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Poisson summation formula

In mathematics, the Poisson summation formula is an equation that relates the Fourier series coefficients of the periodic summation of a function to values of the function's continuous Fourier transform. Consequently, the periodic summation of a function is completely defined by discrete samples of the original function's Fourier transform. And conversely, the periodic summation of a function's Fourier transform is completely defined by discrete samples of the original function. The Poisson summation formula was discovered by Siméon Denis Poisson and is sometimes called Poisson resummation.

Forms of the equation
Consider an aperiodic function $$s(x)$$ with Fourier transform $S(f) \triangleq \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} s(x)\ e^{-i2\pi fx}\, dx,$ alternatively designated by $$\hat s(f)$$ and $$\mathcal{F}\{s\}(f).$$

The basic Poisson summation formula is:

Also consider periodic functions, where parameters $$T>0$$ and $$P>0$$ are in the same units as $$x$$: $$s_{_P}(x) \triangleq \sum_{n=-\infty}^{\infty} s(x + nP) \quad \text{and} \quad S_{1/T}(f) \triangleq \sum_{k=-\infty}^{\infty} S(f + k/T). $$

Then $$ is a special case (P=1, x=0) of this generalization:

which is a Fourier series expansion with coefficients that are samples of the function $$S(f).$$ Similarly:

also known as the important Discrete-time Fourier transform.

$$

The Poisson summation formula can also be proved quite conceptually using the compatibility of Pontryagin duality with short exact sequences such as $$0 \to \Z \to \R \to \R / \Z \to 0.$$

Applicability
$$ holds provided $$s(x)$$ is a continuous integrable function which satisfies $$|s(x)| + |S(x)| \le C (1+|x|)^{-1-\delta}$$ for some $$C > 0,\delta > 0$$ and every $$x.$$ Note that such $$s(x)$$ is uniformly continuous, this together with the decay assumption on $$s$$, show that the series defining $$s_{_P}$$ converges uniformly to a continuous function. $$ holds in the strong sense that both sides converge uniformly and absolutely to the same limit.

$$ holds in a pointwise sense under the strictly weaker assumption that $$s$$ has bounded variation and $$2 \cdot s(x)=\lim_{\varepsilon\to 0} s(x+\varepsilon) + \lim_{\varepsilon\to 0} s(x-\varepsilon).$$ The Fourier series on the right-hand side of $$ is then understood as a (conditionally convergent) limit of symmetric partial sums.

As shown above, $$ holds under the much less restrictive assumption that $$s(x)$$ is in $L^1(\mathbb{R})$, but then it is necessary to interpret it in the sense that the right-hand side is the (possibly divergent) Fourier series of $$s_{_P}(x).$$ In this case, one may extend the region where equality holds by considering summability methods such as Cesàro summability. When interpreting convergence in this way $$, case $$x=0,$$ holds under the less restrictive conditions that $$s(x)$$ is integrable and 0 is a point of continuity of $$s_{_P}(x)$$. However $$ may fail to hold even when both $$s$$ and $$S$$ are integrable and continuous, and the sums converge absolutely.

Method of images
In partial differential equations, the Poisson summation formula provides a rigorous justification for the fundamental solution of the heat equation with absorbing rectangular boundary by the method of images. Here the heat kernel on $$\mathbb{R}^2$$ is known, and that of a rectangle is determined by taking the periodization. The Poisson summation formula similarly provides a connection between Fourier analysis on Euclidean spaces and on the tori of the corresponding dimensions. In one dimension, the resulting solution is called a theta function.

In electrodynamics, the method is also used to accelerate the computation of periodic Green's functions.

Sampling
In the statistical study of time-series, if $$s$$ is a function of time, then looking only at its values at equally spaced points of time is called "sampling." In applications, typically the function $$s$$ is band-limited, meaning that there is some cutoff frequency $$f_o$$ such that $$S(f)$$ is zero for frequencies exceeding the cutoff: $$S(f)=0$$ for $$|f|>f_o.$$ For band-limited functions, choosing the sampling rate $$\tfrac{1}{T} > 2 f_o$$ guarantees that no information is lost: since $$S$$ can be reconstructed from these sampled values. Then, by Fourier inversion, so can $$s.$$ This leads to the Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem.

Ewald summation
Computationally, the Poisson summation formula is useful since a slowly converging summation in real space is guaranteed to be converted into a quickly converging equivalent summation in Fourier space. (A broad function in real space becomes a narrow function in Fourier space and vice versa.) This is the essential idea behind Ewald summation.

Approximations of integrals
The Poisson summation formula is also useful to bound the errors obtained when an integral is approximated by a (Riemann) sum. Consider an approximation of $S(0)=\int_{-\infty}^\infty dx \, s(x)$ as $\delta \sum_{n=-\infty}^\infty s(n \delta)$, where $$ \delta \ll 1 $$ is the size of the bin. Then, according to $$ this approximation coincides with $ \sum_{k=-\infty}^\infty S(k/ \delta)$. The error in the approximation can then be bounded as $\left| \sum_{k \ne 0} S(k/ \delta) \right| \le \sum_{k \ne 0} | S(k/ \delta)|$. This is particularly useful when the Fourier transform of $$ s(x) $$ is rapidly decaying if $$1/\delta \gg 1 $$.

Lattice points inside a sphere
The Poisson summation formula may be used to derive Landau's asymptotic formula for the number of lattice points inside a large Euclidean sphere. It can also be used to show that if an integrable function, $$s$$ and $$S$$ both have compact support then $$s = 0.$$

Number theory
In number theory, Poisson summation can also be used to derive a variety of functional equations including the functional equation for the Riemann zeta function.

One important such use of Poisson summation concerns theta functions: periodic summations of Gaussians. Put $$ q= e^{i\pi \tau } $$, for $$ \tau$$ a complex number in the upper half plane, and define the theta function:

$$ \theta ( \tau) = \sum_n q^{n^2}. $$

The relation between $$ \theta (-1/\tau)$$ and $$ \theta (\tau)$$  turns out to be important for number theory, since this kind of relation is one of the defining properties of a modular form. By choosing $$s(x)= e^{-\pi x^2}$$ and using the fact that $$S(f) = e^{-\pi f ^2},$$ one can conclude:

$$\theta \left({-1\over\tau}\right) = \sqrt{\tau \over i} \theta (\tau),$$ by putting $${1/\lambda} = \sqrt{\tau/i}.$$

It follows from this that $$\theta^8$$ has a simple transformation property under $$\tau \mapsto {-1/ \tau}$$ and this can be used to prove Jacobi's formula for the number of different ways to express an integer as the sum of eight perfect squares.

Sphere packings
Cohn & Elkies proved an upper bound on the density of sphere packings using the Poisson summation formula, which subsequently led to a proof of optimal sphere packings in dimension 8 and 24.

Other

 * Let $$s(x) = e^{-ax}$$ for $$0 \leq x$$ and $$s(x) = 0$$ for $$x < 0$$ to get $$\coth(x) = x\sum_{n \in \Z} \frac{1}{x^2+\pi^2n^2} = \frac{1}{x}+ 2x \sum_{n \in \Z_+} \frac{1}{x^2+\pi^2n^2}.$$
 * It can be used to prove the functional equation for the theta function.
 * Poisson's summation formula appears in Ramanujan's notebooks and can be used to prove some of his formulas, in particular it can be used to prove one of the formulas in Ramanujan's first letter to Hardy.
 * It can be used to calculate the quadratic Gauss sum.

Generalizations
The Poisson summation formula holds in Euclidean space of arbitrary dimension. Let $$\Lambda$$ be the lattice in $$\mathbb{R}^d$$ consisting of points with integer coordinates. For a function $$s$$ in $$L^1(\mathbb{R}^d)$$, consider the series given by summing the translates of $$s$$ by elements of $$\Lambda$$:

$$\sum_{\nu\in\Lambda} s(x+\nu).$$

Theorem For $$s$$ in $$L^1(\mathbb{R}^d)$$, the above series converges pointwise almost everywhere, and thus defines a periodic function $$\mathbb{P}s$$ on $$\Lambda.$$ $$\mathbb{P}s$$ lies in $$L^1$$ with $$\| \mathbb{P}s \|_1 \le \| s \|_1.$$ Moreover, for all $$\nu$$ in $$\Lambda,$$ $$\mathbb{P}S(\nu)$$ (Fourier transform on $$\Lambda$$) equals $$S(\nu)$$ (Fourier transform on $$\mathbb{R}^d$$).

When $$s$$ is in addition continuous, and both $$s$$ and $$S$$ decay sufficiently fast at infinity, then one can "invert" the domain back to $$\mathbb{R}^d$$ and make a stronger statement. More precisely, if

$$|s(x)| + |S(x)| \le C (1+|x|)^{-d-\delta}$$

for some C, δ > 0, then $$\sum_{\nu\in\Lambda} s(x+\nu) = \sum_{\nu\in\Lambda} S(\nu) e^{i 2\pi x\cdot\nu}, $$ where both series converge absolutely and uniformly on Λ. When d = 1 and x = 0, this gives $$ above.

More generally, a version of the statement holds if Λ is replaced by a more general lattice in $$\mathbb{R}^d$$. The dual lattice Λ′ can be defined as a subset of the dual vector space or alternatively by Pontryagin duality. Then the statement is that the sum of delta-functions at each point of Λ, and at each point of Λ′, are again Fourier transforms as distributions, subject to correct normalization.

This is applied in the theory of theta functions, and is a possible method in geometry of numbers. In fact in more recent work on counting lattice points in regions it is routinely used − summing the indicator function of a region D over lattice points is exactly the question, so that the LHS of the summation formula is what is sought and the RHS something that can be attacked by mathematical analysis.

