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Parochial school

A parochial school is a private primary or secondary school affiliated with a religious organization, and whose curriculum includes general religious education in addition to secular subjects, such as science, mathematics and language arts. The word parochial comes from the same root as "parish", and parochial schools were originally the educational wing of the local parish church. Christian parochial schools are called "church schools" or "Christian schools."

In addition to schools run by Christian organizations, there are also religious schools affiliated with Jewish, Muslim, and other groups; however, these are not usually called "parochial" because of the term's historical association with Christian parishes.

United Kingdom
In British education, parish schools from the established church of the relevant constituent country formed the basis of the state-funded education system, and many schools retain a church connection while essentially providing secular education in accordance with standards set by the government of the country concerned. These are often primary schools, and may be designated as name C.E. School or name C.E. (Aided) School, depending on whether they are wholly or partly funded by the Church of England (the latter is more common).

In 2002, Frank Dobson proposed an amendment to the Education Bill (for England and Wales) which would limit the selection rights of faith schools by requiring them to offer at least a quarter of places to children of another or no religion, in order to increase inclusivity and lessening social division. The proposal was defeated in Parliament.

In 2005, David Bell, the head of the Office for Standards in Education said "Faith should not be blind. I worry that many young people are being educated in faith-based schools, with little appreciation of their wider responsibilities and obligations to British society. This growth in faith schools needs to be carefully but sensitively monitored by government to ensure that pupils receive an understanding of not only their own faith but of other faiths and the wider tenets of British society". He criticised Islamic schools in particular, calling them a "threat to national identity".

In October 2006, Bishop Kenneth Stevenson, speaking on behalf of the Church of England, said "I want to make a specific commitment that all new Church of England schools should have at least 25% of places available to children with no requirement that they be from practising Christian families." This commitment applies only to new schools, not existing ones.

In September 2007, attempts to create the first secular school in Britain were blocked. Paul Kelley, head of Monkseaton High School in Tyneside, proposed plans to eliminate the daily act of Christian worship, and "a fundamental change in the relationship with the school and the established religion of the country".

In November 2007, the Krishna-Avanti Hindu school in north-west London became the first school in the United Kingdom to make vegetarianism a condition of entry. Additionally, parents of pupils are expected to abstain from alcohol to prove they are followers of the faith.

In November 2007, the Jewish Free School in north London was found guilty of discrimination for giving preference to children who were born to Jewish mothers.

In January 2008 the House of Commons' Children, Schools and Families select committee raised concerns about the government's plans for expanding faith schooling. The general secretary of the Association of Teachers and Lecturers, Mary Bousted, said "Unless there are crucial changes in the way many faith schools run we fear divisions in society will be exacerbated. In our increasingly multi-faith and secular society it is hard to see why our taxes should be used to fund schools which discriminate against the majority of children and potential staff because they are not of the same faith".

England
English education includes many schools linked to the Church of England which sets the ethos of the school and can influence selection of pupils where there is competition for places. These form a large proportion of the 6,955 Christian faith schools in England. The Catholic Church also maintains schools. In addition, there are 36 Jewish, seven Muslim and two Sikh faith schools.

Faith schools follow the same national curriculum as state schools. Religious education in Church of England schools is monitored by the local diocese, but does not typically take up much more of the timetable than in secular schools. Although not state schools, there are around 700 unregulated madrassas in Britain, attended by approximately 100,000 Muslim children. Doctor Ghayasuddin Siddiqui, the leader of the Muslim Parliament of Great Britain, has called for them to be subject to government inspection following publication of a 2006 report which highlighted widespread physical and sexual abuse. Voluntary-aided schools, such as Church of England and Catholic schools, are permitted to discriminate against teachers on the grounds of their religious opinions, attendance at worship and willingness to provide religious education.

Scotland
Scotland has its own educational system, distinct from that of England and Wales, reflecting the history of education in Scotland. Although schools existed in Scotland prior to the Reformation, widespread public education was pioneered by the Church of Scotland developing its aim of universal parish schools from 1560 onwards, and given state support by the Education Act 1633. It handed over its parish schools to the state in 1872. Although these schools are now known as "non-denominational" schools, and are open to all, their traditional links with the Presbyterian and Episcopalian churches and clergy remain in most cases.

Charitably funded Roman Catholic schools were brought into the state system by the Education (Scotland) Act 1918. Whilst maintaining a strong Catholic ethos, Scottish Catholic schools have long welcomed pupils from other faith backgrounds, though they tend to give precedence to non-Catholics who come from families of faith. In Scottish Catholic schools employment of non-Catholics or lapsed Catholics can be restricted by the Church. In some dioceses, one of the requirements for applicants baptised as Catholic is to possess a certificate which has been signed by their parish priest. Each diocese varies on the method of approval and the rigour with which it is applied. Non-Catholic applicants are not required to provide any religious documentation. Certain positions, such as headteachers, religious education teachers and guidance teachers are invariably held by practising Roman Catholics.

United States
Historically, most American parochial schools have been Catholic schools (often elementary schools attached to a local parish), as well as schools run by Seventh-day Adventists, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Calvinists and Orthodox Jews. Since the 1960s thousands of Fundamentalist religious schools have been founded, especially in the South, though they are not usually called "parochial". In addition to this, Conservative Mennonites, Amish, and Old Order Mennonites operate their own schools (the Old Order referring to theirs as "parochial"). Many fundamentalist Christian schools use curriculum from Abeka Books and Bob Jones University Press.

Catholic private and college preparatory schools also exist and are not necessarily connected with a parish. Often these schools, such as those in the Philadelphia area, prefer to be referred to as "private Catholic schools," to distinguish themselves from the Archdiocesan parochial school system. In some Canadian provinces Catholic schools are publicly funded and in Ontario completely to the level of grade 12.

Generally within the Catholic parochial school system, parochial schools are open to all children in the parish. Thus parochial school systems function as quasi-public educational networks, in parallel to the state-school systems, the key difference being that parochial systems are largely supported by donations to the parish while state schools are funded by taxes. Often, the Catholic diocese or archdiocese, such as those in Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago will take a greater role in administration of the parochial schools within their jurisdiction. Out-of-pocket costs to the student attending a parochial school are usually greater than an equivalent public school. Although it costs parents more for their children to attend, teachers are generally paid less than those at an equivalent public school. For example, in 1998, they were paid about 45% less than public school teachers.

The Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod (WELS) operates an extensive parochial school system. The WELS school system is the fourth largest private school system in the United States.

History
The development of the American Catholic parochial school system can be divided into three phases. During the first (1750–1870), parochial schools appeared as ad hoc efforts by parishes, and most Catholic children attended public schools. During the second period (1870–1910), the Catholic hierarchy made a basic commitment to a separate Catholic school system. These parochial schools, like the big-city parishes around them, tended to be ethnically homogeneous; a German child would not be sent to an Irish school, nor vice versa, nor a Lithuanian pupil to either. Instruction in the language of the old country was common. In the third period (1910–1945), Catholic education was modernized and modeled after the public school systems, and ethnicity was deemphasized in many areas. In cities with large Catholic populations (such as Chicago and Boston) there was a flow of teachers, administrators, and students from one system to the other.

In addition to the Catholics, the German Lutherans and Calvinist Dutch also began parochial schools, as did Orthodox Jews.

Starting from about 1876, thirty nine states (out of 50) passed a constitutional amendment to their state constitutions, called "Blaine Amendments," forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools. In 2002, the United States Supreme Court upheld an Ohio law allowing aid under specific circumstances.

In the 1920s, Oregon outlawed all non-public schools in an attempt to stamp out parochial schools, but in 1925 the Supreme Court overturned the law in Pierce v. Society of Sisters. There is a controversy over the legality of parish schools. In December 2018, Ed Mechmann, the director of public policy at the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York noted that the new regulations from the New York State Education Department would "give local school boards virtually unlimited power over private religious schools. There is no protection against government officials who are hostile to religious schools or who just want to eliminate the competition."

Russian Empire
Parochial schools (прихо́дские учи́лища, prikhodskie uchilishcha) was a system of elementary education in the Russian Empire which were part of the Ministry of National Enlightenment (Education). Parochial schools were introduced in 1804 following an educational reform of primary schools. Before that, in Russia existed arithmetic schools which were part of elementary education.

Along with regular parochial schools there also existed a well developed system of church-parochial schools of the Russian Orthodox Church which was also introduced in 1804.

Both schools parochial and church-parochial were funded by government.

Philippines
Since the Spanish Era, schools have been traditionally run by the predominant Catholic Church and its different religious institutes, such as the Order of Preachers and the Society of Jesus.

