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Talk:Peg

This is an interesting formula which seems to give good results.

It is a very simple and usefull formula to determine for exemple;

If I had to wait 10 minutes to see a falling star how long will I have to wait to be 90% sure of seeing it again.

The formula is ;

p=m/(x+m) or x=m*p/(1-p)

Where x is the time that I would have to wait to be p% sure that the event that I waited m for will occur again.

Entering the values I find ;

x=10*.9/(1-.9) =90 minutes.

This means that after 90 minutes I would be 90% sure of seeing another falling star.

It can be used in all kinds of interesting cases.Scientist can use it to find when they would see another new exotic particle.

Stock brockers could also use it to find out how long it would take for a certain stock to rise say 10%.

A Poisson Exponential Geometric Distribution --- This distribution answers the questions ;

1.If I had to wait m to see one event how long should I have to wait (x) to be p% sure of seeing it again.

2.I had to go through m samples to find one with a special property how many more samples (x) do I have to go through to be p% sure of finding this property again.

It can also be used in the opposite way.

3.I waited m for an event to occur. If I only wait x I can be p% sure that the event will not occur.

4.I went through m samples until 1 defective sample was found.If I have only x I will be p% sure that there are no defects.

Note !!! It relates to 2 and only 2 random samples.These 2 have to be sampled each time. You cannot sample the first once and compare it to many samples. It relates to two samples and completely bypasses the means of the source exponential or geometric distributions.

It of course assumes that the mean which we do not really know is the same in both cases.It completely bypasses the mean.

Do not make the mistake of taking a best guess at the mean of the exponential distribution and then calculating your chances.The exponential distribution is 100 times more precise than this distribution at the 99.9% level !!!!!!

The only problem is that with one sample you cannot have an accurate estimation of the mean.

We could compare it to the exponential distribution; p=1-exp(-x/m)  ; exponential distribution p=x/(m+x) ; PEG

OK the results are a bit wide, but there is no point in looking for your lost wallet under a street light if you lost it somewhere else !!!!!

I already posted this article over here and it was taken off.

The reason was probably that this distribution is new and totally different from most of the other statistical distributions around.

It also has an infinite mean and standard deviation. This does not mean that it is totally useless. Please go through it again carefully before you take it out. I am sure that although its application is slightly limited there are certain cases where it can really be usefull.

Professor John C. Pezzullo, PhD who has a large statistiacal site at http://Pezzullo.net commented my distribution by saying "That is a very interesting result, and one that is simpler than I would have expected." (...) "I ran several million simulations, and the numbers do seem to be perfectly consistent with your function." (...) "It's hard to believe that no one has addressed this question before, since it seems so fundamental."

Please before you erase it go through it carefully. If you find that it is not a new distribution or that it does not work please let me know why.It might also be a subbranch of some other really complicated distribution.

If it is your policy not to "publish" anything new please let me know as well.

My e-mail address is rselsick@bouygtel.fr

title: Talk:Peg


text:
Rift valley

A rift valley is a linear shaped lowland between several highlands or mountain ranges produced by the action of a geologic rift. Rifts are formed as a result of the pulling apart of the lithosphere due to extensional tectonics. The linear depression may subsequently be further deepened by the forces of erosion. More generally the valley is likely to be filled with sedimentary deposits derived from the rift flanks and the surrounding areas. In many cases rift lakes are formed. One of the best known examples of this process is the East African Rift. On Earth, rifts can occur at all elevations, from the sea floor to plateaus and mountain ranges in continental crust or in oceanic crust. They are often associated with a number of adjoining subsidiary or co-extensive valleys, which are typically considered part of the principal rift valley geologically.

Earth's rift valleys
The most extensive rift valley is located along the crest of the mid-ocean ridge system and is the result of sea floor spreading. Examples of this type of rift include the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the East Pacific Rise.

Many existing continental rift valleys are the result of a failed arm (aulacogen) of a triple junction, although there are two, the East African Rift and the Baikal Rift Zone, which are currently active, as well as a third which may be, the West Antarctic Rift System. In these instances, not only the crust but entire tectonic plates are in the process of breaking apart forming new plates. If they continue, continental rifts will eventually become oceanic rifts.

Other rift valleys are the result of bends or discontinuities in horizontally-moving (strike-slip) faults. When these bends or discontinuities are in the same direction as the relative motions along the fault, extension occurs. For example, for a right lateral-moving fault, a bend to the right will result in stretching and consequent subsidence in the area of the irregularity. In the view of many geologists today, the Dead Sea lies in a rift which results from a leftward discontinuity in the left lateral-moving Dead Sea Transform fault. Where a fault breaks into two strands, or two faults run close to each other, crustal extension may also occur between them, as a result of differences in their motions. Both types of fault-caused extension commonly occur on a small scale, producing such features as sag ponds or landslides.

Rift valley lakes
Many of the world's largest lakes are located in rift valleys. Lake Baikal in Siberia, a World Heritage Site, lies in an active rift valley. Baikal is both the deepest lake in the world and, with 20% of all of the liquid freshwater on earth, has the greatest volume. Lake Tanganyika, second by both measures, is in the Albertine Rift, the westernmost arm of the active East African Rift. Lake Superior in North America, the largest freshwater lake by area, lies in the ancient and dormant Midcontinent Rift. The largest subglacial lake, Lake Vostok, may also lie in an ancient rift valley. Lake Nipissing and Lake Timiskaming in Ontario and Quebec, Canada lie inside a rift valley called the Ottawa-Bonnechere Graben. Þingvallavatn, Iceland's largest natural lake, is also an example of a rift lake.

Extraterrestrial rift valleys
Rift valleys are also known to occur on other terrestrial planets and natural satellites. The 4,000 km long Valles Marineris on Mars is believed by planetary geologists to be a large rift system. Some features of Venus, most notably, the 4,000 km Devana Chasma and a part of the western Eistla, and possibly also Alta and Bell Regio have been interpreted by some planetary geologists as rift valleys. Some natural satellites also have prominent rift valleys. The 2,000 km long Ithaca Chasma on Tethys in the Saturn system is a prominent example. Charon's Nostromo Chasma is the first confirmed in the Pluto system, however large chasms up to 950 km wide observed on Charon have also been tentatively interpreted by some as giant rifts, and similar formations have also been noted on Pluto. A recent study suggests a complex system of ancient lunar rift valleys, including Vallis Rheita and Vallis Alpes. The Uranus system also has prominent examples, with large 'chasma' believed to be giant rift valley systems, most notably the 1492 km long Messina Chasma on Titania, 622 km Kachina Chasmata on Ariel, Verona Rupes on Miranda, and Mommur Chasma on Oberon.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Rift valley


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Arish

ʻArish or el-ʻArīsh (العريش al-ʿArīš ) is the capital and largest city (with 164,830 inhabitants ) of the North Sinai Governorate of Egypt, as well as the largest city on the Sinai Peninsula, lying on the Mediterranean coast 344 km northeast of Cairo and 45 km west of the Egypt–Gaza border.

In Antiquity and Early Middle Ages the city was known as Rinokoroura (Ῥινοκόρουρα, ϩⲣⲓⲛⲟⲕⲟⲣⲟⲩⲣⲁ).

ʻArīsh is located at the mouth of, a 250 km long ephemeral watercourse. The Azzaraniq Protectorate is on the eastern side of ʻArīsh.

Etymology
There are several hypothetical possibilities for the origin of the modern name of the city, which is first mentioned under it in the 9th century. One possibility is that the name might be an Arab phonetic transcription of a pre-existing toponym. However, there is no name that fully qualifies as such, apart from the Ariza (Αριζα) of Hierokles, which is difficult to interpret.

Another possibility is that the name el-Arish was given to a city that already existed in the Byzantine period. However, no Arab source mentions such a change of name for any city in the region, and there is no plausible explanation for this change.

A third possibility is that the name el-Arish was created when a new settlement of some "huts" (عرش) was established in the 7th or 8th century. It is possible that the city of Rinokoloura fell into ruins in the first half of the 7th century, and a new community arose that the new inhabitants started to call el-Arish, after their poor living conditions.

