text:
Provisional Legislative Council

The Provisional Legislative Council (PLC) was the interim legislature of Hong Kong that operated from 1997 to 1998. The legislature was founded in Guangzhou and sat in Shenzhen from 1996 (with offices in Hong Kong), until the 1997 handover when it moved to Hong Kong to temporarily replace the Legislative Council of Hong Kong.

The legislature was established by the Preparatory Committee for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region by resolution at its Second Plenary Session on 24 March 1996. The 60 members of the PLC were elected on 21 December 1996 by the 400-member Selection Committee for the First Government of the HKSAR, which also elected the first Chief Executive. The official start date for this council was on 25 January 1997.

1992 electoral reforms
When the Hong Kong Basic Law was promulgated on 4 April 1990, the National People's Congress (NPC) issued a decision on the same day on the formation of the first government and legislature of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. The decision and the Basic Law envisioned the Legislative Council returned from the 1995 Hong Kong legislative election to continue operating until 1998, when the next legislative election would be due.

The NPC decided that the first legislature was to be formed according to "principles of State sovereignty and smooth transition". More specifically, the first legislature was to have 60 members, 20 of which returned from direct geographical constituency elections, 30 members from functional constituencies and 10 members returned by an election committee. If the composition of the last colonial Legislative Council conforms to the NPC decision and the Basic Law, its members automatically become members of the first post-handover Legislative Council, provided that they uphold the Basic Law, plead allegiance to the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and meet the requirements of the Basic Law.

The automatic transition (or the "through-train" model) was abandoned on 31 August 1994, when the NPC decided the 1995 Legislative Council would end with British sovereignty over Hong Kong. The policy changed when the Hong Kong government decided the 1995 legislature would be formed with a new electoral formula from the 1994 electoral reform announced by Hong Kong Governor Chris Patten in October 1992. Although the new formula expanded Hong Kong's electoral base, it conformed with the seat composition described in the NPC decision by only allowing 33 percent of seats to be elected through universal suffrage. This was possible only because decision did not define the election committee and the functional constituency electorate.

The electoral reform created nine functional constituencies that gave paid labourers voting rights and abolished voting by corporations, which could vote in the old functional constituencies. As a result, the number of voters in the functional constituencies increased to about 2.7 million from 104,609. The reform also defined the election committee to consist of district board members, who were themselves elected by universal suffrage.

China did not recognise the Legislative Council returned after the electoral reform. It stated the new composition violated the Sino-British Joint Declaration, the Basic Law and the NPC decision made in 1990. It also stated the reforms were introduced unilaterally, and China was not consulted on the change in seat composition.

Negotiations between the British and Chinese governments on the legislative transition began in April 1993, but ended in November 1993 without a consensus. On 2 July 1993, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC) formed the Preliminary Working Committee, an organisation that prepared for the establishment of the Preparatory Committee for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in 1996. According to legal scholar Albert Chen, the PLC was an idea of the Preliminary Working Committee.

Establishment
On 26 January 1996, the Preparatory Committee was formed in accordance with the 1990 NPC decision. At its second plenary session on 24 March 1996, the Preparatory Committee established the PLC. The PLC's composition was consistent with the 1990 NPC decision, but all members were to be chosen by the Selection Committee. By the end of 1996, all 60 members of the PLC had been chosen by the selection committee controlled by China. The Democratic Party boycotted the PLC and criticised it for being undemocratic, while politicians Tsang Yok-sing, Elsie Tu, Dominic Chan and Peggy Lam gained a seat.

The Provisional Legislative Council convened its first meeting on 25 January 1997 at the Shenzhen Guesthouse Hotel in Shenzhen. At the meeting, it elected its first president, Rita Fan. From 1 July 1997 to 1998, it sat at the then Legislative Council Building in Hong Kong.

Council committees and the LegCo Secretariat sat at various locations, including:
 * Huaxia Art Centre – 1 Guanqiao Street in the Overseas Chinese Town in Nanshan District, Shenzhen from 22 February to 21 June 1997
 * Hong Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre Extension – 1 July 1997

The Council held 60 meetings, 17 motions and passed 13 bills introduced by the Chief Executive of Hong Kong. The Legco Secretariat offices were on the 3rd Floor of the Huaxia Art Centre.

President of the Provisional Legislative Council
The president of the PLC was Rita Fan, who later led the legislative council following the handover.

Officers of the Provisional Legislative Council
The only officer found in the records was for the Clerk, Pauline Ng Man-Wah. Immediately after the Provisional Legislative Council was disbanded, she became the clerk of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong. She retired from this position on 28 August 2012.

Standing committees

 * Finance Committee
 * Public Accounts Committee
 * Committee of Members' Interest

Legislative functions
The legislative functions of the PLC are described by the Preparatory Committee in 1996.

Meeting broadcast
Sessions of the PLC were broadcast with assistance from the Shenzhen Television Station.

Legal status
The PLC is neither referred to in the Basic Law nor the Joint Declaration as their drafters assumed the last colonial legislative session would automatically become the Special Administrative Region's first legislature. The legality of the PLC was challenged in the case HKSAR v Ma Wai Kwan decided by the Court of Appeal on 29 July 1997. The defendants argued that the PLC was unlawful because it did not satisfy the Basic Law's definition of Hong Kong's legislature in Annex II. The court dismissed the argument. Among other reasons, the court held that as a local court it had no power to review an act of a sovereign authority. The court reasoned that since Article 19 of the Basic Law did not expand its judicial powers and that it had no power to review the validity of a sovereign act under colonial rule, it did not hold such power after the handover. While Justice Gerald Nazareth agreed with the majority decision, he questioned whether the constitutional structure of China and that of the United Kingdom were analogous. He also noted there was no "detailed review" of the Chinese constitution during the trial. The decision in Ma Wai Kwan was upheld by the Court of Final Appeal in Ng Ka Ling v Director of Immigration decided in January 1999.

Johannes Chan commented that the lack of judicial review power to review acts of Parliament reflected parliamentary supremacy, a doctrine borne out of unwritten constitutional systems. Since China has a written constitution and that the Basic Law describes the relationship between Hong Kong and the central government unlike the colonial Letters Patent and the Royal Instructions, Chan questioned whether parliamentary supremacy still fully applies in Hong Kong after 1997.

title: Provisional Legislative Council


text:
Oscarshall

Oscarshall Palace is a maison de plaisance located in the small fjord Frognerkilen on Bygdøy in Oslo, Norway.

History
The palace was built from 1847 to 1852 by the Danish architect Johan Henrik Nebelong on commission from King Oscar I and Queen Joséphine of Norway and Sweden. In 1881, King Oscar II opened the palace to the public as a museum.

The palace, with its secondary buildings and surrounding park, is considered to be one of the finest examples of neo-Gothic architecture in Norway and is one of the country's most important embodiments of the National Romantic style which was popular in Norway during the period.

The interior was wholly constructed and decorated by Norwegian artists and artisans. The walls of the dining hall are decorated with paintings by Joachim Frich, Adolph Tidemand, and Hans Gude while the decoration and furniture in the drawing room evokes the style of the old Norwegian guildhall.

Oscarshall was sold by King Carl IV to the Norwegian state in 1863. The palace was almost given a new role when it was decided in 1929 that Oscarshall would become the new residence of Crown Prince Olav and Princess Märtha. These plans were never realized, however, as both financial problems and political opposition arose. The situation was later solved when Fritz Wedel Jarlsberg sold his estate Skaugum to the royal couple. Today it is the property of the state and is placed at the disposal of the King.

Open to the public
Between 2005 and 2009 Oscarshall underwent a total renovation and restoration, bringing colours and furniture back to its original style from 1859. The renovation completed, Oscarshall was once again open to the public.

The palace is now open for guided tours during the summer season. In 2013, Queen Sonja opened the Queen Joséphine Gallery on the grounds of Oscarshall. The gallery exhibits graphic prints and featured prints by Her Majesty herself during its first season.

Related reading

 * Hjelde, Gunnar; Oscarshall – lystslottet på Bygdøy, Oslo 1978
 * Neubert. Poul J.; «Artikkel om Lystslottet Oscarshall» i Architectura (DK) 2006, (utgis av "Selskabet for Arkitekturhistorie")
 * Nina Høye: Oscarshall. Oslo, Cappelen Damm, 2009 ISBN 9788202303822
 * Trond Norén Isaksen: Det undersköna Oscarshall – hoffliv på sommerslottet i 1855. Byminner'', nr. 3–2010, side 2–11

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Oscarshall


text:
Pistol slide

The slide on the majority of fully/semi-automatic pistols is the upper part that reciprocates ("slides") with recoil during the gun's operating cycle. It serves as the bolt carrier group (BCG) and partly as the receiver, and generally houses the firing pin/striker, the extractor and frequently also the barrel, and provides a mounting platform for iron and optical sights.

Through the principles of short recoil or simple blowback operations, the slide is moved backwards with each shot by the energy of expanding gasses caused by the combusting propellant (often a nitrocellulose-based smokeless powder, very rarely black powder). Because the slide is spring-loaded, once at the rearmost position, the spring tension will push it back towards the front. Generally, this slide movement cycle serves three functions: the extractor will empty the chamber by pulling out the spent casing from the previous shot (which then gets removed out of the gun by the ejector), the slide inertia will cock the hammer/striker to prepare for the next shot, and the bolt will push a new cartridge from the magazine into the chamber when the slide comes back forward. This action cycle will be repeated for continued firing as long as the magazine contains rounds and there is no failure to extract/eject (which causes stovepiping and double-feeding), failure to feed, or out-of-battery malfunction.

