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Douglas Moore

Douglas Stuart Moore (August 10, 1893 – July 25, 1969) was an American composer, songwriter, organist, pianist, conductor, educator, actor, and author. A composer who mainly wrote works with an American subject, his music is generally characterized by lyricism in a popular or conservative style which generally eschewed the more experimental progressive trends of musical modernism. Composer Virgil Thomson described Moore as a neoromantic composer who was influenced by American folk music. While several of his works enjoyed popularity during his lifetime, only his folk opera The Ballad of Baby Doe (1956) has remained well known into the 21st century.

Overview
Moore first created music while a student at Yale University from 1911 through 1917; writing usually humorous songs in a popular style for school events in addition to creating music for school plays and musical revues. His work composing music for the Yale Dramatic Association, Elizabethan Club, and Yale Glee Club drew the attention of Yale music department chair Horatio Parker, who persuaded Moore, then a philosophy major, to pursue a second degree in music composition. After completing that degree in 1917, he served as an officer in the United States Navy during World War I before pursuing graduate studies in music composition with Vincent d'Indy at the Schola Cantorum de Paris (1919–1921) and with Ernest Bloch at the Cleveland Institute of Music (1921–1922).

Moore began his professional life as the organist and music director for the Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) from 1921 through 1925; during which time he also worked professionally as a leading actor with the Cleveland Play House. His first composition of note, Four Museum Pieces, was originally written for organ in 1922 with its four movements named for works of art in the collection of the CMA. Like many of Moore's compositions, this piece was composed during a summer residency at the MacDowell Colony, an artistic summer residency program which Moore attended for many years; first as a fellow and later as a member of the governing board. Moore arranged the work for orchestra at the MacDowell Colony in 1923, and conducted its world premiere with the Cleveland Orchestra that year. The piece won him a competitive Joseph Pulitzer National Traveling Scholarship which funded further composition studies with Nadia Boulanger in Paris in 1926.

In the fall of 1926 Moore joined the music faculty of Barnard College at Columbia University; beginning a lengthy professional career at Columbia. He was rapidly promoted at Columbia from adjunct faculty to professor and head of the music department at Barnard College in 1927; thanks in large part to the success of his orchestral suite The Pageant of P.T. Barnum (composed 1924, premiered 1926) which won the Eastman School of Music composing competition in 1927 and became Moore's first work to be widely programmed in the United States. Moore was director of the Columbia University orchestra from 1926 through 1935. In 1940 he succeeded Daniel Gregory Mason as chair of the music program at Columbia; a post he held until his retirement in 1962. His roles at Columbia and the MacDowell Colony as well as leadership roles on the governing boards of the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers and the American Academy of Arts and Letters made Moore one of the more influential music educators of the mid 20th century.

Moore composed music for the theater, film, ballet and orchestra. During his lifetime he was primarily known for his folk operas, beginning with the children's opera  The Headless Horseman (1936) which was widely performed at high schools and colleges throughout the United States during the mid 20th century. His next folk opera to achieve success was The Devil and Daniel Webster which premiered on Broadway in 1939 and was based on the 1936 short story of the same name by Pulitizer Prize winning poet Stephen Vincent Benét. Benét was a close friend of Moore's from Yale, and prior to this opera Moore had already composed several art songs to poems by Benét. Benét served as the opera's librettist, and the work went on to enjoy many stagings by American and European opera companies and at universities and conservatories during the 20th century. Moore's Symphony No. 2 in A major (1945) was composed in memory of Stephen Vincent Benét who died in 1943 at the age of 44.

Moore was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Music for the opera Giants in the Earth in 1951. His best known work, The Ballad of Baby Doe, premiered at the Central City Opera in 1956 and received a critically lauded production at the New York City Opera (NYCO) in 1958. The NYCO recorded the opera with Beverly Sills in the title role. It has remained a part of the standard opera repertory. As an author he penned two books on music, Listening to Music (1932) and From Madrigal to Modern Music (1942).

Early life (1893–1911)
Douglas Stuart Moore was born on August 10, 1893, in Cutchogue, Long Island, New York in the farmhouse of his grandfather, Joseph Hull Moore (1817–1904), where both his father and brothers were also born. He was the youngest child of Stuart Hull Moore (1854–1915) and Myra Drake (1856–1933); both of whom descended from the first colonial English settlers to America. He had two older brothers, Arthur and Eliot, and an older sister, Dorothy. His father's ancestor Thomas Moore (1615–1691) originally settled in Connecticut but moved to Southold, New York on Long Island in 1640. His mother was a descendent of both Myles Standish and John Alden who traveled to America on the Mayflower. His father built another nearby home for his family on the Moore family's farm, named Quawksnest, in which Moore and his family spent their summers. As an adult Moore lived on the family's Cutchogue property until his death in 1969. He resided in a cottage named Salt Meadow which was originally a garage and clubhouse before being converted into a home for Moore in 1933.

Moore's father made a living as a publisher of among other things the literary magazine Ladies' World; a business which he sold to S. S. McClure upon his retirement in 1913. While not in Cutchogue, the Moore family resided in Brooklyn, New York, at a house located at 43 McDonough Street until 1914 when the family moved into a Brooklyn apartment building at the corner of Van Buren Street and Sumner Avenue. The family also owned a summer home in Pasadena, California which was purchased after Stuart Moore sold his business. While there were no professional musicians in Moore's family, his mother was an amateur pianist who also sang in the women's chorus of Brooklyn's Chaminade Society (CS). At his mother's insistence, Moore began his music education at the age of seven with the conductor of the CS chorus, Emma Richardson Kuster, who began giving him piano lessons in 1900. He later was a piano student of Beverly Day. His father enjoyed playing pianola rolls in the family home during his youth.

Moore attended elementary school at the Adelphi Academy (now Adelphi University) in Brooklyn which was operated at that time by Charles Herbert Levermore. At the age of 13 he matriculated to the Fessenden School, a boys boarding school in West Newton, Massachusetts which he attended for the 1906–1907 academic year. After this, he completed the last four years of his college preparatory education at the Hotchkiss School in Lakeville, Connecticut from which he graduated in the spring of 1911. At Hotchkiss he made close friendships with several fellow students that would last through adulthood. These included friendships with Archibald MacLeish, who became a three-time Pulitzer Prize-winning poet, writer, and the ninth Librarian of Congress; Donald Oenslager, who became a Tony Award winning scenic designer; Henry Luce, who founded the magazines Time, Life, and Fortune; and Emily Bailey, whom Moore eventually married in 1920.

Yale University (1911–1917)
Moore entered Yale University as a college freshman in the fall of 1911 alongside his Hotchkiss friend Archibald MacLeish. At Yale he composed songs for school events which demonstrated a talent for writing music within a popular style. He quickly gained a reputation at Yale for writing humorous songs; one of which, "Naomi: The Restaurant Queen", was performed by actress Ethel Green in her vaudeville act and was published by Charles F. Smith in 1912. Of the other songs he wrote while at Yale, the most well known is the Yale fight song "Goodnight, Harvard" which he composed in 1913. This song has been recorded by several artists, including Rudy Vallée. He also wrote another fight song, "Parabalou", in 1912.

Moore was a member of the Yale Glee Club from 1913 through 1915; succeeding Cole Porter as the ensemble's "soloist and stunt man". With the glee club he often starred in comedy acts that contained music that he had composed. He was also a member of the banjo and mandolin club, and notably composed Concerto for Piano and mandolins which he premiered on campus as the pianist. In May 1914 he became a member of the Wolf's Head secret society. He also performed in stage plays with the Yale Dramatic Association and the Elizabethan Club. Yale being an all-male school at that time, he often portrayed female characters on stage in drag, such as Mabel Chilters in Oscar Wilde's An Ideal Husband. Moore developed close friendships with several fellow students in these performance groups, including Stephen Vincent Benét, Thornton Wilder, and Cole Porter.

Originally a philosophy major, Moore didn't begin formal music studies at Yale until the fall 1913 semester when he became a pupil of David Stanley Smith who was one of his principal music teachers at Yale. His other principal teacher at Yale was Horatio Parker, who encouraged Moore to focus his music studies on composition after Parker heard works composed by Moore for the Yale Dramatic Club's productions of Walter Scott's Quentin Durward and William Shakespeare's King Lear in 1914. For those productions Moore served as conductor. He earned two degrees from Yale University, a B.A. in philosophy in 1915, and a B.M. in music composition in 1917. For his final graduate project he conducted his orchestral composition Fantaisie Polonaise. One of Moore's composition classmates at Yale was Roger Sessions.

While a student at Yale, Moore's father died in Pasadena on 18 April 1915. His father was a millionaire, and left Moore a considerable fortune which allowed him to freely pursue his music interests and live comfortably with the services of a butler and cook for the rest of his life. In the summer of 1916 he was a fellow at the MacDowell Colony, and he later returned to MacDowell multiple times during his career.

War Service, Paris studies, and marriage (1917–1921)
Moore further utilized his song writing skillset while serving in the United States Navy for two years during the Great War as a lieutenant from 1917 through 1919; writing songs to entertain his fellow servicemen in the Navy. One of these songs, "Destroyer Life", appeared in the 1928 anthology Songs My Mother Never Taught Me which Moore co-authored with John Jacob Niles; bringing Moore his first recognition as a songwriter. Other songs penned by Moore from this era included "Santy Anna", "When I Lays Down", "Ate My Breakfast", "Hanging Johnnie", and "Jail Song"; many of them humorous accounts of life in the navy or about romantic liaisons with local women while on shore leave. He also wrote music to several poems by his friend MacLeish during this time. His songs demonstrated music influences from Tin Pan Alley, vaudeville, American folk tunes, and minstrel shows.

After leaving the Navy, Moore pursued graduate studies at the Schola Cantorum de Paris from 1919 through 1921, where his teachers included Vincent d'Indy (composition) and Charles Tournemire (organ). Tournemire left his teaching post in 1920; and Moore completed his organ studies with Nadia Boulanger. From D'Indy, Moore gained a compositional style similar to César Franck who had been D'Indy's teacher. While his music later moved in other directions beyond this style, Moore credited D'Indy for giving him a grounding in musical form from which he composed during the rest of his career.

