text:
Sheela na gig

A sheela na gig is a figurative carving of a naked woman displaying an exaggerated vulva. These carvings, from the Middle Ages, are architectural grotesques found throughout most of Europe on cathedrals, castles, and other buildings.

The greatest concentrations can be found in Ireland, Great Britain, France and Spain, sometimes together with male figures. Ireland has the greatest number of surviving sheela na gig carvings; Joanne McMahon and Jack Roberts cite 124 examples in Ireland and 45 examples in Britain. One of the best examples may be found in the Round Tower at Rattoo, in County Kerry, Ireland. There is a replica of the Round Tower sheela na gig in the County Museum in Tralee town. Another well-known example may be seen at Kilpeck in Herefordshire, England.

The carvings may have been used to ward off death, evil and demons. Other grotesque carvings, such as gargoyles and hunky punks, were frequently part of church decorations all over Europe. It is commonly said that their purpose was to keep evil spirits away (see apotropaic magic). They often are positioned over doors or windows, presumably to protect these openings.

Origin

Scholars disagree about the origins of the figures. James Jerman and Anthony Weir believe the sheela na gigs were first carved in France and Spain during the 11th century; the motif eventually reached Britain and then Ireland in the 12th century. Jerman and Weir's work was a continuation of research begun by Jorgen Andersen, who wrote The Witch on the Wall (1977), the first serious book on sheela na gigs. Eamonn Kelly, Keeper of Irish Antiquities at the National Museum of Ireland in Dublin, draws attention to the distribution of sheela na gigs in Ireland to support Weir and Jerman's theory; almost all of the surviving in situ sheela na gigs are found in areas of Anglo-Norman conquest (12th century). The areas which remained governed by native Irish have few sheela na gigs. Weir and Jerman also argue their location on churches and the grotesque features of the figures, by medieval standards, suggests they represented female lust as hideous and sinfully corrupting.

Another theory, espoused by Joanne McMahon and Jack Roberts, is the carvings are remnants of a pre-Christian fertility or mother goddess religion. They note what they claim are differences of materials and styles of some sheela na gigs from their surrounding structures, and noting some are turned on their side, to support the idea they were incorporated from previous structures into early Christian buildings.

Etymology
The name was first published in the Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy 1840–1844, as a local name for a carving once present on a church gable wall in Rochestown, County Tipperary, Ireland; the name also was recorded in 1840 by John O'Donovan, an official of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, referring to a figure on Kiltinan Castle, County Tipperary. Scholars disagree about the origin and meaning of the name in Ireland, as it is not directly translatable into Irish. Alternative spellings of "Sheela" may sometimes be encountered; they include Sheila, Síle and Síla. According to the Oxford English Dictionary, it is derived from Irish, Síle na gcíoch, meaning "Julia of the breasts".

Jørgen Andersen writes that the name is an Irish phrase, originally either Sighle na gCíoch, meaning "the old hag of the breasts", or Síle ina Giob, meaning "Sheila (from the Irish Síle, the Irish form of the Anglo-Norman name Cecile or Cecilia) on her hunkers". Patrick S. Dinneen also gives Síle na gCíoċ, stating it is "a stone fetish representing a woman, supposed to give fertility, generally thought to have been introduced by the Normans." Other researchers have questioned these interpretations – few sheela na gigs are shown with breasts – and expressed doubt about the linguistic connection between ina Giob and na Gig. The phrase "sheela na gig" was said to be a term for a hag or old woman.

Barbara Freitag devotes a chapter to the etymology of the name in her book Sheela-Na-Gigs: Unravelling an Enigma. She documents references earlier than 1840, including a Royal Navy ship Sheela Na Gig HMS Shelanagig (1780), and an 18th-century dance called the Sheela na gig. The Irish slip jig, first published as "The Irish Pot Stick" (c.1758), appears as "Shilling a Gig" in Brysson's A Curious Collection of Favourite Tunes (1791) and "Sheela na Gigg" in Hime's 48 Original Irish Dances (c.1795). These are the oldest recorded references to the name, but do not apply to the architectural figures. The Royal Navy's records indicate the name of the ship refers to an "Irish female sprite". Freitag discovered that "gig" was a Northern English slang word for a woman's genitals. A similar word in modern Irish slang gigh also exists, further confusing the possible origin of the name.

Weir and Jerman use the name sheela for the figure because it had entered popular usage; they also term figures of both sexes "exhibitionist". They cite Andersen's second chapter as a good discussion of the name. Andersen says there is no evidence that "sheela na gig" was ever a popular name for the figures when they were created. It began during the mid-19th century "where popular understanding of the characteristics of a sheela were vague and people were wary of its apparent rudeness". An earlier reference to the dubious nature of the name is made by H. C. Lawlor in an article in Man Vol. 31, January 1931 (Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland), in which he writes, "The term 'sheela-na-gig' has no etymological meaning and is an absurd name." Andersen, Weir and Jerman, and Freitag all dismiss the name as being modern and somewhat arbitrary.

The oldest recorded name for one of the figures is "The Idol", which relates to the figure at Holy Cross Church in Binstead on the Isle of Wight. This name was mentioned by R. Worsley in his The History of the Isle of Wight (1781) and noted also by J. Albin in A New, Correct, and Much-improved History of the Isle of Wight (1795) (Andersen page 11). The name "The Idol" also was applied to a now lost figure in Lusk, Ireland and was recorded as being in use around 1783.

Hypotheses
Much of the disagreement among scholars about these figures concerns exactly what they are meant to represent, and no theory explains all the figures.

Survival of a pagan goddess
A popular hypothesis is sheela na gigs represent a pagan goddess, but academics believe the situation was more complex, with multiple interpretations and roles for the female character as spiritual traditions changed over time. The goddess in question usually is identified as Celtic, the hag-like Cailleach figure of Irish and Scottish mythology. Margaret Murray proposed this, as did Anne Ross, who wrote in her essay "The Divine Hag of the Pagan Celts", "I would like to suggest that in their earliest iconographic form they do in fact portray the territorial or war-goddess in her hag-like aspect". Georgia Rhoades suggests the figures may represent the crone or an earth goddess from Celtic mythology.

Mircea Eliade's The Encyclopedia of Religion (1993) draws parallels between the sheela na gig and the ancient Irish myth of the goddess who granted kingship. She would appear as a lustful hag, and most men would refuse her advances, except for one man who accepted. When he had relations with her, she was transformed into a beautiful maiden who would confer royalty onto him and bless his reign. There are additional variants of this common Northern European motif (see "Loathly lady"). Andersen devotes a chapter to this theory, entitled "Pagan or Medieval". While suggesting possible pagan influences on Irish sheela na gigs, he considers them as having a medieval context. He argues that pagan origins are less likely than influence from the continent during the medieval period: "What can be said against it, is that it is less easily proved and can be less easily illustrated than the possible continental, French origin for the motif discussed in earlier chapters" (The Witch on the Wall, p. 95).

Weir and Jerman explore the possible influence of the ancient Greek Baubo figurine on the motif, but they acknowledge the link is tenuous. They write, "It makes for very interesting speculation, but the amount of evidence is not large".

Freitag explores possible Celtic pagan origins, but finds little to suggest a link; "in particular the notion of the divine hag being a portrayal of the Ur-Sheela has to be firmly dismissed as wayward conjecture" (Sheela na gigs: Unravelling an Enigma, page 41). Although scholars have used evidence to reject the theory, it is popularly held.

Fertility
This hypothesis usually is combined with the "goddess" explanation. Barbara Freitag suggests the figures were used in a fertility context and associate them with "birthing stones". There is folkloric evidence of at least some of the sheela na gigs being used in this manner, with the figures being loaned out to women in labour. Other examples are associated with wedding traditions. According to Margaret Murray, the figure in Oxford at the church of St Michael at the North Gate has an associated tradition of being shown to brides on their wedding day. This theory does not seem to apply to all the figures: some are thin with their ribs showing and thin breasts, which do not suggest fertility. Others are plump and are shown in a sexual context with a partner (as at Whittlesford). Theresa Oakley and Alex Woodcock recently discovered an exhibitionist couple at Devizes, who seem to represent fertility. The faces of some figures are striated, indicating scarring or tattoos. Weir notes a close examination of the figures reveals features which are not consistent with a fertility function.

Warning against lust
Weir and Jerman suggested the sheela na gigs served to warn against lust. They see the figures as a religious warning against sins of the flesh. Exhibitionist figures of all types—male, female, and bestial—are found frequently in the company of images of beasts devouring people and other hellish images. These images, they argue, were used as a means of religious instruction to a largely illiterate populace. As part of this interpretation, they explore a continental origin for the figures. Andersen first suggested this origin, and Weir and Jerman continued and expanded this line of inquiry. They argue the motif migrated from the continent via the pilgrim routes to and from Santiago de Compostela. (Freitag argues against this.) Pilgrim sculptors noted what they had seen on the route and ended up carving their own interpretations of the motifs. Eventually, the exhibitionist motif was transferred to Ireland and Britain. This theory seems to accommodate many of the religious figures but relates less well to some of the secular ones. Images carved on castles would not seem to be serving a religious purpose. The figure at Haddon Hall appears on a stable (although this may have been moved from elsewhere). The theory does not seem to apply to all the figures.

