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Homogenic

Homogenic is the third studio album by Icelandic recording artist Björk. It was released on 20 September 1997 by One Little Indian Records. Produced by Björk, Mark Bell, Guy Sigsworth, Howie B, and Markus Dravs, the album marked a stylistic change, focusing on similar-sounding music combining electronic beats and string instruments with songs in tribute to her native country Iceland.

Homogenic was originally to be produced in her home in London, but was halted due to media attention from Björk surviving a murder attempt by a stalker. She later relocated to Spain to record the album. It marked the first of several production collaborations between Björk and Bell, whom she would cite as a major influence on her musical career.

Upon its release, Homogenic received widespread critical acclaim. It topped the Icelandic albums chart, peaking at number 28 on the US Billboard 200 and number 4 on the UK Albums Chart. The album produced five singles—"Jóga", "Bachelorette", "Hunter", "Alarm Call", and "All Is Full of Love"—and was further promoted with the Homogenic tour (1997–1999). Retrospectively, Homogenic has continued receiving critical acclaim, being listed among the best albums of all time by numerous critics.

Recording and production
After an extensive tour in support of her 1995 album Post, Björk returned to her home in Maida Vale with an urgent need to write new songs as a form of therapy. Björk would let audio engineer Markus Dravs into her home studio to start creating new songs. The sessions with Dravs and Björk were casual, with Björk allowing Dravs freedom with the album. Björk only left the studio to cook meals for the both of them. One of the first songs created during the sessions was "5 Years" which Dravs created the fast beat for. The progress of Homogenic in these sessions was halted due to a media sensation caused by the suicide of Björk's stalker Ricardo López. To deal with the stress of being at home during this incident, Björk imagined herself as the protagonist in a Spanish soap opera. The character's image inspired a song titled "So Broken" which she sang to herself in her kitchen. The song was later included on the Japanese import of the album.

To record in privacy away from the sudden unwanted media interest, Björk's tour drummer Trevor Morais offered his studio in Spain. Björk went to Málaga and arranged to meet with flamenco guitarist Raimundo Amador. Björk had originally intended to stay in Málaga only briefly, but later decided to record the entirety of Homogenic there. Björk made a final trip out of the country before staying in Spain. As she had done since moving to London, Björk returned to Iceland for Christmas. While there, she wrote more new songs for Homogenic, including "Jóga". Before returning to Spain to record, Björk was sidetracked by a two-week worldwide press tour for the promotion of her remix album Telegram, which had just been released. After returning to the studio in Spain in late January, Björk decided to end work with producer Nellee Hooper, who had produced both Debut and Post, as she felt they had "stopped surprising each other". Björk had intended to produce the album alone, but sought collaborators including Dravs, Howie B, Guy Sigsworth and LFO's Mark Bell. Howie B had worked with Björk on Debut and Post and Sigsworth had played harpsichord on Post. The American hip hop group Wu-Tang Clan almost contributed to the production of Homogenic, but were unable due to their production on the album Wu-Tang Forever, which had taken longer than planned. Most of the melodies on the album were created by Björk, who then composed string sections on a Casio keyboard and brought them to programmers who would add rhythmic patterns. Björk had wanted to have Mark Bell contribute to her albums Debut and Post; Bell was credited for the majority of the album's production, including the songs "Pluto", "Alarm Call", and the bassline in "Jóga". Björk stated that she "trusts and respects what [Bell] does for me. If I were to say who has influenced me most it would be Stockhausen, Kraftwerk, Brian Eno and Mark Bell". Other unorthodox methods of recording were used during the production, including Björk wanting to record outside on the porch and using non-professionals to help with production, such as Rebecca Storey, who was hired as a babysitter but added to the production staff after showing interest in the equipment.

String arrangements were added late in the recording process. Björk had friend Eumir Deodato conduct, transcribe and compose original pieces for the few songs that Björk did not arrange for herself. To keep with the Icelandic theme of the album, Björk ordered the services of the Icelandic String Octet. By June 1997, the album was behind schedule and Björk was uncertain of the final track listing and unhappy with some of the recorded vocals.

Music and lyrics
Homogenic is an electronica, trip hop, art pop, and experimental album. Before production began on Homogenic, Björk wanted to create an album with "a simple sound" and "only one flavour". Heather Phares of AllMusic described the sound of Homogenic as a "fusion of chilly strings (courtesy of the Icelandic String Octet), stuttering, abstract beats, and unique touches like accordion and glass harmonica". The album differs from her previous two releases stylistically, and Neva Chonin of Rolling Stone stated the album was "certain to be rough going for fans looking for the sweet melodies and peppy dance collages of her earlier releases". As with other Björk releases, it has been difficult for critics to classify Homogenic within a musical genre. Tiny Mix Tapes considered that "Björk has managed to create something so refreshingly unique that trying to categorize and label the music is rather dubious." Writing for Beats Per Minute, Cole Zercoe felt Homogenic represented a pinnacle work of trip hop, forming part of "a sort of holy trinity of this musical aesthetic" along with Massive Attack's Mezzanine and Portishead's Dummy.

Björk wanted Homogenic to have a conceptual focus on her native Iceland. Producer Markus Dravs recalled Björk wanting it to sound like "rough volcanoes with soft moss growing all over it..." In an interview for Oor, Björk explained that "in Iceland, everything revolves around nature, 24 hours a day. Earthquakes, snowstorms, rain, ice, volcanic eruptions, geysers... Very elementary and uncontrollable. But at the other hand, Iceland is incredibly modern; everything is hi-tech. The number of people owning a computer is as high as nowhere else in the world. That contradiction is also on Homogenic. The electronic beats are the rhythm, the heartbeat. The violins create the old-fashioned atmosphere, the colouring."

Björk's vocals on Homogenic range from primitive-sounding screams to a traditional singing method used by Icelandic choir men, a combination of speaking and singing as illustrated in the song "Unravel". The majority of songs on Homogenic have lyrics about love and failed relationships. The song "Jóga" was written as a tribute to her best friend and tour masseuse of the same name. Björk called "All is Full of Love" a song about "believing in love" and that "Love isn't just about two persons. It's everywhere around you". "All Neon Like" contains snippets of a poem Björk wrote called "Techno Prayer" in 1996. The song "5 Years" appeared in live form a few weeks after her breakup with musician Tricky and music journalists considered it a response to it. "Bachelorette" was originally written for director Bernardo Bertolucci for his film Stealing Beauty. Björk later faxed Bertolucci, informing him the song would be used for her album instead. "Bachelorette" and "Jóga" were written with Icelandic poet Sjón, because Björk wanted to use epic lyrics. "Immature" was written about mistakes in past relationships, shortly after the breakup with Goldie. Björk described "Pluto" as about "being plastered, that need to destroy everything so you can start again". "Unravel" is a song about lamenting love, with brief flashes of hope.

Title and artwork
The album's production began with the working title of Homogeneous, but Björk changed it to Homogenic shortly afterwards. Björk wanted to create an album with "a simple sound" and "only one flavour", hence the title. The title has also been speculated to be suggesting the concept of home, which Björk had said to be incorporating into Homogenic in an interview with Jam!: "'I'm really seeking after something that's Icelandic. And I want it to be more me, this album. Debut and Post are a bit like the Tin Tin books. Sort of Tin Tin goes to Congo. Tin Tin goes to Tibet. So it's all these different flavors, me sort of trying all these different things on, which is very exciting, but now I think it's a bit more Björk goes home.'"

The themes of Homogenic are reflected in the album cover designed by Alexander McQueen. According to McQueen biographer Andrew Wilson, Björk approached McQueen after seeing the futuristic image of model Devon Aoki in the February 1997 edition of Visionaire. Dressed by McQueen and photographed by Nick Knight, who shot the Homogenic cover as well, Aoki wears a pink funnel-necked dress with her skin cast in a blueish metallic hue, one eyeball blankly white, a large safety pin closing a slash through her forehead, and her hair pulled into tight buns as she challenges the camera with a direct gaze.

Björk explained her vision for the Homogenic cover, which carries a resemblance to "someone who is put into an impossible situation, so impossible that she has to become a warrior. A warrior who has to fight not with weapons, but with love. I had 10 kilos of hair on my head, and special contact lenses and a manicure that prevented me from eating with my fingers, and gaffer tape around my waist and high clogs so I couldn't walk easily."

Release and promotion
The album was released later than One Little Indian Records had intended. Björk was behind schedule and the album's cover design by Nick Knight needed a reshoot. Towards the end of August 1997, One Little Indian delayed the album by a month. Homogenic was released on 22 September 1997 on One Little Indian in the United Kingdom and on September 23 Elektra Records in North America on compact disc and cassette. The album was later issued on vinyl and DualDisc formats. The Japanese version of Homogenic included several bonus tracks and remixed versions of songs. The DualDisc release featured the full album on the CD side and the DVD side included the album with superior sound quality and the music videos for the singles.

Promotion of Homogenic started on 8 June 1997, when Björk performed several songs from the album at the Tibetan Freedom Concert held at Downing Stadium in New York City. The album was launched on 15 July at the Old Truman Brewery in London. In the United Kingdom, Björk performed the lead single "Jóga" on TFI Friday on 19 September, and Top of the Pops on 3 October. She performed the second single "Bachelorette" on the American sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live on 18 October, at the 1997 MTV Europe Music Awards on 6 November, on Later... with Jools Holland with "Jóga" and "Hunter" on 29 November, and again in the United States on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on 22 May 1998. In France, Björk performed "Bachelorette" with "Jóga" on Nulle Part Ailleurs on 11 February, and with "Hunter" on Hit Machine on 20 June. She performed the fourth single "Alarm Call" on CD:UK on 5 December.

When the release of Homogenic was delayed by a month, its tour began with the audience not being familiar with the album's songs since it had not been released yet. The tour started at the beginning of September with a backing band that consisted only of Mark Bell and made stops in Germany, the Netherlands, France, Belgium, Spain, and England. These shows were brief live shows lasting about half an hour consisting of only new material. Another tour took place in late October and lasted less than four weeks. Stops on this tour included Italy, Switzerland, France, England, Scotland, Germany, Ireland, and Denmark. In late November, Björk was diagnosed with a kidney infection and while she was still healthy she was advised to take a three-week rest and was forced to cancel her American tour. In 1998, a North American tour with Radiohead was announced but canceled later due to difficulty of changing the stage between performances of the acts. Björk had another tour in the middle of 1998 through Europe, and outside of the continent through other countries, including Chile, Brazil and Argentina. Opening acts for portions of the tour included electronic musician μ-Ziq.

