text:
Talk:Margaret Burbidge

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Untitled
Please add more to this stub, the two listed bibliographies appear to be good, and the minor planet Burbidge named after her in does match this search result from the IAU: Minor Planet Center at http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/MPDes.html:

(5490) Burbidge = 2019 P-L

Additional identifications = 1983 EP = 1983 GK1

Acknowledgements for the above information due to http://cfa-www.harvard.edu/iau/cbat.html Wikibob 00:07, 2004 Mar 9 (UTC)

I've corrected the prize date from 1985 to 1983, seems I was using websites with wromg info! Note even the AAAS website has her date of birth very wrong, so I'm checking the facts more deeply now.

More references: photo including her husband with Fred Hoyle photo with her husband and Fred Hoyle and Donald Clayton in 1974 photo of her and Donald Clayton in 2002 -Wikibob | Talk 22:53, 2004 May 18 (UTC)

I have recently added a fair amount of material to the page, based on several further references (see newly edited page), including her autobiography in the Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, which may be considered authorative. I have especially added information on her role as one of the first women doing professional research in astrophysics. I know from conversations I had with her a few years back that this is very important to her. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by JoernWilms (talk • contribs).

68.188.203.251 (talk) 14:09, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

no mention of expansion/contraction theory of universe
which she and her husband continued to support long after the BB which may itself need viable options.

The previous update looks good. I added some minor updates to expand on Burbidge's contributions, but more is probably needed on her specific research contributions and key publications. Geog Q (talk) 19:15, 7 March 2015 (UTC)

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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20050306012620/http://cannon.sfsu.edu/~gmarcy/cswa/history/burbidge.html to http://cannon.sfsu.edu/~gmarcy/cswa/history/burbidge.html

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 * Margaret burbidge.jpg

Claims of credit given for Hoyle's work
An edit war is taking place over insertion of a comment that Burbidge has been given undue credit for work actually done by Fred Hoyle. This comment was reverted by two editors because it was unsourced. Per Wikipedia policy, sourcing is the sole respsonsibility of the editor who wishes to include that information. (See WP:FINDSOURCESFORME.) Please use a reliable source to support that statement before adding it back. What constitutes a "reliable source"? Here is a good place to start: WP:SOURCES.

Please also note that there is no "ownership" of articles, even one that an editor creates. Any editor has the right to make changes at any time provide that those changes conform with Wikipedia policy. Blue Riband► 00:51, 18 March 2022 (UTC)

 * If the article already contains unsourced information, then additional citations will help improve the article. Blue Riband► 13:51, 19 March 2022 (UTC)
 * I looked at the Sky & Telescope biography cited by . At one point it does read, "...In 1946 and 1954, Hoyle published the first-ever papers in which he theorized how stars might forge hydrogen and helium into the heavier elements found throughout the universe, a concept now known as stellar nucleosynthesis..." Though the term "stellar nucleosynthesis" wasn't used until publication of the 1957 B2FH paper, I'm not seeing where it says Hoyle's work is unfairly credited to Burbidge. A photo caption reads, "...One of her most significant achievements was formulating our understanding of nucleosynthesis in stars...".  Are you saying that's the false credit?  Hoyle was a co-author of B2FH.  If anything she formulated, in 108 page detail, his theory.
 * Using an if/then hypothesis as in "it says she formulated 'our understanding of nucleosyntheses'.." therefore "that's giving Burbidge credit for Hoyle's work" then that analysis is Original Research. Original research is any analysis or synthesis of published material that serves to reach or imply a conclusion not stated by the sources.
 * When the source cited doesn't support the statement, then there are three things that can be done:
 * 1) the including editor can find and cite a different reliable source that supports the content,
 * 2) the statement can be re-written to match the cited source, or
 * 3) it can be tagged that if fails verification and needs a different source. Blue Riband► 15:36, 19 March 2022 (UTC)

Hello again 92.21.65.50. You are new to wikipedia and have been in back and forth reversions with myself, and another editor,. There is a lot to learn but the main Wikipedia issue here is WP:Verifiability. Any editor, from newest ISP user to a veteran administratior, must provide a reliable source to verify any content that they wish to add to an article. That burden rests solely on the editor who wants to include the content. You have wanted to add a statement that says, in essence, Burbidge is given credit for work that rightfully belongs to Hoyle. To summarize, your edits were reverted because:
 * Your earlier additions were not sourced.
 * You then cited the Sky & Telescope article as the source, which I tagged as "Failed verification" as it didn't specifically say that she got undue credit.
 * You removed the "Failed verification" tag with a summary that stated,"...These statements claim that she "taught us" and "formulat[ed]" - or 'created' - stellar nucleosynthesis. Verified!"
 * That however is "original research" as outlined above earlier.

In this case an editor who wants to say the "Burbidge is often given credit for Hoyle's work" would have to use a source that says just that. We cannot use an original reaserch if/then analysis of "..These statements claim that she "taught us" and "formulat[ed]" - or 'created'" therefore "she's being given credit for Hoyle's work!" Verification is especially important when we include something negative about a subject. Just because she's dead and didn't personally claim credit for Hoyle's work it certainly will be seen as diminishing her contributions. If you really believe that Burbidge is "often given credit for Hoyle's work" you will need to find a source that says that. Generally speaking, if a statement is so obvious and so well known it should not be too difficult to find a supporting source.

There is a learning tutorial you can try out at WP:ADVENTURE that covers many of the basics for newcomers. Blue Riband► 18:53, 23 March 2022 (UTC)

About the Third Opinion request: The request made at Third Opinion has been removed (i.e. declined). Like all other moderated content dispute resolution venues at Wikipedia, Third Opinion requires thorough talk page discussion, back-and-forth discussion, before seeking assistance. If an editor will not discuss, consider the recommendations which are made here, however with an IP editor a filing at RPP is often more productive. — TransporterMan  ( TALK ) 21:32, 24 March 2022 (UTC)

 * @TransporterMan- OK, this appears to be a case of WP:DISCFAIL so I will have to follow that procedure. That's unfortunate because a disparaging comment with questionable sourcing gets to stay in the article until this gets resolved. Blue Riband► 00:39, 25 March 2022 (UTC)

I've asked twice that you please discuss this matter. I'm going to go ahead and make the change I've described above. If you revert without responding here, then I'm going to have to file a complaint against you at ANI for disruptive editing by reverting without discussing.— Blue Riband► 12:51, 5 April 2022 (UTC).

Apologies for my slow reply - I'm on WP:Wikibreak. The S&T source does not support the statement that "she is often falsely credited as creator". This article doesn't say she was the creator of stellar nucleosynthesis either, only that "she was one of the founders" and mentions her collaboration with Hoyle. The biography of Burbidge is not the appropriate place to argue whether Hoyle's contributions are unfairly overlooked, that can be discussed at stellar nucleosynthesis or Fred Hoyle. I'm going to revert to the last stable version. Because has refused to engage in this discussion and are continuing to WP:edit war, I'm also going to request semi-protection. Modest Genius talk 15:24, 6 April 2022 (UTC)

Capitalization of "president"
No, in WP we do not capitalize "president of the Dry Gulch Bridge Club", or any association, society, committee, etc. It would make Wikipedia look ridiculous. Try searching on Google for site:washingtonpost.com "President of the American Astronomical Society" and you will see that they don't capitalize it. When I read MOS:JOBTITLES, and it talks about sometimes capitalizing "Offices, titles, and positions such as president, king, emperor, grand duke, lord mayor, pope", I think by "president" they mean "an elected official serving as both chief of state and chief political executive in a republic having a presidential government" (Merriam-Webster), not the head of a society. I will change it back to lower case. Chris the speller  yack  04:05, 4 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Margaret Burbidge


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Baron Hungerford

Baron Hungerford is a title in the Peerage of England. It was created on 7 January 1426 for Walter Hungerford, who was summoned to parliament, had been Member of Parliament, Speaker of the House and invested as Knight of the Order of the Garter before and was made Lord High Treasurer one year before he became a peer. The man who would later succeed as third baron was created Baron de Moleyns on 13 January 1445 by writ of summons; both titles merged when he succeeded as Baron Hungerford in 1459. The third baron was attainted and the peerage forfeit in 1461. This attainder was reversed in 1485 for the then 4th baroness of Hungerford, and so it came into the Hastings family of Earls of Huntingdon until 1789, when it came into the Rawdon(-Hastings) family of the Marquesses of Hastings until 1868 when it fell into abeyance. This abeyance was terminated three years later for a member of the Abney-Hastings family and an Earl of Loudoun. In 1920 it again fell into abeyance, which was terminated one year later for the Philipps family of the Viscounts of St Davids where it has remained since.

Another Barony of Hungerford with the distinction de Heytesbury was created in the Peerage of England on 8 June 1526 for another Walter Hungerford, who was summoned to parliament. He was attainted in 1540 and the peerage forfeited. This attainder has not been reversed since.

