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Johann Jacob Dillenius

Johann Jacob Dillen Dillenius (1684 – 2 April 1747) was a German botanist. He is known for his Hortus Elthamensis ("Eltham Garden") on the rare plants around Eltham, London, and for his Historia muscorum ("History of Mosses"), a natural history of lower plants including mosses, liverworts, hornworts, lycopods, algae, lichens and fungi.

Biography
Dillenius was born at Darmstadt and was educated at the University of Giessen, earlier the family name had been changed from Dillen to Dillenius. In 1721, at the instance of the botanist William Sherard (1659–1728), he moved to England. In 1734 Dillenius was appointed Sherardian professor of botany at Oxford, in accordance with the will of Sherard, who at his death in 1728 left the university £3000 for the endowment of the chair, as well as his library and herbarium, all on the condition that Dillenius should be appointed the first professor.

Dillenius died at Oxford, of apoplexy. His manuscripts, books and collections of dried plants, with many drawings, were bought by his successor at Oxford, Dr. Humphry Sibthorp (1713–1797), and ultimately passed into the possession of Oxford University. For an account of his collections preserved at Oxford, see The Dillenian Herbaria, by G. Claridge Druce (Oxford, 1907).

Work
At Giessen Dillenius wrote botanical papers for the Ephemerides naturae curiosorum. He printed, in 1719, his flora of the university's surroundings, a Catalogus plantarum sponte circa Gissam nascentium, illustrated with figures he had personally drawn and engraved, with descriptions of several new species.

In 1724 Dillenius published the third edition of John Ray's Synopsis Methodica Stirpium Britannicarum. It incorporated plant species discovered by Samuel Brewer, and work on mosses by Adam Buddle. It remained a standard reference for British botanists until the appearance of Carl Linnaeus's Species Plantarum in 1761.

Hortus Elthamensis
In 1732 he published Hortus Elthamensis, a substantial catalogue in two volumes of some 400 plants growing at Eltham, London, in the collection of Sherard's younger brother, James (1666—1738), who, after making a fortune as an apothecary, devoted himself to gardening and music. For this work Dillenius himself drew and engraved 324 plates, containing 417 figures of the plants. The title called the plants "rare", but the botanist Will Tjaden comments that they were "often only uncommon and not always of very recent introduction." The book was described by Linnaeus, who spent a month with him at Oxford in 1736, and afterwards dedicated his Critica Botanica to him, as opus botanicum quo absolutius mundus non vidit, "a botanical work of which the world has not seen one more authoritative". Linnaeus later named a genus of tropical tree Dillenia in his honour.

Historia muscorum
Dillenius wrote Historia muscorum (1741), a natural history of lower plants including mosses, liverworts, hornworts, lycopods, algae, lichens and fungi. He acknowledged the help of George Charles Deering. They had met at John Martyn's club for botanists, and had studied fungi together.

Honours
In 1753, Carl Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum published Dillenia, a genus of flowering plants in the family Dilleniaceae, native to tropical and subtropical regions of southern Asia, Australasia, and the Indian Ocean islands, both genus and family named in Dillenius's honour.

In 1997, the Spanish botanist Gerardo Antonio Aymard Corredor published Neodillenia, a genus of flowering plants from South America belonging to the family Dilleniaceae, named in Dillenius's honour.

Selected publications

 * also on Gallica
 * Facsimile edition 1973, Ray Society, London. With introduction by William T. Stearn. ISBN 978-0-903874-00-7
 * Facsimile edition 1973, Ray Society, London. With introduction by William T. Stearn. ISBN 978-0-903874-00-7
 * Facsimile edition 1973, Ray Society, London. With introduction by William T. Stearn. ISBN 978-0-903874-00-7

title: Johann Jacob Dillenius


text:
Forecastle

The forecastle (contracted as fo'c'sle or fo'c's'le) is the upper deck of a sailing ship forward of the foremast, or, historically, the forward part of a ship with the sailors' living quarters. Related to the latter meaning is the phrase "before the mast" which denotes anything related to ordinary sailors, as opposed to a ship's officers.

History and design
In medieval shipbuilding, a ship of war was usually equipped with a tall, multi-deck castle-like structure in the bow of the ship. It served as a platform for archers to shoot down on enemy ships, or as a defensive stronghold if the ship were boarded. A similar but usually much larger structure, called the aftcastle, was at the aft end of the ship, often stretching all the way from the main mast to the stern.

Having such tall upper works on the ship was detrimental to sailing performance. As cannons were introduced and gunfire replaced boarding as the primary means of naval combat during the 16th century, the medieval forecastle was no longer needed, and later ships such as the galleon had only a low, one-deck-high forecastle. Sailors stationed on the forecastle, or "forecastle men", were responsible for handling the headsails and the anchors. In the Royal Navy of the 17th and 18th centuries, these roles were reserved for older seamen who lacked the agility to go aloft or take other more strenuous duties aboard.

By the end of the 19th century, a raised forecastle had become a typical feature on warships again, in an attempt to keep forward gun positions from getting unacceptably wet on heavy seas. In addition the forecastle may provide additional crew's quarters as in the past, and may contain essential machinery such as the anchor windlass. A disadvantage of such a design is the structural weakness at the forecastle 'break' (the rear end of the forecastle with the main deck behind and below) relative to a flush deck structure.

Some sailing ships and many modern non-sail ships have no forecastle as such at all, but the name is still used to indicate the foremost part of the upper deck – although often called the foredeck – and for any crew's quarters in the bow of the ship, even if below the main deck.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Forecastle


text:
User:Jitse Niesen

I have been contributing to the Wikipedia, mainly to various articles on mathematics, since July 2003. I was made an administrator in August 2005. My administrative actions are available for scrutiny here: [ block], [ protection], [ deletion]. I am running Jitse's bot.

Languages. My first language is Dutch (or Limburgish, to be pedantic). My English is almost as good as a native speaker's (almost because of my accent). I learnt German, French and Latin in school, and can make sense of most Germanic and Romance languages.

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My grand plan is to plough through the articles on numerical analysis, and amend the articles or add new ones where necessary. I made a first sweep over interpolation (mainly polynomial interpolation) and root-finding. At that time, my attention was diverted to the PlanetMath Exchange project, which I used as a guide / excuse for working on linear algebra (not necessarily numerical).

Currently, most of my time is spent reacting on all kinds of issues that pop up on my watchlist. When I've time, I'm working on numerical linear algebra. Afterwards, I hope to go through the rest of the numerical analysis, possibly in the order numerical linear algebra - quadrature - ODEs - optimization - PDEs. I also want to do asymptotic analysis at some point. After I have finished all that, I can probably start all over again in the light of the changes to both the articles and my own knowledge.

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Wisdom
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title: User:Jitse Niesen


text:
Talk:Jewish views on religious pluralism

First section -- Regarding the Golden Rule
The comment about the Golden Rule contains a factual error. The "golden rule" traditionally refers to Jesus' commandment, "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." The commandment cited, "Love your neighbor as yourself," was identified by Jesus as the second greatest commandment in the Law, or else as one of the two equally greatest commandments in the Law (interpretations differ).

The Golden Rule may be found expressed in Luke 6:31. The second greatest commandment is discussed in Mark 12:28-31. A simple google search for "Golden Rule" will confirm that the second greatest commandment is nowhere called the Golden Rule, though Bertrand Russell may have labored under that misunderstanding along with his others. This article, though, doesn't make it clear whether the article itself is identifying the Golden Rule with the greatest commandment or else just reporting that Russell identified it that way.

The term "Golden Rule" is not actually found in the Bible, but it has traditionally been applied only to "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." I have never heard it applied to "Love your neighbor as yourself."

Jewish Rabbinical sources from before the time of Jesus expressed something similar to the Golden Rule: "Do not do to others anything you would not want done to yourself," but it has been pointed out that Jesus' formulation is in the positive and stronger than the Rabbinical formulation (which I believe comes from Hillel). Jdavidb

Actually, Jdavid, the formulation given by Jesus, while in the positive, is not stronger (philosophically and/or rhetorically). Kung Fu Tzu (Confucius) came up with a similar negative formulation to Hillel's, which Jesuits dubbed the "Silver Rule" to simultaneously both honour the rule and undermine it (in comparison to the "Golden Rule") for missionary purposes. Modern scholarship, however, has exhaustively demonstrated that the "Silver Rule" cannot be demonstrated to be logically fallible, whereas the formulation given in the gospels is. I'll demonstrate this briefly: If you're a masochist, by following the Golden Rule you would hurt others since you would want such things done "unto you", but most others would undoubtedly dislike this sadistic behaviour. However, using the Jewish or Confucian formulation, there is no harm done, as you wouldn't be participating in any actions that would have a direct negative impact on another person. While conceivably there might be some indirect negative fallout, the resulting behaviour between individuals would be overwhelmingly harmonious, or at least "cordial". You can find this demonstrated by quite a few notables in their fields, from ad naseum tenured philosophers to mathematicians who can demonstrate it much more succinctly in formulae using logic models. Quite interesting stuff, really. Kaelus 14:46, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

 * While this reasoning is subtle I think both it and, on the other hand, the Christian claim that the positive rule is "greater" than the negative rule are just too subtle and ultimately false. In actual fact, in practice, the content of "treat others are you would like to be treated" and "don't treat other as you would not like to be treated" are essentially equivalent, technical logical argumentations using examples such as masochism notwithstanding. In fact this very example could be inverted and the negative rule could be taken as a basis for the masochist to inflict on you what you don't like and he likes, because he does not like not to be inflicted such things on. But seriously, the essence of the rule (in both its negative and its positive formulations) is that when you do something that affects others you should "put yourself in their shoes", you should try to see things from their point of view, in other words the essential content of (both) those rules is a plea to move from a position where you think yourself the center of the universe and treat other human beings from that posture, to a more symmetrical position where you view both you and another human being as being equivalent. This is what both rules try to convey and so they are essentially equivalent. Contact Basemetal   here  20:37, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

 * According to the article on the Golden rule, the Golden rule does not refer specifically to Jesus' commandment. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Yaakovaryeh (talk • contribs) 05:11, 18 November 2015 (UTC)

Second section
Moved from article: "The Tanakh teaches that gentiles (non-Jews)." What did this originally mean? Dan 00:26, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Some of this should be moved to the Interfaith section, where Judaism is strikingly absent. --Yodamace1 06:41, 23 April 2006 (UTC)

Noahide laws and Lubavitch
This article states that the concept of Jewish religious pluralism implies that, so long as Gentiles observe the seven Noahide laws, that they are allowed to maintain their own religions. However, I have heard from the Lubavitchers that this is forbidden; that is, Gentiles are not allowed to have their own holidays except for those given by the Torah. The Lubavitchers seem to be rather extreme in their interpretations; do other Orthodox Jews have differing views on this matter? Perhaps this topic should be included in this article.