While a student in Paris, Moore returned to the United States to wed Emily Bailey, a close friend since his Hotchkiss days, on 16 September 1920 at Martha's Vineyard. They spent their honeymoon sailing the eastern coast of the United States before returning as a couple to Paris. In France, the couple were at the center of a social group of American artists all studying in Paris. These included his old Yale friend Stephen Vincent Benét, composer Quincy Porter, and pianist Bruce Simonds (who was later head of the music department at Yale) among others. Emily gave birth to the couple's first child, Mary, in Paris on 7 July 1921.

Cleveland and return to Paris (1921–1926)
From 1921 through 1925 Moore worked as the curator of music at the Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA), and concurrently served as organist at Adelbert College of Western Reserve University (now Case Western Reserve University) from 1923 through 1925. At the CMA he gave weekly organ concerts on the CMA's McMyler Memorial Organ which was built by Ernest M. Skinner during his first year with the museum in 1921, and then installed in 1922. In addition to performing these concerts, his other CMA duties included directing a children's music program of regular weekly classes, giving public lectures on music history and appreciation, and coordinating a chamber music concert series. He used his position at the CMA to champion American composers and their music through programming their works.

During his time at CMA, Moore continued his education through continued composition studies with Ernest Bloch in his masterclass at the Cleveland Institute of Music in 1921–1922. His classmates included composers Theodore Chandler, Quincy Porter, Bernard Rogers, and Roger Sessions. Moore thrived under Bloch more so than his earlier composition teachers. Bloch encouraged Moore and his classmates to compose music in their own aesthetic and style rather than conform to a specific aesthetic for their assignments.

Moore also worked as a leading actor at the Cleveland Play House (CPH) in the 1920s. Roles he portrayed at this theater included Reverend Cyril Smith in G. K. Chesterton's Magic (1922–1923 season); Henry Higgins in George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion (1923–1924 season); Geoffrey Wareham in Harry Wagstaff Gribble's March Hares (1923; and later reprised in 1928); and the title role in Clare Kummer's Rollo's Wild Oat. His experiences performing at the CPH later informed his work creating pieces for the stage. Reviews of his performances were highly positive, and for a time Moore considered abandoning his career in music and pursuing an acting career.

Moore made his first significant professional contribution as a composer and conductor on November 15, 1923; conducting the premiere of his Four Museum Pieces with the Cleveland Orchestra. That work had originally been composed by Moore for organ while in attendance at the MacDowell Colony in the summer of 1922, and, after encouragement from Daniel Gregory Mason, was orchestrated by Moore at the MacDowell Colony in the summer of 1923. Moore titled each movement after a work of art in the collection of the CMA. During these summers at MacDowell, Moore also composed several art songs to poems by Stephen Vincent Benét ("A Nonsense Song" and "A Sad Song"), Archibald MacLeish ("April Weather"), and Elinor Wylie ("The Apple Boughs Bend"); all of which were performed at MacDowell with the poets in attendance. In 1926 Moore joined the board of directors of the Edward MacDowell Association which ran the MacDowell Colony among other things.

In 1923 Moore met and befriended the poet Vachel Lindsay; a relationship which had a significant impact on the future trajectory of Moore's compositional focus. Lindsay persuaded Moore to write music using American culture and history as its inspiration, and from this point on Moore's compositional output was mostly based on American subjects or themes for the rest of his life. His first American themed work was the symphonic piece Pageant of P.T. Barnum (composed 1924). Well received at its premiere by the Cleveland Orchestra under Nikolai Sokoloff on 28 March 1926, this work was the first piece by Moore to bring the composer recognition among the broader public. The piece enjoyed a great deal of popularity in America during the mid 20th century, but has since been programmed infrequently. He also composed the 104th Cavalry Regiment March in 1924 in honor of the regiment of the same name of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard; a work later arranged for band by Joseph C. Painter. In 1925 he composed incidental music for a production of William Shakespeare's Twelfth Night on a commission from Richard Boleslawski's American Laboratory Theatre (ALT). He continued to compose incidental music for the ALT in succeeding years for productions of Much Ado About Nothing and Robert E. Sherwood's The Road to Rome in 1927.

From the autumn of 1925 through the spring of 1926 Moore studied composition with Boulanger in Paris after being awarded a Joseph Pulitzer National Traveling Scholarship in recognition of his Four Museum Pieces. While Moore had a positive experience as an organ pupil of Boulanger, his compositional studies were not happy ones under her tutelage. His interests in sentimental American subjects, opera, musical theatre, folk music, and a penchant for more conservative melodic writing clashed with Boulanger's progressive aesthetic of musical modernism. Moore stated the following about Boulanger: "'We never got along in composition. She didn't like what I could do and I didn't like what she taught. She was a devotee of Fauré and Stravinsky. She didn't want you to be yourself.'"

As a result, Moore's time with Boulanger was not productive; with only a few small chamber pieces for woodwinds surviving. However, Moore did gain from Boulanger a stronger grounding in counterpoint and general musicianship skills, and he met several esteemed musicians in Boulanger's circle which proved to be valuable professional contacts in his career. He also devoted time to some vocal works while in Paris; although it is not clear if Boulanger had any input into these works. The most important of these was the Ballad of William Sycmamore which used text by Stephen Vincent Benét, and was scored for baritone voice, flute, trombone, and piano. He also worked on his first stage work while in Paris, the musical Oh, Oh, Tennessee, but the work has never been published or performed.

Columbia University (1926–1962)
After Moore returned to New York from Paris, he joined the music faculty at Barnard College, Columbia University in the fall of 1926. The success of the Pageant of P.T. Barnum upon its New York career at Carnegie Hall on January 18, 1927, and the work's win of the 1927 Eastman School of Music Orchestra Contest had a positive impact on Moore's career at Columbia. He was rapidly promoted from adjunct faculty member to assistant professor at the wider Columbia University and head of the music department at Barnard College specifically on July 1, 1927.

From 1926 through 1935 Moore was the conductor of Columbia University's orchestra. Under his leadership, Moore was instrumental in instituting several new policies in the music program at Columbia. These included giving students college credit for playing in the orchestra and taking music lessons for the first time, opening up the orchestra to women players for the first time, and instituting scholarships for instrumentalists in the orchestra that were difficult to obtain (such as oboists and bassoonists). In addition to his busy schedule administrating the music program and conducting orchestra rehearsals and concerts, Moore taught courses in music appreciation. This latter work led to the publication of his first book, Listening to Music (1932), which was written for a general audience without any music background. The book explained the basic elements of music: melody, harmony, polyphony, tonality, rhythm, and form with a suggested guide to recordings for listening and further reading. It was one of the earliest, if not the earliest, music textbooks to incorporate music recordings into the text.

In 1940 Moore succeeded Daniel Gregory Mason as head of the music faculty at Columbia; a post he held for the next 22 years. During his tenure he served as the administering secretary of the Alice M. Ditson Fund which was responsible for funding works by composers like Béla Bartók, Benjamin Britten, Gian Carlo Menotti, Walter Piston, and Virgil Thomson among others. He retired from Columbia in 1962 after having taught at that institution for 36 years.

Moore was a member from 1941 of the National Institute and American Academy of Arts and Letters. He served as president from 1953 until 1956. In 1954 he was a co-founder, with Otto Luening and Oliver Daniel, of the CRI (Composers Recordings, Inc.) record label.

His second book was,From Madrigal to Modern Music (1942).

1926–1929
During his time at Columbia, Moore remained active as a composer; writing works with American themes. The first major work he composed during this time was the symphonic poem Moby-Dick (1928); which told the story of Melville's 1851 novel of the same name through music. This is one of the few compositions by Moore which attempted to embrace elements of musical modernism with applications of quartal and quintal harmony, polytonality, frequent metre changes, increased dissonance, and atonality; all techniques not usually found in Moore's works. The work was likely an attempt to utilize techniques learned by Moore from Boulanger, and an attempt to write in a style currently in vogue with his contemporaries. Premiered by the Rochester Philharmonic, the work was not well received, and Moore never again chose to create a piece in this modernist style.

In 1928 Moore co-authored a collection of songs from World War I with John Jacob Niles entitled Songs My Mother Never Taught Me. The anthology included mainly anonymous songs from the army and navy which were arranged by the two men; but also included some original music from Moore's songwriting days while in the navy.Moore also contributed the children's songs "The Cupboard" and "Fingers and Toes" to the 1928 anthology New Songs for New Voices. Moore also composed music for a planned play on American outlaw Jesse James for the ALT that year, but financial issues ultimately prevented that project from making it to the stage. His 1929 Violin sonata was written for violinist Hildegarde Donaldson.

1930s
In the summer of 1930 on the Moore family farm in Cutchogue, Moore began composing his first symphony: A Symphony of Autumn in three movements. Completed in 1931, the symphony was dedicated to composer and conductor Howard Hanson who conducted the Rochester Philharmonic in the work's premiere on April 2, 1931. The symphony incorporates programmatic elements while maintaining a traditional symphonic form; although the work omits the scherzo movement.

Moore conducted the Manhattan Symphony Orchestra in the premiere of his Overture on an American Tune on December 11, 1932. The work was originally titled Babbitt after the 1922 novel of the same name by Sinclair Lewis. Program notes at the work's premiere indicate that the piece was meant to express musical ideas inspired by the "maligned" title character of the novel. Utilizing a sonata form structure, the overture uses the tune "Sweet Adeline" by Tin Pan Alley composer Henry W. Armstrong as a motif. Moore develops the melody to this tune using the techniques of augmentation, diminution, and retrograde.

Moore's String quartet was premiered by the Arion String Quartet at Barnard College on November 16, 1933, just two weeks before the death of his mother in Pasadena on December 1, 1933. The string quartet was dedicated to the Roth Quartet and is written in Moore's characteristic melodic style with effective use of countermelodies and modal harmony.

