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Intramolecular reaction

In chemistry, intramolecular describes a process or characteristic limited within the structure of a single molecule, a property or phenomenon limited to the extent of a single molecule.

Relative rates
In intramolecular organic reactions, two reaction sites are contained within a single molecule. This configuration elevates the effective concentration of the reacting partners resulting in high reaction rates. Many intramolecular reactions are observed where the intermolecular version does not take place.

Intramolecular reactions, especially ones leading to the formation of 5- and 6-membered rings, are rapid compared to an analogous intermolecular process. This is largely a consequence of the reduced entropic cost for reaching the transition state of ring formation and the absence of significant strain associated with formation of rings of these sizes. For the formation of different ring sizes via cyclization of substrates of varying tether length, the order of reaction rates (rate constants kn for the formation of an n-membered ring) is usually k5 > k6 > k3 > k7 > k4 as shown below for a series of ω-bromoalkylamines. This somewhat complicated rate trend reflects the interplay of these entropic and strain factors: For the  'small rings'  (3- and 4- membered), the slow rates is a consequence of angle strain experienced at the transition state. Although three-membered rings are more strained, formation of aziridine is faster than formation of azetidine due to the proximity of the leaving group and nucleophile in the former, which increases the probability that they would meet in a reactive conformation. The same reasoning holds for the  'unstrained rings'  (5-, 6-, and 7-membered). The formation of  'medium-sized rings'  (8- to 13-membered) is particularly disfavorable due to a combination of an increasingly unfavorable entropic cost and the additional presence of transannular strain arising from steric interactions across the ring. Finally, for  'large rings' (14-membered or higher), the rate constants level off, as the distance between the leaving group and nucleophile is now so large the reaction is now effectively intermolecular.

Although the details may change somewhat, the general trends hold for a variety of intramolecular reactions, including radical-mediated and (in some cases) transition metal-catalyzed processes.

Examples
Many reactions in organic chemistry can occur in either an intramolecular or intermolecular senses. Some reactions are by definition intramolecular or are only practiced intramolecularly, e.g.,
 * Dieckmann condensation of diesters is the intramolecular version of aldol condensation.
 * Madelung synthesis of indoles
 * Smiles rearrangement
 * Hydroacylation is almost invariably practiced intramolecularly to produce ketones.
 * RCHO +  CH2=CHR'   →   RC(O)CH2CH2R'

 * Nazarov cyclization reaction for the synthesis of cyclopentenones
 * Nazarov cyclization.png

 * The Wurtz reaction, involving reductive coupling of alkyl halides, essentially is only useful when conducted intramolecularly. Its utility is illustrated with the synthesis of strained rings:
 * Wurtz-reaction Bicyclobutane synthesis.svg

Some transformations that are enabled or enhanced intramolecularly. For example, the acyloin condensation of diesters almost uniquely produces 10-membered carbocycles, which are difficult to construct otherwise. Another example is the 2+2 cycloaddition of norbornadiene to give quadricyclane.
 * Synthesis of quadricyclane from norbornadiene.png

Tools and concepts
Many tools and concepts have been developed to exploit the advantages of intramolecular cyclizations. For example, installing large substituents exploits the Thorpe-Ingold effect. High dilution reactions suppress intermolecular processes. One set of tools involves tethering as discussed below.

Tethered intramolecular [2+2] reactions
Tethered intramolecular [2+2] reactions entail the formation of cyclobutane and cyclobutanone via intramolecular 2+2 photocycloadditions. Tethering ensures formation of a multi-cyclic system.

The length of the tether affects the stereochemical outcome of the [2+2] reaction. Longer tethers tend to generate the "straight" product where the terminal carbon of the alkene is linked to the $$\alpha$$-carbon of the enone. When the tether consists only two carbons, the “bent” product is generated where the $$\beta$$-carbon of the enone is connected to the terminal carbon of the alkene.

Tethered [2+2] reactions have been used to synthesize organic compounds with interesting ring systems and topologies. For example, [2+2] photocyclization was used to construct the tricyclic core structure in ginkgolide B.

Molecular tethers
Otherwise-intermolecular reactions can be made temporarily intramolecular by linking both reactants by a tether with all the advantages associated to it. Popular choices of tether contain a carbonate ester, boronic ester, silyl ether, or a silyl acetal link (silicon tethers)  which are fairly inert in many organic reactions yet can be cleaved by specific reagents. The main hurdle for this strategy to work is selecting the proper length for the tether and making sure reactive groups have an optimal orientation with respect to each other. An examples is a Pauson–Khand reaction of an alkene and an alkyne tethered together via a silyl ether.

In this particular reaction, the tether angle bringing the reactive groups together is effectively reduced by placing isopropyl groups on the silicon atom via the Thorpe–Ingold effect. No reaction takes place when these bulky groups are replaced by smaller methyl groups. Another example is a photochemical [2+2]cycloaddition with two alkene groups tethered through a silicon acetal group (racemic, the other enantiomer not depicted), which is subsequently cleaved by TBAF yielding the endo-diol.

 * [[Image:CycloadditionSiliconTether.png|400px|Cycloaddition silicon tether]]

Without the tether, the exo isomer forms.

title: Intramolecular reaction


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Pitzer

Pitzer is a surname, and may refer to:

 * Alexander White Pitzer (1834–1927), American Presbyterian clergyman
 * Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer (1914–1997), American theoretical chemist
 * Russell Kelly Pitzer (1878–1978), American businessman and philanthropist
 * Russell Mosher Pitzer (1938-), American theoretical chemist
 * William Bruce Pitzer (1917–1966), American Naval officer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Pitzer