Protection against evil
Andersen and Weir and Jerman think the figures may also have been used as protection against evil. This would explain the use of the figures on structures such as castles. They served an apotropaic function, designed to ward off evil. In Ireland, some of the figures were called "The Evil Eye Stones", which supported their theory. Some folkloric evidence is known of anasyrma (skirt-lifting) being used by women to ward off evil spirits.

Andersen reproduces an 18th-century illustration by Charles Eisen from La Fontaine's Nouveaux Contes (1764) showing a demon being repulsed by the sight of a woman lifting her skirt to display her genitals.

Weir and Jerman relate a story from The Irish Times (23 September 1977) in which a potentially violent incident involving several men was averted by a woman exposing her genitals to them. They doubt, however, whether the story was true. Weir and Jerman go on to suggest that the apotropaic function seems to have been gradually ascribed to the figures over time. While this theory seems to apply to most of the secular and some of the religious figures, it does not apply to all of them.

Feminist reinterpretation of the image
Feminist scholarship has reinterpreted the concept of the sheela na gig especially in terms of the image as evil or embodiment of sin. Feminists have adopted the image as an icon with feminist authors viewing the sexuality of the sheela na gig more positively as an empowering figure. Reverence for female sexuality and vulvas can be seen in the art of Judy Chicago's The Dinner Party and The Vagina Monologues by Eve Ensler. In Wide-open to Mirth and Wonder, Luz Mar González-Arias argues that the creative re-imagining of this medieval female figure can "encourage contemporary women to stop perceiving their own corporeality as a heavy, awkward and shameful burden of guilt". Irish writer Molly Mullin's essay Representations of History, Irish Feminism, and the Politics of Difference claims that the image of the Sheela na gig has almost become emblematic of Irish feminism as a force for hope and change. Scholar Georgia Rhoades argues that for many contemporary feminists the gesture of the Sheela's unapologetic sexual display is "a message about her body, its power and significance—a gesture of rebellion against misogyny, rather than an endorsement of it".

Distribution
As noted above, Ireland has the greatest number of known sheela na gigs. At one time, they were mistakenly thought to be a uniquely Irish practice; however, scholars realized that the sheela na gig motif could be found all over western and central Europe. Accurate numbers of figures are difficult to reach, as the interpretation of what is a sheela na gig will vary among scholars. For example, Freitag omits the Rochester figure from her list while Weir and Jerman include it. Concannon includes some worn figures which only she has identified as sheela na gigs. With renewed interest in the topic, scholars have recently identified previously unknown figures, so more could be discovered.

A significant number of figures are found in Romanesque contexts, especially in France, northern Spain, Britain, and Norway. In Ireland figures commonly are found in areas of Norman influence.

Contemporary examples can be found in Ireland as part of Project Sheela.

Parallels
The Encyclopedia of Religion, in its article on yoni, notes the similarity between the positioning of many sheela na gigs above doorways or windows and the wooden female figures carved over the doorways of chiefs' houses (bai) in the Palauan archipelago. Called dilukai (or dilugai), they are typically shown with legs splayed, revealing a large, black, triangular pubic area; the hands rest upon the thighs. The writers of the encyclopedia article say: "These female figures protect the villagers' health and ward off all evil spirits as well. They are constructed by ritual specialists according to strict rules, which if broken would result in the specialist's as well as the chief's death. It is not coincidental that each example of signs representing the female genitalia used as apotropaic devices are found on gates. The vulva is the primordial gate, the mysterious divide between nonlife and life."

Articles

 * Costa, Joaquim Luís – "Lust and iconography in the Portuguese Romanesque sculpture". Medievalist [Online]. # 17 (January – June 2015). [Accessed 01/01/2015]. Available in ,
 * Dexter, Miriam Robbins & Goode, Starr, "The Sheela na gigs, Sexuality, and the Goddess in Ancient Ireland", Irish Journal of Feminist Studies, 4 (2), Mary Condren, ed., (2002), 50–75
 * Ford, Patrick K. "The Which on the Wall: Obscenity Exposed in Early Ireland". In Obscenity: Social Control and Artistic Creation in the European Middle Ages, ed. Jan M. Ziolkowski, 76–90. Leiden: Brill, 1998.
 * Goode, Starr & Dexter, Miriam Robbins, "Sexuality, the Sheela na gigs, and the Goddess in Ancient Ireland", ReVision, Vol. 23, No. 1 (2000): 38–48
 * Goode, Starr,"Sheela na gig: Dark Goddess of Europe," Goddesses in World Culture, Volume 2. Santa Barbara, California: Praegar. pp. 209–223. 2011
 * Goode, Starr, "The Power of Display: Sheela na gigs and Folklore Customs ," About Place Journal Vol. 2, Issue 2.
 * Oakley, Dr. Theresa & Woodcock, Dr. Alex, "The Romanesque Corbel Table at St John's, Devizes and its Sheela na gig", Wiltshire Archaeological and Natural History Magazine Vol 99 (2006)
 * Power, Rosemary (2012). "Iona's Sheela-na-gig and Its Visual Context". Folklore. 123 (3): 330–354. doi:10.1080/0015587X.2012.716578. ISSN 0015-587X.

title: Sheela na gig


text:
S/SL programming language

The Syntax/Semantic Language (S/SL) is an executable high level specification language for recursive descent parsers, semantic analyzers and code generators developed by James Cordy, Ric Holt and David Wortman at the University of Toronto in 1980.

S/SL is a small programming language that supports cheap recursion and defines input, output, and error token names (& values), semantic mechanisms (class interfaces whose methods are really escapes to routines in a host programming language but allow good abstraction in the pseudocode) and a pseudocode program that defines the syntax of the input language by the token stream the program accepts. Alternation, control flow and one-symbol look-ahead constructs are part of the language.

The S/SL processor compiles this pseudocode into a table (byte-codes) that is interpreted by the S/SL table-walker (interpreter). The pseudocode language processes the input language in LL(1) recursive descent style but extensions allow it to process any LR(k) language relatively easily. S/SL is designed to provide excellent syntax error recovery and repair. It is more powerful and transparent than Yacc but can be slower.

S/SL's "semantic mechanisms" extend its capabilities to all phases of compiling, and it has been used to implement all phases of compilation, including scanners, parsers, semantic analyzers, code generators and virtual machine interpreters in multi-pass language processors.

S/SL has been used to implement production commercial compilers for languages such as PL/I, Euclid, Turing, Ada, and COBOL, as well as interpreters, command processors, and domain specific languages of many kinds. It is the primary technology used in IBM's ILE/400 COBOL compiler, and the ZMailer mail transfer agent uses S/SL for defining both its mail router processing language and its RFC 822 email address validation.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: S/SL programming language


text:
Talk:Angela Davis

Ancestry
I think the info from these sources is notable enough to be included:

Video at this link, which is the primary source:

https://www.pbs.org/weta/finding-your-roots/watch/episodes/and-still-i-rise

These are secondary sources which reference the primary source:

https://www.salon.com/2023/02/22/civil-rights-activist-angela-davis-learns-surprising-genealogy-on-finding-your-roots/

https://www.today.com/popculture/tv/angela-davis-finding-your-roots-mayflower-ancestors-rcna71700

https://www.foxnews.com/media/former-black-panther-angela-davis-shocked-learn-descendant-mayflower

SquirrelHill1971 (talk) 20:11, 23 February 2023 (UTC)

 * I agree that this information should be added to the article, but the article appears to be locked from editing. 76.190.213.189 (talk) 23:23, 23 February 2023 (UTC)
 * This page has a WP:SILVERLOCK so to edit this page you will have to create a Wikipedia user account, make 10 edits elsewhere, and wait about 4 days to edit this one. -Location (talk) 01:38, 24 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Done. 173.88.246.138 (talk) 03:05, 6 April 2023 (UTC)

Given that info from Finding Your Roots is included in the article, I wonder why her DNA results aren't included as well. I think the reading public would be interested and surprised. 2600:8800:395:B000:149:2D5B:C936:26E2 (talk) 03:36, 25 October 2023 (UTC)

Progressive?
Does a pro-Soviet communist who was feted in Soviet-block countries qualify as "progressive"? Was a close political ally of apocalyptic communist Jim Jones "progressive"? What are the criteria employed to designate her as a progressive? These are questions, not provocations. Nicmart (talk) 05:14, 30 May 2023 (UTC)

