text:
Talk:Pangu

Organization
I remove information that is chaotic and disorganized. An encyclopedia is a place for organized data. Besides, source documents have no place in Wikipedia. The place that it ought to be at is at Wikisource. In fact, your rewrite is confusing to any non-Chinese readers. Mandel 09:38, Jun 3, 2005 (UTC)

 * Mandel, Thank you for a direct response over an overwrite. My apologies for incorrectly using the email. That was entirely my fault (This refers to another discussion).

 * 1) Following your criticism, I went to WikiSource and read this: "While Wikipedia is an encyclopedia, Wikisource is a library". Apparantly, Wiki thinks the Pangu narrative itself belongs in WikiSource. Not to worry... I did not remove your contribution. Please do not remove mine, especially over a style issue.

 * 2) It is clear you found my contribution confusing. What was not clear is what you would have needed to make this easier to digest. How could showing the development of this myth and its place in history be more straightforward? Exactly how is it confusing to you?

 * 4) Pangu IS a relatively recent addtion to the Chinese pantheon. It may be entirely post-Han Daoist in origin. If this is not true, I would want to know where and how an alternate view is perpetuated. Showing the development of this myth describes China's view of origins far better than one undocumented story told without context. Not everybody wants the fairy tale, nor do they use them the same way.

 * Again, thanks for the dialog.

 * --mamgeorge 20:42, 2005 Jun 6 (UTC)

Translation
Since translation is a very subjective process (except for babelfish :-), I have restored the original delete text here in case some linguists want to improve the translation in the article:

天地渾沌如雞子，盤古生其中. 萬八千歲，天地開辟，陽清為天，陰濁為地. 盤古在其中，一日九變，神於天，怪於地. 天日高一丈，地日厚一丈，盤古日長一丈. 如此萬八千歲，天數極高，地數極深，盤古極長. 《藝文類聚》卷一引《三五歷記》

首生盤古，垂死化身. 氣成風，聲為雷霆，左眼為日，右眼為月，四肢五體為四極五岳，血液為江河，筋脈為地里，肌膚為田土，髮髭為星辰，皮毛為草木，齒骨為金石，精髓為珠玉，汗流為雨澤，身之諸蟲，因風所感，化為黎甿（黎民百姓）. 《繹史》卷一引《五運歷年記》

Kowloonese 23:57, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Heh...I don't think including the Babelfish translation is all that helpful. :P I guess I'll leave it, though...
 * Furrykef 11:28, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * What a mess! Could someone help do something about this?  We don't need all this babelfish gibberish in Wikipedia.
 * Mandel 22:45, Feb 23, 2005 (UTC)

 * The Chinese should be moved to WikiSource; the English is short enough to keep. However, can anyone confirm the source document title in English? It looks like 繹史 Yishi chapter 1; but I have not yet identified Wuyun Linianji (五運 歷年記, pinyin: wu3yun4 li4nian2ji4). The Yishi (繹史, pinyin: yi4 shi3) is probably referring to the 7 volume anthology by Qing Dynasty (清朝) scholar Ma Fu (馬蚨, pinyin: ma3 fu2); but I can not verify this. Can anyone help?
 * mamgeorge 18:23, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Years?
Are those numbers meant to be years in the Original source documents section? If should +0220 AD +0265 AD be read as the span of years 220-265? --Dschwen 22:17, 19 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Dschwen, Yes, they were; I copied them from material I wrote and formatted earlier before being familiar with the Wiki Manual of Style. This should be resolved now. I am still learning; let me know of any other mistakes. My apologies if that was confusing. mamgeorge 17:04, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Label
Hi Mamgeorge. I took a look at your contributions at Pangu. I'm thinking that perhaps you (or someone else) could add more information about what the Pangu myth is, rather than when,who or how it was recorded? I think that a user approaching an encyclopedia such as Wikipedia would be more interested in finding out what Pangu is, rather than debates about when or how the legend came about? --Sumple (Talk) 11:33, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Sumple, Thanks for the dialog first. Glad to see not everyone interperets "Be Bold!" as "Act Uninformed; Be Rude!" Mandel may have been alluding to the "what"  in his earlier comments; I may have misunderstood his intent by the focus on organization (see above). In any case, I think the most accurate description of Pangu is: "a Daoist anthropomorphism for a creator developed during the Three Kingdom period". This is my opinion. However, the current definition: "Pangu was the first living being and the creator of all in Chinese mythology" is patently wrong on at least three accounts:

 * 1) Pangu was not the first. See the Shangdi article and notice the dates. This is why the dates were so important. Shangdi appears hundreds, perhaps thousands of years before the first mention of Pangu. Pangu is hardly the first, and was not the last (See Jade Emperor).

 * 2) Pangu may have been intended as an allegory. This depends on whether the author was intending to represent his account of a "true" story, an intentional fiction, a fanciful representation of an earlier myth, or an anthropomorphism of creation. Do you know which it is?

 * 3) Pangu does not relate to all Chinese mythology. This seems to be the way this myth is often interperated. That is patently wrong, as the sources show; this is clearly Daoist in origin. If you argue that "he" is now, or was to Xu Zheng, a syncretism, then it is not "all", and the development becomes more crucial.

 * This challenges a very popular, and I believe, a very erroneous view that Pangu is China's "original" creator. The "who, when, how" appear to be essential in understanding the "what" in this case; unless you exclusively believe Xu Zheng. The inclusion of the story alone neglects the context of its development. In my view, an encyclopedia is supposed to provide that context; WikiSource provides the citation.

 * Last note: The obvious change back and forth over what god was said to be in Chinese history is an interesting and very pertinent topic to Pangu. The source materials were not intended to foster "debate"; they were intended to accurately enlighten.

 * If anyone got this far, thanks for your patience. Please let me know what you think. What would you propose for the opening line? Do you think this organization is effective?

 * mamgeorge 17:04, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

Hi Mamgeorge. I agree with you that the description is not very accurate. However, in terms of some of the points you raised above, I think that
 * (1) When Pangu is described as the "first living thing" what it means is that, in the myth relating to Pangu, he was the first creature. This does not have to imply that he is the first living thing ever recorded/mentioned in literature. For example, Shangdi does not appear in the Pangu myth, so it does not have to clash with Pangu's "firstness".
 * (2) Although it may have been a part of Daoist philosphy, Daoist mythology, or simply an allegory, Pangu is accepted as a "real" myth today, so I think it is a part of the Chinese mythology.
 * Yes, I agree with you that the how and when is important. Which is why I've changed the organisation of the page slightly, so that readers first get an idea of what the myth roughly is, then go on to read about its creation and development.
 * Sumple (Talk) 22:49, 1 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Sumple, Hello. Thanks for the reply.

 * 1) The point about "firstness" relates to my understanding of how he is percieved in the common culture. Yes, the myth describes him that way, but in addition to that, a ton of websites and a number of books add to that the implication of "firstness". Since there are a number of claimed "firsts", (Shangdi, Yu Huang, Pangu, et.al.), I feel the description could perpetuate the misinformation. With this in mind, do you still feel it is clear?

 * 2) I agree that Pangu is definitely Chinese Mythology.

 * 3) The format is fine with me. I tried to track down the reference for the specific quote (an English reader could have just paraphrased it or made up parts) since it is presented as a citation. I have seen the story enough that I believe it is a fair representation of the myth, but that is not the point. See Translation above. Technically it is still unreferenced. Do you have a specific citation?

 * 4) Do you still feel more "what" is needed in the explanation? How about the development of the concept of god? This is alluded to in Chinese Mythology & Shangdi; do you think more should be added here?

 * mamgeorge 13:04, 2 June 2006 (UTC)

 * Hi Mamgeorge, on your points:
 * 1) perhaps, "Pangu is described in some myths as the first creature ..."?
 * 3) I believe, from memory, that the current "myth" section is translated from two sources mentioned above (in the Translation section). I will check through again.
 * 4) The "What" is okay, I think. Perhaps something about his association with Nuwa?? I look forward to seeing anything you might write about the development of the concept of god.
 * --Sumple (Talk) 06:28, 3 June 2006 (UTC)

 * I am thinking, at this time, these reflections make more sense in the Chinese Mythology section. Please see the articles on the talk page under "Anthropomorphizing" and "Dating Myths"

 * mamgeorge 19:00, 6 June 2006 (UTC)

Parasites
According to the article of the french wikipedia and another book i've read "Mankind was made from the parasites on Pangu's body"...

Can anyone help? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.74.61.140 (talk) 18:23, 1 May 2009 (UTC)

the fleas on his fur became animals
As I see it, the section in which this appears is supposed to be mainly based on Xu Zheng's account:

身之諸蟲. 因風所感. 化為黎甿. This (黎甿)is universally understood as "they became the common people". Not animals.

Furthermore, the section goes on to the myth of creation by Nüwa, which (a) is not in Xu Zheng (I think) (b) is not relevant to the topic. If some source *does* link the story of Pangu and Nüwa, please reference it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.214.21.64 (talk) 17:48, 13 March 2014 (UTC)

Possibly misspelled/nonstandard spelling in other articles
Is this the "P'an Hu" in Lycanthropy and Therianthropy?

Hatnote
If you look at the page views over the past 30 days, this article has been viewed 5000 times, Pangu Team about half that, at around 2500 views. But Pangu (disambiguation) only has some odd ~100 views and all of the other articles have around that much. Clearly there are a good number of readers who are very much looking for information on the iOS jailbreak tool when they type in "Pangu" and I think a specific mention should be made for it. Comments? hbdragon88 (talk) 08:25, 30 December 2014 (UTC)
 * My preference is to have the hatnote as clean as possible, but I'm okay with re-adding Pangu Team to the hatnote if it's so popular. -Zanhe (talk) 20:48, 7 January 2015 (UTC)

Three Kingdoms period = 194?
The times in the following sentence do not seem to make sense:

"The first writer to record the myth of Pangu was Xu Zheng during the Three Kingdoms period. Recently his name was found in a tomb dated 194 AD."

Can this be clarified? --BLebow4500 (talk) 04:05, 3 April 2016 (UTC)

Relationship to Ymir
Pangu reminds me of Ymir Nyarlat 1920 (talk) 14:19, 8 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pangu


text:
Charterhouse

Charterhouse may refer to:
 * Charterhouse (monastery), of the Carthusian religious order

Charterhouse may also refer to:

Places

 * The Charterhouse, Coventry, a former monastery
 * Charterhouse School, an English public school in Surrey

London locations

 * London Charterhouse, London, England, an historic complex of buildings that originally housed a monastery, now the location of such sites as The Charterhouse Hospital
 * Charterhouse Square, London, England

Municipalities

 * Charterhouse, Somerset, also Charterhouse-on-Mendip, a hamlet in the Mendip Hills, England
 * Charterhouse Roman Town, a town in the Roman province of Britannia, located close to Charterhouse-on-Mendip
 * Hinton Charterhouse, a village in Somerset, England

Sites of scientific interest

 * Charterhouse to Eashing, in Surrey, England
 * Hinton Charterhouse Field, in Somerset, England
 * Hinton Charterhouse Pit, in Somerset, England

Financial institutions

 * Charterhouse Bank, a UK-based investment bank
 * Charterhouse Capital Partners, a UK-based private equity firm
 * Charterhouse Group, a US-based private equity firm

Other uses

 * Shepshed Dynamo F.C., an Association Football club known from 1975 to 1992 as Shepshed Charterhouse

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Charterhouse


text:
Hurtigruten

Hurtigruten (lit. 'Express Route'), formally Kystruten Bergen-Kirkenes ("coastal route Bergen-Kirkenes"), is a Norwegian public coastal route transporting passengers that travel locally, regionally and between the ports of call, and also cargo between ports north of Tromsø.

