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Talk:List of dukes and kings of Croatia

"Pacta Conventa"
User:Tom Radulovic wrote:

 * 1092 Pacta Conventa is signed by a group of Croatian nobles who formed a Sabor, or parliament, and King Ladislaus I of Hungary. The pact maintains Croatia and Hungary as separate states under a single ruler, Ladislaus. Almos rules as Ladislaus' proxy.

 * 1097 Battle of Gvozd Mountain (modern Petrova Gora). King Coloman of Hungary, supported by Pannonian Croats, defeats an army of Croatian and Dalmatian nobles allied to Peter Svachich. Coloman revives the Pacta Conventa, and is affirmed as King of Croatia, which is ruled on his behalf by a Ban (viceroy) and the Sabor.

This is somewhat incorrect on several issues, at least according to what I was taught in school and what I read elsewhere.

The historians gave the name Pacta Conventa to the final treaty between the Croats and the Magyars which resulted in Koloman's coronation in Biograd na moru in 1102, not to initial Ladislav's incursions. Ever since the disappearance of Petar Krešimir IV in 1074, the statehood was in jeopardy as there was no heir to the royal dynasty. Zvonimir married Ladislav's sister Jelena (and submitted to the Holy See) exactly for the purpose of making sure that his reign would not be threatened from the outside, but after his death which happened some time between 1087 and 1089, that made king Ladislav one of the closer royalties to inherit the crown. However, he was rejected as a king by the novelty which instated the last of the Trpimirović, Krešimir's nephew Stjepan II, which only lived for two more years. Queen Jelena and her supporters again agitated for the acceptance of Ladislav, and this time there was no longer a backup solution so Ladislav's nephew Almoš started his rule.

However, due to the handling of the issue of the bishopric and the discontent with a foreign ruler, the Croatian novelty made Ladislav fight a war to secure his right to the throne, a war that he clearly never entirely won, as the lords elected a new king among themselves, Petar (hence the pseudo-surname Svačić, meaning everyone's), who ruled most of coastal Croatia for four years. Even Ladislav's successor Koloman, who ended Petar's rule in the battle of Gvozd, didn't succeed in maintaining actual control over Croatia, because he had to divert his armies to the east to fight the Rus' and the Kumans.

Coloman should be the one credited with annexing Croatia to Hungary because he was the one who realized that the right way to get the Croats to really concede the crown was a peaceful negotiation. According to a manuscript that described this process (it began with the words Qualiter et cum quo pacto dederunt se Chroates regi Hungariae, meaning "How and with what contract did the Croats surrender to the king of Hungary" and was interpreted as proof of the Pacta Conventa, but wasn't necessarily literally so), Koloman recovered from his year 1099 losses on the eastern front and in 1102 mounted an attack force near Drava. However, twelve Croatian tribes managed to organize a defence force despite the fact the country was in turmoil throughout the last decade. As Koloman found out that there was to be organized resistance, he decided to extend an offer to the leaders -- they would submit to his sovereignty but would be recognized as regional leaders by him and excluded from paying tribute. They answered his call, set up a meeting, and agreed on such a solution. Koloman was crowned in Biograd na moru as rex Croatiae et Dalmatiae and the Croatians obviously kept their promise that they would not rebel, for the next 425 years, more or less.

Also, the first sentence might give readers the false impression that the Sabor was formed at that date. The word sabor is generic, and it is uncertain when exactly the councils of Croatian leaders (later nobility) became parliamentary. It could have been as far back as 923/925/928 when Tomislav united the duchies and was crowned as a king, it could have been 1102, and it could have been as late as 1526/1527 when they were deciding on the fate of the Croatian provinces after the fall of Louis at Mohacs. --Shallot 21:35, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * And now, an "unpatriotic blow". Looks like "Pacta conventa" is a later forgery Croatian nobles made in order to prevent Hungarians from meddling into their affairs. This is almost commonly accepted in newer authoritative history books (for instance, monumental Raukar's" Hrvatsko srednjovjekovlje"). This is not historical nihilism or "deconstruction" (school of Ivo Goldstein and similar fellas), but a rather banal contention that Croats, in 1100s and 1200s simply didnt have any need for such a formal document, because balance of powers was such that nominal Hungarian overlordship wasnt such a big deal. In fact, Croatian nobles were frequently the most powerful figures in "Hungarian" kingdom, sometimes even more influential than Hungarian wannabe kings (Gorjanski episode). Anyway-"Pacta conventa" is interesting stuff, historically very important (especially in the 18th and 19th cent. legislative-national battles)-but, in all likelihood, a cunning forgery of our cunning forefathers.;^)Mir Harven 22:02, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah, like I said, there is no actual written treaty named that way, that's just interpolation, albeit a very entrenched one. It's probably successful because it's so plausible. --Shallot 22:29, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Anglicization of names
I'm not sure why the native names should be modified all that much. Even with anglicized names, the surnames are still -- in a manner of speaking -- odd, so why bother. --Shallot

I think that Nicholas Zrinyi is a good example of why using the anglicized names isn't such a bad idea. Does one use the Magyar Miklos, as the original article did, or the slavic Nikola, as you prefer? Wikipedia tends to use the conventional English names of people and places (Croatia rather than Hrvatska, Yugoslavia rather than Jugoslavija, Plato rather than Platon) and using the English transliteration of common first names (Stephen, Peter, Nicholas) could eliminate some confusion, so long as the native variants are noted. --Tom Radulovich

 * Well, Zrinski is a good example as far as the first name goes, but a bad one considering the surname. Both mean the same thing, "of Zrin" (a name of their first estate+castle I think), but I don't think that surnames were freely modifiable any more by that historic age.

 * The examples you stated are all entrenched transliterations, but the names generally aren't. Except maybe for Bošković whose surname was written Boscovich (interestingly enough, the first syllable was done like Italian) because he worked in England for quite a while. People don't generally refer to me as Joseph in English, but Josip as I write it. The only recurring problem I've noticed with "Josip" is with the French speakers, who often misspell it "Jospin"...

 * Also, we've got redirects to fix any ambiguity anyway. --Shallot

Earliest history
That Kessler web page that seems to have been a primary resource is lacking the distinction between the Pannonian dukes and the Dalmatian ones, and gives a rather hazy opinion on how the Christianization happened, and a reference saying they were already Christianized when they arrived, which is quite unlikely and I never heard of that anywhere else. I've read elsewhere that the papal "Liber Pontificalis" includes a record of Pope John IV sending the first emmisary to the Croats, but couldn't find a real corroboration of those dates of Radoslav's reign, only that he was the duke of the Dalmatian Croats around that time. Given the existence of a Christening well (sp?) with duke Višeslav's name written as the ruler, I think the sentence about the Christianization during Radoslav's reign is too generic and imprecise. --Shallot 17:57, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Also, Frankish lord Erich is said to have reached Trsat (part of modern Rijeka) in 799, laid siege to the fortress under duke Višeslav and died while getting defeated. The Franks did occupy Croatian lands by 803, but by that time Višeslav is said to have already died. Borna of Dalmatian Croats and Ljudevit of Pannonian Croats were vassal to Charlemagne. Later, in 818, under Louis the Pious, Ljudevit rebelled against the Franks, but was defeated by 822 and died. This was apparently extracted from external sources because later popular historians among the Croats actually wrote that they defeated the Franks after seven years of war and that the next Pannonian duke was Porin, who also Christianized the people with Papal blessing... other records state that the first "believer" dukes were Mislav and Trpimir of the Dalmatian Croats, and the Pannonian Croats' history after Ljudevit is rather unclear (only two recorded rulers, Ratimir and Braslav, in a non-contiguous time period). --Shallot 18:19, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Also :) Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote how the Croats were Christianized under duke Porga, after emperor Heraclius recommended that the Pope sends missionaries to do so. But again this duke's reign, like Porin's, doesn't seem to be exactly registered elsewhere... --Shallot 18:27, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Shallot: Thanks for your research on the early dukes. Documentation of this period is scarce, and the earliest South Slav "histories" tend toward the murky and mythologized (which, as in most things South Slav, doesn't prevent folks from registering strong opinions:-)). I was tempted to leave out everything before Tomislav, but thought that even heavily mythologized history can be useful information if presented with the proper caveats. It seems as if your research is as solid as possible considering the subject matter, so I would encourage you to re-write these sections as you see fit. Best, Tom Radulovich 23:44, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not sure how to proceed given that the page uses a short list format. Perhaps I should divide it into sections and then make the initial section more like an introduction rather than a terse list with links.

 * In any event, I found this information only by searching the web (but I have the advantage of knowing the native language and several resources aren't translated in English). I should probably first obtain one or two Croatian history books in order to see what is taught in schools. It may be somewhat biased given that it's given to kids only after governmental acceptance, but those books tend to include a clearer delineation between the important and confirmed data and the more tangential and conjectured data, simply because it would be a bigger embarassment if they got something wrong there... --Shallot 10:39, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

In Einchardt Annals Borna was mentioned many times, but never as Croat. Ljudevit Posavski also was not mentioned as Croat. Einchardt mentioned Serbs in his Annals, but never Croats. Therefore we could not talk of rulers of Pannonian Croats. We could say rulers of Dalmatia. It is much more accurate.

 * You are conducting original research. That is not allowed on wikipedia. Please refrain from doing that. --Dijxtra 01:45, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Originally they are mentioned as rulers of Pannonia and rulers of Dalmatia. It is nonsense to say that they are rulers of Pannonian Croats. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Medule (talk • contribs)

 * Please, sign your comments with " ~ ". Well, if they didn't rule Croats, who did they rule? --Dijxtra 12:33, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

They were South Slavs. First mentioning of Croats in history is 852. Borna was duke of Guduscans and Ljudevit of Pannonians. There are no proof for statement that they were Croats.

