text:
Talk:Alexandra Kollontai

Old talk
I am not sure of the place of accent in Domontovich. Any ideas? — Monedula
 * Last o is correct. Mikkalai 00:52, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Mikhail Domontovich
I found two links to Mikhail Domontovich's involvement in Bulgaria (and it's constitution). These do not need to go in to the Kollontai article. The primary source is Kollontai's memoirs. (in Finnish :-( -- Petri Krohn 04:45, 25 October 2005
 * 125 YEARS DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS at Bulgarian Diplomatic Review
 * BULGARIA (List of Bulgarian rulers & ministers)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:52, 23 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Совет народных комиссаров (Ленин, Штейнберг, Комков, Бонч-Бруевич, Трутовский...), 1918.jpg

Ancestry in early life section
IP, please make your case for adding information mentioned with attribution to a family biography in interaffairs. The article is currently written from the basis of several biographies by established academics, so if they make no mention of it it's probably not WP:DUE. signed,Rosguill talk 00:24, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

 * For starters I'll repeat what I've said in the note following my revert:

You reverted not to pre-dispute status quo but to a version which erases her progenitor that was already there pre-dispute; either this is oversight on your part or deliberate; furthermore, I've just noticed that the subject is nee Domontovich, meaning your edit is obscuring the very origin of her surname (Domont, Daumantas, whatever the spelling)).
 * I started editing this article after her origin from Daumantas was already in the article. I added link to Lithuanian nobility which does provide important context (the multi-ethnic and multi-religious character of that nobility) in only 2 words and a hyperlink.
 * Your stance to remove her origin that is in her family surname seems to be off a reasonable consensus that I would think is the current version of the article. It does say she was Ukrainian; it does mention her origins; it makes a separation between citizenship, ethnicity and belonging to a super-national nobility (as all of them were/are).
 * What is missing?
 * 1. More explicit clarification of the origin of her surname (one has to be specialist of the entire region to make connection between Domont and Domontovich.
 * 2. You say, better references? 151.11.216.130 (talk) 01:35, 19 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I've just looked into the 2 present references.
 * The English reference is typically lazy as most were during the times of the Iron Curtain. It says she was "Russian" nobility even though her father was Domontovich (a "Ukrainian") and her mother's father was a Finn. It would take some time to explain why this is wrong in detail. The gust is that while she was a Marxist we are assessing her family origins which were aristocratic. Aristocracy does not become "Russian" just because someone is born in Russia or because the country is part of Russian empire between dates x and y. One does not become Ukrainian aristocrat either because there has never been such a thing, it's a contradiction in terms (Ukraine is a nation state and previously a region; although yes, there was Kievan Rus' aristocracy).
 * The Russian reference is not as lazy and says: Домонтовичи ведут свою родословную от знаменитого князя Довмонта Псковского, княжившего в XIII веке с 1266 года в Пскове, принявшего монашество и признанного православной церковью святым Тимофеем Псковским. У псковичей имеется много легенд, песен и сказаний, сложенных в честь доблестных походов князя Довмонта на тевтонских рыцарей. Народ его высоко чтил. Мощи святого Довмонта и его победоносный меч хранятся в Псковском монастыре…
 * Let's compare her to Lee Radziwill, an American (and a capitalist). Was she part of Lithuanian nobility? Yes, by virtue of marrying into it. Was she American? Yes. What's not analogous here? 151.11.216.130 (talk) 01:58, 19 December 2022 (UTC)
 * I'm not saying that the Interfax information is lazy, I'm saying that it's unreliable: all of the information is Воспоминания внука об Александре Михайловне Коллонтай –, "the memoirs of Alexandra Kollontai's nephew". This is not information that is independent of Kollontai, and is not due on this basis. Find me a historian that makes this claim and I will have no problem including it. signed,Rosguill talk 02:38, 19 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Kollontai has died quite a while ago. Nephew is not a dependent party but a primary source. Interfax is not an unreliable or a deprecated source. It is unreasonable to wait until a historian uses the same Interfax report to draw the same conclusions. It is also unreasonable not to draw conclusions from her surname. Domontovich is an extremely uncommon surname. Since you reverted to quo this time, maybe it can stay this way.

151.11.216.130 (talk) 11:01, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

 * The intervening time is, if anything, an argument for the exclusive preference for sources written by actual historians, and Interfax's reliability is largely irrelevant here because they attribute their information to someone else (the nephew's memoir). Deriving conclusions ourselves from her surname or primary sources is original research, which is not allowed on Wikipedia. The status quo is fine by me, although as written it doesn't look like there's any information in the Interfax citation that is actually being used, so its inclusion doesn't really serve our readers at all. signed,Rosguill talk 19:11, 19 December 2022 (UTC)

Only woman other than Maria Spiridonova to play a prominent role in the Russian Revolution?
How do I edit this out without breaking the rule of not being allowed to remove parts of quotes: "She was the only woman other than Maria Spiridonova to play a prominent role during the Russian Revolution"? It does not show up as a quote when I edit it, I also did not realize that removing part of a quote while keeping the citation in tact was a cause for concern, apologies. There were many women involved in the Russian Revolution, even if they did not play as prominent of a role as being the first woman in the cabinet. I think this statement is unnecessarily reductive and does not tell the truth about the role of women in the Russian Revolution, see Women in the Russian Revolution for starters. EmSim15 (talk) 23:59, 2 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Or is this not what I removed? Looking back on my edit it appears I (embarrassingly) removed part of a quote that was in reference to her being the first woman in the cabinet...if so I request permission instead remove this part ("She was the only woman other than Maria Spiridonova to play a prominent role during the Russian Revolution") from the third paragraph instead. Sincerest apologies for the mistake. EmSim15 (talk) 00:02, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Normally I'd demand sources to counter text with a citation attached, but the claim in question is so easily disproven by a review of Women in the Russian Revolution and the various biographies linked from there. I'm going to go take a look at the originally cited source tomorrow, looks like a library near me has it--I'd bet that it probably has a similar but more factually accurate claim calling Kollontai and Spiridonova the only women revolutionaries to hold a specific position or play a specific leadership role, rather than the vague qualifier of "prominent". signed,Rosguill talk 00:32, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * That is likely correct, there is probably a better way to phrase it for sure. Although, I think it is enough to say that she was the first woman to hold a position as cabinet minister/ambassador without unnecessarily diminishing the contributions of other women, as that is a huge feat in itself! That said, I will let you be the judge of that. Thanks in advance for reviewing the source! EmSim15 (talk) 00:42, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * When I made the related edit in the article, I remember finding the original English source online, but I can't remember where. While waiting for it to be found, I transcribe the quote from the Italian translation below, to allow you to get a preliminary idea:
 * "Nell'Unione Sovietica le donne, di fatto, non hanno avuto un ruolo importante nella direzione politica: la loro principale esponente, Aleksandra Kollontaj, ebbe numerosi incarichi importanti nella diplomazia, mentre l'altra figura femminile di rilievo, Marija Spiridonova, leader della sinistra socialista rivoluzionaria, non occupò alcuna carica nel breve governo di coalizione tra bolscevichi e sinistra socialista rivoluzionaria del 1917-18" (G.D.H. Cole, Storia del pensiero socialista, Bari Laterza, 1972, IV2, p. 445). I'm pretty sure Cole originally used the word "outstanding" rather than "prominent", but I didn't mean to quote verbatim. Jeanambr (talk) 08:15, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * As regards Cole, "outstanding" is the original word, and the above is a faithful translation to the Italian. My sense, given the availability of other sources that would disagree with claim that the only prominent women in the revolution were Kollontai and Spiridonova, we could simply call Kollontai and Spiridonova one of the most prominent, although I think that the lead already makes her prominence quite clear, so we may be able to just stick with the current wording (n.b. I've gone ahead and made the change at Maria Spiridonova).
 * Further complicating matters, Cole states earlier in the same paragraph that The first woman to become Cabinet Minister was the Dane, Nina Bang, who became Minister of Education in 1924, contrary to the other sources crediting Kollontai as first woman cabinet minister. Cross referencing with the rest of the biography, it seems that Kollontai was appointed in August 1924, so it is plausible that Bang was appointed a few weeks or months earlier; at the moment I'm not sure how we should reconcile the competing claims from various sources, as there's essentially no middle ground between the claims. signed,Rosguill talk 15:12, 3 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Evidently Cole (for whom I have had decades of admiration) got it wrong here: Kollontai became People's Commissar soon after the October Revolution and resigned her post in February 1918. In August 1924 she became "minister plenipotentiary", that is, the person in charge of a diplomatic mission of a lower rank than that of an embassy. She would finally become an ambassadress in 1943 when the Soviet diplomatic mission in Stockholm was upgraded to an embassy.
 * I don't disagree with Cole on his statement about the role of the two female revolutionaries: I remember seeing two or three postcards from the revolution bearing photos of the different revolutionary leaders. Next to Lenin, Trotsky, etc. the only two women depicted were obviously Kollontai and Spiridonova in all cases. Which by no means meant any disregard for the other women who had fought alongside them: they were simply the two prominent female leaders. And I don't think there are any sources that can deny this reality. Jeanambr (talk) 15:56, 3 May 2023 (UTC)

It would probably also be necessary to check the immediately following statement that "In 1919, Kollontai founded the Zhenotdel". I do not know the history of this department, but the related article states that it "was established by two Russian feminist revolutionaries, Alexandra Kollontai and Inessa Armand, in 1919", the latter being the first leader until her death in 1920.--Jeanambr (talk) 09:08, 3 May 2023 (UTC)

 * I've changed the statement on Zhenotdel slightly. An English copy edit would be welcome. Jeanambr (talk) 09:41, 8 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alexandra Kollontai


text:
Talk:Aomori

Requested move 27 October 2020

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved --  JHunterJ (talk) 14:09, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

– The city page should be the main topic for the name Aomori, as the prefecture was named after the city upon its formation in the Meiji period. The other names included in the disambiguation page are either named after the city or prefecture, aside from maybe the voice actor Shin Aomori.  ❯❯❯ Mccunicano ☕  06:21, 27 October 2020 (UTC)
 * Aomori (city) → Aomori
 * Aomori → Aomori (disambiguation)
 * Note: the Aomori page is a disambiguation page with significant content, so it is ineligible as a "new" title unless it is also proposed to be renamed. This request has been altered to reflect that fact.  P.I. Ellsworth   ed.  put'r there 15:36, 27 October 2020 (UTC)

 * Support, per nom. Better to have the disambiguation page clearly labeled as such. Slithytoad (talk) 04:14, 28 October 2020 (UTC) !vote by sock of community-banned User:Kauffner struck. Favonian (talk) 10:00, 3 November 2020 (UTC)
 * Support Most things on the disambiguation page are named after the city.ZXCVBNM (TALK) 00:23, 31 October 2020 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Aomori


text:
Talk:Frederick Jackson Turner

Duplication concern
Wait a minute -- four articles about the same thing? We already have Frontier, The Frontier and American frontier, and some links pointing to a not-yet-written Frontier Thesis (apart from a stub entitled American Old West aka Wild West). Is this necessary?  21:56, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Frontier and American frontier look like they could be merged...but the Frontier Thesis is an important historical thesis that should be separate (although I suppose it could just be a section of Frontier). Adam Bishop 21:58, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Image:Frederick Jackson Turner.jpg
Just a piece of information copied from the Village pump:

I still can't see Image:Frederick Jackson Turner.jpg on the Frederick Jackson Turner page. This has happened before (about a year ago or so), and back then I uploaded the image for a second time. Now the same thing has happened again.

