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Siraj ud-Daulah

Mirza Muhammad Siraj-ud-Daulah (1733 – 2 July 1757), commonly known as Siraj-ud-Daulah or Siraj ud-Daula, was the last independent Nawab of Bengal. The end of his reign marked the start of the rule of the East India Company over Bengal and later almost all of the Indian subcontinent.

Siraj succeeded his maternal grandfather, Alivardi Khan as the Nawab of Bengal in April 1756 at the age of 23. Betrayed by Mir Jafar, the commander of Nawab's army, Siraj lost the Battle of Plassey on 23 June 1757. The forces of the East India Company under Robert Clive invaded and the administration of Bengal fell into the hands of the company.

Early life and background
Siraj was born to the family of Mirza Muhammad Hashim and Amina Begum in 1733. Soon after his birth, Alivardi Khan, Siraj's maternal grandfather, was appointed the Deputy Governor of Bihar. Amina Begum was the youngest daughter of Alivardi Khan and Princess Sharfunnisa, the paternal aunt of Mir Jafar. His father, Mirza Muhammad Hashim was the youngest son of Haji Ahmad, the elder brother of Alivardi Khan. Siraj's great-grandfather was Mirza Muhammad Madani, who was of either of Arab or Turkic ancestry, the son of a foster-brother of the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb; Madani himself began his career as a cup-bearer under the latter's son Azam Shah. His great-grandmother belonged to the Turkic Afshar tribe of Khorasan. Through her, he was a grandnephew of Shuja-ud-Din Muhammad Khan, the two having shared a common ancestor in Nawab Aqil Khan.

Siraj was regarded as the "fortune child" of the family. He received the special affection of his grandfather and was raised at the Nawab's palace with all necessary education and training suitable for a future Nawab. Young Siraj also accompanied Alivardi on his military ventures against the Marathas in 1746. In 1750, Siraj revolted against his grandfather and seized Patna, but quickly surrendered and was forgiven. In May 1752, Alivardi declared Siraj as his successor. The former later died on 9 April 1756 at the age of eighty.

Reign as Nawab
Siraj ud-Daulah's nomination to the Nawab ship aroused the jealousy and enmity of his maternal aunt, Ghaseti Begum (Mehar un-Nisa Begum), Mir Jafar, Jagat Seth (Mehtab Chand) and Shaukat Jang (Siraj's cousin). Ghaseti Begum possessed huge wealth, which was the source of her influence and strength. Apprehending serious opposition from her, Siraj ud-Daulah seized her wealth from Motijheel Palace and placed her under confinement. The Nawab also made changes in high government positions by giving them to his own favourites. Mir Madan was appointed Bakshi (paymaster of the army) in place of Mir Jafar. Mohanlal was elevated to the rank of peshkar (courtclerk) of his Dewan-khane and he exercised great influence in the administration. Eventually, Siraj suppressed Shaukat Jang, governor of Purnia, who was killed in a clash.

Black Hole of Calcutta

During this period, the British East India Company was increasing their influence in the Indian subcontinent, particularly in Bengal; Siraj soon grew to resent the politico-military presence of the East India Company in Bengal. In particular, he was angered at the Company's alleged involvement with and instigation of some members of his own court to a conspiracy to oust him. His charges against the company were broadly threefold. Firstly, that they strengthened the fortification around the Fort William without any intimation or approval; secondly, that they grossly abused trade privileges granted them by the Mughal rulers – which caused heavy loss of customs duties for the government; and thirdly, that they gave shelter to some of his officers, for example, Krishnadas, son of Rajballav, who fled Dhaka after misappropriating government funds. Hence, when the East India Company began further enhancement of military strength at Fort William in Calcutta, Siraj ud-Daulah ordered them to stop. The Company did not heed his directives; consequently, Siraj retaliated and captured Calcutta (for a short while renamed Alinagar) from the British in June 1756. The Nawab gathered his forces together and took Fort William. The British captives were placed in the prison cell as a temporary holding by a local commander, but there was confusion in the Indian chain of command, and the captives were left there overnight, and many of them died.

Sir William Meredith, during the Parliamentary inquiry into Robert Clive's actions in India, vindicated Siraj ud-Daulah of any charge surrounding the Black Hole incident: "A peace was however agreed upon with Surajah Dowlah; and the persons who went as ambassadors to confirm that peace formed the conspiracy, by which he was deprived of his kingdom and his life."

Nizamat Imambara
Shi'ism was introduced to Bengal during the governorship of Shah Shuja (1641–1661 AD), son of Shah Jahan. From 1707 AD to 1880 AD, the Nawabs of Bengal were Shias. They built huge imambaras (Shia houses of worship), including the biggest of the Subcontinent built by Nawab Siraj-ud Daula, the Nizammat Imambara in the political capital Murshidabad. It and other imambaras built in towns such as the trading hub Hoogly attracted Shia scholars from within and outside India.

Conspiracy of British
The Nawab was infuriated on learning of the attack on Chandernagar. His former hatred of the British returned, but he now felt the need to strengthen himself by alliances against the British. The Nawab was plagued by fear of attack from the north by the Afghans under Ahmad Shah Durrani and from the west by the Marathas. Therefore, he could not deploy his entire force against the British for fear of being attacked from the flanks. A deep distrust set in between the British and the Nawab. As a result, Siraj started secret negotiations with Jean Law, chief of the French factory at Cossimbazar, and de Bussy. The Nawab also moved a large division of his army under Rai Durlabh to Plassey, on the island of Cossimbazar 30 mi south of Murshidabad.

Popular discontent against the Nawab flourished in his own court. The Seths, the traders of Bengal, were in perpetual fear for their wealth under the reign of Siraj, contrary to the situation under Alivardi's reign. They had engaged Yar Lutuf Khan to defend them in case they were threatened in any way. William Watts, the Company representative at the court of Siraj, informed Clive about a conspiracy at the court to overthrow the ruler. The conspirators included Mir Jafar, the paymaster of the army, Rai Durlabh, Yar Lutuf Khan and Omichund (Amir Chand), a Sikh merchant, and several officers in the army. When communicated in this regard by Mir Jafar, Clive referred it to the select committee in Calcutta on 1 May. The committee passed a resolution in support of the alliance. A treaty was drawn up between the British and Mir Jafar to raise him to the throne of the Nawab in return for support to the British in the field of battle and the bestowal of large sums of money upon them as compensation for the attack on Calcutta. On 2 May, Clive broke up his camp and sent half the troops to Calcutta and the other half to Chandernagar.

Mir Jafar and the Seths desired that the confederacy between the British and himself be kept secret from Omichund, but when he found out about it, he threatened to betray the conspiracy if his share was not increased to three million rupees (£300,000). Hearing of this, Clive suggested an expedient to the committee. He suggested that two treaties be drawn – the real one on white paper, containing no reference to Omichund and the other on red paper, containing Omichund's desired stipulation, to deceive him. The Members of the Committee signed on both treaties, but Admiral Watson signed only the real one and his signature had to be counterfeited on the fictitious one. Both treaties and separate articles for donations to the army, navy squadron and committee were signed by Mir Jafar on 4 June.

Lord Clive testified and defended himself thus before the House of Commons of Parliament on 10 May 1773, during the Parliamentary inquiry into his conduct in India:

"Omichund, his confidential servant, as he thought, told his master of an agreement made between the English and Monsieur Duprée [may be a mistranscription of Dupleix] to attack him, and received for that advice a sum of not less than four lacks of rupees. Finding this to be the man in whom the nawab entirely trusted, it soon became our object to consider him as a most material engine in the intended revolution. We, therefore, made such an agreement as was necessary for the purpose, and entered into a treaty with him to satisfy his demands. When all things were prepared, and the evening of the event was appointed, Omichund informed Mr Watts, who was at the court of the nawab, that he insisted upon thirty lacks of rupees, and five per cent. upon all the treasure that should be found; that, unless that was immediately complied with, he would disclose the whole to the nawab; and that Mr. Watts, and the two other English gentlemen then at the court, should be cut off before the morning. Mr Watts, immediately on this information, dispatched an express to me at the council. I did not hesitate to find out a stratagem to save the lives of these people, and secure success to the intended event. For this purpose, we signed another treaty. The one was called the Red, the other the White treaty. This treaty was signed by everyone, except admiral Watson; and I should have considered myself sufficiently authorised to put his name to it, by the conversation I had with him. As to the person who signed Admiral Watson's name to the treaty, whether he did it in his presence or not, I cannot say; but this I know, that he thought he had sufficient authority for so doing. This treaty was immediately sent to Omichund, who did not suspect the stratagem. The event took place, and success attended it; and the House, I am fully persuaded, will agree with me, that, when the very existence of the company was at stake, and the lives of these people so precariously situated, and so certain of being destroyed, it was a matter of true policy and of justice to deceive so great a villain."

