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Kathryn D. Sullivan

Kathryn Dwyer Sullivan (born October 3, 1951) is an American geologist, oceanographer, and former NASA astronaut and US Navy officer. She was a crew member on three Space Shuttle missions.

A graduate of University of California, Santa Cruz, in the United States, and Dalhousie University in Nova Scotia, Canada—where she earned a Doctor of Philosophy degree in geology in 1978—Sullivan was selected as one of the six women among the 35 astronaut candidate in NASA Astronaut Group 8, the first group to include women. During her training, she became the first woman to be certified to wear a United States Air Force pressure suit, and on July 1, 1979, she set an unofficial sustained American aviation altitude record for women. During her first mission, STS-41-G, Sullivan performed the first extra-vehicular activity (EVA) by an American woman. On her second, STS-31, she helped deploy the Hubble Space Telescope. On the third, STS-45, she served as Payload Commander on the first Spacelab mission dedicated to NASA's Mission to Planet Earth.

Sullivan was Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and Administrator of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) after being confirmed by the US Senate on March 6, 2014. Her tenure ended on January 20, 2017, after which she was designated as the 2017 Charles A. Lindbergh Chair of Aerospace History at the Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, and also served as a Senior Fellow at the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. On June 7, 2020, Sullivan became the first woman to dive into the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, the deepest part of Earth's oceans. In September 2021, President Joe Biden appointed her to the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology.

Early life and education
Kathryn Dwyer Sullivan was born in Paterson, New Jersey, on October 3, 1951, the daughter of Donald Paul Sullivan and his wife Barbara, Kelly. She had a brother, Grant. In 1958 the family moved to the San Fernando Valley in California, where her father worked in the aerospace industry for Marquardt Corporation. She was in the first grade at Havenhurst Elementary School, where Sally Ride was a classmate, but the school closed in 1958 to make way for Van Nuys Airport, and neither woman could recall meeting the other. During her school years she was a girl scout.

Sullivan graduated from William Howard Taft High School in the Woodland Hills district of Los Angeles, California, in 1969. She took both French and German in high school, and resolved to have a career in the foreign service. She chose to enter the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC), on account of its renowned Russian studies program. The university required that humanities students take three science classes and vice versa. She chose to take courses in marine biology, topology and oceanography. She enjoyed these, and altered her course to take in more science subjects. She was an exchange student at the University of Bergen in Norway for the 1971–1972 school year and the two summers around it, and decided to change her major to oceanography. She was awarded a Bachelor of Science degree in Earth Sciences from UCSC in 1973, and a Doctor of Philosophy in geology from Dalhousie University and the Bedford Institute of Oceanography in Nova Scotia, Canada, in 1978, writing her doctoral thesis on The structure and evolution of the Newfoundland Basin under the supervision of Michael John Keen. While at Dalhousie, she participated in several oceanographic expeditions that studied the floors of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

Selection and training
When Sullivan visited her family for Christmas in 1976, her brother Grant, an aerospace engineer and corporate jet pilot, told her that the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) had issued a call for applications for a new group of astronauts. NASA had made it known that it was interested in recruiting women, and Grant encouraged her to apply. He had applied for both pilot and mission specialist positions. After she returned to Nova Scotia she saw a NASA ad in a science journal, and decided to apply. She reasoned that the Space Shuttle was a kind of research vessel, but her dream was still to descend to the ocean floor in a submersible. That prospect came closer when she received an offer from William B. F. Ryan from the Lamont–Doherty Earth Observatory at Columbia University to join his team exploring the ocean in the submersible DSV Alvin. Ryan had been an unsuccessful finalist for NASA Astronaut Group 6 in 1967, and he counseled her to wait for NASA to call. They both felt that the odds on being accepted were long, but Sullivan did not join Ryan's team while she waited to hear about her selection.

Grant's application was unsuccessful, but Kathryn was invited to come to the Johnson Space Center (JSC) for a week of interviews and physical examinations commencing on November 14, 1977. She was the only woman in this group of twenty-five finalists. Over the course of a week she was given physical and psychological examinations, and was interviewed by a selection panel chaired by George Abbey. She was successful, and her selection as one of the six women among the 35 members of NASA Astronaut Group 8 was publicly announced on January 16, 1978. It was the first astronaut group to include women. Sullivan was one of the three members of the group (the others being Sally Ride and Steve Hawley) for whom NASA astronaut would be their first full-time paid job since leaving university.

On August 31, 1979, NASA announced that the 35 astronaut candidates had completed their training and evaluation, and were now officially astronauts, qualified for selection on space flight crews. To mark the occasion the Chief of the Astronaut Office, John Young, presented each of them with a silver NASA astronaut pin; they would become eligible for a gold one after they had flown in space. Like other astronaut groups before them, each was given a particular assignment. Sullivan helped develop systems management checklists for the first Space Shuttle flights. To give the newcomers more experience, they were periodically rotated to different jobs, so after nine months she became a mission manager at NASA's High Altitude Research Project, based at nearby Ellington Air Force Base. She became the first woman to be certified to wear a United States Air Force pressure suit, and on July 1, 1979, she set an unofficial sustained American aviation altitude record for women of 63,000 ft during a four-hour flight in a NASA WB-57F reconnaissance aircraft.

For the first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1, Sullivan was assigned to media support, working with Vic Ratner and Bob Walker on ABC News Radio. For the STS-2 mission she flew in the back seat of a NASA Northrop T-38 Talon chase plane piloted by fellow astronaut Hoot Gibson, photographing the Space Shuttle tiles to verify that none had been damaged. She was then assigned to the support crew at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), along with fellow astronauts Steve Hawley, Loren Shriver and Don Williams, for the next four Space Shuttle missions.

STS-41-G

In July 1983 Sullivan joined the Mission Development group, which organised and supervised the development of payloads for future missions that did not yet have a crew assigned to them. She was assigned the Office of Space and Terrestrial Applications' OSTA-3 satellite and the Orbital Refueling System (ORS). The objective of the latter was to demonstrate that the Space Shuttle could be used to refuel a satellite in orbit, thereby extending its useful life. For this the aging Landsat 4 satellite was chosen. In September 1983 she was officially assigned to this mission, which was designated STS-41-G.

Sally Ride was also assigned to this mission, so it became the first time that two women were in space together. The mission lifted off from the KSC in the on October 5, 1984. Sullivan performed the first extra-vehicular activity (EVA) by an American woman on October 11, 1984. With fellow mission specialist David Leestma, she performed a 3.5-hour spacewalk in which they operated the ORS to show that a satellite could be refueled in orbit. They installed a valve into a satellite propulsion system that mimicked that of Landsat   4 and transferred 130 lb of hydrazine to it using the ORS. This demonstrated that the procedure could be performed with a real satellite.

During the eight-day mission, the crew also deployed the Earth Radiation Budget Satellite, conducted scientific observations of Earth with the OSTA-3 pallet (including the SIR-B radar, FILE, and MAPS experiments) and large format camera (LFC), and conducted several in-cabin experiments as well as activating eight "Getaway Special" canisters. STS-41G completed 132 orbits of Earth in 197.5 hours, before landing back at the KSC on October 13, 1984.

STS-61-J

In September 1985 Sullivan was assigned to the STS-61-J mission, which was scheduled to deploy the Hubble Space Telescope (HST) in August 1986. The original intention was that the HST would be periodically retrieved by the Space Shuttle and returned to Earth for maintenance, although some components were designed for servicing in-orbit. In 1984 NASA management decided this would be too dangerous and too costly, and that the HST would instead be maintained in-orbit by periodic servicing missions for up to fifteen years. Convinced that NASA would attempt to fix any component that jeopardized the HST's mission whether it had been designated as serviceable or not, Sullivan pressed for as many components as possible to be replaceable or amenable to in-orbit servicing. Working with fellow astronaut Bruce McCandless II and NASA and Lockheed Corporation engineers, she ensured that there would be a complete set of tools and procedures for as many HST maintenance missions as possible.

The STS-61-J mission was cancelled after the January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster, but the crew continued to work on the mission objectives. At this point, just fourteen systems were designated as "on-orbit maintainable". There were up to twelve units in each one, so forty-three were designated as Block I "on-orbit replaceable units" (ORUs). Lockheed produced two lists of additional units that could be modified to be serviceable; there were twenty-six systems and fifty-one units in Block   II and eight systems and sixteen units in Block    III. With more time available, an attempt was now made to work through these. Meanwhile, Sullivan served as capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for STS-26, the Space Shuttle's October 1988 return-to-flight mission. She chose the wakeup music, including a contribution from Robin Williams, who provided a pastiche of his Good Morning, Vietnam radio greeting. She continued working as CAPCOM on the STS-27 and STS-29 missions.

STS-31

At the end of March 1989, Sullivan returned to working on the HST mission, which was now designated STS-31. The crew was the same, except that Loren Shriver replaced Young as mission commander. STS-31 was launched from KSC, on April 24, 1990. During this five-day mission, crew members aboard the deployed the HST, and conducted middeck experiments involving the study of protein crystal growth, polymer membrane processing, and the effects of weightlessness and magnetic fields on an ion arc. They also operated several cameras, including the IMAX cargo bay camera, for Earth observations. Their apogee of 333 nmi above Earth was the highest yet achieved by a Space Shuttle orbiter. (It was later exceeded by the STS-82 HST servicing mission.)

The HST was deployed on the second day using Discovery's Canadarm with the Shuttle doors opened towards the ground. In case McCandless and Sullivan had to perform an EVA, the Shuttle's cabin pressure was lowered from 14.7 psi to 4.1 psi. At one point McCandless and Sullivan donned their space suits and entered the airlock to perform an emergency EVA to help deploy the Hubble's solar arrays, but this was not required, as the engineers were able to deploy them with a series of commands from Earth. Discovery followed the HST for the next two days in case intervention was required. After making 76 orbits of Earth in 121 hours, Discovery landed at Edwards Air Force Base in California, on April 29, 1990.