Singles
"Jóga" was released as the lead single from Homogenic on 15 September 1997 to widespread critical acclaim. It peaked atop the Íslenski Listinn Topp 40 in Iceland, while reaching the top 20 in Finland. Due to its formats, it was initially ineligible to enter the UK Singles Chart, but later peaked at number 191. Its mostly computer-animated accompanying music video was directed by Michel Gondry and focuses primarily on different Icelandic terrains and landscapes with Björk's presence only in the beginning and towards the end.

"Bachelorette" was released as the second single on 8 December. While less successful than "Jóga" in Björk's native Iceland, peaking at number six, it was an improvement from "Jóga" in the United Kingdom, where it peaked at numbers 21 and two on the UK Singles Chart and UK Indie Chart, respectively. Gondry returned to direct the music video for "Bachelorette", which features Björk as Bachelorette, a woman who finds a book titled My Story buried in her garden which begins to write itself, describing what Bachelorette does as she describes it. It won the MTV Video Music Award for Best Art Direction and was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Short Form Music Video.

"Hunter" was released as the third single on 5 October 1998. Despite being critically acclaimed, it was a commercial failure, as it peaked only at number 44 on the UK Singles Chart. Its accompanying music video, directed by Paul White, features a close-up of a bald Björk singing into the camera as she morphs into a polar bear and then back to her original state.

"Alarm Call" was originally scheduled for release as the third single, but switched places with "Hunter". It was released as the fourth single on 30 November 1998 and returned Björk to the top ten of Íslenski Listinn Topp 40, as its French mix peaked at number ten. In the UK, the song peaked at numbers 33 and three on the UK Singles Chart and UK Indie Chart, respectively. The song's accompanying music video was directed by Alexander McQueen, who designed the cover artwork for Homogenic, and features Björk floating on a raft on a river in the jungle and her scenes are intercut with footage of snakes, crocodiles, and other animals, with Björk playing with them.

"All Is Full of Love" was released as the fifth and final single on 7 June 1999. DVD single was simultaneously released; some publications regard it as the first DVD single release ever. Critically acclaimed, the song peaked at numbers 24 and three on the UK Singles Chart and UK Indie Chart, respectively. It became the only single from Homogenic to enter a chart in the United States, peaking at number eight on the Dance/Electronic Singles Sales chart. Directed by Chris Cunningham, the song's music video depicts Björk as a robot being assembled in a factory, who passionately kisses another robot. The video is often cited as one of the best of all time and a milestone in computer animation; it has been displayed in art exhibitions and was on display at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City.

Critical reception
Homogenic received widespread acclaim from critics. David Browne of Entertainment Weekly stated that "Homogenic could have been stuffy and dull — Sting with a sex-change operation. It's a testament to Bjork's continued weirdness that even overtures toward adulthood come out delightfully skewed". Neva Chonin of Rolling Stone cited it as "one of the boldest – and most exciting – albums of the year", while Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin wrote that it "affirms [Björk's] stature as one of pop music's most uncompromising adventurers". NME's Ted Kessler praised Homogenic as Björk's best album and "her most emotional, highly charged and groovy record, as well as a stinging triumph for the spirit of adventure," while The Philadelphia Inquirer remarked that it "boldly ventures into the techno future while never losing its intensely personal vision and human heart". In another positive review, Spin opined that with the album, Björk didn't "demonize the artificial and assign innocence to the natural." The Chicago Tribune stated that her voice on Homogenic was "like a beacon guiding the listener through a strange, wonderful forest of sound."

Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian praised the "emotional kick" that she found Post lacked, in addition to lyricism she found to be "less opaque". Though Music Week praised the album for its "darker atmosphere" and "more consistent sound", a more negative review came from Stephen Thompson of The A.V. Club, who said in contrast that "Homogenic is stylish enough, and it's as restlessly creative as you'd expect, but the album rarely gives Björk's songs a chance to assert themselves".

Accolades
American critics rated Homogenic highly in year-end polls. It topped The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop critics' poll, while Spin ranked it number four in their "Top 20 Albums of the Year".

In Britain. Melody Maker ranked it at number 33 in the "Albums of the Year" and NME placed it at number 15 in a critics' poll.

Homogenic was nominated in the Best Alternative Music Performance category at the 40th Annual Grammy Awards (1998), losing to Radiohead's OK Computer.

Michel Gondry's music video for "Bachelorette" was nominated for Best Short Form Music Video at the 41st Annual Grammy Awards (1999), but lost to Jonas Åkerlund's video for Madonna's "Ray of Light". At the next year's ceremony, Chris Cunningham's video for "All Is Full of Love" was nominated for the same award, but lost to Korn's "Freak on a Leash".

Homogenic earned Björk the Brit Award for International Female Solo Artist at the 1998 ceremony. Accepting the award, she declared: "I am grateful grapefruit."

Bloc Party frontman Kele Okereke cited it as his favourite album. "She's a real genius," he said. "No one's been as radical or innovative and still made pop music. I got into it when I was first discovering music. It still has a deep resonance for me."

Commercial performance
Homogenic debuted and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart on 4 October 1997, spending 17 weeks on the chart. It debuted at number six on the Australian Albums Chart on 12 October 1997, but descended to number 45 after five weeks on the chart. The album debuted at number eight on the New Zealand Albums Chart on 12 October 1997, and peaked at number six the following week, but descended after six weeks on the chart.

In the United States, Homogenic debuted at number 28 on the Billboard 200, spending a total of nine weeks inside the chart, where its final position was at number 164. The album was certified gold on 1 August 2001 by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of 500,000 copies. Homogenic debuted at twenty on the Canadian Albums Chart, becoming Björk's first album to enter the chart but spent only one week there. It was certified gold by the Music Canada on 12 June 1998.

Impact and legacy
In the years following its release, Homogenic has continued to receive acclaim from critics, audiences and musicians. In a retrospective review, Heather Phares of AllMusic cited Homogenic as being more emotionally deep than any of Björk's previous work and called it a "seamless fusion of chilly strings, stuttering, abstract beats, and unique touches like an accordion and glass harmonica." In 2002, Homogenic placed at number ten on Slant Magazine's list of "The Greatest Electronic Albums of the 20th Century". In 2003, it was placed at number 21 on the music webzine Pitchfork's list of the top one hundred albums of the 1990s, in which it was praised as "one of the most perfectly formed records of any era, and it is entirely possible that Björk will never approach this level of consistently enrapturing beauty again". In 2007, Slant Magazine critic Sal Cinquemani wrote that "if not the greatest electronic album of all time, it's certainly the greatest of its decade". The same year, Spin writer Phoebe Reilly called it Björk's "most sublime and vulnerable album" in a career retrospective. In 2011, Slant Magazine placed the album at number one on their list of best albums of the 1990s. In 2017, Philip Sherburne of Pitchfork observed that it "showcased a newly focused side of the musician while embracing all of her most provocative contradictions." In 2020, Rolling Stone ranked the album at number 202 on its "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list. In 2023, British GQ ranked it at number four on their list of ten best electronic albums of all time.

According to Tiny Mix Tapes, Homogenic is "one of the most groundbreaking albums of all-time, an album that assuredly caused countless hearts to soar." With Homogenic, Björk has been credited for connecting art pop to electronic dance music. Philip Sherburne of Pitchfork described the album as impactful on Björk's own discography, stating: "In retrospect, it's easy to see the way that Homogenic paves the way for later career triumphs like Vespertine and Vulnicura: In its formal audacity and sustained emotional intensity, it represents a phase shift from Debut and Post, fine though they were." In an interview with Spin, Radiohead singer Thom Yorke called the song "Unravel" "one of the most beautiful songs I've ever heard." The band would cover the song as part of a 2007 live webcast. Their guitarist Ed O'Brien claimed Björk inspired them to change their musical style for their fourth studio album Kid A (2000), stating: "I think we've all been a bit envious about the way Björk has been able to reinvent music." Homogenic has also been noted to have had influence on Kanye West by various sources, as he departed hip hop in favor of a more experimental sound for his fourth studio album 808s & Heartbreak (2008).

Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Homogenic.
 * Musicians

 * Alasdair Alloy – glass harmonica
 * Mark Bell – keyboards
 * Björk – keyboards, vocals
 * Mike Brittain – bass
 * Jeffrey Bryant – horn
 * Paul Gardhaim – bass
 * Isobel Griffiths – orchestra contractor
 * Steve Henderson – timbales, timpani
 * Yasuhiro Kobayashi – accordion
 * Chris Laurence – bass
 * Trevor Morais – drums, electronic drums
 * Paul Pritchard – bass
 * Frank Ricotti – snare drums
 * Guy Sigsworth – clavichord, keyboards, pipe organ
 * Mike Thompson – horn
 * Helen Tunstall – harp
 * Strings
 * Vaughan Armon, Sigurbjorn Bernhardsson, Mark Berrow, Ben Cruft, Sigrun Edvaldsdottir, Roger Garland, Wilfred Gibson, Perry Mason, Jim McLeod, Perry Montague-Mason, Peter Oxer, Maciej Rakowski, Una Sveinbjarnardottir, Sif Tulinius, Gavyn Wright – violins
 * Roger Chase, Hrund Hardardottir, Bill Hawkes, Peter Lale, George Robertson, Moeidur Anna Sigurdardottir – violas
 * Sigurdur Bjarki Gunnarsson, Paul Kegg, Helen Liebmann, Martin Loveday, Jon R. Ornolfsson, John Tunnell – cellos

 * Technical personnel

 * Björk – arrangements, programming, production
 * Howie B – programming, production, mixing
 * Mark Bell – programming, production, drum programming, crew
 * Danny Joe Brown Band – programming, mixing assistance
 * Richard Brown – programming
 * Kirsten Cowie – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Eumir Deodato – arrangements, orchestration, transcription
 * Marius de Vries – programming
 * Markus Dravs – programming, production, engineering, drum programming, crew
 * Jason Groucott – mixing assistance, assistance
 * James Loughrey – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Sie Medway-Smith – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Rob Murphy – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Nilesh Patel – mastering
 * Russel Polden – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Steve Price – engineering
 * Guy Sigsworth – production
 * Tony Stanton – copying
 * Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing, crew
 * Rebecca Storey – mixing assistance, assistance
 * Paul Walton – mixing assistance
 * Jason Westbrook – mixing assistance, assistance

 * Artwork
 * Alexander McQueen – art direction
 * Nick Knight – photography
 * Katy England – styling
 * Me Company – sleeve design

title: Homogenic


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PAFC

PAFC may refer to:

Association football (soccer) clubs

 * Peasedown Athletic F.C., Somerset, England
 * Penicuik Athletic F.C., near Edinburgh, Scotland
 * Penryn Athletic F.C., Cornwall, England
 * Penzance A.F.C., Cornwall, England
 * Philippine Army F.C., Philippines
 * Plymouth Argyle F.C., Devon, England
 * Preston Athletic F.C., near Edinburgh, Scotland
 * Puskás Akadémia FC, Fejér County, Hungary

Other meanings

 * Phosphoric acid fuel cell
 * Photoacoustic flow cytometry, a biomedical imaging modality
 * Ping An Finance Centre, skyscraper in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China
 * Port Adelaide Football Club, South Australia, an Australian rules club

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: PAFC


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Abronia

Abronia may refer to:

 * Abronia (gens), a Roman family of the Augustan age
 * Abronia (lizard), a genus of animals commonly known as arboreal alligator lizards
 * Abronia (plant), a genus of plants commonly known as sand-verbenas

title: Abronia


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Loudness

In acoustics, loudness is the subjective perception of sound pressure. More formally, it is defined as the "attribute of auditory sensation in terms of which sounds can be ordered on a scale extending from quiet to loud". The relation of physical attributes of sound to perceived loudness consists of physical, physiological and psychological components. The study of apparent loudness is included in the topic of psychoacoustics and employs methods of psychophysics.

