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Gettysburg College

Gettysburg College is a private liberal arts college in Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. Founded in 1832, the 225 acre campus is adjacent to the Gettysburg Battlefield. Gettysburg College has about 2,600 students, with roughly equal numbers of men and women. Gettysburg students come from 41 states, Washington, D.C., and 39 countries.

The school hosts 24 NCAA Division III men's and women's teams, known as the Bullets, and many club, intramural, and recreational sports programs.

Founding and early roots
Gettysburg College was founded in 1832 as a sister institution for the Lutheran Theological Seminary; the latter is now a campus of the United Lutheran Seminary. Both owe their inception to Thaddeus Stevens, a Radical Republican and abolitionist from Gettysburg. The college's original name was Pennsylvania College; it was founded by Samuel Simon Schmucker.

In 1839, seven years after Gettysburg College was first founded, doctors George McClellan (founder of Jefferson Medical College), Samuel George Morton, and others, founded the Medical School of Pennsylvania College in Philadelphia. The school had money troubles within four years, forcing all founding members to leave their posts. After a failed agreement to combine with the Philadelphia College of Medicine in 1858 (closed in 1859, with the faculty being integrated into Pennsylvania Medical College), the college was forced to close the medical school in 1861. Students from the seceding southern states had withdrawn to return home, leaving it without adequate revenue.

Battle of Gettysburg
In June 1863, southern Pennsylvania was invaded by Confederate forces during the Gettysburg Campaign. Many local militia forces were formed around the area between Chambersburg and Philadelphia to face the oncoming foe.

Among these units was Gettysburg's 26th Pennsylvania Emergency Militia Regiment (PEMR). Composed mostly of students from the college and seminary, the 26th PEMR was mustered into service on June 22, 1863. Four days later, the students saw combat just north of town, skirmishing with advanced units of Confederate division commander Jubal A. Early. Casualties were light on both sides, but about 100 of the militiamen were captured and paroled.

During the Battle of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania Hall, also known as Old Dorm, was used as both a signal corps station and field hospital. Due to the geographic position it held, it was used by both Confederate and Union troops at different points during the battle.

On November 19, 1863, college president Henry Louis Baugher gave the benediction at the ceremony opening the Soldiers’ National Cemetery at Gettysburg; speaking after Abraham Lincoln. Classes were cancelled at the college and students and faculty walked with the parade to the cemetery to hear the now famous Gettysburg Address. This walk was later recreated for the now annual tradition of the "First Year Walk." Baugher was the president of Gettysburg College from 1850 until his death in 1868.

Due to its close relationship with this crucial battle, Gettysburg College hosts a number of activities and awards:

 * Pennsylvania Hall, located in the center of campus, was occupied by both Union and Confederate forces during the battle. Today, a Civil War era-style flag (for the year 1863) flies above the building, which was used as a lookout position and a field hospital during the battle.
 * In 1982, professor and historian Gabor Boritt founded the Civil War Institute, which hosts annual seminars and tours on Civil War themes. Scholarships are granted to high school students and history teachers to attend the week-long summer event.
 * Since 1998, the "Gettysburg Semester", a semester-long immersion in Civil War academic study has been offered.
 * Gettysburg College students can elect to pursue a unique interdisciplinary minor in Civil War Era Studies. Requirements include a general introduction course about the Civil War and a capstone senior-level seminar. Students must also select four classes of at least two disciplines. Classes offered include military history, economics of the American South, Civil War literature, films about the Civil War, and gender ideology in the Civil War.
 * The Lincoln Prize has been awarded annually since 1991 for the best non-fiction historical work on the Civil War.
 * Starting in 2005, the Michael Shaara Prize has been awarded for excellence in Civil War fiction. Shaara was the author of the Pulitzer Prize-winning 1974 novel about the Battle of Gettysburg, The Killer Angels.
 * Author Mark Nesbitt's Ghosts of Gettysburg: Spirits, Apparitions and Haunted Places of the Battlefield claims several sightings of paranormal activity on the campus, most notably in Pennsylvania Hall.

Relationship with the Eisenhowers
Early in his military career, Dwight D. Eisenhower and his wife, Mamie, lived in a house in Gettysburg that was across the street from the college (the Alpha Tau Omega Fraternity House until 1955 on N. Washington Street). Both were fond of the town, so they decided to retire to a working farm adjacent to the battlefield after Eisenhower left the army. It was there that President Eisenhower recuperated from his 1955 heart attack.

While living in Gettysburg, Eisenhower became involved with Gettysburg College. He served on the Gettysburg College board of trustees, and he was given an office, which he used when writing his memoirs. Eisenhower's old office is now named Eisenhower House and is occupied by the college's office of admissions. Eisenhower's grandson, David, and his granddaughter Susan continue a certain level of family involvement with the institution.

Today the Eisenhower Institute, a nationally recognized center for leadership and public policy based in Gettysburg and Washington, D.C., is formally recognized as a distinctive program of the college.

Campus
The college is located on a 225 acre campus adjacent to the Gettysburg National Military Park. Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, is 36 mile from Harrisburg, 55 mi from Baltimore, 80 mi from Washington, D.C., 117 mi from Philadelphia, 212 mi from New York City, and 425 mi from Boston.

The college's main campus has over 90 buildings, many of which are historically relevant, and is roughly divided in half by Pennsylvania Hall (administration). The northern half contains Eddie Plank Gym, Masters Hall (physics and astronomy), Musselman Library, the College Union Building, the College Dining Center, Briedenbaugh Hall (English and Asian Studies), Weidensall Hall (History and Education), and several first-year residence halls and fraternities. A section of this part of campus known as "Stine Lake" is not actually a lake but rather a quad located outside of the library. Prior to the Musselman Library being built in the late 1970s, and due to Gettysburg's wet climate and drainage issues, the quad and library site were prone to accumulating water, creating a large, muddy "lake" of sorts. Today, Stine Lake does not flood, but the name has stuck, to the confusion of first-year students. Additionally, the College Dining Center is known to students and faculty as "Servo," after the now defunct 1980s food service company, Servomation.

The southern half of the main campus includes McKnight Hall (languages), Glatfelter Hall (computer science, management, political science, mathematics, and others), Schmucker Hall (art and music), Brua Hall, and several fraternities. Over the last half-century, the campus has expanded considerably to include land to the east of North Washington Street and to the west of the traditional campus. In that time, the campus has undergone many renovations, with buildings being added and removed.

Since approximately 96% of students live on campus, most of this additional land is dedicated to housing. It also includes the college chapel, the admissions building, a large gymnasium and field house complex, and several athletics fields. The college has also purchased or leased many buildings for student housing, including residences on Washington Street, Carlisle Street, Middle Street, and Stratton Street.

The Majestic Theater
In 1925, Henry Scharf built the Majestic Theater as an expansion to the historic Gettysburg Hotel, located in the center of town. Originally, the building featured a main room that seated 1,200 patrons. In the 1950s, performances in the Theater were attended by President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his wife, often with world leaders or visitors. When he was spending the night in his Gettysburg residence, President Eisenhower used the theater's ballroom as an official White House Press Room for news conferences. The theater was also the location for the world premiere of the civil war epic Gettysburg (1993 film), produced by Ted Turner. In November 2005, the theater underwent a $20 million renovation process, with the main room being restored to its former glory and the addition of two new nightly cinemas. The theater is the location for the college's Sunderman Conservatory of Music performances, as well as musical theater performances and outside guests. Many traditions and orientation events also occur in the building, which seats 816 individuals in a multi-level main room.

Library
Musselman Library provides access to books, journals, videos, sound recordings, rare books, and manuscripts, many in online format. The online catalog is freely available and provides a description of the books, DVDs, and CDs in the collection. The journal locator provides a list of online and print journals in the collection. A list of the online databases is available on the library's website. Exhibits are displayed throughout the library and are updated on a regular basis. The library maintains Gettysburg College's institutional repository, The Cupola: Scholarship at Gettysburg College, a collection of scholarly and creative works produced by faculty, students, and other members of the Gettysburg College community.

Special Collections and College Archives, located on the fourth floor of the library, collects primary sources including rare books, manuscripts, maps, art works, sound recordings, photographs, and other materials which support the curriculum. Special Collections is also home to the College Archives, which preserves records that document college activities, policies, and programs. Rotating exhibits are on display in the Reading Room. Selected items and collections have been digitized and are available via GettDigital.

The building was designed by architect Hugh Newell Jacobsen, who intended the building to complement Glatfelter Hall (1889). Jacobsen referred to the architectural style as "abstract Romanesque". The building project commenced thanks to a large gift from the Emma G. Musselman Foundation. Construction began in 1979 and the building opened on April 22, 1981. Books and other materials were transferred from Schmucker Memorial Library to Musselman Library via a human chain of students, faculty and others. In 1986, Jacobsen won both the Award for Excellence in Institutional Masonry Design and the Grand Award for Excellence in Masonry Design for his design of Musselman Library.

Schmucker Hall
Gettysburg College is a well respected institution for the musically inclined. The college is home to the Sunderman Conservatory of Music, which has performed regionally and internationally. Schmucker Hall houses four main classrooms, a 225-seat recital hall, a 10 station technology/piano lab, and 16 practice rooms. Two practice rooms are dedicated organ practice rooms, with a ratio of six students for one practice room. A recording studio is also found within the building's walls. Choral assemblies usually perform in Christ Chapel, the campus' nondenominational structure that houses a variety of different ceremonies and seats 1,100 individuals.

Glatfelter Hall
Glatfelter Hall is one of the most iconic buildings on campus. Built in 1889 as the New Recitation Building, the deep red brick and gray stone building was rededicated in 1912 to honor Philip H. Glatfelter, a trustee and generous benefactor of the college. The building was built in the Romanesque Revival style, with a tower 143 feet high.

