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Grumman F4F Wildcat

The Grumman F4F Wildcat is an American carrier-based fighter aircraft that entered service in 1940 with the United States Navy, and the British Royal Navy where it was initially known as the Martlet. First used by the British in the North Atlantic, the Wildcat was the only effective fighter available to the United States Navy and Marine Corps in the Pacific Theater during the early part of the Second World War. The disappointing Brewster Buffalo was withdrawn in favor of the Wildcat and replaced as aircraft became available.

With a top speed of 318 mph, the Wildcat was outperformed by the faster (331 mph), more maneuverable, and longer-ranged Mitsubishi A6M Zero. US Navy pilots, including John "Jimmy" Thach, a pioneer of fighter tactics to deal with the A6M Zero, were greatly dissatisfied with the Wildcat's inferior performance against the Zero in the battles of the Coral Sea and Midway. The Wildcat has a claimed air combat kill-to-loss ratio of 5.9:1 in 1942 and 6.9:1 for the entire war.

Lessons learned from the Wildcat were later applied to the faster F6F Hellcat. While the Wildcat had better range and maneuverability at low speed, the Hellcat could rely on superior power and high speed performance to outperform the Zero. Wildcat production continued throughout the remainder of the war, with Wildcats serving on escort carriers, where the larger and much heavier Hellcat could not be used.

Design and development

Grumman fighter development began with the two-seat Grumman FF biplane. The FF was the first U.S. naval fighter with a retractable landing gear. The wheels retracted into the fuselage, leaving the tires visibly exposed, flush with the sides of the fuselage. Two single-seat biplane designs followed, the F2F and F3F, which established the general fuselage outlines of what would become the F4F Wildcat. In 1935, while the F3F was still undergoing flight testing, Grumman started work on its next biplane fighter, the G-16. At the time, the U.S. Navy favored a monoplane design, the Brewster F2A-1, ordering production early in 1936. However, an order was also placed for Grumman's G-16 (given the navy designation XF4F-1) as a backup in case the Brewster monoplane proved to be unsatisfactory.

It was clear to Grumman that the XF4F-1 would be inferior to the Brewster monoplane, so Grumman abandoned the XF4F-1, designing instead a new monoplane fighter, the XF4F-2. The XF4F-2 would retain the same, fuselage-mounted, hand-cranked main landing gear as the F3F, with its relatively narrow track. The unusual manually-retractable main landing gear design for all of Grumman's U.S. Navy fighters up to and through the F4F, as well as for the amphibious Grumman J2F utility biplane, was originally created in the 1920s by Leroy Grumman for Grover Loening. Landing accidents caused by failure of the main gear to fully lock into place were distressingly common.

The overall performance of Grumman's new monoplane was felt to be inferior to that of the Brewster Buffalo. The XF4F-2 was marginally faster, but the Buffalo was more maneuverable. The Buffalo was judged superior and was chosen for production. After losing out to Brewster, Grumman completely rebuilt the prototype as the XF4F-3 with new wings and tail and a supercharged version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 "Twin Wasp" radial engine. Testing of the new XF4F-3 led to an order for F4F-3 production models, the first of which was completed in February 1940. France also ordered the type, powered by a Wright R-1820 "Cyclone 9" radial engine, but France fell to the Axis powers before they could be delivered and the aircraft went instead to the British Royal Navy, who christened the new fighter the Martlet. The U.S. Navy officially adopted the aircraft type on 1 October 1941 as the Wildcat. The Royal Navy's and U.S. Navy's F4F-3s, armed with four .50 in (12.7 mm) Browning machine guns, joined active units in 1940.

On 16 December 1940, the XF4F-3 prototype, BuNo 0383, c/n 356, modified from XF4F-2, was lost under circumstances that suggested that the pilot may have been confused by the poor layout of fuel valves and flap controls and inadvertently turned the fuel valve to "off" immediately after takeoff rather than selecting flaps "up". This was the first fatality in the type.

Operational history
Even before the Wildcat had been purchased by the U.S. Navy, the French Navy and the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm (FAA) had ordered the Wildcat, with their own configurations, via the Anglo-French Purchasing Board.

Royal Navy
The F4F, initially known in British service as the Martlet, was taken on by the FAA as an interim replacement for the Fairey Fulmar. The Fulmar was a two-seat fighter with good range but operated at a performance disadvantage against single-seater fighters. Navalised Supermarine Spitfires were not available because of the greater need of the Royal Air Force. In the European theater, its first combat victory was on Christmas Day 1940, when a land-based Martlet destroyed a Junkers Ju 88 bomber over the Scapa Flow naval base. This was the first combat victory by a US-built fighter in British service in World War II.

The type also pioneered combat operations from the smaller escort carriers. Six Martlets went to sea aboard the converted former German merchant vessel HMS Audacity (D10) in September 1941 and shot down several Luftwaffe Fw 200 Condor bombers during highly effective convoy escort operations. These were the first of many Wildcats to engage in aerial combat at sea, including Convoy HG 76 to Gibraltar, in December 1941.

The British received 300 Eastern Aircraft FM-1s giving them the designation Martlet V in 1942–43 and 340 FM-2s, (having changed to using the same name as the US) as the Wildcat VI. Nearly 1,200 Wildcats were flown by the FAA and by January 1944, the Martlet name was dropped and the type was identified as the Wildcat. In March 1945, Wildcats shot down four Messerschmitt Bf 109s over Norway, the FAA's last Wildcat victories. "I would still assess the Wildcat as the outstanding naval fighter of the early years of World War II ... I can vouch as a matter of personal experience, this Grumman fighter was one of the finest shipboard aeroplanes ever created."

The last air raid of the war in Europe was carried out by Fleet Air Arm aircraft in Operation Judgement on May 5, 1945. Twenty eight Wildcat VI aircraft from 846, 853 and 882 Naval Air Squadron, flying from escort carriers, took part in an attack on a U-boat depot near Harstad, Norway. Two ships and a U-boat were sunk with the loss of one Wildcat and one Grumman Avenger torpedo-bomber.

Pacific
The Wildcat was generally outperformed by the Mitsubishi Zero, its major opponent in the early part of the Pacific Theater but held its own partly because, with relatively heavy armor and self-sealing fuel tanks, the Grumman airframe could survive far more damage than its lightweight, unarmored Japanese rival. Many U.S. Navy fighter pilots were saved by the Wildcat's ZB homing device, which allowed them to find their carriers in poor visibility, provided they could get within the 30 mi range of the homing beacon. (However, the Zed Baker was wildly inconsistent in practice, especially during the Battle of Midway, when an entire squadron of Wildcats crashed in the sea after failing to locate their carriers).

In the hands of an expert pilot with a tactical advantage, the Wildcat could prove a difficult opponent even against the formidable Zero. After analyzing Fleet Air Tactical Unit Intelligence Bureau reports describing the new carrier fighter, USN Commander "Jimmy" Thach devised a defensive tactic that allowed Wildcat formations to act in a coordinated maneuver to counter a diving attack, called the "Thach Weave". The most widely employed tactic during the Guadalcanal Campaign was high-altitude ambush, where hit-and-run maneuvers were executed using altitude advantage. This was possible due to an early warning system composed of Coastwatchers and radar. On rare occasions, when Wildcats were unable to gain altitude in time, they would suffer many losses. On 2 October 1942, a Japanese air raid from Rabaul was not detected in time and the Cactus Air Force lost six Wildcats to only one Zero destroyed. During the most intense initial phase of the Guadalcanal Campaign, between 1 August and 15 November, combat records indicate that US lost 115 Wildcats and Japanese lost 106 Zeros to all causes; the Japanese lost many more pilots compared to the US.

Thach was greatly dissatisfied and a vocal critic of the Wildcat's performance during the war (as were many US carrier pilots), stating in his Midway action report;

"It is indeed surprising that any of our pilots returned alive. Any success our fighter pilots may have had against the Japanese Zero fighter is not due to the performance of the airplane we fly but is the result of the comparatively poor marksmanship of the Japanese, stupid mistakes made by a few of their pilots and superior marksmanship and team work of some of our pilots. The F4F airplane is pitifully inferior in climb, maneuverability and speed."

Four U.S. Marine Corps Wildcats played a prominent role in the defense of Wake Island in December 1941. USN and USMC aircraft formed the fleet's primary air defense during the Battle of Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway and land-based Wildcats played a major role during the Guadalcanal Campaign of 1942–43. It was not until 1943 that more advanced naval fighters capable of taking on the Zero on more even terms, the Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair, reached the South Pacific theater.

The Japanese ace Saburō Sakai described the Wildcat's capacity to absorb damage:

"I had full confidence in my ability to destroy the Grumman and decided to finish off the enemy fighter with only my 7.7 mm machine guns. I turned the 20 mm cannon switch to the 'off' position, and closed in. For some strange reason, even after I had poured about five or six hundred rounds of ammunition directly into the Grumman, the airplane did not fall, but kept on flying. I thought this very odd—it had never happened before—and closed the distance between the two airplanes until I could almost reach out and touch the Grumman. To my surprise, the Grumman's rudder and tail were torn to shreds, looking like an old torn piece of rag. With his plane in such condition, no wonder the pilot was unable to continue fighting! A Zero which had taken that many bullets would have been a ball of fire by now."

Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. At first, GM produced the FM-1 (identical to the F4F-4 but with four guns). Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype, informally known as the "Wilder Wildcat") optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine and a taller tail to cope with the increased torque.

From 1943, Wildcats equipped with bomb racks were primarily assigned to escort carriers for use against submarines and attacking ground targets, though they would also continue to score kills against Japanese fighters, bombers and kamikaze aircraft. Larger fighters such as the Hellcat and the Corsair and dive bombers were needed aboard fleet carriers and the Wildcat's slower landing speed made it more suitable for shorter flight decks.

In the Battle off Samar on 25 October 1944, escort carriers of Task Unit 77.4.3 ("Taffy 3") and their escort of destroyers and destroyer escorts found themselves as the sole force standing between vulnerable troop transport and supply ships engaged in landings on the Philippine island of Leyte and a powerful Japanese surface fleet of battleships and cruisers. In desperation, lightly armed Avengers and FM-2 Wildcats from Taffys 1, 2 and 3 resorted to tactics such as strafing ships, including the bridge of the Japanese battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Yamato, while the destroyers and destroyer escorts charged the enemy. Confused by the fierce resistance and having suffered significant damage, the Japanese fleet eventually withdrew from the battle.

Atlantic
U.S. Navy Wildcats participated in Operation Torch. USN escort carriers in the Atlantic used Wildcats until the end of the war. In October 1943 F4Fs participated in Operation Leader, an anti-shipping strike on Norway.

Totals
In all, 7,860 Wildcats were built. During the course of the war, Navy and Marine F4Fs and FMs flew 15,553 combat sorties (14,027 of these from aircraft carriers ), destroying a claimed figure of 1,327 enemy aircraft at a cost of 178 aerial losses, 24 to ground/shipboard fire, and 49 to operational causes (an overall claimed kill-to-loss ratio of 6.9:1). True to their escort fighter role, Wildcats dropped only 154 tons of bombs during the war.

F4F-1/-2
The original Grumman F4F-1 design was a biplane, which proved inferior to rival designs, necessitating a complete redesign as a monoplane named the F4F-2. This design was still not competitive with the Brewster F2A Buffalo which won initial U.S. Navy orders, but when the F4F-3 development was fitted with a more powerful version of the engine, a Pratt & Whitney Twin Wasp R-1830-76, featuring a two-stage supercharger, it showed its true potential.

F4F-3
U.S. Navy orders followed as did some (with Wright Cyclone engines) from France; these ended up with the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm after the fall of France and entered service on 8 September 1940. These aircraft, designated by Grumman as G-36A, had a different cowling from other earlier F4Fs and fixed wings, and were intended to be fitted with French armament and avionics following delivery. In British service initially, the aircraft were known as the Martlet I, but not all Martlets would be to exactly the same specifications as U.S. Navy aircraft. All Martlet Is featured the four .50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns of the F4F-3 with 450 rpg. The British directly ordered and received a version with the original Twin Wasp, but again with a modified cowling, under the manufacturer designation G-36B. These aircraft were given the designation Martlet II by the British. The first 10 G-36Bs were fitted with non-folding wings and were given the designation Martlet III. These were followed by 30 folding wing aircraft (F4F-3As) which were originally destined for the Hellenic Air Force, which were also designated Martlet IIIs. On paper, the designation changed to Martlet III(A) when the second series of Martlet III was introduced.

Poor design of the armament installation on early F4Fs caused these otherwise reliable machine guns to frequently jam, a problem common to wing-mounted weapons of many U.S. fighters early in the war. An F4F-3 flown by Lieutenant Edward O'Hare shot down, within a few minutes, five Mitsubishi twin-engine bombers attacking USS Lexington (CV-2) off Bougainville on 20 February 1942. But contrasting with O'Hare's performance, his wingman was unable to participate because his guns would not function.

A shortage of two-stage superchargers led to the development of the F4F-3A, which was basically the F4F-3 but with a 1200 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-90 radial engine with a more primitive single-stage two-speed supercharger. The F4F-3A, which was capable of 312 mph at 16000 ft, was used side by side with the F4F-3, but its poorer performance made it unpopular with U.S. Navy fighter pilots. The F4F-3A would enter service as the Martlet III(B).

At the time of Pearl Harbor, only USS Enterprise (CV-6) had a fully equipped Wildcat squadron, VF-6 with F4F-3As. Enterprise was then transferring a detachment of VMF-211, also equipped with F4F-3s, to Wake. USS Saratoga (CV-3) was in San Diego, working up for operations of the F4F-3s of VF-3. 11 F4F-3s of VMF-211 were at the Ewa Marine Air Corps Station on Oahu; nine of these were damaged or destroyed during the Japanese attack. The detachment of VMF-211 on Wake lost seven Wildcats to Japanese attacks on 8 December, but the remaining five put up a fierce defense, making the first bomber kill on 9 December. The destroyer JAPANESE DESTROYER Kisaragi was sunk by the Wildcats, and the Japanese invasion force retreated.

In May 1942, the F4F-3s of VF-2 and VF-42, aboard USS Yorktown (CV-5) and Lexington, participated in the Battle of the Coral Sea. Lexington and Yorktown fought against the fleet carriers JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Zuikaku and JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Shōkaku and the light carrier JAPANESE AIRCRAFT CARRIER Shōhō in this battle, in an attempt to halt a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby on Papua. During these battles, it became clear that attacks without fighter escort amounted to suicide, but that the fighter component on the carriers was completely insufficient to provide both fighter cover for the carrier and an escort for an attack force. Most U.S. carriers carried fewer than 20 fighters.

F4F-3P
In June 1942, 17 F4F-3s and one F4F-3A (18 total) were converted into F4F-3P photoreconnaissance planes. The F4F-3Ps were for short-range tactical reconnaissance, as their reserve fuel tanks were removed and replaced with Fairchild F-56 cameras. The F4F-3Ps retained their machine guns and were mainly flown by VMO-251 on air defense missions from Espiritu Santo in the South Pacific, arriving in July 1942. In October 1942, long-ranged and unarmed F4F-7s began replacing the F4F-3Ps, but a detachment of three F4F-3P from VMO-155 operated from the Bogue-class escort carrier USS Nassau (CVE-16) during the amphibious invasion of Attu Island in May 1943. Boston, MA, USA: Little, Brown and Co./Atlantic Monthly Press

F4F-3S "Wildcatfish"

This floatplane version of the F4F-3 was developed for use at forward island bases in the Pacific, before the construction of airfields. It was inspired by appearance of the A6M2-N "Rufe", a modification of the Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zeke". BuNo 4038 was modified to become the F4F-3S "Wildcatfish". Twin floats, manufactured by Edo Aircraft Corporation, were fitted. To restore the stability, small auxiliary fins were added to the tailplane. Because this was still insufficient, a ventral fin was added later.

The F4F-3S was first flown 28 February 1943. The weight and drag of the floats reduced the maximum speed to 241 mph. As the performance of the basic F4F-3 was already below that of the Zero, the F4F-3S was clearly of limited usefulness. In any case, the construction of the airfields at forward bases by the "Seabees" was surprisingly quick. Only one was converted.

F4F-4

A new version, the F4F-4, entered service in 1941 with six machine guns and the Grumman-patented Sto-Wing folding wing system, which allowed more aircraft to be stored on an aircraft carrier, increasing the number of fighters that could be parked on a surface by more than a factor of 2. The F4F-4 was the definitive version that saw the most combat service in the early war years, including the Battle of Midway. Navy F4F-3s were replaced by F4F-4s in June 1942. During the Battle of Midway, only VMF-221 still used F4F-3s. VF-42 of the Yorktown was the last carrier group converted to the F4F-4, and that was done as it left Pearl Harbor on the way to the Battle of Midway as VF-3 flew in new F4F-4s with Commander Thach.

The F4F-4 version was less popular with American pilots because the same amount of ammunition was spread over two additional guns, decreasing firing time. With the F4F-3's four .50 in (12.7 mm) guns and 450 rpg, pilots had 34 seconds of firing time; six guns decreased ammunition to 240 rpg, which could be expended in less than 20 seconds. The increase to six guns was attributed to the Royal Navy, who wanted greater firepower to deal with German and Italian foes. Jimmy Thach is quoted as saying, "A pilot who cannot hit with four guns will miss with eight." Extra guns and folding wings meant extra weight and reduced performance: the F4F-4 was capable of only about 318 mph at 19400 ft. Rate of climb was noticeably worse in the F4F-4; while Grumman optimistically claimed the F4F-4 could climb at a modest 1950 ft per minute, in combat conditions, pilots found their F4F-4s capable of ascending at only 500 to 1000 ft per minute. Moreover, the F4F-4's folding wing was intended to allow five F4F-4s to be stowed in the space required by two F4F-3s. In practice, the folding wings allowed an increase of about 50% in the number of Wildcats carried aboard U.S. fleet aircraft carriers. A variant of the F4F-4, designated F4F-4B for contractual purposes, was supplied to the British with a modified cowling and Wright Cyclone engine. These aircraft received the designation of Martlet IV.

F4F-5 Wildcat
Two F4F-3s (the 3rd and 4th production aircraft, BuNo 1846/1847) were fitted with a Wright R-1820-40 engine and designated XF4F-5.

