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Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/March 12

 * 1928 - In California, the failure of the St. Francis Dam killed 400.

 * 1881 - Andrew Watson made his Scotland debut as the world's first black international football player and captain.

Ben davison 14:48, September 6, 2005 (UTC)

 * I have a hard time deciding which current item to displace.... They all seem more significant. Anyway, I've added it to the March 12 page. -- PFHLai 18:39, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Perhaps add the death of Sun Yat-sen, and note his involvement in the Republican movement in China? --  李博杰   | —Talk contribs 05:01, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

World Day Against Cyber Censorship
We should add this. --bender235 (talk) 11:07, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 05:55, 11 March 2013 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Temple in Jerusalem (maintenance); 1993 Bombay bombings (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Bulgarian Exarchate (ineligible—maintenance); Girl Scouts of the USA; Konstantin Päts; Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay
 * Included: Siege of Rome (537–538) (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Canberra (3rd appearance, last in 2010; 100th anniversary); Fireside chats (first appearance; 80th anniversary); 1971 Turkish coup d'état (2nd appearance, last in 2011)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer) (2nd consecutive appearance, 6 total)

2014 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 05:20, 11 March 2014 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Ignatius of Loyola/Francis Xavier (Ignatius: maintenance)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): St. Francis Dam
 * Omitted: Andrew Watson (footballer); Canberra; Fireside chats; 1971 Turkish coup d'état
 * Included: Red River Campaign (first appearance; 150th anniversary); İstiklâl Marşı (first appearance); Salt March (8th appearance, last in 2011); Konstantin Päts (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 80th anniversary)
 * Repeats: Siege of Rome (537–38) (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 09:53, 10 March 2015 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Mauritius (ineligible—maintenance); Red River Campaign; İstiklâl Marşı; Konstantin Päts
 * Included: Andrew Watson (footballer) (7th appearance, last in 2013); Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (3rd appearance, last in 2012); 1993 Storm of the Century (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Siege of Rome (537–38) (3rd consecutive appearance, 4 total); Salt March (2nd consecutive appearance, 9 total)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 18:46, 10 March 2016 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Siege of Rome (537–538); Salt March; Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay; 1993 Storm of the Century
 * Included: Red River Campaign (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Girl Scouts of the USA (2nd appearance, last in 2012); Konstantin Päts (3rd appearance, last in 2014); 1993 Bombay bombings (4th appearance, last in 2014)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (2nd consecutive appearance, 8 total)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 08:12, 12 March 2017 (UTC)
 * Omitted: World Day Against Cyber Censorship (ineligible—maintenance); Red River Campaign; Girl Scouts of the USA (ineligible—maintenance); Konstantin Päts; 1993 Bombay bombings (ineligible—maintenance)
 * Included: Siege of Rome (537–38) (5th appearance, last in 2015); Canberra (4th appearance, last in 2013); Truman Doctrine (3rd appearance, last in 2011; 70th anniversary); Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (4th appearance, last in 2015); Charles Boycott (first appearance); Jessica Hardy (first appearance); Lazare Ponticelli (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (3rd consecutive appearance, 9 total)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 17:33, 12 March 2018 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: İstiklal Marşı (maintenance); St. Francis Dam (maintenance); 1993 Storm of the Century (maintenance)
 * New articles (unused): 2014 East Harlem gas explosion
 * Omitted: Siege of Rome (537–538); Canberra; Truman Doctrine; Charles Boycott; Jessica Hardy; Lazare Ponticelli
 * Included: Ignatius of Loyola/Francis Xavier (Ignatius: 2nd appearance as blurb, last in 2011 (also appears as an observance on July 31); Xavier: 4th appearance, last in 2011; rescued from Ineligible); Fireside chats (2nd appearance, last in 2013); 1971 Turkish military memorandum (3rd appearance, last in 2013); Tirso de Molina;(first appearance) William Henry Perkin (first appearance); Lise Tréhot (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (4th consecutive appearance, 10 total); Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (2nd consecutive appearance, 5 total)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 15:59, 12 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Ignatius of Loyola/Francis Xavier (Xavier: ineligible—maintenance); Fireside chats; Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay; Tirso de Molina; William Henry Perkin; Lise Tréhot
 * Included: Salt March (10th appearance, last in 2015); World Wide Web (3rd appearance, last in 2005; previously appeared on November 13; 30th anniversary); 2014 East Harlem gas explosion (first appearance); Symeon the New Theologian (first appearance); Lilian Faithfull (first appearance); Zhao Wei (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (5th consecutive appearance, 11 total); 1971 Turkish military memorandum (2nd consecutive appearance, 4 total)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 23:36, 13 March 2020 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Red River Campaign (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856); 1971 Turkish military memorandum; 2014 East Harlem gas explosion; Symeon the New Theologian; Lilian Faithfull; Zhao Wei
 * Included: Canberra (5th appearance, last in 2017); Winter War; (8th appearance, last in 2014; moved from November 30; blurb previously featured Moscow Peace Treaty, which remains ineligible, and is making its 5th appearance, last in 2008) Stefan Dragutin (first appearance); Gemma Galgani (first appearance); Jack Kerouac (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Salt March (2nd consecutive appearance, 11 total; 80th anniversary); World Wide Web (2nd consecutive appearance, 4 total)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 20:47, 13 March 2021 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Salt March; Winter War; World Wide Web; Gemma Galgani; Jack Kerouac
 * Included: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (12th appearance, last in 2019); Fireside chats (3rd appearance, last in 2018); Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (6th appearance, last in 2018); 1971 Turkish military memorandum (5th appearance, last in 2019; 50th anniversary); William Lyon Mackenzie (first appearance); Wally Schirra (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Canberra (2nd consecutive appearance, 6 total); Stefan Dragutin (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 04:54, 13 March 2022 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Canberra; Fireside chats; 1971 Turkish military memorandum; Stefan Dragutin; William Lyon Mackenzie; Wally Schirra
 * Included: Ignatius of Loyola/Francis Xavier (Ignatius: 18th appearance (3rd as blurb); Xavier: 5th; both last in 2018; rescued from Ineligible); Konstantin Päts (4th appearance, last in 2018); 2014 East Harlem gas explosion (2nd appearance, last in 2019); Symeon the New Theologian (2nd appearance, last in 2019; 1000th anniversary); Lise Tréhot (2nd appearance, last in 2018; 100th anniversary); Jack Kerouac (2nd appearance, last in 2020; 100th birthday)
 * Repeats: Andrew Watson (footballer, born 1856) (2nd consecutive appearance, 13 total); Hastings Ismay, 1st Baron Ismay (2nd consecutive appearance, 7 total; 70th anniversary)


text:
Berry–Esseen theorem

In probability theory, the central limit theorem states that, under certain circumstances, the probability distribution of the scaled mean of a random sample converges to a normal distribution as the sample size increases to infinity. Under stronger assumptions, the Berry–Esseen theorem, or Berry–Esseen inequality, gives a more quantitative result, because it also specifies the rate at which this convergence takes place by giving a bound on the maximal error of approximation between the normal distribution and the true distribution of the scaled sample mean. The approximation is measured by the Kolmogorov–Smirnov distance. In the case of independent samples, the convergence rate is $n^{−1/2}$, where $n$ is the sample size, and the constant is estimated in terms of the third absolute normalized moment.

Statement of the theorem
Statements of the theorem vary, as it was independently discovered by two mathematicians, Andrew C. Berry (in 1941) and Carl-Gustav Esseen (1942), who then, along with other authors, refined it repeatedly over subsequent decades.

Identically distributed summands
One version, sacrificing generality somewhat for the sake of clarity, is the following:

 * There exists a positive constant C such that if X1, X2, ..., are i.i.d. random variables with E(X1) = 0, E(X12) = σ2 > 0, and E(|X1|3) = ρ < ∞, and if we define
 * $$Y_n = {X_1 + X_2 + \cdots + X_n \over n}$$
 * the sample mean, with Fn the cumulative distribution function of
 * $${Y_n \sqrt{n} \over {\sigma}},$$
 * and Φ the cumulative distribution function of the standard normal distribution, then for all x and n,
 * $$\left|F_n(x) - \Phi(x)\right| \le {C \rho \over \sigma^3\sqrt{n}}.\ \ \ \ (1)$$

That is: given a sequence of independent and identically distributed random variables, each having mean zero and positive variance, if additionally the third absolute moment is finite, then the cumulative distribution functions of the standardized sample mean and the standard normal distribution differ (vertically, on a graph) by no more than the specified amount. Note that the approximation error for all n (and hence the limiting rate of convergence for indefinite n sufficiently large) is bounded by the order of n−1/2.

