text:
Pamir Mountains

The Pamir Mountains are a range of mountains between Central Asia and South Asia. They are located at a junction with other notable mountains, namely the Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush and the Himalaya mountain ranges. They are among the world's highest mountains.

Much of the Pamir Mountains lie in the Gorno-Badakhshan region of Tajikistan. To the south, they border the Hindu Kush mountains along Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor in Badakhshan Province, Chitral and Gilgit-Baltistan region of Pakistan. To the north, they join the Tian Shan mountains along the Alay Valley of Kyrgyzstan. To the east, they extend to the range that includes China's Kongur Tagh, in the "Eastern Pamirs", separated by the Yarkand valley from the Kunlun Mountains.

Since the Victorian era, they have been known as the "Roof of the World", presumably a translation from Persian.

In other languages
The Pamir region is home to several different cultures, peoples and languages. In some of these languages, the Pamir Mountains are referred by different names.

In Indo-European languages, they are called:
 * پامیر غرونه Pāmīr Ghrūna in Pashto;
 * رشته کوه‌های پامیر, Ришта Кӯҳҳои Помир, Rishta Kūhhoi Pomir in Tajik;
 * Pāmīr Kohistān in Urdu;
 * सुमेरु Sumeru in Sanskrit.

In Turkic languages, they are called:
 * پامىر توولورۇ, Памир Тоолору, Pamir Tooloru in Kyrgyz;
 * پامىر ئېگىزلىكى, Pamir Ëgizliki, Памир Егизлики in Uyghur.

In Chinese, they are referred as "Onion Range", which is named after the wild onions growing in the region; In the Dungan dialect of Mandarin, it is written Памир / Цунлин in the Cyrillic alphabet, and in Xiao'erjing it is written پَامِعَر / ڞوْلٍْ. The name "Pamir" is used more commonly in Modern Chinese and loaned as 帕米尔 / 帕米爾 Pàmǐ'ěr.

Geological term
According to Middleton and Thomas, "pamir" is also a geological term. A pamir is a flat plateau or U-shaped valley surrounded by mountains. It forms when a glacier or ice field melts leaving a rocky plain. A pamir lasts until erosion forms soil and cuts down normal valleys. This type of terrain is found in the east and north of the Wakhan, and the east and south of Gorno-Badakhshan, as opposed to the valleys and gorges of the west. Pamirs are used for summer pasture.

The Great Pamir is around Lake Zorkul. The Little Pamir is east of this in the far east of Wakhan. The Taghdumbash Pamir is between Tashkurgan and the Wakhan west of the Karakoram Highway. The Alichur Pamir is around Yashil Kul on the Gunt River. The Sarez Pamir is around the town of Murghab, Tajikistan. The Khargush Pamir is south of Lake Karakul. There are several others.

The Pamir River is in the south-west of the Pamirs.

Mountain
The three highest mountains in the Pamirs core are Ismoil Somoni Peak (known from 1932 to 1962 as Stalin Peak, and from 1962 to 1998 as Communism Peak), 7495 m; Ibn Sina Peak (still unofficially known as Lenin Peak), 7134 m; and Peak Korzhenevskaya (Пик Корженевской, Pik Korzhenevskoi), 7105 m. In the Eastern Pamirs, China's Kongur Tagh is the highest at 7649 m.

Among the significant peaks of the Pamir Mountains are the following:

Remark: The summits of the Kongur and Muztagata Group are in some sources counted as part of the Kunlun, which would make Pik Ismoil Somoni the highest summit of the Pamir.

Glaciers
There are many glaciers in the Pamir Mountains, including the 77 km long Fedchenko Glacier, the longest in the former USSR and the longest glacier outside the polar regions. Approximately 12,500 km2 (ca. 10%) of the Pamirs are glaciated. Glaciers in the Southern Pamirs are retreating rapidly. Ten percent of annual runoff is supposed to originate from retreating glaciers in the Southern Pamirs. In the North-Western Pamirs, glaciers have almost stable mass balances.

Climate

Covered in snow during most of the year, the Pamirs have long and bitterly cold winters, and short, cool summers, which equals an ET (tundra climate) according to Köppen climate classification (EF above the snow line). Annual precipitation is about 130 mm, which supports grasslands but few trees.

Paleoclimatology during the Ice Age
The East-Pamir, in the centre of which the massifs of Mustagh Ata (7620 m) and Kongur Tagh (Qungur Shan, 7578, 7628 or 7830 m) are situated, shows from the western margin of the Tarim Basin an east–west extension of c. 200 km. Its north–south extension from King Ata Tagh up to the northwest Kunlun foothills amounts to c.170 km. Whilst the up to 21 km long current valley glaciers are restricted to mountain massifs exceeding 5600 m in height, during the last glacial period the glacier ice covered the high plateau with its set-up highland relief, continuing west of Mustagh Ata and Kongur. From this glacier area an outlet glacier has flowed down to the north-east through the Gez valley up to c.1850 m asl (meters above sea level) and thus as far as to the margin of the Tarim basin. This outlet glacier received inflow from the Kaiayayilak glacier from the Kongur north flank. From the north-adjacent Kara Bak Tor (Chakragil, c. 6800 or 6694 m) massif, the Oytag valley glacier in the same exposition flowed also down up to c. 1850 m asl. At glacial times the glacier snowline (ELA) as altitude limit between glacier nourishing area and ablation zone, was about 820 to 1250 metres lower than it is today. Under the condition of comparable proportions of precipitation there results from this a glacial depression of temperature of at least 5 to 7.5 °C.

Economy
Coal is mined in the west, though sheep herding in upper meadowlands is the primary source of income for the region.

Exploration

The lapis lazuli found in Egyptian tombs is thought to come from the Pamir area in Badakhshan province of Afghanistan. About 138 BCE Zhang Qian reached the Fergana Valley northwest of the Pamirs. Ptolemy vaguely describes a trade route through the area. From about 600 CE, Buddhist pilgrims travelled on both sides of the Pamirs to reach India from China. In 747 a Tang army was on the Wakhan River. There are various Arab and Chinese reports. Marco Polo may have travelled along the Panj River. In 1602 Bento de Goes travelled from Kabul to Yarkand and left a meager report on the Pamirs. In 1838 Lieutenant John Wood reached the headwaters of the Pamir River. From about 1868 to 1880, a number of Indians in the British service secretly explored the Panj area. In 1873 the British and Russians agreed to an Afghan frontier along the Panj River. From 1871 to around 1893 several Russian military-scientific expeditions mapped out most of the Pamirs (Alexei Pavlovich Fedchenko, Nikolai Severtzov, Captain Dmitry Putyata and others. Later came Nikolai Korzhenevskiy). Several local groups asked for Russian protection from Afghan raiders. The Russians were followed by a number of non-Russians including Ney Elias, George Littledale, the Earl of Dunmore, Wilhelm Filchner and Lord Curzon who was probably the first to reach the Wakhan source of the Oxus River. In 1891 the Russians informed Francis Younghusband that he was on their territory and later escorted a Lieutenant Davidson out of the area ('Pamir Incident'). In 1892 a battalion of Russians under Mikhail Ionov entered the area and camped near the present Murghab. In 1893 they built a proper fort there (Pamirskiy Post). In 1895 their base was moved to Khorog facing the Afghans.

In 1928 the last blank areas around the Fedchenko Glacier were mapped by a German-Soviet expedition under Willi Rickmer Rickmers.

Discoveries
In the early 1980s, a deposit of gemstone-quality clinohumite was discovered in the Pamir Mountains. It was the only such deposit known until the discovery of gem-quality material in the Taymyr region of Siberia, in 2000.

The earliest known evidence of human cannabis use was found in tombs at the Jirzankal Cemetery.

Transport

The Pamir Highway, the world's second highest international road, runs from Dushanbe in Tajikistan to Osh in Kyrgyzstan through the Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province, and is the isolated region's main supply route. The Great Silk Road crossed a number of Pamir Mountain ranges.

Tourism
In December 2009, the New York Times featured articles on the possibilities for tourism in the Pamir area of Tajikistan. 2013 proved to be the most successful year ever for tourism in the region and tourism development continues to be the fastest growing economic sector.

Strategic position
Historically, the Pamir Mountains were considered a strategic trade route between Kashgar and Kokand on the Northern Silk Road, a prehistoric trackway, and have been subject to numerous territorial conquests. The Northern Silk Road (about 2600 km in length) connected the ancient Chinese capital Chang'an with Kashgar over the Pamir Mountains towards the west, and from there continued to ancient Parthia. In the 20th century, these mountains have been the setting for the Tajikistan Civil War, border disputes between China and the Soviet Union, establishment of military bases by the US, Russia, and India, and renewed interest in trade development and resource exploration. The Chinese government says it has resolved most of the disputes it had with Central Asian countries.

Religious symbolism
Some researchers identify the Pamirs with the Mount Meru or Sumeru. The Mount Meru is the sacred five-peaked mountain of Buddhist and Jain, and is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes.

title: Pamir Mountains


text:
Talk:Pamir Mountains

Untitled
I redirected Pamir Mountains and Pamirs here. I don't know which one is standard, so I picked the one that had the most links already in Wikipedia. I've also seen it called the "Pamir Range" and "Pamir-Altay".

Pamir may also be a region, not just a mountain range.

-- Walt Pohl 05:29, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Peak Latvia
Peak Latvia. First climbed in 1960 by Latvian alpinists and then by the USSR authorities was named as Peak of Soviet Latvia. In August 1st, 2005 four Alpinists from Latvia - Olegs Silins, Viesturs Silenieks, Valdis Purins and Andrejs Kozakovs climbed to the Peak of The Soviet Latvia and renamed to the Peak Latvia (6218m).

Correction: Renaming of peaks is a governments matter and no individual has the right to do it officially!