In 1934 Moore was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship which enabled him to spend time in Bermuda composing his first opera, White Wings, after the 1926 Broadway play by dramatist Philip Barry. Moore had seen the work on Broadway, and was one of several composers interested in adapting work with a music setting; among them Kurt Weil. Two of Moore's old school friends, magazine magnate and Hotchkiss alumnus Henry Luce and poet and Yale alumnus Stephen Vincent Benét, were instrumental in convincing Barry to select Moore to adapt the play as an opera. The work was supposed to be mounted by the Federal Theatre Project in 1935, but a union strike by workers put an end to the planned staging. The overture for the opera was premiered by the Brooklyn Symphony Orchestra in June 1935; but a staging of the opera did not happen until fourteen years later when it was mounted by The Hartt School on February 10, 1949. Conflicts with Barry and his widow prevented the opera from being published.

In 1936 ethnomusicologist and music educator Willard Rhodes, then music director for the Bronxville Union Free School District, commissioned Moore to write an operetta based on Mayne Reid's 1866 novel The Headless Horseman. Written in the style of Gilbert and Sullivan, the Bronxville High School presented the world premiere of the work on March 5, 1937. Stephen Vincent Benet wrote the libretto to the work. This opera was regularly performed at American high schools and universities during the 20th century.

Moore and Benet collaborated again on the folk opera The Devil and Daniel Webster (1939) which was adapted from Benet's 1936 novel of the same name. Composed in the years 1937 through 1939, the work premiered at Broadway 's Martin Beck Theatre on 18 May 1939 in a double bill with Virgil Thomson's Filling Station.

1950s
Moore was also influenced by jazz and ragtime, developed by African Americans. This is most readily apparent in his operas. The Ballad of Baby Doe has several rag elements (a honky-tonk piano is used extensively in the first scene). In his "soap opera" Gallantry (1950), the commercials for Lochinvar soap and Billy Boy wax are sung in a blueslike fashion. The allegretto from his second symphony has been described as having an almost neoclassical style.

Douglas Moore's music has been described as having a "modesty, grace and tender lyricism", especially marking the slower passages of many works, especially his Symphony in A major and the clarinet quintet. The faster movements of these works have "robust, jovial and a somewhat terpsichorean quality." Most of Moore's energy was devoted to music for opera rather than to orchestral works.

The novel Giants in the Earth was written by a Norwegian American and first published in Norwegian in 1921–1922. Moore composed music after the 1927 English translation of this work about Scandinavian settlers on the Great Plains was adapted as an opera. He won the 1951 Pulitzer Prize for Music for this work.

Stage works

 * Oh, Oh, Tennessee, musical comedy (1925)
 * Twelfth Night, incidental music (1925)
 * Much Ado About Nothing, incidental music (1927)
 * The Road to Rome, incidental music (1927)
 * Jesse James (1928)
 * Greek Games, ballet (1930)
 * White Wings, chamber opera (1935)
 * The Headless Horseman, operetta (1936)
 * The Devil and Daniel Webster, folk opera (1939)
 * The Emperor's New Clothes, children's opera (1948)
 * Puss in Boots, children's operetta (1950)
 * Giants in the Earth, opera (1951)
 * The Ballad of Baby Doe, opera (1956)
 * Gallantry, a "soap opera" (1958)
 * The Wings of the Dove, opera (1961), based on 1902 eponymous novel by Henry James
 * The Greenfield Christmas Tree (1962)
 * Carry Nation, opera (1966)

Orchestral works

 * Four Museum Pieces (1923)
 * The Pageant of P. T. Barnum, suite (1924)
 * I. The Pageant of P. T. Barnum, II. Joice Heth - 161-year-old Negress, III. General and Mrs. Tom Thumb, IV. Jenny Lind
 * Moby Dick, symphonic poem (1928)
 * A Symphony of Autumn (1930–31)
 * Overture on an American Tune (1932)
 * Village Music, suite (1941)
 * In memoriam (1943)
 * Down East suite, also arranged for violin and piano (1944)
 * Symphony No. 2 in A major (1945)
 * Farm Journal, suite (1947)
 * Cotillion Suite (1952)

Chamber works

 * Violin sonata (1929)
 * String quartet (1933)
 * Quintet for woodwinds and horn (1942)
 * Quintet for clarinet and strings (1946)
 * Piano trio (1953)

Film music

 * Power in the Land (1940, material later used for Farm Journal in 1947)
 * Youth Gets a Break (1940)
 * Bip Goes to Town (1941)

Organ

 * Prelude and Fugue(composed from 1919 to 1922)
 * March (1922)
 * 4 Museum Pieces (1922)
 * Scherzo (1923)

Piano

 * 3 Contemporaries: Careful Etta, Grievin' Annie, Fiddlin' Joe' (composed 1935–40)
 * 4 Museum Piece (1939)
 * Passacaglia suite (1948)
 * 4 Pieces (1955)
 * Dance for a Holiday (1957)
 * Prelude (1957)
 * Summer Holiday (1961)

Choral works

 * Perhaps to Dream (S. V. Benét), SSA chorus (1937)
 * Simon Legree (V. Lindsay), TTBB (1937)
 * Dedication (A. MacLeish), SSATBB chorus (1938)
 * Prayer for England, TTBB chorus (1940)
 * Prayer for the United Nations (S.V. Benét), A/Bar, chorus (1943)
 * Westren Winde, canon (1946)
 * Vayechulu (Heb.), cantor, chorus, org, (1947–8)
 * Birds' Courting Song, tenor soloist and chorus (1953)
 * The Mysterious Cat (1960)
 * Mary's Prayer, soprano soloist and SSA chorus (1962)

title: Douglas Moore


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Utility frequency

The utility frequency, (power) line frequency (American English) or mains frequency (British English) is the nominal frequency of the oscillations of alternating current (AC) in a wide area synchronous grid transmitted from a power station to the end-user. In large parts of the world this is 50 Hz, although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically 60 Hz. Current usage by country or region is given in the list of mains electricity by country.

During the development of commercial electric power systems in the late-19th and early-20th centuries, many different frequencies (and voltages) had been used. Large investment in equipment at one frequency made standardization a slow process. However, as of the turn of the 21st century, places that now use the 50 Hz frequency tend to use 220–240 V, and those that now use 60 Hz tend to use 100–127 V. Both frequencies coexist today (Japan uses both) with no great technical reason to prefer one over the other and no apparent desire for complete worldwide standardization.

Electric clocks
In practice, the exact frequency of the grid varies around the nominal frequency, reducing when the grid is heavily loaded, and speeding up when lightly loaded. However, most utilities will adjust generation onto the grid over the course of the day to ensure a constant number of cycles occur. This is used by some clocks to accurately maintain their time.

Operating factors
Several factors influence the choice of frequency in an AC system. Lighting, motors, transformers, generators, and transmission lines all have characteristics which depend on the power frequency. All of these factors interact and make selection of a power frequency a matter of considerable importance. The best frequency is a compromise among competing requirements.

In the late 19th century, designers would pick a relatively high frequency for systems featuring transformers and arc lights, so as to economize on transformer materials and to reduce visible flickering of the lamps, but would pick a lower frequency for systems with long transmission lines or feeding primarily motor loads or rotary converters for producing direct current. When large central generating stations became practical, the choice of frequency was made based on the nature of the intended load. Eventually improvements in machine design allowed a single frequency to be used both for lighting and motor loads. A unified system improved the economics of electricity production, since system load was more uniform during the course of a day.

Lighting
The first applications of commercial electric power were incandescent lighting and commutator-type electric motors. Both devices operate well on DC, but DC could not be easily changed in voltage, and was generally only produced at the required utilization voltage.

If an incandescent lamp is operated on a low-frequency current, the filament cools on each half-cycle of the alternating current, leading to perceptible change in brightness and flicker of the lamps; the effect is more pronounced with arc lamps, and the later mercury-vapor lamps and fluorescent lamps. Open arc lamps made an audible buzz on alternating current, leading to experiments with high-frequency alternators to raise the sound above the range of human hearing.

Rotating machines
Commutator-type motors do not operate well on high-frequency AC, because the rapid changes of current are opposed by the inductance of the motor field. Though commutator-type universal motors are common in AC household appliances and power tools, they are small motors, less than 1 kW. The induction motor was found to work well on frequencies around 50 to 60 Hz, but with the materials available in the 1890s would not work well at a frequency of, say, 133 Hz. There is a fixed relationship between the number of magnetic poles in the induction motor field, the frequency of the alternating current, and the rotation speed; so, a given standard speed limits the choice of frequency (and the reverse). Once AC electric motors became common, it was important to standardize frequency for compatibility with the customer's equipment.

Generators operated by slow-speed reciprocating engines will produce lower frequencies, for a given number of poles, than those operated by, for example, a high-speed steam turbine. For very slow prime mover speeds, it would be costly to build a generator with enough poles to provide a high AC frequency. As well, synchronizing two generators to the same speed was found to be easier at lower speeds. While belt drives were common as a way to increase speed of slow engines, in very large ratings (thousands of kilowatts) these were expensive, inefficient, and unreliable. After about 1906, generators driven directly by steam turbines favored higher frequencies. The steadier rotation speed of high-speed machines allowed for satisfactory operation of commutators in rotary converters. The synchronous speed N in RPM is calculated using the formula,
 * $$N = \frac {120f}{P} \,$$

where f is the frequency in hertz and P is the number of poles.

Direct-current power was not entirely displaced by alternating current and was useful in railway and electrochemical processes. Prior to the development of mercury arc valve rectifiers, rotary converters were used to produce DC power from AC. Like other commutator-type machines, these worked better with lower frequencies.

Transmission and transformers
With AC, transformers can be used to step down high transmission voltages to lower customer utilization voltage. The transformer is effectively a voltage conversion device with no moving parts and requiring little maintenance. The use of AC eliminated the need for spinning DC voltage conversion motor-generators that require regular maintenance and monitoring.

Since, for a given power level, the dimensions of a transformer are roughly inversely proportional to frequency, a system with many transformers would be more economical at a higher frequency.