In different industries, loudness may have different meanings and different measurement standards. Some definitions, such as ITU-R BS.1770 refer to the relative loudness of different segments of electronically reproduced sounds, such as for broadcasting and cinema. Others, such as ISO 532A (Stevens loudness, measured in sones), ISO 532B (Zwicker loudness), DIN 45631 and ASA/ANSI S3.4, have a more general scope and are often used to characterize loudness of environmental noise. More modern standards, such as Nordtest ACOU112 and ISO/AWI 532-3 (in progress) take into account other components of loudness, such as onset rate, time variation and spectral masking.

Loudness, a subjective measure, is often confused with physical measures of sound strength such as sound pressure, sound pressure level (in decibels), sound intensity or sound power. Weighting filters such as A-weighting and LKFS attempt to compensate measurements to correspond to loudness as perceived by the typical human.

Explanation
The perception of loudness is related to sound pressure level (SPL), frequency content and duration of a sound. The relationship between SPL and loudness of a single tone can be approximated by Stevens's power law in which SPL has an exponent of 0.67. A more precise model known as the Inflected Exponential function, indicates that loudness increases with a higher exponent at low and high levels and with a lower exponent at moderate levels.

The sensitivity of the human ear changes as a function of frequency, as shown in the equal-loudness graph. Each line on this graph shows the SPL required for frequencies to be perceived as equally loud, and different curves pertain to different sound pressure levels. It also shows that humans with normal hearing are most sensitive to sounds around 2–4 kHz, with sensitivity declining to either side of this region. A complete model of the perception of loudness will include the integration of SPL by frequency.

Historically, loudness was measured using an "ear-balance" audiometer in which the amplitude of a sine wave was adjusted by the user to equal the perceived loudness of the sound being evaluated. Contemporary standards for measurement of loudness are based on the summation of energy in critical bands.

Hearing loss
When sensorineural hearing loss (damage to the cochlea or in the brain) is present, the perception of loudness is altered. Sounds at low levels (often perceived by those without hearing loss as relatively quiet) are no longer audible to the hearing impaired, but sounds at high levels often are perceived as having the same loudness as they would for an unimpaired listener. This phenomenon can be explained by two theories, called loudness recruitment and softness imperception.

Loudness recruitment posits that loudness grows more rapidly for certain listeners than normal listeners with changes in level. This theory has been accepted as the classical explanation.

Softness imperception, a term coined by Mary Florentine around 2002, proposes that some listeners with sensorineural hearing loss may exhibit a normal rate of loudness growth, but instead have an elevated loudness at their threshold. That is, the softest sound that is audible to these listeners is louder than the softest sound audible to normal listeners.

Compensation
The loudness control associated with a loudness compensation feature on some consumer stereos alters the frequency response curve to correspond roughly with the equal loudness characteristic of the ear. Loudness compensation is intended to make the recorded music sound more natural when played at a lower levels by boosting low frequencies, to which the ear is less sensitive at lower sound pressure levels.

Normalization
Loudness normalization is a specific type of audio normalization that equalizes perceived level such that, for instance, commercials do not sound louder than television programs. Loudness normalization schemes exist for a number of audio applications.

Broadcast

 * Commercial Advertisement Loudness Mitigation Act
 * EBU R 128

Movie and home theaters

 * Dialnorm

Music playback

 * Sound Check in iTunes
 * ReplayGain
 * Normalization systems built into streaming services such as Spotify and YouTube.

Measurement
Historically sone (loudness N) and phon (loudness level LN) units have been used to measure loudness.

A-weighting follows human sensitivity to sound and describes relative perceived loudness for at quiet to moderate speech levels, around 40 phons.

Relative loudness monitoring in production is measured in accordance with ITU-R BS.1770 in units of LKFS. Work began on ITU-R BS.1770 in 2001 after 0 dBFS+ level distortion in converters and lossy codecs had become evident; and the original Leq(RLB) loudness metric was proposed by Gilbert Soulodre in 2003. Based on data from subjective listening tests, Leq(RLB) compared favorably to numerous other algorithms. CBC, Dolby and TC Electronic and numerous broadcasters contributed to the listening tests. Loudness levels measured according to the Leq(RLB) specified in ITU-R BS.1770 are reported in LKFS units.

The ITU-R BS.1770 measurement system was improved for made multi-channel applications (monaural to 5.1 surround sound). To make the loudness metric cross-genre friendly, a relative measurement gate was added. This work was carried out in 2008 by the EBU. The improvements were brought back into BS.1770-2. ITU subsequently updated the true-peak metric (BS.1770-3) and added provision for even more audio channels, for instance 22.2 surround sound (BS.1770-4).

title: Loudness


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User talk:Gary Jones

Hello Gary, welcome to Wikipedia. Here's some tips:
 * You can introduce yourself on the new users page
 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.
 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.
 * Remember to use the show preview button before you save a page.

Other useful pages are: how to edit, how to write a great article, naming conventions, manual of style and the Wikipedia policies. As you know, you can ask questions at the village pump. Also, feel free to ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Angela. 16:59, Feb 28, 2004 (UTC)

Picture of Central Amman
Thanks for the picture you contributed to Amman (Image:Amman downTown.jpg). I beleive you own the copyright to it as you created it. I request you to release it under the GFDL or to the public domain. If you intend to release it to the public domain, you should just add text to the image page saying that you do so. If you intend to release it under the GFDL, you should go to the page and write "(c) Gary Jones. ". Releasing it under GFDL or to the public domain ensures that the complete article is GFDL and allows free redistribution of the image along with the article. Thanks, --Hemanshu 19:53, 22 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Image:Santodomingo_cathedral.jpg
Hi Gary, How's the status of the mentioned photo as to regard licencing? Public domain, Fdl,... Could you please specify? Thanks very much: as soon as i know I'll upload to the it.wiki as well.

ciao --Balubino 03:24, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thank you
Thanks for your image of the Dead Sea Scroll exhibit in Amman. I've used it at Tanakh at Qumran. Cheers. Alastair Haines 09:48, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

File:Petra monastery.JPG listed for deletion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Petra monastery.JPG, has been listed at Files for deletion. Please see the to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted.

File:Tuolsleng1.jpg listed for discussion
A file that you uploaded or altered, File:Tuolsleng1.jpg, has been listed at Files for discussion. Please see the to see why it has been listed (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry). Feel free to add your opinion on the matter below the nomination. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 11:38, 25 May 2016 (UTC)

title: User talk:Gary Jones


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Differentiable curve

Differential geometry of curves is the branch of geometry that deals with smooth curves in the plane and the Euclidean space by methods of differential and integral calculus.

Many specific curves have been thoroughly investigated using the synthetic approach. Differential geometry takes another path: curves are represented in a parametrized form, and their geometric properties and various quantities associated with them, such as the curvature and the arc length, are expressed via derivatives and integrals using vector calculus. One of the most important tools used to analyze a curve is the Frenet frame, a moving frame that provides a coordinate system at each point of the curve that is "best adapted" to the curve near that point.

The theory of curves is much simpler and narrower in scope than the theory of surfaces and its higher-dimensional generalizations because a regular curve in a Euclidean space has no intrinsic geometry. Any regular curve may be parametrized by the arc length (the natural parametrization). From the point of view of a theoretical point particle on the curve that does not know anything about the ambient space, all curves would appear the same. Different space curves are only distinguished by how they bend and twist. Quantitatively, this is measured by the differential-geometric invariants called the curvature and the torsion of a curve. The fundamental theorem of curves asserts that the knowledge of these invariants completely determines the curve.

Definitions
A parametric $C^{r}$-curve or a $C^{r}$-parametrization is a vector-valued function $$\gamma: I \to \mathbb{R}^{n}$$ that is $r$-times continuously differentiable (that is, the component functions of $γ$ are continuously differentiable), where $$n \isin \mathbb{N}$$, $$r \isin \mathbb{N} \cup \{\infty\}$$, and $I$ is a non-empty interval of real numbers. The of the parametric curve is $$\gamma[I] \subseteq \mathbb{R}^n$$. The parametric curve $γ$ and its image $γ[I]$ must be distinguished because a given subset of $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ can be the image of many distinct parametric curves. The parameter $t$ in $γ(t)$ can be thought of as representing time, and $γ$ the trajectory of a moving point in space. When $I$ is a closed interval $[a,b]$, $γ(a)$ is called the starting point and $γ(b)$ is the endpoint of $γ$. If the starting and the end points coincide (that is, $γ(a) = γ(b)$), then $γ$ is a closed curve or a loop. To be a $C^{r}$-loop, the function $γ$ must be $r$-times continuously differentiable and satisfy $γ^{(k)}(a) = γ^{(k)}(b)$ for $0 ≤ k ≤ r$.

The parametric curve is if $$ \gamma|_{(a,b)}: (a,b) \to \mathbb{R}^{n} $$ is injective. It is if each component function of $γ$ is an analytic function, that is, it is of class $C^{ω}$.

The curve $γ$ is regular of order $m$ (where $m ≤ r$) if, for every $t ∈ I$, $$\left\{ \gamma'(t),\gamma''(t),\ldots,{\gamma^{(m)}}(t) \right\}$$ is a linearly independent subset of $$\mathbb{R}^n$$. In particular, a parametric $C^{1}$-curve $γ$ is if and only if $γ(t) ≠ 0$ for any $t ∈ I$.