Map is inadequate.
Please place this map in some kind of perspective. As it is, it's pretty useless. Kdammers 08:20, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

Roof of the world
@ Zlerman: You may not be aware that there is an entry now under that heading that explains why the link that you removed makes sense. I sincerely hope you don't mind my putting it back in. Thank you.Marschner (talk) 17:37, 2 December 2008 (UTC)

I'll put my objection from "Tibet (Discussion)" here to clarify my point:

I object against the redirection of "Roof of the World" to "Tibet". Before Tibet got into the limelight, the term "Roof of the World" was applied to the Pamirs, see: Encyclopaedia Britannica 11th ed., 1911):  , a mountainous region of central Asia...the Bam-i-dunya ("The Roof of the World") or The Columbia Encyclopedia,1942 ed., p.1335: "Pamir (Persian =roof of the world)" - see also  homepages of the Pamir area:  Pamirs, a region they know as POMIR – “the roof of the world". Explanation added in the entry --Marschner (talk)  —Preceding undated comment was added at 18:06, 24 November 2008 (UTC).

 * Be bold and fix it. Yaan (talk) 15:11, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

Anf furthermore: "Roof of the world" is a term that refers to the geography, not to the political situation of the area. As several entries in Google demonstrate, it is still alive in the sense it was used in Victorian times.--Marschner (talk) 17:37, 2 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Dear Marschner: what you have done is absolutely wonderful! I was not aware of the goings on behind the scenes in Tibet. Since my elementary school days I knew that Pamir was the "Roof of the World", so you can imagine my astonishment when I clicked on the link in Pamir Mountains a week or so ago and got Tibet! I immediately removed the link as "inappropriate", but of course I kept the term "Roof of the World" in the article Pamir Mountains. Now we can finally have a proper traditional link for Roof of the World. Well done! Let's hope nobody interferes with this any more. --Zlerman (talk) 17:55, 2 December 2008 (UTC)
 * If possible, try to change the main article title to "Roof of the World" (with capital W). Much better than "Roof of the world" (with lower-case w). This may require asking an administrator to delete the existing "Roof of the World" (which is just a redirect) and make room for move. --Zlerman (talk) 02:31, 3 December 2008 (UTC)

Etymology
Zandweb has added a new etymology, which derives Pamir from Pam+Ir[an], the "Roof of Iran". In support of this etymology, he gives five links: three internal Wikipedia links to Pamir languages and Iranian languages (twice) and two external links to maps showing the distribution of ethnic groups in Tajikistan and in a broader region around Iran. None of these links even remotely mentions the etymology "Pam+Ir[an]". I am therefore removing this etymology as unsourced until such time that verifiable sources can be provided in accordance with WP:VERIFY.

Zandweb also made an edit in note [1], inserting the etymology Pam+Ir[an] into the text of the note. Note [1] cites a specific source which gives a totally different etymology for Pamir. The edit therefore contradicts the cited source and is removed accordingly.

The last paragraph in the "Etymology" section is removed by WP:SOAPBOX. The proper place for such arguments is the talk page. --Zlerman (talk) 02:49, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

Zandweb, I have reverted your edits again. None of your external sources back up your claims. Also, please do not use Wikipedia articles as your sources (by the way, your Wikipedia sources failed to back up your claims). Your information may very well be legitimate. But please find sources that actually verify what you're trying to say. Sincerely, Kingturtle (talk) 15:51, 12 January 2009 (UTC)

Middleton and Thomas, page 520 offer 9 etymologies from Sanskrit, Persian and Turkic without much confidence. Zhang Quan used 'po-mi-lo' and Marco Polo used 'pamir', so the name must be old and local. My uneducated guess is that these are all semi-educated guesses and no one really knows. Benjamin Trovato (talk) 02:54, 16 March 2009 (UTC)

Names and etymology
Where is the etymology?

A proposal for consideration:

Po/pa → https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/po

→ https://en.m.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h%E2%82%82p%C3%B3

+

(Mount ?) Meru — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2003:C2:A73D:EF00:4C9E:BC2B:9D6A:47DE (talk) 16:30, 12 December 2023 (UTC)

Chinese Name
I added an explanation for the Chinese name 葱嶺 (Onion mountains) yesterday, but it was removed since the reference I provided is not in English. I think mentioning the name without an explanation (or reference) doesn't make much sense, so I removed it. Message created by 89.53.117.161 10:27, 23 February 2009
 * You have done a masterful job with the two references. Everything looks perfect now. We have an authoritative reference for the name "Congling" and we also know why they are called "Onion Mountains". All readers of this article should be grateful to you. One thing remains to be done: please translate the title of the Chinese book that you use as a reference for the quotation and provide some basic bibliographic information. --Zlerman (talk) 12:28, 23 February 2009 (UTC)
 * I saw that there's actually an article about this classic, so I linked there. Wikisource even has the complete text . Taniquetil (talk) 20:33, 23 February 2009 (UTC)

Ancient Name
Please find out the ancient name of Pamir. To me, it seems "Meru" Mountain mentioned in Jain & Buddhist text. Also write name of forest in this range. This will help us find the history of this mountain range. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 146.196.34.166 (talk) 07:49, 7 September 2019 (UTC)

Southern extent of the Pamirs
I would question whether the Pamirs can really be said to extend to Pakistan. The maps I have consulted describe the mountains between the Wakhan and Pakistan as part of the Hindu Kush, and that is what the Hindu Kush article says. Yes, the Hindu Kush article describes it as an "extension" of the Pamirs (and a sub-range of the Himalayas), but I don't think that is meant in the sense that it is a sub-range of the Pamirs, any more than the Karakoram are. If Tirich Mir was in the Pamirs, it would be the highest mountain in the Pamirs, and if it is not, what mountains in Pakistan are in the Pamirs?

Does anyone have an authoritative source? Mhockey (talk) 15:06, 7 May 2009 (UTC)
 * This is what the Big Soviet Encyclopedia has to say on the boundaries of Pamir: "The question of the natural boundaries of Pamir is debatable. Normally Pamir is regarded as covering the territory from Trans-Alay Range to the North, Sarykol Range to the East, Lake Zorkul, Pamir River, and the upper reaches of Panj River to the South, and the meridional section of the Panj valley to the West; to the north-west Pamir includes the eastern parts of Peter the Great and Darvaz ranges." For all that it's worth. --Zlerman (talk) 16:46, 7 May 2009 (UTC)
 * In other words, according to that source (and for all I know that's the common convention) the Pamirs do not extend to Pakistan in the south. Apcbg (talk) 18:26, 7 May 2009 (UTC)

[Khuram] In the Wakhan Coridor, Pamir River is the boundary between Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Wakhan River Also can be considered as part of Pamir River system. It is certain that Pamirs lie to the north of Pamir River System. If some part of Pamir exists to the south of Pamir River or Wakhan River, then there is the possibility that Pamirs extend to Pakistan. Pakistan lies south of Wakhan River/Pamir River. If Pamirs don't exist south of these rivers then they also do not exist in Pakistan. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 110.36.25.166 (talk) 19:53, 13 September 2010 (UTC)
 * I think most people would say that the Pamirs extend into the Wakhan. It is the location of a number of pamirs, including both the Little Pamir and the Great Pamir.--Mhockey (talk) 08:44, 14 September 2010 (UTC)

 * I've been researching this issue for my m.a. thesis on the Pamirs, and I can't find any evidence that the Pamirs extend into Pakistan or Kyrgyzstan. But it depends: Is the geographical extent of the Pamir Mountains only restricted to areas where there are "Pamirs"? This could have repercussions in in the usage of the term "Pamiri" to refer to the Shughni, Roshani, Yazgulami populations, who (in Tajikistan at least) refer to themselves as "Pamiris" even though they don't live in the Pamirs. But I can't think of any populations in Pakistan that call themselves Pamiris or that claim the Pamir Mountains extend into Pakistan. There's a sizable population of Wakhi in Pakistan, but this an immigrant population and not an indication that the Wakhan extends into the Pamirs (not that anyone is claiming that the Wakhan does). David Straub (talk) 00:00, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

I don't think anyone would say that the Pamirs, in the current sense of the term, are restricted to areas where there are pamirs, but the term does seem to include those areas. The issue is confused because some sources seem to use the term pamir to mean a mountain range rather than a valley. I would guess (without having examined the history of the term in detail) that the expression Pamir Mountains was first use for the mountains around the pamirs, and its use was then broadened.--Mhockey (talk) 12:12, 15 September 2010 (UTC)

New Map misleading
I am pleased to see a new map which better indicates the position of the Pamirs but, unfortunately, it is very misleading. As one can see, it names the range mountains stretching east of the Pamirs and south of the Taklamakan desert as the Himalayas. This is not so - the main Himalayan range stretches to the southeast and then east along the southern border of Tibet. The mountains indicated as the Himalayas on the map should, instead, be marked the Kunlun Mountains. Can anyone fix this please? I don't know how to do it myself. Cheers and thanks, John Hill (talk) 00:10, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

Language Glossary?
Why is there a table German English Russian Tajik in this article about the Pamirs? Doesn't that belong to the article about the Tajik language? (wikipedia is not a travel guide) —Preceding unsigned comment added by Nicob1984 (talk • contribs) 11:09, 9 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Exactly my question! I look if I can move the glossary somewhere else.--Dia^ (talk) 12:14, 20 August 2010 (UTC)

