text:
Soda lime

Soda lime, a mixture of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and calcium oxide (CaO), is used in granular form within recirculating breathing environments like general anesthesia and its breathing circuit, submarines, rebreathers, and hyperbaric chambers and underwater habitats. Its purpose is to eliminate carbon dioxide from breathing gases, preventing carbon dioxide retention and, eventually, carbon dioxide poisoning. The creation of soda lime involves treating slaked lime with a concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.

Chemical components
The primary components of soda lime include: calcium oxide (CaO) constituting approximately 75%, water accounting for around 20%, sodium hydroxide (NaOH) making up about 3%, and potassium hydroxide (KOH) present at approximately 0.1%.

Anaesthesia
During general anaesthesia, a patient's exhaled gases, containing carbon dioxide, pass through an anaesthesia machine's breathing circuit, containing a soda lime canister filled with soda lime granules. Medical-grade soda lime includes an indicating dye that changes color when it reaches its carbon dioxide absorption capacity. To ensure proper functioning, a carbon dioxide scrubber (or soda lime canister) should not be used if the indicating dye is activated. Standard anesthesia machines typically contain up to 2 kg of soda lime granules.

Recent carbon dioxide absorbents have been developed to minimize the risk of toxic by-product formation resulting from the interaction between the absorbent and inhaled anesthetics, like halothane. Some absorbents, including those made from lithium hydroxide, are available for this purpose.

Space flight
In space flights, lithium hydroxide (LiOH) is used as a carbon dioxide absorbent due to its low molecular weight (Na: 23 g/mol; Li: 7 g/mol), saving weight during launch. During the Apollo 13 flight, high carbon dioxide levels in the Lunar Module led the crew to adapt spare absorbent cartridges from the Apollo capsule to the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM) system.

Rebreather use
Exhaled gas undergoes a crucial process: it must pass through a carbon dioxide scrubber where carbon dioxide is absorbed before the gas is circulated for breathing again. In rebreathers, this scrubber is integrated into the breathing loop. However, in larger settings like recompression chambers or submarines, a fan is employed to ensure a continuous flow of gas through the scrubbing canister. Notably, the use of color indicating dye in United States Navy fleet applications ceased in 1996 due to concerns about potential chemical releases into the circuit.

Chemical reaction
The overall chemical reaction is:

 * CO2 + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 + H2O + heat (in the presence of water)

Each mole of CO2 (44 g) reacts with one mole of calcium hydroxide (74 g) and produces one mole of water (18 g).

The reaction can be considered as a strong-base-catalysed, water-facilitated reaction.

The reaction mechanism of carbon dioxide with soda lime can be decomposed in three elementary steps:

 * 1)            (CO2 dissolves in water – slow and rate-determining),

 * 2)      (bicarbonate formation at high pH),

 * 3)  (NaOH recycled to step 2 – hence a catalyst).

This sequence of reactions explains the catalytic role played by sodium hydroxide in the system and why soda lime is faster in chemical reactivity than calcium hydroxide alone. The moist sodium hydroxide impregnates the surface and the porosity of calcium hydroxide grains with a high specific surface area. It reacts much more quickly and so contributes to a faster elimination of the carbon monoxide from the rebreathing circuit. The formation of water by the reaction and the moisture from the respiration also act as a solvent for the reaction. Reactions in aqueous phase are generally faster than between a dry gas and a dry solid. Soda lime is commonly used in closed-circuit diving rebreathers and in the anesthesia breathing circuit in anesthesia systems.

The same catalytic effect by the alkali hydroxides (function of the Na2Oeq content of cement) also contributes to the carbonation of portlandite by atmospheric CO2 in concrete although the rate of propagation of the reaction front is there essentially limited by the carbon dioxide diffusion within the concrete matrix less porous.

Analogy with the alkali–silica reaction
A similar reaction to above, also catalysed by sodium hydroxide, is the alkali–silica reaction, a slow degradation process causing the swelling and the cracking of concrete containing aggregates rich in reactive amorphous silica. In a very similar way, sodium hydroxide greatly facilitates the dissolution of the amorphous silica. The produced sodium silicate then reacts with the calcium hydroxide (portlandite) present in the hardened cement paste to form calcium silicate hydrate (abbreviated as C-S-H in the cement chemist notation). This silicification reaction of calcium hydroxide on its turn continuously releases again sodium hydroxide in solution, maintaining a high pH, and the cycle continues up to the total disappearance of portlandite or reactive silica in the exposed concrete. Without the catalysis of this reaction by sodium- or potassium-soluble hydroxides, the alkali–silica reaction would not proceed or would be limited to a very slow pozzolanic reaction. The alkali–silica reaction can be written like the soda lime reaction, by simply substituting carbon dioxide by silica dioxide in the reactions mentioned here above as follows:

 * {| style="white-space:nowrap;"

! style="text-align:left;" | reaction 1: high pH ! style="text-align:left;" | reaction 2: and regeneration of NaOH ! style="text-align:left;" | sum (1+2): Pozzolanic reaction catalysed by NaOH
 * || align = "right" | SiO2 + NaOH ||  || → ||   || NaHSiO3||   ||silica dissolution by NaOH:
 * || align = "right" | NaHSiO3 + Ca(OH)2 ||  || → ||   || CaSiO3 + H2O + NaOH ||     ||C-S-H precipitation
 * || align = "right" | SiO2 + Ca(OH)2 ||  || → ||   || CaSiO3 + H2O ||     ||global reaction:
 * }

title: Soda lime


text:
User:Peterak

My name is Peter André Kristoffersen, and im a "Wikipedestrian" from Norway. I live in Drøbak, Akershus. I hold an MA in the History of Religion from the University of Oslo, and I'm currently working with organization and work releated to [trade union]s, and employed by Norwegian Civil Service Union.

Relating to my master thesis I've written or contributed to:

James Webb (historian), James Moore (Cornish author), Margaret Anderson, Henriette H. Lannes G. I. Gurdjieff, René Guénon, Julius Evola, Louis Pauwels.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:Peterak


text:
Catha

Catha may refer to:

 * Catha (plant), a plant genus
 * Catha (mythology), an Etruscan goddess

title: Catha


text:
Cytochrome C1

Cytochrome C1 (also known as Complex III subunit 4) is a protein encoded by the CYC1 gene. Cytochrome is a heme-containing subunit of the cytochrome b-c1 complex, which accepts electrons from Rieske protein and transfers electrons to cytochrome c in the mitochondrial respiratory chain. It is formed in the cytosol and targeted to the mitochondrial intermembrane space. Cytochrome c1 belongs to the cytochrome c family of proteins.

Function
Cytochrome C1 plays a role in the electron transfer during oxidative phosphorylation. As an iron-sulfur protein approaches the b-c1 complex, it accepts an electron from the cytochrome b subunit, then undergoes a conformational change to attach to cytochrome c1. There, the electron carried by the iron-sulfur protein is transferred to the heme carried by cytochrome c1. This electron is then transferred to a heme carried by cytochrome c. This creates a reduced species of cytochrome c, which separates from the b-c1 complex and moves to the last enzyme in the electron transport chain, cytochrome c oxidase (Complex IV).

Species
CYC1 is a human gene that is conserved in chimpanzee, Rhesus monkey, dog, cow, mouse, rat, zebrafish, fruit fly, mosquito, C. elegans, S. cerevisiae, K. lactis, E. gossypii, S. pombe, N. crassa, A. thaliana, rice, and frog. There are orthologs of CYC1 in 137 known organisms.

In its structure and function, the cytochrome b-c1 complex bears extensive analogy to the cytochrome b6f complex of chloroplasts and cyanobacteria; cytochrome c1 plays an analogous role to cytochrome f, despite their different structures.

Clinical relevance
Mutations in the CYC1 gene are associated with mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 6. The disease symptoms include early childhood onset of severe lactic acidosis and ketoacidosis, usually in response to infection. Insulin-responsive hyperglycemia is also present, but psychomotor development appears normal. Mutation of CYC1 was observed to cause instability in the cytochrome b-c1 complex, which decreased its ability to create energy through oxidative phosphorylation. Mitochondrial complex III deficiency nuclear type 6 is autosomal recessive.

title: Cytochrome C1


text:
Public holidays in Burkina Faso

This is a list of holidays in Burkina Faso.

title: Public holidays in Burkina Faso


text:
Talk:List of ethnic enclaves in North American cities

Untitled
Isn't there a Russian enclave in LA too?

 * There really isn't a clearly delimited, mostly Russian enclave in LA in the same manor as some of the other listed ethic neighborhoods in the List. There is a small concentration of mostly Jewish Russians and the businesses catering to them mixed in with the regular businesses (with a large number targeting a gay clientele) in the West Hollywood, California area.

This list will grow very long even if we stick to specifically named areas. Should we sort by ethnicity, not list them alphabetically? Rmhermen 13:19, Mar 3, 2004 (UTC)

This is not really a list of enclaves, it is a list of parts of cities where most people are from one ethnic group. There is a serious difference. Mark Richards 20:25, 17 May 2004 (UTC)
 * This is true, but the phrase ethnic enclave does kind of have some currency in the American media. Any ideas about what to replace it with? jengod 21:13, May 17, 2004 (UTC)

"Ethnic communities", perhaps?

 * I like that. Anyone opposed to a move? Mark Richards 05:00, 27 May 2004 (UTC)
 * Ethnic enclaves is a term currently in use, even in acedemic circles. There is no need to move this page. Rmhermen 13:27, May 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, it may have some usage, but in academic circles it usually refers to ethnic communities that are completely surrounded and often unable to easily move in and out of the enclaves. I think the title is misleading. Mark Richards 16:05, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

Well, if you don't visualize Checkpoints Charlie and armed guards, some of these do fill those requirements. Little old ladies in Koreatown may do everything they need to do in Koreatown and really *never* leave. This is an interesting article that puts the Amero-Canadian use of the term in context: Ethnic Enclaves in the Urbanism of America; also: SuburbanReport/SubReport.pdf pdf: The New Ethnic Enclaves in America’s Suburbs. Here's an interesting multimedia presentation from the Canadian govt: Diversity and Community: Ethnic Enclaves and Segregation I'm going to put a note on the page dissecting enclaves for those not familiar with the North American use of the term. jengod 17:51, May 27, 2004 (UTC)

P.S. I don't think it should be moved either. jengod 18:09, May 27, 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, with the new explanation of the use of the term (I was not aware of that usage, except as a comparison to 'real' enclaves) I don't have a problem with it. Thanks, Mark Richards 19:22, 27 May 2004 (UTC)

 * Quite frankly, I think the introduction downplays the historical aspect of some of these neighborhoods too much. At least for the early Asian ethnic neighborhoods here in the LA area (Chinatown and Little Tokyo, Los Angeles, California date from before 1900), the neighborhoods were very much the results of the combination of discrimination, prohibitions against land ownership, and deed restrictions. For the modern suburban ethnic neighborhoods (such as the Chinatown of Monterey Park, California) they represent a voluntary association with people of similiar cultures, but that was only after the changes in Civil Rights of the 1960's, plus the great influx of Asians after the severe restrictions on emmigration to the US was eased.

