text:
International Meteorological Organization

The International Meteorological Organization (IMO; 1873–1951) was the first organization formed with the purpose of exchanging weather information among the countries of the world. It came into existence from the realization that weather systems move across country boundaries; and that knowledge of pressure, temperature, precipitations, etc., upstream and downstream are needed for weather forecasting. It was superseded by the World Meteorological Organization.

History
The Renaissance brought significant development of instruments to measure atmospheric phenomena and scales to compare them. Subsequent developments in atmospheric science in the 18th century confirmed the need for widespread measurement and uniform transnational measurement scales. In the early 19th century, countries began to share meteorological data, and on this basis a conference was held in Cambridge in 1845 with representation by the leading British and European meteorologists, including:
 * Austrian Empire (Bohemia) – John Parish von Senftenberg, the founder of the Astronomical, Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory at Senftenberg (now Žamberk);
 * Austrian Empire (Bohemia) – Karl Kreil, Director of the Imperial Observatory of Prague;
 * Kingdom of Bavaria – Johann von Lamont, Director of the Bogenhausen Observatory in Münich;
 * Prussia – Georg Adolf Erman, circumnavigator and meteorologist, professor at Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (Humboldt University of Berlin);
 * Prussia – Dr. Palon Heinrich Ludwig von Bogusławski, Director of the Royal Prussian Observatory in Breslau (Wrocław);
 * Prussia – Heinrich Wilhelm Dove of the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität;
 * Russia – Adolph Theodor Kupffer, Director-General of the Russian System of Magnetic and Meteorological Observation;
 * John Frederick William Herschel, committee chairman for the conference;
 * Wolfgang Sartorius von Waltershausen, geologist;
 * George Peacock, Dean of Ely;
 * William Whewell, astronomer;
 * Humphrey Lloyd, physicist;
 * George Biddell Airy, the Astronomer Royal;
 * Edward Sabine, astronomer and geophysicist;
 * Thomas MacDougall Brisbane, astronomer;
 * John Phillips, geologist.

Matthew Fontaine Maury, of the US Navy, initiated the convening of the first true International Meteorological conference from late August through early September 1853. The conference opened its proceedings at Brussels, Belgium, on 23 August 1853, in the residence of M. Piercot, the Minister of the Interior. The governments represented at the first International Conference, and the names of the officers who attended were :
 * Adolphe Quetelet, director of the Royal Observatory of Belgium and general secretary of the Academie royale des sciences, des lettres et des beaux-arts with Victor Lahure, navy captain and general director of the Navy, represented Belgium.
 * P. Rothe, navy captain and director of the depot of marine charts represented Denmark.
 * A. De la Marche, hydrographic engineer for the imperial navy represented France.
 * Frederick William Beechey, captain Royal Navy and member of the Naval Department or the Board of Trade with Henry James, captain royal engineers represented the United Kingdom.
 * Marin H. Jansen, lieutenant of the Royal navy represented the Netherlands.
 * Nils Ihlen, lieutenant of the royal navy represented Norway.
 * J. De Mattos Corroêa, captain-lieutenant of the Royal navy represented Portugal.
 * Alexis Gorkovenko, captain-lieutenant the Imperial navy represented Russia.
 * Carl Anton Pettersson, first lieutenant royal navy represented Sweden.
 * Matthew Fontaine Maury, lieutenant of the Navy represented the United States.

C. H. D. Buys Ballot's 1872 paper Suggestions on a Uniform System of Meteorological Observations pushed for the creation of an international body, and a second International Meteorological Congress was held in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, in September 1873 which agreed to begin preparations for an International Meteorological Organization (IMO). There they decided that membership would be the directors of national meteorological services. A Permanent Meteorological Committee was established with Buys Ballot, director of the Dutch meteorological service, becoming the first president.

A second congress in Rome 1879 decided on the IMO establishment and elected an International Meteorological Committee to prepare for the next Conference of Directors. The director of the Central Geophysical Observatory in Saint Petersburg, Swiss born Heinrich von Wild was appointed president, and the head of British Meteorological Office, Robert Scott was appointed secretary. There was however no separate funding. Also the directors agreed on a collaborative research effort with the International Polar Year 1882–1883. The first International Meteorological Tables were published in 1889.

The 1891 Conference of Directors of Meteorological Services convened in Munich. The organization was further refined by electing an Executive Bureau and deciding upon the first permanent topic commission, the Commission for Terrestrial Magnetism.

The 1896 Conference of Directors in Paris established more commissions: the Commission for Radiation and Insolation, and the Commission for Aeronautics. At the same year IMO published the first International Cloud Atlas.

In 1905 the Conference of Directors convened in Innsbruck. Léon Teisserenc de Bort proposed a telegraph-based worldwide weather station network, the Réseau Mondial. Simplifying Teisserenc de Bort's vision, the IMO decided that the network should collect, calculate, and distribute monthly and annual averages for pressure, temperature, and precipitation from a well-distributed sample of land based on meteorological stations, in effect a global climatological database. The distribution standard was two stations within each ten-degree latitude/longitude quadrangle. Ultimately, the network comprises about 500 land stations between 80°N and 61°S. The first annual data set, for 1911, appeared in 1917.

Between the two world wars there were four further Conferences of Directors, 1919 in Paris, 1923 in Utrecht, 1929 in Copenhagen and 1935 in Warsaw. The IMO did not acquire a permanent secretariat until 1926, and the latter's annual budget never exceeded US$20,000.

In September 1929 the Copenhagen Conference of Directors set up a technical Commission For Climatology, which held a meeting at Innsbruck discussing issues such as the relationship between dynamic meteorology and climatology. At its 1934 Wiesbaden meeting the Commission designated the thirty-year period from 1901 to 1930 as the reference time frame for climatological standard normals. the baseline for measuring climate fluctuations.

The 1946 Conference of Directors acknowledged the need for an organisation supported by governments. Preparations continued with conferences in 1947 in Washington DC and 1961 in Paris. In 1951 the World Meteorological Organization became a specialized agency of the United Nations in direct succession of the IMO. The members of the WMO are representatives of their respective countries, not their weather services.

Presidents

 * Christophorus Henricus Didericus Buys Ballot (Netherlands), 1873 – 1879
 * Heinrich von Wild (Russia), 1879 – 1896
 * Éleuthère Mascart (France), 1896 – 1907
 * William Napier Shaw (U.K.), 1907 – 1923
 * Ewoud van Everdingen (Netherlands), 1923 – 1935
 * Theodor Hesselberg (Norway), 1935 – 1946
 * Sir Nelson King Johnson (U.K.), 1946 – 1951

WikiSource links

 * First International Maritime Conference Held for Devising an Uniform System of Meteorological Observations at Sea (1853)
 * Marin H. Jansen


text:
Frosted Flakes

Frosted Flakes or Frosties is a breakfast cereal, produced by WK Kellogg Co for the United States, Canada, and Caribbean markets and by Kellanova for the rest of the world, and consisting of sugar-coated corn flakes. It was introduced in the United States, in 1952, as "Sugar Frosted Flakes". The word "sugar" was dropped from the name in 1983.

Generic versions, such as store brands, are also available. Unlike many cereals, such as Cheerios, Shreddies and Rice Krispies but like Corn Flakes and Raisin Bran, the name “Frosted Flakes” is so generic that it cannot be trademarked, and thus it often shares its name with competitors.

International names

 * Frosted Flakes (U.S. and Canada)
 * Frosties (UK, Ireland, Australia, Israel, most Commonwealth nations, and European and Middle East countries; formerly Frostis in Spain)
 * Zucaritas in the U.S. and Hispanic America (the word translates as "little sugary things")
 * Sucrilhos in Brazil (a fusion of sugar + crunch + milho)
 * Corn Frosty (コーンフロスティ) in Japan
 * Corn Frost (콘푸로스트) in South Korea

Popularity
Frosted Flakes was the second-best-selling cereal in the first half of 2017 within the US in gross sales, after Honey Nut Cheerios.