Electric power transmission over long lines favors lower frequencies. The effects of the distributed capacitance and inductance of the line are less at low frequency.

System interconnection
Generators can only be interconnected to operate in parallel if they are of the same frequency and wave-shape. By standardizing the frequency used, generators in a geographic area can be interconnected in a grid, providing reliability and cost savings.

History
Many different power frequencies were used in the 19th century.

Very early isolated AC generating schemes used arbitrary frequencies based on convenience for steam engine, water turbine, and electrical generator design. Frequencies between $1/3$ Hz and $2/3$ Hz were used on different systems. For example, the city of Coventry, England, in 1895 had a unique 87 Hz single-phase distribution system that was in use until 1906. The proliferation of frequencies grew out of the rapid development of electrical machines in the period 1880 through 1900.

In the early incandescent lighting period, single-phase AC was common and typical generators were 8-pole machines operated at 2,000 RPM, giving a frequency of 133 hertz.

Though many theories exist, and quite a few entertaining urban legends, there is little certitude in the details of the history of 60 Hz vs. 50 Hz.

The German company AEG (descended from a company founded by Edison in Germany) built the first German generating facility to run at 50 Hz. At the time, AEG had a virtual monopoly and their standard spread to the rest of Europe. After observing flicker of lamps operated by the 40 Hz power transmitted by the Lauffen-Frankfurt link in 1891, AEG raised their standard frequency to 50 Hz in 1891.

Westinghouse Electric decided to standardize on a higher frequency to permit operation of both electric lighting and induction motors on the same generating system. Although 50 Hz was suitable for both, in 1890 Westinghouse considered that existing arc-lighting equipment operated slightly better on 60 Hz, and so that frequency was chosen. The operation of Tesla's induction motor, licensed by Westinghouse in 1888, required a lower frequency than the 133 Hz common for lighting systems at that time. In 1893 General Electric Corporation, which was affiliated with AEG in Germany, built a generating project at Mill Creek to bring electricity to Redlands, California using 50 Hz, but changed to 60 Hz a year later to maintain market share with the Westinghouse standard.

25 Hz origins
The first generators at the Niagara Falls project, built by Westinghouse in 1895, were 25 Hz, because the turbine speed had already been set before alternating current power transmission had been definitively selected. Westinghouse would have selected a low frequency of 30 Hz to drive motor loads, but the turbines for the project had already been specified at 250 RPM. The machines could have been made to deliver $1/3$ Hz power suitable for heavy commutator-type motors, but the Westinghouse company objected that this would be undesirable for lighting and suggested $2/3$ Hz. Eventually a compromise of 25 Hz, with 12-pole 250 RPM generators, was chosen. Because the Niagara project was so influential on electric power systems design, 25 Hz prevailed as the North American standard for low-frequency AC.

40 Hz origins
A General Electric study concluded that 40 Hz would have been a good compromise between lighting, motor, and transmission needs, given the materials and equipment available in the first quarter of the 20th century. Several 40 Hz systems were built. The Lauffen-Frankfurt demonstration used 40 Hz to transmit power 175 km in 1891. A large interconnected 40 Hz network existed in north-east England (the Newcastle-upon-Tyne Electric Supply Company, NESCO) until the advent of the National Grid (UK) in the late 1920s, and projects in Italy used 42 Hz. The oldest continuously operating commercial hydroelectric power station in the United States, Mechanicville Hydroelectric Plant, still produces electric power at 40 Hz and supplies power to the local 60 Hz transmission system through frequency changers. Industrial plants and mines in North America and Australia sometimes were built with 40 Hz electrical systems which were maintained until too uneconomic to continue. Although frequencies near 40 Hz found much commercial use, these were bypassed by standardized frequencies of 25, 50 and 60 Hz preferred by higher volume equipment manufacturers.

The Ganz Company of Hungary had standardized on 5000 alternations per minute (41$2/3$ Hz) for their products, so Ganz clients had 41$133 1/3$ Hz systems that in some cases ran for many years.

Standardization
In the early days of electrification, so many frequencies were used that no single value prevailed (London in 1918 had ten different frequencies). As the 20th century continued, more power was produced at 60 Hz (North America) or 50 Hz (Europe and most of Asia). Standardization allowed international trade in electrical equipment. Much later, the use of standard frequencies allowed interconnection of power grids. It was not until after World War II – with the advent of affordable electrical consumer goods – that more uniform standards were enacted.

In the United Kingdom, a standard frequency of 50 Hz was declared as early as 1904, but significant development continued at other frequencies. The implementation of the National Grid starting in 1926 compelled the standardization of frequencies among the many interconnected electrical service providers. The 50 Hz standard was completely established only after World War II.

By about 1900, European manufacturers had mostly standardized on 50 Hz for new installations. The German Verband der Elektrotechnik (VDE), in the first standard for electrical machines and transformers in 1902, recommended 25 Hz and 50 Hz as standard frequencies. VDE did not see much application of 25 Hz, and dropped it from the 1914 edition of the standard. Remnant installations at other frequencies persisted until well after the Second World War.

Because of the cost of conversion, some parts of the distribution system may continue to operate on original frequencies even after a new frequency is chosen. 25 Hz power was used in Ontario, Quebec, the northern United States, and for railway electrification. In the 1950s, many 25 Hz systems, from the generators right through to household appliances, were converted and standardized. Until 2006, some 25 Hz generators were still in existence at the Sir Adam Beck 1 (these were retrofitted to 60 Hz) and the Rankine generating stations (until its 2006 closure) near Niagara Falls to provide power for large industrial customers who did not want to replace existing equipment; and some 25 Hz motors and a 25 Hz power station exist in New Orleans for floodwater pumps. The 15 kV AC rail networks, used in Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, and Norway, still operate at $16 2/3$ Hz or 16.7 Hz.

In some cases, where most load was to be railway or motor loads, it was considered economic to generate power at 25 Hz and install rotary converters for 60 Hz distribution. Converters for production of DC from alternating current were available in larger sizes and were more efficient at 25 Hz compared with 60 Hz. Remnant fragments of older systems may be tied to the standard frequency system via a rotary converter or static inverter frequency changer. These allow energy to be interchanged between two power networks at different frequencies, but the systems are large, costly, and waste some energy in operation.

Rotating-machine frequency changers used to convert between 25 Hz and 60 Hz systems were awkward to design; a 60 Hz machine with 24 poles would turn at the same speed as a 25 Hz machine with 10 poles, making the machines large, slow-speed, and expensive. A ratio of 60/30 would have simplified these designs, but the installed base at 25 Hz was too large to be economically opposed.

In the United States, Southern California Edison had standardized on 50 Hz. Much of Southern California operated on 50 Hz and did not completely change frequency of their generators and customer equipment to 60 Hz until around 1948. Some projects by the Au Sable Electric Company used 30 Hz at transmission voltages up to 110,000 volts in 1914.

Initially in Brazil, electric machinery were imported from Europe and United States, implying the country had both 50 Hz and 60 Hz standards according to each region. In 1938, the federal government made a law, Decreto-Lei 852, intended to bring the whole country under 50 Hz within eight years. The law did not work, and in the early 1960s it was decided that Brazil would be unified under 60 Hz standard, because most developed and industrialized areas used 60 Hz; and a new law Lei 4.454 was declared in 1964. Brazil underwent a frequency conversion program to 60 Hz that was not completed until 1978.

In Mexico, areas operating on 50 Hz grid were converted during the 1970s, uniting the country under 60 Hz.

In Japan, the western part of the country (Nagoya and west) uses 60 Hz and the eastern part (Tokyo and east) uses 50 Hz. This originates in the first purchases of generators from AEG in 1895, installed for Tokyo, and General Electric in 1896, installed in Osaka. The boundary between the two regions contains four back-to-back HVDC substations which convert the frequency; these are Shin Shinano, Sakuma Dam, Minami-Fukumitsu, and the Higashi-Shimizu Frequency Converter.

Utility frequencies in North America in 1897

Utility frequencies in Europe to 1900

Even by the middle of the 20th century, utility frequencies were still not entirely standardized at the now-common 50 Hz or 60 Hz. In 1946, a reference manual for designers of radio equipment listed the following now obsolete frequencies as in use. Many of these regions also had 50-cycle, 60-cycle, or direct current supplies.

Frequencies in use in 1946 (as well as 50 Hz and 60 Hz)

Where regions are marked (*), this is the only utility frequency shown for that region.

Railways
Other power frequencies are still used. Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Sweden, and Norway use traction power networks for railways, distributing single-phase AC at $133 1/3$ Hz or 16.7 Hz. A frequency of 25 Hz is used for the Austrian Mariazell Railway, as well as Amtrak and SEPTA's traction power systems in the United States. Other AC railway systems are energized at the local commercial power frequency, 50 Hz or 60 Hz.

Traction power may be derived from commercial power supplies by frequency converters, or in some cases may be produced by dedicated traction powerstations. In the 19th century, frequencies as low as 8 Hz were contemplated for operation of electric railways with commutator motors. Some outlets in trains carry the correct voltage, but using the original train network frequency like $16 2/3$ Hz or 16.7 Hz.

400 Hz
Power frequencies as high as 400 Hz are used in aircraft, spacecraft, submarines, server rooms for computer power, military equipment, and hand-held machine tools. Such high frequencies cannot be economically transmitted long distances; the increased frequency greatly increases series impedance due to the inductance of transmission lines, making power transmission difficult. Consequently, 400 Hz power systems are usually confined to a building or vehicle.

Transformers, for example, can be made smaller because the magnetic core can be much smaller for the same power level. Induction motors turn at a speed proportional to frequency, so a high-frequency power supply allows more power to be obtained for the same motor volume and mass. Transformers and motors for 400 Hz are much smaller and lighter than at 50 or 60 Hz, which is an advantage in aircraft and ships. A United States military standard MIL-STD-704 exists for aircraft use of 400 Hz power.