 * Also, since the word "enclave" has a different connotation for the general public from the way that academics may use the term, this article probably should be "ethnic neighborhoods" or "ethnic communities". gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 14:57, 15 Dec 2004 (UTC)

 * GK, please feel free to rewrite or amend the intro to include info on the historic nature of some of these neighborhoods. Also, I prefer enclave, I believe that's how it's described, but my second choice would be neighborhood as community does not necessarily imply a certain place. jengod 20:04, Dec 15, 2004 (UTC)

 * I was going to sneak in a one-sentance ammendment, but I couldn't make it work, so I will probably try to completely replace the opening paragraph with a longer explanation.

 * One reason that I thought about using community is that it could be used to expand the list into a more broader topic than just urban enclaves that would include places like Solvang, California. After some reflection, it is probably best to keep this list restricted to urban neighborhoods, although a list of ethnic communities and regions (to cover the Amish, etc.) might be a useful addition to the Wikipedia. gK [[User talk:GK|¿?]] 04:22, 16 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Rural ethnic enclaves
We are missing the ethnic enclaves in rural towns of the Great Plains. One can tell the ethnicity by the flags on the water towers. Most of these towns were established in the late 19th c, and have retained their ethnic enclave status, islands of community in a sea of grass, they probably outnumber urban enclaves in numbers, but not population. --Stbalbach 04:36, 15 Jun 2005 (UTC)

Unnamed "enclaves"
There are some places that are not labelled "Little xxx" or "xxxtown" but have significant ethnic population or business presence. Those include the Hacienda Heights-Diamond Bar area and Cerritos-Artesia area in Los Angeles County, California. Both have significant Chinese and Korean presence. There are also material Chinese presence in Irvine, California. A couple of Japanese strip malls are located in Costa Mesa, California.

 * Also, in San Diego, California, there is a predominantly Asian area on Convoy Street in Kearny Mesa. The majority of businesses here are Korean, but there is also Japanese, Chinese, Thai and Vietnamese presences here. Since there is no name for this section of town, I simply placed it in between Chinatowns and Japantowns (to keep the list alphabetic, and since there is no distinction such as purely Korean). - signed by anon IP

Bias
There seems to be some sort of bias against seattle, many of these little(insert ethnic city)are in seattle but mostly I see nyc l.a. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.121.187.137 (talk) 23:47, 14 May 2008 (UTC)

Florida
I'm not sure what the criteria are for "ethnic enclaves," but I wanted to suggest Ybor City, Tampa (Cuban, former industrial cigar-making district worked largely by Cuban immigrants), Tarpon Springs, Florida (Greek), and Vietnamtown/Little Vietnam, Orlando, FL (very concentrated Vietnamese community, including some Vietnamese parking signs, along SR 50/Colonial Blvd.) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.0.1.182 (talk) 13:44, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

List needs trimming and retitling
I've removed many items from different sections which are not "named ethnic enclaves"; ethnic enclaves they may be, but they're not named as such, i.e. Little Italy, Chinatown, Little Germany etc. Also many of these are actual cities/towns, not just enclaves within them, and it's not clear that they're ethnic in character but only named e.g. the many Germantowns. Also some do not seem to be in cities, hence "List of named ethnic enclaves in North America", period; more cleanup is needed and, as with the Germantowns, I don't know if they're actually ethnic or not, so participation from people in those states/provinces is needed. Obviously also Native American/First Nations reservations and reserves within cities should not be included. Between vagueness and clutter, more cleanup is needed.Skookum1 (talk) 17:48, 17 October 2010 (UTC)

 * The article is better than it was in 2010. The list is about enclaves, communities and concentrations of certain ethnic groups in places. Germantowns tend to be more historic than current. And some Native American/First Nations areas in cities are relevant. I noticed two additions Jewtown, Georgia and Jewtown, Pennsylvania (now called "West Penn", not far from largely Bavarian Catholic settled St. Marys, Pennsylvania) were removed: the first one was settled by two Jewish people, but it has no sources to back up the claim it was ever a Jewish community, same with Jewtown, PA which is possible, still no sources for any mentions. I may heard of an Orthodox Jewish section of Whittier, California here in Southern CA, except it is not verifiable to be put in the article. Adinneli (talk) 17:18, 30 August 2018 (UTC)

Name - move?

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page not moved. harej 02:18, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

List of named ethnic enclaves in North American cities → List of ethnic enclaves in North America — The meaning of "named ethnic enclaves" in the current title says to me things that are ethnically-descripted; Little Warsaw, Chinatown, Little Yokohama etc. But the list at present (other than what I've recently deleted) is anywhere that has an ethnic profile; even limiting this to cities only, it's quite a ridiculous concept; the whole of New York City is a grouping of ethnic enclaves, much the same is true about Chicago or Boston or Montreal or Toronto, and even in the more jumbled Canadian and California cities somewhere it's hard to draw the line as to which area is which. There are also notable small towns that are decidedly ethnic in composition, e.g. the many Norwegian and Swedish concentration places in Minnesota, North Dakota, Iowa, Saskatchewan/Manitoba, Little Denmark in New Brunswick, and the Dutch/German concentrations in BC's Lower Mainland and neighbouring Whatcom County in the US. So what is this list supposed to be about? Ethnic neighbourhoods in CITIES, or just ethnic concentrations? And a high population doesn't mean an "enclave", which suggests ghettoization and visible street/commercial ethnic identity; so does Edmonton's preponderant Ukrainian population make it an "enclave" (i.e. is the whole city an enclave?) or does this apply to neighbourhoods only? For now I've been takign "named ethnic enclaves" to mean "places taht are named after their ethnic omposition" but given the vast jumble of what's on here, I'm no longer sure (in which case my recent dedits should be restored, but then the list MUST be renamed).Skookum1 (talk) 17:33, 23 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Suggested shortened/simplified and more general title: List of ethnic enclaves in North America.Skookum1 (talk) 17:41, 23 October 2010 (UTC)
 * I am ok with the proposal except a couple of things.
 * I think we shoudl use a clearer word than enclave. My guess is a lot of our readers are going to have to bust out the dictionary to find out what an enclave is.
 * I am not sure how much that will expand the list. Depending on the scope it could cause the list to get pretty big so we need to make the scope clear. (ie. just because a City has a lot of people from Ireland doesn't make it an enclave)
 * Do we count all the Indian reservations
 * what about the US protectorates and territories like Guam and Puerto rico. --Kumioko (talk) 20:02, 23 October 2010 (UTC)
 * "enclave" is a perfectly cromulent word. It's not particularly obscure, any moreso than "ethnic".  Powers T 12:41, 26 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Agreed, but it does imply a discrete boundary and/or specifically-delineated area, not just an ethnic concentration. There's also a hint of exclusion/inclusion in its overtones.  List of named ethnic neighbourhoods in North American cities (or, if you wish, using American spelling "neighborhood") might be safer in technical terms "but"....and @Kumioko in the same way it's idiomatic that Native Americans/Aboriginal peoples are not "visible minorities", Indian Reservations (Reserves in Canada) are technically separate from the municipalities encompassing them (or which in some cases they may contain...).  Suffice to say that a See Also to List of Indian Rservations in the United States and List of Indian Reserves in Canada would work just fine.  Other than coming up with a definition of who/what is included, the word "enclave" is a bit on the hyperbolic side in most cases.  It's not like they're surrounded by walls or anything....Skookum1 (talk) 01:09, 27 October 2010 (UTC)
 * An ethnic enclave need not be surrounded by walls. It's a common use of the word "enclave", extrapolated from the original use of a territory surrounded by a different sovereign entity.  Powers T 12:47, 28 October 2010 (UTC)

 * Comment this list seems wrong. Glancing at it, entire cities are listed, when only a district within them is an enclave. Perhaps all the cities should be removed, and only neighboorhoods should remain (ie. Little Tokyo, Chinatown, etc are ethnically named ethnic enclaves within cities) 76.66.199.238 (talk) 05:34, 24 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Oppose. I assume "named" is in the title to limit the scope to avoid adding that little area down on 5th street between Elm and Main that everyone knows is populated by Poles but doesn't have a real "name". Powers T 12:41, 26 October 2010 (UTC)
 * Comment though I proposed a name change, I tend to agree with you; but if we keep "named" in the title then there's tons of "weeds" to be gotten rid of. And does it remain limited to cities (including I suppose towns, villages etc - in Alaska a "city" is even 200 people...legally that is)?  And what about places which are known for their ethnic identity, like Birch Hills, Saskatchewan (Norwegians), Gimli, Manitoba (Icelanders) and Little Denmark, New Brunswick?  The latter is "named", Gimli is sort-of-named, Birch Hills clearly isn't.  But what about the various "Germantowns"?  Are these actually ethnic German?  And as whole towns, are they enclaves?Skookum1 (talk) 01:23, 27 October 2010 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Not moved - so what's a "named ethnic enclave"?
Great, not moved. Would somebody please care to clarify the title, then....does it mean that places have to have a name, any name, or is it named as an ethnic enclave, i.e. because of the ethnicity, label etc? This page either needs renaming, or very serious pruning....Skookum1 (talk) 06:10, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

Other additions and inclusions
I made a few of them over a hour, and hopefully fits in the criteria of an useful edit. Wherever there is an ethnic social community organization, a sizable population-percentage community, and/or enclaves/ neighborhoods/sections, I believe they should be added to the directory to make it more useful. Thanks for reading and any questions or suggestions are welcomed. 71.102.30.215 (talk) 22:52, 26 March 2011 (UTC)

 * Two similarly named places in Penn. (Fox Township, Elk County, Pennsylvania (Irishtown and Kersey) and Fox Township, Sullivan County, Pennsylvania (Jersey and Shunk) named for Irish and Scottish settlers in the state's Appalachia region) are examples of ethnic enclaves or concentrations, but they would be considered British or "American" (by ethnicity) as well. The Fox in Elk County (3,600 residents) about 90 miles north of Pittsburgh (considered more rural) has a large number of German/Swiss/Bavarian Catholics, while the Fox in Sullivan County has 10% Asian (the only considerable racial minority out of 500 residents) but is 120 miles north of Philadelphia and further away from a major city. Adinneli (talk) 19:51, 3 September 2018 (UTC)