Battle of Plassey

The Battle of Plassey (or Palashi) is widely considered the turning point in the history of the subcontinent, marking the start of British rule in India. After Siraj-ud-Daulah's conquest of Calcutta, the British sent fresh troops from Madras to recapture the fort and avenge the attack. A retreating Siraj-ud-Daulah met the British at Plassey. He had to make camp 27 miles away from Murshidabad. On 23 June 1757 Siraj-ud-Daulah called on Mir Jafar because he was saddened by the sudden fall of Mir Mardan who was a very dear companion of Siraj in battles. The Nawab asked for help from Mir Jafar. Mir Jafar advised Siraj to retreat for that day. The Nawab made the blunder in giving the order to stop the fight. Following his command, the soldiers of the Nawab were returning to their camps. At that time, Robert Clive attacked the soldiers with his army. At such a sudden attack, the army of Siraj became undisciplined and could think of no way to fight. Much of the army retreated. Betrayed by a conspiracy plotted by Jagat Seth, Mir Jafar, Krishna Chandra, Omichund, etc., Siraj lost the battle and had to escape. He rode away and went first to Murshidabad, specifically to Heerajheel or Motijheel, his palace at Mansurganj. He ordered his principal commanders to engage their troops for his safety, but as he was bereft of power due to the loss at Plassey, they were reluctant to offer unquestioning support. Some advised him to deliver himself up to the English, but Siraj equated this with treachery. Others proposed he should encourage the army with greater rewards, and this he seemed to approve of. Yet the numbers in his retinue were considerably diminished. Soon he dispatched most of the women of his harem to Purneah, under the protection of Mohanlal, with gold and elephants. Then, with his principal consort Lutf-un-Nisa and very few attendants, Siraj began his escape towards Patna by boat, but was eventually arrested by Mir Jafar's soldiers.

Death
Siraj-ud-Daulah was executed on 2 July 1757 by Mohammad Ali Beg under orders from Mir Miran, son of Mir Jafar in Namak Haram Deorhi as part of the agreement between Mir Jafar and the British East India Company.

Siraj-ud-Daulah's tomb is located at Khushbagh, Murshidabad. It is marked with a simple but elegant one-storied mausoleum, surrounded by gardens.

Critics
Siraj ud-Daulah has gained a positive reputation in India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan for his opposition to the beginning of British rule over India.

In 1985, Sarkar wrote: "After the death of Alivardii Khan, his immature grandson became the nawab of Bengal, taking the name Miirza Mohammed Siraj-Ud-Daola. In addition to his young age, he had many kinds of defects in his character and conduct."

Historian Sushil Chaudhary argued that Siraj ud-Daula’s villainous character is a misrepresentation.

Legacy
The end of Siraj ud-Daulah's reign also ended Bengali autonomy and marked the beginning of British power in India. In the Bengali version of the end of his rule, Mir Jafar and Robert Clive are the villains and Siraj is the victim. Even though he is rarely if ever depicted as an attractive person, he is regarded as having been sinned against, rather than as a sinner. As the movement for Indian independence gathered strength, Siraj along with Tipu Sultan and the heroes of the First War of Indian Independence including the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah II, gained iconic status as people who resisted the imperial aggression. In Bangladesh, he is regarded as the last legitimate ruler until Sheikh Mujibur Rahman emerged as leader following independence from Pakistan in 1971, a gap of some two hundred and fourteen years or so.

Siraj's legacy has become the subject of cultural war between those who want to offer some moral defense for Western imperialism as a civilizing mission and those who see the colonial period as one in which the strong exploited the weak, and reject the contention that Europe had much to offer India in terms of culture or that Europeans conducted themselves in a morally superior way.

Chayamanab (2022) is a Bengali novel has been written by Soumen Jana based on his tragic life.

Namesakes

 * Siraj ud Daula College, Karachi, Pakistan
 * Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah Government College, Natore, Bangladesh
 * Masjid-e-Siraj ud-Daulah, Bangladesh
 * Siraj-ud-Daula Road, Karachi
 * Nabab Siraj ud-Daulah Road, Chittagong, Bangladesh
 * Nawab Siraj-Ud-Daulah Sarani, Kolkata, India
 * Siraj ud-Daulah Park, Old Dhaka, Bangladesh
 * Siraj-ud-Doula Hall, Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh
 * Nawab Siraj Ud-Daulah College, Kushtia, Bangladesh
 * Siraj-ud-Daula Road, Kushtia, Bangladesh
 * Nawab Siraj ud-Daulah Hospital, Bangladesh
 * Nawab Siraj ud Daulah Road, Narayanganj, Bangladesh

In popular culture

 * Shiraz-Ud-Dowla (1927), Indian silent film directed by Dhanjibhai K. Desai.
 * Sirajuddaula (1938), musical opera by Nimalendu Lahiri.
 * Siraj-Ud-Dowla (1952), Indian Bengali-language film directed by Amar Dutta.
 * Ami Sirajer Begam (1960), historical novel set in Bengal by Sri Parabat.
 * Sirajuddaula (1965), play by Sikandar Abu Zafar.
 * Nawab Sirajuddaula (1967), an Indian Bengali-language film directed by Ramchandra Thakur, starring Bharat Bhushan.
 * Nawab Sirajuddaula (1967), a Bangladeshi film directed by Khan Ataur Rahman featuring Anwar Hossain.
 * Ami Sirajer Begam (1973), an Indian Bengali-language film directed by Sushil Mukhopadhyay, starring Ajitesh Bandopadhyay. Based on the 1960 novel by Sri Parabat.
 * Nawab Sirajuddaula (1989), remake of the 1967 film by Khan Ataur Rahman.
 * Ami Sirajer Begum (2018), Indian Bengali-language historical television soap opera.
 * '' "Zindabahar" Bangladeshi TV-series directed by Bangladesh Television

title: Siraj ud-Daulah


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Coverage

Coverage may refer to:

Filmmaking

 * Coverage (lens), the size of the image a lens can produce
 * Camera coverage, the amount of footage shot and different camera setups used in filming a scene
 * Script coverage, a short summary of a script, written by script readers to recommend whether a film should be made

Media and journalism

 * Broadcasting, radio, television, etc.
 * News ("press coverage", "media coverage"), the communication of selected information on current events

Music

 * Coverage, a Descendents/ALL cover band from Calgary, Alberta, Canada
 * Coverage (album), a 2003 album by Mandy Moore

Science and technology

 * Code coverage measure used in software testing
 * Coverage (telecommunication), a measure of cell phone or radio connectivity
 * Coverage (information systems), a measure for the quality/completeness of an information service
 * Coverage (shot peening), a criterion for quality of shot peening introduced by J.O. Almen in the 1940s
 * Coverage data, the mapping of one aspect of data in space, in geographic information systems
 * Coverage probability, in statistics

 * Coverage (genetics) or sequence coverage, or depth, in genetic sequencing

Other uses

 * Analyst coverage, securities assigned to a particular financial analyst for regular assessment
 * Insurance coverage, the amount and extent of risk covered by an insurer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Coverage


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Talk:Mamluk dynasty

Untitled
what language is mameluk? how come you would call your dynasty the 'slave dynasty'???

title: Talk:Mamluk dynasty


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William Warren (politician)

William Robertson Warren (October 9, 1879 – December 31, 1927) was a Newfoundland lawyer, politician and judge who served as the dominion's Prime Minister from July 1923 to April 1924.

Early life
His parents were William Matthew Henry Warren, a surveyor, and Jessie Sophia Warren. He had at least one sibling, a sister, Alice Mary Warren (died 1930), who was married to Robert Brown Job, President of Job Brothers & Co., Limited.

He received his education at Bishop Feild College, St. John's, Newfoundland and Framlingham College, in England. After studying law, Warren was admitted as a solicitor in 1901

Career
Warren was first elected to the Newfoundland House of Assembly in 1903 as a Liberal and served as Speaker of the House from 1909-1913. In 1919 he became minister of justice in the Cabinet of Sir Richard Squires. The Squires government became embroiled in a scandal over allegations of corruption and misspending of government funds and Squires resigned in protest along with three other ministers in 1923. The next year Squires was forced to resign and Warren was chosen the party's new leader and Prime Minister. His government launched a formal inquiry into the corruption charges which resulted in the arrest and conviction of Squires and several others. Warren's supporters turned against him and moved a Motion of No Confidence that defeated his government. Warren moved to the opposition benches and formed a coalition with Tory William J. Higgins to form the new Liberal-Conservative Progressive Party that won the election a few weeks later making the conservative Walter Stanley Monroe the new Prime Minister.

In 1926, Warren resigned from the House of Assembly and was appointed to the colony's Supreme Court.

Personal life
He was married first to Ethel Alice Gordon, by whom he had one son, John Henry Warren, and two daughters. He was married secondly to Emilie Jackson (died 1934) by whom he had one daughter.