Currently, the building features four stories and a basement, with a grandiose main staircase traversing all but the top floor. The building houses the Anthropology, Computer Science, Mathematics, Political Science, Management, and Sociology departments, along with campus management resources. It is completely handicap accessible, with an elevator traversing all floors. The topmost section of the building contains offices, seminar areas, and a small student library, as well as the entrance to the belltower. Atop the tower, Glatfelter Hall's bell can be heard across campus, ringing to mark the hour.

Renovations:
 * In 1929 a thorough interior renovation was implemented, providing additional windows in the north and west facades.
 * Between 1989 and 1991, a tower was added for an elevator and stairwell on the south façade and the buildings large attic was refurbished for academic use.
 * Between 2013 and 2014, the interior was renovated consisting of waterproofing the foundation; the addition of a new classroom and seminar room on the ground floor; and mechanical, lighting, sprinklers, and design changed throughout the building.

The Science Center
The Science Center is part of a complex of two buildings. The Science Center is the newest building on campus being built in 2002. An 85,000 sqft building, the science center was designed to have first-rate scientific equipment, facilities, and resources, and has been continually renovated to include the most up to date material. It includes:
 * Greenhouse and herbarium
 * 400 MHz NMR spectrometer
 * Nd:YAG laser spectrometer
 * A scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope
 * Specialized labs for a dozen different subjects
 * Phase contrast and epifluorescence microscopes
 * Animal rooms for endotherms and ectotherms
 * Media preparation room (with autoclave, radiation room, and a walk-in environmental chamber)
 * Multimedia 'smart' classrooms, lecture rooms, and seminar rooms
 * Computer labs
 * Dozens of other resources

The main building is home to the Chemistry, Environmental Studies, and Health Sciences departments.

McCreary Hall is the other building in the complex, and is older but was renovated during the construction of the Science Center and in 2012. It is home to the Biology and Psychology departments, with the latest equipment including a vast deionized pure water system, infant research lab, space for cognitive neuroscience, and many animal facilities.

Masters Hall
Masters Hall is home to the physics department, and houses several specialized labs, the largest classroom on campus (Mara Auditorium), a machine shop, and a Physics student lounge. In addition, the building also includes an indoor planetarium, Hatter Planetarium which gives students glimpses of what the night sky will look like each month. It also has private shows for classes and performances on different, special topics. Some of the equipment available for student use and regularly used for professor's research includes:
 * Modernized telescopes and microscopes
 * An advanced laser research lab used for investigating plasma and laser interactions; includes 25-milliwatt He-Ne laser, two 5 watt argon ion lasers, nitrogen dye laser, and other equipment
 * Optical isolation table and optical tweezers
 * Other technology relevant to specific classes and professors' research

The building houses astronomy classes and uses the campus' observatory, which is located just past the quarry. The observatory is used for undergraduate astronomical research and includes a 16-inch f/11 Ealing Cassegrain reflector, computer controlled. It also houses a classroom and six Meade telescopes. Since its construction in 1996, the observatory has been a huge benefit to astronomy students and has even made several star discoveries in the early 2000s. The Physics Department has supported Project CLEA for Astronomy.

Brua Hall
Brua Hall is the home of the college's theater department. Kline Theatre is the building's main attraction, seating 234 people with a thrust stage and an advanced sound and lighting system, including computer lighting memory control. The stage is home to many performances throughout the year, and is very often used by the theater department in addition to the student run theatre club, the Owl and Nightingale Society. Brua Hall also has a 48-seat blackbox, which with flexible playing space is constantly converted to fit the needs of the performance. The blackbox, Stevens Laboratory Theatre, is used for thesis productions from seniors as well as one-act plays written by students. The building has a fully equipped scene shop facility, studio and classroom space, dressing rooms, an Actors' Lounge and reception area known as Arms Green Room, and other storage and workroom areas.

Large-scale productions are generally performed in the Majestic Theater.

Other buildings
Economics and Africana studies are housed in a former house that was fully renovated in 2013, as well as in rooms in Glatfelter Hall.

Breidenbaugh Hall and Weidensall Hall are two adjacent buildings that house the English, Asian Studies, Civil War Era Studies, Classics, Education, Globalization Studies, History, Interdisciplinary Studies, Philosophy, and Religion departments. Weidensall Hall was originally built as a YMCA building, complete with a swimming pool, but was massively renovated in 1987. Both buildings feature a revived colonial design, with large columns supporting spacious porches.

Technology
Full network capabilities in all campus buildings and each residence hall room. Students have access to more than 1,300 computers and a complex system of workstations and laboratories. Wireless connectivity is available across 97% of the campus (the other 3% being the practice fields) and in all of the residence halls.

The school provides a large network of technological assistance, known as G-Tech, which is student staffed and IT supported. It offers free technical services including help with personal computers, removing adware or viruses, connecting to the college network, building computers, accessing school servers, and general troubleshooting assistance. The college's network infrastructure has been consistently updated over the past decade to keep up with student demand and modernity. In addition, the technology department has deals for students and faculty to receive discounted personal computers and programs.

The campus welcomed Google in July 2012 to open the 225 acre campus to Google Streetview. Prospective students are able to walk through every inch of campus to see the facilities and fields.

The Center for Athletics, Recreation and Fitness
The college broke ground on the new $25 million athletic center, named the John F. Jaeger Center for Athletics, Recreation and Fitness, on May 30, 2008. The 55,000 foot Center is an upgrade from the former athletic facility, known as the Bream/Wright/Hauser Complex. Bream/Wright/Hauser still exists next to the additions. The Center opened in stages. A dedication ceremony on April 30, 2010, marked its completion. The center was officially named for the 1965 alumnus John F. Jaeger on May 4, 2012.

The Center features:
 * A natatorium, complete with eight lanes, four warm-up lanes, and enough space for 350 seated spectators
 * A 10,000 foot weight and cardio room complete with flat-screen TVs
 * Additional spaces for yoga, aerobics, spinning and martial arts classes
 * An upgraded training room with a Hydroworx pool
 * Rock climbing walls
 * A student lounge and dining space called "The Dive"

The center was created in order to provide more opportunities for the high percentage of students who like to maintain their fitness regimens and engage in intramural, club sports programs, and exercise classes. About 25 percent of the student body participate in varsity sports, while over 75 percent are active in intramural sports. More space was needed, and the center is important to improve life on campus.

John Jaeger, a 1965 Gettysburg College graduate, donated $1.2 million to encourage others to fund the project. Another important donor, Robert Ortenzio, provided the largest single gift by a living person in the history of the college, by giving $2 million.

Campus safety
Gettysburg College's Department of Public Safety (DPS) is the primary agency responsible for the enforcement of college policies, security, and emergency response on the campus. Emergency medical services (EMS) are provided by Adams Regional EMS's MICU 54–1 and Biglerville Fire Department's MICU 6–1, when needed. The college falls under Gettysburg's Volunteer Fire Department's first-due response area.

Academics and student life
As an independent institution, the college operates under a charter granted in 1832 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. The college is governed by a 39-member board of trustees comprising leaders from a range of professions and walks of life. Thirty of the college's trustees are graduates of Gettysburg. Gettysburg is considered a more selective college, with admission rates recently hovering around 40%. The Class of 2022 had a 45.4% acceptance rate, and Gettysburg often competes with comparable schools Dickinson and Franklin & Marshall for applicants. 83% of the class of 2022 was in the top 25% of their high schools, 62% of students were in the top 10% of their school.

Nearly 2,600 students, approximately one-half men and one-half women and representing 41 states, Washington, D.C., and 39 countries, attend the college. 75% of these students come from outside of Pennsylvania. Around 85% of the student body will graduate in five years, and almost 60% of graduates will study at least one semester abroad. The college has high retention rates, historically hovering around 90%.

The college employs 225 full-time faculty, with 100% of the permanent faculty holding a doctorate or highest earned degree in their fields. The student/faculty ratio is 10:1, with an average class size of 18 students. The college hosts one of only 19 chapters of Phi Beta Kappa in Pennsylvania, as well as 15 other academic honor societies in a variety of disciplines.

Gettysburg is known to be generous with financial aid, with over 70% of students receiving some form of aid. The Princeton Review has called Gettysburg a Best Value College, an award given to schools with exceptional financial aid systems and high rates of employment after graduation. 94% of alumni one year after graduation were either in graduate school or employed. This distinction is given to only 150 colleges in the United States, only 8 of which are in Pennsylvania. The Princeton Review has also called Gettysburg a College That Pays You Back, ranking the college 11th in Best Schools for Internships, one of only four liberal arts colleges to make the top 25.

Academic programs
Gettysburg College offers numerous fields of study and four possible degrees; Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Music, and Bachelor of Music Education.

In addition to its many majors and minors, the college offers several programs. Students may petition to design their own, individual, major. The major must consist of at least 17 courses, including a methods course and a 400-level capstone. Students design a curriculum of their own and choose a faculty advisor. During the senior year, the student takes a 400-level individualized study capstone which is the culmination of their program.

An engineering program is offered as a five-year, Dual Degree program in conjunction with Columbia University, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Washington University in St. Louis, and University of Pittsburgh. Engineering students may choose any of these schools to travel to, taking three courses of liberal arts, mathematics, and physics at Gettysburg College, and two years of advanced engineering and physics classes at their chosen university. Upon completion of the program, students are awarded a Bachelor of Arts degree from Gettysburg College and a Bachelor of Science degree in an engineering discipline from one of the affiliated institutions.

The most popular majors, by 2021 graduates, were:
 * Econometrics & Quantitative Economics (64)
 * Political Science & Government (64)
 * Health Sciences (60)
 * Business Administration & Management (56)
 * History (38)
 * Experimental Psychology (35)
 * Environmental Studies (34)
 * Biology/Biological Sciences (33)

Sunderman Conservatory of Music
Music at Gettysburg College began in 1900 with a glee club and a guitar and mandolin club. It wasn't until 1934 that music classes were first taught at Gettysburg College; Professor Frederick Shaffer taught music appreciation. The following year the college hired Parker Wagnild to direct a new choir open to both men and women. Wagnild would graduate from the Gettysburg Theological Seminary with a divinity degree in 1937, and would then be hired as an English professor by the college to continue directing the choir. After Wagnild received a master's degree from New York University in 1948, a music department was established at Gettysburg College with Wagnild as the chair. He received an honorary doctorate of music from Thiel College in 1972, as well as an honorary doctorate of divinity from Gettysburg College.