Calculated upper bounds on the constant C have decreased markedly over the years, from the original value of 7.59 by Esseen in 1942. The estimate C < 0.4748 follows from the inequality
 * $$\sup_{x\in\mathbb R}\left|F_n(x) - \Phi(x)\right| \le {0.33554 (\rho+0.415\sigma^3)\over \sigma^3\sqrt{n}},$$

since σ3 ≤ ρ and 0.33554 · 1.415 < 0.4748. However, if ρ ≥ 1.286σ3, then the estimate
 * $$\sup_{x\in\mathbb R}\left|F_n(x) - \Phi(x)\right| \le {0.3328 (\rho+0.429\sigma^3)\over \sigma^3\sqrt{n}},$$

is even tighter.

proved that the constant also satisfies the lower bound

C\geq\frac{\sqrt{10}+3}{6\sqrt{2\pi}} \approx 0.40973 \approx \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}} + 0.01079. $$

Non-identically distributed summands

 * Let X1, X2, ..., be independent random variables with E(Xi) = 0, E(Xi2) = σi2 > 0, and E(|Xi|3) = ρi < ∞. Also, let
 * $$S_n = {X_1 + X_2 + \cdots + X_n \over \sqrt{\sigma_1^2+\sigma_2^2+\cdots+\sigma_n^2} }$$
 * be the normalized n-th partial sum. Denote Fn the cdf of Sn, and Φ the cdf of the standard normal distribution. For the sake of convenience denote
 * $$\vec{\sigma}=(\sigma_1,\ldots,\sigma_n),\ \vec{\rho}=(\rho_1,\ldots,\rho_n).$$
 * In 1941, Andrew C. Berry proved that for all n there exists an absolute constant C1 such that
 * $$\sup_{x\in\mathbb R}\left|F_n(x) - \Phi(x)\right| \le C_1\cdot\psi_1,\ \ \ \ (2)$$
 * where
 * $$\psi_1=\psi_1\big(\vec{\sigma},\vec{\rho}\big)=\Big({\textstyle\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sigma_i^2}\Big)^{-1/2}\cdot\max_{1\le

i\le n}\frac{\rho_i}{\sigma_i^2}.$$

 * Independently, in 1942, Carl-Gustav Esseen proved that for all n there exists an absolute constant C0 such that
 * $$\sup_{x\in\mathbb R}\left|F_n(x) - \Phi(x)\right| \le C_0\cdot\psi_0, \ \ \ \ (3)$$
 * where
 * $$\psi_0=\psi_0\big(\vec{\sigma},\vec{\rho}\big)=\Big({\textstyle\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\sigma_i^2}\Big)^{-3/2}\cdot\sum\limits_{i=1}^n\rho_i.$$

It is easy to make sure that ψ0≤ψ1. Due to this circumstance inequality (3) is conventionally called the Berry–Esseen inequality, and the quantity ψ0 is called the Lyapunov fraction of the third order. Moreover, in the case where the summands X1, ..., Xn have identical distributions
 * $$\psi_0=\psi_1=\frac{\rho_1}{\sigma_1^3\sqrt{n}},$$

and thus the bounds stated by inequalities (1), (2) and (3) coincide apart from the constant.

Regarding C0, obviously, the lower bound established by remains valid:

C_0\geq\frac{\sqrt{10}+3}{6\sqrt{2\pi}} = 0.4097\ldots. $$

The lower bound is exactly reached only for certain Bernoulli distributions (see for their explicit expressions).

The upper bounds for C0 were subsequently lowered from Esseen's original estimate 7.59 to 0.5600.

Multidimensional version
As with the multidimensional central limit theorem, there is a multidimensional version of the Berry–Esseen theorem.

Let $$X_1,\dots,X_n$$ be independent $$\mathbb R^d$$-valued random vectors each having mean zero. Write $$S_n = \sum_{i=1}^n X_i$$ and assume $$\Sigma_n = \operatorname{Cov}[S_n]$$ is invertible. Let $$Z_n\sim\operatorname{N}(0,{\Sigma_n})$$ be a $$d$$-dimensional Gaussian with the same mean and covariance matrix as $$S_n$$. Then for all convex sets $$U\subseteq\mathbb R^d$$,
 * $$\big|\Pr[S_n\in U]-\Pr[Z_n\in U]\,\big| \le C d^{1/4} \gamma_n$$,

where $$C$$ is a universal constant and $$\gamma_n=\sum_{i=1}^n \operatorname{E}\big[\|\Sigma_n^{-1/2}X_i\|_2^3\big]$$ (the third power of the L2 norm).

The dependency on $$d^{1/4}$$ is conjectured to be optimal, but might not be.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Berry–Esseen theorem


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Modem sharing device

A modem sharing device, also called a line sharing device, modem sharer or line sharer, allows multiple Binary Synchronous Communications devices to share a serial connection. Synchronous and asynchronous datastreams are supported. A common example was a Tandem  host connected to automatic teller machines, with a modem or router in between.

title: Modem sharing device


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Elisabeth Shue

Elisabeth Shue (born October 6, 1963) is an American actress. She is best known for her roles in the films The Karate Kid (1984), Adventures in Babysitting (1987), Cocktail (1988), Back to the Future Part II (1989), Back to the Future Part III (1990), Soapdish (1991), The Saint (1997), Hollow Man (2000), Piranha 3D (2010), Battle of the Sexes (2017), Death Wish (2018) and Greyhound (2020). For her performance in Leaving Las Vegas (1995), Shue was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress as well as a BAFTA, Golden Globe and SAG Award.

On television, Shue has starred as Julie Finlay in the CBS procedural forensics crime drama thriller CSI: Crime Scene Investigation from 2012 to 2015, Madelyn Stillwell in the Amazon Prime Video series The Boys, The Boys Presents: Diabolical, and Gen V, and reprised her The Karate Kid role in the third season of Cobra Kai. Shue currently stars as Anne in the Netflix dramedy series On the Verge.

Early life and education
Shue was born on October 6, 1963, in Wilmington, Delaware, the daughter of Anne Brewster (née Wells), and James William Shue, a one-time congressional candidate, lawyer, and real estate developer, who was president of the International Food and Beverage Corporation. Her mother was a vice president in the private banking division of the Chemical Bank Corporation.

Shue grew up in South Orange, New Jersey. Her parents divorced when she was nine. Shue's mother is a descendant of Pilgrim leader William Brewster while her father's family emigrated from Germany to Pennsylvania in the early 19th century. Shue was raised with her three brothers (William, Andrew, and John) and was very close to them. Her younger brother, Andrew, is also an actor, best known for his role as Billy Campbell in the Fox series Melrose Place. Shue graduated from Columbia High School, in 1981 in Maplewood, New Jersey, where she and Andrew were inducted into the school's Hall of Fame in 1994. Shue has two half-siblings from her father's remarriage, Jenna and Harvey Shue.

After graduating from high school, Shue attended Wellesley College. She then transferred to Harvard University in 1985, from which she withdrew to pursue her acting career (she was inspired by a friend to work in television commercials as a way to pay for college) one semester short of earning her degree. Over a decade later, in 2000, Shue returned to Harvard and completed her B.A. in government.

1980s and early 1990s
During her studies at Columbia High School and after her parents' divorce, Shue began acting in television commercials, becoming a common sight in advertisements for Burger King, also featuring future stars Sarah Michelle Gellar and Lea Thompson (whom Elisabeth would later co-star with in both television and film), DeBeers diamonds, Chewels bubble gum, and Best Foods/Hellmann's mayonnaise. She had small parts, credited as Lisa Shue, in The Royal Romance of Charles and Diana (1982) and Somewhere, Tomorrow (1983) which provided an early starring role for Sarah Jessica Parker.

