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List of mineralogists

The following is a list of notable mineralogists and other people who made notable contributions to mineralogy. Included are winners of major mineralogy awards such as the Dana Medal and the Roebling Medal. Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifacts.

A

 * Joan Abella (born 1968)
 * Otto Wilhelm Hermann von Abich (1806–1886)
 * Johan Afzelius (1753–1837)
 * Stuart Olof Agrell (1913–1996)
 * Georgius Agricola (1494–1555) – author of De re metallica
 * Arthur Aikin (1773–1854)
 * Thomas Allan (1777–1833)
 * François Alluaud (1778–1866)
 * Gregori Aminoff (1883–1947)
 * Charles Anderson (1876–1944)
 * José Bonifácio de Andrade e Silva (1763–1838)
 * Matthias Joseph Anker (1771–1843)

B

 * William Babington (1756–1833)
 * Giuseppe Gabriel Balsamo-Crivelli (1800–1874)
 * Andrew Ketcham Barnett (1852–1914)
 * Hilary Bauerman (1835–1909)
 * Lewis Caleb Beck (1798–1853)
 * Friedrich Johann Karl Becke (1855–1931)
 * Nikolay Belov (1891–1982)
 * Torbern Bergman (1735–1784) – Related forms of calcite to cleavage
 * Martine Bertereau (1600–1642)
 * Émile Bertrand (1844–1909)
 * Marcel Alexandre Bertrand (1847–1907)
 * Friedrich Martin Berwerth (1850–1918)
 * Jöns Jacob Berzelius (1779–1848)
 * François Sulpice Beudant (1787–1850)
 * Johannes Martin Bijvoet (1892–1980)
 * Luca Bindi (born 1971)
 * Maynard Bixby (1853–1935)
 * Harald Bjørlykke (1901–1968)
 * William Phipps Blake (1826–1910)
 * Johann Reinhard Blum (1802–1883)
 * Hendrik Enno Boeke (1881–1918)
 * Anselmus de Boodt (1550–1632)
 * Ignaz von Born (1742–1791)
 * Jacques Louis, Comte de Bournon (1751–1825)
 * Norman L. Bowen (1887–1956) – known for Bowen's reaction series
 * Stanley Bowie (1917–2008)
 * William Lawrence Bragg (1890–1971) – known for Bragg's law of diffraction and Atomic Structures of Minerals
 * Georg Brandt (1694–1768)
 * Auguste Bravais (1811–1863)
 * August Breithaupt (1791–1873)
 * Vesselina Breskovska (1928–1997)
 * Aristides Brezina (1848–1909)
 * A. J. M. Brochant de Villiers (1772–1840)
 * Waldemar Christofer Brøgger (1851–1940)
 * Alexandre Brongniart (1770–1847)
 * Henry James Brooke (1771–1857)
 * Archibald Bruce (1777–1818)
 * Franz Ernst Brückmann (1697–1753)
 * Morten Thrane Brünnich (1737–1827)
 * George Jarvis Brush (1831–1912)
 * Arthur Francis Buddington (1890–1980)
 * Martin Julian Buerger (1903–1986)
 * Richard Büttner (1858–1927)

C

 * Louis J. Cabri (born 1934)
 * Frédéric Cailliaud (1787–1869)
 * Joseph Campbell (1856–1933)
 * Franz Ludwig von Cancrin (1738–1812)
 * Ian S. E. Carmichael (1930–2011)
 * George Washington Carpenter (1802–1860)
 * Alexandre-Emile Béguyer de Chancourtois (1820–1886)
 * Maurice Chaper (1834–1896)
 * Edward Daniel Clarke (1769–1822)
 * John George Children (1777–1852)
 * Charles L. Christ (1916–1980)
 * Hartvig Caspar Christie (1826–1873)
 * Jean de Chastelet (1578–1645)
 * Parker Cleaveland (1780–1858)
 * Enrico Clerici (1862–1938)
 * Emil Cohen (1842–1905)
 * Joseph Henry Collins (1841–1916)
 * Arthur Connell (1794–1863)
 * Douglas Saxon "Doug" Coombs (1924–2016)
 * Pierre Louis Antoine Cordier (1777–1861)
 * Hubert Curien (1924–2005)

D

 * Antonio D'Achiardi (1839–1902)
 * Tellef Dahll (1825–1893)
 * Alexis Damour (1808–1902)
 * Edward Salisbury Dana (1849–1935)
 * James Dwight Dana (1813–1895)
 * James Freeman Dana (1793–1827)
 * Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton (1716–1800)
 * William Alexander Deer (1910–2009)
 * Jean-Claude Delamétherie (1743–1817)
 * Achille Ernest Oscar Joseph Delesse (1817–1881)
 * Alfred Des Cloizeaux (1817–1897)
 * Ignacy Domeyko (1802–1889)
 * Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857)

E

 * Harry von Eckermann (1886–1969)
 * Thomas Egleston (1832–1897)
 * Wilhelm Eitel (1891–1979)
 * Wolf von Engelhardt (1910–2008)
 * Otto Erdmannsdörffer (1876–1955)
 * Gundolf Ernst (1930–2002)
 * W. Gary Ernst (born 1931)
 * Berend George Escher (1885–1967)
 * Jens Esmark (1763–1839)
 * Morten Thrane Esmark (1801–1882)
 * Hans P. Eugster (1925–1987)
 * Rodney C. Ewing (born 1946)

F

 * Evgraf Fedorov (1853–1919)
 * Walter Frederick Ferrier (1865–1950)
 * Aleksandr Evgen’evich Fersman (1883–1945)
 * João da Silva Feijó (1760–1824)
 * Leopold Heinrich Fischer (1817–1886)
 * John Flett (1869–1947)
 * Walter Flight (1841–1885)
 * Gustaf Flink (1848–1931)
 * David Forbes (1828–1876)
 * Johan Georg Forchhammer (1794–1865)
 * Adolarius Jacob Forster (1739–1806)
 * Westgarth Forster (1772–1835)
 * William F. Foshag (1894–1956)
 * Clement le Neve Foster (1841–1904)
 * Samuel Fowler (1779–1844)
 * Robert Were Fox the Younger (1789–1877)
 * Friedrich August Frenzel (1842–1902)
 * Charles Friedel (1832–1899)
 * Georges Friedel (1865–1933)
 * Günther Friedrich (1929–2014)
 * Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs (1774–1856)
 * William Fyfe (1927–2013)

G

 * Johan Gadolin (1760–1852)
 * Johan Gottlieb Gahn (1745–1818) – developed blowpipe technique for identifying minerals
 * Robert Garrels (1916–1988)
 * Kurt von Gehlen (1927–1995)
 * Johann Carl Gehler (1732–1796)
 * Eugen Geinitz (1854–1925)
 * Hanns Bruno Geinitz (1814–1900)
 * Frederick Augustus Genth (1820–1893)
 * Ernst Friedrich Germar (1786–1853)
 * George Gibbs (1777–1834)
 * Heinrich Girard (1814–1878)
 * Ernst Friedrich Glocker (1793–1858)
 * Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832)
 * Georg August Goldfuss (1782–1848)
 * Victor Mordechai Goldschmidt (1853–1933) – crystal chemistry and geochemistry
 * Edward Goldsmith (mineralogist) (late 19th century)
 * Julian Royce Goldsmith (1918–1999)
 * Claude-Henri Gorceix (1842–1919)
 * Wilhelm Joseph Grailich (1829–1859)
 * William Gregor (1761–1817)
 * James Gregory (1832–1899)
 * Ralph Early Grim (1902–1989)
 * Paul Heinrich Ritter von Groth (1843–1927) – established relations between crystal form and structure
 * Jean-Étienne Guettard (1715–1786)

H

 * Paula Hahn-Weinheimer (1917–2002)
 * Wilhelm Karl Ritter von Haidinger (1795–1871)
 * Axel Hamberg (1863–1933)
 * Peggy-Kay Hamilton (1922–1959)
 * Johann Friedrich Ludwig Hausmann (1782–1859)
 * Paul Hautefeuille (1836–1902)
 * René Just Haüy (1743–1822) – discovered the law of rational indices
 * Frank C. Hawthorne (born 1946)
 * Robert Hazen (born 1948)
 * Matthew Forster Heddle (1828–1897)
 * Johann F. C. Hessel (1796–1872)
 * John Henry Heuland (1778–1856)
 * Carl Hintze (1851–1916)
 * Thorstein Hiortdahl (1839–1925)
 * Marjorie Hooker (1908–1976)
 * Warren D. Huff
 * Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
 * Arthur Hutchinson (1866–1937)

J

 * Robert Jameson (1774–1854)
 * M. Qasim Jan (born 1944)
 * William W. Jefferis (1820–1906)

K

 * Alexander Petrovich Karpinsky (1846–1936)
 * Dietrich Ludwig Gustav Karsten (1768–1810)
 * Karl Johann Bernhard Karsten (1782–1853)
 * Friedrich Katzer (1861–1925)
 * Gustav Adolph Kenngott (1818–1897)
 * Friedrich Klockmann (1858–1937)
 * Adolf Knop (1828–1893)
 * Adolph Knopf (1882–1966)
 * Wolfgang Franz von Kobell (1803–1882)
 * Rudolf Koechlin (1862–1939)
 * Nikolay Koksharov (1818–1893)
 * Johann Heinrich Kopp (1777–1858)
 * Ivan Kostov Nikolov (1913–2004)
 * Karl von Kraatz-Koschlau (1867–1900)
 * Adam August Krantz (1808–1872)
 * Edward Henry Kraus (1875–1973)
 * József Sándor Krenner (1839–1920)
 * Leonid Kulik (1883–1942)
 * George Frederick Kunz (1856–1932)
 * Nikolai Semenovich Kurnakov (1860–1941)
 * Johann Gottlob von Kurr (1798–1870)

L

 * Antoine Lacroix (1863–1948)
 * Arnold von Lasaulx (1839–1886)
 * André Laugier (1770–1832)
 * Gillet de Laumont (1747–1834)
 * Fritz Laves (1906–1978)
 * Johann Gottlieb Lehmann (1719–1767)
 * Oskar Lenz (1848–1925)
 * Gustav von Leonhard (1816–1878)
 * Karl Cäsar von Leonhard (1779–1862)
 * William Garrow Lettsom (1805–1887)
 * Armand Lévy (1795–1841)
 * William Lewis (1847–1926)
 * Li Shizhen (1518–1593)
 * Henry Carvill Lewis (1853–1888)
 * Theodor Liebisch (1852–1922)
 * Gottlob Linck (1858–1947)
 * Carl von Linné (1707–1778)
 * Henri Longchambon (1896–1969)
 * Karl August Lossen (1841–1893)

M

 * Felix Karl Ludwig Machatschki (1895–1970)
 * George Mackenzie (1780–1848)
 * Ernest-François Mallard (1833–1894)
 * Joseph A. Mandarino (1929–2007)
 * Ho-Kwang Mao (born 1941)
 * Brian Harold Mason (1917–2009)
 * Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565)
 * Charles-Victor Mauguin (1878–1958)
 * John Mawe (1764–1829)
 * Sarah Mawe (1767–1846)
 * Marshall McDonald (1835–1895)
 * Helen Megaw (1907–2002) – first woman to receive the Roebling Medal of the Mineralogical Society of America
 * Giuseppe Giovanni Antonio Meneghini (1811–1889)
 * Luiz Alberto Dias Menezes (1950–2014)
 * Ludwig Meyn (1820–1878)
 * Auguste Michel-Lévy (1844–1911)
 * Henry Alexander Miers (1858–1942)
 * William Hallowes Miller (1801–1880)
 * Stanley Robert Mitchell (1881–1963)
 * Eilhard Mitscherlich (1794–1863)
 * Friedrich Mohs (1773–1839)
 * Jean-André Mongez (1750–1788)
 * Otto Mügge (1858–1932)