Time error correction (TEC)
Regulation of power system frequency for timekeeping accuracy was not commonplace until after 1916 with Henry Warren's invention of the Warren Power Station Master Clock and self-starting synchronous motor. Nikola Tesla demonstrated the concept of clocks synchronized by line frequency at the 1893 Chicago Worlds fair. The Hammond Organ also depends on a synchronous AC clock motor to maintain the correct speed of its internal "tone wheel" generator, thus keeping all notes pitch-perfect.

Today, AC power network operators regulate the daily average frequency so that clocks stay within a few seconds of the correct time. In practice the nominal frequency is raised or lowered by a specific percentage to maintain synchronization. Over the course of a day, the average frequency is maintained at a nominal value within a few hundred parts per million. In the synchronous grid of Continental Europe, the deviation between network phase time and UTC (based on International Atomic Time) is calculated at 08:00 each day in a control center in Switzerland. The target frequency is then adjusted by up to ±0.01 Hz (±0.02%) from 50 Hz as needed, to ensure a long-term frequency average of exactly 50 Hz × 60 s/min × 60 min/h × 24 h/d = $33 1/3$ cycles per day. In North America, whenever the error exceeds 10 seconds for the Eastern Interconnection, 3 seconds for the Texas Interconnection, or 2 seconds for the Western Interconnection, a correction of ±0.02 Hz (0.033%) is applied. Time error corrections start and end either on the hour or on the half-hour.

Real-time frequency meters for power generation in the United Kingdom are available online – an official one for the National Grid, and an unofficial one maintained by Dynamic Demand. Real-time frequency data of the synchronous grid of Continental Europe is available on websites such as https://www.mainsfrequency.com/. The Frequency Monitoring Network (FNET) at the University of Tennessee measures the frequency of the interconnections within the North American power grid, as well as in several other parts of the world. These measurements are displayed on the FNET website.

US regulations
In the United States, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission made time error correction mandatory in 2009. In 2011, The North American Electric Reliability Corporation (NERC) discussed a proposed experiment that would relax frequency regulation requirements for electrical grids which would reduce the long-term accuracy of clocks and other devices that use the 60 Hz grid frequency as a time base.

Frequency and load
Modern alternating-current grids use precise frequency control as an out-of-band signal to coordinate generators connected the network. The practice arose because the frequency of a mechanical generator varies with the input force and output load experienced. Excess load withdraws rotational energy from the generator shaft, reducing the frequency of the generated current; excess force deposits rotational energy, increasing frequency. Automatic generation control (AGC) maintains scheduled frequency and interchange power flows by adjusting the generator governor to counteract frequency changes, typically within several decaseconds.

Flywheel physics does not apply to inverter-connected solar farms or other DC-linked power supplies. However, such power plants or storage systems can be programmed to follow the frequency signal. Indeed, a 2017 trial for CAISO discovered that solar plants could respond to the signal faster than traditional generators, because they did not need to accelerate a rotating mass.

Small, temporary frequency changes are an unavoidable consequence of changing demand, but dramatic, rapid frequency shifts often signal that a distribution network is near capacity limits. Exceptional examples have occurred before major outages. During a severe failure of generators or transmission lines, the ensuing load-generation imbalance will induce variation in local power system frequencies. Loss of an interconnection causes system frequency to increase (due to excess generation) upstream of the loss, but may cause a collapse in frequency or voltage (due to excess load) downstream of the loss. Consequently many power system protective relays automatically trigger on severe underfrequency (typically too low, depending on the system's disturbance tolerance and the severity of protection measures). These initiate load shedding or trip interconnection lines to preserve the operation of at least part of the network.

Smaller power systems, not extensively interconnected with many generators and loads, will not maintain frequency with the same degree of accuracy. Where system frequency is not tightly regulated during heavy load periods, system operators may allow system frequency to rise during periods of light load to maintain a daily average frequency of acceptable accuracy. Portable generators, not connected to a utility system, need not tightly regulate their frequency because typical loads are insensitive to small frequency deviations.

Load-frequency control
Load-frequency control (LFC) is a type of integral control that restores the system frequency while respecting contracts for power provision or consumption to surrounding areas. The automatic generation scheme described in establishes a damping that minimizes the magnitude of average frequency error, $\overline{Δf}$, where $2/3$ is frequency, $Δ$ refers to the difference between measured and desired values, and overlines indicate time averages.

LFC incorporates power transfer between different areas, known as "net tie-line power", into the minimized quantity. For a particular frequency bias constant $2/3$, the area control error (ACE) associated with LFC at any moment in time is simply $$\Delta(P_T-Bf)\text{,}$$ where $P_{T}$ refers to tie-line power. This instantaneous error is then numerically integrated to give the time average, and governors adjusted to counteract its value. The coefficient $16 2/3$ traditionally has a negative value, so that when the frequency is lower than the target, area power production should increase; its magnitude is usually on the order of MW/dHz.

Tie-line bias LFC was known since 1930s, but was rarely used until the post-war period. In the 1950s, Nathan Cohn popularized the practice in a series of articles, arguing that load-frequency control minimized the adjustment necessary for changes in load. In particular, Cohn supposed that all regions of the grid shared a common linear regime, with location-invariant frequency change per additional loading ($10$). If the utility selected $$B=\frac{1}{2}\frac{dL}{df}\text{,}$$ and one region experienced a temporary fault or other generation-load mismatch, then adjacent generators would observe a decrease in frequency but a counterbalancing increase in outward tieline power flow, giving no ACE. They would thus make no governor adjustments in the (presumed) brief period before the failed region recovered.

Rate of change of frequency
Rate of change of frequency (also RoCoF) is simply a time derivative of the utility frequency ($${df}/{dt}$$), usually measured in Hz per second, Hz/s. The importance of this parameter increases when the traditional synchronous generators are replaced by the variable renewable energy (VRE) inverter-based resources (IBR). The design of a synchronous generator inherently provides the inertial response that limits the RoCoF. Since the IBRs are not electromechanically coupled into the power grid, a system with high VRE penetration might exhibit large RoCoF values that can cause problems with the operation of the system due to stress placed onto the remaining synchronous generators, triggering of the protection devices and load shedding.

As of 2017, regulations for some grids required the power plants to tolerate RoCoF of 1–4 Hz/s, the upper limit being a very high value, an order of magnitude higher than the design target of a typical older gas turbine generator. Testing high-power (multiple MW) equipment for RoCoF tolerance is hard, as a typical test setup is powered off the grid, and the frequency thus cannot be arbitrarily varied. In the US, the controllable grid interface at the National Renewable Energy Laboratory is the only facility that allows testing of multi-MW units (up to 7 MVA). Testing of large thermal units is not possible.

Audible noise and interference
AC-powered appliances can give off a characteristic hum, often called "mains hum", at the multiples of the frequencies of AC power that they use (see Magnetostriction). It is usually produced by motor and transformer core laminations vibrating in time with the magnetic field. This hum can also appear in audio systems, where the power supply filter or signal shielding of an amplifier is not adequate.

Most countries chose their television vertical synchronization rate to be the same as the local mains supply frequency. This helped to prevent power line hum and magnetic interference from causing visible beat frequencies in the displayed picture of early analogue TV receivers particularly from the mains transformer. Although some distortion of the picture was present, it went mostly un-noticed because it was stationary. The elimination of transformers by the use of AC/DC receivers, and other changes to set design helped minimise the effect and some countries now use a vertical rate that is an approximation to the supply frequency (most notably 60 Hz areas).

Another use of this side effect is as a forensic tool. When a recording is made that captures audio near an AC appliance or socket, the hum is also incidentally recorded. The peaks of the hum repeat every AC cycle (every ms for 50 Hz AC, or every  ms for 60 Hz AC). The exact frequency of the hum should match the frequency of a forensic recording of the hum at the exact date and time that the recording is alleged to have been made. Discontinuities in the frequency match or no match at all will betray the authenticity of the recording.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Utility frequency


text:
Sunday Night Sex Show

The Sunday Night Sex Show was a live call-in Canadian television show hosted by Sue Johanson, which ran from 1996 to 2005. It aired on the W Network and was one of their most popular programs. Every week, callers would line up on the phone to talk to Johanson, about various topics from how to spice up one's sex life, to advice on how to select the right sex toy, to how to deal with various relationship issues.

For many years, reruns of the television show ran on the Oxygen Network in the United States, but American viewers were frustrated that they couldn't call in during the live airing in Canada. Eventually, a US version of the show, titled Talk Sex with Sue Johanson, was created.

Reasons for the Canadian cancellation were never given by either Johanson or the W Network. The US show ended with the May 11, 2008, episode. Johanson was very emotional at the conclusion of the show and joined on stage by her supporting cast.

Johanson hosted a similar phone-in show with the same name on Toronto radio station Q107 from 1984 to 1998, which was syndicated across Canada in later years, as well as a television phone-in show, Sex with Sue, on Rogers Cable's community channel in Toronto from 1985 to 1995.

title: Sunday Night Sex Show


text:
Danny Tenaglia

Daniel "Danny" Tenaglia (born March 7, 1961) is an Italian American DJ and record producer. He is a Grammy nominee for the best remixed recording (44th Annual Grammy Award). He is also a three time International Dance Music Award winner, 3 time DJ Awards winner and 2 time Muzik Awards recipient.

Early life
Tenaglia left New York in 1985 and started DJing in Miami as a resident at Cheers nightclub, playing classic New York and Chicago house. He returned to New York five years later. At this time, he started to create some remixes, including Right Said Fred's "I'm Too Sexy" (1991), Jamiroquai's "Emergency on Planet Earth" (1993), and Madonna's "Human Nature" (1994).

DJ career
Tenaglia's first mainstream success was with a remix of The Daou's "Surrender Yourself" (1993).

Subsequent to this Tenaglia released three label compilations - Mix This Pussy (1994) and Can Your Pussy Do The Dog? (1995) for TRIBAL, and Gag Me with a Tune (1996) for Maxi.

As a producer
In 1996, after working for a short time at the New York nightclub Roxy, Tenaglia started a Saturday night residency at Twilo. In 1998, he moved his residency over to NY club Tunnel.

