text:
William Waldorf Astor

William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor (31 March 1848 – 18 October 1919) was an American-English attorney, politician, businessman (hotels and newspapers), and philanthropist. Astor was a scion of the very wealthy Astor family of New York City. He moved to England in 1891, became a British subject in 1899, and was made a peer as Baron Astor in 1916 and Viscount Astor in 1917 for his contributions to war charities. The census-designated place of Waldorf, Maryland is named after him.

Early life and education
William Waldorf Astor was born in New York City. He was the only child of the financier and philanthropist John Jacob Astor III (1822–1890) and Charlotte Augusta Gibbes (1825–1887). He studied in Germany and in Italy under the care of private tutors and a governess.

In his early adult years, Astor returned to the United States and went to Columbia Law School, graduating with a LL.B. in 1875. He was called to the United States Bar in 1875. He worked for a short time in law practice and in the management of his father's estate of financial and real estate holdings.

Personal life
Astor married Mary Dahlgren Paul (born 1858, died 22 December 1894) on 6 June 1878. She is buried in Trinity Church Cemetery Manhattan. They had five children:

 * Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor (19 May 1879 — 30 September 1952)
 * Pauline Astor (24 September 1880 — 5 May 1972), married soldier and politician Herbert Spender-Clay (1875–1937) in 1904. They had three daughters.
 * John Rudolph Astor (28 September 1881 died 28 December 1881), buried in Trinity Church Cemetery.
 * Lt. Col. John Jacob Astor V, 1st Baron Astor of Hever (20 May 1886 — 19 July 1971)
 * Gwendolyn Enid Astor (1889 — 1902), no children, buried in Trinity Church Cemetery.

Politics
After some time practising law, Astor thought he had found his true calling and an opportunity to make a name for himself outside of his family's fortune by entering the political realm. In 1877, with his eyes set on the United States Congress, Astor entered New York City politics as a Republican.

He was elected as a member of the New York State Assembly (New York Co., 11th D.) in 1878; and of the New York State Senate (10th D.) in 1880 and 1881. Astor was likely supported by the boss of the New York State Republican machine, Roscoe Conkling, with whom his family was involved.

In 1880, the Maryland General Assembly voted to rename Beantown in Charles County, Maryland "Waldorf" in honor of him.

In 1881, Astor was defeated by Roswell P. Flower as a candidate for the United States Congress. A second attempt at the seat also resulted in defeat. His shy nature could not handle the political attacks on his character. This was the end of his political career. The press used his political failures as fodder for harsh criticisms.

In 1882, President Chester A. Arthur appointed Astor Minister to Italy, a post he held until 1885. He told Astor, "Go and enjoy yourself, my dear boy." While living in Rome, Astor developed a lifelong passion for art and sculpture.

Move to England
Upon the death of his father in February 1890, Astor inherited a personal fortune that made him the second richest man in America. Economists widely agree that John D. Rockefeller was the wealthiest American of that time.

In 1890 Astor initiated the construction of the luxurious Waldorf Hotel on the site of his former residence. At 13 stories high, it overshadowed the adjacent mansion of his aunt, the socialite Caroline "Lina" Schermerhorn Astor. Lina complained bitterly about the commercial establishment next door. However, in 1897, her son John Jacob Astor IV persuaded her to move away and replaced their mansion with the slightly larger in height and width, Astoria Hotel, which was operated as an extension of the Waldorf; the complex became the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.

In the meantime, the friction had blown up into a feud. Aunt Lina also insisted that she, not William's wife Mary, was the Mrs. Astor in New York society, just as she had when that title belonged to her husband's elder brother's wife, Charlotte Astor, when she was alive.

As a result of the conflict, Astor moved with his wife and children to England. He rented Lansdowne House in London until 1893. That year, he purchased a country estate, Cliveden in Taplow, Buckinghamshire, from the Duke of Westminster. In 1899, William Waldorf Astor picked up British citizenship, which drew him further away from American history.

To disappear from public view, in the summer of 1892, Astor faked his own death by having his staff report to American reporters that he had died, apparently from pneumonia. However, the ruse was soon discovered, and Astor was mocked in the press.

In 1895, he built a gothic mansion on London's Victoria Embankment at Two Temple Place overlooking the River Thames. He commissioned architect John Loughborough Pearson to design a $1.5 million building, a "crenellated Tudor stronghold" which he used as an office for managing his extensive holdings.

Astor made several business acquisitions while he lived in London. In 1892, he purchased the Pall Mall Gazette, and in 1893 established the Pall Mall Magazine. In 1911 he acquired The Observer, a national newspaper. In 1912 he sold the Magazine, and in 1914 made a present of the Gazette and The Observer, with the building in Newton Street and its contents, to his son Waldorf Astor.

In 1903, he acquired the Hever Castle Estate near Edenbridge, Kent, about 30 miles south of London. The estate of over 3,500 acres had at its centre a castle built in 1270 where Anne Boleyn lived as a child. Astor invested a great deal of time and money in restoring the castle, building what is known as the "Tudor Village", and creating a lake and lavish gardens. He also added the Italian Garden (including fernery) to display his collection of statuary and ornaments.

In 1906, he gave his eldest son Waldorf Astor and his new daughter-in-law, Nancy Witcher Langhorne, the Cliveden estate as well as the Sancy diamond as wedding presents. Nancy Astor (as she became on her marriage) became Britain's first seated female Member of Parliament.

In 1908, building on his success with the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel in New York, Astor financed the Waldorf Hotel in London's West End.

Philanthropy and peerage
Astor became a British subject in 1899. He continued his philanthropic activities, like his father. Among the charities he supported were the Hospital for Sick Children, Great Ormond Street (to which he gave $250,000 in 1903); University College London (including a gift of £20,000 in 1902 for professorships ); the Cancer Research Fund; Oxford University; Cambridge University; the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children; the British Red Cross Society; Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum; the Soldiers and Sailors Families Association; and the Women's Memorial to Queen Victoria. His gifts to war charities included $125,000 to the Prince of Wales's National Relief Fund; a similar amount to Princess Louise's Officers' Families Fund; $200,000 to the British Red Cross; $25,000 to Queen Mary's Employment Committee; and a similar sum to the Lord Mayor's National Bands Fund. He gave $5,000 to King Edward's Hospital Fund annually starting with its founding in 1897.

In recognition of his work for charity, on 1 January 1916, he was offered and accepted a peerage of the United Kingdom under the title of Baron Astor. On 3 June 1917, he was elevated to the rank of viscount as the Viscount Astor. The elevation was controversial, as some felt that a rich American had bought his way into the English aristocracy.

Death
On 18 October 1919, he unexpectedly died of heart failure in the lavatory of his seaside house at Brighton in Sussex. His ashes were buried under the marble floor of the Astor family chapel (also called the Octagon Temple) at Cliveden.

Descendants
Through his son John Jacob Astor, 1st Baron Astor of Hever, he is a great-great-grandfather of Harry Marcus George Lopes (b. 1977), who married Laura Rose Parker Bowles, the second child of Andrew Parker Bowles and Queen Camilla, thus making her the stepdaughter of King Charles III.

Written works

 * Valentino: An Historical Romance of the Sixteenth Century in Italy (1885)
 * Sforza, a Story of Milan (1889)
 * Pharaoh's Daughter and Other Stories (1890)
 * The Astor collection of illuminated manuscripts : auction in London, 21st June 1988, Sotheby's: twenty illuminated manuscripts from the celebrated collection of William Waldorf Astor, ...from the library at Cliveden, and subsequently part of the Astor deposit at the Bodleian Library, sold by the order of the Trustees of the astor family, Sotheby's, 1988.

title: William Waldorf Astor


text:
Doormat

Doormat may refer to:
 * Mat, a piece of fabric material that is placed on a floor or other flat surface
 * "Doormat", song by No Doubt on their 1992 album No Doubt
 * "Doormat", song by Spazz on their 1994 album Dwarf Jester Rising
 * John Doormat, main character of the eponymous 1950s cartoon series

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Doormat


text:
Peter Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth

Peter Murray Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth, (1 May 1930 – 28 April 1997) was the Lord Chief Justice of England from 1992 until 1996.

Family
Taylor came from a Yiddish-speaking Jewish parents of Lithuanian descent, Herman Louis Taylor, a doctor, and Raie Helena Taylor ( Shockett). The original family surname was reportedly Teiger or Teicher. His father was born in Leeds; his mother came from the rabbinical Palterovich family who had emigrated to Leeds in 1895. Taylor had a brother, Arthur, and a sister, Dorothy. By the time of his birth, the family lived in Newcastle upon Tyne. Taylor passed the 11-plus and attended the Royal Grammar School. During World War II, Newcastle was subject to bombing raids and Taylor was evacuated to Penrith where he lived in a house without either running water or mains electricity.

Early career
In 1951, Taylor won an exhibition to Pembroke College, Cambridge, to study law. He was also a talented pianist, continuing to play for the whole of his life. He graduated in 1953 with an upper second class degree and then read for the Bar, being called in 1954. He chose to practise on the north-eastern circuit around Newcastle and joined the chambers of Norman Harper. He conducted mainly criminal cases, often for the prosecution, and at a very early age 'took silk' to become a Queen's Counsel in 1967; he occasionally appeared for the defence. On one such occasion, judge Sir Melford Stevenson deemed him a threat to the administration of justice.

Famous cases
Taylor attracted attention from 1973 when he appeared for the prosecution in several cases connected to the corrupt architect John Poulson, including that of Poulson himself. Over the next three years, the prosecutions succeeded and many of those involved were jailed. In 1974, Taylor successfully prosecuted Judith Ward who was convicted of a series of IRA bombings (many years later, the conviction was found to have been a miscarriage of justice, mostly through Ward's delusions of her own guilt). He also prosecuted Stefan Kiszko in July 1976, in what would become one of the most notorious miscarriages of justice in British Law in the 20th Century. Taylor also took on John Ryman, a fellow Barrister and Labour Member of Parliament for Blyth Valley who was found to have submitted fraudulent election expenses.

