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Umpire (baseball)

In baseball, the umpire is the person charged with officiating the game, including beginning and ending the game, enforcing the rules of the game and the grounds, making judgment calls on plays, and handling the disciplinary actions. The term is often shortened to the colloquial form ump. They are also sometimes addressed as blue at lower levels due to the common color of the uniform worn by umpires. In professional baseball, the term blue is seldom used by players or managers, who instead call the umpire by name. Although games were often officiated by a sole umpire in the formative years of the sport, since the turn of the 20th century, officiating has been commonly divided among several umpires, who form the umpiring crew. The position is analogous to that of a referee in many other sports.

Duties and positions
In a game officiated by two or more umpires, the umpire in chief (usually the home plate umpire) is the umpire who is in charge of the entire game. This umpire calls balls and strikes, calls fair balls, foul balls short of first/third base, and makes most calls concerning the batter or concerning baserunners near home plate. To avoid injury, the home plate umpire wears similar equipment to the catcher, including mask, chest protector, leg guards and shoes with extra protection added over the laces. If another umpire leaves the infield to cover a potential play in foul ground or in the outfield, then the plate umpire may move to cover a potential play near second or third base. (The umpire-in-chief should not be confused with the crew chief, who is often a different umpire; see below.) In the event that an umpire is injured and only three remain, the second base position will generally be left vacant.

In nearly all levels of organized baseball, including the majors, an umpiring crew rotates so that each umpire in the crew works each position, including plate umpire, an equal number of games. In the earliest days of baseball, however, many senior umpires always worked the plate, with Hall of Fame umpire Bill Klem being the last umpire to do so. Klem did so for the first 16 years of his career. On the Major League level, an umpiring crew generally rotates positions clockwise each game. For example, the plate umpire in one game would umpire third base in the next.

Other umpires are called base umpires and are commonly stationed near the bases. (Field umpire is a less-common term.) When two umpires are used, the second umpire is simply the base umpire. This umpire will make most calls concerning runners on the bases and nearby plays, as well as in the middle of the outfield. When three umpires are used, the second umpire is called the first-base umpire and the third umpire is called the third-base umpire, even though they may move to different positions on the field as the play demands. These two umpires also call checked swings, if asked by the plate umpire (often requested by catcher or defensive manager; however, only the plate umpire can authorize an appeal to the base umpire): the first base umpire for right-handed batters, and the third base umpire for left-handed batters; to indicate a checked swing, the umpire will make a "safe" gesture with his arms. To indicate a full swing, he will clench his fist.

When four umpires are used (as is the case for all regular season MLB games unless one has to leave due to injury), each umpire is named for the base at which he is stationed. Sometimes a league will provide six umpires; the extra two are stationed along the outfield foul lines and are called the left-field and right-field umpires (or simply outfield umpires).

Outfield umpires are used in major events, such as the Major League Baseball All-Star Game, and depending on the level, at parts of post-season playoffs. For Major League Baseball, all playoff levels use six umpires adding a left-field and right-field umpire, while at lower levels, six umpires are used at the championship games (such as NCAA). Rulings on catches of batted balls are usually made by the umpire closest to the play.

Crew chief
The term umpire-in-chief is not to be confused with the crew chief, who is usually the most experienced umpire in a crew. At the major-league and high minor-league (Class AAA and AA) levels, the crew chief acts as a liaison between the league office and the crew and has a supervisory role over other members of the crew.

For example, on the Major League level, "The Crew Chief shall coordinate and direct his crew's compliance with the Office of the Commissioner's rules and policies. Other Crew Chief responsibilities include: leading periodic discussions and reviews of situations, plays and rules with his crew; generally directing the work of the other umpires on the crew, with particular emphasis on uniformity in dealing with unique situations; assigning responsibilities for maintaining time limits during the game; ensuring the timely filing of all required crew reports for incidents such as ejections, brawls and protested games; and reporting to the Office of Commissioner any irregularity in field conditions at any ballpark." Thus, on the professional level, some of the duties assigned to the umpire-in-chief (the plate umpire) in the Official Baseball Rules have been reassigned to the crew chief, regardless of the crew chief's umpiring position during a specific game. Instant replay reviews, for example, will be reviewed with the crew chief and one other umpire, with results announced by the crew chief. The crew chief acts analogous to the crew chief in basketball (as referenced in the NBA and FIBA rules) or the referee in American football.

Starting with the 2022 season, umpire crew chiefs will be equipped with wireless microphones to be used when announcing replay challenges and the results of those challenges.

Judgment calls

An umpire's judgment call used to be final, unless the umpire making the call chose to ask his partner(s) for help and then decided to reverse it after the discussion. Since 2014, MLB allows managers to challenge plays during the game. If the manager successfully has a call overturned, they are rewarded with another challenge. If an umpire seems to make an error in rule interpretation, his call, in some leagues, can be officially protested as is the case in MLB. If the umpire is persistent in his or her interpretation, the matter will be settled at a later time by a league official. An independent study of umpire pitch-call accuracy over 11 seasons (2008–2018) released on April 8, 2019, by Mark T. Williams of Boston University concluded that over 20% of certain pitches were called incorrectly. For the 2018 season, home plate umpires made about 34,000 incorrect ball and strike calls, which is about 14 per game and 1.6 per inning.

In the early years of professional baseball, umpires were not engaged by the league but rather by agreement between the team captains. However, by the start of the modern era in 1901, this had become a league responsibility. There is now a unitary major league umpiring roster, although until the 1999 labor dispute that led to the decertification of the Major League Umpires Association, there were separate National and American League umpires. As a result of the 2000 collective bargaining agreement between Major League Baseball and the newly formed World Umpires Association (now known as the Major League Baseball Umpires Association) all umpires were placed on one roster and work in games in both leagues.

Amateur umpiring
An amateur umpire officiates non-professional or semi-professional baseball. Many amateur umpires are paid (typically on a per-game basis) and thus might be considered professionals, while some amateur umpires are unpaid. According to the Little League Baseball official website, umpires should be volunteers.

There are numerous organizations that test or train anyone interested in umpiring for local leagues, and can help make connections to the leagues in the area. Little League Baseball and the Babe Ruth League are two of the most popular organizations when it comes to youth baseball, and each have their own application, test, and training process for becoming an umpire. In Canada, most umpires are certified through a provincial organization, and then hired by local municipal associations through an umpire in chief.

For the Little League World Series, amateur umpires from around the world participate on a volunteer basis. Prospective Little League World Series umpires must participate at various levels of Little League All-Star tournaments, ranging from district to state to regional tournaments, prior to being accepted to work the World Series tournament.

High school umpiring
In the United States, many (if not most) high schools sponsor a baseball team. Many high schools sponsor multiple baseball teams; for instance, "varsity" and "junior varsity" teams. During the 2017–18 academic year there were 16,513 high schools sponsoring at least one baseball team, and 488,859 students participated on a high school baseball team. Thus, high school baseball is one of the most popular levels of baseball in the United States. Unlike college athletics, there is no competitive national championship on the high school level. And, unlike college athletics, umpires on the high school level are not administered by a national organization (such as the NCAA). Rather, high school baseball is administered at the state level (usually by a statewide high school athletic association) and the qualifications for becoming and remaining a high school umpire are usually set by the entity overseeing high school baseball in each individual state. For example, the Florida High School Athletic Association sets forth minimum requirements for being a high school umpire in Florida. Many statewide high school athletic associations contract with multiple local umpire associations throughout their state in which the local associations agree to train and provide umpires for high school games in each association's geographic area of the state in return for a "booking fee" being paid to the local associations by either the statewide high school association or by individual high schools. The local associations also promise to train their umpires to meet the state high school association's minimum requirements for umpires. For example, in Florida the Jacksonville Umpires Association trains and provides umpires for high school games in the Jacksonville area.