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User:Devdaskusum

Were REKHA & RAKESH ROSHAN mere puppets in the hands of DESTINY? — Devdas “Kusum” -- 25th March, 1981 a real life incident at the shooting of “MADHURI” the FILM -- A Reaction of a Journalist friend..... Compelling a renowned & famous Journalist and Press Photographer Devdas “Kusum” known for his friendly heartwarming behaviour towards one and all to literally kill his professional self by Rekha - the Actress of Film “MADHURI” supported by the then upcoming Actor, Rakesh Roshan. http://www.KUSUM.com -- But, my inner self still insists that it was " DESTINY " and that REKHA & RAKESH ROSHAN  were mere puppets in its hands. -- It was my peak time then..... Nationally, Internationally my written Articles & Photographs were being published regularly in every known publication in every language. PRO of Film “MADHURI” invited me to shoot the film stars Rekha and Rakesh Roshan at Madh Island, Mumbai, INDIA and He came along with me in my car to the location. Earlier on various different locations and at different dates, days and times I had shot Photographs of Rekha. Quite a few of them had already appeared with credit to me in reputed publications of that time. I was visualizing inside as to how best I would bring her out in Photographs at that location. Continuously for many hours I had clicked lot of Photographs of Rekha and Rakesh Roshan. We also had lunch together during break time, when all of a sudden.... Rekha mysteriously changed her mood called me in front of all those present angrily and said “DEVDAS!, GIVE ME THE COLOUR ROLL FROM YOUR CAMERA NOW...” Shocked the people present around ;a few of them regular and permanent staff of the Film Industry, tried to pacify Rekha to continue the shooting but she became adamant and stopped all activities. Watching this Raakesh Roshan came to me, put his hand on my shoulder taking me aside in a corner pleaded, “Devdas, my future is at stake. I have two more films coming up with Rekha which could make my career. I do not have any other assignments with any other top heroine. If she is displeased my future ends here.” Hearing Rakesh Roshan I simply opened my Camera handed over the Colour Roll to him without uttering any word. He gave it to Rekha who seemed to derive immense sadiastic pleasure in throwing my hard work into the Madh River waters. Seeing all this all people around said lot of nasty things about Rekha.. But my mind reminded me that it was all “DESTINED” AND that REKHA & RAKESH ROSHAN were pre-assigned by its hands. Although I accepted all this as part and parcel of life, yet this did not bring any comfort to my mind. I felt horribly depressed. In that depressed state of my mind while driving back home, I threw my expensive Camera and Accessories to the Madh River (Sea) as well and walked out completely robbed of everything. That depressed state of mind created a blank mental state of mind in me making me completely aloof from all kinds of work, creativity and activity. Besides forcing me to keep away from even known friends and relations. The then famous publications including “MAYAPURI”, “SHAMA”, “SUSHMA”, “FILM FARE”, “FREE PRESS JOURNAL”, “CHITRALOK”, “CHITRAPAT” AND various other renowened magazines, journals had carried the news of this incident at the shooting of film “MADHURI” and had expressed “REGRET” at the unprofessional conduct of Rekha. “MADHURI” a Times of India publication’s, Editor-in-chief, Shri Vinod Tiwari had written me an unforgettable as well as a unique letter on 30th March, 1981 about this incident at the film “MADHURI’s shooting... anyway........ I have many more mails from the bigwigs of the Film Industry & Journalism than besides cuttings of various known publications that had mentioned this “MADHURI” incident on prominent pages. I am 66 years old (Born on 3rd February,1938) and my only “Treasure” today is “My work”. The results of continuous releases of my Photographs, Articles in all National and International publications in English and all regional languages that I cherish and hold as my “Lifetime Memories” ! Incidentally my first article appeared when I was just “12 years” old. After which I did not look back to become a renowned Journalist & Press Photographer marching forward in full gear, happiness, success and support but the incident of 25th March, 1981 put full brakes to it and ended it all unceremoniuously. After this “Unforgettable Harrowing Incident” I have lived a Lonely Depressed Listless, Eventless, Aimless, life for years lost and forgotton. My creativity, activity, dreams, aspiritions, inspirations spread as ashes on the path I tread today. Great Shree Amitabh Bachhan Ji had cared and looked after Respectable Shree Harivansh Rai Bachhan Ji, for years helping him tide over his day to day living. Similarly my children have con-tinuously cared and looked after me helping me tide over my day to day problems. Helping me retain my sanity, my entity. Keeping Devdas “Kusum” alive for the world. Waiting for the day when their father will once again be in the limelight of the World of Journalism and Press Photography. (http://www.KUSUM.com) While accepting “FILMFARE” Awards for the first time in his career Rakesh Roshan had said with a heavy heart that, “Bhagwan ke Ghar Der hai, Par Andher Nahin”. Will God look at me.......? Please enlighten me, guide me, show me the way, I should travel; to reach the same glory, name, fame, prosperity and popularity that I lost. I am strong. I have immense will power and energy to do my work in my own creative way but being unguided, unsuportted, lonely and alone I seek your kind co-operation. Will you please come forward and Guide me? With Humble Greetings -- Devdas “Kusum” -- JYOTHI VENKATESH (Famous Journalist & My Dearest Old Friend) Found out about my isolated living and tried to personally meet me at my Chembur residence at three different dates and times (and knowingly on my cell phone I used to say that I am out or not at home to receive him) as I still do not know how to accept past relationships. However gaining some confidence, I emailed him in Hindi language my present state of mind on 10th February, 2004 to which he immediately responded warmly in same Hindi language as follows:- Hi Devdas Rakesh Roshan ki jiwan ko roshni dete dete apne jeevan andhere mein dalne wali kahani padkar mujhe dukh huwa. Belated happy birthday to you. Kya isiliye mujhe pehle bataya nahin kyonki main party maangoonga? Ab teen baar hum milneka plan karneke bawajood meri taraf se nahi balke aap ki taraf se cancel kar diye gaye the -- Jyothi Venkatesh -- DEVDAS “KUSUM” Editor & Publisher :    http://www.KUSUM.com P.O. Box 8828, Mumbai - 400074 Email : Devdas@INDIA.com    Cc : PressMatter@HotMail.com Tel : 2553 7171 / 2553 28 61    Mobile : 91 98211 30305

title: User:Devdaskusum


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1600s in Canada

Events from the 1600s in Canada.

Events

 * c. 1600 - Approximately 250,000 First Nations and Inuit (Eskimo) inhabit what is now Canada.
 * May 26, 1603 - After being dispatched by the King of France, Samuel de Champlain drops anchor in Tadoussac in what would become the province of Quebec.
 * June 22, 1603 - Champlain travelled up the St. Lawrence River to Ile d'Orleans near Stadcona, which would later become Quebec City.
 * May 8, 1604 - Sieur de Mons and Champlain, along with 120 settlers, sail from France and anchor in an Acadian (later Nova Scotia) cove. After exploring the coast down to what is now Maine, they decide to settle at Saint Croix Island for the winter. By the spring of 1605, thirty-five of the settlers had died. Of the eighty or so remaining settlers, only eleven were considered to be in good physical condition.
 * 1605 - Champlain and his group move from Saint Croix Island to Port Royal, Nova Scotia on the Bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia (later to be named Annapolis Royal by the British), and establish Canada's first permanent settlement.
 * 1606: Mattieu da Costa travels with the Champlain expedition to Port Royal. He serves as an interpreter between the French and the Micmac Indians of the area.
 * July 1606 - Fifty additional settlers (all male) were brought to Port Royal by Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt.
 * 1605-07: The Europeans are welcomed by Mi'kmaq Grand Chief Membertou, who converts to Catholicism, makes a wampum-belt treaty with the Vatican.
 * August 1607 - Despite demonstrating that a settlement in Canada could be successful, the colonists were ordered by the King to abandon Port Royal and head back to France.
 * June / July 1608 - Champlain returns to Tadoussac before finally heading to Quebec City and reestablishing a permanent settlement in Canada. Étienne Brûlé and Nicolas Marsolet were a part of this voyage.
 * Summer / Fall 1608 - In order to protect the colony from the coming winter, Champlain built a large storehouse and accommodation building called l'habitation. The pace that Champlain demanded for construction caused a mutiny that resulted in the ringleader being hanged and beheaded.
 * 1609 - Champlain allies himself with the Algonquians and with the Hurons, who are amenable to missionary activities and acts as the principal suppliers of furs. This alliance, however, antagonizes the Iroquoian Confederacy, traditional rivals of the Huron and suppliers of furs to the Dutch in New Amsterdam.
 * July 30, 1609 - Accompanied by sixty Algonquin warriors, Champlain heads up what is now the Richelieu River and encounters a Mohawk war party. Having the advantage of long guns on their side, Champlain and his side quickly gained victory
 * 1609: Champlain supports the Algonquins against the Iroquois at Lake Champlain. He fires on the Iroquois, setting a pattern of Indian relationships.

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Talk:11th century in Canada

Untitled
I don't think 1367 items belong here. RickK 05:28, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Gudrid
Am I the only one who finds it strange 57 year old Gudrid is giving birth? WilyD 14:16, 3 April 2006 (UTC)

problem
Uhmm Canada didn't exist in the 11th century!!--Sonjaaa 16:55, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:11th century in Canada


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1610s in Canada

Events from the 1610s in Canada.

Events

 * 1610-11: The English explorer Henry Hudson, in Dutch service, continues the fruitless search for a passage to Asia.
 * 1610: Henry Hudson, in service of the Netherlands, explores the river named for him. Hudson explores Hudson Bay in spite of a mutinous crew. Manhattan Indians attack his ship. Mahican people make peaceful contact, and a lucrative fur trade begins.
 * 1610: Étienne Brûlé lives among Huron and is first European to see Lakes Ontario, Huron, and Superior.
 * 1611: Champlain builds fur post at Montreal.
 * 1612: Champlain is named Governor of New France.
 * 1613: Port Royal sacked by Samuel Argall and his pirates from Virginia.
 * 1613: St. John's, Newfoundland is founded.
 * 1614: Franciscan Recollet friars arrive to convert the Indians.
 * 1615: French Roman Catholic missionaries arrive in Canada.
 * 1615: Champlain attacks Onondaga villages with the help of a Huron war party, this turning the Iroquois League against the French.
 * 1616-20: Smallpox epidemic strikes New England tribes between Narragansett Bay and the Penobscot River.
 * 1617: Louis Hebert, an apothecary who had stayed at Port Royal twice, brings his wife and children to Quebec, thus becoming the first true habitant (permanent settler supporting his family from the soil).