The most high-profile trial in which Taylor appeared took place in 1979 and the defendant was former Liberal Party leader Jeremy Thorpe who was accused of conspiracy to murder. Although all involved were acquitted, most observers put this down to the summing-up of the trial judge and the malpractice of the prosecution witnesses; Taylor won praise for his handling of the case. His opening address is frequently quoted; Taylor's style of oratory was deliberately concise and straightforward but he had a talent for a punning literary allusion.

Judge
Taylor had been first appointed a recorder (part-time judge) in 1969 and served as a recorder in the Crown Court from 1972. After serving as Chairman of the Bar Council for 1979–80, he was made a full High Court judge in the Queen's Bench Division, receiving the customary knighthood. One of his first cases saw him give Bromley London Borough Council permission to challenge the Greater London Council's "Fare's Fair" policy of lowering public transport fares. In 1983, Taylor held that a Pakistani man who had pronounced Talaq and notified the authorities in Pakistan had not divorced his wife according to English law.

In 1984, Taylor largely sided with Mary Whitehouse who brought a case against the Independent Broadcasting Authority over the feature film version of Scum (1979); he said the Director-General of the IBA had made "a grave error of judgment" in allowing the film to be shown. The next year, he held that Nottinghamshire police had acted negligently in firing CS gas into a house knowing there would be a fire risk and not having fire engines on standby. In 1987 he stated that he did not accept that a judge could not inquire further when a minister raised a justification of 'national security' for their actions (the case concerned the telephone tapping of Joan Ruddock).

Court of Appeal
In 1988, Taylor was promoted to the Court of Appeal. There he became known to the public on 17 April 1989 when he was commissioned by the government to undertake an inquiry into the Hillsborough disaster two days previously. The Taylor Report he produced led to the introduction of all-seater stadia at all top English football clubs, and the removal of fences around fans sitting areas. Standing accommodation was seen as a risk due to the increased chances of a "crush", and the security fences which Taylor describes as treating spectators like "prisoners of war" were also a hazard in crushes as they claimed the lives of most of the 97 people who ultimately lost their lives at Hillsborough; 94 of them died on the day of the disaster, a 95th died several days later, and the final victim died in March 1993 having never regained consciousness.

Taylor's recommendations, published on 29 January 1990, stated that all First and Second Division (which became the Premier League and Division One in 1992) stadiums had to be all-seater by August 1994, and that the rest of the Football League should follow suit by August 1999. However, the Football Association later ruled that the smaller clubs could retain standing accommodation provided that their stadiums met safety requirements, while clubs promoted to the upper reaches of the league would be allowed standing accommodation at their stadiums for up to three years after promotion.

Taylor's popularity as a former Chairman of the Bar Council and as a fair judge who could plausibly claim to have been in touch with all aspects of British life led to his being considered the favourite to take over from Lord Lane when Lane retired from the job of Lord Chief Justice, a retirement which seemed all the more likely due to the criticism of Lane for his stance on a succession of miscarriages of justice. Taylor was duly appointed when Lane stepped down in 1992, at the same time being created a life peer as Baron Taylor of Gosforth, of Embleton in the County of Northumberland on 27 April 1992.

Lord Chief Justice
Where Lane had been extremely reticent about giving interviews, Taylor was determined to be as open as possible. Not only did he start his tenure by holding an unprecedented press conference, he appeared as a guest on BBC television's Question Time and as a castaway on Desert Island Discs. Within a few months of taking over he accepted an invitation to give the annual Dimbleby Lecture on "The judiciary in the nineties" in which he cast himself as a reformer. He supported moves to stop judges wearing wigs in court.

Unlike previous holders of the office, Taylor concentrated almost exclusively on appeals rather than acting as a trial judge. This was partly because a backlog had grown up but also because of the much increased concern over a series of cases going back many years which were being proved to be miscarriages of justice. Taylor differed from his immediate predecessor in considering this an immensely serious issue, and knew from his own experience of prosecuting Judith Ward and Stefan Kiszko that many more cases could come to light. This led him to strong support of the full disclosure of prosecution evidence (he also supported moves towards disclosure of defence evidence).

Taylor was with the grain of public opinion in supporting stronger sentences on drunk drivers who killed, and he also extended the range of defences available to domestic violence victims who fought back. He also extended the concept of murder to include the abortion of unborn children in their mother's womb. Due to his unusual openness, his view was often heard on matters of political controversy: he could live with the change to allow juries to draw adverse inferences from a defendant's silence when interviewed, but opposed moves restricting the right of an accused to elect trial by jury.

Taylor was profoundly affected by the death of his wife Irene in 1995. Shortly afterwards he was diagnosed with a brain tumour. The last appeal he heard was that of Rosemary West, which he turned down. He stepped down in 1996, although did not go quietly: in a series of speeches in the House of Lords over the next year he strongly attacked proposals from the then Home Secretary, Michael Howard, to introduce mandatory sentencing, which he said "must involve a denial of justice". Taylor had defended the traditional right of the defendant to silence, a battle ultimately lost, and criticised the delay in setting up a body to review miscarriages of justice, something recommended by the 1993 Royal Commission headed by Viscount Runciman of Doxford.

Illness and death
Peter Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth, died of cancer in 1997, aged 66, at his home in Guildford, Surrey. He was survived by three daughters: Ruth, Deborah and Judith; and a son, Louis.

title: Peter Taylor, Baron Taylor of Gosforth


text: Template:British coinage

title: Template:British coinage


text:
User:Inge Boesken Kanold

Purple, the Color from the Sea.

The purple of ancient civilizations, also called Royal Purple, has a reputation of supremacy.Throughout antiquity, it is considered the most beautiful, the most stable and the most precious of all the colors. It is used to dye the wool and silk garments of sovereigns.

Traces of its production can be found all around the Mediterranean and elsewhere in the world. Pliny the Elder (1st century A.D.) mentions it at length in his « Natural History ».

Numerous examples in the Bible give proof of the importance of this color, which was at first reserved for the cult of Yahve, later on for the kings of Israel and the emperors of Persia. Alexander the Great has the funerary pile of his friend Hephestion draped with purple. Later on, Cleopatra’s galley carries sails dyed purple.

Twelve thousand sea snails ( Murex trunculus, M.brandaris, Thais haemastoma and others) are needed in order to extract 1,4 grams of the colorant. The snails die in the procedure of extraction. Purple is exclusively used in a dye bath.

In Rome, Nero punishes with death and confiscation of all belongings anyone found wearing or even buying the imperial purple. The supremacy of this color continues until the fall of the Byzantine Empire in 1453. This event symbolically marks the end of the Middle Ages, the beginning of the Renaissance and, with the discovery of the American continent, that of the new world.

Purple is then forgotton. Eventually, some individuals make a discovery : the color is secreted by the hypobranchial gland of the sea snail. Upon exposure to light and air, this transparent gland turns yellow at first, then green, then blue and finally ends up a violet red or other nuances. Only the person involved with the extraction is able to see this transformation. The color was never mixed with others. The dyers of old, however, knew how to imitate it ; for example, in using madder and indigo. Therefore it is likely - and scientific analysis confirms this - that purple when represented in painting is but the image of this color.

Until very recently, we did not know how to extract the pigment for the use in painting. It is in 1979, while living in Lebanon, the home of Tyrian Purple, that I first encountered this color. I tried to extract the dry pigment, but I have failed. Consequently, I used the organic material directly to paint my first "water color".

My fascination with purple has to do with the mystery of its past. With its provident transformation entirely linked to air and sunlight, to finally manifest itself in many nuances, among which a people chose a single one : tekhelet, the blue purple in order to represent the highest abstraction man has been able to invent.

© Inge Boesken Kanold (http://www.artemision.free.fr/boesken/index_e.htm)

title: User:Inge Boesken Kanold


text:
William Whiteway

Sir William Vallance Whiteway, (April 1, 1828 – June 24, 1908) was a politician and three time Premier of Newfoundland.

Life and career
Born in Littlehempston, Devon, England, Whiteway emigrated to Newfoundland in 1843 and entered the law in 1852. In 1859 he was elected to the House of Assembly as a member of the Conservative Party of Newfoundland and became a supporter of Canadian confederation. He lost his seat in the 1869 election on confederation but returned in 1874 and served as Solicitor-General in the government of Sir Frederick Carter before becoming Premier in 1878 when he succeeded Carter as leader of the Conservatives. He was made a Queen's Counsel in 1865. While serving as Solicitor-General, Whiteway was one of the counsel representing the British Government before the Halifax Fisheries Commission, which adjudicated a dispute over north Atlantic fishing rights between the British Empire and the United States. The Commission gave an award of $5,500,000 to be paid by the United States to the British Government. Newfoundland received $1,000,000 as its share of the award.

Whiteway's major policy ambition was the construction of the transinsular railway spanning the island which was begun in 1881 and which he believed would spur economic development of the colony. In 1885 his Conservative party was destroyed by sectarian riots, known as The Harbour Grace Affray, at Harbour Grace which resulted in several Protestants leaving the Whiteway government in protest over its conciliatory attitude towards Catholics. Leading the dissenters was James Spearman Winter, Whiteway's Solicitor-General and grand master of Newfoundland's Orange Order.

The Orangemen joined with Robert Thorburn, an opponent of Whiteway's railway who felt that the colony should focus on the fishery, to form the Reform Party and win the 1885 election on a Protestant Rights platform.

In Opposition Whiteway founded a new Liberal Party of Newfoundland which won office in 1889 returning Whiteway as Premier on the issue of the railway. His government was forced to resign in 1894, however, due to allegations of electoral corruption in the previous year's election.

The Tories had argued that Whiteway's Liberals had promised jobs to Newfoundlanders who voted for him and filed petitions in the Supreme Court under the Corrupt Practices Act against fifteen Liberal members of the House alleging bribery and corruption. The members were tried and found guilty and their seats were declared vacant. On April 3, 1894, while the trials were still underway, Whiteway asked Governor of Newfoundland Sir Herbert Murray to dissolve the House of Assembly for a new election. The Governor refused and asked the Tory leader, Augustus F. Goodridge to form a government despite the fact that the Tories had only 12 seats to 21 for the Liberals. As Liberal seats were declared vacant due to guilty verdicts the standings in the House at the end of the process in August were 8 Conservatives, 9 Liberals and 19 vacancies. Whiteway himself had been found guilty, his seat declared vacant, and under the provisions of the law, he was barred from seeking election to the House of Assembly or sitting in government.

