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Jawi script

Jawi (Jawoë; Kelantan-Pattani: Yawi; ) is a writing system used for writing several languages of Southeast Asia, such as Acehnese, Malay, Mëranaw, Minangkabau, Tausūg, and Ternate. Jawi is based on the Arabic script, consisting of all 31 original Arabic letters, six letters constructed to fit phonemes native to Malay, and one additional phoneme used in foreign loanwords, but not found in Classical Arabic, which are ca ($⟨⟩$ ), nga ($⟨⟩$ ), pa ($⟨⟩$ ), ga ($⟨⟩$ ), va ($⟨⟩$ ), and nya ($⟨⟩$ ).

Jawi was developed during the advent of Islam in Maritime Southeast Asia, supplanting the earlier Brahmic scripts used during Hindu-Buddhist era. The oldest evidence of Jawi writing can be found on the 14th century Terengganu Inscription Stone, a text in Classical Malay that contains a mixture of Malay, Sanskrit and Arabic vocabularies. There are two competing theories on the origins of the Jawi alphabet. Popular theory suggests that the system was developed and derived directly from the Arabic script, while scholars like R. O. Windstedt suggest it was developed with the influence of the Perso-Arabic alphabet.

The ensuing trade expansions and the spread of Islam to other areas of Southeast Asia from the 15th century carried the Jawi alphabet beyond the traditional Malay-speaking world. Until the 20th century, Jawi was the standard script of the Malay language, and gave birth to traditional Malay literature when it featured prominently in official correspondences, religious texts, and literary publications. With the arrival of Western influence through colonization and education, Jawi was relegated to religious education, with the Malay language eventually adopting a form of the Latin alphabet called Rumi that is currently in general usage.

Today, Jawi is one of two official scripts in Brunei. In Malaysia, the position of Jawi is protected under Section 9 of the National Language Act 1963/67, as it retains a degree of official use in religious and cultural contexts. In some states, most notably Kelantan, Terengganu and Pahang, Jawi has co-official script status as businesses are mandated to adopt Jawi signage and billboards. Jawi is also used as an alternative script among Malay communities in Indonesia and Thailand.

Until the early 20th century, there was no standard spelling system for Jawi. The earliest orthographic reform towards a standard system was in 1937 by The Malay Language and Johor Royal Literary Book Pact. This was followed by another reform by Za'aba, published in 1949. The final major reform was the Enhanced Guidelines of Jawi Spelling issued in 1986, which was based on the Za'aba system. Jawi can be typed using the Jawi keyboard.

Etymology
The word Jawi (جاوي) is a shortening of the term in الجزائر الجاوي, which is the term used by Arabs for Nusantara. The word jawi is a loanword from ꦗꦮꦶ which is Javanese Krama word to refer to the Java Island or Javanese people.

According to Kamus Dewan, Jawi (جاوي) is a term synonymous to 'Malay'. The term has been used interchangeably with 'Malay' in other terms including Bahasa Jawi or Bahasa Yawi (Kelantan-Pattani Malay, a Malayan language used in Southern Thailand), Masuk Jawi (literally "to become Malay", referring to the practice of circumcision to symbolise the coming of age), and Jawi pekan or Jawi Peranakan (literally 'Malay of the town' or 'Malay born of', referring to the Malay-speaking Muslims of mixed Malay and Indian ancestry). With verb-building circumfixes men-...-kan, menjawikan (literally to make something Malay), also refers to the act of translating a foreign text into Malay language. The phrase Tulisan Jawi that means Jawi script is another derivative that carries the meaning 'Malay script'.

Early history

Prior to the onset of Islamisation, the Pallava script, Nagari, and old Sumatran scripts were used in writing the Malay language. This is evidenced from the discovery of several stone inscriptions in Old Malay, notably the Kedukan Bukit inscription and Talang Tuo inscription. The spread of Islam in Southeast Asia and the subsequent introduction of Arabic writing system began with the arrival of Muslim merchants in the region since the seventh century. Among the oldest archaeological artefacts inscribed with Arabic script are; a tombstone of Syeikh Rukunuddin dated 48 AH (668/669 CE) in Barus, Sumatra; a tombstone dated 290 AH (910 CE) on the mausoleum of Syeikh Abdul Qadir Ibn Husin Syah Alam located in Alor Setar, Kedah; a tombstone found in Pekan, Pahang dated 419 AH (1026 CE); a tombstone discovered in Phan Rang, Vietnam dated 431 AH (1039 CE); a tombstone dated 440 AH (1048 CE) found in Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei; and a tombstone of Fatimah Binti Maimun Bin Hibat Allah found in Gresik, East Java dated 475 AH (1082 CE). Islam was spread from the coasts to the interior of the island and generally in a top-down process in which rulers were converted and then introduced more or less orthodox versions of Islam to their peoples. The conversion of King Phra Ong Mahawangsa of Kedah in 1136 and King Merah Silu of Samudra Pasai in 1267 were among the earliest examples.

At the early stage of Islamisation, the Arabic script was taught to the people who had newly embraced Islam in the form of religious practices, such as the recitation of Quran as well as salat. The Arabic script was accepted by the Malay community together with their acceptance of Islam and was adapted to suit spoken Classical Malay. Six letters were added for sounds not found in Arabic: ca, pa, ga, nga, va and nya. Some Arabic letters are rarely used as they represent sounds not present in modern Malay however may be used to reflect the original spelling of Arabic loanwords. The sounds represented by these letters may be assimilated into sounds found in Malay's native phoneme inventory or in some instances appear unchanged. Like the other Arabic scripts, some letters are obligatorily joined while some are never joined. This was the same for the acceptance of Arabic writing in Turkey, Persia and India which had taken place earlier and thus, the Jawi script was then deemed as the writing of the Muslims.

The oldest remains of Malay using the Jawi script have been found on the Terengganu Inscription Stone, dated 702 AH (1303 CE), nearly 600 years after the date of the first recorded existence of Arabic script in the region. The inscription on the stone contains a proclamation issued by the "Sri Paduka Tuan" of Terengganu, urging his subjects to "extend and uphold" Islam and providing 10 basic Sharia laws for their guidance. This has attested the strong observance of the Muslim faith in the early 14th century Terengganu specifically and the Malay world as a whole.

The development of Jawi script was different from that of Pallava writing which was exclusively restricted to the nobility and monks in monasteries. The Jawi script was embraced by the entire Muslim community regardless of class. With the increased intensity in the appreciation of Islam, scriptures originally written in Arabic were translated in Malay and written in the Jawi script. Additionally local religious scholars later began to elucidate the Islamic teachings in the forms of original writings. Moreover, there were also individuals of the community who used Jawi for the writing of literature which previously existed and spread orally. With this inclusion of written literature, Malay literature took on a more sophisticated form. This was believed to have taken place from the 15th century and lasted right up to the 19th century. Other forms of Arabic-based scripts existed in the region, notably the Pegon alphabet used for Javanese in Java and the Serang alphabet used for Buginese in South Sulawesi. Both writing systems applied extensive use of Arabic diacritics and added several letters which were formed differently from Jawi letters to suit the languages. Due to their fairly limited usage, the spelling system of both scripts did not undergo similar advanced developments and modifications as experienced by Jawi.

The spread and extent of Jawi script

The script became prominent with the spread of Islam, supplanting the earlier writing systems. The Malays held the script in high esteem as it is the gateway to understanding Islam and its Holy Book, the Quran. The use of Jawi script was a key factor driving the emergence of Malay as the lingua franca of the region, alongside the spread of Islam. It was widely used in the Sultanate of Malacca, Sultanate of Johor, Sultanate of Maguindanao, Sultanate of Brunei, Sultanate of Sulu, Sultanate of Pattani, the Sultanate of Aceh to the Sultanate of Ternate in the east as early as the 15th century. The Jawi script was used in royal correspondences, decrees, poems and was widely understood by the merchants in the port of Malacca as the main means of communication. Early legal digests such as the Undang-Undang Melaka Code and its derivatives including the Codes of Johor, Perak, Brunei, Kedah, Pattani and Aceh were written in this script. It is the medium of expression of kings, nobility and the religious scholars. It is the traditional symbol of Malay culture and civilisation. Jawi was used not only amongst the ruling class, but also the common people. The Islamisation and Malayisation of the region popularised Jawi into a dominant script.

Royal correspondences for example are written, embellished and ceremoniously delivered. Examples of royal correspondences still in the good condition are the letter between Sultan Hayat of Ternate and King John III of Portugal (1521), the letter from Sultan Iskandar Muda of Acèh Darussalam to King James I of England (1615), and the letter from Sultan Abdul Jalil IV of Johor to King Louis XV of France (1719). Many literary works such as epics, poetry and prose use the Jawi script. It is the pinnacle of the classic Malay civilisation. Historical epics such as the Malay Annals, as listed by UNESCO under Memories of the World, are among the countless epics written by the Malay people. The Sufic poems by Hamzah Fansuri and many others contributed to the richness and depth of the Malay civilisation. Jawi script was the official script for the Unfederated Malay States when they were British protectorates.

Jawi today

Today, Jawi is one of the official scripts of Brunei. In Malaysia, it is used for religious and cultural administration in the states of Terengganu, Kelantan, Kedah, Perlis, Penang, Pahang and Johor. Various efforts were in place to revive the Jawi script in Malaysia and Brunei due to its role in the Malay and Islamic spheres. Jawi is also seen on the reverse of Malaysian ringgit and Brunei dollar banknotes. Malays in Patani still use Jawi today for the same reasons.

In Malaysia
In August 2019, the Malaysian Government's plans to introduce the teaching of Jawi at the most basic level in ethnic Chinese and Tamil vernacular schools attracted opposition from ethnic Chinese and Indian education groups, which claimed that the move would lead to an Islamization of the Malaysian education system. The Chinese educationist group Dong Jiao Zong organised a conference calling on the Malaysian Government to rescind its decision in late December 2019. Perhaps fearing violence, the Royal Malaysia Police obtained a court injunction against it on the grounds it would trigger ethnic tensions.