The specific requirements for becoming a high school umpire vary from state-to-state. However, generally all states share the same basic minimum requirements. First, a person trying to become an umpire must usually register with both the state high school athletic association and their local umpire association. Upon registering, most states provide their umpires with a high school rulebook, casebook, and umpires' manual. Second, most states require all umpires to attend clinics and meetings. These clinics may focus on rules, umpire mechanics, or a combination of both. Third, most states also require an umpire to pass a rules exam. Finally, most states also require umpires to work a certain number of pre-season scrimmages prior to working regular season games. As an example of these requirements, Georgia has an "officials accountability program" which sets forth the specific requirements for its interscholastic officials (including the attendance at clinics and camps and the passing of an examination) which can be reviewed here.

Although high school baseball is administered at the state level, the various state high school athletic associations have voluntarily formed the National Federation of State High School Associations. Through the federation, most state athletic associations have agreed to use its rulebook. Thus, while high school baseball is administered on a state level, almost all state associations use the same unique baseball rulebook (and the associated casebook and umpire manual) written specifically for the high school level. As a result, if an individual umpire moves from one state to another state (s)he would likely be using the same rule set in his/her new state as was used in his/her former state. However, there are significant rule differences between the federation's rulebook compared to Major League Baseball (MLB) and NCAA rules. Thus, individuals wanting to umpire on the high school level will have to learn a different set of rules than those they may be familiar with had they previously umpired in a youth league using the MLB or NCAA rulebooks.

Almost exclusively, high school umpires are paid on a per game basis. As they are not salaried, they are not paid if they do not actually umpire a game, although some states require the home school to pay the umpires' travel expenses if they show up to the game site and the game is called, regardless of whether or not it starts. The amount paid differs, often significantly, from state to state. Most high school games are officiated by a two-umpire crew. However, many states use three-umpire and four-umpire crews to officiate playoff games.

Professional umpire training and career development
Becoming a Major League Baseball umpire requires rigorous training, and very few succeed. Provided the individual makes satisfactory progress throughout, it typically takes from 7–10 years to achieve MLB status. First, a person desiring to become a professional umpire must attend one of two umpiring schools authorized by Major League Baseball: Minor League Baseball Umpire Training Academy or The Harry Wendelstedt Umpire School. The former is owned and operated by Minor League Baseball while the latter is run by former and current Major League and Minor League umpires. Both are located in Florida. There are no prerequisites for attending these schools; however, there is an Umpire Camp, run by Major League Baseball, that is generally considered a "tool for success" at either of these schools. These camps, offered as two separate one-week sessions, are held in November in Southern California. Top students at these camps are eligible to earn scholarships to either of the professional umpire schools in Florida.

After five weeks of training, each school sends its top students to the Minor League Baseball Umpire Development (MiLBUD) evaluation course also held in Florida. Minor League Baseball Umpire Development, "is the entity which is responsible for the training, evaluation, and recommendation for promotion, retention, or release of all umpires in the Minor League Baseball system throughout the United States and Canada." The actual number of students sent on to the evaluation course is determined by MiLBUD using input from the umpire schools. Generally, the top 10 to 20 percent of each school's graduating class will advance to the evaluation course. The evaluation course is conducted by MiLBUD staff, some of whom are also instructors at the Minor League Baseball Umpire Training Academy. The evaluation course generally lasts around 10 days. Depending on the number of available positions in the various minor leagues, some (but not all) of the evaluation course attendees will be assigned to a low level minor league. Out of approximately 300 original umpire school students, about 30-35 will ultimately be offered jobs in Minor League Baseball after the evaluation course.

Professional umpires begin their careers in one of the Rookie or Class "A" Short-Season leagues, with Class-A being divided into three levels (Short-Season, Long-Season and Advanced "A"). Top umpiring prospects will often begin their careers in a short-season "A" league (for example, the New York–Penn League), but most will begin in a rookie league (for example, the Gulf Coast League). Since 2008, some umpires who attend the evaluation course, but are not offered jobs in professional baseball may be offered jobs in the Coastal Plain League (a summer wood bat league for collegiate players). During the season, umpires in the Coastal Plain League are evaluated by MiLBUD and they may earn a promotion to a Rookie professional league as a result of injuries or resignations by umpires at higher levels.

Throughout the season, all minor league umpires in Rookie leagues, Class-A, and Class-AA are evaluated by members of the MiLBUD staff. All umpires receive a detailed written evaluation of their performance after every season. In addition, all umpires (except those in the rookie or Short Season Class-A leagues) receive written mid-season evaluations.

Generally, an umpire is regarded as making adequate progress "up the ranks" if he advances up one level of Class "A" ball each year (thus earning promotion to Class AA after three to four years) and promotion to Class AAA after two to three years on the Class AA level. However, this is a very rough estimate and other factors not discussed (such as the number of retirements at higher levels) may dramatically affect these estimates. For example, many umpires saw rapid advancement in 1999 due to the mass resignation of many Major League umpires as a collective bargaining ploy.

When promoted to the Class AAA level, an umpire's evaluation will also be conducted by the umpiring supervisory staff of Major League Baseball. In recent years, top AAA prospects, in addition to umpiring and being evaluated during the regular season (in either the International or Pacific Coast League), have been required to umpire in the Arizona Fall League where they receive extensive training and evaluation by Major League Baseball staff. Additionally, top minor league prospects will also be sent to umpire in winter leagues (during Major League and Minor League baseball's off-season) usually located in the Caribbean, Central America or South America.

In addition, top AAA prospects may also be rewarded with umpiring only Major League preseason games during spring training (in lieu of Class AAA games). Additionally, the very top prospects may umpire Major League regular season games on a limited basis as "fill-in" umpires (where the Class AAA umpire replaces a sick, injured or vacationing Major League umpire).

Finally, upon the retirement (or firing) of a Major League umpire, a top Class AAA umpire will be promoted to Major League Baseball's permanent umpire staff. During this entire process, if an umpire is evaluated as no longer being a major-league prospect, he will be released, ending his professional career. In all, MiLBUD estimates that it will take an umpire seven to eight years of professional umpiring before he will be considered for a major league position.

, major league umpires earn $150,000 to $450,000 per year depending on their experience, with a $340 per diem for hotel and meals, plus first-class commercial airline tickets. Minor league umpires earn from $2,000 to $3,900 per month during the season. Amounts vary based on the umpire's classification and experience.

, there are 19 four-man crews in MLB, for a total of 76 full-time umpires; they are augmented by 16 Class AAA umpires eligible to umpire regular season games, yielding a total roster of 92 MLB umpires.

In December 2019, MLB and the Major League Baseball Umpires Association agreed in principle to a new five-year labor agreement running through 2024.

