text:
Marlene Jennings

Marlene Jennings (born November 10, 1951) is a former Canadian politician. She was a member of the Liberal Party of Canada in the House of Commons of Canada, and represented the riding of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce—Lachine from 1997 to 2011.

Jennings was born in Longueuil, Quebec and graduated from Longueuil's Lemoyne d'Iberville High School. Her father, Preston Jennings, was an African American from Alabama and immigrated to Canada as a CPR Sleeping Car Porter. Her mother, Gilberte Garand, was a Franco-Manitoban of Belgian & French-Canadian ancestry. Jennings is a former lawyer and senior public servant. She is the former Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for International Cooperation and the former Parliamentary Secretary to the Solicitor General of Canada. From 2004 to October 2005, she was Parliamentary Secretary to the Prime Minister with special emphasis on Canada-U.S. relations.

Jennings was the first Black woman from Quebec to be elected to Parliament. She was also one of the few parliamentarians with a physical disability, having become partially blind due to an illness in early 2010; she used visual aids and a white cane until late 2011. Over seven surgical procedures successfully restored her vision.

She is also a past member of the Girl Guides of Canada.

Electoral history
Jennings succeeded Warren Allmand, the MP for Notre-Dame-de-Grâce, in the reorganized riding of Notre-Dame-de-Grâce—Lachine upon its creation in 1997. She was elected five times in the riding with consistent margins of between 10,000 and 20,000 votes, and her riding was considered one of the safest Liberal seats in the country. However, she fell to Quebec's "orange wave" in the 2011 Canadian federal election, losing her seat to Isabelle Morin of the NDP.

Later life and career
In January 2012, it was reported that Jennings was considering an offer to run for the Coalition Avenir Québec in the 2012 Quebec general election. She ultimately declined. In a February 2012 Facebook post, Jennings explained that she had declined because she had never had a "passion" for provincial politics. For close to two years (2012 and 2013) she was the executive director of the Montreal YMHA. She had let her Liberal Party of Canada party membership lapse but re-joined in 2014.

Source: Elections Canada

 * align="left" colspan=2|Liberal hold
 * align="right"|Swing
 * align="right"| +1.0%
 * align="right"|

 * align="left" colspan=2|Liberal hold
 * align="right"|Swing
 * align="right"| -3.85%
 * align="right"|

Note: Conservative vote is compared to the total of the Canadian Alliance vote and Progressive Conservative vote in 2000 election.

Note: Canadian Alliance vote is compared to the Reform vote in 1997 election.

title: Marlene Jennings


text:
Talk:Wind River

The online Columbia Gazeteer states that the Bighorn is formed by the confluence of the Pop Agie and the Wind River. This is an error. The Pop Agie flows into the Little Wind, which flows into the Wind at Riverton. The Wind becomes the Bighorn by a name change as it passes through the Owl Creek Mountains. -- Decumanus 05:30, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Wind River


text:
Laura Zapata

Laura Guadalupe Zapata Miranda ( born July 31, 1956) is a Mexican telenovela actress, singer, and dancer. She has acted in Televisa productions.

Life and career
Born in Mexico City, Zapata is the daughter of Guillermo Zapata Pérez de Utrera (a Mexican boxer, model, and businessman) and Yolanda Miranda Mange. She is the maternal half-sister of Thalía (also a singer and actress), Federica, Gabriela, and Ernestina Sodi.

Zapata is a singer and dancer. In Maria Mercedes, one of Thalía's first soap operas, Zapata played a villain opposite her sister. She is well known for her antagonist roles in telenovelas.

Zapata was married to Juan Eduardo Sodi de la Tijera. She has two sons, Claudio Sodi and Patricio Sodi.

Kidnapping
In September 2002, Zapata and her sister Ernestina Sodi were kidnapped and taken to an unspecified location. The news of their kidnapping made headlines across Latin America and among the Spanish-speaking television channels of the United States.

Their sister Thalía is married to multi-millionaire Tommy Mottola, so it was speculated that their captors would ask for a large sum of money. Instead, Zapata was released 18 days after her kidnapping, and Ernestina was released on the 34th day.

title: Laura Zapata


text:
Talk:Gibbon

Gibbon wall partitions at the Met?
I removed this edit for comment here.

 * <>

I also note the quality of that editor's other changes to Wikipedia. The Gibbon wall partitions at the Met may be notable enough for exposition in Wikipedia. But we would need some citations, such as perhaps a picture from the Met Website. Nevertheless, even if the Gibbon wall partitions at the Met are both 1) notable and 2) supported, still the Gibbon wall partitions have nothing to do with the "gibbons" that are the small apes in the family Hylobatidae. Any ideas? --Rednblu 20:21, 26 December 2005 (UTC)

social
Are gibbons social animals? The article doesn't say.--24.52.254.62 18:56, 12 November 2006 (UTC)
 * Yes, and I've updated the article. - UtherSRG (talk) 19:42, 12 November 2006 (UTC)

 * I would like to know a bit more about that. I noticed the pairing ritual at the zoo where the male approached the female while doing gymnastic tricks and immediately started playing with the females genitale organs. The female rejected the male. A few hours later when we saw these two apes again the female was eating, I noticed that the female didn't share food. The flirting of the male earlier made me think that these animals are socially developed so now I wonder if these animals are socially that developed that they have some leve of empathy. Do gibbons share food? Do they comfort each other when one is afraid? How well are they socially developed compared to gorilla's and elephants?

193.190.253.147 (talk) 02:41, 7 April 2009 (UTC)

Is there a collective noun for a group of gibbons?--88.105.124.56 (talk) 20:58, 6 December 2009 (UTC) No, there is no collective noun for a group of gibbons. Though I'm sure a "troop" would work, as it works for chimpanzees. Fayrfayr (talk) 04:28, 15 August 2015 (UTC)

Nomascus hainanus
Groves vide Wilson & Reeder (2005) recognized Nomascus hainanus as a separate valid species and treated N. nasutus as a subspecies of N. concolor. This is based on his revision of the gibbon family (Groves, 2001).

Groves, C.P. 2001. Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institute Press: Washington, D.C.

Groves, Colin (16 November 2005). in Wilson, D. E., and Reeder, D. M. (eds): Mammal Species of the World, 3rd edition, Johns Hopkins University Press, 178-181. ISBN 0-801-88221-4.

Therefore, revise the species listing. 72.194.116.63 02:31, 22 February 2007 (UTC) Vahe Demirjian 18.28 21 February 2007.

 * However, Geissman revised after that, and Mootnick and Groves revises Hoolock as well. What was here before your edit was more uptodate than your edit, so I revert. - UtherSRG (talk) 04:15, 22 February 2007 (UTC)

Assessment
I rated this article as "high" importance, but I am wondering if it should actually be "top". Any thoughts? Rlendog (talk) 01:30, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree that it should be top. Any existing ape Family should be of top importance. − Twas Now ( talk • contribs • e-mail ) 22:09, 20 July 2008 (UTC)

Clarification
(From the article) "One unique aspect of gibbon physiology is that the wrist is composed of a ball and socket joint" Unique among whom? Primates? All mammals? Might be obvious to a zoologist but to the average reader such as myself... Hadrian89 (talk) 23:39, 13 April 2009 (UTC)

As the lower arm consists of paired bones and the hand even more, it is difficult to understand how all these are articulated using "a ball and socket" - this really needs some better explantion and convincing citation.--88.105.124.56 (talk) 20:57, 6 December 2009 (UTC)

I have added a few requests for citations with reasons. The quality of the entire section is questionable, but I stopped myself from getting more triggered where it continues to state that gibbons have hands with fingers and thumb, like, er, primates? It just goes on and on! Surprised to see no one has improved that in fifteen years since the two complaints above. 2A02:A473:FE0C:1:86DE:5B4:2B88:E36 (talk) 14:25, 11 May 2024 (UTC)

Source for expansion
A new study can be read about here, discussing new material from:

