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Jet Force Gemini

Jet Force Gemini is a 1999 third-person shooter developed and published by Rare for the Nintendo 64 video game console. The game follows the story of three members of a galactic law enforcement team as they try to stop a horde of drones led by an insectoid called Mizar. It features a single-player mode where the player must explore a galaxy and save Tribals, a race of survivors who have been enslaved and imprisoned by Mizar, and places strong emphasis on shooting large numbers of enemies while dodging their attacks. The game also includes a multiplayer mode where two to four players can compete in traditional deathmatch games.

Inspired by 80s arcade games and more recent titles of the time, such as Super Metroid and Super Mario 64, Jet Force Gemini blends elements of both shoot 'em up and action-adventure games. Works such as Aliens, Stargate and Battle of the Planets were also major influences. The game received generally positive reviews from critics. Praise was given to its detailed graphics and life-span, while criticism was targeted at its confusing controls and insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the game. In 2015, Jet Force Gemini was included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One. The game was rereleased via the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack in 2023.

Gameplay
Jet Force Gemini is a third-person shooter with shoot 'em up and action-adventure elements, in which the player controls the player character from a third-person perspective in a 3D environment. The game places strong emphasis on shooting large numbers of enemies while dodging their attacks. Weapons have no magazine restrictions and include grenades, a pistol, a machine gun, a sniper rifle, a flamethrower, and rocket launchers, among others. Although much of the game is spent in battle, the player has the ability to jump, hang from ledges, swim, and fly using jet packs, when needed. In combat, the player is free to set on a manual aiming system with the targeting camera fixed behind the character's head. When using this technique, a crosshair appears on screen and the player character becomes translucent so that players can aim and shoot with finesse. By contrast, when walking around, the game plays similar to a 3D platformer.

In the game's single-player mode, the player must explore a galaxy that is composed of 15 nonlinear worlds. Each world is composed of a series of stages with areas interconnected by different types of doors. Most doors open automatically, but some require a special action to be unlocked. For example, some doors require the player to defeat all the enemies in the area, while others may require a specific key. Although the player has a certain amount of health which decreases when attacked by enemies, health-recovery gems and ammunition crates can be collected throughout the world to increase the player's resources. Power-ups can also be found to expand the player's health and ammunition capacity.

While progressing through the game, the player can take control of three different characters: Juno, Vela, and Lupus. Each character has a special ability that allows them to uncover areas which the other characters cannot reach. Juno can walk through magma safely, Vela can swim underwater indefinitely, and Lupus can hover for a short period of time. Therefore, choosing the right character for the right stage is critical in order to complete the game. Initially, the game forces the player to use the three characters individually until they reach a meeting point. Once they reach the meeting point, all of the worlds can be tackled with any character in any order. The overall objective of the game is to explore all the galaxy to collect several starship parts and save a large number of Tribal survivors. Tribals can potentially be killed by weaponsfire, requiring the player to restart the encounter in order to save them. The player must collect all 12 ship parts and 282 Tribals to access the final stage.

In addition to the single-player mode, Jet Force Gemini features a multiplayer mode where two to four players can compete in traditional deathmatch games. Options such as the weapons available, the winning condition, and time limit can be changed to match player preference. Some multiplayer aspects, such as levels and characters, must be unlocked by finding the corresponding secret in the game's single-player mode. Players can also unlock racing mini-games that are played from an overhead perspective, as well as a firing range challenge, where players must shoot numerous targets while the game automatically follows a predefined path. Jet Force Gemini also features a no split-screen co-operative mode where a second player may take control of Floyd, a floating robot that automatically follows the main player character in the single-player mode.

Plot
Jet Force Gemini revolves around the galactic law enforcement team Jet Force Gemini, composed of twin siblings Juno and Vela and their wardog mascot Lupus. The game begins with the three characters in orbit around the planet Goldwood after barely escaping the destruction of the entire Jet Force fleet at the hands of the insectoid Mizar, who has been capturing and enslaving the native Tribals on Goldwood. When their ship is boarded by several of Mizar's drones, the three decide to abandon their ship and go off on their own separate paths to stop the invasion. Along the way, Juno finds and reconstructs Floyd, a small floating robot who defects from Mizar and agrees to aid the team. After traversing various planets, the heroes find themselves reunited at Mizar's Palace and confront Mizar, who escapes to a nearby asteroid and sets course to impact with Earth. To help the heroes, the Tribals' leader King Jeff provides them with an ancient starship that can quickly catch up to Mizar's asteroid, asking them to rescue all the Tribals throughout the galaxy in exchange.

After rescuing all the Tribals and restoring the starship with several needed parts, the team, along with King Jeff, departs to the asteroid and battle Mizar. To everyone's surprise, Mizar is revealed to be a robot controlled by King Jeff's jealous brother, Barry, who apologizes for letting things get out of hand. With time running out until the asteroid strikes Earth, Floyd offers to carry a warhead into the asteroid's core and destroy it. The team hesitantly agrees and flees in the starship shortly before Floyd sacrifices himself to destroy the asteroid. On Earth, the Jet Force Gemini team is given the highest honors for their accomplishments.

Development
Jet Force Gemini was developed by Rare's Blast Corps team. Work on the game began in 1997 with lead engineer Paul Mountain, who had previously worked on Diddy Kong Racing. The inspirations of the game ranged from 80s arcade classics to more recent titles of the time. The free-roaming nature of Nintendo's Super Mario 64 influenced the scale and the openness of some of the backgrounds and settings, while the collecting and upgrading of weapons were inspired by Super Metroid. Mountain revealed that "the behaviour of the bad guys was a mixture of arcade space shooter formations and Quake-style 'attack and cover' mechanics". According to him, "I suppose, in short, we were inspired by all the good stuff we'd played and enjoyed playing." Jet Force Gemini also borrowed elements from non-video game sources. Lead artist Lee Musgrave admitted, "There are elements of Star Wars in there, Aliens, Dune, Battle of the Planets, even Stargate – it was a real mix of everything and anything 'space' related."

Most of the characters in the game were named after stars and constellations, such as Mizar and Vela. Originally, the protagonists Juno and Vela were designed as younger and more cartoon-like with large heads, but they were ultimately changed to a more mature version because Nintendo expressed concerns over a game starring two children killing a large number of creatures. The game's controls were one of the main concerns during development. The idea was to retain a character-based game, where players could see the character they were playing while keeping the tightness and accuracy of first-person shooters. Rare initially attempted to automate the change of view and targeting mode based on the context of the action, but this idea was eventually replaced with a manual system. According to Mountain, "The solution we ended with is a beautiful thing. It feels very old-school to me; difficult, unforgiving, but ultimately precise."

Because several members of the team enjoyed racing games and had also worked on Diddy Kong Racing, they decided to include the futuristic Ant racing mini-game in the campaign mode and the top-down arcade racing games in the multiplayer mode. Developers initially considered the possibility to use the 4MB Nintendo 64 Expansion Pak, but the idea was eventually dropped. According to Mountain, "we wanted to deliver the same experience to all players and were confident that we could do this using the standard 4MB of RAM on the console." This led to some confusion as the box cover for the original release stated that it did support such a feature. Nintendo provided a quick-fix to the mislabeled covers by providing stickers declaring its Rumble Pak compatibility and fixed later printings of the boxes.

In May 1999, a playable demonstration of the game was presented at the Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles, California. A more complete version of the game was showcased at Nintendo Spaceworld in Japan in August 1999, alongside Rare's Donkey Kong 64 and Perfect Dark. The game was originally intended to be released in North America on August 31, 1999, but was pushed back to September 27, 1999, to give the developers more time to polish up the game. It was then pushed back even further to October 11, 1999, due to manufacturing delays. In Europe, the game was released on October 29, 1999, and on December 1, 1999, in Japan. The Japanese release of Jet Force Gemini was localized as Star Twins (スターツインズ) because Nintendo felt that the Japanese pronunciation of the Western title, "Jetto Fōsu Jeminai", was too difficult to pronounce. Although 4Kids Entertainment obtained the rights to merchandising Jet Force Gemini and Perfect Dark toys, movies, and other recreational products, the company did not produce any merchandise.

Reception
Jet Force Gemini received generally positive reviews from critics. Edge described it as "a straightforward blaster at heart", while AllGame claimed that it "pays homage to 8- and 16-bit games with its emphasis on high-intensity action and level design that requires skill with the controller." Writing for IGN, journalist Matt Casamassina remarked that, although Jet Force Gemini has some flaws and could be more polished, it is "still one of Nintendo 64's most original games and it has much more good going for it than it does bad." In a mixed review, Next Generation felt that the game was bloated with too many features and that it may exhaust players before it is over, concluding that the game would have been "twice as good" if "Rare had cut all the tedious parts".