Please don't tell me it's displayed fine on your screen. This doesn't help a lot. I'd still like to find out what is wrong here.  00:53, Dec 26, 2004 (UTC)

Religion: Turner Miss something about Turner's Religion, which often influences opinions of men a lot. To judge if it did or not should be left to the reader by handing out the information.

Doesn't work on mine either, I think I caught a glimpse of it before it disappeared. I deleted it :) Hopefully that'll grab the attention of one of the mods who knows how to work the image thinger.

And after experimenting it has nothing to do with the tagging. Beats the heck out of me! 11:02, Jan 31, 2005 (CST)

...we can't find a less pixelated shot of the frontier man here?
 * Turner's religion. None of the biographers suggest it was important. Rjensen 09:41, 20 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Turner was exposed to Presbyterianism as a child but became a Unitarian during his studies at the University of Wisconsin. Bogue, Allan G., Frederick Jackson Turner: Strange Roads Going Down, Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998, ISBN 0-08061-3039-3, pp. 22-23, 153. clariosophic (talk) 02:05, 30 July 2008 (UTC)

Expand!
How is this article so small? He's a very influential historian. J'onn J'onzz (talk) 00:00, 13 October 2008 (UTC)

Possible vandalism
This article has possibly been the target of insidious vandalism. I've spotted, and corrected, some clearly wrong dates. Maybe someone knowledegeble in the biography of Turner could review this article for factual accuracy. Mister Flash (talk) 22:56, 24 February 2010 (UTC)

COI rules -- no problem here
Th COI rule WP:SELFCITE about citing yourself without any doubt allows this edit: ''Using material you have written or published is allowed within reason, but only if it is relevant, conforms to the content policies, including WP:SELFPUB, and is not excessive. Citations should be in the third person and should not place undue emphasis on your work. When in doubt, defer to the community's opinion.'' The item is relevant and conforms to all policies & is not excessive. Kfernlund followed all the rules and should be encouraged--furthermore this is a major scholarly journal whose articles are all vetted by teams of scholars. Rjensen (talk) 19:23, 1 July 2014 (UTC)

FJ Turner
Hi, irrespective of whether you have a COI or not, the original person to add it had some connection with whoever wrote it. Please discuss this on the talk page before adding it again. --Rsrikanth05 (talk) 19:22, 1 July 2014 (UTC)
 * he followed all the rules--it was your mistake to delete it.Rjensen (talk) 19:24, 1 July 2014 (UTC)
 * So now it's my fault that I saw a Conflict of Interest? Wow. Brilliant. --Rsrikanth05 (talk) 19:29, 1 July 2014 (UTC)
 * yes you falsely accused a newbie of breaking the rules and you acted rashly while he had followed the rules exactly. You should apologize for violating the Please do not bite the newcomers rule. Rjensen (talk) 19:37, 1 July 2014 (UTC)

Let's make up our minds.
Did Turner publish "very little" or "extensively"? Seems like we need to make up our minds about that. If the distinction is between publication in academic media versus publication in "highbrow" (is that Wikipedian tone?) media, then let's say so clearly. I don't know enough about Turner's publication history to fix it.

Poihths (talk) 13:46, 30 August 2017 (UTC)
 * he took tens of thousands of pages of notes that resulted in one short book and a few scholarly articles. Rjensen (talk) 06:31, 19 January 2022 (UTC)

Frontier Thesis
I just rendered Frontier Thesis here as frontier thesis (and removed surrounding " if any) mainly because the main article does not render this as a proper noun. To my eye it seemed slightly pretentious, but I realized I wasn't 100% certain of the rule.

On a quick search, I discover many traditional sources saying to capitalize specific (as opposed to general or common) ideas. But then I searched for "theory of evolution" and only a small number of sources (apart from title caps) bothered to render Darwin's specific theory as Theory Evolution, nor does the pertinent Wikipedia page do so. I think the preference to capitalize this kind of noun is waning in the modern tradition. I think also that maintaining a clear distinction between various spins on the theory of evolution and The Theory of Evolution is not entirely viable and that there's too much conceptual bleed and drift in general to usefully impose this discipline, making it look more like a mannerism than a useful convention. — MaxEnt 05:17, 19 January 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Frederick Jackson Turner


text:
Culture of Costa Rica

Costa Rican culture has been heavily influenced by Spanish culture ever since the Spanish colonization of the Americas including the territory which today forms Costa Rica. Parts of the country have other strong cultural influences, including the Caribbean province of Limón and the Cordillera de Talamanca which are influenced by Jamaican immigrants and indigenous native people, respectively.

Ethnic groups

most Costa Ricans are of primarily Spanish or Spanish/Mixed ancestry with minorities of German, Italian, French, Dutch, British, Swedish and Greek ancestry. Whites, Castizo and Mestizo together comprise 83% of the population.

European migrants in Costa Rica to get across the isthmus of Central America as well to reach the USA West Coast (California) in the late 19th century and until the 1910s (before the Panama Canal opened). Other European ethnic groups known to live in Costa Rica include Russians, Danes, Belgians, Portuguese, Croats, Poles, Turks, Armenians and Georgians.

Many of the first Spanish colonists in Costa Rica may have been Jewish converts to Christianity who were expelled from Spain in 1492 and fled to colonial backwaters to avoid the Inquisition. The first sizable group of self-identified Jews immigrated from Poland, beginning in 1929. From the 1930s to the early 1950s, journalistic and official anti-Semitic campaigns fueled harassment of Jews; however, by the 1950s and 1960s, the immigrants won greater acceptance. Most of the 3,500 Costa Rican Jews today are not highly observant, but they remain largely endogamous.

Costa Rica has four small minority groups: Mulatto, Black, Amerindian and Asian people. About 8% of the population is of African descent or Mulatto (mix of European and black) who are called Afro-Costa Ricans, descendants of Sub-Saharan Africans enslaved by the Spanish, and descendants of 19th century English-speaking Jamaican immigrant workers.

In 1873, the Atlantic Railroad imported 653 Chinese indentured laborers, hoping to duplicate the success of rail projects that used Chinese labor in Peru, Cuba, and the United States. Asians represent less than 0.5% of the Costa Rican population, mostly from China, Taiwan and Japan.

There are also over 104,000 Native American or indigenous inhabitants, representing 2.4% of the population. Most of them live in secluded reservations, distributed among eight ethnic groups: Quitirrisí (in the Central Valley), Matambú or Chorotega (Guanacaste), Maleku (northern Alajuela), Bribri (southern Atlantic), Cabécar (Cordillera de Talamanca), Guaymí (southern Costa Rica, along the Panamá border), Boruca (southern Costarable portion of the Costa Rican population is made up of Nicaraguans. There is also a number of Colombian refugees. Moreover, Costa Rica accepted many refugees from various other Latin American countries fleeing civil wars and dictatorships during the 1970s and 1980s – notably from El Salvador, Chile, Argentina, Cuba and recently from Venezuela.

Currently immigrants represent 9% of the Costa Rican population, the largest in Central America and the Caribbean. By 2014 the three largest Immigrant Diasporas in Costa Rica are people from: Nicaragua, Colombia and United States.

Language
The official language of Costa Rica is Spanish. However, there are also many local indigenous languages in Costa Rica, such as Bribrí. English is the first foreign language and the second most taught language in Costa Rica, followed by French, German, Italian and Chinese. A creole language called Mekatelyu is also spoken in Limón.

Pura vida
Pura vida, a characteristic Costa Rican phrase, literally means pure life, with connotations that suggest translations such as "full of life", "this is living!", "going great", or "real living". The phrase can be used both as a greeting or a farewell, as an answer expressing that things are going well, as a way of giving thanks, or showing appreciation. In modern-day usage, the saying goes beyond its simple translation: it's a way of life. It is a perspective on life that evokes a spirit that is carefree, laid back and optimistic.

According to Víctor Manuel Sánchez Corrales of the University of Costa Rica, the origin of the phrase is Mexican. It is thought to have come from a Mexican film called ¡Pura vida! (1956). The protagonist, played by Antonio Espino, used the expression "pura vida" extensively in situations where it would not normally be used. Costa Ricans adopted the phrase, using it in a similar way. It was formally recognized and incorporated into dictionaries in the mid-1990s and has since become Costa Rica's unofficial but ubiquitous motto.

Religion
A 2007 survey conducted by the University of Costa Rica, found that 70.5% of the population identify themselves as Roman Catholics (with 44.9% practicing, 25.6 percent nonpracticing), 13.8% are Evangelical Protestants, 11.3% report that they do not have a religion, and 4.3% declare that they belong to another religion.

There are several other religious festivals in the country; Costa Rica has various religious denominations: Buddhism, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, Baháʼí Faith, Scientology, Rastafari, Taoism and Jehovah's Witness.

Education
Education is highly cared about in Costa Rica by most of the population. About 6% of the country's domestic product is dedicated to education, which has produced positive results as 96% of the population is literate. Primary (1st-6th grade) and secondary (7th-11th or 12th) are mandatory for all citizens. Public schools are free, and those who can afford it may choose to send their children to private schools.

