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Battle of Nashville

The Battle of Nashville was a two-day battle in the Franklin-Nashville Campaign that represented the end of large-scale fighting west of the coastal states in the American Civil War. It was fought at Nashville, Tennessee, on December 15–16, 1864, between the Confederate Army of Tennessee under Lieutenant General John Bell Hood and the Union Army of the Cumberland (Dept. of the Cumberland) (AoC) under Major General George H. Thomas. In one of the largest victories achieved by the Union Army during the war, Thomas attacked and routed Hood's army, largely destroying it as an effective fighting force.

Military situation

Hood followed up his defeat in the Atlanta Campaign by moving northwest to disrupt the supply lines of Maj. Gen. William T. Sherman from Chattanooga, hoping to challenge Sherman into a battle that could be fought to Hood's advantage. After a brief period in which he pursued Hood, Sherman decided instead to cut his main army off from these lines and "live off the land" in his famed March to the Sea from Atlanta to Savannah. By doing so, he would avoid having to defend hundreds of miles of supply lines against constant raids, through which he predicted he would lose "a thousand men monthly and gain no result" against Hood's army. Sherman disengaged and turned east, leaving the matter of Hood's army and the defense of Tennessee to Thomas. Hood devised a plan to march into Tennessee and defeat Thomas's force while it was geographically divided. He pursued Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield's army from Pulaski to Columbia and then attempted to intercept and destroy it at Spring Hill. Schofield had been tasked by Thomas with delaying Hood as much as possible, without losing his army, while Thomas pulled in his forces to concentrate at Nashville. Because of a series of Confederate command miscommunications and solid U.S. Army leadership in the Battle of Spring Hill (November 29, 1864), Schofield was able to withdraw from Columbia and slip past Hood's army at Spring Hill relatively unscathed.

Furious at his failure at Spring Hill, Hood pursued Schofield to the north and encountered the Union at Franklin behind strong fortifications. In the Battle of Franklin on November 30, Hood ordered almost 31,000 of his men to assault the Union works before Schofield could withdraw across the Harpeth River and escape to Nashville. Schofield and his men were intent on getting across the Harpeth and really did not expect Hood and his army to attack; the fact that they did attack with such ferocity soon made the U.S. troops realize that they had changed from a delaying action to a desperate fight for survival. The Union soldiers repulsed multiple assaults and inflicted over 6,000 casualties on the Confederates, which included a large number of key Confederate generals, doing heavy damage to the leadership of the Army of Tennessee.

Schofield withdrew from Franklin during the night and marched into the defensive works of Nashville on December 1, there coming under the command of Thomas, who now had a combined force of approximately 55,000 men. By and large, his troops were veterans, the IV Corps under Brig. Gen. Thomas J. Wood and Schofield's XXIII Corps having fought in the Atlanta campaign and Maj. Gen. Andrew J. Smith's "Detachment of the Army of the Tennessee" (a part of the recently discontinued XVI Corps had been redesignated with this unusual name on December 6) having fought at Vicksburg, in the Red River Campaign, at Tupelo against S.D. Lee and Nathan Bedford Forrest, and in Missouri against Sterling Price. While Wilson's cavalry had combat experience, most of it had been of the wrong kind at the hands of Nathan Bedford Forrest, John Hunt Morgan, or Joe Wheeler. Only Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman's Division lacked experience fighting together. It was composed of garrison troops and railroad guards from Tennessee and Georgia and included eight regiments of United States Colored Troops.

Union forces had been constructing defensive works around Nashville since the time the city was occupied in February 1862. By 1864, a 7-mile-long semicircular Union defensive line on the south and west sides of the city protected Nashville from attacks from those directions. The line was studded with forts, the largest being Fort Negley. The trench line was extended to the west after December 1. The Cumberland River formed a natural defensive barrier on the north and east sides of the city. Smith's troops had arrived by river on November 30, and their transports had been escorted by a powerful fleet of tinclad and ironclad gunboats. Thus, the river barrier was well-defended.

From east to west the defensive line was manned by Steedman's division, the XXIII Corps, the IV Corps, and Smith's XVI Corps Detachment. During the amassing of his forces and the construction of his defenses, Thomas' troops punctuated their entrenching with small offensive operations and raids.Given the fact that the Union Army was composed of troops from the Army of the Cumberland, the Army of the Ohio, the Army of the Tennessee, the District of Etowah, and the Post of Nashville, the force in Nashville had no official name.