Mascots
Tony the Tiger has been the mascot of Frosted Flakes since its introduction. Tony is known for saying the cereal's slogan: "They're Gr-r-reat!" (the "r"s in "Great" being drawn-out). Tony the Tiger was originally voiced by Dallas McKennon, but Thurl Ravenscroft voiced him for more than 50 years, until his death in 2005. Tony was later voiced (in Canada and the US) by former professional wrestling play-by-play announcer Lee Marshall until his death on April 27, 2014. After Marshall's death, he was replaced with Tex Brashear. In the UK, Tom Hill voiced Tony after Ravenscroft's death. Tony is drawn wearing a red bandana on all Frosted Flakes cereal boxes.

Sponsorship

 * Kellogg's was a major sponsor of Adventures of Superman throughout most of the 1950s. Many of the Frosted Flakes commercials featuring the show's star George Reeves are available on the DVD release of the series' first season.
 * Frosted Flakes is a sponsor of Challenger Sports British Soccer Camps.
 * From the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s, Frosted Flakes was a sponsor of children's programming on PBS, including Sagwa, Dragon Tales and Barney & Friends.

Varieties
In Canada and the United States:
 * Frosted Rice, a crisped rice variant introduced in 1977, similar to Frosted Rice Krispies and Ricicles. Featured a younger, similar mascot named Tony Jr.
 * Birthday Confetti Frosted Flakes, a 1997 cake-flavored version. Discontinued in 1997.
 * Cocoa Frosted Flakes, a 1997 cocoa-flavored version. Discontinued in 2000.
 * Tony's Cinnamon Krunchers, a 2003 cinnamon-flavored variant. Discontinued around 2005.
 * Whole Grain Tiger Power, a 2005 version with added protein, fiber and calcium, very similar to Start. Discontinued in 2006.
 * Tony's Turboz, a 2005 meal replacement variant similar to Whole Grain Tiger Power. Available only in Canada.
 * Frosted Flakes Gold, a 2008 honey-flavored variant. Reintroduced in 2018 as Honey Nut Frosted Flakes.
 * Frosted Flakes Chocolate, a 2011 chocolate-flavored version. Reintroduced in 2013.
 * Banana Frosted Flakes, a variant with flakes containing banana introduced in 1981. Discontinued in 1984.
 * Cinnamon Frosted Flakes, a 2016 cinnamon-flavored version.
 * Banana Creme Frosted Flakes, a limited edition banana creme-flavored version introduced in 2019.
 * Cereal With Marshmallows, Variant of frosted flakes that includes vanilla flavored marshmallows
 * Cinnamon French Toast, New flakes that are bursting with cinnamon sweetness
 * Strawberry Milkshake, Strawberry flavor that makes milk into strawberry milk
 * Cereal Bar, Bar made with traditional Frosted Flakes and marshmallows holding it together

In the UK and Ireland:
 * Toffee Flavoured Frosties, Frosties with the taste of toffee, called Frosties Caramel in Europe (Tony - New Kelloggs Toffee Flavoured Frosties, an explosion of toffee taste, for a limited time only, they're gr-r-reat!). Limited time only.
 * Frosties Chocolate, Frosties with the taste of chocolate (Tony - New Kelloggs Frosties Chocolate, discover the dark side!). Discontinued.
 * Frosties Tiger Power, Frosties that are similar to Wheats cereal. Discontinued.
 * Reduced Sugar Frosties, Frosties with a third less sugar than regular Frosties.

In Brazil:
 * Sucrilhos Sabor Chocolate, chocolate-flavored Frosted Flakes.
 * Sucrilhos Power Pops, chocolate-flavored puffs, as opposed to flakes. Previously known as Sucrilhos Power.
 * Sucrilhos Sabor Banana, banana-flavored Frosted Flakes. Discontinued.
 * Sucrilhos Sabor Brigadeiro, brigadeiro-flavored Frosted Flakes. Limited.
 * Sucrilhos Sabor Canela, cinnamon-flavored Frosted Flakes. Limited.
 * Sucrilhos Sabor Doce de Leite, dulce de leche-flavored Frosted Flakes. Limited.

In 2020 Sucrilhos also started to be sold in the form of cookies.

In Argentina:
 * Zucaritas Frutilla, strawberry-flavored Frosted Flakes.
 * Choco Zucaritas, chocolate-flavored Frosted Flakes.

In Mexico:
 * Choco Zucaritas, chocolate-flavored Frosted Flakes.

In Colombia:
 * Zucaritas Arequipe, caramel-flavored Frosted Flakes. Discontinued.
 * Zucaritas Power Balls, sphere-shaped Frosted Flakes.

Health
Frosted Flakes, under its Australian name of Frosties, received 2 stars out of 5 on the Australian Government's health star ratings.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Frosted Flakes


text:
Baron Ravensworth

Baron Ravensworth, of Ravensworth Castle in the County Palatine of Durham and of Eslington Park in the County of Northumberland, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom.

It was created in 1821 for Sir Thomas Liddell, 6th Baronet. The title of Baron Ravensworth had previously been created in the Peerage of Great Britain in 1747 for the fourth Baronet, but this had become extinct in 1784. The second Baron of this second creation was made Earl of Ravensworth and Baron Eslington, but these titles also became extinct in 1904.

Liddell family
The Liddell family descends from Thomas Liddell, a wealthy merchant of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and supporter of Charles I. In 1642 he was created a Baronet, of Ravensworth Castle, in the Baronetage of England. His grandson, the third Baronet, represented Durham and Newcastle-upon-Tyne in the House of Commons. In 1720 he acquired the estate of Eslington Park. His grandson, the fourth Baronet, sat as Member of Parliament for Morpeth. In 1747 he was created Baron Ravensworth, of Ravensworth Castle in the County Palatine of Durham, in the Peerage of Great Britain. However, this title became extinct on his death when he was succeeded in the baronetcy by his nephew, the fifth Baronet.
 * Family history

The latter's son, the sixth Baronet, represented County Durham in the House of Commons. In 1821 the barony of Ravensworth was revived when he was created Baron Ravensworth, of Ravensworth Castle in the County Palatine of Durham and of Eslington Park in the County of Northumberland, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. His son, the second Baron, was Conservative Member of Parliament for Northumberland, North Durham and Liverpool. In 1874 he was created Baron Eslington, of Eslington Park in the County of Northumberland, and Earl of Ravensworth, of Ravensworth Castle in the County Palatine of Durham. These titles were in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. His eldest son, the second Earl, represented Northumberland South in Parliament as a Conservative. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Earl. On his death in 1904 both the barony of Eslington and the earldom became extinct. However, he was succeeded in the barony of Ravensworth and baronetcy by his first cousin, the fifth Baron. He was the son of Robert Liddell, fifth son of the first Baron. the titles are held by his great-grandson, the ninth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2004.
 * Overview of the Barony

Three other members of the Liddell family may also be mentioned:
 * Other family members
 * Henry Liddell, son of Henry Liddell, younger son of the fifth Baronet, was Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University.
 * Alice Liddell, daughter of Henry Liddell, the Vice-Chancellor, was the eponymous subject of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll.
 * Guy Liddell, grandson of George Liddell, younger son of the first Baron of the second creation, was the wartime head of counter-espionage in Britain's MI5.

The main seat for the family was originally at Ravensworth Castle, in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear. This great stately home was almost completely demolished in the 1920s due to subsidence, ironically caused by the family's own coal mines, the profits of which had paid for its construction. The castle's stables, which survive in a ruinous state, were featured in the Restoration (television) programme on the BBC in 2003.
 * Family seat

The family's present seat is the remaining residence at Eslington Park, near Alnwick in Northumberland.

