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Spanish Grand Prix

The Spanish Grand Prix (Gran Premio de España, Gran Premi d'Espanya) is a Formula One motor racing event currently held at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya. The race is one of the oldest in the world still contested, celebrating its centenary in 2013. The race had modest beginnings as a production car race. Interrupted by the First World War, the race waited a decade for its second running before becoming a staple of the European calendar. In 1927 it was part of the World Manufacturers' Championship; it was promoted to the European Championship in 1935 before the Spanish Civil War brought an end to racing. The race was successfully revived in 1967 and has been a regular part of the Formula One World Championship since 1968 (except 1982–1985) at a variety of venues.

The event is due to take place at the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya until 2026. From 2026 until at least 2035 the race will be run at a new circuit near Madrid.

Origins and pre-war
The first race generally considered to be a Spanish Grand Prix was held in 1913. Though not run to the Grand Prix formula of the day, instead it was a race for touring cars, taking place on a 300-kilometre road circuit at Guadarrama, near Madrid, on the road to Valladolid. It was officially named the RACE Grand Prix (after the Royal Automobile Club of Spain) and was won by Carlos de Salamanca with Rolls-Royce.

Motor racing events had taken place in Spain prior to that—the most notable among them being the Catalan Cup held annually from 1908 to 1910, on roads around Sitges, near Barcelona. The first event was won by Giosuè Giuppone on a Lion-Peugeot, with both following events won by Jules Goux, also driving a Lion-Peugeot, these races helping to establish a strong racing tradition in Spain, which has continued to this day. This enthusiasm for racing led to the plan to build a permanent track at Sitges—a 2 km oval that became known as Sitges-Terramar, and was the site of the first race to officially carry the title Spanish Grand Prix in 1923, won by Albert Divo in a Sunbeam.

Lasarte
After this first race, the track fell into financial difficulties, and the organisers had to look for another venue. In 1926, the Spanish Grand Prix moved to the 17.749 km Circuito Lasarte on the northern coast near Bilbao, home of the main race in Spain during the 1920s—the San Sebastián Grand Prix. The 1927 Spanish Grand Prix was part of the AIACR World Manufacturers' Championship, but the race was still not established and in 1928 and 1929 was run to sports car regulations. The 1930 Spanish Grand Prix for sports cars, scheduled for 27 July, was cancelled due to the bad economic situation following the Wall Street crash in October 1929. The 1931 and 1932 Spanish Grands Prix were also announced, only to be cancelled due to political and economic difficulties. Finally, in 1933 the Spanish Grand Prix was revived at Lasarte with government backing. Following the 1935 race, Spain descended into civil war and racing stopped. In 1946, racing returned to Spain in the form of the Penya Rhin Grand Prix at the Pedralbes street circuit in Barcelona.

Pedralbes
Spain did not return to the international calendar until 1951, joining the list of races of the Formula One championship at the very wide Pedralbes street circuit in Barcelona. Argentine Juan Manuel Fangio won his first world championship at the 1951 event in an Alfa Romeo while he took advantage of the improved works Ferrari's tire problems. The race was scheduled for the 1952 and 1953 seasons but did not take place due to a lack of money, and in 1954, Briton Mike Hawthorn stopped Mercedes's dominance by winning in a Ferrari. In 1955, the Spanish Grand Prix at Pedralbes was scheduled to take place, but a terrible accident at the 24 Hours of Le Mans that killed more than 80 people resulted in regulations governing spectator safety, and the scheduled Spanish Grand Prix (like many others) was cancelled that year and for the subsequent 2 years (also owing to more problems with money to hold the race), and the wide but pedestrian-lined street track at Pedralbes was then never used again for motor racing.

Jarama and Montjuïc
In the 1960s, Spain made a bid to return to the world of international motor racing—the Royal Automobile Club of Spain commissioned a new permanent racing circuit just north of Madrid at Jarama, and the Spanish government refurbished the Montjuïc street circuit in Barcelona with safety upgrades. A non-championship Grand Prix took place at Jarama in 1967, which was won by Jim Clark racing in a Lotus F1 car.

In 1968, Jarama hosted the Spanish Grand Prix, near the beginning of the F1 season. It was agreed, following this event, that the race would alternate between the tight, slow and twisty Jarama and the fast, wide and sweeping Montjuïc, and the Montjuïc circuit hosted its first Formula One race in 1969, with Briton Jackie Stewart winning. Jarama would get the race in even-numbered years, and Montjuïc in odd-numbered years. 1970 was a race that saw Belgian Jacky Ickx and Briton Jackie Oliver get involved in a fiery accident; with Ickx and Oliver escaping with burns. The race was won by Stewart, he won again the next year after holding off 3 more powerful 12-cylinder engined cars. Austrian Niki Lauda won his first of 25 races in 1974. The 1975 event was marked by tragedy. There had been concerns about track safety during practice races, as the Armco barriers surrounding the city streets of the Montjuïc circuit had not been fastened down properly. There were a number of protests, and the drivers refused to race. The organizers panicked, and they threatened to lock the cars inside the stadium where they stayed while not being raced. The drivers and teams relented; but double-winner Emerson Fittipaldi retired in protest after a single lap. On the 26th lap of the race, Rolf Stommelen's car crashed when the rear wing broke off, killing four spectators. The race was stopped on the 29th lap and won by Jochen Mass, though only half the points were awarded.

Jarama
After the tragic events at the dangerously fast and tight space of Montjuïc, the Spanish Grand Prix was confined to Jarama. The 1976 race saw Briton James Hunt take advantage of Lauda's broken ribs in a tractor accident; he was then disqualified after his McLaren was found to be 1.8 inches too wide. McLaren appealed the decision, and it was successful; Hunt's points were restored. 1977 and 1978 saw Mario Andretti dominate in his ground-effect Lotus 78. The 1980 race was of note, because on the Friday morning of race weekend, FISA president Jean-Marie Balestre announced the Spanish Grand Prix would not be counted as a championship race. As a result, none of the factory teams (Ferrari, Renault and Alfa Romeo) showed up for the event and only the independent constructors belonging to FOCA competed. The race was won by Alan Jones in a Williams. 1981 was a race that Gilles Villeneuve in his ill-handling Ferrari held off 4 better-handling cars to take victory on the twisty and confined circuit; this is considered one of the greatest drives in all motorsports. But the Spanish Grand Prix at Jarama was then also dropped from the racing calendar after being cancelled in 1982 because the organizers seemed more interested in the golf course near the circuit, and because of the narrow track, unpleasantly hot late June conditions, and small crowd at that year's race; it would return in 1986.

Jerez
An attempt to revive the Spanish Grand Prix on a street circuit in the southwestern resort town of Fuengirola for 1984 and 1985 did not work out; but in 1985, the Mayor of Jerez commissioned a new racing circuit in his town to promote tourism and sherries. The track, the Circuito Permanente de Jerez, located near Seville in southern Spain was finished in time for the championship, which saw a furious battle between Ayrton Senna and Nigel Mansell, with the two cars finishing side by side. Senna won by 0.014 seconds—one of F1's closest finishes. 1987 saw Mansell win in his Williams; and 1989 saw Senna drive a hard race to keep himself in the championship points; he won the event from Austrian Gerhard Berger in a Ferrari and the Brazilian's fierce rival and McLaren teammate, Frenchman Alain Prost. The 1990 event was the last Spanish Grand Prix at Jerez (although Jerez did stage the European Grand Prix in 1994 and 1997). During the practice, Martin Donnelly's Lotus was destroyed in a high-speed crash, and the Briton was ejected from the car. He was severely injured, but survived; he never raced in Formula One again. Jerez's remote location did not help build large crowds for the race, combined with Donnelly's appalling crash into Armco barriers close to the track did nothing to help Jerez's reputation; although the circuit was popular with the F1 fraternity. Ferrari finished first and second in the race, with Prost finishing ahead of Mansell.

Catalunya
Work on the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya was underway in Montmeló, few kilometres from Barcelona, thanks to the support of the Spanish government, and in 1991, the event moved to this new track, where it has remained since. The 1992 event was advertised as the Grand Prix of the Olympic Games. Since that race the race has been held in early season, usually in late April or early May.

The Williams team dominated the first outings there, taking all victories until 1994. Michael Schumacher has won a total of six times, including his 1996 victory in heavy rain, which was his first for Ferrari. Mika Häkkinen took three victories and was on road for fourth in 2001 before his car failed on the last lap.

Since 2003 the race has been well attended thanks to success of Fernando Alonso. Alonso finished second in 2003 and 2005 before taking victory from pole in 2006. Alonso also finished third in 2007, with two further second places in 2010 and 2012, where he finished behind the Williams of Spanish speaking Pastor Maldonado, who won from pole; this was the first win and pole in a Grand Prix for a Venezuelan driver and Williams's first win since the 2004 Brazilian Grand Prix and the team's first Spanish Grand Prix win and pole since 1997. Two Spanish drivers have won the Spanish Grand Prix; Carlos de Salamanca in 1913 and Alonso in 2006 and 2013, with Spanish speaking Juan Manuel Fangio winning in 1951 as well as Maldonado in 2012.