The game's graphics and surround sound effects were received very positively. Casamassina described its sound effects as "dead-on and crystal clear" and its soundtrack as "some of the very best ever put into a Nintendo 64 game", while GameRevolution said that the game "goes for a more operatic feel than the generic video game techno." Graphically, the game was highlighted for its "visually stunning" settings, "state-of-the-art" animations, and special lighting, with Game Informer remarking that the game's "enormous" explosions help intensify the action. Despite the praise, some critics observed occasional frame rate drops when the action increases or when the game is played in non-widescreen mode. Edge also criticized the camera for refusing to move in some situations, requiring players to enter the aiming mode to manually center it behind the player character.

Although Jet Force Gemini was generally praised for its challenging artificial intelligence, included mini-games and length,  some critics reacted negatively to the game's insistence on having to save every Tribal to fully complete the campaign mode. Casamassina felt that this task was "far too tedious to truly be enjoyed." In contrast, N64 Magazine stated that revisiting previous stages with new weapons was fun and extends the game's lifespan. Critics agreed its controls were complex and confusing and that they were clunky during multiplayer. In a negative review, The Cincinnati Enquirer explained that the game is frustrating because players are required to constantly change from using the analog stick to the C buttons of the Nintendo 64 controller when switching to combat mode. GameSpot said that the controls remain responsive at all times, but acknowledged that the alternation between the two control styles may frustrate some players.

In a retrospective review, Nintendo Life stated that Jet Force Gemini is "a really enjoyable game" with "its fair share of flaws that tend to hinder the experience a little too much. That being said, it's certainly an incredibly fun title, at its best, that will definitely raise a few smiles."

Legacy
After the release of Jet Force Gemini, work on a Game Boy Color version of the game started, but the project was ultimately cancelled. According to former Rare designer and producer Martin Wakeley, Jet Force Gemini on the Game Boy Color "was the only occasion I can remember Rare outsourcing anything. It was being done by Bits Studios and was nearly done last time I saw it, I'm not sure what happened to it." The game would be a shooter played from an isometric perspective and would follow Juno and Lupus searching for Vela after a signal is broadcast from an unknown planet. The game was never officially announced by either Rare or Nintendo.

In 2000, Jet Force Gemini was ranked by IGN at number 20 in their list of The Top 25 N64 Games of All Time. In 2009, Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it the 93rd best game available on Nintendo platforms. The staff called it Rare's "big hope" due to the highly anticipated but delayed Nintendo 64 game Perfect Dark. Subsequent games developed by Rare have featured cameo appearances of Jet Force Gemini, including Kameo: Elements of Power, Viva Piñata: Trouble in Paradise, and Banjo-Tooie. Players may also dress their character up as Juno, Vela, and Lupus in Minecraft: Xbox 360 Edition through the use of a downloadable content pack. The game is included as part of the Rare Replay video game compilation for Xbox One, with support for dual-analog controls being added post-release. The game was also re-released via the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack on November 30, 2023 in Japan, and on December 7, 2023 in western regions.

title: Jet Force Gemini


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Surface modification

Surface modification is the act of modifying the surface of a material by bringing physical, chemical or biological characteristics different from the ones originally found on the surface of a material. This modification is usually made to solid materials, but it is possible to find examples of the modification to the surface of specific liquids.

The modification can be done by different methods with a view to altering a wide range of characteristics of the surface, such as: roughness, hydrophilicity, surface charge, surface energy, biocompatibility and reactivity.

Surface engineering
Surface engineering is the sub-discipline of materials science which deals with the surface of solid matter. It has applications to chemistry, mechanical engineering, and electrical engineering (particularly in relation to semiconductor manufacturing).

Solids are composed of a bulk material covered by a surface. The surface which bounds the bulk material is called the Surface phase. It acts as an interface to the surrounding environment. The bulk material in a solid is called the Bulk phase.

The surface phase of a solid interacts with the surrounding environment. This interaction can degrade the surface phase over time. Environmental degradation of the surface phase over time can be caused by wear, corrosion, fatigue and creep.

Surface engineering involves altering the properties of the Surface Phase in order to reduce the degradation over time. This is accomplished by making the surface robust to the environment in which it will be used.

Applications and Future of Surface Engineering
Surface engineering techniques are being used in the automotive, aerospace, missile, power, electronic, biomedical, textile, petroleum, petrochemical, chemical, steel, power, cement, machine tools, construction industries. Surface engineering techniques can be used to develop a wide range of functional properties, including physical, chemical, electrical, electronic, magnetic, mechanical, wear-resistant and corrosion-resistant properties at the required substrate surfaces. Almost all types of materials, including metals, ceramics, polymers, and composites can be coated on similar or dissimilar materials. It is also possible to form coatings of newer materials (e.g., met glass. beta-C3N4), graded deposits, multi-component deposits etc.

In 1995, surface engineering was a £10 billion market in the United Kingdom. Coatings, to make surface life robust from wear and corrosion, was approximately half the market.

Functionalization of Antimicrobial Surfaces is a unique technology that can be used for sterilization in health industry, self-cleaning surfaces and protection from bio films.

In recent years, there has been a paradigm shift in surface engineering from age-old electroplating to processes such as vapor phase deposition, diffusion, thermal spray & welding using advanced heat sources like plasma,  laser, ion, electron, microwave, solar beams, synchrotron radiation, pulsed arc, pulsed combustion, spark, friction and induction.

It's estimated that loss due to wear and corrosion in the US is approximately $500 billion. In the US, there are around 9524 establishments (including automotive, aircraft, power and construction industries) who depend on engineered surfaces with support from 23,466 industries.

Surface functionalization
Surface functionalization introduces chemical functional groups to a surface. This way, materials with functional groups on their surfaces can be designed from substrates with standard bulk material properties. Prominent examples can be found in semiconductor industry and biomaterial research.

Polymer Surface Functionalization
Plasma processing technologies are successfully employed for polymers surface functionalization.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Surface modification


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Astrophysics Data System

The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System (ADS) is a digital library portal for researchers on astronomy and physics, operated for NASA by the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. ADS maintains three bibliographic collections containing over 15 million records, including all arXiv e-prints. Abstracts and full-text of major astronomy and physics publications are indexed and searchable through the portal.

Historical context
Johann Friedrich Weidler publishing the first comprehensive history of astronomy in 1741 and the first astronomical bibliography in 1755, in an effort to archive and classify earlier astronomical knowledge and works.

This effort was continued by Jérôme de La Lande, who published his Bibliographie astronomique in 1803, a work that covered the time from 480 B.C. to the year of publication.

The Bibliographie générale de l’astronomie, Volume I and Volume II, published by J.C. Houzeau and A. Lancaster, followed in 1882 until 1889.

As the number of astronomers and astronomical publications grew, bibliographical efforts became institutional tasks, first at the Observatoire Royal de Belgique, where the Bibliography of Astronomy was published from 1881 to 1898, and then at the Astronomischer Rechen-Institut in Heidelberg, where the yearly Astronomischer Jahresbericht was published from 1899 to 1968. After 1968, this was replaced by the yearly Astronomy and Astrophysics Abstracts book series, which continued until the end of the 20th century.

History
The first suggestion of a digital database of journal paper abstracts was made at a conference on Astronomy from Large Data-Bases, held in Garching bei München in 1987.

An initial version of ADS, with a database consisting of 40 papers, was created as a proof of concept in 1988. The ADS Abstract Service became available for general use via proprietary network software in April 1993, with it becoming connected to SIMBAD a few months later. In early 1994, the ADS web-based service was launched, which effectively quadrupled the number of active users in the five weeks following its introduction.

In 2011 the ADS launched ADS Labs Streamlined Search which introduced facets for query refinement and selection. In 2013 ADS Labs 2.0 featuring a new search engine, full-text search functionality, scalable facets and an API was introduced. In 2015 the new ADS, code-named Bumblebee, was released as ADS-beta. The ADS-beta system features a microservices API and client-side dynamic page loading served on a cloud platform. In May 2018 the beta label was dropped and Bumblebee became the default ADS interface—with some legacy features (ADS Classic) remaining available. Development continues to the present day, with an extensible API available: enabling users to build their own utilities on top of the ADS bibliographic record.

The ADS service is distributed worldwide, with twelve mirror sites in twelve countries, with the database synchronized by weekly updates using rsync, a mirroring utility which allows updates to only the portions of the database which have changed. All updates are triggered centrally, but they initiate scripts at the mirror sites which "pull" updated data from the main ADS servers.

Data in the system
At first, the journal articles available via ADS were exclusively scanned bitmaps created from the paper journals and the abstracts created using optical character recognition software. Some of these scanned articles up to around 1995 are available for free by agreement with the journal publishers, with some dating from as far back as the early 19th century. Eventually, because of a wider spread of online editions of journal publications, abstracts would start to instead be loaded into ADS directly.