The state government of Kedah in Malaysia has long defended the use of Jawi in the state. The Menteri Besar of Kedah has denied the allegation that the state government was trying to create an Islamic state ambience by promoting the use of Jawi in 2008, saying that it is a normal occurrence evidenced by Chinese coffeeshops and pawnshops having signboards written in Jawi. This can further be seen later on when the Kedah state government has shown its support with Johor state government's move to use Jawi in official matters in 2019. The exco of local authority of the state of Kedah had also stated that the Jawi script in billboards in Kedah is not forbidden, but rather recommended. He claims that the recommendation to use Jawi script has been gazetted in the state law, and that it has been part of the state identity to have billboards in Jawi script in addition to other scripts. He also stated that there are high demands in incorporating Jawi script in billboards in Kedah.

Kuantan, the state capital of Pahang in Malaysia has introduced the usage of Jawi on all signage across the city from 1 August 2019. This was done after a recommendation from the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who was then the Regent of Pahang, to uphold usage of the writing system. The Pahang state government has since expanded the order and made it mandatory for every signage statewide including road signs to display Jawi alongside other scripts from 1 January 2020 after being delayed a few times. Premises that fail to comply with this order will be fined up to a maximum of RM250, with the possibility of revocation of their business licences if they still do not comply afterwards. In the early stage, usage of Jawi stickers are allowed to put on existing signage instead of replacing the whole signage.

In Indonesia
Indonesia, having multiple regional and native languages, uses the Latin script for writing its own standard of Malay in general. Nonetheless, the Jawi script does have a regional status in native Malay areas such as Riau, Riau archipelago, Jambi, South Sumatra (i.e Palembang Malay language), Aceh, and Kalimantan (i.e. Banjar language). This is due to the fact that regional and native languages are compulsory studies in the basic education curriculum of each region (examples include Javanese for Javanese regions, Sundanese for Sundanese regions, Madurese for Maduranese regions, and Jawi for Malay regions). Jawi script is widely used in Riau and Riau Island province, where road signs and government building signs are written in this script. A sister variant called Pegon is used to write Javanese, Sundanese, and Madurese and is still widely used in traditional religious schools across Java, but has been supplanted in common writing by the Latin alphabet and, in some cases, Javanese script and Sundanese script.

Letters

 * Letters with no initial and middle forms adopt either isolated or final form, because they cannot be joined with suffixing letter.
 * The letter hamzah may also appear in its three-quarter form "" (hamzah tiga suku), above alif "أ", below alif "إ" or housed (above ya "ئ" or wau "ؤ").[e]

Spelling
Modern Jawi spelling is based on the Daftar Kata Bahasa Melayu (DKBM): Rumi-Sebutan-Jawi dictionary. Older texts may use different spellings for some words. Nonetheless, even different modern sources may use different spelling conventions; they may differ especially in the usage of the matres lectionis (alif ا, wau و and ya ي) and the hamzah tiga suku, as well as in the spelling of vowels and consonant clusters in loanwords from English. One source tends to use the following conventions; there are numerous exceptions to them nonetheless.

 * Loanwords may be spelled differently. Particularly, loanwords from Arabic often keep their original spellings.

 * The letters sa ث, ha ح, kha خ, zal ذ, sad ص, dad ض, ta ط, za ظ, ain ع, ghain غ, and ta marbutah ة are mostly used to spell Arabic loanwords, e.g., Selasa ثلاث, huruf حروف, khabar خبر, fasal فصل, darurat ضرورة, talak طلاق, zohor ظهر, saat ساعة, ghaib غيب, sunat سنة, khasiat خصية. The letter va ۏ is mostly used to spell English loanwords, e.g., universiti اونيۏرسيتي. The letters zai ز, syin ش, fa ف, and ye ى are mostly used to spell loanwords from English, Arabic or Dutch, e.g., zoo زو, zapin زاڤين, syif شيف, syukur شکور, filem فيلم, fakir فقير, nasionalisme ناسيوناليسمى, and takwa تقوى.

 * Rumi x used to spell loanwords from English may be spelled using different Jawi letters, depending on pronunciation, e.g., kaf-sin کس in X-ray ايکس-راي or zai ز in xenon زينون.

 * The letter syin ش is also used to represent $⟨sh⟩$ especially for words derived from Classical Malay language, e.g., مهاريشي maharishi; and loanwords, e.g., شيرڤا Sherpa.

 * Native Malay root morphemes with Rumi k in the syllable coda are glottal stops (pronounced ) and are written with qaf ق, e.g., tengok تيڠوق, laksa لقسا, baiklah بايقله, kotakku کوتقکو, kotakmu کوتقمو. Loanwords where the Rumi k is derived from Western languages are spelled with kaf: the initial and medial forms use the glyph ک, e.g., klinik کلينيک and teksi تيکسي. The final k form can be either ک or ك, as in the variant spelling of klinik کلينيك; the latter glyph is often found in old signboards.

 * The letter fa ف was historically used to represent (Jawi: pa ڤ) and such usage may still be found in archaic Jawi spellings. This is because  is a non-native consonant in Malay found only in loanwords and in the past was often approximated as a.

 * Though there are exceptions, vowels and diphthongs tend to be spelled this way:

 * When spelling vowels, there are many exceptions to the conventions stated above and below. Common exceptions include ada اد, di د, dia دي, dan دان, ia اي, jika جک, juga جوݢ, lima ليم, ke ک, kita کيت, mereka مريک, ini اين, itu ايت, pada ڤد, suka سوک, and tiga تيݢ.
 * Some words spelled distinctly in Rumi may be homographs in Jawi, e.g., sembilan and sambilan are both سمبيلن, markah and merekah are both مرکه, sesi and sisi are both سيسي, biro and biru are both بيرو, borong and burung are both بوروڠ, and golong and gulung are both ݢولوڠ.
 * Using or omitting alif ا when representing in closed syllables and in the last letter of a root morpheme:

 * When representing, alif ا is mostly omitted in CVC-syllables.

 * However, it is usually not omitted in monosyllabic words that start with wau و, e.g., wau واو, wap واڤ, wang واڠ.

 * It is also usually not omitted in root morphemes which first syllable is open and contains and which second syllable is closed and begins with, e.g., words with a /Ce.waC/ structure (where each C is a consonant) like lewah ليواه, mewah ميواه, dewan ديوان, tewas تيواس, rewang ريواڠ, gewang ݢواڠ, sewat سيوات, kelewang کليواڠ, kedewas کديواس, dewangga ديواڠݢ.

 * Final alif ا is generally kept to represent  at the end of a word.

 * However, in native Malay disyllabic root morphemes with the form /Ca.C*a/ [Ca.C*ə], where /C*/ is any of the following 12 consonants ba ب, ta ت, pa ڤ, sin س, ga ݢ, nun ن, nya ڽ, ca چ, kaf ک, jim ج, mim م, ya ی (mnemonic: betapa segannya cik jam بتاڤ سݢنڽ چيق جم), final alif ا is not written, e.g., raba راب, mata مات, sapa ساڤ, rasa راس, raga راݢ, mana مان, hanya هاڽ, baca باچ, raya راي, baka باک, raja راج, nama نام, and sama سام.

 * Some native Malay trisyllabic root morphemes ending with, with three open syllables and which include the abovementioned 12 consonants, may also omit the final alif ا.

 * As the final letter of a word, root morpheme-final that is spelled with e in Rumi may be represented by ye ى in Jawi. In the middle of a word, root morpheme-final  that is spelled with e in Rumi may be represented by alif ا in Jawi instead, e.g., fatwa فتوى → memfatwakan ممفتواکن, metabolisme ميتابوليسمى → memetabolismekan ممتابوليسماکن.
 * The hamzah may be used to spell some diphthongs. Sources differ as to whether and when it should be on the line ء, or placed above the previous mater lectionis, such as in alif with hamzah above أ, or even if it should be used at all in some words.

 * Furthermore, it may be used to represent a hiatus, or a glottal stop, especially when (but not limited to) separating vowels at the boundary of a root morpheme and an affix, e.g., dato` داتو, baik بايق, mulai مولاي, bau باو, daun داون, laut لاوت, peperiksaan ڤڤريقسان, kemerdekaan کمرديکان, diambil دأمبيل, dielakkan دأيلقکن, diertikan دأرتيکن, diikuti دأيکوتي, diolah دأوله, diutamakan دأوتاماکن, keadaan کأدان, keempat کأمڤت, keindahan کأيندهن, keupayaan کأوڤايان, seakan-akan سأکن-اکن, seekor سأيکور, seorang سأورڠ, e-mel إي-ميل, eh! إيه!, ateisme اتيئيسمى, diet ديئت.

 * Arabic numerals are the preferred form for writing numerals in Jawi script, Eastern Arabic numerals are generally not used (except when indicating plural words, i.e., askar-askar = عسکر٢).

 * Full reduplication of a base word is represented with the numeral ٢, e.g., anak-anak انق٢, while the suffixed reduplication of a base word is represented with the hyphen "-", e.g., berhati-hati برهاتي-هاتي, sayur-sayuran سايور-سايورن, and gunung-ganang ݢونوڠ-ݢانڠ.

 * Punctuation marks used in written Jawi are as follows:

Examples
Akin to the Arabic script, Jawi is constructed from right-to-left. Below is an exemplification of the Jawi script extracted from the first and second verse of the notable Ghazal untuk Rabiah, غزال اونتوق ربيعة (English: A Ghazal for Rabiah).

title: Jawi script


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Public-interest immunity

Public-interest immunity (PII), previously known as Crown privilege, is a principle of English common law under which the English courts can grant a court order allowing one litigant to refrain from disclosing evidence to the other litigants where disclosure would be damaging to the public interest. This is an exception to the usual rule that all parties in litigation must disclose any evidence that is relevant to the proceedings. In making a PII order, the court has to balance the public interest in the administration of justice (which demands that relevant material is available to the parties to litigation) and the public interest in maintaining the confidentiality of certain documents whose disclosure would be damaging. PII orders have been used in criminal law against large organised criminal outfits and drug dealers where the identity of paid police informants could be at risk.