Warren died in 1927.

title: William Warren (politician)


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Chamber

Chamber or The Chamber may refer to:

Organizations and government

 * Chamber of commerce, a form of business network
 * Legislative chamber, a deliberative assembly within a legislature
 * Debate chamber, a room for people to discuss and debate

Arts and entertainment

 * Chamber (character), in Marvel comics
 * The Chamber (game show), an American TV show
 * The Chamber (novel), by John Grisham, 1994
 * The Chamber (1996 film), based on the novel
 * The Chamber (2016 film), a survival film
 * , a German musical ensemble

Business

 * Barristers' chamber - office used by Lawyers

Other uses

 * Chamber (firearms), part of a weapon
 * Combustion chamber, part of an engine in which fuel is burned
 * Environmental chamber, used in testing environmental conditions
 * Execution chamber, where capital punishment is carried out
 * Gas chamber, apparatus for killing humans or animals
 * Chambar, or Chamber, a town in Pakistan

title: Chamber


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Talk:Matt Gonzalez

Nonpartisan nature of elections
There is a lot of emphasis in this article on Gonzalez's Green Party membership and the fact that he was one of the most successful Green politicians in the country. While I don't want to minimize this fact, I do think that something totally unmentioned in the article needs to be made clear: that California city elections are non-partisan, in that nobody's party affiliation appears on the ballot. Everyone from all parties competes in what is essentially a primary, and if nobody gets 50 percent, then the top two go to a runoff. This in essence makes the election much more about individuals than parties. I used to live in the Bay Area (Oakland, as it happens, where elections are run the same way) -- the difference in dynamics with my current home, Baltimore, where candidates participate in traditional party primaries before heading to the general -- is marked.

Anyway, I am trying to figure out the best way to put this in the article to explain how this dynamic works without minimizing the genuine point of interest: that a Green Party candidate almost was elected mayor of a major American city. --Jfruh (talk) 16:16, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Removing inaccurate "criticism" section per WP:BLP
The first sentence of "criticism"--"Gonzalez's critics considered him a stubborn and willful idealogue" is unsourced.

"He walked out of Mayor Willie Brown's State of the City address in 2002" How is that criticism?
 * It made big news in SF when it happened. It marked his split with Mayor Brown, a split that was never reconciled. Griot (talk) 17:07, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

The next: "..Gonzalez was the only board member who voted against it" How is this "criticism"?
 * Nancy Pelosi is from SF. Her being named Speaker of the House was a very big deal. It was remarked upon in its time, as the source indicates. Newsome used it against Gonzalez in his mayoral campaign. Griot (talk) 17:07, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

"Gonzalez said that supervisors shouldn't issue such commendations for winning partisan political positions...etc" HOW is that criticism?
 * That's not criticism. That is included in the article as Gonzalez's explanation for his actions. Griot (talk) 17:07, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

"spray-painted "Smash the State" on the walls of the office" Vandalism is criticism?
 * Spray-paitning "Smash the State" inside City Hall! Griot (talk) 17:07, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

Please do not revert these per the WP:BLP guidelines, which instructs that such nonsense be removed. Please discuss any changes proposed, or include well sourced criticism. GRIOT, I'm really not interested in Wikidramas, but I will report your continued policy violations--including your postings on my talk page telling me which articles I can or cannot edit--on the appropriate boards, as they are out of hand. Boodlesthecat (talk) 17:00, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Please do not go in and tear up articles without regard for the editors who came before you. I have discussed the changes here. I hope you will respect them. Griot (talk) 17:07, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * Please address the issues above--I am not going to go through tons of archives, particularly since you have inaccurately cited past discussion in other contexts.Boodlesthecat (talk) 17:09, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I addressed the issues above. You can go to the sources if you want. Click the footnotes below and start reading. Again, I find it odd that you who doesn't live in SF or even in California would make such huge cuts in this article when you don't know this person or his history very well. Griot (talk) 17:12, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * This is all original research. You need to say WHO made the criticism, and you need a RELIABLE SOURCE indicating where the criticism came from. And it needs to be criticism--citing someone walking out of an office is NOT criticism.
 * You DO NOT know where i live, and if you live in sanFrancisco, that does not give you license to write a criticism section without reliable sources. And again, please do not tell me where I can or cannot edit--that is a serious policy violation.Boodlesthecat (talk) 17:21, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * The sources are San Francisco newspapers. A newspaper is a reliable source. I can tell you don't live in California because of your comment "They're political parties, not religions (unless California is different?" Griot (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 17:25, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Discussion with you once again is proving pointless as you refuse to address the fact that this is original research--you do not indicate WHO the critic is or WHAT the criticism is--nor do you address the suggestion that vandalism of an office is not "Criticism." So this is on the WP:BLP/N BLP noticeboard to avoid wasting time with your filibustering and profligate edit warring.Boodlesthecat (talk) 17:50, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Whether Gonzalez's opining about Marxism is "tabloid gossip" is, of course, subjective. I would remind you that here in SF there are a number of Chinese-American refugees from Communist China who view Marxism with less charity than you. Sampson Wong, a Chinese-American, is one such person, so he reported Gonzalez's "Really, I am a Marxist" comment to the Golden Gate Breakfest Club and remarked that the audience was "stunned," as it would be, since the Club is composed mostly of Chinese-Americans. Can you put aside your own view of Marxism and imagine what Wong's might be? You'll notice that Gonzalez's comments about his remarks to the Breakfast Club were also included for balance in the text you cut from this article. In Gonzalez's "My Green Manifesto", he mentions liking the Communist Manifesto. Perhaps you can put yourself in the position of someone who had to flee a Communist state and who saw their family and friends, for example, murdered in the Cultural Revolution. You might be able to imagine how someone like this might find these comments disturbing. Griot (talk) 18:30, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Are you aware that this is an encyclopedia? That that section tells us NOTHING about Matt Gonzalez' ideology? Do you think Wikipedia exists solely for you to push your personal opinions (as you clearly think based on your explanation above)? Boodlesthecat (talk) 18:55, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * All I'm asking is for you to consider another person's view, in this case that of Chinese-American Sampson Wong. Given the two examples of Gonzalez's references to Marxism, you can see how Wong might interpret his words. An encyclopedia has to be objective. All I'm asking is for you to set aside you subjective views for a moment and imagine how someone else views this. I have heard some real horror stories from Chinese refugees her in SF, where Gonzalez and I live. Griot (talk) 19:08, 31 January 2008 (UTC)
 * What in the world do "horror stories from Chinese refugees her in SF" have to do with a biography of Matt Gonzalez? For the umpteenth time, biograpies are not repositories for your personal proclivities, as you clearly seem to think.Boodlesthecat (talk) 19:18, 31 January 2008 (UTC)

 * I'm concerned about a lot of the POV-pushing to leave out context and showing this subject in a less-than-favorable light. For instance "He walked out of Mayor Willie Brown's State of the City address in 2002" is valid content but his reasons which were also available in the references cited (I just happened to read the account) balances out why he did it and completely fits in with his stated concerns about politics. I've addressed a few points and added needed formatting. Let's keep this clean and when in doubt post to talk instead of adding items easily seen as POV, there may be some validity but we need to balance and adhere to a higher standard on BLP's. Benjiboi 04:32, 1 February 2008 (UTC)

Reference clean-up
All the references should be properly formatted including the accessdate. Ths will greatly help resolve content issues. Ben jiboi 03:25, 2 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, I am putting this on my "one citation per day" cleanup rounds. If a few people do this we can have it within a week or two.Wikidemo (talk) 03:02, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

External links clean-up
The external links should be cleaned up and if Gonzalez's writings are notable they should be converted to a bibliography section instead. Ben jiboi 03:26, 2 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Do you have a pointer to a style guideline on this, or an article where this is done the right way? Wikidemo (talk) 03:02, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

only image -- of Newsom?
In an article about Matt Gonzalez, the only image is a picture of Gavin Newsom. Makes no sense to me -- any objections to deleting the image? --Sfmammamia (talk) 02:31, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I object. Better to simply add a photo of Gonzalez. Benji boi 20:02, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Of course, it would be better, but if no image of Matt Gonzalez is immediately available, I still think that no image would be better than the current state. --Sfmammamia (talk) 20:07, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I've emailed a contact at the old campaign website for Matt Gonzalez in the hopes of obtaining a free use image. --Sfmammamia (talk) 20:31, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

I agree with Sfmammam. It is not at all customary to have a photo of someone's opponent in a political campaign on a website devoted to an individual. In fact, it is abnormal. A photo of Gonzalez, of course, belongs on the page. What must be done to delete the Newsom photo while one of Gonzalez is added? Wikiuser100 (talk) 21:19, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I will delete the Newsom image until this can be resolved. Now that Matt is a VP candidate there should be an image of him posted asap. bov (talk) 21:35, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Lots of images to choose from are here.bov (talk) 21:41, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Based on Wikipedia's image licensing restrictions, I don't think we can just pull an image off his old website, as they might not pass muster as fair use. There used to be an image on this article but it was deleted, presumably because it didn't have proper fair use justification or license information.  Note that some of the images on his old site bear copyright notices of the photographer.  The "info@mattgonzalez.com" email address bounced as full, the press contact listed there also bounced. I suggest we wait, perhaps, until a free-use image is posted, perhaps on the Nader campaign site? --Sfmammamia (talk) 23:09, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