Shue made her feature film debut in 1984, when she co-starred opposite Ralph Macchio in The Karate Kid as Ali Mills, a high school cheerleader and the love interest of Macchio's main character. Shue was a series regular as the teenage daughter of a military family in the short-lived television series Call to Glory between 1984 and 1985, which she followed in 1986 starring alongside Terence Stamp in the British horror film Link. In 1987 Shue appeared in the television movie Double Switch (part of the Disney Sunday Movie series), co-starring with George Newbern, who would go on to support her in her first star vehicle, the hugely popular Adventures in Babysitting, in the same year.

In 1988, Shue starred in Cocktail as the love interest of Tom Cruise's lead character. The following year, she starred in the short film Body Wars, which was used at Epcot in an ATLAS Simulator attraction in the Wonders of Life Pavilion until 2007. Other roles followed, including appearing as Jennifer Parker in Back to the Future Part II (1989) and Back to the Future Part III (1990), where Shue replaced Claudia Wells who declined to reprise the role from Back to the Future due to a family illness. It was around this time her older brother, William, died in an accident on a family holiday. Although her career was on the rise with her playing lead roles, Shue elected to take on the smaller supporting role of Jennifer in these sequels to allow her to deal with her family loss. The sequels were filmed back to back, and Shue featured prominently in Part II, appearing in bookend pieces in the third part of the trilogy.

Shue auditioned for the Ione Skye role in Say Anything... (1989), being a runner-up along with Jennifer Connelly. In May 1990, Shue made her Broadway debut in Some American Abroad at the Lincoln Center. The following year, Shue returned to cinema where she appeared in the comedies The Marrying Man with Kim Basinger and Alec Baldwin, and Soapdish with Sally Field, Robert Downey Jr., Kevin Kline, Cathy Moriarty, and Whoopi Goldberg.

Between 1992 and 1994, Shue appeared in a variety of supporting roles in both film and television. These included the comedy Twenty Bucks (reuniting with Christopher Lloyd from Back to the Future), noir thriller The Underneath, a guest appearance in Dream On, and the romantic comedy Heart and Souls (reuniting with Robert Downey Jr.). She also returned to Broadway in 1993, performing in Tina Howe's production of Birth and After Birth.

1995–present
Although often cast as a girl-next-door type, in a career-defining role Shue starred as a prostitute in the 1995 film Leaving Las Vegas with Nicolas Cage. The role earned her an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress. Shue was also nominated for a BAFTA, Golden Globe and SAG Award for Best Actress, and won Best Actress at the Independent Spirit Awards, Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and the National Society of Film Critics Awards.

Shue's career flourished after her Oscar nomination, landing her diverse roles. She starred in The Trigger Effect in 1996. Woody Allen's Deconstructing Harry (1996) showcased her comedic abilities amongst heavyweight co-stars Billy Crystal, Demi Moore, Robin Williams and Stanley Tucci. Shue also displayed some action movie skills in the 1997 spy remake The Saint opposite Val Kilmer. The thriller Palmetto (1998) afforded her the chance to play a film noir-ish femme fatale opposite Woody Harrelson; Shue co-starred in Cousin Bette (1998) with Jessica Lange, and Paul Verhoeven's Hollow Man (2000) with Kevin Bacon proved another summer blockbuster.

In 1999, Shue starred as the titular Molly as an autistic young woman placed into the care of her unwilling bachelor brother, played by Aaron Eckhart. Shue played a mother that reveals her dark past to her teenaged daughter in the 2001 ABC movie Oprah Winfrey Presents: Amy and Isabelle. Shue has since stated she was "extremely proud of that film, which no one ever saw, so it's a good lesson that you do work for yourself and not necessarily for the end result".

Shue starred in Leo (2002) with Joseph Fiennes and Dennis Hopper, Mysterious Skin (2004) opposite Joseph Gordon-Levitt, Hide and Seek (2005) opposite Robert De Niro and Dakota Fanning, and Dreamer (2005) again opposite Dakota Fanning and Kurt Russell.

In 2007, Shue and her two brothers, Andrew and John, produced Gracie. Her husband, Davis Guggenheim, also produced and directed. Shue played the mother of the main character who was loosely based on her own experiences as the only girl on a boys' soccer team. Andrew also appeared as the soccer coach, and her previous co-star from The Trigger Effect Dermot Mulroney played the father of the main character. Andrew initially conceived of it as a story about their late brother William, the oldest Shue sibling, who was the captain of the high school soccer team; he died in a freak accident while the family was on a vacation in 1988. The older brother character of Johnny was based on Will. Shue also starred in the little seen First Born (2007) with British actor Steven Mackintosh.

In 2008, Shue starred in Hamlet 2 as a fictionalized version of herself. In the film, she has quit acting to become a nurse and is the favorite actress of Dana Marschz (Steve Coogan). In 2009, Shue appeared on the seventh season of HBO's Curb Your Enthusiasm as an actress competing with Cheryl Hines's character for the part of George's ex-wife for the Seinfeld reunion. That same year, she starred alongside Thomas Haden Church in Don McKay.

In 2010, Shue starred in Piranha 3D as Sheriff Julie Forester. She also played the former groupie mother of Abigail Breslin in Janie Jones and a psychologist in Waking Madison alongside Sarah Roemer and Imogen Poots.

In 2012, Shue appeared in three wide-release theatrical films: the thriller House at the End of the Street with Jennifer Lawrence; Curtis Hanson's Chasing Mavericks opposite Gerard Butler; and David Frankel's Hope Springs as Karen the bartender in a cameo scene with Meryl Streep.

The year 2012 also marked Shue's return to television in a series regular role when she joined the cast of Season 12's CSI: Crime Scene Investigation as Julie Finlay opposite Ted Danson, and replacing Marg Helgenberger. Finlay is the newest CSI, who just finished anger-management classes. Shue continued in the role until the end of Season 15 where her character's fate was left hanging in the balance, later revealed in the two-part 2015 TV movie wrap-up finale of the entire series to have died (Shue did not appear). During her time on the series, being a massive tennis fan as well as regular tennis player, Shue jokingly suggested to the producers they have an episode centered around a murder at a tennis tournament. In Season 13, her wish was granted, and her friends and former pros-turned commentators, 18-time Grand Slam champion Chris Evert, three-time Grand Slam winner Lindsay Davenport and two-time mixed doubles Slam champ Justin Gimelstob appeared in an episode as themselves. Shue also re-united with Back to the Future alumna Lea Thompson, who guest starred in an episode of Season 14.

In 2014, Shue appeared as a cougar in Behaving Badly along with Selena Gomez, Nat Wolff and Heather Graham. In 2015, she guest-starred in an episode of the Patrick Stewart series Blunt Talk.

In 2017, Shue provided a strong supporting role in Battle of the Sexes, opposite Steve Carell and Emma Stone. She had originally signed on as a tennis adviser for the film which recounts the 1973 showdown between female player Billie Jean King and former men's champ Bobby Riggs.

In 2018, Shue co-starred in Eli Roth's remake of Death Wish opposite Bruce Willis as his ill-fated wife. In the movie, she was also re-united with Vincent D'Onofrio, who appeared in Adventures in Babysitting with her.

In 2019, Shue took a leading role in the American superhero drama television series, The Boys, with Karl Urban and Jack Quaid, and will be playing the lead role in the TNT television pilot Constance, playing a corrupt former beauty queen. In the latter, she will also be one of the executive producers along with Robert Downey Jr. (whom she previously co-starred with in Soapdish and Heart and Souls) and his wife Susan Downey among others. Constance is not going forward to series so remains to be seen if the pilot will air as a television movie.

Shue starred in Greyhound opposite Tom Hanks, released in 2020. That same year, she reprised her Karate Kid role as Ali Mills for a guest appearance in the sequel series, Cobra Kai, alongside her original co-stars Ralph Macchio and William Zabka.

Personal life
Shue married film director Davis Guggenheim in 1994. They have three children.

title: Elisabeth Shue


text:
Ivar Rooth

Ivar Rooth (2 November 1888 – 27 February 1972) was a Swedish lawyer and economist who served as the governor of the Swedish National Bank from 1929 to 1948 and the second managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 1951 to 1956. He was also a member of the board of directors of the Bank of International Settlements.