Hood's Army of Tennessee arrived south of the city on December 2 and took up positions facing the Union forces within the city. As he was not nearly strong enough to assault the Union fortifications, Hood opted for the defensive. Rather than repeating his fruitless frontal attack at Franklin, he entrenched and waited, hoping that Thomas would attack him. Then, after Thomas had smashed his army against the Confederate entrenchments, Hood could counterattack and take Nashville.

The Confederate line of about four miles of fortifications faced the southerly facing portion of the Union line (the part occupied by Steedman and Schofield). From right to left were the corps of Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham, Lt. Gen. Stephen D. Lee, and Lt. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart. Cavalry commanded by Brig. Gen. James R. Chalmers was off to the southwest of the city. The Confederate left flank was secured by five small detached redoubts, each having two to four guns with garrisons of about 150 men each. The weather turned cold and many Confederate soldiers took shelter in simple pits which were just big enough for two or three men to sleep alongside each other with a small fire at one end. Alabama soldier Edgar Jones wrote that while he enjoyed the warmth of his new home it gave him "a sort of graveyard feeling" since the shelters were remarkably similar to graves.

Hood made a serious strategic error before the battle. On December 2, he sent the three brigades of William B. Bate's Division of Cheatham's Corps to attack the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad between Nashville and Murfreesboro as well as the Union garrison in the latter city. Three days later, he sent an additional two brigades of infantry and two divisions of cavalry, all under Forrest's command, to reinforce Bate. Hood believed this diversion would draw Thomas out of the Nashville fortifications, allowing Hood to either defeat Thomas in detail or to seize Nashville by a coup de main once its garrison was depleted. While the railroad between Nashville and Murfreesboro was broken in a number of places, the Murfreesboro garrison drove off the Confederates in the Third Battle of Murfreesboro (also called the Battle of the Cedars) on December 7. Furthermore, Thomas was not fooled by this diversion, and remained in his fortifications until he was ready to attack on his own terms. Bate's Division and one of the two attached infantry brigades returned to Nashville, but Hood had seriously diminished his already outnumbered forces, and he had also deprived his army of its strongest and most mobile unit, Forrest and his cavalry.

Union
The Union force (of about 55,000 men), was a conglomerate of units from several different departments provisionally attached to Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas' Department of the Cumberland or Army of the Cumberland and consisted of:

 * IV Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Thomas J. Wood, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. Nathan Kimball, Washington Lafayette Elliott, and Samuel Beatty;
 * Army of the Ohio, commanded by Maj. Gen. John M. Schofield, with divisions commanded by Maj. Gen. Darius N. Couch and Brig. Gen. Jacob D. Cox;
 * "Detachment of the Army of the Tennessee" (former Right Wing, XVI Corps), commanded by Maj. Gen. Andrew J. Smith, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gens. John McArthur and Kenner Garrard and Col Jonathan B. Moore;
 * Provisional Detachment (District of the Etowah), commanded by Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman, with a division (named "Provisional Division") commanded by Brig. Gen. Charles Cruft, two brigades of U.S.C.T. reporting directly to Steedman, and the Post of Nashville commanded by Brig. Gen. John F. Miller.
 * Cavalry Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. James H. Wilson, with divisions commanded by Brig. Gen. Edward M. McCook, Edward Hatch, Richard W. Johnson, and Joseph F. Knipe.

Confederate
The Confederate Army of Tennessee under command of Gen. John B. Hood fielded approximately 30,000 men and consisting of 3 infantry army corps and 1 cavalry corps:

 * Lee's Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Stephen D. Lee with 3 divisions;
 * Stewart's Corps, commanded by Lt. Gen. Alexander P. Stewart with 3 divisions;
 * Cheatham's Corps, commanded by Maj. Gen. Benjamin F. Cheatham with 3 divisions;
 * Cavalry Corps, (detached at Murfreesboro and not engaged at Nashville) commanded by Maj. Gen. Nathan B. Forrest with 3 divisions.

Thomas prepares to attack
Although Thomas's forces were much stronger, he could not ignore Hood's army. Despite the severe beating it had suffered at Franklin, Hood's Army of Tennessee presented a threat by its mere presence and ability to maneuver. Thomas knew he had to attack, but he prepared cautiously. His cavalry corps, commanded by the energetic young Brig. Gen. James H. Wilson, was poorly armed and mounted, and he did not want to proceed to a decisive battle without effective protection of his flanks. This was particularly important, since Wilson would be facing the horsemen of the formidable Forrest. Refitting the Union cavalry took time.

