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Geocode

A geocode is a code that represents a geographic entity (location or object). It is a unique identifier of the entity, to distinguish it from others in a finite set of geographic entities. In general the geocode is a human-readable and short identifier.

Typical geocodes and entities represented by it: The main examples are ISO codes: ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code (e.g.   for Afghanistan or   for Brazil), and its subdivision conventions, such as AF subdivision codes  (e.g.   for Ghor province) or BR subdivision codes (e.g.   for Amazonas state).
 * Country code and subdivision code. Polygon of the administrative boundaries of a country or a subdivision.
 * DGG cell ID. Identifier of a cell of a discrete global grid:  a Geohash code (e.g. ~0.023 km2 cell   at the  Brazilian's center) or an OLC code (e.g. ~0.004 km2 cell   at the same point).
 * Postal code. Polygon of a postal area: a CEP code (e.g.   represents a Brazilian's central area for postal distribution).

The ISO 19112:2019 standard (section 3.1.2) adopted the term "geographic identifier" instead geocode, to encompass long labels: spatial reference in the form of a label or code that identifies a location. For example, for ISO, the country name “People's Republic of China” is a label.

Geocodes are mainly used (in general as an atomic data type) for labelling, data integrity, geotagging and spatial indexing.

In theoretical computer science a geocode system is a locality-preserving hashing function.

Classification

There are some common aspects of many geocodes (or geocode systems) that can be used as classification criteria:
 * Ownership: proprietary or free, differing by its licences.
 * Formation: the geocode can be originated from a name (ex. abbreviation of official name the country) or from mathematical function (encoding algorithm to compress latitude-longitude). See geocode system types below (of names and of grids).
 * Hierarchy: geocode's syntax hierarchy corresponding to the spatial hierarchy of its represented entities. A geocode system can hierarchical (name or grid) or non-hierarchical.
 * Covering: global or partial. The entities (represented by the geocodes) are in all globe (e. g. geographical points) or is delimited the theme (e.g. only terrestrial areas) or by the ownership's jurisdiction (e.g. only into a country).
 * Type of the represented entity: type of geometry. Point (the geocode can be translated to a Geo URI), grid cell (the geocode system is related with a DGG) or polygon (typically administrative boundaries delimitations).

 * special hierarchical grids, with global covering and equal-area cells, can be classified as DGGS cell
 * some non-standard geographic entities, can be classified also by its coordinate system and elipsoid of reference (e.g. UTM). The de facto standard is the WGS84.
 * Scope of use: general use vs specialized (e.g. airport geocodes).

Geocode system
The set of all geocodes used as unique identifiers of the cells of a full-coverage of the geographic surface (or any well-defined area like a country or the oceans), is a geocode system (also named geocode scheme). The syntax and semantic of the geocodes are also components of the system definition: In general the semantic can be deduced by its formation or encoding/decoding process. Example: each Geohash code can be expressed by a rectangular area in the map, and the rectangle coordinates is obtained by its decoding process.
 * geocode syntax: the characters that can be used, blocks of characters and its size and order. Example: country codes use two letters of the alphabet (chacacter set A-Z). The most common way to describe formally is by regular expression (e.g. ).
 * geocode semantic: the meaning of the geocode, usually expressed by associating the code with a geographical entity type. Can be described formally is by an ontology, an UML class diagram or any Entity-relationship model.

Many syntax and semantic characteristics are also summarized by classification.

Encode and decode
Any geocode can be translated from a formal (and expanded) expression of the geographical entity, or vice versa, the geocode translated to entity. The first is named encode process, the second decode. The actors and process involved, as defined by OGC, are:

 * geocoder: A software agent that transforms the description of a geographic entity (e.g. location name or latitude/longitude coordinates), into a normalized data and encodes it as a geocode.

 * geocoder service: A geocoder implemented as web service (or similar service interface), that accepts a set of geographic entity descriptors as input. The request is "sent" to the Geocoder Service, which processes the request and returns the resulting geocodes. More general services can also return geographic features (e.g. GeoJSON object) represented by the geocodes.

Note: when a physical addressing schemes (street name and house number) is expressed in a standardized and simplified way, it can be conceived as geocode. So, the term geocoding (used for addresses) sometimes is generalized for geocodes.
 * geocoding: Geocoding refers to the assignment of geocodes or coordinates to geographically reference data provided in a textual format. Examples are the two letter country codes and coordinates computed from addresses.

In spatial indexing applications the geocode can also be translated between human-readable (e.g. hexadecimal) and internal (e.g. binary 64-bit unsigned integer) representations.

Systems of standard names
Geocodes like country codes, city codes, etc. comes from a table of official names, and the corresponding official codes and geometries (typically polygon of administrative areas). "Official" in the context of control and consensus, typically a table controlled by a standards organization or governmental authority. So, the most general case is a table of standard names and the corresponding standard codes (and its official geometries).

Strictly speaking, the "name" related to a geocode is a toponym, and the table (e.g. toponym to standard code) is the resource for toponym resolution: is the relationship process, usually effectuated by a software agent, between a toponym and "an unambiguous spatial footprint of the same place". Any standardized system of toponym resolution, having codes or encoded abbreviations, can be used as geocode system. The "resolver" agent in this context is also a geocoder.

Sometimes names are translated into numeric codes, to be compact or machine-readable. Since numbers, in this case, are name identifiers, we can consider "numeric names" — so this set of codes will be a kind of "system of standard names".

Hierarchical naming
In the geocode context, space partitioning is the process of dividing a geographical space into two or more disjoint subsets, resulting in a mosaic of subdivisions. Each subdivision can be partitioned again, recursively, resulting in an hierarchical mosaic.

When subdivisions's names are expressed as codes, and code syntax can be decomposed into a parent-child relations, through a well-defined syntactic scheme, the geocode set configures a hierarchical system. A geocode fragment (associated to a subdivision name) can be an abbreviation, numeric or alphanumeric code.

A popular example is the ISO 3166-2 geocode system, representing country names and the names of respective administrative subdivisions separated by hyphen. For example  is Germany, a simple geocode, and its subdivisions (illustrated) are   for Baden-Württemberg,   for Bayern, ...,     for Nordrhein-Westfalen, etc. The scope is only the first level of the hierarchy. For more levels there are other conventions, like HASC code. The HASC codes are alphabetic and its fragments have constant length (2 letters). Examples:

 * - North Rhine-Westphalia. A two-level hierarchical geocode.
 * - Kreis Coesfeld. A 3-level hierarchical geocode.

Two geocodes of a hierarchical geocode system with same prefix represents different parts of the same location. For instance  and   represents geographically interior parts of , the common prefix.

Changing the subdivision criteria we can obtain other hierarchical systems. For example, for hydrological criteria there is a geocode system, the US's hydrologic unit code (HUC), that is a numeric representation of basin names in a hierarchical syntax schema (first level illustred). For example, the HUC   is the identifier of "Pacific Northwest Columbia basin"; HUC   of "Lower Snake basin", a spatial subset of HUC   and a superset of   ("Imnaha River").

Systems of regular grids

Inspired in the classic alphanumeric grids, a discrete global grid (DGG) is a regular mosaic which covers the entire Earth's surface (the globe). The regularity of the mosaic is defined by the use of cells of same shape in all the grid, or "near the same shape and near same area" in a region of interest, like a country.

All cells of the grid have an identifier (DGG's cell ID), and the center of the cell can be used as reference for cell ID conversion into geographical point. When a compact human-readable expression of the cell ID is standardized, it becomes a geocode.

Geocodes of different geocode systems can represent the same position in the globe, with same shape and precision, but differ in string-length, digit-alphabet, separators, etc. Non-global grids also differ by scope, and in general are geometrically optimized (avoid overlaps, gaps or loss of uniformity) for the local use.

Hierarchical grids
Each cell of a grid can be transformed into a new local grid, in a recurring process. In the illustrated example, the cell  is a sub-cell of , that is a sub-cell of. A system of geographic regular grid references is the base of a hierarchical geocode system.

Two geocodes of a hierarchical geocode grid system can use the prefix rule: geocodes with same prefix represents different parts of the same broader location. Using again the side illustration:  and   represents geographically interior parts of , the common prefix.

Hierarchical geocode can be split into keys. The Geohash  is the key   of the cell , that is a cell of   (key  ), and so on, per-digit keys. The OLC  is the key   of the cell , that is a cell of   (key  ), and so on, two-digit keys. In the case of OLC there is a second key schema, after the  separator:    is the key   of the cell. It uses two key schemas. Some geocodes systems (e.g. S2 geometry) also use initial prefix with non-hierarchical key schema.

In general, as technical and non-compact optional representation, geocode systems (based on hierarchical grids) also offer the possibility of expressing their cell identifier with a fine-grained schema, by longer path of keys. For example, the Geohash , which is a base32 code, can be expanded to base4  , which is also a schema with per-digit keys. Geometrically, each Geohash cell is a rectangle that subdivides space recurrently into 32 new rectangles, so, base4 subdividing into 4, is the encoding-expansion limit.