Career
Rooth was born on 2 November 1888, in Stockholm, Sweden. He was the son of Otto Rooth and Ellen Hertzman. He graduated from Uppsala University with a Candidate of Law degree in 1911.

In Rooth's early career, he was Solicitor for the Handelsbank (Commercial Bank) of Stockholm (1914), head of Bank's Commercial Credit Department (1915), Assistant Manager and Solicitor of Stockholm Mortgage Bank, Governor of the Central Bank of Sweden (Sveriges Riksbank, 1929–1948), and Director of the Bank of International Settlements (1931–1933 and 1937–1949). In 1951, he headed a mission to Iraq for the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. On 10 April 1951, he was appointed Managing Director and Chairman of the Executive Board of the IMF and assumed his duties on 3 August 1951.

Rooth, in his first address to member countries as Managing Director of the IMF on 11 September 1951, stated that the Fund "sought removal or modification of exchange restrictions and other discriminatory practices" aimed at a freer flow of international trade and payments. Subsequently, general policy on use of IMF's resources was set forth. This initiated the IMF's policy of drawings in tranches. In 1952, in accordance with the Articles of Agreement, 5 years after the IMF began financial operations, annual consultations with members maintaining exchange restrictions under Article XIV were initiated. The IMF introduced a general framework for Stand-by Arrangements, and the criteria to be applied were standardized. Rooth's term as Managing Director of the IMF ended on 27 April 1956, but he accepted a request by the Executive Board to serve a further period ending on 3 October 1956.

Rooth was head of the Investment Committee of the United Nations Pension Fund from 1947 to 1961, and he was also head of the Currency Board in Kuwait from 1960 to 1962. After 1962 he stepped down and lived at Lidingö, Sweden, and occasionally wrote and gave lectures on economic affairs.

Personal life
In 1914, he married Ingrid Lundgren (born 1889), the daughter of Bengt Lundgren and Eva Wennerström. In 1931, he married Ingrid Söderlindh (born 1899), the daughter of Gunnar Söderlindh and Gertrud Lindroth.

He had four children, including physician Gösta Rooth.

Rooth died in Sweden on 27 February 1972.

title: Ivar Rooth


text:
Game reserve

A game reserve (also known as a game park) is a large area of land where wild animals are hunted in a controlled way for sport. If hunting is prohibited, a game reserve may be considered a nature reserve; however, the focus of a game reserve is specifically the animals (fauna), whereas a nature reserve is also, if not equally, concerned with all aspects of native biota of the area (plants, animals, fungi, etc.).

Many game reserves are located in Africa. Most are open to the public, and tourists commonly take sightseeing safaris. Historically, among the best-known hunting targets were the so-called Big Five game in Africa: rhinoceros (white rhinoceros as well as black rhinoceros), elephant, Cape buffalo, leopard, and lion, named so because of the difficulty and danger in hunting them.

In a game reserve, ecosystems are protected and conservation is usually key. Indigenous wildlife in its natural habitat help in providing an environment where growth in numbers at a natural rate can occur.

Some game reserves contain several ecosystems, ranging from valley bushveld, savannah grassland and fynbos to riverine forest and acacia woodland; this provides a dramatic improvement on the types of wildlife that are present and the numerous species of birds that thrive in these environments.

Wildlife conservation
Wildlife conservation is a costly endeavor for most African countries. One of the more common forms of generating income to establish a sustainable economy to provide for wildlife conservation is known as wildlife viewing tourism. However, this attraction still does not generate enough to establish wildlife conservation. For regions that suffer political and economic instability, sustainable trophy hunting may be the only feasible source of sufficient income. Once established, another aspect to consider is the management of the land being used for hunting. Naturally, wildlife decreases with the increase of human presence which puts a strain on the quality of hunting. Generally, leases for hunting concessions are set up to last for multiple years all at once to encourage hunting operators to continue to manage the land for hunting; however, as the quality of hunting decreases, leases are shortened, causing an overall negative impact on the economy.

Many African countries benefit from community-based conservation. This concept explores the relationship between wildlife and people and the notion that conserving every animal is also not sustainable because certain animals threaten human lives and crops. One of the biggest arguments in support of community-based conservation is that allowing people to gain economic benefits from wildlife incentivizes conservation. One country that benefits from adopting this strategy is Zambia. The Zambian government established a wildlife conservation fund to act as the responsible player for redistributing funds from the hunting industry into wildlife conservation and community development.

Ethical problems
Using game hunting as a conservation tool has negative perceptions that impose harsh restrictions across several countries in Africa. Activities that induce hunting bans include canned hunting, shooting young or uncommon animals, shooting from vehicles, and the use of bait, spotlights and hounds, all hunting practices that raise ethical problems.

title: Game reserve


text:
Miss India

Miss India may refer to:

Beauty pageants

 * Femina Miss India, selects representatives to compete in Miss World
 * Femina Miss India Bangalore
 * Femina Miss India Delhi
 * Femina Miss India South
 * Miss India Worldwide India, selects representative for Miss India Worldwide
 * Miss India International
 * Miss Earth India
 * Miss India Australia
 * Miss India USA, in the United States
 * Miss India Connecticut, in the United States

Other uses

 * Miss India (film), a 2020 film by Narendra Nath
 * Miss India, a 1957 film by S. D. Burman
 * Miss India (TV series), 2004–2007

title: Miss India


text:
List of factorial and binomial topics

This is a list of factorial and binomial topics in mathematics. See also binomial (disambiguation).

 * Abel's binomial theorem
 * Alternating factorial
 * Antichain
 * Beta function
 * Bhargava factorial
 * Binomial coefficient
 * Pascal's triangle
 * Binomial distribution
 * Binomial proportion confidence interval
 * Binomial-QMF (Daubechies wavelet filters)
 * Binomial series
 * Binomial theorem
 * Binomial transform
 * Binomial type
 * Carlson's theorem
 * Catalan number
 * Fuss–Catalan number
 * Central binomial coefficient
 * Combination
 * Combinatorial number system
 * De Polignac's formula
 * Difference operator
 * Difference polynomials
 * Digamma function
 * Egorychev method
 * Erdős–Ko–Rado theorem
 * Euler–Mascheroni constant
 * Faà di Bruno's formula
 * Factorial
 * Factorial moment
 * Factorial number system
 * Factorial prime
 * Gamma distribution
 * Gamma function
 * Gaussian binomial coefficient
 * Gould's sequence
 * Hyperfactorial
 * Hypergeometric distribution
 * Hypergeometric function identities
 * Hypergeometric series
 * Incomplete beta function
 * Incomplete gamma function
 * Jordan–Pólya number
 * Kempner function
 * Lah number
 * Lanczos approximation
 * Lozanić's triangle
 * Macaulay representation of an integer
 * Mahler's theorem
 * Multinomial distribution
 * Multinomial coefficient, Multinomial formula, Multinomial theorem
 * Multiplicities of entries in Pascal's triangle
 * Multiset
 * Multivariate gamma function
 * Narayana numbers
 * Negative binomial distribution
 * Nörlund–Rice integral
 * Pascal matrix
 * Pascal's pyramid
 * Pascal's simplex
 * Pascal's triangle
 * Permutation
 * List of permutation topics
 * Pochhammer symbol (also falling, lower, rising, upper factorials)
 * Poisson distribution
 * Polygamma function
 * Primorial
 * Proof of Bertrand's postulate
 * Sierpinski triangle
 * Star of David theorem
 * Stirling number
 * Stirling transform
 * Stirling's approximation
 * Subfactorial
 * Table of Newtonian series
 * Taylor series
 * Trinomial expansion
 * Vandermonde's identity
 * Wilson prime
 * Wilson's theorem
 * Wolstenholme prime

title: List of factorial and binomial topics


text:
Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/April 28

 * 1932 - A vaccine for yellow fever is announced for use on humans.
 * 1997 - The 1993 Chemical Weapons Convention, signed in Paris in January 1993, goes into effect. Russia, Iraq and North Korea were notable nations who had not ratified the treaty.
 * 2003 - Apple Computer's iTunes Music Store released, sells 1,000,000 songs in first week.

