text:
Talk:Mars bar

Discussion
The Australian entry on this page smacks of corporate porpaganda. Is that alowed???

 * Something else interesting, they recently had a promotion on that you could win another free bar on 1 out of 6 mars/snickers bars, the ironic thing is, one of australia's biggest retailers of the bars, 7-11, didn't support the promotion and refused to honour it! ROFL! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 124.186.188.175 (talk • contribs).

In the US, the Mars bar is a slab of plain (not chocolate) nougat with whole almonds topped with caramel and coated in chocolate. The U.S. Mars bar is not sold overseas.

 * Actually, it is - at least it was sold in Poland for a while (not anymore), as "Almond Mars". Ausir 15:27, 15 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * It is in Australia Aaron Hill 02:51, 4 Jul 2004 (UTC)

This is a mess. There is no coherence between the Mars Bar, Milky Way candy bar and 3 Musketeers articles. Should we follow the US naming and have the chocolate bar info on these three articles? Or have it on two of the three and have a disambiguation page at Milky Way? I most certainly would not support following the US naming conventions. As it stands, it needs to be cleared up (since the content at Milky Way repeats the UK Mars Bar content at Mars Bar). - Mark 08:26, 17 Jul 2004 (UTC)

Mars Bar comparison
According to The Temple ov thee Lemur, the url being http://totl.net/VisibleMars/

So, you wanted to know in great detail what the hell is so different between the American and European mars bar? Did you think your pleas would go unanswered? Fear not, for the people at the Temple ov thee Lemur have brought forth your salvation (salvation, get it? we're talking about food). Well, those crazy brits cooked up the "The VISIBLE MARS BAR Project", not to be confused with any other project.

==U.S. vs. Europe Why are the bars sold in the U.S. made differently than those in Europe?

Some excerpts from "The VISIBLE MARS BAR Project". British Mars Bar Weight: 65g Colour: black Description: "milk chocolate with soft nougat and caramel centre" (note the British spelling of centre)

American Mars Bar Weight: 49.9g Colour: off-yellow Description: "Creamy Caramel & Nougat"

Capitalization isn't as important to our British friends as it is to those wacky Americans.

I'm American... i don't like Almonds... please please please if we want the Mars bar... give us NO ALMONDS! take the nougat and the caramel center (from our Milky Way) and put it in British milk chocolate... In this case... Think Milky Way But British! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.100.3.169 (talk) 09:13, 14 February 2010 (UTC)

Ingredients
or the nutritional information, that's what I was after when I stopped by the page

Me too, would be useful --86.131.82.243 19:32, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

Is Mars dead?
In the Portland, Oregon area, i haven't sen a single Mars bar in about a year. However, there are these new 'Snickers Almond' all over the place.

Is there any practical difference between Snickers Almond and Mars, and is it possible that Snickers Almond has replaced Mars, at least in some locations? --Dodger

 * They are very different bars. Snickers Almond is NOT the same.. it has less carmel and the nougat is different (peanut based, rather than plain). Also the almonds are in little bits, whereas with the Mars Bar they were big chunks. Cshay 00:13, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

 * If they are different, why do they have the same UPCs?
 * Mars Almond
 * Snickers Almond
 * Bear in mind that the abbreviated codes expand to a common full-length code. — Nahum Reduta [ talk | contribs ] 10:08, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

Usefulness as an example?
Reading this article, it's struck me that it could be a useful example if somebody needs to describe confusing regional variations in names of goods; even more so than crisps, chips, biscuits, and the like. Just a thought. Sockatume 06:22, 7 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Regarding the Mars/Milky Way/3 Musketeers thing
Could someone clarify? I really have no idea what the name and marketing difference is.

 * Oh how I laughed with my siblings explaining these. In the US, at least, a Milky Way is essentially a 3 Musketeers with caramel. In turn, a Mars bar is a Milky Way with almonds; a Snickers bar is a Milky Way with Peanuts. "But what about a Milky Way without caramel?" "That's a 3 Musketeers!" "What about those Snickers bars with almonds?" "Those are Mars bars!" — Nahum Reduta [ talk | contribs ] 10:15, 25 February 2008 (UTC)

I really can't get my head around this deep-fried Mars Bar thing. Has anyone here actually tried it? Better still, has anyone got a photo of one? How on earth can you deep-fry chocolate? Surely it just melts and becomes an amorphous gew? can it really be served in that form?Palefire 02:57, Dec 19, 2004 (UTC)

I find it very confusing too... here in Canada we have Mars, 3 musketeers AND milky ways... they appear as 3 different, although similar, products... Maybe that can help someone =) --XC3N

I have eaten a deep-fried Mars bar (well half of one anyway). You coat it in batter and quickly fry it, so it does partially melt but the batter holds it together. Kind of the same principle as deep-fried Brie cheese or even fried ice-cream, which I have seen in restaurants. I don't recommend deep-fried Mars - it is very sickly indeed. -RK

I had one too (at a chip shop in Birmingham). It wasn't as bad as you might think; the batter helps hold it together and it has a gooey center. It is very rich, though, and I don't remember whether I finished it. The batter is the same as on fish and chips, obviously, and its mild flavor doesn't clash with that of the Mars bar; it's mildly salty, but then again so is a Snickers. Not something I'd order again, but not at all revolting. --ProhibitOnions 23:24, 2005 May 2 (UTC)

Table
I think we could use a table outlining the international differences in Mars Bars. A bit like Comparison_of_operating_systems. --Commander Keane 11:56, August 31, 2005 (UTC)

 * I like it! Of course, we should include pictures, logos, etc. as well. ProhibitOnions 18:54, 30 March 2006 (UTC)

 * There is a Milky Way Midnight (corresponding to the Mars Midnight, I imagine) in the US, which was originally introduced as Milky Way Dark. It's similar to a normal Milky Way but with a white vanilla nougat and uses dark chocolate as a covering instead of milk chocolate. Pimlottc 22:08, 11 April 2006 (UTC)

 * This chart needs to be moved to the Mars Incorporated article since it is talking about the entire Mars product line, not just the Mars bar. 148.87.1.171 23:01, 29 January 2007 (UTC)

 * I know that in Canada, Mars Almond has now been replaced with Snickers Almond. Furthermore, 3 Musketeers here seems to be just lighter chocolate, or chocolate nougat, covered with a harder chocolate shell. Aericanwizard 18:12, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

Changes in UK bar quality
When I was a teenager the UK Mars Bar used to be a lot chewier and have a higher density and weight than the lightweight modern version. There was a lot more toffee, and in particular the 'foam' was solid. I recall reading newspaper articles about the changes in size and composition of the bar over the years. I am disapointed that the article dosnt mention this. The modern version of a Mars Bar is not as good as it used to be, and for that reason alone I rarely buy it, since I just get the disapointment of remembering that its not half as good as it used to be. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 81.104.12.57 (talk • contribs).
 * I also came here to look for the reduction on bar size/weight over the years. Every some years they reduce the size of a bar by some gramms. It would be helpful to have a kind of time table how they reduced the size and weight over the past 20 years.
 * I used to eat Mars bars pretty often, but then I moved from the UK to the US. recently tried the new British Mars bar, and I was so disappointed - where is that thick chocolate layer that used to resist breaking? Now the bar is a shadow of its former self. I hear it's not as popular as it used to be, and I think the 2002 change has a lot to do with that. It's pretty sad. I would have had no problem with them reducing the overall size, but I think they should have kept the thicknesses the same, so the bar felt the same. Ianbrettcooper (talk) 11:23, 22 September 2019 (UTC)

Spinoffs?
The following were recently removed from the limited editions section

 * Mars Delight
 * Mars Drink
 * Mars Ice Cream

Perhaps they should be added back in a spinoffs section?

M100 15:00, 2 August 2006 (UTC)

Footnotes and references
Someone saw fit to "standardise" the references, and in the attempt ended up leaving an empty references section, and with references mixed up with the footnotes in the section headed "footnotes".

IMHO these should be kept separate, and I had done the best I could to keep them this way. I wasn't overjoyed at having to use two different systems to do this, but I didn't see any other way it was possible with Wikipedia's current setup. Sure, the system is easier to use, but how can we keep separate refs and footnotes this way? Fourohfour 14:49, 6 August 2006 (UTC)

Images
So far the page only has images of Mars packaging, rather than the bar itself. It would be good to see an image of half a bar broken to show the cross-section. I will upload one if no-one else has by the next time I buy a Mars bar. MrBudgens 20:57, 29 August 2006 (UTC)

A Mars A Day Helps You Work, Rest and Play
I won't add anything to the article, because it would be self-promotion, and may well not meet the criteria for being 'verifiable', but this might be of interest...