In 1998, Tenaglia released another album titled Tourism. The album featured the track "Elements", which was #1 on the Billboard Dance Chart for two weeks in 1998. "Music Is The Answer" featuring Celeda (also on the LP Tourism) was on the top 40 charts in the UK.

In 1999 Tenaglia released his first installment in the UK-based Global Underground series of DJ mixes titled Athens.

In the two years that followed, Tenaglia released another Global Underground installment titled London, remixed Billy Nichols' "Give Your Body Up To The Music", was nominated for a Grammy (for his remix of Depeche Mode's "I Feel Loved," also nominated for Best Dance Song), and won a Dancestar Lifetime Achievement award.

In 2003 Tenaglia released Choice: A Collection Of Classics, a two-CD mixed compilation. It featured artists such as Blaze, Adeva and Imagination, along with his own liner notes explaining the significance of each track. He also won another Dancestar award, this time 'Best Party' for "Be Yourself."

Later years
Tenaglia continues to play clubs and has played in NYC locations including Avalon, Crobar, Pacha NYC, Roxy and Webster Hall. In 2007, Tenaglia participated in the Dance parade. In 2008 he released a single on Tommy Boy Records, "The Space Dance". The track reached number 1 on the Billboard Club Charts during November 2008.

Immediately following, Tenaglia released his first compilation album in five years, entitled Futurism, also on Tommy Boy Records. The compilation featured tracks from artists including Davide Squillace, The Wighnomy Brothers and Afefe Iku.

Tenaglia still continues to tour across the world.

title: Danny Tenaglia


text:
User talk:50precilachan

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Thanks for your contributions. Please could you use the edit summary to explain what your edit was, rather than just typing your username in it. You might find the following pages helpful: how to edit, how to write a great article, naming conventions, manual of style and the Wikipedia policies.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Angela. 20:44, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

Page titles
I've replied at Talk:Twins and tried to explain how the pages should be titled. Angela. 17:16, Feb 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * Thanks for your help.^^50precilachan 22:01, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Redirect of Magic (ablum)
Hello, this is a message from an automated bot. A tag has been placed on Magic (ablum), by another Wikipedia user, requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. The tag claims that it should be speedily deleted because Magic (ablum) is a redirect to a non-existent page (CSD R1). To contest the tagging and request that administrators wait before possibly deleting Magic (ablum), please affix the template to the page, and put a note on its talk page. If the article has already been deleted, see the advice and instructions at WP:WMD. Feel free to contact the bot operator if you have any questions about this or any problems with this bot, bearing in mind that '''this bot is only informing you of the nomination for speedy deletion; it does not perform any nominations or deletions itself. To see the user who deleted the page, click here''' CSDWarnBot (talk) 10:30, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

"Twins Happy Together (Twins ablum)" listed at Redirects for discussion
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"Happy Together (Twins ablum)" listed at Redirects for discussion
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title: User talk:50precilachan


text:
User talk:RatOmeter

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here's some tips:
 * You can introduce yourself on the new users page
 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.
 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.
 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.
 * If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page.

Other useful pages are: how to edit, how to write a great article, naming conventions, manual of style and the Wikipedia policies.

I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! Angela. 20:45, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

Notability of Linux Incompatibility wiki
A tag has been placed on Linux Incompatibility wiki requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done because the article appears to be about a real person, organization (band, club, company, etc.), or web content, but it does not indicate how or why the subject is notable: that is, why an article about that subject should be included in an encyclopedia. Under the criteria for speedy deletion, articles that do not indicate the subject's importance or significance may be deleted at any time. Please see the guidelines for what is generally accepted as notable. If this is the first page that you have created, then you should read the guide to writing your first article.

If you think that you can assert the notability of the subject, you may contest the deletion by adding  to the top of the article (just below the existing speedy deletion or "db" tag), coupled with adding a note on the article's talk page explaining your position, but be aware that once tagged for speedy deletion, if the article meets the criterion it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag yourself, but don't hesitate to add information to the article that would confirm the subject's notability under Wikipedia guidelines.

For guidelines on specific types of articles, you may want to check out our criteria for biographies, for web sites, for bands, or for companies. Feel free to leave a note on my talk page if you have any questions about this. Aervanath lives in the Orphanage 05:17, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Good article reassessment for David Carradine
David Carradine has been nominated for a good article reassessment. If you are interested in the discussion, please participate by adding your comments to the reassessment page. If concerns are not addressed during the review period, the good article status may be removed from the article. Onegreatjoke (talk) 14:13, 16 February 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:RatOmeter


text:
Haggis hurling

Haggis hurling is a Scottish sport involving the hurling of a haggis as far as possible, for distance and accuracy.

Background
Although its proponents often claim an ancient origin, haggis hurling is actually a very recent invention. In 2004 Robin Dunseath, publicist for Scottish entrepreneur Tom Farmer and ex-president of the World Haggis Hurling Association, said he invented the sport as a practical joke for the 1977 Gathering of the Clans in Edinburgh, later using it to raise funds for charity at Highland games. It appeared on the BBC TV program That's Life! around that time, when many people would have realised it was basically a joke.

Two variations have developed: one enacted at festivals, the other a professional sport.

The present world record for haggis hurling was set at 217 ft by Lorne Coltart at the Milngavie Highland Games on 11 June 2011, beating Allan Pettigrew's 180 ft record which had stood for over twenty years. However, the Australian cricket player Tom Moody was purported to have thrown a haggis in 1989 over 230 ft.

Modern haggis hurling is judged on the basis of distance and accuracy of the hurl and a split or burst haggis is immediately disqualified, as the haggis must be fit to eat after landing. The sport requires subtle technique rather than brute force, as the hurl must result in a gentle landing to keep the haggis skin intact.

Plans to use a fake haggis in a hurling competition at a Highland festival in Melbourne split purists from those who are fearful of the mess a high-speed impacting may cause.

Rules and regulations
The haggis must be of traditional construction, consisting of a tender boiled sheep's heart, lung and liver with spices, onions, suet and oatmeal and stock stuffed in a sheep's paunch, boiled for three hours.

At the time of hurling the haggis should be cooled and inspected to ensure no firming agents have been applied. Rules dictate that the haggis must be packed tight and secure, with no extra skin or flab.

The sporting haggis weighs 500 grams, with a maximum diameter of 18 cm and length of 22 cm. An allowance of ±30 grams is given and this weight is used in both junior and middle weight events.

The heavyweight event allows haggis up to 1 kg in weight, but the standard weight of 850 grams is more common, with an allowance of ±50 grams.

Events
There is a World Haggis Hurling Championship.

Darren Laird from Bo'ness, Falkirk is the current world champion.

There is also a Canadian Haggis Hurling Championship in Perth, Ontario. The event is held in conjunction with the Perth World Record Kilt Run. The Canadian event in Perth is said to be the largest competition in the world, with over 140 measured competitors in 2013. The 2014 competition had 571 registered Hurlers. The competition in Perth uses M.P. Survey company and their precise laser equipment to measure the finals.

In 2004, a Highland festival in Melbourne made plans to use a fake haggis in a hurling competition there.

On 31 December 2021 the first Belgian competition was organised in the South of Deurne (Antwerp).

title: Haggis hurling


text:
Desertion

Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which are temporary forms of absence.

Desertion versus absence without leave
In the United States Army, United States Air Force, British Armed Forces, Australian Defence Force, New Zealand Defence Force, Singapore Armed Forces and Canadian Armed Forces, military personnel will become AWOL if absent from their post without a valid pass, liberty or leave. The United States Marine Corps, United States Navy, and United States Coast Guard generally refer to this as unauthorized absence. Personnel are dropped from their unit rolls after thirty days and then listed as deserters; however, as a matter of U.S. military law, desertion is not measured by time away from the unit, but rather:
 * by leaving or remaining absent from their unit, organization, or place of duty, where there has been a determined intent to not return;
 * if that intent is determined to be to avoid hazardous duty or shirk contractual obligation;
 * if they enlist or accept an appointment in the same or another branch of service without disclosing the fact that they have not been properly separated from current service.

People who are away for more than thirty days but return voluntarily or indicate a credible intent to return may still be considered AWOL. Those who are away for fewer than thirty days but can credibly be shown to have no intent to return (for example, by joining the armed forces of another country) may nevertheless be tried for desertion. On rare occasions, they may be tried for treason if enough evidence is found.

There are similar concepts to desertion. Missing movement occurs when a member of the armed forces fails to arrive at the appointed time and place to deploy (or "move out") with their assigned unit, ship, or aircraft. In the United States Armed Forces, this is a violation of the Article 87 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ). The offense is similar to absence without leave but may draw more severe punishment.

Failure to repair consists of missing a formation or failing to appear at an assigned place and time when so ordered. It is a lesser offense within Article 86 of the UCMJ. See: DUSTWUN

An additional duty status code — absent-unknown, or AUN — was established by the U.S. military in 2020 to prompt unit actions and police investigations during the first 48 hours that a soldier is missing.

Australia
During the First World War, the Australian Government refused to allow members of the First Australian Imperial Force (AIF) to be executed for desertion, despite pressure from the British Government and military to do so. The AIF had the highest rate of soldiers going absent without leave of any of the national contingents in the British Expeditionary Force, and the proportion of soldiers who deserted was also higher than that of other forces on the Western Front in France.

Austria
In 2011, Vienna decided to honour Austrian Wehrmacht deserters. On 24 October 2014, a Memorial for the Victims of Nazi Military Justice was inaugurated on Vienna's Ballhausplatz by Austria's President Heinz Fischer. The monument was created by German artist Olaf Nicolai and is located opposite the President's office and the Austrian Chancellery. The inscription on top of the three step sculpture features a poem by Scottish poet Ian Hamilton Finlay (1924–2006) with just two words: all alone.

Colombia
In Colombia, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (Spanish: FARC) insurgency were highly affected by desertion during the armed conflict with the Military Forces of Colombia. The Colombian Ministry of Defense reported 19,504 deserters from the FARC between August 2002 and their collective demobilization in 2017, despite potentially severe punishment, including execution, for attempted desertion in the FARC. Organizational decline contributed to FARC's high desertion rate which peaked in the year 2008. A later stalemate between the FARC and government forces gave rise to the Colombian peace process.