A good image of both of them is here, on Nader's blog. What does it take for an image to be considered free-use? bov (talk) 19:37, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Wikipedia's image guidelines are here. Editor Wikidemo  has contacted the Nader campaign's Flickr account holder, which has some fine images released for limited media usage, to confirm that the stated license would extend to usage on Wikipedia. So my suggestion is to please hang tight, no sense in inserting images that will have to be deleted later by the copyright police. --Sfmammamia (talk) 20:48, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Many thanks to Bay Area photographer and activist Robert B. Livingston for posting a photo he took of Matt for the page. It's a good one. bov (talk) 22:04, 4 March 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, thanks. I haven't heard back on the Nader image so I guess we can let this one rest....Wikidemo (talk) 22:27, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

 * Thank you for the compliments-- but my photo was only posted as a temporary measure. I tried to post better photos made available by the Gonzalez campaign with the assurance that they were suitable-- however they were removed because they were obviously not considered within the Wikipedia's guidelines, although I thought they were. I am still hoping that a better, more suitable photograph will replace mine-- which has since been reinstated by another Wikipedia contributor-- replaced, by the way, by an image that is not completely true to the original image which I had posted (mine had a shadow on the border).  As my photo was contributed as public domain-- there is arguably nothing wrong with this-- but the Matt Gonzalez article deserves better-- and more iconographic photos.  Let's see if it happens-- meantime-- I do not wholly endorse the image that I contributed-- certainly not as a permanent image.--Robert B. Livingston (talk) 10:22, 6 May 2008 (UTC)

Trial lawyer?
Perhaps I'm nitpicking here, but public defenders (and criminal defense lawyers in general) are not commonly referred to as "trial lawyers". In its common usage, the term "trial lawyer" refers to a plaintiff's lawyer in civil trial. 68.53.88.198 (talk) 17:52, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

Improving article
Now that he's a VP candidate Gonzalez is no doubt giving his rumpled suit a much needed pressing...we should do the same here because a lot of people will be reading this article. I'm thinking a little more biographical material, especially his education and career as a lawyer, and his personal life. Also, I think the article is pretty good and neutral (let's hope it stays that way) for now. But English-wise it could be spiffed up. One thing I notice is a lot of contractions (didn't, wasn't, etc) that should be spelled out for formal tone. Ive done enough today and don't want to take over the article but that's my idea. Also, fixing reference cites as noted above, and googling and adding citations for important facts that aren't yet cited. I found that most uncited facts in the article are true, they just need us to find a source. Wikidemo (talk) 04:02, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

Image deletions
Why were the images that Robert Livingston posted of Matt deleted? I'll write to Robert Livingston and alert him. 67.170.205.8 (talk) 15:27, 7 June 2008 (UTC)

Re-Added Reference
IP address 71.139.23.172 deleted this reference. User has same IP range as User:Griot. Reference checked, confirmed valid. Restored. LandonAdamScott (talk) —Preceding undated comment added 21:15, 20 January 2010 (UTC).

Overhaul of this article?
Does anybody else think this article needs an overhaul? Nobody has editing it for some time. I think it should be parred down a bit commensurate to the subject. For example, most of the links in the "Articles by Gonzalez" section are dead. How about removing them? Most of them can be gotten at G's blog site anyway. If no one objects, I'd like to take a stab and winnowing this article. Chisme (talk) 18:08, 19 February 2015 (UTC)
 * I see there is no objection to this. I'm going to start by removing the "Articles" section and streamlining the intro. Chisme (talk) 17:06, 9 March 2015 (UTC)
 * Cut the fluff out of the "Early Life" section today. Chisme (talk) 00:07, 12 March 2015 (UTC)

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Recent Changes -- Further proposals
I saw the recent changes. Some were good. I broke this up into separate sections in case you wish to comment there.

(1) These two, I reverted (.  I do understand your attempt to simply the article into chronological order and move the information about party affiliation there.  However, Gonzalez was a unique politician in San Francisco (and the U.S.) because of his affiliation with the Green Party, it is worthy of a special section as in the original.  (I could probably find RS to support that. I think there is book by a San Francisco State Univ. Political Sci. author who discusses liberal politics that might discuss this.) I do not necessarily object to changing the material to be chronological if the emphasis/significance of Green Party affiliation switch is sufficiently highlighted. --David Tornheim (talk) 08:28, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

(2) In your change of the sentence about Gonzalez moving at the urging of Ammiano, I did not see that in the article. Please show me a quote if I am mistaken. The article says he formerly lived in the Mission, but I saw nothing indicating that he moved to District 5 at Ammiano's urging. I did see that you cut down on the definition of District 5. I doubt that is important. --David Tornheim (talk) 08:28, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

(3) I was okay with removal of some of the material that did not have RS. --David Tornheim (talk) 08:28, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

(4) In other thoughts. The section on Gonzalez's tenure at the Board (before becoming President) is only negative. Not exactly NPOV. I doubt that is all that is available in RS, even though the Chronicle has never been that fond of Progressives. Gonzalez was responsible for the Proposition that raised the min. wage, for example. --David Tornheim (talk) 08:28, 11 February 2016 (UTC)

More Changes
I see you are making a number of WP:BOLD changes without discussing on the talk page, and that you have not responded to anything I posted above from a year ago. I do think some of your edits are improvements, but not all. I would appreciate if you engage more here and that you propose big changes on the talk page first so we have time to consider them. Thanks. I am pinging, , who have also participated this month for any thoughts on these overall changes. --David Tornheim (talk) 23:11, 22 March 2017 (UTC)

I restored most of the Matt_Gonzalez. I did reduce some of the material that was WP:undue and not WP:NPOV. Please note that I try to make multiple edits so that you can tell what changed: simplify, revise, move. It is much easier to figure out what I did than if I had done it all in one big edit. I encourage others to try to do this too if possible, since our diff software is not smart enough to show these steps. Otherwise, relatively small changes can look like very big changes. --David Tornheim (talk) 23:20, 22 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I was wary of the deletion of the other material as it included citations, but it didn't feel important enough to contest. That said, I would probably remove the sentence about other politicians leaving the Green Party at the same time as Gonzalez. If, per the source, it truly is "coincidental" and not causal or cooperative, then I don't know that it really belongs in this article. It becomes speculative. -- GentlemanGhost  (converse)  00:38, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Okay. I deleted it. --David Tornheim (talk) 00:46, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I've been trying to streamline this article. It seems to have a lot of fluff. For example, why all the details about his run for VP? Why a whole paragraph about the October 18, 2008 protest? Why a whole paragraph about third-party VP debate? Also, I don't see why the article needs all the backing and forthing about Gonzalez's party affiliation. Yes, it was a big deal when he joined the Green Party and ran for mayor as a Green, but he soon the left the Green Party. Doesn't that negate all the drama around him being a member of the Greens? Party affiliation doesn't seem to matter much to him, which leads me to think it shouldn't matter much in this article. Chisme (talk) 18:16, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

 * Don't we report what is in the WP:RS rather than try to be mind readers about what matters to him? It seems the conclusion that he doesn't care about party affiliation is WP:SYN. --David Tornheim (talk) 19:10, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

 * It's a fair conclusion, I think, to assume his party affiliation doesn't matter that much. What about the third-party VP debate and the Oct 18 2008 protest? Clearly those are minor episodes in his life. Why do they get so much space? Chisme (talk) 19:37, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

 * As I recall, you've been here long enough to understand that we don't draw our own conclusions. I agree with David, that's completely WP:SYN. As for your other points, I don't really care about the third-party VP debate so much. That detail could probably be moved to an article about the election itself. Also, I don't know if the 2008 protest was particularly notable. One sentence might be sufficient for that. However, I would caution you not to let your apparent distaste for Gonzalez pull you away from the pillar of WP:NPOV. -- GentlemanGhost  (converse)  00:55, 29 March 2017 (UTC)

 * I take that to mean the third-party VP debate can go. I'm removing it. What about the 2008 protest which we agree isn't notable. Can that be removed? Chisme (talk) 03:38, 29 March 2017 (UTC)
 * I'm fine with that. David, what say you? I did a little more digging to see if I could find more resources for the October protest outside the NYSE. I didn't even get a bite from searching Democracy Now. It doesn't seem that notable to me. I think it can probably go. -- GentlemanGhost  (converse)  19:48, 29 March 2017 (UTC)

More RS
I see this page has quite a bit of RS within it: ...
 * SF Chronicle, 04/13/03 (re minimum wage)
 * SF Chronicle, 02/28/02 (re minimum wage)
 * SF Chronicle, 01/04/06 (re mimimum wage)

That's just for that one section. --David Tornheim (talk) 00:41, 23 March 2017 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Matt Gonzalez


text:
Mark-Paul Gosselaar

Mark-Paul Harry Gosselaar (born March 1, 1974 ) is an American actor. He is best known for playing Zack Morris in the NBC series Saved by the Bell. In 1991, he won a Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor Starring in an Off-Primetime Series.