From, the Spanish Grand Prix was due to alternate every year between Catalunya and the Valencia Street Circuit. However, this did not happen—Valencia dropped out for financial reasons and Catalunya remained the sole host of the Spanish Grand Prix.

Only four of the 19 races at this track between 2001 and 2019 have not been won from pole position.

The 2020 race was postponed from May to August due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The race returned in 2021; Lewis Hamilton won the race after passing Max Verstappen after making an additional pit stop.

The layout of the Circuit de Barcelona-Catalunya changed in 2023 to use the layout currently used by MotoGP since 2021.

Madrid
Spain's capital city, Madrid, has been nominated as a future host of Formula One, with a target debut in 2025. However, it was pushed back to 2026. The new street circuit will be located around the IFEMA Palacio Municipal in Madrid.

Multiple winners (drivers)
Drivers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Formula One World Championship.

Multiple winners (constructors)
Teams in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season. A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A yellow background indicates an event that was part of the pre-war European Championship.

Multiple winners (engine manufacturers)
Manufacturers in bold are competing in the Formula One championship in the current season. A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A yellow background indicates an event that was part of the pre-war European Championship. * Designed and built by Cosworth, funded by Ford

** Between 1998 and 2005 designed and built by Ilmor, funded by Mercedes

By year

A pink background indicates an event that was not part of the Formula One World Championship. A yellow background indicates an event that was part of the pre-war European Championship. ''A green background indicates an event that was part of the pre-war World Manufacturers' Championship.

* Sports car race † Officially named as RACE Grand Prix

title: Spanish Grand Prix


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Scott of the Antarctic (film)

Scott of the Antarctic is a 1948 British adventure film starring John Mills as Robert Falcon Scott in his ill-fated attempt to reach the South Pole. The film more or less faithfully recreates the events that befell the Terra Nova Expedition in 1912.

The film was directed by Charles Frend from screenplay by Ivor Montagu and Walter Meade with "additional dialogue" by the novelist Mary Hayley Bell (Mills' wife). The film score was by Ralph Vaughan Williams, who reworked elements of it into his 1952 Sinfonia antartica. The supporting cast included James Robertson Justice, Derek Bond, Kenneth More, John Gregson, Barry Letts and Christopher Lee.

Much of the film was shot in Technicolor at Ealing Studios in London. Landscape and glacier exteriors were shot in the Swiss Alps and in Norway. Background scenes were shot in the Antarctic islands.

Plot
Captain Scott is given the men, but not the funds, to go on a second expedition to the Antarctic. As his wife works on a bust of him, she tells him that she's "not the least jealous" that he's going to the Antarctic again. The wife of Dr. E. A. Wilson, whom Scott hopes to recruit, is much less enthusiastic, but Wilson agrees to go on condition it is a scientific expedition. Scott also visits Fridtjof Nansen, who insists that a polar expedition must use only dogs, not the motor sledges or ponies that Scott proposes. Scott goes on a fundraising campaign, with mixed results, finding scepticism among Liverpool businessmen who are interested primarily in economic opportunities, but also enthusiasm among schoolchildren who help fund the sledge dogs. With the assistance of a government grant he finally manages to raise just enough money to finance the expedition, with some economies.

After a stop in New Zealand, the ship sets sail for Antarctica. They set up a camp at the coast, where they spend the winter and hold a Midwinter Feast on 22 June 1911. In the spring a small contingent of men, ponies and dogs begins the trek towards the pole. About halfway, the ponies are, as planned, shot for food and some of the men are sent back with the dogs. At the three-quarter mark, Scott selects the five-man team to make the push to the pole, hoping to return by the end of March 1912. They reach the pole only to find the Norwegian flag already planted there and a letter from Roald Amundsen asking Scott to deliver it to the King of Norway.

Hugely disappointed, Scott's team begins the long journey back. When reaching the mountains bordering the polar plateau, Wilson shows the men some sea plant and tree fossils he has found, also a piece of coal, proving that the Antarctic must have been a warm place once. Scott ironically notes the economic possibilities. Scott is increasingly concerned about the health of two men: Evans, who has a serious cut on his hand, and Oates, whose foot is badly frostbitten. Evans eventually collapses and dies, and is buried under the snow. Realising that his condition is slowing the team down, Oates says "I hope I don't wake tomorrow" but when he does, he sacrifices himself by crawling out of the tent, saying "I'm just going outside; I may be away some time." ( [sic]; the words as famously recorded by Scott are "...and may be some time"). Finally, just 11 miles short of a supply depot, the rest of the team dies in their tent trapped by a blizzard. Each man writes his farewell letters, with frostbitten Scott also writing his famous "Message to the Public", saying "I do not regret this journey..."

Months later, on a clear sunny day, the search party discovers the completely snowed-over tent. After a shot of Scott's diary being recovered, the film ends with the sight of a wooden cross with the five names of the dead inscribed on it as well as the quote: "To strive to seek to find and not to yield." (Commas left out; a line from the poem "Ulysses", by Alfred, Lord Tennyson.)

Cast

 * John Mills as Captain R.F. Scott R.N.
 * Diana Churchill as Kathleen Scott
 * Harold Warrender as Dr. E.A. Wilson
 * Anne Firth as Oriana Wilson
 * Derek Bond as Captain L.E.G. Oates
 * Reginald Beckwith as Lieutenant H.R. Bowers
 * James Robertson Justice as Petty Officer 'Taff' Evans R.N.
 * Kenneth More as Lieutenant E.G.R. 'Teddy' Evans R.N.
 * Norman Williams as Chief Stoker W. Lashly R.N.
 * John Gregson as Petty Officer T. Crean R.N.
 * James McKechnie as Surgeon Lieutenant E.L. Atkinson R.N.
 * Barry Letts as Apsley Cherry-Garrard
 * Dennis Vance as Charles S. Wright
 * Larry Burns as Petty Officer P. Keohane R.N.
 * Edward Lisak as Dimitri
 * Melville Crawford as Cecil Meares
 * Christopher Lee as Bernard Day
 * John Owers as F.J. Hooper
 * Bruce Seton as Lieutenant H. Pennell R.N.
 * Clive Morton as Herbert Ponting
 * Sam Kydd as Leading Stoker E. McKenzie R.N.
 * Mary Merret as Helen Field
 * Percy Walsh as Chairman of Meeting
 * Noel Howlett as First Questioner
 * Philip Stainton as Second Questioner
 * Desmond Roberts as Admiralty Official
 * Dandy Nichols as Caroline
 * David Lines as Telegraph Boy

Development
Towards the end of the war, Michael Balcon of Ealing Studios, was keen to "carry on the tradition that made British documentary film preeminent during the war. These were the days when we were inspired by the heroic deeds typical of British greatness."

In 1944, Charles Frend and Sidney Cole pitched the idea of a film about the Scott expedition. Balcon was interested, so they wrote up a story treatment which Balcon approved. Ealing secured co-operation from Scott's widow (who would die in 1947). Walter Meade wrote the first draft.

The extensive number of interviews that were done with surviving team members and relatives from Scott's expedition were acknowledged at the start of the film with the credit: "'This film could not have been made without the generous co-operation of the survivors and the relatives of late members of Scott's Last Expedition. To them and to those many other persons and organisations too numerous to mention individually who gave such able assistance and encouragement, the producers express their deepest gratitude.'"

Casting
In 1947 it was announced that John Mills, then one of the biggest stars in Britain, would play the title role.

"This is the most responsible thing I have done in films," said Mills. "I was only about four when the tragedy happened, but Scott has always been one of my heroes and it's jolly satisfying to feel that the job of helping to bring the great story of British enterprise and grit to the screen has fallen to me." During the making of the film, Mills wore Scott's actual watch which had been recovered from his body.

It was an early role for Kenneth More whose audition was arranged by Stewart Granger, whose wife Elspeth March had appeared in a play with More. He wrote "the script wasn't right. Scott was a bad film - despite John Mill's magnificent performance - and certainly it was not the happiest to work on."

Filming
After three years’ research for the film, cameraman Osmond Baradaile travelled 30000 mi and spent six months between 1946 and 1947 shooting footage in the Antarctic at Hope Bay, as well as in the South Shetland and South Orkney Islands.

Filming started in June 1947 in Switzerland for four weeks, at the Jungfrau Mountain and the Aletsch Glacier. In October 1947 there was a further nine weeks’ location filming in Norway, near Finse, which was used to represent the area near the South Pole. The bulk of the scenes were shot at the Hardanger Jokul.