N

 * Alexandra Navrotsky (born 1943)
 * Franz Ernst Neumann (1798–1895)
 * Ernest Henry Nickel (1925–2009)
 * James Nicol (1810–1879)
 * Paul Niggli (1888–1953)
 * William Niven (1850–1937)
 * Johann Jakob Nöggerath (1788–1877)
 * Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (1832–1901)
 * Nils Gustaf Nordenskiöld (1792–1866)
 * George Lorenzo Noyes (1863–1945)

O

 * Konrad Oebbeke (1853–1932)

P

 * Adolf Pabst (1899–1990)
 * Charles Palache (1869–1954)
 * Pierre Bernard Palassou (1745–1830)
 * Eugène Louis Melchior Patrin (1742–1815)
 * Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994)
 * Lev Perovski (1792–1856)
 * Carlo Perrier (1886–1948)
 * Ours-Pierre-Armand Petit-Dufrénoy (1792–1857)
 * William Phillips (1775–1829)
 * William Pinch (1940–2017)
 * Félix Pisani (1831–1920)
 * Pliny (23–79)
 * Erika Pohl-Ströher (1919–2016)
 * Petru Poni (1841–1925)
 * Alexander Postels (1801–1871)
 * Charles T. Prewitt (1933–2022)
 * George Thurland Prior (1862–1936)

R

 * Paul Ramdohr (1890–1985)
 * Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg (1813–1899)
 * Philip Rashleigh (1729–1811)
 * Gerhard vom Rath (1830–1888)
 * Karl Georg von Raumer (1783–1865)
 * Franz-Joseph Müller von Reichenstein (1740–1825/1826)
 * Adolf Remelé (1839–1915)
 * Alphonse Francois Renard (1842–1903)
 * Anders Jahan Retzius (1742–1821)
 * Franz Ambrosius Reuss (1761–1830)
 * Friedrich Rinne (1863–1933)
 * Jean-Baptiste L. Romé de l'Isle (1736–1790)
 * Alexander Rose (1781–1860)
 * Gustav Rose (1798–1873)
 * Harry Rosenbusch (1836–1914)
 * Karl Rössler (1788–1863)
 * George R. Rossman (born 1944)
 * Justus Ludwig Adolf Roth (1818–1892)
 * François Michel de Rozière (1775–1842)
 * Frank Rutley (1842–1904)

S

 * Alexander Sadebeck (1843–1879)
 * Naima Sahlbom (1871–1957)
 * Waldemar Theodore Schaller (1882–1967)
 * Adolf Schenck (1857–1936)
 * Ernst Erhard Schmid (1815–1885)
 * Hans Schneiderhöhn (1887–1962)
 * Frank Charles Schrader (1860–1944)
 * Albrecht Schrauf (1837–1897)
 * Carl Franz Anton Ritter von Schreibers (1775–1852)
 * Alexander von Schrenk (1816–1876)
 * Werner Schreyer (1930–2006)
 * John Scouler (1804–1871)
 * Arthur Edmund Seaman (1858–1937)
 * Friedrich Seifert (born 1941)
 * Quintino Sella (1827–1884)
 * Henri Hureau de Sénarmont (1808–1862)
 * Arthur Moritz Schoenflies (1853–1928)
 * Werner Schreyer (1930–2006)
 * Anton Schrötter von Kristelli (1802–1875)
 * Carl Schulz (1851–1944)
 * Vasily Severgin (1765–1826)
 * Sjur Aasmundsen Sexe (1808–1888)
 * Vladimir Shcherbina (1907–1978)
 * Shen Kuo (1031–1095)
 * Li Shizhen (1518–1593)
 * Benjamin Silliman (1779–1864)
 * Vittorio Simonelli (1860–1929)
 * Edward Sydney Simpson (1875–1939)
 * John Sinkankas (1915–2002)
 * Hjalmar Sjögren (1856–1922)
 * Herbert Smith (1872–1953)
 * James Smithson (c. 1765 – 1829)
 * Vladimir Stepanovich Sobolev (1908–1982)
 * Su Song (1020–1101)
 * James Sowerby (1757–1822)
 * James De Carle Sowerby (1787–1871)
 * Leonard James Spencer (1870–1959)
 * Harold Robert Steacy (1923–2012)
 * Alfred Wilhelm Stelzner (1840–1895)
 * Nicolas Steno (1638–1686)
 * Clifford H. Stockwell (1897–1987)
 * Karl Hugo Strunz (1910–2006)
 * Lars Fredrik Svanberg (1805–1878)
 * George Shirley Switzer (1915–2008)

T

 * James Tennant (1808–1881)
 * James B. Thompson Jr. (1921–2011)
 * Thomas Thomson (1773–1852)
 * Cecil Edgar Tilley (1894–1973)
 * Haldor Topsøe (1842–1935)
 * Franz Toula (1845–1920)
 * Hermann Traube (1860–1913)
 * Gerard Troost (1776–1850)
 * Gustav Tschermak (1836–1927)
 * Michael Tuomey (1805–1857)
 * Francis John Turner (1904–1985)

U

 * Johann Christoph Ullmann (1771–1821)

V

 * Charles-Louis-Joseph-Xavier de la Vallée-Poussin (1827–1903)
 * William Sansom Vaux (1811–1882)
 * August Ferdinand von Veltheim (1741–1801)
 * Vladimir Vernadsky (1863–1945)
 * Johann Karl Wilhelm Voigt (1752–1821)
 * Otto Volger (1822–1897)

W

 * Friedrich Walchner (1799–1865)
 * John Walker (1730–1803)
 * Johan Gottschalk Wallerius (1709–1785)
 * Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen (1809–1876)
 * Bertram Eugene Warren (1902–1991)
 * Alice Mary Dowse Weeks (1909–1988)
 * Ernst Weinschenk (1865–1921)
 * Christian Ernst Weiss (1833–1890)
 * Christian Samuel Weiss (1780–1856)
 * Abraham Gottlob Werner (1750–1817)
 * Frank T. M. White (1909–1971)
 * Carl Ernst Arthur Wichmann (1851–1927)
 * William Hyde Wollaston (1766–1828)
 * Bernard John Wood (born 19??)
 * Peter Woulfe (1727–1803)
 * Frederick Eugene Wright (1877–1953)
 * Franz Xavier Freiherr von Wulfen (1728–1805)
 * Ernst Anton Wülfing (1860–1930)
 * Peter John Wyllie (born 1930)

Y

 * Hatten Schuyler Yoder, Jr. (1921–2003)
 * Philip James Yorke (1799–1874)

Z

 * Ferruccio Zambonini (1880–1932)
 * Josef Zemann (1923–2022)
 * E-An Zen (1928–2014)
 * Gustav Anton Zeuner (1828–1907)
 * Franz Xaver Zippe (1791–1863)
 * Ferdinand Zirkel (1838–1912)
 * Sigmund Zois (1747–1819)

title: List of mineralogists


text:
Telecommunications relay service

A telecommunications relay service, also known as TRS, relay service, or IP-relay, or Web-based relay service, is an operator service that allows people who are deaf, hard of hearing, deafblind, or have a speech disorder to place calls to standard telephone users via a keyboard or assistive device. Originally, relay services were designed to be connected through a TDD, teletypewriter (TTY) or other assistive telephone device. Services gradually have expanded to include almost any real-time text capable technology such as a personal computer, laptop, mobile phone, PDA, and many other devices. The first TTY was invented by deaf scientist Robert Weitbrecht in 1964. The first relay service was established in 1974 by Converse Communications of Connecticut.

Types of services available
Depending on the technical and physical abilities and physical environments of users, different call types are possible via relay services.

TTY to voice/voice to TTY
Once the most common type of TRS call, TTY calls involve a call from a deaf or hard-of-hearing person who utilizes a TTY to a hearing person. In this type of call, typed messages are relayed as voice messages by a TRS operator, (also known as Communication Assistant (CA), Relay Operator (RO), Relay Assistant (RA), or relay agent (agent)), and vice versa. This allows callers who are unable to use a regular telephone to be able to place calls to people who use a regular telephone and vice versa. When the person who is hearing is ready for a response, it is customary to say "go ahead" or "GA" to indicate that it is the TTY (teletypewriter) user's turn to talk and "stop keying", "SK", or "ready to hang up" when ending the call and vice versa. This mode of communication has largely been superseded by other modes of communications, including the utilization of IP relay, VPs, VRS, and VRI.

Voice carry over
A common type of call is voice carry over, VCO. This allows a person who is hard of hearing or deaf but can speak to use their voice while receiving responses from a person who is hearing via the operator's typed text. There are many variations of VCO, including two-line VCO and VCO with privacy.

VCO with privacy
The operator will not hear the VCO user's voiced messages and the VCO user does not need to voice GA. The operator will hear the person who is hearing, and the person who is hearing must give the GA each time to alert the operator it is the VCO user's turn. The VCO user does not need to voice GA, because the VCO user types it or presses the "VCO GA" button on the VCO phone when it's the voice user's turn to talk.

Two-line VCO
Two-line VCO allows a VCO user using a TTY or computer to call a TRS operator, who in turn calls the VCO user on a second telephone line, which serves as the voice line. The user puts the operator on a brief hold to initiate a three-way call with the hearing person. This method is frequently used by people who are hard of hearing and like to use some of their residual hearing as well not having to say "go ahead". With two-line VCO, the VCO user and the voice user can interrupt each other. VCO with Privacy cannot be used with two-line VCO, because the operator, VCO user, and hearing person are on a three-way call.

Hearing carry over
A less common call type is hearing carry over (HCO). HCO allows a person who is speech-disabled but can hear to use their hearing while sending responses to a person who is hearing via the HCO user's typed text. The operator voices the HCO user's typed messages, and then the HCO users picks up the handset and listens to the other voice user's response. There are many variations of HCO, including two-line HCO and HCO with privacy.

HCO with privacy
The operator will not hear the voice user's voiced messages and the voice user does not need to voice GA. The operator will voice for the person who is Speech-Disabled, and the person who is Speech–Disabled must give the GA each time to alert the operator it is the voice user's turn. The voice user does not need to voice GA, because the HCO user can hear when the voice user finishes talking.

2-line HCO
Similar to 2-line VCO, 2-line HCO allows an HCO user using a TTY or computer to call a TRS operator, who in turn calls the HCO user on a second telephone line, which serves as the voice line. The user puts the operator on a brief hold to initiate a three-way call with the hearing person. This method is frequently used by people who are Speech-Disabled and like to use some of their residual speech as well not having to type "GA". With 2–Line HCO, the HCO user and the voice user can interrupt each other. HCO with Privacy cannot be used with 2–Line HCO, because the operator, HCO user, and hearing person are on a three–way call.

Speech to speech
Speech to speech (STS) exists for people who have speech disabilities. A specially–trained STS TRS operator revoices what the person with a speech disability says. STS is often used in combination with VCO for people who are deaf and have somewhat understandable speech, as well as two–Line HCO users. STS enables people with speech disabilities to call others (able-bodied speakers and other people with speech disabilities). It also enables people without speech disabilities to call people with speech disabilities. Anyone can call 711 in the U.S. and ask for Speech to Speech. STS is also available in Australia, New Zealand and Sweden.

Many STS users have Parkinson's disease, cerebral palsy, ALS, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy or stroke. Other users stutter or have had a laryngectomy. STS also helps speech synthesizer users, users of Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC.) AAC users can set their device next to a speakerphone. They ask the STS CA set up the call, negotiate the menu, introduce the call explaining AAC and then go into the background. This enables AAC users to communicate independently once the other party is on the line.