Hurtigruten provides daily, year-round and consistent traffic between Bergen and Kirkenes with 34 ports of call on northbound and 33 ports of call on southbound sailings. The Ministry of Transport and Communications in Norway has set minimum capacity requirements of 320 passengers, 120 berths and cargo for 150 Euro-pallets. The current agreement with the privately held company Hurtigruten AS entered into force on 1 January 2012 and expired on 31 December 2019, with an optional 1-year extension. From 2021 the two companies Hurtigruten AS and Havila Kystruten AS will operate the route.

As of April 2022, one of the ships of Havila Kystruten, MS Havila Capella, was taken out of service; because of sanctions as a result of the 2022 Invasion of Ukraine, the ship no longer had insurance; "the 4 ships of" the company were at that time financed by a Russian company.

As of March 2023, Havila Kystruten has 2 out of 4 ships in operation, Havila Capella and Havila Castor. Havila Polaris and Havila Pollux is expected to be delivered before summer 2023.

History

Hurtigruten was established in 1893 by government contract to improve communications along Norway's long, jagged coastline. SS Vesteraalen (1890) began the first round-trip journey from Trondheim on 2 July 1893 bound for Hammerfest, with calls at Rørvik, Brønnøy, Sandnessjøen, Bodø, Svolvær, Lødingen, Harstad, Tromsø, and Skjervøy. The ship arrived at Svolvær on Monday 3 July at 8pm after 35½ hours and at Hammerfest on Wednesday 5 July after 67 hours. She was commanded by founder of the route Richard With. At that time this was the fastest route between northern and southern Norway, and this resulted in the route being named Hurtigruten (express route). As of 2008, the Trondheim–Svolvær trip took 33 hours and the Trondheim–Hammerfest trip took 41 hours 15 min.

Before Hurtigruten opened, only Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab was willing to make the trip through the then poorly-charted waters; the voyage was especially difficult during the long, dark winters. The company had for itself made detailed sailing instructions. Hurtigruten was a substantial breakthrough for communities along its path. Mail from central Norway to Hammerfest, which used to take three weeks in summer and five months in winter, could now be delivered in seven days.

Encouraged by Vesteraalens' early success, several other shipping companies obtained a concession to operate the route, extended to run between Bergen in the southwest and Kirkenes in the far northeast. A fleet of 11 ships visits each of the 34 ports daily, both northbound and southbound.

Until the 1940s most ports north of Trondheim could not be reached by road from Oslo, so the sea was the only means of access. Beginning in the 1960s, the role of Hurtigruten changed, in part because of the construction of a local airport network and road improvements. Operating subsidies were gradually phased out, and the operators put more emphasis on tourism. New, bigger and more luxurious ships were introduced in the 1980s, with attention given to hot tubs, bars, restaurants and other comforts. However, Hurtigruten still serves important passenger and cargo needs, and operates 365 days a year. The last two independent shipping companies, Ofotens og Vesteraalens Dampskibsselskab (OVDS) and Troms Fylkes Dampskibsselskap (TFDS), merged on 1 March 2006 as the Hurtigruten Group, a year later becoming Hurtigruten ASA. In 2015 Hurtigruten was delisted from the Oslo stock exchange after the company was acquired by the private equity group TDR Capital. In addition to the voyages in Norway, the company operates expedition cruises to Greenland, Canada, South America, Iceland, Svalbard and Antarctica.

New contracts
The Ministry of Transport and Communications in Norway announced in 2017 that the Hurtigruten contract was split into three contracts. The contracts were put up for bid and in the end, two were granted to Hurtigruten AS and one to Havila Kystruten AS, with each operating seven and four ships respectively. The two companies will alternate departure days for the entire route from Bergen to Kirkenes.

Havila Kystruten AS is building four new vessels to serve the route, while Hurtigruten AS will be refitting seven of its vessels to meet the stricter emissions requirements.

The four new vessels from Havila will run on LNG and battery power. LNG will cut CO₂ emissions by 25 per cent, and the battery power will yield additional savings. The vessels will be named Havila Capella, Havila Castor, Havila Polaris and Havila Pollux. All four vessels were built at Tersan shipyard in Turkey.

Existing vessels from Hurtigruten will be modernized and renovated in order to meet the new requirements. MS Eirik Raude, MS Trollfjord and MS Otto Sverdrup are all getting modernized and renovated with a scandinavian interior style similar to the expedition vessels MS Roald Amundsen and MS Fridtjof Nansen.

The ships will be fitted with filters and LNG compatible engines in order to reduce emissions by 25%. The ships will also get hybrid motors, and battery packs.

Current fleet
As of 2020, this is a list of ships sailing on the Hurtigruten.

Places visited on coastal route
In order, northbound: • Bergen (60.39222°N, 5.31111°W)

• Florø (61.60167°N, 5.02583°W)

• Måløy (61.93333°N, 5.11444°W)

• Torvik (62.33667°N, 5.72806°W)

• Ålesund (62.47556°N, 6.15278°W)

• Geiranger (summer only)

• Urke, Ørsta (September & October only)

• Molde (62.73472°N, 7.15694°W)

• Kristiansund (63.115°N, 7.73639°W)

• Trondheim (63.4425°N, 10.40694°W)

• Rørvik (64.86083°N, 11.23972°W)

• Brønnøysund (65.47583°N, 12.21083°W)

• Sandnessjøen (66.02417°N, 12.63806°W)

• Nesna (66.20056°N, 13.00806°W)

• Ørnes (66.86889°N, 13.70278°W)

• Bodø (67.29°N, 14.39583°W)

• Stamsund (68.12056°N, 13.84028°W)

• Svolvær (68.23083°N, 14.56639°W)

• Stokmarknes (68.57111°N, 14.91111°W)

• Sortland (68.69889°N, 15.42028°W)

• Risøyhamn (68.96778°N, 15.64111°W)

• Harstad (68.79917°N, 16.54833°W)

• Finnsnes (69.22889°N, 17.97361°W)

• Tromsø (69.64833°N, 18.9625°W)

• Skjervøy (70.035°N, 20.9825°W)

• Øksfjord (70.23722°N, 22.34861°W)

• Hammerfest (70.66472°N, 23.68083°W)

• Havøysund (70.995°N, 24.68722°W)

• Honningsvåg (70.98083°N, 25.96861°W)

• Kjøllefjord (70.94944°N, 27.33167°W)

• Mehamn (71.04139°N, 27.84278°W)

• Berlevåg (70.85722°N, 29.115°W)

• Båtsfjord (70.62944°N, 29.7225°W)

• Vardø (70.37417°N, 31.10444°W)

• Vadsø (70.07056°N, 29.73611°W)

• Kirkenes (69.72861°N, 30.07194°W)

Live television broadcast
As part of its slow television series, the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation transmitted non-stop the Hurtigruten ship MS Nordnorge (1996)'s 134-hour voyage from Bergen to Kirkenes, which started on June 16, 2011.

Post-World War II accidents and incidents

Before World War II, a number of ships perished, usually because they ran aground in bad visibility.

Most of the Hurtigruten fleet was sunk during World War II.

In September 1954 SS Nordstjernen (1937) ran aground in Raftsundet at night. The ship started taking on water and eventually sank. Of the 157 passengers and 46 crew members on board, five died.

On January 8, 1958, a fire broke out on board MS Erling Jarl while the vessel was docked at Bodø. Fourteen people died of smoke inhalation. Today a memorial to the incident stands at Bodø.

On October 21, 1962 MS Sanct Svithun ran onto a reef in the maritime area Folda in Nord-Trøndelag because of a major navigational error after leaving Trondheim. Of 89 persons on board (passengers, crew and two postal officers) 41 died.

In 2011 MS Nordlys (1993) suffered an engine room fire, leading to two deaths among the crew.

title: Hurtigruten


text:
Langwell

Langwell may refer to:

 * East Langwell, settlement in the Scottish Highlands
 * West Langwell, settlement in the Scottish Highlands
 * The fictional Langwell river in The Lord of the Rings.
 * An Intel codename for a particular Platform Controller Hub.

title: Langwell


text:
Longspur

The longspurs, genus Calcarius, are a group of birds in the family Calcariidae. The name refers to the long claw on the hind toe of each foot. The genus formerly included the thick-billed longspur, Rhyncophanes mccownii, which is now placed in a separate genus.

These are chunky ground-feeding birds with long wings which are usually seen in open areas. Males declare ownership of a territory by singing during short flights over it. The male's breeding plumage is much brighter than his winter plumage. These birds gather in large flocks in winter. The longspurs are all found in North America; the Lapland longspur, or Lapland bunting, is also found in Europe and Asia.

Species
The species are:

The genus name Calcarius is from Latin calcaria, "spurs".

title: Longspur


text:
List of presidents of Somaliland

This is a list of presidents of the Republic of Somaliland, a de facto sovereign state in the Horn of Africa, considered internationally to be part of Somalia. The Republic of Somaliland regards itself as the successor state to British Somaliland, which was independent for a few days in 1960 as the State of Somaliland. The President of Somaliland is the head of state and head of government of Somaliland. The president leads the executive branch of the Government of Somaliland and is the commander-in-chief of the Somaliland Armed Forces. The official residence of the president is the Presidential Palace in Hargeisa.