The Governor enabled Goodridge to remain in office by continually proroguing the House in order to prevent the government's fall through a Motion of No Confidence.

By-elections were held throughout the fall in which the Liberals retained the seats they had been disbarred from, losing just two, while picking up two from the Conservatives in return. The last by-election was held on November 12, 1894, a full year after the general election. In the interim, 21 by-elections had been held, resulting in a virtual return to the status quo.

Goodridge remained as premier until December 12, 1894, two days after the failure of two banks crippled the economy. Daniel J. Greene, acting Liberal leader, was sworn in as premier the next day.

His government passed the Disabilities Removal Act, which allowed all those members who had been disqualified to run as candidates as well as sit in government. Greene then resigned so that Whiteway could be sworn in as premier for a third time. In the face of Newfoundland's financial crisis following the bank crash, Whiteway's government began a new round of negotiations with Canada to bring Newfoundland into confederation but the discussions were unsuccessful.

Whiteway's Liberals lost the 1897 election, resulting in his retirement from politics. He was succeeded as Liberal leader by Sir Robert Bond.

Family
The Hon. William Vallance Whiteway, Q.C., married as his second wife, October 22, 1872, Catherine Anne Davies, daughter of W. H. Davies, of Pictou, Nova Scotia. The couple, who resided at Riverview, St. John's, Newfoundland had three sons and three daughters. One daughter, Harriet Louise Whiteway, married, June 2, 1897, Peers Davidson, son of the Hon. Mr. Justice Davidson, Montreal.

title: William Whiteway


text:
Nevada County

Nevada County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Nevada County, Arkansas
 * Nevada County, California

title: Nevada County


text:
Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor

Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor, DL (19 May 1879 – 30 September 1952) was an American-born English politician and newspaper proprietor. He was a member of the Astor family. He was active in minor political roles. He was devoted to charitable projects, and with his more famous wife Nancy became a prominent fixture in upper class English society.

Early life
Astor was born in New York City. He was the eldest son of William Waldorf Astor, 1st Viscount Astor, and Mary Dahlgren Paul. His younger brothers were John Rudolph Astor (who died young) and John Jacob Astor V, Baron Astor of Hever. He spent much of his life traveling and living in Europe before his family settled in England in 1889. There Waldorf attended Eton College and New College, Oxford, where he excelled as a sportsman, earning accolades for both fencing and polo. For the Oxford University Polo Club he played side on side with Devereux Milburn in successive Varsity Matches, winning by a margin of 14 goals on both occasions.

Marriage and children
In 1905, while a passenger on an Atlantic voyage returning to Britain, Astor met Nancy Langhorne Shaw, a divorced woman with a young son (Robert Gould Shaw III). Coincidentally, both he and Mrs Shaw shared the same birthdate, May 19, 1879, and both were American. After a rapid courtship, the two married in May 1906. As a wedding gift, Waldorf's father gave him and his bride the Sancy diamond and the family estate at Cliveden, which Nancy redecorated and modernised with the installation of electricity.

 * William Waldorf Astor II, 3rd Viscount Astor (13 August 1907 — 7 March 1966)
 * Nancy Phyllis Louise Astor (22 March 1909 — 2 March 1975)
 * Francis David Langhorne Astor (5 March 1912 — 6 December 2001)
 * Michael Langhorne Astor (10 April 1916 — 26 February 1980)
 * Major Sir John Jacob "Jakie" Astor VII (29 August 1918 — 10 September 2000)

Through his wife Astor developed an interest in social reform.

Public career
Nancy also encouraged her husband to launch a career in politics. Though defeated in an initial attempt to win election to the House of Commons in the January 1910 general election, Astor won election as a Unionist for the borough of Plymouth in the December 1910 general election. He held the seat until the constituency was abolished in 1918, after which he moved to the borough of Plymouth Sutton. Despite his political affiliation, Astor quickly demonstrated his independence by his support for the so-called "People's Budget" and the National Insurance Act of 1911.

In 1911, Astor was approached by James Louis Garvin, the editor of The Observer, about purchasing the newspaper from its owner, the press baron Lord Northcliffe. Northcliffe and Garvin had a disagreement over the issue of Imperial Preference, and Northcliffe had given Garvin the option of finding a buyer for the paper. Astor convinced his father to purchase the paper, which William did on the condition that Garvin also agree to edit the Pall Mall Gazette, which was also a property of the Astor family. Though his father provided the funds, it was Waldorf who was in charge of the paper, and he developed a harmonious working relationship with Garvin. William formally turned over ownership of both papers to his son in 1915, who promptly sold the Pall Mall Gazette but retained ownership of The Observer.

Following the outbreak of the First World War, Astor joined the Army. Having been diagnosed with a bad heart, Astor was unable to serve in combat and instead fought waste and inefficiency in munitions production. He was appointed an Inspector of Administrative Services, with the temporary rank of major, on 20 October 1914, serving until January 1917, when he resigned his commission and was granted the honorary rank of major. When his friend David Lloyd George became prime minister and formed a new coalition government, Astor became his parliamentary private secretary. In 1918 he served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Food and from 1919 until 1921 he served as Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Health while also playing a prominent role as a member of Lloyd George's "garden suburb" of advisers.

In 1916, father William Waldorf Astor was elevated to the peerage as Viscount Astor. Upon the death of his father in October 1919, Waldorf Astor succeeded to the viscountcy and became the 2nd Viscount Astor despite Waldorf's attempts to disclaim the title. Now a member of the House of Lords, Astor was forced to forfeit his seat in the House of Commons, though he remained active in the government. The seat was won subsequently in a by-election by Astor's wife Nancy, who became the second woman elected to the House of Commons and the first woman to take her seat in the House, after the first woman elected, Constance Markievicz, had declined in accordance with her (Sinn Féin) party's policy. Nancy retained the seat until she stepped down in the 1945 general election.

Later years
With his political career eclipsed by that of his wife, Waldorf turned to greater involvement in charitable causes. He became governor of the Peabody Trust and Guy's Hospital, while his interest in international relations fuelled his involvement with the Royal Institute of International Affairs, and he served as its chairman from 1935 to 1949. He was also a considerable benefactor to the city of Plymouth, and served as its Lord Mayor from 1939 to 1944. He was appointed Honorary Colonel of the Devonport, Plymouth-based Devonshire Heavy Brigade, Royal Artillery of the Territorial Army on 5 April 1929.

Astor first got involved in horseracing, whilst an undergraduate, when he purchased a filly called Conjure for 100 guineas. He later bought two other fillies/mares called Maid of the Mist and Popinjay and these three became the foundation mares of Astor's Cliveden Stud that he established near to his home. He became a successful owner-breeder and in all won 11 Classic races. These were; Two Thousand Guineas Stakes:- Craig an Eran (1921), Pay Up (1936) and Court Martial (1945); One Thousand Guineas Stakes:- Winkipop (1910) and Saucy Sue (1925); Oaks Stakes:- Sunny Jane (1917), Pogrom (1922), Saucy Sue (1925), Short Story (1926) and Pennycomequick (1929); and St Leger Stakes:- Book Law (1927). He famously never won the Derby but had the second placed horse 5 times. In addition to these successes he had 4 winners of the Eclipse Stakes, 3 winners of the St. James's Palace Stakes and 2 winners of the Champion Stakes. To this day he still holds the record for the number of winners (7) of Royal Ascot's important Coronation Stakes. He bred all of these horses and they all emanated from his three foundation mares.

In 1950, in poor health, he decided to withdraw from racing. He handed over his stud to his eldest son William and divided his bloodstock between William and his youngest son Jakie (John Jacob). The two brothers tossed a coin and then took alternate choices of the thoroughbred stock. The eldest son continued using his racing colours of pale blue and pink and Jakie's colours were a variation on this.

During the military buildup in Germany in the 1930s, the Astors promoted entente with Germany, seen by critics as appeasement of Hitler. Many of their associates felt sympathy for the state of Germany after World War I, feared Communism, and supported the position of the British government. Astor had antisemitic views and in the 1930s he told Thomas Jones that Germany was criticised because, "Newspapers are influenced by those firms which advertise so largely in the press and are frequently under Jewish control."

In 1940, they urged Neville Chamberlain to resign and supported Churchill as replacement. He also supported war against Germany when it came although both remained uncomfortable with Joseph Stalin as an ally (from 1941). His son David Astor, who became owner and editor of The Observer in 1948, never forgave Claud Cockburn and his newssheet The Week for attacks on the "Cliveden Set".

The Astor family donated Cliveden Estate in Buckinghamshire to the National Trust in 1942.

Viscount Astor died on 30 September 1952 at Cliveden near Taplow, England, and was buried in the Octagon Temple at Cliveden. His eldest son Bill succeeded him as Viscount.

title: Waldorf Astor, 2nd Viscount Astor


text:
Talk:Classical period (music)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 October 2021
in where the harpsichord and piano are first mentioned, please consider that,most piano hammer are covered with felt instead of leather nowadays. 24.77.96.251 (talk) 22:26, 3 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. ScottishFinnishRadish (talk) 00:26, 4 October 2021 (UTC)
 * I would add -- I think this level of detail looks a little out-of-place in the lede, and (if we discuss it at all in this article) should be in a subsequent section. Antandrus (talk) 00:32, 4 October 2021 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Introduction to Public Musicology
— Assignment last updated by Christopherbowers176 (talk) 00:48, 4 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Classical period (music)


text:
Radicals (UK)

The Radicals were a loose parliamentary political grouping in Great Britain and Ireland in the early to mid-19th century who drew on earlier ideas of radicalism and helped to transform the Whigs into the Liberal Party.