Fully/semi-automatic air pistols' slides operate with similar principles as firearms, except they utilize pneumatic energy from compressed gas (usually air, CO2, propane or refrigerants) instead of burning propellants. Because air pistols typically have much lower muzzle energy than firearms, there is less recoil that can be used to operate the slide. However, because airgun pellets/shots have no casings that needed to be extracted (unlike firearm cartridges), a very brief slide movement is sufficient to cycle the action and load the subsequent shot, so only a small amount of energy is needed to move the slide.

On most modern designs, once the magazine is empty, a slide stop will catch and lock the slide at its rearmost position, and will only be released to move back forward after the slide release is depressed.

Having the slide automatically loading the chamber and cocking the hammer/striker with each prior shot is essential for the function of double-action/single-action pistols. Hammerless and striker-fired pistols, lacking external hammer that can be directly manipulated, need to have the whole slide manually pulled back to cock the hammer/striker if the gun is not already cocked for firing.

title: Pistol slide


text:
Talk:East Germanic languages

Untitled

 * The author should review the latest article "Ostgermanisch" in the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde on this subject. This article summarises the latest research on this issue and argues:

It claimed in the article that Crimean Gothic survived until 18th century(no citations by the way). Where did survived, interesting. The Crimea was Turkic region at least from the conquest by the Golden Horde in 13th century.85.101.18.9 (talk) 15:57, 5 December 2008 (UTC)

East Germanic closer to North Germanic or to West Germanic
Why not look up Kortland's interesting article? http://www.kortlandt.nl/publications/art198e.pdf

78.48.188.195 (talk) 08:35, 21 November 2008 (UTC) Wojciech Żełaniec

1. East Germanic is not closer to North Germanic than either is to West Germanic. 2. East Germanic separated out of the Germanic language group much earlier than North and West Germanic split, which is why linguists now refer to "North-West Germanic". 3. Archaeological evidence shows that the Goths, i.e. the carriers of the Wielbark culture did not come from Scandinavia, but developed authochtonously from the Okcywie culture. 4. The name "Burgundarholmr" is a learned reconstruction. The name of the island Bornholm simply means the "high island". This meaning was lost in the middle ages and scholars thought to link the name with the Burgundians and created the name "Burgundarholmr". Archaeology cannot link the Burgundians (i.e. Lebus-Lausitz culture) with Bornholm. See. R. Kaiser "Die Burgunder" 2004.

In conclusion: About everything in this article is wrong or outdated. The article should be revised.

 * Your objections are interesting. In 1 and 2, you talk of one way of classifying Germanic languages based on the fact that N and W Germanic had a great deal of areal influence while Gothic was relatively isolated from N and W Germanic. In 3 you contradict even Kokowski (who is the main supporter of a development from the Oksywie culture to the Wielbark culture but state that it happened during a Scandinavian immigration). In 4 you contradict medieval Scandinavian sources, which are quoted in the article. I am afraid that I will have to follow your contributions.--Berig 11:38, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

I removed Lombardic as east germanic language and added it to West Germanic languages. Lombardic underwent the second germanic sound shifting and hence is a upper german dialect. This wrong classification is ubiquitious throughout wikipedia. So, please, watch out for it. THX. --Zinnmann 13:48, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * What do you mean? When this sound shift took place the Lombards lived in Northern Italy and in contiguity with upper German dialects in the north. IMHO, it shows phonological influence (like that of German on Danish), not their origins. I'll reinsert them.--Wiglaf 08:55, 18 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * Mr. Zinnmann was correct to remove Lombardic from the Eas Germanic entry. Lombardic was most closely related to Bavarian. See for example the B-P rotation. The special volume on "Trümmersprachen ..." of the Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde is the definitive source and it shows without doubt that Lombardic was West Germanic, which shouldn't surprise either since the Langobards were an Elbe Germanic tribe classified by Tacitus as belonging to the Suevi.

Period III
Since the term Period III is used in this article but no link is provided, I'm going to admit my ignorance and ask what it means. Will one of the editors please tell me? Thanks.

Wanderer57 (talk) 21:28, 25 July 2008 (UTC)

 * It must be period III of the Nordic Bronze Age, i.e. c. 1200BC.--Berig (talk) 21:48, 25 July 2008 (UTC)

Alternate name: "llevionic"
2. Oder-Vistula Germanic or East-Germanic or "Illevionic" (Gothic, Vandalic, Burgundian)

https://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/gothic-l/conversations/messages/4791 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 88.252.150.211 (talk) 20:21, 6 January 2015 (UTC)

When did East Germanic reach the Black Sea Area?
The map implies that it hadn't, until the emergence of the Goths in the 3rd century, but if the Bastarnae were East Germanic speakers, then it had. 108.48.94.155 (talk) 22:50, 13 October 2015 (UTC)

Altering referenced information and WP:CRYSTAL
I actually have a copy of a referenced source in my bookshelf and discovered that it had been misrepresented or that the information had been altered. I have been on WP since 2003, and I have many times seen Wikipedians assert that this or that is "outdated", and I have actually believed them until finding the "outdated" information in newer publications and then I have felt tricked. Britannica of 2021 still informs us that the Goths came from Scandinavia in spite of certain Wikipedians asserting as long as I can remember that the "theory is outdated". Some information may feel outdated to certain Wikipedians, but wikipedia is not a crystal ball. Information from referenced sources is not "outdated" until we have reliable references that inform us that there is a new international consensus on it. Moreover, until recently the so-called migrationist and invasionist theories were often considered "outdated" by Wikipedians, but now with archaeogenetics I wonder how long that kind of POV-pushing can continue.--Berig (talk) 06:04, 9 March 2021 (UTC)
 * As we indeed have no crystal ball, and have to wait for archaeogenetics or whatever, we can only use the best sources we have for now. Brittanica is not one of them. See WP:TERTIARY.--Andrew Lancaster (talk) 20:47, 2 April 2021 (UTC)

Burgundian status reference
Currently, the article says the status of Burgundian as an EG language is debated, referring to:
 * Wolfram, Herwig (1997). The Roman Empire and Its Germanic Peoples. University of California Press. p. 259. ISBN 978-0520085114. "For a long time linguists considered the Burgundians to be an East Germanic people, but today they are no longer so sure."

First of all, it is pretty annoying that there is no extra explanation why linguists no longer think so. Here's how Wolfram explains it himself on page 259 of this book:
 * 'For a long time linguists considered the Burgundians to be an East Germanic people, but today they are no longer so sure. It is true that the Burgundians were occasionally counted among the “Gothic peoples,” probably because most of them were Arians for a long time. But in the eyes of the Gaul Sidonius Apollinaris they came from the land east of the Rhine and were therefore a Germanic people, a classification that no ethnographer of late antiquity would have applied to the Gothic peoples.14'
 * [footnote 14: WG=Wolfram, History of the Goths, 43 f. Compare, for example, Sidonius Apollinaris, Epistulae, 5: 1 and 3.]

So the point Wolfram makes here is that East Germanic did not really exist in antiquity. The classification would have been 'Gothic'. But the Burgundians were instead called 'Germanic' by Sidonius Apollinaris. And since he would never have called the Gothic peoples 'Germanic', the Burgundians were perhaps not Gothic (that is 'East Germanic' in present-day terms) at all.

Moreover, on pages 8 and 9 of this same book Wolfram cautions for the idea of dividing the Germanic 'peoples' into Northern, Western and Eastern groups simply based on its 'linguistic assumptions.' 2001:1C02:1990:A900:39DA:DC28:F0EA:1FA8 (talk) 09:35, 13 January 2024 (UTC)
 * I think that the current text is a bit of a placeholder until someone has time to work more on it. I don't think Wolfram is an ideal or sufficient source for this point, but just one that one of us had to hand to make sure this point was left unmentioned. I don't remember where I read everything just off hand but we also have to remember that the Burgundians of Sidonious were unlikely to have been very recognizable to the eastern European Burgundians centuries before, and even those early Burgundians might not have spoken what we now call Eastern Germanic. (In the time of Tacitus the language which Goths later used might have been the Germanic language which Tacitus seems to indicate that the Bastarnae and Peuci were speaking in that region, in his time. This is a possibility I recall even Peter Heather explicitly and rightly leaves open, despite his belief that the Gothic name aristocracy had come from the Gothones living at the mouth of the Vistula in the time of Tacitus.) We also know the Burgundians had been living close to the Rhine for a long time before they were moved deeper into the empire and Sidonius met them. I believe it has also been proposed that when Sidonius used Germani-type terms he would be using it in a classical way to indicate peoples from the Rhine area. The only really clearly attested Eastern Germanic language is Gothic, and while Graeco-Roman sources gave a name for their language, which was also being used by other peoples, and within various military and administrative institutions in the empire itself (e.g. Italy), they didn't ever say that Burgundians spoke it. When Sidonius I think somewhere speaks of Germanic language, he is perhaps therefore implying that Franks and Burdungians spoke a similar language? These are all just notes as a placeholder. We'd obviously need to see what more recent secondary sources really say.--Andrew Lancaster (talk) 10:33, 13 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:East Germanic languages


text:
Whit Monday

Whit Monday or Pentecost Monday, also known as Monday of the Holy Spirit, is the holiday celebrated the day after Pentecost, a moveable feast in the Christian liturgical calendar. It is moveable because it is determined by the date of Easter. In the Catholic Church, it is the Memorial of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mother of the Church, marking the resumption of Ordinary Time.

