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History of the Cossacks

The history of the Cossacks spans several centuries.

Early history
Several theories speculate about the origins of the Cossacks. According to one theory, Cossacks have Slavic origins, while another theory states that the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk of 1710 attests to Khazar origins. Modern scholars believe that Cossacks have both Slavic and Turkic origins. The Academician Ivan Zabelin mentioned that peoples of the prairies and of the woods had always needed "a live frontier", and even ancient Borisphenites (Dnieper Scythians) and Tanaites could be the predecessors of the Cossacks, not only the Khazars who may have assimilated, but this also includes the Severians, Goths, Scythians, and other ancient inhabitants, as insisted by Cossack folklore, by the Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk, and by numerous Cossack historians. Because of the need of both the Soviet and the anti-Bolshevik forces to deny any separate Cossack ethnicity, the traditional post-imperial historiography dates the emergence of Cossacks to the 14th-15th centuries. Non-mainstream theories, however, have borrowed the date 948 from imperial historiography, and ascribe an earlier Cossack existence to the tenth century, but deny Cossack links both to "the old people" (Khazars) and to "the new people" (Russians and Ukrainians; the very terms "old people" and "new people" being coined by the 11th-century Metropolitan Ilarion of Kiev), specifically mentioning 948 as the year when the inhabitants of the steppe under a leader named Kasak or Kazak routed the Khazars in the area of modern Kuban and organized a state called Kazakia or Cossackia.

Cossacks were mainly East Slavs. In the 15th century, the term originally described semi-independent Tatar groups which lived on the Dnieper River, which flows through Ukraine, Russia, and Belarus.

Some historians suggest that the Cossack people had mixed ethnic origins, descending from Russians, Khazars, Ukrainians, Tatars, and others who settled or passed through the boundless Pontic–Caspian steppeland that stretches from central Asia to southeastern Europe.

Some Turkologists argue that Cumania's Cossacks descend from Kipchaks, who partly originated near the northern Chinese borders and soon moved to Western Siberia. Afterwards they migrated further west into the trans-Volga region (present-day western Kazakhstan). In the 11th century they finally arrived in the steppe area north of the Black Sea in southern Russia and eastern Ukraine. They are closely related to modern Kazakhs.

Early Russian military greatly admired Cossacks for their equestrian skills. Many were hired as cavalry by Russian and Ukrainian warlords, in much the same way that they hired Black Klobuks as personal guards.

After 1400, the Cossacks emerge as an established and identifiable group in historical accounts. Rulers of the Grand Duchy of Moscow and of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth employed Cossacks as mobile guards against Tatar raids from the south in the territories of present-day southern Russia and eastern Ukraine. Judging by the records of their names, these early Cossacks seem to have included a significant number of Tatar descendants. From the mid-15th century, Cossacks are mostly mentioned with Slavic names.

All historical records of that period describe Cossack society as a loose federation of independent communities, often merging into larger units of a military character, entirely separate from, and mostly independent of other nations (such as Poland, Ukraine, Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia, or the Tatars).

In the 16th century, Cossack societies created two relatively independent territorial organisations:

 * Zaporizhia, on the lower bends of the river Dnieper in Ukraine, between Russia, Poland, and the Tatars of the Crimea, with their centre as the Zaporozhian Sich
 * the Don Cossack State, on the river Don, separated from the Russian state by rebel Nogai and Tatar tribes.

Don Cossacks
Numerous historical documents of that period refer to the Don Cossacks in Russia as a sovereign ethno-cultural people with a unique warrior culture. Cossacks conducted raids and pillaging against their neighbours as important sources of income. Already in 1444 Cossacks of Ryazan were mentioned as defenders of Pereslavl-Zalessky against the units of Golden Horde and in a letter of Ivan III of Russia in 1502. The area around the Don River was divided between the Crimean west side and the Nogai east side after the Golden Horde fell in 1480. The vast steppe of the Don region was populated by runaway serfs, by those who longed for freedom, by people who were not satisfied with the existing social order. Over time, the culture of the Don Cossacks was formed into a united community and were called "the Cossacks".

The Don Cossacks known for their attacks on the Ottoman Empire and its vassals (like the Tatars), although they did not shy away from pillaging other neighbouring communities. Their actions exacerbated the tension at the southern border of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (Kresy), resulting in almost constant low-level warfare in those territories for almost the entire existence of the Commonwealth. Their first recorded naval raid into the Black Sea dates to 1538, with an attack on the fortress of Ochakiv. This was followed by more frequent and better-organised raids elsewhere, the freeing of Christian slaves being one of the chief aims, as well as the acquisition of plunder. Their success was such that they attracted the attention of the western European powers, including the Papacy, who made diplomatic overtures in the hope of launching joint ventures against the Turks. In 1539, Grand Prince Vasili III of Russia asked the Ottoman Sultan to curb the Cossacks and the Sultan replied: "The Cossacks do not swear allegiance to me, and they live as they themselves please." In 1549, the Tsar of Russia, Ivan the Terrible, replied to a request of the Turkish Sultan to stop the aggressive actions of the Don Cossacks, stating, "The Cossacks of the Don are not my subjects, and they go to war or live in peace without my knowledge."

Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
Similar exchanges passed between Russia, the Ottomans and the Commonwealth; each of which often tried to use the Cossacks' warmongering for his own purposes. The Cossacks for their part were happy to plunder everybody more or less equally. Between the 16th to the 17th century, the Zaporoijan Cossacks became subjects first of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and later of the Union of Lublin of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth.

Using small, shallow-draft, and highly manoeuvrable galleys known as chaiky, they moved swiftly across the Black Sea. According to the Cossacks' own records, these vessels, carrying a 50- to 70-man crew, could reach the Anatolian coast of Asia Minor from the mouth of the Dnieper River in forty hours. The chaiky were often accompanied by larger galleys that served as command and control centres. The raids also acquired a distinct political purpose after Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny became hetman in 1613, intending to turn the host into the nucleus of a Ukrainian nation with the support of the European states.

By 1618, the Zaporozhians were members of the Anti-Turkish League, as Schaidachny transferred his seat of power to Kiev, the Polish Crown's regional capital.

The fighting qualities of the sea-going Cossacks were even admired in the Ottoman chronicles: "One can safely say that in the entire world one cannot find a people more careless for their lives or having less fear of death; persons versed in navigation assert that because of their skill and boldness in naval battles these bands are more dangerous than any other enemy."

In 1615, the raiders even sailed to the walls of Tsarhorod, as they referred to the Turkish capital, plundering the ports of Mizevna and Archioca. An attempt by the Turks to blockade the Berezan Island, and deny Cossacks access to the sea, was defeated in the spring of 1616. The raiders went on to capture Kaffa, which was burned down after all the slaves were freed. That same year Trebizond, in eastern Anatolia, was captured and destroyed. Sultan Ahmed I sent his fleet to the Dnieper in pursuit; but instead of going home the Cossacks once more sailed to Constantinople, where they raided at leisure, even rampaging through the Topkapı Palace, according to one account. The city was raided four more times, once in 1620 and no fewer than three times in 1624.

After 1624, the Zaporozhian raids gradually died out, as the Cossacks began to devote more and more of their martial energies to land-based campaigns, fighting on one side and then the other during such conflicts as the Thirty Years' War. Their numbers expanded with immigration from Poland proper and Lithuania. Szlachta failure to regard Zaporozhian Cossacks as nobles for inclusion in the registry of professional military cossacks eroded the Cossacks' loyalty towards the Commonwealth. The Cossack attempts to be recognized as equal to the szlachta were rebuffed and plans for transforming the Two-Nations Commonwealth (Polish–Lithuanian) into Three Nations (with Cossacks/Ruthenian people) were limited to a minority view. After the civil war of 1648 (or Rebellion from the Polish viewpoint) the Zaporozhian Host gained control of parts of Ukraine in 1649, although they at various time acknowledged the Polish King over the following decades.

There were several Cossack uprisings against the Commonwealth in the early 17th century. The largest of them was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, which together with The Deluge is considered as one of the events that brought an end to the Golden Age of the Commonwealth. This uprising distanced Cossacks from the Commonwealth sphere of influence, only to make them subject to the Tsardom of Russia under the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654), and established their realm as Left-bank Ukraine in 1667 under the Treaty of Andrusovo, and the Eternal Peace Treaty of 1686.

Ukraine and Tsarist Russia
After this point, the Cossack nation of the Zaporozhian Host was divided into two semi-autonomous republics within the Russian state: the Hetmanate on the Dnieper's left bank, and the more independent Zaporozhia to the south. A Cossack organization was also established in the Russian colony of Sloboda Ukraine.

These organizations gradually lost their independence, and were abolished by Catherine II by the late 18th century. The Hetmanate became the governorship of Little Russia, and Sloboda Ukraine the Kharkiv province. After having its capital, the Sich, similar to Ukrainian capitals Chigirin and Baturyn destroyed and relocated more than once, Zaporozhia was absorbed into New Russia.

The Cossacks that wanted to continue their lifestyle moved either to Ottoman and/or Austrian controlled territories on the Danube or after life on Bug and Dniester to the Kuban region, where they live to this date (see Kuban Cossacks)

Tsarist Russia and Russian Empire
This section derives originally from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica In the Russian Empire, the Cossacks constituted 12 separate Cossack voiskos, settled along the frontiers: the Don Cossacks, Kuban Cossacks, Terek Cossacks, Buh Cossacks, Astrakhan Cossacks, Ural Cossacks, Orenburg Cossacks, Siberian Cossacks, Semiryechensk Cossacks, Baikal Cossacks, Amur Cossacks, and Ussuri Cossacks. Also, there was a small number of the Cossacks in Krasnoyarsk and Irkutsk, who would form the Yenisey Cossack Host and Irkutsk Cossack regiment of the Ministry of the Interior in 1917. The stanitsa, or village formed the primary unit of this organization. Each stanitsa held its land as a commune, and might allow non-Cossacks (excepting Jews) to settle on this land for payment of a certain rent. The assembly of all householders in villages of less than 30 households, and of 30 elected men in villages having from 30 to 300 households (one from each 10 households in the more populous ones), constituted the village assembly. This assembly resembled the mir, but had wider attributes: it assessed the taxes, divided the land, took measures for the opening and support of schools, village grain-stores, communal cultivation, and so on, and elected its ataman (leader) and its judges, who settled all disputes up to an amount that the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica gives as "£10" (or above that sum with the consent of both sides).

All Cossack males had to perform military service for 20 years, beginning at the age of 18. They spent their first three years in the preliminary division, the next 12 in active service, and the last five years in the reserve. Every Cossack had to procure his own uniform, equipment and horse (if mounted), the government supplying only the arms.

Cossacks on active service were divided into three equal parts according to age, and only the first third (approximately age 18–26) normally performed active service, while the rest effectively functioned as reserves, based at home but bound to march out at short notice. The officers came from the military schools, in which all Cossack voiskos had their own vacancies, or were non-commissioned Cossack officers, with officers' grades. In return for this service the Cossacks received from the state considerable grants of land for each voisko separately.