Seeking the order
An order that PII applies would usually be sought by the British government to protect official secrets, and so can be perceived as a gagging order. Where a minister believes that PII applies, he signs a PII certificate, which then allows the court to make the final decision on whether the balance of public interest was in favour of disclosure or not. Generally, a court will allow a claim of PII without inspecting the documents: only where there is some doubt will the court inspect the documents to decide whether PII applies.

Originally, a government minister was under a duty to advance a PII point where PII could be relevant, and the court took a certificate from a minister claiming PII as final and conclusive. However, over time, there has been an increase in both the ability of a minister to make a disclosure, notwithstanding the potential application of PII, and the ability of the courts to review a claim of PII. In Conway v Rimmer [1968], the House of Lords held that the courts retained the final decision on whether PII should be upheld, and, in R v Chief Constable of West Midlands, ex parte Wiley [1995], the House of Lords decided that a minister could discharge his duty by making his own judgment of where the public interest lies (that is, to disclose or to assert PII). In practice, this is thought to have led to a reduction in the number of cases when PII is asserted.

History
PII was previously known as Crown privilege, and derived from the same principle as the sovereign immunity of the Crown from prosecution before the Crown Proceedings Act 1947. However, PII is not limited to the Crown (see the NSPCC case mentioned below), and cannot be waived save in exceptional circumstances.

A number of PII certificates were signed in relation to the prosecutions of individuals involved in the Matrix Churchill "Arms to Iraq" case, a subject that was subsequently investigated in the Scott Report.

Examples

 * Duncan v Cammell Laird and Co Ltd [1942] AC 624. The submarine HMS Thetis (N25) sank on 1 June 1939 during sea trials with the loss of 99 lives. The families of the sailors who had been killed in the disaster claimed damages from the builders, Cammell Laird. The House of Lords upheld a certificate issued by the Admiralty claiming PII in relation to the plans of the submarine. The House of Lords also held that the courts should take a PII certificate at face value.
 * Tomlinson v HMG. In 1995, former MI6 officer Richard Tomlinson attempted to bring MI6 before an employment tribunal to seek compensation for unfair dismissal. MI6 argued that this would "damage national security" and obtained a PII certificate from the then foreign secretary Sir Malcolm Rifkind to block Tomlinson's application. Tomlinson argued vociferously that the real reason that MI6 obtained the PII certificate was to cover up their incompetent and dishonest personnel management.
 * Conway v Rimmer [1968]. The House of Lords held that the courts are the final arbiters of whether PII applies or not.
 * D v National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children [1978] AC 171. The NSPCC investigated an allegation that D was mistreating her child. D claimed damages, and sought documents from the NSPCC to identify who had made the allegation. The House of Lords upheld the NSPCC's claim of PII, since its legitimate role in protecting the welfare of children was clearly in the public interest and would be threatened by disclosure.
 * Air Canada v Secretary of State for Trade [1983] 2 AC 384. A group of airlines claimed that the British Airports Authority had unlawfully increased landing fees at the instigation of a government minister. The minister disclosed some documents, but claimed PII in respect of others. The House of Lords decided not to inspect the disputed documents, holding that inspection was only required if they were "reasonably likely" to assist or damage a party's case.
 * R v Chief Constable of West Midlands, ex parte Wiley [1995] 1 AC 274. The House of Lords decided that a minister could discharge his duty by making his own judgment of where the public interest lies, and was not obliged to claim PII in all cases where it may be applicable.
 * The Scott Inquiry in 1996 found that public interest immunity certificates had been issued which withheld from defence counsel certain documents which would have exonerated the defendants in the Matrix Churchill trial.
 * R v Paul Burrell [2002]. A public-interest immunity certificate allowed the prosecution to apply to the judge for a ruling that disclosure of certain information would be harmful to the public interest and should not be made public.
 * R v Hicks, Nute and Rowe [2002]. A public-interest immunity certificate was presented to the court by the Crown Prosecution Service after about ten minutes of this hearing. A possible reason for the introduction of the PII certificate was that the Duchy of Cornwall refuses to reveal the circumstances under which it transferred several of its properties (including Tintagel Castle) to the care of English Heritage.
 * R v Yam [2008] (trial of Wang Yam for the murder of Allan Chappelow). In December 2007 the Crown Prosecution Service indicated it would ask for this trial for murder, burglary and deception to be held "in camera", making it the first UK murder trial ever heard behind closed doors without access by press or public. A public-interest immunity certificate was sought by the Home Secretary Jacqui Smith; it was reported by The Times on 13 December 2007 that the grounds were "on the basis of protecting national security interests and to protect the identity of informants". A further order was made under the Contempt of Court Act 1981 prohibiting the press from any speculation as to the reasons for parts of the trial being held in private. In the Court of Appeal on 28 January, the "gagging order" was upheld, with the Lord Chief Justice insisting that a fair trial would be possible even if some or all of it is held "in camera".
 * R (Mohamed) v Foreign Secretary [2010]
 * During the public inquiry into the Horizon scandal, it came to light that two lawyers for the Post Office who were conducting a prosecution of a sub-postmaster in Birmingham crown court had persuaded the judge to allow them, on grounds of public interest immunity, not to disclose to the defence a report by forensic accountants which alleged prosecutorial misconduct by the Post Office in similar cases. This was unusual in that Post Office Ltd was a private company, albeit one entrusted with a public function.

European Convention on Human Rights
Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights protects the right to a fair trial; an "implied" right stemming from this is that of "equality of arms" – the idea that hearings should be adversarial and both parties should have access to the same evidence and witnesses. The European Court of Human Rights has held that Article 6 (especially the "implied" rights) is not an absolute right and that measures restricting the rights of the defence so as to safeguard an important public interest are lawful if "strictly necessary".

It is of note that fewer PII certificates have been issued in recent years. For example, MI6 have not succeeded in obtaining a PII certificate since the 1995 Tomlinson case, and have thus been subject to court scrutiny for investigations such as the inquest into the death of the Princess of Wales, and allegations that their officers partook in torture.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Public-interest immunity


text:
Dasani

Dasani is an American-based brand of bottled water created by the Coca-Cola Company, launched in 1999. It is one of many brands of Coca-Cola bottled water sold around the world. The product is filtered and bottled.

United States
Coca-Cola uses water from local municipal water supplies, filters it using the process of reverse osmosis, and adds trace amounts of minerals, including magnesium sulfate (Epsom salt), potassium chloride and sodium chloride (table salt).

Coca-Cola announced that they would be distributing Dasani water in new packaging comprising 30% plant-derived plastics. Unlike other plant-based packaging, the bottles are compatible with standard recycling plants and represent up to a 25% reduction in carbon emissions compared to standard water bottles, though this still represents an energy consumption two thousand times that of tap water.

Canada
Dasani was launched in all provinces of Canada except Quebec in 2000, a year after launching in the United States. The brand was made available in Quebec shortly afterwards, in April 2001.

There are six common Dasani bottle sizes sold in Canada: 355 mL (12 US fl oz), 500mL, 591 mL (20 US fl oz), 710 mL (24 US fl oz), 1 L, and 1.5 L. Bottles are sold individually and in packs of 6, 12, and 24.

The first Dasani bottling plant in Canada was in Calgary, Alberta. A second plant was later opened in Brampton, Ontario. The Calgary and Brampton plants produce Coca-Cola's plain-water (Dasani) and sugar-water (soft drinks) products. The company's administrative and marketing activities continue to be based in Atlanta, Georgia.

Dasani has <35 ppm of total dissolved mineral salts.

Latin America
Dasani was introduced to the Brazilian market in mid-2003, renamed as Aquarius. It was introduced to the Chilean market in 2005, including releases in regular, lemon and tangerine flavors. It was released in Colombia in late 2005 with their three regular flavors. In 2005, Dasani was introduced in the Argentinian market with the flavours peach, lemon, citrus and regular. It was also released under the name Ciel Dasani in Mexico in four flavours: lemon-cucumber, papaya-carrot, grapefruit and mandarin-green tea, but it was discontinued in 2006. It was also released in Peru, Ecuador, Paraguay, Uruguay and Honduras.

United Kingdom
Dasani was launched in the UK on 10 February 2004. The product launch was labelled "a disaster", a "fiasco", and a "PR catastrophe".

Prior to the launch, an article in The Grocer trade magazine had stated that the source of the Dasani brand water was treated tap water from Sidcup, a suburban area on the outskirts of London. By early March 2004, the mainstream press had picked up the story and it became widely reported that Sidcup tap water, after being processed, was being sold under the Dasani brand name in the UK. Although Coca-Cola never stated that the water was being sourced from a spring or other natural sources, they marketed it as being especially "pure". This led the Food Standards Agency (FSA) to request Hillingdon trading standards officers to launch an investigation into whether the claim was accurate.

Richard May, Chief Publicity Officer of Dasani, was said to be disappointed that the water had not been more successful.

On 18 March 2004, UK authorities found a batch was contaminated with levels of bromate, a suspected human carcinogen, in a concentration above the legal limit for sale, although the FSA announced there was "no immediate risk to public health" from the contamination. Coca-Cola immediately recalled half a million bottles and withdrew the "Dasani" brand from the UK market.

The launch, and later contamination scandal, drew comparisons in the press with a 1992 episode of popular sitcom Only Fools and Horses, "Mother Nature's Son" in which lead character Del Boy (David Jason) hatches a scheme selling tap water bottled in his council flat in Peckham—nine miles from Sidcup. As a result, Coca-Cola cancelled plans to expand the brand to continental Europe.

In line with the 2012 Summer Olympics and being the official drink sponsor, Coca-Cola decided not to reintroduce the Dasani brand to the UK market, and purchased the Morpeth, Northumberland-based Abbey Well bottler in 2008, branded under the Schweppes brand name (to which Coca-Cola holds the UK rights) to provide a locally sourced water brand for the event. To meet Olympic branding regulations, Abbey Well water was labeled as "Still Water" for on-camera appearances during the Games.

Africa
Dasani has authorised the Hyper Psaro group to bottle, distribute, and produce branded bottled water in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nonetheless, the logo and packaging appears different than that of those products in the United States though it is still considered a Coca-Cola product.