The article mentions that the slogan "A Mars A Day Helps You Work, Rest and Play" is often wrongly attributed to Murray Walker - well, I know who actually did come up with it - it was my grandma - see http://pigpog.com/node/2436. I didn't find out until her funeral, just recently. Came as a bit of a surprise. Pigpogm 13:35, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Posted by Lottie: Years ago when I was at college studying to be a teacher, it was common knowledge at the college that this slogan was invented by my maths teacher - a Mr Dagnall. I didn't know his first name at the time, but after googling a little, it seems to be a well-documented fact that the slogan was invented by a Mr William Dagnall, who I assume was my maths teacher after all. I cannot though find anything out about Mr Dagnall to verify that William Dagnall and Mr Dagnall the college (WMCHE) maths teacher are one and the same. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.47.46.4 (talk) 10:51, 28 May 2012 (UTC)
 * You are both wrong. The slogan was invented by the well known fishing author, “J.R. Hartley” Roxy, the dog . wooF 11:48, 22 September 2019 (UTC)

Nougat in a 3 Musketeers?
I feel very confident in insisting that the 3 Musketeers bar sold in Canada contains no nougat. It's a whipped cholocate filling; nougat is a much denser, paler substance, is it not? --Llewdor 23:55, 17 October 2006 (UTC)

It is nougat with chocolate flavouring added, hence the darker colour. The density of nougat varies with how it is manufactured, some are more dense than others.

Peanut free Mars Bar
The article says that the Mars Bars made in Canada since last July are guaranteed peanut free allergy friendly. I seem to remember that Canadian Mars bars were always peanut free, however last year the manufacturer announced they were going to move production to a plant that also processed peanuts. There was a big protest from people with peanut allergies so they didn't do it, and now that is a big part of their advertising, that they are allergy friendly. Jande9 08:18, 17 November 2006 (UTC)

Canadian Mars have never contained peanuts but have only recently been tested to ensure they contained absolutely no peanut protein.

 * Yes, Mars in Canada now contain a logo stating "Peanut Free", as opposed to several other products which do not contain peanuts, but must report that they are "made in a facility which processes nuts, and may contain trace amounts". Aericanwizard 18:16, 2 February 2007 (UTC)

I recall around halloween packs of other candies and mars bars were guaranteed nut free, but were only available halloween in snack size packages. (to give to kids of course) 70.73.39.88 (talk) 04:10, 6 May 2008 (UTC)

Mars Big One
Let us not forget the Mars Big One, a "king size" Mars bar from the UK, available a few years ago.

Sadly, I only have a photograph of it in rocket-powered flying form: http://smyth ecentral.150m.com/Smythe%20Central%20Hub_files/image006.jpg Crunchysaviour 17:17, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

 * Your hosting service whined about hotlinking.... Fourohfour 19:37, 23 December 2006 (UTC)

Mars Bar Currency
I note there is no obvious mention of the Mars Bar currency / link to such a page??

See http://www.ft.com/cms/s/9f128868-68b4-11da-bd30-0000779e2340.html for more detail

Snickers Almond NOT the same as the original
They are very different bars. Snickers Almond is NOT the same.. Snickers has less carmel and the nougat is different (peanut based, rather than plain). Also the almonds are in little bits, whereas with the Mars Bar they were big chunks. Cshay 00:21, 30 January 2007 (UTC)

Total Recall
The trivia section mentions "the book Total Recall" and a character named Hauser. The movie Total Recall, with a character named Hauser, was (I gather) based on Philip K. Dick's story "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale"; was it republished with the movie title, or what? —Tamfang 03:42, 10 April 2007 (UTC)

 * Philip K. Dick's story is a short story. It appears in the five volume collection of all Dick's short stories published after his death. The paperback volume containing this story is titled Total Recall after the film. The plot of the film departs from the short story in many ways, and a novelisation of the film has been published. The title of the book of the film is, unsurprisingly, Total Recall. Hope that helps. HairyWombat (talk) 02:05, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Thanks. So should "In the book Total Recall" be changed to "In Philip K. Dick's story 'We Can Remember It for You Wholesale'"? I'm guessing the briefcase full of Mars Bars is not in the novelization, as I don't recall any scene where it would fit in the movie. —Tamfang (talk) 03:07, 29 November 2008 (UTC)

 * I don't recall a briefcase full of Mars Bars in the short story. I don't even recall a character called Hauser. The short story takes place entirely on Earth. HairyWombat (talk) 19:52, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

Animal Products
Does anyone know whether the changes involving the use of animal products are limited to chocolate bars manufactured in the U.K., or does it go as far as products made in Canada and the U.S.? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 137.122.93.93 (talk) 15:37, 16 May 2007 (UTC).
 * They've reversed this decision now anyway; I've edited the section accordingly. — Matt Eason (Talk • Contribs) 02:07, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Original Mars Bar had no caramel
Not sure about the 1930s U.K. version of the Mars bar that the article refers to, but I do know that the U.S. Mars bar contained NO CARAMEL until the mid-to-late 1970s. It was white nougat with whole almonds on top (not mixed in with the nougat), and all covered in milk chocolate. I believe caramel was added around 1977 (yes, I'm old enough to remember). If you need verification, check out any of the pre-1980s Mars bar commercials on YouTube, and you'll see for yourself. superbu 05:43, 15 September 2007 (UTC)

 * The US Mars Bar that I remember, circa 1965–76, was a slab of milk chocolate with six almonds ("an almond in every bite"), no nougat. I don't think I'm confusing it with a Hershey With Almonds, because (in my mental image) the Hershey bar is distinctly darker, longer & narrower, and its distribution of almonds not so regular. —Tamfang (talk) 03:11, 29 November 2008 (UTC)
 * An almond in every bite, 1973, on YouTube —Tamfang (talk) 06:04, 25 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Note that the spot says nothing about nougat or caramel. —Tamfang (talk) 17:00, 11 February 2015 (UTC)

 * The American Mars bar that I remember from the 70's was white nougat, with the six whole almonds in a row, all covered with milk chocolate. I misses those, they were better than the Mars that came after them, which used a darker nougat, added caramel, and used chunks of almonds mixed in.--RLent (talk) 18:55, 21 June 2010 (UTC)

 * I, too, remember the Mars Toasted Almond Bar (as I recall it being named) as having nougat along with the whole almonds on top, covered in milk chocolate. I remember the switch to the caramel, Snickers looking presentation which was a whole different bar to my mind.THX1136 (talk) 15:26, 10 March 2014 (UTC)

 * As far as I know, the addition of caramel didn't occur until mid-to-late 1980, when the packaging was changed to golden yellow with red lettering. WikiPro1981X (talk) 22:14, 6 January 2016 (UTC)

Contents
Currently the article does not give the contents of a UK Mars Bar. The double-sized ones are also worth a mention. JMcC (talk) 09:43, 19 December 2007 (UTC)

whoever you are...you're absolutely correct. And now I'm even more sad that they are gone :( —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.166.166.18 (talk) 17:05, 24 August 2009 (UTC)

Not Only Animal Ingredients
Mars bars are also tested on animals, which is further reason for animal activists to boycott the company. Also, this article seems to be ignoring that fact. A site about this topic is MarsCandyKills.Com. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Larenbo (talk • contribs) 01:59, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

New advert
This Guardian Online article might interest whoever edits this page. Seegoon (talk) 10:39, 28 February 2008 (UTC)

U.S. vs. Europe
Why are the bars sold in the U.S. made differently than those in Europe? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.67.35.214 (talk) 03:46, 15 March 2008 (UTC)

For a 25 hour day
If I remember correctly, the tagline for Mars in South Africa was: "Mars... for a 25 hour day"

I thought it was rubbish, until I learnt that Martian days are 20min shy of 25 hours. 194.176.201.28 (talk) 13:38, 23 May 2008 (UTC)
 * You're thinking of a Bar One, which is identical to a Mars bar, but less expensive. --leuce (talk) 14:07, 28 August 2021 (UTC)

Um...
Snickers contains peanuts, not almonds. SUPER NERD UP UP AND AWAY!-- Editor510  drop us a line, mate  20:52, 23 July 2008 (UTC)
 * Traditional Snickers bars have peanuts, yes. But the line in the article about Snickers is discussing a variation of Snickers which uses almonds instead of peanuts.  Metros (talk) 00:59, 24 July 2008 (UTC)

Mars Bar or Mars bar?
Should the title be 'Mars Bar', or 'Mars bar', per MOS? The Mars site has MARS® bar. --hippo43 (talk) 04:18, 26 March 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved. DMacks (talk) 05:27, 6 January 2010 (UTC) DMacks (talk) 05:27, 6 January 2010 (UTC)

Mars Bar → Mars bar — Correct spelling is "Mars bar", not "Mars Bar", as "bar" is not part of the brand name. —hippo43 (talk) 00:21, 29 December 2009 (UTC)

 * support - sounds like a good idea :) Casliber (talk · contribs) 03:41, 29 December 2009 (UTC)
 * Yes -- Escape Orbit (Talk) 09:49, 29 December 2009 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Since the page is now at Mars (chocolate bar) it may seem moot, but I would say while the official brand name is "Mars" the unofficial name is "Mars Bar" - with a capital B, just as the football teams unofficial names (Canaries, Hammers, Spurs etc.) are capitalised. Rich Farmbrough, 13:22, 9 March 2011 (UTC).