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Name/Etymology should be rewritten
The reason why I have removed some texts is because they didn't summarize and represent the cited source properly: Compare the above text with old cherry-picked revision. Wario-Man (talk) 06:29, 31 March 2019 (UTC)
 * Frank Bliss - Social and Economic Change in the Pamirs (Gorno-Badakhshan, Tajikistan) - Page 13-14
 * Linguistically, the word ‘Pamir’ probably describes a specific form of mountain and valley. Kreutzmann, basing his thesis on several other authors, gives the translation as pâ = mountain and mira = ‘broad area’ (1996: 50–51). This description is based on the plateaux (= broad areas) in a high mountain range, which accurately describes the character of the Murghâb and its side valleys and is also characteristic of the neighbouring parts of Pamir in the Afghan Wakhân. Another interpretation of this term, just as plausible, by Satulowski includes the elements mir and pan or pai, the first to be translated as ‘mountain’ and the second as ‘foot’, which would make ‘Pamir’ the ‘mountain foot’ or ‘mountain socle’ (1964: 21).
 * Other origins, especially from popular etymology, are possible but not very probable. Thus Mursajew offers several alternatives (1956: 252–254): (1) the derivation from the Sanskrit word mir meaning ‘lake’ – though there are many lakes in Pamir, they are not truly characteristic of the landscape; (2) Pa-i-michr, which in Uzbek (?) means ‘socle of the sun’ – in Afghanistan, in his times, this expression was also used to mean ‘the socle of the sun’ (that is, the ‘socle of Mithra’, the sun-god of the ancient Iranians).
 * In many reports one also finds Bamyar, a Persian compilation of pay-I-mehr, which makes the Pamir into the ‘roof of the world’ (see Dor and Naumann 1978: 24–25). Some authors point to the fact that the Kyrgyz do speak of Pamir as the Roof of the World, using the expression Bam-I-duniah (see Von Hellwald [1875] 1880: 238). Pa-mir, ‘Property of the Mir’ is another variation, which is, however, somewhat too banal for a regional name so often used (ibid.).
 * However, the word Pamirin the translation we prefer (according to Kreuzmann), cannot strictly speaking be applied to as wide an area as that of the seven or eight Pamirs as they are presented in geographical introductions. The Kyrgyz themselves do not know any one region with the name of Pamir, but understand under Pamir’s landscapes the common denominators that we have seen in the above-mentioned pâ mir. Therefore, it is better to call the area we are studying not Pamir, but the Pamirs (see pp. 18–20). Here, too, Satulowski gives a somewhat different interpretation. For him, pamir does not designate a particular type of landscape but a specific valley, thus called by the Kyrgyz at the end of the nineteenth century that valley through which flows the source of the Pyandsh, coming from Lake Sari-kul (former Lake Victoria) (1964: 20).

What do you think about this? --Wario-Man (talk) 04:15, 2 April 2019 (UTC)
 * Careless revert. Seems you haven't read this section. --Wario-Man (talk) 16:59, 2 April 2019 (UTC)
 * It's evidently you who hasn't read the section you wish to remove. It makes exactly two claims:
 * "Since Victorian times, they [the Pamir Mountains] have been known as the Roof of the World[.]"
 * This is not a statement about etymology, but easily verifiable history. It is supported by the citations given.
 * "[The phrase "Roof of the World"] is presumably a translation from Persian."
 * This is not a statement about etymology, either. "Presumably" is correct and buttressed by the citations given; the phrase does exist in Persian, as bâm-i-dunyâ (which indeed means "roof of the world", quite literally!), and is plausible as a source of the English phrase "Roof of the World". Nowhere is this suggestion even claimed to be fact.
 * Note that there is nowhere a single claim about the etymology of the name Pamir, which would indeed require more specialised sources. You evidently believe that the text claims that the name Pamir itself (!) means "roof of the world" etymologically, but it doesn't say that at all. That's your own misconception. --Florian Blaschke (talk) 15:34, 4 April 2019 (UTC)

 * Obviously you don't get my points. Have you clicked on #3 or not?! It has two links; one links to main page of a website and the other is a personal website. The full text of #4 is the stuff that I quoted here. Current cited text does not summarize content of #4. That's all. --Wario-Man (talk) 09:19, 11 April 2019 (UTC)
 * It looks to me like this needs to be rewritten. Bliss certainly mentions "roof of the world" as a supposed etymology via Persian, although he does not appear to endorse it. Figuring out his sources is a bit difficult however.--Ermenrich (talk) 22:56, 1 May 2019 (UTC)

map of Sakastan

 * Sakastan is not Pamir. AliceBzh (talk) 12:05, 17 October 2021 (UTC)

Sakastan is of this topic or unrelated
Their are better maps of the Pamir why remove that map I added or if you dont like the map why dont you add a better one what the hell does Sakastan have to do with the Pamir Mountains. 2402:E280:3D48:133:7D36:A1AA:C476:6CD1 (talk)
 * Leave edit summaries next time Codenamewolf (talk) 07:48, 25 December 2023 (UTC)

Pamirian Culture
Cultural Significance The Pamir region holds immense cultural significance for Indigenous communities, reflecting a rich tapestry of traditions, beliefs, and practices that have evolved over millennia. This cultural heritage is deeply intertwined with the region's geographical isolation and historical developments. Formation of Pamiri Culture Pamiri culture is a unique blend of ancient Zoroastrian beliefs and Ismailism, a Shiite branch of Islam. It began to form over two thousand years ago when Indo-Iranian tribes migrated to the region, bringing the Zoroastrian religion and culture with them. This cultural synthesis was further shaped by the extreme isolation provided by the formidable Pamir Mountains, influencing everything from lifestyle and traditions to unique rituals and practices. The history of the Pamiri culture traces back to the migration of Indo-Iranian tribes to the region more than two thousand years ago, bringing the rich tapestry of Zoroastrian religion and culture. Over time, these influences were shaped and evolved by the harsh conditions of life in the Pamirs, contributing to the distinctiveness of the Pamiri cultural identity. Acceptance of Ismailism In the 8th century, Central Asia was invaded by Arab tribes who brought Islam to the land. Unlike many other regional ethnic groups, the Pamiri people voluntarily accepted the beliefs of the Shiiya branch of Islam, known as Ismailism. Ismailism arrived not through military conquest but through the teachings of preachers, marking a voluntary adoption of a new faith that resonated with their spiritual beliefs. The acceptance of Ismailism played a significant role in shaping Pamiri cultural practices, including religious ceremonies, ethical values, and community structures. The spiritual leader of the Ismaili community, the Aga Khan, holds a revered position among the Pamiri people, providing spiritual guidance and social assistance that are integral to Pamiri cultural life. Languages and Diversity A cornerstone of Pamiri culture is its intricate linguistic landscape, comprising diverse languages and dialects that reflect centuries of cultural exchange and evolution. The Northern Pamir languages include Bartang, Vanj, Darvaza, Rushan, Sarykol, Khufsky, Shungan, and Yazgulyam, while the Southern Pamiri languages include Wakhi, Ishkashim, Yidga, Munjan, and Sanglich. These languages not only contribute to the vibrant mosaic of Pamiri cultural heritage but also serve as repositories of traditional knowledge and identity. Each language and dialect carries unique nuances, reflecting the historical migrations, interactions, and adaptations of Pamiri communities over time. Symbolism of the Chid House Central to Pamiri culture is the traditional chid house, a symbolic embodiment of religious and philosophical ideals. The chid house's architecture and structural elements, dating back over two and a half millennia, reflect ancient Aryan and possibly Buddhist philosophical influences assimilated into Pamiri traditions.

The chid house serves as more than a dwelling; it is a sacred space where religious rituals, communal gatherings, and cultural celebrations take place. The layout and design of the chid house, including its five pillars representing key spiritual concepts and its roof symbolizing earth, wind, fire, and water, carry profound religious and cultural symbolism that is integral to Pamiri identity. Revival of Cultural Traditions Efforts to preserve and revitalize Pamiri cultural traditions are ongoing, supported by initiatives such as the Aga Khan Foundation's project to revive Pamiri handicraft skills. Traditional handicrafts, including beautifully decorated skullcaps, intricately woven cloths (suzanis), and other artisanal creations, serve as living embodiments of Pamiri cultural identity and resilience. These initiatives not only promote cultural heritage preservation but also provide economic opportunities for Pamiri artisans, fostering a sense of pride and continuity in their cultural practices. The revival of Pamiri cultural traditions contributes to the dynamic and evolving nature of Pamiri culture, ensuring its vitality and relevance in contemporary times. For more in-depth information about Pamiri culture and heritage, you can explore the following resources: https://simergphotos.com/2015/06/21/an-ismaili-wedding-in-the-pamirs-through-my-lens-by-muslim-harji/ https://central-asia.guide/tajikistan/pamir-culture/ 109.71.229.10 (talk) 06:07, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

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Traditional animation

Traditional animation (or classical animation, cel animation, or hand-drawn animation) is an animation technique in which each frame is drawn by hand. The technique was the dominant form of animation, until the end of the 20th century, when there was a shift to computer animation in the industry, specifically 3D computer animation.

Writing and storyboarding
Animation production usually begins after a story is converted into an animation film script, from which a storyboard is derived. A storyboard has an appearance somewhat similar to comic book panels, and is a shot by shot breakdown of the staging, acting and any camera moves that will be present in the film. The images allow the animation team to plan the flow of the plot and the composition of the imagery. Storyboard artists will have regular meetings with the director and may redraw or "re-board" a sequence many times before it meets final approval.

Voice recording
Before animation begins, a preliminary soundtrack or scratch track is recorded so that the animation may be more precisely synchronized to the soundtrack. Given the slow manner in which traditional animation is produced, it is almost always easier to synchronize animation to a preexisting soundtrack than it is to synchronize a soundtrack to pre-existing animation. A completed cartoon soundtrack will feature music, sound effects, and dialogue performed by voice actors. The scratch track used during animation typically contains only the voices, any songs to which characters must sing-along, and temporary musical score tracks; the final score and sound effects are added during post-production.