FM-1/-2 Wildcat
General Motors / Eastern Aircraft produced 5,280 FM variants of the Wildcat. Grumman's Wildcat production ceased in early 1943 to make way for the newer F6F Hellcat, but General Motors continued producing Wildcats for both U.S. Navy and Fleet Air Arm use. Late in the war, the Wildcat was obsolescent as a front line fighter compared to the faster (380 mph/610 km/h) F6F Hellcat or much faster (446 mph/718 km/h) F4U Corsair. However, they were adequate for small escort carriers against submarine and shore threats. These relatively modest ships only carried two types of aircraft, the Wildcats and GM-built TBM Avengers. The Wildcat's lower landing speed and ability to take off without a catapult made it more suitable for shorter flight decks. At first, GM produced the FM-1, identical to the F4F-4, but reduced the number of guns to four, and added wing racks for two 250 lb (110 kg) bombs or six rockets. Production later switched to the improved FM-2 (based on Grumman's XF4F-8 prototype) optimized for small-carrier operations, with a more powerful engine (the 1350 hp Wright R-1820-56), and a taller tail to cope with the torque.

F4F-7
The F4F-7 was a photoreconnaissance variant, with armor and armament removed. It had non-folding "wet" wings that carried an additional 555 gal (2,101 L) of fuel for a total of about 700 gal (2,650 L), increasing its range to 3,700 mi (5,955 km). A total of 21 were built.

F2M Wildcat

The F2M-1 was a planned development of the FM-1 by General Motors / Eastern Aircraft to be powered by the improved XR-1820-70 engine, but the project was cancelled before any aircraft were built.

Martlet Mk I
At the end of 1939, Grumman received a French order for 81 aircraft of model G-36A, to equip their new Joffre-class aircraft carriers: FRENCH AIRCRAFT CARRIER Joffre and FRENCH AIRCRAFT CARRIER Painlevé. The main difference with the basic model G-36 was due to the unavailability for export of the two-stage supercharged engine of F4F-3. The G-36A was powered by the nine-cylinder, single-row Wright R-1820-G205A radial engine, of 1200 hp and with a single-stage two-speed supercharger.

The G-36A also had French instruments (with metric calibration), radio and gunsight. The throttle was modified to conform to French pre-war practice: the throttle lever was moved towards the pilot (i.e. backward) to increase engine power. The armament which was to be fitted in France was six 7.5 mm (.296 in) Darne machine guns (two in the fuselage and four in the wings). The first G-36A was flown on 11 May 1940. After France's defeat in the Battle of France, all contracts were taken over by Britain. The throttle was modified again, four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) guns were installed in the wings and most traces of the original ownership removed.

The Martlets were modified for British use by Blackburn, which continued to do this for all later marks. British gunsights, catapult spools and other items were installed. After attempts to fit British radio sets, it was decided to use the superior American equipment. The first Martlets entered British service in August 1940, with 804 Naval Air Squadron, stationed at Hatston in the Orkney Islands. The Martlet Mk I did not have a wing folding mechanism and was therefore used primarily from land bases, with the notable exception of six aircraft of 882 Sqn aboard Illustrious from March 1942. In April 1942 Illustrious transferred two Martlet I aircraft to HMS Archer while in port at Freetown. One of her four retained Martlet I aircraft were subsequently fitted with folding wings by ship's staff during passage to Durban. In 1940, Belgium also placed an order for at least 10 G-36A's. These were to be modified with the same changes to the French aircraft, plus the removal of the tailhook as they were to be landbased. Belgium surrendered before any aircraft were delivered and by 10 May 1940, the aircraft order was transferred to the Royal Navy.

Martlet Mk II
Before the Fleet Air Arm took on charge the Martlet Mk Is, it had already ordered 100 G-36B fighters. The British chose the Pratt & Whitney R-1830-S3C4-G engine to power this aircraft; this too had a single-stage, two-speed supercharger. The FAA decided to accept a delay in delivery to get Martlets fitted out with the Grumman-designed and patented Sto-Wing folding wing system first fitted onto U.S. Navy F4F-4 Wildcats, which were vitally important if the Martlet was to be used from the first 3 Illustrious class carriers which had elevators that were too narrow to accommodate non-folding wing aircraft. Nevertheless, the first 10 received had fixed wings. The first Martlet with folding wings was not delivered until August 1941.

In contrast to the USN F4F-3, the British aircraft were fitted with armor and self-sealing fuel tanks. The Mk II also had a larger tailwheel. For carrier operations, the "sting" tail hook and attachment point for the American single-point catapult launch system were considered important advantages. Nevertheless, the Martlets were modified to have British-style catapult spools. Deliveries of the folding-wing G-36Bs began in August 1941, with 36 shipped to the UK and 54 shipped to the Far East; they were designated "Martlet Mark II". Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment (A&AEE) testing of the Martlet II at a mean weight of approximately 7,350 lb showed a maximum speed of 293 mph at 5,400 ft and 13,800 ft, a maximum climb rate of 1940 ft/min at 7,600 ft at 7,790 lb weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft of 12.5 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,790 lb was 31,000 ft.

The Martlet was the second single-seat, monoplane fighter to operate from Royal Navy aircraft carriers following the introduction of the Sea Hurricane IB on HMS Furious (47) in July 1941.

The majority of the Martlet Mk IIs were sent to the Far East. The first shipboard operations of the type in British service were in September 1941, aboard HMS Audacity (D10), a very small escort carrier with a carrier deck of 420 ft by 59 ft, no elevators and no hangar deck. The six Wildcats were parked on the deck at all times. On its first voyage, it served as escort carrier for a convoy to Gibraltar. On 20 September, a German Fw 200 was shot down. On the next voyage, four Fw 200 Condors fell to the guns of the Martlets, and of the combined total, two of these five Condors were shot down by Eric "Winkle" Brown during his time aboard. Operations from Audacity also demonstrated that the fighter cover was useful against U-boats. Audacity was sunk by a U-boat on 21 December 1941, and of the pilots only Brown and one other survived, but it had already proved the usefulness of escort carriers.

In May 1942, 881 and 882 squadrons on HMS Illustrious (87) participated in operations against Madagascar. In August 1942, 806 NAS on HMS Indomitable (92) provided fighter cover for a convoy to Malta. Later in that year they participated in the landings in French North Africa.

Martlet Mk III
The first 30 F4F-3As were released for sale to Greece, after the Italian invasion in November 1940. However, at the defeat of Greece in April 1941 the aircraft had only reached Gibraltar. They were taken over by the FAA as Martlet Mk III(B). As these aircraft did not have folding wings, they were only used from land bases. They served in a shore-based role in the Western Desert.

Ten fixed-wing G-36Bs were used by the FAA as Martlet III(A).

Martlet Mk IV
The Royal Navy purchased 220 F4F-4s adapted to British requirements. The main difference was the use of a Wright R-1820-40B Cyclone in a distinctly more rounded and compact cowling, with a single double-wide flap on each side of the rear and no lip intake. These machines were named Martlet Mk IV. Boscombe Down testing of the Martlet IV at 7,350 lb weight showed a maximum speed of 278 mph at 3,400 ft and 298 mph at 14,600 ft, a maximum climb rate of 1580 ft/min at 6,200 ft at 7,740 lb weight, and a time to climb to 20,000 ft of 14.6 minutes. The service ceiling at 7,740 lb was 30,100 ft.

Martlet Mk V
The Fleet Air Arm purchased 312 FM-1s, originally with the designation of Martlet V. In January 1944, a decision was made to retain the American names for US-supplied aircraft, redesignating the batch as the Wildcat V.

Wildcat Mk VI
The Wildcat VI was the Air Ministry name for the FM-2 Wildcat in FAA service.

Operators

 * 🇧🇪 Belgium
 * Belgian Air Force: at least 10 G-36A's ordered, never delivered, transferred to France (who then transferred them to the Royal Navy) after surrender.
 * 🇫🇷 France
 * Aeronavale: 81 aircraft ordered, never delivered, transferred to Royal Navy after French defeat.
 * 🇬🇷 Greece
 * Hellenic Air Force: 30 Martlet Mk III's ordered, delivered to Gibraltar, transferred to Royal Navy after defeat.

 * 🇨🇦 Canada
 * Royal Canadian Navy: RCN personnel assigned to the Royal Navy HMS Puncher (D79), were to provide the RCN with experience in aircraft carrier operations. The RCN flew 14 Martlets as part of 881 (RN) Squadron from February–July 1945.
 * Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Navy
 * United States Marine Corps
 * United States Marine Corps

title: Grumman F4F Wildcat


text:
Jack Smith (Hotmail)

Jack Smith is an American businessman who co-founded the first free web-based email service, Hotmail.com in 1996.

He has been the CEO of Proximex since 2007.

Career
Jack Smith worked at FirePower Systems Inc., a subsidiary of Canon Inc., where he designed integrated circuits for use in high performance PowerPC workstations, and invented and marketed the first web server accelerator card that boosted server performance significantly.

Later on at Apple Computer, he worked on several of Apple's early PowerBook computers.

He has been the founder and president of EEE.com, building custom Internet web solutions.

Smith came up with the idea for anonymous web-based email in 1995, and worked with Sabeer Bhatia, his colleague at Apple, to found the company. The company opened on July 4, 1996, with Smith as its Chief Technology Officer.

In December 1997, Bhatia sold Hotmail to Microsoft for a reported $400 million.