STS-45
Sullivan served as Payload Commander on STS-45, the first Spacelab mission dedicated to NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. It lifted off in the Atlantis on March 24, 1992. During this nine-day mission, the crew operated the twelve experiments that constituted the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science cargo. This was the first of several flights designed to study the composition of the mid-atmosphere and its variations over an eleven-year solar cycle, the regular period of energetic activity by the Sun. The mission also included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet Instrument (SSBUV) to measure the ozone layer in concert with other measurements taken by satellites. The mission also carried the Oscar statuette for the Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award that film maker George Lucas received on March 30, the presentation being made by the STS-45 crew from Earth orbit. Sullivan had special responsibility for a dose-response experiment that involved firing an electron pulse into the upper atmosphere and recording the luminosity induced with a special camera. Atlantis landed at the Kennedy Space Center on April 2, 1992.

Sullivan left NASA in 1993 having flown on three Space Shuttle missions and logged 532 hours in space.

Military career
Sullivan became an adjunct professor of geology at Rice University in Houston in 1985. In this role she joined an oceanographic research cruise in 1988, where she met Andreas Rechnitzer, a US Navy oceanographer, and she started thinking about joining the US Naval Reserve (USNR) as an oceanography officer. She spoke to McCandless about it; he said he was having lunch with the Secretary of the Navy and would raise the matter. Later that year, Sullivan became a direct commission officer in the USNR with the rank of lieutenant commander.

In October 1990 she assumed command of a small specialized unit of oceanographers and meteorologists. Based at Naval Air Station Dallas, it provided support to the Naval Meteorology and Oceanography Command center on Guam. The unit was sent to Guam on January 13, 1991, four days before the start of Operation Desert Storm, and stayed for thirty days to augment the regular component responsible for the Western Pacific to free it to concentrate on the Persian Gulf. She retired from the USNR with the rank of captain in 2006.

NOAA Chief Scientist
While she was still working on preparations for STS-45, Sullivan received a call from Sylvia Earle, the chief scientist of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). In 1981 Earle and Sullivan had been part of the first group of women admitted to the Explorers Club. Earle was stepping down from the role at the NOAA, and asked Sullivan if she was interested in taking over. With the permission of her STS-45 mission commander, Charles Bolden, Sullivan flew to Washington, DC, where she was interviewed by the Administrator of the NOAA, John A. Knauss. Her nomination was forwarded to the US Senate for confirmation, and she arranged to be seconded from NASA to NOAA as acting chief scientist from August 17, 1992.

Before she could be confirmed, President George H. W. Bush lost the 1992 United States presidential election and was succeeded by Bill Clinton, and the nomination was withdrawn. Sullivan still wanted the job, so she lobbied for it, enlisting the help of the outgoing Secretary of Commerce, Barbara Franklin, and senators Barbara Mikulski and Bill Nelson. The incoming Secretary of Commerce, Ronald H. Brown, forwarded her nomination to the Senate again in April, and she was confirmed on May 28, 1993. As chief scientist at NOAA, she oversaw a diverse portfolio which included ranging research into climate change, the use of satellites for oceanography, and marine biodiversity.

Career 1996 to 2011
Sullivan was president and CEO of the COSI Columbus, an interactive science center in Columbus, Ohio, from 1996 to 2006. From 2006 to 2011 she was Director for Ohio State University's Battelle Center for Mathematics and Science Education Policy while remaining a volunteer science advisor to COSI. She was appointed as vice chair of the National Science Board by President George W. Bush in 2004. In 2009 Sullivan was elected to a three-year term as the chair of the Section on General Interest in Science and Engineering for the American Association for the Advancement of Science.

Assistant Secretary of Commerce
In January 2011 President Barack Obama sent the Senate his nomination of Sullivan to be an Assistant Secretary of Commerce. Sullivan was first nominated in December 2010, but because the Senate did not approve her nomination before the session ended, the White House renewed the nomination. On May 4, 2011, Sullivan was confirmed by unanimous consent of the Senate and appointed by President Obama to serve as Assistant Secretary of Commerce for Environmental Observation and Prediction and Deputy Administrator for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Sullivan became Acting Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and Acting NOAA Administrator on February 28, 2013, following the resignation of Jane Lubchenco. President Obama nominated Sullivan to serve as the Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere and NOAA Administrator on August 1, 2013, and she was confirmed by the Senate on March 6, 2014. Her term ended on January 20, 2017.

Positions since 2017
Sullivan was named the 2017 Charles A. Lindbergh Chair of Aerospace History, a competitive twelve-month fellowship at the National Air and Space Museum. During her residence in the museum, Sullivan's research focused on the Hubble Space Telescope. She has also served as a Senior Fellow at the Potomac Institute for Policy Studies. Her book Handprints on Hubble: An Astronaut's Story of Invention was released from MIT Press in November 2019. It recounted her experience as part of the team that launched, rescued, repaired, and maintained the Hubble Space Telescope.

In June 2020 Sullivan traveled on an expedition aboard the Triton Submarines DSV Limiting Factor to the bottom of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, becoming the first woman and eighth person to reach the deepest known point in Earth's oceans,  and the first person to travel both to Challenger Deep and into space. In November 2020 Sullivan was named a volunteer member of Joe Biden's presidential transition Agency Review Team to support transition efforts related to the Department of Commerce, and he appointed her to the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology in September 2021.

Awards and recognition
Sullivan's awards from NASA included the NASA Space Flight Medal in 1984, 1990 and 1992; the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1988 and 1991, the NASA Outstanding Leadership Medal in 1992, and a Certificate of Appreciation in 1996. She received the Haley Space Flight Award in 1991, the Gold Medal of the Society of Woman Geographers in 1993, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1994, and the Adler Planetarium Women in Space Science Award in 2004.

In 2014 Sullivan was named in the Time 100 list, an annual list of the world's most influential people. John Glenn wrote in her blurb: "Kathy is not just an ivory-tower scientist. She was part of NASA's first class of female astronauts, selected in 1978, and went on to fly three shuttle missions. She is the first American woman to walk in space and served aboard the mission that deployed the Hubble Space Telescope. That role in helping humanity look outward has not prevented her from looking homeward. The planet is suffering increasingly severe upheavals, at least partly a result of climate change—droughts, floods, typhoons, tornadoes. I believe my good friend Kathy is the right person for the right job at the right time."

Sullivan received honorary Doctor of Science degrees from Willamette University in 2013 in conjunction with her presentation of a commencement address, and from Brown University in May 2015, for her "abundant contributions to science, education and the public good, and her ongoing commitment to improving the state of our planet for future generations". In September 2015 she presented the John H. Glenn Lecture in Space History Series at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. Titled "Looking at Earth: An Astronaut's Journey", Sullivan discussed her life of exploration and discovery, what it is like to fulfill her childhood dreams, and how NOAA's study of our planet helps us understand today's environmental challenges.

Sullivan was inducted into the Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2004, elected to the National Academy of Engineering in 2016, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2017. In 2020 the American Association of Geographers named her Honorary Geographer. She was on the list of the BBC's 100 Women announced on November 23, 2020. In September 2023 Sullivan will be inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in Dayton, Ohio.

title: Kathryn D. Sullivan


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Gutowo

Gutowo may refer to:

 * Gutowo, a sub-camp of Stutthof concentration camp
 * Gutowo, Brodnica County in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-central Poland)
 * Gutowo, Toruń County in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-central Poland)
 * Gutowo, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (north Poland)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Gutowo


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Heiligenbeil concentration camp

Heiligenbeil was a subcamp of the German Stutthof concentration camp, operated from September 1944 to January 1945. It was named after the town Heiligenbeil (now Mamonovo, Russia).

Its prisoners were 1,100 Jewish women and 100 Jewish men. The prisoners were subjected to forced labour.

The commanders of the subcamp were SS-Unterscharführer Hermann Kleiss (in September–October 1944), SS-Oberscharführer Johann Mayer (October–November 1944), SS-Hauptscharführer Ernst Thulke (October 1944–January 1945) and SS-Sturmscharführer Wolförer (January 1945).

title: Heiligenbeil concentration camp


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Kolkau

Kolkau was a subcamp of the German concentration camp Stutthof near Danzig during the Third Reich.

title: Kolkau


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Krzemieniewo

Krzemieniewo may refer to the following places in Poland:
 * Krzemieniewo, Greater Poland Voivodeship (west-central Poland)
 * Krzemieniewo, Pomeranian Voivodeship (north Poland)
 * Krzemieniewo, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (north Poland)

title: Krzemieniewo


text:
Malken Mierzynek

Malken Mierzynek was a subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp (Sztutowo) near Danzig (Gdańsk) during the Third Reich.

title: Malken Mierzynek


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Ōmiya-ku, Saitama

Ōmiya (大宮区) is one of ten wards of the city of Saitama, in Saitama Prefecture, Japan, and is located in the northeastern part of the city. , the ward had an estimated population of 119,298 and a population density of 9,300 persons per km². Its total area was 12.80 sqkm. Although Urawa-ku is the governmental center of Saitama City, Ōmiya-ku is the most active commercial and business centre in both Saitama City and Saitama Prefecture thanks to its transport infrastructure, especially railways connected at Ōmiya Station.

Geography
Ōmiya Ward is within the Ōmiya Terrace of the Kantō plain, in the center of Saitama City. It is in the Greater Tokyo Area and about 25 km north of central Tokyo.

Neighboring Municipalities
Ōmiya-ku is surrounded by Nishi-ku (to the west), Kita-ku (north), Minuma-ku (east), Urawa-ku (southeast), Chūō-ku (south), and Sakura-ku (southwest).

History
Ōmiya derives its name from a famous Shinto shrine, the Hikawa Shrine, which has been a place of pilgrimage since at least the Heian period. During the Edo period, the area flourished as Ōmiya-shuku, a post station on the Nakasendō highway, which connected Edo with Kyoto. Following the Meiji restoration, it became part of Urawa Prefecture which merged with Iwatsuki, Urawa, and Oshi Prefectures in 1871 to form Saitama Prefecture. The modern town of Ōmiya was officially created within Kitaadachi District, Saitama with the establishment of the municipalities system on April 1, 1889.

On November 3, 1940 Ōmiya merged with the neighboring villages of Mihashi, Osato, Miyahara and Nisshin and was elevated to city status. Ōmiya continued to expand after the end of the war, absorbing the villages of Sashiougi, Mamiya, Uemizu, Katayanagi, Haruoka, and Nanasato on January 1, 1955.

