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Lancair

Lancair International, Inc. (pronounced "lance-air") is a U.S. manufacturer of general aviation aircraft kits. They are well known for their series of high-performance single-engine aircraft that offer cruise speeds that surpass many twin-engine turboprop designs. Along with the Glasair series, the early Lancair designs were among the first kitplanes to bring modern molded composites construction to light aircraft.

In early 2017 the company, including all the older aircraft designs, was sold and moved from Redmond, Oregon to Uvalde, Texas under the name Lancair International, LLC. The newest model, the Lancair Evolution was retained by the existing company, Lancair International, Inc, which changed its name to the Evolution Aircraft Company.

Introduction
The company was founded by Lance Neibauer in 1981 as a producer of composite homebuilt aircraft kits. Neibauer had been introduced to aviation by his uncle Ray Betzoldt, who had collaborated with Al Meyers to build the Meyers 200. Whenever he visited his aunt and uncle, he always took a ride in the Meyers. Hooked, he went looking for an aircraft twenty years later and found nothing that he liked, and decided to join the Experimental Aircraft Association (EAA) and design his own.

Neibauer began working on the new design after asking every builder he could find what features they were seeking in a homebuilt design. Looking to improve performance with the latest possible features, he selected the new NASA NLF 0215-F airfoil designed by Dan Somers at Langley. The NLF, short for "Natural Laminar Flow", is a series of designs that replaced the older GAW series with more forgiving laminar flow characteristics. By 1983 the aircraft's basic parameters were fixed, and Neibauer rented a shop in Santa Paula, California and started work on the design.

Intending to introduce aircraft at Oshkosh in 1984, a minor fuel leak in the wing tanks forced them to miss the show so they could fix the problem. A modified version of the prototype, with re-shaped cowling and some changes to the wing profile, emerged as the Lancer 200 in December 1984. Equipped with a 100 hp Continental O-200 engine, the Lancer easily outflew anything powered by the same engine and generated intense interest at Oshkosh '85. However, a naming conflict forced the design to be re-christened, finally going on sale in 1985 as the Lancair 200.

The 200 was quickly replaced by the Lancair 235, equipped with the slightly more powerful Lycoming O-235. Re-engined versions quickly followed; the Lancair 320 with the 150 hp Lycoming O-320, and the Lancair 360 with the 180 hp Lycoming O-360. A new tail was introduced for the later models in order to address stability problems at low speeds with the larger engines.

The Lancair designs provided the highest performance in the single-engine GA class, and as the kit-build market was dominated by pilots looking to outperform existing "off-the-shelf" designs, the Lancair's kits sold well. By the end of 1990 they had sold over 600 kits for the various two-seat models, giving them what Neibauer claimed was 30% of the kit-built market.

A Lancair 320 appeared in a 1995 exhibit at the New York Museum of Modern Art.

New models
Starting in 1990, Neibauer turned his attention to a four-seat design that would retain the qualities of the earlier two-seaters. These efforts culminated in the Lancair IV, a four-seat optionally pressurized (IV-P) single-engine aircraft with a high cruise speed. The IV broke the speed record for planes in its class in February 1991 when it averaged 360.3 mph between San Francisco and Denver.

Already stretching the limits of their existing facilities, the company started looking for a new factory and after examining 200 potential sites they moved to Roberts Field in Redmond, Oregon in 1992. The company became Lancair International with the move. As of August 1998, according to Flight International, Lancair had sold 1,400 kits, 300 of them the Lancair IV model. Soon after the IV was introduced, Neibauer started work on a simpler fixed-gear version that emerged as the Lancair ES.

Columbia Aircraft
Lancair's designs were prominent in the homebuilt market, and in 1994 NASA and others encouraged Neibauer to develop a type certified aircraft. On 3 April 1993 he spun off a new company, Pacific Aviation Composites USA, in nearby Bend, Oregon. The new Lancair LC-40 was based on the fixed-gear Lancair ES. The first prototype flew in July 1996, followed by the certification prototype in early 1997. After a lengthy certification process, the design emerged as the Columbia 300 in 1998, followed by the turbocharged Columbia 400 in 2000. The Lancair Company was formed as a separate entity on 7 April 2000, and Pacific Aviation Composites was merged into The Lancair Company on 4 May 2000.

Deciding to focus on the Columbia models, in March 2003 Neibauer sold the kit side of the company to Joseph Bartels, a Louisiana attorney and Lancair IV-P builder and owner. Bartels had already formed Aero Cool to sell air conditioners for the various Lancair models. On 15 July 2005 Neibauer's portion of the company became Columbia Aircraft. The Columbias competed relatively unsuccessfully with the new and first-to-market Cirrus SR22. In 2010, major stockholders, the Wolstenholme family of Colmar, Pennsylvania, purchased the company and appointed Bob Wolstenholme as CEO. Following its entry into bankruptcy in 2007, Columbia Aircraft was sold to Cessna in November 2007. Cessna introduced their models as the Cessna 350 and Cessna 400.

Selling off older designs
In July 2016 Lancair announced it would be selling the older Lancair lines of aircraft to concentrate on the Lancair Evolution instead. In February 2017 the 200, 360, IV, IVP, IVPT, ES, ESP, and Legacy designs were sold to Mark and Conrad Huffstutler, who now operate the company as Lancair International, LLC, in Uvalde, Texas. They purchased all the assets, intellectual property and will provide parts and other support for all the older Lancair models. They plan to resume production of some of the older models and will develop new models as well. With the sale announced Lancair changed its name to Evolution Aircraft.

Aircraft
Summary of aircraft built by Lancair:
 * Lancair 200 (originally "Lancer 200") 2-seat kit powered by a Continental O-200 engine, flown in 1984 and released in 1985
 * Lancair 235 2-seat kit powered by a Lycoming O-235 engine, released in 1986
 * Lancair 320 2-seat kit powered by a Lycoming O-320 engine, released in 1988
 * Lancair 360 2-seat kit powered by a Lycoming O-360 engine, released in 1988
 * Lancair ES 4-seat kit powered by a Continental IO-550
 * Lancair IV
 * Lancair IV-P
 * Lancair Legacy
 * Lancair Tigress
 * Lancair Propjet
 * Lancair Sentry
 * Lancair Evolution
 * Lancair Mako first flown on 18 July 2017
 * Lancair Barracuda first flown 2018

title: Lancair


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Voiceless uvular plosive

The voiceless uvular plosive or stop is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. It is pronounced like a voiceless velar plosive, except that the tongue makes contact not on the soft palate but on the uvula. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨q⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is.

There is also the voiceless pre-uvular plosive in some languages, which is articulated slightly more front compared with the place of articulation of the prototypical uvular consonant, though not as front as the prototypical velar consonant. The International Phonetic Alphabet does not have a separate symbol for that sound, though it can be transcribed as ⟨q̟⟩ or ⟨q˖⟩ (both symbols denote an advanced ⟨q⟩) or ⟨k̠⟩ (retracted ⟨k⟩). The equivalent X-SAMPA symbols are  and , respectively.

Features

Features of the voiceless uvular stop:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Voiceless uvular plosive


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European cuisine

European cuisine (also known as Continental cuisine) comprises the cuisines originating from the various countries of Europe.

The cuisines of European countries are diverse, although some common characteristics distinguish them from those of other regions. Compared to traditional cooking of East Asia, meat holds a more prominent and substantial role in serving size. Many dairy products are utilised in cooking. There are hundreds of varieties of cheese and other fermented milk products. White wheat-flour bread has long been the prestige starch, but historically, most people ate bread, flatcakes, or porridge made from rye, spelt, barley, and oats. Those better-off would also make pasta, dumplings and pastries. The potato has become a major starch plant in the diet of Europeans and their diaspora since the European colonisation of the Americas. Maize is much less common in most European diets than it is in the Americas; however, corn meal (polenta or mămăligă) is a major part of the cuisine of Italy and the Balkans. Although flatbreads (especially with toppings such as pizza or tarte flambée) and rice are eaten in Europe, they are only staple foods in limited areas, particularly in Southern Europe. Salads (cold dishes with uncooked or cooked vegetables, sometimes with a dressing) are an integral part of European cuisine.

Formal European dinners are served in distinct courses. European presentation evolved from service à la française, or bringing multiple dishes to the table at once, into service à la russe, where dishes are presented sequentially. Usually, cold, hot and savoury, and sweet dishes are served strictly separately in this order, as hors d'oeuvre (appetizer) or soup, as entrée and main course, and as dessert. Dishes that are both sweet and savoury were common earlier in Ancient Roman cuisine, but are today uncommon, with sweet dishes being served only as dessert. A service where the guests are free to take food by themselves is termed a buffet, and is usually restricted to parties or holidays. Nevertheless, guests are expected to follow the same pattern.

Historically, European cuisine has been developed in the European royal and noble courts. European nobility was usually arms-bearing and lived in separate manors in the countryside. The knife was the primary eating implement (cutlery), and eating steaks and other foods that require cutting followed. This contrasted with East Asian cuisine, where the ruling class were the court officials, who had their food prepared ready to eat in the kitchen, to be eaten with chopsticks. The knife was supplanted by the spoon for soups, while the fork was introduced later in the early modern period, ca. 16th century. Today, most dishes are intended to be eaten with cutlery and only a few finger foods can be eaten with the hands in polite company.

Medieval
In medieval times, a person's diet varied depending on their social class. However cereal grains made up a lot of a medieval person's diet, regardless of social class. Bread was common to both classes; it was taken as a lunch for the working man, and thick slices of it were used as plates called trenchers. People of the noble class had access to finely ground flours for their breads and other baked goods. Noblemen were allowed to hunt for deer, boar, rabbits, birds, and other animals, giving them access to fresh meat and fish for their meals. Dishes for people of these classes were often heavily spiced. Spices at that time were very expensive, and the more spices used in dishes, the more wealth the person needed to purchase such ingredients. Common spices used were cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, pepper, cumin, cloves, turmeric, anise, and saffron. Other ingredients used in dishes for the nobility and clergy included sugar, almonds and dried fruits like raisins. These imported ingredients would have been very expensive and nearly impossible for commoners to obtain. When banquets were held, the dishes served would be very spectacular: another way for the noblemen to show how rich they were. Sugar sculptures would be placed on the tables as decoration and to eat, and foods would be dyed vibrant colors with imported spices.

