up the garbage, in the snow.

Part Two
Guthrie then states that the littering incident was "not what I came to tell you about" and shifts to another story, this one based at the Army Building on Whitehall Street in New York City as Guthrie appeared for a physical exam related to the Vietnam War draft. He tried various strategies to be found unfit for military service, including getting drunk the night before so he was hung over, and attempting to convince the psychiatrist that he was homicidal, which only earned him praise.

After several hours, Guthrie was asked whether he had ever been convicted of a crime. He nodded, began to tell his story, and was sent to the "Group W" bench to file for a moral waiver. The other convicts ("mother-rapers... father-stabbers... father-rapers") were initially put off that his conviction had been for littering, but accepted him when he added "and creating a nuisance". When Guthrie noticed one of the questions on the paperwork asked whether he had rehabilitated himself since the crime, he noted the irony of having to prove himself reformed from a crime of littering when the realities of war were often far more brutal. The officer in charge of the induction process commented, "We don't like your kind", rejecting Guthrie and sending his fingerprints to the federal government to be put on file.

Epilogue
In the final part of the song, Guthrie explains to the live audience that anyone finding themselves in a similar situation should walk into the military psychiatrist's office, sing the opening line from the chorus and walk out. He predicts that a single person doing it would be rejected as "sick" and that two people doing it, in harmony, would be rejected as "faggots", but that once three people started doing it they would begin to suspect "an organization" and 50 people a day would be recognized as "the Alice's Restaurant Anti-Massacree Movement". As he continues fingerpicking, he invites the audience to sing the chorus along with him "the next time it comes around on the guitar". When they do so, Guthrie claims that their singing "was horrible", and challenges them to sing it with him "with four-part harmony and feeling". Guthrie and the crowd then sing the chorus, and the song concludes.

Development
Guthrie cited the long-form monologues of Lord Buckley and Bill Cosby, and the movies of Charlie Chaplin, as inspirations for the song's lyrics, and a number of different musicians (in particular Mississippi John Hurt) as inspirations for the Piedmont fingerstyle guitar accompaniment, noting that he took about "two seconds" to come up with the accompaniment because he wanted something easy to play mindlessly while narrating the story. The song was written as the events happened over the course of approximately one year; it grew out of a simple joke riff Guthrie had been working on in 1965 and 1966 before he appeared before the draft board (the opening was originally written as "you can hide from Obanhein at Alice's restaurant", which is how the restaurant got tied into the original story), and he later added his experience before the draft board to create the song as it is known today. Additional portions of the song were written during one of Guthrie's many stays with the English songwriter and music journalist Karl Dallas and his family in London. Guthrie sent a demo recording of the song to his father Woody Guthrie on his deathbed; it was, according to a "family joke", the last thing Woody heard before he died in October 1967. Because of the song's length, Guthrie never expected it to be released, because such extended monologues were extremely rare in an era when singles were typically less than three minutes.

1960s
"Alice's Restaurant" was first performed publicly with Guthrie singing live on Radio Unnameable, the overnight program hosted by Bob Fass that aired on New York radio station WBAI, one evening in 1966. The initial performance was part of an impromptu supergroup at the WBAI studios that included David Bromberg, Jerry Jeff Walker and Ramblin' Jack Elliot. Guthrie performed the song several times live on WBAI in 1966 and 1967 before its commercial release. The song proved so popular that at one point Fass (who was known for playing songs he liked over and over again in his graveyard slot) started playing a recording of one of Guthrie's live performances of the song repeatedly; eventually the non-commercial station rebroadcast it only when listeners pledged to donate a large amount of money. (Fass subverted it and occasionally asked for donations to get him to stop playing the recording.)

"Alice's Restaurant" was performed on July 17, 1967, at the Newport Folk Festival in a workshop or breakout section on "topical songs", where it was such a hit that he was called upon to perform it for the entire festival audience. The song's success at Newport and on WBAI led Guthrie to record it in front of a studio audience in New York City and release it as side one of the album Alice's Restaurant in October 1967.

The original album spent 16 weeks on the Billboard 200 album chart, peaking at #29 during the week of March 2, 1968, then reentered the chart on December 27, 1969, after the film version was released, peaking that time at #63. In the wake of the film version, Guthrie recorded a more single-friendly edit of the chorus in 1969. Titled "Alice's Rock & Roll Restaurant", it included three verses, all of which advertise the restaurant, and a fiddle solo by country singer Doug Kershaw; to fit the song on a record, the monologue was removed, bringing the song's length to 4:43. This version, backed with "Ring Around the Rosy Rag" (a cut from the Alice's Restaurant album), peaked at #97 on the Billboard Hot 100, and #64 in Canada. Because the single did not reach the popularity of the full version, which did not qualify for the Hot 100 because of its length, Billboard officially classifies Guthrie as a one-hit wonder for his later hit "City of New Orleans".

After the release of the original album, Guthrie continued to perform the song in concert, regularly revising and updating the lyrics. In 1969, for instance, he performed a 20-minute rendition of the song that, instead of the original narrative, told a fictional story of how Russian and Chinese military operatives attempted to weaponize "multicolored rainbow roaches" they had found at Alice's restaurant, and the Lyndon Johnson administration orchestrated a plan for the nation to defend itself. A recording of this version titled "Alice: Before Time Began" was released in 2009 on a CD distributed by Guthrie's Rising Son Records label; another recording of this version, titled "The Alice's Restaurant Multicolored Rainbow Roach Affair", was also released on that label.

Developing tradition
It has become a tradition for many classic rock and adult album alternative radio stations to play the song each Thanksgiving. Despite its mention of the slur "faggots", radio stations generally present the song as originally recorded, and the Federal Communications Commission has never punished a station for playing it. When performing the song in later years, Guthrie began to change the line to something less offensive and often topical: during the 1990s and 2000s, the song alluded to the Seinfeld episode "The Outing" by saying "They'll think you're gay—not that there's anything wrong with that," and in 2015, Guthrie used the line "They'll think they're trying to get married in some parts of Kentucky", a nod to the controversy of the time surrounding county clerk Kim Davis.

By the late 1970s, Guthrie had removed the song from his regular concert repertoire. In 1984, Guthrie, who was supporting George McGovern's ultimately unsuccessful comeback bid for the Democratic presidential nomination, revived "Alice's Restaurant" to protest the Reagan Administration's reactivation of the Selective Service System registrations. That version has not been released on a commercial recording; at least one bootleg of it from one of Guthrie's performances exists. It was this tour, which occurred near the 20th anniversary of the song (and continued as a general tour after McGovern dropped out of the race), that prompted Guthrie to return the song to his playlist every ten years, usually coinciding with the anniversary of either the song or the incident. The 30th anniversary version of the song includes a follow-up recounting how he learned that Richard Nixon had owned a copy of the song, and he jokingly suggested that this explained the famous 18½-minute gap in the Watergate tapes.

Guthrie rerecorded his entire debut album for his 1997 CD Alice's Restaurant: The Massacree Revisited, on the Rising Son label, which includes this expanded version. The 40th anniversary edition, performed at and released as a recording by the Kerrville Folk Festival, made note of some parallels between the 1960s and the Iraq War and George W. Bush administration. Guthrie revived the song for the 50th anniversary edition in 2015, which he expected would be the last time he would do so. In 2018, Guthrie began the "Alice's Restaurant: Back by Popular Demand" Tour, reuniting with members of his 1970s backing band Shenandoah. The tour, which features Guthrie's daughter Sarah Lee Guthrie as the opening act, was scheduled to wrap up in 2020. To justify bringing the song back out of its usual ten-year sequence, he stated that he was doing so to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the film version of the song. The tour ended in 2019 and was later confirmed to have been Guthrie's last; he suffered a career-ending stroke in November of that year and announced his retirement in October 2020.

Artist's reflections
In a 2014 interview with Rolling Stone, Guthrie said he believed there are such things as just wars, and that the message of this song was targeted at the Vietnam War in particular. Interviews with Ron Bennington in 2009 and NPR in 2005 describe the song not so much as anti-war but as "anti-stupidity". Guthrie considered the song as relevant in 2015 as it was in 1965, particularly in that millennials and Generation Z were, much like the Baby Boomers of his era, beginning to coalesce as a bloc in opposition to the "very sophisticated manipulation" from major authority figures and institutions of the era, something that Guthrie believed Baby Boomers would find familiar.

Historicity
Most of the events of the story are true; the littering incident was recorded in the local newspaper at the time it happened, and although Guthrie made some minor embellishments, the persons mentioned in the first half of the story all granted interviews on the subject, mostly verifying that part of the story. The second half of the story does not have as much specific corroborating evidence to support it; the public exposure of COINTELPRO in 1971 confirmed that the federal government was collecting personal information on anti-war protesters as Guthrie alleged, and Guthrie's father was known to have been on the FBI watchlists due to his Communist sympathies.