Whoever eventually revamps this article may want to include this information. –  VisionHolder « talk » 13:29, 22 July 2010 (UTC)

A new Gibbon
A new Gibbon is being claimed by some German researchers called the northern buffed-cheeked gibbon. Not sure where to put this but their findings are in a Vietnamese journal of some kind.--Senor Freebie (talk) 01:28, 22 September 2010 (UTC)

 * You will need a citation, as a minimum - ideally one in English, if available, so that the validity of the species can be judged. Anaxial (talk) 19:15, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

 * Reference: Thinh, V.N. et al. (2010). A new species of crested gibbon, from the central Annamite mountain range. Vietnamese Journal of Primatology 1 (4): 1–12. Burmeister (talk) 19:20, 23 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I just heard it on the news and thought mentioning it might prompt someone else to post a reference if they knew of one. I'm glad someone did!--Senor Freebie (talk) 14:45, 18 October 2010 (UTC)

Colour changes
I removed this section: "The male gibbon sometimes ends up with some dark patches in the white to show it is a suitable choice for mating." as there is no citation and "this makes no sense. Gibbons are all different colours, i.e. different species have different pelages, some are sexually or not sexually dichromatic. There is no “white” gibbon. Gibbon pelage does change on maturity in some taxa, which may act as a signal of sexual maturity", as quoted from an email from Dr Benjamin Rawson, one of the foremost gibbon experts

Number of species
This article says that there are 18 species of gibbon. As I count the number of species in each genus, there are, resp. 7, 4, 4, 1, which add up to 16. I don't know which numbers are incorrect, so I don't want to change anything, but I want to draw attention to this discrepancy. TomS TDotO (talk) 22:14, 16 January 2017 (UTC)
 * I think you may have miscounted; the article lists the number of species in each genus as Hylobates (7), Nomascus (7), Hoolock (3), Symphalangus (1), which does indeed add up to 18. Anaxial (talk) 18:32, 6 February 2017 (UTC)

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Talk:Class (philosophy)

Untitled
nice link to natural kinds — Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.17.64.90 (talk • contribs) 05:35, 20 February 2004 (UTC)

this article is quite unclear and in need of rewriting. it distinguishing between classes, types, and natural kinds based solely on linguistic convention, and that is strange. Nortexoid 05:29, 28 Oct 2004 (UTC)

This article is fairly unclear, but in order to edit or re-write it a lot of explanation of Venn Diagramms and Predicate Logic would be in order. I don't have enough experience with Wikipedia to recommend expanding, deleting or merging it - but introducing those two topics of Logic would go a long way towards improving the article--Sam 03:59, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

Universals and Classes
I don’t get why classes aren’t considered universals.

The ambiguity between classes, types, kinds, and universals is a serious problem for philosophy. However, the term class is most often used to denote a group of things, or in other words, to class something is to organize a set in a certain way. Universals aren't used in this manner, most often becuase the term universal is used as a property (see predicate logic).--Sam 03:59, 1 August 2006 (UTC)

Sentence structure
The sentence structure is almost impossible in many sentences, f.ex.:
 * One might well think they are not actually different categories of being, but typically while both are treated as abstract objects classes are not usually treated as universals, whereas types usually are).

Is not comprehensible without already knowing the background and the facts. F.ex. does the phrase "One might well think" apply to the whole sentence or just the rest of the phrase up to next comma? The phrase "while both are treated as abstract objects" is in fact one interspersed subclause that references outside the sentence – to "classes differ from types" – which is an unnecessarily far distance dependency. Interspersed subclauses are mostly acceptable if being a content clause specifying a noun, but weirdies like the one in the text preferrably should be separate clauses, referred to in the running sentence by short noun phrased "that fact" or "this".

To untangle this messy language, reduction to single independent sentences is recommended. Those sentences should then be ordered sequentially so that all references, pronouns and short noun phrases, refer backwards, not forwards. Then the clauses can be rationalized by making subclauses, where this removes tedious nagging repetitions of the noun phrases used in the text. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 11:16, 2 April 2011 (UTC)

 * Interpreting the contents of the article in computer science terms: a class is a set of item, while a type is an imaginary "prototypic exemplar" serving as a "pattern" for identification. According to philosophical language usage, that is. Ordinary language users rather regard type as now equivalent to "class", then as the set of "typical" qualities of that class. Philosophical language also use to confuse the set of items, a prototypical item and the set of qualities shared by all member items. Therefore the debate whether classes are "universals" or not. According to computer science, one should never confuse an item with the qualities of that item, making that debate moot. Rursus dixit. ( m bork3 !) 11:42, 2 April 2011 (UTC)

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Jean Lapierre

Jean-Charles Lapierre (May 7, 1956 – March 29, 2016) was a Canadian politician and television and radio broadcaster. After retiring from the government in 2007, he served as a political analyst in a variety of venues.

He was Paul Martin's Quebec lieutenant during the period of the Martin government. He was first elected to the House of Commons in 1978, serving from 1979 to 1993, and representing the riding of Shefford. He sat as a Liberal from 1979 to 1990, and later as an independent. He returned after an eleven-year absence when he won a seat in the 2004 federal election for the Montreal riding of Outremont. On July 20, 2004, he was appointed to the Canadian Cabinet as Minister of Transport, serving until the 2006 election. Lapierre resigned as the MP for Outremont on January 28, 2007.

In 2016, Lapierre died on a private plane that crashed on approach to Îles-de-la-Madeleine Airport. Seven people died in the crash, including four of his family members; they were travelling to his father Raymond's funeral. Both pilots died.

Early life, education and marriage
Born May 7, 1956, Jean Lapierre was the oldest son of Raymond and Lucie Lapierre. He had younger siblings: a sister Martine and brothers Marc and Louis Lapierre.

He married and had two children: Marie-Anne and Jean-Michel Lapierre. Later, the couple divorced. Lapierre married Nicole Beaulieu in 1989.

Liberal
Lapierre was elected to the House of Commons in 1978, serving from 1979 to 1993, representing the riding of Shefford, Quebec. He sat as a Liberal from 1979 to 1990. Lapierre was a Quebec federalist; together with Pierre Trudeau, he opposed the 1980 Quebec referendum alternative to establish sovereignty for the province. In the first referendum on the place of Quebec in Canada, continued federal status won with nearly 60 per cent of the vote.

After Trudeau retired from politics in 1984, he was succeeded as Prime Minister and party leader by John Turner. Turner appointed Lapierre at age 28 to cabinet (at the time, the youngest minister to serve in a federal cabinet) as minister of state for youth and amateur sport. Lapierre's tenure was brief as Turner called an election nine days after being sworn in, and the Liberals lost.

Lapierre was a strong proponent of the Meech Lake Accord, and Turner and Martin also expressed support for it. Trudeau publicly campaigned against it, and Jean Chrétien opposed it as well.

Bloc Québécois
Upon leaving the Liberals, Lapierre sat as an independent, helping to found the Bloc Québécois and serving in their first caucus. In 1992, he retired from politics for a time and abandoned his affiliation with the Bloc. Lapierre has said that he never fully identified as a separatist and was the "red of the rainbow" in a temporary ad hoc rainbow coalition. He wanted to gain a level playing field for Quebec.

Broadcaster
In private life, Lapierre was well known in Quebec as a broadcaster and talk show host for Montreal radio station CKAC. He also worked simultaneously as a TV news presenter for a time.

Return to Liberals
Lapierre never fully gave up his political ambitions or his personal loyalty to Paul Martin. When the latter became liberal leader in December 2003, Lapierre returned to party politics after a decade away.

Martin appointed Lapierre as his Quebec lieutenant. He had a different style from his predecessors, most of whom were cautious, soft-spoken, and mindful of the effects of their Quebec actions on the rest of Canada. By contrast, Lapierre had what a CBC commentator described as a "rough and tumble, shoot from the hip style of politics", being known for his flamboyance, aggressiveness, toughness, rudeness and arrogance.