Table
Could we turn this massive list into a table so people could sort the information by either location or ethnicity? Samhuddy (talk) 16:15, 21 March 2013 (UTC)

Requested move 2

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Moved. Per discussion, new title better reflects the article's content. -- Hadal (talk) 21:17, 27 January 2014 (UTC)

List of named ethnic enclaves in North American cities → List of ethnic enclaves in North American cities – I first proposed getting rid of the term "named" in this title over three years ago; the suggestion was turned down as "not moved". But I fail to see why a whole slew of things since added, in addition to those already here there years ago, that were not "named ethnic enclave", continue to be added to the list. That term would seem to have been intended for areas called Chinatown, Little Italy, Koreatown and so on, not just for places like Ballard (in Seattle, a Scandinavian area, though not exclusively) or College Heights or wherever that doesn't specify the ethnicity in the name. The name of the list should reflect what's on it, and currently it doesn't. The term "enclave" is problematic but in the expression "ethnic enclave" it doesn't have the geopolitical or exclusionary context of the word by itself, so I can live with it; the term "neighbourhood" may be preferable as in List of ethnic neighbourhoods in North American cities and that is a second option for a renaming. Some that are on here are just commercial concentrations where the resident population isn't actually as concentrated as the ethnic element so "ethnic enclave" and "ethnic neighbourhood" really is "concentrations of ethnically-defined commerce" but that's too cumbersome as a title. So not wanted to confuse the matter too much, and also observing that compiling such lists is really a form of WP:Original research, for now I think it's important that the "named ethnic enclave" should be replaced by "ethnic enclave" only, unless some better term is in the offing. Sure, places like Brockton and Compton and Harlem and Inglewood have names but that wasn't the original intent of this list; "ethnically-named enclaves" was the original intent, it's since become incredibly muddied as to content. For now the title is incredibly misleading and incorrect and should be changed...to something.Skookum1 (talk) 21:00, 31 December 2013 (UTC) Skookum1 (talk) 21:00, 31 December 2013 (UTC)
 * comment also to note that there are cases where an entire town is notably ethnic; and that this list should be for "within cities" and not for cities as a whole, e.g. Chicago being known for being Irish and Polish, for example.  And there are some cases where "ethnic enclaves in" are in towns, not cities, as with many small historical Chinatowns and Franco-New England communities.  That this list exists at all is OR, but if there's to be consistency, then it should have a parameters about that consistency.  Whatever the heck it is.  Otherwise "List of cities with large FOO [ethnicity] populations" broken up into sublists is all that can really be citable; not that lists need citations..... right now it's a hobblegobble, like the African-American communities subsection, and nearly anywhere could conceivably be on it, e.g. Trail BC for being notably Italian, or any number of towns and cities on the Canadian Prairies being notably Ukrainian (but also German and English at the same time).  When is an enclave an enclave?  Should this list even exist at all?Skookum1 (talk) 23:40, 31 December 2013 (UTC)
 * comment: List should stay as namerd and be trimmed down to named locations (Chinatowns, Little Italies, etc.) Rmhermen (talk) 03:42, 1 January 2014 (UTC)

 * That's what I would think, but given that "named" part has either been misinterpreted or ignored, should we be policing it with a chainsaw in future?Skookum1 (talk) 04:46, 1 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Support: Named isn't doing anything for the title p  b  p  15:11, 24 January 2014 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

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Reasons for ethnic and cultural enclaves
Historically, racial and ethnic segregation determined where minorities and groups live, but today the phenomenon known as "Residential area of choice" shows some people decide to live among a similar cultural group they are members of, or sometimes their decision to live in a place if there are clubs and social rec activities among their kind.

Now, I want to discuss 5 things I seek in a city or town: 1. I have mild autism, 2. a Liberal Democrat, 3. a maiseiophile (likes pregnant women), 4. in my age group (ages 18-39) and 5. a vegetarian. Where should I move to where I'm the most comfortable, where my lifestyle and culture fits right in, and I'm not the minority to "stand out"? These places are known as "aspie centers" where people with autism and Asperger's are thought to be numerous (high-tech industrial-economic centers), communities where most registered voters are Democrats or gravitate to social-progressive cultural liberalism, large fertility clinics (IVF and sperm/ovum bank methods) and many single or open-relationship women when pregnant, college towns or universities with many young adults reside nearby, and some may be home to religious groups like some sects of Hindus and Buddhists, Jainists, Mormons/Latter-Day Saints (OK, not really vegetarians and more conservative Republican, abstains from tobacco and alcohol, and practice large-size families with many children), and Seventh-Day Adventists form plurality or majority populations - they practice vegetarianism. Here are the places I would want to relocate to and reside in.

In California-
 * 1. Sacramento (with Univ of Cal Davis).
 * 2. Marin county-Sonoma/Napa valleys.
 * 3. Univ of Cal. Berkeley-Oakland (Alameda/Contra Costa)
 * 4. San Jose-Santa Clara (includes Santa Cruz).
 * 5. West L.A.-South Bay Los Angeles county.
 * 6. Riverside-San Bernardino (Loma Linda and Corona).

Elsewhere- I could add New York City (specifically Manhattan), San Francisco-San Mateo CA, San Diego CA and Orange County CA as a whole, but it's rather expensive nowadays or gentrification changed the socio-economic profile of these areas. 12.218.47.124 (talk) 20:33, 2 August 2018 (UTC)
 * 7. Miami-Dade, Florida (plus Miami Beach or South Beach).
 * 8. Bridgwater-Paterson, New Jersey.
 * and 9. Massapequa-Long Island, New York.

 * Diversity tends to be most centered in urban/metro areas, due to more kinds of people relocate to a certain place for economic reasons. New York City is probably the most diverse major city in North America: it is now 15% Dominican, 12% Chinese and 10% Indian, along with being 1/4 Black (African-American and Afro-Caribbean), has up to a million Puerto Ricans (US citizens on arrival from their territory Puerto Rico) and a history of Irish, German, Jewish (of many nationalities), Italian and Polish neighborhoods. I read about Dayton, Ohio's Oregon District has a large Black and Latino American presence, as well gay/LGBT bars due to air force base personnel from the nearby Wright-Patterson AFB. 2605:E000:100D:C32F:FC2C:3C87:9E6D:7D17 (talk) 01:59, 8 August 2019 (UTC)

 * Good God, talk about identifying with the wrong things. Aspergers is not an identity, it is a condition. And before you sound off at me, I have it too. But it's not a bloody identity! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.52.209.206 (talk) 20:24, 3 September 2019 (UTC)

Keep United Kingdom, esp England in the article
English and British Americans are an ethnicity, nationality and culture, just like "Americans" who only identify with the USA as their main ancestry. Upper-income members are also known as WASPs, the term can have negative or deragatory meanings, but it simply means White Anglo-Saxon Protestants. They tend to be the top 100 wealthiest communities or zip codes in the country, examples being Malibu-Santa Monica-west side L.A., Orange County CA (the coasts and "south county"), and northern San Diego with nearby areas in San Diego ("north") county. 12.218.47.124 (talk) 15:25, 3 August 2018 (UTC)

 * The UK section, as usual when Scots and Welsh are lumped into it, ignores them. The list is thoroughly anglocentric... there are a number of particularly Scottish areas in North America, but the British label, as usual buries and hides them. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.52.209.206 (talk) 19:49, 3 September 2019 (UTC)

San Gabriel Valley claim
Unable to verify claim of "largest Chinese enclave outside of China".

This claim was added in 22 November 2017 revision (by an IP user) without any citation. The citation was added in a sequence of 13 April 2019 edits by 67.49.85.100.

I did not find the claim supported by the text content of the source. I listened to the video, and did not hear it, but I may have missed it. If the claim is actually present, a quote should be added to the citation. If not present, then maybe the claim should be changed to a similar claim that is supported, perhaps largest Chinese enclave in U.S. or North America ... or just keep looking. Fabrickator (talk) 21:54, 14 March 2022 (UTC)


text:
Hang Seng Composite Index Series

The Hang Seng Composite Index is a stock market index of the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong and was launched in 2001. It offers an equivalent of Hong Kong market benchmark that covers around the top 95th percentile of the total market capitalisation of companies listed on the Main Board of the Stock Exchange of Hong Kong (“SEHK”).

Its index calculation adopts the freefloat-adjusted market capitalisation methodology, and can be used as a basis for index funds, mutual funds as well as performance benchmarks. Its arguable that the composite index is a better reflection on the overall market performance than the more popular Hang Seng Index, which only cover 50 stocks as opposed to over 480 stocks in the composite index.

Sub-index
The Hang Seng Composite Index can be further dividend into 2 group of indexes : 1 on industry sector and 1 on market capitalisation.

Industry sector index series
There are 11 sub-indexes per industry sector:

 * Energy
 * Materials
 * Industrial Goods
 * Consumer Goods
 * Consumer Services
 * Telecommunications
 * Utilities
 * Financials
 * Properties & Construction
 * Information Technology
 * Conglomerates

Market capitalisation index series
There are 3 indexes on market capitalisation :LargeCap, MidCap and SmallCap Indexes, which cover the top 80%, the next 15% and the remaining 5% respectively of the total market capitalisation of the Hang Seng Composite Index.

 * Hang Seng Hong Kong LargeCap Index
 * Hang Seng Hong Kong MidCap Index
 * Hang Seng Hong Kong SmallCap Index

title: Hang Seng Composite Index Series


text:
Quoll

Quolls (genus Dasyurus) are carnivorous marsupials native to Australia and New Guinea. They are primarily nocturnal and spend most of the day in a den. Of the six species of quoll, four are found in Australia and two in New Guinea. Another two species are known from fossil remains in Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits in Queensland. Genetic evidence indicates that quolls evolved around 15 million years ago in the Miocene, and that the ancestors of the six species had all diverged by around four million years ago. The six species vary in weight and size, from 300 g to 7 kg. They have brown or black fur and pink noses. They are largely solitary, but come together for a few social interactions such as mating which occurs during the winter season. A female gives birth to up to 30 pups, but the number that can be raised to adulthood is limited by the number of teats (6–7). They have a life span of 1–5 years (species dependent).

Quolls eat smaller mammals, small birds, lizards, and insects. All species have drastically declined in numbers since Australasia was colonised by Europeans, with one species, the eastern quoll, becoming extinct on the Australian mainland in the 1960s. Major threats to their survival include the toxic cane toad, predators such as feral cats and foxes, urban development, and poison baiting. Conservation efforts include captive breeding programs and reintroductions.