Alice, Ray and the restaurant
The Alice in the song was restaurant-owner Alice May Brock (born 1941). In 1962, shortly after dropping out of Sarah Lawrence College, Alice used $2,000 supplied by her mother to purchase a deconsecrated church in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, where Alice and her husband, Ray Brock (1929–August 1, 1979), would live. Alice was a painter and designer, while Ray was an architect and woodworker who originally was from Hartfield, Virginia; the two had met while in Greenwich Village in 1962. Both worked at a nearby private academy, the music and art-oriented Stockbridge School, from which Guthrie (then of Howard Beach, a neighborhood in Queens, New York City) had graduated. Alice Brock operated a restaurant called "The Back Room" in 1966, at 40 Main Street in Stockbridge, located behind a grocery store and directly underneath the studios of Norman Rockwell. The Back Room was already closed by the time the song was released; it ceased operations in April 1966. (Theresa's Stockbridge Café was last known to occupy the site; the café's sign makes note that the space was "formerly Alice's Restaurant". Theresa's was closed by 2022, but the sign pointing to the restaurant remained. ) After a breakup and abortive reconciliation, Alice divorced Ray in 1968; she went on to launch two more restaurants (a take-out window in Housatonic in 1971 and a much larger establishment in Lenox in the late 1970s) before leaving the restaurant business in 1979. Ray returned to Virginia after the divorce and took on various projects until his death in 1979.

Alice owned an art studio and gallery in Provincetown, Massachusetts, until 2016. She illustrated the 2004 children's book Mooses Come Walking, written by Guthrie, and authored and illustrated another, How to Massage Your Cat.

In 1969, Random House published The Alice's Restaurant Cookbook (ISBN 039440100X) which featured recipes and hippie wisdom from Alice Brock, as well as photos of Alice and Guthrie, and publicity stills from the movie. A tear-out record was included in the book with Brock and Guthrie bantering on two tracks, "Italian-Type Meatballs" and "My Granma's Beet Jam".

Brock, Guthrie and Robbins reunited for Thanksgiving dinner in 2022, the first time all three of them had been together for Thanksgiving since the events depicted in the song (Guthrie has typically gone south for the winter but chose to stay in Massachusetts that year). Guthrie said of the experience: "We had a nice Thanksgiving (, but) once was enough."

The church

The church, originally built as the St. James Chapel in 1829, was enlarged in 1866 and renamed Trinity Church. Ray and Alice Brock purchased the property in 1964 and made it their home. Alice sold the building shortly after the film adaptation was released, commenting that the song and film had brought a great deal of unwanted publicity. The building changed ownership several times in the 1970s and 1980s until Guthrie bought the facility in 1991 and converted it to the Guthrie Center, a nondenominational, interfaith meeting place.

In the main chapel area is a stage on which Officer Obie's chair sits as a reminder of the arrest. A set of private rooms in which Alice and Ray once lived remains.

In later years, the Guthrie Center became a folk music venue, hosting a Thursday evening hootenanny as well as the Troubadour Concert series annually from Memorial Day to Labor Day. Musical guests have included John Gorka, Tom Paxton, Ellis Paul, Tom Rush, The Highwaymen folk group and Arlo Guthrie. The Troubadour series helps to support the church's free community lunch program which is held at the church every Wednesday at noon. On Thanksgiving, the church hosts a "Thanksgiving dinner that can't be beat" for the local community. The annual "Garbage Trail Walk", retracing the steps of Arlo and folksinger Rick Robbins (as told in the song), raises money for Huntington's disease research.

The folding table on which Guthrie had written the first lines of "Alice's Restaurant" remains in Alice Brock's possession, the only item she still has from her time in the area.

The littering incident
The incident which Guthrie recounts in the first half of the song was reported in The Berkshire Eagle on November 29, 1965. It describes the conviction of Richard J. Robbins, age 19, and Arlo Guthrie, age 18, for illegally disposing of rubbish, and a fine of $25 each, plus an order to remove the trash. The arresting officer was Stockbridge police chief William J. Obanhein ("Officer Obie"), and the trial was presided over by Special Judge James E. Hannon. It identifies the incriminating evidence as an envelope addressed to a male resident of Great Barrington (presumably Ray Brock) rather than Guthrie. In a 1972 interview with Playboy's Music Scene, Obanhein denied handcuffing Guthrie and Robbins. He also said the real reason there was no toilet seat in the jail cell was to prevent such items from being stolen, not as a suicide deterrent as Guthrie had joked. Guthrie also admitted in 2020 that the police photographs were in black-and-white, not in color. The Microbus that Guthrie and Robbins used to dispose of the garbage was eventually scrapped; the Guthrie Center later acquired a replica that Guthrie occasionally drives.

The draft
The Armed Forces Examination and Entrance Station was part of a large complex at 39 Whitehall Street in New York City from 1884 to 1969. By the late 1960s, the building had become a target for anti-war protesters, and two bombings left minor damage to the building, prompting the building to be vacated. The building has since been repurposed as a mixed-use development and its address changed (it is now 3 New York Plaza).

The brief mention of "faggots" being rejected for military service in the song's epilogue was based on military policy at the time, which rejected all homosexuals and expelled anyone caught engaging in homosexual behavior with a section 8 dishonorable discharge. The policy was modified in 1993 and fully repealed in 2012.

Guthrie acknowledged that he was never in danger of being drafted because he had been given a high draft number. A fellow friend commented that he and Guthrie were "not going to get called unless there's a squirrel invasion in New Hampshire."

Legacy
Alice's Restaurant of Sky Londa, California, founded in the 1960s, was originally founded by Alice Taylor with no connection to Alice Brock. Subsequent owners of the restaurant kept the original name as a homage to the song, eventually adding a "Group W bench," because the name had made the restaurant a tourist attraction that was "good for business."

Smalltalk the programming language was written around the same time. The song played a minor role that lives on today. The choices to adopt some of the language in the song has spread to other languages that may not even know that Alice's Restaurant helped to inspire. The lyrics: "They got a building down New York City, it’s called Whitehall Street, Where you walk in, you get injected, inspected, detected, infected, Neglected and selected." helped shape the programming methods #inject #inspect #detect, #select.

Feature film
The song was adapted into the 1969 movie Alice's Restaurant, directed and co-written by Arthur Penn, who had heard the song in 1967 while living in Stockbridge and immediately wanted to make the song into a movie. Guthrie appears as himself, with Pat Quinn as Alice Brock and James Broderick as Ray Brock, William Obanhein and James Hannon appearing as themselves, and Alice Brock making a cameo appearance.

The film was released in August 1969, a few days after Guthrie appeared at the Woodstock Festival, and a soundtrack album was released by United Artists Records. The soundtrack includes a studio version of "Alice's Restaurant", which was originally divided into two parts (one for each album side). A compact disc reissue on the Rykodisc label presents this version in full and adds several bonus tracks to the original LP.

title: Alice's Restaurant


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Sipi Falls

Sipi Falls is a series of three waterfalls located on the north-western slopes of the eponymous extinct volcano, Mount Elgon, in Uganda, with views over the Karamoja plains. The falls are situated to the northeast of Sironko and Mbale, adjacent to Mount Elgon National Park, which is located 1.7 kilometers (1 mile) away from the Kenyan border. The falls account for 10% to 20% of all tourist visits to Uganda every year. At its highest point, the largest of the three waterfalls, known as Sipi Falls, stands at 95 meters (312 feet) high. The middle waterfall – known as Simba Falls, lies further upstream to the east. This waterfall has a drop of 74 m (243 ft). Further uphill is the third waterfall, known as Ngasire Falls, with a drop of approximately 85 m (262 ft).

Location
The falls are located two miles northeast of the town of Sipi, 273.6 km (170 mi) northeast of the Ugandan capital of Kampala. The falls were formed by the Sipi River flowing from the upper slopes of Mount Elgon, and terminate in the Lake Kyoga basin.

Name origin
The term "Sipi" is thought to have its origins in the local word sep, which denotes an indigenous plant resembling a wild banana after the Sipi River. This plant is commonly found along the Sipi riverbank and is characterized by its translucent, green fronds featuring a crimson rib, giving it an appearance reminiscent of a wild banana. The plant is also used as a medicine for treating fevers and measles by the local people in the area.

Economy
The Sipi Falls area grows Bugisu Arabica coffee, which is profitable for the local people.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sipi Falls


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Talk:Casimir element

comments
need to disambiguate rank. there is currently no page for the rank of a Lie algebra/Lie group. does this deserve its own page? or is it better explained in the Lie algebra and Lie group articles?Lethe 02:04, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Formulation
Added the precise formulation for the case of semisimple Lie algebras, but unsure what modification is required in other possible cases -  Most sources (Knapp, Helgason, & Jacobson) appear to only consider the semisimple case. Dmaher 01:09, 8 July 2006 (UTC)

Cleanup & Expert tags
I have added "cleanup" and "expert" tags to the article for the following reasons. Currently (16:24, 11 July 2006 (UTC)) what the article discusses, and the introduction defines, is just a quadratic (second-order) Casimir operator. This is just one of many possible Casimir operators, although perhaps the most common and best known (especially in physical applications). General Lie algebras can possess other, higher-dimensional Casimir operators. A more general definition should be given by someone who is an expert on this topic. 131.111.8.98 16:24, 11 July 2006 (UTC)
 * Well, one thing is definitely missing: the article completely sidesteps the issue where do these operators actually "live" — it should be the (center of) the universal enveloping algebra, although of course, they induce an operator in any its representation. As for "higher Casimir operators", this terminology is rarely used in representation theory, at least within mathematics. I can think of only one major book, Zhelobenko's "Compact Lie groups and their representations", AMS Translations, vol 40, 1973, which employs this terminology. I know that the convention is different in physics literature, where the term "Casimir operator" may refer to more general elements of the center of the universal enveloping algebra. In that case, though, they are called "Higher Casimir elements" or something similar. I think the problem partly arises from the following incorrect sentence in the universal enveloping algebra article:
 * Under this representation, the elements of U(L) invariant under the action of L (i.e. such that any element of L acting on them gives zero) are called invariant elements. They are generated by the Casimir invariants.
 * Arcfrk 11:32, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

 * The usage "higher", while perhaps rare in mathematics, is common in physics, and is used to distinguish the quadratic case from more complex invariants, e.g. on supersymmetric manifolds, etc.