Starbar
"Product designers at The Mars Candy Company in the US put this down to nostalgia over the past hugely popular Starbar, which also contained the same reinvented 'light whipped nougatine.'"

That sentence contains a redirect to Starbar, a Cadbury product, which contained no light nougatine that I recollect (nor does the article indicate that it did). I suspect that the intent was to reference an earlier, very popular but short-lived, Mars product named either Star Bar or 5 Star Bar (can't remember which) - that doesn't seem to have an entry that I can find. Irish Melkite (talk) 16:49, 21 August 2011 (UTC)

Murray Walker
I've removed the section regarding Murray Walker and the slogan "A Mars a day..." This appears to have started off as cited content claiming that Murray was responsible for the slogan, and was cited accordingly. This was then modified to claim that this was erroneous and he wasn't. But the cite was unchanged and there was nothing to verify this new claim. It has recently been changed again, to expand on exactly who wrote the slogan instead of Murray, but again, no cite supplied, and the cite that remained now said the exact opposite of what the article did.

It looks like the original claim is disputed. Usually I would revert it back to this, on the grounds that at least it was verifiable with a cite. But I'm giving those who claim it is wrong a chance to cite their claim for who was responsible instead. If we can get a reliable source that establishes this, then we can do without any mention of Murray. Wikipedia doesn't usually discuss incorrect facts unless they are notable in themselves. -- Escape Orbit (Talk) 21:25, 25 January 2012 (UTC)

U.S. Mars Bar doesn't contain almonds?
This is interesting. I had a Mars Bar today, but it had no almonds like the page said it did. I went ahead and erased that, but I think it's weird about the almonds thing. Where'd that come from? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 173.174.101.37 (talk) 03:10, 18 April 2013 (UTC)
 * The original US Mars bar contained almonds. If it is true that it no longer contains almonds, then it is not really a "relaunch" but something else entirely, since the main thrust of their marketing was to highlight big hunks of almonds. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uDr9vjc1w50 Cshay (talk) 07:46, 20 April 2014 (UTC)

U.K. Mars bar is sold in the U.S.
I'm in the US, and I've definitely bought the UK Mars in Publix (sold on the International aisle, in the British section), and pretty sure I've seen/bought them in Kroger in the past also. These are the UK version, imported. I can't recall at the moment for certain, but think I've also seen them in World Market, but haven't been in that store for quite a while. But not entirely accurate to say they're not sold in the US. 98.193.177.44 (talk) 06:10, 18 May 2014 (UTC)

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Article title
This article was moved unilaterally from Mars bar sometime over the 2010s after a move discussion in December 2009 settled on 6 January 2010 on moving this article from Mars Bar to Mars bar on account of the word "bar" not being part of the brand name and therefore not a proper noun. The reasoning for the subsequent move was the fact that the brand name for the chocolate bar is simply "Mars". I feel that his focuses too much on the topic's official name, which is a common mistake in move discussions, and I would like to point out that according to WP:COMMONNAME "Wikipedia does not necessarily use the subject's "official" name as an article title; it generally prefers the name that is most commonly used (as determined by its prevalence in a significant majority of independent, reliable English-language sources)". There is also MOS:TIES which states "An article on a topic that has strong ties to a particular English-speaking nation should use the (formal, not colloquial) English of that nation". Examples of formal usage of the term "Mars bar" in British English (considering the bar originated in the United Kingdom), unlike with "Twix" and "Snickers" which are bars made by the same company, are in the British based news sources cited in this article. Another example is the title Deep-fried Mars bar for that article on Wikipedia. Also, the use of the term "Mars bar" is common in everyday speech in British English even when the planet and the Roman god have not already been mentioned which would theoretically eliminate the need for disambiguation. This brings me the the issue of whether natural or parenthetical disambiguation (see Article titles) is more desirable on the English language Wikipedia for this topic. "Mars bar" is a name clearly many Britons are familiar with when disambiguation is required and would still be useful if natural disambiguation is desirable. Tk420 (talk) 21:07, 26 August 2023 (UTC)

 * I don't have a strong opinion either way, so just a comment. This isn't a US/UK difference.  We called them "Mars bars" here too.  The operative word is "called", though.  I only know this because I'm old.  They haven't sold them here in 20 years. Dan Bloch (talk) 00:33, 27 August 2023 (UTC)

Requested move 27 August 2023

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved. (closed by non-admin page mover)  ❯❯❯  Raydann  (Talk)   20:52, 3 September 2023 (UTC)

Mars (chocolate bar) → Mars bar – As per WP:COMMONNAME and MOS:TIES with "Mars bar" being in common parlance in the bar's country of origin e.g. in the title of the related Deep-fried Mars bar article and considering the last move discussion (Talk:Mars (chocolate_bar)) settled on Mars bar before this article was quietly moved unilaterally during the 2010s. I also started this discussion to debate on whether natural disambiguation (see WP:NATDIS) is more desirable than parenthetical disambiguation (see Article titles) in this case. Tk420 (talk) 20:40, 27 August 2023 (UTC) The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.
 * Support. The current article title is the result of a 2011 undiscussed move. The consensus title, per a 2009 RM, is "Mars bar". 162 etc. (talk) 22:57, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support. The proposed title would provide WP:NATURALDISAMBIGUATION. Also, the bar has major ingredients that are not chocolate. It is more of a candy bar or a combination bar than a chocolate bar. — BarrelProof (talk) 23:13, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per WP:NATURALDISAMBIGUATION and WP:COMMONNAME. This article should have never been moved without a discussion anyway. Rreagan007 (talk) 23:41, 27 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per all above. It's rarely called just "Mars". Station1 (talk) 01:33, 28 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per nom. -- Necrothesp (talk) 12:56, 29 August 2023 (UTC)
 * Support per WP:UCN and WP:NATDIS, we should always prefer common names and avoid parentheticals when possible. -- Jayron 32 13:23, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mars bar


text:
Józef Haller

Józef Haller von Hallenburg (13 August 1873 – 4 June 1960) was a Polish lieutenant general and legionary in the Polish Legions during the First World War. He was a harcmistrz (the highest Scouting instructor rank in Poland), the president of the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association (ZHP), and a political and social activist. He was also the cousin of Stanisław Haller.

Haller was born in Jurczyce. He studied at Vienna's Technical Military Academy and subsequently (1895–1906) served with the Austrian Army, resigning after reaching the rank of captain. He supported the paramilitary pro-independence Polish organization Sokół. In 1916, during the First World War, he became commander of the Second Brigade of the Polish Legion, in particular the units which fought against Russia on the Eastern Front.

In 1918, in the aftermath of the "Charge at Rarańcza", as commander of the 2nd Polish Auxiliary Corps with the Austrian Army, Haller broke through the Austro-Russian front line to Ukraine, where he united his troops with Polish detachments which had left the Tsarist army. He protested the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk and continued to fight the Russians with his II Brigade of the Polish Legions (later, the 4th and 5th Rifle Divisions of the Polish II Corps). Under the pressure of the Germans, who after the Peace of Brest-Litovsk regarded the presence of Polish troops in Ukraine as illegal, and a fierce battle between Poles and Germans at Kaniów (10 May 1918, 2500 casualties) his corps was interned, while the Brigadier himself managed to escape to Moscow.

Subsequently, by the way of Murmansk, he arrived in France in July 1918, where on behalf of the Polish National Committee he created what was known as the Blue Army (from the color of its French uniforms, also known as Haller's Army). For the next few months his army, allied to the Entente, would fight against Germany. In 1919, at the new army's head, he arrived in Poland and was dispatched to the Ukrainian front. In 1920 Haller seized Pomerania and entered Danzig (Gdańsk) in the name of Poland, and during the Polish-Soviet War he commanded an army of volunteers. He was also Inspector General of the Army and a member of the War Council.

In 1920–1927 Haller was a deputy to the Sejm. After the election of Gabriel Narutowicz as President of the Republic in December 1922, Haller fell into disfavor. After the 1926 May Coup, he was ordered into retirement. He co-organized an opposition party, the "Front Morges".

At the time of the invasion of Poland (1939), Haller was living abroad. From 1940 to 1943 he served as Minister of Education in Władysław Sikorski's government. After 1945 he settled in London as an exile and did not take active part in any émigré Polish political activities.