Papers are indexed within the database by their bibliographic record which contains the details of the journal they were published in, and various associated metadata, such as author lists, references and citations. Originally this data was stored in ASCII format, but, eventually, the limitations of this encouraged the database maintainers to migrate all records to an XML (Extensible Markup Language) format in 2000. Bibliographic records are now stored as an XML element, with sub-elements for the various metadata.

Scanned articles are stored in TIFF format, at both medium and high resolution. The TIFF files are converted on demand into GIF files, for on-screen viewing, and PDF, or PostScript files for printing. The generated files are then cached to eliminate needlessly frequent regenerations for popular articles. As of 2000, ADS contained 250 GB of scans, which consisted of 1,128,955 article pages comprising 138,789 articles. By 2005 this had grown to 650 GB, and was expected to grow further, to about 900 GB by 2007. No further information has been published (2005).

The database initially contained only astronomical references, but has now grown to incorporate three databases, covering astronomy references (including planetary sciences and solar physics), physics references (including instrumentation and geosciences), as well as preprints of scientific papers from arXiv. The astronomy database is by far the most advanced and its use accounts for about 85% of the total ADS usage. Articles are assigned to the different databases according to the subject rather than the journal they are published in, so that articles from any one journal might appear in all three subject databases. The separation of the databases allows searching in each discipline to be tailored, so that words can automatically be given different weight functions in different database searches, depending on how common they are in the relevant field.

Data in the preprint archive is updated daily from the arXiv, the main repository of physics and astronomy preprints. The advent of preprint servers has, like ADS, a significant impact on the rate of astronomical research, as papers are often made available from preprint servers weeks or months before they are published in the journals. The incorporation of preprints from the arXiv into ADS means that the search engine can return the most current research available, with the caveat that preprints may not have been peer-reviewed or proofread to the required standard for publication in the main journals. ADS's database links preprints with subsequently published articles wherever possible, so that citation and reference searches will return links to the journal article where the preprint was cited.

Software and hardware
The software runs on a system that was written specifically for it, allowing for extensive customization for astronomical needs that would not have been possible with general purpose database software. The scripts are designed to be as platform independent as possible, given the need to facilitate mirroring on different systems around the world, although the growing use of Linux as the operating system of choice within astronomy has led to increasing optimization of the scripts for installation on that platform.

The main ADS server is located at the Center for Astrophysics | Harvard & Smithsonian in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and is a dual 64-bit X86 Intel server with two quad-core 3.0 GHz CPUs and 32 GB of RAM, running the CentOS 5.4 Linux distribution. Mirrors are located in Brazil, China, Chile, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Japan, Russia, South Korea, United Kingdom, and Ukraine.

Indexing
ADS currently (2005) receives abstracts or tables of contents from almost two hundred journal sources. The service may receive data referring to the same article from multiple sources, and creates one bibliographic reference based on the most accurate data from each source. The common use of TeX and LaTeX by almost all scientific journals greatly facilitates the incorporation of bibliographic data into the system in a standardized format, and importing HTML-coded web-based articles is also simple. ADS utilizes Python and Perl scripts for importing, processing and standardizing bibliographic data.

The apparently mundane task of converting author names into a standard Surname, Initial format is actually one of the more difficult to automate, due to the wide variety of naming conventions around the world and the possibility that a given name such as Davis could be a first name, middle name or surname. The accurate conversion of names requires a detailed knowledge of the names of authors active in astronomy, and ADS maintains an extensive database of author names, which is also used in searching the database (see below).

For electronic articles, a list of the references given at the end of the article is easily extracted. For scanned articles, reference extraction relies on OCR. The reference database can then be "inverted" to list the citations for each paper in the database. Citation lists have been used in the past to identify popular articles missing from the database; mostly these were from before 1975 and have now been added to the system.

Coverage
The database now contains over fifteen million articles. In the cases of the major journals of astronomy (Astrophysical Journal, Astronomical Journal, Astronomy and Astrophysics, Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific and the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society), coverage is complete, with all issues indexed from number 1 to the present. These journals account for about two-thirds of the papers in the database, with the rest consisting of papers published in over 100 other journals from around the world, as well as in conference proceedings.

While the database contains the complete contents of all the major journals and many minor ones as well, its coverage of references and citations is much less complete. References in and citations of articles in the major journals are fairly complete, but references such as "private communication", "in press" or "in preparation" cannot be matched, and author errors in reference listings also introduce potential errors. Astronomical papers may cite and be cited by articles in journals which fall outside the scope of ADS, such as chemistry, mathematics or biology journals.

Search engine
Since its inception, the ADS has developed a highly complex search engine to query the abstract and object databases. The search engine is tailor-made for searching astronomical abstracts, and the engine and its user interface assume that the user is well-versed in astronomy and able to interpret search results which are designed to return more than just the most relevant papers. The database can be queried for author names, astronomical object names, title words, and words in the abstract text, and results can be filtered according to a number of criteria. It works by first gathering synonyms and simplifying search terms as described above, and then generating an "inverted file", which is a list of all the documents matching each search term. The user-selected logic and filters are then applied to this inverted list to generate the final search results.

Author name queries
The system indexes author names by surname and initials, and accounts for the possible variations in spelling of names using a list of variations. This is common in the case of names including accents such as umlauts and transliterations from Arabic or Cyrillic script. An example of an entry in the author synonym list is:

 * AFANASJEV, V
 * AFANAS’EV, V
 * AFANAS’IEV, V
 * AFANASEV, V
 * AFANASYEV, V
 * AFANS’IEV, V
 * AFANSEV, V

Object name searches
The capability to search for papers on specific astronomical objects is one of ADS's most powerful tools. The system uses data from the SIMBAD, the NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database, the International Astronomical Union Circulars and the Lunar and Planetary Institute to identify papers referring to a given object, and can also search by object position, listing papers which concern objects within a 10 arcminute radius of a given Right Ascension and Declination. These databases combine the many catalogue designations an object might have, so that a search for the Pleiades will also find papers which list the famous open cluster in Taurus under any of its other catalog designations or popular names, such as M45, the Seven Sisters or Melotte 22.

Title and abstract searches
The search engine first filters search terms in several ways. An M followed by a space or hyphen has the space or hyphen removed, so that searching for Messier catalogue objects is simplified and a user input of M45, M 45 or M-45 all result in the same query being executed; similarly, NGC designations and common search terms such as Shoemaker Levy and T Tauri are stripped of spaces. Unimportant words such as AT, OR and TO are stripped out, although in some cases case sensitivity is maintained, so that while and is ignored, And is converted to "Andromeda", and Her is converted to "Hercules", but her is ignored.

Synonym replacement
Once search terms have been preprocessed, the database is queried with the revised search term, as well as synonyms for it. As well as simple synonym replacement such as searching for both plural and singular forms, ADS also searches for a large number of specifically astronomical synonyms. For example, spectrograph and spectroscope have basically the same meaning, and in an astronomical context metallicity and abundance are also synonymous. ADS's synonym list was created manually, by grouping the list of words in the database according to similar meanings.

As well as English language synonyms, ADS also searches for English translations of foreign search terms and vice versa, so that a search for the French word soleil retrieves references to Sun, and papers in languages other than English can be returned by English search terms.

Synonym replacement can be disabled if required, so that a rare term which is a synonym of a much more common term (such as 'dateline' rather than 'date') can be searched for specifically.

Selection logic
The search engine allows selection logic both within fields and between fields. Search terms in each field can be combined with OR, AND, simple logic or Boolean logic, and the user can specify which fields must be matched in the search results. This allows complex searches to be built; for example, the user could search for papers concerning NGC 6543 OR NGC 7009, with the paper titles containing (radius OR velocity) AND NOT (abundance OR temperature).

Result filtering
Search results can be filtered according to a number of criteria, including specifying a range of years such as '1945 to 1975', '2000 to the present day' or 'before 1900', and what type of journal the article appears in [–] non-peer-reviewed articles such as conference proceedings. These can be excluded or specifically searched for, or specific journals can be included in or excluded from the search.

Search results
Although it was conceived as a means of accessing abstracts and papers, ADS provides a substantial amount of ancillary information along with search results. For each abstract returned, links are provided to other papers in the database which are referenced, and which cite the paper, and a link is provided to a preprint, where one exists. The system also generates a link to 'also-read' articles – that is, those which have been most commonly accessed by those reading the article. In this way, an ADS user can determine which papers are of most interest to astronomers who are interested in the subject of a given paper.

Also returned are links to the SIMBAD and/or NASA Extragalactic Database object name databases, via which a user can quickly find out basic observational data about the objects analyzed in a paper, and find further papers on those objects.

Impact on astronomy
ADS is almost universally used as a research tool among astronomers, and there are several studies that have estimated quantitatively how much more efficient ADS has made astronomy; one estimated that ADS increased the efficiency of astronomical research by 333 full-time equivalent research years per year, and another found that in 2002 its effect was equivalent to 736 full-time researchers, or all the astronomical research done in France. ADS has allowed literature searches that would previously have taken days or weeks to carry out to be completed in seconds, and it is estimated that ADS has increased the readership and use of the astronomical literature by a factor of about three since its inception.