 * Firstly, I think it's important to note that her views significantly changed after the fall of the Soviet Union. She went from being a Marxist-Leninist CPUSA member and supportive of the Soviet carceral state, to splitting from the CPUSA and becoming a non-Leninist democratic socialist founding the CCDS and a prison abolitionist founding Critical Resistance.
 * Secondly, even prior to the collapse of the USSR, she was progressive in the sense of being for gay rights, anti-racism, and anti-sexism; and if you are including "economic progressivism," in her support for various social programs, social ownership/control of the means of production (old Davis was for state ownership/control, new Davis is unclear on what type of social ownership/control), and her opposition to the American prison-industrial complex. Can we argue that some of her stances were not progressive? Sure, it's up to you to make that argument. However, on the whole I think it is fair to describe both the "old Davis" and the "new Davis" as progressive. 4kbw9Df3Tw (talk) 16:46, 12 September 2023 (UTC)

Dissertation?
I am having trouble finding information about Angela Davis' doctoral dissertation. Sources that note of PhD award say it is from the University of Berlin. However a 2020 book, »Schwarze Schwester Angela« - Die DDR und Angela Davis, notes that the dissertation could not be found at the University of Berlin. Also the year seems unclear. Some sources note it was written in the 1960s, others the 1970s. The only article that seems to be a primary source on this topic comes from a 1981 DDR newspaper where Davis notes she had returned to Germany to complete the dissertation. So that would imply it was post-1981. Any information to help pin down the precise subject/date of award/dissertation topic would be greatly appreciated. Jjazz76 (talk) 00:09, 4 July 2023 (UTC)

 * Just for those looking for the page it is 249 of the book.
 * Im Juli 1981 kehrte Angela Davis als Repräsentantin der CPUSA nach Ostberlin zurück, um an der Kinder- und Jugendspartakiade teilzunehmen.382 Sie nutzte ihren Aufenthalt auch, um dort ihre mehr als zehn Jahre zuvor bei Herbert Marcuse
 * begonnene Doktorarbeit fertigzustellen. 383 Die Deutsche Staatsbibliothek biete, so Davis, die besten Voraussetzungen, um über Kant und die klassische deutsche Philosophie als »eine der Quellen des Marxismus« zu arbeiten.
 * Footnote 383 seems key - "Dass Davis eine entsprechende Doktorarbeit abgeschlossen hat, ließ sich im Rahmen dieser
 * Untersuchung nicht bestätigen. Die Existenz einer Promotionsakte von Davis im Universitätsarchiv der Humboldt-Universität Berlin konnte auf Nachfrage ebenfalls nicht bestätigt werden." Jjazz76 (talk) 14:19, 4 July 2023 (UTC)
 * @Jjazz76 I think we could include it as part of something like 'German [historian, writer, etc.] Schwarze Schester, in his biography of Davis, otherwise could not find evidence of her dissertation at the University of Berlin'. GuardianH (talk) 18:45, 5 July 2023 (UTC)
 * Funny, I was discussing this exact topic 5 years ago on this page. I found no evidence of a thesis; I concluded "The information fits in better with an honorary Ph.D.". There's an exhaustive bibliography and WorldCat has two 1965 theses. Conservative Review in 1995 couldn't discover the title either (I could only see a snippet view of that). Cancerward (talk) 11:19, 2 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Just seeing your comment and thanks for pointing me to your comments from 5 years ago.
 * Interestingly, I only got interested in this topic because I sort am interested on Ost-Nostalgia and communist regimes and is one of the more prominent Americans crossing the lines about this. But the more I dug the less concrete info I could find.
 * If you look at German Wikipedia, there is a 2020-2021 conversation on this same topic and they came to the conclusion there was no real underlying evidence of the PhD so they didn't include it. There are plenty of secondary sources but none of them seem to link back to any primary documents from the 1960s, 1970s, or 1980s.
 * And honestly, if the East German regime at Humboldt gave her PhD in 1981 for a book she wrote, that is fine with me, I'd just like to know what book and details surrounding it. Given her historical significance and importance in philosophy, I think it is important for the record. Jjazz76 (talk) 04:28, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Conservative Review said 1982-1986, and if "the public information officer insisted that she received a Ph.D." I suppose it's enough to list it.
 * If research shows it's honorary (e.g. like Joh Bjelke-Petersen) that fact should be noted. There are also other pages where the subject clearly did not get a Ph.D. (e.g. Mohammad-Javad Larijani) but fan-boys and fan-girls keep trying to muddy the water. That's probably happening with the German Angela Davis page.
 * I'll do an inter-library loan soon so I can see the whole page of Conservative Review, the snippet isn't a complete picture. Cancerward (talk) 23:10, 7 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Someone should really just directly contact Davis and the university for proof, and write an article about it. To be a professor at universities like the UC system or Rutgers, I'm pretty sure you need to have proof of a PhD. Could be a fun project for anyone who is an investigative journalist. 4kbw9Df3Tw (talk) 16:59, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Actually, at many universities, you don't need a Ph.D. to teach. Most will let you if you're "an acknowledged expert" in the field/topic you want to teach. 2600:8800:395:B000:149:2D5B:C936:26E2 (talk) 03:32, 25 October 2023 (UTC)

On the lead image
She's been consistently active for decades, so it's probably best to just judge based on image quality. The Gotfryd picture is probably the best quality picture we have of her (it's a featured picture, etc). The 2014 picture is very, very snapshotty. File:Angela Davis at Oregon State University.jpg (from 2019) is much better, but cuts off the top of her head. A Flickr search with appropriate filters for licensing gets some that are at least a bit better than the existing 2014 option, like https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsapponline/15852241216/ or https://www.flickr.com/photos/gsapponline/15258397123/ but they do have certain issues with intruding podiums and microphones.

Basically, there's nothing wrong in principle with using a recent image, but one of the big goals of images in articles is providing images suitable for reuse. As such, prioritising good quality images earlier in the article is important, and having a good-quality lead will encourage people to dig further. And, of course, where possible, you want all the best quality images of the subject in the article.

Also, switching in the 2014 without keeping the one good image we have of her in the article, and also not removing the other copy of the 2014 image so that it now appears twice doesn't help our readers. It gives double emphasis to a mediocre picture of her, and, since it's been removed from the article, buries a really good quality older photo.

Finally, and of uncertain significance, her autobiography uses a circa 1970 photo of her, which seems significant, but, y'know. Adam Cuerden (talk)Has about 8.5% of all FPs. 16:11, 8 September 2023 (UTC)

 * I think the current photo from the 70s is fine since it was perhaps the height of her significance as a figure. Would something like a side-by-side with a 70s photo and a 2020s photo work, though? Just curious. 4kbw9Df3Tw (talk) 16:53, 12 September 2023 (UTC)
 * I'd say that's not a bad idea, if we have a sufficiently good 2020s photo. Adam Cuerden (talk)Has about 8.5% of all FPs. 07:23, 18 September 2023 (UTC)
 * As a general principle, I favor high quality images that show people at the top of their game and the height of their fame as lead images. Accordingly, I support the 1970 Bernard Gotfryd photo as the lead image. I see no good reason to deviate from common practice with a side-by-side pair of images. Cullen328 (talk) 07:32, 18 September 2023 (UTC)
 * When I first saw the new image, I thought Davis had died. It's a little unusual to use such a dated image of her when she is still alive, especially when we have a more recent and accurate image of her. GuardianH (talk) 21:29, 8 October 2023 (UTC)
 * I mean, they're both accurate, just to different periods, and, as I said, this image is similar to the (presumably unfree) one she chose for her autobiography. But the problem I have is that the more recent ones have some problems. Of them, the best is the 2019, but that's artifically black and white, and cuts off her hair. 2014 is kind of mediocre: Not terrible or anything, but very snapshotty, with questionable composition and rather blurry - shouldn't it at least have more detail than the 1974 photo given camera advances? Meanwhile, 2006 is just bad composition, especially the black shirt and black background creating a floating hand.
 * One purpose of Wikipedia articles is to help direct people to good-quality, free-use images of a person, so we should make the really good ones as prominent as possible, because once someone sees the first image is good, they're more likely to check the other ones out for usage. But if we start with a more amateurish image, it sets a tone, and may send people away from us to look elsewhere for images. Mind, that's all my theory of it.
 * So, basically, I have absolutely no objection in principle to a modern image of her, I just want it to start with a good image of her. If we can find a really good modern image of her, well, I'd like to keep the Gotfryd image in the article - I do think it's valuable - but I have no objection of it being moved to, say, Angela Davis just before the pro-Communist party poster, and the new image being put into the lead. Adam Cuerden (talk)Has about 8.5% of all FPs. 07:32, 10 October 2023 (UTC)
 * Gotfryd is best for the lead. Johnbod (talk) 02:16, 13 October 2023 (UTC)
 * IM THE LEAD NOT HIM 216.48.133.108 (talk) 16:55, 16 February 2024 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Feminist Philosophy
— Assignment last updated by Rabihm24 (talk) 17:50, 4 March 2024 (UTC)

Ancestry edits
There has been a recent spate of edits that appear to be trying to score POV points concerning Davis's ancestry. Some are fascinated by the idea that she may have ancestors from the Mayflower. This isn't a particular distinction.After 400 years there are hundreds of thousands of people (at least) with such ancestry. I probably have such ancestry, for instance. There have also been pointy edits about slave-owners as ancestors. A large proportion of African-Americans have such ancestry, the result of abuse of their forebears by their enslavers. Some of those can easily have ancestry from the Mayflower. Mention of such ancestry as some kind of special distinction or gotcha isn't making the point a lot of editors think they've made.  Acroterion   (talk)   00:15, 19 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Angela Davis


text:
Psyllid

Psyllidae, the jumping plant lice or psyllids, are a family of small plant-feeding insects that tend to be very host-specific, i.e. each plant-louse species only feeds on one plant species (monophagous) or feeds on a few closely related plants (oligophagous). Together with aphids, phylloxerans, scale insects and whiteflies, they form the group called Sternorrhyncha, which is considered to be the most "primitive" group within the true bugs (Hemiptera). They have traditionally been considered a single family, Psyllidae, but recent classifications divide the group into a total of seven families; the present restricted definition still includes more than 70 genera in the Psyllidae. Psyllid fossils have been found from the Early Permian before the flowering plants evolved. The explosive diversification of the flowering plants in the Cretaceous was paralleled by a massive diversification of associated insects, and many of the morphological and metabolic characters that the flowering plants exhibit may have evolved as defenses against herbivorous insects.