In 1893, the Cossacks had a total population of 2,648,049 (including 1,331,470 women), and they owned nearly 146,500,000 acres (593,000 km2) of land, including 105,000,000 acres (425,000 km2) of arable land and 9,400,000 acres (38,000 km2) under forests. Each stanitsa controlled a share of the land, divided up at the rate of 81 acres (328,000 m2) per each soul, with special grants to officers (personal to some of them, in lieu of pensions), and leaving about one-third of the land as a reserve for the future. The income which the Cossack voiskos received from the lands (which they rented to different persons), also from various sources (trade patents, rents of shops, fisheries, permits for gold-digging, etc.), as also from the subsidies they received from the government (about £712,500 in 1893), went to cover all the expenses of state and local administration. They had, besides, a special reserve capital of about £2,600,000. Village taxes covered the expenditure of the village administration. Each voisko had a separate general administration, and administrative structures differed within the different voiskos. The central administration, at the Ministry of War, comprising representatives of each voisko, discussed the proposals of all new laws affecting the Cossacks. In time of war, the ten Cossack voiskos had to supply 890 mounted sotnias or squadrons (of 125 men each), 108 infantry sotnias or companies (also 125 men each), and 236 guns, representing 4267 officers and 177,100 men, with 170,695 horses. In time of peace they kept 314 squadrons, 54 infantry sotnias, and 20 batteries containing 108 guns (2574 officers, 60,532 men, 50,054 horses). Altogether, on the eve of World War I the Cossacks had 328,705 men ready to take up arms.

As a rule, popular education amongst the Cossacks stood at a higher level than in the remainder of Imperial Russia. They had more schools and a greater proportion of their children went to school. In addition to agriculture, which (with the exception of the Ussuri Cossacks) sufficed to supply their needs and usually to leave a certain surplus, they carried on extensive cattle and horse breeding, vine culture in the Caucasus, fishing on the Don, the Ural, and the Caspian Sea, hunting, beekeeping etc. The Cossacks mostly rented out rights to extract coal, gold and other minerals found on their territories to strangers, who also owned most factories.

The Tsarist authorities also introduced a military organization similar to that of the Cossacks into certain non-Cossack districts, which supplied a number of mounted infantry sotnias ("hundreds"). Their peace-footing on the eve of World War I comprised:
 * Daghestan, six regular squadrons and three of militia.
 * Kuban Circassians, one sotnia.
 * Terek, eight sotnias.
 * Kars, three sotnias.
 * Batum, two infantry and one mounted sotnia.
 * Turkomans, three sotnias.

In total, 25 squadrons and 2 companies...

Russian Revolution
In the Civil War that followed the Russian Revolution, the Cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict. Many officers and experienced Cossacks fought for the White Army, and some of the poorer ones joined the Red Army. Following the defeat of the White Army, a policy of Decossackization (Raskazachivaniye) took place on the surviving Cossacks and their homelands since they were viewed as a potential threat to the new regime. This involved dividing their territory amongst other divisions and giving it to new autonomous republics of minorities, and then actively encouraging settlement of these territories with those peoples, but there were also arrests and violent repressions. This policy of resettlement was especially true for the Terek Cossacks land. The Cossack homelands were often very fertile, and during the collectivisation campaign many Cossacks shared the fate of kulaks. The famine of 1933 hit the Don and Kuban territory the hardest. According to Michael Kort, "During 1919 and 1920, out of a population of approximately 3 million, the Bolshevik regime killed or deported an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Cossacks", including 45,000 Terek Cossacks.

World War II
When the war broke out the Cossacks found themselves on both sides of the conflict. Most fought for the Soviet Union; however, some chose to settle old scores by collaborating with the Germans, especially after the Soviet Union's initial series of defeats, including the loss of much of the army of Ivan Kononov, a former Soviet major who defected to the Germans on the first day of war with some of his 436th regiment, and served around the German-occupied city of Mogilev, guarding lines of communications against Soviet partisans.

In the summer of 1942, the German armies entered territories inhabited by the Cossacks. There in the open steppe resistance was futile, but nevertheless many, despite their hatred of Communism, refused to collaborate with the invaders of their country. While collaboration was inevitable, most of the leaders were former Tsarist officers who wanted to avenge their defeat by the Communists, but many recruits came from prisoner-of-war camps. On some occasions relatives separated by the Russian Civil War met each other again on different sides of the conflict and killed ruthlessly.

During the Battle of Stalingrad, Cossacks attacks, some led by Semyon Budyonny, were able to keep the Germans from entering the Caucausus, where particularly the Terek and the Kuban Cossacks were able to prevent the Germans from taking the mountains. Not only was the region rich in oil, but it was also the key to Iran and Iraq.

From 1943 onward, the Cossacks were kept mostly in the southern part of the front, where their use in reconnaissance and logistics proved invaluable. Many went on through Romania and into the Balkans during the final stages of the war.

Most of the collaborators, who some say numbered over 250,000 (although current figures claim the true number was not even a third of that) were the Don Cossacks, who, formerly the largest and strongest host, suffered the worst under Soviet collectivization policies. Kuban and Terek Cossacks, on the other hand, fought almost exclusively for the Red Army, and even in most desperate situations their heroism was evident. Being the largest Red Army Cossack host, the Kuban Cossacks in 1945 triumphantly marched on Red Square in the famous Victory Parade.

Many of the collaborators fled the Soviet advance (often chased by Soviet Cossacks) but under Soviet-Allied agreements thousands of them were handed back to the USSR. Following the death of Joseph Stalin, large numbers of the repatriated were allowed to return to their native lands, under a promise of secrecy. Only after 1991, with the collapse of the Communist regime in the USSR, could they openly mourn the lost members of their communities.

The division of the Cossacks in both the Russian Civil War and the Second World War continues to be a controversial issue to this day.

In Russia today
Since the collapse of the Soviet Union in Russia emerged numerous cossack communities all over the country. In Russia, both registered and unregistered communities identify with cossackism. The Cossack communities in Russia cooperate with each other as well as with the Russian Orthodox Church. End of 2018 the Cossacks have set up an All-Russian Cossack Community to coordinate cultural work and strengthen the Cossack roots (such as to introduce the original Cossack costumes again). During the 2018 FIFA World Cup Cossack groups were incorporated into Russian police forces in order to suppress anti-Putin protests.

In Ukraine today
In 21st-century Ukraine, there are hundreds of diverse associations of Cossacks.

The organization "The Ukrainian Registered Cossacks" (URC) was established on March 29, 2002 by the decision of the Grand Rada of All-Ukrainian public organization "Ukrainian Registered Cossacks" (URC) and was registered in the Ministry of Justice on 8 July 2002.
 * Hetman of URK
 * Anatoliy Shevchenko March 29, 2002 - present

External articles

 * Ukrainian Cossacks
 * Cossacks (Encyclopedia of Ukraine)

title: History of the Cossacks


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Volturno Line

The Volturno Line (also known as the Viktor Line; Volturno-Linie, Viktor-Linie, Linea del Volturno) was a German defensive position in Italy during the Italian Campaign of World War II.

The line ran from Termoli in the east, along the Biferno River through the Apennine Mountains to the Volturno River in the west.

Following the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 the German forces set up a series of defensive lines across Italy, intended to delay the Allied advance. The Volturno Line was the southernmost of these.

Eighth Army on the River Biferno (Battle of Termoli)

As a response to the increasing Allied pressure on the Adriatic front, on October 1 the German supreme commander in Italy—Generalfeldmarshall Albert Kesselring—ordered the 16th Panzer Division to switch to the Adriatic front. Elements of the British 78th Infantry Division's 11th Brigade infantry crossed the Biferno at dawn on 3 October 1943 following an amphibious landing at Termoli by British Commandos at 02:15. By late morning, the two elements had linked up and that night 78th Division's 36th Brigade were able to be landed by sea at Termoli. However, logistical problems had prevented the Allies building a heavy duty bridge across the Biferno and when the bulldozed fords were made unusable after 5 tanks had crossed, there was no way to get more tanks across the river to support the infantry. A lighter weight FBE bridge was built to allow artillery, reconnaissance, and other vehicles to cross. The move east of 16th Panzer Division presented a major and unforeseen threat to the unsupported Allied infantry. As news of the German armour's arrival came in on 4 October, 78th Division's commander— Major-General Vyvyan Evelegh—demanded priority from British Eighth Army, under General Bernard Montgomery, for bridging equipment. As more German armour arrived, the Allied troops across the Biferno were forced onto the defensive. By the afternoon of 5 October, they had been squeezed back to within .5 mi of Termoli. However, at the same time frantic round the clock efforts by engineers had resulted in a heavyweight Bailey bridge being completed, allowing Canadian and British armour to cross the Biferno. That evening, 78th Division's 38th (Irish) Brigade arrived by sea at Termoli and the German attack the following morning was narrowly repulsed in desperate fighting. By late morning on 6 October, the Allies were on the attack and by late afternoon the Germans had started to fall back to the next prepared defences on the River Trigno, the Barbara Line.

Fifth Army on the River Volturno

On the other coast, the U.S. Fifth Army, commanded by Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark, attacked across the Volturno on the night of 12 October. The Germans, using rearguard tactics, succeeded in slowing the American advance. They skillfully utilized the terrain, which was favourable for defence, to conduct a fighting withdrawal to the next line north (the Barbara Line) which the Allies reached by 2 November.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Volturno Line


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Baddeck

Baddeck is a village in northeastern Nova Scotia, Canada. It is situated in the centre of Cape Breton, approximately 6 km east of where the Baddeck River empties into Bras d'Or Lake.

Local governance is provided by the rural municipality of Victoria County, with an elected village council having limited authority. The population was 816 in the 2021 Census of Population.

It was first settled by United Empire Loyalists in the late 18th century, and prospered in the 19th century with mining, milling, and shipbuilding. Today the economy depends on services, cultural activities, and tourism.

Toponymy
Baddeck is one of the few Nova Scotian Mi'kmaq language place names that was not replaced by colonial settlers. The French called it La Bedeque, while Canadian Gaelic speakers called it Badaig. Its original name, Apatakwitk, has been variously reported as meaning "reversing flow", "place with island near" (a likely reference to Kidston Island), "a portion of food set aside for someone", or "a sultry place".

History
French Jesuits settled at nearby St. Anns in 1629. British settlement came during the 1700s after the territory was ceded by France.

In 1839, a property containing an inn, a tavern, and a post office was built. In 1841, Charles James Campbell opened a store began shipbuilding, and developed coal mining.

In 1851 Victoria County was split off from Cape Breton County and Baddeck became the site for the new county's jail and court house.

Baddeck rose to fame in 1874, with the publication of the travel memoir Baddeck, And That Sort of Thing.

In 1885 the Alexander Graham Bell family had a vacation in Baddeck. He then built a complex of buildings, including a new laboratory, named Beinn Bhreagh (Gaelic: beautiful mountain) after Bell's ancestral Scottish highlands. Initially a summer residence, Bell spent an increasing part of the year there, and conducted many experiments, including the AEA Silver Dart's first controlled powered flight in Canada in 1909. From 1885 to 1928 the estate included the Bell Boatyard which made both experimental and traditional boats. The yard was notable for its dual focus on both experimental and traditional boats and for its employment of large numbers of female boatbuilders.

Bell is commemorated at the Alexander Graham Bell National Historic Site.

Geography
The area sits on rocks from the Carboniferous Windsor Group. These include rock salt, limestone, potash, and gypsum, which are easily dissolved by groundwater and creates caves and sinkholes.

Climate
Baddeck experiences a humid continental climate (Dfb). The highest temperature ever recorded in Baddeck was 36.7 C on 22 August 1935. The coldest temperature ever recorded was -32.2 C on 11 February 1883.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Baddeck had a population of 818 living in 368 of its 415 total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of 826. With a land area of 2.11 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Attractions
Baddeck is one of several Cape Breton communities that plays host to the Celtic Colours festival each fall. The music festival features hundreds of Celtic musicians from Cape Breton and around the world.