Meanwhile, Washington fumed at the seeming procrastination. When Sherman proposed his March to the Sea, Ulysses S. Grant and Henry Halleck had objected to it on the grounds that Hood would use the opportunity to invade Tennessee. In response, Sherman airily indicated that this was exactly what he wanted and that if Hood "continues to march North, all the way to Ohio, I will supply him with rations." However, when the ever-confident Sherman disappeared into the heart of Georgia, Grant once again became concerned about an invasion of Kentucky or Ohio. Grant later said of the situation, "If I had been Hood, I would have gone to Louisville and on north until I came to Chicago." His concern doubtless reflected Abraham Lincoln's concern. Lincoln had little patience for slow generals and remarked of the situation, "This seems like the McClellan and Rosecrans strategy of do nothing and let the rebels raid the country."

While pressure from Washington continued, a bitter ice storm struck Nashville on December 8, which precluded any offensive action. Sub-freezing weather continued through December 12. This was explained to Grant, but when Thomas had still not moved by December 13, Grant directed that Maj. Gen. John A. Logan proceed to Nashville and assume command if, upon his arrival, Thomas had not yet initiated operations. Logan made it as far as Louisville by December 15, but on that day the Battle of Nashville had finally begun. Grant himself left Petersburg on December 14 to take personal command and had only gotten as far as Washington when the battle began. He proceeded no further.

Naval actions
The Confederates set up batteries at Bell's Bend on the Cumberland River below Nashville on December 2, 1864. They met with immediate success, capturing that day two Union transports carrying horses, mules and fodder. The Union naval squadron at Nashville responded on the night of December 3–4. While the bulk of the squadron engaged the upper battery, two ships, the ironclad Carondelet and the tinclad Fairplay, proceeded to the lower battery where they recaptured and brought off the two transports.

The Union squadron commander, Lt. Cmdr. LeRoy Fitch was ordered to break the river blockade. On December 7, he took his two heaviest ships, the ironclad USS Carondelet and the river monitor Neosho, downstream to engage the batteries. The action was inconclusive, although the Neosho sustained considerable superficial damage. Two Neosho sailors were awarded the Medal of Honor for going out onto the shell swept deck and raising the ship's flag after it had been shot down.

The Confederate batteries effectively closed the river below Nashville to supply traffic until they finally were driven off by Union cavalry on December 15.

Actions on the Confederate right

Thomas's plan was to launch a diversionary attack on the Confederate right that would distract them from the main attack on their left and perhaps cause them to divert troops from their left to their right. The attacking force consisted of two brigades drawn from Steedman's Provisional Division: the First Colored Brigade, consisting of three regiments of United States Colored Troops (who had previously served as garrison troops or railroad guards), and a brigade composed of rear echelon white troops described by their commander as "new conscripts, convalescents, and bounty jumpers."

The Confederate right was anchored on the west side of a deep cut on the Nashville & Chattanooga Railroad. A weak skirmish line was posted east of the tracks, and on December 14 this was supplemented by a stout four-gun lunette manned by Granbury's (Houghton's after Granbury's death at Franklin) Texas Brigade. Granbury's lunette was well masked by trees and brush.

The two Union brigades advanced and overran the skirmish line. They then came under heavy artillery fire from a Confederate battery on the west side of the railroad. When the brigades passed Granbury's Lunette, they were struck by very heavy close range enfilading fire. Both brigades retreated in some disorder, but they were reformed and continued for the rest of the day to fire on the Confederate works from the former skirmish line. The attack failed in its purpose, since the Confederates were not distracted and in fact had sent brigades from both Lee's and Cheatham's Corps to bolster the threatened left flank, however, Steedman's attack did take the fortifications which made Hood's left untenable and led to his withdrawal at nightfall.