The diet of a commoner would have been much simpler. Strict poaching laws prevented them from hunting, and if they did hunt and were caught, they could have parts of their limbs cut off or they could be killed. Much of the commoners' food would have been preserved in some way, such as through pickling or by being salted. Breads would have been made using rye or barley, and any vegetables would likely have been grown by the commoners themselves. Peasants would have likely been able to keep cows, and so would have access to milk, which then allowed them to make butter or cheese. When meat was eaten, it would have been beef, pork, or lamb. Commoners also ate a dish called pottage, a thick stew of vegetables, grains, and meat.

Early modern era
In the early modern era, European cuisine saw an influx of new ingredients due to the Columbian Exchange, such as the potato, tomato, eggplant, chocolate, bell pepper, pumpkins, and other squash. Distilled spirits, along with tea, coffee, and chocolate were all popularized during this time. In the 1780s, the idea of the modern restaurant was introduced in Paris; the French Revolution accelerated its development, quickly spreading around Europe.

Central European cuisines
All of these countries have their specialities. Among many such specialities, Austria is famous for Wiener schnitzel, a breaded veal cutlet served with a slice of lemon; the Czech Republic for world-renowned beers; Germany for world-famous wursts, Hungary for goulash. Slovakia is famous for gnocchi-like halušky pasta. Slovenia is known for German- and Italian-influenced cuisine, Poland for pierogis which are a cross between ravioli and empanada. Liechtenstein and German-speaking Switzerland are famous for Rösti and French-speaking Switzerland for fondue and raclettes.

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Southern European cuisines

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Western European cuisines

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title: European cuisine


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Curtiss SB2C Helldiver

The Curtiss SB2C Helldiver is a dive bomber developed by Curtiss-Wright during World War II. As a carrier-based bomber with the United States Navy (USN), in Pacific theaters, it supplemented and replaced the Douglas SBD Dauntless. A few survivors are extant.

Initially poor handling characteristics and late modifications caused lengthy delays to production and deployment, to the extent that it was investigated by the Truman Committee, which turned in a scathing report. This contributed to the decline of Curtiss as a company. Neither pilots nor aircraft carrier skippers seemed to like it. Nevertheless, the type was faster than the Dauntless, and by the end of the Pacific War, the Helldiver had become the main dive bomber and attack aircraft on USN carriers.

By the time a land-based variant, known as the A-25 Shrike, became available in late 1943, the Western Allied air forces had abandoned dedicated dive-bombers. A majority of A-25s delivered to the US Army Air Forces were transferred to the US Marine Corps, which used the type only in one side campaign and non-combat roles. The British Royal Navy and the Royal Australian Air Force also cancelled substantial orders, retaining only a few aircraft for research purposes.

Nicknames for the aircraft included "Big-Tailed Beast" or just "Beast", "Two-Cee", and "Son-of-a-Bitch 2nd Class"; the latter nickname was derived from the name SB2C and the aircraft's reputation for having difficult handling characteristics.

Design and development

The Helldiver was developed to replace the Douglas SBD Dauntless. It was a much larger aircraft, able to operate from the latest aircraft carriers and carry a considerable array of armament. It featured an internal bomb bay that reduced drag when carrying heavy ordnance. Saddled with demanding requirements set forth by both the U.S. Marines and United States Army Air Forces, the manufacturer incorporated features of a "multi-role" aircraft into the design.

The Model XSB2C-1 prototype initially suffered development issues connected to its Wright R-2600 Twin Cyclone engine and three-bladed propeller; further concerns included structural weaknesses, poor handling, directional instability, and bad stall characteristics. In 1939, a student took a model of the new Curtiss XSB2C-1 to the MIT wind tunnel. Professor of Aeronautical Engineering Otto C. Koppen was quoted as saying, "if they build more than one of these, they are crazy". He was referring to controllability issues with the small vertical tail.

The first prototype made its maiden flight on 18 December 1940. It crashed on 8 February 1941 when its engine failed on approach, but Curtiss was asked to rebuild it. The fuselage was lengthened and a larger tail was fitted, while an autopilot was fitted to help the poor stability. The revised prototype flew again on 20 October 1941, but was destroyed when its wing failed during diving tests on 21 December 1941.

Large-scale production had already been ordered on 29 November 1940, but a large number of modifications were specified for the production model. Fin and rudder area were increased, fuel capacity was increased, self-sealing fuel tanks were added, and the fixed armament was doubled to four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns in the wings, compared with the prototype's two cowling guns. The SB2C-1 was built with larger fuel tanks, improving its range considerably.

The program suffered so many delays that the Grumman TBF Avenger entered service before the Helldiver, even though the Avenger had begun its development two years later. Nevertheless, production tempo accelerated with production at Columbus, Ohio and two Canadian factories: Fairchild Aircraft Ltd. (Canada), which produced 300 (under the designations XSBF-l, SBF-l, SBF-3, and SBF-4E), and Canadian Car and Foundry, which built 894 (designated SBW-l, SBW-3, SBW-4, SBW-4E, and SBW-5), these models being respectively equivalent to their Curtiss-built counterparts. A total of 7,140 SB2Cs and equivalent models were produced in World War II.

US Navy

The U.S. Navy would not accept the SB2C until 880 modifications to the design and the changes on the production line had been made, delaying the Curtiss Helldiver's combat debut until 11 November 1943 with squadron VB-17 on USS Bunker Hill (CV-17), when they attacked the Japanese-held port of Rabaul on the island of New Britain, north of Papua New Guinea. The first version of the SB2C-1 was kept stateside for training, its various development problems leading to only 200 being built. The first deployment model was the SB2C-1C. The SB2C-1 could deploy slats mechanically linked with landing gear actuators, that extended from the outer third of the wing leading edge to aid lateral control at low speeds. The early prognosis of the "Beast" was unfavourable; it was strongly disliked by aircrews due to its size, weight, and reduced range compared to the SBD it replaced. In the Battle of the Philippine Sea, 45 Helldivers, most of which had been launched from extreme range, were lost when they ran out of fuel while returning to their carriers.

Among its major faults, the Helldiver was underpowered, had a shorter range than the SBD, was equipped with an unreliable electrical system, and its manufacturing quality control was often poor. The Curtiss-Electric propeller and the complex hydraulic system had frequent maintenance problems. One of the faults of the aircraft throughout its operational life was poor longitudinal stability, resulting from a fuselage that was too short due to the necessity of fitting onto aircraft carrier elevators. The Helldiver's aileron response was also poor and handling suffered greatly under 90 kn airspeed; since the speed of approach to land on a carrier was supposed to be 85 kn, this proved problematic. The 880 changes demanded by the Navy and modification of the aircraft to its combat role resulted in a 42% weight increase, explaining much of the problem.

The solution to these problems began with the introduction of the SB2C-3 beginning in 1944, which used the R-2600-20 Twin Cyclone engine with 1900 hp and Curtiss' four-bladed propeller. This substantially solved the chronic lack of power that had plagued the aircraft. The Helldivers would participate in battles over the Marianas, Philippines (partly responsible for sinking the battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Musashi), Taiwan, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa (in the sinking of the battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Yamato). They were also used in the 1945 attacks on the Ryukyu Islands and the Japanese home island of Honshū in tactical attacks on airfields, communications and shipping. They were also used extensively in patrols during the period between the dropping of the atomic bombs and the official Japanese surrender, and in the immediate pre-occupation period.

An oddity of the SB2Cs with 1942 to 1943-style tricolor camouflage was that the undersides of the outer wing panels carried dark topside camouflage because the undersurfaces were visible from above when the wings were folded.

In operational experience, it was found that the U.S. Navy's Grumman F6F Hellcat and Vought F4U Corsair fighters were able to carry an equally heavy bomb load against ground targets and were vastly more capable of defending themselves against enemy fighters. The Helldiver, however, could still deliver ordnance with more precision against specific targets and its two-seat configuration permitted a second set of eyes. A Helldiver also has a significant advantage in range over a fighter while carrying a bombload, which is extremely important in naval operations.

The advent of air-to-ground rockets ensured that the SB2C was the last purpose-built dive bomber produced. Rockets allowed precision attack against surface naval and land targets, while avoiding the stresses of near-vertical dives and the demanding performance requirements that they placed on dive bombers.

The SB2C remained in active postwar service in active duty US Navy squadrons until 1947 and in Naval Reserve aviation units until 1950. Surplus aircraft were sold to the naval air forces of France, Italy, Greece, Portugal, and Thailand. Greek SB2Cs served in combat in the Greek Civil War with additional machine guns mounted in wing pods. French SB2Cs flew in the First Indochina War from 1951 to 1954.

US Army and US Marine Corps service
Built at Curtiss' St. Louis plant, 900 aircraft were ordered by the USAAF under the designation A-25A Shrike. The first ten aircraft had folding wings, while the remainder of the production order omitted this feature. Many other changes distinguished the A-25A, including larger main wheels, a pneumatic tailwheel, ring and bead gunsight, longer exhaust stubs, and other Army-specified radio equipment. By late 1943, when the A-25A was being introduced, the USAAF no longer had a role for the dive bomber, as fighter aircraft such as the Republic P-47 Thunderbolt had shown their ability to carry out tactical air support missions with great success.

The USAAF transferred 410 Helldivers to the US Marines. The A-standard 25As were converted to the USMC variant, SB2C-1 and one squadron, VMSB-151, based on Enjebi (a.k.a. Engebi/Enjibe; part of Enewetak Atoll) conducted bombing missions on bypassed Japanese strongpoints nearby. Otherwise, the SB2C-1 variant never saw combat, and was used primarily as a trainer and target tug.

Australian service
At an early stage of World War II, the Australian government noted that the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) lacked dedicated dive bombers and ordered 150 Curtiss Shrikes. These aircraft were paid for by the US Government as Lend Lease aid.

By November 1943, when the first shipment of 10 Shrikes arrived in Australia, the RAAF had decided that dive bombing was an outmoded tactic. Vultee Vengeance dive bombers, which were already in service with the RAAF, were being replaced by light bombers. As a result, the order for the remaining 140 Shrikes was cancelled.