In the case of Japanese animation and most pre-1930 sound animated cartoons, the sound was post-synched; the soundtrack was recorded after the film elements were finished by watching the film and performing the dialogue, music, and sound effects required. Some studios, most notably Fleischer Studios, continued to post-synch their cartoons through most of the 1930s, which allowed for the presence of the "muttered ad-libs" present in many Popeye the Sailor and Betty Boop cartoons.

Design, timing, and layout
When storyboards are sent to the design departments, character designers prepare model sheets for any characters and props that appear in the film; and these are used to help standardize appearance, poses, and gestures. The model sheets will often include "turnarounds" which show how a character or object looks in three-dimensions along with standardized special poses and expressions so that the artists have a guide to refer to. Small statues known as maquettes may be produced so that an animator can see what a character looks like in three dimensions. Background stylists will do similar work for any settings and locations present in the storyboard, and the art directors and color stylists will determine the art style and color schemes to be used.

A timing director (who in many cases will be the main director) will take the animatic and analyze exactly what poses, drawings, and lip movements will be needed on what frames. An exposure sheet (or X-sheet) is created; this is a printed table that breaks down the action, dialogue, and sound frame-by-frame as a guide for the animators. If a film is based more strongly in music, a bar sheet may be prepared in addition to or instead of an X-sheet. Bar sheets show the relationship between the on-screen action, the dialogue, and the actual musical notation used in the score.

Layout begins after the designs are completed and approved by the director. It is here that the background layout artists determine the camera angles, camera paths, lighting, and shading of the scene. Character layout artists will determine the major poses for the characters in the scene and will make a drawing to indicate each pose. For short films, character layouts are often the responsibility of the director. The layout drawings and storyboards are then spliced, along with the audio and an animatic is formed (not to be confused with its predecessor, the leica reel).

While the animation is being done, the background artists will paint the sets over which the action of each animated sequence will take place. These backgrounds are generally done in gouache or acrylic paint, although some animated productions have used backgrounds done in watercolor or oil paint. Background artists follow very closely the work of the background layout artists and color stylists (which is usually compiled into a workbook for their use) so that the resulting backgrounds are harmonious in tone with the character designs.

Animatic
Usually, an animatic or story reel is created after the soundtrack is recorded and before full animation begins. The term "animatic" was originally coined by Walt Disney Animation Studios. An animatic typically consists of pictures of the storyboard timed and cut together with the soundtrack. This allows the animators and directors to work out any script and timing issues that may exist with the current storyboard. The storyboard and soundtrack are amended if necessary, and a new animatic may be created and reviewed with the director until the storyboard meets the users' requirements. Editing the film at the animatic stage prevents the animation of scenes that would be edited out of the film. Creating scenes that will eventually be edited out of the completed cartoon is avoided.

Animation

In the traditional animation process, animators will begin by drawing sequences of animation on sheets of transparent paper perforated to fit the peg bars in their desks, often using colored pencils, one picture or "frame" at a time. A peg bar is an animation tool used in traditional animation to keep the drawings in place. A key animator or lead animator will draw the key frames or key drawings in a scene, using the character layouts as a guide. The key animator draws enough of the frames to get across the major poses within a character performance.

While working on a scene, a key animator will usually prepare a pencil test of the scene. A pencil test is a much rougher version of the final animated scene (often devoid of many character details and color); the pencil drawings are quickly photographed or scanned and synced with the necessary soundtracks. This allows the animation to be reviewed and improved upon before passing the work on to their assistant animators, who will add details and some of the missing frames in the scene. The work of the assistant animators is reviewed, pencil-tested, and corrected until the lead animator is ready to meet with the director and have their scene sweatboxed.

Once the key animation is approved, the lead animator forwards the scene on to the clean-up department, made up of the clean-up animators and the inbetweeners. The clean-up animators take the lead and assistant animators' drawings and trace them onto a new sheet of paper, making sure to include all of the details present on the original model sheets, so that the film maintains a cohesiveness and consistency in art style. The inbetweeners will draw in whatever frames are still missing in-between the other animators' drawings. This procedure is called tweening. The resulting drawings are again pencil-tested and sweatboxed until they meet approval.

At each stage during pencil animation, approved artwork is spliced into the leica reel.

This process is the same for both character animation and special effects animation, which on most high-budget productions are done in separate departments. Often, each major character will have an animator or group of animators solely dedicated to drawing that character. The group will be made up of one supervising animator, a small group of key animators, and a larger group of assistant animators. Effects animators animate anything that moves and are not a character, including props, vehicles, machinery and phenomena such as fire, rain, and explosions. Sometimes, instead of drawings, a number of special processes are used to produce special effects in animated films; rain, for example, has been created in Disney animated films since the late 1930s by filming slow-motion footage of water in front of a black background, with the resulting film superimposed over the animation.

Ink and paint
Once the clean-ups and in-between drawings for a sequence are completed, they are prepared for a process known as ink and paint. Each drawing is transferred from paper to a thin, clear sheet of plastic called a cel, a contraction of the material name celluloid. (The original flammable cellulose nitrate was later replaced with the more stable cellulose acetate.) The outline of the drawing is inked or photocopied onto the cel, and gouache, acrylic or a similar type of paint is used on the reverse sides of the cels to add colors in the appropriate shades. The transparent quality of the cel allows for each character or object in a frame to be animated on different cels, as the cel of one character can be seen underneath the cel of another; and the opaque background will be seen beneath all of the cels.

Disney experienced a setback to its ink-and-paint department due to World War II. When peacetime resumed, much of the original equipment went to waste as more economic solutions were sought, leading to the xerography process pioneered by Ub Iwerks.

Camera
When an entire sequence has been transferred to cels, the photography process begins. Each cel involved in a frame of a sequence is laid on top of each other, with the background at the bottom of the stack. A piece of glass is lowered onto the artwork in order to flatten any irregularities, and the composite image is then photographed in stop motion by a special animation camera, also called rostrum camera. The cels are removed, and the process repeats for the next frame until each frame in the sequence has been photographed. Each cel has registration holes, small holes along the top or bottom edge of the cel, which allow the cel to be placed on corresponding peg bars before the camera to ensure that each cel aligns with the one before it; if the cels are not aligned in such a manner, the animation, when played at full speed, will appear "jittery." Sometimes, frames may need to be photographed more than once, in order to implement superimpositions and other camera effects. Pans are created by either moving the cels or backgrounds 1 step at a time over a succession of frames (the camera does not pan; it only zooms in and out).

Dope sheets are created by the animators and used by the camera operator to transfer each animation drawing into the number of film frames specified by the animators, typically 1 (1s, ones) or 2 (2s, twos) and sometimes 3 (3s, threes).

As the scenes come out of final photography, they are spliced into the animatic or leica reel, taking the place of the pencil animation. Once every sequence in the production has been photographed, the final film is sent for development and processing, while the final music and sound effects are added to the soundtrack.

Digital ink and paint
The current process, termed "digital ink and paint", is the same as traditional ink and paint until after the animation drawings are completed; instead of being transferred to cels, the animators' drawings are either scanned into a computer or drawn directly onto a computer monitor via graphics tablets, where they are colored and processed using one or more of a variety of software packages. The resulting drawings are composited in the computer over their respective backgrounds, which have also been scanned into the computer (if not digitally painted), and the computer outputs the final film by either exporting a digital video file, using a video cassette recorder or printing to film using a high-resolution output device. Use of computers allows for easier exchange of artwork between departments, studios, and even countries and continents (in most low-budget American animated productions, the bulk of the animation is actually done by animators working in other countries, including South Korea, Taiwan, Japan, China, Singapore, Mexico, India, and the Philippines). As the cost of both inking and painting new cels for animated films and TV programs and the repeated usage of older cels for newer animated TV programs and films went up and the cost of doing the same thing digitally went down, eventually, the digital ink-and-paint process became the standard for future animated movies and TV programs.

Implementation
Hanna-Barbera was the first American animation studio to implement a computer animation system for digital ink-and-paint usage. Following a commitment to the technology in 1979, computer scientist Marc Levoy led the Hanna-Barbera Animation Laboratory from 1980 to 1983, developing an ink-and-paint system that was used in roughly a third of Hanna-Barbera's domestic production, starting in 1984 and continuing until replaced with third-party software in 1996. It was first tested in the Pac-Man episodes "Nighty Nightmares" and "The Pac-Mummy". In addition to a cost savings compared to traditional cel painting of 5 to 1, the Hanna-Barbera system also allowed for multiplane camera effects evident in H-B productions such as A Pup Named Scooby-Doo (1988). The computer files for these projects were not archived and the shows themselves were printed to videotape, making remastering difficult due to their lack of high resolution.

Digital ink and paint has been in use at Walt Disney Animation Studios since 1989, where it was used for the final rainbow shot in The Little Mermaid. All subsequent traditional Disney animated features were digitally inked-and-painted (starting with The Rescuers Down Under, which was also the first major feature film to entirely use digital ink and paint), using Disney's proprietary CAPS (Computer Animation Production System) technology, developed primarily by Pixar Animation Studios. The CAPS system allowed the Disney artists to make use of colored ink-line techniques mostly lost during the xerography era, as well as multiplane effects, blended shading, and easier integration with 3D CGI backgrounds (as in the ballroom sequence in the 1991 film Beauty and the Beast), props, and characters. Rival studios in the 1990s also adapted to digipaint processes, using softwares like Animo, USAnimation, Toonz, and Pixibox.