Currently, parochial schools are generally those run by local, territorial parishes, while Catholic schools are administered directly by dioceses or religious institutes.

Metro Manila
The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila and its suffragan dioceses, parochial schools are supervised by the Manila Archdiocesan Parochial Schools Association and its affiliates like the Diocese of Cubao Educational System and the Parochial Schools Association of Novaliches. These organisations are overseen by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of the Philippines (the country's governing Catholic body) through the Episcopal Commission on Catechism and Christian Education.

India
In Ancient India, Gurukula was the main system of education though some still exist today. Catholic educational institutions are second in numbers behind government run schools. There are 14,539. While the schools are centrally tracked by the Catholic Bishops Council of India, they are controlled by the diocese in which they are located. There are 13,004 primary and secondary Catholic schools, 243 special schools, 448 Catholic colleges, and 534 technical institutions.

United States

 * DAMM, JOHN SILBER. "THE GROWTH AND DECLINE OF LUTHERAN PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1638-1962" (PhD dissertation,  Columbia University; ProQuest Dissertations Publishing, 1963. 6401469).

 * Lazerson, Marvin. "Understanding American Catholic Educational History," History of Education Quarterly 1977 17(3): 297-317 in JSTOR
 * Perko, F. Michael. "Religious Schooling In America: An Historiographic Reflection," History of Education Quarterly 2000 40(3): 320-338 in JSTOR
 * Raiche, C.S.J., Annabelle, and Ann Marie Biermaier, O.S.B. They Came to Teach: The Story of Sisters Who Taught in Parochial Schools and Their Contribution to Elementary Education in Minnesota (St. Cloud, Minnesota: North Star Press, 1994)271pp.
 * Walch, Timothy. Parish School: American Catholic Parochial Education from Colonial Times to the Present, (New York: Crossroad, 1996) 301 pp.

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Taxpayer

A taxpayer is a person or organization (such as a company) subject to pay a tax. Modern taxpayers may have an identification number, a reference number issued by a government to citizens or firms.

The term "taxpayer" generally characterizes one who pays taxes. A taxpayer is an individual or entity that is obligated to make payments to municipal or government taxation-agencies. Taxes can exist in the form of income taxes and/or property taxes imposed on owners of real property (such as homes and vehicles), along with many other forms. People may pay taxes when they pay for goods and services which are taxed. The term "taxpayer" often refers to the workforce of a country which pays for government systems and projects through taxation. The taxpayers' money becomes part of the public funds, which comprise all money spent or invested by government to satisfy individual or collective needs or to generate future benefits. For tax purposes, business entities are also taxpayers, making their revenues and expenditures subject to taxation.

Types of taxes
The government levy income taxes on personal and business revenue and interest income. In addition to income taxes, the government can also mandate that employers subtract payroll taxes from their workers' paychecks each pay period, and then match the sums deducted. Capital gains taxes are those paid on any profits made from the sale of an asset and are usually applied to stock and bond transactions. Estate taxes are imposed on the transfer of property upon the death of the owner.
 * Taxes on income

Property tax, sometimes known as an ad valorem tax, is imposed on the value of real estate or other personal property. Property taxes are usually imposed by local governments and charged on a recurring basis. Real estate taxes are often subject to fluctuation based upon a jurisdiction's assessment of the worth of a property based on its condition, location and market value, and/or changes to the amounts apportioned to various recipients of the tax.
 * Taxes on property

The sales tax is most often used as a method for states and local governments to raise revenue. Purchases made at the retail level are assessed a percentage of the sales price of a particular item. Rates vary between jurisdictions and the type of item bought. Excise taxes are based on the quantity of an item and not on its value. User fees are taxes that are assessed on a wide variety of services, including airline tickets, rental cars, toll roads, utilities, hotel rooms, licenses, financial transactions and many others. So-called sin taxes are imposed on items like cigarettes and alcohol. Luxury taxes are imposed on certain items, such as expensive cars or jewelry.
 * Taxes on goods and services

Types of taxpayers
Taxpayers can be classified into two major categories – individual and corporation. A corporation is a legal entity that is separate from the owners for tax purposes. These major categories can be further divided in different subcategories.

Individual taxpayers can be classified as either a citizen or an alien (an alien is a person who resides within the borders of a country and is not a national of that country). A citizen can further be classified as either a resident citizen or a non-resident citizen.

Corporations can be classified into domestic, foreign and partnership. A foreign corporation is either resident foreign or non-resident foreign corporation. A resident foreign corporation is a foreign corporation engaged in trade or business in the country. A non-resident foreign corporation is a foreign corporation not engaged in trade or business within the country but deriving income from sources in the country. A partnership is a business structure where ownership and management responsibility of a company is split between two or more individuals. A partnership is not a legal entity that is separate from the owners and therefore the partnership itself does not pay taxes.

The classification depends on given country and may vary.

Taxpayers' money
Taxpayers' money help to pay for the items on the federal budget. The gap between revenue (money collected via taxes) and spending is known as the budget deficit. The money the federal government borrows to cover the budget deficit is what creates the national debt. The government spends money for a variety of reasons: reduce inequality ("safety net" programs), provide public goods (fire, police, national defence), provide important public services like education and health (merit goods), debt interest payments, transport and military spending. The "safety net" programs are initiatives that give extra financial support to the elderly, unemployed, disabled and the poor. Examples include the earned income tax credit, child tax credits, unemployment insurance, food stamps, subsidized school meals, low-income housing assistance, energy assistance and more. The federal government spends its money in four major ways: direct payments, grants, contracts and insurance.

Tax avoidance and tax evasion
Taxpayers may violate the law by not paying their mandatory taxes. This crime is called tax evasion. Tax evasion is an illegal practice where a person, organization or corporation intentionally avoids paying his true tax liability. Those caught evading taxes are generally subject to criminal charges and substantial penalties. It's considered tax evasion if the taxpayer knowingly fails to report income or under-report income (claiming less income than you actually received from a specific source), provides false information to the IRS about business income or expenses, deliberately underpays taxes owed or substantially understates taxes (by stating a tax amount on return which is less than the amount owed for the income reported). Tax evasion differs from tax avoidance, which is the use of legal methods to modify an individual's financial situation to lower the amount of income tax owed.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Taxpayer


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Mallaig

Mallaig (Malaig ) is a port in Morar, on the west coast of the Highlands of Scotland. It faces Skye from across the Sound of Sleat. The local railway station is the terminus of the West Highland Line (Fort William and Mallaig branch), and the town is linked to Fort William by the A830 road – the "Road to the Isles".

Development
The village of Mallaig was founded in the 1840s when Lord Lovat, owner of North Morar Estate, divided up the farm of Mallaigvaig into 17 parcels of land and encouraged his tenants to move to the western part of the peninsula and turn to fishing as a way of life. The population and local economy expanded rapidly in the 20th century with the arrival of the railway.

Ferries operated by Caledonian MacBrayne and Western Isles Cruises sail from the port to Armadale on the Isle of Skye, Inverie in Knoydart, Lochboisdale on South Uist and the isles of Rùm, Eigg, Muck, and Canna. Mallaig is the main commercial fishing port on the west coast of Scotland, and during the 1960s was the busiest herring port in Europe. Mallaig prided itself at that time on its famous traditionally smoked kippers, the fishmonger Andy Race still providing genuine oak smoked kippers from the factory shop on the harbour. Mallaig and the surrounding area is a popular area for holidays.

The majority of the community speaks English, with a minority of residents speaking both English and Gaelic. In addition, traditional Gaelic is still taught in Mallaig Primary School to pupils who choose to learn the language.

Education
Mallaig has extensive distance-learning facilities, allowing the local population access to all forms of education from leisure classes to university degrees through Lochaber College and the UHI Millennium Institute. The college is one of the most successful of its kind in Britain, with over 8 per cent of the local population accessing its facilities. The college has published a PDF version of the 19th century Royal Commission of Inquiry into the Condition of Crofters and Cottars in the Highlands and Islands report. Recently the Learning Centre has opened a marine-specific vocational centre and is at the forefront of developing Marine Certification courses for fishermen, as well as being a RYA certified centre.

Mallaig has its own primary school, which recently accepted the Gaelic-medium pupils from Lady Lovat Primary School in the nearby village of Morar. This allows Lady Lovat to focus more on its English-medium students.

Mallaig has a high school called Mallaig High School, which opened in 1989, although a secondary school had existed in a slightly different location. This caters for Mallaig, the villages of Morar and Arisaig, the nearby Small Isles of Eigg, Rùm, Muck and Canna, and the nearby Knoydart peninsula. The school has growing numbers of pupils from the Small Isles, unable to travel daily from home. These pupils are boarded in the school's hostel.