Births

 * Marie Guenet de Saint-Ignace (1610-1646), French-Canadian abbess and hospital manager

title: 1610s in Canada


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Asparagus (genus)

Asparagus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Asparagaceae, subfamily Asparagoideae. It comprises up to 300 species. Most are evergreen long-lived perennial plants growing from the understory as lianas, bushes or climbing plants. The best-known species is the edible Asparagus officinalis, commonly referred to as just asparagus. Some other members of the genus, such as Asparagus densiflorus, are grown as ornamental plants.

Ecology
The genus includes a variety of living forms, occurring from rainforest to semi-desert habitats; many are climbing plants. Most are dispersed by birds.

Ornamental species such as Asparagus plumosus, Asparagus aethiopicus, Asparagus setaceus, and Asparagus virgatus are finely branched and are misleadingly known as "asparagus fern".

In the Macaronesian Islands, several species (such as Asparagus umbellatus and Asparagus scoparius) grow in moist laurel forest habitat, and preserve the original form of a leafy vine. In the drier Mediterranean climate the asparagus genus evolved in the Tertiary into thorny, drought-adapted species. Root tubers are storage organs developed by Asparagus species and are a valuable source of moisture and nutrition for species growing under drought conditions.

Many species, particularly from Africa, were once included in separate genera such as Protasparagus and Myrsiphyllum. However, partly in response to the implications of the discovery of new species, those genera have been reunited under Asparagus. Species in this genus vary in their appearance, from unarmed herbs to wiry, woody climbers with formidable hooked spines that earn them vernacular names such as "cat thorn" and "wag 'n bietjie" (literally "wait a bit"). Most species have photosynthetic flattened stems, called phylloclades, instead of true leaves. Asparagus officinalis, Asparagus schoberioides, and Asparagus cochinchinensis are dioecious species, with male and female flowers on separate plants.

Selected species
, the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 212 species of Asparagus, including:

 * Asparagus acutifolius – wild asparagus
 * Asparagus aethiopicus (= Asparagus sprengeri, Protasparagus aethiopicus) – ground asparagus, asparagus fern, (S. Afr.) emerald fern, basket asparagus
 * Asparagus aethiopicus 'Sprengeri' – Sprenger's asparagus
 * Asparagus africanus (= Protasparagus africanus) – African asparagus
 * Asparagus asparagoides ( = Myrsiphyllum asparagoides) – smilax, African asparagus fern, (Austr.) bridal creeper
 * Asparagus burchellii – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus cochinchinensis – Tian men dong (天門冬) in Chinese. The roots and stems are used in traditional Chinese and Korean medicine.
 * Asparagus declinatus – foxtail asparagus fern, (Austr.) bridal veil
 * Asparagus capensis
 * Asparagus curillus – Himalayas
 * Asparagus densiflorus (= Protasparagus densiflorus)
 * Asparagus exuvialis – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus falcatus – large forest sicklethorn of southern Africa
 * Asparagus fallax – esparraguera de monteverde. Macaronesian native flora.
 * Asparagus flagellaris
 * Asparagus horridus – Mediterranean, Arabian Peninsula, Macaronesia.
 * Asparagus krebsianus – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus laricinus – katbos
 * Asparagus lignosus
 * Asparagus macowanii (= Protasparagus macowanii)
 * Asparagus mariae – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus maritimus
 * Asparagus mucronatus – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus multiflorus – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus nesiotes – esparraguera majorera. Macaronesian native flora.
 * Asparagus officinalis – asparagus
 * Asparagus officinalis subsp. officinalis – garden asparagus
 * Asparagus officinalis subsp. prostratus
 * Asparagus ovatus – southern Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus pastorianus – esparraguera espinablanca. Macaronesian native flora.
 * Asparagus persicus
 * Asparagus racemosus – Shatavari in Hindi. The roots are used in Ayurvedic Medicine.
 * Asparagus retrofractus
 * Asparagus rubicundus
 * Asparagus scandens – krulkransie of the Western Cape, South Africa
 * Asparagus schoberioides
 * Asparagus scoparius – esparragón raboburro. Macaronesian native flora.
 * Asparagus setaceus (= Protasparagus setaceus, A. plumosus) – lace fern, asparagus fern, florist's fern, (Austr.) climbing asparagus
 * Asparagus striatus – bergappel of the Western Cape to Free State, South Africa
 * Asparagus suaveolens
 * Asparagus tenuifolius
 * Asparagus umbellatus – esparraguera común. Macaronesian native flora.
 * Asparagus vaginellatus Bojer ex Baker
 * Asparagus virgatus

Pests and diseases

 * Asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi)
 * Spotted asparagus beetle (Crioceris duodecimpunctata)
 * Asparagus miner (Ophiomyia simplex), a leaf-mining fly
 * Asparagus fern caterpillar, also known as beet armyworm (Spodoptera exigua).
 * Asparagus fly (Platyparaea poeciloptera), a fruit fly
 * Fusarium root and crown rot, caused by two species of fungi, Fusarium monoliforme and Fusarium oxysporium asparagi
 * Asparagus rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia asparagi
 * Botrytis blight, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea
 * The larvae of some Lepidoptera species have been recorded feeding on Asparagus. These include Coleophora lineapulvella, ghost moth, the nutmeg, small fan-footed wave, and turnip moth

Invasive species
A. asparagoides, known as bridal creeper, is a problematic weed in southern Australia.

Asparagus asparagoides, A. scandens and A. setaceus are considered potentially destructive in California, growing as the result of escaped seeds; all can still be purchased at major and local garden centers. All three have the ability to completely overtake other, unrelated plants in their immediate surroundings, often climbing up the larger ones and strangling them, eventually cutting off the plant's flow of energy and nutrients. Birds are attracted to the red berries after blooming, thus transporting their seeds.

Asparagus asparagoides, A. aethiopicus (under the name A. densiflorus) and A. scandens are listed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord since they are invasive plants.

A. setaceus is officially recognized as an invasive species in Rio Grande do Sul State, Brazil.

title: Asparagus (genus)


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1620s in Canada

Events from the 1620s in Canada.

Events

 * 1621: Dutch West India Company chartered, expands up the Hudson and Delaware rivers.
 * 1621: James I of England (VI of Scotland) grants Acadia to Sir William Alexander who renames it New Scotland (Nova Scotia).
 * 1625: the Baronet of Nova Scotia is founded.
 * 1625: French settlements in the West Indies begin, exporting sugar and tobacco, and emigration to Canada is encouraged among traders and fishermen.
 * 1625: The Franciscan friars are replaced by the heroic priests of the richer, better-organized Society of Jesus. Jesuits begin missionary work among the Indians in the Quebec area. Jean de Brébeuf founds missions in Huronia, near Georgian Bay.
 * 1626: Peter Minuit, governor of New Netherland, buys Manhattan Island for 60 guilders(equivalent to $24 USD now) worth of trade goods from the Canarsie Indians (Dutch later have to pay Manhattan Indians, actual occupants of the island). Dutch policy is land payments to Indians, neutrality in Indian conflicts relating to French-English struggle.
 * 1627: Cardinal Richelieu, chief adviser to Louis XIII, organizes a joint-stock company, the Company of One Hundred Associates (also known as the Company of New France), to establish a French Empire in North America. It is given a fur monopoly and title to all lands claimed by New France (April 29). In exchange, they are to establish a French colony of 4000 by 1643, which they fail to do.
 * 1628: Olivier Le Jeune, an 8-year-old boy from Madagascar, arrives in Quebec. He is the first recorded slave purchase in New France. Le Jeune is probably the first person of African origin to live most of his life in Canada.
 * 19 July 1629: Quebec City is captured by an English fleet led by the adventurer David Kirke.

title: 1620s in Canada


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1630s in Canada

Events from the 1630s in Canada.