Re-parametrization and equivalence relation
Given the image of a parametric curve, there are several different parametrizations of the parametric curve. Differential geometry aims to describe the properties of parametric curves that are invariant under certain reparametrizations. A suitable equivalence relation on the set of all parametric curves must be defined. The differential-geometric properties of a parametric curve (such as its length, its Frenet frame, and its generalized curvature) are invariant under reparametrization and therefore properties of the equivalence class itself. The equivalence classes are called $C^{r}$-curves and are central objects studied in the differential geometry of curves.

Two parametric $C^{r}$-curves, $$\gamma_1 : I_1 \to \mathbb{R}^n$$ and $$\gamma_2 : I_2 \to \mathbb{R}^n$$, are said to be if and only if there exists a bijective $C^{r}$-map $φ : I_{1} → I_{2}$ such that $$\forall t \in I_1: \quad \varphi'(t) \neq 0$$ and $$\forall t \in I_1: \quad \gamma_2\bigl(\varphi(t)\bigr) = \gamma_1(t).$$ $γ_{2}$ is then said to be a of $γ_{1}$.

Re-parametrization defines an equivalence relation on the set of all parametric $C^{r}$-curves of class $C^{r}$. The equivalence class of this relation simply a $C^{r}$-curve.

An even finer equivalence relation of oriented parametric $C^{r}$-curves can be defined by requiring $φ$ to satisfy $φ(t) > 0$.

Equivalent parametric $C^{r}$-curves have the same image, and equivalent oriented parametric $C^{r}$-curves even traverse the image in the same direction.

Length and natural parametrization
The length $l$ of a parametric $C^{1}$-curve $$\gamma : [a, b] \to \mathbb{R}^n$$ is defined as $$l ~ \stackrel{\text{def}}{=} ~ \int_a^b \left\| \gamma'(t) \right\| \, \mathrm{d}{t}.$$ The length of a parametric curve is invariant under reparametrization and is therefore a differential-geometric property of the parametric curve.

For each regular parametric $C^{r}$-curve $$\gamma : [a, b] \to \mathbb{R}^n$$, where $r ≥ 1$, the function is defined $$\forall t \in [a,b]: \quad s(t) ~ \stackrel{\text{def}}{=} ~ \int_a^t \left\| \gamma'(x) \right\| \, \mathrm{d}{x}.$$ Writing $\overline{γ}(s) = γ(t(s))$, where $t(s)$ is the inverse function of $s(t)$. This is a re-parametrization $\overline{γ}$ of $γ$ that is called an arc-length parametrization, natural parametrization, unit-speed parametrization. The parameter $s(t)$ is called the of $γ$.

This parametrization is preferred because the natural parameter $s(t)$ traverses the image of $γ$ at unit speed, so that $$\forall t \in I: \quad \left\| \overline{\gamma}'\bigl(s(t)\bigr) \right\| = 1.$$ In practice, it is often very difficult to calculate the natural parametrization of a parametric curve, but it is useful for theoretical arguments.

For a given parametric curve $γ$, the natural parametrization is unique up to a shift of parameter.

The quantity $$E(\gamma) ~ \stackrel{\text{def}}{=} ~ \frac{1}{2} \int_a^b \left\| \gamma'(t) \right\|^2 ~ \mathrm{d}{t}$$ is sometimes called the or action of the curve; this name is justified because the geodesic equations are the Euler–Lagrange equations of motion for this action.

Frenet frame

A Frenet frame is a moving reference frame of $T$ orthonormal vectors $P$ which are used to describe a curve locally at each point $B$. It is the main tool in the differential geometric treatment of curves because it is far easier and more natural to describe local properties (e.g. curvature, torsion) in terms of a local reference system than using a global one such as Euclidean coordinates.

Given a $n$-curve $e_{i}(t)$ in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ which is regular of order $γ(t)$ the Frenet frame for the curve is the set of orthonormal vectors $$\mathbf{e}_1(t), \ldots, \mathbf{e}_n(t)$$ called Frenet vectors. They are constructed from the derivatives of $C^{n + 1}$ using the Gram–Schmidt orthogonalization algorithm with $$\begin{align} \mathbf{e}_1(t) &= \frac{\boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t)}{\left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \right\|} \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_{j}(t) &= \frac{\overline{\mathbf{e}_{j}}(t)}{\left\|\overline{\mathbf{e}_{j}}(t) \right\|}, & \overline{\mathbf{e}_{j}}(t) &= \boldsymbol{\gamma}^{(j)}(t) - \sum _{i=1}^{j-1} \left\langle \boldsymbol{\gamma}^{(j)}(t), \, \mathbf{e}_i(t) \right\rangle \, \mathbf{e}_i(t) \vphantom{\Bigg\langle} \end{align}$$

The real-valued functions $γ$ are called generalized curvatures and are defined as $$\chi_i(t) = \frac{\bigl\langle \mathbf{e}_i'(t), \mathbf{e}_{i+1}(t) \bigr\rangle}{\left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}^'(t) \right\|} $$

The Frenet frame and the generalized curvatures are invariant under reparametrization and are therefore differential geometric properties of the curve. For curves in $$\mathbb R^3$$ $$\chi_1(t)$$ is the curvature and $$\chi_2(t)$$ is the torsion.

Bertrand curve
A Bertrand curve is a regular curve in $$\mathbb R^3$$ with the additional property that there is a second curve in $$\mathbb R^3$$ such that the principal normal vectors to these two curves are identical at each corresponding point. In other words, if $n$ and $γ(t)$ are two curves in $$\mathbb R^3$$ such that for any $t$, the two principal normals $χ_{i}(t)$ are equal, then $γ_{1}(t)$ and $γ_{2}(t)$ are Bertrand curves, and $N_{1}(t), N_{2}(t)$ is called the Bertrand mate of $γ_{1}$. We can write $γ_{2}$ for some constant $γ_{2}$.

According to problem 25 in Kühnel's "Differential Geometry Curves – Surfaces – Manifolds", it is also true that two Bertrand curves that do not lie in the same two-dimensional plane are characterized by the existence of a linear relation $γ_{1}$ where $γ_{2}(t) = γ_{1}(t) + r N_{1}(t)$ and $r$ are the curvature and torsion of $a κ(t) + b τ(t) = 1$ and $a$ and $b$ are real constants with $κ(t)$. Furthermore, the product of torsions of a Bertrand pair of curves is constant. If $τ(t)$ has more than one Bertrand mate then it has infinitely many. This only occurs when $γ_{1}(t)$ is a circular helix.

Special Frenet vectors and generalized curvatures
The first three Frenet vectors and generalized curvatures can be visualized in three-dimensional space. They have additional names and more semantic information attached to them.

Tangent vector
If a curve $a ≠ 0$ represents the path of a particle, then the instantaneous velocity of the particle at a given point $γ_{1}$ is expressed by a vector, called the tangent vector to the curve at $γ_{1}$. Mathematically, given a parametrized $γ$ curve $P$, for every value $P$ of the parameter, the vector $$ \gamma'(t_0) = \left.\frac{\mathrm{d}}{\mathrm{d}t}\boldsymbol{\gamma}(t)\right|_{t=t_0} $$ is the tangent vector at the point $C^{1}$. Generally speaking, the tangent vector may be zero. The tangent vector's magnitude $$\left\|\boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t_0)\right\|$$ is the speed at the time $γ = γ(t)$.

The first Frenet vector $t = t_{0}$ is the unit tangent vector in the same direction, defined at each regular point of $P = γ(t_{0})$: $$\mathbf{e}_{1}(t) = \frac{ \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) }{ \left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \right\|}.$$ If $t_{0}$ is the natural parameter, then the tangent vector has unit length. The formula simplifies: $$\mathbf{e}_{1}(s) = \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(s).$$ The unit tangent vector determines the orientation of the curve, or the forward direction, corresponding to the increasing values of the parameter. The unit tangent vector taken as a curve traces the spherical image of the original curve.

Normal vector or curvature vector
A curve normal vector, sometimes called the curvature vector, indicates the deviance of the curve from being a straight line. It is defined as $$\overline{\mathbf{e}_2}(t) = \boldsymbol{\gamma}(t) - \bigl\langle \boldsymbol{\gamma}(t), \mathbf{e}_1(t) \bigr\rangle \, \mathbf{e}_1(t).$$

Its normalized form, the unit normal vector, is the second Frenet vector $e_{1}(t)$ and is defined as $$\mathbf{e}_2(t) = \frac{\overline{\mathbf{e}_2}(t)} {\left\| \overline{\mathbf{e}_2}(t) \right\|}.$$

The tangent and the normal vector at point $γ$ define the osculating plane at point $t = s$.

It can be shown that $e_{2}(t)$. Therefore, $$\mathbf{e}_2(t) = \frac{\mathbf{e}_1'(t)}{\left\| \mathbf{e}_1'(t) \right\|}.$$

Curvature
The first generalized curvature $t$ is called curvature and measures the deviance of $t$ from being a straight line relative to the osculating plane. It is defined as $$\kappa(t) = \chi_1(t) = \frac{\bigl\langle \mathbf{e}_1'(t), \mathbf{e}_2(t) \bigr\rangle}{\left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \right\|}$$ and is called the curvature of $ē_{2}(t) ∝ e_{1}(t)$ at point $χ_{1}(t)$. It can be shown that $$\kappa(t) = \frac{\left\| \mathbf{e}_1'(t) \right\|}{\left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \right\|}.$$

The reciprocal of the curvature $$\frac{1}{\kappa(t)}$$ is called the radius of curvature.

A circle with radius $γ$ has a constant curvature of $$\kappa(t) = \frac{1}{r}$$ whereas a line has a curvature of 0.

Binormal vector
The unit binormal vector is the third Frenet vector $γ$. It is always orthogonal to the unit tangent and normal vectors at $t$. It is defined as

$$\mathbf{e}_3(t) = \frac{\overline{\mathbf{e}_3}(t)} {\left\| \overline{\mathbf{e}_3}(t) \right\|} , \quad \overline{\mathbf{e}_3}(t) = \boldsymbol{\gamma}(t) - \bigr\langle \boldsymbol{\gamma}(t), \mathbf{e}_1(t) \bigr\rangle \, \mathbf{e}_1(t) - \bigl\langle \boldsymbol{\gamma}'''(t), \mathbf{e}_2(t) \bigr\rangle \,\mathbf{e}_2(t) $$

In 3-dimensional space, the equation simplifies to $$\mathbf{e}_3(t) = \mathbf{e}_1(t) \times \mathbf{e}_2(t)$$ or to $$\mathbf{e}_3(t) = -\mathbf{e}_1(t) \times \mathbf{e}_2(t),$$ That either sign may occur is illustrated by the examples of a right-handed helix and a left-handed helix.