 * First WRITTEN mention that we know of, yes. We know because this mention survives to present day. Lack of historical documents (particulary from the "dark ages") does not mean Croats did not exist, or didn't call themselves Croat before. Borna and Ljudevit were by all accounts Croatian nobles, and certainly not Serb or just Slav. The idea of nation did not exist before roughly the 16th century. Does this mean there were no Croats, Serbs, English, French, Chinese before that? No. Your argument isn't valid. I'm reverting to previous version. --Dr.Gonzo 21:14, 5 March 2006 (UTC)

So you dont have proof that these rulers were Croats, but you add here what somebody believes to be truth. In only historical documents about Ljudevit and Borna we could not find that Ljudevit and Borna were Croats. They are Slavs. You could not add in Wikipedia somebody belief that Ljudevit or Borna are Croats. There are no proof. Neutral point of view is to mention these rulers as rulers not of Pannonian or Dalmatian Croats, but as rulers of pannonia or dalmatia.

 * It is not NPOV if we can't agree on it. However, seen as some of the others have agreed that it is at least not harmful i won't make any reverts if we can come to a compromise. Please, refrain from further edits before discussing it on talk page. Thank you. --Dr.Gonzo 00:11, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

 * This has come to my attention - Croatian and Serbian wikipedia both list the rulers as Pannonian and Dalmatian Croats, so it seems consensus already exists. See Croatian Wikipedia "Croatian rulers article" and Serbian Wikipedia "Croatian rulers article" --Dr.Gonzo 00:45, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

Monarchs of Hungary
I'm reluctant to point to the list of Hungarian rulers more prominently because of several things:

 * that list doesn't have the same ordinal numbers: the Belas, the Stephens, the Gezas and the Andrews are shifted by -1 because Bela I, Stephen I, Geza I and Andrew I of Hungary didn't rule over Croatia. Possibly others.
 * the Transylvanian princes are impertinent
 * support for the Zapolyas probably wasn't as notable in Croatia

--Shallot 23:07, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Counts of Celje
The dates for the reigns of the Celje counts vary between this page and the Counts of Celje page, especially Hermann I and Hermann II. Tom Radulovich 19:02, 5 Feb 2005 (UTC)

If the Counts of Celje has the proper timeline, it was Frideric II and not I who ruled with Ulrik III. I corrected that. --Ton e  07:09, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

Naming convention
Hi!

PANONIAN suggested that we should discuss a general convention here about the usage of names like Zrinski/Zrínyi, or Lackfi/Lackovic.

I suggest that we use names accoding to the origin of the family, even if the article is related to an other country's history.

So we should use Zrinski, Frankopan, Babonic etc instead of Zrínyi, Frangepán and Babonics while Lackfi, Garai, and Újlaki instead of Lackovic, Gorjanski and Ilocki.

Opinions? 84.2.210.17 07:53, 11 August 2006 (UTC)

Radich
I see no reason to list the Radich family history among the bans of Croatia. Someone can write an article about this family, but I will remove this content from here. --Koppany 17:51, 11 May 2007 (UTC)

Where are the redlinks?
Missing people should be redlinked. If you just don't have a redlink there, then it can't link when the article is created. On a list (and generally) it is better to redlink than keep silent they are missing. Why are people so scared of redlinks?

I came here to find someone, but because he is not linked I dunno if he should be a redlink or perhaps does exist, but under a different title.

Best wishes Si Trew (talk) 09:58, 19 December 2009 (UTC)

The list is wrong
The list should be listing the Kings of Croatia, i.e. the people who actually were the monarchs, not their viceroys. Or at least, the actual monarchs of Croatia should be listed as well. -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 08:28, 16 July 2010 (UTC)

Ridiculous
First of all NDH has little to nothing to do with this article and second-even if it did, the entire separate section wouldn't be necessary. Someone has some communist complexes again? EDIT: I merged the NDH section with the Modern times and shortened it a bit. Happy? Or I am a cannibal nazi and filthy holocaust denier now?
 * The reason why the section was separate was to emphasize that the NDH has no legitimacy and is not in the line of succession. -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 01:05, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

New list
Here I made the list of all RULERS of Croatia (dukes in early period and later Kings). List of Bans will bi transferred to new article. The base for the list of kings after Trpimirović dynasty is the list of Kings of Hungary. Since that list is not 100% identical (e.g. Karlo Martel, or cases when the dates of reign in Hungary and Croatia differ) this was made a separate list. Also, names of all kings are presented in Croatian transcript, how were usually referred in historical documents and history books. I only left numbering of Kings of Hungary unchanged because we usually take the same numeration in history books (e.g. Bela IV should be Bela III in Croatian) - Ro0103 (talk) 11:49, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * also - remarks for the rulers are in connection to events that refer to Croatia - Ro0103 (talk) 11:51, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Both orders should be listed in the article, if the rulers were ever crowned using different ordinals. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 23:22, 13 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Disagree. This is excellent work, I've been meaning to do something of the sort myself. This article should be renamed into List of Croatian monarchs (e.g. List of English monarchs, List of French monarchs etc.) and a list of bans should be added into the Ban of Croatia article (or perhaps a List of Croatian bans article). -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 02:12, 14 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Wait, that was already done :). Great. Fully agree with the current situation. -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 02:14, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

 * So, what would be the reason to avoid listing the Croatian order if it really existed in practice? I fail to see any reason to avoid it. Obviously the more notable name comes first, but if it's a list of Croatian monarchs, then it has its own order that should be at least mentioned. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 14:14, 14 February 2011 (UTC)
 * Misunderstanding, you're right Joy. Seems I do "disagree first, ask questions later" :) -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 15:48, 18 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I would try to give my argument for this. As Croatian wiki members would know, in all school history books we learn that Golden Bull in which Zagreb is proclaimed free and royal city is issued by King Bela IV. This can be found in every book which deals with history of Zagreb, and in the memorial plaque in Upper Town in Zagreb. But, according to Croatian order, we are talking about Bela III. Same problem, different Golden Bull - Andrew II issued Golden Bull in 1222 which is mentioned in our history books, but in Croatian order, he should be ordered as Andrew I. The main problem would be ordering of Stephens, since Croatia had two (+ Stephen Držislav who is usually not counted since he took the name Stephen at his coronation, and the first Stephen of Arpad dynasty should be counted as Stephen III in Croatian ordinals and not II. Maybe, the solution would be that we use Croatian ordinals with the name in Croatian. Ro0103 (talk) 11:00, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

Tomislav duke ?
That's nothing more than wishful thinking on the part of Croatian historians. The ONLY evidence of his being a "king" is from a 925 letter by the pope in which he addresses him as "rex", while in every other known correspondence (and reference in general) he is titled "princeps" ("prince", as a general term for a ruler, or "duke"). There is no contemporary evidence of a "coronation at Duvno field" or any other semi-mythological event that is essentially the result of 19th century early nationalist "historians" liberally filling in the blanks. The earliest ruler of Croatia that we actually know had a crown was King Stephen Držislav - but that crown was granted to him by the Byzantine Emperor and not by the Pope, hence not very acceptable to Croatian nationalists. -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 13:08, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Please take that to Talk:Tomislav of Croatia first since that's the more specific location. Also preferably cite sources, otherwise it's just a giant flamebait... --Joy [shallot] (talk) 14:15, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

Since the comment was made here, I will answer it here, and the admins can move it to discussion page on article about Tomislav if needed, but I would also want to point out that if we deny Tomislav's kingship here, than status of practically all rulers until Stjepan Držislav are to be revisioned. So my discussion is also important for this article.

At the beginning, I don't think that Wikipedia is the place for solving the problems of Croatian historiography, as same as the problems which every historiography does. Most of Croatian historians and Croats in general consider Tomislav the first king, and pushing some other thesis on Wikipedia would indeed led us into flames. But these were not the arguments that I am trying to make here.

1. Use of a title in Latin In the 9th and at the beginning of 10th century standardization of titles was (in most cases) still absent. That particularly refers to states which were on lower degree of civilization in that time what Croatian state in that time surely was (e.g. Croatia as a state - in more or less meaning - in that time existed only about 100 years). Director is right here when he states that Croatian rulers used the terms princeps which was usually translated as prince. But also it was taken as general term for a ruler which also makes it impossible to take it for argument that Croatian ruler couldn’t be considered a king. Again, the term princeps derivies directly from Roman Emperors in a meaning "first in time or order; the first, chief, the most eminent, distinguished, or noble; the first man, first person." So I think that the absence of standardization of used titles cannot be the argument here. My further argument on this matter would be an inscription from stone plaque of King Stjepan Držislav for who Director claims „that he was the earliest ruler of Croatia that we actually know had a crown“– the inscription on the plaque says:  (SVETO)CLV DUX HROATOR IN TE PUS D IRZISCLV DUCE MAGNU  or  „Svetoslav, Duke of the Croats at the time of Drzislav the Great Duke“ . In same time on other the stone plaque is refered as rex. As we can see here, even the ruler we consider a king used different title in Latin. In the end, Ivo Goldstein says about this matter (Ivo Goldstein, ‘’Hrvatska povijest’’, Zagreb, 2008.): '' The Croats and their rulers in early Middle Age did not take in mind how did the foreign authorities referred to them in their documents (often, they couldn't even know that), but on stone plaques they referred by the title that they thought it was the most suitable. Much more important to them was that their subjects address them with „vlast“ (power) or „gospodstvo“ (lordship) through which the ruler was addressed as indisputable ruler in special relation to God. ''

2. Popes letter In his letter, Pope John X addresses  „dilecto filio Tomisclao, Rege Chroatorum, et Michaeli, exelentis Dux Chulminae“ . The importance of this letter is not just for addressing Tomislav as rex but for differing two titles – rex for Tomislav and dux for Mihajlo Višević. The Pope letter surely points out that Tomislav was greater lord in comparison to Mihajlo who was lesser lord and probably his vassal. Since Tomislav was addressed as rex by Pope and its supreme authority (and in Middle Age the one can gain the title of king only from Rome or from Byzantium), Tomislav could be referred as king. The absence of coronation (at least we don't have contemporary evidence of it) is not of great importance here. Ivo Goldstein states:  „the fact that the pope addresses him as rex doesnt mean that he was crowned, since it was not the costume in first half of 10th century.“

3. Stjepan Držislav – first king As I have also pointed out that even Stjepan used different titles in Latin. Main source for claim that Stjepan was the first king comes from Historia Salonitana of Thomas the Archdeacon from 13th century. Again, it was not contemporary source as same as Ljetopis Popa Dukljanina from the end of 12th century which gives us a story about coronation at Duvno field that Director mentions. Thomas the Archdeacon states clearly that Tomislav was dux in 910 and we cannot not to consider that Tomislav gain (or took) the title of rex later (the Pope's letter is from 925). Thomas also states that Stjepan was first crowned king. In addition to this matter, let’s consider the documents of other Croatian rulers. Contemporary inscription on the sarcophagus of Queen Jelena says: '' „glorious Jelena, wife of King Mihajlo, mother of King Stephen. “ '' which gives us fact that even before Stjepan, his father Mihajlo Krešimir bared the title of king. Also King Peter Krešimir IV in one of his donation charts exposes the line of succession (very important for Croatian historiography) from the kings before Stjepan Držislav (again here Mihajlo Krešimir II or Krešimir Stariji).