The uniformity of shape and area of cells in a grid can be important for other uses, like spatial statistics. There are standard ways to build a grid covering the entire globe with cells of equal area, regular shape and other properties: Discrete Global Grid System (DGGS) is a series of discrete global grids satisfying all standardized requirements defined in 2017 by the OGC. When human-readable codes obtained from cell identifiers of a DGGS are also standardized, it can be classified as DGGS based geocode system.

Name-and-grid systems
There are also mixed systems, using a syntactical partition, where for example the first part (code prefix) is a name-code and the other part (code suffix) is a grid-code. Example:

 * Mapcode entrance to the elevator of the Eiffel Tower in Paris is, where   is the name-code and   is the grid-code. Semantically France is the context, to obtain its local grid.

For mnemonic coherent semantics, in fine-grained geocode applications, the mixed solutions are most suitable.

Shortening grid-based codes by context
Any geocode system based on regular grid, in general is also a shorter way to express a latitudinal/longitudinal coordinate. But a geocode with more than 6 characters is difficult for remember. On the other hand, a geocode based on standard name (or abbreviation or the complete name) is easier to remember.

This suggests that a "mixed code" can solve the problem, reducing the number of characters when a name can be used as the "context" for the grid-based geocode. For example, in a book where the author says "all geocodes here are contextualized by the chapter's city". In the chapter about Paris, where all places have a Geohash with prefix, that code can be removed —. For instance Geohash  can be reduced to , or, by an explicit code for context "FR-Paris  ". This is only possible when the context resolution (e.g. translation from "FR-Paris" to the prefix ) is well-known.

In fact a methodology exists for hierarchical grid-based geocodes with non-variable size, where the code prefix describes a broader area, which can be associated with a name. So, it is possible to shorten by replacing the prefix to the associated context. The most usual context is an official name. Examples:

The examples of the Mixed reference column are significantly easier than remembering DGG code column. The methods vary, for example OLC can be shortened by elimination of its first four digits and attaching a suitable sufficiently close locality.

When the mixed reference is also short (9 characters in the second example) and there are a syntax convention to express it (suppose ), this convention is generating a new  name-and-grid geocode system. This is not the case of the first example because, strictly speaking, "Cape Verde, Praia" is not a code.

To be both, a name-and-grid system and also a mixed reference convention, the system must be reversible. Pure name-and-grid systems, like Mapcode, with no way to transform it into a global code, is not a mixed reference, because there is no algorithm to transform the mixed geocode into a grid-based geocode.

In use, general scope
Geocodes in use and with general scope:

In use, alternative address
Geocodes can be used in place of official street names and/or house numbers, particularly when a given location has not been assigned an address by authorities. They can also be used as an "alternative address" if it can be converted to a Geo URI. Even if the geocode is not the official designation for a location, it can be used as a "local standard" to allow homes to receive deliveries, access emergency services, register to vote, etc.

In use, postal codes
Geocodes in use, as postal codes. A geocode recognized by Universal Postal Union and adopted as "official postal code" by a country, is also a valid postal code. Not all postal codes are geographic, and for some postal code systems, there are codes that are not geocodes (e.g. in UK system). Samples, not a complete list:

In use, telephony and radio
Geocodes in use for telephony or radio broadcasting scope:
 * ITU-R country codes
 * ITU-T country calling codes
 * ITU-T mobile calling codes
 * Maidenhead Locator System (used by amateur radio operators)
 * Marsden Squares

In use, others
Geocodes in use and with specific scope:

Other examples
Other geocodes:
 * S2: a geocoding scheme using spherical geometry and the space-filling Hilbert curve, developed at Google
 * H3: Hexagonal Hierarchical Spatial Index a geocoding scheme initially developed at Uber source code available and documented at h3geo
 * Munich Orientation Convention: converts lat/lon to metrical monopolar codes for targets, crossings, stations, stop points, bridges, tunnels, towns, islands, volcanoes, highway exits etc.
 * SALB (Second Administrative Level Boundaries), by UN
 * OpenPostcode, opensource global algorithm (local adaptations as Irish & Hong Kong postcodes).
 * WOEID
 * OpenStreetMap shortlink, used as a short permanent link to map locations
 * Quarter Degree Grid Cells
 * NAC (patended), area codes (area can be indefinitely small)
 * GEOID, the name of United States Census Bureau geographic identifiers.
 * In the United States, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Codes are often used. ANSI INCITS 446-2008 is entitled "Identifying Attributes for Named Physical and Cultural Geographic Features (Except Roads and Highways) of the United States, Its Territories, Outlying Areas, and Freely Associated Areas, and the Waters of the Same to the Limit of the Twelve-Mile Statutory Zone".
 * National Topographic System in Canada

Other standards
Some standards and name servers include: ISO 3166, FIPS, INSEE, Geonames, IATA and ICAO.

A number of commercial solutions have also been proposed:

 * WOEID (Where on Earth IDentifier) is a unique 32-bit reference identifier that identifies any feature on Earth.
 * NAC Locator provides a universal geocoding address for all locations on the planet.

title: Geocode


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All-India Muslim League

The All-India Muslim League (AIML) was a political party established in Dhaka in 1906 when some well-known Muslim politicians met the Viceroy of India, Lord Minto, with the goal of securing Muslim interests in British India.

The party arose out of the need for the political representation of Muslims in British India, especially during the Indian National Congress-sponsored massive Hindu opposition to the 1905 partition of Bengal. During the 1906 annual meeting of the All India Muslim Education Conference held in Israt Manzil Palace, Dhaka, the Nawab of Dhaka, Khwaja Salimullah, forwarded a proposal to create a political party which would protect the interests of Muslims in British India. Sir Mian Muhammad Shafi, a prominent Muslim leader from Lahore, suggested the political party be named the 'All-India Muslim League'. The motion was unanimously passed by the conference, leading to the official formation of the All-India Muslim League in Dhaka. It remained an elitist organization until 1937, when the leadership began mobilising the Muslim masses, which turned the league into a popular organization.

In the 1930s, the idea of a separate nation-state and influential philosopher Sir Muhammad Iqbal's vision of uniting the four provinces in North-West British India further supported the rationale of the two-nation theory. When the Congress party effectively protested against the United Kingdom unilaterally involving India in World War II without consulting the Indian people, the Muslim League went on to support the British war efforts. The Muslim League played a decisive role in the 1940s, becoming a driving force behind the division of India along religious lines and the creation of Pakistan as a Muslim state in 1947.

After the Partition of India and the establishment of Pakistan, the All-India Muslim League was formally disbanded in India. The League was officially succeeded by the Pakistan Muslim League, which eventually split into several political parties. Other groups diminished to a minor party, that too only in Kerala state of India. In Bangladesh, the Muslim League was revived in 1976, but it was reduced in size, rendering it insignificant in the political arena. In India, a separate independent entity called the Indian Union Muslim League was formed, which continues to have a presence in the Indian parliament to this day.

Foundation

With the sincere efforts by the pioneers of the Congress to attract Muslims to their sessions, the majority of the Islamic leadership, with the exception of few scholars (like Sir Syed Ahmed Khan and Syed Ameer Ali who focused more on Islamic education and scientific developments), rejected the notion that India has two distinct communities to be represented separately in Congress sessions.

Syed Ahmad Khan, in 1888, at Meerut, said, "After this long preface I wish to explain what method my nation — nay, rather the whole people of this country — ought to pursue in political matters. I will treat in regular sequence of the political questions of India, in order that you may have full opportunity of giving your attention to them. The first of all is this — In whose hands shall the administration and the Empire of India rest? Now, suppose that all English, and the whole English army, were to leave India, taking with them all their cannon and their splendid weapons and everything, then who would be rulers of India? Is it possible that under these circumstances two nations — the Mahomedans and the Hindus — could sit on the same throne and remain equal in power? Most certainly not. It is necessary that one of them should conquer the other and thrust it down. To hope that both could remain equal is to desire the impossible and the inconceivable."

In 1886, Sir Syed founded the Muhammadan Educational Conference, but a self-imposed ban prevented it from discussing politics. Its original goal was to advocate for British education, especially science and literature, among India's Muslims. The conference, in addition to generating funds for Sir Syed's Aligarh Muslim University, motivated the Muslim upper class to propose an expansion of educational uplift elsewhere, known as the Aligarh Movement. In turn, this new awareness of Muslim needs helped stimulate a political consciousness among Muslim elites, For a few of them, many years after the death of Sir Syed Ahmad Khan the All-India Muslim League was formed in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

The formation of a Muslim political party on the national level was seen as essential by 1901. The first stage of its formation was the meeting held at Lucknow in September 1906, with the participation of representatives from all over India. The decision for the re-consideration to form the all-Indian Muslim political party was taken and further proceedings were adjourned until the next meeting of the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference. The Simla Deputation reconsidered the issue in October 1906 and decided to frame the objectives of the party on the occasion of the annual meeting of the Educational Conference, which was scheduled to be held in Dhaka. Meanwhile, Nawab Salimullah Khan published a detailed scheme through which he suggested the party to be named All-India Muslim Confederacy.