M. Ignace de Rossi derived the Arabic name from the Egyptian ϫⲟⲣϣⲁ(ⲓ), an analogue of Greek Rinocorura.

A Coptic-Arabic colophon dating to 1616 mentions the writer "Solomon of Shorpo, son of Michael, from the city of Mohonon" (ⲥⲱⲗⲟⲙⲟⲛ ⲛϣⲱⲣⲡⲟ ⲡϣⲏⲣⲓ ⲙⲓⲭⲁⲏⲗ ⲛⲧⲉ ⲡⲟⲗⲓⲥ ⲙⲟϩⲟⲛⲟⲛ); in the Arabic version, the writer is identified as being "of el-Arish". Timm raises the possibility that Shorpo (ϣⲱⲣⲡⲟ) may be another name for el-Arish.

Geography
Arish is in the northern Sinai, about 50 km from the Rafah Border Crossing with the Gaza Strip. North Sinai is targeted by Egyptian government planners to divert population growth from the high-density Nile Delta. It is proposed that by completing infrastructure, transportation and irrigation projects, three million Egyptians may be settled in North Sinai.

Arish is the closest city to Lake Bardawil.

Climate
Its Köppen climate classification is hot desert (BWh), although prevailing Mediterranean winds moderate its temperatures, typical to the rest of the northern coast of Egypt.

The highest record temperature was 45 C, recorded on May 29, 2003, while the lowest record temperature was -6 C, recorded on January 8, 1994.

Transport

The city is served by el Arish International Airport. The Northern Coastal Highway runs from el-Qantarah at the Suez Canal through Arish to the Gaza border crossing at Rafah. The railway line from Cairo is under re-construction with formation works completed only as far as Bir al-Abed, west of Arish. The route was formerly part of the Palestine Railways built during World War I and World War II to connect Egypt with Turkey. The railway was cut during the formation of Israel.

The city is the site of a deep-water seaport capable of serving ships up to 30,000 tonnes, the only such port on the Sinai Peninsula. Its major exports are cement, sand, salt and marble. The Sinai White Cement Company plant is 50 km south of the city.

History
Herodotus describes a city named Ienysos (Ιηνυσος) located between Lake Serbonis and Kadytis. It is possible that Ienysos is the predecessor of Rinokoloura, but there is no clear evidence to support this identification.

Foundation
The foundation of the city is closely linked to the etymology of its name. The explanation given by the classic authors is that it comes from a compound of "nose" (ῥίς) and "curtail, cut short" (κολούω).

Thus modern scholars, following the version given by Seneca, believe that in the 4th century BC, a Persian king, believed to be either Artaxerxes II or Artaxerxes III, conducted a campaign in Syria where he punished people, possibly a tribe, by mutilating their noses. As a result, the places where these people came from or relocated to were given new names that reflected their disfigurement. While the Greek name Rinokoloura may have existed from the outset, it is possible that it was a translation of a name with the same meaning in another language.

When the city became a part of the Ptolemaic Empire, an Egyptian tradition emerged that may have transformed the Persian king into an Ethiopian king named Actisanes. First mentioned by Diodorus, who based his information on the Aegyptiaca of Hecataeus of Abdera, written in the 4th century BC, Actisanes conquered Egypt during the reign of king Amasis. He governed Egypt with justice and benevolence, and instead of executing convicted criminals, he had their noses cut off and relocated them to a city at the desert's edge, near the border between Egypt and Syria.

Antiquity
In Ptolemaic Egypt, Rinocoroura was considered the last city of Egypt, on the border with Coele-Syria.

During the second invasion of Antiochus IV in the spring of 168 BCE, an embassy of Ptolemy VI met him near Rinokoloura, which in about 79 BCE came under the rule of the Judaean Kingdom of Alexander Jannaeus, while in 40 BCE, Herod I sought refuge in Rinokoloura on his way to Pelusium, where he received news of his brother's death.

The Oxyrhynchus papyrus, traditionally referred to as 'an invocation of Isis' or 'a Greek Isis litany,' is believed to have been transcribed during the reigns of Trajan or Hadrian, but its composition dates back to the late 1st century. This text contains numerous invocations of Isis and mentions Rinokoloura, where she is called 'all-seeing' (παντόπτιν).

A number of funerary steles with a repeated consolation formula "nobody is immortal" (ούδείς άθάνατος) were found in and around the city. The earliest reliable Christian reference to Rinokoloura can be found in Athanasius's Epistula ad Serapionem, in which Salomon was appointed as bishop of Rinokoloura, possibly in 339 AD. Sozomen also refers to Rinokoloura in the mid-5th century AD, stating that the city was a center of scholarship, with a meditation school (φροντιστήριον) located in the desert north of the city, a church illuminated by oil lamps, and an episcopal dwelling where the entire clergy of the city resided and dined together.

Hieronymus reported that in the early 5th century the inhabitants of Rinokoloura and other nearby cities spoke Syrian. However, as most of the epitaphs discovered in the area are written in Greek, and one is in Coptic, it is unclear which segment of the population Hieronymus was referring to.

According to John of Nikiu, in 610 AD the army of general Bonosos passed through Rinocoroura (mentioned under the corrupted name Bikuran) on its way to Athribis.

The Brook of Egypt
The story of Hesychios of Jerusalem reveals the existence of a wadi near Rinokoloura. In one instance, the Septuagint (Isaiah 27:12) translates 'the brook of Egypt,' which designates the southern border of Israel, as Rinokoloura, suggesting that the translators were perhaps aware of a similar 'brook' in the vicinity of the city. However, it appears that the association between Rinokoloura and the 'brook of Egypt' may be due more to the contemporary political border between Egypt and Syria, which had shifted further southward since the 8th century AD.

After the Arab Conquest
In the Middle Ages, pilgrims misidentified the site as the Sukkot of the Bible. New fortifications were constructed at the original site by the Ottoman Empire in 1560. During the Napoleonic Wars, the French laid siege to the fort, which fell after 11 days on February 19, 1799.

Theodor Herzl, the founder of Zionism, proposed ʻArīsh as a Jewish homeland since neither Sultan Abdul Hamid II nor Kaiser Wilhelm II supported settlement in Palestine. In 1903, Joseph Chamberlain, the British colonial secretary, agreed to consider ʻArīsh, and Herzl commissioned the lawyer David Lloyd George a charter draft, but his application was turned down once an expedition, led by Leopold Kessler had returned and submitted a detailed report to Herzl, which outlined a proposal to divert some of the Nile waters to the area for the purpose of settlement.

During World War I, the fort was destroyed by British bombers. It was later the location of the 45th Stationary Hospital which treated casualties of the Palestine campaign. The remains of those who died there were later moved to Kantara Cemetery.

World Wars I and II
On December 1916, during World War I, the Anzac Mounted Division and other British Empire units captured the 'Arish area from Ottoman forces. In Australia, the town of El Arish, Queensland was named in memory of this action.

El-ʻArīsh Military Cemetery, designed by Robert Lorimer, was built in 1919 for Commonwealth personnel who died during World War I. It is over of several commonwealth war cemeteries in the region, including two in the Gaza Strip.

A Royal Air Force airfield, known as RAF El Arish, was a base for air sea rescue and other operations, during World War II.

Israeli conquest 1948 to 1967
ʻArīsh was briefly controlled by Israeli forces, during both the 1948 Palestine war and the 1956 Suez War. On December 8, 1958, there was an air battle between Egyptian and Israeli air forces over ʻArīsh. As a result of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, 'Arish was under Israeli occupation; it was returned to Egypt in 1979 after the signing of the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.

ISIS in the Sinai Peninsula
In the Sinai mosque attack of 24 November 2017, 305 people were killed in a bomb and gun attack at the mosque in al-Rawda, 45 km west of ʻArīsh.

On 9 February 2021 six locals were killed by ISIL terrorists.

title: Arish


text:
Reduced Shakespeare Company

The Reduced Shakespeare Company (RSC) is an American touring acting troupe that performs fast-paced, seemingly improvisational condensations of different topics. The company's style has been described as "New Vaudeville," combining both physical and verbal humor, as well as highbrow and lowbrow.