Early Radicals
The Radical movement arose in the late 18th century to support parliamentary reform, with additional aims including lower taxes and the abolition of sinecures. John Wilkes's reformist efforts in the 1760s, as editor of The North Briton and as an MP, were seen as radical at the time, but support dropped away after the Massacre of St George's Fields in 1768. Working class and middle class "Popular Radicals" agitated to demand the right to vote and assert other rights, including freedom of the press and relief from economic distress, while "Philosophic Radicals" strongly supported parliamentary reform, but were generally hostile to the arguments and tactics of the Popular Radicals. However, the term "Radical" itself, as opposed to "reformer" or "Radical Reformer", only emerged in 1819 during the upsurge of protest following the successful conclusion of the Napoleonic War. Henry "Orator" Hunt was the main speaker at the Manchester meeting in 1819 that ended in the Peterloo Massacre; Hunt was elected MP for the Preston division in 1830–1832. The "root and branch" of the reforms which the adjective radical suggests, and at the time still strongly in concept denoted by reference to all its previous main uses, is the British constitution, which is not codified or restricted to particular customs, laws or documents.

Radicals and the Great Reform Act
Radicals inside and outside Parliament were divided over the merits of the Whig Reform Act 1832. Some continued to press for the ballot and universal suffrage, but the majority (as mobilised in unions like the Birmingham Political Union) saw abolition of the rotten boroughs as a major step towards the destruction of what they called "Old Corruption" or "The Thing": "In consequence of the boroughs, all our institutions are partial, oppressive, and aristocratic. We have an aristocratic church, an aristocratic bar, an aristocratic game-code, aristocratic taxation....all is privilege".

The 1832 parliament elected on the new franchise – which raised the percentage of the adult population eligible to vote from some 3% to 6% – contained some fifty or sixty Radicals. This number shortly doubled in the 1835 election, leading many to envisage a House of Commons eventually divided between Radicals on the one side and conservatives (Tories and Whigs) on the other.

In fact, the Radicals failed either to take over an existing party, or to create a new, third force and there were three main reasons. The first was the continuing strength of Whig electoral power in the half-century following the 1832 Act. The latter had expressly been designed to preserve Whig landlord influence in the counties and the remaining small borough – one reason a radical like Henry Hetherington condemned the bill as "an invitation to the shopocrats of the enfranchised towns to join the Whiggocrats of the country". Whigs were also able to profit in two-member constituencies from electoral pacts made with a more reforming candidate.

Secondly, there was the widening body of reforming opinion inside (and outside) Parliament concerned with other, unrelated causes, including international liberalism, anti-slavery, educational and pro-temperance reforms, admissibility of non-Anglicans ("nonconformists") to positions of power. The latter expanded later to disestablishmentarianism which replaced the old local government units of the simple parish unit vestry by the mid-nineteenth century, devising instead civil (non-religious) parishes for almost all areas.

Thirdly, the Radicals were always more a body of opinion than a structured force. They lacked any party organisation, formal leadership, or unified ideology. Instead, humanitarian Radicals opposed philosophic Radicals over the Factory Acts; political Radicals seeking a slimmed-down executive opposed Benthamite interventionists; universal suffrage men competed for time and resources with free traders – the Manchester men.

By 1859, the Radicals had come together with the Whigs and the anti-protectionist Tory Peelites to form the Liberal Party, though with the New Radicalism of figures like Joseph Chamberlain they continued to have a distinctive political influence into the closing years of the nineteenth century.

Continuing agitation and reform
Following the First Reform Act, popular demand for wider suffrage was taken up by the mainly working-class movement Chartism. Meanwhile, Radical leaders like Richard Cobden and John Bright in the middle class Anti-Corn Law League emerged to oppose the existing duties on imported grain which helped farmers and landowners by raising the price of food, but which harmed consumers and manufacturers. After the success of the League on the one hand and the failure of Chartist mass demonstrations and petitions in 1848 to sway parliament on the other, demand for suffrage and parliamentary reform slowly re-emerged through the parliamentary radicals.

By 1866, with agitation from John Bright and the Reform League, the Liberal Prime Minister Earl Russell introduced a modest bill which was defeated by both Tories and reform Liberals, forcing the government to resign. A Conservative minority government led by the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli took office and introduced the Reform Act 1867 – which almost doubled the electorate, giving many working men the vote – in a somewhat opportunistic party fashion.

Further Radical pressure led to the Ballot Act 1872 and the Corrupt and Illegal Practices Act of 1883, followed by the Representation of the People Act 1884. Progressive liberals like John Morley and Joseph Chamberlain continued to value radicalism as a unifying bridge between the classes, and a common goal. However, in 1886 Chamberlain helped form the breakaway Liberal Unionist Party that mostly supported Conservative governments. The long career of David Lloyd George saw him moving from radical views in the 1890s to becoming Prime Minister in a postwar coalition with the Conservatives in 1918. From 1900 and the rise of the Labour Party and the gradual achievement of the majority of the original Radical goals, Parliamentary Radicalism ceased to function as a political force in the early twentieth century.

Disappearance as a political party
Radicals were absorbed by the Liberal Party by 1859, but did show their presence as a faction of the Liberal Party.

Literary echoes

 * Felix Holt, the Radical (1866), a social novel written by George Eliot, offered a positive view of an idealistic and well-educated committed Radical.
 * Beauchamp's Career (1875), a satirical novel written by George Meredith. It portrays life and love in upper-class Radical circles and satirises the Conservative establishment.
 * Anthony Trollope offered a more shaded view in his outline for The Way We Live Now (1875), describing his anti-hero as "A scapegrace. Has glimmerings of Radical policy for the good of the people". Economically liberal and laissez-faire, Trollope finds non-radicalism bucolic, extolling the rural county of Suffolk: "The people are hearty, and radicalism is not quite so rampant as it is elsewhere. The poor people touch their hats, and the rich people think of the poor."
 * The Difference Engine (1990), an alternative history ("Steampunk") novel by William Gibson and Bruce Sterling, partially based on Sybil, or The Two Nations by Benjamin Disraeli, which includes a fictional Industrial Radical Party.

Prominent Radicals
• Thomas Attwood

• William Beckford

• Edward Spencer Beesly

• Jeremy Bentham

• John Bright

• Timothy Brown

• Charles Buller

• Lord Byron

• Richard Carlile

• John Cartwright

• William Cobbett

• Richard Cobden

• Sir Charles Dilke

• Charles James Fox

• William Godwin

• George Peabody Gooch

• Thomas Hill Green

• George Grote

• Thomas Hardy

• Frederic Harrison

• William Hazlitt

• Thomas Hodgskin

• Thomas Holcroft

• George Holyoake

• William Hone

• Henry Hunt

• Leigh Hunt

• Douglas William Jerrold

• Walter Savage Landor

• James Mill

• John Stuart Mill

• Sir William Molesworth

• George Odger

• Thomas Paine

• Joseph Parkes

• Francis Place

• Richard Price

• Joseph Priestley

• John Arthur Roebuck

• Percy Bysshe Shelley

• Thomas Spence

• Edward John Trelawny

• John Wilkes

• Mary Wollstonecraft

• Thomas Jonathan Wooler

• Christopher Wyvill

title: Radicals (UK)


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Charles Malo François Lameth

Charles Malo François Lameth (5 October 1757 – 28 December 1832) was a French politician and soldier.

Early life
Charles Malo François Lameth was born on 5 October 1757 in Paris. His father was Louise Charles de Lameth and his mother, Marie Thérèse de Broglie. His mother was the sister of the Marshall de Broglie and a favourite of Marie Antoinette.

Career
He was in the retinue of the comte d'Artois (future King Charles X), and became an officer in a cuirassier regiment. He served in the American War of Independence, and was a hero of the Battle of Yorktown in 1781. He was a Knight of the Order of Malta and a Knight of the Order of Saint Louis.

Although he married a rich heiress from Saint Domingue, he was a founding member of the Society of the Friends of the Blacks in 1788.

He was deputy to the Estates-General of 1789, for the nobility, and was one of the first aristocrats to renounce his privileges on the night of 4 August 1789. He continued to serve in the National Assembly and National Constituent Assembly and in January 1791 repaid to the Treasury the 60,000 francs it had cost Louis XVI to provide him and his brothers with an education at the École Militaire. In November 1790 he fought a duel with the Duc de Castries. The duke wounded him and it was briefly feared that he had tipped his sword with poison. Lameth was so popular that a mob stormed Castries' house in revenge. As the Assembly began to divide into factions, Lameth, a constitutional monarchist, was identified with the Feuillants and he was arrested in Rouen on 12 August 1792 for protesting against the Attack on the Tuileries. Since the French Revolution moved toward a Republic, he emigrated to Hamburg.

He returned to France under the Consulate, was appointed Brigadier General in 1809 and fought in the Spanish War, and was appointed governor of Würzburg (in the Duchy of Würzburg) under the First Empire. In 1814, he rose to the rank of Lieutenant General. Like his brother Alexandre Lameth (but unlike his other one, Théodore de Lameth), Charles joined the Bourbon camp after the Restoration, succeeding Alexandre as deputy in 1829. In the final years of his life, he was nonetheless a noted supporter of the July Monarchy.

Personal life
He married Marie Anne Picot. They had two children. They resided at the Château d'Hénencourt in Hénencourt, Somme.

He died on 28 December 1832.

title: Charles Malo François Lameth


text:
Alan Cooper

Alan Cooper (born June 3, 1952) is an American software designer and programmer. Widely recognized as the "Father of Visual Basic", Cooper is also known for his books About Face: The Essentials of Interaction Design and The Inmates Are Running the Asylum: Why High-Tech Products Drive Us Crazy and How to Restore the Sanity. As founder of Cooper, a leading interaction design consultancy, he created the Goal-Directed design methodology and pioneered the use of personas as practical interaction design tools to create high-tech products. On April 28, 2017, Alan was inducted into the Computer History Museum's Hall of Fellows "for his invention of the visual development environment in Visual BASIC, and for his pioneering work in establishing the field of interaction design and its fundamental tools."

Early life
Alan Cooper grew up in Marin County, California, United States, where he attended the College of Marin, studying architecture. He learned programming and took on contract programming jobs to pay for college.

