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Fiat G.91

The Fiat G.91 is a jet fighter aircraft designed and built by the Italian aircraft manufacturer Fiat Aviazione, which later merged into Aeritalia.

The G.91 has its origins in the NATO-organised NBMR-1 competition started in 1953, which sought a light fighter-bomber (officially, the competition was seeking a "Light Weight Strike Fighter") to be adopted as standard equipment across the air forces of the various NATO nations. The G.91 was specifically designed to fulfil the requirements of this competition, being relatively lightweight and capable of operating from austere airstrips while also being armoured and suitably armed while remaining relatively affordable in comparison to many frontline fighters. On 9 August 1956, the prototype conducted its maiden flight. After reviewing multiple submissions, the G.91 was picked as the winning design of the NBMR-1 competition.

During 1961, the G.91 entered into operational service with the Italian Air Force, and with the West German Luftwaffe in the following year. Various other nations adopted it, such as the Portuguese Air Force, who made extensive use of the type during the Portuguese Colonial War in Angola and Mozambique. The G.91 remained in production for 19 years, during which a total of 756 aircraft were completed, including the prototypes and pre-production models. The assembly lines were finally closed in 1977. The G.91 was also used as a basis for a twin-engined derivative: the Fiat/Aeritalia G.91Y. The G.91 had a relatively lengthy service life, outlasting the Cold War and being finally withdrawn in 1995. It was displaced by newer types such as the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet and the Aermacchi MB-326.

Origins
As a result of experiences from the Korean War alongside newly developed concepts of aerial cooperation, the members of NATO recognised a need to reequip their inventories with suitable jet-powered ground attack aircraft. In December 1953, NATO Supreme Command issued specifications for a new light tactical support aircraft. European manufacturers were invited to submit their designs for this requested Light Weight Strike Fighter role. The G.91 was designed to this specification by the Italian engineer Giuseppe Gabrielli, hence the "G" designation. The competition was intended to produce an aircraft that was light, small, expendable, equipped with basic weapons and avionics and capable of operating with minimal ground support. These specifications were developed for two reasons: the first was the nuclear threat to large air bases, many cheaper aircraft could be better dispersed, and the other was to counter the trend towards larger and more expensive aircraft.

The specified technical requirements included a 1,100 m (3,610 ft) takeoff distance over a 15 m (49 ft) obstacle, the capability to operate from semi-prepared grass airstrips and roads, a maximum speed of Mach 0.95, a range of 280 km (170 mi) with 10 minutes over the target while possessing a maximum of 2,200 kg (4,850 lb) empty weight and 4,700 kg (10,360 lb) max weight. Equipment requirements were the presence of armoured protection for the pilot and the fuel tanks along with alternative arrangements of 4 × 12.7 mm (.5 in) machine guns or 2 × 20 mm or 30 mm autocannon. These operational specifications were viewed as not being straightforward to fulfil at that time.

The challenge of providing an engine that matched the requirements of lightness and power, reliability and ease of maintenance was solved by using the Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet then at the start of development in the UK. Development of this engine was aided by substantial contribution from the US Mutual Weapons Development Programme. Nine of the ten designs to be subsequently submitted for the competition were powered by the Orpheus engine.

In order to evaluate the bids that various aircraft manufacturers submitted in response, a special Advisory Group for Aeronautical Research and Development (AGARD) committee conducted extensive evaluations. The designs were required within two months of the competition, in which time an assortment of submissions were made, mainly by European companies. Besides the G.91, these included the Northrop N-156, Dassault Mystère XXVI, Sud-Est Baroudeur, Aerfer Sagittario 2 and the Breguet Br.1001 Taon. On 18 March 1953, these submitted designs formally began to be assessed by the AGARD committee, which was under the chairmanship of Theodore von Kármán. The initial project selection process took 18 months to complete.

Fly-off and selection
On 3 June 1955, it was announced that the Fiat G.91 had been selected as the design with the most promise. Out of the submissions, the two winning projects were, in order: the Breguet Br.1001 Taon and the Fiat G.91. A third aircraft design was subsequently added: the Dassault Mystère XXVI. As a result of the G.91's selection, an immediate order was received for three prototypes and a total of 27 pre-production aircraft. Fiat quickly set about developing the concept to the prototype phase; noticeable changes in the design occurred during this phase, such as increases in the aircraft's maximum weight due to the addition of supplementary equipment and structural strengthening measures.

On 9 August 1956, the prototype G.91 conducted its maiden flight at the Caselle airfield, Turin, Italy; it was flown by Chief Test Pilot Riccardo Bignamini. Accordingly, the G.91 had achieved a seven-month head start over the Dassault prototype and almost a year ahead of the Breguet Taon. An intensive series of test flights followed the type's maiden flight, these were not without setbacks. The most serious problem discovered during these was the presence of aeroelastic vibrations, leading to a series of investigative flights to resolve this condition. On 20 February 1957, during a test flight intended to explore the limits of the aircraft's speed-load envelope, difficulties led to the destruction of the first G.91 prototype. The cause of the prototype's loss was linked to problems encountered with the horizontal control system which had led to structural failure; this led to the tail assembly being subjected to rigorous testing to identify the cause of the failure.

The re-engineering work that had been performed to cure the vibration problem was very extensive and resulted in the second prototype being fitted with a larger tail, a six cm (two in) higher canopy, and the addition of a ventral fin. The second prototype had other modifications, including the installation of a full armament and a more powerful Orpheus engine capable of 4,850 lbf. In July 1957, the second prototype performed its first flight; it was not immediately sent to participate in the final evaluation process. Both the third and fourth G.91 prototypes were later sent to France to continue the evaluation flights.

The final selection of the competing designs was planned for late 1957. In September 1957, at the Centre d'Essais en Vol at Brétigny-sur-Orge, in France, the three rival aircraft types met for evaluation trials. During these trials, the Italian aircraft is claimed to have delivered an impressive performance. In January 1958, the Fiat G.91 was officially declared the winner of the competition.

In April 1958, following a meeting of NATO defence ministers, an agreement was formed that the G.91 would be the first NATO lightweight strike fighter, and that it was to be followed in 1961 by "a developed version" of the Breguet Taon. In May 1958, a production meeting was scheduled to discuss the production of the aircraft with financial support from the United States; the Americans would provide some of the finance for the French, German and Italian aircraft, in addition to paying for the Turkish aircraft. The defence ministers reached an agreement to order 50 aircraft for each country.

Given the large economic and commercial interests at stake, there was a certain amount of controversy surrounding this decision. After the loss of the first G.91 prototype, the French government preferred to pursue development of the locally designed Étendard instead. The British government similarly ignored the competition to concentrate on Hawker Hunter production for the same role. The Italian government had elected to order the G.91 for the Italian Air Force prior to the results of the competition being known. These pre-production machines would later go on to serve for many years with the Italian aerobatic team, the Frecce Tricolori, designated as the G.91 PAN.

Production
By 1957, Fiat Aviazione was in the process of establishing the first production line for the G.91 at their facility at Turin-Aeritalia Airport, Piedmont, Italy. In total, Fiat constructed 174 G.91s of various variants for Italy, along with an additional 144 G.91 R/3 variants for West Germany (including 50 that had been ordered and then cancelled by Greece and Turkey). The first order was for 50 aircraft from Aeritalia, then Dornier and other German firms had an order for 232 machines, which was later increased to 294. The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) also bought 44 G.91T/3 two-seat trainers and another 22 were produced in Germany, ending production in 1972.

