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Map (mathematics)

In mathematics, a map or mapping is a function in its general sense. These terms may have originated as from the process of making a geographical map: mapping the Earth surface to a sheet of paper.

The term map may be used to distinguish some special types of functions, such as homomorphisms. For example, a linear map is a homomorphism of vector spaces, while the term linear function may have this meaning or it may mean a linear polynomial. In category theory, a map may refer to a morphism. The term transformation can be used interchangeably, but transformation often refers to a function from a set to itself. There are also a few less common uses in logic and graph theory.

Maps as functions
In many branches of mathematics, the term map is used to mean a function, sometimes with a specific property of particular importance to that branch. For instance, a "map" is a "continuous function" in topology, a "linear transformation" in linear algebra, etc.

Some authors, such as Serge Lang, use "function" only to refer to maps in which the codomain is a set of numbers (i.e. a subset of R or C), and reserve the term mapping for more general functions.

Maps of certain kinds have been given specific names. These include homomorphisms in algebra, isometries in geometry, operators in analysis and representations in group theory.

In the theory of dynamical systems, a map denotes an evolution function used to create discrete dynamical systems.

A partial map is a partial function. Related terminology such as domain, codomain, injective, and continuous can be applied equally to maps and functions, with the same meaning. All these usages can be applied to "maps" as general functions or as functions with special properties.

As morphisms
In category theory, "map" is often used as a synonym for "morphism" or "arrow", which is a structure-respecting function and thus may imply more structure than "function" does. For example, a morphism $$f:\, X \to Y$$ in a concrete category (i.e. a morphism that can be viewed as a function) carries with it the information of its domain (the source $$X$$ of the morphism) and its codomain (the target $$Y$$). In the widely used definition of a function $$f:X\to Y$$, $$f$$ is a subset of $$X\times Y$$ consisting of all the pairs $$(x,f(x))$$ for $$x\in X$$. In this sense, the function does not capture the set $$Y$$ that is used as the codomain; only the range $$f(X)$$ is determined by the function.

title: Map (mathematics)


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International Joint Commission

The International Joint Commission (Commission mixte internationale) is a bi-national organization established by the governments of the United States and Canada under the Boundary Waters Treaty of 1909. Its responsibilities were expanded with the signing of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement of 1972 (later amended 1987 and 2012). The commission deals with issues affecting the extensive waters and waterways along the Canada–United States border.

A six member commission, it has multiple sub-commissions, which deal with particular sections of the border-waters, or topics, and a technical staff to organize and inform task-forces.

Role of the IJC
Canada and the United States created the International Joint Commission because they recognized that each country is affected by the other's actions in lake and river systems along the border. The two countries cooperate to manage these waters and to protect them for the benefit of today's citizens and future generations.

The IJC is guided by the Boundary Waters Treaty, signed by Britain in right of Canada and the United States in 1909. The treaty provides general principles, rather than detailed prescriptions, for preventing and resolving disputes over waters shared between the two countries and for settling other transboundary issues. The specific application of these principles is decided on a case-by-case basis.

The IJC has two main responsibilities: approving projects that affect water levels and flows across the boundary and investigating transboundary issues and recommending solutions. The IJC's recommendations and decisions take into account the needs of a wide range of water uses, including drinking water, commercial shipping, hydroelectric power generation, agriculture, ecosystem health, industry, fishing, recreational boating and shoreline property.

Mission and mandates
The International Joint Commission prevents and resolves disputes between the United States and Canada under the 1909 Boundary Waters Treaty and pursues the common good of both countries as an independent and objective advisor to the two governments.

In particular, the IJC rules upon applications for approval of projects affecting boundary or transboundary waters and may regulate the operation of these projects; it assists the two countries in the protection of the transboundary environment, including the implementation of the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement and the improvement of transboundary air quality; and it alerts the governments to emerging issues along the boundary that may give rise to bilateral disputes.

Orders of approval
The IJC has the authority to issue orders of approval. These orders place conditions on the application and operation of projects, such as dams, diversions or bridges that would affect the natural level of boundary waters. The application process for an order of approval is outlined in the IJC guide to applications.

Regulating shared water uses
The IJC makes decisions on applications for projects, such as dams and diversions, that affect the natural level and flow of water across the boundary. Changing water levels can affect drinking water intakes, commercial shipping, hydroelectric power generation, agriculture, shoreline property, recreation, fisheries, wildlife, wetlands and other interests.

If the IJC approves a project, it may impose conditions on project design or operation to protect interests on either side of the boundary. The IJC may also appoint a board to monitor compliance of operational requirements, such as flows through a dam. Projects approved by the IJC include hydroelectric power projects in the Great Lakes and on the St. Lawrence River, the St. Croix River and the Columbia River. The IJC is also responsible for maintaining emergency water levels in the Lake of the Woods basin and for apportioning water among various uses in the Souris River, St. Mary River and Milk River basins.

Improving water quality
In the Boundary Waters Treaty, Canada and the United States agreed that neither country will pollute boundary waters, or waters that flow across the boundary, to an extent that would cause injury to health or property in the other country. When asked by governments, the IJC investigates, monitors and recommends actions regarding the quality of water in lakes and rivers along the Canada-United States border. The IJC has water quality responsibilities for the St. Croix River, the Rainy River and the Red River. Much of the Commission's work focuses on helping governments clean up the Great Lakes and prevent further pollution.

Improving air quality
As well as damaging rivers and lakes, air pollution affects human health, especially for people with respiratory illnesses such as chronic bronchitis and asthma. Over the years, the American and Canadian governments have asked the IJC to bring to their attention, or to investigate, air pollution problems in boundary regions. To support these activities, the IJC created the International Air Quality Advisory Board. As well, under the 1991 Canada-United States Air Quality Agreement, the IJC is required to collect and synthesize public comments on the air quality progress report published by the governments every two years.

Investigating issues and recommending solutions
The IJC studies and recommends solutions to transboundary issues when asked to do so by the national governments. When the IJC receives a government request, called a reference, it appoints a board with equal numbers of experts from each country. Board members are chosen for their professional abilities, not as representatives of a particular organization or region.

References to the IJC have focused mostly on water and air quality and on the development and use of shared water resources. For example, one reference led to the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (1972), in which the two countries agreed to control pollution and to clean up wastewater from industries and communities. In 1978, a new agreement added a commitment to rid the Great Lakes of persistent toxic substances, which remain in the environment for a long time and can poison food sources for animals and people.

Although IJC reference recommendations are not binding, they are usually accepted by the Canadian and American governments.

Organization
The Commission is headed by six commissioners, three from each country. The Commissioners are appointed by the government of Canada and the United States. Commissioners do not represent their governments. The Canadian Commissioners appointed in 2019 are Pierre Béland (Canadian Chair), Merrel-Ann Phare and F. Henry Lickers. The American Commissioners appointed in 2019 are Jane Corwin (American Chair), Robert C. Sisson, and Lance V. Yohe.

The Commission has three offices, in Ottawa, Washington, D.C., and Windsor, Ontario. The Windsor Great Lakes Regional Office (GLRO) was created under the Great Lakes Water Quality Agreement (GLWQA). It is staffed by a bi-national team of American and Canadian scientists and support staff.