 * I pointed to Director once that I'm historian an lawyer with diploma, so I would make a closing word here: Can we say beyond reasonable doubt that Tomislav was king?. Or can we say that he was not? For both questions, the answer is NO. There is to little contemporary evidence from Croatian medieval history that we could consider one or the other thesis as more accurate than other. Neven Budak states about this matter (Neven Budak, Tomislav Raukar, Hrvatska povijest srednjeg vijeka, Školska knjiga, Zagreb, 2006 and in Neven Budak, Prva stoljeća Hrvatske, Hrvatska sveučilišna naklada, Zagreb, 1994):  Tomislav was first Croatian ruler that was adressed by Pope's Office as king. That was not to be seen as the result of formal act of coronation in which would Pope or Emperor give the royal insignia to the ruler, as it was the case with (Stjepan) Držislav or Zvonimir, but it is to be seen as further enhancing of the reputation of Croatian rulers. In despite of the lack of formal act, we can consider Croatia of that time as ‘’Kingdom’’, since Tomislav and his successors (especially from the middle of 10th century) consistently referred themselves as kings'', but also the organization of government of that time corresponded to that degree of state organization.

At the end my opinion is that we should leave the Tomislav’s kingship intact but also to make some remarks in the article which take this dispute into consideration. Ro0103 (talk) 13:25, 18 February 2011 (UTC)
 * I am fully aware of the Pope's status during the middle ages (i.e. his right to grant the title of "king"). That however, is immeasurably far from actual scientific evidence that "Tomislav was crowned in 925". No contemporary evidence exists that even mentions any coronation, or any crown, or in fact - anything. Its that one word in the correspondence that this whole thing is based on.

 * Sigh... far be it from me however to insist on challenging the whole nationalist mythos. All right, lets leave him listed as King, but the nonsense about the mythical "coronation" has to be removed. Also, a verifiable source is necessary for the claim that "the Croatian state reached its largest territorial extent during Tomislav's reign." From what can be gathered it seems that this is the case with Peter Kreshimir IV the Great's reign, 150 years later. And, as far as I know, there are in fact no sources at all that describe the extent of Tomislav's reign. -- DIREKTOR  ( TALK ) 12:16, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

 * Although some Croatian medievalists like N. Budak and I. Goldstein don't consider Tomislav to be first Croatian king (Budak on his lectures at FFZG teaches like that), most eminent Croatian medievalist T. Raukar (he is called "Croatian Le Goff", he wrote best book about Croatian middle ages up to date "Hrvatsko srednjovjekovlje", member of HAZU, he recieved "Anton Gindely" reward in Czech Republic) considers Tomislav to be the first king. Of course, there is no space for Kukuljević's imagination for the crowning at Duvanjsko polje. But you should also note that Thomas the Archdeacon (a very reliable source) mentions Tomislav as dux (prince) in 914.

Here is what Raukar said ( http://hrcak.srce.hr/index.php?show=clanak&id_clanak_jezik=86129&lang=en ): "''Uzmimo kao primjer pitanje je li Tomislav bio kralj ili nije. Ne valja izmišljati ništa o Tomislavu i stvarati velike konstrukcije. Ono što imamo, ono što je čvrsto i nepobitno jest pismo pape Ivana X. koje on upućuje Tomislavu „regi Crouatorum“ i Mihajlu „duci Chulmorum“. Papa, dakle, Tomislavu daje naslov rex, a Mihajlu Zahumskome naslov dux. On čini razliku između te dvije razine vlasti. Oni koji omalovažavaju tu činjenicu i koji, kao protuargument, ističu da i Gottschalk Trpimira naziva rex i da stoga titula rex ne znači nužno kraljevski naslov nego samo jednu od mogućih uglednijih vladarskih titula, mislim da nemaju pravo. Treba istaknuti da su u papinskoj kancelariji oduvijek sjedili iskusni, sposobni stručnjaci koji su vrlo oprezno upotrebljavali vladarske naslove. Kada papinska kancelarija u istome dokumentu nekoga oslovljava titulom rex, a nekoga dux, onda to ne čini slučajno, tu postoji neka razlika. Ali tu, na žalost, i historičarev posao prestaje. Mislim da smijemo, barem u obliku oprezne pretpostavke, ustvrditi da je Tomislav nosio kraljevski naslov. Sve drugo je izvan nas. Kako je Tomislav dobio taj naslov, gdje je bila krunidba i je li krunidbe uopće bilo, prema poznatoj građi ne može se utvrditi.''" Philosopher12 (talk) 16:47, 17 July 2011 (UTC)

title (rulers, monarchs, ...)
I'm not actually terribly opposed to that other title, but it came in the middle of a huge process of cleaning up links to bans. In a bit, the database will have reshuffled a lot of template-induced linkage, and I'll do another pass. After that, I won't revert the same move if done again. Though it stands to reason that it could pass through the RM procedure, because the matching List of rulers of Hungary and List of rulers of Bohemia could follow suit, or not. --Joy [shallot] (talk) 15:03, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

pictures (portraits)
I can see that somebody changed portrait pictures of several kings of native line to their modern, romantic depictions. Since in whole of article we have "real", contemporary depictions of rulers, my opinion is that we shoul only use these kind of portraits (contemporary and not modern, romantic). For example, if we have the plaque from the baptistery of Split for which is believed to represent Zvonimir, than we should use that image, and not modern one. Ro0103 (talk) 10:46, 21 February 2011 (UTC)

Coat of arms (Spanish Habsburgs)
Coat of Arms: The coat of arms shown is the one belonging to the Spanish Habsburgs, not related to Croatia. I believe shouldn't be the one in this article. (Panarobledo (talk) 22:15, 12 November 2011 (UTC)).
 * Panarobledo, you are right. They are the arms of Charles V, who never reigned in Hungary or Croatia. I've replaced them with Habsburgs arms from a later date in which the arms of Croatia can also be seen. Gerard von Hebel (talk) 23:02, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

Date of Braslav's reign?
The article currently says that Braslav ruled Pannonian Croatia from 880 to 887. But the Braslav of Pannonian Croatia article says that his reign ended in 900 or 901 when the Hungarians conquered his country. So which is correct? What happened in the last few years of the Principality's independence, was Braslav still the ruler up to the time the Magyars invaded or was there another ruler in that short time? I would tend to think that the 900/901 figure makes more sense. --Hibernian (talk) 00:23, 7 November 2013 (UTC)

NDH
I adjusted some of the information in the NDH section and removed references to Aimone's son. Gerard von Hebel (talk) 18:43, 26 August 2015 (UTC)

On what ground did you delete and reedit the text for Tomislav II.? You use a non-relevant source over not only that time sources but also historians and books that are covering the subject. You mentioned Later however he refused to assume the kingship in opposition to the Italian annexation of the Dalmatia region (a source that is not covering Tomislav II.) but sources tell otherwise, he until his abdication had the royal office working, withe the two royal adjutants, he gave Croatian noble titles until 1943. So it is not true that he refused to assume the kingship. In the book that covers him called Designirani hrvatski kralj Tomislav II., vojvoda od Spoleta the visitors from Croatia that visited him in Florence 1942. state that he ask when there is going to be a coronation and when is his office going to be moved to Zagreb. Also you deleted the claim of Zvonimir II. which had a valid source. Please for the future READ! the sources that are presented and do not replace them with third or forth non-relevant sourcesBan kavalir (talk) 19:44, 6 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Sources should be verifiable. We can't verify them if we can't read what they say. He did at one time refuse but later rescinded that. The sources for the rights of "Zvonimir II" are in Croatian. What exactly does Hrvoje Matković say about them and on what page? Also there are sources for an abdication on July 31. Whatever he may have declared in October, a monarch can only abdicate once. Gerard von Hebel (talk) 20:02, 6 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Your point about his refusal however is right. I changed the text to "He had at first refused to assume the kingship in opposition to the Italian annexation of Dalmatia". Gerard von Hebel (talk) 20:08, 6 September 2015 (UTC)

Number of succession title of hungarian monarchs specifically
Some croatian historians like Ivo Goldstein or some Croatian wikipedia articles list the correct number of the monarch according to Croatian succession (e.g. Bela III instead of Bela IV, because the Croats did not have a Bela I before being incorporated into Hungary). I want to hear your opinion on wether to change the name numbers in this article to fit this better. This is a kind of double edged sword since you sacrifice historical accuracy for convenience. Marko Brkljača (talk) 03:53, 3 August 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of dukes and kings of Croatia


text:
Sand Land

Sand Land (stylized in all caps) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama. It was serialized in Shueisha's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from May to August 2000, and was collected into a single  volume in November 2000. Sand Land was first serialized in North America by Viz Media in their English Shonen Jump magazine in 2003, then later released in one graphic novel in December 2003. A CGI anime film adaptation co-produced by Sunrise, Kamikaze Douga, and Anima was released in August 2023, while an original net animation (ONA) series was released worldwide on Disney+ and Hulu from March to May 2024. An action role-playing video game adaptation, also titled Sand Land, was released in April 2024.

Plot
After enduring years of natural disaster and war, the world is left without its main supply of water; the river that provided water to the country dried up long ago. With the greedy king of the land's personal water supply becoming increasingly more expensive for the citizens of Sand Land to buy, the people begin robbing one another for water and money. Sheriff Rao, tired of the king's greed, approaches the demons of Sand Land for help in searching for a new water supply. Demon prince Beelzebub and his friend Thief agree to join Rao.