Yogensha 02:34, 27 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Actually, I find that fairly hard to believe, except perhaps among some of the more fringe schools of thought within Chabad, as the Lubavitchers have pioneered the modern Noahide movement. Kaelus 14:46, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

 * What you were told is correct. The followers of Chabad are merely following the undisputed words of the Rambam:

 * "The general principle is that we do not allow them to make new religious rituals and to make Mitzvot for themselves based on their own decisions. Rather, they may either become a righteous convert and accept all the Mitzvot; or stand fast in their laws [the Noahide Code] without adding or detracting from them." Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings, 10:9. Yehoishophot Oliver 14:50, 27 December 2006 (UTC)

Misquoting the Mishnah
From the second paragraph of General classical views on other religions:

 * "... (Mishnah Sanhedrin 4:5) The Mishnah continues, and states that anyone who kills or saves a single human, not Jewish, life, has done the same (save or kill) to an entire world." -- (Emphasis added)

I have consulted one edition of the Mishnah so far (Mishnah Sedurah), and confirmed my clear recollection that the emphasized texts above are NOT as stated.

1) The quote about saving the world appears several sentences before the analogy of the coins ( but that is a minor quibble )

2) The text I've learned, and have before me, reads

 * "וכל המקיים נפש אחת מישראל, מעלה אליו הכתוב, "כאילו קיים עולם מלא.""
 * V'chol ham'qayem nefesh echat m'Yisrael, ma‘aleh alav hakatuv, k'ilu qiyem ‘olam male". -- (Again, emphasis mine)

 * The text specifically says Jewish (literally, from Israel), and not "human".

 * While I very much sympathize with the desire to promote religious tolerance and inter-faith dialogue -- in fact, I got to this page while considering adding a "Religion respect" userbox to my user page -- I don't think that mistruths ever serve the cause of rightness.

3) The text speaks solely about the saving of lives, and does not mentioning killing.

Because I am aware that there are variant texts of the Mishnah, I will do some more checking before changing the page. Feedback is appreciated. --Eliyahu S Talk 16:21, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Interesting! Although my earlier "minor quibble" about the order of the two sections remains, I have found a version of the text which supports the quotation in the article as written.
 * "לפיכך נברא אדם יחידי בעולם, ללמד שכל המאבד נפש אחת, מעלים עליו כאילו איבד עולם מלא; וכל המקיים נפש אחת, מעלים עליו כאילו קיים עולם מלא. -- http://www.mechon-mamre.org/b/h/h44.htm"
 * This Mechon Mamre text is based on the version of the text upon which the Rambam (Maimonides) wrote his own commentary. And it says roughly, for those who can't read Hebrew:
 * "Therefor an individual man was created in the world, to teach that any[one who] causes a single life (lit. 'soul') to be lost, is credited (lit. 'burdened') as if losing an entire world, and any who saves (lit. 'raises' or 'brings to existence') a single life, is credited as if saving an entire world."

 * Note that this text, too, shows the coin analogy after the above-quoted sentence in the same mishnah. So I think that the article needs to be reworded a bit to take that into acount. Volunteers? :)

 * Anyway, I retract my earlier comment. But does anyone else think (as I do) that there should be some kind of comment about textual variations? Especially given the parenthetical remark "not Jewish," which appears there.... --Eliyahu S Talk 13:37, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

 * Which variants do not have "ללמדך, שכל המאבד נפש אחת מישראל, מעלה עליו הכתוב כאלו אבד עולם מלא"?

Yaakovaryeh (talk) 05:07, 18 November 2015 (UTC)

Viewpoint
This article's current organization into "classical" and "Modern" views, with the "Modern" views represented largely by Conservative rabbis and one or two Orthodox rabbis with views Conservative rabbis might find palable, seems to significantly understate both sides -- both those on the Orthodox side (particularly the Hareidi viewpoint) who largely reject pluralism or dialogue as an obstacle to Jewish self-preservation, and those on the Reconstructionist/Progressive side who reject the idea that there is anything Chosen about the Jewish people and regard chosenness as an outdated obstacle to pluralism and dialogue. Best, --Shirahadasha (talk) 04:38, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

Pronunciation of Hebrew phrases
The article contained in one instance two alternative pronuciations of a Hebrew phrase: "Gilui arayot" (which is standard modern pronunciation) and "Gilui arayos" (which is the traditional Ashkenazi pronunciation). I left it there (pointing out that the second pronunciation was a restricted one). But frankly, there are numerous traditional pronunciations of Hebrew. There is no point littering an article, for every single Hebrew phrase, with all its possible pronunciations. Especially since, when it is done (as in this case) on a random basis, this will leave the reader with the impression that for the other phrases the pronunciation is uniform, which of course not the case. Except for articles whose topic is concerned precisely with the varieties of pronunciation of Hebrew, I believe the only sane thing to do is to use the more or less standard modern Israeli pronunciation of Hebrew (flawed as it may be) when representing the pronunciation of a Hebrew phrase. This is nowadays done in most departments of Hebrew studies all across the world even in the study of Biblical Hebrew and there is no reason why this should not be done in WP. Contact Basemetal   here  20:13, 21 June 2013 (UTC)

mistakes in 1.1	General classical views on other religions
"The Tosefta, a collection of important post-Talmudic discourses, also states: "Righteous people of all nations have a share in the world to come" (Sanhedrin 105a)."

1) The tosefta is actually pre-talmudic, from the era of the Mishnah (2nd cent.).

2) The quote, and source (Sanhedrin 105a) are from the Talmude, (not Tosefta).

3) The tosefta itself is quoted later in the section.

Yaakovaryeh (talk) 05:22, 18 November 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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Neutrality dispute
Why is this article's neutrality now being disputed? Jarble (talk) 21:52, 17 January 2024 (UTC)


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Disinfectant

A disinfectant is a chemical substance or compound used to inactivate or destroy microorganisms on inert surfaces. Disinfection does not necessarily kill all microorganisms, especially resistant bacterial spores; it is less effective than sterilization, which is an extreme physical or chemical process that kills all types of life. Disinfectants are generally distinguished from other antimicrobial agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics, which destroy microorganisms on living tissue. Disinfectants are also different from biocides—the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, not just microorganisms. Disinfectants work by destroying the cell wall of microbes or interfering with their metabolism. It is also a form of decontamination, and can be defined as the process whereby physical or chemical methods are used to reduce the amount of pathogenic microorganisms on a surface.

Disinfectants can also be used to destroy microorganisms on the skin and mucous membrane, as in the medical dictionary historically the word simply meant that it destroys microbes.

Sanitizers are substances that simultaneously clean and disinfect. Disinfectants kill more germs than sanitizers. Disinfectants are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens, and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms. Sanitizers are mild compared to disinfectants and are used majorly to clean things that are in human contact whereas disinfectants are concentrated and are used to clean surfaces like floors and building premises.

Bacterial endospores are most resistant to disinfectants, but some fungi, viruses and bacteria also possess some resistance.

In wastewater treatment, a disinfection step with chlorine, ultra-violet (UV) radiation or ozonation can be included as tertiary treatment to remove pathogens from wastewater, for example if it is to be discharged to a river or the sea where there body contact immersion recreations is practiced (Europe) or reused to irrigate golf courses (US). An alternative term used in the sanitation sector for disinfection of waste streams, sewage sludge or fecal sludge is sanitisation or sanitization.

Definitions
The Australian Therapeutic Goods Order No. 54 defines several grades of disinfectant as will be used below.

Sterilant
Sterilant means a chemical agent which is used to sterilize critical medical devices or medical instruments. A sterilant kills all micro-organisms with the result that the sterility assurance level of a microbial survivor is less than 10^-6. Sterilant gases are not within this scope.

Low level disinfectant
Low level disinfectant means a disinfectant that rapidly kills most vegetative bacteria as well as medium-sized lipid containing viruses, when used according to labelling. It cannot be relied upon to destroy, within a practical period, bacterial endospores, mycobacteria, fungi, or all small nonlipid viruses.

Intermediate level disinfectant
Intermediate level disinfectant means a disinfectant that kills all microbial pathogens except bacterial endospores, when used as recommended by the manufacturer. It is bactericidal, tuberculocidal, fungicidal (against asexual spores but not necessarily dried chlamydospores or sexual spores), and virucidal.

High level disinfectant
High level disinfectant means a disinfectant that kills all microbial pathogens, except large numbers of bacterial endospores when used as recommended by its manufacturer.