Boards
Separate boards are responsible for particular boundary waters issues. When there are special issues, a Task Force is assigned to make a report or recommendations. The various standing bodies are:

 * Accredited Officers of the St. Mary and Milk Rivers
 * Great Lakes Science Advisory Board
 * Great Lakes Water Quality Board
 * Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Adaptive Management Committee
 * Health Professionals Advisory Board
 * International Columbia River Board of Control
 * International Kootenay Lake Board of Control
 * International Lake Champlain-Richelieu River Study Board
 * International Lake of the Woods Control Board
 * International Lake Ontario-St. Lawrence River Board
 * International Lake Superior Board of Control
 * International Niagara Board of Control
 * International Osoyoos Lake Board of Control
 * International Rainy-Lake of the Woods Watershed Board
 * International Red River Board
 * International Souris River Board
 * International Souris River Study Board
 * International St. Croix River Watershed Board
 * Nutrient Loading and Impacts in Lakes Champlain and Memphremagog

Locations

 * IJC Canadian Section – 234 Laurier Avenue West, 22nd Floor Ottawa, Ontario
 * IJC United States Section – 1717 H Street NW, Suite 835, Washington, D.C.
 * Great Lakes Regional Office – 100 Ouellette Ave., 8th Floor, Windsor, Ontario

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: International Joint Commission


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Suin Line

The Suin Line (Suwon-Incheon; ) was a metro line of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway serving the Seoul Capital Area.

The original route, abandoned in 1995, was one of the few narrow-gauge railways in South Korea. Opened by the privately owned Chosen Gyeongdong Railway in 1937, it connected Suwon to Namincheon via Ansan and Siheung; in 1942, it was taken over by another private railway, the Chosen Railway (the largest of colonial Korea's privately owned railway companies). The Chosen Railway owned the line until all railways in Korea were nationalized after 1945. However, since December 28, 2004, the Suin Line is being reconstructed with standard gauge and double tracking as an integral part of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway network and is opening in three phases.

All northbound trains terminated at Incheon, all southbound services terminated at Oido. Express train service served only Oido, Soraepogu, Incheon Nonhyeon, Woninjae, Yeonsu, Inha University, and Incheon.

Trains along the line were 6 cars long. Platforms at stations are built for 8 cars in preparation for the merging of the Bundang Line with the Suin Line, and are prepared for 10 cars when the extension occurs.

Trains run at an interval of 15 minutes throughout the day.

History
2012:
 * June 30: The rebuilt Suin Line is officially opened from Oido to Songdo.

2014:
 * December 27: Darwol Station opens as an in-fill station.

2016:
 * February 27: The line is extended westward from Songdo to Incheon.

2017:
 * July 10: Express service is launched on the line.

2020:
 * September 12: The line is extended eastward from Oido to Suwon. The Suin Line and Bundang Line are integrated into Suin–Bundang Line, which connects Incheon and Wangsimni. Trains run from Cheongnyangni station or Wangsimni station to Jukjeon station, Gosaek station, or Incheon station.

Planned for the future
Hagik station is planned to open between Songdo and Inha University in 2020. In addition, a connection line is under consideration at Suwon that will allow KTX trains to run between the Gyeongbu high-speed railway and Incheon Station via the Suin-Bundang Line by 2025.

Rolling stock
The Suin Line used 18 Korail Class 351000 trains. They were the same as the third generation Class 351000 trains from the Bundang Line, except that they were painted red like the Gyeongui-Jungang Line and Line 1 trains. These trains have since been repainted yellow to match the color of Bundang Line trains; this was done in anticipation of the merging of the Bundang and Suin Lines into the Suin–Bundang Line.

For the former Suin Line, the Korean National Railroad built a narrow gauge steam locomotive, the KNR160 diesel car (also known as the Niigata/Kawasaki Diesel Car), and the KNR18000 passenger car. One KNR160 car (later renumbered KNR9160) and two KNR18000 car are preserved at the railroad museum in nearby Uiwang.

title: Suin Line


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Saemaul Undong

The Saemaul Undong, also known as the New Community Movement, New Village Movement, Saemaul Movement or Saema'eul Movement, was a political initiative launched on April22, 1970 by South Korean president Park Chung Hee to modernize the rural South Korean economy. The idea was based on the Korean traditional communalism called Hyangyak (향약, 鄕約) and Dure (두레), which provided the rules for self-governance and cooperation in traditional Korean communities. The movement initially sought to rectify the growing disparity of the standard of living between the nation's urban centers, which were rapidly industrializing, and the small villages, which continued to be mired in poverty. Diligence, self-help and collaboration were the slogans to encourage community members to participate in the development process. The early stage of the movement focused on improving the basic living conditions and environments, whereas later projects concentrated on building rural infrastructure and increasing community income. Though hailed as a great success by force in the 1970s, the movement lost momentum during the 1980s due to the unexpected assassination of Park Chung-hee.

Overview
The movement promoted self-help and collaboration among the people during its first phase, as the central government provided a fixed amount of raw materials to each of the participating villages free of charge and entrusted the locals to build whatever they wished with them. The government first selected 33,267 villages and provided 335 sacks of cement. 16,600 villages that demonstrated success were then granted additional resources of 500 sacks of cement and a ton of iron bars.

The New Community Movement did much to improve infrastructure in rural South Korea, bringing modernized facilities such as irrigation systems, bridges and roads in rural communities. The program also marked the widespread appearance of orange tiled houses throughout the countryside, replacing the traditional thatched or choga-jip houses. Encouraged by the success in rural areas, the movement spread through factories and urban areas as well, and became a nationwide modernization movement.

However, despite the Saemaul Movement's great success in reducing poverty and improving living conditions in rural areas during its first phase, income levels in urban areas were still higher than income levels in rural areas after the rapid industrialization of South Korea. The government-led movement with its highly centralized organization proved to be efficient in the 1970s and early 1980s, but it became less effective after South Korea entered into a more developed and industrialized stage, which diminished the momentum of the movement. The relatively low income levels in rural areas compared to urban areas became a major political issue in the late 1980s – one that no government intervention was able to fully solve during the first phase – and the movement proved ultimately inadequate in addressing the larger problem of migration from the villages to the cities by the country's younger demographic. Moreover, the government-led centralized system caused corruption, such as misuse of funding, and changed South Korea's environment.

Recognizing these problems, the South Korean government changed the centralized structure of the movement by empowering civil society to lead the movement. Since 1998, the Saemaul Movement has entered into the second phase, focusing on new issues such as enhancing voluntary services in the community and international cooperation with developing countries.

Many developing countries in Africa are paying attention to the implications of the Saemaul Undong. Through the program such as Yonsei-KOICA Master's Degree Program, the Korean government is helping officials working in developing countries to design and implement new policies and programs in the context of national development policies.

A 2022 study attributed the initiative with shoring up support for Park Chung Hee's authoritarian regime. The initiative had persistent effects, leading to greater support for the dictator's daughter when she was democratically elected in 2012.

Basic steps
The Korea Saemaul Undong Center explains how Saemaul Undong was practiced in the 1970s in South Korea in five steps:

Step 1. Basic Arrangements
 * 1) Three elements of Saemaul Undong: people, seed money, basic principles
 * 2) Forming a Core Group 1: Leaders
 * 3) Forming a Core Group 2: Working groups
 * 4) Incorporating a Core Group 3: Existing organizations
 * 5) Forming a Core Group 4: Sectoral organizations
 * 6) Raising Seed Money 1: Through sample cooperative projects
 * 7) Raising Seed Money 2: Through cooperative works

Step 2: Operation of Projects
 * 1) Establishing principles and standards for selecting projects
 * 2) Planning a project
 * 3) Persuading villagers 1: Setting a model to villagers
 * 4) Persuading villagers 2: Encouraging 'you can do it’ spirit
 * 5) Collecting consensus 1: Small group meetings
 * 6) Collecting consensus 2: General meeting of villagers
 * 7) Letting everybody play a part
 * 8) Preparing and managing public property
 * 9) Establishing the local Saemaul Movement Center
 * 10) Encouraging 'we are the one' spirit
 * 11) Cooperating with other communities and the government