Liddell baronets, of Ravensworth Castle (1642)

 * Sir Thomas Liddell, 1st Baronet (d. 1650)
 * Sir Thomas Liddell, 2nd Baronet (d. 1697)
 * Sir Henry Liddell, 3rd Baronet (c. 1644–1723)
 * Sir Henry Liddell, 4th Baronet (1708–1784) (created Baron Ravensworth in 1747)

Barons Ravensworth, first creation (1747)

 * Henry Liddell, 1st Baron Ravensworth (1708–1784)

Liddell baronets, of Ravensworth Castle (1642; reverted)

 * Sir Henry George Liddell, 5th Baronet (1749–1791) High Sheriff of Northumberland 1785
 * Sir Thomas Henry Liddell, 6th Baronet (1775–1855) (created Baron Ravensworth in 1821)

Barons Ravensworth, second creation (1821)

 * Thomas Henry Liddell, 1st Baron Ravensworth (1775–1855)
 * Henry Thomas Liddell, 2nd Baron Ravensworth (1797–1878) (created Earl of Ravensworth in 1874)

Earls of Ravensworth (1874)

 * Henry Thomas Liddell, 1st Earl of Ravensworth, 2nd Baron Ravensworth (1797–1878)
 * Henry George Liddell, 2nd Earl of Ravensworth, 3rd Baron Ravensworth (1821–1903)
 * Atholl Charles John Liddell, 3rd Earl of Ravensworth, 4th Baron Ravensworth (1833–1904)

Barons Ravensworth (1821; reverted)

 * Arthur Thomas Liddell, 5th Baron Ravensworth (1837–1919)
 * Gerald Wellesley Liddell, 6th Baron Ravensworth (1869–1932)
 * Robert Arthur Liddell, 7th Baron Ravensworth (1902–1950)
 * Arthur Waller Liddell, 8th Baron Ravensworth (1924–2004)
 * Thomas Arthur Hamish Liddell, 9th Baron Ravensworth (born 1954)

The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son, Henry Arthur Thomas Liddell (born 1987)

title: Baron Ravensworth


text:
Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program

The Tropical Ocean Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) was a ten-year study (1985–1994) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP), aimed specifically at the prediction of climate phenomena on time scales of months to years.

TOGA emphasized the tropical oceans and their relationship to the global atmosphere. Underlying TOGA is the premise that the dynamic adjustment of the ocean in the tropics is far more rapid than at higher latitudes. Thus disturbances emanating from the western Pacific Ocean (such as El Niño) may propagate across the basin on time scales of weeks compared to years for corresponding basin-wide propagation at higher latitudes.

The significance of shorter dynamic times scales near the equator is that they are similar to those of highly energetic atmospheric modes. This similarity allows the formation of coupled modes between the ocean and the atmosphere. TOGA was instrumental in developing a comprehensive observing system for the equatorial Pacific Ocean and laid important groundwork for ENSO prediction, data assimilation and understanding of air-sea interaction.

Background and motivation
The roots of the TOGA program can be traced back to the 1920s and the work of Sir Gilbert Walker on what became known as the Southern Oscillation, an apparent linkage between atmospheric pressure anomalies throughout the Pacific Ocean that appeared to be a major driver of weather patterns. This work was furthered by Jacob Bjerknes in the 1960s when he solidified the link between the El Nino phenomena, a winter warm anomaly in the normally cool water off the coast of Peru, with the southern oscillation.

The combined El Nino – Southern Oscillation, or ENSO, turned out to be a major contributor to seasonal climate variability with both human and economic implications. Study of these linked phenomena continued through the 1970s and 1980s via a variety observational and modeling studies which included the discovery of equatorial kelvin waves, a potential precursor to the ENSO phenomena.

This in mind, the World Climate Research Programme began to plan a decade long research initiative intended to understand ocean-atmosphere interaction in the tropical ocean basins. The goals of this program were solidified when in 1982-1983 a major El Nino event, at the time the strongest to date, struck without prior prediction or detection. This particularly strong event was punctuated by drought, flooding, extreme heat events, and severe storms. These events clearly defined a need for better predictive mechanisms for ENSO and the need for reliable real time data to support prediction.

Launch and scientific objectives of TOGA
TOGA was launched in 1985 with the intent of studying ocean and atmospheric variability in all three tropical ocean basins. The focus of the United States was in the Pacific Basin with funding being provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). The specific goals and scientific objectives of TOGA were:

 * To gain a description of the tropical oceans and the global atmosphere as a time dependent system in order to determine the extent to which the system is predictable on time scales of months to years and to understand the mechanisms and processes underlying its predictability.
 * To study the feasibility of modeling the couple ocean-atmosphere system for the purpose of predicting its variation on time scales of months to years; and
 * To provide the scientific background for designing an observing and data transmission system for operational predication, if this capability is demonstrated, by coupled ocean-atmosphere models.

In order to achieve the TOGA goals, a strategy of large-scale, long-term monitoring of the upper ocean and the atmosphere, intensive and very specific process-oriented studies, and modeling were planned and enacted through a series of national, multinational and international efforts. Modeling activities were coordinated by TOGA Numerical Experimentation Group (TOGA NEG).

Observing system
The TOGA program established an advanced ocean observing system to support research and forecasting of ENSO warm cycles. While traditional methods such as ships of opportunity and inland tide gauges were employed, the crowning achievement was the deploying of the Tropical Atmosphere Ocean project (TAO) Array.

The TAO Array was a joint NOAA and Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory (PMEL) venture consisting of 70 moored buoys stationed along the equatorial Pacific Ocean providing real-time wind, sea surface temperature, and deep ocean temperature data using the Autonomous Temperature Line Acquisition System (ATLAS).

Scientists in the program made use of a host of satellite derived products even though they were not specifically created for the program. Of most importance was the NOAA Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) for sea surface temperature,  the Topography Experiment (TOPEX)/Poseidon for sea surface height and various defense passive microwave satellites for wind speed measurements.

All together, the combination of both satellite and in situ data with real time access proved critical to the success of the program.

TOGA COARE
From 1992 to 1993, a special field project known as the Coupled Ocean Atmosphere Research Experiment (TOGA-COARE) was conducted. The four-month effort included 1200 people, over 16,000 ship hours, 125 aircraft flights and the release of 12,000 radiosondes. Its primary mission was to examine the western pacific warming pool region specifically for:
 * Ocean Atmosphere interaction methods
 * Mechanisms that organize convection
 * Oceanic response to combined buoyancy and wind stress forcing
 * Atmospheric/oceanic interactions that impact other regions

The TOGA-COARE experiment resulted in improved understanding of atmospheric and oceanic variability on interseasonal scales including phenomena such as the Madden–Julian oscillation and westerly wind bursts. Further, the COARE program provided improvements in model parameterization for cumulus clouds, ocean mixing, and air-sea fluxes.

Results
The TOGA program directly resulted in improved theoretical understanding of the ENSO cycle, including interactions between trade wind variations and sea surface temperature. Further it helped explain the evolution, development, and decay of ENSO events.

As a result of TOGA, seasonal forecasts models, both statistical and dynamical, were developed. The improvement of which resulted in the first successful ENSO prediction in 1986 and yearly forecasts being produced before the end of the program.

The impacts of TOGA extended beyond purely scientific findings but changed the way work was conducted within the oceanography and meteorology fields. The TOGA program forged new cooperation between and oceanographers and meteorologists and fostered a new culture of open data access. Rather than each research collecting and using their own data, data was now freely available to all in real time.

Perhaps the greatest success of TOGA program was the successful prediction and monitoring of the 1997-1998 El Nino, one of the largest El Nino events in history. Only with the findings and data collection methods set forth during the TOGA program would such operational success be possible.


text:
Baron Rayleigh

Baron Rayleigh, of Terling Place in the County of Essex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 18 July 1821 for Lady Charlotte Strutt, wife of Colonel Joseph Strutt, Member of Parliament for Maldon.

Joseph Strutt had earlier declined the offer of a peerage, 'under a cloak of false humility', and instead proposed that the honour be given to his wife. She was the daughter of James FitzGerald, 1st Duke of Leinster, and his wife Lady Emily Lennox, the second of the famous Lennox sisters. Her elder brother was Charles FitzGerald, 1st Baron Lecale, and her younger brother was Lord Edward FitzGerald.

The title is currently held by the fourth Baron's grandson, the sixth Baron, who succeeded his uncle in 1988. The family seat is Terling Place in Essex.

Barons Rayleigh (1821)

 * Charlotte Mary Gertrude Strutt, 1st Baroness Rayleigh (1758–1836)
 * John James Strutt, 2nd Baron Rayleigh (1796–1873)
 * John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh (1842–1919)
 * Robert John Strutt, 4th Baron Rayleigh (1875–1947)
 * John Arthur Strutt, 5th Baron Rayleigh (1908–1988)
 * John Gerald Strutt, 6th Baron Rayleigh (b. 1960)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. John Frederick Strutt (b. 1993).