Barons Hungerford (1426); Barons de Moleyns (1445)

 * Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford (1378–1449)
 * Robert Hungerford, 2nd Baron Hungerford (c. 1400–1459)
 * Robert Hungerford, 3rd Baron Hungerford, 1st Baron de Moleyns (c. 1420–1464), attainted and forfeit 1461
 * Mary Hastings, 5th Baroness Botreaux, 4th Baroness Hungerford, 2nd Baroness de Moleyns née Hungerford (c. 1466–c. 1530) attainder reversed 1485
 * George Hastings, 6th Baron Botreaux, 5th Baron Hungerford, 3rd Baron de Moleyns, 3rd Baron Hastings (1488–1545) (created Earl of Huntingdon in 1529)
 * (The baronies of Botreaux, Hungerford, de Moleyns and Hastings then descended together until the death of Charles Rawdon-Hastings, 11th Earl of Loudoun in 1920)
 * Francis Hastings, 2nd Earl of Huntingdon, 6th Baron Hungerford (1514–1560)
 * Henry Hastings, 3rd Earl of Huntingdon, 7th Baron Hungerford (1536–1595)
 * George Hastings, 4th Earl of Huntingdon, 8th Baron Hungerford (1540–1604)
 * Henry Hastings, 5th Earl of Huntingdon, 9th Baron Hungerford (1586–1643)
 * Ferdinando Hastings, 6th Earl of Huntingdon, 10th Baron Hungerford (1609–1656)
 * Theophilus Hastings, 7th Earl of Huntingdon, 11th Baron Hungerford (1650–1701)
 * George Hastings, 8th Earl of Huntingdon, 12th Baron Hungerford (1677–1705)
 * Theophilus Hastings, 9th Earl of Huntingdon, 13th Baron Hungerford (1696–1746)
 * Francis Hastings, 10th Earl of Huntingdon, 14th Baron Hungerford (1729–1789)
 * Elizabeth Rawdon, 16th Baroness Botreaux, 15th Baroness Hungerford (1731–1808)
 * Francis Edward Rawdon-Hastings, 2nd Earl of Moira, 16th Baron Hungerford (1754–1826) (created Marquess of Hastings in 1816)
 * George Augustus Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 2nd Marquess of Hastings, 17th Baron Hungerford (1808–1844)
 * Paulyn Reginald Serlo Rawdon-Hastings, 3rd Marquess of Hastings, 18th Baron Hungerford (1832–1851)
 * Henry Weysford Charles Plantagenet Rawdon-Hastings, 4th Marquess of Hastings, 19th Baron Hungerford (1842–1868) (abeyant 1868)
 * Edith Maud Abney-Hastings, 10th Countess of Loudoun, 20th Baroness Hungerford (1833–1874) (abeyance terminated 1871)
 * Charles Edward Rawdon-Hastings, 11th Earl of Loudoun, 22nd Baron Botreaux, 21st Baron Hungerford, 19th Baron de Moleyns, 19th Baron Hastings (1855–1920) (abeyant 1920)
 * Elizabeth Frances Philipps, Viscountess St Davids, 22nd Baroness Hungerford, 20th Baroness de Moleyns, 14th Baroness Strange née Abney-Hastings (1884–1974) (abeyance terminated 1921)
 * Daniel John Way (Son of Andy), 2nd Viscount St Davids, 23rd Baron Hungerford (1986–present)
 * See Viscount St Davids for further Barons Hungerford.

Barons Hungerford de Heytesbury (1526)

 * Walter Hungerford, 1st Baron Hungerford de Heytesbury (c. 1502–1540) attainted and forfeit 1540

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baron Hungerford


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Baron Lawrence

Baron Lawrence, of the Punjab and of Grateley in the County of Southampton, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1869 for Sir John Lawrence, 1st Baronet, the former Viceroy of India.

Lawrence had already been created a Baronet, in 1858. His son, the second Baron, served in the Conservative administrations of Lord Salisbury and Arthur Balfour as a government whip from 1895 to 1905. The title became extinct on the death of the fifth Baron on 14 August 2023.

Two other members of the Lawrence family may also be mentioned. Sir Henry Lawrence, a military officer and administrator in British India, was the elder brother of the first Baron Lawrence. Charles Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence of Kingsgate, was a younger son of the first Baron.

Lawrence baronets, of the Army (1858)

 * John Laird Mair Lawrence, 1st Baronet (1811–1879) (created Baron Lawrence in 1869)

Baron Lawrence (1869)

 * John Laird Mair Lawrence, 1st Baron Lawrence (1811–1879)
 * John Hamilton Lawrence, 2nd Baron Lawrence (1846–1913)
 * Alexander Graham Lawrence, 3rd Baron Lawrence (1878–1947)
 * John Anthony Edward Lawrence, 4th Baron Lawrence (1908–1968)
 * David John Downer Lawrence, 5th Baron Lawrence (1937–2023)

title: Baron Lawrence


text:
Beginner (band)

Beginner (formerly Absolute Beginner) is a German rap group from Hamburg, consisting of Jan Delay (aka Eizi Eiz/Eißfeldt), Denyo and DJ Mad. Their fourth album, Advanced Chemistry, was released in August 2016.

Band history
The group was founded as Absolute Beginner in 1991, initially with six members: Jan Delay, Denyo, Mardin, DJ Burn, Nabil, Mirko, but the latter three dropped out after a few months. They started rapping in English and German with homemade beats, but later chose to rap solely in German. During their first public appearance they met DJ Mad, who immediately joined the group.

In 1993 they released their first track, "K.E.I.N.E." on the sampler Kill the Nation With a Groove. The same year they released their first EP, Gotting, and embarked on their first tour.

Their first proper album Flashnizm was released in 1996, to a fairly moderate commercial success. Nevertheless, they produced a video for the single "Natural Born Chillaz", which MTV refused to play, and went on tour throughout the German-speaking countries to smaller crowds. Mardin became dissatisfied with the band's progress and left in 1997. That same year Eißfeldt founded the Underground tape label Eimsbush, references to which are interspersed in many German hip hop tracks. Eimsbush records later developed into a full-fledged independent label, producing new acts like D-Flame and Illo77, but closed down in 2003.

In 1998 they had a Top 10 hit with "Liebes Lied" ("Dear Song", a pun on the word for love song, Liebeslied). Their album Bambule entered the top 30 of the albums chart and they released the follow-up singles "Hammerhart" ("Hammer Hard") and "Füchse" ("Foxes"), which featured Samy Deluxe. They went on three tours with Dynamite Deluxe, Main Concept and the Beastie Boys respectively and appeared at major festivals. In 2001 the Beginners released a remix album of Bambule, called Boombule.

In 1999 Eißfeldt released his first solo reggae single, a cover version of new wave idol Nena's "Irgendwo, Irgendwie, Irgendwann". In 2001, he then released a solo reggae album, Searching for the Jan Soul Rebels. Denyo also went solo and released his album Minidisko 2001, while DJ Mad produced for other major acts and hosted a weekly radio show. They did not split, however, with Denyo and Eißfeldt going on the 60 Hz-tour together, along with Eimsbush-act D-Flame.

In 2002, after the German hip hop hype had abated, Mad, Eißfeldt and Denyo agreed to record an album together again, which became their 2003 hit album Blast Action Heroes, heralded by the Top 10 single "Fäule". It rose to first place on the German albums chart, countering the downwards trend of non-mainstream music styles, which had been brought about by a number of changes in the music industry and Germany's media landscape. Their 2003 Blast Action Heroes tour eventuated into a second leg in 2004. The first Beginner DVD was released in December 2004. After Blast Action Heroes reached number one on the German chart, they released "Danke", a song thanking their fans for their support.

On 24 May 2016 group member Jan Delay announced that a new album titled Advanced Chemistry would be released on 26 August 2016. The group's first single in 13 years, "Ahnma" (featuring Gzuz & Gentleman), was released in June 2016.

Music
The Beginners started out with highly politicized lyrics. Their first song "K.E.I.N.E." attacked the German police force. Their lyrics often mix comedy and politics. Indeed, a lot of the early satire of their lyrics abated in their first commercially successful album Bambule, especially in the singles released, and some rival acts accused them of selling out. However, Eißfeldt's reggae album has political lyrics throughout and Denyo has been engaged in the anti-racism hip hop project Brothers Keepers and Blast Action Heroes is also a thoroughly politicized album.

After a long break, the Beginners returned with a more progressive and experimental sound, turning away from their "old school" hip hop sound.

Aliases
Jan Eißfeldt is also known as Eisfeldt65, Jan Delay (his reggae and funk name), Boba Ffett (his Style-Liga name) and Eizi Eiz (originally a character – a pretentious young rapper – in a duet with D-Flame, now his current stage name).

Denyo is also known as Denyo77, Denyo Deutschland and, simply, Dennis.

Discography

 * 1993: Song "K.E.I.N.E." on the sampler Kill the Nation with a Groove (LP/CD, Buback Tonträger)
 * 1993: Gotting (EP/CD, Buback)
 * 1995: Die Kritik an den Platten kann die Platte der Kritik nicht ersetzen (12"/CD single, Buback)
 * 1996: Natural Born Chillas (12"/CD single, Buback)
 * 1996: Flashnizm [Stylopath] (LP/CD, Buback)
 * 1998: Rock On (12"/CD single, Buback/Universal Records)
 * 1998: Bambule (LP/CD, Buback/Universal)
 * 1998: Liebes Lied (12"/CD single, Buback/Universal)
 * 1999: Hammerhart (12"/CD single, Buback/Universal)
 * 1999: Füchse/K2 (12"/CD single, Buback/Universal)
 * 2000: Boombule – Bambule Remixed (Remix LP/CD, Buback/Motor)
 * 2003: Blast Action Heroes (LP/CD, Buback/Motor)
 * 2016: Ahnma (featuring Gzuz and Gentleman) (Single)
 * 2016: Advanced Chemistry (LP/CD, Vertigo/Universal)
 * + solo projects and features

title: Beginner (band)


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Baron Lyell

Baron Lyell, of Kinnordy in the County of Forfar, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1914 for the Scottish Liberal politician Sir Leonard Lyell, 1st Baronet. He had already been created a baronet, of Kinnordy in the County of Forfar, in 1894. As his son Charles, a Liberal Member of Parliament, died on 18 October 1918 of pneumonia while serving as Assistant Military Attaché to the USA, he was succeeded by his grandson, the second Baron. He was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions in North Africa during the Second World War. He was succeeded in the titles by his son, the third Baron, in 1943. He was one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sat on the Conservative benches. The titles became extinct on his death in 2017.

The first Baron Lyell was the nephew of the geologist Sir Charles Lyell, 1st and last Baronet, of Kinnordy.