In monetary terms, this increase in efficiency represents a considerable amount. There are about 12,000 active astronomical researchers worldwide, so ADS is the equivalent of about 5% of the working population of astronomers. The global astronomical research budget is estimated at between 4,000 and US$5,000 million, so the value of ADS to astronomy would be about 200–250 million USD annually. Its operating budget is a small fraction of this amount.

The great importance of ADS to astronomers has been recognized by the United Nations, the General Assembly of which has commended ADS on its work and success, particularly noting its importance to astronomers in the developing world, in reports of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. A 2002 report by a visiting committee to the Center for Astrophysics, meanwhile, said that the service had "revolutionized the use of the astronomical literature", and was "probably the most valuable single contribution to astronomy research that the CfA has made in its lifetime".

Sociological studies using ADS
Because it is used almost universally by astronomers, ADS can reveal much about how astronomical research is distributed around the world. Most users access the system from institutes of higher education, whose IP address can easily be used to determine the user's geographical location. Studies reveal that the highest per-capita users of ADS are France and Netherlands-based astronomers, and while more developed countries (measured by GDP per capita) use the system more than less developed countries; the relationship between GDP per capita and ADS use is not linear. The range of ADS usage per capita far exceeds the range of GDP per capita, and basic research carried out in a country, as measured by ADS usage, has been found to be proportional to the square of the country's GDP divided by its population. Statistics also imply that there are about three times as many astronomers in countries of European culture as in countries of Asian cultures, perhaps suggesting cultural differences in the importance attached to astronomical research. The amount of basic research carried out in a country is found to be proportional to the number of astronomers in that country multiplied by its GDP per capita, with considerable scatter.

ADS has also been used to show that the fraction of single-author astronomy papers has decreased substantially since 1975 and that astronomical papers with more than 50 authors have become more common since 1990.

title: Astrophysics Data System


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Sous-chef

A sous-chef is a chef who is second in command of a kitchen, ranking directly below the head chef. In large kitchens, sous-chefs generally manage members of the kitchen on behalf of the head chef, who is usually preoccupied with other tasks.

Duties and functions
The sous-chef has many responsibilities, because the executive chef has a more overarching role. Sous-chefs must plan and direct how the food is presented on the plate, keep their kitchen staff in order, train new chefs, create the work schedule, and make sure all the food that goes to customers is of the best quality to maintain high standards.

Sous-chefs are in charge of making sure all kitchen equipment is in working order. They must thoroughly understand how to use and troubleshoot all appliances and cooking instruments in the event of a malfunctioning cooking device. Sous-chefs are in charge of disciplining any kitchen staff who may have acted against restaurant policy. Incentive programs are commonly used among sous-chefs to encourage their staff to abide by rules and regulations, and motivate them to work efficiently at all times. Under the oversight of the sous-chef, downtime should be used for prepping, cleaning and other kitchen duties. They are responsible for inventory, product and supply rotation, and menu tasting. Sous-chefs need to be responsive and have the ability to improvise when a problem arises while the restaurant is busy. They must also ensure safety precautions and sanitary provisions are taken to ensure a safe and clean working environment.

Qualifications
Many sous-chefs get to their position via promotion, after training and experience in the culinary profession.

In Canada, one way to advance to the sous-chef position is by getting a specialized college diploma, acquiring the knowledge necessary to qualify to take the Red Seal for the Journeyman Cook exam. A year after completing the exam, it is possible to enroll in the Chef Program to take an exam with the Canadian Culinary Foundation. Then, after four to five years of working experience, one can apply to the Certified Chef de Cuisine program.

title: Sous-chef


text:
Plasma processing

Plasma processing is a plasma-based material processing technology that aims at modifying the chemical and physical properties of a surface.

Plasma processing techniques include:
 * Plasma activation
 * Plasma ashing
 * Plasma cleaning
 * Plasma electrolytic oxidation
 * Plasma etching
 * Plasma functionalization
 * Plasma polymerization
 * Corona treatment
 * Plasma modification

Related topics are plasma chemistry, chemical vapor deposition, and physical vapor deposition processes like sputter deposition, plasma iondoping, vacuum plasmaspraying, and reactive ion etching.

title: Plasma processing


text:
(444004) 2004 AS1

, provisional designation, and also known by the temporary name AL00667, is a sub-kilometer asteroid, classified as near-Earth object and potentially hazardous asteroid of the Apollo group, approximately 300 meters in diameter.

It was discovered on 13 January 2004, by astronomers of the LINEAR program at the Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico, in the United States.

Description
Based on the asteroids brightness and assumed proximity to Earth, the asteroid was originally estimated to be only 30 meters in diameter.

Orbit and classification
orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.88–1.26 AU once every 13 months (405 days; semi-major axis of 1.07 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.17 and an inclination of 17° with respect to the ecliptic. The body's observation arc begins with its official discovery observation at Socorro in January 2004.

Close approaches
Although rather ordinary, it caused some controversy in astronomical circles due to initial projections posted on the web by the Minor Planet Center (MPC) suggesting an imminent collision with Earth on or about January 15 with a likelihood of 1:4. These projections came from very early observations, and turned out to be inaccurate (which is an ordinary occurrence in astronomy, as new observations refine the projected path of an object). In fact, the poster at the MPC had not realised that the data he had posted was essentially an impact prediction.

The asteroid passed Earth on 16 February 2004 at a distance of 0.08539 AU (or 33 times the distance from Earth to the Moon), posing no threat. It is an Apollo asteroid, with perihelion at 0.88 AU, a rather low eccentricity of 0.17, an inclination of 17° and an orbital period of 1.11 years.

Diameter and albedo
Based on a generic magnitude-to-diameter conversion, measures between 240 and 480 meters in diameter, for a measured absolute magnitude of 20.5, and an assumed albedo of 0.20 and 0.05, which corresponds to a body with a stony and carbonaceous composition, respectively.

title: (444004) 2004 AS1


text:
Talk:Four Treasures of the Tuatha Dé Danann

[Untitled]
Very like the four suits of the Minor Arcana (duck and cover) Wetman 15:20, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

i've altered them to remove that speculative connection. i'm still unhappy with the terminology "master(s) of wisdom". Whateley23 00:05, 22 July 2005 (UTC)

and now i have removed that offending terminology, replaced with one of the terms from the actual texts. i've also removed the idea that these Druids/Filidhs entrusted the treasures to anyone, as that idea does not come from any actual text. Whateley23 06:32, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

I think the idea was that they supervised the use of these items. --Auric 17:36, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

Wrong association?
The article gives the following association between treasures and cities:

 * From Falias was brought the Stone of Fal
 * From Gorias was brought the Spear of Destiny (Spear Luin)
 * From Findias was brought the sword of Nuada (Claíomh Solais)
 * From Murias was brought The Dagda’s Cauldron, the Coire Anseasc ("Undry Cauldron").

However, The History Of Ireland gives a different association:

 * Four gifts with them (brought) from afar,
 * By the nobles of the Tuatha Dé Danann:—
 * A sword, a stone, a shapely cadron,
 * A spear for facing tall champions.
 * Lia Fáil from Fálias hither,
 * Which used to roar under the king of Ireland;
 * The sword of the hand of Lúgh the active,
 * From Gorias-choicest of great store.
 * From Finias far over the sea,
 * Was brought the spear of Lúgh who was not weak;
 * From Murias—great prodigious gift—
 * The caldron of the Daghdha of Iofty deeds.

In other words, the sword and spear are exchanged. As the article is currently unsourced, I will amend it next week unless someone finds a reliable source supporting the article's current associations. --Safalra 19:34, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

Harry Potter Reference
No such confirmation has been made, this is wild speculation on the part of fans. Remove the reference or reword to show the speculative nature of the comment (I can't as I'm having trouble logging in) —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 84.203.55.109 (talk) 21:55, 22 December 2006 (UTC).

"Said to hold Ireland above the waves."
Both this page and the Lia Fáil page make this claim, but I can't find any other source that corroborates. It does not appear, that I have found, in the only given source. Is this a recent addition to the stone's repertoire? One-dimensional Tangent (Talk) 02:22, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

 * agreed. i've removed it. if someone has a source for it, they can put it back in (but i doubt that such a source exists). Whateley23 09:51, 23 February 2007 (UTC)

new page for Claidheamh Soluis
I noticed that the Claíomh Solais made a REDIRECT to this Four Jewels page. But Claíomh Solais should not automatically be equated with Nuada's sword. So I remove the redirect and wrote up a page of its own. Kiyoweap (talk) 04:31, 27 January 2012 (UTC)

 * I just deleted an IP user edit that equated Nuada's Sword to Claíomh Solais ("Sword of Light"). Nuada's sword is not called that in the Four Jewels texts, and you can't just equate them.