Extended family
Notable members of the Strutt family include:
 * John Strutt, MP for Maldon from 1774 to 1790
 * Charles Hedley Strutt, MP for Maldon and chairman of the Anglo-Dutch Plantations of Java
 * Edward Gerald Strutt, son of the second Baron and founder of Strutt & Parker
 * Sir Nigel Strutt, former chairman of the Strutt & Parker (Farms) Ltd
 * The Hon. Hedley Vicars Strutt, former chairman of Anglo-Indonesian Plantations Ltd between 1964 and 1972

title: Baron Rayleigh


text:
Talk:Medieval medicine of Western Europe

I
(I have added significantly to the article using some of the comments here as a guide.) xandar

''It was thought that illnesses were supernatural or spiritual, not organic. The sick relied on priests, not doctors, and constantly prayed to God for cures. The medical practice was slow to be accepted because superstition was so widespread.''

The article fails to be NPOV, is a product of purely materialistic thought without any metaphysical knowledge and does not take into account Alternative medicine, Aura, Chakras and Spirituality. Optim 23:24, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

You should add, then, exactly what the thoughts of medieval practitioners were on alternative medicine, aura, chakras and spirituality. - Nunh-huh 23:31, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I already worked a lot on this, wikified it and pointed to the NPOV problem. Let somebody else turn it into an article (it's an essay right now). Optim 23:39, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Keep in mind that this is just an essay written by an eigth grade student and the views expressed are merely those as interpreted from the resources used to gather the information. I would appreciate it if any biases or incorrect information be corrected. Thank you for your input.

 * Considering this, I want to thank you for your contribution. Optim 04:50, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

To the person who will rewrite the essay

 * Are you interested to rewrite this essay? Great! Have a look at the info I give here, it may help you in your research and rewriting:
 * In dark ages medicine and therapy was just awful. People believed in superstition.
 * However, according to many, magick, Alternative medicine, Energy theraphy, Chakras, etc are not superstitions.
 * In medieval times, Mystics such as Rosicrucians knew how to perform therapy with non-material means. However non-material therapy DOES NOT substitute medicine, and this is emphasised by all serious Rosicrucians today.
 * Prayer, meditation, visualisation and herbs have a positive effect on human health and help in therapy.
 * According to Alternative medicine, Chakras play a very important role in health and their imbalance may cause illness. Nadis (the energy channels) and Qi energy are important concepts related to health, too.
 * Many people, mostly those who support Alternative medicine and mysticism, still believe that illness comes from within the body.
 * Chinese traditional medicine has some interesting views.
 * However, the views expressed by mystics and alternative medicine practitioners are not accepted by science.
 * For some alternative medicine examples, see Edward Bach and Bach flower remedies.
 * The role of subconsious mind in health is very important and emphasised in Mysticism. Faith healing can be explained easily with the knowledge of the role of subconscious in human body.
 * Many people who are active in Alternative medicine have no mystical-metaphysical knowledge and just take your money. Thus, most alternative medicine practices cannot be trusted easily.

Optim 05:04, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Other thoughts to consider:
 * Prayers, herbs, and superstition were certainly medieval: alternative medicine and Bach flower remedies were not. Rosicrucians are largely irrelvant to health care. The modern versions of chakra, qi, and Chinese "traditional" medicine may have their roots in the past but differ considerably from their medieval predecessors. Advances in life expectancy have been due to medical knowledge about sanitation and childbirth as well as scientific validation and invalidation of therapies, with those that do not work being discarded, and those that do work being refined. The medieval period probably should end with the beginning of the Renaissance. - Nunh-huh 05:21, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Rosicrucians are not irrelevant to health care. By tradition, Rosicrucians are therapists, too. Optim 05:26, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Rosicrucians had no significant impact on health care in the Middle Ages. -- Nunh-huh 05:28, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

- Medieval medicine was an evolving (perfectly static, until Arabic treatises were made available through translations of documents in Toledo) mixture of the scientific (actually not even "proto-scientific" until the 16th century; disambiguate medieval and Renaissance medicine) and the spiritual (superstition couched as theology is more accurate). In the early middle ages, following the fall of the Roman Empire, standard medical knowledge was based chiefly upon surviving Greek ( no one could even read Greek except a few Irish monks) and Roman texts, (Roman texts = Galen, period) preserved in monasteries and elsewhere (elsewhere? where are the surviving manuscripts from?). Ideas about the origin and cure of disease were not, however, purely secular, but were also based on a spiritual world view (is this NPOV or something? there's almost no information in this phrase), in which factors such as destiny, sin, and astral influences (miasma?) played as great a part as any physical cause. How to begin? with prohibitions of dissection? with medicine as first taught in universities? Wetman 17:20, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The idea that medieval medicine was "static" is outdated. There was continuous change as folk-medicine evolved and interacted with surviving classical influences. The impact of Christianity on Pagan folk-medicine was also considerable. Throughout the period there is a development away from isolated local traditions towards a pan-european tradition. Herbal medicine was developed and codified, hospitals (of sorts) were established. xandar.

 * The claim that in the Middle Ages "no one could even read Greek except a few Irish monks" is exaggerated. While in Northern Europe an education in Greek was very far from general, and Greek manuscripts were hard to come by, it was still possible for dedicated people (who were not necessarily Irish) to acquire some knowledge of Greek. Moreover, in Italy, where there was still a large Greek-speaking population, and which had close connections (both friendly and hostile) with the Byzantine Empire, there was necessarily a broader knowledge of Greek. And of course, the Byzantines themselves spoke, read, and wrote Greek, both ancient and demotic, with considerable proficiency, and were well aware of their own medical tradition.RandomCritic (talk) 11:55, 18 April 2013 (UTC)

Non-wikified information available.
I have written a six page paper on this, as well as a bunch of notecards that did not make it into the paper, I am willing to take the time to type up the notecards and upload the paper, but am not willing to take the time to wikify these or make them NPOV. I would like the information to be of use for Wikipedia. What would be the appriate place to put this information.

P.S. This paper is for a western civilization class, so does not cover medieval medicine in other places of the world. Appendicitis

Leeches applied to flesh over the affected part and allowed to gorge themselves until the appendix itself is exposed. This is then sawn off. Arthritis

Bunches of dried thyme inserted into patient's gloves and socks. Asthma

Cough mixture made of crushed leeches and garlic. Blood Poisoning

Examine any attached leeches for symptoms of illness (boils, lesions, etc.). Remove any unwell leeches and apply fit ones to poisoned areas. Broken Limbs

Chives strapped to limb. Bubonic Plague

Fennel bulbs, leeches, and hacksaw posted to patient. Burns

Buttered leeches applied to affected skin. Cataract

Leech inserted under each eyelid. Diarrhea

Aniseed or attar of roses inserted into patient's bucket to reduce smell. Earache

Two or more leeches worn as earrings while symptoms persist. Flat Feet

Insert coriander leaves between toes. In ineffective, saw off feet. Foot and Mouth Disease

Saw off all affected areas. Hiccoughs

Balance leech on key and drop it down patient's back. Impetigo

Leeches. Indigestion

Leeches. Leechbite

It leech no longer present, apply poultice to wound. If leech still attached, saw it off. Measles

Young leech attached to each measle individually. Nosebleed

Fat leech crammed up each nostril to staunch the flow. Palsy

Allspice. Pleurisy

Cumin seed. Pneumonia

Flat-leaved parsley. Root-canal Work

Leeches. Surfeit of Lampreys

Live leeches, three times a day during meals, to be taken internally. Syphilis

Apply leeches indiscriminately. Toothache

Leech applied to scrotum to take patient's mind off pain in jaw. Verruccas

Poke repeatedly with cinnamon stick. Warts

Charm wart by engaging it in flattering conversation. When you have got it alone, saw it off. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 69.84.42.162 (talk) 18:02, 9 January 2008 (UTC)

Confusing section
In the section entitled The medieval system, the first paragraph is confusing -- it refers to a person as "he" where no people are mentioned. It appears to be a hybrid of two separate paragraphs, one about medieval medicine and one about Hippocrates. Someone the Person (talk) 21:27, 24 March 2010 (UTC)

Removed reference to Leonardo
I have removed this section:

"Leonardo da Vinci also had a large impact on medical advances during the Renaissance. Born on April 15, 1452, Da Vinci's approach to science was based on detailed observation. He participated in several autopsies and created many detailed anatomical drawings, planning a major work of comparative human anatomy."