While the 10 aircraft received were taken on strength, with the RAAF serial prefix A69, only one of these Shrikes officially took to the air in RAAF service. A69-4 was assigned to No. 1 Air Performance Unit, for performance testing, between December 1943 and April 1944. The RAAF and US Fifth Air Force already operated a joint pool of aircraft types common to both services in the South West Pacific theatre and, by mid-January 1944, the other nine Shrikes had been transferred to USAAF units. A69-4 was also transferred to the USAAF in December 1944.

British service
The Helldiver's service with the British resembled Australian experience with the type. A total of 26 aircraft, out of 450 ordered, were delivered to the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm, where they were known as the Helldiver I. After unsatisfactory tests by the A&AEE that pinpointed "appalling handling", none of the British Helldivers were used in action.

Greek service
American aid provided the Royal Hellenic Air Force with 48 Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldivers from surplus U.S. Navy stocks. The aircraft were delivered by the aircraft carrier USS Sicily (CVE-118) in the spring of 1949. From the 48 aircraft, 6 were used for ground instruction or spare parts and 42 were given to 336th Fighter Squadron ( 336 Μοίρα Διώξεως ) to replace Supermarine Spitfires and the squadron's name was changed to 336th Bomber Squadron ( 336 Μοίρα Βομβαρδισμού ).

Greek SB2C-5 Helldivers had minor changes for their COIN operations: the hard rubber tailwheel (for carrier use) was replaced by a bigger pneumatic tire for use on landing strips; and the rear gunner station and its twin MGs were deleted, as no aerial opposition existed and weight reduction was used for bombs and extra machine guns.

Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldivers, Supermarine Spitfires, and North American T-6D/Gs were used in ground-attack missions against Communist ground forces, camps, and transports during the last stages of the Greek Civil War.

Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldivers saw a relatively brief combat service and were gradually phased out by 1953. A few were in use until 1957 as photographic aircraft. One Curtiss SB2C-5 Helldiver was restored in 1997 and is displayed in the Hellenic Air Force Museum.

French service
Between 1949 and 1954, France bought 110 SB2C-5 Helldiver aircraft to replace their aging SBD-5 Dauntless that had been flying in combat in Vietnam. The French Aeronavale flew the Helldiver from 1951 to 1958.

Some of these aircraft were allotted to flottilles 3F and 9F stationed on board the carriers Arromanches, Bois Belleau, and La Fayette, during the First Indochina War. The Helldivers were used to support French troops on the ground during the Battle of Dien Bien Phu in 1954.

Variants

 * XSB2C-1
 * Prototype powered by a 1,700 hp (1,268 kW) R-2600-8 engine

 * SB2C-1
 * Production version for United States Navy with four 0.50 in (12.7 mm) wing guns and one 0.30 in (7.62 mm) dorsal gun, 200 built.

 * SB2C-1A
 * Original designation for United States Army Air Corps version which became A-25A later used for 410 A-25As transferred to the United States Marine Corps.

 * SB2C-1C
 * SB2C-1 with two 20 mm (0.79 in) wing-mounted cannons and hydraulically operated flaps, 778 built. First to see combat.

 * XSB2C-2
 * One SB2C-1 fitted with twin floats in 1942.

 * SB2C-2
 * Production float plane version, 287 cancelled and not built.

 * XSB2C-3
 * One SB2C-1 re-engined with a 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) R-2600-20.

 * SB2C-3
 * As SB2C-1c re-engined with a 1,900 hp (1,417 kW) R-2600-20 and four-bladed propeller, 1,112 built.

 * SB2C-3E
 * SB2C-3s fitted with APS-4 radar.

 * SB2C-4
 * SB2C-1c but fitted with wing racks for eight 5 in (127 mm) rockets or 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs, 2,045 built.

 * SB2C-4E
 * SB2C-4s fitted with APS-4 radar.

 * XSB2C-5
 * Two SB2C-4s converted as prototypes for -5 variant.

 * SB2C-5
 * SB2C-4 with increased fuel capacity, frameless sliding canopy, tailhook fixed in extended position, and deletion of the ASB radar, 970 built (2,500 cancelled).

 * XSB2C-6
 * Two SB2C-1Cs fitted with 2,100 hp (1,566 kW) R-2600-22 engine and increased fuel capacity.

 * SBF-1
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-1, 50 built by Fairchild-Canada

 * SBF-3
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-3, 150 built by Fairchild-Canada.

 * SBF-4E
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-4E, 100 built by Fairchild-Canada.

 * SBW-1
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-1, 38 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.

 * SBW-1B
 * Canadian built version for lend-lease to the Royal Navy as the Helldiver I, 28 aircraft built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.

 * SBW-3
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-3, 413 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.

 * SBW-4E
 * Canadian built version of the SB2C-4E, 270 built by Canadian Car & Foundry company.

 * SBW-5
 * Canadian-built version of the SB2C-5, 85 built (165 cancelled) by the Canadian Car & Foundry company.

 * A-25A Shrike
 * United States Army Air Corps version without arrester gear or folding wings and equipment changed, 900 built

 * Helldiver I
 * Royal Navy designation for 28 Canadian-built SBW-1Bs

Operators

 * Royal Australian Air Force
 * French Navy Aviation Navale
 * French Navy Aviation Navale
 * French Navy Aviation Navale
 * 🇬🇷 Greece
 * Royal Hellenic Air Force
 * Italian Air Force operated 42 aircraft from 1950 until 1959
 * Portuguese Navy (until 1952)
 * Portuguese Air Force (after 1952)
 * Royal Thai Air Force
 * Royal Thai Navy
 * Royal Thai Air Force
 * Royal Thai Navy
 * Royal Thai Navy

 * Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm
 * 🇺🇸 United States
 * United States Army Air Forces
 * United States Marine Corps
 * United States Navy
 * United States Navy

Surviving aircraft
NOTE: All surviving aircraft identified by original US Navy Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) Bureau Numbers (BuNo).

Greece

 * On display
 * SB2C-5
 * 83321 - Hellenic Air Force Museum, Decelea Air Base.

Thailand

 * On display
 * SB2C-5
 * 83410 - Royal Thai Air Force Museum, Don Muang Royal Thai Air Force Base, Bangkok.

United States

 * Airworthy
 * SB2C-5
 * 83589 - based at the Commemorative Air Force (West Texas Wing) in Houston, Texas. This late-production Helldiver, built in 1945, makes frequent airshow appearances. In 1982, it experienced engine failure and a hard emergency landing that caused extensive damage; volunteers of the CAF put in thousands of hours and spent in excess of $200,000 to restore the aircraft to flying condition once more. As of 2024, it is still the only flying example in the world.
 * On display
 * SB2C-5
 * 83479 - Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum in Chantilly, Virginia.
 * Under restoration or in storage
 * A-25A Shrike/SB2C-1A
 * 75552 - to airworthiness at the National Museum of World War II Aviation in Colorado Springs, Colorado.
 * 76805 - in storage at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio.
 * SB2C-3
 * 19075 - to airworthiness at the Yanks Air Museum in Chino, California
 * SB2C-4
 * 19866 - in storage at the National Naval Aviation Museum at Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida. It crashed on 28 May 1945 in Lower Otay Reservoir, near San Diego, California after engine failure during a training exercise. Both pilot E.D. Frazer and his passenger escaped uninjured, but the Helldiver sank in 90 ft. of water. The aircraft was discovered in February 2010 by a fisherman and recovered on 20 August 2010 for restoration.
 * SB2C-5
 * 83393 - to airworthiness at the Fagen Fighters WWII Museum in Granite Falls, Minnesota.
 * Wrecks
 * A SB2C-4E Helldiver belonging to the United States Navy crashed and burned in foul weather on October 9, 1945, while en route from New Cumberland, Pennsylvania to its base at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile, Michigan after participating in Nimitz Day celebrations held in Washington, D.C. Pilot Frank Campbell and gunner George Cohlmia, both World War II veterans, were killed in the crash. The remains of the plane are still located at the crash site on Laurel Hill in Ligonier Township, Pennsylvania, three miles southeast of the village of Waterford.
 * In January 2010, a scuba diver discovered a SB2C-1C Helldiver that was ditched in Maalaea Bay off South Maui in August 1944. The Helldiver is covered in coral and is missing its tail section. The aircraft experienced problems with its empennage after dive bombing maneuvers which forced pilot Lieutenant William Dill to ditch. It lies in 50 ft of water facing east. The site, which is protected under state and federal law, is in the process of being marked with a plaque by the U.S. Navy. A mooring may be installed at a later point in time to facilitate dives on the site.
 * On 25 March 2010, the Oregon State Police, Tillamook County Sheriff's Office, and the United States Navy announced that during a logging operation near Rockaway Beach, Oregon, the wreck of an SB2C Helldiver was located. Initial responders believe there may be human remains on the scene.
 * On 19 December 2011 Scuba divers discovered an SB2C Helldiver off the coast of Jupiter, Florida. The aircraft is mostly intact and was found inverted with the landing gear retracted. In May 2012, the US Navy conducted a survey of the aircraft, recovering a data plate from the horizontal stabilizer. The Naval History and Heritage Command's Underwater Archaeology Branch were attempting to determine if the numbers stamped on the data plate were readable to identify the aircraft.

title: Curtiss SB2C Helldiver


text:
Petty officer

A petty officer (PO) is a non-commissioned officer in many navies. Often they may be superior to a seaman, and subordinate to more senior non-commissioned officers, such as chief petty officers.

Petty officers are usually sailors that have served at least several years in their respective navies. Petty officers represent the junior and mid-grade non-commissioned officer ranks of many naval services, and are generally responsible for the day-to-day supervision of ranks junior to them. They may also serve as technical specialists within their rating (military occupation).

Origin
The modern petty officer dates back to the Age of Sail in the Royal Navy. Petty officers rank between naval officers (both commissioned and warrant) and most enlisted sailors. These were men with some claim to officer rank, sufficient to distinguish them from ordinary ratings, without raising them so high as the sea officers. Several were warrant officers, in the literal sense of being appointed by warrant, and like the warrant sea officers, their superiors, they were usually among the specialists of the ship's company. The Oxford English Dictionary suggests that the title derives from the Anglo-Norman and Middle French "petit", meaning "of small size, small, little".