Deafblind variation
Telebraille also exists for people who are deafblind with the use of a TTY with a braille or regular keyboard and a refreshable braille display or LVD (Large Visual Display). A relay call of a user who is deafblind is directly related to a relay call of a TTY user, however, the text transmission speed is often reduced to increase the ability of the user who is deafblind to comprehend the moving braille on the braille TTY or large print on the LVD. Telebraille relay operators must be familiar with Braille contractions that users who are deafblind may use. Due to its implementation of a smaller keyboard, some TTY users with mobile disabilities may prefer to use a Telebraille, regardless of a sight disability or lack thereof.

Captioned telephone
Captioned telephone is a hybrid communication method that enables people who are hard of hearing, oral deaf or late–deafened to speak directly to another party on a telephone call. Typically, a telephone that displays real-time captions of what the hearing party speaks during a conversation. The captions are displayed on a screen embedded in the telephone base. A captioned telephone can also function exactly like a VCO when the user switches the device to VCO mode to do things like communicate with an HCO user directly, without relay. Captioned telephone services can be provided in traditional telephone environments as well as in VOIP environments.

Captions are created by a communications assistant using a computer with voice recognition software. The communications assistant listens to and revoices the hearing party's side of the conversation into the microphone of a headset. A voice recognition program creates the captions and they are sent out to the captioned telephone where they are read by the user.

IP CTS
Prior to 2005, captioned telephone service was only available to people in states that had captioned telephone service as part of their state relay program. In 2005, the FCC made IP CTS a part of the federally mandated services.

IP CTS Requires an internet connection to deliver the captions to the user. Most also rely on their regular land-line telephone for the audio portion of the call, but some configurations of IP CTS allow the use of VOIP to carry the call audio. IP CTS has allowed captioned telephone service to be provided on smartphones and tablets.

Two–line captioned telephone
Captioned telephone can also be used with two lines. This is especially useful for users who prefer to give out their home phone number alone, instead of both the captioning service number and the toll-free captioning service number or for users who prefer to turn captions on and off anytime during the call. 2–Line captioned telephone can also be used with other relay services. For example, STS can be used with a 2–Line captioned telephone, for captioned telephone users with speech disabilities. 2–Line captioned telephone is only available to people in states that have 2–Line captioned telephone as part of their relay service or federal employees/contractors and American Indians.

Web-based captioned telephone
Web-based captioned telephone enables telephone calls to be placed with captions, by utilizing the World Wide Web browser window of a computer or smart phone. It is similar to a traditional captioned phone call except the user's own telephone equipment is used, whilst the captions are viewed online instead of in the captioned telephone display screen.

Other variations
Many other call type variations are possible, including VCO to VCO, HCO to HCO, HCO to TTY, and VCO to TTY. Fundamentally, relay services have the ability to connect any two callers with different abilities over the telephone network. Voice callers in the United States can now access the service with a universal number: 711. After the number is dialled, the caller will receive instructions to complete the call to reach deaf callers.

IP/web-based relay services
IP relay services, called Web-based text relay services in Europe, provide functionality similar to TDD/TTY relay services. Instead of using telephone lines and TDD/TTY devices, they use an Internet connection and software running on computers or smartphones.

When using an IP relay service for an emergency call like 911 or 112, the relay operator will ask for the street address, city, and state from which the call is originating. If this information is not provided, the relay operator will be unable to complete the emergency call.

Most IP relay services support Web browsers, mobile phone apps, text messaging, WAP, instant messaging, and Text over IP (ToIP). Support for these technologies has enabled many Internet-connected devices to be used with relay services, including desktop and laptop personal computers, mobile phones, and PDAs.

Video relay service
Video relay service (VRS) allows people who use sign language to place phone calls by signing instead of typing. The VI (video interpreter) uses a webcam or videophone to voice the deaf, hard-of-hearing or, speech-disabled person's signs to a hearing person and sign the hearing person's words to the deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired person.

Video remote interpreting
Video Remote Interpreting (VRI) allows deaf or hard-of-hearing people who use sign language to communicate with hearing people in the same room. VRI addresses one limitation to VRS, which is that VRS cannot be used if the hearing person is in the same room with the deaf or hard-of-hearing person. VRI has proven to be useful for deaf or hard-of-hearing people in business meetings, doctor appointments, minor surgical procedures, and court proceedings.

Accessibility
In Canada and the United States, the telephone number 711 is used for the Telecommunications Relay Service.

In the U.S., every phone company is required to connect persons who dial 711 to a TRS call center from a working number. In July 2007, the Federal Communications Commission ruled that the 711 requirement extended to VOIP telephony.

Anyone can use 711; it is not limited to those who are deaf, hard of hearing, or speech impaired. As such, it has been used by those without hearing or speech disabilities to make long-distance calls free of charge with TRS providers who do not bill for them. Providers defend this as a necessary evil to maintain "transparency", which is the belief that the operator and the mechanics of relay should generally go as unnoticed as possible in the call. This requires that TRS be as easy to use as normal telephones, which do not require their users to verify anything. Leaders in the deaf community defend this decision and generally retain strong support among service users with hearing and speech disabilities.

Fraudulent uses in the United States
The open structure of relay services has led to a number of complaints regarding its use as a vehicle for fraud. In 2004, news outlets, such as MSNBC, and several newspapers, including the Baltimore City Paper, ran stories of reported abuse of the relay system, such as users from international locations calling businesses in the United States to fraudulently purchase goods. This has also generated numerous complaints, particularly by those who were employed as relay operators, that so-called "prank calls," where neither user requires the service and the caller is just attempting to have fun with a novel mode of communication. In December 2006, NBC ran another story where former operators alleged that "85 to 90 percent" of calls were scams. Since it is illegal for relay service companies to keep records, fraudulent users can operate with impunity. Fraudulent calls of both types have been cited as reasons for further relay regulation, and as causes for long hold times that must be endured by many legitimate users. Most businesses legally cannot have relay calls blocked due to the need for legitimate users to be accommodated, although businesses that are repeatedly victimized by pranks and/or scams often stop trusting relay calls or hang up on them because it is difficult to distinguish legitimate users from illegitimate ones; this is another way that the abusers of the service ultimately victimize the legitimate users, in addition to tying up the service from them.

In 2006, the FCC launched a campaign to gather feedback from the various Internet Protocol relay-certified companies operating within the United States to fight the wave of relay scams and pranks being made over the service. As brought up in the FCC's released document, users on the IP-based relay services can thus place their calls anonymously, which cannot certify that the user in question really needs operator assistance or not. Furthermore, fraudulent calls of any nature cost millions to the American people yearly (based on the $1.293 per minute fee that is being paid for completed IP-based relay) to various relay providers for successfully completed calls.

Starting in November 2009, to help counter the problem of fraudulent use, the FCC began requiring all users of IP Relay to register their screen names with a default IP Relay provider. This, along with many IP Relay providers working to educate hearing users of the risks of fraudulent users (making it less lucrative for fraudulent users who no longer have an uneducated population to target), and other efforts has greatly reduced the amount of fraudulent use of the IP Relay system.

In March 2012, the United States federal government announced a lawsuit against AT&T. The specific accusations state that AT&T "violated the False Claims Act by facilitating and seeking federal payment for IP Relay calls by international callers who were ineligible for the service and sought to use it for fraudulent purposes. The complaint alleges that, out of fears that fraudulent call volume would drop after the registration deadline, AT&T knowingly adopted a non-compliant registration system that did not verify whether the user was located within the United States. The complaint further contends that AT&T continued to employ this system even with the knowledge that it facilitated use of IP Relay by fraudulent foreign callers, which accounted for up to 95 percent of AT&T’s call volume. The government’s complaint alleges that AT&T improperly billed the TRS Fund for reimbursement of these calls and received millions of dollars in federal payments as a result."

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title: Telecommunications relay service


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List of lexicographers

This list contains people who contributed to the field of lexicography, the theory and practice of compiling dictionaries.

A

 * Maulvi Abdul Haq (India/Pakistan, 1872–1961) Baba-e-Urdu, English-Urdu dictionary
 * Ivar Aasen (Norway, 1813–1896) Norwegian language
 * Abu Amr Ishaq ibn Mirar al-Shaybani (Iraq, c. 738–828) Arabic
 * Ilia Abuladze (Georgia, 1901–1968) Old Georgian
 * Johann Christoph Adelung (Germany, 1732–1806) German language general dictionary
 * George J. Adler (Germany/US, 1821–1868) German/English
 * Robert Ainsworth (UK, 1660–1743) Latin
 * Adam Jack Aitken (UK, 1921–1998) Scots language
 * John Michael Allaby (UK, born 1933) English LSP
 * Anthony Allen (UK, late 17th century – 1754) obsolete English words
 * Robert Allen (UK, born 1944) English language general
 * Amerias (Greece, 3rd century BC) Ancient Macedonian
 * Ethan Allen Andrews (US, 1787–1858) Latin
 * Vladimir Anić (Croatia, 1930–2000) Croatian general
 * Vaman Shivram Apte (India, 1858–1892) English-Sanskrit
 * Ġużè Aquilina (Malta, 1911–1997) Maltese language
 * Aristophanes of Byzantium (Greece, 257–180 BC) Ancient Greek
 * Sue Atkins (UK, 1931–2021) English/French bilingual
 * Ali Azaykou (Morocco, 1942–2004) Berber languages

B

 * Albert Bachmann (Switzerland, 1863–1934) Swiss German
 * Francis Bacon (UK, 1561–1626) philosophy and science
 * Nathan Bailey (UK, 1691–1742) English
 * Johannes Balbus (Italy, died 1298) Latin
 * Frederick W. Baller (UK, 1852–1922) Chinese
 * Katherine Barber (Canada, 1959–2021) English
 * Edmund Henry Barker (UK, 1788–1839) Classical languages
 * Clarence Barnhart (US, 1900–1993) English general dictionary
 * David Barnhart (US, born 1941) English
 * Robert Barnhart (US, 1933–2007) English
 * Louis Barral (France, 1910–1999) French and Monégasque
 * Grant Barrett (US, born 1970) English dictionary of slang
 * John Barrow (UK, fl. 1735–1774) navigation and science
 * Marcos E. Becerra (Mexico, 1870–1940) Spanish language
 * Richard Beckett (Australia, 1936–1987) English food guides
 * William Bedwell (UK, 1561–1632) Arabic
 * Ivan Belostenec (Croatia, 1594–1675) Illyrian and Latin
 * Henning Bergenholtz (Denmark, born 1944) Danish LSP dictionary
 * Eric Blom (Switzerland, 1888–1959) music dictionary
 * Thomas Blount (UK, 1618–1679) English
 * Robert Blust (US, 1940–2022) Austronesian languages
 * Jean-Baptiste Boissiere (France, 1806–1885) French thesaurus
 * Peter Bowler (Australia, living) English
 * Abel Boyer (France, c. 1667–1729) French and English
 * Dan Beach Bradley (US, 1845–1923) Siamese
 * Henry Bradley (UK, 1845–1923) English general
 * Jim Breen (Australia, born 1947) Japanese and English
 * Ebenezer Cobham Brewer (UK, 1810–1897) English
 * Francis Brinkley (Ireland/UK/Japan, 1841–1912) Japanese and English
 * Nathan Brown (US/Burma/Japan, 1807–1886) Assamese and Japanese
 * Aleksander Brückner (Poland, 1856–1939) Polish and German
 * Kazimieras Būga (Lithuania, 1879–1924) Lithuanian
 * John Bullokar (UK, 1574–1627) English language dictionary of hard words
 * Robert Burchfield (New Zealand/UK 1923–2004) English language historical
 * Arthur Coke Burnell (England and India, 1840–1882), co-compiler of Hobson-Jobson Anglo-Indian