List of officeholders

 * Political parties

{{legend|CornflowerBlue|Somali National Movement (SNM)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

{{legend|green|United Peoples' Democratic Party (UDUB)|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

{{legend||Kulmiye Peace, Unity, and Development Party|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}}

{{legend||Independent|border=1px solid #AAAAAA}} Died in office
 * Symbols

Latest election
On 21 November 2017 the NEC announced that Muse Bihi Abdi of the ruling Kulmiye party polled 55.1% of votes to emerge winner. His closest contender was Abdirahman Irro of the Waddani party who polled 40.7% with Faysal Ali Warabe finishing last with 4.2% of votes.

title: List of presidents of Somaliland


text:
Jin

Jin may refer to:

Jìn 晉

 * Jin (Chinese state) (晉國), major state of the Zhou dynasty, existing from the 11th century BC to 376 BC
 * Jin dynasty (266–420) (晉朝), also known as Liang Jin and Sima Jin
 * Jin (Later Tang precursor) (晉國; 907–923), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
 * Later Jin (Five Dynasties) (後晉; 936–947), Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period

Jīn 金

 * Jin dynasty (1115–1234) (金朝), also known as the Jurchen Jin
 * Later Jin (1616–1636) (後金; 1616–1636), precursor of the Qing dynasty

Others

 * Jin (Korean state) (辰國), precursor of the Jinhan Confederation
 * Balhae (698–713), originally known as Jin (震)

Places

 * Jin Prefecture (Shanxi) (晉州), a former Chinese prefecture centered on present-day Linfen, Shanxi
 * Jin Prefecture (Shaanxi) (金州), a former Chinese efecture centered on present-day Ankang, Shaanxi
 * Jin Prefecture (Hunan) (锦州), a former Chinese prefecture centered on Luyang in present-day Hunan
 * Shanxi, official abbreviation Jin (晋)
 * Tianjin, official abbreviation Jin (津)

Rivers

 * Jin River (Bei River tributary) (锦江, Jǐn Jiāng), a tributary of the Bei River in Guangdong
 * Jin River (Sichuan) (锦江, Jǐn Jiāng), a tributary of the Min River in Sichuan
 * Jin River (Fujian) (晋江, Jìn Jiāng), a river in Quanzhou Municipality, Fujian
 * Jin River (Xiang River tributary) (靳江, Jìn Jiāng), a tributary of the Xiang River in Hunan

Surnames

 * Jin (Chinese surname), various Chinese surnames
 * Jin (Korean surname), various Korean surnames

Entertainment

 * Jin (manga), a Japanese manga series by Motoka Murakami
 * Jin (TV series), a Japanese television adaptation of the manga
 * "Jin, the Wind Master", an episode of Yu Yu Hakusho
 * Jîn, a 2013 Turkish-German film
 * Jin (film), a 2023 Bangladeshi film

People

 * Jin (singer) (Kim Seok-jin, born 1992), South Korean singer of the boy band BTS
 * Jin Akanishi (赤西 仁), Japanese musician
 * Jin Horikawa (堀川 仁), Japanese voice actor
 * Jin Tanaka (田中 仁), Japanese screenwriter
 * Jin Yamanoi (山野井 仁), Japanese voice actor
 * Jinjin (Park Jin-woo, born 1996), South Korean singer of the boy group Astro
 * MC Jin (born 1982), Hong Kong American rapper

Fictional characters

 * Jin Kazama, the protagonist of the Tekken video game series
 * Jin-Soo Kwon, a character in Lost
 * Jin, a character in the O-Parts Hunter series
 * Jin, a character in Samurai Champloo media
 * Jin, a character in YuYu Hakusho
 * Jin Kariya, a character in the anime Bleach
 * Jin Kirigiri, a character in Danganronpa
 * Jin Kisaragi, a character in BlazBlue video games
 * Jin Shirato, a character in Persona 3
 * Jin Uzuki, a character in Xenosaga
 * Jin Lee, The father of Meilin Lee in Turning Red.
 * Jin Ryu, a character in Beyblade
 * Jin Kaien, a character in Grand Chase
 * Jin, the protagonist of the Choushinsei Flashman
 * Jin, an antagonist in Xenoblade Chronicles 2
 * Jin Bubaigawa, also known as Twice, an antagonist in My Hero Academia
 * Jin Saotome, main protagonist of Cyberbots: Full Metal Madness
 * Jin Sakai, main protagonist of Ghost of Tsushima
 * Jin Kuwana, main antagonist of Lost Judgment
 * Jin Sagami (佐賀美陣), a supporting character in Ensemble Stars!
 * Jin Cheng, a main character in Netflix's 3 Body Problem (TV series)

Sports

 * Jin Akimoto (born 1971), Japanese mixed martial artist
 * Jin Okubo (大久保 陣), Japanese cyclist
 * Jin Hanato (端戸 仁), Japanese footballer
 * Jin Watanabe (handball player) (渡部 仁), Japanese handball player
 * Jin Ueda (上田 仁), Japanese table tennis player
 * Jin Hiratsuka (平墳 迅), Japanese footballer
 * Jin Ikoma (生駒 仁), Japanese footballer

Other uses

 * JIN, the code for Jinja Airport in Uganda
 * Jin Air, a South Korean airline
 * Jin language
 * Jīn (斤), the Chinese name for the catty, a traditional East Asian unit of weight
 * Jin, a deadwood bonsai technique

title: Jin


text:
Johann Löwenthal

Johann Jacob Löwenthal (Löwenthal János Jakab; 15 July 1810 – 24 July 1876) was a professional chess master. He was among the top 3 players of the 1850s.

Biography
Löwenthal was born in Budapest, the son of a Jewish merchant. He was educated at the gymnasium of his native city. In 1846, he won a match against Carl Hamppe in Vienna (with 5 wins, 4 losses, and no draws). He received a civil appointment under the administration of Lajos Kossuth in 1848. On the downfall of the latter, Löwenthal was expelled from Hungary, and he emigrated to America in 1849. In 1851, he went to London and resided permanently in England thereafter. At the Manchester tournament of 1857, Löwenthal defeated Adolf Anderssen for first place.

During his 1850 visit to New Orleans, Löwenthal played Paul Morphy on two separate occasions, losing a total of three games straight. He was one of the first masters to play a match against Morphy after the latter's arrival in London in 1858. Morphy won with a score of nine wins, three losses, and two draws. "...I am convinced that I was vanquished by superior strength," Löwenthal said about the match, as reported by an English writer named Frederick Edge, who wrote extensively about Morphy and other famous players in a book called The Exploits and Triumphs, in Europe, of Paul Morphy, the Chess Champion. No doubt aware that chess was Löwenthal's only source of livelihood, and conscious to not be considered a professional player himself, Morphy, after winning the match stakes of £100, presented Löwenthal with a gift of furniture valued at £120 for his new house.

Just days after being defeated by Morphy, Löwenthal had his greatest success by winning the British Chess Association Congress knockout tournament in Birmingham, England, on 27 August 1858. His prize was £63.

In 1860, Löwenthal took advantage of Morphy's extreme popularity to create a collection of the American master's games titled Morphy's Games of Chess. According to Morphy's biographer David Lawson, Morphy was friendly to Löwenthal and therefore agreed to sign his name to material in the book, which was purported to be written by Morphy but in fact was not.

For a time, Löwenthal served as club secretary of the St. George's Chess Club in London. He taught chess and invented the first. He helped organise an international tournament in 1862, and then published a.

Löwenthal was for some time chess editor of The Illustrated News of the World and of The Era. He was editor also of The Chess Players' Magazine (1863–1867). In 1860, he published Morphy's Games of Chess, with Analytical and Critical Notes.

When Löwenthal became ill in 1874 and could no longer financially support himself, a collection was taken up for him. Lord Randolph Churchill and many others contributed to the charity fund. Under the influence of W. G. Ward, with whom he played chess, Löwenthal became a Roman Catholic. He died on 24 July 1876 at St. Leonards-on-Sea, near Hastings, at the age of 66.

title: Johann Löwenthal


text:
Talk:Homological conjectures in commutative algebra

A page for Koszul complex would be good.

how is 3. different to 4.and what is the nature of their difference in their use? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.17.215.22 (talk) 09:44, 5 January 2017 (UTC)

how is 6. useful at all?


text:
Talk:Agathon

Untitled
He introduced certain innovations, does anyone know what they were, or is this a vague reference to his plotting? Wetman 11:57, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

When Plato longs for Agathon, is he longing for a place or for the man?

What is the argument for attributing the epigram to Plato the comic poet, rather than to Plato the philosopher? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ivarelle (talk • contribs) 16:39, 10 September 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Agathon


text:
Talk:IBM 7090

Rumors
The 7090 was the first to bear the new 4-digit IBM model numbers. Rumor has it that originally, this transistor version of the vacuum-tubes 709 was to be named 709T, which was pronounced "seven-oh-nine-tee", and thus gave someone the idea to call it seven-oh-ninety, i.e. 7090.

SABER the first beta edition of AA Sabre (computer system) finished in 03/1959 working in a IBM 7090 System and in a final edition in 1962 SABRE on wikipedia spanish--Mnts 00:47, 10 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I believe that rumor to be true. One of my jobs in 1959, at IBM Service Bureau, was to upgrade the IBM 705 program that held the equipment inventory, from 3-digit fields, plus a one-letter type designator (as "T"), to 4-digit fields, and I believe a two-or-three character type designator. That meant we had to invade the card-sequence number field (cols. 73-80), making reversal to a card-based inventory risky. But we and management were brave. Gio @ stanford. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 171.64.75.20 (talk) 22:49, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

Stanford University 7090
The memory system of the 7090 had a local control which included a storage clear button. The machine at Pine Hall was placed so that the memory was towards the rear but the computer operator could be glimpsed by a double reflection. When a certain unpopular programmer had dedicated machine time, one of his enemies would sometimes wait until he heard the card to tape operation finish. The core was then placed in local mode and cleared while the CPU was stalled waiting for the input tape to rewind. If the programmer/operator became suspicious his approach could be detected by watching the reflection in the glass panel which covered the core stack.Rdmoore6 (talk) 22:05, 18 December 2008 (UTC)

Goddard Space Flight Center, NASA
IBM had the contract to operate the 7094s at Goddard during the Apollo Missions thru Apollo 12. One of the most frequent programs ran on these computers were differential correction. Each run took about 2.5 hours to run, which was great for a computer operator going to college. The console of the 7094 could be used to spread out books while doing homework during a differential correction run. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Afoster5728 (talk • contribs) 14:01, 28 February 2009 (UTC)

Wright-Patterson AFB system
The research labs at Wright-Patterson AFB had a pair of systems, one 7090/7040 lashup, and one 7074/7044 lashup, in the 60s. Played on them quite a bit as a co-op back then.

In the early 70s I worked with a guy at RCA Camden who had been involved with the initial programming the BMEWS computers. Apparently the software was stored in E-core wire ROMs rather than being loaded from media, making debugging and bug fixing a royal PITA. drh 16:17, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

"Daisy" anachronism ??
Our "Notable applications" section says "Daisy" was first perform on a 7094 in 1961, but the earlier section says the 7094 was first installed in September 1962. A YouTube video here also claims a 7094 did it, in 1961. I presume a 7090 might have done it, as they were essentially compatible, assuming speed was not a problem. But can anyone resolve the issue? We could remove the inconsistency from the article by changing 7094 in the daisy item to "7090-series", but that still leaves the possibility that the Sept 1962 date is incorrect for the 7094. Wwheaton (talk) 01:30, 8 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I see now that our IBM 704 article claims the song was done on a 704, not a 7094, in 1962 at Bell Labs, based on this 1997 www source at Bell Labs. Our 7090 article here has a www external link to Decca Records DL 9103 here, but it claims it was done at Bell Labs in 1960, on a 7090. Wwheaton (talk) 01:51, 8 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I see 1961 for James Tenny in the Decca page, but I don't see a date for Decca recording.
 * I see conflicting dates for the 704; https://web.archive.org/web/20140401034716/http://www.bell-labs.com/news/1997/march/5/2.html claims 1962 but https://www.loc.gov/item/prn-10-116/national-recording-registry-adds-25/2010-06-23/ claims 1961. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 16:45, 22 March 2021 (UTC)

Re: Notable applications: JPL
I worked in SFOF at JPL on Mariner 4 in both "bus" operations and computing, and I'm pretty sure the 7094's on the 2nd floor of SFOF were twin 7094-7044 DCS (Direct Coupled System), not what is stated in IBM_7090. (I personally didn't know of any other 7094's at JPL.) John Navas (talk) 22:45, 22 February 2011 (UTC)

Pronounciation
There is a request for citation regarding the name.