Over time, many studios switched over to digital ink and paint, though many television projects took longer. Many filmmakers and studios did not want to shift to the digital ink-and-paint process because they felt that the digitally colored animation would look too synthetic and would lose the aesthetic appeal of the non-computerized cel for their projects. Many animated television series were still animated in other countries by using the traditionally inked-and-painted cel process as late as 2004, though most of them switched over to the digital process at some point during their run. The last major feature film to use traditional ink and paint was Satoshi Kon's Millennium Actress (2001); the last major animation productions in the west to use the traditional process were Nickelodeon's SpongeBob SquarePants, both Fox's The Simpsons and King of the Hill, both Cartoon Network's The Powerpuff Girls and Ed, Edd n Eddy, the latter of which is also the last cartoon to switch to Digital Ink and Paint in the west, and PBS Kids' Dragon Tales, all of which switched to digital paint between 2000 and 2004, while the last major animated production overall to abandon cel animation was the television adaptation of Sazae-san, which remained stalwart with the technique until September 29, 2013, when it switched to fully digital animation on October 6, 2013. Prior to this, the series adopted digital animation solely for its opening credits in 2009, but retained the use of traditional cels for the main content of each episode. Minor productions, such as Hair High (2004) by Bill Plympton, have used traditional cels long after the introduction of digital techniques. Most studios today use one of a number of other high-end software packages, such as Toon Boom Harmony, Toonz (OpenToonz), Animo, and RETAS, or even consumer-level applications such as Adobe Flash, Toon Boom Technologies and TV Paint.

Cels

The cel animation process was invented by Earl Hurd and John Bray in 1915. The cel is an important innovation to traditional animation, as it allows some parts of each frame to be repeated from frame to frame, thus saving labor. A simple example would be a scene with two characters on screen, one of which is talking and the other standing silently. Since the latter character is not moving, it can be displayed in this scene using only one drawing, on one cel, while multiple drawings on multiple cels are used to animate the speaking character.

For a more complex example, consider a sequence in which a person sets a plate upon a table. The table stays still for the entire sequence, so it can be drawn as part of the background. The plate can be drawn along with the character as the character places it on the table. However, after the plate is on the table, the plate no longer moves, although the person continues to move as they draw their arm away from the plate. In this example, after the person puts the plate down, the plate can then be drawn on a separate cel from them. Further frames feature new cels of the person, but the plate does not have to be redrawn as it is not moving; the same cel of the plate can be used in each remaining frame that it is still upon the table. The cel paints were actually manufactured in shaded versions of each color to compensate for the extra layer of cel added between the image and the camera; in this example, the still plate would be painted slightly brighter to compensate for being moved one layer down.

In TV and other low-budget productions, cels were often "cycled" (i.e., a sequence of cels was repeated several times), and even archived and reused in other episodes. After the film was completed, the cels were either thrown out or, especially in the early days of animation, washed clean and reused for the next film. In some cases, some of the cels were put into the "archive" to be used again and again for future purposes in order to save money. Some studios saved a portion of the cels and either sold them in studio stores or presented them as gifts to visitors.

Cel overlay
A cel overlay is a cel with inanimate objects used to give the impression of a foreground when laid on top of a ready frame. This creates the illusion of depth, but not as much as a multiplane camera would. A special version of cel overlay is called line overlay, made to complete the background instead of making the foreground, and was invented to deal with the sketchy appearance of xeroxed drawings. The background was first painted as shapes and figures in flat colors, containing rather few details. Next, a cel with detailed black lines was laid directly over it, each line is drawn to add more information to the underlying shape or figure and give the background the complexity it needed. In this way, the visual style of the background will match that of the xeroxed character cels. As the xerographic process evolved, line overlay was left behind.

Pre-cel animation

In very early cartoons made before the use of the cel, such as Gertie the Dinosaur (1914), the entire frame, including the background and all characters and items, were drawn on a single sheet of paper, then photographed. Everything had to be redrawn for each frame containing movements. This led to a "jittery" appearance; imagine seeing a sequence of drawings of a mountain, each one slightly different from the one preceding it. The pre-cel animation was later improved by using techniques like the slash and tear system invented by Raoul Barre; the background and the animated objects were drawn on separate papers. A frame was made by removing all the blank parts of the papers where the objects were drawn before being placed on top of the backgrounds and finally photographed.

Limited animation
In lower-budget productions, shortcuts available through the cel technique are used extensively. For example, in a scene in which a person is sitting in a chair and talking, the chair and the body of the person may be the same in every frame; only their head is redrawn, or perhaps even their head stays the same while only their mouth moves. This is known as limited animation. The process was popularized in theatrical cartoons by United Productions of America and used in most television animation, especially that of Hanna-Barbera. The end result does not look very lifelike, but is inexpensive to produce, and therefore allows cartoons to be made on small television budgets.

"Shooting on twos"
Moving characters are often shot "on twos". One drawing is shown for every two frames of film (which usually runs at 24 frames per second), meaning there are only 12 drawings per second. Even though the image update rate is low, the fluidity is satisfactory for most subjects. However, when a character is required to perform a quick movement, it is usually necessary to revert to animating "on ones", as "twos" are too slow to convey the motion adequately. A blend of the two techniques keeps the eye fooled without unnecessary production costs.

Academy Award–nominated animator Bill Plympton is noted for his style of animation that uses very few in-betweens and sequences that are done "on threes" or "on fours", holding each drawing on the screen from $1/8$ to $1/6$ of a second. While Plympton uses near-constant three-frame holds, sometimes animation that simply averages eight drawings per second is also termed "on threes" and is usually done to meet budget constraints, along with other cost-cutting measures, like holding the same drawing of a character for a prolonged time or panning over a still image, techniques often used in low-budget TV productions. It is also common in anime, where fluidity is sacrificed in lieu of a shift towards complexity in the designs and shading (in contrast with the more functional and optimized designs in the Western tradition); even high-budget theatrical features such as Studio Ghibli's employ the full range: from smooth animation "on ones" in selected shots (usually quick action accents) to common animation "on threes" for regular dialogue and slow-paced shots.

Animation loops

Creating animation loops or animation cycles is a labor-saving technique for animating repetitive motions, such as a character walking or a breeze blowing through the trees. In the case of walking, the character is animated taking a step with its right foot, then a step with its left foot. The loop is created so that, when the sequence repeats, the motion is seamless. In general, they are used only sparingly by productions with moderate or high budgets.

Ryan Larkin's 1969 Academy Award-nominated National Film Board of Canada short Walking makes creative use of loops. In addition, a promotional music video from Cartoon Network's Groovies featuring the Soul Coughing song "Circles" poked fun at animation loops as they are often seen in The Flintstones, in which Fred and Barney (along with various Hanna-Barbera characters that aired on Cartoon Network), supposedly walking in a house, wonder why they keep passing the same table and vase over and over again.

Multiplane process
The multiplane process is a technique primarily used to give a sense of depth or parallax to two-dimensional animated films. To use this technique in traditional animation, the artwork is painted or placed onto separate layers called planes. These planes, typically constructed of planes of transparent glass or plexiglass, are then aligned and placed with specific distances between each plane. The order in which the planes are placed, and the distance between them, is determined by what element of the scene is on the plane as well as the entire scene's intended depth. A camera, mounted above or in front of the planes, moves its focus toward or away from the planes during the capture of the individual animation frames. In some devices, the individual planes can be moved toward or away from the camera. This gives the viewer the impression that they are moving through the separate layers of art as though in a three-dimensional space.

The most famous device used for multiplane animation was the multiplane camera. This device, originally designed by former Walt Disney Studios animator/director Ub Iwerks, is a vertical, top-down camera crane that shot scenes painted on multiple, individually adjustable glass planes. The movable planes allowed for changeable depth within individual animated scenes. In later years Disney Studios would adopt this technology for their own uses. Designed in 1937 by William Garity, the multiplane camera used for the film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs utilized artwork painted on up to seven separate, movable planes, as well as a vertical, top-down camera.

History
Predecessors of this technique and the equipment used to implement it began appearing in the late 19th century. Painted glass panes were often used in matte shots and glass shots, as seen in the work of Norman Dawn. In 1923, Lotte Reiniger and her animation team constructed one of the first multiplane animation structures, a device called a Tricktisch. Its top-down, vertical design allowed for overhead adjusting of individual, stationary planes. The Tricktisch was used in the filming of The Adventures of Prince Achmed, one of Reiniger's most well-known works. Future multiplane animation devices would generally use the same vertical design as Reiniger's device. One notable exception to this trend was the Setback Camera, developed and used by Fleischer Studios. This device used miniature three-dimensional models of sets, with animated cels placed at various positions within the set. This placement gave the appearance of objects moving in front of and behind the animated characters, and was often referred to as the Tabletop Method.

Impact
The spread and development of multiplane animation helped animators tackle problems with motion tracking and scene depth, and reduced production times and costs for animated works. In a 1957 recording, Walt Disney explained why motion tracking was an issue for animators, as well as what multiplane animation could do to solve it. Using a two-dimensional still of an animated farmhouse at night, Disney demonstrated that zooming in on the scene, using traditional animation techniques of the time, increased the size of the moon. In real-life experience, the moon would not increase in size as a viewer approached a farmhouse. Multiplane animation solved this problem by separating the moon, farmhouse, and farmland into separate planes, with the moon being farthest away from the camera. To create the zoom effect, the first two planes were moved closer to the camera during filming, while the plane with the moon remained at its original distance. This provided a depth and fullness to the scene that was closer in resemblance to real life, which was a prominent goal for many animation studios at the time.

Xerography
Applied to animation by Ub Iwerks at the Walt Disney studio during the late 1950s, the electrostatic copying technique called xerography allowed the drawings to be copied directly onto the cels, eliminating much of the "inking" portion of the ink-and-paint process. This saved time and money, and it also made it possible to put in more details and to control the size of the xeroxed objects and characters. At first, it resulted in a more sketchy look, but the technique was improved upon over time.

Disney animator and engineer Bill Justice had patented a forerunner of the Xerox process in 1944, where drawings made with a special pencil would be transferred to a cel by pressure, and then fixing it. It is not known if the process was ever used in animation.