Instrument grade
Instrument grade disinfectant means:
 * 1) a disinfectant which is used to reprocess reusable therapeutic devices; and
 * 2) when associated with the words "low", "intermediate" or "high" means "low", "intermediate" or "high" level disinfectant respectively.

Hospital grade
Hospital grade disinfectant means a disinfectant that is suitable for general purpose disinfection of building and fitting surfaces, and purposes not involving instruments or surfaces likely to come into contact with broken skin: human skin; or, but does not include :
 * 1) in premises used for:
 * the investigation or treatment of a disease, ailment or injury; or
 * procedures that are carried out involving the penetration of the
 * 1) in connection with:
 * the business of beauty therapy or hairdressing; or
 * the practice of podiatry;
 * 1) Instrument grade disinfectants; or
 * 2) sterilant; or
 * 3) an antibacterial clothes preparation; or
 * 4) a sanitary fluid; or
 * 5) a sanitary powder; or
 * 6) a sanitiser.

Household/commercial grade
Household/commercial grade disinfectant means a disinfectant that is suitable for general purpose disinfection of building or fitting surfaces, and for other purposes, in premises or involving procedures other than those specified for a hospital-grade disinfectant, but is not:
 * 1) an antibacterial clothes preparation; or
 * 2) a sanitary fluid; or
 * 3) a sanitary powder; or
 * 4) a sanitiser

Measurements of effectiveness
One way to compare disinfectants is to compare how well they do against a known disinfectant and rate them accordingly. Phenol is the standard, and the corresponding rating system is called the "Phenol coefficient". The disinfectant to be tested is compared with phenol on a standard microbe (usually Salmonella typhi or Staphylococcus aureus). Disinfectants that are more effective than phenol have a coefficient > 1. Those that are less effective have a coefficient < 1.

The standard European approach for disinfectant validation consists of a basic suspension test, a quantitative suspension test (with low and high levels of organic material added to act as 'interfering substances') and a two part simulated-use surface test.

A less specific measurement of effectiveness is the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) classification into either high, intermediate or low levels of disinfection. "High-level disinfection kills all organisms, except high levels of bacterial spores" and is done with a chemical germicide marketed as a sterilant by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). "Intermediate-level disinfection kills mycobacteria, most viruses, and bacteria with a chemical germicide registered as a 'tuberculocide' by the Environmental Protection Agency. Low-level disinfection kills some viruses and bacteria with a chemical germicide registered as a hospital disinfectant by the EPA."

An alternative assessment is to measure the Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of disinfectants against selected (and representative) microbial species, such as through the use of microbroth dilution testing. However, those methods are obtained at standard inoculum levels without considering the inoculum effect. More informative methods are nowadays in demand to determine the minimum disinfectant dose as a function of the density of the target microbial species.

Properties
A perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive, and noncorrosive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. Most modern household disinfectants contain denatonium, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur. The choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a wide spectrum (kill many different types of microorganisms), while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties (they may be non-corrosive, non-toxic, or inexpensive).

There are arguments for creating or maintaining conditions that are not conducive to bacterial survival and multiplication, rather than attempting to kill them with chemicals. Bacteria can increase in number very quickly, which enables them to evolve rapidly. Should some bacteria survive a chemical attack, they give rise to new generations composed completely of bacteria that have resistance to the particular chemical used. Under a sustained chemical attack, the surviving bacteria in successive generations are increasingly resistant to the chemical used, and ultimately the chemical is rendered ineffective. For this reason, some question the wisdom of impregnating cloths, cutting boards and worktops in the home with bactericidal chemicals.

Air disinfectants
Air disinfectants are typically chemical substances capable of disinfecting microorganisms suspended in the air. Disinfectants are generally assumed to be limited to use on surfaces, but that is not the case. In 1928, a study found that airborne microorganisms could be killed using mists of dilute bleach. An air disinfectant must be dispersed either as an aerosol or vapour at a sufficient concentration in the air to cause the number of viable infectious microorganisms to be significantly reduced.

In the 1940s and early 1950s, further studies showed inactivation of diverse bacteria, influenza virus, and Penicillium chrysogenum (previously P. notatum) mold fungus using various glycols, principally propylene glycol and triethylene glycol. In principle, these chemical substances are ideal air disinfectants because they have both high lethality to microorganisms and low mammalian toxicity.

Although glycols are effective air disinfectants in controlled laboratory environments, it is more difficult to use them effectively in real-world environments because the disinfection of air is sensitive to continuous action. Continuous action in real-world environments with outside air exchanges at door, HVAC, and window interfaces, and in the presence of materials that absorb and remove glycols from the air, poses engineering challenges that are not critical for surface disinfection. The engineering challenge associated with creating a sufficient concentration of the glycol vapours in the air have not to date been sufficiently addressed.

Alcohols

Alcohol and alcohol plus Quaternary ammonium cation based compounds comprise a class of proven surface sanitizers and disinfectants approved by the EPA and the Centers for Disease Control for use as a hospital grade disinfectant. Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane; 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins. A mixture of 70% ethanol or isopropanol diluted in water is effective against a wide spectrum of bacteria, though higher concentrations are often needed to disinfect wet surfaces. Additionally, high-concentration mixtures (such as 80% ethanol + 5% isopropanol) are required to effectively inactivate lipid-enveloped viruses (such as HIV, hepatitis B, and hepatitis C).

The efficacy of alcohol is enhanced when in solution with the wetting agent dodecanoic acid (coconut soap). The synergistic effect of 29.4% ethanol with dodecanoic acid is effective against a broad spectrum of bacteria, fungi, and viruses. Further testing is being performed against Clostridium difficile (C.Diff) spores with higher concentrations of ethanol and dodecanoic acid, which proved effective with a contact time of ten minutes.

Aldehydes
Aldehydes, such as formaldehyde and glutaraldehyde, have a wide microbicidal activity and are sporicidal and fungicidal. They are partly inactivated by organic matter and have slight residual activity.

Some bacteria have developed resistance to glutaraldehyde, and it has been found that glutaraldehyde can cause asthma and other health hazards, hence ortho-phthalaldehyde is replacing glutaraldehyde.

Oxidizing agents
Oxidizing agents act by oxidizing the cell membrane of microorganisms, which results in a loss of structure and leads to cell lysis and death. A large number of disinfectants operate in this way. Chlorine and oxygen are strong oxidizers, so their compounds figure heavily here.
 * Electrolyzed water or "Anolyte" is an oxidizing, acidic hypochlorite solution made by electrolysis of sodium chloride into sodium hypochlorite and hypochlorous acid. Anolyte has an oxidation-reduction potential of +600 to +1200 mV and a typical pH range of 3.5––8.5, but the most potent solution is produced at a controlled pH 5.0–6.3 where the predominant oxychlorine species is hypochlorous acid.
 * Hydrogen peroxide is used in hospitals to disinfect surfaces and it is used in solution alone or in combination with other chemicals as a high level disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide is sometimes mixed with colloidal silver. It is often preferred because it causes far fewer allergic reactions than alternative disinfectants. Also used in the food packaging industry to disinfect foil containers. A 3% solution is also used as an antiseptic.
 * Hydrogen peroxide vapor is used as a medical sterilant and as room disinfectant. Hydrogen peroxide has the advantage that it decomposes to form oxygen and water thus leaving no long term residues, but hydrogen peroxide as with most other strong oxidants is hazardous, and solutions are a primary irritant. The vapor is hazardous to the respiratory system and eyes and consequently the OSHA permissible exposure limit is 1 ppm (29 CFR 1910.1000 Table Z-1) calculated as an eight-hour time weighted average and the NIOSH immediately dangerous to life and health limit is 75 ppm. Therefore, engineering controls, personal protective equipment, gas monitoring etc. should be employed where high concentrations of hydrogen peroxide are used in the workplace. Vaporized hydrogen peroxide is one of the chemicals approved for decontamination of anthrax spores from contaminated buildings, such as occurred during the 2001 anthrax attacks in the U.S. It has also been shown to be effective in removing exotic animal viruses, such as avian influenza and Newcastle disease from equipment and surfaces.
 * The antimicrobial action of hydrogen peroxide can be enhanced by surfactants and organic acids. The resulting chemistry is known as Accelerated hydrogen peroxide. A 2% solution, stabilized for extended use, achieves high-level disinfection in 5 minutes, and is suitable for disinfecting medical equipment made from hard plastic, such as in endoscopes. The evidence available suggests that products based on Accelerated Hydrogen Peroxide, apart from being good germicides, are safer for humans and benign to the environment.
 * Ozone is a gas used for disinfecting water, laundry, foods, air, and surfaces. It is chemically aggressive and destroys many organic compounds, resulting in rapid decolorization and deodorization in addition to disinfection. Ozone decomposes relatively quickly. However, due to this characteristic of ozone, tap water chlorination cannot be entirely replaced by ozonation, as the ozone would decompose already in the water piping. Instead, it is used to remove the bulk of oxidizable matter from the water, which would produce small amounts of organochlorides if treated with chlorine only. Regardless, ozone has a very wide range of applications from municipal to industrial water treatment due to its powerful reactivity.
 * Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a purplish-black crystalline powder that colours everything it touches, through a strong oxidising action. This includes staining "stainless" steel, which somewhat limits its use and makes it necessary to use plastic or glass containers. It is used to disinfect aquariums and is  used in some community swimming pools as a foot disinfectant before entering the pool. Typically, a large shallow basin of KMnO4 / water solution is kept near the pool ladder. Participants are required to step in the basin and then go into the pool. Additionally, it is widely used to disinfect community water ponds and wells in tropical countries, as well as to disinfect the mouth before pulling out teeth. It can be applied to wounds in dilute solution.