News analysts questioned the need for a Quebec lieutenant, as Martin was bilingual. In addition, polls showed fading support for the Bloc Québécois and Parti Québécois (who lost the 2003 provincial election), suggesting less need for a lieutenant. Others believed that Martin placed high importance on Quebec, hoping to fare significantly better than Chrétien had. He considered Lapierre to be crucial to winning over part of the nationalist vote.

2004 federal election
In the 2004 federal election, Lapierre was expected to deliver the vote in Quebec, but this was difficult following the sponsorship scandal of the Liberal Party. The scandal severely hurt the party's support, especially in that province, while the rival Bloc Québécois gained support. Lapierre said that it would help the Liberals if the Royal Canadian Mounted Police could "lay some charges already" in the sponsorship probe.

Years later, Lapierre said the sponsorship scandal had damaged the party like getting hit by a Mack truck. When Bloc Québécois leader Gilles Duceppe tried to link Liza Frulla to the Sponsorship Scandal, saying that her 2002 by-election campaign was funded by members implicated in the scandal, Lapierre described it as "the cheapest thing you can do—try to start gossip that has no foundation".

The Liberals were able to retain a plurality of seats to continue governing, but they were reduced to a minority. In Quebec, they lost 15 of the 36 seats won in 2000, and their popular vote fell from 44 to 34 per cent, while the Bloc Québécois captured 54 of the 75 seats.

Minister of Transport
As Minister of Transport, Lapierre initiated the Pacific Gateway Strategy, signing air transport agreements with China and India and completed a formal Canada-US Open Skies Agreement. He also spearheaded a large federal investment in the Prince Rupert container terminal, saying that it improved ties to Asian markets while enhancing economic development in northern British Columbia and Alberta. Lapierre reduced the amount paid by airports to the federal government by some $5 billion over the remaining life of the leases. He announced the implementation of a No Fly List to increase security for airline passengers.

As Transport Minister, his predecessor Tony Valeri had dismissed VIA Rail chairman Jean Pelletier, who filed a lawsuit against the government charging it had failed to use due process. A federal court ruled in his favour in November 2005 after the change in administrations, ordering Pelletier to be reinstated. The government appealed the court ruling and kept the former chair off the payroll. Lapierre ensured that due process was followed in dismissing Pelletier a second time. But in March 2007, Justice Francois Lemieux ruled that the Martin government acted improperly in 2005 when it fired Pelletier a second time, immediately after a court had overturned his first dismissal, stating that Lapierre was biased and failed to follow proper procedures. On November 22, 2007, Judge Hélène Langlois of the Quebec Superior Court ruled that the government of then-Prime Minister Paul Martin had acted in a "cavalier and precipitous" fashion when it fired Pelletier. The court awarded Pelletier $235,000 in lost income and a further $100,000 in damages.

Lapierre and his department were criticized for their handling of the collapse of the carrier Jetsgo. Critics said that he should have seen warning signs after unsuccessful attempts to lower the carrier's costs. They also said he had failed to warn the public or intervene, making him indirectly responsible when thousands of travellers were stranded when the carrier stopped operations. Lapierre rejected calls to resign and denied that he had any knowledge of the collapse. He pointed out that most of the passengers had booked flights with credit cards and would be eligible for refunds.

Opposition
Lapierre retained his position as Quebec lieutenant for the 2006 election. He was personally re-elected without much difficulty, though with a reduced margin. But, the Liberals lost power in the campaign, falling from 21 to 13 seats in Quebec. They were surpassed by the Conservatives in the popular vote.

Paul Martin resigned as parliamentary leader on election night and as party leader a month later. Interim successor Bill Graham appointed Lapierre to his shadow cabinet as Industry critic.

Lapierre was neutral at the 2006 Liberal leadership election, where Stéphane Dion was elected Liberal leader. Lapierre afterwards planned to announce that he would not run for re-election in Outremont, saying that his "commitment was to Mr. Martin for one mandate." Lapierre commented that Dion was the first leader not to have to cope with a divided party, after decades of infighting between Trudeau/Turner and Chrétien/Martin.

Return to broadcasting
On January 11, 2007, Lapierre announced that he would retire from political office at the end of the month. He did so on January 28, 2007.

He started work as a political analyst with Quebec television network TVA and Montreal radio station 98.5 FM. He co-hosted a political show with reporter Paul Larocque: Larocque-Lapierre. He was also political commentator for CJAD and FM 98.5 radio in Montreal, and FM 93 in Quebec city. He contributed regularly to Power Play and Question Period on the CTV network.

In 2014, Lapierre was coauthor with Chantal Hébert of the non-fiction book The Morning After: The 1995 Quebec Referendum and the Day that Almost Was. It was a shortlisted nominee for the 2015 Shaughnessy Cohen Prize for Political Writing.

Death
On March 29, 2016, Jean Lapierre died in a plane crash short of the airport in the Magdalen Islands. All seven travellers on board died, including his wife Nicole Beaulieu, sister Martine Lapierre, and brothers Marc and Louis Lapierre. The family was en route to the funeral of Lapierre's father, Raymond C. Lapierre, who had died a few days earlier. All of the Lapierre family members were honoured in a service at Les Îles-de-la-Madeleine in early April. They are survived by Marie-Anne and Jean-Michel Lapierre, children of Jean and his first wife, Gabrielle Choinière; and Lucie Lapierre, Raymond's widow.

Lapierre and Beaulieu were given a funeral at Saint-Viateur d'Outremont church in Montreal on April 16, 2016, attended by extended family, friends, political and broadcasting colleagues, and dignitaries including Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and his wife Sophie Gregoire Trudeau. His daughter Marie-Anne Lapierre gave the eulogy.

The plane that crashed with Lapierre and six other people aboard was travelling faster and at a higher altitude than recommended, the federal Transportation Safety Board stated. The agency said that the plane crashed short of the airport soon after the pilot turned off the autopilot and lowered the landing gear. Almost immediately afterwards, the Mitsubishi MU-2B-60 aircraft "rolled quickly into a steep right bank and descended rapidly" before smashing to the ground.

Honours
Canada125 ribbon.png QEII Golden Jubilee Medal ribbon.png QEII Diamond Jubilee Medal ribbon.svg

Electoral record
Source: Official Results, Elections Canada and Financial Returns, Elections Canada.

Archives
There is a Jean Lapierre fonds at Library and Archives Canada.

title: Jean Lapierre


text:
Ethical subjectivism

Ethical subjectivism (also known as moral subjectivism and moral non-objectivism) is the meta-ethical view which claims that:
 * 1) Ethical sentences express propositions.
 * 2) Some such propositions are true.
 * 3) The truth or falsity of such propositions is ineliminably dependent on the (actual or hypothetical) attitudes of people.

This makes ethical subjectivism a form of cognitivism (because ethical statements are the types of things that can be true or false). Ethical subjectivism stands in opposition to moral realism, which claims that moral propositions refer to objective facts, independent of human opinion; to error theory, which denies that any moral propositions are true in any sense; and to non-cognitivism, which denies that moral sentences express propositions at all.

Relationship to moral anti-realism
Ethical subjectivism is a form of moral anti-realism that denies the "metaphysical thesis" of moral realism, (the claim that moral truths are ordinary facts about the world). Instead ethical subjectivism claims that moral truths are based on the mental states of individuals or groups of people. The moral realist is committed to some version of the following three statements:

 * 1) The semantic thesis: Moral statements have meaning, they express propositions, or are the kind of things that can be true or false.
 * 2) The alethic thesis: Some moral propositions are true.
 * 3) The metaphysical thesis: The metaphysical status of moral facts is robust and ordinary, not importantly different from other facts about the world.

Moral anti-realism is the denial of at least one of these claims. Ethical subjectivists deny the third claim, instead arguing that moral facts are not metaphysically ordinary, but rather dependent on mental states, (individual's beliefs about what is right and wrong). Moral non-cognitivists deny the first claim, while error theorists deny the second claim.