Soon after their quest begins, their car breaks down and they are forced to steal a tank from the king's army. This attracts the anger of the king and he mobilizes his forces to stop them. Sheriff Rao, a former legendary general of the king's army, is able to quickly deal with all of the current army's attempts to hinder their progress. Once they reach the supposed water supply at the end of the now dried up river bed, they find a lake that now acts as the king's private reserves. With the water sealed away behind a dam to give the king a monopoly over water, Rao, the demons, and those sympathetic to their cause tear it down. With the water returned to the world as a result, the king's oppressive rule is brought to an end.

Characters

 * Beelzebub (ベルゼブブ)
 * Beelzebub, named after the biblical demon of the same name, is the son of Lucifer and the prince of demons. Generally referred to only as "Prince" by his fellow demons, Beelzebub tries to live in relative harmony with the humans. Although he regularly steals water from them, he only takes as much as he and the demons need to survive. Simply joining Sheriff Rao out of boredom, Beelzebub lends his enhanced sight and demonic strength to fight against the tyrannous king.
 * Beelzebub, named after the biblical demon of the same name, is the son of Lucifer and the prince of demons. Generally referred to only as "Prince" by his fellow demons, Beelzebub tries to live in relative harmony with the humans. Although he regularly steals water from them, he only takes as much as he and the demons need to survive. Simply joining Sheriff Rao out of boredom, Beelzebub lends his enhanced sight and demonic strength to fight against the tyrannous king.

 * Rao (ラオ)
 * An elderly man, Rao seeks to free the people of Sand Land from the king's pocket. Formerly known as General Shiba (シバ将軍), he is believed to have died 30 years ago along with his forces while destroying a mysterious weapon produced by the Picchi on the King's orders. Rao learns from Beelzebub and Thief that it was not a weapon, but a machine to produce water. This information prompts Rao to right his wrong by bringing down the king and help those whose families died due to his actions.
 * An elderly man, Rao seeks to free the people of Sand Land from the king's pocket. Formerly known as General Shiba (シバ将軍), he is believed to have died 30 years ago along with his forces while destroying a mysterious weapon produced by the Picchi on the King's orders. Rao learns from Beelzebub and Thief that it was not a weapon, but a machine to produce water. This information prompts Rao to right his wrong by bringing down the king and help those whose families died due to his actions.

 * Thief (シーフ)
 * Thief is recruited by Beelzebub for his expertise at stealing and his great wisdom. He often fights with Beelzebub for turns to drive the tank.
 * Thief is recruited by Beelzebub for his expertise at stealing and his great wisdom. He often fights with Beelzebub for turns to drive the tank.

 * General Are (アレ将軍)
 * Rao's replacement in the king's army, Are's father died during the raid against the mysterious weapon. Initially, he actively pursues Rao in order to avenge his father. However, once he learns the truth about the mysterious weapon he joins Rao in bringing down the king.
 * Rao's replacement in the king's army, Are's father died during the raid against the mysterious weapon. Initially, he actively pursues Rao in order to avenge his father. However, once he learns the truth about the mysterious weapon he joins Rao in bringing down the king.

 * General Zeu (ゼウ大将軍)
 * The true antagonist of Sand Land, Zeu is the aging commander of the king's forces. Due to his failing body, Zeu is confined to a floating robotic lift. He ordered the attack on the Picchi people, the creators of the water-producing machine, to both rid himself of Shiba's disobedient tank brigade and the threat to the king's monopoly. He uses the king as a figurehead to rule Sand Land. Ultimately, Are shoots and kills him with a tank cannon blast.
 * The true antagonist of Sand Land, Zeu is the aging commander of the king's forces. Due to his failing body, Zeu is confined to a floating robotic lift. He ordered the attack on the Picchi people, the creators of the water-producing machine, to both rid himself of Shiba's disobedient tank brigade and the threat to the king's monopoly. He uses the king as a figurehead to rule Sand Land. Ultimately, Are shoots and kills him with a tank cannon blast.

 * King (国王)
 * As the current ruler of Sand Land the king makes enormous profit by selling bottled water at high prices. He tries to eliminate Rao to make sure nobody finds out about his personal water supply or the water-creating machine he had destroyed. After water is returned to Sand Land, he is forced by Rao to give his wealth to the people.
 * As the current ruler of Sand Land the king makes enormous profit by selling bottled water at high prices. He tries to eliminate Rao to make sure nobody finds out about his personal water supply or the water-creating machine he had destroyed. After water is returned to Sand Land, he is forced by Rao to give his wealth to the people.

 * Lucifer (サタン)
 * King of the demons and Beelzebub's father.
 * King of the demons and Beelzebub's father.

 * Papa (パパ)
 * The muscular leader of the Swimmers (スイマーズ), the self-proclaimed "greatest criminals in Sand Land", and father of the other members.
 * The muscular leader of the Swimmers (スイマーズ), the self-proclaimed "greatest criminals in Sand Land", and father of the other members.

 * Pike (パイク)
 * A skinny member of the Swimmers who wears a necktie with no shirt. He has superhuman eyesight.
 * A skinny member of the Swimmers who wears a necktie with no shirt. He has superhuman eyesight.

 * Shark (シャーク)
 * A skinny member of the Swimmers who wears a blazer with no shirt. He can run at superhuman speed.
 * A skinny member of the Swimmers who wears a blazer with no shirt. He can run at superhuman speed.

 * Guppy (グッピー)
 * An extremely large and fat member of the Swimmers. He carries a large hand cannon.
 * An extremely large and fat member of the Swimmers. He carries a large hand cannon.

 * Ann (アン)
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. She is a girl from Forest Land who accompanies Beelzebub and company.
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. She is a girl from Forest Land who accompanies Beelzebub and company.

 * Muniel (ムニエル)
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. He is the main antagonist of the game and the second half of the series. He is an angel who proclaims to be the hero of Forest Land and is on a mission to purge the world of fiends.
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. He is the main antagonist of the game and the second half of the series. He is an angel who proclaims to be the hero of Forest Land and is on a mission to purge the world of fiends.

 * Bred (ブレッド)
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. He is a general for Forest Land who serves Muniel despite skepticism of his actions.
 * A character from Sand Land: The Series and the Sand Land video game. He is a general for Forest Land who serves Muniel despite skepticism of his actions.

Production
Akira Toriyama intended for Sand Land to be a short story about a man and a tank that he wrote for his own enjoyment. However, he had difficulty drawing the tank and, as he insisted on drawing everything himself, soon regretted it. Although he became frustrated, Toriyama had already devised the plot to involve the tank and thus grudgingly went through with it.

Manga
Written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama, Sand Land was serialized in Shueisha's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump from May 9 to August 8, 2000. Its 14 chapters were collected into a single volume that was released on November 2, 2000. A edition was published on August 4, 2023. That same day, a "full color" version of the manga began serialization in Shueisha's monthly Saikyō Jump magazine.

In 2003, Viz Media licensed Sand Land for English release in North America. It was first serialized in their manga anthology magazine Shonen Jump for eleven issues, from the January to the November 2003 issues. The collected graphic novel was released later in paperback on December 24, 2003, and digitally as an ebook on June 4, 2013.

Anime
On December 8, 2022, Bandai Namco opened a website for "Sand Land Project" and uploaded a teaser video featuring Toriyama's art from the manga. The website featured a countdown that ended on December 17. On that date, it was announced that it would receive a CGI anime adaptation co-produced by Sunrise, Kamikaze Douga, and Anima. The film is directed by Toshihisa Yokoshima, with Hiroshi Kōjina serving as directing advisor, Hayashi Mori writing the screenplay, Yoshikazu Iwanami directing the sound, and Yugo Kanno composing the music. Imase performs the film's theme song "Utopia" (ユートピア). The Sand Land film had its world premiere at San Diego Comic-Con on July 22, 2023, in San Diego, California. It was released in Japanese theaters on August 18, 2023, by Toho, with a North American release following in 2024.

An original net animation (ONA) series was announced on November 14, 2023. The cast and staff members from the film reprised their roles. The opening theme is "Water Carrier" by Kroi, while the ending theme is "Drive My Idea" (ドライブ・マイ・イデア) by Tempalay. The first seven episodes of the series began streaming worldwide on Disney+ and in the United States on Hulu on March 20, 2024. The remaining episodes were released once a week. The first six episodes comprise "The Story of the Fiend Prince" (悪魔の王子) arc and retell the story of the film with some new scenes, while the final seven episodes comprise "The Story of the Angel Hero" (天使の勇者) arc, which Toriyama newly wrote for the ONA. Toriyama also named the two arcs and designed the new characters Ann and Muniel. However, he died before the ONA premiered on March 1, 2024.

Video game
An action role-playing video game based on the series was announced during Summer Game Fest on June 8, 2023. It was developed by ILCA and published by Bandai Namco Entertainment, and uses Unreal Engine 5. The game was released in Japan for the PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox Series X/S, and Windows on April 25, 2024, and the following day worldwide.

Reception
Greg McElhatton called Sand Land "the ultimate disposable comic, executed perfectly". His review for Read About Comics summarized, refers to it as a fun light story that, while not necessarily deep or memorable, does well to explore the fictional world and the unique characters that inhabit it. Despite Toriyama's complaints about designing the tank, McElhatton praised the art, declaring it more consistent than his previous work Dragon Ball. John Jakala of Anime News Network also called the artwork, and story, superior to Dragon Ball. Jakala said the characters are a big part of the series' charm, claiming Toriyama did a "masterful job" establishing the look and personality of each character in the first chapter.

At the 2023 Fantasia International Film Festival, the film adaptation of Sand Land won a Special Jury Mention in the Excellence in Animation category. The film opened at number six at the Japanese box office, and grossed US$2.98 million by its third week. Evan Mullicane of Screen Rant strongly praised the film, writing that it "proves that the original Sand Land manga is Toriyama's true opus." He found the "seamless" blend of 3D and 2D animation creates a distinctive look that captures Toriyama's artwork "beautifully", and noted that the film's best moments are all based on developing the three central characters. Writing for Anime News Network, Kalai Chik called the film a "feel good popcorn movie" and gave it a B+ rating. They cited the script as its strongest feature; "For a story that touches on the impacts of war, global warming, and corporate greed, it never overcomplicates the message, nor does it talk down to the audience." Although they praised the music, Chik noted it also exposes the "underutilized animation". Giving the film three out of five stars, Matt Schley of The Japan Times called it a straightforward romp that is "fun first and foremost", but leaves the audience with deeper themes to contemplate. He praised the banter between the three main characters as entertaining, with Tamura's Beelzebub being "especially endearing", and the supporting characters for highlighting Toriyama's skill for visual gags. Although Schley wrote that the story and CG animation in Sand Land are not likely to disappoint audiences, he noted that there is "nothing particularly revolutionary" about it and suggested it could have been slightly shorter in length.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Sand Land


text:
Lydia Denker

Lydia Norma Denker (born 25 December 1980, Germany) is an Australian-based pop singer-songwriter. Her second single, "One Perfect Day", was released in 2004, which peaked at No. 35 on the ARIA Singles Chart. In August 2006 Denker made the top 24 of the fourth season of Australian Idol, but did not advance to the top 12.