Several genera of psyllids, especially among the Australian fauna, secrete coverings called "lerps" over their bodies, presumably to conceal them from predators and parasites.

Genera
The following list is currently subject to review:
 * Acizzia
 * Agonoscena
 * Allocarsidara
 * Arytainilla
 * Blastopsylla
 * Boreioglycaspis
 * Cacopsylla
 * Chamaepsylla
 * Cryptoneossa
 * Ctenarytaina
 * Diaphorina
 * Eucalyptolyma
 * Euphyllura
 * Glycaspis
 * Heteropsylla

 * Prosopidopsylla
 * Psylla
 * Psyllopsis
 * Retroacizzia
 * Tetragonocephela

Higher taxonomy
Some genera, including agriculturally important pest species, have been classed as Psyllidae, but may now classified in the family Triozidae.

Coevolution
Insect-plant interactions have been important in defining models of coevolution and cospeciation, referring to whether plant speciation drives insect speciation and vice versa, though most herbivorous insects probably evolved long after the plants on which they feed.

Status as pests
Citrus greening, also known as huanglongbing, associated with the presence of a bacterium Liberibacter asiaticum, is an example of a plant pathogen that has coevolved with its insect vector, the "Asian citrus psyllid", ACP, Diaphorina citri, such that the pathogen causes little or no harm to the insect, but causes a major disease which can reduce citrus quality, flavor, and production, as well as causing citrus trees to die. ACP was found in Florida in 1998, and has since spread across the southern US into Texas. This disease was found in Florida citrus groves in 2005. Management methods to reduce the spread of this disease and psyllid populations depend on an integrated pest management approach using insecticides, parasitoids, predators, and pathogens specific to ACP. Due to the spread of citrus greening worldwide and the growing importance of psyllid-spread diseases, an International Psyllid Genome Consortium was established. Insect genomics provides important information on the genetic basis of the pest's biology which may be altered to suppress psyllid populations in an environmentally friendly manner. The emerging psyllid genome continues to elucidate psyllid biology, expanding what is known about gene families, genetic variation, and gene expression in insects. Thus far, two new psyllid viruses have been discovered, and are being examined as potential biological control agents to reduce psyllid populations. Psyllid cell cultures have also been established by several researchers working with virus propagation, and as a system to propagate C. liberibacter for molecular studies on infection and replication. Studies on the microbiota have also identified four new species of bacteria. Thus far, 10 microbial organisms have been identified within these psyllids, among them the primary endosymbiont, whose genome has been sequenced and posted at the NCBI database, as well as a Wolbachia species.

title: Psyllid


text:
1847 in Canada

Events from the year 1847 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: Victoria

Federal government

 * Parliament: 2nd (until December)

Governors

 * Governor General of the Province of Canada: Charles Cathcart, 2nd Earl Cathcart (until 30 January); James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin (starting 30 January)
 * Governor of New Brunswick: William MacBean George Colebrooke
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: Lucius Cary, 10th Viscount Falkland
 * Civil Governor of Newfoundland: John Harvey
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Henry Vere Huntley

Premiers

 * Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada —
 * William Henry Draper, Canada West Premier
 * Samuel Harrison, Canada East Premier

Events

 * January 30 – Lord Elgin, Governor, arrives at Montreal.
 * September 1 – Lord Elgin visits the Irish fever sheds at Windmill Point, Montreal, during the typhus epidemic of 1847.
 * September 5 – Kasey banishes Lord Elgin from her kingdom.
 * October 18 – Telegraph Line from Quebec to London, Canada West, complete.
 * October 23 – 65 immigrants die in a week at Pointe St. Charles neighbourhood of Montreal.
 * November 1 – 9,634 deaths of immigrants since 1 January
 * November 19 – The railway from Montreal to Lachine is opened.

Full date unknown

 * St. Lawrence canal system completed. Faster and cheaper than US system, but growing US railroads are now the real threat.
 * Typhus outbreak as over 3,000 immigrants arrive in Bytown (Ottawa) in the height of summer. The Rideau Canal is shut down to prevent further spread of the outbreak. 167 die in quarantine.
 * Outbreak of measles among the Cayuse of the Pacific Northwest.
 * Fort Yukon established.

Births

 * February 25 – John Watson, Canadian philosopher (born in Scotland) (died 1939)
 * March 3 – Alexander Graham Bell, scientist, inventor, engineer and innovator who is credited with inventing the first practical telephone (died 1922)
 * March 12 – George Hope Bertram, politician (born in Scotland) (died 1933)
 * April 18 - Oliver Aiken Howland, lawyer and politician, 31st Mayor of Toronto (died 1905)
 * June 22 – Joseph Bolduc, politician, Speaker of the Senate (died 1924)
 * July 31 – Samuel Bridgeland, politician (died 1903)
 * August 3 – John Hamilton-Gordon, 1st Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, Governor General of Canada (died 1934)
 * September 3 – George Eulas Foster, politician and academic (died 1931)
 * September 8 – Abraham Groves, physician
 * October 9 – William Anderson Black, politician (died 1934)
 * November 1 – Emma Albani, soprano (died 1930)
 * November 3 – George Thomas Baird, politician, Senator for Victoria, New Brunswick (died 1917)
 * November 11 – Adam Carr Bell, politician, Leader of the Opposition of Nova Scotia (died 1912)
 * November 16 – Edmund James Flynn, politician and Premier of Quebec (died 1927)
 * November 24 – Alexander Edmund Batson Davie, politician and 7th Premier of British Columbia (died 1889)
 * December 10 – John M. Baillie, politician, member of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly (died 1913)
 * December 29 – Alexis-Xyste Bernard, Roman Catholic bishop (died 1923)

Full date unknown

 * Phoebe Campbell, convicted murderer (died 1872)

Deaths

 * June 11 – John Franklin, naval officer, Arctic explorer, and author (born 1786)
 * June 13 – Colin Campbell, army officer and colonial administrator (born 1776)

title: 1847 in Canada


text:
1848 in Canada

Events from the year 1848 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch — Victoria

Federal government

 * Parliament: 3rd

Governors

 * Governor General of the Province of Canada — James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin
 * Governor of New Brunswick: William MacBean George Colebrooke
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: Lucius Cary, 10th Viscount Falkland
 * Civil Governor of Newfoundland: John Harvey
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Henry Vere Huntley

Premiers

 * Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada —
 * William Henry Draper, Canada West Premier
 * Samuel Harrison, Canada East Premier
 * Premier of Nova Scotia — James Boyle Uniacke

Events

 * January 2 – Maple sugar is made in St. Anselme.
 * January 15 – Wellington and Commissioners streets in Montreal are flooded.
 * January 27 – Ploughing about Bathurst and Beckwith.
 * March 4 – The so-called Great Ministry of Robert Baldwin and Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine begins.
 * May 15 – MP's vote themselves 50 pounds each for 25 days.
 * July 5 – Run on the Savings Bank, Montreal, followed by re-deposit.
 * September 20 – Opening of the Jesuits' College, Montreal.

full date unknown

 * First telegraph lines in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick.
 * 1848 Newfoundland general election
 * Responsible government established in Nova Scotia and The Canadas.