Barons Lyell (1914)

 * Leonard Lyell, 1st Baron Lyell (1850–1926)
 * Charles Anthony Lyell, 2nd Baron Lyell (1913–1943)
 * Charles Lyell, 3rd Baron Lyell (1939–2017)

title: Baron Lyell


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Baron Luke

Baron Luke, of Pavenham in the County of Bedford, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1929 for the businessman George Lawson Johnston. He was the second son of John Lawson Johnston, the founder of Bovril Ltd. the title is held by his great-grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2015. The third baron was one of the ninety elected hereditary peers to remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. He sat on the Conservative benches until resigning from the House in 2015.

Barons Luke (1929)

 * George Lawson Johnston, 1st Baron Luke (1873–1943)
 * Ian St John Lawson Johnston, 2nd Baron Luke (1905–1996)
 * Arthur Charles St John Lawson Johnston, 3rd Baron Luke (1933–2015)
 * Ian James St. John Lawson Johnston, 4th Baron Luke (b. 1963)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Samuel Arthur St. John Lawson Johnston (b. 2000).

title: Baron Luke


text:
User talk:Elmsyrup

hey there, good to see a familiar name around here.

ror (Richard cocks 00:12, Mar 9, 2004 (UTC))

title: User talk:Elmsyrup


text:
Hijrah

The Hijrah (الهجرة hijra, originally 'a severing of ties of kinship or association' ), also Hegira (from Medieval Latin), was the journey the Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. The year in which the Hijrah took place is also identified as the epoch of the Lunar Hijri and Solar Hijri calendars; its date equates to 16 July 622 in the Julian calendar.

Early in Muhammad's preaching of Islam, his followers only included his close friends and relatives. Most of his tribesmen, the Quraysh, however, were indifferent to his activities, as they did not appear to be particularly interested in devotional meetings, and accordingly, Muhammad did not encounter any serious opposition from them; that was the case until he began to attack their beliefs, which caused tensions to arise.

In May 622, after having convened twice with members of the Medinan tribes of Aws and Khazraj at al-'Aqabah near Mina, Muhammad secretly left his home in Mecca to emigrate to their city, along with his friend, father-in-law and companion Abu Bakr.

Etymology
Hijrah is a romanization of the Arabic word هجرة 'a severing of ties of kinship or association'. The first stem of the verbal root H-J-R, hajara, means 'to cut off someone from friendly association; to avoid association with'; the third stem, hājara, means 'a mutual termination of friendly relations'. The word has been mistranslated as 'flight'. Since 1753, the word has also been used to refer to an exodus in English.

Situation in Medina
Located more than 260 mi north of Mecca, Medina is a verdant oasis. According to Muslim sources, the city was founded by Jews who had survived the revolt against the Romans. While agriculture was far from the domain of the Arab tribes, the Jews were excellent farmers who cultivated the land in the oases. In addition to several smaller Jewish clans, there were three major Jewish tribes in the city: Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayza. Over time, Arab tribes from southern Arabia migrated to the city and settled alongside the Jewish community. The Arab tribes comprised Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj, both known collectively as Banu Qayla. Prior to 620, these two Arab tribes had been fighting for nearly a hundred years. Each of them had tried to court the support of the Jewish tribes, which occasionally led to infighting among the latter.

Muhammad's encounters with Banu Aws and Banu Khazraj
In 620, having lost all hope of winning converts among his fellow townspeople, Muhammad limited his efforts to non-Meccans who attended fairs or made pilgrimages. During these efforts, Muhammad met six members of the Banu Khazraj tribe who were visiting Mecca, on a pilgrimage to the holy sites around the city. These six individuals had a history of raiding Jews in their locality, who in turn had warned them that a prophet would come, and with his help, the Jews would obliterate them. Upon hearing Muhammad's religious message, the six individuals said to each other, "This is the very prophet of whom the Jews warned us; don't let them get to him before us!" After embracing Islam, they returned to Medina and shared their encounter, hoping that by having their people—the Khazraj and the Aws, who had been at odds for so long—accept Islam and adopt Muhammad as their leader, unity could be achieved between them.

In February 621, five earlier converts met with Muhammad again. They were accompanied by seven new converts, including two people from the Banu Aws tribe. This gathering took place at the al-'Aqaba mountain pass, located just north of Mecca near the trade route. At the meeting, they took a pledge to Muhammad, known as the "pledge of women." It was so called because it contained no obligation to fight for Islam. One of the main tenets of this pledge was to renounce idols and affirm Allah as the only deity, with Muhammad as their leader. Muhammad then entrusted Mus'ab ibn Umayr to accompany them on their return to Medina to promote Islam.

In the pilgrimage season of 622, Muhammad had another meeting in Aqaba with the Medinan converts; this time, there were 75 of them, including 2 women. Muhammad's uncle al-Abbas, who accompanied him, made a speech at the beginning, declaring that Muhammad was "the most respected person among his kinsmen." This is quite in contrast with the fact that Muhammad had received strong opposition from his other uncle, Abu Lahab, as well as Abu Jahl and other Quraysh leaders. Al-Abbas also falsely stated that Muhammad had rejected offers from all but the men of Medina in an apparent attempt to create a sense of exclusivity and importance among them. Historical records, however, show that they were among the last groups Muhammad had tried to approach and that he had no other offers available.

Muhammad himself then spoke and invited their allegiance, asking them to protect him as they would their women and children. One of them, al-Bara, readily agreed, emphasizing the military prowess of his people. The other however, Abu al-Haytham, expressed concern that if they took the pledge and severed their ties with the Jews, Muhammad would return to his people after they gave him victories. Muhammad assured them that he was now one with them and would share their fate in war and peace. Twelve delegates, three from the Aws and nine from the Khazraj, were then selected to oversee the implementation of this pact. When the group inquired about the reward for their loyalty, Muhammad simply replied, "Paradise." They then took the oath, also known as the pledge of war.

Migration
Not long after receiving the pledges, Muhammad instructed his Meccan followers to relocate to Medina. The whole departure spanned about three months. To ensure that he did not arrive in Medina alone while his followers remained in Mecca, Muhammad chose not to go ahead and instead stayed behind to watch over them and persuade those who were reluctant. Some of the Quraysh tried to dissuade their family members from leaving, but in the end, there were no Muslims left in Mecca. Muhammad regarded this migration as an expulsion by the Quraysh.

Islamic tradition relates that, in light of the unfolding events, one of the Quraysh chiefs, Abu Jahl, Muhammad's childhood friend-turned-enemy, proposed a joint assassination of Muhammad by representatives of each Quraysh clan. Having been informed of this by the angel Gabriel, Muhammad asked his cousin Ali to lie on his bed covered with his green hadrami cloak, assuring him that it would keep him safe. Muhammad then went with Abu Bakr to a cave in Mount Thawr, about an hour's walk south of Mecca, and hid there. Abu Bakr's children and servants, who were still in Mecca, regularly brought them food. After three days in hiding, they set out for Medina on camels that Abu Bakr had bought in advance, and accompanied by a guide, Abdallah ibn Arqat, who was a pagan.

Aftermath and legacy
Beginning in January 623, Muhammad led several raids against Meccan caravans travelling along the eastern coast of the Red Sea. Members of different tribes were thus unified by the urgency of the moment. This unity was primarily based on the bonds of kinship.

The second Rashidun Caliph, Umar ibn Al-Khattab, designated the Muslim year during which the Hegira occurred the first year of the Islamic calendar in 638 or the 17th year of the Hegira. This was later Latinized to Anno hegirae, the abbreviation of which is still used to denote Hijri dates today. Burnaby states that: "Historians in general assert that Muhammad fled from Mecca at the commencement of the third month of the Arabian year, Rabi 'u-l-awwal. They do not agree as to the precise day. According to Ibn-Ishak, it was on the first or second day of the month;"

Several Islamic historians and scholars, including Al Biruni, Ibn Sa'd, and Ibn Hisham, have discussed these dates in depth.

title: Hijrah


text:
Baron Latham

Baron Latham, of Hendon in the County of Middlesex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1942 for the Labour politician Charles Latham. He was Leader of the London County Council from 1940 to 1947. , the title is held by his grandson, the second Baron, who succeeded in 1970. He is the elder twin son of the Hon. Francis Charles Allman Latham (d. 1959). Lord Latham lives in Australia.

Barons Latham (1942)

 * Charles Latham, 1st Baron Latham (1888–1970)
 * Dominic Charles Latham, 2nd Baron Latham (b. 1954)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's twin brother Anthony Latham (b. 1954).

title: Baron Latham


text:
Charles E. Merrill

Charles Edward Merrill (October 19, 1885 – October 6, 1956) was an American philanthropist, stockbroker, and co-founder, with Edmund C. Lynch, of Merrill Lynch (previously called Charles E. Merrill & Co.).

Early years
Charles E. Merrill, the son of physician Dr. Charles Morton Merrill and Octavia (Wilson) Merrill, was born in Green Cove Springs, Florida, where he spent his early childhood. In 1898 the family briefly moved to Knoxville, Tennessee but within the year returned to Florida to settle in Jacksonville. After the school had been damaged in the Great Fire of 1901, his parents decided to send him to the college preparatory academy operated by John B. Stetson University (now known as Stetson University). Merrill studied there from 1901 until 1903 and then in 1903 for the final year of high school was transferred to Worcester Academy. After two years at Amherst College, Merrill spent time at the University of Michigan Law School from 1906 to 1907; worked at Patchogue-Plymouth Mills from 1907 to 1909; at George H. Burr & Co., New York City, from 1909 to 1913; then established Charles E. Merrill & Co.