The country has five major public universities: the University of Costa Rica (UCR), the Costa Rica Institute of Technology (TEC), the Universidad Nacional (UNA), the Universidad Técnica Nacional, and the Universidad Estatal Distancia (UNED).

Painting and sculpture
At the beginning of the 19th century, some wealthy Costa Ricans paid visiting foreign painters, usually European, to paint their portraits. It was not until some of these painters, such as Bigot, Henry Etheridge, or Santiago Paramo settled in the country that Costa Rican artists learned modern techniques for drawing, oil painting, and sculpture. These teachers directly influenced Tico artists Jose Maria Figueroa, Faustino Montes de Oca, and Felipe Valentini.

Towards the end of the 19th century Costa Ricans produced artists with stronger national identities. A short list of these artists would include Ezequiel Jimenez, Wenceslao de la Guardia, and Enrique Echandi. Current renowned Costa Rican painters include Gonzalo Morales Sáurez, Rafa Fernandez, and Fernando Carballo, and sculptors such as Ibo Bonilla, Max Jimenez, Jorge Jimenez Deredia, Domingo Ramos, Mario Parra, Olger Villegas, Nestor Zeledon, and William Villanueva Bermudez.

Music
Most of the music and folklore comes from the north of the country, including the Nicoya Peninsula (Mayan culture) and the Atlantic coast (Afro-Caribbean culture). Costa Rican music is marked by a rhythm known as tambito, as well as a distinctive musical genre known as punto. Two examples are the punto guanacasteco from Guanacaste Province, and the sancarleño from San Carlos in Alajuela Province.

Dance
Dance remains an important cultural tradition in Costa Rica. Most Costa Ricans learn several traditional dances from a young age. The vast majority of Costa Rican traditional dances were born in the province of Guanacaste. National holidays are often celebrated by spirited displays of dancing in the streets.

Many consider the Punto guanacasteco to be the national dance, which showcases three different stages of courtship. Occasionally, all dancers will pause mid-dance so that one person can shout out a bomba. A bomba is a rhymed verse which can be memorized or improvised and is usually racy or witty.

Writing
Costa Rican literature has many women who have played a large role in every literary movement. Most notably, Carmen Lyra whose overall subject matter and perspective made her a revolutionary figure. Other well known authors include Jose Leon Sanchez, Aquileo J. Echeverría (Concherías), Manuel González Zeledón (La propia), Joaquin Gutierrez (Cocori, Puerto Limón, Manglar), Carlos Luis Fallas (Marcos Ramírez, Mamita Yunai), Carlos Salazar Herrera (Cuentos de angustias y paisajes), Isaac Felipe Azofeifa, Fabián Dobles, Jorge Debravo, Alberto Cañas Escalante, Andrés Meza Murillo, Yolanda Oreamuno and Eunice Odio.

Cuisine
Costa Rican cuisine is a combination of Spanish, South American, Caribbean, and American influences. This style of cuisine is shared by most of Central America, although local variations have appeared in each of the countries.

One national dish is gallo pinto ("spotted rooster"), although the name has no relation to the ingredients. It is a combination of black beans and white rice, spiced with cilantro, onions, garlic, salt, and a local condiment called Salsa Lizano. It is typically eaten at breakfast with eggs, and sometimes natilla (sour cream). Fried plantains and either corn tortillas or bread are also common. Gallo pinto is a common and typical dish in both Costa Rica and Nicaragua.

Other typical dishes are arroz con pollo, olla de carne, tamales, and casado. Arroz con pollo (rice with chicken) consists of bite size chicken chunks mixed with rice and diced vegetables that include carrots, peas, corn, and garbanzo beans. Olla de carne is mainly prepared on weekends. It is a broth of corn prepared by boiling water, meat, and whole to large-sized vegetable pieces with spices. The soup is eaten in a bowl with the broth and separate plates for the vegetables and rice.

A casado is a one-plate meal that includes black beans, rice, meat, fried plantains, and one or more side dishes. The meat can vary from chicken, beef, or fish. Some examples of side dishes are pasta salad, vegetable salad, fried eggs, potatoes, spaghetti, or barbudos (green beans wrapped in egg batter).

There are some regional differences. For example, the Caribbean side of the country, because of its roots, has gallo pinto with coconut milk, while the north-western part of the country has a strong tendency towards corn products and for large, cheese filled tortillas, corn snacks, and other dishes.

title: Culture of Costa Rica


text:
Federal Department of Finance

The Federal Department of Finance (FDF, Eidgenössisches Finanzdepartement, Département fédéral des finances, Dipartimento federale delle finanze, ) is one of the seven departments of the Swiss federal government. The department is headquartered in Bern and headed by a member of the Swiss Federal Council, Switzerland's finance minister. Initially, in 1848, the department was called "Department of Finance", then, from 1873 "Department of Finance and Customs", until it received its present designation in 1978.

Organisation
The Department is composed of the following offices:

 * General Secretariat
 * State Secretariat for International Financial Matters (SIF)
 * Federal Finance Administration (FFA): Responsible for the budget, financial planning, financial policy, the federal treasury and financial equalisation between the Confederation and the cantons. It also supervises the federal mint and the Central Compensation Office (CCO) in Geneva (responsible for implementing the Swiss social security).
 * Federal Office of Personnel (FOPER): Responsible for human resources management, personnel policy and personnel training.
 * Federal Tax Administration (FTA): Responsible for federal revenue collection and the application of federal tax laws in the cantons.
 * Federal Office for Customs and Border Security (FOCBS): Responsible for monitoring the import, export and transit of goods, collecting customs duties, traffic charges and taxes.
 * Swiss Border Guard, which carries out border police duties.
 * Federal Office of Information Technology, Systems and Telecommunication (FOITT): Provides IT services for the federal administration.
 * Federal Office for Buildings and Logistics (FOBL): Responsible for property management, central procurement of non-durable goods, federal publications and the production of the Swiss passport.

The following independent authorities are affiliated to the FDF for administrative purposes:
 * Swiss Federal Audit Office (SFAO): The federal government audit office. Examines accounting practices and verifies the proper and efficient use of resources by the administration, other public service institutions and subsidy recipients.
 * Swiss Financial Market Supervisory Authority (FINMA): Regulates banks, insurances, securities dealers, investment funds and stock exchanges, as well as the disclosure of shareholding interests, public takeover bids and mortgage lenders.
 * Federal Pension Fund (PUBLICA): Provides insurance coverage to employees of the federal administration, the other branches of the federal government and associated organisations.

List of heads of the department

 * 1848–1850: Josef Munzinger
 * 1851 only: Henri Druey
 * 1852 only: Josef Munzinger
 * 1853–1855: Henri Druey
 * 1855–1856: Josef Martin Knüsel
 * 1857–1858: Jakob Stämpfli
 * 1859–1861: Constant Fornerod
 * 1862–1863: Josef Martin Knüsel
 * 1864–1867: Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel
 * 1868 only: Victor Ruffy
 * 1869 only: Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel
 * 1870–1871: Paul Cérésole
 * 1872 only: Karl Schenk
 * 1872–1873: Johann Jakob Scherer
 * 1873–1875: Wilhelm Matthias Naeff
 * 1876–1878: Bernhard Hammer
 * 1879 only: Simeon Bavier
 * 1880–1890: Bernhard Hammer
 * 1891–1899: Walter Hauser
 * 1900 only: Robert Comtesse
 * 1901–1902: Walter Hauser
 * 1903 only: Robert Comtesse
 * 1904 only: Marc-Émile Ruchet
 * 1905–1909: Robert Comtesse
 * 1910 only: Josef Anton Schobinger
 * 1911 only: Robert Comtesse
 * 1912–1919: Giuseppe Motta
 * 1920–1934: Jean-Marie Musy
 * 1934–1938: Albert Meyer
 * 1939–1943: Ernst Wetter
 * 1944–1951: Ernst Nobs
 * 1952–1954: Max Weber
 * 1954–1959: Hans Streuli
 * 1960–1962: Jean Bourgknecht
 * 1962–1968: Roger Bonvin
 * 1968–1973: Nello Celio
 * 1974–1979: Georges-André Chevallaz
 * 1980–1983: Willy Ritschard
 * 1984–1995: Otto Stich
 * 1996–2003: Kaspar Villiger
 * 2004–2010: Hans-Rudolf Merz
 * 2010–2016: Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf
 * 2016–2022: Ueli Maurer
 * 2023–present: Karin Keller-Sutter

title: Federal Department of Finance


text:
Powder metallurgy

Powder metallurgy (PM) is a term covering a wide range of ways in which materials or components are made from metal powders. PM processes are sometimes used to reduce or eliminate the need for subtractive processes in manufacturing, lowering material losses and reducing the cost of the final product. This occurs especially often with small metal parts, like gears for small machines. Some porous products, allowing liquid or gas to permeate them, are produced in this way. They are also used when melting a material is impractical, due to it having a high melting point, or an alloy of two mutually insoluble materials, such as a mixture of copper and graphite.

In this way, powder metallurgy can be used to make unique materials impossible to get from melting or forming in other ways. A very important product of this type is tungsten carbide. Tungsten carbide is used to cut and form other metals and is made from tungsten carbide particles bonded with cobalt. Tungsten carbide is the largest and most important use of tungsten, consuming about 50% of the world supply. Other products include sintered filters, porous oil-impregnated bearings, electrical contacts and diamond tools.

Powder metallurgy techniques usually consist of the compression of a powder, and heating (sintering) it at a temperature below the melting point of the metal, to bind the particles together. Powder for the processes can be produced in a number of ways, including reducing metal compounds, electrolyzing metal-containing solutions, and mechanical crushing, as well as more complicated methods, including a variety of ways to fragment liquid metal into droplets, and condensation from metal vapor. Compaction is usually done with a die press, but can also be done with explosive shocks or placing a flexible container in a high-pressure gas or liquid. Sintering is usually done in a dedicated furnace, but can also be done in tandem with compression (hot isostatic compression), or with the use of electric currents.

Since the advent of industrial production-scale metal powder-based additive manufacturing in the 2010s, selective laser sintering and other metal additive manufacturing processes are a new category of commercially important powder metallurgy applications.