Filtration and purification process
This filtration process consists of a multi-barrier treatment system reverse osmosis, and nanofiltration to remove impurities. Coca-Cola claims that this process provides a consistent taste, though the content within the bottles may vary across the world, depending on their source, despite frequent testing to ensure they meet FDA standards for purified water. Some states allow bottled water plants to meet Safe Drinking Water Act standards instead, so not even all Dasani bottles may be held to the same standard.

Environmental issues
Dasani sources water from municipal pool water in California locations, even during drought years. Coca-Cola is not required to report how much water it processes and bottles at these plants. Bottled water is an exception to the rule about how much water can be taken out of the Great Lakes Basin. Bottled water takes extra energy to produce from filtration, production of bottles, and transportation costs.

Aluminum bottles and cans
In the summer of 2019, Coke announced that Dasani would become available in aluminum cans. This new line began in the Northeast US in September, and should spread through the rest of the US in 2020. This will not entirely replace their production of plastic bottles. Whether this is environmentally beneficial can be argued: aluminum is more often and more efficiently recycled, but producing one aluminum can produce 1,300g carbon dioxide emissions, which is much more than the 330g it takes to produce one plastic bottle of the same size. Less power is needed to transport and refrigerate canned beverages, which reduces the carbon footprints of cans. Additionally, although 69% of aluminum cans are recycled worldwide, this percentage is significantly lower for plastic.

PureFill
In 2019, Coke announced Dasani Purefill, a program in which customers can refill their bottles with filtered water for free. Adding flavors or carbonation will cost extra. This is predicted to reduce the number of bottles used.

PlantBottle
Coke released a Dasani bottle composed of both plants and recycled plastic, which they say will reduce their plastic bottle production by 1 billion plastic bottles over the next 5 years. This PlantBottle is still recyclable, just like PET plastic. The composition of this bottle will be up to 50% recycled plastic, up to 30% plants, and new plastic. This makes Coca-Cola the largest bioplastic user in the world. Coca-Cola plans to eventually switch to 100% bio-plastic bottles.

Carbon footprint
Having multiple bottling water facilities across the world reduces energy used for transportation. Cans have a larger carbon footprint than plastic bottles, so this switch to aluminum cans may overall increase Dasani's carbon footprint.

"How2Recycle" Labels
In 2020, Dasani will premier new labels for their bottles with instructions on recycling, referred to as "How2Recycle" labels. The "How2Recycle" label was invented by the Sustainable Packaging Coalition and GreenBlue, and can already be found on other products.

Health issues and water contaminants
Dasani water has been found to contain microplastics. Microplastics may be linked to diabetes, heart disease, obesity, cancer, reproductive problems, and attention deficit disorder and many more disorders/diseases.

Grand Canyon
Plastic bottles account for 30% of the waste in the Grand Canyon, where Dasani water is the water sold by the parks. The National Park Service considered banning plastic bottles in the park. The Grand Canyon officially banned bottled water in 2012.

title: Dasani


text:
Rab (island)

Rab [ɾâːb] (Arba, Arba, Arbe, Arbey) is an island in the northern Dalmatia region in Croatia, located just off the northern Croatian coast in the Adriatic Sea.

The island is 22 km long, has an area of 93.6 km2 and 9,328 inhabitants (2011). The main settlement on the island is the eponymous town of Rab, although the neighboring village of Palit has the biggest population. The highest peak is Kamenjak at 408 m. The northeastern side of the island is mostly barren, karst, while the southwestern side is covered by one of the last oak forests of the Mediterranean.

Ferries connect the island of Rab with the mainland port of Stinica and with the neighbouring islands of Krk and Pag. European Coastal Airlines offered multiple daily connections by seaplane from Rab to Zagreb and to Rijeka via Rijeka Airport in Omišalj on the neighboring island of Krk, until it ceased operations in 2016.

Name
The island of Rab was first mentioned in a Greek source Periplus of Pseudo-Scylax (360 BC) and then by other Greek and Roman geographists by the name Arba. That name belonged to the Liburnians, so far the oldest known inhabitants of the island. Arba was also the name of the Liburnian settlement in the modern city of Rab. It is not certain how old this name is; it may be as old as the settlement, which means from the beginning of the Iron Age since the Liburnians did not build the city walls on the island. The Illyrian-Liburnian word Arb meant 'dark, obscure, green, forested'. Therefore, name Arba should be comprehended as a toponym meaning "Black island", due to the rich pine forests that once grew on the island.

After the 1st century AD, it was recorded by many other Greek and Roman authors by the names Arba and Arva.

Its Medieval Dalmatian-speaking population used Arbe, Arbia, Arbiana, Arbitana and most frequently Arbum in the documents written in the Latin.

Arbe became also the Venetian name of the city in the 15th century when it fell under the authority of the Republic of Venice.

In Croatian it became Rab, a form which probably goes back as far as the 7th century when the Slavs began to settle on the island. However, the first record of the name Rab is preserved only in the middle of the 15th century (in a Latin document relating to the establishment of the Franciscan monastery of St. Eufemija), since the major establishment of Croatian inhabitants in the city did not occur before the 10th century, unlike the rest of the island and region.

History
The island is first heard of under the Illyrians in 360 BC. It was part of Liburnia and then part of the Roman Empire. The emperor Octavian Augustus built town walls and gave Rab the title of Municipium.

Saint Marinus, the founder of the mini-state of San Marino, originated on Rab, whence he fled during the religious persecutions of the Emperor Diocletian (this ancient tie is commemorated in the present twin-city agreement between Rab and San Marino).

The earliest bishop of Arba whose name is preserved in an extant document is Titianus, a participant in a council held in 532 Salona, the metropolitan see of which Arba was a suffragan. Among the signatories of the Second Council of Nicea was a bishop of Rab, namely Ursus. (“Ursus episcopus Avaritianensium ecclesiae” Ursus of Rab) On 17 October 1154, Arba was attached instead to the archdiocese of Zadar. By the papal bull Locum Beati Petri of 30 June 1828, the history of the diocese as a residential see came to an end and its territory was united with that of Krk. No longer a residential bishopric, Arba is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.

During the Middle Ages, Rab was one of the Dalmatian city-states and remained part of the Byzantine Empire, with various degrees of autonomy. For a short time, it formed a part of the medieval Kingdom of Croatia. In 1000 the island, together with the many other islands and cities of Dalmatia, submitted to the Republic of Venice. In 1358 the island came under the rule of King Louis the Great, the Angevin ruler of Hungary.

During the Renaissance it was ruled by Venice from 1409 until the end of the 18th century followed by a brief interlude under Napoleon. It was eventually annexed by the Habsburgs in 1815 and remained under Austrian rule till 1918.

Since a majority of its residents were Italian speakers, the locals sought to be annexed to the Kingdom of Italy, but Italy eventually decided to cede the island to Yugoslavia in 1921, and many of its Italian-speaking residents subsequently left for Istria and the rest of Italy.

During World War II, the forces of Fascist Italy established the Rab concentration camp on the island. A memorial complex built in 1953 commemorates the site of the former camp, located in the village of Kampor.

After the Second World War, the island was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia until the Croatian independence referendum in 1991.

The island of Rab is rich in cultural heritage and cultural-historical monuments that make it a popular vacation destination. Rab is also known as a pioneer of naturism after the visit of King Edward VIII and Wallis Simpson.

The island is nowadays very popular with tourists and families for its beautiful nature, beaches, heritage and many events, particularly the Rab arbalest tournament and the Rab Medieval festival called Rapska Fjera.

Twin cities

 * 🇸🇮 Sežana, Slovenia
 * 🇩🇪 Königsbrunn, Germany
 * 🇸🇲 San Marino, San Marino

title: Rab (island)


text:
User:74Noel

who

title: User:74Noel


text:
Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy

FSF does not endorse Debian anymore
The last sentence in the opening section says: "Several distributions employ the FSF-endorsed name, such as Debian, Trisquel and Parabola GNU/Linux-libre." but GNU no longer endorses Debian, so this should be corrected. It is not included in their list of endorsed distros, and they even explain why here. --Blue.painting (talk) 20:59, 29 August 2019 (UTC)

 * The FSF has never endorsed Debian, that is not what the section is about, it is about the distros using the "GNU/Linux" naming that FSF endorses. - Ahunt (talk) 23:57, 29 August 2019 (UTC)
 * Blue.painting has a point though; the wording could be confusing. I've changed the wording to ensure it doesn't cause any misunderstanding. SebastianTalk - 23:27, 21 April 2020 (UTC)
 * I think that actually makes it more confusing, not less. Let me give it a try on clarification. - Ahunt (talk) 00:07, 22 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Thanks &, I think this change to "the name that the FSF prefers" indeed does make it more clear. - Blue.painting (talk) 07:26, 24 April 2020 (UTC)

Ethical hacking
Ethical hacking 2402:8100:3846:9FCB:1:1:408:676B (talk) 11:23, 28 March 2022 (UTC)

Pronunciation
"particularly when using Stallman's preferred pronunciation" - which is?? (guessing he might pronounce G-N-U, but either reference it, or don't mention it) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.98.131.223 (talk) 09:27, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

 * Like this. - Ahunt (talk) 12:19, 27 April 2022 (UTC)

Article name
Doesn't the article name kinda endorse GNU/Linux as the "correct" name? Why not use something more neutral like "Linux-based operating system naming controversy"? 64.193.85.1 (talk) 21:29, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * The name is "GNU/Linux naming controversy" meaning that use of the term "GNU/Linux" is the controversy. - Ahunt (talk) 21:41, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:GNU/Linux naming controversy


text:
Endosome

Endosomes are a collection of intracellular sorting organelles in eukaryotic cells. They are parts of the endocytic membrane transport pathway originating from the trans Golgi network. Molecules or ligands internalized from the plasma membrane can follow this pathway all the way to lysosomes for degradation or can be recycled back to the cell membrane in the endocytic cycle. Molecules are also transported to endosomes from the trans Golgi network and either continue to lysosomes or recycle back to the Golgi apparatus.

Endosomes can be classified as early, sorting, or late depending on their stage post internalization. Endosomes represent a major sorting compartment of the endomembrane system in cells.

