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Differential centrifugation

In biochemistry and cell biology, differential centrifugation (also known as differential velocity centrifugation) is a common procedure used to separate organelles and other sub-cellular particles based on their sedimentation rate. Although often applied in biological analysis, differential centrifugation is a general technique also suitable for crude purification of non-living suspended particles (e.g. nanoparticles, colloidal particles, viruses). In a typical case where differential centrifugation is used to analyze cell-biological phenomena (e.g. organelle distribution), a tissue sample is first lysed to break the cell membranes and release the organelles and cytosol. The lysate is then subjected to repeated centrifugations, where particles that sediment sufficiently quickly at a given centrifugal force for a given time form a compact "pellet" at the bottom of the centrifugation tube.

After each centrifugation, the supernatant (non-pelleted solution) is removed from the tube and re-centrifuged at an increased centrifugal force and/or time. Differential centrifugation is suitable for crude separations on the basis of sedimentation rate, but more fine grained purifications may be done on the basis of density through equilibrium density-gradient centrifugation. Thus, the differential centrifugation method is the successive pelleting of particles from the previous supernatant, using increasingly higher centrifugation forces. Cellular organelles separated by differential centrifugation maintain a relatively high degree of normal functioning, as long as they are not subject to denaturing conditions during isolation.

Theory
In a viscous fluid, the rate of sedimentation of a given suspended particle (as long as the particle is denser than the fluid) is largely a function of the following factors:
 * Gravitational force
 * Difference in density
 * Fluid viscosity
 * Particle size and shape

Larger particles sediment more quickly and at lower centrifugal forces. If a particle is less dense than the fluid (e.g., fats in water), the particle will not sediment, but rather will float, regardless of strength of the g-force experienced by the particle. Centrifugal force separates components not only on the basis of density, but also of particle size and shape. In contrast, a more specialized equilibrium density-gradient centrifugation produces a separation profile dependent on particle-density alone, and therefore is suitable for more fine-grained separations.

High g-force makes sedimentation of small particles much faster than Brownian diffusion, even for very small (nanoscale) particles. When a centrifuge is used, Stokes' law must be modified to account for the variation in g-force with distance from the center of rotation.

 * $$ D = \sqrt{ \frac{18 \eta \, \ln(R_f/R_i)}{( \rho_p - \rho_f) \omega^2 t} } $$

where
 * D is the minimum diameter of the particles expected to sediment (m)
 * η (or μ) is the fluid dynamic viscosity (Pa.s)
 * Rf is the final radius of rotation (m)
 * Ri is the initial radius of rotation (m)
 * ρp is particle volumetric mass density (kg/m3)
 * ρf is the fluid volumetric mass density (kg/m3)
 * ω is the angular velocity (radian/s)
 * t is the time required to sediment from Ri to Rf (s)

Procedure
Differential centrifugation can be used with intact particles (e.g. biological cells, microparticles, nanoparticles), or used to separate the component parts of a given particle. Using the example of a separation of eukaryotic organelles from intact cells, the cell must first be lysed and homogenized (ideally by a gentle technique, such as Dounce homogenization; harsher techniques or over homogenization will lead to a lower proportion of intact organelles). Once the crude organelle extract is obtained, it may be subjected to a varying centrifugation speeds to separate the organelles:

Ultracentrifugation
The lysed sample is now ready for centrifugation in an ultracentrifuge. An ultracentrifuge consists of a refrigerated, low-pressure chamber containing a rotor which is driven by an electrical motor capable of high speed rotation. Samples are placed in tubes within or attached to the rotor. Rotational speed may reach up to 100,000 rpm for floor model, 150,000 rpm for bench-top model (Beckman Optima Max-XP or Sorvall MTX150 or himac CS150NX), creating centrifugal speed forces of 800,000g to 1,000,000g. This force causes sedimentation of macromolecules, and can even cause non-uniform distributions of small molecules.

Since different fragments of a cell have different sizes and densities, each fragment will settle into a pellet with different minimum centrifugal forces. Thus, separation of the sample into different layers can be done by first centrifuging the original lysate under weak forces, removing the pellet, then exposing the subsequent supernatants to sequentially greater centrifugal fields. Each time a portion of different density is sedimented to the bottom of the container and extracted, and repeated application produces a rank of layers which includes different parts of the original sample. Additional steps can be taken to further refine each of the obtained pellets.

Sedimentation depends on mass, shape, and partial specific volume of a macromolecule, as well as solvent density, rotor size and rate of rotation. The sedimentation velocity can be monitored during the experiment to calculate molecular weight. Values of sedimentation coefficient (S) can be calculated. Large values of S (faster sedimentation rate) correspond to larger molecular weight. Dense particle sediments more rapidly. Elongated proteins have larger frictional coefficients, and sediment more slowly to ensure accuracy.

Differences between differential and density gradient centrifugation
The difference between differential and density gradient centrifugation techniques is that the latter method uses solutions of different densities (e.g. sucrose, Ficoll, Percoll) or gels through which the sample passes. This separates the sample into layers by relative density, based on the principle that molecules settle down under a centrifugal force until they reach a medium with the density the same as theirs. The degree of separation or number of layers depends on the solution or gel. Differential centrifugation, on the other hand, does not utilize a density gradient, and the centrifugation is taken in increasing speeds. The different centrifugation speeds often create separation into not more than two fractions, so the supernatant can be separated further in additional centrifugation steps. For that, each step the centrifugation speed has to be increased until the desired particles are separated. In contrast, the density gradient centrifugation is usually performed with just one centrifugation speed.

title: Differential centrifugation


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James F. Wilson

James Falconer "Jefferson Jim" Wilson (October 19, 1828 – April 22, 1895) was an American lawyer and politician. He served as a Republican U.S. Congressman from Iowa's 1st congressional district during the American Civil War, and later as a two-term U.S. Senator from Iowa. He was a pioneer in the advancement of federal protection for civil rights.

While in the United States House of Representatives, he had prominently opposed the 1867 effort to impeach President Andrew Johnson. However, he voted for the subsequent 1868 impeachment of Johnson, and served as a manager (prosecutor) in the Johnson's impeachment trial.

In the last half of the nineteenth century, two unrelated Iowans named James Wilson achieved high office, necessitating an early form of disambiguation. Representative and Senator James F. Wilson (of Jefferson County, Iowa) became known as "Jefferson Jim" Wilson, while Representative and Secretary of Agriculture James Wilson (of Tama County, Iowa) became known as "Tama Jim" Wilson.

Personal background
Wilson was born in Newark, Ohio. After his father died when James was eleven, James needed to work from an early age, and attended school when work permitted. After serving as a harnessmaker's apprentice, he studied law in Newark alongside future U.S. Supreme Court Justice William Burnham Woods. He was admitted to the bar in 1851 and practiced in Newark until 1853.

In 1853, he moved to Fairfield, Iowa, where he resumed the practice of law. Three years later in 1856 amidst the 1856 United States presidential election, Wilson ran for and was elected to serve as a delegate to the Convention for the Revision of the Constitution of Iowa. The following year he was elected to the Iowa House of Representatives, where he served in the Ways and Means Committee.

During his early career, Wilson's opposition towards slavery led him to join the Free Soil Party.

Wilson played an important role in the formation of the Iowa Republican Party, and antebellum Iowa government. In 1857, he was a delegate to Iowa's constitutional convention, and served as a Republican in the Iowa House of Representatives that year and in 1859, when he was elected to the Iowa Senate. He served on the Committee of the Judiciary, and later served as a delegate to the 1860 Republican National Convention which nominated Abraham Lincoln of Illinois and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine to head the party ticket for the presidential election.

U.S. House of Representatives
In 1860, Wilson and three others, including incumbent Samuel R. Curtis, vied for the Republican nomination to represent Iowa's 1st congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives. Curtis won the nomination, then the general election. After the outbreak of the Civil War, however, Curtis resigned to accept appointment as an officer of the Union Army. At the convention called to choose the Republican nominee to succeed Curtis, "it was a foregone conclusion that James F. Wilson would be the unanimous choice." In October 1861 Wilson was elected to fill the vacancy, easily defeating Democrat Jairus Edward Neal.

After completing Curtis's term in the 37th Congress, he was re-elected three times, serving in the 38th, 39th, and 40th Congresses. He was chairman of the House Committee on the Judiciary during the tumultuous periods during the War and Reconstruction.

Rep. Wilson's first action in Congress was introducing a resolution prohibiting fugitive slaves from being returned to the South and ordering the dismissal of any military officer that instructs troops to do such, which was enacted. He in addition reported legislation which enfranchised blacks in Washington, D.C., as well as shepherding a bill that granted freedom to the family of black soldiers.

A business lawyer, Wilson advocated moderating the income tax among lower brackets and "reasonable" levels of protectionism. He also backed railroad grants and the Homestead Act, though opposed the Morrill College Land-Grant Act. Along with other Radical Republicans, Wilson adamantly supported a military occupation of the South during Reconstruction on the grounds that it was the only effective means of ensuring security.

Wilson was aligned with the faction of his Party known at the time as the "Radical Republicans." He supported civil rights moves and objected to President Andrew Johnson's attempts to veto the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Reconstruction Acts. His speech refuting arguments that lamented of the 1866 bill's alleged unconstitutionality were remarked by James G. Blaine as having: ...great strength and legal research.

He supported the first bill in Congress to provide voting rights to black citizens of the District of Columbia. He was not a candidate for renomination in 1868, explaining prior to the district convention that with the election of an acceptable Republican president guaranteed and a change in administration inevitable, a change in representation of the First District was also timely. In all, Wilson served in the House from October 8, 1861, to March 4, 1869.

1867 impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson
Wilson voted in support of launching the 1867 impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson. The vote authorizing the impeachment inquiry was largely seen as a means for Republicans to voice their displeasure with Johnson without actually going so far as to impeach him. Many Republicans fully expected that the House Committee on the Judiciary, which would oversee the inquiry, would not recommend impeachment, and that the prospect of impeachment would die quietly in the committee.

At the time of the inquiry, Wilson was the chairman of the House Committee on the Judiciary. During the inquiry, Wilson opposed impeaching Johnson, publicly arguing that there were no proven legal grounds that an impeachment could justifiably be based upon. As a member of the committee, Wilson voted against recommending impeachment. However, on November 25, 1867, the committee voted 5–4 in support of recommending impeachment. Wilson wrote one of the committee's minority reports against impeachment. In his minority report, Wilson argued that, while Johnson, "deserves the censure and condemnation of every well-disposed citizen," the Congress should wait and let Americans remove Johnson from office in the 1868 presidential election. His minority report declared that Johnson, "has disappointed the hopes and expectations of those who placed him in power. He had betrayed their confidence and joined hands with their enemies." However, in arguing against impeachment, it declared, "the day of political impeachments would be a sad one for this country."

When the full House of Representatives subsequently voted on whether to impeach President Johnson, on December 7, 1867, he presented the argument against impeachment after George S. Boutwell made the case in support of impeachment. Wilson argued that while Johnson was the "worst of presidents", his opposition to the positions of the Republican Party was not itself illegal. He argued that, despite Boutwell's assertions that it did, the House did not have lone authority to determine what constitutes an "impeachable offense". Wilson warned the that a broad interpretation of impeachment powers, as Boutwell championed, in theory could allow the House to effectively dictate the policy of presidents. He spent half of his speech arguing that impeachment was only reserved for indictable crimes, and half attacking those who opposed this position. Wilson characterized Boutwell as having effectively argued that the House should be allowed to impeach Johnson for something he could do, rather than some thing he had done. Wilson argued, "this would lead us even beyond the conscience of this house." In his closing remarks, Wilson asked, "if we cannot arraign the president for a specific crime, for what are we to proceed against him?" After Wilson delivered his argument against impeachment were presented, the House voted proceeded to hold a vote in which it strongly voted against impeachment.