Leonardo had zero impact on medical advances in this period. His autopsies were done purely to study anatomy for the purposes of painting human figures and his detailed drawings, while very skilfully drawn, we not actually always accurate. More importantly, they were totally unknown in the period and the private sketchbooks he drew them in remained unpublished until the nineteenth century. The claim that he was "planning a major work of comparative human anatomy" is unsourced, but also irrelevant - even if he was "planning" such a thing, he never actually did it. People don't have "a large impact on medical advances" for things they never got around to doing. Leonardo had no impact on medicine - this is a myth.TimONeill (talk) 20:07, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

Sentence fragment (or am I mis-reading?)
"The primary tool of the physician to balance the patient's humors."

This appears to be a sentence fragment. I'd expect it to continue with "is"... Tossing the parenthetical expression "of the physician to balance the patient's humors" leaves "The primary tool" as the sentence. Correct me if I'm wrong. I tried searching for "source" material to correct it, but could not find any. WardXmodem (talk) 04:00, 28 April 2015 (UTC)

Perhaps introducing is* after physician brings some sense to the sentence. In foresight you're right, it's fragmented Toyusus (talk) 11:47, 20 July 2017 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Medieval medicine of Western Europe
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Medieval medicine of Western Europe's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "": From Government Nizamia General Hospital:  From Rudolf Virchow:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 13:35, 5 November 2019 (UTC)


text:
Philipp von Boeselager

Philipp Freiherr von Boeselager (6 September 1917 – 1 May 2008) was the second-last surviving member of the 20 July Plot, a conspiracy of Wehrmacht officers to assassinate the German dictator Adolf Hitler in 1944.

Early life
Born at Burg Heimerzheim, near Bonn, he was the fifth and the second surviving son of the nine children of Albert Dominikus Hyacinthus Antonius Johannes Hubertus Vitus Joseph Maria Freiherr von Boeselager (Bonn 15 June 1883-Heimerzheim, Kr. Euskirchen 20 May 1956), by his wife (they married in Kassel on 22 September 1910), Maria-Theresia Ferdinandine Antonie Alonsia Freiin von Salis-Soglio (1890–1968), daughter of Anton Joseph Alonsius Nepomuk Stanislaus Maria Freiherr v. Salis-Soglio (1860–1939), of Gemünden and Mandel, Kreuznach, by Maria Adelheid Theresia Gräfin von Bissingen und Nippenburg (daughter of Ernst Maria Ferdinand Adam Johann Nepomuk Joseph Graf von Bissingen-Nippenburg). He attended Aloisius Jesuit secondary school Aloisiuskolleg in Godesberg.

Role in conspiracy against Hitler
When Boeselager was a 25-year-old field lieutenant, he was part of Operation Walküre, a plan developed to take control of Germany once Hitler had been assassinated. Boeselager's role in the plan was to order his troops, who were unaware of the plot, to leave the front lines in Eastern Europe and to head west, where they would be airlifted to Berlin to seize crucial parts of the city in a full-scale coup d'état after Hitler had been killed.

Boeselager's opinion turned against the Nazi government in June 1942, after he received news that five Roma people had been shot in cold blood solely because of their ethnicity. Together with his commanding officer, Field Marshal Günther von Kluge, he joined a conspiracy to assassinate Hitler. The first attempt was in March 1943, when both Hitler and Heinrich Himmler were coming to the front to participate in a strategy meeting with Kluge's troops.

Boeselager was given a Walther PP with which he was to shoot both Hitler and Himmler at a dinner table in the officers' mess. However, nothing ever came of this plan because at the last minute, Himmler left Hitler's company, and the risk of leaving him alive to succeed Hitler was too great.

The second assassination attempt was in summer 1944. No longer caring about Himmler, the conspiracy planned to kill Hitler with a bomb when he was attending another strategy meeting in a wooden barracks. When the assassin's bomb failed to kill the Führer, Boeselager was informed in time to turn his unexplained cavalry retreat around and return to the front before suspicions could be aroused. Because of Boeselager's fortunate timing, his involvement in the operation went undetected, and he was not executed, unlike the majority of the conspirators. Philipp's brother Georg was also a participant in the plot, and likewise remained undetected, but was later killed in action on the Eastern Front.

Shortly before the end of the war, Boeselager overheard General Wilhelm Burgdorf saying, "When the war is over, we will have to purge, after the Jews, the Catholic officers in the army". The devoutly-Catholic Boeselager noisily objected, citing his own decorations for heroism in combat. Boeselager then left before Burgdorf could respond.

Postwar life
After the war, Boeselager's part in the failed attempt on Hitler's life became known. He was regarded as a hero by many in Germany and France; in 1989 and 2004 respectively, he received the highest military medals that both countries could provide. He studied economics and became a forestry expert. Even in his old age, Boeselager still had nightmares about the conspiracy and the friends whom he lost during the war. He urged young people to become more involved in politics, as he felt apathy and the political inexperience of the German masses had been two of the key reasons why Hitler was able to come to power. The entrance to his residence in Kreuzberg bears the Latin motto Et si omnes ego non ("even if all, not I").

Boeselager was a member of K.D.St.V. Ripuaria Bonn, a Roman Catholic student fraternity at the University of Bonn that now belongs to the Cartellverband der katholischen deutschen Studentenverbindungen. Until his death on 1 May 2008, he still had the Walther PP pistol he was given to use to shoot Hitler.

In 2003 and 2007, Boeselager gave two interviews to the influential neo-fascist weekly Junge Freiheit. In the 2003 interview, he criticised re-united Germany's failure to restore property collectivised in East Germany after World War II (and privatised 1990–1994) to former owners and the widespread corruption of contemporary politicians on behalf of the 20 July plotters, whom he presented as selfless idealists fighting to restore the rule of law. He defined the political aim of the 1944 plotters as "saving the Reich" and denied that they would have sought peace with the Western Allies. Boeselager echoed Nazi war propaganda in claiming that Germany invaded Poland in self-defence and that Soviet citizens and soldiers overwhelmingly welcomed the alleged Nazi liberation from Communist rule during the initial stage of Operation Barbarossa. In accordance with the myth of the clean Wehrmacht, he drew a firm line between the Wehrmacht and the SS with regard to supporting Hitler's policies, which he denounced as "criminal".

On 18 April 2008, just two weeks before his death, Philipp von Boeselager gave his last videotaped interview, which was conducted by Zora Wolter for the feature documentary The Valkyrie Legacy. It was televised on The History Channel in spring 2009 to coincide with the release of the film Valkyrie, starring Tom Cruise and directed by Bryan Singer. The documentary was produced by Singer and directed by Kevin Burns.

Ewald-Heinrich von Kleist-Schmenzin was the last survivor of the 20 July plot until his death on 8 March 2013.

Marriage
Boeselager married Rosa Maria, born Gräfin von Westphalen zu Fürstenberg (1924 - 2014). Albrecht von Boeselager (born 4 October 1949, Altenahr), former Grand Chancellor of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta, is their child.

Honours

 * Iron Cross (1939) 1st (1941) and 2nd class (1940)
 * Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross on 20 July 1944 as Major and commander of the I./Kavallerie-Regiment Mitte
 * Eastern Front Medal
 * Wound Badge in Silver (1944)
 * General Assault Badge
 * Close Combat Clasp in Bronze
 * Honour Roll Clasp of the Army (1944)
 * Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany (Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz des Verdienstordens der Bundesrepublik Deutschland, 1989)
 * Officier de la Légion d'honneur (2004)

title: Philipp von Boeselager


text:
Damian Lewis

Damian Watcyn Lewis (born 11 February 1971) is a British actor, musician and producer. He rose to prominence portraying U.S. Army Major Richard Winters in the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers. Lewis won a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award for his portrayal of U.S. Marine Sergeant Nicholas Brody in the Showtime series Homeland, and received nominations for both for his performance as Henry VIII of England in Wolf Hall. He portrayed Bobby Axelrod in the Showtime series Billions in six out of seven seasons, and appeared in Once Upon a Time in Hollywood (2019) as actor Steve McQueen.