The film's unit transferred to Ealing Studios in London for three months of studio work.

Release
The film was chosen for a Royal Command Film Performance in 1948.

Critical
Variety felt the documentary style approach robbed the piece of much of its drama.

Box office
Scott of the Antarctic was the third most popular film at the British box office in 1949. According to Kinematograph Weekly the 'biggest winner' at the box office in 1949 Britain was The Third Man with "runners up" being Johnny Belinda, The Secret Life of Walter Mitty, Paleface, Scott of the Antarctic, The Blue Lagoon, Maytime in Mayfair, Easter Parade, Red River and You Can't Sleep Here.

The film earned distributor's gross receipts of £214,223 in the UK of which £165,967 went to the producer. The film also performed well at the box office in Japan.

Music
In 1953 Ralph Vaughan Williams recast and expanded his score for the film into his Seventh Symphony, "Sinfonia antartica" and, thus, the music for the film has come to be better known than the film itself.

Differences
There are several differences in the film from the real events.

In the film, Scott receives a telegram in New Zealand, but does not read it for himself or to the crew until his ship is en route to the Antarctic. It says: "I am going south. Amundsen". Scott and his crew immediately comprehend that Amundsen is heading for the South Pole. In fact, Scott received this telegram a little earlier, in Australia, and Amundsen's true text was less clear: "Beg leave to inform you Fram proceeding Antarctic Amundsen." [Fram was Amundsen's ship.] As Amundsen had publicly announced he was going to the North Pole, the real Scott and his companions did not initially grasp Amundsen's ambiguous message, according to Tryggve Gran's diary (Gran was Scott's only Norwegian expedition member).

In the film, the Terra Nova disembarks Scott's team in the Antarctic, sails along the ice barrier without Scott and unexpectedly discovers Amundsen's Antarctic base camp. The ship therefore returns to Scott's base camp and informs Scott about Amundsen's presence in the vicinity. In fact, Scott was not at his base camp during this unscheduled return of his ship but was busy laying depots in the interior of the Antarctic.

The film quotes Scott's transport plans as "from the glacier to the pole and all the way back - man hauling". In reality, Scott had instructed the base camp team to meet and fetch him with dog teams on the return journey around 1 March at latitude 82 degrees. The order was never carried out and Scott and his men died on their way home.

In the film, just before reaching the South Pole, Scott's team sight a distant flag, and realise the race is lost. In the next scene, the men arrive at Amundsen's empty tent flying a Norwegian flag at the Pole, and notice the paw prints of Amundsen's sledge-dogs. In reality, Scott and his men discovered the "sledge tracks and ski tracks going and coming and the clear trace of dogs' paws – many dogs" on the previous day when they came to a black flag Amundsen had left to mark his way back.

The film gives the impression that Scott starts to doubt at the South Pole whether he would manage to return to base camp safely, quoting "Now for the run home and a desperate struggle. I wonder if we can do it". In fact, Scott wrote "Now for the run home and a desperate struggle to get the news through first. I wonder if we can do it" (both he and Amundsen had lucrative agreements with the media on exclusive interviews, but Scott now had little chance to beat Amundsen to the cablehead in Australia). The published diary omitted these six words, which were only re-discovered long after the film was produced.

Causes of the tragedy
Given that some 1912 expedition members were still alive and were consulted in the production process, the film depicts the causes of the tragedy as they were considered in 1948.

 * In Norway, Scott consults the veteran polar explorer Fridtjof Nansen, who urges Scott to rely only on dogs. Scott on the other hand insists on a variety of transport means, including motor sledges, ponies, and dogs. The historical background to Scott's portrayed reluctance is that on his 1904 expedition, Scott's dogs had died of disease while Ernest Shackleton in 1908 had nearly attained the South Pole using ponies.
 * Scott's depicted fundraising speech is not effective and the government only gives him £20,000. To make the expedition possible anyway, he cancels one of his two planned ships, and settles on the dilapidated Terra Nova, a photo of which he optimistically shows to Wilson, who is unmoved. This scene reflects the real Apsley Cherry-Garrard's criticism over the lack of funds and the inappropriate ship in his book The Worst Journey in the World.
 * Arriving in Antarctic waters, the ship is briefly seen to fight its way through pack-ice. The parallel to the real expedition is that the ship was delayed for the unusual period of 20 days in the pack-ice, shortening the available season for preparations.
 * Having ascended the glacier up to the polar plateau, Scott sends home one of the supporting parties, addressing its leader Atkinson ("Atch") with the following words "Bye Atch. Look out for us about the beginning of March. With any luck we will be back before the ship has to go." This paraphrases Scott's real order to the dog teams to assist him home to base camp around March 1 at latitude 82 degrees. The order was never carried out and so Scott and his men died on their way home at the end of March.
 * On the return journey from the pole, the men found that the stove oil canisters in the depots were not full. The seals were not broken so they speculate that the oil has evaporated.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Scott of the Antarctic (film)


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Komi-Permyak language

Komi-Permyak language (перем коми кыв or коми-пермяцкӧй кыв ), also known as Permyak, is one of two Permic varieties in the Uralic language family that form a pluricentric language, the other being Komi-Zyryan (Udmurt is another Permic language spoken outside of the region and not a member of the Komi pluricentric language).

The Komi-Permyak language, spoken in Perm Krai of Russia and written using the Komi Cyrillic alphabet, was co-official with Russian in the Komi-Permyak Okrug of the Perm Krai.

Glottonym
The original name of the Komi-Permyak language is коми кыв "Komi language", identical with the native name of the Komi-Zyryan language.

In the 1920s, the Soviet authorities introduced the new name for the Komi language in the Perm Region as коми-пермяцкий язык, the Komi-Permian language, combining the native name of the language with the Russian one. The new name was transliterated in Komi as коми-пермяцкöй кыв 'Komi-Permyak language'. In this way, the local language was nominally separated from the Komi-Zyryan language, that officially received the original name, the Komi language. The Komis of the Perm Region had to officially use the new name, even though it has negative connotations for the speakers, continuing to use the original name, the Komi language, exclusively in their colloquial speech.

Only in the early years of the first decade of the 2000s has there begun a controversial process of replacing the offensive official name with a more correct one. The term перем коми кыв 'Permian Komi language' was proposed and it is used nowadays (alongside the old term) in local mass-media, in scientific papers and in the Komi-Permyak version of Wikipedia.

Dialects
All of the Komi-Permyak dialects are easily mutually intelligible and, to a lesser extent, mutually intelligible with the Komi-Zyryan dialects. The Komi-Permyak dialects might be divided geographically into Northern and Southern groups, and phonemically into /l/ and /v/ groups:

 * 1) Northern
 * 2) */l/ type: лым /lɨm/ "snow", вӧл /vɘl/ "a horse", вӧлтӧг /vɘltɘg/ "without a horse", вӧлӧн /vɘlɘn/ "with a horse, on a horse"
 * 3) **Upper Lupya
 * 4) **Mysy (former rural council)
 * 5) **Kosa-Kama
 * 6) **Kochevo
 * 7) **Zyuzdino (Afanasyevo)
 * 8) **Yazva
 * 9) Southern
 * 10) */v/ type: вым /vɨm/, вӧв /vɘv/, вӧвтӧг /vɘvtɘg/, вӧвӧн /vɘvɘn/
 * 11) **Kudymkar-Inva
 * 12) **Lower Inva
 * 13) *Southern /l/ type: лым /lɨm/, вӧл /vɘl/, вӧлтӧг /vɘltɘg/, вӧлӧн /vɘlɘn/
 * 14) **On
 * 15) **Nerdva

Formerly a southern dialect group existed in the Obva river basin, but it is now extinct except for the Nerdva dialect. Because of this the latter is nowadays usually considered together with the central group, which in this way has become "southern".

The central (new southern) and northern groups of Komi-Permyak are spoken in Komi Okrug of Perm Krai, where the language was standardized in the 1920s. The modern standard is based on Kudymkar dialect of the central group, but many elements of northern dialects were included as well, so that the "literary language" has significant differences in its morphological system from the "main" dialect.

The central dialects, spoken in the Ińva river basin, differ considerably from the other Komi-Permyak dialects due to the general shift of etymological /l/ to /v/, then to /w/, and finally to the disappearance of the consonant, which has triggered significant changes in morphology.

The differences between the Kudymkar and Uliś Ińva dialects are mainly in accentuation: the Uliś Ińva has a phonological stress (the Öń too), whereas the Kudymkar dialect (like as Ńerdva) has a morphological one. The Ńerdva dialect retains the etymological /l/. The same can be said about the Öń dialect (recently extinct), that had connections with the eastern Permian.

The northern group of the Permian dialects (upon Kösva, Kama and Lup rivers) was under a strong Zyryan influence on all levels. The Köć and Kös dialects are closely related with some Syktyv dialects of Zyryan, whereas the Lup dialect was in tenuous connections with the Upper Ezhva dialect for a long time.