The German order involved a production run of 294 G.91s that were domestically constructed in Germany under a license production arrangement by Flugzeug-Union Süd, a consortium of former competitors Messerschmitt, Heinkel and Dornier; Messerschmitt produced the forward fuselage and tail assembly, Dornier manufactured the center fuselage along with final assembly and flight testing, while Heinkel fabricated the wing. The G.91 holds the distinction of being the first combat aircraft to be manufactured in Germany since the Second World War. On 20 July 1961, the first German-built G.91 conducted its first flight from Oberpfaffenhofen Airfield.

Aeritalia also negotiated a comprehensive license manufacturing agreement for the Orpheus engine that powered the type. Messier-Bugatti-Dowty produced the aircraft's undercarriage.

The G.91 was also considered by a number of nations, including Austria, Norway, and Switzerland. During early 1961, four G.91s were shipped to the United States in order to participate in a formal evaluation program for the United States Army; these aircraft were subjected to several evaluation trials, the majority of which taking place within Alabama and New Mexico. The US Army studied the use of the type as a possible Forward Air Control aircraft. However, the service subsequently relinquished all fixed-wing aircraft operations to the United States Air Force, and thus the prospective G.91 procurement was not pursued.

Design
The Fiat G.91 is a lightweight tactical ground attack aircraft. It is a subsonic aircraft that was designed for both simplicity and agility. A key function of the aircraft is its short-field capability, having been constructed with a rugged airframe to withstand the demands imposed by high-intensity operations and the use of semi-prepared airstrips; the undercarriage is furnished with low-pressure tyres for the same purpose. The standard mission of the G.91 was the attack of targets within a 170-mile radius of its base with a typical loiter time of ten minutes, travelling at maximum speed in the combat area and traversing at cruise speeds. The G.91 is typically powered by a single Bristol Siddeley Orpheus turbojet engine.

The all-metal fuselage uses conventional and straightforward construction methods, being a semi-monocoque design manufactured in three sections. The forward section, which was produced separate to the others before being rivetted to the centre fuselage, contains various radio navigation and communication equipment such as radio direction finder, transponder, ultra high frequency (UHF) radio, and identification friend or foe (IFF); the nose typically contained a total of three cameras. The cockpit is positioned directly above the chin-mounted air intake for the engine. It is surrounded on three sides with steel armour plating, the glass windshield is also armoured. The cockpit is furnished with a Martin-Baker Mk.4 ejector seat; it is both pressurised and equipped with manually controlled climate controls.

The center fuselage section houses the armament bay, which is set beneath the cockpit, and the seven split fuel tanks, which are protected against damage from ground fire by armour plating. The armament bay can accommodate up to four 12.7 mm (0.50 in) M2 Browning machine guns with 300 rounds of ammo per gun, or alternatively up to two 30 mm (1.18 in) DEFA cannons with 120 rounds per cannon. Other munitions included various rockets and bombs; while gun pods and external drop tanks can be installed on hardpoints fitted on the wing. Both weapons and ammunition in the armament bay were mounted on panel doors, which could be easily removed and quickly swapped by two men during rearming on the ground. In addition, various access panels are incorporated to enable simple field maintenance duties to be readily performed on the type.

The G.91 is equipped with a swept wing, which uses an all-metal two-spar structure; the outer panels can all be detached for transportation or easy replacement, while the center section is integral with the fuselage. It is swept at a 37-degree angle at quarter-chord with a thickness-to-chord ratio of 10 per cent. The wing features single-slotted flaps and hydraulically-actuated ailerons. The tailplane is electrically actuated and had irreversible hydraulic elevators fitted with an artificial feel system as well as hydraulically-actuated air brakes and a drogue parachute located at the base of the rudder for rapid deceleration.

For the purpose of readily carrying out operations from austere airstrips, Fiat developed purpose-built ground support equipment for the easy and rapid servicing of the aircraft. Specifically, the equipment needed to inspect, maintain, resupply, and repair the G.91 were designed to possess minimal weight and size to facilitate transportation. Fiat also completed a study to add hooks onto the aircraft for the purpose compatibility with arresting gear and aircraft catapult for further increased short field performance; a number of production aircraft in Luftwaffe service were outfitted as such.

Italy

On 20 February 1958, the first pre-production G.91 conducted its maiden flight. In August 1958, the 103mo Gruppo, 5a Aerobrigata, called "Caccia Tattici Leggeri" (Light Tactical Fighter Group), was formed for the purpose of conducting operational evaluation of the aircraft, initially based at Pratica di Mare Air Force Base. In 1959, the 103Mo were transferred to Frosinone Airport for trialling the austere basing capabilities of the G.91, including operating from various types of terrain. The unit also performed exercises in the vicinity of Venice, such as at Maniago and Campoformido, in the presence of NATO officials; during this stage of the trials, German pilots also flew the aircraft.

In 1961, the next operational unit to be formed was 14mo Gruppo, Seconda Aerobrigata. This unit had its role shifted to tactical support, because its groups were 14mo, 103mo (dispatched from 5 A/B to this Aerobrigade) and 13mo (only in reserve). All of them were based at Treviso-Sant'Angelo.

During 1964, the pre-production aircraft of 103mo Gruppo were replaced by production standard G.91 R/1 combat aircraft; thus 16 of the pre-production aircraft were converted for service with the Italian aerobatic team, the Frecce Tricolori; these conversions, which had their armament removed and other modifications such as the addition of pitch dampers, ballast, and smoke tanks beneath the wings, were designated as the G.91 PAN. The G.91 PAN reportedly accumulated roughly 1,500 flight hours per year, and had an average efficiency in excess of 90 per cent.

In late 1964, the first batch of two-seater G.91T/1 aircraft, which had lengthened fuselage to accommodate an additional seat for training purposes, was delivered to the Scuola Volo Basico Avanzato (Amendola flying school for advanced jet training). These aircraft were used for the further training of pilots that had recently graduated from the Aermacchi MB-326 jet trainer.

In 1995, the last G.91 was phased out and retired by Italy.

Germany
In September 1960, the Luftwaffe received their first two Fiat-built G.91 R/3 aircraft. An initial five G.91R/3 aircraft were delivered to Erprobungstelle 61 for trials with subsequent deliveries being allocated to Aufklärungsgeschwader 53 (53rd Reconnaissance Group) based at Erding, near Munich along with Waffenschule 50 (Weapons School 50). On 20 July 1961, the first Dornier-built G.91 performed its first flight. The G.91R/3 equipped four newly formed Leichte Kampfgeschwader (light attack wings), often being used to replace older aircraft such as the American-built Republic F-84F Thunderstreak.

In October 1961, Aufklärungsgeschwader 53 became the first operational G.91 unit to achieve active status; in late May 1962, this same unit proceeded to carry out its first operational training flights. During 1962 and 1963, the Luftwaffe conducted a series of trials to determine the capabilities of the type in terms of austere and unfavourable climate performance, including an overseas deployment to Béchar Province, Algeria, to test the G.91's versatility and operational efficiency within such climate conditions.

An additional 45 G.91 T/3 Fiat-built two-seat trainer aircraft were ordered for the Luftwaffe, the first 35 being allocated to Waffenschule 50 with the balance of the order divided between operational units. In early 1961, Waffenschule 50 began its first training courses for pilot instructors. Of these, 22 aircraft were built by Dornier between 1971 and 1973; this variant were used to train Weapons Systems Officers for the F-4 Phantom.