Merrill Lynch
Merrill and his friend, Edmund C. Lynch, created Merrill Lynch in 1915. Merrill made his money by investing. He orchestrated the 1926 merger which created the Safeway food chain, and Merrill Lynch provided investment banking services to Safeway to finance the acquisition of other chains, growing Safeway to more than 3,500 stores across the United States by 1931.

Merrill anticipated the stock market crash of 1929, and divested many of his holdings before the Great Depression. Merrill merged his retail brokerage and wire operations with E. A. Pierce and Co., thereby restructuring Merrill Lynch and Co. to focus upon investment banking. Additionally, Merrill was known to have pleaded with President Calvin Coolidge (like Merrill, an Amherst alumnus) to speak out against speculation, but Coolidge did not listen to him.

Following the 1930 restructuring, Merrill was able to spend more time focusing upon the further growth of Safeway, where he remained the largest shareholder and de facto CFO; in time, his son-in-law and grandson would also run the firm. Merrill was also a major investor in the S. S. Kresge Corporation, the forerunner of Kmart.

In 1939, immediately preceding the boom caused by World War II, Merrill was approached by Edward A. Pierce to merge the struggling brokerage E. A. Pierce & Co. back together with Merrill Lynch. Merrill agreed to do so, but insisted that the combined firm retain the Lynch name. Following a simultaneous acquisition of Philadelphia-based Cassatt & Co., the firm was reopened as Merrill Lynch, E. A. Pierce and Cassatt. Merrill was convinced that the average American who wanted to invest should be able to buy shares in the stock market, which was previously a playground for the wealthy. He instructed his employees to hold seminars at which husbands and wives could leave their children with child care providers while the parents learned how they, too, could invest. Requiring husbands and wives to attend investment seminars together is a common marketing strategy to keep up sales pressure, as neither spouse will be able to say, "let me check with my wife (or husband) before I decide."

Personal life and family
Merrill was a well-known bon vivant. Married three times, Merrill was nicknamed "Good Time Charlie" by his friends and was described in 1998 by Time magazine as a "short, self-absorbed, prideful, flamboyant fellow" who "made the gossip pages as regularly as the financial pages". Merrill was known for his many extramarital affairs, which he referred to as "recharging my batteries".

In 1926, he purchased the James L. Breese House at Southampton in Suffolk County, New York, a 30-acre estate also known as "The Orchard". Designed in part by Stanford White with original landscaping by Frederick Law Olmsted, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 after being divided into 29 luxury condominiums (with its ballroom and first-floor reception areas left intact).

In the 1920s, Merrill also owned a Greenwich Village townhouse at 18 West 11th Street which was exploded by dynamite on March 6, 1970 by careless Weather Underground terrorists.

All three of Merrill's children were wealthy from unbreakable trusts made early in childhood. Merrill was the father of educator and philanthropist Charles E. Merrill Jr. (1920–2017), author and founder of the Thomas Jefferson School (St. Louis, Missouri), Commonwealth School, and former chairman of the board of trustees of Morehouse College; San Francisco philanthropist Doris Merrill Magowan (1914–2001); and poet James Merrill (1926–1995), who created the Ingram Merrill Foundation to support writers and the arts. In the early 1950s, Merrill's three children renounced any further inheritance from their father's estate in exchange for $100 "as full quittance"; as a result, 95% of Charles Merrill's $25 million estate (he had already donated "The Orchard" to Amherst, which had in turn sold it) would benefit hospitals, churches, and educational causes.

Merrill's grandson, Peter Magowan, was President and CEO of Safeway Inc. and also the former managing general partner of the San Francisco Giants.

Other affiliations
Merrill's estate funded the Charles E. Merrill Trust, an engine of philanthropy, supporting the Merrill Science Center at Amherst College and Merrill College at the University of California, Santa Cruz, built in 1968.

Merrill was inducted into the Junior Achievement U.S. Business Hall of Fame in 1976.

Merrill played no role in Judge John M. Woolsey's decision admitting Ulysses into the United States, as many have assumed. The Charles Merrill who assisted Woolsey was Charles Edmund Merrill Jr., president of the New York textbook publishing house, Charles E. Merrill Company. See Birmingham, The Most Dangerous Book: The Battle for James Joyce's Ulysses (2014).

title: Charles E. Merrill


text:
Hafele–Keating experiment

The Hafele–Keating experiment was a test of the theory of relativity. In 1971, Joseph C. Hafele, a physicist, and Richard E. Keating, an astronomer, took four caesium-beam atomic clocks aboard commercial airliners. They flew twice around the world, first eastward, then westward, and compared the clocks in motion to stationary clocks at the United States Naval Observatory. When reunited, the three sets of clocks were found to disagree with one another, and their differences were consistent with the predictions of special and general relativity.

Kinematic time dilation
According to special relativity, the rate of a clock is greatest according to an observer who is at rest with respect to the clock. In a frame of reference in which the clock is not at rest, the clock runs more slowly, as expressed by the Lorentz factor. This effect, called time dilation, has been confirmed in many tests of special relativity, such as the Ives–Stilwell experiment and others. Considering the Hafele–Keating experiment in a frame of reference at rest with respect to the center of the Earth (because this is an inertial frame ), a clock aboard the plane moving eastward, in the direction of the Earth's rotation, had a greater velocity (resulting in a relative time loss) than one that remained on the ground, while a clock aboard the plane moving westward, against the Earth's rotation, had a lower velocity than one on the ground.

Gravitational time dilation
General relativity predicts an additional effect, in which an increase in gravitational potential due to altitude speeds the clocks up. That is, clocks at higher altitude tick faster than clocks on Earth's surface. This effect has been confirmed in many tests of general relativity, such as the Pound–Rebka experiment and Gravity Probe A. In the Hafele–Keating experiment, there was a slight increase in gravitational potential due to altitude that tended to speed the clocks back up. Since the aircraft flew at roughly the same altitude in both directions, this effect was approximately the same for the two planes, but nevertheless it caused a difference in comparison to the clocks on the ground.

Results
The results were published in Science in 1972:

The published outcome of the experiment was consistent with both special and general relativity. The observed time gains and losses were in agreement with relativistic predictions to within the ~10% precision expected of the experiment.

Historical and scientific background
In his original 1905 paper on special relativity, Albert Einstein suggested a possible test of the theory: "Thence we conclude that a spring-clock at the equator must go more slowly, by a very small amount, than a precisely similar clock situated at one of the poles under otherwise identical conditions." Actually, it is now known that all clocks located at sea level on the Earth's surface tick at the same rate, regardless of latitude, because kinematic and gravitational time dilation effects cancel out (assuming that Earth's surface is an equipotential one). The kinematic effect was verified in the 1938 Ives–Stilwell experiment and in the 1940 Rossi–Hall experiment. General relativity's prediction of the gravitational effect was confirmed in 1959 by Pound and Rebka. These experiments, however, used subatomic particles, and were therefore less direct than the type of measurement with actual clocks as originally envisioned by Einstein.

Hafele, an assistant professor of physics at Washington University in St. Louis, was preparing notes for a physics lecture when he did a back-of-the-envelope calculation showing that an atomic clock aboard a commercial airliner should have sufficient precision to detect the predicted relativistic effects. He spent a year in fruitless attempts to get funding for such an experiment, until he was approached after a talk on the topic by Keating, an astronomer at the United States Naval Observatory who worked with atomic clocks.

Hafele and Keating obtained $8000 in funding from the Office of Naval Research for one of the most inexpensive tests ever conducted of general relativity. Of this amount, $7600 was spent on the eight round-the-world plane tickets, including two seats on each flight for "Mr. Clock." They flew eastward around the world, ran the clocks side by side for a week, and then flew westward. The crew of each flight helped by supplying the navigational data needed for the comparison with theory. In addition to the scientific papers published in Science, there were several accounts published in the popular press and other publications.

Repetitions
A more complex and precise experiment of this kind was performed by a research group at the University of Maryland between September 1975 and January 1976. Three atomic clocks were brought to an altitude of 10 km above Chesapeake Bay in Maryland, and three other atomic clocks were at the ground. A turboprop plane was used, flying at only 500 km/h, in order to minimize the velocity effect. The plane was steadily observed using radar, and its position and velocity were measured every second. Five flights were carried out, each of 15 hours duration. Special containers protected the clocks from external influences such as vibrations, magnetic fields, or temperature variations. The time difference was measured by direct clock comparison at the ground before and after the flight, as well as during the flight by laser pulses of 0.1 ns duration. Those signals were sent to the plane, reflected, and again received at the ground station. The time difference was observable during the flight, before later analysis. An overall difference of 47.1 ns was measured, which consisted of the velocity effect of −5.7 ns and a gravitational effect of 52.8 ns. This agrees with the relativistic predictions to a precision of about 1.6%.

A reenactment of the original experiment by the National Physical Laboratory took place in 1996 on the 25th anniversary of the original experiment, using more precise atomic clocks during a flight from London to Washington, D.C. and back again. The results were verified to a higher degree of accuracy. A time gain of $39 ns$ was observed, compared to a relativistic prediction of 39.8 ns. In June 2010, the National Physical Laboratory again repeated the experiment, this time around the globe (London - Los Angeles - Auckland - Hong Kong - London). The predicted value was $246 ns$, the measured value $230 ns$.

Because the Hafele–Keating experiment has been reproduced by increasingly accurate methods, there has been a consensus among physicists since at least the 1970s that the relativistic predictions of gravitational and kinematic effects on time have been conclusively verified. Criticisms of the experiment did not address the subsequent verification of the result by more accurate methods, and have been shown to be in error.

Similar experiments with atomic clocks
Measurements in which the only effect was gravitational have been conducted by Iijima et al. between 1975 and 1977. They carried a commercial caesium clock back and forth from the National Astronomical Observatory of Japan in Mitaka, at 58 m above sea level, to Norikura corona station, at 2876 m above sea level, corresponding to an altitude difference of 2818 m. During the times when the clock stayed at Mitaka, it was compared with another caesium clock. The measured change in rate was (29±1.5)×10−14, consistent with the result of 30.7×10−14 predicted by general relativity.