 * Anyway, I'm removing the "needs expert attention" tags; by the criteria given, 98% of all math articles on WP need "expert attention".

 * FWIW, my PhD thesis had the words "Casimir operator" in its subtitle, and I would be rather hard-pressed to give a general definition that corresponds to the Lie-algebra definition. In my case, it was built from a Dirac operator, integrated over a volume. It was a cocycle (i.e. vanishing derivative), and so corresponded to a conserved current, by Noether's theorem. The "conserved charge" of this current was the Casimir invariant. I still don't know how to turn this into a general definition. linas 13:55, 15 May 2007 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was moved. --BDD (talk) 17:53, 15 May 2013 (UTC)

Casimir invariant → Casimir element – Because a Casimir element doesn't have to be an operator. Also, the latter name is much commoner, at least in the math community Taku (talk) 01:19, 8 May 2013 (UTC).
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

example: so(3)
If I multiply Lx2+Ly2+Lz2 I always get -2 times identity. Don't know if I do something wrong, just wanted to tell you. 88.66.141.244 (talk) 18:45, 15 August 2013 (UTC)

Maybe an i is missing (e.g. define them as i*Lx etc.)? 88.66.141.244 (talk) 14:29, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

There are definitely errors in this section. Multiplication of the $L_{\{x,y,z\}}$ with the imaginary unit i will not help as this is effectely a change of basis in the complexification of so(3). A change of bases does not affect the Killing form and thus also does not affect the definition of the Casimir element.

A correct calculation of the Casimir element is obtained as follows: If we use $L_x,L_y, L_z$ as the ordered basis of so(3), then the matrices of the adjoint representation of $L_x,L_y,L_z$ are the matrices $L_x,L_y,L_z$ themselves. From this, we compute the Killing form to be minus twice the Kronecker delta, i.e. $B(L_a,L_b) = -2δ_{a,b}$ for $a,b\in \{x,y,z\}$. Therefore, the dual basis element of $L_a$ with respect to the killing form is $-(1/2)L_a$ for $a\in \{x,y,z\}$. Hence, the Casimir Element is $\Omega = (-1/2) ( L_x^2 + L_y^2 + L_z^2)$.

Using an explicit description of the irreducible matrix representations on $so(3)$ which I omit here, I obtain that on an irreducible representation of dimension $2\ell+1$, the Casimir element $\Omega$ acts as $\frac{\ell (\ell + 1)}{2}$.

The author of this section denotes an element $L^2$ as the casimir element, which is called $\Omega$ in the denition. I suspect that $L^2$ might have some physical relevance, since we have $L^2 := L_x^2 + L_y^2 + L_z^2 = -2\Omega$.

99.241.86.114
, a.k.a. latex to html, is a well-known person (see Special:WhatLinksHere/user talk:99.241.86.114), to whose main agenda ’m largely indifferent. But now bring to evaluation one aspect of his/her activity yet unknown to me.

There will be no trouble if someone will attempt to improve the typography, even using 99.241.86.114’s drafts, but nothing (but an edit war against me) will come from an attempt to reinstate his/her “contribution” without fixes.

Regards, Incnis Mrsi (talk) 09:10, 22 January 2014 (UTC)

 * Are you aware that most readers won't notice the difference between -, − and other horizontal dashes (and consequently don't care), but that inline Latex often (always in case you use PNG) looks like shit? YohanN7 (talk) 05:06, 23 January 2014 (UTC)
 * said: ’m indifferent to 99.241.86.114’s main agenda, but not to the collateral damage. If will change English words from Latin script to Cyrillic, then you reverted me, right? Or may  change the spelling to my non-standard (but easily legible) variant? There is an expressed consensus about punctuation exactly as there is a consensus that English Wikipedia uses English, that it is written in Latin letters and with a standard orthography. The minus sign is at all a symbol, not a kind of other horizontal dash as you contemptuously said. A user who persistently edits against the consensus may end with his/her contribs ruined. Especially if such contribs consist mostly of various tweaks of doubtful value: there is no consensus about the math formatting. Incnis Mrsi (talk) 05:27, 23 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I'm just amazed that you want to go through all the trouble of reverting to a more-than-year-old version, reinstating several subsequent edits, instead of just replacing the eye-hurting horizontal dash with your favorite horizontal dash, and in the process make 99.241.86.114 look like a very suspect individual. YohanN7 (talk) 06:32, 23 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Is there any way to improve the way in-line Latex looks on my computer? What is PNG? The image file format?

178.38.88.134 (talk) 21:49, 27 February 2015 (UTC)

Please explain
(1) What is $ρ(X^{i})$? I don't know what it means to apply the representation to the dual vector.

(2) What is the representation-theoretic meaning, or characterization, of $$\ell$$ in the expression $$\ell(\ell+1)$$?

178.38.88.134 (talk) 21:49, 27 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Only for (1). $$X^i$$ is not a dual vector (linear functional) but just dual to $$X_i$$; i.e., $$B(X_i, X^j) = \delta_{ij}$$. -- Taku (talk) 22:57, 10 October 2015 (UTC)

 * $$\ell$$ is spin (physical terminology), whereas $$2\ell$$ is the highest weight of the corresponding irreducible representation of $$\mathfrak{so}(3)$$; of course, as the article mentions, $$2\ell+1$$ is the dimension of this representation. Arcfrk (talk) 08:04, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Casimir element


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User:Albany45

I have interests in amateur radio, computing, and Internet technology. At least, these are what bring me to Wikipedia most often.

title: User:Albany45


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Antônio da Costa Santos

Antônio da Costa Santos (also known as Toninho; 4 March 1952 – 10 September 2001) was a Brazilian architect and politician of the Workers' Party (PT).

Toninho took office as Mayor of Campinas (the third largest city in the state of São Paulo, with over 1,000,000 inhabitants), on 1 January 2001. He was shot to death at 10:15 pm, 10 September 2001, as he was driving home alone from a shopping mall. The details and motives of his murder, which stunned the country, is still largely unknown. His assassination was overshadowed by the deadly 9/11 attacks on the US approximately a day later.

Toninho was succeeded in office by the vice-Mayor, Izalene Tiene. He left a daughter and a widow.

Murder investigations
The murder took place in a poorly lit access road leading out of the mall. Witnesses in other cars only said to have seen a silver Vectra driving at high speed and heard shots. Two bullets shattered his car's windows and the last hit him on his left shoulder. Another car (a green Vectra) had been the object of a robbery attempt a few minutes before, on the same route.

Local police version
Initial investigations by the Campinas Civil Police promptly led to accusations against four local criminals. Robber Anderson Rogério Davi or "Boca", 20, was arrested on 5 October, and he pointed to three other accomplices, and two of them (Flávio Roberto Mendes Clara, 19 and A.S.C, 17) were arrested on 10 October. According to the police, the men confessed that they were driving two motorcycles, looking for a car to rob. They overtook Toninho's car, but as he accelerated instead of stopping, Flávio would have shot him. A 38 caliber weapon found with Flávio would have been the crime weapon.

Federal police version
However, subsequent investigations by the Brazilian Federal Police showed that the confessions and evidence were invalid. Federal investigators instead attributed the murder to accomplices of a certain Wanderson de Paula Lima, nicknamed Andinho, who at the time was among the police's most wanted for a number of crimes. The main clue was a match between the bullets (9 mm and caliber 45) recovered from Toninho' murder scene and from the kidnapping of an 8-year-old boy in Campinas, four days after the murder.

Wanderson was arrested on 25 February 2002, in Itu. According to the police, a 9 mm pistol found in Andinho's hideout matched that used on Toninho and on the kidnapping. The police claimed that three men from Andinho's gang, driving a silver Vectra, had attempted to stop a green Vectra shortly before Toninho's murder, intending to carry out a flash kidnapping. The green Vectra was hit by caliber 45 bullets and showed silver paint streaks from an attempt by the robbers to block its path, which also smashed one of the robbers' car headlights. This detail is confirmed by a security camera from the mall that recorded a car with one headlight off. While running away from that crime, the robbers ran into the Mayor's car, and either attempted to rob it too, or were irritated because Toninho was driving at the speed limit and blocking their way.

However, the three suspects had already been killed by the police before they could be interrogated. Two of them (Valmir Conti or "Valmirzinho", 29, and Anderson José Bastos or "Alemãozinho", 22) were hiding with other two alleged members of Wanderson's gang in an apartment in Caraguatatuba. All four men died on 2 October 2001 in a shootout with a team from the Campinas Civil Police. No policemen were hurt. On 26 January 2006, two members of that team were formally indicted by the São Paulo's Public Attorney for connections to Wanderson's gang.

Political crime
The police have always maintained that Toninho's murder was a common crime and that the criminals were not aware of the victim's identity. However, suspicions that the murder may have been targeted and may have had political motives were widespread, and have increased recently. Just before his death, Toninho had started investigations on alleged overbudgeting in contracts with urban cleaning companies. Toninho said he had received death threats, but was not going to be intimidated by them. The murder of Celso Daniel, mayor of Santo André and also a PT member, a few months later (22 January 2002) also contributed to these suspicions.

Toninho's widow Roseana recently complained angrily against President Lula's alleged lack of interest in her husband's murder investigations.

title: Antônio da Costa Santos


text:
Aichi B7A

The Aichi B7A Ryusei (流星) was a large and powerful carrier-borne torpedo-dive bomber produced by Aichi Kokuki for the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service during the Second World War. Built in only small numbers and deprived of the aircraft carriers it was intended to operate from, the type had little chance to distinguish itself in combat before the war ended in August 1945.