Births

 * January 19 – John Fitzwilliam Stairs, entrepreneur and statesman (died 1904)
 * February 4 – James Brien, politician and physician (died 1907)
 * February 24 – Grant Allen, science writer, author and novelist (died 1899)
 * March 7 – Isidore-Noël Belleau, politician and lawyer (died 1936)
 * March 24 – Honoré Beaugrand, journalist, politician, author and folklorist (died 1906)
 * April 14 – James Walker, jurist
 * April 23 – George Clift King, politician and 2 Mayor of Calgary (died 1935)
 * May 20 – Joseph-Aldric Ouimet, politician (died 1916)
 * July 18 – Hugh Graham, 1st Baron Atholstan, newspaper publisher (died 1938)
 * October 23 – Joseph Tassé, politician (died 1895)
 * November 24 – William Stevens Fielding, journalist, politician and Premier of Nova Scotia (died 1929)
 * December 21 – George Boyce, politician (died 1930)

Deaths

 * February 1 – John Neilson, publisher, printer, bookseller, politician, farmer, and militia officer (born 1776)

title: 1848 in Canada


text:
Primitive ideal

In mathematics, specifically ring theory, a left primitive ideal is the annihilator of a (nonzero) simple left module. A right primitive ideal is defined similarly. Left and right primitive ideals are always two-sided ideals.

Primitive ideals are prime. The quotient of a ring by a left primitive ideal is a left primitive ring. For commutative rings the primitive ideals are maximal, and so commutative primitive rings are all fields.

Primitive spectrum
The primitive spectrum of a ring is a non-commutative analog of the prime spectrum of a commutative ring.

Let A be a ring and $$\operatorname{Prim}(A)$$ the set of all primitive ideals of A. Then there is a topology on $$\operatorname{Prim}(A)$$, called the Jacobson topology, defined so that the closure of a subset T is the set of primitive ideals of A containing the intersection of elements of T.

Now, suppose A is an associative algebra over a field. Then, by definition, a primitive ideal is the kernel of an irreducible representation $$\pi$$ of A and thus there is a surjection
 * $$\pi \mapsto \ker \pi: \widehat{A} \to \operatorname{Prim}(A).$$

Example: the spectrum of a unital C*-algebra.

title: Primitive ideal


text:
Trillium grandiflorum

Trillium grandiflorum, the white trillium, large-flowered trillium, great white trillium, white wake-robin or trille blanc, is a species of flowering plant in the family Melanthiaceae. A monocotyledonous, herbaceous perennial, the plant is native to eastern North America, from northern Quebec to the southern parts of the United States through the Appalachian Mountains into northernmost Georgia and west to Minnesota. There are also several isolated populations in Nova Scotia, Maine, southern Illinois, and Iowa.

Trillium grandiflorum is most common in rich, mixed upland forests. It is easily recognised by its attractive three-petaled white flowers, opening from late spring to early summer, that rise above a whorl of three leaf-like bracts. It is an example of a spring ephemeral, a plant whose life-cycle is synchronised with that of the deciduous woodland which it favours.

White trillium often occurs in dense drifts of many individuals. The G. Richard Thompson Wildlife Management Area in the Blue Ridge Mountains is renowned for an extensive stand of white trillium that blooms each spring. Over a two square mile area along the Appalachian Trail near Linden, Virginia there is a spectacular annual display of white trilliums estimated at near ten million individuals.

Description
Trillium grandiflorum is a perennial that grows from a short rhizome and produces a single, showy white flower atop a whorl of three leaves. Flowering stems are 20–40 cm tall. The leaves are often called bracts as the "stem" is then considered a peduncle (the rhizome is the stem proper, aboveground shoots of a rhizome are branches or peduncles); the distinction between bracts (found on pedicels or peduncles) and leaves (borne on stems). A single rootstock will often form clonal colonies, which can become very large and dense. The erect, odorless flowers are large, especially compared to other species of Trillium, with 4 to 7 cm long petals, depending on age and vigor. The petals are shaped much like the leaves and curve outward. They have a visible venation, though this is not as heavily marked as on the leaves. Their overlapping bases and curve give the flowers a distinctive funnel shape. Between the veined petals, three acuminate (ending with a long point) sepals are visible; they are usually a paler shade of green than the leaves, and are sometimes streaked with maroon. The flowers are perched on a pedicel (i.e., flower stalk) raising them above the leaf whorl, and grow pinker as they age. The flowers' stigmas are slender, straight or mostly so, narrowing at the end. The white petals are much longer than the green sepals. The flowers have six stamens in two whorls of three, which persist after fruiting. The styles are white and very short compared to the 9 – anthers, which are pale yellow, but become a brighter shade when liberating pollen due to the latter's color. The ovaries are six-sided with three greenish-white stigmas that are at first weakly attached, but fuse higher up. The fruit is a green, mealy and moist orb, and is vaguely six-sided like the ovary.

Taxonomy
Trillium grandiflorum was first described by André Michaux in 1803 as variety grandiflorum of Trillium rhomboideum, a species now regarded as a synonym of Trillium erectum var. erectum. Michaux described the variety as having broadly rhombic leaves, large white petals, and black fruit. The epithet grandiflorum means "large-flowered", a name that well describes Michaux's variety. In 1805, Richard Anthony Salisbury elevated the variety to a full species. As a consequence, and partially by accident, Trillium grandiflorum is commonly known as the large-flowered white trillium.

, the name Trillium grandiflorum (Michx.) Salisb. is widely recognized. The species is a member of the Grandiflorum group, a group of species typified by Trillium grandiflorum itself. The group, which also includes Trillium nivale and Trillium ovatum, is sister to a clade comprising subgenus Sessilia (the sessile-flowered trilliums) and subgenus Delostylis (the Catesbaei group).

, Plants of the World Online (POWO) lists 20 synonyms for Trillium grandiflorum. Although POWO accepts no infraspecific names, numerous varieties and forms have been described. Of these, perhaps the best known is Trillium grandiflorum f. roseum Farw., which was described by Oliver Atkins Farwell in 1920. The flower of forma roseum opens a striking salmon-pink instead of the more typical white. The pink color of the form is warmer and more attractive than the pink induced by aging. It occurs rarely throughout the range of the species, except along the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia where it is locally frequent. The epithet roseum means "rose-like, rose-colored", and so the form is sometimes called the rose trillium.

Trillium grandiflorum, unlike most trilliums, occasionally produces double-flowered forms with more than three petals. T. grandiflorum f. polymerum Vict., a multipetaled form described by Marie-Victorin Kirouac in 1929, occurs rather frequently in this species. Although these wild forms are stable and healthy, the plants usually lack normal floral organs and are therefore completely sterile. The epithet polymerum means "many-parts", which in this case refers to the many flower petals of the form.

Some variants of Trillium grandiflorum have abnormal green markings on the petals (floral virescence), floral organs that take on a leaf-like appearance (phyllody), or other abnormal characteristics. Many of these forms have been given taxonomic names with epithets such as albomarginatum ("white-margined", referring to the petals), foliaceum, ("leaf-like, leafy"), giganteum ("unusually large or tall"), and longipetiolatum ("with long petioles"). A typical example is the variety Trillium grandiflorum var. variegatum E.F.Sm., described by Erwin Frink Smith in 1879. The epithet variegatum ("streaked or spotted with color") refers to its virescent petals, a distinguishing characteristic of this variety. In 1971, it was shown that mycoplasma-like organisms (now called phytoplasmas) were present in all such forms examined (but not in normal plants). The authors concluded that "such plants should now be regarded as diseased T. grandiflorum and the varietal designation of Smith should be considered invalid."

Unlike other species such as Trillium erectum, which hybridize fairly easily, Trillium grandiflorum is not known to form hybrids.

Ecology
Trillium grandiflorum favors well-drained, neutral to slightly acid soils, usually in second- or young-growth forests. In the Northern parts of its range it shows an affinity for maple or beech forests, but has also been known to spread into nearby open areas. Depending on geographical factors, it flowers from late April to early June, just after Trillium erectum. Like many forest perennials, Trillium grandiflorum is a slow growing plant. Its seeds have double dormancy, meaning they normally take at least two years to fully germinate. The seeds are dispersed in late summer, germinating after a cold and then a warm period, producing a root and after another winter the seedling's cotyledon emerges from the soil. Like most species of Trillium, flowering age is determined largely by the surface of the leaf and size of the rhizome instead of age alone. Because growth is very slow in nature, T. grandiflorum typically requires seven to ten years in optimal conditions to reach flowering size, which corresponds to a minimum of 36 cm2 of leaf surface area and 2.5 cm3 of rhizome volume. In cultivation, however, wide disparity of flowering ages are observed.

Pollination and seed dispersal
Trillium grandiflorum has long been thought to self-pollinate based on the fact that pollinators had rarely been observed visiting the plants and because there is low variation in chromosomal banding patterns. This has been strongly challenged, as other studies have shown high pollination rates by bumblebees and very low success of self-pollination in controlled experiments, implying that they are in fact self-incompatible. Several ovules of a given individual often fail to produce seeds. One contributing factor is pollen limitation, and one study showed that open pollinated plants had 56% of their ovules produce seeds, while in hand pollinated individuals the figure was 66%. Plants with reduced exposure to pollinators were 33% to 50% less likely to produce fruits than those that were, while hand pollinated individuals showed a 100% fruit set (though these fruits did not contain a 100% seed set). Plant resources were shown to be a limiting factor in seed production: when pollen was in abundance, larger plants had a significantly greater seed to ovule ratio than smaller ones. The overall suboptimal seed to ovule ratios suggest that Trillium grandiflorum has evolved to maximize reproductive success in the face of highly stochastic pollination, where some plants may only be visited by a single pollinator in a season.