Local services
Mallaig has several restaurants, cafes and takeaways, also a community-run swimming pool and leisure centre. The main focus is on the summer tourist trade, although some facilities open all year round, including the swimming pool. Mallaig has three hotels, much self-catering accommodation and several guest houses.

The village has a bank and three pubs. The compact centre is close to the harbour and railway station, with residential areas beyond to the south and east of the harbour. Most of the retail premises are on the main street, or on Davies Brae, which runs south from the centre. The swimming pool is at the high point of the village on Fank Brae.

There are two minimarkets and gift shops. An art gallery sells work by local artists. There is a small bookshop. A heritage centre next to the railway station is based around old photographs of the locality, but as Mallaig has only existed during the age of photography this offers a good introduction to the history and heritage of the locality. There are Roman Catholic and Church of Scotland churches, and a Fishermen's Mission facility run by the Royal National Mission to Deep Sea Fishermen. There is a small petrol station with restricted opening times near the harbour.

Transport
Completed in 1901, the West Highland Line links Mallaig railway station to Fort William, Oban and Glasgow. The line was voted the top rail journey in the world by readers of the independent travel magazine Wanderlust in 2009, ahead of the iconic Trans-Siberian and the Cuzco to Machu Picchu line in Peru. The five-hour trip to Glasgow Queen Street railway station passes through spectacular scenery, including seascapes, loch sides, mountain and moorland terrain. It offers views of Loch Lomond, the Gare Loch, Rannoch Moor, Ben Nevis, Glenfinnan, Glen Shiel and Loch Eil. The line also runs along the Clyde between Helensburgh and Glasgow and offers views across the estuary. In the years before the First World War, after the opening of the line in 1901, there was a fairly steady increase in the value of fish sold, exceeding £60,000 in 1914.

In the summer the Jacobite steam train service from Fort William visits Mallaig.

Shiel Buses operates a service from Mallaig to Fort William. Buses also run south along the A861 to the villages of Acharacle and Strontian.

Mallaig is an important ferry port, with regular Caledonian MacBrayne services to Armadale on the Isle of Skye, a 30-minute sailing operated by MV Loch Fyne and MV Lord of the Isles, the latter operating the morning service from Lochboisdale on South Uist to Mallaig, before shuttling between Mallaig and Armadale, then working the evening service back to Lochboisdale. It also runs a daily service operated by the MV Lochnevis, purpose-built for the route to the Small Isles of Canna, Rùm, Eigg and Muck, although the timetable and itinerary differ from day to day.

In addition, a local ferry service owned by a former lifeboatman, Bruce Watt, sails daily to Inverie in Knoydart, a remote village, and also calls by prior arrangement at Tarbet in Morar, a location only accessible by sea. This service also offers a non-landing cruise through scenic Loch Nevis.

Mallaig as filming location
The Mallaig railway was used during the filming of the Harry Potter series of films, and the Hogwarts Express could often be seen in the summer during periods of filming. Many other local areas were used for location filming.

The 1996 film Breaking the Waves was largely filmed in Mallaig and the surrounding area, and the beach scenes of Local Hero were filmed at Morar and Arisaig, a few miles to the south.

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Slate Islands

The Slate Islands are an island group in the Inner Hebrides, lying immediately off the west coast of Scotland, north of Jura and southwest of Oban. The main islands are Seil, Easdale, Luing, Shuna, Torsa and Belnahua. Scarba and Kerrera, which lie nearby are not usually included.

The underlying geology of the islands is Dalradian slate, which was quarried widely until the mid-20th century. Quarry working began in 1630 and at the turn of the 20th century, the quarries were yielding some eight million slates every year.

The Garvellachs lie to the southwest.

Definition
Unlike some of Scotland's larger archipelagos such as Orkney and the Outer Hebrides, which are distant from other islands and also have their own local authority, the Slate Islands have no formal definition. The islands from which the slate that gives rise to the name was quarried on a substantial commercial basis are Easdale, Belnahua, Luing and Seil. The website of the Slate Islands Heritage Trust also prominently lists these islands as their remit although other sources are slightly more inclusive.

According to the Gazetteer for Scotland these islands "include Luing, Seil, Shuna, Torsay, Easdale, Belnahua and Fladda". W. H. Murray in The Companion Guide to the West Highlands of Scotland goes so far as to say: "Seil and Luing, Shuna, Torsa, Belnahua and many others are collectively known as the Slate Islands." Torsa is a tidal island, joined to Luing at low tide. From a geological perspective Shuna has "no workable slate", although limestone was once worked there. The neighbouring islands to the west, Lunga and Eilean Dubh Mòr, are constituted of quartzite, "Scarba conglomerate" and other rocks that lack a commercial value. It therefore seems reasonable to conclude that this collective noun includes the commercially quarried Easdale, Belnahua, Luing and Seil, plus their larger and relatively recently inhabited close neighbours of Shuna and Torsa with the "many others" being the smaller uninhabited islands and skerries in their immediate vicinity. This then excludes Lunga and Eilean Dubh Mòr and their own outliers that lie to the west of Luing, between Scarba and The Garvellachs.

Geography
The main islands of the group are as follows.

Torsa was inhabited until the 1960s. Belnahua had a significant population during the height of the commercial slate quarrying there but in 1914 quarry work ceased, the island was completely abandoned and it has been uninhabited ever since.

Smaller islands, tidal islets only separated at higher stages of the tide, and skerries which are only exposed at lower stages of the tide pepper the seas surrounding the main islands. Most of them are obscure and only Fladda, which has an abandoned lighthouse keeper's cottage, and perhaps Insh are ever likely to have been inhabited.

Eilean-a-beithich ("island of the birches") located in Easdale Sound was once one of the Slate Islands. However, it was quarried for slate to a depth of 75 m below sea level leaving only the outer rim of the island. Part of this rim was breached by the sea in 1881 flooding the quarry and little visible sign of the island now remains.
 * Belnahua: Fladda, Ormsa
 * Easdale: None
 * Luing: Diar Sgeir, Dubh-fheith, Dubh Sgeir, Eilean Loisgte, Fraoch Eilean (2), Funaich Mhòr, Glas Eilean, Rubh Aird Luing, Sgeir Bhuidhe
 * Torsa: Eilean Fraoch, Glas Eilean, Torsa Beag
 * Seil: Dubh-sgeir, Eilean à Chomraidh, Eilean Bàn-leac, Eilean Buidhe, Eilean Dùin, Eilean nam Beathach, Eilean nam Freumha, Eilean Tornal, Henderson's Rock, Insh, Sgeir Beul na h-Uamhaidh
 * Shuna: None

Etymology
Belnahua is from the Scots Gaelic Beul na h-Uamha, meaning "the mouth of the cave" and Torsa is also a Gaelic name although ultimately derived from Old Norse. It means "Thorir's island". The derivations of the other main islands are less clear. Seil and Luing are probably pre-Gaelic in origin and of uncertain meaning. Shuna is Siùna in Gaelic and may derive from the Norse for "sea island". Easdale appears to be the combination of eas, which is Gaelic for "waterfall" and dal, the Norse for "valley". However, it is not clear why either description should apply to this tiny island which is low lying and has no waterfalls and the name may have come from the nearby village of the same name on Seil.

Geology
The most important bedrock on the islands from a commercial point of view is the Neoproterozoic age Easdale Slate Formation, a pyritic, graphitic pelite belonging to the Easdale Subgroup of the Dalradian Argyll Group. Zones of metamorphosed intrusive igneous rocks occur within the southeast of Seil and andesitic lavas of the Lorn Plateau Lava Formation dominate the west of the island. There are numerous NW-SE aligned basalt and microgabbro dykes which form a part of the ‘Mull Swarm’ which is of early Palaeogene age. Raised marine deposits of sand and gravel occur widely around the margins of some of the islands, a legacy of late Quaternary changes in relative sea-level.

Prior to the Pleistocene ice ages the Slate Islands were part of a long peninsula that ran from what is now mainland Scotland out through Scarba and Jura to Islay until the Firth of Lorn glacier cut through it, creating the islands that exist today. The entire area was covered by an ice sheet during the maximum extent of glaciation and deep channels were cut into what is now the sea bed, creating deep waters of 210 m or more in the Firth of Lorn.

