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Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company

Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company is an American brewery based in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and was once the largest producer of beer in the United States. Its namesake beer, Schlitz, was known as "The beer that made Milwaukee famous" and was advertised with the slogan "When you're out of Schlitz, you're out of beer". Schlitz first became the largest beer producer in the US in 1902 and enjoyed that status at several points during the first half of the 20th century, exchanging the title with Anheuser-Busch multiple times during the 1950s.

The company was founded by August Krug in 1849, but ownership passed to Joseph Schlitz in 1858 when he married Krug's widow. Schlitz was bought by Stroh Brewery Company in 1982 and subsequently sold along with the rest of Stroh's assets to Pabst Brewing Company in 1999. Pabst produced several varieties of Schlitz beers alongside Old Milwaukee.

On November 13, 2014, Pabst announced that it had completed its sale to Blue Ribbon Intermediate Holdings, LLC. Blue Ribbon is a partnership between American beer entrepreneur Eugene Kashper and TSG Consumer Partners, a San Francisco–based, private-equity firm. Prior reports suggested the price agreed upon was around $700 million.

Beginnings
In Milwaukee, Joseph Schlitz was hired as a bookkeeper in a tavern brewery owned by August Krug. In 1856, he took over management of the brewery following the death of Krug. In 1858, Schlitz married the widow, Anna Maria Krug, and then changed the name of the brewery to the Jos. Schlitz Brewing Co. in 1861, Krug's 16-year-old nephew, August Uihlein, began employment at the brewery.

The often circulated story of Schlitz' proposed donation of thousands of barrels of beer to the Chicago population after the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 is simply a modern myth, pushed by later marketing campaigns. Schlitz' national expansion was based on new distribution points in Chicago and elsewhere, and the consequent use of the railway. From the late 1880s, Schlitz built dozens of tied houses in Chicago, most with a concrete relief of the company logo embedded in the brickwork; several of these buildings survive today, including the Lake Street Schlitz Tied House at the corner of Lake and Loomis and Schuba's Tavern at the corner of Belmont and Southport. In 1873, Schlitz rejected a purchase offer from Tennessee brewer Bratton and Sons.

In 1875, Schlitz returned to his homeland on the SS Schiller. While returning home, the ship hit a rock near the Isles of Scilly and sank, killing Schlitz and 334 others. His body was never recovered. Honoring Krug's wishes, Schlitz had it written in his own will that he also wanted the Uihlein brothers to run the brewery when he died. Management was promptly passed to the four Uihlein brothers, August, Henry, Alfred and Edward. When Anna Maria Krug Schlitz died in 1887, the Uihleins acquired complete ownership of the firm, and the Uihlein family continued to run the brewery for over one hundred years. Despite this change, the Uihleins decided to keep the name Schlitz, as Americans had difficulty pronouncing their surname.

Prohibition and success

The company flourished through much of the 1900s, starting in 1902 when the production of one million barrels of beer surpassed Pabst's claim as the largest brewery in the United States. Schlitz began pioneering numerous advances in the brewing industry, most notably the use of brown glass bottles beginning in 1912. Previously, beer was bottled in clear glass bottles, but this allowed sunlight to spoil the flavor of the beer. The entire industry quickly adopted the brown bottle, and the design is still used to this day. Schlitz's pioneering of the brown bottle was the inspiration for the Schlitz Brown Bottle Restaurant in Milwaukee, which opened in 1938.

However, their success would meet the first of several major obstacles. In the early 1900s, the temperance movement was gaining traction, and production and consumption of alcohol was eventually outlawed entirely with the passage of Prohibition in the United States in 1920. During Prohibition, Schlitz faced difficulties trying to stay open and keep their workers employed. In 1919, with Prohibition imminent, Joseph E. Uihlein Sr. created a division of Schlitz that would produce milk chocolate, looking to make good use of Wisconsin's large dairy industry. The chocolate was sold under the Eline brand (the phonetic pronunciation of Uihlein). However, Eline Chocolate did not have much success, as the Hershey company was dominant in the highly competitive chocolate industry, and Eline candies were often rife with quality control problems. Despite pouring millions into the chocolate division and creating a hard candy and gumball line, the venture was a failure and was abandoned by 1928.

This forced the company to change its name from Schlitz Brewing Company to the Schlitz Beverage Company and changed its "famous" slogan to "The drink that made Milwaukee famous." Schlitz primarily focused on producing malt extract and non-alcoholic soft drinks called Schlitz Famo that they used to keep the brewing equipment operational, as the Uihleins correctly deduced that Prohibition would not be permanent. After Prohibition ended in late 1933, Schlitz again began producing beer and quickly became the world's top-selling brewery in 1934.

First union strike and decline
In 1953, Milwaukee brewery workers went on a 76-day strike. The strike greatly impacted Schlitz's production, including all of Milwaukee's other breweries and allowed Anheuser-Busch to surpass Schlitz in the American beer market. The popularity of Schlitz's namesake beer, along with the introduction of value-priced Old Milwaukee, allowed Schlitz to regain the number-one position. Schlitz and Anheuser-Busch continued to compete for the top brewery in America for years. Schlitz remained the number-two brewery in America as late as 1976.

By 1967, the company's president and chairman was August Uihlein's grandson, Robert Uihlein Jr. Faced with a desire to meet large volume demands while also cutting the cost of production, the brewing process for Schlitz's flagship Schlitz beer was changed in the early 1970s. The primary changes involved using corn syrup to replace some of the malted barley, adding a silica gel to prevent the product from forming a haze, using high-temperature fermentation instead of the traditional method, and also substituted less-expensive extracts rather than traditional ingredients. Schlitz also experimented with continuous fermentation, even building a new brewery specifically designed to use the process in Baldwinsville, New York. The reformulated product resulted in a beer that not only lost much of the flavor and consistency of the traditional formula, but also spoiled more quickly, rapidly losing public appeal.

In 1976, concern was growing that the Food and Drug Administration would require all ingredients to be labeled on their bottles and cans. To prevent having to disclose the artificial additive of the silica gel, Uihlein switched to an agent called "Chill-garde" which would be filtered out at the end of production, so it would be considered nondisclosable. The agent reacted badly with a foam stabilizer that was used and Schlitz recalled 10 million bottles of beer, costing it $1.4 million. Schlitz was further hurt by the rise of high-volume light beers such as Miller Lite and Bud Light, a direction Schlitz did not aggressively pursue – although James Coburn appeared in commercials for the short-lived Schlitz Light in 1976.

As part of its efforts to reverse the sales decline, Schlitz launched a disastrous 1977 television ad campaign created by Leo Burnett & Co. In each of the ads, an off-screen speaker tries to convince a Schlitz drinker to switch to a rival beer. The Schlitz drinker then talked about how they would never switch and jokingly threatened the person trying to persuade them away from their favorite beer. Despite the tone of the campaign intending to be comedic levity, audiences found the campaign somewhat menacing and the ad industry dubbed it "Drink Schlitz or I'll kill you." Schlitz, unwilling to endure more bad press, pulled the campaign after 10 weeks and fired Burnett.

Second union strike and sale to Stroh
By the 1980s, Schlitz had rebounded somewhat, but it had now fallen from the second-most-popular brewery in the country to the fourth, as Miller and Pabst had overtaken it for the first time in decades. The final blow to the company was another crippling strike at the Milwaukee plant in 1981. About 700 production workers went on strike on June 1, 1981. The strike was triggered because there was no replacement contract when the union's contract expired.

The strike lasted for almost four months, and the company quickly abandoned all remaining hope that it could be saved, as all previous attempts were utter failures and the strikes had now crippled the company's production line and finances. The Schlitz management team finally threw in the towel and began negotiating a deal to sell the company and cut their losses. As the Milwaukee plant was the oldest and least efficient of the Schlitz breweries, and unable to afford to keep operating it due to the strike, Schlitz closed the doors to the Milwaukee brewery, thus ending the strike and, ultimately, signaling the end for Schlitz being one of the most popular beer companies in America.

The Baldwinsville brewery was purchased by Anheuser-Busch in 1981 to supplement production of the upcoming Budweiser Light – now Bud Light – release in 1982. Because of the nonstandard brewery design, Baldwinsville is unique and capable of complex production, making it a key player in the 12 domestic Anheuser-Busch plants. In 1982, there were competing bids for ownership of the Schlitz brand. The Stroh Brewery Company of Detroit, Michigan beat out Pabst and Heileman by bidding for 67 percent of Schlitz. By spring of that year, Stroh had purchased the entire company, making Stroh's the third largest brewing enterprise in America. During the takeover, Schlitz fought a fierce battle in the courts trying to remain independent.

Schlitz finally accepted the takeover when Stroh raised its offer from an initial $16 per share to $17, and the U.S. Justice Department approved the acquisition once Stroh agreed to sell either Schlitz's Memphis or Winston-Salem breweries. The Milwaukee Schlitz Brewhouse stood unused after the sale to Stroh, until it was demolished in 2013. What remained of the historic Schlitz Brewery complex in Milwaukee was transformed with tax increment financing and other government support into a mixed-use development called Schlitz Park.

Pabst acquisition and revival
The once-strong Schlitz brand was relegated to cheap beer or "bargain brand" status and became increasingly difficult to find in bars and restaurants. Ironically enough, Stroh itself was beginning to struggle from the weight of its business, and it had never been able to get out from under the debt it incurred when purchasing Schlitz. In 1999, Pabst Brewing Company gained control of the Schlitz brand with its acquisition of the Stroh Brewery Company. During the reformulating period of the early 1970s, the original Schlitz beer formula was lost and never included in any of the subsequent sales of the company. Through research of documents and interviews with former Schlitz brewmasters and taste-testers, Pabst was able to reconstruct the 1960s classic formula. The new Schlitz beer, along with a new television advertising campaign, was officially introduced in 2008. The first markets for relaunching included Chicago, Florida, Boston, Minneapolis-Saint Paul, and Schlitz's former headquarters, Milwaukee. The classic 1960s theme was also reflected when 1968 Playboy magazine playmate Cynthia Myers became a spokeswoman for Schlitz beer in 2009.

In 2014, Pabst Brewing Company was purchased by American entrepreneur Eugene Kashper and TSG Consumer Partners. The deal included the Schlitz brand, as well as Pabst Blue Ribbon, Old Milwaukee, and Colt 45.

Pabst Brewing Company, now headquartered in San Antonio, continues to produce Schlitz beer, Old Milwaukee, and four Schlitz malt liquors—Schlitz Red Bull, Schlitz Bull Ice, Schlitz High Gravity, and Schlitz Malt Liquor. Although it has fallen from its former title as one of America's most popular beers, the Schlitz brand is still alive today and remains a sentimental favorite in the Midwest.