Today, Gettysburg College is home to the Sunderman Conservatory of Music, which was established in 2006. Sunderman bequeathed $14 million, a large library of scores and parts, and a collection of 18th and 19th century violins and bows to Gettysburg College.

The Sunderman Conservatory of Music offers a Bachelor of Arts in music and a Bachelor of Music in Performance with tracks for Voice, Keyboard, Strings, and Winds/Percussion. The conservatory also offers a Bachelor of Music Education with students completing all requisite classes in seven semesters and teaching in their eighth.

Major ensembles include a Symphony Orchestra, a Wind Symphony and the College Choir. Students can also perform in the jazz band, jazz combo, as well as numerous chamber ensembles. The Bullets Marching Band, and ensemble of 100-120 student from within and outside the conservatory, performs every fall at home football games, and is routinely selected to perform as a part of the Collegiate Marching Band Festival in Allentown, PA. Students in these ensembles have opportunities to perform within the conservatory, throughout the college, and abroad with major ensembles touring nationally and internationally.

Performance venues for the Sunderman Conservatory include Paul Recital Hall in Schmucker Hall; Christ Chapel, the college's center for religious and spiritual life; and the Majestic Theater, an 816-seat theater renovated in 2004–2005 that serves as the conservatory's main performance venue.

Greek organizations
There are several fraternities and sororities on campus. Students can only rush as sophomores. Around 1/3 of all students are involved in some form of Greek life, and around 1/2 of eligible students are involved in Greek life.

Activities and traditions
The college boasts a wide variety of different events on campus, with an estimated 3,200 cultural events occurring during a four-year period.

Activities
There are more than 120 clubs and organizations on campus, focusing on areas of interest such as community service, art and music, theater and media, academics, student government, career fields, LGBTQA and outdoor adventure. These provide students with over 1,000 leadership opportunities each year, in addition to trips to surrounding metropolitan areas.

There are resources for Jewish, Buddhist, Christian, Muslim, atheist, and Hindu students. The college provides nondenominational worship in the campus chapel and Glatfelter Lodge, and various resources for religious holidays.

First year walk
On November 19, 1863, students marched through town to the National Cemetery to hear President Abraham Lincoln deliver his now famous Gettysburg Address. In 2003, Peter Holloran, a Gettysburg graduate and marketing consultant to the college proposed recreating the walk to promote community among students and the town. The Orientation Chair at the time, Lindsay Morlock, saw the walk as an opportunity to encourage new students to step "off campus from day one" and "acknowledge the history of Gettysburg College". Since the first walk on August 28, 2003, first year students have marched along the same one-mile path to be welcomed into town and hear the same words spoken over a century ago. Faculty, students, and townspeople cheer the arriving first-years along their walk as the main streets of town shut down to participate.

Twilight hour
Upon completion of the first semester, first-year students walk from the college union building to Pennsylvania Hall along paths illuminated by upperclassmen holding candles. Initially known as the Twilight Walk, the name was changed to Twilight Hour for the class of 2020 in 2017. The tradition is designed to welcome first-year students into alumni status, and involves the passing of a Class Book to the college president and the singing of the college's alma mater. The tradition was discontinued in 2019 by the college's Office of Student Activities and Greek Life.

Thanksgiving dinner
Every Thanksgiving the dining center opens to serve dinner. Students organize themselves and their friends into groups of 8–14 people and receive unlimited turkey, mashed potatoes, stuffing, pumpkin pie, and more, served by professors and administrators. It is common practice for the president of the college to serve a table.

Springfest
Every spring, the weekend before finals the college hosts a well known musician on a constructed main stage in Stine Lake. Other musicians perform in the Attic, the campus' night club. The end of the term is celebrated with concerts, free food, merriment and play. It is common for there to be blow-up obstacle courses, and free beer for students of age.

Athletics
Twenty-four sports programs for both men and women participate in NCAA Division III. Gettysburg has earned the distinction of having the best win–loss record in the Centennial Conference for the past 14 years.

Twenty-five percent of Gettysburg's students participate in intercollegiate programs, which include twelve sports for men and twelve sports for women. Although the mascot for Gettysburg College is the Bullet, there is no official Bullet mascot at sporting events. In 2014, 1000 to 1: The Cory Weissman Story was filmed at Gettysburg College. Cory Weissman was a student-athlete who had a stroke before his freshman basketball season.

Government

 * Paul Barbadoro, Judge on the United States District Court for the District of New Hampshire, Chief Judge of the District of New Hampshire (1997–2004)
 * James Glenn Beall, U.S. Senator from Maryland
 * Carol Bellamy, former New York City Council President and former executive director, UNICEF
 * J. Hay Brown, Justice of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania (1899-1915), Chief Justice (1915-1921)
 * Alice J. Cain, former Maryland Delegate
 * Michael A. Chagares, Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit
 * Nathaniel N. Craley, Jr., former US Representative from Pennsylvania (1965–1967)
 * Fred F. Fielding, former Counsel to the President (1981–1986, 2007–2009), former deputy to the White House counsel (1970–1972); member of the 9/11 Commission
 * Bruce S. Gordon, former head of the NAACP (2005–2007)
 * John Andrew Hiestand, U.S. Representative for Pennsylvania's ninth district (1885–1889)
 * Pam Iovino, current Pennsylvania State Senator
 * George M. Leader, 36th Governor of Pennsylvania (1955–1959)
 * William N. McNair, 49th Mayor of Pittsburgh (1934–1936)
 * Ron Paul, M.D., U.S. Representative from Texas; 1988 Libertarian Party presidential nominee; 2008 and 2012 candidate for the Republican Party presidential nomination
 * Jeffrey Piccola, Pennsylvania State Senator, former State Senate Majority Whip (2001–2007)
 * John S. Rice, former US Ambassador to the Netherlands (1961–1964)
 * Doug Steinhardt (1991), New Jersey State Senator, former Chairman of the New Jersey State Republican Party

Arts and entertainment

 * Jen Bryant, poet and author
 * Bill Fleischman, sports journalist and professor
 * Jackson C. Frank, folk musician
 * Carson Kressley, fashion consultant, Queer Eye for the Straight Guy
 * Owen Roizman, filmmaker
 * Stephanie Sellars, writer, actor, and filmmaker
 * Karen Sosnoski, author, radio contributor and filmmaker
 * Jerry Spinelli, author
 * Puru Raaj Kumar, actor

Academia

 * Mary Carskadon, Professor of Psychiatry and Human Behavior at the Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University
 * Arthur Byron Coble, mathematician, Professor at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Illinois, President of the American Mathematical Society
 * Luther P. Eisenhart, mathematician, Professor and Chair of the Mathematics Department at Princeton University, later served as Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton
 * Luther Alexander Gotwald
 * Ruth J. Person, Chancellor of the University of Michigan (Flint Campus)
 * Janet Morgan Riggs, President of Gettysburg College (2009–2019)
 * Neal Smatresk, academic research biologist, President of the University of North Texas, Denton
 * Edgar Fahs Smith, scientist, awarded the Priestley Medal, Provost of the University of Pennsylvania
 * William Swann, Professor of Social and Personality Psychology at the University of Texas at Austin

Science

 * J. Michael Bishop, 1989 Nobel Laureate in Medicine for cancer research
 * Moncef Slaoui, Moroccan-born Belgian-American researcher and manager of Operation Warp Speed, the U.S. government's development of vaccines to treat coronavirus disease
 * John Bosley Ziegler, physician who discovered Dianabol and pioneered the use of steroids in sport

Athletics

 * Jon Anik, ESPN anchor, UFC play-by-play announcer
 * Harry O'Neill, one of two Major League Baseball players to die during World War II
 * "Gettysburg Eddie" Plank, former Major League Baseball player, member of the National Baseball Hall of Fame. Never actually attended Gettysburg College as a student, but played on the baseball team by being affiliated with Gettysburg Academy.
 * George Winter, former Major League Baseball player
 * John Yovicsin, NFL football player, coach at Gettysburg, and coach at Harvard

Military

 * Flora D. Darpino, first female Judge Advocate General of the United States Army
 * Keller E. Rockey, Lieutenant General, United States Marine Corps, commander of the Fifth Marine Division during the Battle of Iwo Jima
 * Charles A. Willoughby, Chief of Intelligence on General Douglas MacArthur's staff during World War II and the Korean War; member of Military Intelligence Hall of Fame

Notable faculty

 * Charles Philip Krauth, President, 1834 to 1850
 * Willard Stewart Paul, President, 1956 to 1961
 * Carl Hanson, President, 1961 to 1977
 * William Morton Reynolds, professor of Latin, 1832 to 1850
 * Alfred M. Mayer, professor of physics, 1865 to 1868
 * William Culp Darrah, professor of biology
 * J. Matthew Gallman, Henry R. Luce professor of the Civil War Era, 1998 to 2003
 * Michael Birkner, professor of history, 1989 to present
 * Maggie Smith, poet, freelance writer, and editor
 * Herman Haupt, American Civil War general who ran the Union military railroad system

title: Gettysburg College


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Wayne Bennett (rugby league)

Wayne James Bennett (born 1 January 1950), also known by the nickname "Benny", is an Australian professional rugby league football coach and former player. He is currently the head coach of the Dolphins in the National Rugby League (NRL), and has previously coached the South Sydney Rabbitohs, the Brisbane Broncos, the Newcastle Knights, the St George Illawarra Dragons, the Canberra Raiders, the Queensland Maroons State of Origin team, the NRL All Stars and the Australian Kangaroos national team as well as the England and Great Britain national teams.