History
From about the 6th to the 8th century AD the Cenél Loairn kindred controlled what is today known as Lorn, which region includes the Slate Islands, in the then kingdom of Dalriada. Their main base may have been at Dunollie near Oban. By the late 8th century the area was a zone of conflict between the Celtic rulers of mainland Argyll and the newly arrived Norse settlers. It has been suggested that Seil may be the Innisibsolian referred to in the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba, which records a victory by the Scots over a Viking force during the time of Donald II. The Frankish Annales Bertiniani may record the conquest of the Inner Hebrides by Vikings in 847 and there is an early reference to the Norse presence in the Irish records to a king of "Viking Scotland" whose heir Thórir brought an army to Ireland in 848. Although there are few written references to the Slate Islands for this period the influence of the Norse language on placenames suggests that these islands then became part of the Kingdom of the Isles. Clan MacDougall were an important force in the area responsible for their mainland territories to the Scots crown, but to the Kings of Norway for their island territories until the 1266 Treaty of Perth. At this point the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown "had of old therein" were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland.

During the Wars of Scottish Independence the MacDougalls sided with Clan Comyn against King Robert the Bruce, defeating him the Battle of Dalrigh in 1306. Two years later Bruce led three thousand veterans into Argyll against the MacDougalls and at the Battle of the Pass of Brander they were defeated and King Robert held most of their lands to be forfeit, including all their island possessions save for Kerrera. Their fortunes were restored somewhat under John Gallda MacDougall. In the mid-14th century, he relocated from England to Scotland, married a niece of the reigning David II, King of Scotland, and regained the clan's ancestral lands in Lorn.

Three centuries later, Clan Dougall was on the losing side again. The failure of King James VII to regain the thrones of England, Ireland and Scotland led to the MacDougalls losing much of their land to the Duke of Argyll. The Slate Islands then became part of the Netherlorn estates of the Breadalbane family, a branch of Clan Campbell. From the late 17th century the Dukes of Argyll began to lease land on a competitive basis rather than as a means of strengthening the welfare of their senior clansmen. This resulted in mass evictions in 1669, long before the clearances as such. During the 20th century the Breadalbane land on the islands was sold off as smaller farms and individual houses.

Slate quarrying
Easdale slate had been quarried from as early as the 12th century using seasonal labour from the Breadalbane's Ardmaddy estate. In 1730 Colin Campbell of Carwhin was appointed as the Captain of Ardmaddy and tasked with exploiting the area's natural resources. In 1745 Campbell created the Easdale Marble and Slate Company in order to place extractions from the area on a more commercial basis. At that point Easdale was producing 1 million slates per annum; when Thomas Pennant visited two years later production had increased by 250% and as further quarries were opened this further increased the company's production to 5 million per annum by 1800.

Slate quarries were opened on Eilean-a-beithich, Belnahua, Luing and at Balvicar on Seil. Railway lines were laid to take the rock from the quarries to nearby harbours. Peak production was reached in the 1860s at 9 million slates per annum, with export destinations including England, Nova Scotia, the West Indies, the US, Norway and New Zealand. The 6th Earl of Breadalbane had less interest in the industry than his predecessors although during the time of the 7th Earl a new quarry was opened at Ardencaple in the north of Seil. However, disaster struck in 1881. In the early morning of the 22nd November a severe gale from the south-west wind and an exceptionally high tide flooded the quarries on Easdale and at Eilean-a-beithich "a large rocky buttress which supported a sea wall gave way under the excessive pressure of water". Eilean-a-beithich was never re-opened although production did continue at Easdale, Luing and Balvicar. Changes in demand - clay tiles were rapidly replacing slate as the roofing material of choice - led to commercial production ceasing by 1911 on Seil and in 1914 on Belnahua. Balvicar quarry re-opened from the late 1940s until the early 1960s but slate is no longer mined anywhere in the Slate Islands.

The Isle of Insh was bequeathed to the National Trust for Scotland by the island's former owner, David Brearley, when he died in 2016. After assessing the island's 'heritage significance' the trust attracted criticism when it subsequently decided to sell the island to a private company for £353,000 in 2019.

Economy and transport
Today, the islands' commerce is largely dependent on agriculture, tourism and lobster fishing. The Ellenabeich Heritage Centre which opened in 2000, is run by the Slate Islands Heritage Trust. Located in a former slate quarry-worker's cottage, the centre has displays about life in the 19th century, slate quarrying and the local flora, fauna and geology.

Seil has been linked to the Scottish mainland since 1792/3 when the Clachan Bridge, also known as the "Bridge Over the Atlantic", was built by engineer Robert Mylne. Ferries from Seil depart from Ellenabeich to Easdale, and from Cuan to Luing across the Cuan Sound. The Easdale ferry uses a chain and cog wheels designed by John Whyte in the mid 19th century.

The Firth of Lorn is the seaway used by vessels going to and from Oban and Fort William from points south and the seas around the Slate Islands contain the sites of various shipwrecks. The greatest loss of life in the vicinity was suffered by the 1770. t unladen Latvian vessel Helēna Faulbaums. She left the Mersey on 26 October 1936 en route for Blyth. Encountering a storm, she headed for the Firth of Lorn seeking shelter although the light load meant that the propeller was ineffective in the high seas. At 7pm her steering failed and captain ordered the anchors to be deployed but they could not hold in the deep waters. There is an extensive drying reef to the north of Belnahua and at 10pm that night the Helēna Faulbaums struck it broadside and foundered, sinking within ten minutes with the loss of 15 lives including two 18-year-old boys. Four sailors managed to scramble ashore and were rescued the next day by the Islay lifeboat and taken to Crinan. The bodies of the other crew members were washed ashore on Luing.

The waters surrounding all the Slate Islands are part of the Loch Sunart to the Sound of Jura Marine Protected Area.

title: Slate Islands


text:
Withington

Withington is a suburb of Manchester, Greater Manchester, England. Historically part of Lancashire, it lies 4 mi from Manchester city centre, about 0.4 mi south of Fallowfield, 0.5 mi north-east of Didsbury and also 1 mi east of Chorlton-cum-Hardy. Withington has a population of just over 14,000 people, reducing at the 2011 census to 13,422.

In the early 13th century, Withington occupied a feudal estate that included the townships of Withington, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Moss Side, Rusholme, Burnage, Denton and Haughton, held by the Hathersage, Longford and Tatton families, and within the Manor of Manchester and Hundred of Salford in historic county boundaries of Lancashire.

Withington was largely rural until the mid-19th century when it experienced rapid socioeconomic development and urbanisation due to the Industrial Revolution, and Manchester's growing level of industrialisation. Withington became part of Manchester in 1904.

Today, the residents of Withington comprise a mixture of families, university students and affluent "young professionals"—often themselves former students. This is in a large part due to its education links—particularly the proximity to the University of Manchester and Manchester Metropolitan University. As a consequence, Withington is predominantly an area of mixed affluence. It is also a centre for clinical excellence with one of the largest cancer treatment centres in Europe—Christie Hospital—and Withington Community Hospital.

Middle Ages
In Anglo-Saxon times the area was sparsely settled by Mercians and Danes and Didsbury may have been established in King Edward the Elder's reign as a fortification against the Danes. Following the Norman Conquest the lands of south Lancashire were granted to Roger of Poitou and by the early 13th century the Manor of Withington appears to be a sub-manor of the Manor of Manchester. The first recorded description of Withington referred to the area as a willow-copse farmstead, and giving rise to the Anglo-Saxon name Wīðign-tūn, with withy meaning "willow branch used for bundling". In the early 13th century, the Manor of Withington covered a wide area including Withington, Didsbury, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Moss Side, Rusholme, Burnage, Denton and Haughton. The first Lord of the Manor of Withington is thought to have been William, son of Wulfrith de Withington. Withington was one of the townships of the ancient parish of Manchester in the Salford Hundred of Lancashire, and a sub-manor of the Manor of Manchester. In the 13th century, Robert Grelle (sometimes Grelley), Lord of the Manchester Manor, granted free warren in Withington to Matthew de Hathersage (or Haversage), son of William, in exchange for one knight's fee. Little is known of the Hathersage family, except that they descended to the Longford family, and are connected with the manors of Hathersage and Longford, both in Derbyshire. The lordship of Withington remained in the Hathersage/Longford family for over 300 years.