In the spring, the village hosts the Cabot Trail Relay Race, a 298 km (185-mile) relay race around the Cabot Trail.

The Cabot Trail, a scenic route, passes through Baddeck.

Historic structures in the town include:
 * Telegraph House hotel, 1861, first came to prominence after it was featured in the 1874 book Baddeck, And That Sort of Thing. It once housed the Trans-Oceanic Cable Company, a pioneer in telegraphy.
 * Saint Peter's and Saint John's Anglican Church, 1883, wooden Gothic Revival church.
 * Gilbert H. Grosvenor Hall, 1886, Romanesque Revival structure of local red sandstone, originally built as the Baddeck Post Office and Custom House.
 * Victoria County Court House, 1889, Neoclassical wood and granite building.
 * Bras d'Or House, circa 1894, heavily remodelled, now houses apartments and a Chinese restaurant.
 * St. Mark's Masonic Lodge, 1898, built in the style of a church, featuring elaborate architectural and Masonic details, many of which now covered with vinyl siding.
 * Kidston Island Lighthouse, 1912, accessible by ferry in the summer.

Education
Baddeck Academy: primary to grade 12 school serving Baddeck and the surrounding communities.

Services

 * Bras d'Or Yacht Club
 * Bell Bay Golf Club
 * Baddeck (Guneden) Aerodrome

title: Baddeck


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User:Gewang

Ge Wang is a PhD student in the Department of Computer Science at Princeton University studying computer music. Perry Cook is his advisor. Together with Perry, Ge Wang designed ChucK, a concurrent, on-the-fly audio programming language.

Ge is part of the Princeton Sound Lab.

title: User:Gewang


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The Mad Dash

The Mad Dash is a television game show created by Sidney M. Cohen (who hosted the pilot episode) which first appeared in 1978 on Canada's CTV network and ran until 1981. The series proved to be a family favourite based on Canada's BBM ratings, and was also popular in parts of the northern United States, where CTV affiliates were available to Americans living near the Canada–United States border, both over the air and via cable. Pierre Lalonde was the MC, and Nick Hollinrake was the announcer for the show, which was taped at the studios of CFCF-TV in Montreal. This classic series is included in the collection of Canadian icons in the 2006 feature film Souvenir of Canada based on the book by Douglas Coupland. The series was later rerun on GameTV in Canada, from 2007 to 2010.

Only a handful of episodes still exist, due to the then common practice known as wiping. The pilot episode is up on YouTube.

Gameplay
Two pairs of contestants, always composed of a man and a woman and one a returning champion, competed in a giant board game, laid out as a winding path across the studio floor. Each team chose one member to be the "Dasher," moving on the board, and one as the "Roller," answering questions at the host's podium. Both Dashers began on the Start space at one end of the board, with the matchups always being man against woman.

The host asked a series of multiple-choice toss-up questions to the Rollers, and the first to buzz-in with the correct answer rolled an oversized six-sided die. A miss gave the opponent a chance to answer and steal the roll. Five of the die's faces were marked with pips to indicate numbers from 1 to 5, while the sixth face showed a dollar sign. If a number came up, the team's Dasher moved ahead that many spaces. The dollar sign added $10 to the team's bank and gave a free roll; if three consecutive dollar signs came up, the team was credited with $50.

In order to win, a Dasher had to reach the Win space at the end of the path by exact count. If the Roller rolled a number higher than the number of spaces needed to reach Win, the Dasher had to use the excess spaces to back up from Win. (E.g. if the Dasher was one space away from Win, a roll of 3 would leave him/her two spaces away.) When a Dasher reached Win, that team kept all cash and prizes they had banked during the game. If they had banked nothing, the Roller rolled the die once and received either $100 for a dollar sign, or $10 times the number rolled.

Teams remained on the show until they lost twice. For every seven games a team won, they were rewarded with the Lucky 7 jackpot, which consisted of $250 cash and an array of merchandise.

Spaces
Spaces on the board awarded cash or prizes, or affected the movement or gameplay in various ways. Some spaces remained constant, while others changed from one game to the next. Spaces took immediate effect, regardless of whether a Dasher landed on them while moving forward or backward.

Colour designations
The effects of landing on various spaces were differentiated by their colour as follows.

 * Blue − Added the prize displayed on the space to the team's bank. If a team landed on a space for a prize they had already banked, they were given a free roll. Both teams could bank the same prize.
 * Green − Banked the displayed amount of money, from $50 to $250. One green space would double the team's entire cash total.
 * Red − A negative effect, such as moving backward or losing cash/prizes.
 * Yellow − Other effects, such as moving forward.

In some episodes, orange spaces were used either in place of red and yellow ones, or in addition to them. These spaces affected the gameplay in special ways, such as by requiring the Dashers to trade places.

Common spaces

 * Roll Forward / Roll Back – Roller rolls again and Dasher moves forward or backward, respectively.
 * Roll Over – Roller rolls again and opposing Dasher moves forward.
 * Free Roll / Miss Turn – An extra roll for the team or their opponents, respectively.
 * Change Places – The Dashers switch places, and the one who had originally landed on "Change Places" receives the effect of the space on which he/she lands.
 * Back to Start – Dasher returns to Start.
 * Dash – The Dasher is asked a true/false question, and the Roller rolls the die. A correct answer moves the Dasher forward, but a miss moves him/her back.
 * Breakaway – Added in season 2; the Roller rolls the die, and the Dasher is given that many seconds (from 1 to 5) to run ahead on the board, stopping when time runs out. Whatever space the Dasher stops on when time runs out then goes into effect.  If the Dasher makes it to the Win space before time expires, that team wins the game.
 * Dice Game – The Roller rolls two dice. If both show dollar signs, the team wins $100 and another roll. Otherwise, the Dasher moves ahead according to the total.
 * Card Game – The Roller draws one playing card from an oversized deck. If a number card is drawn, the Dasher moves ahead that many spaces; an ace counts for one space. However, if a face card (king, queen, jack) is drawn, the Roller rolls the die and the Dasher moves back that many spaces.
 * Happy Birthday – The Dasher spins two concentric wheels. The outer wheel has six sections, showing five different cash amounts and an insurance policy; the inner wheel has 12 sections, one for each month of the year. If the outer wheel lands on a cash amount, the team banks the cash, or double the value if the inner wheel lands on the Dasher's birth month. However, if the outer wheel stops on the insurance policy, the team receives one to protect against losing their bank.
 * Go Broke / Return Prizes – The team forfeits their entire cash total, or only their banked prizes, respectively. An insurance policy can be used once to negate either penalty. Cash and prizes won in previous games are not affected.
 * Pot of Gold – A collection of prizes that the team keeps regardless of the outcome of the game.
 * Shooting Star - The Dasher throws a maximum of three Velcro-covered balls at a game board with several star-shaped prize and cash spaces. The team wins the first prize or cash amount hit by any of the Dasher's throws. One space is marked "Lose Loss," and will erase a team's first loss (if any) from their record if claimed.
 * Thin Ice – The Dasher is asked a true/false question. A correct answer allows the team to steal one prize from the opponents' bank, while a miss allows the opponents to steal one instead. If the Dasher answers correctly but the opponents have no prizes, he/she may move ahead up to five spaces at a cost of $10 per space.
 * Mini-game – The space is marked with the name of a mini-game which the Dasher must play. Position and/or prizes may be affected by the outcome.
 * Brains or Brawn – The Dasher must choose to answer a question or attempt a physical stunt, and the Roller rolls the die. Success allows the Dasher to move forward, but failure requires him/her to move back.

Mini Dash
If a game ended without leaving enough time at the end of the episode to start a new one, one or more audience members were called to the stage, one at a time, to play a Mini Dash. Each member played for a different prize and chose one of five envelopes, each containing a different set of three questions; two correct answers were needed to win. On some episodes, an "instant win" and "instant loss" were hidden in two of the envelopes instead of questions.

Other versions
The Mad Dash has also been produced internationally. The most successful foreign version of the format was Duety do Mety (literally translating to Duos to the finish line) created for Polish public broadcaster, TVP2, and aired from 1998 to 2000.

title: The Mad Dash


text:
Bobby Molloy

Robert Molloy (9 July 1936 – 2 October 2016) was an Irish politician who served as Minister of State for Housing and Urban Renewal and Minister of State to the Government from 1997 to 2002, Minister for Energy from 1989 to 1992, Minister for Defence from 1977 to 1979, Minister for Local Government from 1970 to 1973, Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education from 1969 to 1970 and Mayor of Galway from 1968 to 1969. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Galway West constituency from 1965 to 2002.

Molloy was born in Galway and was educated at Coláiste Iognáid and University College Galway. Molloy was first elected to Dáil Éireann as a Fianna Fáil TD for the Galway West constituency at the 1965 general election. In 1968, he was also elected Mayor of Galway. The following year he was appointed to the Cabinet as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Education. From 1970 to 1973, he served as Minister for Local Government. When Fianna Fáil returned to power in 1977, he became Minister for Defence in the final government of Jack Lynch.

In 1979, Molloy supported George Colley in the Fianna Fáil leadership contest. However, Charles Haughey was the eventual victor. After this Molloy was dropped from the Cabinet, becoming a member of the Gang of 22 who opposed Haughey's leadership of the party. In 1986, Molloy resigned from Fianna Fáil and joined the newly formed Progressive Democrats. In 1989, the party entered into coalition with Fianna Fáil, with Molloy becoming Minister for Energy. That same year he contested the European Parliament elections but was unsuccessful in his attempt. He stood at the European Parliament elections again in 1994, but was again unsuccessful. Following the 1997 general election, Molloy helped in the negotiations for forming the coalition government between the Progressive Democrats and Fianna Fáil. On that occasion he became Minister of State at the Department of the Environment.

Molloy retired from politics just before the 2002 general election amid controversy regarding constituency letters intervening in the rape case of Barbara Naughton.

title: Bobby Molloy


text:
Gerard Sweetman

Hugh Gerard Sweetman (20 June 1908 – 28 January 1970) was an Irish Fine Gael politician who served as Minister for Finance from 1954 to 1957. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Kildare constituency from 1948 to 1970. He was a Senator for the Agricultural Panel from 1943 to 1948.

Family and childhood
Hugh Gerard Sweetman was born on 20 June 1908. His father, James Sweetman, was a practising barrister, and the family's return for the 1911 census shows that they employed three servants at their Lower Baggot Street home. His mother Agnes was the daughter of Sir George Fottrell of North Great George's Street, Dublin. His brothers, Séamus, George, and Denis, served in the World War II; Denis was killed 23 May 1940 at Boulogne and Séamus was awarded an MBE in 1945.

James' brother, Roger Sweetman, was elected to the First Dáil representing Wexford North and was one of the first TDs to publicly call for a negotiated settlement to the Irish War of Independence.

He was educated at the Downside School in England. He completed his studies at Trinity College Dublin and went on to qualify as a solicitor in 1930.

Early political career
Sweetman's first brush with politics came with his involvement with the Blueshirts: He was a member of the League of Youth, one of their youth wings, and was elected to Blueshirt's national council in August 1935. As the Blueshirts dissipated, Sweetman folded into the newly formed Fine Gael. Three weeks after his 29th birthday, Sweetman contested the 1937 general election. His target was the four-seater Carlow–Kildare constituency. Out of a field of 7 candidates, Sweetman came in sixth with 8.5% of the vote.

He did not contest the 1938 general election but ran again in 1943, and once again failed to secure election. He secured a Seanad seat in weeks that followed, and remained in the upper house through the 1944 election, until finally, with the creation of a separate Kildare constituency, he won a Dáil seat at the 1948 general election.