Torsion
The second generalized curvature $r$ is called and measures the deviance of $e_{3}(t)$ from being a plane curve. In other words, if the torsion is zero, the curve lies completely in the same osculating plane (there is only one osculating plane for every point $t$). It is defined as $$\tau(t) = \chi_2(t) = \frac{\bigl\langle \mathbf{e}_2'(t), \mathbf{e}_3(t) \bigr\rangle}{\left\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \right\|}$$ and is called the torsion of $χ_{2}(t)$ at point $γ$.

Aberrancy
The third derivative may be used to define aberrancy, a metric of non-circularity of a curve.

Main theorem of curve theory
Given $t$ functions: $$\chi_i \in C^{n-i}([a,b],\mathbb{R}^n), \quad \chi_i(t) > 0 ,\quad 1 \leq i \leq n-1$$ then there exists a unique (up to transformations using the Euclidean group) $γ$-curve $t$ which is regular of order $n$ and has the following properties: $$\begin{align} \|\gamma'(t)\| &= 1 & t \in [a,b] \\ \chi_i(t) &= \frac{ \langle \mathbf{e}_i'(t), \mathbf{e}_{i+1}(t) \rangle}{\| \boldsymbol{\gamma}'(t) \|} \end{align}$$ where the set $$\mathbf{e}_1(t), \ldots, \mathbf{e}_n(t)$$ is the Frenet frame for the curve.

By additionally providing a start $n − 1$ in $C^{n + 1}$, a starting point $γ$ in $$\mathbb{R}^n$$ and an initial positive orthonormal Frenet frame $t_{0}$ with $$\begin{align} \boldsymbol{\gamma}(t_0) &= \mathbf{p}_0 \\ \mathbf{e}_i(t_0) &= \mathbf{e}_i ,\quad 1 \leq i \leq n-1 \end{align}$$ the Euclidean transformations are eliminated to obtain a unique curve $I$.

Frenet–Serret formulas
The Frenet–Serret formulas are a set of ordinary differential equations of first order. The solution is the set of Frenet vectors describing the curve specified by the generalized curvature functions $p_{0}$.

2 dimensions
$$ \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1'(t) \\ \mathbf{e}_2'(t) \end{bmatrix}

=

\left\Vert \gamma'(t) \right\Vert

\begin{bmatrix} 0 & \kappa(t) \\ -\kappa(t) &        0 \\ \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1(t) \\ \mathbf{e}_2(t) \end{bmatrix} $$

3 dimensions
$$ \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1'(t) \\[0.75ex] \mathbf{e}_2'(t) \\[0.75ex] \mathbf{e}_3'(t) \end{bmatrix}

=

\left\Vert \gamma'(t) \right\Vert

\begin{bmatrix} 0 & \kappa(t) &       0 \\[1ex] -\kappa(t) &         0 & \tau(t) \\[1ex] 0 &  -\tau(t) &       0 \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_2(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_3(t) \end{bmatrix} $$

$\{e_{1}, ..., e_{n − 1}\}$ dimensions (general formula)
$$ \begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1'(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_2'(t) \\[1ex] \vdots \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_{n-1}'(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_n'(t) \\[1ex] \end{bmatrix}

=

\left\Vert \gamma'(t) \right\Vert

\begin{bmatrix} 0 & \chi_1(t) & \cdots &              0 &             0 \\[1ex] -\chi_1(t) &         0 & \cdots &              0 &             0 \\[1ex] \vdots &    \vdots & \ddots &         \vdots &        \vdots \\[1ex] 0 &         0 & \cdots &              0 & \chi_{n-1}(t) \\[1ex] 0 &         0 & \cdots & -\chi_{n-1}(t) &             0 \\[1ex] \end{bmatrix}

\begin{bmatrix} \mathbf{e}_1(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_2(t) \\[1ex] \vdots \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_{n-1}(t) \\[1ex] \mathbf{e}_n(t) \\[1ex] \end{bmatrix} $$

title: Differentiable curve


text:
Jim Ramstad

James Marvin Ramstad (May 6, 1946 – November 5, 2020) was an American lawyer and politician who represented Minnesota's 3rd congressional district in the United States House of Representatives from 1991 to 2009. A member of the Republican Party, Ramstad served in the Minnesota Senate from 1981 to 1991.

Ramstad was first elected to the Minnesota Senate in 1981 and was reelected until 1990, when he was elected to represent Minnesota’s 3rd congressional district in the U.S. House of Representatives. Ramstad won reelection in the suburban congressional district eight times, all by landslide margins. He had a reputation as a moderate Republican. Ramstad chose to retire and not seek reelection in 2008. He was succeeded by Republican State Representative Erik Paulsen. Throughout his legislative career and later life, Ramstad, empowered by his prior struggles with alcoholism, was a notable advocate for addiction recovery.

In 2020, Ramstad died from Parkinson's disease at the age of 74.

Early life and education
Ramstad was born in Jamestown, North Dakota on May 6, 1946. He was educated at the University of Minnesota and the George Washington University Law School. He was an officer in the United States Army Reserve from 1968 to 1974. He also worked as a private practice attorney and as a legislative aide to the Minnesota House of Representatives.

Career
He served on the Wayzata-Plymouth Chemical Health Commission, Plymouth Human Rights Commission, and the Minnesota State Human Rights Advisory Committee from 1979 to 1980.

Ramstad was a Republican member of the Minnesota State Senate from 1981 to 1990 before entering the U.S. Congress. He served in the 102nd, 103rd, 104th, 105th, 106th, 107th, 108th, 109th, and 110th congresses, beginning on January 3, 1991. He first defeated former Minneapolis city councilman Lou DeMars in the 1990 election.

Tenure
Ramstad was a member of the United States House of Representatives from 1991 until 2009, representing Minnesota's 3rd congressional district, one of eight congressional districts in Minnesota. On September 17, 2007 Ramstad announced he would not seek reelection in 2008. He reiterated his statement on December 19, 2007.

Ramstad considered ending discrimination against those suffering from mental health and addiction problems a major part of his legacy. He worked under both Republican and Democratic majorities to pass a Mental Health Parity Bill. Mental Health Parity was eventually passed and signed into law in December, 2008.

Ramstad was mentioned as a possible candidate for Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy in the administration of President Barack Obama. However, the position eventually went to former Seattle police chief Gil Kerlikowske.

Ramstad considered running for Governor of Minnesota in the 2010 election, but decided not to.

At the time of his death, Ramstad was a resident fellow at the Harvard Institute of Politics where he was leading a study group titled The Policy and Politics of Addiction.

Political positions
Ramstad was a member of The Republican Main Street Partnership. He was pro-choice and supported embryonic stem cell research. He was opposed to gay marriage. He voted in favor of an amendment to a whistleblower protection bill that would have allowed the government to influence stem-cell research.

He was considered to be the most moderate Republican member of the Minnesota delegation in the 109th Congress, scoring 68 percent conservative by a conservative group and 21% progressive by a liberal group.

Personal life
Ramstad was a recovering alcoholic. For a time, he was Rep. Patrick J. Kennedy's Alcoholics Anonymous sponsor. He was a long-time advocate for addiction treatment and recovery services, and at the time of his death he had been sober for 39 years.

Ramstad's sister, Sheryl Ramstad, is a Tax Court judge in Minnesota. Ramstad was a member of the United Church of Christ.

On February 25, 2008, it was announced that Ramstad had been elected to the board of directors of the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse at Columbia University.

In 2010, Ramstad joined alliantgroup as a senior advisor on their Strategic Advisory Board.

He died of Parkinson's disease on November 5, 2020, aged 74, at his home in Wayzata, Minnesota.

Committee assignments

 * Ways and Means Committee
 * Subcommittee on Oversight (Ranking Member)
 * Subcommittee on Health
 * Co-chair of the Addiction Treatment and Recovery Caucus
 * Co-chair of the Disabilities Caucus
 * Co-chair of the Law Enforcement Caucus
 * Co-chair of the Medical Technology Caucus

Electoral history
Write-in and minor candidate notes: In 1996, write-ins received 417 votes. In 1998, write-ins received 250 votes. In 2002, write-ins received 309 votes. In 2004, write-ins received 356 votes. In 2006, write-ins received 323 votes.

title: Jim Ramstad


text:
Peasants' Land Bank

The Peasants' Land Bank (Крестьянский поземельный банк) was a financial institution of the Russian Empire founded during the reign of Tsar Alexander III, by nobles. The Peasants' Land Bank in 1885 was created to help peasants purchase their own farms. The Peasants' Land Bank was somewhat limited in its effectiveness by a lack of funding; it was also not nearly as generous as the Nobles' Land Bank, which had lower interest rates. Bunge also abolished the Poll Tax, which was only paid by peasants, in 1886, which helped to reduce the financial burden the peasants faced.

The Bank began operations in April 1883, with nine branches. In 1888 its activity was extended to include the Kingdom of Poland; by 1891 it had thirty-nine branches.

Each bank was managed by a council consisting of: a manager; an assistant manager; three others appointed by the Ministry of Finance; and lastly a member representing the Ministry of Agriculture.

Under Peter Stolypin the Land Bank was extended to make it easier for the peasants to set up their own farms and by 1907 670.3 million roubles had been repaid out of a total of 2012 million.

title: Peasants' Land Bank


text:
Scaramouche (novel)

Scaramouche is a historical novel by Rafael Sabatini, originally published in 1921. A romantic adventure, Scaramouche tells the story of a young lawyer during the French Revolution. In the course of his adventures, he becomes an actor portraying Scaramouche (a roguish buffoon character in the commedia dell'arte). He also becomes a revolutionary, politician, and fencing-master, confounding his enemies with his powerful orations and swordsmanship. He is forced by circumstances to change sides several times. The book also depicts his transformation from cynic to idealist.

The three-part novel opens with the line: "He was born with a gift of laughter and a sense that the world was mad." This line is Sabatini's epitaph, inscribed on his gravestone in Adelboden, Switzerland. It is also inscribed on an archway in the entrance of the Humanities Quadrangle at Yale University.

The Robe
Andre-Louis Moreau, educated as a lawyer, lives in the village of Gavrillac in Brittany with his godfather, Quentin de Kercadiou, the Lord of Gavrillac, who refuses to disclose Moreau's parentage. Moreau has grown up alongside Aline, de Kercadiou's niece, and their relationship is that of cousins. Because he loves her as a cousin, he warns her against marrying the Marquis de la Tour d'Azyr; however, she is ambitious and wishes to marry high, so she ignores him. A peasant, Mabey, is shot for poaching by the gamekeeper of the Marquis de la Tour d'Azyr, on the Marquis's instructions. The idealistic Philippe de Vilmorin, a seminarian and Moreau's closest friend, denounces the act as murder. While pleading with the Marquis for justice, de Vilmorin is provoked into duelling with the Marquis and is killed for his "gift of eloquence", which the Marquis fears will set the common people against the clergy and nobility.