Tudor, Stuart and Georgian periods
At the end of the 16th century, Nicholas Longford sold Withington to the Mosleys (originally 'Moseley'), an influential Anglo-Irish family of wool merchants who subsequently became wealthy landowners in Staffordshire: Nicholas Mosley later became Lord of the Manor of Manchester. Hough End Hall was built by Sir Nicholas Mosley in 1596 as the new Withington manor house—the original medieval manor house was situated south-east of the modern junction of Mauldeth Road West and Princess Road, which was surrounded by a moat. In 1750 it was demolished to make way for a farm building, but some of the moat was left. An Ordnance Survey map of 1845 shows it as "Withington Old Hall", and it later came to be known as "Chorlton's Farm" or "Old Hall Farm". Today, the site is occupied by Eddisbury Avenue and no trace remains of the old house. There are still today some remnants of this moat underneath Old Moat Primary School, on Old Moat Lane. In the early 18th century, the Withington Manor was once again sold, this time to the Egertons of Tatton.

Withington as a village developed around Wilmslow Road, a main road, connecting Manchester to Wilmslow which was the only direct route between Manchester and Wilmslow at the time. Farming still dominated the area, although there is evidence in maps of a substantial cotton house on Cotton Lane, which later appears to become Withington Hall. Some historians dispute the cotton house as there is little record of it, and claim "Cotton Lane" comes from land in the area which was jointly held by the townships of Withington, Didsbury and Burnage (a relic of the medieval open field system). This area was the old village centre however, although the only relic of its former importance is the small flower display on the corner of Wilmslow Road and Cotton Lane.

Victorian and later periods
The trade in Withington, and consequent traffic on Wilmslow Road, increased steadily as the city of Manchester flourished in the early 19th century. Turnpike roads subsequently became increasingly unpopular, and were abolished completely in 1881. Cheaper transport in and out of Manchester became an important factor in the growth of the area. The Withington and West Didsbury railway station on the Manchester South District Line, run by the Midland Railway, provided train services to Manchester Central railway station. The railway station closed to passengers in 1961.

Withington's Parish Church of St Paul was built in 1841; the architects of St Paul's Church were Hayley & Brown and it was extended in 1864. Many other chapels and churches proliferated, including Methodist, Presbyterian and Roman Catholic.

As the population increased, the need for schools grew. A day school was held in a schoolroom underneath the Wesleyan chapel on Old Hall Lane, until the Church of England established a new church school with public donations next to its new parish church in 1844, St Paul's Primary School, on land donated by benefactor Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton.

Withington had a Huguenot population with family and commercial ties to Germany. Among them was the Souchay family, who lived at Withington House on Wilmslow Road (the present site of the telephone exchange at Old Broadway). Charles (or Carl) Souchay and his wife Adelaide (or Adelheid) were benefactors of St Paul's church school, and the first wedding to take place at St Paul's was the marriage of the eldest Souchay daughter in 1850. The Souchays were related to Cécile Mendelssohn Bartholdy, wife of the German composer Felix Mendelssohn. In the 1840s, Mendelssohn made several visits to Britain, and stayed on occasion with friends in the Withington/Didsbury area. Mendelssohn wrote a number of letters to friends from Eltville House, the residence of another member of the Souchay family, John D. Souchay, which was situated on the south-east corner of Fog Lane and Wilmslow Road (later renamed Didsbury Priory). An account exists of an occasion in April 1847 when Mendelssohn visited St Paul's Church to play the newly installed pipe organ. The composer was suffering from ill health, and this proved to be his last British tour; less than six months later, on 4 November, aged 38, Mendelssohn died in Leipzig. The Souchays are buried in St Paul's churchyard.

In 1861, a public library and village hall were opened. The library was rebuilt in 1927 with a neo-classical facade.

Aviation
On 28 April 1910, French pilot Louis Paulhan landed his Farman biplane in Barcicroft Fields, Pytha Fold Farm on the borders of Withington, Burnage and Didsbury, at the end of the first powered flight from London to Manchester, with a six-hour overnight stop near Lichfield, Staffordshire. Paulhan beat the British contender, Claude Grahame-White, winning a £10,000 prize offered by the Daily Mail. Two special trains were chartered to Burnage railway station to take spectators to the landing. Paulhan's progress was followed throughout by a special train carrying his wife, Henri Farman and his mechanics. A house in Paulhan Road is marked by a blue plaque to commemorate his achievement.

A large aerodrome was built in 1917–18 on the westerly edge of Withington, to the southwest of the junction of Mauldeth Road and Princess Road, on what is now the site of Houghend Playing Fields. The official name was Alexandra Park Aerodrome, but it was also variously referred to as "Withington" and "Didsbury". Closure came in autumn 1924 when Lord Egerton of Tatton would not agree to the site's continued use for flying. The large hangars were then demolished and Princess Road extended southwards through the eastern edge of the site.

Governance

Withington was anciently a township within the parish of Manchester and Hundred of Salford. Following the Public Health Act 1875, Withington Town Hall was built in 1881 on Lapwing Lane, originally to house Withington Local Board of Health, then later occupied by the Withington Urban District Council, under the Local Government Act 1894. In 1904, Withington formally became part of the City of Manchester. The old Town Hall building has been converted into private apartments with new-build apartments to the south (back) and east (side).

Manchester Withington is a Parliamentary Constituency which encompasses Withington village, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Burnage and Didsbury (East and West). Manchester Withington became the first constituency in the City of Manchester since 1929 to elect a Liberal (Democrat) MP upon John Leech's gain in the 2005 General Election, when the constituency also experienced the largest swing of that election, taking the previously 11,524 majority Labour safe seat by 667 votes – a swing of 17%. This was possibly attributable to the constituency's large student population. The previous incumbent of the seat, Keith Bradley, had held the seat for Labour for 18 years; Lucy Powell was chosen as the successor candidate to Keith Bradley in March 2007, to try to regain the seat at the next general election. However, Leech retained the seat for the Liberal Democrats at the 2010 General Election, with 44.6% of the vote (an increase of 2.4% over 2005); Powell came second with 40.5% of the vote (a decrease of 0.4%).

Historically, Withington was a much larger area than today. Since the district was absorbed into the City of Manchester in 1904, the three city wards of Didsbury, Fallowfield, and Withington took on their own identities and are now seen as distinct areas. The Conservative Party could once regard this area as a heartland for them, with its largely middle class population and relatively suburban image. The 'flight of the middle classes' to rural Cheshire, however, led to many of Withington's larger homes being sold off for student flats. This resulted in a changing socio-economic structure that would ultimately favour Labour and more recently, for a time, the Liberal-Democrats.

In the 2011, 2012 and 2014 local government elections however the Liberal-Democrats lost every Council seat in Withington Constituency and in the City of Manchester as a whole that they contested, leaving Labour with 95 out of 96 Council seats.

Withington and Old Moat wards are currently represented on Manchester City Council by three councillors each: Becky Chambers (Labour Party), Chris Wills (Labour and Co-operative Party), and Rebecca Moore (Labour) in Withington; Gavin White (Labour), Suzannah Reeves (Labour) and Garry Bridges (Labour) in Old Moat. Council elections took place on the 2 May 2019 with each ward returning one councillor, Becky Chambers and Garry Bridges respectively in Withington and Old Moat wards.

Demography
According to the 2001 census

 * White British – 74.13%
 * White Irish – 5.05%
 * White other – 3.60%
 * Mixed race – 3.25%
 * Black – 2.34%
 * Asian – 9.76%
 * Chinese or other – 1.86%

Economy
Manchester

Geography
At 53.433°N, -2.229°W, Withington is located immediately below the midpoint of the Greater Manchester Urban Area, 4 mi south of Manchester city centre.

Landmarks

Withington today retains some grade II listed buildings, including Other places of historical interest in Withington include:
 * Hough End Hall (1596), Nell Lane, Chorlton-cum-Hardy – Withington Manor House.
 * Manchester and County Bank (1890), Wilmslow Road – now an Almost Famous restaurant location.
 * St Paul's Parish Church, Wilmslow Road (1841).
 * Red Lion Inn (17th century).
 * Victoria public house.
 * White Lion public house, Wilmslow Road (1841), now a Sainsbury's Local.
 * Marcus Rashford mural painted by Akse P19
 * Christie Hospital – founded in 1892, the hospital moved to Withington in 1932. It is one of the largest cancer research and treatment centres in Europe. Christie's pioneered the therapeutic use of X-Rays in 1901, and in 1944 the world's first clinical drug trial was carried out here.
 * Scala Cinema (1912–2008), Wilmslow Road – this was the oldest cinema in Manchester. Currently (April 2018) the site is being developed into Scala, an apartment and retail block.
 * Milestone, Wilmslow Road – outside the fire station, inscribed "8¼ miles to Wilmslow / 4 miles to Manchester to centre of St. Ann's"
 * The Old Forge, Wilmslow Road (1881) – now private flats.
 * St Cuthbert's Roman Catholic Church, Palatine Road (1881).
 * The Water Trough (1876), now on Copson Street – a stone drinking trough for horses, inscribed with an Old Testament passage: "that ye may drink, both ye and your cattle, and your beasts." (II Kings III:17).
 * Withington Library (1927), Wilmslow Road, designed by Henry Price.
 * Withington Methodist Church, Wilmslow Road (1865).