Step 3: Main Stage of Project Operation
 * 1) Project 1 for living environment improvement: Improving the houses
 * 2) Project 2 for living environment improvement: Eliminating inconveniences in the village
 * 3) Project 3 for living environment improvement: Creating an environment for increasing income
 * 4) Project 1 for income increase: Removing the obstacles
 * 5) Project 2 for income increase: Launching cooperative projects
 * 6) Project 3 for income increase: Commercializing things around you
 * 7) Project 4 for income increase: Introducing new ideas
 * 8) Project 5 for income increase: Modifying distribution system
 * 9) Project 6 for income increase: Operating a factory
 * 10) Consolidating community 1: Enhancing morals and communalism
 * 11) Consolidating community 2: Providing a cultural center and other facilities
 * 12) Consolidating community 3: Establishing a credit union

Step 4: Final Stage of the Project Step 5: Feedback at National Level
 * 1) Sharing the results and celebrating the success
 * 2) Sharing the long-term prospects
 * 3) Stabilizing of joint funds
 * 4) Encouraging the Activities of sectional organizations
 * 5) Regularizing meetings for technology research
 * 6) Establishing a village hall
 * 7) Publishing a local newspaper
 * 8) Establishing a partnership with other regions and government offices
 * 9) Setting up a sisterhood relationship with foreign countries
 * 1) The government creates a favorable environment
 * 2) The government provides supplies and funds
 * 3) The government establishes a comprehensive support system
 * 4) The government provides intensive information and technology education at the Saemaul Training Center

Criticism
During the late 1960s and 1970s when the policy started being implemented under the regime of President Park, local traditions and beliefs were suppressed, akin to the Cultural Revolution in communist China which happened at the same time. The movement Misin tapa undong ("to defeat the worship of gods"), also described as "movement to destroy superstition") reached its peak during the Saemaul Undong period. Old zelkova trees that had stood at village entrances and have traditionally served as guardian figures were cut down in order to erase "superstition". Practitioners of Korean shamanism were harassed, essentially destroying centuries old Korean traditions.

In addition, Saemaul Undong meetings were often used to identify political dissidents and reinforce dedication to Park's military regime. Under The Presidential Trust Commission, it was found that 334 individuals were killed, 1,744 were killed, and 7,328 people were falsely incarcerated largely due to expressing anti-government beliefs in connection to Saemaul Udong.

title: Saemaul Undong


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Hama

Hama (حَمَاة , ; ; ) is a city on the banks of the Orontes River in west-central Syria. It is located 213 km north of Damascus and 46 km north of Homs. It is the provincial capital of the Hama Governorate. With a population of 996,000 (2023 census), Hama is the fourth-largest city in Syria after Damascus, Aleppo and Homs.

The city is renowned for its seventeen norias used for watering the gardens, which are locally claimed to date back to 1100 BC. Though historically used for purpose of irrigation, the norias exist today as an almost entirely aesthetic traditional show.

History
The ancient settlement of Hamath was occupied from the early Neolithic to the Iron Age.

Neolithic
The stratigraphy is very generalized, which makes detailed comparison to other sites difficult. Level M (6 m thick) contained both white ware (lime-plaster) and true pottery. It may be contemporary with Ras Shamra V (6000–5000 BC).

Chalcolithic
Remains from the Chalcolithic have been uncovered by Danish archaeologists on the mount on which the former citadel once stood. The excavation took place between 1931 and 1938 under the direction of Harald Ingholt. The overlying level L dates to the Chalcolithic Halaf culture.

Mitanni period
Although the town appears to be unmentioned in cuneiform sources before the first millennium BC, the site appears to have been prosperous around 1500 BC, when it was presumably an Amorite dependency of Mitanni, an empire along the Euphrates in northeastern Syria.

Hittite period
By around 1350 BC, Mitanni was overthrown by the Hittites, who controlled all of northern Syria.

In the south, the Hittites were in conflict with the Egyptians. Hamath became an important urban center. The conflict culminated in the famous Battle of Kadesh against Ancient Egypt under Ramesses II near Homs in 1285 BC.

In early 19th century, Johann Ludwig Burckhardt was the first to discover Hittite or Luwian hieroglyphic script at Hama.

Iron Age
The Fall of the Hittite Empire saw the Neo-Hittite/Aramaean Hama attested as the capital of one of the prosperous Syro-Hittite states known from the Hebrew Bible as Hamath (Aramaic: Ḥmt; Hittite: Amatuwana; ), which traded extensively, particularly with Israel and Judah.

Assyrian inscriptions
When the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III (858–824 BC) conquered the north of Aramea, he reached Hamath (Assyrian: Amat or Hamata) in 853 BC; this marks the beginning of Assyrian inscriptions relating to the kingdom. Irhuleni of Hamath and Hadadezer of Aram-Damascus (biblical "Bar-Hadad") led a coalition of Aramean cities against the encroaching Assyrian armies. According to Assyrian sources, they were confronted by 4,000 chariots, 2,000 horsemen, 62,000-foot-soldiers and 1,000 Arab camel-riders in the Battle of Qarqar. The attested win for the Assyrians seems to have actually been more of a draw, although Shalmaneser III continued on to the shore and even took a ship to open sea. In the following years, Shalmaneser III failed to conquer Hamath or Aram-Damascus. After the death of Shalmaneser III, the former allies Hamath and Aram-Damascus fell out, and Aram-Damascus seems to have taken over some of Hamath's territory.

An Aramaic inscription of Zakkur, dual king of Hamath and Luhuti, tells of an attack by a coalition including Sam'al under Ben-Hadad III, son of Hazael, king of Aram-Damascus. Zakir was besieged in his fortress of Hazrak, but saved by intervention of the God Baalshamin. Later on, the state of Sam'al came to rule both Hamath and Aram.

In 743 BC, Tiglath-Pileser III took a number of towns in the territory of Hamath, distributed the territories among his generals, and forcibly removed 1,223 selected inhabitants to the valley of the Upper Tigris; he exacted tribute from Hamath's king, Eni-Ilu (Eniel).

In 738 BC, Hamath is listed among the cities again conquered by Assyrian troops. Over 30,000 natives were deported to Ullaba (located in Urartu) and replaced with captives from the Zagros Mountains.

Destruction under Sargon II
After the fall of the northern kingdom of Israel, Hamath's king Ilu-Bi'di (Jau-Bi'di) led a failed revolt of the newly organized Assyrian provinces of Arpad, Simirra, Damascus, and Samara.

Styling himself the "Destroyer of Hamath," Sargon II razed the city c. 720 BC, recolonized it with 6300 Assyrians and removed its king to be flayed alive in Assyria. He also carried off to Nimrud the ivory-adorned furnishings of its kings.

Displaced persons from Hamath subsequently comprised an important part of the multi-ethnic Aramaean community at Elephantine and Syene (now Aswan) in Egypt starting in 700 BCE, where alongside similarly displaced Jews they produced a large corpus of materials in Imperial Aramaic known as the Elephantine papyri and ostraca.

Hamath in the Bible
The few Biblical reports state that Hamath was the capital of a Canaanite kingdom, whose king congratulated King David on his defeat of Hadadezer, king of Zobah. In God's instructions to Moses, Hamath is specified as part of the northern border of the land that will fall to the children of Israel as an inheritance when they enter the land of Canaan. Solomon, it would seem, took possession of Hamath and its territory and built store cities. names the "entrance of Hamath", or Lebo-Hamath, as the northern border of Israel at the time of the dedication of the first temple in Jerusalem. The area was subsequently lost to the Syrians, but Jeroboam II, king of Israel, is said to have "restored the territory of Israel from the entrance of Hamath to the Sea of the Arabah (the Dead Sea)".

Assyria's defeat of Hamath made a profound impression on Isaiah. The prophet Amos also named the town "Hamath the Great".

Persian, Hellenistic and Roman history
In 539 BC, Cyrus the Great, King of Achaemenid Empire, took Syria as part of his empire, to be known as Eber-Nari. In July 522 BC, Cambyses II died at a location called Agbatana, which is most likely the modern city of Hama.