Products

 * Schlitz: American-style lager
 * Schlitz Light: Light lager
 * Schlitz Dark: Dark version of the original lager
 * Schlitz Malt Liquor: Malt liquor
 * Schlitz Red Bull: Malt liquor
 * Schlitz Ice: Ice-brewed lager
 * Old Milwaukee: American-style lager
 * Primo: American-style lager

Slogans

 * "The beer that made Milwaukee famous"
 * "When you're out of Schlitz, you're out of beer"
 * "Real Gusto!"
 * "Just the kiss of the hops"
 * "Move up to Schlitz"
 * "The greatest name in beer"
 * "Schlitz Rocks America"
 * “Go for the Gusto”
 * "When it's right, you know it"

title: Joseph Schlitz Brewing Company


text:
Hiroyuki Sakai

Hiroyuki Sakai (坂井 宏行) is a Japanese chef who specializes in French cuisine. Sakai is best known as the second, final, and longest-serving Iron Chef French on the Japanese television show Iron Chef, first appearing at the beginning of 1994 (after Yutaka Ishinabe retired) and continuing to appear over the show's nine further seasons. Sakai has the third best winning percentage of the Iron Chefs, trailing only his Iron Chef French predecessor, Yutaka Ishinabe and the first Iron Chef Japanese Rokusaburo Michiba. He was named the "King of Iron Chefs" after emerging victorious from the show's grand finale, a tournament involving all the active Iron Chefs. He went on to defeat the top chef in the world, Alain Passard, in the final Long-Gang Chicken battle. His record on Iron Chef is 70–15–1.

His television trademark is a red French chef's costume; he rises into Kitchen Stadium holding a yonashi ("Western Pear") in his hand. He is often described as the "Delacroix of French cuisine" because of the presentation of his dishes. His formidable record in fish challenges led to fans of the show giving him the nickname, "Seafood Sakai".

Career
Sakai was originally asked to be on Iron Chef by the producer Toshihiko Matsuo following the recommendation from hotel restaurateur Kihachi Kumagai. Sakai agreed after being convinced by his staff, believing the impression that the show would air for another six months, giving him two or three appearances. The six-month tenure, as it turned out, turned into six years. The early era of Iron Chef saw Sakai being the "middle Iron Chef" along with Rokusaburo Michiba, a chef twelve years his senior, and Chen Kenichi, the youngest and least experienced of the three Iron Chefs at the time. It is often viewed by fans as the period when Iron Chef had the strongest Iron Chefs.

Reactions to Sakai's appointment to Iron Chef were largely negative amongst chefs circles, largely because of the low stature of Iron Chef among chefs at the time which led many to believe would ruin their reputations as chefs, but others also believing that there was no possibility that any French dish would take less than one hour to prepare. However, as the show became more popular, chefs, judges, and fans became more supportive. It was said that Sakai's son's employer had his employees frequent the restaurant as a show of support.

Like many chefs, Sakai did not take to losing very well. Upon his first loss, he had tried to be cheerful in explaining his loss to a younger chef who also owned his own restaurant, but his entire staff was mortified upon hearing the news. His daughter was teased in school whenever Sakai had lost - although this was a fairly rare occurrence. In an effort to learn from others, Sakai often tasted food opponents had prepared, or grabbed assistants and asked them questions after the battle was over.

Outside of Iron Chef, Sakai is the owner and head chef of the restaurant La Rochelle, in Aoyama. The restaurant was named after La Rochelle, a city in France where Sakai had spent some time as an apprentice. Sakai is a member of the Club des Trente, an organization of French chefs in Japan. Sakai was mentored by the Japan's pioneer of French Cooking, Fujio Shido for three years.

After the series' run, Sakai appeared in several Iron Chef specials. In the "New York Special", he gave a presentation to the Culinary Institute of America on the preparation of salmon, assisted by Iron Chef Italian Masahiko Kobe. He also appeared on Iron Chef America : Battle of the Masters, where he lost a trout battle to Bobby Flay (during which he created a trout-flavored ice cream) and teamed up with Mario Batali in a seafood battle.

In 2009, Sakai was named a recipient of the Gendai no Meiko (Contemporary Master Craftsmen) awards, honoring Japan's foremost artisans in various fields.

In 2010, Sakai was a guest judge for the MasterChef Australia season 2 finals week.

In 2013, Sakai was a Guest of Iron Chef for the Iron Chef Thailand.

Memorable battles

 * Guy Shokr – Sakai's debut battle which he defeated Shokr with oysters as the theme
 * Club Mistral – This club headed by Masahiro Miyamoto, challenged Sakai on several occasions. However, only one challenger, Kazutaka Okabe, defeated Sakai (in Battle Lamb) on June 9, 1995. All of the other challengers, including Isao Yanagidate (caviar), Tatsu Shimada (truffle), and Seiji Toyoshima (milk) lost to Sakai over the span of 3 years. The Iron Chef's record against Mistral is 3-1 (not including Iron Chef Ishinabe's win).
 * Toshiro Kandagawa – Battled Sakai twice, once in 1995 for the 100th Challengers special using Lotus Root (losing to Sakai), and once in 2001 for the 21st Century Special using Red Snapper (defeating Sakai).
 * Rory Kennedy – Iron Chef Sakai had his only overtime battle against this man on January 24, 1997. Kennedy, a gibier chef, was handed the theme European Rabbit. Sakai managed to force overtime, tied at 71 points each. In the overtime session, Sakai used European Pigeon to defeat Kennedy.
 * Iron Chef Chinese Chen Kenichi – Sakai battled Chen two times, once for the 1995 Mr. Iron Chef Semifinal using Chicken (losing to Chen on a 3–2 decision), and for the King of Iron Chefs Tournament Final in 1999 using Homard Lobster (defeated Chen by a 3–2 decision, with a deciding vote by former Iron Chef Michiba).
 * Alain Passard – After Passard tied Iron Chef Komei Nakamura in the Foie Gras battle in the 1997 World Cup, Sakai faced him after winning the King of Iron Chefs Tournament in 1999. Using Long-Gang Chicken, he made four dishes that impressed the judges and won him a 3-2 judges decision to be the #1 chef in the world.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hiroyuki Sakai


text:
Erdrich

Erdrich is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Heid E. Erdrich (born 1963), Native American poet
 * Louise Erdrich (born 1954), American author

title: Erdrich


text:
Talk:Boonton, New Jersey

Public domain
I emailed the webmaster from the official website of Boonton asking if the material there was in the public domain. He told me that all the info and images there are public domain so I am importing the history and maybe some other parts of it. Qaz 16:59, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Boonton, New Jersey
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Boonton, New Jersey's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "CensusArea": From Denville, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed March 31, 2012. From Hoboken, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 18, 2012. From Kinnelon, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 17, 2012. From Cliffside Park, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 16, 2012. From Rockaway, New Jersey: [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/GCTTable?_bm=y&-context=gct&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-CONTEXT=gct&-mt_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_GCTPH1_CO2&-tree_id=4001&-redoLog=true&-_caller=geoselect&-geo_id=05000US34027&-format=CO-2&-_lang=en GCT-PH1. Population, Housing Units, Area, and Density: 2000 for Morris County, New Jersey -- County Subdivision and Place], United States Census Bureau. Accessed September 5, 2011. From Chatham Township, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed September 23, 2012. From East Hanover, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed March 7, 2012. From Netcong, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 3, 2012.

From Dover, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 21, 2012.

From Washington Township, Morris County, New Jersey: Gazetteer of New Jersey Places, United States Census Bureau. Accessed October 20, 2012.

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 21:39, 25 October 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Boonton, New Jersey


text:
Talk:Mushroom bodies

Untitled
I've made the plural form the main entry, with a redirect from the singular form, because they always seem to be referred to in the plural. But I'm open to correction from anyone who knows more about arthropod neuroanatomy. seglea 16:59, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mushroom bodies


text: User talk:198.209.91.252

title: User talk:198.209.91.252


text:
Katsav

Katsav is a Hebrew surname literally meaning Butcher. Notable people with the surname include:

 * Gila Katsav, Israeli public figure who was First Lady of Israel from 2000 until 2007
 * Guy Katsav, British record producer
 * Moshe Katsav, Israeli politician, the eighth President of Israel

title: Katsav


text:
Fischer–Speier esterification

Fischer esterification or Fischer–Speier esterification is a special type of esterification by refluxing a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst. The reaction was first described by Emil Fischer and Arthur Speier in 1895. Most carboxylic acids are suitable for the reaction, but the alcohol should generally be primary or secondary. Tertiary alcohols are prone to elimination. Contrary to common misconception found in organic chemistry textbooks, phenols can also be esterified to give good to near quantitative yield of products. Commonly used catalysts for a Fischer esterification include sulfuric acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid, and Lewis acids such as scandium(III) triflate. For more valuable or sensitive substrates (for example, biomaterials) other, milder procedures such as Steglich esterification are used. The reaction is often carried out without a solvent (particularly when a large reagent excess of the alcohol reagent is used) or in a non-polar solvent (e.g. toluene, hexane) that can facilitate Dean–Stark distillation to remove the water byproduct. Typical reaction times vary from 1–10 hours at temperatures of 60–110 °C.

Direct acylations of alcohols with carboxylic acids is preferred over acylations with anhydrides (poor atom economy of the reaction) or acid chlorides (moisture sensitive reagents). The main disadvantage of direct acylation is the unfavorable chemical equilibrium that must be remedied (e.g. by a large excess of one of the reagents), or by the removal of water (e.g. by using Dean–Stark distillation or including a drying agent such as anhydrous salts, molecular sieves, or a large amount of certain acids as catalyst in the reaction mixture).

Overview
Fischer esterification is an example of nucleophilic acyl substitution based on the electrophilicity of the carbonyl carbon and the nucleophilicity of an alcohol. However, carboxylic acids tend to be less reactive than esters as electrophiles. Additionally, in dilute neutral solutions they tend to be deprotonated anions (and thus unreactive as electrophiles). Though kinetically very slow without any catalysts (most esters are metastable), pure esters will tend to spontaneously hydrolyse in the presence of water, so when carried out "unaided", high yields for this reaction are quite unfavourable.

Several steps can be taken to turn this unfavourable reaction into a favourable one.

The reaction mechanism for this reaction has several steps:
 * 1) Proton transfer from acid catalyst to carbonyl oxygen increases electrophilicity of carbonyl carbon.
 * 2) The carbonyl carbon is then attacked by the nucleophilic oxygen atom of the alcohol
 * 3) Proton transfer from the oxonium ion to a second molecule of the alcohol gives an activated complex
 * 4) Protonation of one of the hydroxy groups of the activated complex gives a new oxonium ion.
 * 5) Loss of water from this oxonium ion and subsequent deprotonation gives the ester.