The Komi-Permyak standard language refers only to the central and northern groups of the Komi-Permyak dialects. They can be called as proper Permian dialects. The other two groups are marginal.

An only relic of the eastern Permian is the Yaźva dialect, ca. 200 speakers of the ca. 900 ethnical Komis in Krasnovishersky District of Perm Krai. In the early 2000s (decade) it was standardized by authority of the krai. The dialect has archaic system of vowels (including /ö/, /ü/ and /ʌ/), while its accentuation is similar to Uliś Ińva's and its lexical system is like the Northern Permian one.

The Western Permian group is represented by another marginal dialect, Źuźdin (ca. 1000 persons living in Kirov Oblast near the border of Komi Okrug).

Phonology
In the Komi-Permyak standard language there are the same 26 main consonants and 7 vowels as in Komi-Zyryan.

Consonants
Komi-Permyak's modern consonant system includes 26 native ones, and the additional consonants /ts/, /f/, /x/ in Russian loanwords. In traditional speech the "foreign sounds" were replaced with /t͡ɕ/, /p/, and /k/, respectively.

 * 1) Only in Russian loanwords.
 * 2) There is also a phoneme // which mostly occurs paralinguistically and only in 1 word Бунгаг [ʙuŋɡaɡ] outside it.

Vowels
The Komi-Permyak vowel system can be considered as being three-dimensional, where vowels are characterised by three features: front and back, rounded and unrounded and vowel height.

Komi-Permyak does not distinguish between long and short vowels and does not have vowel harmony. There are no diphthongs; when two vowels come together, which occurs at some morpheme boundaries, each vowel retains its individual sound.

Writing system
Both regional standards of the Komi language have an identical alphabet, introduced in 1938. The alphabet (anbur, анбур) includes all the Russian letters plus two additional graphemes: і and ӧ.

Grammar
Komi-Permyak is an agglutinating language. It uses affixes to express possession, to specify mode, time, and so on.

Nouns
All Permian Komi nouns are declined for number, case and possession, adding special suffixes to word stems.

Number
In Permian Komi there are two grammatical numbers: singular and plural. The singular is the unmarked form of a word, and the plural is obtained by inflecting the singular.

The plural marker of nouns is /ez/ (orthographically эз or ез) immediately following a word stem before any case or other affixes. The last consonant of the stem before the plural suffix has to be duplicated.

The plural suffix has also a reduced variant (a "weak form") /е/ (orth. э or е), that is used combining with some weak forms of possessive suffixes, e.g. ки э т 'your (Sg.) hands ' versa ки эз  'hands'.

Possession
The Permian Komi possessive suffixes are added to the end of nouns either before or after a case suffix depending on case. The three suffixes of singular possession have in addition to their main forms the weak variants used combining with a weak form of plural suffix, weak forms of some cases or forming the suffixes of plural possession.

 * 1) The weak variants of the suffix
 * 2) The element ны is a marker of plural possession

The possessive suffix of 3Sg is widely used also as a definite article. In colloquial speech it is the main meaning of this suffix.

Cases
It is assumed, that the Permian Komi standard language has eighteen noun cases: ten grammatical cases and eight locative cases. The disputes continue about the status of some monosyllabic postpositions and a set of dialectal reduced forms of postpositions that can be treated as case suffixes too. The maximal number of all possible cases reaches 30.

The case suffixes are added to the end of nouns either before or after a possessive suffix depending on case. Some cases have weak variants of their suffixes combining with the weak variants of possessive suffixes.

Adjectives
Used attributively, Permian Komi adjectives precede the nouns they modify, and are not declined: басöк нывка 'beautiful girl' → басöк нывкаэслö 'to the beautiful girls'.

However most adjectives can also be used as nouns and sometimes as appositions, in which case they are declined: e.g. ыджыт ("big") → ыджыттэзісь ("out of the bigs"). The declensional paradigma is the same as by nouns, except the main accusative form, that became by adjectives suffix ö instead of öс or a null morpheme by nouns: адззи басöк нывкаöс 'I have found a beautiful girl' → адззи басöкö 'I have found a beautiful [girl]'.

Being predicative an adjective agrees with the subject for number. The plural marker of the predicative is öсь: керкуыс ыджыт 'the house is big ' → керкуэc ыджытöсь 'the houses are big'.

The adjective in Permian Komi have five degrees of comparison

The comparative and the superlative compare the intensity of an object's quality with the other object's one. The sative, excessive and diminutive compare the intensity of the quality with its basic degree.

Numerals
The numerals in Komi-Permyak

Personal pronouns
Komi personal pronouns inflect in all the cases. The language makes no distinction between he, she and it. The nominative case of personal pronouns are listed in the following table:

Verbs
Permian Komi verbs show tense (present, future, past), mood (indicative, imperative, evidential, optative, conditional and conjunctive), voice and aspect.

The verbal stem is a 2nd person singular of imperative mode: мун 'go', кер 'make'. All the other forms are formed by adding suffixes to the stem.

Some verbal stems having a consonant cluster at the end become expanded with a so-called "voyelle de soutien" ы which is dropped before the suffixes beginning with a vowel: кывзы = кывз+ы 'hear', видчы 'swear' = видч+ы, e. g. кывзыны 'to hear', кывзытöн 'by hearing' but кывзі 'I heard', кывзö 'he hears', кывзан 'you hear'. Thus, these stems with a consonant cluster have their full und reduced variants.

Permian infinitives are marked with -ны added to a stem as in мyнны 'to go', кывзыны 'hear'

All Permian Komi verbs are conjugated in the same way, except for the defective verb вöвны 'to be'.

Negation is mostly expressed by a conjugated negator preceding the stem, e. g. эг мун 'I didn't go'.

The indicative mood has three tenses: present, future and past. The main marker of the present and future tense is а (negat. о), the marker of the past tense is и (negat. э).

Here is conjugation of verb керны 'make, do':

 * Notes.

 * 1) Present and future forms differ just in affirm. 3rd person (ö / öны to ас / асö).
 * 2) Future and past forms differ only with tense marker (the future -а / о- to the past -и / э-).
 * 3) In present affirmative forms the marker of 3rd person is -ö, which at the same time indicates the tense.

title: Komi-Permyak language


text:
Battle of Mount Harriet

The Battle of Mount Harriet was an engagement of the Falklands War, which took place on the night of 11/12 June 1982 between British and Argentine forces. It was one of three battles in a Brigade-size operation all on the same night, the other two being the Battle of Mount Longdon and the Battle of Two Sisters.

One of a number of night battles that took place during the British advance towards Stanley, the battle led to British troops capturing all the heights above the town, allowing its capture and the surrender of the Argentine forces on the islands.

Background
The British force consisted of 42 Commando (42 CDO), Royal Marines under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Nick Vaux, Royal Marines (he later became a general), with artillery support from a battery of 29 Commando Regiment, Royal Artillery. Engineer support from 2Tp, 59 Independent Commando Squadron (59 Ind CDO Sqn), Royal Engineers. The 1st Battalion, Welsh Guards (1WG) and two companies from 40 Commando (40 CDO) were in reserve. HMS Yarmouth provided naval gunfire support.

The Argentine defenders consisted of ex-Army Green Beret Captain Carlos Alberto Arroyo's B Company from Lieutenant Colonel Diego Alejandro Soria's 4th Monte Caseros Infantry Regiment (RI 4). On 1 June, the Argentine defenders on Harriet and Two Sisters, after having abandoned their field kitchens in their original positions on Mount Challenger, were given permission by their officers to consume their cold-weather ration packs, which helped raise the morale of the conscripts.

On the night of 30 May, elements of K Company, led by Captain Peter Babbington of 42 CDO boarded three Sea King helicopters and moved forward of San Carlos to secure the commanding heights of Mount Kent at 1093 ft, one of the tallest of the peaks surrounding Stanley where Major Cedric Delves' D Squadron from the Special Air Service (SAS) had established a strong presence. When the Royal Marines reinforcements in the Sea Kings, and 7 'Sphinx' Battery of the 29th Commando Regiment Royal Artillery aboard a Chinook helicopter arrived at the landing zone, 3 kilometres (2 miles) behind the ridge of the mountain, they were met by gun-flashes, mortar detonations and tracer rounds as another clash involving D Squadron was taking place. Captain Gavin Hamilton's Mountain Troop had this time spotted enemy movement in the form of Captain Tomás Fernández' 2nd Assault Section, 602 Commando Company trying to exit the area after having taking cover among the boulders and caves on Bluff Cove Peak the day before.