He also played Paul Johnson in the ABC sitcom series Mixed-ish, Detective John Clark Jr. in NYPD Blue, and Peter Bash in the TNT legal series Franklin & Bash. He was also the lead in the 1998 film Dead Man on Campus. He later starred in the Fox TV series Pitch (2016) and The Passage (2019). He reprised the role of Zack Morris in a recurring capacity for the Peacock sequel series Saved by the Bell (2020) and stars in the NBC procedural drama ''Found (2023).

Early life
Gosselaar was born in Panorama City, Los Angeles, the son of Paula ( van den Brink), a homemaker and hostess for KLM, and Hans Gosselaar, a plant supervisor for Anheuser-Busch. He is the youngest of his parents' four children, and was the only one not born in the Netherlands.

His Dutch-born father is of German and Dutch Jewish descent. Gosselaar's Jewish paternal great-grandparents, Hartog and Hester Gosselaar, were murdered at the Sobibor extermination camp during the Holocaust. His Indonesian mother, who was born in Bali, Indonesia, was a flight attendant for KLM Royal Dutch Airlines.

Gosselaar has described himself as "half-Asian,” and mentioned collecting things from Indonesia.

Gosselaar speaks Dutch, and was fluent for a time, at home. His parents later separated.

Gosselaar's mother was his manager. He began modeling at the age of five, and as a child, he also appeared in commercials for Oreo cookies and Smurf merchandise, later winning guest spots on television series. He spent his teenage years in the Santa Clarita Valley in Southern California, where he attended Hart High School.

Gosselaar has said that his natural hair color is brown, but he was "blondish" as a kid. His hair was dyed blond throughout his run on Saved by the Bell.

Career
Gosselaar first came to public notice as the star of the hit television comedy series Saved by the Bell, which aired on NBC from 1989 to 1993. His character, Zack Morris, was adapted from the short-lived Disney Channel sitcom Good Morning, Miss Bliss; although that show was cancelled after one season, NBC executives believed that a similar show, with Zack Morris as the lead, had potential for success. He reprised the role in two TV movies and a less-successful spin-off, Saved by the Bell: The College Years. In 1994, he appeared as Zack Morris in a second spin-off series Saved by the Bell: The New Class in the episode "Goodbye, Bayside – Part 2", along with Mario López as A.C. Slater and Lark Voorhies as Lisa Turtle.

In 1996, he appeared in the TV-film She Cried No, as a college student who date-rapes his best friend's sister at a fraternity party. In 1998, he starred in the feature film Dead Man on Campus. Later that same year, Gosselaar played the central character in the TV drama Hyperion Bay, which lasted 17 episodes. In 2001, he starred in the movie The Princess and the Marine, with Marisol Nichols. He also starred in the short-lived WB series D.C. From 2001 to 2005, he played Detective John Clark on ABC's NYPD Blue. After the series ended, he joined the cast of ABC's Commander in Chief, which lasted only one season. He appeared on the HBO series John from Cincinnati. He then gained the starring role of defense attorney Jerry Kellerman in the Steven Bochco-produced Raising the Bar, which debuted on September 1, 2008, on TNT, then it was canceled in November 2009 after two seasons.

On June 8, 2009, Gosselaar appeared on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon in character as Zack Morris to promote his show Raising the Bar, indicating that the name Mark-Paul Gosselaar is his stage name and declaring, as Zack, that he would participate in a Saved by the Bell "Class" reunion that is being spearheaded by Fallon. On February 4, 2015, Gosselaar reunited with Mario Lopez, Elizabeth Berkley, Dennis Haskins and Tiffani Thiessen on The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon, where they appeared in a Saved by the Bell sketch with Fallon.

In October 2009, he made his off-Broadway stage debut in Theresa Rebeck's play The Understudy with The Roundabout Theatre Company. The show extended its limited New York run until January 17, 2010.

Gosselaar began filming the TNT series Franklin & Bash on March 28, 2010. The series premiered on June 1, 2011. On November 11, 2014, it was announced that the series was canceled, after four seasons. The FOX series Pitch cast Gosselaar in the main role of Mike Lawson, star catcher and team captain, in February 2016, and premiered on September 22, 2016. On May 1, 2017, it was announced that the series was canceled, after one season. He appeared in two episodes of Tiffani Thiessen's cooking show, Dinner at Tiffani's.

In 2019, Gosselaar began playing the lead role of Paul Jackson (Rainbow's father) in ABC comedy series Mixed-ish (spin-off and prequel series of Black-ish). He took over the role from Anders Holm, who played the character in the pilot episode. Gosselaar also reprised his role as Zack Morris in the 2020 sequel series Saved by the Bell.

Personal life
In a July 2009 interview with People, Gosselaar revealed that while Saved by the Bell was in production, he dated, at different times, his three female co-stars: Lark Voorhies, Tiffani Thiessen, and Elizabeth Berkley. He remains friends with his Saved by the Bell cast mates.

In 1996, Gosselaar married former model Lisa Ann Russell. Together, they have two children: a son (b. 2004), and daughter (b. 2006). After 14 years of marriage, Gosselaar and Russell announced their separation in early June 2010. Gosselaar filed for divorce June 18, 2010, and it became final in May 2011.

Gosselaar was engaged to advertising executive Catriona McGinn in August 2011. They married July 28, 2012, at the Sunstone winery in Santa Ynez, California. They have a son (b. 2013), and a daughter (b. 2015).

Gosselaar is a sports car enthusiast, race car driver, track cyclist, dirt biker, and pilot. In 2005, he competed in the Far West Championships for track cycling. He won the Category 4/5 Sprint Championship event at the Encino Velodrome. He is a Brazilian Jiu Jitsu purple belt under Rigan Machado.

Gosselaar resides in Los Angeles. He sold his Sherman Oaks home in February 2022.

Awards and nominations
Young Artist Award
 * 1989: Nominated, Best Young Actor in a Cable Family Series – Good Morning, Miss Bliss
 * 1990: Nominated, Outstanding Young Ensemble Cast – Saved by the Bell
 * 1991: Best Young Actor Starring in an Off-Primetime Series – Saved by the Bell
 * 1992: Nominated, Best Young Actor Starring in an Off-Primetime Series – Saved by the Bell
 * 1993: Nominated, Best Young Actor Starring in an Off-Primetime Series – Saved by the Bell

title: Mark-Paul Gosselaar


text:
RFA Brambleleaf

Three ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary have borne the name RFA Brambleleaf:

 * RFA Brambleleaf was an oiler launched in 1916 under the name RFA Rumol. She was renamed Brambleleaf in 1917. She was torpedoed and beached in 1942, and was broken up in 1953.
 * RFA Brambleleaf was a Leaf-class tanker tanker launched as the civilian London Loyalty for London & Overseas Freighters in 1953. She was bareboat chartered in 1959 and returned to her owners in 1972.
 * RFA Brambleleaf was a Leaf-class tanker launched in 1976 as Hudson Deep. She was taken into service in 1980 and sold for scrapping in 2009.

title: RFA Brambleleaf


text:
RFA Bayleaf

Three ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary have borne the name RFA Bayleaf:

 * RFA Bayleaf was an oiler, previously the civilian vessel Cevic. She was bought in 1914 and used as a dummy vessel to imitate the battlecruiser HMS Queen Mary. In 1915 she was converted to an oiler and renamed RFA Bayol, . She was renamed Bayleaf in 1917 and sold to Royal Dutch Shell in 1920.
 * RFA Bayleaf was an Leaf-class tanker tanker, built as the civilian London Integrity for London & Overseas Freighters in 1955. She was bareboat chartered in 1959 and returned to her owners in 1973.
 * RFA Bayleaf was a Leaf-class tanker, laid down in 1975 as the Hudson Sound . She was bareboat chartered in 1982 and decommissioned in 2011.

title: RFA Bayleaf


text:
RFA Oakleaf

Two ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA) have borne the name RFA Oakleaf:

 * RFA Oakleaf was the ocean liner Montezuma, acquired by the RFA in 1915 as a dummy battleship to imitate HMS Iron Duke (1912), and named Abadol. She was renamed Oakleaf in 1917 and was sunk by a U-boat later that year.
 * RFA Oakleaf was a Leaf-class tanker tanker launched in 1981 as the Oktania. She was acquired by the RFA in 1986 and was retired from active service as in 2007 and later scrapped.

title: RFA Oakleaf


text:
RFA Orangeleaf

Three ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary have borne the name RFA Orangeleaf:

 * RFA Orangeleaf was a Leaf-class tanker launched in 1916 in RFA Bornol, renamed RFA Orangeleaf in 1917 and sold in 1947.
 * RFA Orangeleaf was a Leaf-class tanker tanker launched in 1955 as Southern Satellite. She was purchased by the RFA in 1959 and broken up in 1978.
 * RFA Orangeleaf was a Leaf-class tanker launched in 1975 as Hudson Progress, and later renamed Balder London. She was acquired in 1984 and was decommissioned in September 2015.

title: RFA Orangeleaf


text:
History of broadcasting

It is generally recognized that the first radio transmission was made from a temporary station set up by Guglielmo Marconi in 1895 on the Isle of Wight. This followed on from pioneering work in the field by a number of people including Alessandro Volta, André-Marie Ampère, Georg Ohm, James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Rudolf Hertz.