There is some debate as to whether moral realism should continue to require the metaphysical thesis, and therefore if ethical subjectivists should be considered moral realists. Geoffrey Sayre-McCord argues that moral realism should not require mind-independence since there are morally relevant psychological facts which are necessarily mind-dependent, which would make ethical subjectivism a version of moral realism. This has led to a distinction being made between robust moral realism (which requires all three of the theses) and minimal moral realism (which requires only the first two, and is therefore compatible with ethical subjectivism).

Moral relativism and ethical subjectivism
Moral relativism claims that statements are true or false based on who is saying them: they include indexicals in the same way that the truth of the statement "I am in Senegal" is dependent on who is making that statement. Depending on the variety of moral relativism, these statements may be indexed to a particular society (i.e., cultural relativism, when I say stealing is wrong, it is only true if stealing is not acceptable in my culture), or indexed to an individual (individualistic relativism). Furthermore, moral relativism is the view where an actor's moral codes are locally derived from their culture. The rules within moral codes are equal to each other and are only deemed "right" or "wrong" within their specific moral codes. Relativism is opposite to Universalism because there is not a single moral code for every agent to follow. Relativism differs from Nihilism because it validates every moral code that exists whereas nihilism does not. When it comes to relativism, Russian philosopher and writer, Fyodor Dostoevsky, coined the phrase "If God doesn't exist, everything is permissible". That phrase was his view of the consequences for rejecting theism as a basis of ethics. American anthropologist Ruth Benedict argued that there is no single objective morality and that moral codes necessarily vary by culture.

Ethical subjectivism is a completely distinct concept from moral relativism. Ethical subjectivism claims that the truth or falsehood of ethical claims is dependent on the mental states and attitudes of people, but these ethical truths may be universal (i.e. one person or group's mental states may determine what is right or wrong for everyone). The term "ethical subjectivism" covers two distinct theories in ethics. According to cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, the truth of moral statements depends upon people's values, attitudes, feelings, or beliefs. Some forms of cognitivist ethical subjectivism can be counted as forms of realism, others are forms of anti-realism. David Hume is a foundational figure for cognitive ethical subjectivism. On a standard interpretation of his theory, a trait of character counts as a moral virtue when it evokes a sentiment of approbation in a sympathetic, informed, and rational human observer. Similarly, Roderick Firth's ideal observer theory held that right acts are those that an impartial, rational observer would approve of. William James, another ethical subjectivist, held that an end is good (to or for a person) just in the case it is desired by that person (see also ethical egoism). According to non-cognitive versions of ethical subjectivism, such as emotivism, prescriptivism, and expressivism, ethical statements cannot be true or false, at all: rather, they are expressions of personal feelings or commands. For example, on A. J. Ayer's emotivism, the statement, "Murder is wrong" is equivalent in meaning to the emotive, "Murder, Boo!"

While moral relativism and ethical subjectivism positions are often held together, they do not entail each other. For example, someone that claims that whatever their king wants to happen is the morally right thing for everyone to do would be an ethical subjectivist (right and wrong are based on mental states), but they would not be a moral relativist (right and wrong are the same for everyone). Conversely, a moral relativist could deny moral subjectivism if they thought that the morally right thing to do was to follow the written laws of your country (this morality is relativist since "the laws of your country" picks out different laws for different individuals, but not subjectivist since it is dependent on the written laws, which are not in anyone's head).

Some universalist forms of subjectivism include ideal observer theory (which claims that moral propositions are about what attitudes a hypothetical ideal observer would hold). Although divine command theory is considered by some to be a form of ethical subjectivism, defenders of the perspective that divine command theory is not a form of ethical subjectivism say this is based on a misunderstanding: that divine command proponents claim that moral propositions are about what attitudes God holds, but this understanding is deemed incorrect by some, such as Robert Adams who claims that divine command theory is concerned with whether a moral command is or isn't "contrary to the commands of (a loving) God".

Terminology
There is some debate among philosophers around the use of the term "ethical subjectivism" as this term has historically referred to the more specific position that ethical statements are merely reports of one's own mental states (saying that killing is wrong just means you disapprove of killing). While this is an ethically subjective position (the truth of your statement does depend on your mental states), it is not the only one. Due to this ambiguity, some philosophers have advocated that the general position discussed here be referred to as non-objectivism.

title: Ethical subjectivism


text:
Little Bighorn River

The Little Bighorn River is a 138 mi tributary of the Bighorn River in the United States in the states of Montana and Wyoming. The Battle of the Little Bighorn, also known as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, was fought on its banks on June 25–26, 1876, as well as the Battle of Crow Agency in 1887.

Geography
The Little Bighorn rises in northern Wyoming, deep in the Bighorn Mountains, under Duncum Mountain and Burnt Mountain. The main stream flows through a deep canyon until it issues onto the plains, just at the Montana-Wyoming border. In Little Bighorn Canyon in Wyoming, the Little Bighorn receives other mountain streams as tributaries including the Dry Fork (which despite its name maintains a permanent, year-round significant flow of water into the Little Bighorn), and the West Fork of the Little Bighorn.

After issuing from its canyon at the Montana-Wyoming line the Little Bighorn flows northward across the Crow Indian Reservation. The river flows past the towns of Wyola, Lodge Grass and Crow Agency, and joins the Bighorn River near the town of Hardin.

At Wyola, Montana, the Little Bighorn receives the flow of Pass Creek flowing north from the Bighorn Mountains. At Lodge Grass the Little Bighorn receives the waters of two tributaries, the largest being Lodge Grass Creek which flows west out of its own canyon system in the Bighorn Mountains, and Owl Creek flowing east and north from the Wolf Mountains. A few miles before reaching Crow Agency, the Little Horn receives the flow of Reno Creek from the Wolf Mountains to the east.

The famous Little Bighorn battle site is approximately 3.6 mi south of Crow Agency, on the eastern side of the river and is now the Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument.

Source of name
In 1859, William F. Raynolds led a government expedition up the Big Horn River to the mouth of Big Horn Canyon, and then southeast along the base of the Big Horn mountains. En route to the Big Horn Canyon, and about 40 mi down the Big Horn River from the canyon, he camped just below the mouth of the Little Bighorn on September 6, 1859. He noted in his journal for that day that the Indian name of the Big Horn river, into which the Little Bighorn empties, is Ets-pot-agie, or Mountain Sheep River, and this generates the name of the Little Big Horn, Ets-pot-agie-cate, or Little Mountain Sheep river. The trappers who came to the Big Horn Mountains in the fur trapping era continued the usage of the English translation of the Indian names, and the names for both rivers have come down through history.

Captain Raynolds had Jim Bridger as a guide and interpreter, so the information about the source of the name was confirmed by Raynolds from Indian sources through Bridger.

According to the USGS, the Little Bighorn River has three other official variants of the name, including Little Horn River, Custer River and Great Horn River.

Local people who live in the valley and along the tributaries commonly use the shortened version—Little Horn—instead of the more cumbersome name, Little Bighorn.

A historical variant name for the Little Bighorn is the Greasy Grass. From the 1500s to the 1800s, the indigenous Crow people knew the river as the Greasy Grass. Crow tribal historian Joe Medicine Crow explained in a 2012 YouTube interview that this name was used by the Crows for the river system because in the river bottoms in the upper reaches of the Little Bighorn and its major tributaries, there was abundant grass that would gather heavy dew in the morning which, in turn, would wet moccasins and leggings of Indian people, and the bellies and legs of horses, and cause them to look greasy. On the mainstream, the name Greasy Grass slowly gave way to the alternative name Little Bighorn. For one major tributary of the Little Bighorn, the (presently named) Lodge Grass Creek retained the name "Greasy Grass Creek", but as Joe Medicine Crow explained in the 2012 video, this name morphed from "Greasy Grass" to "Lodge Grass" due to the error of an interpreter since the Crow word for "greasy" is Tah-shay, and the Crow word for "lodge" is Ah-shay.