A generic mechanism for an acid Fischer esterification is shown below.

Advantages
The primary advantages of Fischer esterification compared to other esterification processes are based on its relative simplicity. Straightforward acidic conditions can be used if acid-sensitive functional groups are not an issue; sulfuric acid can be used; weaker acids can be used with a tradeoff of longer reaction times. Because the reagents used are "direct," there is less environmental impact in terms of waste products and harmfulness of the reagents. Alkyl halides are potential greenhouse gases or ozone depletors, carcinogens, and possible ecological poisons. Acid chlorides evolve hydrogen chloride gas upon contact with atmospheric moisture, are corrosive, react vigorously with water and other nucleophiles (sometimes dangerously); they are easily quenched by other nucleophiles besides the desired alcohol; their most common synthesis routes involve the evolution of toxic carbon monoxide or sulfur dioxide gases (depending on the synthesis process used).

Acid anhydrides are more reactive than esters because the leaving group is a carboxylate anion—a better leaving group than an alkoxide anion because their negative charge is more delocalised. However, such routes generally result in poor atom economy. For example, in reacting ethanol with acetic anhydride, ethyl acetate forms and acetic acid is eliminated as a leaving group, which is considerably less reactive than an acid anhydride and will be left as a byproduct (in a wasteful 1:1 ratio with the ester product) if product is collected immediately. If conditions are acidic enough, the acetic acid can be further reacted via the Fischer esterification pathway, but at a much slower pace. However, in many carefully designed syntheses, reagents can be designed such that acid anhydrides are generated in situ and carboxylic acid byproducts are reactivated, and Fischer esterification routes are not necessarily mutually exclusive with acetic anhydride routes. Examples of this include the common undergraduate organic lab experiment involving the acetylation of salicylic acid to yield aspirin.

Fischer esterification is primarily a thermodynamically-controlled process: because of its slowness, the most stable ester tends to be the major product. This can be a desirable trait if there are multiple reaction sites and side product esters to be avoided. In contrast, rapid reactions involving acid anhydrides or acid chlorides are often kinetically-controlled.

Disadvantages
The primary disadvantages of Fischer esterification routes are its thermodynamic reversibility and relatively slow reaction rates—often on the scale of several hours to years, depending on the reaction conditions. Workarounds to this can be inconvenient if there are other functional groups sensitive to strong acid, in which case other catalytic acids may be chosen. If the product ester has a lower boiling point than either water or the reagents, the product may be distilled rather than water; this is common as esters with no protic functional groups tend to have lower boiling points than their protic parent reagents. Purification and extraction are easier if the ester product can be distilled away from the reagents and byproducts, but reaction rate can be slowed because overall reaction temperature can be limited in this scenario. A more inconvenient scenario is if the reagents have a lower boiling point than either the ester product or water, in which case the reaction mixture must be capped and refluxed and a large excess of starting material added. In this case anhydrous salts, such as copper(II) sulfate or potassium pyrosulfate, can also be added to sequester the water by forming hydrates, shifting the equilibrium towards ester products. The reaction mixture containing the product can then be decanted or filtered to remove the drying agent prior to the final workup.

In wine aging
The natural esterification that takes place in wines and other alcoholic beverages during the aging process is an example of acid-catalysed esterification. Over time, the acidity of the acetic acid and tannins in an aging wine will catalytically protonate other organic acids (including acetic acid itself), encouraging ethanol to react as a nucleophile. As a result, ethyl acetate—the ester of ethanol and acetic acid—is the most abundant ester in wines. Other combinations of organic alcohols (such as phenol-containing compounds) and organic acids lead to a variety of different esters in wines, contributing to their different flavours, smells and tastes. Of course, when compared to sulfuric acid conditions, the acid conditions in a wine are mild, so yield is low (often in tenths or hundredths of a percentage point by volume) and take years for ester to accumulate.

Variations
Tetrabutylammonium tribromide (TBATB) can serve as an effective but unconventional catalyst for this reaction. It is believed that hydrobromic acid released by TBATB protonates the alcohol rather than the carboxylic acid, making the carboxylate the actual nucleophile. This would be a reversal of the standard esterification mechanism. An example of this method is the acylation of 3-phenylpropanol using glacial acetic acid and TBATB. The reaction generates the ester in 15 minutes in a 95% yield without the need to remove water.

title: Fischer–Speier esterification


text:
YSU

YSU may refer to:

 * Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, Hebei, China
 * Yerevan State University, Yerevan, Armenia
 * Yogyakarta State University, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
 * Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
 * Youngsan University, Busan, South Korea
 * Youngstown State University, Youngstown, Ohio, United States
 * IATA code for Summerside Airport, Prince Edward Island, Canada

title: YSU


text:
Cem Sultan

Cem Sultan (also spelled Djem or Jem) or Sultan Cem or Şehzade Cem (December 22, 1459 – February 25, 1495, ; جم سلطان; Cem Sultan; Zizim), was a claimant to the Ottoman throne in the 15th century.

Cem was the third son of Sultan Mehmed II and younger half-brother of Sultan Bayezid II, and thus a half-uncle of Sultan Selim I of Ottoman Empire.

After being defeated by Bayezid, Cem went in exile in Egypt and Europe, under the protection of the Mamluks, the Knights Hospitaller of St. John on the island of Rhodes, and ultimately the Pope.

Early life
Cem was born on December 22, 1459, in Edirne. His mother was Çiçek Hatun. In accordance with the custom for a Şehzade (prince) Cem was appointed to a provincial governorship of Kastamonu in 1469. In December 1474, Cem replaced his deceased brother Mustafa as governor of Karaman in Konya.

Succession dispute
At the death of Mehmed the Conqueror, on May 3, 1481, Bayezid was the governor of Sivas, Tokat and Amasya, and Cem ruled the provinces of Karaman and Konya. With no designated heir after Mehmed, conflict over succession to the throne erupted between Cem and Bayezid.

Contrary to Islamic law, which prohibits any unnecessary delay in burial, Mehmed II's body was transported to Constantinople, where it lay three days. His grand vizier Karamanlı Mehmet Pasha – believing himself to be fulfilling the wishes of the recently deceased Sultan – attempted to arrange a situation whereby the younger son Cem, whose governing seat at Konya was closer than his brother Bayezid's seat at Amasya, would arrive in Constantinople prior to his older sibling and be able to claim the throne.

However, Bayezid had already established a political network of influential pashas (two of whom were his sons-in-law), the janissaries, and those opposed to the policies of Mehmed II and the grand vizier. In spite of Karamanlı Mehmet Pasha's attempts at secrecy, the Sultan's death and the grand vizier's plan were discovered by the Janissary corps, who supported Bayezid over Cem and had been kept out of the capital after the Sultan's death. As a result, the Janissary corps rebelled, entering the capital, and lynched the grand vizier.

After the death of Karamanlı Mehmet Pasha, there was widespread rioting among the janissaries in Constantinople as there was neither a sultan nor a grand vizier to control the developments. Understanding the danger of the situation, former grand vizier Ishak Pasha took the initiative of beseeching Bayezid to arrive with all due haste. In the meantime, Ishak Pasha took the cautionary measure of proclaiming Bayezid's 11-year-old son, Sehzade (prince) Korkut, as regent until the arrival of his father.

Prince Bayezid arrived at Constantinople on May 21, 1481, and was declared Sultan Bayezid II. Only six days later, Cem captured the city of Inegöl with an army of 4,000. Sultan Bayezid sent his army under the command of vizier Ayas Pasha to kill his brother. On May 28, Cem had defeated Bayezid's army and declared himself Sultan of Anatolia, establishing his capital at Bursa. He proposed to divide the empire between him and his brother, leaving Bayezid the European side. Bayezid furiously rejected the proposal, declared that "between rulers there is no kinship," and marched on to Bursa. The decisive battle between the two contenders to the Ottoman throne took place on June 19, 1481, near the town of Yenişehir. Cem lost and fled with his family to the Mamluk Cairo.

In Cairo
The Mamlūk sultan Qāʾit Bāy (r. 1468–1496) received Cem with honour in Cairo, and Cem took the opportunity to go on pilgrimage to Mecca, making him the only Ottoman prince to have made the pilgrimage.

In Cairo, Cem received a letter from his brother, offering Cem one million akçes (the Ottoman currency) to stop competing for the throne. Cem rejected the offer, and in the following year he launched a campaign in Anatolia under the support of Kasım Bey (Qāsım Beğ), heir of the ruling house of Karaman, and the sanjek bey of Ankara. On May 27, 1482, Cem besieged Konya but was soon defeated and forced to withdraw to Ankara. He intended to give it all up and return to Cairo but all of the roads to Egypt were under Bayezid's control. Cem then tried to renegotiate with his brother. Bayezid offered him a stipend to live quietly in Jerusalem but refused to divide the empire, prompting Cem to flee to Rhodes on July 29, 1482.

Knights Hospitaller
Upon arriving at Rhodes, Cem asked the protection of the French captain of Bodrum Castle, Pierre d'Aubusson, grand master of the Knights of St. John, the Latin Catholic order on the island. On July 29, Cem arrived at Rhodes and was received with honor. In return for the overthrow of the new sultan Bayezid, Prince Cem offered perpetual peace between the Ottoman Empire and Christendom if he regained the Ottoman throne. However, Pierre d'Aubusson realized that conflict with Bayezid would be imprudent, so he secretly approached Bayezid, concluded a peace treaty, and then reached a separate agreement on Cem's captivity in March 1483. D'Aubusson promised Bayezid to detain Cem in return for an annual payment of 40,000 ducats for his maintenance.

Therefore, the Knights took the money and betrayed Cem, who thereafter became a well-treated prisoner at Rhodes. Afterwards, Cem was sent to the castle of Pierre d'Aubusson in France.

France
Cem had reached Nice, at that time in the Duchy of Savoy, on 17 October 1482, en route to Hungary, but the Knights were playing for time. After the agreement about his confinement was finalised, he became a hostage, as well as a potential pawn. Those who hoped to use his name and person to foment turmoil in the Ottoman realm included the Mamlūk sultan Qāʾit Bāy, Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, and Pope Innocent VIII. Others, such as the Knights of Saint John, the Venetians, the king of Naples, and Popes Innocent VIII and Alexander VI, viewed his presence in Europe as a deterrent to Ottoman aggression against Christendom and an opportunity for profit. For his part, Bayezid II dispatched ambassadors and spies to the West to assure that his rival was detained indefinitely, and he even attempted to eliminate him through assassination.