The radio broadcasting of music and talk intended to reach a dispersed audience started experimentally around 1905–1906, and commercially around 1920 to 1923. VHF (very high frequency) stations started 30 to 35 years later. In the early days, radio stations broadcast on the longwave, mediumwave and shortwave bands, and later on VHF (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra high frequency). However, in the United Kingdom, Hungary, France and some other places, from as early as 1890 there was already a system whereby news, music, live theatre, music hall, fiction readings, religious broadcasts, etc., were available in private homes [and other places] via the conventional telephone line, with subscribers being supplied with a number of special, personalised headsets. In Britain this system was known as Electrophone, and was available as early as 1895 or 1899 [sources vary] and up until 1926. In Hungary, it was called Telefon Hírmondó [1893-1920s], and in France, Théâtrophone [1890-1932]).

By the 1950s, virtually every country had a broadcasting system, typically one owned and operated by the government. Alternative modes included commercial radio, as in the United States; or a dual system with both state sponsored and commercial stations, introduced in Australia as early as 1924, with Canada following in 1932. Today, most countries have evolved into a dual system, including the UK. By 1955, practically every family in North America and Western Europe, as well as Japan, had a radio. A dramatic change came in the 1960s with the introduction of small inexpensive portable transistor radios which greatly expanded ownership and usage. Access became practically universal around the world.

Formative years
Australian radio hams can be traced to the early 1900s. The 1905 Wireless Telegraphy Act whilst acknowledging the existence of wireless telegraphy, brought all broadcasting matters in Australia under the control of the Federal Government. In 1906, the first official Morse code transmission in Australia was by the Marconi Company between Queenscliff, Victoria and Devonport, Tasmania.

Experiments with broadcasting music
The first broadcast of music was made during a demonstration on 13 August 1919 by Ernest Fisk (later Sir Ernest) of AWA – Amalgamated Wireless (Australasia). A number of amateurs commenced broadcasting music in 1920 and 1921. Many other amateurs soon followed. 2CM was run by Charles MacLuran who started the station in 1921 with regular Sunday evening broadcasts from the Wentworth Hotel, Sydney. 2CM is often regarded as Australia's first, regular, non-official station.

Sealed set system
It was not until November 1923 when the government finally gave its approval for a number of officially recognised medium wave stations. All stations operated under a unique Sealed Set system under which each set was sealed to the frequency of one station. Part of the price of the set went to the government via the Postmaster-General's Department (PMG), with money also going to the broadcaster. Apart from extremely limited advertising, this was the broadcasters' only source of income. From the outset problems with the system came to the fore. Many young people built their own sets, which could receive all the stations.

Categories in Australia from 1924
As quickly as July 1924, the Sealed Set system was declared to be unsuccessful and it was replaced by a system of A Class and B Class stations. There were one or two A Class stations in each major market and these were paid for by a listener's licence fee imposed on all listeners-in. The five former sealed set stations became A Class stations, and they were soon joined by stations in other State capitals.

Amateur broadcasters continued to operate in the long wave and short wave bands.

A national service, the Australian Broadcasting Commission, was formed in July 1932, when the Australian Broadcasting Company's contract expired.

Early experiments with television
As early as 1929, two Melbourne commercial radio stations, 3UZ and 3DB were conducting experimental mechanical television broadcasts – these were conducted in the early hours of the morning, after the stations had officially closed down. In 1934 Valentine McDowall conducted experiments in electronic television. at amateur station 4CM Brisbane

Mobile stations
Two of Australia's most unusual medium wave stations were mobile stations 2XT and 3YB. They both operated in eras prior to the universal establishment of rural radio stations. 2XT was designed and operated by AWA within the State of New South Wales, from a NSW Railways train, between November 1925 and December 1927. 2XT, which stood for experimental train, visited over 100 rural centres. Engineers would set up a transmitting aerial and the station would then begin broadcasting. This led to the further sales of AWA products. 3YB provided a similar service in rural Victoria between October 1931 and November 1935. Initially, the station operated from a Ford car and a Ford truck, but from 17 October 1932 they operated from a converted 1899 former Royal Train carriage. Whilst the engineers were setting up the station's 50-watt transmitter in the town being visited, salesmen would sign up advertisers for the fortnight that 3YB would broadcast from that region. The station was on the air from 6.00 and 10.00 pm daily, and its 1,000-record library was divided into set four-hour programs, one for each of 14 days. In other words, the music broadcast from each town was identical. The station was operated by Vic Dinenny, but named after announcer Jack Young from Ballarat. On 18 January 1936, Dinenny set up 3YB Warrnambool, followed on 18 May 1937 by 3UL Warragul.

The merchant vessel MV Kanimbla is believed to be the world's only ship built with an inbuilt broadcasting station. The Kanimbla was constructed in Northern Ireland in 1936 and was primarily designed for McIlwraith, McEacharn & Co to ply passengers between Cairns and Fremantle. The broadcasting station was constructed and operated by AWA and was initially given the ham radio callsign VK9MI but was later 9MI. (At this time, the "9" in the callsign was aberrationary [see "Call Signs, above].) The station made an experimental broadcast before leaving Northern Ireland, and a number of such broadcasts at sea, on the way to Australia. 9MI's first official broadcast in April 1939 was made from the Great Australian Bight. The station broadcast on short wave, usually a couple of times per week, but many of its programs were relayed to commercial medium wave stations that were also owned by AWA. The 9MI manager and announcer (and probably the only member of staff) was Eileen Foley. 9MI ceased broadcasting at the commencement of World War II in September 1939. The Kanimbla was commissioned as a Royal Navy (later Royal Australian Navy) vessel with the name HMS/HMAS Kanimbla. It had an extremely prominent and successful war-time career.

Canada
The history of broadcasting in Canada begins as early as 1919 with the first experimental broadcast programs in Montreal. The Canadians were swept up in the radio craze and built crystal sets to listen to American stations while The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada offered its first commercially produced radio-broadcast receiver (Model "C") in 1921, followed by its "Marconiphone" Model I in 1923. Main themes in the history include the development of the engineering technology; the construction of stations across the country and the building of networks; the widespread purchase and use of radio and television sets by the general public; debates regarding state versus private ownership of stations; financing of the broadcasts media through the government, license fees, and advertising; the changing content of the programming; the impact of the programming on Canadian identity; the media's influence on shaping audience responses to music, sports and politics; the role of the Québec government; Francophone versus Anglophone cultural tastes; the role of other ethnic groups and First Nations; fears of American cultural imperialism via the airwaves; and the impact of the Internet and smartphones on traditional broadcasting media.

Radio signals carried long distances, and a number of American stations could easily be received in parts of Canada. The first Canadian station was CFCF, originally an experimental station from the Marconi Company in Montreal. Civilian use of Wireless Telegraphy had been forbidden in Canada for the duration of World War I. The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada was the only one to retain the right to continue radio experiments for military use. This proved instrumental in giving the company a lead in developing an experimental radio broadcasting station immediately after the war. The first radio broadcast in Canada was accomplished by The Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company of Canada in Montreal on December 1, 1919 under the call sign XWA (for "Experimental Wireless Apparatus") from its Williams Street factory. The station began regular programming on May 20, 1920 and its call letters were changed to CFCF on November 4, 1920. In Toronto, the first radio station was operated by the Toronto Star newspaper. Station CKCE began in April 1922 and was so well received that the Star pushed forward with its own studios and transmitting facilities, returning to the air as CFCA in late June 1922. In Montreal, another newspaper, La Presse, put its own station, CKAC on the air in late September 1922. Because there were governmental limitations on radio frequencies back then, CKAC and CFCF alternated—one would broadcast one night, and the other would broadcast the night after that.

As radio grew in popularity during the mid-1920s, a problem arose: the U.S. stations dominated the airwaves and with a limited number of frequencies available for broadcasters to use, it was the American stations that seemed to get most of them. This was despite an agreement with the US Department of Commerce (which supervised broadcasting in the years prior to the Federal Radio Commission) that a certain number of frequencies were reserved exclusively for Canadian signals. But if a US station wanted one of those frequencies, the Department of Commerce seemed unwilling to stop it, much to the frustration of Canadian owners who wanted to put stations on the air. The Canadian government and the US government began negotiations in late 1926, in hopes of finding a satisfactory solution. Meanwhile, in 1928, Canada got its first network, operated by the Canadian National Railways. CNR had already made itself known in radio since 1923, thanks in large part to the leadership of CNR's president, Sir Henry Thornton. The company began equipping its trains with radio receivers, and allowed passengers to hear radio stations from Canada and the US. In 1924, CN began building its own stations, and by 1928, it was able to create a network.

