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Grattius

Grattius (or Gratius) Faliscus was a Roman poet who flourished during the life of Augustus (63 BC – 14 AD). He is known as the author of a Cynegeticon, a poem on hunting.

Life
The only reference to Grattius in any extant ancient writer is a passing reference in Ovid, Ex Ponto:
 * Tityrus antiquas et erat qui pasceret herbas Aptaque venanti Gratius arma daret.

Some lines by Manilius have been supposed to allude to Grattius, but the terms in which they are expressed are too vague to warrant such a conclusion. According to Johann Christian Wernsdorf, who argued from the name, he must have been a slave or a freedman. The cognomen, or epithet, Faliscus, from which it has been inferred that he was a native of Falerii was first introduced by Barth, on the authority of a manuscript which no one else ever saw, and probably originated in a forced interpretation of one of the lines in the poem, "At contra nostris imbellia lina Faliscis" (5.40). William Ramsay argued that in the context, "nostris" here denotes merely "Italian", in contradistinction to the various foreign tribes spoken of in the preceding verses.

Cynegeticon
541 hexameter lines of Grattius's poem about hunting are preserved in a manuscript of c. 800 AD. The work describes various kinds of game, methods of hunting, and the best breeds of horses and dogs, using a fairly regular hexameter to do so. Grattius stresses the role of ratio (reason) in hunting, seeing it as a civilising endeavour in the tradition of Hercules, as opposed to indulgence in luxuria.

Contents
The poem, entitled Cynegeticon Liber, professes to set forth the apparatus (arma) necessary for the sportsman, and the manner in which the various requisites for the pursuit of game are to be procured, prepared, and preserved (artes armorum). Among the arma of the hunter are included not only nets, gins, snares (retia, pedicae, laquei), darts and spears (jacula, venabula), but also horses and dogs, and a large portion of the undertaking (verses 150–430) is devoted to a systematic account of the different kinds of hounds and horses.

The matter and arrangement of the treatise are derived in a great measure from Xenophon, although information was drawn from other ancient sources, such as Dercylus the Arcadian, and Hagnon of Boeotia.

Appraisal
According to Ramsay, the language of the Cynegetica is pure, and not unworthy of the age to which it belongs, but there is frequently a harshness in the structure of the periods, a strange and unauthorised use of particular words, and a general want of distinctness, which, in addition to a very corrupt text, render it a task of great difficulty to determine the exact meaning of many passages. Although considerable skill is manifested in the combination of the parts – Ramsay continues – the author did not possess sufficient power to overcome the obstacles which were triumphantly combated by Virgil.

It is remarkable that both the second-century poets Oppianus and Nemesianus arrogate to themselves the honour of having entered upon a path altogether untrodden. Whether we believe them to be sincere and ignorant, or suspect them of deliberate dishonesty, their bold assertion is sufficient to prove that the poem of Grattius had in their day become almost totally unknown.

Editions
The Cynegetica has been transmitted to modern times through the medium of a single manuscript, which was brought from Gaul to Italy by Actius Sannazarius about the beginning of the sixteenth century, and contained also the Cynegetica of Nemesianus, and the Halieutica ascribed to Ovid. A second copy of the first 159 lines was found by Jan van Vliet appended to another manuscript of the Halieutics.

The editio princeps was printed at Venice in February 1534, by Aldus Manutius, in a volume that included the Halieutica of Ovid, the Cynegetica and Carmen Bucolicum of Nemesianus, the Buolica of Calpurnius Siculus, and the Venatio of Hadrianus. This edition was reprinted at Augsburg in July of the same year. The best editions are those contained in the Poetae Latini Minores of Pieter Burmann the Elder (vol. i. Lug. Bat. 1731), and of Wernsdorf (vol. i. p. 6, 293, ii. p. 34, iv. pt. ii. p. 790, 806, v. pt. iii. p. 1445), whose introductions provide all the requisite preliminary information.

Translations
A translation into English verse with notes, and the Latin text, by Christopher Wase, was published at London in 1654, and a translation into German, also metrical, by S. E. G. Perlet, at Leipzig, in 1826.

title: Grattius


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List of Dungeons & Dragons modules

A module in Dungeons & Dragons is an adventure published by TSR. The term is usually applied to adventures published for all Dungeons & Dragons games before 3rd Edition. For 3rd Edition and beyond new publisher Wizards of the Coast uses the term adventure. For a list of published 3rd, 4th, and 5th Edition Adventures see List of Dungeons & Dragons adventures. For description and history of Adventures/Modules see Adventure (D&D). Adventures for various campaign settings are listed in different articles, including Forgotten Realms, Dragonlance, Greyhawk, Mystara, Kara-Tur, Spelljammer, Ravenloft, Al-Qadim, Dark Sun, Planescape, Birthright, and Eberron.

The modules listed here are in three separate lists of official TSR Dungeons & Dragons modules only. The coded modules (1992–1995) are listed by module code. Modules made after the code system was dropped (1993–2000) are displayed in alphabetical order. Note: There is considerable overlap caused by the transition period and early pre-advertising for some modules.

Coded modules (1978–1994)
Module codes in brackets indicate implied codes either by earlier advertising or place in a series; some of these modules did not actually have codes printed on the cover.

A
A—Aerie of the Slave Lords is a linked campaign of four AD&D (1st Ed.) modules created for Gen Con XIII and set in Greyhawk. They can also form an extended campaign following T and followed by G and Q.

AC—ACcessory Modules is a series of accessory items for D&D (Basic/Expert/Companion/Master), many of which included mini-adventures. They are generally associated with Mystara albeit quite generic.

B
B—Basic were designed for use with the Dungeons & Dragons Basic set. Mostly they are independent adventures, set in Mystara.

C
C—Competition modules for AD&D (1st) are specially designed for competition play and come with a scoring system for player actions.

CA—City of Adventure for AD&D (1st) require the Lankhmar: City of Adventure supplement to play.

CB—Conan the Barbarian modules for AD&D (1st) tie in with the Conan movies.

CM—CoMpanion is for use with Dungeons & Dragons Companion Set (or Rules Cyclopedia), and were set in Mystara.

D
D—Drow is a linked campaign of AD&D (1st Ed) modules created for Gen Con XI set in Greyhawk. They can also form an extended campaign following T, A, and G, and followed by Q.

DA—Dave Arneson is set in Blackmoor for Expert Set

DDA—Dungeons & Dragons Adventure for Basic Set, set in Mystara.

DL—Dragonlance introduced the Dragonlance campaign. They are linked series traditional modules for AD&D (1st Ed) except where noted.

DLA—Dragonlance Adventure trilogy of linked adventures are set on the lost continent of Taladas in the Dragonlance world, for 2nd Edition AD&D.

DLC—Dragonlance Classics collects the original Dragonlance modules, revised for 2nd Edition AD&D.

DL(E/Q/S/T)—Dragonlance (Epic/Quest/Saga/Tales) for 2nd Edition AD&D.

DQ—DragonQuest is compatible with both AD&D (1st Edition) or DragonQuest RPG

DS(Q/E)—Dark Sun (Quest/Epic) is a set of linked modules that require Dark Sun campaign setting.

DSM—Dark Sun Mission is a set of linked modules that require the Dark Sun campaign setting.

E
EX—EXtension Series are AD&D modules designed as a "tack-on" adventure set in Greyhawk.

G
G—Giants is a linked campaign of AD&D (1st Ed) module(s) created for Origins '78 set in Greyhawk. They can also form an extended campaign following A, and followed by D.

GA—General Adventure for 2nd Edition AD&D, not specific to any campaign setting.

GAZ—GAZetteer The GAZ series described countries in the Known World of Mystara, using the D&D Basic and Expert Set rules, although beginning with GAZ07, rules for adapting to AD&D are provided. However the 15th product in this Mystara Gazetteer series, Dawn of the Emperors: Thyatis and Alphatia, was instead sold as a boxed set without an official GAZ-module code.

H
H—The Bloodstone Pass Saga is a linked campaign series that focuses on using Battlesystem battles in Forgotten Realms AD&D adventures.

HHQ—Head to Head Quest modules for 2nd Edition AD&D are designed for one Player and a DM

HW—Hollow World set in Mystara.

I
I—Intermediate, for AD&D, mostly separate adventures though some sequels do exist within the series.

IM—Immortal, for use with D&D Immortals Set. Set in Mystara.

L
L—Lendore Isles was Lenard Lakofka's campaign that was made part of Greyhawk. It was originally planned to be a series of five linked modules, but only three were ever published.

LN(A/Q/R)—Lankhmar/Nehwon (Adventure/Quest/Reference) independent adventures for use with Lankhmar City of Adventure box set.

M
M—Master for use with the Master Dungeons & Dragons rules, set in Mystara.

MSOLO: solo modules set in Mystara by default.

MV—Magic Viewer: solo adventure for 1st Edition AD&D.

N
N—Novice

O
O—One on one (one player one master) set in Mystara.

OA—Oriental Adventures was originally its own campaign setting (see Oriental Adventures and List of Forgotten Realms modules and sourcebooks), but from OA5 was incorporated into Forgotten Realms.

OP—Outer Planes for use with the AD&D Manual of the Planes.

Q
Q—Queen of the Demonweb Pits single module conclusion to the G and D series

R
R—Role Playing Game Association tournament modules, R1–6 were also available to RPGA members. R1–4 were later revised and abridged as I12. Mentzer initially intended the "R" series to take place in Greyhawk (on a different continent from Oerik) as part of an "Acquaria" or "Aqua-Oeridian" campaign. The original concept was to use these modules to form the basis of a new Greyhawk boxed set, although TSR never went forward with these plans and as such the modules are not officially for Greyhawk.

RA—Ravenloft / RQ—Ravenloft Quests TSR changed coding for sales purposes. Grand Conjunction Campaign was developed after the first 3 modules were made

RM—Ravenloft Missions TSR changed coding again for sales purposes RPGA—Role Playing Game Association tournament modules, also available to RPGA members. This series was later revised and reprinted as B7, C4 & C5.

RS—Red Sonja

S
S—Special

SJA—Spelljammer Adventure set in the Spelljammer campaign setting

SJQ–Spelljammer Quest set in the Spelljammer campaign setting

SJS—Spelljammer Sourcebook set in the Spelljammer campaign setting

ST–Steam Train (or Stoke-on-Trent) limited edition module released at 1986 Stoke-on-Trent Garden Festival (UK).