Overview
The powder metallurgy "press and sinter" process generally consists of three basic steps: powder blending (or pulverisation), die compaction, and sintering. Compaction of the powder in the die is generally performed at room temperature. Sintering is the process of binding a material together with heat without liquefying it. It is usually conducted at atmospheric pressure and under carefully controlled atmosphere composition. To obtain special properties or enhanced precision, secondary processing like coining or heat treatment often follows.

One of the older such methods is the process of blending fine (<180 microns) metal powders with additives, pressing them into a die of the desired shape, and then sintering the compressed material together, under a controlled atmosphere. The metal powder is usually iron, and additives include a lubricant wax, carbon, copper, and/or nickel. This produces precise parts, normally very close to the die dimensions, but with 5–15% porosity, and thus sub-wrought steel properties. This method is still used to make around 1 Mt/y of structural components of iron-based alloys.

There are several other PM processes that have been developed over the last fifty years. These include:
 * Powder forging: A "preform" made by the conventional "press and sinter" method is heated and then hot forged to full density, resulting in practically as-wrought properties.
 * Hot isostatic pressing (HIP): Here the powder, normally gas atomized and spherical, is filled into a mould, usually a metallic "can". The can is vibrated, then evacuated and sealed. To sinter the powder, it is placed in a hot "isostatic press" for several hours, where it is heated to around 0.7 times the melting point, and subjected to an external gas pressure of ~100 MPa. This results in a shaped part of full density with as-wrought or better properties. HIP was invented in the 1950-60s and entered tonnage production in the 1970-80s. In 2015, it was used to produce ~25,000 t/y of stainless and tool steels, as well as important parts of superalloys for jet engines.
 * Metal injection moulding (MIM): Here the powder, normally very fine (<25 microns) and spherical, is mixed with plastic or wax binder to near the maximum solid loading, typically around 65% volume, and injection moulded into a mould to form a "green" (with binder) part of complex geometry. This part is then heated or otherwise treated to remove the binder to give a "brown" (without binder) part. This part is then sintered and shrinks by ~18% to give a complex and 95–99% dense finished part (surface roughness ~3 microns). Invented in the 1970s, production has increased since 2000 with an estimated global volume in 2014 of 12,000 t worth €1265 million.
 * Electric current assisted sintering (ECAS) technologies use electric currents to sinter powders. This reduces production time dramatically (it can take from 15 minutes to a few microseconds), does not require a long furnace heat, and allows near-theoretical densities, but it also has the drawback of simple shapes. Powders used in ECAS do not require binders because they can be directly sintered, without needing to be pre-pressed and compacted with binders. Moulds are designed for the final part shape since the powders sinter while filling the cavity under applied pressure. This avoids the problem of shape variations caused by non-isotropic sintering, as well as distortions caused by gravity at high temperatures. The most common of these technologies is hot pressing, which has been used to make diamond tools for the construction industry. As of 2018, only hot pressing and, in a more limited way, spark plasma sintering had achieved direct industrial application.
 * Additive manufacturing (AM) is a relatively novel family of techniques that use metal powders (among other materials, such as plastics) to make parts by laser sintering or melting. The process was undergoing rapid growth, and as of 2018 has been used predominantly for research, prototyping or advanced applications in the aerospace industry, though also in the biomedical, defence and automotive industries. It has been used in the aerospace industry because traditional processes are more time-consuming, difficult, and costly. Processes include 3D printing, selective laser sintering (SLS), selective laser melting (SLM), and electron beam melting (EBM).

History and capabilities
The history of powder metallurgy and the art of metal and ceramic sintering are intimately related to each other. Sintering involves the production of a hard solid metal or ceramic piece from a starting powder. The ancient Incas made jewelry and other artifacts from precious metal powders, though mass manufacturing of PM products did not begin until the mid or late 19th century. In these early manufacturing operations, iron was extracted by hand from a metal sponge following reduction and was then reintroduced as a powder for final melting or sintering.

A much wider range of products can be obtained from powder processes than from direct alloying of fused materials. In melting operations, the "phase rule" applies to all pure and combined elements and strictly dictates the distribution of liquid and solid phases which can exist for specific compositions. In addition, whole body melting of starting materials is required for alloying, thus imposing unwelcome chemical, thermal, and containment constraints on manufacturing. Unfortunately, the handling of aluminium/iron powders poses major problems. Other substances that are especially reactive with atmospheric oxygen, such as tin, are sinterable in special atmospheres or with temporary coatings.

In powder metallurgy or ceramics it is possible to fabricate components which otherwise would decompose or disintegrate. All considerations of solid-liquid phase changes can be ignored, so powder processes are more flexible than casting, extrusion, or forging techniques. Controllable characteristics of products prepared using various powder technologies include mechanical, magnetic, and other unconventional properties of such materials as porous solids, aggregates, and intermetallic compounds. Competitive characteristics of manufacturing processing (e.g. tool wear, complexity, or vendor options) also may be closely controlled.

Special products
Many special products are possible with powder metallurgy technology. A non-exhaustive list includes Al2O3 whiskers coated with very thin oxide layers for improved refraction; iron compacts with Al2O3 coatings for improved high-temperature creep strength; light bulb filaments made with powder technology; linings for friction brakes; metal glasses for high-strength films and ribbons; heat shields for spacecraft reentry into Earth's atmosphere; electrical contacts for handling large current flows; magnets; microwave ferrites; filters for gases; and bearings which can be infiltrated with lubricants.

Extremely thin films and tiny spheres exhibit high strength. One application of this observation is to coat brittle materials in whisker form with a submicrometre film of much softer metal (e.g. cobalt-coated tungsten). The surface strain of the thin layer places the harder metal under compression, so that when the entire composite is sintered the rupture strength increases markedly. With this method, strengths on the order of 2.8 GPa versus 550 MPa have been observed for, respectively, coated (25% cobalt) and uncoated tungsten carbides.

Powder production
Any fusible material can be atomized. Several techniques have been developed that permit large production rates of powdered particles, often with considerable control over the size ranges of the final grain population. Powders may be prepared by crushing, grinding, chemical reactions, or electrolytic deposition. The most commonly used powders are copper-base and iron-base materials.

Powders of the elements titanium, vanadium, thorium, niobium, tantalum, calcium, and uranium have been produced by high-temperature reduction of the corresponding nitrides and carbides. Iron, nickel, uranium, and beryllium submicrometre powders are obtained by reducing metallic oxalates and formates. Exceedingly fine particles also have been prepared by directing a stream of molten metal through a high-temperature plasma jet or flame, atomizing the material. Various chemical and flame-associated powdering processes are adopted in part to prevent serious degradation of particle surfaces by atmospheric oxygen.

Powder can be obtained through gas or water atomization, centrifugal atomization, chemically reducing particulate compounds, electrolytic deposition in appropriate conditions, simple pulverization and grinding, thermal decomposition of particulate hydrides or carbonyls, precipitation out of solution, and also condensation from vaporized metal.

Gas atomization
Atomization is accomplished by forcing a molten metal stream through an orifice at moderate pressures. A gas is introduced into the metal stream just before it leaves the nozzle, serving to create turbulence as the entrained gas expands (due to heating) and exits into a large collection volume exterior to the orifice. The collection volume is filled with gas to promote further turbulence of the molten metal jet. Air and powder streams are segregated using gravity or cyclonic separation.

Simple atomization techniques are available in which liquid metal is forced through an orifice at a sufficiently high velocity to ensure turbulent flow. The usual performance index used is the Reynolds number. At low Re the liquid jet oscillates, but at higher velocities the stream becomes turbulent and breaks into droplets. Pumping energy is applied to droplet formation with very low efficiency (on the order of $1 %$) and control over the size distribution of the metal particles produced is rather poor. Other techniques such as nozzle vibration, nozzle asymmetry, multiple impinging streams, or molten-metal injection into ambient gas are all available to increase atomization efficiency, produce finer grains, and to narrow the particle size distribution. Unfortunately, it is difficult to eject metals through orifices smaller than a few millimeters in diameter, which in practice limits the minimum size of powder grains to approximately $10 um$. Atomization also produces a wide spectrum of particle sizes, necessitating downstream classification by screening and remelting a significant fraction of the grain boundary.

Centrifugal techniques
Centrifugal disintegration of molten particles offers one way around these problems. Extensive experience is available with iron, steel, and aluminium. Metal to be powdered is formed into a rod which is introduced into a chamber through a rapidly rotating spindle. Opposite the spindle tip is an electrode from which an arc is established which heats the metal rod. As the tip material fuses, the rapid rod rotation throws off tiny melt droplets which solidify before hitting the chamber walls. A circulating gas sweeps particles from the chamber. Similar techniques could be employed in space or on the Moon. The chamber wall could be rotated to force new powders into remote collection vessels, and the electrode could be replaced by a solar mirror focused at the end of the rod.

An alternative approach capable of producing a very narrow distribution of grain sizes but with low throughput consists of a rapidly spinning bowl heated to well above the melting point of the material to be powdered. Liquid metal, introduced onto the surface of the basin near the center at flow rates adjusted to permit a thin metal film to skim evenly up the walls and over the edge, breaks into droplets, each approximately the thickness of the film.

Water atomization
Another powder-production technique involves a thin jet of liquid metal intersected by high-speed streams of atomized water which break the jet into drops and cool the powder before it reaches the bottom of the bin. In subsequent operations the powder is dried. This is called water atomization. Water atomization cools and solidifies the metal particles more rapidly than gas atomization. Since the solidification rate is inversely proportional to the particle size, smaller particles can be made using water atomization. The smaller the particles, the more homogeneous the microstructure will be. Particles produced this way will also have a more irregular shape and the particle size distribution will be wider. In addition, some surface contamination can occur by oxidation skin formation. Powder can be reduced by some kind of pre-consolidation treatment, such as annealing used for the manufacture of ceramic tools.

Powder compaction
Powder compaction, one of the most critical steps in powder metallurgy processes, is the process of compacting metal powder through the application of high pressures. Most powder compaction is done with mechanical presses and rigid tools, but hydraulic and pneumatic techniques can also be used, as well as methods that combine compaction with sintering, like hot isostatic compaction. Traditional metalforming processes, including rolling, forging, extrusion, and swaging, are also used.