Widely regarded as one of the sport's greatest ever coaches, Bennett holds the Australian rugby league coaching record for the most grand final wins, winning seven premierships from ten grand final appearances in the NRL and its predecessors the Super League and New South Wales Rugby League, plus one premiership in the Brisbane Rugby League with Southern Suburbs in 1985. Bennett also holds the records for most seasons with a single club; twenty-four with the Brisbane Broncos, most games won as coach, and most games coached at over a thousand first-grade games, being recognised by the NRL in Round 10 of the 2023 season as having coached 900 games in the competition and its predecessors.

Additionally, he was a coaching adviser to the Tonga national rugby league team in 2022 and the assistant head coach of New Zealand in 2008.

As a player, Bennett was an Australian international and Queensland interstate representative or  in the 1970s. He also played at club level with the Huddersfield Giants in England. Before becoming a full-time football coach in 1976, Bennett worked as a Queensland Police officer.

Early life
Bennett was born in the small township of Allora, Queensland, Australia. He grew up in a working-class family in nearby Warwick with an alcoholic father who deserted the family when Wayne was eleven years old, resulting in him entering the workforce at an early age. He has two sisters, Michelle and Gretta and two brothers, Robert and Dwight. Bennett is an avowed non-smoker, non-drinker and non-gambler. Before becoming involved with the Queensland Rugby League on a full-time basis, Bennett commenced work as a police officer at age fifteen while playing junior rugby league in Warwick. His family had ties to the police and rugby league in South East Queensland through his uncle, 1948 Kangaroo forward Eddie Brosnan.

Playing career (1970–1974)
Bennett's playing career began with appearances for Warwick and Toowoomba in the South-West District Rugby League, and the All Whites in the Ipswich Rugby League. His first-grade appearances were for Past Brothers and Southern Suburbs in the Brisbane Rugby League premiership (BRL). He was a talented and goal-kicker, and represented Queensland nine times between 1971 and 1973, including seven games against New South Wales. Coached by Bob Bax, Bennett credits him as being a major influence in his own later coaching career. Bennett also played two tour matches for Australia on the 1971 tour of New Zealand. In 1972, Bennett played for Toowoomba in the last Bulimba Cup Final against Brisbane. After that, he played for Huddersfield in England alongside fellow Queenslander and future brother-in-law Greg Veivers. Bennett played for Brisbane's Brothers club and under coach Paul Broughton reached the 1974 Grand Final which they lost to Fortitude Valley. Bennett was the top tryscorer in the 1975 Brisbane Rugby League season.

Early years (1976–1985)
From 1975–77, Bennett coached the U18s Queensland Police Academy in the Brisbane local competition and the Police Academy Cadet Team versus the NSW Police Academy.

In 1976, he began full-time coaching in Ipswich, coaching three games for the midweek Amco and Carlton Cups, before moving to Brisbane Rugby League Premiership sides, Souths (who he captain-coached in 1977) and Brothers.

After the births of his three children, Bennett had a break from coaching. He returned in 1983 as coach of Souths Acacia Ridge under 16s as well as the Queensland Police Academy under 18s team which he took to a premiership. He also worked as the Police Academy's fitness instructor. Bennett then took over the Souths job and took them to the 1984 grand final, which they lost to the Wynnum-Manly Seagulls. Revenge was to come a year later when the Bennett-coached Magpies defeated the Seagulls 10–8 in the BRL grand final to take the premiership. This was against a Seagulls line-up featuring Australian captain Wally Lewis and centre Gene Miles, both of whom would later captain the Brisbane Broncos under Bennett.

Queensland Maroons (1986–1988)
In 1986, Bennett took over from Des Morris as coach of the Queensland State of Origin team. The Maroons were beaten 3–0 in a series whitewash that year; however, Bennett was retained as Queensland's coach for two more years.

Canberra Raiders (1987)
In 1987, Bennett moved interstate to join the NSWRL's Winfield Cup Premiership when he was appointed co-coach of the Canberra Raiders alongside then Australian team coach Don Furner. With the Queensland side, Bennett won the 1987 State of Origin series. By the end of the 1987 NSWRL season, he and Furner had guided the Raiders to their first Grand Final which was lost to the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles 18–8.

Brisbane Broncos (1988–2008)
Bennett was appointed to be the first coach of the Brisbane Broncos when the club was formed in 1988. That season with the Maroons, he defeated New South Wales in a 3 nil whitewash in the State of Origin, but Bennett discontinued his representative coaching to focus on the Broncos.

Bennett's reputation for being able to make tough and even unpopular decisions was characterised by his sacking of Wally Lewis as club captain in 1990. At the end of the season, Lewis was not made an offer large enough to retain him, with Bennett citing salary cap restrictions and the need to keep Sydney clubs away from more junior talent coming through. The Broncos won their first premierships in 1992 under Bennett. In the weeks following the grand final, Bennett travelled with the Broncos to England, where they played the 1992 World Club Challenge against British champions Wigan, helping Brisbane become the first NSWRL club to win the match in Britain. The following season, the Broncos again won the grand final, gaining a second consecutive premiership. During the 1994 QLDRL season, Bennett coached defending premiers Brisbane when they unsuccessfully hosted British champions Wigan for the 1994 World Club Challenge.

Bennett was appointed as Queensland coach again for the 1995 State of Origin series but pulled out of the position after players aligned with the breakaway Super League organisation (including the majority of his club team, the Brisbane Broncos) were refused selection. In the 1997 Super League season, the Broncos dominated under Bennett, winning the 1997 World Club Championship as well as the Telstra Cup grand final in Brisbane. Bennett resumed representative coaching duties in 1998 with Queensland and was also given the honour of coaching Australia when he was appointed to replace Bob Fulton as Kangaroos coach. Australia was undefeated in two test matches against New Zealand. Bennett won his fourth premiership with the Broncos when they took the 1998 NRL grand final, and he was also named Coach of the Year at the Queensland Sport Awards. Bennett ceased coaching the Australian national team in March 1999, and was replaced by Chris Anderson.

In 2000, Bennett won his fifth premiership with the Broncos. Following the premiership win, the Australian Rugby Union tried to poach Bennett, but he declined. Having won the 2000 NRL Premiership, the Broncos travelled to England to play against 2000's Super League V Champions, St Helens R.F.C. for the 2001 World Club Challenge, with Bennett overseeing Brisbane's loss. Bennett would again coach Queensland in 2001, gaining widespread attention after his decision to recall Allan Langer to the Maroons from the Super League for the deciding third game of the 2001 State of Origin series. Bennett remained Queensland's coach for the 2002 and 2003 series before stepping down again. He continued his involvement with coaching for Queensland through the Queensland Academy of Sport and in an off-field role with the Queensland Rugby League. On Australia Day 2004, Bennett was honoured as a member of the Order of Australia "for service to rugby league football, particularly as a coach, and to the community."

Bennett is a passionate advocate of international Rugby League and was instrumental in the revival of the Tri-Nations series in 2004. In that year, he was again appointed Australian coach and took Australia to reclaim the Trans-Tasman Trophy (lost to New Zealand in 2003) and win the second Rugby League Tri-Nations Series. At the end of the 2005 season, after five successive years without a grand final appearance, Bennett decided to have a clean-out of the coaching staff, removing such long-time allies as Gary Belcher, Glenn Lazarus and Kevin Walters.

That year, he received the Rugby League International Federation's coach of the year award. However, on 9 December 2005, it was announced that Bennett had resigned as Australia's coach after the Kangaroos lost an international series for the first time in 27 years, and equalled their biggest loss in 98 years, going down 24–0 to New Zealand in the final of the 2005 Tri-nations series. In 2006 a secret deal being brokered between Bennett and the Sydney Roosters club for him to become their coach was made public. This is said to have caused the deterioration in his relationship with the Broncos management which eventually led to his resignation. During the 2006 finals series, Bennett became the second person (after Tim Sheens) to coach 500 premiership games. He also signed on to continue coaching the Broncos for a further two years. The sixth premiership final won by Brisbane against Melbourne made Wayne Bennett the most successful Grand Final coach in history. He again was named Queensland's Sport Coach of the Year for 2007 and was made a life member of the Broncos club. His refusal to make an acceptance speech at the club's presentation ball showed the strain in his relationship with the Broncos. Bennett coached the 2007 All Golds. In doing so, he introduced the New Zealand players to the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh.

Bennett was originally contracted to the Broncos until the end of 2009, but on the night of 4 February 2008 at a Broncos board meeting, he submitted his letter of resignation and sought an early release at the end of the 2008 season. Bennett's coaching future was confirmed on 31 March 2008, when he signed a three-year contract to coach the St. George Illawarra Dragons from season 2009. After much speculation, Bennett became assistant coach and advisor to New Zealand coach Stephen Kearney in 2008. This was in preparation for the Centenary test against the Kangaroos. Bennett was retained in the same role for the 2008 Rugby League World Cup, which the Kiwis won. Former New Zealand coach Graham Lowe has credited Bennett with the victory.

St George Illawarra Dragons (2009–2011)
The Bennett era at St George Illawarra began with high turnover of staff and players. High performance director Jeremy Hickmans, conditioner Scott Campbell and manager/assistant Paul Massey were recruited to replace the existing staff, while the playing roster had recently lost high-profile stars Mark Gasnier to retirement with Jason Ryles and Josh Morris released. The club's player recruiting however was extensive: Jeremy Smith, Darius Boyd, Neville Costigan, Luke Priddis, Michael Weyman, Mathew Head (returned) and Mickey Paea. At the Dragons, Bennett was to be re-united with former Broncos Wendell Sailor and Luke Priddis, both of whom had won premierships with him at Brisbane. Neville Costigan, who also played under Bennett at the Broncos joined the Dragons that year in addition to Darius Boyd and Nick Emmett who also moved from Brisbane to St. George Illawarra at the same time as Bennett.