C

 * Ambrogio Calepino (Italy, c. 1450–1510) Latin
 * Angus Cameron (Canada, 1941–1983) English
 * Joachim Heinrich Campe (Germany, 1746–1818) German
 * Emanuel Nunes Carvalho (UK/US, 1771–1817) Hebrew
 * Edmund Castell (UK, 1606–1685) Oriental languages
 * Robert Cawdrey (UK, c. 1538–1604) English
 * Pranas Čepėnas (Lithuania/US, 1899–1980) Lithuanian
 * Mohamed Chafik (Morocco, born 1926) Berber
 * Robert L. Chapman (US, 1920–2002) English
 * Nikoloz Cholokashvili (Georgia, 1585–1658) Georgian
 * David Chubinashvili (Georgia/Russia, 1814–1891) Georgian
 * Michael Chyet (US, born 1957) Kurdish
 * Saïd Cid Kaoui (Algeria, 1859–1910) Berber
 * Cigerxwîn (Turkey/Syria, 1903–1984) Kurdish language
 * Henry Cockeram (UK, 17th century) English and Latin
 * Herbert Coleridge (UK, 1830–1861) English language historical
 * Elisha Coles (UK, c. 1608–1688) English
 * Thomas Cooper (UK, c. 1517–1594) English and Latin
 * Randle Cotgrave (UK, died 1634) English and French
 * John Craig (UK, 1796–1880), English
 * William Craigie (UK/US, 1867–1957) English language historical dictionary
 * Jane Tapsubei Creider (Kenya, ) Nandi language

D

 * Vladimir Dahl (Russia, 1801–1872) Explanatory Dictionary of the Live Great Russian language
 * Charles Anderson Dana (US, 1819–1897) English language encyclopedic dictionary
 * Frederick William Danker (US, 1920–2012) New Testament Greek lexicon
 * Đào Duy Anh (Vietnam, 1904–1988) Scholarly Vietnamese, Pháp-Việt Từ điển
 * Khudiram Das (India, 1916–2002) Bengali-Santali
 * John Davies (Wales, 1567–1644) Welsh and Latin
 * Tomás de Bhaldraithe (Ireland, 1916–1996) Irish and English
 * William Quinby De Funiak (US, 1901–1981) American and British
 * Ali-Akbar Dehkhoda (Iran, 1879–1956) extensive dictionary in Persian
 * Philip Delaporte (Germany/US, 1868–1928) German and Nauruan
 * Francesco della Penna (Italy, 1680–1745) Tibetan and Italian bilingual
 * Susie Dent (UK, born 1964) English
 * Friedrich Christian Diez (Germany, 1794–1876) etymological dictionary of Romance languages
 * Patrick S. Dinneen (Ireland, 1860–1934) Irish and English bilingual
 * Josef Dobrovský (Czechoslovakia, 1753–1829) Slavic languages, Czech and German bilingual
 * Jacob Ludwig Döhne (Germany/South Africa, 1811–1879) Zulu and English bilingual
 * Franz Dornseiff (Germany, 1888–1960) German language thesaurus
 * Henry Drisler (US, 1818–1939) Latin dictionary
 * Konrad Duden (Germany, 1829–1911) German language general
 * Edward Dwelly (UK, 1864–1939) Scottish Gaelic
 * Thomas Dyche (UK, late 17th century – 1733) English language spelling

E

 * Eugene Ehrlich (US, 1922–2008) English language general and specialised
 * Ernst Johann Eitel (Germany/China, 1838–1908) Cantonese Chinese dictionary
 * John Eliot (UK/US, 1604–1690) Native American
 * Karim Emami (Iran, 1930–2005) Persian and English
 * Leo James English (Australia/Philippines, 1907–1997) Tagalog and English bilingual
 * Adolf Erman (Germany, 1854–1937) Ancient Egyptian
 * Robert Estienne (France, 1503–1559) Latin thesaurus
 * Daniel Silvan Evans (Wales, 1818–1903) Welsh and English bilingual
 * Avraham Even-Shoshan (Belarus/Israel, 1906–1984) Hebrew language general

F

 * Fairuzabadi (Iran, 1329–1414) Arabic language comprehensive
 * Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (Basra, 718–791) Arabic language general
 * Fortunato Felice (Italy, 1723–1789) Italian and French encyclopedic
 * Christiane Fellbaum (Germany/US, living) German and English cognitive linguistics
 * Jean-François Féraud (France, 1725–1807) French critical dictionary
 * Charles J. Fillmore (US, 1929–2014) English and Japanese cognitive linguistics
 * Stuart Berg Flexner (US, 1928–1990) English dictionary of slang
 * John Florio (England, 1553–1625) comprehensive Italian to English
 * Henrik Florinus (Finland, 1633–1705) Latin, Swedish and Finnish trilingual
 * Johann Gottfried Flügel (Germany/US, 1788–1855) German and English bilingual
 * Henry Watson Fowler (UK, 1858–1933) English general
 * Sami Frashëri (also Şemseddin Sâmi) (Ottoman Empire, 1850–1904) Ottoman Turkish, Arabic, French
 * James O. Fraser (UK/China, 1886–1938) Lisu language
 * Wilhelm Freund (Germany, 1806–1894) Latin general
 * Jens Andreas Friis (Norway, 1821–1896) Sami language general
 * Johan Fritzner (Norway, 1812–1893) Old Norse
 * Louis Frolla (Monaco, 1904–1978) French and Monégasque
 * Isaac Kaufmann Funk (US, 1839–1912) English general
 * Antoine Furetière (France, 1619–1688) French universal
 * Frederick James Furnivall (UK, 1825–1910) English historical

G

 * Brent Galloway (US, 1944–2014) Native American languages
 * Cristfried Ganander (Finland, 1741–1790) Finnish general
 * Marie de Garis (UK, 1910–2010) Guernésiais language general dictionary
 * Johannes de Garlandia (UK/France, c. 1190–1270) Latin
 * Bryan A. Garner (US, born 1958) English general and LSP
 * Dirk Geeraerts (Belgium, born 1955) cognitive linguistics
 * Nayden Gerov (Bulgaria, 1823–1900) Bulgarian general
 * Peter Gilliver (UK, born 1964) English historical
 * Rudolph Goclenius (Germany, 1547–1628) Latin LSP
 * Jacob Golius (Netherlands, 1596–1667) Arabic and Persian to Latin
 * Chauncey Allen Goodrich (US, 1790–1860) English general
 * Philip Babcock Gove (US, 1902–1972) English general
 * Louis Herbert Gray (US, 1875–1955) Indo-Iranian languages
 * Jonathon Green (UK, born 1948) English slang
 * Jacob Ludwig Carl Grimm (Germany, 1785–1863) German historical
 * Francis Hindes Groome (UK, 1851–1902) Gypsy
 * Francis Grose (UK, c. 1730–1791) English historical
 * Hermann Gundert (Germany/India, 1814–1893) Malayalam and English bilingual
 * Rosario María Gutiérrez Eskildsen (Mexico, 1899–1979) Spanish language
 * Karl Gützlaff (Germany/Thailand/China, 1803–1851) Cambodian and Chinese
 * Bartol Gyurgieuvits (Croatia, 1506–1566) Croatian and Latin bilingual

H

 * Mary Rosamund Haas (US, 1910–1996) Native American and Thai
 * Soleiman Haim (Iran, 1897–1970) Persian and English bilingual
 * Patrick Hanks (UK, 1940–2024) English language general, onomastic, and LSP
 * Johann Ernst Hanxleden (Germany/India, 1681–1732) Malayalam, Sanskrit and Portuguese dictionary
 * Orin Hargraves (US, born 1953) English dictionary of slang and rhyme
 * Alexander Harkavy (Belarus/US, 1863–1939) Yiddish and English bilingual
 * William Torrey Harris (US, 1835–1909) philosophy, English general
 * Reinhard Hartmann (Austria/UK, born 1938) Austrian and English contrastive linguistics, LSP dictionary
 * Hamid Hassani (Iran, born 1968) Persian corpus linguistics, Persian dictionary
 * Einar Ingvald Haugen (Norway/US, 1906–1994) Old Norse, Norwegian and English
 * Joyce Hawkins (England, 1928–1992) English language general
 * S.I. Hayakawa (Canada/US, 1906–1992), biographical directory of US Congress
 * Benjamin Hedericus (Germany, 1675–1748) Latin and Greek
 * Tom Heehler (US, born 1963) The Well-Spoken Thesaurus
 * Michael Heilprin (Poland/US, 1823–1888) Hebrew and English encyclopedic
 * James Curtis Hepburn (US/China/Japan, 1815–1911) Japanese and English bilingual
 * Charles George Herbermann (Germany/US, 1840–1916) English language LSP
 * Hesychius of Alexandria (Greece, 5th century) Ancient Greek language lexicon
 * Johann Christian August Heyse (Germany, 1764–1829) German dictionary of loan words
 * Jack Hibberd (Australia, born 1940) English dictionary of slang
 * Hoke Sein (Myanmar, 1890–1984) Universal Burmese-English-Pali
 * Aurélio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira (Brazil, 1910–1989) Portuguese-language general
 * William Holwell (1726–1798), English classicist and cleric
 * Francis Holyoake (UK, 1567–1653) English etymological
 * A. S. Hornby (UK/Japan, 1898–1978) English learners'
 * John Camden Hotten (UK, 1832–1873) English slang, A Dictionary of Modern Slang, Cant, and Vulgar Words
 * Antônio Houaiss (Brazil, 1915–1999) Portuguese general
 * Richard Howard (US, born 1929) French and English translation
 * August Wilhelm Hupel (Germany/Estonia, 1737–1819) Estonian general
 * Robert Hunter (Encyclopædist) (England, 1823–1897), lead editor of Encyclopædic Dictionary

I

 * Jonah ibn Janah (Spain, c. 990–1050) Hebrew lexicon
 * Ibn Manzur (Maghreb Arabia, 1233–1312) Arabic dictionary incorporating earlier
 * Laurynas Ivinskis (Lithuania, 1810–1881) Lithuanian bilingual

J

 * Jin Qizong (China, 1918–2004) Jurchen and Chinese bilingual
 * John Jamieson (UK, 1759–1838) Lowland Scots language etymological
 * Marcus Jastrow (Poland, 1829–1903) Talmudic language general
 * Jauhari (Iraq?, 10th century) Arabic language alphabetical
 * Christian Gottlieb Jöcher (Germany, 1694–1758) German biographical
 * John of Genoa → Johannes Balbus
 * Samuel Johnson (UK, 1709–1784) English general, A Dictionary of the English Language
 * Alexander Keith Johnston (UK, 1804–1871) English LSP dictionary and atlas
 * Dafydd Glyn Jones (Wales, born 1941) English and Welsh bilingual
 * Eliza Grew Jones (US/Burma, 1803–1838) Siamese (Thai) and English bilingual
 * Henry Stuart Jones (UK, 1867–1939) Greek and English
 * Adoniram Judson (US/Myanmar, 1788–1850) Burmese and English bilingual
 * Joseph Jungmann (Czechoslovakia, 1773–1847) Czech and German bilingual
 * Daniel Juslenius (Finland, 1676–1752) Finnish general