Actions on the Confederate left
Thomas planned a huge wheeling movement that would ultimately come down on the Confederates' exposed left flank. Wilson's Cavalry Corps moved west on Charlotte Pike once an early morning fog dissipated, driving off the Confederate cavalry patrolling the area between the Confederate left and the Cumberland River. Smith's XVI Corps detachment followed, turning south after a mile or so towards the Confederate flank. The cavalrymen formed on Smith's right flank. Schofield's XXIII followed in reserve, and as the assault moved south a gap opened between Smith and Wilson which Schofield was directed to fill. At about 2:30 pm, the Union troops attacked the five redoubts guarding the Confederate left. Four brigades, two of cavalry and two of infantry, overran Redoubt No. 4 and then Redoubt No. 5, notwithstanding the spirited resistance of the defenders of Redoubt No. 4. Another of Smith's brigades captured Redoubt No. 3; however, its commander, Col. Sylvester G. Hill, was killed by Confederate artillery firing from Redoubt No. 2. He was the highest-ranking Union officer killed in the battle. Smith's troops proceeded to Redoubt No. 2, which was quickly captured.

In the meantime, the IV Corps had been tasked with making a frontal assault from Granny White and Hillsboro Pikes on the left end of the Confederate line. The assault was to begin once Smith's troops began their assault on the left flank redoubts. The Confederate line was supposed to lie on Montgomery Hill on the north side of Brown's Creek. While the Confederates had originally established their line there, they had withdrawn to equally strong positions on the south side of Brown's Creek, as the original positions were exposed to artillery fire from the Nashville forts. The IV Corps proceeded deliberately up Montgomery Hill, only to find that it was defended by a thin skirmish line. They stopped to reorganize, and at about the same time that Smith's Detachment was rolling up the Confederate redoubts, they advanced on the main Confederate line.

Thus it happened that Redoubt No. 1, the last bastion on the Confederate left flank, was captured by troops coming from the north, south, and west. Stewart's corps had been wrecked by the day's fighting and retreated to a new line of defense a mile or two to the south. Rearguard actions by reinforcements from Lee's Corps kept the retreat from becoming a rout. With the collapse of the Confederate left, Cheatham's and Lee's Corps followed to the new line.

New disposition of Confederate army
The Confederates' new line was much stronger and more compact than the first day's line. It was anchored on the east on Peach Orchard Hill. The western flank ran along a line of hills leading south from Compton's Hill, which after the day's battle would be called Shy's Hill after Col. William M. Shy, the Confederate officer commanding the 20th Tennessee Infantry, who died defending it. The center followed a series of sturdy dry stack stone walls enhanced by entrenching.

Hood put Lee's Corps on the right flank. With the exception of two brigades, this corps had seen no action on the previous day, and indeed had seen very little action at the bloodletting at Franklin two weeks before. Lee's line ran from the hill well into the Confederate center. Stewart's Corps, decimated by heavy casualties at Franklin and in the December 15 actions, occupied the Confederate center. Cheatham's Corps, badly hurt at Franklin, was on the Confederate left flank, which included Shy's Hill and the line of hills to its south. Rucker's cavalry brigade patrolled to the south of Cheatham's Corps.

The Confederate line defenses atop Shy's Hill appeared to be quite strong, as the steep hill dominated all of the surrounding terrain. However, appearances were deceiving. First, the defenses at the crest were a salient, and were exposed to Union artillery fire from all directions except the southeast. Second, the fortifications had been built overnight by tired troops and consisted of shallow trenches with no head logs or abatis. Third, and most fateful, the trenches were constructed on the geographical crest of the hill and not on the military crest commanding the slopes, so that attacking troops could escape fire until they were almost at the crest.

Thomas's plan
Thomas repeated his tactics of the previous day. An attack would be made on the Confederate right to draw Confederate troops from the left. Then Schofield's XXIII Corps would deliver a hammer blow on the left flank.

Union attack on Peach Orchard

The attacks on Peach Orchard Hill were made in much greater strength than those of December 15. Two brigades from Beatty's division of Wood's IV Corps and two brigades from Steedman's Provisional Division made the attack at about 3 p.m. Concentrated musket and artillery fire from the entrenched Confederates quickly broke up the attack. The trailing regiment in the 2nd Colored Brigade of Steedman's Division, the 13th United States Colored Troops, went in essentially on its own and gained the Confederate parapet, losing one of its flags and 220 officers and men in the process, about 40% of the regiment's strength.

The attack on Peach Orchard Hill had the desired effect. Hood sent two of Cheatham's brigades to reinforce Lee. The thin Confederate line on Shy's Hill and the surrounding heights got thinner.