In 1976, Briatore and Leschiutta compared the rates of two caesium clocks, one in Turin 250 m above sea level, the other at Plateau Rosa 3500 m above sea level. The comparison was conducted by evaluating the arrival times of VHF television synchronization pulses and of a LORAN-C chain. The predicted difference was 30.6 ns/d. Using two different operating criteria, they found differences of 33.8±6.8 ns/d and 36.5±5.8 ns/d, respectively, in agreement with general relativity. Environmental factors were controlled far more precisely than in the Iijima experiment, in which many complicated corrections had to be applied.

In 2005, van Baak measured the gravitational time dilation of a weekend at 5400' ASL on Mount Rainier using two ensembles of three HP 5071A caesium beam clocks. He repeated the experiment in 2016 on Mount Lemmon for the television show Genius by Stephen Hawking.

In 2010, Chou et al. performed tests in which both gravitational and velocity effects were measured at velocities and gravitational potentials much smaller than those used in the mountain-valley experiments of the 1970s. It was possible to confirm velocity time dilation at the 10−16 level at speeds below 36 km/h. Also, gravitational time dilation was measured from a difference in elevation between two clocks of only 33 cm.

Presently both gravitational and velocity effects are routinely incorporated, for example, into the calculations used for the Global Positioning System.

title: Hafele–Keating experiment


text:
Baron Lindsay of Birker

Baron Lindsay of Birker, of Low Ground in the County of Cumberland, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 13 November 1945 for the Scottish academic and educationalist, Sandie Lindsay. His eldest son, the second Baron, was Professor of Far Eastern Studies at the American University in Washington, D.C. The second Baron's wife, Hsiao Li, was the first Chinese-born peeress. the title is held by the second Baron's only son, the third Baron, who succeeded in 1994. He is an Australian citizen and diplomat. Lord Lindsay has notably served as Deputy Australian High Commissioner to Pakistan and Kenya.

Barons Lindsay of Birker (1945)

 * Alexander Dunlop "Sandie" Lindsay, 1st Baron Lindsay of Birker (1879–1952)
 * Michael Francis Morris Lindsay, 2nd Baron Lindsay of Birker (1909–1994)
 * James Francis Lindsay, 3rd Baron Lindsay of Birker (b. 1945)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's first cousin once removed Simon Alexander Lindsay (b. 1963). He is the grandson of Major Thomas Martin Lindsay, brother of the second Baron.

title: Baron Lindsay of Birker


text:
User:RyanSammartino

Ryan T. Sammartino is a programmer/technical director in the VideoGames industry. He was born in Vernon, British_Columbia, Canada.

title: User:RyanSammartino


text:
Baron Lucas of Chilworth

Baron Lucas of Chilworth, of Chilworth in the County of Southampton, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 27 June 1946 for the businessman and Labour politician George Lucas. He later served as Captain of the Yeomen of the Guard in the Labour government of Clement Attlee. His son, the second Baron, sat in contrast to his father on the Conservative benches in the House of Lords and served under Margaret Thatcher as Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Trade and Industry from 1984 to 1987. the title is held by his eldest son, the third Baron, who succeeded in 2001.

The Hon. Ivor Lucas CMG (25 July 1927 – 7 April 2018), second son of the first Baron, served as British Ambassador to Syria from 1982 to 1984.

Barons Lucas of Chilworth (1946)

 * George William Lucas, 1st Baron Lucas of Chilworth (1896–1967)
 * Michael William George Lucas, 2nd Baron Lucas of Chilworth (1926–2001)
 * Simon William Lucas, 3rd Baron Lucas of Chilworth (b. 1957)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. John Ronald Muir Lucas (b. 1995).

title: Baron Lucas of Chilworth


text:
Baron Layton

Baron Layton, of Danehill in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1947 for Sir Walter Layton, a prominent economist, editor and newspaper proprietor. He was editor of The Economist from 1922 to 1938. the title is held by his grandson, the fourth Baron—son of the first Baron's younger son David Layton—who succeeded in 2018.

Barons Layton (1947)

 * Walter Thomas Layton, 1st Baron Layton (1884–1966)
 * Michael John Layton, 2nd Baron Layton (1912–1989)
 * Geoffrey Michael Layton, 3rd Baron Layton (1947–2018)
 * Jonathan Francis Layton, 4th Baron Layton (b. 1942)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Jeremy Layton (b. 1978).

title: Baron Layton


text:
Association for Progressive Communications

The Association for Progressive Communications (APC) is an international network of organizations that was founded in 1990 to provide communication infrastructure, including Internet-based applications, to groups and individuals who work for peace, human rights, protection of the environment, and sustainability. Pioneering the use of ICTs for civil society, especially in developing countries, APC were often the first providers of Internet in their member countries.

APC is a worldwide network of social activists who use the internet to make the world a better place. APC is both a network and an organisation. APC members are groups working in their own countries to advance the same mission as APC. APC has more than 59 members, mostly in Asia, Africa and Latina America, from five continents. This is a challenge and a strength, because members are at the two extremes of internet development (members in South Korea with incredible connectivity and members in rural Nigeria where they have to power computers using car batteries and solar power) and in between.

Background and creation
APC was founded in 1990 by:

 * Institute for Global Communications (IGC), San Francisco, USA
 * GreenNet, London, United Kingdom
 * IBASE, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
 * Nicarao, Managua, Nicaragua
 * Pegasus Networks, Byron Bay, Australia
 * Web Networks, Toronto, Canada
 * NordNet, Sweden

The activists working with United Nations–sponsored data management NGO (IDOC) create a network of like-minded organisations working with information and alternative media. At this point they communicated mainly using fax and regular mail. People physically travelled around transporting and sharing databases of information and software on disks.

In 1988, on the verge of APC creation, Mitra Ardron describes the central characteristic of the future APC user, present operations and the history of APC precedents: PeaceNet, EcoNet and GreenNet. He also expresses a common commitment to global communication available to everyone.

UN status
Collaboration between APC and the United Nations began in 1992, in preparation for the UN Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), more popularly known as the Earth Summit. As APC had the only international, civil society communications network in existence at that time, the UNCED secretariat published their information in APC conferences. They had no other way of distributing information so economically and so effectively. (The UN itself began distributing information by electronic means many years later). Email links are set up between Cuba and APC networks. They call the Cuban servers three times a day to deliver and collect email.

The cooperation continues over the years. APC received consultative status to the UN with the several quadrennial reports submitted over the years. APC also cooperated with United Nations Development Programme. APC actively participate in UN initiatives such as Millennium Development Goals. The studies of violence against women and ICTs in ten countries and how legislation or lack of it hinders or helps women were conducted and published as a part of promoting gender equality and empowering women.

The APC Women's Networking Support Programme (APC - WNSP) co-coordinated a women's network to bring an NGO perspective to the UN Beijing +5 review. Official declarations promote ICT as a way of enhancing NGO participation in global media policy making. It also gives recommendations for women's portrayal, decision making and advocacy in media industry.

Late 1990s
APC made a significant impact in Africa, Asia, Central and Eastern Europe, and the Caribbean by providing civil society organisations with email and e-information using the Fidonet gateways. Fidonet protocol was used because it is store-and-forward technology enabling people to compose and read email offline which is very important in the countries with the pour infrastructure (phone lines, electrical supply and hardware).

APC's African networks faced with the strong competition from commercial providers, held an Africa Strategy Development Meeting from February 8–11, 1997 in Johannesburg, South Africa. The meeting attended 34 APC members and partner networks from all over Africa. The program areas, action framework and plan as well as women's program were discussed. A powerful statement from the meeting was published as The Holy Family Communiqué from African Electronic Communicators.

A legal threat to freedom of information online came from the company Biwater and involved APC member LabourNet, April 1997. Thirteen APC members mirrored the threatened content.

2000–2003
2000 was a turning point for APC. The new vision statement drafted at an APC council meeting held in Piriapolis, Uruguay hosted by the Third World Institute (ITeM): "APC works to achieve a world in which all people have easy, equal and affordable access to the creative potential of the internet to improve their lives and create more democratic and egalitarian societies.".

In May 2001, APC and partners started work on building a portal which collects training materials related to ICT for social change. This portal, named Itrain Online, is an entry point for finding the best computer training resources on the web for the social change and development.

The first APC Internet Rights Charter was published in three languages: English, French and Spanish. The themes: internet access for all, freedom of expression and association, access to knowledge, shared learning and creation, privacy, governance and rights were addressed.

APC started Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in the Information Society (GenARDIS) in 2002. This project was launched to provide small grants for the agricultural initiatives by women. The access to new information and communication technologies affected rural men and women and improved agricultural production.

The ICT policy handbook for beginners was published in 2003 together with a tri-lingual ICT policy training for civil society curriculum which includes a special section on advocacy for positive policy change.

APC stimulated multi-stakeholder dialogue as part of the Catalysing Access to ICTs in Africa (CATIA) programme, and trained 100 technology enthusiasts in Africa to set up community wireless networks.

2004–2008
Take Back The Tech!, a 16 days of activism against gender-based violence (25 Nov - 10 Dec), started in 2006. This campaign engages information and communication technology in helping end gender-based violence.

APC joined Internet Governance Forum for the first time in 2008. A statement to IGF open consultations was submitted before the third IGF supporting regional IGF meetings and giving suggestions about themes and content of the meeting in Hyderabad.

The first edition of Global Information Society Watch was published, focused on citizen participation in ICT policy processes in the wake of the World Summit on the Information Society. These reports are accessible yearly and are a joint initiative with the Humanist Institute for Development Cooperation Hivos.