The density of the compacted powder increases with the amount of pressure applied. Typical pressures range from 80 psi to 1000 psi (0.5 MPa to 7 MPa), pressures from 1000 psi to 1,000,000 psi have been obtained. Pressure of 10 t/in2 to 50 t/in2 (150 MPa to 700 MPa) are commonly used for metal powder compaction. To attain the same compression ratio across a component with more than one level or height, it is necessary to work with multiple lower punches. A cylindrical workpiece is made by single-level tooling. A more complex shape can be made by the common multiple-level tooling.

Die pressing
The dominant technology for the forming of products from powder materials, in terms of both tonnage quantities and numbers of parts produced, is die pressing. There are mechanical, servo-electrical and hydraulic presses available in the market, whereby the biggest powder throughput is processed by hydraulic presses. This forming technology involves the production cycle below, which offers a readily automated and high production rate process:

 * 1) Filling a die cavity with a known volume of the powder feedstock, delivered from a fill shoe.
 * 2) Compaction of the powder within the die with punches to form the compact. Generally, compaction pressure is applied through punches from both ends of the toolset in order to reduce the level of density gradient within the compact.
 * 3) Ejection of the compact from the die, using the lower punch(es) withdrawal from the die.
 * 4) Removal of the compact from the upper face of the die using the fill shoe in the fill stage of the next cycle, or an automation system or robot.

Typically the tools are held in the vertical orientation with the punch tool forming the bottom of the cavity. Probably the most basic consideration is being able to remove the part from the die after it is pressed, along with avoiding sharp corners in the design. Keeping the maximum surface area below 20 sqin and the height-to-diameter ratio below 7-to-1 is recommended. Along with having walls thicker than 0.08 in and keeping the adjacent wall thickness ratios below 2.5-to-1.

One of the major advantages of this process is its ability to produce complex geometries. Parts with undercuts and threads require a secondary machining operation. Typical part sizes range from 0.1 sqin to 20 sqin. in area and from 0.1 to 4 in in length. However, it is possible to produce parts that are less than 0.1 sqin and larger than 25 sqin. in area and from a fraction of an inch (2.54 cm) to approximately 8 in in length. Small mechanical presses can generally compact about 100 pieces per minute.

In die compaction, there are four major classes of tool styles: single-action compaction, used for thin, flat components; opposed double-action with two punch motions, which accommodates thicker components; double-action with floating die; and double-action withdrawal die. Double action classes give much better density distribution than single action. Tooling must be designed so that it will withstand the extreme pressure without deforming or bending. Tools must be made from materials that are polished and wear-resistant.

Shock consolidation
Shock consolidation, or dynamic consolidation, is an experimental technique of consolidating powders using high pressure shock waves. This technique is useful for very large products, including those over 3000 tons and larger than 100 square inches. These are commonly produced by impacting the workpiece with an explosively accelerated plate. Despite being researched for a long time, the technique still has some problems in controllability and uniformity. However, it offers some valuable potential advantages. As an example, consolidation occurs so rapidly that metastable microstructures may be retained.

Cold isostatic compaction
Isostatic powder compacting is an alternate method of powder compaction. In cold isostatic compaction, fine metal particles are placed into a flexible mould, which is then immersed in a high-pressure gas or liquid from all directions (isostatic). After sintering, this manufacturing process produces very little scrap metal and can be used to make many different shapes. The tolerances that this process can achieve in combination with sintering are very precise, ranging from +/- 0.008 inches (0.2 mm) for axial dimensions and +/- 0.020 inches (0.5 mm) for radial dimensions. This is the most efficient type of powder compacting (the following subcategories are also from this reference). This operation is generally only applicable on small production quantities, and although the cost of a mold is much lower than that of pressing dies, it is generally not reusable and the production time is much longer. Production rates are usually very low, but parts weighing up to 100 pounds can be effectively compacted. Because pressure is applied from all directions, lower compaction pressures are required to produce higher densities of powder in the end product.

Compacting pressures range from 15000 psi to 40000 psi for most metals and approximately 2000 psi to 10000 psi for non-metals. The density of isostatic compacted parts is 5% to 10% higher than with other powder metallurgy processes. Typical workpiece sizes range from 0.25 in to 0.75 in thick and 0.5 in to 10 in long. It is possible to compact workpieces that are between 0.0625 in and 5 in thick and 0.0625 in to 40 in long.

Advantages over standard powder compaction are the possibility of thinner walls and larger workpieces. The height-to-diameter ratio has no limitation. No specific limitations exist in wall thickness variations, undercuts, reliefs, threads, and cross holes. No lubricants are needed for isostatic powder compaction. The minimum wall thickness is 0.05 inches (1.27 mm) and the product can have a weight between 40 and 300 pounds (18 and 136 kg). There is 25 to 45% shrinkage of the powder after compacting.

Isostatic tools are available in three styles, free mold (wet-bag), coarse mold (damp-bag), and fixed mold (dry-bag). The free mold style is the traditional style of isostatic compaction and is not generally used for high production work. In free mold tooling the mold is removed and filled outside the canister. Damp bag is where the mold is located in the canister, yet filled outside. In fixed mold tooling, the mold is contained within the canister, which facilitates automation of the process.

Sintering
After compaction, powdered materials are heated in a controlled atmosphere in a process known as sintering. During this process, the surfaces of the particles are bonded and desirable properties are achieved.

Sintering of powder metals is a process in which particles under pressure chemically bond to themselves in order to form a coherent shape when exposed to a high temperature. The temperature in which the particles are sintered is most commonly below the melting point of the main component in the powder. If the temperature is above the melting point of a component in the powder metal part, the liquid of the melted particles fills the pores. This type of sintering is known as liquid-state sintering. A major challenge with sintering in general is knowing the effect of the process on the dimensions of the compact particles. This is especially difficult for tooling purposes in which specific dimensions may be needed. It is most common for the sintered part to shrink and become denser, but it can also expand or experience no net change.

The main driving force for solid-state sintering is an excess of surface-free energy. The process of solid-state sintering is complex and dependent on the material and furnace (temperature and gas) conditions. There are six main stages that sintering processes can be grouped in which may overlap with one another: 1 initial bonding among particles, 2) neck growth, 3) pore channel closure, 4) pore rounding, 5) densification or pore shrinkage, and 6) pore coarsening. The main mechanisms present in these stages are evaporation, condensation, grain boundaries, volume diffusion, and plastic deformation.

During this process, a number of characteristics are increased including the strength, ductility, toughness, and electrical and thermal conductivity of the material. If different elemental powders are compact and sintered, the material would form into alloys and intermetallic phases. As the pore sizes decrease, the density of the material will increase. As stated above, this shrinkage is a huge problem in making parts or tooling in which particular dimensions are required. The shrinkage of test materials is monitored and used to manipulate the furnace conditions or to oversize the compact materials in order to achieve the desired dimensions. Although, sintering does not deplete the compact part of porosity. In general, powder metal parts contain five to twenty-five percent porosity after sintering.

General sintering furnace
Most sintering furnaces contain three zones with three different properties that help to carry out the six steps above. The first zone, commonly coined the burn-off or purge stage, is designed to combust air, burn any contaminants such as lubricant or binders, and slowly raise the temperature of the compact materials. If the temperature of the compact parts is raised too quickly, the air in the pores will be at a very high internal pressure which could lead to expansion or fracture of the part. The second zone, known as the high-temperature stage, is used to produce solid-state diffusion and particle bonding. The material is seeking to lower its surface energy and does so by moving toward the points of contact between particles. The contact points become larger and eventually a solid mass with small pores is created. The third zone, also called the cooling period, is used to cool down the parts while still in a controlled atmosphere. This is an important zone as it prevents oxidation from immediate contact with the air or a phenomenon known as rapid cooling. All of the three stages must be carried out in a controlled atmosphere containing no oxygen. Hydrogen, nitrogen, dissociated ammonia, and cracked hydrocarbons are common gases pumped into the furnace zones providing a reducing atmosphere, preventing oxide formation.

Hot isostatic pressing
Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) compresses and sinters the part simultaneously by applying heat on the order of 2300 °F (1250 °C), in the case of iron, or 2750 °F (1500 °C) in the case of nickel alloys. This procedure, together with explosion-driven compressive techniques is used extensively in the production of high-temperature and high-strength parts such as turbine disks for jet engines. In most applications of powder metallurgy the compact is hot-pressed, heated to a temperature above which the materials cannot remain work-hardened. Hot pressing lowers the pressures required to reduce porosity and speeds welding and grain deformation processes. It also permits better dimensional control of the product, lessens sensitivity to physical characteristics of starting materials, and allows powder to be compressed to higher densities than with cold pressing, resulting in higher strength. Negative aspects of hot pressing include shorter die life, slower throughput because of powder heating, and the frequent necessity for protective atmospheres or simple vacuum during forming and cooling stages.

HIP produces products often of higher quality than other processes. However, HIP is expensive, and generally unnattractive for high-volume production, due to the high cost of placing the powder in a flexible isolating medium that can withstand the temperatures and pressures (canning) and then removing it from that medium (decanning), as well as the long time periods involve, which can range from 6 to 8 hours.

Electric current assisted sintering
These techniques employ electric currents to drive or enhance sintering. A combination of mechanical pressure and electrical current, passed through either the powder or the container, significantly reduces the sintering time compared to conventional solutions. There are many classifications of these techniques, but they can be divided into two main categories: resistance sintering techniques, which apply lower voltages and currents and take on the from around ten seconds to ten minutes; and electric discharge sintering, which use capacitor banks to achieve higher currents and voltages, and take from tens of microseconds to tens of milliseconds. Resistance sintering techniques include spark plasma sintering (SPS), plasma-activated sintering (PAS), and pulse electric current sintering (PECS). electric discharge sintering techniques include capacitor discharge sintering. Currently, spark plasma sintering is currently the most commonly used method of electric pulse consolidation in general.

Resistance sintering voltages usually reach about 1 kA per square centimer, while electric discharge sintering voltages require very high voltages, over 10 kA per square centimer. Resistance sintering techniques are consolidation methods based on temperature, where heating of the mold and of the powders is accomplished through electric currents, usually with a characteristic processing time of 15 to 30 minutes. On the other hand, electric discharge sintering methods rely on high-density currents (from 0.1 to 1 kA/mm^2) to directly sinter electrically conductive powders, with a characteristic time between tens of microseconds to hundreds of milliseconds.