His first game with the Dragons was a golden point loss to the previous season's grand finalists, Melbourne Storm. In round 4 of the 2009 NRL season, Bennett returned to Suncorp Stadium with the Dragons and for the first time coached against the club he helped build. St. George Illawarra defeated the Broncos convincingly as the Dragons continued to lead the competition in defence. However, after winning the minor premiership in his first season at the club, it was the Brisbane Broncos who knocked the Dragons out of finals contention at the end of the 2009 season.

In 2009, Bennett was inducted into the Queensland Sport Hall of Fame.

In the 2010 NRL season, Bennett guided the Dragons to their second consecutive minor premiership and on to the 2010 NRL Grand Final, the joint venture club's second. After years of having a "choker" tag, they faced the Sydney Roosters at ANZ Stadium in the decider at the season's end. The rain fell across the ground during the match and Bennett's players had a fiery 2nd Half after a traditional spray at half time as they were being led 8–6 at the break. The Dragons under Bennett were successful in winning their first premiership as a joint venture who went on to beat the Roosters 32–8.

The Dragons went on to defeat 2010's Super League XV champions, Wigan Warriors in the 2011 World Club Challenge, but Bennett was absent, choosing to fly back to Australia days before the match to be with his ill mother-in-law, and leaving assistant coach Steve Price in charge.

On 30 March 2011, Bennett announced he would not continue on as coach of St George Illawarra beyond the 2011 season. His final game at the helm of St. George Illawarra ended the way it started, with a heartbreaking golden point loss against his old club, the Brisbane Broncos, at Suncorp Stadium. This extended Bennett's winless finals record at the venue to eight.

Newcastle Knights (2012–2014)
In 2012, Bennett commenced a four-year contract with the Newcastle Knights. The team did not reach the finals that year; the first finals series not to feature Bennett in twenty-one years. This changed in the following season when he took the club to within one match of the 2013 NRL Grand Final.

Due to a change in club ownership in 2014, Bennett became a free agent and announced that he would be leaving the club at the end of the season to return to the Brisbane Broncos ahead of the 2015 season.

Brisbane Broncos (2015–2018)
Bennett returned to coach the Brisbane Broncos for the 2015 NRL season, The Broncos subsequently finished second in the regular season and made it to the grand final, but were defeated 17-16 by the North Queensland Cowboys in golden point extra time, which was the Broncos first grand final defeat. Bennett continued with the Broncos until the end of the 2018 season.

On 2 December 2018, Bennett was officially sacked as coach of the Brisbane Broncos following a bitter dispute with club officials. He then signed up to coach the South Sydney Rabbitohs for the 2019 season onwards. On 4 December 2018, Bennett spoke to the media about his sacking saying "You don’t get the chance to say goodbye to anybody when they sack you and they tell you not to come back to the building", Bennett said. "But that’s alright. That’s all fine. We’ll all get over it. I was happy to be sacked. Just leave it at that. I was happy".

Great Britain and England (2016–2020)
In 2016, Bennett was appointed coach of England for two seasons. The decision however suffered criticism from some critics, such as former English internationals Kevin Sinfield and Jamie Peacock who believe previous coach Steve McNamara should have stayed at the helm, while Australian rugby league legend Wally Lewis said that an Australian should not be coaching the English team. Later in 2016, rumours came about that Bennett would be selecting Australian players such as Brett and twin brother Josh Morris as well as Trent Hodkinson in his English team for the 2016 Four Nations. However, he 'denied' that he'd select those players in his squad saying that the media is 'getting excited'. In October 2017, Bennett was selected for the England squad in the 2017 Rugby League World Cup.

In 2019, Bennett was selected as head coach for the Great Britain Lions tour of the Southern Hemisphere. He took charge of Great Britain for the first time in the defeat by Tonga. Great Britain ended the tour losing all four matches including the last match which was a humiliating 28–10 loss against Papua New Guinea in Port Moresby. Following the conclusion of the tour, several Great Britain players and Bennett himself came under intense media scrutiny and fan backlash.

He was also selected to coach the England 9s squad for the 2019 Rugby League World Cup 9s.

South Sydney Rabbitohs (2019–2021)
In 2019, Bennett started his first of three seasons as South Sydney coach with the club winning ten of their first eleven games which saw them sitting at the top of the table. Following the 2019 State of Origin series, Souths suffered a slump in form before winning their last 3 matches in a row to finish the regular season in 3rd place. Bennett guided South Sydney to the preliminary final against the Canberra Raiders but were defeated 16–10 at Canberra Stadium.

On 21 February 2020, it was announced that Bennett would be leaving South Sydney as head coach at the end of the 2021 season with assistant Jason Demetriou taking his place. Nevertheless, Bennett guided South Sydney to a sixth place finish in the 2020 NRL season which saw the club qualify for the finals. Bennett took South Sydney to their third preliminary final in a row where they suffered a 20–16 loss against Penrith. On 14 January 2021, it was announced that Bennett relinquished his Queensland Maroons coaching job from the previous year. In the 2021 NRL season, Bennett guided South Sydney to a third placed finish. He then took South Sydney to the 2021 NRL Grand Final which was also Bennett's tenth grand final as a head coach. South Sydney would go on to lose the final narrowly to Penrith 14–12.

Dolphins (2022–present)
Commencing in 2022, Bennett joined the Dolphins as head coach for their inaugural 2023 season in the NRL competition. The Dolphins won their first three matches in 2023. In round 8, they equalled the greatest comeback in premiership history to defeat the Gold Coast Titans 28–26 at Suncorp Stadium, after trailing the Titans 26–0 after the first twenty-six minutes. The record for a winning comeback in premiership history dating to 1908 was set in 1998, when the North Queensland Cowboys went from being down 26–0 to defeating the Penrith Panthers 36–28 at full-time.

On 5 May 2023, it was reported that Bennett had coached a total of 1227 games to date, and the Dolphins' round 10 clash against the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks on Saturday 6 May at Suncorp Stadium would be his 900th premiership match. On 21 May 2024, Bennett signed a three-year deal to re-join South Sydney in 2025. It was also reported that Bennett had been approached by Parramatta to become their new head coach however Bennett stated he had unfinished business at South Sydney saying "I like the people there and I like the club and what it stands for".

Public persona
Known for his taciturn manner and appearing outwardly unemotional, Bennett has stated that he detests the media commitments required as head coach of a high-profile football team. Although on occasions he will happily give in-depth interviews, he has also exhibited hostility towards the press, avoided questions and started press conferences early.

Personal life
Bennett married Trish Veivers (a sister of Greg Veivers) in 1974, and they subsequently had three children. The couple separated in 2016.

In 2007, Bennett co-wrote the book Don't Die with the Music in You with Australian journalist Steve Crawley. The title refers to a quote from the American intellectual Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. regarding failure to meet one's potential. On 7 May 2008, prominent personalities such as NRL CEO David Gallop, rugby league coach Jack Gibson, businessman Lachlan Murdoch, entrepreneur John Singleton and cricketer Steve Waugh were among the attendees at the Australian Museum in Sydney when the book was publicly launched; it went on to sell over 100,000 copies. His second book with Crawley, The Man in the Mirror, was published in August 2009. Bennett has also written a weekly column in The Australian, a national newspaper.

In 2016, Bennett commenced a relationship with Dale Tynan, whom he met while coaching in Newcastle.

Recognition

 * 1994: Medal of the Order of Australia "in recognition of service to the sport of Rugby League, particularly as coach of the Brisbane Broncos"
 * 1997: Super League Coach of the Year
 * 1998: Queensland Father of the year
 * 2000: NRL Coach of the Year
 * 2000: Australian Sports Medal for "significant contribution to the development of sport"
 * 2004: Member of the Order of Australia for "service to Rugby League football, particularly as a coach, and to the community"
 * 2012: Inducted into the Sport Australia Hall of Fame
 * 2015: Dally M Coach of the Year

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Wayne Bennett (rugby league)


text:
Malaysian New Economic Policy

The New Economic Policy (NEP) (Dasar Ekonomi Baru (DEB)) was a social re-engineering and affirmative action program formulated by the National Operations Council (NOC) in the aftermath of the 13 May Incident in Malaysia. This policy was adopted in 1971 for a period of 20 years and it was succeeded by the National Development Policy (NDP) in 1991.

Policy overview
The New Economic Policy (NEP) which began with the Second Malaysia Plan (1971–1975) and lasted until the Fifth Malaysia Plan (1986–1990), had three main objectives, namely:
 * To achieve national unity, harmony and integrity
 * Through socio-economic restructuring (of the society)
 * To minimize the level of poverty in the country (poverty eradication)

The NEP was conceived as a two-pronged strategy for eradicating poverty for all Malaysians as well as reducing and subsequently eliminating identification of race by economic function and geographical location. The policy sought to achieve its objectives through rapid expansion of the economy over time and set its target of substantially reducing the incidence of absolute poverty by 1990. To achieve this, the policy called for aggressive improvement of economic status and quality of life for all Malaysians through:
 * Access to land
 * Physical capital
 * Training
 * Public facilities

Concurrently, the policy also called for fairer distribution of opportunities to participate in the widening range of economic activities. The policy opined that the core problem that stood in the way of national unity was the division of racial groups by economic function; particularly the association of Malay and other indigenous races with subsistence agriculture. To dissociate Malay and other indigenous races with traditional agriculture, the policy called on the Malaysian Government to provide assistance to all Malaysians in:
 * Finding employment
 * Securing participation in economic activities
 * Acquiring ownership in various economic sectors

As Malay and other indigenous races progressed in the modern economic sector, other Malaysians were encouraged to introduce modern agriculture to eliminate the identification of Malay and other indigenous races with subsistence agriculture.

The overarching principle of the policy was the creation of "a socio-economic environment in which individual Malaysians find self-fulfilment within a system which provides for proportional participation, management and control in the economic life of the nation".