Peroxy and peroxo acids
Peroxycarboxylic acids and inorganic peroxo acids are strong oxidants and extremely effective disinfectants.
 * Peroxyformic acid
 * Peracetic acid
 * Peroxypropionic acid
 * Monoperoxyglutaric acid
 * Monoperoxysuccinic acid
 * Peroxybenzoic acid
 * Peroxyanisic acid
 * Chloroperbenzoic acid
 * Monoperoxyphthalic acid
 * Peroxymonosulfuric acid

Phenolics
Phenolics are active ingredients in some household disinfectants. They are also found in some mouthwashes and in disinfectant soap and handwashes. Phenols are toxic to cats and newborn humans
 * Phenol is probably the oldest known disinfectant as it was first used by Lister, when it was called carbolic acid. It is rather corrosive to the skin and sometimes toxic to sensitive people. Impure preparations of phenol were originally made from coal tar, and these contained low concentrations of other aromatic hydrocarbons including benzene, which is an IARC Group 1 carcinogen.
 * o-Phenylphenol is often used instead of phenol, since it is somewhat less corrosive.
 * Chloroxylenol is the principal ingredient in Dettol, a household disinfectant and antiseptic.
 * Hexachlorophene is a phenolic that was once used as a germicidal additive to some household products but was banned due to suspected harmful effects.
 * Thymol, derived from the herb thyme, is the active ingredient in some "broad spectrum" disinfectants that often bear ecological claims. It is used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutic preparations. It has been used for its antiseptic, antibacterial, and antifungal actions, and was formerly used as a vermifuge.
 * Amylmetacresol is found in Strepsils, a throat disinfectant.
 * Although not a phenol, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl alcohol has similar effects as phenols, but it cannot inactivate viruses.

Quaternary ammonium compounds
Quaternary ammonium compounds ("quats"), such as benzalkonium chloride, are a large group of related compounds. Some concentrated formulations have been shown to be effective low-level disinfectants. Quaternary ammonia at or above 200ppm plus alcohol solutions exhibit efficacy against difficult to kill non-enveloped viruses such as norovirus, rotavirus, or polio virus. Newer synergous, low-alcohol formulations are highly effective broad-spectrum disinfectants with quick contact times (3–5 minutes) against bacteria, enveloped viruses, pathogenic fungi, and mycobacteria. Quats are biocides that also kill algae and are used as an additive in large-scale industrial water systems to minimize undesired biological growth.

Chlorine
This group comprises aqueous solution of chlorine, hypochlorite, or hypochlorous acid. Occasionally, chlorine-releasing compounds and their salts are included in this group. Frequently, a concentration of < 1 ppm of available chlorine is sufficient to kill bacteria and viruses, spores and mycobacteria requiring higher concentrations. Chlorine has been used for applications, such as the deactivation of pathogens in drinking water, swimming pool water and wastewater, for the disinfection of household areas and for textile bleaching
 * Sodium hypochlorite
 * Calcium hypochlorite
 * Monochloramine
 * Chloramine-T
 * Trichloroisocyanuric acid
 * Chlorine dioxide
 * Hypochlorous acid

Iodine

 * Iodine
 * Iodophors

Acids and bases

 * Sodium hydroxide
 * Potassium hydroxide
 * Calcium hydroxide
 * Magnesium hydroxide
 * Sulfurous acid
 * Sulfur dioxide
 * phosphoric acid
 * dodecylbenzenesulfonic acid

Metals
Most metals, especially those with high atomic weights can inhibit the growth of pathogens by disrupting their metabolism.

Terpenes

 * Thymol
 * Pine oil

Other
The biguanide polymer polyaminopropyl biguanide is specifically bactericidal at very low concentrations (10 mg/L). It has a unique method of action: The polymer strands are incorporated into the bacterial cell wall, which disrupts the membrane and reduces its permeability, which has a lethal effect to bacteria. It is also known to bind to bacterial DNA, alter its transcription, and cause lethal DNA damage. It has very low toxicity to higher organisms such as human cells, which have more complex and protective membranes.

Common sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) has antifungal properties, and some antiviral and antibacterial properties, though those are too weak to be effective at a home environment.

Non-chemical
Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation is the use of high-intensity shortwave ultraviolet light for disinfecting smooth surfaces such as dental tools, but not porous materials that are opaque to the light such as wood or foam. Ultraviolet light is also used for municipal water treatment. Ultraviolet light fixtures are often present in microbiology labs, and are activated only when there are no occupants in a room (e.g., at night).

Heat treatment can be used for disinfection and sterilization.

The phrase "sunlight is the best disinfectant" was popularized in 1913 by United States Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis and later advocates of government transparency. While sunlight's ultraviolet rays can act as a disinfectant, the Earth's ozone layer blocks the rays' most effective wavelengths. Ultraviolet light-emitting machines, such as those used to disinfect some hospital rooms, make for better disinfectants than sunlight.

Since the mid-1990s cold plasma has been shown to be an efficient sterilization/disinfection agent. Cold plasma is an ionized gas that remains at room temperature. It generates reactive oxygen and reactive nitrogen species that interact with bacterial wall and membrane and cause oxidation of the lipids and proteins and can also lyse the cells. Cold plasma can inactivate bacteria, viruses, and fungi.

Electrostatic Disinfection
There has been a rise in the use of electrostatic disinfectants in recent years. Electrostatic disinfection is a process achieved by use of electrostatic sprayers notable examples of which include the Vycel -Vycel 4 or the Techtronics Ryobi. Electrostatic Sprayers are a new technology for disinfecting surfaces. Unlike conventional spraying bottles or devices electrostatic sprayers apply a positive ionic charge to liquid disinfectants as they pass through the nozzle of the device. The positively charged disinfectant distributed through the nozzle of an electrostatic sprayer is attracted to negatively charged surfaces, which allows for efficient coating of disinfectant solutions on to hard nonporous surfaces. There are a number of specific disinfectants designed for use with electrostatic sprayers and these are often dissolved in solution or diluted with water. Notable disinfectant sprays that are designed for use with electrostatic sprayers include Citrox Disinfectant Solution and Vital Oxide Disinfectant Solution.

title: Disinfectant


text:
User:Hcheney/GPG

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title: User:Hcheney/GPG


text:
User talk:69jenniferman

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:11, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:69jenniferman


text:
Maryam Mursal

Maryam Mursal (Maryan Mursal, مريم مرسل) (born 1 January 1950) is a Somali composer and vocalist.

Biography
Mursal grew up in Somalia in a Muslim family with four daughters. Mursal's family was originally from Galmudug Somalia, and is from the Madhibaan clan.

As a teenager, she broke with tradition and began singing professionally in Mogadishu. She performed in nightclubs and her brand of music, featuring a mix of blues, soul, Somali and Arabic influences, known as Somali jazz, became popular across the country. Performing primarily solo, she also collaborated with Waaberi, a 300-member music and dance troupe associated with the Somali National Theatre. Later, after having criticized Somalia's then ruling military government, she was banned from singing for two years, and made her living driving a taxi.

During the subsequent civil war in her homeland, Mursal and her five children moved to neighboring Djibouti, where she found asylum in the Danish embassy. It was this odyssey that provided the gem of her solo recording The Journey, with guitars, sequencers and back-up vocals from Peter Gabriel.

Mursal still lives abroad, now residing in UK. She has toured Europe with Waaberi and appeared with Nina Simone. Her work has been produced by Peter Gabriel's Real World record label.

Discography

 * New Dawn album
 * The Journey
 * ''Indho caashaq (love eyes)
 * 1964 first song

Quotes

 * "Traditional music is very important to me but I was also listening to people like Ray Charles, The Beatles, everything."
 * "We as artists are responsible if something wrong is taking place in our society. It's very important for us to speak up, even though we may have to do it with a double tongue. We have to speak out for our people."
 * "I was always the first woman. I was the first woman singing Somali jazz, I was the first star, and I was the first to drive a taxi! I was the first to drive a lorry, and now I'm the first woman from Somalia to have an international record."

title: Maryam Mursal


text:
User talk:13fishyu

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:11, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:13fishyu


text:
User talk:52wing

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:16, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

PS. Please don't add irrelavent questions like "do you think twins will be the most popular singers in the coming year?" to articles. Wikipedia is not a chat room. - UtherSRG 14:21, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:52wing


text:
User talk:93Hylau

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

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 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:17, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:93Hylau


text:
Normal mode

A normal mode of a dynamical system is a pattern of motion in which all parts of the system move sinusoidally with the same frequency and with a fixed phase relation. The free motion described by the normal modes takes place at fixed frequencies. These fixed frequencies of the normal modes of a system are known as its natural frequencies or resonant frequencies. A physical object, such as a building, bridge, or molecule, has a set of normal modes and their natural frequencies that depend on its structure, materials and boundary conditions.

The most general motion of a linear system is a superposition of its normal modes. The modes are normal in the sense that they can move independently, that is to say that an excitation of one mode will never cause motion of a different mode. In mathematical terms, normal modes are orthogonal to each other.

Mode
In the wave theory of physics and engineering, a mode in a dynamical system is a standing wave state of excitation, in which all the components of the system will be affected sinusoidally at a fixed frequency associated with that mode.

Because no real system can perfectly fit under the standing wave framework, the mode concept is taken as a general characterization of specific states of oscillation, thus treating the dynamic system in a linear fashion, in which linear superposition of states can be performed.