 * The entry for "Claidheamh Soluis, Claíomh Solais" in Mackillop's Dictionary states that it is "A symbol of Ireland attributed, in oral tradition, to Cúchulainn.. It goes on to give a brief precis of a folktale involving a giant, and that it was a symbol by the group declared republic in the 1916 Easter Rising, including Patrick Pearse who was of course chief editor of the An Claidheamh Soluis journal.
 * MacKillop under this entry does not mention at all that it should be regarded as equivalent to Nuada's sword, so there is no reason to believe such equivalence is commonly accepted interpretation of mythographers.

 * The equivalence occurs in context rather outside mythology/folklore, viz.:

 * Novels by Jim Fitzpatrick (artist): Book of Conquests (1978), The Silver Arm (1981), Érinsaga (1985).
 * Japanese reference book Kokū no kamigami 虚空の神々 (series: Truth In Fantasy 6), ISBN 4915146243, which lists Fitzpatrick's novels in its sources.
 * Allegedly, Eoin MacNeill, co-founding editor of An Claidheamh Soluis, claimed this equivalence in some non-specifically cited piece of writing, according to private communication from an undisclosed Irish scholar to Mr. Unka (雲霞), at this talkpage.
 * James Joyce in Finnegans Wake (1939) introduces the characters "Clive Sollis" "Galorious Kettle", etc. based on the Four Jewels, pointed out by user Unka above.--Kiyoweap (talk) 00:43, 20 August 2023 (UTC)


text: User talk:204.38.47.177

title: User talk:204.38.47.177


text:
LANL Research Library

The LANL Research Library is a research library at Los Alamos National Laboratory. It contains a substantial collection of books, journals, databases, patents along with technical reports. Additionally it offers literature searching, training, and outreach services. The library has a research and development (R&D) component, which works in areas such as open archives, recommendation systems (including visualization), emergency response information systems, and discovery systems. Its stated mission is to deliver effective and responsive knowledge services, thereby connecting people with information, technology, and resources. Its stated purpose (vision) is essential knowledge services for national security sciences.

Collections
The library houses some 150,000 volumes and 1.5 million unclassified reports on a wide variety of technical subjects pertaining to science, mathematics, and engineering.

There is also an associated online collection of physical science journals, and over 30 terabytes of data is stored locally. There is an abstract server with abstracts for papers submitted to peer reviewed journals prior to their acceptance and publication.

The LANL Research library has, in its collections, 10,000 journals with 150,000 bound journal volumes, and an additional 8,500 electronic journals. Its book collection contains 100,000 print titles, 150,000 print volumes, and an additional 30,000 electronic book titles. The library lists 35 subscription abstracting and index databases, along with an additional 100 open-access databases. Its locally loaded database contains more than 93 million records. 1,327 LANL patents are also listed, in PDF format.

Subject coverage of the electronic journals collection encompasses Agriculture, Astronomy & Astrophysics, Bioinformatics, Genetics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Defense/Military, Earth Sciences, Engineering, Environment, Government and Legal, Health and Safety, Humanities, Information and Library Science, International Affairs, Materials Science, Mathematics, Medicine, Nanotechnology, Physics, and Social Sciences.

The National Security Research Center (NSRC) contains additional documents, resources, and services specifically related to the Manhattan Project.

Public access
General public access is available. General access is permitted for the library's book and journal collections, the electronic databases, and the electronic books and journal articles that are available to the Lab. However, other restrictions apply.

title: LANL Research Library


text: Talk:Phytochemical

title: Talk:Phytochemical


text:
List of Guatemalans

A list of notable Guatemalans.

A

 * Abularach, Rodolfo, painter
 * Álvarez, José Luis (1917–2012), painter
 * Jackie Amezquita (born 1985), performance artist
 * Andrade, Sergio, musician (bassist founder of Lifehouse)
 * Acuña, Angelina writer of prose and poetry
 * Argueta, Luis, film director
 * Arbenz Vilanova, Arabella, actress, model, socialite
 * Arbenz, Jacobo (1913–1971), military officer, former president
 * Manuel José Leonardo Arce Leal (1935-1985), poet and dramatist
 * Arenales Catalán, Emilio (1922–1969), diplomat. Foreign minister of Guatemala from 1966 to 1969 and the president of the United Nations Twenty-Third General Assembly from 1968 to 1969.
 * Arévalo, Juan José, first democratically elected president
 * Arjona, Ricardo, international singer
 * Asturias, Miguel Ángel, writer, winner of the Nobel Prize in literature (1967)
 * Asturias, Rodrigo, guerrilla leader of ORPA, a.k.a. Comandante Gaspar Ilom, son of writer Miguel Ángel Asturias
 * Ayala Acevedo, Allan, track athlete, national record holder in 400, 400 hurdles, and 1600 relay
 * Aycinena y Piñol, Juan José, ecclesiastical and intellectual conservative in Central America

B

 * Barrios, Justo Rufino, General, leader of the Liberal movement, dictator
 * Barrondo, Erick, Olympic Silver medalist racewalker
 * Batres Montúfar, José, writer
 * Berganza, Eddie, writer, Executive Editor of DC Comics
 * Bressani Castignoli, Ricardo, nutrition expert and biochemist
 * Bosch Gutierrez, Felipe A., businessman
 * Bosch Gutierrez, Juan Luis, businessman

C

 * Cardoza y Aragón, Luis, writer, essayist, poet, art critic, and diplomat
 * Carnage, DJ and music producer
 * Carrera, Rafael, general, conservative politician, and President of Guatemala
 * Castillo Armas, Carlos, colonel, politician
 * Rafael Castillo Valdez, politician and diplomat
 * Castillo, Otto René, poet, guerrilla member of FAR
 * Chacón González, Lázaro Army General, former President
 * Chinchilla Recinos, María (1909–1944), schoolteacher
 * Cordón, Kevin, national badminton player
 * Coroy, María Mercedes, Mayan actress
 * Cumez, Paula Nicho, artist
 * Rosa Elena Curruchich (1958-2005), painter
 * Curruchich, Sara, singer-songwriter
 * del Águila, Cynthia (born 1959), Minister of Education 2012–2015

E

 * Estrada Cabrera, Manuel, lawyer. Secretary of Foreign during Jose Maria Reina Barrios government. President of Guatemala from 1898 to 1920.
 * Espada, Rafael, Vice President of Guatemala and former cardio-thoracic surgeon

F

 * Flaquer Azurdia, Irma, journalist
 * Flores, Mateo, athlete
 * Alejandra Flores, soprano

G

 * Franz Galich (1951–2007), writer
 * Galeotti Torres, Rodolfo, sculptor
 * García Granados y Saborío, María (1860–1878), socialite
 * García Granandos y Zavala, María Josefa (1796–1848), intellectual, writer, journalist and poet
 * García Laguardia, Jorge Mario, jurist, magistrate of the Constitutional Court, and Ombudsman for Human Rights
 * Gerardi Conedera, Juan José, Roman Catholic bishop
 * Goldman, Francisco, writer
 * Gomez Carrillo, Enrique (1873–1927), writer
 * González Palma, Luis, photographer
 * Gutierrez, Juan José, businessman
 * Dionisio Gutierrez Mayorga, businessman

H

 * Hendricks, Ted, retired American Football linebacker

I

 * Isaac, Oscar, Guatemalan-American actor

J

 * Jensen, Alfred Julio, artist

L

 * La Rue, Frank William, human rights activist
 * Lehnhoff, Dieter, composer, conductor, musicologist
 * Lopez, Ed, Guatemalan-American politician
 * Lopez, Antonio, Guatemalan-Mexican soccer player
 * Lubitch Domecq, Alcina, writer
 * Lucas García, Fernando Romeo, general, former President

M

 * Mack, Myrna, anthropologist
 * Marroquin, Manny, Grammy Award-winning mixer/engineer
 * Martinez, Benito, American actor of Guatemalan descent
 * Menchú, Rigoberta, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize (1992), indigenous woman, activist, author
 * Menkos, Jonathan, politician, economist and writer
 * Mérida, Carlos, painter
 * Mendez, Francisco, (1907–1962) writer
 * Milla y Vidaurre, José (Salome Jil) (1822–1882), writer
 * Monteforte Toledo, Mario, writer
 * Monterroso, Augusto, writer, winner of the Prince of Asturias Award of literature (2000)
 * Monterroso, Sandra, visual artist and designer
 * Montúfar y Rivera, Lorenzo (1823–1898), politician and lawyer.
 * Morales, Jimmy, President of Guatemala
 * Moreno, Gaby, singer and songwriter
 * Mulet, Edmond, diplomat
 * Óscar Murúa, artist