In the second half of the 4th century BC the modern region of Syria came under the influence of Greco-Roman culture, following long lasting semitic and Persian cultures. Alexander the Great's campaign from 334 to 323 BC brought Syria under Hellenic rule. Since the country lay on the trade routes from Asia to Greece, Hama and many other Syrian cities again grew rich through trade. After the death of Alexander the Great his Near East conquests were divided between his generals, and Seleucus Nicator became ruler of Syria and the founder of the Seleucid dynasty. Under the Seleucids there was a revival in the fortunes of Hama. The Aramaeans were allowed to return to the city, which was renamed Epiphaneia (Ἐπιφάνεια), after the Seleucid Emperor Antiochus IV Epiphanes. Seleucid rule began to decline, however, in the next two centuries, and Arab dynasties began to gain control of cities in this part of Syria, including Hama.

The Romans took over original settlements such as Hama and made them their own. They met little resistance when they invaded Syria under Pompey and annexed it in 64 BC, whereupon Hama became part of the Roman province of Syria, ruled from Rome by a proconsul. Hama was an important city during the Greek and Roman periods, but very little archaeological evidence remains. As Syria became part of the Roman Empire, five hundred Hamian archers, known as "Cohors Prima Hamiorum Sagittaria", were stationed at Magnis on Hadrian's Wall in northern Britain starting from AD 120. The same unit or another one was later renamed to "Numerus Syrorum Saggitariorum" and located at Derventio Brigantum (Malton). The garrison unit was transferred to Bar Hill Fort on the Antonine Wall in Scotland in AD 142–157, then back to Magnis in AD 163–166, during the early reign of Marcus Aurelius. They might have also stationed at Housesteads, as a tombstone of an archer was located there. However, the cohort's presence in Britain was proven by military diplomas, found in Stannington (AD 122) and Ravenglass (AD 124), in addition to altars dedicated to Syrian Goddesses discovered at Catterick.

In AD 330, the capital of the Roman Empire was moved to Byzantium, and the city continued to prosper. In Byzantine days, Hama was known as Emath or Emathoùs (Εμαθούς in Greek). Roman rule from Byzantium meant the Christian religion was strengthened throughout the Near East, and churches were built in Hama and other cities. The Byzantine historian John of Epiphania was born in Hama in the 6th century.

Two main personalities from Hama were documented during Greek-Roman times. The first is Eustathius of Epiphaneia (Εὐστάθιος Ἐπιφανεύς), who was a Greek historian but all his works were lost. His most famous work was the "Brief Chronicle" (Χρονικὴν ἐπιτομὴν). The second personality is Euphrates the Stoic, who was from Epiphaneia according to Stephanus of Byzantium.

Muslim rule
During the Muslim conquest of Syria in the 7th century, Hama was conquered by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in 638 or 639 and the town regained its ancient name, and has since retained it. Following its capture, it came under the administration of Jund Hims and remained so throughout the rule of Umayyads until the 9th century.

Arab geographer al-Muqaddasi writes Hama became a part of Jund Qinnasrin during Abbasid rule. Although the city's history is obscure at this time period, it is known that Hama was a walled market town with a ring of outlying cities. On 29 November 903, the Abbasid Caliphate during the reign of Al-Muktafi defeated the Qarmatians in the Battle of Hama, which eliminated them from the western Syrian Desert.

It came under the control of the Hamdanid rulers of Aleppo in the 10th century and was consequently drawn into the orbit of that city where it remained until the 12th century. These were considered the "dark years" of Hama as the local rulers of northern and southern Syria struggled for dominance in the region. The Byzantines under emperor Nicephorus Phocas raided the town in 968 and burned the Great Mosque. By the 11th century, the Fatimids gained suzerainty over northern Syria and during this period, the Mirdasids sacked Hama. Persian geographer Nasir Khusraw noted in 1047 that Hama was "well populated" and stood on the banks of the Orontes River.

Tancred, Prince of Galilee, took it in 1108, but in 1114 the Crusaders lost it definitively to the Seljuks, during the reign of Toghtekin, atabeg of Damascus. In 1157 an earthquake shattered the city. For the next sixty years, Hama was battled for by competing rulers. Nur al-Din, the Zengid sultan, erected a mosque with a tall, square minaret in the city in 1172. In 1175, Hama was taken from the Zengids by Saladin. He granted the city to his nephew, al-Muzaffar Umar, four years later, putting it under the rule of his Ayyubid family. This ushered in an era of stability and prosperity in Hama as the Ayyubids ruled it almost continuously until 1342. Geographer Yaqut al-Hamawi, who was born in Hama, described it in 1225 as a large town surrounded by a strongly built wall. Hama was sacked by the Mongols in 1260, as were most other Syrian cities, but the Mongols were defeated that same year and then again in 1303 by the Mamluks who succeeded the Ayyubids as rulers of the region. Hama briefly passed to Mamluk control in 1299 after the death of governor al-Mansur Mahmoud II. However, unlike other former Ayyubid cities, the Mamluks reinstated Ayyubid rule in Hama by making Abu al-Fida, the historian and geographer, governor of the city and he reigned from 1310 to 1332. He described his city as "very ancient... mentioned in the book of the Israelites. It is one of the pleasantest places in Syria." After his death, he was succeeded by his son al-Afdal Muhammad who eventually lost Mamluk favor and was deposed. Thus, Hama came under direct Mamluk control.

Hama grew prosperous during the Ayyubid period, as well as the Mamluk period. It gradually expanded to both banks of the Orontes River, with the suburb on the right bank being connected to the town proper by a newly built bridge. The town on the left bank was divided into upper and lower parts, each of which was surrounded by a wall. The city was filled with palaces, markets, mosques, madrasas, and a hospital, and over thirty different sized norias (water-wheels). In addition, there stood a massive citadel in Hama. Moreover, a special aqueduct brought drinking water to Hama from the neighboring town of Salamiyah.

Ibn Battuta visited Hama in 1335 and remarked that the Orontes River made the city "pleasant to live in, with its many gardens full of trees and fruits." He also speaks of a large suburb called al-Mansuriyyah (named after an Ayyubid emir) that contained "a fine market, a mosque, and bathes." In 1400, Timurlane took Hama, along with nearby Homs and Baalbek.

Ottoman rule
The prosperous period of Mamluk rule came to an end in 1516, when the Ottoman Turks conquered Syria from the Mamluks after defeating them at the Battle of Marj Dabiq near Aleppo. Hama, and the rest of Syria, came under Ottoman rule from Constantinople. Under the Ottomans, Hama gradually became more important in the administrative structure of the region. It was first made capital of one of the liwas ("districts") of the eyalet ("province") of Tripoli. Hama once again became an important center for trade routes running east from the Mediterranean coast into Asia. A number of khans ("caravansaries"s) were built in the city, like Khan Rustum Pasha which dates from 1556. The governor of Hama was tasked in 1692 with settling Turkoman nomads in the Hama-Homs region under the aegis of the Ottoman Empire's tribal settlement program.

Then in the 18th century, it became a part of the holdings of the governor of Damascus. The governors of Damascus at this time were the Azems, who also ruled other parts of Syria, for the Ottomans. They erected sumptuous residences in Hama, including the Azem Palace and Khan As'ad Pasha which were built by As'ad Pasha al-Azem, who governed Hama for a number of years until 1742. By then, there were 14 caravansaries in the city, mostly used for the storage and distribution of seeds, cotton, wool, and other commodities. After the passing of the Vilayet Law in 1864, Hama became the capital of the Sanjak of Hama (gaining the city more administrative powers), part of the larger vilayet of Sham.