France
Many individuals who were conscripted by the French First Republic during the French Revolutionary Wars deserted. There were rough estimates to the number of individuals that deserted during the time of the Levée en masse, but due to many factors, like the inability to manage and keep track of all the armies or differentiating between men with similar names, the exact number is unclear. In 1800, the Minister of War (Carnot) reported that there were 175,000 deserters based on the number of individuals that sought the benefits following the amnesty put in place.

From 1914 to 1918 between 600 and 650 French soldiers were executed for desertion. In 2013, a report for the French Ministry of Veteran Affairs recommended that they be pardoned.

Conversely, France considered as highly praiseworthy the act of citizens of Alsace-Lorraine who during WWI deserted from the German army. After the war it was decided to award all such deserters the Escapees' Medal (Médaille des Évadés).

Germany
During the First World War, only 18 Germans who deserted were executed. However, the Germans executed 15,000 men who deserted from the Wehrmacht during the Second World War. In June 1988 the Initiative for the Creation of a Memorial to Deserters who deserted the Wehrmacht came to life in Ulm.

Ireland
Ireland was neutral during the Second World War; the Irish Army expanded to 40,000 men, but they had little to do once it became clear in 1942 that invasion (either by Nazi Germany or by the British Empire) was unlikely. Soldiers were put to work cutting trees and peat; morale was low and pay was bad. Of the 60,000 men who passed through the army in 1940–45, about 7,000 men deserted, about half of them deciding to fight on the Allied side, most joining the British Army.

Once the war was over, the EPO 362 order meant deserters were allowed to return to Ireland; they were not imprisoned, but lost rights to an army pension and could not work for the state or claim unemployment benefits for 7 years. They were also seen as traitors by some Irish people in their homes.

Decades after, the morality of their actions was debated; on the one hand, they had illegally abandoned their country's armed forces at a time when it was threatened with invasion — indeed, it was argued that their acts were treasonous at a time when Britain may have been planning to seize control of Ireland's ports (see Plan W); on the other hand, they chose to leave a safe if tedious posting in order to risk their lives fighting against fascism, and many were motivated by genuine idealism.

In 2012, the Minister for Justice and Equality Alan Shatter issued a pardon and amnesty to all World War II-era deserters from the Irish Defence Forces.

New Zealand
During the First World War 28 New Zealand soldiers were sentenced to death for desertion; of these, five were executed. These soldiers were posthumously pardoned in 2000 through the Pardon for Soldiers of the Great War Act. Those who deserted before reaching the front were imprisoned in what were claimed to be harsh conditions.

Russia
During the 2022 Russian mobilization, the Putin-controlled State Duma of Russia adopted amendments to include the concepts of mobilization, martial law and wartime in the Criminal Code, and introduced several articles related to military operations. Desertion during a period of mobilization or wartime will be punished by up to 10 years in jail. In December 2022, Kazakhstan deported back to Russia a Russian officer who was trying to avoid the Russo-Ukrainian war.

Russian Civil War
In 1919, 616 "hardcore" deserters of the total 837,000 draft dodgers and deserters were executed following People's Commissar Leon Trotsky's draconian measures. According to Figes, "a majority of deserters (most registered as "weak-willed") were handed back to the military authorities, and formed into units for transfer to one of the rear armies or directly to the front". Even those registered as "malicious" deserters were returned to the ranks when the demand for reinforcements became desperate". Forges also noted that the Red Army instituted amnesty weeks to prohibit punitive measures against desertion which encouraged the voluntary return of 98,000-132,000 deserters to the army.

World War II
Order No. 270, dated 16 August 1941, was issued by Joseph Stalin. The order required superiors to shoot deserters on the spot. Their family members were subjected to arrest. Order No. 227, dated 28 July 1942, directed that each Army must create "blocking detachments" (barrier troops) which would shoot "cowards" and fleeing panicked troops at the rear. Over the course of the war, the Soviets executed 158,000 troops for desertion.

Soviet–Afghan War
Many Soviet soldier deserters of the Soviet–Afghan War explain their reasons for desertion as political and in response to internal disorganization and disillusionment regarding their position in the war. Analyses of desertion rates argue that motivations were far less ideological than individual accounts claim. Desertion rates increased prior to announcements of upcoming operations, and were highest during the summer and winter. Seasonal desertions were probably a response to the harsh weather conditions of the winter and immense field work required in the summer. A significant jump in desertion in 1989 when the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan may suggest a higher concern regarding returning home, rather than an overall opposition towards the war itself.

Inter-ethnic explanation for desertion
In the beginning of the Soviet invasion, the majority of Soviet forces were soldiers of Central Asian republics. The Soviets believed that shared ideologies between Muslim Central Asians and Afghan soldiers would build trust and morale within the army. However, Central Asians' longstanding historical frustrations with Moscow degraded soldiers' willingness to fight for the Red Army. As Afghan desertion grew and Soviet opposition was strengthened within Afghanistan, the Soviet plan overtly backfired.

The personal histories of Central Asian ethnic groups – especially between Pashtuns, Uzbeks, and Tajiks, caused tension within the Soviet military. Non-Russian ethnic groups easily related the situation in Afghanistan to Communist takeover of their own states' forced induction into the USSR. Ethnic Russians suspected Central Asians of opposition, and fighting within the army was prevalent.

Upon entering Afghanistan, many Central Asians were exposed to the Qur’an for the first time uninfluenced by Soviet propagandist versions, and felt a stronger connection towards the opposition than their own comrades. The highest rates of desertion were found among border troops, ranging from 60 to 80% during the first year of the Soviet invasion. In these areas, strong ethnic clashes and cultural factors influenced desertion.

As Afghan soldiers continued to desert the Soviet army, a united Islamic Alliance for the Liberation of Afghanistan began to form. Moderates and fundamentalists banded together to oppose Soviet intervention. The Islamic ideology solidified a strong base of opposition by January 1980, overriding ethnic, tribal, geographic and economic differences among Afghans willing to fight the Soviet invasion, which attracted Central Asian deserters. By March 1980, the Soviet army made an executive decision to replace Central Asian troops with the European sectors of the USSR to avoid further religious and ethnic complications, drastically reducing Soviet forces.

Soviet disillusionment upon entering the war
Soviet soldiers entered the war under the impression that their roles were primarily related to the organization of Afghan forces and society. Soviet media portrayed the Soviet intervention as a necessary means of protecting the Communist uprising from outside opposition. Propaganda declared that Soviets were providing aid to villagers and improving Afghanistan by planting trees, improving public buildings and "generally acting as good neighbors". Upon entering Afghanistan, Soviet soldiers became immediately aware of the falsity of the reported situation.

In major cities, Afghan youth that originally supported the leftist movement soon turned to Soviet oppositional forces for patriotic and religious reasons. The opposition built resistance in cities, calling Soviet soldiers infidels that were forcing an imperialist Communist invasive government on Afghanistan's people. As Afghan troops continued to abandon the Soviet army to support the mujahideen, they became anti-Russian and antigovernment. Opposition forces emphasized the Soviets' atheism, demanding support for the Muslim faith from civilians. The hostility shown towards soldiers, who entered the war believing their assistance was requested, grew defensive. The opposition circulated pamphlets within Soviet camps stationed in cities, calling for Afghan freedom from the aggressive Communist influence and a right to establish their own government.

The native Afghan army fell from 90,000 to 30,000 by mid-1980, forcing Soviets into more extreme combative positions. The mujahideen's widespread presence among Afghan civilians in rural regions made it difficult for Soviet soldiers to distinguish between the civilians they believed they were fighting for and the official opposition. Soldiers who had entered the war with idealistic viewpoints of their roles were quickly disillusioned.

Problems in Soviet army structure and living standards
The structure of the Soviet army, in comparison to the mujahideen, set the Soviets at a serious fighting disadvantage. While the mujahideen structure was based on kinship and social cohesion, the Soviet army was bureaucratic. Because of this, mujahideen could significantly weaken the Soviet army by the elimination of a field commander or officer. Resistance forces were locally based, more ready to address and mobilize the Afghan population for support. The Soviet army was centrally organized; its regime structure emphasized rank and position, paying less attention to the well-being and effectiveness of its army.

The initial Soviet plan relied on Afghan troops' support in the mountainous regions of Afghanistan. The majority of the Afghan army support crumbled easily as forces lacked strong ideological support for Communism from the beginning.

The Afghan army, comprising 100,000 men before 1978, was reduced to 15,000 within the first year of the Soviet invasion. Of the Afghan troops that remained, many were considered untrustworthy to Soviet troops. Afghans that deserted often took artillery with them, supplying the mujahideen. Soviet troops, to fill Afghan soldiers' place, were pushed into mountainous tribal regions of the East. Soviet tanks and modern warfare was ineffective in the rural, mountainous regions of Afghanistan. Mujahideen tactics of ambush prevented Soviets from developing successful counterattacks.

In 1980, the Soviet army began to rely on smaller and more cohesive units, a response to mirror mujahideen tactics. A decrease in unit size, while solving organizational issues, promoted field leaders to head more violent and aggressive missions, promoting Soviet desertion. Often, small forces would engage in rapes, looting, and general violence beyond what higher ranks ordered, increasing negative sanctions in undesirable locations.

Within the Soviet army, serious drug and alcohol problems significantly reduced the effectiveness of soldiers. Resources became further depleted as soldiers pushed into the mountains; drugs were rampantly abused and available, often supplied by Afghans. Supplies of heating fuel, wood, and food ran low at bases. Soviet soldiers often resorted to trading weapons and ammunition in exchange for drugs or food. As morale decreased and infections of hepatitis and typhus spread, soldiers became further disheartened.