Union attack on Shy's Hill
During this time Wilson's cavalry was very active on the Confederate left and rear, reaching past Granny White Pike. In response, Cheatham stretched his corps further and further to the south. Thomas, who was with Schofield, directed Schofield to make an attack on the western face of Shy's Hill. Schofield, imagining that he was outnumbered and in danger of an attack on his southern flank, demurred, requested that Smith send him additional divisions. Thomas directed Smith to comply with this request. Smith sent a division, and still Schofield did nothing.

Sunset was rapidly approaching, and if no attack was made before then Hood would be in a position to either strengthen his position overnight or safely retreat south.

Brig. Gen. John McArthur, one of Smith's division commanders, was aware of this. He also saw that the Confederate lines were being badly battered by Union artillery, which was firing on them from nearly every direction. At about 3:30 p.m. he sent a message to Smith and Thomas that unless he were given orders to the contrary, his division was going to attack Shy's Hill and the Confederate line immediately to its east in the next five minutes.

The three brigade attack began on McArthur's timetable. One brigade went up and over Shy's Hill. Because of the misplacement of the Confederate trenches, only the regiment on the east sustained significant casualties from Confederates, who were firing from the plain to its left. McArthur's second brigade hit these Confederates while they were so distracted. The third brigade, attacking to the east of Granny White Pike caught a large body of Confederate skirmishers outside of their lines and went into the Confederate lines with them.

Confederate left flank disintegrates
The Confederate left flank suddenly disintegrated. The Confederate line was rolled up west to east. Granny White Pike had been blocked by Wilson's cavalry. The Confederates retreated to the south by the Franklin Pike and a gap in the Overton Hills through the Otter Creek bottom. A part of Lee's Corps maintained good order and covered the retreat on Franklin Pike. Rucker's Confederate cavalry brigade performed the same service in a nighttime melee in the rain on Granny White Pike.

Hood's retreat
On the night of December 16, what was left of Hood's army headed south towards Franklin on two roads, Franklin Pike and Granny White Pike. Rucker having blunted for the time being the Union pursuit on Granny White Pike, the main pursuit was by Union cavalry on Franklin Pike. Lee's rearguard held off the attacks.

At this point, the pursuit slowed because Thomas had sent his pontoon bridge train towards Murfreesboro rather than Franklin and Columbia, and his artillery and supply trains could not cross the Harpeth River until the pontoon train arrived. This did not stop Wilson's cavalry from aggressively pursuing the Confederates as they retreated to Columbia. Wilson badly hurt Carter L. Stevenson's rearguard division in actions on December 17 and 18, but was forced to stop because of the lack of supplies. Wilson's problems were compounded when Forrest and his two cavalry divisions arrived in Columbia from Murfreesboro on December 18.

On December 19 the Confederate infantry and artillery crossed the Duck River at Columbia, destroying the bridges behind them. Forrest took charge of the rearguard, attaching an ad hoc infantry division under Brig. Gen. Edward C. Walthall to his Cavalry Corps.

Because of the misdirected pontoon train, Thomas was not able to cross the Duck River until December 23. Wilson continued his vigorous pursuit, but was stymied by Forrest over the next three days in hard-fought rearguard actions at Richland Creek, Anthony's Hill, and Sugar Creek. Hood was able to get his army across the Tennessee River on a pontoon bridge near Bainbridge, Alabama by December 28. Thomas had asked Rear Admiral S. P. Lee, commanding the Tennessee River naval squadron, to destroy the Confederate bridge. However, low water and Confederate artillery prevented Union tinclad gunboats from interdicting the crossing.

Steedman's Provisional Division was sent by rail from Nashville to Chattanooga and from there by river boat to Decatur, Alabama, to cut off Hood's retreat. His force arrived too late to interfere with the crossing. However, Steedman's cavalry under the command of Colonel William Jackson Palmer captured the Confederate pontoon train on December 30 along with a large number of supply wagons.{{sfnp|U.S. War Dept., Official Records, Vol. 45/1|pp=506–507|ps=  - Report of Maj. Gen. James B. Steedman, U.S. Army, commanding Provisional Detachment {District of the Etowah), of operations November 297 1864-January 13, 1865, January 27, 1865, pp. 502–507.}}

That marked the end of the Union pursuit.

Casualties
Federal casualties in the battle totaled 387 killed, 2,562 wounded, and 112 missing.