Cuba
There was interest in radio almost from broadcasting's earliest days. Due to the proximity of Cuba to the U.S. state of Florida, some Cubans would try to listen to the American stations whose signals reached the island. But there was no radio station in Cuba until 1922. The arrival of the first radio station, PWX, was greeted with enthusiasm. PWX, owned by the Cuban Telephone Company, was located in Havana. It was a joint venture with the International Telephone and Telegraph Company of New York. PWX debuted on the air on October 10, 1922. PWX broadcast programs in both English and Spanish, and its signal was easily received at night in a number of American cities. Another early station in Cuba was owned by Frank Jones, an American amateur radio operator and Chief Engineer of the Tuinucu Sugar Company. The station used amateur call letters, and went on the air as 6KW. In late 1928, PWX began using the call letters CMC. Its slogan was "If you hear 'La Paloma,' you are in tune with CMC." As with many other countries, interest in radio expanded, and by 1932, Cuba had more than thirty stations, spread out in cities all over the island.

France
Radio Paris began operations in 1922, followed by Radio Toulouse and Radio Lyon. Before 1940, 14 commercial and 12 public sector radio stations were in operation. The government exerted tight control over radio broadcasting. Political debate was discouraged; for example, in the 1932 election campaign, the opposition was allowed one broadcast while the incumbent made numerous campaign broadcasts. France lagged behind other European countries in consumer ownership of radio sets, with 5 million radio receivers in 1937, compared to over 8 million in both Britain and Germany and 26 million in the United States. The government imposed very strict controls on the dissemination of news. After 1938, stations were allowed only three brief bulletins of seven minutes each per day to cover the day's news. The Prime Minister's office closely supervised the news items that were to be broadcast. Due to these policies, French citizens learned little or nothing of the events surrounding the lead-up to World War II from the radio. As a result, the French population was often puzzled about the specifics of current events, and their morale and support for government policies was much weaker than in Britain, where news broadcasts were used to communicate regularly with citizens.

Germany
Ferdinand Braun's major contributions were the introduction of a closed tuned circuit in the generating part of the transmitter, and its separation from the radiating part (the antenna) by means of inductive coupling, and later on the usage of crystals for receiving purposes. Braun experimented at first at the University of Strasbourg. Braun had written extensively on wireless subjects and was well known through his many contributions to the Electrician and other scientific journals. In 1899, he would apply for the patents, Electro telegraphy by means of condensers and induction coils and Wireless electro transmission of signals over surfaces. Braun invented the phased array antenna, which led to the development of radar, smart antennas, and MIMO, in 1905 and shared the 1909 Nobel Prize in Physics with Marconi "for their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". The first civilian radio broadcast in Germany was a Christmas concert on December 22, 1920. While its reception was confirmed from all over Europe, reception in Germany was still a punishable offense, as a result of the Treaty of Versailles.

The first radio station in Germany went on the air in Berlin in late 1923, using the call letters "LP." Before 1933, German radio broadcasting was conducted by 10 regional broadcasting monopolies, each of which had a government representative on its board. The Post Office provided overall supervision. A listening fee of per receiver paid most costs, and radio station frequencies were limited, which restricted the number of amateur radio operators. Immediately following Hitler's assumption of power in 1933, Joseph Goebbels became head of the Ministry for Propaganda and Public Enlightenment and took full control of regulating and overseeing broadcasting. Non-Nazis were removed from broadcasting and editorial positions, and Jews were fired from all positions.

Germany was easily served by a number of European mediumwave stations, including the BBC, but the Nazis made it illegal for Germans to listen to foreign broadcasts. During the war, German stations broadcast war propaganda and entertainment for German forces dispersed through Europe, as well as air raid alerts. There was heavy use of short wave for "Germany Calling" programmes directed at Britain and Allied forces around the world. Goebbels also set up numerous Nazi stations that pretended to be from the Allied world.

Japan
The first radio station in Japan was JOAK, which opened in Tokyo in March 1925. It was founded by Masajiro Kotamura, an inventor and engineer. It was unique in that at least one of its announcers was a woman, Akiko Midorikawa. JOAK was followed soon after by JOBK in Osaka and JOCK in Nagoya. The National Broadcasting Service, today known as NHK (Nippon Hoso Kyokai), began in August 1926. All stations were supported by licensing fees: in 1926, for example, people wishing to receive a permit to own a radio set paid a fee of one yen a month to the government. Programming on Japanese stations of the 1920s included music, news, language instruction (lessons were offered in English, French and German) and education talks. These early stations broadcast on average about eight hours of programs a day.

Mexico
Amateur radio was very popular in Mexico; while most of the hams were male, notably Constantino de Tarnava, acknowledged in some sources as Mexico's first amateur radio operator, one of the early ham radio operators was female—Maria Dolores Estrada. But commercial radio broadcasting was difficult to achieve, due to a federal regulation forbidding any broadcasts that were not for the benefit of the Mexican government. Still, in November 1923, CYL in Mexico City went on the air, featuring music (both folk songs and popular dance concerts), religious services, and news. CYL used as its slogans "El Universal" and "La Casa del Radio", and it won over the government by giving political candidates the opportunity to use the station to campaign. Its signal was so powerful that it could sometimes be received in Canada. Pressure from listeners and potential station owners also contributed to the government relenting and allowing more stations to go on the air. In 1931, the "C" call letters were all changed to "X" call letters (XE being reserved for broadcasting), and by 1932, Mexico had nearly forty radio stations, ten of which were in Mexico City.

Philippines
Interest in amateur radio was noted in the Philippines in the early 1920s. There were radio stations operating in the Philippines, including one owned by American businessman named Henry Hermann, as early as 1922, according to some sources; not much documentation about that period of time exists. In the autumn of 1927, KZRM in Manila, owned by the Radio Corporation of the Philippines, went on the air. The Radio Corporation of the Philippines was a subsidiary of American company RCA (Radio Corporation of America). By 1932, the island had three radio stations: KRZC in Cebu, as well as KZIB (owned by a department store) and KZFM, the government-owned station in Manila. Of the stations listed by Pierre Key, KZFM was the strongest, with 50,000 watts. Two radio networks were ultimately created: one, the Manila Broadcasting Company, began as a single station, KZRH in Manila, in July 1939, and after World War II, in 1946, the station's owners began to develop their network by buying other radio properties. As for the Philippine Broadcasting Company, it too began with one station (KZFM), and received its new name in mid-1946, after the Philippines became an independent country. At the end of 1946, the new network had six stations. Both KZRH and KZFM also affiliated with American networks; the stations wanted to have access to certain popular American programs, and the American networks wanted to sell products in the Philippines.

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka has the oldest radio station in Asia and the second oldest in the world, known as Radio Ceylon. It is now known as the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation. Sri Lanka created broadcasting history in Asia when broadcasting was started in Ceylon by the Telegraph Department in 1923 on an experimental footing, just three years after the inauguration of broadcasting in Europe. Gramophone music was broadcast from a tiny room in the Central Telegraph Office with the aid of a small transmitter built by Telegraph Department engineers using the radio equipment of a captured German submarine.

United Kingdom
The first experimental music broadcasts, from Marconi's factory in Chelmsford, began in 1920. Two years later, in October 1922, a consortium of radio manufacturers formed the British Broadcasting Company (BBC); they allowed some sponsored programs, although they were not what we would today consider a fully commercial station. Meanwhile, the first radio stations in England were experimental station 2MT, located near Chelmsford, and station 2LO in London: both were operated by the Marconi Company. By late 1923, there were six stations broadcasting regularly in the United Kingdom: London's 2LO, Manchester's 2ZY, and stations in Birmingham (5IT), Cardiff, Newcastle, and Glasgow. As for the consortium of radio manufacturers, it dissolved in 1926, when its license expired; it then became the British Broadcasting Corporation, a non-commercial organization. Its governors are appointed by the British government, but they do not answer to it. Lord Reith took a formative role in developing the BBC, especially in radio.

United States
Reginald Fessenden did ground-breaking experiments with voice and music by 1906. Charles "Doc" Herrold of San Jose, California sent out broadcasts as early as April 1909 from his Herrold School electronics institute in downtown San Jose, using the identification San Jose Calling, and then a variety of different call signs as the Department of Commerce began to regulate radio. He was on the air daily for nearly a decade when the World War interrupted operations.

Pioneer radio station 2XG, also known as the "Highbridge station", was an experimental station located in New York City and licensed to the DeForest Radio Telephone and Telegraph Company. It was the first station to use a vacuum tube transmitter to make radio broadcasts on a regular schedule. From 1912 to 1917 Charles Herrold made regular broadcasts, but used an arc transmitter. He switched to a vacuum tube transmitter when he restarted broadcasting activities in 1921. Herrold coined the terms broadcasting and narrowcasting. Herrold claimed the invention of broadcasting to a wide audience, through the use of antennas designed to radiate signals in all directions. David Sarnoff has been considered by many as "the prescient prophet of broadcasting who predicted the medium's rise in 1915", referring to his radio music box concept.

A few organizations were allowed to keep working on radio during the war. Westinghouse was the most well-known of these. Frank Conrad, a Westinghouse engineer, had been making transmissions from 8XK since 1916 that included music programming. A team at the University of Wisconsin–Madison headed by Professor Earle M. Terry was also on the air.