T
T—Temple of Elemental Evil set in Greyhawk. They can also form an extended campaign followed by A, G, and Q.

U
U—Underwater a linked trilogy set in Greyhawk, published in the UK.

UK—United Kingdom a series of mostly independent adventures developed by the TSR UK office

W
WG—World of Greyhawk was a series of stand-alone adventures set in Greyhawk for 1st edition except as noted. No modules were ever assigned codes WG1–WG3. WG1 was earmarked for The Village of Hommlet (T1), and WG2 was earmarked for The Temple of Elemental Evil (T1-4). WG3 was to be Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth (S4), a loosely tied prequel to WG4. WG7 was advertised during summer 1986 as Shadowlords, a collaboration between Gary Gygax and Skip Williams. Gygax's lawsuit with TSR put Shadowlords in limbo, and it was replaced with Castle Greyhawk.

WGA—World of Greyhawk Adventure

WGM—World of Greyhawk Mission

WGQ—World of Greyhawk Quest

WGR—World of Greyhawk Reference is a mix of adventures and background information.

WGS—World of Greyhawk Swords was originally intended as a trilogy. The planned third module became instead the Greyhawk Wars boxed wargame.

X
X—eXpert series was for use with Dungeons & Dragons Expert Set except where noted and set in Mystara.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: List of Dungeons & Dragons modules


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Perfect field

In algebra, a field k is perfect if any one of the following equivalent conditions holds: Otherwise, k is called imperfect.
 * Every irreducible polynomial over k has no multiple roots in any field extension F/k.
 * Every irreducible polynomial over k has non-zero formal derivative.
 * Every irreducible polynomial over k is separable.
 * Every finite extension of k is separable.
 * Every algebraic extension of k is separable.
 * Either k has characteristic 0, or, when k has characteristic p > 0, every element of k is a pth power.
 * Either k has characteristic 0, or, when k has characteristic p > 0, the Frobenius endomorphism x ↦ x is an automorphism of k.
 * The separable closure of k is algebraically closed.
 * Every reduced commutative k-algebra A is a separable algebra; i.e., $$A \otimes_k F$$ is reduced for every field extension F/k. (see below)

In particular, all fields of characteristic zero and all finite fields are perfect.

Perfect fields are significant because Galois theory over these fields becomes simpler, since the general Galois assumption of field extensions being separable is automatically satisfied over these fields (see third condition above).

Another important property of perfect fields is that they admit Witt vectors.

More generally, a ring of characteristic p (p a prime) is called perfect if the Frobenius endomorphism is an automorphism. (When restricted to integral domains, this is equivalent to the above condition "every element of k is a pth power".)

Examples
Examples of perfect fields are:
 * every field of characteristic zero, so $$\mathbb{Q}$$ and every finite extension, and $$\mathbb{C}$$;
 * every finite field $$\mathbb{F}_q$$;
 * every algebraically closed field;
 * the union of a set of perfect fields totally ordered by extension;
 * fields algebraic over a perfect field.

Most fields that are encountered in practice are perfect. The imperfect case arises mainly in algebraic geometry in characteristic p > 0. Every imperfect field is necessarily transcendental over its prime subfield (the minimal subfield), because the latter is perfect. An example of an imperfect field is the field $$\mathbf{F}_q(x)$$, since the Frobenius endomorphism sends $$x \mapsto x^p$$ and therefore is not surjective. This field embeds into the perfect field
 * $$\mathbf{F}_q(x,x^{1/p},x^{1/p^2},\ldots)$$

called its perfection. Imperfect fields cause technical difficulties because irreducible polynomials can become reducible in the algebraic closure of the base field. For example, consider $$f(x,y) = x^p + ay^p \in k[x,y]$$ for $$k$$ an imperfect field of characteristic $$p$$ and a not a p-th power in k. Then in its algebraic closure $$k^{\operatorname{alg}}[x,y]$$, the following equality holds:

f(x,y) = (x + b y)^p , $$ where b = a and such b exists in this algebraic closure. Geometrically, this means that $$f$$ does not define an affine plane curve in $$k[x,y]$$.

Field extension over a perfect field
Any finitely generated field extension K over a perfect field k is separably generated, i.e. admits a separating transcendence base, that is, a transcendence base Γ such that K is separably algebraic over k(Γ).

Perfect closure and perfection
One of the equivalent conditions says that, in characteristic p, a field adjoined with all p-th roots (r ≥ 1) is perfect; it is called the perfect closure of k and usually denoted by $$k^{p^{-\infty}}$$.

The perfect closure can be used in a test for separability. More precisely, a commutative k-algebra A is separable if and only if $$A \otimes_k k^{p^{-\infty}}$$ is reduced.

In terms of universal properties, the perfect closure of a ring A of characteristic p is a perfect ring Ap of characteristic p together with a ring homomorphism u : A → Ap such that for any other perfect ring B of characteristic p with a homomorphism v : A → B there is a unique homomorphism f : Ap → B such that v factors through u (i.e. v = fu). The perfect closure always exists; the proof involves "adjoining p-th roots of elements of A", similar to the case of fields.

The perfection of a ring A of characteristic p is the dual notion (though this term is sometimes used for the perfect closure). In other words, the perfection R(A) of A is a perfect ring of characteristic p together with a map θ : R(A) → A such that for any perfect ring B of characteristic p equipped with a map φ : B → A, there is a unique map f : B → R(A) such that φ factors through θ (i.e. φ = θf). The perfection of A may be constructed as follows. Consider the projective system
 * $$\cdots\rightarrow A\rightarrow A\rightarrow A\rightarrow\cdots$$

where the transition maps are the Frobenius endomorphism. The inverse limit of this system is R(A) and consists of sequences (x0, x1, ... ) of elements of A such that $$x_{i+1}^p=x_i$$ for all i. The map θ : R(A) → A sends (xi) to x0.

title: Perfect field


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Baron Northbrook

Baron Northbrook, of Stratton in the County of Southampton, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1866 for the Liberal politician and former Chancellor of the Exchequer, Sir Francis Baring, 3rd Baronet. The holders of the barony represent the genealogically senior branch of the prominent Baring family. The name Northbrook is derived from a tithing of the local parish.

History
The holders of the barony descend from Francis Baring, whose father had emigrated to Great Britain from Germany. Francis was the founder of the family firm that grew into Barings Bank. The firm increased in wealth and influence to the point that, on 29 May 1793, Francis was created a baronet, of Larkbeer in the County of Devon, in the Baronetage of Great Britain. His eldest son Thomas became the second Baronet, also representing Chipping Wycombe and Hampshire in the House of Commons. Sir Thomas was succeeded by his eldest son Francis, third Baronet. Sir Francis held office as Chancellor of the Exchequer and First Lord of the Admiralty. In 1866 he was raised to the Peerage of the United Kingdom as Baron Northbrook, of Stratton in the County of Southampton.

Lord Northbrook's eldest son Thomas, the second Baron, was Viceroy of India from 1872 to 1876. In that year he was created Viscount Baring, of Lee in the County of Kent, and Earl of Northbrook, in the County of Southampton. Both titles were in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. On his death, the titles passed to his eldest son Francis George, second Earl. He sat as a Member of Parliament for Winchester and Biggleswade. The second Earl was childless, and on his death in 1929, the viscountcy and earldom became extinct. He was succeeded in the baronetcy and barony by his first cousin Francis Arthur, who became the fourth Baron Northbrook. Francis Arthur was the son of the Hon. Francis Baring (1850–1915), third son of the first Baron and a partner in Barings Bank.

the titles are held by the fourth Baron's grandson, the sixth Baron, who succeeded his father in 1990. Lord Northbrook is one of the ninety elected hereditary peers who remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sits on the Conservative benches.

The Baring family is one of the most ennobled in the United Kingdom and numerous other members of the family have gained distinction. The first Baron Northbrook's uncle (his father's next youngest brother) was Alexander Baring, 1st Baron Ashburton, two of his first cousins (both sons of Henry Baring, his father's next youngest brother after Lord Ashburton) were Edward Baring, 1st Baron Revelstoke, and Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer, and one of his first cousins once removed (third son of Lord Cromer) was Evelyn Baring, 1st Baron Howick of Glendale. Also, the Right Reverend Charles Baring, Bishop of Durham, was his younger brother. The Bishop's son Thomas was a banker and Conservative politician.

Baring baronets, of Larkbeer (1793)

 * Sir Francis Baring, 1st Baronet (1740–1810)
 * Sir Thomas Baring, 2nd Baronet (1772–1848)
 * Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 3rd Baronet (1796–1866) (created Baron Northbrook in 1866)

Barons Northbrook (1866)

 * Francis Thornhill Baring, 1st Baron Northbrook (1796–1866)
 * Thomas George Baring, 2nd Baron Northbrook (1826–1904) (created Earl of Northbrook in 1876)

Earls of Northbrook (1876)

 * Thomas George Baring, 1st Earl of Northbrook (1826–1904)
 * Francis George Baring, 2nd Earl of Northbrook (1850–1929)

Barons Northbrook (1866; reverted)

 * Francis Arthur Baring, 4th Baron Northbrook (1882–1947)
 * Francis John Baring, 5th Baron Northbrook (1915–1990)
 * Francis Thomas Baring, 6th Baron Northbrook (born 1954)

There is no heir to the barony.

The heir presumptive to the baronetcy is the present holder's fourth cousin, Peter Baring (born 1939). He is a great-great-grandson of the Right Reverend Charles Baring, younger son of the second Baronet.

The heir presumptive's heir apparent is his son, Samuel Nigel Baring (born 1987).

Title succession chart

 * Wider family tree:

title: Baron Northbrook


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Paavo Susitaival

Lieutenant Colonel Paavo Susitaival (9 February 1896 – 27 December 1993), born Paavo Sivén, was a Finnish author, soldier and politician. Paavo Sivén and his brother, Bobi Sivén were prominent figures in the Finnish interwar Nationalist movement. Paavo had acquired his reputation smuggling volunteers to Germany to enlist in the 27. Imperial Jaeger Battalion; Bobi gained his by being the last alderman of Porajärvi municipality before the ratification of the Treaty of Tartu who shot himself rather than acknowledge the transfer of Porajärvi and Repola to the Soviet Union.