The Lakota Sioux, who began to contest control of this area with the Crow in the 1840s to 1860s as the Sioux pushed westward, continued to call the river the "Greasy Grass". Native Americans called the river the Greasy Grass before the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876, and Lakota people still commonly refer to the Battle of the Little Bighorn as the Battle of the Greasy Grass.

In historical references in Wikipedia articles, the Battle of the Little Bighorn is also referred to as the Battle of the Greasy Grass, as it is in the discussions of the battle by the History Channel.

The alternative name used in the 1800s by the Sioux, Cheyenne, and Crow of "Greasy Grass" for the "Little Bighorn" is reflected in current-day nomenclature at the Little Bighorn battlefield. A prominent ridge on the Little Bighorn Battlefield that overlooks the eastern banks of the Little Bighorn River has retained the name of Greasy Grass Ridge and is the site of critical events of the battle.

In Lakota, the Little Bighorn River is called Pȟežísla Wakpá.

River access in Wyoming
Upstream from the point where the Little Bighorn issues from the Little Horn Canyon, the stream flow is in Wyoming. For the first two miles a very rough road goes upstream. All along this road, and all along the stream in this stretch, the land is privately owned and a sign at the entrance to the canyon provides notice of this fact. Wyoming stream access laws are not liberal and trespass laws are strictly construed. In this two mile stretch all riparian access requires trespass across private lands.

After two miles of road travel upstream, the road reaches the Bighorn National Forest Service boundary where a parking area is maintained by the Wyoming Fish and Game Department, but signage prohibits overnight camping. Upstream above this point fishing is permitted on the National Forest, but the first river mile of this stretch of fishing is unusually difficult and rugged because the stream bed is littered with very large boulders due to a massive earth slide that blocked the canyon thousands of years ago, after which the river cut down through the slide leaving huge boulders along the river banks. At two miles above the parking area, the river enters a granite-sided box canyon that extends for about a mile, where the river washes from one sheer wall to the other and is impassible to wading anglers except during times of very low water. In this area, the trail leaves the river and climbs around this gorge.

The very rough road ends and the trail up the Little Horn Canyon begins a few hundred yards after the parking area. One fork of the trail crosses the river and becomes the Dry Fork Trail. The other trail winds upstream in a westerly direction through the Little Horn Canyon. The Little Horn Canyon trail was originally established for the purposes of delivering mail to Bald Mountain City, a gold mining town, in the late 1800s. The trail is now primarily used by cattle ranchers, marathon runners, and fishermen.

River access in Montana on the Crow Indian Reservation
After flowing out of Wyoming and into Montana at the mouth of Little Bighorn Canyon, the entire remaining course of the Little Bighorn River and all its tributaries are within the boundaries of the Crow Indian Reservation, and access to the river is subject to the unique and confusing mixture of Montana state and Crow tribal law.

Fishing within the boundaries of the Crow Indian Reservation is governed by the U.S. Supreme Court case of Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544 (1981). The case addressed the Crow Nation's ability to regulate hunting and fishing on the reservation by tribal members and by non tribal members, and the case held that the Crow Tribe may prohibit or regulate hunting or fishing by non-members on land belonging to the Tribe or held by the United States in trust for the Tribe.

On tribal lands, the Crow Tribal Code (2005) addresses fishing by non-members in Title 12. Non-members may fish on Tribal lands but only while possessing a Tribal Recreation License, with appropriate permit to fish. and only with an enrolled Crow Tribal member in attendance, who is trained and properly licensed as a fishing guide.

While the case of Montana v. United States also holds that the Tribe may not prohibit non-Indians from hunting and fishing on lands not owned by the tribe or held in trust for the tribe, such parcels of "fee lands" are usually not extensive and are scattered randomly among the parcels of Tribal lands, and there is no indication on the ground to indicate to the non-member fisher person when they are on fee land, where they would be trespassing, and when they are on Tribal lands in breach of the law.

The Crow Tribal Court has exclusive jurisdiction over non-Indians who commit violations on Tribal land. If a non-member is found in violation of any part of the Tribal Code, they are subject to fines (Crow Tribal Code 2005, Section 12-11-109), forfeiture of fishing gear, and payment of court costs

This confusing and chaotic situation, in which enforcement of fishing restrictions and access to streams depends on who owns the land the fisher person is standing on, has caused fishing websites to conclude: "However, the Little Bighorn runs entirely within the boundaries of the Crow Reservation and access to it is next to nil."

The prospective fisherman should not be misled by the fact that the blue ribbon trout fishery on the Big Horn River, below the Yellowtail Dam, is fished by non-Indians (provided the non-member complies with Montana fishing regulations and laws), though this stretch of the Bighorn River is within the boundaries of the Crow Reservation. In the seminal case of Montana v. United States, 450 U.S. 544 (1981), the court exempted the Big Horn River from their ruling, holding that the bed of the Bighorn River was not included within the grant of tribal lands to the Crow Tribe in their prior treaties, and thus upon the admission of Montana to the Union the bed of the Big Horn River (and thus the right to fish on the Big Horn River) passed from federal ownership to the state of Montana.

Road and trail access
In Montana, from the mouth of the river at Hardin upstream to about 8 mi above Wyola, there is paved and gravel road access to the Little Bighorn Valley, and upstream from this point to the mouth of the Little Bighorn canyon there is a gravel road maintained by Bighorn County. However, from the point at which the river flows out of the canyon (at about the Wyoming-Montana state line) the road continues upstream in the canyon for only about 2 mi. There are two (and sometimes three) unbridged stream fords. This portion of the road is unmaintained and is a two track road with tight turns. It is primitive, rough, ungraded, and littered with partially buried boulders. When it rains large puddles accumulate in low spots. It is impassible in the winter after snow accumulates and after the two stream fords, fed by springs, partially freeze over. When not closed by winter weather, this road still requires vehicles with high clearance, preferably with 4X4 gearing.

In Wyoming, and particularly in the Little Bighorn Canyon, all the land adjacent to the road and the stream is private, and a sign noting this is posted at the entrance to the canyon. At the furthest point of the road, two miles upstream from the canyon mouth, at the US Forest Service boundary, there is a parking area maintained by the Wyoming Game and Fish Department but signage prohibits overnight camping. Upstream, above this point the Forest Service lands a trail that crosses the river on a footbridge to the southeast side and then leaves the river and climbs up out of the canyon to the south finally reaching primitive roads above Dry Fork that go on to the Burgess Ranger Station on US Highway 14 on top of the Bighorn Mountains. From the start of the Forest Service lands, all along the northwest side of the river there is trail access for about 14 mi up to the source of the stream and on to the divide on top the Bighorn Mountains.

Wildlife
In Wyoming, at the end of the two mile stretch of road from the mouth of the canyon Bighorn National Forest Service lands extend up to and over the top of the Bighorn Mountains. In the Little Bighorn watershed there are cougars, black bears, deer, elk, wild turkeys and other birds and small mammals, all of which are common to the Bighorn Mountains. An occasional moose has been sighted. The floor and sides of the Little Bighorn canyon is notorious for rattlesnakes. Herpetologists from the Bighorn National Forest state that the east facing canyons of the Bighorns have rattlesnakes because they also support a habitat for small mammals, like a mouse and chipmunk population, which are the prey of rattlesnakes.

With the restoration of the black bear population in the Bighorn Mountains, there has been a resurgence of black bear living along the stream as it flows out into Montana, extending down the Little Bighorn Valley in Montana. Ranchers between the mouth of the canyon (at about the Wyoming Montana line) down to Wyola often report black bear groups living in the timber along the river, and travelers on the Montana portion of the Little Horn road will occasionally site bear out in the pastures along the river, and occasionally along the road.