Fifty G.91 R/4 aircraft were taken up from a cancelled Greek/Turkish order but were deemed to be unsuitable for operational use. Alternatively, these were used as training aircraft and were operated solely by Waffenschule 50. When the initial training programme was completed, all R/4 aircraft were retired in 1966 and 40 surviving airframes were sold to Portugal. Other R/4 aircraft remained in Germany and were transferred to ground instructional use or for static displays at recruitment presentations.

It has been claimed that the Luftwaffe had intended to equip a further four wings with the G.91R/3; however, initial operating experience with the type had allegedly left the Luftwaffe disappointed with the aircraft's performance and thus the intended further orders for the type were cut. A number of Luftwaffe G.91s were emblazoned with a "pig" emblem, this has been interpreted as a comment on the aircraft's lacklustre performance.

On 1 January 1970, the Luftwaffe fleet consisted of 310 G.91 R/3 and 40 G.91T aircraft; by 1976, only 20 of the G.91 R/3 aircraft had been lost to accidents, a loss rate of 6 per cent. During the early 1980s, the G.91 R/3 was replaced in German service by the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet which operated in the same role; the last G.91 aircraft were officially retired in 1982.

Portugal
From 1961, Portugal became involved in fighting against nationalist movements in its African overseas territories, the series of conflicts becoming known as the Portuguese Colonial War. Portugal had deployed a detachment of F-86 Sabres to Portuguese Guinea in August 1961, prior to the outbreak of major fighting, but was forced to withdraw the jet fighters back to Europe owing to pressure from the United States and the United Nations, who imposed an arms embargo. This left a gap in air cover for Portugal's African colonies, both in the close air support role, and in the air defence role.

In 1965, as the scale of fighting increased, Portugal attempted to purchase 100 surplus Canadian built Sabre Mk 6s from West Germany, but instead, it was offered 40 G.91R/4s, which had originally been built for Greece and Turkey and which differed from the rest of the Luftwaffe G.91s sufficiently to create maintenance problems in exchange for allowing Germany to build and use an airbase at Beja in Portugal for training.

G.91s arrived in Portuguese Guinea in 1966, equipping Esquadra 121 Tigres based at Bissau, and being used for reconnaissance and close support with rockets, napalm and bombs against PAIGC rebels. When the PAIGC started to be supplied with Soviet-made Strela 2 (NATO designation SA-7 Grail) MANPADS in early 1973, these immediately became a threat to Portuguese air superiority. On 25 March 1973, and 28 March, two FAP G.91s were shot down by missiles within three days, with a further two lost to conventional ground fire later in the year. (By comparison, only two G.91s had been lost in Guinea from 1966 to 1973. ) A final G.91 was lost to a missile on 31 January 1974, while Strelas were also responsible for the loss of a T-6 Texan and two Do.27K-2s.

G.91s deployed to Mozambique at the end of 1968, equipping Esquadra 502 Jaguares ininitally at Beira, later moving to Nacala, with a second squadron Esquadra 702 Escorpiões (Scorpions) forming in September 1970 at Tete, flying against FRELIMO forces. FRELIMO also received Strelas in 1973, although unlike elsewhere, the Portuguese in Mozambique did not lose any aircraft to missiles with Chinese support, even if it forced Portuguese pilots to change their tactics. The only G.91 destroyed in combat in Mozambique was the serial number 5429, flown by Lt. Emilio Lourenço: his plane was destroyed and Lourenço killed by a premature detonation of its bombs while flying a strike against rebel positions on 15 March 1973.

In 1973, with the United Nations weapons embargo against Portugal, the Air Force faced problems purchasing further numbers of close air support aircraft. An attempt was then made to acquire more Fiat G.91s from Germany by having Dornier disassembling the aircraft and then selling them as spare parts to Switzerland and Spain. These spare parts would be later sold to Portugal and assembled locally with different serial numbers. However, the deal did not follow through as the German government vetoed it.

In April 1974, the Portuguese government fell in the Carnation Revolution, with the new government seeking to grant its colonies independence. Portugal withdrew its G.91s from Guinea when it was granted independence in 1974, with its forces also leaving Mozambique. One of the G.91 squadrons was briefly deployed to Angola in late 1974, in order to try to prevent fighting between rival National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) forces, being finally withdrawn back to Portugal in January 1975.

In 1976, a second purchase of 14 G.91 R/3s and 7 G.91 T/3 trainers was made from Germany, which were followed by further aircraft when the G.91 was withdrawn from Luftwaffe service in from 1980 to 1982, giving a total of 70 R/3s and 26 T/3s, although not all of these entered service, with many being broken up for spare parts. Portugal finally phased out the last of its G.91s in 1993.

Others
On 6 September 1961, the first G.91 R/4 was delivered to the Hellenic Air Force (HAF) for evaluation purposes. The G.91 R/4 variant, of which 25 aircraft were intended to be delivered to both Greece and Turkey, employed the same armament as the G.91 R/1 while using the equipment of the R/3 variant. However, both Greece and Turkey would ultimately not induct any G.91s, these aircraft were instead passed onto Germany's inventory instead.

Variants
Data from: Warpaint No.49:Fiat G.91

Trainer and reconnaissance variants were produced right from the start of G.91 production, but the basic design of the aircraft remained virtually unchanged throughout almost the entire production run of the aircraft. The one major difference is that the R series aircraft were single-seaters, while the T series aircraft had two seats. To accommodate the extra seat, the T series aircraft had a slightly longer fuselage.
 * G.91: Prototypes and pre-production aircraft.
 * G.91A: A single prototype, built to test wing slats and fuel tanks in the wings.
 * G.91BS/1: (BS – Battle Surveillance) Derived from the G.91T with improved avionics and photographic equipment, not built.
 * G.91BS/2: Two-seat version of the BS/1, not built.
 * G.91E: Proposed version of the G.91Y for the AMI, not built.
 * G.91N: A single aircraft modified from a pre-production aircraft with extra navigation equipment such as Decca Navigator and Rho-Theta.
 * G.91R/1: Light attack/reconnaissance aircraft, fitted with modified nose housing three cameras.
 * G.91R/1A: Revised instrumentation.
 * G.91R/1B: Strengthened airframe.
 * G.91R/3: Single-seat ground-attack, reconnaissance version for the Luftwaffe. Armed with two 30 mm DEFA cannons.
 * G.91R/3SATS: A single R/3 modified with JATO rockets and arrestor hook for the Luftwaffe:
 * G.91R/4: Similar to the G.91R/3, but armed with four 12.7 mm Colt-Browning machine guns.
 * G.91R/5: A projected long-range version for Norway.
 * G.91R/6: A projected version with improved undercarriage, revised avionics, increased tankage and weapon load, for Italy.
 * G.91RS or G.91S: Projected variant with revised wing and 7050 lbf B.Or.12 Orpheus or Fiat 4032 engine, not built.
 * G.91T/1: Trainer version of G.91R/1 for Italian Air Force.
 * G.91T/3: Trainer version for Luftwaffe.
 * G.91T/3 Logair: A single conversion of a Luftwaffe T/3 with a data acquisition probe.
 * G.91T/4: Proposed trainer version, fitted with cockpit instrumentation similar to the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, not built.
 * G.91TS: Projected supersonic version of the G.91T, not built.
 * G.91PAN : Aerobatic display aircraft for Frecce Tricolori, converted from pre-production G.91s.
 * G.91 target tug: A target tug variant was developed with an under-wing pylon mounted winch and target drogue. The drogue being attached to an extension of the winch around the trailing edge, above the wing. Other modifications included a large blade aerial above the centre fuselage and an anti-collision light at the forward end of the dorsal fin.
 * G.91Y:An additional 67 aircraft built by Aeritalia were significantly different from earlier versions. These single-seat aircraft, based on the longer trainer version, designated G.91Y and nicknamed "Yankee", replaced the original single Bristol Siddeley Orpheus engine with two General Electric J85 units in a "completely re-engineered structure" giving 60% more power and doubling the tankage for increased range with 75% more payload. The G.91Y first flew on 12 December 1966 and displayed an improvement in speed, range, payload, and manoeuvrability. The maximum speed was increased to 1,110 km/h (690 mph, 600 kn, Mach 0.91). The machine guns were replaced by a pair of DEFA 552 30 mm cannon with 125 rounds per gun. All the aircraft built served with the Italian Air Force.
 * G.91YT:A projected two-seat version of the G.91Y, not built.
 * G.91YS:Proposed version of the G.91Y for Switzerland, one built.