Design and development
The B7A Ryusei (originally designated AM-23 by Aichi) was designed in response to a 1941 16-Shi requirement issued by the Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service for a carrier attack bomber that would replace both the Nakajima B6N Tenzan torpedo plane and the Yokosuka D4Y Suisei dive bomber in IJN service. It was intended for use aboard a new generation of Taihō-class carriers, the first of which was laid down in July 1941. Because the deck elevators on the Taihōs had a larger square area than those of older Japanese carriers, the longstanding maximum limit of 11 m on carrier aircraft length could now be lifted.

Chief Engineer Toshio Ozaki (name often seen as Norio Ozaki, but this is incorrect because the Kanji for both first names are the same and often confused) chose a mid-wing arrangement for the B7A to provide for an internal bomb-bay and to ensure enough clearance for the plane's 3.5 m four-bladed propeller. This in turn necessitated the adoption of an inverted gull wing, reminiscent of the F4U Corsair, in order to shorten the length of the main landing gear. The wing featured extendable ailerons with a ten-degree range of deflection, enabling them to act as auxiliary flaps. Dive brakes were fitted underneath just outboard of the fuselage. The B7A's outer wing panels were designed to fold upwards hydraulically for carrier stowage, reducing its overall span from 14.4 m to approximately 7.9 m.

Selection of a powerplant was dictated by the Japanese Navy which requested that Aichi design the aircraft around the 1,360 kW (1,825 hp) Nakajima NK9C Homare 12 18-cylinder two-row air-cooled radial engine. This was expected to become the Navy's standard aircraft engine in the 1,340 kW (1,800 hp) to 1,641 kW (2,200 hp) range. One production model B7A2 was later fitted with a 1,491 kW (2,000 hp) Nakajima Homare 23 radial engine and plans were also made to fit the 1,641 kW (2,200 hp) Mitsubishi MK9 radial to an advanced version of the Ryusei (designated B7A3 Ryusei Kai) but the latter effort never came to fruition.

The B7A had a weight-carrying capacity stemming from its requirements, resulting in a weapons load no greater than its predecessors. The presence of an internal bomb bay with two high-load-capability attachment points allowed the aircraft to carry two 250 kg (550 lb) or six 60 kg (132 lb) bombs. Alternatively, it could carry a single externally mounted Type 91 torpedo, weighing up to 848 kg (1,870 lb).

Defensive armament initially consisted of two 20mm Type 99 Model 2 cannons in the wing roots and one flexible 7.92mm Type 1 machine-gun mounted in the rear cockpit. Later production models of the B7A2 featured a 13mm Type 2 machine-gun in place of the 7.92mm gun.

Despite the plane's weight and size, it displayed fighter-like handling and performance, beating the version of the A6M Zero in service at the time. It was fast and highly maneuverable.

Given the codename "Grace" by the Allies, the B7A first flew as a prototype in May 1942, but teething problems with the experimental NK9C Homare engine and necessary modifications to the airframe meant that the type did not enter into production until two years later in May 1944. Nine prototype B7A1s were built and 80 production version B7A2s completed by Aichi before a severe earthquake in May 1945 destroyed the factory at Funakata where they were being assembled. A further 25 examples were produced at the 21st Naval Air Arsenal at Omura.

Operational history
In June 1944, the Taihō was the only Imperial Japanese Navy aircraft carrier then modern enough to operate the B7A Ryusei in its intended role. Other Japanese carriers lacked the modern arresting gear necessary to assist the recovery of aircraft weighing over 4000 kg. However, Taiho was sunk during the Battle of the Philippine Sea before enough B7As were even available to embark. Afterward, the B7A was relegated to operating from land bases, primarily with the Yokosuka and 752nd Air Groups. The Japanese completed only one other carrier capable of operating the B7A, the Shinano, which was sunk by Balao-class submarine Archerfish in November 1944, just ten days after being commissioned.

Variants

 * B7A1: One prototype and eight supplementary prototypes.
 * B7A2: Two-seat torpedo-dive bomber aircraft for the Imperial Japanese Navy; 105 built.
 * B7A2 Experimental: One aircraft fitted with a 1,491 kW (2,000 hp) Nakajima Homare 23 radial engine.
 * B7A3: Proposed version with a 1641 kW (2,200 hp) Mitsubishi MK9A (Ha-43). Not built.

Number built
According to Model Art (2000), p. 72.
 * Funakata Factory, Aichi Kokuki, Nagoya, work number 3201-3289.
 * 21st Naval Air Arsenal, Imperial Japanese Navy, Ōmura, work number 1-25.

Operators

 * Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
 * Yokosuka Naval Air Group
 * 131st Naval Air Group
 * 752nd Naval Air Group
 * 1001st Naval Air Group
 * 5th Attack Squadron, a part of 131st/752nd Naval Air Group
 * 5th Attack Squadron, a part of 131st/752nd Naval Air Group

title: Aichi B7A


text:
User talk:ErikG

Currently I don't have much to say. I plan to begin a research project shortly on the Wikipedia community for an anthropology class at Harvard College. I'm easly reached here.

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 02:59, Mar 9, 2004 (UTC)

Participation
Erik,

Sure! So, have you been looking into the anthropology of Open Source projects? What have you read? I think this is a fascinating subject, since Wikipedia is by far the biggest Open Source project, in terms of participants, EVER.

Anyways, good luck and keep me posted. --216.99.97.2 23:15, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I'm also very interested in the outcome of your project. :-) Have fun! Kim Bruning 20:05, 30 Apr 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:ErikG


text:
Theophilus I of Alexandria

Theophilus (Greek: Θεόφιλος) was the 23rd Pope of Alexandria and Patriarch of the Seat of Saint Mark. He became pope at a time of conflict between the newly dominant Christians and the pagan establishment in Alexandria, each of which was supported by a segment of the Alexandrian populace.

Background
In 391, Theophilus (according to Rufinus and Sozomen) discovered a hidden pagan temple. He and his followers mockingly displayed the pagan artifacts to the public which offended the pagans enough to provoke an attack on the Christians. The Christian faction counter-attacked, forcing the pagans to retreat to the Serapeum. A letter was sent by the emperor that Theophilus should grant the offending pagans pardon, but destroy the temple; according to Socrates Scholasticus, a contemporary of his, the latter aspect (the destruction of the temple) was added as a result of heavy solicitation for it by Theophilus.

Scholasticus goes on to state that:

"Seizing this opportunity, Theophilus exerted himself to the utmost he caused the Mithraeum to be cleaned out Then he destroyed the Serapeum  and he had the phalli of Priapus carried through the midst of the forum.  the heathen temples  were therefore razed to the ground, and the images of their gods molten into pots and other convenient utensils for the use of the Alexandrian church"

The destruction of the Serapeum was seen by many ancient and modern authors as representative of the triumph of Christianity over other religions. According to John of Nikiu in the 7th century, when the philosopher Hypatia was lynched and flayed by an Alexandrian mob, they acclaimed Theophilus's nephew and successor Cyril as "the new Theophilus, for he had destroyed the last remains of idolatry in the city".

Theophilus turned on the followers of Origen after having supported them for a time. He switched his view of God from the incorporeal view of God held by Origen to the anthropomorphic view held by many local monks who were hostile to his pastoral letter of 399.

He was accompanied by his nephew Cyril to Constantinople in 403 and there presided at the "Synod of the Oak" that deposed John Chrysostom.

On 10 July in the Eastern (Greek) Orthodox Synaxarion, there is a commemoration for the 10,000 monks slain on the orders of Pope Theophilus in his paranoid campaign against perceived Origenism and the Four Tall Brethren. His nephew and dynastic successor Cyril was canonized in both Eastern and Western Christendom, with the notable exception of the Assyrian Church of the East, for his articulation and defense of the hypostatic union, his central role at the First Council of Ephesus, and his opposition to Patriarch Nestorius of Constantinople.

Surviving works

 * Correspondence with Jerome, Pope Anastasius I and Pope Innocent I
 * Vision of Theophilus
 * Tract against Chrysostom
 * Homily on the Crucifixion and the Good Thief
 * Homilies translated by Jerome (preserved in Migne)
 * Other homilies survive only in Coptic and Ge'ez translations.

Theophilus’ Paschal table
Theophilus obliged the pious Christian emperor Theodosius I (AD 379–395) to himself by dedicating his Paschal table to him (around AD 390). Theophilus’ Paschal table did not survive, but what we do know is that the Metonic 19-year lunar cycle underlying it must have been very different from the very first similar lunar cycle which somewhere in the third quarter of the third century was invented by Anatolius but differed very little from the classical Alexandrian 19-year lunar cycle, which in the fifth century would be introduced by Annianus and adopted by Theophilus’ successor Cyrillus and whose Julian equivalent would become the Metonic basic structure of Dionysius Exiguus’ Paschal table. Bede's Paschal table is an exact extension of Dionysius Exiguus' one.

In popular culture
Theophilus appears in the novel Flow Down Like Silver, Hypatia of Alexandria by Ki Longfellow.

He appears as a character played by Manuel Cauchi in the 2009 film Agora, directed by Alejandro Amenábar.

Legacy
The lunar crater Theophilus was named after him, as part of a group of three lunar craters named after prominent Alexandrian Christians.