Selberg trace formula
Further generalization to locally compact abelian groups is required in number theory. In non-commutative harmonic analysis, the idea is taken even further in the Selberg trace formula, but takes on a much deeper character.

A series of mathematicians applying harmonic analysis to number theory, most notably Martin Eichler, Atle Selberg, Robert Langlands, and James Arthur, have generalised the Poisson summation formula to the Fourier transform on non-commutative locally compact reductive algebraic groups $$ G$$  with a discrete subgroup $$ \Gamma$$  such that $$ G/\Gamma$$  has finite volume. For example, $$ G$$ can be the real points of $$ SL_n$$  and $$ \Gamma$$  can be the integral points of $$ SL_n$$. In this setting, $$ G$$ plays the role of the real number line in the classical version of Poisson summation, and $$ \Gamma$$  plays the role of the integers $$ n$$  that appear in the sum. The generalised version of Poisson summation is called the Selberg Trace Formula, and has played a role in proving many cases of Artin's conjecture and in Wiles's proof of  Fermat's Last Theorem. The left-hand side of $$ becomes a sum over irreducible unitary representations of $$ G$$, and is called "the spectral side," while the right-hand side becomes a sum over conjugacy classes of $$ \Gamma$$, and is called "the geometric side."

The Poisson summation formula is the archetype for vast developments in harmonic analysis and number theory.

Convolution theorem
The Poisson summation formula is a particular case of the convolution theorem on tempered distributions. If one of the two factors is the Dirac comb, one obtains periodic summation on one side and sampling on the other side of the equation. Applied to the Dirac delta function and its Fourier transform, the function that is constantly 1, this yields the Dirac comb identity.

title: Poisson summation formula


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Enets

The Enets (энцы, entsy; singular: энец, enets; also known as Yenetses, Entsy, Entsi, Yenisei or Yenisey Samoyeds) are a Samoyedic ethnic group who live on the east bank, near the mouth, of the Yenisei River. Historically nomadic people, they now mainly inhabit the village of Potalovo in Krasnoyarsk Krai in western Siberia near the Arctic Circle. According to the 2010 Census, there are 227 Enets in Russia. In Ukraine, there were 26 Entsi in 2001, of whom 18 were capable of speaking the Enets language.

The Enets language is a Samoyedic language, formerly known as Yenisei Samoyedic (not to be confused with the Yeniseian language family, which is completely unrelated). They still speak their language, but education is in Russian so there is fear they may lose their language.

Current situation
British travel writer Colin Thubron visited the town of Potalovo in the late 1990s and found the Entsi deculturated and demoralized, beset with problems of alcoholism. The reindeer collective established in Nikita Khrushchev's day had been severely impacted by acid rain from the nickel smelters at Norilsk. A fur farm that raises fox was similarly diminished. About half the population was unemployed with a few employed in reindeer herding on the west side of the river, the remainder living by fishing in the Yenisei River. Fisherman from Potapovo sometimes catch red sturgeon and Omul, a type of salmon, as well as char, gang fish, and northern pike. Thubron mentions a salted muksun fish product.

Some social services continue to be provided by the Russian government: a small hospital, with a doctor and a few nurses; schools (although older children must attend in Dudinka to the north); and small Russian government pensions. The electric plant had recently burned and electricity was provided intermittently by a generator. Life expectancy is 45 with many dying violent deaths due to family violence and fighting.

Genetics
In a 2002 study, eight of the nine Enets samples belonged to the Y-DNA haplogroup N, which is typical among Uralic peoples. Seven of them had its subclade N1b-P43 and one belonged to the subclade N1c. Haplogroup R1b was found in one sample.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Enets


text: Talk:Maghrebi cuisine

title: Talk:Maghrebi cuisine


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John Penn (governor)

John Penn (14 July 1729 – 9 February 1795) was an English-born colonial administrator who served as the last governor of colonial Pennsylvania, serving in that office from 1763 to 1771 and from 1773 to 1776. Educated in Britain and Switzerland, he was also one of the Penn family proprietors of the Province of Pennsylvania from 1771 until 1776, holding a one-fourth share, when the creation of the independent Commonwealth of Pennsylvania during the American Revolution removed the Penn family from power.

Held in exile in New Jersey after the British occupation of Philadelphia, Penn and his wife returned to Philadelphia in July 1778, following the British evacuation. After the American Revolutionary War, the unsold lands of the proprietorship were confiscated by the new state government, but it provided Penn and his cousin, John Penn, who held three-fourths of the proprietorship, with compensation. They both also appealed to British Parliament, which granted them additional compensation.

Early life and education
John Penn was born in London, the eldest son of Richard Penn and Hannah Lardner. His father Richard had inherited a one-fourth interest in the Pennsylvania proprietorship from his father, the Pennsylvania founder William Penn. It provided the family a fairly comfortable living. Richard's older brother Thomas Penn controlled the other three-fourths of the proprietorship. As Thomas did not have any sons while John Penn was in his youth, the younger man was in line to inherit the entire proprietorship, one-fourth from his father and three-fourths from his paternal uncle. John Penn's upbringing and conduct was of concern to the entire family.

First marriage
In 1747, when John Penn was eighteen years old and still in school, he secretly married Grace Cox, a daughter of Dr. James Cox of London. The Penn family disapproved of the marriage, believing that Cox had married Penn to share in the family fortune. For a while, John's father refused to speak to him because of the marriage. Thomas Penn sponsored a trip for the younger Penn to Geneva to study and to get him away from his wife. Apparently regretting his marriage, Penn made no effort to contact Grace during this period. The Cox family sued Penn for support of Grace Penn in 1755, but after that there is no further mention of her in the Penn family records. How the marriage was dissolved is unknown, and they had no children.

Immigration to Pennsylvania
John Penn first traveled to Pennsylvania, then known as the Province of Pennsylvania and part of British America, in 1752, sent by his uncle Thomas to the province as a political apprentice to Governor James Hamilton. Penn served on the governor's council, associating with important Penn family appointees such as Richard Peters and William Allen. In 1754, Penn attended the Albany Congress with Pennsylvania's other delegates, including Peters, Benjamin Franklin, and Isaac Norris. But Penn was there primarily as an observer. The meeting was held by representatives of seven of the Thirteen Colonies to plan common defense against the French and Indians as the French and Indian War was beginning, with the Seven Years' War between Britain and France representing the North American front of that war.

From his home in England, the chief proprietor Thomas Penn soon became alarmed at John's extravagant expenses. Peters reported John's close association with an Italian musician, whose rent Penn paid and at whose home Penn stayed until two or three in the morning. The debauched musician was, in turn, "constantly tagging after him." Thomas Penn summoned his nephew, John, back to England in late 1755.

Governorship
In 1763, Thomas Penn sent his nephew John Penn back to the Province of Pennsylvania to assume the governorship from Hamilton. The Penns were not displeased with Hamilton but believed that John was prepared to assume leadership in the province for the family. He took the oath of office as governor, officially "lieutenant governor," on 31 October 1763 and served until 1771 in his first tenure. The new governor faced many challenges: Pontiac's Rebellion; the Paxton Boys; border disputes with other colonies; controversy over the taxation of Penn family lands; and the efforts of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly, led by Benjamin Franklin, to have the Penn proprietary government replaced with a royal government. Meanwhile, he was elected in 1768 to the American Philosophical Society, which Franklin had founded.

Second marriage and family
In 1766, Penn married Anne Allen, the daughter of William Allen and his wife, who were later Loyalists in Philadelphia. Penn reluctantly returned with his family to England in 1771 after his father's death, where he took over his father's position and affairs as one of the proprietors of Pennsylvania. His uncle Thomas Penn still held three fourths of the proprietorship but had a son, who was born in 1760. John's brother, Richard Penn Jr., was appointed governor of the province in his place.

Second appointment as governor
As Thomas Penn was displeased with Richard Jr's performance, he arranged in 1773 for the reappointment of John Penn as governor. Returning to the province with his family, Penn served until 1776. That year, the revolutionary government took control during the American Revolutionary War.

Thomas Penn had died in 1775, and his son John Penn "of Stoke" inherited the chief proprietorship and three quarters of the total property. John Penn "of Stoke," born in 1760, was 15 when his father died. He was assigned a guardian for the proprietorship until he came of age, but the Revolution disrupted his control of the holdings.

American Revolution
The Penns were slow to perceive that the growing unrest, which became the American Revolution, would threaten their proprietary interests. In 1774, Penn refused to summon the Assembly so it could select delegates to the First Continental Congress. Patriots responded by taking control in 1775, leaving Penn powerless. Henry J. Cadbury states, "The end of proprietary government in Pennsylvania may be dated Sept. 26, 1776, with the last adjournment of the provincial assembly. The governor's acts and meetings of the council closed nearly a year earlier."

After the American Revolutionary War was launched at the Battles of Lexington and Concord, Penn watched with apprehension as Pennsylvania colonists formed patriot militias and prepared for war. Soon after the adoption of the Declaration of Independence, patriots, also known as Whigs, in Pennsylvania created the Pennsylvania Constitution of 1776, which replaced Penn's government with a Supreme Executive Council and no royal officials. With no power at his command, Penn remained aloof and carefully neutral in the hope that the radicals would be defeated or at least reconciled with the king.

The war soon began to go badly for the Patriots. In August 1777, as General William Howe began his Philadelphia Campaign, Patriot soldiers arrived at Penn's Lansdowne estate near Philadelphia. They demanded him to sign a parole that stated that he would do nothing to harm the revolutionary cause. Penn refused and was taken to Philadelphia, where he was kept under house arrest. As Howe's army drew close, the Patriots threatened Penn with exile to another colony, and he then signed the parole. With Howe near Philadelphia, Patriot leaders exiled Penn to an Allen family estate in New Jersey called "The Union," also known as Solitude House, about 50 mi from Philadelphia in present-day High Bridge, New Jersey.