Taxonomy
The name Dasyurus (from Greek δασύουρος, dasýouros) means "hairy-tail", and was coined by Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire in 1796 (from δασύς : dasýs "hairy" and οὐρά : ourá "tail").

In 1770, Captain Cook collected quolls on his exploration of the east coast of Australia, adopting an Aboriginal name for the animals. Although the origin of Cook's specimens are unclear, the word and its variants je-quoll, jaquol or taquol are derived from the word dhigul in the language of the Guugu Yimithirr people of far north Queensland. No evidence indicates the local indigenous people used the word in the Sydney area. They were likened in appearance to a polecat or marten in the earliest reports, the tiger quoll (spotted-tailed) being called "spotted marten" and eastern quoll "spotted opossum", but by 1804, the names "native fox", "native cat" and "tiger cat" had been adopted by early settlers; quolls are still called "marsupial foxes" or "marsupial cats".

In the 1960s, noted naturalist David Fleay pushed for the revival of the term "quoll" to replace the then-current vernacular names that he felt were misleading.

Four species have been recovered from Pleistocene cave deposits from Mount Etna Caves National Park near Rockhampton in central Queensland. Remains of the spotted-tailed quoll and the northern quoll, and a species either identical or very similar to the eastern quoll, as well as a prehistoric species as yet undescribed, all lived in what was a rainforest climate. The northern quoll is still found in the region. The fossil species D. dunmalli, described by Bartholomai in 1971, is the oldest species recovered to date. Its remains were found in Pliocene deposits near Chinchilla in southeastern Queensland. Known only from a lower jaw and some teeth, it was a relative of the spotted-tailed quoll.

The first species described, the eastern quoll, was originally placed in the American opossum genus Didelphis by an anonymous author, and named Didelphis maculata. This name is no longer considered valid, and the second part of the name is now given to a different species, the spotted-tailed quoll, Dasyurus maculatus, while the eastern quoll was renamed Dasyurus viverrinus by George Shaw in 1800.

The tribe Dasyurini, to which quolls belong, also includes the Tasmanian devil, the antechinus, the kowari, and the mulgara. Genetic analysis of cytochrome b DNA and 12S rRNA of the mitochondria indicates the quolls evolved and diversified in the late Miocene between 15 and 5 million years ago, a time of great diversification in marsupials. The ancestors of all current species had diverged by the early Pliocene, around 4 million years ago.

Species
The genus Dasyurus consists of six species of quoll: The following is a phylogenetic tree based on mitochondrial genome sequences:

Description

Quolls are solitary, nocturnal animals. Depending on the species, adult quolls can be 25 to 75 cm long, with hairy tails about 20 to 35 cm long. Average weight differs greatly depending on the species; male western and eastern quolls weigh about 1.3 kg and females 0.9 kg. The spotted-tailed quoll is the largest, with the male weighing about 7 kg and the female 4 kg. The northern quoll is the smallest, and the male weighs on average 400 to 900 g, and the female 300 to 500 g. Their coats are sandy, brown, or black, with a sparse scattering of white spots. They have bright pink noses and long snouts.

Females have >8 teats and develop a pouch during the breeding season, which opens toward the tail (with the exception of the spotted-tailed quoll, which has a true pouch) when they are rearing young. Their natural lifespans are 1–5 years; the larger species tend to live longer.

Distribution and habitat
Quolls are indigenous to mainland Australia, the island state of Tasmania, and New Guinea. The six species were once widely distributed across the three land masses, but are now restricted to only a few areas. Although primarily ground-dwelling, the genus has developed secondary arboreal characteristics. Each species of quoll lives in distinct geographical areas. The spotted-tailed quoll is an exclusively mesic zone species; inhabiting wetter habitats. The western quoll also inhabits mesic habitat, but has adapted to arid regions across inland Australia, while the northern quoll inhabits tropical habitat of high rainfall.

Behaviour
Quolls are carnivorous marsupials. They are primarily nocturnal, sleeping in hollowed-out logs or rocky dens and coming out to hunt during the night, though on rare occasions they can be seen looking for prey during the day.

They are mostly ground-dwelling, but it is not uncommon to see a quoll climbing a tree. Quolls mark their territory several kilometres away from their dens. A male's territory often overlaps many females' territories, and male and female quolls only meet for mating. Some quolls use communal latrines, usually on an outcropping used for marking territory and social functions, which may have up to 100 droppings in them. Quolls are mostly solitary, limiting contact with other quolls to mating or other social activities.

Diet
Quolls are mostly carnivorous. The smaller quolls primarily eat insects, birds, frogs, lizards and fruit; the larger species eat birds, reptiles, and mammals, including echidnas and possums. The spotted-tailed quoll's diet is dominated by mammals such as brushtail possums, rabbits, hares and invertebrates. The exact mix is variable depending on the availability of prey after bushfires, and can include carrion or bandicoots when food is scarce. The other species of quoll have also been known to eat carrion.

Quolls hunt by stalking. Quolls pin small prey down with their front paws while devouring it, and jump onto larger prey, sinking in their claws and closing their jaws around the neck. The paws and vibrissae of quolls allow them to reach into small burrows to find prey. Quolls can obtain all the water they need from their food, making them adaptable during droughts or other periods of water shortage. A study of historical records revealed 111 written accounts of quolls opportunistically feeding on human remains in Australia.

Reproduction
Mating occurs during the winter months. Once a female quoll has been impregnated, the folds on her abdomen convert into a pouch that opens at the back. The gestation period is ~21 days (species dependent). A newborn quoll, or joey, is the size of a grain of rice at birth. Up to 30 quolls (species dependent) can be born in each litter, but the number that can be raised is limited by the number of teats. The survivors fuse to the teats and suckle milk in their mother's pouch for 6–8 weeks. After this, the pups unfuse from the teats and the mother can deposit them in a den where they can remain for over a month.

Quolls reach maturity at one year old, and have a natural lifespan of 1–5 years (species dependent). The appearance of their pouches have been reported to be a reliable indicator of reproductive status: during the follicular phase pouches are red and have secretions, and after ovulation pouches are deep and wet. This can determine where a female quoll is in her ovarian cycle, which is anticipated to be helpful in breeding management.

Threats
Cane toads were introduced into Queensland in 1935; their numbers have since grown exponentially. These poisonous toads pose a significant threat to the northern quoll, which may die after consuming one. The Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities has stated that cane toads are highly invasive and are major threats to the survival of northern quolls.

Predators such as red foxes and feral cats prey on quolls and compete with them for food. For example, both quolls and foxes catch and consume rabbits. Since the introduction of foxes, quoll populations have declined dramatically. Foxes have been eradicated from many of the islands off the coast of Australia in an effort to protect quolls.

Quoll habitat suffers from urbanisation, housing development, mining development, and agricultural expansion. Habitats are also being destroyed by large herbivores trampling the grass and overgrowth, making camouflage difficult. Bushfires and weeds also contribute to habitat destruction.

The natural poison fluoroacetate (Compound 1080) is commonly used in Australia to control introduced pests such as European rabbits, foxes, feral predators, and dingoes. The poison is extremely toxic to introduced pests, but less so to native animals as it is found naturally in many Australian plants. However, juvenile quolls may be susceptible to the poison. research was being undertaken to determine whether the number of quolls protected from predators may be less than those killed by the poison.

Conservation
Since 1770, all Australian quoll species have declined due to habitat destruction through urbanisation. European rabbits were introduced to Australia with the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 as part of biodiversity enrichment efforts. The native quolls predated upon rabbits and prior to 1870, many accounts recorded quolls impeding their establishment on the mainland while island colonies thrived. In response, quolls were systematically exterminated by colonists to defend introduced species such as chickens; rabbits populations subsequently reached plague proportions.

Quolls have been studied in captivity, with the ultimate aim of supporting conservation of the species, and future translocations. These studies include investigations into their haematology and blood biochemistry profiles, and dietary studies.

Creating a native pet industry in Australia related to quolls could aid in their conservation. However, concerns exist about this methodology in regards to animal husbandry, conservation benefits, and other issues. Some scientists believe that keeping quolls as pets could aid in their long-term conservation,  but further research is needed.

Spotted-tailed quoll
In late October 2011, a litter of five spotted-tailed quoll pups was born at Wild Life Sydney in Darling Harbour, Australia. The pups were born to inexperienced parents, both just one year old. The reason for the young parents was because older male quolls can become violent and kill the female if they do not want to mate. By breeding one-year-old quolls, there was no threat of violence. Four of the quoll pups will be sent to other zoos or wildlife parks across Australia, but one, which the researchers named Nelson, will stay at the centre to become an "ambassador for all quolls".

On 28 September 2023, it was reported that a farmer in Beachport, South Australia set up a trap to catch what he thought was a fox or a cat eating his chickens and caught a Spotted-tailed quoll. It is the first time in 130 years that a quoll has been found in South Australia. It was considered to be extinct in South Australia. The captured quoll was handed over to the National Parks and Wildlife Service where it will be DNA tested and treated by a veterinarian.

Western quoll
Fox control programs have benefited the western quoll. The Department of Environment and Conservation (Western Australia) monitors western quoll populations in the Jarrah Forest as part of its faunal management programs, as well as ongoing research into fox control, timber harvesting, and prescribed burning.

The Perth Zoo has been monitoring a successful captive-breeding program since 1989. It has successfully bred more than 60 western quolls, most of which it transferred to Julimar Conservation Park, with proposals to translocate to Wheatbelt reserves and Shark Bay.

Eastern quoll
In 2003, the eastern quoll was reintroduced to a 473 ha fox-proof fenced sanctuary at Mt Rothwell Biodiversity Interpretation Centre at Mount Rothwell in Victoria. In 2016, the eastern quoll was also successfully reintroduced to Mulligans Flat Woodland Sanctuary in the Australian Capital Territory.

Bristol Zoo was the first zoo in the UK to successfully breed eastern quolls.

In March 2018, twenty eastern quolls bred in a wildlife park in Tasmania were released into the Booderee National Park on the south coast of NSW. In May 2021, the reintroduction of eastern quolls to Booderee National Park has been reported to have failed when numbers were down to one male.

Northern quoll
The northern quoll is threatened by toxic cane toads, but a University of Sydney project revealed in 2010 is teaching them to avoid eating the invasive amphibians.

In 2008, the Northern Territory Wildlife Park in Australia recorded their first litter of northern quoll pups in the park. The quolls bred well in captivity, with over 15 litters in the 2008 breeding season alone.

Bronze quoll
The bronze quoll occurs in a few protected areas, such as Wasur National Park and Tonda Wildlife Management Area. More research on distribution and threats is needed for further conservation.

