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Battle of Petersburg

Battle of Petersburg may refer to:

 * Siege of Petersburg, or the Richmond–Petersburg campaign, occurring in and near Petersburg, Virginia from June 9, 1864, to March 25, 1865, during the American Civil War
 * First Battle of Petersburg, June 9, 1864
 * Second Battle of Petersburg, June 15–18, 1864
 * Third Battle of Petersburg, April 2, 1865, at the beginning of the Appomattox campaign
 * Battle of Blandford, also known as the Battle of Petersburg, April 25, 1781, during the American Revolutionary War

title: Battle of Petersburg


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Talk:KiddChris

Kidd Chris is one of the best morning show hosts ever. He's digusting, and I love it. He doesn't care about what people have to say; he's not like any other radio show host I've ever heard. He's honest and tells things like they are. He talks about girls, sex, and he also has cripple on the show named Brad the Cripple.

He's also a complete FAG. - KZH

His website is located at http://www.kiddshow.com/, by the way.

Stern fans need to stop vandalizing the part of the page that mentions Kidd Chris appearing on Opie and Anthony with the OJ Phone calls.

I must be the only guy in Philadelphia who knows what "an" is for.-TDLG

Apperrently people have a problem with me cleaning up the page. All i do is try to make it look somewhat like a regular professional wiki, not another sect of the message boards. Others are doing a damned good job keeping this page up to date but there are still a few that just think putting whatever they want wherever they want is fine. One thing I recently deleted was the "Pete Rose" line that was at the bottom of the top part (description of Chris). It didnt belong there in the first place and it was already below in the "catch phrases" department. Another was the Ed Mcgonigal "dip my b*lls in the salsa" line that was at the bottom of the "catch phrases" department. It is NOT commonly said by the guys on the show or listeners, nor is it a commonly played soundclip. Its just a funnyline in a prank call.

Another thing, dont post your OPINIONS on the page or things that arent fact, even though they are thrown around on the show. "so-and-so's a FAG" or things of the like shouldnt be on here. The page looks good as is and if you want to change or add something, take a look at the page and see how its done, then make a constructive addition.-Philadelphianite

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:KiddChris


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Baron Glanusk

Baron Glanusk, of Glanusk Park in the County of Brecknock, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1899 for Sir Joseph Bailey, 2nd Baronet, who had earlier represented Herefordshire and Hereford in the House of Commons as a Conservative. Both his son, the second Baron, and grandson, the third Baron, served as Lord Lieutenant of Brecknockshire. The latter was succeeded by his first cousin, the fourth Baron. He was the son of the Hon. Herbert Crawshay Bailey, fourth son of the first Baron. the titles are held by his son, the fifth Baron, who succeeded in 1997.

The Bailey baronetcy, of Glanusk Park in the County of Brecon, was created in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom in 1852 for Joseph Bailey, an English ironmaster and Member of Parliament for Worcester and Breconshire. He was succeeded by his grandson, the aforementioned second Baronet, who was elevated to the peerage in 1899. The Hon. Bernard M. Bailey, son of the 2nd Baronet, died at the Battle of Jutland whilst serving as a midshipman on HMS Defence (1907), aged 17.

The family residence of the Bailey family was Glanusk Park, which was left by the 3rd Baron Glanusk in 1948 to his daughter Dame Elizabeth Shân Legge-Bourke DCVO, Lord Lieutenant of Powys.

Bailey baronets, of Glanusk Park (1852)

 * Sir Joseph Bailey, 1st Baronet (1783–1858)
 * Joseph Bailey (1812–1850)
 * Sir Joseph Russell Bailey, 2nd Baronet (1840–1906) (created Baron Glanusk in 1899)

Baron Glanusk (1899)

 * Joseph Russell Bailey, 1st Baron Glanusk (1840–1906)
 * Joseph Henry Russell Bailey, 2nd Baron Glanusk (1864–1928)
 * Wilfred Russell Bailey, 3rd Baron Glanusk (1891–1948)
 * David Russell Bailey, 4th Baron Glanusk (1917–1997)
 * Christopher Russell Bailey, 5th Baron Glanusk (born 1942)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Hon. Charles Henry Bailey (born 1976).

title: Baron Glanusk


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Nan Madol

Nan Madol is an archaeological site adjacent to the eastern shore of the island of Pohnpei, now part of the Madolenihmw district of Pohnpei state in the Federated States of Micronesia in the western Pacific Ocean. Nan Madol was the capital of the Saudeleur dynasty until about 1628. The city, constructed in a lagoon, consists of a series of small artificial islands linked by a network of canals. The site core with its stone walls encloses an area approximately 1.5 x 0.5 km and it contains 92 artificial islets—stone and coral fill platforms—bordered by tidal canals.

The name Nan Madol means "within the intervals" and is a reference to the canals that crisscross the ruins. The original name was Soun Nan-leng, "Reef of Heaven," according to Gene Ashby in his book Pohnpei, An Island Argosy. It is often called the "eighth wonder of the world," or the "Venice of the Pacific".

History
Nan Madol was the ceremonial and political seat of the Saudeleur Dynasty, which united Pohnpei's estimated population of 25,000 people until about 1628. Set apart between the main island of Pohnpei and Temwen Island, it was a scene of human activity as early as the first or second century AD. By the 8th or 9th century, islet construction had started, with construction of the distinctive megalithic architecture beginning 1180–1200 AD.

Little can be verified about the megalithic construction. Pohnpeian tradition claims that the builders of the Leluh archaeological site on Kosrae (likewise composed of huge stone buildings) migrated to Pohnpei, where they used their skills and experience to build the even more impressive Nan Madol complex. Radiocarbon dating indicates that Nan Madol predates Leluh; thus, it is more likely that Nan Madol influenced Leluh.

According to Pohnpeian legend, Nan Madol was constructed by twin sorcerers Olisihpa and Olosohpa from the mythical Western Katau, or Kanamwayso. The brothers arrived in a large canoe seeking a place to build an altar so that they could worship Nahnisohn Sahpw, the god of agriculture. After several false starts, the two brothers successfully built an altar off Temwen Island, where they performed their rituals. In legend, these brothers levitated the huge stones with the aid of a flying dragon. When Olisihpa died of old age, Olosohpa became the first Saudeleur. Olosohpa married a local woman and sired twelve generations, producing sixteen other Saudeleur rulers of the Dipwilap ("Great") clan.

The founders of the dynasty ruled kindly, though their successors placed ever increasing demands on their subjects. Their reign ended with the invasion by Isokelekel, who also resided at Nan Madol, though his successors abandoned the site. Polish ethnographer and oceanographer John Stanislaw Kubary made the first detailed description of Nan Madol in 1874.

Purpose and features
The elite centre was a special place of residence for the nobility and of mortuary activities presided over by priests. Its population almost certainly did not exceed 1,000, and may have been less than half that. Although many of the residents were chiefs, the majority were commoners. Nan Madol served, in part, as a way for the ruling Saudeleur chiefs to organize and control potential rivals by requiring them to live in the city rather than in their home districts, where their activities were difficult to monitor.

Madol Powe, the mortuary sector, contains 58 islets in the northeastern area of Nan Madol. Most islets were once occupied by the dwellings of priests. Some islets served a special purpose: food preparation, canoe construction on Dapahu, and coconut oil preparation on Peinering. High walls surrounding tombs are located on Peinkitel, Karian, and Lemenkou, but the most prominent is the royal mortuary islet of Nandauwas, where walls 5.5 – high surround a central tomb enclosure within the main courtyard. This was built for the first Saudeleur.

On Nan Madol, there is no fresh water or food; water must be collected and food grown inland. During Saudeleur rule, Pohnpeians brought essential food and water by boat. The Saudeleur received food at a particular islet: first Peiniot, and later the closer Usennamw.

Around 1628, when Isokelekel overthrew the Saudeleurs and began the Nahnmwarki Era, the Nahnmwarkis lived at Nan Madol, but had to gather their own water and grow their own food. This is thought to have caused them eventually to abandon Nan Madol and move back to their own districts, although there are other explanations for the desertion of the complex, such as a sharp population decline.

Archaeology
Today Nan Madol forms an archaeological district covering more than 18 km² and includes the stone architecture built up on a coral reef flat along the shore of Temwen Island, several other artificial islets, and the adjacent Pohnpei main island coastline. The site core with its stone walls encloses an area approximately 1.5 x 0.5 km containing 92 artificial islets—stone and coral fill platforms—bordered by tidal canals.

Carbon dating indicates that megalithic construction at Nan Madol began around AD 1180 when large basalt stones were taken from a volcanic plug on the opposite side of Pohnpei. The earliest settlement on Pohnpei was probably around AD 1 although radiocarbon dating shows human activity starting around AD 80–200.

In 1985, the ruins of Nan Madol were declared a National Historical Landmark.

Until its closure in 2012, objects from the site were displayed at Lidorkini Museum.