Uniforms
Umpires are often referred as "Blue" because of the traditional color of their uniforms. Standardized navy blue suits worn with white shirts and navy ties were adopted as umpire uniforms by the American Association. This semi-formal and business-like attire elevated the appearance of umpires above the clothing worn by players. The National League adopted the same uniform the following year, as did the American League when it became a major league in 1901. Minor leagues likewise followed suit. For many decades there were no difference between the umpire uniforms of the two major leagues except that National League umpires adopted an inside chest protector worn under their suits while American League umpires wore an outside (or "balloon") protector over their suits when calling balls and strikes at home plate.

In 1968, American League umpires began to wear grey trousers with their blue coats, while National League umpires retained the solid blue suits. That season, AL umpires were also allowed to work both behind the plate and on the bases wearing a long-sleeved light blue shirt with a tie but without the blazer.

In 1970, the National League added a league logo patch to the chest pocket and the umpire's number on the right sleeve of the coat. That same year, the NL also introduced a short-sleeved light blue shirt worn without coat or tie for hot summer games; the American League also adopted the short sleeve variant in 1971. The next season, the AL introduced its current logo and was worn on the pocket of the shirts and blazers.

In 1973, the AL switched to a maroon blazer worn with blue pants, which was used until 1979. In 1975, the American League umpire hats added the abbreviation "AL". Beginning with the 1976 World Series, in cold weather umpires could replace the shirt and tie with a turtleneck sweater (originally light blue for the NL and beige for the AL). In 1977, the use of the outside (balloon) protector was outlawed for new umpires but grandfathered for existing umpires (the last umpire that used one, Jerry Neudecker, retired in 1985). The wearing of ties was phased out, with the 1979 All-Star Game being the last time they were worn.

In 1980, Major League Baseball standardized umpire uniforms for both leagues, adopting a uniform of a blue blazer, grey trousers, and short sleeved light blue shirt, with only the logo patch on the shirt and coat and the either "AL" or "NL" monogrammed caps differentiating them; the AL also added numbers to their umpire uniforms like the NL. Both leagues introduced V-neck sweaters for wear on the bases, with those AL umpires still using the outside chest protector also wearing them occasionally behind the plate. Late in the decade, windbreaker-style jackets and heavier coats similar to those worn by players in the dugouts were adopted as alternatives to the blazer when weather appropriate.

In 1996, the button-down light blue shirt was replaced with a navy blue polo shirt with red and white trim on the collar and sleeve cuffs and red numbers on the sleeve. The simple monograms on the cap were replaced by a large red "N" with the NL logo and "A" with the AL logo respectively. The AL also permitted an optional red polo shirt (an homage to the 1973-79 red blazers) that was not widely used; the notable exceptions were Derryl Cousins, Dale Scott and Durwood Merrill, who frequently wore the red shirts while working home plate, even as their colleagues on the bases wore the navy blue shirts (Scott wore his red shirt behind the plate in Game 3 of the 1998 World Series; Cousins followed suit in the clinching Game 4 of the 1999 Series). The NL added a light blue polo shirt for warm weather in 1997 and was very popular, especially in the humid climates of Atlanta, Miami and St. Louis. Beginning in 2000, after the individual leagues' umpires were consolidated into a single staff, the 1996-99 uniform styles were carried over with "MLB" on the caps instead of the league designations. Only navy blue shirts were worn that season.

In 2001 the uniforms switched to black polo shirts with grey slacks, with the hats and chest patches now bearing the MLB logo. The light blue shirt was replaced by a gray shirt, but the blue returned a year later. Long-sleeve versions of the polo shirts are also available for colder weather, as is a short-sleeved turtleneck for use as an undershirt. Outerwear options consist of a black pullover windbreaker with removable lower sleeves and a heavier black dugout coat. Still available, though less commonly seen, is the plate coat, a modern version of the traditional blazer, also in black, which is typically only worn when serving as home plate umpire, where the large lower pockets are used for storing extra baseballs.

Hall of Fame
The following ten umpires have been inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame:
 * Class of 1953 – Tommy Connolly (NL, 1898–1900; AL, 1901–1931)
 * Class of 1953 – Bill Klem (NL 1905–1941)
 * Class of 1973 – Billy Evans (AL, 1906–1927)
 * Class of 1974 – Jocko Conlan (NL 1941–1964)
 * Class of 1976 – Cal Hubbard (AL, 1936–1951)
 * Class of 1989 – Al Barlick (NL, 1940–1943, 1946–1955, 1958–1971)
 * Class of 1992 – Bill McGowan (AL, 1925–1954)
 * Class of 1999 – Nestor Chylak (AL, 1954–1978)
 * Class of 2010 – Doug Harvey (NL 1962–1992)
 * Class of 2013 – Hank O'Day (NL, 1895, 1897–1911, 1913, 1915–1927)

Conlan and O'Day played in 128 and 232 major league games, respectively, prior to becoming professional umpires.

Several player inductees to the Hall of Fame served as substitute umpires for a small number of games during the early years of baseball; these include Hughie Jennings, Willie Keeler, King Kelly, and Chuck Klein. Additionally, Hall of Fame player inductees Tim Keefe and Ed Walsh umpired professionally in the major leagues after their playing careers ended.

Numbers retired by the National and American Leagues
Like players, umpires are identified by numbers on their uniforms. National League umpires began wearing numbers in 1970 (though they were assigned numbers in the 1960s) and American League umpires were assigned and began wearing uniform numbers in 1980. The National League umpires' numbers were initially assigned in alphabetical order (Al Barlick wearing number 1, Ken Burkhart number 2, etc.) from 1970 to 1978, which meant that an umpire's number could change each year depending on retirements and other staff changes. In 1979, the National League changed the numbering system and thereafter an umpire's number did not change from year to year. At first, as new umpires, they would be assigned higher numbers (for example, in 1979, Dave Pallone, Steve Fields, Fred Brocklander, and Lanny Harris were assigned numbers 26 to 29 instead of available numbers between 1 and 25). The National League numbering practice changed again in the mid-1980s, when new umpires were assigned previously used numbers (for example, in 1982 Gerry Davis was assigned number 12, previously worn by Andy Olsen, and in 1985 Tom Hallion was assigned number 20, previously worn by Ed Vargo.)

The American League's number assignments were largely random. Bill Haller, the senior American League umpire in 1980, wore number 1 until his retirement following the 1982 World Series, but the number was never reassigned.

In 2000, the American League and National League umpiring staffs were merged into a unified staff under the auspices of Major League Baseball, and all numbers were made available, including the numbers that had been retired by one of the leagues. (For example, the American League had retired Lou DiMuro's number 16 after his death, but it was made available to his son Mike after the staffs were unified.) In the event of duplications, the more senior umpire was given the first choice. (For example, Al Clark in the AL and Jerry Layne in the NL both wore the number 24, but because Clark had more seniority he was assigned 24 and Layne number 26. When Clark was relieved of his duties in 2001, Layne was able to obtain number 24. By comparison, Bruce Froemming was given #6 upon unification of the umpiring staffs since he had worn it longer in the NL than Jim Joyce had worn it in the AL; Joyce subsequently chose #66, unused by any previous umpire. When Froemming retired following the 2007 season, Joyce opted to keep #66, and #6 is now worn by Mark Carlson.) Starting in the 2020 season, umpires (mainly call-up/reserve umpires used when the regular staff is on vacation) were assigned triple-digit numbers (100+).