Buses
Withington has bus links into the Manchester city centre, partly because of its position on the Wilmslow Road bus corridor which is served by very frequent buses and has been said by some analysts to be the busiest in Europe. The majority of services are operated by Stagecoach Manchester and First Greater Manchester. Other bus routes run along Burton Road and Old Moat Lane to the city centre; there are also bus routes crossing Withington East-West.

Railway
Until the 1960s, Withington had a railway station on Palatine Road, Withington and West Didsbury, on the Midland Railway's Manchester South District Railway. This station was closed in 1961 by British Rail; today the nearest railway station to Withington is Mauldeth Road, located to the east in Ladybarn.

Metrolink Trams
In 2013, the old Midland Railway line was reopened as a light rail line as part of the Manchester Metrolink network. Today, Metrolink trams provide a direct tram link to Manchester city centre on the South Manchester Line, serving West Didsbury, Burton Road and Withington tram stops. The name of Withington tram stop has been called into question as it is located on Princess Road, approximately 1 mi from the centre of Withington.

The Metrolink line through Withington was first proposed in the early 1980s but funding was not secured until the 21st century. The project was then put on hold due to escalating costs; new funding was sought through the Manchester Congestion Charge, but this was rejected in a public referendum in 2008. The project was revived in May 2009 with a new funding package from local and national government. Clearance work began on the line in 2011 and it was completed in 2013.

Education
Withington Girls' School was established in 1890 and provides private education for girls aged 7 to 18. Notable alumni include Judith Chalmers.

In the 1930s, the Manchester Grammar School moved to new premises in Fallowfield, from its original position near the site of the present Manchester Cathedral. Although seen to be in Fallowfield, its location is also within the boundaries of the Withington locality. The school has been attended by actors such as Ben Kingsley and Robert Powell, cricketer Mike Atherton, and writer and broadcaster Martin Sixsmith.

Withington is served by the following local primary schools:
 * Ladybarn Primary School
 * St Cuthbert's Roman Catholic Primary School
 * St Paul's Church of England Primary School
 * Mauldeth Road County Primary School
 * St Kentigern's Roman Catholic Primary School, Fallowfield
 * Old Moat School, Withington

There are nearest secondary schools, including The Barlow RC High School, Didsbury High School and Parrs Wood High School.

Police service
Withington is covered by the South Manchester Division of Greater Manchester Police.

Notable people

 * Lindsay Bury, a footballer who helped the Old Etonians win the FA Cup in 1879 and made two appearances for England in the 1870s, was born in Withington on 9 July 1857.
 * Oliver Cookson, the entrepreneur who is best known for founding Myprotein, was born in Withington hospital in 1979.
 * Academy Award-winning actor Robert Donat was born in Withington in 1905, making his most acclaimed starring role in the 1939 film Goodbye, Mr. Chips.
 * Alan Erasmus, co-founder of Factory Records and the Haçienda with Tony Wilson, has lived on Palatine Road for over 30 years.
 * The film critic C.A. Lejeune was born here in 1897.
 * Martin Lewis, the financial broadcaster who is known for his MoneySavingExpert.com website, was born in Withington.
 * Richard Madeley and his wife, Judy Finnigan, lived on Old Broadway during the 1990s.
 * Actor John Mahoney, who became known for his role in Frasier, lived here until 1959.
 * Lee Marland, cricketer, was born in Withington.
 * Dame Kathleen Ollerenshaw, who was a Conservative councillor for Rusholme for 26 years and a post-graduate of the University of Oxford, was born here in 1912.
 * Kate Richardson-Walsh, the gold medal-winning Team GB hockey player, was born in Withington.
 * Ernest Rutherford, Nobel Laureate, who pioneered the orbital theory of the atom, and was Head of Physics at Manchester University, lived in the village between 1898 and 1910. He is commemorated with a blue plaque on the house in which he lived on Wilmslow Road, now called "Rutherford Lodge".
 * Frank Whitcombe Jr, Rugby Union player for Bradford and Yorkshire, was born in Withington.
 * In 1911, the Austrian philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein was known to have lodgings at 104 (now 154) Palatine Road while he was a student at the Victoria University of Manchester.
 * William John Young, biochemist, was born in Withingon in 1878.

title: Withington


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Out Skerries

The Out Skerries are an archipelago of islets, some inhabited, in Shetland, Scotland, and are the easternmost part of Shetland. Locally, they are usually called Da Skerries or just Skerries.

Geography
The Out Skerries lie about 4 mi northeast of Whalsay; and Bound Skerry forms the easternmost part of Shetland, lying just 300 km (around 190 miles) west from Tjeldstø in Norway. The main islands are Housay, Bruray and Grunay.

A large number of skerries, islets and stacks surround the main group. These include the Hevda Skerries and Wether Holm to the north, the Holm to the south and Lamba Stack and Flat Lamba Stack to the east. Stoura Stack and the Hogg are to the south of Grunay. Bound Skerry, which has a lighthouse, is flanked by Little Bound Skerry and Horn Skerry.

Beyond Mio Ness at the southwest tip of Housay are North and South Benelip and the Easter Skerries, as well as Filla, Short and Long Guen (the Guens), Bilia Skerry, and Swaba Stack. In an isolated group between the main Out Skerries and the Mainland, are Little Skerry and the Vongs, and Muckle Skerry is another outlier lying further north.

Etymology
Most of the Skerries placenames have a Norse origin. The "Out" name derives from one or both of two Old Norse words. Austr means "east" and may have been used to distinguish Out Skerries from Ve Skerries or "west skerries", and utsker means "outer". "Skerry" is from the Old Norse sker and refers to a small rocky island or a rocky reef.

Housay is from the Old Norse Húsey meaning "house island", although this name is now little used by locals, who prefer "West Isle". Bruray may be from the Norse brú and mean "bridge island" due to its position between West Isle and Grunay, the latter meaning simply "green island". The derivation of Bound Skerry is more problematic, but may be from bønn, meaning "forerunner", a reference to this being the first land a ship encounters en route to Shetland from Bergen.

Prehistory
There is evidence of Neolithic inhabitation including two house sites at Queyness. The Battle Pund is a rectangle 13 m across, marked out by boulders, dating from the Bronze Age. It is similar to a structure at Hjaltadans in Fetlar, but its purpose is unknown.

There is a massive ruined structure on the north shore of Grunay known locally as "the broch" although it is not known if it dates from the Iron Age, when such structures were built throughout the far north of Scotland. The name "Benelips" possibly originating from the Old Norse bon meaning "to pray" hints at the existence of an early Christian hermitage on these remote islets.

Dey (1991) speculates that the folklore of the troll-like trows, and perhaps that of the selkie may be based in part on the Norse arrival of the Norse settlers. She states that the conquest by the Vikings sent the indigenous, dark-haired Picts into hiding and that "many stories exist in Shetland of these strange people, smaller and darker than the tall, blond Vikings who, having been driven off their land into sea caves, emerged at night to steal from the new land owners." The skerry of Trollsholm and its cleft of Trolli Geo indicate the presence of this folklore on Out Skerries.

Historic period
The Out Skerries have been permanently inhabited from the Norse period onwards.

There are a number of shipwrecks around the islands include the Dutch vessels Kennemerland (1664) and De Liefde (1711); and North Wind (1906), which was carrying wood which was salvaged and used by the islanders for their houses. Some of the gold from these wrecks was found in 1960. The wrecks of the Kennemerland and the Danish warship Wrangles Palais (1687) lie within a Historic Marine Protected Area.

Due to their remote and rugged nature, the islanders were accused of smuggling and wrecking. Tammy Tyrie's Hidey Hol was used by islanders to avoid press gangs.

Until the early 20th century, a lot of sea fishing was conducted from traditional fishing boats known as sixareens.