Early life
Haller was born 13 August 1873 in a small village called Jurczyce near Kraków (Skawina Municipal), in the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria in the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Józef was the third child of a szlachta (Polish nobility) Henryk Haller von Hallenburg and Olga Treter. Jan Haller, a bookseller and the owner of the first printing house in Poland in the 16th century, was one of his ancestors. Józef Haller's father took part in the failed January Uprising against the partitioning powers and his maternal grandfather was a captain in the Polish Army during the infamous November Uprising. He was also awarded the Virtuti Militari Knight's Cross.

Józef spent his early childhood in the countryside where up to the age of nine he grew up with his brothers and sisters. Like other family members, he belonged to the Catholic organizations such as Sodality of Our Lady (Sodalicja Mariańska), which popularized the veneration of the Virgin Mary, and the Third Secular Franciscan Order. Strong patriotism and religiousness were deeply rooted in Haller's family life and strongly influenced young Józef. Those family values – patriotism and religion – which shaped his personality, determined his future decisions.

In 1882 the Haller family moved to the city of Lemberg (Lwów) where Józef attended a local German gymnasium. He subsequently continued his education in the military Lower Realschule (secondary school) in Kaschau, Hungary (present-day Slovakia) and then in the Higher Realschule in Weisskirchen in Moravia, which was also attended to by some Austrian archdukes and European royalty. Afterwards, he studied at the Faculty of Artillery at Vienna's Theresian Military Academy.

Austro-Hungarian Army
When Józef Haller graduated from the university he was designated the rank of Second Lieutenant and then started his 15-year-long service with the Austro-Hungarian Army. Between 1895 and 1910 he served with the 11th Artillery Regiment in Lviv. In 1903 Józef married Aleksandra Sala and in 1906 his son Eryk was born.

In 1910 Józef resigned from the Austro-Hungarian Army stating that "since he had reached the rank of captain and he is not able to learn anything new in the Austrian Artillery, he leaves the army in order to serve the country in some other way until his Homeland needs him."

Social work
After dropping out of the army, Haller dedicated himself to social work. He was an active member of a farmers cooperative movement where he achieved remarkable successes. In 1912 he took up a post as the inspector in Farmer's Association (Towarzystwo Kółek Rolniczych). His duties included organizing agricultural, farm and dairy courses. He was also a member of the Scouting Movement and Polish Gymnastic Society "Falcon" (Sokół) which was founded in 1911. Some of his priorities there were to militarize "Falcon" and polonize the Scouting Movement and then transform it into "harcerstwo" which is a Polish equivalent of Scouting (the primary difference between most Scouting organizations and the Polish Harcerstwo was described by Andrzej Małkowski as Harcerstwo is Scouting plus independence).

Since mid 1912 Haller had worked as a military trainer: he set up Falcon teams, organized secret soldier, non-commissioned officer and officer courses for the Polish youth. In 1913 along with other colleagues he worked out model badges and terminology for "harcerstwo", many of which are still used today. He made a major contribution to creating the Scouts Cross where he suggested combining some elements of the Maltese Cross and the Polish Virtuti Militari Order.

The Eastern Legion
When the Great War broke out it was a sign to mobilize Polish patriotic paramilitary organizations. On 27 August 1914, Józef Piłsudski issued an order in which he declared formation of the Polish Legions. On the strength of the order the Eastern Legion was formed in Lviv under the command of the General Adam Pietraszkiewicz. Haller was one of the founders of this formation which is a combination of Falcon's Drużyny Polowe (Fields Brigades), Bartosz Brigades and the Polskie Drużyny Strzeleckie (Polish Rifle Squads). At that time Austrian failures in Galicia led to occupation of Lviv and the whole territory of the eastern Galicia by the Russian army. The Legion had to withdraw into the surroundings of Mszana Dolna. Although the unit had been completely formed it did not participate in the battle. Due to a collapse of morale among soldiers and resistance against swearing loyalty to the Austrian emperor, the legion was disbanded.

Polish Legions
Soldiers, who were in favor for continuing the war against the Russian Empire, were subjected to Joseph Haller's directions. He became the commander of the 3rd Legions' Infantry Regiment after its former reorganisation. He was then ranked lieutenant-colonel. On 30 September 1914, Haller and the military unit under his surveillance left Kraków, and set off to the front line in Eastern Carpathians. Despite bad climatic and topographic conditions, the brigade supported the defence of the Carpathians and hindered Russian access to Hungary.

In the beginning of October 1914, the brigade got to Hungarian side of Carpathians. On October 12 the 3rd Legions' Infantry Regiment troops under the command of Haller surmounted the Rafajlowa village in Galicia. On 22 and 23 October the main troops reached the village through the route near the Pantyr Mountain in Gorgany (later on it was named the Legions’ Mountain Pass), built by sappers and assaulted on Stanisławów. On 24 October the troops defeated Nadvirna. Five days later the Molotkow battle took place. The failure pushed Haller's soldiers back to Rafajlowa. In November the brigade was divided into two separate units. Haller's brigade remained in Rafajlowa, whereas the others continued the battle in Huculszczyzna and Bukovina.

On the night of 24 January 1915, Russians attacked the 3rd Legions' Infantry Regiment. Polish soldiers did not expect the offensive. However, due to their commander's actions, they defeated the enemy and took many Prisoners of War (POWs). A permanent struggle resulted in the loss of approximately 50% of soldiers. After the successful defence and stabilization on the front line, lieutenant colonel Haller passed the leadership of the 3rd Legions' Infantry Regiment to major Henryk Minkiewicz, simultaneously remaining in the 2nd Legions’ Infantry Brigade as commander's orderly officer. On 14 March 1915 he was promoted colonel.

On a temporary permit in Częstochowa, in May 1915 Haller was injured in a car accident. He spent 10 months recovering in a hospital. In spring of 1916 Haller became a member of the Colonels’ Council, which incorporated the heads of Legions’ military units, and functioned in opposition to Legions’ Headquarters, which advocated Austrian policy. In July 1918 Haller was given an assignment to command the 2nd Legions’ Infantry Brigade, which he accepted.

Polish Rifle Division
On 15 February 1918, Haller questioned the agreements of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk which reduced the chances for the creation of an independent Poland,. Together with the II Brigade of the Polish Legions and the rest of Polish soldiers, Haller broke through the frontline near Rarańcza. and joined the Polish troops in Russia. He was ranked commander of a newly formed Polish 5th Siberian Rifle Division.

From 28 March 1918, he took charge of the military units of the Polish 2nd Corps in Ukraine. On 7 April 1918 Haller was appointed General. The legions under Haller's command were inspired by the National Democracy movement. Recruitment of Jewish volunteers to their ranks ceased in 1918, and the legions were later involved in pogroms.

Kaniów
Germany considered the presence of Polish military units in Ukraine an infringement of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. At midnight on 10–11 May 1918 German troops assaulted Polish units near Kaniv (Polish: Kaniów). There were no warnings preceding the attack. The battle continued for one day. After the ammunition storage expired, the Polish 2nd Corps surrendered. Many people were seriously injured. The Polish army lost less than 1000. the Germans close to 1500. Haller avoided imprisonment by faking his own death. Using the name "Mazowiecki" he fled to Moscow, where he became the head of Polish Army Commission.

France
In July 1918, after a long journey through Karelia and Murmansk, General Haller arrived in France. On 4 October 1918 he was designated to be in charge of the forming Polish Army. Those units were organised by volunteers. They consisted of Polish men who firstly served in the French army, former POWs of Austrian-Hungarian and German armies (nearly 35,000) and Polish emigrants from the United States and Canada (about 23,000 people) and Brazil (300 people). Political surveillance over the army was initially a domain of Polish National Committee. But according to an agreement of 28 September 1918, the Blue Army was recognised by the Triple Entente member countries and the independent Polish army.

In 1918 Polish troops commanded by Joseph Haller struggled with German soldiers on the western front line in the Vosges mountain region and Champagne.

Blue Army
The end of war did not interrupt the enlargement of the Polish army in France, also known as the Blue Army due to their uniforms. The number of soldiers was eventually over 100,000. Due to weapons supplied from France, the Polish Army finally became a significant military force. Beginning in April 1919, men and equipment were conveyed to Poland. Modern arms of the Blue Army, especially airplanes and Renault FT tanks enhanced the Polish Armed Forces yet to be founded. General Haller arrived in Warsaw on 21 April 1919, where he was welcomed as a national hero. He was granted honorary citizenship of Warsaw. The Blue Army was involved in anti-Jewish violence and its soldiers participated in pogroms.

Polish-Ukrainian War
Because the Blue Army was the only well-armed combat unit in the recreated Polish Army, the command decided not to split it into smaller pieces. The whole army was deployed at the Polish-Ukrainian frontline. In the course of victorious battles against the Ukrainian army, Haller's forces reached the Zbruch River, passing Volhynia and Eastern Galicia. However, in June the General himself was dispatched to the Polish-German borderline in order to take command of the army on the South-Western front.

Pomerania
As Venice so symbolized its marriage with the Adriatic so we Poles symbolize our marriage with our dear Baltic Sea.