From time to time, Major League Baseball retires those numbers for umpires who have given outstanding service to the game, or in honor of umpires who have died.

Since unified umpiring crews were established in 2000, all numbers are available to Major League Baseball umpires, as each retired number was reserved per league. Only one umpire number has been retired since the current format was established, 42, because of the Major League Baseball policy instituted in 1997.
 * 1 Bill Klem (NL, 1905–41); currently worn by Bruce Dreckman
 * 2 Nick Bremigan (AL, 1974–89); currently worn by Dan Bellino
 * 2 Jocko Conlan (NL, 1941–64); worn by Jerry Crawford during his tenure in the NL (1977–1999)
 * 3 Al Barlick (NL, 1940–43, 1946–55, 1958–71); Last worn by Bill Welke and his brother Tim Welke
 * 9 Bill Kunkel (AL, 1968–84); also a National Basketball Association referee. Last worn by Brian Gorman.
 * 10 John McSherry (NL, 1971–1996); died at home plate during the Cincinnati Reds-Montreal Expos season opener. Currently worn by Phil Cuzzi.
 * 16 Lou DiMuro (AL, 1963–82); killed in an auto-related accident after a game in Arlington, Texas. Previously worn by his son, Mike DiMuro and currently worn by Lance Barrett.
 * 42 Jackie Robinson (retired by Major League Baseball since April 15, 1997.) Worn by Fieldin Culbreth in the American League through 1999; Culbreth switched to #25 when a unified umpiring staff was first used in 2000.

Most games
Regular-season major league games umpired

 * 5,460 – Joe West
 * 5,375 – Bill Klem
 * 5,163 – Bruce Froemming
 * 4,849 – Gerry Davis
 * 4,770 – Tommy Connolly
 * 4,673 – Doug Harvey

Most seasons
Careers beginning prior to 1920:
 * 37 – Bill Klem (NL, 1905–41)
 * 35 – Bob Emslie (AA, 1890; NL, 1891–1924)
 * 34 – Tommy Connolly (NL, 1898–1900; AL, 1901–31)
 * 30 – Hank O'Day (NL, 1895, 1897–1911, 1913, 1915–27)
 * 29 – Bill Dinneen (AL, 1909–37)
 * 29 – Cy Rigler (NL, 1906–22, 1924–35)
 * 25 – Brick Owens (NL, 1908, 1912–13; AL, 1916–37)
 * 25 – Ernie Quigley (NL, 1913–37)

Careers beginning from 1920 to 1960:
 * 30 – Bill McGowan (AL, 1925–54)
 * 28 – Al Barlick (NL, 1940–43, 1946–55, 1958–71)
 * 27 – Bill Summers (AL, 1933–59)
 * 26 – Tom Gorman (NL, 1951–76)
 * 25 – Nestor Chylak (AL, 1954–78)
 * 25 – Jim Honochick (AL, 1949–73)

Careers beginning since 1960:
 * 43 – Joe West (NL, 1976–99; MLB 2002–2021), recognized by MLB as having the longest tenure of any umpire in MLB history in terms of number of seasons umpired, and has umpired more games than any other MLB umpire, also last umpire to have worked in the 1970s
 * 40 – Gerry Davis (NL, 1982–1999, MLB 2000–2021), owner of officials equipment store; has umpired more postseason games than any other umpire (154)
 * 37 – Bruce Froemming (NL, 1971–99; MLB, 2000–07), ejected New York Yankees manager Billy Martin from Game 4 of the 1976 World Series, made controversial ball four call which prevented Milt Pappas' perfect game in 1972
 * 35 – Jerry Crawford (NL, 1976–99; MLB, 2000–2010), son of NL umpire Shag Crawford (1951–75) and brother of National Basketball Association official Joey Crawford (1977–2016)
 * 35 – Joe Brinkman (AL, 1972–99; MLB, 2000–06) last active umpire to have used the balloon chest protector (Brinkman switched to the inside protector in 1980); former owner of umpire school; last active AL umpire to work prior to implementation of DH. Ejected Cleveland Indians manager Mike Hargrove from Game 2 of the 1998 American League Division Series after three pitches for arguing balls and strikes
 * 35 – Ed Montague (NL, 1974, 1976–99; MLB, 2000–09) One of three umpires (Bill Klem and Bill Summers were the others) to serve as World Series crew chief four times
 * 35 – Dana DeMuth (NL, 1985–99, MLB 2000–2019), made (with Jim Joyce) game-ending obstruction call in Game 3 of the 2013 World Series
 * 35 - Jerry Layne (NL, 1989–1999, MLB 2000–present) - as of 2024, MLB's most senior active umpire
 * 34 – John Hirschbeck (AL, 1983–99, MLB 2000–2016), brother of former umpire Mark Hirschbeck (NL 1987-1999, MLB 2000-2003), involved in infamous "spitting" incident with Roberto Alomar
 * 34 – Derryl Cousins (AL 1979–99; MLB 2000–2012) last remaining replacement called up during the 1979 umpire strike and last AL umpire to have worn the red blazer (1973–79)
 * 34 – Mike Reilly (AL, 1977–99, MLB 2000–2010)
 * 33 – Harry Wendelstedt (NL, 1966–98) The Wendelstedt family operates one of two MLB-approved umpire schools; son Hunter, currently an MLB umpire, took over after Harry's death in 2012.
 * 33 – Tim McClelland (AL, 1983–99, MLB 2000–2013), home plate umpire in Pine Tar Game and home plate umpire for David Wells' perfect game in 1998
 * 33 – Tim Welke (AL 1985–99, MLB 2000–2015), brother of former umpire Bill Welke (1999–2022), ejected Atlanta Braves manager Bobby Cox from Game 6 of the 1996 World Series
 * 33 - Ángel Hernández (NL 1991–1999, MLB 2000–2024)
 * 31 – Dave Phillips (AL, 1971–1999; MLB, 2000–2002) He was the crew chief during the 1979 Disco Demolition Night at Comiskey Park, ordering the Chicago White Sox to forfeit the second game of a scheduled doubleheader to the visiting Detroit Tigers. First umpire to throw Gaylord Perry out of a game for an illegal pitch (1982), threw out Albert Belle for a corked bat (1994)
 * 31 – Larry Barnett (AL, 1968–99) Made "no interference" call in Game 3 of the 1975 World Series
 * 31 – Doug Harvey (NL, 1962–92), home plate umpire in Game 1 of 1988 World Series, punctuated by dramatic pinch-hit home run by an injured Kirk Gibson, nicknamed "God" for his knowledge of rules and ability to control games.
 * 31 - Tom Hallion (NL, 1985–1999, MLB 2006–2022), known for his "whirling dervish" strike-three mechanic, also had a viral discussion with New York Mets manager Terry Collins after pitcher Noah Syndergaard was ejected for throwing behind Chase Utley in 2016.
 * 31 - Brian Gorman (NL 1991–1999, MLB 2000–2021), son of former umpire Tom Gorman (NL, 1951–1977)
 * 31 - Larry Vanover (NL 1993-1999, MLB 2002–present)
 * 30 - Don Denkinger (AL, 1969–98), made infamous call in Game 6 of the 1985 World Series, then ejected St. Louis Cardinals manager Whitey Herzog and Cardinal pitcher Joaquín Andújar in Game 7. Also worked home plate in Game 7 of the 1991 World Series when the Minnesota Twins' Jack Morris pitched a 10-inning complete game in a 1–0 win vs. the Atlanta Braves. First American League umpire to switch from the outside chest protector to the inside protector in 1975.
 * 30 - Jim Joyce (AL, 1987–99; MLB, 2000–2016), umpire whose incorrect call led to Armando Galarraga's near-perfect game
 * 30 – Dale Scott (AL, 1987–1999, MLB 2000–2017); Last umpire to eject New York Yankees manager Billy Martin from a game, first openly homosexual umpire
 * 30 - Kerwin Danley (NL 1992–1999, MLB 2000–2021), first African-American crew chief in 2020