World War II
Being so close to Norway, the islands were of strategic importance in World War II and were a regular landfall for Norwegian boats carrying escapees from the Nazi occupation. The local coastguard were responsible for the refugees and at one point during the war were issued with a tommy gun, although initially no-one knew how to use it. German planes frequently flew over at low altitudes, strafing the Grunay lighthouse shore station in 1941 and dropping a bomb in 1942. The latter attack killed Mary Anderson, the only local casualty of the war and Grunay was evacuated shortly thereafter. A month later a Canadian bomber crashed on Grunay and in 1990, a plaque was raised to commemorate this event. Dey (1991) states that the bomber was a "British" Blenheim bomber with a crew of two Canadians and one Englishman. The plaque ceremony was attended by the family of F/Sgt Jay Oliver, one of the two Canadian casualties and Peter Johnson, a local man who had witnessed the crash aged eight years. During the war an official letter was sent in secret to the local sub-postmistress with instructions that it be opened in the event of a German invasion. After the war it was returned, unopened.

Island life
Around 35 people live on the two main islands, Housay and Bruray, just east of the main Shetland Islands group. A third island, Grunay, is currently uninhabited. The two main islands are linked by a bridge. There are two shops, an airstrip, a church on Housay, a police station, a fish processing factory and a community hall where dances are held (especially for the celebration for the annual Lerwick to Skerries Yacht Race held in August). The islands are famous for wildlife, with frequent sightings of rare birds. There is little peat on the Out Skerries, so the residents have been granted rights to cut it on Whalsay. The soil in the islands is thin and infertile, but is heaped into riggs, for better cultivation of potatoes, carrots and swedes. The main industry on the islands is fishing. There is still some sheep farming, but it is far less important than it once was. Tourism on the other hand has increased.

The islands have a (mothballed) primary school. The primary school in 2015 had just one pupil. The previously open secondary school was the smallest in the UK; in 2010 the school had only three students. This secondary school was closed in 2014 by the approval of the Scottish government. In 2016 the school only had one student. The story went viral and he received 10,000 Christmas cards that year from all around the world.

The old schoolhouse found reuse as the second-smallest cinema in the UK (the smallest in Scotland), called Schoolhouse Cinema, which opened in 2017 and offers free admissions and free snacks.

Transport

 * The Skerries Bridge, which links Bruray to Housay, was built in 1957, replacing the first bridge built in 1899.
 * There is around a mile of road, along which most of the population lives.
 * There is a ferry to the islands from Vidlin and Lerwick.
 * There is a small airstrip on Bruray.

title: Out Skerries


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Jack Davenport

Jack Arthur Davenport is an English actor. He is best known for his roles in the television series This Life and Coupling, and as James Norrington in the Pirates of the Caribbean series. He has also appeared in other Hollywood films, such as The Talented Mr. Ripley and Kingsman: The Secret Service.

On television, Davenport is known for his roles in the ensemble drama series FlashForward, Smash, and The Morning Show as well as his leading role in the 2013 ITV drama series Breathless.

Early life and education
Davenport, the son of actor Nigel Davenport and actress Maria Aitken, was born in Wimbledon, London, and lived in Ibiza, Spain, for the first seven years of his life. His uncle is writer and former Conservative MP Jonathan Aitken, his maternal grandmother was socialite Penelope Aitken, his maternal grandfather was politician William Aitken, and one of his maternal great-grandfathers was John Maffey, 1st Baron Rugby. Through his uncle Jonathan Aitken's marriage to Elizabeth Rees-Williams, Davenport is a step-cousin of Damian, Jared, and Jamie Harris, her sons from her marriage to Richard Harris.

His parents divorced when he was seven, at which point he was sent to the independent Dragon School in Oxford, as his parents did not want him to become involved in the divorce proceedings. He then went on to attend Cheltenham College, a boarding independent school for boys (now co-educational), in the spa town of Cheltenham in Gloucestershire, followed by the British American Drama Academy in London.

Davenport's took a gap year after attending Cheltenham College. A director from Theatr Clwyd in Wales was impressed by his performance in a summer drama course and asked Davenport to work for him. He performed bit parts in Hamlet, where he became friends with Rhys Ifans. The following year, he began attending the University of East Anglia (UEA), concentrating in film studies and English literature. He dabbled in acting again during his time at UEA, but considered becoming a member of a film crew rather than acting.

Career
After Davenport's graduation, his mother advised him to write to John Cleese requesting work on the set of his upcoming film, Fierce Creatures, so that he could gain experience behind the camera. Cleese instead sent Davenport's letter to the casting department, and he was subsequently cast in his first onscreen role as a trainee zookeeper. After the production of Fierce Creatures was completed, Davenport found an agent who secured him an audition for the role of Miles Stewart in the BBC television drama series This Life.

Since then Davenport has played roles in many successful films and TV series, including The Talented Mr. Ripley, Coupling and Ultraviolet, as well as the box office hit Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl, and its sequels, Dead Man's Chest and At World's End.

During his career Davenport has also performed voice-overs, having narrated the audio versions of John Buchan's The Thirty-Nine Steps and recorded parts in Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange. He also provides the voice over for the British MasterCard advertisements (the American being done by Billy Crudup).

In 2006, he featured in the ITV1 drama The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant and in 2009 starred in the film The Boat That Rocked.

In 2007 Davenport was cast in Swingtown, a period and relationship drama for CBS about the impact of sexual and social liberation in 1970s American suburban households, with story arcs involving open marriages and key parties. The series was cancelled after one season.

In 2008, Davenport was cast in the ABC pilot FlashForward, which was based on a Robert J. Sawyer novel. In the series, Davenport played the character of Lloyd Simcoe, a physicist allegedly responsible for a worldwide blackout, which causes the whole world to see the future. The show was cancelled after a single season.

In February 2011, Davenport was cast in the NBC musical drama pilot Smash. It ran for two seasons and became a cult favorite on streaming services. The first season of the series follows a group of people putting on a Marilyn Monroe musical on Broadway. Davenport plays the musical's director. The second season expands as the various cast members branch out into other productions; Davenport's character, Derek Wills, quits the Broadway production of Bombshell to pursue a small off-Broadway musical and take it to Broadway with his protégé, Karen Cartwright (Katharine McPhee). The season ends with the two shows competing at the Tonys.

Davenport starred as the replacement singer in the video for Snow Patrol's single "Called Out in the Dark", released on YouTube on 17 August 2011, alongside Tara Summers and Gary Lightbody.

2018 saw Davenport's Broadway debut playing the Earl of Warwick in a revival of George Bernard Shaw's Saint Joan starring Condola Rashad.

Personal life
Davenport married actress Michelle Gomez. On 28 February 2023, Gomez announced on Instagram that she, Davenport, and their son had become naturalised American citizens.

Radio

 * Alistair Cooke's American Journey (2006) (BBC Radio 4)
 * Jack Davenport reads The Raw Shark Texts by Steven Hall

title: Jack Davenport


text:
List of exponential topics

This is a list of exponential topics, by Wikipedia page. See also list of logarithm topics.
 * Accelerating change
 * Approximating natural exponents (log base e)
 * Artin–Hasse exponential
 * Bacterial growth
 * Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula
 * Cell growth
 * Barometric formula
 * Beer–Lambert law
 * Characterizations of the exponential function
 * Catenary
 * Compound interest
 * De Moivre's formula
 * Derivative of the exponential map
 * Doléans-Dade exponential
 * Doubling time
 * e-folding
 * Elimination half-life
 * Error exponent
 * Euler's formula
 * Euler's identity
 * e (mathematical constant)
 * Exponent
 * Exponent bias
 * Exponential (disambiguation)
 * Exponential backoff
 * Exponential decay
 * Exponential dichotomy
 * Exponential discounting
 * Exponential diophantine equation
 * Exponential dispersion model
 * Exponential distribution
 * Exponential error
 * Exponential factorial
 * Exponential family
 * Exponential field
 * Exponential formula
 * Exponential function
 * Exponential generating function
 * Exponential-Golomb coding
 * Exponential growth
 * Exponential hierarchy
 * Exponential integral
 * Exponential integrator
 * Exponential map (Lie theory)
 * Exponential map (Riemannian geometry)
 * Exponential map (discrete dynamical systems)
 * Exponential notation
 * Exponential object  (category theory)
 * Exponential polynomials—see also Touchard polynomials  (combinatorics)
 * Exponential response formula
 * Exponential sheaf sequence
 * Exponential smoothing
 * Exponential stability
 * Exponential sum
 * Exponential time
 * Sub-exponential time
 * Exponential tree
 * Exponential type
 * Exponentially equivalent measures
 * Exponentiating by squaring
 * Exponentiation
 * Fermat's Last Theorem
 * Forgetting curve
 * Gaussian function
 * Gudermannian function
 * Half-exponential function
 * Half-life
 * Hyperbolic function
 * Inflation, inflation rate
 * Interest
 * Lambert W function
 * Lifetime (physics)
 * Limiting factor
 * Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem
 * List of integrals of exponential functions
 * List of integrals of hyperbolic functions
 * Lyapunov exponent
 * Malthusian catastrophe
 * Malthusian growth model
 * Marshall–Olkin exponential distribution
 * Matrix exponential
 * Moore's law
 * Nachbin's theorem
 * Piano key frequencies
 * p-adic exponential function
 * Power law
 * Proof that e is irrational
 * Proof that e is transcendental
 * Q-exponential
 * Radioactive decay
 * Rule of 70, Rule of 72
 * Scientific notation
 * Six exponentials theorem
 * Spontaneous emission
 * Super-exponentiation
 * Tetration
 * Versor
 * Weber–Fechner law
 * Wilkie's theorem
 * Zenzizenzizenzic

title: List of exponential topics


text:
Petawawa

Petawawa is a town located in the eastern portion of Southern Ontario. Situated in the Ottawa Valley, with a population of 18,160 (2021 Census), Petawawa is the most populous municipality in Renfrew County.