List of crossings
(location 45°34'04.8"N 107°27'11.2"W)
 * Montana Hwy 384 (location 45°44'08.1"N 107°33'27.0"W)
 * Heritage Rd (location 45°36'10.8"N 107°27'13.3"W)
 * Arapoosh Rd (location 45°35'49.8"N 107°27'35.6"W)
 * Interstate 90 in Montana (location 45°35'47.8"N 107°27'41.9"W)
 * Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Parkman to Hardin X2 (location 45°35'47.4"N 107°27'44.2"W)
 * Interstate 90 in Montana (location 45°34'06.2"N 107°27'07.4"W)
 * Garryowen Rd (location 45°34'06.7"N 107°27'06.2"W)
 * Interstate 90 in Montana (location 45°29'39.9"N 107°23'35.4"W)
 * Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad X2 (location 45°29'39.1"N 107°23'38.7"W) (location 45°24'36.4"N 107°23'33.6"W)
 * Montana Highway 451 (location 45°24'36.8"N 107°23'32.1"W)
 * Montana County Rd 463 (location 45°18'54.7"N 107°21'03.5"W)
 * Old Grey Blanket Rd (location 45°18'12.1"N 107°21'33.2"W)
 * Montana Highway 451 (location 45°10'51.1"N 107°23'16.6"W)
 * Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad Parkman to Hardin (45°10'51.3"N 107°23'18.8"W)
 * Back Lp Rd (location 45°08'21.4"N 107°23'45.1"W)
 * Black Bridge Rd (location 45°06'03.9"N 107°26'25.7"W)
 * Little Horn Rd (location 45°03'25.6"N 107°31'52.8"W)
 * Unnamed Road (location 45°03'17.8"N 107°31'57.7"W)
 * Little Horn Rd (location 45°02'59.6"N 107°34'07.1"W)
 * Red Gap Rd (location 45°00'25.0"N 107°36'56.0"W)
 * Little Horn Ln X2 (location 44°59'42.2"N 107°37'45.4"W)(location 44°59'18.2"N 107°38'16.7"W)

title: Little Bighorn River


text:
Battle of Quiberon Bay

The Battle of Quiberon Bay (known as Bataille des Cardinaux in French) was a decisive naval engagement during the Seven Years' War. It was fought on 20 November 1759 between the Royal Navy and the French Navy in Quiberon Bay, off the coast of France near Saint-Nazaire. The battle was the culmination of British efforts to eliminate French naval superiority, which could have given the French the ability to carry out their planned invasion of Great Britain. A British fleet of 24 ships of the line under Sir Edward Hawke tracked down and engaged a French fleet of 21 ships of the line under Marshal de Conflans. After hard fighting, the British fleet sank or ran aground six French ships, captured one and scattered the rest, giving the Royal Navy one of its greatest victories, and ending the threat of French invasion for good.

The battle signalled the rise of the Royal Navy in becoming the world's foremost naval power, and, for the British, was part of the Annus Mirabilis of 1759.

Background
The endemic ill feeling between France and Great Britain during the 18th century turned into open warfare in 1754 and 1755. In 1756 what become known as the Seven Years' War broke out across Europe, pitching France, Austria and Russia against Britain and Prussia. France supported Austria and Russia in a land campaign against Prussia, and launched what it saw as its main effort in a maritime and colonial offensive against Britain. By the beginning of 1759 neither alliance had the advantage, in either the land or sea campaigns, and both were having serious problems financing the war. In 1759 more than 60% of French revenue went to service its debt, causing numerous shortages. The French navy in particular was overstretched and suffered from the lack of a coherent doctrine, exacerbated by the inexperience verging on incompetence of the Secretary of State for the Navy, Nicolas René Berryer, a former chief of police. Meanwhile, Britain's war effort up to early 1756 had been a failure. From the summer of 1757 it came under the control of the assertive new secretary of state for the southern department (foreign minister), William Pitt, who imposed a coordinated strategy. By early 1759 this was beginning to bear fruit.

In response to the British successes, the ministers of the French king Louis XV planned a direct invasion of Britain, which if successful would have decided the war in their favour. An army of 17,000 was collected at Vannes, in the south-east of Brittany, and nearly 100 transports were assembled near Quiberon Bay, plus several warships sailing en flute, that is with their guns stripped out to allow them to transport more soldiers. In its final form the French plan required these transports to be escorted by the French Navy.

However, at the best of times the French struggled to crew their full fleet with experienced mariners; landsmen could be used, but even a small deficiency in ship handling translated into a significant handicap in a combat situation. Three years into the war, thousands of French seamen were held as prisoners by the British; many more were engaged in speculative, and occasionally lucrative, privateering careers; and the unhealthy conditions, onerous onboard discipline and poor wages, paid late, acted as a strong disincentive to service. The transports also required at least a cadre of skilled men. By the summer of 1759 the French had 73 ships of the line, the largest warships of the time: 30 serving abroad and 43 in home waters. The ships in home waters required an aggregate complement of about 25,000 men; they were more than 9,000 short of this. The 43 French ships in home waters were split between the Atlantic port of Brest (22 ships) and the Mediterranean port of Toulon, with a small number at two ports on the Bay of Biscay: Lorient and Rochefort. The British had 40 ships of the line in home waters, and a further 15 in their Mediterranean Fleet, which was based in Gibraltar.

Brest was the obvious starting point for the expedition: it was a major port; it was well placed with regard to the prevailing winds; and departure from it minimised the sailing distance and time to the proposed landing site. However, Brest was at the end of a long and relatively infertile peninsula, which made supporting a large number of men there difficult; supplies of food had to come in by sea and were vulnerable to the British blockade. A typhoid epidemic in Brest during 1757–1758 killed over 4,000 French seamen, greatly exacerbating their shortage of experienced sailors. In addition, there was fear of a recurrence of the typhus outbreak. Therefore, the army assembled at Vannes and its transports gathered around the Gulf of Morbihan; the terrain was more fertile, the anchorage was large and sheltered, and men and supplies could readily be despatched from Bordeaux, Rochefort, Nantes, or Orléans.

In August, the French Mediterranean Fleet under Jean-François de La Clue-Sabran attempted to break out past Gibraltar into the Atlantic. The British Mediterranean Fleet under Edward Boscawen caught them and a two-day battle resulted in three French ships of the line being captured, two destroyed, and five blockaded in neutral Cádiz; two escaped the battle to reach Rochefort. The five French ships in Cadiz were blockaded by Boscawen's second-in-command, Thomas Brodrick. Five of Boscawen's victorious ships were transferred to Admiral Edward Hawke's fleet, off Brest.

Prelude
During 1759, the British, under Hawke, maintained a close blockade on the French coast in the vicinity of Brest. In that year, the French had made plans to invade England and Scotland, and had accumulated transports and troops around the Loire estuary. The defeat of the Mediterranean fleet at the Battle of Lagos in August made the invasion plans impossible, but Choiseul still contemplated a plan for Scotland, and so the fleet was ordered to escape the blockade and collect the transports assembled in the Gulf of Morbihan.

During the first week of November, a westerly gale came up and, after three days, the ships of Hawke's blockade were forced to run for Torbay on the south coast of England. Robert Duff was left behind in Quiberon Bay, with a squadron of five 'fifties' (ships of the line with 50 cannons) and nine frigates to keep an eye on the transports. In the meantime, a small squadron from the West Indies joined Conflans in Brest and, when an easterly wind came on the 14th, Conflans slipped out. He was sighted by HMS Actaeon (1757) which had remained on station off Brest despite the storms but which failed to rendezvous with Hawke, by HMS Juno (1757) and HMS Swallow (1745) which tried to warn Duff but were apparently chased off by the French, and by the victualler Love and Unity returning from Quiberon, which sighted the French fleet at 2 pm on the 15th, 70 miles west of Belle-Isle. She met Hawke the next day and he sailed hard for Quiberon into a SSE gale. Meanwhile, HMS Vengeance (1758) had arrived in Quiberon Bay the night before to warn Duff and he had put his squadron to sea in the teeth of a WNW gale.