The xerographic method was first tested by Disney in a few scenes of Sleeping Beauty and was first fully used in the short film Goliath II, while the first feature entirely using this process was One Hundred and One Dalmatians (1961). The graphic style of this film was strongly influenced by the process. Some hand inking was still used together with xerography in this and subsequent films when distinct colored lines were needed. Later, colored toners became available, and several distinct line colors could be used, even simultaneously. For instance, in The Rescuers the characters' outlines are gray. White and blue toners were used for special effects, such as snow and water.

The APT process
Invented by Dave Spencer for the 1985 Disney film The Black Cauldron, the APT (Animation Photo Transfer) process was a technique for transferring the animators' art onto cels. Basically, the process was a modification of a repro-photographic process; the artists' work was photographed on high-contrast "litho" film, and the image on the resulting negative was then transferred to a cel covered with a layer of light-sensitive dye. The cel was exposed through the negative. Chemicals were then used to remove the unexposed portion. Small and delicate details were still inked by hand if needed. Spencer received an Academy Award for Technical Achievement for developing this process.

Rotoscoping
Rotoscoping is a method of traditional animation invented by Max Fleischer in 1915, in which animation is "traced" over actual film footage of actors and scenery. Traditionally, the live-action will be printed out frame by frame and registered. Another piece of paper is then placed over the live-action printouts and the action is traced frame by frame using a lightbox. The end result still looks hand-drawn but the motion will be remarkably lifelike. The films Waking Life and American Pop are full-length rotoscoped films. Rotoscoped animation also appears in the music videos for A-ha's song "Take On Me" and Kanye West's "Heartless". In most cases, rotoscoping is mainly used to aid the animation of realistically rendered human beings, as in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Peter Pan, and Sleeping Beauty.

A method related to conventional rotoscoping was later invented for the animation of solid inanimate objects, such as cars, boats, or doors. A small live-action model of the required object was built and painted white, while the edges of the model were painted with thin black lines. The object was then filmed as required for the animated scene by moving the model, the camera, or a combination of both, in real-time or using stop-motion animation. The film frames were then printed on paper, showing a model made up of the painted black lines. After the artists had added details to the object not present in the live-action photography of the model, it was xeroxed onto cels. A notable example is Cruella de Vil's car in Disney's One Hundred and One Dalmatians. The process of transferring 3D objects to cels was greatly improved in the 1980s when computer graphics advanced enough to allow the creation of 3D computer-generated objects that could be manipulated in any way the animators wanted, and then printed as outlines on paper before being copied onto cels using Xerography or the APT process. This technique was used in Disney films such as Oliver and Company (1988) and The Little Mermaid (1989). This process has more or less been superseded by the use of cel-shading.

Related to rotoscoping are the methods of vectorizing live-action footage, in order to achieve a very graphical look, like in Richard Linklater's film A Scanner Darkly.

Live-action hybrids
Similar to the computer animation and traditional animation hybrids described above, occasionally a production will combine both live-action and animated footage. The live-action parts of these productions are usually filmed first, the actors pretending that they are interacting with the animated characters, props, or scenery; animation will then be added into the footage later to make it appear as if it has always been there. Like rotoscoping, this method is rarely used, but when it is, it can be done to terrific effect, immersing the audience in a fantasy world where humans and cartoons co-exist. Early examples include the silent Out of the Inkwell (begun in 1919) cartoons by Max Fleischer and Walt Disney's Alice Comedies (begun in 1923). Live-action and animation were later combined in features such as Song of the South (1946), The Incredible Mr. Limpet, Mary Poppins (both in 1964), Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), Cool World (1992), Space Jam (1996), Looney Tunes: Back in Action (2003), The SpongeBob SquarePants Movie (2004), and Enchanted (2007), among many others. The technique has also seen significant use in television commercials, especially for breakfast cereals marketed to children to interest them and boost sales.

Special effects animation
Besides traditionally animated characters, objects, and backgrounds, many other techniques are used to create special elements such as smoke, lightning and "magic", and to give the animation, in general, a distinct visual appearance. Today special effects are mostly done with computers, but earlier they had to be done by hand. To produce these effects, the animators used different techniques, such as drybrush, airbrush, charcoal, grease pencil, backlit animation, diffusing screens, filters, or gels. For instance, the Nutcracker Suite segment in Fantasia has a fairy sequence where stippled cels are used, creating a soft pastel look.

Modern techniques
The methods mentioned above describe the techniques of an animation process that originally depended on cels in its final stages, but painted cels are rare today as the computer moves into the animation studio, and the outline drawings are usually scanned into the computer and filled with digital paint instead of being transferred to cels and then colored by hand. The drawings are composited in a computer program on many transparent "layers" much the same way as they are with cels, and made into a sequence of images which may then be transferred onto film or converted to a digital video format.

It is now also possible for animators to draw directly into a computer using a graphics tablet such as a Cintiq or a similar device, where the outline drawings are done in a similar manner as they would be on paper. The Goofy short How To Hook Up Your Home Theater (2007) represented Disney's first project based on the paperless technology available today. Some of the advantages are the possibility and potential of controlling the size of the drawings while working on them, drawing directly on a multiplane background and eliminating the need for photographing line tests and scanning.

Though traditional animation is now commonly done with computers, it is distinct from 3D computer animation, such as Toy Story, Shrek, Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius, and Ice Age. Traditional animation and 3D computer animation can be used together, as in Don Bluth's Titan A.E. and Disney's Hercules, Tarzan, Atlantis: The Lost Empire, and Treasure Planet. Some recent anime and western animated series, such as Ghost in the Shell, Neon Genesis Evangelion, and Cowboy Bebop, have applied both animation techniques. DreamWorks executive Jeffrey Katzenberg coined the term "tradigital animation" to describe animated films produced by his studio which incorporated elements of traditional and computer animation equally, such as The Road to El Dorado, Spirit: Stallion of the Cimarron, and Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas.

Many video games such as Viewtiful Joe, The Legend of Zelda: The Wind Waker, Ico, Ōkami, Mirror's Edge, and others use "cel-shading" animation filters or lighting systems to make their full 3D animation appear as though it were drawn in a traditional cel-style. This technique was also used in the animated movie Appleseed, and cel-shaded 3D animation is typically integrated with cel animation in Disney films and in many television shows, such as Fox's Futurama, Family Guy, and American Dad! and both Nickelodeon animated series Invader Zim and The Fairly OddParents. In one scene of the 2007 Pixar movie Ratatouille, an illustration of Gusteau (in his cookbook), speaks to Remy (who, in that scene, was lost in the sewers of Paris) as a figment of Remy's imagination; this scene is also considered an example of cel-shading in an animated feature. More recently, animated shorts such as Paperman, Feast, and The Dam Keeper have used a more distinctive style of cel-shaded 3D animation, capturing a look and feel similar to a 'moving painting'.

Computers and digital video cameras
Among the most common types of animation rostrum cameras was the Oxberry. Such cameras were always made of black anodized aluminum, and commonly had 2 peg bars, 1 at the top and 1 at the bottom of the lightbox. The Oxberry Master Series had 4 peg bars, 2 above and 2 below, and sometimes used a "floating peg bar" as well. The height of the column on which the camera was mounted determined the amount of zoom achievable on a piece of artwork. Such cameras were massive mechanical affairs that might weigh close to a ton and take hours to break down or set up.

In the later years of the animation rostrum camera, stepper motors controlled by computers were attached to the various axes of movement of the camera, thus saving many hours of hand cranking by human operators. Gradually, motion control techniques were adopted throughout the industry.

Digital ink and paint processes gradually made these traditional animation techniques and equipment obsolete.

Computers and digital video cameras can also be used as tools in traditional cel animation without affecting the film directly, assisting the animators in their work and making the whole process faster and easier. Doing the layouts on a computer is much more effective than doing it by traditional methods. Additionally, video cameras give the opportunity to see a "preview" of the scenes and how they will look when finished, enabling the animators to correct and improve upon them without having to complete them first. This can be considered a digital form of pencil testing.

The final animated film by Disney that featured the use of their multiplane camera was The Little Mermaid, though the work was outsourced as Disney's equipment was inoperative at the time. Usage of the multiplane camera or similar devices declined due to production costs and the rise of digital animation. Beginning largely with the use of CAPS, digital multiplane cameras would help streamline the process of adding layers and depth to animated scenes.

title: Traditional animation


text:
David J. Griffiths

David Jeffrey Griffiths (born December 5, 1942) is an American physicist and educator. He was on the faculty of Reed College from 1978 through 2009, becoming the Howard Vollum Professor of Science before his retirement. He wrote three highly regarded textbooks for undergraduate physics students.

Early life and education
Griffiths was born in Arlington, Virginia, the son of Winifred Mary (née Jeffrey) and Gordon Griffiths. Both his parents were faculty members at the University of Washington, his father in the history department and his mother in the zoology department.

Griffiths is a graduate of The Putney School and was trained at Harvard University (B.A., 1964; M.A., 1966; Ph.D., 1970). His doctoral work, Covariant Approach to Massless Field Theory in the Radiation Gauge on theoretical particle physics, was supervised by Sidney Coleman.

Career
Griffiths is principally known as the author of three highly regarded textbooks for undergraduate physics students: Introduction to Elementary Particles (published in 1987, second edition published 2008), Introduction to Quantum Mechanics (published in 1995, third edition published 2018), and Introduction to Electrodynamics (published in 1981, fourth edition published in 2012).

Awards, honors
Griffiths was the recipient of the 1997 Robert A. Millikan award reserved for "those who have made outstanding scholarly contributions to physics education".

In 2009 Griffiths was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society, cited "For advancing the upper level physics curriculum through the writing of leading textbooks and through his contributions to the American Journal of Physics in many editorial roles and as an author."