Smith went on to co-found Akamba Corporation and work as its CEO.

He had also served as a Director of Engineering of Microsoft, first heading its Hotmail engineering division, and then leading a team developing next generation Internet software infrastructure.

In 2007 he was named CEO of Proximex, a physical security information management software provider.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jack Smith (Hotmail)


text:
The Skyliners

The Skyliners are an American doo-wop group from Pittsburgh. The original lineup was: Jimmy Beaumont (lead), Janet Vogel (soprano), Wally Lester (tenor), Jackie Taylor (bass voice, guitarist), Joe Verscharen (baritone). The Skyliners were best known for their 1959 hit, "Since I Don't Have You".

History
The Skyliners also hit the top 40 with "This I Swear" and "Pennies from Heaven". Other classics include "It Happened Today" (1959), "Close Your Eyes" (1961), and "Comes Love" (1962). The original group dissolved in 1963, but re-united eleven years later (without Jackie Taylor), for what would become their last charted record, "Where Have They Gone?"

In 1965, Jimmy Beaumont recorded two notable singles for the Bang label: the first record, "Tell Me"/"I Feel Like I'm Falling in Love", had medium-tempo soul-styled tracks.

For his second Bang 45, "You Got Too Much Going for You"/"I Never Loved Her Anyway", Beaumont transformed into an impressive soul singer, sounding nothing like his previous, more pop-styled efforts. It led some to question in later years, if it actually was his singing. These two tracks are now considered Northern Soul collectibles. The single was also issued on UK London HLZ 10059 in 1966.

Jackie Taylor was drafted into the U.S. Army about 1965. In 1975 Wally Lester and Joe Versharen left the group; they were replaced by new members, Jimmie Ross and Bob Sholes.

In 1978, the Detroit based record producer Don Davis — who produced Marilyn McCoo and Billy Davis Jr., Johnny Taylor, the Dramatics, and the Dells — picked up one of his favorite groups (the Skyliners) to record in his United Sound Studios. They recorded the group's "comeback" album for the RCA subsidiary, Tortoise International Records. The songs "Oh, How Happy" and "The Love Bug" were included, as was a hefty re-make of Dan Schafer's original RCA Victor single, "A Day Without You, Dear".

Janet Vogel committed suicide in 1980; Cathy Cooper joined the group as a replacement. She and Ross left two years later to form a duo; they were replaced by Rick Morris and Donna Groom.

Morris retired in 1993. Beaumont invited David Proch to join the group and he accepted. Also performing with the group at this time was Tom Sholes, brother of Bob Sholes. The two were local to the group; they attended St George High School in the Allentown neighborhood of Pittsburgh. The group became Beaumont, Groom, Proch, and Nick Pociask.

David Proch (at age 44) the third person to sing tenor for the Skyliners, died on October 19, 1998, in a car accident. His car collided with a truck hauling asphalt on U.S. Route 30 near Ligonier, Pennsylvania. Proch's place was taken by Dick Muse, a former member of the Laurels. Rick Morris replaced Muse in 2011. Frank Czuri replaced Morris in 2013. In January 2019 Jim Gregorakis replaced Nick Pociask. Eric Bruce replaced Frank Czuri in September 2019.

Their longtime manager and producer Joe Rock, who also co-wrote "Since I Don't Have You", died on April 4, 2000, at age 63, after complications from quadruple bypass heart surgery.

Four of the original members have died:
 * Janet Vogel (born June 10, 1942, in Pittsburgh) committed suicide on February 21, 1980, aged 37
 * Joe Verscharen (born August 30, 1940, in Pittsburgh) died of cancer on November 2, 2007, aged 67
 * Wally Lester (born Walter Paul Lester, Jr. on October 5, 1941, in Pittsburgh) died of pancreatic cancer in Southport, North Carolina on April 21, 2015, aged 73
 * Jimmy Beaumont (born James Beaumont on October 21, 1940, in Pittsburgh) died in McKeesport, Pennsylvania, on October 7, 2017, aged 76.

Until his death, Jimmy Beaumont performed with the Skyliners in their line-up of Nick Pociask, Frank Czuri, and Donna Groom (whose husband, Mark Groom, has been the group's drummer/conductor for more than 25 years).

Albums

 * The Skyliners— Calico CLP-3000 (Mono only) (1959)
 * Since I Don't Have You — Original Sound OSR-LPM 5010 (Mono)/OSR-LPS-8873 (Stereo) (1963)
 * Once Upon a Time — Kama Sutra KSBS-2026 (1971)
 * The Skyliners — Tortoise International BXL1-2749 (1978)

Jimmy Beaumont solo singles

 * "The End of a Story" / "Baion Rhythms"—Colpix 607–1961
 * "Ev'rybody's Cryin'" (Billboard #100) / "Camera"—May 112–1961
 * "I Shoulda Listened to Mama" / "Juarez"—May 115–1962
 * "I'm Gonna Try My Wings" / "Never Say Goodbye"—May 120–1962
 * "Give Her My Best" / "I'll Always Be in Love with You"—May 136–1963
 * "There's No Other Love" / "Please Send Me Someone to Love"—Gallant 3007–1964
 * "Love Is a Dangerous Game" / "Just A Little Closer"—Gallant 3012–1964
 * "I Feel Like I'm Falling in Love" (Billboard #123) / "Tell Me"—Bang 510–1965
 * "You Got Too Much Going for You" / "I Never Loved Her Anyway"—Bang 525–1966

Janet Vogel solo single as Janet Deane

 * "Another Night Alone" / "I'm Glad I Waited"—Gateway 719–1963

Awards and recognition
The Skyliners were inducted into The Vocal Group Hall of Fame in 2002.

On August 11, 2019, a section of road in McKeesport PA's Renziehausen Park, Tulip Drive, was renamed Jimmy Beaumont Blvd. With Beaumont's family present, the dedication ceremony took place at the park's Lions Bandshell and was followed by a concert with the current Skyliners.

title: The Skyliners


text:
Glycoside

In chemistry, a glycoside is a molecule in which a sugar is bound to another functional group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides play numerous important roles in living organisms. Many plants store chemicals in the form of inactive glycosides. These can be activated by enzyme hydrolysis, which causes the sugar part to be broken off, making the chemical available for use. Many such plant glycosides are used as medications. Several species of Heliconius butterfly are capable of incorporating these plant compounds as a form of chemical defense against predators. In animals and humans, poisons are often bound to sugar molecules as part of their elimination from the body.

In formal terms, a glycoside is any molecule in which a sugar group is bonded through its anomeric carbon to another group via a glycosidic bond. Glycosides can be linked by an O- (an O-glycoside), N- (a glycosylamine), S- (a thioglycoside), or C- (a C-glycoside) glycosidic bond. According to the IUPAC, the name "C-glycoside" is a misnomer; the preferred term is "C-glycosyl compound". The given definition is the one used by IUPAC, which recommends the Haworth projection to correctly assign stereochemical configurations.

Many authors require in addition that the sugar be bonded to a non-sugar for the molecule to qualify as a glycoside, thus excluding polysaccharides. The sugar group is then known as the glycone and the non-sugar group as the aglycone or genin part of the glycoside. The glycone can consist of a single sugar group (monosaccharide), two sugar groups (disaccharide), or several sugar groups (oligosaccharide).

The first glycoside ever identified was amygdalin, by the French chemists Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, in 1830.

Related compounds
Molecules containing an N-glycosidic bond are known as glycosylamines. Many authors in biochemistry call these compounds N-glycosides and group them with the glycosides; this is considered a misnomer and is discouraged by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry. Glycosylamines and glycosides are grouped together as glycoconjugates; other glycoconjugates include glycoproteins, glycopeptides, peptidoglycans, glycolipids, and lipopolysaccharides.

Glycans are involved in various biological processes, including disease pathways. C-glycosides are un-natural glycan analogues where the glycosidic oxygen is replaced with a carbon substituent. •C-glycosides are cyclic ethers and not acetals as their parent O-glycosides. They are more stable to chemical and enzymatic hydrolysis since the anomeric position is now a carbon substituent. So, they are extensively used as mechanistic probes and potential therapeutics. They have different conformational and receptor binding properties than their O-glycosidic counterpart. In most cases they have higher efficacy and are better drugs like the example show.If you need to be convinced take for example the case of alpha galactose ceramide, the famous anticancer drug, alphagalactose ceramide. The c-analogue was comparied with its parent o-glycoside In treatment of the mouse malaria and melanoma model. In both cases the c-glycoside shoes to have better drug efficacy then the o-glycoside. In the mouse malaria model, they treated sporozoites with both the c-glycoside and the o-glycoside and after 42 hours the c-glycoside was significanly better at treating the sporozoited then theoglycoside.Similirly, in the melanoma model, skin treated with the c-glycoside showed much better results than treatment with the o-glycoside at the same dosage.

Schmieg, et al. J. Exp. Med. 2003, 198, 1631–164

Dall’Olio, F.; Pucci, M.; Malagolini, N. et.al Cancers. 2021, 13 (21), 5273.

Chemistry
Much of the chemistry of glycosides is explained in the article on glycosidic bonds. For example, the glycone and aglycone portions can be chemically separated by hydrolysis in the presence of acid and can be hydrolyzed by alkali. There are also numerous enzymes that can form and break glycosidic bonds. The most important cleavage enzymes are the glycoside hydrolases, and the most important synthetic enzymes in nature are glycosyltransferases. Genetically altered enzymes termed glycosynthases have been developed that can form glycosidic bonds in excellent yield.