Events

 * 1631: Charles de la Tour builds Fort La Tour (also known as Fort Saint Marie) at the mouth of the Saint John River.
 * 1632: British lose control of Acadia through the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, which returns Quebec to France.
 * 1632: Isaac de Razilly sails from France with 300 people hoping to establish a permanent French settlement in Acadia.
 * 1632: Starting this year, Dutch colonists begin to demand more farmlands.
 * 1633–: English and French settlers enlist mainland Indians, mostly Micmac to massacre Beothuk people of Newfoundland, who are now extinct. "Red" Indian apparently derives from these people, who painted their bodies with red ochre. Shanawdithit, the last Beothuk, died in 1829. Little is known of their customs, language, religion. Beothuk was not likely their tribal self-name.
 * 1633–35: New smallpox outbreaks among Indians of New England, New France, and New Netherland.
 * 1633: David Kirke is knighted.
 * 1634–40: The Huron nation is reduced by half from European diseases (smallpox epidemic, 1639).
 * 1634: The trade settlement at Trois-Rivières is founded.
 * c. 1635: English fishing interests secure a virtual prohibition on efforts to colonize Newfoundland.
 * 1636–37: Pequot War in New England against the English (Niantics, Narragansetts later joined). Capt. John Mason burnt sleeping Pequot village at Mystic River, pinning the people inside the flames by gunfire, killing more than 600 people in a surprise attack. Mohawks behead fleeing Pequot leaders to prove they were not involved.
 * 1636: French crown grants Gulf of Maine and Bay of Fundy to d'Aulnay; La Tour gets Nova Scotia peninsula.
 * 1637: David Kirke is named first governor of Newfoundland.
 * 1639: Marie de l'Incarnation founds an Ursuline convent and a school for French and Indian girls in the settlement of Quebec.
 * 1639: Smallpox epidemic decimates Huron people; population reduced by 50%.
 * 1639: Dutch governor-general William Kieft adopts policy of exterminating the hostile Indians and taxing the rest. Dutch soldiers aid Mohawk allies to carry out Pavonia massacre, where Dutch soldiers played kickball with the heads of the women and children refugees they had killed.
 * 1639: The Jesuit mission of Sainte-Marie among the Hurons is established at Wendake.

title: 1630s in Canada


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Roy Geiger

Roy Stanley Geiger (January 25, 1885 – January 23, 1947) was a United States Marine Corps four-star general who served in World War I and World War II. In World War II, he became the first Marine Corps general to lead a field army.

Geiger commanded the III Amphibious Corps in the Battle of Okinawa in 1945 before assuming the command of the U.S. Tenth Army upon the combat death of its commander, Lt. General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. Geiger successfully led the Tenth Army until relieved by General Joseph Stilwell.

Early life
Geiger was born in Middleburg, Florida.

Education
Geiger attended Florida State Normal and Industrial College. In 1907, Geiger earned a Bachelor of Laws degree from Stetson University College of Law.

Geiger enlisted in the Marine Corps as a private on November 2, 1907, in St. Paul, Minnesota, and was sent to Naval Station Norfolk for his initial training. Geiger spent most of his enlisted time at the Marine Barracks, Washington, D.C., where he was also promoted to corporal on June 2, 1908. Following a series of professional examinations and the passing of a Naval Medical Board he accepted his commission as a second lieutenant on February 5, 1909.

U.S. Marine Corps career
Following attendance at the Marine Officers' School at Port Royal, South Carolina, he served as a member of the Marine detachments aboard USS Wisconsin (BB-9) and USS Delaware (BB-28). In August 1912, he was assigned to Nicaragua, where he participated in the bombardment, assault and capture of the hills called Coyotepe and Barranca. Further foreign shore duty followed in the Philippines and China with the First Brigade and with the Marine detachment, American Legation, Peking, China, from 1913 to 1916.

In March 1916, Geiger joined Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida, as a student naval aviator. He successfully completed the course and was designated a naval aviator in June 1917. He was designated Naval Aviator # 49 (Marine Corps Aviator # 5) on June 9, 1917.

World War I
Further training followed and in July 1918, he arrived in France. He served with 5 Group, Royal Air Force at Dunkirk. He commanded a squadron of the First Marine Aviation Force and was attached to the Day Wing, Northern Bombing Group. He was detached to the United States in January 1919. For distinguished service in leading bombing raids against the enemy, he was awarded the Navy Cross.

Development of Marine Corps aviation between the wars
From December 1919 to January 1921, he was a squadron commander with the Marine Aviation Force attached to the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade in Haiti. Upon return to the United States and after duty at the Marine Flying Field, Marine Barracks, MCB Quantico, Virginia, he attended Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He graduated in June 1925. Again he went to foreign shore duty, commanding Observation Squadron Two with the First Brigade in Haiti.

In August 1927, he returned to Quantico as a squadron officer and instructor at the Marine Corps Schools, and in May 1928, was assigned to duty in the Aviation Section, Division of Operations and Training, at Marine Corps Headquarters. After attending the U.S. Army War College and graduating in June 1929, he was ordered to Quantico, where he was assigned duty as commanding officer, Aircraft Squadrons, East Coast Expeditionary Force. He returned to Washington and served as the officer in charge, Marine Corps Aviation from 1931 to 1935, a billet currently held by a lieutenant general that is now known as the deputy commandant for aviation.

In June 1935, he returned to Quantico as commanding officer, Aircraft One, Fleet Marine Force. From June 1939 to March 1941, he was a student at the Senior and the Advanced Courses, Naval War College, Newport, Rhode Island. This was followed with a brief tour of duty in the Office of the Naval Attaché, London.

World War II
In April 1941, Geiger made his way from Lisbon to Gibraltar, where he changed from civilian clothes to his military uniform. He had lunch with the governor at Government House, in a visit which lifted British morale in Gibraltar. He was on his way to the Western Desert, as the first U.S. military observer attached to the British 8th Army. In August, he became commanding general, 1st Marine Aircraft Wing, Fleet Marine Force, in which capacity he was found upon the United States' entry into World War II.

On September 3, 1942, he was stationed at Guadalcanal to lead the Cactus Air Force during the early part of the Guadalcanal Campaign. Until November 4, he was commander of the combined Army, Navy and Marines Air Forces stationed here, of which the 1st Marine Aircraft Wing was part. He was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Navy Cross for his service on Guadalcanal.

His citation reads in part, "Despite almost continuous bombardment by enemy aircraft, hostile naval gunfire and shore based artillery, the combined total of Army, Navy and Marine Corps units stationed at Guadalcanal under Major General Geiger's efficiently coordinated command succeeded in shooting down 268 Japanese planes in aerial combat and inflicting damage on a number estimated to be as great ... Sank six enemy vessels, including one heavy cruiser, possibly sank three destroyers and one heavy cruiser, and damaged 18 other ships, including one heavy cruiser and five light cruisers."

Geiger was recalled to Headquarters Marine Corps in May 1943, to become the Director of Aviation. In November 1943, he returned to the field, this time as commanding general of the I Amphibious Corps and led the corps from November 9, to December 15, 1943, in the Battle of Bougainville, for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal.

Redesignated III Amphibious Corps in April 1944, he led this organization in the invasion and subsequent recapture of Guam during July and August 1944, and in the assault and capture of the southern Palau Islands in September and October of the same year. For those operations he was awarded two Gold Stars in lieu of a second and third Distinguished Service Medal.

Geiger led this corps into action for the fourth time as part of the Tenth Army in the invasion and capture of Okinawa. On June 18, 1945, Geiger assumed command of the Tenth Army following the death in combat of Lt. General Simon Bolivar Buckner Jr. for the final five days of the battle. He was relieved by General Joseph Stilwell. To this day, Geiger remains the only Marine Corps officer to have ever held command of a field army. Geiger was appointed commanding general of the Fleet Marine Force, Pacific in July 1945 and was promoted to lieutenant general. Geiger was the only Marine Corps representative at the surrender of Japan aboard the USS Missouri (BB-63) on September 2, 1945.

He returned to Washington, D.C., and Pensacola, Florida, in September and October 1945 before resuming his duties. Geiger was transferred to Headquarters, U.S. Marine Corps in November 1946.

Geiger was promoted to four-star general posthumously by the 80th Congress to be effective from January 23, 1947.