Two of the Royal Navy petty officer's rates, midshipman and master's mate, were a superior petty officer with a more general authority, but they remained no more than ratings. However, it was quite possible for a warrant officer (such as the armourer), in his role as a superior officer, to be court-martialed for striking a midshipman. This is because the midshipman was regarded as future sea officer, with the all-important social distinction of having the right to walk the quarterdeck. Midshipmen wore distinctive uniforms, master's mates dressed respectably, and both behaved like officers. The master's mate rating evolved into the rank of sub-lieutenant, and midshipman evolved into naval cadet. In the same administrative reforms of the 1860s that created the rank of Sub-lieutenant, two grades of Petty Officer were established for senior ratings — Petty Officer Second Class and Petty Officer First Class, the latter usually being achieved by men who had served as a PO 2nd Class with good conduct for six years. PO2s wore 'square rig' (the traditional sailor suit worn by junior ratings) while PO1s wore 'fore and aft' rig like chief petty officers and above. PO2s wore insignia of a fouled anchor (as for leading hands) but surmounted by a crown, while the insignia of a PO1 was a pair of crossed fouled anchors with a crown. The rank of Petty Officer Second Class was abolished in 1907 and the rank simply being titled as Petty Officer from then, with the uniform and insignia formerly used by PO1s.

Grades

 * Petty officer third class
 * Petty officer second class
 * Petty officer first class
 * Chief petty officer
 * Senior chief petty officer
 * Master chief petty officer

Canada
There are two petty officer ranks in the Royal Canadian Navy. Petty officer, 2nd class (PO2) (maître de deuxième classe or m2 in French) is equivalent to a sergeant and petty officer, 1st class (PO1) (maître de première classe or m1) is equivalent to a warrant officer.

Petty officers are normally addressed as "Petty Officer Bloggins" or "PO Bloggins", thereafter as "PO". The "1st class" and "2nd class" designations are normally only used when such a distinction needs to be made, such as on a promotion parade or to distinguish two petty officers with similar names but different ranks. The NATO rank denotion for "petty officer, 2nd class" is OR-6 (petty officers, 2nd class with less than 3 years seniority are considered OR-5). The NATO rank denotion for "petty officer, 1st class" is OR-7.

India
A petty officer is a non-commissioned officer in the Indian Navy, equivalent to the NATO rank enlisted grade of OR-6. They are equal in rank to a sub inspector of police in the Police, or sergeant in the Indian Army and Indian Air Force. A petty officer is superior in rank to a leading rate and subordinate to a chief petty officer, as is the case in the majority of Commonwealth navies.

A petty officer has the ability to work as a leader, capable of taking charge of a group of personnel, and taking roles in the training and recruitment of new members of the Indian Navy.

United Kingdom
In the Royal Navy, the rate of petty officer comes above that of leading rating and below that of chief petty officer. It is the equivalent of sergeant in the Royal Marines, British Army and Royal Air Force. Petty officer is the lowest of the senior rating grades. Petty officers, like all senior rates, wear "fore and aft" rig.

United States
The title of petty officer in the United States Navy and United States Coast Guard has three separate "classes" (in order from junior to senior: 3rd class, 2nd class, 1st class) and three senior grades (chief petty officer, senior chief petty officer, master chief petty officer). Petty officer, first class is equivalent in paygrade to staff sergeant in the United States Army and Marine Corps, and technical sergeant in the United States Air Force and United States Space Force. Petty officer, second class is equivalent in paygrade to sergeant in the United States Army, Marine Corps, and Space Force, and staff sergeant in the United States Air Force. Petty officer, third class is equivalent in paygrade to corporal in the United States Army, corporal in the United States Marine Corps, senior airman in the United States Air Force, and specialist 4 in the United States Space Force.

In the Navy, Petty Officer, Third Class is the juniormost of the Non-Commissioned Officer ranks, and thus a sailor must demonstrate satisfactory performance in the previous rank (E-3) in the form of a favorable performance review(s) by his/her superiors, and the passing of an exam, in order to be promoted to PO3.

Enlisted rank has two components: rate (pay grade) and rating (job specialty). Both components are reflected in the title. A sailor in the rate of petty officer first class with a rating of Aviation Machinist's Mate, would be an Aviation Machinist's Mate 1st Class (abbreviated "AD1"). In the Navy, it is acceptable to refer to a Petty Officer as such, while in the Coast Guard, rating is always used.

title: Petty officer


text:
Tymnet

Tymnet was an international data communications network headquartered in Cupertino, California that used virtual call packet-switched technology and X.25, SNA/SDLC, BSC and Async interfaces to connect host computers (servers) at thousands of large companies, educational institutions, and government agencies. Users typically connected via dial-up connections or dedicated asynchronous connections.

The business consisted of a large public network that supported dial-up users and a private network that allowed government agencies and large companies (mostly banks and airlines) to build their own dedicated networks. The private networks were often connected via gateways to the public network to reach locations not on the private network. Tymnet was also connected to dozens of international public gateways via Tymnet II protocol and other public networks in the United States and internationally via X.25/X.75 gateways.

As the Internet grew and became almost universally accessible in the late 1990s, the need for services such as Tymnet migrated to the Internet style connections, but still had some value in the Third World and for specific legacy roles. However the value of these links continued to decrease, and Tymnet shut down in 2004.

Network
Tymnet offered local dial-up modem access in most cities in the United States and to a limited degree in Canada, which preferred its own DATAPAC service.

Users would dial into Tymnet and then interact with a simple command-line interface to establish a connection with a remote system. Once connected, data was passed to and from the user as if connected directly to a modem on the distant system. For various technical reasons, the connection was not entirely "invisible", and sometimes required the user to enter arcane commands to make 8-bit clean connections work properly for file transfer.

Tymnet was extensively used by large companies to provide dial-up services for their employees who were "on the road", as well as a gateway for users to connect to large online services such as CompuServe or The Source.

Organization and functionality
In its original implementation, the network supervisor contained most of the routing intelligence in the network. Unlike the TCP/IP protocol underlying the internet, Tymnet used a circuit switching layout which allowed the supervisors to be aware of every possible end-point. In its original incarnation, the users connected to nodes built using Varian minicomputers, then entered commands that were passed to the supervisor which ran on a XDS 940 host.

Circuits were character oriented and the network was oriented towards interactive character-by-character full-duplex communications circuits. The nodes handled character translation between various character sets, which were numerous at that time. This did have the side effect of making data transfers quite difficult, as bytes from the file would be invisibly "translated" without specific intervention on the part of the user.

Tymnet later developed their own custom hardware, the Tymnet Engine, which contained both nodes and a supervisor running on one of those nodes. As the network grew, the supervisor was in danger of being overloaded by the sheer number of nodes in the network, since the requirements for controlling the network took a great part of the supervisor's capacity.

Tymnet II was developed in response to this challenge. Tymnet II was developed to ameliorate the problems outlined above by off-loading some of the work-load from the supervisor and providing greater flexibility in the network by putting more intelligence into the node code. A Tymnet II node would set up its own "permuter tables", eliminating the need for the supervisor to keep copies of them, and had greater flexibility in handling its inter-node links. Data transfers were also possible via "auxiliary circuits".

Beginnings: Tymshare
Tymshare was founded in 1964 as a time sharing company, selling computer time and software packages for users. It had two SDS/XDS 940 computers; access was via direct dial-up to the computers. In 1968, it purchased Dial Data, another time-sharing service bureau.

In 1968, Norm Hardy and LaRoy Tymes developed the idea of using remote sites with minicomputers to communicate with the mainframes. The minicomputers would serve as the network's nodes, running a program to route data. In November 1971, the first Tymnet Supervisor program became operational. Written in assembly code by LaRoy Tymes for the SDS 940, with architectural design contributions from Norman Hardy, the "Supervisor" was the beginning of the Tymnet network. One instance of the supervisor would be running at all times and choose a path (circuit) through the network for each new interactive session. The Varian 620i (8K of 16 bit words) was used for the TYMNET nodes. Initially, Tymshare and its direct customers were the network's only users. In February, 1972, the National Library of Medicine became the first non-Tymshare network customer with a toxicology data base on an IBM 360.

It soon became apparent that the SDS 940 could not keep up with the rapid growth of the network. In 1972, Joseph Rinde joined the Tymnet group and began porting the Supervisor code to the 32-bit Interdata 7/32, as the 8/32 was not yet ready. In 1973, the 8/32 became available, but the performance was disappointing and a crash-effort was made to develop a machine that could run Rinde's Supervisor.

In 1974, a second, more efficient version of the Supervisor software became operational. The new Tymnet "Engine" software was used on both the Supervisor machines and on the nodes. After the migration to the Tymnet Engine, they started developing Tymnet accounting and other support software on the PDP-10. Tymshare sold the Tymnet network software to TRW, who created their own private network, TRWNET.

Tymes and Rinde then developed "Tymnet II". Tymnet II ran in parallel with the original network, which continued to run on the Varian machines until it was phased out over a period of several years. Tymnet II's different method of constructing virtual circuits allowed for much better scalability.

In 1996, the third and final version of the Supervisor was written in C for a Sparc multiprocessor work station by Tymes and Romolo Raffo. Node code software was ported from the Tymnet Engine to a Sparc platform by Bill Soley. Up to 10 old-style Tymnet Engines were replaced by a single Sparc node in the network switching centers.

Tymnet, Inc. spun off
In about 1979, Tymnet Inc. was spun off from Tymshare Inc. to continue administration and operation of the Tymnet network and its VAN services. The network continued to grow, and customers who owned their own host computers and wanted access to them from remote sites became interested in connecting their computers to the network. This led to the foundation of Tymnet as a wholly owned subsidiary of Tymshare to run a public network as a common carrier within the United States. This allowed users to connect their host computers and terminals to the network, and use the computers from remote sites or sell time on their computers to other users of the network, with Tymnet charging them for the use of the network.

The network offered an email service called OnTyme.

Sold to McDonnell Douglas
McDonnell Douglas Tymshare

In 1984 Tymnet was bought by the McDonnell Douglas Corporation as part of the acquisition of Tymshare. The company was renamed McDonnell Douglas Tymshare, and began a major reorganization. A year later, McDonnell Douglas (MD) split Tymshare into several separate operating companies: MD Network Systems Company, MD Field Service Company, MD RCS, MD "xxx" and many more. (This is sometimes referred to the Alphabet Soup phase of the company). At this point, Tymnet had outlived its parent company Tymshare.