Colonial period
During British colonial rule in Malaya, the Malays had always been in close contact with British officials by virtue of being the subjects of the Sultans. Administratively, Malays displayed a highly structured system, which enabled the British to embed themselves into the existing structure with ease. To communicate effectively with the Malay Rulers, Malays were employed by the British to work in Resident's Offices as clerical staff. However, Malays were mostly educated in Islamic madrasah, with little exposure to Western education. To ensure a competent administrative workforce, the British established Malay schools to teach to basic clerical knowledge.

The discovery of tin in Malaya in 1820s led to an influx of Chinese miners. This discovery led to disputes among the Malay Rulers, Chinese miners, affluent chieftains and villagers, resulting in formal British colonial rule in 1874. By 1885, Malaya became the largest tin producer in the world, accounting for 55% of global tin output. The prosperity brought about by tin mining was primarily shared between the British and the Chinese. As mining towns grew larger and became more economically important, urban infrastructure improved and these mining towns became the seat of administrative power for the British and traditional Malay capitals became insignificant.

In 1839, the vulcanisation technique was discovered by Charles Goodyear, which marked the beginning of the extensive use of rubber in industry. In Malaya, Henry Nicholas Ridley, Director of Singapore and Penang Botanical Gardens, introduced rubber plantations in the early 1890s when he convinced the Kinderly Brothers of Inch Kenneth Estate in Selangor and a Chinese tapioca planter, Tan Chay Yan in Malacca to adopt rubber plantations as a commercial enterprise. By 1911, labour imported from India involved in the rubber plantation sector totaled 126,665 people and Malaya became the world's largest producer of natural rubber. Educated Indians were employed in the estates' hospitals and clinics while the majority worked as rubber tappers.

Malaya's economy pre- and post-independence
Before independence in 1957, Malaya's economy was recovering from the destruction brought about by World War II, entailing huge reconstruction costs to the British colonisers. As the British sought to consolidate Malaya's economic policy between the Malay States, the Malayan Union was proposed to unify the Federated and Unfederated Malay States into a single entity. This proposal was met with objection from the Malay community as they were angered by the way in which the Malay Rulers' assent was sought. Furthermore, there were concerns about citizenship and economic policies if the proposed union were to materialise.

After a short period of union, the British dissolved the Malayan Union and replaced it with the Federation of Malaya, with Tunku Abdul Rahman as its first Chief Minister. By that time, rubber and tin were the main source of income for the federation and it was one of the more prosperous economies in the region. Its per capita income was ranked third in Asia, after Japan and Singapore.

British corporations dominated the lucrative rubber industry and large tracts of land were dominated by British corporations such as Dunlop Plantation, Guthrie Plantation and Harrisons & Crossfield. However, the British agricultural policy during that period discouraged the participation of indigenous communities in the export crop economy, despite interest in smallholding rubber plantations. This development left the indigenous population in subsistence agriculture producing largely for domestic production and consumption, while the British and other communities expanded their interest in commercial agricultural production and dominated the export crop economy.

After independence, the Federation of Malaya government pursued a diversification policy to promote other economic activities. The government also acknowledged that dependency on rubber and tin as the main contributors to the national income could not be immediately reduced. The poverty rate up to 1970 was high at 49%, with the indigenous communities holding less than 3% of the national economy.

Racial riots of 1969
The racial riots of 1969 occurred against the backdrop of high poverty rates among the indigenous population and was compounded by communal political tension. Perceptions among the communities persisted and helped fuel mistrust, especially between the Malay and Chinese communities. At the more affluent neighbourhood of Petaling Jaya, it was evident that people with similar socioeconomic status were the least affected by the riots.

The precursor to the racial riots of 1969 occurred in Singapore in 1964, which led to the expulsion of Singapore from the Federation of Malaysia. The People's Action Party (PAP), Malaysia's main opposition party, called for equality for all Malaysians and challenged the domination of the ruling Alliance Party coalition in the federal election of 1964. This was known as the 'Malaysian Malaysia' campaign. As communal tension threatened to turn violent, the federal government decided to expel Singapore from the Federation of Malaysia.

Suspension of Parliament and formulation of the New Economic Policy
In the wake of the riots, the government declared a state of national emergency and Parliament was suspended. A caretaker government, the National Operations Council (NOC), was formed and chaired by Tun Abdul Razak. After restoring order and setting the constitutional framework, the New Economic Policy was announced in the Second Malaysia Plan. The socio-political justification for NEP was:

National Unity is unattainable without greater equity and balance among Malaysia's social and ethnic groups in their participation in the development of the country and in the sharing of the benefits from modernization and economic growth. National Unity cannot be fostered if vast sections of the population remain poor and if sufficient productive employment opportunities are not created for the expanding labour force

Policy benchmarks
The NEP had the stated goal of poverty eradication and economic restructuring to eliminate the identification of ethnicity with economic function. The initial target was to move the ratio of economic ownership in Malaysia from a 2.4:33:63 ratio of Bumiputra, Other Malaysian, Foreigner ownership to a 30:40:30 ratio. This was to be done by redistributing the wealth to increase the ownership of enterprise by Bumiputra from a 2.4% to 30% of the share of national wealth. The 30% target for Bumiputra equity was proposed by Ismail Abdul Rahman after the government was unable to come to a consensus on an appropriate policy goal.

Alongside this redistribution of wealth was the goal of increased economic growth. This economic growth would allow the non-Bumiputra share of the economy to decrease, while permitting the growth of non-Bumiputra business interests in absolute terms. In some quarters, this was referred to as "expanding pie theory": the Bumiputra share of the pie would increase, without reducing the size of the non-Bumiputra slices of the pie. This theory was first enunciated in the Second Malaysia Plan.

In 1975 the government created incentives to expand large-scale manufacturing industries and energy-intensive industries, targeting these industries and building policies around them. The Heavy Industries Corporation of Malaysia (HICOM), for example, was formed to assist in the manufacture of pig-iron, aluminium die casting, pulp and paper, steel, cement, motorcycle and heavy engineering. At the same time, export incentives were initiated.

Implementation
The abstract policies and goals of the NEP were implemented by the Second, Third, Fourth and Fifth Malaysia Plans.

Some specific requirements were introduced to achieve the 30% Bumiputra equity target set by the NEP. Among these was a requirement that all initial public offerings (IPOs) set aside a 30% share for Bumiputra investors. These investors could be selected by the company being listed on the stock exchange, or the Ministry of International Trade and Industry, which would normally recommend such state-owned trust agencies as Permodalan Nasional or the Armed Forces pension fund. These shares were initially heavily discounted, as IPO prices were often significantly lower than prices after the listing had taken place. However, this advantage has disappeared in recent years. Nevertheless, this regulation has been criticised, especially as the 30% target continues to apply after the IPO has occurred; if the Bumiputra investors divest their shares, the company must issue new shares to maintain the proportion of Bumiputra shares above 30%.

Results
Wealth in the hands of the bumiputras went from 4% in 1970 to about 20% in 1997. The overall wealth of the country grew; per capita GNP went from RM1,142 in 1970 to RM12,102 in 1997. During the same period, absolute poverty in the population as a whole dropped from 50% to 6.8%. It is unclear what role the NEP played in these changes.

The effects of the NEP on wealth distribution are disputed. The Gini index declined from 51.3 in 1970 to 44.6 in 1997, and 1987 figures indicated the mean income of the Malays had improved relative to both the Chinese and Indian communities. However, some have used 1997 statistics with 70.2 percent of households in the bottom 40 percent income group as Bumiputra, and 62.7 percent of households in the top 20 percent income bracket as non-Bumiputra, to argue that inequities remain. The Gini index also began to increase in the 1990s, going from 44.6 to 46.4 between 1990 and 1995; meanwhile, 1997 figures indicated that Chinese incomes were increasing at a rate double that of Malays'. Intra-ethnic income differences also increased markedly, especially among Malays.

Bumiputra participation in the professions and private sector increased as well, although Bumiputra remain somewhat under-represented. Between 1970 and 1990, the Bumiputra share of accountants doubled from 7 to 14 per cent, engineers from 7 to 35 per cent, doctors from 4 per cent to 28 per cent, and architects from 4 to 24 per cent. The Bumiputra portion of the share market – a figure frequently cited as "a measurement of overall community wealth", despite claims that it was misleading – increased from 2 to 20 per cent over the same period according to one academic's measurements. The Chinese share also increased from 37 to 46 per cent, at the expense of foreign participation. Official Kuala Lumpur Stock Exchange figures from 1998 were even more optimistic, indicating Bumiputra share ownership stood at 28.6% in 1990 and 36.7% in 1996.

The Chinese community in Malaysia accepted the NEP as a necessary evil to avoid Indonesian-style aggression, which the ruling party consistently instigate and deemed appropriate as their threat based policy. Furthermore, the Chinese community generally moved away from the public sector and set up businesses in the private sector, where the impact of the NEP was less pronounced.

In spite of the policies implemented under the NEP, the share of the national wealth owned by the non-Bumiputra races increased beyond the 40% mark. This figure, however, does not reflect that certain parts of the non-bumiputra population live in dire poverty. The Malaysian Indian and Orang Asli in particular form the lowest strata of the population in terms of economic ownership. The Orang Asli of Peninsular Malaysia are not considered Bumiputra under the Federal Constitution despite their indigenous status.

Reimplementation
Officially the term of the NEP ended in 1990. However, much of it remained in effect through other governmental policies; the New Straits Times reported that this was because as of 2007, "the government believes the aim of having 30 per cent Bumiputera equity has yet to be achieved". In 2006, it was reported that the NEP would be reinstated under the Ninth Malaysia Plan, the ninth in a series of five-year economic plans. Originally, the NEP was replaced by the National Development Policy (NDP), which ran from 1990 to 2000. The NDP was supposed to have then been replaced by the National Vision Policy (NVP), which would reportedly have lessened the aggressive affirmative action of the NEP and NDP. However, UMNO later called for the NEP to be reinstated.