— General Haller at the “Wedding to the Sea” ceremony in Putzig/Puck, 1920 In October 1919, Haller was entrusted with the command of the Pomeranian Front, created in order to claim the territory of Pomerania, in peaceful and planned way, as the territory was granted to Poland according to the Treaty of Versailles. As planned, the taking over of Pomerania began on 18 January 1920, starting with Toruń, which was taken over by squadrons of the 16th Pomeranian Infantry Division. More territories were taken from the retreating German Army, until 11 February 1920, when the last of the soldiers left Gdańsk (Danzig).

Despite a few incidents, including armed resistance and sabotage, the Pomeranian takeover proceeded rather easily. On 10 February 1920, General Haller together with the Minister of Internal Affairs, Stanisław Wojciechowski, and the new administration of the Pomeranian Province came to Puck, where he performed a "symbolic wedding ceremony" of Poland and the Baltic Sea.

Polish-Soviet War
In 1920 Haller was appointed Inspector General of the Volunteer Army, the formation to which he made a great contribution. During the Battle of Warsaw, he led the forces defending the capital's foregrounds. He was also a member of the Council for Defence of the Nation (July–August 1920) and later led the North-Eastern Front. At this stage of his career, he saw the end of the war.

The interwar period
After the war, Józef Haller had inter alia function of the Inspector General of Artillery (in the years 1920–26), and the president of the Supreme Military Evaluation Commission. He was also a member of the War Council, lead the Hallerczyks’ Union, and from 3 July 1920 until 4 February 1923, was President of the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association. During the years 1922–27 he was a member of the Sejm, of the Christian Union of National Unity Party. Because of his nationalist views, he was considered, among others, one of those who were responsible for the anti-Semitic riots in Częstochowa in 1919 in which soldiers of the Blue Army took part. He was also said to be responsible for inspiring an atmosphere of hostility towards president Gabriel Narutowicz, claiming that he had been elected with "non-Polish" votes; Narutowicz would be assassinated days after his election.

In 1923 and again in 1933, the General traveled to the United States with a mission of support for veterans and disabled members of the Blue Army. Among the sites General Haller visited in 1923 was St. Hyacinth Basilica in Chicago's Polish Village, taking part in the dedication service of a monument dedicated to the Blue Army that still stands in the "Garden of Memory" next to the Basilica to the present day.

General Haller condemned Piłsudski's May Coup d'État which resulted in him being retired on 31 January 1926. In the 1920s along with his wife Alexandra and his son Eryk he settled in Pomerania in the Gorzuchowo mansion, near Chełmno. During the years 1936–39, he was one of the organizers and leaders of Front Morges which was in opposition to the government of the sanacja regime. On 10 October 1937, on the Labor Party's Constitutional Congress he was elected the head of the party's Principal Board.

World War II

After World War II broke out, Haller managed to make his way through Romania, to France, where he offered himself to serve General Władysław Sikorski's government, which was about to be formed. He also led the Intergovernmental Committee for Registration. On the first days of November 1939 he entered the government as a Minister without Portfolio. At the turn of the years 1939–1940, he travelled again to the US, but this time to encourage American Polonia to join the Polish Army, which was being formed in France.

After the fall of the government in France, Haller reached Great Britain, through Spain and Portugal. In Great Britain during the years 1940–1943, he was a Minister of Education in the Polish Government-in-Exile.

Postwar
After the war Józef Haller decided to remain abroad and settled in London for good, where, steeped in the legend of the "Blue General", he died on 4 June 1960 at the age of 86. He was buried in the Gunnersbury cemetery. Thanks to the initiative of the Polish Scouts from "Whites" team, his ashes were returned to Poland on 23 April 1993 and are now kept in a crypt in St. Agnes’ garrison church in Kraków.

Promotions

 * Captain of Artillery – 1909
 * Captain of Infantry – 18 October 1914
 * Major of Infantry – 25 October 1914
 * Lieutenant Colonel of Infantry – 20 November 1914
 * Colonel of Infantry – 14 March 1915
 * Brigadier – 7 April 1918
 * Major General – 29 November 1918
 * Lieutenant General – 10 June 1920

Honours and awards

 * Knight of the Order of the White Eagle
 * Silver Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari
 * Commander's Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta
 * Cross of Valour, four times
 * Legion of Honour, Class II (France)
 * Croix de guerre (France)
 * Scouts Cross
 * Order of Malta
 * Order of St. Stanislaus
 * Imperial Order of Leopold
 * Order of Vasa
 * Military Merit Medal (Austria-Hungary)
 * Grand Officer of the Order of the Crown of Italy
 * Freedom Cross Second Class (Estonia)

Legacy
After World War I, the Warsaw chapter of the Order of Haller's Swords was formed to commemorate the wartime service of individuals who aided in the Polish independence movement. The organization conferred Haller's Swords, a decoration featuring the Polish eagle and crossed swords, on a number of Polish soldiers and several Allies. Recipients included:

 * Clarence Ransom Edwards
 * Laurence Hawley Watres
 * Grover Whalen

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Józef Haller


text:
Plestiodon inexpectatus

Plestiodon inexpectatus, the southeastern five-lined skink is a common skink in the southeastern United States.

Etymology
The specific name, inexpectatus ("the unexpected"), is possibly a reference to the unexpected discovery of this species in 1932, almost 175 years after Linnaeus described Plestiodon fasciatus, commonly known as the American five-lined skink.

Description
As their common name suggests, southeastern five-lined skinks have five characteristic narrow stripes along their bodies that become lighter with age. The middle stripe tends to be narrower than the others, and the dark areas between stripes are black in young skinks but become brown with age. A similar lizard, the common five-lined skink (Plestiodon fasciatus), is slightly smaller than the southeastern five-lined skink and has broader stripes. However, it is difficult to discriminate between these two species on the basis of physical appearance.

Young southeastern five-lined skinks have a bright blue or purplish tail, especially towards the tip. Also, stripes become a bright reddish orange towards the head. Juvenile coloration may persist into adulthood, giving the head of the animal an altogether orange-brown appearance.

Habitat
Southeastern five-lined skinks are common inhabitants of wooded areas of the southeastern United States. They are commonly found on small islands off the southeastern coast even in the absence of fresh water and vegetation.

Behavior
They are diurnal ground-dwelling animals.

Diet
Like other skinks of the genus Plestiodon, they feed primarily on insects, preferring larger prey such as grasshoppers.

In captivity
This skink species is easy to maintain in captivity. It has the same requirements as the common five-lined skink, although it can tolerate dryer conditions.

Reproduction
Southeastern five-lined skinks are oviparous; the clutch size varies from 6 to 12, with the number of eggs diminishing with higher latitudes. The female broods the eggs and protects them from predators, including other skinks. The hatchlings appear about one month after the eggs have been laid near the beginning of summer.

title: Plestiodon inexpectatus


text:
City of London School

The City of London School, also known as CLS and City, is a private day school for boys in the City of London, England, on the banks of the River Thames next to the Millennium Bridge, opposite Tate Modern. It is a partner school of the City of London School for Girls and the City of London Freemen's School. All three schools receive funding from the City's Cash. It is a member of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference (HMC). It is one of the most academically selective and successful schools in the country.

The school was founded by a private Act of Parliament in 1834, following a bequest of land in 1442 for poor children in the City of London. The original school was established at Milk Street, moving first to the Victoria Embankment in 1879 and subsequently to its present site on Queen Victoria Street in 1986.

Former pupils, known as Old Citizens, who have attained eminence in various fields are former UK Prime Minister H. H. Asquith, First World War hero Theodore Bayley Hardy, Nobel Prize–winning scientists Frederick Gowland Hopkins and Peter Higgs, Justice of the Supreme Court Lawrence Collins, Historian John Robert Seeley, England cricket captain Mike Brearley, British chemist and entrepreneur William Henry Perkin, Booker Prize-winning authors Kingsley Amis and Julian Barnes, Hollywood film director Michael Apted, and actor Daniel Radcliffe.

The school provides day education to about 1,000 boys aged 11 to 18 and employs approximately 100 teaching staff and around another 100 non-teaching staff. The majority of pupils enter at 11, some at 13 and some at 16 into the Sixth Form. Admissions are based on an entrance examination and an interview, with the exception of pupils educated at the City Junior School, who are given an automatic place at 11+.

History
The City of London School traces its origins to a bequest of land by John Carpenter, town clerk of London. On his death in 1442, it was found that Carpenter had listed many bequests, most to his relatives but some to charitable causes. There were no bequests listed to directly support the education of boys in the City of London. However, a bequest of land was left to two trusted friends who were aware that Carpenter desired a legacy which would support children, and in turn the land was passed on to John Don, an influential man in the City of London. On his death, Don left his own will incorporating the words used in Carpenter's bequest of land and his intentions for the land, that it be "for the finding and bringing up of four poor men's children with meat, drink, apparel, learning at the schools, in the universities, etc., until they be preferred, and then others in their places for ever." The four boys became known as Carpenter's Children.