Operators

 * West Germany
 * German Air Force (Luftwaffe)
 * Aufklärungsgeschwader 53
 * Aufklärungsgeschwader 54
 * Erprobungstelle 61
 * Leichtes Kampfgeschwader 41
 * Leichtes Kampfgeschwader 42 (Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 73)
 * Leichtes Kampfgeschwader 43
 * Leichtes Kampfgeschwader 44
 * Waffenschule 50
 * Hellenic Air Force Evaluation operator, four aircraft in service, but retired.
 * Italian Air Force operated 31 Fiat G.91, 97 Fiat G.91R and 103 Fiat G.91T/1 retired in 1995
 * Frecce Tricolori
 * Portuguese Air Force (1966–1993)
 * United States Army – Evaluated two aircraft (1 G.91R/1, 1 G.91R/3) in 1961.
 * United States Air Force – Also an evaluation operator with two aircraft.
 * Portuguese Air Force (1966–1993)
 * United States Army – Evaluated two aircraft (1 G.91R/1, 1 G.91R/3) in 1961.
 * United States Air Force – Also an evaluation operator with two aircraft.
 * United States Air Force – Also an evaluation operator with two aircraft.

Aircraft on display

 * Aeroporto di Arezzo - G.91T/1 2-seat trainer (outdoor) - 32° Stormo (Wing) colours 43.45921°N, 11.84632°W
 * Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, Gatow
 * Museum of Flight, Seattle, Washington - Frecce Tricolori colours
 * Istituto Tecnico Industriale Aeronautico, Udine, Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Italy
 * Sintra Air Base, Portugal
 * Malta Aviation Museum, Ta'Qali, Malta
 * Jardim Gil Eanes, Portimão, Portugal

title: Fiat G.91


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Abbasanta

Abbasanta (,, literally "holy water"; Ad Medias) is a town and comune in the province of Oristano, Sardinia, Italy. It is on the main road between Macomer and Oristano.

Description
Abbasanta sits on a lava plateau rich in cork oaks, olive trees and lentischi (mastic trees). The plateau arose from the lava flow of the Montiferru volcano. The landscape of the lava plateau is characterised by pastures that are enclosed by stone walls that surround the tancas built in the 18th century. In the surrounding countryside, there are still some typical shelters (pinnete) made of stones and boughs by the shepherds.

In the village the stone houses are characteristic. They are low and with few floors, without sheds, but usually with a back courtyard where some space is reserved for the domestic animals. This is a quite common architectural dwelling in an area traditionally involved in sheep farming rather than agriculture.

The front room of the house is often a courtyard for chickens, in the centre of which there is the hearth (su foghile), used for hanging and drying cured pork meat. Later, fireplaces replaced the hearths.

History
In Roman times, the town, called Ad Medias, was in the territory of the Æchilenenses or Cornenses.

The village was built all around the two churches of Santa Amada and Santa Caterina (dedicated to Catherine of Alexandria). There was a clear separation between social classes.

Until the 1950s the use of Italian and Sardinian language had distinct and complementary functions. Italian was the official language, used by the public administration, while Sardinian was the language spoken at home and among friends. The characteristic expressions of the dialect are usually inspired by the peasant and pastoral world. Many proverbs refer to the values of honesty, friendship, fidelity (of the woman), loyalty, parsimony and obedience to the divine will.

Main sights
The whole of the Abbasanta plateau is rich in archaeological sites. Very close to the village is the nuraghe Losa.

A country church is set on the site of Sant'Agostino (dedicated to Augustine of Hippo). Around the rural church, there are some characteristic small houses (in Sardinian language muristenes or cumbessias) that host the pilgrims during the religious feasts.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Abbasanta


text:
Talk:Gordon Wu

Untitled
This person is a member of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference, which implies he is a citizen of the People's Republic of China. Can he, then, be called 'Sir', which I assume is a British title? -- Kaihsu 14:24, 2004 Feb 27 (UTC)
 * Maybe we should ask the Protocol Division. (Hong Kong honours system) -- Kaihsu 15:52, 2004 Feb 27 (UTC)
 * And, even then, when was he knighted? I removed 'Sir' from his title since I could not find any evidence that he was knighted. -- Kaihsu 15:22, 2004 Mar 2 (UTC)
 * Ah, he was knighted in 1997. -- Kaihsu 15:31, 2004 Mar 2 (UTC)
 * We don't know if he has kept his British citizenship. People with foreign citizenship can still be members of the CPPCC. — Instantnood 10:48 Mar 4 2005 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 16:28, 27 August 2007 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gordon Wu


text:
Deep River, Ontario

Deep River is a town in Renfrew County, Ontario, Canada. Located along the Ottawa River, it lies about 200 km north-west of Ottawa on the Trans-Canada Highway. Deep River is opposite the Laurentian Mountains and the Province of Quebec. The name Deep River purportedly derives from the fact that the Ottawa River reaches its greatest depth of 402 ft just outside the township. However, the Ottawa River today reaches a depth of 565 ft in Moose Bay which is located on the Holden Lake reservoir from the Des Joachim dam, west of Deux-Rivières.

The primary industry centres on research at the Chalk River location of Canadian Nuclear Laboratories (CNL), a facility of the Chalk River Laboratories about 10 km east of Deep River on Highway 17. The facility is named for, and primarily accessed via, the nearby town Chalk River, although the site is technically in Deep River.

History
Plans for the construction of this planned community began in 1944 by the federal government as part of the Manhattan Project, to accommodate employees of the nearby Chalk River Nuclear Laboratories (CRNL). Along with Los Alamos, New Mexico and Oak Ridge, Tennessee, Chalk River was an offshoot of the nuclear effort for the allies and scientists, engineers, and tradesmen from around the world who came to work on the Manhattan Project. After World War II, Canada continued on with research into the atom, and dedicated the country to the peaceful uses that could be derived from putting the atom to use. Deep River was situated far enough upwind and upriver of the Chalk River research reactors to avoid radioactive fallout.

John Bland, an architecture professor at McGill University, developed the town's first master plan in 1944. Bland located the town between the existing Highway 17 and the Ottawa River. He designed a system of streets which generally followed the contours of the area's topography. Residential neighborhoods stretched out from a commercial and service-sector core. Straight and broad avenues ran along contour lines, while narrower and winding streets lay at right angles, discouraging non-local traffic from entering neighborhoods. Parks and schools were located strategically throughout the town. The streets were named after local flora, Canadian politicians and famous scientists such as Ernest Rutherford and Charles Darwin.