Whit Monday gets its English name from "Whitsunday", an English name for Pentecost, one of the three baptismal seasons. The origin of the name "Whit Sunday" is generally attributed to the white garments formerly worn by those newly baptized on this feast.

Observance
Pentecost is always on a Sunday and is therefore usually a non-working day. That said, the Monday after Pentecost is a public holiday in Andorra, Antigua and Barbuda, Anguilla, Austria, The Bahamas, Barbados, Belgium, Benin, The British Virgin Islands, Central African Republic, Republic of Congo, Cyprus, Denmark, Dominica, France, Gabon, Germany, Greece, Grenada, Hungary, Iceland, Ivory Coast, Luxembourg, Madagascar, Monaco, Montserrat, The Netherlands, Norway, Romania, Saint Lucia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Senegal, Solomon Islands, Switzerland, Togo and Ukraine. In many of these countries, Whit Monday is known as "the second day of Pentecost" or "the second Whitsun".

In France, it became a work day for many workers from 2005 to 2007. This was to raise extra funds following the government's lack of preparation for a summertime heat wave, which led to a shortage of proper health care for the elderly. It continues to be a "worked public holiday" in France. In Liechtenstein, Whit Monday is considered to be a "favorite holiday", much like Christmas in many other countries. In Germany, Whit Monday (Pfingstmontag ) is a Holy Day of Obligation for Roman Catholics. It is celebrated in South Tyrol, and for its capital city Bolzano it replaces the holiday of the local patron saint celebrated elsewhere in Italy.

Until 1973, Whit Monday was a public holiday in Ireland (also called a bank holiday). It was a bank holiday in the United Kingdom until 1967. There it was formally replaced by the fixed Spring Bank Holiday on the last Monday in May in 1971. It was also a public holiday in various former British colonies, especially in the Pacific. It remains a public holiday in some of the countries of the Commonwealth Caribbean. In Sweden, Whit Monday was a public holiday until 2004; it was replaced by the National Day of Sweden in 2005.

Although Whit Monday is a civil holiday in many countries, it was not a Catholic religious holiday any more than the other weekdays that follow Pentecost Sunday. Until the 1969 revision of the General Roman Calendar, they were part of the octave of Pentecost, which was added in the 7th century. The Monday after Pentecost is now the first day of the resumption of Ordinary Time. While the details differ from diocese to diocese, the most widespread practice in Germany (where the holiday remains an obligation) was to have a compulsory votive Mass of the Holy Spirit outranking even solemnities (these would be local solemnities in that case).

However, in February 2018, Pope Francis declared that henceforth, Whit Monday will be the fixed date for the celebration of a new feast, officially known as the "Memorial of Mary, Mother of the Church" to be celebrated throughout the Western Catholic Church, with the exception of the Ordinariates, where the octave of Whitsun Week has been restored and the new Memorial is observed on the Saturday after Ascension Day.

Observance in Eastern Orthodoxy and the Eastern Catholic Churches
In the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Eastern Catholic Churches Whit Monday is known as "Monday of the Holy Spirit" or "Day of the Holy Spirit" and is the first day of the afterfeast of Pentecost, being dedicated specifically to the honor of God the Holy Spirit and particularly in commemoration of his descent upon the apostles at Pentecost. The day following is known as Third Day of the Trinity. In the services on the Monday of the Holy Spirit many of the same hymns are sung as on the day of Pentecost itself. During the Divine Liturgy the Deacon intones the same introit as on the day of Pentecost, and the dismissal is the same as on the day of Pentecost. Special canons to the Holy Spirit are chanted at Compline and Matins.

title: Whit Monday


text:
TGN

TGN may refer to:

 * Tarragona, abbreviation of the city of Tarragona, in Catalonia
 * Thai Global Network, a Thai satellite television channel
 * Texas Government Newsletter, for college students
 * Tyco Global Network, fiber optic network by Tyco International
 * Trans Golgi network in biology
 * IEEE 802.11n Task Group N
 * Thyroglobulin, a protein
 * Getty Thesaurus of Geographic Names
 * TGN (AM) radio station, Guatemala
 * Latrobe Regional Airport, IATA airport code "TGN"

title: TGN


text:
Jon Snow (journalist)

Jonathan George Snow HonFRIBA  (born 28 September 1947) is an English journalist and television presenter. He is best known as the longest-running presenter of Channel 4 News, which he presented from 1989 to 2021. On 29 April 2021, Snow announced his retirement from the role; his final programme aired on 23 December 2021. Although Channel 4's news programming is produced by ITN, Snow was employed directly by the broadcaster.

Snow has held numerous honorary appointments, including Chancellor of Oxford Brookes University from 2001 to 2008.

Early life and education
Snow was born in Ardingly, Sussex, the son of George D'Oyly Snow, Bishop of Whitby, and Joan, a pianist who studied at the Royal College of Music. He is a grandson of First World War General Sir Thomas D'Oyly Snow (about whom he writes in his foreword to Ronald Skirth's war memoir The Reluctant Tommy) and is the cousin of retired BBC television news presenter Peter Snow. He grew up at Ardingly College, where his father was headmaster. In 2013, he recounted how the inquiry into Sir Jimmy Savile had allowed him to re-evaluate his own childhood, having been molested by one of the college's domestic staff when he was aged six.

Snow won a choral scholarship to Winchester Cathedral and spent five years at the Pilgrims' School. He subsequently attended St Edward's School in Oxford. When he was 18, he spent a year as a VSO volunteer teaching in Uganda.

After mixed success in his first attempt to pass his A-level qualifications, he moved to the Yorkshire Coast College, Scarborough, where he later obtained the necessary qualifications to gain a place reading Law at the University of Liverpool. However, he did not complete his undergraduate studies, being expelled for his part in a 1970 anti-apartheid socialist student protest, which he later described as "an absolute watershed in my life".

Career
After his law degree studies were terminated at Liverpool University, Snow was hired by Lord Longford to direct the New Horizon Youth Centre, a day centre for homeless young people in central London, an organisation with which he has remained involved and of which he subsequently became chairman.

In 1973 he became a presenter on LBC Radio, a then new commercial radio station.

By 1978, he was working as a correspondent for ITN, and in November of that year was sent on a mission to Vietnam to report on the plight of the boat people. He served as ITN's Washington correspondent (1983–1986) and as diplomatic editor (1986–1989) before becoming the main presenter of Channel 4 News in 1989. In 1992, he was the main anchor for ITN's election night programme, broadcast on ITV; he presented the programme alongside Robin Day, Alastair Stewart and Julia Somerville. (Previously ITN's programme had typically been presented by Alastair Burnet, who left ITN in 1991. The 1992 election night programme was the only one hosted by Snow. He was replaced by Jonathan Dimbleby from 1997 onwards.) Snow has won several RTS Awards – two for reports from El Salvador, one for his reporting of the Kegworth air disaster as well as the 1995 Award for Best Male Presenter and the 1980 Award for TV Journalist of the Year for his coverage of Afghanistan, Iran and the Middle East.

Snow is known for sporting his vast collection of colourful ties and socks.

While working as a journalist in Uganda, he flew alongside President Idi Amin in the presidential jet, and Snow has recounted how while Amin appeared to be asleep he thought seriously about taking Amin's revolver and shooting him dead, but was worried about the consequences of firing a loose round in a jet.

In 1976, Snow reportedly rejected an approach by British intelligence services to spy on his colleagues. At first he was asked to supply information about the Communist Party, but he was then asked to spy on certain "left-wing people" working in television. In return he would have received secret monthly, tax-free payments, matching his then salary.

In 1980, in the early stages of the Iran–Iraq War, he helped rescue a British ship that had become trapped in Iranian waters.

In 2002 he returned to radio, presenting Jon Snow Reports on Oneword Radio, a weekly show and podcast. He wrote regular articles for the Channel 4 News website and Snowmail – a daily email newsletter on the big stories coming up on the evening edition of Channel 4 News.

In 2003, at the height of the dodgy dossier affair, Alastair Campbell walked into the studio to rebut statements by the BBC. Without notes or preparation, Snow attempted to question Campbell about the affair.

In 2004, Snow published an autobiography, Shooting History. The book was published by Harper Perennial and detailed Snow's life from his childhood up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Snow refuses to wear any symbol that may represent his views on air; in the run up to Remembrance Day, he condemned what he called "poppy fascism" because "in the end there really must be more important things in life than whether a news presenter wears symbols on his lapels".

On 28 February 2008, Snow said that the silence of the British media on the decision to allow Prince Harry to fight in Afghanistan was unacceptable: "I never thought I'd find myself saying thank God for Drudge. The infamous US blogger has broken the best kept editorial secret of recent times. Editors have been sworn to secrecy over Prince Harry being sent to fight in Afghanistan three months ago." These remarks provoked criticism from some viewers and media outlets.

On 9 February 2009, Snow interviewed Lt-Col Yvonne Bradley, the military counsel for Binyam Mohamed, a British resident detained for five years at Guantánamo Bay. Snow asked whether Mohamed's allegations of torture were justified; Bradley said there was no doubt at all that he had been tortured. Mohamed was released and returned to Britain on 23 February 2009.

In November 2010 Snow was sent to Haiti to report on the cholera outbreak.