Known as the "Bad Boys of Abridgment," the RSC has created ten stage shows: The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (abridged) in 1987, The Complete History of America (abridged) in 1992, The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged) in 1995, The Complete Millennium Musical (abridged) in 1998, All the Great Books (abridged) in 2002, Completely Hollywood (abridged) in 2005, The Complete World of Sports (abridged) in 2010, The Ultimate Christmas Show (abridged) in 2011, The Complete History of Comedy (abridged) in 2013 and William Shakespeare's Long Lost First Play (abridged) in 2016. The company tours in the US and UK, and has performed in Belgium, Netherlands, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, Singapore, Barbados, Bermuda, Israel, Qatar and Ireland. The Reduced Shakespeare Company is also heard on NPR and the BBC.

Formation and early years
The company was founded in 1981 by Daniel Singer, who wrote a 25-minute, four-actor version of William Shakespeare's Hamlet, to be performed at the Renaissance Pleasure Faire in Novato, California. He cast himself as Polonius, Horatio, and Laertes; Jess Borgeson (now Jess Winfield) as the prince; Michael Fleming as Bernardo, Claudius, and the Ghost of Hamlet's father; and Barbara Reinertson as Ophelia and Gertrude. When Reinertson broke her ankle three weeks into the run, Borgeson suggested that school chum Adam Long fill in for her in drag.

Borgeson returned to college in 1983 to pursue a degree in English literature, leaving Singer and Long to continue under the RSC banner. They penned a 20-minute version of Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet, which they performed at Renaissance fairs, on street corners, beaches, and at private events. Crowds were amazed to see two men arrive with a small basket of costumes, two fencing foils, two bottles of poison, a rose, a dagger, a wig and a dummy, and proceed to enact the entire story with the zany style of a Marx Brothers movie.

Borgeson rejoined the troupe in 1985, and so Singer's version of Hamlet was resurrected into the repertoire. Several actors had come and gone in the roles of Bernardo, the Ghost, and Claudius; the last in the series excused himself when his daughter was born. The three-man RSC was born at that time, with Long taking over those roles. In 1987, a friend of the company suggested that they'd find a welcome reception at the famous Edinburgh Festival Fringe in Scotland. The ideal show length being about an hour, they decided they needed about 20 more minutes of material, and proposed doing Shakespeare's other 35 plays to round out an abridgement of everything the bard wrote in less than one hour. Sa Thomson (now Sa Winfield), brought on to design and fabricate the troupe's quick-change props and costumes, became a full partner in 1988, and also occasionally appeared as a performer with the troupe, most famously in the title role of the RSC's incarnation as the Abbreviated Ballet Theatre for Lucinda, Wood Nymph of the Glade.

Touring
The Complete Works script that resulted from these collaborations successfully premiered in an open-framed barn at the Paramount Ranch in Agoura, adjacent to the site of the Southern California Renaissance Faire. It then moved to Edinburgh proper, being performed in a church basement at 10:30 a.m. for a three-week run to generally sold-out houses. After that, the show (expanded to 97 minutes) toured theatres and festivals around the world. In repertory with the RSC's second show, The Complete History of America (abridged), The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (Abridged) ran for nine years at the Criterion Theatre, London West End, with the company's third show, The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged), joining the line-up for the final three years of the London run.

Singer left the Company in 1989 and was replaced by Reed Martin; Borgeson left in 1992 and was replaced by Austin Tichenor. In 1993 Long, Martin and Tichenor wrote the company's second play, The Complete History of America (abridged). They followed this up with The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged) in 1995.

Recordings
In 1994 Tichenor, Long and Martin created a six-part radio series called The Reduced Shakespeare Radio Show. It was broadcast on the BBC World Service from May 11 to June 22, 1994. In 1994 they also produced The Ring Reduced, a half-hour version of Richard Wagner's operatic Ring Cycle, as part of Channel 4's Wagner season. In 1995, the RSC recorded The Reduced Shakespeare Company Christmas, a take on Christmas and other December-related holidays. For the turn of the century Martin and Tichenor wrote The Complete Millennium Musical (abridged) along with composer Nick Graham. A video version of The Complete Works of William Shakespeare (abridged) was released on DVD in 2001. Also in 2001, John Knox/Westminster Press published Martin and Tichenor's comic, spiritual memoir entitled The Greatest Story Ever Sold.

In August 2005, at the Sebastiani Theatre in Sonoma, California, the Reduced Shakespeare Company recorded its second show on DVD, The Complete History of America (abridged). Martin and Tichenor's second book, Reduced Shakespeare: The Attention Impaired Reader's Guide to the World's Best Playwright (abridged) was published by Hyperion in 2006. The Reduced Shakespeare Company Podcast was also introduced in 2006. It is a free, weekly twenty-minute podcast available on iTunes, as well as on the Reduced Shakespeare Company website. The Reduced Shakespeare Company has been nominated for an Olivier Award in London, two Helen Hayes Awards, a Bay Area Theatre Critics Circle Award, and two Podcast Awards. The company won a Shorty Award for Outstanding Use of Twitter by a Cultural Institution in 2009. In 2010 Martin & Tichenor reduced the first five season of the hit television series Lost into a comical ten minutes for Sky TV in Britain. They performed Lost Reduced along with Matt Rippy. It can be seen on YouTube.

Other works
Martin and Tichenor created the troupe's fifth stage show All the Great Books (abridged) in 2002, followed by Completely Hollywood (abridged) in 2005. Both these shows toured extensively across the USA and Great Britain, including runs at the Kennedy Center and the Edinburgh Fringe Festival. The Complete World of Sports (abridged) by Martin and Tichenor debuted 2010 and has also toured across the USA and Great Britain with runs at the New Victory Theater in New York City, the Kennedy Center in Washington DC, and the Arts Theatre in London. The RSC premiered The Ultimate Christmas (abridged) in 2011 at Merrimack Repertory Theatre in Lowell, MA and performed the show at San Diego Repertory Theatre in 2012. In November 2013 The Complete History of Comedy (abridged) premiered with a seven-week run at Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park, with a month-long run at Merrimack Repertory Theatre to follow beginning in April 2014.

In January 2014, some controversy surrounded the announcement of a performance of The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged) in at a borough-owned theatre in Newtownabbey, Northern Ireland: a Newtownabbey Borough Councillor from the Democratic Unionist Party decried the shows blasphemous nature, saying "I'd be calling for public pressure to have it pulled. My wife, councillor Audrey Ball, has recently been put on the artistic board" and that "Those against her strong beliefs better watch out." On January 23, 2014 the Newtownabbey Borough Council voted to cancel the performances. This decision led to tremendous public outcry and show support for the RSC from many sources including Richard Dawkins, Tim Minchin, the Arts Council of Northern Ireland and Amnesty International. As a result, the council reversed its decision on January 27 and the performances went on as originally scheduled and received a rave review from the Belfast Telegraph. The publicity surrounding these events led to a huge boost in ticket sales for the entire 2014 UK tour of the show.

The RSC premiered William Shakespeare's Long Lost First Play (abridged) at the Folger Theatre in Washington DC in April/May 2016 to rave reviews, followed by the European premiere at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe in August 2016.

Records
The RSC was listed in the 2017 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records for holding the Guinness record for the longest-running Shakespeare show in the West End with 3,744 performances between March 7, 1996 and April 3, 2005 at the Criterion Theatre; and for the highest theatrical performance, for their performance aboard an EasyJet flight from London to Verona on Shakespeare’s birthday in 2014.

title: Reduced Shakespeare Company


text:
Pruszcz

Pruszcz may refer to the following places:
 * Pruszcz, Świecie County in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-central Poland)
 * Pruszcz, Tuchola County in Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-central Poland)
 * Pruszcz Gdański in Pomeranian Voivodeship (north Poland)
 * Pruszcz, Drawsko County in West Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-west Poland)
 * Pruszcz, Gryfice County in West Pomeranian Voivodeship (north-west Poland)

title: Pruszcz


text:
Kokoszki

Kokoszki (Kokoschken; Kòkòszczi) is a district of Gdańsk, Poland, located in the western part of the city.

History
As part of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland, Kokoszki was a private village of Polish nobility, administratively located in the Gdańsk County in the Pomeranian Voivodeship. Kiełpino Górne and Smęgorzyno which are part of the district had the same status, while Bysewo was a royal village of the Polish Crown.

During the Second World War it was a location of two German concentration camps: Danzig-Burggraben and Kokoschken, which were SS sub-camps (Außenlager) of the Stutthof concentration camp located 34 km east of Gdańsk.