Criticism
In recent years, the NEP has come under attack as being an inefficient system that promotes a laid-back attitude among the Bumiputra ; it is racial-based and not deprivation based. Several policies of the NEP which give economic advantage to the rich Bumiputra, such as Bumiputra quotas in ownership of public company stock, and housing being sold exclusively to Bumiputra, are viewed as discriminatory.

Many of the NEP policies strive for equality of results rather than equality of opportunity, with NEP proponents justifying the concentration on results rather than opportunity as by pointing out that measuring equality of opportunity is difficult or impossible. When the NEP was implemented, for example, it was announced that one of its goals was to have 30% of all equity in Bumiputra hands.

NEP critics have argued that setting a target of 30% of Bumiputra trained and certified to run companies would represent a better equality in terms of opportunity. Still others suggest this target may not work as training and certification does not necessarily guarantee equality of opportunity. Tun Abdul Razak's predecessor as prime minister, Tunku Abdul Rahman, also opposed the 30% target, writing in the 1980s that "[a]n attempt was made to fill the target without thought for the ability and the capability of attaining it. ... Some became rich overnight while others became despicable Ali Babas and the country suffered economic setbacks".

The NEP is also criticised for not dealing directly with issues of wealth distribution and economic inequality; that it no longer helps the poor but is instead an institutionalised system of handouts for the largest ethnic community in Malaysia as the NEP does not discriminate based on economic class. Bumiputra of high and low economic standing are entitled to the same benefits. The statistical problems of categorising wealthy and disadvantaged Bumiputra in one group also meant that the NEP's goal of having 30% of the national wealth held by Bumiputra was not indicative of a median 60% of Bumiputra holding 28% of the national wealth, but could theoretically translate into one Bumiputra holding 29% of the national wealth, with the remaining Bumiputra sharing 1%. Some have alleged that because of this imbalance, some Malays remain economically marginalised. Criticisms also arose from the fact that there was no planned assistance for Malaysian Chinese and Indian communities to achieve their 40% goal during the actual implementation of the NEP.

The manufacturing sector is exempted from the Foreign Investment Committee (FIC) Guidelines, the 30 per cent Bumiputera equity and restrictions in market entry have been removed for all sub-sectors.

Education
The education policy of the NEP is one of the plan's more controversial points.

Bumiputra were accorded quotas for admission to public universities until 2002. These quotas were fixed, however, and in later years meant that the Bumiputra were allotted a significantly lower percentage of places originally intended, as the population figures used to calculate the quotas were based on 1970s numbers. Despite this, the quotas were still considered by many non-Bumiputra as unfairly rewarding the Bumiputra. The government removed these quotas in 2003.

The removal of the quotas has done little to remedy the perceptions of Bumiputra bias in the public tertiary education system. Most Bumiputra opt to enter a one-year matriculation programme, which is considered by some to be less intensive than the two-year Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM) or Malaysian High Certificate of Education, which is equivalent to the British A-levels. Although the 'grade' standards required for admission are the same for both programmes, there is no moderation to ensure the difficulty of achieving a grade standard is the same between both programmes. The Malaysian High Certificate of Education (STPM) is open to all races, but the Matriculation programme has a 10% quota for non-Bumiputra (meaning that 90% of students admitted must be Bumiputra). In practice significantly more Bumiputra enter the matriculation program, even after normalising for ethnic demographics.

These differences predate the removal of hard quotas. The difference in academic routes in fact begins in secondary school. Many Bumiputra enter public boarding secondary schools (sekolah asrama) whereas most non-Bumiputra remain in normal public secondary schools. The exams taken are the same until form 5 but then most Bumiputra go on to matriculation, whereas non-Bumiputra do STPM. However, even Bumiputra who remain in 'normal' secondary schools usually do matriculation instead of STPM. The lack of public transparency in grading of the papers contributed to this criticism.

The removal of quotas was largely reported to have resulted in an increase in the percentage of Bumiputra entering public universities. The perceived bias towards Bumiputra has meant that non-Bumiputra who can afford to do so choose to enter private colleges or to go overseas to further their education. There is a significant proportion of non-Bumiputra who do not enter into contention for admission to public universities.

Critics argue that this policy of the NEP has also contributed to a brain drain. Others suggest that the NEP has contributed to racial polarisation and a feeling of marginalisation among the non-Malays.

However, as of 2007, Chinese Malaysians dominate the professions of accountants, architects and engineers while Indian Malaysians dominate the professions of veterinarians, doctors, lawyers and dentists well exceeding their respective population ratios compared to Bumiputra.

Changing mindsets
Some Bumiputra have spoken of reducing or eliminating the NEP; for example, Datuk Seri Abdullah Ahmad Badawi, Prime Minister of Malaysia, in his maiden speech as United Malays National Organisation (UMNO) president to the UMNO general assembly in 2004 stated "Let's not use the crutches for support all the time, the knee will become weak". Badawi went on to state that continued usage of crutches would eventually result in needing a wheelchair instead. As of October 2004, Badawi has not addressed any significant concerns about the NEP.

Not all Bumiputra political leaders shared Badawi's views. For example, Badruddin Amiruldin, who was elected as UMNO's Deputy Permanent chairman, waved a book about the 13 May incident at the assembly during his speech while declaring, "No other race has the right to question our privileges, our religion and our leader", continuing that any such action would be akin to "stirring up a hornet's nest". The following day, Dr. Pirdaus Ismail, a UMNO Youth Executive Committee member, stated, "Badruddin did not pose the question to all Chinese in the country. Those who are with us, who hold the same understanding as we do, were not our target. In defending Malay rights, we direct our voice at those who question them."

Agreement on the continued implementation (or reimplementation) is not always unanimous within the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition. In 2005, Khairy Jamaluddin, the UMNO deputy youth chief was debated by then MCA (the major Chinese component party of the ruling Barisan Nasional) vice-president Chua Jui Meng on a nationally televised debate – both leaders agreed to Chua's proposal to set up a national committee to review the NEP. However, as of 8 March 2008 general elections, this has yet to be implemented.

Because of the controversy over affirmative action policies in Malaysia, especially the NEP, it has been feared that the NEP may indirectly contribute to a decrease in foreign investment. In 2005, foreign investment fell by US$4 billion, or 14% which some commentators attributed to the controversy over the government's ethnic policies.

Equity calculation
The calculation of Bumiputra-held economic equity has been frequently disputed, with a number of allegations that the government intentionally underestimated the share of Bumiputra equity to justify the NEP and its related policies. Although many affirmative action measures of the NEP were continued under the National Development Policy which ran from 1990 to 2000, and later by the National Vision Policy set to run from 2000 to 2010 – leading many Malaysians to refer to the NEP in the present tense – the official Bumiputra equity share remained under the original 30% target.

In 2006, a major dispute arose when the Asian Strategic and Leadership Institute (ASLI) issued a report calculating Bumiputra-held equity at 45% – a stark difference from the official figure of 18.9%. The report's publication triggered a relatively vocal public debate about the status of the NEP and its related policies, with many from UMNO questioning the methodology used by ASLI. One strongly disputed issue was ASLI's decision to consider government-linked companies as Bumiputra-owned, inflating the calculated figure of Bumiputra equity. Although ASLI later withdrew the report, citing unspecified errors in its methodology, the debate did not die down. One political analyst suggested that "If Bumiputra equity is 45 per cent, then surely the next question is, why the need for Bumiputera rights? It has implications for government policy and it (removing indigenous rights) is one thing UMNO will never accept at present." Others have argued that the debate over inter-ethnic disparities has obscured intra-ethnic inequities, citing the increased Gini coefficient for Bumiputra (from 0.433 in 1999 to 0.452 in 2004), Chinese (0.434 to 0.446) and Indians (0.413 to 0.425).

A major point of dispute was the government's use of par value (as opposed to market value) of shares to calculate the equity held by Bumiputra. Many questioned the ASLI study on the basis that it had not used par value; conversely, others criticise the government for not using market value. On another note, some critics later noted that a 1997 University of Malaya study had calculated the Bumiputra share of equity to stand at 33.7%, using par value.

UMNO critics contend that the official figure does not take into account the huge volume of shares, amounting to 7.9 percent in 1999, that is held by nominee companies. Independent studies have revealed that politicians and political parties, including UMNO, have resorted to using nominee companies to conceal their ownership of corporate equity from public scrutiny. Also, branded conglomerates like Proton and Petronas are not regarded by the government as Bumiputra companies. This approach tends to exaggerate non-Malay purchasing power. It is also not clear if the government calculations included the 2.7 million unincorporated businesses in the country.

At the UMNO General Assembly that year, Education Minister and UMNO Youth Chief Hishamuddin Hussein quoted a local study indicating that at current rates, it would take the Malays "120 years to achieve income parity". He also cited a 2004 statistic indicating that for every RM 1 earned by a Malay, a Chinese earned RM 1.64 as evidence that the income gap had not been eliminated. The Deputy Youth Chief, Khairy Jamaluddin, proposed increasing the target "quota" if non-Malays continued to allege that the 30% target had been met, as "By any yardstick, the Malays are still left behind".

Brain drain
Many non-Malays (Chinese and Indians) have left Malaysia for other developed countries that do not practice policies that favor one race over the others in political, economical, and social contexts. This is believed to have led to the shortage of skilled workers, that directly caused the inability of Malaysia to pursue rapid economic development during the early 1960s until 1990s, during which the East Asian Tigers have done so.