On 14 June 2011, Snow presented the multiple award-winning investigation documentary Sri Lanka's Killing Fields, directed by Callum Macrae, which documented war crimes committed in the final days of the Sri Lankan conflict in 2009. The second part, Sri Lanka's Killing Fields: War Crimes Unpunished was broadcast in March 2012.

In early 2014, Snow had a debate with comedian and actor Russell Brand who appeared in a Channel 4 interview about his petition for a debate on British drug laws.

Accusations of bias
In June 2017, it was reported that Snow had shouted "fuck the Tories" at Glastonbury. He was criticised for his views on air by a guest on Channel 4 News, Conservative minister Grant Shapps later refused to appear on the show, doubting its neutrality. Shapps stated: "I don’t think he [Jon Snow] can deal in an even handed manner in any interview with a Conservative MP. He has lost all credibility." MP Andrew Bridgen called for Snow's resignation, arguing that Snow's "extreme views" were incompatible with an impartial interviewer. Rival presenter for the BBC, Andrew Marr, commented that if he had made similar comments, he would have lost his job. Channel 4 released a statement saying that Snow had been “spoken to and reminded of his responsibilities around due impartiality”.

In March 2019, while reporting at a pro-Brexit protest, Snow said that he had "never seen so many white people in one place". Media regulator Ofcom received 2,644 complaints about Snow's comment; viewers "considered the comment unnecessary". A Channel 4 spokeswoman released a statement stating that it was "an unscripted observation" and that the broadcaster regretted any offence caused. Ofcom investigated whether the comment "broke our rules on offensive content", and ruled in August to clear him over the remarks.

Other ventures
Following his retirement from ITN as the news anchor for Channel 4 in 2021, Snow continued his long association with the state-owned broadcaster by travelling to Greece, Japan and California to research and present his two-part documentary on How to Live to 100, broadcast during January 2023. The programme sought to reveal to viewers the secrets of a long, happy and healthy life by examining the lifestyles of the residents of three continents who were approaching 100 years of age.

Awards and honours
Snow declined an OBE because he believes working journalists should not take honours from those about whom they report.

In May 2015, Snow accepted a BAFTA Fellowship at the 2015 BAFTA Awards Ceremony.

Snow was also awarded the honorary degree of Doctor of Letters by the University of Liverpool in 2011, by Sussex University in 2015 and by Keele University in 2018. He has an honorary degree from the University of Aberdeen.

Snow is an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Institute of British Architects.

Personal life
Snow was once engaged to fellow television newsreader Anna Ford. For 35 years Snow's partner was human rights lawyer Madeleine Colvin, with whom he has two daughters. In March 2010 Snow married Precious Lunga, a scientist who was born and raised in Rhodesia (now Zimbabwe). They had a child together by surrogacy in March 2021.

Known as a keen cyclist and advocate of the activity, Snow served as president of CTC Cycling UK from 2007 onwards, to around 2020. When his beloved Condor, titanium-framed silver hybrid cycle was stolen from his home, he publicised the theft on his blog and offered £250 reward for its safe return.

Snow served as a governor at Brecknock Primary School, Camden, for many years.

He is the cousin of the equally renowned journalist and broadcaster Peter Snow.

Affiliations

 * Trustee of the National Gallery and Tate Gallery from 1999 to 2008.
 * Patron of Prisoners Abroad, a charity that supports the welfare of Britons imprisoned overseas and their families.
 * Patron of Farms Not Factories, a UK nonprofit organisation that works to end factory farming. In March 2016 he appeared in a video for the #TurnYourNoseUp campaign.
 * Patron of Pan Intercultural Arts, a UK charity that uses the Arts to empower young people and unlock their potential: www.pan-arts.net
 * Chancellor of Oxford Brookes University from 2001 to 2008, regularly attending university ceremonial events: in 2009 Oxford Brookes conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of the University.
 * Honorary Professor of Stirling University and guest lecturer on its Film & Media Studies course.
 * Honorary Fellow (since 15 February 2006) of the Royal Institute of British Architects, an annually-conferred lifetime honour which allows the recipient to use the initials Hon FRIBA after his or her surname.
 * Snow has an honorary degree from the University of Aberdeen, in recognition of his services to broadcasting.
 * Chairman of the Prison Reform Trust from 1992 to 1997.
 * President of the Cyclists' Touring Club in January 2007, succeeding Phil Liggett.
 * Patron of Reprieve, a legal action charity which uses the law to enforce the human rights of prisoners, from death row to Guantánamo Bay.
 * Patron of the African Prisons Project, an international non-governmental organisation with a mission to bring dignity and hope to men women and children in African prisons through health, education, justice and reintegration.
 * Patron of Media Legal Defence Initiative, a UK-based charity that provides legal support to journalists and media outlets.
 * Patron of the tree planting charity Trees for Cities.
 * Chair of New Horizon Youth Centre, the charity of which he was Director during the 1970s.
 * Ambassador of Ambitious about Autism, the UK charity supporting children and young people with autism.
 * Patron of the DIPEx Charity, a UK-based charity that produces two health websites, Healthtalkonline and Youthhealthtalk, featuring people's real life experiences of health and illness.
 * Patron of SafeHands for Mothers, a UK-based charity whose mission is to improve maternal and newborn health by harnessing the power of the visual, through the production of films.
 * Chairman of the Heart of England Forest, a charity working to create a 30,000 acre connected woodland of native broadleaf trees. In 2015 they were 12% towards their final goal and already England's largest new native forest.
 * Patron of Serious Trust, a charity raising funds for music schemes for young people, communities, and the aspiring next generation of musicians, as well as groundbreaking commissions.

title: Jon Snow (journalist)


text:
COPII

The Coat Protein Complex II, or COPII, is a group of proteins that facilitate the formation of vesicles to transport proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi apparatus or endoplasmic-reticulum–Golgi intermediate compartment. This process is termed anterograde transport, in contrast to the retrograde transport associated with the COPI complex. COPII is assembled in two parts: first an inner layer of Sar1, Sec23, and Sec24 forms; then the inner coat is surrounded by an outer lattice of Sec13 and Sec31.

Function
The COPII coat is responsible for the formation of vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). These vesicles transport cargo proteins to the Golgi apparatus (in yeast) or the endoplasmic-reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC, in mammals).

Coat assembly is initiated when the cytosolic Ras GTPase Sar1 is activated by its guanine nucleotide exchange factor Sec12. Activated Sar1-GTP inserts itself into the ER membrane, binding preferentially to areas of membrane curvature. As Sar1-GTP inserts into the membrane, it recruits Sec23 and Sec24 to make up the inner cage. Once the inner coat is assembled, the outer coat proteins Sec13 and Sec31 are recruited to the budding vesicle. Hydrolysis of the Sar1 GTP to GDP promotes disassembly of the coat.

Some proteins are found to be responsible for selectively packaging cargos into COPII vesicles. More recent research suggests the Sec23/Sec24-Sar1 complex participates in cargo selection. For example, Erv29p in Saccharomyces cerevisiae is found to be necessary for packaging glycosylated pro-α-factor.

Sec24 proteins recognize various cargo proteins, packaging them into the budding vesicles.

Structure
The COPII coat consists of an inner layer – a flexible meshwork of Sar1, Sec23, and Sec24 – and an outer layer made of Sec13 and Sec31. Sar1 resembles other Ras-family GTPases, with a core of six beta strands flanked by three alpha helices, and two flexible "switch domains". Unlike other Ras GTPases, Sar1 inserts into membranes via an N-terminal helix (rather than myristoylation or prenylation).

These coat proteins are necessary but insufficient to direct or dock the vesicle to the correct target membrane. SNARE, cargo, and other proteins are also needed for these processes to occur.

Pre-budding complex (composed of Sar1-GTP and Sec23/24) recruits the flexible Sec13p/31p complex, characterized by polymerization of the Sec13/31 complex with other Sec13/31 complexes to form a cuboctahedron with a broader lattice than its Clathrin vesicle analog. The formation of the cuboctahedron deforms the ER membrane and detaches the COPII vesicle (alongside cargo proteins and v-SNAREs), completing the COPII vesicle budding process.

Regulation
The signal(s) that triggers Sec12 to initiate COPII assembly remains unclear, though some regulators of coat formation are now known. The frequency of COPII formation is regulated in part by Sec16A and Tango1 proteins, likely by concentrating Sec12 in a given location, so it can more efficiently activate Sar1.

Evolution
In mammals there are two Sar1 genes: SAR1A and SAR1B (SAR1B was previously known as SARA2 ). In cultured mammalian cells the two Sar1 genes appear redundant; however, in animals SAR1B is uniquely required for the formation of large (over 1 micrometer across) COPII-coated vesicles.

Similarly, mammals express two Sec23 genes: SEC23A and SEC23B. The two Sec23 isoforms have identical function but are expressed in different body tissues. Both Sec23 proteins can interact with any of the four Sec24 proteins: SEC24A, SEC24B, SEC24C, and SEC24D.

Role in disease
Lethal or pathogenic variants of most COPII proteins have been described. Loss of Sar1B in mice results in death soon after birth. In humans, inheriting two copies of certain SAR1B variants results in Chylomicron retention disease, and loss of Sar1B causes a combination of chylomicron retention disease and the neuromuscular disorder Marinesco–Sjögren syndrome.

Loss of Sec23A is lethal to mice in utero. In humans, a Sec23A variant causes Cranio-lenticulo-sutural dysplasia, while Sec23B variants are associated with the bone marrow disease congenital dyserythropoietic anemia type II and some cancers. Mice without Sec23B die soon after birth. Halperin-Birk syndrome (HLBKS), a rare autosomal recessive neurodevelopmental disorder, is caused by a null mutation in the SEC31A.