Function
Endosomes provide an environment for material to be sorted before it reaches the degradative lysosome. For example, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) is taken into the cell by binding to the LDL receptor at the cell surface. Upon reaching early endosomes, the LDL dissociates from the receptor, and the receptor can be recycled to the cell surface. The LDL remains in the endosome and is delivered to lysosomes for processing. LDL dissociates because of the slightly acidified environment of the early endosome, generated by a vacuolar membrane proton pump V-ATPase. On the other hand, epidermal growth factor (EGF) and the EGF receptor have a pH-resistant bond that persists until it is delivered to lysosomes for their degradation. The mannose 6-phosphate receptor carries ligands from the Golgi destined for the lysosome by a similar mechanism.

Types
There are three different types of endosomes: early endosomes, late endosomes, and recycling endosomes. They are distinguished by the time it takes for endocytosed material to reach them, and by markers such as Rabs. They also have different morphology. Once endocytic vesicles have uncoated, they fuse with early endosomes. Early endosomes then mature into late endosomes before fusing with lysosomes.

Early endosomes mature in several ways to form late endosomes. They become increasingly acidic mainly through the activity of the V-ATPase. Many molecules that are recycled are removed by concentration in the tubular regions of early endosomes. Loss of these tubules to recycling pathways means that late endosomes mostly lack tubules. They also increase in size due to the homotypic fusion of early endosomes into larger vesicles. Molecules are also sorted into smaller vesicles that bud from the perimeter membrane into the endosome lumen, forming intraluminal vesicles (ILVs); this leads to the multivesicular appearance of late endosomes and so they are also known as multivesicular endosomes or multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Removal of recycling molecules such as transferrin receptors and mannose 6-phosphate receptors continues during this period, probably via budding of vesicles out of endosomes. Finally, the endosomes lose RAB5A and acquire RAB7A, making them competent for fusion with lysosomes.

Fusion of late endosomes with lysosomes has been shown to result in the formation of a 'hybrid' compartment, with characteristics intermediate of the two source compartments. For example, lysosomes are more dense than late endosomes, and the hybrids have an intermediate density. Lysosomes reform by recondensation to their normal, higher density. However, before this happens, more late endosomes may fuse with the hybrid.

Some material recycles to the plasma membrane directly from early endosomes, but most traffics via recycling endosomes.

 * Early endosomes consist of a dynamic tubular-vesicular network (vesicles up to 1 μm in diameter with connected tubules of approx. 50 nm diameter). Markers include RAB5A and RAB4, Transferrin and its receptor and EEA1.
 * Late endosomes, also known as MVBs, are mainly spherical, lack tubules, and contain many close-packed intraluminal vesicles. Markers include RAB7, RAB9, and mannose 6-phosphate receptors. In addition to this, the late endosomal membrane (and consequently the lysosome) contains a peculiar and unique lipid named BMP or LBPA, which is not found in any other organelle membrane.
 * Recycling endosomes are concentrated at the microtubule organizing center and consist of a mainly tubular network. Marker; RAB11.

More subtypes exist in specialized cells such as polarized cells and macrophages.

Phagosomes, macropinosomes and autophagosomes mature in a manner similar to endosomes, and may require fusion with normal endosomes for their maturation. Some intracellular pathogens subvert this process, for example, by preventing RAB7 acquisition.

Late endosomes/MVBs are sometimes called endocytic carrier vesicles, but this term was used to describe vesicles that bud from early endosomes and fuse with late endosomes. However, several observations (described above) have now demonstrated that it is more likely that transport between these two compartments occurs by a maturation process, rather than vesicle transport.

Another unique identifying feature that differs between the various classes of endosomes is the lipid composition in their membranes. Phosphatidyl inositol phosphates (PIPs), one of the most important lipid signaling molecules, is found to differ as the endosomes mature from early to late. PI(4,5)P2 is present on plasma membranes, PI(3)P on early endosomes, PI(3,5)P2 on late endosomes and PI(4)P on the trans Golgi network. These lipids on the surface of the endosomes help in the specific recruitment of proteins from the cytosol, thus providing them an identity. The inter-conversion of these lipids is a result of the concerted action of phosphoinositide kinases and phosphatases that are strategically localized

Pathways
There are three main compartments that have pathways that connect with endosomes. More pathways exist in specialized cells, such as melanocytes and polarized cells. For example, in epithelial cells, a special process called transcytosis allows some materials to enter one side of a cell and exit from the opposite side. Also, in some circumstances, late endosomes/MVBs fuse with the plasma membrane instead of with lysosomes, releasing the lumenal vesicles, now called exosomes, into the extracellular medium.

There is no consensus as to the exact nature of these pathways, and the sequential route taken by any given cargo in any given situation will tend to be a matter of debate.

Golgi to/from endosomes
Vesicles pass between the Golgi and endosomes in both directions. The GGAs and AP-1 clathrin-coated vesicle adaptors make vesicles at the Golgi that carry molecules to endosomes. In the opposite direction, retromer generates vesicles at early endosomes that carry molecules back to the Golgi. Some studies describe a retrograde traffic pathway from late endosomes to the Golgi that is mediated by Rab9 and TIP47, but other studies dispute these findings. Molecules that follow these pathways include the mannose-6-phosphate receptors that carry lysosomal hydrolases to the endocytic pathway. The hydrolases are released in the acidic environment of endosomes, and the receptor is retrieved to the Golgi by retromer and Rab9.

Plasma membrane to/from early endosomes (via recycling endosomes)
Molecules are delivered from the plasma membrane to early endosomes in endocytic vesicles. Molecules can be internalized via receptor-mediated endocytosis in clathrin-coated vesicles. Other types of vesicles also form at the plasma membrane for this pathway, including ones utilising caveolin. Vesicles also transport molecules directly back to the plasma membrane, but many molecules are transported in vesicles that first fuse with recycling endosomes. Molecules following this recycling pathway are concentrated in the tubules of early endosomes. Molecules that follow these pathways include the receptors for LDL, epidermal growth factor (EGF), and the iron transport protein transferrin. Internalization of these receptors from the plasma membrane occurs by receptor-mediated endocytosis. LDL is released in endosomes because of the lower pH, and the receptor is recycled to the cell surface. Cholesterol is carried in the blood primarily by (LDL), and transport by the LDL receptor is the main mechanism by which cholesterol is taken up by cells. EGFRs are activated when EGF binds. The activated receptors stimulate their own internalization and degradation in lysosomes. EGF remains bound to the EGF receptor (EGFR) once it is endocytosed to endosomes. The activated EGFRs stimulate their own ubiquitination, and this directs them to lumenal vesicles (see below) and so they are not recycled to the plasma membrane. This removes the signaling portion of the protein from the cytosol and thus prevents continued stimulation of growth - in cells not stimulated with EGF, EGFRs have no EGF bound to them and therefore recycle if they reach endosomes. Transferrin also remains associated with its receptor, but, in the acidic endosome, iron is released from the transferrin, and then the iron-free transferrin (still bound to the transferrin receptor) returns from the early endosome to the cell surface, both directly and via recycling endosomes.

Late endosomes to lysosomes
Transport from late endosomes to lysosomes is, in essence, unidirectional, since a late endosome is "consumed" in the process of fusing with a lysosome (sometimes called endolysosome ).Hence, soluble molecules in the lumen of endosomes will tend to end up in lysosomes, unless they are retrieved in some way. Transmembrane proteins can be delivered to the perimeter membrane or the lumen of lysosomes. Transmembrane proteins destined for the lysosome lumen are sorted into the vesicles that bud from the perimeter membrane into endosomes, a process that begins in early endosomes. The process of creating vesicles within the endosome is thought to be enhanced by the peculiar lipid BMP or LBPA, which is only found in late endosomes, endolysosomes or lysosomes. When the endosome has matured into a late endosome/MVB and fuses with a lysosome, the vesicles in the lumen are delivered to the lysosome lumen. Proteins are marked for this pathway by the addition of ubiquitin. The endosomal sorting complexes required for transport (ESCRTs) recognise this ubiquitin and sort the protein into the forming lumenal vesicles. Molecules that follow these pathways include LDL and the lysosomal hydrolases delivered by mannose-6-phosphate receptors. These soluble molecules remain in endosomes and are therefore delivered to lysosomes. Also, the transmembrane EGFRs, bound to EGF, are tagged with ubiquitin and are therefore sorted into lumenal vesicles by the ESCRTs.

title: Endosome


text:
Crush, tear, curl

Crush, tear, curl (sometimes cut, tear, curl) is a method of processing tea leaves into black tea in which the leaves are passed through a series of cylindrical rollers with hundreds of sharp teeth that crush, tear, and curl the tea into small, hard pellets. This replaces the final stage of orthodox tea manufacture, in which the leaves are rolled into strips. Tea produced using this method is generally called CTC tea or mamri tea.

History
The first CTC machine was brought into service in 1930 at the Amgoorie Tea Garden in Assam under the supervision of Sir William McKercher. It proliferated over three decades starting in 1950, most rapidly in India and Africa.

Production
Today, most black teas produced use the CTC method or the closely related Rotorvane orthodox manufacture. CTC and Rotovane orthodox have a finished product that is well suited for tea bags, as the product quickly gives a dark brew.

For many large tea producers, 80% to 90% of the factory's production is of small, broken, primary grades suitable for tea bag blends; the remaining 10% to 20% are secondary grades which trade at a discount to the primary grades. The convenience, low price, strong liquor, generic flavor, and mild bitterness all have contributed to the near-monopoly that CTC-type teas now enjoy in South Asia.

In the Indian domestic market, this type of manufacture is by far the most popular – over 80% of tea production is of the CTC type. In the export market, particularly in the CIS, the Middle East, United Kingdom and Ireland, CTC teas continue to be the most highly in demand.