Anne Penn initially stayed in Philadelphia to look after family affairs while British forces occupied Philadelphia but later joined her husband in New Jersey.

After the British evacuated Philadelphia in 1778, the Penns returned to the city in July of that year. The new government of Pennsylvania required all residents to take a loyalty oath to the Commonwealth or to face confiscation of their property. With the consent of his family, he took the oath. While that protected Penn's private lands and manors, the Pennsylvania Assembly passed the Divestment Act of 1779, which confiscated about 24000000 acre of unsold lands held by the proprietorship and abolished the practice of paying quitrents for new purchases. As compensation, John Penn and his cousin were paid £130,000, but that was a fraction of what the lands were worth but was a surprisingly large sum, as in some areas, Loyalist properties were taken without any compensation. Penn retired to Lansdowne and waited out the final years of the war, which ended in 1781.

Later life
For several years after the war, Penn and his cousin, John Penn "of Stoke", who had inherited three fourths of the proprietorship and received that portion of the settlement, lobbied the Pennsylvania government for greater compensation for their confiscated property. John Penn "of Stoke" lived in Pennsylvania from 1783 to 1788. Failing there, they traveled to England in 1789 to seek compensation from Parliament, which awarded the Penn cousins a total of £4,000 per year (equal to £ today) in perpetuity. Penn "of Stoke" stayed in England for the rest of his life, serving as a member of parliament in the early 1800s.

Returning to Pennsylvania, John Penn lived the rest of his life with his family quietly in Lansdowne. After his 1795 death, Penn was buried under the floor of Christ Church in Philadelphia, the only proprietor to be buried in Pennsylvania. Some older accounts state that his remains were eventually taken back to England, but there are no records of that.

title: John Penn (governor)


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Battle of Gonzales

The Battle of Gonzales was the first military engagement of the Texas Revolution. It was fought near Gonzales, Texas, on October 2, 1835, between rebellious Texian settlers and a detachment of Mexican army soldiers.

In 1831, Green DeWitt asked the Mexican authorities to lend the Gonzales colonists a cannon to help protect them from frequent Comanche raids. One was supplied, on the condition that the cannon would be returned to the Mexicans on request. Over the next four years, the political situation in Mexico deteriorated, and in 1835 several states revolted. As the unrest spread, Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, the commander of all Mexican troops in Texas, felt it unwise to leave the residents of Gonzales with a weapon and requested the return of the cannon.

When the initial request was refused, Ugartechea sent 100 dragoons to retrieve the cannon. The soldiers neared Gonzales on September 29, but the colonists used a variety of excuses to keep them from the town, while secretly sending messengers to request assistance from nearby communities. Within two days, up to 140 Texians gathered in Gonzales, all determined not to give up the cannon. On October 1, settlers voted to initiate a fight. Mexican soldiers opened fire as Texians approached their camp in the early hours of October 2. After several hours of desultory firing, the Mexican soldiers withdrew.

Although the skirmish had little military significance, it marked a clear break between the colonists and the Mexican government and is considered to have been the start of the Texas Revolution. News of the skirmish spread throughout the United States, where it was often referred to as the "Lexington of Texas".

Two cannons were used by the Texians in the fighting, the bronze six-pounder under dispute and a smaller Spanish esmeril made of iron, its caliber being a one pounder or less.

The cannon's fate is disputed. It may have been buried and rediscovered in 1936, or it may have been seized by Mexican troops after the Battle of the Alamo. A bronze six-pounder was noted as one of twenty-one large guns captured and buried by the Mexicans at the Alamo, dug up in 1852 and sent to New York in 1874 to be cast into a bell that hangs in St. Mark’s Episcopal Church in San Antonio; while a smaller iron gun was abandoned in a creek and uncovered by a flood in 1936, on show in the Gonzales Memorial Museum.

Background
The Mexican Constitution of 1824 liberalized the country's immigration policies, allowing foreign immigrants to settle in border regions such as Mexican Texas, and to bring their slaves with them. In 1825, American Green DeWitt received permission to settle 400 families in Texas near the confluence of the San Marcos and Guadalupe Rivers. The DeWitt Colony quickly became a favorite raiding target of local Karankawa, Tonkawa, and Comanche tribes, and in July 1826 they destroyed the capital city, Gonzales. The town was rebuilt the following year, after DeWitt negotiated peace treaties with the Karankawa and Tonkawa. The Comanche continued to stage periodic raids of the settlement over the next few years. Unable to spare military troops to protect the town, in 1831 the region's political chief instead sent the settlers of Gonzales a six-pounder cannon, Historian Thomas Ricks Lindley states that Green DeWitt wrote to the Mexican authorities asking for a cannon, and they responded with the loan of a Spanish six-pounder bronze cannon on the condition it be returned when asked for; Lindley states that the Texians also had a much smaller iron cannon of one pounder calibre or less. Writer Timothy Todish described the six pounder as "a small bored gun, good for little more than starting horse races", despite it being a gun of around 57 mm calibre firing 6 lb projectiles.

In 1829, Mexico ended slavery and freed the slaves throughout Mexico, but negotiated an exception for the American immigrants in Tejas. In April of 1830, Mexico closed its borders to new immigrants who had not already been authorized to join an existing colony. During the 1830s, the Mexican government wavered between federalist and centralist policies. As the pendulum swung sharply towards centralism in 1835, several Mexican states revolted. In June, a small group of settlers in Texas used the political unrest as an excuse to rebel against customs duties, in an incident known as the Anahuac Disturbances. The federal government responded by sending more troops to Texas.

Public opinion was sharply divided. Some communities supported the rebellion for a variety of reasons. The new policies, the bans of slavery and immigration chief among them, and the increased enforcement of laws and import tariffs, incited many immigrants to revolt. The border region of Mexican Texas was largely populated by immigrants from the United States, some legal but most illegal. Some of these immigrants brought large numbers of slaves with them, so that by 1836, there were about 5,000 enslaved persons in a total non-native population estimated at 38,470. Others, including Gonzales, declared their loyalty to Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna's centralist government. Local leaders began calling for a Consultation to determine whether a majority of settlers favored independence, a return to federalism, or the status quo. Although some leaders worried that Mexican officials would see this type of gathering as a step toward revolution, by the end of August most communities had agreed to send delegates to the Consultation, scheduled for October 15. In the interim, many communities formed Texian Militia companies to protect themselves from a potential attack by military forces.

On September 10, a Mexican soldier bludgeoned a Gonzales resident, which led to widespread outrage and public protests. Mexican authorities felt it unwise to leave the settlers with a weapon. Colonel Domingo de Ugartechea, commander of all Mexican troops in Texas, sent a corporal and five enlisted men to retrieve the cannon that had been loaned to the colonists. Many of the settlers believed Mexican authorities were manufacturing an excuse to attack the town and eliminate the militia. In a town meeting, three citizens voted to hand over the gun to forestall an attack; the remainder, including alcalde Andrew Ponton, voted to stand their ground. According to historian Stephen Hardin, "the cannon became a point of honor and an unlikely rallying symbol. Gonzales citizens had no intention of handing over the weapon at a time of growing tension." The soldiers were escorted from town without the cannon.

Old Eighteen
"Old Eighteen" refers to the 18 Texians who delayed Mexican attempts to reclaim the Gonzales cannon until Texian Militia arrived, which instigated the ensuing battle. The phrase is a pastiche of "Old Three Hundred". They are:

 * 1) William W. Arrington
 * 2) Simeon Bateman
 * 3) Valentine Bennet
 * 4) Joseph D. Clements
 * 5) Almon Cottle (brother of an Immortal 32)
 * 6) Jacob C. Darst (also Immortal 32)
 * 7) George W. Davis
 * 8) Almaron Dickinson
 * 9) Graves Fulchear
 * 10) Benjamin Fuqua
 * 11) James Hinds
 * 12) Thomas Jackson (also Immortal 32)
 * 13) Albert Martin (also Immortal 32)
 * 14) Charles Mason
 * 15) Thomas R. Miller (also Immortal 32)
 * 16) John Sowell
 * 17) Winslow Turner
 * 18) Ezekiel Williams

Prelude
Ponton anticipated that Ugartechea would send more troops to force the return of the loaned cannon. As soon as the first group of soldiers left Gonzales, Ponton sent a messenger to the closest town, Mina, to request help. Word quickly spread that up to 300 soldiers were expected to march on Gonzales. Stephen F. Austin, one of the most respected men in Texas and the de facto leader of the settlers, sent messengers to inform surrounding communities of the situation. Austin cautioned Texians to remain on the defensive, as any unprovoked attacks against Mexican forces could limit the support Texians might receive from the United States if war officially began.

On September 27, 1835, a detachment of 100 dragoons, led by lieutenant Francisco de Castañeda, left San Antonio de Béxar, carrying an official order for Ponton to return the cannon. Castañeda had been instructed to avoid using force if possible. When the troops neared Gonzales on September 29, they found that the settlers had removed the ferry and all other boats from the Guadalupe River. On the other side of the swiftly moving river waited eighteen Texians. Albert Martin, captain of the Gonzales Texian Militia company, informed the soldiers that Ponton was out of town, and until his return the army must remain on the west side of the river.

With no easy way to cross the river, Castañeda and his men made camp at the highest ground in the area, about 300 yd from the river. Three Texians hurried to bury the cannon, while others traveled to nearby communities to ask for assistance. By the end of the day, more than 80 men had arrived from Fayette and Columbus. Texian Militia companies generally elected their own leaders, and the men now gathered in Gonzales invoked their right to choose their own captain rather than report to Martin. John Henry Moore of Fayette was elected leader, with Joseph Washington Elliot Wallace and Edward Burleson, both of Columbus, respectively elected second and third in command.