As only a few of the Confederate units submitted reports on the battle, Confederate casualties are difficult to determine. Thomas reported capturing 4,561 prisoners in the battle itself, with an unknown number captured during the retreat. One historian made an educated guess that 2,500 Confederates were killed and wounded at Nashville.

The Army of Tennessee had gone into Middle Tennessee campaign with approximately 38,000 men, exclusive of Forrest's cavalry. The Army had sustained severe casualties at Spring Hill, Franklin, and Nashville, and suffered at least 2,000 desertions in the latter part of the campaign. On January 20 Hood reported an effective strength of 18,742, again exclusive of Forrest's cavalry. Gen. P. G. T. Beauregard, Hood's nominal superior, advised the Confederate President on January 13 that the Army of Tennessee had fewer than 15,000 men.

Reactions and effects
The Battle of Nashville marked the effective end of the Army of Tennessee. Historian David Eicher remarked, "If Hood mortally wounded his army at Franklin, he would kill it two weeks later at Nashville." Although Hood blamed the entire debacle on his subordinates and the soldiers themselves, his career was over. He retreated with his army to Tupelo, Mississippi, resigned his command on January 13, 1865, and was not given another field command.

Battlefield preservation
The Nashville battlefield is huge by Civil War standards, encompassing almost all of south and west Nashville. Nashvillians who live in the Green Hills, Forest Hills, Oak Hill, Lipscomb, or Brentwood neighborhoods are living on top of a battlefield.

In the earlier part of the twentieth century there was some talk of creating a National Battlefield Park in Nashville. This movement failed, due to lack of support from Nashville's civic leaders, who as Southerners were not particularly interested in commemorating a battle that was such a profound Confederate defeat. As a result, much like Atlanta, most of the Nashville battlefield has been lost to development. However, the battle is memorialized and small parts of it have been preserved.

Battlefield memorials
A Battle of Nashville monument was created in 1927 by Giuseppe Moretti, who was commissioned by the Ladies Battlefield Association. Erected in the years immediately following World War I, the monument honors the soldiers of both sides and celebrated a united nation. The monument was severely damaged by a tornado in 1974, and during the 1980s interstate highway construction left the monument landlocked on a small plot of ground overlooking the massive highway interchange of I-65 and I-440. In 1999 the monument was relocated to the Nashville Battlefield Park at the intersection of Granny White Pike and Clifton Lane, just north of the Confederate line on the first day of the battle.

Minnesota monuments
In 1920 the State of Minnesota erected a large monument in the Nashville National Cemetery honoring its soldiers who were buried there. Minnesota lost more men at the Battle of Nashville than in any other Civil War battle.

United States Colored Troops monument
In 2006 a group of private citizens erected a monument in the Nashville National Cemetery honoring soldiers of the United States Colored Troops buried there, many of whom fought in the Battle of Nashville.

Shy's Hill memorials
Erected by the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society, this honors the troops of both sides who fought on and around Shy's Hill. The memorial consists of three flags, an American flag, a Confederate national flag, and a Minnesota state flag (honoring the four regiments of Minnesotans who were instrumental in capturing the hill).

A marker was placed on the slope of Shy's Hill in late 2014 in honor of the contributions to the Minnesota regiments that fought in the battle. It was dedicated by members of the Minnesota Civil War Commemoration Task Force and the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society on November 16, 2014.

Historic homes and buildings

 * Belle Meade Plantation: A skirmish was fought on the front lawn, though the scars on the columns on the front porch previously believed to be bullet holes are actually signs of erosion of the lime stone.
 * Belmont Mansion: Served as Union General Thomas Woods's headquarters. The Belmont Water Tower on the grounds of the mansion served as a signal station.
 * Travellers Rest: Served as headquarters of the Army of Tennessee.
 * Sunnyside: This antebellum home in the 12 South District of Nashville lay between the Union and Confederate lines. It was used as a hospital after the first day's battle. It is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Historical Commission and has not been completely restored.
 * Glen Leven: This Greek Revival home on Franklin Pike was built in 1857. It was used as a hospital by the Union during and after the battle. The home and the surrounding 65 acre were donated by the Thompson family to the Land Trust for Tennessee in 2007. It is closed to the public except for special events.
 * Downtown Presbyterian Church: Served as a hospital after the battle.
 * Metropolitan Board of Parks and Recreation
 * Fort Negley: This large masonry fortification was built in 1862–1863 by African-Americans forcibly impressed by the Union military government. Guns placed there fired the first shots in the battle. The fort is a ruin, but has been stabilized and interpreted.
 * Nashville City Cemetery: Union dead from the battle (and some Confederate dead) were buried in an annex to this ante-bellum cemetery.
 * Kelley's Point: This is a short but attractive greenway that runs from a Lowe's Super Center parking lot on Charlotte Pike at its intersection with Davidson Road to the site of a Confederate battery on the Cumberland River. The remains of earthworks are faintly visible.