Modern history

Ottoman rule ended in 1918, after their defeat in World War I to the Allied Forces. Hama was made part of the French Mandate of Syria. By then, Hama had developed into what it has remained: a medium-sized provincial town, important as the market for an agricultural area abundant in cereals, but also cotton and sugar beets. It gained notoriety as the center of large estates worked by peasants and dominated by a few magnate families. The 1925 Hama uprising occurred in the city during the Great Syrian Revolt against the French.

During the French Mandate, the district of Hama contained within its bounds the municipality of Hama and 114 villages. By an estimate in 1930, only four of these villages were owned outright by local cultivators, while sharing ownership of two villages with a notable family. Thus, the hinterland was owned by landowning elites. Starting in the late 1940s, significant class conflict erupted as agricultural workers sought reform in Hama.

Syria gained full independence from France in 1946. Akram al-Hawrani, a member of an impoverished notable family in Hama, began to agitate for land reform and better social conditions. He made Hama the base of his Arab Socialist Party, which later merged with another socialist party, the Ba'ath. This party's ascent to power in 1963 signalled the end of power for the landowning elite.

The political insurgency by Sunni Islamic groups, particularly the Muslim Brotherhood, occurred in the city, which was reputed as a stronghold of conservative Sunni Islam. As early as the spring of 1964, Hama became the epicentre of an uprising by conservative forces, encouraged by speeches from mosque preachers, denouncing the policies of the Ba'ath. The Syrian government sent tanks and troops into the quarters of Hama's old city to put down the insurrection.

In the early 1980s, Hama had emerged as a major source of opposition to the Ba'ath government during the Sunni armed Islamist uprising, which had begun in 1976. The city was a focal point for bloody events in the 1981 massacre and the most notable 1982 Hama massacre. The most serious insurrection of the Syrian Islamist uprising happened in Hama during February 1982, when Government forces, led by the president's brother, Rifaat al-Assad, quelled the revolt in Hama with very harsh means. Tanks and artillery shelled the neighbourhoods held by the insurgents indiscriminately, and government forces are alleged to have executed thousands of prisoners and civilian residents after subduing the revolt, which became known as the Hama massacre. The story is suppressed and regarded as highly sensitive in Syria. The Hama massacre led to the military term "Hama Rules" meaning the complete large-scale destruction of a military objective or target. The city was the site of conflict between the Syrian military and opposition forces as one of the main arenas of the Syrian civil war during the 2011 siege of Hama.

In 2018, archaeologists revealed a Byzantine mosaic painting of a church that dates back to the fifth century AD. The painting, which was decorated with geometric shapes and inscriptions in Latin, was unearthed in the Tell Salhab area in Khareb village.

Climate
Its climate is classified as semi-arid (BSk) in Köppen-Geiger system. Hama's inland location ensures that it receives no softening coastal influences and breezes from the Mediterranean Sea. As a result, the city has a much hotter and drier climate than nearby Homs.

Demographics

According to Josiah C. Russel, during the 12th century, Hama had a population of 6,750. James Reilly accounts the historical population as: 1812– 30,000 (Burckhardt) 1830– 20,000 (Robinson) 1839– 30–44,000 (Bowring) 1850– 30,000 (Porter) 1862– 10–12,000 (Guys) 1880– 27,656 (Parliamentary Papers) 1901– 60,000 (Parliamentary Papers) 1902–1907 80,000 (Trade Reports) 1906– 40,000 (al-Sabuni) 1909– 60,000 (Trade Reports) In 1932, while Hama was under the French Mandate, there were approximately 50,000 residents. In the 1960 census, there were 110,000 inhabitants. The population continued to rise, reaching 180,000 in 1978 and 273,000 in 1994. The infant mortality rate per 1,000 live births in the Hama Governorate was 99.4. A 2005 estimate had Hama's population at around 325,000 inhabitants.

Most of the residents are Sunni Muslims (including mostly Arabs, Kurds, and Turkmen), although some districts of the city are exclusively Christian. Hama is reputed to be the most conservative Sunni Muslim city in Syria since French Mandate times. During that period there was an old saying reflecting this characteristic: "In Damascus, it takes only three men to make a political demonstration, while in Hama it takes only three men to get the town to pray." The Christian population mostly adheres to the Greek Orthodox Church or the Syriac Orthodox Church.

The city also contains a Palestinian refugee camp, known as Hama camp.

Ecclesiastical status
The Greek Orthodox Church has a prelacy in Hama under the Patriarch of Antioch. Hama is still a Roman Catholic titular see (referred to as "Hamath" or Amath"), suffragan of Apamea. It is as "Epiphania" that it is best known in ecclesiastical documents. Lequien mentions nine Greek bishops of Epiphania. The first of them, whom he calls Mauritius, is the Manikeios whose signature appears in the First Council of Nicaea. Currently, it has two Catholic archbishops, a Greek Melkite and a Syrian, the former residing at Labroud, the latter at Homs, reuniting the titles of Homs (Emesus) and Hamah.

Titular bishopric of the Roman Church
 * Vartan Hunanian (28 Jan 1675 - 24 Oct 1681)
 * Franz Anton von Harrach zu Rorau (21 Nov 1701 - 7 Jan 1702, bishop of Vienna)
 * Giovanni Domenico Xiberras, (1 Oct 1727 - 5 Oct 1751)
 * Giovanni Battista Albrici Pellegrini (5 Oct 1751 - 21 Jul 1760, Bishop of Como)
 * Tommaso Vespoli (22 Nov 1762 - 1768 )
 * Johann Nepomuk Augustin von Hornstein zu Hohenstoffen (16 May 1768 - 16 Dec 1805)
 * Francis Alphonsus Bourne (23 Mar 1896 - 1 May 1897)
 * Pierre Feghali (23 Feb 1919 - 20 Jul 1944)
 * Pietro Sfair (11 Mar 1953 - 11 Mar 1960)
 * Volodymyr Malanczuk, (22 Jul 1960 - 29 Sep 1990)

Neighborhoods

 * Kazo

Main sights
Hama's most famous attractions are the 17 Norias of Hama (نواعير حماة), dating back to the Byzantine times. Fed by the Orontes river, they are up to 20 m in diameter. The largest norias are the al-Mamunye (1453) and the al-Muhammediye (14th century). Originally they were used to route water into aqueducts, which led into the town and the neighbouring agricultural areas.

Other sights include:
 * the museum, housed in an 18th-century Ottoman governor residence (Azem Palace). Remains in the exhibition include a precious Roman mosaic from the nearby village of Maryamin (4th century AD)
 * al-Nuri mosque, finished in 1163 by Nur ad-Din after the earthquake of 1157. Notable is the minaret.
 * The small Mamluk al-Izzi mosque (15th century)
 * The mosque and Mausoleum of Abu al-Fida, a celebrated Ayyubid historian who was also governor of the city.
 * al-Hasanain mosque, also rebuilt by Nur ad-Din after the aforementioned earthquake.
 * The Great Mosque. Destroyed in the 1982 bombardment, it has been rebuilt in its original forms. It has elements dating from the ancient and Christian structures existing in the same location. It has two minarets, and is preceded by a portico with an elevated treasury.

Notable people

 * Adnan al-Bakkour, former Attorney General

title: Hama


text:
List of emperors of the Qing dynasty

The Qing dynasty (1644–1912) was a Manchu-led imperial Chinese dynasty and the last imperial dynasty of China. It was officially proclaimed in 1636 in Shenyang in what is now Northeast China, but only captured Beijing and succeeded the Ming dynasty in China proper in 1644. The Qing dynasty collapsed when the imperial clan (surnamed Aisin Gioro) abdicated in February 1912, a few months after a military uprising had started the Xinhai Revolution that led to the foundation of the Republic of China.