Culture contexts
Tjilpa is the name given to the quoll amongst the Northern Arrernte language group of Australian Aboriginal people.

title: Quoll


text:
List of amphibious assault operations

This is a list of amphibious assault operations that have taken place during history. It is structured chronologically by war, then by theatre during wars such as World War II that covered large areas of the world simultaneously, and chronologically within those theatres. It also covers operations that were planned but cancelled for various reasons. 24 May 1972 Qua Viet Assault
 * Trojan War
 * Siege of Troy – around 1200 B.C.
 * First Persian invasion of Greece
 * Battle of Marathon – 490 BCE
 * Seventh Crusade
 * Siege of Damietta – 5 June 1249
 * Mongol invasions of Japan – 1274, 1281
 * Battle of Bun'ei
 * Battle of Kōan
 * War of the Portuguese Succession – 1580–1583
 * Spanish amphibious assault on Terceira Island (1583, aftermath of the Battle of Ponta Delgada)
 * Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)
 * Siege of Coruña
 * Battle of Lisbon
 * Japanese invasions of Korea - 1592–1598
 * Queen Anne's War
 * Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659)
 * Battle of Bahía de Santoña
 * War of the Spanish Succession
 * Siege of Port Royal - 1710
 * War of the Quadruple Alliance
 * Capture of Vigo - 1719
 * War of Jenkins' Ear
 * Battle of Cartagena de Indias - March 1740
 * King George's War
 * Siege of Louisbourg - 1745
 * French and Indian War
 * Siege of Louisbourg - 1758
 * Battle of Beauport
 * Battle of the Plains of Abraham - 1759
 * American Revolutionary War
 * Battle of Nassau
 * San Juan Expedition (1780)
 * French Revolutionary War
 * Siege of San Fiorenzo
 * Invasion of France (1795)
 * Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808)
 * Assault on Cádiz
 * Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797)
 * Ferrol Expedition
 * Napoleonic Wars
 * Anglo-Russian invasion of Holland (1799)
 * Battle of Abukir (1801)
 * Walcheren Campaign (1809)
 * Invasion of Guadeloupe (1810)
 * Siege of Tarragona (1813)
 * Krangeroen (1814)
 * Quasi-War
 * Battle of Puerto Plata Harbor - 1800
 * War of 1812
 * Battle of York
 * Battle of Fort George
 * Second Battle of Sacket's Harbor
 * Battle of Fort Oswego
 * Battle of Mackinac Island
 * Battle of New Orleans
 * Venezuelan War of Independence
 * Expedition of Los Cayos (1816)
 * Margarita Campaign (1817)
 * Invasion of Algiers in 1830
 * Amphibious landing of Sidi-Ferruch – 14 June 1830 General de Bourmont
 * Mexican–American War
 * Siege of Veracruz – 9 March 1847 Winfield Scott lands army in Central Mexico
 * Crimean War
 * Assault of Bomarsund – 8 August 1854 Brigadier-général Harry Jone, Colonel Jacques Fieron Anglo-French operation against Russia in Finland
 * Second Opium War
 * Battle of the Pearl River Forts – 16 November 1856, American punitive operation against China
 * Cochinchina Campaign
 * Siege of Tourane (Da Nang) – 1–2 June 1858 Admiral Charles Rigault de Genouilly. Franco-Spanish operation.
 * American Civil War
 * Battle of Hatteras Inlet Batteries
 * Battle of Roanoke Island
 * Battle of New Bern
 * Battle of Island Number Ten
 * Battle of Fort Hindman
 * Second Battle of Fort Fisher – 13–15 January 1865, American sailors make an amphibious assault while infantry attacks from land
 * Paraguayan War
 * Siege of Humaitá – culminating 8 August 1868, in which the Allies captured the Fortress of Humaitá.
 * Korean Expedition
 * Battle of Ganghwa – 10 June 1871, American attack on Korean forts at Ganghwa Island
 * War of the Pacific
 * Battle of Pisagua – 2 November 1879, Chilean troops defeat a joint Peruvian-Bolivian army and separates Iquique from Peru
 * Spanish–American War - 1898
 * Battle of Guantanamo Bay
 * Siege of Santiago
 * Battle of Manila (mock)
 * Banana Wars
 * Santo Domingo Affair – 11 February 1903, American forces land at Santo Domingo and rout Dominican rebels from the city.
 * Battle of Veracruz – 21 April 1914, American forces land and occupy Veracruz, Mexico
 * World War I
 * Battle of Bita Paka – 11 September 1914
 * Siege of Tsingtao – November 1914
 * Battle of Tanga – November 1914
 * Gallipoli Campaign – 1915–1916
 * Landing at Anzac Cove – 25 April 1915
 * Landing at Cape Helles – 25 April 1915
 * Landing at Suvla Bay – 6 August 1915
 * Trebizond Campaign - February 1917
 * Operation Albion – September 1917
 * Operation Faustschlag– February 1918, German Forces landed in Estonia via the west Estonian archipelago.
 * Zeebrugge Raid – 23 April 1918
 * Estonian War of Independence
 * Battle of Utria - 17 January 1919
 * Rif War (1920)
 * Amphibious assault of Alhucemas – 8 September 1925 General José Sanjurjo
 * World War II
 * Aleutian Islands Campaign
 * Operation Landcrab – 11 May 1943
 * Operation Cottage – 15 August 1943
 * European Theatre
 * Operation Chariot – 28 March 1942
 * Soviet landing on Kerch peninsula
 * Soviet landing on Rybachy peninsula
 * Soviet landing Finnish coast
 * Operation Jubilee – 18 August 1942
 * Operation Sledgehammer – contingency plan for German collapse in the west
 * Operation Gymnast – codename used for proposed invasion of Europe during 1942
 * Operation Neptune – 6 June 1944
 * Operation Overlord – 6 June 1944
 * Operation Switchback – 9 October 1944
 * Operation Vitality – 24 October 1944
 * Operation Infatuate – 1 November 1944
 * Mediterranean Theatre
 * Operation Abstention – 25 February 1941
 * Operation Ironclad – 5 May 1942
 * Operation Agreement – 14 September 1942
 * Operation Torch – 8 November 1942 – North Africa
 * Operation Husky – 10 July 1943
 * Operation Baytown – 3 September 1943
 * Operation Slapstick – 9 September 1943
 * Operation Avalanche – 9 September 1943
 * Operation Shingle – 22 January 1944
 * Operation Dragoon – 15 August 1944 – Southern France
 * South East Asia Theatre
 * Operation Dracula – 2 May 1945
 * Operation Zipper
 * South West Pacific Area
 * Battle of Goodenough Island – 22 October 1942
 * Operation Cartwheel – 1943–1944 – Commanded by General MacArthur, it involved forces from both the South West Pacific Area (command) (SWPA) and the Pacific Ocean Areas (command).
 * Operation Chronicle – 30 June 1943
 * Operation Toenails – 30 June 1943
 * Operation Director – 15 December 1943 – Arawe
 * Operation Dexterity – 2 January 1944
 * Operation Brewer – 29 February 1944 – Admiralty Islands campaign
 * Operation Persecution – 22 April 1944 – Aitape
 * Operation Hurricane – 23 May 1944 – Biak
 * Operation Typhoon – 30 July 1944 – Sansapor
 * Operation King II – 20 October 1944
 * Operation Musketeer II – 9 January 1945 – Philippines Campaign (1944–45)
 * Operation Victor III – 28 February 1945
 * Operation Victor IV – 10 March 1945
 * Operation Victor V – 17 April 1945
 * Borneo campaign (1945)
 * Pacific Ocean Areas
 * Operation Watchtower – 7 August 1942
 * Operation Cleanslate – 21 February 1943
 * Operation Cherry Blossom – 1 November 1943 – Bougainville
 * Operation Galvanic – 20 November 1943 – Tarawa
 * Operation Galvanic – 20 November 1943 – Makin Island
 * Operation Flintlock – 31 January 1944
 * Operation Flintlock – 31 January 1944 – Kwajalein
 * Operation Catchpole – 17 February 1944 – Eniwetok
 * Operation Forager – 15 June 1944
 * Operation Detachment – 15 February 1945
 * Operation Iceberg – 1 April 1945
 * Soviet Pacific landings
 * Operation Olympic – planned for 1 November 1945
 * Operation Coronet – planned for 1 March 1946
 * Chinese Civil War and its aftermath
 * Landing Operation on Hainan Island – March–April 1950
 * Korean War
 * Operation Chromite – 15 September 1950
 * Suez Crisis
 * Operation Musketeer – 6 November 1956
 * Vietnam War
 * Operation Starlite – 21 August 1965
 * Nigerian Civil War
 * Operation Tiger Claw
 * The Troubles
 * Operation Motorman – 31 July 1972
 * Operation Peace of Cyprus Turkish invasion of Cyprus - 20 July 1974
 * Falklands War
 * Operation Rosario – 2 April 1982
 * Operation Corporate
 * San Carlos – 28 May 1982
 * Bluff Cove – 8 June 1982
 * Sri Lankan Civil War
 * Operation Balavegaya
 * Operation Sea Breeze
 * Iran–Iraq War
 * Al Faw peninsula landings 1986
 * Gulf War 1991
 * Ad-Dawrah
 * Iraq War
 * Al-Faw Peninsula – Royal Marines amphibious assault, supported by British Royal Navy and Royal Australian Navy
 * Invasion of Anjouan – 25 March 2008
 * Operation Sledge Hammer - Kenya Defense Forces Kismayu, 2012
 * United Arab Emirates takeover of Socotra - Socotra, 2018

title: List of amphibious assault operations


text:
GNU/Linux naming controversy

The GNU/Linux naming controversy is a controversy regarding whether computer operating systems that use GNU software and the Linux kernel should be referred to as "GNU/Linux" or "Linux" systems.

Proponents of the term Linux argue that it is far more commonly used by the public and media and that it serves as a generic term for systems that combine that kernel with software from multiple other sources, while proponents of the term GNU/Linux note that GNU alone would be just as good a name for GNU variants which combine the GNU operating system software with software from other sources.

The term GNU/Linux is promoted by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and its founder Richard Stallman. Their reasoning is that the GNU project was the main contributor for not only many of the operating system components used in the subsequent development of modern "Linux" systems, but also the associated free software philosophy. Several distributions of operating systems containing the Linux kernel use the name that the FSF prefers, such as Debian, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre. Others claim that GNU/Linux is a useful name to make a distinction between those and Linux distributions such as Android and Alpine Linux.

History
In 1983, Richard Stallman, founder of the Free Software Foundation, set forth plans of a complete Unix-like operating system, called GNU, composed entirely of free software. In September of that year, Stallman published a manifesto in Dr. Dobb's Journal detailing his new project publicly, outlining his vision of free software. Software development work began in January 1984. By 1991, the GNU mid-level portions of the operating system were almost complete, and the upper level could be supplied by the X Window System, but the lower level (kernel, device drivers, system-level utilities and daemons) was still mostly lacking.