By the end of May, D Squadron had secured Mount Kent at the cost of two wounded in Air Troop (Dick Palmer and Carl Rhodes ) from small-arms fire, and Boat Troop with Tactical HQ started patrolling Bluff Cove Peak, which they took with the loss of another two SAS wounded (Ewen Pearcy and Don Masters) hit by hand grenades fragments,   including a Spanish-speaking Warrant officer attached from 23 Special Air Service Regiment (Reserve) who had joined Delves to interrogate any captured Argentines. At the same time, Captain Matthew Selfridge's D Company scouting ahead of 3 PARA took Teal Inlet Settlement, at the cost of one wounded through an accidental discharge. The SAS soldiers claim coming under mortar bombardment while evacuating their wounded and the Royal Marines from 7 'Sphinx' Battery of the 29th Commando Regiment Royal Artillery reported the loss of one gunner (Van Rooyen), who suffered a broken arm while taking cover among the rocks during the bombardment.

The rest of 42 Commando made a march across the hills north of Mount Simon to reinforce Mounts Kent and Challenger overlooking Port Stanley. The weather conditions were atrocious, with the Marines advancing through steep slippery hillocks and stone-runs to their objectives. Lou Armour was a corporal in J Company under Major Mike Norman:

Because of the weather and lack of equipment, we just had to carry all our heavy equipment back to Mount Kent, instead of being flown there. That was psychologically the toughest thing I'd ever done. You're walking and falling, walking and falling—some of the lads carrying up to a hundred pounds—and if you fell over, it took two guys to lift you back up. Then there was the lack of sleep, the wet, the cold, the diarrhea.

The final attack was preceded by several days of observation and nights of patrolling. Some night-fighting patrols were part of a deception to convince the Argentines that the attack would come from a westerly direction. Other, more covert patrols were to find a route through a minefield around the south of Mount Harriet. Sniping and naval artillery were used to harass the defenders and deny them sleep.

On 3 June, Lieutenant Chris Marwood's Reconnaissance Troop of 42 CDO on Mount Wall, accompanying the 3 Commando Brigade Forward Air Control team commanded by Flight Lieutenant Dennis Marshall-Hasdell, encountered two rifle sections from the 4th Monte Caseros Regiment (Second Lieutenant Lautaro Jiménez-Corbalán's 3rd Platoon of B Company from Mount Harriet). The night before, the section under Corporal Elvio Alberto Balcaza had detected the presence of British troops on Wall, and the section under Corporal Nicolas Víctor Odorcic moved forward to assist under the cover of the early morning mist. However, at around 11.00 hours (local time) the Recce Troop opened fire and two conscripts (Privates Celso Paez and Roberto Ledesma) were instantly killed, and their NCO (Odorcic) went down, concussed when shot in the helmet by one of the Marine snipers.

This action drew attention to their exposed forward position, and Argentine reinforcements in the form of a rifle section under Corporal Walter Ariel Pintos from Second Lieutenant Marcelo Llambías Pravaz's 3rd Platoon on Two Sisters joined the action with a counterattack firing rifle-grenades. The Primary Forward Air Controller, commando-trained Flight Lieutenant Dennis Marshal-Hasdell, remembers:

''We were separated from our heavy bergens with the radios and all our gear. The patrol was spread over quite a large area, with lots of shouting, noise and firing going on. The Marines abandoned all their equipment, and although no one told us, it became clear that we were to withdraw. With no information and the likelihood of having to fight our way out, Dave Greedus and I decided to abandon our equipment, destroying as much as we could. The two radio sets (HF and UHF) were tough enough, but the HAZE unit of the laser target marker was designed to withstand the weight of a tank!''

The Ferranti laser-target-designator retrieved in the contact showed that the Royal Marines were seeking to destroy the Argentine bunkers on Mount Harriet with 1,000-pound GBU-16 Paveway II dropped by RAF Harriers. The next day, Lieutenant Tony Hornby's 10 (Defence) Troop re-occupied the Mount Wall observation post against no opposition. However, on the night of 5–6 June, Captain Andrés Ferrero's 3rd Assault Section from 602 Commando Company attacked Lieutenant Hornby's men on Mount Wall and the Royal Marines were forced to withdraw.

That same night (5-6 June), a British Gazelle helicopter, (no. XX377 of 656 Squadron) that was bringing forward communications equipment for the advance of the 5th Infantry Brigade was shot down in friendly fire incident by a Sea Dart missile launched by HMS Cardiff, all four men in the helicopter were killed.

As a reward for their efforts, the Argentine Land Forces Commander (Brigadier-General Oscar Luis Jofre) who had been visiting the Commanding Officer of the 4th Regiment on 3 June, ordered that the recently arrived boxes of chocolate bars from the Argentine hospital ship Bahía Paraiso to be distributed among the Mount Harriet defenders, regardless of rank.

Initial actions
On 8 June, the British troopships Sir Galahad and Sir Tristram were attacked by Argentine aircraft at Bluff Cove. Lieutenant-Colonel Diego Alejandro Soria sought permission to attack the British beachhead with the 4th Regiment, but his request was denied.

That day, reinforcements in the form of machine-gunners, mortarmen and protecting riflemen from the 1st 'Patricios' Infantry Regiment, Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers and 17th Airborne Infantry Regiment arrived from Comodoro Rivadavia to support the 4th Infantry Regiment. On the night of 8–9 June, action on the outer defence zone flared when Lieutenant Mark Townsend's 1 Troop (K Company, 42 CDO) probed Mount Harriet, killing two Argentines (Corporal Hipolito Gonzalez and Private Martiniano Gomez) from Second Lieutenant Jiménez-Corbalán's 3rd Platoon. At the same time, two platoon-sized fighting patrols from 45 Commando attempted the same on Two Sisters Mountain, but the Argentine RASIT ground surveillance radar on Mount Longdon was able to detect the 45 Commando platoons, and artillery fire dispersed the British force. In all, Second Lieutenant Lautaro Jiménez-Corbalán would report the loss of 6 killed and 14 wounded fighting off Lieutenant Marwood's Recce Troop on Mount Wall and the raid of Lieutenant Towsend's 1 Troop, including losses suffered during the final British assault on Mount Harriet on the night of 11–12 June.

Around dusk on 9 June, Lieutenant-Colonel Soria's men detected the presence of British troops who had taken up positions in Port Harriet House on the southern approaches to Mount Harriet. The 4th Regiment's Reconnaissance Platoon, under Sub-Lieutenant Jorge Pasolli, received orders to move forward and clear at bayonet point if necessary the British from the farmhouse and the Scots Guards Reconnaissance Platoon that had moved into the area was forced to withdraw when the Argentine force, with Paratroop-trained First Lieutenant Francisco Pablo D'Aloia (adjutant of RI 4's Commanding Officer) at the head, radioed fire support from the 120-mm Mortar Platoon dug in on Mount Harriet. Sub-Lieutenant Pasolli's men attacked and the Scots Guards returned fire with two Bren machine guns but were forced to abandon their rucksacks and radios. As the Guardsmen retreated, under small arms and mortar fire, they sustained three wounded, including Sergeant Ian Allum.

On the night of 9–10 June, a rifle company from the 1st Battalion, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles moved forward to conduct a raid against Mount William defenders. However, this strong night incursion was aborted and the planned fire support missions cancelled. Over a period of a week and a half, the 4th Regiment defended the Harriet-Two Sisters sector from five Royal Marine platoon-sized patrols. Every time the Royal Marine Commandos probed into the forward platoon positions, the officers, NCOs and conscripts, counterattacked forcing the British to withdraw.

On the morning of 11 June, the orders for the attack were given to 42 CDO by Lieutenant Colonel Vaux. K Company was ordered to attack the eastern end of the mountain, while L Company would attack the southern side an hour later, where if the mountain was secured, would move North to occupy Goat Ridge. J Company would launch a diversionary attack (code-named Vesuvius) on the western end of Mount Harriet. If these objectives fell quickly, 42 CDO would proceed to capture Mount William.

In the closing hours of 11 June, K and L Companies moved from their assembly area on Mount Challenger (which lay to the west of Mount Harriet) and made their way south, around their objective, across the minefield, to their respective start lines. As they moved around the feature in the dark, J Company with supporting Welsh Guards launched a loud diversionary "attack" from the west.

Battle

The battle for Mount Harriet began on the evening of 11 June with a naval bombardment that killed two Argentinians and wounded twenty-five.

John Witheroe, one of the British war correspondents, later recalled the bombardment:

"We were involved with one night attack on Mount Harriet when the Welsh Guards were coming up as a back-up. This involved marching for several hours on a very dark night, through a minefield. Sporadic shellfire slowed our progress tremendously. Eventually, we made the base of Mount Harriet, which was coming under incredible fire from a frigate offshore. The whole mountain seemed to erupt in flame. It seemed impossible that anybody could survive an attack like that. This went on for well over an hour, shell after shell whistling over our heads and hitting the mountain. Eventually, this was lifted and the Marines went in. To our amazement, there seemed to be an incredible amount of fighting going on. There was a lot of tracer fire. The whole night was being lit up by flares, which cast a dead, unrealistic, pall over the whole scene."