At the same time, its economy and development was further boosted by the construction of the Des Joachim Hydroelectric Generating Station and dam on the Ottawa River at Rolphton, which opened on June 28, 1950.

The town was the subject of a Maclean's Magazine article in 1958 by the noted Canadian journalist, editor, and author Peter C. Newman. Entitled, "Deep River: Almost the Perfect Place to Live," the article took a sardonic take on the town as a very odd and isolated place populated by mostly young, male, highly educated and bored scientists and technicians struggling to find things to do with their time: "The Utopian town where our atomic scientists live and play has no crime, no slums, no unemployment and few mothers-in-law."

In 1962, the experimental Nuclear Power Demonstration or NPD power reactor started up as a prototype for later CANDU reactors. This was operated by Ontario Hydro, which later used it as a training facility for new employees in their Nuclear division. This brought many more temporary residents to the town. The NPD was shutdown in 1987; the nuclear fuel was removed from the site, along with non-radioactive equipment, leaving only the building shell and the nuclear components (reactor, tanks, pipes etc.) that had become radioactive in place to wait for further decommissioning. The facility has been waiting for final demolition and permanent disposal of the radioactive nuclear components for over 30 years.

Geography
Deep River is located at a latitude of 46°06' north and longitude 77°30' west, in the Boreal Forest biozone, and has an area of 50.87 square kilometres. The town sits on the section of the Ottawa River referred to as "La Rivière Creuse" (the "Deep River") by 17th-century French explorers, and which later was at the heart of Canada's 19th-century timber trade.

Recreation, arts and culture
Deep River boasts many active clubs. Among the numerous community accomplishments is the creation of the Deep River Symphony Orchestra, formed in 1951, making Deep River one of the smallest towns to have a symphony orchestra. The Deep River Choral Group, and Deep River Community Band also host multiple concerts every year. Cross-country skiing is a popular winter recreation. Avid skiers of the Deep River Cross-Country Ski Club created the Silver Spoon trails and an annual race that brings contestants from across Ontario. Another popular event is Summerfest, a festival held once every two years, hosting many local and famous artists including Sloan, Wide Mouth Mason, Amanda Wilkinson, Daniel Lanois, Mobile, and K'naan. The festival also organizes many recreational events, including the Cross-River Swim.

Deep River is generally known to have picturesque scenery, excellent boating along the broad river, and good hiking in the hills across the Ottawa River. Deep River also has a community pool, fire department, police department, ski hill, golf course, curling rink, yacht and tennis club, and a library.

Deep River is home to two museums: The Canadian Clock Museum, home to an extensive collection of clocks from The Arthur Pequegnat Clock Company, and the Society for the Preservation of Canada's Nuclear Heritage, founded in 2017, which collects, safeguards, and promotes documents, artifacts, memorabilia, and knowledge associated with the history of the Canadian nuclear industry.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Deep River had a population of $4,175$ living in $1,866$ of its $1,981$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $4,109$. With a land area of 50.27 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Education
Deep River was last home to four schools in 2005, for students from Junior Kindergarten through Grade 12:

 * T.W. Morison Public School - now closed, it used to be for students JK to grade 6. As decided by the school board on October 26, 2009, Morison Public School was closed down and moved into Mackenzie High School for the 2011-2012 school year in favour of making Mackenzie a JK-12 "education centre."
 * Keys Public School - now closed, it used to house students grade 5 to grade 8. At the end of the 2004-2005 school year, Keys Public School was officially closed down due to budget cuts in the school board. The Junior half of Keys (grades 5 and 6) was moved to Morison Public School, and the Intermediate half (grades 7 and 8) joined Mackenzie, separated by name only (though Mackenzie students are not allowed in the Keys Wing). It was predicted Morison would close down at the end of the 2006-2007 school year (for same above mentioned reasons) and would join Mackenzie High School as well, but was delayed in a decision to close until October 2009. In 2011, with the creation of Mackenzie Community School, Keys ceased to exist; it was named for nuclear scientist David A. Keys. The Keys Public School building was rented by AECL (Atomic Energy Canada Limited) for use as an office building. There have since been small changes to the building such as new fences, change in parking, security cameras and codes and badge scanners for doors.
 * Mackenzie High School - for students grades 9 to 12 (building now houses Keys Public School). Ceased to exist as of 2011 in name; amalgamated with Keys Public School and T.W. Morison Public School to create Mackenzie Community School. It was originally named for C. J. Mackenzie, who served as head of Canada's National Research Council.
 * Mackenzie Community School - for students JK to grade 12. Created in 2011 after the amalgamation of T.W. Morison Public School, Keys Public School, and Mackenzie High School; the school is housed in the previously named Mackenzie High School building. All sports team adopted the colours (Purple and Gold) and mascot (Mustangs) of Mackenzie High School. The school building also houses and hosts numerous community groups and activities.
 * St. Mary's Catholic School - for students JK to grade 8

The Deep River Summer Music Camp attracts around 100 students for a two week day-camp every summer.

The Deep River Science Academy hosted university and high-school students in creating numerous science projects in cooperation with many of the knowledge-economy enterprises of the area. The Academy ceased operations in 2016.

Print
Deep River's weekly, The North Renfrew Times, has been published by the Deep River Community Association since the Town's earliest days.

Radio
Deep River is served by a low-power FM repeater of Ottawa's CBC Radio station, CBO-FM:

 * 97.9 FM - CBCD-1, CBC Radio One

All other stations that may be heard in Deep River broadcast from Pembroke, Ontario. See radio stations in the Ottawa Valley Region and Quebec.

Screen
Deep River has achieved a degree of notoriety in the films of David Lynch. As well as being referenced in Blue Velvet, the town is specifically mentioned in Mulholland Drive, Lynch's surreal film about a young actress struggling to cope in Hollywood. Naomi Watts plays a character named Betty at the beginning of the film. Betty: "I just came here from Deep River, Ontario, and now I'm in this ... dream place. You can imagine how I feel."

Notable people

 * Jack Gray - 40th Grey Cup Champion with the Toronto Argonauts
 * Derek Harvie - TV and film writer and producer
 * Russell Williams, English-born Canadian serial killer and rapist, lived most of his childhood in Deep River after he and his family emigrated to Canada.
 * Malcom Burn - Music producer, recording engineer and musician []
 * Samantha Cornett - Professional squash player (retired). Canadian women's champion in 2014, 2015, 2018, 2019. []
 * Kristen den Hartog - Canadian fiction and memoir writer []

title: Deep River, Ontario


text:
Talk:Gypsy Rose Lee

Gypsy Rose Lee's birth name
The article claims that GRL's birthname was Ellen June. The typed in name on GRL's birth certificate is "infant Hovick". Karen Abbott claimed GRL's birth name was Ellen June in her book, American Rose, and she made quite a bit out of it. The only evidence for this claim is that somebody wrote Ellen June in script onto GRL's birth certificate. It is not known who did this, when it was done and for what purpose. I think that Karen Abbot overstepped what can be reasonably concluded from the limited evidence, perhaps as a way of making her point that after June was born, Rose pored her efforts into the new daughter. Whatever the case, I don't think the article should claim it as fact that GRL's birthname was Ellen June based on this limited evidence. This leads to the issue of what should be placed in the summary box as GRL's birthname. I agree with Thumperward's edit that it should list Rose Louise Hovick. This is the name GRL entered school under and it was her real name when she died. I think a mention in the article of Abbott's contention with regard to this would be appropriate. I think it is also worth noting that Nora Lee Frankel does not make the same contention in her book Stripping Gypsy. --Davefoc (talk) 02:01, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