Camp Danzig-Kokoschken operated from September 13, 1944 with prisoners from Poland, France, Netherlands, Lithuania, Latvia, Germany and Hungary, mostly of Jewish origin. The first transport brought about 500 women. Within several weeks the number grew to 1,600. In the winter of 1945 the Poles imprisoned by the Gestapo office in Danzig were sent in. The prisoners were kept in barracks from where they were transported every day by train to the Schichau-Werke shipyard, to work two 12-hour shifts building submarines and anti-raid shelters. The prisoners received rations of half-a-litre of watery soup and 250 grams of bread per day; not enough to sustain their ability to work. There was no proper clothes in winter. People died in great numbers as a result of epidemics, workplace accidents, and beatings by the guards. Archival material indicate that such treatment was common already at the end of 1944. Dead bodies were burned in a crematorium but also buried in mass graves at the cemetery in Saspe (Zaspa).

title: Kokoszki


text:
Underwater warfare

Underwater warfare, also known as undersea warfare or subsurface warfare, is naval warfare involving underwater vehicle or combat operations conducted underwater. It is one of the four operational areas of naval warfare, the others being surface warfare, aerial warfare, and information warfare. Underwater warfare includes:
 * Actions by submarines actions, and anti-submarine warfare, i.e. warfare between submarines, other submarines and surface ships; combat airplanes and helicopters may also be engaged when launching special dive-bombs and torpedo-missiles against submarines;
 * Underwater special operations, considering:
 * Military diving sabotage against ships and ports.
 * Anti-frogman techniques.
 * Reconnaissance tasks.

History
In the 20th century underwater warfare was dominated by the submarine. They first came to prevalence during the First World War, when German U-boats attacked and sank many allied vessels, such as the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915. A similar scenario occurred during the Second World War, when German U-boats launched a prolonged campaign against Allied shipping, especially in the mid-Atlantic. Japanese submarines also played a minimal role on the Pacific front, and American submarines sank a total of 5.3 million tons of Axis shipping throughout the war, most of which was scored against the Japanese. In the 21st century unmanned underwater vehicles are coming to play a significant part in underwater warfare.

Seabed warfare
Seabed warfare is defined as "operations to, from and across the ocean floor." In general the target of seabed warfare is infrastructure in place on the seabed such as power cables, telecom cables, or natural resource extraction systems.

title: Underwater warfare


text:
List of BBC Radio 4 programmes

This is a list of current and former programmes broadcast on BBC Radio 4.

When it came into existence – on 30 September 1967 – Radio 4 inherited a great many continuing programme series which had been initiated prior to that date by its predecessor, the BBC Home Service (1939–1967), and in some cases even by stations which had preceded the Home Service. Such inherited programmes are included in the list.

The years indicated in brackets after programme titles refer to the dates, where known, of each programme's first, subsequent, and final broadcasts – and, in cases where Radio 4 programmes began their run on stations other than the Home Service, the names of those originating stations are also shown.

Note that many of Radio 4's past comedy and drama productions have been, and continue to be repeatedly rerun on Radio 4, as well as on the digital radio channel BBC Radio 4 Extra (previously BBC Radio 7).

News and current affairs

 * The Africans (2007)
 * Americana (2009–11)
 * Analysis (1970–)
 * Any Answers? (1955–)
 * Any Questions? (1948–)
 * Archive on 4
 * Asian Diasporas (2007–)
 * The Bottom Line (2006–)
 * Broadcasting House (1998–)
 *  Checkpoint (1973–85) (became Face The Facts)
 * The Commission
 * The Copysnatchers
 * Crossing Continents (2002–)
 *  Does He Take Sugar? (1977–98)
 * Face the Facts (1984–2015)
 * Farming Today (1964-)
 * Farming Today This Week
 * File on 4 (1975–)
 * From Our Own Correspondent (1955–)
 * In Business (1975–)
 * In Search of the British Work Ethic (2010)
 * In Touch (1961–)
 * Inside Money
 * iPM (2007–)
 * Law in Action
 * Letter from America (1946–2004)
 * Lights Out (2018 - 2023)
 * Lives in a Landscape
 * Midnight News
 * Money Box (1977–)
 * More or Less
 * Moving Pictures
 * Nice Work (2002–05)
 * The Pariah Profession
 * PM (1970–)
 * A Point of View (2007–)
 * The Politics of Hunger
 * Profile
 * Ramblings
 * The Reunion
 * Seven Days
 * Short Cuts
 * Six O'clock News
 * Soul Music
 * Sport on Four (1977–98)
 * Straw Poll
 * Straw Poll Talk Back
 * Taking Issue
 * Taking a Stand
 * Talking Politics
 * Today (1957–)
 * Today in Parliament (1945–)
 * United Nations or Not?
 * Week in Westminster
 * The Westminster Hour
 * With Us or Against Us
 * Wireless Nights
 * The World at One (1965–)
 * The World This Weekend
 * The World Tonight (1970–)
 * Yesterday in Parliament (1947 Light Programme; 1957–)

Drama

 * A Touch of Mistletoe, 1930s-set sentimental drama
 * The Afternoon Play
 * The Archers (1950–), farming soap opera
 * Cashcows (2005)
 * The Classic Serial
 * Dr Finlay's Casebook
 * The Friday Play
 * Saturday Night Theatre (1943–96)
 * Talk to Sleep, 4-part comedy-drama by John Dryden
 * Woman's Hour Drama
 * Neverwhere
 * Tumanbay
 * Tracks
 * The Children of the Stones
 * The Stone Tape
 * The Lovecraft Investigations

Arts

 * The Afternoon Reading
 * Back Row
 * Book at Bedtime (1949–57 Light Programme; 1962–)
 * Book of the Week
 * Bookclub
 * The Film Programme
 * Front Row
 * A Good Read
 * Kaleidoscope (1973–98)
 * Loose Ends (1985–)
 * The Heard
 * Open Book
 * Poetry Please
 * Radio Lives, (1990–96) profiles of radio personalities
 * Radio Roots, profiles of radio personalities
 * The Saturday Play
 * Saturday Review
 * Soul Music
 * White Nights
 * With Great Pleasure

Quizzes

 * Counterpoint (1986–)
 * Brain of Britain
 * Masterteam, general knowledge quiz (2001–2006)
 * Prompt!, theatre quiz (1986–1988)
 * Round Britain Quiz
 * The 3rd Degree
 * Wildbrain, natural history quiz (1997–2002)
 * X Marks the Spot (1998–2006)

Panel games

 * Armando Iannucci's Charm Offensive (2005–08), satirical quiz
 * Does the Team Think? (1957–67 Light Programme; 1968, 1970–73 Radio 2; 1970–71, 1974–76 Radio 4; 2007–09 Radio 2), parody of Any Questions?
 * Foul Play, writers are asked to solve a murder mystery written by host Simon Brett
 * Heresy (2003–), the presenter and a panel of guests commit "heresy" by challenging people's most deeply held opinions on a subject
 * I Guess That's Why They Call It The News (2009), satirical news-based quiz
 * I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue (1972–), nonsensical word and musical games played by comedians
 * Inspiration, quiz about inventions presented by Chris Stuart
 * It's Your Round (2011), game in which each contestant suggests a game to play for one round
 * Just a Minute (1967–), parlour game involving speaking without hesitation, deviation, or repetition
 * King Stupid, earlier version of panel game The 99p Challenge
 * Many a Slip (1964–79), contestants must spot mistakes in texts and music
 * The Motion Show
 * My Music (1967–93), musical games
 * My Word! (1956–90), word games played by comedy writers and journalists
 * The News Quiz (1977–), satirical quiz on week's news
 * The 99p Challenge (1998–2004), silly games and tasks
 * The Personality Test (2006–07), a guest host asks questions about his or herself
 * Petticoat Line (1965–1976), all female discussion
 * Puzzle Panel (1998–2005), puzzles
 * Quote... Unquote (1976–), quiz about quotations
 * So Wrong It's Right (2010–12), Charlie Brooker asks his guests to invent or nominate really awful things
 * The Unbelievable Truth (2007–), game in which contestants deliver a mostly untrue speech and panelists must identify true statements
 * We've Been Here Before, historically oriented panel show with Clive Anderson
 * Whispers (2003–05), quiz about celebrity rumours and gossip
 * Who Goes There, biographical quiz
 * Whose Line is it Anyway? (1988), improvisational comedy game
 * The Write Stuff (1998–2014), questions about literature and writing parodies of a specific author