McDonnell Douglas acquired Microdata and created MD Information Systems Group (MDISC), expecting to turn Microdata's desktop and server systems along with Tymshare's servers and Tymnet data network into a major player in the Information Services market. Microdata's systems were integrated into many parts of McDonnell Douglas, but Tymnet never was. MDC really did not seem to understand the telecommunications market. After five years, peace was breaking out in many places in the world and McDonnell Douglas sold off MDNSC and MDFSC at a profit for much needed cash.

Earlier, in 1986, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) liberalized the interconnection rules in the provinces it then regulated (Ontario, Quebec and British Columbia) and this allowed McDonnell Douglas to expand the network into select Canadian cities. The Canadian operation was part of McDonnell Douglas Computer Systems Company (MDCSC) as this was the only MDxxx company operating in Canada. MDCSC hired David Kingsland to spearhead this expansion into Canada.

Sold to British Telecom
BT Tymnet, BT North America,  BTNA

On July 30, 1989, at the Marriott Hotel in Santa Clara, it was announced that British Telecom was purchasing McDonnell Douglas Network Systems Company, and McDonnell Douglas Field Service Company was being spun off as a start-up called NovaDyne. British Telecom (BT) wanted to expand and the acquisition of Tymnet, which already a worldwide data network, was projected to help to achieve that goal. On November 17, 1989, MDNSC officially became BT Tymnet with its parochial U.S. headquarters in San Jose, California. BT brought with it the idea of continuous development with teams in America, Europe, and Asia-pacific all working together on the same projects. BT renamed the Tymnet services, Global Network Services (GNS).

British Telecom brought new life to the company with development of hardware and software for the Tymnet data network using contacts BT already had with telecommunication hardware vendors. There was a trial of "next-generation" nodes scattered throughout the network, called "TURBO engine nodes" based on the Motorola 68000 family. In the mid to late 1980s, serious node-code development was migrated from the PDP-10s to UNIX. Sun-3 (based on the Motorola 68000) and later Sun-4 (SPARC based) workstations and servers were purchased from Sun Microsystems, though the majority of PDP-10s were still around in the early '90s for legacy code, as well as documentation storage. Eventually, all of the code development trees were on the Sun-4s, and the development tools (NAD, etc.) had been ported to SunOS.

Another project begun a few months before the BT purchase was to migrate the Tymnet code repository from the PDP-10s to Sun systems. The new servers were dubbed the Code Generation Systems or CGS. They were initially six Sun-3 servers upgraded eventually to two Sun-4/690 servers for redundancy. A second pair of servers for catastrophic failover were also installed in Malvern, PA and later moved to Norristown, PA as part of later site consolidation efforts. After the migration, there was code for more than 6000 nodes and 38,000 customer interfaces.

Tymnet was still growing, and at several times reached its peak capacity when some of its customers held network intensive events. One of these of note was a live, on-line presentation and chat on America On-Line (AOL) with Michael Jackson. Tymnet usage statistics showed AOL's call capacity was greater than its maximum volume for the duration of the event.

MCI, NewCo, Concert
In 1993 British Telecom (BT) and MCI Communications (MCI) negotiated what they called the "Deal of the Century", where MCI would take ownership of the US-based portions of Tymnet and they would create a 50/50 joint venture called "Concert". (The joint venture was called "NewCo" for more than a year while they decided on a name.) Concert was also aligned with another acquisition of BT, called Syncordia which was headquartered in Atlanta, Ga. Tymnet was then referred to as: The Packet network, the BT/MCI network and Concert Packet-switching Services (CPS). As MCI cut away at Tymnet, expecting it to die, it became a cash cow that just wouldn't go away.

In May 1994, there were still three DEC KL-10s under TYMCOM-X. At this time, the network had approximately 5000 nodes in 30 foreign countries. A variety of protocols can be run over a single packet-switching network, and Tymnet's most-used protocols were X.25, asynchronous (ATI/AHI), SNA.

BT and Concert also continued to develop the network, and after the failure of the "Turbo nodes" to take off, decided to have an outside company add Tymnet protocols to existing hardware used in their frame-relay network. Telematics International developed a subset of the Tymnet protocols to run on their ACP/PCP nodes. The Telematics nodes were connected in a mesh network via Frame Relay and appeared to Tymnet as super-nodes that were directly connected to as many as 44 other super-nodes interconnecting most of Europe, Asia and the Americas as a high-speed-data network.

MCI took a different direction and looked to migrate the network protocols to run over TCP/IP and use Sun Microsystems SPARC technology. The supervisor technology was rewritten in C to run as standard UNIX applications under Sun's Solaris operating system. Funding for this project was at a minimum but the Tymnet engineers believed it was a superior method and proceeded anyway.

Times were changing and the Internet and World Wide Web were becoming a practical and even important part of corporate and personal life. Tymnet technology needed improvements to keep pace with TCP/IP and other internet protocols. Both BT and MCI decided not to compete with the Internet, but to convert their customer base to IP based networks and technologies. However, the Tymnet network was still bringing in much cash (in some cases more than current IP-based services), so both BT and MCI needed to keep their customers happy.

MCI, MCI Worldcom, Worldcom vs. BT, Concert, AT&T
In 1997 talks were underway for British Telecom (BT) to acquire MCI. The deal fell through, and in September, 1998 MCI was acquired by WorldCom after they made a better offer for the company. Actually, the Worldcom offer was nearly identical to the BT offer, but where BT planned to buy out MCI shares of stock, WorldCom offered a stock-swap which was more attractive to the stockholders. Worldcom took control in September 1998 and dissolved the BT/MCI alliance as of October 15, 1998.

Concert - headquarters in Reston, Va.
With the alliance gone, BT and MCI/Worldcom began the process of unraveling and separating their extensive voice and data communications systems.

Concert created Project Leonardo to separate the BT and MCI/Worldcom voice and data networks. At times over the next five years, advancements were made or stalled due to BT and MCI management negotiating and renegotiating the terms of their contractual obligations to each other made during the alliance. At times, things came to a standstill, or decisions made were reversed, and some reversed again at a later time. Parts of the project were to migrate customers from X.25 to IP based networks, while others created a duplicate set of services so that both Concert and MCI could separately continue to run and manage their own portions of the network. Accounting data for network usage was also shared by the two companies and had to be separated before clients could be billed properly.

Concert - headquarters in Atlanta, Ga.
In 2000 BT then went searching for another alliance, and created a new "Concert" alliance between BT and AT&T Corporation, moving the headquarters to Atlanta, Georgia. This alliance did not help the negotiations between BT and MCI Worldcom as their partners from MCI and AT&T were corporate enemies. For Tymnet, the data network portion of the split, and the "CPS Leonardo" project, the split was never fully realized. Instead, MCI Worldcom completed their migration of services from Tymnet to IP based services in March 2003 and disconnected their supervisor nodes and their portion of the network on March 31, 2003. British Telecom continued to run the network using their own supervisor and other utility nodes until February 2004 when their last customer was able to move all of its customers to other access services. BT and AT&T dissolved their Concert alliance on September 30, 2003, and the remaining BT assets were combined with BTNA assets into BT Americas, Inc. Sometime in early March 2004, without ceremony, BT Americas disconnected the last two remaining Tymnet supervisors from the network, effectively shutting it down.

Worldcom bankruptcy
Worldcom executives were involved in a financial scandal. In June 2002, Worldcom admitted to nearly 4 billion dollars of incorrect accounting. The scandal resulted in the CEO, Bernard Ebbers, being ousted and later brought up on federal charges for conspiracy and securities fraud. The scandal sent the stock price down to ten cents per share. A month after the revelation of accounting "mishaps", Worldcom filed for bankruptcy.

MCI name revived and sold to Verizon
Worldcom came out of bankruptcy renamed as "MCI" in April 2004. In less than a year, the remains of MCI was sold for $6.7B bid to what is today known as Verizon Business, a division of Verizon. Verizon had been formed in 2000 when Bell Atlantic, one of the Regional Bell Operating Companies, merged with GTE. Prior to its transformation into Verizon, Bell Atlantic had merged with another Regional Bell Operating Company, NYNEX, in 1997.

AT&T sold to SBC
On January 31, 2005, SBC Communications announced that it would purchase AT&T Corp. for more than $16 billion. Shortly thereafter the name was changed to AT&T Inc. to distinguish itself from AT&T Corp.

Electronic Data Interchange (EDI & EDI*Net)
Tymshare EDI, MD Payment Systems Company, BTNA/MCI EDI*Net Services

Tymshare was one of the pioneers in the EDI field. Under McDonnell Douglas, the Payment Systems Company continued that legacy and maintained its own EDI*Net network monitoring and support group.

EDI*Net used a fault-tolerant Tandem NonStop computer with a second synchronized remote disaster NonStop computer over 100 miles apart. Mirrors of each other, and maintaining uptimes over 99.994%, they were each connected to a high speed data links using Tymnet as the connection and translation medium. Tymshare developed a bi-sync modem interface (HSA), a translation module to translate between EBCDIC and ASCII (BBXS), and a highly customized X.25 module (XCOM). EDI*Net used these interfaces on the Tandems. EDI*Net supported & contributed to many EDI standards, with the United Nations' EDIFACT and ANSI X12 dominating. As a store-and-forward service, EDI*Net supported multiple delivery protocols besides X.25 and BiSync, including FTPS, SMTPS and ZModem, and allowed the enveloping structure of supported EDI standards to extend into X.400 and SMTP envelopes.

Developed to utilize X.25 (XCOM) and BiSync (BSC), there was no TCP/IP equivalent service within Tymnet. To continue use of this service after the shutdown of Tymnet, a solution was selected. A special version of Tymnet Engine node code which allows nodes and interfaces to communicate with one another and the rest of the network was created. Instead of relying on the "supervisor" to validate calls, a table of permitted connections was defined per customer to allow an incoming call to be made from the HSA interface to the BBXS interface to the XCOM interface and on to the Tandem computer. In effect, a "Tymnet Island" consisting of a single Tymnet node that accepted calls for a pre-determined list of clients was utilized by EDI*Net. No supervisor needed.