1920s
By 1919, after the war, radio pioneers across the country resumed transmissions. The early stations gained new call signs. A few early stations, notably 8MK (later known as WWJ in Detroit) were started by newspapers, but in those early years, radio and newspapers regarded each other as competitors. One early station, 8XK in Pittsburgh, became KDKA in 1920; its ownership has asserted that it was the first radio station in the US, but that claim is controversial

Madison Avenue early on recognized the importance of radio as a new advertising medium. Advertising provided the major funding for most stations. The United States never had a licensing fee for set users.

Radio in education began as early as April 1922, when Medford Hillside's WGI Radio broadcast the first of an ongoing series of educational lectures from Tufts College professors. These lectures were described by the press as a sort of "wireless college." Soon, other colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula; some, like the University of Iowa, even provided what today would be known as distance-learning credits. Curry College, first in Boston and then in Milton, Massachusetts, introduced one of the nation's first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs. This success led to numerous radio courses in the curriculum which has taught thousands of radio broadcasters from the 1930s to today.

By 1931, a majority of U.S. households owned at least one radio receiver. In 1934, several independent stations formed the Mutual Broadcasting System to exchange syndicated programming, including The Lone Ranger and Amos 'n' Andy. Prior to 1927, U.S. radio was supervised by the Department of Commerce. Then, the Radio Act of 1927 created the Federal Radio Commission (FRC); in 1934, this agency became known as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC). A Federal Communications Commission decision in 1939 required NBC to divest itself of its Blue Network. That decision was sustained by the Supreme Court in a 1943 decision, National Broadcasting Co. v. United States, which established the framework that the "scarcity" of radio-frequency meant that broadcasting was subject to greater regulation than other media. This Blue Network network became the American Broadcasting Company (ABC). Around 1946, ABC, NBC, and CBS began regular television broadcasts. Another TV network, the DuMont Television Network, was founded earlier, but was disbanded in 1956; later in 1986 the surviving DuMont independent stations formed the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company.

Australia
Norman Banks was one of Melbourne's (and Australia's) most prominent broadcasters at 3KZ (1930-1952) and 3AW (1952-1978). He is remembered for founding Carols by Candlelight, as a pioneer football commentator, and for hosting both musical and interview programs. In later years he was one of Melbourne's first and most prominent talk back hosts. At the commencement of his career, Banks was known for his double entendres and risque remarks; as a talk back host he was outspoken in his conservative views, especially regarding the White Australia policy and Apartheid. In 1978 his 47-year career in radio was hailed as the longest in world history.

The transistor radio first appeared on the market in 1954. In particular, it made portable radios even more transportable. All sets quickly became smaller, cheaper and more convenient. The aim of radio manufacturers became a radio in every room, in the car, and in the pocket. The upshot of these two changes was that stations started to specialise and concentrate on specific markets. The first areas to see specialised stations were the news and current affairs market, and stations specialising in pop music and geared toward the younger listener who was now able to afford his/her own radio. Talk back ("talk radio") became a major radio genre by the end of the 1960s, but it was not legalised in Australia until October 1967.

Germany
When the Federal Republic of Germany was organized in 1949, its Enabling Act established strong state government powers. Broadcasting was organized on a state, rather than a national, basis. Nine regional radio networks were established. A technical coordinating organization, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft der öffentlich-rechtlichen Rundfunkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (ARD), came into being in 1950 to lessen technical conflicts. The Allied forces in Europe developed their own radio networks, including the U.S. American Forces Network (AFN). Inside Berlin, Radio in the American Sector (RIAS) became a key source of news in the German Democratic Republic.

Sri Lanka
Radio Ceylon was popular in the 1950s and 1960s in the Indian sub-continent. The station developed into the most popular radio network in South Asia. Millions of listeners in India for example tuned into Radio Ceylon. Announcers such as Livy Wijemanne, Vernon Corea, Pearl Ondaatje, Tim Horshington, Greg Roskowski, Jimmy Bharucha, Mil Sansoni, Eardley Peiris, Shirley Perera, Bob Harvie, Christopher Greet, Prosper Fernando, Ameen Sayani (of Binaca Geetmala fame), Karunaratne Abeysekera, S.P.Mylvaganam (the first Tamil announcer on the Commercial Service) were hugely popular across South Asia. The Hindi service helped build Radio Ceylon's fanbase among Hindi speakers in the Indian sub-continent. Gopal Sharma, Sunil Dutt, Ameen Sayani, and Hamid Sayani were some of the Indian announcers of the station. The Commercial Service of Radio Ceylon was hugely successful under the leadership of Clifford Dodd, the Australian administrator and broadcasting expert who was sent to Ceylon under the Colombo Plan.

United States
By 1955, a majority of U.S. households owned at least one television set.

Europe
Commercial radio (re-)legalisation in most European countries occurred in this era, starting with United Kingdom in 1973 (see Independent Local Radio) and ending with Austria in 1995.

In 1987, stations in the European Broadcasting Union began offering Radio Data System (RDS), which provides written text information about programs that were being broadcast, as well as traffic alerts, accurate time, and other teletext services.

Australia
In Australia, from August 2009, digital radio was phased in by geographical region. Today, the ABC, SBS, commercial and community radio stations operate on the AM and FM bands. Most stations are available on the internet and most also have digital outlets. By 2007, there were 261 commercial stations in Australia.

Sri Lanka
In Sri Lanka in 2005, in a celebration of 80 years of history of broadcasting, the former Director-General of the Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation, Eric Fernando, called for the station to take full advantage of the digital age – this included looking at the archives of Radio Ceylon. Ivan Corea asked the President of Sri Lanka, Mahinda Rajapakse, to invest in the future of the SLBC.

Great Britain

 * Briggs Asa. The BBC—the First Fifty Years (Oxford University Press, 1984).
 * Briggs Asa. The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom (Oxford University Press, 1961).
 * Crisell, Andrew An Introductory History of British Broadcasting. (2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2002)
 * Scannell, Paddy, and Cardiff, David. A Social History of British Broadcasting, Volume One, 1922-1939 (Basil Blackwell, 1991).
 * Street, Sean. A Concise History of British Radio, 1922-2002 (Kelly Publications, 2002)

United States

 * Aitkin Hugh G. J. The Continuous Wave: Technology and the American Radio, 1900-1932 (Princeton University Press, 1985).
 * Barnouw Erik. The Golden Web (Oxford University Press, 1968); The Sponsor (1978); A Tower in Babel (1966). Comprehensive history of American broadcasting
 * Catsis, John. Sports Broadcasting (1996)
 * Covert Cathy, and Stevens John L. Mass Media Between the Wars (Syracuse University Press, 1984).
 * Cox, Jim. Radio Journalism in America: Telling the News in the Golden Age and Beyond (McFarland, 2013)
 * Craig, Douglas B. Fireside Politics: Radio and Political Culture in the United States, 1920-1940 (2005)
 * Dunning, John. On The Air: The Encyclopedia of Old-Time Radio, Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 0-19-507678-8
 * Ewbank Henry and Lawton Sherman P. Broadcasting: Radio and Television (Harper & Brothers, 1952).
 * Gibson George H. Public Broadcasting; The Role of the Federal Government, 1919-1976 (Praeger Publishers, 1977).
 * Jackaway; Gwenyth L. Media at War: Radio's Challenge to the Newspapers, 1924-1939 (Praeger, 1995)
 * Lackmann, Ron. Encyclopedia of American Radio (2nd ed. 2000), Over 1000 short articles; not much changed from first edition which was entitled Same Time...Same Station (1995).
 * Lazarsfeld Paul F. The People Look at Radio (University of North Carolina Press, 1946).
 * McChesney; Robert W. Telecommunications, Mass Media, and Democracy: The Battle for the Control of U.S. Broadcasting, 1928-1935 Oxford University Press, 1994
 * Maclaurin W. Rupert. Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry (The Macmillan Company, 1949).
 * McCourt; Tom. Conflicting Communication Interests in America: The Case of National Public Radio (Praeger Publishers, 1999) online
 * Meyers, Cynthia B. A Word from Our Sponsor: Admen, Advertising, and the Golden Age of Radio (2014)
 * Ray William B. FCC: The Ups and Downs of Radio-TV Regulation (Iowa State University Press, 1990); on USA
 * Rosen Philip T. The Modern Stentors; Radio Broadcasting and the Federal Government 1920-1934 (Greenwood Press, 1980).; on USA
 * Slater Robert. This . . . is CBS: A Chronicle of 60 Years (Prentice Hall, 1988).
 * Smith, F. Leslie, John W. Wright II, David H. Ostroff; Perspectives on Radio and Television: Telecommunication in the United States Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1998
 * Sies, Luther F. Encyclopedia of American Radio: 1920-1960 (2d ed. 2 vol 2014)
 * Sterling, Christopher, and Kittross John M. Stay Tuned: A Concise History of American Broadcasting (Wadsworth, 1978).
 * White Llewellyn. The American Radio (University of Chicago Press, 1947).

title: History of broadcasting