I have always heard it pronounced "seventy-ninety" despite the origins of the number as the 709-T (transistorized). I have no citations, though.

In most "citation requests" I see, they seem obvious enough to me, but in this case I would really like a real citation. Gah4 (talk) 18:30, 8 August 2013 (UTC)

 * My recollection is the same as yours, but here is a link to a much younger Fernando J. Corbató in 1960 explaining timesharing and he pronounces it "seven-oh-ninety," (at 8:12) as does the announcer in the beginning. I'll try to work that in.--agr (talk) 20:23, 8 August 2013 (UTC)

 * I did some Googling in hope of finding something concerning the naming and found this entire article as-is here and was wondering if it was copied from there or is it vice-versa?--Bolbololo (talk) 15:14, 12 May 2016 (UTC)

 * I was about to comment on this, when I see that I did five years ago. The article seems to indicate that it is always pronounced as seven-oh-ninth, and it is likely that some people did. The ones I know called it seventy-ninety, and likely some said all four digits.

I used a 7094 at the University of Maryland and a 7090 at a Navy research center, and they were pronounced "seventy-ninety-four" and "seventy-ninety." I've heard the "709-T" story orally, but it is not mentioned in any written IBM history that I've read, so we really do need a source for this. Rochkind (talk) 16:02, 4 July 2019 (UTC)

Alphanumeric characters are six-bit BCD, packed six to a word.
The article says Alphanumeric characters are six-bit BCD, packed six to a word.. As well as I know, for the 7090 and many others of the time, the character/word format is all software. While I suspect that once a format is selected, it is popular enough to indicate here, I wonder in general. Gah4 (talk) 00:09, 28 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Not entirely defined by software. This was the time of 7-track tape drives (really six data bits + parity), printers with 48-character sets, and keypunches and card readers that similarly knew nothing of lower case. The 7090 and similar machines were not often connected to printers or card readers, rather a machine like a 1401 would copy cards to tape and print records from tape to printer so the 7090 was not slowed down by dealing with such menial devices (multitasking "spooling" programs being in their infancy). But in any case it would have been hard to get anything but six-bit characters in IBM's "BCD" coding into or out of a 7090... hard, at least, with any device IBM could have sold you at the time.

 * Heck, even ASCII with its 94 printing characters didn't come along until 1963. So although programs running on the 7090 could certainly have dealt with four eight-bit characters in a word (and four bits left over), there really wasn't any way to use that capability, and people stuck with the six-bit BCD codes displayed in the IBM manuals - codes that they would see in data read from the card reader and which, when sent to a 1403 printer, would generate the expected text. Jeh (talk) 06:07, 28 August 2018 (UTC)

 * I was thinking about the way the 704 reads cards, row by row into two 36 bit words. I suppose I am not sure the 7090 does that.  I hadn't thought about tape.  Are there any instruction for processing specifically six bit data? Gah4 (talk) 12:46, 28 August 2018 (UTC)
 * The 7090 both reads and punches row binary. All of the unit record equipment is exrutiatingly slow, which is why you were more likely to see spooling on a 7040 or 7044 than on a 7090 or 7094.
 * The convert instructions are designed around six bit bytes. I can't think of any others. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 07:04, 20 July 2020 (UTC)
 * The IBM 716 printer, based on the IBM 407 accounting machine, is also also row binary. The data channel sent 24 words to the printer, two words at a time, synchronized with the printer's mechanical cycle, which corresponds to reading each row on a punch card. The 72 bits appear at "calc exit" hubs on the printer's control panel, where they can be wired to individual print wheels. The 7090 in effect simulates what a 407 sees when it is reading a card. See p.102ff of the 7090 manual in ref 2. The card reader, punch and printer were mostly used as console devices, with production I/O done with magnetic tape. The 7040 option came later, before that IBM 1401's were commonly used. While none of the basic peripherals were BCD aware, later peripheral devices were. The same manual describes BCD conversion options for magnetic tape, disk, and Teletype. Five-level TTY code was automatically converted to BCD, for example. (p.82ff). Interestingly, I could not find a BCD code chart in the manual.--agr (talk) 18:33, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I was going to ask which manual, but the BCD code chart is not in eiher the 7090 or the 7094 manual. BCD translation is only available for devices that connect to the 7909 channel, e.g., 7340 Hypertape.
 * The reason for using the 7090 unit record equipment for console I/O is that it wasn't good for much else. You couldn't even print a line longer than 72 characters without running the already slow printer at half speed. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 19:30, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * There is a code listed in BCD (character encoding) which may or may not be the one. Note that until EBCDIC, card punch codes were not unique.  Specifically, codes were reused between commercial and scientific machines. Since the code listed for the 704 (for which the first Fortran compiler was written) doesn't have an = sign, that doesn't seem likely to be the one.  There is the additional complication that you can't write the character with all zero bits on even parity NRZI tape. The tape code is different. From the 704 Fortran manual, there are two minus signs. The one used in Fortran source input is different from the one used in program output. Data input can use either. Since the conversion is done in software, there isn't necessarily a fixed code for a given machine. Gah4 (talk) 22:16, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks. There is a table in the 704 manual. I added the Fortran character set to the BCD article.--agr (talk)
 * I was going to ask which manual, but the BCD code chart is not in eiher the 7090 or the 7094 manual. BCD translation is only available for devices that connect to the 7909 channel, e.g., 7340 Hypertape.
 * The reason for using the 7090 unit record equipment for console I/O is that it wasn't good for much else. You couldn't even print a line longer than 72 characters without running the already slow printer at half speed. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 19:30, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * There is a code listed in BCD (character encoding) which may or may not be the one. Note that until EBCDIC, card punch codes were not unique.  Specifically, codes were reused between commercial and scientific machines. Since the code listed for the 704 (for which the first Fortran compiler was written) doesn't have an = sign, that doesn't seem likely to be the one.  There is the additional complication that you can't write the character with all zero bits on even parity NRZI tape. The tape code is different. From the 704 Fortran manual, there are two minus signs. The one used in Fortran source input is different from the one used in program output. Data input can use either. Since the conversion is done in software, there isn't necessarily a fixed code for a given machine. Gah4 (talk) 22:16, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks. There is a table in the 704 manual. I added the Fortran character set to the BCD article.--agr (talk)
 * There is a code listed in BCD (character encoding) which may or may not be the one. Note that until EBCDIC, card punch codes were not unique.  Specifically, codes were reused between commercial and scientific machines. Since the code listed for the 704 (for which the first Fortran compiler was written) doesn't have an = sign, that doesn't seem likely to be the one.  There is the additional complication that you can't write the character with all zero bits on even parity NRZI tape. The tape code is different. From the 704 Fortran manual, there are two minus signs. The one used in Fortran source input is different from the one used in program output. Data input can use either. Since the conversion is done in software, there isn't necessarily a fixed code for a given machine. Gah4 (talk) 22:16, 21 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks. There is a table in the 704 manual. I added the Fortran character set to the BCD article.--agr (talk)

singular
In an edit summary, someone wrote: The noun IBM 7090 is singular as is 709, 360, 370, 3033, 3090, 4341, z/90 et al. Specifically, the terms refer to the general architecture of the system, and not any specific implementation. That is also why the terms are used in the present tense, unless they are used in the context of an event. There could be some cases referring to multiple specific machines that would be plural. Gah4 (talk) 01:35, 3 October 2018 (UTC)

end
There are indications of the first installations of machines, but not for the last. I wonder, when did IBM stop selling and/or leasing them? Should this also be in the article? Gah4 (talk) 20:35, 30 March 2019 (UTC)
 * IBM withdrew it on July 17, 1969. I've added that date to the intro.--agr (talk) 13:12, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

Multiple tag mode
The article states "Minor changes in instruction formats, particularly the way the additional index registers are addressed, sometimes caused problems." However, the power-on mode of the 7094 was multiple tag mode, which was compatible with the 7090. To what does that sentence refer? Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 21:27, 28 May 2020 (UTC)
 * 7090s were rarely turned off, and would typically run multiple jobs sequentially, so programmers could not rely on the power up state. I presume the early operating systems, like IBSYS, gave control to programs in a standard state, but I could not find a mention of this in the IBSYS manual and not all installations used IBSYS.--agr (talk) 16:15, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I remember stories about what some government agencies had to do between runs, I believe for OS/360 days. For way too long, OS did not clear storage between jobs. Mostly they were used by people working together, such as the same company or school, so there weren't big secrets. If by standard state you mean zeroed memory, as well as I know, they didn't.  I remember OS/360 days, running compile and link as separate steps without the appropriate COND=, such that the link step ran after the compile failed, with the SYSLIN never written. The linker got all the garbage left on the disk, and tried to process it, along with lots of messages. Even if they were turned off, magnetic core memory keeps the data.  One IBM machine before S/360, if you use an execute instruction on itself, the loop is so tight that power cycle won't break it. That is the reason for the S/360 execute exception. As for non-memory state, there were questions not many years ago about the floating point mode bits, and some OS not setting them in a standard state, and not all programs initializing them. Gah4 (talk) 18:09, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I remember stories about what some government agencies had to do between runs, I believe for OS/360 days. For way too long, OS did not clear storage between jobs. Mostly they were used by people working together, such as the same company or school, so there weren't big secrets. If by standard state you mean zeroed memory, as well as I know, they didn't.  I remember OS/360 days, running compile and link as separate steps without the appropriate COND=, such that the link step ran after the compile failed, with the SYSLIN never written. The linker got all the garbage left on the disk, and tried to process it, along with lots of messages. Even if they were turned off, magnetic core memory keeps the data.  One IBM machine before S/360, if you use an execute instruction on itself, the loop is so tight that power cycle won't break it. That is the reason for the S/360 execute exception. As for non-memory state, there were questions not many years ago about the floating point mode bits, and some OS not setting them in a standard state, and not all programs initializing them. Gah4 (talk) 18:09, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * I remember stories about what some government agencies had to do between runs, I believe for OS/360 days. For way too long, OS did not clear storage between jobs. Mostly they were used by people working together, such as the same company or school, so there weren't big secrets. If by standard state you mean zeroed memory, as well as I know, they didn't.  I remember OS/360 days, running compile and link as separate steps without the appropriate COND=, such that the link step ran after the compile failed, with the SYSLIN never written. The linker got all the garbage left on the disk, and tried to process it, along with lots of messages. Even if they were turned off, magnetic core memory keeps the data.  One IBM machine before S/360, if you use an execute instruction on itself, the loop is so tight that power cycle won't break it. That is the reason for the S/360 execute exception. As for non-memory state, there were questions not many years ago about the floating point mode bits, and some OS not setting them in a standard state, and not all programs initializing them. Gah4 (talk) 18:09, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

 * OS/360 and successors did not clear new DASD datasets until IBM added PARMLIB options to DFSMSdfp to erase on delete and to write an EOF on allocate.