1868 impeachment of Andrew Johnson

On January 27, 1868, Wilson voted in support of launching the second impeachment inquiry against Andrew Johnson.

Despite his initial misgivings on impeachment, after Johnson attempted to dismiss and replace of Edwin Stanton in violation of the Tenure of Office Act, Wilson voted to impeach President Johnson on February 24, 1868, when the House successfully voted to impeach him. Before the vote, Wilson expressed an opinion representative of those expressed during debate by many Republicans that had previously voted against the impeachment resolution brought by the Judiciary Committee at the close of the 1867 impeachment inquiry against Johnson, declaring that, "The considerations which weighed upon my mind and molded my conduct in the case with which the Committee on the Judiciary of this House was charged are not to be found in the present case." Wilson opined that in the previous impeachment vote, Johnson had not committed any action that was a crime under either common law or statute. Wilson declared that Johnson had mistakenly been emboldened after he was not impeached in December 1867 and had proceeded to commit an act that constituted clear impeachable conduct, declaring, "He mistook our judgment for cowardice, and worked on until he has presented to us, as a sequence, a high misdemeanor known to the law and defined by statute."

Wilson was afterwards appointed as a member of the seven-member committee that was tasked with writing articles of impeachment. When the House voted on specific articles of impeachment in early March, Wilson voted for all but one of the eleven articles, being one of twelve members of the Republican Party to vote against the tenth article of impeachment (which had been written by Benjamin Butler independent from the seven-member committee). Wilson was elected one of the seven House managers (prosecutors) for impeachment trial of President Johnson. During the trial, Wilson sparred with Maine senator William P. Fessenden, who claimed that he broke from "his usual discretion."

Government director of the Pacific Railroad
President Ulysses S. Grant offered Wilson the post of Secretary of State, but Wilson declined it, serving instead as government director of the Pacific Railroad for eight years.

U.S. Senate
In 1882, the Iowa General Assembly elected Wilson to the U.S. Senate. His first initiative as a U.S. Senator was to propose an unsuccessful constitutional amendment to more explicitly authorize the federal government to adopt laws that protect civil rights from violations by private citizens, to nullify the Supreme Court's ruling two months earlier in the Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883). The General Assembly re-elected him in 1888 to a second six-year term. In the Senate, Wilson served as chairman of the Committee of Mines and Mining (in the Forty-eighth Congress), Committee on Expenditures of Public Money (in the Forty-eighth Congress), Committee on Revision of the Laws of the United States (in the Forty-ninth through Fifty-second Congresses), and the Committee on Education and Labor (in the Fifty-second Congress).

In the Senate, Wilson was known as a staunch supporter of the Prohibition cause, being a member of the Sons of Temperance. He was particularly outspoken on the issue, advocating in 1883 to commit the GOP state convention in Iowa to the issue.

In 1890, Wilson was one of three Senators mentioned as potential nominees to fill the vacancy on the U.S. Supreme Court created by the death of Justice Samuel F. Miller of Iowa. President Benjamin Harrison instead picked Michigan judge Henry Billings Brown, who would later write the Supreme Court's opinion upholding "separate but equal" racial segregation in Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).

Death
Wilson died in Fairfield shortly after his second Senate term ended. In its obituary, the New York Times attributed his death to "paralysis of the brain", and stated that his death had been expected. He was interred in Fairfield-Evergreen Cemetery.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: James F. Wilson


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Kijów

Kijów may refer to:
 * Polish name for Kyiv, the capital of Ukraine
 * Kijów, Silesian Voivodeship (south Poland)
 * Kijów, Lubusz Voivodeship (west Poland)
 * Kijów, Opole Voivodeship (south-west Poland)

title: Kijów


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Jeremy Northam

Jeremy Philip Northam (born 1 December 1961) is an English actor. His film credits include Emma (1996), An Ideal Husband (1999), Gosford Park, The Winslow Boy (1999) and Enigma (2001). In television, he also played Thomas More in the Showtime series The Tudors (2007–2008) and appeared as Anthony Eden in the Netflix series The Crown (2016-2017).

Early life and education
Northam was born on 1 December 1961, in Cambridge, Cambridgeshire. His father was John Northam, a professor of literature and theatre. Northam studied English at Bedford College, London (B.A. English, 1984) and acting at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School. and is an alumnus of the Royal Holloway, University of London.

Screen and stage
Northam made his screen debut on television in the series American Playhouse, as Mr. Benson in the episode "Suspicion". He followed with appearances in ITV's Wish Me Luck (1987) and Piece of Cake (1988).

Northam performed at the Royal National Theatre – he replaced both Ian Charleson and Daniel Day-Lewis in the role of Hamlet (1989), when they had to withdraw, and won the 1990 Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play for his performance in The Voysey Inheritance.

He has appeared frequently in British films such as Carrington (1995), Emma (1996), The Winslow Boy (1999), An Ideal Husband (1999), Enigma (2001), and as Welsh actor and singer Ivor Novello in Gosford Park (2001). He made his American film debut in The Net (1995).

In 2002, he starred in the film Cypher. That same year, he portrayed singer Dean Martin in the CBS film Martin and Lewis and golfer Walter Hagen in Bobby Jones: Stroke of Genius in 2004. In 2007 and 2008, he portrayed Thomas More on the Showtime series, The Tudors.

He played John Brodie Innes in the 2009 film Creation, based on the life of Charles Darwin. In the 2015 film The Man Who Knew Infinity, he portrayed the philosopher Bertrand Russell. He played British Prime Minister Anthony Eden in the 2016 Netflix drama series The Crown.

Other work
His audiobook work includes The Silver Chair (The Chronicles of Narnia, Book 6) by C. S. Lewis, The Real Thing and Other Short Stories and The Aspern Papers, both written by  by Henry James. In 2007 he recorded "The Great Poets" by Gerard Manley Hopkins, In 2009, he recorded Our Man in Havana by Graham Greene, in 2010, Dark Matter, a ghost story by Michelle Paver, In 2010, Down and Out in Paris and London and in 2012, The Road to Wigan Pier, both by George Orwell.

In the Gosford Park soundtrack, Northam sings the Ivor Novello songs "And Her Mother Came Too", "What a Duke Should Be", "Why Isn't It You", "I Can Give You the Starlight", and "The Land of Might Have Been", accompanied by his brother Christopher on piano.

Personal life
Northam married Canadian film/television make-up artist Liz Moro in April 2005; they later divorced.

Theatre

 * Edward Voysey, The Voysey Inheritance, National Theatre Company, Cottesloe Theatre, London, 1989.
 * School for Scandal, Bristol Old Vic, 1990.
 * Osric, then later title role, Hamlet, National Theatre Company, Olivier Theatre, London, 1989.
 * The Three Sisters, Sondheim Theatre, 1990-1991.
 * The Way of the World, Lyric Theatre (Hammersmith), 1992.
 * Philip, The Gift of the Gorgon, Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC), The Pit (theatre), London, 1992.
 * Elomire, La Bête, Really Useful Theatre Company, 1993.
 * Berowne, Love's Labour's Lost, RSC, Barbican Theatre, London, 1994.
 * Mr. Horner, The Country Wife, RSC, Pit Theatre, 1994.
 * Obstetrician, Certain Young Men, Almeida Theatre, London, 1999.
 * Old Times, Donmar Warehouse Theatre, London, 2004.
 * Richard Greatham, Hay Fever, Noël Coward Theatre, London, 2012.

title: Jeremy Northam


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Rottal-Inn

Rottal-Inn is a Landkreis (district) in the southeastern part of Bavaria, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from the south clockwise) Altötting, Mühldorf, Landshut, Dingolfing-Landau and Passau. To the southeast is the Austrian state of Upper Austria (Braunau).

Geography
The main rivers in the district are the Inn and its tributary, the Rott.

History
The district was created in 1972 by merging the two previous districts of Pfarrkirchen and Eggenfelden and parts of the districts Griesbach and Vilsbiburg.

Coat of arms
The coat of arms combines the symbols of the two previous districts. Dexter in chief is a panther as the symbol of Eggenfelden, derived from the coat of arms of the Counts of Spanheim, who ruled the area until the 13th century. Sinister in base a horse as the symbol of Pfarrkirchen, as the area is famous for the horse-breeding tradition. The bendlet sinister Azure between them symbolizes the two rivers in the district, the Inn and the Rott.

title: Rottal-Inn


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Hall County

Hall County is the name of several counties in the United States:

 * Hall County, Georgia
 * Hall County, Nebraska
 * Hall County, Texas

title: Hall County


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Drohobych

Drohobych (Дрогобич, ; Drohobycz ; דראָהאָבּיטש) is a city in the south of Lviv Oblast, Ukraine. It is the administrative center of Drohobych Raion and hosts the administration of Drohobych urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine. In 1939–1941 and 1944–1959 it was the center of Drohobych Oblast.

Drohobych was founded at the end of the eleventh century as an important trading post and transport node between Kyiv Rus' and the lands to the West of Rus'. After extinction of the local Ruthenian dynasty and subsequent incorporation of the Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia into the Polish Kingdom by 1349, from the fifteenth century the city developer as a mercantile and saltworks centre. Drohobych became part of the Habsburg Empire in 1772 after the first partition of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. In the mid-nineteenth century it became Europe's largest oil extraction center, which significantly contributed to its rapid development. In the renascent, interwar Poland it was the center of a county within the Lwów Voivodeship. As an outcome of World War II, the city was incorporated into the Ukrainian part of the Soviet Union, which in 1991 became the independent Ukraine.

The city was the birthplace of such well-known personalities as Elisabeth Bergner, Yuriy Drohobych (Kotermak), Ivan Franko and Bruno Schulz. The city has several oil refineries. The Drohobych saltworks are considered to be the oldest in Europe. The estimated population of Drohobych is, making it the second largest city in Lviv Oblast.

History
While there are only legendary accounts of it, Drohobych probably existed in the Kievan Rus' period. According to a legend, there was a settlement, called Bych, of salt-traders. When Bych was destroyed in a Cumanian raid, survivors rebuilt the settlement in a nearby location under its current name which means a Second Bych. In the time of Kievan Rus', the Tustan fortress was built near Drohobych. However, scholars perceive this legend with skepticism, pointing out that Drohobych is a Polish pronunciation of Dorogobuzh, a common East Slavic toponym applied to three different towns in Kievan Rus'.

The city was first mentioned in 1387 in the municipal records of Lviv, in connection with a man named Martin (or Marcin) of Drohobych. Furthermore, the same chronicler's List of all Ruthenian cities, the farther and the near ones in Voskresensky Chronicle (dated 1377–82) mentions Другабець (Druhabets') among other cities in Volhynia that existed at the same time such as Холмъ (Kholm), Лвовъ Великій (Lviv the Great).

In 1392 Polish king Vladislav II ordered the construction of the first Roman Catholic municipal parish church (Kosciół farny), using the foundations of older Ruthenian buildings. In the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, the city was the center of large rural starostvo (county within the Ruthenian Voivodeship).

Drohobych received Magdeburg rights some time in the 15th century (sources differ as to the exact year, some giving 1422 or 1460, or 1496 but in 1506 the rights were confirmed by King Alexander the Jagiellonian). The salt industry was significant in the fourteenth to sixteenth centuries. From the early seventeenth century, a Ukrainian Catholic brotherhood existed in the city. In 1648, during the Khmelnytsky Uprising, the Cossacks stormed the city and its cathedral. Most of the local Poles, as well as the Greek Catholics and the Jews, were murdered at the time, while some managed to survive in the Bell tower not taken in the raid. The 1772 partition of Poland gave the city to the Habsburg monarchy. In the 19th century, significant oil resources were discovered in the area, making the city an important center of the oil and natural gas industries.