An alternative explanation to Abbott's as to why Ellen June was written on to GRL's birth certificate is that Rose got access to the birth certificate, wrote the name in with the intention of claiming it as June's to back up her claim that June was older than she really was. This would also be consistent with Rose's attempt to claim that June was born in the US. This is all pretty much wild speculation, but it doesn't seem any more speculative to me than that GRL's birth name was Ellen June. The bottom line here, I think, is that Rose was messing about with the girls' birth documentation and claimed birth dates and that the absolute truth about any of this is unknowable at this time. --Davefoc (talk) 02:27, 29 October 2012 (UTC)

92.225.115.217 changed GRL's birth name to Rose Louise Hovick in the summary box. I agree with that edit for the reasons I stated above. I changed the text so that it makes note of Abbott's claim about GRL's birth name but changed the opening sentence so that it states that Rose Louise Hovick is GRL's birth name which is the more generally accepted fact. As a result of the recent edits about this I took a look at the handwriting used to write in Ellen June on the GRL birth certificate and the handwriting of Rose Elizabeth Hovick (presumably GRL's mother) on the passport image that I linked to earlier. They are very similar to the point that I think it is likely that GRL's mother was the person to write in Ellen June on GRL's birth certificate. I am not sure what to make of this but it suggests to me that Ellen June was probably never GRL's name in any sort of official way. Davefoc (talk) 07:02, 25 September 2013 (UTC)

 * If reliable sources present various versions of an article subject's birth name, then it is the responsibility of the encyclopedia to present them side by side, until scholarly historical work settles on one answer (if it ever does). It is not our place to add to the evidence, not even, really to select among possible lines of evidence—except insofar as deciding on the reliability of references is such a process. Finally, the process you describe, of looking at handwriting in sources, has to be considered "original research", and that is not something allowed. If a source reports such an analysis, and the source is reliable, report the handwriting analysis. Otherwise, our conclusions about whether they are same or different have no place here. LeProf   Leprof 7272 (talk) 21:24, 2 March 2014 (UTC)

Early life section revised...
The opening paragraph was reworked to remove a sentence awkwardly inserted parenthetically, and the sentences lacking citations were marked. The issue may not be that the citations are absent. It is just unclear from their placement, what information was derived from which source. Leprof 7272 (talk) 21:24, 2 March 2014 (UTC)
 * I was the person that added that awkward parenthetical comment when I reworked a few bits of the article that still claimed that GRL's birth name was Ellen June to be a claim that GRL's birth name was Rose Louise so that the article was consistent throughout on that. I agree some of what I did was awkward and I am not sorry to see the parenthetical comment removed. However there is a problem with what remains. The citation about what GRL's birth name is to Karen Abbott's book and she is the one author that claims GRL's birth name was Ellen June. She bases that on the name hand written onto GRL's birth certificate, which was Ellen June. No one will ever know what the facts are regarding this situation. GRL might have been originally named Ellen June as Abbot theorizes or she might have been named Rose Louise soon after her birth and the name hand written in, Ellen June, was just more of her mother's messing about with stuff for her own deceptive purposes. Rose Louise is the name GRL entered school under and Rose Louise Hovick was her real name when she died. Those are enough facts to make me think that the article should lean to the standard view that Rose Louise was her birth name as it does now. However, Karen Abott should be removed as the source for that claim as she doesn't support it. It would be helpful if a consensus on how the article should handle Abbot's claim about GRL's birth name could be achieved. And while we're on the subject of names I don't believe June Havoc's birth name was Ellen Evangeline. --Davefoc (talk)

Marriages?
According to the current article, she married her first husband a year before she was born and then married her second husband as a five year old. I'm guessing that's not correct. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.197.58.142 (talk) 12:05, 6 October 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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bisexuality
according to The Lonely Hunter, the Carson mcCullers biography, she may have had an affair with Carson mcCullers, so was possibly bisexual. Apparently, mcCullers bragged to her brother that she had once slept with Gypsy, but she never told any of her gay friends that. There may be evidence of bisexuality beyond the mcCullers possibility though. 92.41.131.56 (talk) 13:13, 12 July 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gypsy Rose Lee


text:
Nasri Shamseddine

Nasri Shamseddine (نصري شمس الدين, also spelled Nasri Chamseddine; 27 June 1927 – 18 March 1983) was a Lebanese singer and actor.

Biography
Shamseddine was born Nasreddine Moustapha Shamesedine (نصر الدين مصطفى شمس الدين) in the village of Joun, in the southern part of the Chouf mountains to Shia family.

He became a teacher of the Arabic language first in the town of Chebaa and then the Al Jaafarieh Schools-Tyr in Tyre. During that time he started performing concerts singing and playing the oud. Shamseddine was first featured at the Baalbek International Festival in the early 1950s, where he also presented poems. He became not only a specialist in singing Lebanese folklore, but also in singing in different Arabic dialects. His works included collaborations with composers and singers like Melhem Barakat, Zaki Nassif, the Rahbani brothers, Halim Al-Roumi, Sabah, Wadih Al Safi, and Philemon Wehbe. Most prominently, performed with Fairuz from 1960 until little after the beginning of the Lebanese Civil War in 1978.

Shamseddine's Œuvre consists of more than 500 songs. He held concerts in a large number of countries and won awards in Brazil, France, Jordan, Lebanon, Egypt, Kuwait, and Syria.

He suffered a heart attack shortly before a concert in Damascus in 1983. Shamseddine later collapsed and died on stage during the performance due to a cardiac arrest which followed the attack.

title: Nasri Shamseddine


text:
Pierre François Verhulst

Pierre François Verhulst (28 October 1804, in Brussels – 15 February 1849, in Brussels) was a Belgian mathematician and a doctor in number theory from the University of Ghent in 1825. He is best known for the logistic growth model.

Logistic equation
Verhulst developed the logistic function in a series of three papers between 1838 and 1847, based on research on modeling population growth that he conducted in the mid 1830s, under the guidance of Adolphe Quetelet; see for details.

Verhulst published in the equation:

 * $$ \frac{dN}{dt} = rN - \alpha N^2$$

where N(t) represents number of individuals at time t, r the intrinsic growth rate, and $$\alpha$$ is the density-dependent crowding effect (also known as intraspecific competition). In this equation, the population equilibrium (sometimes referred to as the carrying capacity, K), $$N^*$$, is
 * $$ N^* = \frac{r}{\alpha} $$.

In he named the solution the logistic curve.

Later, Raymond Pearl and Lowell Reed popularized the equation, but with a presumed equilibrium, K, as

 * $$ \frac{dN}{dt} = r N \left(1 - \frac {N}{K} \right)$$

where K sometimes represents the maximum number of individuals that the environment can support. In relation to the density-dependent crowding effect, $$\alpha = \frac{r}{K}$$. The Pearl-Reed logistic equation can be integrated exactly, and has solution

 * $$ N(t) = \frac{K}{1+ C K e^{-rt}} $$

where C = 1/N(0) − 1/K is determined by the initial condition N(0). The solution can also be written as a weighted harmonic mean of the initial condition and the carrying capacity,

 * $$ \frac{1}{N(t)} = \frac{1-e^{-rt}}{K}+ \frac{e^{-rt}}{N(0)}. $$

Although the continuous-time logistic equation is often compared to the logistic map because of similarity of form, it is actually more closely related to the Beverton–Holt model of fisheries recruitment.