Little is known of the early years of the legacy. This bequest was administered by the Corporation of London in around 1460 and a small college was founded next to Guildhall Chapel, also using the library facilities in the chapel. Despite the fact that this continued for over 70 years, the earliest certain evidence of the existence of Carpenter's Children can only be traced back to 1536, and thus it is not clear who these boys were, what they were taught and where they lived. In 1547, under the Chantries Act the Guildhall Chapel and Library were forfeited. The funding for the four boys was also discontinued. The Corporation of London remained in control of Carpenter's estate and accounts from the next 300 years show that the money continued to be spent on children's benefits such as providing new coats to every child or providing them with access to education.

In 1823, a report published by the Charity Commission revealed that over the centuries, the income from the bequest vastly exceeded the expenses of the boys' education. In response to the report, the Corporation of London indicated that it had taken, "great pains...by searching in the archives of the corporation and other places for the will of John Carpenter, without effect". Had the Corporation instead looked for the will of John Don, it would have received guidance in what to do with the money.

Lacking that guidance, discussions began on how the bequest money should be spent. The City Lands Committee suggested in a report that the bequest should be spent on educating a larger number of boys and this approach was adopted in 1826. A number of people including Richard Taylor, a printer and an assistant to the founding of University College London, urged the Corporation of London to spend the bequest on creating a day school for the largest possible number of boys. In 1830, they proposed that the City of London Corporation School should be founded with Taylor as a governor and that the school to be established on the site of the disused London Workhouse. In the meantime, a small number of boys, who became known as Carpenter's scholars, were sent to Tonbridge School. An Act of Parliament, the Estate of the London Workhouse Act 1829 (c. 43), was passed to transform the workhouse into a school and governors were appointed. Conditions at the workhouse site had deteriorated and much money was needed for its maintenance. The only funds available, though, were the same £300 (about £30,000 in 2016) a year budget the workhouse had received.

Over the next few years, the workhouse proposal was seen by the City of London Lord Mayor's deputation and the City Lands Committee (Taylor was a member of both), as impractical, and other schemes were proposed. In 1832, Warren Stormes Hale, who believed that the workhouse proposal was not the best use of Carpenter's legacy, was appointed to the City Lands Committee. He became chairman of the committee in 1833, and would come to be considered the second founder of the City of London School, after Carpenter.

At this point, the City Lands Committee started to search for better locations for a school. They selected Honey Lane Market, a site on Milk Street, as their preferred location. However, this proposal faced the same funding difficulties as the workhouse proposal: only £300 per year was available, insufficient to build and maintain a school. This problem was not recognised until the bill to found the school reached the House of Lords. An altered bill was finalised in 1834, removing any references to the London Workhouse and addressing the Lords' objections.

The altered bill was passed as an Act of Parliament, the Establishment of Honey Lane Market School Act 1834 (c. 35). It was this act which founded the City of London School, which initially had around 400 pupils. The act gave the Corporation of London a duty to maintain a school on the Honey Lane Market site and so gave control over almost every aspect of the school's running to the Corporation. A committee was also set up to manage the school, with Hale as chairman. Although the committee's powers were initially limited, they gained more control over time as they made important decisions for the school.

The act gave the new school an annual budget of £900 (around £107,000 in 2016) from the bequest while the governors of the City of London Corporation School, who still wanted to implement their original idea, gained nothing, only retaining the old workhouse income. Both Hale and the Corporation of London were also eager to create this second school, which the governors of the City of London Corporation School had proposed. Despite their efforts, the other school was not founded until 1854, as the Freemen's Orphanage School, in Brixton with Hale as chairman. The Freemen's Orphanage School still exists today as the City of London Freemen's School in Surrey.

Establishment at Milk Street
The foundation stone of the new school was laid by Lord Brougham at premises in Milk Street, in the City of London near Cheapside, on part of the site of the old Honey Lane Market, in 1835 and the school opened its doors in 1837.

The school was remarkable for its time in several respects. It did not discriminate against pupils on the grounds of religious persuasion (at a time when most public schools had an Anglican emphasis); it included pupils from non-conformist and Jewish families. Also, unlike other established independent schools, it was a day school (although there were in early days a handful of boarders, no boarding department ever became established). It also promoted a practical and progressive scheme of education which was well ahead of its time. It was the first school in England to include science on the curriculum and to include scientific experiments as part of its teaching. It also offered education in commercial subjects. This did not, however, diminish its teaching in the subjects traditionally favoured by independent schools, and it sent classical and mathematical scholars to Oxford and Cambridge throughout the 19th century. These included the classicist, theologian and Shakespearean scholar Edwin Abbott Abbott (whose mathematical exploration of a world in other than three dimensions, Flatland, is still in print and who returned to the school as headmaster), John Robert Seeley – a classics scholar who became Regius Professor of Modern History at Cambridge University and H. H. Asquith, who though educated as a classical scholar went on to become the British Prime Minister.

Move to Blackfriars

The school eventually outgrew its original site. While some public schools moved away from Greater London in the late 19th century, the school's management and the school committee jointly decided to stay in the capital, as it was deemed a stimulating environment for education. Through the City of London School Act 1879 (c.63), it was empowered to move to a new site at Blackfriars on the Victoria Embankment overlooking the Thames (still in the City of London). The school moved in 1883 and the new building was opened by the Prince of Wales, (the future King Edward VII).

In 1887 the Divisional Court and the Court of Appeal determined that the City of London School was a public school.

In November 1912, the Education Committee appointed Cyril Burt as a psychologist in the education officer's department. In Britain, this was the first appointment in a field of psychology outside a university. From 1913 to 1931 Burt examined pupils nominated for admission to special schools. His mandate included selection and research.

In 1920, an arrangement was made whereby all the boy choristers of the Temple Church were given scholarships at the City of London School. In 1926, this arrangement was extended to the boy choristers of the Chapel Royal at St. James's Palace. The choristers included Ernest Lough, whose recording of Mendelssohn's "O for the Wings of a Dove" with the Temple Choir in 1927 made him world-famous; it was the first classical record to sell (by 1962) more than a million copies. Another musician educated at the school was the cellist Steven Isserlis.

Second World War
In 1938, the headmaster F.R. Dale made an agreement with George Turner, headmaster of Marlborough College, to evacuate the school there, if it became necessary. On 1 September 1939 following the German invasion of Poland and the start of the Second World War, the majority of the school were sent to Marlborough College by train.

Accommodation was not provided in the agreement with Marlborough College and so Turner wrote to the Mayor of Marlborough to request accommodation in town. Many of the accommodation billets were occupied by soldiers and women working for the Ministry of Health at the time and so for the first night, the boys slept in the gymnasium of the school, before moving into the town's billets the following night.

When the Marlborough term began, an arrangement was made whereby City of London boys had lessons during games for Marlborough College pupils and vice versa. The difficulties at the Marlborough location ranged from finding a study for Headmaster Dale to finding enough kitchen staff to prepare food for both schools. Resources were limited and outbreaks of influenza and rubella were common. Like many other schools evacuated into the countryside, the City of London School's enrolment fell from 700 to 430 during the war, although no pupil was killed or injured as a direct result of enemy fire.

The arrangements at Marlborough College gave pupils the opportunity to strengthen the school's clubs and societies. This included a dramatic society, in which Kingsley Amis played a large part.

Marlborough College itself experienced some threat from the war. The Ministry of Aircraft Production had also relocated there, and in 1942, bombs fell nearby. By 1944, with the war settling down, the City of London School returned to its home on the Victoria Embankment, which had suffered no structural damage during the Blitz. Air raid shelters were built on site as a precautionary measure.

Soon after the building reopened, a bomb fell on the nearby Law Courts, and the staff sent pupils home for a week. However, some pupils were due to take public exams. After Marlborough College refused them permission to take the exams there, it was decided that boys would take the Higher Certificate papers in the Guildhall Crypt.

It took the school over five years to fully recover from the effects of the war. Many Old Citizens had lost their lives fighting in the war. Today, there is a memorial in the school's courtyard (transplanted from the main staircase of the old Blackfriars site) to remember those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in both World Wars. An annual remembrance service, involving members of the Combined Cadet Force, is held on the Friday closest to Armistice Day in November.