Offshore underwater archaeological surveys at Nan Madol
In 1978 and 1979, Dr. Arthur Saxe conducted underwater archaeological surveys to investigate reports of submerged basalt columns just offshore of Nan Madol and to search for two legendary submerged prehistoric cities known as Kahnihmw Namkhet and Kahnihmweiso. These surveys reported finding several tall stone pillars covered in coral growth and as tall as 6 m tall, 0.9 - 1.2 m wide, at depths of over 25 m. Neither Kahnihmw Namkhet nor Kahnihmweiso was found. However, it was hypothesized that the city of Kahnihmweiso might have been built over a cavern, which collapsed and formed a blue hole that swallowed the city.

In 1988 and 1989, a team of archaeologists from the University of Oregon conducted underwater archaeological surveys around Nan Madol. They found a number of prone basalt columns on the sea floor seaward of Nan Madol. They concluded that these columns consisted of lost, discarded or fallen building materials. They also examined underwater pillars reported by Saxe. They located two randomly spaced clusters of columns. They drove a steel rod unto two of them and found only coral. One of them was raised and carefully dissected. This column was found to consist entirely of coral and clearly is not a "...purposely positioned stone column."

In 2013, Ishimura and others used multi-beam sonar, ROVs, and scuba diving to examine submerged block-shaped features and columnar objects and the blue hole. They found neither evidence of anthropogenic pillars composed of basalt columns nor any evidence that the underwater columns are man-made structures. They also concluded that the blue hole is a sinkhole that developed in reef limestones during sea level lowstands of glacial maximums.

Lost continent theories
Nan Madol has been interpreted by some as the remains of one of the "lost continents" of Lemuria or Mu. Nan Madol was one of the sites James Churchward identified as being part of the lost continent of Mu, starting in his 1926 book The Lost Continent of Mu Motherland of Man.

In popular culture
The ruins of Nan Madol were used as the setting for a lost race story by A. Merritt, The Moon Pool (1918), in which the islands are called Nan-Tauach and the ruins are called the Nan-Matal.

Nan Madol was featured in episode two of the pseudoarchaeological work Ancient Apocalypse by Graham Hancock which aired on Netflix, in which false claims were made about the age of the site. Experts in Pacific geography and archaeology have characterised Hancock's claims about Nan Madol as "incredibly insulting to the ancestors of the Pohnpeian [islanders] that did create these structures", linking them to 19th century "racist" and "white supremacist" ideologies.

title: Nan Madol


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Tadarida

The genus Tadarida has 9 or more species of free-tailed bats divided into two subgenera, with the first of these containing seven species spread across the Old World (including southern Europe and North Africa, large parts of southern Asia, and India right across to Japan). Four species occur exclusively in Africa including Madagascar while two more species occur in central Papua New Guinea, and western and southern Australia, respectively.

The relatively well-known species T. teniotis, which occurs in southern Europe and North Africa, the Middle East, and across southern Asia to Japan, is known to fly often during the late afternoon, where it hawks for insects alongside swifts (Apodidae), swallows, and martins (Hirundinidae).

The other subgenus contains the widespread New World single species T. brasiliensis (subgenus Rhizomops), which ranges from the southern United States and the West Indies to Chile and Argentina. This species is noted for its massive maternity colonies in the United States, especially in the southwest, where an estimated population of over 25 million (possibly as high as 50 million) existed in Eagle Creek Cave in Arizona in the 1960s.

Taxonomy
Molecular sequence data indicate Tadarida is not a monophyletic taxon. The closest relative of Tadarida aegyptiaca of Africa and southwest Asia is Chaerephon jobimena of Madagascar. These two species plus T. brasiliensis of the Americas form a clade believed to be about 9.8 million years old.

The genus name Tadarida is attributed to the naturalist Constantine Samuel Rafinesque, who gave no clues to its etymology. It has been suggested that the name comes from the Corsican word for bat, taddarita. but no such word exists in the Corsican language (where bat is called topu pinnutu). Indeed, Rafinesque, being in Palermo, Sicily, during its studies, probably took this name from Sicilian, where the bat is called taḍḍarita, from Greek λαχταρίδα (lachtarida)

Species list for genus:

 * Tadarida aegyptiaca - Egyptian free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida brasiliensis (now in subgenus Rhizomops) - Mexican free-tailed bat or Brazilian free-tailed bat
 * †Tadarida constantinei - Constantine's free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida fulminans - Madagascan large free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida insignis - East Asian free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida latouchei - La Touche's free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida lobata - Kenyan big-eared free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida teniotis European free-tailed bat
 * Tadarida ventralis - African giant free-tailed bat

title: Tadarida


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Western skink

The western skink (Plestiodon skiltonianus) is a species of small, smooth-scaled lizard with relatively small limbs. It measures about 100 to 210 mm (about 4 to 8.25 inches) in total length (body + tail). It is one of seven species of lizards in Canada. They spend much of their day basking in the sun. Their diet ranges widely, including spiders and beetles. Western skinks will bite if grasped and will flee if they feel threatened. It is a common but secretive species whose range extends from southern British Columbia and throughout Washington, Oregon, Nevada, Utah, Idaho, and Wyoming and into western Montana and northern Arizona and Missouri. They can also live in some areas of Texas It is widespread in northern California but primarily restricted to the coast in central and southern California. Found in a variety of habitats, this lizard is most common in early successional stages or open areas of late successional stages. Heavy brush and densely forested areas are generally avoided. Western skinks are found from sea level to at least 2,130 m (7,000 ft). This diurnal reptile is active during the warm seasons.

Taxonomy
Initially described in 1852 by Baird and Girard, the Western skink is named for Dr. Avery Judd Skilton (1802–1858), an American physician and naturalist, who collected the first specimens. Together with Gilbert's skink (P. gilberti), the San Lucan skink (P. lagunensis), and the four-lined Asiatic skink (P. quadrilineatus), the western skink belongs to the so-called "skiltonianus group". The exact taxonomy within this group has yet to be conclusively determined, and may need revision following DNA analysis research. There are three recognized subspecies, including the nominotypical subspecies:

 * Coronado skink, P.s. interparietalis (W. Tanner, 1957) Occurs in southern California and Baja California, Mexico.
 * Great Basin skink, P.s. utahensis (W. Tanner, 1957) Occurs in Utah.
 * Skilton's skink, P.s. skiltonianus Baird & Girard, 1852

The most common is Skilton's skink, which occurs throughout the western United States west of the Rocky Mountains and in southern British Columbia, Canada.

Behavior
The western skink is a secretive and very agile lizard that forages actively through leaf litter and dense vegetation, preying upon small invertebrates including spiders, a variety of insects and sow bugs. Crickets, beetles, moths, grasshoppers, and other arthropods have been found in the stomachs of skinks. Prey is sometimes stalked and cannibalism has been reported. It is a good burrower and sometimes constructs burrows several times its own body length.

Females take great care of their eggs. Western skink females construct nest chambers that are several centimeters deep in loose moist soil. Typically these chambers are located under surface objects, especially flat stones, logs, and sometimes in or near rock outcrops. The females remain guarding the nest until the young leave the nest. Female western skinks will defend their nests from predators, repair their nests, and even bask in the sun and then return to the nest to provide additional heat.

Habitat
Found in a variety of habitats from sea level to at least 2,130 m (7,000 ft), the western skink is commonest in early successional stages or open areas within habitats in which it occurs. Heavy brush and densely forested areas are generally avoided. The western skink seems to prefer a somewhat moist environment, although it can also be found on dry hillsides. Frequents grassland, broken chaparral, pinon-juniper and juniper-sage woodland, and open pine-oak and pine forests. The soil of its nest chambers is invariably moist. Standing water is apparently not required.

Although Western skinks avoid forests, they are found in dry areas within forested areas.

Description
Adult Western skinks have a broad brown stripe down their backs, edged with black and bordered on each side by a conspicuous whitish to beige dorsolateral stripe that begins on nose and extends over the eye and back alongside body onto the tail. A second pale stripe, starting on upper jaw, occurs low on each side and is separated from the first by a broad dark brown or black band originating on the side of head and usually extending well out onto the tail, though this band can be disrupted if the tail is lost and regrown. Juvenile skink's tails are bright blue, turning to grey in adulthood. In the breeding season reddish or orange color appears on the side of head and chin, and occasionally on the sides, tip, and underside of the tail. They usually have seven supralabial scales and four enlarged nuchals. Young skinks' colorations are more vivid than those of adults.

Geographic Range
Western skinks can be found from southern British Columbia, Canada, to the tip of the Baja California Peninsula, and throughout most of Great Basin to extreme Northern Arizona; central Utah to the Pacific Coast. The species is apparently absent from the floor of San Joaquin Valley (they have been observed in rural areas of southeast Lodi, CA), central Sierra Nevada (except a few scattered locations in the foothills where they are very common), and lowland deserts of California. In Northern Baja, California the species occurs in the northwestern part at least as far south as Colonia Guerro and in the south in the cape and Comondu regions, Santa Agueda, and San Francisco de la Sierra. On Santa Catalina, Los Coronados, and Todos Santos Island off the coast of California.