Battle
Having struggled with unfavourable winds, Conflans had slowed down on the night of the 19th in order to arrive at Quiberon at dawn. 20 miles off Belleisle he sighted seven of Duff's squadron. Once he realised that this was not the main British fleet, he gave chase. Duff split his ships to the north and south, with the French van and centre in pursuit, whilst the rearguard held off to windward to watch some strange sails appearing from the west. The French broke off the pursuit but were still scattered as Hawke's fleet came into sight. HMS Magnanime (1748) sighted the French at 8.30 and Hawke gave the signal for line abreast.

Conflans was faced with a choice, to fight in his current disadvantageous position in high seas and a "very violent" WNW wind, or take up a defensive position in Quiberon Bay and dare Hawke to come into the labyrinth of shoals and reefs. About 9 am Hawke gave the signal for general chase along with a new signal for the first 7 ships to form a line ahead and, in spite of the weather and the dangerous waters, set full sail. By 2.30 Conflans rounded Les Cardinaux, the rocks at the end of the Quiberon peninsula that give the battle its name in French. The first shots were heard as he did so, although Sir John Bentley in Warspite claimed that they were fired without his orders. However the British were starting to overtake the rear of the French fleet even as their van and centre made it to the safety of the bay.

Just before 4 pm the battered FRENCH SHIP Formidable surrendered to the HMS Resolution (1758), just as Hawke himself rounded The Cardinals. Kersaint attempted to come to the aid of Conflans, but Thésée performed her turn without closing her lower gunports; water rushed into the gundeck, and she capsized with only 22 survivors. Superbe also capsized, and the badly damaged Héros struck her flag to Viscount Howe before running aground on the Four Shoal during the night.

Meanwhile, the wind shifted to the NW, further confusing Conflans' half-formed line as they tangled together in the face of Hawke's daring pursuit. Conflans tried unsuccessfully to resolve the muddle, but in the end decided to put to sea again. His flagship, Soleil Royal, headed for the entrance to the bay just as Hawke was coming in on HMS Royal George (1756). Hawke saw an opportunity to rake Soleil Royal, but Intrépide interposed herself and took the fire. Meanwhile, Soleil Royal had fallen to leeward and was forced to run back and anchor off Croisic, away from the rest of the French fleet. By now it was about 5 pm and darkness had fallen, so Hawke made the signal to anchor.

During the night eight French ships managed to do what Soleil Royal had failed to do, to navigate through the shoals to the safety of the open sea, and escape to Rochefort. Seven ships and the frigates were in the Vilaine estuary (just off the map above, to the east), but Hawke dared not attack them in the stormy weather. The French jettisoned their guns and gear and used the rising tide and northwesterly wind to escape over the sandbar at the bottom of the river Vilaine. One of these ships was wrecked, and the remaining six were trapped throughout 1760 by a blockading British squadron and only later managed to break out and reach Brest in 1761/1762. The badly damaged FRENCH SHIP Juste was lost as she made for the Loire, 150 of her crew surviving the ordeal, and HMS Resolution (1758) grounded on the Four Shoal during the night.

Soleil Royal tried to escape to the safety of the batteries at Croisic, but HMS Essex (1679) pursued her with the result that both were wrecked on the Four Shoal beside Héros. On the 22nd the gale moderated, and three of Duff's ships were sent to destroy the beached ships. Conflans set fire to Soleil Royal while the British burnt Héros, as seen in the right of Richard Wright's painting.

Aftermath
The British continued to keep a tight blockade on the French coast, which continued to starve French ports of commerce, further weakening France's economy. Hawke attempted to destroy some of the French warships trapped in the Vilaine Estuary, sending in fire ships; but these failed to accomplish the task. Hawke developed a plan for landing on the coast, seizing a peninsula, and attacking the ships from land. However, he was forced to abandon this when orders reached him from Pitt for a different approach, which was ultimately unsuccessful.

The power of the French fleet was broken, and would not recover before the war was over. Combined with admiral Edward Boscawen's victory at the Battle of Lagos the previous August, the French invasion threat was removed. Although he had effectively put the French channel fleet out of action for the remainder of the war, Hawke was disappointed he had not secured a more comprehensive victory, asserting that had he had two more hours of daylight the whole enemy fleet would have been taken. Hawke's commission was extended and followed by a peerage in 1776.

The naval historian Nicholas Tracey described the battle as "the most dramatic sea battle in the age of sail", while the naval theorist and historian Alfred Mahan claimed that "The battle of 20 November 1759 was the Trafalgar of this war, and ... the English fleets were now free to act against the colonies of France, and later of Spain, on a grander scale than ever before." For instance, the French could not follow up their victory in the land battle of Sainte-Foy the following spring for want of reinforcements and supplies from France, and so Quiberon Bay may be regarded as the battle that determined the fate of New France and hence Canada. France experienced a credit crunch as financiers recognised that Britain could now strike at will against French trade. The French government was forced to default on its debt. The battle was one of a series of British victories in 1759 which caused the year to be known as an annus mirabilis (Latin for "year of wonders").

From this battle, and that two months earlier where, under General James Wolfe, the British captured Quebec, comes the Royal Naval toast "May our officers have the eye of a Hawke and the heart of a Wolfe".

France
Order of Battle:

Britain
Order of Battle:

Namesake
HMAS Quiberon was a destroyer named in memory of the battle of Quiberon Bay. She served in the Royal Navy and then the Royal Australian Navy. Quiberon was launched in 1942 and saw operations in World War II. She was decommissioned in 1964.

title: Battle of Quiberon Bay


text:
Stormbringer (album)

Stormbringer is the ninth studio album by English rock band Deep Purple, released in November 1974. It was the band's second studio album to feature the Mk III lineup including vocalist David Coverdale and bassist/vocalist Glenn Hughes.

Album cover and title
The cover image of Stormbringer is based on a photo. On 8 July 1927 a tornado near the town of Jasper, Minnesota, was photographed by Lucille Handberg. Her photograph has become a classic image, and was used and edited for the album's cover. The same photograph was used for Miles Davis' album Bitches Brew in 1970 and Siouxsie and the Banshees' album Tinderbox in 1986.

Stormbringer is the name of the second Elric of Melniboné novel by Michael Moorcock. It is the name of a magical sword described in many novels and comics by Moorcock and others which enjoyed enormous success in the 1960s and '70s. David Coverdale has denied knowledge of this until shortly after recording the album. In an interview with Charles Shaar Murray in the New Musical Express he claimed that the name was from mythology. A few years later, Moorcock collaborated with Blue Öyster Cult to write "Black Blade", a song that actually was about the sword Stormbringer.

According to Glenn Hughes, the slurred gibberish that is spoken by Coverdale at the beginning of the title track just prior to the first verse is the same backwards dialogue that Linda Blair's character utters in the film The Exorcist, when she is questioned by the priest.

Release and reception
In a retrospective review Alex Henderson of AllMusic writes that "Stormbringer falls short of the excellence of Machine Head and Who Do We Think We Are, but nonetheless boasts some definite classics – including the fiery "Lady Double Dealer," the ominous title song (a goth metal treasure), the sweaty "High Ball Shooter," and the melancholy ballad "Soldier of Fortune."

Guitarist Ritchie Blackmore left Deep Purple following Stormbringer and its subsequent tour, publicly citing his dislike for the funky direction the band was taking. Glenn Hughes nevertheless praises the album and Blackmore's contributions: "People who listen to Stormbringer, please listen...Ritchie Blackmore is damn funky, whether he likes it or not. He played wonderfully on the album."

Reissues
In 1990, the album was remastered and re-released in the US by Metal Blade Records, with distribution by Warner Bros.

The Friday Music label released a version in the United States on 31 July 2007 (along with Made in Europe and Come Taste the Band). It is unclear which tapes were used as a source for this release, but the label's website claims that the album was digitally remastered (but not expanded).