After World War I, the area became part of the short-lived independent West Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR). The ZUNR was taken over by the Second Polish Republic after the Polish–Ukrainian War and Drohobych became part of the Lwów Voivodeship in 1919. In 1928 the still extant Ukrainian private gymnasium (academically oriented secondary school) opened in the center of the city. The population reached some 40,000 in the late 1920s, and its oil refinery at Polmin became one of the biggest in Europe, employing 800 people. Numerous visitors came there to view the wooden Greek Catholic churches, among them the Church of St. Yur, which was regarded as the most beautiful such construction in the Second Polish Republic, with frescoes from 1691. Drohobych was also a major sports center (see: Junak Drohobycz).

In September 1939, after the German and Soviet invasion of Poland and according to the Ribbentrop-Molotov agreement, the city was annexed to Soviet Ukraine. After the invasion Nazi Germany wanted to incorporate the city into its General Government due to its oil fields, but the USSR refused and annexed it. In Soviet Ukraine, Drohobych became the center of the Drohobych Oblast (region). Its local Polish boy scouts created the White Couriers organization, which in late 1939 and early 1940 smuggled hundreds of people from the Soviet Union to Hungary across the Soviet-Hungarian border in the Carpathian Mountains. In early July 1941, during the first weeks of the Nazi invasion of the USSR, the city was occupied by Nazi Germany.

Pre-war Drohobych had a significant Jewish community of about 15,000 people, 40% of the total population. Immediately after the Germans entered the city, Ukrainian nationalists started a pogrom which lasted for three days, supported by the Wehrmacht. During 1942 there were several selections, deportations, and murders in the streets, again led by German troops and Ukrainian Auxiliary Police. In October 1942, Drohobych ghetto was established with approximately 10,000 prisoners, including Jews brought from neighboring localities. In June 1943, the German administration and troops liquidated the ghetto. Only 800 Jews from Drohobych survived. On 6 August 1944, the German occupation ended and the Red Army entered the city. Despite the large Jewish population prior to the war, a current resident has stated that he was one of only two Jews who came back to his village to live after 1945. After the war, the city remained an oblast center until the Drohobych Oblast was incorporated into the Lviv Oblast in 1959. In Soviet times, Drohobych became an important industrial center of Western Ukraine, with highly developed oil-refining, machine building, woodworking, food, and light industries.

Until 18 July 2020, Drohobych was designated as a city of oblast significance and belonged to Drohobych Municipality but not to Drohobych Raion, even though it was the center of the raion. As part of the administrative reform of Ukraine which reduced the number of raions of Lviv Oblast to seven, Drohobych Municipality was merged into Drohobych Raion.

Demographics
The population of Drohobych over the years was:
 * 1931 – 32,300
 * 1959 – 42,000
 * 1978 – 65,998
 * 1989 – 77,571
 * 2001 – 79,119
 * 2010 – 78,368
 * 2022 – 73,682

Drohobych district
In 1931, the total population of the Drohobych Raion was 194,456, distributed among various languages:
 * Polish: 91,935 (47.3%)
 * Ukrainian: 79,214 (40.7%)
 * Yiddish: 20,484 (10.5%)

In January 2007, the total population of the metropolitan area was over 103,000 inhabitants.

Economy
Industries currently based in the city include saltworks, oil-refineries, chemicals, machinery, metallurgy, and food processing. Drohobych has rich salt deposits and for that reason salt is one of the most popular symbols of the city and is depicted on its emblem.

Universities

 * Drohobych State Pedagogical University of Ivan Franko

Colleges

 * Drohobych Mechanical Technological College
 * Drohobych Petroleum and Gas College

Sport
The city was home to one of Poland's best pre-war football clubs; Junak Drohobycz. It was disbanded in 1939 due to the Soviet invasion of Poland.

Halychyna Drohobych, founded in 1989 as Naftovyk Drohobych currently represents the city.

Sights

 * St. George's Church (c. 1500)
 * St. Bartholomew Church (1392–16th century)
 * its bell tower, former castle tower (late 13th century and 15th century)
 * Ascension Church (late 15th century)
 * Holy Cross Church (early 16th century)
 * Choral Synagogue (1842–1865)
 * Progressive Synagogue
 * Town Hall (1920s)
 * St. Peter's and Paul's Monastery
 * Drohobych salt plant (in continuous operation since at least 1390; buildings of 19th–20th centuries)
 * Drohobych Museum

Politics

 * Zenon Kossak, Ukrainian military and political leader (born here)
 * Andriy Melnyk, Ukrainian military and political leader (born near Drohobych)
 * David Horowitz (economist), Israeli economist and the first Governor of the Bank of Israel.
 * Leon Reich (1879–1929), lawyer and member of the Sejm of Poland (born here)

Arts

 * Elisabeth Bergner, Oscar-nominated Austrian-German stage and screen actress
 * Ivan Franko, Ukrainian poet and writer, born in Nahuievychi, near Drohobych
 * Irene Frisch, Jewish-Polish writer and memoirist
 * Leopold Gottlieb, Jewish-Polish painter
 * Maurycy Gottlieb, Jewish-Polish painter
 * Diana Reiter, Jewish-Polish architect, victim of Holocaust
 * Ephraim Moses Lilien, Jewish-Zionist painter
 * Alfred Schreyer, Jewish-Polish vocalist and violinist
 * Bruno Schulz, Polish-Jewish writer, graphic artist, and literary critic
 * Kazimierz Wierzyński, Polish poet and writer

Other fields

 * Tadeusz Chciuk-Celt, Polish war hero
 * Yuriy Drohobych, first doctor of medicine in Ukraine, 1481–1482 rector of the University of Bologna
 * Yaroslav Popovych, cyclist (born here)
 * Józef Schreier, Polish-Jewish mathematician
 * Viktor Vekselberg, Russian oligarch

Twin towns and sister cities
Drohobych is twinned with:

title: Drohobych


text:
Sabicas

Sabicas (proper name: Agustín Castellón Campos) (16 March 1912 – 14 April 1990) was a Spanish flamenco guitarist of Romani origin.

Biography
Sabicas was born in Pamplona, Spain, and began playing guitar at the age of five and made his performing debut two years later. His early style was influenced by Ramón Montoya, to whom he was related on his mother's side of the family. Extensive collaboration with important cantaores (male flamenco singers) of the period helped him develop his personal style.

Leaving Spain in 1936 during the Spanish Civil War, he went into exile in Latin America with bailaora (dancer) Carmen Amaya. He lived in Mexico City, married Esperanza González Erazo and had four children of the marriage: Maricruz 1944, Carlos 1946, Agustine 1952 and Margaret 1956. Agustine and Margaret live in New York City, Maricruz is deceased, and Carlos is deceased. Amaya and Sabicas toured together several times. Sabicas later settled in New York City in the United States where he formed a life-long friendship and business association with classical guitarist Rolando Valdés-Blain. He did not return to his native Spain until 1967.

Sabicas was instrumental in the introduction of flamenco to audiences outside of Spain and the Spanish-speaking world. He was probably best known for his technical skills: blazingly fast picados (scales), fast arpeggios, quality composition for the many forms of flamenco, and infallible rhythm, which was critical when playing with a dancer. He was also considered to have perfect pitch. "The finest technique around has got to be Sabicas, the flamenco player," Chet Atkins told Guitar Player Magazine in March 1972.

Sabicas was one of flamenco's greatest guitarists, not only as a technician, but also as a composer. He played flamenco at a previously unimaginable level and created new techniques, opening up new possibilities for the solo instrument. He brought his art to concert halls and major theaters, making it available to all classes. Modern players such as Paco de Lucía, Paco Pena, Tomatito, Serranito, René Heredia, Juan Manuel Cañizares, El Viejín, Vicente Amigo, Gerardo Núñez, Javier Conde and many more acknowledge the great influence of Sabicas's music.

Sabicas died at the age of 78 at a hospital in New York, New York, of complications from pneumonia and multiple strokes.

Discography
The following is a partial list of LPs recorded by Sabicas. Some but not all have been reissued on CD or MP3, many under different titles. Some dates are tentative, since many LPs (Decca in particular) did not carry a date (or carried the date of reissue). The many anthologies are not listed.

 * 1949 Flamencan Guitar Solos
 * 1957 Sabicas Vol. 1 (CD = La Guitarra Flamenca)
 * 1957 Sabicas Vol. 2 (CD = La Guitarra Flamenca)
 * 1958 Sabicas Vol. 3
 * 1958 Gypsy Flamenco
 * 1958 The Day of the Bullfight
 * 1958 Romantic Guitars (with Mario Escudero. CD = Masters of the Spanish Guitar)
 * 1959 Flamenco! (with Carmen Amaya)
 * 1959 Queen of the Gypsies (with Carmen Amaya. MP3 = The Best of Carmen Amaya)
 * 1959 Flamenco Puro
 * 1959 Serenata Andaluza (with group)
 * 1959 Solo Flamenco
 * 1959 Fantastic Guitars (with Mario Escudero)
 * 1960 Festival Gitana (with Los Trianeros)
 * 1960 Flamenco Fantasy (CD = Adios a la guitarra. MP3 also available under the original title)
 * 1960 Furioso (with Dolores Vargas)
 * 1960 Soul of Flamenco
 * 1960 Flamenco Variations on Three Guitars
 * 1961 Flamenco Virtuoso
 * 1961 Rhythms of Spain (with group)
 * 1961 Flamenco Styles (with Mario Escudero)
 * 1961 El Terremoto Gitano (with Dolores Vargas)
 * 1962 Concierto en Flamenco (with orchestra)
 * 1963 Flamenco Reflections
 * 1963 Flaming Flamenco Guitar
 * 1965 El Rey del Flamenco
 * 1967 Flamenco Fever
 * 1967 Guitars of Passion
 * 1968 Artistry in Flamenco
 * 1969 3 Guitarras Tiene Sabicas
 * 1969 Arte Gitano
 * 1969 La Historia del Flamenco (with many singers. CD = Sabicas, RCA ND 74612)
 * 1969 La Guitarra de Sabicas
 * 1970 Rock Encounter (with Joe Beck) (recorded in 1966)
 * 1971 The Soul of Flamenco and the Essence of Rock
 * 1972 Flamenco!!
 * 1972 ¡¡Olé!! (with Adela la Chaqueta)
 * 1972 Sabicas in Concert (CD = Concierto Vol. 2)
 * 1972 Fiesta Flamenca (with various old-time singers)
 * 1976 The Art of the Guitar
 * 1990 Nueva York-Granada (with Enrique Morente)
 * 2014 Al compás de mi guitarra (compilation from pre-WWII 78s, with the top singers of the day)

title: Sabicas


text:
MC Hawking

Ken Lawrence is a nerdcore rapper who purports to be the late theoretical physicist Stephen Hawking rapping under the name MC Hawking.

MC Hawking rose to popularity on the Internet in the early 2000s. The songs were originally released in MP3 format, but due to the popularity of the website Lawrence was signed to a record deal with Brash Music to release a "greatest hits" album in 2004.

Background
MC Hawking's entire body of work and his rapper persona were created by American web developer Ken Lawrence. Lawrence earned a degree in music composition from Hampshire College. His raps are synthesized by the text-to-speech program WillowTalk. The beats for MC Hawking are provided by DJ Doomsday (another alter-ego of Ken Lawrence). The beats are a combination of samples of classic hip hop tracks, commercial royalty-free loop libraries, live performances, and midi compositions.

Lyrical content
The lyrics are a mixture of gangsta rap topics, science topics and Stephen Hawking quotations (such as the famous "When I hear of Schrödinger's cat, I reach for my gun", which became "Every time I think of them my trigger finger itches", referring to creationists). Among subjects of MC Hawking songs are various scientific topics and Hawking's professional relationships with MIT rivals, as well as the standard fare of gangsta rap, including street violence and drug use.