Predators and Defensive Behavior
Western skinks risk predation by virtually all mammalian, avian, and reptilian predators. In Idaho, their predators include night snakes, striped whipsnakes, and raptors. Throughout their range, they may be targeted by a range of predators, especially young animals honing their hunting skills, including black bear cubs, bobcats, coyotes, gray, red and swift foxes, least weasels and pumas, as well as domestic and feral cats and dogs. Various carnivorous birds, especially younger or smaller individuals, may hunt these skinks, such as Cooper’s hawk, Harris hawks, kestrels, red-tailed hawks and shrikes (‘butcherbirds’). Reptilian predators include kingsnakes and any other reptile-consuming squamates.

Against predators, a shrink's automative response is to retreat. If females are protecting their eggs, they may attempt to bite to scare off any predators. Young western skinks have a bright blue tail with color that fades with age. Skinks can perform autotomy; if seized by a predator its tail is deliberately cast and wriggles violently attracting attention while the lizard may escape. The tail will grow back with time but is often darker in color and misshapen. It will play dead, but this behavior is rarely seen.

Life History
This skink is diurnal during the period of warm-season activity. During summer most activity is concentrated in the morning and late afternoon. Where summer temperatures are not extreme, activity extends throughout the day. Adult skinks usually become inactive by early fall but juveniles extend their period of activity several weeks. The length of time they are inactive varies depending on the climate of the area. During their hibernation period, western skinks remain in communal dens.

The reproductive season for this species varies geographically and from year to year depending on local conditions. Mating probably occurs in the spring soon after emergence. Males turn orange on the underside when they are breeding. Females lay 2–6 eggs during June and July.

Western skinks' eggs hatch in the months of July and August; the exact time differs by geographic location. They reach sexual maturity at around 3 years, and live up to 9 years

title: Western skink


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Midbrain

The midbrain or mesencephalon is the rostral-most portion of the brainstem connecting the diencephalon and cerebrum with the pons.  It consists of the cerebral peduncles, tegmentum, and tectum.

It is functionally associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep and wakefulness, arousal (alertness), and temperature regulation.

The name comes from the Greek mesos, "middle", and enkephalos, "brain".

Anatomy
The midbrain is the shortest segment of the brainstem, measuring at less than 2cm in length. It is situated mostly in the posterior cranial fossa, with its superior part extending above the tentorial notch.

Structure
The principal regions of the midbrain are the tectum, the cerebral aqueduct, tegmentum, and the cerebral peduncles. Rostrally the midbrain adjoins the diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus, etc.), while caudally it adjoins the hindbrain (pons, medulla and cerebellum). In the rostral direction, the midbrain noticeably splays laterally.

Sectioning of the midbrain is usually performed axially, at one of two levels – that of the superior colliculi, or that of the inferior colliculi. One common technique for remembering the structures of the midbrain involves visualizing these cross-sections (especially at the level of the superior colliculi) as the upside-down face of a bear, with the cerebral peduncles forming the ears, the cerebral aqueduct the mouth, and the tectum the chin; prominent features of the tegmentum form the eyes and certain sculptural shadows of the face.

Tectum
The tectum (Latin for roof) is the part of the midbrain dorsal to the cerebral aqueduct.  The position of the tectum is contrasted with the tegmentum, which refers to the region in front of the ventricular system, or floor of the midbrain.

It is involved in certain reflexes in response to visual or auditory stimuli. The reticulospinal tract, which exerts some control over alertness, takes input from the tectum, and travels both rostrally and caudally from it.

The corpora quadrigemina are four mounds, called colliculi, in two pairs – a superior and an inferior pair, on the surface of the tectum. The superior colliculi process some visual information, aid the decussation of several fibres of the optic nerve (some fibres remain ipsilateral), and are involved with saccadic eye movements. The tectospinal tract connects the superior colliculi to the cervical nerves of the neck, and co-ordinates head and eye movements. Each superior colliculus also sends information to the corresponding lateral geniculate nucleus, with which it is directly connected. The homologous structure to the superior colliculus in non mammalian vertebrates including fish and amphibians, is called the optic tectum; in those animals, the optic tectum integrates sensory information from the eyes and certain auditory reflexes.

The inferior colliculi – located just above the trochlear nerve – process certain auditory information. Each inferior colliculus sends information to the corresponding medial geniculate nucleus, with which it is directly connected.

Cerebral aqueduct

The cerebral aqueduct is the part of the ventricular system which links the third ventricle (rostrally) with the fourth ventricle (caudally); as such it is responsible for continuing the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebral aqueduct is a narrow channel located between the tectum and the tegmentum, and is surrounded by the periaqueductal grey, which has a role in analgesia, quiescence, and bonding. The dorsal raphe nucleus (which releases serotonin in response to certain neural activity) is located at the ventral side of the periaqueductal grey, at the level of the inferior colliculus.

The nuclei of two pairs of cranial nerves are similarly located at the ventral side of the periaqueductal grey – the pair of oculomotor nuclei (which control the eyelid, and most eye movements) is located at the level of the superior colliculus, while the pair of trochlear nuclei (which helps focus vision on more proximal objects) is located caudally to that, at the level of the inferior colliculus, immediately lateral to the dorsal raphe nucleus. The oculomotor nerve emerges from the nucleus by traversing the ventral width of the tegmentum, while the trochlear nerve emerges via the tectum, just below the inferior colliculus itself; the trochlear is the only cranial nerve to exit the brainstem dorsally. The Edinger-Westphal nucleus (which controls the shape of the lens and size of the pupil) is located between the oculomotor nucleus and the cerebral aqueduct.

Tegmentum

The midbrain tegmentum is the portion of the midbrain ventral to the cerebral aqueduct, and is much larger in size than the tectum. It communicates with the cerebellum by the superior cerebellar peduncles, which enter at the caudal end, medially, on the ventral side; the cerebellar peduncles are distinctive at the level of the inferior colliculus, where they decussate, but they dissipate more rostrally. Between these peduncles, on the ventral side, is the median raphe nucleus, which is involved in memory consolidation.

The main bulk of the tegmentum contains a complex synaptic network of neurons, primarily involved in homeostasis and reflex actions. It includes portions of the reticular formation. A number of distinct nerve tracts between other parts of the brain pass through it. The medial lemniscus – a narrow ribbon of fibres – passes through in a relatively constant axial position; at the level of the inferior colliculus it is near the lateral edge, on the ventral side, and retains a similar position rostrally (due to widening of the tegmentum towards the rostral end, the position can appears more medial). The spinothalamic tract – another ribbon-like region of fibres – are located at the lateral edge of the tegmentum; at the level of the inferior colliculus it is immediately dorsal to the medial lemiscus, but due to the rostral widening of the tegmentum, is lateral of the medial lemiscus at the level of the superior colliculus.

A prominent pair of round, reddish, regions – the red nuclei (which have a role in motor co-ordination) – are located in the rostral portion of the midbrain, somewhat medially, at the level of the superior colliculus. The rubrospinal tract emerges from the red nucleus and descends caudally, primarily heading to the cervical portion of the spine, to implement the red nuclei's decisions. The area between the red nuclei, on the ventral side – known as the ventral tegmental area – is the largest dopamine-producing area in the brain, and is heavily involved in the neural reward system. The ventral tegmental area is in contact with parts of the forebrain – the mammillary bodies (from the Diencephalon) and hypothalamus (of the diencephalon).

Cerebral peduncles

The cerebral peduncles each form a lobe ventrally of the tegmentum, on either side of the midline. Beyond the midbrain, between the lobes, is the interpeduncular fossa, which is a cistern filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The majority of each lobe constitutes the cerebral crus. The cerebral crus are the main tracts descending from the thalamus to caudal parts of the central nervous system; the central and medial ventral portions contain the corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts, while the remainder of each crus primarily contains tracts connecting the cortex to the pons. Older texts refer to the crus cerebri as the cerebral peduncle; however, the latter term actually covers all fibres communicating with the cerebrum (usually via the diencephalon), and therefore would include much of the tegmentum as well. The remainder of the crus pedunculi – small regions around the main cortical tracts – contain tracts from the internal capsule.

The portion of the lobes in connection with the tegmentum, except the most lateral portion, is dominated by a blackened band – the substantia nigra (literally black substance) – which is the only part of the basal ganglia system outside the forebrain. It is ventrally wider at the rostral end. By means of the basal ganglia, the substantia nigra is involved in motor-planning, learning, addiction, and other functions. There are two regions within the substantia nigra – one where neurons are densely packed (the pars compacta) and one where they are not (the pars reticulata), which serve a different role from one another within the basal ganglia system. The substantia nigra has extremely high production of melanin (hence the colour), dopamine, and noradrenalin; the loss of dopamine-producing neurons in this region contributes to the progression of Parkinson's disease.

Arterial supply
The midbrain is supplied by the following arteries:

 * The tectum is supplied by the superior cerebellar artery.
 * The central part of the tegmentum is supplied by the paramedian branches of the basilar artery.
 * The lateral part of the midbrain is supplied by the posterior cerebral artery.

Venous drainage
Venous blood from the midbrain is mostly drained into the basal vein as it passes around the peduncle. Some venous blood from the colliculi drains to the great cerebral vein.