On May 1, 2001 Ōmiya merged with Urawa and Yono to form Saitama City. In April 2003 Saitama became a city designated by government ordinance, and now the area of former Ōmiya City was divided between Kita-ku (north), Minuma-ku (east), Nishi-ku (west), and Ōmiya-ku (south).

Education
Tertiary:
 * Kokusai Gakuin Saitama Junior College
 * University of Human Arts and Sciences

Urawa-ku has nine elementary schools, seven junior high schools, and eight high schools.

Public junior high schools:

 * No. 2 (Daini) Higashi (第二東中学校)
 * Mihashi (三橋中学校)
 * Omiya Higashi (大宮東中学校)
 * Omiya Kita (大宮北中学校)
 * Omiya Minami (大宮南中学校)
 * Onari (大成中学校)
 * Sakuragi (桜木中学校)

Municipal elementary schools:

 * Kamiko (上小小学校)
 * Mihashi (三橋小学校)
 * Omiya (大宮小学校)
 * Omiya Higashi (立大宮東小学校)
 * Omiya Kita (大宮北小学校)
 * Omiya Minami (大宮南小学校)
 * Onari (大成小学校)
 * Sakuragi (桜木小学校)
 * Shibakawa (芝川小学校)

The ward also has a North Korean school, Saitama Korean Elementary and Middle School (埼玉朝鮮初中級学校). This school was previously in the City of Ōmiya.

Railway
JR East – Tohoku Shinkansen / Joetsu Shinkansen / Akita Shinkansen / Yamagata Shinkansen / Hokuriku Shinkansen / Kawagoe Line JR East – Tohoku Main Line / Takasaki Line / Keihin Tohoku Line Tōbu Railway –  Tōbu Urban Park Line Saitama New Urban Transit ("New Shuttle") - Ina Line
 * Ōmiya
 * Saitama-Shintoshin - Ōmiya
 * Ōmiya - Kita-Ōmiya - Ōmiya-kōen
 * Ōmiya – Tetsudō-Hakubutsukan

Highway

 * Shuto Urban Expwy Sign S5.svg Shuto Expressway Ōmiya Route

Local attractions

 * Ōmiya Park
 * Hikawa Shrine
 * Railway Museum
 * Saitama Red Cross Hospital in Omiya
 * The bonsai nurseries in the neighbouring Kita-ku is usually referred to as the "Ōmiya Bonsai Village" because it was in the area of former Ōmiya city.

title: Ōmiya-ku, Saitama


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Nawitz

Nawitz is the German name of the town of Nawcz in northern Poland. During the occupation of Poland by the Third Reich in World War II the forced-labour camp Nawitz was set up as one of 40 subcamps of the notorious Nazi German Stutthof concentration camp near Gdańsk (totalling more than 85,000 victims before liberation).

The cemetery of prisoner victims of Auffanglager Nawitz along with those of Stutthof who perished during the final death march westward is located in the town.

title: Nawitz


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Niskie

Niskie was a subcamp of the German concentration camp Stutthof near Danzig during the Third Reich.

title: Niskie


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State vector

State vector may refer to:
 * A quantum state vector
 * The state of a system described by a state space representation
 * A state vector (geographical) specifies the position and velocity of an object in any location on Earth's surface
 * Orbital state vectors are vectors of position and velocity that together with their time, uniquely determine the state of an orbiting body in astrodynamics or in celestial dynamics

title: State vector


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Tōhoku Main Line

The Tōhoku Main Line (東北本線) is a 575.7 km railway line in Japan operated by the East Japan Railway Company (JR East). The line starts from Tokyo Station in Chiyoda, Tokyo and passes through such cities as Saitama, Utsunomiya, Fukushima, and Sendai, before reaching the end of the line in Morioka. The line originally extended to Aomori, but was truncated upon the extension of the Tōhoku Shinkansen beyond Morioka, which mostly parallels the Tōhoku Main Line. A portion of the Tōhoku Main Line is also shared with the Keihin–Tōhoku Line (29.6 km between Tokyo Station and Ōmiya Station in Ōmiya-ku, Saitama) and the Saikyō Line (18 km between Akabane Station in the Kita ward of Tokyo and Ōmiya Station).

The 159.9 km portion of the line between Tokyo Station and Kuroiso Station in Nasushiobara, Tochigi is referred to by JR East as the Utsunomiya Line, and the remaining section is referred to as the Tōhoku Line in regular service. Because of the difference in electrification south (1,500 V DC) and north (20 kV AC) of Kuroiso, there are no regularly scheduled passenger services that travel through that station.

Station list
These lists are separated by service patterns provided on the Tōhoku Main Line.

Tokyo – Kuroiso
The section between Tokyo and Kuroiso is known as the Utsunomiya Line.

Fukushima – Sendai

 * ●: All rapid trains stop
 * All rapid trains pass

Ichinoseki – Morioka

 * A: Aterui
 * H: Hamayuri
 * ●: All rapid trains stop
 * All rapid trains pass

Tokyo – Kuroiso
Previously
 * E231-1000 series EMUs
 * E233-3000 series EMUs
 * E131-600/-680 series EMUs
 * 205-600 series EMUs

From March 2013, a fleet of eight refurbished 4-car 205-600 series EMUs was phased in on Utsunomiya Line services between Koganei and Kuroiso, replacing 211 series sets.

Kuroiso – Shin-Shirakawa

 * E531-3000 series EMUs

Shin-Shirakawa – Ichinoseki

 * 701 series EMUs
 * 719 series EMUs
 * E721 series/ SAT721 series EMUs
 * HB-E210 series DMUs - Senseki-Tōhoku Line

Ichinoseki – Morioka

 * 701 series EMUs

History
The construction of the Tōhoku Main Line began in the Kantō region and extended to the north end of Honshu, and the city of Aomori. It is one of oldest railway lines in Japan, with construction beginning in the late 19th century. Until 1 November 1906, the current Tōhoku Main Line was run by a private company Nippon Railway.

In 1883, the first segment between Ueno and Kumagaya opened. In 1885, it was extended to Utsunomiya, but the Tone River had to be crossed by boat. Following construction of the Tone River Bridge in 1886, Utsunomiya and Ueno were directly connected. The line gradually extended further to the north; to Kōriyama, Sendai, Ichinoseki and Morioka. In 1891, the segment between Morioka and Aomori opened, creating the longest continuous railway line in Japan.

After 1906, the line was nationalized and became the Tōhoku Main Line operated by the Ministry of Railways. When Tokyo Station opened in 1925, the Tōhoku Main Line was extended from Ueno to the new station. Until the 1950s, this segment was used and many trains ran through both the Tōkaidō Main Line and Tōhoku Main Line. However, when the Tōhoku Shinkansen opened, it occupied land previously used for the tracks of mid and long-distance Tōhoku Main Line trains. As a result, only a small number of commuter lines such as the Keihin–Tōhoku Line now operate to Tokyo from the north, making Tokyo Station's status as part of the Tōhoku Main Line somewhat circumspect.

In 2002, the Tōhoku Shinkansen was extended from Morioka to Hachinohe and the operations of the local track segment between those two cities was turned over to Iwate Ginga Railway (IGR) and Aoimori Railway. With the extension of the Tōhoku Shinkansen to Shin-Aomori station in 2010, the segment between Hachinohe and Aomori was delegated to the Aoimori Railway Company. The shortened Tōhoku Main Line is now the second-longest line in Japan, after the Sanin Main Line.

With the opening of the Ueno–Tokyo Line in March 2015, most longer distance trains once again operate directly through to the Tōkaidō Main Line via Tokyo Station, with the exception of some rush hour trains which terminate at Ueno Station.

Double-tracking
The Tokyo to Omiya section was double-tracked between 1892 and 1896, extended to Furukawa in 1908, Koyama the following year, and to Utsunomiya in 1913.

The Iwanuma - Sendai - Iwakiri section was double-tracked between 1920 & 1923 and the Utsunomiya - Iwanuma section between 1959 and 1964. The Iwakiri - Morioka - Aomori section was double-tracked between 1951 and 1968, including the 17 km realigned section between Iwakiri and Atago in 1962.

Electrification
The 7 km Tokyo to Tabata section was electrified at 1,500 V DC in 1909, extended to Akabane in 1928, Omiya in 1932 and Kuroiso in 1959. Electrification was then continued north at 20 kV AC, reaching Fukushima in 1960, Sendai in 1961, Morioka in 1965, and Aomori in 1968.

Saitama Prefecture

 * Hasuda Station: The Bushu Railway operated a 17 km line to Kamine from 1924 until 1938.

Tochigi Prefecture

 * Mamada Station: A 2 km gauge handcar line to Omoigawa operated between 1899 and 1917.
 * Hoshakuji Station: A 12 km line servicing the Utsunomiya Army Airfield operated between 1942 and 1945.
 * Ujiie Station: An 8 km gauge handcar line operated to Kitsuregawa between 1902 and 1918.
 * Yaita Station: The Tobu Railway opened the 24 km gauge Tobu Yaita Line to Shin Takatoku (on the Tobu Kinugawa Line) on 1 March 1924. The line was converted to  gauge in 1929, and closed on 30 June 1959.
 * Nishi-Nasuno Station: A 15 km line was opened by the Shiobara Railway to Shiobara in 1912. The line was electrified at 550 V DC in 1921, and closed in 1936. The Higashino Railway opened a 24 km line to Nasu Ogawa between 1918 and 1924, the line closing in 1968. At Otawara Station, it connected with the horse-drawn tramway mentioned below for the three years they were both open. A 5 km  gauge handcar line to Otawara opened in 1908. In 1917, it was converted to a horse-drawn tramway, but closed in 1921. At Otawara Station, it connected with the Higashino Railway line mentioned above.

Fukushima Prefecture

 * Shirakawa Station: A 23 km line to Iwaki Tanakura (on the Suigun Line) was opened by the Shirotana Railway in 1916. The line was nationalized in 1941, and closed in 1944. Plans to reopen the line in 1953 resulted in a decision to convert the line to a dedicated busway, which opened in 1957.
 * Koriyama Station: The Fukushima Prefectural Government operated a 13 km gauge line to Miharu between 1891 and 1914.
 * Matsukawa Station: A 12 km line to Iwashiro Kawamata operated from 1926 until 1972.