Modernisation and move to Queen Victoria Street
The school underwent many changes during its time on the Victoria Embankment. The curriculum had been consolidated at the turn of the century, the Combined Cadet Force was modernised, the house system had been reorganised, the "mission", what is now the annual charity appeal, had been started and a Community Service Organisation had been set up as an alternative to the Combined Cadet Force. It was compulsory for a boy, above the third form, to serve in one of these organisations for at least five school terms. This is a tradition which still exists today. In 1925, the school acquired its sports grounds at Grove Park, Lewisham. This site included a pavilion, containing offices, changing rooms, toilets and showers, which was designed, by Old Citizen Ralph Knott, to also be a memorial to those Old Citizens who had lost their lives in the First World War. When J. A. Boyes became headmaster in 1964, further modernisations were made in the building. As the number of pupils increased over the years, overcrowding became a problem. Headmaster Boyes, believed that a new, modern building was needed for the school, and his efforts managed to secure a site on the banks of the River Thames for a new facility.

In 1986, the City of London School moved to its present site in purpose-built facilities in Queen Victoria Street (where it is opposite the College of Arms and just below St Paul's Cathedral) on one side and facing onto the banks of the River Thames on the other side. School activity transferred to the new premises over the 1986 summer holidays, in time for the 1986-1987 academic year, and a ceremony for the official opening of the building, by the Princess Anne, was held in 1987. The Millennium Bridge is next to the school buildings.

Milk Street (1837–1883)
The original building at Milk Street was designed by architect J.B. Bunning, who was the architect to the City of London and also an Old Citizen of the school. The building was designed in a neo-Gothic Tudor style.

Victoria Embankment (1883–1986)
The Victoria Embankment building, a grand building said to be in the Italian Renaissance style but actually in a high Victorian style with a steep pitched roof resembling that of a French chateau, was designed by Davis and Emanuel and constructed by John Mowlem & Co. at a cost exceeding £100,000 (about £11,158,064.52 in 2016). The designers designed the school as "amazingly unscholastic, rather like a permanent Exhibition Palace."

On the front of the building are statues of Shakespeare, Milton, Bacon, Newton and Sir Thomas More with "the first four emphasising the school's literary and scientific traditions [and] the last being a religious martyr, a famous lawyer and the author of Utopia."

The building remained the home of the City of London School for a hundred years, although the site expanded to include not only the original building on the Victoria Embankment itself, but a range of buildings at right angles along the whole of John Carpenter Street, which was named after the founder of the school, and further buildings constructed at the back along Tudor Street, with the school playground, Fives courts and cloisters enclosed within the site. These other buildings were demolished when the school moved again in 1986. Here the school was adjacent to the City of London School for Girls, which was founded by the City of London Corporation as a sister school in 1894 and moved in 1969 to its present site in the Barbican, and the Guildhall School of Music and Drama which has also since moved to the Barbican. It was also next to the traditional home of the British newspaper industry in Fleet Street.

This building still stands and is protected by a preservation order; it was occupied by the investment bank JPMorgan, and it appeared on the left of the famous Thames Television ident from 1968 to 1989. The building still features the school's name above the door. The auxiliary buildings in John Carpenter Street and Tudor Street, however, were demolished shortly after the school vacated the premises.

Queen Victoria Street (1986–present)
The present building on Queen Victoria Street was designed by City of London architect Thomas Meddings, an Old Citizen of the school as well as a former Temple Church chorister. It is a wholly modern building, although some of the stained glass and sculptures from the Victoria Embankment building has been relocated to this new building. A design and technology block was added to the building in 1990, though in 2008, the block was transformed into a building mainly used by the ICT and music departments, although some design and technology facilities remain. The building was designed on a structural grid and non-load bearing walls were used so that the internal layout of the building could easily be changed when necessary. The school's design is also slightly unusual in that it was built avoiding a road tunnel in the centre of the premises. This meant that the first and second floors of the building could only be built on either side of the road tunnel. The load on the third floor directly above the road tunnel is also limited and so there is a courtyard which goes up to the fifth floor, surrounded by the building, in that area. The current building is opened to the public annually on one weekend in September as part of the Open House London event.

In 2020, an international two-stage competition was announced for a £19 million revamp of the present City of London School building. The competition, which has been organised by New London Architecture on behalf of the City of London Corporation, will select the entry that brings a 'innovative and sustainable' upgrade to the building complex. The project represents a part of an overall plan to expand capacity at the school. The contract was won by a joint proposal from Morris & Co. and Freehaus.

The front view of the building beside the River Thames with St Paul's Cathedral in the background and the Millennium Bridge on the right is occasionally seen in popular media such as in the BBC News 60-second countdown as well as in an early scene of the 2005 movie, The Constant Gardener and in the 2009 film Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince.

School life
The school seeks to provide a community "to foster good relationships between members of the staff, the pupils themselves and between members of the staff and pupils", so that pupils can develop their social confidence as well as thrive on academic excellence. The school's aims and range of extracurricular activities reflect this ethos.

Houses
City of London School has six Houses: Abbott, Beaufoy, Carpenter, Hale, Mortimer, and Seeley. As well as houses named after the founder of the school John Carpenter and former headmasters Edwin Abbott and George Mortimer, they include houses named after important Old Citizens or school benefactors including Beaufoy, a philanthropist who donated the sum of £10,000 (about £660,000 in 2016 ) in the 18th century, Hale who played a significant role in the school's founding and Seeley, a famous historian who attended the school. Boys are assigned to a House in the Third Form (13 years old), in which they stay throughout their school career. There are inter-house events (e.g. sports, literature, maths) which contribute points to an overall Interhouse Competition that is decided at the end of the year.

School uniform
The school requires school uniform for all pupils up to the fifth form. Sixth formers do not have to wear the uniform, but they are required to wear suits and the sixth form school tie. The uniform is a blazer with the school crest (black for winter or maroon with black stripes for summer, though both are now allowed throughout the year), white shirt, black trousers, shoes, black socks and school tie which has black and red stripes (the sixth form version has double red stripes). There are a selection of other ties worn by some pupils; these are given out as awards for achievements within the school. These include house colours which are awarded to those who have represented their house in multiple events. School colours are awarded to those who have represented the school in multiple events. School colours include junior colours normally awarded to boys in the fourth form and below who have represented the school on a number of occasions, half colours which are awarded to those who have competed in several events for the school, and full colours for those who have shown a good commitment in representing the school. Other ties include the prefects tie for elected prefects, the senior prefects tie for the head boy and four senior prefects, and the John Carpenter Club tie which is awarded to those who have competed in events at an international level.

Curriculum
In 2019, The Daily Telegraph placed the school eighth in its League Tables of Independent School A-level results, with 81.2% of entries gaining A* or A grades at A-level. The Telegraph also placed it 6th for GCSE results, with 94.62% of papers graded 9-7 (A*-A in the old system). As of 2017 around 35 pupils took up places at Oxbridge each year.

Pupils are required to take a minimum of ten GCSE subjects in the fourth and fifth form of which six, mathematics, English Language, English literature, biology, chemistry and physics are chosen for all students. Of the remaining four options, one must be a humanity and another a modern foreign language. Additional subjects and qualifications are taken by some students. In 2007 the school also started offering IGCSE in some subjects.

In the sixth form, boys take either four subjects at A-Level, or three subjects and an Extended Project Qualification (EPQ). Subjects on offer include Geography, History and Politics, Economics, Mathematics, Language and Literature, Music, Modern Languages, Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Drama and Theatre, Classical Civilization, Latin & Greek, Design and Visual Arts, Religious Education, Information Technology and Physical Education. There is also a programme of PSHE, and games at all levels, and an ICT programme for the first and second forms.

Extracurricular activities
The school offers many extracurricular activities. These include over 50 clubs and societies including a Model United Nations, public speaking and debating society which frequently participates in international competitions, and the Square Mile Club which in the past has attracted notable speakers such as Sir Trevor Macdonald, Brian Paddick, Sir David Pepper and Ian Livingston. Boys themselves can create and manage clubs, with school funding available for activities. There are also trips, opportunities to carry out community service and a Combined Cadet Force. The school also gives boys the opportunity to receive instrumental tuition as well as join music groups including orchestras and choirs. The school also offers sports including football, cricket, basketball, water polo, swimming, sailing, fencing, squash, badminton, fives, athletics, cross-country, judo, karate and indoor rowing. Most of these sports take place on school facilities. Sports such as sailing and climbing take place on non-school facilities. Boys also represent the school in competitions at varying levels. The school has a tradition of supporting a charity, chosen by the boys through a ballot, each academic year. The fundraising activities are coordinated by the boys and events take place throughout the year to raise money for the selected charity. An average of £50,000 is raised each year. The school also participates annually in the UKMT Team Maths Challenge and the Hans Woyda Maths Challenge, consistently finishing in the top ranks each year.