Do we really want an article with a red link on this page? RickK | Talk 05:55, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

From Talk:Main Page
Could this be re-phrased "When the Treaty of San Francisco entered into force, Japan became an independant state"? That makes more grammatical sense. Lee S. Svoboda tɑk 16:43, 28 April 2006 (UTC)

Thumbnail suggestion
Since the University of Santo Tomas article is the first blurb. – Howard  the   Duck  08:55, 17 April 2010 (UTC)

The anniversary of Bligh?
Why is William Bligh the bolded item in the anniversary of the mutiny on the Bounty, instead of the mutiny itself? —  crism ( talk )  01:31, 28 April 2010 (UTC)
 * Mutiny on the Bounty is currently tagged with More footnotes. Zzyzx11 (talk) 02:21, 28 April 2010 (UTC)

2012 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:24, 27 April 2012 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Treaty of San Francisco (maintenance); Charles de Gaulle (appears on January 20)
 * Omitted: Guillaume Schnaebelé; Aurora Quezon; Sino-Japanese Peace Treaty (ineligible—maintenance); Cao Van Vien; Aldrich Ames
 * Included: University of Santo Tomas (3rd appearance, last in 2009); Fletcher Christian (first appearance; blurb featured William Bligh in 2010, but that article is now ineligible); 1910 London to Manchester air race (first appearance); Exercise Tiger (first appearance); Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago) (first appearance)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:19, 28 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Omitted: University of Santo Tomas; Mutiny on the Bounty (blurb previously featured Fletcher Christian, which is now ineligible); 1910 London to Manchester air race; Exercise Tiger; Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)
 * Included: Guillaume Schnaebelé (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Aurora Quezon(2nd appearance, last in 2011); Treaty of Taipei (2nd appearance, last in 2011; rescued from Ineligible); Cao Van Vien (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Aldrich Ames (2nd appearance, last in 2011); Dennis Tito (2nd appearance, last in 2010)

2014 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:50, 27 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Guillaume Schnaebelé; Aurora Quezon; Treaty of Taipei; Cao Văn Viên; Dennis Tito
 * Included: Nichiren Buddhism (first appearance); University of Santo Tomas (4th appearance, last in 2012); 1923 FA Cup Final (first appearance); Exercise Tiger (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 70th anniversary)
 * Repeats: Aldrich Ames (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total; 20th anniversary)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 12:15, 26 April 2015 (UTC)
 * New articles (ineligible): United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1965–66) (maintenance)
 * Omitted: University of Santo Tomas; 1923 FA Cup Final; Exercise Tiger; Aldrich Ames
 * Included: Mutiny on the Bounty (6th appearance, last in 2009; blurb last appeared in 2012); 1910 London to Manchester air race (2nd appearance, last in 2012); Cao Văn Viên (3rd appearance, last in 2013; 40th anniversary); W. R. Myers High School shooting (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Nichiren Buddhism (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)

Error in HMS Bounty reference
Why does the 1789 reference rename the HMS Bounty article? Petecarney (talk) 22:12, 28 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Apparently there's some controversy as to whether the ship should be referred to as HMS Bounty, HMAV Bounty, or just Bounty. I guess we should go sans prefix here. — howcheng  {chat} 18:35, 29 April 2015 (UTC)

Comment
I checked the lists and made some changes. Mhhossein (talk) 04:44, 26 April 2016 (UTC)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:21, 26 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: University of Santo Tomas (maintenance);
 * Omitted: Mutiny on the Bounty (ineligible—TFA for 2016); 1910 London to Manchester air race; Cao Văn Viên; W. R. Myers High School shooting
 * Included: Guillaume Schnaebelé (3rd appearance, last in 2013); Aurora Quezon (3rd appearance, last in 2013); Dominican Civil War (first appearance); Dennis Tito (3rd appearance, last in 2013)
 * Repeats: Nichiren Buddhism (3rd consecutive appearance, 3 total)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:33, 28 April 2017 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Exercise Tiger (maintenance)
 * New articles (unused): Gudovac massacre (TFA for 2017)
 * Omitted: Nichiren Buddhism; Aurora Quezon; Dominican Civil War; Dennis Tito
 * Included: Mutiny on the Bounty (7th appearance, last in 2015); 1910 London to Manchester air race (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Treaty of Taipei (3rd appearance, last in 2013); Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago) (2nd appearance, last in 2012); Shajar al-Durr (first appearance); Jane Cobden (first appearance); Bradley Wiggins (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Guillaume Schnaebelé (2nd consecutive appearance, 4 total)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 01:40, 28 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: 1923 FA Cup Final (TFA for 2018)
 * New articles (unused): The Dark Side of the Moon
 * Omitted: Guillaume Schnaebelé; 1910 London to Manchester air race; Treaty of Taipei; Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago); Shajar al-Durr; Jane Cobden; Bradley Wiggins
 * Included: Nichiren Buddhism (4th appearance, last in 2016); Gudovac massacre (first appearance); Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (first appearance); Hertha Ayrton (first appearance); Penélope Cruz (first appearance); Regina Martínez Pérez (2nd appearance, last in 2017; also appears on September 7, her birthday)
 * Repeats: Mutiny on the Bounty (2nd consecutive appearance, 8 total)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:38, 29 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): 1923 FA Cup Final; Port Arthur massacre (Australia)
 * New articles (unused): Josiah Willard Gibbs
 * Omitted: Nichiren Buddhism; Mutiny on the Bounty; Gudovac massacre; Aloha Airlines Flight 243; Hertha Ayrton; Penélope Cruz; Regina Martínez Pérez
 * Included: Parthian Empire/Battle of Hormozdgan (both: first appearance); Guillaume Schnaebelé (5th appearance, last in 2017); Aurora Quezon (4th appearance, last in 2016; 70th anniversary); The Dark Side of the Moon (first appearance); W. R. Myers High School shooting (2nd appearance, last in 2015; 20th anniversary); James Monroe (first appearance); Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon (first appearance); Alf Ramsey (first appearance)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:03, 29 April 2020 (UTC)
 * New articles (unused): Tristan Tzara; Oskar Schindler; Hermann Fegelein; David Freese
 * Omitted: Guillaume Schnaebelé; Aurora Quezon; The Dark Side of the Moon; W. R. Myers High School shooting; James Monroe; Antoine Samuel Adam-Salomon; Alf Ramsey (ineligible—TFA for 2020)
 * Included: Mutiny on the Bounty (9th appearance, last in 2018); 1923 FA Cup Final (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago) (3rd appearance, last in 2017); Rhys ap Gruffydd (first appearance); Elena Kagan (first appearance; 60th birthday); Bradley Wiggins (2nd appearance, last in 2017; 40th birthday)
 * Repeats: Parthian Empire/Battle of Hormozdgan (both: 2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:09, 30 April 2021 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Alf Ramsey
 * Omitted: Parthian Empire; 1923 FA Cup Final; Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago); Rhys ap Gruffydd; Elena Kagan; Bradley Wiggins
 * Included: Nichiren/Nichiren Buddhism (Nichiren: first appearance; Buddhism: 5th; last in 2018); 1910 London to Manchester air race (4th appearance, last in 2017); Gudovac massacre (2nd appearance, last in 2018; 80th anniversary); Dennis Tito (4th appearance, last in 2016; 20th anniversary); Shajar al-Durr (2nd appearance, last in 2017); Edward IV of England (9th appearance, last in 2020; normally appears on March 4); Hermann Fegelein (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Mutiny on the Bounty (2nd consecutive appearance, 10 total)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:35, 29 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Port Arthur massacre (Australia) (maintenance)
 * New articles (ineligible): Terry Pratchett (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Nichiren/Nichiren Buddhism; Mutiny on the Bounty; Gudovac massacre; Dennis Tito; Shajar al-Durr; Edward IV of England (deleted per above); Hermann Fegelein
 * Included: Sa die de sa Sardigna (first appearance); University of Santo Tomas (5th appearance, last in 2014; rescued from Ineligible); Guillaume Schnaebelé (6th appearance, last in 2019); Treaty of Taipei (4th appearance, last in 2017; 70th anniversary); Rhys ap Gruffydd (2nd appearance, last in 2020; 825th anniversary); Tobias Asser (first appearance); Regina Martínez Pérez (4th appearance, last in 2018; also appears on September 7, her birthday, which I apparently failed to notice THREE TIMES; 10th anniversary)
 * Repeats: 1910 London to Manchester air race (2nd consecutive appearance, 5 total)


text:
Per Jacobsson

Per Jacobsson (5 February 1894 – 5 May 1963) was a Swedish economist who served as the first and longstanding chief economist of the Bank for International Settlements from 1931 to 1956, and as the managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 1956 until his death in 1963.