Pursuant to the decisions taken earlier at the Lucknow meeting and later in Simla, the annual meeting of the All-India Muhammadan Educational Conference was held in Dhaka from 27 December until 30 December 1906. Three thousand delegates attended, headed by both Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk Kamboh and Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk (the Secretary of the Muhammaden Educational Conference), in which they explained its objectives and stressed the unity of Muslims under the banner of an association. It was formally proposed by Nawab Salimullah Khan and supported by Hakim Ajmal Khan, Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, Zafar Ali Khan, Syed Nabiullah, a barrister from Lucknow, and Syed Zahur Ahmad, an eminent lawyer, as well as several others.

Separate electorates
The Muslim League's insistence on separate electorates and reserved seats in the Imperial Council were granted in the Indian Councils Act after the League held protests in India and lobbied London.

The draft proposals for the reforms communicated on 1 October 1908 provided Muslims with reserved seats in all councils, with nominations only being maintained in Punjab. The communication displayed how much the Government had accommodated Muslim demands and showed an increase in Muslim representation in the Imperial and provincial legislatures. But the Muslim League's demands were only fully met in UP and Madras. However, the Government did accept the idea of separate electorates. The idea had not been accepted by the Secretary of State, who proposed mixed electoral colleges, causing the Muslim League to agitate and the Muslim press to protest what they perceived to be a betrayal of the Viceroy's assurance to the Simla deputation.

On 23 February Morley told the House of Lords that Muslims demanded separate representation and accepted them. This was the League's first victory. But the Indian Councils Bill did not fully satisfy the demands of the Muslim League. It was based on the October 1908 communique in which Muslims were only given a few reserved seats. The Muslim League's London branch opposed the bill and in a debate obtained the support of several parliamentarians. In 1909 the members of the Muslim League organised a Muslim protest. The Reforms Committee of Minto's council believed that Muslims had a point and advised Minto to discuss with some Muslim leaders. The Government offered a few more seats to Muslims in compromise but would not agree to fully satisfy the League's demand.

Minto believed that the Muslims had been given enough while Morley was still not certain because of the pressure Muslims could apply on the government. The Muslim League's central committee once again demanded separate electorates and more representation on 12 September 1909. While Minto was opposed, Morley feared that the Bill would not pass parliament without the League's support and he once again discussed Muslim representation with the League leadership. This was successful. The Aga Khan compromised so that Muslims would have two more reserved seats in the Imperial Council. The Muslim League hesitantly accepted the compromise.

Early years
Sultan Muhammad Shah (Aga Khan III) was appointed the first honorary president of the Muslim League, though he did not attend the Dhaka inaugural session. There were also six vice-presidents, a secretary, and two joint secretaries initially appointed for a three-year term, proportionately from different provinces. The League's constitution was framed in 1907, espoused in the "Green Book," written by Mohammad Ali Jauhar.

Aga Khan III shared Ahmad Khan's belief that Muslims should first build up their social capital through advanced education before engaging in politics, but would later boldly tell the British Raj that Muslims must be considered a separate nation within India. Even after he resigned as president of the AIML in 1912, he still exerted a major influence on its policies and agendas. In 1913, Mohammed Ali Jinnah joined the Muslim league.

Intellectual support and a cadre of young activists emerged from Aligarh Muslim University. Historian Mushirul Hasan writes that in the early 20th century, this Muslim institution, designed to prepare students for service to the British Raj, exploded into political activity. Until 1939, the faculty and students supported an all-India nationalist movement. After 1939, however, sentiment shifted dramatically toward a Muslim separatist movement, as students and faculty mobilised behind Jinnah and the Muslim League.

Growth of Communalism
Politically, there was a degree of unity between Muslim and Hindu leaders after World War I, as typified by the Khilafat Movement. Relationships cooled sharply after that campaign ended in 1922. Communalism grew rapidly, forcing the two groups apart. Major riots broke out in numerous cities, including 91 between 1923 and 1927 in Uttar Pradesh alone. At the leadership level, the proportion of Muslims among delegates to the Congress party fell sharply, from 11% in 1921 to under 4% in 1923.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah became disillusioned with politics after the failure of his attempt to form a Hindu-Muslim alliance, and he spent most of the 1920s in Britain. The leadership of the League was taken over by Sir Muhammad Iqbal, who in 1930 first put forward the demand for a separate Muslim state in India. The "Two-Nation Theory", the belief that Hindus and Muslims were two different nations who could not live in one country, gained popularity among Muslims. The two-state solution was rejected by the Congress leaders, who favoured a united India based on composite national identity. Congress at all times rejected "communalism" — that is, basing politics on religious identity. Iqbal's policy of uniting the North-West Frontier Province, Baluchistan, Punjab, and Sindh into a new Muslim majority state became part of the League's political platform.

The League rejected the Committee report (the Nehru Report), arguing that it gave too little representation (only one quarter) to Muslims, established Devanagari as the official writing system of the colony, and demanded that India turn into a de facto unitary state, with residuary powers resting at the centre – the League had demanded at least one-third representation in the legislature and sizeable autonomy for the Muslim provinces. Jinnah reported a "parting of the ways" after his requests for minor amendments to the proposal were denied outright, and relations between the Congress and the League began to sour.

Conception of Pakistan
On 29 December 1930, Sir Muhammad Iqbal delivered his presidential address to the All-India Muslim League annual session. He said:

"I would like to see the Punjab, North-West Frontier Province [modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa], Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within the British Empire or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North-West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North-West India."

Sir Muhammad Iqbal did not use the word "Pakistan" in his address. Some scholars argued that "Iqbal never pleaded for any kind of partition of the country. Rather he was an ardent proponent of a 'true' federal setup for India..., and wanted a consolidated Muslim majority within the Indian Federation".

Another Indian historian, Tara Chand, also held that Iqbal was not thinking in terms of partition of India, but in terms of a federation of autonomous states within India. Dr. Safdar Mehmood also asserted in a series of articles that in the Allahabad address, Iqbal proposed a Muslim majority province within an Indian federation and not an independent state outside an Indian Federation.

On 28 January 1933, Choudhary Rahmat Ali, founder of the Pakistan National Movement, voiced his ideas in the pamphlet entitled "Now or Never". In a subsequent book, he discussed the etymology in further detail: "'Pakistan' is both a Persian and an Urdu word. It is composed of letters taken from the names of all our homelands ... That is, Panjab, Afghania (North-West Frontier Province), Kashmir, Iran, Sindh (including Kachch and Kathiawar), Tukharistan, Afghanistan, and Balochistan."

The British and the Indian press vehemently criticised these two different schemes and created confusion about the authorship of the word "Pakistan" to such an extent that even Jawaharlal Nehru had to write: "Iqbal was one of the early advocates of Pakistan and yet he appears to have realised its inherent danger and absurdity. Edward Thompson has written that in the course of a conversation, Iqbal told him that he had advocated Pakistan because of his position as President of Muslim League session, but he felt sure that it would be injurious to India as a whole and to Muslims especially."

Campaign for Pakistan
Until 1937, the Muslim League had remained an organisation of elite Indian Muslims. The Muslim League leadership then began mass mobilisation and it then became a popular party with the Muslim masses in the 1940s, especially after the Lahore Resolution. Under Jinnah's leadership, its membership grew to over two million and became more religious and even separatist in its outlook.

The Muslim League's earliest base was the United Provinces, where they successfully mobilised the religious community in the late 1930s. Jinnah worked closely with local politicians, however, there was a lack of uniform political voice by the League during the 1938–1939 Madhe Sahaba riots in Lucknow. From 1937 onwards, the Muslim League and Jinnah attracted large crowds throughout India in its processions and strikes.

At a League conference in Lahore in 1940, Jinnah said:

"Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literature... It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of history. They have different epics, different heroes and different episodes ... To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built up for the government of such a state."

In Lahore, the Muslim League formally recommitted itself to creating an independent Muslim state which would include Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan, the North West Frontier Province, and Bengal, and which would be "wholly autonomous and sovereign". The Lahore Resolution, moved by the sitting Chief Minister of Bengal A. K. Fazlul Huq, was adopted on 23 March 1940, and its principles formed the foundation for Pakistan's first constitution. In the Indian provincial elections of 1946, the Muslim League won 425 out of 476 seats reserved for Muslims (and about 89.2% of Muslim votes) on a policy of creating the independent state of Pakistan, and with an implied threat of secession if this was not granted. Congress, led by Gandhi and Nehru, remained adamantly opposed to dividing India.