Cem spent a year in the Duchy of Savoy. After the death of King Louis XI of France (August 30, 1483), who had refused to accept a Muslim in his lands, the Knights of Saint John transferred him to Limousin (D'Aubusson's birthplace). Cem spent the next five years there, mostly at Bourganeuf. He was well treated, but essentially a captive (a fortified tower was constructed to house him). Bayezid II negotiated both with D'Aubusson, to have Cem returned to Rhodes, and with representatives of the new French monarch, Charles VIII, to have him kept in France. When the king of Hungary and Pope Innocent VIII sought custody of the prince, the Pope prevailed, and Cem arrived in Rome on 13 March 1489.

Rome
Innocent VIII rebuffed overtures from the Mamlūks and prepared to launch a crusade against the Ottomans, but it was postponed when Matthias Corvinus of Hungary died on April 6, 1490. These developments worried Bayezid, who contacted D'Aubusson and also sent Mustafa Bey (later a grand vizier) to Rome, to conclude a secret agreement, in December 1490. The sultan promised not to attack Rhodes, Rome, or Venice, as well as to pay Cem's allowance of 40,000 ducats to the Pope (10,000 of which were earmarked for the Knights of Saint John), in return for the prince's incarceration. Apparently, Cem found life in Rome more pleasant than in France, and he had lost hope of seizing the Ottoman throne, but he wanted to die in a Muslim land. His wish would not be realized.

Pope Innocent VIII unsuccessfully attempted to use Cem to begin a new crusade against the Ottomans. The Pope also tried to convert Cem to Christianity, without success. Cem's presence in Rome was useful nevertheless, because whenever Bayezid intended to launch a military campaign against Christian nations of the Balkans, the Pope would threaten to release his brother.

In exchange for maintaining the custody of Cem, Bayezid paid Innocent VIII 120,000 crowns (at the time, equal to all other annual sources of papal revenue combined), a relic of the Holy Lance (which allegedly had pierced the side of Christ), one hundred Moorish slaves, and an annual fee of 45,000 ducats. Much of the costs associated with the Sistine Chapel were paid with funds from the Ottoman ransoms.

Death
In 1494, Charles VIII invaded Italy, to take possession of the kingdom of Naples, and announced a crusade against the Turks. He compelled Pope Alexander VI to surrender Cem, who left Rome with the French army on January 28, 1495. The prince died in Naples on February 24. Some accounts attribute his death to poison, but he probably succumbed to pneumonia.

Cem died in Capua, while on a military expedition to conquer Naples under the command of King Charles VIII of France. Sultan Bayezid declared national mourning for three days. He also requested to have Cem's body for an Islamic funeral, but it was not until four years after Cem's death that his body was finally brought to the Ottoman lands because of attempts to receive more gold for Cem's corpse. He was buried in Bursa.

Personality
Cem had two diwans in Turkish and Persian, and he also spoke Arabic.

Consort
Cem had only one know consort:

 * Gülşirin Hatun.

Sons
Cem had at least three sons:

 * Şehzade Abdullah (executed by Bayezid II, 1481, buried in Orhan's türbe, Bursa).
 * Şehzade Oğuzhan (executed by Bayezid II, Constantinople, 1482), called also Şehzade Oğuz.
 * Şehzade Murad (executed by Suleiman the Magnificent, Rhodes, December 1522), later Pierre Mehmed Sayd; married and had four sons and three daughters.

Daughters
Cem had at least two daughters:
 * Gevhermelik Hatun, called also Gevhermuluk Hatun, married firstly in 1496 to Sultan An-Nasir Muhammad, son of Qaitbay (d. 1498), married secondly in 1503 to Sinan Pasha Beylerbey of Anatolia;
 * Ayşe Hatun, married in 1503 to Mehmed Bey, son of Sinan Pasha, Sanjak-bey of Ioannina

In literature
In the 1490s, a book in Latin was written about Cem's life. It was illustrated by Guillaume Caoursin, vice-chancellor of the Knights Hospitaller. It was published in several European cities that possessed printing capability: Venice, Paris, Bruges, Salamanca, Ulm and London. The many illustrations in the book are the first accurately described representations in Western Europe of costumes and weapons of the Turkish people.

An account of Cem's captivity—and of the political machinations that kept him captive—forms the basis of the historical novel, Francesca: Les Jeux du Sort (1872), written by the Haitian writer and political exile, Demesvar Delorme.

Cem's life also served as inspiration for a character in the book The Damned Yard (1954) by the Yugoslav Nobelist writer Ivo Andrić. It is widely considered to be one of his masterpieces and has been translated into over 30 languages. Cem Sultan appears as one of the main characters in a multiple-layered narration and serves as a metaphor for the human condition.

Bulgarian Ottoman historian Vera Mutafchieva, inspired by Cem Sultan's importance in European politics of the 15th century, wrote a novel (The Cem Case) about him in 1967. The book strives for historical accuracy and was translated into Turkish, German, Rumanian, Polish, Russian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, French, Estonian, Greek and Croatian.

In film
In 1951, was released historical film Cem Sultan, which main protagonist was portrayed by Bülent Ufuk.

In 1969 was released historical adventure film Malkoçoğlu Cem Sultan, which directed by Remzi Aydın Jöntürk, the character of Cem Sultan, was portrayed by Cihangir Ghaffari.

In television

 * In the Showtime series The Borgias, Cem is played by British actor Elyes Gabel, and is depicted in Rome under the papacy of Innocent VIII's successor, Pope Alexander VI. He is also portrayed to have sought to convert to Christianity, and to have been assassinated by Alexander VI's son, Juan Borgia.
 * In the Canal+ series Borgia, the character of Cem, played by Nicolás Belmonte, dies from fever when traveling with Cesare Borgia in Charles' campaign against Naples.
 * In the MBC series Kingdoms of Fire, Cem fought against Bayezid II, then he sought refuge with the crusaders, who agreed to host him in exchange to annual tribute from the Ottoman Sultan.

In video games

 * In Assassin's Creed: Revelations, Cem was mentioned to possess an Apple of Eden, then he became a Templar acquainted with Rodrigo Borgia, however, he was eventually killed by the Assassins.

title: Cem Sultan


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Flux pinning

Flux pinning is a phenomenon that occurs when flux vortices in a type-II superconductor are prevented from moving within the bulk of the superconductor, so that the magnetic field lines are "pinned" to those locations. The superconductor must be a type-II superconductor because type-I superconductors cannot be penetrated by magnetic fields. Some type-I superconductors can experience the effects of flux pinning if they are thin enough. If the material's thickness is comparable to the London penetration depth, the magnetic field can pass through the material. The act of magnetic penetration is what makes flux pinning possible. At higher magnetic fields (above lower critical field $H_{c,1 }$but below upper critical field $H_{c,2 }$) the superconductor allows magnetic flux to enter in quantized packets surrounded by a superconducting current vortex (see Quantum vortex). These sites of penetration are known as flux tubes. The number of flux tubes per unit area is proportional to the magnetic field with a constant of proportionality equal to the magnetic flux quantum. On a simple 76 millimeter diameter, 1-micrometer thick disk, next to a magnetic field of 28 kA/m, there are approximately 100 billion flux tubes that hold 70,000 times the superconductor's weight. At lower temperatures the flux tubes are pinned in place and cannot move. This pinning is what holds the superconductor in place thereby allowing it to levitate. This phenomenon is closely related to the Meissner effect, though with one crucial difference — the Meissner effect shields the superconductor from all magnetic fields causing repulsion, unlike the pinned state of the superconductor disk which pins flux, and the superconductor in place.

Importance
Flux pinning is desirable in high-temperature ceramic superconductors to prevent "flux creep", which can create a pseudo-resistance and depress both critical current density and critical field.

Degradation of a high-temperature superconductor's properties due to flux creep is a limiting factor in the use of these superconductors. SQUID magnetometers suffer reduced precision in a certain range of applied field due to flux creep in the superconducting magnet used to bias the sample, and the maximum field strength of high-temperature superconducting magnets is drastically reduced by the depression in critical field.

Potential applications
The worth of flux pinning is seen through many implementations such as lifts, frictionless joints, and transportation. The thinner the superconducting layer, the stronger the pinning that occurs when exposed to magnetic fields. Since the superconductor is pinned above the magnet away from any surfaces, there is the potential for a frictionless joint. Transportation is another area in which flux pinning technology could revolutionize and reform. MagSurf was developed by the Paris Diderot University utilizing flux pinning to create a hoverboard-like effect that could transport a person, demonstrating the usefulness of the technology. The Federal University of Rio de Janeiro has also been developing a flux pinning-based MagLev system called Maglev Cobra, which aims for a smaller form factor than existing urban rail systems. There has also been some research into using the flux pinning effect to isolate vibrations for microdevices. The ability to fix the superconductor in space can be used as a damping device like a spring. This idea has proposed for isolating vibrations for parts in satellites.

Other sources

 * Future Science introduction to high-temperature superconductors.
 * American Magnetics tutorial on magnetic field exclusion and flux pinning in superconductors.
 * Cern Lhc documentation Stability of superconductors.
 * Flux-Pinning of Bi2Sr2CaCu2O(8 + Delta) High Tc Superconducting Tapes Utilizing (Sr,Ca)14Cu24O(41 + Delta) and Sr2CaAl2O6 Defects (T. Haugan; et al. AFB OH Propulsion Directorate. Air Force Research Lab Wright-Patterson. October 2003)
 * Superconducting Magnetic Levitation (MagLev) on a Magnetic Track Ithaca College Physics demonstration of the Meissner effect and flux pinning.

title: Flux pinning


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.45 ACP

The .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol), also known as .45 Auto, .45 Automatic, or 11.43×23mm is a rimless straight-walled handgun cartridge designed by John Moses Browning in 1904, for use in his prototype Colt semi-automatic pistol. After successful military trials, it was adopted as the standard chambering for Colt's M1911 pistol. The round was developed due to a lack of stopping power experienced in the Moro Rebellion in places like Sulu. The issued ammunition, .38 Long Colt, had proved inadequate, motivating the search for a better cartridge. This experience and the Thompson–LaGarde Tests of 1904 led the Army and the Cavalry to decide that a minimum of .45 caliber was required in a new handgun cartridge.

The standard-issue military .45 ACP round uses a 230 gr round-nose bullet at approximately 830 ft/s fired from a government-issue M1911A1 pistol. It operates at a relatively low maximum chamber pressure rating of 21000 psi, compared to 35000 psi for both 9mm Parabellum and .40 S&W, which due to a low bolt thrust helps extend the service lives of weapons. Since standard-pressure .45 ACP rounds are subsonic when fired from handguns and submachine guns, it is a useful caliber for suppressed weapons to eliminate the sonic boom.