CTC teas generally produce a rich red-brown colour when they are boiled by the Indian method. The drawback of the CTC method is that it tends by its nature, and unfortunately by adulteration, to homogenize all black tea flavors. In the process of crushing, tearing and pelletising the tea leaves, pressures and stresses occur which break down the cells, releasing large amounts of the phytins that normally oxidise to produce black tea's mahogany colour. Since, regardless of origin, CTC teas in their dry form are generically "tea-like" in aroma, and of similar pelletized appearance, it is easy to adulterate a more expensive CTC-type tea with inexpensive and generally mild lowland teas of the same process. Whole and broken leaf teas by contrast are quite varied in appearance, making adulteration more difficult.

title: Crush, tear, curl


text:
Nu people

The Nu people (alternative names include Nusu, Nung, Zauzou and Along) are one of the 56 ethnic groups recognized by the People's Republic of China. Their population of 27,000 is divided into the Northern, Central and Southern groups. Their homeland is a country of high mountains and deep ravines crossed by the Dulong, Irrawaddy (N'Mai River and Mali River), and Nujiang rivers. The name "Nu" comes from the fact that they were living near the Nujiang river, and the name of their ethnic group derives from there. (Nujiang is also called Nu river or or Salween River.)

The Nu live mainly in Kachin State and Yunnan province. In China, 90% of them are found in Gongshan, Fugong and Lanping counties in Yunnan Province, along with Lisu, Drung, Tibetan, Nakhi, Bai and Han. There is also a sparse distribution of Nu in Weixi County in the Diqing Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture and Zayu County in Tibet Autonomous Region, particularly at the border between Yunnan and Tibet.

The Nu speak various languages in the Tibeto-Burman family. They do not have a written language of their own, although the Chinese government has helped them to develop a script based on the Latin alphabet.

Dress
Linen clothes are popular among both genders. The womenfolk generally wore linen or cotton tunics with sleeves, which are buttoned on the left and long skirts. The young girls often wear aprons over their tunics. They like to wear necklaces strung with colored plastic beads. Some wear head or chest ornaments with strings of coral, agates, shells and silver coins. They wear big copper earrings that hang to the shoulder.

The menfolk often put on linen sleeved tunics over shorts, and almost every man wears a string of coral on his left ear and hangs a machete from the left side of his waist. When they go out, they often carry machetes, bows, and arrow bags made from animal felt. They wear black turbans wrapped around their head, though they tend to keep ear-length haircuts.

Lifestyle
The Nu build their houses made out of either bamboo-slips or wooden planks near the mountains, though houses made out of the latter type are more prevalent due to its better strength. Within the house there are two stories; the lower floor acts as a barn, where livestock, food, and other storage items are placed, while the upper floor consists of the living quarters. On the second floor, it is further sub-divided into the inner and outer rooms. The inner room is used as a bedroom as well as a storeroom, while the outer one is as a kitchen and guestroom.

Agriculture is their main occupation. Bamboo and wooden farm tools were the tools for planting, and major crops include maize, buckwheat, barley, potatoes, yams and beans. Output is low, as chemical fertilizers are not used and primitive crop-planting techniques are used. The annual grain harvest is some 100 kg short of the per capita need, and the diet is supplemented by hunting and fishing.

Religion and culture
The Nu are adherents of Tibetan Buddhism and their tribal Animism, which has close affinities with the natural world. A minority have converted to Christianity. Tibetan Buddhism is mainly professed by the Northern Nu. Most of the southern and central groups have retained their Animist faith, although Christianity has made some inroads into the southern group (through French missionaries in the second half of the 19th century).

The Nu celebrate the tribal flower-fairy festival, which is mainly celebrated by the Nu in the Gongshan area of Yunnan province. According to the Chinese lunar calendar, the festival comes on 15 March annually and lasts three days. The festival is based on the legend that the Nu River often flooded in ancient times. A Nu girl named A-Rong, inspired by the web of a spider, created a kind of rope-bridge, by which the people could cross the river. Coveting the beauty of A-Rong, the chief of the Hou tribe tried to force her to marry him time and time again. However, A-Rong would not agree, so she escaped into the mountains and eventually turned into a stone statue in a cave. To honor her, the Nu people celebrate Fairy Festival on March 15 every year.

Upon the arrival of the festival, the people will pick bunches of azaleas and sacrifice the fairy maiden at a cave, literally known as Fairy People Cave. After the ceremony, the people drink together at home, and people of all ages will dress up in their traditional costumes, holding fresh flowers. They will gather together in the open air, singing, dancing, and telling stories. Ball matches akin to football matches, bow and arrow competitions are held as well.

Another festival is the Jijilamu festival, the spring festival which lasts about 15 days from the end of lunar December to the beginning of lunar January. It is mainly celebrated by the Nu living in Bijiang, Fugong, Gongshan, Lanping and Weixi counties of Yunnan Province, although Losar is also celebrated by the Tibetan Buddhist Nu.

On the eve of the festival, households in every village butcher pigs, make soft-rice dumplings, brew wine and clean their courtyards, similar to the Chinese New Year. On New Year's Eve, before eating, they put corn and dishes of food on a three-legged barbecue. On top of the three legs, three cups are put and also three pieces of meat, then the family members, either young or old, pray for a good harvest and strong livestock for the New Year.

title: Nu people


text:
Banco Nacional Ultramarino

Banco Nacional Ultramarino (, BNU; ; National Overseas Bank) is a Macau banking and financial services corporation. It was historically a Portuguese bank with operations throughout the world, especially in Portugal's former overseas provinces. It ceased existence as an independent legal entity in Portugal following its merger in 2001 with Caixa Geral de Depósitos, the government-owned savings bank.

The bank continues operations today under the Banco Nacional Ultramarino brand in Macau, a Chinese special administrative region and former Portuguese colony, where it is also licensed to issue Macanese pataca banknotes.

Timeline

Banco Nacional Ultramarino (BNU) was established in Lisbon, Portugal, in 1864 as a bank of issue for Portuguese overseas territories. the next year it opened branches in Luanda, Angola and Praia, Cabo Verde. Three years after that, in 1868, BNU opened branches in São Tomé and Príncipe, Goa, and Lourenço Marques, Mozambique.

In 1901, BNU lost its banking monopoly, but retained its note-issuing monopoly in the countries in which BNU operated.

BNU opened branches in Macau and in Bolama, Portuguese Guinea (present-day Guinea-Bissau) in 1902, in Dili, East Timor (present-day Timor Leste), and in Brazil, a representative office in Stanleyville and a branch in Paris in 1919, a representative office in Bombay in 1920.

In 1926, BNU lost its note-issuing monopoly in Angola following the creation of Banco de Angola. BNU transferred its branch in Stanleyville to Banco de Angola. In 1929, BNU established Anglo-Portuguese Colonial and Overseas Bank, its subsidiary in London, and converted its branch in Paris to a subsidiary, Banque Franco-Portugaise d’Outre-Mer.

In 1952, BNU closed its branches in India. In 1965, BNU, Banco Português do Atlântico, Banco de Angola, and the South African company, General Mining and Finance, founded Bank of Lisbon and South Africa. This was later renamed Mercantile Lisbon Bank. In the 1970s, BNU bought a stake in Banque Interatlantique in Luxembourg, and established a representative office in London.

In 1974 the Portuguese government nationalized BNU, following the Carnation Revolution. Immediately thereafter, in 1975, local governments nationalized BNU's interests in Mozambique, which became Banco de Moçambique, and in São Tomé and Príncipe, which became National Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe. In 1993, the government split National Bank into a central bank, Central Bank of São Tomé and Príncipe, and a commercial bank, Banco Internacional de São Tomé e Príncipe. In Cape Verde, BNU's interests became Bank of Cape Verde. In 1993, the government spun off the commercial banking operations into a new bank, Banco Comercial do Atlântico.

In 1988, the Portuguese Government-owned Caixa Geral de Depósitos became the majority shareholder of BNU, with the Republic of Portugal the sole other shareholder.

BNU opened a branch in London in 1991 and a branch in Zhuhai, a special economic zone of China, in 1993.

In 1993, Caixa Geral de Depósitos (CGD) became the majority shareholder in Banque Franco-Portugaise d’Outre-Mer. In 2002, CGD closed the bank by merging its operations into CGD's branch in Paris.

In 1995, the Chinese government confirmed that BNU would remain a note issuer in Macao until at least 2010.

In 1999, BNU opened representative offices in Mumbai and Panjim (Goa), and a branch in Dili, Timor Leste.
 * 2000 - BNU reached an agreement with the Administration of Macau Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China, under which BNU remains an Agent of the Treasury.
 * 2001 - BNU and Caixa Geral de Depósitos merged through incorporation of BNU into Caixa Geral de Depósitos; Banque Franco-Portugaise d’Outre-Mer became a branch of Caixa Geral; on July 1, 2000, the Macau branch of Banco Nacional Ultramarino became a bank incorporated in Macau SAR under the name Banco Nacional Ultramarino S.A., but remained wholly owned subsidiary of Caixa Geral de Depósitos, retaining until 2010 its functions as a note issuer and Agent of the Treasury.
 * 2002 - Caixa Geral acquired majority ownership (64.8%) of the South African focused bank holding company - Mercantile Lisbon Bank Holdings Limited (MLBH), now known as Mercantile Bank Holdings Limited, which operates the Mercantile Bank.

Banknotes
The Monetary Authority of Macao has authorized two banks to issue banknotes denominated in Macanese pataca, the Bank of China and Banco Nacional Ultramarino S.A., CGD's subsidiary in Macau. Owing to Macau's Portuguese colonial past, the languages on the banknotes feature Portuguese as well as Chinese.

The Banco Nacional Ultramarino introduced its first pataca notes in 1906, in denominations of 1, 5, 50 and 100 pataca. The next year it introduced 10 and 25 pataca notes. The BNU began to issue lower-value notes with 5, 10 and 50 avo notes in 1920, and 1 and 20 avo notes in 1942. In 1944, it introduced a 500 pataca note. After 1952, coins replaced denominations below 10 patacas. The bank discontinued the 25 pataca note in 1958.

Previous note designs included the coat of arms of Portugal; in the current issue BNU's corporate logo has replaced the coat of arms.