Biography
Lydia Norma Denker was born in December 1980 in Germany and grew up in the town of Niedermittlau, Hesse. Her parents are Joseph and Jutta Denker,she has a son and she has a sister. When Denker was eight, her family moved to Melbourne. At the age of sixteen she signed with BMG's Gotham Records after Ross Fraser and Siew Ooi saw her performance at the Midnight Revue Show, Crown Casino.

Denker released her first single, "Real to Me" in October 2000, but it did not reach the ARIA Singles Chart top 50. It was co-written by Alex Farrugia, John Anthony Cocivera, Merril Bainbridge, and Owen Bolwell. "Real to Me (Barcelona groove remix)" appeared on the various artists compilation album, Big Brother – The Album: Music Inspired By (June 2001).

Her second single, "One Perfect Day", followed in February 2004, which reached No. 35. It also peaked at No. 7 on the related ARIA Australasian Artists Singles Chart. "One Perfect Day" was the title single from the soundtrack of the film of the same name (February 2004). The single was written by David Hobson and Phil Buckle and includes remixes by Radio Slave and dance music DJ-producer, Josh Abrahams.

Australian Idol: 2006
In August 2006 Denker made the top 24 of the fourth season of Australian Idol, but did not advance to the top 12. She was eliminated on "Episode 10: Semi Finals: Group 3 Verdict & Group 4 Perform", where she performed a cover version of "One Moment in Time" – originally by Whitney Houston.

Later work
In 2012 Denker released her debut extended play, Voices, along with the related single, "Voices (In Your Head)". In 2013 it was re-released in a remixed (by DJ Argonaut) form.

Outside of her musical career Denker is also a professional photographer.

title: Lydia Denker


text:
Poor pussy

Poor pussy is an old party game played by children and adults often in drama classes or at parties. As it is described:

 * This game makes everybody laugh. Have the guests sit around the room. Choose one person to be the pussy. Pussy must go over to a guest and meow three times. The guest must pet pussy's head three times and say "Poor pussy, poor pussy, poor pussy," without laughing. The pussy should do their best to make the guest laugh. They can make funny meows and walk around like a cat. The pussy goes from one guest to another until someone laughs. The first one to laugh becomes the new pussy.

A variation of this game involves the exchange: Person: "Honey, I love you, give me a smile." Guest: "Honey, you know I love you, but I just can't smile."

title: Poor pussy


text:
Laugh (Keller Williams album)

Laugh is the sixth studio album by Keller Williams, released in 2002.

Track listing

 * 1) Freeker by the Speaker 4:52
 * 2) One Hit Wonder 4:06
 * 3) Hunting Charlie 4:01
 * 4) Alligator Alley 4:07
 * 5) Spring Buds 4:10
 * 6) Mental Instra 4:39
 * 7) Vabeeotchay 4:11
 * 8) Bob Rules 5:41
 * 9) Freakshow 3:06
 * 10) Gallivanting 2:45
 * 11) God Is My Palm Pilot 3:21
 * 12) Crooked 5:04
 * 13) Old Lady From Carlsbad 1:09
 * 14) Kidney in a Cooler 6:02
 * 15) Freeker Reprise 16:06

Credits

 * Mark Berger - Design, Layout Design, Package Concept
 * C. Taylor Crothers - Back Cover
 * Mike Crotty - Flute
 * Tom Faulkner - Illustrations
 * Louis Gosain - Harmony Vocals
 * Danny Knicely - Mandolin
 * Kevin Morris - Handclapping
 * Tye North - Bass, Illustrations, Throat Singing
 * Charlie Pilzer - Mastering
 * Wolfe Quinn - Trombone
 * Jim Robeson - Engineer, Mixing
 * Dave Watts - Drums, Tracking
 * Keller Williams - Guitar (Acoustic), Piano, Guitar (Electric), Vocals, Producer, Photography, Water Bowl

title: Laugh (Keller Williams album)


text: File:Harold alone.jpg

title: File:Harold alone.jpg


text:
John Saxon

John Saxon (born Carmine Orrico; August 5, 1936 – July 25, 2020) was an American actor who worked on more than 200 film and television projects during a span of 60 years. He was known for his work in Westerns and horror films, often playing police officers and detectives.

Born and raised in Brooklyn, New York, Saxon studied acting with Stella Adler before beginning his career as a contract actor for Universal Pictures, appearing in such films as Rock, Pretty Baby (1956) and Portrait in Black (1961), which earned him a reputation as a teen idol and won him a Golden Globe Award for New Star of the Year – Actor. During the 1970s and 1980s, he established himself as a character actor, frequently portraying law-enforcement officials in horror films such as Black Christmas (1974) and A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984).

Saxon appeared in numerous Italian films from the early 1960s. In a 2002 interview, he said of this period: "At the time, Hollywood was going through a crisis, but England and Italy were making a great many films. Besides, I thought the European films were of a much more mature quality than most of what Hollywood was making at the time." Saxon appeared in Italian productions all through the 1970s and 1980s, until 1994, when he made Jonathan of the Bears.

In addition to his roles in horror films, Saxon co-starred with Bruce Lee in the martial arts film Enter the Dragon (1973), and he had supporting roles in the Westerns The Appaloosa (1966; for which he was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture), Death of a Gunfighter (1969), and Joe Kidd (1972), as well as the made-for-television thriller Raid on Entebbe (1977). In the 1990s, Saxon occasionally appeared in films, with small roles in Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994) and From Dusk till Dawn (1996).

Early life
Of Italian descent, Saxon was born Carmine Orrico in Brooklyn, New York in 1936. His father, Antonio Orrico, was a New York-born dock worker, and his mother Anna (née Protettore) was an immigrant from Calabria. Italian was the primary language spoken at home, though Saxon also spoke some Spanish. He attended New Utrecht High School and studied acting with famous acting coach Stella Adler. He entered show business as a teenager, when he was spotted by a modeling scout at a movie theatre.

According to Robert Hofler's 2005 biography, The Man Who Invented Rock Hudson: The Pretty Boys and Dirty Deals of Henry Willson, agent Henry Willson saw Saxon's picture on the cover of a detective magazine, where Saxon posed as "a Puerto Rican guy" who gets shot and falls over a garbage can while his girlfriend looks on. Willson immediately contacted the boy's family in Brooklyn. With his parents' permission, the 17-year-old Orrico contracted with Willson, and he was given the stage name John Saxon. He contracted with Universal Studios in April 1954 at $150 a week.

Universal Pictures
Saxon spent 18 months at Universal before the studio first used him in a film. His first significant role was a juvenile delinquent in Running Wild (1955), co-starring Mamie Van Doren. According to Filmink, "young Saxon had a scowling, broody teen quality that was in fashion in mid-‘50s Hollywood."

He was then given a good role in The Unguarded Moment (1956), playing a youth who seemingly stalks Esther Williams. During February 1956, Universal exercised its option on Saxon and he was paid $225 a week.

Teen idol
Saxon had the lead in a low-budget teen film, Rock, Pretty Baby (1956), which became an unexpected success and established Saxon as a teen idol. Universal executives were pleased, and Ross Hunter announced he would be in Teach Me How To Cry. Saxon quickly reprised his Rock, Pretty Baby role in a sequel, Summer Love (1958). By this time, he was getting about 3,000 fan letters a week. He then made Teach Me How to Cry with Sandra Dee, which was retitled The Restless Years (1958).

Universal put him in an "A" film, This Happy Feeling (1958), directed by Blake Edwards, where Saxon romanced Debbie Reynolds in support of Curt Jurgens. MGM borrowed him to appear opposite Sandra Dee in The Reluctant Debutante (1958), for director Vincente Minnelli, which was widely seen. Saxon was billed third, beneath Rex Harrison and Kay Kendall. He had a support role in a large-budget Biblical drama about Simon Peter, The Big Fisherman (1959) for director Frank Borzage, starring Howard Keel. Released by Buena Vista instead of Universal-International, it was a financial disappointment.

In August 1958, Saxon signed a three-picture deal with Hecht-Hill-Lancaster, the first of which was to be the main role in Cry Tough (1959), a film about juvenile delinquents. He was meant to follow it with The Ballad of Cat Ballou (not made until years later, with Jane Fonda). Instead, for HHL, he worked with another major director, John Huston, in the Western The Unforgiven (1960), playing an Indian in support of Burt Lancaster and Audrey Hepburn. Back at Universal, he remained in a supporting role for Portrait in Black (1960), reunited with Dee, with Lana Turner and Anthony Quinn.

He appeared in the Western Posse from Hell (1961) with Audie Murphy and guest-starred in television series, including General Electric Theater and The Dick Powell Theatre. "I want to do all sorts of character parts," he said in 1960.

Saxon played a serial-killer soldier in War Hunt (1962) and had a small role in the comedy success Mr. Hobbs Takes a Vacation (1962).

Europe
Saxon traveled to Italy to make Agostino (1962).

In 1963, Saxon co-starred with Letícia Román in Mario Bava's Italian giallo film The Girl Who Knew Too Much.

He returned to Hollywood to perform in Otto Preminger's The Cardinal (1963) and an episode of Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre, then was back to Europe for The Cavern (1964).

The Ravagers (1965) was shot in the Philippines; Night Caller from Outer Space (1965) was a science-fiction film shot in Britain.