The concept of R/K selection theory derives its name from the competing dynamics of exponential growth and carrying capacity introduced by the equations above.

title: Pierre François Verhulst


text:
William Perkins (theologian)

William Perkins (1558–1602) was an influential English cleric and Cambridge theologian, receiving a B.A. and M.A. from the university in 1581 and 1584 respectively, and also one of the foremost leaders of the Puritan movement in the Church of England during the Elizabethan era. Although not entirely accepting of the Church of England's ecclesiastical practices, Perkins conformed to many of the policies and procedures imposed by the Elizabethan Settlement. He did remain, however, sympathetic to the non-conformist puritans and even faced disciplinary action for his support.

Perkins was a prolific author who penned over forty works, many of which were published posthumously. In addition to writing, he also served as a fellow at Christ's College and as a lecturer at St. Andrew's Church in Cambridge. He was a firm proponent of Reformed theology, particularly the supralapsarian theology of Theodore Beza. In addition, he was a staunch defender of Protestant ideals, specifically the five solae with a particular emphasis on solus Christus and sola Scriptura.

Early life
Perkins was born to Thomas and Anna Perkins at Marston Jabbett in the parish of Bulkington, Warwickshire, England in 1558, the year in which the Protestant Elizabeth I succeeded her Catholic sister Mary as Queen of England. Perkins lived his entire life under Elizabeth I, dying one year before the Queen's death in 1603. Perkins's relationship with Elizabeth was ambiguous: on the one hand, she was Good Queen Bess, the monarch under whom England finally and firmly became a Protestant nation; on the other hand, Perkins and the other members of the Puritan movement were frustrated that the Elizabethan settlement had not gone far enough and pushed for further Reformation.

Little is known of Perkins' childhood and upbringing. Sometime in his early life he was rendered lame which forced him to write with his left hand. His family was evidently of some means, since in June 1577, at age 19, Perkins was enrolled as a pensioner of Christ's College, Cambridge being trained in the tradition of the Reformed scholastic framework. He would receive his BA in 1581 and his MA in 1584.

According to an unverifiable story, Perkins was convicted of the error of his ways after he heard a Cambridge mother say to her child, "Hold your tongue, or I will give you to drunken Perkins yonder." Whether or not the story is true, it is clear that Perkins had a religious awakening sometime between 1581 and 1584 during his time at Cambridge. Thomas Fuller's biographical profile of Perkins portrayed him as "very wild in his youth," skilled in mathematics, possessed of "a rare felicity in speedy reading of books," and preaching, early in his ministry, with a sternness that he mitigated in later years:"He would pronounce the word damn with such an emphasis, as left a doleful echo in his auditors' ears a good while after... . But in his older age he altered his voice and remitted much of his former rigidness; often professing that to preach mercy was that proper office of the ministers of the Gospel."Perkins's sermons, wrote Fuller, "were not so plain but that the piously learned did admire them, nor so learned but that the plain did understand them."

Perkins thus began a lifelong association with the "moderate-puritan" wing of the Church of England which held views similar to those of the continental Calvinist theologians Theodore Beza, Girolamo Zanchi, and Zacharias Ursinus. Perkins's circle at Cambridge included Laurence Chaderton and Richard Greenham.

Perkins as clergyman and Cambridge fellow
Following his ordination, Perkins also preached his first sermons to the prisoners of the Cambridge jail. On one celebrated occasion, Perkins encountered a young man who was going to be executed for his crimes and who feared he was shortly going to be in hell: Perkins convinced the man that, through Christ, God could forgive his sins, and the formerly distraught youth faced his execution with manly composure as a result.

In 1584, after receiving his MA degree, Perkins was elected as a fellow of Christ's College, a post he held until 1594. In 1585, he became a Lecturer of St Andrew the Great in Cambridge, a post he held until his death.

Perkins's churchmanship
As a "moderate Puritan", Perkins was firmly opposed to non-conformists and other separatists who refused to conform to the Church of England. He also opposed the Elizabethan regime's program of imposing uniformity on the church. For example, when Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift imprisoned Francis Johnson for Johnson's support of a presbyterian form of church polity, Perkins defended Johnson. This was not an isolated incident, and he appeared before the commission more than once.

On 13 January 1587, Perkins preached a sermon denouncing the practice of kneeling to receive Communion, and was ultimately called before the Vice-Chancellor as a result. During the final set of trials against Puritan ministers in 1590–1591, Perkins confirmed that he had discussed the Book of Discipline with Puritan ministers, but claimed that he could not remember whom he had talked to.

Perkins married Timothye Cradocke of Grantchester on 2 July 1595. (He had previously resigned his fellowship at Christ's College, since only unmarried men could be fellows.) They became the parents of seven children, three of whom died in youth from various causes, and one of whom was born after Perkins himself had died.

Theological opinions
Perkins was a proponent of "double predestination" and was a major player in introducing the thought of Theodore Beza to England. He viewed the Reformed concept of the Covenant of Grace, which is central to Reformed soteriology and double predestination, to be a doctrine of great consoling value. He was responsible for the publication in English of Beza's famous chart about double predestination. Writing less than a century after Perkins's death, his biographer Thomas Fuller recounted an objection that Perkins's views on double predestination often prompted:"Some object that his doctrine, referring all to an absolute decree, hamstrings all industry, and cuts off the sinews of men's endeavours towards salvation. For, ascribing all to the wind of God's Spirit, (which bloweth where it listeth,) he leaveth nothing to the oars of man's diligence, either to help or hinder to the attaining of happiness, but rather opens a wide door to licentious security." In addition to adopting a Reformed soteriology, Perkins also strongly held to the doctrines of solo Christo and sola Scriptura which "serve as the twin foundation stones for what Perkins conceived as biblical preaching." He was also a major proponent of literal interpretation using the regula fidei, or Rule of Faith. This principle advocates that the unclear portions of scripture ought to be interpreted by the clear portions rather than by tradition or speculation. He did, however, leave room for figurative or analogical language when context demands.

Influence
Although relatively unknown to modern Christians, Perkins has had an influence that is felt by Christians all around the world. and was highly regarded in the Elizabethan Church. In addition, Perkins's views on double predestination made him a major target of Jacobus Arminius, the Dutch Reformed clergyman who opposed the doctrine of predestination. He also was influential in the theological development of the American puritan philosopher and theologian Jonathan Edwards. In addition, some consider the hermeneutics of Perkins to be a model that ought to be emulated.

In his lifetime, Perkins attained enormous popularity, with sales of his works eventually surpassing even Calvin's. When he died, his writings were selling more copies than those of many of the most famous of the Reformers combined.