The lyrics display insight into many aspects of current scientific thought, Newton's laws of motion ("All My Shootings Be Drivebys"), Einstein's theory of relativity ("E=MC Hawking"), the Big Bang ("The Big Bizang"), Thermodynamics ("Entropy"), and quantum physics subjects such as Schrödinger's cat and the wave function collapse ("Rock Out With Your Hawk Out").

The creation evolution controversy is also mentioned in "Fuck the Creationists" and "Entropy".

Dark Matter and greatest hits album
He is also involved with a heavy metal group called Dark Matter — a parody of Ice-T's "Body Count" — with whom he has performed such songs as "Why Won't Jesse Helms Just Hurry Up and Die", "UFT for the MC" (a parody of the Sex Pistols song "Anarchy in the UK"), and "The Big Bizang". He is also an occasional Song Fight! participant.

His "greatest hits" album is called A Brief History of Rhyme: MC Hawking's Greatest Hits, a parody of Hawking's book A Brief History of Time. It included many songs that were available on the official website, plus new material (four songs and three interludes from a fictional radio interview).

Reaction by Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking said in 2000 that he was "flattered, as it's a modern-day equivalent to Spitting Image". On the inside cover of A Brief History of Rhyme, Lawrence thanks Stephen Hawking "for taking this joke in the spirit that it was intended."

MC Hawking's Podcore Nerdcast
In 2013, Lawrence, along with longtime collaborators Len Pal and the voice actor Dave B. Mitchell, launched MC Hawking's Podcore Nerdcast, a podcast in which the hosts discuss movies, games, books, and music (and particularly nerdcore hip hop). as well as interviews with nerdcore musicians including MC Frontalot, MC Lars, Random, and Atheist (Scott Knopf). In June 2014, Cassie joined the cast to fill in for Mitchell (due to scheduling conflicts). Regular features include Will It Suck, in which the hosts discuss upcoming films and predict opening weekend box office and Rotten Tomatoes results, Dino News, in which Cassie brings the latest news about dinosaurs, Nerds Need to Know, which highlights books, movies, or television shows relevant to nerd culture, and Everybody Wants to Rule the World, in which the hosts debate potential new laws or decrees that could make the world a better place. Episodes occasionally also feature new MC Hawking tracks. The podcast has been inactive since 2018.

Upcoming second album
His second album, The Hawkman Returneth, was due for release in 2018, announced with the release of the single Fear of a Black Hole, which was first performed in 2016 in front of the real Stephen Hawking and others including Richard Dawkins and Brian May. As of 2023, no additional music has been released.

Discography

 * A Brief History of Rhyme: MC Hawking's Greatest Hits (2004)
 * "The Hawkman Cometh"
 * "The Dozens"
 * "Big Bizang"
 * "Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 1)"
 * "Entropy"
 * "The Mighty Stephen Hawking"
 * "Crazy as Fuck"
 * "Bitchslap (With MC Frontalot)"
 * "Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 2)"
 * "Fuck the Creationists"
 * "E=MC Hawking"
 * "All My Shootings Be Drivebys"
 * "UFT For The MC"
 * "Excerpt from a Radio Interview (Pt. 3)"
 * "What We Need More of is Science"
 * "GTA3"
 * Songs released in MP3 format only
 * "Led Zeppelin Medley" (no longer available)
 * "QuakeMaster"
 * "Why Won't Jesse Helms Just Hurry Up and Die?"
 * "Rock Out with Your Hawk Out"
 * "MC Hawking Holiday"
 * "How I Roll"
 * Appearances
 * "Nerdcore Rising" - MC Frontalot - Nerdcore Rising

Fictional discography
As part of the parody, a fictional discography was created on the MC Hawking's Crib website. None of these albums were actually created.

 * The Hawkman Cometh EP (1994)
 * [Fear of a Black Hole] (1996) (originally called A Brief History of Rhyme until Hawking's real album was given that title)
 * E = MC Hawking (1999)

title: MC Hawking


text:
User:Jackdaw

User Details for Jackdaw:

Personal Description: An ex-UK based Human male, now living on the coast in Western Canada. Although not literally, as that would mean getting wet a couple of times a day and it would be awfully cold.

Favorite Food: Toast. All kinds of toast, be it the floppy undercooked butter would not melt variety to burnt supernova charchoal. Sometimes toast with things on it. Well, not just things, a lamp on toast would be silly, as would a horse.

Job: I get paid to write things. No, really I do.

A few additions, edits and typo corrections to my name, plus one article. I'd add more but finding the time is nigh on impossible.

Personal Website: Creation Robot

title: User:Jackdaw


text:
Ternopil

Ternopil, known until 1944 mostly as Tarnopol, is a city in western Ukraine, located on the banks of the Seret. Administratively, it serves as the administrative centre of Ternopil Oblast. Ternopil is one of the major cities of Western Ukraine and the historical regions of Galicia and Podolia. It is served by Ternopil Airport. The population of Ternopil was estimated at

The city is the administrative center of Ternopil Oblast (region), as well as of surrounding Ternopil Raion (district) within the oblast. It hosts the administration of Ternopil urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine.

Until 18 July 2020, Ternopil was designated as a city of oblast significance and did not belong to Ternopil Raion even though it was the center of the raion. As part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ternopil Oblast to three, the city was merged into Ternopil Raion.

History
The city was founded in 1540 by Polish commander and Hetman Jan Amor Tarnowski. Its Polish name Tarnopol means 'Tarnowski's city' and stems from a combination of the founder's family name and the Greek term polis. The city served as a military stronghold and castle On 15 April 1540, the King of Poland, Sigismund I the Old, in Kraków gave Tarnowski permission to establish Tarnopol, near Sopilcze (Sopilche). protecting the eastern borders of Polish Kingdom from Tatar raids. In 1570, the city passed to the Ostrogski family, and in 1623 to the Zamoyski family. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising, many residents of the city joined the ranks of the Cossack forces. During the 1672–1676 Polish–Ottoman War, Tarnopol was almost completely destroyed by Turkish forces of Ibrahim Shishman Pasha in 1675, then rebuilt by Aleksander Koniecpolski.

In 1772, after the First Partition of Poland, the city came under Austrian rule. In 1809, after the War of the Fifth Coalition, the city came under Russian rule, incorporated into the newly created Ternopol krai, but in 1815 returned to Austrian rule in accordance with the Congress of Vienna. In 1870 Tarnopol was connected by railway with Lemberg.

During World War I the city passed from German and Austrian forces to Russia several times. In 1917, the city and its castle were burned down by fleeing Russian forces. After the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the city was proclaimed as part of the West Ukrainian People's Republic on 11 November 1918. After Polish forces captured Lwów during the Polish-Ukrainian War, Tarnopol became the country's temporary capital. After the act of union between the West Ukrainian Republic and the Ukrainian People's Republic, Ternopil formally became part of the UPR. On 15 July 1919, the city was captured. by Polish forces. In July and August 1920 the Red Army captured Ternopil in the course of the Polish-Soviet War, and the city served as the capital of the short-lived Galician Soviet Socialist Republic. Under the terms of the Riga treaty, the area remained under Polish control. As a consequence of the Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, Ternopil was incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic as part of Ternopol Oblast. On 2 July 1941, the city was occupied by the Nazis. Between then and July 1943, 10,000 Jews were killed by Nazi Germans, and another 6,000 were rounded up and sent to Belzec extermination camp. A few hundred others went to labor camps. During most of this time Jews lived in the Tarnopol Ghetto. Many Ukrainians were sent as forced labour to Germany. Following the Act of restoration of the Ukrainian state proclaimed in Lviv on 30 June 1941, Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) was active in Ternopil region and battled for the independence of Ukraine, opposing Nazis, Polish Armia Krajowa and People's Army of Poland as well as the Soviets. During the Soviet offensive in March and April 1944, the city was almost completely destroyed by Soviet artillery. Finally, Ternopol was occupied by the Red Army on 15 April 1944. After the second Soviet occupation, 85% of the city's living quarters were destroyed.

Following the Potsdam Conference in 1945, Poland's borders were redrawn and Ternopil was incorporated into the Ukrainian SSR of the Soviet Union. The ethnic Polish population of the area was forcibly deported to postwar Poland In the following decades, Ternopil was rebuilt in a typical Soviet style and only a few buildings were reconstructed.

Following the fall of the Soviet Union, Ternopil became part of the independent Ukraine as a city of regional significance. On 31 December 2013, the 11th Artillery Brigade, descendant of artillery units that had been based in the city since 1949, was disbanded. In 2020, as part of the administrative reform in Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ternopil Oblast to three, the city was merged into Ternopil Raion.

During the Russo-Ukrainian War, Ternopil was struck by Russian missiles on 13 May 2023, minutes before Ternopil natives Tvorchi performed at the Eurovision Song Contest 2023.

Climate
Ternopil has a moderate continental climate with cold winters and warm summers.

Demographics
According to Ukrainian Census (2001), Ternopil city and Ternopil oblast are homogeneously populated by ethnic Ukrainians. Ternopil city and Ternopil oblast are also homogeneously Ukrainian-speaking.

National structure of Ternopil Oblast - 1,138.5 (100%)
 * Ukrainians - 1,113.5 (97.8%)
 * Russians - 14.2 (1.2%)
 * Poles - 3.8 (0.3%)

Native languages in Ternopil:
 * Ukrainian language — 94.8 %,
 * Russian language — 3.37 %,
 * Belarusian language — 0.07 %,
 * Polish language — 0.04 %.

According to a survey conducted by the International Republican Institute in April-May 2023, 98 % of the city's population spoke Ukrainian at home, and 1 % spoke Russian.

Economy
Ternopil is a centre for the light industry, food industry, radio-electronic and construction industries. In the Soviet and early post-Soviet period, a harvester plant and a porcelain factory operated in the city.

Transport
Ternopil is an important railway hub with connections to most major railway stations of Ukraine. The city lies on the M12 international highway connecting western and central regions of Ukraine. Trolleybus lines and a bus station are active in the city. Water transport operates on Ternopil artificial lake mostly for tourist purposes. An airport was opened for civilian traffic in 1985, but ceased commercial operations in 2010.

Higher education
Universities include:
 * West Ukrainian National University
 * Ternopil Ivan Pul'uj National Technical University
 * Ternopil Volodymyr Hnatyuk National Pedagogical University
 * Ternopil State Medical University

Main sights

 * Ternopil Regional Art Museum
 * Church of the Exaltation of the Cross, Ternopil
 * Ukrainian Greek Catholic Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception of The Blessed Virgin Mary
 * The sanctuary of Our Lady of Zarvanytsia with a miraculous icon of the 13th century called icon of the Mother of God of Zarvanytsia, sanctuary of Greek-Catholic rite. Located about 40 km from Ternopil, celebrated on 22 July.