Pope Theophilus is venerated as a saint only within the Coptic Church of Alexandria; his sainthood is not recognized by the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, or Assyrian Churches.

Literature

 * Georges Declercq (2000) Anno Domini (The Origins of the Christian Era): Turnhout (ISBN 9782503510507)
 * John N.D. Kelly (1998) Golden Mouth: New York (Cornell University Press)
 * Alden A. Mosshammer (2008) The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era: Oxford (ISBN 9780199543120)
 * Norman Russell (2006) Theophilus of Alexandria: London, Routledge (The Early Church Fathers)
 * Jan Zuidhoek (2017) "The initial year of De ratione paschali and the relevance of its paschal dates", Studia Traditionis Theologiae 26: 71-93

title: Theophilus I of Alexandria


text:
Izalene Tiene

Izalene Tiene (born 20 March 1943) is a Brazilian social worker and politician, affiliated to the Brazilian Worker's Party (PT).

In 2000 she was elected vice-Mayor of Campinas, on the ticket of Antonio da Costa Santos (Toninho). She took office on January 1, 2001, and became Mayor after Toninho's murder on September 10, 2001. Her term expired on December 31, 2004, and she chose not to run for a second term.

title: Izalene Tiene


text:
Paul J. Weitz

Paul Joseph Weitz (July 25, 1932 – October 22, 2017) was an American naval officer and aviator, aeronautical engineer, test pilot, and NASA astronaut, who flew into space twice. He was a member of the three-man crew who flew on Skylab 2, the first crewed Skylab mission. He was also commander of the STS-6 mission, the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle Challenger.

Biography
Paul J. Weitz was born in 1932 in Erie, Pennsylvania, United States. He went on to complete a master's degree in engineering and was a pilot in the Navy. He went on to be an astronaut who went in to space aboard Skylab and the Space Shuttle, later serving as a NASA official.

Early years and education
Weitz was born in Erie, Pennsylvania, on July 25, 1932. After attending McKinley Elementary School, he graduated from Harbor Creek High School in Harborcreek, Pennsylvania, in 1949 as Valedictorian. The high school stadium was later named after him. He received a Bachelor of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from Pennsylvania State University in 1954. While attending Penn State, he was a member of the Alpha Upsilon Chapter of Beta Theta Pi. Ten years later, he received a Master of Science degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the U.S. Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California.

Flight experience
Weitz received his commission as an Ensign through the Naval ROTC program at Penn State. He served for one year at sea aboard a destroyer before going to flight training and was awarded his aviator wings in September 1956. He served in various naval aircraft squadrons until he was selected as an astronaut in 1966. He logged more than 7,700 hours flying time—6,400 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career
In April 1966, Weitz was one of 19 men selected by NASA for Astronaut Group 5. He served as pilot on the crew of Skylab 2 (SL-2), which launched on May 25 and splashed down on June 22, 1973. SL-2 was the first crewed Skylab mission. The mission lasted for 28 days, a record at the time. Weitz and his two crewmates, Pete Conrad and Joseph P. Kerwin, performed extensive and unprecedented repairs to serious damage that Skylab sustained during its uncrewed launch, salvaging the entire Skylab mission. Weitz logged two hours and 11 minutes of EVA during the mission. If NASA followed typical crew rotations, Weitz may have been assigned as Command Module Pilot for the canceled Apollo 20 mission.

In 1976 Weitz retired from NASA and went back to the Navy, but he returned to NASA to fly the maiden spaceflight of the Challenger at over 50 years old.

Weitz was spacecraft commander on the crew of STS-6, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 4, 1983. This was the maiden voyage of the orbiter Challenger. During the mission, the crew conducted numerous experiments in materials processing, recorded lightning activities, deployed IUS/TDRS-A, conducted extravehicular activity while testing a variety of support systems and equipment in preparation for future spacewalks, and also carried three Getaway Specials. Mission duration was 120 hours before Challenger landed on a concrete runway at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on April 9, 1983. With the completion of this flight, Weitz logged a total of 793 hours in space.

Weitz was Deputy Director of the Johnson Space Center when he retired from NASA in May 1994.

Personal life and death
Weitz married the former Suzanne M. Berry of Harborcreek, Pennsylvania. They had two children.

Hunting and fishing were among his hobbies.

After retiring, Weitz lived in Arizona until his death on October 22, 2017, from myelodysplastic syndrome at the age of 85.

Organizations

 * Fellow, American Astronautical Society
 * Master Mason, Lawrence Lodge 708, Erie, Pennsylvania

Awards and honors
Awarded the:
 * Navy Astronaut Wings
 * Navy Distinguished Service Medal
 * Air Medal (5)
 * Navy Commendation Medal (for combat flights in Vietnam)
 * NASA Distinguished Service Medal
 * NASA Space Flight Medal
 * Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce Kitty Hawk Award (1973)
 * Pennsylvania State University Alumni Association's Distinguished Alumni Award
 * Named a Pennsylvania State University Alumni Fellow (1974)
 * AIAA Haley Astronautics Award for 1974
 * Fédération Aéronautique Internationale's V. M. Komarov Diploma for 1973 (1974)
 * 1974 Harmon International Aviation Trophy for Astronaut (1975)
 * 1984 Harmon International Award (1989)

The three Skylab astronaut crews were awarded the 1973 Robert J. Collier Trophy "For proving beyond question the value of man in future explorations of space and the production of data of benefit to all the people on Earth." Gerald Carr accepted the 1975 Dr. Robert H. Goddard Memorial Trophy from President Ford, awarded to the Skylab astronauts. He was one of 24 Apollo astronauts who were inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame in 1997.

title: Paul J. Weitz


text:
Betty Ong

Betty Ann Ong (, Taishanese Ang4 ngut4 mi3; February 5, 1956 – September 11, 2001 ) was an American flight attendant who worked for American Airlines and boarded Flight 11, the first airplane hijacked during the September 11 attacks. Ong was the first person to alert authorities to the hijackings taking place that day. Shortly after the hijacking, Ong notified the American Airlines ground crew of the hijacking, staying on the radiophone for 23 minutes to relay vital information that led to the closing of airspace by the FAA, a first in United States history. For this, the 9/11 Commission declared Ong a hero.

Personal life
Betty Ann Ong was born on February 5, 1956, in San Francisco. She was of Kaiping descent, a branch of Sze Yup Cantonese, and had two sisters, one of whom was named Cathie, and a brother named Harry. Among her hobbies as an adult was collecting Beanie Babies.

Betty was once approached for work in modeling, but her mother disapproved of that career choice, so instead Ong would work at her parents' beef jerky factory. According to an account related by her sister Cathie Ong-Herrera in New York Post, an armed robbery at the factory illustrated Ong's steady nerves in a crisis situation. As Cathie described it, "Betty was out in front and had a gun held to her head. My mom said she never panicked. All she said was, 'Dad, we’re being robbed.'" The robbers were given the money they demanded and Cathie said of her sister, "She was never shook up."

In the beginning of 1980s, she joined Pacific Southwest Airlines and worked within the airline's baggage claim department. Afterwards, she worked as a ticket agent with Delta Air Lines. In 1987, she became a flight attendant with American Airlines.

In 1987, Betty was driving south on U.S. Highway 101 in San Francisco when she witnessed a car roll over twice after it was hit by a speeding pickup truck. Betty ran to the car and saw that its occupant was Jo Ellen Chew, a woman she met a month prior at a bowling alley, who later described the "courage, kindness, [and] compassion" exhibited by Ong, saying, "Most people would just pass by. But to stop and run up to me? A miracle!"

Ong was engaged to Robert Landrum. At the time of her death, Ong lived in Andover, Massachusetts.

Flight 11 and death
On September 11, 2001, Ong assigned herself to Flight 11, so she could return to Los Angeles and go on vacation to Hawaii with her sister. During the hijacking, she used a telephone card to call American Airlines' operations/Raleigh reservations center, from the plane's rear galley; identified herself and alerted the supervisor that the aircraft had been hijacked. Along with fellow flight attendant Madeline Amy Sweeney, she relayed a report of the seat numbers of three hijackers. During her Airfone call, she reported that none of the crew could contact the cockpit nor open its door; that passenger Daniel Lewin, and two flight attendants, Karen Martin and Bobbi Arestegui, had been stabbed; and that she thought someone had sprayed Mace in the business class cabin.

Phone call
Transcript of the last 8-minute 26-second conversation between Ong, American Airlines' operations/Raleigh reservations, Nydia Gonzalez (Operations Specialist on duty on September 11) and American Airlines' emergency line, beginning with Ong in mid-sentence, her voice audible only during its first four minutes:

Legacy
On September 21, 2001, some 200 members of the Chinese American community in San Francisco gathered in a small park to pay tribute to Ong. Mayor of San Francisco Willie Brown, who was present, gave a proclamation honoring the people who died in the tragedy and called September 21 "Betty Ong Day".

In 2002, Ong, Sweeney and Flight 11 Captain John Ogonowski were the inaugural recipients of the Madeline Amy Sweeney Award for Civilian Bravery, an honor that the Government of Massachusetts instituted to award annually at least one Massachusetts resident for displaying extraordinary courage in defending or saving the lives of others.

In March 2002, Ong's remains were recovered from Ground Zero and identified. She was cremated and her ashes were buried at Cypress Lawn Memorial Park in Colma, California.

In 2011, the recreation center in San Francisco's Chinatown where she had played as a child was renamed in her honor, as the Betty Ann Ong Chinese Recreation Center.

Ong's name is located on Panel N-74 of the National September 11 Memorial's North Pool, along with those of other passengers of Flight 11.