Books

The most recent edition of each book is generally regarded as a standard undergraduate text.

title: David J. Griffiths


text:
Shanghai World Financial Center

The Shanghai World Financial Center (SWFC;, Shanghainese: Zånhae Guejieu Cinyon Tsonsin) is a supertall skyscraper located in the Pudong district of Shanghai. It was designed by Kohn Pedersen Fox and developed by the Mori Building Company, with Leslie E. Robertson Associates as its structural engineer and China State Construction Engineering Corp and Shanghai Construction (Group) General Co. as its main contractor. It is a mixed-use skyscraper, consisting of offices, hotels, conference rooms, observation decks, and ground-floor shopping malls. Park Hyatt Shanghai is the tower's hotel component, comprising 174 rooms and suites occupying the 79th to the 93rd floors, which at the time of completion was the highest hotel in the world. It is now the third-highest hotel in the world after the Ritz-Carlton, Hong Kong, which occupies floors 102 to 118 of the International Commerce Centre.

On 14 September 2007, the skyscraper was topped out at 492 m, making it the 2nd tallest building in the world on completion (the tallest at the time being Taipei 101), the tallest building in the world by roof height only, and the tallest in China. The SWFC opened to the public on 28 August 2008, with its observation deck opening on 30 August. The observation deck offers views from 474 m above ground level.

The SWFC has been lauded for its design, and in 2008 it was named by architects as the year's best-completed skyscraper. In 2013, the SWFC was exceeded in height by the adjacent Shanghai Tower, which is China's tallest structure. Together, The Shanghai World Financial Center, The Shanghai Tower and The Jin Mao Tower form the world's first adjacent grouping of three supertall skyscrapers.

History
Designed by American architectural firm Kohn Pedersen Fox, the 100-story tower was originally planned for construction in 1997, but work was temporarily interrupted by the Asian Financial Crisis in the late 1990s, and was later paused to accommodate design changes by the Mori Building Company. The building of the tower was financed by several multinational firms, including Chinese, Japanese, and Hong Kong banks, as well as by the Japanese developer and American and European investors. The American investment bank Morgan Stanley coordinated the tower's financing for Mori Building.

Construction

The tower's foundation stone was laid on 27 August 1997. In the late 1990s, the Pierre de Smet Building Corporation suffered a funding shortage caused by the Asian financial crisis of 1997–98, which halted the project after the foundations were completed. On 13 February 2003, the Mori Group increased the building's height to 492 m and 101 stories, from the initial plans for a 460 m, 94-stories building. The new building used the foundations of the original design, and construction work was resumed on 16 November 2003.

A fire broke out in the incomplete SWFC on 14 August 2007. The fire was first noticed on the 40th floor, around 16:30 (GMT +8), and soon the smoke was clearly seen outside the building. By 17:45, the fire had been extinguished. The damage was reported to be slight, and nobody was injured in the accident. The cause of the fire remains unknown, but according to some sources the preliminary investigation suggested workers' electric weldings caused the fire.

The building reached its full height of 492 m on 14 September 2007 after the installation of the final steel girder. The final cladding panels were installed in mid-June 2008, and elevator installation was finished in mid-July. The Shanghai World Financial Center was declared complete on 17 July 2008, and was officially opened on 28 August. On 30 August 2008, the tower's observation floors were opened to the public.

Architecture

The most distinctive feature of the SWFC's design is the trapezoid aperture at the peak. The original design specified a circular aperture, 46 m in diameter, to reduce the stresses of wind pressure and to reference the Chinese mythological depiction of the sky as a circle. It also resembled a Chinese moon gate due to its circular form in Chinese architecture. However, this initial design began facing protests from some Chinese, including the mayor of Shanghai, Chen Liangyu, who considered it too similar to the rising sun design of the Japanese flag. Pedersen then suggested that a bridge be placed at the bottom of the aperture to make it less circular. On 18 October 2005, KPF submitted an alternative design to Mori Building and a trapezoidal hole replaced the circle at the top of the tower, which in addition to changing the controversial design, would also be cheaper and easier to implement, according to the architects. Foreigners and Chinese alike informally refer to the building as "the bottle opener". Metal replicas of the building that function as actual bottle openers are sold in the tower's gift shop.

The tower features three separate observation decks which constitute the floors above and below the aperture opening. The height of the lowest observation deck, located on the 94th floor, is 423 m; the second, on the 97th floor, is at a height of 439 m; and the highest, on the 100th floor, is 474 m high.

The skyscraper's roof height is set at 492 m, and was at one point the highest roof in the world. Before construction on the roof was completed, the SWFC's total height was scheduled to be 509.2 m so that it would exceed the height of the Taipei 101, but a height limit was imposed, allowing the roof to reach a maximum height of 492 metres. Architect William Pedersen and developer Minoru Mori resisted suggestions to add a spire that would surpass that of Taipei 101 and perhaps One World Trade Center, calling the SWFC a "broad-shouldered building". The SWFC boasts a gross floor area of more than 377300 m2, 31 elevators, and 33 escalators.

Structural efficiency
The tower's trapezoid aperture is made up of structural steel and reinforced concrete. A large number of forces, such as wind loads, the people in the building and heavy equipment housed in the building, act on the SWFC's structure. These compressive and bending forces are carried down to the ground by the diagonal-braced frame (with added outrigger trusses). The design employs an effective use of material, because it decreases the thickness of the outer core shear walls and the weight of the structural steel in the perimeter.

Tenants
Shanghai World Financial Center hosts the office building for many international financial companies, including those involved in banking, insurance, securities and fund management, such as Ernst & Young, Morgan Stanley, BNP Paribas, Commerzbank, Bank of Yokohama, Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation and Korea Development Bank. Google's Shanghai branch is located on the 60th-61st floors.

Transport

 * Shanghai Metro: Line 2 at Lujiazui Station is a 10-minute walk to the center.

Awards
Shanghai World Financial Center was named by architects as the best skyscraper completed in 2008, receiving both the Best Tall Building Overall and Asia & Australasia awards from the Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat (CTBUH). CTBUH's Carol Willis, head of New York's Skyscraper Museum, stated: "The simplicity of its form as well as its size dramatizes the idea of the skyscraper." Architect Tim Johnson noted its innovative structural design: "Steel trusses guard against the forces of wind and earthquake and made the building lighter, made it use less steel, and contributed to its sustainability." Johnson described the SWFC's structure as "nothing short of genius."

Similar towers

 * Kingdom Centre, building in Saudi Arabia

title: Shanghai World Financial Center


text:
Thetford Mines

Thetford Mines (Canada 2021 Census population 26,072) is a city in south-central Quebec, Canada. It is the seat of Les Appalaches Regional County Municipality. The city is located in the Appalachian Mountains, 187 km northeast of Montreal and 79 km south of Quebec City. It is known mostly as the asbestos capital of Canada.

History
Before European colonization, the Abenaki inhabited the Thetford Mines region. A village was founded in 1876 after the discovery of large asbestos deposits in the area. The village incorporated as Kingsville (named after William King, an important mine owner) in 1892. A few years later, in 1905, Kingsville was renamed after the Township of Thetford in which it was founded, which was named after the town of Thetford in Norfolk, England.

During the 20th century, Thetford Mines became a hub for one of the world's largest asbestos-producing regions. back then being called "Asbestos Capital of the World" and the "City of White Gold". In the boom times, there were seven mines operating in the area, employing 4,000 workers. In 1949 and in 1975, asbestos miners in Asbestos and Thetford Mines began strikes each lasting for almost five months which were the most violent labor conflicts in the history of Quebec.

In 2001 the city expanded to its current boundaries, incorporating the nearby towns of Black Lake, Robertsonville, Pontbriand and Thetford-Sud.

When Canada banned the use of asbestos in schools and homes, after using it for years as insulation, the mines of Thetford Mines largely exported their asbestos to areas such as southeast Asia, the Middle East, and South and Central America. However, in 2012, the city's last mine closed and Thetford Mines has developed other sectors, namely manufacturing.

The city of Thetford Mines is the seat of the judicial district of Frontenac.

Climate
The Köppen–Geiger climate classification system classifies its climate as humid continental (Dfb). Winters are very cold and snowy, while summers are warm and rainy when it receives more precipitation.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Thetford Mines had a population of $26,072$ living in $12,216$ of its $13,059$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $25,403$. With a land area of 225.97 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Winter
Given the abundance of snow for several months in winter, it is a popular area for snowmobiling and four-wheel drive vehicles as well as for downhill and cross-country skiing.

The city is home to the minor-pro ice hockey team the Thetford Mines Assurancia, who are members of the Ligue Nord-Américaine de Hockey (LNAH). They play home games at Centre Mario Gosselin. Thetford Mines is the only city to have hosted an LNAH team in every season since the league's 1996 inception. The city has ringette and hockey organisations for the youth, and there are yearly tournaments for ringette and minor Hockey players, as well as old-timers hockey tournaments.

Thetford Mines was chosen as a top-five finalist for Kraft Hockeyville for 2009 on the February 21, 2009 Hockey Night In Canada "Hockey Day In Canada" special.

Spring
Spring is maple syrup producing time in the area. The numerous stands of maple trees in the region makes it one of the top maple syrup producing regions in the world. In March and early April, local citizens often make a ritual outing to one of the area's sugar camps (or cabanes à sucre) for sugaring off parties where maple syrup, reduced and thickened by slow boiling, is poured over fresh snow to create a delightful taffy.

Summer
Summer brings a host of other outdoor activities. An abundance of lakes and rivers provide plenty of opportunities for outdoor gatherings and cool refreshment. A series of summer festivals add to the enjoyment of the season, with sporting events, concerts and fireworks.

Autumn
The same maples that produce syrup in spring, provide brilliant displays of colour in autumn.

Media
Two radio stations, CFJO ("O97,3") and CKLD ("Passion-Rock 105,5") serve Thetford Mines. Both stations air programming produced partially in Thetford Mines and partially in Victoriaville.