Early life and education
Lewis was born on 11 February 1971 in St John's Wood, London, the eldest son of Charlotte Mary (née Bowater) and John Watcyn Lewis, a City insurance broker with Lloyd's. His paternal grandparents were Welsh, and he says he considers himself "London Welsh". His maternal grandfather was Lieutenant-Colonel Sir Ian Bowater, Lord Mayor of London, and his maternal grandmother's ancestors include Bertrand, Viscount Dawson of Penn (a doctor to the Royal Family) and the eminent naval shipbuilder and philanthropist Sir Alfred Yarrow, 1st Baronet (see Yarrow Shipbuilders), who was of partial Sephardic Jewish descent. Lewis has said that he "went to English boarding schools and grew up around people very much like [his character] Soames and in a milieu very much like the Forsytes.

As a child, Lewis made several visits to the US to visit relatives during summer breaks. He first decided to become an actor at the age of 16.

He was educated at the independent Ashdown House School in Forest Row, East Sussex, and at Eton College, and graduated from the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in 1993.

Career
Lewis once worked as a telemarketer selling car alarms. His first television appearance was as a medical student in "Hickory Dickory Dock", a feature-length episode of Agatha Christie’s Poirot, an ITV Studios TV production, broadcast in 1995. He also appeared as a rakish student in an early episode of the drama series A Touch of Frost (1996). He appeared in Robinson Crusoe (1997) as Patrick Conner.

At this time he was also working as an actor with the Royal Shakespeare Company, playing among other roles Borgheim in Adrian Noble's production of Henrik Ibsen's Little Eyolf and Posthumus Leonatus in William Shakespeare's Cymbeline. He would later go on to star in another of Ibsen's plays, as Karsten Bernick in Pillars of the Community at the National Theatre in November 2005.

He also appeared in Jonathan Kent's production of Hamlet, playing Laertes. This production was seen by Steven Spielberg, who later cast Lewis as Richard Winters in Band of Brothers (2001), the first role of several that required him to have a credible American accent.

He was in the 2000 series called Hearts and Bones as the love interest of Dervla Kirwan. Subsequently, Lewis portrayed Soames Forsyte in the ITV series The Forsyte Saga, which earned him positive reviews. He returned to the US to star in Dreamcatcher, a Lawrence Kasdan film about a man who becomes possessed by an evil alien. The character is American but when possessed he takes on a British accent. On the heels of this role, he starred in Keane as a Manhattanite with a fragile mental state who is searching for his missing daughter. Despite the film's poor box-office, Lewis's performance in the role was very well reviewed.

He played Jeffrey Archer in the TV special Jeffrey Archer: The Truth. Since 2004, he has appeared in a number of films, as well as the 2005 BBC TV adaptation of the Shakespeare comedy Much Ado About Nothing, as part of the ShakespeaRe-Told season. Lewis played the role of Yassen Gregorovich in the film Stormbreaker. In 2006, he appeared in Stephen Poliakoff's BBC drama Friends and Crocodiles. He has appeared on BBC's Have I Got News for You as guest host several times; on 10 November 2006, 1 May 2009, 18 November 2010, 27 April 9 November 2012 and 31 October 2014.

In 2008, Lewis starred as the main character Charlie Crews in the American television series Life on NBC. The show premiered in the US on 26 September 2007 and was affected by the 2007–08 Writers Guild of America strike. Only half of the first season's shows were produced. Regardless, the show won a 2008 AFI Award for best television series. Although the show received critical acclaim, when it returned the following television season, it was shuffled from night to night, and eventually cancelled by NBC to clear its time slot for The Jay Leno Show.

Lewis appeared the following year in the lead role in The Baker, a film directed by his brother, Gareth. Damian took a supporting role of Rizza in The Escapist, which he also helped produce. He led the cast in Martin Crimp's version of Molière's comedy, The Misanthrope, which opened in December 2009 at the Comedy Theatre, London. Other cast members included Tara Fitzgerald, Keira Knightley and Dominic Rowan.

Lewis played Tory Prime Minister Simon Laity in two seasons of Number 10 on BBC Radio 4.

He played Gareth, the father of an 11-year-old Liverpool F.C. fan, in the 2011 film Will.

From 2011 to 2013, Lewis had a starring role as Gunnery Sergeant Nicholas Brody in the Showtime series Homeland, for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award. In 2013, he narrated poetry for The Love Book App, an "interactive anthology of love literature developed by Allie Byrne Esiri".

In 2016 he began starring as billionaire hedge fund manager Bobby Axelrod in the Showtime series Billions. He left the show in 2021 after five seasons, but returned for half of season 7. In 2016 he appeared in the British spy film Our Kind of Traitor.

Music
In an interview with The Guardian in October 2022, Lewis said that he had long-standing ambitions to be a musician, and had been collaborating with jazz artist Giacomo Smith, firstly on cover songs and then writing new material for an album that would be released in 2023: "I started writing and found out there was lots that I actually did want to write, and before we knew it we had a record’s worth of songs. We’ve ended up with a rootsy, jazzy, rock’n’rolly, singer-songwritery-type album."

Lewis released his debut single, "Down On the Bowery", on 13 April 2023. His debut album, Mission Creep, was released in June that year on Decca Records.

On 9 July 2023, he sang the national anthem at the British Grand Prix, accompanied by a saxophonist.

Other activities
In 2009 Lewis featured in Inspired By Music, a book commissioned by The Prince's Trust, written and photographed by celebrity photographer Cambridge Jones, and sponsored by Starbucks. It features personal reflections by 36 celebrities as well as four ordinary people helped by The Prince's Trust, about musical lyrics that inspired them. Lewis's photo portrait also featured in Jones's exhibition Talking Pictures, featuring famous people of Welsh descent, that toured the world from 2010.

In 2010, Lewis became a trade justice ambassador for the charity Christian Aid. In May 2006, June 2016, June 2018, and June 2022, he played for England in Soccer Aid,  and played golf for Europe in the All*Star Cup in August 2006, both shown on ITV.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, Lewis and his wife Helen McCrory supported Feed NHS, a fundraiser to give food from high street restaurants to NHS staff. By April 2020, they had raised £1m for the charity. The initiative started in London, but following its success, plans were announced to roll it out to other cities in the UK.

Honours
Lewis was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2014 Birthday Honours for services to drama and Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2022 Birthday Honours for services to drama and charity.

Awards and nominations
Lewis' portrayal of U.S. Army Major Richard Winters in the HBO miniseries Band of Brothers earned him a Golden Globe nomination.

Lewis' performance as U.S. Marine Gunnery Sergeant Nicholas Brody in the Showtime series Homeland earned him a Primetime Emmy Award and a Golden Globe Award in 2012.

His performance as Henry VIII of England in Wolf Hall earned him his third Primetime Emmy nomination and fourth Golden Globe nomination.

Personal life
Lewis suffered a period of depression following a motorcycle accident in North London in 1998.

Having previously dated Katie Razzall, Kristin Davis and Sophia Myles, Lewis married actress Helen McCrory on 4 July 2007. They have a daughter and a son. McCrory died of cancer on 16 April 2021, aged 52.

Lewis is a supporter of Liverpool F.C.

Since 2022, he is in a relationship with singer Alison Mosshart.

title: Damian Lewis


text:
Bypass ratio

The bypass ratio (BPR) of a turbofan engine is the ratio between the mass flow rate of the bypass stream to the mass flow rate entering the core. A 10:1 bypass ratio, for example, means that 10 kg of air passes through the bypass duct for every 1 kg of air passing through the core.

Turbofan engines are usually described in terms of BPR, which together with engine pressure ratio, turbine inlet temperature and fan pressure ratio are important design parameters. In addition, BPR is quoted for turboprop and unducted fan installations because their high propulsive efficiency gives them the overall efficiency characteristics of very high bypass turbofans. This allows them to be shown together with turbofans on plots which show trends of reducing specific fuel consumption (SFC) with increasing BPR. BPR is also quoted for lift fan installations where the fan airflow is remote from the engine and doesn't physically touch the engine core.