Conformational changes
CopII has three specific binding sites that can each be complexed. The adjacent picture (Sed5) uses the Sec22 t-SNARE complex to bind. This site is more strongly bound, and therefore is more favored. (Embo)

Research
Mutations the threonine at position 39 to asparagine generates a dominant negative Sar1A bound permanently to GDP; mutating histidine 79 to glycine generates a constitutively active Sar1A, with GTP hydrolysis slowed dramatically.

title: COPII


text:
COPI

COPI is a coatomer, a protein complex that coats vesicles transporting proteins from the cis end of the Golgi complex back to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where they were originally synthesized, and between Golgi compartments. This type of transport is retrograde transport, in contrast to the anterograde transport associated with the COPII protein. The name "COPI" refers to the specific coat protein complex that initiates the budding process on the cis-Golgi membrane. The coat consists of large protein subcomplexes that are made of seven different protein subunits, namely α, β, β', γ, δ, ε and ζ.

Coat proteins
Coat protein, or COPI, is an ADP ribosylation factor (ARF)-dependent protein involved in membrane traffic. COPI was first identified in retrograde traffic from the cis-Golgi to the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and is the most extensively studied of ARF-dependent adaptors. COPI consists of seven subunits which compose the heteroheptameric protein complex.

The primary function of adaptors is the selection of cargo proteins for their incorporation into nascent carriers. Cargo containing the sorting motifs KKXX and KXKXX interact with COPI to form carriers which are transported from the cis-Golgi to the ER. Current views suggest that ARFs are also involved in the selection of cargo for incorporation into carriers.

Budding process
ADP ribosylation factor (ARF) is a GTPase involved in membrane traffic. There are 6 mammalian ARFs which are regulated by over 30 guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) and GTPase activating proteins (GAPs). ARF is post-translationally modified at the N-terminus by the addition of the fatty acid myristate.

ARF cycles between GTP and GDP-bound conformations. In the GTP-bound form, ARF conformation changes such that the myristate and hydrophobic N-terminal become more exposed and associate with the membrane. The interconversion between GTP and GDP bound states is mediated by ARF GEFs and ARF GAPs. At the membrane, ARF-GTP is hydrolyzed to ARF-GDP by ARF GAPs. Once in the GDP-bound conformation, ARF converts to a less hydrophobic conformation and dissociates from the membrane. Soluble ARF-GDP is converted back to ARF-GTP by GEFs.

 * 1) Luminal proteins: Proteins found in the lumen of the Golgi complex that need to be transported to the lumen of the ER contain the signal peptide KDEL. This sequence is recognized by a membrane-bound KDEL receptor. In yeast, this is ERD2P and in mammals it is KDELR. This receptor then binds to an ARF-GEF, a class of guanine nucleotide exchange factors. This protein in turn binds to the ARF. This interaction causes ARF to exchange its bound GDP for GTP. Once this exchange is made ARF binds to the cytosolic side of the cis-Golgi membrane and inserts the myristoylated N-terminal amphipathic alpha-helix into the membrane.
 * 2) Membrane proteins: Transmembrane proteins which reside in the ER contain sorting signals in their cytosolic tails which direct the protein to exit the Golgi and return to the ER. These sorting signals, or motifs, typically contain the amino acid sequence KKXX or KXKXX, which interact with COPI subunits α-COP and β'-COP. The order in which adaptor proteins associate with cargo, or adaptor proteins associate with ARFs is unclear, however, in order to form a mature transport carrier coat protein, adaptor, cargo, and ARF must all associate.

Membrane deformation and carrier budding occurs following the collection of interactions described above. The carrier then buds off of the donor membrane, in the case of COPI this membrane is the cis-Golgi, and the carrier moves to the ER where it fuses with the acceptor membrane and its content is expelled.

Structure
On the surface of a vesicle COPI molecules form symmetric trimers ("triads"). The curved triad structure positions the Arf1 molecules and cargo binding sites proximal to the membrane. The β′- and α-COP subunits form an arch over the γζβδ-COP subcomplex, orienting their N-terminal domains such that the K(X)KXX cargo-motif binding sites are optimally positioned against the membrane. Thus β′- and α-COP do not form a cage or lattice as in COPII and clathrin coats as previously suggested; instead, they are linked to one another via the γζβδ-COP subcomplexes, forming an interconnected assembly. The triads are linked together with contacts of variable valence making up four different types of contacts.

title: COPI


text:
Equals sign

The equals sign (British English) or equal sign (American English), also known as the equality sign, is the mathematical symbol =, which is used to indicate equality in some well-defined sense. In an equation, it is placed between two expressions that have the same value, or for which one studies the conditions under which they have the same value.

In Unicode and ASCII, it has the code point U+003D. It was invented in 1557 by Robert Recorde.

History
The etymology of the word equal is from the Latin word æqualis, as meaning 'uniform', 'identical', or 'equal', from æquus ('level', 'even', or 'just').

The = symbol, now universally accepted in mathematics for equality, was first recorded by Welsh mathematician Robert Recorde in The Whetstone of Witte (1557). The original form of the symbol was much wider than the present form. In his book Recorde explains his design of the "Gemowe lines" (meaning twin lines, from the Latin ) "And to auoide the tediouſe repetition of theſe woordes : is equalle to : I will ſette as I doe often in woorke vſe, a paire of paralleles, or Gemowe lines of one lengthe, thus: =, bicauſe noe .2. thynges, can be moare equalle.

And to avoid the tedious repetition of these words: 'is equal to' I will set as I do often in work use, a pair of parallels, or duplicate lines of one [the same] length, thus: =, because no 2 things can be more equal." "The symbol = was not immediately popular. The symbol was used by some and æ (or œ), from the Latin word aequalis meaning equal, was widely used into the 1700s" (History of Mathematics, University of St Andrews).

Usage in mathematics and computer programming
In mathematics, the equal sign can be used as a simple statement of fact in a specific case (""), or to create definitions (""), conditional statements (""), or to express a universal equivalence ("(x + 1)2 = x2 + 2x + 1").

The first important computer programming language to use the equal sign was the original version of Fortran, FORTRAN I, designed in 1954 and implemented in 1957. In Fortran, = serves as an assignment operator: sets the value of X to 2. This somewhat resembles the use of = in a mathematical definition, but with different semantics: the expression following = is evaluated first, and may refer to a previous value of X. For example, the assignment increases the value of X by 2.

A rival programming-language usage was pioneered by the original version of ALGOL, which was designed in 1958 and implemented in 1960. ALGOL included a relational operator that tested for equality, allowing constructions like with essentially the same meaning of = as the conditional usage in mathematics. The equal sign was reserved for this usage.

Both usages have remained common in different programming languages into the early 21st century. As well as Fortran, = is used for assignment in such languages as C, Perl, Python, awk, and their descendants. But = is used for equality and not assignment in the Pascal family, Ada, Eiffel, APL, and other languages.

A few languages, such as BASIC and PL/I, have used the equal sign to mean both assignment and equality, distinguished by context. However, in most languages where = has one of these meanings, a different character or, more often, a sequence of characters is used for the other meaning. Following ALGOL, most languages that use = for equality use := for assignment, although APL, with its special character set, uses a left-pointing arrow.

Fortran did not have an equality operator (it was only possible to compare an expression to zero, using the arithmetic IF statement) until FORTRANIV was released in 1962, since when it has used the four characters .EQ. to test for equality. The language B introduced the use of == with this meaning, which has been copied by its descendant C and most later languages where = means assignment.

Some languages additionally feature the "spaceship operator", or three-way comparison operator, <=>, to determine whether one value is less than, equal to, or greater than another.

Several equal signs
In some programming languages,  and   are used to check equality, so   will return true.

In PHP, the triple equal sign, ===, denotes value and type equality, meaning that not only do the two expressions evaluate to equal values, but they are also of the same data type. For instance, the expression = false is true, but == false is not, because the number 0 is an integer value whereas false is a Boolean value.

JavaScript has the same semantics for ===, referred to as "equality without type coercion". However, in JavaScript the behavior of == cannot be described by any simple consistent rules. The expression = false is true, but = undefined is false, even though both sides of the == act the same in Boolean context. For this reason it is sometimes recommended to avoid the == operator in JavaScript in favor of ===.

In Ruby, equality under == requires both operands to be of identical type, e.g. = false is false. The === operator is flexible and may be defined arbitrarily for any given type. For example, a value of type Range is a range of integers, such as 1800..1899. is false, since the types are different (Range vs. Integer); however is true, since === on Range values means "inclusion in the range". Under these semantics,  is non-symmetric; e.g.   is false, since it is interpreted to mean   rather than.

Tone letter
The equal sign is also used as a grammatical tone letter in the orthographies of Budu in the Congo-Kinshasa, in Krumen, Mwan and Dan in the Ivory Coast. The Unicode character used for the tone letter (U+A78A) is different from the mathematical symbol (U+003D).

Personal names

A possibly unique case of the equal sign of European usage in a person's name, specifically in a double-barreled name, was by pioneer aviator Alberto Santos-Dumont, as he is also known not only to have often used a double hyphen ⹀ resembling an equal sign = between his two surnames in place of a hyphen, but also seems to have personally preferred that practice, to display equal respect for his father's French ethnicity and the Brazilian ethnicity of his mother.