Miyagi Prefecture

 * The Miyagi Prefectural Government operated the following three lines, all utilising gauge track:
 * Ogawara Station: a 27 km line to Toogatta opened between 1917 and 1922, and closed in 1937.
 * Tsukinoki Station: a 19 km line to Tateyama, opened in 1899 as a horse-drawn tramway. Steam locomotion was introduced in 1917, and the line closed in 1929.
 * Natori Station: a 6 km line to Yurage, operated from 1926 until 1939.
 * Nagamachi Station: A 16 km gauge horse-drawn tramway was opened to Akiu Onsen in 1912. In 1925, the Akiho Electric Railway converted the line to  gauge and electrified it at 600 V DC. The line closed in 1961.
 * Kofuku-Tagajo Station: When the Tōhoku Main Line was realigned in 1956, the original line to Shiogama Wharf (on the Senseki Line) remained in place as a freight-only line, closing in 1997.
 * Matsushima Station: The Miyagi Prefectural Government operated a 4 km, gauge line to Matsushima Kaigan, electrified at 550 V DC, between 1922 and 1944.
 * Matsushima-Machi Station: A 2 km gauge handcar line operated between 1923 and 1930.
 * Kogota Station: Prior to the opening of the Rikuu East Line, a 10 km gauge horse-drawn tramway operated to Furukawa between 1900 and 1913.
 * Semine Station: The Senpoku Railway operated a 41 km gauge line from Tome to Tsukidate between 1921 and 1968.
 * Ishikoshi Station: The Kurihara Den'en Railway Line operated between 1921 and 2007.

Iwate Prefecture

 * Hanamaki Station: An 18 km gauge line to Nishinamari Onsen was opened in 1915 by the Hanamaki Electric Railway, which then opened a second line, 8 km to Hanamaki Onsen in 1925. Both lines were electrified at 600 V DC. The latter closed in 1972, and the former in 1976.

Aomori Prefecture

 * Hachinohe Station: The Gonohe Electric Railway operated a 12 km line (not electrified, despite the company name) to Gonohe between 1929 and 1969.
 * Misawa Station: The Towada Kanko Electric Railway Line operated between 1922 and 2012.
 * Noheji Station: The Nanbu Jūkan Railway opened a 21 km line to Shichinohe in 1962. Freight services ceased in 1984, and the line closed in 1997.

title: Tōhoku Main Line


text:
Path length

Path length can refer to:

Physics

 * Distance, the total distance an object travels dependent on its path through space
 * Optical path length, the product of the distance light travels and the refractive index of the medium it travels through
 * Mean free path, the average distance that a particle travels before scattering
 * Radiation length, a characteristic length for the decay of radiation in a medium

Networks and computing

 * Average path length, the average number of steps along the shortest paths for all possible pairs of network nodes
 * Hop count, the number of intermediate network devices through which data must pass between source and destination in a computer network
 * Instruction path length, the number of machine code instructions required to execute a section of a computer program

title: Path length


text:
Growth rate

Growth rate may refer to:

By rate

 * Asymptotic analysis, a branch of mathematics concerned with the analysis of growth rates
 * Linear growth
 * Exponential growth, a growth rate classification
 * Any of a variety of growth rates classified by such things as the Landau notation

By type of growing medium

 * Economic growth, the increase in value of the goods and services produced by an economy
 * Compound annual growth rate or CAGR, a measure of financial growth
 * Population growth rate, change in population over time
 * Growth rate (group theory), a property of a group in group theory

In biology

 * The rate of growth in any biological system, see Growth § Biology.

title: Growth rate


text:
Karl Bücher

Karl Wilhelm Bücher (16 February 1847, Kirberg, Hesse – 12 November 1930, Leipzig, Saxony) was a German economist, one of the founders of non-market economics, and the founder of journalism as an academic discipline.

Early life
Karl Bücher was born in Kirberg, a small village in Hesse, as the son of a small, not very successful brushmaker and farmer; his grandfather Philipp was a cabinet-maker. Karl's mother, Christiane née Dorn, was the daughter of a baker. Bücher attended a private preparatory school with a Pastor in nearby Dauborn and 1863–1866 the Catholic Gymnasium in Hadamar, where he was primus omnium. A former teacher of Bücher's recommended he attend university and, after much discussion, Bücher's parents finally consented.

Later years
Bücher studied at the University of Bonn (also part of Prussia), concentrating on History and Classics, with the aim to become a Gymnasium teacher. Bücher's most important professor was the Ancient Historian Arnold Schäfer. For a while, he was a private tutor in Heppenheim to finance his studies, and then continued in Göttingen and Bonn, culminating in 1870 in a Dr.phil. (Ph.D.) in History and Epigraphy with a (published) dissertation entitled De gente Aetolica amphictyoniae participe. After spending some time as a gymnasium teacher and journalist, especially in Frankfurt where he was famous for his liberal, anti-Bismarck views, Bücher decided to opt for academe and took his Habilitation at the University of Munich.

In 1882 Bücher was elected by the faculty to an extraordinary professorship at the University of Erlangen, Bücher failed to receive Ministerial approval. However, he also received and accepted a call to a Chair at the University of Tartu (then Dorpat), the German-language university in the then Russian province of Livonia. The call enabled him to marry his fiancée at the time Emilie Mittermaier.

At Dorpat, Bücher held the Chair of Ethnography, Geography, and Statistics as successor of Wilhelm Stieda, concentrating almost exclusively on statistics. Here, he conceived "newspaper science" (Zeitungswissenschaften) as a new field of scholarship. On 17 August (29 August new-style) 1883, Bücher's only son and child Friedrich, later a judge in Leipzig, was born. In the same year, Bücher received, and accepted out of family considerations, a call to the Chair of Economics and Statistics at the University of Basel as successor of Alphons Thun. He stayed there until 1890, during which time he developed a friendship with the historian and cultural philosopher Jakob Burckhardt. Bücher was elected President of the Statistical-Economical Association; his work was mainly Basel-focused and statistical. In Basel, he delivered the first lectures, also the first lectures in Europe at all, on "newspaper science".

In 1889/90, Bücher accepts a call to the economics chair at the Technical Superior School in Karlsruhe, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, previously held by Eberhard Gothein.

The plan to call Bücher to the Chair of Economics at the University of Leipzig in the Kingdom of Saxony as successor of Lujo Brentano failed for political reasons; Bücher was still judged as too liberal. However, the University of Leipzig created a second chair in economics, with the addition of statistics. Bücher was suggested unanimously and without competition, and at the time received official approval.

His Leipzig tenure (1892–1916) was Bücher's most fruitful time. In 1893, he published Die Entstehung der Volkswirtschaft (The Rise of the National Economy), his most important book, and the foundational study of non-market (exchange and gift) economics. The 17th and last edition of the original run appeared in 1926–1930; it was translated into French and English and went through six editions in America. In 1895, Bücher was elected corresponding member of the Bavarian Academy of Science, Historical Class. In 1896, Arbeit und Rhythmus (Labor and Rhythm) appeared; there are six editions until 1924. It was translated into Russian in 1899 and reprinted in 1923.

In 1901, Bücher became co-editor, with Albert Schäffle, then sole editor after 1904, of the eminent Zeitschrift für die gesamte Staatswissenschaft (Magazine for All Political Sciences) established in 1844 as the first German economic journal of an academic standard and is still published today as "The Journal of Institutional Economics" (JOIE). He edited this key journal of German economics and administration until 1924. In 1901/1902 he served as Vice Chancellor of the Faculty of Philosophy, in 1902/1903 as Dean of the Faculty of Philosophy, and in 1903/04 as Rector of the University of Leipzig.

In 1916, based on his bad experience with press and propaganda during World War I, Bücher founded the Institut für Zeitungswissenschaften (Institute for Newspaper Science) at the University of Leipzig (after having established a departmental division already in 1915). It was the first institute of its type in Europe, and its founding marks the beginning of the academic study of media communication in Germany. Until 1926, Bücher headed the Institute and promoted the field, establishing it as a scholarly discipline in Germany with lasting results. In 1919, during the abortive German revolution, Bücher published a booklet about the socialization of factories as well as his highly successful autobiography, Lebenserinnerungen (Life Memories).

Bücher was, for some time a member of the Leipzig City Council. Next to his earned doctorate, he received honorary ones of Law (Dr.jur.h.c.) from Gießen and of economics (Dr.rer.pol.) from Bonn. He was part of the Royal Saxon Geheimer Hofrat and a member of the Royal Saxon Academy.

title: Karl Bücher


text:
User talk:Sam Spade/ - archive March 2004

Request.
Dear Sam Spade,

There is a bit of a dispute at the Menachem Mendel Schneerson page. I am new at Wikipedia and not up to speed on the process for resolving such a dispute. If you could look into it and give me some advice it would be much appreciated.

Regards, Fire Star 17:22, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Greetings Sam Spade,

Thanks for your prompt reply. I have now had some limited discussion with the user whom I asked you about - Chabad, even an email from Chabad to my home computer, and I feel (based on writing style, nothing more) that he or she is probably a young kid. I have tried to be kind and reasonable, and he or she has in their turn tried to explain themselves to me, somewhat. I don't think that the user in question really understands the NPOV requirement (although it has been explained). Other people are now reverting the edits Chabad is making. I guess my quandary is; I don't think what is happening is malicious, Chabad seems to sincerely believe what he or she is doing is accurate and factual, yet it is disrupting the exposition on what could be an interesting page. Would that conceivably fit the definition of vandalism (or perhaps artefact)?