The Argentines retaliated and Captain Tomás Fox, the artillery observation officer on Mount Kent, directed 155 mm artillery rounds that fell among the men of 'B' Company, 7th Duke of Edinburgh's Own Gurkha Rifles in the area of Bluff Cove, seriously wounding four Gurkhas, including Lance Corporal Gyanendra Rai, who nearly bled to death.

During the patrolling period, the Royal Marines had discovered a path through a minefield that Lieutenant Roberto Francisco Eito's platoon of sappers from the 601st Combat Engineers Company had laid around Mount Harriet, allowing the 42 Commando rifle companies to attack the two Argentine 4th Regiment companies on Harriet from the rear.

Captain Peter Babbington's K Company crossed their start line first and proceeded up the mountain undetected, knifing two sentries on the way. They remained undetected until they approached Sub-Lieutenant Mario Hector Juárez' 120 mm mortar platoon positions and decided to engage them. They were assisted in the advance by HMS Yarmouth's, artillery, and their own battalions mortars. During the engagement, Second Lieutenant Juárez was badly wounded firing his handgun in the dark and Corporal Laurence G Watts from K Company was killed clearing the occupants of a tent. The supporting British artillery batteries and mortar crews fired over 1,000 rounds to keep the Argentines pinned down, and helped stop the defenders getting a proper aim at the Royal Marines from K and L Companies.

About 150 metres from Soria's HQ, Corporal Steve Newland circled behind a group of Argentines (under First Lieutenant Jorge Agustín Echeverría, the 4th Regiment's intelligence officer) who were setting up an ambush. Newland pulled back into cover and warned the lead elements in K Company. Each time a Royal Marine moved, Corporal Roberto Bacilio Baruzzo would open fire with the help of his night vision rifle scope, to make it appear there was only one enemy sniper holding up K Company. First Lieutenant Echeverría's men were holding their fire in order to encourage the British to break cover and rush their position only to run into the concentrated fire of the machine-gun and protecting riflemen. With half a platoon of disciplined RI4 and RI12 riflemen and a 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun team threatening the British advance, Newland darted out from cover and charged the enemy. He neutralized the machine gun with grenades and killed three Argentine soldiers, but on reaching the rear of the position, Corporal Baruzzo shot Newland in both legs.

With the enemy machine gun out of action, Corporals Steve Newland, Mick Eccles and Chrystie 'Sharky' Ward were able to clear the remaining Argentine troops and captured 17 Argentines, including Baruzzo and Echeverría with the Argentinian intelligence officer having been shot five times. The three British corporals were each awarded the Military Medal. Corporal Roberto Baruzzo was awarded the Medal of Valour in Combat.

Increasing numbers of Argentine soldiers, mainly shocked and dazed conscripts from RI 4's Recce Platoon, Reserve Platoon and 120-mm Mortar Platoon began to surrender but several experienced officers (First Lieutenants Francisco Pablo D'Aloia, Esteban Guillermo Carlucci, Luis Oscar García and Sub-Lieutenants Jorge Pasolli and Edgardo Duarte-Lachnight Subteniente Edgardo Duarte Lachnight: ''El Teniente Coronel me llama desde el Puesto de Comando y cuando me dirigía hacia él, me encuentro con el Tte 1ro D’Aloia, con quien vemos unos 20 ó 30 ingleses que avanzaban desde Port Harriet House. En la cima del Monte tomamos posición dándoles frente; una ametralladora ya nos abrió el fuego. Disparamos unos PAF y PDEF que teníamos y uno de ellos la puso fuera de combate; continuamos unos treinta minutos combatiendo contra ese grupo enemigo, que era uno de los tantos que atacaban; hasta el momento nos beneficiaba el ocupar la altura y la superioridad numérica enemiga se equilibraba un poco ... Una de las ráfagas de la ametralladora enemiga pegó en el motor de uno de los cohetes Albatros que se encontraba en el suelo, delante delpozo que ocupábamos, y se encendió, comenzando a largar chispazos de 20 ó 30 centímetros de alto. Esto nos paralizó a los dos, creo que hasta el corazón nos dejó de latir. El cohete en el suelo y con el motor en ese estado apuntaba hacia donde nos encontrábamos, con la desgracia de que el pozo estaba al pie de una roca y esta haría estallar el cohete cuando él se estrellara contra ella ... Pasado este incidente nos asomamos y continuamos tirando, cada vez la presión enemiga era mayor y llegó un momento en que no pudimos ni sacar la boca del FAL. D’Aloia se asomó y tiró una ráfaga y no sólo del frente nos contestaron sino también desde un costado próximo. - '¡Me hirieron en la mano Negro!', me dice el Tte 1ro. Tratamos de ver rápidamente qué tenía; le sangraba mucho, pero aparentemente era alguna venita cortada con una esquirla. Un vendaje así nomás y tratamos de salir del lugar.... El Subt Pasolli y el Tte 1ro García se encontraban cerca abriendo el fuego en otra dirección, lo mismo que el Sargento 1ro Cáceres; les pegamos el grito para que tiraran contra la ametralladora que teníamos a nuestro frente y éstos haciendo fuego reunido con sus fusiles la silenciaron transitoriamente permitiéndonos salir para ocupar una nueva posición y continuar combatiendo. Más tarde vino la orden de rendirnos. Volveremos!, Jorge R. Farinella, pp 135-137, Editorial Rosario, 1984 )as well as the senior NCOs (including the Regimental Sergeant-Major Miguel Angel Cáceres Subteniente Edgardo Duarte Lachnight: El Teniente Coronel me llama desde el Puesto de Comando y cuando me dirigía hacia él, me encuentro con el Tte 1ro D’Aloia, con quien vemos unos 20 ó 30 ingleses que avanzaban desde Port Harriet House. En la cima del Monte tomamos posición dándoles frente; una ametralladora ya nos abrió el fuego. Disparamos unos PAF y PDEF que teníamos y uno de ellos la puso fuera de combate; continuamos unos treinta minutos combatiendo contra ese grupo enemigo, que era uno de los tantos que atacaban; hasta el momento nos beneficiaba el ocupar la altura y la superioridad numérica enemiga se equilibraba un poco ... Una de las ráfagas de la ametralladora enemiga pegó en el motor de uno de los cohetes Albatros que se encontraba en el suelo, delante delpozo que ocupábamos, y se encendió, comenzando a largar chispazos de 20 ó 30 centímetros de alto. Esto nos paralizó a los dos, creo que hasta el corazón nos dejó de latir. El cohete en el suelo y con el motor en ese estado apuntaba hacia donde nos encontrábamos, con la desgracia de que el pozo estaba al pie de una roca y esta haría estallar el cohete cuando él se estrellara contra ella ... Pasado este incidente nos asomamos y continuamos tirando, cada vez la presión enemiga era mayor y llegó un momento en que no pudimos ni sacar la boca del FAL. D’Aloia se asomó y tiró una ráfaga y no sólo del frente nos contestaron sino también desde un costado próximo. - '¡Me hirieron en la mano Negro!', me dice el Tte 1ro. Tratamos de ver rápidamente qué tenía; le sangraba mucho, pero aparentemente era alguna venita cortada con una esquirla. Un vendaje así nomás y tratamos de salir del lugar.... El Subt Pasolli y el Tte 1ro García se encontraban cerca abriendo el fuego en otra dirección, lo mismo que el Sargento 1ro Cáceres; les pegamos el grito para que tiraran contra la ametralladora que teníamos a nuestro frente y éstos haciendo fuego reunido con sus fusiles la silenciaron transitoriamente permitiéndonos salir para ocupar una nueva posición y continuar combatiendo. Más tarde vino la orden de rendirnos.'' Volveremos!, Jorge R. Farinella, pp. 135-137, Editorial Rosario, 1984 ) fought on, in accordance to their orders. The RI 4 Commanding Officer and First Lieutenant Rubén Cichiara, covered by the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers machine-gun detachment under Sergeant Jorge Alberto Rivero, linked up with B Company and ordered Arroyo's men to counterattack. The heavy machine gun teams and protecting riflemen, in general, remained at their positions continuing the fight.

Captain David Wheen's L Company crossed their start line shortly after K Company and were almost immediately engaged by machine-gun fire from Sub-Lieutenant Pablo Oliva's platoon of conscripts defending the lower southern slopes. There were several casualties from this fire, including Lieutenant Ian Stafford the only Argyll and Sutherland Highlander in the campaign who was on exchange as L Company's second -in-command and was shot in the leg. Kim Sabido, the IRN reporter with L Company, reported stiff Argentine resistance:

"For a couple of hours it seemed as if it might all go wrong. Pinned down on the slopes by heavy machine gun and sniper fire, progress was painfully slow. I saw several men fall with bullet wounds, others were hit by flying fragments from the constant barrage of long-distance high-explosive shelling. The men in front of us were not giving up without a bitter fight."