Instead of a double hyphen, the equal sign is sometimes used in Japanese as a separator between names. In Ojibwe, the readily available equal sign on most keyboards is commonly used as a substitute for a double hyphen.

Linguistics
In linguistic interlinear glosses, an equal sign is conventionally used to mark clitic boundaries: the equal sign is placed between the clitic and the word that the clitic is attached to.

Chemistry
In chemical formulas, the two parallel lines denoting a double bond are commonly rendered using an equal sign (hence, a triple bond is commonly rendered using a triple bar).

LGBT activism
In recent years, the equal sign has been used to symbolize LGBT rights. The symbol has been used since 1995 by the Human Rights Campaign, which lobbies for marriage equality, and subsequently by the United Nations Free & Equal, which promotes LGBT rights at the United Nations.

Hate speech
The not equal (≠) symbol has been adopted by some white supremacist and other racist groups.

Telegrams and Telex
In Morse code, the equal sign is encoded by the letters B (-...) and T (-) run together (-...-). The letters BT stand for Break Text, and are put between paragraphs, or groups of paragraphs in messages sent via Telex, a standardised tele-typewriter. The sign, used to mean Break Text, is given at the end of a telegram to separate the text of the message from the signature.

Approximately equal
Symbols used to denote items that are approximately equal include the following:
 * ≈ (, LaTeX \approx)
 * ≃ (, LaTeX \simeq), a combination of ≈ and =, also used to indicate asymptotic equality
 * ≅ (, LaTeX \cong), another combination of ≈ and =, which is also sometimes used to indicate isomorphism or congruence
 * ∼ (, LaTeX \sim), which is also sometimes used to indicate proportionality or similarity, being related by an equivalence relation, or to indicate that a random variable is distributed according to a specific probability distribution (see also tilde), or alternatively between two quantities to indicate they are of the same order of magnitude.
 * ∽ (, LaTex \backsim), which is also used to indicate proportionality
 * ≐ (, LaTeX \doteq), which can also be used to represent the approach of a variable to a limit
 * ≒ (, LaTeX \fallingdotseq), commonly used in Japan, Taiwan, and Korea.
 * ≓ (, LaTex \risingdotseq)

In some areas of East Asia such as Japan, "≒" is used to mean "the two terms are almost equal", but in other areas and specialized literature such as mathematics, "≃" is often used. In addition to its mathematical meaning, it is sometimes used in Japanese sentences with the intention of "almost the same".

Not equal
The symbol used to denote inequation (when items are not equal) is a slashed equal sign ≠ (U+2260). In LaTeX, this is done with the "\neq" command.

Most programming languages, limiting themselves to the 7-bit ASCII character set and typeable characters, use ~=, !=, /=, or <> to represent their Boolean inequality operator.

Identity
The triple bar symbol ≡ (U+2261, LaTeX \equiv) is often used to indicate an identity, a definition (which can also be represented by  or ), or a congruence relation in modular arithmetic. Also, in chemistry, the triple bar can be used to represent a triple bond between atoms.

Isomorphism
The symbol ≅ is often used to indicate isomorphic algebraic structures or congruent geometric figures.

In logic
Equality of truth values (through bi-implication or logical equivalence), may be denoted by various symbols including =, ~, and ⇔.

Other related symbols
Additional precomposed symbols with code points in Unicode for notations related to the equal sign include the following:

 * ≔ (used to define a symbol or assign a variable)
 * ≕ (defines the symbol on the right-hand side)
 * ≕ (defines the symbol on the right-hand side)

 * ≙ (the left-hand side is an estimator for the right-hand side)
 * ≜ (used to define a symbol)
 * ≜ (used to define a symbol)
 * ≜ (used to define a symbol)
 * ≜ (used to define a symbol)

 * ⩴ (see also Backus–Naur form for ::=)
 * ⩴ (see also Backus–Naur form for ::=)
 * ⩴ (see also Backus–Naur form for ::=)

Incorrect usage
The equal sign is sometimes used incorrectly within a mathematical argument to connect math steps in a non-standard way, rather than to show equality (especially by early mathematics students).

For example, if one were finding the sum, step by step, of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, one might incorrectly write
 * 1 + 2 = 3 + 3 = 6 + 4 = 10 + 5 = 15.

Structurally, this is shorthand for
 * ([(1 + 2 = 3) + 3 = 6] + 4 = 10) + 5 = 15,

but the notation is incorrect, because each part of the equality has a different value. If interpreted strictly as it says, it would imply that
 * 3 = 6 = 10 = 15 = 15.

A correct version of the argument would be
 * 1 + 2 = 3, 3 + 3 = 6, 6 + 4 = 10, 10 + 5 = 15.

This difficulty results from subtly different uses of the sign in education. In early, arithmetic-focused grades, the equal sign may be operational; like the equal button on an electronic calculator, it demands the result of a calculation. Starting in algebra courses, the sign takes on a relational meaning of equality between two calculations. Confusion between the two uses of the sign sometimes persists at the university level.

Encodings
Related:

title: Equals sign


text:
Nagercoil

Nagercoil, also spelt as Nagarkovil ("Temple of the Nāgas", or Nagaraja-Temple), is a city and the administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District in Tamil Nadu state, India. Situated close to the tip of the Indian peninsula, it lies on an undulating terrain between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea.

The present city of Nagercoil grew around Kottar, a mercantile town that dates back to the Sangam period. Kottar is now a locality within the city limits. Nagercoil was a major town in the erstwhile Travancore kingdom till 1956. In 1956, Kanyakumari District, along with the town, was merged with Tamil Nadu.

Nagercoil is a centre for a range of economic activities in the small but densely-populated Kanyakumari District. Economic activities in and around the city include tourism, wind energy, IT services, marine fish production and exports, rubber and cloves plantations, agro-crops, floral production, manufacture of fishnets, rubber products among other activities.

'Nagercoil Cloves' is a distinct quality of dried cloves in the spices market, noted for its aroma and medicinal value. Cloves, pepper and other spices are grown in estates in the Western Ghats, outside the town.

Nagercoil is also the nearest city to the ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri and the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant.

The city, along with the district of Kanyakumari, stands at the top in many Human Development Index parameters in Tamil Nadu state, including education, per capita income, health indices, etc.

The municipality of Nagercoil was upgraded as a Municipal corporation on the eve of its 100th year as a city on 14 February 2019.

Etymology
Nagercoil derives from the Tamil expression Nagaraja koyil, meaning "temple of Nagas".

History
"Kottara: This is the name of a place in the country of the 'Aii', or ' Paralia ' (identical with South Travancore), which is called ‘Kottiara Metropolis' by Ptolemy, ' Cottora' by Pliny. Undoubtedly the town referred to is ‘Kôțţâra' or, as it is ordinarily spelled by Europeans, ‘ Kotaur,' the principal town in South Travancore, and now, as in the time of the Greeks, distinguished for its commerce. The name of the place is derived from ‘ Kôd-u, ' Tam., a line of circumvallation, a fortification , and “ ârú, ' a river. It is a rule in the Tamil and the Malayalam , that when a word like ‘Kôd is the first member of a compound, the final ' ' must be doubled for the purpose of giving the word the force of an adjective : it is another rule that sonants when doubled become surds. Consequently the compound ‘kôd- ara' becomes by rule 'kôţt-âra' . It is interesting to perceive that in the time of the Greeks the same peculiar phonetic rules existed which are now in operation. It is also worth noticing that the Greek writers represent the last syllable of the name of the town, not as ' âru ,' but as 'âra. The Tamil has ' âru, ' the Malayalam 'ara ' At Kotaur, the dialectic peculiarities of the Malayalam language begin to supersede those of the Tamil ; and this appears to have been the case even in the time of the Greeks." (Page 62-63) It was from the ancient trade centre of Kottar from where the city of Nagercoil began to expand.

Known as the Granary of Travancore, Nagercoil not only served as the food basket of Kerala, but was also one among the important spice-trading centers in the kingdom of Travancore from the 14th century onward, and maintained a trade network with Arab merchants from the pre-Islamic era. Various Tamil and Kerala kings fought over this rich agricultural land, which boasted six rivers. Various historians cite that the land's climate and diverse, luxuriant vegetation had no comparison anywhere else in Tamil Nadu.

Demographics
According to the 2021 estimation, Nagercoil had an estimated population of 522,759 with a female-male sex ratio of 1.05, well above the national average of 0.929 females/male. A total of 20,241 were under the age of six, constituting 10,119 males and 10,122 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 4.19% and 0.17% of the population respectively. The literacy rate of the city was 96.99%. The city had a total of 59,997 households. There were a total of 76,345 workers, comprising 244 cultivators, 1,155 main agricultural laborers, 2,271 in household industries, 67,050 other workers, 5,625 marginal workers, 110 marginal cultivators, 361 marginal agricultural laborers, 447 marginal workers in household industries and 4,707 other marginal workers.