Moreau vows to avenge the death by undertaking Vilmorin's work, even though Moreau himself does not believe in the cause. He sets off from Gavrillac for Rennes, expecting that the King's lieutenant in Brittany will see justice done. After being brushed off by the arrogant official, who refuses to act against a man of the Marquis' status, Moreau discovers a large political gathering where one of the speakers against the nobility's excesses has been assassinated. Much to the surprise of his peers, who think he is on the side of the aristocracy, Moreau uses de Vilmorin's arguments to deliver a speech with inspiring rhetoric. Moreau goes on to Nantes and, using the name "Omnes Omnibus", whips up the crowds there. These events set the stage for the French Revolution and make Moreau a wanted man.

The Buskin
To hide from the law, Moreau joins a troupe of traveling commedia dell'arte actors, led by M. Binet. He takes on the role of Scaramouche, the scheming rogue. He discovers an aptitude for acting and writing that propels the troupe from near-poverty to success and the Feydau theater in Nantes. Binet, who plays "Pantaloon", grows ever more resentful of Moreau and his influence in the troupe. Moreau becomes engaged to Binet's daughter, Climene, but after Andre-Louis reveals that he is not of noble birth, she (to her father's delight) accepts a proposition from the Marquis de la Tour d'Azyr and becomes his mistress.

Aline learns of the affair and, furious with the Marquis for carrying on with Climene while he is supposed to be wooing her, Aline breaks off relations with him. The Marquis, now notorious for brutally quelling an uprising in Rennes, is lying low in Nantes. When he attends a performance, Moreau reveals his presence to the audience and sparks a riot. When Binet, furious at being ruined, attacks Moreau, Moreau shoots him in self-defense. Binet is wounded, and Moreau escapes. It is later revealed that, during Binet's recovery, his entire troupe deserted him and actually thrived without him; he and his daughter (who was "dumped" by the Marquis following the riot) are both completely ruined.

The Sword
Moreau is now forced to go into hiding. Arriving in Paris, he finds a fencing academy seeking "a young man of good address with some knowledge of swordsmanship". Moreau manages to convince M. Bertrand des Amis, the Maître en fait d'Armes (master at arms), to hire him. Eventually, des Amis sees that Andre-Louis shows promise as a swordsman and makes him his apprentice. Over time, Andre-Louis develops his own style of fencing, based on calculations of different moves, and the school begins to prosper. With the outbreak of the French Revolution, M. des Amis is killed in a street riot, and Moreau inherits the school. When he is established at the now-thriving school, he reconciles with his godfather, thanks to Aline and Mme. de Plougastel. Mme. de Plougastel is a relative of his godfather; Moreau has seen her only once in his life, but she takes an almost maternal interest in him.

The reconciliation is brief, however. After learning of his swordsmanship, Moreau's friends convince him to take a seat in the Estates General of 1789. They face the scourge of spadassinicides, aristocratic senators who provoke inexperienced Republicans to fight duels and wound or kill them, just as the Marquis did to de Vilmorin. Indeed, de La Tour d'Azyr is the chief spadassinicide. Andre-Louis turns the tables and succeeds in killing or seriously wounding all who challenge him. Finally, Moreau manages to goad the Marquis into challenging him to a duel; at last, he can confront the murderer of his childhood friend, de Vilmorin. Hearing of this, Mme. de Plougastel and Aline hasten to stop the duel. They do not arrive in time, and they see the Marquis leaving the field, wounded, but not fatally. Andre-Louis becomes a full-time member of the National Assembly, and the Marquis becomes a counter-revolutionary.

In 1792, Paris is up in arms and the Tuileries are stormed by a mob. Mme. de Plougastel and Aline are there and in grave danger because the former's husband is a counter-revolutionary. Returning from an errand in Brittany, Moreau learns that his godfather needs travel permits to allow these two women to leave Paris, and he travels to Gavrillac to visit de Kercadiou. De Kercadiou tells him of the plight of Aline and Mme. de Plougastel in Paris. Moreau agrees to rescue Aline, but does not agree to help Mme. de Plougastel until Kercadiou reveals to Andre-Louis that Mme. de Plougastel is his mother. Moreau secures the needed travel permits and leaves to deliver them to the women.

However, before he arrives, de La Tour d'Azyr, on the run from the mob, seeks shelter in the same apartment as the women. He and Andre-Louis draw pistols on each other. Mme. de Plougastel is forced to reveal that the Marquis is Moreau's father. Andre-Louis refuses to reconcile with the Marquis but decides to end the feud with him and gives him one of the travel permits. De La Tour d'Azyr crosses safely to Austria and enters the service of the king of Austria.

Moreau knows that he cannot remain in Paris, or even in France, because of his recent actions. He decides to cross the border with the women and his godfather. After safely escaping from Paris and returning to relative safety in Gavrillac, Andre-Louis and Aline unravel their misconceptions about their feelings for each other and declare their love.

Scaramouche the Kingmaker
A decade later, Sabatini wrote a sequel titled Scaramouche the Kingmaker that was not as well received. It was Sabatini's first attempt at a series.

The book continues the adventures of Andre-Louis Moreau, beginning where the original Scaramouche ends. Moreau conceives and then masterminds, with the Baron de Batz, a plan to destroy the Revolution and restore the monarchy. Their plan is to expose the Revolutionary leaders—hitherto thought of by the French populace as incorruptible patriots—as corrupt profiteers. While Andre-Louis is in France, working for the restoration, in Germany, the Regent of France attempts to seduce Andre-Louis's fiancée, Aline de Kercadiou.

Adaptations
Scaramouche was adapted into several works:
 * A play by Barbara Field
 * After a trip to the United States, composer Darius Milhaud wrote a theatrical piece, Scaramouche (1922), for saxophone and orchestra.
 * A feature film, Scaramouche (1923), starring Ramon Novarro as Moreau and Lewis Stone as the Marquis de la Tour d'Azyr
 * A tradaptation, Rohini (රෝහිණී) (1929), a novel in Sinhala by Martin Wickremasinghe
 * A remake, Scaramouche (1952) with Stewart Granger, which includes one of the longest swashbuckling sword-fighting scenes ever filmed. Lewis Stone appears as Georges de Valmorin
 * "Niklāvs Strunke, who often resided in Italy from 1923, was considered the connoisseur of commedia dell'arte in Latvia." Osvalds Lemānis helped to choreograph the Latvian adaptation of Scaramouche, with performer Rūdolfs Saule, performing the role as an itinerant violinist who had wandered into Leilon's castle. Obsessed by the striving to subdue other people, the musician "destroys the harmony of souls creating a devilish atmosphere of anxiety and foreboding".

title: Scaramouche (novel)


text:
Bif Naked

Beth Torbert (born June 15, 1971) is a Canadian singer best known by her stage name Bif Naked. Between 1996 and 2016, she was among the top 150 selling Canadian artists in Canada.

Early life and education
Bif Naked was born in New Delhi, India, on June 15, 1971, to teenage parents attending boarding school. She was subsequently adopted by American missionaries. She spent part of her childhood in Lexington, Kentucky, where her father was a professor at the University of Kentucky. She went to Kelsey Elementary School in The Pas, Manitoba, for a couple of years. After living for a time in Dauphin, Manitoba, her family eventually settled in Winnipeg. She graduated from John Taylor Collegiate and studied theatre at the University of Winnipeg. After University, she began pursuing a career as a stand-up comic.

The name "Bif" started as a nickname based on the mispronunciation of her real name, Beth.

Career
After spending several years singing with several underground bands, Bif Naked independently released a self-titled solo album, Bif Naked, in 1994, and I Bificus in 1998. In 1999 she toured across Canada.

Another solo album, Purge was released in 2001. She also released a spoken word album called Okenspay Ordway: Things I Forgot To Tell Mommy. In 2005, after narrowing it down from over fifty songs, she released Superbeautifulmonster, which featured thirteen tracks. The Promise, which was recorded while Bif was undergoing chemotherapy for breast cancer, was released in 2009 and was dedicated to her fans. The album featured tracks mixed by Juno Award winner Mike Fraser. In 2011, after doing acoustic sets on tour, Bif released an acoustic record on Her Royal Majesty's Records late-2013, featuring acoustic versions of her past songs as well as four previously unreleased tracks. The album is entitled BIF NAKED FOREVER: Acoustic Hits and Other Delights. Bif has also been involved on a side project, Jakkarta.

Prior to her solo career, Torbert played with punk bands Gorilla Gorilla and Chrome Dog. She has toured Europe, the United States, and Canada as a headlining act, and has performed on bills with: Snoop Dogg, Billy Idol, Dido, Devin Townsend, Sarah McLachlan, Sheryl Crow, Chrissie Hynde, Foo Fighters, The Cult, Prodigy, Smashing Pumpkins, Ministry, Green Day, and many more.

Bif's music has been featured in and on soundtracks for shows including Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Charmed, Moonlight, The Crow: Stairway to Heaven, Ready To Rumble, The West Wing and Celebrity Deathmatch. She recorded a rendition of the Christmas classic, "I Saw Mommy Kissing Santa Claus" for MTV's Total Request Live CD MTV: TRL Christmas in 1999 and was also featured on the Ready to Rumble soundtrack with a cover of Twisted Sister's "We're Not Gonna Take It". (which was additionally used as David Arquette's entrance theme while he was on WCW Monday Nitro ). The song "Dawn", taken from Purge, was featured in the film American Psycho 2, starring Mila Kunis and William Shatner.

She made a guest appearance in the song "Fucker", on Strapping Young Lad's album The New Black in 2006. Bif Naked has also made guest appearances with artists such as SNFU on the songs "One Last Loveshove" and "You Make Me Thick". She also appeared on the Dead Celebrity Status album Blood Music on the track titled "In This Day and Age". In 2011, she recorded a duet with Vancouver-based yogi and Nettwerk recording artist Will Blunderfield for the international version of his album Hallelujah.

Bif Naked has also appeared in music videos for other artists including: The Offspring's "The Kids Aren't Alright", "Believe Me" and "Silver" by Moist and Liveonrelease's "Get with It." In 2009, she appeared in the video for Simple Plan's "Save You" near the end along with other people (such as Sharon Osbourne and René Angélil) who have survived or have been treated for cancer.