Notable people

 * Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz (1890–1963), Polish philosopher and logician, researched model theory
 * Henryk Baranowski (1943–2013) a Polish theatre, opera and film director, actor, playwright and poet.
 * Vasyl Barvinsky (1888–1963) a Ukrainian composer, pianist, conductor and musicologist
 * Eugeniusz Baziak (1890–1962) Archbishop of Lviv and apostolic administrator of Kraków.
 * Natalia Buchynska (born 1977), singer, brought up in Ternopil.
 * Vitaly Derekh (1987–2022), Ukrainian journalist and soldier
 * Mariia Dilai (born 1980), Ukrainian artist, designer, and social activist
 * Daria Chubata (born 1940), Ukrainian physician, author and social activist.
 * Mykola Chubatyi (1889-1975), historian of Ukrainian Church.
 * Cyryl Czarkowski-Golejewski (1885–1940) aristocratic Polish landowner, Katyn massacre victim.
 * Charlotte Eisler (1894-1970) Austrian singer and pianist with the Second Viennese School.
 * Kornel Filipowicz (1913–1990) a Polish novelist, poet, screenwriter and short story writer
 * Franciszek Kleeberg (1888–1941) a Polish general in the Austro-Hungarian Army
 * Bohdan Levkiv (1950–2021) a Ukrainian politician, mayor of Ternopil from 2002 to 2006.
 * Pepi Litman (1874–1930) a cross-dressing female Yiddish vaudeville singer
 * Kazimierz Michałowski, (1901–1981), Polish archaeologist, Egyptologist and art historian
 * Serhiy Nadal (born 1975) a Ukrainian politician; mayor of Ternopil since 2010
 * Yuriy Oliynyk (1931–2021) a Ukrainian composer, concert pianist and professor of music in the US
 * Jakub Karol Parnas (1884–1949), biochemist, born in Ternopil.
 * Joseph Perl, (1773–1839), an Ashkenazi Jewish educator and writer, a scion of the Haskalah
 * Simhah Pinsker (1801–1864) a Polish-Jewish scholar and archeologist
 * Antoni Reichenberg (1825–1903), Polish priest, Jesuit, and artist.
 * Rudolf Pöch (1870–1921), doctor and anthropologist; pioneer photographer and cinematographer
 * Roza Pomerantz-Meltzer (1880–1934) a Polish writer and novelist based in Lviv and politician.
 * Solomon Judah Loeb Rapoport (1786–1867), a Galician and Czech rabbi and Jewish scholar.
 * Karol Rathaus (1895—1954), Polish-Austrian-American modernist composer
 * Eduard Romanyuta (born 1992) a Ukrainian singer, songwriter, actor and TV presenter.
 * Baron Lajos Simonyi de Barbács et Vitézvár (1824–1894) a Hungarian politician
 * Ruslan Stefanchuk (born 1975) a Ukrainian politician, party chairman and lawyer
 * Yaroslav Stetsko (1912–1986), a leader of Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists (OUN) from 1968.
 * Oleh Syrotyuk (born 1978) a Ukrainian politician, Governor of Ternopil Oblast in 2014
 * Jan Tarnowski (1488-1561), Polish general and nobleman, founder of Ternopil (as Tarnopol).
 * Judd L. Teller (1912–1972) Jewish author, social historian and poet; emigrated to the US in 1921.
 * Tvorchi, electronic music duo that represented Ukraine in the Eurovision Song Contest 2023.
 * Baroness Adelma Vay (1840–1925), a medium and pioneer of spiritualism in Slovenia and Hungary.

Sport

 * Olga Babiy (born 1989), a Ukrainian chess player and Woman Grandmaster
 * Petr Badlo (born 1976) a Ukrainian football manager and former footballer with 470 club caps.
 * Olha Maslivets (born 1978) a Russian windsurfer who competed at four Summer Olympics
 * Ihor Semenyna (born 1989) a Ukrainian football midfielder with 330 club caps

People from Ternopil Oblast

 * Aleksander Brückner, (1856 in Berezhany – 1939), a Polish scholar of Slavic languages and literature
 * Volodymyr Hnatiuk (1871 in Velesniv, Buchach – 1926), Ukrainian writer, literary scholar, journalist and ethnographer.
 * Bohdan Lepky (1872-1941), Ukrainian writer, poet and artist.
 * Ivan Horbachevsky (1854-1942), Ukrainian chemist and politician active in Austria-Hungary, Minister of Healthcare of Cisleithania.
 * Josyf Slipyj (1892-1984), Ukrainian Greek Catholic priest, Metropolitan of Lviv and Halych.
 * Solomiya Krushelnytska (1872 in Biliavyntsi — 1952), an outstanding Ukrainian Soprano
 * Bohdan Lepky (1872 in Krehulets – 1941), a Ukrainian writer, poet, scholar, public figure, and artist.
 * Ivan Pului (1845 in Hrymailiv – 1918) physicist and inventor, developed use of X-rays for medical imaging.
 * Casimir Zeglen (1869 near Tarnopol - 1927), Polish-American engineer, inventor of commercial bulletproof vest
 * Methodius (Kudriakov) (1949-2015), metropolitan of the Ukrainian Autocephalous Orthodox Church.
 * Serhiy Prytula (born 1981 in Zbarazh), Ukrainian TV show host, political activist, founder of Charity Foundation of Serhiy Prytula
 * Volodymyr Chornobay (born 1954), Ukrainian artist
 * Karolina Shiino (born 1997), Japanese model and winner of the 2024 Miss Nippon pageant.

Lived in Ternopil

 * Sofia Yablonska (1907-1971), Ukrainian-French travel writer, photographer and architect.
 * Les Kurbas (1887-1937), Ukrainian theatre director and actor, founder of the first Ukrainian theatre in Ternopil.

International relations
Ternopil is twinned with:
 * 🇩🇪 Erftstadt, Germany since 2023
 * 🇧🇬 Sliven, Bulgaria
 * 🇺🇸 Yonkers, United States (since 1991)
 * 🇵🇱 Elbląg in Poland (since 1992)
 * 🇵🇱 Chorzów, Poland
 * 🇧🇷 Prudentopolis, Brazil
 * Batumi, Georgia

Former twin towns include:
 * 🇵🇱 Tarnów in Poland
 * 🇧🇾 Pinsk in Belarus

Stadium naming controversy
In 2021, Ternopil created international outrage, especially in the Jewish community, by deciding to name a city stadium in honor of Nazi collaborator Roman Shukhevych. Shukhevych was the military leader of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army during World War II and was known for his collaboration with the Nazi regime as well as his responsibility for the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. As a result, the City Council of Tarnów decided to suspend its partnership with Ternopil.

Joel Lion, the Israeli Ambassador to Ukraine, expressed Israel’s strong objection to the city's choice to name the stadium in honor of Roman Shukhevych. Lion wrote, "We strongly condemn the decision of Ternopil city council to name the City Stadium after the infamous Hauptman (Captain) of the SS 201st Schutzmannschaft Roman Shukhevych and demand the immediate cancellation of this decision".

The Eastern Europe Director of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, Efraim Zuroff wrote, "It is fully understandable that Ternopil seeks to honor those who fought against Soviet Communism, but not those behind the mass murder of innocent fellow citizens." in a statement attempting to convince Ternopil to reconsider the "renaming of its stadium in honor of Nazi collaborator, Hauptmann of the SS Schutzmannschaft 201, Roman Shukhevych, an active participant in the mass murder of Jews and Poles in World War II."

Russo-Ukrainian War
In June 2022, due to full-scale Russian invasion and missile strikes from the territory of Belarus, Ternopil suspended its partnership with the city of Pinsk.

Festivals
An international open-air music festival called Faine Misto has been held annually near Ternopil for 2–4 days in July since 2013.

title: Ternopil


text: User talk:166.109.124.230

title: User talk:166.109.124.230


text:
Kovel

Kovel (Ковель, ; Kowel; קאוולע / קאוולי) is a city in Volyn Oblast, northwestern Ukraine. It serves as the administrative center of Kovel Raion within the oblast. Population:

Kovel gives its name to one of the oldest runic inscriptions which were lost during World War II. The Kovel spearhead, unearthed near the town in 1858, contained text in Gothic.

History
The name Kovel comes from a Slavonic word for blacksmith hence the horseshoe on the town's coat of arms. The rune-inscribed Spearhead of Kovel was found near Kovel in 1858. It dates to the early 3rd century, when Gothic tribes lived in the area.

Kovel (Kowel) was first mentioned in 1310. It received its town charter from the Polish King Sigismund I the Old in 1518. In 1547 the owner of Kowel became Bona Sforza, Polish queen. In 1564 starost of Kowel became Kurbski (d. 1584). From 1566 to 1795 it was part of the Volhynian Voivodeship. Kowel was a royal city of Poland. In 1792 the 3rd Polish Vanguard Regiment was garrisoned in Kowel, and later on also the 2nd Polish National Cavalry Brigade was stationed there.

After the Third Partition of Poland, in 1795, the town fell into the Russian Empire for over a hundred years. During the First World War, the city was a site of the Battle of Kowel between the Central Powers and the Russian Empire.

During the Polish–Soviet War, on September 12, 1920, it was the site of a battle between the Poles and Russians. The Poles won the battle, capturing a large amount of weapons and military equipment, including two armored trains and 26 cannons. In the interwar period, Kowel served as the capital of Kowel County in Volhynian Voivodeship of the Polish Republic. It was an important garrison of the Polish Army, here the headquarters of the 27th Volhynian Infantry Division was located. Furthermore, at the village of Czerkasy, a large depot of the Polish Army was located. In 1924, construction of the St. Stanislaus Bishop and Martyr Roman Catholic church began.

In World War II, following the joint Nazi German-Soviet invasion of Poland in 1939, Kovel was occupied by the Soviet Union and had a large number of Jewish refugees from German-occupied Poland. The area had a large presence of the Communist Party of Western Ukraine, and thus the Red Army was generally greeted as liberators. Subsequently, in 1941 Operation Barbarossa the Germans having conquered the town on 28 June 1941 murdered 18,000 Jews in Kovel, mostly during August and September 1942. The Germans operated the Stalag 301 POW camp, a subcamp of the Stalag 360 POW camp and a Dulag transit POW camp in the town.

About 8,000 Jews were murdered in the forest near Bakhiv on 19 August 1942 during the liquidation of the Kovel ghetto, established on 25 May 1942. Jewish victims were driven by train from Kovel to Bakhiv where pits were dug close to the railroads. Actually there were two ghettos, one within the city and another in the suburbs of Pyaski. Both ghettos had 24,000 Jews, including many refugees. The Jews from both ghettos were executed at different places and at different time. The Jewish community ceased to exist.

In March and April 1944 during the Soviet Polesskoe offensive, Kovel was a site of fierce fighting between the 5th SS Panzer Division Wiking and the Red Army.

During the massacres of Poles in Volhynia and Eastern Galicia, the town was a shelter for ethnic Poles, escaping the massacres. In that period, Ukrainian nationalists murdered approximately 3,700 Polish inhabitants of Kovel county. In early spring 1944, the 27th Infantry Division of the Home Army operated in the area. Kovel was captured by the Red Army on 6 July 1944. In 1945, the Big Three, Great Britain, the United States and the Soviet Union, established new borders for Poland; the Polish population was forcibly resettled and Kovel was incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. It has been a part of sovereign Ukraine since 1991.

Transportation
Kovel is the north-western hub of the Ukrainian rail system, with six rail lines radiating outward from the city. The first of these was built in 1873, connecting the city with Brest-Litovsk and Rivne. In 1877 Kovel was linked by the Vistula River Railroad with Lublin and Warsaw.