Others
Other noteworthy umpires have included:
 * Emmett Ashford (AL, 1966–70), first African-American umpire in Major League Baseball; retired after working 1970 World Series, when he became the first African-American to officiate a championship series or game in a major North American professional sport
 * Ted Barrett (AL 1994-99, MLB 1999–2022), first umpire to work home plate for two perfect games (and was on the field for three perfect games), worked home plate in Game 3 of the 2018 World Series, the longest game by time and innings in World Series history and ejected Atlanta Braves manager Bobby Cox from a game in 2007, which broke the MLB record for career managerial ejections (132).
 * Fred Brocklander (NL, 1979–92), replacement umpire called up during 1979 strike; called Game 6 of the 1986 National League Championship Series
 * Jon Byrne (MLB 2014), the first Australian native to umpire a major league game in the modern era; Australian second baseman Joe Quinn was a substitute umpire for two National League games; one each in 1894 and 1896
 * Amanda Clement (SD, 1904–10), first paid female umpire
 * Ramon De Jesus (MLB, 2016–present), first major league umpire from the Dominican Republic
 * Bill Dinneen (AL, 1909–37), called five no-hitters, and also pitched a no hitter (September 27, 1905); the only man to both pitch and call no-hit baseball games
 * Augie Donatelli (NL, 1950–73), made controversial "phantom tag" call in Game 2 of the 1973 World Series on the New York Mets' Bud Harrelson while sprawled on the ground at home plate in what was his final plate assignment
 * Jim Evans (AL, 1971–99), ran one of only two official umpire schools until decertified after an incident in 2012
 * Rich Garcia (AL, 1975–99), erroneously ruled 12-year old Jeffrey Maier did not commit fan interference on a fly ball by the Yankees' Derek Jeter during Game 1 of the 1996 American League Championship Series, allowing Jeter's game-tying home run to stand. New York defeated the Baltimore Orioles in five games, then won the Word Series vs. the Atlanta Braves.
 * Bernice Gera (NAPBL, 1972), first female umpire in professional baseball
 * Bill Haller (AL, 1963–82), brother of Major League catcher Tom Haller; last umpire to use outside chest protector in World Series (Game 2 in 1982)
 * Sam Holbrook (NL 1996–99, MLB 2000–2022), made controversial Infield Fly Rule call in the 2012 National League Wild Card Playoff, ejected Washington Nationals manager Dave Martinez from Game 6 of the 2019 World Series, the most recent managerial ejection in World Series play and the first since 1996. Was behind the plate for Game 7 of the 2016 World Series, when the Chicago Cubs defeated the Cleveland Indians in 10 innings to win their first championship since 1908.
 * Eddie Hurley (AL, 1947–65), home plate umpire when 3-foot-7 Eddie Gaedel came to bat for the St. Louis Browns on August 19, 1951, and walked on four pitches. Also was home plate umpire for Game 7 of the 1965 World Series, when the Dodgers' Sandy Koufax shut out the Twins on two days' rest.
 * Bill Kunkel (AL, 1968–84) former major league pitcher and National Basketball Association official; son Jeff was a major league infielder
 * Ron Luciano (AL, 1969–80) All-American lineman for Syracuse University football team in late 1950s; later was an analyst for Major League Baseball on NBC and wrote four books
 * John McSherry (NL, 1971–96) died of a heart attack after seven pitches of 1996 season opener between Expos and Reds
 * Jerry Neudecker (AL, 1966–85) last AL umpire to use outside chest protector after league disallowed its use by new umpires starting in 1977
 * Jake O'Donnell (AL, 1968–71) also a National Basketball Association official from 1967 to 1995; only man to officiate both MLB and NBA all-star games. Worked the NBA Finals every year from 1972 through 1994.
 * Silk O'Loughlin (AL, 1902–18)
 * Dave Pallone (NL, 1979–88) involved in 1988 shoving incident with then-Reds manager Pete Rose which led to Rose's 30-day suspension
 * Steve Palermo (AL, 1977–91) career ended when he suffered spinal cord damage from a gunshot wound suffered on Dallas' Central Expressway while apprehending two armed robbers
 * Babe Pinelli (NL, 1935–56) home plate umpire for Don Larsen's perfect game in Game 5 of the 1956 World Series
 * Pam Postema first female umpire to work an MLB spring training game (1988), also worked the Hall of Fame Game in the same season
 * Beans Reardon (NL, 1926–49) openly defied Bill Klem by using outside chest protector in NL
 * Brian Runge (NL 1999, MLB 2000–12) first third-generation umpire following father Paul Runge (NL, 1974–97) and grandfather Ed Runge (AL, 1954–70) Ejected Ichiro Suzuki from a game in 2009, the only ejection in Ichiro's professional career (1992-2019).
 * Jack Sheridan (PL, 1890; NL, 1892, 1896–97; AL, 1901–14)
 * Art Williams (NL, 1972–77), first African-American umpire in the National League, worked the 1975 National League Championship Series
 * Charlie Williams (NL, 1978–99, MLB 2000-01), in 1993, became first African-American umpire to work home plate in a World Series game. Ejected Steve Garvey from a game in 1986, the only ejection in Garvey's 19 year career (1969-1987).

Current MLB umpiring crews
Below are the umpire crews for the 2024 MLB season. Crews frequently change over the course of the year as umpires are injured or on vacation.

Etymology
According to the Middle English dictionary entry for noumpere, the predecessor of umpire came from the Old French nonper (from non, "not" and per, "equal"), meaning "one who is requested to act as arbiter of a dispute between two people", or that the arbiter is not paired with anyone in the dispute.

In Middle English, the earliest form of this shows up as noumper around 1350, and the earliest version without the n shows up as owmpere, a variant spelling in Middle English, circa 1440.

The n was lost after it was written (in 1426–1427) as a noounpier with the a being the indefinite article. The leading n became attached to the article, changing it to an Oumper around 1475; this sort of linguistic shift is called false splitting. Thus today one says "an umpire" instead of "a numpire".

The word was applied to the officials of many sports before baseball, including association football (where it has been superseded by referee) and cricket (which still uses it).

title: Umpire (baseball)


text:
Prolonging the Magic

Prolonging the Magic is the third studio album by American alternative rock band Cake. It was released on October 6, 1998, on Capricorn Records. The sole successful single was "Never There". The album was recorded after the departure of guitarist Greg Brown and features a rotating lineup of musicians to replace him. One of them, Xan McCurdy, became his full-time replacement. On its opening week, Prolonging the Magic sold about 44,000 copies, debuting at No. 33 on the Billboard 200 chart. On 28 September 1999 the album was certified platinum by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies.