From his position at Cambridge, Perkins was able to influence a whole generation of English churchmen. His pupils include:

 * William Ames, Puritan theologian whose "Marrow of Theology" was the most popular systematic theology of the time became professor of theology at Franeker, Netherlands
 * John Robinson, the founder of congregationalism in Leiden and pastor of the group which went on to found the Plymouth Colony
 * Thomas Goodwin, Congregationalist minister and Puritan theologian who was a vital part of the Westminster Assembly
 * Paul Baynes, Puritan preacher and successor to Perkins as lecturer at the church of St Andrew the Great in Cambridge
 * Samuel Ward, Puritan preacher and master of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge
 * Phineas Fletcher, a poet
 * Thomas Draxe, English puritan and theologian
 * Thomas Taylor, Puritan preacher and Doctor of Divinity at Cambridge
 * James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh
 * James Montagu, master of Sidney Sussex and later bishop of Winchester
 * Richard Sibbes, Puritan preacher of Gray's Inn and Master at Catherine's Hall known for his eloquence and comforting sermons
 * John Cotton, Colonial American Puritan minister and theologian of the Massachusetts Bay Colony
 * Thomas Hooker, Colonial American Puritan minister and founder of the Connecticut Colony
 * Thomas Shepard, Colonial American Puritan minister and theologian known for his leadership in the Antinomian Controversy

Death
In 1602, Perkins suffered from "the stone". After several weeks of suffering, he died on 22 October 1602 at age 44.

James Montagu preached his funeral sermon, taking as his text Joshua 1.2, ‘Moses my servant is dead’. He was buried in St. Andrew's, the church which he had pastored for eighteen years.

Publications by Perkins

 * Defensio pro Alexandro Discono (1584)
 * A Warning against the Idolatrie of the Last Times (1584)
 * Foure Great Lyers, Striuing Who Shall Win the Siluer Whetstone: Also, A Resolution to the Count (1585)
 * A Treatise Tending Vnto a Declaration Whether a Man be in the Estate of Damnation or in the Estate of Grace: And If he be in the First, How he may in Time Come out of it: if in the second, how he maie discerne it, and perseuere in the same to the end. The points that are handled are set downe in the page following (1590)
 * Armilla aurea, id est, Miranda series causarum et salutis & damnationis iuxta verbum Dei: Eius synopsin continet annexa tabula (1590)
 * A golden chaine, or the description of theologie: containing the order of the causes of saluation and damnation, according to Gods woord. A view of the order wherof, is to be seene in the table annexed (1591)
 * The foundation of Christian religion: gathered into sixe principles. And it is to bee learned of ignorant people, that they may be fit to hear sermons with profit, and to receiue the Lords Supper with comfort (1591)
 * Prophetica, sive, De sacra et vnica ratione concionandi tractatus (1592)
 * A case of conscience : the greatest that euer was; how a man may know whether he be the child of God or no. Resolued by the word of God. Whereunto is added a briefe discourse, taken out of Hier. Zanchius (1592)
 * An exposition of the Lords prayer: in the way of catechising seruing for ignorant people (1592)
 * Tvvo treatises: I. Of the nature and practise of repentance. II. Of the combat of the flesh and spirit (1593)
 * An exposition of the Lords praier: in the way of catechisme (1593)
 * A direction for the government of the tongue according to Gods word (1593)
 * An exposition of the Symbole or Creed of the Apostles: according to the tenour of the Scriptures, and the consent of orthodoxe Fathers of the Church (1595)
 * A salve for a sicke man, or, A treatise containing the nature, differences, and kindes of death: as also the right manner of dying well. And it may serue for spirituall instruction to 1. Mariners when they goe to sea. 2. Souldiers when they goe to battell. 3. Women when they trauell of child (1595)
 * A declaration of the true manner of knowing Christ crucified (1596)
 * A reformed Catholike, or, A declaration shewing how neere we may come to the present Church of Rome in sundrie points of religion, and wherein we must for euer depart from them: with an advertisement to all fauourers of the Romane religion, shewing that the said religion is against the Catholike principles and grounds of the catechisme (1597)
 * De praedestinationis modo et ordine : et de amplitudine gratiae diuinae Christiana & perspicua disceptatio (1598)
 * Specimen digesti, sive Harmoniæ bibliorum Veteris et Novi Testamneti (1598)
 * A warning against the idolatrie of the last times: And an instruction touching religious, or diuine worship (1601)
 * The true gaine : more in worth then all the goods in the world (1601)
 * How to liue, and that well: in all estates and times, specially when helps and comforts faile (1601)

Posthumously:

 * The works of that famous and worthie minister of Christ, in the Universitie of Cambridge, M.W. Perkins : gathered into one volume, and newly corrected according to his owne copies. With distinct chapters, and contents of euery book, and a generall table of the whole (1603)
 * The reformation of couetousnesse: Written vpon the 6. chapter of Mathew, from the 19. verse to the ende of the said chapter (1603)
 * A commentarie or exposition, vpon the fiue first chapters of the Epistle to the Galatians: penned by the godly, learned, and iudiciall diuine (1604)
 * Lectures vpon the three first chapters of the Reuelation: preached in Cambridge anno Dom. 1595 (1604)
 * Gvilielmi Perkinsi Problema de Romanæ fidei ementito Catholicismo.: Estq[ue] Antidotum contra Thesaurum Catholicum Iodoci Coccij. Et [propaideia] iuventutis in lectione omnium patrum (1604)
 * The first part of The cases of conscience: Wherein specially, three maine questions concerning man, simply considered in himselfe, are propounded and resolued, according to the word of God (1604)
 * Satans sophistrie ansuuered by our Sauiour Christ: and in diuers sermons further manifested (1604)
 * Hepieíkeia: or, a treatise of Christian equitie and moderation (1604)
 * M. Perkins, his Exhortation to repentance, out of Zephaniah: preached in 2. sermons in Sturbridge Faire. Together with two treatises of the duties and dignitie of the ministrie: deliuered publiquely in the Vniuersitie of Cambridge. With a preface præfixed touching the publishing of all such workes of his as are to be expected: with a catalogue of all the perticulers [sic] of them, diligently perused and published, by a preacher of the word (1605)
 * Works newly corrected according to his owne copies (1605)
 * Of the calling of the ministerie two treatises, describing the duties and dignities of that calling (1605)
 * The combat betweene Christ and the diuell displayed, or A commentarie upon the temptations of Christ (1606)
 * A godlie and learned exposition vpon the whole epistle of Ivde... (1606)
 * A C[hristian] and [plain]e treatise of the manner and order of predestination: and of the largenes of Gods grace (1606)
 * The arte of prophecying, or, A treatise concerning the sacred and onely true manner and methode of preaching (1607)
 * A cloud of faithfull witnesses, leading to the heauenly Canaan, or, A commentarie vpon the 11 chapter to the Hebrewes (1607)
 * A treatise of mans imaginations: Shewing his naturall euill thoughts: His want of good thoughts: The way to reforme them (1607)
 * A discourse of the damned art of witchcraft: so farre forth as it is revealed in the Scriptures and manifest by true experience ... (1608)
 * The vvhole treatise of the cases of conscience: distinguished into three bookes (1608)
 * Christian oeconomie: or, A short survey of the right manner of erecting and ordering a familie: according to the scriptures (1609)
 * A graine of musterd-seede: or, the least measure of grace that is or can be effectuall to saluation (1611)
 * A resolution to the countryman prooving it utterly unlawfull to buy or use our yeerely prognostications (1618)
 * Deaths knell: or, The sicke mans passing-bell: summoning all sicke consciences to pr[e]pare themselues for the coming of the grea[t] day of doome, lest mercies gate be shut against them: fit for all those that desire to arriue at the heauenly Ierusalem. Whereunto are added prayers fit for housholders. The ninth edition. (1628)

Recent reprints:

 * The Work of William Perkins, ed. Ian Breward (1970)
 * The Works of William Perkins, ed. Joel R. Beeke and Derek W. H. Thomas, 10 vols. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Reformation Heritage Books, 2014–2020).

title: William Perkins (theologian)