On September 30, Castañeda reiterated his request for the cannon and was again rebuffed. Texians insisted on discussing the matter directly with Ugartechea. According to their spokesman, until this was possible "the only answer I can therefore give you is that I cannot now [and] will not deliver to you the cannon". Castañeda reported to Ugartechea that the Texians were stalling, likely to give reinforcements time to gather.

In San Antonio de Béxar, Ugartechea asked Dr. Launcelot Smither, a Gonzales resident in town on personal business, to help Castañeda convince the settlers to follow orders. When Smither arrived on October 1, he met with militia captain Mathew Caldwell to explain that the soldiers meant no harm if the settlers would peacefully return the cannon. Caldwell instructed Smither to bring Castañeda to the town the following morning to discuss the matter. At roughly the same time, Moore called a war council, which quickly voted to initiate a fight. It is unclear whether the war council was aware that Caldwell had promised Castañeda safe passage to Gonzales the next morning.

Texians dug up the cannon and mounted it on cart wheels. In the absence of cannonballs, they gathered metal scraps to fill the cannon. James C. Neill, who had served in an artillery company during the War of 1812, was given command of the cannon. He gathered several men, including Almaron Dickinson, also a former US Army field artilleryman, together to form the first artillery company of Texians. A local Methodist minister, W. P. Smith, blessed their activities in a sermon which made frequent reference to the American Revolution.

As the Texians made plans for an attack, Castañeda learned from a Coushatta Indian that about 140 men were gathered in Gonzales, with more expected. The Mexican soldiers began searching for a safe place to cross the river. At nightfall on October 1 they stopped to make camp, 7 mi upriver from their previous spot.

Battle
Texians began crossing the river at about 7 pm. Less than half of the men were mounted, slowing their progress as they tracked the Mexican soldiers. A thick fog rolled in around midnight, further delaying them. At around 3am, Texians reached the new Mexican camp. A dog barked at their approach, alerting the Mexican soldiers, who began to fire. The noise caused one of the Texian horses to panic and throw his rider, who suffered a bloody nose. Moore and his men hid in the thick trees until dawn. As they waited, some of the Texians raided a nearby field and snacked on watermelon.

With the darkness and fog, Mexican soldiers could not estimate how many men had surrounded them. They withdrew 300 yd to a nearby bluff. At about 6 am, Texians emerged from the trees and began firing at the Mexican soldiers. Lieutenant Gregorio Pérez counterattacked with 40 mounted soldiers. The Texians fell back to the trees and fired a volley, injuring a Mexican private. According to some accounts, the cannon fell out of the wagon upon the shot. Unable to safely maneuver among the trees, the Mexican horsemen returned to the bluff.

As the fog lifted, Castañeda sent Smither to request a meeting between the two commanders. Smither was promptly arrested by the Texians, who were suspicious of his presence among the Mexican soldiers. Nevertheless, Moore agreed to meet Castañeda. Moore explained that his followers no longer recognized the centralist government of Santa Anna and instead remained faithful to the Constitution of 1824, which Santa Anna had repudiated. Castañeda revealed that he shared their federalist leanings, but that he was honor-bound to follow orders.

As Moore returned to camp, the Texians raised a homemade white banner with an image of the cannon painted in black in the center, over the words "Come and Take It". The makeshift flag, lost later the same year, evoked the American Revolutionary-era slogan "Don't Tread on Me". Texians then fired their cannon at the Mexican camp. Realizing that he was outnumbered and outgunned, Castañeda led his troops back to San Antonio de Béxar. The troops were gone before the Texians finished reloading. In his report to Ugartechea, Castañeda wrote "since the orders from your Lordship were for me to withdraw without compromising the honor of Mexican arms, I did so".

Aftermath
Two Mexican soldiers were killed in the attack. The only Texian casualty was the bloody nose suffered by the man bucked off his horse. Although the event was, as characterized by Davis, "an inconsequential skirmish in which one side did not try to fight", Texians soon declared it a victory over Mexican troops. Despite its minimal military impact, Hardin asserts that the skirmish's "political significance was immeasurable". A large number of Texians had taken an armed stand against the Mexican army, and they had no intention of returning to their neutral stance towards Santa Anna's government. Two days after the battle, Austin wrote to the San Felipe de Austin Committee of Public Safety, "War is declared—public opinion has proclaimed it against a Military despotism—The campaign has commenced". News of the skirmish, originally called "the fight at Williams' place", spread throughout the United States, encouraging many adventurers to come to Texas and assist in the fight against Mexico. Newspapers referred to the conflict as the "Lexington of Texas"; as the Battles of Lexington and Concord began the American Revolution, the Gonzales skirmish launched the Texas Revolution.

Before fighting had officially erupted, Santa Anna had realized that stronger measures were needed to ensure calm in Texas. He ordered his brother-in-law, General Martín Perfecto de Cos to bring approximately 500 soldiers to Texas. Cos and his men arrived in Goliad on October 2. Three days later, after learning of the events at Gonzales, the soldiers left for San Antonio de Béxar.

Gonzales became a rallying point for Texians opposed to Santa Anna's policies. On October 11, they unanimously elected Austin their commander, despite his lack of military training. The following day, Austin led the men on a march towards San Antonio de Béxar to lay siege to Cos's troops. By the end of the year, the Texians had driven all Mexican troops from Texas. The cannon's fate is disputed. According to the memoirs (written in the 1890s) of Gonzales blacksmith Noah Smithwick, the cannon was abandoned after the cart's axles began to smoke during a march to San Antonio de Béxar to assist in Austin's siege. Smithwick reported that the cannon was buried near a creek not far from Gonzales. A small iron cannon was exposed during a June 1936 flood near Gonzales. In 1979, this cannon was purchased by Dr. Patrick Wagner, who believed it matched Smithwick's descriptions of the cannon used in the battle. The Curator of Military History at the Smithsonian Institution verified that Wagner's cannon was a type of small swivel gun used in America through 1836. The Conservation Laboratory at the University of Texas confirmed that Wagner's cannon had been buried in moist ground for an extended time period.

Writing in the Handbook of Texas, historian Thomas Ricks Lindley maintains that the Wagner cannon does not match the Smithwick account. The Wagner gun is made of iron and is smaller than a six-pounder. Lindley states that Francisco de Castañeda reported two cannons being used by the Texians in the battle, the large bronze cannon lent by the Mexicans and a much smaller iron cannon, two other Mexican accounts also recording both cannons in Gonzales.

Historians such as Lindley think it likely that the bronze six-pounder cannon which caused the dispute was taken to San Antonio de Béxar, where it was used during the Battle of the Alamo and captured by Mexican troops in March 1836. Lindley states that the bronze cannon was dug up in 1852 and in 1874 its metal was recast into a bell which hangs in St. Mark’s Episcopal Church in San Antonio; while the Texian's small iron cannon was abandoned at Sandies Creek, uncovered by a flood in 1936, and  is displayed in the Gonzales Memorial Museum as the Come and Take It cannon.

The battle is re-enacted during the Come and Take It celebration in Gonzales every October. In and around Gonzales are nine Texas historical markers which commemorate various locations used in the prelude to the battle.

title: Battle of Gonzales


text:
Roberto Carlos (singer)

Roberto Carlos Braga (born April 19, 1941) is a Brazilian singer-songwriter, also known as "King of Latin Music" or simply "the King". Most of his songs were written in partnership with his friend, singer and songwriter Erasmo Carlos (no relation). Roberto Carlos has sold over 70 million albums around the world. He is considered one of the most influential artists in Brazil, being cited as a source of inspiration by many artists and bands. His net worth is estimated at US$160 million.

Career
Childhood

Roberto Carlos Braga was born in Cachoeiro de Itapemirim, at the southern part of the Brazilian state of Espírito Santo. He is the fourth and last son of watchmaker Robertino Braga (March 27, 1896 – January 27, 1980) and seamstress Laura Moreira Braga (April 10, 1914 – April 17, 2010). The family lived in a modest home on top of a hill in the Nook neighbourhood. His siblings were Lauro Roberto Braga, Carlos Alberto Moreira Braga and Norminha. At age six, during the feast of St Peter, the patron saint of Cachoeiro do Itapemirim, Roberto Carlos was hit by a steam locomotive and had to have his right leg amputated just below his knee. He still uses a prosthesis, but avoids talking about it.

As a child he learned to play the guitar and the piano – first with his mother and later at the Itapemirim Music Conservatory. At 9 years old, he performed for the first time at a children's show broadcast by Rádio Cachoeiro (he sang a bolero called "Mal Amor"). He won candies as the first prize. Years later, he recalled the occasion for the book Roberto Carlos Up Close, by Paulo Cesar de Araujo: "I was very nervous, yet very happy to be able to sing on the radio. I got a lot of candies, which was the prize for the kids who'd sing there. It was a beautiful day." He became a regular performer on that particular show.

1960s
Influenced by his idol Elvis Presley and the 1950s rock revolution, he rose to stardom as the main figure of the 1950s and 1960s musical movement known as Jovem Guarda (or Young Guard), which was a rip off from another TV Show. From the same name "Jovem Guarda" was the first manifestation of the Brazilian pop rock movement. Since then, Roberto Carlos has been called "O Rei" (the King).