The album was given a parental advisory sticker not because of profanity but for Satanic-themed lyrics. Some copies do not feature a sticker, with the only difference being that the song "Satan Is My Motor" has been retitled "Motor".

The song "Hem of Your Garment" was featured in the film Me, Myself & Irene.

Critical reception
Allmusic wrote, "Supposedly their attempt to make a smugness- and irony-free album, Cake's third release does hold back the barbs a bit more than usual. And the strain shows. In these guys' hands, love songs without smirks and pop tunes straight up come out forced."

Personnel

 * Cake
 * John McCrea – vocals, guitar, piano, organ, Moog, producing, arranging and design
 * Vince DiFiore - trumpet, background vocals and arranging
 * Gabe Nelson - bass, mandolin, guitar, piano and arranging
 * Todd Roper - drums, percussion, background vocals and arranging
 * Additional musicians
 * Xan McCurdy – electric guitar on track 9
 * Rusty Miller – electric guitar on track 3
 * Tyler Pope – arranging and electric guitar on tracks 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9 and 10
 * Chuck Prophet - arranging and electric guitar on tracks 4, 7 and 12
 * Jim Campilongo - arranging and electric guitar on tracks 4, 6 and 11
 * Ben Morss - arranging and piano on track 5
 * David Palmer - keyboards on track 9
 * Greg Vincent - pedal steel guitar on tracks 2, 6 and 9
 * Mark Needham - additional percussion, engineering, and mixing
 * Richard Lyman - musical saw on track 4

 * Additional personnel
 * Joe Johnston - engineering
 * Jay Bowman - engineering
 * Gabriel Shepard - engineering
 * Justin Phelps - engineering
 * Scott Reams - engineering
 * Rafael Serrano - engineering
 * Kirt Shearer - engineering and mixing
 * Craig Long - engineering and mixing
 * Greg Brown - arranging
 * Keara Fallon - design
 * Don C. Tyler - mastering

Charts
Album - Billboard (United States)

Singles - Billboard (United States)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Prolonging the Magic


text:
Komi peoples

The Komi (комияс also коми-войтыр) are an Indigenous Permian ethnic group whose homeland is in the northeast of European Russia around the basins of the Vychegda, Pechora and Kama rivers. They mostly reside in the Komi Republic, Perm Krai, Murmansk Oblast, Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug in the Russian Federation.

Name
There have been at least three names for the Komis: Permyaks, Zyrians (пермяки, зыряне) and Komi, the last being the self-designation of the people.

The name Permyaks firstly appeared in the 10th century in Russian sources and came from the ancient name of the land between the Mezen River and Pechora River – Perm or "Great Perm" (Пермь Великая). Several origins of the name have been proposed but the most accepted is from Veps  Peräma  "back, outer or far-away land" from Veps  perä  "back, extreme" and ma "land". In Old Norse and Old English, it was known as Bjarmaland and  Beormas  respectively but those Germanic names might designate some other place than the Russian Perm.

Since the 20th century, the name has been applied only to the southern Komi (Komi-Permyaks) in Perm Krai. In Russia,  permyak  also means "an inhabitant of Perm or Perm Krai" independently from ethnicity.

The name for the northern Komis – Zyrians – has a more contradictory origin. It exists since the 14th century and it had many different forms in various Russian sources such as Seryan, Siryan, Syryan, Suryan and Ziryan, Ziranian, Zyryan (серьяне, сирьяне, сыряне, суряне, зиряне, зыряне), but the latter finally became predominant. Turkin believed that it may come from a small local tribe of the Komis (probably named saran) which first met the Russians, hence the name became default for all the northern Komis. The neighbouring Uralic-speaking peoples call the Komis with similar names: Khanty sərän, sərån, săran, sārån, Mansi sarän, Nenets sānnğr, saran, Udmurt  sara-kum .

The name Komi is the endonym for all groups of the people. It was first recorded by ethnographers in the 18th century. It originates from a Finno-Ugric word meaning "man, human": Komi kom, Udmurt kum, Mansi kom, kum, Khanty xum, Selkup qum, Hungarian  hím  "male". The origin from the name of the Kama River is disproven, though some scholars like Paula Kokkonen favour this version.

Subgroups and geographic distribution
Komi people are divided into two main groups, which are the Zyryans (northern Komi) and the Permyaks (southern Komi). They are divided into 8 major subgroupings (9 if counting the nearly-assimilated Komi of the Upper Kama), of which they are divided into several even smaller subgroups. The Komi have been traditionally named after the rivers where they live: The majority of Komi live in the Komi Republic as a separate national-administrative entity of the Russian Federation. They numbered 256,000 as of the beginning of the 2000s. Although the majority of the Komi population live in the Komi Republic, they make up only 30% (256,000) of the total population there as a noticeable minority population. About 60% (607 thousand) are Russians, about 6% (62 thousand) are Ukrainians, 1.5% (15.5 thousand) are Tatars, and 1.4% (15 thousand) are Belarusians.
 * Komi-Zyryans
 * Komi-Izhma of the Izhma River (Komi: Изьватас, Iźvatas ; Nenets: нысма, nysma)
 * Komi of the Kola Peninsula
 * Komi of Nenets Autonomous Okrug
 * Komi of the Lower Ob and Lyapin Rivers
 * Komi of the Vashka and Mezen Rivers (Komi: Удораса, Udorasa )
 * Komi of the Vym River (Komi: Емватас, Emvatas )
 * Komi of the Lower Ob River
 * Komi of the Pechora River (Komi: Печораса, Pećorasa )
 * Komi of the Vychegda River (Komi: Эжватас, Ežvatas )
 * Komi of the Sysola River (Komi: Сыктывсаяс, Syktyvsayas )
 * Komi of the Letka and Luza Rivers (Komi: Лузса, Lusza )
 * Komi-Permyaks
 * Komi of the Yazva River
 * Komi of the Upper Kama River (nearly fully assimilated into Russians)

Most of the population of the Republic of Komi resides in urban centres. A notable minority continues to live in villages. The Komi population in the countryside tends to be higher than that of Komi in urban areas, where ethnic Russians make up the majority of the population. Like the rest of the Finno-Ugric peoples of Russia, the population continues to steadily decrease - the 2010 census recorded only 228,235 people who indicated their nationality as "Komi", as compared to the 336,309 recorded as Komi in the 1989 census.

Language
The Komi language belongs to the Permian branch of the Uralic family. There is limited mutual intelligibility with Udmurt. There are two main dialects: Zyrian in the Komi Republic and Permyak in the Komi-Permyak Okrug, which have been traditionally treated as separate languages. They are mutually intelligible, and can also be considered to form a single language with two regional language standards. The two separate standards were created in the early Soviet era partly because of the traditional administrative borders, and partly to hinder pan-Komi nationalistic aspirations. Until the 18th century, Komi was written in the Old Permic alphabet (Komi: Важ Перым гижӧм, 𐍮𐍐𐍕 𐍟𐍔𐍠𐍨𐍜 𐍒𐍣𐍕𐍩𐍜, Važ Perym gižöm ), also known as Anbur in reference in reference to its first 2 letters, which was invented by Saint Stephen of Perm in the 14th century, seeing use up to the 16th century after which it saw use as a cryptographic writing system for Russian speakers.