Ong is memorialized on Gold Mountain, a mural dedicated to Chinese contributions to American history on Romolo Place in North Beach, a street where she used to skateboard and play as a child.

The Betty Ann Ong Foundation was founded to honor Ong's interest in the welfare of children, by providing, in the words of board member David Huff, "training and guidance on nutrition, health, physical activities, leadership skills, critical thinking skills, planning, group and team activities, and community awareness and cohesiveness". Among its activities are contributions to groups including the Bakersfield Police Activities League and Betty Ann Ong Chinese Recreation Center in San Francisco's Chinatown. In March 2013, the foundation publicly opposed the decision of the Transportation Security Administration to allow knives with blades up to 2.36 inches long back onto aircraft for the first time since the 9/11 attacks. Ong's sister, Cathie Ong-Herrera, speaking as the president and CEO of the foundation, stated, "The horrific events that took place on the morning of September 11, 2001 began with the takeover of American Airlines Flight 11. Terrorists took control of the aircraft by first fatally stabbing two flight attendants with box-cutters. My sister, flight attendant Betty Ann Ong, along with the entire flight crew and passengers were murdered. There are no words to describe the gut-wrenching pain and grief our family has experienced—things that no other family should ever have to endure. I support the Coalition of Flight Attendant Unions' position to reverse the TSA's decision to allow knives and other dangerous objects on aircraft because it's about everyone's safety." The foundation was among a coalition of groups opposed to the move by the TSA, which abandoned the plan as a result.

In media
Ong was played by Jean Yoon in the 2006 ABC miniseries The Path to 9/11, and by Jane Zhang in episode two of the 2004 BBC docudrama Zero Hour.

An extensive clip from Ong's call to headquarters was used for the beginning of the 2012 film Zero Dark Thirty. The clip was used without attribution, and without the consent of Ong's family and the airline. They requested that Sony Pictures Entertainment, the film's U.S. distributor, make a charitable donation in her name, credit her onscreen, state the Ong family does not endorse torture (which the film depicts being used in the manhunt for Osama bin Laden) on its website and in home entertainment versions of the film, and acknowledge these things during the 85th Academy Awards ceremony.

title: Betty Ong


text:
Donald H. Peterson

Donald Herod Peterson (October 22, 1933 – May 27, 2018) was a United States Air Force officer and NASA astronaut. Peterson was originally selected for the Air Force Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program, but, when that was canceled, he became a NASA astronaut in September 1969. He was a mission specialist on STS-6 on board Challenger. During the mission Peterson performed a spacewalk to test the new airlock and space suits. He logged 120 hours in space. Peterson retired from NASA in 1984.

Early life and education
Donald Peterson was born in Winona, Mississippi, on October 22, 1933. Peterson graduated from Winona High School in 1951. One of his high school teachers said, "I never did hear any adverse criticism of him by students or teachers. He was just superior."

Peterson desired financial help for college, and after listening to a Navy recruiter's speech, elected to join a service academy. He enrolled in the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, and received a Bachelor of Science degree in 1955, electing to join the Air Force. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant.

After working with Air Training Command until 1960, he was asked if he would be interested in getting a degree in nuclear engineering so he could join a program involving aircraft powered by a nuclear reactor. He enrolled in nuclear engineering at the U.S. Air Force Institute of Technology of Air University. Six months before graduation, the program was cancelled. He earned his Master of Science degree in 1962. He also worked towards his Ph.D. at the University of Texas.

USAF career
After graduating from West Point in 1955, his assignments included four years as a flight instructor and military training officer with the Air Training Command, three years as a nuclear systems analyst with the Air Force Systems Command, and one year as a fighter pilot with Tactical Air Command, including three months of combat weapons training.

He was a graduate of the Aerospace Research Pilot School at Edwards Air Force Base, California, and was one of the third group of astronauts assigned to the USAF Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) program.

He logged over 5,300 hours flying time, including more than 5,000 hours in jet aircraft.

NASA career
Peterson became part of NASA Astronaut Group 7 in September 1969 after the MOL program was cancelled. He served on the astronaut support crew for Apollo 16.

Peterson retired from the United States Air Force with the rank of colonel after having completed more than 24 years of active service, but continued his assignment as a NASA astronaut in a civilian capacity. His areas of responsibility included engineering support, man/machine interface, and safety assessment.

Medical issues likely prevented Peterson from training as a space shuttle pilot. He was a mission specialist on STS-6, which launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on April 4, 1983. He was accompanied by Paul J. Weitz (spacecraft commander), Col. Karol J. Bobko (Pilot), and Dr. Story Musgrave (Mission Specialist). The crew had a combined 111 years of flying experience and an average age of 48 years and 5 months. The crew was dubbed "The Geritol Bunch" for their high experience.

During this maiden voyage of the spacecraft Challenger, the STS-6 crew conducted numerous experiments in materials processing, recorded lightning activities, deployed the first tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS-A), and activated three Getaway Specials. Peterson and Musgrave conducted the Shuttle program's first extravehicular activity (EVA) to test the new suit, the Shuttle airlock, and new tools and techniques for construction and repair outside a spacecraft. After 120 hours of orbital operations STS-6 landed on the concrete runway at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on April 9, 1983. With the completion of this flight, Don Peterson had logged 4 hours 15 minutes in extravehicular activity and a total of 120 hours in space.

Post-NASA career
Peterson resigned from the NASA Astronaut Corps in November 1984 and worked as a consultant in the area of crewed aerospace operations.

Personal life and death
Peterson married Bonnie Ruth Love in 1957. They had three children. She died in 2017. He died on May 27, 2018, at his home in El Lago, Texas, of Alzheimer's disease and bone cancer, at the age of 84.

Honors
He was awarded the Air Force Commendation Medal, the Meritorious Service Medal, and the JSC Group Achievement Award (1972).

title: Donald H. Peterson


text:
Donald Peterson

Donald Peterson may refer to:

 * Donald H. Peterson (1933–2018), United States Air Force officer and astronaut
 * Donald R. Peterson (1923–2007), professor of psychology at Rutgers University
 * C. Donald Peterson (1918–1987), American jurist and politician
 * Don Peterson, American business executive
 * Don Peterson (American football) (1928–2010), American football player

title: Donald Peterson


text:
User talk:Kpalion

Borscht
Hello.

I was editing Borscht article lately. IMO, Ukrainian beet borscht (stereotypical one) is separate to Polish borschts like bialy white or chernina gray borscht. 81.89.66.133 (talk) 06:58, 1 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Also: I am not the "anon who edits" the Ukraine origin of... the borscht. I am all for the boundary between borscht and "borschts" of Poland tho.
 * Also: well, congrats on 5 years of EXPerience. 81.89.66.133 (talk) 07:01, 1 November 2021 (UTC)

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Fastest Block in the History of Blocks
Three minutes from report to block:. Hope all is well with you and yours during this Holiday Season. TaivoLinguist (Taivo) (talk) 03:05, 17 December 2022 (UTC)

Salvation for the Devil
Thank you for your link to Can the Devil be Saved?, which i only noticed now, while my original question is archived here. That's an interesting article. Unfortunately, though, it doesn't address the question whether the devil can be saved. Where it speaks about reconciliation, as on pages 10-12, it seems to mean rather a reconciliation of different beliefs, rather than redemption of the soul, which is so fundamental in Christianity.

Even so, there are a number of statements which may deserve further consideration. If you like, we could discuss them here. Or, if you prefer to continue this conversation on a more personal level, we could do so by e-mail. ◅ Sebastian 13:47, 27 December 2022 (UTC)

Borscht, May 2023
Good one. Added some refs. As for "processed" cheese, it's my grandma's special: put some VIOLA good "melted" processed cheese into borscht - not some super-cheap "Druzhba". 81.89.66.133 (talk) 11:52, 26 May 2023 (UTC)

J.H.Thomas
I think you misread this. "The standard author abbreviation J.H.Thomas is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name." J. H. Thomas and J.H.Thomas are separate redirects. Viriditas (talk) 18:22, 9 October 2023 (UTC)

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Hello, in WP:RDL, after a comment you had forgotten to sign, I added your username and the correct date and time as per the page history. If you want, you can overwrite this with the actual formatting of your signature. --Theurgist (talk) 09:59, 18 February 2024 (UTC)

Precious anniversary
--Gerda Arendt (talk) 07:37, 2 May 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kpalion


text:
Paul Weitz

Paul Weitz may refer to:

 * Paul J. Weitz (1932–2017), American astronaut
 * Paul Weitz (filmmaker) (born 1965), American filmmaker

title: Paul Weitz


text:
Manchester Piccadilly (disambiguation)

Manchester Piccadilly may refer to:

 * Manchester Piccadilly station, a railway station in England
 * Manchester Piccadilly Gardens bus station, England
 * Piccadilly Gardens, green space in Manchester, England
 * Piccadilly Gardens tram stop on Manchester Metrolink
 * Piccadilly Radio, a former name of Greatest Hits Manchester, a radio station in Manchester, England
 * Piccadilly (ward), electoral ward of Manchester city council

title: Manchester Piccadilly (disambiguation)


text:
MKM Stadium

The MKM Stadium is a multi-purpose stadium in Kingston upon Hull, England. It has a current capacity of 25,586. The stadium is home to both association football club Hull City A.F.C. of the EFL Championship and rugby league club Hull F.C. of the Super League.