When his first single and first LP (Louco por você, 1961) were commercial failures, Roberto Carlos was in danger of being fired from CBS in favor of Sérgio Murilo, the first successful rock singer in Brazil. Nevertheless, Murilo was fired instead for clashing with musical director Evandro Ribeiro over repertoire and payment, opening up space for Roberto Carlos. During his first decade of recording, Roberto Carlos also starred in a few motion pictures directed by Roberto Farias, many of them inspired by the Beatles movies.

Jovem Guarda

Roberto Carlos insisted on investing time in young music, rock, and in 1962 released Splish Splash. With his friend Erasmo Carlos, Roberto recorded Portuguese versions of pop songs and wrote his own songs, such as "Parei Na Contramão" which became a hit. The following year the singer was back on the charts with the album É Proibido Fumar, in which, besides the title track, the highlight was the song "O Calhambeque". Thus was born the Jovem Guarda (TV Show).

Nationally known, Roberto Carlos began to host the Jovem Guarda TV program in 1965 at TV Record, along with Erasmo Carlos and Wanderléa. The program further popularized the pop rock movement in Brazil and established the singer, who became one of the first idols of the young Brazilian culture. Also in 1965, the albums Roberto Carlos Canta Para A Juventude – with hits "A Estoria do Homem Mau (Old Man Moses)," "Os Sete Cabeludos", "Eu Sou Fã Do Monoquini" and "Eu Não Quero Ver Você Triste" partnerships with Erasmo Carlos –and Jovem Guarda with the hits "Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno", "Lobo Mau", "O Feio" (Getúlio Cortes) and "Não É Papo Pra Mim" were released. In 1966, Carlos presented the programs "Roberto Carlos à Noite", "Opus 7", "Jovem Guarda em Alta Tensão" e "Todos os Jovens do Mundo", at TV Record, all of them short-lived. That year would be marked by a fight that nearly ended the partnership between him and Erasmo. The reason for the split was a failure of production of the "Show in Si Monal ..." TV Record, which paid homage to Erasmo. The production was to present a pot-pourri of Erasmo's most famous compositions, including "Parei na Contramão" and "Quero Que Vá Tudo Pro Inferno". The controversy was created because of these songs were composed in partnership with Roberto Carlos, but the credits were given only to Erasmo. The two quarreled, and the partnership was suspended for more than one year. During this period, Roberto wrote "We There Yet?" and "Namoradinha de Um Amigo Meu" were released on the LP "Roberto Carlos" that year (the album still had the hits "Eu Te Darei O Céu", "Esqueça", "Negro Gato" (Getúlio Cortes) and "Nossa Canção" (Luiz Ayrão).

In 1967, the friendship between Roberto and Erasmo was shaken, though the two still presented – along with Wanderléa – the "Jovem Guarda" show on TV Record. Roberto wrote his own hits like "Como É Grande Meu Amor Por Você", "Corro Demais", "Quando" and "De vale tudo isso?", which would be released on the LP "Roberto Carlos em Ritmo de Aventura" soundtrack of movie with the same name, released the following year. The film was produced and directed by Roberto Farias and featured Roberto Carlos as protagonist, with José Lewgoy and Reginaldo Faria in the cast. The film became a box office success in the Brazilian cinema. With his many professional commitments, Roberto could not finish the lyrics for "Eu Sou Terrível", which was to be the starting soundtrack of the feature. He asked his former partner Erasmo Carlos, who helped finalize the lyrics. Thus, friendship and partnership between the two resumed. Later that year, Roberto Carlos had his first performances abroad, in Cannes (France) and participated in several Brazilian Pop Music festivals. He placed fifth with the song "Maria Carnaval e Cinzas" (Luís Carlos Paraná). Some people objected to the presence of a Jovem Guarda icon.

In 1968 the LP O Inimitável was released. A transition record in the singer's career, the album had influences in U.S. black music (soul / funk) and scored several hits, like "Se Você Pensa", "Eu Te Amo, Te Amo, Te Amo", "É Meu É Meu É Meu", "As Canções que você Fez Pra Mim" (all partnerships with Erasmo Carlos), "Ciúmes De Você" (Luiz Ayrão), and "Eu Não Vou Deixar Você Tão Só" (Marcos Antonio). Later that year, Roberto Carlos became the first and only Brazilian to win the Festival of San Remo (Italy), with the song "Canzone Per Te", Sergio Endrigo and Sergio Bardotti. The singer would change his style in 1969 and also stopped naming his albums. The album Roberto Carlos was marked by a greater romanticism instead of the traditional themes typical of the Jovem Guarda youth. Among the successes of this LP are "As Curvas da Estrada De Santos", "Sua Estupidez" and "As Flores do Jardim de Nossa Casa", all partnerships with Erasmo Carlos. Later that year, he starred in Roberto Carlos e o Diamante Cor-de-rosa, the second film directed by Roberto Farias and new success at the box office.

1970s and 1980s
The 1970 decade was marked by the end of the Jovem Guarda and the bolstering the prestige of Roberto Carlos as a romantic artist in Brazil and abroad (USA, Europe and Latin America). The singer became the artist who would sell the most albums in the country. Several of his songs were recorded by other artists such as Julio Iglesias, Caravelli and Ray Conniff. In 1970, the singer made a successful series of shows in Canecão. Later that year, he launched his annual album, which brought such hits as "Ana", "Veste A Roupa Meu Bem" and "Jesus Cristo", a song which also marked his approach to religion.

The following year, Roberto Carlos a 300 km Por Hora, the last movie starring the singer, was released also a great national success. Also in 1971, another album was released, featuring the hits "Detalhes," "Amada Amante", "Todos Estão Surdos", "Debaixo dos Caracóis dos Seus Cabelos" (homage to Caetano Veloso) and "Como Dois E Dois" (Caetano). The 1972 album resonated with "A Montanha", "Como Vai Você", and "Quando As Crianças Saírem de Férias" in addition to being the first LP to reach the milestone of one million copies sold, and in 1973, with "Rotina" and "Proposta". On December 24, 1974, TV Globo aired a special show with singer, which got huge ratings. From that year, the program would be aired at the end of each year. That same year, he released another album, with hits like "O Portão" and "Eu Quero Apenas".

The 1975 album had a hit with "Além do Horizonte" and a remake of his 1965 song "Quero Que Vai Tudo Pro Inferno". The following year the singer would record the new LP in the CBS Studios in New York. The album spawned the songs "Ilegal, Imoral e Engorda" and "Os Seus Botões"." In 1977, Roberto Carlos released his annual album, with hits like "Amigo" (an homage to Erasmo Carlos), "Muito Romântico" (Caetano Veloso) and "Cavalgada" and reached #1 on the charts. The following year, another annual album was released, which featured the songs "Café da Manhã", "Força Estranha" (Caetano Veloso) and "Lady Laura" – a song dedicated to his mother. The album sold 1,500,000 copies. In addition to albums that sold more than 1 million copies a year, Roberto Carlos's shows were also popular; in 1978, the singer toured the country for six months, always with packed houses. When Pope John Paul II visited Mexico in 1979, he was greeted with the song "Amigo", sung by a choir of children. The event was broadcast live to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Roberto also engaged in support of the UN International Year of the Child.

In the early 1980s, he took part in another campaign, this time for the International Year of the Disabled. In 1981, the singer made international tours and recorded the first album in English – others would be released in Spanish, Italian and French. He also recorded the annual album, which featured hits like "Emoções", "Cama e Mesa" and "As Baleias". In 1982, Maria Bethânia participated in the yearly album, the duet "Amiga." It was the first time the singer invited another artist to participate in the recordings on the disc. Roberto Carlos (1982) also had the hit song "Fera Ferida", another collaboration with Erasmo.

After his first decade of success, Roberto Carlos moved towards a more serious, adult-oriented approach to singing, whilst consistently continuing to score hits in his country and throughout Latin America, as well as in Portugal, Spain and Italy. In the 1980s, Roberto Carlos also began recording in English and French (he had already recorded albums in Spanish, Italian, and, naturally, Portuguese). He went on to win the Globo de Cristal trophy, awarded by CBS to Brazilian artists who sell more than five million copies outside Brazil. At the same time, his albums continued to break records in his country. Caminhoneiro (1984) aired 3,000 times in a single day, soon topped by his own Verde e Amarelo (1985), with 3,500 airings. In 1985 he participated in the campaign to help children in Latin America, in the song Cantarê, cantarás, he performed with Julio Iglesias, Gloria Estefan, Jose Feliciano, Plácido Domingo, Cheech Marin and Menudo, among others. He won the 1988 Grammy for Best Latin American Singer and the following year he reached the top of Billboard's Latin charts. Also in 1989, he had a hit with the song "Amazonia". In the traditional year-end special Rede Globo he sang hits like "Outra Vez" alongside Simone.

In 1986, Roberto Carlos performed at Radio City Music Hall in New York and two years later became one of the only Brazilians ever to win a Grammy Award in the category of Best Latin Pop Album with Roberto Carlos / Tolo. In 1998, due to the illness of his wife Maria Rita, Roberto Carlos had to reconcile the disc recording and support for his wife hospitalized in São Paulo. His yearly record, that almost was not released, had only four new songs, including "O Baile da Fazenda", a partnership with Erasmo Carlos and was attended special Dominguinhos. In 1999, the worsening state of health of Maria Rita, followed by her death in December of that year, made the singer failed to make the traditional end of year special on Rede Globo and to record a new album. The record company Sony has just launched The 30 Greatest Hits (Vol. 1 and 2), paired with a collection of greatest hits and a new song, the religious "Todas As Nossas Senhoras", written with Erasmo.