In opposition to the Lahore Resolution, the All India Azad Muslim Conference gathered in Delhi in April 1940 to voice its support for a united India. Its members included several Islamic organisations in India, as well as 1400 nationalist Muslim delegates; the "attendance at the Nationalist meeting was about five times than the attendance at the League meeting." The All-India Muslim League worked to try to silence those Muslims who stood against the partition of India, often using "intimidation and coercion". For example, Deobandi scholar Maulana Syed Husain Ahmad Madani traveled across British India, spreading the idea he wrote about in his book, Composite Nationalism and Islam, which stood for Hindu-Muslim unity and opposed the concept of a partition of India; while he was doing this, members of the pro-separatist Muslim League attacked Madani and disturbed his rallies. The murder of the All India Azad Muslim Conference leader Allah Bakhsh Soomro in 1943 further solidified the All-India Muslim League to demand the creation of Pakistan.

Role in communal violence
From the late 1930s and onwards in the British Indian province of Sind, communal tensions between Muslims and Hindus rose to enormous degree. These communal feelings were instrumental in the popularity of the All India Muslim League throughout the province. Even though the Muslims made up about 70% of the population of Sindh, they had a bare majority (34 of 60 seats) in the Assembly. Furthermore, before the British took over, the Sindhi Hindus didn't own any land but within a century of British rule, their landownership grew by 40% while a further 20% was believed to have been mortgaged to them. The inter-faith conflict was at large connected to the peculiar socio economic order in which the Hindus in Sind dominated with their high socioeconomic status, while the Muslims remained marginalized.

The historian Ayesha Jalal describes the actions that the pro-separatist Muslim League used in order to further spread communal division and undermine the elected government of Allah Bakhsh Soomro, which stood for a united India: "Even before the 'Pakistan' demand was articulated, the dispute over the Sukkur Manzilgah had been fabricated by provincial Leaguers to unsettle Allah Bakhsh Soomro's ministry which was dependent on support from the Congress and Independent Party. Intended as a way station for Mughal troops on the move, the Manzilgah included a small mosque which had been subsequently abandoned. On a small island in the near distance was the temple of Saad Bela, sacred space for the large number of Hindus settled on the banks of the Indus at Sukkur. The symbolic convergence of the identity and sovereignty over a forgotten mosque provided ammunition for those seeking office at the provincial level. Making an issue out of a non-issue, the Sind Muslim League in early June 1939 formally reclaimed the mosque. Once its deadline of 1 October 1939 for the restoration of the mosque to Muslims had passed, the League started an agitation."

In the few years before the partition, the Muslim League was accused of "monetarily subsidizing" mobs that engaged in communal violence against Hindus and Sikhs in the areas of Multan, Rawalpindi, Campbellpur, Jhelum and Sargodha, as well as in the Hazara District. The Muslim League led mobs reportedly paid assassins money for every Hindu and Sikh killed. As such, leaders of the Muslim League, including Muhammad Ali Jinnah, issued no condemnation of the violence against Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab.

Pakistan
After the partition of the British Indian Empire, the Muslim League played a major role in giving birth to modern conservatism in Pakistan and the introduction of the democratic process in the country.

The Pakistani incarnation was originally led by the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, and later by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan, but suffered from ill-fate following the military intervention in 1958. One of its factions remained supportive of President Ayub Khan until 1962, when all factions decided to reform into the Pakistan Muslim League led by Nurul Amin, and to support Fatima Jinnah in the presidential elections in 1965. Furthermore, it was the only party to have received votes from both East and West Pakistan during the elections held in 1970. During the successive periods of Pakistan, the Pakistan Muslim League went on to be one of the ruling parties holding alternating power within the nation.

India
After the partition of India in 1947, the All-India Muslim League was disbanded. It was succeeded by Indian Union Muslim League in the new India.

Indian Union Muslim League contests Indian General Elections under the Indian Constitution. The party has always had a constant, if small presence, in the Indian Parliament. The party has had two members in every Lower House from the third to the 16th House, with the exception of the Second, in which it had no members, and the fourth, in which it had three members. The party had a single member in the 14th Lower House. The party currently has four members in Parliament. The party is currently a part of the United Progressive Alliance in national level.

Indian Union Muslim League is recognized by the Election Commission of India as a State Party in Kerala.The party is a major member of the opposition United Democratic Front, the Indian National Congress-lead pre-poll state-level alliance in Kerala. Whenever the United Democratic Front rules in Kerala, the party leaders are chosen as important Cabinet Ministers.

Bangladesh
The Muslim League formed its government in East Bengal immediately after the partition of Bengal, with Khawaja Nazimuddin becoming the first Chief Minister.

Problems in East Pakistan for the Muslim League began to rise following the issue of the Constitution of Pakistan. Furthermore, the Bengali Language Movement proved to be the last event that led the Muslim League to lose its mandate in East Bengal. The Muslim League's national conservatism program also faced several setbacks and resistance from the Communist Party of Pakistan. In an interview given to print media, Nurul Amin stated that the communists had played an integral and major role in staging the massive protests, mass demonstrations, and strikes for the Bengali Language Movement.

All over the country, the political parties had favoured the general elections in Pakistan with the exception of the Muslim League. In 1954, legislative elections were to be held for the Parliament. Unlike in West Punjab, not all of the Hindu population migrated to India, instead a large number stayed in the state. The influence of the Communist Party deepened, and its goal of attaining power was finally realised during the elections. The United Front, the Communist Party, and the Awami League returned to power, inflicting a severe defeat to the Muslim League. Out of 309, the Muslim League only won 10 seats, whereas the Communist Party got 4 seats of the ten contested. The communists working with other parties had secured 22 additional seats, totalling 26. The right-wing Jamaat-e-Islami had completely failed in the elections.

In 1955, the United Front named Abu Hussain Sarkar as the Chief Minister of the State and he ruled the state in two non-consecutive terms until 1958, when martial law was imposed. The Muslim League remained as a minor party in East Pakistan but participated with full rigour during the Pakistan general elections in 1970. It won 10 seats from East Pakistan and 7 seats from other parts of Pakistan. After the independence of Bangladesh, the Muslim League was revived in 1976 but its size was reduced, rendering it insignificant in the political arena.

United Kingdom
During the 1940s, the Muslim League had a United Kingdom chapter active in the British politics. After the establishment of Pakistan, the Pakistani community's leaders took over the UK branch, choosing Zubeida Habib Rahimtoola as president of the party to continue to serve its purpose in the United Kingdom. At present, the Muslim League's UK branch is led by the PML-N, with Zubair Gull as its president.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: All-India Muslim League


text:
Rampur, Uttar Pradesh

Rampur (ISO: Rāmapura) is a town and the municipality headquarter of Rampur District in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It was formerly known for its various industries, like sugar refining and cotton milling. Its library has more than 12,000 rare manuscripts and a fine collection of Mughal miniature paintings. It is located 322 kilometres north-west of the state capital Lucknow.

In 2007, the Ministry of Minority Affairs identified Rampur District as one of 14 'Minority Concentration' districts in the state, on the basis of the 2001 census data on population, socio-economic indicators and basic amenities indicators. The city is known for its Rampuri chaaku (knife).

Etymology
Originally it was a group of four villages named Kather, the name of Raja Ram Singh. The first Nawab proposed to rename the city Faizabad. But many other places were known by the name Faizabad so its name was changed to Mustafabad alias Rampur.

History
As per medieval history, Rampur was the part of the Delhi region, and was divided between Badaun and Sambhal districts. Being situated on upperside of Rohilkhand, it was known by the name Kather and was ruled by Katheria Rajputs. The Katheria Rajputs resisted external for about 400 years, fighting the sultans of Delhi and later with the Mughals. They went to repeated battles with Nasiruddin Mahmud in 1253, Ghiyas ud din Balban in 1256, Jalal-ud-din Khalji in 1290, Firuz Shah Tughlaq in 1379 & Sikandar Lodi in 1494.

Later, in the beginning of the Mughal period, the capital of Rohilkhand was changed from Badaun to Bareilly and hence the importance of Rampur increased.

The Rohilla War of 1774–5 began when the Rohilla Pathans - dominant in the area - reneged on a debt they owed the Nawab of Oudh for military assistance against the Marathas in 1772. The Rohilla were defeated and driven from their former capital of Bareilly by the Nawab with the assistance of the East India Company's troops lent by Warren Hastings.

The Rohilla State of Rampur was established by Nawab Faizullah Khan on 7 October 1774 in the presence of British Commander Colonel Champion, and remained a pliant state under British protection thereafter.

Khan laid the first stone of the new fort at Rampur and thus Rampur city was founded in 1775. Originally it was a group of four villages named Kather, the name of Raja Ram Singh. The first Nawab proposed to rename the city 'Faizabad'. But many other places were known by the name of Faizabad already existed, so the name was changed to Mustafabad alias Rampur. Nawwab Faizullah Khan ruled for 20 years. He was a great patron of scholarship, and began the collection of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Urdu manuscripts which now make up the bulk of the Rampur Raza Library. After his death his son Muhammad Ali Khan took over, but he was killed by the Rohilla leaders after 24 days, and Ghulam Muhammad Khan, the brother of the deceased, was proclaimed Nawab. The East India Company took exception to this, and after a reign of just 3 months and 22 days Ghulam Muhammad Khan was defeated by its forces. The Governor-General made Ahmad Ali Khan, son of the late Muhammad Ali Khan, the new Nawab. He ruled for 44 years. He did not have any sons, so Muhammad Sa'id Khan, son of Ghulam Muhammad Khan, took over as the new Nawab. He raised a regular Army, established Courts and carried out many works to improve the economic conditions of farmers. His son Muhammad Yusuf Ali Khan took over after his death. His son Kalb Ali Khan became the new Nawab in 1865.