Sitcoms

 * Absolute Power (2000–4), public relations company satire
 * Acropolis Now (2000–2), the fictional adventures of historical figures in ancient Greece
 * After Henry (1985–89), about three generations of women living together following a bereavement
 * Alison and Maud (2002–04), sitcom about sisters running a bed and breakfast
 * All Gas and Gaiters (1966–71), church farce starring Derek Nimmo
 * All the Young Dudes (2001–02), comedy-drama written by and starring Jim Sweeney
 * As Time Goes By (1997–99), radio adaptation of BBC TV sitcom (1992–2005) about a rekindled romance
 * At Home with the Snails (2001–02), somewhat surreal family sitcom about the dysfunctional family of a man who is obsessed with snails.
 * The Attractive Young Rabbi (1999–2002), gentle comedy about the clash of attitudes between a young female Reform Rabbi and an older, more traditional male Orthodox Rabbi
 * Ballylenon (1994-9 and 2009–10), sitcom set in a 1950s County Donegal village.
 * Beta Female
 * The Big Business Lark (1969), sitcom set in the boardroom of a national plastics business.
 * The Big Town All Stars (1998–2001), sitcom about an up-and-coming a cappella group.
 * The Bigger Issues (2002–03), set in world of fringe theatre
 * Bleak Expectations
 * Brian Gulliver's Travels (2011–12), a satirical modern pastiche of Gulliver's Travels
 * The Brothers (2004–07), sitcom about two brothers who give up their careers to design websites.
 * Brothers in Law (1970–2), legal comedy with Richard Briers, based on the TV series
 * The Cabaret of Dr Caligari, macabre comedy
 * Cabin Pressure, comedy about a very small airline with one plane
 * The Castle
 * Chambers, legal sitcom, later moving to TV
 * Clare in the Community, about a social worker
 * Count Arthur Strong, adventures of elderly comedian prone to malapropism
 * Dad's Army (1973–75), about the Home Guard during World War II
 * Deep Trouble, nuclear submarine comedy
 * Delve Special, investigative journalism parody
 * The Department, satirical comedy about a mysterious organisation
 * Do Nothing till You Hear from Me, about a trumpet player
 * Double Income, No Kids Yet, about a childless couple surrounded by families
 * Double Science, about school science teachers
 * Ed Reardon's Week, a struggling and aging writer
 * Elephants to Catch Eels, historical sitcom about Cornish smugglers
 * ElvenQuest, fantasy parody
 * The Embassy Lark, diplomatic comedy
 * Fags, Mags and Bags (2007–), set in a newsagent/general store
 * The Fall Of The Mausoleum Club (1988), macabre comedy starring Jim Broadbent
 * Fallen Arches (1988–89)
 * Four Joneses and a Jenkins, family comedy-drama set in rural Wales
 * |The Flatshare by Beth O'Leary
 * Flying the Flag (1987–92), Cold War diplomatic satire
 * Flywheel, Shyster and Flywheel (on Radio 4 1990–2, originally made for NBC Blue Network), law firm satire featuring the Marx Brothers
 * Giles Wemmbley Hogg Goes Off, adventures of a posh idiot traveling the world
 * Hinge and Bracket, comedy from female impersonators:
 * At Home with Hinge and Bracket (1990)
 * The Enchanting World of Hinge and Bracket (1977–1979)
 * The Random Jottings of Hinge and Bracket (1982–1989)
 * The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (1978, 1980, 2004–5), science fiction comedy by Douglas Adams
 * Hordes of the Things, parody of The Lord of the Rings
 * The House of the Spirit Levels, parody of business and northern family sagas
 * Hut 33 (2007–09), set among code-breakers at Bletchley Park
 * I Think I've Got a Problem, musical comedy with Bob Monkhouse and Suggs
 * In the..., black comedies based on Mark Tavener's writing
 * In the Red
 * In the Balance
 * In the Chair
 * In the End
 * King Street Junior, junior school
 * Knowing Me, Knowing You (1992–93), parody with Steve Coogan's presenter character
 * Ladies of Letters, sitcom with Patricia Routledge and Prunella Scales playing elderly correspondents
 * Legal, Decent, Honest and Truthful, advertising satire starring Martin Jarvis
 * Lenin of the Rovers
 * Linda Smith's A Brief History of Timewasting
 * The Little Big Woman Show, sitcom about a wannabe singer working as a temp
 * Little Blighty on the Down (1988–92), satirical village comedy
 * A Little Night Exposure (1978)
 * Living with the Enemy, former left-wing comedian and right-wing politician forced into house-share
 * The Long Dark Tea-Time of the Soul, Douglas Adams adaptation
 * Man of Soup, sitcom set in post-Soviet eastern Europe
 * The Masterson Inheritance, improvised historical comedy parodying costume drama
 * McKay the New (1989–91), sitcom
 * The Men from the Ministry (1962–77), civil service
 * Millport. Set in main town of Great Cumbrae, island in River Clyde
 * Milton Jones:
 * Another Case of Milton Jones
 * The House of Milton Jones
 * The Very World of Milton Jones
 * Mr and Mrs Smith, marriage guidance sitcom by British comedian Will Smith
 * Mr Blue Sky show about an optimistic family man by Andrew Collins
 * More Mr Mulliner, from PG Wodehouse's stories
 * The Motorway Men (1972), sitcom about labourers building motorways
 * Nebulous, post-apocalyptic
 * The Next Programme Follows Almost Immediately, 1970s show set in a comedy factory starring David Jason
 * The Nick Revell Show, absurdist sitcom about a writer and his talking geraniums
 * Night Class, Johnny Vegas sitcom about a pottery teacher
 * No Commitments, about three sisters
 * Not Today, Thank You
 * Old Dog and the Partridge, pub sitcom
 * Old Harry's Game, Andy Hamilton comedy about Satan
 * Our Brave Boys, set in British Ministry of Defence
 * Parsley Sidings, set in a quiet railway station
 * Party, about young people founding a new political party
 * The Party Line, topical political sitcom by Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis
 * The Quanderhorn Xperimentations (2018), a science fiction spoof by Rob Grant and Andrew Marshall
 * The Rapid Eye Movement, sitcom about a writer with tiny actors living in his head
 * Reluctant Persuaders, London's worst advertising agency. Written by Edward Rowett. Stars Nigel Havers, Josie Lawrence, Mathew Baynton, Rasmus Hardiker, Olivia Nixon and Kieran Hodgson
 * Rent, house share comedy
 * Revolting People, set US in run-up to American Revolutionary War
 * Rigor Mortis, in hospital pathology department
 * Ring Around the Bath, domestic sitcom
 * Robin and Wendy's Wet Weekends
 * Romantic Friction, sitcom about a romance writer
 * Ronan the Amphibian (2003), about a financial adviser turned into an amphibian by aliens
 * Rudy's Rare Records, set in a record store starring Lenny Henry
 * Scenes from Provincial Life, adaptation of William Cooper's novel
 * Sean Lock:
 * Sean Lock, 15 Storeys High, sitcom
 * Sean Lock's 15 Minutes Of Misery, sitcom
 * Seymour the Fractal Cat, science fiction
 * Share and Share Alike, sitcom about two brothers who must learn to live peacefully with each other
 * The Six Mothers-in-law of HenryVIII (2003), an unreliable history of Tudor times created and written by Barry Grossman
 * The Shuttleworths, comedy about domestic life of character John Shuttleworth
 * Smelling of Roses, Prunella Scales as an event manager
 * Snap, divorce sitcom by Paul Mendelson
 * The Sofa of Time, fantasy comedy
 * Something or Other, dark comedy by Alex Bartlette and Grant Cathro
 * Stanley Baxter and Friends, series of 4 sitcoms
 * Stockport, so Good they Named it Once, comedy drama
 * Think the Unthinkable (2001–05), about management consultants
 * Three Men Went to Mow (2002–03), gardening sitcom
 * Tim Merryman's Days of Clover (2003), business sitcom
 * Time For Mrs Milliner, Jane Asher hat-making sitcom
 * To the Manor Born
 * Toad Squad, episode of Hopes and Desires re-broadcast as a one-off
 * Truly, Madly, Bletchley, sitcom about public access radio
 * Two Doors Down, sitcom set in suburban Glasgow
 * Unnatural Acts, sitcom about a married couple
 * Up the Garden Path, family comedy from Sue Limb's novel
 * Tomorrow, Today!, science fiction parody
 * Vongole, campus comedy with Bill Nighy
 * Weak at the Top, business and management satire
 * Whatever Happened to the Likely Lads? (1975), adaptation of TV series about two working-class men
 * Creighton Wheeler, a Zelig-like figure in two series:
 * Wheeler's Fortune
 * Wheeler's Wonder
 * A Whole 'Nother Story, sitcom
 * Wild Things, garden centre sitcom
 * Winston in Love, Peter Tinniswood sitcom
 * The Wordsmiths at Gorsemere, romantic poetry spoof by Sue Limb from her book
 * World of Pub, pub sitcom
 * Yes Minister, adaptation of satire about politician and civil service
 * You'll Have Had Your Tea (2002–07), silly comedy using Barry Cryer and Graeme Garden's long-running characters