Early life
Per Jacobsson was born in Tanum, Bohuslän, in Sweden. His parents were Carl Julius Jacobsson, a veterinary surgeon, and Emma Kristina Jacobsson (maiden name Melander). His family moved to Vasteras, where he attended Rudbeckianska a secondary school founded in 1623. He then went to Uppsala University from 1912 - 1919. In his first term he studied economics, statistics and sociology, among other topics, but then in his second term switched to studying law. He received two law degrees from the university, in 1917 and 1919 respectively. However, he was able to undertake extensive studies in economics, mastering the subject. In 1914 he had an oral examination in economics given by David Davidson an economics professor. After that, Davidson told Per Jacobsson to consider succeeding him as an economics professor at the University. In the course of his studies, Per Jacobsson was highly influenced by Knut Wicksell. Over time at university he became more sociable. In 1917 he became president of the student club linked to his home town, Vastmanland-Dala Nation and in 1918 president of a student liberal political club, Verdandi.

Before he obtained his last degree, he spent a considerable amount of time in Stockholm. There he came into frequent contact with leading Swedish economists, joining an economics club started in 1917. Its senior members were Gustav Cassel, David Davidson, Knut Wicksell, and Eli Heckscher. He also had diverse work experiences, drawing on his knowledge of law and economics. He was variously: researcher for a commission on the post-war Swedish economy, assistant in the Court of Appeals, clerk at the Ministry of Finance, assistant teacher at the School of Forestry, and writer for various newspapers. In the latter role he wrote a review of a book by Gustav Cassell, who was Impressed by it. When Marcus Wallenburg Sr. asked Cassell to recommend a Swede to join the Secretariat of the League of Nations, he suggested Per Jacobsson. He was offered the post and accepted it.

Work at the League of Nations
In April 1920 he became an international civil servant, by joining the League of Nations' Secretariat, and specifically what a few years later would be known as the Economic and Financial Organization. This had a Financial Committee for which he worked, eventually becoming its secretary. It took on assisting cities and countries in post-war economic difficulties, including high inflation. The committee developed a typical way of operating. Its staff would visit a capital, research the economic situation and write a report with recommendations. These generally included central government spending cuts and revenue increases and creating or strengthening an independent central bank to control issuance of the domestic currency. Loans could be organized to fund government deficits before agreed-to budgetary measures took full effect. Its work therefore was a precursor to International Monetary Fund country studies and conditional lending. Per Jacobsson participated in this process for the Free City of Danzig in 1921, and Austria and Hungary starting in 1922. The latter countries were lent £90 million in aggregate, which was repaid in 1926, and their government budgets became balanced in 1927.

Piet Clement, a financial historian, wrote that Per Jacobsson's work for the committee "left a deep imprint on his further career...because it taught him to quickly analyze a multitude of qualitative and quantitative data at an aggregated and comparative level, and to formulate conclusions and recommendations in a nevertheless pertinent and precise style."

While at the League, Per Jacobsson also worked on national arms spending data that would be comparable across countries. This was one element in the League's efforts to limit spending on armaments and reduce the risk of a major armed conflict recurring. His work was published as a supplement to the Economist newspaper in October 1929. He continued his work on this after leaving the League as an outside expert, contributing to a report prepared for the World Disarmament Conference which first met in February 1932.

(After leaving the League, he returned to Sweden and worked from January 1929 to July 1930 at the Swedish Economic Defence Commission which was studying preparation for the eventuality of another war, and then from July 1930 to September 1931 as Economic Adviser to a Swedish industrial company, Kreuger and Toll. )

Work at the Bank for International Settlements
He was employed at the Bank of International Settlements from 1931 to 1956.

Work at the International Monetary Fund
In December 1956, he was appointed as the managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF), a position he held until his death on 5 May 1963.

Personal life
He married Violet Nye, who was working for the League of Nations, in 1921. They had three daughters, Erin, Bridget and Moyra. Jacobsson's daughter Moyra, an artist, married Roger Bannister, the British Olympic athlete and neurologist who was the first person to run the four-minute mile.

He was buried in the Swedish section of Brookwood Cemetery.

Legacy
The Per Jacobsson Foundation was established in 1964 to honor his memory and sponsors prestigious lectures, many of which have been given on the occasion of the annual meetings of the IMF and World Bank in Washington DC.

title: Per Jacobsson


text:
Pierre-Paul Schweitzer

Pierre-Paul Schweitzer (29 May 1912 – 2 January 1994) was a French businessman who served as the fourth managing director of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) from 1963 to 1973.

Early life and education
He was born on 29 May 1912, in Straßburg, Elsaß-Lothringen, German Empire. He is the father of Louis Schweitzer, CEO of Renault. He was the nephew of Albert Schweitzer.

Schweitzer was educated at the University of Strasbourg, the University of Paris, and the Paris School of Political Science (Sciences Po) and received degrees in law, economics, and political science.

Career
In his early career, Schweitzer joined the French Government as an assistant Inspecteur des Finances (1936), before becoming an Inspecteur des Finances (1939). Then he was: deputy director for the department of external finance of the French Treasury (1946); alternate executive director for France at the IMF (1947); secretary of the French Interministerial Committee in Charge of Questions on European Economic Cooperation (1948); financial attaché at the French embassy in Washington (1949–1953); director of the French Treasury (1953–1960). In 1960, he was appointed deputy governor of the Bank of France. He also served as a director of the European Investment Bank, a director of Air France, and as a government commissioner on the boards of the French Petroleum Company and the French Refinery Company.

On 21 June 1963 Schweitzer was appointed managing director and chairman of the executive board of the IMF, and he assumed his duties on 1 September 1963. Schweitzer was appointed to a second five-year term as managing director and chairman of the board of the IMF on 15 May 1968.

Schweitzer's term as the IMF's managing director was a critical period, not only due to the collapse of the Par Value System, but also for the creation of the special drawing rights (SDR), as an international reserve asset (1968); the establishment of the two-tier gold market, and the work of the Committee of Twenty of the International Monetary System on reforming the international financial system. Also, during his tenure as managing director of the IMF, its membership grew from 91 to 125 countries.

Schweitzer received many honors and decorations, such as the Commander of the Légion d'Honneur; the Médaille de la Résistance, and the Croix de Guerre. He was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1972.

Schweitzer died on 2 January 1994 in Geneva, Switzerland.

Military service
Schweitzer was commissioned as a lieutenant in the French Army after the outbreak of World War II. When France fell in 1940, he joined the French Resistance and was later captured and held at the Buchenwald concentration camp, on the outskirts of Weimar, Germany, until it was liberated in 1945. Schweitzer was a Nazi concentration camp survivor.

title: Pierre-Paul Schweitzer


text:
USS Somers (1842)

The second USS Somers was a brig in the United States Navy during the administration of President John Tyler. It became infamous for being the only U.S. Navy ship to undergo a mutiny which led to executions.

Somers was launched at the New York Navy Yard on 16 April 1842 and commissioned on 12 May 1842, with Commander Alexander Slidell Mackenzie in command.

Initial cruise
After a shakedown cruise in June–July to the Spanish colony of Puerto Rico and back, the new brig sailed out of New York harbor on 13 September 1842 bound for the Atlantic coast of Africa with dispatches for frigate USS Vandalia (1828). On this voyage, Somers was acting as an experimental schoolship for naval apprentices.

After calls at Madeira, Tenerife, and Praia, looking for Vandalia, Somers arrived at Monrovia, Liberia on 10 November and learned that the frigate had already sailed for home. The next day, Cdr. Mackenzie headed for the Virgin Islands hoping to meet Vandalia at St. Thomas before returning to New York.