Design and history
During the late 19th century and early 20th centuries, the U.S. Cavalry began trials to replace their sidearm arsenal of issued Single Action Army (SAA) in favor of the more modern and versatile double-action revolver in .45 Colt.

After the example of the Cavalry, the Army in turn had fielded versions of double-action revolvers in .38 Long Colt. It was eventually evaluated that the .38 caliber round was significantly less effective in overall stopping power than the .45 Colt against determined opponents in cases such as the Tausug Moro juramentado warriors, who were encountered in the Moro Rebellion. The standard-issue rifle, the .30-40 Krag, had also failed to stop Moro warriors effectively; the British had similar lack-of-stopping-power issues switching to the .303 British, which resulted in the development of the dum-dum bullet, in an attempt to compensate for the round's deficiencies. This experience, and the Thompson–LaGarde Tests of 1904, led the Army and the Cavalry to decide a minimum of .45 caliber was required in a new handgun. Thompson and Major Louis Anatole La Garde of the medical corps arranged tests on cadavers and animals in the Chicago stockyards, resulting in their declaring that the .45 was the most effective pistol cartridge. They noted, however, training was critical to make sure a soldier could score a hit in a vulnerable part of the body.

Colt had been working with Browning on a .41 caliber cartridge in 1904, and in 1905, when the Cavalry asked for a .45-caliber equivalent, Colt modified the pistol design to fire an enlarged version of the prototype .41 round. The result from Colt was the Model 1905 and the new .45 ACP cartridge. The original round that passed the testing fired a 200 gr bullet at 900 ft/s, but after a number of rounds of revisions between Winchester Repeating Arms, Frankford Arsenal, and Union Metallic Cartridge, it ended up using a 230 gr bullet fired at a nominal velocity of 850 ft/s. The resulting .45 caliber cartridge, named the ".45 ACP", was similar in performance to the .45 Schofield cartridge and only slightly less powerful while significantly shorter than the .45 Colt cartridge that the United States Cavalry was using at the time.

By 1906, bids from six makers were submitted, among them, Browning's design, submitted by Colt. Only DWM, Savage, and Colt made the first cut. DWM, which submitted two Luger pistols chambered in .45 ACP, withdrew from testing after the first round of tests, for unspecified reasons.

During the second round of evaluations in 1910, the Colt design passed extensive testing with no failures, while the Savage design suffered 37 stoppages or parts failures. The Colt pistol was adopted as the Model 1911.

The cartridge-pistol combination was quite successful but not satisfactory for U.S. military purposes. Over time, a series of improved designs were offered, culminating in the adoption in 1911 of the "Cal. 45 Automatic Pistol Ball Cartridge, Model of 1911", a 1.273 in round with a bullet weight of 230 gr. The first production, at Frankford Arsenal, was marked "F A 8 11", for the August 1911 date.

The cartridge was designed by John Browning for Colt, but the most influential person in selecting the cartridge was Army ordnance member General John T. Thompson. After the poor performance of the Army's .38 Long Colt pistols evidenced during the Philippine–American War (1899–1902), Thompson insisted on a more capable pistol cartridge.

U.S. military
The "T" (trials) designation was used for the experimental version of a cartridge and "M" (model) is used for the accepted and standardized version. It came in either 24-round revolver ammo cartons, containing eight 3-round "half-moon" clips (1917-1945), pre-war 20-round cartons (1911-1942), or wartime 50-round cartons (1942–present). The M12 and M15 shotshell rounds were packed in 20-round cartons sealed in heat-sealed foil-lined Kraft paper.
 * Caliber .45 ball M1911 was the standard full-metal jacketed lead-core bullet.
 * Caliber .45 dummy M1921 has a hole drilled through the case and does not have a primer.
 * Caliber .45 blank M9 has a tapered case and does not have a bullet.
 * Caliber .45 shot M12(T23) (1943-1944 ) was a survival round with a round-nosed red wax paper projectile containing 118 pieces of No. 7 $1/2$ birdshot. It was issued in USAAF survival kits to allow pilots and aircrew armed with the Colt M1911A1 to use it for hunting small game. The shotshell was a little longer than a standard round, so the operator had to load it in the action individually. It was extracted after firing by removing the magazine, pulling back the slide, and pushing down on the case until it fell down the magazine well. Reports showed that the paper projectile was affected by humidity and would swell or break apart. It was made limited standard until replaced by the .45 M15 shot cartridge.
 * Caliber .45 shot M15 was an improved survival round loaded with 108 pieces of No. 7$1/2$ birdshot, with wadding and a vermilion cardboard disc sealing the casemouth. It was loaded and extracted exactly like the M12 shot cartridge.
 * Caliber .45 tracer M26 (T30) has a red tip. The round was designed as a short-ranged red flare for use in emergency signalling.

Commonwealth military
"S.A." stands for small arms. The "z" in the designation stands for cartridges loaded with nitrocellulose rather than cordite.
 * Cartridge, S.A., pistol, .45-inch Colt Automatic, ball (1917) was the British designation used for American-manufactured ammunition. The Royal Navy had purchased a shipment of M1911 pistols in 1917 along with enough ammunition for evaluation, training and service purposes. It was never standardized by the Lists of Changes, but was mentioned in the Vocabulary of Priced Stores. It came in seven-round packets and was manufactured by Winchester.
 * Cartridge, S.A., .45-inch, ball Mk Iz (1940–1945) was the designation used for American-manufactured ammunition and proposed British manufacture of .45 M1911 ball. Lend-lease ammunition came in commercial 42-round yellow Winchester or 50-round white Western Cartridge Company cartons. U.S. military-issue ammunition came in 20-round cartons, shifting to larger 50-round cartons in early 1942. It was never manufactured in Britain because it was readily available from American forces.
 * Cartridge, S.A., .45-inch, ball Mk IIz (1943) was a variant proposed for the Royal Navy, but never put into production.
 * Cartridge, S.A., .45-inch A. C., ball (1942–1946) was the Canadian designation for their domestically manufactured ammunition for use in the European theater. It came in a plain 42-round carton that mimicked the capacity and dimensions of the yellow commercial Winchester ammunition cartons sold to Britain through Lend-lease.
 * Cartridge, S.A., .450-inch, ball Mk IIz (1943–1956) was the Australian designation used for their domestically-manufactured ammunition for use in the Pacific theater. It came in 24-round cartons.

French Union military

 * Cartouche de 11,43 mm, Pour Pistolets ('11.43 mm cartridge for pistols'): Balle ordinaire ('ordinary ball') pistol ammunition. Post-war production for use in the pistols and submachineguns given out by the US as military aid. It came in 25-round cartons.

Cartridge dimensions
The .45 ACP has 25 – of cartridge case capacity, depending on manufacturer and production lot.

45 Auto maximum CIP cartridge dimensions. All sizes are in millimeters (mm).

SAAMI specifications for 45 Automatic. All dimensions are in inches (millimeters)

The common rifling twist rate for this cartridge is 1 in 16 in, 6 grooves, Ø lands = .442 in (11.23 mm), Ø grooves = 45 in (11.43 mm), land width = .147 in (3.73 mm) and the primer type is large pistol. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case at the L3 datum reference.

According to Commission internationale permanente pour l'épreuve des armes à feu portatives (CIP) rulings, the .45 ACP cartridge case can handle up to 131 MPa Pmax piezo pressure. In CIP-regulated countries every pistol cartridge combination has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum CIP pressure to certify for sale to consumers. This means that .45 ACP chambered arms in CIP-regulated countries are currently (2016) proof-tested at 170 MPa PE piezo pressure.

The SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP is set at 21000 psi piezo pressure, while the SAAMI pressure limit for the .45 ACP +P is set at 23000 psi, piezo pressure.

Performance
The .45 ACP is an effective combat pistol cartridge. It combines accuracy as well as stopping power for use against human targets, has relatively low muzzle blast and flash, and it produces moderate recoil in handguns (made worse in compact models). The .45 ACP is generally considered to have greater stopping power than the 9mm. Due to its larger size and slower velocity it creates a larger wound channel and transfers more energy to the target.

The standard-issue, military .45 ACP cartridge contains a 230 gr bullet that travels at approximately 830 ft/s when fired from the government-issue M1911A1 pistol, and approximately 950 ft/s fired from the Thompson M1A1 submachine gun. The cartridge comes in various specialty rounds of varying weights and performance levels as well.

The cartridge operates at a relatively low maximum chamber pressure rating of 21000 psi (compared to 35000 psi for 9mm Parabellum and .40 S&W, 37500 psi for 10mm Auto, 40000 psi for .357 SIG), which due to a low bolt thrust helps extend service life of weapons in which it is used. Some makers of pistols chambered in .45 ACP, do not certify them to use +P ammunition.

In its non-expanding full metal jacket (FMJ) version, the .45 ACP cartridge has a reputation for effectiveness against human targets because of its heavy mass, having the capacity to penetrate tissue deeply, and damage the central nervous system. Its large 11.5 mm diameter creates a more substantial permanent wound channel versus smaller calibers, which can lower blood pressure rapidly if critical organs of the circulatory system are hit.

In its expanding hollow point form, it is also particularly effective against human targets. In tests against ballistic gelatin, a 185 gr hollow point traveling at 1,050 ft/s expanded to about .76 in. This is a significantly large permanent wound cavity for a handgun projectile. For those who follow the energy dump and/or hydrostatic shock theories of wounding ballistics, this is ideal. While slightly decreasing penetration and likewise the chance of hitting a vital organ, a large diameter wound will cause more blood loss. There is also a reduced likelihood of overpenetration, meaning that it is more likely that the projectile will transfer all of its kinetic energy to the intended target, thus more reliably incapacitating them.

Drawbacks for military use include the cartridge's large size, weight, and increased material costs in comparison to the smaller, flatter shooting NATO standard 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, a cartridge which uses less powder, brass, and lead per round. Standard 9mm NATO ammunition has a more limited armor penetration capability—a deficiency shared with .45 ACP, whose large, slow bullet does not penetrate armor to any great extent. The low muzzle velocity also makes the bullet drop more over long ranges, making hits more difficult; however, it is important to note that the vast majority of self-defense situations involving handguns typically occur at close ranges.

After two years of testing, one of the final FBI comments was that services that adopt (or stay with) .40 S&W or .45 ACP, did so at the risk of increased recoil and a possible reduction in accuracy as 9×19mm with premium quality ammunition had nearly exactly the same performance. A factor rated by the recent FBI testing was accuracy and time to recover. The .45 ACP handguns ranked last, largely due to increased recoil.