The current issue of BNU banknotes is:

The 2005 series of BNU was printed by Hong Kong Note Printing Limited - Hong Kong.

title: Banco Nacional Ultramarino


text:
FAW Premier Cup

The FAW Premier Cup (until 1998 the FAW Invitation Cup) was a Welsh football cup competition, organised annually by the Football Association of Wales from 1997 to 2008. Since the FAW excluded clubs playing in English leagues (including six Welsh clubs) from playing in the Welsh Cup from 1996 onwards, the FAW needed another competition where the best Welsh teams could compete.

The original format incorporated the three Welsh clubs then playing in the Football League (Cardiff City, Swansea City and Wrexham) along with Merthyr Tydfil and four League of Wales clubs (now the Welsh Premier League). Until the 2001–02 season, Merthyr Tydfil had a guaranteed place, as Newport County and Colwyn Bay were not invited to take part. From then onwards, the highest placed of the three were invited. Colwyn Bay never subsequently qualified.

From the 2004–05 season, the competition was expanded to 16 clubs – the top 10 placed clubs from the Welsh Premier League, joined by the two best-placed of the three teams: Newport County, Merthyr Tydfil and Colwyn Bay, the Welsh Cup winners plus Cardiff City, Swansea City and Wrexham.

The competition offered a healthy prize fund. A share of the TV coverage money for live matches was also split between both clubs. The losing semi-final teams each received £25,000. The losing finalists received £50,000, with the winners receiving £100,000.

The competition's most senior clubs were accused of taking the competition lightly. Cardiff City in particular, following the arrival of ambitious owner Sam Hammam enjoyed relative success in the Football League but Cardiff City won the FAW Premier Cup just once, beating arch-rivals Swansea City in the 2002 final.

Wrexham appeared in all but three finals. The only Welsh Premier League clubs to have played in the final are Barry Town, Rhyl, The New Saints and Llanelli. The 2007 final was the first final not to include one of the English Football League clubs. In the last final, on 11 March 2008, Newport County beat Llanelli at Newport Stadium.

The FAW Premier Cup was broadcast on BBC Wales. However, after BBC Wales withdrew their sponsorship of the competition in 2008, the competition was cancelled.

In the 2011-12 season the FAW announced that the six exiled clubs would again be invited to play in the Welsh Cup. Merthyr Town, Newport County and Wrexham all accepted but Cardiff City, Colwyn Bay and Swansea City rejected the invitation. However, because UEFA refused to give any of these clubs entry into the Europa League by this route, these clubs did not enter the Welsh Cup in the following season.

title: FAW Premier Cup


text:
List of Danish painters

This is a list of Danish painters who were born in or whose creative production is associated with Denmark:

A

 * Axel Aabrink (1887–1965)
 * Jørgen Aabye (1868–1959)
 * Carl Frederik Aagaard (1833–1895)
 * Nikolaj Abraham Abildgaard (1744–1809)
 * Georg Achen (1860–1912)
 * Else Alfelt (1910–1974)
 * Peder Als (1725–1776)
 * Peter Alsing Nielsen (1907–1985)
 * Catherine Engelhart Amyot (1845–1926)
 * Anna Ancher (1859–1935)
 * Michael Ancher (1849–1927)
 * Morten Andersen (born 1976)

B

 * Carl Baagøe (1829–1902)
 * Otto Bache (1839–1927)
 * Carl Balsgaard (1812–1893)
 * Emil Bærentzen (1799–1868)
 * Mogens Ballin (1871–1914)
 * Magdalene Bärens (1737–1808)
 * Poul Anker Bech (1942–2009)
 * Wilhelm Bendz (1804–1832)
 * Albert Bertelsen (1921–2019)
 * Ejler Bille (1910–2004)
 * Jens Birkholm (1869–1915)
 * Wilhelm Bissen (1836–1913)
 * Carl Heinrich Bloch (1834–1890)
 * Lars Bo (1924–1999)
 * Jørgen Boberg (1940–2009)
 * Peter Brandes (born 1944)
 * Hans Andersen Brendekilde (1857–1942)
 * Victor Brockdorff (1911–1992)
 * Laura Brun-Pedersen (1883–1961)
 * Johan Jacob Bruun (1715–1789)
 * Eva Louise Buus (born 1979)

C

 * Emil Carlsen (1853–1932)
 * Andreas Riis Carstensen (1844–1906)
 * Ebba Carstensen (1885–1967)
 * Johannes Carstensen (1924–2010)
 * C.C.A. Christensen (1831–1912)
 * Godfred Christensen (1845–1928)
 * Poul Simon Christiansen (1855–1933)

 * Franciska Clausen (1899–1986)
 * Gad Frederik Clement (1867–1933)
 * Janus la Cour (1837–1909)

D

 * Carl Dahl (1812–1865)
 * Christen Dalsgaard (1824–1907)
 * Sven Dalsgaard (1914–1999)
 * Inger Lut Debois (1931–2015), painter
 * Heinrich Dohm (1875–1940)
 * Anton Dorph (1831–1914)
 * Bertha Dorph (1875–1960)
 * Dankvart Dreyer (1816–1852)

E

 * Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg (1783–1853)
 * Heinrich Eddelien (1802–1852)
 * Eiler Rasmussen Eilersen (1827–1912)
 * Ib Eisner (1925–2003)
 * Harald Rudyard Engman (1903–1968)
 * Julius Exner (1825–1910)

F

 * Paul Gustave Fisher (1860–1934)
 * Elna Fonnesbech-Sandberg (1892–1994)
 * Johanna Marie Fosie (1726–1764)
 * Wilhelm Freddie (1909–1995)

 * Didrik Frisch (1836–1867)
 * Cladius Detlev Fritzsch (1765–1841)
 * Lorenz Frølich (1820–1908)
 * Georg Mathias Fuchs (1719–1797)

G

 * Paul Gadegaard (1920–1996)
 * Johan Vilhelm Gertner (1818–1871)
 * Ib Geertsen (1919–2009)
 * Emily Gernild (born 1985)
 * Albert Gottschalk (1866–1906)
 * Vilhelm Groth (1842–1899)

H

 * Erik Hagens (born 1940)
 * Hans Jørgen Hammer (1815–1882)
 * Svend Hammershøi (1873–1948)
 * Vilhelm Hammershøi (1864–1916)
 * Constantin Hansen (1804–1880)
 * Hans Hansen (1769–1828)
 * Heinrich Hansen (painter) (1821–1890)

 * Peter Hansen (1868–1928)
 * Otto Haslund (1842–1917)
 * Arne Haugen Sørensen (born 1932)
 * Sven Havsteen-Mikkelsen (1912–1999)
 * Henry Heerup (1907–1993)
 * Malene Heerup (born 1964)
 * Ole Heerup (1934–2016)
 * Ella Heide (1871–1956)
 * Einar Hein (1875–1931)
 * Hanne Hellesen (1801–1844)
 * Erik Henningsen (1855–1930)
 * Frants Henningsen (1850–1908)
 * Marie Henriques (1866–1944)
 * Sally Henriques (1815–1886)
 * Carsten Henrichsen (1824–1897)
 * Søren Hjorth Nielsen (1901–1983)
 * Niels Peter Holbech (1804–1889)
 * Johannes Holbek (1872–1903)
 * Christian Holm (1804–1846)
 * Heinrich Gustav Ferdinand Holm (1803–1861)
 * Paul Høm (1905–1994)
 * Christian Horneman (1765–1844)
 * Johannes Holt-Iversen (born 1989)
 * Sophie Holten (1858–1930), painter
 * Suzette Holten (1863–1937), painter, ceramist
 * Oluf Høst (1884–1966)
 * Bizzie Høyer (1888–1971)
 * Cornelius Høyer (1741–1804)
 * Knud Hvidberg (1927–1986)
 * Ejnar Hansen (painter) (1884–1965)

I

 * Peter Ilsted (1861–1933)
 * Valdemar Irminger (1850–1938)
 * Victor Isbrand (1897–1989)

J

 * Egill Jacobsen (1910–1998)
 * Georg Jacobsen (1887–1976)
 * Robert Jacobsen (1912–1993)
 * Ville Jais-Nielsen (1885–1949)

 * Axel P. Jensen (1885–1972)

 * Christian Albrecht Jensen (1792–1870)
 * Johan Laurentz Jensen (1800–1856)
 * Karl Jensen (1851–1933)
 * Elisabeth Jerichau-Baumann (1819–1881)
 * Harald Jerichau (1851–1878)
 * August Jerndorff (1846–1906)
 * Carl Ludwig Jessen (1833–1917)
 * Svend Johansen (1890–1970)
 * Asger Jorn (1914–1973)
 * Jens Juel (1745–1802)

K

 * Ludvig Kabell (1853–1902)

 * F.C. Kiærskou (1805–1891)
 * Anton Eduard Kieldrup (1826–1869)
 * [[Peter Nielsen Klitz]] (1874–1955)
 * Helvig Kinch (1872–1956)
 * Per Kirkeby (1938–2018)
 * Kirsten Kjær (1893–1985)
 * Anna Klindt Sørensen (1899–1985)
 * Jesper Knudsen (born 1964)
 * Christen Købke (1810–1848)
 * Elise Konstantin-Hansen (1858–1946)
 * John Kørner (born 1967)

 * Hendrick Krock (1671–1738)
 * Christian Krogh (1852–1925)
 * Pietro Krohn (1840–1905)
 * Marie Krøyer (1867–1940)
 * Peder Severin Krøyer (1851–1909)
 * Albert Küchler (1803–1886)
 * Michael Kvium (born 1955)
 * Vilhelm Kyhn (1819–1903)

L

 * Alhed Larsen (1872–1927)
 * Emanuel Larsen (1823–1859)
 * Johannes Larsen (1867–1961)
 * Freddie A. Lerche (born 1937)
 * Harald Leth (1899–1986)
 * Georg Emil Libert (1820–1908)
 * Christian August Lorentzen (1746–1828)
 * Christine Løvmand (1803–1872)
 * Jens Lund (1871–1924)
 * J. L. Lund (1777–1867)
 * Johan Thomas Lundbye (1818–1848)
 * Anders Christian Lunde (1809–1886)
 * Marie Luplau (1848–1925)
 * Anne Marie Lütken (1916–2001)
 * Julie Lütken (1788–1816)