K

 * Vuk Stefanović Karadžić (Serbia, 1787–1864) Serbian general
 * Mahmud al-Kashgari (Turkey, 1005–1102), Uyghur language
 * Bartol Kašić (Croatia, 1575–1650) Croatian and Italian bilingual
 * John Samuel Kenyon (US, 1874–1959) English pronunciation
 * Adam Kilgarriff (UK, 1960–2015) English and computer lexicography
 * Barbara Ann Kipfer (US, born 1954) English general and LSP
 * Ferdinand Kittel (Germany/India, 1832–1903) Kannada and English bilingual
 * Friedrich Kluge (Germany, 1856–1926) German language etymological
 * Grzegorz Knapski (Poland, 1561–1639) Polish, Latin and Greek thesaurus
 * James Knowles (UK, 1759–1840) English pronunciation
 * Władysław Kopaliński (Poland, 1907–2007) Polish etymological
 * Emmanuel Kriaras (Greece, 1906–2014) Greek historical
 * Raphael Kuhner (Germany, 1802–1878) Greek and Latin
 * Hans Kurath (Austria/US, 1891–1992) English historical, dialect atlas

L

 * Sita Ram Lalas (India, 1908–1986) Rajasthani language historical
 * Wilfred G. Lambert (England, 1926–2011) Assyrian language
 * Edward William Lane (1801–1876) translation of medieval Arabic dictionaries to English
 * Pierre Larousse (France, 1817–1875) French general dictionary and encyclopedic
 * Donald Laycock (Australia, 1936–1988) languages of Papua New Guinea
 * James Legge (UK/China, 1815–1897) Chinese language
 * George William Lemon (UK, 1726–1797) English etymological
 * John Lemprière (Jersey, 1765–1824) dictionary of classical proper names
 * Charlton Thomas Lewis (1834–1904) Latin and English bilingual
 * Matthias von Lexer (Germany, 1830–1892) German historical
 * Li Fanwen (China, born 1932) Tangut and Chinese bilingual
 * Henry Liddell (UK, 1811–1898) Greek and English bilingual lexicon
 * Sven Lidman (Sweden, 1921–2011) Swedish encyclopedic
 * Lin Yutang (China/US, 1895–1976) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Samuel Linde (Poland, 1771–1847) Polish language general
 * Émile Littré (France, 1801–1881) French language general
 * Thomas Lloyd (Wales, 1673–1734) Welsh language
 * Elias Lönnrot (Finland, 1802–1884) Finnish and Swedish bilingual

M

 * Mackintosh MacKay (Scotland, 1793–1873) probable earliest dictionary of Scots Gaelic (1828)
 * Stepan Malkhasyants (Armenia, 1857–1947) Armenian language historical
 * Mouloud Mammeri (Algeria, 1917–1989) Tamazight lexicography
 * Francis Andrew March (US, 1825–1911) comparative linguistics, English historical
 * Francis Mason (UK/US/Burma, 1799–1874) Burmese
 * Percy C. Mather (UK/China, 1882–1933) Mongolian
 * Robert Henry Mathews (Australia/China, 1877–1970) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Johann Mattheson (Germany, 1681–1764) music, German
 * Tom McArthur (UK), Dictionary Research Centre, University of Exeter
 * Erin McKean (US, born 1971) English general and LSP
 * Lambert McKenna (Ireland, 1870–1956) English and Irish bilingual
 * Walter Henry Medhurst (UK/China, 1796–1857) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Igor Mel'čuk (Russia/Canada, born 1932) French
 * Gilles Ménage (France, 1613–1692) etymological dictionary of French
 * Francisci a Mesgnien Meninski (1623–1698) first large Turkish-to-Latin
 * Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke (Switzerland/Germany, 1861–1936) Romance languages
 * Minamoto no Shitagō (Japan, 911–983) Japanese thesaurus
 * William Chester Minor (Sri Lanka/US/UK, 1834–1920) English historical
 * John Minsheu (England, 1560–1627) Spanish and English bilingual, 11-language multilingual dictionary
 * María Moliner (Spain, 1900–1981) Spanish general
 * Judah Monis (US, 1683–1764) Hebrew language
 * Paul Monroe (US, 1869–1947) English encyclopedic
 * Morohashi Tetsuji (Japan, 1883–1982) Chinese and Japanese bilingual
 * Robert Morrison (UK/China, 1782–1834) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Mahshid Moshiri (Iran, born 1951) Persian language pronunciation and LSP dictionaries
 * Joseph Moxon (UK, 1627–1691) English LSP
 * Kārlis Mīlenbahs (Latvia, 1853–1916) Latvian and German bilingual
 * Wilhelm Max Müller (Germany/US, 1862–1919) Hebrew language
 * Monier Monier-Williams (India/UK, 1819–1899) Sanskrit English
 * Pamela Munro (US, born 1947) Native American language dictionaries
 * James Murray (UK, 1837–1915) English historical
 * Vladimir Müller (Russia, 1880 – before 1943) English–Russian

N

 * Hajime Nakamura (Japan, 1911–1999) Sanskrit and Pali languages
 * Nathan ben Jehiel (Italy, c. 1035–1106) Hebrew
 * William Allen Neilson (UK/US, 1869–1946) English general
 * Andrew Nelson (US/Japan, 1893–1975) Japanese and English bilingual
 * Jean Nicot (France, 1530–1600) French historical
 * Sandro Nielsen (Denmark, born 1961) Danish LSP
 * Njattyela Sreedharan (India, born 1938) Dravidian languages
 * Nonius Marcellus (Italy, 3rd/4th centuries) Latin lexicon
 * Jerry Norman (US, 1936–2012) Manchu-English

O

 * Niall Ó Dónaill (Ireland, 1908–1995) Irish and English bilingual
 * John Ogilvie (UK, 1797–1867) English language general
 * Charles Talbut Onions (UK, 1873–1965) English language historical
 * Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani (Georgia, 1658–1725) Georgian language general
 * Oros of Alexandria (Egypt?, 5th century) Ancient Greek language
 * Osbern of Gloucester (UK, 1123–1200) Latin language etymological
 * Flora Osete (Spain, 1883–?), Spanish language
 * Ōtsuki Fumihiko (Japan, 1847–1928) Japanese language general
 * Sergei Ozhegov (Russia, 1900–1964) Russian language general

P

 * Condé Benoist Pallen (US, 1858–1929) English language encyclopedia
 * Alfredo Panzini (Italy, 1863–1939) Italian general
 * Eric Partridge (New Zealand/Australia/UK, 1894–1979) English slang
 * Franz Passow (Germany, 1786–1933) Greek language historical
 * Hermann Paul (Germany, 1846–1921) German language historical
 * Andrew Pawley (Australia/New Zealand, born 1941) Austronesian languages
 * Clemente Peani (Italy/India, 1731–1782) Malayalam language
 * Edmund Peck (Canada, 1850–1924) Inaktitut and English bilingual
 * Aaron Peckham (US) English language slang
 * Philitas of Cos (Greece, c. 340–285 BC) Ancient Greek glossary
 * Philo of Byblos (Greece, c. 64–141 AD) Ancient Greek dictionary of synonyms
 * Sreekanteswaram Padmanabha Pillai (India, 1864–1946) Malayalam dictionary
 * Iwo Cyprian Pogonowski (Poland, US, 1921–2016) Polish and English bilingual
 * Julius Pollux (Egypt/Greece, 2nd century) Ancient Greek thesaurus
 * Noah Porter (US, 1811–1892) English language general
 * Malachy Postlewayt (UK, c. 1707–1767) English language LSP

R

 * Ola Raknes (Norway/US, 1887–1975) Norwegian and English bilingual
 * Stanislovas Rapalionis (Lithuania/Germany, 1485–1545) Lithuanian language
 * Rasmus Christian Rask (Denmark, 1787–1832) Indo-European comparative linguistics
 * Allen Walker Read (US, 1906–2002) English language glossary
 * James Redhouse (UK, 1811–1892) Turkish and English bilingual
 * Gustaf Renvall (Finland, 1781–1841) Finnish language general
 * Alain Rey (France, 1928–2020) French language general and LSP
 * Barbara Reynolds (UK, 1914–2015) Italian language
 * Kel Richards (Australia, born 1946) English language dialect
 * César-Pierre Richelet (French, 1626–1698) French language general
 * John Rider (UK/Ireland, 1562–1632) Latin language etymological
 * William Rider (UK, 1723–1785) English language general
 * Mark Ridley (England, 1560 – c. 1624) Russian/English and English/Russian
 * Paul Robert (French, 1910–1980) French language general
 * Nancy Roper (UK, 1918–2004) Nursing and medical dictionaries
 * Joseph Francis Charles Rock (Austria/US/China, 1884–1962) Naxi and English bilingual
 * Peter Mark Roget (UK, 1779–1869) English thesaurus
 * Leo Rosten (Poland–Russia/US, 1908–1997) Hebrew and English lexicon

S

 * Rachel Saint (US/Ecuador/Africa, 1914–1994) Waorani dictionary
 * Jean-Baptiste de La Curne de Sainte-Palaye (France, 1697–1781) French glossary
 * William Salesbury (UK, c. 1520–1600) English and Welsh bilingual
 * Pekka Sammallahti (Finland, born 1947) Sámi dictionaries
 * Daniel Sanders (Germany, 1819–1897) German general
 * Francisco J. Santamaría (Mexico, 1886–1963) Spanish dictionary of Americanisms
 * Irene Saunders (US/China, living) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Valentin Schindler (Germany, died 1604) Hebrew et al. five-language
 * Steinar Schjøtt (Norway, 1844–1920) Norwegian and Danish bilingual
 * Johann Gottlob Schneider (Germany, 1750–1822) Ancient Greek and German bilingual
 * Ericus Schroderus (Sweden, 1608–1639) Latin and Scandinavian languages multilingual
 * August Schumann (Germany, 1773–1826) German language dictionary of Saxony
 * Norman W. Schur (US, 1907–1992) English lexicons
 * Robert Scott (UK, 1811–1887) Ancient Greek and English bilingual
 * Kurt Heinrich Sethe (Germany, 1869–1934) Ancient Egyptian language
 * Stephen Sewall (US, 1734–1804) Hebrew language
 * Sextus Pompeius Festus (Roman Empire, 2nd century) Ancient Latin etymological
 * Shan-ul-Haq Haqqee (Pakistan/Canada, 1917–2005) Urdu language
 * Jesse Sheidlower (US, born 1968) English language historical
 * Thomas A. Sherwood (US, 1791–1879) English place names gazetteer
 * David Shulman (US, 1912–2004) English language historical
 * Natalia Shvedova (Russia, 1916–2009) Russian language explanatory
 * Johannes Silvet (Estonia, 1895–1979) Estonian and English bilingual
 * John Simpson (UK, born 1953) English language historical
 * John McHardy Sinclair (UK, 1933–2007) English corpus linguistics, learners'
 * Konstantinas Sirvydas (Lithuania, 1580–1631) Lithuanian–Latin–Polish trilingual
 * Stephen Skinner (UK, 1623–1667) English etymological
 * Johan Kristian Skougaard (Norway, 1847–1925) Norwegian and French bilingual
 * Nicholas Slonimsky (Russia, 1894–1995) Musicology, biography and literary criticism
 * Benjamin Eli Smith (US, 1857–1913) English general and LSP
 * John Smith (US, died 1809) Hebrew
 * William Smith (UK, 1813–1893) Greek and Romance languages LSP
 * Knut Fredrik Söderwall (Sweden, 1842–1924) Old Swedish
 * William Edward Soothill (UK/China, 1861–1935) Chinese language LSP
 * Lewis Spence (UK, 1874–1955) English language LSP
 * Alexander Spiers (UK/France, 1807–1869) English and French bilingual
 * Izmail Sreznevsky (Russia, 1812–1880) Ancient Russian language historical
 * Kory Stamper (US, living) Modern American/English
 * Jan Stanisławski (Poland, 1893–1973) Polish and English bilingual
 * Joakim Stulić (Croatia, 1730–1817) Croatian–Latin–Italian trilingual
 * Nahum Stutchkoff (US, 1893–1965) Yiddish