Economy
The city is one among the 50 Indian cities to be ranked in the World Startup Index of 1,000 cities. The major software companies present in Nagercoil are CapeStart Inc., Hinduja Global Solutions, Navigant Consulting and American stock exchange NASDAQ. The city also has small aerospace manufacturing plants and satellite fabricating firms serving the Indian Space Research Organisations facility in ISRO Propulsion Complex, Mahendragiri. The Regional Academic Centre for Space by Indian Space Research Organisation, one among the only six incubation centers for Space Startups in India, is under construction in Nagercoil. The Integral Coach Factory has a small scale windmill unit. The export of 95 tons of fruits and vegetables to the Gulf Countries through the Thiruvananthapuram airports is a major source of revenue for the city, with food processing companies generating a daily revenue of ₹16.7 lakh and an annual revenue of ₹6.1 billion. The flower market of Thovalai exports 350 tons of Flowers to Kerala, Europe and Middle Eastern countries generating an annual revenue of ₹250 crore. The major cottage industries like Fish-net manufacturing, Rubber industries, Jewellery manufacturing are industries serving the domestic and export markets. The minor cottage industries include Surgical Gloves, Coir-making, floral trade, handloom-weaving, cashew nut, spices, food-processing units, and lace-making (export-oriented). Nagercoil has the highest per capita income of ₹2,76,454 (US$3,800), making it among the richest small cities in India.

Energy
The city has an installed windmill capacity of 1500 MW catering to 20% of the state's renewable electricity needs. Muppandhal has emerged as the wind power hub, with plant owners eager to cash in on the ₹2.90 per unit purchase price being offered by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board.

Architecture
The architecture of Nagercoil consists of an eclectic combination of architectural styles, ranging from those that predate the creation of the town, from the early Dravidian architecture and Kerala Architecture, to English Gothic Revival, to the 21st century contemporary. Although there are prehistoric and classical structures in the city, the architectural history of Nagercoil effectively begins with the first small settlements from 3 A.D. The Roman naturalist and writer Pliny the Elder mentions Nagercoil as a commercial metropolis, having trade links with his contemporaneous Roman merchants, who traded and stayed in unique rock-walled, clay-roofed structures. This legacy can be found in some of the town's old heritage structures like the Nagaraja Temple, Nagercoil. The temple has two main deities, Krishna (revered as Ananda Krishna) and Nagaraja. The upadevathas are Shiva, Subrahmanya Swami, Ganesha, Devi, and Dwarapalaka. As an ancient tradition, the priests are Namboothiri Brahmins who are referred by the Pambumekkat mana in Thrissur, Kerala. The 14th century St. Francis Xavier's Cathedral, Kottar serves as a testimony to the mix of Roman and native architecture. While Saint Xavier was doing missionary work at Kottar and its neighborhood, he averted an invasion of Padagas with the help of his cross alone and thus protected the people of the Venad kingdom from that attack which was appreciated by the king, Unni Kerala Varma, who became closer to the priest and befriended him from then on. In recognition of Xavier's services, the king allotted him a piece of land to construct a Catholic church, as a gesture of goodwill, as per the church records. There was already a small church, in the same place where St. Xavier's church stands at present, dedicated to Mary the Mother of God, since AD 1544. Later on, Dravidian and Kerala architectural styles began to appear in the area. This can be attributed to the construction of the Thanumalayan Temple in the 16th century.

The brilliant artistic influence of Kerala and British architecture marvels are seen in the Nagercoil Palace, Nagercoil Clock Tower, Home Church, Scott Christian College, Scott School, Carmel Higher Secondary School, St. Joseph Convent, Sethu Lakshmi Bai School, Nagercoil Court, The Concordia Seminary, Filter House, The Salvation Army Catherine Booth Hospital and many more heritage structures in and around the town. Among these, the Nagercoil Clock Tower is the most visible to the outside world, situated in the heart of the town, which was built to commemorate the visit of Sri Moolam Thirunal, the ruler of Travancore, in 1893, and was designed by Hogeorf and S. Horesly of England. The Maharajah himself inaugurated it on 15 February of that year. The pendulum of the clock was made in Derbyshire by Smith of Derby Group, London. The clock is attached to a 60-foot-long chain with a weight, operated with pulleys through gravitational force. The clock in the Nagercoil Clock Tower was presented to the Maharajah by Rev. James Duthie. of the London Missionary Society. The total cost for constructing the Nagercoil Clock Tower was ₹ 3,258, 9 Chakrams and 12 Kasu. The Maharajah of Travancore donated ₹ 1017, and the balance was donated by the public. However, the declining interest by the government to uphold and preserve the heritage monuments is a cause of concern to heritage enthusiasts and the citizens of the town. The fear, that with time, the extinction of this heritage will be imminent is growing with the demolition of a few structures.

Politics
Marshal Nesamony, one of the leading lawyers of the Nagercoil Bar, was elected as the Chairman of the Nagercoil Municipal Council in 1943. He enlarged the town boundary, improved the town's water supply system, established a home for destitutes and increased the income of the Nagercoil Municipality. In the same year, he was elected to the Travancore State Assembly and was also nominated to the Senate of the Kerala University, then known as the Travancore University. Later on K. Kamaraj, the former chief minister of Tamil Nadu, won from the Kanyakumari constituency without even canvassing. The Nagercoil (Lok Sabha constituency) is perhaps the only constituency in Tamil Nadu to not have elected any Dravidian parties in the state's history.

A.K. Chellaiya, was a politician and an MLA of Colachel constituency in 1952. He resigned his post for merging Kanyakumari with Tamil Nadu.

A. Samraj, was an MLA of Thovalai constituency in 1952. He resigned from his post for merging Kanyakumari with Tamil Nadu.

Education
Tamil is the official language in Nagercoil and is spoken by the majority of the population here. In addition to Tamil, English and Malayalam are widely spoken. There are many schools and colleges in Nagercoil that are known for their national reputation and were established more than 150 years ago; colleges such as Scott Christian College (est. 1809), South Travancore Hindu College (est. 1952), Holy Cross College (est. 1965), Women Christian College and schools such as Scott Christian Higher Secondary School (est. 1819), Duthie Girls School (est. 1819), St. Joseph's Convent Higher Secondary School (est. 1910), Carmel Higher Secondary School (est. 1922), S.L.B. Government Higher Secondary School (est. 1924), S.M.R.V. Higher Secondary School (est. 1919).

Also, there are several private primary, secondary, and higher secondary schools, Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE), and Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) schools in the city that provide learning diversity to the local & surrounding students.

There are approved institutions in and around the city, consisting of autonomous colleges, aided colleges and self-financing colleges.

There is a Government ITI, Government Polytechnic, University College of Engineering, and Government Arts And Science College situated in Konam, Nagercoil. There are two Government Medical Institutes in Nagercoil, Kanyakumari Government Medical College, Asaripallam, and Government Ayurvedic College, Kottar.

The literacy rate is at 96.99% higher than the national average of 74.04% and state average of 80.09%.

Culture
At Vadasery, a locality in Nagercoil, a unique Temple jewellery is made. The Vadasery Temple jewellery has Geographical Indications (GI) registry of the Government of India. These jewels are used by classical dancers in India.

Onam is a festival which is widely celebrated among the Malayalam-speaking population by drawing the 'athapoo' on the floor.

Navaratri is uniquely celebrated here with an inter-state tradition in which the idols of Goddess Munuthithanankai Amman from Suchindrum, Goddess Saraswati from Padmanabhapuram Palace and Lord Kumaraswamy from Kumarakovil travel to Thiruvananthapuram. A ceremonial welcome is given to the idols of the Gods by the officials and representatives of the Government of Kerala. After the ten days of Navratri festival, they return to the respective temples with great celebrations.

Bus transport
There are three main bus stands in the city.

 * Nagercoil Municipal Corporation Christopher Bus Stand (Vadasery): The terminus, spread over an area of 9.49 acres, serves as a hub for transportation and commercial activities in the region. It features 52 bus bays, which accommodate a variety of buses including Mofussil buses and long-distance buses. These buses connect Nagercoil with major cities across Tamil Nadu and Kerala, facilitating both local commuting and intercity travel.

In addition to the bus bays, the terminus houses essential facilities such as a reservation counter for ticketing services. It also includes numerous commercial and refreshment outlets, providing amenities to travelers and visitors alike. Overall, the terminus plays a crucial role in the transportation infrastructure of Nagercoil, offering convenience and connectivity for passengers traveling within the state and to neighboring Kerala.

Frequent bus services to Marthandam, Thiruvananthapuram, Valliyur, Tirunelveli, Kovilpatti, Virudhunagar, Madurai, Dindigul, Thoothukudi, Tiruchendur available from here. Also scheduled long distances buses to Chennai,Salem, Krishnagiri, Hosur, Bengaluru, Palani, Pollachi, Tiruppur, Ooty, Thanjavur, Nagapattinam, Velankanni, Kodaikanal, Trichy, Ariyalur, Virudhachalam,Kumbakonam, Chidambaram, Cuddalore, Puducherry, Vellore, Chittoor, Tirupathi operated from here. The terminus is well utilized by buses belonging to the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation (TNSTC), State Express Transport Corporation (SETC), and Kerala State Road Transport Corporation.
 * Anna Bus Stand (Meenakshipuram, Nagercoil): The terminus, spanning 2.31 acres, is a pivotal hub for local bus services within Kanyakumari district and to Tirunelveli district. It features 25 bus bays, facilitating the operation and organization of various bus routes connecting different parts of these districts.

Local buses primarily serve the commuting needs of residents within the Kanyakumari district, offering reliable transportation options for daily travel and commuting purposes. Additionally, buses to Tirunelveli district provide connectivity for inter-district travel, enabling passengers to reach destinations across both districts efficiently.

As a central point for bus operations, the terminus enhances accessibility and convenience for travelers, ensuring smooth connectivity between different areas within Kanyakumari and to the neighboring Tirunelveli district.