Nurhaci (1559–1626), khan of the Jurchens, founded the Later Jin dynasty in 1616 in reference to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty (1115–1234) that had once ruled over northern China. His son and successor Hong Taiji (1592–1643) renamed his people "Manchu" in 1635 and changed the name of Nurhaci's state from "Great Jin" to "Great Qing" in 1636. Hong Taiji was the real founder of Qing imperial institutions. He was the first to adopt the title of "emperor" (huangdi) and founded an Imperial Ancestral Temple in the Qing capital Mukden in 1636. After the Qing captured Beijing in 1644 and appropriated the Ming Ancestral Temple, from 1648 on, Nurhaci was worshiped there as "Taizu" (太祖), a temple name usually accorded to dynastic founders. Qing emperors since Hong Taiji were also referred to as Bogda Khan by the Mongol subjects, and as "Chinese khagan" by their Turkic Muslim subjects when Qing rule extended to Xinjiang in the 18th century.

Like their Ming (1368–1644) predecessors—but unlike the emperors of earlier dynasties like the Han, Tang, and Song—Qing emperors used only one era name ("Shunzhi", "Qianlong", "Guangxu", etc.) for their entire reign, and are most commonly known by that name. Starting with Nurhaci, there were twelve Qing rulers. Following the capture of Beijing and re-enthronement as Emperor of China in 1644, the Shunzhi Emperor (r. 1643/4–1661) became the first of the ten Qing sovereigns to rule over China proper. At 61 years, the reign of the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722) was the longest, though his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–1796), would have reigned even longer if he had not purposely ceded the throne to the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796–1820) in order not to reign longer than his grandfather. Qing emperors succeeded each other from father to son until the Tongzhi Emperor (r. 1861–1875), the 11th Qing ruler, died childless in 1875. The last two emperors were chosen by Empress Dowager Cixi from other branches of the imperial clan.

Succession

Unlike the Ming emperors, who named their eldest legitimate son heir apparent whenever possible and forbade other sons from participating in politics, the Qing monarchs did not choose their successors according to primogeniture. When in 1622 Nurhaci (1559–1626) was asked which one of his sons he had chosen to succeed him as khan of the Jurchens, he refused to answer, telling his sons that they should determine after his death who among them was the most qualified leader. His answer reflected the fact that in Jurchen society, succession as tribal chieftain was usually determined by merit, not descent. When Nurhaci died in 1626, a committee of Manchu princes selected Hong Taiji (1592–1643) as his successor. Hong Taiji's death in 1643 caused another succession crisis, because many of Nurhaci's other sons appeared to be qualified leaders. As a compromise, the Manchu princes chose Hong Taiji's four-year-old son Fulin (the Shunzhi Emperor, r. 1643–1661) as his successor, marking the adoption of father-son succession in the Qing imperial line.

The Shunzhi Emperor, who died of smallpox in 1661, chose his third son Xuanye as successor because he had survived smallpox. That child reigned as the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661–1722), who for the first time in Qing history followed the Chinese habit of primogeniture and appointed his eldest son Yinreng (1674–1725) as heir apparent. The heir apparent was removed twice because of his extravagance and abhorrent behavior, which included an attempt to assassinate the emperor. After Yinreng was demoted for good in 1712, the emperor refused to name an heir. Because Qing policy forced imperial princes to reside in the capital Beijing, many princes became involved in politics, and the Kangxi succession became particularly contested. After the Kangxi Emperor's death in 1722, his fourth son Yinzhen (1678–1735) emerged as victor and reigned as the Yongzheng Emperor, but his legitimacy was questioned for years after his accession.

To avoid such struggles in the future, the Yongzheng Emperor designed a system by which the living emperor would choose his successor in advance and on merit, but would keep his choice secret until his deathbed. The name of the future emperor was sealed in a casket that was hidden behind a panel in the rafters of the Qianqing Palace inside the Forbidden City. As successor, the Yongzheng Emperor chose his fourth son Hongli (1711–1799), the Qianlong Emperor, who himself selected his 15th son Yongyan, the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796–1820). The latter chose his successor Minning (1782–1850), the Daoguang Emperor, in 1799, but only read his testament shortly before dying.

When the Tongzhi Emperor died heirless in 1875, his mother Empress Dowager Cixi was the one who selected the next emperor. But instead of making the deceased emperor adopt an heir from the generation below himself (in this case this would have been a nephew of the Tongzhi Emperor) as the rules of imperial succession dictated, she picked one from the same generation. The new emperor was Zaitian (the Guangxu Emperor; 1871–1908), the son of Prince Chun, a half-brother of Empress Dowager Cixi's late husband, the Xianfeng Emperor (r. 1850–1861). She assured her opponents that as soon as the new emperor had a son, he would be adopted into the Tongzhi Emperor's line. However, as the Guangxu Emperor died heirless too, Empress Dowager Cixi also chose his successor, Puyi, in 1908.

Regents and empresses dowager
Qing succession and inheritance policies made it difficult for empresses and their relatives to build power at court, as they had in the Han dynasty for example. Threats to imperial power usually came from within the imperial clan. When the young Fulin was chosen to succeed his father Hong Taiji in September 1643, two "prince regents" were selected for him: Hong Taiji's half-brother Dorgon (1612–1650) and Nurhaci's nephew Jirgalang (1599–1655). Soon after the Manchus had seized Beijing under Dorgon's leadership in May 1644, Dorgon came to control all important government matters. Official documents referred to him as "Imperial Uncle Prince Regent" (Huang shufu shezheng wang 皇叔父攝政王), a title that left him one step short of claiming the throne for himself. A few days after his death, he received a temple name (Chengzong 成宗) and an honorific posthumous title (Yi Huangdi 義皇帝, "Righteous Emperor"), and his spirit tablet was placed in the Imperial Ancestral Temple next to those of Nurhaci and Hong Taiji. In early March 1651 after Dorgon's supporters had been purged from the court, these titles were abrogated.

The reign of the Shunzhi Emperor ended when he died of smallpox in 1661 at the age of 22. His last will—which was tampered and perhaps even forged by its beneficiaries—appointed four co-regents for his son and successor the six-year-old Xuanye, who was to reign as the Kangxi Emperor. All four were Manchu dignitaries who had supported the Shunzhi Emperor after the death of Dorgon, but their Manchu nativist measures reversed many of the Shunzhi Emperor's own policies. The "Oboi regency", named after the most powerful of the four regents, lasted until 1669, when the Kangxi Emperor started his personal rule.

For almost 200 years, the Qing Empire was governed by adult emperors. In the last fifty years of the dynasty—from the death of the Xianfeng Emperor in 1861 to the final abdication of the child emperor Puyi in 1912—the imperial position again became vulnerable to the power of regents, empress dowagers, imperial uncles, and eunuchs. Empress Dowager Cixi (1835–1908) came to power through a coup that ousted eight regents who had been named by her husband, the Xianfeng Emperor. She controlled the government during the reigns of the Tongzhi (r. 1861–1875) and Guangxu (r. 1875–1908) emperors. From 1861 onwards, she was officially co-regent with Empress Dowager Ci'an, but her political role increased so much that within a few years she was taking charge of most government matters. She became sole regent in 1881 after the death of Empress Dowager Ci'an. With the assistance of eunuchs and Manchu princes, she remained regent until March 1889, when she finally let the Guangxu Emperor rule personally (he was then 17 years old). After she intervened to end the Hundred Days' Reform in September 1898, she had the emperor put under house arrest and held the reins of the Qing government until her death in 1908.

Era name

An emperor's era name or reign name was chosen at the beginning of his reign to reflect the political concerns of the court at the time. A new era name became effective on the first day of the Chinese New Year after that emperor's accession, which fell between 21 January and 20 February (inclusively) of the Gregorian calendar. Even if an emperor died in the middle of the year, his era name was used for the rest of that year before the next era officially began.