It was previously known as the KC Stadium, but was renamed the KCOM Stadium as part of a major rebrand on 4 April 2016 by the stadium's sponsor KCOM. In June 2021, it was renamed to its current name, the MKM Stadium, as part of a five-year sponsorship with MKM Building Supplies. During UEFA competitions, the stadium is known as the Hull City Stadium due to sponsorship regulations.

Conceived in the late 1990s, it was completed in 2002 at a cost of approximately £44 million. The stadium is owned by Hull City Council and operated by the Stadium Management Company (SMC), who have previously considered expanding the stadium capacity up to 34,000. The bowl-shaped stadium contains a continuous single tier of seats with a second tier on the west side.

The stadium occasionally hosts international association football and rugby league competitions and acts as a venue for concerts by musical artists. Previous performances at the stadium include Elton John and The Who.

History
The idea of a new stadium for Kingston upon Hull, whose professional football club Hull City had played at Boothferry Park since 1946, was first mooted in 1997. However, funds to finance such a project only became available when the city council sold a portion of its holdings in Kingston Communications. The council provided most of the funds, more than £42 million, with the rest stemming from government single regeneration budget grants and from the Football Stadium Improvement Fund.

The council appointed John Topliss to head the stadium construction project. He and his team partnered with consulting firm Drivers Jonas to explore preliminary issues such as stadium location, seating capacity, and facilities offered. Topliss stated that his team had "a totally blank canvas" and by working with consultants they made "a thorough assessment" of what was needed.

The project team considered over a dozen sites, inside and outside of the city, before settling on The Circle in West Park. Factors contributing to the decision include transport guidance, central government planning guidelines, existing athletic facilities, isolation from residential areas, and council ownership. The stadium site is located around 100 m from the original 'Circle' Stadium, one of Hull City's previous home grounds.

The final recommendation of Drivers Jonas included additional facilities for both indoor and outdoor sports for the people of West Hull in addition to the main stadium, planned to seat from 25,000 to 30,000 spectators. Professional services firm Arup Associates provided initial concept proposals for the stadium. The Miller Partnership, an architectural and interior design firm, adopted these proposals during the stadium's design. The construction work was undertaken by Birse Group.

There were a handful of obstacles during the course of the project, including Hull City A.F.C.'s receivership in 2001, just after the granting of planning permission. Despite this, the stadium complex was completed on time after fourteen months of work and on budget, sitting at approximately £44 million. The stadium officially opened its doors on 18 December 2002.

That day, there were 22,467 spectators in attendance as Hull City beat Sunderland A.F.C. 1–0 in a friendly match to mark the occasion. Steve Melton scored the only goal of the game, consequently the first at the new stadium. Furthermore, the clubs contested for the 'Raich Carter Trophy' in honour of the late Raich Carter, who played for both of the clubs during his playing career, eventually also managing Hull between 1948 and 1951.

Twenty years later, almost to the day, on 17 December 2022, the clubs met again at the MKM Stadium in the EFL Championship. Both sides agreed to recontest the Raich Carter Trophy to mark two decades at the Tigers' new stadium. The game ended 1–1 with Hull retaining the trophy, in front of a crowd of 18,120 spectators.

Structure and facilities
The all-seater stadium consists of a single-tier, asymmetrical bowl that can seat approximately 20,000, with a second tier on the West Stand that can seat approximately 5,000. The stadium's current capacity is 25,586. Plans have previously been prepared for the potential extension of the stadium following Hull City's promotion to the Premier League. A further 4,500 seats could be added to create a second tier to the East Stand, whilst there is also a possibility of adding extensions to both the North Stand and the South Stand of around 2,000 seats each. This would make the stadium a completed two-tier bowl with an overall capacity of approximately 34,000 seats.

Each stand has a name for corporate sponsorship purposes. On 4 July 2011, Hull City revealed that the stadium's West Stand would be sponsored by the local Cranswick plc under a two-year agreement, which was extended on 26 July 2013. On 10 July 2013 it was announced the East Stand would be sponsored by Ideal Standard and become known as the Ideal Standard Community East Stand. Ahead of the home fixture against West Bromwich Albion on 5 March 2022, the stand was renamed the Chris Chilton Stand, in honour of Hull City's all-time record goalscorer, Chris Chilton.

Corporate hospitality is provided by 28 executive boxes located between the two tiers of the Cranswick plc West Stand, while security of the stadium is handled using 57 closed-circuit television (CCTV) cameras that cover the stadium. Over the summer of 2007, SMC installed an LED screen in the Smith & Nephew North Stand to replace the old electronic scoreboard. The screen has an area of approximately 40 m2 (430 ft.2) and displays such content as live home game feeds, match highlights, interviews, and action replays.

The stadium's seats are mostly black, with a band of white and amber seats around the circumference. White and amber seats form the word Hull in both the North Stand and the South Stand. In the Ideal Standard Community East Stand, the seats form an image of a coronet, a symbol of the city that also appears in the club crest for Hull F.C. and in the coat of arms of the city council. Black, white, and amber were chosen to remain neutral toward the colours of its two tenants: black and white for Hull F.C. and black and amber for Hull City A.F.C. The blue and gold of owner Hull City Council appear in the stadium's four external columns.

The size of the playing surface is 114 x 74 metres (125 x 81 yd) and made of rye grass with a 3% additive of artificial grass. This provides ample room for a FIFA-regulation association football pitch of 105 x 68 metres (115 x 74 yd) and a standard rugby league football pitch of 100 x 68 metres (109 x 74 yd). The playing surface has an automated watering system and below-surface heating.

Set within Hull's West Park, the stadium is the first in England to be built in a parkland setting. The stadium complex also includes the 1,500 capacity Bonus Arena, a skate park, two multi-use all-weather pitches, a community learning zone complete with classrooms, a health & fitness suite, a cyber cafe, and a library.

The MKM Stadium has received several honours. It was named the chief new development in Yorkshire at the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Pro-Yorkshire Awards. It was also on the shortlist for the Prime Minister's Award for Better Public Building and received a high commendation in the British Construction Industry Awards in the Best Value category. In a 2005 poll that was carried out by Drivers Jonas and decided by football fans from across the country, the KC Stadium was rated highest in comfort, services and view among all grounds in the Football League and was also rated the most-improved venue.

In 2011, the then Hull City owner Assem Allam announced that he wanted to buy the stadium freehold so he could develop, as he stated, "a sports park" on the site. After Hull City Council refused, Allam stated "I had in mind £30 million to spend on the infrastructure of the club, to increase the stadium by 10,000 and to have commercial activities around the stadium – cafeterias, shops, supermarkets – to have all this to create income for the club so that in the future it can be self-financing and not relying on me."

On 13 August 2013 a Goal Decision System by Hawk-Eye was installed in the ground ahead of the 2013–14 Premier League season which requires the use of goal-line technology to indicate if a goal is scored.

On 25 June 2021, it was announced that local based building supplies firm MKM Building Supplies Ltd. had agreed a five-year sponsorship deal for the stadium and it was renamed the MKM Stadium.

In February 2023, Tan Kesler, Hull City's vice-chairman, announced that the club were exploring the plans that had been made during the stadium's construction to upgrade the area surrounding the ground. These plans included "community pitches" and "multi-dimensional sports facilities", similar to those seen at the Etihad Stadium in Manchester, albeit on a smaller scale. Kesler stated that the club would work closely with the local council to ensure that the Hull Fair would not be impacted by any upgrades, as it occupies an area of land that could be used for potential development.

Hull City
The stadium replaced Boothferry Park as home to Hull City A.F.C., and was the backdrop for the club's recent climb through the Football League. It first hosted the club's home games during the second half of the 2002–03 season, with the first competitive match against Hartlepool United, a game that City won 2–0. The Tigers attracted an average attendance of almost 17,000 in their first full season at the KC Stadium, the 2003–04 season. This figure is more than three times the average Third Division attendance for that season, and was only matched or exceeded by clubs in the Premier League and the First Division. The stadium hosted Premier League football for the first time in the 2008–09 season, with all 20,500 available season tickets selling out shortly after Hull City's play-off victory at Wembley Stadium.

Attendances for Hull City's league games at the stadium have averaged above 16,000 in each full season they have played there, apart from a five year period between 2017 and 2022, where a mixture of protests against Assem Allam's ownership of the club and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic reduced crowds significantly. The club has seen an upturn in home attendances since the sale of the club to Acun Ilıcalı, with an average of 17,973 supporters attending City games during the first full-season with Ilıcalı as owner, the 2022–23 campaign. The following year, the 2023–24 season, the average home attendance grew yet further to 21,980.

Allocated segregation between home and away fans prevents the stadium's full-stated capacity from ever being reached. As a result, the record attendance set at the MKM Stadium is 25,030, which was recorded on 9 May 2010 for City's last match of the 2009–10 season against Liverpool, which ended 0–0. This marginally beat the previous record of 25,023, set just under two months earlier on 13 March 2010 in the 2–1 defeat to Arsenal. While playing in the Championship, the record stands at 24,605, set on 9 March 2024 when Leicester City drew 2–2 with the Tigers.

Hull F.C.
Rugby league team Hull Football Club also play their home games at the stadium, having moved from the Boulevard. During their time at the new ground, they have consistently ended each season on a high note: in 2003, the team just missed play-off qualification; in 2004, the club finished third. They finished fourth in 2005, and enjoyed even greater success in the Challenge Cup, in which they beat the Leeds Rhinos in the final. Hull F.C. reached the Super League Grand Final in 2006.

Attendances average around 14,000, but are often well above that figure when the club hosts local rivals Hull Kingston Rovers, this local derby producing a record crowd of 23,004 for 2 September 2007 fixture.