The 1948 general election returned the first inter-party government under Taoiseach John A. Costello. This coalition represented an 'anybody-but-Fianna-Fáil' gathering from across the political spectrum, and the newest Kildare TD sat on the backbenches until the government fell in 1951.

A second inter-party government took office in June 1954 with Sweetman promoted to Minister for Finance.

In Professor Tom Garvin's review of the 1950s 'News from a New Republic', he comes in for praise as a moderniser and Garvin places him with a cross-party group including Daniel Morrissey of Fine Gael and William Norton of the Labour Party as well as Seán Lemass of Fianna Fáil who were pushing a modernising agenda

Sweetman also served as a member of Kildare County Council, including a term as chairman of the Council in the late 1940s.

Ministerial career
He was now 45 years old, and he inherited a national economy that was in crisis. Unemployment was at 421,000; over 100,000 people had left agriculture during the previous 8 years; the country was seeing a level of emigration unknown since the famine.

Sweetman differed in his thinking from the protectionist policies espoused by Éamon de Valera since the 1930s. Rather than focussing on a self-sufficient Ireland, Sweetman enacted policies that would make Ireland a net exporter.

In his first budget in 1955, he introduced a scheme whereby a tax exemption was provided for exported goods. He also established the Prize Bonds programme as a means of reducing the national debt. This debt was worrying in the mid-1950s. Two major bond issues were placed during Sweetman's tenure, for £20 million and £12 million. These were large sums at a time when an average worker entered the tax net with an annual salary of just £533.

However, Sweetman's greatest initiative as minister was the appointment of a young man of talent and vision. On 30 May 1956, he elevated a 39-year-old civil servant named Ken Whitaker to the position of Secretary-General of the Department of Finance. This was a revolutionary step, as it did not follow the convention of promotion based on time served. Whitaker's time at the department has been seen as instrumental in the economic development of the country, and a 2001 RTÉ contest named him 'Irishman of the 20th Century'. Whitaker continued in office under the Fianna Fáil government elected in 1957, and his seminal "First Programme for Economic Expansion" published in 1958 laid the foundations for economic growth in the 1960s.

Later career
For Sweetman, this brief period of government was not to be repeated and he would remain in opposition for the rest of his life.

During the 1960s, Fine Gael itself witnessed a major transformation. The decade began with a new leader, James Dillon, and a renewed focus on making the party relevant.

This internal revolution culminated in the 'Just Society' document produced by Declan Costello. The distinctly social democrat flavour of the document was very much at odds with Sweetman's deeply conservative views. However, the support of Liam Cosgrave and Garret FitzGerald ensured that the document was adopted as the party's manifesto for the 1965 general election.

In his last election, in June 1969, Sweetman was again returned to the Dáil for a seventh successive term. The election left only a handful of seats between Fianna Fáil and the opposition.

Death
He was known for his high-speed style of driving. on 28 January 1970 while returning from a business meeting on the continent, he had travelled down to Silvermines in Tipperary for another business meeting, and it was on the return journey that he lost control of his vehicle near Monasterevin, County Kildare and died.

Speaking at the first session of the Dáil that followed, Taoiseach Jack Lynch offered a sincere and moving tribute to the late Deputy. He spoke of a TD who "commanded respect and attention", especially in matters of finance; a "gifted parliamentarian who loved the cut-and-thrust of debate" and who was as "fair an opponent as he was formidable". He noted a career cut short: "Through his tragic and untimely death, Dáil Éireann and Irish public life have suffered a grievous loss. That loss will be felt all the more because of his great impact on, and contribution to, Irish political life".

title: Gerard Sweetman


text:
Cooking with the Wolfman

Cooking With the Wolfman is a cooking series first produced for the Aboriginal Peoples Television Network, an aboriginal television network in Canada.

The series is created, executive produced, and hosted by chef David Wolfman, whose home community is the Xaxli'p First Nation in British Columbia, western Canada, and who serves as professor of culinary arts at George Brown College in Toronto. Also executive produced by Larry Pasemko, this series combines traditional North American Native cuisine with modern dishes.

The series is now in its eighth season, produced by David Wolfman and directed for the last 5 seasons by Sidney M. Cohen.

title: Cooking with the Wolfman


text:
List of rivers of Colorado

This is a list of rivers and streams in the U.S. State of Colorado.
 * 1) Alphabetical list
 * 2) Tributary chart

Alphabetical list
The following alphabetical list includes many important streams that flow through the State of Colorado, including all 158 named rivers. Where available, the total extent of the stream's drainage basin is shown after the name. The names of the 17 Colorado rivers with a drainage basin of more than 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi), about three times the area of Rhode Island, are shown in bold.
 * 1) Adams Fork Conejos River
 * 2) Adobe Creek
 * 3) Alamosa River 383 km2 (148 mi2)
 * 4) Animas River 3,562 km2 (1,375 mi2)
 * 5) Apishapa River 2,798 km2 (1,080 mi2)
 * 6) Arikaree River 4,429 km2 (1,710 mi2)
 * 7) Arkansas River 478,501 km2 (184,750 mi2)
 * 8) Aspen Brook
 * 9) Bear Creek 4,500 km2 (1,737 mi2)
 * 10) Bear Creek 339 km2 (131 mi2)
 * 11) Bear River
 * 12) Beaver Creek 2,939 km2 (1,135 mi2)
 * 13) Big Dry Creek (Littleton, Colorado)
 * 14) Big Dry Creek (Westminster, Colorado)
 * 15) Big Sandy Creek 4,825 km2 (1,863 mi2)
 * 16) Big Thompson River 2,149 km2 (830 mi2)
 * 17) Bijou Creek 3,612 km2 (1,395 mi2)
 * 18) Blue Creek
 * 19) Blue River 1,770 km2 (683 mi2)
 * 20) Box Elder Creek
 * 21) Boulder Creek (1,160 km2 (448 mi2)
 * 22) Cache la Poudre River 4,959 km2 (1,915 mi2)
 * 23) Canadian River 122,701 km2 (47,375 mi2)
 * 24) Canadian River
 * 25) Carnero Creek
 * 26) Cebolla Creek
 * 27) Chalk Creek
 * 28) Cherry Creek 1,050 km2 (405 mi2)
 * 29) Chico Creek 1,934 km2 (747 mi2)
 * 30) Cimarron River 44,890 km2 (17,332 mi2)
 * 31) Cimarron River
 * 32) Clear Creek 1,497 km2 (578 mi2)
 * 33) Cochetopa Creek
 * 34) Colorado River(637,137 km2 (246,000 mi2)
 * 35) Conejos River 2,078 km2 (802 mi2)
 * 36) Crow Creek 3,717 km2 (1,435 mi2)
 * 37) Crystal River
 * 38) Cucharas River
 * 39) Culebra Creek
 * 40) Dolores River 11,998 km2 (4,633 mi2)
 * 41) Dry Fork Michigan River
 * 42) Eagle River 2,515 km2 (971 mi2)
 * 43) East Fork Arkansas River
 * 44) East Fork Cimarron River
 * 45) East Fork Eagle River
 * 46) East Fork Little Cimarron River
 * 47) East Fork Navajo River
 * 48) East Fork Piedra River
 * 49) East Fork Rio Chama
 * 50) East Fork San Juan River
 * 51) East Fork South Fork Crystal River
 * 52) East Fork Williams Fork
 * 53) East Mancos River
 * 54) East River 762 km2 (294 mi2)
 * 55) Elk River
 * 56) Encampment River
 * 57) Fall River
 * 58) Fall River
 * 59) First Fork Piedra River
 * 60) First Fork South Fork Piney River
 * 61) Florida River
 * 62) Fountain Creek 2,418 km2 (933 mi2)
 * 63) Fraser River
 * 64) Frenchman Creek 7,398 km2 (2,856 mi2)
 * 65) Fryingpan River
 * 66) Geneva Creek
 * 67) Gore Creek
 * 68) Grape Creek
 * 69) Green River (115,903 km2 (44,750 mi2)
 * 70) Gunnison River (20,851 km2 (8,051 mi2)
 * 71) Henson Creek
 * 72) Hermosa Creek
 * 73) Hidden River
 * 74) Hill Branch Cucharas River
 * 75) Horse Creek 3,680 km2 (1,421 mi2)
 * 76) Huerfano River 4,840 km2 (1,869 mi2)
 * 77) Illinois River
 * 78) Kettle Creek
 * 79) King Arroyo
 * 80) Kiowa Creek 1,888 km2 (729 mi2)
 * 81) La Plata River
 * 82) Ladder Creek 3,645 km2 (1,407 mi2)
 * 83) Lake Fork (Arkansas River tributary)
 * 84) Lake Fork Gunnison River
 * 85) Laramie River 11,961 km2 (4,618 mi2)
 * 86) Left Hand Creek
 * 87) Little Beaver Creek 1,602 km2 (619 mi2)
 * 88) Little Cimarron River
 * 89) Little Dolores River
 * 90) Little Dry Creek
 * 91) Little Navajo River
 * 92) Little Snake River 10,629 km2 (4,104 mi2)
 * 93) Little Thompson River
 * 94) Lodgepole Creek 8,374 km2 (3,233 mi2)
 * 95) Lone Tree Creek
 * 96) Los Pinos River
 * 97) Mancos River 2,099 km2 (810 mi2)
 * 98) McElmo Creek 1,842 km2 (711 mi2)
 * 99) Michigan River
 * 100) Middle Fork Cimarron River
 * 101) Middle Fork Conejos River
 * 102) Middle Fork Elk River
 * 103) Middle Fork Little Snake River
 * 104) Middle Fork Piedra River
 * 105) Middle Fork Purgatoire River
 * 106) Middle Fork South Arkansas River
 * 107) Middle Fork South Platte River
 * 108) Middle Fork Swan River
 * 109) Middle Mancos River
 * 110) Montezuma Creek 3,044 km2 (1,175 mi2)
 * 111) Muddy Creek
 * 112) Navajo River
 * 113) North Branch Conejos River
 * 114) North Fork Animas River
 * 115) North Fork Apishapa River
 * 116) North Fork Arikaree River
 * 117) North Fork Big Thompson River
 * 118) North Fork Cache la Poudre River
 * 119) North Fork Canadian River
 * 120) North Fork Cimarron River 4,462 km2 (1,723 mi2)
 * 121) North Fork Conejos River
 * 122) North Fork Crystal River
 * 123) North Fork Elk River
 * 124) North Fork Fryingpan River
 * 125) North Fork Gunnison River 2,492 km2 (962 mi2)
 * 126) North Fork Little Snake River
 * 127) North Fork Little Thompson River
 * 128) North Fork Los Pinos River
 * 129) North Fork Michigan River
 * 130) North Fork North Platte River
 * 131) North Fork Piney River
 * 132) North Fork Purgatoire River
 * 133) North Fork Republican River 13,172 km2 (5,086 mi2)
 * 134) North Fork Rio de los Piños
 * 135) North Fork Smoky Hill River 1,965 km2 (759 mi2)
 * 136) North Fork Snake River
 * 137) North Fork South Arkansas River
 * 138) North Fork South Platte River
 * 139) North Fork Swan River
 * 140) North Fork Vermejo River
 * 141) North Fork West Branch Laramie River
 * 142) North Fork West Mancos River
 * 143) North Fork White River
 * 144) North Platte River 80,755 km2 (31,180 mi2)
 * 145) North Saint Charles River
 * 146) Owl Creek
 * 147) Parachute Creek
 * 148) Pawnee Creek 1,875 km2 (724 mi2)
 * 149) Piceance Creek 1,630 km2 (629 mi2)
 * 150) Piedra River 1,770 km2 (683 mi2)
 * 151) Piney River
 * 152) Plateau Creek
 * 153) Plum Creek
 * 154) Purgatoire River 8,923 km2 (3,445 mi2)
 * 155) Quartz Creek
 * 156) Ralston Creek
 * 157) Rio Blanco
 * 158) Rio Chama 8,204 km2 (3,168 mi2)
 * 159) Rio Chamita
 * 160) Rio de los Piños
 * 161) Rio Grande 457,275 km2 (176,555 mi2)
 * 162) Rio Lado
 * 163) Rio San Antonio
 * 164) Rito Seco
 * 165) Roan Creek
 * 166) Roaring Fork Little Snake River
 * 167) Roaring Fork River 3,766 km2 (1,454 mi2)
 * 168) Roaring River
 * 169) Rush Creek 3,570 km2 (1,378 mi2)
 * 170) Saguache Creek 3,482 km2 (1,345 mi2)
 * 171) Saint Charles River
 * 172) Saint Louis Creek
 * 173) Saint Vrain Creek 2,572 km2 (993 mi2)
 * 174) Salt Creek
 * 175) San Juan River 64,560 km2 (24,927 mi2)
 * 176) San Luis Creek 7,000 km2 (2,703 mi2)
 * 177) San Miguel River 4,060 km2 (1,567 mi2)
 * 178) Sand Arroyo Creek 1,938 km2 (748 mi2)
 * 179) Sand Creek (Adams County)
 * 180) Sand Creek (Colorado Springs)
 * 181) Sand Creek (Larimer County)
 * 182) Sangre de Cristo Creek (Costilla County)
 * 183) Sidney Draw 1,949 km2 (753 mi2)
 * 184) Slate River
 * 185) Smith Fork
 * 186) Smoky Hill River 51,783 km2 (19,994 mi2)
 * 187) Snake River
 * 188) South Arkansas River
 * 189) South Fork Animas River
 * 190) South Fork Beaver Creek 1,939 km2 (749 mi2)
 * 191) South Fork Cache la Poudre River
 * 192) South Fork Canadian River
 * 193) South Fork Conejos River
 * 194) South Fork Crystal River
 * 195) South Fork Cucharas River
 * 196) South Fork Eagle River
 * 197) South Fork Elk River
 * 198) South Fork Fryingpan River
 * 199) South Fork Huerfano River
 * 200) South Fork Little Snake River
 * 201) South Fork Michigan River
 * 202) South Fork Piney River
 * 203) South Fork Purgatoire River
 * 204) South Fork Republican River 7,195 km2 (2,778 mi2)
 * 205) South Fork Rio Grande
 * 206) South Fork San Miguel River
 * 207) South Fork South Platte River
 * 208) South Fork Swan River
 * 209) South Fork West Mancos River
 * 210) South Fork White River
 * 211) South Platte River 62,738 km2 (24,223 mi2)
 * 212) Spring Creek
 * 213) Spruce Creek
 * 214) Stoner Creek
 * 215) Swan River
 * 216) Tarryall Creek
 * 217) Taylor River 1,258 km2 (486 mi2)
 * 218) Tenmile Creek
 * 219) Tennessee Creek
 * 220) Tomichi Creek 2,874 km2 (1,109 mi2)
 * 221) Trinchera Creek
 * 222) Two Butte Creek 2,107 km2 (814 mi2)
 * 223) Uncompahgre River 2,921 km2 (1,128 mi2)
 * 224) Vermillion Creek 2,500 km2 (965 mi2)
 * 225) West Branch Laramie River
 * 226) West Dolores River
 * 227) West Fork Animas River
 * 228) West Fork Cimarron River
 * 229) West Fork East Fork Williams Fork
 * 230) West Fork Elk River
 * 231) West Fork Encampment River
 * 232) West Fork Little Thompson River
 * 233) West Fork North Fork Purgatoire River
 * 234) West Fork Rio Chama
 * 235) West Fork San Juan River
 * 236) West Mancos River
 * 237) White River 12,989 km2 (5,015 mi2)
 * 238) White Woman Creek 3,000 km2 (1,158 mi2)
 * 239) Williams Fork (Colorado River tributary)
 * 240) Williams Fork (Yampa River tributary)
 * 241) Willow Creek
 * 242) Wind River
 * 243) Wolf Creek
 * 244) Yampa River 21,506 km2 (8,304 mi2)
 * 245) Yellow Creek 760 km2 (293 mi2)