Notable people

 * Serhiy Chapko (born 1988), former professional footballer
 * Lesya Ukrainka (1871–1913), Ukrainian poet
 * Abraham Zapruder (1905–1970), clothing manufacturer who filmed the Assassination of John F. Kennedy
 * Meir Auerbach (1815–1877), first Ashkenazi Chief Rabbi of Jerusalem.
 * Israel Friedlander, rabbi, educator and biblical scholar
 * Frieda Hennock, first female commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission
 * Kazimierz Dejmek (1924–2002), Polish actor, theatre and film director
 * Michał Waszyński (1904–1965), Polish (later American) film producer
 * Ryszard Horodecki (born 1943), Polish physicist, professor of University of Gdańsk

Twin towns – sister cities
Kovel is twinned with:

 * 🇺🇸 Chamblee, United States
 * 🇵🇱 Baboszewo, Poland
 * 🇩🇪 Barsinghausen, Germany
 * 🇵🇱 Brzeg Dolny, Poland
 * 🇺🇦 Bucha, Ukraine
 * 🇵🇱 Chełm, Poland
 * 🇵🇱 Łęczna, Poland
 * 🇵🇱 Legionowo, Poland
 * 🇺🇦 Nikolske, Ukraine
 * 🇧🇾 Shchuchyn, Belarus
 * 🇺🇦 Smila, Ukraine
 * 🇵🇱 Szczuczyn, Poland
 * 🇱🇹 Utena, Lithuania
 * 🇩🇪 Walsrode, Germany

title: Kovel


text:
Ivano-Frankivsk

Ivano-Frankivsk (Івано-Франківськ, ), formerly Stanyslaviv, Stanislav and Stanisławów, is a city in western Ukraine. It serves as the administrative centre of Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast as well as Ivano-Frankivsk Raion within the oblast. Ivano-Frankivsk also hosts the administration of Ivano-Frankivsk urban hromada. Its population is

Built in the mid-17th century as a fortress of the Polish Potocki family, Stanisławów was annexed to the Habsburg Empire during the First Partition of Poland in 1772, after which it became the property of the State within the Austrian Empire. The fortress was slowly transformed into one of the most prominent cities at the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. After World War I, for several months, it served as a temporary capital of the West Ukrainian People's Republic. Following the Peace of Riga in 1921, Stanisławów became part of the Second Polish Republic. After the Soviet invasion of Poland at the onset of World War II, the city was annexed by the Soviet Union, only to be occupied by Nazi Germany two years later. With the liberation of Soviet Ukraine in 1944 and the shifting of borders, the city remained part of the Ukrainian SSR and was renamed in 1962 after Ivan Franko. With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the city become part of newly independent Ukraine.

Ivano-Frankivsk is one of the principal cities of the Carpathian Euroregion. There are elements of various cultures intertwined in the city's architecture, including the Polish city hall, the Austro-Hungarian city's business centre, the Soviet prefabricated apartment blocks at the city's rural–urban fringe, and others.

Name
The town was founded as a fortress known as Stanisławów where it was named after the Polish hetman Stanisław "Rewera" Potocki. Some sources claim it was named after his grandson Stanisław. Following the First Partition of Poland in 1772, the name was transliterated as Stanislau in German, as the city became part of the Austrian Empire, and later Austria-Hungary; however, after the Revolutions of 1848, the city carried three different linguistic renderings of its name: German, Polish, and Ruthenian (Stanislau, ; Stanisławów, ; Станісла́вів Stanislaviv,, or Станиславiв Stanyslaviv, ). Other spellings used in the local press media included Станиславов Stanislavov and סטאַניסלאוו.

After World War II it was changed by the Soviet authorities into a simplified version Stanislav (Станісла́в, ; Станисла́в, ). In 1962, to honor the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko on the city's 300th anniversary, it was renamed Ivano-Frankivsk (Івано-Франківськ) or Ivano-Frankovsk (Ивано-Франковск). It is sometimes colloquially called  Franyk (Франик) by its residents.

History

The town of Stanisławów was founded as a fortress in order to protect the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from Tatar invasions and to defend the multi-ethnic population of the region in case of armed conflicts such as the Khmelnytsky Uprising of 1648. The fort was originally built next to Zabolotiv village (known since 1435), and Knyahynyn (1449). The village of Zabolotiv and the land around it were purchased by Andrzej Potocki from another Polish nobleman, Rzeczkowski. Stanisławów was issued by Potocki and his declaration establishing the city with Magdeburg rights on 7 May 1662; but the city and its rights, however, were not recognized by the Polish Crown until 14 August 1663, when John Casimir had finally approved it. By 1672, the fortress had been rebuilt from wood to stone, brick, and mortar. Also a new large fortified Potocki palace was erected in the place of an older wood structure. Today this building serves as the military hospital. In the same year Jews were granted the right to become permanent residents, who could work, conduct commerce and travel in and out of the city as they pleased.

Originally the city was divided into two districts: Tysmenytsia and Halych. Sometime in 1817–1819 the neighbouring village of Zabolottya, that had a special status, was incorporated into the city as a new district, while Tysmenytsia district was divided into Tysmenytsia and Lysets districts. Each district had its main street corresponded with its name: Halych Street (Halych district), Tysmenytsia Street which today is Independence Street (Tysmenytsia district), Zabolotiv Street – Mykhailo Hrushevsky Street and Street of Vasylyanok (Zabolottya district), and Lysets Street – Hetman Mazepa Street (Lysets district). Later the city was split into six small districts: midtown where the rich Catholic population and patricians lived, pidzamche (subcastle), and four suburbs – Zabolotiv, Tysmenytsia, Halych and Lysets where the plebeians lived.

In October 1918, the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapsed and the Western Ukrainian People's Republic (ZUNR) was proclaimed. In the early months of 1919 (from January to May) the city became a temporary capital of the West Ukrainian National Republic, while still recovering from World War I. All state affairs took place in the building of Dnister Hotel where the Act Zluky (Unification Act) was composed and signed on 22 January 1919 by the Ukrainian People's Republic. The same year it was subjected to the Polish–Ukrainian and the Romanian-Ukrainian skirmishes eventually being annexed by Poland as part of the Second Polish Republic as the centre of the Stanisławów Voivodeship. It was occupied by the Romanian army for the summer months from 25 May to 21 August 1919. During the Polish–Soviet War in 1920, the Red Army took over the city for a brief period. After the Soviet retreat, Ukrainian troops loyal to Symon Petlura occupied the city for a few days. At this period of history the city was in complete disorder. It then became part of Poland until the start of World War II.

In the 1939 invasion of Poland by German and Soviet forces, the territory was captured by the Soviets in September 1939 and annexed to the Ukrainian SSR. Between September 1939 and June 1941, the Soviet regime ordered thousands of inhabitants of the city to leave their houses and move to Siberia, where most of them perished. Numerous people were taken out of the city prison and simply shot outside of the city when Soviet forces were leaving it in 1941. Ivano-Frankivsk was occupied by German forces from 2 July 1941 to 27 July 1944. There were more than 40,000 Jews in Stanisławów when it was occupied by the Nazis on 26 July 1941. The Stanisławów Ghetto was formed. During the occupation (1941–44), more than 600 educated Poles and most of the city's Jewish population were murdered.

In early 1944, the city became part of the Soviet Union and was again renamed Stanislav. The Soviets forced most of the Polish population to leave the city, where most of them settled in the Recovered Territories. In 1962, the city was renamed Ivano-Frankivsk after the Ukrainian writer Ivan Franko.

During the post-war period, the city was part of the Carpathian Military District housing the 38th Army (70th Motor Rifle Division) that participated in Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.

Until 18 July 2020, Ivano-Frankivsk was incorporated as a city of oblast significance and the center of Ivano-Frankivsk Municipality. The municipality was abolished in July 2020 as part of the administrative reform of Ukraine, which reduced the number of raions of Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast to six. The area of Ivano-Frankivsk Municipality was merged into the newly established Ivano-Frankivsk Raion.

On 24 February and 11 March 2022, Ivano-Frankivsk was struck by Russian missiles during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. See 2022 bombing of Ivano-Frankivsk.

Timeline

 * 1650–1662: establishing a private fortress of Potocki
 * 1662–1772: Stanisławów, Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (within the Kingdom of Poland),
 * 1772–1815: Stanisławów (Stanislau), Austrian Monarchy (within the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria),
 * 1815–1918: Stanisławów (Stanislau), Austrian Empire, then Austria-Hungary,
 * November 1918 – May 1919: Stanyslaviv, West Ukrainian People's Republic,
 * May 1919 – September 1939: Stanisławów, Poland, seat of the Stanisławów Voivodeship,
 * October 1939 – June 1941: Stanyslaviv, Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic,
 * July 1941 – August 1944: Stanisławów (Stanislau), seat of the Stanislau Kreis, District of Galicia, General Government,
 * August 1944 – 9 November 1962: Stanislav,
 * 9 November 1962: renamed as Ivano-Frankivsk, oblast seat, Ukrainian SSR,
 * 1991–present: Ivano-Frankivsk, independent Ukraine

Geography
The city is situated in the Carpathian region northeast of the mountain range, sitting approximately 120 m above mean sea level. One of the several main geographical features is the Vovchynets Hill also known as the Vovchynets Mountains. The hill reaches 300-350 m above sea level and is part of the Pokuttya Highland (Upland). Around the hill Bystrytsia River branches into Bystrytsia of Nadvirna, Bystrytsia of Solotvyn, and Vorona. The last two rivers serve as a natural border between the Pokuttya Highland and Stanislav Basin. The Vovchynets Hill is located just outside and northeast of Ivano-Frankivsk. Located southeast from the Stanislav Basin in the direction of the Prut Valley is the Khorosnen (Prut-Bystrytsia) Highland. The highest point of that highland is Mount Hostra, 425 m.

The closest neighboring city is Tysmenytsia, less than 10 km to the east. Other cities that lie in the radius of 25 to 30 km are Tlumach (east), Nadvirna (south), Kalush (west), and Halych (north). The city also administers five adjacent villages that surround it: Mykytyntsi, Krykhivtsi, Vovchynets, Uhornyky, and Khryplyn.

Climate
As is the case with most of Ukraine, the climate is moderate continental with warm summers, and fairly cold winters. The following climate data provided is for the past 62 years. The average number of days with precipitation is 170 spread almost equally throughout a year. Most precipitation takes place during the winter months and least in early autumn. Thunderstorms occur mostly in summer months averaging around 25 annually. Ivano-Frankivsk averages about 296 days of fog or misty days with about 24 per month.

Demographics
Note: Historical population record is taken out of Ivano-Frankivsk portal, more recent – the Regional Directorate of Statistics. There is also other information on a population growth such as the JewishGen. With asterisk there are identified years of approximate data. In the 18th century, differentiation among Poles and Ukrainians was by religious background rather than ethnic (Catholics vs. Orthodox).

Language
Distribution of the population by native language according to the 2001 census:

According to a survey conducted by the International Republican Institute in April–May 2023, 97% of the city's population spoke Ukrainian at home, and 3% spoke Russian.

Administration
Both city and oblast administrations as well as the regional council are all located in a massive white building on Hrushevsky Street locally known as Bily Dim or Bily Budynok. In front of the building, there is a big open space bordered by Shpytalna Street on the north-east, Hrushevsky Street on the south-east, and Melnychuk Street on the south-west. Next to the building, there is a memorial to the Unification of the Western Ukraine with the rest of Ukraine. The main feature of the memorial is a tall marble stele, both sides of which are adorned with statues: kamenyar (west) and kobzar (east).

City Council
The city council currently consists of 42 deputies. The political representation after the 2020 Ukrainian local elections by political blocs was elected as such: 28 seats for Svoboda, 10 seats for European Solidarity and 4 seats for Batkivschyna.

Recent city mayors

 * Bohdan Borovych (OUN) July 1994 – June 1998
 * Zinoviy Shkutiak (Our Ukraine) March 1998 – 26 March 2006
 * Viktor Anuškevičius (UPP) 26 March 2006 – 2015
 * (All-Ukrainian Union «Svoboda») 2015–2023
 * (All-Ukrainian Union «Svoboda») 2023–present

In the (first round of the) 2020 Ukrainian local elections Martsinkiv was reelected with about 85% of the vote.