In 1966, he starred in Curtis Harrington's science-fiction/horror classic Queen of Blood with Basil Rathbone and Dennis Hopper, then appeared opposite Marlon Brando in The Appaloosa (1966), winning a Golden Globe Best Supporting Actor nomination for his portrayal of a Mexican bandit. Saxon recalls, "This was to me a terrific role and something I was ready for, but he [Brando] was despondent. He said he had lent a whole bunch of money to his father, and what he was saying to me was that his father ruined his life by losing all of his money. He was kind of bored in the picture."

The Doomsday Flight (1966) was a made-for-television film. In an interview in 1966, he said, "I never felt comfortable being a teenage dreamboat... I regard myself as a craftsman."

He portrayed Marco Polo in episode 26 of The Time Tunnel ("Attack of the Barbarians"), originally broadcast on March 10, 1967, and was a guest actor on Bonanza in 1967 ("The Conquistadores"). In episode 19, season 5 of The Virginian ("The Modoc Kid") Saxon appeared in the title role alongside Harrison Ford, who was appearing in one of his first speaking roles. And in 1969 he appeared in Bonanza again ("My Friend, My Enemy").

Saxon was in a sex comedy for Sam Katzman, For Singles Only (1968), and appeared in some Westerns, One Dollar Too Many (1968), Death of a Gunfighter (1969), The Men from Shiloh (rebranded name for The Virginian, 1971), and Joe Kidd (1972) (again playing a Mexican, this time a revolutionary named Luis Chama). I Kiss the Hand (1973) was a thriller made in Italy.

He spent three years playing Dr. Theodore Stuart for the television series The Bold Ones: The New Doctors (1969–1972).

Enter the Dragon and 1970s
Saxon, who had done martial arts since 1957, appeared as the martial artist Roper in 1973's Enter the Dragon. It was Bruce Lee's first major role in a Hollywood feature. He almost backed out of Enter the Dragon, on account of the script being too light. "It was a 60-page treatment", said Saxon in a 2002 interview. "I thought: there’s not enough to act here. A stunt man could play it. But they talked me into it, saying they would work in my suggestions. Some things they shot and kept in the film, but most of it they discarded." After Enter the Dragon, Saxon had no further interest in appearing in martial-arts films.

He was in such action films as Mitchell (1975), The Swiss Conspiracy (1975), Strange Shadows in an Empty Room (1976), Napoli violenta (1976), Mark Strikes Again (1976), A Special Cop in Action (1976), Cross Shot (1976), and The Cynic, the Rat and the Fist (1977).

In 1974, he appeared as police Lieutenant Fuller in the slasher horror film Black Christmas. From 1974–76, he appeared in The Six Million Dollar Man, first as Major Frederick Sloan and then as Nedlick. This role also extended into The Bionic Woman. The actor's likeness was later used for the Kenner action-figure doll called "Maskatron" that was based on the series.

Saxon starred as Dylan Hunt in the 1974 Gene Roddenberry television pilot Planet Earth, replacing Alex Cord from Genesis II. A 20th-century scientist unfrozen in the postnuclear world of 2133, he leads a team of explorers and encounters a matriarchal society. Although ABC declined the series, Saxon played a nearly identical character in the 1975 television film Strange New World.

In 1976, Saxon portrayed a homicidal vampire-like strangler in the season-two Starsky & Hutch episode "Vampire". He played Captain Radl in the two-part Wonder Woman episode "The Feminum Mystique" (1976). Also in 1976, he appeared in an episode of The Rockford Files titled "A Portrait of Elizabeth", in which he played a crooked corporate lawyer and painter named Dave Delaroux, who was involved in a securities rip-off and with whom Rockford's attorney Beth Davenport was smitten. In this episode, Saxon was able to display his considerable martial-arts abilities in two fight scenes. Raid on Entebbe (1977) was a prestige television movie for him. Moonshine County Express was a big success for Roger Corman's New World Pictures; Saxon made another film for that company, The Bees (1978). He appeared in a Bollywood movie, Shalimar (1978), then it was back to exploitation: Fast Company (1979) and The Glove (1979).

Saxon played Hunt Sears, chief of a breakfast-cereal conglomerate, opposite Robert Redford and Jane Fonda in the 1979, Oscar-nominated film The Electric Horseman.

1980s-1990s
He appeared in the 1982 television movie Rooster, and he was an occasional celebrity guest on the short-lived game show Whew!, including during the series' final week. His extensive television credits include two years as Tony Cumson on Falcon Crest (1982, 1986–1988) and the recurring role of Rashid Ahmed on Dynasty (1982–84). He appeared twice (in different roles) on The A-Team, in 1983 and 1985. Saxon played in Dario Argento's Tenebrae (1982) as the writer hero's shifty agent; in Battle Beyond the Stars (1980) as Sador; in Cannibal Apocalypse (1980) where he played a Vietnam veteran tormented because his worthless pal bit him and years later, he is starting to get the urge to do the same; in Prisoners of the Lost Universe as an alternate-universe warlord, and in Wes Craven's A Nightmare on Elm Street (1984) as the heroine's (Nancy Thompson's) father. He reprised his role in A Nightmare on Elm Street 3: Dream Warriors (1987) and Wes Craven's New Nightmare (1994) as he played himself in a dual role.

He made his directorial debut in 1987 with the horror film Zombie Death House, which starred Dennis Cole and Anthony Franciosa. Filmink wrote, "Few other actors of his generation have as fine a track record in" horror movies. "Why did he appear in so many? I guess for starters he was willing – he wasn’t snobby. He made a good on-screen cop and there’s always roles for a cop actor in a slasher film. He could also seem scary so made an excellent red herring/villain."

He starred in Blood Salvage (1990) as Clifford Evans, Maximum Force (1992) as Captain Fuller, and also appeared in From Dusk till Dawn (1996).

Later career
In his later years, Saxon continued to appear mostly in independent films and appeared in several television series. He had a notable guest part in "Grave Danger", the fifth-season finale of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, which was directed by From Dusk till Dawn screenwriter and star Quentin Tarantino. Saxon starred in the episode opposite fellow cult film luminary Andrew Prine. He also appeared in an episode ("Pelts") of the anthology horror series Masters of Horror, which reunited him with Tenebrae director Dario Argento.

Saxon was a regular guest at horror- and cult-film conventions, including the Creation Entertainment – Weekend of Horrors 2010 on May 21, 2010, in Los Angeles. His last acting role was in the film Bring Me the Head of Lance Henriksen, which as of his death was in postproduction.

Personal life
John Saxon was married three times. His first marriage was to Mary Ann Saxon, a screen writer and television director of development. His second wife was Elizabeth (Phillips) Saxon, a former investment banker, airline union negotiator, and psychologist. John Saxon's third and last wife was Gloria (Potts) Martel Saxon, a model and esthetician. He and Mary Ann had a son, Antonio. He was a Democrat.

Saxon held a black belt in Shotokan karate, having studied under Hidetaka Nishiyama, and was also proficient in Judo.

Death
Saxon died of complications from pneumonia, on July 25, 2020, aged 83, in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, a city about 35 miles southeast of Nashville, where he had resided for several years. He was interred at Lake View Cemetery in Seattle, Washington, near his former co-star Bruce Lee.

Awards and nominations
Golden Globe Awards
 * 1958 New Star of the Year – Actor: This Happy Feeling (won)
 * 1967 Best Supporting Actor – Motion Picture: The Appaloosa (nominated)

Action On Film International Film Festival
 * 2006 Best Supporting Actor: The Craving Heart (won)

Beverly Hills Shorts Festival
 * 2009 Best Actor: Old Dogs (won)

FAIF International Film Festival
 * 2006 Judge Choice Award for Best Supporting Actor: The Craving Heart (nominated)

Method Fest Independent Film Festival
 * 2008 Best Supporting Actor: God's Ears (nominated)

New Media Film Festival
 * 2010 Best Feature: God's Ears (won)
 * 2010 Grand Prize Festival Award: God's Ears (won)

Western Heritage Awards
 * 1967 Bronze Wrangler: The Appaloosa (won)

title: John Saxon


text:
User talk:Fo0bar

Green Bay, Wisconsin OK now I'm curious. What's the city named after? -- Decumanus 21:48, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I was very skeptical, but it's actually in the article on the city. Check this Google search" . Despite that, I think that article on the bay itself could just live at Green Bay. A good example is that of Dukes County, Massachusetts. The official name is County of Dukes County because of a mistake in the 1692 document establishing it, That's what appears on official documents, etc., but almost no one knows that, and it can be mentioned in the article, as opposed to the name, -- BCorr ¤ Брайен 21:56, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I'm not historian, but my best guess is some settlers were sitting around, and one of them said "Look at that green bay. Let's name the city 'Green Bay'."  Similar humor to an old De Pere joke about two indians canoeing on the river; you can probably figure it out yourself. --Fo0bar 08:31, 13 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Image request
Since you're most likely from the Green Bay area, could you take a picture of the Green Bay East football field? The City Stadium article is crying out for an image. --Royalbroil 22:42, 16 July 2006 (UTC)
 * I was born in Green Bay (and attended East High School), but moved away about 6 years ago. I currently live in Reno, Nevada.  The City Stadium renovation occurred shortly after I moved away.  I remember seeing a newspaper photo of it online a few years ago, but can't find it now.  --Fo0bar 04:55, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Well, you couldn't use an image from a newspaper anyhow because of copyrights. I'll eventually get to GB and take a picture. Thanks anyhow! --Royalbroil 02:30, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Image:C5-C6-herniation.jpg
Is this medical diagnostic image yours? , If so please say so, because there are potentially medical ethics issues in using such images. Sfan00 IMG 11:00, 22 July 2007 (UTC)
 * I did. In the description.  Though I'm not surprised you didn't notice this, since you then went on to tag screenshots I uploaded for speedy deletion for being non-Free.  Screenshots of Free software; Free software I authored, as described in the images.  Thanks.  --Fo0bar 21:14, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Finnix-86.1-xen-3.0.0.png
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:Finnix-86.1-xen-3.0.0.png. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use. Suggestions on how to do so can be found here.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG 11:20, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Finnix 88.0 Screenshot.png
Thanks for uploading or contributing to Image:Finnix 88.0 Screenshot.png. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in Wikipedia articles constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use. Suggestions on how to do so can be found here.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If you have uploaded other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on those pages too. You can find a list of 'image' pages you have edited by clicking on the "my contributions" link (it is located at the very top of any Wikipedia page when you are logged in), and then selecting "Image" from the dropdown box. Note that any non-free media lacking such an explanation will be deleted one week after they have been uploaded, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG 11:21, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Say, Foobar ...
Enough of this brouhaha over picture rights. How the hell are you doing? I had a patient the other day in severe pain and weakness with an MRI that didn't look half as bad as yours. Either you had (emergency?) surgery to take the pressure off your spinal cord, or you have been typing your edits with your nose. Wazzup? Sfahey (talk) 03:48, 23 December 2007 (UTC)