Cyrillic was used from the 19th century and briefly replaced by the Latin alphabet between 1929 and 1933. The Komi language is currently written in Cyrillic, adding two extra letters - Іі and Ӧӧ - to represent vowel sounds which do not exist in Russian. The first book to be printed in Komi (a vaccination manual) appeared in 1815.

History
Based on linguistic reconstruction, the prehistoric Permians are assumed to have split into two peoples during the first millennium BC: the Komis and the Udmurts. By the 16th-17th centuries, the Komis further divided into the Komi-Permyaks (who remained in the Kama River basin) and the Komi-Zyryans (who migrated north).

From the 12th century the Russians began to expand into the Perm region and the Komis came into contact with Novgorod. Novgorodian traders travelled to the region in search of furs and animal hides. The Novgorodians referred to the southern Komi region as "the Great Perm". Komi dukes unified the Great Perm with its centre at the stronghold of Cherdyn. As the Middle Ages progressed, Novgorod gave way to Moscow as the leading Russian power in the region.

In 1365, Dmitry Donskoy, Prince of Moscow, gave Stephen of Perm the task of converting the region to Christianity. Stephen's mission led to the creation of the eparchy of Perm in 1383. After his death, Stephen became the patron saint of the Komis. He also devised an alphabet for the Komi language.

Some Komis resisted Christianisation, notably the shaman Pama. The Duke of Perm accepted baptism only in 1470 (he was given the Christian name Mikhail), possibly in an attempt to stave off Russian military pressure in the region. Mikhail's conversion failed to stop an attack by Moscow which seized Cherdyn in 1472. Mikhail was allowed to keep his title of duke but was now a vassal of Moscow. The duchy survived only until 1505 when Mikhail's son Matvei was replaced by a Russian governor and Komi independence came to an end.

In the 1500s, many Russian migrants began to move into the region, beginning a long process of colonisation and attempts at assimilating the Komis. Syktyvkar (Ust-Sysolsk before 1930) was founded as the chief Russian city in the region in the 18th century. The Russian government established penal settlements in the north for criminals and political prisoners. There were several Komi rebellions in protest against Russian rule and the influx of Slav settlers, especially after large numbers of freed serfs arrived in the region from the 1860s. A national movement to revive Komi culture also emerged.

Russian rule in the area collapsed after World War I and the revolutions of 1917. In the subsequent Russian Civil War, the Bolsheviks fought the Allies for control of the region. The Allied interventionist forces encouraged the Komi to set up their own independent state with the help of political prisoners freed from the local penal colonies. After the Allies withdrew in 1919, the Bolsheviks took over. They promoted Komi culture with the policy of korenizatsiya, but increased industrialisation damaged the Komis' traditional way of life and the landscape of the republic. Stalin's purges of the 1930s devastated the Komi intelligentsia, who were accused of "bourgeois nationalism".

The remote and inhospitable region was also regarded as an ideal location for gulags. The influx of political prisoners and the rapid industrialisation of the region as a result of World War II left the Komi a minority in their own lands. Stalin carried out further purges of the Komi intellectual class in the 1940s and 1950s, and Komi language and culture were suppressed. Since the end of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Komi have reasserted their claims to a separate identity.

Architecture
The Komi settlements were set-up with large, multi-courtyard churchyards and villages, which were typically constructed along or close to a river. Since the Komi people inhabit territories densely covered with forests, the main material for the construction of houses and farm buildings has traditionally been wood. Komi dwellings in many respects resemble North Russian houses in their internal structure.

2 major types of house types exist among the Komi, the Sysol house type (Сысольский тип) and the Vym house type (Bымский тип). The Sysol home is in a square-shaped, divided internally between a commercial section and the private section for its residents. The Vym house type is not very easy to distinguish from the Sysol home, its major differences lying in the windows and internal arrangement. The Izhma Komi, living in sparsely-wooded areas live in chum tents. The efforts of Stephen of Perm to convert the Komi people to Orthodoxy had allowed the Komi to begin constructing and experimenting with church architecture, creating many churches with the tented-roof style similarly to the constructions happening in Northern Russia and Pomerania. While most churches in the territory of the republic were constructed with wood, select churches and monasteries featured stone construction. The republic had over 430 churches in 1917, but this number has fallen down to just 130, 31 of which are registered under heritage programs.

Clothing
The national dress of the Komi people is quite diverse and has numerous local variants. While men's clothing had remained mostly similar throughout the territories inhabited by the Komi people (excluding the winter costumes of Komi males), women's clothing has more variety, each region having its own distinct clothing type. These differences lie in the embroidery technique, type of fabrics and ornamentation. In general, the traditional clothing of the southern and central Komi closely resembles that of the Northern Russians and other Finno-Ugric groups, while the costume of the Izhma Komi has many common features with the Nenets.

Cuisine
Hunting, gathering and fishing have long been the main source of food for the Komi people, displayed through the dominance of meat, fish, berries and mushrooms in most Komi diets. Meat dishes were more common in the diet of the northern Komi, while dishes utilizing berries were more common in the south. Popular dishes of Komi cuisine are grain pies with fish, various porridges, Serbanka, other sour soups, cold soups based on bread, kvass, etc. The popular Russian dumpling dish pelmeni likely has its origins in the cuisine of the Komi and Udmurt (Permian) peoples, its name ( пельнянь, pel'n'an') meaning "ear bread" in both languages.

Folklore and religion
Most Komi myths are related to shamanism and paganism. The most widespread myths are about the creation of the world as a result of the struggle of two gods, En (Komi: Ен) and Omöl' (Komi: Омöль ). These 2 deities are regarded as creator-gods in the Komi mythos, who created all life in the world (though it was En who would vivify them). As the Komi were gradually Christianized, the depictions of En & Omöl began to mirror those of God and Satan, in which Omöl would be depicted as the latter due to his efforts to hamper En's creation process.

Even with the Christianization of the Komi, there are relatively few Christian legends and tales in the folklore of the Komi, but tales of chudins, who are pagans and flee away from the new order to the forests, have become widespread. Some notable characters from Komi mythology include Jirkap (Йиркап) from Sindor, who is thought by the Komi to have invented skis, Joma (Ёма) who is regarded to be a Komi equivalent to the Baba Yaga and Pera (Пера) who is a character from the tales of the Komi-Permyaks known for his courage.

Information regarding the pre-Christian Komi religion is not well researched, with formal research by Russian ethnologists only beginning during the later half of the 19th century. Klavdij Alekseevich Popov (1874), Alexandr Vasilevich Krasov (1896), and Kallistrat Faloleevich Zhakov (1901) all made attempts to reconstruct the ancient religion of the Komi-Zyryans. Nikolai Abramovich Rogov (1858, 1860), Nikolai Dobrotvorsky (1883), Ivan Nikolaevich Smirnov (1891), and Vladimir Mikhailovich Yanovich (1903) made reconstructions of the aspects of the Komi religion focusing on the natural world. According to The Life of Saint Stefan, the Bishop of Perm (1897) by Epiphany the Wise, the Komi ancestors had many deities, whose wooden images stood in dedicated cult sanctuaries for higher-ranking deities, while those of domestic deities were kept in Komi dwellings.

Uniparental lineages
More than half of Komi men have haplogroup N, which is typical for the Uralic-speaking peoples. 37 percent of them carry its subclade N1c and 18.5 percent belong to subgroup N-P43. The second most common Y-haplogroup for Komi is R1a (27.4%).