Thanks again, Fire Star 01:39, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Strange anonymous note
Greetings. I just noticed that you were asking on talk about how to get other WP'ans to use your new name and not your old one; I don't think WP has any way of controlling the writing of all WPans, even if there were such a policy. But if you stay out of any conflicts for a while, and are specially nice to the most active people around here, and help them understand that you don't want your surname used in connexn with you without badgering them... then there will be enough people supporting your position to keep the peace. (btw -- why do you keep your old username's talk-pages around? is it just temporary?) 24.128.27.113 04:54, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Zubrovka
Instead of Tequila how 'bout a fifth of Zubrovka? That's more my style. BTW you probably didn't notice that I have been editing the Guide to Advocacy. As I told His Lordship I will participate, but I hate these organizational things; it will have to be something that I eventually add to my professional resumé. I am glad to help out, do you really think that AMA needs coordination? [[User:Alex756|— Alex756 talk] 05:44, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Asymmetric warfare
Thanks for the compliment on my editing! :) This article is a toughy--I'm trying to iron into some semblance of accuracy and NPOV without starting an edit war. Wish me luck! Cecropia 09:28, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

raul
Sam, I wish you'd calm down a bit at Raul. I understand it's frustrating, but from his perspective, it looks like you're hiding something by pulling your comments off of pages. Give him time to figure out what's going on, and try to explain it to him, rather than yelling at him. To answer your question, of course you _can_ take messages off of talk pages, but usually it does get reverted if it appears that you are trying to hide something (in other words, if you post something to the wrong page and pull it a minute or two later, with the summary "oops, wrong page", no one will revert, but if it looks as though you're trying to go back and act as though you never made a particular comment, many editors find that un-Wiki-like in spirit. I personally strikethrough comments 99% of the time because it's easier that way -- it shows I made a comment, and realized later I shouldn't have. Just a suggestion, Jwrosenzweig 19:53, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Sam, I think we agreed once. Can't remember. ;-) I understand the issue. I do think there is confusion, partly because many of us believed that JL was your real name and that IS was a pseudonym (I had thought that for weeks, in fact). Or do I have it backwards now? And part of the confusion is that both of those names appear on a subpage of your user page, so someone wanting to track you down easily can. I don't think people should be rude about it, though, and I'll try to talk to them if you tell me who they are. I'm almost never on IRC, and I have to admit that all I can recall seeing about this in the last 2-3 weeks was your note to Jimbo and Martin's exchange with you (when I see Jimbo's talk page in use, I like to look at what's going on...hence I saw the issue). I do my best to be polite because I think you are usually polite to others and deserve the courtesy. Glad you noticed and appreciate it. Hope I continue to meet with your approval in future. :-) Jwrosenzweig 22:50, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I just want to make sure you catch Raul's apology to you on his talk page. He did misunderstand, as I'd suspected. Happy editing, Jwrosenzweig 23:17, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Re: Requests for Assistance
Sorry if my revision was hasty. I figured that the information was largely duplicated by your post on the main AMA page and the fact that you're maintaining a separate client list on your user page. That's why I didn't think that much discussion was necessary. Also, as Angela pointed out, I'm not sure whether it would always be good, given the potential privacy and confidentiality desires of clients, to post such information along with requests for assistance. I would imagine that as when the page gets used, each request would get deleted as soon as we found an advocate to take the case. --Michael Snow 03:06, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Does the AMA need a Chairman?
I decided to call the position "interim coordinator" because as a democratic association I thought it would be better that there was no connotation that someone was "in charge", i.e. that there was no position of authority because the association is not any kind of "official organ" of Wikipedia, just a group that wants to help other Wikipedians in a simple genuine way (as Angela was suggesting). I think calling any such post a Chairman's position is a mistake. There are already enough posts on Wikipedia, soon there will be an election for members representatives, this place is becoming more bureaucratic by the day (sometimes because that is part of the development of an organization) but we are just people (hopefully no bots will try and become advocates) trying to help other people, not create more structure. I really think the AMA should be as informal as possible at least for now until advocacy has developed further working with the arbitration and mediation committees. [[User:Alex756|— Alex756 talk] 05:38, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Kind of like Alex, I think coordinator sounds less officious than chairman, and it's the term we've used primarily on the talk page so far. Let's ask there if anybody's interested in the job. --Michael Snow 06:06, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

anarchism
Dear Sam, the current state of anarchy is that it is decending rapidly into chaos. Not only are those with ideology producing hack-jobs and cut-offs, but those whose primary interest is the article itself are beginning to feed the troll. Now appears to be the best time to warn people before a page protection would be required. yours for a complete and accurate anarchy Fifelfoo 03:41, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Dear Sam, my suspicion is that we all are currently the troll. One solution would be to freeze anarchism, libertarian socialism and anarcho-capitalism (and anything else drawn into the trolling) for half a week or so. Time and repose is the best way to cure troll wars. Fifelfoo 03:47, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I replied to your comment on my talk page. I will not reply to anything else you have to say, nor will I edit any of the Anarchism articles again. It seems that the only way I can avoid getting in this kind of conflict is to edit math articles, where ignorant people just ask for clarification of obscure passages on talk pages instead of accusing knowledgeable people of misrepresentation. Sadly, even in Science topics (in modern physics and biology especially) this kind of thing happens, too. — Miguel 17:09, 2004 Mar 5 (UTC)

Sixto Nolasco
Dear Sam: Hi! Thanks for reading the article that I originated about Sixto Nolasco. I agree with you one hundred percent, I love photos on articles. So far I was granted permission for the photos on Prinair and Wilfred Benitez, I am in the process of asking for permission for photos for Delta Air Lines, Mexicana de Aviacion and Wilfredo Gomez and I was denied permission to use a photo of Menudo.

I emailed Mr. Nolasco through his website to see if we could use some photos either of him or of some of his models but unfortunately, this is still in the process aka: he hasnt answered yet.

Thanks for your comment and God bless you! I hope we can build a constructive wikipedian relationship!

Sincerely yours, Antonio XXXcetera Martin

Miguel
I replied to you on my page against my better judgement. — Miguel 01:44, 2004 Mar 6 (UTC)

You are welcome on User talk:Miguel/Sam Spade. — Miguel 16:37, 2004 Mar 6 (UTC)

RFA
I added you to Requests for adminship. Perl 02:31, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I removed you for the reasons you pointed out on User talk:Perl. I would have supported you, so I hope you don't mind.—Eloquence 09:59, Mar 8, 2004 (UTC)

Politically correct
Thanks for your frankness over there. :) I used to be anti-PC as well; I think I now understand the purpose of it, although I agree it's often taken to extremes. That purpose being to prevent the exclusion of people from society based on meaningless distinctions, or handicaps they can overcome. --zandperl 14:17, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Meet up
Dang that sounds cool, and even pretty close to me (same state). Maybe sometime in Columbus would be better (Dayton is maybe 5 hours away from me as I live a bit east of Cleveland). --Karl Wick

Wikipedia vigilantes
Jack, I notices your lynching party over on the requests for deadminship page and thought it appropriate to nod your way in support. It's not that I want allies on the battle field - I am not even my own ally. But it is interesting to see the same adolescent pattern employed against other editors.

It appears the trend here is for people to join the site, write a few articles, mob up with a few allies and gain admin status. The admins that rush in when they smell conflict unversally take a side and begin slandering the other party in the conflict with insults like "vandal" and on-line versions of the "n" word. (it starts with "t").

Essentially, these are probably people whose parents suppressed their expression as children and now these people need an opportunity to suppress and dominate someone else. An on-line environment provides an excellant oppurtunity for some people to recapitulate childhood conflict, and we see probably three dozen or so administrators here actively spending their days behaving in ways any reasonable pschoanalyst can recognize as neurotic or representative of a personality disorder, usually relating to social interaction. Of course the most common form of communication from these vigilantees is demands phrased to sound parental. Usually they speak in orders such as to "comply with my demands, please or I will force you to join our concensus."

A few research assistants here at the department are gathering some data to scope out a possible study of the phenomenon. There is an abundance of literature available describing these behaviors in on-line environments, but we have never before had an opportunity to study them is a group, except for the research that has been gleaned from studies of USENET. In this case, the authoritarian component is unique, and it is uniquely attached to a sense of intellectual credibility becuase of the ostensibly educational nature of the project.

The lynching of bird is classic. User:bird is a surly editor who has little patience for innaccuracy, in bird's own writing or in the work of others. Bird is likely to return to articles bylines Bird and remove Birds own statements that appear to be generalities rather than specifics. When bird began exposing the innaccuracy of several articles, somebody went for a rope and the lyching was on. Apparently, the lynch mob so likes birds self critique, they want to ban the user name so the technique will reappear under several other names before they eventually begin to recognize the humanity of editors such as bird who contributed for several weeks without interfering with any other editors.

One editor, however, Washington irving had the gaul to claim he had textbooks on his shelf to tell him the cerebellum is not part of the archipallium, but he failed to correct the error for several weeks because he knew bird to be insane. now there is some freindly collaboration. Irving had little to contribute and is the major instigator of the Kill Bird Campaign. OF the others who jumped into the fray, none had any interest in the articles in question before they joined Irvings posse, and none has communicated with Bird in an honest effort to understand bird's concerns (which are easy enough to understand from the statements bird made when starting to review earlier contributions for accuracy).

My personal opinion is that this site represents a microcosm of the imperialist attitudes of Americans and Brits. It might be a good thing that editors expose their behavioral styles here, because so exposed, intelligence agencies from nations threatened by these empires can better study the sociopathic psyche of the Western Capitalist mind.

anthere
Sam.

I recognise your work in starting the request for mediation page. It is entirely true that you started the page. But be careful with words. There is a clear difference of meaning between create a page, start a page, edit a page, participate to a page, wrote a page.

Wrote a page means you are his main participant. However, most of your initial (welcome) participation to that page is gone. So, you may write certainly that you started or created the page, you might even say you participated to it (which is also true, but I think created or started implies that you were very willing to implicate yourself, so it is nicer to you than just participated).

However, most of the content of that page was written per others. Plus, and be aware this is important, this page is not entirely a "community" page, because it reflects the discussions and the decisions and the organisation of a group you are not part of, a group which is a subset of the larger group of wikipedians.

As such, this page is before all, the vision of a little group of people, and it is best that this page is edited primarily by those part of this group, since it is their pledge to the community, and the way they decided to work.

If such a page is said "written" by an external member of this sub group, it looks very strange. I hope you understand that.