Early life
Paavo Sivén adopted the name Susitaival ("wolf's path" in English) during the First World War to throw off the Czar's secret service. Later, during the Finnish Civil War he attempted to enlist in the Finnish Army, only to realize that he – or rather, one of his pseudonyms – had already been appointed Captain in the Army, while he under his real name was listed as a draft-dodger. After the war he continued as a career soldier. He changed his name permanently to Susitaival in protest against the Svecoman sentiment in the Finnish Army, after attending an Army Cadet School church services where the Swedish-speaking cadets would not take communion with Finnish-speaking cadets.

Finnish parliament
Susitaival participated in the Rebellion of Mäntsälä in a minor role, for which he served time in prison. Representing the Finnish fascist party IKL, Susitaival was elected as a member of the Finnish parliament in 1939. His career in the parliament was short lived, as at the beginning of the Winter War he chose to apply for active duty, one of only three Finnish MPs to do so.

Winter War
During the Winter War, Susitaival served as a Lieutenant Colonel, commanding Osasto Susi in the Battle of Suomussalmi. He also held various command positions in the Continuation War. Despite his leadership skills and charisma, his abrasive, demanding character and a personal feud with Marshal Mannerheim, among other prominent officers, was the cause of him never advancing beyond that rank.

Later life and death
After the war, Paavo Susitaival retired from the Army and lived as an author in Lappeenranta, where a street is named after him. In later life, his physical condition worsened but he never lost his mental acumen. In spite of being a heavy smoker (reputedly consuming at least one bag of pipe tobacco per day after the age of 14) and an avid coffee-drinker, he died at the age of 97. In his will, he requested that he should be buried with his officer's sword, in order that future archaeologists would know that his grave was that of a soldier.

He summed up his life thus: "Three wars, two rebellions, four prison stints. Unfortunately, once in parliament as well."

Awards

 * Cross of Freedom 2nd class with Oak Leaves (1941)
 * Cross of Freedom 2nd class (1940)
 * Cross of Freedom 3rd class (1919)
 * Cross of Freedom 4th class with swords (1918)
 * Knight Cross of the Order of White Rose of Finland
 * Jäger Activist Medal
 * Commemorative Medal of the War of Freedom (1918)
 * Commemorative Medal of Venäjänsaari (1918)
 * Commemorative Medal of Winter War (1940)
 * Winter War Lapland Cross (1940)
 * Commemorative Medal of Continuation War (1940)
 * Commemorative Medal of the 11th Division
 * Iron Cross 2nd class (1941)
 * Prussian Merit Cross for War Aid (1918)
 * Prussian Red Cross Medal 3rd class (1919)

title: Paavo Susitaival


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Actor–network theory

Actor–network theory (ANT) is a theoretical and methodological approach to social theory where everything in the social and natural worlds exists in constantly shifting networks of relationships. It posits that nothing exists outside those relationships. All the factors involved in a social situation are on the same level, and thus there are no external social forces beyond what and how the network participants interact at present. Thus, objects, ideas, processes, and any other relevant factors are seen as just as important in creating social situations as humans.

ANT holds that social forces do not exist in themselves, and therefore cannot be used to explain social phenomena. Instead, strictly empirical analysis should be undertaken to "describe" rather than "explain" social activity. Only after this can one introduce the concept of social forces, and only as an abstract theoretical concept, not something which genuinely exists in the world.

Although it is best known for its controversial insistence on the capacity of nonhumans to act or participate in systems or networks or both, ANT is also associated with forceful critiques of conventional and critical sociology. Developed by science and technology studies (STS) scholars Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich and Bruno Latour, the sociologist John Law, and others, it can more technically be described as a "material-semiotic" method. This means that it maps relations that are simultaneously material (between things) and semiotic (between concepts). It assumes that many relations are both material and semiotic. The term actor-network theory was coined by John Law in 1992 to describe the work being done across case studies in different areas at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation at the time.

The theory demonstrates that everything in the social and natural worlds, human and nonhuman, interacts in shifting networks of relationships without any other elements out of the networks. ANT challenges many traditional approaches by defining nonhumans as actors equal to humans. This claim provides a new perspective when applying the theory in practice.

Broadly speaking, ANT is a constructivist approach in that it avoids essentialist explanations of events or innovations (i.e. ANT explains a successful theory by understanding the combinations and interactions of elements that make it successful, rather than saying it is true and the others are false). Likewise, it is not a cohesive theory in itself. Rather, ANT functions as a strategy that assists people in being sensitive to terms and the often unexplored assumptions underlying them. It is distinguished from many other STS and sociological network theories for its distinct material-semiotic approach.

Background and context
ANT was first developed at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation (CSI) of the École nationale supérieure des mines de Paris in the early 1980s by staff (Michel Callon, Madeleine Akrich, Bruno Latour) and visitors (including John Law). The 1984 book co-authored by John Law and fellow-sociologist Peter Lodge (Science for Social Scientists; London: Macmillan Press Ltd.) is a good example of early explorations of how the growth and structure of knowledge could be analyzed and interpreted through the interactions of actors and networks. Initially created in an attempt to understand processes of innovation and knowledge-creation in science and technology, the approach drew on existing work in STS, on studies of large technological systems, and on a range of French intellectual resources including the semiotics of Algirdas Julien Greimas, the writing of philosopher Michel Serres, and the Annales School of history.

ANT appears to reflect many of the preoccupations of French post-structuralism, and in particular a concern with non-foundational and multiple material-semiotic relations. At the same time, it was much more firmly embedded in English-language academic traditions than most post-structuralist-influenced approaches. Its grounding in (predominantly English) science and technology studies was reflected in an intense commitment to the development of theory through qualitative empirical case-studies. Its links with largely US-originated work on large technical systems were reflected in its willingness to analyse large scale technological developments in an even-handed manner to include political, organizational, legal, technical and scientific factors.

Many of the characteristic ANT tools (including the notions of translation, generalized symmetry and the "heterogeneous network"), together with a scientometric tool for mapping innovations in science and technology ("co-word analysis") were initially developed during the 1980s, predominantly in and around the CSI. The "state of the art" of ANT in the late 1980s is well-described in Latour's 1987 text, Science in Action.

From about 1990 onwards, ANT started to become popular as a tool for analysis in a range of fields beyond STS. It was picked up and developed by authors in parts of organizational analysis, informatics, health studies, geography, sociology, anthropology, archaeology, feminist studies, technical communication, and economics.

, ANT is a widespread, if controversial, range of material-semiotic approaches for the analysis of heterogeneous relations. In part because of its popularity, it is interpreted and used in a wide range of alternative and sometimes incompatible ways. There is no orthodoxy in current ANT, and different authors use the approach in substantially different ways. Some authors talk of "after-ANT" to refer to "successor projects" blending together different problem-focuses with those of ANT.

Actor/Actant
An actor (actant) is something that acts or to which activity is granted by others. It implies no motivation of human individual actors nor of humans in general. An actant can literally be anything provided it is granted to be the source of action. In another word, an actor, in this circumstance, is considered as any entity that does things. For example, in the "Pasteur Network", microorganisms are not inert, they cause unsterilized materials to ferment while leaving behind sterilized materials not affected. If they took other actions, that is, if they did not cooperate with Pasteur – if they did not take action (at least according to Pasteur's intentions) – then Pasteur's story may be a bit different. It is in this sense that Latour can refer to microorganisms as actors.

Under the framework of ANT, the principle of generalized symmetry requires all entities must be described in the same terms before a network is considered. Any differences between entities are generated in the network of relations, and do not exist before any network is applied.

Human actors
Human normally refers to human beings and their human behaviors.

Nonhuman actors
Traditionally, nonhuman entities are creatures including plants, animals, geology, and natural forces, as well as a collective human making of arts, languages. In ANT, nonhuman covers multiple entities including things, objects, animals, natural phenomena, material structures, transportation devices, texts, and economic goods. But nonhuman actors do not cover entities such as humans, supernatural beings, and other symbolic objects in nature.

Actor-Network
As the term implies, the actor-network is the central concept in ANT. The term "network" is somewhat problematic in that it, as Latour notes, has a number of unwanted connotations. Firstly, it implies that what is described takes the shape of a network, which is not necessarily the case. Secondly, it implies "transportation without deformation," which, in ANT, is not possible since any actor-network involves a vast number of translations. Latour, however, still contends that network is a fitting term to use, because "it has no a priori order relation; it is not tied to the axiological myth of a top and of a bottom of society; it makes absolutely no assumption whether a specific locus is macro- or micro- and does not modify the tools to study the element 'a' or the element 'b'." This use of the term "network" is very similar to Deleuze and Guattari's rhizomes; Latour even remarks tongue-in-cheek that he would have no objection to renaming ANT "actant-rhizome ontology" if it only had sounded better, which hints at Latour's uneasiness with the word "theory".

Actor–network theory tries to explain how material–semiotic networks come together to act as a whole; the clusters of actors involved in creating meaning are both material and semiotic. As a part of this it may look at explicit strategies for relating different elements together into a network so that they form an apparently coherent whole. These networks are potentially transient, existing in a constant making and re-making. This means that relations need to be repeatedly "performed" or the network will dissolve. They also assume that networks of relations are not intrinsically coherent, and may indeed contain conflicts. Social relations, in other words, are only ever in process, and must be performed continuously.

The Pasteur story that was mentioned above introduced the patterned network of diverse materials, which is called the idea of 'heterogenous networks'. The basic idea of patterned network is that human is not the only factor or contributor in the society, or in any social activities and networks. Thus, the network composes machines, animals, things, and any other objects. For those nonhuman actors, it might be hard for people to imagine their roles in the network. For example, say two people, Jacob and Mike, are speaking through texts. Within the current technology, they are able to communicate with each other without seeing each other in person. Therefore, when typing or writing, the communication is basically not mediated by either of them, but instead by a network of objects, like their computers or cell phones.

If taken to its logical conclusion, then, nearly any actor can be considered merely a sum of other, smaller actors. A car is an example of a complex system. It contains many electronic and mechanical components, all of which are essentially hidden from view to the driver, who simply deals with the car as a single object. This effect is known as punctualisation, and is similar to the idea of encapsulation in object-oriented programming.