T

 * John Van Nest Talmage (US/China, 1819–1892) Chinese and English bilingual
 * Peter Tamony (US, 1902–1985) English LSP etymology
 * Jack Thiessen (Canada, 1932–present) Plautdietsch
 * Antoine Thomas (Belgium, 1644–1709) mathematics glossary
 * Theodoor Gautier Thomas Pigeaud (Germany/Netherlands, 1899–1988) Javanese and Dutch
 * Lewis Thorpe (UK, died 1977) French language
 * Alf Torp (Norway, 1853–1916) Norwegian and Danish bilingual etymological

U

 * Martin Ulvestad (Norway/US, 1865–1942) English–Danish–Norwegian trilingual
 * Laurence Urdang (US, 1927–2008) English language general
 * Dmitry Ushakov (Russia, 1873–1942) Russian language general

V

 * Oreste Vaccari (Italy/Japan, died 1980) Japanese–English bilingual
 * Johan Hendrik van Dale (Netherlands, 1828–1872) creator of Van Dale's Great Dictionary of the Dutch Language
 * Louis Gustave Vapereau (France, 1819–1906) French LSP
 * G. Venkatasubbaiah (India, 1913–2021) Kannada language general dictionary, Kannada and English bilingual
 * Verrius Flaccus (Ancient Rome, c. 55 BC – 20 AD) Latin language orthographic
 * Anna de Villiers (1900–1979), Afrikaans South African writer, lexicographer, and educator
 * Faust Vrančić (Croatia, 1551–1617) Croatian et al. five-language

W

 * Magdi Wahba (Egypt, 1925–1991) Arabic and English bilingual
 * Noël François de Wailly (France, 1724–1801) French language neologisms
 * John Walker (UK, 1732–1807) English rhymes and pronunciation
 * Fr. Paul Walsh (Ireland, 1885–1941) Irish place names and genealogy
 * John Walters (Wales, 1721–1797) English and Welsh languages
 * Wang Li (China, 1900–1986) Chinese dictionary of word families
 * Grady Ward (US, born 1951) English thesaurus
 * Oliver Wardrop (UK, 1864–1948) Georgian language
 * Noah Webster (US, 1758–1843) English language general
 * Edmund Weiner (UK, born 1950) English language historical
 * William Dwight Whitney (US, 1827–1894) English language general dictionary, English and German bilingual
 * Harischandra Wijayatunga (Sri Lanka, born 1931) Sinhala language general
 * Samuel Wells Williams (US/China, 1812–1884) Chinese language dictionary, Cantonese language
 * Miron Winslow (US/Sri Lanka, 1789–1864) Tamil and English bilingual
 * Arok Wolvengrey (Canada, born 1965) Cree and English bilingual
 * Joseph Emerson Worcester (US, 1784–1865) English general and LSP dictionaries
 * Elizabeth Mary Wright (UK, 1863–1958) English dialect
 * Joseph Wright (UK, 1855–1930) English dialect
 * Henry Cecil Kennedy Wyld (UK, 1870–1945) English language general

X

 * Xu Shen (China, c. 58–147) Chinese character dictionary

Y

 * Robert W. Young (US, 1912–2007) Navajo language general
 * Henry Yule (Scotland and India, 1820–1889), co-compiler of Hobson-Jobson ("A Glossary of Colloquial Anglo-Indian Words and Phrases, and of Kindred Terms, Etymological, Historical, Geographical and Discursive")

Z

 * Ladislav Zgusta (Czechoslovakia/US, 1924–2007) historical/comparative linguistics, onomastics, lexicography
 * Ben Zimmer (US, born 1971) English language visual thesaurus
 * Ghil'ad Zuckermann (Australia/Israel/Italy/UK, born 1971) Barngarla, Hebrew lexicology, phono-semantic matching, expert witness in lexicography

title: List of lexicographers


text:
List of deaf people

Notable Deaf people are typically defined as those who have profound hearing loss in both ears as a result of either acquired or congenital hearing loss. Such people may be associated with deaf culture. Deafness (little to no hearing) is distinguished from partial hearing loss or damage (such as tinnitus), which is less severe impairment in one or both sides. The definition of deafness varies across countries, cultures, and time, though the World Health Organization classes profound hearing loss as the failure to hear a sound of 90 decibels or louder in a hearing test.

In addition to those with profound hearing loss, people without profound hearing loss may also identify as Deaf, often where the person is active within a Deaf community and for whom sign language is their primary language. Those who have mostly lived as a hearing person and acquire deafness briefly, due to a temporary illness or shortly before death, for example, are not typically classed as culturally Deaf.

Deaf educators and organizers

 * Ferdinand Berthier, French intellectual, published several articles, first Deaf person to receive the French Legion of Honour, founder of world's first deaf organization
 * Julia Brace (1807–1884), early American DeafBlind student at the Hartford School for the Deaf
 * Laura Bridgman, (1829–1889), American, first DeafBlind student of Dr. Samuel Howe at the Perkins School for the Blind
 * Teresa de Cartagena, Spanish conversa nun and mystic author of the 15th century who became deaf in later life. The first mystic author in Spanish.
 * Laurent Clerc (1785–1869), student and teacher (1798–1816) at the Paris Deaf school of the Abbé de l'Épée; accompanied Thomas Gallaudet to America to teach deaf children. Co-founded the first Deaf school in North America in 1817 in Hartford, Connecticut.
 * Alice Cogswell, the first deaf student at American School for the Deaf.
 * Robert R. Davila, the ninth president of Gallaudet University
 * Pierre Desloges (1742–?), French deaf writer and bookbinder, first known deaf person to publish a book
 * Gilbert Eastman (1934–2016), American educator, actor, playwright, author, and television host
 * Jane Fernandes, the first Deaf woman to serve as president of an American college or university at Guilford College (2014-2021) in Greensboro, NC and the first Deaf woman to head a school for the Deaf Hawaii School for the Deaf and Blind (1990-1995) Currently president of Antioch College in Yellow Springs, Ohio
 * Andrew Foster, (1925–1987), American educator, the first Black deaf person to earn a bachelor's degree from Gallaudet College, Christian missionary to Africa
 * T. Alan Hurwitz, the tenth president of Gallaudet University and former Vice President of National Technical Institute for the Deaf
 * Casar Jacobson, Norwegian-Canadian first-ever deaf winner of Miss Canada (2013), a disability rights activist and the UN Woman Youth Champion.
 * I. King Jordan, the first deaf president (eighth overall) of Gallaudet University
 * Liisa Kauppinen (born 1939), Finnish human rights activist, former president of the World Federation of the Deaf
 * Helen Keller, American deaf-blind writer, lecturer, and actress
 * Dorothy Miles, deaf poet and activist
 * Lawrence R. Newman, deaf educator and activist, and served two terms as President of the National Association of the Deaf
 * Michael Ndurumo, a deaf educator from Kenya, the third deaf person from Africa to be awarded a PhD
 * Marie Jean Philip, a teacher and leading international advocate for the right to sign language
 * George Veditz, the former president of the National Association of the Deaf, and one of the first people to film sign language

Actors

 * Shelley Beattie, American actress and bodybuilder
 * Sean Berdy, actor and comedian
 * Linda Bove, actress, known particularly for the role of Linda the Librarian on the children's television program Sesame Street
 * Deanne Bray, actress who played the lead role on Sue Thomas: F.B.Eye
 * Millie Bobby Brown, an actress from Stranger Things, totally deaf in her right ear
 * Stephen Colbert, actor, comedian, and talk show host, totally deaf in his right ear.
 * Aryana Engineer, actress
 * Lou Ferrigno, American actor and bodybuilder
 * Phyllis Frelich, American actress, Best Actress in a Broadway play: Children of a Lesser God 1980
 * Russell Harvard, actor whose first language is American Sign Language
 * Bob Hiltermann, actor, writer, director, and musician
 * Emilio Insolera, Italian actor and director of Sign Gene
 * Troy Kotsur (Best Supporting Actor) for his role in "CODA"
 * Ryan Lane, actor and model
 * Gabriella Leon, English actress
 * Marlee Matlin, first deaf person to win an Academy Award (Best Actress) for her role in Children of a Lesser God
 * Leslie Nielsen, Canadian-American comedic actor who was legally deaf
 * Audree Norton, American actress and educator, one of the founding members of the National Theatre of the Deaf
 * Lauren Ridloff, an American actress, played the role of Connie (a deaf character) in the ninth season of The Walking Dead. In Eternals, released in 2021, she played the deaf superhero Makkari.
 * Terrylene Sacchetti, actress
 * Howie Seago, actor and director
 * Millicent Simmonds, deaf actress
 * Shoshannah Stern, actress in Jericho and Weeds whose first language is American Sign Language
 * Alexandria Wailes, deaf actress, dancer, and educator
 * Bruce Willis, American actor, producer, and singer, 70% deaf in his left ear

Artists

 * Chuck Baird, (1947–2012), American painter and performer, one of the founding members of the De'Via Deaf art movement
 * Bernard Bragg, performer, writer, director, poet, and artist
 * John Brewster Jr. (1766–1854) portraitist and miniaturist in Connecticut, Massachusetts and Maine in the Federalist period in America
 * Edward Caledon Bruce (1825-1900), American painter, author, and publisher
 * John Carlin (1813-1891), American painter
 * Thomas Davidson, RA an English painter specializing in historical naval scenes (1842–1919)
 * Walter Geikie, Scottish painter
 * Francisco Goya (1746-1828) Spanish painter, became deaf at age 47.
 * David Hockney (b. 1937), British painter
 * Regina Olson Hughes, American Illustrator
 * Jan (born 1939) Spanish comic artist. Deaf since age 6.
 * Betty G. Miller, American artist
 * Maurycy Minkowski, deaf Polish Jewish artist (1881/2–1930)
 * Juan Fernández Navarrete, Spanish Mannerist painter (1526–79)
 * Albert Newsam (1809–1864) lithographer, and student of Catlin
 * Will J. Quinlan, American artist, etcher, painter
 * Slava Raškaj (1877–1906), Croatian painter
 * Granville Redmond, American painter, actor
 * Alfred Thomson, an English artist and Olympic Gold Medalist (1894–1979)
 * Douglas Tilden, American sculptor
 * Frederick LaMonto, American sculptor, artist. (1921-1981)

Musicians

 * Ludwig van Beethoven, German composer and pianist, who acquired almost complete deafness by age 44.
 * Beethoven's Nightmare, The first and the only deaf rock band in the world cofounded by Bob Hiltermann, drummer from California, Ed Chevy, and Steve Longo from California. Founded in 1971 and still active.
 * Mabel Hubbard Bell, wife of telephone inventor Alexander Graham Bell
 * William Boyce, a British composer who acquired deafness in his late 40s
 * Sean Forbes, American musician, songwriter, and rapper
 * TL Forsberg, American avant-garde rock singer who identifies as deaf
 * Evelyn Glennie, Scottish percussionist, won Grammy for Best Musician in a Recording 1989: Bartok's Sonata for Two Pianos and Percussion
 * Mandy Harvey, American jazz singer and a finalist of America's Got Talent (season 12)
 * Geraldine Lawhorn, musician, actress, instructor and first deaf-blind African-American person to earn a college degree
 * Signmark, Finnish rap artist
 * Bedřich Smetana, Czech composer who became completely deaf at age 50
 * Mariko Takamura, deaf Japanese musician