There are many ways to chemically synthesize glycosidic bonds. Fischer glycosidation refers to the synthesis of glycosides by the reaction of unprotected monosaccharides with alcohols (usually as solvent) in the presence of a strong acid catalyst. The Koenigs-Knorr reaction is the condensation of glycosyl halides and alcohols in the presence of metal salts such as silver carbonate or mercuric oxide.

Classification
Glycosides can be classified by the glycone, by the type of glycosidic bond, and by the aglycone.

By glycone/presence of sugar
If the glycone group of a glycoside is glucose, then the molecule is a glucoside; if it is fructose, then the molecule is a fructoside; if it is glucuronic acid, then the molecule is a glucuronide; etc. In the body, toxic substances are often bonded to glucuronic acid to increase their water solubility; the resulting glucuronides are then excreted. Compounds can also be generally defined based on the class of glycone; for example, biosides are glycosides with a disaccharide (biose) glycone.

By type of glycosidic bond
Depending on whether the glycosidic bond lies "below" or "above" the plane of the cyclic sugar molecule, glycosides are classified as α-glycosides or β-glycosides. Some enzymes such as α-amylase can only hydrolyze α-linkages; others, such as emulsin, can only affect β-linkages.

There are four type of linkages present between glycone and aglycone:
 * C-linkage/glycosidic bond, "nonhydrolysable by acids or enzymes"
 * O-linkage/glycosidic bond
 * N-linkage/glycosidic bond
 * S-linkage/glycosidic bond

By aglycone
Glycosides are also classified according to the chemical nature of the aglycone. For purposes of biochemistry and pharmacology, this is the most useful classification.

Alcoholic glycosides
An example of an alcoholic glycoside is salicin, which is found in the genus Salix. Salicin is converted in the body into salicylic acid, which is closely related to aspirin and has analgesic, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory effects.

Anthraquinone glycosides
These glycosides contain an aglycone group that is a derivative of anthraquinone. They have a laxative effect. They are mainly found in dicot plants except the family Liliaceae which are monocots. They are present in senna, rhubarb and Aloe species. Anthron and anthranol are reduced forms of anthraquinone.

Coumarin glycosides
Here, the aglycone is coumarin or a derivative. An example is apterin which is reported to dilate the coronary arteries as well as block calcium channels. Other coumarin glycosides are obtained from dried leaves of Psoralea corylifolia.

Chromone glycosides
In this case, the aglycone is called benzo-gamma-pyrone.

Cyanogenic glycosides
In this case, the aglycone contains a cyanohydrin group. Plants that make cyanogenic glycosides store them in the vacuole, but, if the plant is attacked, they are released and become activated by enzymes in the cytoplasm. These remove the sugar part of the molecule, allowing the cyanohydrin structure to collapse and release toxic hydrogen cyanide. Storing them in inactive forms in the vacuole prevents them from damaging the plant under normal conditions.

Along with playing a role in deterring herbivores, in some plants they control germination, bud formation, carbon and nitrogen transport, and possibly act as antioxidants. The production of cyanogenic glycosides is an evolutionarily conserved function, appearing in species as old as ferns and as recent as angiosperms. These compounds are made by around 3,000 species. In screens they are found in about 11% of cultivated plants but only 5% of plants overall; humans seem to have selected for them.

Examples include amygdalin and prunasin which are made by the bitter almond tree; other species that produce cyanogenic glycosides are sorghum (from which dhurrin, the first cyanogenic glycoside to be identified, was first isolated), barley, flax, white clover, and cassava, which produces linamarin and lotaustralin.

Amygdalin and a synthetic derivative, laetrile, were investigated as potential drugs to treat cancer and were heavily promoted as alternative medicine; they are ineffective and dangerous.

Some butterfly species, such as the Dryas iulia and Parnassius smintheus, have evolved to use the cyanogenic glycosides found in their host plants as a form of protection against predators through their unpalatability.

Flavonoid glycosides
Here, the aglycone is a flavonoid. Examples of this large group of glycosides include:
 * Hesperidin (aglycone: hesperetin, glycone: rutinose)
 * Naringin (aglycone: naringenin, glycone: rutinose)
 * Rutin (aglycone: quercetin, glycone: rutinose)
 * Quercitrin (aglycone: quercetin, glycone: rhamnose)

Among the important effects of flavonoids are their antioxidant effect. They are also known to decrease capillary fragility.

Phenolic glycosides
Here, the aglycone is a simple phenolic structure. An example is arbutin found in the Common Bearberry Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. It has a urinary antiseptic effect.

Saponins
These compounds give a permanent froth when shaken with water. They also cause hemolysis of red blood cells. Saponin glycosides are found in liquorice. Their medicinal value is due to their expectorant, corticoid and anti-inflammatory effects. Steroid saponins are important starting material for the production of semi-synthetic glucocorticoids and other steroid hormones such as progesterone; for example in Dioscorea wild yam the sapogenin diosgenin, in the form of its glycoside dioscin. The ginsenosides are triterpene glycosides and ginseng saponins from Panax ginseng (Chinese ginseng) and Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng). In general, the use of the term saponin in organic chemistry is discouraged, because many plant constituents can produce foam, and many triterpene-glycosides are amphipolar under certain conditions, acting as a surfactant. More modern uses of saponins in biotechnology are as adjuvants in vaccines: Quil A and its derivative QS-21, isolated from the bark of Quillaja saponaria Molina, to stimulate both the Th1 immune response and the production of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) against exogenous antigens make them ideal for use in subunit vaccines and vaccines directed against intracellular pathogens as well as for therapeutic cancer vaccines but with the aforementioned side-effect of hemolysis. Saponins are also natural ruminal antiprotozoal agents that are potential to improve ruminal microbial fermentation reducing ammonia concentrations and methane production in ruminant animals.

Steroid glycosides (cardiac glycosides)
In these glycosides, the aglycone part is a steroid nucleus. These glycosides are found in the plant genera Digitalis, Scilla, and Strophanthus. They are used in the treatment of heart diseases, e.g., congestive heart failure (historically as now recognised does not improve survivability; other agents are now preferred) and arrhythmia.

Steviol glycosides
These sweet glycosides found in the stevia plant Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni have 40–300 times the sweetness of sucrose. The two primary glycosides, stevioside and rebaudioside A, are used as natural sweeteners in many countries. These glycosides have steviol as the aglycone part. Glucose or rhamnose-glucose combinations are bound to the ends of the aglycone to form the different compounds.

Iridoid glycosides
These contain an iridoid group; e.g. aucubin, geniposidic acid, theviridoside, loganin, catalpol.

Thioglycosides
As the name contains the prefix thio-, these compounds contain sulfur. Examples include sinigrin, found in black mustard, and sinalbin, found in white mustard.

title: Glycoside


text:
USS Goldsborough (DDG-20)

USS Goldsborough (DDG-20) was a Charles F. Adams–class guided missile-armed destroyer. It was named for Rear Admiral Louis M. Goldsborough USN (1805–1877).

Construction
Goldsborough was laid down by the Puget Sound Bridge and Drydock Company at Seattle in Washington on 3 January 1961, was launched on 15 December 1961 by Mrs. Alan Bible, wife of U.S. Senator Alan Bible of Nevada, and commissioned on 9 November 1963, Captain Charles D. Allen, Jr., in command.

1960s and 70s
Goldsborough joined the Pacific Fleet on 25 December 1963, as a unit of Cruiser-Destroyer Force with her home port at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.

After her shakedown tests out of Puget Sound, the new guided missile destroyer arrived at Pearl Harbor on 14 February 1964. Following qualification and acceptance tests, she sailed on 18 April for Sydney, Australia, for the Coral Sea celebration and returned to Pearl Harbor on 1 June. She operated in Hawaiian waters in the summer and early fall, and went underway on 23 November for Yokosuka and her first West Pacific deployment. After operations strengthening the 7th Fleet during the escalating war in Vietnam, Goldsborough returned to Pearl Harbor for anti-submarine warfare training. In June 1965, she was outfitted with a capsule retrieval device and participated in the Gemini IV Space Program as back up Pacific recovery ship.

The guided missile destroyer headed for the Orient once more on 9 February 1966 to bolster the 7th Fleet. In April she provided gunfire support for Operation "Binh Phu I firing about 600 rounds of 5-inch ammunition at Viet Cong troop concentrations and buildings. During the last half of the month she screened attack carriers at Yankee Station. Next came SEATO exercises in May and duty as station ship at Hong Kong in June. On 26 June Goldsborough was again off Vietnam on picket station. She sailed for Hawaii on 16 July and reached Pearl Harbor on the 23d. While in berth at Pearl Harbor on 24 November 1965, an anti-submarine torpedo was discharged from the ship accidentally and hit the pier.

In August 1966, Goldsborough entered the Pearl Harbor Naval Shipyard for overhaul and extensive modification. In 1967 she participated in "Operation Sea Dragon", designed to interdict the North Vietnamese lines of supply into the Republic of Vietnam, and provided Naval Gunfire Support along the Vietnamese DMZ. During this deployment Goldsborough fired nearly 10,000 rounds in support of allied forces and avoided over 800 rounds of hostile fire without damage to the ship. She was awarded the Naval Unit Commendation for exceptionally meritorious service in Vietnamese waters from 29 August 1967 to 17 February 1968 upon her return to Pearl Harbor.