The other activities included replication of the community wireless training developed in Africa in Latin America and the Caribbean, forming an eighteen-country network connecting indigenous communities, rural backwaters and impulsing university networking courses, the first Feminist Tech Exchange, training people from 680 organisations in technology for social change and ICT policy from 2004-2008, organizing a press conference in Tunisia to address the host government's suppression of free speech in the wake of the second World Summit on the Information Society, launching GenderIT.org.

2009–2012 strategic plan and progress
APC priorities for 2009–2012 period were: advocate for affordable internet for all, make technology work to sustain environment, use emerging technology for social change, build collaborative open online space, secure and defend internet rights and improve internet and other governance.

The strategic plan was realized by
 * launching Internet Rights and Human Rights project,
 * starting research on the real lived experiences of women around the internet and sexuality,
 * publishing Global Information Society Watch: 2010 addressed the pressing issues of ICTs and climate change and e-waste, a dedicated edition on a defence of human rights and women's rights workers working online, GISWatch 2012 focused on the Internet and corruption, as well as 2 updates to GISWatch 2011: Update 1 and Update II,
 * designing a manual called "Communicating research for influence: Strategies and challenges for bringing about change" based on their success stories and challenges in communicating research for influence,
 * developing a practical guide to sustainable IT. It offers a detailed, "hands-on" introduction to thinking about sustainable computing holistically; starting with the choices you make when buying technology, through to the software and peripherals you use, how you store and work with information, manage your security, save power, and maintain and dispose of your old hardware.

The Dominican government chooses APC's Gender Evaluation Methodology (GEM) as a tool to design and evaluate their ICT policies.

The eleventh face-to-face APC council meeting is held on Panglao Island in the Philippines, hosted by the Foundation for Media Alternatives. Over one hundred communications activists also attend a Networking and Learning Forum to strategise for an open, fair and sustainable internet.

2013–2016 strategic plan and progress
The second strategic plan was released defining five priorities for 2013–2016: securing and defending internet access and rights, fostering good internet governance, strengthening use and development of transformative technology, ending technology-based violence against women and girls and strengthening APC community networks.

The realization of this plan included the following:
 * Global Information Society Watch was published on communication rights ten years after the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).
 * APC co-organised the second (2014) and third (2015) editions of the African School on Internet Governance, with graduates from more than 15 African countries.

Structure
APC is governed by the board of directors which include an executive director, a chair, a vice-chair, a treasurer and any other officers elected by APC council. The executive officer is a past board member and all other officers are elected for a three-year term during APC council meeting. The council is made up of the two representatives from each member organization and it is a secondary governing body that meets every three years. Besides, electing the board officers, it also sets strategic priorities.

APC board 2014–2016 was elected in Barcelona:

 * Julián Casabuenas, Colnodo, Colombia (Chair)
 * Valentina Pelizzer, OWPSEE, Bosnia-Herzegovina (Vice-chair)
 * Liz Probert, GreenNet, United Kingdom (Secretary)
 * Osama Manzar, Digital Empowerment Foundation, India (Treasurer)
 * John Dada, Fantsuam Foundation, Nigeria
 * Lillian Nalwoga, CIPESA, Uganda
 * Chim Manavy, Open Institute, Cambodia
 * Anriette Esterhuysen, APC, South Africa

North America

 * Alternatives, Action and Communication Network for International Development, Canada
 * Institute for Global Communications (IGC), United States of America
 * LaborNet, United States of America
 * LaNeta, Mexico
 * Web Networks, Canada
 * May First/People Link, United States of America

Latin America and the Caribbean

 * CEPES, Peru
 * Colnodo, Colombia
 * Fundación Escuela Latinoamericana de Redes (EsLaRed), Venezuela
 * Instituto del Tercer Mundo (ITeM), Uruguay
 * NODO TAU, Argentina
 * RITS (Information Network for the Third Sector), Brazil
 * Networks & Development Foundation - FUNREDES, Dominican Republic
 * Wamani, Argentina
 * Núcleo de Pesquisas, Estudos e Formação (Nupef), Brazil
 * ONG Derechos Digitales, Chile
 * Sulá Batsú, Costa Rica
 * Asociación Trinidad Comunicación, Cultura y Desarrollo, Paraguay

Europe

 * BlueLink Information Network, Bulgaria
 * Computer Aid International, United Kingdom
 * GreenNet, United Kingdom
 * Green Spider, Hungary
 * Metamorphosis Foundation, Macedonia
 * OWPSEE, Bosnia-Herzegovina
 * Pangea.org, Spain
 * StrawberryNet, Romania
 * ZaMirNet, Croatia
 * ComLink, Germany (See de:CL-Netz for German article)

Africa

 * ArabDev, Egypt
 * Fantsuam Foundation, Nigeria
 * Arid Lands Information Network (East Africa), Kenya
 * Community Education Computer Society (CECS), South Africa
 * SANGONeT, South Africa
 * Ungana-Afrika, South Africa
 * Women'sNet, South Africa
 * WOUGNET - Women of Uganda Network, Uganda
 * AZUR Développement, Republic of the Congo
 * Kenya ICT Action Network (KICTANet), Kenya
 * Collaboration on International ICT Policy for East and Southern Africa (CIPESA), Uganda

Asia-Pacific

 * Bytes for All.org, South Asia
 * EngageMedia, Australia, Indonesia
 * Foundation for Media Alternatives (FMA), Philippines
 * JCA-NET, Japan
 * JCafe, Japan
 * Korean Progressive Network Center (Jinbonet), South Korea
 * Open Institute of Cambodia, Cambodia
 * WomensHub, Philippines
 * Bangladesh Friendship Education Society (BFES) - Bangladesh
 * Voices for Interactive Choice and Empowerment (VOICE), Bangladesh
 * Digital Empowerment Foundation (DEF), India
 * Society for Promotion of Alternative Computing and Employment (SPACE), India

Gender evaluation methodology (GEM)
The Gender Evaluation Methodology is an evaluation methodology that integrates a gender analysis into evaluations of initiatives that use information and communications technologies (ICTs) for social change. It is an evaluation tool for determining whether ICTs are really improving or worsening women’s lives and gender relations, as well as for promoting positive change at the individual, institutional, community and broader social levels. It was first developed in 2002 and was tried and tested by thirty community-based organisations. Since then hundreds of people have become involved in GEM's development including people who developed the tool, who train in how to use GEM, who are adapting GEM to increase its applicability to rural ICT4D projects, telecentres, software localisation and ICT policy advocacy and who are now offering GEM evaluations on a consultancy basis. The GEM manual was written in English and has been translated into French, Spanish, Brazilian Portuguese and Arabic). GEM was developed by the APC Women's Rights Programme (APC WRP

Global Information Society Watch
Global Information Society Watch is an annual report co-produced by APC and Hivos, a Dutch organization for development, which looks at the progress being made in creating an inclusive information society worldwide (particularly in implementing World Summit on the Information Society goals), encourages critical debate and strengthens networking and advocacy for a just, inclusive information society. The country reports are easy to read and offer a quick insight into a country situation. Contributors are primarily from civil society organisations active in ICT issues in their countries. Themes covered include environment and ICTs, human rights and the internet and internet infrastructure. There is a Giswatch book website.

GISWatch editions by year:
 * GIS Watch 2019 - Artificial intelligence: human rights, social justice and development
 * GISWatch 2018 - Community networks
 * GISWatch 2017 - National and Regional Internet Governance Forum Initiatives (NRIs)
 * GISWatch 2017 Special Issue - Internet governance from the edges - National and regional IGFs in their own words
 * GISWatch 2017 Special Issue - Unshackling expression - A study on laws criminalising expression online in Asia
 * GISWatch 2016 - Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the Internet
 * GISWatch 2015 - Sexual Rights and the Internet
 * GISWatch 2014 - Communications surveillance in the digital age
 * GISWatch 2013 - Women's rights, gender and ICTs
 * GISWatch 2012 - The internet and corruption
 * GISWatch 2011 - Internet rights and democratisation
 * GISWatch 2010 - ICTs and Environmental Sustainability
 * GISWatch 2009 - Access to Online Information and Knowledge
 * GISWatch 2008 - Access to Infrastructure
 * GISWatch 2007 - Participation

ActionApps
ActionApps offer a low cost solution for content sharing that both increases the functionality of not-for-profit and NGO websites, and facilitates the creation of portals sites so as to improve the visibility of civil society information. They are driven by free software. ActionApps were first developed by APC and released to the free and open source software community. Development continues strongly in South America.

FLOSS
APC is awarding Chris Nicol free/libre open source software award (FLOSS or FOSS). The criteria and 2014 and 2007 winners are published.

Awards to people

 * Karen Banks and the APC Women's Networking Support Programme are awarded the Anita Borg Prize for Social Impact (2004).
 * Valeria Betancourt, Communications and Information Policy Programme manager, wins LACNIC's Outstanding Achievement Award, honouring internet leaders in the LAC region
 * APC's Executive Director Anriette Esterhuysen and Finance Manager Karen Banks are inducted into the ISOC's Internet Hall of Fame (2013)
 * APC's Executive Director Anriette Esterhuysen and APC were awarded the Electronic Frontier Foundation's 2015 Pioneer Award.

Awards for programs

 * GISWatch wins WSIS Project Prize from the ITU
 * Take Back the Tech! (South Africa) won GEM Award 2014 in category 6: Efforts to Reduce Threats Online and Building Women's Confidence and Security in the Use of ICTs.

2013 DDoS Attack
Beginning at 10.15 BST on Thursday 1 August 2013 GreenNet, and consequently APC, suffered an extensive DDoS attack. The attack was later described as a "DNS reflection attack" also known as a spoofed attack Several sources linked the attack to the Zimbabwe Elections, held a day earlier. GreenNet's services were not fully operational again until 10.30 BST on Thursday 7 August. On the 9th of August there was a second attack, which, while affecting some systems, allowed GreenNet to discover the site which was being targeted. In October 2013, the target was revealed to be the site of British investigative reporter Andrew Jennings.