Tributary chart
The following tributary chart shows many important streams that flow through the State of Colorado including all 158 named rivers. The chart is arranged by tributary and area of the drainage basin. The names of the 17 Colorado rivers with a drainage basin of more than 10,000 square kilometers (3,900 sq mi) are shown in bold. Oceans and streams outside of Colorado are shown in italics.

 Pacific Ocean
 * 1) Gulf of California
 * 2) Colorado River
 * 3) Green River
 * 4) Yampa River 21,506 km2 (8,304 mi2)
 * 5) Little Snake River 10,629 km2 (4,104 mi2)
 * 6) Roaring Fork Little Snake River
 * 7) Middle Fork Little Snake River
 * 8) North Fork Little Snake River
 * 9) South Fork Little Snake River
 * 10) Bear River
 * 11) Elk River
 * 12) South Fork Elk River
 * 13) Middle Fork Elk River
 * 14) North Fork Elk River
 * 15) Williams Fork
 * 16) East Fork Williams Fork
 * 17) White River 12,989 km2 (5,015 mi2)
 * 18) Piceance Creek 1,630 km2 (629 mi2)
 * 19) Yellow Creek 760 km2 (293 mi2)
 * 20) North Fork White River
 * 21) South Fork White River
 * 22) Vermillion Creek 2,500 km2 (965 mi2)
 * 23) upper Colorado River, formerly the Grand River
 * 24) Gunnison River 20,851 km2 (8,051 mi2)
 * 25) Uncompahgre River 2,921 km2 (1,128 mi2)
 * 26) Tomichi Creek 2,874 km2 (1,109 mi2)
 * 27) Cochetopa Creek
 * 28) Quartz Creek
 * 29) Cebolla Creek
 * 30) North Fork Gunnison River 2,492 km2 (962 mi2)
 * 31) Smith Fork
 * 32) Blue Creek
 * 33) Lake Fork Gunnison River
 * 34) Henson Creek
 * 35) Taylor River 1,258 km2 (486 mi2)
 * 36) East River 762 km2 (294 mi2)
 * 37) Slate River
 * 38) Cimarron River
 * 39) Little Cimarron River
 * 40) East Fork Little Cimarron River
 * 41) East Fork Cimarron River
 * 42) Middle Fork Cimarron River
 * 43) West Fork Cimarron River
 * 44) Dolores River 11,998 km2 (4,633 mi2)
 * 45) San Miguel River 4,060 km2 (1,567 mi2)
 * 46) South Fork San Miguel River
 * 47) West Dolores River
 * 48) Rio Lado
 * 49) Roaring Fork River 3,766 km2 (1,454 mi2)
 * 50) Crystal River
 * 51) North Fork Crystal River
 * 52) South Fork Crystal River
 * 53) East Fork South Fork Crystal River
 * 54) Fryingpan River
 * 55) North Fork Fryingpan River
 * 56) South Fork Fryingpan River
 * 57) Eagle River 2,515 km2 (971 mi2)
 * 58) Gore Creek
 * 59) East Fork Eagle River
 * 60) South Fork Eagle River
 * 61) Blue River 1,770 km2 (683 mi2)
 * 62) Snake River
 * 63) North Fork Snake River
 * 64) Tenmile Creek
 * 65) Swan River
 * 66) Middle Fork Swan River
 * 67) North Fork Swan River
 * 68) South Fork Swan River
 * 69) Little Dolores River
 * 70) Fraser River
 * 71) Saint Louis Creek
 * 72) Williams Fork
 * 73) East Fork Williams Fork
 * 74) West Fork East Fork Williams Fork
 * 75) Piney River
 * 76) North Fork Piney River
 * 77) South Fork Piney River
 * 78) First Fork South Fork Piney River
 * 79) Parachute Creek
 * 80) Roan Creek
 * 81) Plateau Creek
 * 82) Muddy Creek
 * 83) Willow Creek
 * 84) San Juan River 64,560 km2 (24,927 mi2)
 * 85) Animas River 3,562 km2 (1,375 mi2)
 * 86) Hermosa Creek
 * 87) Florida River
 * 88) North Fork Animas River
 * 89) South Fork Animas River
 * 90) West Fork Animas River
 * 91) Montezuma Creek 3,044 km2 (1,175 mi2)
 * 92) Mancos River 2,099 km2 (810 mi2)
 * 93) East Mancos River
 * 94) Middle Mancos River
 * 95) West Mancos River
 * 96) North Fork West Mancos River
 * 97) South Fork West Mancos River
 * 98) McElmo Creek 1,842 km2 (711 mi2)
 * 99) Piedra River 1,770 km2 (683 mi2)
 * 100) First Fork Piedra River
 * 101) East Fork Piedra River
 * 102) Middle Fork Piedra River
 * 103) La Plata River
 * 104) Navajo River
 * 105) Little Navajo River
 * 106) East Fork Navajo River
 * 107) Los Pinos River
 * 108) North Fork Los Pinos River
 * 109) Rio Blanco
 * 110) East Fork San Juan River
 * 111) West Fork San Juan River
 * 112) Wolf Creek