These islands of Tymnet have not only outlived the parent company, Tymshare, and the operations company, Tymnet, but also the Tymnet Network itself. As of 2008, these Tymnet Island nodes are still running and doing their jobs.

Organization
In operation, Tymshare's Data Networks Division was responsible for the development and maintenance of the network and Tymnet was responsible for the administration, provisioning and monitoring of the network. Each company had their own software development staff and a line was drawn to separate what each group could do. Tymshare development engineers wrote all the code which ran in the network, and the Tymnet staff wrote code running on host computers connected to the network. It is for this reason, that many of the Tymnet projects ran on the Digital Equipment Corporation DECSystem-10 computers that Tymshare offered as timesharing hosts for their customers. Tymnet operations formed a strategic alliance with the Tymshare PDP-10 TYMCOM-X operating systems group to assist them in developing new network management tools.

Origins
From its earliest days, Tymnet had an on-line and real time network trouble reporting tool called the Consolidator. That, along with the network node interrogation capabilities (known as Snap or Snapshot), provided unique and real time operation of the network. However, trouble reports were initially tracked on a traditional paper ticket system. This was until Bill Scheible, a manager at Tymnet, wrote a small FORTRAN IV program to maintain a list of problem reports and track their status in a System 1022 database (a hierarchical database system for TOPS-10 published by Software House). The program was called PAPER after the old manual way of managing trouble tickets. The program grew as features were added to handle customer information, call-back contact information, escalation procedures, and outage statistics.

Company-wide use
Access to PAPER became critical as more and more functionality was added. It eventually was maintained on two dedicated PDP-10 computers, model KL-1090, accessible via the Tymnet Packet Network as Tymshare hosts 23 and 26. Each computer was the size of 5 refrigerators, and had a string of disks that looked like 18 washing machines. Their power supplies produced +5 volts at 200 amps (non-switching) making them expensive to operate.

Major upgrades
In 1996 the DEC PDP-10s that ran Tymnet's trouble-ticket system were replaced by PDP-10 clones from XKL, Inc. They were accessible via TCP/IP as ticket.tymnet.com and token.tymnet.com, by both TELNET and HTTP. A low-end workstation from Sun was used as a telnet gateway; it accepted logins from the Tymnet network via x.25 to IP translation done by a Cisco router forwarded to "ticket" and/or "token". The XKL TOAD-1 systems ran a modified TOPS-20. The application was ported to a newer version of the Fortran compiler, and still used the 1022 database.

Decommission
In mid to late 1998, Concert produced an inter-company trouble tracking system for use by both MCI and Concert. This was adopted and the TTS PAPER data necessary for ongoing tickets was re-entered on the new system. TTS was kept up for historical information until the end of the year.

In January 1999, both XKL servers (ticket and token) were decommissioned. In late 2003 the hardware left onsite in San Jose was accidentally scrapped by the facilities manager during a scheduled cleanup.

System 1022 (Database System)
System-1022 was a database that ran on Digital Equipment Corporation's 36-bit hardware: the DECsystem-10 and also the DECSYSTEM-20, hence the 1022 name.

1022 was a hierarchical database system which could be accessed via third-generation languages such as Fortran and COBOL; it also had its own 4GL.

Software House
Software House, the company that trademarked and brought 1022 to market also marketed a VAX counterpart, System-1032.

Software House was acquired by Computer Corporation of America.

System 1032
In 1983, Software House released System 1032 for Digital Equipment Corporation's 32-bit VAX systems. Version 1.5 (1984) added EBCDIC support.

System 1032 was acquired by Computer Corporation of America (CCA) in 1992. In 2010, Rocket Software acquired CCA's products, including System 1032. Rocket continue to develop and maintain System 1032 for the OpenVMS operating system.

Like 1022, it had a Host Language Interface (HLI).

title: Tymnet


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Dan Grimaldi

Dan Grimaldi (born March 7, 1946) is an American actor and mathematics professor who is known for his roles as twins Philly and Patsy Parisi on the HBO television series The Sopranos, various characters on Law & Order (1991–2001), Don't Go in the House (1979), The Junkman (1983), Men of Respect (1990), and The Yards (2000).

Education
Grimaldi has a bachelor's degree in mathematics from Fordham University, a master's degree in operations research from New York University, and a PhD in data processing from the City University of New York, and teaches in the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science at Kingsborough Community College in Brooklyn, New York.

Career
In addition to his role on The Sopranos, he has also had some minor film credits, most notably as mother-fixated pyromaniac Donny Kohler in the 1980 slasher film Don't Go in the House, and some guest TV appearances, including several episodes on Law & Order as well as appearing in 2011 as Tommy Barrone Sr. in "Moonlighting", the 9th episode of the 2nd season of the CBS show Blue Bloods. He appeared as an executive in the 2000 film The Yards and Grimaldi also voices "Frank" for the video game Mafia.

title: Dan Grimaldi


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Pimiento

A pimiento or pimento or cherry pepper is a variety of large, red, heart-shaped chili pepper (Capsicum annuum) that measures 3 to 4 in (7 to 10 cm) long and 2 to 3 in (5 to 7 cm) wide (medium, elongate).

Pimientos can have various colors including yellow, green, red, and maroon. Some are green when immature and turn red when they reach maturity.

The flesh of the pimiento is sweet, succulent, and more aromatic than that of the red bell pepper. Some varieties of the pimiento type are hot, including the Floral Gem and Santa Fe Grande varieties. The fruits are typically used fresh or pickled.

Name
Spanish and Portuguese  both come from Latin  ("pigment; coloring") and came to be used for bell peppers. The English borrowed "pimiento" and "pimento" as loanwords for what is distinguished in Spanish as and in Portuguese as pimentão.

Stuffing
"Sweet" (i.e., neither sour nor savory) pimiento peppers are the familiar red stuffing found in prepared Spanish or Greek green olives. Originally, the pimiento was hand-cut into tiny pieces, then hand-stuffed into each olive to balance out the olive's otherwise strong, salty flavor. Despite the popularity of the combination, this production method was very costly and time-intensive.

More recently, for ease of production, pimientos are often puréed then formed into tiny strips, with the help of a natural gum (such as sodium alginate or guar gum). This allows olive stuffing to be mechanized, speeding the process and lowering production costs.

Other uses
Pimientos are commonly used for making pimento cheese. It is also used for making pimento loaf, a type of processed sandwich meat.

title: Pimiento


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Howard Gardner

Howard Earl Gardner (born July 11, 1943) is an American developmental psychologist and the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Research Professor of Cognition and Education at Harvard University. He was a founding member of Harvard Project Zero in 1967 and held leadership roles at that research center from 1972 to 2023. Since 1995, he has been the co-director of The Good Project.

Gardner has written hundreds of research articles and over thirty books that have been translated into over thirty languages. He is best known for his theory of multiple intelligences, as outlined in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

Gardner retired from teaching in 2019. In 2020, he published his intellectual memoir A Synthesizing Mind. He continues his research and writing, including several blogs.

Early life
Howard Earl Gardner was born July 11, 1943, in Scranton, Pennsylvania, to Ralph Gardner and Hilde (née Weilheimer) Gardner, German Jewish immigrants who fled Germany just prior to World War II.

Gardner described himself as "a studious child who gained much pleasure from playing the piano". Although Gardner never became a professional pianist, he taught piano intermittently from 1958 to 1969.

Education was of the utmost importance in the Gardner home. While his parents had hoped that he would attend Phillips Academy in Andover Massachusetts, Gardner opted to attend a school closer to his hometown in Pennsylvania, Wyoming Seminary. Gardner had a desire to learn and greatly excelled in school.

Career
Gardner graduated from Harvard College with highest honors in 1965 with a BA in Social Relations, and studied under the renowned Erik Erikson. After spending one year at the London School of Economics, he went on to obtain his PhD in developmental psychology at Harvard while working with psychologists Roger Brown and Jerome Bruner, and philosopher Nelson Goodman.

For his postdoctoral fellowship, Gardner worked alongside neurologist Norman Geschwind at Boston Veterans Administration Hospital and continued his work there for another 20 years. In 1986, Gardner became a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Since 1995, much of the focus of his work has been on The GoodWork Project, now part of a larger initiative known as The Good Project that encourages excellence, ethics, and engagement in work, digital life, and civic society.

In 2000, Gardner, Kurt Fischer, and their colleagues at the Harvard Graduate School of Education established the master's degree program in Mind, Brain, and Education. This program was thought to be the first of its kind around the world. Many universities in both the United States and abroad have since developed similar programs. Since then, Gardner has published books on a number of topics including Changing Minds: The Art and Science of Changing Our Own and Other People's Minds, Five Minds for the Future, Truth, Beauty and Goodness Reframed, and The App Generation (written with Katie Davis).

Since 2012, Gardner has been co-directing a major study of higher education in the United States with Wendy Fischman and several other colleagues. Information about the study, including several dozen blogs, is available on Gardner's website. In March 2022, MIT Press published Wendy Fischman and Howard Gardner's book The Real World of College: What Higher Education Is and What It Can Be.

At the start of 2024, Gardner was the most cited Educational Scholar in the United States, according to the Edu-Scholar Public Influence Ratings.

In 2024, Teachers College Press will publish two collections of Gardner’s papers: The Essential Howard Gardner on Education and The Essential Howard Gardner on Mind.

Theory and criticism
According to Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences, humans have several different ways of processing information, and these ways are relatively independent of one another. The theory is a critique of the standard intelligence theory, which emphasizes the correlation among abilities, as well as traditional measures like IQ tests that typically only account for linguistic, logical, and spatial abilities. Since 1999, Gardner has identified eight intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic. Gardner and colleagues have also considered two additional intelligences, existential and pedagogical. Many teachers, school administrators, and special educators have been inspired by Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences.

Gardner's definition of intelligence has been met with some criticism in education circles as well as in the field of psychology. Perhaps the strongest and most enduring critique of his theory of multiple intelligences centers on its lack of empirical evidence, much of which points to a single construct of intelligence called "g". Gardner has responded that his theory is based entirely on empirical evidence as opposed to experimental evidence, as he does not believe experimental evidence in itself can yield a theoretical synthesis.

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences can be seen as both a departure from and a continuation of the 20th century's work on the subject of human intelligence. Other prominent psychologists whose contributions variously developed or expanded the field of study include Charles Spearman, Louis Thurstone, Edward Thorndike, and Robert Sternberg.