Additionally EMI (Deep Purple's label for much of the world outside the US) worked with Glenn Hughes on a remastered, expanded version of the album (much like the Burn rerelease) which included bonus remixes and alternative takes.

On 23 February 2009 the 35th Anniversary Edition of Stormbringer was released for the European/international market only. The release was expanded into a limited edition two-disc set: the first disc contained the full remastered album along with the new remixes, and the second disc was a DVD containing the quadraphonic mix in 5.1 audio as originally released in the USA on Quad reel back in 1974. After a limited run of the CD/DVD edition, the album became available in a single CD edition. A limited double gatefold vinyl edition was also released.
 * 35th Anniversary Edition

Personnel
Deep Purple
 * Ritchie Blackmore – guitars
 * David Coverdale – lead vocals (all but "Holy Man"), backing vocals
 * Glenn Hughes – bass guitar, backing vocals, lead vocals ("Holy Man")
 * Jon Lord – organ, keyboards, electric piano, backing vocals
 * Ian Paice – drums, percussion

Production
 * Produced by Deep Purple and Martin Birch
 * Recorded at Musicland Studios, Munich in August 1974
 * Engineered by Martin Birch, assisted by Reinhold Mack and Hans Menzel
 * Additional recording and mixing by Martin Birch and Ian Paice, assisted by Gary Webb and Garry Ladinsky at The Record Plant, Los Angeles during September 1974
 * Mastered at Kendun Recorders, Burbank, California
 * 35th Anniversary Edition digital mastering and remastering by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London
 * Remixes for the "35th Anniversary Edition" mixed by Glenn Hughes with Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London, 3 November 2006
 * "High Ball Shooter" (instrumental) mixed by Gary Massey at Abbey Road Studios, London, April 2002
 * Original Quad mix by Gary Ladinsky at The Record Plant, October 1974
 * Reformatted for 5.1 surround sound by Peter Mew at Abbey Road Studios, London, February 2008

title: Stormbringer (album)


text:
Talk:Cantonese opera

Concerning the section music instruments
First, I would like to thank 02ryantou for contacting the fellows over at the Bay Area Cantonese Opera Page.

Second, under the section writing about music instruments, there is something like 'for more information, please visit [1] and [2]. May I know what are they? Personally, I believe it's better to have the link of the homepage instead of just giving number. Even if we are just going to have number, at least we have to make footnotes on it.

Re: Yes, I also got this concern. Since this was originally a link direct to the page, but later on changed to [1] and [2]. I think it will be clearer if we directly place the link there.

Copy Right Granted
I have personally cotnacted the fellows over at the Bay Area Cantonese Opera Page and they have agreed to let us use their images, information and media clips. However, we must show our coutesy by "placing the credit directly below the information or media clip in the following format: "All information and media copyright © Bay Area Cantonese Opera" and include at link to their home page at http://www.pearlmagik.com/bayareacantoneseopera/Home.htm "

02ryantou 15:39, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Could you please post, i.e., make publicly available on Wikipedia, the full text of this permission statement? It should be on permanent record for legal purposes, and I would also like ot verify that it is compatible with the GFDL - it sounds like it is not compatible with the GFDL in which case we would have to regrettably remove this excellent article.  I have no objection to indicating the origin of the page as a courtesy (although it may not be so courteous once the page says something different) but requiring it is almost certainly incompatible with Wikipedia's license. --Andrew 05:49, Apr 19, 2004 (UTC)

Can we give out the general background of Cantonese opera performers, such as what is Darn, Saung? 00timcheng 18:50, 25 Feb 2004

Yes I agree with jeffrey that we can also provde the chinese terms and write more about the performers part. I am going to update more on the inportant artsits later. I think we should include a few outstadning and well known artists and write short descriptions of them. 02ryantou 19:55, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)02ryantou

Fellows, is it possible to provide also the chinese terms for the frequently used terms? 02jefferyng 05:55, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)02jefferyng

And shall we write more on the 'Performers' part? 02jefferyng 05:59, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)02jefferyng

Copyright infringement?
Has permission been granted to use the material on ? For example, the section Cantonese Opera's Frequently Used Terms appears to have been lifted practically verbatim. Lupin 11:31, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

The section above indicates that permission has been granted, but on the condition that those copyright notices remain in place. However, I suspect that this may violate the GFDL. Even if it doesn't, what happens if someone adds more material to one of those sections? The new material doesn't become the property of Bay Area Cantonese Opera, but the notice would claim that it is. Bryan 03:52, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Rewriting
I notice that some of the text in the passage has been extracted verbatim. I am trying to rewrite many of them to avoid copy right infringement. I suggest people try not to copy vertaim from other websites. Also i think we should add some pictures, but we have to obtain copy right or we can take our own pictures. - 02ryantou 14:25, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I've taken up the rewriting baton. ;-) Markalexander100 09:29, 19 Jun 2004 (UTC)

what does the influence of pop music has to do with cantonese opera?
02jefferyng 16:13, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)02jefferyng

Characteristics
A lot of the text in this article seems to be Yale romanization, but without tone markings, which makes all the Hs kind of extraneous (unless every single word is level tone). Wiki Wikardo 03:24, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Royal Robe
I am making an Official Princess Robe for the Plays, 帝女花, and 紫釵記.

In the Play 紫釵記 The Purple Hair Pin, 霍小玉 Jade Folk could not be subject to a beating because she was wearing a Crown and a Formal Official Princess Robe.

What constitutes a Formal Official Robe? Is it the Blue or Gold Wave Motif? Does it have to have the Dragon and Phenix embroidery? Does it have to be Red? (Obsessions28 (talk) 03:42, 2 April 2009 (UTC))

Superscripts
What are all the superscripts referring to? For example, what is "cing4 sik1 sing3" referring to? It's not clear to me if those are old references or what. -- Ricky81682 (talk) 22:49, 9 January 2016 (UTC)
 * These are tone marks. Timmyshin (talk) 18:01, 28 November 2018 (UTC)

External links modified
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Many things plain wrong, sorry
Hello, don't want to rant but this article caused me some hours of extra recherche. There are several issues like the weighting in the language that seems to make all info special or even unique to the kanton opera. But even the red/white face is only a version of what is known from kunqu, which is not mentioned as an influence at all. Also, the article states that today all singing is in english, and that the kanton opera uses lots of western instruments. A recherche of five minutes at YouTube showed the opposite: All classic, all Mandarin. Don't get me wrong, the influence of western music is there, but also in other operas, specifically the peking opera and the sichuan opera, but that is only coping with times, a try to survive, not a style or unique feature --92.196.67.206 (talk) 21:07, 23 December 2017 (UTC)
 * I agree with your main point, but it requires a lot of knowledge to compare/contrast the different Chinese opera genres, something very few editors (especially here on en.wiki) possess. One correction: they are definitely not "all Mandarin", this is "Cantonese" opera after all. Timmyshin (talk) 18:04, 28 November 2018 (UTC)
 * I have added a rewrite header to "public funding" section. It's mostly incomprehensible, this section could be translated from non-English language and has readability issues. The statements do not join together to give a logical flow, and topic of the discussion randomly switches from one context to other. Nisingh.8 (talk) 11:28, 20 July 2024 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 17:06, 8 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Cantonese Opera.jpg

Notable people
Hi wikipedians, I noticed many names have redlink. I created some articles. Then, I realized the table and names simply don't communicate why the names are grouped together.

This section is being cleaned up with better clarification. It was previously just a table with no explanation. Articles are being created. Thanks for your patients. Your comments here are welcome. I don't plan to update other sections unless I find good citations. Thanks, SWP13 (talk) 18:42, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

Name
Hi wikipedians, The names in this article are Chinese names. To avoid confusion, all names will display with surname first, followed by first name. BTW, Most names are also stage name. Thanks, SWP13 (talk) 18:57, 19 November 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cantonese opera