In 1975, soon after he left college and as the first microcomputers became available, Alan Cooper founded his first company, Structured Systems Group (SSG), in Oakland, California, which became one of the first microcomputer software companies. SSG's software accounting product, General Ledger, was sold through ads in popular magazines such as Byte and Interface Age. This software was, according to the historical account in Fire in the Valley (by Paul Freiberger and Michael Swaine), “probably the first serious business software for microcomputers. ” It was both the start of Cooper's career as a software author and the beginning of the microcomputer software business. Ultimately, Cooper developed a dozen original products at Structured Systems Group before he sold his interest in the company in 1980.

Early on, Cooper worked with Gordon Eubanks to develop, debug, document, and publish his business programming language, CBASIC, an early competitor to Bill Gates' and Paul Allen's Microsoft BASIC. Eubanks wrote CBASIC’s precursor, BASIC-E as a student project while at the Naval Postgraduate School in Monterey, California with professor Gary Kildall. When Eubanks left the Navy, he joined Kildall’s successful operating system company, Digital Research, Inc., in Monterey. Soon thereafter, Eubanks and Kildall invited Cooper to join them at Digital Research as one of four founders of their research and development department. After two-years at DRI, Cooper departed to develop desktop application software by himself.

During the 1980s, Alan Cooper authored several business applications including Microphone II for Windows and an early, critical-path project management program called SuperProject. Cooper sold SuperProject to Computer Associates in 1984, where it achieved success in the business-to-business marketplace.

Visual Basic
In 1988, Alan Cooper created a visual programming language (code-named “Ruby”) that allowed Windows users to build “Finder”-like shells. He called it “a shell construction set." After he demonstrated Ruby to Bill Gates, Microsoft purchased it. At the time, Gates commented that the innovation would have a “profound effect” on their entire product line. Microsoft initially decided not to release the product as a shell for users, but rather to transform it into a professional development tool for their QuickBASIC programming language called Visual Basic, which was widely used for business application development for Windows computers.

Cooper's dynamically installable control facility, which became famous as the “VBX” interface, was a well-known component of "Ruby". This innovation allowed any 3rd party developer to write a widget (control) as a DLL, put it in the Visual Basic directory, and Visual Basic would find it, communicate with it, and present it to the user as a seamless part of the program. The widget would appear in the tool palette and appropriate menus, and users could incorporate it into their Visual Basic applications. The invention of the “VBX” interface created an entire new marketplace for vendors of these “dynamically installable controls.” As a result of Cooper's work, many new software companies were able to deliver Windows software to market in the 1990s.

The first book ever written about Visual Basic, The Waite Group’s Visual Basic How-To by Mitchell Waite, is dedicated to Alan Cooper. In his dedication, the author calls Cooper the “Father of Visual Basic.” This nickname has often served as Cooper's one-line resume.

In 1994, Bill Gates presented Cooper with the first Windows Pioneer Award for his contributions to the software industry. During the presentation, Gates took particular note of Cooper's innovative work creating the VBX interface.

In 1998, the SVForum honored Cooper with its Visionary Award.

Interaction design and user experience
Early in his career, Cooper began to critically consider the accepted approach to software construction. As he reports in his first book, he believed something important was missing—software authors were not asking, “How do users interact with this?” Cooper's early insights drove him to create a design process, focused not on what could be coded but on what could be designed to meet users’ needs.

In 1992, in response to a rapidly consolidating software industry, Cooper began consulting with other companies, helping them design their applications to be more user friendly. Within a few years, Alan Cooper had begun to articulate some of his basic design principles. With his clients, he championed a design methodology that puts the users’ needs first. Cooper interviewed the users of his client's products and discovered the common threads that made these people happy. Born of this practice was the use of personas as design tools. Cooper preached his vision in two books. His ideas helped to drive the user experience movement and define the craft that would come to be called “interaction design.”

Cooper's best-selling first book, About Face: The Essentials of User Interface Design, was first published in 1995. In it, Cooper introduces a comprehensive set of practical design principles, essentially a taxonomy for software design. By the second edition, as the industry and profession evolved, “interface design” had become the more precise “interaction design.” The basic message of this book was directed at programmers: Do the right thing. Think about your users. The book is now in its fourth edition, entitled About Face: The Essentials of Interaction Design, and is considered a foundation text for the professional interaction designer. Cooper introduced the ideas of software application posture such as a "sovereign posture" where an application uses most of the space and waits for user input or a "transient posture" for software that does not run or engage with the user all the time. With websites he discusses "informational" and "transactional" postures in About Face.

In his 1998 book, The Inmates Are Running the Asylum: Why High-Tech Products Drive Us Crazy and How to Restore the Sanity, Alan Cooper outlined his methodology, called Goal-Directed design, based on the concept that software should speed the user towards his or her ultimate goal rather than ensnare him or her in computer minutiae. In the book, Cooper introduced a new concept that he called personas as a practical interaction design tool. Based on a brief discussion in the book, personas rapidly gained popularity in the software industry due to their unusual power and effectiveness. Today, the concepts of interaction design strategy and the use of personas have been broadly adopted across the industry. Cooper directs the message of his second book to the businessperson: know your users’ goals and how to satisfy them. You need interaction design to do the thing right. Cooper advocates for integrating design into business practice in order to meet customer needs and to build better products faster by doing it right the first time.

Alan Cooper's current focus is on how to effectively integrate the advances of interaction design with the effectiveness of agile software development methods. Cooper regularly speaks and blogs about this on his company's website.

Cooper
Cooper has a user experience design and strategy consulting firm headquartered in San Francisco with an office in New York. Cooper is credited with inventing several widely used design concepts, including goal-directed design, personas, and pair design. It was founded by Sue Cooper and Alan Cooper in 1992 in Menlo Park, California, under the name 'Cooper Software,' then changing the name to 'Cooper Interaction Design' in 1997. Cooper was the first consulting firm dedicated solely to interaction design. Its original clients were mainly Silicon Valley software and computer hardware companies.

The company uses a human-centered methodology called “goal-directed design” that emphasizes the importance of understanding the user's desired end-state and their motivations for getting there.

In 2002, Cooper began offering training classes to the public including topic as interaction design, service design, visual design, and design leadership. Cooper has served as the President of Cooper (formerly Cooper Interaction Design), a user experience and interaction design consultancy in San Francisco, California, since its founding in 1992. Cooper helps their customers with interaction design challenges and offers training courses in software design and development topics, including their Goal-Directed design (under the CooperU brand).

In 2017, Cooper became part of Designit, a strategic design arm of Wipro Digital. Cooper Professional Education continued to exist as a teaching and learning division of Designit until it closed its doors to business on May 29, 2020.

title: Alan Cooper


text:
User talk:Cisca~enwiki

Hi and welcome! When you're thinking about creating new articles, be sure to check for existing ones; we already have a cardinal tetra and neon tetra for instance. Stan 17:42, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

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Sorry :-s Should i delete the pages I made? And isn't neontetra just one word(instead of neon_tetra)? Thanks, Cisca

 * The usual thing is to merge the two - I think your version has info that's not in the older articles, and we don't want to lose that. Then make neontetra redirect to neon tetra so that both spellings are available (I'd never seen "neontetra" as one word before, but Googling English web pages shows a bunch, still far fewer than "neon tetra"). One of the handy things about redirects is that it lets us handle alternate spellings, many terms seem to have quite a few alternate forms! Stan 22:02, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Okay well thanks for the explenation and the help! Cisca

Unverified image
Thanks for uploading Image:Kardinaaltetra.jpg. I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks, Kbh3rd 00:10, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Cisca. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Cisca~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

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Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:07, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 11:37, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Cisca~enwiki


text:
AMP-activated protein kinase

5' AMP-activated protein kinase or AMPK or 5' adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase is an enzyme (EC 2.7.11.31) that plays a role in cellular energy homeostasis, largely to activate glucose and fatty acid uptake and oxidation when cellular energy is low. It belongs to a highly conserved eukaryotic protein family and its orthologues are SNF1 in yeast, and SnRK1 in plants. It consists of three proteins (subunits) that together make a functional enzyme, conserved from yeast to humans. It is expressed in a number of tissues, including the liver, brain, and skeletal muscle. In response to binding AMP and ADP, the net effect of AMPK activation is stimulation of hepatic fatty acid oxidation, ketogenesis, stimulation of skeletal muscle fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake, inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, lipogenesis, and triglyceride synthesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipogenesis, inhibition of adipocyte lipolysis, and modulation of insulin secretion by pancreatic β-cells.

It should not be confused with cyclic AMP-activated protein kinase (protein kinase A).

Structure
AMPK is a heterotrimeric protein complex that is formed by α, β, and γ subunits. Each of these three subunits takes on a specific role in both the stability and activity of AMPK. Specifically, the γ subunit includes four particular Cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS) domains, giving AMPK its ability to sensitively detect shifts in the AMP/ATP ratio. AMPK is deactivated upon AMP displacement by ATP at CBS site 3, suggesting CBS3 to be the primary allosteric regulatory site. The four CBS domains create two binding sites for AMP commonly referred to as Bateman domains. Binding of one AMP to a Bateman domain cooperatively increases the binding affinity of the second AMP to the other Bateman domain. As AMP binds both Bateman domains the γ subunit undergoes a conformational change which exposes the catalytic domain found on the α subunit. It is in this catalytic domain where AMPK becomes activated when phosphorylation takes place at threonine-172 (on α1 isoform) or Thr-174 (on α2 isoform) by an upstream AMPK kinase (AMPKK). The α, β, and γ subunits can also be found in different isoforms: the γ subunit can exist as either the γ1, γ2 or γ3 isoform; the β subunit can exist as either the β1 or β2 isoform; and the α subunit can exist as either the α1 or α2 isoform. Although the most common isoforms expressed in most cells are the α1, β1, and γ1 isoforms, it has been demonstrated that the α2, β2, γ2, and γ3 isoforms are also expressed in cardiac and skeletal muscle.

The following human genes encode AMPK subunits:
 * α – PRKAA1, PRKAA2
 * β – PRKAB1, PRKAB2
 * γ – PRKAG1, PRKAG2, PRKAG3

The crystal structure of mammalian AMPK regulatory core domain (α C terminal, β C terminal, γ) has been solved in complex with AMP, ADP or ATP.