In November 1968 Goldsborough made her fourth Western Pacific deployment in five years, participating in eighty-eight gunfire missions in support of Vietnam, Republic of Korea, and U. S. Marine and Army forces.

In 1969 Goldsborough participated in the Apollo 11 Recovery Mission. The command module Columbia splashed down about 200 nautical miles south of Johnston Island at 12:50 GMT 24 July 1969.

After a yard period in 1970, Goldsborough made a fifth West-Pac tour, departing Pearl in August and returning in February 1971. Again she provided Naval Gunfire Support for allied troops, and carried out carrier escort duties in the Gulf of Tonkin. Later that year she visited Portland, Oregon, for the 1971 Rose Festival.

In September 1971 Goldsborough departed on her sixth deployment to the Western Pacific, providing Naval Gunfire Support for allied ground troops and performing carrier escort services. In early 1972 she was assigned to the recovery Task Force for Apollo 16. Departing again on 13 October 1972 for her seventh deployment to the Western Pacific, this would be her last trip to the "gunline" of Vietnam. On 19 December, while conducting a combat mission Goldsborough was hit by coastal artillery fire. The shore battery put a hole five feet wide through an upper deck, killing three sailors and wounding several others. The ship's crew received a Meritorious Unit Commendation for service between October 1972 and February 1973. The ship returned to Pearl Harbor in May 1973.

In mid-1976 after leaving port in Singapore, and conducting Shellback initiations, the Goldsborough was ordered to the Indian Ocean with the Ranger Task Force in response to the Operation Entebbe. She was low on supplies during the initial days in the Indian Ocean, but supply ships soon caught up with the group. The Ranger Task force remained on station for approximately 30 days showing the flag.

1980s

In November 1982, a seaman was killed when heavy seas tossed him against a stanchion. He was the only fatality when Hurricane Iwa struck Hawaii.

In 1988 the Goldsborough deployed with a battlegroup centered around the aircraft carrier Carl Vinson, CVN-70. The battlegroup supported Operation Earnest Will, conducting missions in and around the Straits of Hormuz and the Persian Gulf. Goldsborough had received the New Threat Upgrade (NTU),giving her advanced sensor and communications capabilities. As such the ship frequently was assigned to the Straits of Hormuz, Eastern Patrol Area (SOHEPA) to monitor air activity inside Iranian borders. At the end of the deployment, Goldsborough made port visits to Pattaya Beach, Thailand, Hong Kong, and Subic Bay in the Philippines.Goldsborough suffered minor damage while passing through Typhoon Roy en route to Hong Kong.

Decommissioning
Goldsborough was decommissioned and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 29 April 1993. The ship was sold to Australia on 17 September 1993 for US $2,337,462. The Royal Australian Navy intended to remove equipment from the ship to establish training facilities for maintenance personnel from their Perth-class destroyer s (derivatives of the Charles F. Adams-class). At the time, most training was conducted in the United States; as such it was expensive to continually fly sailors between the United States and Australia, and with the Charles F. Adams class phasing out of service, was likely to be terminated anyway. Goldsborough would also be used as a source of spare parts for the Perth class.

The ship was towed from Hawaii to Australia at a cost of A$559,706, and arrived in Sydney on 2 February 1994, then was berthed at Fleet Base East. A four-man team set about removing equipment for installation at the new training facility, and for the Australian destroyers. While in Australian hands, the team painted the number 40 on the bow, filling a gap in the pennant number sequence for their three destroyers. After all usable equipment had been stripped, Goldsborough was sold to an Indian company in August 1994 for ship breaking.

title: USS Goldsborough (DDG-20)


text:
Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives

The voiceless alveolar, dental and postalveolar plosives (or stops) are types of consonantal sounds used in almost all spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents voiceless dental, alveolar, and postalveolar plosives is ⟨t⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is. The voiceless dental plosive can be distinguished with the underbridge diacritic, ⟨t̪⟩ and the postalveolar with a retraction line, ⟨t̠⟩, and the Extensions to the IPA have a double underline diacritic which can be used to explicitly specify an alveolar pronunciation, ⟨t͇⟩.

The sound is a very common sound cross-linguistically. Most languages have at least a plain, and some distinguish more than one variety. Some languages without a are colloquial Samoan (which also lacks an ), Abau, and Nǁng of South Africa.

There are only a few languages which distinguish dental and alveolar stops, Kota, Toda, Venda and many Australian Aboriginal languages being a few of them; certain varieties of Hiberno-English also distinguish them (with [t̪] being the local realisation of the Standard English phoneme /θ/, represented by ⟨th⟩).

Features

Here are features of the voiceless alveolar stop:

 * There are three specific variants of :
 * Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
 * Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.

title: Voiceless dental and alveolar plosives


text:
World Dance Council

The World Dance Council Ltd (WDC), is a registered limited company, the legal successor to the International Council of Ballroom Dancing, and was established at a meeting organized by Phillip J. S. Richardson on 22 September 1950 in Edinburgh, Scotland. From 1996 to 2006 the WDC was known as the World Dance & Dance Sport Council Ltd (WD&DSC). The stated mission of the World Dance Council is to inspire, stimulate and promote excellence in education for the World Dance Council and Amateur League (WDC and AL) community.

The primary objective, at the time of its formation, was to provide an agreed basis for holding world championships in competitive ballroom dance. That objective has been achieved. Initially consisting of nine European countries and three others, today the WDC has become the leading authority on professional dance competitions, with members in numerous countries throughout the world. Each country is allowed one vote. As of 2006, there are 59 members. Its governing body, the Presidium, consists of a President and a number of Vice-Presidents. In 2014 seven Vice Presidents were elected.

WDC includes the Competitive Dance Committee, the Dancesation Committee and the a private public partnership agreement with the WDC Amateur League (WDCAL)

Mode of operation
The WDC is democratic in its operation. All major decisions are taken on the basis of one full member, one vote. The full members are (with a few exceptions) individual countries. There are some Affiliate members, such as the Ballroom Dancers Federation International. The WDC operates through a general council and two committees:

 * The World Competitive Dance Committee regulates professional competitive dancing and all matters to do with competitions and their regulations.
 * The Dancesation Committee deals with all matters of the dance profession that relate to the activities of Dance Schools and Dance Teachers and all other forms of dance like performing arts, hip Hop, Argentine Tango to name but a few. It does not regulate social dance directly. That is the business of individual organisers.
 * The WDC Amateur League was founded in 2007. It regulates and designates the World and continental Amateur championships and licenses and regulates Amateur Dancing.

Each member country in the WDC has its own national organisation, such as the British Dance Council, which acts as a forum for the interested parties in that country. The national bodies decide on their delegates to the WDC. The WDC also operates a WDC National Dance Council system in certain countries, which allows a multi-member system within that NDC, fostering the co-operation of major dance organisations in these countries.

WDC events
These events are under WDC regulation, but organised in various countries each year.

 * World Championship – Professional Ballroom
 * World Championship – Professional Latin
 * World Championship – Professional 10-Dance
 * European Championship – Professional 10-Dance
 * European Championship – Professional Latin

There are also other events, which are licensed to organising countries, and are open entry. In the regulations, the facility is also available for professional competitions in:
 * WDC Amateur League Open Amateur World Championships & Disney Professional Cups.
 * Kremlin World Cup Latin
 * World Masters Latin
 * WDC World Cup. In 2009, this event in Shenzhen, China had over 2000 participants.
 * Ballroom Show Dance
 * Latin American Show Dance

WDC competition rules

 * 1) The WDC Championships are open championships.
 * 2) The national bodies nominate their best available couples, and only two couples are permitted from any one country. Additionally 3 Wild Cards from the World Series Ranking List are invited. WDC registered competitors can take part as open entries.

Presidents

 * P. J. S. Richardson MBE (ICBD)
 * Alex Moore MBE (ICBD)
 * Bill Irvine MBE (ICBD)
 * Leonard Morgan (ICBD)
 * Robin Short (WD&DSC)
 * Karl Breuer (WD&DSC)
 * Donnie Burns MBE

World Championship Winners

 * World Ballroom Dance Champions
 * World Latin Dance Champions
 * World 10 Dance Champions
 * World Ballroom Dance Champions Amateur

title: World Dance Council


text:
Helmut Hirsch

Helmut Hirsch (January 27, 1916 – June 4, 1937) was a German Jewish artist and activist who was executed for his part in a bombing plot intended to destabilize the German Reich. While a full and accurate account of the plot is unknown, his targets were understood to be the Nazi Party headquarters in Nuremberg, and/or the plant where the antisemitic weekly propaganda newspaper Der Stürmer was printed. The day after his execution, the New York Times put the story on its front page. The 2000-word article, datelined Berlin, June 4, gives a detailed summary of the case. "Germans Execute Hirsch, U. S. Citizen; Youth of 21 Guillotined Despite Repeated American Appeals to Hitler for Clemency." New York Times, June 5, 1937, page 1. In addition, William Shirer provides an account in Berlin Diary: The Journal of a Foreign Correspondent 1934–1941 (New York: Knopf, 1941; pp. 74–76.) Many of the details reported by the Times and Shirer are at odds with other sources, including the dossier containing the "Case of Helmut Hirsch." (note 6) and the recollections of Hirsch's sister (note 2), as well as documents written by or related to Hirsch held in the Robert D. Farber University Archives and Special Collections Department at Brandeis University. No one reporting the story had access to these sources at the time. Nonetheless, the contemporary version of the events was for many years all that was available in English.