Bypass provides a lower fuel consumption for the same thrust, measured as thrust specific fuel consumption (grams/second fuel per unit of thrust in kN using SI units). Lower fuel consumption that comes with high bypass ratios applies to turboprops, using a propeller rather than a ducted fan. High bypass designs are the dominant type for commercial passenger aircraft and both civilian and military jet transports.

Business jets use medium BPR engines.

Combat aircraft use engines with low bypass ratios to compromise between fuel economy and the requirements of combat: high power-to-weight ratios, supersonic performance, and the ability to use afterburners.

Principles
If all the gas power from a gas turbine is converted to kinetic energy in a propelling nozzle, the aircraft is best suited to high supersonic speeds. If it is all transferred to a separate big mass of air with low kinetic energy, the aircraft is best suited to zero speed (hovering). For speeds in between, the gas power is shared between a separate airstream and the gas turbine's own nozzle flow in a proportion which gives the aircraft performance required. The first jet aircraft were subsonic and the poor suitability of the propelling nozzle for these speeds due to high fuel consumption was understood, and bypass proposed, as early as 1936 (U.K. Patent 471,368). The underlying principle behind bypass is trading exhaust velocity for extra mass flow which still gives the required thrust but uses less fuel. Frank Whittle called it "gearing down the flow". Power is transferred from the gas generator to an extra mass of air, i.e. a bigger diameter propelling jet, moving more slowly. The bypass spreads the available mechanical power across more air to reduce the velocity of the jet. The trade-off between mass flow and velocity is also seen with propellers and helicopter rotors by comparing disc loading and power loading. For example, the same helicopter weight can be supported by a high power engine and small diameter rotor or, for less fuel, a lower power engine and bigger rotor with lower velocity through the rotor.

Bypass usually refers to transferring gas power from a gas turbine to a bypass stream of air to reduce fuel consumption and jet noise. Alternatively, there may be a requirement for an afterburning engine where the sole requirement for bypass is to provide cooling air. This sets the lower limit for BPR and these engines have been called "leaky" or continuous bleed turbojets (General Electric YJ-101 BPR 0.25) and low BPR turbojets (Pratt & Whitney PW1120). Low BPR (0.2) has also been used to provide surge margin as well as afterburner cooling for the Pratt & Whitney J58.

Description

In a zero-bypass (turbojet) engine the high temperature and high pressure exhaust gas is accelerated by expansion through a propelling nozzle and produces all the thrust. The compressor absorbs all the mechanical power produced by the turbine. In a bypass design, extra turbines drive a ducted fan that accelerates air rearward from the front of the engine. In a high-bypass design, the ducted fan and nozzle produce most of the thrust. Turbofans are closely related to turboprops in principle because both transfer some of the gas turbine's gas power, using extra machinery, to a bypass stream leaving less for the hot nozzle to convert to kinetic energy. Turbofans represent an intermediate stage between turbojets, which derive all their thrust from exhaust gases, and turbo-props which derive minimal thrust from exhaust gases (typically 10% or less). Extracting shaft power and transferring it to a bypass stream introduces extra losses which are more than made up by the improved propulsive efficiency. The turboprop at its best flight speed gives significant fuel savings over a turbojet even though an extra turbine, a gearbox and a propeller were added to the turbojet's low-loss propelling nozzle. The turbofan has additional losses from its extra turbines, fan, bypass duct and extra propelling nozzle compared to the turbojet's single nozzle.

To see the influence of increasing BPR alone on overall efficiency in the aircraft, i.e. SFC, a common gas generator has to be used, i.e. no change in Brayton cycle parameters or component efficiencies. Bennett shows in this case a relatively slow rise in losses transferring power to the bypass at the same time as a fast drop in exhaust losses with a significant improvement in SFC. In reality increases in BPR over time come along with rises in gas generator efficiency masking, to some extent, the influence of BPR.

Only the limitations of weight and materials (e.g., the strengths and melting points of materials in the turbine) reduce the efficiency at which a turbofan gas turbine converts this thermal energy into mechanical energy, for while the exhaust gases may still have available energy to be extracted, each additional stator and turbine disk retrieves progressively less mechanical energy per unit of weight, and increasing the compression ratio of the system by adding to the compressor stage to increase overall system efficiency increases temperatures at the turbine face. Nevertheless, high-bypass engines have a high propulsive efficiency because even slightly increasing the velocity of a very large volume and consequently mass of air produces a very large change in momentum and thrust: thrust is the engine's mass flow (the amount of air flowing through the engine) multiplied by the difference between the inlet and exhaust velocities in—a linear relationship—but the kinetic energy of the exhaust is the mass flow multiplied by one-half the square of the difference in velocities. A low disc loading (thrust per disc area) increases the aircraft's energy efficiency, and this reduces the fuel use.

The Rolls–Royce Conway turbofan engine, developed in the early 1950s, was an early example of a bypass engine. The configuration was similar to a 2-spool turbojet but to make it into a bypass engine it was equipped with an oversized low pressure compressor: the flow through the inner portion of the compressor blades went into the core while the outer portion of the blades blew air around the core to provide the rest of the thrust. The bypass ratio for the Conway varied between 0.3 and 0.6 depending on the variant

The growth of bypass ratios during the 1960s gave jetliners fuel efficiency that could compete with that of piston-powered planes. Today (2015), most jet engines have some bypass. Modern engines in slower aircraft, such as airliners, have bypass ratios up to 12:1; in higher-speed aircraft, such as fighters, bypass ratios are much lower, around 1.5; and craft designed for speeds up to Mach 2 and somewhat above have bypass ratios below 0.5.

Turboprops have bypass ratios of 50-100,  although the propulsion airflow is less clearly defined for propellers than for fans and propeller airflow is slower than the airflow from turbofan nozzles.

title: Bypass ratio


text:
Pistolet-pulemet

Pistolet-pulemet (Пистоле́т-пулемёт) means submachine gun in Russian. The name is most often used in relation to a series of weapons made by the Soviet Union which includes PPD-40, PPSh-41 and PPS-43. The letter after the PP (ПП) in the gun's designation is from the designer's name. For example, the "Sh" in PPSh stands for Shpagin (Russian: Шпагин).

This name is also used in submachine guns manufactured in Russian Federation. For example, PP-19 Bizon, PP-93 and PP-2000.

title: Pistolet-pulemet


text:
Baron Delamere

Baron Delamere, of Vale Royal in the County Palatine of Chester, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 17 July 1821 for Thomas Cholmondeley, a former Member of Parliament for Cheshire. This Vale Royal branch of the Cholmondeley family descends from Thomas Cholmondeley (died 1653), younger brother of Robert Cholmondeley, 1st Earl of Leinster, and Hugh Cholmondeley (1591–1665), ancestor of the Marquesses of Cholmondeley. The first Baron was succeeded by his son. Before acceding to the title in 1855, the second Baron represented Denbighshire and Montgomery in the House of Commons as a Tory.

His eldest son, also named Hugh, acceded to the title in 1887, and in the same year, he immigrated to Kenya, where he acquired a major estate. The third Baron's eldest son inherited his father's title in 1931. In 1934, he attempted to re-establish his family at Vale Royal, the family's country home and baronial seat from the 17th century; however, the great house was requisitioned as a sanatorium during the war years. When it was sold in 1947, the fourth Baron returned to Kenya. the title is held by the fifth Baron, who succeeded his father in 1979. He also lives in Kenya.

The family surname is pronounced.

Barons Delamere (1821)

 * Thomas Cholmondeley, 1st Baron Delamere (1767–1855)
 * Hugh Cholmondeley, 2nd Baron Delamere (1811–1887)
 * Hugh Cholmondeley, 3rd Baron Delamere (1870–1931)
 * Thomas Pitt Hamilton Cholmondeley, 4th Baron Delamere (1900–1979)
 * Hugh George Cholmondeley, 5th Baron Delamere (born 1934)
 * Hon. Thomas Cholmondeley (1968–2016)

The heir apparent is the present holder's grandson, Hugh Cholmondeley (born 1998)

title: Baron Delamere


text:
Acequia

An acequia or séquia  is a community-operated watercourse used in Spain and former Spanish colonies in the Americas for irrigation. Acequias are found in parts of Spain, the Andes, northern Mexico, and the modern-day American Southwest (northern New Mexico and southern Colorado).