FirmLittleFluffyThing 05:59, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I agree with you about Fifelfoo
Matt Stan 15:33, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Vandalism
I take what you did here as an act of co-ordinated vandalism. I have now removed all personal comment, which I assume is to your liking. I will no longer take credit for anything in the wikipedia name space, and I have removed all mention of the wikipedia name space pages I have created from my user page. Your offensive act of personal aggression will be remembered. I highly recommend that in the future you discuss such actions before making such an overtly hostile decision. Sam Spade 20:27, 10 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I understand your insular nature, and misunderstanding of my intent both in writing the original page, and in taking credit for it. Had you been polite enough to have discussed this with me before reverting my personal statements on a page where I am a member, we would be in a much more amicable position. Unfortunately you are one of the oligarchs, and I the brash reformer, and the bitter wounds from your reversion still pain me. I have gone the extra mile, to comfort you in your avarice, and I have made changes. Please give me the small comfort of informing the next person you feel has become too proud, before you cut his legs from under him. Sam Spade 06:10, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Shall I submit a Request for mediation for us? That would seem to make this circle neat. Sam Spade 06:40, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I hope not. I would like to again apologise, and, perhaps for the first time, sincerely. I think a bit of background might be useful here. I've had a rather bad impression of you since we met, when you suggested both that I might be "testing" the wiki somehow, and hinted that I might not be myself (perhaps you thought me a sockpuppet?). That, along with our less than friendly contact on the mailing list ...

Thu Jan 22 21:19:06 PST 2004 I'm not sure if I understand you correctly, but it seems you may have a misperception of my intent. Unless we difine the word "test" differently, I do not mean to "test" anybody here, but rather be part of making things better. Also, as far "Do not test the mailing list administration" I must insist I'm not aware of what is ment by that, but I would really appreciate a tutorial on how to use the mailing list, and rules and regulations regarding it. I've been having problems recieving mail, I have thus far been reading mail thru the archive, accessed by the "Welcome to the "WikiEN-l" mailing list" letter I recieved. When I asked for help on IRC, they described recieving a great deal of mail (perhaps one letter for every post? I have selected NOT to recieve mail in "digest mode" which some felt to be my problem (doesn't seem to have made any difference). Thanks so much for any help, Jack(word removed re trolling below)

>Jack

>When you registered to the mailing list yesterday or two days ago, you >indicated "Jack" as a name reference.

>Jack, I know you are testing us in turns, to check our processes and make >things move on. It is good, and nice of you to feel so much interested in >participating to the process, but do remember to let us time to build >things as well.

>Do not test the mailing list administration please.

 * The lack of contact or assistance afterwards created within me an antagonistic view of yourself. I felt that you assumed bad faith (or worse) on my part, and had additionally refused me assistance. Finially, the particulars of you reverting my "members statement" just after Bcorr was especially upsetting, due to incidents like this which have made me quite resentful of what I feel to be Bcorr's intentional harassment of myself. When you reverted my revert of him, I took that badly. Anyhow, I again apologise, and hope you understand the situation a bit bit better given the specifics. Sam Spade 14:44, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Now I am very confused. The "personal endangerment" by me that you talked about on Jimbo's talk page less than two weeks ago -- and that link to in the above paragraph -- was that I had used your surname on a talk page (Talk:Pantheism) -- the very surname that you included in your post above. So, am I to understand that the harassment that you suffered at my hands consisted of something that you now are doing yourself? Thanks, BCorr ¤ Брайен 14:58, Mar 11, 2004 (UTC)

 * Hi Sam. I see you've removed the surname from the text above that I referred to. I'm glad I was able to help by noticing that for you. Now that we seem to have reestablished a working relationship and a somewhat more cordial dialogue, in the spirit of cooperation I want to point out to you have had it listed for almost a month at Wikipedia_talk:Association_of_Members -- which is of course the page that led to this whole problem between us in the first place. And I will assume that your comment calling me a troll is simply another of your humorous comments to try to reduce the tension between us. Thanks, BCorr ¤ Брайен  15:37, Mar 11, 2004 (UTC)

---

 * It is ok to let personal statement, but perhaps in a side page. If we let statements made by people as is, I request that we add below when it is incorrect. It goes further than just the authorship point. The mediation pages have been written by members of the mediation committee, because they are what the committee pledge to the community. Sam is not a member of the committee. In letting such a comment, we somehow begin to agree he is a little bit part of it. Would anyone think of claiming he made the rules of the arbitration committee ? I doubt it. On top of it, this is not something I think Sam should write :-) FirmLittleFluffyThing

 * If you don't like what I write, talk to me about it, as mr. snow reccomends. Otherwise, its just gossip. Sam Spade 05:58, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * please consider what I was writing on your page just while you were writing that. I would appreciate that you cool down, and avoid both accusation of gossip and vandalism. Thanks FirmLittleFluffyThing

 * I will be more convinced by your desire for contentment on the parts of your "inferiors" when you choose to offer them cake ;) Sam Spade 06:20, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * You have insulted me three time in less than 24 hours. The next time, I ban you :-)

I don't consider you a troll at all. I have seen instances where sysops have purposely tried to make you react in a troll like way, but from what i've seen, your responses have been professional and calm headed. I thought that you would have made a great sysop, because of this quality you have, but people hold grudges. Perl 21:26, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I respectfully disagree, Sam. I don't think strong language is ever professional -- sometimes called for, perhaps, but it always feels like a breakdown of social order to me. That's not to say I haven't been sorely tempted to swear at a couple of users here (never you, don't worry), but I've always avoided it, and I'm pleased that I have. You're right that there are issues to be solved here....a lot of them don't seem to stem from people swearing at each other, but at a general sense that there is no accountability for actions. I don't know what to do about that, other than be the best editor and admin I can be and try to make people feel at least respected by me, if not encouraged. I hope I've succeeded. I'll admit, you're the toughest editor for me to figure out: I don't believe you're here to make trouble (a la Plautus, Khranus, and a number of others have been), but you seem to end up in the middle of a lot of trouble, and on several occasions I've found you very unyielding and closed-minded (though I admit, you've always been remarkably positive and responsive to me, which I appreciate very much, if I've never said it before). Ultimately I can't say that I trust your judgment implicitly, but I do trust that you have good intentions here, which is more than I can say for quite a few folks who wander through, and I always know that, when I disagree with you, you're willing to talk about it. And that's a pretty ringing endorsement in my book, though I worry it will seem like a backhanded compliment. I hope you don't think I was bashing you in my comments today--I try very hard to be fair to everyone, especially to you, as I think there have been instances where you've been dealt with unfairly. I hope, though, that you are making every effort to be fair to others yourself, and I've seen real evidence of that lately. Keep it up, my friend (if it isn't presumptuous to regard you as something more than an acquaintance here). :-) Jwrosenzweig 21:40, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I have never seen an instance where Sam uses strong language. I might be wrong about Sam behaving professionaly, because I have only seen his responses to me and other users on the advocate page. Mabye there is some long and messy history between sam and the other users, but I have only seen his recent behavior on the Advocate page, and it seems that he was being picked on. (possibly because he behaved poorly in the past, I dont know). Also, please don't give me examples of his poor behavior, because I really don't care what he has done in the past to other people. I just focus on the present, and he seems to be behaving responsibly when he interacts with me. Thanks, Perl 21:54, 12 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Wikipedia talk:Bans and blocks
What are the rules for when an admin (or other higher up) feels they have been "insulted"? Might they ban on short notice, or what? What are the specific guidelines (I assume there are none?)? Sam Spade 07:09, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * As a reminder, you accused me of vandalism, gossip, you said I was an oligarch, impolite, avaricious, hinted that I saw you as an "inferior", and added to this to, on top of it, make fun of my english abilities possibly.
 * The guidelines or the rules, with regards to accusations and insults, are the same for everyone. Some guidelines often suggested and which I will follow in your case are "remove all personal attacks". I will do this later in the day, to let time for a couple of people to appreciate.
 * The recommandations for the one who insulted another are usually "apology".
 * I think the idea of short banning for more than 3 insults is an interesting one to explore ;-) But of course, that would require a vote of agreement off all participants before doing so. FirmLittleFluffyThing 07:38, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Does this mean your not going to ban me? And how did you decide the above to be insulting? Is the truth insulting? If so, are we not in the wrong place (encyclopedias are a bastion of truth, theoretically) when we complain of the above sorts of "insults"? I stand by my words, and my emotions. I did not insinuate anything I did not think was true, and I never at anytime intended less than polite discourse with you. Perhaps I exaggerated, and yes, I did introduce some sly humor into the conversation, but not for sake of insult, but rather with intent for you to realize I was capable of thought, and perhaps occasionally, wit. I do apologize for any perceived insult, but I hope you have learned from this not to go about reverting without thought to those involved. Sam Spade 08:04, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Sam, I don't feel that Wikipedia talk:Bans and blocks is the appropriate venue to raise issues you have with Anthere and the reverts she made, so I have moved it here and left a refactored version in its place which deals with the actual issue of bans for personal attacks rather than whatever problems you are having with Anthere. If you want to discuss this with Anthere, please use her talk page as it does not seem to be relevant to the banning policy. Thank you. Angela . 01:47, Mar 13, 2004 (UTC)

wiki-squablings?
Thank you for looking out for my best interests. If you ever need a member advocate, I'd be happy to act as yours. By the way, I don't know why there is so much "internal squabbling" between wikipedians. Mabye it is human nature to enjoy fighting. (the reason things such as World Wrestling Federation are so popular) (I am a pacifist) Anyway, best wishes, Perl 02:02, 13 Mar 2004 (UTC)


text:
Étienne Laspeyres

Ernst Louis Étienne Laspeyres (28 November 1834 – 4 August 1913) was a German economist. He was Professor ordinarius of economics and statistics or State Sciences and cameralistics (public finance and administration) in Basel, Riga, Dorpat (now Tartu), Karlsruhe, and finally for 26 years in Gießen. Laspeyres was the scion of a Huguenot family of originally Gascon descent which had settled in Berlin in the 17th century, and he emphasised the Occitan pronunciation of his name as a link to his Gascon origins.

Work
Laspeyres is mainly known today for his 1871 development of the index number formula method for determining price increases, used for calculating the rate of inflation. A type of this calculation is known today as the Laspeyres Index. In addition to his accomplishments in price indices, Laspeyres may be counted as one of the fathers of business administration as an academic-professional discipline in Germany, and as one of the main unifiers of economics and statistics by “developing ideas which are today by and large nationally and internationally reality: quantification and operationalization of economics; expansion of official statistics; cooperation of official statistics and economic research; and integration of the economist and the statistician in one person.” (Rinne 1983) In economics, Laspeyres was to some extent a representative of the Historical School and certainly of Kathedersozialismus.