Association football
The MKM Stadium has previously hosted five England under-21 international matches, four of which came relatively soon after the stadium's opening. Most recently though, the Young Lions played the Kosovo under-21 team in front of a 15,225 crowd in 2019. The results of all of these games can be seen below.

In 2009, the then KC Stadium was shortlisted as a possible venue for games at the 2018 FIFA World Cup should England win the right to host it. However, when the finalised list of venues was announced on 16 December 2009, the stadium was not among those included in the bid.

Rugby league
The MKM Stadium has hosted several rugby league matches at international level, all of which can be seen below alongside their results. These include one match at the 2013 Men's Rugby League World Cup, two at the 2021 Men's Rugby League World Cup and one at the 2021 Women's Rugby League World Cup.

The MKM Stadium has become an occasional host venue for international rugby league games, including Great Britain matches in both the Tri-Nations and the Ashes competitions. The stadium hosted the 2004 Tri-Nations match in which New Zealand lost by a score of 26–24. The stadium also hosted the Tri-Nations game between Great Britain and Australia in 2005; the final score was 26–14 to Australia.

On Saturday 9 November 2013, the stadium hosted the England versus Fiji Rugby League World Cup match, in which England won 34–12 in front of an attendance of 25,114. Before the match, there was a minute's silence, followed by spontaneous applause, to mark the early death of former England International Steve Prescott.

Due to the unavailability of its usual venue of Old Trafford, the stadium also hosted the 2020 Super League Grand Final.

Cricket
The MKM Stadium has also played host to two exhibition Twenty20 cricket matches between Yorkshire County Cricket Club and Lashings World XI.

Concerts
As well as serving as a sporting venue, the MKM Stadium also hosts musical events, including such artists as Sir Elton John, Bryan Adams, Neil Diamond, R.E.M., Bon Jovi, and The Who.

JLS have also performed here in front of 20,000 fans as part of their 2010 JLS Tour.

Rod Stewart performed at the stadium on 14 June 2016 and Jeff Lynne's ELO played at the stadium on 1 July 2017.

title: MKM Stadium


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Aircraft/Other Tables

Short Table
Abridged Short Table


text:
Rod cell

Rod cells are photoreceptor cells in the retina of the eye that can function in lower light better than the other type of visual photoreceptor, cone cells. Rods are usually found concentrated at the outer edges of the retina and are used in peripheral vision. On average, there are approximately 92 million rod cells (vs ~6 million cones) in the human retina. Rod cells are more sensitive than cone cells and are almost entirely responsible for night vision. However, rods have little role in color vision, which is the main reason why colors are much less apparent in dim light.

Structure
Rods are a little longer and leaner than cones but have the same basic structure. Opsin-containing disks lie at the end of the cell adjacent to the retinal pigment epithelium, which in turn is attached to the inside of the eye. The stacked-disc structure of the detector portion of the cell allows for very high efficiency. Rods are much more common than cones, with about 120 million rod cells compared to 6 to 7 million cone cells.

Like cones, rod cells have a synaptic terminal, an inner segment, and an outer segment. The synaptic terminal forms a synapse with another neuron, usually a bipolar cell or a horizontal cell. The inner and outer segments are connected by a cilium, which lines the distal segment. The inner segment contains organelles and the cell's nucleus, while the rod outer segment (abbreviated to ROS), which is pointed toward the back of the eye, contains the light-absorbing materials.

A human rod cell is about 2 microns in diameter and 100 microns long. Rods are not all morphologically the same; in mice, rods close to the outer plexiform synaptic layer display a reduced length due to a shortened synaptic terminal.

Photoreception

In vertebrates, activation of a photoreceptor cell is a hyperpolarization (inhibition) of the cell. When they are not being stimulated, such as in the dark, rod cells and cone cells depolarize and release a neurotransmitter spontaneously. This neurotransmitter hyperpolarizes the bipolar cell. Bipolar cells exist between photoreceptors and ganglion cells and act to transmit signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells. As a result of the bipolar cell being hyperpolarized, it does not release its transmitter at the bipolar-ganglion synapse and the synapse is not excited.

Activation of photopigments by light sends a signal by hyperpolarizing the rod cell, leading to the rod cell not sending its neurotransmitter, which leads to the bipolar cell then releasing its transmitter at the bipolar-ganglion synapse and exciting the synapse.

Depolarization of rod cells (causing release of their neurotransmitter) occurs because in the dark, cells have a relatively high concentration of cyclic guanosine 3'-5' monophosphate (cGMP), which opens ion channels (largely sodium channels, though calcium can enter through these channels as well). The positive charges of the ions that enter the cell down its electrochemical gradient change the cell's membrane potential, cause depolarization, and lead to the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Glutamate can depolarize some neurons and hyperpolarize others, allowing photoreceptors to interact in an antagonistic manner.

When light hits photoreceptive pigments within the photoreceptor cell, the pigment changes shape. The pigment, called rhodopsin (conopsin is found in cone cells) comprises a large protein called opsin (situated in the plasma membrane), attached to which is a covalently bound prosthetic group: an organic molecule called retinal (a derivative of vitamin A). The retinal exists in the 11-cis-retinal form when in the dark, and stimulation by light causes its structure to change to all-trans-retinal. This structural change causes an increased affinity for the regulatory protein called transducin (a type of G protein). Upon binding to rhodopsin, the alpha subunit of the G protein replaces a molecule of GDP with a molecule of GTP and becomes activated. This replacement causes the alpha subunit of the G protein to dissociate from the beta and gamma subunits of the G protein. As a result, the alpha subunit is now free to bind to the cGMP phosphodiesterase (an effector protein). The alpha subunit interacts with the inhibitory PDE gamma subunits and prevents them from blocking catalytic sites on the alpha and beta subunits of PDE, leading to the activation of cGMP phosphodiesterase, which hydrolyzes cGMP (the second messenger), breaking it down into 5'-GMP. Reduction in cGMP allows the ion channels to close, preventing the influx of positive ions, hyperpolarizing the cell, and stopping the release of the neurotransmitter glutamate. Though cone cells primarily use the neurotransmitter substance acetylcholine, rod cells use a variety. The entire process by which light initiates a sensory response is called visual phototransduction.

Activation of a single unit of rhodopsin, the photosensitive pigment in rods, can lead to a large reaction in the cell because the signal is amplified. Once activated, rhodopsin can activate hundreds of transducin molecules, each of which in turn activates a phosphodiesterase molecule, which can break down over a thousand cGMP molecules per second. Thus, rods can have a large response to a small amount of light.

As the retinal component of rhodopsin is derived from vitamin A, a deficiency of vitamin A causes a deficit in the pigment needed by rod cells. Consequently, fewer rod cells are able to sufficiently respond in darker conditions, and as the cone cells are poorly adapted for sight in the dark, night-blindness can result.

Reversion to the resting state
Rods make use of three inhibitory mechanisms (negative feedback mechanisms) to allow a rapid revert to the resting state after a flash of light.

Firstly, there exists a rhodopsin kinase (RK) which would phosphorylate the cytosolic tail of the activated rhodopsin on the multiple serines, partially inhibiting the activation of transducin. Also, an inhibitory protein, arrestin, then binds to the phosphorylated rhodopsins to further inhibit the rhodopsin activity.

While arrestin shuts off rhodopsin, an RGS protein (functioning as a GTPase-activating proteins(GAPs)) drives the transducin (G-protein) into an "off" state by increasing the rate of hydrolysis of the bounded GTP to GDP.

When the cGMP concentration falls, the previously open cGMP sensitive channels close, leading to a reduction in the influx of calcium ions. The associated decrease in the concentration of calcium ions stimulates the calcium ion-sensitive proteins, which then activate the guanylyl cyclase to replenish the cGMP, rapidly restoring it to its original concentration. This opens the cGMP sensitive channels and causes a depolarization of the plasma membrane.

Desensitization
When the rods are exposed to a high concentration of photons for a prolonged period, they become desensitized (adapted) to the environment.

As rhodopsin is phosphorylated by rhodopsin kinase (a member of the GPCR kinases(GRKs)), it binds with high affinity to the arrestin. The bound arrestin can contribute to the desensitization process in at least two ways. First, it prevents the interaction between the G protein and the activated receptor. Second, it serves as an adaptor protein to aid the receptor to the clathrin-dependent endocytosis machinery (to induce receptor-mediated endocytosis).

Sensitivity
A rod cell is sensitive enough to respond to a single photon of light and is about 100 times more sensitive to a single photon than cones. Since rods require less light to function than cones, they are the primary source of visual information at night (scotopic vision). Cone cells, on the other hand, require tens to hundreds of photons to become activated. Additionally, multiple rod cells converge on a single interneuron, collecting and amplifying the signals. However, this convergence comes at a cost to visual acuity (or image resolution) because the pooled information from multiple cells is less distinct than it would be if the visual system received information from each rod cell individually.

Rod cells also respond more slowly to light than cones and the stimuli they receive are added over roughly 100 milliseconds. While this makes rods more sensitive to smaller amounts of light, it also means that their ability to sense temporal changes, such as quickly changing images, is less accurate than that of cones.

Experiments by George Wald and others showed that rods are most sensitive to wavelengths of light around 498 nm (green-blue), and insensitive to wavelengths longer than about 640 nm (red). This is responsible for the Purkinje effect: as intensity dims at twilight, the rods take over, and before color disappears completely, peak sensitivity of vision shifts towards the rods' peak sensitivity (blue-green).

title: Rod cell