The kernel officially developed by GNU was called GNU Hurd. The Hurd followed an ambitious microkernel design, which proved unexpectedly difficult to implement early on. However, in 1991, Linus Torvalds independently released the first version of the Linux kernel. Early Linux developers ported GNU code, including the GNU C Compiler, to run on Linux, while the free software community adopted the use of the Linux kernel as the missing kernel for the GNU operating system. This work filled the remaining gaps in providing a completely free operating system.

Over the next few years, several suggestions arose for naming operating systems using the Linux kernel and GNU components. In 1992, the Yggdrasil Linux distribution adopted the name "Linux/GNU/X". In Usenet and mailing-list discussions, one can find usages of "GNU/Linux" as early as 1992, and of "GNU+Linux" as early as 1993. The Debian project, which was at one time sponsored by the Free Software Foundation, switched to calling its product "Debian GNU/Linux" in early 1994. This change followed a request by Richard Stallman (who initially proposed "LiGNUx," but suggested "GNU/Linux" instead after hearing complaints about the awkwardness of the former term). GNU's June 1994 Bulletin described "Linux" as a "free Unix system for 386 machines" (with "many of the utilities and libraries" from GNU), but the January 1995 Bulletin switched to the term "GNU/Linux" instead.

Stallman's and the FSF's efforts to include "GNU" in the name started around 1994, but were reportedly mostly via private communications (such as the above-mentioned request to Debian) until 1996. In May 1996, Stallman released Emacs 19.31 with the Autoconf system target "linux" changed to "lignux" (shortly thereafter changed to "linux-gnu" in emacs 19.32), and included an essay "Linux and the GNU system" suggesting that people use the terms "Linux-based GNU system" (or "GNU/Linux system" or "Lignux" for short). He later used "GNU/Linux" exclusively, and the essay was superseded by Stallman's 1997 essay, "Linux and the GNU System".

Composition of operating systems
Modern free software and open-source software operating systems are composed of software by many different authors, including the Linux kernel developers, the GNU project, and other vendors such as those behind the X Window System. Desktop- and server-based distributions use GNU components such as the GNU C Library (glibc), GNU Core Utilities (coreutils), and the Bash shell.

In a 2002 analysis of the source code for Red Hat Linux 7.1, a typical Linux distribution, the total size of the packages from the GNU project was found to be much larger than the Linux kernel. Later, a 2011 analysis of the Ubuntu distribution's "Natty" release main repository found that 8% to 13% of it consisted of GNU components (the range depending on whether GNOME is considered part of GNU), while only 6% is taken by the Linux kernel (9% when including its direct dependencies). Determining exactly what constitutes the "operating system" per se is a matter of continuing debate.

On the other hand, some embedded systems, such as handheld devices and smartphones (like Google's Android), residential gateways (routers), and Voice over IP devices, are engineered with space efficiency in mind and use a Linux kernel with few or no components of GNU, due to perceived issues surrounding bloat, and impeded performance. A system running μClinux is likely to substitute uClibc for glibc, and BusyBox for coreutils. Google's Linux-based Android operating system does not use any GNU components or libraries, using Google's own BSD-based Bionic C library in place of glibc. The FSF agrees that "GNU/Linux" is not an appropriate name for these systems.

There are also systems that use a GNU userspace and/or C library on top of a non-Linux kernel, for example Debian GNU/Hurd (GNU userland on the GNU kernel) or Debian GNU/kFreeBSD (which uses the GNU coreutils and C library with the kernel from FreeBSD).

GNU/Linux

The FSF justifies the name "GNU/Linux" primarily on the grounds that the GNU project was specifically developing a complete system, of which they argue that the Linux kernel filled one of the final gaps; the large number of GNU components and GNU source code used in such systems is a secondary argument:

"So if you were going to pick a name for the system based on who wrote the programs in the system, the most appropriate single choice would be GNU. But we don't think that is the right way to consider the question. The GNU Project was not, is not, a project to develop specific software packages. [...] Many people have made major contributions to the free software in the system, and they all deserve credit. But the reason it is an integrated system—and not just a collection of useful programs—is because the GNU Project set out to make it one. We made a list of the programs needed to make a complete free system, and we systematically wrote, or found people to write, everything on the list."

- Richard Stallman

Other arguments include that the name "GNU/Linux" recognizes the role that the free-software movement played in building modern free and open source software communities, that the GNU project played a larger role in developing packages and software for GNU/Linux or Linux distributions, and that using the word "Linux" to refer to the Linux kernel, the operating system and entire distributions of software leads to confusion on the differences about the three. Because of this confusion, legal threats and public relations campaigns apparently directed against the kernel, such as those launched by the SCO Group or the Alexis de Tocqueville Institution (AdTI), have been misinterpreted by many commentators who assume that the whole operating system is being targeted. SCO and the AdTI have even been accused of deliberately exploiting this confusion.

Regarding suggestions that renaming efforts stem from egotism or personal pique, Stallman has responded that his interest is not in giving credit to himself but to the GNU Project: "Some people think that it's because I want my ego to be fed. Of course, I'm not asking you to call it 'Stallmanix'." In response to another common suggestion that many people have contributed to the system and that a short name cannot credit all of them, the FSF has argued that this cannot justify calling the system "Linux", since they believe that the GNU project's contribution was ultimately greater than that of the Linux kernel in these related systems.

In 2010, Stallman stated that naming is not simply a matter of giving equal mention to the GNU Project, saying that because the system is more widely referred as "Linux", people tend to "think it's all Linux, that it was all started by Mr. Torvalds in 1991, and they think it all comes from his vision of life, and that's the really bad problem."

Ariadne Conill, developer and security chair of Alpine Linux, has stated that in her opinion GNU/Linux is the correct name when referring to Linux distributions that are based on glibc and GNU coreutils, such as Debian and Fedora Linux. This can be contrasted to other Linux distributions which are based on bionic (Android) and musl (Alpine).

Linux
Proponents of naming the operating systems "Linux" state that "Linux" is used far more often than "GNU/Linux".

Eric S. Raymond writes (in the "Linux" entry of the Jargon File):

"Some people object that the name "Linux" should be used to refer only to the kernel, not the entire operating system. This claim is a proxy for an underlying territorial dispute; people who insist on the term GNU/Linux want the FSF to get most of the credit for Linux because [Stallman] and friends wrote many of its user-level tools. Neither this theory nor the term GNU/Linux has gained more than minority acceptance."

When Linus Torvalds was asked in the documentary Revolution OS whether the name "GNU/Linux" was justified, he replied:

"Well, I think it's justified, but it's justified if you actually make a GNU distribution of Linux ... the same way that I think that "Red Hat Linux" is fine, or "SUSE Linux" or "Debian Linux", because if you actually make your own distribution of Linux, you get to name the thing, but calling Linux in general "GNU Linux" I think is just ridiculous."

An earlier comment by Torvalds on the naming controversy was:

"Umm, this discussion has gone on quite long enough, thank you very much. It doesn't really matter what people call Linux, as long as credit is given where credit is due (on both sides). Personally, I'll very much continue to call it "Linux", ...

The GNU people tried calling it GNU/Linux, and that's ok. It's certainly no worse a name than "Linux Pro" or "Red Hat Linux" or "Slackware Linux" ...

Lignux is just a punny name—I think Linux/GNU or GNU/Linux is a bit more "professional" ..."

The name "GNU/Linux," particularly when using Stallman's preferred pronunciation, has been criticized for its perceived clumsiness and verbosity, a factor that Torvalds has cited as the downfall of operating systems such as 386BSD.

The Linux Journal speculated that Stallman's advocacy of the combined name stems from frustration that "Linus got the glory for what [Stallman] wanted to do."

Others have suggested that, regardless of the merits, Stallman's persistence in what sometimes seems a lost cause makes him and GNU look bad. For example, Larry McVoy (author of BitKeeper, once used to manage Linux kernel development) opined that "claiming credit only makes one look foolish and greedy".

Many users and vendors who prefer the name "Linux," such as Jim Gettys, one of the original developers of the X Window System, point to the inclusion of non-GNU, non-kernel tools, such as KDE, LibreOffice, and Firefox, in end-user operating systems based on the Linux kernel:

"There are lots of people on this bus; I don't hear a clamor of support that GNU is more essential than many of the other components; can't take a wheel away, and end up with a functional vehicle, or an engine, or the seats. I recommend you be happy we have a bus."

title: GNU/Linux naming controversy


text:
Josie Ho

Josephine "Josie" Ho Chiu-yi (born 26 December 1974) is a singer and actress from Hong Kong. She is the daughter of the Macao casino magnate Stanley Ho.

Acting career
She has played many roles, including portraying the parts of prostitutes, which were in strong contrast to her own wealthy upbringing as a billionaire's daughter. For the film Exiled, Ho did not work with a script. Recalling the experience in a recent interview, she said of director Johnnie To, "[He] basically tells actors what to do ... Johnnie wants us to come to the set with our mind completely clean, like a white piece of paper. That way, he can draw whatever he wishes on us." Ho starred alongside Eason Chan in the Pang Ho-cheung directed slasher film, Dream Home.

In 2009, Ho along with husband Conroy Chan, and Andrew Ooi, co-founded 852 Films, a film production company.

Personal life
Ho is the youngest daughter of businessman Stanley Ho and Ho's second wife Lucina Lam. She has 3 older sisters and 1 younger brother, Pansy, Daisy, Maisy and Lawrence, as well as numbers of half-brothers and half-sisters.

In November 2003, Ho married musician-actor Conroy Chan Chi-chung in Australia.

She credits her oldest sister Pansy with supporting her early efforts to establish a singing career over the objections of their father.

title: Josie Ho


text:
Banteay Srei

Banteay Srei (បន្ទាយស្រី ) is a 10th century CE Cambodian temple dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva and Parvati. Located in the area of Angkor, it lies near the hill of Phnom Dei, 25 km north-east of the main group of temples that once belonged to the medieval capitals of Yaśodharapura and Angkor Thom. Banteay Srei is built largely of red sandstone, a medium that lends itself to the elaborate decorative wall carvings which are still observable today. The buildings themselves are miniature in scale, unusually so when measured by the standards of Angkorian construction. These factors have made the temple extremely popular with tourists, and have led to its being widely praised as the jewel of Khmer art.