The "Somers Affair"

On 25 November 1842 during passage to the West Indies, Midshipman Philip Spencer, the son of Secretary of War John C. Spencer, allegedly told purser's steward J.W. Wales of a planned mutiny by approximately 20 members of Somers crew, who intended to use the ship for piracy from the Isle of Pines. Seaman Elisha Small was involved in the conversation, and Wales was threatened with death if he revealed Spencer's plan.

On 26 November, Wales notified Captain Mackenzie of the plan through his chain of command via purser H.M. Heiskill and First Lieutenant Guert Gansevoort. Captain Mackenzie was not inclined to take the matter seriously, but instructed Lt. Gansevoort to watch Spencer and the crew for evidence of confirmation. Lt. Gansevoort learned from other crew members that Spencer had been observed in secret nightly conferences with seaman Small and Boatswain's Mate Samuel Cromwell. Captain Mackenzie confronted Spencer with Wales' allegation that evening. Spencer replied that he told Wales the story as a joke. Spencer was arrested and put in irons on the quarterdeck. Papers written in Greek were discovered in a search of Spencer's locker and translated by Midshipman Henry Rodgers: The papers read:

 * "CERTAIN: P. Spencer, E. Andrews, D. McKinley, Wales
 * "DOUBTFUL: Wilson (X), McKee (X), Warner, Green, Gedney, Van Veltzor, Sullivan, Godfrey, Gallia (X), Howard (X)
 * "Those doubtful marked (X) will probably be induced to join before the project is carried into execution. The remainder of the doubtful will probably join when the thing is done, if not, they must be forced.  If any not marked down wish to join after the thing is done we will pick out the best and dispose of the rest.
 * "NOLENS VOLENS: Sibley, Van Brunt, Blackwell, Clarke, Corney, Garratrantz, Strummond, Witmore, Waltham, Nevilles, Dickinson, Riley, Scott, Crawley, Rodman, Selsor, The Doctor
 * "Wheel: McKee
 * "Cabin: Spencer, Small, Wilson
 * "Wardroom: Spencer
 * "Steerage: Spencer, Small, Wilson
 * "Arm Chest: McKinley"

A mast failed and damaged some of the ship's sail rigging on 27 November. The timing and circumstances were regarded as suspicious, and Cromwell, the largest man on the crew, was questioned about his alleged meetings with Spencer. Cromwell said: "It was not me, sir – it was Small." Small was questioned and admitted meeting with Spencer. Both Cromwell and Small joined Spencer in irons on the quarterdeck.

On 28 November, wardroom steward Henry Waltham was flogged for having stolen brandy for Spencer, and, after the flogging, Captain Mackenzie informed the crew of a plot by Spencer to have them murdered. Waltham was flogged again on 29 November for suggesting theft of three bottles of wine to one of the apprentices. Sailmaker's mate Charles A. Wilson was detected attempting to obtain a weapon that afternoon, and Landsman McKinley and Apprentice Green missed muster when their watch was called at midnight.

Four more men were put in irons on the morning of 30 November: Wilson, McKinley, Green, and Cromwell's friend, Alexander McKie. Captain Mackenzie then addressed a letter to his four wardroom officers (First Lieutenant Gansevoort, Passed Assistant Surgeon L.W. Leecock, Purser Heiskill, and Acting Master M.C. Perry) and three oldest midshipmen (Henry Rodgers, Egbert Thompson, and Charles W. Hayes), asking their opinion as to the best course of action. The seven convened in the wardroom to interview members of the crew.

On 1 December, the officers reported that they had "come to a cool, decided, and unanimous opinion" that Spencer, Cromwell, and Small were "guilty of a full and determined intention to commit a mutiny," and they recommended that the three be put to death, despite Spencer's claim that the accused conspirators "had been pretending piracy". The plotters were hanged that day and buried at sea. Some noted that Captain Mackenzie could have waited to take action since the ship was only thirteen days from reaching home port. In response, Mackenzie noted the fatigue of his officers, the ship's small size, and the inadequacies of the confinement as reasons for moving forward with the executions.

Somers reached St. Thomas on 5 December and returned to New York on 14 December. She remained there during a naval court of inquiry that investigated the alleged mutiny and subsequent executions. The court exonerated Mackenzie, as did a subsequent court-martial that was held at his request to avoid a trial in civil court.

However, according to maritime historian Samuel Eliot Morison false accusations that Mackenzie was an incompetent martinet whose brutality brought on the mutiny continued to appear for years afterwards. Morison attributes the origin of the smear campaign to Whig politics, and a print vendetta by novelist James Fenimore Cooper, because Mackenzie and others had published articles criticizing Cooper's history of the Battle of Lake Erie.

In the Home Squadron
On 20 March 1843, Lt. John West assumed command of Somers and the brig was assigned to the Home Squadron. For the next few years, she served along the Atlantic coast and in the West Indies.

Mexican–American War
Somers was in the Gulf of Mexico off Veracruz at the opening of the Mexican–American War in the spring of 1846, and, except for runs to Pensacola, Florida, for logistics, remained in that area on blockade duty until the winter. On the evening of 26 November, the brig, commanded by Lt. Raphael Semmes (later the celebrated commanding officer of the Confederate commerce raider CSS Alabama), was blockading Veracruz when the Mexican schooner Criolla slipped into that port. Somers launched a boat party that boarded and captured the schooner. However, a calm wind prevented the Americans from getting their prize out to sea, so they set fire to the vessel and returned through gunfire from the shore to Somers, bringing back seven prisoners. Unfortunately, Criolla proved to be a US spy ship operating for Commodore David Conner.

On 8 December 1846, while chasing a blockade runner off Veracruz, Somers capsized and foundered in a sudden squall. Thirty-six of her 80 crew were lost. Eight survivors were rescued by HMS Endymion (1797). Eight more swam to shore and were taken prisoner. English and French vessels rescued the other survivors. On 3 March 1847, Congress authorized gold and silver medals to the officers and men of French, British, and Spanish ships-of-war who aided in the rescue.

Legacy and wreck
Herman Melville – whose first cousin, Lt. Guert Gansevoort, was an officer aboard the brig at the time of the Somers Affair – may have been influenced by the notorious events involving the Somers mutineers. Melville may have used elements of the story in his novella Billy Budd.

The incident is detailed in the novel Voyage to the First of December by Henry Carlisle, written from the viewpoint of the naval surgeon on duty (from his old journals). It is also described in detail in the novel The Big Family by Vina Delmar.

The story of the Somers Affair and the subsequent trial is dramatized in the penultimate episode of the sixth season of the television series JAG. The presentation takes place as a dream by Lt. Col. Sarah MacKenzie, while she prepares to give a lecture at the United States Naval Academy, which came into existence as a result of the Somers Affair. The regular cast portrayed the people involved. Trevor Goddard played the role of Mackenzie, and Catherine Bell (in a play on the identical surname of her usual role in JAG) played Mrs. Mackenzie.

In 1986, an expedition led by George Belcher, an art dealer and explorer from San Francisco, California, discovered the wreck, and in 1987 archaeologists James Delgado and Mitchell Marken confirmed the identification of the wreck. In 1990, Delgado, along with Pilar Luna Erreguerena, co-directed a joint Mexican-US expedition, which involved archaeologists and divers from the US National Park Service, the Armada de Mexico, and the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. The project determined that unknown people had looted the wreck sometime after the 1987 expedition. The wreck remains as a site protected by legislation.

The most notable legacy of the Somers Affair is the US Naval Academy which was founded as a direct result of the affair. Appalled that a midshipman would consider mutiny, senior naval officials ordered the creation of the academy so that midshipmen could receive a formal and supervised education in naval seamanship and related matters.

title: USS Somers (1842)


text:
USS Somers (DD-301)

USS Somers (DD-301), a Clemson-class destroyer, engaged in peacetime operations with the Pacific Fleet from 1920 until she was scrapped under the London Naval Treaty in 1930. She was the fourth ship of the United States Navy named for Richard Somers.

History
Somers was laid down on 4 July 1918 by the Bethlehem Shipbuilding Corporation, San Francisco, California; launched on 28 December 1918; sponsored by Miss Anna Maxwell Jayne; and commissioned on 23 June 1920.