When an actor network breaks down, the punctualisation effect tends to cease as well. In the automobile example above, a non-working engine would cause the driver to become aware of the car as a collection of parts rather than just a vehicle capable of transporting him or her from place to place. This can also occur when elements of a network act contrarily to the network as a whole. In his book Pandora's Hope, Latour likens depunctualization to the opening of a black box. When closed, the box is perceived simply as a box, although when it is opened all elements inside it become visible.

Translation
Central to ANT is the concept of translation which is sometimes referred to as sociology of translation, in which innovators attempt to create a forum, a central network in which all the actors agree that the network is worth building and defending. In his widely debated 1986 study of how marine biologists tried to restock the St Brieuc Bay in order to produce more scallops, Michel Callon defined 4 moments of translation:

 * 1) Problematisation: The researchers attempted to make themselves important to the other players in the drama by identifying their nature and issues, then claiming that they could be remedied if the actors negotiated the 'obligatory passage point' of the researchers' study program.
 * 2) Interessement: A series of procedures used by the researchers to bind the other actors to the parts that had been assigned to them in that program.
 * 3) Enrollment: A collection of tactics used by the researchers to define and connect the numerous roles they had assigned to others.
 * 4) Mobilisation: The researchers utilized a series of approaches to ensure that ostensible spokespeople for various key collectivities were appropriately able to represent those collectivities and were not deceived by the latter.

Also important to the notion is the role of network objects in helping to smooth out the translation process by creating equivalencies between what would otherwise be very challenging people, organizations or conditions to mesh together. Bruno Latour spoke about this particular task of objects in his work Reassembling the Social.

Quasi-object
The quasi-object is an entity characterized by the way it is connective and weaves networks, social collectives, and associations (such as a basketball, language, or bread).

In the above examples, "social order" and "functioning car" come into being through the successful interactions of their respective actor-networks, and actor-network theory refers to these creations as tokens or quasi-objects which are passed between actors within the network.

As the token is increasingly transmitted or passed through the network, it becomes increasingly punctualized and also increasingly reified. When the token is decreasingly transmitted, or when an actor fails to transmit the token (e.g., the oil pump breaks), punctualization and reification are decreased as well.

A material semiotic method
Although it is called a "theory", ANT does not usually explain "why" a network takes the form that it does. Rather, ANT is a way of thoroughly exploring the relational ties within a network (which can be a multitude of different things). As Latour notes, "explanation does not follow from description; it is description taken that much further." It is not, in other words, a theory "of" anything, but rather a method, or a "how-to book" as Latour puts it.

The approach is related to other versions of material-semiotics (notably the work of philosophers Gilles Deleuze, Michel Foucault, and feminist scholar Donna Haraway). It can also be seen as a way of being faithful to the insights of ethnomethodology and its detailed descriptions of how common activities, habits and procedures sustain themselves. Similarities between ANT and symbolic interactionist approaches such as the newer forms of grounded theory like situational analysis, exist, although Latour objects to such a comparison.

Although ANT is mostly associated with studies of science and technology and with the sociology of science, it has been making steady progress in other fields of sociology as well. ANT is adamantly empirical, and as such yields useful insights and tools for sociological inquiry in general. ANT has been deployed in studies of identity and subjectivity, urban transportation systems, and passion and addiction. It also makes steady progress in political and historical sociology.

Intermediaries and mediators
The distinction between intermediaries and mediators is key to ANT sociology. Intermediaries are entities which make no difference (to some interesting state of affairs which we are studying) and so can be ignored. They transport the force of some other entity more or less without transformation and so are fairly uninteresting. Mediators are entities which multiply difference and so should be the object of study. Their outputs cannot be predicted by their inputs. From an ANT point of view sociology has tended to treat too much of the world as intermediaries.

For instance, a sociologist might take silk and nylon as intermediaries, holding that the former "means", "reflects", or "symbolises" the upper classes and the latter the lower classes. In such a view the real world silk–nylon difference is irrelevant– presumably many other material differences could also, and do also, transport this class distinction. But taken as mediators these fabrics would have to be engaged with by the analyst in their specificity: the internal real-world complexities of silk and nylon suddenly appear relevant, and are seen as actively constructing the ideological class distinction which they once merely reflected.

For the committed ANT analyst, social things—like class distinctions in taste in the silk and nylon example, but also groups and power—must constantly be constructed or performed anew through complex engagements with complex mediators. There is no stand-alone social repertoire lying in the background to be reflected off, expressed through, or substantiated in, interactions (as in an intermediary conception).

Reflexivity
In relativist theory, reflexivity is considered as a problem. It requires not only the observer requests a status it denies to others, but also as silent as others to which any privileged status is denied. There is no privileges or limits on knowledge. If actors, or actants are able to account for others, then they do so. If they cannot, they would still try.

Hybridity
The belief that neither a human nor a nonhuman is pure, in the sense that neither is human or nonhuman in an absolute sense, but rather beings created via interactions between the two. Humans are thus regarded as quasi-subjects, while nonhumans are regarded as quasi-objects.

Actor–network theory and specific disciplines
Recently, there has been a movement to introduce actor network theory as an analytical tool to a range of applied disciplines outside of sociology, including nursing, public health, urban studies (Farias and Bender, 2010), and community, urban, and regional planning (Beauregard, 2012; Beauregard and Lieto, 2015; Rydin, 2012; Rydin and Tate, 2016, Tate, 2013).

International relations
Actor–network theory has become increasingly prominent within the discipline of international relations and political science.

Theoretically, scholars within IR have employed ANT in order to disrupt traditional world political binaries (civilised/barbarian, democratic/autocratic, etc.), consider the implications of a posthuman understanding of IR, explore the infrastructures of world politics, and consider the effects of technological agency.

Empirically, IR scholars have drawn on insights from ANT in order to study phenomena including political violences like the use of torture and drones, piracy and maritime governance, and garbage.

Design
The actor–network theory can also be applied to design, using a perspective that is not simply limited to an analysis of an object's structure. From the ANT viewpoint, design is seen as a series of features that account for a social, psychological, and economical world. ANT argues that objects are designed to shape human action and mold or influence decisions. In this way, the objects' design serves to mediate human relationships and can even impact our morality, ethics, and politics.

Literary criticism
The literary critic Rita Felski has argued that ANT offers the fields of literary criticism and cultural studies vital new modes of interpreting and engaging with literary texts. She claims that Latour's model has the capacity to allow "us to wiggle out of the straitjacket of suspicion," and to offer meaningful solutions to the problems associated with critique. The theory has been crucial to her formulation of postcritique. Felski suggests that the purpose of applying ANT to literary studies "is no longer to diminish or subtract from the reality of the texts we study but to amplify their reality, as energetic coactors and vital partners."

Anthropology of religion
In the study of Christianity by anthropologists, the ANT has been employed in a variety of ways of understanding how humans interact with nonhuman actors. Some have been critical of the field of Anthropology of Religion in its tendency to presume that God is not a social actor. The ANT is used to problematize the role of God, as a nonhuman actor, and speak of how They affect religious practice. Others have used the ANT to speak of the structures and placements of religious buildings, especially in cross-cultural contexts, which can see architecture as agents making God's presence tangible.

ANT in practice
ANT has been considered more than just a theory, but also a methodology. In fact, ANT is a useful method that can be applied in different studies. Moreover, with the development of the digital communication, ANT now is popular in being applied in science field like IS research. In addition, it widen the horizon of researchers from arts field as well.

ANT in arts
ANT is a big influencer in the development of design. In the past, researchers or scholars from design field mainly view the world as a human interactive situation. No matter what design we [ who?] applied, it is for human's action. However, the idea of ANT now applies into design principle, where design starts to be viewed as a connector. As the view of design itself has changed, the design starts to be considered more important in daily lives. Scholars [ who?] analyze how design shapes, connects, reflects, interacts our daily activities.

ANT has also been widely applied in museums. ANT proposes that it is difficult to discern the 'hard' from the 'soft' components of the apparatus in curatorial practice; that the object 'in progress' of being curated is slick and difficult to separate from the setting of the experiment or the experimenter's identity.

ANT in science
In recent years, actor-network theory has gained a lot of traction, and a growing number of IS academics are using it explicitly in their research. Despite the fact that these applications vary greatly, all of the scholars cited below agree that the theory provides new notions and ideas for understanding the socio-technical character of information systems. Bloomfield present an intriguing case study of the development of a specific set of resource management information systems in the UK National Health Service, and they evaluate their findings using concepts from actor-network theory. The actor-network approach does not prioritize social or technological aspects, which mirrors the situation in the case study, where arguments about social structures and technology are intertwined within actors' discourse as they try to persuade others to align with their own goals. The research emphasizes the interpretative flexibility of information technology and systems, in the sense that seemingly similar systems produce drastically different outcomes in different locales as a result of the specific translation and network-building processes that occurred. They show how the boundary between the technological and the social, as well as the link between them, is the topic of constant battles and trials of strength in the creation of facts, rather than taking technology for granted.

Contributions of nonhuman actors
There are at least four contributions of nonhumans as actors in their ANT positions.

 * 1) Nonhuman actors can be considered as a condition in human social activities. Through the human's formation of nonhuman actors such as durable materials, they provide a stable foundation for interactions in society. Reciprocally, nonhumans' actions and capacities serve as a condition for the possibility of the formation of society.
 * 2) * In Latour's We Have Never Been Modern , his conceptual "parliament of things" consists of social, natural, and discourse together as hybrids. Although the interlocks between human actors and nonhumans effects the modernized society, this parliamentary setting based on nonhuman actors would eliminate such fake modernization, and changes the dichotomy between modern society and premodern society.
 * 3) Nonhuman actors can be considered as mediators. On the one hand, nonhumans could constantly modify relations between actors. On the other hand, nonhumans share the same features with other actors not solely as means for human actors. In this circumstance, nonhuman actors impact human interactions. It either creates an atmosphere for humans to agree with each other, or lead to conflict as the mediators.
 * 4) * It is noticeable that the status of mediation is more affiliated with intermediaries or means as a stable presence in the corpus of ANT, while mediators function more powers to influence actors and networks. Technical mediation exerts itself on four dimensions: interference, composition, the folding of time and space, and crossing the boundary between signs and things.
 * 5) Nonhuman actors can be considered as members of moral and political associations. For example, noise is a nonhuman actor if the topic is applied to actor-network theory. Noise is the criteria for humans to regulate themselves to morality, and subject to the limitations inherent in some legal rules for its political effects. After nonhumans are visible actors through their associations with morality and politics, these collectives become inherently regulative principles in social networks.
 * 6) Nonhuman actors can be considered as gatherings. Alike nonhumans' impacts on morality and politics, they could gather actors from other times and spaces. Interacted with variable ontologies, times, spaces, and durability, nonhumans exert subtle influences within a network.