The town bus routes to surrounding localities are to Vadasery, Parvathipuram, Vetturnimadam, Asaripallam, Chunkankadai, Villukuri, Thuckalay, Karungal, Thingalnagar, Mulagumoodu, Chettikulam, Kottar, Ramanputhur, Konam, Eathamozhi, Rajakkamangalam, Manavalakurichi, Colachal, Midalam, Enayam, Parakkai, Thengamputhur, Puthalam, Manakudy, Kovalam, Thovalai, Suchindram, Vazhukkamparai, Thamaraikulam, Mylaudy, Kottaram, etc.
 * Vadasery Omni Bus Stand: Intrastate and Interstate private buses are operated from here.

Rail transport
There are two railway stations in the city

 * 1) Nagercoil Junction Railway station (NCJ): The main railway station (Also called Kottar Railway Station) of the city and one of the most important railway stations in Tamil Nadu coming under NSG–3 category. It consists of 6PF (02 under progress) and 12 tracks. The railway station is located on Kanyakumari- Trivandrum BG Line and Nagercoil- Tirunelveli BG Line. Direct trains to many parts of the state like  Chennai, Kanyakumari, Coimbatore, Tiruchirappalli, Tirunelveli, and long distance trains to other state cities like Mumbai, Delhi, Shalimar, Dibrugarh, Bangalore, Katra, Kacheguda, Howrah, are also operated from here/passing through this station.
 * 2) Nagercoil Town Railway station (NJT) : The station lies on Kanyakumari- Trivandrum BG Line. Many important express trains and local trains to Trivandrum halt here. Also some trains which skip the main station due to loco rake reversal halt here.

Sports
Nagercoil has the distinction of housing one of the two Sports Authority of India Centers in the state, the other being in Chennai. There are plans to make the city hub for sports in South India by merging it with the Thiruvananthapuram and Kochi Centers with headquarters in Thiruvananthapuram.

Sports Development Authority of Tamil Nadu (SDAT) is maintaining Aringar Anna Outdoor Stadium in Vadasery and SDAT indoor Stadium in Konam, Nagercoil. It also has an excellent Swimming pool for sports players.

Nagercoil also has various sports clubs that promote various sports activities. Nagercoil Fencing Club promotes fencing sports in nagercoil. Also there are various Non govt sports clubs like The District Club, The Nagercoil Club, Ramavarmapuram club, etc.

title: Nagercoil


text:
User:Swissworld

Switzerland with its 41,285 square kilometres only covers 1.5 thousandths (0.15 per cent) of the earth’s surface.

The Jura, the Plateau and the Alps form the three main geographic regions of the country.

7.3 million people- just over one thousandth (0.1 per cent) of the global population - live in Switzerland.

Switzerland has a high population density: 176 people per square kilometre. The distribution of the population varies greatly, with only 10 per cent of the total population living in the Alpine region.

swissworld.org

title: User:Swissworld


text:
Talk:List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on List of aircraft carriers of the United States Navy. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081005094315/http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2005/greater_buffalo/greater_buffalo.htm to http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2005/greater_buffalo/greater_buffalo.htm
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20081005094315/http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2005/greater_buffalo/greater_buffalo.htm to http://wnyheritagepress.org/photos_week_2005/greater_buffalo/greater_buffalo.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 10:35, 28 December 2017 (UTC)

No CVEs?
Is there any particular reason this list does not include escort carriers (IE USS Long Island)? 159.205.239.70 (talk) 12:06, 11 March 2018 (UTC)
 * See List of United States Navy escort aircraft carriers. They are noted with a link in the first paragraph of lead of this page and also listed with a link in the list of ships by type template to right of the lead. Also, please don't alter or disrupt other posts on talk pages and always post at the bottom, not the top. Thank you. - the WOLF  child  16:33, 11 March 2018 (UTC)

Question
This is a stupid question, but I can't figure it out on my own. Why does the Navy have so many aircraft carriers names Enterprise? Is there a specific namesake? A 10 fireplane Imform me 18:37, 10 December 2018 (UTC)

 * See List of ships of the United States Navy named Enterprise for starters. - BilCat (talk) 18:44, 10 December 2018 (UTC)
 * The name was used on several ships from the 19th century, some of which were involved in notable events and/or were sacrificed. It seems the name endured and was selected for one of the Navy's first aircraft carriers, CV-6, which went on to be the most decorated ship in USN history, after her storied participation in WWII. The shame of that was she couldn't be preserved and instead was scrapped. However, "Enterprise" was then cemented as a legacy name, hence the navies first nuclear carrier, CVN-65, bearing the name. She had an impressive carrier as well, and as such, it seems there is now an unwritten rule in the Navy Dept. that there will always be a ship named "Enterprise". Anyway, that is just my (layman's) opinion on it. I'm sure there is more solid info out there somewhere. Cheers - wolf  20:52, 10 December 2018 (UTC)
 * ahh ok, thanks for the explanation. I was just wondering  A 10 fireplane Imform me  22:42, 10 December 2018 (UTC)

JFK
The article states that John F Kennedy is under construction. How can it be part of the Navy if its still under construction? Someone should remove the green shading.129.127.32.138 (talk) 04:03, 28 February 2020 (UTC)

Gerald R. Ford-Class Commissioning dates.
The scheduled commissioning dates for CVN 79, 81, and 82 are inconsistent with the dates on the Gerald R. Ford-class page. Does anyone know more about this/which are correct? --Fhcgh (talk) 00:39, 29 November 2020 (UTC)
 * did you check the sources? If you do, you'll likely find there is just a typo and then you can correct it. - wolf  03:38, 29 November 2020 (UTC)

“Supercarriers” classification
The following passage is ambiguous:

“Beginning with the Forrestal-class, (CV-59 to present) all carriers commissioned into service are classified as supercarriers.”

Classified by whom as a supercarrier? According to the page on Aircraft Carriers, no navy in the world officially uses that classification for anything. Only mass media uses that classification.

So, **according to whom**, are all future carriers classified as supercarriers? JollyGreenJesus (talk) 15:19, 9 September 2023 (UTC)

 * “ The appellation "supercarrier" is not an official designation with any national navy, but a term used predominantly by the media and typically when reporting on larger and more advanced carrier types. It is also used when comparing carriers of various sizes and capabilities, both current and past. It was first used by The New York Times in 1938,in an article about the Royal Navy's HMS Ark Royal, that had a length of 209 meters (686 ft), a displacement of 22,000 ton and was designed to carry 72 aircraft.”
 * Aircraft carrier JollyGreenJesus (talk) 15:23, 9 September 2023 (UTC)


text:
Elysian Fields, Texas

Elysian Fields is a rural unincorporated community in Harrison County, Texas, United States. It lies 11 miles southeast of the county seat of Marshall.

The community was originally the site of a Caddo village named Big Springs. The name of the town is believed to have originated from a dinner conversation in New Orleans in which Capt. Edward Smith compared its beauty to the Elysian Fields of Greek Mythology in 1817. Smith and his family settled in the area in the 1830s. In 1910 the community relocated one mile to the west, so it could be linked to a railroad. The community is now the center of the Elysian Fields Independent School District.

The school district has an estimated population of 3,917.

title: Elysian Fields, Texas


text:
Butthead

Butthead may refer to:

 * Butt-Head, a fictional character from the animated TV series Beavis and Butt-Head
 * Asshole
 * Idiot

title: Butthead


text:
Stoyanka Mutafova

Stoyanka Mutafova (Стоянка Мутафова; 2 February 1922 – 6 December 2019) was a Bulgarian actress. During her career, she starred in over 53 theatrical plays and 25 films

Nicknamed Ms. Natural Disaster for a play she performed in and The Queen of Bulgarian comedy, she was an official applicant for a Guinness Book of World Record as the actress with the longest active professional career. At the age of 94 in 2016, she toured the theater halls in major cities of the United States, Canada, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Great Britain and Germany.

Biography
Born in Sofia, she graduated from University of Sofia with a degree in classical philology. Later, she studied acting in Bulgaria and Prague. From 1949 until 1956 she acted in multiple plays in the "Ivan Vazov" national theatre. She co-founded the Aleko Konstantinov Theatre, where she performed from 1957 to 1991. In 2005, she starred alongside Georgi Kaloyanchev in the play The Astronauts.

She died at the age of 97 on December 6, 2019, as a result of sepsis and pneumonia, brought on by necrosis of the gallbladder.

Filmography

 * Tochka parva (1956)
 * Lyubimetz 13 (1958)
 * Spetzialist po vsichko (1962) as the Hairdresser
 * Dzhesi Dzeyms sreshtu Lokum Shekerov (1966) as Lokum's wife
 * The Tied Up Balloon (1967)
 * Byalata staya (1968) as Rina's Mother
 * L'amante di Gramigna (1969)
 * Whale (film) (1970) as Grandma Stoyna
 * Ezop (1970) as Casandra
 * Byagstvo v Ropotamo (1973) .... Gypsy
 * Nako, Dako and Tsako (1974)
 * Temnata Koria (1977)
 * Toplo (1978)
 * Patilansko tsarstvo (1980)
 * Bash maystorat nachalnik (1983)
 * Naslednicata (1984)
 * Bronzoviyat klyuch (1984) as Samsarova
 * Federatziya na dinastronavtite (1984) - TV Series
 * Pantudi (1993)
 * Golemite igri (1999) .... Moni's Grandma
 * Stakleni topcheta (1999) .... Albena's Mother
 * Rapsodiya v byalo (2002) .... Old lady
 * Sofia Residents in Excess (2011-2018) - TV Series

title: Stoyanka Mutafova