Foundation and dedication
Consecrated on 22 April 967 CE, Banteay Srei was the only major temple at Angkor not built by rulers; its construction is credited to the courtiers named Vishnukumara and Yajnavaraha (modern យជ្ញវរាហៈ), who served as a counsellor to King Rajendravarman II (modern ព្រះបាទរាជេន្រ្ទវរ្ម័ន). The foundational stela says that Yajnavaraha, grandson of King Harshavarman I, was a scholar and philanthropist who helped those who suffered from illness, injustice, or poverty. His pupil was the future King Jayavarman V (r. 968 – ca. 1001). Originally, the temple was surrounded by a town called Ishvarapura.

Yajnavaraha's temple was primarily dedicated to the Hindu god Shiva. Originally, it carried the name Tribhuvanamaheshvara—great lord of the threefold world—in reference to the Shiva statue that served as its central religious image. However, the temple buildings appear to be divided along the central east–west axis between those buildings located south of the axis, which are devoted to Shiva, and those north of the axis, which are devoted to Vishnu.

The temple's modern name, Banteay Srei—citadel of the women, or citadel of beauty—is probably related to the intricacy of the bas relief carvings found on the walls and the tiny dimensions of the buildings themselves. Some have speculated that it relates to the many devatas carved into the walls of the buildings.

Expansion and rededication
Banteay Srei was subject to further expansion and rebuilding work in the eleventh century CE. At some point it came under the control of the king and had its original dedication changed; the inscription K 194 from Phnom Sandak, dated Monday, the 14th July 1119 AD records (line B 13) the temple being given to the priest Divakarapandita and being rededicated to Shiva. It remained in use at least until the fourteenth century CE according to the last known inscription K 569, dated Thursday, 8 August 1303 CE.

Restoration
The temple was rediscovered in 1914 and was the subject of a celebrated case of art theft when André Malraux stole four devatas in 1923 (he was soon arrested, and the figures were returned). The incident stimulated interest in the site, which was cleared the following year.

In the 1930s Banteay Srei was restored through the first important use of anastylosis at Angkor whereby a ruined building or monument is restored using the original architectural elements to the greatest degree possible. Until the discovery of the foundation stela in 1936, it had been assumed that the extreme decoration indicated a later date than was the case.

To prevent the site from water damage, the joint Cambodian-Swiss Banteay Srei Conservation Project installed a drainage system between 2000 and 2003. Measures were also taken to prevent damage to the temples walls from nearby trees.

Unfortunately, the temple has been ravaged by pilfering and vandalism. When, toward the end of the 20th century, authorities removed some original statues and replaced them with concrete replicas, looters took to attacking the replicas. A statue of Shiva and Parvati, removed to the National Museum in Phnom Penh for safekeeping, was attempted to be assaulted in the museum itself and the vandals were caught later and the statues were safely kept.

Materials and style
Banteay Srei is built largely of a hard red sandstone that can be carved like wood. Brick and laterite were used only for the enclosure walls and some structural elements. The temple is known for the beauty of its sandstone lintels and pediments.

A pediment is the roughly triangular space above a rectangular doorway or openings. At Banteay Srei, pediments are relatively large in comparison to the openings below, and take a sweeping gabled shape. For the first time in the history of Khmer architecture, whole scenes of mythological subject-matter are depicted on the pediments.

A lintel is a horizontal beam spanning the gap between two posts. Some lintels serve a structural purpose, serving to support the weight of the superstructure, while others are purely decorative in purpose. The lintels at Banteay Srei are beautifully carved, rivalling those of the 9th century Preah Ko style in quality.

Noteworthy decorative motifs include Kala (a toothy mythical lion), the guardian dvarapalas (an armed protector of the temple) and devatas (gods and goddesses), the false door, and the colonette. Indeed, decorative carvings seem to cover almost every available surface. According to pioneering Angkor scholar Maurice Glaize, "Given the very particular charm of Banteay Srei – its remarkable state of preservation and the excellence of a near perfect ornamental technique – one should not hesitate, of all the monuments of the Angkor group, to give it the highest priority." At Banteay Srei, wrote Glaize, "the work relates more closely to the art of the goldsmith and to carving in wood than to sculpture in stone".

The site
The site consists of three concentric rectangular enclosures constructed on an east–west axis. A causeway situated on the axis leads from an outer gopura, or gate, to the third or outermost of the three enclosures. The inner enclosure contains the sanctuary, consisting of an entrance chamber and three towers, as well as two buildings conventionally referred to as libraries.

The outer gopura
The gopura is all that remains of the outer wall surrounding the town of Ishvarapura. The wall is believed to have measured approximately 500 m square, and may have been constructed of wood. The gopura's eastern pediment shows Indra, who was associated with that direction, mounted on his three-headed elephant Airavata. The 67 m causeway with the remains of corridors on either side connects the gopura with the third enclosure. North and south of this causeway are galleries with a north–south orientation.

The third (outer) enclosure
The third enclosure is 95 by 110 m; it is surrounded by a laterite wall breached by gopuras at the eastern and western ends. Neither pediment of the eastern gopura is in situ. The west-facing pediment is now located in the Guimet Museum in Paris. It depicts a scene from the Mahabharata in which the asura brothers Sunda and Upasunda fight over the apsara Tilottama and both Sunda and Upasunda kill each other and Tilottama escapes. The east-facing pediment is lying on the ground. It depicts a scene from the Ramayana in which the demon Maricha seizes Rama 's wife Sita and Maricha is killed by Rama. Most of the area within the third enclosure is occupied by a moat divided into two parts by causeways to the east and west.

The second enclosure
The second enclosure sits between an outer laterite wall measuring 38 by 42 m, with gopuras at the eastern and western ends, and a brick inner enclosure wall, measuring 24 by 24 m. The western gopura features an interesting bas relief depicting the duel of the Vanara Kings Vali and Sugriva, as well as Rama's intervention on Sugriva's behalf and Rama kills Vali and makes Sugriva win the duel. The inner enclosure wall has collapsed, leaving a gopura at the eastern end and a brick shrine at the western. The eastern pediment of the gopura shows Shiva in the form of Nataraja; the west-facing pediment has an image of Karaikkal Ammaiyar, one of the three women saints amongst the sixty three Nayanars (hounds of Shiva). Likewise, the laterite galleries which once filled the second enclosure (one each to north and south, two each to east and west) have partially collapsed. A pediment on one of the galleries shows Vishnu as Narasimha, the fourth avatara of Vishnu in the Dashavatara disemboweling and killing the demon Hiranyakashipu to death and Narashima killed Hiranyakashipu.

The first (inner) enclosure
Between the gopuras on the collapsed inner wall are the buildings of the inner enclosure: a library in the south-east corner and another in the north-east corner, and in the centre the sanctuary set on a T-shaped platform 0.9 m high. Besides being the most extravagantly decorated parts of the temple, these have also been the most successfully restored (helped by the durability of their sandstone and their small scale). In 2010, the first enclosure is open to visitors again, but the inner temples are roped off and inaccessible.

The libraries
The two libraries are of brick, laterite and sandstone. Each library has two pediments, one on the eastern side and one on the western. According to Maurice Glaize, the four library pediments, "representing the first appearance of tympanums with scenes, are works of the highest order. Superior in composition to any which followed, they show true craftsmanship in their modelling in a skilful blend of stylisation and realism."

The east-facing pediment on the southern library shows Shiva and Parvati seated on the summit of Mount Kailasha, their mythological abode. Their respective consorts Parvati and Shiva both sit near them and clings anxiously to their torsos. Other beings are also present on the slopes of the mountain, arranged in a strict hierarchy of three tiers from top to bottom. In the top tier sit bearded wise saints and ascetics, in the middle tier mythological figures with the heads of animals and the bodies of humans, and in the bottom tier large animals, including a number of lions. In the middle of the scene stands the ten-headed demon king Ravana. Ravana is shaking the mountain in its very foundations as the animals flee from his presence and as the wise saints and mythological beings discuss the situation and pray to Parvati and Shiva. According to the legend, Shiva and Parvati stopped Ravana from shaking the mountain by using their toes to press down on the mountain and to trap Ravana underneath before releasing him after sometime.

The west-facing pediment on southern library shows Shiva again seated on the summit of Mount Kailasha. He is looking to his left at the god of love Kamadeva, who is aiming an arrow at him. Parvati sits to Shiva's right and Shiva sits to Parvati's left; he is handing her a chain of beads and she is taking it from him. The slopes of the mountain are crowded with other beings, again arranged in a strict hierarchy from top to bottom. Just under Shiva and Parvati sits a group of bearded wise saints and ascetics, under whom the second tier is occupied by the mythological beings with the heads of animals and the bodies of humans; the lowest tier belongs the common people, who mingle sociably with tame deer and large gentle cattle and other animals. According to the legend, Kamadeva fired an arrow at Shiva in order to cause Shiva to take an interest in Parvati. Shiva and Parvati, however, was greatly disturbed by this provocation as they did not want him to do so, and both burned Kamadeva by gazing upon him with their third eyes, burning Kamadeva to ashes and resurrecting him later.

The east-facing pediment on the northern library shows the god of the sky Indra creating enormous rains to put out a forest fire started by the god of fire Agni for purposes of killing the Naga king Takshaka who lived in Khandava Forest. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, the eighth avatara of Vishnu in the Dashavatara of Vishnu and his cousin, the Pandava Arjuna are shown helping Agni by firing a dense hail of arrows to block and destroy Indra's rains. Takshaka's son Ashvasena is depicted attempting to escape from the conflagration and he escapes so, while other animals stampede about in panic and also escape away.

The west-facing pediment on the northern library depicts Vishnu as Krishna killing his own evil maternal uncle Kamsa in Mathura.

The sanctuary
The sanctuary is entered from the east by a doorway only 1.08 m in height: inside is an entrance chamber (or mandapa) with a corbelled brick roof, then a short corridor leading to three towers to the west: the central tower is the tallest, at 9.8 m. Glaize notes the impression of delicacy given the towers by the antefixes on each of their tiers. The six stairways leading up to the platform were each guarded by two kneeling statues of human figures with animal heads; most of those now in place are replicas, the originals having been stolen or removed to museums.

title: Banteay Srei


text:
Mercedes-Benz 600

The Mercedes-Benz 600 (W100) is a line of ultra-luxury cars produced by Daimler-Benz from 1963 to 1981. The forerunner of the modern Maybach marque, the Grosser Mercedes ("Grand Mercedes") succeeded the Type 300d "Adenauer" as the company's flagship model. It was positioned above the 300-series Mercedes-Benz W112 in price, amenities, and status. Its few competitors included British and American equivalents such as Rolls-Royce, Bentley, Lincoln Continental, Cadillac Series 75, and Imperial. It was well known for its ownership among celebrities and political leaders throughout the late 20th century.