1990s and 2000s
Carlos continued to record through the 1990s, focusing on romantic songs. In the mid-1990s a retro-Jovem Guarda wave hit Brazil, and Carlos—who was considered a has-been amongst a younger generation familiar only with his romantic and sentimental hits directed at a middleaged audience—had his importance cited by younger musicians such as Cássia Eller, Adriana Calcanhotto, Chico Science e Nação Zumbi, Barão Vermelho and Skank. Skank also recorded Rei, a tribute to Roberto Carlos with his classic hits from the heyday of the Jovem Guarda epoch.

In 1992 he left his name on the Latin artist Walk of Fame in Miami in the United States. In 1994, Roberto Carlos managed to beat the Beatles' sales in Latin America, selling over 70 million records. In 1996, Roberto Carlos scored another success in partnership with Erasmo Carlos, Mulher de 40, and recorded along with Julio Iglesias, Gloria Estefan, Plácido Domingo, Ricky Martin, Jon Secada among others, the song in Spanish, "Puedes Llegar", the theme of the Atlanta Olympics in the United States. In 1997, he launched the Spanish-language album Canciones Que Amo.

In 1998, Carlos's second wife, Maria Rita, discovered she had cancer (she would die in 1999). After a one-year break, Roberto Carlos returned to recording and performing. In 2001, he broke his contract with Sony (formerly CBS), the recording company through which he had released a vast majority of his albums, due to reasons connected to his wife's death. However, in a 2008 interview, Roberto Carlos stated that he had no intention of retiring from the music industry anytime soon and released an album later that year. In 2004, Carlos was awarded the Latin Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award. He was later recognized as the Latin Recording Academy Person of the Year in 2015.

In December 2006, "Duetos" a CD with 14 tracks and a DVD with 16 numbers was released, which had taken of the special moments recorded for the Globo since the 1970s. Later that year Roberto Carlos won the Latin Grammy for best romantic music album (album Roberto Carlos, 2005). In the same period, the publisher Planeta launched the book Roberto Carlos em Detalhes, by Paulo Cesar de Araujo, an unauthorized biography about the singer, a result of 16 years of research and with testimonies of about 200 people who participated in the career of Roberto. Roberto Carlos repudiated the publication, claiming that there is untruth in it, and announced his intention to withdraw the work from circulation. The court ruled for Roberto Carlos and the book Roberto Carlos em Detalhes was pulled from stores at the end of February 2007. On April 27, 2007, after a long hearing at the Criminal Forum of Barra Funda, São Paulo, all copies of the book were recalled.

In January 2007, the singer travelled to Spain, where he recorded his first album in Spanish in a decade. In June, he performed at Canecão. In addition to special appearances by singers Gilberto Gil, Zeca Pagodinho, and journalists Nelson Motta and Leda Nagle and established actors and actresses, the show's repertoire included the entirety of "É Preciso Saber Viver", a song whose verse "se o bem e o mal existem" (If there are good and evil) the singer had long refused to sing long before, due to OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder).

Every year, Roberto Carlos hosts a special TV show singing his greatest hits along with special guests. The show has become a tradition in Brazilian television. The house where Carlos was born has also been converted into a museum dedicated to him.

In 2008, Roberto Carlos and Caetano Veloso did a show together in tribute to Antonio Carlos Jobim, which was recorded on CD and DVD "Roberto Carlos, Caetano Veloso and Tom Jobim's music". Jaques Morelenbaum, Daniel Jobim and Wanderlea participated in this show. In 2009, he began a tour celebrating 50 years of his career, and his first concert was on April 19 in Itapemirim, his hometown, the day he turned 68 years old. In April, the show "They sing Roberto – DIVAS", at the Municipal Theater of São Paulo, was attended by the great singers of national music, such Adriana Calcanhotto, Alcione, Ana Carolina, Claudia Leitte, Daniela Mercury, Fafa de Belém, Fernanda Abreu, Ivete Sangalo, Luiza Possi, Marina Lima, Mart'nália, Nana Caymmi, Paula Toller, Rosemary (singer), Sandy, Wanderlea and Zizi Possi. The television host Hebe Camargo and the actress Marilia Pera also participated in the show. Roberto Carlos was considered by the Journal Times one of the 100 most influential Brazilians of 2009.

2010s to present
His mother Laura Moreira Braga died on April 17, 2010, at age 96. The news of her death was given minutes after a Roberto Carlos's concert at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City. Through the 2010s, Roberto Carlos continued his yearly cruise ship concert project, "Emoções em Alto Mar" (Emotions in the High Seas). In the second half of 2011, the singer also held a concert in the city of Jerusalem, titled "Emoções em Jerusalem".

Roberto Carlos was paid homage by the Beija-Flor samba school in the 2011 Carnival parade.

In 2013, "Esse Cara Sou Eu" won the Best Brazilian Song and was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2013 Latin Grammy Awards. In 2015, he received the Billboard Latin Music Lifetime Achievement Award and was recognized Person of the Year by the Latin Recording Academy. Roberto Carlos received the Excellence Award at the 2019 Lo Nuestro Awards.

50th career anniversary
On July 11, 2009, to celebrate his 50th career anniversary, Roberto Carlos performed a major show at Maracanã Stadium. It was his first presentation in the stadium. The estimated audience was about 70,000 people.

Roberto Carlos's 50th career anniversary was also celebrated with a major exhibition in the Lucas Nogueira Garcez Pavilion, located in Ibirapuera Park, São Paulo. The interactive expo, opened on March 4, 2010, portrayed the singer's life and career. The young poet and composer Gabriel Ataide Lima, says in its influences that Roberto Carlos was one of the largest, and thanks to his music, he realized that "poetry has to be sweet, pure, direct, and lively. Speaking of themes love it ... no grueling things I learned from Roberto Carlos. Besides singing themes like nature, religion and life in peace. "

Discography
Mostly in Portuguese; some songs in Spanish, English and Italian. As the majority of Roberto Carlos's albums are simply self-titled, the most significant hit of each album is also indicated.

 * 1961 - Louco Por Você
 * 1963 - Splish Splash
 * 1964 - É Proibido Fumar
 * 1965 - Canta Para a Juventude
 * 1965 - Canta a la Juventud
 * 1965 - Jovem Guarda
 * 1966 - Roberto Carlos ("Eu Te Darei O Céu")
 * 1967 - Roberto Carlos em Ritmo de Aventura
 * 1968 - O Inimitável
 * 1969 - Roberto Carlos ("As Flores do Jardim da Nossa casa")
 * 1970 - Roberto Carlos ("Ana")
 * 1971 - Roberto Carlos ("Detalhes")
 * 1972 - Roberto Carlos ("A Janela")
 * 1972 - Un gato en la oscuridad
 * 1973 - Roberto Carlos ("A Cigana")
 * 1973 - En español ("La distancia")
 * 1974 - Roberto Carlos ("Despedida")
 * 1974 - El día que me quieras
 * 1975 - Roberto Carlos ("Quero Que Va Tudo Pro Inferno")
 * 1975 - Quiero verte a mi lado
 * 1976 - Roberto Carlos ("Ilegal, Imoral ou Engorda")
 * 1976 - San Remo 1968
 * 1976 - Tu cuerpo
 * 1977 - Roberto Carlos ("Amigo")
 * 1977 - En español ("El progreso")
 * 1978 - Roberto Carlos ("Fé")
 * 1978 - Roberto Carlos ("Amigo (en español)")
 * 1979 - Roberto Carlos ("Meu Querido, Meu Velho, Meu Amigo")
 * 1979 - Roberto Carlos ("Fé (en español)")
 * 1980 - Roberto Carlos ("A guerra dos meninos")
 * 1980 - Mi querido, mi viejo, mi amigo
 * 1981 - Roberto Carlos ("Ele está prá chegar")
 * 1981 - La guerra de los niños
 * 1982 - Roberto Carlos ("Amiga")
 * 1982 - Roberto Carlos ("Emociones")
 * 1983 - Roberto Carlos ("O Amor é a Moda")
 * 1983 - Roberto Carlos ("Amiga (en español)")
 * 1984 - Roberto Carlos ("Coração")
 * 1984 - Roberto Carlos ("El amor y la moda")
 * 1985 - Roberto Carlos ("Verde e Amarelo")
 * 1985 - Roberto Carlos '85 ("Corazón")
 * 1986 - Roberto Carlos ("Apocalipse")
 * 1986 - Roberto Carlos '86 ("De corazón a corazón")
 * 1987 - Roberto Carlos ("Tô chutando lata")
 * 1987 - Nuestro amor
 * 1988 - Roberto Carlos ("Se Diverte e Já Não Pensa em Mim")
 * 1988 - Ao Vivo (live recording)
 * 1988 - Volver
 * 1989 - Roberto Carlos ("Amazônia")
 * 1989 - Sonrie
 * 1990 - Roberto Carlos ("Super herói")
 * 1990 - Pajaro herido
 * 1991 - Roberto Carlos ("Todas As Manhãs")
 * 1991 - Roberto Carlos ("Súper héroe")
 * 1992 - Roberto Carlos ("Você É Minha")
 * 1993 - Roberto Carlos ("O Velho Caminhoneiro")
 * 1993 - Roberto Carlos ("Mujer pequeña")
 * 1994 - Roberto Carlos ("Alô")
 * 1995 - Roberto Carlos ("Amigo Não Chore Por Ela")
 * 1996 - Roberto Carlos ("Mulher de 40")
 * 1997 - Canciones Que Amo
 * 1998 - Roberto Carlos ("Meu Menino Jesus")
 * 1999 - 30 Grandes Sucessos (Greatest Hits)
 * 2000 - Mensagens
 * 2000 - Amor Sem Limites
 * 2000 - Grandes Canciones (2 CD's)
 * 2001 - Acústico MTV (MTV Unplugged)
 * 2002 - Ao Vivo (Live)
 * 2003 - Pra Sempre
 * 2004 - Pra Sempre Ao Vivo No Pacaembu (Live)
 * 2004 - Mensajes de Fe
 * 2005 - Roberto Carlos ("Promessa")
 * 2006 - Duetos
 * 2008 - En Vivo (Live in Spanish)
 * 2008 - Roberto Carlos e Caetano Veloso e a música de Tom Jobim
 * 2009 - Elas Cantam Roberto Carlos
 * 2010 - Emoções Sertanejas
 * 2011 - Projeto Emoções em Jerusalém (Live)
 * 2012 - Esse Cara Sou Eu
 * 2013 - Roberto Carlos Remixed
 * 2014 - Duetos 2
 * 2014 - Ese Tipo Soy Yo
 * 2015 - Roberto Carlos em Las Vegas
 * 2015 - Primera Fila (Live)
 * 2017 - Roberto Carlos ("Chegaste")
 * 2018 - Amor Sin Limite