Black Rock Desert BLM Eight Mile Sign Photo
Hi FoObar, The Black Rock Desert page is having some work done on it. I was wondering if we could get a different image than your photo of the BLM Eight Mile sign? Do you have an image of the Black Rock itself? Let's talk about this over on the Talk:Black Rock Desert page. Cxbrx (talk) 03:32, 31 December 2007 (UTC)

TfD nomination of Template:Non-free diagnostic
Template:Non-free diagnostic has been nominated for deletion. You are invited to comment on the discussion at the template's entry on the Templates for Deletion page. Thank you. —Ilmari Karonen (talk) 16:36, 6 June 2008 (UTC)

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IBM 104 US keyboard
Hi. I noticed on the commons that you uploaded the IBM 104 key US keyboard image. I believe you mentioned that it's yours, and wondered if you like it? . . . and whether you know if it's available as a wireless USB? Thanks in advance. — Ineuw talk 19:05, 22 January 2016 (UTC)

Edit-a-thon in Madison

 * ART+FEMINISM EDIT-A-THON

 * Saturday, March 5th, 9:30 a.m. – noon
 * Madison Public Library (Madison, Wisconsin)
 * Bring a laptop! There will be snacks and daycare

RSVP on the event page if you plan to attend or have any suggestions. czar 01:53, 1 February 2016 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Fo0bar


text:
Zebra mussel

The zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) is a small freshwater mussel. The species originates from the lakes of southern Russia and Ukraine, but has been accidentally introduced to numerous other areas and has become an invasive species in many countries worldwide. Since the 1980s, the species has invaded the Great Lakes, Hudson River, Lake Travis, Finger Lakes, Lake Bonaparte, and Lake Simcoe The adverse effects of dreissenid mussels on freshwater systems have led to their ranking as one of the world's most invasive aquatic species.

The species was first described in 1769 by German zoologist Peter Simon Pallas in the Ural, Volga, and Dnieper Rivers. Zebra mussels get their name from a striped pattern commonly seen on their shells, though it is not universally present. They are usually about the size of a fingernail, but can grow to a maximum length around 2 in. Their shells are D-shaped, and attached to the substrate with strong byssal fibers, which come out of their umbo on the dorsal (hinged) side.

Ecology

Zebra mussels and the closely related and ecologically similar quagga mussels are filter-feeding organisms; they remove particles from the water column. Zebra mussels process up to 1 L of water per day, per mussel. Some particles are consumed as food, and feces are deposited on the lake floor. Nonfood particles are combined with mucus and other matter and deposited on lake floors as pseudofeces. Since the zebra mussel has become established in Lake Erie, water clarity has increased from 6 in to up to 3 ft in some areas. This increased water clarity allows sunlight to penetrate deeper, enabling growth of submerged macrophytes. These plants, when decaying, wash up on shorelines, fouling beaches and causing water-quality problems.

Lake floor food supplies are enriched by zebra mussels as they filter pollution out of the water. This biomass becomes available to bottom-feeding species and to the fish that feed on them. The catch of yellow perch increased five-fold after the invasion of zebra mussels into Lake St. Clair.

Zebra mussels attach to most substrates, including sand, silt, and harder substrates, but usually juveniles prefer harder, rockier substrates on which to attach. Other mussel species frequently represent the most stable objects in silty substrates, and zebra mussels attach to and often kill these mussels. They build colonies on native unionid clams, reducing their ability to move, feed, and breed, eventually leading to their deaths. This has led to the near extinction of the unionid clams in Lake St. Clair and the western basin of Lake Erie. This pattern is being repeated in Ireland, where zebra mussels have eliminated the two freshwater mussels from several waterways, including some lakes along the River Shannon in 1997.

In 2012, the National University of Ireland, Galway, said "the discovery of zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) in Lough Derg and the lower Shannon region in 1997 has led to considerable concern about the potential ecological and economic damage that this highly invasive aquatic nuisance species can cause."

The zebra mussel is a freshwater species and cannot survive in the ocean.

Life cycle
The lifespan of a zebra mussel is four to five years. A female zebra mussel begins to reproduce within 6–7 weeks of settling. An adult female zebra mussel can produce 30,000 to 40,000 eggs in each reproductive cycle, and over 1 million each year. Free-swimming microscopic larvae, called veligers, drift in the water for several weeks and then settle onto any hard surface they can find. Zebra mussels also can tolerate a wide range of environmental conditions, and adults can even survive out of water for about seven days.

Indicators of environmental pollution
Zebra mussels can be used to detect risks to humans from environmental hazards and are considered effective indicators of environmental pollution. Exposure of D. polymorpha gill cells to model contaminants representative of water pollution was found to cause DNA damage measured as the formation of 8-oxodG and DNA strand breaks.

Predators
Research on natural enemies, both in Europe and North America, has focused on predators, particularly birds (36 species) and fish (15 species eating veligers and 38 eating attached mussels). Annually, the wintering waterbirds at Lake Constance decrease zebra mussel biomass in shallow areas by >90%. Biomass reduction in deeper areas varies considerably based on substratum; Werner et al. observed no reduction at the lowest observed depth of 11 m except for a site at Hagnau.

The vast majority of the organism's natural enemies are not present in North America. Ecologically similar species do exist, but these species are unlikely to be able to eliminate those mussels already established and have a limited role in their control unlike their counterparts in Europe.

It is pointed out that crayfish could have a significant impact on the densities of 1 to 5 mm-long zebra mussels. An adult crayfish consumes around 105 zebra mussels every day, or about 6,000 mussels in a season. However, predation rates are significantly reduced at lower water temperatures. Additionally, certain fish, such as the Smallmouth bass, is a predator in the zebra mussels' adopted North American Great Lakes habitat, but in European lakes, fish do not seem to limit the densities of zebra mussels.

There have been some high winter mortalities, for example in the winter of 1994–1995 in the invasive population of Lake Simcoe. Evans et al., 2011 attributes this to predation by the crayfish Orconectes propinquus. Nonetheless this has not been sufficient to eradicate the problem.

Other control
On June 4, 2014, Canadian conservation authorities announced that a test using liquid fertilizer to kill invasive zebra mussels was successful. This test was conducted in a lakefront harbor in the western province of Manitoba. However, outbreaks continue in Lake Winnipeg.

Similar tests were run in Illinois, Minnesota, and Michigan, using zequanox, a biopesticide. Niclosamide proves effective in killing invasive zebra mussels in cool waters.

Europe
The native distribution of the species is in the Black Sea and Caspian Sea in Eurasia. Zebra mussels have become an invasive species in North America, Great Britain, Ireland, Italy, Spain, and Sweden. They disrupt the ecosystems by monotypic colonization, and damage harbors and waterways, ships and boats, and water-treatment and power plants. Water-treatment plants are most affected because the water intakes bring the microscopic, free-swimming larvae directly into the facilities. Zebra mussels also cling to pipes under the water and clog them.

Grossinger reported it in Hungary in 1794. Kerney and Morton described the rapid colonization of Britain by the zebra mussel, first in Cambridgeshire in the 1820s, London in 1824, and in the Union Canal near Edinburgh in 1834.

In 1827, zebra mussels were seen in the Netherlands at Rotterdam. Canals that artificially link many European waterways facilitated their early dispersal. It is nonindigenous in the Czech Republic in the Elbe River in Bohemia since 1893; in southern Moravia, it is probably native. Around 1920 the mussels reached Lake Mälaren in Sweden.

The first appearance of the organism in northern Italy was in Lake Garda in 1973; in central Italy, they appeared in Tuscany in 2003.

Zebra mussels are present in British waterways. Many water companies are reporting having problems with their water-treatment plants with the mussels attaching themselves to pipeworks. Anglian Water has estimated that it costs £500,000 per year to remove the mussels from their treatment plants. Zebra mussels arguably have also had an effect on fishing, for example at Salford Quays, where their introduction has changed the environment for the fish.

The mussels have displaced native species of molluscs in Lake Constance, reaching densities of up to 10,000 /m2. The mussels present a food source to waterfowl and have caused bird numbers to double over the last 30 years. By the end of winter, birds decimate zebra mussel populations and reduce them by 95–99% up to the maximum depth reachable by birds of c. 10 m. The estimated quantity of consumed zebra mussels is 750 MT/km2. Zebra mussel populations recover annually, indicating that waterfowl may control infested bodies of water but not reverse the infestation status entirely.

North America

They were first detected in Canada in the Great Lakes in 1988, in Lake St. Clair. They are thought to have been inadvertently introduced into the lakes by the ballast water of ocean-going ships that were traversing the St. Lawrence Seaway. Another possible, but unproven, mode of introduction is on anchors and chains. Since adult zebra mussels can survive out of water for several days or weeks if the temperature is low and humidity is high, chain lockers provide temporary refuge for clusters of adult mussels that could easily be released when transoceanic ships drop anchor in freshwater ports. They have become an invasive species in North America, and as such, they are the target of federal policy to control them, for instance in the National Invasive Species Act (1996).

Using models based on the genetic algorithm for rule-set production (GARP), a group of researchers predicted that the Southeastern United States is moderately to highly likely to be inhabited by zebra mussels and the Midwest unlikely to experience a zebra mussel invasion of water bodies. This model, though, has since been proven incorrect. In 2006, a researcher (also using GARP) predicted invasion as far west as the North Platte River by 2015. As of March 2016, zebra mussels have affected hundreds of lakes in the Midwest including Lake Michigan, and the largest interior lake in Wisconsin, Lake Winnebago.

Congressional researchers have estimated that the zebra mussel has cost businesses and communities over $5 billion since their initial invasion. Zebra mussels have cost power companies alone over $3 billion.