Development

During embryonic development, the midbrain (also known as the mesencephalon) arises from the second vesicle of the neural tube, while the interior of this portion of the tube becomes the cerebral aqueduct. Unlike the other two vesicles – the forebrain and hindbrain – the midbrain does not develop further subdivision for the remainder of neural development. It does not split into other brain areas. while the forebrain, for example, divides into the telencephalon and the diencephalon.

Throughout embryonic development, the cells within the midbrain continually multiply; this happens to a much greater extent ventrally than it does dorsally. The outward expansion compresses the still-forming cerebral aqueduct, which can result in partial or total obstruction, leading to congenital hydrocephalus. The tectum is derived in embryonic development from the alar plate of the neural tube.

Function
The mesencephalon is considered part of the brainstem. Its substantia nigra is closely associated with motor system pathways of the basal ganglia. The human mesencephalon is archipallian in origin, meaning that its general architecture is shared with the most ancient of vertebrates. Dopamine produced in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area plays a role in movement, movement planning, excitation, motivation and habituation of species from humans to the most elementary animals such as insects. Laboratory house mice from lines that have been selectively bred for high voluntary wheel running have enlarged midbrains. The midbrain helps to relay information for vision and hearing.

Related terms
The term "tectal plate" or "quadrigeminal plate" is used to describe the junction of the gray and white matter in the embryo.

title: Midbrain


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Southern Colonies

The Southern Colonies within British America consisted of the Province of Maryland, the Colony of Virginia, the Province of Carolina (in 1712 split into North and South Carolina), and the Province of Georgia. In 1763, the newly created colonies of East Florida and West Florida would be added to the Southern Colonies by Great Britain until the Spanish Empire took back Florida. These colonies were the historical core of what would become the Southern United States, or "Dixie". They were located south of the Middle Colonies, albeit Virginia and Maryland (located on the expansive Chesapeake Bay in the Upper South) were also called the Chesapeake Colonies.

The Southern Colonies were overwhelmingly rural, with large agricultural operations, which made use of slavery and indentured servitude extensive. During a series of civil unrest, Bacon's Rebellion shaped the way that servitude and slavery worked in the South. After a series of attacks on the Susquehannock, attacks that were ensued after the group of natives burnt one of Bacon's farms, Bacon's arrest, along with other arrest warrants, were issued by Governor Berkely, for attacking the natives without his permission. Bacon avoided detainment, though, and then burnt Jamestown, in opposition of the governor previously denying him land in fear of native attacks, however Bacon hadn't believe his policies were entirely conventional, saying that they didn't ensure protection to the English settlers, as well as the exclusion of Bacon from Berkeley's social clubs and friend groups. The rebellion dissolved sometime in 1676, following Charles II's initial sending of troops to restore order in the colony. This rebellion influenced the view of the Africans, helping create a completely African servitude and workforce in the Chesapeake Colonies, alleviating primarily White servitude, a working-class that could be repugnant at times through disobedience and mischief. This also helped racial superiority in White regions, helping the poor White and wealthy White people, respectively, feel almost equal. It diminished alliances between White and Black people, as had happened in Bacon's Rebellion.

The colonies developed prosperous economies based on the cultivation of cash crops, such as tobacco, indigo, and rice. An effect of the cultivation of these crops was the presence of slavery in significantly higher proportions than in other parts of British America.

Carolina
The Province of Carolina, originally chartered in 1608, was an English and later British colony of North America. Because the original charter was unrealized and was ruled invalid, a new charter was issued to a group of eight English noblemen, the Lords Proprietors, on March 24, 1663. Led by Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, the Province of Carolina was controlled from 1663 to 1729 by these lords and their heirs.

Shaftesbury and his secretary, the philosopher John Locke, devised an intricate plan to govern the many people arriving in the colony. The Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina sought to ensure the colony's stability by allotting political status by a settler's wealth upon arrival - making a semi-manorial system with a Council of Nobles and a plan to have small landholders defer to these nobles. However, the settlers did not find it necessary to take orders from the Council.

By 1680, the colony had a large export industry of tobacco, lumber, and pitch.

In 1691, dissent over the governance of the province led to the appointment of a deputy governor to administer the northern half of Carolina. After nearly a decade in which the British government sought to locate and buy out the proprietors, both Carolinas became royal colonies.

Georgia
The British colony of Georgia was founded by James Oglethorpe on February 12, 1733. The colony was administered by the Georgia Trustees under a charter issued by and named for King George II. The Trustees implemented an elaborate plan for the settlement of the colony, known as the Oglethorpe Plan, which envisioned an agrarian society of Yeoman farmers and prohibited slavery. In 1742 the colony was invaded by the Spanish during the War of Jenkins' Ear. In 1752, after the government failed to renew subsidies that had helped support the colony, the Trustees turned over control to the Crown, and Georgia became a Crown colony, with a governor appointed by the king. The warm climate and swampy lands make it perfect for growing crops such as tobacco, rice, sugarcane, and indigo.

Maryland
George Calvert received a charter from King Charles I to found the colony of Maryland in 1632. When George Calvert died, Cecilius Calvert, later known as Lord Baltimore, became the proprietor. Calvert came from a wealthy Catholic family and was the first individual (rather than a joint-stock company) to receive a grant from the Crown. He received a grant for a large tract of land north of the Potomac river and on either side of Chesapeake Bay. Calvert planned on creating a haven for English Roman Catholics, many of whom were well-to-do nobles such as himself who could not worship in public. He planned on creating an agrarian manorial society where each noble would have a large manor and tenants would work in the fields and on other tasks. However, with extremely cheap land prices, many Protestants moved to Maryland and bought land for themselves. They soon became a majority of the population, and in 1642 religious tension began to erupt. Calvert was forced to take control and pass the Maryland Toleration Act in 1649, making Maryland the second colony to have freedom of worship, after Rhode Island. However, the Act did little to help religious peace. In 1654, Protestants barred Catholics from voting, ousted a pro-tolerance Governor, and repealed the Toleration Act. Maryland stayed Protestant until Calvert again took control of the colony in 1658.

Virginia
The Colony of Virginia (also known frequently as the Virginia Colony or the Province of Virginia, and occasionally as the Dominion and Colony of Virginia) was an English colony in North America which existed briefly during the 16th century, and then continuously from 1607 until the American Revolution (as a British colony after 1707 ). The name Virginia was first applied by Sir Walter Raleigh and Queen Elizabeth I in 1584. Jamestown was the first town created by the Virginia colony. After the English Civil War in the mid 17th century, the Virginia Colony was nicknamed "The Old Dominion" by King Charles II for its perceived loyalty to the English monarchy during the era of the Commonwealth of England.

While other colonies were being founded, Virginia continued to grow. Tobacco planters held the best land near the coast, so new settlers pushed inland. Sir William Berkeley, the colony's governor, sent explorers over the Blue Ridge Mountains to open up the back country of Virginia to settlement.

After independence from Great Britain in 1776 the Virginia Colony became the Commonwealth of Virginia, one of the original thirteen states of the United States, adopting as its official slogan "The Old Dominion". The states of West Virginia, Kentucky, Indiana, Illinois, and portions of Ohio, were all later created from the territory encompassed earlier by the Colony of Virginia.

title: Southern Colonies


text:
Pebble Beach, California

Pebble Beach is an unincorporated community on the Monterey Peninsula in Monterey County, California, United States. The small coastal residential community of mostly single-family homes is also notable as a resort destination, and the home of the golf courses of Cypress Point Club, Monterey Peninsula Country Club, and Pebble Beach Golf Links. Nonresidents are charged a toll to use 17-Mile Drive, the main road through Pebble Beach, making it a de-facto gated community.

The Inn at Spanish Bay, The Lodge at Pebble Beach and four of the eight golf courses inside the Pebble Beach community are among the local assets owned by the Pebble Beach Company. Residents pay fees for maintenance as well as Monterey County property taxes. Application of the property tax revenues is the realm of the Pebble Beach Community Services District, a public agency that is independent of local private facilities, e.g., golf courses, with an elected board of directors that manages essential functions including fire protection and emergency medical services, supplemental law enforcement, wastewater collection and treatment, recycled water distribution, and garbage collection, disposal and recycling. The community's post office is named Pebble Beach, as is its identity; whereas, the U.S. Census Bureau aggregates census returns from Pebble Beach as part of the larger census-designated place of Del Monte Forest. However, residents and visitors associate and identify with the name Pebble Beach; boundaries of the Del Monte Forest extend outside of the Pebble Beach community boundaries encompassing a larger forest area that comprises the wooded parts of Monterey Peninsula.

Area open space is partly administered by the Del Monte Forest Conservancy, a non-profit organization designated by Monterey County and the California Coastal Commission to acquire and manage certain properties by conservation easement and, as well, by fee title. The Conservancy is governed by a self-elected volunteer board of up to 12 members working with a small part-time group of contractors and volunteers to preserve the open space within the Del Monte Forest and non-forested sites of Pebble Beach. All board members must be property owners and residents of Pebble Beach.

Pebble Beach lies at sea level, its ZIP Code is 93953, and the community is inside area code 831.