Regulation
Due to the presence of isoforms of its components, there are 12 versions of AMPK in mammals, each of which can have different tissue localizations, and different functions under different conditions. AMPK is regulated allosterically and by post-translational modification, which work together.

If residue Thr-172 of AMPK's α1-subunit (or Thr-174 of AMPK's α2-subunit) is phosphorylated, AMPK is activated around 100-fold; access to that residue by phosphatases is blocked if AMP or ADP can block access for and ATP can displace AMP and ADP. That residue is phosphorylated by at least three kinases (liver kinase B1 (LKB1), which works in a complex with STRAD and MO25, Calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase kinase II-(CAMKK2), and TGFβ-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)) and is dephosphorylated by three phosphatases (protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A); protein phosphatase 2C (PP2C) and Mg2+-/Mn2+-dependent protein phosphatase 1E (PPM1E)).

Regulation of AMPK by CaMKK2 requires a direct interaction of these two proteins via their kinase domains. The interaction of CaMKK2 with AMPK only involves the α and β subunits of AMPK (AMPK γ is absent from the CaMKK2 complex), thus rendering regulation of AMPK in this context to changes in calcium levels but not AMP or ADP. AMPK is regulated allosterically mostly by competitive binding to the CBS sites on its γ subunit between ATP (which allows phosphatase access to Thr-172) and AMP or ADP (each of which blocks access to phosphatases). It thus appears that AMPK is a sensor of AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP ratios and thus cell energy level. AMPK undergoes a large conformational change upon ATP binding. A region on the α subunit known as the kinase domain (KD) dissociates from its active-state conformation and loosely associates with the γ subunit ~100Å away. The KD also rotates ~180° in the conformational change. Upon KD dissociation, the active loop (AL) of the α subunit which contains the critical phosphorylated Thr residue is fully exposed to upstream phosphatases. This conformational change represents a plausible mechanism for AMPK modulation. When cellular energy states are low (high AMP/ATP or ADP/ATP levels), AMPK adopts the KD-associated conformation and AMPK is protected from dephosphorylation and remains activated. When cellular energy states are high, AMPK adopts the KD-displaced conformation, the AL is exposed to upstream phosphatases, and AMPK is deactivated.

The pharmacological compounds Merck Compound 991 and Abbott A769662 bind to the allosteric drug and metabolism site (ADaM) on the β subunit and have been shown to activate AMPK up to 10-fold. ADaM site binding may have roles in AMPK activation as well as protection against dephosphorylation.

There are other mechanisms by which AMPK is inhibited or activated by insulin, leptin, and diacylglycerol by inducing various other phosphorylations.

AMPK may be inhibited or activated by various tissue-specific ubiquitinations.

It is also regulated by several protein-protein interactions, and may either be activated or inhibited by oxidative factors; the role of oxidation in regulating AMPK was controversial as of 2016.

Function
When AMPK phosphorylates acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) or sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1c (SREBP1c), it inhibits synthesis of fatty acids, cholesterol, and triglycerides, and activates fatty acid uptake and β-oxidation.

AMPK stimulates glucose uptake in skeletal muscle by phosphorylating Rab-GTPase-activating protein TBC1D1, which ultimately induces fusion of GLUT1 vesicles with the plasma membrane. AMPK stimulates glycolysis by activating phosphorylation of 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 2/3 and activating phosphorylation of glycogen phosphorylase, and it inhibits glycogen synthesis through inhibitory phosphorylation of glycogen synthase. In the liver, AMPK inhibits gluconeogenesis by inhibiting transcription factors including hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF4) and CREB regulated transcription coactivator 2 (CRTC2).

AMPK inhibits the energy-intensive protein biosynthesis process and can also force a switch from cap-dependent translation to cap-independent translation, which requires less energy, by phosphorylation of TSC2, RPTOR, transcription initiation factor 1A.66, and eEF2K. When TSC2 is activated it inhibits mTORC1. As a result of inhibition of mTORC1 by AMPK, protein synthesis comes to a halt. Activation of AMPK signifies low energy within the cell, so all of the energy consuming pathways like protein synthesis are inhibited, and pathways that generate energy are activated to restore appropriate energy levels in the cell.

AMPK activates autophagy by directly and indirectly activating ULK1. AMPK also appears to stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis by regulating PGC-1α which in turn promotes gene transcription in mitochondria. AMPK also activates anti-oxidant defenses.

Exercise/training
Many biochemical adaptations of skeletal muscle that take place during a single bout of exercise or an extended duration of training, such as increased mitochondrial biogenesis and capacity, increased muscle glycogen, and an increase in enzymes which specialize in glucose uptake in cells such as GLUT4 and hexokinase II  are thought to be mediated in part by AMPK when it is activated. Additionally, recent discoveries can conceivably suggest a direct AMPK role in increasing blood supply to exercised/trained muscle cells by stimulating and stabilizing both vasculogenesis and angiogenesis. Taken together, these adaptations most likely transpire as a result of both temporary and maintained increases in AMPK activity brought about by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio during single bouts of exercise and long-term training.

During a single acute exercise bout, AMPK allows the contracting muscle cells to adapt to the energy challenges by increasing expression of hexokinase II, translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane,   for glucose uptake, and by stimulating glycolysis. If bouts of exercise continue through a long-term training regimen, AMPK and other signals will facilitate contracting muscle adaptations by escorting muscle cell activity to a metabolic transition resulting in a fatty-acid oxidation approach to ATP generation as opposed to a glycolytic approach. AMPK accomplishes this transition to the oxidative mode of metabolism by upregulating and activating oxidative enzymes such as hexokinase II, PPAR-α, PPAR-δ, PGC-1, UCP-3, cytochrome C and TFAM.

Mutations in the skeletal muscle calcium release channel (RYR1) underlies a life- threatening response to heat in patients with malignant hyperthermia susceptibility (MHS). Upon acute exposure to heat, these mutations cause uncontrolled Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, leading to sustained muscle contractures, severe hyperthermia, and sudden death. At basal conditions, the temperature-dependent Ca2+ leak also leads to increased energy demand and activation of energy sensing AMP kinase (AMPK) in skeletal muscle. The activated AMPK increases muscle metabolic activity, including glycolysis, which leads to marked elevation of circulating lactate.

AMPK activity increases with exercise and the LKB1/MO25/STRAD complex is considered to be the major upstream AMPKK of the 5’-AMP-activated protein kinase phosphorylating the α subunit of AMPK at Thr-172. This fact is puzzling considering that although AMPK protein abundance has been shown to increase in skeletal tissue with endurance training, its level of activity has been shown to decrease with endurance training in both trained and untrained tissue. Currently, the activity of AMPK immediately following a 2 hour bout of exercise of an endurance trained rat is unclear. It is possible that a direct link exists between the observed decrease in AMPK activity in endurance trained skeletal muscle and the apparent decrease in the AMPK response to exercise with endurance training.

Although AMPKα2 activation has been thought to be important for mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training, a recent study investigating the response to exercise training in AMPKα2 knockout mice opposes this idea. Their study compared the response to exercise training of several proteins and enzymes in wild type and AMPKα2 knockout mice. And even though the knockout mice had lower basal markers of mitochondrial density (COX-1, CS, and HAD), these markers increased similarly to the wild type mice after exercise training. These findings are supported by another study also showing no difference in mitochondrial adaptations to exercise training between wild type and knockout mice.

Maximum life span
The C. elegans homologue of AMPK, aak-2, has been shown by Michael Ristow and colleagues to be required for extension of life span in states of glucose restriction mediating a process named mitohormesis.

Lipid metabolism
One of the effects of exercise is an increase in fatty acid metabolism, which provides more energy for the cell. One of the key pathways in AMPK's regulation of fatty acid oxidation is the phosphorylation and inactivation of acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (ACC) converts acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA, an inhibitor of carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 (CPT-1). CPT-1 transports fatty acids into the mitochondria for oxidation. Inactivation of ACC, therefore, results in increased fatty acid transport and subsequent oxidation. It is also thought that the decrease in malonyl-CoA occurs as a result of malonyl-CoA decarboxylase (MCD), which may be regulated by AMPK. MCD is an antagonist to ACC, decarboxylating malonyl-CoA to acetyl-CoA, resulting in decreased malonyl-CoA and increased CPT-1 and fatty acid oxidation. AMPK also plays an important role in lipid metabolism in the liver. It has long been known that hepatic ACC has been regulated in the liver by phosphorylation. AMPK also phosphorylates and inactivates 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR), a key enzyme in cholesterol synthesis. HMGR converts 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA, which is made from acetyl-CoA, into mevalonic acid, which then travels down several more metabolic steps to become cholesterol. AMPK, therefore, helps regulate fatty acid oxidation and cholesterol synthesis.

Glucose transport
Insulin is a hormone which helps regulate glucose levels in the body. When blood glucose is high, insulin is released from the Islets of Langerhans. Insulin, among other things, will then facilitate the uptake of glucose into cells via increased expression and translocation of glucose transporter GLUT-4. Under conditions of exercise, however, blood sugar levels are not necessarily high, and insulin is not necessarily activated, yet muscles are still able to bring in glucose. AMPK seems to be responsible in part for this exercise-induced glucose uptake. Goodyear et al. observed that with exercise, the concentration of GLUT-4 was increased in the plasma membrane, but decreased in the microsomal membranes, suggesting that exercise facilitates the translocation of vesicular GLUT-4 to the plasma membrane. While acute exercise increases GLUT-4 translocation, endurance training will increase the total amount of GLUT-4 protein available. It has been shown that both electrical contraction and AICA ribonucleotide (AICAR) treatment increase AMPK activation, glucose uptake, and GLUT-4 translocation in perfused rat hindlimb muscle, linking exercise-induced glucose uptake to AMPK. Chronic AICAR injections, simulating some of the effects of endurance training, also increase the total amount of GLUT-4 protein in the muscle cell.