Sketch shows

 * And Now in Colour, sketch show
 * Armstrong and Miller
 * The Atkinson People, spoof profiles
 * Auntie's Secret Box (1996)
 * Beachcomber, by the Way, surreal comedy
 * Bearded Ladies
 * The Big Booth, sketch show with Boothby Graffoe and others
 * Bigipedia, high-concept sketch show set within a fictional wikipedia-like website
 * The Burkiss Way
 * The Cheese Shop
 * Chewin' the Fat
 * The Children's Hour, spoof children's show reports
 * Cliché (1981)
 * Concrete Cow (2002–03)
 * The Consultants (2003–05)
 * The Curried Goat Show, sketch show
 * Dan and Nick: The Wildebeest Years
 * Dead Ringers
 * Dial M for Pizza
 * Don't Start
 * Down the Line
 * Five Squeezy Pieces, largely female sketch show
 * Forty Nights in the Wildebeest sketch show, follow up to Dan and Nick: The Wildebeest Years
 * Goodness Gracious Me
 * The Grumbleweeds Radio Show (1979–88 Radio 2; ? –91)
 * The Harpoon
 * Harry Hill's Fruit Corner
 * Hearing with Hegley, sketch show with poet John Hegley
 * The Hudson and Pepperdine Show
 * The In Crowd, sketch show from Manchester including Robin Ince
 * In One Ear, sketch show
 * Injury Time (1980–82), Oxbridge performers in revue sketches
 * The Jason Explanation, sketch show with David Jason
 * John Finnemore's Souvenir Programme (2011 to present)
 * Laura Solon: Talking and Not Talking
 * The League Against Tedium, Simon Munnery
 * On the Town With the League of Gentlemen (1997)
 * Lines From My Grandfather's Forehead (1971–72)
 * Lionel Nimrod's Inexplicable World, parodic show exploring a different topic each week
 * Listen Against, parodying British radio
 * Listen to Les, Les Dawson
 * Little Britain
 * A Look Back at the Nineties, satirical sketches
 * Marriott's Monologues, monologues by comic writer Marriott Edgar
 * The Mel and Sue Thing
 * The Michael Bentine Show
 * The Boosh
 * The Miles and Millner Show, music and sketches
 * The Milligan Papers
 * Milligna (or Your Favourite Spike), Spike Milligan sketch show
 * The Million Pound Radio Show
 * The Museum of Everything
 * Naked Radio
 * The Now Show (1998–)
 * The Omar Khayyam Show, Spike Milligan comedy
 * On the Hour (1991–92)
 * The Pin, winner of 'Best Comedy' at 2016 BBC Radio Awards
 * Radio Active (1980–7)
 * Radio9
 * The Reduced Shakespeare Radio Show, Shakespeare parody
 * Round The Horne
 * Saturday Night Fry (1988)
 * Six Geese a Laying, Zoe Lyons
 * The Six Mothers in Law of Henry VIII, parodic history documentary
 * The Skewer
 * The Skivers, sketches
 * The Small World of Dominic Holland, standup and sketches
 * Son of Cliché (1983–84)
 * Struck Off and Die, medical themed sketches and vox pops
 * The Sunday Format
 * A Swift Laugh, Griff Rhys Jones selects great comedy moments
 * That Mitchell and Webb Sound
 * This Is Craig Brown, satirical sketches
 * Two Thousand Years of Radio, comedy with Claire Downes and Stuart Lane
 * Week Ending (1970–98)

Individual comedy plays

 * The 15 Minute Musical (2004–)
 * Kenneth William's Playhouse (1975)
 * Trapped, series of comedy dramas about trapped people, by Mark and Daniel Maier

Stand-up, cabaret, and variety

 * Alexei Sayle's Imaginary Sandwich Bar
 * Boothby Graffoe In No Particular Order
 * The Cabaret Upstairs, introduced by Clive Anderson
 * Four at the Store, stand-up
 * Four in a Field, stand-up from Glastonbury Festival and Latitude Festival
 * The Frankie Howerd (Variety) Show
 * Henry Normal's Encyclopedia Poetica, spoof guide to poetry with readings from comic poets
 * Ken Dodd's Palace of Laughter, from his touring show
 * The Ken Dodd Show
 * King Cutler, Phyllis King and Ivor Cutler performing songs, poems, and stories
 * Mark Watson Makes the World Substantially Better
 * Mark Steel's in Town, performed in venues around (and outside) the UK
 * Ross Noble Goes Global (2002–04)
 * Ross Noble On...
 * A Set and a Song, comedy and music
 * Sounding Off with McGough, performances by poet Roger McGough
 * Stand Up 2
 * Stand Up America
 * Stand Up Great Britain
 * Stand Ups and Strumpets

Talks

 * Chris Addison:
 * The Ape That Got Lucky
 * Chris Addison's Civilisation (2006)
 * Fanshawe Gets to the Bottom of
 * Frank Muir Goes Into, comedian takes a humorous look at different topics
 * Guy Browning's Small Talk, humorous life coaching advice
 * Rainer Hersch:
 * All Classical Music Explained
 * Rainer Hersch's 20th Century Retrospective
 * It's a Fair Cop
 * Jeremy Hardy Speaks to the Nation
 * Life, Death and Sex with Mike and Sue
 * Mark Steel:
 * The Mark Steel Lectures (1999–2002)
 * The Mark Steel Revolution (1998)
 * The Mark Steel Solution (1992 Radio 5; 1994–96)
 * Mitch Benn's Crimes Against Music
 * People Like Us (1995–97)
 * The Problem with Adam Bloom with Adam Bloom
 * Round Ireland with a Fridge, by Tony Hawks, later a film
 * Where Did It All Go Wrong?, monologues from Simon Munnery
 * Will Smith Presents the Tao of Bergerac

Documentaries

 * Absent Friends, documentary about off-screen comedy characters by Alan Stafford
 * The Borscht Belt, documentary by David Prest
 * Cartoons, Lampoons, and Buffoons (1998)
 * Comedy Album Heroes, Greg Proops presents show about classic comedy albums
 * Double Trouble, documentary about famous comedy double acts
 * Fred Housego's Unknowns, documentary about lesser-known comedians
 * How Tickled Am I, profiles of comedians and comic actors by Mark Radcliffe
 * Palace of Laughter (2002–03), Geoffrey Wheeler visits old music halls
 * Radio Anarchists, profile of American 1960s pranksters Coyle and Sharpe
 * Radio Fun, series on comics presented by Bob Monkhouse
 * Should We Be Laughing?, documentary about disability in comedy
 * Six Characters in Search of an Answer, profiling well-known comedy characters
 * There'll Never be Another, documentary on comedy with Graeme Garden
 * Turns of the Century, comedy documentary