Streets
All street names reflecting the city's Soviet or Russian past have been returned to their former names, or given new names of national historic importance, or other non-controversial names. For example, Gagarin Street (connecting the city with its suburbs) became Vovchynets Street, Suvorov Street is now Harbar Street, and Soviet Street is Independence Street. Around 100 other streets were renamed.
 * Important transportation arteries
 * Independence Street (vulytsia Nezalezhnosti) / Tysmenytsia Road (doroha Tysmenetska)
 * Halych Road (vulytsia Halytska)
 * Hetman Mazepa Street (vulytsia Hetmana Mazepy) / Krykhivtsi Road (doroha Krykhivetska)
 * Yevhen Konovalets Road (vulytsia Yevhena Konovaltsia)
 * Vovchynets Street (vulytsia Vovchynetska)
 * Vasyl Stefanyk Shore Drive (naberezhna Vasylia Stefanyka)

City squares
The city has seven main city squares, four of them located in the "old town" part of the city.
 * Viche Maidan
 * Market Square
 * Sheptytskyi Square
 * Pryvokzalna Square
 * Mickiewicz Square (Mickiewicz Park)
 * Liberation Square
 * European Square

Rural-urban fringe districts
Like a lot of regional centers in Ukraine and the former Soviet Union, Ivano-Frankivsk is well known for its rural-urban fringe panel building residential districts, too.
 * BAM
 * Kaskad
 * Positron
 * Budivelnykiv

Transport
The city of Ivano-Frankivsk has an extensive network of public transport including buses, trolleybuses, and taxis. There are nine trolleybus routes and about 52 for regular buses. Some of the routes run beyond the city into nearby villages. The city is served by the Ivano-Frankivsk railway station. There are also smaller railway stations in adjacent villages, including Uhryniv and Khryplyn. All of them are part of Lviv Railways.
 * Public transportation
 * Railway transportation

Until 2008, the railway terminal also housed a bus terminal which provided several inter-city bus routes, including some to international destinations. In 2000, construction began on a new bus terminal next to the railway terminus on Zaliznychna Street. Inauguration of the new bus terminal took place on 22 May 2010. At the opening ceremony the Mayor of the city, Viktor Anushkevičius, noted that the new bus terminal was only partially completed, and for a period it would be necessary to offload passengers at the Pryvokzalna Square, which is already saturated with traffic. He also emphasised the need for another bus station on the outskirts of the city. The city is served by Ivano-Frankivsk International Airport, which was granted international status in 1992. The airport shares its facilities with the 114 Brigade of the Ukrainian Air Force. Since 2002, the airport has been leased to the private enterprise company Yavson, and from 2005 the Public limited company Naftokhimik Prykarpattia, a (subsidiary of Ukrnafta). The contract with Naftokhimik Prykarpattia expired in 2013.
 * Bus transportation
 * Airways transportation

There are many lodging options in Ivano-Frankivsk. Ivano-Frankivsk has one four-star hotel ("Park Hotel" ) and three three-star hotels ("Nadia", "Auscoprut", "Pid Templem" ).
 * Lodging

Routes
The city of Ivano-Frankivsk is located on the intersection of three major national (Ukraine) routes: ', ' , and . There also is one important regional route T09-06. All the H-routes eventually connect to .

Education
The city has over 25 public schools of general education for grades 1 through 11, including the Ukrainian gymnasium No. 1. There are also some privately owned schools and lyceums. In addition, the city has several professional public institutes.

There are also numerous sports schools: Fitness Sport Association "Ukraine" – 5 schools, MVK – 3 schools, Fitness Sport Association "Spartak" – 2 schools, Fitness Sport Association "Kolos" – 1 school, and the others.

Universities
The city has six universities, the Ivano-Frankivsk Institute of Management that is a local campus of Ternopil National Economic University, and the Ivano-Frankivsk Institute of Management and Economics "Halytska Akademia". All of which are state funded.
 * 1) Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University
 * 2) Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas (University of Oil and Gas)
 * 3) Ivano-Frankivsk National Medical University
 * 4) King Daniel of Galicia Ivano-Frankivsk University of Law
 * 5) Ivano-Frankivsk Theological Academy of Greek-Catholic Church
 * 6) West Ukrainian University of Economics and Law

Architecture

 * Remains of the Stanislaviv fortress compound built in the 17th century
 * Collegiate Church of Virgin Mary, today the Regional Art Museum, built in the late 17th and the early 18th century in Baroque style
 * Greek Catholic Cathedral of the Holy Resurrection, originally Jesuite church built 1752-1761 in Baroque style
 * Armenian church (presently used by one of the Ukrainian Orthodox Churches), built 1743-1763 in Baroque style
 * Potocki Palace - originally built 1672-1682 and rebuilt as a military hospital in 1809
 * Former Austrian Railway Directorate, today the Ivano-Frankivsk National Medical University, built 1894 by Ernest Bowdish
 * Tempel Synagogue, built 1895-1899 by Wilhelm Stiassny
 * Ivano-Frankivsk railway station, originally built in 1866 and rebuilt 1903-1906 by Ernst Baudisch
 * Hartenberg Passage, built in 1904 by Karel Boblik
 * Former Austria hotel at 12 Sichovyh Striltsiv Street (1913)
 * Church of St. Joseph, built 1911-1913 by Felicjan Bajan
 * Modernist town hall, today a local history museum, built 1928-1935 by Stanisław Trela
 * Modernist post office at 13a Sichovyh Striltsiv Street, built 1937-1939 by Bohdan Lachert
 * Ivan-Franko National Academic Drama Theater - post-war modernism
 * City Brewery

Other attractions

 * Market Square with the city's old town hall, today hosting an ethno-cultural museum.
 * Shevchenko Park, a big park that consists of an amusement park, a big lake with swans, couple of full-size football fields, and many other interesting places which are worth a visit.
 * Bily Budynok, a big white building in the middle of the city and next to the Market place. It is the main administration building of Ivano-Frankivsk and Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast. In front of the building, there are two full-size sculptural monuments to Franko and Shevchenko.
 * Bazaar, a huge area that covers the old market and the new market with a couple of supermarket stores locally known as the universal stores.
 * 100 m stretch (stometrivka), unofficial local name for a part of Independence Street that consists of numerous shops and is restricted to pedestrian traffic only.

Monuments

 * Battle of Grunwald monument – commemorating the victory of the Poland on Grunwald fields in 1410.
 * Monument to Adam Mickiewicz (1930) – it was reconstructed in 1989, located in Adam Mickiewicz Square next to a regional concert (philharmonic) hall. It is the oldest surviving monument in the city and was built on 20 November 1898 (sculptor Tadeusz Błotnicki).
 * Monument to Stepan Bandera and Museum of the Insurgent Army in European Square were awarded the best architectural project of 2007 designed by a local architecture company "Atelie Arkhitektury"

Theaters and Cinemas

 * Ivan Franko Academic Regional Music and Drama Theater
 * Mariika Pidhirianka Academic Regional Puppet Theater
 * Ivan Tobilevich Ukrainian National Theater
 * Regional Philharmonic Society
 * Lumiere Movie Theater (previously, Ivan Franko Movie Theater)
 * Cosmos Movie Theater
 * Former
 * Patriot Movie Theater
 * Shevchenko Movie Theater (previously "Pioneer")
 * "Videotech"
 * Gorky Movie Theater
 * Komsomolets Movie Theater
 * Shevchenko Movie Theater (original)
 * Trembita, a summer movie theater

City parks

 * Shevchenko Park
 * Park of Warriors-Internationalists
 * Park "Valy"
 * Pryvokzalny park
 * Memorial Park, near Ivan Franko Academic Regional Music and Drama Theater

Festivals

 * «Sviato Kovaliv» (Blacksmiths festival)
 * «Karpatskyi Prostir» (Carpathian Space)
 * «Koliada na Maizliakh» Christmas Festival
 * «Prykarpattia Honey Fest»
 * «Holiday of Grapes and Wine»
 * «Stanislavska Marmuliada»

Sports
Ivano-Frankivsk is home to a number of sports teams. Most notably, it was home to the football club FC Spartak Ivano-Frankivsk (Prykarpattya) that participated on the national level since the 1950s. Since 2007, the club only fields its youth team Spartak-93 and competes in the Children-Youth Football League of Ukraine. The former president of Spartak Anatoliy Revutskiy reorganized the local university (University of Oil and Gas) team in 2007 into the new "FSK Prykarpattia" with support of the city mayor Anushkevychus making it the main football club in the region and replacing Spartak. Previously during the interbellum period, the city was home to another football club based on the local Polish garrison and called Rewera Stanisławów (1908). That club competed at a regional level that had evolved at that period. With the start of World War II, that club was disbanded. During the Soviet period among several others there was another club "Elektron" that successfully participated at a regional level around the 1970s.

The city also is the home to a futsal team, PFC Uragan Ivano-Frankivsk, that competes in the Ukrainian Futsal Championship. They were the Ukrainian champions having won the 2010/11 season playoffs and therefore took part in the 2011–12 UEFA Futsal Cup for the first time.

The city had an ice hockey team, HC Vatra Ivano-Frankivsk, which previously played in the Ukrainian Hockey Championship.

Ivano-Frankivsk is also the hometown of Ukrainian gymnasts; one of them is Dariya Zgoba who won gold on the uneven bars in the 2007 European Championships and became a finalist on the Beijing Olympics; the other one is Yana Demyanchuk, who won gold on the balance beam at the 2009 European Championships.

Other clubs include:
 * Hoverla Ivano-Frankivsk (basketball)
 * Roland Ivano-Frankivsk (rugby)
 * Uragan (futsal)

 * Main Stadiums and Sport Complexes
 * MCS Rukh, a sport complex consisting of the major arena and two auxiliary fields next to it
 * Yunist Stadium (Youth)
 * Hirka Stadium, property of the Ivano-Frankivsk Locomotive Maintenance Plant
 * Nauka Stadium (Science), which belongs to Vasyl Stefanyk Precarpathian National University
 * Stadium of Oil and Gas University
 * Sport-Recreational Center "Tsunami", which contains an ice arena for the local hockey events and a waterpark

City's radio, television, press media

 * Press
 * "Reporter" – Ivano-Frankivsk weekly
 * "Halytskyi Korespondent" – a social-political weekly
 * "Halychyna" – regional newspaper
 * Radio
 * "Zakhidnyi Polius (104.3 FM)" – city's radio
 * "Vezha (107 FM)" – city's radio
 * Television
 * "Ivano-Frankivsk ODTRK" – regional state broadcasting company
 * "3-Studia" – regional broadcasting company
 * "Halychyna" – regional television
 * "Canal 402" - regional television