In 1967, Professor Nelson Goodman started an educational program called Project Zero at the Harvard Graduate School of Education, which began with a focus in arts education and now spans a wide variety of educational arenas. Howard Gardner and David Perkins were founding Research Assistants and later Co-Directed Project Zero from 1972 to 2000. Project Zero's mission is to understand and enhance learning, thinking, and creativity in the arts, as well as a broad range of humanistic and scientific disciplines at the individual and institutional levels.

For over two decades, in collaboration with William Damon, Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, and several other colleagues, Gardner has been directing research at The Good Project on the nature of good work, good play, and good collaboration. The goal of his research is to determine what it means to achieve work that is at once excellent, engaging, and carried out in an ethical way. With colleagues Lynn Barendsen, Courtney Bither, Shelby Clark, Wendy Fischman, Carrie James, Kirsten McHugh, and Danny Mucinskas, Gardner has developed curricular toolkits on these topics for use in educational and professional circles.

Achievements and awards
In 1981 Gardner was the recipient of a MacArthur Prize Fellowship. In 1990 he became the first American to receive the University of Louisville Grawemeyer Award in Education. In 1985, The National Psychology Awards for Excellence in the Media, awarded Gardner The Book Award for Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. In 1987, he received the William James Award from the American Psychological Association. SUNY Plattsburgh inducted Gardner selected Gardner for honoris causa membership in Omicron Delta Kappa in 1998. In 1999, Gardner received the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement. In 2000 he received a fellowship from the John S. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation. Four years later he was named an Honorary Professor at East China Normal University in Shanghai. In the years 2005 and 2008 he was selected by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines as one of the top 100 most influential public intellectuals in the world. In 2011, he won the Prince of Asturias Award in Social Sciences for his development of multiple intelligences theory. In 2015, he received the Brock International Prize in Education. In 2020, Gardner received the Distinguished Contributions to Research in Education Award from the American Education Research Association.

He has received honorary degrees from 31 colleges and universities around the world, including institutions in Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Greece, Hong Kong, Ireland, Israel, Italy, South Korea, and Spain. He is also a member of several honorary societies: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, American Philosophical Society, National Academy of Education, and the American Academy of Political and Social Science.

Personal life
Howard Gardner is married to Ellen Winner, Professor Emerita of Psychology at Boston College. They have one child, Benjamin. Gardner has three children from an earlier marriage: Kerith (1969), Jay (1971), and Andrew (1976); and five grandchildren: Oscar (2005), Agnes (2011), Olivia (2015), Faye Marguerite (2016), and August Pierre (2019).

title: Howard Gardner


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Voiced alveolar and postalveolar approximants

The voiced alveolar approximant is a type of consonantal sound used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents the alveolar and postalveolar approximants is ⟨ɹ⟩, a lowercase letter r rotated 180 degrees. The equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is.

The most common sound represented by the letter r in English is the voiced postalveolar approximant, pronounced a little more back and transcribed more precisely in IPA as ⟨ɹ̠⟩, but ⟨ɹ⟩ is often used for convenience in its place. For further ease of typesetting, English phonemic transcriptions might use the symbol ⟨r⟩ even though this symbol represents the alveolar trill in phonetic transcription.

The bunched or molar r sounds remarkably similar to the postalveolar approximant and can be described as a voiced labial pre-velar approximant with tongue-tip retraction. It can be transcribed in IPA as ⟨ψ⟩ or ⟨ɹ̈⟩.

Features
Features of the voiced alveolar approximant:

Postalveolar
As an allophone of other rhotic sounds, occurs in Edo, Fula, Murrinh-patha, and Palauan.


text:
1771 in music

Events

 * March 28 – Mozart returns to Salzburg from a tour of Italy but is back in Milan for the premiere of his opera Ascanio in Alba on October 17.
 * Foundation of the Royal Theatre Ballet School in Copenhagen, Denmark.
 * The Chevalier de Saint-Georges is appointed maestro of the Concert des Amateurs in Paris.
 * Probable – Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf becomes Hoffkomponist (court composer) to Philipp Gotthard von Schaffgotsch, Prince-Bishop of Breslau, at château Jánský Vrch (Johannesberg) in Javorník.

Classical music

 * Carl Friedrich Abel
 * 6 Trio Sonatas, WK 86-91 Op. 9
 * 6 Easy Sonatas, WK 141-146
 * Carl Phillip Emanuel Bach
 * 6 Harpsichord Concertos, Wq.43
 * Ich will dem Herrn lobsingen
 * Luigi Boccherini
 * Cello Sonata in A major, G.4
 * 6 String Quintets, G.265-270, Op. 10
 * 6 String Quintets Op. 11 (with the famous minuet, No. 5 (G 275))
 * Symphony in D major, Op. 12 no 1/G 503
 * Symphony in E-flat major, Op. 12 no 2/G 504
 * Symphony in C major, Op. 12 no 3/G 505
 * František Xaver Brixi – Pastorella in C major for organ
 * Muzio Clementi – 6 Piano Sonatas, Op. 1
 * Ernst Eichner
 * 3 Harpsichord Trios, Op. 3
 * Harp Concerto in D major, Op. 9
 * Baldassare Galuppi
 * Confitebor tibi Domine in G major
 * Jephte et Helcana (oratorio)
 * Tommaso Giordani – 6 Harpsichord Quintets, Op. 1
 * Joseph Haydn
 * Baryton Trio in A major, Hob.XI:7
 * Baryton Trio in A major, Hob.XI:9
 * Baryton Trio in B minor, Hob.XI:96
 * Piano Sonata in C minor Hob. XVI:20
 * Keyboard Concerto in C major, Hob.XVIII:10
 * Symphony No. 42
 * Symphony No. 43
 * James Hook – 6 Keyboard Concertos, Op. 1
 * Thomas Linley Jr – Violin Concerto in F major
 * Leopold Mozart – Missa brevis in C major (formerly attributed to W.A. Mozart as K. 115)
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Aria for soprano and orchestra, “Non curo l’affetto”, K. 74b
 * Symphony No. 12
 * Symphony No. 13
 * Symphony No. 14
 * Symphony in F, “No. 42”, K. 75/75
 * Symphony No. 46 in C major, K.96/111b
 * Symphony No. 50 in D major, K.161/141a
 * Divertimento No. 1 in E-flat major, K. 113
 * Regina coeli for soprano, chorus and orchestra in C major, K. 108/74d
 * Litaniae Lauretanae in B-flat major, K. 109/74e
 * Betulia liberata, oratorio K. 118/74c
 * Johann Gottfried Müthel – Keyboard Duet in E-flat major
 * Josef Mysliveček – Veni sponsa Christi
 * Johann Gottfried Wilhelm Palschau – Harpsichord Concertos No.1-2
 * Niccolo Piccinni – Le finte gemelle, intermezzo premiered Jan. 2 in Rome
 * Johann Baptist Vanhal
 * 6 String Quartets, Op. 6
 * 6 Oboe Quartets, Op. 7

Opera

 * Pasquale Anfossi
 * Lucio Papirio
 * Quinto Fabio
 * I visionari
 * Thomas Arne – The Fairy Prince
 * André Grétry
 * L'ami de la maison
 * Zémire et Azor
 * Johann Adolph Hasse – Il Ruggiero
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Ascanio in Alba
 * Josef Mysliveček – Il Gran Tamerlano
 * Giovanni Paisiello
 * Annibale in Torino
 * Artaserse, R.1.30
 * Demetrio, R.1.25
 * I scherzi di amore e di fortuna, R.1.28
 * Antonio Salieri – Armida

Methods and theory writings

 * Anselm Bayly – A Practical Treatise on Singing and Playing
 * Anton Bemetzrieder – Leçons de clavecin, et principes d’harmonie
 * Charles Burney – The Present State of Music in France and Italy
 * Johann Kirnberger – Die Kunst des reinen Satzes in der Musik

Births
date unknown:
 * February 9 – Daniel Belknap, composer (d. 1815)
 * February 24 – Johann Baptist Cramer, pianist (d. 1858)
 * March 19 – Frederik Høegh-Guldberg, poet and librettist (died 1852)
 * March 21 – Thomas John Dibdin, dramatist and songwriter (d. 1841)
 * May 13 – Siegfried August Mahlmann, librettist and poet (died 1826)
 * June 1 – Ferdinando Paër, Italian composer (died 1839)
 * August 15 – Walter Scott, librettist and novelist (died 1832)
 * August 27 – Friedrich Methfessel, composer (died 1807)
 * September 17 – Johann August Apel, librettist (d. 1816)
 * October 1 – Pierre Baillot, violinist and composer (d. 1842)
 * October 3 – Auguste Creuzé de Lesser, librettist and politician (died 1839)
 * October 9 – Charles-Augustin Bassompierre (Sewrin), librettist (died 1853)
 * October 29 – Anna Leonore König, member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (d. 1854)
 * November 1 – Stephan Schütze, librettist (died 1839)
 * November 4 – James Montgomery, librettist and editor (died 1854)
 * November 17 – Jonathan Huntington, composer (d. 1838)
 * December 26 – Heinrich Joseph von Collin, librettist and poet (died 1811)
 * Marie Antoinette Petersén, singer and member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Music (d. 1855)
 * Margareta Sofia Lagerqvist, opera singer (d. 1800)

Deaths

 * January 23 – Martin Berteau, composer and musician (born 1691)
 * March 11 – Christoph Birkmann, hymnist and pupil of JS Bach (born 1703)
 * March 30 – Anton Joseph Hampel, horn player (b. 1710)
 * May 20 – Christopher Smart, poet and hymn-writer (b. 1722; possible liver failure)
 * May 29 – Johann Adolph Hass, clavichord and harpsichord maker (b. 1713)
 * July 30 – Thomas Gray, librettist and poet (born 1716)
 * August 19 – Daniel Schiebeler, librettist and hymnist (born 1741)
 * October – René de Galard de Béarn, Marquis de Brassac, composer (born 1699)
 * October 14 – František Brixi, composer (b. 1732)
 * October 28 – Johann Gottlieb Graun, composer (b. 1703)
 * November 4 – Pierre Nicolas Brunet, librettist and playwright (born 1733)
 * November 18 – Giuseppe de Majo, Italian composer (born 1697)
 * date unknown – Andrea Soldi, copyist and portraitist (born 1703)

title: 1771 in music


text:
Dental and alveolar ejective stops

The alveolar and dental ejective stops are types of consonantal sounds, usually described as voiceless, that are pronounced with a glottalic egressive airstream. In the International Phonetic Alphabet, ejectives are indicated with a "modifier letter apostrophe" ⟨ʼ⟩, as in this article. A reversed apostrophe is sometimes used to represent light aspiration, as in Armenian linguistics ⟨p‘ t‘ k‘⟩; this usage is obsolete in the IPA. In other transcription traditions, the apostrophe represents palatalization: ⟨pʼ⟩ = IPA ⟨pʲ⟩. In some Americanist traditions, an apostrophe indicates weak ejection and an exclamation mark strong ejection: ⟨k̓, k!⟩. In the IPA, the distinction might be written ⟨kʼ, kʼʼ⟩, but it seems that no language distinguishes degrees of ejection.