 Atlantic Ocean
 * 1) Gulf of Mexico
 * 2) Mississippi River
 * 3) Missouri River
 * 4) Platte River
 * 5) North Platte River 80,755 km2 (31,180 mi2)
 * 6) Laramie River 11,961 km2 (4,618 mi2)
 * 7) Sand Creek
 * 8) West Branch Laramie River
 * 9) North Fork West Branch Laramie River
 * 10) Encampment River
 * 11) West Fork Encampment River
 * 12) Canadian River
 * 13) North Fork Canadian River
 * 14) South Fork Canadian River
 * 15) Michigan River
 * 16) Illinois River
 * 17) North Fork Michigan River
 * 18) South Fork Michigan River
 * 19) Dry Fork Michigan River
 * 20) North Fork North Platte River
 * 21) South Platte River 62,738 km2 (24,223 mi2)
 * 22) Lodgepole Creek 8,374 km2 (3,233 mi2)
 * 23) Cache la Poudre River 4,959 km2 (1,915 mi2)
 * 24) North Fork Cache la Poudre River
 * 25) South Fork Cache la Poudre River
 * 26) Spring Creek
 * 27) Crow Creek 3,717 km2 (1,435 mi2)
 * 28) Bijou Creek 3,612 km2 (1,395 mi2)
 * 29) Beaver Creek 2,939 km2 (1,135 mi2)
 * 30) Saint Vrain Creek 2,572 km2 (993 mi2)
 * 31) Boulder Creek 1,160 km2 (448 mi2)
 * 32) Left Hand Creek
 * 33) Big Thompson River 2,149 km2 (830 mi2)
 * 34) Little Thompson River
 * 35) North Fork Little Thompson River
 * 36) West Fork Little Thompson River
 * 37) Fall River
 * 38) Roaring River
 * 39) North Fork Big Thompson River
 * 40) Aspen Brook
 * 41) Wind River
 * 42) Spruce Creek
 * 43) Hidden River
 * 44) Fish Creek
 * 45) Sidney Draw 1,949 km2 (753 mi2)
 * 46) Box Elder Creek
 * 47) Kiowa Creek 1,888 km2 (729 mi2)
 * 48) Pawnee Creek 1,875 km2 (724 mi2)
 * 49) Clear Creek 1,497 km2 (578 mi2)
 * 50) Ralston Creek
 * 51) Fall River
 * 52) Cherry Creek 1,050 km2 (405 mi2)
 * 53) Plum Creek
 * 54) North Fork South Platte River
 * 55) Geneva Creek
 * 56) Middle Fork South Platte River
 * 57) South Fork South Platte River
 * 58) Lone Tree Creek
 * 59) Owl Creek
 * 60) Tarryall Creek
 * 61) Sand Creek
 * 62) Bear Creek 339 km2 (131 mi2)
 * 63) Big Dry Creek (Littleton, Colorado)
 * 64) Big Dry Creek (Westminster, Colorado)
 * 65) Little Dry Creek
 * 66) Kansas River
 * 67) Republican River
 * 68) North Fork Republican River 13,172 km2 (5,086 mi2)
 * 69) Arikaree River 4,429 km2 (1,710 mi2)
 * 70) North Fork Arikaree River
 * 71) Frenchman Creek 7,398 km2 (2,856 mi2)
 * 72) Sappa Creek
 * 73) Beaver Creek
 * 74) South Fork Beaver Creek 1,939 km2 (749 mi2)
 * 75) Little Beaver Creek 1,602 km2 (619 mi2)
 * 76) South Fork Republican River 7,195 km2 (2,778 mi2)
 * 77) Smoky Hill River 51,783 km2 (19,994 mi2)
 * 78) Ladder Creek 3,645 km2 (1,407 mi2)
 * 79) North Fork Smoky Hill River 1,965 km2 (759 mi2)
 * 80) Arkansas River 478,501 km2 (184,750 mi2)
 * 81) Tennessee Creek
 * 82) Lake Fork
 * 83) Canadian River 122,701 km2 (47,375 mi2)
 * 84) Vermejo River
 * 85) North Fork Vermejo River
 * 86) Cimarron River 44,890 km2 (17,332 mi2)
 * 87) North Fork Cimarron River 4,462 km2 (1,723 mi2)
 * 88) Sand Arroyo Creek 1,938 km2 (748 mi2)
 * 89) Purgatoire River 8,923 km2 (3,445 mi2)
 * 90) North Fork Purgatoire River
 * 91) West Fork North Fork Purgatoire River
 * 92) Middle Fork Purgatoire River
 * 93) South Fork Purgatoire River
 * 94) Huerfano River 4,840 km2 (1,869 mi2)
 * 95) Cucharas River
 * 96) Hill Branch Cucharas River
 * 97) South Fork Cucharas River
 * 98) South Fork Huerfano River
 * 99) Big Sandy Creek 4,825 km2 (1,863 mi2)
 * 100) Rush Creek 3,570 km2 (1,378 mi2)
 * 101) Horse Creek 3,680 km2 (1,421 mi2)
 * 102) Apishapa River 2,798 km2 (1,080 mi2)
 * 103) North Fork Apishapa River
 * 104) Fountain Creek 2,418 km2 (933 mi2)
 * 105) Salt Creek
 * 106) Two Butte Creek 2,107 km2 (814 mi2)
 * 107) Chico Creek 1,934 km2 (747 mi2)
 * 108) South Arkansas River
 * 109) Middle Fork South Arkansas River
 * 110) North Fork South Arkansas River
 * 111) Grape Creek
 * 112) Saint Charles River
 * 113) North Saint Charles River
 * 114) East Fork Arkansas River
 * 115) Chalk Creek
 * 116) Bear Creek Basin (endorheic basin)
 * 117) Bear Creek 4,500 km2 (1,737 mi2)
 * 118) White Woman Basin (endorheic basin)
 * 119) White Woman Creek 3,000 km2 (1,158 mi2)
 * 120) Rio Grande 457,275 km2 (176,555 mi2)
 * 121) Rio Chama 8,204 km2 (3,168 mi2)
 * 122) Rio Chamita
 * 123) East Fork Rio Chama
 * 124) West Fork Rio Chama
 * 125) Conejos River 2,078 km2 (802 mi2)
 * 126) Rio San Antonio
 * 127) Rio de los Piños
 * 128) North Fork Rio de los Piños
 * 129) Middle Fork Conejos River
 * 130) North Branch Conejos River
 * 131) North Fork Conejos River
 * 132) South Fork Conejos River
 * 133) Adams Fork Conejos River
 * 134) South Fork Rio Grande
 * 135) Alamosa River 383 km2 (148 mi2)
 * 136) Trinchera Creek
 * 137) Sangre de Cristo Creek
 * 138) Culebra Creek
 * 139) Rito Seco
 * 140) San Luis Closed Basin (endorheic basin)
 * 141) San Luis Creek 7,000 km2 (2,703 mi2)
 * 142) Saguache Creek 3,482 km2 (1,345 mi2)
 * 143) Carnero Creek

title: List of rivers of Colorado


text:
Municipalities of Campeche

Campeche is a state on the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico that is divided into thirteen municipalities. According to the 2020 Mexican census, Campeche is the third least populous state with inhabitants and the 17th largest by land area spanning 57693.59 km2.

Municipalities in Campeche are administratively autonomous of the state according to the 115th article of the 1917 Constitution of Mexico. Every three years, citizens elect a municipal president (Spanish: presidente municipal) by a plurality voting system who heads a concurrently elected municipal council (ayuntamiento) responsible for providing all the public services for their constituents. The municipal council consists of a variable number of trustees and councillors (regidores y síndicos). Municipalities are responsible for public services (such as water and sewerage), street lighting, public safety, traffic, and the maintenance of public parks, gardens and cemeteries. They may also assist the state and federal governments in education, emergency fire and medical services, environmental protection and maintenance of monuments and historical landmarks. Since 1984, they have had the power to collect property taxes and user fees, although more funds are obtained from the state and federal governments than from their own income.

The largest municipality by population in Campeche is the state capital Campeche, with 294,077 residents, while the smallest municipality by population is Palizada with 8,683 residents. The largest municipality by area is Calakmul, which spans 14031.513 km2, while Tenabo is the smallest at 1061.631 km2. The first municipalities to incorporate were Campeche, Carmen, and Hecelchakán on April 6, 1825, and the newest municipalities are Dzitbalché and Seybaplaya, which incorporated January 1, 2021.

title: Municipalities of Campeche


text:
Ayllu

The ayllu, a family clan, is the traditional form of a community in the Andes, especially among Quechuas and Aymaras. They are an indigenous local government model across the Andes region of South America, particularly in Bolivia and Peru.

Ayllus functioned prior to Inca conquest, during the Inca and Spanish colonial period, and continue to exist to the present day – such as the Andean community Ocra. Membership gave individual families more variation and security on the land that they farmed. Ayllus had defined territories and were essentially extended family or kin groups, but could include non-related members. Their primary function was to solve subsistence issues, and issues of how to get along in family, and the larger community. Ayllus descended from stars in the Inca cosmogony, and just like stars had unique celestial locations, each ayllu had a terrestrial location defined by the paqarina, the mythical point of emergence of the lineage huaca.

Current practice
Ayllu is a word in both the Quechua and Aymara languages referring to a network of families in a given area, often with a putative or fictive common ancestor. The male head of an ayllu is called a mallku which means, literally, “condor”, but is a title which can be more freely translated as “prince”.

Ayllus are distinguished by comparative self-sufficiency, commonly held territory, and relations of reciprocity. Members engage in shared collective labor for outside institutions (mit'a), in reciprocal exchanges of assistance (ayni) as well as community labor tribute (mink'a, faena).

“Ayllu solidarity is a combination of kinship and territorial ties, as well as symbolism. (Albo 1972; Duviols 1974; Tshopik 1951; and Urioste 1975). These studies, however, do not explain how the ayllu is a corporate whole, which includes social principles, verticality, and metaphor ... Ayllu also refers to people who live in [a shared] territory (llahta) and who feed the earth shrines of that territory.”

In Bolivia, representatives from the ayllus are sent to the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu (Conamaq). This body chooses an Apu Mallku as its head.

Historical function and organization
How the ancient and current organizational form correspond is unclear, since Spanish chronicles do not give a precise definition of the term.

Ayllu were self-sustaining social units that would educate their own children and farm or trade for all the food they ate, except in cases of disaster such as El Niño years when they relied on the Inca storehouse system. Each ayllu owned a parcel of land, and the members had reciprocal obligations to each other. The ayllu would often have their own wak'a, or minor god, usually embodied in a physical object such as a mountain or rock. "Ayullus were named for a particular person or place."

In marriages, the woman would generally join the class and ayllu of her partner as would her children, but would inherit her land from her parents and retain her membership in her birth ayllu. This is how most movements of people between ayllu occurred. But a person could also join an ayllu by assuming the responsibility of membership. This included mink'a, communal work for common purposes, ayni, or work in kind for other members of the ayllu, and mit'a, a form of taxation levied by the Inca government and the Spanish Viceroyalties.

title: Ayllu


text:
Talk:Typesetting

Citation for info on the fate of minicomputer-based systems
A reference or citation is needed for this statement added by user:Dsagman –

 * "...By the year 2000, this industry segment had shrunk to serving primarily educational, reference, and professional publisers. In addition, the majority of this work, especially keying and data conversion, has moved off-shore to countries such as India and the Philippines."

I snipped it out of the article for the meantime, until it can be verified.

The original paragraph for context:

 * "Before the 1980s practically all typesetting for publishers and advertisers was performed by specialist typesetting companies. These companies, many of which in the US were located in rural Pennsylvania, New England or the Midwest where labor was cheap but within a few hours distance of the major publishing centers, performed keyboarding, editing and production of paper or film output, and formed a large component of the graphic arts industry. By the year 2000, this industry segment had shrunk to serving primarily educational, reference, and professional publisers. In addition, the majority of this work, especially keying and data conversion, has moved off-shore to countries such as India and the Philippines."

Arbo | talk 14:47, 12 September 2006 (UTC)

From the main page was this note:

 * note: deal with offset litho, production of a flong, etc. etc. here

I removed it because it should belong on talk, not the main page. Perhaps the author of the note would like to complete the task. Until then, let's not clutter the entry itself. MShonle 22:06, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Breaks within chapters in printing

 * ''The questions and imperfect answers are copied from Reference desk. I wish someone here would know the answer. -- Toytoy 15:10, May 29, 2005 (UTC)

In many books, especially in fiction, "breaks" in the text (by which I mean one or two completely blank lines separating groups of paragraphs) are seen at irregular intervals within chapters. Typically these breaks are found every few pages or so (although the spacing varies considerably), and they usually occur at the end of a "scene" or some other transition point. They break up a chapter into several sections, they provide logical stopping points for readers who want to quit before the end of a chapter, and they make it easier to find your starting place when you begin reading again at a later time. Somewhere I have read a specific name (a printer's term) to describe these "breaks". I believe I also read that if one of these breaks occurs at the end (or beginning) of a page, where it would not ordinarily be apparent, the printer should insert an ellipsis or similar indicator. My question is: what is the correct term for a break of this type in printing, and what are the proper rules for dealing with them? --DannyZ 03:21, 29 May 2005 (UTC)

 * I guess these breaks are called "blank lines":

 * Blank lines. If blank lines are used to indicate a lapse of time or a break in the continuity, a page should not break at this blank, for then the blank line is completely lost. The blank should be within the page with at least two lines of type between it and the top or the bottom of a page, If asterisks are used for this purpose, they may stand at the bottom of a page, but not at the top. (Words into Type, 1948, p. 154).