Military awards
Geiger's military decorations and awards include:

Army citation
For his part in the action on Okinawa he was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal. His citation reads in part:
 * Going ashore with the early landing elements on April 1, 1945, he began a bitter three-month campaign ... with outstanding professional skill, forceful leadership and unswerving determination, he directed his units ... repeatedly disregarding personal safety to secure a first hand estimate of the battle situation and inspiring his men to heights of bravery and accomplishment.

Other awards and recognitions

 * 2002 Gen. Roy Stanley Geiger Memorial Parkway. Dedicated the section of highway formerly known as Clay County Road 220 in Florida.
 * 2011 Stetson University College of Law Hall of Fame. Presented posthumously.
 * Marine Corps base Camp Geiger in North Carolina is named in his honor.

Personal life
While Geiger was in Pensacola, Florida, he met Eunice Renshaw Thompson, who became his wife, Eunice Renshaw Geiger. They had two children, Roy and Joyce.

Geiger's daughter Joyce Geiger Johnson (1918–2011) trained to become a member of the U.S. Olympic swim team, but pneumonia prevented her from making it to the 1936 Summer Olympics. She was a Red Cross Chairman in Quantico, Virginia. She also became a field director of the Girl Scouts.

Geiger's son was Roy Stanley Geiger Jr. (1920–2014), who was an Army colonel.

Following a short visit to his home in Pensacola, Florida, Geiger was admitted to Bethesda Naval Hospital. On January 23, 1947, Geiger died of complications from lung cancer in Bethesda, Maryland.

Geiger is buried at Arlington National Cemetery, in Arlington, Virginia.

title: Roy Geiger


text:
1640s in Canada

Events from the 1640s in Canada.

Events

 * c. 1640: Beavers and otters nearly exterminated in Iroquois country. To expand territory, Iroquois launch decades-long "Beaver Wars" against Huron and Algonquin.
 * 1640: Françoise Marie Jacqueline, youthful daughter of a physician from Nogent, France, sets sail for what would become Saint John, New Brunswick, to wed Charles de Saint-Étienne de La Tour, Governor of Acadia, and to assume many roles, including wife, confidant, soldier, and businesswoman. In spite of the ongoing and escalating conflict between LaTour and his well-connected rival Governor, Charles de Menou, Sieur d'Aulnay, she would elevate LaTour's status amongst the power brokers of the day in France and in the growing English colonies to the south. In 1645, she would successfully defend Fort LaTour against a vicious attack by d'Aulnay, only to be betrayed, ultimately losing her life. Buried in the vicinity of the fort, in what is now downtown Saint John, her bones have never been found. Remains of the fort still exist, protected as a national heritage site, hidden beneath layers of ancient soil.
 * 17 May 1642: The trade settlement at Montreal is founded by the Sieur de Maisonneuve.
 * 5 January 1643: The first Mount Royal Cross erected
 * 1644: Second Powhatan Confederacy uprising against Jamestown, Virginia; its leader, Opechancanough, dies in captivity.
 * 1644 Jeanne Mance (Baptized Langres, France 12 November 1606 Died 18 June 1673) opens Hotel-Dieu, the first hospital in North America.
 * 1645-63: Under the proprietorship of Richelieu's company's colonial agent, the Community of Habitants, the new French colony takes shape along the St. Lawrence.
 * 1648-49: After the Iroquois brutally ravage Huron country and disperse the Huron nation north of the St. Lawrence, they turn against New France itself.
 * 1649-64: the Beaver Wars: Encouraged by the English, and the need for more beaver for trade (their own area being hunted out), Haudenosee (Iroquois) make war on Hurons (1649), Tobaccos (1649), Neutrals (1650–51), Erie (1653–56), Ottawa (1660), Illinois and Miami (1680–84), and members of the Mahican confederation. English, pleased with this, agree to 2-Row Wampum Peace treaty, 1680.
 * 1649: Attacks by the Iroquois disperse the Huron; disrupts fur trade over the next fifteen years.
 * 16 March 1649: The Jesuit father Jean de Brébeuf is martyred during Iroquois raids on the Hurons at St-Ignace.
 * 16 June 1649: The Jesuit missionaries at Sainte-Marie among the Hurons abandon the mission, burning it to the ground and taking refuge at Christian Island.

title: 1640s in Canada


text:
1650s in Canada

Events from the 1650s in Canada.

Events

 * 1649-64: the Beaver Wars: Encouraged by the English, and the need for more beaver for trade (their own area being hunted out), Haudenosee (Iroquois) make war on Hurons (1649), Tobaccos (1649), Neutrals (1650–51), Erie (1653–56), Ottawa (1660), Illinois and Miami (1680–84), and members of the Mahican confederation. English, pleased with this, agree to Two-Row Wampum Peace treaty, 1680.
 * 1650-53: Huron survivors of the Beaver Wars settle at Lorette under French protection.
 * 1652: Massachusetts General Court licenses traders going from Massachusetts to Acadia.
 * 1653 Marguerite Bourgeoys (Born Troyes, France 17 April 1620 Died 12 January 1700) the first school teacher in Montreal, arrives from France.
 * 1654: Port Royal seized by Robert Sedgwick. He would hold on to Acadia until 1670.
 * 1653 Louis Chartier, a surgeon, arrives in Ville-Marie to provide medical aid to the settlement.
 * 1654-59: Pierre-Esprit Radisson, French Sieur de Groselliers, encounters many tribes throughout New France, New England, and what is now the U.S. Midwest. Adopted by a Mohawk family, who take him to Hudson Bay, there he changes sides and becomes English, participates in the formation of Hudson's Bay Company, and charter of Rupert's Land to it in 1670, deftly switching country allegiances several times France-England-France-England during the process. Ends up English. Today principally remembered by a hotel named after him in Minneapolis.
 * 1655 Étienne Bouchard, a surgeon, begins a successful private medical practice in Ville-Marie.
 * c. 1655: One of the coureurs de bois, adventurous, unlicensed fur traders who want to escape company restrictions, explores west of Lake Superior.
 * 1657: Sulpicians, who run missions, come to North America.
 * 1658 Marguerite Bourgeoys established the Congregation of Notre Dame, the first uncloistered order of nuns in North America.
 * 1659: A vicar apostolic, the Jesuit-trained Bishop Francois X. de Laval-Montmorency (1623–1708) arrives in Quebec in June as vicar general of the pope to take command of the missions and to found parishes.

title: 1650s in Canada


text:
1660s in Canada

Events from the 1660s in Canada.

Events

 * 1649-64: the Beaver Wars: Encouraged by the English, and the need for more beaver for trade (their own area being hunted out), Haudenosee (Iroquois) make war on Hurons (1649), Tobaccos (1649), Neutrals (1650–51), Erie (1653–56), Ottawa (1660), Illinois and Miami (1680–84), and members of the Mahican confederation. English, pleased with this, agree to 2-Row Wampum Peace treaty, 1680.
 * 1660s-1670s French compete with Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) and British fur traders out of New York.
 * 1660-64: In 1660, Dutch governor-general Peter Stuyvesant decides to hold Indian children hostage for the behavior of increasingly angry tribespeople. Hostages sold into Caribbean plantation slavery.
 * 1660: English Navigation Act prohibits foreigners from trading with English colonies.
 * May 1660: Adam Dollard des Ormeaux and about sixty others withstand an attack by over 500 Iroquois at Long Sault. It is traditionally said that the small party fights so well that the Iroquois decide not to attack Montreal.
 * 1663: The French Crown takes personal control of Canada from a private company, which becomes a royal province. Louis XIV's brilliant minister J. B. Colbert reorganizes New France directly under royal authority. Administration is divided between a military governor and a more powerful intendant, both ruling from Quebec City but under orders from Paris. The fur trade is granted to a new monopoly, the Company of the West Indies.
 * 1663: New France has a population of about 3,000.
 * 1663: Laval organizes the Seminaire du Québec, a college of theology which eventually becomes Université Laval (1852).
 * 1664: The British invade and conquer the Dutch at New Amsterdam, renaming it New York. England gains control of New Netherland from the Dutch and become allies and trade partners with the Iroquois.
 * 1664: Hans Bernhardt is the first recorded German immigrant.
 * 1665-72: Jean Talon (c.1625-94), the first intendant of New France, sets out to establish New France as a prosperous, expanding colony rivaling the thriving English colonies to the south. He invites many new settlers, including young women. He also tries to diversify the economy beyond furs and to build trade with Acadia and the West Indies. Talon is recalled before he can carry out his policies, however.
 * 1665: The Carignan-Salières Regiment is sent from France to Quebec to deal with the Iroquois. Many of its members stay on as settlers.
 * 1666: The Carignan-Salières Regiment destroys five Mohawk villages, eventually leading to peace between the Iroquois and the French.
 * 1667: First census of New France records 668 families, totalling 3,215 non-native inhabitants.
 * 1667: France, England and the Netherlands sign the Breda Treaty in July and with this England gives Acadia to France.
 * 1668-69: Pierre-Esprit Radisson and Medard Chouart, sieur de Groseilliers, explore west of the St. Lawrence River as far as Lake Superior, plus the Hudson Bay region, for England.
 * 1668: The Carignan-Salières regiment is recalled to France, but several hundred choose to remain behind, many in return for local seigneuries.
 * 1669: European colonies first discover Lake Erie
 * 1669: HBC Ft. Charles, at foot of James Bay, becomes Ft. Rupert.