Soviet deserters to the mujahideen
Interviews with Soviet soldier deserters confirm that much of Soviet desertion was in response to widespread Afghan opposition rather than personal aggravation towards the Soviet army. Armed with modern artillery against ill-equipped villagers, Soviet soldiers developed a sense of guilt for the widespread killing of innocent civilians and their unfair artillery advantage. Soviet deserters found support and acceptance within Afghan villages. After entering the mujahideen, many deserters came to recognize the falsity of Soviet propaganda from the beginning. Unable to legitimize the unnecessary killing and mistreatment of the Afghan people, many deserters could not face returning home and justifying their own actions and the unnecessary deaths of comrades. Upon deserting to the mujahideen, soldiers immersed themselves into Afghan culture. Hoping to rectify their position as the enemy, deserters learned the Afghan language and converted to Islam.

United Kingdom
Historically, one who was paid to enlist and then deserted could be arrested under a type of writ known as arrestando ipsum qui pecuniam recepit, or "For arresting one who received money".

Napoleonic Wars
During the Napoleonic Wars desertion was a massive drain on British army resources, despite the threat of court martial and the possibility of capital punishment for the crime. Many deserters were harboured by citizens who were sympathetic to them.

First World War
"306 British and Commonwealth soldiers were executed for...desertion during World War I," records the Shot at Dawn Memorial. Of these, 25 were Canadian, 22 Irishmen and five New Zealanders.

"During the period between August 1914 and March 1920 more than 20,000 servicemen were convicted by courts-martial of offences which carried the death sentence. Only 3,000 of those men were ordered to be put to death and of those just over 10% were executed."

Second World War
Throughout the Second World War, almost 100,000 British and Commonwealth troops deserted from the armed forces. Capital punishment for desertion was abolished in 1930 so most were imprisoned.

Iraq War
On 28 May 2006, the UK military reported over 1,000 absent without leave since the beginning of the Iraq War, with 566 missing from 2005 and that part of 2006. The Ministry of Defence said that levels of absence were fairly constant and "only one person has been found guilty of deserting the Army since 1989".

Legal definition
According to the United States Uniform Code of Military Justice, desertion is defined as:

"(a) Any member of the armed forces who–
 * (1) without authority goes or remains absent from his unit, organization, or place of duty with intent to remain away therefrom permanently;
 * (2) quits his unit, organization, or place of duty with intent to avoid hazardous duty or to shirk important service; or
 * (3) without being regularly separated from one of the armed forces enlists or accepts an appointment in the same or another one of the armed forces without fully disclosing the fact that he has not been regularly separated, or enters any foreign armed service except when authorized by the United States; is guilty of desertion.

(b) Any commissioned officer of the armed forces who, after tender of his resignation and before notice of its acceptance, quits his post or proper duties without leave and with intent to remain away therefrom permanently is guilty of desertion. (c) Any person found guilty of desertion or attempt to desert shall be punished, if the offense is committed in time of war, by death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct, but if the desertion or attempt to desert occurs at any other time, by such punishment, other than death, as a court-martial may direct."

War of 1812
The desertion rate for American soldiers in the War of 1812 was 12.7%, according to available service records. Desertion was especially common in 1814, when enlistment bonuses were increased from $16 to $124, inducing many men to desert one unit and enlist in another to get two bonuses.

Mexican–American War
During the Mexican–American War, the desertion rate in the U.S. Army was 8.3% (9,200 out of 111,000), compared to 12.7% during the War of 1812 and usual peacetime rates of about 14.8% per year. Many men deserted in order to join another U.S. unit and get a second enlistment bonus. Others deserted because of the miserable conditions in camp, or in 1849–1850 were using the army to get free transportation to California, where they deserted to join the California Gold Rush. Several hundred deserters went over to the Mexican side; nearly all were recent immigrants from Europe with weak ties to the United States. The most famous group was the Saint Patrick's Battalion, about half of whom were Catholics from Ireland, anti-Catholic prejudice reportedly being another reason for desertion. The Mexicans issued broadsides and leaflets enticing U.S. soldiers with promises of money, land grants, and officers' commissions. Mexican guerrillas shadowed the U.S. Army, and captured men who took unauthorized leave or fell out of the ranks. The guerrillas coerced these men to join the Mexican ranks—threatening to kill them if they failed to comply. The generous promises proved illusory for most deserters, who risked execution if captured by U.S. forces. About fifty of the San Patricios were tried and hanged following their capture at Churubusco in August 1847.

High desertion rates were a major problem for the Mexican army, depleting forces on the eve of battle. Most of the soldiers were peasants who had a loyalty to their village and family but not to the generals who conscripted them. Often hungry and ill, never well paid, under-equipped and only partially trained, the soldiers were held in contempt by their officers and had little reason to fight the Americans. Looking for their opportunity, many slipped away from camp to find their way back to their home village.

American Civil War
During the American Civil War, both the Union and Confederacy had a desertion problem. From its 2.5 million or so men, the Union Army saw about 200,000 desertions. Over 100,000 deserted the Confederate army, which was less than a million men and possibly as little as a third the size of the Union Army.

New York suffered 44,913 desertions by the war's end, and Pennsylvania recorded 24,050, with Ohio reporting desertions at 18,354. About 1 out of 3 deserters returned to their regiments, either voluntarily or after being arrested and being sent back. Many of the desertions were by "professional" bounty men, men who would enlist to collect the often large cash bonuses and then desert at the earliest opportunity to repeat another enlistment elsewhere. If caught they would face execution; otherwise it could prove a very lucrative criminal enterprise.

The total number of Confederate deserters was officially 103,400. Desertion was a major factor for the Confederacy in the last two years of the war. According to Mark A. Weitz, Confederate soldiers fought to defend their families, not a nation. He argues that a hegemonic "planter class" brought Georgia into the war with "little support from non-slaveholders" (p. 12), and the ambivalence of non-slaveholders toward secession, he maintains, was the key to understanding desertion. The privations of the home front and camp life, combined with the terror of battle, undermined the weak attachment of southern soldiers to the Confederacy. For Georgian troops, Sherman's march through their home counties triggered the most desertions.

Adoption of a localist identity caused soldiers to desert as well. When soldiers implemented a local identity, they neglected to think of themselves as Southerners fighting a Southern cause. When they replaced their Southern identity with their previous local identity, they lost their motive to fight and, therefore, deserted the army.

A growing threat to the solidarity of the Confederacy was dissatisfaction in the Appalachian mountain districts caused by lingering unionism and a distrust of the slave power. Many of their soldiers deserted, returned home, and formed a military force that fought off regular army units trying to punish them. North Carolina lost 23% of its soldiers (24,122) to desertion. The state provided more soldiers per capita than any other Confederate state, and had more deserters as well.

First World War
Desertion still occurred among American armed forces after the U.S. joined the First World War on 6 April 1917. Between 6 April 1917, and 31 December 1918, the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) charged 5,584 servicemen and convicted 2,657 for desertion. 24 AEF troops were eventually sentenced to death, but all managed to avoid execution after President Woodrow Wilson commuted their death sentences to prison terms. Deserters were often publicly humiliated. One U.S. Navy deserter, Henry Holscher, later joined a UK regiment and won the Military Medal.

Second World War
Over 20,000 American soldiers were tried and sentenced for desertion. Forty-nine were sentenced to death, though forty-eight of these death sentences were subsequently commuted. Only one U.S. soldier, Private Eddie Slovik, was executed for desertion in World War II.

Vietnam War
According to the Department of Defense, 503,926 United States servicemen deserted during the Vietnam War between 1 July 1966 to 31 December 1973. Some of these migrated to Canada. Among those who deserted to Canada were Andy Barrie, host of Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Radio's Metro Morning, and Jack Todd, sports columnist for the Montreal Gazette. Other countries also gave asylum to deserted U.S. soldiers. For example, Sweden allows asylum for foreign soldiers deserting from war, if the war does not align with the current goals of Swedish foreign policy.

Iraq War
According to the Pentagon, more than 5,500 military personnel deserted in 2003–2004, following the Iraq invasion and occupation. The number had reached about 8,000 by the first quarter of 2006. Almost all of these soldiers deserted within the United States. There has been only one reported case of a desertion in Iraq. The Army, Navy, and Air Force reported 7,978 desertions in 2001, compared with 3,456 in 2005. The Marine Corps showed 1,603 Marines in desertion status in 2001. That had declined to 148 by 2005.

Penalties
Before the Civil War, deserters from the Army were flogged; after 1861, tattoos or branding were also used. The maximum U.S. penalty for desertion in wartime remains death, but this punishment was last applied to Eddie Slovik in 1945. No U.S. serviceman has received more than 24 months imprisonment for desertion or missing movement after September 11, 2001.

A U.S. service member who is AWOL/UA may be punished with non-judicial punishment (NJP) or by court martial under Article 86 of the UCMJ for repeat or more severe offenses. Many AWOL/UA service members are also given a discharge in lieu of court-martial.

The 2012 edition of the United States Manual for Courts-Martial states that:"Any person found guilty of desertion or attempt to desert shall be punished, if the offense is committed in time of war, by death or such other punishment as a court-martial may direct, but if the desertion or attempt to desert occurs at any other time, by such punishment, other than death, as a court-martial may direct."

Legal status of desertion in cases of war crime
Under international law, ultimate "duty" or "responsibility" is not necessarily always to a "government" nor to "a superior", as seen in the fourth of the Nuremberg Principles, which states:"The fact that a person acted pursuant to order of his Government or of a superior does not relieve him from responsibility under international law, provided a moral choice was in fact possible to him."

Although a soldier under direct orders, in battle, is normally not subject to prosecution for war crimes, there is legal language supporting a soldier's refusal to commit such crimes, in military contexts outside of immediate peril.

In 1998, UNCHR resolution 1998/77 recognized that "persons [already] performing military service may develop conscientious objections" while performing military service. This opens the possibility of desertion as a response to cases in which the soldier is required to perform crimes against humanity as part of his mandatory military duty.

The principle was tested unsuccessfully in the case of U.S. Army deserter Jeremy Hinzman, which resulted in a Canadian federal immigration board rejecting refugee status to a deserter invoking Nuremberg Article IV.

title: Desertion


text: Talk:Astronomer

title: Talk:Astronomer