In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In Hausa, the hooked letter ƙ is used for /kʼ/. In Zulu and Xhosa, whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: p t k ts tsh kr for /pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ tʃʼ kxʼ/. In some conventions for Haida and Hadza, double letters are used: tt kk qq ttl tts for /tʼ kʼ qʼ tɬʼ tsʼ/ (Haida) and zz jj dl gg for /tsʼ tʃʼ cʎ̥˔ʼ kxʼ/ (Hadza).

In Oromo /tʼ/ is written as ⟨x⟩.

Features
Features of the alveolar ejective:

 * There are four specific variants of :
 * Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
 * Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.

title: Dental and alveolar ejective stops


text:
Alveolar ejective fricative

The alveolar ejective fricative is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents this sound is ⟨sʼ⟩.

Features
Features of the alveolar ejective fricative:

In many languages, it is allophonic with the affricate [ts'].

title: Alveolar ejective fricative


text:
Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps

The voiced alveolar tap or flap is a type of consonantal sound, used in some spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents a dental, alveolar, or postalveolar tap or flap is ⟨ɾ⟩.

The terms tap and flap are often used interchangeably. Peter Ladefoged proposed the distinction that a tap strikes its point of contact directly, as a very brief stop, and a flap strikes the point of contact tangentially: "Flaps are most typically made by retracting the tongue tip behind the alveolar ridge and moving it forward so that it strikes the ridge in passing." That distinction between the alveolar tap and flap can be written in the IPA with tap ⟨ɾ⟩ and flap ⟨ɽ⟩, the 'retroflex' symbol being used for the one that starts with the tongue tip curled back behind the alveolar ridge. The distinction is noticeable in the speech of some American English speakers in distinguishing the words "potty" (tap ) and "party" (retroflex ).

For linguists who do not make the distinction, alveolars and dentals are typically called taps and other articulations flaps. No language contrasts a tap and a flap at the same place of articulation.

The sound is often analyzed and thus interpreted by non-native English-speakers as an 'R-sound' in many foreign languages. In languages for which the segment is present but not phonemic, it is often an allophone of either an alveolar stop (,, or both) or a rhotic consonant (like the alveolar trill or the alveolar approximant).

If the alveolar flap is the only rhotic consonant in the language, it may be transcribed with ⟨r⟩ although that symbol technically represents the trill.

The voiced alveolar tapped fricative reported from some languages is actually a very brief voiced alveolar non-sibilant fricative.

Features

Features of the voiced alveolar tap or flap:

 * Its manner of articulation is tap or flap, which means it is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that the tongue makes very brief contact.
 * Its place of articulation is dental or alveolar, which means it is articulated behind upper front teeth or at the alveolar ridge. It is most often apical, which means that it is pronounced with the tip of the tongue.

Features
Features of the alveolar nasal tap or flap:

 * Its manner of articulation is tap or flap, which means it is produced with a single contraction of the muscles so that the tongue makes very brief contact.


text:
Voiced dental, alveolar and postalveolar nasals

The voiced alveolar nasal is a type of consonantal sound used in numerous spoken languages. The symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet that represents dental, alveolar, and postalveolar nasals is ⟨n⟩, and the equivalent X-SAMPA symbol is.

The vast majority of languages have either an alveolar or dental nasal. There are a few languages that lack either sound but have, such as Yoruba, Palauan, and colloquial Samoan (however, these languages all have . An example of a language without and  is Edo). There are some languages (e.g. Rotokas) that lack both and.

True dental consonants are relatively uncommon. In the Romance, Dravidian, and Australian languages, n is often called "dental" in the literature. However, the rearmost contact, which gives a consonant its distinctive sound, is actually alveolar or denti-alveolar. The difference between the Romance languages and English is not so much where the tongue contacts the roof of the mouth but the part of the tongue that makes contact. In English, it is the tip of the tongue (such sounds are termed apical), but in the Romance languages, it is the flat of the tongue just above the tip (such sounds are called laminal).

However, there are languages with true apical (or less commonly laminal) dental n. It is found in the Mapuche language of South America, where it is actually interdental. A true dental generally occurs allophonically before in the languages that have it, as in English tenth. Similarly, a denti-alveolar allophone occurs in languages that have denti-alveolar stops, as in Spanish cinta.

Some languages contrast laminal denti-alveolar and apical alveolar nasals. For example, in the Malayalam pronunciation of Nārāyanan, the first n is dental, the second is retroflex, and the third alveolar.

A postalveolar nasal occurs in a number of Australian Aboriginal languages, including Djeebbana and Jingulu.

Features

Features of the voiced alveolar nasal:

 * There are four specific variants of :
 * Dental, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the upper teeth, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Denti-alveolar, which means it is articulated with the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, and the tip of the tongue behind upper teeth.
 * Alveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.
 * Postalveolar, which means it is articulated with either the tip or the blade of the tongue behind the alveolar ridge, termed respectively apical and laminal.


text:
Denomination (currency)

Denomination is a proper description of a currency amount, usually for coins or banknotes. Denominations may also be used with other means of payment such as gift cards. For example, five euros is the denomination of a five-euro note.

Subunit and super unit
In a currency, there is usually a main unit (base) and a subunit that is a fraction of the main unit. In some countries, there are multiple levels of subunits. In the former Ottoman Empire, 1 lira = 100 [kuruş] = 4000 para = 12000 [akçe]. Today, only a few places have more than one subunit, notably the Jordanian dinar is divided into 10 dirham, 100 qirsh/piastres, or 1000 fils. Many countries where Western European languages are spoken currently have their main units divided into 100 subunits. Some currencies that previously had subunits no longer do, because inflation has rendered the subunit useless. A prominent example is the Japanese yen, which was formerly divided into 100 sen or 1000 rin. Both subunits were demonetized at the end of 1953.

Occasionally, a super unit is used as a multiple of the main unit. Examples include Korean won = 5 yang in 1893, Iranian toman = 10 rials (used informally today). In the Ottoman Empire, lira and kuruş were super units at some point before becoming the main unit.

In the Indian subcontinent, it is common in Hindustani, as well as in both Indian and Pakistani English for large amounts of money to be discussed in lakhs and crores rather than in rupees. While they are not official denominations, they are drawn from the customary numerical system and are widely understood and utilised in the Indian, Pakistani, and Nepalese financial systems.

Decimal vs. non-decimal
A decimal currency is a currency where the ratio between the main unit and the subunit is an integral power of 10. Non-decimal currencies are now rare but had some advantages in daily life transactions. For example, 1 South German Gulden = 60 Kreuzer. 60 can be divided into 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20 or 30 parts that are still integers, making pricing easy. This advantage (in an age without mechanical or electronic calculators) and the lack of widespread accurate weighing apparatus (meaning an item might sometimes simply be divided in 2, 4, 5 etc.) coupled with tradition were the reasons why non-decimal currencies were used.

In theory, two countries currently use non-decimal currency: Mauritania (1 ouguiya = 5 khoums) and Madagascar (1 ariary = 5 iraimbilanja). In practice, however, the value of the main unit in each case is so low (less than 1/1000 of a United States dollar) that the sub-unit is not of any practical use and is rarely seen in circulation. In the case of the iraimbilanja, this is a carryover of the Madagascar's previous currency, the Malagasy franc, which had the ariary as a super unit worth 5 francs, and iraimbilanja was an alternate term for the franc. The last major countries to use non-decimal currencies in practice were the United Kingdom (until 1971), Ireland (1971), Malta (1972) and Nigeria (1973).

The "optimal denomination problem" is a problem for people who design entirely new currencies: What denominations should be chosen for the coins to minimize the average effort required to change into smaller denominations. As of 2014, most decimal currencies use a 1-2-5 series of coins, but some other set of denominations would require fewer denominations of coins or a smaller average number of coins to make change or both. Denominations of 3, 15 or 25 units are also in existence, or have been until recently.

Display on coins
Traditionally, denomination was not displayed on coins, although names of coins (such as drachma, ass, sestertius etc.) were used both in colloquial and official language. It was only in the 1600s that Scandinavian coins began to display relative value to the smaller units (8, 16 skilling etc.) because there were many of them in circulation.

The monetary reform of Peter the Great in the Russian Empire not only established a strictly decimal monetary system (which was rather uncommon in other states back in those times) but made the display of denomination (the "face value") mandatory on all coins. By the end of the 18th century denomination appeared on most coins in Europe and the Ottoman Empire, and in the 19th century it became a common practice.

By the end of the 20th century, coins were mostly distinguished from medals or tokens by presence of denomination, either in monetary units or (for commemorative or bullion coins only) in the weight of a valuable metal. Exceptions are quite rare: for example, British commemorative crowns (or 25 pence coins after the decimal reform) traditionally do not display any face value, and are only recognized as such due to their typical size.

Choice of name
It is common to name a unit with a unit of weight, such as pound, lira, and baht. In most cases, these currencies were originally defined as that amount of some precious metal. Another choice of name is some form of derivative of the political entity. The Afghan afghani and European euro fall into this category. Sometimes the name is simply the name of the metal of which the coins were or are made, such as Polish złoty ("golden") and Vietnamese đồng ("copper"), or its geographical origin, e.g. Joachimsthaler (see Dollar).

title: Denomination (currency)