In 2004, the German weekly magazine Stern ran a cover story about the von Stauffenberg plot and other attempts on Hitler's life. A timeline (page 66) of failed plots to kill or unseat Hitler begins with Hirsch: "December 1936: The Jewish student Helmut Hirsch plans to blow up the Nürnberg Party headquarters. He was executed on June 4, 1937." "20. Juli 1944: Das Attentat auf Hitler: Operation Walküre. " Stern. July 1, 2004, pages 47–68.

Early life
Hirsch was the elder of two children of Marta Neuburger Hirsch and Siegfried Hirsch. In 1935, after the Nuremberg Laws excluded Jews from German universities, he moved to Prague, then capital of Czechoslovakia, where he enrolled as a student of architecture at the Deutsche Technische Hochschule (German Institute of Technology).

The Black Front
Shortly after arriving in Prague, Hirsch became involved in the Black Front, a nationalist group of anti-Hitler German expatriates who advocated Strasserism. He was encouraged to introduce himself to its head, Otto Strasser, by his mentor, Tusk (Eberhard Köbel). Tusk had been a leader of Deutsche Jungenschaft, a branch of the German youth movement (Bündische Jugend) to which Hirsch belonged. The Jungenschaft itself was outlawed in 1935 and Tusk escaped arrest by fleeing to London.

Hirsch's family joined him in Prague in 1936, after his sister, Kaete, graduated from gymnasium (high school) and, like him, was forbidden to attend a German university. By then, he was deeply enmeshed in clandestine Black Front activities, which he kept secret from his family.

On December 20, 1936, after telling his family he was going skiing with friends, he returned to Germany with a travel permit obtained on the false premise that he was visiting his mother, who he claimed was ill. In his naiveté, he did not realize German authorities knew his family had moved to Prague. It is likely that German agents in Prague had been watching him for some months, but were unable to arrest him while he remained on Czech soil.

Hirsch's handler was Strasser's right-hand man, Heinrich Grunov, who used the nom de guerre Dr. Beer. According to the plan, Hirsch was to place two suitcases containing explosives at one or two sites in Nuremberg. The suggested targets were the Nazi Party headquarters and the office or printing plant of Der Stürmer.

Grunov instructed Hirsch to buy a round-trip ticket from Prague to his hometown, Stuttgart, but to travel only as far as Nuremberg. There he was to meet a contact, who would give him baggage claim tickets for the two suitcases, which had been smuggled into Germany. Instead, he went on to Stuttgart, where he had arranged to meet an old friend. According to letters he wrote to his family from prison, he was wavering in his commitment to the plot and hoped his friend would talk him out of the attack.

Arrest and imprisonment
Hirsch arrived in Stuttgart late in the evening of December 20. When his friend failed to meet him as arranged, he checked into the Hotel Pelikan, across the street from the railway station. In the early hours of the morning of December 21, agents of the Gestapo arrested him in his hotel room.

Hirsch was interrogated, first in Stuttgart, then after his transfer to Berlin's Plötzensee Prison. He was charged with conspiracy to commit high treason, and was indicted for possession of explosives with criminal intent, despite the fact that he had no explosives at the time of his arrest. Hirsch was held in solitary confinement for nine weeks while awaiting trial. He was permitted to communicate with his family or relatives who still lived in Germany. A letter he wrote to his uncle, in Stuttgart, was held back by censors.

Trial
Testimony at the trial made it clear that there was at least one double agent in the Black Front, who had informed on Hirsch. A witness for the prosecution described the plot in detail that no one but a trusted member of the Black Front could have known. Under questioning, Hirsch did not deny involvement in the plot, though the public defender assigned to his case argued that he should be acquitted since he had never carried it out. When asked whether he would, if given the chance, have attempted to assassinate Adolf Hitler, Hirsch acknowledged he would.

Although Hitler was never a target of the plot, Hirsch's response gave rise to rumors printed in the international press that Hitler's assassination had been Hirsch's goal.

Hirsch was found guilty and condemned to death. His friend was acquitted. Although the proceedings of the trial remained secret, the verdict was made public. It was only upon hearing on the radio on March 20 that "the stateless Jew, Helmut Hirsch," had been condemned to death that his family learned what had become of him after he left home three months earlier.

International appeals for clemency
Hirsch's family and friends launched a campaign to free him, or at least have his sentence commuted to life in prison. The International Red Cross, the Society of Friends, and an international association of lawyers made appeals on his behalf. A human rights organization convinced the government of Norway to offer him asylum if the Germans would release him. An appeal was made to the League of Nations, and the case was brought up in the House of Commons in London. Among the most promising avenues was the intervention of the United States. Hirsch's father, Siegfried, had lived in the United States for about ten years before his marriage in 1914. He became a naturalized American citizen before returning to Germany. During World War I, Siegfried lived with his wife and two children in the German state of Alsace. At the end of the war, when Alsace became part of France, the family moved to Stuttgart. Through a bureaucratic mix-up, the exact nature of which is unclear, Siegfried Hirsch's American citizenship was rescinded, rendering the entire family "stateless persons". Even though Hirsch was born in Germany and lived in Stuttgart for most of his life, he never held German citizenship.

Hirsch's cousin, George Neuburger, who had moved to New York, enlisted the aid of an American lawyer, Irving S. Ottenberg, who was married to Hirsch's father's first cousin. Ottenberg petitioned to have Siegfried's citizenship reinstated. Their appeal was initially rejected, but a month later the decision was reversed. On April 22, 1937, by virtue of his father's newly restored citizenship, Helmut Hirsch was also declared an American citizen, although he'd never set foot on American soil.

American diplomacy
Hirsch's American citizenship immediately changed the situation. William E. Dodd, the American ambassador in Berlin, was instructed by Secretary of State Cordell Hull to intervene on Hirsch's behalf. Dodd chronicled his efforts in his diary. These included meetings with Konstantin von Neurath, the German Foreign Minister, and Otto Meissner, a key aide of Hitler.

Even with the force of American diplomacy, Hitler refused Dodd's eleventh-hour request that Hirsch's life be spared. His execution by decapitation was carried out at 6:00 am, June 4, 1937. His sister, Katie Sugarman (Kaete Hirsch), died in 2016 having moved to the United States and possibly spared from the Nazi regime due to her family's immediate entry due to her brother.

title: Helmut Hirsch


text:
Grumman C-1 Trader

The Grumman C-1 Trader (TF prior to 1962) is a carrier onboard delivery (COD) variant of the Grumman S-2 Tracker. It was replaced by a similar version of the Northrop Grumman E-2 Hawkeye, the Grumman C-2 Greyhound.

Design and development
The C-1 Trader grew out of a need by the United States Navy for a new anti-submarine airplane. In response to this Grumman began development on a prototype twin-engine, high-wing aircraft which it designated the G-89. In 1952 the Navy designated this aircraft the XS2F-1 and flew it for the first time on December 4 that year. During the rest of the 1950s three major variants emerged, the C-1 Trader being one of them. The C-1 (originally the TF-1, for "Trainer", a secondary role) was outfitted to carry nine passengers or 3500 lb of cargo and first flew in January 1955.

Operational history
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s the C-1 Trader carried mail and supplies to aircraft carriers on station in the Pacific Ocean during the Vietnam War and also served as a trainer for all-weather carrier operations. Over its production life 87 C-1 Traders were built, of which four were converted into EC-1A Tracer electronic countermeasures aircraft. The last C-1 was retired from USN service in 1988; it was the second-to-last radial-engine aircraft in U.S. military service (The last C-131 wasn't retired until 1990). As of 2010, approximately ten were still airworthy in civil hands, operating as warbirds.

In 1956 the U.S. Marine Corps Test Unit Number 1 (MCTU #1) tested the concept of using the TF-1 variant as a vehicle for inserting reconnaissance teams behind enemy lines. “On 9 July 1956 MCTU Recon Marines became the first to parachute from a TF-1. Less than three weeks later, four recon parachutists launched from the USS Bennington, which was 70 miles at sea, and jumped on a desert drop zone near El Centro California, some 100 miles inland. For the first time in Marine Corps and Naval Aviation history, the technique of introducing recon personnel off a carrier sea base to an inland objective had successfully been tested.”

In August 2010, Brazilian Naval Aviation announced that it would buy and modernize eight C-1 airframes to serve in carrier onboard delivery (COD) and aerial refueling roles for use on its aircraft carrier São Paulo. In 2011 contract was signed with Marsh Aviation to convert four ex-US Navy C-1A Trader airframes into KC-2 Turbo Traders. The first KC-2 prototype flight was expected for November 2017 and the delivery of the first operational aircraft was scheduled for December 2018.

Variants

 * TF-1
 * Carrier Onboard Delivery version of the S-2 Tracker with enlarged fuselage for nine passengers, redesignated C-1A in 1962, 87 built.

 * TF-1Q
 * Electronic Countermeasures conversion of the TF-1, redesignated EC-1A in 1962, four conversions.