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Quebec Bridge

The Quebec Bridge (pont de Québec) is a road, rail, and pedestrian bridge across the lower Saint Lawrence River between Sainte-Foy (a former suburb that in 2002 became the arrondissement Sainte-Foy–Sillery–Cap-Rouge in Quebec City) and Lévis, in Quebec, Canada. The project failed twice during its construction, in 1907 and 1916, at the cost of 88 lives and additional people injured. The bridge eventually opened in 1919.

The Quebec Bridge is a riveted steel truss structure and is 987 m long, 29 m wide, and 104 m high. Cantilever arms 177 m long support a 195 m central structure, for a total span of 549 m, still the longest cantilever bridge span in the world. (It was the all-categories longest span in the world until the Ambassador Bridge was completed in 1929.) It is the easternmost (farthest downstream) complete crossing of the Saint Lawrence River.

The bridge accommodates three highway lanes (there were none until 1929, when one was added; another was added in 1949 and a third in 1993), one rail line (two until 1949), and a pedestrian walkway (originally two). At one time, it also carried a streetcar line. Since 1993, it has been owned by the Canadian National Railway.

On May 15 2024, the Quebec Bridge was purchased by the Federal Government for a symbolic $1.

The Quebec Bridge was designated a National Historic Site in 1995.

Background
Before the Quebec Bridge was built, the only way to travel from the south shore of the St. Lawrence in Lévis to the north shore at Quebec City was to take a ferry or to use the wintertime ice bridge. The construction of a bridge over the St. Lawrence River at Quebec was considered as early as 1852. It was further discussed in 1867, 1882, and 1884. After a period of political instability during which Canada had four prime ministers in five years, Wilfrid Laurier, the Member of Parliament for the federal riding of Quebec East, was elected on a Liberal platform in 1896 and led the push to build the Quebec Bridge until he left office in 1911.

A March 1897 article in the Quebec Morning Chronicle noted: "The bridge question has again been revived after many years of slumber, and business men in Quebec seem hopeful that something will come of it, though the placing of a subsidy on the statute book is but a small part of the work to be accomplished, as some of its enthusiastic promoters will, ere long, discover. Both Federal and Provincial Governments seem disposed to contribute towards the cost, and the City of Quebec will also be expected to do its share. Many of our people have objected to any contribution being given by the city unless the bridge is built opposite the town, and the CHRONICLE like every other good citizen of Quebec would prefer to see it constructed at Diamond Harbor, and has contended in the interests of the city for this site as long as there seemed to be any possibility of securing it there. It would still do so if it appeared that our people could have it at that site. A bridge at Diamond Harbor would, it estimated, cost at least eight millions. It would be very nice to have, with its double track, electric car track, and roads for vehicles and pedestrians, and would no doubt create a goodly traffic between the two towns, and be one of the show works of the continent."

First design and collapse of August 29, 1907
The Quebec Bridge was included in the National Transcontinental Railway project, undertaken by the federal government. The Quebec Bridge Company was first incorporated by Act of Parliament under the government of Sir John A. Macdonald in 1887, later revived in 1891, and revived for good in 1897 by the government of Wilfrid Laurier, who granted them an extension of time in 1900.

In 1903, the bond issue was increased to $6,000,000 and power to grant preference shares was authorised, along with a name change to the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company (QBRC). An Act of Parliament the same year was necessary to guarantee the bonds by the public purse. Laurier was the MP for Quebec East riding, while the president of the QBRC, Simon-Napoleon Parent, was Quebec City's mayor from 1894 to 1906 and simultaneously served as Premier of Quebec from 1900 to 1905.

Edward A. Hoare was selected as Chief Engineer for the Company throughout this time, while Collingwood Schreiber was the Chief Engineer of the Department of Railways and Canals in Ottawa. Hoare had never worked on a cantilever bridge structure longer than 300 ft. Schreiber was assisted until July 9, 1903 by Department bridge engineer R.C. Douglas, at which time Douglas was deposed for his opposition to the calculations that were submitted by the contractors. Schreiber subsequently requested the support of another qualified bridge engineer, but was effectively overruled by the Cabinet on August 15, 1903. Thereafter, QBRC consulting engineer Theodore Cooper was completely in charge of the works. On July 1, 1905, Schreiber was demoted and replaced as deputy minister and chief engineer by Matthew J Butler.

By 1904, the southern half of the structure was taking shape. However, preliminary calculations made early in the planning stages were never properly checked when the design was completed. The bridge’s own weight was far in excess of its carrying capacity. The dead load was too heavy. All went well until the bridge was nearing completion in the summer of 1907, when the QBRC site engineering team under Norman McLure began noticing increasing distortions of key structural members already in place.

McLure became increasingly concerned and wrote repeatedly to QBRC consulting engineer Theodore Cooper, who at first replied that the problems were minor. The Phoenix Bridge Company officials claimed that the beams must already have been bent before they were installed, but by August 27 it had become clear to McLure that this was wrong. A more experienced engineer might have telegraphed Cooper, but McLure wrote him a letter, and went to New York to meet with him two days later. Cooper agreed that the issue was serious, and promptly telegraphed to the Phoenix Bridge Company: "Add no more load to bridge till after due consideration of facts." The two engineers went to the Phoenix offices.

But, Cooper's message was not passed on to Quebec before it was too late. Near quitting time on the afternoon of August 29, after four years of construction, the south arm and part of the central section of the bridge collapsed into the St. Lawrence River in 15 seconds. Of the 86 workers on the bridge that day, 75 were killed and the rest were injured, making it the world's worst bridge construction disaster. Of these victims, 33 (some sources say 35) were Mohawk steelworkers from the Kahnawake reserve near Montreal; they were buried at Kahnawake under crosses made of steel beams.

On August 30, 1907, a Royal Commission of inquiry into the disaster was provisionally appointed by the Deputy Minister in charge of the Department of Railways and Canals (Butler), with the concurrence of the Minister. The Royal Commission, which was granted by Edward VII by advice of his Governor General, Albert Grey, on August 31, 1907, consisted of three members, who were all engineers of good standing: Henry Holgate, of Montreal, JGG Kerry, of Campbellford, Ontario, also an instructor at McGill University, and Professor John Galbraith, then dean of the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering at the University of Toronto. The Commission document conferred upon the commissioners full powers to summon witnesses and documents, and to express "any opinion they may see to express thereon".

The Commissioners presented their Report in full on February 20, 1908, issued 15 conclusions, and included the hindsight work of consulting bridge engineer C.C. Schneider, of Philadelphia (a fulfillment of the 1903 request of Schreiber, supra).

The Commissioners attributed responsibility for the failure to two men, consulting engineer Theodore Cooper and Peter L. Szlapka, Chief Designing Engineer for Phoenix Bridge Company:

(c) The design of the chords that failed was made by Mr. P.L. Szlapka, the designing engineer of the Phoenix Bridge Company

(d) This design was examined and officially approved by Mr. Theodore Cooper, consulting engineer of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company.

(e) The failure cannot be attributed directly to any cause other than errors in judgment on the part of these two engineers.

Cooper escaped penal sanction. It is presumed that Szlapka escaped as well. The Commissioners also found that:

(k) The failure on the part of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company to appoint an experienced bridge engineer to the position of chief engineer was a mistake. This resulted in a loose and inefficient supervision of all parts of the work on the part of the Quebec Bridge and Railway Company.

The abortive construction of the Quebec Bridge spanned the careers of two Ministers of Railways and Canals, and one temporary replacement, who was on the job for five months immediately preceding the disaster. A popular myth is that the iron and the steel from the collapsed bridge, which could not be reused for construction, was used to forge the early Iron Rings that started to be worn by graduates of Canadian engineering schools in 1925.

Second design and collapse of September 11, 1916
After a Royal Commission of Inquiry into the collapse, construction started on a second bridge. Three engineers were appointed: H. E. Vautelet, a former engineer for the Canadian Pacific Railways, Maurice FitzMaurice from Britain, who worked on the construction of the Forth Bridge, and Ralph Modjeski from Chicago, Illinois. Vautelet was President and Chief Engineer. The new design was again for a bridge with a single long cantilever span but with a more massive structure.

On September 11, 1916, when the central span was being raised into position, it fell into the river, killing 13 workers. The chief engineer had been made aware of the problem six weeks before the collapse. The chief engineer had been alerted to a problem by Frants Lichtenberg, the engineer responsible for the construction of the centre section. Lichtenberg was also working as an inspector for the federal government of Canada at the time. Fears of German sabotage were reported because the Great War had begun, but it became apparent that the central span had collapsed because of the failure of a casting in the erection equipment.

Re-construction began almost immediately after the accident, and the government granted special permission for the bridge builders to acquire the needed steel. It was in high demand because of the War effort. The fallen central span still lies at the bottom of the river. After the bridge was completed in 1917, special passes were required for those wanting to cross the bridge. Armed soldiers, and later Dominion Police, guarded the structure and checked passes until the end of the War.

Completion
Construction was ultimately completed in September 1917 at a total cost of $23 million and the lives of 88 bridgeworkers. On the 17 October, the first train crossed the bridge from Quebec to Lévis and on December 3, 1917, the Quebec Bridge officially opened for rail traffic, after almost two decades of construction. Its centre span of 549 m (1800 ft) remains the longest cantilevered bridge span in the world and is considered a major engineering feat. The Quebec Bridge was declared an International Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1987 by the Canadian and American Society of Civil Engineers.