Typical examples include:
 * In a mechanical dynamical system, a vibrating rope is the most clear example of a mode, in which the rope is the medium, the stress on the rope is the excitation, and the displacement of the rope with respect to its static state is the modal variable.
 * In an acoustic dynamical system, a single sound pitch is a mode, in which the air is the medium, the sound pressure in the air is the excitation, and the displacement of the air molecules is the modal variable.
 * In a structural dynamical system, a high tall building oscillating under its most flexural axis is a mode, in which all the material of the building -under the proper numerical simplifications- is the medium, the seismic/wind/environmental solicitations are the excitations and the displacements are the modal variable.
 * In an electrical dynamical system, a resonant cavity made of thin metal walls, enclosing a hollow space, for a particle accelerator is a pure standing wave system, and thus an example of a mode, in which the hollow space of the cavity is the medium, the RF source (a Klystron or another RF source) is the excitation and the electromagnetic field is the modal variable.
 * When relating to music, normal modes of vibrating instruments (strings, air pipes, drums, etc.) are called "overtones".

The concept of normal modes also finds application in other dynamical systems, such as optics, quantum mechanics, atmospheric dynamics and molecular dynamics.

Most dynamical systems can be excited in several modes, possibly simultaneously. Each mode is characterized by one or several frequencies, according to the modal variable field. For example, a vibrating rope in 2D space is defined by a single-frequency (1D axial displacement), but a vibrating rope in 3D space is defined by two frequencies (2D axial displacement).

For a given amplitude on the modal variable, each mode will store a specific amount of energy because of the sinusoidal excitation.

The normal or dominant mode of a system with multiple modes will be the mode storing the minimum amount of energy for a given amplitude of the modal variable, or, equivalently, for a given stored amount of energy, the dominant mode will be the mode imposing the maximum amplitude of the modal variable.

Mode numbers
A mode of vibration is characterized by a modal frequency and a mode shape. It is numbered according to the number of half waves in the vibration. For example, if a vibrating beam with both ends pinned displayed a mode shape of half of a sine wave (one peak on the vibrating beam) it would be vibrating in mode 1. If it had a full sine wave (one peak and one trough) it would be vibrating in mode 2.

In a system with two or more dimensions, such as the pictured disk, each dimension is given a mode number. Using polar coordinates, we have a radial coordinate and an angular coordinate. If one measured from the center outward along the radial coordinate one would encounter a full wave, so the mode number in the radial direction is 2. The other direction is trickier, because only half of the disk is considered due to the anti-symmetric (also called skew-symmetry) nature of a disk's vibration in the angular direction. Thus, measuring 180° along the angular direction you would encounter a half wave, so the mode number in the angular direction is 1. So the mode number of the system is 2–1 or 1–2, depending on which coordinate is considered the "first" and which is considered the "second" coordinate (so it is important to always indicate which mode number matches with each coordinate direction).

In linear systems each mode is entirely independent of all other modes. In general all modes have different frequencies (with lower modes having lower frequencies) and different mode shapes.

Nodes
In a one-dimensional system at a given mode the vibration will have nodes, or places where the displacement is always zero. These nodes correspond to points in the mode shape where the mode shape is zero. Since the vibration of a system is given by the mode shape multiplied by a time function, the displacement of the node points remain zero at all times.

When expanded to a two dimensional system, these nodes become lines where the displacement is always zero. If you watch the animation above you will see two circles (one about halfway between the edge and center, and the other on the edge itself) and a straight line bisecting the disk, where the displacement is close to zero. In an idealized system these lines equal zero exactly, as shown to the right.

Coupled oscillators
Consider two equal bodies (not affected by gravity), each of mass m, attached to three springs, each with spring constant k. They are attached in the following manner, forming a system that is physically symmetric:

 * Coupled Harmonic Oscillator.svg

where the edge points are fixed and cannot move. We'll use x1(t) to denote the horizontal displacement of the left mass, and x2(t) to denote the displacement of the right mass.

If one denotes acceleration (the second derivative of x(t) with respect to time) as $$\scriptstyle \ddot x$$, the equations of motion are:

 * $$\begin{align}

m \ddot x_1 &= - k x_1 + k (x_2 - x_1) = - 2 k x_1 + k x_2 \\ m \ddot x_2 &= - k x_2 + k (x_1 - x_2) = - 2 k x_2 + k x_1 \end{align}$$

Since we expect oscillatory motion of a normal mode (where ω is the same for both masses), we try:

 * $$\begin{align}

x_1(t) &= A_1 e^{i \omega t} \\ x_2(t) &= A_2 e^{i \omega t} \end{align}$$

Substituting these into the equations of motion gives us:

 * $$\begin{align}

-\omega^2 m A_1 e^{i \omega t} &= - 2 k A_1 e^{i \omega t} + k A_2 e^{i \omega t} \\ -\omega^2 m A_2 e^{i \omega t} &= k A_1 e^{i \omega t} - 2 k A_2 e^{i \omega t} \end{align}$$

Since the exponential factor is common to all terms, we omit it and simplify:

 * $$\begin{align}

(\omega^2 m - 2 k) A_1 + k A_2 &= 0 \\ k A_1 + (\omega^2 m - 2 k) A_2 &= 0 \end{align}$$

And in matrix representation:

 * $$\begin{bmatrix}

\omega^2 m - 2 k & k \\ k & \omega^2 m - 2 k \end{bmatrix} \begin{pmatrix} A_1 \\ A_2 \end{pmatrix} = 0 $$

If the matrix on the left is invertible, the unique solution is the trivial solution (A1, A2) = (x1, x2) = (0,0). The non trivial solutions are to be found for those values of ω whereby the matrix on the left is singular i.e. is not invertible. It follows that the determinant of the matrix must be equal to 0, so:

 * $$ (\omega^2 m - 2 k)^2 - k^2 = 0 $$

Solving for $$\omega$$, we have two positive solutions:

 * $$\begin{align}

\omega_1 &= \sqrt{\frac{k}{m}} \\ \omega_2 &= \sqrt{\frac{3 k}{m}} \end{align}$$

If we substitute ω1 into the matrix and solve for (A1, A2), we get (1, 1). If we substitute ω2, we get (1, −1). (These vectors are eigenvectors, and the frequencies are eigenvalues.)

The first normal mode is:
 * $$\vec \eta_1 = \begin{pmatrix}

x^1_1(t) \\ x^1_2(t) \end{pmatrix} = c_1 \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\   1  \end{pmatrix} \cos{(\omega_1 t + \varphi_1)} $$

Which corresponds to both masses moving in the same direction at the same time. This mode is called antisymmetric.

The second normal mode is:

 * $$\vec \eta_2 = \begin{pmatrix}

x^2_1(t) \\ x^2_2(t) \end{pmatrix} = c_2 \begin{pmatrix} 1 \\   -1  \end{pmatrix} \cos{(\omega_2 t + \varphi_2)} $$

This corresponds to the masses moving in the opposite directions, while the center of mass remains stationary. This mode is called symmetric.

The general solution is a superposition of the normal modes where c1, c2, φ1, and φ2, are determined by the initial conditions of the problem.

The process demonstrated here can be generalized and formulated using the formalism of Lagrangian mechanics or Hamiltonian mechanics.

Standing waves
A standing wave is a continuous form of normal mode. In a standing wave, all the space elements (i.e. (x, y, z) coordinates) are oscillating in the same frequency and in phase (reaching the equilibrium point together), but each has a different amplitude.

The general form of a standing wave is:

\Psi(t) = f(x,y,z) (A\cos(\omega t) + B\sin(\omega t)) $$

where ƒ(x, y, z) represents the dependence of amplitude on location and the cosine\sine are the oscillations in time.

Physically, standing waves are formed by the interference (superposition) of waves and their reflections (although one may also say the opposite; that a moving wave is a superposition of standing waves). The geometric shape of the medium determines what would be the interference pattern, thus determines the ƒ(x, y, z) form of the standing wave. This space-dependence is called a normal mode.

Usually, for problems with continuous dependence on (x, y, z) there is no single or finite number of normal modes, but there are infinitely many normal modes. If the problem is bounded (i.e. it is defined on a finite section of space) there are countably many normal modes (usually numbered n = 1, 2, 3, ...). If the problem is not bounded, there is a continuous spectrum of normal modes.

Elastic solids
In any solid at any temperature, the primary particles (e.g. atoms or molecules) are not stationary, but rather vibrate about mean positions. In insulators the capacity of the solid to store thermal energy is due almost entirely to these vibrations. Many physical properties of the solid (e.g. modulus of elasticity) can be predicted given knowledge of the frequencies with which the particles vibrate. The simplest assumption (by Einstein) is that all the particles oscillate about their mean positions with the same natural frequency ν. This is equivalent to the assumption that all atoms vibrate independently with a frequency ν. Einstein also assumed that the allowed energy states of these oscillations are harmonics, or integral multiples of hν. The spectrum of waveforms can be described mathematically using a Fourier series of sinusoidal density fluctuations (or thermal phonons).

Debye subsequently recognized that each oscillator is intimately coupled to its neighboring oscillators at all times. Thus, by replacing Einstein's identical uncoupled oscillators with the same number of coupled oscillators, Debye correlated the elastic vibrations of a one-dimensional solid with the number of mathematically special modes of vibration of a stretched string (see figure). The pure tone of lowest pitch or frequency is referred to as the fundamental and the multiples of that frequency are called its harmonic overtones. He assigned to one of the oscillators the frequency of the fundamental vibration of the whole block of solid. He assigned to the remaining oscillators the frequencies of the harmonics of that fundamental, with the highest of all these frequencies being limited by the motion of the smallest primary unit.

The normal modes of vibration of a crystal are in general superpositions of many overtones, each with an appropriate amplitude and phase. Longer wavelength (low frequency) phonons are exactly those acoustical vibrations which are considered in the theory of sound. Both longitudinal and transverse waves can be propagated through a solid, while, in general, only longitudinal waves are supported by fluids.