Trillium grandiflorum has been studied extensively by ecologists due to a number of unique features it possesses. It is a representative example of a plant whose seeds are spread through myrmecochory, or ant-mediated dispersal, which is effective in increasing the plant's ability to outcross, but ineffective in bringing the plant very far. This has led ecologists to question how it and similar plants were able to survive glaciation events during the ice ages. The height of the species has also been shown to be an effective index of how intense foraging by deer is in a particular area.

Fruits are released in the summer, containing about 16 seeds on average. These seeds are most typically dispersed by ants, which is called myrmecochory, but yellow jackets (Vespula vulgaris) and harvestmen (order Opiliones) have both been observed dispersing the seeds at lower frequencies. Insect dispersal is aided by the presence of a conspicuous elaiosome, an oil-rich body attached to the seed, which is high in both lipids and oleic acid. The oleic acid induces corpse-carrying behavior in ants, causing them to bring the seeds to their nesting sites as if they were food. As ants visit several colonies of the plant, they bring genetically variable seeds back to a single location, which after germination results in a new population with relatively high genetic diversity. This has the ultimate effect of increasing biological fitness.

Although myrmecochory is by far the most common dispersal method, white-tailed deer have also been shown to disperse the seeds on rare occasions by ingestion and defecation. While ants only move seeds up to about 10 meters, deer have been observed to transport the seeds over 1 kilometer. This helps to explain post-agricultural colonization of forest sites by Trillium grandiflorum, as well as long distance gene flow which has been detected in other studies. Furthermore, it helps resolve what has been called "Reid's paradox", which states that migration during glaciation events must have been impossible for plants with dispersal rates under several hundred meters per year, such as Trillium grandiflorum. Thus occasional long distance dispersal events, such as by deer, probably helped save this and other species with otherwise short distance dispersal ability from extinction during the glaciations of the ice ages. Furthermore, nested clade analysis of cpDNA haplotypes has shown that Trillium grandiflorum is likely to have persisted through the last glacial period in two sites of refuge in the southeastern United States and that long distance dispersal was responsible for the post-glacial recolonization of northern areas.

In addition to the lateral dispersion (by invertebrates and deer) there is also importance in the fact that burial (vertical dispersion) by ants (or other vectors) increases the survival of new plants by two mechanisms. First, vertical dispersion ensures sufficient depth to preserve the seeds through their dormancy (trillium seeds are normally dormant for their first year). Second, vertical dispersion ensures adequate anchorage of the rhizomes. This is particularly important for young plants because their small rhizomes, with few & short roots, are easily dislodged (e.g. frost heaveal and other erosion factors) and desiccated.

Interaction with deer
Trillium grandiflorum as well as other trilliums are a favored food of white-tailed deer. Indeed, if trilliums are available deer will seek these plants, with a preference for T. grandiflorum, to the exclusion of others. In the course of normal browsing, deer consume larger individuals, leaving shorter ones behind. This information can be used to assess deer density and its effect on understory growth in general.

When foraging intensity increases, individuals become shorter each growing season due to the reduction in energy reserves from less photosynthetic production. One study determined that the ideal deer density in northeastern Illinois, based on T. grandiflorum as an indicator of overall understory health, is 4 to 6 animals per square kilometer. This is based on a 12 to 14 cm stem height as an acceptable healthy height. In practice, deer densities as high as 30 deer per square kilometers are known to occur in restricted or fractured habitat where natural control mechanisms (that is, predators like wolves) are lacking. Such densities, if maintained over more than a few years, can be very damaging to the understory and lead to extinction of some local understory plant populations.

Disease
Trillium grandiflorum is susceptible to a greening disorder caused by bacterial organisms called phytoplasmas that alter the morphology of infected plants. Symptoms of phytoplasma infection include abnormal green markings on the petals (floral virescence), extra leaves (phyllody), and other abnormal characteristics. Infected populations occur throughout the species range but are prevalent in Ontario, Michigan, and New York.

For many years, this condition was thought to originate from mutation, and so many of these forms were given taxonomic names now known to be invalid. In 1971, Hooper, Case, and Meyers used electron microscopy to detect the presence of mycoplasma-like organisms (i.e., phytoplasmas) in T. grandiflorum with virescent petals. The means of transmission was not established but leafhoppers were suspected. , the insect vector for the disorder is unknown.

Phytoplasmas were positively identified in T. grandiflorum and T. erectum in Ontario in 2016 and later confirmed in 2019. Phylogenetic analysis supported the grouping of the phytoplasmas isolated from infected plants as a related strain of 'Candidatus Phytoplasma pruni' (subgroup 16SrIII-F) with 99% sequence identity. This subgroup of phytoplasmas is associated with various other diseases, including milkweed yellows, Vaccinium witches' broom, and potato purple top.

Conservation
Some forms of the species have pink instead of white petals, while others with extra petals, also called "double" forms, are naturally quite common in the species, and these are especially popular with trillium gardeners. In fact, the species is the most popular of its genus in cultivation, which has led to conservation concerns due to the majority of commercially available plants being collected from the wild. A few regional governments in Canada and the United States have declared the plant vulnerable as a result. In Quebec, Trillium grandiflorum is legally listed as vulnerable primarily due to habitat destruction in forests neighboring the province's most populous regions. In New York, Trillium grandiflorum is exploitably vulnerable since it is "likely to become threatened in the near future throughout all or a significant portion of its range within the state if causal factors continue unchecked" (NYCRR §193.3).

Due to the popularity of Trillium grandiflorum as a garden specimen, conservation concerns have been raised as the vast majority of plants sold in commercial nurseries are believed to be collected from the wild. Indeed, there is little indication of any commercial nursery growth. Frederick and Roberta Case, botanists who specialize in trilliums, wrote in 1997, "to our knowledge, no true commercial quantity 'propagation' takes place at the present time." Such heavy collecting, combined with other pressures such as habitat destruction and grazing, may effectively endanger the plants in some areas.

, Trillium grandiflorum is globally secure. The species is vulnerable in Quebec, Georgia, and Illinois; and critically imperiled in Nova Scotia, Alabama, New Jersey, and South Carolina. In Maine, where its presence has not been verified in over 20 years, Trillium grandiflorum is listed as potentially extirpated.

Cultivation
Trillium grandiflorum is one of the most popular trilliums in cultivation, primarily because of the size of its flowers and its relative ease of cultivation. Although not particularly demanding, its cultivation is a slow and rather uncertain process, due to usually slow growth, wide variations in growth speed and sometimes capricious germination rates. As a result, the vast majority of plants and rhizomes in commerce are collected in the wild, and such heavy collecting, combined with other pressures such as habitat destruction and grazing, may effectively endanger the plants in some areas. This also creates tensions between Trillium enthusiasts and conservation proponents. Transplantation (as with almost all non-weedy wild plants) is a delicate process, and in many cases results in the death of the plant. In cultivation, T. grandiflorum may flower in as little as 4 to 5 years after germination (compared to the usual 7 to 10 in the wild), but these cases appear to be exceptions rather than the rule. One study revealed 20 or so individuals performing so well out of about 10,000 seeds planted, only 20% of which germinated after a year. However, barring plant destruction, T. grandiflorum can continue flowering every year after it has begun. It is winter hardy in USDA zones 4-8.

A double-flowered cultivar, T. grandiflorum 'Pamela Copeland', was introduced to cultivation at the Mount Cuba Center and named for Mrs. Pamela du Pont Copeland, the center's founder.

This plant has gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Uses
The leaves were cooked and eaten by some Native Americans. The subterranean rootstalks were also chewed for various medical purposes.

Culture
The large white trillium is a well-known and popular American flower. The Trillium species most often observed by citizen scientists is T. grandiflorum.

The flower's common name, wake-robin, was the title of American naturalist and essayist John Burroughs's first essay collection, Wake-Robin.

As a particularly conspicuous forest flower, T. grandiflorum was designated the provincial floral emblem of Ontario in 1937 (Floral Emblem Act), and as the state wild flower of Ohio in 1987. Professional soccer teams from Toronto and Columbus compete for the Trillium Cup every year.

As an official symbol of Ontario, a stylized trillium flower features prominently in the wordmark of the Government of Ontario and on the official flag of the province's French-speaking minority. Government agencies and programs also frequently incorporate the word "trillium" in their names, such as the Trillium Gift of Life Network (organ donation management agency) and the Trillium Book Award (an annual literary award sponsored by the provincial government). It is also frequently used by the Canadian Heraldic Authority to represent Ontario in grants of arms. Although a network of laws make picking wildflowers illegal in the province on any Crown or provincially owned land, it is not, unlike widely believed, specifically illegal (or necessarily harmful) to pick the species in Ontario.

title: Trillium grandiflorum


text:
Talk:Jacobson radical

Untitled
Isn't this list somewhat redundant? A left primitive ideal is the same thing as the annihilator of a simple left module.