 * I assume that by standard state, agr means multiple tag mode.

 * OS/360 only cleared storage at IPL time, not between jobs. That changed in OS/VS. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 19:17, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Yes, I was just talking about multiple tag mode. I know there were procedures back then for running classified programs, no doubt including sanitizing the machine afterwards. Power off after a classified run would not have helped much with core memory, though some security types may have required it anyway. I do remember working on a CDC-6600 at the Air Force Cambridge Research Labs at Hanscom Field. Their data center had a big glass window from the corridor and they had a cover to put over the console when classified runs were made, so nothing could be learned from watching the blinking lights or console CRTs. The question of secrets being leaked from un-erased memory is an even bigger issue today, see e.g. .--agr (talk) 20:20, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

 * Leakage of residual data in page files is an issue for the OS to deal with, page fixing everything may not be allowed and even if it is allowed will cause considerable collateral damage. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 21:39, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

 * I remember that you could chain Executes on a 7090, but I looked for it in the manual and couldn't find any reference to examining the Flag bits in the indirect control word. Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 19:17, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * A bit of trivia regarding Multiple Tag Mode: If a subroutine that was called wanted to use more than three index registers, or if it wanted to take advantage of the contents of two or three index registers being ORed together when in Multiple Tag Mode, the subroutine would need to know the mode the machine was in and if it changed the mode it had to restore it. There was no instruction to test whether a 7094 was in MTM or not. So a test had to be done in software through a sequence of instructions that saved registers 1, 2, and 4 into memory and then saved registers 3, 5, 6 and 7. If a 7094 was not in MTM, each register would have whatever content it had and that would be saved and could be used to restore the index registers before existing the subroutine. If the was in MTM, only registers 1, 2, and 4 mattered. They were saved first and restored last (restoring was 7, 6, 5, 3, 4, 2, 1 or some equivalent sequences that had 1, 2, and 4 at the end). Having saved the index registers, a test for MTM would load (for example) zero in index register 1 and one into index register 2 after clearing register 3 (which I think automatically cleared 1 and 2). Then register 3 could be tested to see it were 0 or 1 (for example), a 1 meaning MTM because saving 3 would be saving the OR of 1 and 2. This is a fairly large overhead. I suspect that only the operating system needed to do this when it took over the CPU because it had to assume that user programs might be running in either mode or even changing modes during run-time. ~ Ksbooth (talk) 06:27, 21 January 2024 (UTC)

Case?
The article contains the constructions are ORed, and Kflop/s; should one or more of the lower case letters be upper case, or vice versa? Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 15:47, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * ORed, being the verb form of the OR operation, looks nice that way. The FLOPS page seems to indicate kFLOPS in its table. Gah4 (talk) 16:36, 22 January 2024 (UTC)
 * ORed, being the verb form of the OR operation, looks nice that way. The FLOPS page seems to indicate kFLOPS in its table. Gah4 (talk) 16:36, 22 January 2024 (UTC)

7094 and 7094 II?
Should the lead mention the 7094 II?

The lead states An upgraded version, the 7094 was up to twice as fast. but IBM 7090 states In April 1964, the first 7094 II was installed, which had almost twice as much general speed as the 7090; which is correct? Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 15:53, 24 July 2020 (UTC)
 * Per the manual, the 7094 II was almost twice as fast as the 7094, i.e. almost 4X the 7090. I've updated the text.--agr (talk) 16:27, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

CTSS
Should add Herbert Teager's hardware modifications. See CTSS 50th Anniversary. Jamplevia (talk) 19:35, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

Bull Gamma 60?
How is the Bull Gamma 60, added to IBM 7090 in a recent edit, related to the 7090? -- Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 12:24, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

 * Hi @Chatul. #See also mentions the UNIVAC 1100 as a competitor, which is an insightful addition to the article. In Europe, one of the main competitor to the 7090 was the G60, so I founded equally insightful to mention it in #See also (likewise, there's a link to the IBM 7090 on the G60 article).
 * However, the G60 ended up mostly used as a business computer and thus competing against the 7070, so maybe it should rather be mentioned there, and also a note should maybe be added that this was on the European market. What do you think? -- Damien.b (talk) 14:35, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Maybe a competitors section or subsection? Off the top of my head, • Burroughs Large Systems

• CDC 1604

• CDC 3600

• GE-600 series

• Honeywell 800

• Philco TRANSAC S-2000

• UNIVAC 1107 There were also some competitors with smaller market share, e.g., Bendix G-20 · Ferranti Atlas · Sylvania 9300 · RCA 601, that might be TMI. -- Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 16:22, 25 August 2023 (UTC)
 * All of these systems are noteworthy and indeed merit the reader's attention, I see no reason to limit the mention to just the 1100 and G60.
 * Your idea is sound, I will append a brief subsection at the end of the article to reference these competitors. This can be reverted if that subsection doesn't achieve consensus.
 * Just a note, I don't feel the G-20 played in the same league as it was more of a small to mid-range computer like the 1401 or RCA 301. The Ferranti Atlas was only produced in three units (four with the Titan) but is indeed worth mentioning as a pioneer large-scale system. Damien.b (talk) 16:55, 25 August 2023 (UTC)

Image of 7617 console for 7607 data channel
Does anybody have an image of the 7617 Data Channel Console for the 7607 Data Channel, or the equivalent for the 7909? -- Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) 11:36, 13 March 2024 (UTC)

Nomenclature in IBM 7094 registers table
The IBM 7094 registers  table in has some issues: I'm not sure what the best way is to lay out the table: IBM labels bits as
 * 1) The bit numbering does not match that in the 7090 and 7094 manuals
 * 2) The S, Q and P bits of AC are not labelled.
 * 3) The manuals use the term instruction counter (IC), not PC.
 * AC
 * S, Q, P, 1...35

 * IC
 * 3...17

 * Index register
 * 3...17

 * MQ
 * S, 1..35

 * SI
 * 0...35

 * Storage, including instructions
 * S, 1..35
 * For some instructions
 * Prefix
 * S, 1, 2
 * Decrement
 * 3...17
 * Tag
 * 18...20
 * Address
 * 21..35

The numbering of the bits in the IC and index registers matches the numbering of the bits in the decrement. The same issues exist for table IBM 704x/709x registers in. One possible arrangement is

but is an alternative preferable? -- Shmuel (Seymour J.) Metz Username:Chatul (talk) -- revised 17:57, 15 July 2024 (UTC)07:41, 14 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:IBM 7090


text:
Regnal name

A regnal name, regnant name, or reign name is the name used by monarchs and popes during their reigns and subsequently, historically. Since ancient times, some monarchs have chosen to use a different name from their original name when they accede to the monarchy. The regnal name is usually followed by a regnal number, written as a Roman numeral, to differentiate that monarch from others who have used the same name while ruling the same realm. In some cases, the monarch has more than one regnal name, but the regnal number is based on only one of those names, for example Charles X Gustav of Sweden. If a monarch reigns in more than one realm, they may carry different ordinals in each one, as some realms may have had different numbers of rulers of the same regnal name. For example, the same person was both King James VI of Scotland and King James I of England.

The ordinal is not normally used for the first ruler of the name, but is used in historical references once the name is used again. Thus, Queen Elizabeth I of England was called simply "Elizabeth of England" until the accession of Queen Elizabeth II almost four centuries later in 1952; subsequent historical references to the earlier queen retroactively refer to her as Elizabeth I. However, Tsar Paul I of Russia, King Umberto I of Italy, King Juan Carlos I of Spain, Emperor Haile Selassie I of Ethiopia and Pope John Paul I all used the ordinal I (first) during their reigns. In spoken English, such names are pronounced as "Elizabeth the First", "George the Sixth", etc.

In some countries in Asia, monarchs took or take era names. While era names as such are not used in many monarchies, sometimes eras are named after a monarch (usually long-lived), or a succession of monarchs of the same name. This is customary; there is no formal or general rule. For example, the whole period during which a succession of four Georges (George I, II, III, and IV) of the Hanoverian dynasty reigned in Great Britain became known as the Georgian era. Conversely, although there were many Edwards, the Edwardian era always refers to the reign of Edward VII at the beginning of the 20th century.

Ancient rulers
Ancient rulers in many parts of the world took regnal names or throne names which were different from their personal name. This is known to be true, for instance, of several kings of Assyria, and appears to be the case for several kings of Judah. In Ancient Egypt, Pharaohs took a number of names—the praenomen being the most commonly used, on occasion in conjunction with their personal name.

Ethiopia
In the Ethiopian Empire, especially during the Solomonic dynasty, many Emperors would take a throne name, though this was not a general practice; a great number of rulers would remain known during their reign by their birth names. Yekuno Amlak, the founder of the Solomonic dynasty, took his father's name, Tasfa Iyasus, as his throne name. Yagbe'u Seyon, his son and heir, took the throne name Salomon after the biblical figure. Amda Seyon took the throne name Gebre Mesqel, "slave of the cross"; Tewodros I was Walda Ambasa, "son of the lion"; Sarwe Iyasus was Mehreka Nañ "distributor of your [the Lord's] mercy"; etc. Tafari Makonnen, the last sovereign Emperor of Ethiopia, took as his throne name Haile Selassie, meaning "Power of the Trinity".

Nigeria
In the various extant traditional states of Nigeria, the regnal names of the titled monarchs, who are known locally as the traditional rulers, serve two very important functions within the monarchical system. Firstly, seeing as how most states are organised in such a way as to mean that all of the legitimate descendants of the first man or woman to arrive at the site of any given community are considered its dynastic heirs, their thrones are usually rotated amongst almost endless pools of contending cousins who all share the names of the founders of their houses as primary surnames. In order to tell them all apart from one another, secondary surnames are also used for the septs of each of the royal families that are eligible for the aforementioned rotations, names that often come from the names of state of the first members of their immediate lineages to rule in their lands. Whenever any of their direct heirs ascend the thrones, they often use their septs' names as reign names as well, using the appropriate ordinals to differentiate themselves from the founders of the said septs. An example of this is found in the kingdom of Lagos, where the Adeniji-Adele family is distinguished from their numerous Adele cousins by the word Adeniji, which was actually the first name of the reigning founder of their branch of the dynasty, the Oba Adeniji Adele II. This distinction notwithstanding, both groups of dynasts (as well as a number of other ones that do not have the name Adele as an official surname, such as that of the Oloye Adekunle Ojora, a prominent nobleman of royal descent) are part of what is known as the Adele Ajosun Ruling House of Lagos.

Beyond that which is described above, regnal names also serve in Nigeria and indeed in much of Africa as chronological markers in much the same way that those of Europe do (e.g. the Victorian era). Whenever one hears of a person describing what happened at the time when so and so ruled over any particular place or people, what he or she is actually saying is that an event happened within a finite period of time, one that is equal to the duration of the reign of the monarch in question. Now seeing as how it is possible (and in fact common, particularly among the southern tribes) for one individual to have several different names and aliases in a single life, a certain degree of uniformity in usage is required if the history of an entire state is to be tied to his or her name. It is for this reason that when new monarchs are enthroned, the uniqueness of their names is usually considered to be a matter of considerable importance (even when it is caused by nothing more than the adding of ordinals to them or the allowing of more than a generation to pass before their subsequent usage). An example of this can be found in the kingdom of Benin, where the throne name of Erediauwa I became the surname of all of his immediate family in the Eweka royal house of the state, thus nominally tying them and their descendants to the era of his reign. This is especially obvious when their branch's name is compared to the last names of the said king's brothers and their heirs, named the Akenzuas after his father Akenzua II, and his uncles and their heirs, named the Ewekas after his grandfather Eweka II.