In the longitudinal mode, the displacement of particles from their positions of equilibrium coincides with the propagation direction of the wave. Mechanical longitudinal waves have been also referred to as compression waves. For transverse modes, individual particles move perpendicular to the propagation of the wave.

According to quantum theory, the mean energy of a normal vibrational mode of a crystalline solid with characteristic frequency ν is:

 * $$E(\nu) = \frac{1}{2}h\nu + \frac{h\nu}{e^{h\nu/kT} - 1}$$

The term (1/2)hν represents the "zero-point energy", or the energy which an oscillator will have at absolute zero. E(ν) tends to the classic value kT at high temperatures

 * $$E(\nu) = kT\left[1 + \frac{1}{12}\left(\frac{h\nu}{kT}\right)^2 + O\left(\frac{h\nu}{kT}\right)^4 + \cdots\right]$$

By knowing the thermodynamic formula,

 * $$\left( \frac{\partial S}{\partial E}\right)_{N,V} = \frac{1}{T}$$

the entropy per normal mode is:

 * $$\begin{align}

S\left(\nu\right) &= \int_0^T\frac{d}{dT}E\left(\nu\right)\frac{dT}{T} \\[10pt] &= \frac{E\left(\nu\right)}{T} - k\log\left(1 - e^{-\frac{h\nu}{kT}}\right) \end{align}$$

The free energy is:

 * $$F(\nu) = E - TS=kT\log \left(1-e^{-\frac{h\nu}{kT}}\right)$$

which, for kT >> hν, tends to:

 * $$F(\nu) = kT\log \left(\frac{h\nu}{kT}\right)$$

In order to calculate the internal energy and the specific heat, we must know the number of normal vibrational modes a frequency between the values ν and ν + dν. Allow this number to be f(ν)dν. Since the total number of normal modes is 3N, the function f(ν) is given by:

 * $$\int f(\nu)\,d\nu = 3N$$

The integration is performed over all frequencies of the crystal. Then the internal energy U will be given by:

 * $$U = \int f(\nu)E(\nu)\,d\nu$$

In quantum mechanics
In quantum mechanics, a state $$\ | \psi \rang$$ of a system is described by a wavefunction $$\ \psi (x, t) $$ which solves the Schrödinger equation. The square of the absolute value of $$\  \psi $$, i.e.

\ P(x,t) = |\psi (x,t)|^2 $$

is the probability density to measure the particle in place x at time t.

Usually, when involving some sort of potential, the wavefunction is decomposed into a superposition of energy eigenstates, each oscillating with frequency of $$ \omega = E_n / \hbar $$. Thus, one may write

$$
 * \psi (t) \rang = \sum_n |n\rang \left\langle n | \psi ( t=0) \right\rangle   e^{-iE_nt/\hbar}

The eigenstates have a physical meaning further than an orthonormal basis. When the energy of the system is measured, the wavefunction collapses into one of its eigenstates and so the particle wavefunction is described by the pure eigenstate corresponding to the measured energy.

In seismology
Normal modes are generated in the Earth from long wavelength seismic waves from large earthquakes interfering to form standing waves.

For an elastic, isotropic, homogeneous sphere, spheroidal, toroidal and radial (or breathing) modes arise. Spheroidal modes only involve P and SV waves (like Rayleigh waves) and depend on overtone number n and angular order l but have degeneracy of azimuthal order m. Increasing l concentrates fundamental branch closer to surface and at large l this tends to Rayleigh waves. Toroidal modes only involve SH waves (like Love waves) and do not exist in fluid outer core. Radial modes are just a subset of spheroidal modes with l=0. The degeneracy does not exist on Earth as it is broken by rotation, ellipticity and 3D heterogeneous velocity and density structure.

It may be assumed that each mode can be isolated, the self-coupling approximation, or that many modes close in frequency resonate, the cross-coupling approximation. Self-coupling will solely change the phase velocity and not the number of waves around a great circle, resulting in a stretching or shrinking of standing wave pattern. Modal cross-coupling occurs due to the rotation of the Earth, from aspherical elastic structure, or due to Earth's ellipticity and leads to a mixing of fundamental spheroidal and toroidal modes.

title: Normal mode


text:
Harry Nelson Pillsbury

Harry Nelson Pillsbury (December 5, 1872 – June 17, 1906) was a leading American chess player. At the age of 22, he won the Hastings 1895 chess tournament, one of the strongest tournaments of the time, but his illness and early death prevented him from challenging for the World Chess Championship.

Early life
Pillsbury was born in Somerville, Massachusetts, in 1872 and moved to New York City in 1894, then to Philadelphia in 1898.

By 1890, having played chess for only two years, he beat noted expert H. N. Stone. In April 1892, Pillsbury won a match two games to one against World Champion Wilhelm Steinitz, who gave him odds of a pawn. Pillsbury's rise was meteoric, and there was soon no one to challenge him in the New York chess scene.

Hastings 1895
The Brooklyn chess club sponsored his journey to Europe to play in the Hastings 1895 chess tournament, in which all the greatest players of the time participated. The 22-year-old Pillsbury became a celebrity in the United States and abroad by winning the tournament, finishing ahead of reigning world champion Emanuel Lasker, former world champion Wilhelm Steinitz, recent challengers Mikhail Chigorin and Isidor Gunsberg, and future challengers Siegbert Tarrasch, Carl Schlechter and Dawid Janowski.

The dynamic style that Pillsbury exhibited during the tournament also helped to popularize the Queen's Gambit during the 1890s, including his famous win over Siegbert Tarrasch.

St. Petersburg 1895
His next major tournament was the Saint Petersburg 1895–96 chess tournament, a six-round round-robin tournament between four of the top five finishers at Hastings (Pillsbury, Chigorin, Lasker and Steinitz; Tarrasch did not play). Pillsbury appears to have contracted syphilis prior to the start of the event. Although he was in the lead after the first half of the tournament (Pillsbury 6½ points out of 9, Lasker 5½, Steinitz 4½, Chigorin 1½), he was affected by severe headaches and scored only 1½ out of 9 in the second half, ultimately finishing third (Lasker 11½ out of 18, Steinitz 9½, Pillsbury 8, Chigorin 7). He lost a critical fourth cycle encounter to Lasker, and Garry Kasparov has suggested that had he won, he could well have won the tournament and forced a world championship match against Lasker.

US Champion 1897
In spite of his ill health, Pillsbury beat American champion Jackson Showalter in 1897 to win the US Chess Championship, a title he held until his death in 1906.

Decline and death
Poor mental and physical health, the result of a syphilis infection, prevented him from realizing his full potential throughout the rest of his life. He succumbed to the illness in a Philadelphia hospital in 1906.

Pillsbury is buried in Laurel Hill Cemetery in Reading, Massachusetts.

Lifetime records
Pillsbury had an even record against Lasker (+5−5=4), a feat matched or surpassed by few. He even beat Lasker with the black pieces at Saint Petersburg in 1895 and at Augsburg in 1900 (this was an, however, not a tournament game):

Emanuel Lasker vs. Pillsbury, Augsburg 1900 1.e4 e5 2.f4 d5 3.exd5 e4 4.Nc3 Nf6 5.Qe2 Bd6 6.d3 0-0 7.dxe4 Nxe4 8.Nxe4 Re8 9.Bd2 Bf5 10.0-0-0 Bxe4 11.Qg4 f5 12.Qg3 Nd7 13.Bc3 Nf6 14.Nh3 Ng4 15.Be2 Be7 16.Bxg4 (diagram) Bh4 17.Bxf5 Bxg3 18.Be6+ Rxe6 19.dxe6 Qe8 20.hxg3 Bxg2 21.Rhe1 Bxh3 22.Rd7 Qg6 23.b3 Re8 24.Re5 Bxe6 25.Rxc7 Qxg3 26.Kb2 h6 27.Rxb7 Rc8 28.Bd4 Qg2 29.Rxa7 Rxc2+ 30.Kb1 Qd2

Pillsbury also had an even score against Steinitz (+5−5=3), but a slight minus against Chigorin (+7−8=6), Tarrasch (+5−6=2) and against Joseph Henry Blackburne (+3−5=4), while he beat David Janowski (+6−4=2) and Géza Maróczy (+4−3=7) and had a significant edge over Carl Schlechter (+8−2=9).

Blindfold skill
Pillsbury was a very strong blindfold chess player, and could play checkers and chess simultaneously while playing a hand of whist, and reciting a list of long words. His maximum was 22 simultaneous blindfold games at Moscow 1902. His greatest feat, however, was 21 simultaneous games against the players in the Hannover Hauptturnier of 1902—the winner of the Hauptturnier would be recognized as a master, yet Pillsbury scored +3−7=11. As a teenager, Edward Lasker played Pillsbury in a blindfold exhibition in Breslau, against the wishes of his mother, and recalled in Chess Secrets I learned from the Masters:

"But it soon became evident that I would have lost my game even if I had been in the calmest of moods. Pillsbury gave a marvellous performance, winning 13 of the 16 blindfold games, drawing two, and losing only one. He played strong chess and made no mistakes [presumably in recalling the positions].  The picture of Pillsbury sitting calmly in an armchair, with his back to the players, smoking one cigar after another, and replying to his opponents' moves after brief consideration in a clear, unhesitating manner, came back to my mind 30 years later, when I refereed Alekhine's world record performance at the Chicago World's Fair, where he played 32 blindfold games simultaneously. It was quite an astounding demonstration, but Alekhine made quite a number of mistakes, and his performance did not impress me half as much as Pillsbury's in Breslau."