Continuous powder processing
Strictly, the phrase "continuous process" should be used only to describe modes of manufacturing which could be extended indefinitely in time. Normally, however, the term refers to processes whose products are much longer in one physical dimension than in the other two. Compression, rolling, and extrusion are the most common examples.

Compression
In a simple compression process, powder flows from a bin onto a two-walled channel and is repeatedly compressed vertically by a horizontally stationary punch. After stripping the compress from the conveyor, the compacted mass is introduced into a sintering furnace. An even easier approach is to spray powder onto a moving belt and sinter it without compression. However, good methods for stripping cold-pressed materials from moving belts are hard to find. One alternative that avoids the belt-stripping difficulty altogether is the manufacture of metal sheets using opposed hydraulic rams, although weakness lines across the sheet may arise during successive press operations.

Rolling
Powders can also be rolled to produce sheets. The powdered metal is fed into a two-high rolling mill, and is compacted into strip form at up to 100 ft/min. The strip is then sintered and subjected to another rolling and further sintering. Rolling is commonly used to produce sheet metal for electrical and electronic components, as well as coins. Considerable work also has been done on rolling multiple layers of different materials simultaneously into sheets.

Extrusion
Extrusion processes are of two general types. In one type, the powder is mixed with a binder or plasticizer at room temperature; in the other, the powder is extruded at elevated temperatures without fortification. Extrusions with binders are used extensively in the preparation of tungsten-carbide composites. Tubes, complex sections, and spiral drill shapes are manufactured in extended lengths and diameters varying in the range 0.5 –. Hard metal wires of 0.1 mm diameter have been drawn from powder stock. At the opposite extreme, large extrusions on a tonnage basis may be feasible.

For softer, easier-to-form metals such as aluminium and copper alloys continuous extrusion may also be performed using processes such as conform or continuous rotary extrusion. These processes use a rotating wheel with a groove around its circumference to drive the loose powder through a forming die. Through a combination of high pressure and a complex strain path the powder particles deform, generate a large amount of frictional heat and bond together to form a bulk solid. Theoretically, fully continuous operation is possible as long as the powder can be fed into the process.

There appears to be no limitation to the variety of metals and alloys that can be extruded, provided the temperatures and pressures involved are within the capabilities of die materials. Extrusion lengths may range from 3 to 30 m and diameters from 0.2 to 1 m. Modern presses are largely automatic and operate at high speeds (on the order of m/s).

Hazards
The special materials and processes used in powder metallurgy can pose hazards to life and property. The high surface-area-to-volume ratio of the powders can increase their chemical reactivity in biological exposures (for example, inhalation or ingestion), and increases the risk of dust explosions. Materials considered relatively benign in bulk can pose special toxicological risks when in a finely divided form. Inhalation of heavy metals can result in many health issues. Lead and cadmium are generally toxic, and cobalt can cause asthma and fibrosis in sensitive individuals.

title: Powder metallurgy


text:
Ribonuclease

Ribonuclease (commonly abbreviated RNase) is a type of nuclease that catalyzes the degradation of RNA into smaller components. Ribonucleases can be divided into endoribonucleases and exoribonucleases, and comprise several sub-classes within the EC 2.7 (for the phosphorolytic enzymes) and 3.1 (for the hydrolytic enzymes) classes of enzymes.

Function
All organisms studied contain many RNases of two different classes, showing that RNA degradation is a very ancient and important process. As well as clearing of cellular RNA that is no longer required, RNases play key roles in the maturation of all RNA molecules, both messenger RNAs that carry genetic material for making proteins and non-coding RNAs that function in varied cellular processes. In addition, active RNA degradation systems are the first defense against RNA viruses and provide the underlying machinery for more advanced cellular immune strategies such as RNAi.

Some cells also secrete copious quantities of non-specific RNases such as A and T1. RNases are, therefore, extremely common, resulting in very short lifespans for any RNA that is not in a protected environment. It is worth noting that all intracellular RNAs are protected from RNase activity by a number of strategies including 5' end capping, 3' end polyadenylation, formation of an RNA·RNA duplex, and folding within an RNA protein complex (ribonucleoprotein particle or RNP).

Another mechanism of protection is ribonuclease inhibitor (RI), which comprises a relatively large fraction of cellular protein (~0.1%) in some cell types, and which binds to certain ribonucleases with the highest affinity of any protein-protein interaction; the dissociation constant for the RI-RNase A complex is ~20 fM under physiological conditions. RI is used in most laboratories that study RNA to protect their samples against degradation from environmental RNases.

Similar to restriction enzymes, which cleave highly specific sequences of double-stranded DNA, a variety of endoribonucleases that recognize and cleave specific sequences of single-stranded RNA have been recently classified.

RNases play a critical role in many biological processes, including angiogenesis and self-incompatibility in flowering plants (angiosperms). Many stress-response toxins of prokaryotic toxin-antitoxin systems have been shown to have RNase activity and homology.

Major types of endoribonucleases

 * : RNase A is an RNase that is commonly used in research. RNase A (e.g., bovine pancreatic ribonuclease A: ) is one of the hardiest enzymes in common laboratory usage; one method of isolating it is to boil a crude cellular extract until all enzymes other than RNase A are denatured. It is specific for single-stranded RNAs. It cleaves the 3'-end of unpaired C and U residues, ultimately forming a 3'-phosphorylated product via a 2',3'-cyclic monophosphate intermediate. It does not require any cofactors for its activity
 * : RNase H is a ribonuclease that cleaves the RNA in a DNA/RNA duplex to produce ssDNA. RNase H is a non-specific endonuclease and catalyzes the cleavage of RNA via a hydrolytic mechanism, aided by an enzyme-bound divalent metal ion. RNase H leaves a 5'-phosphorylated product.
 * : RNase III is a type of ribonuclease that cleaves rRNA (16s rRNA and 23s rRNA) from transcribed polycistronic RNA operon in prokaryotes. It also digests double-stranded RNA (dsRNA)-Dicer family of RNAse, cutting pre-miRNA (60–70bp long) at a specific site and transforming it in miRNA (22–30bp), that is actively involved in the regulation of transcription and mRNA life-time.
 * EC number 3.1.26.-??: RNase L is an interferon-induced nuclease that, upon activation, destroys all RNA within the cell
 * : RNase P is a type of ribonuclease that is unique in that it is a ribozyme – a ribonucleic acid that acts as a catalyst in the same way as an enzyme. One of its functions is to cleave off a leader sequence from the 5' end of one stranded pre-tRNA. RNase P is one of two known multiple turnover ribozymes in nature (the other being the ribosome). In bacteria RNase P is also responsible for the catalytic activity of holoenzymes, which consist of an apoenzyme that forms an active enzyme system by combination with a coenzyme and determines the specificity of this system for a substrate. A form of RNase P that is a protein and does not contain RNA has recently been discovered.
 * EC number 3.1.??: RNase PhyM is sequence specific for single-stranded RNAs. It cleaves 3'-end of unpaired A and U residues.
 * : RNase T1 is sequence specific for single-stranded RNAs. It cleaves 3'-end of unpaired G residues.
 * : RNase T2 is sequence specific for single-stranded RNAs. It cleaves  3'-end of all 4 residues, but preferentially 3'-end of As.
 * : RNase U2 is sequence specific for single-stranded RNAs. It cleaves 3'-end of unpaired A residues.
 * : RNase V is specific for polyadenine and polyuridine RNA.
 * : RNase E  is  a  ribonuclease  of  plant  origin,  which modulates  SOS  responses  in  bacteria,  for  a response to the  stress of  DNA damage  by activation of  the  SOS mechanism  by  the  RecA/LexA dependent  signal transduction pathway that transcriptionally depresses a multiplicity  of  genes  leading  to  transit  arrest  of  cell division  as  well  as  initiation  of  DNA  repair.
 * : RNase G It is involved in processing the 16'-end of the 5s rRNA. It is related to chromosome separation and cell division. It is considered one of the components of cytoplasmic axial filament bundles. It is also thought that it can regulate the formation of this structure.

Major types of exoribonucleases

 * EC number : Polynucleotide Phosphorylase (PNPase) functions as an exonuclease as well as a nucleotidyltransferase.
 * EC number : RNase PH functions as an exonuclease as well as a nucleotidyltransferase.
 * EC number 3.1.??: RNase R is a close homolog of RNase II, but it can, unlike RNase II, degrade RNA with secondary structures without help of accessory factors.
 * EC number : RNase D is involved in the 3'-to-5' processing of pre-tRNAs.
 * EC number 3.1.??: RNase T is the major contributor for the 3'-to-5' maturation of many stable RNAs.
 * : Oligoribonuclease degrades short oligonucleotides to mononucleotides.
 * : Exoribonuclease I degrades single-stranded RNA from 5'-to-3', exists only in eukaryotes.
 * : Exoribonuclease II is a close homolog of Exoribonuclease I.

RNase specificity
The active site looks like a rift valley where all the active site residues create the wall and bottom of the valley. The rift is very thin and the small substrate fits perfectly in the middle of the active site, which allows for perfect interaction with the residues. It actually has a little curvature to the site which the substrate also has. Although usually most exo- and endoribonucleases are not sequence specific, recently CRISPR/Cas system natively recognizing and cutting DNA was engineered to cleave ssRNA in a sequence-specific manner.

RNase contamination during RNA extraction
The extraction of RNA in molecular biology experiments is greatly complicated by the presence of ubiquitous and hardy ribonucleases that degrade RNA samples. Certain RNases can be extremely hardy and inactivating them is difficult compared to neutralizing DNases. In addition to the cellular RNases that are released, there are several RNases that are present in the environment. RNases have evolved to have many extracellular functions in various organisms. For example, RNase 7, a member of the RNase A superfamily, is secreted by human skin and serves as a potent antipathogen defence. In these secreted RNases, the enzymatic RNase activity may not even be necessary for its new, exapted function. For example, immune RNases act by destabilizing the cell membranes of bacteria.

title: Ribonuclease


text:
Fernando Meirelles

Fernando Ferreira Meirelles (born 9 November 1955) is a Brazilian film director, producer and screenwriter. He is best known for co-directing the film City of God, released in 2002 in Brazil and in 2003 in the U.S. by Miramax Films, which received international critical acclaim. For his work in the film, he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director. He was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Director in 2005 for The Constant Gardener, which garnered the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for Rachel Weisz. He also directed the 2008 adaptation of José Saramago's novel Blindness, and the 2011 film 360. In 2019 Meirelles directed The Two Popes for Netflix.