NEP for the southern Thailand Muslims
The chief minister of Malaysia's Kelantan State also PAS (Islamic Party of Malaysia) spiritual leader Nik Aziz said that Thailand should consider introducing an affirmative action policy like Malaysia's to narrow the social and economic gap between the Muslims and non-Muslims and to put a plug to the surging violence in southern Thailand.  The Thai government can emulate this theory because it can narrow the economic gap among the races

Polls
71% of Malaysians agree with the statement that Barisan Nasional's "race-based affirmative action policy is obsolete and must be replaced with a merit-based policy", the survey poll was conducted by the independent Merdeka Centre between 18 June 2008 and 29 July 2008, the result showed that up to 65 per cent of Malays who were asked the question agreed that race-based affirmative action should be done away, compared with 83 per cent of Chinese and 89 per cent of Indian respondents.

Najib ready to end special privileges for Malays
In October 2008, the deputy prime minister Najib Razak said "if we do not change, the people will change us". "In the not-too-distant future, we will see all the elements of the New Economic Policy being replaced." "It's a huge challenge," "There must be this political will and desire to change within UMNO. I don't think we can expect people to look at us in more favourable terms unless we change, unless we rectify our weaknesses."

Other references

 * Bennet, Abang (30 October 2005). " UMNO: A threat to national prosperity". Malaysia Today.
 * Goh, Cheng Teik (1994). Malaysia: Beyond Communal Politics. Pelanduk Publications. ISBN 967-978-475-4.
 * Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim. (2007). Fundamental of Development Administration. Selangor: Scholar Press. ISBN 978-967-5-04508-0
 * Musa, M. Bakri (1999). The Malay Dilemma Revisited. Merantau Publishers. ISBN 1-58348-367-5.
 * Ye, Lin-Sheng (2003). The Chinese Dilemma. East West Publishing. ISBN 0-9751646-1-9.
 * James Chin (2009) James Chin. The Malaysian Chinese Dilemma: The Never Ending Policy (NEP), Chinese Southern Diaspora Studies, Volume 3, 2009, pp. 167–182
 * Durrishah Idrus (2003). New Economic Policy and the Birth of Malaysia's Own Industrial Relations System. Jurnal Kemanusiaan.
 * Just Faaland, Mukhriz Mahathir and Khairy Jamaluddin (2003). Malaysia's new economic policy: An overview. Utusan Publications & Distributors Sdn Bhd.
 * James Chin (2021) Affirmative Action at 50 in Malaysia A brief history and evaluation of the NEP, the never-ending policy, Tablet, 25 May

title: Malaysian New Economic Policy


text:
Wilson's bird-of-paradise

Wilson's bird-of-paradise (Diphyllodes respublica) is a species of passerine bird of the family Paradisaeidae.

The first footage of the Wilson's bird-of-paradise ever to be filmed was recorded in 1996 by David Attenborough for the BBC documentary Attenborough in Paradise. He did so by dropping leaves on the forest floor, which irritated the bird into clearing them away.

Nomenclature
The controversial scientific name respublica of this species was given by Charles Lucien Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew and a republican idealist. The habit of zoologists at that time to dedicate newly discovered species to some king, queen, or aristocrat deeply irritated him. In order to assert his convictions, he chose to name this species respublica to honour the republic and not the royalty.

Charles Lucien Bonaparte described the bird from a badly damaged trade specimen purchased by British ornithologist Edward Wilson. In doing so, he beat John Cassin, who wanted to name the bird in honour of Wilson, by several months. Thirteen years later, in 1863, the German zoologist Heinrich Agathon Bernstein discovered the home grounds of the Wilson's bird-of-paradise on Waigeo Island.

Distribution
An Indonesian endemic, the Wilson's bird-of-paradise is distributed to the hill and lowland rainforests of Waigeo and Batanta Islands off West Papua.

Due to ongoing habitat loss, limited range, and exploitation, the Wilson's bird-of-paradise is evaluated as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. It is listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES).

Habitat
Its preferred habitat is the hill forest at 300 m of altitude, more rarely the lowland rainforest and the middle mountain forest.

Description
Wilson's bird-of-paradise is rather small. Males can reach a length of 16 cm (21 cm including central rectrices) and a weight of 53–67 g., while females can reach a length of 16 cm, but a weight of 52–60 g. The male is a red and black bird-of-paradise, with a yellow mantle on its neck, light green mouth, rich blue feet, and two curved violet tail feathers. The head is naked blue, with a black double cross pattern on it. The female is a brownish bird with a bare blue crown.

In the field, the blue bare skin on the crown of the bird's head is so vivid that it is clearly visible by night; the deep scarlet back and velvet green breast are lush, the curlicue tail gleaming bright silver.

Diet
Their diet consists of fruits, insects, arthropods, and other small invertebrates.

Rituals of seduction
Males of these birds clear an area of rainforest to create a 'display court'. Then they perform an elaborate mating dance to impress a potential mate. The male usually exhibits an attractive breast shield and accompanies the mating dance with song and calls.

Courtship behavior
Male Wilson’s birds-of-paradise are the most colorful of all the species within the family, possessing a veritable rainbow of color. This remarkable example of hue and iridescence possesses all of the primary colors (and more) in different ways. The baby blue hue of its head is skin, not feathers, and is the result of structural color absent in any other member of birds-of-paradise. Yellow on the nape of its neck, followed by the crimson on its back are consistent, pigmented colors, present year-round. Its quirky, "handlebar-mustache-shaped" tail feathers are brilliantly iridescent, reflecting light to produce intense color to the eye of the beholder.

The sexual dimorphism of the species leaves the female very drab in comparison. Sexual dimorphism, or the difference in physical appearance between the sexes, is the result of female selection, in which females select males based upon indirect genetic benefits which increase offspring fitness. Because this species is polygynous, where one male mates with multiple females, the female is left on her own to raise young, forcing her to assess these indirect genetic benefits through courtship rituals, details of which are in the following section.

Dance

While these birds are difficult to locate in the wild and have not been studied in-depth, footage of the few mating rituals that have been witnessed for this species tells all. This species territorially defends a "court" in which it performs its vocalizations and physical maneuvers. Males will continually work to keep this area free of debris, making sure that nothing on the ground will distract from their displays. Males will perch on a vertical branch in the middle of their court, flexing their brilliant green fluorescent collar and calling out to females to attract them to their site. Females who are interested will perch above the male on the branch and watch as he weaves back and forth, calling to her and flexing the fluorescent collar. As was recently discovered when researchers filmed the dance from the female's perspective, as the male displays, he is basically a brilliant green disc, and the inside of his mouth is fluorescent, making him an astonishing beacon of brilliant color. This phenomenal display of color demonstrates the power of female sexual selection over male appearance and behavior in the animal kingdom.

title: Wilson's bird-of-paradise


text:
Shigematsu Sakaibara

Shigematsu Sakaibara (酒井原 繁松) was an admiral in the Imperial Japanese Navy, the Japanese garrison commander on Wake Island during World War II, and a convicted war criminal. He was responsible for ordering the Wake Island massacre, in which 98 American civilians were murdered by Japanese soldiers. Following Japan's surrender, Sakaibara was tried for war crimes and executed for his involvement.

Biography
A native of Yamagata prefecture in northern Japan, Sakaibara was a graduate of the 46th class of the Imperial Japanese Navy Academy in 1918, placing 36th in a class of 124. He served his midshipman tour on the cruiser Tokiwa, and after his commission as an ensign, was assigned to Hirado. He later served on the destroyer Kaba and battleship Mutsu.

As a sub-lieutenant, he served on the Iwate and after his promotion to lieutenant on December 1, 1924, he was assigned to the Hiei, Yura, and Sendai. He was chief gunnery officer on the Tatsuta. Promoted to lieutenant commander in 1930, he served as chief gunnery officer on Takao in 1934, followed by Mutsu in 1935. He was executive officer on Chikuma in 1939. After his promotion to captain in 1940, he served in a number of staff positions.

After the Battle of Wake Island on December 23, 1941, Sakaibara was appointed the garrison commander of the Japanese occupation force. Fearing an imminent attempt by American forces to retake the island, Sakaibara put 98 American civilians they had captured to work building a series of bunkers and fortifications in preparation for a suspected amphibious invasion.

On October 5, 1943, aircraft from USS Yorktown bombed Wake Island. Two days later, Sakaibara ordered the beheading of an American civilian worker who was caught stealing. Fearing an invasion, Sakaibara ordered the rest of them to be killed. They were taken to the northern end of the island, blindfolded and machine-gunned. One prisoner (whose name has never been discovered) escaped, carved a message into a rock about the incident but was then recaptured and personally beheaded by Sakaibara.

However, despite the massive assembly, the attack never came. Instead the United States Navy established a submarine blockade, causing the Japanese garrison to starve. United States forces bombed the island periodically from 1942 until Japan's surrender in 1945.

Sakaibara was promoted to rear admiral a year later, on October 15, 1944. The Japanese garrison on Wake Island formally surrendered to the United States on September 4, 1945. After the war, Sakaibara, his subordinate, Lieutenant Commander Shoichi Tachibana, and Toraji Ito, were taken into custody by the American occupation authorities. They initially claimed that the victims were killed in a bombing raid by U.S. forces, but later confessed to the massacre.

Sakaibara, Tachibana, and Ito were extradited to Kwajalein Island, where they were tried for war crimes by a U.S. military commission. Ito killed himself in custody. Sakaibara and Tachibana were both found guilty and sentenced to death in December 1945. Tachibana's sentence was commuted to life in prison, and he was sent to Sugamo Prison to serve out his sentence. Sakaibara was extradited to Guam for execution.

Just before he was sentenced, Sakaibara read out a final statement to the commission. He admitted that what he did was wrong and said he wished that he had never heard of Wake Island. However, Sakaibara also claimed that the United States had no moral authority to try him or others after using nuclear weapons on Japan. With that statement, many people in Sakaibara's hometown saw him as a victim of victor's justice.

Sakaibara was hanged in Guam on June 19, 1947. Until the end, he maintained, "I think my trial was entirely unfair and the proceeding unfair, and the sentence too harsh, but I obey with pleasure."

title: Shigematsu Sakaibara