Criticism
Some critics have argued that research based on ANT perspectives remains entirely descriptive and fails to provide explanations for social processes. ANT—like comparable social scientific methods—requires judgement calls from the researcher as to which actors are important within a network and which are not. Critics argue that the importance of particular actors cannot be determined in the absence of "out-of-network" criteria, such as is a logically proven fact about deceptively coherent systems given Gödel's incompleteness theorems. Similarly, others argue that actor-networks risk degenerating into endless chains of association (six degrees of separation—we are all networked to one another). Other research perspectives such as social constructionism, social shaping of technology, social network theory, normalization process theory, and diffusion of innovations theory are held to be important alternatives to ANT approaches.

From STS itself and organizational studies
Key early criticism came from other members of the STS community, in particular the "Epistemological Chicken" debate between Collins and Yearley with responses from Latour and Callon as well as Woolgar. In an article in Science as Practice and Culture, sociologist Harry Collins and his co-writer Steven Yearley argue that the ANT approach is a step backwards towards the positivist and realist positions held by early theory of science. Collins and Yearley accused ANTs approach of collapsing into an endless relativist regress.

Whittle and organization studies professor André Spicer note that "ANT has also sought to move beyond deterministic models that trace organizational phenomena back to powerful individuals, social structures, hegemonic discourses or technological effects. Rather, ANT prefers to seek out complex patterns of causality rooted in connections between actors." They argue that ANT's ontological realism makes it "less well equipped for pursuing a critical account of organizations—that is, one which recognises the unfolding nature of reality, considers the limits of knowledge and seeks to challenge structures of domination." This implies that ANT does not account for pre-existing structures, such as power, but rather sees these structures as emerging from the actions of actors within the network and their ability to align in pursuit of their interests. Accordingly, ANT can be seen as an attempt to re-introduce Whig history into science and technology studies; like the myth of the heroic inventor, ANT can be seen as an attempt to explain successful innovators by saying only that they were successful. Likewise, for organization studies, Whittle and Spicer assert that ANT is, "ill suited to the task of developing political alternatives to the imaginaries of market managerialism."

Human agency
Actor–network theory insists on the capacity of nonhumans to be actors or participants in networks and systems. Critics including figures such as Langdon Winner maintain that such properties as intentionality fundamentally distinguish humans from animals or from "things" (see Activity Theory). ANT scholars  [ who?] respond with the following arguments:

 * They do not attribute intentionality and similar properties to nonhumans.
 * Their conception of agency does not presuppose intentionality.
 * They locate agency neither in human "subjects" nor in nonhuman "objects", but in heterogeneous associations of humans and nonhumans.

ANT has been criticized as amoral. Wiebe Bijker has responded to this criticism by stating that the amorality of ANT is not a necessity. Moral and political positions are possible, but one must first describe the network before taking up such positions. This position has been further explored by Stuart Shapiro who contrasts ANT with the history of ecology, and argues that research decisions are moral rather than methodological, but this moral dimension has been sidelined.

Misnaming
In a workshop called "On Recalling ANT", Latour himself stated that there are four things wrong with actor-network theory: "actor", "network", "theory" and the hyphen. In a later book, however, Latour reversed himself, accepting the wide use of the term, "including the hyphen." He further remarked how he had been helpfully reminded that the ANT acronym "was perfectly fit for a blind, myopic, workaholic, trail-sniffing, and collective traveler"—qualitative hallmarks of actor-network epistemology.

title: Actor–network theory


text:
Talk:Ganymede (moon)

WP:URFA/2020
Looking at this article for WP:URFA/2020 and also for a [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia_talk:Today%27s_featured_article/requests&oldid=993081710#Once_in_800_years_! potential TFA on 2020-12-21]:

Sandy Georgia (Talk)  20:20, 8 December 2020 (UTC)
 * The article had three different date styles (mdy, dmy and ISO): I picked what I thought the most common and ran the script. But since Jupiter and Saturn use dmy, I wonder if the dates here should be the same.
 * There are considerable duplicate links. See WP:OVERLINK, but some may be deemed necessary and retained (editor discretion).  Installing this script will add an item to your toolbox that shows duplicate links in red: User:Evad37/duplinks-alt ✅
 * There are MOS:SANDWICH and image layout problems everywhere. If knowledgeable editors will delete those that are least useful (decorative), I am willing to go through and improve the layout.  There are considerable images here that are not aiding our understanding of the topic; by reducing those, we can get a better layout on the ones that stay. ✅
 * External links probably could benefit from a trim, per WP:ELNO. FAs are supposed to be comprehensive, meaning there should be little in EL that can't be covered in the article.  Do these add something to the article that we can't cover in a comprehensive article?
 * The article appears to be well cited, but should be reviewed for uncited or outdated text.
 * If I may be so bold, I'll check off ones I've tried to take care of as I find the time, here and on the other talk pages mentioned at the linked discussions - Astrophobe  (talk) 23:18, 8 December 2020 (UTC)
 * Formatting probably still needs work and the page feels a bit cramped to me, but there are no more MOS:SANDWICH issues. - Astrophobe  (talk) 23:38, 8 December 2020 (UTC)

 * Cite error: A list-defined reference named "cwgjupgany" is not used in the content (see the help page). Sandy Georgia (Talk)  14:13, 9 December 2020 (UTC)

Lede is far too long.
The lede for this article should be edited down, and many of the details therein should be moved to the main body of the article, or removed completely. The lede should be a para or two, at most. Why even have sections if we're going to put all the details at the very top? 73.6.96.168 (talk) 13:43, 4 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Per WP:LEDE it can be up to 4 paragraphs long. Ruslik_ Zero 20:26, 4 June 2021 (UTC)

Need better image
The current infobox image of Ganymede has been bothering me for a pretty long time now. Ganymede appears visibly squashed in the image as a result of reprojecting JunoCam's large field of view to a smaller one. Nowhere in the article is this effect mentioned, which means that this image can be misleading to readers. I propose that it should be replaced with a better-quality image like File:Ganymede JunoGill 2217.jpg, although I'm not sure how to deal with that image's watermark. File:Juno Sails by Ganymede.jpg could also be another option, though I prefer the previous image since I believe the less-saturated version is closer to Ganymede's "true color". Notifying active editors, , , and. N rco0e   (talk · contribs)   06:22, 13 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Any of those would be fine with me. I'm used to the more saturated appearance, but if Ganymede is greyer than that, agreed it would be better to show that in the lead img. My issue with most of these photos is the way they're clipped. IMO, best to center the moon in the image, rather than just the sunlit portion. so that one has a better idea of how much of the surface is shown. — kwami (talk) 06:32, 13 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Yes, something like Triton. Agree with kwami re colour. Double sharp (talk) 03:58, 15 April 2022 (UTC)

moon
moon is a work of art😍 154.97.20.12 (talk) 18:24, 5 July 2022 (UTC)

Atmosphere
Lede says Ganymede has no atmosphere, then says it has a thin oxygen atmosphere. Can these statements be reconciled? Stevebritgimp (talk) 14:05, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

 * Yes, I noticed that too, just today when I first read this page.
 * What is the procedure to try and make a change? Stormbird (talk) 07:13, 10 October 2023 (UTC)

 * Ganymede has a surface pressure of only 1.2 μPa (10−11 atm) so it has an Exosphere. "Atmosphere" also is also formally correct but, as with Earth's moon, with so low pressure nobody intend it as such (see Exosphere article) Pippo skaio (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 15:51, 19 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ganymede (moon)


text:
Royal Society of Chemistry

The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) is a learned society and professional association in the United Kingdom with the goal of "advancing the chemical sciences". It was formed in 1980 from the amalgamation of the Chemical Society, the Royal Institute of Chemistry, the Faraday Society, and the Society for Analytical Chemistry with a new Royal Charter and the dual role of learned society and professional body. At its inception, the Society had a combined membership of 34,000 in the UK and a further 8,000 abroad.

The headquarters of the Society are at Burlington House, Piccadilly, London. It also has offices in Thomas Graham House in Cambridge (named after Thomas Graham, the first president of the Chemical Society) where RSC Publishing is based. The Society has offices in the United States, on the campuses of The University of Pennsylvania and Drexel University, at the University City Science Center in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, in both Beijing and Shanghai, China and in Bangalore, India.

The organisation carries out research, publishes journals, books and databases, as well as hosting conferences, seminars and workshops. It is the professional body for chemistry in the UK, with the ability to award the status of Chartered Chemist (CChem) and, through the Science Council the awards of Chartered Scientist (CSci), Registered Scientist (RSci) and Registered Science Technician (RScTech) to suitably qualified candidates.

The designation FRSC is given to a group of elected Fellows of the society who have made major contributions to chemistry and other interface disciplines such as biological chemistry. Prior to 2006, the names of Fellows were published each year in The Times (London). Honorary Fellowship of the Society ("HonFRSC") is awarded for distinguished service in the field of chemistry.