Like the emperors of the Ming dynasty, Qing monarchs used only one reign name and are usually known by that name, as when we speak of the "Qianlong Emperor" (r. 1735–1795) or the "Guangxu Emperor" (r. 1875–1908). Strictly speaking, referring to the Qianlong Emperor simply as "Qianlong" is wrong, because "Qianlong" was not that emperor's own name but that of his reign era. For convenience sake, however, many historians still choose to call him Qianlong (though not "Emperor Qianlong"). The only Qing emperors who are not commonly known by their reign name are the first two: Nurhaci (r. 1616–1626), who is known by his personal name, and his son and successor Hong Taiji (r. 1626–1643), whose name was a title meaning "prince Hong". Hong Taiji was the only Qing emperor to use two era names (see table).

Reign names are usually left untranslated, but some scholars occasionally gloss them when they think these names have a special significance. Historian Pamela Crossley explains that Hong Taiji's first era name Tiancong 天聰 (abkai sure in Manchu) referred to a "capacity to transform" supported by Heaven, and that his second one Chongde 崇德 (wesihun erdemungge) meant the achievement of this transformation. The practice of translating reign names is not new: Jesuits who resided at the Qing court in Beijing in the 18th century translated "Yongzheng"—or its Manchu version "Hūwaliyasun tob"—as Concordia Recta.

An era name was used to record dates, usually in the format "Reign-name Xth year, Yth month, Zth day" (sometimes abridged as X/Y/Z by modern scholars). A Qing emperor's era name was also used on the coins that were cast during his reign. Unlike in the Ming dynasty, the characters used in Qing reign names were taboo, that is, the characters contained in it could no longer be used in writing throughout the empire.

Personal name
As in previous dynasties, the emperor's personal name became taboo after his accession. The use of xuan 玄 ("mysterious", "profound") in the Kangxi Emperor's personal name Xuanye (玄燁), for example, forced printers of Buddhist and Daoist books to replace this very common character with yuan 元 in all their books. Even the Daodejing, a Daoist classic, and the Thousand Character Classic, a widely used primer, had to be reprinted with yuan instead of xuan. When the Yongzheng Emperor, whose generation was the first in which all imperial sons shared a generational character as in Chinese clans, acceded the throne, he made all his brothers change the first character of their name from "Yin" (胤) to "Yun" (允) to respect the taboo. Citing fraternal solidarity, his successor, the Qianlong Emperor, simply removed one stroke from his own name and let his brothers keep their own.

Later emperors found other ways to diminish the inconvenience of naming taboos. The Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1796–1820), whose personal name was Yongyan (永琰), replaced the very common first character of his personal name (yong 永, which means "forever") with an obscure one (顒) with the same pronunciation. The Daoguang Emperor (r. 1820–1850) removed the character for "continuous" (綿) from his name and decreed that his descendants should henceforth all omit one stroke from their name. In accordance with Manchu practice, Qing emperors rarely used their clan name Aisin Gioro.

Temple name

After their deaths, the emperors were given a temple name and an honorific name under which they would be worshiped at the Imperial Ancestral Temple. On the spirit tablets that were displayed there, the temple name was followed by the honorific name, as in "Shizu Zhang huangdi" for the Shunzhi Emperor and "Taizong Wen huangdi" for Hong Taiji. As dynastic founder, Nurhaci ("Taizu") became the focal ancestor in the main hall of the temple. The earlier paternal ancestors of the Qing imperial line were worshiped in a back hall. Historical records like the Veritable Records, which were compiled at the end of each reign, retrospectively referred to emperors by their temple names.

Hong Taiji created the Qing ancestral cult in 1636 when he assumed the title of emperor. Taking the Chinese imperial cult as a model, he named his main paternal ancestors "kings" and built an Imperial Ancestral Temple in his capital Mukden to offer sacrifices to them. When the Qing took control of Beijing in 1644, Prince Regent Dorgon had the Aisin Gioro ancestral tablets installed in what had been the Ming ancestral temple. In 1648 the Qing government bestowed the title of "emperor" to these ancestors and gave them the honorific posthumous names and temple names by which they were known for the rest of the dynasty. Nurhaci was identified retrospectively as Taizu ("grand progenitor"), the usual name given to a dynasty's first emperor. This is why Nurhaci is considered as the first Qing ruler even if he was never emperor in his lifetime. Taizong was the usual name for the second emperor of a dynasty, and so Hong Taiji was canonized as Qing Taizong. The last emperor of a dynasty usually did not receive a temple name because his descendants were no longer in power when he died, and thus could not perpetuate the ancestral cult. Puyi, the last Qing monarch, reigned as the Xuantong Emperor from 1908 to 1912, but did not receive a temple name.

Honorific posthumous name
After death emperors were given an honorific posthumous title that reflected their ruling style. Nurhaci's posthumous name was originally the "Martial Emperor" (武皇帝 wǔ huángdì)—to reflect his military exploits—but in 1662 it was changed to "Highest Emperor" (高皇帝 gāo huángdì), that is, "the emperor from whom all others descend." Hong Taiji's posthumous name, the "Emperor of Letters" (M.: šu hūwangdi; Ch.: 文皇帝 wén huángdì), was chosen to reflect the way in which he metamorphosed Qing institutions during his reign.

List of emperors
This is a complete list of the emperors of the Qing dynasty. These emperors were usually enthroned on an auspicious day soon after the death of the previous monarch. With two exceptions (Jiaqing and Guangxu), they reigned under their predecessor's era name until the following New Year. The date that appears under "Dates of reign" indicates the first day of the lunisolar year following the death of the previous emperor, which is when the new emperor's era name came into use. The number of years indicated in the same column is the number of years in which that era name was used. Because of discrepancies between the western and the Chinese calendar, this number does not perfectly correspond to the number of years in which an emperor was on the throne.

Since posthumous titles and temple names were often shared by emperors of different dynasties, to avoid confusion they are usually preceded by the dynastic name. The Qianlong emperor, for instance, should be referred to as Qing Gaozong rather than just Gaozong. The table, however, omits the term "Qing", because it is understood that all the emperors listed were from that dynasty. Because each emperor's posthumous name was extremely long—that of the Shunzhi Emperor, for instance, was "Titian longyun dingtong jianji yingrui qinwen xianwu dade honggong zhiren chunxiao Zhang huangdi" 體天隆運定統建極英睿欽文顯武大德弘功至仁純孝章皇帝—the table only shows the short form.

Except for the last emperor Puyi, all portraits are official court portraits. All dates in the table are in the Gregorian calendar.

{| class="wikitable" style="line-height:1.4em; text-align:center; font-size:95% " ! rowspan="2" scope="col" | ! rowspan="2" | Portrait ! colspan="1" rowspan="2" scope="col" | Title Emperor (Lifespan) ! colspan="2" rowspan="2" scope="col" | Reign Duration in years and days ! rowspan="2" | Personal name ! colspan="3" |Names !Era !Post. !Temple
 * colspan="9" |
 * colspan="9" |

Khans of Later Jin (1616–1636)
Nurhaci 努爾哈赤 (1559–1626) 1616 1626 愛新覺羅·努爾哈齊 Nurgaci 天命 Abkai fulingga 高帝 Dergi 太祖 Taidzu ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |10 years, 228 days (1592–1643) 1626 1636 愛新覺羅·皇太極 Hong taiji 天聰 Abkai sure ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |9 years, 112 days
 * rowspan="2" |1
 * rowspan="2" |Nurhaci (closeup2).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |
 * rowspan="2" |
 * 17 February
 * 30 September
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Nurhaci
 * rowspan="2" |Tianming
 * rowspan="2" style="font-weight:normal" |Gaodi
 * rowspan="2" |Taizu
 * rowspan="2" |2
 * rowspan="2" |Hong taiji (closeup2).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Hong Taiji 皇太極
 * rowspan="2" |Hong Taiji 皇太極
 * 20 October
 * 15 May
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji
 * rowspan="2" |Tiancong
 * rowspan="2" | -
 * rowspan="2" | -
 * colspan="9" |
 * colspan="9" |