In the case of the comparatively small number of Nigerian monarchs, such as Obi Nnaemeka Achebe of Onitsha, who do not make use of regnal names as a result of a variety of reasons, pre-coronation names are maintained during their reigns.

Sinosphere
In the Chinese cultural sphere, the personal names of monarchs were to be avoided, a tradition known as naming taboo.

During the reign of a monarch, they could adopt regnal names (尊號; zūn hào), even though adoption was not widespread throughout history.

Since the Shang dynasty, Chinese sovereigns could be honored with temple names (廟號; miào hào) after their death, for the purpose of ancestor worship. Temple names consisted of two or three Chinese characters, with the last word being either zǔ (祖; "progenitor") or zōng (宗; "ancestor"). Since the Zhou dynasty, Chinese monarchs were frequently accorded posthumous names (謚號; shì hào) after their death. Posthumous names were adjectives originally intended to determine the achievements and moral values, or the lack thereof, of one's life. Since both titles were accorded only after one's death, they were not effectively regnal names. As a result of Chinese cultural and political influence, temple names and posthumous names were adopted by monarchs of Korea and Vietnam, whereas monarchs of Japan adopted only posthumous names.

Since 140 BC, during the reign of the Emperor Wu of Han, Chinese sovereigns proclaimed era names (年號; nián hào) for the purpose of identifying and numbering years. Prior to the Ming dynasty, it was common for Chinese monarchs to proclaim more than one era name during a single reign, or that a single era name was used by several rulers. Monarchs of the Ming and Qing dynasties, however, often adopted only one era name throughout their reign; thus, Chinese sovereigns of the Ming and Qing dynasties are commonly known by their respective era name with few exceptions, although era names were not effectively regnal names. The era name system had also been adopted by rulers of Korea, Vietnam and Japan, with Japan still using the system to this day.

The following table provides examples from China, Japan, Korea and Vietnam to illustrate the differences between monarchical titles in the Sinosphere. Bold characters represent the most common way to refer to the monarchs.

Southeast Asia

 * Rama (Kings of Thailand)
 * List of kings of Cambodia

Hungary
During the Medieval Age, when the House of Árpád disappeared in 1301, two of the monarchs that claimed the throne and were crowned chose a different name. Otto III, Duke of Bavaria became Bela V of Hungary, taking the name of his maternal grandfather, Béla IV of Hungary. On the other hand, Wenceslaus III of Bohemia signed his royal documents in Hungary as Ladislas, this being a very traditional name in the Kingdom.

Later during the first half of the 14th century, Charles I of Hungary signed as "Carolus rex", but in fact his birth name was the Italian Caroberto. This is why he is often referred to by Hungarian historians as "Charles Robert of Hungary".

Netherlands
All ruling male members of the House of Orange-Nassau bore the name Willem (William). The current king of the Netherlands was christened Willem-Alexander. During an interview in 1997 he said he intended to rule under the name of Willem IV, but he had a change of mind. In a televised interview just before his inauguration, he announced he would continue to use the name Willem-Alexander, saying "I spent 46 years of my life under the name Willem-Alexander, and specifically under the nickname of Alexander. I think it would be weird to discard that because I become king of the country." Furthermore, he said he did not consider himself "a mere number", adding that regnal numbers reminded him of Dutch cattle naming conventions.

Poland
When the House of Piast disappeared and the Lithuanian House of Jagiellon was elected in the figure of the High Duke Jogaila, this monarch took the name of Władysław II, in honour of the previous Polish king (Władysław I the Elbow-high) with this traditional name. Similarly, when the Elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus I, was elected king in 1697, he took the name of Augustus II. His son Frederick Augustus II crowned in 1734, also took the name of Augustus, becoming Augustus III.

Portugal
The monarchs of Portugal have traditionally used their first baptismal name as their regnal name upon their accession. The only notable exception was Sancho I, who was born Martin of Burgundy (Martinho de Borgonha, in Portuguese). As he was a younger son, Martin was expected to join the clergy, and was named after Saint Martin of Tours, on whose feast day he had been born. When the heir apparent, Henry, died, the prince's name was changed to Sancho, one with a more established royal tradition in the other Iberian monarchies (Navarre, Castile and Aragon).

United Kingdom
Though most monarchs of the United Kingdom have used their first baptismal name as their regnal name, on three occasions monarchs have chosen a different name.

First, Queen Victoria had been christened Alexandrina Victoria, but took the throne under the name Victoria.

When Victoria's son, Prince Albert Edward, became king in 1901, he took the regnal name Edward VII, against the wish of his late mother. The new king declared that he chose the name Edward as an honoured name borne by six of his English predecessors, and that he preferred that the name Albert be only associated in royal history with his father.

In 1936, after the abdication crisis, Prince Albert, Duke of York, assumed the throne. His full name was Albert Frederick Arthur George, but he became King George VI rather than "King Albert".

Before his 2022 accession, there was occasional speculation that the then-Prince Charles might use a different name, to avoid association with Charles I (executed after the English Civil War), or Charles II (known as the Merry Monarch for his womanising), and to avoid conflict or confusion with the "Young Pretender" Charles Edward Stuart (who styled himself as "Charles III"). For example, one 2005 report suggested that he might instead use his fourth given name and be known as "George VII" in honour of his grandfather.

Scotland
When John, Earl of Carrick ascended the throne in 1390, it was deemed imprudent for him to take the regnal name of "John II", due to the turbulent reigns of recent kings named John (John Balliol, John of England, and John II of France). Furthermore, royal propaganda of the time held that John Balliol had not been a legitimate king of Scots, making the new king's regnal number also a difficult issue. To avoid these problems, John took the regnal name of Robert III, honouring his father and great-grandfather.

Upon the 1952 accession of Elizabeth II, the title Elizabeth II caused controversy in Scotland as there had never been a Scottish Elizabeth I. Winston Churchill suggested that British sovereigns would use either the Scottish or the English number, whichever was higher; this convention fit the pattern of prior reigns since the Acts of Union 1707, all subsequent monarchs either having higher regnal numbers in England (namely William IV, Edward VII, and Edward VIII) or had names not used before the Union (George and Victoria). New Royal Mail post boxes in Scotland bearing the cypher E II R, were vandalised, after which, to avoid further problems, post boxes and Royal Mail vehicles in Scotland bore only the Crown of Scotland. A legal case, MacCormick v. Lord Advocate (1953 SC 396), contested the right of the Queen to title herself Elizabeth II in Scotland, arguing that to do so would be a breach of the Act of Union. The case, however, was dismissed on the grounds that the pursuers had no title to sue the Crown, and also that the numbering of monarchs was part of the royal prerogative, and thus not governed by the Act of Union.

Roman Empire
The Roman Emperors usually had the titles of "Imperator Caesar Augustus" in their names (which made these regnal names). Caesar came from the cognomen of Gaius Julius Caesar, Imperator meant Commander and Augustus meant venerable or majestic. The name usually went in two ways, Imperator (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Caesar Augustus or Imperator Caesar (Praenomen, Nomen and Cognomen) Augustus. Also, Imperator became a Praenomen of Roman Emperors, Augustus and Caesar became a cognomen of theirs.

Catholic Church
Immediately after a new pope is elected, and accepts the election, he is asked by the Dean of the College of Cardinals, "By what name shall you be called?" The new pope chooses the name by which he will be known. The senior Cardinal Deacon, or Cardinal Protodeacon, then appears on the balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica to proclaim the new Pope, informing the world of the man elected Pope, and under which name he would be known during his reign.

 Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: Habemus Papam! Eminentissimum ac Reverendissimum Dominum, Dominum [forename], Sanctæ Romanæ Ecclesiæ Cardinalem [surname], qui sibi nomen imposuit [papal name].  I announce to you a great joy: We have a Pope, The Most Eminent and Most Reverend Lord, Lord [forename], Cardinal of the Holy Roman Church [surname], who conferred upon himself the name [papal name].

During the first centuries of the church, priests elected bishop of Rome continued to use their baptismal names after their elections. The custom of choosing a new name began in AD 533 with the election of Mercurius. Mercurius had been named after the Roman god Mercury, and decided that it would not be appropriate for a pope to be named after a Roman god. Mercurius subsequently decreed that he would be known as John II. Since the end of the tenth century the pope has customarily chosen a new name for himself during his Pontificate; however, until the 16th century some pontiffs used their baptismal names.

The last pope to use his baptismal name was Pope Marcellus II in 1555, a choice that was even then quite exceptional. The names chosen by popes are not based on any system other than general honorifics. They have been based on immediate predecessors, mentors, political similarity, or even after family members—as was the case with Pope John XXIII. The practice of using the baptismal name as papal name has not been ruled out and future popes could elect to continue using their original names after being elected pope.

Often the new pontiff's choice of name upon being elected to the papacy is seen as a signal to the world of whom the new pope will emulate or what policies he will seek to enact. Such is the case with Benedict XVI who, in fact, explained the reasons for his choice of name during his first General Audience in St. Peter's Square, on 27 April 2005. On that occasion, he said that he wanted to remember "Pope Benedict XV, that courageous prophet of peace, who guided the Church through turbulent times of war", and also "Saint Benedict of Nursia, co-patron of Europe, whose life evokes the Christian roots of Europe".

There has never been a Pope Peter II. Even though there is no specific prohibition against choosing the name Peter, bishops elected to the Papacy have refrained from doing so even if their own given name was Peter. This is because of a tradition that only Saint Peter should have that honor. In the 10th century John XIV used the regnal name John because his given name was Peter. While some antipopes did take the name Peter II, their claims are not recognized by the mainstream Roman Catholic Church, and each of these men only either has or had a minuscule following that recognized their claims.

Probably because of the controversial Antipope John XXIII, new popes avoided taking the regnal name John for over 600 years until the election of Angelo Cardinal Roncalli in 1958. Immediately after his election, there was some confusion as to whether he would be known as John XXIII or John XXIV. Cardinal Roncalli thus moved to immediately resolve by declaring that he would be known as John XXIII.

In 1978, Albino Luciani became the first pope to use two names for his regnal name when he took the name John Paul I, including the "I". He took the "John Paul" name to honor both John XXIII and Paul VI. With the unexpected death of John Paul I a little over a month later, Karol Wojtyła took the name John Paul II to honor his immediate predecessor.

Antipopes also have regnal names, and also use the ordinal to show their position in the line of previous pontiffs with their names. For example, David Bawden took the name Michael I when declared pope in 1990.

Coptic Church
Coptic popes also choose regnal names distinct from their given names.