 * TF-1W
 * Airborne Early Warning project that was developed in the WF-2 Tracer.

 * C-1A
 * TF-1 redesignated in 1962.

 * EC-1A
 * TF-1Q redesignated in 1962.

 * KC-2 Turbo Trader
 * Marsh Aviation modernization project for Air-to-Air Refueling, requested for the Brazilian Navy.

 * G-101
 * proposed 10-12 seat passenger variant

 * G-104
 * proposed tanker variant

Operators

 * United States Navy
 * 🇧🇷 (Retired)
 * Brazilian Naval Aviation
 * Brazilian Naval Aviation

Surviving aircraft

 * Airworthy
 * BuNo 136752 - based at Lauridsen Aviation Museum in Buckeye, Arizona.
 * BuNo 136766 - privately owned in Carson City, Nevada.
 * BuNo 136773 - privately owned in Wilmington, Delaware.
 * BuNo 136778 - based at Champaign Aviation Museum in Urbana, Ohio.
 * BuNo 136781 - based at Pacific Coast Air Museum in Santa Rosa, California.
 * BuNo 146027 - privately owned in Wilmington, Delaware.
 * BuNo 146044 - privately owned in Oklahoma City, OK.
 * BuNo 146048 - privately owned in Reno, Nevada.
 * BuNo 146052 - based at Lone Star Flight Museum in Galveston, Texas.

 * On display
 * BuNo 136754 - National Museum of Naval Aviation, NAS Pensacola, Pensacola, Florida.
 * BuNo 136790 - Grissom Air Museum, Grissom ARB (former Grissom AFB), Kokomo, Indiana.
 * BuNo 136792 - NAVSUP Weapon Systems Support Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. (formerly display at the Quonset Air Museum)
 * BuNo 146034 - Wings of Freedom Aviation Museum, former NAS Willow Grove, Horsham, Pennsylvania.
 * BuNo 146036 - USS Midway Museum, San Diego, California.

title: Grumman C-1 Trader


text:
Longhorn beetle

The longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae), also known as long-horned or longicorns (whose larvae are often referred to as roundheaded borers), are a large family of beetles, with over 35,000 species described.

Most species are characterized by antennae as long as or longer than the beetle's body. A few species have short antennae (e.g., Neandra brunnea), making them difficult to distinguish from related families such as Chrysomelidae. "Cerambycidae" comes from a Greek mythological figure: after an argument with nymphs, the shepherd Cerambus is transformed into a large beetle with horns.

Longhorn beetles are found on all continents except Antarctica.

Description
Other than the typical long antennal length, the most consistently distinctive feature of adults of this family is that the antennal sockets are located on low tubercles on the face; other beetles with long antennae lack these tubercles, and cerambycids with short antennae still possess them. They otherwise vary greatly in size, shape, sculpture, and coloration. A number of species mimic ants, bees, and wasps, though a majority of species are cryptically colored. The titan beetle (Titanus giganteus) from northeastern South America is often considered the largest insect (though not the heaviest, and not the longest including legs), with a maximum known body length of just over 16.7 cm.

Larvae are 0.5-22 cm long, elongate in shape and lightly sclerotised. The prothorax is often enlarged and the sides of the body have lateral swellings (ampullae). The head is usually retracted into the prothorax and bears well-sclerotised mouthparts. Larval legs range from moderately developed to absent. The spiracles are always annular.

Diet
All known longhorn beetle larvae feed on plant tissue such as stems, trunks, or roots of both herbaceous and woody plants, often in injured or weak trees. A few species are serious pests. The larvae, called roundheaded borers, bore into wood, where they can cause extensive damage to either living trees or untreated lumber (or, occasionally, to wood in buildings; the old-house borer, Hylotrupes bajulus, is a particular problem indoors).

Many longhorns locate and recognize potential hosts by detecting chemical attractants, including monoterpenes (compounds released en masse by woody plants when stressed), ethanol (another compound emitted by damaged plant material), and even bark beetle pheromones. Many scolytine weevils share the cerambycid's niche of weakened or recently deceased trees; thus, by locating scolytinids, a suitable host can likely be located as well. The arrival of cerambycid larvae is often detrimental to a population of scolytinids, as the cerambycid larvae will typically either outcompete them with their greater size and mobility, or act as direct predators of them (this latter practice is less common, but has been observed in several species, notably Monochamus carolinensis). Cerambycids, in turn, have been found to play a role in attracting other wood-borers to a host. Borgemeister, et al. 1998, recorded that cerambycid activity in girdled twigs released volatiles attractive to some bostrichids, especially Prostephanus truncatus. A few cerambycids, such as Arhopalus sp., are adapted to take advantage of trees recently killed or injured by forest fires by detecting and pursuing smoke volatiles.

Pollination
In addition to feeding on other plant tissue, some species feed on pollen or nectar and may act as pollinators. Assessing the efficacy of beetle pollinators is difficult. Even if pollination of one species by beetles is shown, that same beetle may also act as a flower predator toward other species. In some cases, beetles may act as both pollinators and predators on the same flowers.

Flowers specializing in pollination by beetles typically display a particular set of traits, but pollination by longhorn beetles is not limited to these cantharophilous flowers. A review of angiosperm pollination by beetles shows that Cerambycidae, along with Curculionidae and Scarabaeidae, contains many taxa that are pollinators for not only specialist but also generalist systems.

Beetles in the New Zealand genus Zorion are known to feed on pollen and have a specialized structure similar to that of pollen baskets found in bees. Species in this genus are thought to be important pollinator species for native plants such as harakeke.

Some orchid species have been found to be largely reliant on longhorn beetles for pollination. The species Alosterna tabacicolor was found to be the main pollinator of a rare orchid species (Dactylorhiza fuchsii) in Poland. Another rare orchid Disa forficaria, found in the Cape Floristic Region in South Africa, relies on the species Chorothyse hessei for pollination. D. forficaria uses sexual deception targeting male C. hessei, possibly indicating a long history of co-evolution with longhorn beetle pollinators. The proportion of longhorn beetle species that act as pollinators is unknown. The fact that two species of longhorn species from distinct subfamilies (Lepturinae and Cerambycinae) found on different continents both with significant roles as pollinators could suggest that some capacity for pollination may be common among longhorn beetles.

Parasitoids
In North America some native cerambycids are the hosts of Ontsira mellipes (a parasitoid wasp in the family Braconidae). O. mellipes may be useful in controlling a forestry pest in this same family, Anoplophora glabripennis, that is invasive in North America.

Classification
As with many large families, different authorities have tended to recognize many different subfamilies, or sometimes split subfamilies off as separate families entirely (e.g., Disteniidae, Oxypeltidae, and Vesperidae); there is thus some instability and controversy regarding the constituency of the Cerambycidae. There are few truly defining features for the group as a whole, at least as adults, as there are occasional species or species groups which may lack any given feature; the family and its closest relatives, therefore, constitute a taxonomically difficult group, and relationships of the various lineages are still poorly understood. The oldest unambiguous fossils of the family are Cretoprionus and Sinopraecipuus from Yixian Formation of Inner Mongolia and Liaoning, China, dating to the Aptian stage of the Early Cretaceous, approximately 122 million years ago. The former genus was assigned to the subfamily Prioninae in its original description, while the latter could not be placed in any extant subfamily. Qitianniu from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber of Myanmar, dating to approximately 100 million years ago, also could not be placed in any extant subfamily.

Subfamilies
The eight subfamilies are:

Most species (90.5%) are concentrated in the Cerambycinae and Lamiinae subfamilies.
 * Cerambycinae Latreille, 1802
 * Dorcasominae Lacordaire, 1869 (including former Apatophyseinae Lacordaire, 1869 )
 * Lamiinae Latreille, 1825
 * Lepturinae Latreille, 1802
 * Necydalinae Latreille, 1825
 * Parandrinae Blanchard, 1845
 * Prioninae Latreille, 1802
 * Spondylidinae Audinet-Serville, 1832 (including former Aseminae Thomson, 1860 )

Notable genera and species

 * Acrocinus longimanus – harlequin beetle, a large species where the male has very long front legs
 * Anoplophora chinensis – citrus long-horned beetle, a major pest
 * Anoplophora glabripennis – Asian long-horned beetle, an invasive pest species
 * Aridaeus thoracicus – tiger longicorn (Australia)
 * Cacosceles newmannii - Southern African longhorn beetle that is a surgacane pest
 * Desmocerus californicus dimorphus – valley elderberry longhorn beetle, a threatened subspecies from California
 * Moneilema – cactus longhorn beetles, which are flightless
 * Onychocerus albitarsis – the only known beetle with a venomous sting
 * Petrognatha gigas – giant African longhorn beetle
 * Prionoplus reticularis – huhu beetle, the heaviest beetle in New Zealand
 * Rosalia alpina – Rosalia longhorn beetle, a threatened European species
 * Stictoleptura rubra – red-brown longhorn beetle
 * Tetraopes tetrophthalmus – red milkweed beetle, a toxic species with aposematic colors
 * Tetropium fuscum – brown spruce longhorn beetle, an invasive pest species
 * Titanus giganteus – titan beetle, one of the largest beetles in the world
 * Zorion guttigerum - flower long-horn beetle, an important pollinator species.

title: Longhorn beetle