Science, technology and medicine

 * All in the Mind (2003–)
 * Another Five Numbers
 * Brief History of the End of Everything
 * Britain's X-Files
 * Case Notes
 * A Cell for All Seasons
 * Changing Places
 * Check Up
 * Climate Wars
 * The Columbia Astronauts
 * Connect
 * Costing the Earth
 * Dial a Scientist — (~1976) (see Brian J. Ford (scientist))
 * Emotional Rollercoaster
 * Five Numbers
 * Frontiers
 * The Good, the Bad and the Ugly
 * Home Planet
 * The Infinite Monkey Cage
 * The Life Scientific
 * Land Lines
 * Leading Edge
 * Life as an Adult
 * Life as a Teenager
 * Life in Middle Age
 * Lifeblood
 * Living with Pain
 * Living World
 * Material World
 * Medicine Now
 * Mind Changers
 * The Mozart Effect
 * Nature
 * Nature's Magic
 * The New X-Files
 * One Man's Medicine
 * Patient Progress: Strokes
 * Rainforests of the Deep
 * Red Planet
 * Reith Lectures
 * Science Now (1974–1975+ (?)) (see Brian J. Ford)
 * Scientists in a Shoebox
 * Seeds of Trouble
 * Small Dog on Mars
 * Stars in Their Eyes
 * Swan Migration
 * Tales of Cats and Comets
 * Think About It
 * Tweet of the Day (2013-)
 * A Twist to Life
 * Unearthing Mysteries
 * Walk Out to Winter
 * What Remains to Be Discovered?
 * Whatever you think
 * Where are you taking us?
 * Wild Europe
 * Wild Underground
 * World on the Move
 * Wrestling with Words

Religion and ethics

 * Bells on Sunday
 * Beyond Belief
 * Bigots and Believers
 * The Choice
 * Church Going
 * The Daily Service (1925 Daventry 5XX; 1929 National Programme; 1939–)
 * Devout Sceptics
 * Four Noble Truths
 * A Higher Place (2002)
 * In the Footsteps of Moses
 * Lent Talks
 * The Long Search (1977)
 * Missionaries
 * The Moral Maze (1990–)
 * Prayer for the Day
 * The Real Patron Saints
 * Something Understood (1995–)
 * Sounding the Divine
 * Sunday
 * Sunday Worship
 * Ten to Eight (1965–70)
 * Thought for the Day (1970–)
 * Words from the Cross

History

 * A History of the World in 100 Objects (2010–)
 * The Norman Way (2004)
 * Apprentice
 * Back to Beeching
 * The Child Migrants
 * City of the Sharp Nosed Fish
 * Creme de la Crime, documentary about famous crimes with Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis
 * The Dark Origins of Britain
 * The Decade of Self-doubt
 * Document
 * Falkland Families
 * For What It's Worth
 * Great Lives
 * Heroes and Villains
 * A History of Human Folly
 * In Our Time (1998–)
 * Lend Me Your Ears
 * The Long View
 * Making History
 * Mapping the Town
 * Memory Like Shells Bursting
 * Reconciling Histories
 * The Reunion
 * The Roman Way
 * The Routes of English
 * The Secret Museum
 * Soldier, Sailor
 * Spies R US: the history of the CIA
 * The Telemark Heroes
 * This Sceptred Isle (1995–)
 * The Three Voyages of Captain Cook
 * Tiger Tales
 * Voices of the Powerless
 * What If..?
 * Why Did We Do That?

Factual

 * The Archive Hour
 * Between Ourselves
 * Breakaway (1979–98)
 * Cartoon Clichés
 * Chetham's School of Music
 * Community Caring
 * Cutting a Dash
 * A Dance through Time
 * Darcus and Dickens
 * Deep Blue
 * Desert Island Discs (1942–), long-running show in which a guest picks their favourite records
 * A Different World
 * Down Your Way
 * Excess Baggage
 * Feedback: Radio series
 * File on 4, documentary reports
 * The Food Programme
 * Four Corners
 * Four Thought
 * Herbs: Pure and Simple
 * Home This Afternoon (1964–70)
 * The House I Grew Up In
 * Gardeners' Question Time (1947–), long-running horticultural advice from a panel of experts
 * Go 4 It
 * Going Places
 * Great Lives
 * Home Truths (1998–2006)
 * In Living Memory
 * In Our Time (2002–)
 * In Touch
 * An Indian in Bloomsbury
 * Is It On?
 * It's My Story: Physician, Heal Thyself
 * Last Word
 * The Learning Curve
 * Let's Pretend
 * The Message
 * Nothing to Do But Drink
 * On the Ropes
 * On Your Farm
 * Open Country
 * Painted Fabrics
 * Poisoned Angel: the Story of Alma Rosé
 * Public Records, Private Lives
 * Questions, Questions
 * Reel Histories
 * Subterranean Stories
 * Thinking Allowed
 * This Sceptred Isle (1995–1996, 1999, 2001, 2005–2006)
 * Traveller's Tree
 * Travels with my Anti-Semitism (1999), David Cohen
 * Veg Talk
 * Weekend Woman's Hour
 * Winnie the Pooh Lost and Found
 * Woman's Hour (1946 Light Programme; 1973–), magazine program aimed at women
 * Word of Mouth
 * A World in Your Ear
 * You and Yours (1970–)

Conversations

 * Chain Reaction, light-hearted interviews with each guest becoming the following week's host
 * Genius, members of the public present ideas to make the world better
 * In Conversation With, interviews, mainly with comedians
 * Loose Ends (1986–)
 * Midweek
 * Never the Same Again (1986–95)
 * Off The Page
 * Ramblings (1999-) a walking chat show presented by Clare Balding.
 * Room 101, in which celebrities pick their most-hated things
 * Start the Week
 * Stop The Week (1974–1992)
 * That Reminds Me, reminiscences from celebrities
 * Where Are You Taking Us? (1973?) -1974? (also see Brian J. Ford (presenter))

Miscellaneous

 * After Eden
 * After Happy Ever
 * Listen with Mother (1950 Light Programme; 1973–82)
 * Pick of the Week
 * Radio 4 Appeal
 * UK Theme (1973–2006)
 * Saturday Live
 * Shipping Forecast (1925 Daventry 5XX; 1929–39 National Programme; 1945 Light Programme; 1967 Radio 2; 1978–)
 * Test Match Special (1956 Third Programme; 1967 Radio 3; 1994–)
 * Weather Forecast (1922 London 2LO; 1925 Daventry 5XX; 1929–39 National Programme; 1945–)

title: List of BBC Radio 4 programmes


text:
Michael Duff (physicist)

Michael James Duff FRS, FRSA is a British theoretical physicist and pioneering theorist of supergravity who is the Principal of the Faculty of Physical Sciences and Abdus Salam Chair of Theoretical Physics at Imperial College London.

Education
Duff completed his Bachelor of Science in Physics Queen Mary College, London in 1969. He then went on to his Doctor of Philosophy in theoretical physics in 1972 at Imperial College London supervised by the Nobel Laureate Abdus Salam. He did postdoctoral fellowships at the International Centre for Theoretical Physics, University of Oxford, King's College London, Queen Mary College London and Brandeis University.

Academic career
After his postdoctoral fellowships, he returned to Imperial College in 1979 on a Science Research Council Advanced Fellowship and joined the faculty there in 1980. He took leave of absence to visit the Theory Division in CERN, first in 1982 and then again as a Staff Member from 1984 to 1987 when he became Senior Physicist. He has held Visiting Professorships and Fellowships at the University of Texas, Austin; the University of California, Santa Barbara, the University of Kyoto and the Isaac Newton Institute, University of Cambridge. He took up his professorship at Texas A&M University in 1988 and was appointed Distinguished Professor in 1992. In 1999 he moved to the University of Michigan, where he was Oskar Klein Professor of Physics. In 2001, he was elected first Director of the Michigan Center for Theoretical Physics and was re-elected in 2004. He returned again to Imperial College, London and became Professor of Physics and Principal of the Faculty of Physical Sciences in 2005. He was appointed Abdus Salam Professor of Theoretical Physics in 2006. He won the Dirac Medal of the IOP in 2017.

Contributions
His interests lie in unified theories of the elementary particles, quantum gravity, supergravity, Kaluza–Klein theory, superstrings, supermembranes and M-theory. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society, a Fellow of the American Physical Society, a Fellow of the Institute of Physics (UK), a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts and Recipient of the 2004 Meeting Gold Medal, El Colegio Nacional, Mexico.

He is the editor of The World in Eleven Dimensions: Supergravity, Supermembranes and M-theory, ISBN 0-7503-0672-6., a collection of notable scientific articles on string theory.

title: Michael Duff (physicist)


text:
Buddy system

The buddy system is a procedure in which two individuals, the "buddies", operate together as a single unit so that they are able to monitor and help each other. As per Merriam-Webster, the first known use of the phrase "buddy system" goes back to 1942. Webster goes on to define the buddy system as "an arrangement in which two individuals are paired (as for mutual safety in a hazardous situation).”