Islamic caliphates
The use of regnal names (laqab ) was uncommon in the Medieval Islamic era until the Abbasid Caliphate, when the first Abbasid caliph, Abu al-Abbas Abdullah ibn Muhammad, who overthrew the Umayyad dynasty, used the laqab as-Saffah ("the Blood-Shedder"). This name carried a messianic association, a theme that would be continued by as-Saffah's successors. The use of regnal names among the caliphs lasted throughout the reign of the Abbasid Caliphate, until the institution was deposed after the defeat of the Mamluk Sultanate and the capture of Caliph al-Mutawakkil III by the Ottoman Army in 1517.

The Fatimid caliphs adopted the Abbasid use of the laqab to assert their claims of authority.

title: Regnal name


text:
SSM

SSM may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Sakıp Sabancı Museum, an art museum in Istanbul, Turkey
 * SSM (band), a post punk/garage/psych rock band from Detroit, Michigan, formed in 2005

Organizations

 * Companies Commission of Malaysia (Suruhanjaya Syarikat Malaysia)
 * Federation of Trade Unions of Macedonia (Сојуз на синдикатите на Македонија)
 * Georgian Public Broadcasting (Sakartvelos Sazogadoebrivi Mauts'q'ebeli)
 * Sarawak Sovereignty Movement, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia
 * Scuola Svizzera di Milano, a Swiss international school in Milan, Italy
 * Shattuck-Saint Mary's, a coeducational Episcopal-affiliated boarding school in Faribault, Minnesota, US
 * Socialist Union of Youth (Socialistický svaz mládeže), an organization in the former Czechoslovakia
 * SSM Health, St. Louis, Missouri, US
 * Society for Social Medicine, UK
 * Society of the Sacred Mission, an Anglican religious order
 * Society of Saint Margaret, an Anglican religious order
 * Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (Strålsäkerhetsmyndigheten)
 * Swiss School of Management, a business school located at Bellinzona, Switzerland
 * Swiss Society for Microbiology, the professional association of Swiss microbiologists

Computing

 * Silicon secured memory, SPARC encryption technology
 * Source-specific multicast, in computer networking
 * Standard shadow map, in computer graphics

Medicine

 * Ssm6a, Scolopendra subspinipes mutilans 6, or μ-SLPTX-Ssm6a, is a toxin from the venom of the Chinese red-headed centipede.
 * SSMEM1, Serine-rich single-pass membrane protein 1 is a protein that in humans is encoded by the SSMEM1 gene.
 * Sleep state misperception, a term used to classify sleep disorders
 * Slipped strand mispairing, a mutation process during DNA replication
 * Social Science & Medicine, a peer-reviewed journal
 * Special study module, now student selected component, an option in medical schools in the UK
 * Superficial spreading melanoma, a type of cancer
 * System status management, of emergency medical services

Other science and technology

 * Scanning SQUID microscope, a magnetic current imaging system
 * Semi-solid metal casting, in the production of aluminium or magnesium parts
 * Special sensor microwave/imager, is a seven-channel, four-frequency, linearly polarized passive microwave radiometer system
 * Spectral submanifold, a type of invariant manifold in nonlinear dynamical systems
 * Standard solar model, a mathematical treatment of the Sun as a spherical ball of gas in cosmology
 * Startup, shutdowns, and malfunctions, in potentially polluting industrial plants

Military appointments and decorations

 * Grand Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia
 * Special Service Medal (Canada), awarded to members of the Canadian Forces
 * Squadron sergeant major, in some Commonwealth armies
 * Staff sergeant major, in some Commonwealth armies

Weaponry

 * Ship-to-ship missile
 * Surface-to-ship missile
 * Surface-to-surface missile
 * SSM-1, the Japanese Type 88 Surface-to-Ship Missile
 * SSM-1B, the Japanese Type 90 Ship-to-Ship Missile
 * SSM-700K Haeseong, a South Korean ship-launched sea-skimming surface-to-surface anti-ship cruise missile
 * SSM-A-5 Boojum, a United States Air Force cruise missile
 * SSM-A-23 Dart, an anti-tank guided missile developed for the United States Army
 * SSM-N-8 Regulus, a United States Navy cruise missile, 1955–1964
 * SSM-N-9 Regulus II, a United States Navy cruise missile

Other uses

 * Honda SSM, a concept car introduced at the 1995 Tokyo Motor Show
 * Sam Schmidt Motorsports, an auto racing team
 * Sault Ste. Marie Municipal Airport, IATA code
 * Self-supporting minister, an unpaid priest in the Church of England and Church of Ireland
 * Single Supervisory Mechanism, also known as European Banking Supervision, a system centered on the European Central Bank for the prudential supervision of banks in the euro area
 * Special Safeguard Mechanism, a World Trade Organization tool that allows developing countries to raise tariffs temporarily to deal with import surges or price falls
 * Strategic service management, optimization of a company's post-sale service
 * Soft systems methodology, a problem-solving method
 * Same-sex marriage, a marriage between two people of the same legal sex

title: SSM


text:
Unit fraction

A unit fraction is a positive fraction with one as its numerator, 1/$n$. It is the multiplicative inverse (reciprocal) of the denominator of the fraction, which must be a positive natural number. Examples are 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, 1/4, 1/5, etc. When an object is divided into equal parts, each part is a unit fraction of the whole.

Multiplying two unit fractions produces another unit fraction, but other arithmetic operations do not preserve unit fractions. In modular arithmetic, unit fractions can be converted into equivalent whole numbers, allowing modular division to be transformed into multiplication. Every rational number can be represented as a sum of distinct unit fractions; these representations are called Egyptian fractions based on their use in ancient Egyptian mathematics. Many infinite sums of unit fractions are meaningful mathematically.

In geometry, unit fractions can be used to characterize the curvature of triangle groups and the tangencies of Ford circles. Unit fractions are commonly used in fair division, and this familiar application is used in mathematics education as an early step toward the understanding of other fractions. Unit fractions are common in probability theory due to the principle of indifference. They also have applications in combinatorial optimization and in analyzing the pattern of frequencies in the hydrogen spectral series.

Arithmetic
The unit fractions are the rational numbers that can be written in the form $$\frac1n,$$ where $$n$$ can be any positive natural number. They are thus the multiplicative inverses of the positive integers. When something is divided into $$n$$ equal parts, each part is a $$1/n$$ fraction of the whole.

Elementary arithmetic
Multiplying any two unit fractions results in a product that is another unit fraction: $$\frac1x \times \frac1y = \frac1{xy}.$$ However, adding, subtracting, or dividing two unit fractions produces a result that is generally not a unit fraction: $$\frac1x + \frac1y = \frac{x+y}{xy}$$

$$\frac1x - \frac1y = \frac{y-x}{xy}$$

$$\frac1x \div \frac1y = \frac{y}{x}.$$

As the last of these formulas shows, every fraction can be expressed as a quotient of two unit fractions.

Modular arithmetic
In modular arithmetic, any unit fraction can be converted into an equivalent whole number using the extended Euclidean algorithm. This conversion can be used to perform modular division: dividing by a number $$x$$, modulo $$y$$, can be performed by converting the unit fraction $$1/x$$ into an equivalent whole number modulo $$y$$, and then multiplying by that number.

In more detail, suppose that $$x$$ is relatively prime to $$y$$ (otherwise, division by $$x$$ is not defined modulo $$y$$). The extended Euclidean algorithm for the greatest common divisor can be used to find integers $$a$$ and $$b$$ such that Bézout's identity is satisfied: $$\displaystyle ax + by = \gcd(x,y)=1.$$ In modulo-$$y$$ arithmetic, the term $$by$$ can be eliminated as it is zero modulo $$y$$. This leaves $$\displaystyle ax \equiv 1 \pmod y.$$ That is, $$a$$ is the modular inverse of $$x$$, the number that when multiplied by $$x$$ produces one. Equivalently, $$a \equiv \frac1x \pmod y.$$ Thus division by $$x$$ (modulo $$y$$) can instead be performed by multiplying by the integer $$a$$.

Combinations
Several constructions in mathematics involve combining multiple unit fractions together, often by adding them.

Finite sums
Any positive rational number can be written as the sum of distinct unit fractions, in multiple ways. For example,
 * $$\frac45=\frac12+\frac14+\frac1{20}=\frac13+\frac15+\frac16+\frac1{10}.$$

These sums are called Egyptian fractions, because the ancient Egyptian civilisations used them as notation for more general rational numbers. There is still interest today in analyzing the methods used by the ancients to choose among the possible representations for a fractional number, and to calculate with such representations. The topic of Egyptian fractions has also seen interest in modern number theory; for instance, the Erdős–Graham conjecture and the Erdős–Straus conjecture concern sums of unit fractions, as does the definition of Ore's harmonic numbers.

In geometric group theory, triangle groups are classified into Euclidean, spherical, and hyperbolic cases according to whether an associated sum of unit fractions is equal to one, greater than one, or less than one respectively.

Infinite series
Many well-known infinite series have terms that are unit fractions. These include:
 * The harmonic series, the sum of all positive unit fractions. This sum diverges, and its partial sums $$\frac11 + \frac12 + \frac13 + \cdots + \frac1n$$ closely approximate the natural logarithm of $$n$$ plus the Euler–Mascheroni constant. Changing every other addition to a subtraction produces the alternating harmonic series, which sums to the natural logarithm of 2: $$\sum_{n = 1}^\infty \frac{(-1)^{n + 1}}{n} = 1 - \frac{1}{2} + \frac{1}{3} - \frac{1}{4} + \frac{1}{5} - \cdots = \ln 2.$$
 * The Leibniz formula for π is $$1 - \frac{1}{3} + \frac{1}{5} - \frac{1}{7} + \frac{1}{9} - \cdots = \frac{\pi}{4}.$$
 * The Basel problem concerns the sum of the square unit fractions: $$1 + \frac14 + \frac19 + \frac1{16} + \cdots = \frac{\pi^2}{6}.$$ Similarly, Apéry's constant is an irrational number, the sum of the cubed unit fractions.
 * The binary geometric series is $$1 + \frac12 + \frac14 + \frac18 + \frac1{16} + \cdots = 2.$$

Matrices
A Hilbert matrix is a square matrix in which the elements on the $i$th antidiagonal all equal the unit fraction $$1/i$$. That is, it has elements $$B_{i,j} = \frac1{i+j-1}.$$ For example, the matrix $$\begin{bmatrix} 1 & \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} \\ \frac{1}{2} & \frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4} \\ \frac{1}{3} & \frac{1}{4} & \frac{1}{5} \end{bmatrix}$$ is a Hilbert matrix. It has the unusual property that all elements in its inverse matrix are integers. Similarly, defined a matrix whose elements are unit fractions whose denominators are Fibonacci numbers: $$C_{i,j} = \frac1{F_{i+j-1}},$$ where $$F_i$$ denotes the $i$th Fibonacci number. He calls this matrix the Filbert matrix and it has the same property of having an integer inverse.