Emperors of the Qing dynasty (1636–1912)
皇太极 (1592–1643) 1636 1643 愛新覺羅·皇太极 Hong taiji 崇德 Wesihun erdemungge 文帝 Genggiyen su 太宗 Taidzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |7 years, 228 days 順治帝 (1638–1661) 1644 1661 愛新覺羅·福臨 Fulin 順治 Ijishūn dasan 章帝 Eldembuhe 世祖 Šidzu ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |17 years, 125 days 康熙帝 (1654–1722) 1661 1722 愛新覺羅·玄燁 Hiowan yei 康熙 Elhe taifin 仁帝 Gosin 聖祖 Šengdzu ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |61 years, 331 days 雍正帝 (1678–1735) 1722 1735 愛新覺羅·胤禛 In jen 雍正 Hūwaliyasun tob 憲帝 Temgetulehe 世宗 Šidzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |12 years, 288 days 乾隆帝 (1711–1799) 1735 1796 愛新覺羅·弘曆 Hung li 乾隆 Abkai wehiyehe 純帝 Yongkiyaha hūwangdi 高宗 G'aodzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal" |60 years, 129 days 嘉慶帝 (1760–1820) 1796 1820 愛新覺羅·顒琰 Yong yan 嘉慶 Saicungga fengšen 睿帝 Sunggiyen 仁宗 Žindzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|24 years, 211 days 道光帝 (1782–1850) 1820 1850 愛新覺羅·旻寧 Min ning 道光 Doro eldengge 成帝 Šanggan 宣宗 Siowandzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|29 years, 153 days 咸豐帝 (1831–1861) 1850 1861 愛新覺羅·奕詝 I ju 咸豐 Gubci elgiyengge 顯帝 Iletu 文宗 Wendzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|11 years, 169 days 同治帝 (1856–1875) 1861 1875 愛新覺羅·載淳 Dzai šun 同治 Yooningga dasan 毅帝 Filingga 穆宗 Mudzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|13 years, 65 days 光緒帝 (1871–1908) 1875 1908 愛新覺羅·載湉 Dzai tiyan 光緒 Badarangga doro 景帝 Ambalinggū 德宗 Dedzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|33 years, 269 days 宣統帝 (1906–1967) 1908 1912 愛新覺羅·溥儀 Pu I 宣統 Gehungge yoso 愍帝 G'ungdzung ! colspan="2" style="font-size:90%; font-weight:normal"|3 years, 72 days
 * rowspan="2" |1
 * rowspan="2" |Hong taiji (closeup2).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Hong Taiji
 * rowspan="2" |Hong Taiji
 * 15 May
 * 21 September
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Huang Taiji
 * rowspan="2" |Chongde
 * rowspan="2" |Wendi
 * rowspan="2" |Taizong
 * rowspan="2" |2
 * rowspan="2" |Shunzhi (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Shunzhi Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Shunzhi Emperor
 * 30 October
 * 5 February
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Fulin
 * rowspan="2" |Shunzhi
 * rowspan="2" |Zhangdi
 * rowspan="2" |Shizu
 * rowspan="2" |3
 * rowspan="2" |Kangxi (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Kangxi Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Kangxi Emperor
 * 5 February
 * 20 December
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Xuanye
 * rowspan="2" |Kangxi
 * rowspan="2" |Rendi
 * rowspan="2" |Shengzu
 * rowspan="2" |4
 * rowspan="2" |Yongzheng (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Yongzheng Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Yongzheng Emperor
 * 27 December
 * 8 October
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Yinzhen
 * rowspan="2" |Yongzheng
 * rowspan="2" |Xiandi
 * rowspan="2" |Shizong
 * rowspan="2" |5
 * rowspan="2" |Qianlong (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Qianlong Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Qianlong Emperor
 * 18 October
 * 9 February
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Hongli
 * rowspan="2" |Qianlong
 * rowspan="2" |Chundi
 * rowspan="2" |Gaozong
 * rowspan="2" |6
 * rowspan="2" |Jiaqing (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Jiaqing Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Jiaqing Emperor
 * 9 February
 * 2 September
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Yongyan
 * rowspan="2" |Jiaqing
 * rowspan="2" |Ruidi
 * rowspan="2" |Renzong
 * rowspan="2" |7
 * rowspan="2" |Daoguang.JPG
 * rowspan="2" |Daoguang Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Daoguang Emperor
 * 3 October
 * 26 February
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Mianning
 * rowspan="2" |Daoguang
 * rowspan="2" |Chengdi
 * rowspan="2" |Xuanzong
 * rowspan="2" |8
 * rowspan="2" |Xianfeng (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Xianfeng Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Xianfeng Emperor
 * 9 March
 * 22 August
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Yizhu
 * rowspan="2" |Xianfeng
 * rowspan="2" |Xiandi
 * rowspan="2" |Wenzong
 * rowspan="2" |9
 * rowspan="2" |Tongzhi Emperor (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Tongzhi Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Tongzhi Emperor
 * 11 November
 * 12 January
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Zaichun
 * rowspan="2" |Tongzhi
 * rowspan="2" |Yidi
 * rowspan="2" |Muzong
 * rowspan="2" |10
 * rowspan="2" |Emperor Guangxu (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Guangxu Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Guangxu Emperor
 * 25 February
 * 14 November
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Zaitian
 * rowspan="2" |Guangxu
 * rowspan="2" |Jingdi
 * rowspan="2" |Dezong
 * rowspan="2" |11
 * rowspan="2" |Xuantong Emperor (closeup).jpg
 * rowspan="2" |Xuantong Emperor
 * rowspan="2" |Xuantong Emperor
 * 2 December
 * 12 February
 * rowspan="2" |Aisin-Gioro Puyi
 * rowspan="2" |Xuantong
 * rowspan="2" | Mindi
 * rowspan="2" | Gongzong
 * colspan="9" |References:
 * }
 * }

Timeline
Legend:
 * Orange denotes Later Jin monarchs
 * Pink denotes Qing monarchs

title: List of emperors of the Qing dynasty


text:
Talk:Functional predicate

Untitled
Is "map" also used in the same sense as "mapping"? ta3ee

?

 * "In formal logic and related branches of mathematics, a functional predicate, or function symbol, is a logical symbol that may be applied to an object term to produce another object term."

Logical symbol? Object term? --Abdull (talk) 09:12, 17 September 2009 (UTC)
 * And also: "In a model, a function symbol will be modelled by a function." ... So, a functional predicate is a generalization of functions in mathematics? What are other examples of applications of functional predicates in "other sciences" than mathematics? --Abdull (talk) 15:37, 8 November 2009 (UTC)

"Function symbol" vs. "function symbol (logic)"
I noticed that one of these redirect pages points to functional predicate, but the other one leads to uninterpreted function. What is the reason for this inconsistency? Jarble (talk) 15:42, 9 March 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Functional predicate


text:
Pyongan Province

Pyongan Province was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyongan was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea).

History
Pyeong'an Province was formed in 1413. Its name derived from the names of two of its principal cities, Pyeongyang and Anju.

In 1895, the province was replaced by the Districts of Ganggye in the northeast, Uiju County  in the northwest, and Pyeongyang  in the south.

In 1896, Kanggye and Ŭiju Districts were reorganized into North Pyongan Province, and Pyeongyang District was reorganized as South Pyongan Province. North and South Pyongan Provinces are part of North Korea.

Geography
Pyeong'an was bounded on the east by Hamgyeong Province, on the south by Hwanghae Province, on the west by the Yellow Sea, and on the north by Qing China.

The regional name for the province was Gwanseo.

title: Pyongan Province