Two proteins are essential for the regulation of GLUT-4 expression at a transcriptional level – myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2) and GLUT4 enhancer factor (GEF). Mutations in the DNA binding regions for either of these proteins results in ablation of transgene GLUT-4 expression. These results prompted a study in 2005 which showed that AMPK directly phosphorylates GEF, but it doesn't seem to directly activate MEF2. AICAR treatment has been shown, however, to increase transport of both proteins into the nucleus, as well as increase the binding of both to the GLUT-4 promoter region.

There is another protein involved in carbohydrate metabolism that is worthy of mention along with GLUT-4. The enzyme hexokinase phosphorylates a six-carbon sugar, most notably glucose, which is the first step in glycolysis. When glucose is transported into the cell it is phosphorylated by hexokinase. This phosphorylation keeps glucose from leaving the cell, and by changing the structure of glucose through phosphorylation, it decreases the concentration of glucose molecules, maintaining a gradient for more glucose to be transported into the cell. Hexokinase II transcription is increased in both red and white skeletal muscle upon treatment with AICAR. With chronic injections of AICAR, total protein content of hexokinase II increases in rat skeletal muscle.

Mitochondria
Mitochondrial enzymes, such as cytochrome c, succinate dehydrogenase, malate dehydrogenase, α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, and citrate synthase, increase in expression and activity in response to exercise. AICAR stimulation of AMPK increases cytochrome c and δ-aminolevulinate synthase (ALAS), a rate-limiting enzyme involved in the production of heme. Malate dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase also increase, as well as citrate synthase activity, in rats treated with AICAR injections. Conversely, in LKB1 knockout mice, there are decreases in cytochrome c and citrate synthase activity, even if the mice are "trained" by voluntary exercise.

AMPK is required for increased peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) expression in skeletal muscle in response to creatine depletion. PGC-1α is a transcriptional regulator for genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, gluconeogenesis, and is considered the master regulator for mitochondrial biogenesis.

To do this, it enhances the activity of transcription factors like nuclear respiratory factor 1 (NRF-1), myocyte enhancer factor 2 (MEF2), host cell factor (HCF), and others. It also has a positive feedback loop, enhancing its own expression. Both MEF2 and cAMP response element (CRE) are essential for contraction-induced PGC-1α promoter activity. LKB1 knockout mice show a decrease in PGC-1α, as well as mitochondrial proteins.

Thyroid hormone
AMPK and thyroid hormone regulate some similar processes. Knowing these similarities, Winder and Hardie et al. designed an experiment to see if AMPK was influenced by thyroid hormone. They found that all of the subunits of AMPK were increased in skeletal muscle, especially in the soleus and red quadriceps, with thyroid hormone treatment. There was also an increase in phospho-ACC, a marker of AMPK activity.

Glucose sensing systems
Loss of AMPK has been reported to alter the sensitivity of glucose sensing cells, through poorly defined mechanisms. Loss of the AMPKα2 subunit in pancreatic β-cells and hypothalamic neurons decreases the sensitivity of these cells to changes in extracellular glucose concentration. Moreover, exposure of rats to recurrent bouts of insulin induced hypoglycemia/glucopenia, reduces the activation of AMPK within the hypothalamus, whilst also suppressing the counterregulatory response to hypoglycemia. Pharmacological activation of AMPK by delivery of AMPK activating drug AICAR, directly into the hypothalamus can increase the counterregulatory response to hypoglycaemia.

Lysosomal damage, inflammatory diseases and metformin
AMPK is recruited to lysosomes and regulated at the lysosomes via several systems of clinical significance. This includes the AXIN - LKB1 complex, acting in response to glucose limitations functioning independently of AMP sensing, which detects low glucose as absence of fructose-1,6-bisphosphate via a dynamic set of interactions between lysosomally localized V-ATPase-aldolase in contact with the endoplasmic reticulum localized TRPV. A second AMPK-control system localized to lysosomes depends on the Galectin-9-TAK1 system and ubiquitination responses at controlled by deubiquitinating enzymes such as USP9X leading to AMPK activation in response to lysosomal damage,  a condition that can occur biochemically, physically via protein aggregates such as proteopathic tau in Alzheimer's disease, crystalline silica causing silicosis, cholesterol crystals causing inflammation via NLRP3 inflammasome and rupture of atherosclerotic lesions, urate crystals associated with gout, or during microbial invasion such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis  or coronaviruses causing SARS. Both of the above lysosomally localized systems controlling AMPK activate it in response to metformin, a widely prescribed anti-diabetic drug.

Tumor suppression and promotion
Some evidence indicates that AMPK may have a role in tumor suppression. Studies have found that AMPK may exert most, or even all of, the tumor suppressing properties of liver kinase B1 (LKB1). Additionally, studies where the AMPK activator metformin was used to treat diabetes found a correlation with a reduced risk of cancer, compared to other medications. Gene knockout and knockdown studies with mice found that mice without the gene to express AMPK had greater risks of developing lymphomas, though as the gene was knocked out globally instead of just in B cells, it was impossible to conclude that AMP knockout had cell-autonomous effects within tumor progenitor cells.

In contrast, some studies have linked AMPK with a role as a tumor promoter by protecting cancer cells from stress. Thus, once cancerous cells have formed in an organism, AMPK may swap from protecting against cancer to protecting the cancer itself. Studies have found that tumor cells with AMPK knockout are more susceptible to death by glucose starvation or extracellular matrix detachment, which may indicate AMPK has a role in preventing these two outcomes. A recent study on pancreatic cancer suggests that AMPKα may play a role in the metastatic cascade and the phenotype of cancer cells. Mechanistically, the authors propose that in the absence of AMPKα, pancreatic cancer cells are more vulnerable to oxidative stress, supporting a tumor-promoting function of AMPKα.

Controversy over role in adaption to exercise/training
A seemingly paradoxical role of AMPK occurs when we take a closer look at the energy-sensing enzyme in relation to exercise and long-term training. Similar to short-term acute training scale, long-term endurance training studies also reveal increases in oxidative metabolic enzymes, GLUT-4, mitochondrial size and quantity, and an increased dependency on the oxidation of fatty acids; however, Winder et al. reported in 2002 that despite observing these increased oxidative biochemical adaptations to long-term endurance training (similar to those mentioned above), the AMPK response (activation of AMPK with the onset of exercise) to acute bouts of exercise decreased in red quadriceps (RQ) with training (3 – see Fig.1). Conversely, the study did not observe the same results in white quadriceps (WQ) and soleus (SOL) muscles that they did in RQ. The trained rats used for that endurance study ran on treadmills 5 days/wk in two 1-h sessions, morning and afternoon. The rats were also running up to 31m/min (grade 15%). Finally, following training, the rats were sacrificed either at rest or following 10 minutes of exercise.

Because the AMPK response to exercise decreases with increased training duration, many questions arise that would challenge the AMPK role with respect to biochemical adaptations to exercise and endurance training. This is due in part to the marked increases in the mitochondrial biogenesis, upregulation of GLUT-4, UCP-3, Hexokinase II along with other metabolic and mitochondrial enzymes despite decreases in AMPK activity with training. Questions also arise because skeletal muscle cells which express these decreases in AMPK activity in response to endurance training also seem to be maintaining an oxidative dependent approach to metabolism, which is likewise thought to be regulated to some extent by AMPK activity.

If the AMPK response to exercise is responsible in part for biochemical adaptations to training, how then can these adaptations to training be maintained if the AMPK response to exercise is being attenuated with training? It is hypothesized that these adaptive roles to training are maintained by AMPK activity and that the increases in AMPK activity in response to exercise in trained skeletal muscle have not yet been observed due to biochemical adaptations that the training itself stimulated in the muscle tissue to reduce the metabolic need for AMPK activation. In other words, due to previous adaptations to training, AMPK will not be activated, and further adaptation will not occur, until the intracellular ATP levels become depleted from an even higher intensity energy challenge than prior to those previous adaptations.

title: AMP-activated protein kinase


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Dover Athletic F.C.

Dover Athletic Football Club is a semi-professional association football club based in the town of Dover, Kent, England. The club currently competes in the Isthmian League Premier Division, the seventh tier of the English football league system. The club was formed in 1983 after the dissolution of the town's previous club, Dover F.C., whose place in the Southern League was taken by the new club.

In the 1989–90 season Dover Athletic won the Southern League championship, but failed to gain promotion to the Football Conference as the club's ground did not meet the required standard. Three seasons later the team won the title again and this time gained promotion to the Conference, where they spent nine seasons before being relegated at the end of the 2001–02 season. The club was transferred from the Southern League to the Isthmian League in 2004, competing in that league's Premier Division for one season before mounting financial problems led the club to a further relegation. In the 2007–08 season, Dover won Division One South of the league, before winning the Premier Division in 2008–09 and thus gaining promotion to the Conference South. They spent five seasons in this division, reaching the play-offs three times, before defeating Ebbsfleet United in the 2013–14 play-off final to finally return to the Conference Premier after a twelve-year absence. At the end of the 2021–22 season Dover were relegated back to the National League South, after finishing the season with one point.

The team usually wear white shirts and are consequently nicknamed the Whites. They have played at the Crabble Athletic Ground since the club's formation. The club's best performance in the FA Cup was reaching the third round proper in both the 2010–11 and 2014–15 seasons, while the best performance registered in the FA Trophy, the national competition for higher-level non-league clubs, was a run to the semi-finals in the 1997–98 season.

History
Dover Athletic F.C. was formed in 1983 after the town's previous club, Dover, folded due to its debts. The new club took Dover's place in the Southern League Southern Division, with former Dover player Alan Jones as manager and a team consisting mainly of reserve players from the old club. Initially Athletic struggled, finishing second from bottom of the table in the 1984–85 season. In November 1985 Steve McRae, who had succeeded Jones a year earlier, was sacked and replaced by Chris Kinnear.

Under Kinnear the club's fortunes turned round, with two top-five finishes followed by the Southern Division championship, and with it promotion, in the 1987–88 season. The team started strongly in the Premier Division, finishing in sixth place at the first attempt, and then winning the championship in the 1989–90 season. The club was denied promotion to the Football Conference, however, as the Crabble Athletic Ground did not meet the standard required for that league. After finishing fourth and second in the subsequent two seasons, Dover won the title again in the 1992–93 season and this time were admitted to the Conference.