Scientists

 * Guillaume Amontons, French inventor and physicist
 * Annie Jump Cannon, Harvard astronomer recognized for her work in stellar classification
 * Thomas Edison, American businessperson and inventor
 * John Goodricke, (1764–1786), English astronomer
 * Olaf Hassel, Norwegian astronomer
 * Nansie S. Sharpless, American biochemist
 * Henrietta Swan Leavitt, American astronomer
 * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Russian astronomer

Sports

 * Cecilia Hanhikoski, Finnish snowboarder and futsal player
 * Ashley Fiolek, American motocross racer and stunt actress
 * Yehuda Gruenfeld, Israeli chess grandmaster
 * Matt Hammill, American mixed martial arts fighter
 * Gerry Hughes, British sports sailor
 * Jim Kyte, Canadian hockey player
 * Rebecca Macree, British squash player
 * Robert Marchand, American masters cyclist
 * Caleb McDuff, British Racing Driver
 * Mike Murphy, American athletic trainer
 * Kitty O'Neil, American race driver and stunt actress
 * Aimee Walker Pond, American gymnast
 * Jock Porter, British motorcycle racer
 * Marie Roethlisberger, American gymnast
 * Lana Skeledžija, Croatian sport shooter
 * Melanie Stabel, German sport shooter
 * Joe Swail, Northern Irish snooker player
 * Laurentia Tan, Singaporean Paralympic equestrian
 * Tone Tangen Myrvoll, Norwegian runner, skier, and orienteer
 * Margareta Trnková-Hanne, Czech sprinter and tennis player
 * Ildikó Újlaky-Rejtő, Hungarian fencer and Olympic champion
 * Boris Verlinsky, Ukrainian-Russian chess master
 * Melinda Vernon, Australian distance runner, triathlete and swimmer
 * Heidi Zimmer, American mountaineer

American football

 * Albert Berg, American footballer player, coach, and writer
 * Derrick Coleman, American fullback and Super Bowl champion
 * Gilbert O. Erickson, American college footballer player and photographer
 * Bonnie Sloan, American defensive tackle and first deaf person drafted to the National Football League
 * Kenny Walker, American gridiron player and first deaf player in the Canadian Football League
 * Blaise Winter, American coach and former defensive end in the NFL

Association football

 * Eunate Arraiza, Spanish defender/midfielder
 * Cliff Bastin, English forward for Arsenal
 * Jozo Bogdanović, Croatian forward
 * Stan Burton, English winger
 * Memnos Costi, English footballer and television presenter
 * Damir Desnica, Croatian forward
 * Matthew Eby, American defender/midfielder
 * Thomas Elliott, British forward
 * Albert Gardner, English midfielder
 * Danielle Gibbons, English goalkeeper
 * Andy Greig, Scottish goalkeeper
 * Stefan Markolf, German defender
 * Athiel Mbaha, Namibian goalkeeper and international at the Africa Cup of Nations
 * Simon Ollert, German forward
 * John Tosswill, English forward

Athletics

 * Nele Alder-Baerens, German distance runner
 * Natasha Bacchus, Canadian sprinter
 * Dean Barton-Smith, Australian decathlete
 * Edie Boyer, American discus thrower
 * Suslaidy Girat, Cuban sprinter and jumper
 * Emilija Manninen, Estonian hurdler
 * Marie-Paule Miller, French heptathlete
 * Amy-Lea Mills, Australian javelin thrower
 * Dawn Moncrieffe, Canadian middle-distance runner
 * Trude Raad, Norwegian thrower
 * Ruth Taubert Seeger, American sprinter and jumper
 * Evgenii Shvetcov, Russian Paralympic runner
 * Vyacheslav Skomorokhov, Ukrainian-Soviet hurdler
 * Gerhard Sperling, East German racewalker
 * Beryl Wamira, Kenyan sprinter
 * Rita Windbrake, German runner

Baseball

 * Michael Cuddyer, American outfielder in MLB during 2001–2015; two-time MLB All-Star
 * Dummy Deegan, American pitcher for the New York Giants in 1901
 * Ed Dundon, American pitcher and first deaf player in MLB, in 1883–1884
 * Tyson Gillies, Canadian outfielder and Pan American Games gold medalist
 * Dummy Hoy, American center fielder and most accomplished deaf player in MLB, during 1888–1902
 * Yuya Ishii, Japanese pitcher in Nippon Professional Baseball
 * Dummy Leitner, American pitcher in MLB during 1901–1902
 * Thomas Lynch, American pitcher for the Chicago White Stockings (NL) in 1884
 * Curtis Pride, American outfielder in MLB during 1993–2006; college baseball coach
 * Dick Sipek, American outfielder for the Cincinnati Reds in 1945
 * Dummy Stephenson, American outfielder for the Philadelphia Phillies in 1892
 * Dummy Taylor, American pitcher in MLB during 1901–1908

Basketball

 * Lance Allred, American forward and first legally-deaf NBA player
 * Buffalo Silents, a 1920s American all-deaf team
 * Tamika Catchings, American small forward, 2012 WNBA champion and four-time Olympic gold medallist
 * Wissam Constantin, Lebanese forward and first deaf player in the Lebanese Basketball League
 * Cecilia Ferm, Swedish international player
 * Emma Meesseman, Belgian player in the WNBA
 * Ronda Jo Miller, American player and first deaf woman to try out for the WNBA
 * Miha Zupan, Slovenian power forward

Cricket

 * Anjan Bhattacharjee, Indian first-class bowler for Bihar
 * Lance Cairns, New Zealand all-rounder and international test player
 * John Hodgkins, English first-class all-rounder for Nottinghamshire
 * Charlie McLeod, Australian all-rounder and international test player
 * Imran Sheikh, former captain of the deaf India national team
 * Baba Sidhaye, Indian first-class all-rounder and first national-level deaf-mute player
 * Umesh Valjee, former captain of the deaf England national team

Swimming

 * Carli Cronk, American swimmer, Deaflympic Champion winning 12 gold in a single Games, and deaf world record holder
 * Cindy-Lu Bailey, Australian swimmer and 29-time Deaflympic medalist
 * Peggy de Villiers, South African swimmer and Deaflympian
 * Natalia Deeva, Belarusian swimmer and four-time Deaflympic champion
 * Gertrude Ederle, American Olympic medalist and the first woman to swim the English channel
 * Jeff Float, American swimmer and Olympic and world champion
 * Reed Gershwind, American swimmer and 30-time Deaflympic medalist
 * Danielle Joyce, British swimmer and two-time Deaflympic champion
 * Matthew Klotz, American swimmer and deaf world record holder
 * Cornell Loubser, South African swimmer and Deaflympic medalist
 * Jill Diana Lovett, British swimmer and Deaflympian
 * Rebecca Meyers, American swimmer and visually-impaired Paralympic champion
 * Linda Neumann, German swimmer and Deaflympic medalist
 * Terence Parkin, South African swimmer and Olympic and world medalist
 * Alexandra Polivanchuk, Swedish swimmer and deaf world record holder
 * Anna Polivanchuk, Swedish swimmer and deaf world record holder, sister of Alexandra
 * Taranath Narayan Shenoy, Indian deaf-blind open water swimmer and swimmer of the English channel

Tennis

 * Vidisha Baliyan, Indian tennis player and beauty pageant contestant
 * Emily Hangstefer, American tennis player and Deaflympian
 * Jafreen Shaik, Indian tennis player and Deaflympian
 * Mario Kargl, Austrian tennis player and former deaf world champion
 * Lee Duck-hee, South Korean tennis player and twice competitor on the ATP Challenger Tour
 * Gábor Máthé, Hungarian champion and Deaflympic champion
 * Angela Mortimer, British tennis player and multiple Grand Slam winner
 * Barbara Oddone, Italian tennis player and multiple Deaflympic champion
 * Prithvi Sekhar, Indian tennis player and Deaflympian

Winter sports

 * Jenny Berrigan, American snowboarder
 * Brenda Davidson, Canadian curler
 * Emma Logan, Canadian curler
 * Jakub Nosek, Czech bobsledder
 * Margarita Noskova, Russian snowboarder
 * Anna Surmilina, Russian snowboarder
 * Jack Ulrich, Canadian ice hockey player
 * Lauren Weibert, American snowboarder

Writers

 * Rashida Abedi, Pakistani-British autobiographical writer
 * Kashaf Alvi, Pakistani writer
 * Kathleen L. Brockway, author, historian, and deaf rights' activist
 * John Lee Clark, American deafblind poet
 * Willy Conley, playwright, actor, photographer
 * Agatha Tiegel Hanson, American writer
 * Eugen Relgis, Romanian humanist writer and political activist
 * Michael Chorost, writer and technologist who wrote on his experience of cochlear implants
 * Angeline Fuller Fischer, American writer
 * Harold MacGrath, American author
 * Pierre de Ronsard, French poet
 * Laura C. Redden Searing,(1893–1923), Civil war journalist, biographer, and poet
 * Louise Stern, writer and artist
 * Ted Supalla, researcher and professor
 * Clayton Valli, deaf linguist and ASL poet

Other occupations

 * Dimitra Arapoglou, a deaf member of the Greek parliament, from 2007 to 2009
 * Alice of Battenberg, a German Princess in the 19th and 20th century
 * Marla Berkowitz, ASL interpreter; as of 2020, the only Deaf ASL interpreter in the US state of Ohio
 * Earnest Elmo Calkins, a deaf American advertising executive who pioneered the use of art in advertising
 * Nyle DiMarco, season 22 Dancing with the Stars champion and 2015 winner of America's Next Top Model
 * Haben Girma, first deafblind graduate of Harvard Law School
 * Claudia L. Gordon, lawyer
 * Olof Hanson, architect
 * Helen Heckman, dancer
 * Henrietta Howard, Countess of Suffolk
 * Juliette Gordon Low, founder of the Girl Scouts of the USA who became completely deaf age 17.
 * Charlotte Lamberton, dancer
 * Mojo Mathers (b. 1966), New Zealand politician
 * Florence Lewis May, American textile curator
 * Roger Demosthenes O'Kelly (b. 1880), deaf-blind black lawyer, Yale alumnus
 * Dame Kathleen Ollerenshaw (b. 1912), British mathematician and politician
 * François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville, French prince and naval commander
 * Opu Daeng Risaju, Indonesian independence activist.
 * Andrew Phillips, lawyer
 * Rikki Poynter, deaf YouTuber and activist.
 * Punk Chef, celebrity deaf chef from the UK
 * Elizabeth Steel, the earliest record of a deaf person in Australia
 * Sue Thomas, first deaf person to work as an undercover investigator doing lip-reading of suspects for the Federal Bureau of Investigation
 * Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Russian rocket scientist and pioneer of space exploration studies
 * Heather Whitestone, first deaf woman to win the title of Miss America
 * Nellie Zabel Willhite, pilot
 * David Wright, South African-born British poet
 * Judith Wright, Australian poet

Fictional characters

 * Connie, a deaf character that fights zombies in AMC's The Walking Dead series.
 * Echo, a deaf Native American martial artist from Marvel Comics.
 * Drury Lane, a deaf detective written by Ellery Queen.
 * Jade Lovall, a partially deaf nurse in the BBC medical drama Casualty.
 * Gabriella, a deaf mermaid and one of Ariel's friends in The Little Mermaid.
 * Hawkeye (Clint Barton), a deaf archer from marvel comics.
 * Maxine "Max" Coleman, a deaf girl and Esther's adoptive younger sister in 2009 horror film Orphan.
 * Hearthstone, a deaf elf and one of Magnus's friends from Rick Riordan's Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard.
 * Regan Abbott, a deaf daughter of Evelyn & Lee Abbott in 2018 horror film A Quiet Place.
 * Jia Andrews, a deaf girl in 2021 film Godzilla vs. Kong.

title: List of deaf people


text:
Bob Lazar

Robert Scott Lazar (born January 26, 1959) is an American conspiracy theorist. In 1989, Lazar claimed to have been part of a classified US government project concerned with the reverse engineering of extraterrestrial technology; he also purported to have read government briefing documents that described alien involvement in human affairs over the past 10,000 years. A self-proclaimed physicist, Lazar supposedly worked at a secret site near the United States Air Force facility popularly known as Area 51. His story brought additional public attention to the facility and spawned conspiracy theories regarding government knowledge of extraterrestrial life.