In television, Meirelles directed and produced in Brazil the HBO original series Joint Venture. In 2024, he led directing work for the crime series Sugar and the historical miniseries The Sympathizer.

Early life
Meirelles was born in São Paulo, Brazil. Meirelles' father, José de Souza Meirelles, is a gastroenterologist who travelled regularly to Asia and North America (among other regions of the world), which gave Fernando the opportunity for contact with different cultures and places. His mother, Sônia Junqueira Ferreira, worked in landscape architecture and interior design.

Fernando is the second youngest of four children. He saw his older brother, José Marcos, die in a car-bike accident when he was only 4 years old. His two sisters, Márcia and Silvinha, graduated in theater and psychology, respectively. Fernando grew up in Alto dos Pinheiros, West Zone of São Paulo, and spent every vacation on the farms of relatives from both sides of his family. "Even I have a farm. I don't know why I bought it", he was quoted as saying.

His first experience with cinema was with his father, who often directed 8 mm films during his job at the university. He produced mostly western and thriller parodies, using his relatives and friends as actors. At 11, in 1967, Fernando spent a year in the United States in California, where he had contact with the hippie movement, which impressed him. At 13, with a borrowed Super 8 camera, Meirelles started producing small films, inspired by Norman McLaren's animations.

Career
He studied at the Architecture and Urbanism College in the University of São Paulo during the 1980s. His graduation work was done in the form of a film, instead of the traditional designs of the other students: he went to Japan and bought professional video equipment to do the job. He presented it and graduated with the minimum acceptable grade.

While studying architecture at the University of queens mary, Meirelles became involved in experimental film-making. After several years in independent television, he became an advertisement film director. He is still one of the partners of O2 Filmes, the biggest Brazilian advertisement firm, which has produced City of God, Domésticas and Viva Voz.

Along with four friends (Paul Morelli, Marcelo Machado, Dário Vizeu and Bob Salatini), Meirelles began his career with experimental films. Eventually, they formed an independent production company Olhar Eletrônico. Subsequently, new friends joined the group: Renato Barbiere, Agilson Araujo, Toniko and Marcelo Tas. In 1982 the company aired TV programs on current affairs, as well as the children series Castelo Rá-Tim-Bum, with 180 episodes. In addition to obtaining high ratings, they also introduced a refreshing humorous informality in news reporting.

By the end of the 1980s, he became increasingly interested on the advertising market. In 1990, Meirelles and friends closed down Olhar Eletrônico, opening an advertising business, O2 Films. One decade was enough for him to become one of the most important and sought-after advertising producers.

In 1997, Meirelles read the book Paulo Lins's City of God. He decided to adapt it to film, which was done in 2002, and decided that the actors in it would be selected among the inhabitants of slums. In a final triage, from 400 children, they selected 200, with whom they worked for the shooting of the film. The filming was done with a professional crew. The film was a national and international success.

In 2004, he was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Director for City of God. Also, at the 2004 Cannes Film Festival, the movie received four nominations: Best Director, Best Adapted Screenplay, Best Cinematography, and Best Film Editing.

With the recognition, he was offered a job in Hollywood. With The Constant Gardener, he again received critical acclaim, receiving several nominations, including for four Academy Awards and the Golden Globe Award for Best Director. Rachel Weisz went on to win the Academy Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress. Meirelles insisted that the soundtrack be based on the music of African countries, and most of the filming was done in Kenya.

In 2007, he began shooting Blindness, a film adaptation of Nobel-prize winner José Saramago's book, Ensaio Sobre a Cegueira. The film, which was released in 2008, was the opening film of the Cannes Film Festival.

He was one of the creative directors of the opening ceremony of the 2016 Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, working on a shoestring budget equivalent to less than £5 million.

In 2019, Meirelles directed and produced the HBO original series Joint Venture, in which marijuana has been legalized in Brazil. The series follows the story of a young drug trafficker from São Paulo who, after the legalization of marijuana in Brazil, decides to abandon his life on crime and sell his weed legally along with an inexperienced investor partner. In the same year, he directed the drama film The Two Popes for Netflix, starring Anthony Hopkins and Jonathan Pryce.

Personal life
Fernando Meirelles is a Catholic.

Film
Documentary shorts

'''Feature film

Short film

title: Fernando Meirelles


text:
Talk:Roger Staubach

Initial text
Everyking - please explain why you made these changes. It implies that Staubach is currently a player, which he is not. H2O 21:59, 29 February 2004 (UTC)

drafting in 1964
The page states Staubach was drafted by the Cowboys in 1964. How was Staubach drafted in the NFL before graduating the Academy in '65?source --ProdigySportsman 01:48, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

 * The draft back then, I think, was at the end of the year. It wasn't until 1967 (as a step in the NFL-AFL merger) that the NFL Draft format as we know it today originated. WAVY 10 20:53, 3 June 2007 (UTC)

Didn't Staubach used to be x-ref'd under "German-Americans" ?? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 63.114.58.46 (talk) 15:38, 22 May 2008 (UTC)

He was a futures pick in his junior year by Dallas. The draft rules were different then. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.55.240.114 (talk) 00:11, 3 January 2009 (UTC)

Net Worth?
Are there any articles or statements on Roger Staubach's net work today? --98.119.174.110 (talk) 02:22, 19 December 2008 (UTC)

https://www.thewealthrecord.com/celebs-bio-wiki-salary-earnings-2019-2020-2021-2022-2023-2024-2025/athlete/footballer/roger-staubach-net-worth/ Hes worth about 650 million dollars. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 214.26.77.245 (talk) 13:07, 3 May 2020 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 04:48, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

Presidential Medal of Freedom
Per MOS:INFOBOXPURPOSE: The less information it contains, the more effectively it serves that purpose, allowing readers to identify key facts at a glance. The most important fact is Staubach receiving the award, not who bestowed it, and the details remain in the body. For the record, the inclusion of the president was reverted in other articles as well, suggesting there is not an obvious consensus for this in the infobox.—Bagumba (talk) 06:45, 2 June 2021 (UTC)

Thankyou you had dinner at my house in Pensacola F
What ever happened to jim maginn?? He was my ist heart throb among midshipmen I just remember you had dinner…my dad cooked for me and friends Am getting loose on Facts but you and friends/ dates came to house Do you remember blonde beauty Jan from Wyoming?or from Montana ? I believe she was there that summer you trained as midshipman In P’cola We all were aware of wifefuture Marrianne Blessings to you and family I would appreciate your recollections Thankyou Gypsy Cox Beggs, Pensacola, SF Bay Area now Asheville NC retired 68.189.186.62 (talk) 16:32, 11 June 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 15:38, 15 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Roger stubach topps 1975.jpg

title: Talk:Roger Staubach


text:
Martin Solveig

Martin Laurent Picandet (born 22 September 1976), better known by his stage name Martin Solveig, is a French DJ, singer, songwriter and record producer. He hosts a weekly radio show called C'est La Vie on radio stations worldwide, including Radio FG in his homeland.

He has been active since 1994. Solveig manages his own label called Mixture Stereophonic and was ranked number 29 in the 2011 DJ Mag Top 100 DJs. He has collaborated with, among others, Ina Wroldsen, David Guetta, Jax Jones (together under the alias Europa), Laidback Luke, Dragonette, Kele of Bloc Party and Madonna.

Early life
Solveig was born in Paris. As a child, he joined the choir of The Paris Boys Choir also known in France as Les petits chanteurs de Sainte-Croix de Neuilly, where he had a classical music training and became soprano soloist under the direction of François Polgár. At the age of 18, he became a DJ and then started to work in famous Parisian nightclubs: L'Enfer, Le Queen and Les Bains-Douches.

2002–2007: Sur la Terre and Hedonist
On 17 June 2002, Solveig released his debut studio album Sur la Terre; the album failed to chart. The album includes the singles "Madan", "Rocking Music" and "I'm a Good Man". On 12 September 2005, he released his second studio album Hedonist; this peaked at number 43 on the French Albums Chart. The album includes the singles "Everybody", "Jealousy", "Something Better" and "Rejection".

2008–2009: C'est la Vie
On 2 June 2008, Solveig released his third studio album C'est la Vie. The album peaked at number 16 on the French Albums Chart. "C'est la Vie" was released as the lead single from the album on 21 January 2008. "I Want You" was released as the second single from the album on 15 September 2008. "One 2.3 Four" was released as the third single from the album on 22 December 2008. "Boys & Girls" was released as the fourth single from the album on 28 September 2009.

2010–2012: Smash
On 6 September 2010, he released the single "Hello" with Dragonette as the lead single from his fifth studio album. It is Solveig's most successful single to date, peaking at number one in Austria, Belgium (Flanders), Czech Republic and the Netherlands, while charting within the top 10 in ten other countries. The song also peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. "Ready 2 Go" was released as the second single from the album on 28 March 2011. He released his fifth studio album Smash on 6 June 2011, peaking at number 18 on the French Albums Chart. In 2011, Solveig was officially named as one of the producers for Madonna's new studio album, MDNA. On 24 October 2011, "Big in Japan" was released as the third single from the album. On 2 April 2012, "The Night Out" was released as the fourth single from the album. Solveig was also made the in house DJ for the 2012 MTV Movie Awards where he paid homage to the classic themes from movies such as Pulp Fiction.

2013–present
On 28 May 2013, Solveig released the single "Hey Now" with The Cataracs featuring vocals from Kyle, peaking at number 55 on the French Singles Chart. The song has also charted in Belgium, Germany and Ireland. On 6 January 2014, he released the single "Blow" with Laidback Luke. The song charted in Belgium. On 23 February 2015, he released the single "Intoxicated" with Good Times Ahead (GTA). The song peaked at number 15 on the French Singles Chart. On 6 July 2015, he released the single "+1" featuring vocals from Sam White. In 2016, Solveig released the single "Do It Right" with Australian singer Tkay Maidza. In 2017, while leaving Spinnin', Solveig released the single "All Stars" with Finnish singer Alma.

Controversies
In December 2018, Solveig received criticism when he asked the first ever winner of the Ballon d'Or Féminin, Ada Hegerberg, to twerk on stage at the awards ceremony. UEFA President Aleksander Čeferin called him an "idiot that doesn't know how to behave" and added that he "will never again host such an event". Solveig issued a public apology "to anyone who may have been offended" and said it was a joke and that Hegerberg did not consider it sexual harassment.