Waltpohl 04:57, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Two quotes from the text:

- The Jacobson radical of any field is {0}. The Jacobson radical of the integers is {0}.

- Unless R is the trivial ring {0}, the Jacobson radical is always a proper ideal in R

{0} is not a proper ideal. A field is not the trivial ring. What is going on? Juryu 16:28, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Proper ideal of ring R here is evidently being used to mean ideal not equal to R.--CSTAR 17:02, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

Rings without identity
Listed under 'Properties' is this statement: "Unless R is the trivial ring {0}, the Jacobson radical is always an ideal in R distinct from R". The Jacobson radical of R may be equal to R in a ring without identity. -- Heath 69.174.67.197 15:14, 11 October 2006 (UTC)

Some comments on the changes
Thanks for doing these changes - the article looks a lot better. I don't think so many references are needed, however. According to WP:BURDEN, "All quotations and any material challenged or likely to be challenged" need an inline citation. Simple factual statements in articles such as this don't need them - a cursory scan doesn't reveal any controversial material. I think the better option would be to reference Isaacs' book in a References section at the end - happy for more experienced editors to correct me, however. I also removed the 'precisely' from the first sentence, as it seemed redundant.

I'm worried about it being written too much like a textbook in some places, such as "These notions are of course imprecise, but at least explain why the nilradical of a commutative ring is contained in the ring's Jacobson radical." I'm not sure what would be better here. --Joth (talk) 20:48, 7 July 2009 (UTC)
 * Thankyou very much for your input. With regards to inline citations, I think you are correct. I will attempt to trim down some of the citations. It is best, in my view, if we reference more than one source. Once this is done, there is no need for repeating citations from the same author. On the other hand, I think that some inline citations are necessary, especially for the definition and various characterizations; although fewer are necessary that the current number.
 * I do not think that the article resembles a textbook in any particular way, although I could be wrong. The quote which you picked out is from the "intuitive discussion" section. When writing this article, I am trying to follow WP:MTAA to some extent, so that people who know what a ring is may understand this concept. I thought that it would be best to include an "intuitive" section so that such people could benefit. However, that section is not perfect, as well as being imprecise at times. I will try to rewrite it soon.
 * In general, I have expanded this article with the model, locally connected space, in mind. I think that that article has quite a few references also, but certainly not as many as this one. -- PS T  00:45, 8 July 2009 (UTC)
 * There is clearly a glut of references. Not every single sentence of the article needs to be referenced.  One that stands out as particularly bizarre is the citation for the statement that J(R) will denote the Jacobson radical in this article.  However, I do generally favor having references for specific statements of fact, like a proposition or theorem.  Given that most of the article is sourced to just a few pages out of the Isaacs, it might be better to source entire paragraphs or sections rather than individual sentences anyway. Sławomir Biały (talk) 16:01, 9 July 2009 (UTC)

Too much like a text, not enough like an encyclopedia article
I want to point out that -- as with many math articles on wikipedia -- this one currently works well from an instructional perspective but not from an encyclopedic perspective. I am currently writing course notes on non-commutative algebra, and I wanted a reference to the original work of Jacobson in which the Jacobson radical is introduced. Not only does the current article not give any indication of this, it does not include any primary source material whatsoever. This is a problem...In fact, I have just looked back at the article and cannot find any link, reference or hint that the Jacobson radical is named after Nathan Jacobson! Plclark (talk) 20:33, 20 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Since this edit last year the article has stated that this radical is named after Nathan Jacobson. It says so in the last paragraph of the introduction.  I do agree with your comment on the lack of historical references, though. Ozob (talk) 00:02, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

 * Thanks for pointing out the reference to Nathan Jacobson, which I had missed. Perhaps I missed it because it is several paragraphs down in the lede and appears in a paragraph which is concerned with the Jacobson radical for non-unital rings!  Note also that the fact that "Jacobson was the first to study it" is a conspicuously unsourced assertion in an article that is otherwise meticulous to the point of fastidious with its sourcing.  As a quick fix I moved this sentence to the end of the first paragraph.  There is still a pointed lack of history and primary sources here.  For what it's worth, I believe Jacobson's original paper is:

N. Jacobson, \emph{The radical and semi-simplicity for arbitrary rings.} Amer. J. Math. 67 (1945), 300--320.

 * Perhaps someone who is good with such things could add this to the article. Plclark (talk) 16:38, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I added the technical parts in a believable way using the smallest changes I could. Feel free to organize them differently. JackSchmidt (talk) 17:40, 21 June 2011 (UTC)

Bourbaki reference
The current reference is useless: "Bourbaki. Éléments de Mathématique." Looking that up in mathsci.net gets you 70+ hits, and even with the right book a page should be given. I can't see a reference to it right now either, so it may just be best to delete it. Rschwieb (talk) 00:50, 26 June 2011 (UTC)

Reorganizing the article
Can the topmost introductory section be shortened, and the more technical contents merged with the sections below? This alone may help to diminish the glut of 19 references in the intro. As it is now, I feel the beginning contains too much information. My philosophy is that the opening section should be as brief and clear as possible, and that the details should be organized into the body of the article. I am not really familiar with the popular philsophy for mathematics wiki articles, so it would be nice to get some feedback here on the idea. Rschwieb (talk) 13:55, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I agree. I think the current lede isn't well-focused on basic information that the reader needs and instead drifts too far into technical details.  All of the content in it is good, just misplaced.  Ozob (talk) 21:27, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

 * I might take a run at it in the next few days. Rschwieb (talk) 21:50, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

OK, started making big edits. For reference I am preserving an original copy at User:Rschwieb/JacobsonRadicalJune30-2011. Some large sections will be merely commented out. I will do my best to maintain all the material and to keep everything fully referenced. Rschwieb (talk) 16:24, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

 * It looks much better already: good work! Can you or someone else focus some attention on the "intuition" section?  A lot of it seems to be one person's personal thought processes about the Jacobson radical, which does not seem at all appropriate for an encyclopedia article.  There's a place for intuition: I am currently teaching a short graduate course on non-commutative algebra, and in class I said that the Jacobson radical is a "black hole around zero: if you're in the Jacobson radical you can't escape: multiplying by any element of the ring you are still so close to zero that when you add one you're so close to one that you're invertible".  But I did not put this in my lecture notes... Plclark (talk) 20:10, 30 June 2011 (UTC)
 * Thank you! I will defer altering/removing the intuition section to more experienced teachers and editors.  I find the most useful intuition to be about radicals being "bad" elements, but that of course is not unique to the Jacobson radical. As for the rest, I'm not sure it's really that helpful.  Maybe one possible workaround could be to copy it to an offsite page and link it in the references.  One good thing about this is that other mathematicians could contribute their own intuitions as well, if they can contact the site owner. Rschwieb (talk) 21:06, 30 June 2011 (UTC)

Terminology in "intuitive explanation"
It is not clear what is a "module internal to the ring" or "act as a unit". Also, the connection alluded to between nilradical and Jacobson radical is very unclear and mostly just adds confusion. As I have no idea what it should mean, I can't quite fix it. 94.112.136.34 (talk) 17:08, 15 April 2014 (UTC)

 * This section should probably be renamed, and edited. What is "intuitive" is highly subjective.  Also, the notion of "bad" element is highly POV.  --345Kai (talk) 20:35, 12 April 2016 (UTC)

 * Does anyone mind if I remove this section or strongly edit it? I think the "bad" terminology is confusing and misdirects the reader. Furthermore, it seems to be motivated mainly by nilpotents, which is only part of the story for what Jacobson radicals "are" Wundzer (talk) 21:31, 24 December 2020 (UTC)

 * (Late reply) The problem here is that it seems unreferenced. It is nice if we can motivate the notion, but that motivation has to be sourced by well-established texts. -- Taku (talk) 00:58, 8 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Hey Taku, thanks for the input. I need to go through Hartshorne + Eisenbud for the correct references, but https://web.ma.utexas.edu/users/a.debray/lecture_notes/m392c_Raskin_AG_notes.pdf has a bunch of good applications of Nakayama's lemma (these should go into that article). I wonder if either of those references mention these relationships with the Jacobson radical. Otherwise, do you think it's fine to just cite Nakayama's lemma, and state how the Jacobson radical relates there? Wundzer (talk) 18:07, 8 January 2021 (UTC)
 * No, I don't think the applications of Nakayama's lemma should be in this article. Nakayama's lemma is usually used for a local commutative ring and in that case the Jacobson radical is just the unique maximal ideal. The applications in the case of a local ring should thus be in the article local ring (or the Nakayama lemma article itself). The focus of this article should be the non-commutative case. -- Taku (talk) 01:40, 10 January 2021 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 02:15, 5 May 2016 (UTC)

I don't understand the first paragraph of "Geometric applications".
Specifically, I don't understand how is the fact that a basis of a fiber at a point of a vector bundle extends to a basis of sections over a neighborhood of that point related in any way to Nakayama lemma or to the Jacobson radical. Mamuka Jibladze (talk) 12:57, 26 March 2022 (UTC)

 * Nakayama's lemma has a probably more understandable explanation of this. -- Taku (talk) 11:24, 31 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jacobson radical


text:
Hunky punk

A hunky punk is a grotesque carving on the side of a building, especially Late Gothic churches. Such features are especially numerous in Somerset (in the West Country of England).