Use in suppressors
As standard pressure .45 ACP rounds fired from handguns and submachine guns are inherently subsonic, it is one of the most powerful pistol calibers available for use in suppressed weapons since subsonic rounds are quieter than supersonic rounds. The latter inevitably produce a highly compressed shock wave, audible as a loud "crack", a small sonic boom, while they travel through the air. Suppressors reduce the audible "report" by slowing and channeling the high speed gas generated by the burning/expanding gunpowder before it exits the muzzle resulting in a muffled "cough". Suppressors cannot act on a supersonic shock wave continuously generated by a bullet exceeding the 1087 ft/s speed of sound at 32 F ambient cold temperatures, as this shock wave is continuously produced throughout the entire flight path over which the bullet is supersonic, which extends long after it exits the barrel.

The downside to the use of .45 ACP in suppressed weapons is that increasing the diameter of the passage through a suppressor decreases the suppressor's efficiency; thus, while .45 ACP is among the most powerful suppressed pistol rounds, it is also one of the loudest. Most .45 ACP suppressors must be fired "wet" (with an ablative medium, usually oil or water) to bring sound levels down to "hearing-safe" (under 140 dB, generally).

Magazine capacities
Magazine capacity varies depending on the type of firearm. Standard (not extended) single-stack magazines for pistols based on the 1911 design commonly, hold eight rounds or fewer in .45 ACP. Many modern pistols have adapted the cartridge into double-stacked magazine designs to increase ammo capacity, though this increases the pistol grip's girth. Drum magazines used mostly for submachine guns have a capacity of 50 or 100 rounds.

Adoption
Several US tactical police units still use the .45 pistol round. While high capacity firearms are available in .45 ACP, the greater length and diameter of the .45 ACP means that the grip of the pistol must be longer and wider than the grip of a comparable pistol of a smaller caliber, such as 9×19mm Parabellum; this increase in grip size can make the pistol difficult to use for shooters with smaller hands.

Today, most NATO militaries use sidearms chambered for the 9×19mm Parabellum cartridge, but the effectiveness of the .45 ACP cartridge has ensured its continued popularity with large-caliber sport shooters, especially in the United States. In addition, select military and police units around the world still use firearms firing the .45 ACP. In 1985, the .45 ACP M1911A1 pistol was replaced by the Beretta M9 9mm pistol as the main sidearm of the U.S. military, although select Special Operations units continue to use the M1911A1 or other .45 ACP pistols.

Load variants
Rounds are available from 68 to 300 gr with a common load being the standard military loading of a 230 gr FMJ bullet (for comparison, the most common 9mm load is 115 gr, half the weight). Specialty rounds are available in weights under 100 gr and over 260 gr; popular rounds among reloaders and target shooters include 185 to 230 gr bullets. Target shooters competing in Bullseye Pistol (aka Precision Pistol) find that .45 ACP ammunition using light bullets (12 to 13 g) and low velocities paradoxically generates less recoil than 9mm ammunition of equivalent accuracy, despite its larger caliber, and allows better scores in sustained fire. Hollow-point rounds intended for maximum effectiveness against live targets are designed to expand upon impact with soft tissue, increasing the size of the permanent cavity left by the bullet as it passes through the target.

Tracer ammunition for the .45 ACP was manufactured by Frankford Arsenal and by Remington Arms. This ammunition was available to the United States Border Patrol as early as 1940 and was used through World War II for emergency signalling by downed United States Navy and Marine Corps air crew. Tracer ammunition was identified by painting the bullet tip red.

Plus P
Most ammunition manufacturers also market what are termed "+P" (pronounced "plus P", designating overpressure ammunition) loadings in pistol ammunition, including the .45 ACP. This means the cartridge is loaded to a higher maximum pressure level than the original SAAMI cartridge standard, generating higher velocity and more muzzle energy. In the case of the .45 ACP, the new standard cartridge pressure is 21000 psi and the SAAMI .45 ACP +P standard is 23000 psi. This is a common practice for updating older cartridges to match the better quality of materials and workmanship in modern firearms.

The terminology is generally given as "45 ACP +P" and sometimes, but not always, appears on the headstamp. These cartridges have the same external dimensions as the standard-pressure cartridges and will chamber and fire in all firearms designed for the standard-pressure loadings. The inner dimensions of the +P cartridge are different from the standard-pressure cartridge dimensions and thus allows for higher pressures to be safely achieved in the +P cartridge. If +P loadings are used in firearms not specifically designed for them, they may cause damage to the weapon and injuries to the operator.

Others
Popular derivative versions of the .45 ACP are .45 Super and .460 Rowland. The Super is dimensionally identical to the .45 ACP; however, the cartridge carries a developer established pressure of 28500 psi and requires minor modification of firearms for use. The Rowland operates at a developer established 40000 psi SAAMI and may only be used within a select group of firearms significantly modified for this purpose; the Rowland case is 0.057 in longer specifically to prevent it from being chambered in standard .45 ACP firearms. Brass cases for each of these cartridges carry the applicable name within the headstamp. The Super provides approximately 20% greater velocity than the .45 ACP +P; the Rowland approximately 40% greater velocity than the .45 ACP +P.

Synonyms

 * 45 (colloquial in English, Spanish, and Tagalog)
 * .45 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol)
 * .45 Rimless Smokeless
 * .45 Auto
 * 45 Auto. Colt / 45 AC (Winchester Repeating Arms Company)
 * 11.43×23 mm (Metric)
 * 11.43 (Mexico, Obregón pistol)
 * 11.25 mm (Norway and Argentina )
 * 11 mm 43 (France)
 * 11 mm (Southeast Asia)

Related rounds

 * .38/45 Clerke

 * .400 Cor-Bon
 * .45 Auto Rim
 * .45 GAP
 * .45 Peters-Thompson shot cartridge
 * .45 Remington–Thompson
 * .45 Super
 * .45 Winchester Magnum
 * .450 SMC
 * .451 Detonics Magnum
 * .460 Rowland
 * .50 GI

title: .45 ACP


text:
Talk:Mesa

Portuguese
Removed mention of 'mesa' being also the Portuguese word table since it's irrelevant. The American usage was taken directly from Spanish, not Portuguese. While the two languages share many lexical items in common, they're still separate lexical entries. Plus, if we mention Portuguese, why not all the other languages that share the same word, like Asturian, Galician, or Chamicuro? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Nimic86 (talk • contribs) 16:03, 12 April 2017 (UTC)

Meseta
Removed the reference to Meseta as being the Spanish language equivalent of a Mesa. Meseta in Spanish refers to a plateau, i.e., an *extensive*, relatively flat and relatively high area. An example of a meseta is most of the central part of Spain, covering an area of perhaps 154,000 square miles. Not what you would have in mind when picturing a mesa. See also "altiplano." — Preceding unsigned comment added by Freddy Hill (talk • contribs) 23:01, 28 April 2015 (UTC)

Untitled
My dictionary says that there only has to be one side with a cliff. JWSchmidt 17:19, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Mesas in the USA Southwest
In reference to "Many examples are also found in Spain....regions of North America." Colorado may contain mesas but almost the whole western and north portion of New Mexico is nothing but mesas also. Only southern CO would have many mesas. Article need not to be singulary towards Colorado for the USA portion. If any state in the USA is to be considered as an example, it should be New Mexico. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.138.82.198 (talk) 06:04, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

Mesa and tepui?
What's the difference between a mesa and a tepui? The article on tepuis suggests that a tepui is a particular kind of mesa. But then it says the tepuis are only in that area of South America in and around Venezuela. This article says that the largest mesa in the world is in Colorado; if the tepuis are mesas, then that's far from true. 140.147.164.38 (talk) 21:20, 27 June 2008 (UTC)Stephen Kosciesza

I take that back. Grand Mesa in Colorado is much larger than any of the tepuis of South America. 140.147.164.38 (talk) 21:25, 27 June 2008 (UTC)Stephen Kosciesza

Llano Estacado?
The article on the land formation called the Llano Estacado in West Texas and Eastern New Mexico says that it is a mesa. It covers about 37,500 sq. miles, making it vastly larger than the Grand Mesa in Colorado. Why is the Grand Mesa considered the largest mesa? Should this be changed, or is there some technical reason that the Llano Estacado is not counted? --Dwane E Anderson (talk) 01:01, 13 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Llano Estacado (Staked Plains) contains mesas but I've never thought of it as one huge mesa. On an aside, the name comes from the fact that they had to drive stakes into the ground to mark their routes since the landscape was so featureless and windy. →Wordbuilder (talk) 04:43, 13 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Maybe you should read the article. There are no mesas on the Llano Estacado. It IS a mesa. The article also says that the explanation you gave for the name is a myth.--Dwane E Anderson (talk) 09:16, 4 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I had never read the Llano Estacado article. Interesting information regarding "staked plains". Nevertheless, the threshold for inclusion on Wikipedia is not fact but verifiability. Regarding there being no mesas on the Llano, the State of New Mexico, among others, disagree. See this for example. →Wordbuilder (talk) 15:18, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

 * The article has a reference that says the Llano Estacado is a mesa. It also says it covers 37,500 sq. miles. How much more verification is required? BTW, the mesas on the Llano are on the extreme northwest corner were it approaches the Rockies. I suppose that still qualifies as on the Caprock. I didn't know they were there because I'm from Lubbock. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dwane E Anderson (talk • contribs) 09:36, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

 * I wasn't disagreeing with the notion that the Llano is a mesa or saying that more citations are needed. I was just pointing out that, even though the Llano is a mesa, it also has mesas. I love Lubbock, by the way, both my wife and son were born there and we try to get back at least yearly to catch a Tech game. →Wordbuilder (talk) 14:47, 12 February 2009 (UTC)

Question
Can mesas be comprised of clay? Pendragon39 (talk) 04:25, 13 November 2011 (UTC)

Mesa in Botswana
Hi can I kindly include a Mesa in Botswana. The hill is called tautswemagala petite (talk) 19:16, 27 January 2022 (UTC)

Mesa in Ontario, Canada
May I suggest including Sleeping Giant (Ontario)? It might be worth having it on the list as a Canadian example location. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 184.175.13.10 (talk) 16:28, 13 February 2022 (UTC)

Definition Cockburn range
"in the Cockburn Range of North Western Australia have areas as much as 350 kilometres (220 mi)."