President
The president is elected biennially and wears a badge in the form of a spoked wheel, with the standing figure of Joseph Priestley depicted in enamel, mainly in red and blue, on a hexagonal medallion in the centre. The rim of the wheel is gold, and the twelve spokes are of non-tarnishable metals. The current president is Gillian Reid (2022–2024). Past presidents of the society have been: •

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•  (1953–)

•  (1952–)

•  (1946–)

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Membership categories and post-nominals
The following are membership categories with post-nominals (designatory letters):
 * Affiliate Member: (no post-nominal) The category for students and those involved in chemical science who do not meet the requirements for the following grades.
 * AMRSC: Associate Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry The entry level for RSC membership, AMRSC is awarded to graduates (or equivalent) in the chemical sciences.
 * MRSC: Member of the Royal Society of Chemistry Awarded to graduates (or equivalent) with at least 3 years' experience, who have acquired key skills through professional activity
 * FRSC: Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry is awarded to those who have made an outstanding contribution to the chemical sciences (see Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Chemistry).
 * HonFRSC: Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry is awarded to any person distinguished in the science or profession of chemistry.
 * Note: in 1904 eighteen women chemists petitioned to be made Fellow
 * CChem: Chartered Chemist The award of CChem is considered separately from admission to a category of RSC membership. Candidates need to be MRSC or FRSC and demonstrate development of specific professional attributes and be in a job which requires their chemical knowledge and skills.
 * CSci: Chartered Scientist The RSC is a licensed by the Science Council for the registration of Chartered Scientists.
 * EurChem: European Chemist The RSC is a member of the European Communities Chemistry Council (ECCC), and can award this designation to Chartered Chemists.
 * MChemA: Mastership in Chemical Analysis The RSC awards this postgraduate qualification which is the UK statutory qualification for practice as a Public Analyst. It requires candidates to submit a portfolio of suitable experience and to take theory papers and a one-day laboratory practical examination.

GRSC
The qualification GRSC (Graduate of the Royal Society of Chemistry) was awarded from 1981 to 1995 for completion of college courses equivalent to an honours chemistry degree and validated by the RSC. It replaced the GRIC offered by the Royal Institute of Chemistry.

Divisions
The society is organised around 9 divisions, based on subject areas, and local sections, both in the United Kingdom and overseas. Divisions cover broad areas of chemistry but also contain many special interest groups for more specific areas. There are 12 subject groups not attached to a division.

 * Analytical Division for analytical chemistry and promoting the original aims of the Society for Analytical Chemistry; 12 Subject Groups.
 * Dalton Division, named after John Dalton, for inorganic chemistry; 6 Subject Groups.
 * Education Division for chemical education; 4 Subject Groups.
 * Faraday Division, named after Michael Faraday, for physical chemistry and promoting the original aims of the Faraday Society; 14 Subject Groups.
 * Organic Division for organic chemistry; 6 Subject Groups.
 * Chemical Biology Interface Division; 2 Subject Groups.
 * Environment, Sustainability and Energy Division; 3 Subject Groups.
 * Materials Chemistry Division; 4 Subject Groups.
 * Industry and Technology Division; 13 Subject Groups.

Local sections
There are 35 local sections covering the United Kingdom and Ireland. In countries of the Commonwealth of Nations and many other countries there are Local Representatives of the society and often some activities.

Publications

The society is a not-for-profit publisher: surplus made by its publishing business is invested to support its aim of advancing the chemical sciences. Subscriptions to the journals are available individually, or "all-in", under a provision called "RSC Gold". In addition to scientific journals, including its flagship journals Chemical Communications, Chemical Science and Chemical Society Reviews, the society publishes:

 * Education in Chemistry for teachers.
 * A free online journal for chemistry educators, Chemistry Education Research and Practice.
 * A general chemistry magazine Chemistry World, sent monthly to all members of the Society throughout the world. It was first published in January 2004, replacing Chemistry in Britain, which was first published in 1965. Its contents include news, articles of a general chemical nature, such as the history of chemistry and technological developments, book reviews and letters from readers. Its ISSN is 1473-7604.
 * Professional reference books across the chemical sciences.
 * Books for students, including the Tutorial Chemistry Texts series of 23 books, edited by E. W. Abel, and the 8 books in the Molecular World series, whose coordinating editor is L. E. Smart.
 * Books on the history of chemistry, such as a history of the Faraday Society.

Burlington House
The London offices of the Society are in Burlington House, Piccadilly. Events are hosted here for the public, RSC member groups and external organisations including regular lectures on the chemical sciences. The free lectures take an interesting look at the chemical aspects of a wide range of topics from curry to the enjoyment of music. The events have attracted notable science writers such as Philip Ball, Antony John Williams, and John Emsley to give public lectures.

History
The Royal Society of Chemistry has been resident at Burlington House since 1857 (at which time it was known as the Chemical Society) – at the heart of which is the RSC's Library and Information Centre which itself dates back to 1842. Over the years, the library for the RSC has received many gifts from notable fellows including Michael Faraday. The library became a centre for information on the chemical sciences during the 1st and 2nd world wars when extensive use was made on the chemical reference material available.

Library and information centre
The society has a large library covering mainly chemistry-based subjects, including online access for members, housed at the Chemistry Centre at Burlington House. It is part of the Chemistry Centre and is a resource for RSC members, although the public are also welcome.

Benevolent fund
The Chemists' Community Fund, the working name of the Royal Society of Chemistry's Benevolent Fund, supports the members and their families during difficult times, through advice and guidance, financial and volunteer support. It dates back to 1920 when the Institute of Chemistry (later the Royal Institute of Chemistry) established it as a memorial to its members who died in the First World War. It had an aim "to help necessitous persons who are, or have been, Fellows or Associates of the Institute, their wives or children, and the widows and dependent relatives of deceased Fellows and Associates" through voluntary contributions from members. The Fund's ethos of "members helping members" stems from the Institute of Chemistry's Council raising money for members in need from other members prior to the fund being formed.

In 1960, the benevolent fund introduced a volunteer visitor system, where members were asked to visit applicants, beneficiaries, elderly and housebound members in their area. Each local section was also appointed a fund representative. A major review of the fund to modernize it took place in 2003–2004, forming a new strategy document that is updated every three years. It underwent another review in 2014 with the aim to widen its reach to include the prevention of poverty and provide a more holistic support wider than financial assistance to Royal Society of Chemistry members and their families. The Benevolent Fund Grants Committee, formed of volunteer members of the Royal Society of Chemistry, oversees the fund and meets every three months.

Prizes and awards
The RSC awards a variety of prizes and awards each year that include awards for excellence in any area of chemistry, in specialist areas or for achievement at particular stages of a chemist's career. Medals are awarded centrally by the RSC and by the divisions of the organisation. There are also awards that are administered by RSC interest groups. The centrally awarded medals include the Harrison-Meldola Memorial Prizes which are awarded to a British chemist who is under 32 years of age for promising original investigations in chemistry and the Corday-Morgan medals which consist of three separate awards made for the most meritorious contributions to experimental chemistry (including computer simulation). The Tilden Prize, previously known as the Tilden Lecture, consists of three awards annually to scientists in mid-career for advances in chemistry.

Previous winners of the Harrison-Meldola Prize (known as the Meldola Medal and Prize prior to its merger in 2008 with the Edward Harrison prize) include Christopher Kelk Ingold (1921, 1922), Cyril Norman Hinshelwood (1923), R.H. Stokes (1946), D.H. Williams (1966), and J. Evans (1978). Corday-Morgan medal recipients include Derek Barton (1949), Ronald Sydney Nyholm (1950), Frederick Sanger (1951), John Cornforth (1953), Rex Richards (1954), and George Porter (1955). The Faraday Division annually awards the Marlow Award for contributions to physical chemistry or chemical physics by members of the Faraday Division under the age of 32. Recent recipients include Andrew Orr-Ewing, (1999), Jonathan A. Jones, (2000), Helen Fielding (2001), Jonathan Essex (2002), Daren Caruana (2003), Jonathan Reid (2004), Julie Macpherson (2005), Fred Manby (2006), and Alessandro Troisi (2007).

#RSCPoster Twitter Conference
The RSC operates an annual Twitter conference. The event is held entirely online over 24 hours. The aim of its unique format is to remove the environmental and financial costs of attending a traditional scientific conference, and help researchers share their work and network across disciplines, wherever they are in the world.

Coat of arms
The RSC has its own coat of arms. Two forms exist: the full coat of arms has lion and unicorn bearers, and the Latin motto "Pro scientia et humanitate" (For the sake of knowledge and for the benefit of mankind). The smaller version uses just the central shield, which is similar to that in the Royal Institute of Chemistry's arms.

Other resources
The Interactive Lab Primer is a site developed to provide tips to a variety of chemical experimentation skills. The site covers basic lab safety tips, demonstrates primary lab techniques, introduces a couple common lab apparatus in lab, and provides other references. The society's ChemSpider is a database of chemicals and chemical properties. The society operates a blue plaque scheme, "Landmarks of Chemistry", erecting plaques at places associated with notable chemical events or people. Recent plaques are hexagonal.

title: Royal Society of Chemistry


text:
2nd South African Infantry Division

The South African 2nd Infantry Division was an infantry division of the army of the Union of South Africa during World War II. The division was formed on 23 October 1940 and served in the Western Desert Campaign and was captured (save for one brigade) by German and Italian forces at Tobruk on 21 June 1942. The remaining brigade was re-allocated to the South African 1st Infantry Division.

History
The division was formed on 23 October 1940 with its divisional HQ at Voortrekkerhoogte, South Africa. On 21 June 1942 two complete infantry brigades of the division as well as most of the supporting units were captured at the fall of Tobruk.

Bardia and the Western Desert
The division capture of Bardia was part of the Libyan campaign against Rommel's Afrika Korps from November 1941 to January 1942. They defeated a numerically superior Axis force in a strongly fortified position with a combined infantry and tank force.