Memorization skills
Before his simultaneous chess exhibitions, Pillsbury would entertain his audience with feats of memory that involved accurately recalling long lists of words after hearing or looking at them just once. One such list, which Pillsbury repeated forward and backward, performing the same feat the next day, was:

"Antiphlogistine, periosteum, takadiastase, plasmon, ambrosia, Threlkeld, streptococcus, staphylococcus, micrococcus, plasmodium, Mississippi, Freiheit, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, athletics, no war, Etchenberg, American, Russian, philosophy, Piet Potgelter's Rost, Salamagundi, Oomisillecootsi, Bangmamvate, Schlechter's Nek, Manzinyama, theosophy, catechism, Madjesoomalops"

Irving Chernev and Fred Reinfeld, in the Fireside Book of Chess, state that this list was devised by H. Threkeld-Edwards, a surgeon, and Prof. Mansfield Merriman, teacher of civil engineering at Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, who challenged Pillsbury in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, before an exhibition in 1896. (Other sources cite the location of the challenge as London, UK.)

title: Harry Nelson Pillsbury


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Citigroup Centre (London)

The Citigroup Centre is a building complex in London. It houses Citigroup's EMEA headquarters and is located in Canary Wharf in the city's Docklands. The centre provides 170000 sqm of floor space across two buildings - 33 Canada Square and 25 Canada Square, and houses the bulk of Citi's UK employee base. The buildings were separated in 2023, prior to a £100m renovation of 25 Canada square.

25 Canada Square, stands at 200 m and, upon its completion in 2001, became the second-tallest building in the United Kingdom (only behind One Canada Square). Designed by César Pelli & Associates, construction of the 45-storey tower - undertaken by Canary Wharf Contractors - began in 1998 and was completed in 2001, with Citigroup leasing the building from the outset. The building was bought by RBS in 2004 along with 5 Canada Square (leased to Bank of America) for $1.12 billion. Subsequently, on 2 July 2007, 33 Canada Square was individually sold to a joint venture between Quinlan Private and PropInvest for £1 billion (US$2 billion). Citigroup paid £46.5 million a year in rent for the tower, generating a yield of 4.6% to the owners. Citi later bought the tower in £1bn in 2019. The east facing side of 25 Canada Square up to level 40 is configured for use by tenants.

33 Canada Square, is the smaller of the two buildings in the complex, designed by Norman Foster and completed in 1999, two years before its neighbour. At 105 m tall, the building is made up of eighteen floors. The building is owned by Citigroup, and was built before the completion of the Jubilee line extension in late 1999.

In addition to main entrances from both Canada Square and Upper Bank Street, Citigroup Centre is also accessible via underground walkways from Canada Place shopping mall and Canary Wharf London Underground station - served by the Jubilee line. The Centre is also close to DLR stations Canary Wharf and Heron Quays, which provide connections with the City, London City Airport and surrounding areas.

title: Citigroup Centre (London)


text:
Macanese pataca

The Macanese pataca or Macau pataca (pataca de Macau; sign: $; abbreviation: P; ISO code: MOP) is the currency of the Macao Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. It is subdivided into 100 avos (仙; sin), with 10 avos called ho (毫) in Cantonese.

Macau has a currency board system under which the pataca is 100 per cent backed by foreign exchange reserves, in this case currently the Hong Kong dollar (itself backed by the United States dollar). Moreover, the currency board, Monetary Authority of Macau (AMCM), has a statutory obligation to issue and redeem Macau pataca on demand against the Hong Kong dollar at a fixed exchange rate of HK$1 = MOP 1.03, and without limit.

History
The Spanish American silver dollar was in wide use in Asia and the Americas between the 16th to 20th centuries, and was imported by China in large quantities. They were typically minted in Mexico and then brought to the Philippines as part of the Spanish East Indies through the Manila-Acapulco Galleon Trade to be traded and circulated across the Far East. It was known to the Portuguese as the pataca mexicana. At the end of the 19th century various versions of this silver dollar or pataca were in use in Macau, in the form of Spanish dollars, the British trade dollars of Hong Kong and the Straits Settlements, as well as the silver dollars and fractional coinage of the neighbouring province of Canton.

In 1894, the pataca was introduced as a unit of account in Portuguese Macau and Portuguese Timor at a rate of 1 pataca = 450 réis, equivalent to the Mexican Peso or Philippine Peso. In 1901, it was decided to have a uniquely Macau currency, and for that purpose, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino was granted exclusive rights to issue legal tender banknotes that were to be denominated in patacas. On January 27, 1906, pataca notes in denominations of 1, 5, 50 and 100 were introduced and all foreign coinage was outlawed, the idea being to make the pataca paper notes the sole legal tender currency in Macau. However, the Chinese, being so accustomed to using silver for barter, were suspicious of this new paper money, and as such, the paper pataca always circulated at a discount in relation to the silver dollar coins. On the contrary, a similar action at exactly the same time in the Straits Settlements, and for the same purpose, had the different effect of putting the new Straits dollar into the gold exchange standard. Hence both the Macau pataca and the Straits dollar were launched at a sterling value of 2 shillings and 4 pence, but where the Straits dollar remained at that value until the 1960s, the Macau pataca fluctuated with the value of silver, just like the Hong Kong unit.

In 1935, when Hong Kong and China abandoned the silver standard, the Hong Kong unit was pegged to sterling at a rate of 1 shilling and 3 pence, while the Macau pataca was pegged to the Portuguese escudo at a rate of MOP 1 = Esc 5$50. This meant that the Macau pataca was worth only 1 shilling and was therefore at a discount of 3 pence in relation to the Hong Kong unit.

The first exclusively Macau coinage was not introduced until the year 1952, which happened to be the year after the last pataca fractional coins were minted for East Timor. In that year in Macau, denominations below 10 patacas were replaced by coins.

In 1980, the Macau government set up the Issuing Institute of Macau (Instituto Emissor de Macau; abbr. as IEM), which was given the monopoly right to issue pataca notes. The BNU became the IEM's agent bank and continued to issue banknotes. On agreement with the BNU on October 16, 1995, the Macau branch of Bank of China (Banco da China, 中國銀行澳門分行) became the second note-issuing bank. The authority to issue patacas was transferred to the Monetary Authority of Macau.

Coins
Coins were not issued for use in Macau until 1952, with the 20 cent coin of Canton Province circulating. In 1952, bronze 5 and 10 avos, cupro-nickel 50 avos and .720 fineness silver 1 and 5 patacas were introduced. Nickel-brass replaced bronze in 1967, including the last issue of 5 avos. Nickel replaced silver in the 1 pataca in 1968. In 1971, a final (.650 fineness) silver issue of 5 patacas was produced.

Banknotes
In a similar arrangement to the issue of banknotes in Hong Kong, Macau's banknotes are not issued by a central bank or monetary authority but by two commercial banks, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Bank of China. Owing to Macau's Portuguese colonial past, banknotes are printed in Portuguese as well as Chinese, including the name of the Bank of China which is written as both "Banco da China" and "中國銀行".

Following the initial issues of pataca banknotes in 1906, the new currency was supplemented the following year by 10 and 25 pataca notes, and in February 1920, 5, 10 and 50 avo notes were added. In 1923, the Banco Vui Hang introduced 10 pataca notes which stated that they were backed by Cantonese 20 cent coins. These notes were followed until 1934 by cashier's cheques issued by various banks in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800 and 1,000 dollars, presumably equivalent to the pataca. The BNU issues were augmented by 1 and 20 avo notes in 1942, and in 1944, 500 pataca notes were introduced. Also in 1944, further cashier's cheques were issued, denominated 1,000 yuan and NC$5,000. The 25 pataca note was discontinued after 1958.

On August 8, 1988, BNU issued a 1000 pataca banknote, the highest value banknote yet. Because 8 in Chinese (ba) is similar to "getting rich" (fa; 發), this unique date, which occurs only once per century, gives the note a special meaning. Another feature is the replacement of the coat of arms of Portugal with BNU's logo, shedding a political symbol in the prospect of reunification with China. In 1995, the Bank of China introduced notes in denominations of 10, 50, 100, 500 and 1000 patacas. Both the BNU and Banco of China introduced 20 pataca notes in 1996.

Current issue
Banknotes are currently issued in denominations of 10, 20, 50, 100, 500 and 1,000 patacas. The current series of BNU banknotes was issued in 2005, while the Bank of China notes were last issued between 1995 and 2003. The dimensions of the banknotes are the same as that of Hong Kong banknotes worth the corresponding number of dollars. On December 20, 1999, the day Macau was retroceded to China, banknotes of all values (except for 10 patacas) by both banks were reissued with that date. On January 5, 2009, the Monetary Authority of Macau announced a new series of banknotes, dated 2008, released by the Bank of China. In 2024, both the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Bank of China (Macau) are set to introduce a new series of notes. The denomination structure is the same as previous issues, but the notes come with advanced security features and include features accessible for those with visual impairments.

Commemorative issues
In 2008, the Macau branch of the Bank of China issued four million 20 pataca banknotes in commemoration of the 29th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing.

In 2012, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and Banco da China issued ten million 10 pataca banknotes to commemorate the Year of the Dragon, and from 2012 to 2023, the Banco National Ultramarino and the Banco da China are each authorized to issue a maximum number of 20 million special notes with the face value of 10 patacas to mark each lunar new year. The Bank of China also issued a 100 pataca banknote to commemorate its centennial anniversary.

In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the transfer of Macau to the People's Republic of China, the Banco Nacional Ultramarino and the Banco da China issued five million 20 patacas banknotes. The front side of the notes feature the 7-ton gilded bronze sculpture "Lotus Flower In Full Bloom", representing the prosperity of Macau. The back side of the notes feature the Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macao Bridge.