 * If you need more updated information, please check the latest edition of The Chicago Manual of Style. I don't have that book at hand right now. -- Toytoy 08:13, May 29, 2005 (UTC)

 * Errr... I'm pretty sure I've seen an article somewhere on Wikipedia on that topic, and they had a more technical name.   — Kieff | Talk 10:00, May 29, 2005 (UTC)

When I was employed in the Composition Department at Kingsport Press book manufacturer from 1969 to 2003, we called them "space breaks". They were usually but not always full lines of space (one body lead sinkage). Usually a space break indicating passage of time in narrative text (essentially an untitled sub chapter break) had to be maintained with text above and text below even if it meant facing pages had to be run a line short or a line long to push lines of text around in the chapter. Other shops I believe used the term "section break". --Naaman Brown (talk) 18:10, 7 August 2014 (UTC)

Confusing Photo
The photo with the caption 'Movable metal type' is not correct. The type should be in reverse, so it would read properly when used to transfer ink onto paper. Looking closer, the logo on the type holder seems backwards also, so my guess is the negative of the original photograph was flipped so the common phrase could be read properly. In the context of this article it should be flipped back. --ArtJazd Fri Jul 29 10:55 2005 (PST)

"Typesetting involves the presentation of textual material in an aesthetic form on paper or some other media." - Surely, it should be 'medium'? Reader, 8 Oct 2005

Weasley phrase about TeX
211.30.107.214 replaced "has" in the passage about TeX to "is considered to have". Okay, I can appreciate why, but "considered" is weasley and needs to be qualified. Who considers TeX to have set high standards? And what's the source? This criticism should be applied to the original, ie: what was the source for "...has set high standards..." Who, or what group of people say it has? —Arbo 19:49, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

Besides the issue of attribution, the reason for leaving it as "has" and not changing it to "is considered to have" set high standards for setting mathematics, is that it either has or it hasn't. There are no two ways about it. If experts on TeX say it has, then it has. Period. If non-experts say it hasn't, they're incorrect because they're not qualified to say so. The purpose of every article on Wikipedia is to convey expert knowledge from experts on a given topic. If there is a substantial body of opinion that says TeX has not set high standards for setting mathematics, we need to know who, and where and when they published their opinion. If those details are not provided I will revert the edit by 211.30.107.214 —Arbo 20:11, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Whilst i don't really care which phrase is used, as it is pretty immaterial in the end (angels on heads of pins etc) it is possible that the experts might disagree. Some might say it has. Others might say it hasn't. Period. Then we are getting into an argument about which experts views we should be accepting. And it doesn't really matter. Frelke 21:59, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

"it is considered to have" is semantic quibbling and a form of wordiness/writerliness. It complicates the sentence, and its a weasely turn of phrase. Its bad writing. Good writing is simple and easy to understand. Have you read Avoid weasel words? "The key to improving weasel words in articles is either a) to name a source for the opinion or b) to change opinionated language to concrete facts... ...If we add a source for the opinion, the reader can decide for themselves how they feel about the source's reliability."

''it is possible that the experts might disagree. Some might say it has. Others might say it hasn't.''

Fine by me---let's have some sources from these anonymous experts.

Then we are getting into an argument about which experts views we should be accepting.

No :-) I'm not arguing about which views to accept, just asking for sources for those views. Since we don't have any sources for expert opinions on this, the passage is best kept simple and to the point. Arbo 04:18, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Rather than revert the edit I have reduced the weasle phrase. I don't think the previous edit was vandalism but made in good faith. But wordy. Arbo 04:40, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

Weird paragraph
That paragraph about TeX is weird. It is entitled "TeX" but most of it does not talk about TeX at all.—Gniw (Wing) 19:52, 27 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Yep. Only the first sentence talks about TeX. The rest of it details other hypertext systems with "attractive WYSIWIG interfaces". —Arbo 03:56, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

 * This one has an easy solution:

 * ===TeX and other digital systems===
 * The TeX system created by Donald E. Knuth is another widespread and powerful automated typesetting system that has set high standards, especially for setting mathematics.

 * The arrival of SGML/XML as the document model made possible other typesetting engines like Penta, Miles 33 OASYS, Xyvision XPP, FrameMaker, Advent 3B2, and InDesign, which allow the users to program their typesetting process around the SGML/XML with the help of scripting languages popular. Some of them provide attractive WYSIWYG interfaces (unlike standard TeX) with support for XML standards and Unicode to attract a wider spectrum of users.

 * Same information rearranged with a better heading. The paragraph about TeX needs more info. I have emailed office@tug.org, inviting one of the staff of TeX Users Group to contribute some basic info on TeX.—Arbo 10:01, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

 * My typo in last edit summary shouldd read: "Split the difference and the ripples magnify. This way the article is more structured." :^) Arbo 10:19, 28 December 2005 (UTC)

intermediate period needs more coverage
The article goes straight from the letter-press era to the digital-era. But there was a considerable period between the two of analogue offset printing, light-tables, paste-ups, camera-readies, etc.

Digital era - Fairchild
I suspect that the Fairchild that is intended here is Fairchild Semiconductor, but I have no idea where to find a source for it. If someone knows sources for this info, citation would be excellent. -Sopoforic 02:30, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

Lettering
The stone carving article says "Stone carving that is done to produce lettering is more often referred to as Lettering." which was forwarded to this page. However there is no discussion of Lettering on this page. I do not think that typesetting is the correct place for forwarding lettering and the discussion does not seem to have any details on stone carving of symbols, letters. Any ideas on where it might have gone? Synapse001 13:59, 20 December 2006 (UTC)
 * The original redirect was to Calligraphy, which doesn't deal with your question either. It does seem to be a better fit, however, and I'm inclined to change it back, subject to any objections. --Old Moonraker 14:48, 20 December 2006 (UTC)
 * OK no objections I'll revert it to Calligraphy. Synapse001: sorry I couldn't help with your question – it's something that should be in. --Old Moonraker 10:28, 22 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Done --Old Moonraker 06:50, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

Error in integral
The integral on the image showing int(f(x),0,3) is mathematical nonsense. The integral is definite integral, while the result on the right side of the equation is antiderivative. The simplest solution is to remove bounds of the integration.

212.2.99.88 11:00, 8 May 2007 (UTC) et21@go2.pl

Typesetting and its emergence
Typesetting involves the presentation of textual material in graphic form on paper or some other medium. Even STM typesetting is emerging alternatives to traditional publishing.Also the editorial quality of your work matters alot. Infact Manuscript editing and proofreading are broad categories and encompass an array of editing levels. The idea is to make publication free from typographical, grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors.

Typesetting Books, journals and periodicals —Preceding unsigned comment added by 122.162.242.197 (talk) 06:28, 9 October 2009 (UTC)
 * "Free from typographical, grammatical, spelling and punctuation errors". Right...
 * I was going to remove this advert, as I did from the article, but perhaps it should be left to speak for itself! --Old Moonraker (talk) 07:08, 9 October 2009 (UTC)

1970s and 1980s
A list of minicomputer-based typesetting software, said to have originated in the 1970s, included Xyvision. But Xyvision was incorporated, and shipped its first product, in the early 1980s. Therefore, I added "and 1980s" to the wording. Publius3 05:09, 11 June 2007 (UTC)

Stickfight
"Stickfight is a fun little interactive time-waster"

On Wikipedia it looks more like vandalism. This edit reverted and user warned. --Old Moonraker (talk) 08:32, 26 May 2011 (UTC)
 * xkcd readers have a history of starting concerted, time-wasting edit wars on Wikipedia and this reference to the comic made me think that this may be another one. Second opinion requested at WP:ANI. --Old Moonraker (talk) 06:59, 27 May 2011 (UTC)

Baloney in a code comment in the TeX paragraph
I went ahead and removed this. It was commented out by someone else, and as another editor said, it's baloney - especially the last line:

"TeX is a very powerful typesetting system used in many applications other than mathematics. The Editora graphical user interface written by D. Klutz, using TeX as typesetting engine, offers a powerful pagination tool for Classified Ads Newspapers and Magazines. Editora is used by the major Classified Ads Newspapers and Magazines in France. The 12,000 pages landmark French dictionary Le Robert edition 2003 was typeset by TeX in less than 10 minutes."

--72.193.56.159 (talk) 07:42, 9 August 2011 (UTC)

Eyewitness information
I don't want to write an article, but as a participant in some of the events cited in the typesetting article, I'd like to mention a few things.

On the history of photocomposition

Higonnet and Moyroud were the inventors of this, during WWII is my understanding. They were hiding out in Lyon, France, during a portion of the war and spent all that time working on their first prototype. Afterwards, they founded Lumitype in Paris and Photon in Cambridge, Mass. I knew them both in the 1960s and was familiar with various of their machines.

Computer typesetting was given its first serious impetous by Professor Griffith at MIT in the late 1950s and early 1960s. He worked with Higonnet and Moyroud to obtain from Photon a stripped down version of their Photon 540 machine to use with a computer. He was interested in enabling university professors to publish at a lower cost than was the case at that time. He created an elaborate typesetting language that I can't remember the name of right now for that purpose, designed to be used by the professors. Their texts would be processed on an IBM computer, maybe the 1620, I'm not sure and run on the 540. I think the markup language may have been called 'Typrint'.

While this was a serious and significant effort, it was in the main an experimental project. The first production typesetting program was written by myself and Dow Parkes for the Los Angeles Times newspaper in 1962. The Vice President of Production, Otis Booth, went to a seminar on computer typesetting at MIT in 1961, where the work of Professor Griffith was demonstrated and discussed. He came back to Los Angeles, sought bids from various computer manufacturers and bought an RCA 301 computer. I was sent out from New Jersey to do the program. It was done under great secrecy because Norman Chandler, the Publisher, was afraid of union and other agitation.

I did the programming and Dow Parkes worked out the logic of the hyphenation program, which was done by simple rules coded into logic tables.

This program went into production on December 12th, 1962. In January we got a great deal of media attention and had local and national TV news coverage, an article in Time Magazine, and cover stories in media publications, such as Quill. In the summer of 1963, RCA announced a newspaper typesetting system, called Newscom, which was a stripped down version of the RCA 301, with a version of my program that I produced under contract to RCA. Royirwingift (talk) 06:04, 2 March 2012 (UTC)

Typesetting and copyright?
Is typesetting covered by copyright? Somebody suggested this case could be relevant Bridgeman Art Library v. Corel Corp.. Palosirkka (talk) 07:24, 6 April 2012 (UTC)

Copy editing
I created an english caption file on commons for the dutch language video in the phototypesetting section (shown again right). As english is not my native language (dutch is) and it was already quite hard to squeeze in the text, which is spoken fairly rapidly, I think it would be a good idea if somebody has a look there for copy editing. This is the only place on the english wikipedia where this file is linked, so mentioning it here may generate some attention. Dutch captions are also present, for people who can read dutch but can't understand it when spoken. PiusImpavidus (talk) 01:11, 14 April 2013 (UTC)

Flong: positive or negative?
In the section "Manual typesetting" the third paragraph ends with this sentence: "In this process, called stereotyping, the entire forme is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché called a flong to create a positive, from which the stereotype forme was cast of type metal." Is "...called a flong to create a positive..." correct, or should it read "...called a flong to create a negative...."? Wikifan2744 (talk) 03:08, 28 March 2014 (UTC)

 * "Positive" seems to be correct, assuming the sentence is referring to the stereotype form (the flong is the negative, the stereotype is the positive). The stereotype is cast from the flong, though, so the structure of this sentence still has some problems:
 * "'In this process, called stereotyping, the entire form is pressed into a fine matrix [...] called a flong, to create a positive, from which the stereotype form was electrotyped, cast of type metal.'"
 * The way it is written does seem to imply both that the positive is created from the flong, and that the stereotype is then cast from the newly created positive: ie,, when the process is actually.
 * There's a little ambiguity in the sentence regarding how the flong is made, as well. As written, it seems to suggest the flong exists independently of the original form, and pressing the form into the matrix is what creates the positive (rather than the flong). That's pretty obviously wrong.
 * A better phrasing for this might be:
 * "'In this process, called stereotyping, the entire form is pressed into a fine matrix such as plaster of Paris or papier mâché to create a flong, from which a positive form is cast in type metal.'"
 * In addition to that, there are a few other problems with the text as it stands. Electrotyping is described as a process distinct from stereotyping, which is characterized by the use of flongs and metal casting, so its mention seems very out of place here; if mentioned at all, it might need its own sentence or paragraph in the section. 97.126.99.36 (talk) 00:48, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

Cathode-ray tube link (Digital era)
The first sentence of the Digital era section reads as follows:

"'The next generation of phototypesetting machines to emerge were those that generated characters on a cathode ray tube.'"