Order of battle
21 September 1941
 * 3 S. A. Inf Bde. -
 * Comd. Brig. C. E. BORAIN
 * Tps.
 * 1 I.L.H.
 * 1 R.L.I
 * 1 KAFF R. (under comd from 1000 hrs 25 Dec. 41)
 * B & C Coys D. M. R.
 * 2 S. A. Fd Coy less one sec.
 * One Sec 10 S. A. Fd Coy.
 * One Pl 4 Bde Sig Coy. Under comd from 1000 hrs 26 Dec.
 * 5 Bde Sig Coy less one pl.
 * 3 S. A. Bde 'Q' Services Coy.
 * Three dets 14 S. A. Fd Amb. (Under comd from D.-1)
 * with in support:
 * One Regt 1 Army Tank Bde.
 * Arty as arranged by C. R. A.
 * Task.
 * To attack BARDIA through perimeter defences as described in Para 6 (a) and in Operation Instruction No. 21 (Appx 'A').
 * NORTHFORCE
 * Comd. Lt. Col. J. BUTLER-PORTER 1 R.D.L.I.
 * Tps.
 * 1 R.D.L.I.
 * Sec 2 S. A. Fd Coy.
 * Pl 5 Bde Sig. Coy.
 * Det 16 Fd Amb. Under comd from 1000 hrs 26 Dec.
 * with in support:
 * N. Z. Div Cav Regt, less one sqn.
 * Tasks.
 * To contain and demonstrate against enemy forces within the perimeter along the gen line of enemy defences from incl 51143960—incl 51554030, in accordance with Operation Instruction No. 22 (Appx 'C'). [5]
 * KINGFORCE
 * Comd. Lt. Col. W. KINGWELL D. M. R.
 * Tps.
 * D.M.R. less B. C. & D. Coys and one pl A. Coy.
 * Two Pls 7 S. A. Armd Recce Bn.
 * Det 4 S. A. Fd Coy (Under comd from 1000 hrs 26 Dec.).
 * with in support:
 * One Sqn N. Z. Div Car Regt.
 * Task.
 * To contain and demonstrate against enemy forces along the gen line of the perimeter defences from incl 51973860—excl 51143960, in accordance with Operation Instruction No. 23 (Appx 'D'). [5]
 * SOUTHFORCE
 * Comd. Maj. P. J. JACOBS, 7 S. A. Armd Recce Bn.
 * Tps.
 * 7 S. A. Armd Recce Bn, less one Coy and two pls.
 * Det 4 S. A. Fd Coy
 * Det 14 S. A. Fd Amb. (Under comd from 1000 hrs 26 Dec.)
 * Task.
 * To contain and demonstrate against enemy forces along the gen line of perimeter defences from incl MARSA ER RAMLA 52423868—excl 51973860, in accordance with Operation Instruction No. 24 (Appx. 'E'). [5]
 * RESERVES
 * Comd. Lt. Col. R. J. PALMER, 1 S. A. P.
 * Tps.
 * One Regt 1 Army Tank Bde.
 * 1 S.A.P.
 * Sec 4 S. A. Fd Coy.
 * Det 14 S. A. Fd. Amb.

Surrender
After the capture of the rest of the division, 3rd South African Infantry Brigade and the 1st Field Regiment of the Cape Field Artillery became part of the South African 1st Infantry Division.

Initial operational deployment: 2 December 1941
On 18 September 1941 the division was re-allocated from X Corps command to falling under General HQ command and were responsible for protecting the railway and water supply lines between Alexandria and Mersa Matruh. On 11 October, the Kaffrarian Rifles were detached from the division and deployed to protect the landing fields in the Daba-Fuka-Bagush area. On taking over responsibility for the Frontier area on 2 December 1941 the divisional order of battle, as part of the 8th Army was:

 * HQ 2nd Infantry Division (Maj-Gen I.P. de Villiers)
 * One Squadron 6th South African Armoured Car Regiment
 * Braforce (Brig. Medley)
 * 2nd South African Infantry Brigade (Brig. W.H.E. Poole)
 * 4th South African Infantry Brigade (less one battalion) (Brig. A.A. Hayton)
 * 4th Field Regiment, S A Artillery
 * One Battery, 5th Field Regiment, S A Artillery
 * One Troop, 67th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery
 * One Troop, 68th Medium Regiment, Royal Artillery
 * C and D Companies, Die Middellandse Regiment
 * 3rd South African Infantry Brigade (Brig C.E. Borain, MC, VD):
 * Imperial Light Horse
 * 1st Royal Durban Light Infantry
 * Rand Light Infantry
 * 5th Field Regiment, S A Artillery (less one battery)
 * 6th South African Infantry Brigade (Brig. F.W. Cooper):
 * 2nd Transvaal Scottish
 * 1st South African Police Battalion
 * 2nd South African Police Battalion
 * 1st Field Regiment, Cape Field Artillery
 * Railhead Force (Lt. Col. G.E.L. L'Estrange VD):
 * Umvoti Mounted Rifles
 * Die Middellandse Regiment
 * Detachment TDS (approx 30 "I" Tanks)
 * 10th Field Company, South African Engineering Corps
 * 5th New Zealand Infantry Brigade Group

Order of battle: The Fall of Tobruk
Order of Battle as at 20 June 1942

 * Division troops
 * Die Middelandse Regiment (Machine-gun battalion)
 * 7th South African Reconnaissance Battalion
 * 2nd Field Regiment, Natal Field Artillery, South African Artillery
 * 3rd Field Regiment, Transvaal Horse Artillery, South African Artillery
 * 6th Anti-Tank Battery, South African Artillery
 * 2nd Light Anti-aircraft Regiment, South African Artillery
 * 2nd Battery, Cape Field Artillery Composed of men from Umtata, Transkei
 * 4th & 10th South African Field Companies, S A Engineers
 * 4th South African Infantry Brigade
 * 2nd Royal Durban Light Infantry
 * Umvoti Mounted Rifles
 * The Kaffrarian Rifles
 * Blake Group (a composite battalion ex 1 SA Div)
 * 6th South African Infantry Brigade
 * 1st S.A. Police Battalion
 * 2nd S.A. Police Battalion
 * 2nd Transvaal Scottish Regiment

Theatres of operation
The theatres that the division served in were as follows:

 * South Africa: 23 October 1940 to 20 April 1941
 * At Sea: 20 April 1941 to 6 June 1941
 * Egypt: 6 June 1941 to 22 March 1942
 * Libya: 22 March 1942 to 21 June 1942

Battles, actions and engagements
The division took part in the following battles, actions and engagements:
 * Bardia: 31 December 1941 to 2 January 1942. Some 8,000 Allied prisoners of war were freed and some 6,000 Axis prisoners were taken.
 * Clayden's Trench (Sollum): 11 January 1942 to 12 January 1942
 * Gazala: 26 May 1942 to 21 June 1942
 * Tobruk: 20 June 1942 to 21 June 1942. The number of South African prisoners taken at Tobruk has been recorded as 10,772

title: 2nd South African Infantry Division


text:
Baron Napier of Magdala

Baron Napier of Magdala, in Abyssinia and of Caryngton in the County Palatine of Chester, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1868 for the military commander Sir Robert Napier, in recognition of his part in the 1868 Expedition to Abyssinia when the town of Magdala was captured. Napier was later Commander-in-Chief in India and Governor of Gibraltar and was made a Field Marshal in 1882. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the second Baron. He served as Aide-de-Camp to his father. On his death, the title passed to his younger brother, the third Baron. He was a Colonel in the British Army. He was succeeded by his half-brother, the fourth Baron. He worked for the Indian State Railways. His son, the fifth Baron, was a Brigadier in the Royal Engineers. , the title is held by the latter's son, the sixth Baron, who succeeded in 1987.

Barons Napier of Magdala (1868)

 * Robert George Cornelis Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala (1810–1890)
 * Robert William Napier, 2nd Baron Napier of Magdala (1845–1921)
 * James Pearse Napier, 3rd Baron Napier of Magdala (1849–1935)
 * Edward Herbert Scott Napier, 4th Baron Napier of Magdala (1861–1948)
 * (Robert) John Napier, 5th Baron Napier of Magdala (1904–1987)
 * Robert Alan Napier, 6th Baron Napier of Magdala (b. 1940)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son the Hon James Robert Napier (b. 1966).

title: Baron Napier of Magdala


text:
McBride, British Columbia

McBride is a village in the Robson Valley region of British Columbia, Canada. The village is located 210 km southeast of Prince George, British Columbia, and 166 km west of Jasper, Alberta. Incorporated in 1932, McBride is located in the Robson Valley surrounded by the Rocky Mountains and Cariboo Ranges.

History
McBride was founded in 1913 as Mile 90 of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway. The village was named after the serving premier, Sir Richard McBride.

McBride's early industries were rail, shipping, forest harvesting and the agricultural development of the valley. In 1970 access to McBride changed with the opening of Highway 16 (Yellowhead), which enabled vehicles to travel through the valley. McBride is rich in farmland in the valley bottom, with a mix of forest and alpine surrounding the valley. This unique mixture allows McBride to be a prime location for many industries. Current industries for McBride are railroad, forestry, tourism, small businesses and agriculture. Barley, oats, forage crops and pasture are the main agricultural activities supported by dark gray Doré clay loam to clay and gray Rausch clay.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, McBride had a population of 588 living in 266 of its 325 total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of 616. With a land area of 4.62 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Economy
McBride Community Forest Corporation (MCFC) is a corporation that is owned by the Village of McBride. MCFC was set up in 2002 to manage community forest tenure for the village and the surrounding area. The Community Forest license grants the village exclusive rights to harvest Crown timber from approximately 60,000 hectares of land. MCFC is able to serve the social, economic and environment needs for McBride's forest industry. MCFC manages "the forest for all of its product potential rather than just timber."

Healthcare
McBride Hospital and Health Centre provides a variety of services to the community and surrounding area. The hospital is equipped with an emergency room, three acute care beds and eight long-term beds. The hospital is also provides x-ray and lab services. Acupuncture and massage therapy is accessible to residents in this region. A BC ambulance station is located in McBride beside the hospital, with 911 services being available to McBride and the surrounding areas.

Attractions
The village offers diverse outdoor attractions for all seasons. During the winter months, McBride has a variety of cross-country skiing trails and its world-famous snowmobiling trails and designated snowmobiling areas, as well as offering numerous locations for the ever-popular ice fishing. The warmer months in McBride allow for hiking, camping, fishing and bird watching. Recreation sites in the area include Beaver Falls Recreation Trail, Beaver River Recreation Site, LaSalle Lake Recreation Site and McBride Peak Halfway Hut. Another popular site is Horseshoe Lake, a naturally formed ox-bow lake that allows birdwatchers to observe waterfowl and other birds from an observation platform. The village has a ball field and Community Recreation Centre that is equipped with gym, a regulation sized ice hockey arena, two curling sheets and a convertible court.

The McBride and District Public Library and the Valley Museum and Archives are housed in a building on Main Street. A popular attraction among tourists, the Valley Museum and Archives presents a variety of touring exhibitions each year show casing the unique history and culture of the Robson Valley. The library offers a variety of services to the community and tourists, including workshops for all ages, internet access and computer stations, and a wide selection of media.