Nawab Kalb Ali Khan was literate in Arabic and Persian. Under his rule, the state did much work to uplift standards of education. He was also a Member of Council during the Viceroyalty of Lord John Lawrence. He built the Jama Masjid in Rampur at a cost of Rs. 300,000. He was also knighted in Agra by the Prince of Wales. He ruled for 22 years and 7 months. After his death his son Mushtaq Ali Khan took over. He appointed W. C. Wright as the Chief Engineer of the state and built many new buildings and canals. Nawab Hamid Ali became the new ruler in 1889 at the age of 14. Many new schools were opened during his reign, and many donations were provided to nearby colleges. He donated Rs. 50,000 to Lucknow Medical College. In 1905 he built the magnificent Darbar Hall within the Fort which now houses the great collection of Oriental manuscripts held by the Rampur Raza Library. His son Raza Ali Khan became the last ruling Nawab in 1930.

On 1 July 1949 the State of Rampur was merged into the Republic of India. Rampur today presents a slightly decayed appearance: the palaces of the Nawabs are crumbling, as are the gates and walls of the fort. However, the Library remains a flourishing institution of immense value to scholars from all over the world.

The Nawabs of Rampur sided with the British during Indian Rebellion of 1857, and this enabled them to continue to play a role in the social, political and cultural life of Northern India in general and the Muslims of the United Provinces in particular. They gave refuge to some of the literary figures from the Court of Bahadur Shah Zafar.

Post-independence
Descendants of the Nawabs include Murad Mian the first child of Murtaza Ali Khan of Rampur. Begum Noor Bano, the widow of the former Nawab's younger brother and ex-MP Zulfiquar Ali Khan of Rampur. Begum Noor Bano has become a politician and won the election from Rampur parliamentary constituency in 1999. She lost the elections in 2004,2009 from Rampur and 2014 from Moradabad consecutively. Murtaza Ali Khan and Zulfiquar Ali Khan (aka Mikki Mia), who continued to use the title of Nawab as a token even after independence and abolition of royalty but never ruled Rampur, are now dead. Murtaza Ali contested an election from Rampur opposite his mother Rafat Jamani Begum in 1972 and won. Although the two brothers were always political rivals they never faced each other in elections. Subsequently, the family was also involved in smuggling scandals involving some smuggling from Pakistan, where one of the sons of Murtaza Ali is married. Raza Inter College, Hamid Inter College and Murtaza Inter College are three higher secondary schools named after three nawabs.

The present Nawab of Rampur, Muhammad Murad Ali Khan Bahadur is the present titular Nawab of Rampur. The eldest son of Murtuza Ali Khan Bahadur, he succeeded his father as titular Nawab upon the latter's death in 1982. He served as a member on the Raza Library Board in Rampur from 1993 to 2002.

Geography
Rampur, located between longitude 79°05' E and latitude 28°48' N, is in Moradabad Division of Uttar Pradesh, India. It is surrounded by district Udham Singh Nagar in north, Bareilly in east, and Moradabad in west and Badaun in south. Spread in area of 2,367 km2, Rampur is 192-meter above sea level in north and 166.4-meter in south. It is home to farms that cover long stretches of land. During the monsoon just after a long period of rain the mountain ranges of Nainital can be seen in the north direction.

Climate
During Summers the temperature is usually from 31 °C to 30 °C and during Winters it is from 25 °C to 5 °C.

Demographics
As per the 2011 Census of India, Rampur had a population of 325,248 (compared to 281,549 in 2001) showing 16% growth in 2001–11. Males constituted 52.2% and females 47.8% of the population. Sex ratio was 915 compared to the national average of 940. Rampur had an average literacy rate of 53.7%, much lower than the national average of 64.3%. Male literacy was 56%, and female literacy was 51%. In Rampur, children under six years of age numbered 37,945 and were 11.7% of the population (14% in 2001).

The city has a majority Muslim population. The greater region around Rampur still has a significant number of Rohilla.

At the time of the 2011 Census of India, 61.49% of the population in the district spoke Urdu, 37.11% Hindi (or a related language) and 0.90% Punjabi as their first language.

Culture and Urdu Poetry
Rampur is considered as third school of poetry after Delhi and Lucknow. Many prominent and legendary Urdu poets of the time like Daagh Dehlvi, Mirza Ghalib and Amir Meenai joined the patronage of Rampur court. Nawabs of Rampur were very fond of poetry and other fine arts. They provided remunerations to the poets who were associated with ' darbar.' Nizam Rampuri earned great name as poet. In addition, Shad Aarifi was another poet from Rampur who evolved modern Ghazal in a very distinct style. Currently Tahir Faraz, Tarif Niyazi, Azhar Inayati, Shehzada Gulrez are some poets who are representing Rampur globally.

Architecture

The Rulers of Rampur have had distinct impact on the architecture of the region. The buildings and monuments signify the presence of Mughal type architecture. Some of the buildings are very old and have been built over repeatedly in course of time.

One of the most well designed monument is the Fort of Rampur (Hindi:रामपुर का किला). It also houses the Raza Library or Hamid Manzil, the former palace of the Rulers. It has a sizeable collection of Oriental manuscripts in Asia. The fort also houses the Imambara.

The Jama Masjid is one of the finest piece of architecture to be found in Rampur. It resembles the jama masjid in Delhi to some extent. It was built by Nawab Faizullah Khan. It has a unique mughal touch to it. There are several entry-exit gates to the masjid. It has three big domes and four tall minarets with gold pinnacles boasting of a royal touch. It has a main lofty entrance gate that has an inbuilt clock tower occupied by a big clock that was imported from Britain.

There are several entry-exit gates built by the Nawab. These gates are major entry-exit routes from the city. Examples are Shahbad Gate, Nawab Gate, Bilaspur Gate etc.

Music
The Rampur-Sahaswan gharana of Hindustani classical music also has its origins in court musicians. Ustad Mehboob Khan, was a khayal singer and Veena player of the Rampur court; his son Ustad Inayat Hussain Khan (1849–1919), who trained and lived in the city, founded the gharana.

Cuisine
Rampuri cuisine, a part of the Mughal cuisine tradition, developed by the chefs of the Nawabs, is also known for its distinct flavours and dishes with recipes passed on from the royal kitchen, like Rampuri fish,  Chicken Changezi ,  Pasande haleem , Rampuri Korma, Rampuri mutton kebabs,  doodhiya biryani,  Dogoshta biryani and  adrak ka halwa,  Sohan halwa .

Knife making
Rampur was traditionally famous for the knives known as Rampuri Chaaku, which even made their way to Bollywood crime thrillers in the 1960s and 1970s. Eventually the Government of Uttar Pradesh banned making knives longer than 4.5 inches in blade length, leading to a drop in their popularity.

Rampur Greyhound
The Rampur Greyhound is a smooth-haired sighthound native to the region, often described as being more substantially built than other greyhounds. It was the favoured hound of the Nawabs for jackal coursing, but was also used to hunt lions, tigers, leopards, and panthers. Mh Nawab Ahmad Ali Khan Bahadur bred these dogs by combining Tazi and English Greyhound bloodlines.

Festivals
Religious practices are as much an integral part of everyday life and a very public affair as they are in the rest of India. Therefore, not surprisingly, many festivals are religious in origin although several of them are celebrated irrespective of caste and creed. Among the most important Hindu festivals are Diwali, Holi and Vijayadashami, Mahashivaratri, Ram Navmi, Basant Panchami, Sri Krishna Janamastmi and Raksha Bandhan, which are also observed by Jains and Sikhs. Eid ul Milad, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Muharram are Muslim religious festivals. Mahavir Jayanti is celebrated by Jains, Buddha Jayanti by Buddhists, Guru Nanak Jayanti by Sikhs and Good Friday, Christmas by the Christians.

Rail
Rampur Railway Station (station code RMU) lies on the Lucknow-Moradabad line and junction point of Kathgodam railway line. which work under NER. Train connections include Avadh Assam Express, Jammu Tawi-Sealdah Express, Kashi Vishwanath Express, Howrah-Amritsar Express, Ganga Sutlej Express and Satyagraha Express. Seat reservation is computerised. The station is served by the Northern Railways. Moradabad railway station is 30 km to the west of Rampur. Going south-east, Bareilly railway station is the nearest major station. Hotel Tourist and Restaurant is only 5-minute walk from the railway station. The electrification of railway lines of Rampur junction is completed.