Exchange rate
Despite the fact that the pataca is the official currency of Macau, most of the money in circulation in the Region is actually Hong Kong dollars. Patacas accounted for only 29.9% of Macau's money supply at the end of 1998. The exchange rate is pegged and is approximately MOP 1.03 for HK$1, and Hong Kong dollar banknotes and coins are generally accepted at par or MOP 1. 00 for retail payments. For United States dollars, to which the Hong Kong dollar is in turn loosely pegged, the exchange rate is around MOP 8 to 1 US dollar. Although it is possible to exchange patacas in Macau, it is either difficult or impossible to do so elsewhere. The few places in Hong Kong where patacas are available are concentrated on Cleverly Street in Central, a short distance from the Hong Kong–Macau Ferry Terminal.

Although the pataca is the legal tender of Macau, the Hong Kong dollar is almost universally acceptable in the region, and in some cases, is preferred to the pataca. Circulation of the pataca is mandated by a decree (Decreto-Lei n.º 16/95/M) prohibiting refusal by merchants, but some casinos flout this rule and refuse bets in patacas. The Hong Kong dollar and Chinese yuan are generally accepted throughout Macau from casinos to restaurants. Payments to government agencies can also be made in both Hong Kong dollars and patacas.

As Macau currently imposes no restrictions on the import or export of local or foreign currency, visitors can change their currency in hotels, banks and bureaux de change located all around the city including 24 hour currency exchange booths at Macau International Airport (Taipa Island) and at the Lisboa Hotel (Macau Peninsula) for customers if they want to change their currency into patacas outside working hours.

title: Macanese pataca


text:
User talk:12ting

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

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 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:35, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:12ting


text:
Gregory Powell

Gregory Powell may refer to:

 * Greg Powell, American stuntman
 * Gregory Powell (murderer), accomplice in The Onion Field murder
 * D. Gregory Powell, Canadian physician
 * Powell and Donovan, fictional characters from Isaac Asimov's Robot short stories

title: Gregory Powell


text:
Michael Donovan (disambiguation)

Michael Donovan (born 1953) is a Canadian voice actor.

Michael Donovan may also refer to:
 * Michael Donovan (kidnapper) (1969–2024), jailed for the kidnapping of Shannon Matthews in January 2009
 * Mike Donovan (musician) (born 1971), San Francisco based musician
 * See Powell and Donovan for Mike Donovan, roboticist in Isaac Asimov stories
 * Professor Mike Donovan (1847–1918), 19th-century middleweight boxing champion
 * Mike Donovan (baseball) (1881–1938), American baseball player
 * Mike Donovan, character in the science fiction TV series V, played by Marc Singer
 * Michael Donovan (producer) (born 1953), Canadian film producer and screenwriter
 * Mike Donovan (Dexter), a fictional character in the TV series Dexter

title: Michael Donovan (disambiguation)


text:
Stock Exchange Tower

125 Old Broad Street, formerly known as the Stock Exchange Tower and still often referred to as such, is a high-rise office building in London, located on Old Broad Street in the City of London financial district.

For over 30 years the Stock Exchange Tower was the home of the London Stock Exchange, until the latter's relocation to Paternoster Square in 2004.

History
Standing at 100 m tall with 26 floors, the Stock Exchange Tower was completed by Trollope & Colls in 1970 and officially opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 8 November 1972.

It served as the headquarters, offices and trading floor for the London Stock Exchange until the exchange departed for new premises in nearby Paternoster Square in July 2004. Face-to-face trading was conducted on the trading floor of the exchange until it was abolished in favour of electronic trading in the October 1986 deregulation of the London Stock Exchange known as the 'Big Bang'.

On 20 July 1990, the Provisional IRA exploded a bomb inside the tower, causing its evacuation. The bomb destroyed the public viewing areas in the building which subsequently closed in 1992. It was also evacuated on 11 September 2001, after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City.

Renovation
The building underwent a major renovation which saw its pre-cast concrete façade reclad in a glass curtain wall, and thousands of square metres of additional office space created, including a new 10-storey building at No. 60 Threadneedle Street, a six-storey wing to the east, and a single-storey wing to the northwest. As part of the renovation, the floor plates were extended beyond the perimeter of the original building to give more overall space. The renovation scheme was designed by Grimshaw Architects.

The building has 11 passenger lifts and one goods lift, as well as firefighting lifts and vehicle shuttle lifts.

title: Stock Exchange Tower


text:
Cape Ann

Cape Ann is a rocky peninsula in northeastern Massachusetts on the Atlantic Ocean. It is about 30 mi northeast of Boston and marks the northern limit of Massachusetts Bay. Cape Ann includes the city of Gloucester and the towns of Essex, Manchester-by-the-Sea and Rockport.

Etymology
During the summer of 1606, French explorer Samuel de Champlain visited Cape Ann for the second time. He came ashore in Gloucester and drew a map of the Gloucester harbor, naming it as le Beau port. Eight years later, English Captain John Smith named the area around Gloucester Cape Tragabigzanda, after a woman whom he met while in Turkey as a prisoner of war. He had been taken as a prisoner of war and enslaved in the Ottoman Empire before escaping.

Smith presented his map to Charles I and suggested that Charles should feel free to change any of the "barbarous names" into English ones. The king made many such changes, but only four survive today. One was Cape Ann, which Charles named in honor of his mother Anne of Denmark.

History
Prior to the arrival of European settlers, Cape Ann was a home for indigenous people. The English colony at Cape Ann was first founded in 1623. It was the fourth colonizing effort in New England after Popham Colony, Plymouth Colony and Nantasket Beach. Two ships of the Dorchester Company brought 32 in number with John Tylly and Thomas Gardner as overseers of a fishing operation and the plantation, respectively. At the Cape Ann settlement a legal form of government was established, and from that Massachusetts Bay Colony sprang. Roger Conant was the governor under the Cape Ann patent, and as such, has been called the first governor of Massachusetts.

This colony predated Massachusetts Bay charter and colony. For that reason, members of the colony were referred to as "old planters". The first Great House in New England was built on Cape Ann by the planters. This house was dismantled on the orders of John Endecott in 1628 and moved to Salem to serve as his "governor's" house. When Higginson arrived in Salem, he wrote that "we found a faire house newly built for the Governor" which was remarkable for being two stories high.

By 1634 the name of Cape Ann was already established, as it is mentioned and depicted on maps in William Wood's New England's Prospect first published in that year.

On November 18, 1755, Cape Ann was the epicenter of an earthquake, which is extremely rare for Massachusetts. There were no seismographs at that time; but, based on available data, the tremor was estimated at magnitude 6.5. It caused serious damage in the Boston area, but no casualties.

By the mid-1800s, Cape Ann was known for its specialization in granite production, specifically in creating paving blocks for roads and streets and were used across the United States from New York to San Francisco.

Cape Ann became a thriving center of activity for artists in the 19th century, including the Rocky Neck Art Colony in Gloucester. Fitz Henry Lane who began his career in Gloucester as a lithographer developed a distinctive style for his marine paintings known as luminism. The Cape Ann Museum has a significant collection of paintings by local artists who reached national prominence. Later in the 19th and early 20th century, American Impressionists were attracted to Rockport such as marine landscapist Harry Aiken Vincent who arrived in 1916 and helped to form the Rockport Art Association. The region continues to provide a base for many galleries and working artists.

Communities
The entirety of Cape Ann lies within Essex County. Anchored by the city of Gloucester, the nexus of the local fishing industry, other towns on Cape Ann include Rockport, at the tip of the cape, and the towns of Essex and Manchester-by-the-Sea, which are located where Cape Ann joins the mainland.

Geography
At the end of Cape Ann, and splitting Gloucester into two parts, is the Annisquam River. Many locals who live in Gloucester and Rockport refer to the land east of the Annisquam as "The Island".

Popular culture
Cape Ann is the subject of the folk song 'Cape Ann', which may have been written by Maine-based folk singer Gordon Bok. It describes a sailor and his negative feelings towards both Cape Ann and the sailors who sail around it. It has been recorded by musicians such as The Irish Rovers, Gordon Bok, and The X-Seaman's Institute (formed as part of the South Street Seaport).

Cape Ann is the location of the fictional town of Sea Harbor, the setting of the Seaside Knitters mysteries by author Sally Goldenbaum. Sea Harbor is on the coast, with Gloucester as its nearest neighbor town. Cape Ann is also featured as the setting for the Harry Chapin song "Dogtown," which is also the name for an abandoned town on the Cape.

The fictional "Gloucester Island" in 1966 Cold War comedy film The Russians Are Coming, the Russians Are Coming is located off Cape Ann and was named for the city of Gloucester.

The book Slaughterhouse Five mentions Cape Ann as the honeymoon location for the main character Billy Pilgrim.

The movie The Perfect Storm was filmed in Gloucester in 2000. Setting out for the one last catch that will make up for a lackluster fishing season, Captain Billy Tyne (George Clooney) pushes his boat, the Andrea Gail, out to the waters of the Flemish Cap off Nova Scotia; based on actual events in 1991.

Cape Ann is also the location of main character's home in the book Trouble.

Cape Ann is the title of the fifth and final section of T. S. Eliot's poem, "Landscapes," which lists the coastal birds of the region. Additionally, the title of his poem The Dry Salvages refers to a cluster of rocks "off the N.E. coast of Cape Ann, Massachusetts."

The fictional town of Paradise, setting of the Jesse Stone novels, is near Cape Ann, which is briefly mentioned in Night and Day.

title: Cape Ann