The surname Laspeyres is of Gascon origin; his ancestors were Huguenots who settled in Berlin in the 17th century. How he pronounced his surname is uncertain, but likely as "Las-pay-ress".

title: Étienne Laspeyres


text:
John Cochrane (chess player)

John Cochrane (4 February 1798 – 2 March 1878) was a Scottish chess master and lawyer. After serving in the Royal Navy Cochrane chose to become a barrister. While studying law, he became a very strong chess player and published a book on the game, which included the Cochrane variation of the Salvio Gambit, a main line of the King's Gambit. Around this time he played against the Frenchmen Deschapelles and Labourdonnais, who were acknowledged to be Europe's strongest players at the time.

After a long tour of duty in India, he returned to the UK and beat everyone except Howard Staunton, whom he then helped to prepare for his victorious match against the Frenchman Saint-Amant, which established Staunton as the world's leading player. Cochrane returned to India, where he became known as the "Father of the Calcutta Bar" (association of barristers) and a leading member of the Calcutta Chess Club; the Club and Cochrane personally both made significant financial contributions to the first international chess tournament, which Staunton organised. Cochrane continued to play chess and to send games to the UK for publication, mostly in Staunton's columns. His two main opponents were Indians, and against one of them he made the first recorded use of the Cochrane Gambit against Petrov's Defence. When he returned to the UK for good, Cochrane continued to practise law part-time, mainly in important cases that arose in India, and wrote articles and books about the law. By this time he was too old for serious chess competition but played many casual games with strong players.

Cochrane is credited with discovering the Cochrane Defense, a technique to draw the difficult endgame defence of a rook against a rook and bishop. Cochrane is known for his dashing playing style – liberally sacrificing pieces and always attacking. His best-known opening innovations are generally regarded as dubious, although the Cochrane Gambit is still occasionally used as a surprise weapon in master chess. Commentators during his life and after his death expressed strong affection for him.

Biography
Cochrane was "a member of a distinguished Scottish family of which the Earl of Dundonald was the head". He was probably the son of John Cochrane, an army paymaster and merchant and the son of Thomas Cochrane, 8th Earl of Dundonald. As a youth Cochrane was a midshipman in the Royal Navy, and is said to have served aboard HMS Bellerophon when the ship transported Napoleon Bonaparte to Britain in 1815. The downsizing of the Navy after the end of the Napoleonic Wars made promotion prospects poor, and Cochrane switched to a career as a barrister, apparently joining the Middle Temple without first attending a university.

While he was a student he first came to notice as a chess player. The first records of John Cochrane as a chess-player are five games (−3 =1 +1) played receiving the pawn and move from The Turk (operated, at the time, by Mouret) in 1819. In 1822 published A Treatise on the Game of Chess, of which the section on odds was based on the Traité des Amateurs, written by Verdoni, Bernard, Carlier and Leger. However Cochrane's book contained significant amounts of his own analysis, including the Cochrane variation of the Salvio Gambit, a line in the King's Gambit. It is known that Cochrane played against Deschapelles and Labourdonnais, who were acknowledged to be Europe's strongest players from 1800 to 1820 and from 1820 to 1840 respectively; his games against them may have been played between 1822 and 1824, but by the time of Cochrane's death commentators were unsure of the dates.

Soon after qualifying as a barrister, Cochrane decided to make his career in India. Before he left, however, he took a leading part for the London team in the early stages of a correspondence match against an Edinburgh team, which lasted from 1824 to 1828, and which the Edinburgh team won. The best-known game of this match was the second, in which, according to Howard Staunton, the London team obtained a winning position by following Cochrane's plan, but blundered after his departure. In India Cochrane became a successful and respected barrister, and also lost no opportunity to play chess with other expatriates and with Indians.

By the early 1840s Cochrane had accumulated a lot of leave, and he spent 1841 to 1843 in the UK. Naturally he spent a lot of time at the top London chess clubs, where he beat almost everyone – including Pierre de Saint-Amant, who was France's strongest player. However the rising star of British chess was Howard Staunton, who had been a schoolboy when Cochrane published his book. Staunton and Cochrane played at least 120 games on level terms, of which Staunton won about twice as many as Cochrane. Just before Cochrane's return to India, Staunton began to give him the odds of Pawn and move, and in these games their scores were equal. Although Cochrane was annoyed with Staunton for under-representing Cochrane's wins in his chess articles, he helped Staunton to prepare for his second match against Saint-Amant, which Staunton won and therefore was for several years regarded as the world's strongest player.

Even after Cochrane returned to India, later in 1843, Staunton's articles and books continued to publish Cochrane's games, and contain most of the games by Cochrane that are still known about, whether played in England or India. It was Staunton who made British chess aware of how strong Cochrane was at his peak, and described him as "Father of the English Chess School". During the second part of Cochrane's career in India his main opponents were the Indian players Moheschunder Bannerjee and Saumchurn Guttack also known as Somacarana or Shyamacharan Ghatak. Cochrane's first recorded use of the Cochrane Gambit against Petrov's Defence was in a game against Bannerjee in 1848. Bannerjee's fondness for fianchettoed openings, as reported by Cochrane, eventually led to the Indian defence class of openings. Another game, published in William Norwood Potter's City of London Chess Magazine shows Bannerjee playing with the black pieces and beating Cochrane in a game that opened with the King's Indian Four Pawns Attack. When Staunton organised the world's first international chess tournament, the Calcutta Chess Club as a group made one of the largest donations to the tournament's funds, and in addition its principal officers Cochrane and T.C. Morton made two of the largest personal contributions. During his second period in India Cochrane became known as the Father of the Calcutta Bar (local association of barristers). Staunton also published an incident in which Cochrane gave the whole of his fee for a case to a group of famine-stricken Indians

When Cochrane returned to the UK for good, he continued to work part-time as a barrister, arguing several Indian appeals before the UK's Privy Council and writing legal treatises. His most important law book, the "Defence of the Daya Bhaga" (1872), was written in support of the native law of inheritance in Bengal. At the time of his death he was working on another law book. His enthusiasm for chess remained equally strong, although he restricted himself to casual games that typically lasted about 15 minutes – many of them with the veteran master Johann Löwenthal (1810–1876). He was a keen spectator at more serious contests and, as he was going deaf by this time, his comments on the play were often loud enough to be heard by players and amuse bystanders. He became known for his entertaining but always amiable conversation, and for the encouragement he gave to young players.

Cochrane was one of the earliest notable British chess masters, his playing career beginning during those of Jacob Henry Sarratt (1772–1819) and William Lewis (1787–1870). He played against Labourdonnais before anyone had heard of the Frenchman's great opponent Alexander McDonnell, and was a successful writer about the game in 1822, when Howard Staunton was a schoolboy. In 1844 George Walker described Cochrane's approach to the game:"Mr. Cochrane is the most brilliant player I have ever had the honour to look over or confront; not even excepting De la Bourdonnais; and pity it is that his very brilliancy so often mars success." Cochrane was also a well-known chess theoretician, although his innovations in the openings were generally unsound, and only he could get away with playing them. However the Cochrane Gambit still appears occasionally as a surprise weapon in serious competition, for example Veselin Topalov drew with it against Vladimir Kramnik at Linares in 1999. The Cochrane Defense is the method most often chosen by top-class players to draw in the endgame with a rook versus a rook and bishop.

title: John Cochrane (chess player)


text:
Talk:Kui

Move
I'm splitting and moving this "Kui" to "Kui (disambiguation)" and "Kui (Māori mythology)". Keahapana (talk) 02:33, 23 October 2008 (UTC)

The original discussion can now be found on Talk:Kui_(Māori_mythology). Keahapana (talk) 00:16, 28 October 2008 (UTC)

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== oıuo ==

title: Talk:Kui


text:
Benzalkonium chloride

Benzalkonium chloride (BZK, BKC, BAK, BAC), also known as alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride (ADBAC) and by the trade name Zephiran, is a type of cationic surfactant. It is an organic salt classified as a quaternary ammonium compound. ADBACs have three main categories of use: as a biocide, a cationic surfactant, and a phase transfer agent. ADBACs are a mixture of alkylbenzyldimethylammonium chlorides, in which the alkyl group has various even-numbered alkyl chain lengths.

Solubility and physical properties
Depending on purity, benzalkonium chloride ranges from colourless to a pale yellow (impure). Benzalkonium chloride is readily soluble in ethanol and acetone. Dissolution in water is ready, upon agitation. Aqueous solutions should be neutral to slightly alkaline. Solutions foam when shaken. Concentrated solutions have a bitter taste and a faint almond-like odour.

Standard concentrates are manufactured as 50% and 80% w/w solutions, and sold under trade names such as BC50, BC80, BAC50, BAC80, etc. The 50% solution is purely aqueous, while more concentrated solutions require incorporation of rheology modifiers (alcohols, polyethylene glycols, etc.) to prevent increases in viscosity or gel formation under low temperature conditions.

Cationic surfactant
Benzalkonium chloride possesses surfactant properties, dissolving the lipid phase of the tear film and increasing drug penetration, making it a useful excipient, but at the risk of causing damage to the surface of the eye.
 * Laundry detergents and treatments.
 * Softeners for textiles.

Phase transfer agent
Benzalkonium chloride is a mainstay of phase-transfer catalysis, an important technology in the synthesis of organic compounds, including drugs.

Bioactive agents
Especially for its antimicrobial activity, benzalkonium chloride is an active ingredient in many consumer products: Benzalkonium chloride is also used in many non-consumer processes and products, including as an active ingredient in surgical disinfection. A comprehensive list of uses includes industrial applications.
 * Pharmaceutical products such as eye, ear and nasal drops or sprays, as a preservative.
 * Personal care products such as hand sanitizers, wet wipes, shampoos, soaps, deodorants and cosmetics.
 * Skin antiseptics and wound wash sprays, such as Bactine.
 * Throat lozenges and mouthwashes, as a biocide
 * Spermicidal creams.
 * Cleaners for floor and hard surfaces as a disinfectant, such as Lysol and Dettol antibacterial spray and wipes.
 * Algaecides for clearing of algae, moss, lichens from paths, roof tiles, swimming pools, masonry, etc.