P

 * Palencia, Karl M., Record Producer (Pina Records), aka Myztiko
 * Palma, Gustavo Adolfo (1920–2010), singer, lyric tenor
 * Paniagua España, Carlos Eduardo (1915-1988), diplomat
 * Pappa, Marco, Guatemalan national team and Seattle Sounders FC footballer
 * Peña Aldana, Carlos Enrique, winner of Latin American Idol 2nd season
 * Pezzarossi, Dwight, retired Guatemalan National Team and CSD Comunicaciones footballer
 * Plata, Juan Carlos, retired Guatemalan National Team and CSD Municipal footballer

Q

 * Quevedo, Fernando, Professor of theoretical physics, Cambridge, England
 * Quezada Toruño, Rodolfo, Cardinal, Archbishop of Guatemala City

R

 * Ramírez, Guillermo, retired Guatemalan national team footballer
 * Ramirez de León, Arnoldo, guerrilla leader of EGP a.k.a. Comandante Rolando Morán
 * Raudales, Henry, violinist
 * Recinos, Adrián, lawyer, historian, Mayanist scholar, essayist, and diplomat
 * Recinos, Efraín, engineer, architect, painter, sculptor, muralist, scenographer, inventor
 * Robles, Rodolfo, physician, discovered onchocercosis (Robles disease)
 * Rodriguez Macal, Virgilio, writer
 * Ríos Montt, Efraín, general, dictator, stands accused of genocide
 * Rodríguez Beteta, Virgilio (1885–1967), lawyer, historian, diplomat and writer
 * Rosenthal, Gert, economist and diplomat
 * Ruiz, Carlos, Guatemalan national team and CSD Municipal footballer

S

 * Sandarti, Héctor, television personality
 * Sandoval, Kevin, soccer player, 1988 Summer Olympics
 * Saravia, Rodrigo, Guatemala national team footballer
 * Shery, singer, songwriter and producer
 * Soluna Samay, singer, songwriter

T

 * Tecún Umán, sixteenth century leader of the K'iche' Maya people
 * Tobar, Hector, writer/journalist
 * Turcios Lima, Luis Augusto, Guatemalan army officer, guerrilla leader (FAR)

U

 * Ubico, Jorge, military dictator
 * Unger, David, author
 * Urruela Federico, diplomat

V

 * Villatoro, Anton, professional cyclist
 * Villatoro, Alan, International Christian singer, music producer
 * Viñals, Jaime, mountaineer (scaled seven highest peaks in the world)
 * von Ahn, Luis, computer scientist, creator of CAPTCHA technology, professor of Carnegie Mellon University
 * [Luis H. Velasquez], (30 December 1919 – 9 February 1997) was a Guatemalan long-distance runner who competed in the 1952 Summer Olympics. He was third in the 1951 Pan American Games marathon and third in the 1955 Pan American Games marathon.

W

 * Wurmser, Juan Mauricio, advertising firm founder, president and CEO
 * Whitbeck, Harris, CNN's International Correspondent based in Mexico City

Y

 * Yela Günther, Rafael, sculptor
 * Yon Sosa, Marco Antonio, Guatemalan army officer, guerrilla leader MR-NOV13

Z

 * Zamora, José Rubén, journalist
 * Zuniga, Daphne, Guatemalan-American actress

title: List of Guatemalans


text:
4G

4G is the fourth generation of broadband cellular network technology, succeeding 3G and preceding 5G. A 4G system must provide capabilities defined by ITU in IMT Advanced. Potential and current applications include amended mobile web access, IP telephony, gaming services, high-definition mobile TV, video conferencing, and 3D television.

However, in December 2010, the ITU expanded its definition of 4G to include Long Term Evolution (LTE), Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX), and Evolved High Speed Packet Access (HSPA+).

The first-release WiMAX standard was commercially deployed in South Korea in 2006 and has since been deployed in most parts of the world.

The first-release LTE standard was commercially deployed in Oslo, Norway, and Stockholm, Sweden in 2009, and has since been deployed throughout most parts of the world. However, it has been debated whether the first-release versions should be considered 4G. The 4G wireless cellular standard was defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and specifies the key characteristics of the standard, including transmission technology and data speeds.

Each generation of wireless cellular technology has introduced increased bandwidth speeds and network capacity. 4G has speeds of up to 150 Mbit/s download and 50 Mbit/s upload, whereas 3G had a peak speed of 7.2 Mbit/s download and 2 Mbit/s upload.

4G technology accounted for 60 percent of all mobile connections worldwide.

Key Features and Advancements

 * Speed: 4G networks offer faster data download and upload speeds compared to 3G. Theoretically, 4G can achieve speeds of up to 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s) for high mobility communication and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for stationary users.
 * Latency: Reduced latency, resulting in more responsive user experiences.
 * Capacity: Enhanced network capacity allowing more simultaneous connections.
 * Advanced Antenna Techniques: Use of MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) and beamforming for better signal quality and improved spectral efficiency.

Technical overview
In November 2008, the International Telecommunication Union-Radio communications sector (ITU-R) specified a set of requirements for 4G standards, named the International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced) specification, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 megabits per second (Mbit/s)(=12.5 megabytes per second) for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 gigabit per second (Gbit/s) for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).

Since the first-release versions of Mobile WiMAX and LTE support much less than 1 Gbit/s peak bit rate, they are not fully IMT-Advanced compliant, but are often branded 4G by service providers. According to operators, a generation of the network refers to the deployment of a new non-backward-compatible technology. On December 6, 2010, ITU-R recognized that these two technologies, as well as other beyond-3G technologies that do not fulfill the IMT-Advanced requirements, could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced compliant versions and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed".

Mobile WiMAX Release 2 (also known as WirelessMAN-Advanced or IEEE 802.16m) and LTE Advanced (LTE-A) are IMT-Advanced compliant backwards compatible versions of the above two systems, standardized during the spring 2011, and promising speeds in the order of 1 Gbit/s. Services were expected in 2013.

As opposed to earlier generations, a 4G system does not support traditional circuit-switched telephony service, but instead relies on all-Internet Protocol (IP) based communication such as IP telephony. As seen below, the spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems is abandoned in all 4G candidate systems and replaced by OFDMA multi-carrier transmission and other frequency-domain equalization (FDE) schemes, making it possible to transfer very high bit rates despite extensive multi-path radio propagation (echoes). The peak bit rate is further improved by smart antenna arrays for multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) communications.

Background
In the field of mobile communications, a "generation" generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards-compatible transmission technology, higher peak bit rates, new frequency bands, wider channel frequency bandwidth in Hertz, and higher capacity for many simultaneous data transfers (higher system spectral efficiency in bit/second/Hertz/site).

New mobile generations have appeared about every ten years since the first move from 1981 analog (1G) to digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in 2001, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and a minimum peak bit rate of 200 kbit/s, in 2011/2012 to be followed by "real" 4G, which refers to all-IP packet-switched networks giving mobile ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access.

While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on the work of other standard bodies such as IEEE, WiMAX Forum, and 3GPP.

In the mid-1990s, the ITU-R standardization organization released the IMT-2000 requirements as a framework for what standards should be considered 3G systems, requiring 2000 kbit/s peak bit rate. In 2008, ITU-R specified the IMT Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G systems.

The fastest 3G-based standard in the UMTS family is the HSPA+ standard, which has been commercially available since 2009 and offers 21 Mbit/s downstream (11 Mbit/s upstream) without MIMO, i.e. with only one antenna, and in 2011 accelerated up to 42 Mbit/s peak bit rate downstream using either DC-HSPA+ (simultaneous use of two 5 MHz UMTS carriers) or 2x2 MIMO. In theory speeds up to 672 Mbit/s are possible, but have not been deployed yet. The fastest 3G-based standard in the CDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which is available since 2010 and offers 15.67 Mbit/s downstream.

Frequencies for 4G LTE networks
See here: LTE frequency bands

IMT-Advanced requirements
This article refers to 4G using IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements:
 * Be based on an all-IP packet switched network.
 * Have peak data rates of up to approximately 100Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access.
 * Be able to dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell.
 * Use scalable channel bandwidths of 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz.
 * Have peak link spectral efficiency of 15bit/s·Hz in the downlink, and 6.75bit/s·Hz in the up link (meaning that 1Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).
 * System spectral efficiency is, in indoor cases, 3bit/s·Hz·cell for downlink and 2.25bit/s·Hz·cell for up link.
 * Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks.

In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates. Basically all proposals are based on two technologies:

 * LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP
 * 802.16m standardized by the IEEE

Implementations of Mobile WiMAX and first-release LTE were largely considered a stopgap solution that would offer a considerable boost until WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m specification) and LTE Advanced was deployed. The latter's standard versions were ratified in spring 2011.

The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008. LTE Advanced was standardized in 2010 as part of Release 10 of the 3GPP specification.

Some sources consider first-release LTE and Mobile WiMAX implementations as pre-4G or near-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100Mbit/s for mobile.

Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which according to some sources are pre-4G versions, commonly referred to as 3.9G, which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards, but today can be called 4G according to ITU-R. Vodafone Netherlands for example, advertised LTE as 4G, while advertising LTE Advanced as their '4G+' service. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands from 3G technologies; that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are forwards compatible with IMT-2000 compliant versions of the same standards.

IMT-2000 compliant 4G standards
As of October 2010, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced) for inclusion in the ITU's International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced program (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that will be available several years from now.

LTE Advanced
LTE Advanced (Long Term Evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2013. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology, but rather an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost effective for vendors to offer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrums and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced data speeds.

IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced (WiMAX 2) evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception.

Long Term Evolution (LTE)

The pre-4G 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology is often branded "4G – LTE", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used — and more if multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.

The physical radio interface was at an early stage named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA). The first LTE USB dongles do not support any other radio interface.

The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals, Stockholm (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on December 14, 2009, and branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by Samsung. As of November 2012, the five publicly available LTE services in the United States are provided by MetroPCS, Verizon Wireless, AT&T Mobility, U.S. Cellular, Sprint, and T-Mobile US.

T-Mobile Hungary launched a public beta test (called friendly user test) on 7 October 2011, and has offered commercial 4G LTE services since 1 January 2012.

In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices, slated to go nationwide by 2012. KT Telecom closed its 2G service by March 2012 and completed nationwide LTE service in the same frequency around 1.8 GHz by June 2012.

In the United Kingdom, LTE services were launched by EE in October 2012, by O2 and Vodafone in August 2013, and by Three in December 2013.

Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e)
The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 128 Mbit/s downlink and 56 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels.

In June 2006, the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.

Sprint has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of 29 September 2008, branding it as a "4G" network even though the current version does not fulfill the IMT Advanced requirements on 4G systems.

In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access were offered by a Russian company Scartel, and was also branded 4G, Yota.

In the latest version of the standard, WiMax 2.1, the standard has been updated to be not compatible with earlier WiMax standard, and is instead interchangeable with LTE-TDD system, effectively merging WiMax standard with LTE.

TD-LTE for China market
Just as Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and WiMAX are being vigorously promoted in the global telecommunications industry, the former (LTE) is also the most powerful 4G mobile communications leading technology and has quickly occupied the Chinese market. TD-LTE, one of the two variants of the LTE air interface technologies, is not yet mature, but many domestic and international wireless carriers are, one after the other turning to TD-LTE.

IBM's data shows that 67% of the operators are considering LTE because this is the main source of their future market. The above news also confirms IBM's statement that while only 8% of the operators are considering the use of WiMAX, WiMAX can provide the fastest network transmission to its customers on the market and could challenge LTE.

TD-LTE is not the first 4G wireless mobile broadband network data standard, but it is China's 4G standard that was amended and published by China's largest telecom operator – China Mobile. After a series of field trials, is expected to be released into the commercial phase in the next two years. Ulf Ewaldsson, Ericsson's vice president said: "the Chinese Ministry of Industry and China Mobile in the fourth quarter of this year will hold a large-scale field test, by then, Ericsson will help the hand." But viewing from the current development trend, whether this standard advocated by China Mobile will be widely recognized by the international market is still debatable.

UMB (formerly EV-DO Rev. C)
UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it was ending development of the technology, favoring LTE instead. The objective was to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.

Flash-OFDM
At an early stage the Flash-OFDM system was expected to be further developed into a 4G standard.

iBurst and MBWA (IEEE 802.20) systems
The iBurst system (or HC-SDMA, High Capacity Spatial Division Multiple Access) was at an early stage considered to be a 4G predecessor. It was later further developed into the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) system, also known as IEEE 802.20.

Key features
The following key features can be observed in all suggested 4G technologies:
 * Physical layer transmission techniques are as follows:
 * MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral efficiency by means of spatial processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO
 * Frequency-domain-equalization, for example multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) in the downlink or single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink: To exploit the frequency selective channel property without complex equalization
 * Frequency-domain statistical multiplexing, for example (OFDMA) or (single-carrier FDMA) (SC-FDMA, a.k.a. linearly precoded OFDMA, LP-OFDMA) in the uplink: Variable bit rate by assigning different sub-channels to different users based on the channel conditions.
 * Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To minimize the required SNR at the reception side
 * Channel-dependent scheduling: To use the time-varying channel
 * Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and error-correcting codes
 * Mobile IP utilized for mobility
 * IP-based femtocells (home nodes connected to fixed Internet broadband infrastructure)

As opposed to earlier generations, 4G systems do not support circuit switched telephony. IEEE 802.20, UMB and OFDM standards lack soft-handover support, also known as cooperative relaying.

Multiplexing and access schemes
Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved FDMA, and Multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for the next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithms and frequency domain equalization, resulting in a lower number of multiplications per second. They also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form the spectrum in a flexible way. However, they require advanced dynamic channel allocation and adaptive traffic scheduling.

WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the LTE (telecommunication), OFDMA is used for the downlink; by contrast, Single-carrier FDMA is used for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of amplifiers. IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and thus requires energy-inefficient linear amplifiers. Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20 standard. These access schemes offer the same efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this, scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.

The other important advantage of the above-mentioned access techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver. This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO environments since the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently require high complexity equalization at the receiver.

In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems, improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such as 64QAM are being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution standards.

IPv6 support
Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes, 4G is based on packet switching only. This requires low-latency data transmission.

As IPv4 addresses are (nearly) exhausted, IPv6 is essential to support the large number of wireless-enabled devices that communicate using IP. By increasing the number of IP addresses available, IPv6 removes the need for network address translation (NAT), a method of sharing a limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices, which has a number of problems and limitations. When using IPv6, some kind of NAT is still required for communication with legacy IPv4 devices that are not also IPv6-connected.

, Verizon has posted specifications that require any 4G devices on its network to support IPv6.

Advanced antenna systems
The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this, the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.

Open-wireless Architecture and Software-defined radio (SDR)
One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called Open Wireless Architecture (OWA), supporting multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.

SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology, which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.

History of 4G and pre-4G technologies
The 4G system was originally envisioned by the DARPA, the US Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency. DARPA selected the distributed architecture and end-to-end Internet protocol (IP), and believed at an early stage in peer-to-peer networking in which every mobile device would be both a transceiver and a router for other devices in the network, eliminating the spoke-and-hub weakness of 2G and 3G cellular systems. Since the 2.5G GPRS system, cellular systems have provided dual infrastructures: packet switched nodes for data services, and circuit switched nodes for voice calls. In 4G systems, the circuit-switched infrastructure is abandoned and only a packet-switched network is provided, while 2.5G and 3G systems require both packet-switched and circuit-switched network nodes, i.e. two infrastructures in parallel. This means that in 4G traditional voice calls are replaced by IP telephony.