I don't have access to the sources and don't know the correct value, but kilometres are units of distance, not areas. Is it 350 km2, 220 square miles or some other area ? 2A01:CB04:CDC:8B00:ED6B:B54:2670:8EB1 (talk) 10:12, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

 * Definitely a typo. It has been corrected. Thanks for the heads up. Paul H. (talk) 14:39, 30 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mesa


text:
.380 ACP

The .380 ACP (Automatic Colt Pistol, also known as .380 Auto, .380 Automatic, or 9×17mm), is a rimless, straight-walled pistol cartridge that was developed by firearms designer John Moses Browning. The cartridge headspaces on the mouth of the case. It was introduced in 1908 by Colt, for use in its new Colt Model 1903 Pocket Hammerless semi-automatic, and has been a popular self-defense cartridge ever since, seeing wide use in numerous handguns (typically smaller weapons). Other names for .380 ACP include .380 Auto, 9×17mm, 9mm Browning, 9mm Corto, 9mm Kurz, 9mm Short, and 9mm Browning Court (which is the C.I.P. designation). It should not be confused with .38 ACP. The .380 ACP does not strictly conform to cartridge naming conventions, named after the diameter of the bullet, as the actual bullet diameter of the .380 ACP is .355 inches.

Design
The .380 ACP cartridge was derived from Browning's earlier .38 ACP design, which was only marginally more powerful. The .380 ACP was designed to be truly rimless, and headspaces on the case mouth instead of the rim for better accuracy. These relatively low-powered designs were intended for blowback pistols which lacked a barrel locking mechanism, which is often required for any handgun firing a round more powerful than a .380 ACP. Using blowback operation, the design can be simplified, and lowered in cost; a locking mechanism is unnecessary, since the mass of the slide and strength of the recoil spring are enough to absorb the recoil energy of the round, due to the round's relatively low bolt thrust. Blowback operation also permits the barrel to be permanently fixed to the frame, which promotes accuracy, unlike a traditional short recoil-operation pistol, which requires a tilting barrel to unlock the slide and barrel assembly when cycling. A drawback of the blowback system is that it requires a certain amount of slide mass to counter the recoil of the round used. The higher the power of the round, the heavier the slide assembly has to be in order for its inertia to safely absorb the recoil, meaning that a typical blowback pistol in a given caliber will be heavier than an equivalent recoil-operated weapon. Blowback weapons can be made in calibers larger than .380 ACP, but the required weight of the slide and strength of the spring makes this an unpopular option.

Although the low power of the .380 ACP does not require a locking mechanism, there have been a number of locked-breech pistols chambered in .380 ACP, such as the Remington Model 51, Kel-Tec P3AT and Glock 42; all three being designed to be lighter than blowback-operated .380 ACP weapons. There have also been some relatively diminutive (blowback-operated) submachine guns, such as the Ingram MAC-11 and the Czech vz. 83.

Users
The .380 ACP has experienced widespread usage since its introduction in the United States (1908) and in Europe (1912). It was later adopted by the armies of at least five European nations as their standard pistol cartridge before World War II; Czechoslovakia (Vz.38), Hungary (FEMARU 37M), and Italy, all of whom used domestic designs, as well as The Netherlands and Yugoslavia, both of whom adopted the FN Model 1922. It was also used extensively by Germany, who captured or purchased hundreds of thousands of pistols in this caliber during World War II. Popular German built commercial models, such as the Walther PPK were very popular with German officers. The Italian Army used the Beretta M1934, but the Italian Air Force and Navy stuck with the 7.65mm/.32 ACP when they adopted the Beretta M1935.

While the .380 ACP was considered to be a moderately powerful service pistol round before World War II when compared to the .32 ACP pistols it replaced, few nations retained it as a military service cartridge for very long after the war (it was eventually replaced by the more powerful 9×19mm Parabellum after NATO standardization in the 1960s). It was widely used by police forces in Europe until the 1970s, when more powerful 9×19mm handguns began to replace it in this market. It does find some use as a backup gun due to the generally small and easily concealable size of the weapons that chambered it (very few "mini pistols" are made in calibers larger than .380 ACP, and those few that are, are recent developments), and is popular on the civilian market as a personal defense round. The .380 ACP round is suitable for self-defense situations as a choice for concealed carry pistols. It was the round used in Defense Distributed's "Wiki Weapon" project to successfully 3D print a firearm.

Performance
The .380 ACP is compact and light, but has a shorter range and less stopping power than other modern pistol cartridges, depending on the load of the cartridge and manufacturer. .380 ACP remains a popular self-defense cartridge for shooters who want a lightweight or smaller pistol with manageable recoil. It is slightly less powerful than a standard-pressure .38 Special, but also uses 9 mm (.355 in) diameter bullets. The standard bullet weights are generally 80 gr, 85 gr, 90 gr, 95 gr, 100 gr, 115 gr, and 120 gr.

The wounding potential of a bullet is often characterized in terms of its expanded diameter, penetration depth, and energy. Bullet energies for .380 ACP loads vary from 190 to 294 ftlbf. The table below shows common performance parameters for several .380 ACP loads. Bullet weights ranging from 85 to 95 gr are the most common. Penetration depths from 6.5 to 17 in are available for various applications and risk assessments.

Key:
 * Expansion — expanded bullet diameter (ballistic gelatin)
 * Penetration — penetration depth (ballistic gelatin)
 * PC — permanent cavity volume (ballistic gelatin, FBI method)
 * TSC — temporary stretch cavity volume (ballistic gelatin)

Synonyms

 * The United States — .380 Auto / .380 ACP / 9×17mm / 9mm Short / 9mm Browning Short
 * Spain and Italy — 9mm Corto / 9mm Short
 * France — 9mm Court / 9mm Short
 * Portugal — 9mm Curto / 9mm Short
 * The Netherlands — 9mm Kort / 9mm Short
 * Bosnia — 9mm Kratak / 9mm Short
 * Serbia, Croatia, and Slovenia — 9mm Kratak / 9mm short / Kratka 9 (Kratka Devetka) / Short 9 (Short Nine)
 * Bulgaria and Macedonia — 9mm Kas / 9mm Short
 * Germany — 9mm Kurz / 9mm Short
 * Romania — 9mm Scurt / 9mm Short
 * The United Kingdom — 9mm Browning / 9mm Browning Short / 9mm Short

title: .380 ACP


text:
BFG (weapon)

The BFG ("Big Fucking Gun") is a fictional weapon found in many video games, mostly in id Software-developed series' such as Doom and Quake.

The abbreviation BFG stands for "Big Fucking Gun" as described in Tom Hall's original Doom design document and in the user manual of Doom II: Hell on Earth. The Quake II manual says it stands for "Big, Uh, Freakin' Gun". This euphemistic label implies the more profane name of the BFG. Another version of the name used in the Doom motion picture is "Bio Force Gun". The versions found in the Doom games are called "BFG 9000" and those in Quake "BFG 10K".

Doom
The weapon first appeared in the press beta release of Doom. In that version, the BFG 9000 released a cloud of 80 small plasma balls (randomly green or red) per shot, which could bounce off floors and ceilings. However, it was scrapped as developer John Romero stated that it "looked like Christmas" and severely slowed the game down due to the large number of on-screen sprites.

Computer Gaming World described the BFG 9000 in the first commercial Doom game as "the Ultimate Weapon". It is a large energy weapon that fires giant balls of green plasma as well as 40 invisible rays in a cone shape. The most powerful weapon in the game, it causes major damage to most types of enemies and can clear an entire room of foes in one shot, or deal huge damage to singular enemies. In the first Doom, the weapon can only be picked up in the third and fourth episodes. The BFG 9000 also appears virtually unchanged in Doom II: Hell on Earth, Final Doom, Doom 64, and Doom RPG.

Other versions
In Doom 3, the BFG 9000 is a charged weapon: holding down the trigger causes the weapon to accumulate energy before release, resulting in a more powerful shot. Overcharging the BFG too much will cause it to overheat and explode, killing the player instantly.

Quake II and Quake III Arena pay homage to the BFG 9000 with a pair of weapons both called the BFG10K. The Quake II version fires a slow plasma glob that fires rays at any enemies in range and line-of-sight. The Quake III Arena version of the BFG fire a series of fast plasma orbs, and acts quite like the Rocket Launcher (rocket jumping can also be done with the BFG10K). The BFG10K from Quake III also appears in OpenArena (with a different appearance) and Quake Live (with slightly modified characteristics). Rage also pays homage to the BFG 9000 with a weapon known as the "Authority Pulse Cannon", which fires "BFG Rounds".

In the Doom movie, the "bio force gun" fires a bright blue projectile that appears to burst on impact and spray a caustic substance over its target and the surrounding area.

The BFG makes a return in the 2016 reboot, but unlike in its first two appearances, it follows the mechanics of its Quake II rendition, firing a projectile that shoots beams at enemies. The game itself doesn't resolve the acronym "BFG" either in-game or in its codex entries, although one challenge in the game's final campaign level involving the BFG is called "Big [REDACTED] Gun" as a nod to the original vulgar name. In that game's pinball adaptation, it is called the "Big Fancy Gun", and is the most powerful weapon that the Doom Slayer can obtain; collecting it will grant the player an extra ball.

In 2020's Doom Eternal, a new version of the weapon, the BFG 10000, appears, as a massive interplanetary cannon mounted on Mars's moon, Phobos, used by the in-universe UAC organization to protect its control of mars and the surrounding airspace. The BFG 9000 also returns as the main component of the BFG 10000, and, after it is commandeered by the Doom Slayer to shoot a hole into the surface of Mars, he removes the 9000 from its socket and carries it around as a usable weapon, where it is functionally identical to the 2016 version.

Doom, Doom II: Hell on Earth and Final Doom
The BFG's internal game mechanics are two-fold. When the trigger is pulled, there is a pause of 30 game tics (≈0.857 seconds) before a large, relatively slow moving green and white plasma projectile is ejected. The actual projectile deals a significant amount of damage (between 100 and 800 hit points of damage, in multiples of 100), but the majority of the damage is dealt 16 game tics (≈0.457 seconds) after the direct hit in a 45-degree (90 degree wide) cone originating from the player who fired the shot, via 40 invisible tracers, causing each tracer to deal random damage of between 15 and 120 hit points of damage (but is limited to between 49 and 87 hit points of damage due to the pseudo-random number generator that Doom, Doom II: Hell on Earth and Final Doom uses) on a solid object within 1,024 map units.

Standing closer to the target causes them to absorb more tracers. The direction of the cone corresponds to the original shot, but it radiates from the player's current location at the time of the main projectile's impact. The player can move, even into a different room, and deal damage there, given enough time before the projectile's impact.

Appearances and homages outside Doom and Quake
The BFG also makes an appearance in Avalanche Studios' Rage 2.