The Robson Valley Community Centre in McBride has a stage, dance floor and commercial kitchen. The Robson Valley Community Centre is available to rent for theatre performances, conferences, wedding receptions, tradeshows or a family reunion.

Transportation
McBride is served by passenger railway, the Jasper-Prince Rupert train operated by Via Rail and serves McBride station. Via Rail connects McBride with Prince George and Prince Rupert as well as Jasper eastwards three times a week.

Community
The population of McBride was 616 at the 2016 Census. The population including the surrounding area is 1,586. Main Street has a variety of unique stores for visitors and locals to come and explore. The focal point of Main Street is the McBride station. The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway built the train station in 1913. A fire burnt the building down in 1918. The station was quickly rebuilt and reopened in 1919 on the original site. The last train dispatched from this station in 1989, but trains still ride through the station and pick up passengers on a daily basis. In 1996, the Village of McBride bought the station. The station houses the Whistle Stop, a gallery of quality work done by local artists and crafters, as well as McBride's Visitor Information Centre and a locally owned coffee shop The Beanery.

Climate
McBride is relatively wet, especially in the summer. Precipitation occurs 21 days on average during the month of July. Only nearby Crescent Spur gets more rain days in July in all of Canada.

Notable people

 * Rod Monroe, member of the Oregon Senate

title: McBride, British Columbia


text:
Lorie Kane

Lorie Kane, (born December 19, 1964, in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada) is a professional golfer on the LPGA Tour. She began her career on the LPGA Tour in 1996 and has four career victories and 99 top-10 finishes on the tour. She won the Bobbie Rosenfeld Award in 2000 and became a member of the Order of Canada at a ceremony in December 2006. Kane was the second Canadian to have multiple wins on the LPGA circuit in one season, in 2000, after Sandra Post performed the feat twice, in 1978 and 1979. The next person to do so was Brooke Henderson, in 2016. In 2015, she was inducted into the Canadian Golf Hall of Fame. In May 2020 it was announced that she would be awarded the Order of Sport, marking her induction into Canada's Sports Hall of Fame as part of the class of 2020-2021.

Kane is a graduate of Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia.

Amateur wins

 * 1991 Mexico International Amateur Championship

LPGA Tour wins (4)
LPGA Tour playoff record (2–7)

Other wins (2)

 * 2001 Hyundai Team Matches (with Janice Moodie)
 * 2002 Hyundai Team Matches (with Janice Moodie)

Results in LPGA majors
^ The Women's British Open replaced the du Maurier Classic as an LPGA major in 2001. ^^ The Evian Championship was added as a major in 2013. {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} CUT = missed the half-way cut "T" = tied

Summary

 * Most consecutive cuts made – 9 (2000 U.S. Women's Open – 2002 U.S. Women's Open)
 * Longest streak of top-10s – 2 (1999 U.S. Women's Open – 1999 du Maurier)

Team appearances
Amateur
 * Espirito Santo Trophy (representing Canada): 1992

Professional
 * World Cup (representing Canada): 2005, 2006, 2008
 * Handa Cup (representing World team): 2010, 2011, 2012 (tie), 2013 (winners), 2015

title: Lorie Kane


text:
Thomas Robinson (composer)

Thomas Robinson (c. 1560) was an English Renaissance composer and music teacher, who flourished around 1600. He taught and wrote music for lute, cittern, orpharion, bandora, viol, and voice.

Biography
Very little is known about Robinson's life, but it is possible to draw conclusions from the dedicatory pages of his works. He and his father were in service of the Cecil family: Robinson's father worked for the 1st Earl of Salisbury, Robert Cecil, and Robinson was in the service of the 1st Earl of Exeter, Thomas Cecil, who was Robert Cecil's brother. The Cecil family fostered several artists in these days, amongst others William Byrd and Orlando Gibbons.

It was before 1589 that Robinson became Princess Anne's (1574–1619) and Queen Sophie's (1557–1631) private music teacher at Elsinore, Denmark. Princess Anne was the daughter of the King of Denmark, Frederick II (1559–1588). It is presumed that Robinson must have been in his twenties then, so that his birth can be dated back to around 1560.

The Court of Denmark, like other courts, employed many well-recognized musicians from Denmark and other countries, like England, France, Germany and the Netherlands. It is known that John Dowland – the most famous Renaissance lutenist nowadays – worked as a court lutenist in Denmark from 1598 to 1606. Besides Robinson's own mention of his employment there, no official record of it exists.

In 1603, Robinson published his first book, Medulla Musicke, of which no copy survived. It was even suggested (Ward JM, see "Literature"), that it was never published at all, although Robinson seems to be referring to it in the first pages of his second book: "Right courteous Gentlemen, and gentle Readers, your fauourable acceptance of my first fruits from idlenesse, hath eccited mee further to congratulate your Musicall endeauours." From: "The Schoole of Musicke", 1603

Also in 1603, Robinson brought out his second book, The Schoole of Musicke, a tutor for lute and other instruments. It displaced John Alford's book A Briefe and Easye Instruction from 1574 (an English translation of Adrian Le Roy's Briefve et facile instruction pour apprendre la tabulature) as the most important lute tutor in England from then on.

In 1609 Robinson's third book, New Citharen Lessons, was published. It was a cittern tutor for beginners and advanced learners.

Robinson's works for the most part consist of his own compositions. But there are also arrangements of other pieces of music, some of which are still rather popular: for instance "My Lord Willoughby's Welcome Home" (in: The Schoole of Musicke) or "Can she excuse my wrongs?" (in New Citharen Lessons) – both originally composed by John Dowland.

There is no further information available about Robinson's life after 1609.

Medulla Musicke
Medulla Musicke (The Stationer's Company, London, 1603) was a music tutor now presumably lost. It is supposed to have included 40 canons on the then popular plainsong Miserere after arrangements by William Byrd and Alfonso Ferrabosco.

The Schoole of Musicke
The Schoole of Musicke, (Tho. Este, London, 1603), was a tutor for lute, bandora, orpharion, viol, and singing.

Contents

 * 1) The Queenes good Night (for two lutes)
 * 2) Twenty waies upon the bels (for two lutes)
 * 3) Row well you Marriners
 * 4) A Galliard
 * 5) A Galliard
 * 6) A Plaine Song for 2 lutes (for two lutes)
 * 7) Grisse his delight
 * 8) Passamezzo Galliard (for two lutes)
 * 9) A Fantasie for 2 lutes (for two lutes)
 * 10) A Toy for 2 lutes (for two lutes)
 * 11) A Galliard
 * 12) Merry Melancholie
 * 13) Robinson's Riddle
 * 14) Goe from my Window
 * 15) A Toy
 * 16) A Gigue
 * 17) An Almaigne
 * 18) An Almaigne
 * 19) A Toy
 * 20) A Toy
 * 21) Robin is to the greenwood gone
 * 22) A Toy
 * 23) The Queenes Gigue
 * 24) Ut re mi fa so la: 9 sundry ways
 * 25) My Lord Willobies Welcome Home
 * 26) Bell Vedere
 * 27) The Spanish Pavin
 * 28) A Gigue
 * 29) A Gigue
 * 30) Walking in a country town
 * 31) Bony sweet boy
 * 32) A Gigue
 * 33) Lantero
 * 34) Three parts in one upon a [n old] ground
 * 35) Sweet Jesu who shall lend me wings
 * 36) A Psalme
 * 37) O Lord of whom I do depend
 * 38) O Lord thou art my righteousness

Furthermore, The Schoole of Musicke contains eight short pieces, seven of them called "A Psalme" in the chapter "Rules to instruct you to sing".

New Citharen Lessons
New Citharen Lessons, (London, 1609), was a cittern tutor for beginners and advanced learners. It included 53 compositions, the first 47 for four-course cittern (tuned e' d' g b), pieces 48 to 53 for fourteen-course cittern (tuned e' d' g bb f d G F E D C BBb AA GG).

Contents

 * 1) My Lord Treasurer his Paven
 * 2) The Galliard to the Pavin before
 * 3) A Fantasie
 * 4) Wades Welfare
 * 5) Powles Carranta
 * 6) O Cupid looke about thee
 * 7) For two Citherens in the unison (A Jigge for two Citherens)
 * 8) A Ground
 * 9) Pipers Galiard
 * 10) A Psalme
 * 11) Philips Pavin
 * 12) A Galiard
 * 13) A Galiard: Can she excuse my wrongs
 * 14) A Galiard
 * 15) A Psalme
 * 16) Passamezzo Paven
 * 17) Oft I have forsworne her company
 * 18) Galliard to the Quadron Pavin
 * 19) An Almaine
 * 20) A French Toy
 * 21) Excuse me
 * 22) Robinson Idelsbie
 * 23) Shepard shoot home
 * 24) Ioan come kisse me now
 * 25) A Psalme
 * 26) Passamezzo Galiard
 * 27) The new Hunts up
 * 28) Souches March
 * 29) Whetelies wheat-sheafe
 * 30) O Hone
 * 31) An Almaine
 * 32) An Almaine
 * 33) Robinsons modicum
 * 34) An Almaine
 * 35) Farewell deare love
 * 36) Alexander Chezum his Curranta
 * 37) Robarts Request
 * 38) The Quadro Pavin
 * 39) For two Citharens
 * 40) What if a day
 * Ah, alas, thou God of Gods
 * 1) Now Cupid looke about thee
 * 2) Pauuana Passamezzo
 * 3) Mr. North his Novell
 * 4) Fantasia
 * 5) Fantasia 2
 * 6) Fantasia 3
 * 7) Fantasia 4

Others
There are some further pieces and arrangements from Thomas Robinson in other manuscripts:
 * Spanish Pavan (in Add. MS 3056 (Cozens Lute Book), ca. 1595, Cambridge University Library) – a version in major
 * Hay (in Dd. 9.33, 1600, Cambridge University Library)
 * Pipers Galliard Jo Dowland. Tho. Robinson (in Ms. Dd. 4.23, Cambridge University Library)
 * Galliard T. R. (in Ms. Dd. 4.23, Cambridge University Library)
 * [The Hunt's Up] T: R. (in Ms. Dd. 4.23, Cambridge University Library)

title: Thomas Robinson (composer)