Linking to Cathode ray tube without first specifying it as a type of monitor seems a little clumsy, and potentially confusing for readers unfamiliar with the term. It's a very technical page.

I propose one of the following changes:

This could also be linked as: ("...on a cathode ray tube monitor"), or as a single link to   ("...on a cathode ray tube monitor").
 * Changing the link to History of display technology
 * Taking out "cathode ray tube" entirely and replacing it with "computer monitor."
 * Changing the text to read: "The next generation of phototypesetting machines to emerge were those that generated characters on a cathode ray tube monitor."

If this is not technically correct (I'm not familiar with how magnetic tape would get rendered on an electronic display, or if this would count as a computer monitor), "display" might also work here without generating confusion.

I'm going to make a preliminary change just adding "display" to the sentence, but leave this up for discussion for those with more knowledge on the topic. 97.113.26.134 (talk) 05:59, 30 December 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Typesetting


text:
Jerry L. Ross

Jerry Lynn Ross (born January 20, 1948, Crown Point, Indiana) is a retired United States Air Force officer, engineer, and a former NASA astronaut. Ross is a veteran of 7 Space Shuttle missions, making him the joint record holder for most spaceflights (a record he shares with Franklin Chang-Díaz).

His papers, photographs, and many personal items are in the Barron Hilton Flight and Space Exploration Archives at Purdue University. He was inducted into the Astronaut Hall of Fame during ceremonies in May 2014.

Ross is the author of Spacewalker: My Journey in Space and Faith as NASA's Record-Setting Frequent Flyer (Purdue University Press, 2013) with John Norberg. In March 2014, it was announced Spacewalker would be available in a French translation through the specialist aerospace publisher, Altipresse.

Fellow astronaut, Chris Hadfield, describes Ross in his 2013 autobiography, An Astronaut's Guide to Life on Earth, as "the embodiment of the trustworthy, loyal, courteous and brave astronaut archetype."

Education
Ross graduated from Crown Point High School, Crown Point, Indiana, in 1966. He received a Bachelor of Science in 1970 and a Master of Science degree in 1972, both in Mechanical Engineering from Purdue University. At Purdue, he joined the Purdue Reamer Club.

Military career
Ross, an Air Force ROTC student at Purdue University, received his commission upon graduation in 1970. After receiving his master's degree from Purdue in 1972, he entered active duty with the Air Force and was assigned to the Ramjet Engine Division of Air Force Aero-Propulsion Laboratory at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, in Ohio. He conducted computer-aided design studies on ramjet propulsion systems, served as the project engineer for captive tests of a supersonic ramjet missile using a rocket sled track, and as the project manager for preliminary configuration development of the ASALM strategic air-launched missile.

From June 1974 to July 1975, he was the Laboratory Executive Officer and Chief of the Management Operations Office. Ross graduated from the USAF Test Pilot School’s Flight Test Engineer Course in 1976 and subsequently was assigned to the 6510th Test Wing at Edwards Air Force Base, California. While on assignment to the 6510th’s Flight Test Engineering Directorate, he was project engineer on a limited flying qualities evaluation of the RC-135S aircraft, and, as lead B-1 flying qualities flight test engineer, was responsible for the stability, control, and flight control system testing performance on the B-1 aircraft. As chief B-1 flight test engineer, he was also responsible for training and supervising all Air Force B-1 flight test engineer crew members and for performing the mission planning for the B-1 offensive avionics test aircraft.

Ross has flown in 21 different types of aircraft, holds a private pilot's license, and has logged over 3,900 flying hours, the majority in military aircraft. He retired from the Air Force on March 31, 2000.

NASA career
In February 1979, Ross was assigned to the Payload Operations Division at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, as a payload officer/flight controller who was responsible for the flight operations integration of payloads into the Space Shuttle. Ross was selected as an astronaut in May 1980. His technical assignments since then have included EVA, or "space walks", RMS (Remote Manipulator System, or "robotic arm"), and chase team; support crewman for STS 41-B, STS 41-C and STS 51-A; spacecraft communicator (CAPCOM) during STS 41-B, STS 41-C, STS 41-D, STS 51-A and STS 51-D; Chief of the Mission Support Branch; member of the 1990 Astronaut Selection Board; Acting Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office, Chief of the Astronaut Office EVA and Robotics Branch, and Astronaut Office Branch Chief for Kennedy Space Center Operations Support. Ross was assigned to STS-62-A, the first Shuttle mission to launch from Vandenberg Air Force Base, but the mission was canceled after the Space Shuttle Challenger disaster.

Ross flew as a mission specialist on STS 61-B (1985), STS-27 (1988) and STS-37 (1991), was the Payload Commander on STS-55/Spacelab-D2 (1993), and again served as a mission specialist on the second Space Shuttle to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir, STS-74 (1995), the first International Space Station assembly mission, STS-88 (1998) and STS-110 (2002). A veteran of 7 space flights, Ross has over 1,393 hours in space, including 57 hours and 55 minutes on 9 EVAs. (see below)

In addition to his record number of launches, among his many personal milestones, Ross held the U.S. record for spacewalks (9) until that was surpassed by the current record holder, ISS Expedition 14 commander Michael Lopez-Alegria (10 EVA's totaling 67 hours and 40 minutes). However, there is speculation that on STS-27 (1988), Ross made an additional EVA. This shuttle mission was a classified DoD satellite launch and therefore information about the flight has never been released. Ross also holds the record for most flights on a single Space Shuttle orbiter (Atlantis) at five.

In 2013 John Norberg, who worked with Ross on his book, filed a Freedom of Information Act concerning STS-27 with the National Reconnaissance Office. The NRO confirmed it had control of the records and declined to release any information about the flight. Ross has never commented on the objectives or his work on STS-27. Ross officially ranks third in the world for spacewalks behind Russian Anatoly Solovyev (16) and Lopez-Alegria.

Ross served as Chief of the Vehicle Integration Test Office at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas until he retired in January 2012.

Ross retired from NASA on January 28, 2012, after being the first person to launch into space 7 times. He also leaves NASA after placing third in the most spacewalks after completing 9 EVA's.

Spaceflight experience
STS-61-B Atlantis was launched at night from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on November 26, 1985. During the mission, the crew deployed the MORELOS-B, AUSSAT-2, and SATCOM Ku-2 communications satellites, and operated numerous other experiments. Ross conducted two 6-hour spacewalks to demonstrate Space Station construction techniques with the EASE/ACCESS experiments. After completing 108 orbits of the Earth in 165 hours, 4 minutes, 49 seconds, Atlantis landed on Runway 22 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on December 3, 1985.

STS-27 Atlantis, was launched from KSC on December 2, 1988. The mission carried a Department of Defense payload, as well as a number of secondary payloads. After 68 orbits of the Earth in 105 hours, 6 minutes, 19 seconds, the mission concluded with a dry lakebed landing on Runway 17 at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on December 6, 1988. The mission is noteworthy due to the severe damage Atlantis sustained to its critical heat-resistant tiles during ascent.

STS-37 Atlantis, was launched from KSC on April 5, 1991, and deployed the 35,000 pound Compton Gamma Ray Observatory. Ross performed two spacewalks totaling 10 hours and 49 minutes to manually deploy the stuck Gamma Ray Observatory antenna and to test prototype Space Station Freedom hardware. After 93 orbits of the Earth in 143 hours, 32 minutes, 44 seconds, the mission concluded with a landing on Runway 33, at Edwards Air Force Base, on April 11, 1991.

STS-55 Columbia, was launched from KSC on April 26, 1993. With Ross serving as Payload Commander/Mission Specialist, nearly 90 experiments were conducted during the German-sponsored Spacelab D-2 mission to investigate life sciences, materials science, physics, robotics, astronomy, and the Earth's atmosphere. Columbia landed on May 6, 1993, at Edwards Air Force Base, after 160 orbits of the Earth in 239 hours and 45 minutes.

STS-74 Atlantis, launched from KSC on November 12, 1995, was NASA's second Space Shuttle mission to rendezvous and dock with the Russian Space Station Mir. During the eight-day flight, t the crew aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis attached a permanent docking module to Mir, conducted a number of secondary experiments, and transferred $1 1/2$ tons of supplies and experiment equipment between Atlantis and the Mir station. Atlantis landed at Kennedy Space Center on November 20 after accomplishing their achievements in 129 orbits of the Earth, traveling 3.4 million miles in 196 hours, 30 minutes, 44 seconds.

STS-88 Endeavour (December 4–15, 1998) was the first International Space Station assembly mission. During the 12-day mission, the U.S.-built Unity module was mated with the Russian Zarya module. Ross performed three spacewalks totaling 21 hours 22 minutes to connect umbilicals and attach tools/hardware. The crew also deployed two satellites, Mighty Sat 1 and SAC-A. The mission was accomplished in 185 orbits of the Earth in 283 hours and 18 minutes.

STS-110 Atlantis (April 8–19, 2002) was the 13th Shuttle mission to visit the International Space Station (ISS). The first mission in the final phase of the ISS Assembly included the delivery and installation of the S0 Truss; the first time the station's robotic arm was used to maneuver space walkers around the station; it was also the first time that all of a shuttle crew's spacewalks were based from the station's, Quest Airlock. Ross performed 2 EVAs totaling 14 hours and 9 minutes. Mission duration was 259 hours and 42 minutes.

Organizations
Ross is a lifetime member of the Association of Space Explorers, the Purdue Alumni Association, and a corresponding member of the International Academy of Astronautics.

Awards and honors

 * Defense Superior Service Medal with one Oak Leaf
 * Legion of Merit
 * Defense Meritorious Service Medal with three Oak Leaf Clusters
 * Meritorious Service Medal with one Oak Leaf
 * Distinguished Graduate of the USAF Test Pilot School
 * Outstanding Flight Test Engineer Award, Class 75B
 * Recipient of 15 NASA medals
 * American Astronautical Society Victor A. Prather Award for space walking achievements (1985, 1990, 1999), and Flight Achievement Award (1992, 1996, 1999, 2002)
 * Honorary Doctor of Science, Purdue University
 * Jerry Ross Elementary School in Crown Point, Indiana was named after him.

title: Jerry L. Ross