Lazar has no evidence of alien life or technology, and his claimed education and employment history is replete with fabrication. Lazar is also a criminal: he was convicted in 1990 for his involvement in a prostitution ring, and again in 2006 for selling illegal chemicals. As well as being dismissed by skeptics, Lazar has been renounced by some ufologists. Journalist Ken Layne states, "A lot of credible people have looked at Lazar's story and rationally concluded that he made it up."

Background
Lazar graduated from high school late, in the bottom third of his class. The only science course he took was a chemistry class. He subsequently attended Pierce Junior College in Los Angeles.

In 1982, Lazar worked as a technician for a contractor company that provided support staff to the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility, within the Los Alamos National Laboratory. He filed for bankruptcy in 1986, where he described himself as a self-employed film processor. Lazar owns and operates United Nuclear Scientific Equipment and Supplies, which sells a variety of materials and chemicals.

Education
Lazar claims to have obtained master's degrees in physics from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and in electronics from the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). However, both universities show no record of him. Scientists Stanton T. Friedman and Donald R. Prothero have stated that nobody with Lazar's high school performance record would be accepted by either institution. Lazar is unable to supply the names of any lecturers or fellow students from his alleged tenures at MIT and Caltech; one supposed Caltech professor, William Duxler, was in fact located at Pierce Junior College and had never taught at Caltech. Friedman asserted, "Quite obviously, if one can go to MIT, one doesn't go to Pierce. Lazar was at Pierce at the very same time he was supposedly at MIT more than 2,500 miles away."

Employment
Lazar claims to be a physicist, and to have worked in this capacity during his tenure at the Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility. This assertion was echoed by local journalist Terry England, who interviewed Lazar about his interest in jet-powered cars in 1982; some media outlets have since dubbed him a "physicist". Asked about the article in 2021, however, England admitted that he took Lazar's claims at face value and did not fact-check his credentials as a physicist. Inquiry into Lazar's position at Los Alamos revealed his role to have been a technician for a contractor firm, and that he worked neither as a physicist or for the lab directly. As such, the facility retains no records on Lazar, whom Prothero states was "in short, rather a minor player." The Smithsonian, and various mainstream outlets, have stated that his "physicist" designation is self-proclaimed.

Since 1989, Lazar has achieved public notoriety as an Area 51 conspiracy theorist. In May of that year, he appeared in an interview with investigative reporter George Knapp on Las Vegas TV station KLAS, under the pseudonym "Dennis" and with his face hidden, to discuss his purported employment at "S-4", a subsidiary facility he claimed exists near the Nellis Air Force Base installation known as Area 51. He claims that the said facility was adjacent to Papoose Lake, which is located south of the main Area 51 facility at Groom Lake. He claimed the site consisted of concealed aircraft hangars built into a mountainside. Lazar said that his job was to help with the reverse engineering of one of nine flying saucers, which he alleged were extraterrestrial in origin. He claims one of the flying saucers, the one he coined the "Sport Model", was manufactured out of a metallic substance similar in appearance and touch to liquid titanium. In a subsequent interview that November, Lazar appeared unmasked and under his own name, where he claimed that his job interview for work at the facility was with contractor EG&G and that his employer was the United States Navy. EG&G stated it had no records on him. His supposed employment at a Nellis Air Force Base subsidiary has also been discredited by skeptics, as well as by the United States Air Force.

Lazar has claimed that the propulsion of the studied vehicle ran on an antimatter reactor and was fueled by the chemical element with atomic number 115 (E115), which at the time was provisionally named ununpentium and had not yet been artificially created. (It was first synthesized in 2003 and later named moscovium.) He said that the propulsion system relied on a stable isotope of E115, which allegedly generates a gravity wave that allowed the vehicle to fly and to evade visual detection by bending light around it.

No stable isotopes of moscovium have yet been synthesized. All have proven extremely radioactive, decaying in a few hundred milliseconds. Lazar said the craft was dismantled, and the reactor he studied was topped by a sphere or semi-sphere which emitted a force field capable of repulsing human flesh. He explained that the craft was split into two main levels.

The reactor was positioned at the center of the upper level, with an antenna extending to the top, surrounded by three "gravity amplifiers". These connected to "gravity emitters" on the lower level, which can rotate 180 degrees to output a "gravity beam or anti-gravity wave" and that the craft would then travel "belly first" into this distortion field.

Lazar has claimed that during his joining the program, he read briefing documents describing the historical involvement of Earth for the past 10,000 years with extraterrestrial beings described as grey aliens from a planet orbiting the twin binary star system Zeta Reticuli. As of September 2019, no extrasolar planets have been found in the Zeta Reticuli system. In 1989, Lazar said the seats of the saucer he saw were approximately child-sized and that he had seen alien cadavers of a corresponding size.

He said that while walking down a hallway at S-4, he briefly glanced through a door window and saw what he interpreted as two men in lab coats facing down and talking to "something small with long arms". Three decades later, he said he did not think he saw an alien, but speculated that he saw a doll used as reference for the size of the alleged aliens, and that a nickname used for them was "the kids". Lazar's claims about S-4 brought additional public attention to its supposed parent facility, Area 51, and spawned conspiracy theories regarding government knowledge of extraterrestrial life.

Lazar alleges that his employment and education records have been erased; Friedman, Prothero and author Timothy D. Callahan find this to be implausible. His story has drawn significant media attention, controversy, supporters, and detractors. Lazar has no evidence of alien life or technology and remains a polarizing figure among ufologists.

In 2017, Lazar's workplace was raided by the FBI and local police which Lazar theorizes was to recover "element 115", a substance he says he took from a government lab. Records obtained through a freedom of information request show the raid was part of a murder investigation to determine whether his company sold thallium to a murder suspect in Michigan. Lazar is not listed as a suspect in the investigation.

Public appearances and media
Lazar and long-time friend Gene Huff ran the Desert Blast festival, an annual festival in the Nevada desert for pyrotechnics enthusiasts. The festival started in 1987, but was only formally named in 1991. The name was inspired by Operation Desert Storm. The festival features homemade explosives, rockets, jet-powered vehicles, and other pyrotechnics, with the aim of emphasizing the fun aspect of chemistry and physics.

Lazar was featured in producer George Knapp and Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell's documentary Bob Lazar: Area 51 & Flying Saucers and Joe Rogan's podcast. Lazar had met and discussed his alleged works on UFOs with Navy pilot and commander David Fravor, who witnessed the USS Nimitz UFO incident in 2004.

Criminal convictions
In 1990, Lazar was arrested for aiding and abetting a prostitution ring. This was reduced to felony pandering, to which he pleaded guilty. He was ordered to do 150 hours of community service, stay away from brothels, and undergo psychotherapy.

In 2006, Lazar and his wife Joy White were charged with violating the Federal Hazardous Substances Act for shipping restricted chemicals across state lines. The charges stemmed from a 2003 raid on United Nuclear's business offices, where chemical sales records were examined. United Nuclear pleaded guilty to three criminal counts of introducing into interstate commerce, and aiding and abetting the introduction into interstate commerce, banned hazardous substances. In 2007, United Nuclear was fined $7,500 for violating a law prohibiting the sale of chemicals and components used to make illegal fireworks.

Journalist Stephen Rodrick and author Neil Nixon write that further doubts have been cast on Lazar's credibility due to his criminal activity. Author Timothy Good and filmmaker Jeremy Kenyon Lockyer Corbell, who have perpetuated Lazar's story, concur with this assertion.

title: Bob Lazar


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Talk:Employer

How is this not a dictionary definition? Can we add more? Mark Richards 19:00, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Employer


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Counts of Urgell

This is a list of the counts of Urgell, a county of the Principality of Catalonia in the 10th through 13th centuries.

c. 798–870 Counts appointed by the Carolingians

 * 798–820 Borrell, count of Urgell and Cerdanya
 * 820–824 Aznar Galíndez I, count of Aragon, was given Borrell's counties while he was exiled from Aragon
 * 824–834 Galindo Aznárez I
 * 834–848 Sunifred I
 * 848–870 Solomon (or Miró)

870–992 Counts from the House of Barcelona

 * 870–897 Wilfred the Hairy, Count of Barcelona, Girona-Osona and Urgell-Cerdanya
 * 898–948 Sunifred II
 * 948–966 Miró de Barcelona, born c. 940
 * 966–30 September 992 Borrell II, count of Barcelona, Girona, Osona

992–1213 Counts from the House of Barcelona-Urgell

 * 992 – 1 September 1010 Ermengol I el de Còrdova ("of Cordoba"), born 975, killed in battle at Córdoba in 1010
 * 1010–1038 Ermengol II el Peregrí ("the Pilgrim"), born 1009, died on pilgrimage to Jerusalem, 1038
 * 1038–1065 Ermengol III el de Barbastre ("of Barbastro"), born c. 1033, killed at Barbastro in February or March 1065
 * 1065–11 March 1092 Ermengol IV el de Gerp ("of Gerp"), born c. 1056
 * 1092–1102 Ermengol V el de Mollerussa ("of Mollerussa"), born 1078/1079, died in the Battle of Mollerussa
 * 1102–1153/1154 Ermengol VI el de Castella ("of Castile"), born 1096
 * 1153/1154–1184 Ermengol VII el de València ("of Valencia")
 * 1184–1208/1209 Ermengol VIII el de Sant Hilari ("of Sant Hilari")
 * 1208/1209–1213 Countess Aurembiaix (first time) under regency of Peter II of Aragon

1213–1228 Counts from the House of Cabrera

 * 1213–1228 Guerau I of Urgell, IV of Cabrera (usurper)

1228–1236 Counts from the House of Barcelona-Urgell

 * 1228–1231 Countess Aurembiaix (second time),
 * from 1229 with her husband, Peter I. She died in 1231.
 * 1231–1236 King James I of Aragon

1236–1314 Counts from the House of Cabrera

 * 1236–1243 Ponç I (Ponç IV of Cabrera)
 * 1243 Ermengol IX son of previous.
 * 1243–1268 Álvaro el Castellà ("the Castilian") brother of previous.
 * 1268–1314 Ermengol X son of previous.

1314–1413 Counts from the House of Barcelona

 * 10 November 1314 – 1327 King Alfonso IV of Aragon, died 1366, Married Teresa de Entença, who was the grandniece and legal heir of Ermengol X, Count of Urgell.
 * 1327–1347 James I of Urgell, Prince of Aragon, born 1321, poisoned in Barcelona in 1347
 * 1347–1408 Peter II of Urgell, born 1340, died at Balaguer, 1408
 * 1408–31 October 1413 James II of Urgell. When Martin I of Aragon died, James was a candidate to the crown, but the Compromise of Caspe preferred Ferdinand of Antequera. James revolted, and on 31 October 1413, surrendered to the king. The county of Urgell was dissolved and count James died in jail in the castle of Xàtiva on 1 June 1433.

title: Counts of Urgell