title: 1660s in Canada


text:
1670s in Canada

Events from the 1670s in Canada.

Events

 * 2 May 1670: Charles II (England) charters Hudson's Bay Company in London. Underwritten by a group of English merchants, HBC is granted trade rights over Rupert's Land—i.e., all territory draining into Hudson Bay. No treaties or compensation to the First Nations there (mostly Ojibwe, Cree peoples) until the late 19th and early 20th centuries; no treaties ever made on large expanse east of Bay.
 * 1671-84: HBC Forts at mouths of Bay rivers: Moose 1671; Severn 1680; Albany 1683; York, finally on Hayes.
 * June 14, 1671 - At Sault Ste. Marie, four Jesuit priests led by Father Claude-Jean Allouez representing the Roman Catholic Church, and Simon Francois Daumont, Sieur de St. Lusson held aloft a sword and a symbolic tuft of sod, and declared to the indigenous First Nations peoples that all of the Great Lakes country was henceforth a possession of King Louis XIV of France.
 * 1672: Colonial postal officials employ Aboriginal couriers to carry mail between New York City and Albany; winter weather is too severe for white couriers.
 * 1672: Comte de Frontenac becomes governor general of New France, later quarrelling frequently with the intendant and the bishop.
 * 1673: The explorations of Louis Jolliet and Father Jacques Marquette lead to the discovery of the Mississippi River.
 * 1674: Laval becomes the first bishop of Quebec.
 * 1675-76: Bacon's Rebellion—Third major war between Virginia settlers and Virginia and Maryland Native Americans. Bacon's army kills and enslaves Susquehannock, Occaneechi, Appomatuck, Manakin, members of Powhattan Confederacy. Bacon leads brief rebellion against English Crown authority when his English military murderer commission is rescinded because of excessive brutalities.
 * 1675-76: Metacom's (King Philip's) War against the New England Confederation of colonies - Wampanoag, later joined by Abenaki, Nipmucs and Narragansetts. Mohawks stay neutral; Mohegans, Pequots, Niantics, and Massachusetts tribes back the English. Metacom loses. English government executes Metacom in 1676, nails body parts to town hall, sells wife, children, followers to plantation slavery.
 * 1675: The population of New France is almost 8,000.
 * 1676: West Country merchants attempt to enforce restrictions on settlement in Newfoundland.
 * 1678: Louis Hennepin is the first European to see Niagara Falls.
 * 1678-79: Daniel Greysolon Duluth of France explores Great Lakes and negotiates treaties between the warring Ojibwa and Sioux.

Births

 * J Raudot, Intendant of New France

title: 1670s in Canada


text:
Physiological psychology

Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments. This field of psychology takes an empirical and practical approach when studying the brain and human behavior. Most scientists in this field believe that the mind is a phenomenon that stems from the nervous system. By studying and gaining knowledge about the mechanisms of the nervous system, physiological psychologists can uncover many truths about human behavior. Unlike other subdivisions within biological psychology, the main focus of psychological research is the development of theories that describe brain-behavior relationships.

Physiological psychology studies many topics relating to the body's response to a behavior or activity in an organism. It concerns the brain cells, structures, components, and chemical interactions that are involved in order to produce actions. Psychologists in this field usually focus their attention to topics such as sleep, emotion, ingestion, senses, reproductive behavior, learning/memory, communication, psychopharmacology, and neurological disorders. The basis for these studies all surround themselves around the notion of how the nervous system intertwines with other systems in the body to create a specific behavior.

Nervous system
The nervous system can be described as a control system that interconnects the other body systems. It consists of the brain, spinal cord, and other nerve tissues throughout the body. The system's primary function is to react to internal and external stimuli in the human body. It uses electrical and chemical signals to send out responses to different parts of the body, and it is made up of nerve cells called neurons. Through the system, messages are transmitted to body tissues such as a muscle. There are two major subdivisions in the nervous system known as the central and peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is the control center of the body and contains millions of neural connections. This organ is responsible for sending and receiving messages from the body and its environment. Each part of the brain is specialized for different aspects of the human being. For example, the temporal lobe has a major role in vision and audition, whereas the frontal lobe is significant for motor function and problem solving. The spinal cord is attached to the brain and serves as the main connector of nerves and the brain. The nerve tissue that lies outside of the central nervous system is collectively known as the peripheral nervous system. This system can be further divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous system. The autonomic system can be referred to as the involuntary component that regulates bodily organs and mechanisms, such as digestion and respiration. The somatic system is responsible for relaying messages back and forth from the brain to various parts of the body, whether it is taking in sensory stimuli and sending it to the brain or sending messages from the brain in order for muscles to contract and relax. The nervous system is a complex and intricate network of cells and fibers that serves as the communication hub within the human body. Consisting of the central nervous system (CNS), which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which extends throughout the rest of the body, this system is responsible for transmitting signals between different parts of the body and facilitating the coordination of various physiological functions. Neurons, the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system, transmit electrical and chemical signals, enabling the rapid exchange of information. The CNS, as the command center, processes sensory input, initiates responses, and stores memories. In contrast, the PNS connects the CNS to organs, muscles, and glands, allowing for voluntary and involuntary actions. The intricate interplay of the nervous system is essential for maintaining homeostasis, responding to stimuli, and orchestrating complex behaviors and cognitive processes. Understanding the structure and function of the nervous system is fundamental to comprehending various neurological disorders and advancing medical interventions to support overall human health and well-being.

Emotion
Emotion constitutes a major influence for determining human behaviors. It is thought that emotions are predictable and are rooted in different areas in our brains, depending on what emotion it evokes. An emotional response can be divided into three major categories including behavioral, autonomic, and hormonal. Emotions in decision making can cause irrational outcomes. Two types of emotions occur in the decision making process which anticipating emotions and immediate emotions. Loss and gain in anticipated emotions people will experience the outcomes differently depending on the situation. Immediate emotions are considered true emotions which integrates cognition with somatic or bodily components of the autonomic nervous system to express the emotion externally.
 * The behavioral component is explained by the muscular movements that accompany the emotion. For example, if a person is experiencing fear, a possible behavioral mechanism would be to run away from the fear factor.
 * The autonomic aspect of an emotion provides the ability to react to the emotion. This would be the fight-or-flight response that the body automatically receives from the brain signals.
 * Lastly, hormones released facilitate the autonomic response. For example, the autonomic response, which has sent out the fight-or-flight response, would be aided by the release of such chemicals like epinephrine and norepinephrine, both secreted by the adrenal gland, in order to further increase blood flow to aid in muscular rejuvenation of oxygen and nutrients.