Although Dover finished in eighth place in their first season in the Conference, the following season saw the club struggling against relegation, and Kinnear was dismissed due to a combination of the team's poor performances and his own personal problems. John Ryan was appointed as the club's new manager, but his reign was a short one and he was dismissed when the club lost seven of its first eight matches in the 1995–96 season. The club then appointed former England international Peter Taylor as manager, but he was unable to steer the team away from the foot of the table, and Dover held onto their place in the Conference only because Northern Premier League runners-up Boston United failed to submit their application for promotion before the required deadline.

Bill Williams took over as manager in 1997 and led the club to the FA Trophy semi-finals in the 1997–98 season and a best league finish to date of sixth place in the 1999–2000 season. Williams left the club to take a senior position with Conference rivals Kingstonian in May 2001. By now the club was in severe financial difficulties, with a number of directors resigning and debts exceeding £100,000. Amid the crisis the entire board of directors resigned, forcing the club's Supporters' Trust to take over the running of the club, and manager Gary Bellamy was sacked after just six months in the job. Former Everton goalkeeper Neville Southall took over but was dismissed just three months later, with Clive Walker taking over in March 2002 with the club rooted to the foot of the table. The club finished the season bottom of the Conference and was relegated back to the Southern League Premier Division. The club's ongoing financial problems led to it entering a Company Voluntary Arrangement (CVA), a process by which insolvent companies offset their debts against future profits, due to debts that were now estimated at £400,000.

In Dover's first season back in the Southern League Premier Division the Whites finished in third place, albeit 17 points adrift of Tamworth, who claimed the one promotion place available that season. A poor start to the following season saw Walker replaced by Richard Langley. Dover finished the season in 19th place, before being switched to the Isthmian League Premier Division in the summer of 2004 following a re-organisation of the English football league system. The new season started with six successive defeats, which saw Langley sacked, and the financial problems continued, with the club coming within two months of being closed down. Dover were relegated to the Isthmian League Division One at the end of the season, but were saved from possible extinction in January 2005 when former director Jim Parmenter returned to head up a consortium that took over the club. Parmenter quickly sacked manager Steve Browne and convinced Clive Walker to return to the club to replace him, and also arranged for the club's outstanding CVA debts to be cleared, putting the club on a firm financial footing for the first time in many years.

Dover Athletic narrowly missed out on an immediate return to the Premier Division in the 2005–06 season, reaching the play-offs for promotion but losing out to Tonbridge Angels. The following season Dover again reached the play-offs but lost in the semi-final to Hastings United, after which Walker did not have his contract renewed and was replaced by former Gillingham manager Andy Hessenthaler. In his first season in charge he led the club to the Division One South championship and promotion to the Isthmian League Premier Division. The following season Dover won a second consecutive championship and thus gained promotion to Conference South. In the 2009–10 season, Dover reached the play-offs for promotion to the Conference National, but lost at the semi-final stage to Woking. The following season the club reached the third round of the FA Cup for the first time after wins over Kent rivals Gillingham in the first round and another League Two club, Aldershot Town, in the second round. In the 2012–13 season the club again reached the play-offs, but this time lost in the final to Salisbury City.

During the following season, the team reached the second round of the FA Cup, losing 1–0 to Milton Keynes Dons. They also made the last 16 of the FA Trophy, narrowly losing 3–2 to Eastleigh, and reached the play-offs once more. A 4–1 aggregate victory over Sutton United in the semi-final set up a match with fellow Kent team Ebbsfleet United in the final. On 10 May 2014, Dover beat Ebbsfleet 1–0 at Stonebridge Road with a goal from Nathan Elder, enough to seal the club's return to the top flight of non-league football for the first time since 2002. In the 2014–15 season, Dover went on another FA Cup run, beating Morecambe 1–0 in the first round and Cheltenham Town 1–0 in the second, to reach the third round proper for only the second time ever. However, they lost 4–0 at home to Premier League side Crystal Palace. During the following season, the team qualified for the play-offs for promotion to League Two.

During the 2020–21 season, the team only played 15 fixtures, with none played after 30 January 2021, due to staff being furloughed because of the costs associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. As a result, the club had all of its results expunged in March and was fined £40,000. In addition, the club was handed a 12-point deduction for the 2021–22 season and fined £40,000 by the National League. , the club had released all but four players, who were reduced from full to part-time. The 2021–22 season saw Dover start with the points deduction and after picking up only eight points in 33 matches, a 2–0 home defeat to Yeovil Town confirmed Dover's relegation back to the National League South after eight seasons in the top flight of non-league football. In their second season back in the sixth tier, they were relegated to the Isthmian League, finishing bottom of the table having only won four games all season.

Colours and crest
Dover Athletic's traditional colours are white and black, which were also the colours worn by the earlier Dover club. Away colours worn by the club have included red, yellow and green, pink, and blue. The club's crest contains a stylised representation of the town's two most famous landmarks, Dover Castle and the white cliffs, enclosed in a circle bearing the club's name. The club's shirts have been sponsored by companies including Criccieth Homes, Paul Brown of Dover, Jenkins and Pain, cross-channel ferry operators Hoverspeed and SeaFrance, local car dealership Perry's, and Gomez, the company owned by Dover Athletic chairman Jim Parmenter.

Stadium

Dover Athletic's home ground since the club's foundation has been the Crabble Athletic Ground, which was also the home of the former Dover club. The word Crabble, which is also found in the name of a local corn mill, may derive from the Old English crabba hol, meaning a hole in which crabs are found. The stadium, commonly known simply as "Crabble" or, imprecisely, as "The Crabble", forms part of a larger council-owned complex, and the earlier Dover club originally shared the lower pitch with a rugby club, but moved to the upper pitch in the 1950s, adding a grandstand in 1951, followed soon after by terracing and floodlights.

Dover Athletic continued to make improvements to the ground, although not in time to allow the club to take its place in the Football Conference in 1990. Subsequently, new turnstiles were installed and two new terraces and a second grandstand added. These improvements meant that the club was able to gain promotion after its second Southern League title in 1993. The stadium's modern capacity is 5,745

In 2007 the club announced that under the new sponsorship deal with SeaFrance, the stadium would be known officially as the SeaFrance Crabble Stadium, but a year later it was announced that the deal would not be renewed due to the ferry operator's financial constraints. On 1 July 2008 local car dealership Perry's was announced as the club's new main sponsor and the stadium rebranded as the Perry's Crabble Stadium, an arrangement which lasted until 2012. Between 2003 and 2004 it was known as the Hoverspeed Stadium under the terms of another such agreement. Margate played their home matches at Crabble for two seasons from 2002 until 2004, while their own Hartsdown Park ground was being redeveloped. The stadium had further development in 2016, when a new family stand was built.

Supporters
In the club's early days Athletic struggled to attract crowds of over 150, but by the time the club reached the Conference, crowds at Crabble were averaging around 1,000. After the club's relegation to the Isthmian League Division One South, the average attendance fell to just over 800, but when the club returned to the Premier Division for the 2008–09 season, the average attendance at Crabble was 1,293, the highest in the division. The highest home attendance in the club's history was 5,645 for the match against Crystal Palace in the third round of the FA Cup on 4 January 2015. Although Athletic's improved monetary position means that the Supporters' Trust is no longer required to financially support the club, it remains active as a fundraising organisation.

Statistics and records
Dover Athletic's highest finish in the English football league system was in the 2015–16 season, in which the team finished in fifth place in the National League, the highest level of non-League football and the fifth level overall. The Whites have made 13 appearances in the final qualifying round of the FA Cup, but have only progressed to the first round proper three times. In the 2010–11 season, Dover reached the third round for the first time, defeating Football League Two teams Gillingham and Aldershot Town in the first two rounds before losing to Huddersfield Town of Football League One. In the 1997–98 season the Whites reached the semi-finals of the FA Trophy but missed out on an appearance at Wembley, losing to Cheltenham Town. The largest number of points the team has accrued is 104 in the 2008–09 season, and the highest total number of goals scored in a season is 89, scored in 40 matches in the 1985–86 season. The team's biggest ever win was an 8–0 defeat of East Preston in September 2009, and the heaviest defeat was by six goals when they lost 7–1 to Poole Town in April 1984 and 6–0 to Grimsby Town in October 2021.

The holder of the record for most appearances for Dover Athletic is Jason Bartlett, who played in 539 matches, and the all-time top goalscorer is Lennie Lee, with 160 goals. The club's record signing is Dave Leworthy, who joined the club from Farnborough Town in 1993 for £50,000, which at the time was the highest transfer fee ever paid between non-league clubs. The highest confirmed fee received by the club was also £50,000, paid by Brentford in 1997 for Ricky Reina.

Managers
Alan Jones was the first manager of Dover Athletic. Chris Kinnear's first stint as manager was the longest in the club's history. The shortest stay was that of Ian Hendon, who was announced as manager on 28 May 2010 and resigned only 18 days later to join Andy Hessenthaler at Gillingham.

Honours
source:

 * Conference South (level 6)
 * Play-off winners: 2014
 * Southern League Premier Division (level 6)
 * Champions: 1989–90, 1992–93
 * Southern League Southern Division (level 7)
 * Champions: 1987–88
 * Isthmian League Premier Division (level 7)
 * Champions: 2008–09
 * Isthmian League Division One South (level 8)
 * Champions: 2007–08
 * Kent Senior Cup
 * Winners: 1990–91, 2016–17

Rivalries
Dover Athletic's main rivalry is with nearby Folkestone Invicta. A meeting between the two teams in 2004 was watched by a crowd of 2,278, a record attendance for a league match at Invicta's ground. The club also has a rivalry with Margate. In the 2001–02 season, when both teams were in the Football Conference, the two games between Margate and Dover were watched by a combined total of more than 6,000 spectators. The game played at Margate's Hartsdown Park stadium drew a crowd of 3,676, and 2,325 watched the game at Dover.

title: Dover Athletic F.C.


text:
Nemaha County

Nemaha County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Nemaha County, Kansas
 * Nemaha County, Nebraska

title: Nemaha County