Facilities
The school's sports facilities include a multi-purpose indoor sports hall, a 25-metre swimming pool, a gym, a rooftop AstroTurf football pitch and grass playing fields and athletics tracks at Grove Park, Lewisham. Music facilities include three ensemble rooms, ten rehearsal rooms and a music technology lab. Other facilities include the Great Hall, a sixth form common room, a bookshop, a library, an archive room, three ICT labs, facilities for the Combined Cadet Force (including a rifle range), a drama studio, two playgrounds and a drama theatre. The Great Hall houses a Walker organ which was moved from the previous school building and put into a new casing. The organ has 3 manual departments, 61 notes and a pedal department with 32 notes as well as 43 stops, 4 tremulants and 6 couplers. The drama theatre (Winterflood Theatre) was rebuilt in 2009 at a value of £1.3 million. The project was jointly funded by City entrepreneur Brian Winterflood and the City of London Corporation. The new theatre was designed by architectural firm RHWL and built by Wilmott Dixon Construction.

Traditional events
Although the school provides a very modern atmosphere in most aspects of school life, there are some traditional events held annually, although attendance of these events is no longer compulsory for all boys. This includes the annual prize giving ceremony at Guildhall, London and the annual carol service at Temple Church, among others. The school is also home to the annual London Classical Reading Competition, participated in by schools nationwide. Another traditional event is "muck-up day" celebrated by the leaving year group at the end of formal schooling in their final year at the school. In 2015 this attracted police attention when plans to bring in paint for "raucous" celebrations led to concerns about disruption to the city's financial district. The headmistress did not hesitate to bar the year group from school grounds "for their own safety", and told them that any such behaviour would result in their UCAS forms being 'ripped up'.

Governance
Today, the City of London School's policies are maintained by a board of governors. It continues to be under the governance of the City of London Corporation] (the governing body of the City of London headed by the Lord Mayor of the City of London, as opposed to Greater London, as well as an independent corporation). The school is under the governance of the City of London Corporation's corporate arm as opposed to its Local Authority arm.

The school is one of the three independent schools owned by the City of London Corporation, the other two being the City of London School for Girls and the City of London Freemen's School. The City of London School for Girls located in the Barbican is a fifteen-minute walk away from the school and there are joint events, such as social evenings, concerts and plays, with the school throughout the year.

School fees
Although the City of London School has always charged fees to most of its pupils, it describes the fees as moderate compared with other independent schools, and it has always offered scholarships, both on the basis of academic and musical ability (it educates ten boys selected for the Choir of Her Majesty's Chapel Royal). In 2008, the school began offering sports scholarships. After the withdrawal of the Government Assisted Places scheme in 1998, the school has offered full-fee bursaries (or Sponsored Awards) to pupils from families on lower incomes with the help of contributions from parties including private companies, the John Carpenter Club, the City of London Corporation, and parents of current pupils. In 2014, at a time when 82 boys at the school received bursaries of 100% of the annual fees of £14,313, the previous head Sarah Fletcher said that her decision to take up the position had been influenced by the school's generous bursary schemes, partly because her own grandfather had enjoyed a life-changing opportunity when given an educational bursary many years before.

For the 2022–23 academic year, the annual school fees were £19,995, and lunch was an extra £292 a term (£876 a year). Music lessons were an additional £271 a term (£813 a year).

Charitable status
The school runs an annual Charity Appeal each year. The proceeds raised across the academic year go towards a dedicated charity of choosing, voted upon by pupils of the school, making sure that the school's charity efforts reflect topical issues. Each year's Charity Appeal is managed by a student committee, who plans school events, fund-raisers, partnerships, and sponsors. Events in the past have included the 24-hour 'fishathon', 48-hour row, cake sales, sponsored swims and an 11-mile sponsored walk.

The chosen charity as of 2023-24 is World Child Cancer, a charity set up to fight cancer in kids globally. Past charities have included WaterAid, GOSH, Teenage Cancer Trust, Providence Row, and Papyrus.

The school also has six charities registered with the Charity Commission. These are The City of London School Bursary Fund which contributes to the funding of the bursary schemes, The City of London School Bursary Trust which provides bursaries to boys who have gained admission to the school but whose parents cannot afford the fees, The City of London School Scholarships and Prize Fund which allows the school and other parties to offer scholarships, prizes or sponsored awards to current or former pupils without incurring taxes, The City of London School War Memorial Fund which was originally established to support boys affected by the World Wars but now supports means-tested bursaries at the School, The City of London School Charitable Trust which is the annual charity appeal and The City of London School Education Trust which exempts the school from taxes as an independent school providing education for pupils within the school, as well as providing educational and recreational facilities for children and young people in the surrounding communities.

Notable people
Many distinguished people have been part of the school either as pupils (see List of Old Citizens) or staff.

Notable recent pupils include the actors Daniel Radcliffe from Harry Potter movies, Skandar Keynes, of The Chronicles of Narnia film series, Joe Alwyn of The Favourite and Harry Michell of Tom Brown's Schooldays and Feather Boy.

Jack Crawford is a British born American football player who was drafted with the 158th overall pick in the 2012 NFL Draft by the Oakland Raiders.

MJ Cole is an English DJ, record producer, musician and remixer. He is known as a pioneer of UK Garage Music, having been engineer and lead producer of tracks on the UK Garage label V.I.P. (Very Important Plastic) between 1997 and 1999 and a pirate radio DJ on London Underground FM, alongside the likes of the Dreem Teem.

Jonathan Keates, a prize-winning writer, was an English master at the school. Sheila Gallagher was honoured for her service as a lollipop lady at the crossing to the school on Queen Victoria Street, in 2002.

Horace Brearley, father of cricketer Mike Brearley, was also a master at the school.

Old boys of the City of London School are known as Old Citizens. they may join the John Carpenter Club. Over 140 people listed in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography were educated at the City of London School, and that includes only those who were already deceased at the time of writing.

Headmasters
The school has had thirteen headmasters. Ten of these are listed below.
 * The first was John Allen Giles, a scholar of Anglo-Saxon history and a Fellow at Corpus Christi College, Oxford, who also wrote a number of scholarly works, including the 34 volume Patres ecclesiæ Anglicanæ.
 * Giles was however, "temperamentally unsuited" to be headmaster of the school, and was replaced by George Ferris Whidborne Mortimer, a liberal who had written an anti-slavery pamphlet. Mortimer's religious tolerance led him to open the school to boys from Jewish families.
 * He was replaced in 1865 by a former boy, Edwin Abbott Abbott, author of Flatland. Abbott oversaw the education of future prime minister H. H. Asquith, before retiring in 1889 to devote himself to literary and theological pursuits.
 * Arthur Chilton was appointed headmaster in 1905, an appointment he held for 24 years and throughout World War One, until 1929.
 * Francis Dale, 1929-1950
 * In 1950 Arthur W. Barton, a scholar and football referee, took over as headmaster until 1965.
 * James Ashley Boyes served as headmaster from 1965 to 1984, retiring at the end of that academic year.
 * Martin Hammond, 1984 to 1990
 * David R. Levin, who was also the chair of the Headmasters' and Headmistresses' Conference for the 2009–2010 academic year, held the position from 1999 to 2014. He left the school in January 2014 to become the managing director of all the independent schools owned by United Learning.
 * In May 2014 he was succeeded by Sarah Fletcher, who had been the head of Kingston Grammar School. Gary Griffin had been acting as head in the interim.
 * In January 2018, Alan Bird was appointed headmaster. He is the school's first openly gay headmaster.

title: City of London School


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Talk:Jaan Kross

Biography assessment rating comment
The article may be improved by following the WikiProject Biography 11 easy steps to producing at least a B article. -- Psychless 04:18, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

Article commentary
I removed the following a section of commentary from the article, which should be discussed here, not in the article itself.

It should be noted that many things in this Wikipedia entry have been checked with Estonian-language sources, as there is a tendency for those that do not know the Estonian language to copy facts and figures from one another, at times perpetuating mistakes or misunderstandings.

''The list at the end of this Wikipedia entry contains works about Jaan Kross and recent Estonian history that have been published in Estonia, Finland, Holland, Germany and the UK and are mostly print sources, either books or articles in leading newspapers. Anyone writing a thorough and informative article about Jaan Kross must consult sources written in Estonian, Finnish, German, and Swedish, because what is written about Jaan Kross in English is severely limited to a number of biographical details on the Estonian Literature Information Centre (ELIC) website, plus a few articles, reviews and obituary notices in the International Herald Tribune, the Guardian, Times Literary Supplement, and several online articles and reviews. It seems common sense to consult non-English-language sources, as Kross wrote in Estonian - a language spoken by only about one million native-speakers - and has been much more frequently translated into the other three languages mentioned above than into English. While the resulting article must be accesible to those who know only the English language, scholars and translators who know the source language, Estonian in this case, can provide a valuable bridging service.'' MrX 11:59, 29 July 2012 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jaan Kross


text:
Talk:Vistula Bay

"Vistula Bay" is not idiomatic English. It should be "Vistula Lagoon". cf. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=77522 In the same way, "Vistula Peninsula" should be changed to "Vistula Spit". (cf. same link)

"Vistula Bay" and "Peninsula" are valid descriptions, but not their geographic names in the English language.

title: Talk:Vistula Bay