History
The name Pebble Beach was originally given to a rocky cove and beach strand, a prominent coastal segment of the Rancho Pescadero Mexican land grant that had been awarded to Fabián Barreto in 1836. Barreto died and the land went through several owners. In the 1850s, Chinese immigrants formed a series of fishing settlements along Carmel Bay including one at Stillwater Cove, next to Pebble Beach. They collected abalone and various fish. In 1860, David Jacks bought the Mexican land grant, then sold it in 1880 to the Pacific Improvement Company (PIC), a consortium of The Big Four "railroad barons."

By 1892, the PIC laid out a scenic road that they called the 17-Mile Drive, meandering along the beaches and among the forested areas between Monterey and Carmel. The drive was offered as a pleasure excursion to guests of the PIC-owned Hotel Del Monte, and it was intended to attract wealthy buyers of large and scenic residential plots on PIC land. Sightseers riding horses or carriages along the 17-Mile Drive sometimes stopped at Pebble Beach to pick up agate and other stones polished smooth by the waves, and they commented on a few unusual tree formations known as the Witch Tree and the Ostrich Tree—the latter formed by two trees leaning on each other. At that time, the Chinese fishing community continued in existence despite mounting anti-Chinese sentiment among Monterey residents of European heritage. At roadside stands, Chinese-American girls sold shells and polished pebbles to tourists. In the 1900s, the automobile began replacing horses on 17-Mile Drive, and by 1907 there were only automobiles. Adverse sentiments by local non-Chinese towards the Chinese fisherman and villagers of Pebble Beach was ironic in view of the vital contribution Chinese laborers made to the development of the Central Pacific Railroad, the fundamental fount of capital for the "Big Four," founders of PIC.

In 1908, architect Lewis P. Hobart was hired by PIC manager A.D. Shepard to design the Pebble Beach Lodge, a rustic log-cabin-style one-story inn completed by 1909. The rambling lodge, featuring private patio nooks and a wide pergola made of local logs, was positioned halfway along 17-Mile Drive, overlooking Pebble Beach. The great hall or assembly room was 35 by wide and was flanked by massive fireplaces at each end. A tavern and kitchen supplied food and drink, and later, cottages could be rented for overnight guests. Operated under the same management as the Hotel Del Monte, food service was available at all hours, including fresh local abalone chowder. The lodge was built as the community center for the wealthy residents of the Del Monte Forest, and was popular as a rest stop for 17-Mile Drive motorists. Samuel Finley Brown Morse, a distant cousin to Samuel F. B. Morse known as the inventor of Morse Code, was hired in the 1910s to manage the PIC. In 1916, Morse convinced the PIC to create a golf course at the edge of Pebble Beach and Stillwater Cove. The lodge burned down on December 17, 1917, while the course was under construction, and a completely different structure replaced it: the Del Monte Lodge. PIC decided to dismantle the old El Carmelo Hotel and use the wood to reconstruction Del Monte Lodge. Hobart worked with Clarence Tantau to create a luxurious multi-story hotel, and Hobart designed a signature "Roman Plunge" pool to the east of the hotel. The golf course and the new lodge held a grand opening on February 22, 1919.

Morse formed the Del Monte Properties Company on February 27, 1919, and acquired the extensive holdings of the PIC, which included the Del Monte Forest, the Del Monte Lodge and the Hotel Del Monte. Morse brought his son, John Boit Morse, on board as president in 1948. The lodge was expanded with offices and a shopping arcade. In 1954, Morse's son-in-law, Richard Osborne was named president of the Del Monte Properties Company.

Samuel Finley Brown Morse died in 1969. Alfred Gawthrop Jr., served as Chairman of Del Monte Properties through the 1970s. On March 30, 1977, the Del Monte Properties Company was reincorporated as the Pebble Beach Corporation. The Del Monte Lodge was renamed the Lodge at Pebble Beach.

In May 1979, 20th Century Fox, later bought by Marvin Davis, purchased the Pebble Beach Corporation. When the film company was sold to Rupert Murdoch in 1985, Davis kept several company assets not directly related to the film and TV industry, including the Pebble Beach Company and the Aspen Skiing Company.

In 1990 Davis sold the Pebble Beach Company to the Japanese businessman Minoru Isutani, who made it a subsidiary of the Japanese resort company Taiheiyo Club Inc. under a holding company called the Lone Cypress Company. Isutani was investigated by the FBI in the early 1990s for money laundering. Isutani's $341M loss taken on the sale of Pebble Beach was cited as an example.

In 1999 the Pebble Beach Company was acquired from Lone Cypress by an investor group led by Clint Eastwood, Arnold Palmer, and Peter Ueberroth. In 2000, the company initiated Measure A, a controversial development proposal. Eastwood appeared in a US$1million legal and advertising campaign urging voters to pass MeasureA. In 2006, the plan went before the California Coastal Commission for approval. On June 14, 2007, the plan was submitted again. Commissioner Sara Wan called it "wholesale destruction of the environment," and Measure A was denied in an 8to4 vote.

The famous landmark, known as the "Witch Tree," stood for decades at Pescadero Point until it fell during a storm on January 14, 1964. It was sometimes used as scenic background in movies and television. It was displayed as part of the coast of Italy, in the 1951 movie Mr. Imperium, with Lana Turner, Ezio Pinza, Majorie Main and Barry Sullivan. That tree was also part of the background in an early scene from the 1956 movie Julie, featuring Doris Day, while she was fleeing from her psychopathic husband, played by Louis Jourdan.

The Pescadero "Ghost Tree" gave its name to an extreme surfing location known to have storm waves as large as 60 ft high. Effective 2009, the surf break of Ghost Tree became effectively off limits, the result of a decision by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration that personal watercraft, which were a virtual necessity for the tow-in only surf spot, were no longer permitted in specified waters of the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.

Demographics
The community has 4,531 residents and is relatively affluent, home to many retirees and well-educated workers in the social service (education and health care), management and finance sectors. Monterey County has a large Hispanic population, accounting for 59% of its population. In contrast, Pebble Beach's population is largely of non-Hispanic White ancestry; 91.4% of the population was White, 5.3% Asian, 2.3% Hispanic or Latino, and 0.4% African American. The median household income is $99,788, with 54% with incomes between $50,000 and $150,000 and a little more than a quarter of households, 26.2%, with incomes exceeding $150,000. Household income figures, however, may not accurately reflect the area's wealth as 50.8% of households received social security income and 30.8% were retired. Less than half of the population 16 or over, 46.4%, are employed. Of those who work, the plurality (25%) are employed in the social service, education and health care sector, followed by the management (15%) and finance sectors (15%). 2.3% of the population live below the poverty level. The area's adult population is fairly well-educated, with 61% having at least a Bachelor's degree, and 98% having a high school diploma, compared to 25% and 80% at the national average, respectively.

Golf

Pebble Beach has seven 18-hole golf courses, and one 9-hole course. Pebble Beach Golf Links, The Links at Spanish Bay, Spyglass Hill and Peter Hay Golf Course are owned by Pebble Beach Company and are all public courses. Poppy Hills is also a public course. Private courses located at Pebble Beach are Cypress Point Club and the private Monterey Peninsula Country Club's two courses, the Dunes Course and the Shore Course. Pebble Beach Company also owns Del Monte Golf Course a few miles away in Monterey, which is the oldest continuously operating course in the Western United States.

Several of these courses are widely celebrated, especially Pebble Beach Golf Links. Designed by Jack Neville and Douglas Grant, it is the most famous course in the Western United States, and along with Augusta National remains one of only two courses to have ever beaten Pine Valley Golf Club to top spot in Golf Digest's biennial list of America's 100 greatest courses. Pebble Beach Golf Links was the site of the US Open in 1972, 1982, 1992, 2000, 2010 and 2019. The course is set to host the tournament again in 2027. It will host the 2023 U.S. Women's Open tournament for the first time, July 6-9.

The AT&T Pebble Beach National Pro-Am (formerly known as the Crosby Clambake) is held on three of the courses here annually in February. The tournament began in 1937 at Rancho Santa Fe near San Diego, where it was last played in 1942. After World War II, it moved to Pebble Beach in 1947, and has continued annually since.

The Pebble Beach golf resort partnered with IBM in 2017 to use the artificial intelligence Watson as a live concierge embedded in a mobile app. Watson was used to guide visitors around the resort.

Concours d'Elegance
The annual Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance auto show has been held in Pebble Beach since 1950. The event focuses on classic cars, and each year features a particular marque as its focus. In addition to the car competition, there is an auction, a classic car tour, and an automotive art exhibit.

Representation
At the county level, Pebble Beach is currently represented on the Monterey County Board of Supervisors by Supervisor Mary Adams.

In the State Assembly, Pebble Beach is in. In the State Senate, it is in.

In the United States House of Representatives, Pebble Beach is in.

Election results
Unlike most unincorporated communities, presidential election results are listed for Pebble Beach in the Monterey County statement of vote for some elections. The totals listed below are for the seven presidential elections from 1976-2000.