DJ Mag

 * 2007: No. 72 (New Entry)
 * 2008: No. 52 (Up 20)
 * 2009: No. 47 (Up 5)
 * 2010: No. 55 (Down 8)
 * 2011: No. 29 (Up 26)
 * 2012: No. 48 (Down 19)
 * 2013: No. 77 (Down 29)
 * 2014-2015: Unlisted
 * 2016: No. 98
 * Since 2017: Unlisted

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * Sur la terre (2002)
 * Hedonist (2005)
 * C'est la Vie (2008)
 * Smash (2011)
 * Back to Life (2023)

title: Martin Solveig


text:
Talk:MediaWiki

Logo
The logo in the infobox is the old one. It is repeated below in the History section as 'logo until 2021'. Shouldn't the new logo be in the Infobox then? -- Rsrikanth05 (talk) 07:03, 11 July 2023 (UTC)

 * ✅ The infobox was vandalized on 9 July 2023. --Dexxor (talk) 08:22, 11 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Aah, okay. I did not know that. Thanks!. -- Rsrikanth05 (talk) 21:40, 27 July 2023 (UTC)
 * @Rsrikanth05 85.106.145.78 (talk) 11:28, 28 July 2023 (UTC)
 * What? -- Rsrikanth05 (talk) 20:09, 28 July 2023 (UTC)
 * International Phonetic Alphabet - X-SAMPA Austeronaring (talk) 19:08, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:MediaWiki


text:
Alter Ego (1986 video game)

Alter Ego is a role-playing video game developed and published by Activision in 1986. It was created by Peter J. Favaro for the Commodore 64, DOS, Apple II, and the Apple Macintosh. The game allows the user to make decisions for an imaginary person (being therefore the player's alter ego) and shows what possible consequences these decisions could have on that person. Alter Ego was released in both male and female versions, each using a different set of experiences.

Gameplay
The player's alter ego begins the game as an infant; the game presents the user with a tree diagram with nodes, each labeled with an icon. The player chooses an icon representing an "experience" or situation to explore. Each icon bears a symbol showing what kind of experience it represents (for example, a heart denotes an emotional event). After making a choice in each node, the user is moved back to the tree with that node marked as completed. In this manner, the user progresses through the alter ego's entire life and examines what impact their decisions had. In the process of playing the game, the player's alter ego proceeds through seven phases with their respective experiences: infancy, childhood, adolescence, young adulthood, adulthood, middle adulthood, and old age. Some of these experiences are disturbing, and can even lead to premature death (such as being raped and killed by a child molester), though most tend to be humorous.

Alter Ego keeps track of certain player statistics throughout the game, which in turn affect the alter ego's ability to succeed at certain choices. For example, in the high school segment, the player might be given the choice of trying out for the school baseball team, or deciding instead to crack down and study harder to improve in math. This decision might change the alter ego's "Physical", "Confidence", and "Intellectual" statistics, which in future experiences might influence the alter ego's ability to get into college or succeed in social situations.

Reception
Johnny Wilson of Computer Gaming World described the game as "a delightful, humorous and thought-provoking exercise in decision-making, value exploration and evaluation, and vicarious wish-fulfillment." He raised minor qualms concerning the disconnect between past experiences and current situations, and the mild tendency of the game to be "preachy". The magazine's Charles Ardai described it as "fascinating the first time out" but repetitive later. Info gave the Commodore 64 version five stars out of five, describing it as "some of the most broadly therapeutic and consciousness-raising software available", and "very entertaining". The reviewer concluded "I would recommend this wholesome software to anyone old enough to read".

The game was also positively reviewed by Zzap!64 magazine.

Reviews

 * Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine v10 n10 (1986 10)

title: Alter Ego (1986 video game)


text:
Rob Marshall

Robert Doyle Marshall Jr. (born October 17, 1960) is an American film and theater director, producer, and choreographer. He is best known for directing the film version of the Broadway musical Chicago, which was based on the play of the same name by playwright Maurine Dallas Watkins. His work on the film earned him the Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing – Feature Film, as well as nominations for the Academy Award for Best Director, the Golden Globe Award for Best Director, and the BAFTA Award for Best Direction. He also directed the films Memoirs of a Geisha, Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, Into the Woods, Mary Poppins Returns, and the Disney live-action remake The Little Mermaid.

Early life and education
Robert Doyle Marshall Jr. was born in Madison, Wisconsin. His father and namesake, Robert Doyle Marshall Sr., was a Ph.D. student at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, and his mother Anne was a teacher. Like him, his younger sister Kathleen became a choreographer and director.

In 1984, Robert Marshall joined the English department at the University of Pittsburgh, and the Marshall family relocated to Pittsburgh. Anne would later work for Pittsburgh Public Schools and the University of Pittsburgh School of Education, and Robert would become associate professor of English and dean of the College of Arts and Sciences at the same university.

Rob Marshall graduated from the Falk School, and then in 1978 from Taylor Allderdice High School, into whose alumni hall of fame he later was inducted. Graduating from Carnegie Mellon University in 1982, Marshall worked in the Pittsburgh theatre scene, performing with such companies as Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera.

Career
Marshall went on to perform as a dancer in various Broadway shows, but suffered a herniated disc while performing in Cats and after recovering, transitioned into choreography and then directing.

He debuted in the film industry with the TV adaptation of the musical Annie by Charles Strouse and Martin Charnin. He went on to direct the 2002 adaptation of the Kander and Ebb musical Chicago, for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Director. His next feature film was the drama Memoirs of a Geisha based on the best-selling book of the same name by Arthur Golden starring Zhang Ziyi, Gong Li, Michelle Yeoh and Ken Watanabe. The film went on to win three Academy Awards and gross $162.2 million at the worldwide box office.

Marshall went on to direct the 2009 film Nine, an adaptation of the Broadway production with the same name starring Daniel Day-Lewis, Marion Cotillard, Nicole Kidman, Sophia Loren and Penélope Cruz, who was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. On August 2009, it was reported that Marshall was to direct Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides, the fourth chapter of Disney's Pirates of the Caribbean film series starring Johnny Depp, Penélope Cruz, Ian McShane and Geoffrey Rush, which opened on May 20, 2011 and grossed $1 billion worldwide.

After working with Disney on Pirates, Marshall directed Disney's film adaptation of Stephen Sondheim's Into the Woods (2014), and produced the film under his Lucamar Productions banner. His next film was the sequel to the 1964 film Mary Poppins, titled Mary Poppins Returns, reuniting two Into the Woods actresses: Emily Blunt as the title character and Meryl Streep in a supporting role.

By December 2017, Disney was considering Marshall to direct the live-action/CGI adaptation of The Little Mermaid, which he was officially confirmed to direct in December 2018.

Personal life
Marshall is gay. As of at least 2007, Marshall lives in New York City with his partner, producer John DeLuca. In 2004, they bought a $4.2 million summer home in Sagaponack, New York, part of The Hamptons.

Television
TV movies

Awards and nominations
List of Tony Award nominations

title: Rob Marshall


text:
Flag of Arizona

The flag of Arizona consists of 13 rays of red and weld-yellow on the top half. The red and yellow symbolize the Spanish conquistadores that explored this part of America; this is because the flag is inspired by the current flag of Spain. The center star signifies copper production; Arizona produces more copper than any other state in the US.

The height of the flag is two units high while the width is three units wide. The sun rays at the top are divided into 13 equal segments, starting with red and alternating with gold until the rays are complete. In the center of the flag, the copper star is one unit high, while the rest of the flag is covered by a blue section measuring one unit high and three units wide. The colors of red and blue are the same shade used on the flag of the United States. The suggested flag size is 4 by 6 ft, with the star being 2 ft tall.

History
The state of Arizona's website, museum, and official materials cite the following origins of the Arizona flag:

"Charles Wilfred Harris, Colonel in the Arizona National Guard, served as the captain of the unit's rifle team in 1910. During the rifle competition at Camp Perry, Ohio, the Arizona team was the only team without an emblem of any kind. Colonel Harris was chiefly responsible for the creation of the rifle team flag that in 1917 became the Arizona State Flag. Blue and gold are the colors of Arizona. Red and gold are the colors carried by Coronado's Expedition of 1540 to the Seven Cities of Cibola. The blue is 'liberty blue' identical to the color in the United States flag field of stars. Since Arizona is a western state, the rays of the setting sun seemed appropriate. There are thirteen rays representing the original 'thirteen colonies'. The large copper star identifies Arizona as the largest producer of copper in the United States."

While Harris is credited with the creation of the Rifle Team flag, several individuals appear to have played a role in the design of the state's first official flag, including Rachael Berry, Arizona's first elected female state representative. W. R. Stewart of Mesa was working in conjunction with Harris, who was the Arizona adjutant general and head of the Arizona National Guard. Stewart, as president of the Mesa Rifle Team, felt compelled to design a flag for competition. Reportedly, Stewart's wife Mae sewed the first flag for competition from a sketch he had made on the back of an envelope. Carl Hayden, Arizona's first U.S. Representative, was reported to have been involved with Harris in designing the first state flag, and his wife, Nan Hayden, was responsible for sewing the first state flag.

Other individuals were also likely involved in its conception, design, and production. The Stewart and Harris version of the competition flag's origin is due to Stewart dropping some copper dye and white material into boiling water and the result was the copper color now seen on the flag. While some sources claim the rising sun of the earlier proposals was thought to resemble the Japanese flag and was therefore changed to the present star, most official sources (including official state documents) cite the Spanish flag and the influence of early Arizona explorers, such as the conquistadores Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca and Francisco Vázquez de Coronado, as they searched unsuccessfully for the lost gold city of Cibola as the inspiration for the colors. However, these early explorers never used the current Spanish flag, which is of much more recent design (1785).

The flag was adopted on February 27, 1917, by the 3rd Arizona Legislature. It was passed into law without the signature of Governor Thomas Campbell. The governor never officially specified his reasons for not taking any action on the bill.

In a 2001 poll conducted by the North American Vexillological Association, the Arizona flag was identified as one of the "10 best flags on the continent," ranking sixth of 72 North American flags for overall design quality.

title: Flag of Arizona