Various express trains come here. The important ones are Delhi-Kathgodam Shatabdi, Delhi-Bareilly Inter-city Express, Lucknow-Delhi Lucknow Mail, Delhi-Kathgodam Ranikhet Express, Bareilly-Bhuj Ala Hazrat Express, Amritsar-Howrah Amritsar Mail.

Road
National Highway 9 passes through Rampur. Regular buses connect Rampur to Moradabad every ½ hr. Direct buses are also available from Delhi, Lucknow, Bareilly, Aligarh Haridwar, Rishikesh, Kanpur, Rupaidhiya, Agra etc. National Highway 530 originates at Rampur.

Air
Bareilly Airport is a nearest major domestic airport to Rampur which is located around 69 km from Rampur, it is connected to cities like Mumbai, New Delhi and Bangalore with direct flights.

Moradabad Airport is an upcoming airport between Moradabad and Rampur, being upgraded from an existing government airstrip.

Places of interest
Jama Masjid The foundation of Jama Masjid in Rampur was laid by Nawab Faizullah Khan. It was built at the cost of 300,000 at that time and it was further completed by Nawab Kalb Ali Khan. The area around the Jama Masjid became a center of attraction and a big market was developed around it, known today as the Shadab Market. A big jewellery market also lines the masjid known as Sarrafa. The shops were rented out to businessmen to meet the mosque's requirements. Hindus and Muslims both own these shops and customers belong to both communities. This shows communal harmony that exists in this area.

Raza Library

Nawab Faizullah Khan, who ruled Rampur from 1774 to 1794, established the library from his personal collection of ancient manuscripts and miniature specimens of Islamic calligraphy in the last decades of the 18th century. It is one of the biggest libraries of Asia. As all the succeeding Nawabs were great patrons of scholars, poets, painters, calligraphers and musicians, the library grew by leaps and bounds. Notable additions were made to the collection during the rule of Nawab Ahmad Ali Khan (1794–1840).

It contains very rare and valuable collection of manuscripts, historical documents, specimens of Islamic calligraphy, miniature paintings, astronomical instruments and rare illustrated works in Arabic and Persian. The Raza Library also contains printed works in Sanskrit, Hindi, Urdu, Pashto (having the original manuscript of the first translation of the Qur'an in addition to other important books/documents), Tamil and Turkish, and approximately 30,000 printed books (including periodicals) in various other languages.

Rampur Planetarium

State of the art planetarium is established at Rampur. This is be India's first planetarium based on Digital Laser technology. The planetarium building is complete and equipments are installed. The information will be directly fed by NASA.

Gandhi Samadhi

Gandhi Samadhi is a memorial to Mahatma Gandhi. It signifies the struggles that Mahatma Gandhi took over for the independence of India from British rule in India

Kothi Khas Bagh

Kothi Khas Bagh is a palace located at Rampur, about 30 km east of Moradabad in Uttar Pradesh. It was the erstwhile residence of the Nawabs of Rampur. Set in a 300-acre compound, this huge 200-room European style palace is a unique blend of Islamic architecture and British architecture. It also features personal apartments and offices, music rooms and personal cinema hall of Nawabs. The huge halls, adorned with Burma teak and Belgium glass chandeliers, present a fine specimen of the architecture of a bygone era. There is an Italian marble staircase towards the main bedrooms. The statue of Kalb Ali Khan, the second Nawab of Rampur, is an eye-catching one. Kothi Khas Bagh is now in a dilapidated state due to the age and neglect.

Ambedkar Park

Ambedkar Park is a memorial to Bhimrao Ambedkar. It is a park with a railway line along its boundary It has a statue of Bimrao Ambedkar.It also a faux mountain like structure where you can get a good view of the surrounding.

Education

The education sector in Rampur and its villages is developing with investments pouring in. The city has several secondary and higher secondary schools and colleges. The educational institutions are the main attraction for students of nearby places like Kashipur-Anga, Kemri, Bilaspur etc. as many new institutions have come up in the city for various higher education mainly affiliated with MJP Rohilkhand University, Bareilly. Although the city has many educational institutes, Rampur has an average literacy rate of 53.34%, lower than the national average of 59.5%. Male literacy is 61.40%, and female literacy is 44.44%. The Muhammad Ali Jauhar University is the first university to be established. Many public and government Primary schools are also playing crucial role in education sector in rural areas of Rampur. Impact College of Science & Technology is a newly opened Degree College.

 Education in Rampur  Rajshree Medical College
 * Delhi Public School. CBSE Board
 * Doon Public School CBSE Board
 * Lucknow Public School.ICSE Board
 * Divine International School.ICSE Board
 * Hassanson's International School. ICSE Board
 * Dashmesh Academy. CBSE Board
 * Rampur Public School.CBSE Board
 * Saint Marry School. CBSE Board
 * Government Polytechnic
 * Jaya Prada Nursing Institute
 * Tondon Institute of Peramedics
 * Hassanson's Institute of Peramedics & Nursing
 * Johar Institute of Medical science
 * Hassanson's School of Medicine

Industry and agriculture
Rampur has a largely agriculture-based economy. It has very fertile land, but little industry, and virtually no mineral extraction. The main industries of Rampur are Winemaking, sugar processing, textile weaving, and the manufacture of agricultural implements. An inoperative sugar mill still stands in Rampur; it was closed down in 1999 amidst political rivalry, but work has since begun on restarting the mill after state government approval. The major cash crop of the city is mentha, and menthol oil manufacturing also flourishes there.

The company formerly known as Rampur Distillery & Chemical Company Ltd., Radico Khaitan, was established in Rampur in 1943 and is India's second largest liquor manufacturer. The distillery at Rampur manufactures high grade Extra Neutral Spirits (ENA) from molasses and grain, with a production capacity of 75 million litres of molasses ENA, 30 million of grain neutral spirits, and 460 thousands litres of malt whisky annually.

The kite-making industry is one of the oldest and prime industries in Rampur, with various sizes and shapes of kite created by hand to this day. The kites made in Rampur are in great demand all over Uttar Pradesh.

Beedi making is another booming industry in Rampur. As noted above, Rampur-manufactured knives were quite famous in the 20th century and were known as Rampuri Chaaku. Eventually, however, the Government of Uttar Pradesh banned making knives with blades longer than 4.5 inches, leading to a drop in their popularity.

Other establishments
Mentha and allied products Mursaina Rampur The major crops grown here include maize, sugarcane and rice. Majority of the crops are used as food by the people who grow them, therefore these crops do not go market.

 * Economic development indicators

Communication networks
All prominent tele-communication network provider in India offer their services in Rampur.

Radio services
Radio services available in Rampur. Rampur Radio.& Door Dharshan Rampur

Print media
The Hindi daily news papers include Amrit Vichar, Dainik Jagran, Amar Ujala and The Hindustan. Prominent English dailies like The Times of India, The Hindustan Times, The Young Turk and Indian Express have fewer readers. The local Urdu newspaper is Rampur ka elaan. It is published from Rampur since 1991.

Notable people

 * Abul Kalam Azad first education minister, Republic of India and President of India.
 * Athar Shah Khan Jaidi, Pakistani comedian, writer was born in Rampur
 * Azam Khan, Indian politician of Samajwadi Party
 * Baba Rampuri, American emigrant to India, a Naga Sadhu and ascetic
 * Baldev Singh Aulakh Indian politician and minister in Uttar Pradesh government
 * Javed Siddiqui
 * Mohammad Ali, Pakistani actor
 * Mohammad Ali Jauhar Journalist, scholar, political activist, poet
 * Mukhtar Abbas Naqvi, Indian politician and cabinet ministers in Modi Government
 * Obaidullah Baig, Pakistani scholar, Urdu writer/novelist, columnist, media expert and documentary filmmaker
 * Pran, Bollywood actor, was brought up here
 * Raza Murad, Bollywood actor, was born and brought up in Rampur.
 * Rukhsar Rehman, Indian film & television actress and model in Bollywood
 * Shama Zaidi, screenwriter, theatre actress, documentary filmmaker, costume designer, art director and journalist
 * Zulfikar Ali Khan, Nawab of Rampur and member of parliament

International Urdu Poet & Lyricist
 * Tahir Faraz,

Youth Urdu Poet
 * Tarif Niyazi,

title: Rampur, Uttar Pradesh


text:
User talk:Pavlvsrex

Hi Pavlvsrex (Another Aussie? :) - I hope you like the place and choose to stay.

Some links that may be of use:
 * Welcome, newcomers
 * How to edit a page
 * Village pump - ask questions you may have here, or leave a message on my talk page

Check out the New user log, or here's some stuff you can do, if you want:

Have fun, and keep contributing Dysprosia 11:00, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Earmuffs
Please refrain from ad hominem attacks. — Jor (Darkelf) 15:03, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

When oh when will this Jor character work out that this is supposed to be an encyclopaedia of information, not an opinion bulletin board? My reference to earmuffs being required to protect us from your rants does not rate as an ad hominem swipe. Your personal attributes are not the problem being addressed; your biased, simplistic, and unjustified argument is.