During the course of the COVID-19 pandemic, from time to time there have been shortages of hand cleaner containing ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients. The FDA has stated that benzalkonium chloride is eligible as an alternative for use in the formulation of healthcare personnel hand rubs. However, in reference to the FDA rule, the CDC states that it does not have a recommended alternative to ethanol or isopropanol as active ingredients, and adds that "available evidence indicates benzalkonium chloride has less reliable activity against certain bacteria and viruses than either of the alcohols." In November 2020 the Journal of Hospital Infection published a study on benzalkonium chloride formulations; it was found that laboratory and commercial disinfectants with as little as 0.13% benzalkonium chloride inactivated the SARS-CoV-2 virus within 15 seconds of contact, even in the presence of a soil or hard water. This resulted in a growing consensus that BZK sanitizers are just as effective as alcohol-based sanitizers despite the CDC guidelines. As a hand sanitizer, use of BZK may be advantageous over ethanol in some situations because it has significantly more residual antibacterial action on the skin after initial application. Benzalkonium chloride has demonstrated persistent antimicrobial activity for up to four hours after contact whereas ethanol-based sanitizer demonstrate skin protection for only 10 minutes post-application.

Medicine
Benzalkonium chloride is a frequently used preservative in eye drops; typical concentrations range from 0.004% to 0.01%. Stronger concentrations can be caustic and cause irreversible damage to the corneal endothelium.

Avoiding the use of benzalkonium chloride solutions while contact lenses are in place is discussed in the literature.

Due to its antimicrobial activity when applied to skin, some topical medications for acne vulgaris have benzalkonium chloride added to increase the products' efficiency or shelf-life.

Benzalkonium chloride has also been shown to be a spermicide. In Russia and China, benzalkonium chloride is used as a contraceptive. Tablets are inserted vaginally, or a gel is applied, resulting in local spermicidal contraception. It is not a wholly reliable method, and can cause irritation.

Beekeeping
This chemical is used in beekeeping for the treatment of rotten diseases of the brood.

Adverse effects
Although historically benzalkonium chloride has been ubiquitous as a preservative in ophthalmic preparations, its ocular toxicity and irritant properties, in conjunction with consumer demand, have led pharmaceutical companies to increase production of preservative-free preparations, or to replace benzalkonium chloride with preservatives which are less harmful.

Many mass-marketed inhaler and nasal spray formulations contain benzalkonium chloride as a preservative, despite substantial evidence that it can adversely affect ciliary motion, mucociliary clearance, nasal mucosal histology, human neutrophil function, and leukocyte response to local inflammation. Although some studies have found no correlation between use of benzalkonium chloride in concentrations at or below 0.1% in nasal sprays and drug-induced rhinitis, others have recommended that benzalkonium chloride in nasal sprays be avoided. In the United States, nasal steroid preparations that are free of benzalkonium chloride include budesonide, triamcinolone acetonide, dexamethasone, and Beconase and Vancenase aerosol inhalers.

Benzalkonium chloride is an irritant to middle ear tissues at typically used concentrations. Inner ear toxicity has been demonstrated.

Occupational exposure to benzalkonium chloride has been linked to the development of asthma. In 2011, a large clinical trial designed to evaluate the efficacy of hand sanitizers based on different active ingredients in preventing virus transmission amongst schoolchildren was re-designed to exclude sanitizers based on benzalkonium chloride due to safety concerns.

Benzalkonium chloride has been in common use as a pharmaceutical preservative and antimicrobial since the 1940s. While early studies confirmed the corrosive and irritant properties of benzalkonium chloride, investigations into the adverse effects of, and disease states linked to, benzalkonium chloride have only surfaced during the past 30 years.

Toxicology
RTECS lists the following acute toxicity data:

Benzalkonium chloride is a human skin and severe eye irritant. It is a respiratory toxicant, immunotoxicant, gastrointestinal toxicant, and neurotoxicant.

Benzalkonium chloride formulations for consumer use are dilute solutions. Concentrated solutions are toxic to humans, causing corrosion/irritation to the skin and mucosa, and death if taken internally in sufficient volumes. 0.1% is the maximum concentration of benzalkonium chloride that does not produce primary irritation on intact skin or act as a sensitizer.

Poisoning by benzalkonium chloride is recognised in the literature. A 2014 case study detailing the fatal ingestion of up to 8.1 oz (240 ml) of 10% benzalkonium chloride in a 78-year-old male also includes a summary of the currently published case reports of benzalkonium chloride ingestion. While the majority of cases were caused by confusion about the contents of containers, one case cites incorrect pharmacy dilution of benzalkonium chloride as the cause of poisoning of two infants. In 2018 a Japanese nurse was arrested and admitted to having murdered approximately 20 patients at a hospital in Yokohama by injecting benzalkonium chloride into their intravenous drip bags.

Benzalkonium chloride poisoning of domestic pets has been recognised as a result of direct contact with surfaces cleaned with disinfectants using benzalkonium chloride as an active ingredient.

Biological activity
The antimicrobial activity is dependent on the chain length. For example, yeast and fungi are most affected by C12, gram positive by C14, and gram negative by C16.

The greatest biocidal activity is associated with the C12 dodecyl and C14 myristyl alkyl derivatives. The mechanism of bactericidal/microbicidal action is thought to be due to disruption of intermolecular interactions. This can cause dissociation of cellular membrane lipid bilayers, which compromises cellular permeability controls and induces leakage of cellular contents. Other biomolecular complexes within the bacterial cell can also undergo dissociation. Enzymes, which finely control a wide range of respiratory and metabolic cellular activities, are particularly susceptible to deactivation. Critical intermolecular interactions and tertiary structures in such highly specific biochemical systems can be readily disrupted by cationic surfactants.

Benzalkonium chloride solutions are fast-acting biocidal agents with a moderately long duration of action. They are active against bacteria and some viruses, fungi, and protozoa. Bacterial spores are considered to be resistant. Solutions are bacteriostatic or bactericidal according to their concentration. Gram-positive bacteria are generally more susceptible than gram-negative bacteria. Its activity depends on the surfactant concentration and also on the bacterial concentration (inoculum) at the moment of the treatment. Activity is not greatly affected by pH, but increases substantially at higher temperatures and prolonged exposure times.

In a 1998 study using the FDA protocol, a non-alcohol sanitizer with benzalkonium chloride as the active ingredient met the FDA performance standards, while Purell, a popular alcohol-based sanitizer, did not. The study, which was undertaken and reported by a leading US developer, manufacturer and marketer of topical antimicrobial pharmaceuticals based on quaternary ammonium compounds, found that their own benzalkonium chloride-based sanitizer performed better than alcohol-based hand sanitizer after repeated use.

Newer formulations using benzalkonium blended with various quaternary ammonium derivatives can be used to extend the biocidal spectrum and enhance the efficacy of benzalkonium based disinfection products. Formulation techniques have been used to great effect in enhancing the virucidal activity of quaternary ammonium-based disinfectants such as Virucide 100 to typical healthcare infection hazards such as hepatitis and HIV. The use of appropriate excipients can also greatly enhance the spectrum, performance and detergency, and prevent deactivation under use conditions. Formulation can also help minimise deactivation of benzalkonium solutions in the presence of organic and inorganic contamination.. However, recent studies have demonstrated the capacity of environmental microorganisms to develop reduced susceptibility to benzalkonium chloride by employing strategies such as modifying bacterial membranes: increasing pump activity, and reducing the expression of certain porins.

Degradation
Benzalkonium chloride degradation follows consecutive debenzylation, dealkylation, and demethylation steps producing benzyl chloride, an alkyl dimethyl amine, dimethylamine, a long chain alkane, and ammonia. The intermediates, major, and minor products can then be broken down into CO2, H2O, NH3, and Cl–. The first step to the biodegradation of BAC is the fission or splitting of the alkyl chain from the quaternary nitrogen as shown in the diagram. This is done by abstracting the hydrogen from the alkyl chain by using a hydroxyl radical leading to a carbon centered radical. This results in dimethylbenzylamine as the first intermediate and dodecanal as the major product.

From here, dimethylbenzylamine can be oxidized to benzoic acid using the Fenton process. The trimethyl amine group in dimethylbenzylamine can be cleaved to form a benzyl that can be further oxidized to benzoic acid. Benzoic acid uses hydroxylation (adding a hydroxyl group) to form p-hydroxybenzoic acid. Dimethylbenzylamine can then be converted into ammonia by performing demethylation twice, which removes both methyl groups, followed by debenzylation, removing the benzyl group using hydrogenation. The diagram represents suggested pathways of the biodegradation of BAC for both the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic regions of the surfactant. Since stearalkonium chloride is a type of BAC, the biodegradation process should happen in the same manner.

Regulation
Benzalkonium chloride is classed as a Category III antiseptic active ingredient by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Ingredients are categorized as Category III when "available data are insufficient to classify as safe and effective, and further testing is required”.

In September 2016, the FDA announced a ban on nineteen ingredients in consumer antibacterial soaps citing a lack of evidence for safety and effectiveness. A ban on three additional ingredients, including benzalkonium chloride, was deferred at that time to allow ongoing studies to be completed.

Benzalkonium chloride was deferred from further rulemaking in the 2019 FDA Final Rule on safety and effectiveness of consumer hand sanitizers, "to allow for the ongoing study and submission of additional safety and effectiveness data necessary to make a determination" on whether it met these criteria for use in OTC hand sanitizers, but the agency indicated it did not intend to take action to remove benzalkonium chloride-based hand sanitizers from the market. There is acknowledgement that more data are required on its safety, efficacy, and effectiveness, especially with relation to:
 * Human pharmacokinetic studies, including information on its metabolites
 * Studies on animal absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion
 * Data to help define the effect of formulation on dermal absorption
 * Carcinogenicity
 * Studies on developmental and reproductive toxicology
 * Potential hormonal effects
 * Assessment of the potential for development of bacterial resistance
 * Risks of using it as a contraceptive method.

However, recent studies have demonstrated the capacity of environmental microorganisms to develop reduced susceptibility to benzalkonium chloride by employing strategies such as modifying bacterial membranes: increasing pump activity, and reducing the expression of certain porins.

title: Benzalkonium chloride