The weapons in Oliva's platoon would not be silenced until being hit by several MILAN anti-tank missiles and the supporting 105mm artillery guns from Mount Challenger, with Oliva reporting the loss of 3 men killed (Sergeant Héctor Montellano, Corporal Oscar Labalta and Private Juan Raúl Serradori) and 14 wounded (including the platoon sergeant, Ramón Antonio Barrios and Corporals Héctor Adán Pereyra and Carlos Alberto López) in his platoon. L Company Marines took 5 hours to advance 600 metres in the face of reinforcements in the form of Sub-Lieutenant Eugenio César Bruny's RI 4 Platoon  and contend they took fire from at least seven machine guns and protecting rifle teams that wounded five men, including the company's second-in-command and his signaller. British military historian Hugh Bicheno reports that the 4th Regiment's passive night goggles were all with Arroyo's B Company. Another 11 Marines in Wheen's Company were wounded by Argentine shellfire that Lieutenant-Colonel Soria personally brought down attempting to halt the British advance. One of the attacking Royal Marines, Geoff Power, remembers:

"I nearly got blown up. It was a miracle escape, really. An artillery shell landed right next to me and threw me through the air. It shook me up a bit and collapsed my lungs. That bomb injured quite a few of my mates who were taken away to get treatment, but I carried on."

Before first light, Lieutenant Jerry Burnell's 5 Troop of L Company proceeded to an outcrop of rocks towards Goat Ridge. As they advanced, the Royal Marine platoon came under fire from Second Lieutenant Jiménez-Corbalán 3rd Platoon, covering the Argentine retreat and were forced to withdraw under cover of the machine guns pre-positioned behind and further up the hill. The Troop took one casualty in this action. L Company requested mortar fire onto the Argentines; a mixture of High explosive (HE) and White phosphorus (WP); then 5 Troop moved forward supported by the 15 machine-guns positioned on the ridge. They took 3 prisoners although most of Jiménez-Corbalán men had withdrawn after losing two killed in the night fighting (Privates Juan José Acuña and Carlos Epifanio Casco). The platoon of Oscar Augusto Silva continued to resist from Goat Ridge in the early morning light and a determined conscript (Orlando Aylan), in a position just below the summit of Mount Harriet held up L Company with accurate shooting until killed by an 84mm anti-tank rocket fired at short range. 5 Troop continued their advance across open ground towards Goat Ridge but came under fire and withdrew into the cover of rocks. British artillery bombarded Silva's platoon and Lima Company was able to resume the advance in the form of 4 Troop and captured Goat Ridge after Silva's men had withdrawn.

At some time in the early morning darkness, Second Lieutenant Jiménez-Corbalán's 3rd platoon were making their way to new positions on Mount William, the officer was concussed and temporarily blinded when he set off an Argentine booby-trap while leading his men through a minefield. At great risk to themselves, his radio operator Privates Teodoro Flores and Carlos Salvatierra rescued their platoon commander and were decorated for their bravery.

Aftermath
The battle was an example of good planning, use of deception and surprise and was a further step towards the main objective of Stanley. Two Royal Marines, Corporal Laurence George Watts and Corporal Jeremy Smith were killed, and thirty were wounded, including fourteen in L Company. Another seven Scots Guards and Gurkhas were wounded by Argentine artillery and mortar fire controllers on Mount Harriet. A supporting British Gazelle helicopter had also been lost in a friendly-fire incident early on 6 June, killing both pilots and two signallers.

Eighteen Argentines were killed defending Mount Harriet, including those killed in earlier patrol battles and shelling. The night battle had lasted longer than expected, leaving no time for 42 Commando to capture Mount William under the cover of darkness as had been planned. Lance Corporal Tony Koleszar had the surprising experience of finding that two 'dead' Argentine soldiers, whose boots he was trying to remove, were very much alive and jumped up to surrender.

Some British reporters were thus misled into depicting the Argentineans as hapless teenage conscripts who caved in after the first shots were fired, but Royal Marine Warrant Officer 2 John Cartledge, who served with L Company during the battle, corrected them, saying the Argentines were good soldiers who had fought properly:"They used the tactics which they had been taught along the way very well, they were quite prepared for an attack. They put up a strong fight from start to finish. They were also better equipped than we were. We had first-generation night sights, which were large cumbersome pieces of equipment, while the Argentines had second-generation American night sights that were compact and so much better than what we had. The one deficiency which we exposed was that they had planned for a western end of the mountain attack and therefore had not bothered to extend their defensive positions to the eastern end, where we ultimately attacked."

One British general put their success down to his Marines' skill and professionalism:"What was needed was speed but not being bloody stupid. The Israelis would have done it much faster but with many more casualties."

42 Commando captured 300 prisoners on Mount Harriet, and for the bravery shown in the attack, Lieutenant Colonel Nick Vaux was awarded a Distinguished Service Order, Captain Babbington of K Coy a Military Cross, Sergeant Collins, Corporals; Eccles, Newland and Ward, also of K Coy were each awarded Military Medals. Eight men were Mentioned in dispatches.

In 2017, David Wheen travelled to Argentina to meet Lautaro Jiménez-Corbalán, in an act of reconciliation, Wheen presented Jiménez-Corbalán with a British military essay and painting of the battle and received, in return, a copy of his book Malvinas en Primera Línea (Falklands on the Front Line), recounting the experiences of the 4th Regiment in the Falklands.

In 2019, Marine Andy Damstag from L Company who dragged Corporal Héctor Pereyra into the cover of rocks during the British attack and spent the next two hours looking after the wounded Argentine NCO, offering him sweets and cigarettes, contacted him and returned his helmet that he had kept as a souvenir with the help of the Argentine Embassy in London.

title: Battle of Mount Harriet


text:
Gob

Gob or GOB may refer to:

Music

 * Gob (band), a Canadian punk band, or their self-titled album
 * Gob (Dels album), 2011

People

 * Art Gob (born 1937), American football player
 * Nicolas Gob (born 1982), Belgian actor
 * Garland Buckeye (1897–1975), nicknamed Gob, American baseball and football player

Fictional characters

 * Gob Bluth, a fictional character on the TV show Arrested Development
 * Grob Gob Glob Grod, a character in the animated series Adventure Time

Other uses

 * Gob, a place in Palestine where the Israelites clashed in battles with the Philistines (2 Samuel 21:18–19)
 * GObject Builder, an object preprocessor for GObject/C
 * GOB, station code of Gobowen railway station, England
 * Government of Barbados
 * Grand Orient of Belgium, a Belgian cupola of masonic lodges
 * Robe Airport, in Bale Robe, Ethiopia
 * Whoopie pie, also known as gob, a baked dessert food
 * Coal refuse from coal mining

title: Gob


text: User:Steggall

title: User:Steggall


text:
User:Christofurio

I'll introduce myself with this thought: I believe I've found an esoteric anti-war message in a very old lecture.

William James delivered his now-notorious essay on "The Will to Believe" first as a guest lecturer, a guest of the combined "Philosophical Clubs" of Yale and Brown University in 1896.

That's important to remember because it gives one a sense of who is the "we" is when James talks about what "we" believe. Ivy League students almost all (possibly all) white men from well-off families.

I will contend in what follows that there was an esoteric message in this essay, a message that was likely very clear to many if not most of those in the hall, but the salience of which faded with the passage of time. The pertinence of a key contemporary reference came to seem quaint. So the esoteric meaning has become utterly inaccessible until recovered by -- well, by me. Just now.

In the passage below, James is making the point that we take a wide range of our beliefs on authority - we believe a lot on no evidence or personal consideration of our own. That's the surface level point. The esoterica of it we will discover by-and-by.

James tells the assembled young men:

"Here in this room, we all of us believe in molecules and the conservation of energy, in democracy and necessary progress, in Protestant Christianity and the duty of fighting for 'the doctrine of the immortal Monroe,' all for no reasons worthy of the name."

Wow. He really turns up the temperature on the frog in the pot there! Let's take these items that everybody in that room supposedly believed one by one.

What 'We' Believe

The first example of what "we" believe is the simplest. We believe in molecules. A Berkeleyan would be a skeptic about molecules since in the days before the electron microscope 'we' couldn't see them. But ... otherwise? It might have seemed odd to this audience even to speak of "belief' in connection with molecules. I suspect James deliberately refrained from saying "atoms," here, since atoms have carried philosophical weight since Democritus's day. But "molecules"? What is there even to argue about?