Generally, the short-wheelbase (SWB) models were designed to be owner-driven, whereas the long-wheelbase (LWB) and limousine models, often incorporating a central divider with power window, were intended for chauffeur operation.

History
The 600 replaced the Mercedes-Benz W189 limousine, which was nicknamed the Adenauer, after Konrad Adenauer, who employed several of these during his term as the first West German chancellor.

Production began in 1964 and continued through to 1981. During this time, production totalled 2,677 units, comprising 2,190 Saloons, 304 Pullmans, 124 6-door Pullmans and 59 Landaulets.

The 600 succeeded the 1961 Mercedes-Benz W112 in using a pneumatic self-levelling suspension, an enhancement of the Mercedes-Benz 300d Adenauer's dashboard activated mechanical torsion bar based system. A version is incorporated in Mercedes' current Active Body Control.

With its demise in 1981, the 600 marked the last ultra-luxury model that the brand produced in an unbroken line since the model 60 hp Simplex from 1903. The company would return to this segment some 20 years later with the Maybach 57/62, but these extremely expensive cars failed to sell in expected and necessary numbers. As a result, Daimler ended production of the Maybach brand in 2012 and has not returned to this segment.

, the Mercedes flagship is the Mercedes-Maybach S-Class, which occupies a considerably lower price bracket and is not a true successor to the 600 and earlier models. However, it is seen as a spiritual successor, since it is the first luxury Mercedes-Benz production model since the 600 to feature some bespoke design touches not available on the standard S-Class.

Models

The 600 came in two main variants:
 * A short wheelbase 4-door saloon, available with a power divider window separating the front seats from the rear bench seat, although most were built without this feature.
 * A long wheelbase 4-door "Pullman" limousine (with two additional rear-facing seats separated from the driver compartment by a power divider window, of which 304 were built), and a 6-door limousine (with two forward-facing jump-seats at the middle two doors and a rear bench-seat).

A number of the limousines were made as landaulets, with a convertible top over the rear passenger compartment. Two versions of the convertible roof were made: long roof and short roof. Of them, the short roof, which opens only above the last, third row of seats, is the more common version. Rarer, especially with the 6-door landaulets, is the long roof, called the "Presidential roof". In all, 59 landaulets were produced, and of them, only 26 were 6-door landaulets. Of these 26, only nine were 6-doors landaulets with the long Presidential-type roof. One of these nine cars was used by the former Yugoslavian president Josip Broz Tito, and it was sold in 2017 in England, for £2.5 million.

Landaulets like these were also notably used by the German government, as during the 1965 state visit of Queen Elizabeth II. The Vatican, in addition to an elongated Mercedes 300d 4-door landaulet, used for the Pope a specially designed Mercedes 600 4-door landaulet, which now resides at the Mercedes-Benz Museum in Stuttgart. Production of the landaulet versions of the 600 ended in 1980.

Mercedes also made two special 600 coupés: one as a gift for retiring long-time Mercedes chief designer Rudolf Uhlenhaut, and the other for Fritz Nallinger, head of the Mercedes research and development centre in the 1950s and 60s. These cars had a wheelbase 22 cm (8.6 inches) shorter than the SWB saloon. A single example of a SWB 4-door landaulet, combining the handling of a short-wheelbase with the qualities of a landaulet, was built by Mercedes in 1967 for former racing driver Philipp Constantin von Berckheim.

Mechanical
The 600's great size, weight, and numerous hydraulically driven amenities required more power than Mercedes' largest engine at that time, the 3-litre 6-cylinder M189, could produce. A new V8 with more than twice the capacity was developed, the 6.3 L M100. It featured single overhead camshafts (SOHC) and a Bosch-made intermittent multipoint manifold injection, and developed 250 PS.

The 600's complex 150 bar hydraulic pressure system powered the automobile's windows, seats, sun-roof, boot lid, and automatically closing doors. Adjustable air suspension delivered excellent ride quality and sure handling over any road surface.

Notable owners
Famous owners of the Mercedes-Benz 600 have included the following people.

Celebrities and tycoons

 * Aristotle Onassis
 * Bob Jane
 * Bobby Womack asserts that Janis Joplin was inspired to write her song Mercedes Benz after riding with him in his new 600
 * Coco Chanel
 * David Bowie
 * Eric Clapton
 * Elizabeth Taylor
 * Elvis Presley, who had three, 1969 models,  one of them a 6 door Pullman.
 * Frank Packer
 * Florian Schneider
 * George Harrison
 * Herbert von Karajan
 * Hugh Hefner
 * John Lennon
 * Jay Kay
 * Jack Nicholson
 * Jay Leno, who had his 600 (a 1972 SWB) fitted with a supercharger by Karl Middelhauve, making it the only 600 Kompressor in existence
 * Jeremy Clarkson
 * Johannes, 11th Prince of Thurn and Taxis
 * Karen Carpenter
 * Mireille Mathieu
 * Pete Townshend owns a six-door version
 * Ringo Starr
 * Ronnie Wood
 * Rowan Atkinson
 * Roy Orbison
 * Robert Wood Johnson III
 * Udo Jürgens

Politicians and royalty

 * Anastasio Somoza Debayle, President of Nicaragua bought a SWB for his wife Hope Portocarrero from the first production run.
 * Bhumibol Adulyadej, King of Thailand
 * B. J. Habibie, 3rd President of Indonesia
 * Chen Yi, former Chinese Foreign Minister
 * Daniel Moi
 * Deng Xiaoping
 * Deng Yingchao, wife of Zhou Enlai, the first Chinese Prime Minister
 * Enver Hoxha
 * François "Papa Doc" Duvalier
 * Francois Tombalbaye
 * Ferdinand Marcos, who owned four, including a landaulet, a 1981 bulletproof model and a six-door version
 * F. W. de Klerk
 * Habib Bourguiba, President of Tunisia
 * Hassan II of Morocco, King of Morocco
 * Hastings Kamuzu Banda
 * Hosni Mubarak
 * Idi Amin
 * Jim Fouché
 * Josip Broz Tito, four 1965 LWB 6-door Pullmans, one of which was armoured, and two LWB Pullman landaulets, acquired in 1971 and 1978 respectively (both of these were of the very-rare type where the folding parade roof extends to cover 2/3rds of the vehicle top, only 9 were made with such a roof arrangement and 6 doors, and Tito was the only statesman in the world at the time who had two such cars).
 * Jean-Bédel Bokassa
 * Jean-Claude Duvalier
 * John Vorster
 * Jomo Kenyatta
 * Khalid of Saudi Arabia
 * Kim Il Sung
 * Kim Jong Il
 * Kim Jong Un; the North Korean government have also owned a landaulet (both seen in the 65th anniversary parade in Pyongyang on October 10, 2010)
 * Leonid Brezhnev
 * Léopold Sédar Senghor, President of Senegal; the first Senegalese regime (1960–1980) under him had three 600s, a short wheel base, a long wheel base, and a Landaulet, later replaced by the W126-based Carat Limousine.
 * Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, who owned multiple 600 models including 3 landaulet models and 18 other for national guard
 * Mohammed VI of Morocco
 * Muhammad Zia Ul Haq, a Pakistani four-star general who served as the President of Pakistan from 1978 until his death in 1988. Also kept the same 1970 Pullman 600 as the holder of the Prime Minister Office.
 * Mao Zedong, Chinese revolutionary leader
 * Marais Viljoen
 * Mobutu Sese Seko, dictator and president of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire)
 * Nico Diederichs
 * Nicolae Ceaușescu
 * Norodom Sihanouk, former King of Cambodia
 * Omar Bongo President of Gabon.
 * The Pope
 * Park Chung Hee
 * P. W. Botha
 * Maharaj Ji/Prem Rawat, religious leader
 * Pablo Escobar, Colombian drug dealer, a LWB 4-door, destroyed in an attack on Escobar in 1993 in Medellín
 * Robert Mugabe
 * Saddam Hussein, who owned a long-roof landaulet that was recovered after the fall of Baghdad and is today owned by the Petersen Automotive Museum in Los Angeles
 * Silvio Berlusconi, Prime Minister of Italy
 * Süleyman Demirel, 9th President of Turkey
 * Todor Zhivkov, former President of Bulgaria from 1956 to 1989. Used Government owned high-end Benz models from 300D Adenauer to 450 SEL 6.9 for daily routine, and for State visits- 1967 600 Pullman 6-door Landaulet. The 600 Landaulet is still in use today by Bulgarian Government for Special occasions and visits.
 * Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, a Pakistani politician who served as the 9th Prime Minister of Pakistan from 1973 to 1977, and prior to that as the 4th President of Pakistan from 1971 to 1973. He kept a 1970 Pullman 600 for Prime Minister Office use.

In popular culture
In cinema, the Mercedes 600 was featured in several James Bond films, most notably as transport of the villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld in On Her Majesty's Secret Service and Diamonds Are Forever. In Octopussy, the villain Kamal Khan is seen leaving Sotheby's London auction house in a 600 Pullman. Near the beginning of 1978 movie Who Is Killing the Great Chefs of Europe?, the character played by Jacqueline Bisset is abducted from Heathrow Airport in a 600 Pullman.

In Red (2010 film), the character played by Morgan Freeman arrives at Alexander Dunning's house disguised as an African dictator in a Mercedes 600.

In television, a 600 was used by fictional Channing/Gioberti family matriarch Angela Channing in the American television series Falcon Crest. Images of the car driving from San Francisco over the Golden Gate Bridge to the Falcon Crest vineyard were featured in the opening credits of the first four seasons. It was also prominently featured in the television show Friday the 13th.

In a Top gear challenge, Jeremy Clarkson compared his 1973 short-wheelbase 600 to James May's 1972 Rolls-Royce Corniche.

There was also a Pullman version used in the movie High Anxiety by Mel Brooks.

A red 1972 Pullman was seen in The Princess Diaries 2: Royal Engagement.

Prince Ital Joe and Marky Mark are seen driving a 600 in the music video for their single "United".

A green 600 serves as the ride for Selena Gomez through the streets of Paris in her 2013 music video for "Slow Down."

Several 600s are seen in several episodes of Amazon's original series The Man in the High Castle, transporting Nazi officials.

Jack Nicholson's character drives a black 600 in The Witches of Eastwick.

In X-Men: The Last Stand, Charles Xavier and Erik Lehnsherr arrive in a black 600.

In the Crazy Rich Asians series of novels, Shang Su Yi is regularly chauffeured in a black 600 Pullman.

In The Magic Christian, Sir Guy Grand (Peter Sellers) drives a 600 Pullman.

Technical data
Technical data Mercedes-Benz 600 (W100) (Manufacturer's figures except where stated)

title: Mercedes-Benz 600