On 2 March 2021, the US Geological Survey was notified that zebra mussels had been discovered in marimo moss balls, a common aquarium plant, sold in pet stores across North America. By 8 March, the invasive species were detected in moss balls in 30 different states at multiple retail locations in the United States. These discoveries were prompted by the initial find at a Petco in Seattle. Infested-moss balls have also been found from online retailers and smaller, independent stores. Though it is more difficult to know the extent of the spread at a larger scale, Wesley Daniel, a fisheries biologist with the U.S. Geological Survey, says that about 30% of the inventory pulled from shelves were found to contain the zebra mussels.

After working with the USGS, PetSmart and Petco voluntarily recalled their moss balls due to the potential harm zebra mussels could cause to indigenous ecosystems. As of November 2021, nearly eight months after the recall, marimo moss balls have not returned to shelves.

By location
From their first appearance in North American waters in 1988, zebra mussels have spread to a large number of waterways, including Lake Simcoe in the Great Lakes region, the Mississippi, Hudson, St. Lawrence, Ohio, Cumberland, Missouri, Tennessee, Huron, Colorado, and Arkansas rivers, and, by mid-2023, 31 lakes and seven river basins in Texas. However, zebra mussels could not establish reproducing populations in Kentucky Lake (Tennessee River). This may be due to relatively low dissolved calcium levels in this water body.

In 2009, the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation confirmed that zebra mussels had been found in Laurel Lake in the Berkshires. That same year, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources announced that live zebra mussels had been found in Pelican Lake. This was the first confirmed sighting in the Red River Basin, which extends across the international border into the province of Manitoba. In 2013, their presence in Manitoba's Lake Winnipeg was confirmed, and aggressive efforts to eradicate them in 2014 have not succeeded. New contamination was found outside treated areas of Lake Winnipeg in 2015, and they have also been found in the Red River near the lake in Selkirk Park in 2015. Large numbers were seen at Grand Beach in 2017.

In July 2010, the North Dakota Game and Fish Department confirmed the presence of zebra mussel veliger in the Red River between Wahpeton, North Dakota, and Breckenridge, Minnesota. , California similarly reported invasions.

In 2011, an invasion of zebra mussels shut down a water pipeline in the Dallas area. This resulted in reduced water supplies during a drought year, worsening water restrictions across the Dallas area.

A common inference made by scientists predicts that the zebra mussel will continue spreading passively, by ship and by pleasure craft, to more rivers in North America. Trailered boat traffic is the most likely vector for invasion into Western North America. This spread is preventable if boaters thoroughly clean and dry their boats and associated equipment before transporting them to new bodies of water. Since no North American predator or combination of predators has been shown to significantly reduce zebra mussel numbers, such spread would most likely result in permanent establishment of zebra mussels in many North American waterways.

A major decrease in the concentration of dissolved oxygen was observed in the Seneca River in central New York in the summer of 1993. This decrease was caused by extremely high concentrations of zebra mussels in the watershed. Additionally, the Seneca River had significantly less chlorophyll in the water, which is used as a measure of phytoplankton biomass, because of the presence of zebra mussels.

Cost
The cost of fighting the pests at power plants and other water-consuming facilities is substantial, but the magnitude of the damages is a matter of some controversy. According to the Center for Invasive Species Research at the University of California, Riverside, the cost of management of zebra mussels in the Great Lakes alone exceeds $500 million per year. A more conservative study estimated total economic costs of $267 million for electric-generation and water-treatment facilities in the entire United States from 1989 through 2004. In a study conducted by the US Department of State in 2009, the total cost of the zebra mussel invasion is estimated at 3.1 billion over the next 10 years.

Concerns are also high following the contamination of zebra mussels in at home aquariums. If zebra mussels had reached open water in Seattle, Washington, where the first case was confirmed, the invasive species would have cost the state $100 million each year in maintenance for power and water systems.

Effects

As with most bivalves, zebra mussels are filter feeders. When in the water, they open their shells to admit detritus. Their shells are very sharp and are known for cutting people's feet, resulting in the need to wear water shoes wherever they are prevalent.

Since their colonization of the Great Lakes, they have covered the undersides of docks, boats, and anchors. They have also spread into streams and rivers throughout the U.S. In some areas, they completely cover the substrate, sometimes covering other freshwater mussels. They can grow so densely that they block pipelines, clogging water intakes of municipal water supplies and hydroelectric companies. Zebra mussels do not attach to cupronickel alloys, which can be used to coat intake and discharge grates, navigational buoys, boats, and motors where the species tends to congregate.

Zebra mussels are believed to be the source of deadly avian botulism poisoning that has killed tens of thousands of birds in the Great Lakes since the late 1990s. They are edible, but since they are so efficient at filtering water, they tend to accumulate pollutants and toxins, so most experts recommend against consuming zebra mussels.

They are responsible for the near extinction of many species in the Great Lake system by outcompeting native species for food and by growing on top of and suffocating the native clams and mussels.

Zebra mussels affect all classes of algal species, resulting in a shortage of food sources to native species of freshwater mussels and fish in the Great Lakes.

However, zebra mussels and other non-native species are credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie and yellow perch in Lake St. Clair. They cleanse the waters of inland lakes, resulting in increased sunlight penetration and growth of native algae at greater depths. This cleansing also increases water visibility and filters out pollutants. Each quagga and zebra mussel filters about 1 USqt of water per day when confined to small tanks. In lakes, their filtering effects are usually spatially restricted (near the lake bottom) because of nonhomogeneous water column mixing.

In Lake Pleshcheyevo in Russia, zebra mussels have greatly changed the fish community. All fish species remained in the lake, but catches changed significantly. Gillnets set in the littoral and sublittoral zones during the feeding period consist mainly of large roach and perch while vendace were prevalent in the pelagic zone. The abundance of benthophagous fishes increased slightly due to the presence of the zebra mussel which made up a significant part of the diet followed by an increase (p<0.05) in the growth rates of roach and silver bream. The growth rates of the bream, which prefers soft zoobenthos, decreased. In addition, the formation of a stable biocenosis of zebra mussels in the lake probably caused changes in the spatial structure of the fish community. What is notable is the disappearance of small roach from pelagic assemblages, probably due to alterations in the trophic links of the littoral and sublittoral zones, as well as the expected increase in food competition among pelagic fish species.

Because zebra mussels damage water intakes and other infrastructure, methods such as adding oxidants, flocculants, heat, dewatering, mechanical removal, and pipe coatings are becoming increasingly common.

Preventing their spread
Zebra mussels cling to boat motors. Boat-owners should follow a few steps prior to putting their boats into a new lake and after removing their boats from infected lakes to stop the spreading of the species. Boat owners should make sure to inspect their boat, trailer, and other recreational equipment that have been in contact with water, remove all mud, plants, or animals, drain all bilge water, live wells, bait buckets, and all other water from their boats, engines and equipment, wash all parts of their boats, paddles, and other equipment that have been in contact with water, and dry their boats and trailers in the sun for five days before launching into another body of water. This is important because adult zebra mussels are able to close their shells and may survive out of water for several days. When washing their boats, boat owners should be sure to wash with warm, soapy water as well.

If marimo moss balls were purchased around the time of the first discovery and recall in March 2021, aquatic hobbyists have been urged to decontaminate the moss balls by either boiling them for at least one minute, freezing for at least 24 hours, or placing them in diluted chlorine bleach. Another way to rid of the zebra mussels can be to submerge the moss balls in undiluted white vinegar for a minimum of 20 minutes. After following one of these methods, the USGS urges owners to bag these moss balls before disposing of them in the trash to prevent spread to local water ways and ecosystems.

Even if moss balls infected with zebra mussels are contained in an aquarium, the concern that they could contaminate local waterways is high, especially in regions and states where they have not yet infested. Aquarium dumping and disposing of unwanted pets is common, according to Eric Fischer with Indiana's Department of Natural Resources (DNR). It is illegal to own, sell, or distribute zebra mussels in the U.S. If spotted, either in an aquarium or out in nature, it is advised to contact the local DNR in the region resided. Recent research shows that zebra mussels could not establish reproducing populations in Kentucky Lake, indicating that the physico-chemical characteristics of this lake deter the species. A better understanding of the lake's characteristics and identification of the key parameters that deter zebra mussels may pave the way for protecting other aquatic ecosystems from the spreading of this invasive species.

title: Zebra mussel


text:
Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas

The Standing Conference of the Canonical Orthodox Bishops in the Americas (SCOBA) was an organization of bishops from Eastern Orthodox Christian jurisdictions in the Americas. It acted as a clearinghouse for educational, charitable, and missionary work in the Americas. In 2010, it was replaced by the Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America.

The members of SCOBA were the archbishops, metropolitan bishops, and bishops of the canonical Eastern Orthodox Churches in North and South America. These are churches in full communion with the four ancient Greek Orthodox Patriarchates – Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople (Istanbul, Turkey), Patriarch of Antioch (now in Damascus, Syria), Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Alexandria (Egypt), Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem – and with the Patriarchate of Moscow.

Jurisdictions

 * Ecumenical Patriarchate
 * Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America
 * Albanian Orthodox Diocese of America (not to be confused with the Albanian Orthodox Archdiocese in America, which is an archdiocese within the OCA)
 * American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese
 * Ukrainian Orthodox Church of the USA
 * Ukrainian Orthodox Church of Canada
 * Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese of North America
 * Russian Orthodox Church in the USA (parishes directly under the Patriarch of Moscow)
 * Serbian Orthodox Church in the USA and Canada
 * Romanian Orthodox Archdiocese in America and Canada
 * Bulgarian Orthodox Church Diocese of America, Canada & Australia
 * Orthodox Church in America (the only autocephalous Orthodox church in North America, its autocephaly granted by the Patriarch of Moscow, is however not recognized by the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, though still in communion with it)

Agencies
The main agencies of SCOBA along with their dates of establishment are

 * The Orthodox Christian Education Commission (OCEC), 1960
 * The Eastern Orthodox Committee on Scouting (EOCS), 1960
 * The Orthodox Christian Fellowship (OCF) 1965, 2001
 * International Orthodox Christian Charities (IOCC), 1992
 * The Orthodox Christian Mission Center (OCMC), 1994
 * The Orthodox Christian Network (OCN), 2003