Advantages
In adventurous or dangerous activities, where buddies are often required, the main benefit of the system is improved safety; each may be able to prevent the other from becoming a casualty or rescue the other in a crisis.

When this system is used as part of training or the induction of newcomers to an organization, the less experienced buddy learns more quickly from close and frequent contact with the experienced buddy than when operating alone.

Organizations
The buddy system is used in the United States Armed Forces, and referred to by various names in each branch ("Wingmen" in the Air Force, "Battle Buddies" in the Army, "Shipmates" in the Navy), as well as the Boy Scouts of America and the Girl Scouts of the USA.

It is also used by religious organizations like the LDS Church. Members on the mission form a companionship constituted by two or sometimes more missionaries, which are not allowed to be alone for two years: "Stay Together. Never be alone. You must stay with your companion at all times."

The buddy system is used in new employee induction for assisting with the formalities in an organization. The period could be from a month to two months. The buddy helps in acclimatizing the new employee to the culture and day-to-day aspects of working, in a shorter period. The buddy helps the new employee to become knowledgeable about department practices and organizational culture in a shorter period. The purpose of assigning new employees with a buddy is to help welcome employees and reaffirms their decision to join the organization. It provides new employees with a reliable, motivated, single point of contact for their basic questions regarding their work experience. The buddy system is an effective method to provide support, monitor stress, and reinforce safety procedures.

The buddy system is also informally used by school-aged children, especially on field trips. Assigning each student a buddy provides an extra measure of safety and removes some of the burdens of keeping an eye on a large number of children in an unfamiliar environment from the supervising adults.

The buddy system encourages open and effective dialogue among peers and tends to break down social barriers with their classmates. It helps create a collaborative learning environment in which peers feel less hesitant to raise questions. This enables students to develop social networks and cross-cultural experiences. It provides effective support for the students who are at risk and lowers the attrition rate at the higher education level.

Benefits of a buddy system
A buddy system in a school is where a child gets paired with another child, usually one that is older and of higher abilities. A buddy system helps to promote friendship, better support of coursework, behavioral and social needs, and can foster a greater sense of belonging and a more inclusive school community. Students create friendships that enable both older and younger "buddies" to bond more closely with their school, increasing the likelihood of more positive school behavior and positive response towards learning for all students. The buddy system helps students starting at a new school have a welcoming experience from the very beginning. The older children learn to take on responsibility, while the younger children know that they have a fellow student they can confidently turn to for support.

Buddy systems in schools can have numerous benefits such as promoting an inclusive environment for all, better acceptance of differences, promoting better self-control, expansion of communicative interaction with peers, decrease in behavioral problems, and even personal maturation or growth in career aspirations.

The buddy system positively affects the culture of the school and it greatly affects the troubled student as well as the older buddy. The students learn and share from their peers and learn collaboratively. The students actively participate with each other and enjoy the informal setting and feel comfortable discussing with peers rather than a teacher. The opportunity for active participation, clearing doubts and discussions help students to continue with studies or activities with joy and creates a depth in the subject matter. The buddy system helps to increase self-confidence for all involved in the system and in the process helps build trust and co-operation within individuals. It benefits the buddies, buddy learner, school/university and the parents as well. The buddies involved also learn leadership skills and in turn can take up the role of buddy leader.

The buddy system helps in reducing the stress level of the learner. It reduces the levels of anxiety experienced by the students who struggle to engage with course material or with the school/university in general. "When there's a companion available, the physiological measure of stress—cortisol levels in the blood—can be alleviated somewhat", explains Jim Winslow, PhD, a specialist in behavioral neuroscience and pharmacology and head of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) Intramural Research Program, Non-Human Primate Core.

Teachers at progressive schools collaborate to improve their students' learning—and their own. It gives independence to all students, and increases self-esteem and peer acceptance. Children become protectors of each other.

Christine Hogan states that the buddy system approach is highly appropriate for organizational behavior studies adding to the students' range of learning strategies. The technique not only works with peers of the same nation but has also proved to be of particular importance to foreign students.

Pairing types
There are numerous pairings styles: newly admitted students paired with older students, low achieving elementary school students paired with high achieving elementary school students; behaviorally challenged teenagers paired with adults; autistic children paired with neurotypical children; severely disabled children paired with neurotypical children; and even college students paired with post-bachelor students.

Metropolitan Nashville Peer Buddy Program
An example of a successful peer buddy system was in Nashville, Tennessee's McGavock High School. Teachers were concerned with having a more inclusive environment for special education students. Not only were the specialized students excluded academically but there was social exclusion as well. This adversely affects specialized students when there is a need for them to later assimilate when out of high school. Students with disabilities were eating with their buddies and their friends, which resulted in the expansion of their circle of friendship and thus allowed for the special needs students to feel more normal and included. The program was so successful it was later adopted in the other 11 high schools of that district.

Buddy systems for mainstream students
There are more examples of buddy systems for developmentally challenged students than there are of students with normal development but with behavioral or academic needs. If a system can be implemented that can help autistic or behaviorally challenged children or children with intellectual disabilities, than similar buddy systems can be incorporated into mainstream classrooms to help aid students that have a hard time learning but who may not qualify for the special needs programs. Students with disabilities report feeling more included, able to start friendships and conversations, and these same benefits can be transferred over to students that have social problems but are not able to be in special needs programs. Similarly, a student who is struggling academically can be paired with someone more adept with certain subjects.

Peer buddy groups can benefit many people. More research is needed to understand the possible impact of buddy systems for the general student population. Students that qualify for special services receive a lot of attention but students struggling behaviorally and socially would highly benefit from such an inclusive service.

Implementation of buddy systems
Students that qualify for special needs services receive a lot of attention. For the students that do not qualify but might be struggling behaviorally and socially, then programs like these could potentially have similar benefits for them as well. Carolyn Hughes and Erik Carter promote a more ubiquitous peer buddy system in their book by laying out different strategies and benefits if schools were to include these systems in their curriculum. Examples they provide are: administrators assisting in the publication of the program, school counselors signing up students for a credit based buddy system course, general education teachers providing support for special needs students who might be in their classroom and having parents providing impetus and support for a program to begin. Carolyn Hughes and Erik Carter suggest starting on a smaller scale, perhaps a classroom or two and then growing a base of support.

Peer-to-peer buddy systems for students with autism
A key element of education is to build empathy and understand other people in the society. This approach sees a small group of students in a class being made "buddies" for an autistic student. The students are made aware of particular challenge a student has and are asked to take special care to include them, to be on the lookout for any bullying or exclusion and to be supportive to the student if they get stressed out or upset at break time or in class. The students who are selected would be chosen for their maturity and kindness. Parental consent would be sought from the parents of the students involved. While not every autistic student will instantly begin to socialise or make friends, this approach will at the very least ensure inclusion and also that there will be a friendly pair of eyes when teachers are not present or are out of ear-shot. For instance – maybe a student is having a bad day, is upset about something or just is not very good at starting conversations or making friends alone. Under this system, a class would explore difference as a whole and recognize that everyone in a class is different and so have different needs, strengths, abilities and oddities. They would then either be paired up or each student would draw a name and become "buddy" to that person, perhaps without them even being made aware of it. Before the draw or pairing it could be discussed with the teacher, to ensure an autistic student gets an especially strong buddy. The advantage of this system is that it does not single out the autistic student, especially if they are not comfortable with that, and instead includes everyone. Additionally, it gives the autistic person a role in being a buddy too, which can be used to teach social skills, expectations and etiquette.

Quarreling in China
In Shandong University, the buddy system is aimed to help the International students and help Chinese students broaden their horizons.

However, the gender ratio and the proportion of the student system have caused controversy in mainland China. The first batch of buddies' gender ratio is 1 to 1, but in 2018 the third batch changed to "141 Chinese students and 47 international students form 47 friendly 'buddies' groups". The number of foreign students and local students has reached an astonishing 1:3, and the number of students enrolled in the school is overwhelming. The move caused a heated discussion among netizens on Weibo. Many netizens believed that this move proved that Shanda's "Chongyang Meiwai" is essentially a "pimping strip".

title: Buddy system