Emotion activates several areas of the brain inside the limbic system and varies per emotion: Several hormones are secreted in response to emotions and vary from general emotional tuning to specific hormones released from certain emotions alone:
 * Fear: the amygdala is the main component for acquisition, storage, and expression of fear.
 * Lesions on the central amygdaloid can lead to disruptions in the behavioral and autonomic emotional responses of fear.
 * Anger/aggression: the hypothalamus and amygdala work together to send inhibitory/excitatory impulses to the periaqueductal gray which then carries out usually defensive behaviors.
 * Happiness: the ventral tegmental area works closely with the prefrontal cortex to produce emotions of happiness as they lie upon the same dopamine pathways.
 * Emotions are seen as a positive feedback cycle in the brain. Oxytocin acts to over-sensitize the limbic system to emotional responses leading to even larger emotional responses. Under the response to emotions, even more oxytocin is secreted therefore increasing the response further. In addition to the general effects oxytocin has on the limbic system, it provides a more specific purpose as well in the body. It acts as an anxiety suppressant mainly found in stressful and social situations. It provides a calming effect to the body during these high stress situations. Oxytocin is also seen as a strong hormone in maternal attachment and aggression found in new mothers. This hormone also plays a slight part in the female desire to pair and mate.
 * Another hormone found in the direct response from emotion is adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secreted in response to fearful stimuli. ACTH is secreted by the posterior pituitary in response to fear and plays a role in the facilitation or inhibition of behaviors and actions to follow. In most cases, a high ACTH secretion will lead to the inhibition of actions that would produce the same fearful response that just occurred.
 * Happiness is primarily controlled by the levels of dopamine and serotonin in the body. Both are monoamine neurotransmitters that act on different sites in the body. Serotonin acts on receptors in the gastrointestinal tract while dopamine acts on receptors in the brain, while both performing similar functions. Dopamine is known to be the primary hormone acting on the brain's reward system, while this has recently begun to be a point of debate in the research community. Serotonin has less known on how it carries out its function in reducing depression, but only that it works. Specific-serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRI) are the type of drug given to patients with depression in which the serotonin is left in the synapse to continue to be absorbed in the body.

Sleep
Sleep is a behavior that is provoked by the body initiating the feeling of sleepiness in order for people to rest for usually several hours at a time. During sleep, there is a reduction of awareness, responsiveness, and movement. On average, an adult human sleeps between seven and eight hours per night. There is a minute percentage that sleeps less than five to six hours, which is also a symptom of sleep deprivation, and an even smaller percentage of people who sleep more than ten hours a day. Oversleeping has been shown to have a correlation with higher mortality. There are no benefits to oversleeping and it can result in sleep inertia, which is the feeling of drowsiness for a period of time after waking. There are two phases of sleep: rapid eye movement (REM) and Non-REM sleep (NREM).

REM sleep is the less restful stage in which you dream and experience muscle movements or twitches. Also during this stage in sleep, a person's heart rate and breathing are typically irregular.The electrical activity in the brain during REM sleep causes signals the same overwhelming intensity of being awake inside. The same brain energy is used during REM sleep measured by oxygen and glucose metabolism equally to being awake. EEGs are used to notice these patterns in the brain during the different stages on REM and Non-REM sleep. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. Non-REM sleep, also sometimes referred to as slow-wave sleep, is associated with deep sleep. The body's blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing are generally significantly decreased compared to an alert state. Dreaming can occur in this state; however a person is not able to remember them due to how deep in sleep they are and the inability for consolidation to occur in memory. REM cycles typically occur in 90 minute intervals and increase in length as the amount of sleep in one session progresses. In a typical night's rest, a person will have about four to six cycles of REM and Non-REM sleep.

Sleep is important for the body in order to restore itself from the depletion of energy during wakefulness and allows for recovery since cell division occurs the fastest during the Non-REM cycle. Sleep is also important for maintaining the functioning of the immune system, as well as helping with the consolidation of information previously learned and experienced into the memory. If sleep deprived, recall of information is typically decreased. Dreams that occur during sleep have been shown to increase mental creativity and problem solving skills.

As the period of time since the last Non-REM cycle has occurred increases, the body's drive towards sleep also increases. Physical and environmental factors can have a great influence over the body's drive towards sleep. Mental stimulation, pain and discomfort, higher/lower than normal environmental temperatures, exercise, light exposure, noise, hunger, and overeating all result in an increase in wakefulness. On the contrary, sexual activity and some foods such as carbohydrates and dairy products promote sleep.

Careers in the field
In the past, physiological psychologists received a good portion of their training in psychology departments of major universities. Currently, physiological psychologists are also being trained in behavioral neuroscience or biological psychology programs that are affiliated with psychology departments, or in interdisciplinary neuroscience programs. Most physiological psychologists receive PhDs in neuroscience or a related subject and either teach and carry out research at colleges or universities, are employed for research for government laboratories or other private organizations, or are hired by pharmaceutical companies to study the effects that various drugs have on an individual's behavior.

Various forms of psychology concentrations includes in the sectors of health psychology, forensic psychology, clinical psychology,  industrial and organizational psychology, and school psychology. Health psychology is a discipline that understands the psychological, behavioral, and cultural aspects that affect the physical health and illnesses within individuals. A psychologists with the focus of health psychology would have a biopsychosocial model approach with patients. Forensic psychology usually have a background in criminal justice and pursue a master's in forensic psychology. Clinical psychology can be pursued in education by a master's or a PsyD program to receive more research experience or academic. This pursuit will learn psychological assessment, consultation, and psychotherapy. Industrial and organizational psychology focuses on the corporate world to help the function of the work flow for organizations and their relationships with employees. This helps increase job satisfaction and work goals by using surveys and reinforcement with a reward system between employee and employer. School psychologists work in education to partner with schools to provide in house counseling assistance.

title: Physiological psychology


text:
1680s in Canada

Events from the 1680s in Canada.

Events

 * 1682: Robert Cavelier, sieur de la Salle reaches the mouth of the Mississippi River and claims the entire Mississippi Valley for France, naming the area Louisiana.
 * 1682: William Penn's treaty with the Delaware begins a period of friendly relations between the Quakers and Indians.
 * 1683: After the death of Louis XIV's brilliant minister, J. B. Colbert, France's interest in the colonies wanes.
 * c. 1685: In North America, the English and French vie for control.
 * 1685: LaSalle lands at Matagorda Bay, builds Fort St. Louis.
 * 1686: Mackinac region, Rooseboom and McGregor open trade but are seized by the French.
 * 1686: De Troyes and D'Iberville capture three English posts on James Bay (June–July).
 * 1686: King James II and Louis XIV sign neutrality pact handing forts of St. John's and Port Royal back to the French.
 * 1689–1697: King William's War (American counterpart of the War of the Grand Alliance in Europe) -- Abenakis, Penobscot, other New England tribes, attacked by English and their Iroquois allies. This is the first of the French-English wars for control of North America, continuing to 1763. During these wars, the Iroquois League generally sides with the English, and the Algonquian tribes with the French.
 * 1689: Nicolas Perrot formally claims upper Mississippi region for France.
 * 1689, 5 August: A raiding party of 1,500 Iroquois warriors kill 72 French settlers at Lachine in an event known as the Lachine massacre.

title: 1680s in Canada


text:
1690s in Canada

Events from the 1690s in Canada.

Events

 * 11 May 1690: Sent by Massachusetts, Sir William Phips captures Port Royal. Frontenac repels Phips' attack on Quebec (October). These events are part of what is sometimes called King William's War.
 * 22 October 1692 - Marie-Madeleine Jarret de Verchères defends the family fort with a handful of seniors and children against the Iroquois, a true youthful hero of New France.
 * 1696-97: European fur market collapses as fashion temporarily changes, leading to an increase in colonist settlers wanting permanent land to clear and farm.
 * 1697: After almost a decade of guerrilla warfare, the Peace of Ryswick merely confirms the status quo, even returning Acadia, captured by the English, to the French. England and France make temporary peace in 1697 (Treaty of Ryswick). French continue to pressure Iroquois, who eventually agree to (but don't hold) neutrality in the English-French conflicts. The 1693 group of Maritimes Tribal treaties mentioned above comes from this war.

title: 1690s in Canada


text:
Australian Competition and Consumer Commission

The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC) is the chief competition regulator of the Government of Australia, located within the Department of the Treasury. It was established in 1995 with the amalgamation of the Australian Trade Practices Commission and the Prices Surveillance Authority to administer the Trade Practices Act 1974, which was renamed the Competition and Consumer Act 2010 on 1 January 2011. The ACCC's mandate is to protect consumer rights and business rights and obligations, to perform industry regulation and price monitoring, and to prevent illegal anti-competitive behaviour.