Slovene grammar
Actually, I only did some copy-pasting work on this article. As far as I know it's largely written by User:Sinuhe. -- Jeronim 15:00, 30 Mar 2004 (UTC)

-Either way it's excellent work. I'll post a thank you note to the alleged creator.

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title: User talk:Pavlvsrex


text:
Mandy Kane

Mandy Kane is a singer, songwriter, producer and remixer. He is best known for his single "Stab" which peaked at number 18 on the ARIA charts in 2004.

1990s–2002: Early years
Mandy Kane started playing in high school rock bands and worked in part-time jobs to save money to buy a 4-track recorder. He says his songs are inspired by a variety of rock icons from bygone eras – from David Bowie and Gary Numan to The Beatles and Pink Floyd.

Seeking other outlets to develop his musical and theatrical sensibilities, he joined local drama groups and rallied locals to play in his band. After he had produced a number of songs with his basic home recording setup, Kane started sending out demos to record companies and managers.

Michael Newton of Roundhouse Entertainment can be credited with discovering Kane and taking on a management role in the early stages of his career. Newton's involvement resulted in a publishing deal with Mushroom Music after Michael Gudinski attended one of Kane's showcases at Revolver Upstairs. Kane was eventually signed by Warner Music Australasia.

2003–2005: Tragic Daydreams
Mandy Kane relocated to Los Angeles to work with producers Chris Vrenna and Joe Chiccarelli. Tony Espie was commissions to mix Kane's recordings, which were then mastered at The Exchange in London.

Mandy Kane's debut single, "Stab" was released in July 2003. The single is both a statement against teen suicide and a reference to the 'stabbing' Numanesque synths featured throughout. "Stab" peaked at number 18 in the ARIA charts. "Billy Bones" was released as the second single in October 2003, reaching number 27 in the ARIA charts. Billy Bones is a fictitious character, vaguely based on Kane's experimentation with home recording equipment as a teenager. A third single titled "Stupid Friday" was released in March 2004 and peaked at number 36 in the ARIA charts. Mandy Kane's debut album Tragic Daydreams was released in April 2004 and peaked at number 79 on the ARIA Charts.

To promote the album, Kane toured extensively with the original line-up expanded to include Zakk Zedras (Roxus, Serpentine, Red Circle & Rie Nakayama. Kane played a showcase gig at the Australian premiere of the Matrix Revolutions before an audience including Keanu Reeves. This line-up also toured with Marilyn Manson.

Mandy Kane's cover version of "Ordinary World" by Duran Duran features on the soundtrack to the Australian movie "One Perfect Day."

2006–present: Independent releases
In 2006, Mandy Kane formed his own independent label, "Mummy's Boy Records" (which would later be renamed "The Majestika Creative"), through which he released his first independent single, "(UK) Hanky Panky" as a digital download. It features on the EP, "Murder in the Daylight", which was released in April 2006.

Mandy Kane commissioned the then fledgling band Van She to remix the title track from the EP as its second single. The track received an Honourable Mention in the Billboard Song Contest.

In May 2008, Mandy Kane released the stand-alone digital single "Far From Oblivion". He also recorded an acoustic version to include as a B-side.

In 2009 Mandy Kane released the single "25 Seconds". Gary Numan and his producer Ade Fenton were commissioned to remix the song. This remix received considerable rotation on radio and at clubs in Australia and abroad, with Numan himself praising Kane for his songwriting ability.

In November 2015, Mandy Kane released the EP Darkness & Divine as well as a re-recording of his debut studio titled Tragic Daydreams Reimagined.

In December 2023, Mandy Kane released the mini-album Runestones & Keymasters (An Oratorio), combining mysticism and folklore with vintage rock tones, orchestral arrangements, and well refined song-craft.

Artist development, production and management
In addition to continuing to produce and release his own material, Mandy Kane has worked as a producer and manager for several other artists.

Mandy Kane worked with Nathaniel Willemse, during which time he co-wrote and produced several songs which resulted in the release of a debut EP for the artist titled Vertigo. The title track, a cover of the popular U2 single, was marketed as part of a Video Hits competition which gave the release four weeks of consecutive rotation on commercial television in Australia.

From 2009–2012, Kane assisted in developing and co-managed Australian act Dancing Heals. He mixed their debut EP Out of This and produced their debut album Into the Night, which was recorded at Red Door Sounds.

Kane accompanied the band on a tour of North America in 2010, which saw the band play to sold out venues as well as establishing international fans and industry contacts. The album was well received by reviewers and the public alike, with the single "Diamonds" enjoying five weeks of repeated rotation on Australia's prime music video television program Rage. International audiences also responded favourably, with "Into the Night" debuting in the Top 20 specialty radio charts in the US.

title: Mandy Kane


text:
Nawab

Nawab (Balochi, Pashto: نواب; نواب; নবাব/নওয়াব; नवाब; Punjabi (Gurmukhi): ਨਵਾਬ; Persian, Punjabi (Shahmukhi), Sindhi, Urdu: ), also spelled Nawaab, Navaab, Navab, Nowab, Nabob, Nawaabshah, Nawabshah or Nobab, is a royal title indicating a sovereign ruler, often of a South Asian state, in many ways comparable to the western title of Prince. The relationship of a Nawab to the Emperor of India has been compared to that of the Kings of Saxony to the German Emperor. In earlier times the title was ratified and bestowed by the reigning Mughal emperor to semi-autonomous Muslim rulers of subdivisions or princely states in the Indian subcontinent loyal to the Mughal Empire, for example the Nawabs of Bengal.

"Nawab" usually refers to males and literally means Viceroy; the female equivalent is "Begum" or "Nawab Begum". The primary duty of a Nawab was to uphold the sovereignty of the Mughal emperor along with the administration of a certain province.

The title of "nawabi" was also awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similar to a British peerage, to persons and families who ruled a princely state for various services to the Government of India. In some cases, the titles were also accompanied by jagir grants, either in cash revenues and allowances or land-holdings. During the British Raj, some of the chiefs, or sardars, of large or important tribes were also given the title, in addition to traditional titles already held by virtue of chieftainship.

The term "Zamindari" was originally used for the subahdar (provincial governor) or viceroy of a subah (province) or regions of the Mughal Empire.

History

Nawab was a Hindustani term, used in Urdu, Hindi, Bengali, Pashto and many other North-Indian languages, borrowed via Persian from the Arabic honorific plural of naib, or "deputy." In some areas, especially Bengal, the term is pronounced nobab. This later variation has also entered English and other foreign languages as nabob.

The term nawaab is often used to refer to any Muslim ruler in north or south India while the term nizam is preferred for a senior official; it literally means "governor of region". The Nizam of Hyderabad had several nawabs under him: Nawabs of Cuddapah, Sira, Rajahmundry, Kurnool, Chicacole, et al. Nizam was his personal title, awarded by the Mughal Government and based on the term nazim as meaning "senior officer". Nazim is still used for a district collector in many parts of India. The term nawab is still technically imprecise, as the title was also awarded to Hindus and Sikhs, as well, and large zamindars and not necessarily to all Muslim rulers. With the decline of that empire, the title, and the powers that went with it, became hereditary in the ruling families in the various provinces.

Under later British rule, nawabs continued to rule various princely states of Amb, Bahawalpur, Balasinor, Baoni, Banganapalle, Bhopal, Cambay, Jaora, Junagadh, Kurnool (the main city of Deccan), Kurwai, Mamdot, Multan, Palanpur, Pataudi, Radhanpur, Rampur, Malerkotla, Sachin, and Tonk. Other former rulers bearing the title, such as the nawabs of Bengal and Awadh, had been deprived by the British or others by the time the Mughal dynasty finally ended in 1857. Some princes became nawab by promotion. For example, the ruler of Palanpur was "diwan" until 1910, then "nawab sahib". Other nawabs were promoted are restyled to another princely style, or to and back, such as in Rajgarh a single rawat (rajah) went by nawab.

The style for a nawab's wife is begum. Most of the nawab dynasties were male primogenitures, although several ruling Begums of Bhopal were a notable exception.

Before the incorporation of the Subcontinent into the British Empire, nawabs ruled the kingdoms of Awadh (or Oudh, encouraged by the British to shed the Mughal suzerainty and assume the imperial style of Badshah), Bengal, Arcot and Bhopal.