 * In 2002, the strategic vision for 4G—which ITU designated as IMT Advanced—was laid out.
 * In 2004, LTE was first proposed by NTT DoCoMo of Japan.
 * In 2005, OFDMA transmission technology is chosen as candidate for the HSOPA downlink, later renamed 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) air interface E-UTRA.
 * In November 2005, KT Corporation demonstrated mobile WiMAX service in Busan, South Korea.
 * In April 2006, KT Corporation started the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service in Seoul, South Korea.
 * In mid-2006, Sprint announced that it would invest about US$5 billion in a WiMAX technology buildout over the next few years ($ in real terms). Since that time Sprint has faced many setbacks that have resulted in steep quarterly losses. On 7 May 2008, Sprint, Imagine, Google, Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of spectrum; Sprint merged its Xohm WiMAX division with Clearwire to form a company which will take the name "Clear".
 * In February 2007, the Japanese company NTT DoCoMo tested a 4G communication system prototype with 4×4 MIMO called VSF-OFCDM at 100 Mbit/s while moving, and 1 Gbit/s while stationary. NTT DoCoMo completed a trial in which they reached a maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink with 12×12 MIMO using a 100 MHz frequency bandwidth while moving at 10 km/h, and is planning on releasing the first commercial network in 2010.
 * In September 2007, NTT Docomo demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 200 Mbit/s with power consumption below 100 mW during the test.
 * In January 2008, a U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) spectrum auction for the 700 MHz former analog TV frequencies began. As a result, the biggest share of the spectrum went to Verizon Wireless and the next biggest to AT&T. Both of these companies have stated their intention of supporting LTE.
 * In January 2008, EU commissioner Viviane Reding suggested re-allocation of 500–800 MHz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX.
 * On 15 February 2008, Skyworks Solutions released a front-end module for e-UTRAN.
 * In November 2008, ITU-R established the detailed performance requirements of IMT-Advanced, by issuing a Circular Letter calling for candidate Radio Access Technologies (RATs) for IMT-Advanced.
 * In April 2008, just after receiving the circular letter, the 3GPP organized a workshop on IMT-Advanced where it was decided that LTE Advanced, an evolution of current LTE standard, will meet or even exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following the ITU-R agenda.
 * In April 2008, LG and Nortel demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 50 Mbit/s while travelling at 110 km/h.
 * On 12 November 2008, HTC announced the first WiMAX-enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G
 * On 15 December 2008, San Miguel Corporation, the largest food and beverage conglomerate in southeast Asia, has signed a memorandum of understanding with Qatar Telecom QSC (Qtel) to build wireless broadband and mobile communications projects in the Philippines. The joint-venture formed wi-tribe Philippines, which offers 4G in the country. Around the same time Globe Telecom rolled out the first WiMAX service in the Philippines.
 * On 3 March 2009, Lithuania's LRTC announcing the first operational "4G" mobile WiMAX network in Baltic states.
 * In December 2009, Sprint began advertising "4G" service in selected cities in the United States, despite average download speeds of only 3–6 Mbit/s with peak speeds of 10 Mbit/s (not available in all markets).
 * On 14 December 2009, the first commercial LTE deployment was in the Scandinavian capitals Stockholm and Oslo by the Swedish-Finnish network operator TeliaSonera and its Norwegian brandname NetCom (Norway). TeliaSonera branded the network "4G". The modem devices on offer were manufactured by Samsung (dongle GT-B3710), and the network infrastructure created by Huawei (in Oslo) and Ericsson (in Stockholm). TeliaSonera plans to roll out nationwide LTE across Sweden, Norway and Finland. TeliaSonera used spectral bandwidth of 10 MHz, and single-in-single-out, which should provide physical layer net bit rates of up to 50 Mbit/s downlink and 25 Mbit/s in the uplink. Introductory tests showed a TCP throughput of 42.8 Mbit/s downlink and 5.3 Mbit/s uplink in Stockholm.
 * On 4 June 2010, Sprint released the first WiMAX smartphone in the US, the HTC Evo 4G.
 * On November 4, 2010, the Samsung Craft offered by MetroPCS is the first commercially available LTE smartphone
 * On 6 December 2010, at the ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar 2010, the ITU stated that LTE, WiMAX and similar "evolved 3G technologies" could be considered "4G".
 * In 2011, Argentina's Claro launched a pre-4G HSPA+ network in the country.
 * In 2011, Thailand's Truemove-H launched a pre-4G HSPA+ network with nationwide availability.
 * On March 17, 2011, the HTC Thunderbolt offered by Verizon in the U.S. was the second LTE smartphone to be sold commercially.
 * In February 2012, Ericsson demonstrated mobile-TV over LTE, utilizing the new eMBMS service (enhanced Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service).

Since 2009, the LTE-Standard has strongly evolved over the years, resulting in many deployments by various operators across the globe. For an overview of commercial LTE networks and their respective historic development see: List of LTE networks. Among the vast range of deployments, many operators are considering the deployment and operation of LTE networks. A compilation of planned LTE deployments can be found at: List of planned LTE networks.

Disadvantages
4G introduces a potential inconvenience for those who travel internationally or wish to switch carriers. In order to make and receive 4G voice calls (VoLTE), the subscriber handset must not only have a matching frequency band (and in some cases require unlocking), it must also have the matching enablement settings for the local carrier and/or country. While a phone purchased from a given carrier can be expected to work with that carrier, making 4G voice calls on another carrier's network (including international roaming) may be impossible without a software update specific to the local carrier and the phone model in question, which may or may not be available (although fallback to 2G/3G for voice calling may still be possible if a 2G/3G network is available with a matching frequency band).

Beyond 4G research
A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access (BDMA).

Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical handoff, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also known as cognitive radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.

The future of 4G
As of 2023, many countries and regions have started the transition from 4G to 5G, the next generation of cellular technology. 5G promises even faster speeds, lower latency, and the ability to connect a vast number of devices simultaneously.

4G networks are expected to coexist with 5G networks for several years, providing coverage in areas where 5G is not available.

title: 4G


text:
Blood curse

The term "blood curse" refers to a New Testament passage from the Gospel of Matthew, which describes events taking place in Pilate's court before the crucifixion of Jesus, and specifically the willingness of the Jewish crowd to accept liability for Jesus' death.

Biblical narrative
reads: "So when Pilate saw that he was gaining nothing, but rather that a riot was beginning, he took water and washed his hands before the crowd, saying 'I am innocent of this man’s blood; see to it yourselves.' And all the people answered, 'His blood be on us and on our children!' (Τὸ αἷμα αὐτοῦ ἐφ’ ἡμᾶς καὶ ἐπὶ τὰ τέκνα ἡμῶν)"

Interpretation
This passage has no counterpart in the other Gospels and is probably related to the destruction of Jerusalem in the year 70 CE. German Protestant theologian Ulrich Luz (b. 1938) describes it as "redactional fiction" invented by the author of the Matthew Gospel. Some writers, viewing it as part of Matthew's anti-Jewish polemic, see in it the seeds of later Christian antisemitism. In the view of the late Graham Stanton, a British New Testament scholar in the Reformed tradition, "Matthew's anti-Jewish polemic should be seen as part of the self-definition of the Christian minority which is acutely aware of the rejection and hostility of its 'mother' Judaism." Howard Clark Kee has written, "The bitter words he [Matthew] attributes to the Jews have caused endless harm in arrousing anti-Jewish emotions." Donald A. Hagner, a Presbyterian New Testament scholar and theologian, has written, "It cannot be denied that this statement, unfortunately, has been used to promote anti-Semitism. The statement is formulaic, and the reference to 'our children' does not make them guilty of the death of Jesus, let alone children or Jews of later generations."

Anglican views
N. T. Wright, an Anglican New Testament scholar and theologian, has stated, "The tragic and horrible later use of Matthew 27.25 ('his blood be on us, and on our children') as an excuse for soi-disant 'Christian' anti-semitism is a gross distortion of its original meaning, where the reference is surely to the fall of Jerusalem."

Anglican theologian Rowan Williams, then Archbishop of Wales, and who would soon become Archbishop of Canterbury, has written of Matthew's Gospel being made "the tool of the most corrupt and murderous misreading of the passion stories that has disfigured the Church's record".

"The evangelist's bitterness at the schism within God's people that continues in his own day, his impatience with the refusal of the Jewish majority to accept the preaching of Jesus, overflows into this symbolic self-denunciation by 'the people'. It is all too likely that his first readers heard it as a corporate acknowledgement of guilt by the Jewish nation, and that they connected it, as do other New Testament writers, with the devastation of the nation and its sacred place in the terrible disasters of AD 70, when the Romans destroyed the Temple and along with it the last vestiges of independent power for the people. Read at this level, it can only make the contemporary Christian think of all the centuries in which Jewish guilt formed so significant a part of Christian self-understanding, and of the nightmare which was made possible by this in the twentieth century."

Catholic views
In the Roman Catechism which was produced by the Council of Trent in the mid-16th century, the Catholic Church taught the belief that the collectivity of sinful humanity was responsible for the death of Jesus, not only the Jews. In the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), the Catholic Church under Pope Paul VI issued the declaration Nostra aetate that repudiated the idea of a collective, multigenerational Jewish guilt for the crucifixion of Jesus. It declared that the accusation could not be made "against all the Jews, without distinction, then alive, nor against the Jews of today".

The late Franz Mussner, a German Catholic New Testament scholar and theologian, has stated, "No Christian can with a good conscience call upon Matt. 27:25 as a justification of his anti-Judaism. If the blood of Jesus comes upon the children of Israel, it comes upon them as a savior's blood."

Pope Benedict XVI in his 2011 book Jesus of Nazareth: Holy Week wrote:

"When in Matthew's account the 'whole people' say: 'His blood be upon us and on our children' (27:25), the Christian will remember that Jesus' blood speaks a different language from the blood of Abel : it does not cry out for vengeance and punishment; it brings reconciliation. It is not poured out against anyone; it is poured out for many, for all."

Chrysostom
St. John Chrysostom delivered a series of eight homilies to his Antioch congregation directed at members who continued to observe Jewish feasts and fasts. Critical of this, he cast Judaism and the synagogues in his city in a critical and negative light. His homilies were expressed in the conventional polemical form.

As quoted by St. Thomas Aquinas in his Catena Aurea (1263), Chrysostom said: "Observe here the infatuation of the Jews; their headlong haste, and destructive passions will not let them see what they ought to see, and they curse themselves, saying, 'His blood be upon us', and even entail the curse upon their children. Yet a merciful God did not ratify this sentence, but accepted such of them and of their children as repented; for Paul was of them, and many thousands of those who in Jerusalem believed."

title: Blood curse


text:
Language engineering

Language engineering involves the creation of natural language processing systems, whose cost and outputs are measurable and predictable. It is a distinct field contrasted to natural language processing and computational linguistics. A recent trend of language engineering is the use of Semantic Web technologies for the creation, archiving, processing, and retrieval of machine processable language data.

title: Language engineering