History
The earliest settlement in the Petawawa area was inhabited by the Algonquin First Nation. The name of Petawawa originates from a local Algonquin language word, biidaawewe, meaning "where one hears a noise like this". The original spelling of the name of the town was Petewawa and while there are no sources showing when it officially changed to Petawawa, Privy Council documents indicate the name Petawawa being formally used in correspondence as early as 27 March 1907. Research of photographs after 1916 with the former spelling have not been found. While the records of the official name change are non-existent, it has been speculated that the influx of immigration to the area changed the pronunciation of the word from its native roots to a more European pronunciation. Over time this may have changed the spelling of the Town's name into the present day format.

In the late 19th century, the area was surveyed and settled by emigres from Scotland, Ireland and Germany. The land was unsuitable for crops, but the heavily forested surroundings were useful for logging. Petawawa was incorporated as a township in 1865. The Canadian military acquired land in the area in 1905, which later became Canadian Forces Base Petawawa. During this period it was used as an internment camp for German POWs during World War I. and World War II. Later, it became home to the Canadian Airborne Regiment before it was disbanded in 1995. Today, it is one of Canada's largest ground forces base with members deployed throughout the world on various missions supporting the United Nations in peacekeeping or the War on Terror.

In 1961, the urban area of Petawawa was incorporated as a separate village. On July 1, 1997, the village and township re-amalgamated to form the Town of Petawawa.

Petawawa's primary employer is the Canadian Government. Most of Petawawa's residents work as civilian employees, or as members of the Canadian Forces at CFB Petawawa which is home to 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group and 4 Canadian Division Support Group.

Geography
The town lies on the west bank of the Ottawa River, at the confluence of the Petawawa River. Situated across the Ottawa River from the Laurentian Mountains, and east of Algonquin Park, Petawawa is a favourite stop for outdoor enthusiasts, anglers, hikers, canoers, and kayakers.

In addition to the primary urban core of Petawawa, the town also comprises the communities of Black Bay, Kramer Subdivision, Laurentian View, McGuire, Petawawa Point, Pine Meadows, Pine Ridge, Pinehurst Estates and Riverview.

Climate
Petawawa has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with long, cold, snowy winters and warm summers.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Petawawa had a population of $18,160$ living in $6,762$ of its $7,174$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $17,187$. With a land area of 164.7 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Transportation
Ontario Highway 17, Ontario Northlands bus service from Ottawa and the local commercial airport (Pembroke Airport) located in Petawawa, all provide access to this town.

Another major employer is Chalk River Laboratories located nearby in Chalk River.

Notable residents

 * Roy Giesebrecht, hockey player
 * Tom Green, comedian, actor
 * Tommy Mac, musician
 * Lloyd Mohns, hockey player
 * Matthew Peca, hockey player
 * Joe Reekie, hockey player
 * Mike Rowe, hockey player
 * Ray Sheppard, hockey player

title: Petawawa


text:
Flast v. Cohen

Flast v. Cohen, 392 U.S. 83 (1968), was a United States Supreme Court case holding that federal taxpayers have standing to seek relief from the courts for claims that federal tax money is being used for unconstitutional purposes in violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment.

The Supreme Court decided in Frothingham v. Mellon (1923), that a taxpayer did not have standing to sue the federal government to prevent expenditures if his only injury is an anticipated increase in taxes. Frothingham v. Mellon did not recognize a constitutional barrier against federal taxpayer lawsuits. Rather, it denied standing because the petitioner did not allege "a breach by Congress of the specific constitutional limitations imposed upon an exercise of the taxing and spending power." Because the purpose of standing is to avoid burdening the court with situations in which there is no real controversy, standing is used to ensure that the parties in the suit are properly adversarial, "not whether the issue itself is justiciable."

In 1968, Florance Flast joined several others in filing a lawsuit against Wilbur Cohen, the Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, contending that spending funds on religious schools violated the First Amendment's ban on the establishment of religion. The district court denied standing, and the Supreme Court heard the appeal.

Decision
On June 10, 1968, the Court issued an 8-1 decision.

Writing for the majority, Chief Justice Earl Warren established a "double nexus" test which a taxpayer must satisfy in order to have standing. First, he must "establish a logical link between [taxpayer] status and the type of legislative enactment attacked." Second, "show that the challenged enactment exceeds specific constitutional limitations upon the exercise of the taxing and spending power and not simply that the enactment is generally beyond the powers delegated to Congress by Art. I, §8." Only when both nexuses have been satisfied may the petitioner have standing to sue.

Ruling
The Court ruled that petitioners had satisfied both nexuses and therefore had standing to sue as taxpayers. First, their status as taxpayers only conferred standing to complain that expenditures made under the Congressional power to spend for the general welfare under the tax and spend clause were unconstitutional. Second, the Establishment Clause specifically limited the taxing and spending power:

"Our history vividly illustrates that one of the specific evils feared by those who drafted the Establishment Clause and fought for its adoption was that the taxing and spending power would be used to favor one religion over another or to support religion in general. James Madison, who is generally regarded as the leading architect of the First Amendment, observed in his famous Memorial and Remonstrance Against Religious Assessments that 'the same authority which can force a citizen to contribute three pence only of his property for the support of any one establishment, may force him to conform to any other establishment in all cases whatsoever...The Establishment Clause was designed as a specific bulwark against such potential abuses of governmental power, and that clause of the First Amendment operates as a specific constitutional limitation upon the exercise of by Congress of the taxing and spending power conferred by Art. I, §8."

The Court held that the taxpayers had standing to have their suit heard by a federal court. They expressed "no view at all on the merits of appellants' claims in this case."The Court, however, expressed "no view at all on the merits of appellants' claims in this case."

Concurring Opinions
Justice William O. Douglas advocated dealing with the seeming contradiction by overturning Frothingham completely.

Justice Potter Stewart also concurred, emphasizing the ruling permitted standing where "a specific expenditure of federal funds violates the Establishment Clause." Justice Abe Fortas wrote similarly but advocated further to "confine the ruling" strictly to cases of federal expenditure in violation of the Establishment Clause.

Dissent
In a strongly worded dissent, Justice John Marshall Harlan argued against the majority's decision. Harlan believed that Frothingham was correct in its conclusion, despite his disagreement with some of its reasoning. He argued that the United States collects and holds taxes not as a "stakeholder or trustee" for taxpayers, but as a "surrogate for the population at large." Therefore, in alignment with Frothingham, Harlan believed that individuals did not have standing as taxpayers to sue over federal expenditures. He also expressed concern about the potential abuse of public actions, legal actions brought on behalf of the public, resulting from this ruling. Harlan argued that this ruling would upset the balance of powers, leading the Court towards becoming the "Council of Revision" as proposed but ultimately rejected in the Constitutional Convention.

Significance
The Flast decision is most significant in contributing to establishing a standard for taxpayer standing; however, the Flast test has been primarily limited to cases rising under the Establishment Clause.

Flast test
The Court developed a two-part test to determine whether the plaintiffs had standing to sue. First, because a taxpayer alleges injury only by virtue of his liability for taxes, the Court held that "a taxpayer will be a proper party to allege the unconstitutionality only of exercises of congressional power under the taxing and spending clause of Art. I, § 8, of the Constitution." *479 Id., at 102, 88 S.Ct., at 1954. Second, the Court required the taxpayer to "show that the challenged enactment exceeds specific constitutional limitations upon the exercise of the taxing and spending power and not simply that the enactment is generally beyond the powers delegated to Congress by Art. I, § 8." Id., at 102-103, 88 S.Ct., at 1954."

title: Flast v. Cohen