Feature films

 * 1968 – Em Ritmo de Aventura
 * 1970 – O Diamante Cor De Rosa
 * 1971 – A 300 km Por Hora

Live concert films

 * 2001 – Acústico MTV
 * 2001 – Acústico Gold Serie Limitada
 * 2004 – Pra Sempre Ao Vivo no Pacaembu
 * 2006 – Antologia (CD + DVD)
 * 2006 – Duetos
 * 2008 – Roberto Carlos ao Vivo (CD + DVD)

title: Roberto Carlos (singer)


text:
Talk:Jawi script

earlier comments
--Sepenidur 12:23, 30 Apr 2004 (UTC) The kaf itself is in the basic Arabic alphabet, and so should be shaded white. The gaf form is a bit difficult because, although it is usually described as a kaf with a dot over it, its isolated form does not follow the isolated form of the kaf, but looks more like the medial form. (See http://jawinet.8k.com/rumi/main.html under "Definasi tulisan jawi" for an example). This has caused confusion with Sindhi, which has developed a variety of letters derived from the kaf. Hope that helps, if you want to update the chart.

Image caption
Image caption says:

The chart should be read right-to-left, top-down.

What is this supposed to mean? Why? I'm sure that the cells with English words in them like "From Arabic" are meant to be read left to right. None of the characters are contiguous. What part is meant to be read right to left? --Tabor 04:24, 26 Jun 2005 (UTC)

cffdgddd

 * It's referring to the order of the cells. The cells should be read from right to left. Alif is the first letter, nya is the last... If you're still confused think of Alif as A and nya as Z in the Roman alphabet (this isn't true but maybe it'll help you understand). The cells could be thought of like this:
 * CBA
 * FED
 * IHG

Nil Einne 14:41, 31 May 2006 (UTC)

It would be clearer if the text were changed to "The chart should be read in right to left rows". That way the reader will know to start at the right, then move to the left and when they reach the end of the row, to move down to the next row, again starting on the right, and so on. Kiwehtin (talk) 03:10, 25 December 2009 (UTC)

Merge?
I oppose the merge - this article is about the Jawi script and the other one about the Yawi language. They should be two separate articles; all other language and script pairs are two articles. --Cbdorsett 10:07, 10 January 2007 (UTC)

Isn't Gaf is actually pronounced as 'Ga'
Isn't Gaf is actually pronounced as 'Ga'?

I think I learned the 'ga' not 'gaf'....... Can someone please change the wording.....

 * Yes, it's pronounced 'ga'. See this. Also, the image chart does not match the chart later on in the article. I propose it be removed. --Dwchin (talk) 06:53, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

Halló! As far as I understand the system is wrong. Please see Names.php where « <language_code>-<script_code> » is used. Aliases as « zh-cn », « zh-hk », « zh-tw; » are allowed beside these. Best regards

·לערי ריינהארט·T·m:Th·T·email me· 02:19, 4 March 2008 (UTC)

What evidence for derivation from Persian?
There are several references to a Jawi being introduced via Persian contact and to letters being borrowed from Persian script:

"Its development is linked with the arrival of Islam, mainly from Persians." (Introduction, paragraph 1)

"The Jawi script originated from Arabic literature introduced from Persian contact with the Kingdom of Jambi (...)" (Introduction, paragraph 2)

Footnote references are given at the ends of the respective paragraphs, but it is unclear to me whether the texts referred to justify the particular assertions here or are instead meant to refer to other material in their respective paragraphs. It would be worthwhile to explore whether the degree of Persian contact was as strong as this article makes it seem. Sources I have read on Indonesian history generally attribute the introduction of Islam to Arabs and even more so, to islamicised Gujaratis. In particular, Tome Pires' Suma Oriental, which describes early 16th century Malacca up to the Portuguese conquest of 1511, mentions a massive Gujarati presence in Malacca and the presence of other Indian peoples, but not to my memory the presence of any Persians. (See the quote under "History" at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Rojak. The "Parsis" in the quote were almost certainly Indian Zoroastrians, not Persians; see the Wikipedia article on "Parsi" for evidence on this point.)

The table:

The names given as Arabic are inaccurate. They imply pronunciations that are only found in a few regional dialects such as Lebanese. The correct Arabic names for the letters can be found in the Wikipedia article on Arabic script:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_script

The implication that the Jawi special letters for sounds not found in Arabic are borrowed or derived from Persian script cannot be supported. This is a major inaccuracy and it is important that this be changed. There is next to no evidence that the new letters were not indigenous inventions based on the general structure of Arabic script. The only one of the Jawi letters that is shared with Persian is ca (چ), which has the same shape as the Persian če (چ). However, the alphabetical order is different in Jawi and Persian scripts. Jawi ca appears in between hha and kha, whereas Persian če appears between jim and hha. If ca were derived from Persian influence, there would have been no reason to change its position to a different one from the Persian position.

None of the other special Jawi letters exists in Persian. In fact, for similar sounds, Persian and Malay developed completely different letters, based on different Arabic letters, independently of each other. None of these facts would be expected if Jawi were based on Persian or even if the new letters were based on some kind of Persian influence.

Finally, if Jawi were derived from or influenced by Persian, one would expect it to be written in the cascading Nasta'liq style typical or Persian and Urdu scripts. But in every old document I have seen from all parts of the archipelago, Jawi script is written in the Naskh style typical of Arabic, which points to an Arabic rather than Persian origin.

More effort should be made to locate well-documented and well-argued studies of the origin of the Jawi script as a basis for the Wikipedia article. Until that time, the article will remain misleading and inconsistent with the facts.

For information on Persian script and to compare it with Jawi, see the Wikipedia article at:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_script#Orthography

If any of the assertions about Persian sources for Jawi are taken from documented sources, then evidence to the contrary (such as that found in the Wikipedia Arabic script article and Persian orthography article section together with their original sources) should be included in order to provide a scientific balance of evidence.

Kiwehtin (talk) 03:42, 25 December 2009 (UTC)

 * Thanks for the heads up. I hope more research is carried out to find out about the development of Jawi. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.82.80.49 (talk) 16:29, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Information which needs to be added
Is Jawi written as an abjad like Arabic, with most of the vowells normally left out ? Arabic supposedly only uses 3 vowels with short and long forms. Malay as far as I can tell, uses more than that. How do the vowells get written in Malay/Jawi ?Eregli bob (talk) 16:47, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

Should Malaysia use Jawi Script?
I'm thinks yes —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.82.80.58 (talk) 10:13, 1 February 2011 (UTC)

 * It's still alive in the religious schools, and in Johor, students write down notes in Islamic Education classes using Jawi. In some places road signs were written in Rumi and Jawi, but the Chinese DAP seems to object using Jawi for unknown reason. There was a suggestion that Jawi should be taught in schools and it received positive response even from MCA, but so far no effort could be seen towards making it a nationwide knowledge. I personally prefer to write Malay in Jawi because it's much faster and takes less space and letters. Alas, not many instances where I could use it :( — Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.82.80.49 (talk) 16:36, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

 * It's still in use for Islamic Education classes in all public primary and secondary schools, and of course also in all religious schools as well. National examination papers for both Islamic Education and Malay Language could be answered in either scripts. Also, the official textbooks for Islamic Education in Malaysia is only printed in Jawi alphabets, it's usually external reference books which uses Latin alphabets. --MNH48 (talk) 20:41, 30 May 2018 (UTC)

Vowels
This article lacks information on how vowels are written in Jawi. Do they follow the arabic system of using diacritics? If so, what diacritics are used, and are they compulsary? (I.e. will they always be written, are they only sometimes written, or never written? V85 (talk) 16:11, 8 May 2011 (UTC)
 * Jawi scripts do not need diacritics. The Malay language often uses vowel letters (just like English such as A, E, I, O, and U). If A, it is written with alif (ا). Same thing goes to I (ي), O (و) and U (و). E is used under circumstances. If the word is DEWAN (pronounced DÉ-ONE), which means "hall", the Jawi word is ديوان. If the word is BERI, which means "give", the Jawi word is بري. A consonant is followed with a vowel (like "ma" ما, "bee" بي, and so on). Usually, the writers put diacritics for calligraphy. Muhammad Mukhriz (talk) 00:14, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

http://www.loc.gov/catdir/cpso/romanization/malay.pdf  K PUFFERFİSH Ṫ • Ċ 01:45, 7 May 2012 (UTC)

The Malay orthography (1892)
A book on orthography in Jawi.

https://archive.org/details/malayorthography00hudsrich

Rajmaan (talk) 06:29, 26 February 2014 (UTC)

Unicodes of isolated, initial, medial and final forms?
Having the unicode values for the letters is really helpful, but what are the unicode values of the ligatures of the 4 forms of each letter? Specifically I cannot find anything on nga = 06A0. Same goes for ga = 0762, va = 06CF and nya = 06BD. Can enyone help, and maybe let me know where they found the answer? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.116.45.66 (talk) 13:12, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

Comparison with Arabic
A little more information, and more accessible for the casual reader, about the differences and similarities with the classical Arabic script would be useful. Perhaps by adding an extra column in the main table with Arab equivalents, like there is already a column with Rumi/Latin equivalents. In some cases these boxes will be empty, in other cases the character will be the same and perhaps there are cases where the form of the letter is different? Bever (talk) 21:48, 6 February 2017 (UTC)

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Conditional sentence

Conditional sentences are natural language sentences that express that one thing is contingent on something else, e.g. "If it rains, the picnic will be cancelled." They are so called because the impact of the main clause of the sentence is conditional on the dependent clause. A full conditional thus contains two clauses: a dependent clause called the antecedent (or protasis or if-clause), which expresses the condition, and a main clause called the consequent (or apodosis or then-clause) expressing the result.