Though similar in appearance to a gargoyle, a hunky punk is purely decorative, with no other functional purpose (often referred to as a grotesque). A gargoyle is not strictly a hunky punk, because a gargoyle serves to drain water off the roof through its mouth. An example might be found at the corner of a church tower, along the coping ridge below any castellations. Often there are carvings on each corner, yet the roof may only drain in one direction and so there might be three hunky punks and one true gargoyle.

Hunky punks are often short squatting figures typical of those found in some Somerset churches; however, hunky punks come in many shapes and sizes, mostly in middle to late medieval construction onwards. Some theories consider that the balance of good and evil in church design was to remind worshippers of the narrow path they tread, which was present in everything. This supposes that, for every good and benign creature (such as a saint or an animal) to signify purity, there had to be an opposite to bring out the fear of evil. In York Minster, for example, the carvings in the chapter house, which are particularly obscene and which were supposedly created as caricatures of the then dean and chapter, were put there above the seats to create an opposite to each occupant, who one might like to assume was not in fact the foul person their carvings made them out to be.

The origin of the term hunky punk has been ascribed to the words ' (meaning 'es') and ' ('short-legged').

Examples
The church tower of St Mary the Virgin, Isle Abbotts has eight hunky punks around its top. They depict a person playing the bagpipes, a lion-dog (Chinese guardian lion), a goat, a dragon, a Chinese dragon, a primitive dragon, a winged lion and a lion.

title: Hunky punk


text:
1849 in Canada

Events from the year 1849 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch — Victoria

Federal government

 * Parliament: 3rd

Governors

 * Governor General of the Province of Canada — Lord Elgin
 * Colonial Governor of Newfoundland — Charles Henry Darling
 * Governor of New Brunswick — Edmund Walker Head
 * Governor of Nova Scotia — Sir John Harvey
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island — Dominick Daly

Premiers

 * Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada —
 * William Draper, Canada West Premier
 * Samuel Harrison, Canada East Premier
 * Premier of Nova Scotia — James Boyle Uniacke

Events

 * January 1 – King's College becomes the University of Toronto
 * February 10 – The Governor, Ministers, MPs and Montreal's council visit St. Hyacinthe, on the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad.
 * April 7 – A large fire engulfs Toronto's downtown section. Started at 1 a.m. of an unknown cause, it started behind a tavern in the market section catching some hay then spread rapidly before destroying numerous buildings, including St. James cathedral. Flames could be seen from across Lake Ontario at St. Catharines, 40 km distant.
 * April 25 – For sanctioning the Rebellion Losses Bill, Lord Elgin is mobbed by Tories and the Parliament House in Montreal is burned.
 * May – The Hayes House in Dalhousie Square leased for Parliamentary purposes. The parliament is to sit alternately in Quebec City and Toronto.
 * May 29 – Gen. Rowan, Administrator.
 * July – A delegation of Anishinaabe chiefs petition Lord Elgin to address the encroachment of mining interests on the shore of Lake Superior and north shore of Lake Huron in the absence of a formal treaty.
 * September 17 – The Stony Monday Riot takes place in Bytown
 * October 11 – The Montreal Annexation Manifesto is published
 * December 26 – Electors ask J. McConnell, M.P.P. for Stanstead, if he favours annexation, which they believe will, alone, relieve depression.

Full date unknown

 * The Beauharnois Canal, just southwest of Montreal is opened.
 * The boundary at the 49th parallel is extended to the Pacific Ocean (bisecting Point Roberts, Washington).
 * The Courthouse Rebellion is launched by the Red River Métis.
 * An Act of Amnesty provides for William Lyon Mackenzie's return from exile in the U.S.

Births

 * January 5 – Sam Steele, soldier and member of the North-West Mounted Police (died 1919)
 * February 21 – Edouard Deville, cartographer and Surveyor General of Canada (died 1924)
 * May 6 – Wyatt Eaton, painter (died 1896)
 * July 12 – William Osler, physician (died 1919)
 * July 22 – Charles Mickle, politician (died 1919)
 * August 1 – George Mercer Dawson, scientist and surveyor (died 1901)
 * October 17 – William Mackenzie, railway contractor and entrepreneur (died 1923)
 * November 13 – Charles Constantine, North-West Mounted Police officer and superintendent (died 1912)
 * November 20 – Francis Haszard, jurist, politician and Premier of Prince Edward Island (died 1938)
 * November 28 – Henry Joseph Walker, politician and merchant (died 1918)
 * November 30 – Lemuel John Tweedie, politician and 9th Premier of New Brunswick (died 1917)
 * December 18 – Henrietta Edwards, women's rights activist and reformer (died 1931)

Deaths

 * March 27 – Archibald Acheson, 2nd Earl of Gosford, colonial administrator (born 1776)
 * October 6 – Eulalie Durocher, Catholic nun (born 1811)

title: 1849 in Canada


text:
Alexander Williamson

Alexander Williamson may refer to:

 * Alexander William Williamson (1824–1904), chemist who discovered the Williamson ether synthesis reaction
 * Alexander Williamson (missionary) (1829–1890), Scottish Protestant missionary to China with the London Missionary Society
 * Alexander Watt Williamson (1849–1928), New Zealand schoolteacher
 * Alexander Williamson (colonial administrator) from 1897 Diamond Jubilee Honours

title: Alexander Williamson


text:
1850 in Canada

Events from the year 1850 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch — Victoria

Federal government

 * Parliament: 3rd

Governors

 * Governor General of the Province of Canada — James Bruce, 8th Earl of Elgin
 * Colonial Governor of Newfoundland — Charles Henry Darling
 * Governor of New Brunswick — Edmund Walker Head
 * Governor of Nova Scotia — John Harvey
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island — Dominick Daly

Premiers

 * Joint Premiers of the Province of Canada —
 * Robert Baldwin, Canada West Premier
 * Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine, Canada East Premier
 * Premier of Nova Scotia — James Boyle Uniacke

Events

 * January 14 – Malcolm Cameron visits Washington, D.C. about a trade reciprocity agreement.
 * September 7 – After tense negotiations, the first of the Robinson Treaties, the Robinson-Superior Treaty, is signed. This treaty between William Benjamin Robinson and an assembly of Ojibwe chiefs from the shore of Lake Superior creates a system of Indian reserves and ultimately opens up the area to European settlement.
 * September 9 – The second of the Robinson Treaties, the Robinson-Huron Treaty, is signed between Robinson and the Ojibwe chiefs of Lake Huron. The Lake Huron chiefs, led by Shingwaukonse, are more resistant to the signing of the treaty as they are more familiar with the treaty system and are more threatened by encroachment from Europeans, as well as having tense relations with the Canada West government following the Mica Bay Incident.
 * October 11 – The St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad opens.

Full date unknown

 * In the United States, the Fugitive Slave Act is passed. It provides that even free persons can be made a slave if suspected of being a runaway. As a result, more fugitive slaves and free Black persons come to Canada.
 * The site of John By's headquarters during the construction of the Rideau Canal is incorporated as Bytown.
 * Gold discovered in British Columbia, and coal on Vancouver Island.
 * The Canadian government passes the Railway Guarantee Act.

January to June

 * January 27 – Louis-Philippe Hébert, sculptor (died 1917)
 * March 7 – Éphrem-A. Brisebois, police officer (died 1890)
 * April 15 – William Thomas Pipes, politician and Premier of Nova Scotia (died 1909)
 * April 29 – George Murdoch, politician and 1st Mayor of Calgary (died 1910)
 * March 13 – Hugh John Macdonald, politician, Minister and 8th Premier of Manitoba (died 1929)
 * May 1 – Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn, 10th Governor General of Canada (died 1942)
 * May 6 – Joseph-Hormisdas Legris, politician and Senator (died 1932)

July to December

 * July 11 – John Augustus Barron, politician and lawyer (died 1936)
 * September 27 – William Pugsley, lawyer, politician and 10th Premier of New Brunswick (died 1925)
 * December 15 – Joseph-Alphonse Couture, veterinarian
 * December 31 – John Wycliffe Lowes Forster, artist (died 1938)

Full date unknown

 * Daniel J. Greene, politician and Prime Minister of Newfoundland (died 1911)
 * Charles Braithwaite, politician and agrarian leader (died 1910)

Deaths

 * February 23 – Matthew Whitworth-Aylmer, 5th Baron Aylmer, army officer and colonial administrator (born 1775)
 * April 23 – William Wordsworth, poet (born 1770)

title: 1850 in Canada