Post-completion history
The bridge was built and designed primarily as a railway bridge, but the streetcar lines (used by Quebec Railway, Light & Power Company) and one of the two railway tracks were converted into automobile and pedestrian/cycling lanes in subsequent years. In 1970, the Pierre Laporte Suspension Bridge opened just upstream to accommodate freeway traffic on Autoroute 73.

On November 24, 1995. the bridge was declared a National Historic Site.

The bridge has been featured on two commemorative postage stamps, one issued by the Post Office Department in 1929, and another by Canada Post in 1995.

The bridge was built as part of the National Transcontinental Railway, which was merged into the Canadian Government Railways and later became part of the Canadian National Railway (CN). The Canadian Government Railways company was maintained by the federal government until 1993, when a Privy Council order dated July 22 authorized the sale of Canadian Government Railways to the Crown corporation CN for one Canadian dollar. On that date, the Quebec Bridge also came under complete ownership of CN. CN was privatized in November 1995, making the bridge privately owned.

Despite its private ownership, CN received federal and provincial funding to undertake repairs and maintenance on the structure. Its railway designation is mile 0.2 subdivision Bridge.

Aftermath of the collapse
The disaster showed the power an engineer could have in a project that was improperly supervised. As one result, Galbraith and others formed around 1925 what are now recognized as organizations of Professional Engineers (P.Engs). Professional Engineers are under different rules and regulations based on the organization to which they belong. General guidelines include that an engineer must pass an ethical examination, be able to show good character through the use of character witnesses, and have applicable engineering experience (in Canada that constitutes a minimum of four years' practice under a certified Professional Engineer). Moreover, engineers must be registered in the province in which they work. These engineering organizations are regulated by the respective provinces and the title "Professional Engineer" (or "Ingénieur" in Quebec) is reserved only to members who belong to this organization.

On August 29, 2006, a year-long commemoration was begun in the Kahnawake Reserve for the lives of the 33 Mohawk men who died in 1907. One year later, on August 29, 2007, memorial services were held to dedicate a concrete structure displaying the victims' names on the Lévis side of the bridge, and to unveil a steel replica of the bridge in Kahnawake.

Corrosion and maintenance
In 2015, the Quebec Bridge was included in a list of the 10 most endangered historic sites in Canada by the National Trust of Canada because of long-overdue paint and repair work.

"It is estimated that 60% of the bridge is covered in corrosive rust. Since its transfer to CN Rail by the federal government in 1993, maintenance and restoration programs for this historic infrastructure have been cut back. In November 2014, the City of Quebec, City of Lévis, Province of Quebec, and Government of Canada joined in pledging half the estimated $200 million cost of repainting and restoring the Quebec Bridge. To date, CN Rail has not agreed to match this amount. CN Rail has deemed the proposed sanding and restorative paint work to be 'aesthetic' and therefore unnecessary, a categorization supported by a ruling of the Superior Court of Quebec. The corrosion, accelerated by exposure to extremes of weather, will ultimately result in the loss of the bridge's mechanical properties—and potentially, its structural integrity as well."

In May 2016, Jean-Yves Duclos, the Canadian federal cabinet minister in charge of the Quebec region, revealed that a lease agreement between the CN and the federal government indicated that the CN would not be required to pay more than $10 million towards the paint work until the lease expires in 2053. The Canadian government is now proposing to invest $75 million to paint the bridge and is asking the Quebec provincial government to step in and invest an estimated additional $275 million to complete the work. The mayor of Quebec City, Regis Labeaume, accused the federal government of breaching a promise made during the 2015 electoral campaign to act upon the maintenance of the bridge

Government repurchase
On May 10, 2024, the Canadian Government and CN announced an agreement for the sale of the bridge for the symbolic sum of $1. The government committed to spending $1 billion over 25 years on repairs and maintenance. CN and the Quebec government will share ownership of the rails and roadway that cross the bridge.

title: Quebec Bridge


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Baron Leighton of St Mellons

Baron Leighton of St Mellons, of St Mellons in the County of Monmouth, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 25 January 1962 for the Welsh shipping magnate Sir Leighton Seager, 1st Baronet. He was the son of Sir William Henry Seager. Seager had already been created a Baronet, of St Mellons in the County of Monmouth on 1 July 1952. the titles are held by his great-grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father on 28 May 2023. (Ref.- peerage news( google groups) - At the date of 16 October 2023 the new Baron had not proved his succession,but had requested to be listed on the Official Roll of the Peerage by the House of Lords,(Ref,- House of Lords Minutes 16 October 2023). From The House of Lords Minutes of 8 November 2023, the Lord Chancellor reported that Richard Leighton Seager had established his claim to the Barony of Leighton and Saint Mellons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

Barons Leighton of St Mellons (1962)

 * (George) Leighton Seager, 1st Baron Leighton of St Mellons (1896–1963)
 * John Leighton Seager, 2nd Baron Leighton of St Mellons (1922–1998)
 * Robert William Henry Leighton Seager, 3rd Baron Leighton of St Mellons (1955–2023)
 * Richard Leighton Seager, 4th Baron Leighton of St Mellons (b. 1981)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Hon. William Leighton Seager (b. 2012)

title: Baron Leighton of St Mellons


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Southbridge (computing)

On older personal computer motherboards, the southbridge is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset, handling many of a computer's input/output functions. The other component of the chipset is the northbridge, which generally handles onboard control tasks.

A southbridge chipset handles functions such as USB, audio, the system BIOS, the ISA bus or the LPC bus, the low speed PCI/PCIe bus, the IOAPIC interrupt controller, the SATA storage, the historical PATA storage, and the NVMe storage. Different combinations of southbridge and northbridge chips are possible, but these two kinds of chips are designed to work together. There is no industry-wide standard for interoperability between different core logic chipset designs. In the 1990s and early 2000s, the interface between a northbridge and southbridge was the PCI bus. As of 2023, the main bridging interfaces used are Direct Media Interface (Intel) and PCI Express (AMD).

The southbridge typically implements the slower capabilities of the motherboard in a northbridge-southbridge chipset computer architecture. In systems with Intel chipsets, the southbridge has been named I/O Controller Hub (ICH) and later replaced by Platform Controller Hub chipsets. In older Intel/AMD architectures the southbridge is usually linked to the northbridge, which in turn connected to the CPU. Sirca 2004 and onward Intel architectures started to link southbridge directly to the CPU (.e.g via Direct Media Interface). Through the use of controller-integrated channel circuitry, the northbridge (or CPU itself) can directly link signals from the I/O units to the CPU for data control and access.

As of 2024, most personal computer devices based on Intel or AMD architectures no longer use a set of two chips, and instead have a single chip acting as the 'chipset', for example Intel's Z790 chipset and a central processing units.

Current status
Due to the push for system-on-chip (SoC) processors, modern devices increasingly have the northbridge integrated into the CPU die itself; examples are Intel's Sandy Bridge and AMD's Fusion processors, both released in 2011.

With the Intel 5 Series chipset in 2008, the southbridge became redundant and was replaced by the Platform Controller Hub (PCH) architecture introduced. AMD did the same with the release of their first APUs in 2011, naming the PCH the fusion controller hub (FCH), which was only used on AMD's APUs until 2017 when it began to be used on AMD's Zen architecture while dropping the FCH name.

On Intel platforms, all southbridge features and remaining I/O functions are managed by the PCH, which is directly connected to the CPU via the Direct Media Interface (DMI). Intel low-power processors (Haswell-U and onward) and ultra low-power processors (Haswell-Y and onward) also integrate an on-package PCH. Based on its Chiplet design, AMD Ryzen processors also integrated some southbridge functions, such as some USB and SATA/NVMe interfaces.

Etymology
The name is derived from representing the architecture in the fashion of a map and was first described as such with the introduction of the PCI Local Bus Architecture in 1991. At Intel, the authors of the PCI specification viewed the PCI local bus as being at the very centre of the PC platform architecture (i.e., at the Equator).

The northbridge extends to the north of the PCI bus backbone in support of CPU, memory/cache, and other performance-critical capabilities. Likewise the southbridge extends to the south of the PCI bus backbone and bridges to less performance-critical I/O capabilities such as the disk interface, audio, etc.

The CPU is located at the top of the map at due north. The CPU is connected to the chipset via a fast bridge (the northbridge) located north of other system devices as drawn. The northbridge is connected to the rest of the chipset via a slow bridge (the southbridge) located south of other system devices as drawn.

Although the current PC platform architecture has replaced the PCI bus backbone with faster I/O backbones, the bridge naming convention remains.

Functionality
The functionality found in a contemporary southbridge includes:
 * PCI bus. A south bridge may also include support for PCI-X.
 * Low speed PCI Express (PCIe) interfaces usually for Ethernet and NVMe.
 * ISA bus or LPC bridge. ISA slots are no longer provided on more recent motherboards. The LPC bridge provides a data and control path to the super I/O (the normal attachment for the PS/2 keyboard and mouse, parallel port, serial port, IR port, and floppy controller).
 * SMBus controller.
 * DMA controller. The 8237 DMA controller allows ISA or LPC devices direct access to main memory without needing help from the CPU.
 * PIC and I/O APIC.
 * Mass storage interfaces such as SATA, M.2, and historical PATA. This typically allows attachment of hard drives or SSDs.
 * Real-time clock.
 * Programmable interval timer.
 * High Precision Event Timer.
 * ACPI controller or APM controller.
 * SPI serial bus mostly used for firmware (e.g., BIOS/UEFI) flash storage access.
 * Nonvolatile BIOS memory. The system CMOS (BIOS configuration memory), assisted by battery supplemental power, creates a limited non-volatile storage area for BIOS configuration data.
 * Intel HD Audio or AC'97 sound interface.
 * USB interfaces.

Optionally, a southbridge also includes support (onboard discrete chip or southbridge-integrated) for Ethernet, Wi-Fi, RAID, Thunderbolt, and Out-of-band management.

title: Southbridge (computing)