Languages use a variety of grammatical forms and constructions in conditional sentences. The forms of verbs used in the antecedent and consequent are often subject to particular rules as regards their tense, aspect, and mood. Many languages have a specialized type of verb form called the conditional mood – broadly equivalent in meaning to the English "would (do something)" – for use in some types of conditional sentences.

Types of conditional sentence
There are various ways of classifying conditional sentences. Many of these categories are visible cross-linguistically.

Implicative and predictive
A conditional sentence expressing an implication (also called a factual conditional sentence) essentially states that if one fact holds, then so does another. (If the sentence is not a declarative sentence, then the consequence may be expressed as an order or a question rather than a statement.) The facts are usually stated in whatever grammatical tense is appropriate to them; there are not normally special tense or mood patterns for this type of conditional sentence. Such sentences may be used to express a certainty, a universal statement, a law of science, etc. (in these cases if may often be replaced by when):
 * If you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius (° C), it boils.
 * If the sea is stormy, the waves are high.

They can also be used for logical deductions about particular circumstances (which can be in various mixtures of past, present, and future):
 * If it's raining here now, then it was raining on the West Coast this morning.
 * If it's raining now, then your laundry is getting wet.
 * If it's raining now, there will be mushrooms to be picked next week.
 * If he locked the door, then Kitty is trapped inside.

A predictive conditional sentence concerns a situation dependent on a hypothetical (but entirely possible) future event. The consequence is normally also a statement about the future, although it may also be a consequent statement about present or past time (or a question or order).
 * If I become President, I'll lower taxes.
 * If it rains this afternoon, everybody will stay home.
 * If it rains this afternoon, then yesterday's weather forecast was wrong.
 * If it rains this afternoon, your garden party is doomed.
 * What will you do if he invites you?
 * If you see them, shoot!

Indicative and counterfactual
One of the most discussed distinctions among conditionals is that between indicative and counterfactual conditionals, exemplified by the following English examples:

 * Indicative conditional: If Sally owns a donkey, then she beats it.
 * Simple past counterfactual: If Sally owned a donkey, she would beat it.

These conditionals differ in both form and meaning. The indicative conditional uses the present tense forms "owns" and "beats" and therefore conveys that the speaker is agnostic about whether Sally in fact owns a donkey. The counterfactual example uses the fake tense form "owned" in the "if" clause and the past-inflected modal "would" in the "then" clause. As a result, it conveys that Sally does not in fact own a donkey. Similar contrasts are common crosslinguistically, though the specific morphological marking varies from language to language.

Linguists and philosophers of language sometimes avoid the term counterfactuals because not all examples express counterfactual meanings. For instance, the "Anderson Case" has the characteristic grammatical form of a counterfactual conditional, but is in fact used as part of an argument for the truth of its antecedent.

 * Anderson Case: If Jones had taken arsenic, he would have shown just exactly those symptoms which he does in fact show.

The term subjunctive conditional has been used as a replacement, though it is also acknowledged as a misnomer. Many languages do not have a subjunctive (e.g., Danish and Dutch), and many that do have it don’t use it for this sort of conditional (e.g., French, Swahili, all Indo-Aryan languages that have a subjunctive). Moreover, languages that do use the subjunctive for such conditionals only do so if they have a specific past subjunctive form. The term X-Marked has been used as a replacement, with indicative conditionals renamed as O-Marked conditionals.

Speech act conditionals
Biscuit conditionals (also known as relevance or speech act conditionals) are conditionals where the truth of the consequent does not depend on the truth of the antecedent.

 * There are biscuits on the table if you want some.
 * If you need anything, my name is Joshua.
 * If I may be honest, you're not looking good

In metalinguistic conditionals, the antecedent qualifies the usage of some term. For instance, in the following example, the speaker has unconditionally asserted that they saw the relevant person, whether or not that person should really be called their ex-husband.

 * I saw my ex-husband, if that's the right word for him.

Non-declarative conditionals
In conditional questions, the antecedent qualifies a question asked in the consequent.

 * If Mary comes to the party, will Katherine come too?
 * If Angel forgets her guitar, what will we do?

In conditional imperatives, the antecedent qualifies a command given in the consequent.

 * If you are at an intersection, turn right!

Crosslinguistic variation
Languages have different rules concerning the grammatical structure of conditional sentences. These may concern the syntactic structure of the antecedent and consequent clauses, as well as the forms of verbs used in them (particularly their tense and mood). Rules for English and certain other languages are described below; more information can be found in the articles on the grammars of individual languages. (Some languages are also described in the article on the conditional mood.)

Latin
Conditional sentences in Latin are traditionally classified into three categories, based on grammatical structure.

 * simple conditions (factual or logical implications)
 * present tense [if present indicative then indicative]
 * sī valēs, gaudeo "if you are well, I am glad"
 * past tense [if perfect indicative then indicative]
 * sī peccāvī, īnsciēns fēcī "if I did wrong, I did so unwittingly"
 * 2nd person generalisations [if present or perfect subjunctive then indicative]
 * memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās "memory gets weaker, if you don't exercise it"

 * future conditions
 * "future more vivid" [if future or future perfect indicative then future indicative]
 * haec sī attulerīs, cēnābis bene "if you bring (literally "will have brought") these things, you will dine well"
 * "future less vivid" [if present or perfect subjunctive then present subjunctive]
 * sī negem, mentiar "if I were to deny it, I would be lying"

 * counterfactual conditions
 * "present contrary-to-fact" [if imperfect subjunctive then imperfect subjunctive]
 * scrīberem plūra, sī Rōmae essēs "I would write more, if you were in Rome"
 * "past contrary-to-fact" [if pluperfect subjunctive then pluperfect subjunctive]
 * sī Rōmae fuissem, tē vīdissem "if I had been in Rome, I would have seen you"

French
In French, the conjunction corresponding to "if" is si. The use of tenses is quite similar to English:
 * In implicative conditional sentences, the present tense (or other appropriate tense, mood, etc.) is used in both clauses.
 * In predictive conditional sentences, the future tense or imperative generally appears in the main clause, but the condition clause is formed with the present tense (as in English). This contrasts with dependent clauses introduced by certain other conjunctions, such as quand ("when"), where French uses the future (while English has the present).
 * In counterfactual conditional sentences, the imperfect is used to express the condition (where English similarly uses the past tense). The main clause contains the conditional mood (e.g. j'arriverais, "I would arrive").
 * In counterfactual conditional sentences with a past time frame, the condition is expressed using the pluperfect e.g. (s'il avait attendu, "if he had waited"), and the consequence with the conditional perfect (e.g. je l'aurais vu, "I would have seen him"). Again these verb forms parallel those used in English.

As in English, certain mixtures and variations of these patterns are possible. See also French verbs.

Italian
Italian uses the following patterns (the equivalent of "if" is se):
 * Present tense (or other as appropriate) in both parts of an implicative conditional.
 * Future tense in both parts of a predictive conditional sentence (the future is not replaced with the present in condition clauses as in English or French).
 * In a counterfactual conditional, the imperfect subjunctive is used for the condition, and the conditional mood for the main clause. A more informal equivalent is to use the imperfect indicative in both parts.
 * In a counterfactual conditional with past time frame, the pluperfect subjunctive is used for the condition, and the past conditional (conditional perfect) for the main clause.

See also Italian verbs.

Slavic languages
In Slavic languages, such as Russian, clauses in conditional sentences generally appear in their natural tense (future tense for future reference, etc.) However, for counterfactuals, a conditional/subjunctive marker such as the Russian бы by generally appears in both condition and consequent clauses, and this normally accompanies the past tense form of the verb.

See Russian grammar, Bulgarian grammar, etc. for more detail.

Logic
While the material conditional operator used in classical logic is sometimes read aloud in the form of a conditional sentence, the intuitive interpretation of conditional statements in natural language does not always correspond to it. Thus, philosophical logicians and formal semanticists have developed a wide variety of conditional logics that better match actual conditional language and conditional reasoning. They include the strict conditional and the variably strict conditional.

title: Conditional sentence


text:
Framhaldsskólinn í Vestmannaeyjum

Framhaldsskólinn í Vestmannaeyjum, the comprehensive secondary school of Vestmannaeyjar, Iceland, was founded 1979 when the mechanical engineering, common trades (is. iðnskóli) and the higher education department of the secondary school merged into one.

Then in 1997, it also took over the school of maritime navigation.

Currently there are seven departments in the school: Natural sciences, social sciences, linguistics, job training (for the disabled), medical aide training, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering.

The school is also currently used as the teaching facility for the Vestmannaeyjar department of the University of Iceland and has hosted many remote lectures, to Ísafjörður and Bíldudalur as well as a few other countries.

title: Framhaldsskólinn í Vestmannaeyjum