Notable people

 * Bob Fillion (1920-2015), late hockey player with the Montreal Canadiens
 * Raymond Setlakwe (1928-2021), entrepreneur, lawyer, and former Quebec senator
 * Armand Vaillancourt (born 1929), Canadian sculptor, painter and performance artist
 * Michel Louvain (1937-2021), French Canadian singer and television presenter
 * Roch Thériault (1947-2011), cult leader and polygamist known for his totalitarian leadership of the Ant Hill Kids.
 * Janel Gauthier (b. 1950), psychologist
 * Michaëlle Jean (b. 1957), former Governor General of Canada and current Secretary-General of La Francophonie.
 * Jean-François Lisée (b. 1958), former leader of the Parti Québécois, former Leader of the Opposition in Quebec, and former member of the National Assembly of Quebec for the electoral district of Rosemont
 * Daniel Poudrier (b. 1964), retired hockey player, city councillor
 * Mario Gosselin (b. 1963), hockey player
 * Patrice Tardif (b. 1970), hockey player, formerly in the NHL
 * Simon Gamache (b. 1981), hockey player, formerly in the NHL
 * John Mervin Nooth (1737-1828), physician, army officer, scientist, and superintendent general of hospitals in Lower Canada.
 * Andrew Stuart Johnson (1848-1926) prominent farmer, lumber merchant, mining company founder and political figure in Quebec.

title: Thetford Mines


text:
International Commerce Centre

The International Commerce Centre is a 108-storey, 484 m supertall skyscraper in West Kowloon, Hong Kong, resting atop the Elements mall and near two MTR Stations (Kowloon and Austin Station). It is the world's 13th tallest by height, 10th tallest by number of floors, and Hong Kong's tallest, as well as the only building in the city with over 100 storeys. The official height is 484 m, which includes the 6 m tall parapets on the roof. It was the world's 4th tallest building and 3rd in Asia when completed in 2010.

The south side of the building faces Victoria Harbour, and directly opposite Hong Kong's second tallest building, the International Finance Centre.

History
MTR Corporation Limited and Sun Hung Kai Properties, Hong Kong's metro operator and largest property developer respectively, were responsible for the development of this skyscraper. Known in development as Union Square Phase 7, its current name was officially announced in 2005. The International Commerce Centre was completed in phases from 2007 to 2010. The tower opened in 2011, with The Ritz-Carlton opening in late March and the observatory in early April.

The height had been scaled back from earlier plans due to regulations that did not allow buildings to be taller than the surrounding mountains. The original proposal for this building was called Kowloon Station Phase 7 and it was designed to be 574 m tall with 102 floors. It would have risen 162 m over the then-current tallest in Hong Kong, 2 International Finance Centre.

The tower was designed by the American architectural firm Kohn Pedersen Fox Associates (KPF) in association with Wong & Ouyang. It was built by Sanfield, the construction subsidiary of Sun Hung Kai.

Construction work was temporarily halted on 13 September 2009, due to an lift shaft accident that killed six workers.

Floor count
The top floor is numbered 118. The number "4" is skipped due to tetraphobia, as it sounds like the word "death" when spoken in Cantonese and is therefore considered an unlucky number, while floor 13 is skipped due to triskaidekaphobia. Except for level 3, 103 and 113, levels with "3" in the last digit were also skipped, and levels 5, 6, 7, 26, 28, 29 & 105 were skipped as well for unknown reasons. They are currently replaced by levels with letter "M" and "R", which stand for "Mechanical" and "Refuge". Although the levels are missing, they are still shown on the elevator's screen of Sky100 and Skydining 101 while going up and down.

28 floors were skipped: 4, 5, 6, 7, 13, 14, 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 33, 34, 43, 44, 53, 54, 63, 64, 73, 74, 83, 84, 93, 94, 104, 105, 114. 18 floors were added: UG, M1-1, M1-2, M1-3, M1-5, R1, R2, M2-1, M2-2, R3, M3-1, M3-2, R4, M4-1, M4-2, M4-3, M5, M6

Floor directory
It takes 60 seconds to reach the world's 14th highest observation deck, Sky100 from the lobby on level 2 with a special lift, along with Elements, and the skyway (behind the main entrance of Sky100) to West Kowloon Cultural District (WKCD). The 4 restaurants of Skydining 101, which include Inakaya, Odyssée, The Sky Boss and The Kitin, sit on level 101 at 399 m above sea level.

The Ritz-Carlton, Hong Kong occupies level 3, 8, 9 and the top 17 floors (M4-3 to 118), offering 312 rooms as well as the world's highest bar, fitness center and swimming pool set on the top floor. The office floors are located on level 10 to 99, including a mechanical floor and refuge level; in which, the sky lobbies set on level 48 and 49, and the fitness center "SPACE" on level 20. Credit Suisse, Morgan Stanley and Deutsche Bank have become anchor tenants of ICC's offices since 2008.

The ICC Light and Music Show
The LED light show set a new Guinness World Records for the “largest light and sound show on a single building” using a total of 50,000 m2 on two facades of the ICC. The Show is designed by the lighting design supervisor, Hirohito Totsune, who already designed the lighting system of the Tokyo Skytree. It creates a theme and story line by using lights and music elements, similar to "A Symphony of Lights" in Victoria Harbour.

title: International Commerce Centre


text:
Trois-Rivières (disambiguation)

Trois-Rivières means three rivers in French and may refer to:

 * in Canada
 * Trois-Rivières, the largest city in the Mauricie region of Quebec, Canada
 * Circuit Trois-Rivières, a racetrack in Trois-Rivières, Quebec
 * Trois-Rivières (provincial electoral district), a provincial electoral district in Quebec
 * Trois-Rivières (federal electoral district), a federal electoral district in Quebec
 * Trois-Rivières (Province of Canada), a defunct electoral district in the Province of Canada (1841-1867)
 * Trois-Rivières (Lower Canada), a defunct electoral district in Lower Canada (1792-1838)
 * Trois-Rivières (territory equivalent to a regional county municipality), a statistical area
 * Trois-Rivières, historically the collective name for the Petitcodiac River, the Memramcook River, and the Shepody Bay in New Brunswick.

 * in France
 * Canton of Trois-Rivières, canton in the Arrondissement of Basse-Terre on the island of Guadeloupe.
 * Trois-Rivières, Guadeloupe, a commune and chef-lieu of the Canton of Trois-Rivières
 * Trois-Rivières, Martinique, a village on the island of Martinique
 * Trois-Rivières, Somme, a commune in the Somme department

 * in Haiti
 * Les Trois Rivières, a river in Haiti

Other uses

 * Trois-Rives, Quebec, Canada

title: Trois-Rivières (disambiguation)


text:
Bernard Heuvelmans

Bernard Heuvelmans (10 October 1916 – 22 August 2001) was a Belgian-French scientist, explorer, researcher, and writer probably best known, along with Scottish-American biologist Ivan T. Sanderson, as a founding figure in the pseudoscience and subculture of cryptozoology. His 1958 book On the Track of Unknown Animals (originally published in French in 1955 as Sur la Piste des Bêtes Ignorées) is often regarded as one of the most influential cryptozoology texts.

Life
Heuvelmans was born on 10 October 1916 in Le Havre, France, and raised in Belgium and earned a doctorate in zoology from the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). Heuvelmans was a pupil of Serge Frechkop, a proponent of the Theory of Initial Bipedalism. In 1939, his doctoral dissertation concerned the teeth of the aardvark. During World War II he had escaped from a Nazi prison camp and later worked as a jazz singer in Paris.

Heuvelmans' books made reference to literary sources. He was influenced by Jules Verne and Arthur Conan Doyle's book The Lost World (1912). Though earlier interested in zoological oddities, he credits a 1948 Saturday Evening Post article, "There Could be Dinosaurs" by Ivan T. Sanderson, with inspiring a determined interest in unknown animals. Sanderson discussed the possibility of dinosaurs surviving in remote corners of the world. Heuvelmans was also influenced by the work of Anthonie Cornelis Oudemans, who had defended the existence of the sea serpent.

Heuvelmans wrote many other books and articles, only a few of which have been translated into English. His works sold well among general audiences but saw little attention from mainstream scientists and experts. In the Wake of the Sea-Serpents was his second book; it was translated into English and sold in the United States in 1968. It consisted of his book on sea serpents with parts of his book on the giant squid (and gigantic octopuses) added. As he continued his research, he saw the need to "give a name to the totally new discipline in zoology my research implied. That is how I coined the word 'cryptozoology', the science of hidden animals".

There is evidence that Heuvelmans planned to author a third book on fresh-water cryptozoology, but instead he assisted Irish author Peter Costello to produce his 1974 book In Search of Lake Monsters, providing source material from his files.

Science writer David Quammen has stated that Heuvelmans's On the Track of Unknown Animals is "heavily researched and encyclopedic" but contains "leaps of credulity that leave a skeptical reader behind." He also wrote that Heuvelmans was known for making "overstated claims".

His book The Natural History of Hidden Animals (published posthumously) was heavily criticized. Biologist Aaron Bauer noted that "Heuvelmans's own writings, this book included, often eschew critical analysis of available data". John Burton has written that the book's "credibility is seriously undermined by sloppy research".

Heuvelmans's wife was the novelist and artist Monique Watteau; she was also the main illustrator of his books. They divorced in 1961, but remained friends and colleagues.

Heuvelmans eventually converted to Buddhism. He died on 22 August 2001 at the age of 84.

Books

 * Abridged, revised.
 * (with Boris F. Porchnev)
 * Second Edition.
 * Second Edition.
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * Abridged, revised.
 * (with Boris F. Porchnev)
 * Second Edition.
 * Second Edition.
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)
 * (ed. Peter Gwynvay Hopkins)

title: Bernard Heuvelmans