Notes:
 * In the 1992 presidential election, Independent candidate Ross Perot received 281 votes (16.57%)
 * The totals for the 1992 presidential election feature only the precincts that are presented in the linked document (pages that included the odd numbered precincts do not appear in the document)
 * All totals listed include absentee balloting
 * Totals are also available for Pebble Beach for gubernatorial elections from 1978-2002.
 * In order to tabulate the totals for elections after 2002, the user would need to know the numbers of all precincts that make up the community of Pebble Beach, which are not clearly marked in the Monterey County statement of vote. Hence, they are not reproduced here.

Geography
Pebble Beach is in Monterey County on the Monterey Peninsula at 36.56639°N, -121.94667°W. It is bordered by Carmel-by-the-Sea to the south, Pacific Grove to the north, the City of Monterey to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. Big Sur is about a 40 mi drive south on scenic State Route 1. Cypress Point in Pebble Beach is the westernmost landfall in Southern California; the dividing line between the north and south portions of the state coastline is situated at the center of the Monterey Bay shoreline near Moss Landing. Santa Cruz and San Francisco are about 45 and 120 mi to the north, respectively.

Geology
Pebble Beach owes much of its picturesque qualities to the granitic rock outcroppings, stacks and small islets visible along the coast, these comprising the local portion of the federal California Coastal National Monument, which is administered by the Department of Interior's Bureau of Land Management. These are characteristic of the Salinian Block, a geologic province which runs from the Baja California Peninsula and up through California west of the San Andreas Fault. The historically inactive Fanshell Beach Fault, which exits land near Fanshell Beach in Pebble Beach, creates a divide between nearby Cypress Point and northerly Spyglass Hill that is visually appreciable. Native Monterey Cypress forest grows on the south-westerly side of Fanshell Beach Fault: a direct relationship between the underlying rock base and soils and the cypress cover type has not been confirmed.

Environmental issues

There are several habitat types within Pebble Beach. These include intertidal zones, littoral and supralittoral and closed-cone coniferous forest, that encompasses, e.g., Monterey Pine Forest and Monterey Cypress Forest. The Monterey Pine forest is habitat to numerous rare and endangered species, including Hickman's potentilla and Yadon's piperia, both of which are federally protected species. Hickman's potentilla was first discovered within the Del Monte Forest in present-day Pebble Beach by the botanist, Alice Eastwood in the year 1900. After a survey in 1992 by Earth Metrics Inc., this plant was listed as a protected species by the U.S. Government.

Schools
The public schools serving Pebble Beach are Carmel High School, Carmel Middle School, and River School, all located in Carmel, and Forest Grove School, Pacific Grove Middle School, and Pacific Grove High School, all located in Pacific Grove. Pebble Beach is also home to Stevenson School, a co-ed half-boarding, half-day private high-school, located near the prestigious Spyglass golf course. The high school runs alternative radio station KSPB, which broadcasts BBC World Service when students are not operating the station.

Other features
The Pebble Beach Authors & Ideas Festival has been held in September each year at Pebble Beach since 2013, after moving from its original venue at Carmel-by-the-Sea.

Pebble Beach has few businesses—such as at-home cottage industries—apart from those owned by the Pebble Beach Company (except the golf courses, a private school, and a deli) and no sidewalks. Most of the very expensive houses are obscured from view behind old-growth trees. It is quiet, secluded, and often experiences foggy weather, which occurs frequently on the Monterey Peninsula in general, but especially there because of the area adjoining the open ocean.

Pebble Beach is a gated community, but differs from most gated communities. There is an entrance fee for which The Pebble Beach Company charges $10.75 (per vehicle) from tourists driving along the 17-Mile Drive. Pebble Beach residents may purchase small license plate badges that are attached near their cars' license plates or in their windshields to avoid paying the tourist fee. The badges are valid for one year, and their fee varies on the resident's property value.

In 2014 (airing 2017), Pebble Beach was the location for the show Big Little Lies, a drama which showcases relationships between high income status individuals based on the book of the same name.

In popular culture
On the Star Trek: Voyager episode "Inside Man", the doctor (Robert Picardo) lists Pebble Beach as an option to play golf on the holodeck.

On The Golden Girls, Sophia Petrillo claims that she had the chance to marry Bing Crosby, and if she had, she would be a wealthy widow with her own place in Pebble Beach.

On Curb Your Enthusiasm episode "The Terrorist Attack", Larry David considers going golfing at Pebble Beach to avoid perishing in a potential terrorist attack in Los Angeles.

On the Modern Family episode "Planes, Trains and Cars", Jay, Gloria and Manny try to reach Jay's reunion in Pebble Beach.

Notable people

 * Al Bernardin, inventor of the Quarter Pounder
 * Jane Bryan, film actress
 * James Doolittle, combat pilot, Medal of Honor recipient
 * Clint Eastwood, actor-director
 * Pete Incaviglia, baseball player
 * Hank Ketcham, cartoonist Dennis the Menace
 * Gary Kildall, computer scientist and microcomputer entrepreneur
 * Greg London, singer-actor-impressionist
 * George Lopez, comedian
 * Ingemar Henry Lundquist, inventor and mechanical engineer lived and worked at 17-Mile Drive and The Dunes, overlooking the fourth hole of the Spyglass Hill golf course
 * Jim Nantz, sports broadcaster
 * Condoleezza Rice, 66th US Secretary of State
 * Tibor Rudas, musical impresario and originator of The Three Tenors
 * Charles R. Schwab, stock broker
 * Alan Shepard, astronaut
 * Raymond Spruance, commander, 5th Fleet, U.S. Navy in World War II, commander of Pacific Fleet, 1945

title: Pebble Beach, California


text:
Baron Grenfell

Baron Grenfell, of Kilvey in the County of Glamorgan, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 15 July 1902 for the military commander Sir Francis Grenfell. His eldest son, the second Baron, was Deputy Speaker of the House of Lords and Chairman of Committees from 1963 to 1976. the title is held by the latter's son, the third Baron, who succeeded in 1976. He previously worked for the World Bank. Lord Grenfell lost his seat in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999. However, in 2000 he was made a life peer as Baron Grenfell of Kilvey, of Kilvey in the County of Swansea, and was able to return to the House of Lords.

Baron Grenfell (1902)

 * Francis Wallace Grenfell, 1st Baron Grenfell (1841–1925)
 * Pascoe Christian Victor Francis Grenfell, 2nd Baron Grenfell (1905–1976)
 * Julian Pascoe Francis St Leger Grenfell, 3rd Baron Grenfell (b. 1935)

The heir presumptive to the barony is the present holder's first cousin once removed, Richard Arthur St Leger Grenfell (b. 1966). He is the son of John St. Leger Grenfell (1940–1995), himself the second son of Major the Honourable Arthur Bernard John Grenfell (1908–1942), second son of the first Baron. The heir presumptive's heir apparent is his son, James St. Leger Grenfell (b. 1996)

title: Baron Grenfell


text:
Talk:Amateur Photographer

Untitled
Not sure this article is actually needed, but added a bit about the magazine of the same name.

Anything about non-professional photographers should go at "Amateur photographer" (note caps). DJ Clayworth 20:19, 1 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Overhaul March 2007
Ive conducted a complete overhaul of the page (early March 2007) - Added all information apart from TimeWarner infobox, original AP issue photo and start of article. Please feel free to help me out, especially with the "notable ex-staff" section.

Nexus Icon 11:12, 7 March 2007 (UTC)

There is an obvious typo in the paragraph about Geoffrey Crawley. The first sentence starts: "An renowned expert on the science of photographer". It should probably read: "A renowned expert on the science of photography". —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.108.13.66 (talk) 16:52, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

More Awards
Shame there's no mention of the other awards that AP hosts such as the Good Service Awards (with What Digital Camera) and their Product Awards as per http://www.amateurphotographer.co.uk/news/ap_2011_awards_winners_soon_to_be_announced_news_304797.html Setomorp (talk) 12:29, 21 January 2011 (UTC)

World's oldest
Why was "is the world's oldest consumer weekly photographic magazine" removed? That is stated on their website.TheTruth-2009 (talk) 19:17, 18 July 2014 (UTC)

Citation Required
The claim "It has established itself as the world's number one weekly photography magazine" appears to be subjective, so I've added a superscript to prompt anyone who can find a suitable reference.Sejanus.sejanus (talk) 15:32, 27 December 2014 (UTC)

title: Talk:Amateur Photographer


text:
Baron Gorell

Baron Gorell, of Brampton in the County of Derby, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 16 February 1909 for Sir Gorell Barnes, President of the Probate, Divorce and Admiralty Division of the High Court of Justice from 1905 to 1909. His eldest son, the second Baron, was killed in the First World War and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baron. He notably served as Under-Secretary of State for Air between 1921 and 1922 in the coalition government of David Lloyd George. He was succeeded by his son, the fourth Baron. He was a Senior Executive of the Royal Dutch/Shell Group from 1959 to 1984. the title is held by his nephew, the fifth Baron, who succeeded in 2007. He is the son of the Hon. Ronald Alexander Henry Barnes.