Aside from her music career, Bif has also pursued acting. In 1990, she appeared in the film Archangel, where she was credited as "Bif Torbert," playing a Russian soldier. In 1997, she played a liquor store manager in The Boys Club. She appeared in the television series Once a Thief in 1998, playing Nastassja Momomame. In 2000, she voiced the character Alison in the Daria movie, Is It Fall Yet?, playing a bisexual art camp attendee who attempts to seduce Jane Lane. She appeared in the Canadian indie films Lunch with Charles (2001) and Crossing (2005), the latter of which she recorded the song "My Greatest Masterpiece" for. She has done hosting work for the CBC Television series ZeD (becoming their first host in 2002), and for Bodog, hosting Bodog Fight in 2006 as well as a reality series chronicling the days leading up to her marriage with Vancouver Sun sports writer, Ian Walker, in 2007 called Bif Naked Bride. She voiced the character Zoe Payne in the SSX video game series and Sled Storm. In 2003, she made a cameo appearance in the zombie horror film The House of the Dead. That same year, she appeared as a judge of a fictitious reality show in the TV series Cold Squad. In 2006, she guest starred on an episode of The L Word, playing a character named Cynthia. In addition, Bif Naked has appeared as herself in Buffy the Vampire Slayer, The Crow: Stairway to Heaven and The Chris Isaak Show. Bif Naked also narrated the TV series That's Art?! (2012).

In 2021, Bif appeared as a guest judge on an episode of the second season of Canada's Drag Race.

Personal life
Bif Naked is heavily tattooed, getting her first tattoo (an Egyptian Eye of Horus) when she was sixteen years old. Her tattoos include a symbol of the Tao, Japanese writing, Buddhist poetry and images (such as the Bodhisattva), and Hindu imagery; she has stated on MTV that her favorite tattoo, on her left arm, reads "Survivor". Bif identifies as polyamorous and pansexual.

Her first marriage, which lasted six months, was to her drummer Brett Hopkins in Gorilla Gorilla. She then married former Vancouver Sun sports writer Ian Walker in 2007; they divorced in 2011.

In January 2008, she announced that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer, and underwent a lumpectomy and chemotherapy.

Bif Naked spoke at the University of the Fraser Valley for International Women's Day on March 8, 2013, at the Abbotsford campus; it was announced she would be awarded an honorary doctorate from the university in June 2013.

In 2015, she became engaged to Steve Allen, a friend of her former bandmate Jacen Ekstrom. They married on July 30, 2016. Steve Allen and Bif separated August, 2022

Bif is a vegan.

Her memoir I Bificus was published by HarperCollins in 2016.

Current band members

 * Bif Naked – vocals, background vocals
 * Doug Fury – guitar
 * Chiko Misomali – drums, background vocals
 * Peter Karroll – bass

Past members

 * Steve Allen - Guitar
 * Ferdy Belland - Bass
 * Alley Artico – Guitar
 * Alex Arundel aka XFactor (aka Gene Poole, co-writer of "Chotee") – guitar
 * Kuryakin – synths and bass backup vocals
 * Corrine Culbertson CoCo – bass
 * Mike Sage – drums
 * Doug Fury (now in Scatterheart) – guitar, bass, co-writer and co-producer
 * Gail Greenwood (Belly/L7) – bass
 * Scotty McCarger – drums
 * Chris Crippin (Everything After/Hedley) – drums
 * Randy Black (Annihilator) – drums
 * Jacen Ekstrom (Neurosonic/CrashScene) – bass (deceased)
 * John Bates (Big John Bates) - guitar
 * Gillian Hanna – guitar (deceased)
 * Britt Black – guitar
 * Rich Priske – bass (deceased)
 * Scott Cooke – bass
 * Tim Smyth – bass
 * Greg Mark (Juno-nominated Vancouver psychedelic pop band Templar) – guitar
 * Sean Stubbs – drums
 * Adam (ATOM) Percy (Econoline Crush) – keyboards
 * Dan Yaremko (Econoline Crush)/(D.O.A.) – bass
 * Lamar Engel – (vocalist/musician for art rock band An Opiate for Angels) – bass
 * Dave Martone – bass
 * Gabe Cipes – bass
 * Joe Veltri – bass

Studio albums

 * Bif Naked – 1994
 * I Bificus – 1998 (CRIA – Platinum)
 * Purge – 2001 (CRIA – Gold)
 * Superbeautifulmonster – 2005 (#12 CAN)
 * The Promise – 2009 (#30 CAN)
 * Champion – 2024 (Release set for June 15)

EPs and compilations

 * Four Songs and a Poem – 1994
 * Okenspay Ordway: Things I Forgot to Tell Mommy – 1997
 * Another 5 Songs and a Poem – 2000
 * Essentially Naked – 2003
 * Bif Naked Forever: Acoustic Hits & Other Delights – 2012

Music videos

 * "Everything" (1994)
 * "My Whole Life"
 * "Tell on You"
 * "Never Alone"
 * "Daddy's Getting Married" (directed by William Morrison 1996)
 * "Spaceman"
 * "Lucky" (co-directed by Peter Karroll)
 * "Moment of Weakness" (1999) (directed by Marcos Siega)
 * "We're Not Gonna Take It"
 * "Chotee"
 * "Twitch" (1999) (directed by Peter Karroll)
 * "I Love Myself Today"
 * "Tango Shoes" (directed by Neill Blomkamp (District 9 / Chappie)
 * "Choking in the Truth" (directed by Neill Blomkamp (District 9 / Chappie)
 * "Back in the Day" (co-directed by Peter Karroll)
 * "Rich and Filthy"
 * "Let Down" (directed by Peter Karroll)
 * "Nothing Else Matters"
 * "Everyday" (directed by Peter Karroll)
 * "My Greatest Masterpiece" (2007)
 * "Fuck You 2" (2009)
 * "Sick" (2009)
 * "King of Karma" (2009)
 * "Only One" 2016 directed by Coco Karroll
 * "Heavy" 2018 directed by Peter Karroll
 * "Jim" (2020)

title: Bif Naked


text:
Ondo Town

Ondo Town is the second largest town in Ondo State, Nigeria. Ondo Town is the trade center for the surrounding region; commercial crops such as yams, cassava, grain, tobacco and cotton are grown, the latter of which is often used to weave a culturally significant cloth known as Aso Oke fabric, which is commonly used to make clothing amongst the local population. Ondo Town is the largest producer of cocoa products in the region.

The title of the king of the town, who reigns as a direct descendant of the fabled Emperor Oduduwa, is "Osemawe". Osamawe title originated from an unusual situation as reported by Nigerian Punch that when the favoured wife of the first Monarch had a set of twins, the king was embarrassed because it was then an abomination. He was so bewildered by the birth of the twins that he exclaimed, ‘Ese omo re’ (meaning these children are an abomination). It is said that this exclamation has through linguistic evolution changed into ‘Osemawe’, which is the title of the monarch of Ondo today. The present reigning monarch is Dr. Adesimbo Victor Kiladejo, who was crowned in September 2006 following the death of the former king, Dr. Festus Ibidapo Adesanoye.

Education institutions
The polytechnic was founded in 2017
 * Ondo State University of Medical Sciences is a university of medical sciences owned by the Ondo State Government, established in 2015. It is the third specialized university in Africa, and Nigeria's first specialized medical university to be accredited by the National Universities Commission.
 * National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration, NIEPA Ondo was established in 1992 by the Federal Ministry of Education, in collaboration with UNESCO/IIEP Paris, as a sub-regional staff college for West Africa. It seek to realize its mission through capacity building, continuous training, consulting, action research in educational planning, information dissemination and providing resource centre services.
 * Wesley University is a private university owned by the Methodist Church of Nigeria.
 * Adeyemi College of Education is a federal government higher education institution located in Ondo Town, Ondo State, Nigeria. It is a degree-awarding institution affiliated to Obafemi Awolowo University, and is ranked as the best college of education.
 * Ondo City Polytechnic is a privately funded and managed polytechnic located in Ondo Town, Ondo state, Nigeria.
 * John Bosco Institute of Technology, Ondo City
 * Adeyemi College of Education, Demonstration Secondary School.
 * Homaj international secondary school. Ondo Boys' High School, founded in 1919, is one of Africa's 50 oldest schools. These are a few out of over two hundred public and private schools in the Town.

Notable people

 * Brigadier Samuel Ademulegun, first Brigadier of the Nigerian Army. He was killed in the 1966 Nigerian coup d'état. His statue stands at the Ife Roundabout, overlooking Brigadier Ademulegun Road, named after him, in Ondo Town
 * King Sunny Adé, also known as King of Juju music; Nigerian musician, singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and a pioneer of modern world music; been classed as one of the most influential musicians of all time
 * Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje (born 1967), British actor and former fashion model; born in Islington, London to Nigerian parents of Yoruba, Ondo Town origin; he is fluent in several languages including Yoruba, Italian, and Swahili
 * Chinwe Chukwuogo-Roy MBE (born 1952), royal portrait painter; born in Ondo Town; in 2001 she painted the official portrait of Queen Elizabeth II for her Golden Jubilee
 * Mo Abudu, Nigerian media mogul, media personality, philanthropist, and former human resources management consultant.
 * Omotola Jalade Ekeinde, actress, singer, philanthropist and former model of Ondo Town descent from Lagos; since her Nollywood film debut in 1995, she was honoured in Time magazine's list of the 100 most influential people in the world alongside Michelle Obama, Beyoncé and Kate Middleton
 * Frederick Fasehun (born 1938), medical doctor, hotel owner, and leader of the Oodua Peoples Congress (OPC); born in Ondo Town
 * Gani Fawehinmi, SAN, activist and philanthropist
 * Olu Maintain, born Olumide Edwards Adegbulu; rose to prominence in 2007 with the release of the hit song "Yahooze" from his debut studio album Yahooze, the song won the Nigeria Entertainment Award in 2008 for Hottest Single of the Year; in 2008, he performed "Yahooze" at the Royal Albert Hall, London and brought on stage Colin Powell, the former United States Secretary of State
 * Olusegun Mimiko, former Governor of Ondo State; former Nigerian minister of housing and urban development
 * Godfrey Oboabona (born 1990), international footballer, as a defender; born in Ondo
 * Ifedayo Oladapo, OON, NNOM (1932-2010), academic and professor of civil engineering at the University of Lagos
 * Archbishop Timothy Olufosoye (c. 1907–1992) was the first African Primate of the Church of Nigeria
 * Wale (born 1984), American rapper of Maybach Music Group; born Olubowale Victor Akintimehin in Northwest, Washington, D.C.; his parents are of the Yoruba Ondo Town ethnic group of south-western Nigeria and came to the US from Austria in 1979
 * Bimbo Oshin, Nollywood thespian
 * Yemi Blaq, Nollywood actor
 * Teniola Apata, musician
 * Niniola, musician

title: Ondo Town


text:
John Kline (politician)

John Paul Kline Jr. (born September 6, 1947) is an American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives from MN's 2nd congressional district from 2003 to 2017. The district included most of the southern suburbs of the Twin Cities. A member of the Republican Party, Kline served as the Chairman of the House Committee on Education and the Workforce from 2011 until 2017. Kline retired from Congress at the end of his term in January of 2017.