So let's pass on. "Conservation of energy"? This is a reference to the principle that energy can change form but is neither created nor destroyed. A little trickier than "molecules", though only a little. Helmholtz famously expounded this as a principle in 1847. It was quite widely accepted by the late 1890s. By coincidence, around the time James gave this lecture two French scientists, Marie and Pierre Curie, began a series of experiments on radium that would throw the law -- in the sense in which Helmholtz meant it and James referenced it -- into some doubt. Energy seems to be created from within chunks of radium somehow. But it would have been an unusual Brown or Yale undergrad indeed who would have known anything about such work so early on. James himself likely had no idea who the Curies were in 1896.

What he did know was that the law of conservation of energy was well established among physicists, yet that it was a concept or a generalization, not part of the furniture of the world, so it suggests speculation in a way the word 'molecules' does not.

Then we come to the next phrase, "democracy and necessary progress" and we scratch our heads. Where is this headed? The word "democracy" had a variety of different and contentious meanings, then as now. The phrase "necessary progress" may be meant to suggest "inevitable progress," that is, an optimistic view of the human condition as moving upward toward something Utopian. But "necessary" carries another possible meaning -- we can't stay still, so progress is necessary in order to avoid regress. Which of these is what we "all of us" believe?

Then "Protestant Christianity". Really? James himself was raised by a Swedenborgian mystic, his native idea of religion frankly had but little connection to what "Protestant Christianity" historically means. Further, Brown and Yale surely had their share of "free thinkers" in the Philosophical Clubs of the late 1890s, the era of such renowned atheists as Charles Bradlaugh and Robert Ingersoll, (indeed, the rest of the lecture shows that WJ is very aware of this), and likely that room had as well a sprinkling of Catholics. So what does it mean to say that "we all of us believe" in Protestant Christianity"? Surely by this point James expects some of his listeners to be wondering if the lecturer is in the wrong room!

This progression within the above italicized sentence from least to most controversial postulate, from "molecules" through Protestant Christianity, culminates with the duty of fighting for the doctrine of the immortal Monroe. One is reminded of Hearst's campaign at this time for war with Spain over Cuba. In this context I don't think it is too fanciful to suggest, and even to hope, that the placement of this phrase (and the use of scare quotes) may have been a plea to the young men in front of him to resist, and not so easily to allow themselves to be taken in and sent to die for the 'doctrine of the immortal Monroe' after all.

It is right after this reference to the Monroe Doctrine that we're told we have "no reasons worthy of the name" for believing in any of it, just authority.

Was it all a plea for the will to believe in the possibility of anti-colonialism and peace?

Just a thought.

title: User:Christofurio


text:
User:Papa Lemming

I have been an avid reader of Wikipedia for a long time, and I have finally decided to join the Wikipedia community on March 14th, 2004. I hope to be a valuable addition to this project.

Here's my first article! --> International Chemistry Olympiad

I'll put some better stuff in this page.

title: User:Papa Lemming


text:
Free state (polity)

Free state is a term occasionally used in the official titles of some states throughout the world with varying meanings depending on the context. In principle, the title asserts and emphasises a particular freedom of the state in question, but this is not always reflected in practice. Some states use the title to assert sovereignty or independence from foreign domination, while others have used it to assert autonomy within a larger nation-state. Sometimes "free state" is used as a synonym for "republic".

The republican sense of the term derives from libera res publica (literally, "the free public thing/affair"), a term used by Latin historians for the period of the Roman Republic, though not all "free states" have been republics. The historical German free states and the Orange Free State of Southern Africa were republican in form, while the Congo Free State and Irish Free State were governed under forms of monarchy.

Republican England
English Parliament, in the act forming the Commonwealth of England of 1649 to 1660, declared that "England is confirmed to be a Commonwealth and Free State and shall from henceforth be Governed as a Commonwealth and Free State." The Commonwealth had a republican constitution.

Germany
In Germany, the term free state (in German, Freistaat ) comes from the 19th century as a German word for republic. After the German Revolution of November 1918, when Imperial Germany became a democratic republic, most of the German states within the German Reich called themselves a Free State. Others used expressions like Republik or Volksstaat (people's state) – though unpopular, as that term was associated with the enemy France. According to the Versailles Treaty, Danzig was split off from Germany in 1919, becoming the Free City of Danzig.

After the Nazis came to power, they abolished the concept of a federal republic and all the states and re-organized Germany into Gaue, with appointed leadership.

The states were re-established within the reduced German borders after World War II; however, from 1952 only Bavaria (successor (but not de jure) to the Kingdom of Bavaria) still called itself a Free State and that made Freistaat a synonym for Bavaria. After the reunification, the reestablished Saxony (successor (but not de jure) to the Kingdom of Saxony) used the name again in 1992 and Thuringia began to use it for the first time in 1993.

Free Cities
Historically, Germany had Imperial Free Cities, who were subject only to the Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1871 Germany knew three Free Cities, Hamburg, Bremen and Lübeck; the last lost its status in 1937. Since 1949, the Federal Republic of Germany has Hamburg (Freie und Hansestadt, Free and Hanseatic City) and Bremen (Freie Hansestadt), as well as Berlin, as a city which is also a state. Like the Free States these three cities have no special rights in the federation.

Africa
In South Africa, the term free state was used in the title of the nineteenth century Orange Free State (Oranje Vrystaat in Afrikaans) and is today used in the title of its successor, Free State; both entities were established as republican in form.

In contrast, the Congo Free State came into being between 1877 and 1884 as a private kingdom or dictatorship of King Leopold II of Belgium. In this case, the term free emphasised the new state's freedom from major colonial powers and the Belgian parliament, as the colony was ruled only by the king.

Irish Free State
The Irish Free State of 1922–1937 was a dominion of the British Empire. The term free state was deliberately chosen as a literal translation of the Irish word saorstát. At the time in which Irish nationalist leaders (who generally favoured a republican form of government) were negotiating the secession of most of Ireland from the United Kingdom, the word saorstát was a commonly used Irish-language word for republic. The British government was opposed to the Free State being established as a republic (which would mean severing Ireland's links with the British Crown) and so insisted that the literal translation of saorstát be used in the new state's English title instead. The term saorstát thus represented a compromise in terminology: British officials could accept it as a less explicit rejection of Ireland's links to the Crown than the term republic itself, while Irish republicans could choose to interpret it as signifying a republic by any other name.

Puerto Rico
The official Spanish name of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, literally, "Associated Free State of Puerto Rico", expressing a "politically organized community” or “State,” which is simultaneously connected by a compact to a larger political system and hence does not have an independent and separate status. However, according to the United States Supreme Court, Puerto Rico is not free or associated; it is only a state in the general sense, not as a state of the Union in the U.S. constitutional sense. According to consistent U.S. Supreme Court jurisprudence, Puerto Rico belongs to but is not an integral part (Organized incorporated territory) of the United States. Moreover, the said jurisprudence has determined that regardless of what nominal or cosmetic veneer has moted Puerto Rico's political status, it is essentially a U.S. colonial territory, since it is under the plenary powers of the U.S. Congress. At its most basic, this Supreme Court doctrine expresses that Puerto Rico is more like property, far from a free-governing community or nation, and thus "domestic in a foreign sense" (not for the taking or meddling by free foreign nations), but "foreign in a domestic sense" (not a partner or an equal). In the Insular Cases, the Court ruled that the United States Constitution does not automatically apply in Puerto Rico.

Contemporary

 * Free State of Bavaria
 * Free State of Saxony
 * Free State of Thuringia
 * Free State, South Africa
 * Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico

Historical

 * Commonwealth of England (1649–1660)
 * Free State of Costa Rica (1838–1847)
 * Orange Free State (1854–1900)
 * Free State of Jones (1863–1865)
 * Congo Free State (1884–1908)
 * Klein Vrystaat "Little Free State" (1886–1891)
 * Free State of Icaria (1912)
 * Free State of Fiume (1920–1924)
 * Kamchatka Free State (1921–1922)
 * Irish Free State (1922–1937)
 * Free Territory of Trieste (1947–1954)
 * Free Lebanon State (1979-1984)

Germany

 * Free State of Coburg (1918–1920)
 * Free State of Bottleneck (Flaschenhals) (1919–1923)
 * Free State of Waldeck-Pyrmont (1918–1929)
 * Free State of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (1918–1933)
 * Free State of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (1918–1933)
 * Free State of Anhalt (1918–1945)
 * Free State of Brunswick (1918–1945)
 * People's State of Hesse (1918–1945)
 * Free State of Oldenburg (1918–1946)
 * Free State of Schaumburg-Lippe (1918–1945)
 * Free State of Lippe (1918–1947)
 * Free State of Prussia (1920–1947)
 * Free People's State of Württemberg (1918–1945)
 * Free Republic of Schwarzenberg (May–June 1945)
 * Freistaat Baden (1945–1952; called Südbaden "South Baden" until 1947)

title: Free state (polity)


text:
User talk:Kenterlogic

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump, or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!
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Again, welcome! Chris Roy 18:00, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Kenterlogic