Scholars describe acequias as "technological systems that are designed, maintained, and operated to meet a variety of productive goals, social services, and health needs, with the practice of irrigated agriculture being of paramount importance." In the United States, the oldest acequias were established more than 400 years ago by Spanish colonizers. The traditional form of governance over acequias is the oldest form of European resource management still alive in the United States today.

Acequias are filled by snow melt and rain to water orchards, gardens, and other agricultural fields. Other than watering crops, acequias have deep cultural significance for many Indigenous and Native communities in New Mexico and Colorado.

Etymology
The Spanish word acequia (and the Catalan word séquia) originate from Arabic word al-sāqiyah (الساقیة) which has more than one meaning: "the water conduit" or "one that bears water" as well as 'bartender' (from saqā, "to give water, drink"), and also refers to a type of water wheel.

History
Traditionally, the Spanish acequias have been associated with the Muslim colonization of the Iberian peninsula; however the most likely hypothesis is that they improved on irrigation systems that already existed since Roman times, or even before. These ways of agricultural planning and colonization strategies come from the vast amount of cultural influences contributing to Spanish technology and governance. Likely the most meaningful stemmed from the Muslims that ruled parts of Spain for as long as eight centuries. Their ways of life influenced the Spanish and changed the way agriculture was done in Spain.

Acequias were later adopted by the Spanish and Portuguese (levadas on Madeira Island) and were utilized throughout their own colonies. Similar structures already existed in places such as Mendoza and San Juan, Argentina where acequias today run along both sides of the city streets. However, these acequias were originally dug by the Indigenous Huarpes long before the arrival of the Spanish. The introduction of acequias by the Muslims allowed for more agricultural diversity, with crops such as sugar cane and citrus fruits introduced. The system of the acequia has changed over time to avoid incidents of the resource from being overused or under-maintained.

Usage in the American Southwest
In the United States, the oldest acequias were established more than 400 years ago by Spanish colonizers. Many acequias continue to provide a primary source of water for farming and ranching in the region of south central Colorado known as the Upper Rio Grande watershed or Rio Arriba and some 700 in northern New Mexico continue to function. This type of governance over acequias is to date the oldest depiction of European resource management still active in the United States today.

Design
Acequias are gravity chutes, similar in concept to flumes. Some acequias are conveyed through pipes or aqueducts, of modern fabrication or decades or centuries old (see transvasement). For the system to function properly the channel must have a good gradient to maintain the flow of water.

When rainfall and snowmelt start to flow it is carried into the Acequia Madre and through the connecting channels throughout parts of New Mexico. Acequias have several components that control the transport of water:

 * 1) compuertas (headgates)- these gates open and close to allow water to flow through the channel
 * 2) canoas (canoes)- log flumes that transport water across intersecting creeks and streams
 * 3) sangrías (vessels)- lateral ditches cut perpendicular from the main canal to irrigate individual parcels of land
 * 4) desagüe (draining channel)- carries surplus water back to the stream source

Researchers affiliated with the Rio Grande Bioregions Project at Colorado College initiated a pioneering collaborative, farmer-led, and interdisciplinary study of Colorado and New Mexico acequias in 1995–99. Among the most significant findings of this study was that the acequia farms provide vital ecosystem and economic base services to the regions in which they are located. One study, as reported in, found that acequia agroecosystems promote soil conservation and soil formation, provide terrestrial wildlife habitat and movement corridors. They also protect water quality and fish habitat, promote the conservation of domesticated biodiversity of land race heirloom crops, and encourage the maintenance of a strong land and water ethic and sense of place, among other ecological and economic base values. This pioneering research on acequia ecosystem services, led by environmental anthropologist Devon G. Peña, has more recently been confirmed in other studies, e.g., , ,.

Governance in New Mexico
Known among water users simply as "the Acequia", various legal entities embody the community associations, or acequia associations, that govern members' water usage, depending on local precedents and traditions. An acequia organization often must include commissioners and a majordomo who administers usage of water from a ditch, regulating which holders of water rights can release water to their fields on which days. In New Mexico, by state statute, acequias as registered bodies must have three commissioners and a mayordomo. Irrigation and conservation districts typically have their own version of mayordomos, usually referred to as "ditch riders" by members of the districts.

Acequias in New Mexico and Colorado have successfully developed and implemented changes in state water laws to accommodate the unique norms, customs, and practices of the acequia systems. But the communal owners of the acequias in New Mexico are receiving hard economic pushes from land developers and current inflation that are pushing them to consider selling the valued acequia. The customary law of the acequia is older than and at variance with the Doctrine of Prior Appropriation, and the statutes promulgating acequia water law represent a rare instance of water pluralism in the context of Western water law in the United States (see ). For example, the Doctrine of Prior Appropriation is based on the principle of "first in use, first in right", while acequia norms incorporate not just priority but principles of equity and fairness. This is evident in the fact that Prior Appropriation considers water to be a commodity owned by private individuals while acequia systems treat water as a community resource that irrigators have a shared right to use, manage, and protect. The concept of a shared responsibility natural resources reflects the beliefs stemming from the Spanish and Indigenous people who brought the acequia to the U.S. The plethora of cultural behaviors and values that created acequia communities still exist in the United States.

While prior doctrines allow for water to be sold away from the basin of origin, the acequia system prohibits the transference of water from the watershed in which it is situated and thus considers water as an "asset-in-place". The Prior regime is based on a governance regime in which the members of a mutual ditch company will vote based on their proportional ownership of shares so that larger farmers have more votes. In contrast, the acequia system follows a "one farmer, one vote" system that has led researchers to consider this a form of "water democracy".

Acequia law also requires that all persons with irrigation rights participate in the annual maintenance of the community ditch including the annual spring time ditch cleanup known as the limpieza y saca de acequia.

title: Acequia


text:
Talk:Tadanobu Asano

Untitled
i wrote the imdb bio thats taken from.

I'm going to move this page to Tadanobu Asano, as that name ordering is used when his name is romanised in English language releases of his films. - MykReeve 12:03, 22 May 2004 (UTC)

Sato Tadanobu
The indicated birth name for this actor, Sato Tadanobu, is also the name of a lengendary 12th century samurai often depicted in art, e.g. reproductions of 19th century prints at http://www.kiseido.com/printss/p7-1.htm

Go players know this fellow because he is supposed to have defeated soldiers with a go-board; similar to the legend of Lancelot using a candelabra when caught in flagrante with Guinevere.

Historicity given at http://www.kiseido.com/printss/goban.html ; the go-board part of the story, at least, seems a later artistic invention. Peter H. St.John, M.S. 22:32, 2 September 2006 (UTC)

 * It's kind of surprising that a famous actor should have had the exact same name as a famous Kabuki character. Has this actor ever played the character of "Goban" Tadanobu (retainer of the most famous samurai Yoshitsune)? Did it inspire the parent's choice of name, or his success in performing arts, or his choice to change his name, or is the name not really all that obvious in Japan?

 * Would it be preferable for Sato Tadanobu to cease redirecting to this Asano page, or for this page to make mention of the historic individual? Cesiumfrog (talk) 03:08, 3 February 2011 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Ichi the Killer Dvdcover.jpg
Image:Ichi the Killer Dvdcover.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 22:56, 13 February 2008 (UTC)

Macron in real name?
I'm not sure where his real name comes from (source?) but since it isn't very widely attested without the macron shouldn't we use it? elvenscout742 (talk) 07:15, 27 December 2012 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just modified 2 external links on Tadanobu Asano. Please take a moment to review my edit. If you have any questions, or need the bot to ignore the links, or the page altogether, please visit this simple FaQ for additional information. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20120125102752/http://www.timeout.jp/en/tokyo/feature/3938/Tadanobu-Asano-the-interview to http://www.timeout.jp/en/tokyo/feature/3938/Tadanobu-Asano-the-interview
 * Corrected formatting/usage for http://herocomplex.latimes.com/2012/08/02/thor-the-dark-world-christopher-eccleston-is-villain-malekith/

When you have finished reviewing my changes, you may follow the instructions on the template below to fix any issues with the URLs.

Cheers.— InternetArchiveBot  (Report bug) 04:26, 9 December 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tadanobu Asano