Adjacency and Ford circles
Two fractions $$a/b$$ and $$c/d$$ (in lowest terms) are called adjacent if $$ad-bc=\pm1,$$ which implies that they differ from each other by a unit fraction: $$\left|\frac{1}{a}-\frac{1}{b}\right|=\frac{|ad-bc|}{bd}=\frac{1}{bd}.$$ For instance, $$\tfrac12$$ and $$\tfrac35$$ are adjacent: $$1\cdot 5-2\cdot 3=-1$$ and $$\tfrac35-\tfrac12=\tfrac1{10}$$. However, some pairs of fractions whose difference is a unit fraction are not adjacent in this sense: for instance, $$\tfrac13$$ and $$\tfrac23$$ differ by a unit fraction, but are not adjacent, because for them $$ad-bc=3$$.

This terminology comes from the study of Ford circles. These are a system of circles that are tangent to the number line at a given fraction and have the squared denominator of the fraction as their diameter. Fractions $$a/b$$ and $$c/d$$ are adjacent if and only if their Ford circles are tangent circles.

Fair division and mathematics education
In mathematics education, unit fractions are often introduced earlier than other kinds of fractions, because of the ease of explaining them visually as equal parts of a whole. A common practical use of unit fractions is to divide food equally among a number of people, and exercises in performing this sort of fair division are a standard classroom example in teaching students to work with unit fractions.

Probability and statistics
In a uniform distribution on a discrete space, all probabilities are equal unit fractions. Due to the principle of indifference, probabilities of this form arise frequently in statistical calculations.

Unequal probabilities related to unit fractions arise in Zipf's law. This states that, for many observed phenomena involving the selection of items from an ordered sequence, the probability that the $n$th item is selected is proportional to the unit fraction $$1/n$$.

Combinatorial optimization
In the study of combinatorial optimization problems, bin packing problems involve an input sequence of items with fractional sizes, which must be placed into bins whose capacity (the total size of items placed into each bin) is one. Research into these problems has included the study of restricted bin packing problems where the item sizes are unit fractions.

One motivation for this is as a test case for more general bin packing methods. Another involves a form of pinwheel scheduling, in which a collection of messages of equal length must each be repeatedly broadcast on a limited number of communication channels, with each message having a maximum delay between the start times of its repeated broadcasts. An item whose delay is $$k$$ times the length of a message must occupy a fraction of at least $$1/k$$ of the time slots on the channel it is assigned to, so a solution to the scheduling problem can only come from a solution to the unit fraction bin packing problem with the channels as bins and the fractions $$1/k$$ as item sizes.

Even for bin packing problems with arbitrary item sizes, it can be helpful to round each item size up to the next larger unit fraction, and then apply a bin packing algorithm specialized for unit fraction sizes. In particular, the harmonic bin packing method does exactly this, and then packs each bin using items of only a single rounded unit fraction size.

Physics
The energy levels of photons that can be absorbed or emitted by a hydrogen atom are, according to the Rydberg formula, proportional to the differences of two unit fractions. An explanation for this phenomenon is provided by the Bohr model, according to which the energy levels of electron orbitals in a hydrogen atom are inversely proportional to square unit fractions, and the energy of a photon is quantized to the difference between two levels.

Arthur Eddington argued that the fine-structure constant was a unit fraction. He initially thought it to be 1/136 and later changed his theory to 1/137. This contention has been falsified, given that current estimates of the fine structure constant are (to 6 significant digits) 1/137.036.

title: Unit fraction


text:
Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)

Wrigley Field was a ballpark in Los Angeles, California. It hosted minor league baseball teams in the region for more than 30 years. It was the home park for the Los Angeles Angels of the Pacific Coast League (PCL), as well as for the Los Angeles Angels of Major League Baseball (MLB) during its inaugural season in 1961. The park was designed by Zachary Taylor Davis, who had designed MLB stadiums Comiskey Park and Wrigley Field in Chicago, Illinois. The ballpark was used as the backdrop for Hollywood films about baseball, the 1960 TV series Home Run Derby, jazz festivals, beauty contests, and civil rights rallies.

History
Called Wrigley's "Million Dollar Palace", Wrigley Field was built in South Los Angeles in 1925, and was named after William Wrigley Jr., a chewing gum magnate. Wrigley owned the first tenants, the Los Angeles Angels, a PCL team, and its parent club, the Chicago Cubs. In 1925, the Angels moved to Wrigley Field. Wrigley's Major League stadium (originally "Weeghman Park," then "Cubs Park") on the north side of Chicago was renamed Wrigley Field in 1926.

Wrigley Field in Los Angeles was built to resemble Spanish-style architecture. It was the first of the two ballparks to bear Wrigley's name. Wrigley owned Santa Catalina Island where the Cubs conducted spring training in that island's city of Avalon.

The playing field was aligned northeast (home plate to center field) at an elevation of 185 ft above sea level. The boundary street in right field (east) was Avalon Boulevard, with a small parking lot. The other boundaries of the block were 41st Place (north, left field), 42nd Place (south, first base line), and San Pedro Street (west, third base line and a larger parking lot).

Lights were added to the park in 1930. Chicago's Wrigley Field added lights in 1988, when night games were added to the Cubs' home schedule.

Minor League Baseball 1925–1957
For 33 seasons, 1925 to 1957, the park was home to the Angels, which was a farm team of the Chicago Cubs. For 11 seasons, (1926–1935, 1938) the park was the home of PCL team, the Hollywood Stars. In 1930, the Angels and Stars combined to draw more than 850,000 fans. The Stars moved to a new ballpark, Gilmore Field, west of the Pan Pacific Auditorium. Angel players included Dodgers manager and Hall of Fame member Tommy Lasorda, Phillies, Expos, Twins and Angels manager Gene Mauch, actor Chuck Connors, Gene Baker, and Andy Pafko. The parent club, Chicago Cubs, was the first major league team to play at Wrigley, when it played the Angels in a spring training game in 1926. On March 20, 1949, the major league Cubs played the defending world champion Cleveland Indians in a spring training game before 24,517 people.

On February 21, 1957, the Dodgers bought a team in Fort Worth, Texas, Wrigley Field, the Angels franchise and their territorial rights for $3 million. L.A. Wrigley's minor league baseball days ended when the Brooklyn Dodgers of the National League transferred to Los Angeles in 1958. The PCL Angels franchise relocated as the Spokane Indians to Avista Stadium in Spokane, Washington.

The Dodgers considered using Wrigley Field, the Rose Bowl in Pasadena and the Los Angeles Coliseum. The team opted for four seasons in the 93,000-seat L.A. Coliseum, which had a 251-foot foul line in left field, while awaiting construction of Dodger Stadium, with a seating capacity of 56,000.

Major League Baseball: Los Angeles Angels
In October 1960, the MLB expanded the American League from eight to 10 teams. Teams were awarded to Los Angeles and Washington, D.C. The L.A. franchise was awarded to Gene Autry and Bob Reynolds, and was called the Los Angeles Angels.

The home opener on April 27 was a 4–2 loss to the Minnesota Twins before a crowd of 11,931. In attendance were Vice President Richard Nixon, Casey Stengel, Ford Frick, Joe Cronin, and Ty Cobb.

On October 1, 1961, the Cleveland Indians beat the Angels 8-5 before 9,868 fans. Steve Bilko hit the last home run in Wrigley.

The 1961 Angels were led in hitting by Albie Pearson with a .288 batting average, in home runs by Leon Wagner with 28, and runs batted in by Ken Hunt with 84. The pitching staff was led by Ken McBride with 12 wins. Future World Series winning manager Chuck Tanner played in seven games. The team drew 603,510 fans.

Professional boxing
Wrigley was used frequently for boxing. Six world title boxing bouts were held there, including the 1939 Joe Louis-Jack Roper fight. Sugar Ray Robinson also boxed at Wrigley Field. Robinson won the Middleweight Championship on May 18, 1956, knocking out Carl Olson before 18,000 fans. On August 18, 1958, in a Heavyweight Championship fight, Floyd Patterson defeated Roy Harris with 17,000 in attendance.

1938 NFL Pro-Bowl
Several weeks after the completion of the season, the first NFL Pro Bowl was held at Wrigley Field on January 15, 1939. Sammy Baugh was among those on the rosters that matched the champion New York Giants against All-Star NFL players.

Pepperdine University
The Pepperdine Waves college football team played home games at Wrigley Field in 1948.

Soccer
On May 28, 1959, the park hosted a soccer friendly match between England and the United States; England won 8–1 in front of 13,000. On June 1, 1960, Scottish Champions Hearts defeated England's Manchester United 4–0 in front of a crowd of 11,000. The U.S. Men's National Team played a World Cup Qualifier against Mexico on November 6, 1960, drawing 3–3 before 9,500 people.

Movies and television filming
Being closer to Hollywood than the other major league baseball fields at the dawn of motion pictures, Wrigley Field was a popular place to film baseball movies. The first film known to have used Wrigley as a shooting location was 1927's Babe Comes Home, a silent film starring Babe Ruth. Some well-known movies filmed there were The Pride of the Yankees (1942) and Damn Yankees (1958). When Frank Capra filmed the public rally scene at Wrigley for Meet John Doe in August 1940, massive sprinklers simulated a downpour because the director included one rainy scene in each movie as good luck. The film noir classic Armored Car Robbery (1950) had its title heist set at Wrigley.

The ballpark later found its way into television, serving as the backdrop for the Home Run Derby series in 1960, a popular show filmed in 1959 which featured one-on-one contests between baseball's top home run hitters, which had a revival in 1989 when it aired on ESPN, and later on ESPN Classic. Episodes of shows as diverse as The Twilight Zone ("The Mighty Casey", 1960), The Munsters ("Herman The Rookie", 1965), and Mannix ("To Catch a Rabbit", 1969) were also filmed there. Some closeups were filmed there for insertion into the 1951 film Angels in the Outfield, a film otherwise set at Forbes Field in Pittsburgh. A 1932 movie short starring Babe Ruth, titled Just Pals, was also filmed at Wrigley Field.

Jazz concerts
Leon Hefflin, Sr. produced the first largest outdoor jazz entertainment event of its kind, the Cavalcade of Jazz, held at Wrigley as part of the Central Avenue jazz scene and showcased over 125 artists from 1945 to 1956. The Cavalcade of Jazz concerts were the stepping stone to success for such stars as Toni Harper, Dinah Washington, Roy Milton, Frankie Lane and others. He also hosted a beauty contest at the events. His first COJ show starred Count Basie & His Orchestra, Joe Liggins & His Honeydrippers, Valaida Snow, Big Joe Turner, the Peters Sisters, Slim & Bam (Slim Gaillard and Bam Brown), and more artists on September 23, 1945, with a crowd of 15,000.

Demolition
Following the Angels' departure after the 1961 season, Wrigley Field had no regular tenants. By then the park was owned by the city, and various events were staged. On May 26, 1963, a large crowd attended a civil rights rally featuring Martin Luther King Jr. By 1966 the park was being used for soccer matches.

In October 1968, the ballpark was renamed Gilbert Lindsay Community Center as a first step in renovating the site. Demolition was underway by January 1969. The resulting city park has a ball field in the northwest corner of the property, which was once a parking area. The diamond is locally known as "Wrigley Field", and is the home of Wrigley Little League baseball and softball. The original site of the Wrigley diamond and grandstand is occupied by the Kedren Community Mental Health Center and another parking lot.

title: Wrigley Field (Los Angeles)