M

 * Niels Macholm (1915–1997)
 * Ernst Mahler (1797–1861)
 * Lise Malinovsky (born 1957)
 * Sonja Ferlov Mancoba (1911–1984)
 * Wilhelm Marstrand (1810–1873)
 * Anton Melbye (1818–1875)
 * Fritz Melbye (1826–1869)
 * Vilhelm Melbye (1824–1882)
 * Albert Mertz (1920–1990)
 * Ernst Meyer (1797–1861)
 * Jens Peter Møller (1783–1854)
 * Mogens Møller (1934–2021)
 * Valdemar Schønheyder Møller (1864–1905)
 * David Monies (1812–1894)
 * Christian Mølsted (1862–1930)
 * Peder Mørk Mønsted (1859–1941)
 * Richard Mortensen (1910–1993)
 * Adam August Müller (1811–1844)
 * Emilie Mundt (1842–1922)

N

 * Elisabeth Neckelmann (1884–1956)
 * Hermania Neergaard (1799–1875)
 * Rasmus Nellemann (1923–2004)
 * Arthur Nielsen (1883–1946)
 * Ejnar Nielsen (1872–1956)
 * Jais Nielsen (1885–1961)
 * Thorvald Niss (1842–1905)

 * Emil Normann (1798–1881)
 * Ernestine Nyrop (1888–1975)

O

 * Henrik Olrik (1830–1890)
 * John Olsen (born 1938)
 * Erik Ortvad (1917–2008)
 * Ovartaci (1894 – 1985)

P

 * Vilhelm Pacht (1843–1912)
 * Erik Pauelsen (1749–1790)
 * Julius Paulsen (1860–1940)
 * Carl-Henning Pedersen (1913–2007)
 * Sophie Pedersen (1885–1850)

 * Vilhelm Pedersen (1820–1859)
 * Anna Petersen (1845–1910)
 * Edvard Petersen (1841–1911)
 * Leif Sylvester Petersen (born 1940)
 * Vilhelm Petersen (1812–1880)
 * Fritz Petzholdt (1805–1838)
 * Theodor Philipsen (1840–1920)
 * Lars Physant (born 1957)
 * Camille Pissarro (1830–1903)
 * Gudrun Poulsen (1918–1999)
 * Bolette Puggaard (1798–1847)

R

 * Pia Ranslet (born 1956)
 * Tal R (born 1967)
 * Erik Raadal (1905–1941)
 * Johannes Rach (1720–1783)

 * Carl Rasmussen (1841–1893)
 * Louise Ravn-Hansen (1849–1909)
 * Jytte Rex (born 1942)
 * L.A. Ring (1854–1933)
 * Elof Risebye (1892–1961)
 * Jørgen Roed (1808–1888)
 * Johan Rohde (1856–1935)
 * Martinus Rørbye (1803–1848)
 * Vilhelm Rosenstand (1838–1915)
 * Godtfred Rump (1816–1880)

S

 * August Schiøtt (1823–1895)
 * Alfred Schmidt (1858–1938)
 * Ludvig Abelin Schou (1838–1867)
 * Peter Alfred Schou (1844–1914)
 * Ole Schwalbe (1929–1990)
 * Carl Christian Seydewitz (1777–1857)
 * Herman Siegumfeldt (1833–1912)
 * Alfred Simonsen (1906–1935)
 * Niels Simonsen (1807–1885)
 * Joakim Skovgaard (1856–1933)
 * Niels Skovgaard (1858–1938)
 * P.C. Skovgaard (1817–1875)
 * Agnes Slott-Møller (1862–1937)
 * Harald Slott-Møller (1864–1937)
 * Frederik Sødring (1809–1862)
 * Jens Søndergaard (1895–1957)
 * Jørgen Sonne (1801–1890)
 * Carl Frederik Sørensen (1818–1879)
 * Ole Sporring (born 1941)
 * Niels Larsen Stevns (1864–1941)
 * Christine Swane (1876–1960)
 * Sigurd Swane (1879–1973)
 * Anna Syberg (1870–1914)
 * Ernst Syberg (1906–1981)
 * Fritz Syberg (1862–1939)

T

 * Carl Thomsen (1847–1912)
 * Reinhold Timm (?–1639)
 * Peter Tom-Petersen (1861–1926)
 * Holger Topp-Pedersen (1868–1938)
 * Kurt Trampedach (1943–2013)
 * Eleonora Tscherning (1817–1890)
 * Laurits Tuxen (1853–1927)
 * Nicoline Tuxen (1853–1927)

V

 * Herman Vedel (1875–1948)

W

 * Olga Wagner (1873–1963)
 * Bertha Wegmann (1847–1926)
 * Edvard Weie (1879–1943)
 * Friedrich Bernhard Westphal (1803–1844)
 * Johannes Wilhjelm (1868–1938)
 * Jens Ferdinand Willumsen (1863–1958)
 * Svend Wiig Hansen (1922–1997)
 * Bjørn Wiinblad (1918–2006)
 * Abraham Wuchters (1608–1682)

Z

 * Christian Zacho (1843–1913)
 * Kristian Zahrtmann (1843–1917)
 * Johann Georg Ziesenis (1716–1777)

title: List of Danish painters


text:
User:Hydra~enwiki

 * Occupation: Developer
 * Location: Utrecht, The Netherlands
 * DoB: 19-Feb-1980
 * Native language: Dutch
 * Secondary languages: English, German and French

E-mail: [mailto:wikipedia.org@niels.nu]

title: User:Hydra~enwiki


text:
List of Beavis and Butt-Head episodes

The following is an episode list for the MTV animated television series Beavis and Butt-Head. The series has its roots in 1992 when Mike Judge created two animated shorts, Frog Baseball and Peace, Love and Understanding, which were aired on Liquid Television.

Pilots (1992)
These originally aired as part of Liquid Television and did not include music videos.

Season 1 (1993)
Mike Judge himself is highly critical of the animation and quality of these episodes, in particular the first two—"Door to Door" and "Give Blood/Blood Drive"—which he described as "Horrible. Those first two episodes were awful, I don't know why anybody liked it... I was burying my head in the sand."

J. J. Sedelmaier Productions, Inc. (Season 1)

Season 7 (1997)
Starting this season, the show switched to a 7-minute short act, with most of the shorts running approximately 5 minutes with one music video at the end. All of the music videos this season are repeats from previous seasons, with the exception of “B&B Do Thanksgiving.”

Season 9 (2022)
On July 1, 2020, it was announced that two new seasons of Beavis and Butt-Head had been ordered. Produced for Paramount+, the first new season of Mike Judge's Beavis and Butt-Head premiered on August 4, 2022. The season made its linear premiere on February 8, 2023 on Comedy Central.

Season 10 (2023)
On March 8, 2023, Paramount+ announced that the series would return with a new season, which premiered April 20, 2023.

Miscellaneous appearances

 * Appearances at the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards, 1993 MTV Video Music Awards, 1994 MTV Video Music Awards, 1995 MTV Video Music Awards, 1996 MTV Video Music Awards, 1997 MTV Movie Awards, 69th Academy Awards, MTV's 20th Anniversary, 2005 MTV Video Music Awards and 2011 MTV Video Music Awards
 * Appearance in a Paramount+ commercial in Super Bowl LV. They also appeared in four Super Bowl specials from 1994 to 1997.
 * Appearance in the April 1993 music video for AC/DC's "Back in Black" (called the "Beavis and Butt-Head Version" on MTV's website)
 * Appearance (in voice only) on the 1994 movie Airheads
 * Appearance on The Brothers Grunt episode "Close Encounters of the Grunt Kind" (12/19/1994)
 * Appearance in Clueless
 * Appearances on Late Show with David Letterman (12/1993 and 12/13/1996)
 * Appearance at the end of the Friends episode "The One Where Ross and Rachel... You Know" (during the credits roll, Joey and Chandler watch them on TV; 02/08/1996)
 * Appearances on Saturday Night Live (12/14/1996 and 9/02/2003)
 * Mentioned in the "Animated Videos" episode of MTV's All Time Top 10 by Daria Morgendorffer (in the style of her own series) and Jane Lane, and their music video for "Love Rollercoaster" is featured (6/28/1998)
 * Appearance on Celebrity Deathmatch (2/11/2001; third-season finale)
 * Appearance in Duke Nukem 3D (PC version) (Butt-Head's voice only – voiced by Randy Pitchford)
 * Appearance in Duke Nukem 64 (Butt-Head's voice only – voiced by Randy Pitchford)
 * Appearance on Jackassworld.com: 24 Hour Takeover (watched the music video for Steve-O's song "Poke the Puss" and provided negative commentary) (2/23/2008)
 * Appearance in a promotional video for Mike Judge's 2009 film Extract
 * Appearance in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery
 * Appearance in Jackass 3D
 * Appearance on Jimmy Kimmel Live! (10/25/2011)
 * Appearance on Two and a Half Men episode "A Possum on Chemo" (01/16/2012)
 * Appearance in Sandy Wexler (during the end credits, voiced by Mike Judge)
 * Appearance on Family Guy episode "Peter & Lois' Wedding" (11/10/2019; voiced by Mike Judge)
 * Appearance on Paramount+ TV Spot, with Josh Allen & Peppa Pig (01/21/2024)

title: List of Beavis and Butt-Head episodes


text:
Introduction (music)

In music, the introduction is a passage or section which opens a movement or a separate piece, preceding the theme or lyrics. In popular music, this is often known as the song intro or just the intro. The introduction establishes melodic, harmonic or rhythmic material related to the main body of a piece.

Introductions may consist of an ostinato that is used in the following music, an important chord or progression that establishes the tonality and groove for the following music, or they may be important but disguised or out-of-context motivic or thematic material. As such, the introduction may be the first statement of primary or other important material, may be related to but different from the primary or other important material, or may bear little relation to any other material.

A common introduction to a rubato ballad is a dominant seventh chord with fermata, an introduction that works for many songs is the last four or eight measures of the song,  while a common introduction to the twelve-bar blues is a single chorus.

If a movement in sonata form starts with an introductory section, this introduction is not usually analyzed as being part of the movement's exposition.

title: Introduction (music)