Baron Gorell (1909)

 * (John) Gorell Barnes, 1st Baron Gorell (1848–1913)
 * Henry Gorell Barnes, 2nd Baron Gorell (1882–1917)
 * Ronald Gorell Barnes, 3rd Baron Gorell (1884–1963)
 * Timothy John Radcliffe Barnes, 4th Baron Gorell (1927–2007)
 * John Picton Gorell Barnes, 5th Baron Gorell (b. 1959)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Oliver Gorell Barnes (b. 1993).

External sources

 * Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.
 * Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990.

title: Baron Gorell


text:
User talk:Neow

Chart on Iraq casualties
In hopes of curbing ongoing reverts, some clarification is probably in order. You are attempting to explain a particular idea with relation to one source and not doing so with the others. You refer to this as something that "changes what's being counted", which is a confused way of putting things, but which you say is only true for IBC. That is false.

 * Thanks for these comments. This helps me understand where you're coming from. Sorry for suggesting before that you were biased.

 * I'll try to explain below what I'm trying to do. Neow (talk) 00:27, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

The drastic difference between the first two listed figures shows that something about the methods of one or both "changed what they were counting" from what is described to something else after whatever distortion took place. Either the lower source is not covering all of the deaths described due to something in its methods, or the higher source is covering something else above the deaths described due to something in its methods, in which case the descriptions there are "false" in the convoluted meaning you're trying to apply to IBC but not the others.

 * The differences in the first two counts has nothing to do with what I'm talking about. Our role as wiki editors is simply to summarize the facts about who says what about the death tolls. Any attempt to guess or analyze why one number is different from another is not relevant. Our role is just to pass on and summarize what each source actually says.

 * Anyway, now that I see why you're focusing on the difference in the first two counts, I realize you don't seem to understand what I'm trying to do. I'll try to explain that more clearly below. Neow (talk) 00:27, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

Moreover, all of the sources rely on a reporting method. The surveys rely on reporting by household members and interviewers. There can be error and inaccuracy in this reporting just as with the reporting IBC uses. One example, of many, is that this type of reporting will "exclude" deaths not reported by the households. Thus when you made a chart saying "none" under an arbitrary column for "excluded" deaths, this was incorrect. It should have read "deaths not reported by household members during interviews" or some such. Your column for IBC was also wrong because that includes deaths not reported by the media (read its page). But there is no reason to include a column for this type of potential measurement error and not every other type.

 * I know all of this. I admit the way I tried adding a column to the table was a clumsy and imprecise way of expressing the issue I'm trying to address, and that saying IBC excludes deaths not reported in the media failed to indicate that they do include deaths from official reports (records) that weren't reported in the media. Neow (talk) 00:27, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

Why no column for the inclusion of something that doesn't belong, beyond what is described? If a news article (or a household, or interviewer) reports something that did not take place, or was not that type of death being described here, then this would cause the figures to be covering things beyond what's described, which should equally make the chart "false" in your confused meaning. And this is before we get into anything about what might go on in statistical extrapolations.

There is nothing false about the chart as it stands. You are trying to start getting into issues of how figures are derived and potential errors inherent in these and you are doing it in a selective and arbitrary way. These issues are unnecessary for and too complicated to handle properly in a set of bullet points. They are explained on the pages of each source and in the text of the page below the chart.Stradov (talk) 10:05, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Ok, let me explain the problem I'm trying to address. I'm not trying to get into how figures are derived and potential errors inherent in the methods. Obviously the details on that (whether the estimates are done by asking households if their family members have died, or by looking at the number of shoes sold in Iraq each year and extrapolating to estimate how many fewer people there are buying them) are going to vary for each source and would be too cumbersome to include in a summary table.

 * My point is, there's a fundamental difference in the goal of a survey that tries to estimate (by whatever method the survey designers use) the total number of deaths, versus the IBC that simply counts reports of individual people who have died. The IBC basically just says "we have seen reports that at least N individuals died, and although we know there are more people whose deaths weren't reported/recorded, we can't say anything about whether the deaths we could count represent 95% or 5% of all the people who died".

 * Remember that our role as wiki editors is only to summarize what each source claims, not to analyze the validity or accuracy of their claims. So the difference here is that in the case of the 3 surveys, they all claim that their number represents that survey's own best estimate of the actual total number of deaths. By contrast, the IBC doesn't claim any such thing. The IBC only provides something like a lower bound on the number of deaths, based on the reports and records they've counted.

 * Thus, the 3 survey numbers can be directly compared and contrasted with each other (after adjusting for differences like what time period and what types of deaths they cover) in a way that the IBC cannot. You make this point well yourself when you note that it's not possible that the first two survey numbers could both be correct, because they're both estimating the same thing (violent deaths from March 2003 to June 2006). By contrast, it is possible that any one of the surveys--even the 3rd estimate of 1,033,000 deaths through Aug 2007--could be precisely accurate and at the same time the IBC count of 91,059-99,431 reported deaths (or whatever the IBC count was in Aug 2007) could also be a perfectly complete and accurate count of all known death reports/records, because it could simply be that the other 900K+ deaths were never witnessed by the media (or by the officials who compiled the records that IBC also counts).

 * The point is, the 3 surveys are one kind of thing, and the IBC is a totally different kind of thing, so putting all 4 numbers in the same column of a table without indicating that fundamental difference is profoundly misleading.

 * That is what I meant when I said that it's false to say that the IBC is a count of violent civilian deaths. It's not! Rather, it is a count of violent-civilian-death reports and records. The surveys, by contrast, are not counts at all. They are statistical estimates. But they are estimates of violent deaths, not (obviously) estimates of how many violent-death reports or records have been counted. This difference is essential to understanding the numbers. Without any indication of this fundamental difference, the table is at least terribly misleading if not outright false.

 * So, first a question: do you understand my point that the 3 surveys are one mutually comparable kind of thing, while the IBC is another kind of thing which could potentially be accurate, for what it is, no matter how much larger the actual number of deaths (which the surveys are all somebody's attempt to estimate) may be?

 * Assuming you do, how about a challenge: can you come up with an acceptable way to represent this distinction in the table so that it does not make it appear that the survey estimates can be compared directly to the IBC count?

 * Having thought this through some more, my current proposal would be something like this:

 * {|class="wikitable" border=1

! Source ! What was estimated/counted ! March 2003 to...
 * -valign=top
 * Iraq Family Health Survey
 * Estimate: 151,000 violent deaths.
 * June 2006
 * -valign=top
 * Lancet survey
 * Estimate: 601,027 violent deaths out of 654,965 excess deaths.
 * June 2006
 * -valign=top
 * Opinion Research Business survey
 * Estimate: 1,033,000 violent deaths as a result of the conflict.
 * August 2007
 * -valign=top
 * Iraq Body Count
 * Count: 91,059 – 99,431 reports/records of violent civilian deaths as a result of the conflict.
 * February 2009
 * }

 * Neow (talk) 00:27, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

I think I have understood what you're trying to do. I disagree that the chart as it stands is misleading or that what you are trying to explain is necessary or appropriate for a chart of bullet points like this where other issues (yours being only one) are described and explained in the main text below and on the pages of each source. You seem to be confused on a number of things. Having read some of the IBC comments on the other studies, you are incorrect that they don't say anything about whether their count could be 95 or 5%. They basically say it's absurd that it could be as low as five percent and is most likely more than half. But I don't think that's relevant here anyway. I think your main confusion is here:

"That is what I meant when I said that it's false to say that the IBC is a count of violent civilian deaths. It's not! Rather, it is a count of violent-civilian-death reports and records. The surveys, by contrast, are not counts at all. They are statistical estimates. But they are estimates of violent deaths, not (obviously) estimates of how many violent-death reports or records have been counted."

Your reasoning here is very confused. How would one count violent-civilian-deaths in a way that you would admit to being a count of that (and be sure to avoid "reports" and "records"!). If your first sentence is reasonable, which it is not, then we can not say the surveys are estimates of violent deaths. They are estimates of the number of violent deaths their respective survey teams would report if they interviewed the number of houses they estimate to be in Iraq. Since you have a double standard here I think you'll see right away the convoluted silliness of putting things this way in this case. It is equally silly to put it that way for IBC and say it is not a count of violent civilian deaths. It is.

I certainly realize that there is a difference in what IBC is doing from the others. The first three are identified as surveys, the fourth a count. In this context, that adequately identifies the difference you are concerned with already. Disparities in these numbers are evident across all the sources, not just the IBC one. There are many "possible" explanations for these. That you can identify one "possible" explanation, among many, for the disparity in the case of IBC that is not one of the many possible explanations for the disparity between the others, is no basis to insist that that one has to be singled out and represented or else the chart is "profoundly misleading". It is still just one "possibility" among many.

"can you come up with an acceptable way to represent this distinction in the table so that it does not make it appear that the survey estimates can be compared directly to the IBC count?"