Historical origins
The ACCC's deeper origins are found in the Restrictive Trade Practices Act of Sir Garfield Barwick, Attorney-General in the Liberal Government of Sir Robert Menzies in 1965. Opponents derided Barwick's Trade Practices Act 1965 as "ineffectual".

"(The Act) did not declare any practices illegal ipso facto, but only did so after detailed investigation by the Trade Practices Commissioner. There were so many restrictive practices reported to the Commissioner, and the investigations were so prolonged, that one cynic remarked that at the (then) current rate of progress, it would take a hundred years to examine them all!"

Though recognised as a failure, Barwick's legislation established in Australian law "the principle of legislative coverage of trade practices". The area badly needed reform. Lionel Murphy, the Attorney-General in the Whitlam Labor Government, solicited the advice of the economist and business commentator, Professor Ted Wheelwright. In April 1973, Wheelwright produced a report for Murphy which became the blueprint of new legislation. He recommended, among other things, that the Act be clearly focused on protecting the consumer.

Murphy is acknowledged as having completely changed the previous approach regarding trade practices in Australia. For the first time in Australian federal law, his Trade Practices Bill, which was passed on 6 August 1974, introduced offences related to monopolisation, exclusive dealing, price discrimination, resale price maintenance, restraints of trade by agreement, anti-competitive mergers, misleading advertising, coercive sales conduct, pyramid selling, and the sale of unsolicited goods.

Though the Act included substantial penalties, Murphy's initiative received very little opposition in the Parliament or the business community.

Roles
The ACCC administers the Competition and Consumer Act, and has standing to take action in the Federal Court of Australia to enforce its provision. The Competition and Consumer Act is a broad range of provisions, such as provisions on anti-competitive conduct, the Australian Consumer Law and regulation of telecommunications and energy industries. The ACCC, under the Act, also regulates certain industries by providing access to national infrastructure. The ACCC also has an educative role and seeks to educate both consumers and businesses as to their rights and responsibilities under the act.

The Australian Energy Regulator is a constituent but separate part of the ACCC and is responsible for economic energy regulation. It shares staff and premises with the ACCC, but has a separate board, although at least one board member must also be a Commissioner at the ACCC.

Restrictive trade practices
In most cases the spirit of the act, and thus the actions of the ACCC, favours neither consumer nor supplier, but strives to achieve a competitive market without artificial restrictions. For example, refusal to deal – a producer refusing to supply a potential retailer or customer with a product – is not itself illegal unless the action would have an anti-competitive effect on the market as a whole.

Penalties
One role of the ACCC is to bring court actions against companies that breach the Competition and Consumer Act 2010.

Companies that do not comply with the restrictive trade practices provisions of CCA may be fined by the Federal Court. There are three ways the maximum fine can be calculated. The maximum possible fine is the larger of A$10,000,000; or three times the value of the illegal benefit; or (if the value of the benefit cannot be ascertained) 10% of turnover for the preceding 12 months. Individuals may be fined up to $500,000 and since 2009 certain offences under the Competition and Consumer Act (such as price fixing or participation in a cartel) have been criminalised with executives who engage in conduct which contravenes the relevant provisions liable for a custodial sentence of up to 10 years in prison (44ZZRF and 44ZZRG of the CCA).

Companies that do not comply with the consumer protection provisions of CCA may be fined by the Federal Court, up to $1.1 million for companies and $220,000 for individuals.

The ACCC also has power to accept, on its own behalf, court enforceable undertakings under s87B of the Competition and Consumer Act. Such undertakings may include a wide range of remedies to the conduct.

A range of other remedies can be ordered by the court. For example, companies are frequently forced to publish retractions of false advertising claims in national newspapers and at their places of business. Companies found in breach of the CCA are usually bound to implement a compliance program to ensure future compliance with the Act.

Consumer confidence
In regard to its role of safeguarding consumer rights, there has been occasional criticism of the ACCC for being "all-talk-no-action". This criticism is most likely due to the inherent difficulty in obtaining sufficient evidence to prove breaches of the restrictive trade practices provisions of the Competition and Consumer Act.

The ACCC has exercised its authority in a number of retail areas, including fining retailer Target for false advertising and Woolworths (including some Safeway-branded supermarkets in Victoria) for anti-competitive liquor deals.

In 2008, the ACCC published findings of its inquiry into the competitiveness of retail prices for groceries in Australia. The report found that the Australian supermarket sector is "workably competitive", but price competition is limited by barriers to entry and a lack of incentive for the two major players, Coles and Woolworths, to compete on price. The report also noted that Coles and Woolworths engage in deliberate strategies designed to ensure they maintain exclusive access to prime sites such as shopping centres to prevent centre managers leasing space to competing supermarkets.

In September 2009, the ACCC reached agreement with Coles and Woolworths to phase out restrictive lease agreements. The ACCC has enforced the law against producers of quack devices with medical claims like Power Balance. It won a case on 24 March 2016 against Valve for failing to provide refunds for faulty products, and making representations that domestic consumer guarantees did not apply to purchases using the Steam client.

Product safety and recalls
The ACCC maintains a website listing all Australian product recalls and the following organisations are commissioned to assist with the surveillance and monitoring of product safety in relevant areas.

 * Food products – Food Standards Australia New Zealand
 * Motor vehicles – Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government (Australia)
 * Therapeutic goods – Therapeutic Goods Administration
 * Agricultural and veterinary products – Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicines Authority
 * Electrical goods – Australian Electrical Equipment Safety Regulators
 * Gas and appliance – Gas Technical Regulators Committee Australia New Zealand

The ACCC, in conjunction with state and territory offices of fair trading, is responsible for developing and enforcing mandatory consumer product safety standards except where the product falls into the jurisdiction of one of the specialist regulators mentioned above


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1700 in Canada

Events from the year 1700 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * French Monarch: Louis XIV
 * English, Scottish and Irish Monarch: William III

Governors

 * Governor General of New France: Louis-Hector de Callière
 * Governor of Acadia: Claude-Sébastien de Villieu
 * Colonial Governor of Louisiana: Sauvolle
 * Governor of Plaisance: Joseph de Monic

Events

 * January 26, 1700- The Cascadia earthquake, one of the largest earthquakes on record, ruptures the Cascadia subduction zone offshore from Vancouver Island to northern California, creating a tsunami that wiped out the winter village of Pachena Bay leaving no survivors.

Full date unknown

 * By now, it is clear that New France is not going to be self-sufficient.
 * Population of Acadia is 1,400.
 * Sir Stephen Evans is Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company between the years 1700 to 1712.

Births

 * June 17 - François-Marie Bissot, Sieur de Vincennes, explorer and soldier. (died 1736)

Full date unknown

 * Joseph Adams, chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Company. (died 1737)

Deaths

 * January 12 - Marguerite Bourgeoys (born Troyes, France on April 17, 1620), a first school teacher in Montreal and founder of the congregation of Notre Dame (the first order of uncloistered nuns in North America).

Full date unknown

 * Louis Jolliet was one of the first people of European descent born in North America to be remembered for significant discoveries. (born 1645)

title: 1700 in Canada


text:
List of PlayStation 2 games (A–K)

This is a list of games for the Sony PlayStation 2 video game system. Title names may be different for each region due to the first language spoken. The last game for the PlayStation 2, Pro Evolution Soccer 2014 was released on 8 November 2013.

Games list (A–K)
There are currently  games across both this page (A to K) and the remainder of the list from L to Z.

title: List of PlayStation 2 games (A–K)