A similar weapon makes an appearance in MachineGames' Wolfenstein II: The New Colossus. According to the game's plot, the weapon, named "Übergewehr" ("Super-rifle" in German), was developed by the Nazis in the 1960s. It utilizes a mixture of laser and diesel energy, as well as a mysterious third source of energy, described as “extra-dimensional microportals", possibly hinting that it is the same Argent Energy mentioned in Doom (2016) onwards. The behaviour of the weapon is similar to Doom 3's BFG: it can be charged in order to release a sphere of energy strong enough to vaporize a horde of soldiers.

Epic MegaGames' Jazz Jackrabbit named the gun of the protagonist as LFG-2000 (Laser Flash Gun 2000)

The fusion research company First Light commissioned Physics Applications Inc. to build a high velocity projectile fusion research tool, which is named “The Big Friendly Gun”, and refer to this as the “BFG”.

BFR
"BFR" was the codename for SpaceX's privately funded launch vehicle announced by Elon Musk in September 2017. SpaceX President Gwynne Shotwell has stated that BFR stands for "Big Falcon Rocket". However, Elon Musk has explained that although BFR was the code name, he drew inspiration from the BFG weapon in the Doom video games. The BFR had been referred to informally by the media and internally at SpaceX as "Big Fucking Rocket". The upper stage was called Big Falcon Ship (unofficially "Big Fucking Ship"). The BFR was eventually officially renamed to "Starship".

Reception
UGO.com ranked the BFG 9000 at number two on their list of top video game weapons of all time, stating "it was marvellous and complex, and we should not hesitate to put this weapon down in history as one of the best." X-Play ranked it number one on their list of top "badass" weapons, stating that while "not as fancy as the Gravity Gun", it was the first weapon that "really made us swoon". IGN also listed the BFG as one of the hundred best weapons in video games, placing it at number 2, saying that "The BFG established exactly what we should expect when it comes to powerful in-game weaponry". Machinima.com named it number one on their list of top video game weapons, stating "Do you really need a reason why this tops the list?"

title: BFG (weapon)


text:
Bachelor of Engineering

A Bachelor of Engineering (BE or BEng), Bachelor of Science in Engineering (BSE), or Bachelor of Science and Engineering is an undergraduate academic degree awarded to a college graduate majoring in an engineering discipline at a higher education institution.

In the United Kingdom, a Bachelor of Engineering degree program is accredited by one of the Engineering Council's professional engineering institutions as suitable for registration as an incorporated engineer or chartered engineer with further study to masters level. In Canada, a degree from a Canadian university can be accredited by the Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB). Alternatively, it might be accredited directly by another professional engineering institution, such as the US-based Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). The Bachelor of Engineering contributes to the route to chartered engineer (UK), registered engineer or licensed professional engineer and has been approved by representatives of the profession. Similarly Bachelor of Engineering (BE) and Bachelor of Technology (B.Tech) in India is accredited by All India Council for Technical Education. Most universities in the United States and Europe award bachelor's degrees in engineering through various names.

A less common and possibly the oldest variety of the degree in the English-speaking world is Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria (B.A.I.), a Latin name meaning Bachelor in the Art of Engineering. Here Baccalaureus in Arte Ingeniaria implies excellence in carrying out the 'art' or 'function' of an engineer. Some South African universities refer to their engineering degrees as B.Ing. (Baccalaureus Ingenieurswese, in Afrikaans).

Engineering fields
A Bachelor of Engineering degree will usually be undertaken in one field of engineering, which is sometimes noted in the degree postnominals, as in B.E., ''B.AE. (Aero), or B.Eng (Elec)''. Common fields for the Bachelor of Engineering degree include the following fields:
 * Aerospace Engineering
 * Agricultural Engineering
 * Architectural Engineering
 * Automotive Engineering
 * Biological Engineering — including Biochemical, Biomedical, Biosystems and Biomolecular
 * Chemical Engineering — deals with the process of converting raw materials or chemicals into more useful or valuable forms
 * Clean Technology — use energy, water and raw materials and other inputs more efficiently and productively. Create less waste or toxicity and deliver equal or superior performance.
 * Computer Engineering
 * Computer Science and Engineering
 * Civil Engineering — a wide-ranging field, including building engineering, civil engineering, construction engineering, industrial, manufacturing, mechanical, materials and control engineering
 * Electrical and Computer Engineering/Electronic Engineering — very diverse field, including Computer Engineering, Communication/Communication systems engineering, Information Technology, Electrical Engineering, Electronics Engineering, Microelectronic Engineering, Microelectronics, Nanotechnology, Mechatronics, Software Engineering, Systems, Wireless and Telecommunications, Photovoltaic and Power Engineering
 * Control Engineering — a relatively new and more specialized subfield of Electrical Engineering that focuses on integrating Electrical Controls and their programming.
 * Engineering Management — the application of engineering principles to the planning and operational management of industrial and manufacturing operations
 * Environmental Engineering — includes fields such as Environmental, Geological, Geomatic, Mining, Marine and Ocean Engineering
 * Fire Protection Engineering — the application of science and engineering principles to protect people and their environments from the destructive effects of fire and smoke.
 * Geological Engineering — a hybrid discipline that comprises elements of civil engineering, mining engineering, petroleum engineering and earth sciences.
 * Geomatics Engineering — acquisition, modeling analysis and management of spatial data. Focuses on satellite positioning, remote sensing, land surveying, wireless location and Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
 * Geotechnical Engineering — a combination of civil and mining engineering and involves the analysis of earth materials.
 * Information Engineering — same as Information Technology.
 * Industrial Engineering — studies facilities planning, plant layout, work measurement, job design, methods engineering, human factors, manufacturing processes, operations management, statistical quality control, systems, psychology and basic operations management
 * Instrumentation Engineering — a branch of engineering dealing with measurement
 * Integrated Engineering — a multi-disciplinary, design-project-based engineering degree program.
 * Leather Engineering — an applied chemistry type based on leather and its application.
 * Manufacturing Engineering: Includes methods engineering, manufacturing process planning, tool design, metrology, Robotics, Computer integrated manufacturing, operations management and manufacturing management
 * Materials Engineering — includes metallurgy, polymer and ceramic engineering
 * Marine Engineering — includes the engineering of boats, ships, oil rigs and any other marine vessel or structure, as well as oceanographic engineering. Specifically, marine engineering is the discipline of applying engineering sciences, including mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronic engineering]] and computer science, to the development, design, operation and maintenance of watercraft propulsion and on-board systems and oceanographic technology. It includes but is not limited to power and propulsion plants, machinery, piping, automation and control systems for marine vehicles of any kind, such as surface ships and submarines.
 * Mechanical Engineering — includes engineering of total systems where mechanical science principles apply to objects in motion including transportation, energy, buildings, aerospace and machine design. Explores the applications of the theoretical fields of Mechanics, kinematics, thermodynamics, materials science, structural analysis, manufacturing and electricity
 * Mechatronics Engineering - includes a combination of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, telecommunications engineering, control engineering and computer engineering
 * Mining Engineering — deals with discovering, extracting, beneficiating, marketing and utilizing mineral deposits.
 * Nuclear Engineering — customarily includes nuclear fission, nuclear fusion and related topics such as heat/thermodynamics transport, nuclear fuel or other related technology (e.g., radioactive waste disposal) and the problems of nuclear proliferation. May also include radiation protection, particle detectors and medical physics.
 * Petroleum Engineering — a field of engineering concerned with the activities related to exploration and production of hydrocarbons from the Earth's subsurface.
 * Plastics Engineering — A vast field which includes plastic processing, mold designing...
 * Process Engineering — the understanding and application of the fundamental principles and laws of nature that allow humans to transform raw material and energy into products that are useful to society, at an industrial level.
 * Production Engineering — a term used in the UK and Europe similar to Industrial Engineering in North America. It includes the engineering of machines, people, processes and management. Explores the applications of the theoretical field of Mechanics.
 * Textile Engineering — based on the conversion of three types of fiber into yarn, then fabric, then textiles
 * Robotics and Automation Engineering — relates all engineering fields for implementation in robotics and automation
 * Structural Engineering — analyze, design, plan and research structural components, systems and loads, in order to achieve design goals including high-risk structures ensuring the safety and comfort of users or occupants in a wide range of specialties.
 * Software Engineering — systematic application of scientific and technological knowledge, methods and experience to the design, implementation, testing and documentation of software
 * Systems Engineering — focuses on the analysis, design, development and organization of complex systems

Australia
In Australia, the Bachelor of Engineering (BE or BEng - depending on the institution) is a four-year undergraduate degree course and a professional qualification.

The title of “engineer” is not protected in Australia, therefore anyone can claim to be an engineer and practice without the necessary competencies, understanding of standards or in compliance with a code of ethics. The industry has attempted to overcome the lack of title protection through chartership (CPEng), national registration (NER) and various state registration (RPEQ) programs which are usually obtained after a few years of professional practice.

Canada
In Canada, degrees awarded for undergraduate engineering studies include the Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng. or B.E., depending on the institution); the Baccalauréat en génie (B.Ing., the French equivalent of a B.Eng.; sometimes referred to as a Baccalauréat en ingénierie); the Bachelor of Applied Science (B.A.Sc.); and the Bachelor of Science in Engineering (B.Sc.Eng.).

The Canadian Engineering Accreditation Board (CEAB), a division of the Engineers Canada, sets out and maintains the standards of accreditation among Canadian undergraduate engineering programs. Graduates of those programs are deemed by the profession to have the required academic qualifications to be licensed as professional engineers in Canada. This practice is intended to maintain standards of education and allow mobility of engineers in different provinces of Canada.

A CEAB-accredited degree is the minimum academic requirement for registration as a professional engineer anywhere in the country and the standard against which all other engineering academic qualifications are measured. Graduation from an accredited program, which normally involves four years of study, is a required first step to becoming a professional engineer. Regulation and accreditation are accomplished through a self-governing body (the name of which varies from province to province), which is given the power by statute to register and discipline engineers, as well as regulate the field of engineering in the individual provinces.

Graduates of non-CEAB-accredited programs must demonstrate that their education is at least equivalent to that of a graduate of a CEAB-accredited program.

Nigeria
In Nigeria, the Bachelor of Engineering (B.Eng) is a five year undergraduate professional degree course.

The title of "Engineer" or "Engr" is protected in Nigeria, making it impossible for any one to be addressed officially as one, if not a certified engineer.

Certification comes with registration and accreditation by Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Nigeria (COREN). It is the regulatory body that governs the practice of engineering in Nigeria.

The membership is required to practice engineering independently. It is a requirement for some engineering firms and is mandatory for government contracts.

title: Bachelor of Engineering