No. It is too tangential for a chart of this type and there is no reason this distinction should be singled out for representation in the chart while a host of others are not. Each listed source can be directly compared or not. If you directly compare the first two numbers you immediately hit a brick wall until you dig deeper than the chart and start analyzing things about the sources. Likewise, if you directly compare any of the others. The chart does not give you enough information to do meaningful comparisons with any of them. It just lists some varying figures by some of the most notable sources. There is nothing at all misleading about it. More detailed explanations are for the text below and on the pages.Stradov (talk) 03:34, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

One last point: "91,059 – 99,431 reports/records of violent civilian deaths as a result of the conflict." Now that is actually false. IBC does not give the number of reports/records of violent civilian deaths. There could be 100 reports or records for 1 death, and the IBC would count 1, because they're counting deaths, not reports or records.Stradov (talk) 04:55, 18 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Apparently I still wasn't clear enough. You wrote:

 * "How would one count violent-civilian-deaths in a way that you would admit to being a count of that (and be sure to avoid "reports" and "records"!)."

 * No, that's not what I meant. I get your point now that the IBC is actually counting reported deaths, not death reports--as you said, obviously, if there are 10 reports of the same person's death, they only count one person as being reported dead--but the fundamental difference between a count of a subset of the total deaths (namely, in this case, those that were reported/recorded) and an estimate of actual total deaths remains. I was using "violent-death reports" as a shorthand to mean "violent deaths that were reported", obviously not to mean that if the same death was reported more than once that each report would be counted separately.

 * So to be ultra-precise, I'd have to re-word my paragraph above to read:

 * That is what I meant when I said that it's false to say that the IBC is a count of violent civilian deaths. It's not! Rather, it is a count of the subset of violent civilian deaths that have been individually reported or recorded. The surveys, by contrast, are not counts of individual deaths at all. None of the surveys counted the number of deaths they report. Rather, they are statistical estimates. But they are estimates of the actual total number of violent deaths, not (obviously) estimates of how many individual deaths have been reported or recorded."

 * The point is, the surveys are not estimating how many deaths have been reported or recorded, so they aren't estimates of the number that the IBC would report, so it doesn't even make sense to compare them to the IBC numbers (for example, to say "the IBC count and the ORB survey estimate cannot both be right" would simply be a misunderstanding of what they are), whereas one can at least compare/contrast the surveys with each other in terms of their methods, what they tried to count, etc.

 * Putting one totally different item in a column with 3 other items that are comparable is what is so misleading. But you wrote "there is no reason this distinction should be singled out for representation in the chart while a host of others are not." Then here's a challenge: can you identify a single other distinction that would mean it doesn't even make sense to compare the surveys to each other in the same way it obviously doesn't make sense to compare the IBC with any of the surveys? (You obviously can't do that with the first two surveys, at least, because you already compared them yourself when you said they couldn't both be accurate.) Neow (talk) 01:19, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

"So to be ultra-precise, I'd have to re-word my paragraph above to read: That is what I meant when I said that it's false to say that the IBC is a count of violent civilian deaths. It's not! Rather, it is a count of the subset of violent civilian deaths that have been individually reported or recorded."

This is still just very confused and I think will continue to be. The problem is that your premise is wrong so it doesn't really matter how you juggle the words around. If you're trying to count all the change you have around your house, but you miss some under the couch or whatever, does that make it "false" to say you're counting change? Of course not. By your convoluted reasoning, it does. If there's any reason why a count might not be able to count every one of the things it's counting, then it's not counting what it's counting. It's unlikely that any amount of logomachist trickery will make this false premise seem correct.

"But they are estimates of the actual total number of violent deaths"

Not if we apply the kind of thinking you do above. They are then estimates of the number of violent deaths their survey team would report if they interviewed the number of households they estimate to be in Iraq. You can then say that this estimate is of either a subset or superset of the actual total of violent deaths. Otherwise you're being profoundly misleading.

""to say the IBC count and the ORB survey estimate cannot both be right" would simply be a misunderstanding of what they are"

If someone says this, they almost certainly mean "right" in the sense of "they can't both be close to the true number". Perhaps a crudely put statement, but probably not a misunderstanding.

Afterall, if IBC is "right" in this sense, then ORB's estimate of how many deaths their survey team would report if they interviewed the number of estimated households could be exactly right too. It could simply be that the idea that an estimate of that should come to the same figure as an estimate of the actual total number of deaths is just a misunderstanding of what the estimate is.

Is that clear, or should I re-word?

"Putting one totally different item in a column with 3 other items that are comparable is what is so misleading."

I guess we could put 2 more things you consider to also be totally different items in to balance that out, but this seems pointless to me as I don't think it's misleading as it stands.

"Then here's a challenge: can you identify a single other distinction that would mean it doesn't even make sense to compare the surveys to each other in the same way it obviously doesn't make sense to compare the IBC with any of the surveys?"

You like these challenges. But this still has a premise problem. I don't agree that it obviously doesn't make sense to compare the IBC with any of these. Comparisons can be sensible or not, depending on what you're trying to accomplish by the comparisons. If the purpose of your comparisons are to explain differences in the figures, then you have a host of considerations in all cases. In the case of comparing one of the others to IBC, one of these considerations would be whether limitations in the IBC counting approach explain all or some of the difference between the figures. That becomes one of the possibilities in that case. If comparisons made sense to do before, with a host of other possibilities, I don't see why the existence of this one now means the exercise does not make sense, let alone obviously.Stradov (talk) 14:16, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

 * Wow, you seem quite committed to using the astonishingly convoluted logic on display above to justify your insistence on keeping these items in the table in a form which, I believe, anyone with a neutral point of view (who understood the fact that the surveys are estimates of a total while the IBC is a count of a particular subset of the total) would agree is misleading. Given that I have no way of proving that, well, I give up. I hope you've enjoyed this exercise in ensuring that people who don't have time to study these issues in depth get a skewed sense of the truth--although of course you'd claim you don't believe that's what you're doing. (Here's another challenge if you're still listening: show this page to 10 random people who aren't your friends, and see if any of them support your position.) Neow (talk) 22:55, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

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text:
Daventry District

Daventry District was a local government district in western Northamptonshire, England, from 1974 to 2021. The district was named after its main town of Daventry, where the council was based.

The district was created on 1 April 1974, under the Local Government Act 1972, by a merger of the historic municipal borough of Daventry with the Daventry Rural District and most of the Brixworth Rural District. The town of Daventry became an unparished area with Charter Trustees and remained so until 2003 when a civil parish was created, roughly corresponding with the boundaries of the former borough, so allowing Daventry to have its own town council.

Abolition and replacement
In March 2018, following suspension of the County Council arising from its becoming insolvent, due to financial and cultural mismanagement by the cabinet and officers, the then Secretary of State for Local Government, Sajid Javid, sent commissioner Max Caller into the council, who recommended the county council and all district and borough councils in the county be abolished, and replaced by two unitary authorities, one covering the West, and one the North of the county. These proposals were approved in April 2019. It meant that the districts of Daventry, Northampton and South Northamptonshire were merged to form a new unitary authority called West Northamptonshire, whilst the second unitary authority North Northamptonshire consists of Corby, East Northamptonshire, Kettering and Wellingborough districts. These new authorities came into being on 1 April 2021. Elections for the new authorities were due to be held on 7 May 2020, but were delayed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. These elections were later held on 6 May 2021.

Demography
At the 2011 Census, the district had a population of 77,843, a little under a third of whom (25,026) lived in the town of Daventry. Other significant settlements included Brixworth, Long Buckby and Weedon Bec. The rest of the district was predominantly rural.

Housing
In 2007, the Council housing stock owned by the council was transferred to Daventry & District Housing Ltd., a specially formed registered social landlord, under a Large Scale Voluntary Transfer. A subsequent dispute about the provisions made in the transfer contract for employees' pensions led to a legal case heard in the England and Wales Court of Appeal concerning the legal doctrines of mutual or unilateral mistake.

Settlements

 * Althorp, Arthingworth, Ashby St Ledgers
 * Badby, Barby, Boughton, Braunston, Brington, Brixworth, Brockhall, Byfield
 * Canons Ashby, Chapel Brampton, Charwelton, Church Brampton, Church Stowe, Clay Coton Clipston, Cold Ashby, Coton, Cottesbrooke, Creaton, Crick
 * Daventry, Dodford, Draughton
 * East Farndon, East Haddon, Elkington, Everdon
 * Farthingstone, Fawsley, Flore
 * Great Brington, Great Oxendon, Guilsborough
 * Hanging Houghton, Hannington, Harlestone, Haselbech, Hellidon, Holcot, Holdenby, Hollowell
 * Kelmarsh, Kilsby
 * Lamport, Lilbourne, Little Brington, Long Buckby, Lower Catesby
 * Maidwell, Marston Trussell, Moulton
 * Naseby, Newnham, Norton
 * Old, Overstone
 * Pitsford, Preston Capes
 * Ravensthorpe
 * Scaldwell, Sibbertoft, Spratton, Stanford-on-Avon, Staverton, Sulby
 * Teeton, Thornby
 * Upper Catesby, Upper Stowe
 * Walgrave, Watford, Weedon Bec, Welford, Welton, West Haddon, Whilton, Winwick, Woodford Halse
 * Yelvertoft

Political control
See Daventry District Council elections

title: Daventry District