Notable people

 * Eliezer Adler (born 1866), founder of the Jewish Community in Gateshead, England
 * Svetlana Alexievich (born 1948), Belarusian journalist and writer, winner of the 2015 Nobel Prize for Literature
 * Yuri Andrukhovych (born 1960), Ukrainian writer
 * Daniel Auster (1893–1963), Mayor of Jerusalem
 * Menachem Avidom (1908–1995), Israeli composer
 * John Banner (1910–1973), Austrian-American actor. Star of Hogan's Heroes
 * Naftali Blumenthal (1922-2022), Israeli Member of the Knesset
 * Maxim Bugzester (1909–1978), Polish painter
 * Arthur F. Burns (1904–1987), American-Jewish economist and politician
 * Yaroslav Huzar (1897–1963), Ukrainian public figure, father of Liubomyr Huzar
 * Ana Casares (1930–2007), Polish-Argentine actress
 * Zbigniew Cybulski (1927–1967), Polish actor
 * Bolesław Wieniawa-Długoszowski (1881–1942), Polish general, politician and diplomat
 * Albin Dunajewski (1817-1894), Roman Catholic cardinal
 * Wiktor Eckhaus (1930–2000), Polish–Dutch mathematician
 * Feliks Falk (born 1941), Polish film director
 * Moshe Flimann (1905–1973), Mayor of Haifa
 * Fritz Grossmann (1902–1984), art historian and Professor of Art History
 * Ludwik Hass (1918–2008), Polish historian
 * Moses Horowitz (1844–1910), playwright and actor of Yiddish theatre
 * Alfred Johann Theophil Jansa von Tannenau (1884–1963), Austrian general
 * GreenJolly (active 2004–2005), Ukrainian rap band
 * Tina Karol (born 1985), Ukrainian singer, actress, and television presenter
 * Orest-Vasyl Kuziv (born 1997), Ukrainian artist
 * Maria Antonina Kratochwil (1881–1942), nun beatified by Pope John Paul II who tried to save Jews during the Holocaust
 * František Kriegel (1908—1979), Czechoslovak politician and physician
 * Manfred H. Lachs (1914–1993), Polish diplomat and British jurist
 * Oksana Lada (born 1976), Ukrainian actress
 * Chaim David Lippe (1823–1900), Austrian Jewish publisher and bibliographer
 * Alfreda Markowska (born 1926), Polish-Romani woman who during World War II saved approximately 50 Jewish and Roma children from death in the Holocaust and the Porajmos genocide
 * Leo Aryeh Mayer (1895–1959), Israeli scholar of Islamic art and rector of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem
 * Bernard Mond (1887–1957), Jewish general of the Polish Army
 * Itzhak Nener (1919–2012), Israeli jurist
 * Yevhen Nakonechny (1931–2006), Ukrainian historian, librarian, library scientist, and linguist
 * Daniel Passent (1938–2022), Polish journalist
 * Anastasiya Petryshak (born 1994), Ukrainian violinist
 * Józef Potocki (1673–1751), Polish nobleman, son of the Polish founder of the city
 * Mikhail Prusak (born 1960), Russian politician
 * Bohdan Rozvadovskyi (born 2004), better known by his stage name SadSvit, Ukrainian post punk singer
 * Horacy Safrin (1899–1980), Polish poet, comedian, author, and translator
 * Max Schur (1897–1969), physician
 * Anna Seniuk (born 1942), Polish actress
 * Tryzuby Stas (1948–2007), Ukrainian singer and writer of humorous songs, bard
 * Klemens Stefan Sielecki (1903–1980), Polish engineer and technical director of Fablok
 * Stanisław Sosabowski (1892–1967), Polish general, hero of Arnhem
 * Mordechai Surkis (1908–1995), Israeli politician
 * Gabriel Talphir (1901–1990), Israeli poet, art critic, publisher, editor, and translator
 * Vasyl Velychkovsky (1903–1973), bishop of Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church
 * Taras Voznyak (born 1957), Ukrainian political scientist, editor-in-chief and founder of Independent Cultural Journal
 * Alexander Wagner (1868–1942), Polish chess theoretician
 * Ksenia Zsikhotska (born 1989), Ukrainian dancer
 * Nadia Parfan (born 1986), Ukrainian film director and creative producer

Sport

 * Yana Demyanchuk (born 1993), Ukrainian gymnast and 2009 European Champion on balance beam
 * Myroslav Stupar (born 1941), Ukrainian football referee
 * Vasyl Virastyuk (born 1974), Ukrainian strongman athlete 2004 World's Strongest Man

Twin towns – sister cities
Ivano-Frankivsk is twinned with:

 * 🇺🇸 Arlington County, United States (2009)
 * Braga, Portugal (2017)
 * 🇧🇾 Brest, Belarus
 * 🇵🇱 Chrzanów, Poland (2001)
 * 🇵🇱 Chrzanów County, Poland (2016)
 * 🇱🇻 Jelgava, Latvia (2007)
 * 🇵🇱 Koszalin, Poland (2010)
 * 🇵🇱 Lublin, Poland (2009)
 * 🇨🇳 Nanning, China (2019)
 * 🇵🇱 Nowa Sól County, Poland (2010)
 * 🇵🇱 Ochota (Warsaw), Poland (2006)
 * 🇵🇱 Opole, Poland (2005)
 * 🇩🇪 Potsdam, Germany (2023)
 * 🇨🇿 Přerov, Czech Republic (2010)
 * 🇹🇷 Diyarbakır,Turkey (2023)
 * Rustavi, Georgia (2016)
 * 🇵🇱 Rybnik, Poland (2001)
 * 🇵🇱 Rzeszów, Poland (2000)
 * 🇲🇩 Strășeni District, Moldova (2016)
 * 🇵🇱 Świdnica, Poland (2008)
 * 🇵🇱 Tomaszów Mazowiecki, Poland (2004)
 * 🇱🇹 Trakai, Lithuania (2006)
 * 🇵🇱 Zielona Góra, Poland (2001)

In February 2016 Ivano-Frankivsk City Council terminated its twinned relations with the Russian cities Surgut, Serpukhov and Veliky Novgorod due to the Russo-Ukrainian War.

Partner cities
Ivano-Frankivsk cooperates with:

 * 🇷🇴 Baia Mare, Romania (1990)
 * 🇭🇺 Nyíregyháza, Hungary (2004)
 * 🇷🇴 Oradea, Romania (2003)
 * 🇷🇴 Târgoviște, Romania (2005)

Orientation

 * Local orientation

 * Regional orientation

title: Ivano-Frankivsk


text:
Stanisławów Voivodeship

Stanisławów Voivodeship (Województwo stanisławowskie) was an administrative district of the interwar Poland (1920–1939). It was established in December 1920 with an administrative center in Stanisławów. The voivodeship had an area of 16,900 km2 and comprised twelve counties (powiaty). Following World War II, at the insistence of Joseph Stalin during the Tehran Conference of 1943, Poland's borders were redrawn, Polish population forcibly resettled and Stanisławów Voivodeship was incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic as Stanislav Oblast (later renamed as Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast).

September 1939 and its aftermath
Following German invasion on Poland, and in accordance with the secret protocol of Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland on September 17, 1939. As bulk of the Polish Army was concentrated in the west, fighting Germans, the Soviets met with little resistance and their troops quickly moved westwards. Polish authorities originally intended to organize anti-German resistance in Stanisławów Voivodeship (see: Romanian Bridgehead), with Polish Army units planning to stand ground until the spring of 1940 when a French attack on Germany was expected. However, the Soviet invasion of Poland rendered these plans ineffectual. It is estimated that prior to Soviet counter-offensive in the latter part of World War II, over 18,000 Polish civilians in Stanisławów Voivodeship fell victims to OUN-UPA massacres.

Demographics
The Voivodeship's capital was Stanisławów (now Ivano-Frankivsk in Ukraine). In 1921 was inhabited by 1,339,191 people, and its population density was 72.9 persons per km2. Ukrainians and Ruthenians constituted 70% of the population, especially in the countryside. Poles, distributed across the entire voivodeship, made around 22%, Polish Jews (mainly in towns), around 7%. Also, there were smaller communities of Galician Germans. In 1931 the population grew to 1,480,285 and the density to 88 persons per km2.

According to the census of 1921 the Stanisławów Voivodeship was inhabited by 1,339,191 people, of whom by nationality 70.2% were Ruthenian (Ukrainian), 21.8% were Polish, 6.8% were Jewish, 1.1% were German and 0.1% all others. By religion 74.3% were Uniate or Orthodox, 14.3% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant and 10.6% were Jewish.

In 1931 the voivodeship had 1,480,285 inhabitants, of whom by mother tongue 68.8% spoke Ukrainian and Ruthenian, 22.4% spoke Polish, 7.4% spoke Yiddish and Hebrew, 1.1% spoke German and 0.3% spoke other languages. By religion 73% were Greek Catholic and Orthodox, 16.6% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant, 9.4% were Jewish and 0.2% were others.

The results of the 1931 census (questions about mother tongue and about religion) are presented in the table below:

Geography
The Stanisławów Voivodeship's area was 16,894 square kilometers. It was located in south-eastern corner of the country, bordering Tarnopol Voivodeship to the northeast, Lwów Voivodeship to the west, Czechoslovakia (Between 1919 and 1938), Hungary (Between 1938 and 1939) and Romania to the south. It was in large part covered by forests of the Carpathian Mountains, with numerous mountain spas (Worochta, Skole, Dolina, Żabie, Sławsko, Woronienka, Jaremcza, Kuty). The landscape was hilly (in the north) and mountainous (in the south), with Hoverla in the Chornohora range as the highest peak (2060 meters above sea level). The other significant mountain range was the Gorgany.

The main river was the Dniester, which also marked border with the Tarnopol Voivodeship. Other rivers were: the Prut, the Stryj and the Cheremosh (the last one was at the same time bordering Poland from Romania).

Administrative divisions
Before the onset of World War II the Stanisławów Voivodeship consisted of 15 powiats (counties) (earlier 12), 29 towns, 904 villages and numerous smaller communities (futory, kolonie). Those were the same 12 powiats that were part of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria with the addition of Turka powiat later on. Its capital Stanisławów was the largest city, with population of some 60,000 (as of 1931). Other important municipal centers of the voivodeship were: Kołomyja (pop. 33,800), Stryj (pop. 30,500), Horodenka (pop. 12,200), Kalusz (pop. 12,100), Sniatyn (pop. 10,800) and Bolechow (pop. 10,700).

The Stanisławów Voivodeship consisted of 12 powiats (counties):
 * 1) Dolina Powiat (2,397 km2)
 * 2) Horodenka Powiat (849 km2)
 * 3) Kałusz Powiat (1,137 km2)
 * 4) Kołomyja Powiat (1,339 km2), joined with Peczeniżyn Powiat
 * 5) Kosów Powiat (1,839 km2)
 * 6) Nadwórna Powiat (2,472 km2)
 * 7) Rohatyn Powiat (1,147 km2)
 * 8) Stanisławów Powiat (1,249 km2), joined with Bohorodczan Powiat
 * 9) Stryj Powiat (2,081 km2), joined with Skolski Powiat
 * 10) Śniatyń Powiat (567 km2)
 * 11) Tłumacz Powiat (934 km2)
 * 12) Żydaczów Powiat (883 km2)

Railroads and industry
The Stanisławów Voivodeship was located in the so-called Poland "B" region, which meant that it was underdeveloped, with low level of industry and considerable numbers of inhabitants living in poverty. Agricultural production was low due to poor quality of soil. Since mid-1930s, the area was quickly gaining popularity as a tourist destination, with numbers of visitors to mountain springs rising steadily year by year. Railroad network was well-developed in the north, with such important junctions as Stanisławów, Kołomyja and Stryj. In the south, however, rail connections were lacking.

On January 1, 1938, total length of railroads within Voivodeship's boundaries was 755 kilometers (4.5 km. per 100 km2).

Voivodes
The local government of voivodeship and city was located at address Ulica Karpinskiego, 7 (today - vulytsia Halytska, 2).
 * Edmund Jurystowski: 21 October 1921 – 18 August 1925
 * Aleksander Des Loges: 18 August 1925 – 25 October 1926
 * Władysław Korsak: 18 December 1926 – 12 September 1927
 * Aleksander Morawski: 28 October 1927 – 30 October 1928
 * Bronisław Nakoniecznikow-Klukowski: 30 October 1928 – 29 August 1930
 * Zygmunt Jagodziński: 3 September 1930 – 1 February 1936 (acting until 2 February 1931)
 * Mieczysław Starzyński: 11 February 1936 – 22 June 1936 (acting )
 * Jan Sawicki: 23 June 1936 – July 1936
 * Stefan Pasławski: 14 July 1936 – 20 January 1939
 * Stanisław Jarecki: 20 January 1939 – 2 September 1939

Following Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939, the voivodeship existed until 27 November 1939. On 6 October 1939 – 27 November 1939 the voivodeship was governed by Soviet provisional chairman of Civilian Administration Mikhail Grulenko who later continued to hold his post as the 1st secretary of the CPU in the region.

title: Stanisławów Voivodeship