Nawabi dynasties acceding to India

 * Nawab of Akbarpur - Asmatara Farida Begum
 * Nawab Mir Osman Ali Khan Bahadur, the 7th Nizam of Hyderabad
 * Nawab of Ashwath
 * Nawab Babi of Balasinor
 * Nawab of Banganapalle, previously Masulipatam
 * Nawab of Baoni
 * Nawab of Basai, Nawab Khwaja Muhammad Khan
 * Nawab of Berar styled Mirza of Berar (title held by the heir to the Nizam of Hyderabad)
 * Nawab of Bhikampur and Datawali
 * Nawab of Bhopal (female rulers were known as Nawab Begum)
 * Nawabs of Cambay
 * the former Nawabs of the Carnatic, restyled Princes of Arcot
 * Nawab of Dujana
 * Nawab of Farrukhabad
 * Nawab of Jaora
 * Nawab Sahib of Junagadh
 * Nawab of Malerkotla
 * Nawab of Muhammadgarh
 * Nawab Sahib of Palanpur (Diwan until 1910)
 * Nawab of Awadh
 * Nawab of Pathari
 * Nawab of Radhanpur
 * Nawab of Rampur
 * Nawab of Sachin
 * Nawab of Sardhana
 * Nawab of Tonk, India
 * Nawab of Ghazipur

Nawabi dynasties in India abolished before independence

 * Nawab of Kurwai
 * Nawab of Pataudi
 * Nawab of Savanur
 * Nawab of Mamdot
 * Nawab of Tarakote State
 * Nawab of Farukhnagar
 * Nawab of Jhajjar
 * Nawab of Surat
 * Nawab of Mohna

Nawabi dynasties acceding to Pakistan

 * Nawab of Kalabagh
 * Nawab of Amb
 * Nawab of Bahawalpur
 * Nawab of Dir
 * Nawab Sahib of Junagadh
 * Nawab of Kharan
 * Nawab of Maler Kotla
 * Nawab of Jogezai
 * Nawab of Bugti
 * Nawab of Marri (tribe)
 * Nawab of Sanghar

Nawabi dynasties acceding to Bangladesh

 * Nawab of Bengal
 * Nawab of Dhaka
 * Nawab of Longla (Sylhet)

Former dynasties which became political pensioners

 * Padshah-i-Oudh, formerly Nawab Wazir of Awadh,
 * also imperial Wazir of all Mughal India, both hereditary

 * Nawabs of Bengal, as Nawabs of Murshidabad
 * Nawab of Marauli
 * Nawab of Patna
 * Nawab of Surat
 * Nawab of Longla (Sylhet)

=== Rohilla Confederation ===

All of these states were at some point under the authority of the Nawab of Rohilkhand, later made the Nawab of Rampur. Most of these states were annexed at the close of the First Rohilla War.
 * Nawab of Badaun
 * Nawab of Moradabad
 * Nawab of Bareilly
 * Nawab of Najibabad
 * Nawab of Philibit
 * Nawab of Farrukhabad
 * Nawab of Bisollee

Personal nawabs
The title nawab was also awarded as a personal distinction by the paramount power, similarly to a British peerage, to persons and families who never ruled a princely state. For the Muslim elite various Mughal-type titles were introduced, including nawab. Among the noted British creations of this type were Nawab Hashim Ali Khan (1858–1940), Nawab Khwaja Abdul Ghani (1813–1896), Nawab Abdul Latif (1828–1893), Nawab Faizunnesa Choudhurani (1834–1904), Nawab Ali Chowdhury (1863–1929), Nawaab Syed Shamsul Huda (1862–1922), Nawab Sirajul Islam (1848–1923), Nawab Alam yar jung Bahadur, M.A, Madras, B.A., B.C.L., Barr-At-Law (1890–1974). There also were the Nawabs of Dhanbari, Nawabs of Ratanpur, Nawabs of Baroda and such others.

Nawab as a court rank

Nawab was also the rank title—again not an office—of a much lower class of Muslim nobles—in fact retainers—at the court of the Nizam of Hyderabad and Berar State, ranking only above Khan Bahadur and Khan, but under (in ascending order) Jang, Daula, Mulk, Umara and Jah; the equivalent for Hindu courtiers was Raja Bahadur.

Nawabzada

This style, adding the Persian suffix -zada which means son (or other male descendants; see other cases in prince), etymologically fits a nawab’s sons, but in actual practice various dynasties established other customs.

For example, in Bahawalpur only the nawbab's heir apparent used nawabzada before his personal name, then Khan Abassi, finally Wali Ahad Bahadur (an enhancement of Wali Ehed), while the other sons of the ruling nawab used the style sahibzada before the personal name and only Khan Abassi behind. "Nawabzadi" implies daughters of the reigning nawbab.

Elsewhere, there were rulers who were not styled nawbab yet awarded a title nawabzada to others.

Naib (Ottoman, Iranian, Arabic title)
The word naib (نائب) has been historically used to refer to any suzerain leader, feudatory, or regent in some parts of the Ottoman Empire, successive early modern Persianate kingdoms (Safavids, etc.), and in the eastern Caucasus (e.g. during Caucasian Imamate). In the Sultanate of Morocco, the Naib was the Sultan's emissary to the foreign legations in Tangier between 1848 and 1923, when the creation of the Tangier International Zone led to its replacement by the office of the Mendoub.

Today, the word is used to refer to directly elected legislators in lower houses of parliament in many Arabic-speaking areas to contrast them against officers of upper houses (or Shura). The term Majlis al-Nuwwab (مجلس النواب, literally council of deputies) has been adopted as the name of several legislative lower houses and unicameral legislatures.

"Naib" has also been used in the Malay language (especially of the Malaysian variant) to translate the component of "deputy" or "vice" in certain titles (e.g "Vice President" - Naib Presiden) aside from timbalan and wakil (latter predominant in the Indonesian variant).

"Nabob", derived colloquial term
In colloquial usage in English (since 1612), adopted in other Western languages, the transliteration "nabob" refers to commoners: a merchant-leader of high social status and wealth. "Nabob" derives from the Bengali pronunciation of "nawab": নবাব nôbab.

During the 18th century in particular, it was widely used as a disparaging term for British merchants or administrators who, having made a fortune in India, returned to Britain and aspired to be recognised as having the higher social status that their new wealth would enable them to maintain. Jos Sedley in Thackeray's Vanity Fair is probably the best known example in fiction.

From this specific usage it came to be sometimes used for ostentatiously rich businesspeople in general.

"Nabob" can also be used metaphorically for people who have a grandiose sense of their own importance, as in the famous alliterative dismissal of the news media as "nattering nabobs of negativism" in a speech that was delivered by Nixon's vice president Spiro Agnew and written by William Safire.

Indian states formerly ruled by Nawabs

 * Amb (Tanoli)
 * Arcot
 * Awadh
 * Bahawalpur
 * Balasinor
 * Banganapalle
 * Baoni
 * Bengal
 * Berar (nominally under Nizam of Hyderabad)
 * Bhopal
 * Cambay
 * Dir
 * Farrukhabad (Uttar Pradesh, India)
 * Farrukhnagar
 * Hyderabad
 * Jaora
 * Junagadh
 * Ghazipur
 * Tarakote State
 * Kurwai
 * Kalabagh
 * Malerkotla
 * Mamdot
 * Manavadar
 * Warcha
 * Palanpur (Gujarat, India)
 * Pataudi
 * Radhanpur
 * Rampur
 * Sachin
 * Tonk

title: Nawab


text:
James Wilson (composer)

James Wilson (27 September 1922 – 6 August 2005) was an Irish composer. Though born in England, Wilson was a resident of Ireland for over 50 years.

Early life
Wilson was born in Islington, London. His father, a chemist, died when James was only four days old, leaving his widowed mother to bring up three sons alone. Without any family background in music (the only real interest was his mother's slight interest in playing the piano), Wilson began piano lessons in 1931 (at the age of nine), continuing them until 1938. While in his early teens, Wilson attended many operas which fostered his interest in music.

After school, and without any formal higher education, Wilson entered the Civil Service after having passed their entrance exam. He served in the Royal Navy during the Second World War, from 1942 till 1946. Having finished his military service, Wilson began attending weekly musical composition classes at the Trinity College of Music in London. It was around this time that he left the Civil Service to pursue a full-time career in music. In 1948 he moved to Ireland, where he had been stationed in the latter part of his naval service.

Musical work
Wilson was a largely self-taught composer. He experimented with many musical styles but did not particularly adhere to any of them. He had an interest in some less typical instruments, and wrote substantial works for the free-bass accordion, the cor anglais, and an electrically modified flute.

Wilson's creative output was large and varied: seven operas, three symphonies, twelve concertos, several ballets, about two hundred songs, and a large number of other choral and instrumental works. His works have been performed and broadcast throughout Ireland, the UK, and Scandinavia.

Wilson was professor of composition at the Royal Irish Academy of Music. For many years he was also the course director of the annual Ennis/IMRO Composition Summer School. Wilson was a founder-member of Aosdána, an association of people in Ireland who have achieved distinction in the arts.

In 1999 Wilson became an Irish citizen. He died just six years later in Dublin, on 6 August 2005. He was working on an eighth opera at the time of his death.

Selected works
Opera
 * Grinning at the Devil
 * Letters to Theo
 * The Hunting of the Snark (children's opera)
 * Twelfth Night

Concerti
 * For Sarajevo, Calico Pie (triple concerto)
 * Concerto Giocoso

Quotations

 * Music is the nearest thing that we know to magic: its powers have still to be understood.
 * In my own work, I seek for clarity and economy and, above all, for the quality of lyricism.

title: James Wilson (composer)