Somers arrived at San Diego, California on 20 July 1920, and five days later sailed for the Puget Sound area and summer exercises with the Battle Fleet. She returned to San Diego on 4 August for war maneuvers off Coronado, California and on 3 October was attached to the Reserve Divisions at San Diego.

Resuming active status in March 1922, Somers underwent overhaul at Puget Sound and returned to San Diego on 8 July for tactical, torpedo, and gunnery exercises. Departing San Diego on 6 February 1923, she operated off Panama with the fleet between 26 February and 11 April, conducting exercises and participating in Fleet Problem I. She then proceeded to Puget Sound for her annual overhaul between 22 April and 28 June.

Somers remained in the north for summer exercises with the Battle Fleet and, on 25 July and 26 July, carried staff officers of President Warren G. Harding from Seattle, Washington to Vancouver, British Columbia, during the president's Alaskan trip.

Honda Point disaster and fleet problems
On 27 August, she departed Puget Sound with her squadron for San Francisco and San Diego; but in a fog on 8 September, mistakes in navigation caused Somers and eight other ships of the squadron to run aground at Point Honda, in what is known as the Honda Point Disaster. Somers escaped disaster by conducting an emergency turn and, although she grazed a rock, suffered only moderate damage to her bow. When the fog lifted the next morning, Somers discovered USS Fuller (DD-297) and USS Woodbury (DD-309) aground on an offshore rock. Together with a passing fishing vessel, Bueno Amor de Roma, the destroyer rescued survivors. She arrived at San Diego on 10 September and received repairs at Mare Island from 31 October to 5 December.

On 2 January 1924, Somers departed San Diego with the Battle Fleet for the annual fleet concentration, transited the Panama Canal on 18 January, and participated in winter exercises and Fleet Problems II and III in the Caribbean until 31 March. Returning to San Diego in early April, she conducted summer exercises in the Puget Sound area from 2 July to 1 September; and, after a month at San Diego, returned to Puget Sound for overhaul from 25 November 1924 to 17 February 1925. Departing San Diego on 3 April 1925, Somers headed for Hawaii. She participated in Joint Army and Navy Problem 3 en route and arrived at Pearl Harbor with the fleet on 27 April. On 1 July, the Battle Fleet, including Somers, departed Pearl Harbor for a goodwill cruise to the Southwest Pacific and visited Melbourne, Australia; Dunedin and Wellington, New Zealand; and American Samoa, before returning to San Diego on 26 September.

Somers sailed on 1 February 1926 from San Diego for the annual fleet concentration off the Canal Zone which lasted until 20 March. On 14 June, she departed San Diego for summer exercises in the Puget Sound area, returning on 1 September. Annual overhaul at Puget Sound lasted from 7 December 1926 to 19 January 1927; and, on 17 February, she was again underway with the Battle Fleet for the fleet concentration. After completing exercises in the Caribbean on 22 April, the fleet made a visit to New York, conducted a joint Army and Navy exercise in Narragansett Bay, and then arrived at Hampton Roads on 29 May for the Presidential Naval Review there. Departing Hampton Roads on 4 June, the Battle Fleet, including Somers, called at San Diego from 25 June to 1 July and arrived in the Puget Sound area on 16 July for summer exercises.

Final missions and fate
Somers and her squadron left Puget Sound on 20 August and sailed to Hawaii, searching for planes lost on a flight from the United States to Honolulu. She returned to San Diego on 5 September and underwent overhaul at Puget Sound from 25 December 1927 to 29 February 1928. After a month at San Diego, she sailed on 9 April 1928 with the fleet for Hawaii to conduct Fleet Problem VIII. She returned to San Diego on 23 June and got underway six days later for summer exercises in Puget Sound including a reserve training cruise to Alaska from 7 to 21 July. Returning to San Diego on 4 September, she received repairs at Bremerton, Washington from 31 December 1928 to 8 February 1929; and, after spending the spring at San Diego, operated with the fleet off Puget Sound from 18 June to 28 August. On 25 September 1929 at San Diego, she towed the destroyer USS Buchanan (DD-131) from the reserve fleet to her buoy.

On 10 April 1930, Somers was decommissioned and Buchanan commissioned in her place. Somers was struck from the Navy list on 18 November 1930, scrapped at Mare Island in 1930 and 1931, and her materials were sold on 19 March 1931.

title: USS Somers (DD-301)


text:
USS Somers (DD-381)

USS Somers (DD-381) was a destroyer commissioned in the United States Navy from 1937 to 1945. She was the lead ship of the Somers-class of destroyer leaders and was named for Richard Somers. During World War II, Somers was active in the South Atlantic, the North Atlantic, and the Mediterranean Theater of Operations.

History
Somers was laid down on 27 June 1935 at Federal, Kearny, New Jersey launched on 13 March 1937; co-sponsored by Miss Marie Somers and Miss Suzanne Somers; and commissioned at the New York Navy Yard on 1 December 1937.

In 1938 she transported a consignment of gold from the Bank of England to New York. On 6 November 1941, she and the cruiser USS Omaha captured the German freighter Odenwald which was carrying 3800 tons of scarce rubber while disguised as the American merchantman Willmoto.

Odenwald was taken to Puerto Rico. An admiralty court ruled that since the ship was illegally claiming American registration, there were sufficient grounds for confiscation. A legal case was started claiming that the crews of the two American ships had salvage rights because the Odenwald crew's attempt to scuttle the ship was the equivalent of abandoning her. The court case, settled in 1947 ruled the members of the boarding party and the prize crew were entitled to $3,000 apiece while all the other crewmen in Omaha and Somers were entitled to two months' pay and allowances. This was the last prize money awarded by the US Navy.

In November 1942 Somers, with USS Milwaukee (CL-5) and USS Cincinnati (CL-6), intercepted another German blockade runner, the MS Anneliese Essberger (1935), near Brazil.

In January 1943 Somers and USS Memphis (CL-13) moved to Bathurst, Gambia in West Africa to support the Casablanca Conference between President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and the Free French. At the end of the month Somers relocated to Dakar, Senegal and assisted in escorting the Free French warships Richelieu and Montcalm to the United States. By March Somers was based in Trinidad on patrols to Brazil as before. On 3 January 1944 Somers intercepted the German blockade runner Westerland, which scuttled itself. In May Somers escorted a convoy to England as part of the buildup for the Normandy invasion.

Somers next participated in the invasion of Normandy as a convoy escort and, in August, the Southern France invasion, providing naval gunfire support as well as serving in the anti-submarine screen. On 15 August 1944, four hours before H-Hour, D-Day, along the French Riviera, Somers encountered and sank the German corvette UJ6081 and the sloop SG21 at the Battle of Port Cros. Following this action, she moved inshore to give gunfire support to the invasion. For two days she bombarded enemy strongpoints off the coast near Toulon with 5 inch (127 mm) shells and then exchanged fire with enemy shore batteries east of Marseilles. Somers sustained some damage during this action.

For the next month, the destroyer operated in the Mediterranean Sea, visiting ports on the southern coast of France, Ajaccio, Corsica, and Oran, Algeria. She steamed out of Oran on 28 September and arrived in New York on 8 October. Somers was overhauled at the Brooklyn Navy Yard until 8 November, then moved to Casco Bay, Maine, for training. On 23 November, she joined the screen of a Britain bound convoy for the first of four transatlantic voyages which closed Somers' combat service. She returned to the United States on 12 May 1945 at the end of her last voyage to the United Kingdom. For the remainder of the war, Somers operated along the eastern seaboard and, in July, made one summer cruise to the Caribbean to train midshipmen.

Fate
On 4 August 1945, she put into Charleston, South Carolina, for overhaul and remained until 11 September. Instead of returning to active duty, Somers reported to the Commandant, 6th Naval District, for decommissioning and disposal. She decommissioned at Charleston on 28 October 1945 and was retained there until removed by her purchaser, Boston Metals of Baltimore, Md., on 16 May 1947. Somers was struck from the Navy list on 28 January 1947.

Honors
Somers earned two battle stars during World War II.

title: USS Somers (DD-381)