Early life and education
Kline was born in Allentown, Pennsylvania, the son of Litta Belle (née Rodman) and John Paul Kline, Sr. He is a 1965 graduate of W. B. Ray High School in Corpus Christi, Texas. He earned a B.A. in biology at Rice University in 1969 and a Master of Public Administration from Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania in 1988.

Career
Before his election to Congress, Kline was a 25-year career commissioned officer in the U.S. Marine Corps, where he was a senior military aide to Presidents Carter and Reagan and was responsible for carrying the President's football. During his military career, Kline was a Naval Aviator who served as a helicopter pilot in Vietnam, commanded all Marine aviation forces in Operation Restore Hope in Somalia, flew "Marine One," the Presidential helicopter, in HMX-1, and served as Program Development Officer at Headquarters Marine Corps. He received numerous medals and commendations, including the Defense Superior Service Medal, four awards of the Legion of Merit, the Meritorious Service Medal, the Navy Commendation Medal, three awards of the Vietnam Service Medal, the Vietnam Campaign Medal, and the Presidential Service Badge. Kline retired from the Marine Corps as a colonel.

Personal life
Kline and his second wife, Vicky, live in Burnsville, Minnesota. Kline has two children and four grandchildren. Kline was previously married to Christine Lewis.

Committee assignments

 * Committee on Armed Services
 * Subcommittee on Emerging Threats and Capabilities
 * Committee on Education and the Workforce (Chairman)
 * As Chairman of the full committee, Rep. Kline may serve as an ex officio member of all subcommittees of which he is not already a voting member.
 * Subcommittee on Early Childhood, Elementary and Secondary Education
 * Subcommittee on Workforce Protections
 * Subcommittee on Higher Education and Workforce Training

Caucus memberships

 * Congressional Constitution Caucus

Political positions
Kline supported President Bush's plan to increase troop levels in Iraq in January 2007.

During Kline's 2008 bid for reelection he discussed his opposition to earmarks and his refusal to request them for his district.

In 2006, Kline voted to maintain the legal definition of marriage as between one man and one woman. He voted for the Violence Against Women Reauthorization Act of 2013.

Kline opposed restrictions on gun ownership. He voted to repeal parts of the firearms ban for Washington, D.C. He described himself as "a collector of antique guns and a staunch supporter of the Second Amendment".

Kline stated, "Job creation is our nation's no. 1 challenge and Congress must make it our no. 1 priority." He spoke in support of education reform designed to encourage parent involvement and teacher accountability. He opposed any tax increases and stated that such strategies must be taken "off the table." In remarks made to fellow representatives, Kline said, "we are watching a massive growth of government power, size, and spending, and I deem that unacceptable."

In 2013 Kline proposed a bill that, among other adjustments, changed the rate on subsidized Stafford loans from 3.4% to 5.9%. The bill linked the rate of interest to the rate of US borrowing.

Kline voted to repeal the Affordable Care Act. His campaign site stated that "he opposed Obamacare because it is a seriously flawed law that was too big, was passed too fast, and does too much harm."

Legislation
On April 1, 2014, Kline introduced the Success and Opportunity through Quality Charter Schools Act (H.R. 10; 113th Congress), a bill that would amend and reauthorize both the Charter School Programs and the Credit Enhancement for Charter School Initiatives under Title V of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 through fiscal year 2020 and combine them into a single authorization. It was intended to streamline and improve the grants process and increase the funding for these programs from $250 million to $300 million. The bill passed in the House on May 7, 2014.

Political campaigns
Kline made his first run for office in 1998, when he challenged 6th District Democratic incumbent Bill Luther and lost, taking 46% of the vote. He sought a rematch in 2000 and lost by only 5,400 votes, while George W. Bush narrowly carried the district.

After the 2000 census, Minnesota's congressional map was radically altered, though the number of districts was unchanged. The old 28-county 2nd District was dismantled, and a new 2nd District was created in the Twin Cities' southern suburbs. At the same time, the 6th District was pushed slightly north and made significantly more Republican than its predecessor. The remapping left the home of the 2nd District's freshman incumbent, Republican Mark Kennedy, just inside the reconfigured 6th District. Realizing this, Kline immediately filed for the Republican nomination in the new 2nd District; his home had been drawn into this district. After some consideration, Luther opted to run in the 2nd as well, even though it was thought to lean slightly Republican.

During the campaign, Luther came under fire when one of his supporters, Sam Garst, filed for the race under the banner of the "No New Taxes Party." This was done in retaliation for an ad the National Republican Congressional Committee ran in support of Kline that accused Luther of being soft on crime. Luther subsequently admitted that his campaign had known about Garst's false flag campaign. Kline gained considerable momentum from this, and ultimately won handily, taking 53% of the vote to Luther's 42%.

Kline then defeated Democratic Burnsville City Councilwoman Teresa Daly to win a second term in 2004 and former FBI Special agent and whistleblower Coleen Rowley, one of Time magazine's "Persons of the Year", with 56% of the vote in 2006. In 2008 Kline defeated former Watertown mayor Steve Sarvi and increased his margin of victory to over 57% of the vote.

Kline accepted $11,000 in political contributions from former congressman Randy "Duke" Cunningham's PAC. After Cunningham's indictment on fraud charges, Kline donated the money to charity.

Kline's reelection in 2012 made him the 40th U.S. Representative from Minnesota to win six House terms.

On September 3, 2015, Kline announced that he would not seek reelection in 2016.

Campaign finance
In the 2014 election cycle, Kline's largest campaign contributor was the Apollo Group, a corporation that owns several for-profit educational institutions. The corporation gave $33,100 to Kline's campaign.

Bill Maher's "Flip a District" contest
In 2014, he was the "winner" of comedian Bill Maher's "Flip a District" from a group of 16 semifinalists nominated by viewers nationwide.

The Star Tribune reported Kline planned to raise $100,000 to counteract the notoriety brought by Maher's campaign. Kline's spokesman said, "Minnesotans are tired of sleazy and slimy politics" but Kline's opponent "certainly isn't." Kline's opponent, Mike Obermueller, reported a 700% increase in fundraising.

Electoral history

 * 2014

In 2014 Kline again faced Democrat Mike Obermuller. This time incumbent Kline defeated Obermuller by a 17-point margin.

 * 2012

In 2012, Kline defeated Democrat Mike Obermueller by 8%.

 * 2010

 * 2008

title: John Kline (politician)


text:
Patrick Volkerding

Patrick Volkerding (born October 20, 1966) is the founder and maintainer of the Slackware Linux distribution. Volkerding is Slackware's "Benevolent Dictator for Life" (BDFL), and is also known informally as "The Man".

Personal life
Volkerding earned a Bachelor of Science in computer science from Minnesota State University Moorhead in 1993. Volkerding is a Deadhead, and by April 1994 had already attended 75 Grateful Dead concerts.

Volkerding is a Church of the SubGenius affiliate/member. The use of the word slack in "Slackware" is an homage to J. R. "Bob" Dobbs. About the SubGenius influence on Slackware, Volkerding has stated: "I'll admit that it was SubGenius inspired. In fact, back in the 2.0 through 3.0 days we used to print a dobbshead on each CD."

Volkerding is an avid homebrewer and beer lover. Early versions of Slackware would entreat users to send him a bottle of local beer in appreciation for his work.

Volkerding was married in 2001 to Andrea and has a daughter Briah Cecilia Volkerding (b. 2005).

Illness
In 2004, Volkerding announced via mailing list post that he was suffering from actinomycosis, a serious illness requiring multiple rounds of antibiotics and with an uncertain prognosis. This announcement caused a number of tech news outlets to wonder about the future of the Slackware project. As of 2012, both Volkerding and the Slackware project were reported to be in a healthy state again.

Slackware Linux
Michael Johnston of Morse Telecommunications paid Volkerding $1 per copy sold. After that six-month contract, Robert Bruce of Walnut Creek CDROM began publishing Slackware as a CD-ROM set. Robert Bruce later became Volkerding's partner in Slackware Linux, Inc. with Volkerding owning a non-controlling, minority, 40% share. Due to underpayment, Patrick Volkerding, "told them to take it down or I'd suspend the DNS for the Slackware store".

Walnut Creek CDROM,  60% owner of Slackware Linux, Inc., was sold to BSDi  and later to Wind River Systems.

Chris Lumens and others worked for Slackware, but due to underpayment, these people lost their jobs.

For the last several years, Volkerding has managed Slackware with the help of many volunteers and testers.

Awards
In 2014, Volkerding received the O'Reilly Open Source Award.

Works

 * Volkerding, Patrick, and Reichard, Kevin, Linux System Commands, IDG Books/M&T Books, 2000, ISBN 0-7645-4669-4
 * Volkerding, Patrick, Reichard, Kevin, and Foster-Johnson, Eric, Instalación y configuración de Linux, Temas profesionales. Madrid: Anaya Multimedia, 1999 ISBN 84-415-0816-X
 * Volkerding, Patrick, Reichard, Kevin, and Foster-Johnson, Eric, LINUX Configuration and Installation, M&T Books, 1998, ISBN 0-7645-7005-6
 * Volkerding, Patrick, and Reichard, Kevin, Linux in Plain English, MIS:Press, 1997, ISBN 1-55828-542-3

Interviews

 * Interview with LinuxQuestions.org, 2012
 * Linux Link Tech Show interview (audio), 2006
 * Slashdot interview with Patrick Volkerding, 2000
 * Linux Journal interview
 * The Age (Australia) Interview
 * Hacker Public Radio Interview, 2011

title: Patrick Volkerding


text:
User talk:Sheskar~enwiki

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here's some tips:
 * You can introduce yourself on the new users page
 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.
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 * Remember to use the show preview button before you save a page.
 * If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page.

Other useful pages are: how to edit, how to write a great article, naming conventions, manual of style and the Wikipedia policies.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Angela. 17:14, Feb 28, 2004 (UTC)

Lars Magne Ingebrigtsen
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Your account will be renamed
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title: User talk:Sheskar~enwiki