Among the mtDNA haplogroups, the most common is H (33%). About one in four have the haplogroup U. 13.6 percent belong to its subgroup U4 and 9.9 percent belong to subgroup U5. Haplogroup T is found with a frequency of 13.3 percent.

Autosomal DNA
A study on north-eastern-European populations, published in March 2013, found that Komi-Zyryans form a distinct pole of genetic diversity.

According to a 2018 study, 19 percent of Komis' autosomal ancestry can be estimated to be Nganasan-like. This Siberian-related component is typical for Uralic populations.

English

 * Komi-Izhemtsy against World Bank
 * Komi
 * Komi Permyak
 * Finno-Ugric media centre

Russian

 * http://uralistica.com/group/komipermians
 * Komi Permyak (in language Komi-Permyak)
 * Komi Permyak

title: Komi peoples


text:
Budd Schulberg

Budd Schulberg (born Seymour Wilson Schulberg, March 27, 1914 – August 5, 2009) was an American screenwriter, television producer, novelist and sports writer. He was known for his novels What Makes Sammy Run? (1941) and The Harder They Fall (1947), as well as his screenplays for On the Waterfront (1954) and A Face in the Crowd (1957), receiving an Academy Award for the former.

Early life and education
Schulberg was raised in a Jewish family the son of Hollywood film-producer B. P. Schulberg and Adeline (née Jaffe) Schulberg, who founded a talent agency taken over by her brother, agent/film producer Sam Jaffe. In 1931, when Schulberg was 17, his father left the family to live with actress Sylvia Sidney. His parents divorced in 1933.

Schulberg attended Deerfield Academy and then went on to Dartmouth College, where he was actively involved in the Dartmouth Jack-O-Lantern humor magazine and was a member of the Pi Lambda Phi fraternity. In 1939, he collaborated on the screenplay for Winter Carnival, a light comedy set at Dartmouth. One of his collaborators was F. Scott Fitzgerald, who was fired because of his alcoholic binge during a visit with Schulberg to Dartmouth. Dartmouth College awarded Schulberg an honorary degree in 1960.

World War II
While serving in the Navy during World War II, Schulberg was assigned to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS), working with John Ford's documentary unit, the Field Photographic Branch. Following VE Day, he reportedly witnessed the liberation of Nazi concentration camps. He was involved in gathering evidence against war criminals for the Nuremberg Trials, an assignment that included arresting propaganda film maker Leni Riefenstahl at her chalet in Kitzbühel, Austria, ostensibly to have her identify the faces of Nazi war criminals in German film footage captured by the Allied troops. Riefenstahl claimed she was not aware of the nature of the concentration camps. According to Schulberg, "She gave me the usual song and dance. She said: 'Of course, you know, I'm really so misunderstood. I'm not political.'"

Georgy Avenarius, a film critic before the war and the Soviet major in charge of UFA GmbH Babelsberg Studio in Soviet Berlin, allowed the Field Photo team access to the Nazi newsreels and propaganda films in his custody upon learning that his admired Ford was the branch head.

Budd, his brother Stuart Schulberg and the team at Field Photo presented two films during the trial: Nazi Concentration Camps, from Allied films shot during the liberation of the camps, and The Nazi Plan, from German sources.

Career
Being the son of a successful Hollywood producer gave Schulberg an insider's viewpoint on the true happenings of Hollywood, which was reflected in much of his writing.

His 1941 novel What Makes Sammy Run? allowed the public to see the harshness of Hollywood stardom via Sammy Glick's rise to power in a major Hollywood film studio. This novel was criticized by some as being self-directed anti-semitism. Then a member of the Communist Party USA, Schulberg quit in protest after he was ordered by high-ranking Party member John Howard Lawson to make changes to the novel.

In 1950, Schulberg published The Disenchanted, about a young screenwriter who collaborates on a screenplay about a college winter festival with a famous novelist at the nadir of his career. The novelist (who was then assumed by reviewers to be a thinly disguised portrait of Fitzgerald, who had died 10 years earlier) is portrayed as a tragic, flawed figure, with whom the young screenwriter becomes disillusioned. The novel was the tenth bestselling novel in the United States in 1950 and was adapted as a Broadway play in 1958, starring Jason Robards (who won a Tony Award for his performance) and George Grizzard as the character loosely based on Schulberg. In 1958, Schulberg wrote and co-produced (with his younger brother Stuart) the film Wind Across the Everglades, directed by Nicholas Ray.

Schulberg wrote the 1957 film A Face in the Crowd. Based on the short story "Your Arkansas Traveler" in his book Some Faces in the Crowd, the film starred newcomer Andy Griffith as an obscure country singer who rises to fame and becomes extraordinarily manipulative to preserve his success and power.

Schulberg encountered political controversy in 1951 when screenwriter Richard Collins, testifying to the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), named Schulberg as a former member of the Communist Party. Schulberg, still resentful of the influence Communist officials tried to exert over his fiction, testified as a friendly witness and explained how Communist Party members had sought to influence the content of What Makes Sammy Run? and "named names" of other Hollywood communists.

Schulberg was also a sports writer and former chief boxing correspondent for Sports Illustrated. He wrote some well-received books on boxing, including Sparring with Hemingway. He was inducted into the International Boxing Hall of Fame in 2002 in recognition of his contributions to the sport.

In 1965, after a devastating riot had ripped apart the fabric of the Watts section of Los Angeles, Schulberg formed the Watts Writers Workshop in an attempt to ease frustrations and bring artistic training to the economically impoverished district.

In 1981, Schulberg wrote Moving Pictures: Memories of a Hollywood Prince, an autobiography covering his youth in Hollywood growing up in the 1920s and 1930s among the famous motion picture actors and producers as the son of B. P. Schulberg, head of Paramount Studios.

Personal life and death
Schulberg was married four times. In 1936, he married his first wife, actress Virginia "Jigee" Lee Ray. They had one daughter, Victoria, before divorcing in 1942. In 1943, he married Victoria "Vickee" Anderson. They divorced in 1964. They had two children: Stephen (born 1944) and David (born 1946). David was a Vietnam veteran who predeceased his father. In 1964, he married actress Geraldine Brooks. They were married until her death in 1977; they had no children. In 1977, he married Betsy Ann Langman, daughter of Anne W. Simon, stepdaughter of real estate developer Robert E. Simon, granddaughter of investment banker Maurice Wertheim and great-granddaughter of US ambassador Henry Morgenthau Sr.; they had two children: Benn and Jessica.

His niece Sandra Schulberg was an executive producer of the Academy Award-nominated film Quills. His mother, of the Ad Schulberg Agency, served as his agent until her death in 1977. His brother, Stuart Schulberg, was a movie and television producer (David Brinkley's Journal, The Today Show). His sister, Sonya Schulberg (O'Sullivan) (1918–2016), was an occasional writer (of a novel, They Cried a Little, and stories).

Budd Schulberg died on August 5, 2009, in his home in Westhampton Beach, New York, aged 95.

Select film and TV credits

 * A Star Is Born (1937) - uncredited writer
 * Nothing Sacred (1937) - uncredited writer
 * On the Waterfront (1954) - story, script
 * The Harder They Fall (1956) - based on his novel
 * A Face in the Crowd (1957) - story, script
 * Wind Across the Everglades (1958) - script, producer, uncredited director

title: Budd Schulberg