Privately owned but publicly accessible sites

 * Granbury's Lunette. Owned by the Joseph E. Johnston Camp, Sons of Confederate Veterans. Located at 190 Polk Avenue. Played an important role in repelling the Union attack on the Confederate right on the first day of the battle. The lunette was partly destroyed by railroad construction in the early 1900s.
 * Redoubt No. 1. Owned by the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society. Captured in the first day of the battle by troops from the IV Corps and XVI Corps. Located on Benham Avenue in Green Hills. This has been preserved and interpreted. Earthworks are clearly visible.
 * Redoubt No. 4. The Battle of Nashville Preservation Society has an historic easement on the remnants of this fortification, consisting of the remnants of its northern face. It is located in the Abbottsford development off of Abbott–Martin Road in Green Hills. The remainder of the redoubt, which extended to Hobbs Road, was destroyed during home construction in the 1950s.
 * Shy's Hill. This is owned by the Battle of Nashville Preservation Society and is located just off of Battery Lane on Benton Smith Drive. Its fall on the second day of the battle precipitated the Confederate rout. It is well-interpreted. Earthworks on top of the hill were destroyed when a water tower (now removed) was erected in the early 1950s; Confederate trench lines on the east and south slopes are clearly visible.
 * Mount Olivet Cemetery. Under the direction of the Ladies' Memorial Society of Nashville, Confederates killed or mortally wounded in the battle were removed from battlefield graves and City Cemetery in 1868 and reinterred at Confederate Circle at Mount Olivet. A large monument was erected on the site in 1889.

Driving tour
The Battle of Nashville Preservation Society has published a downloadable self-guided driving tour Members of the Society provide guided battlefield tours for a fee.

title: Battle of Nashville


text:
Talk:2000 (number)

As is the practice with 1001 - 1999, this page on 2000 will have extremely short stubs for 2001 - 2999. Gradually people will add properties to these numbers, or add numbers not already listed, and eventually some (but not all) of these will be shown to merit their own articles. When that happens, the content is copied to the new article and a link is put on this page. PrimeFan 21:37, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Re Smarandache-Wellin primes, see User:Smarandache fan for evidence of a long-standing problem with suspicious edits by suspected sockpuppets of Florentin Smarandache.---CH 08:03, 14 May 2006 (UTC)
 * And Ш (Ⱎ ) means 2000! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.195.27.53 (talk) 15:53, 30 July 2010 (UTC)

2520
Should 2520 have its own article? HotdogPi 01:50, 21 March 2012 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by HotdogPi (talk • contribs)  Edit: I signed it! Why is it saying I didn't?

2016
Entry for 2016 has "triangular number, number of 5-cubes in a 9-cube" what does the second part mean? Is there a reference. --Salix alba (talk): 09:01, 17 October 2015 (UTC)

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Music
Bhojpuri Music 2402:8100:2634:62BD:378:5634:1232:5476 (talk) 07:26, 14 March 2022 (UTC)
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Current year
Should there be the number of the current year 2024? Viewer 719 /  Contribs! 11:14, 29 March 2022 (UTC)
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Titlo

Titlo is an extended diacritic symbol initially used in early Cyrillic and Glagolitic manuscripts, e.g., in Old Church Slavonic and Old East Slavic languages. The word is a borrowing from the Greek τίτλος, "title" and is a cognate of the words tittle and tilde. The titlo still appears in inscriptions on modern icons and in service books printed in Church Slavonic.

The titlo is drawn as a line over a text. In some styles of writing the line is drawn with serifs, so that it may appear as a zigzag. The usual form in this case is short stroke up, falling slanted line, short stroke up; an alternative resembles a volta bracket: short stroke up, horizontal line, short stroke down.

The titlo has several meanings depending on the context:

One meaning is in its use to mark letters when they are used as numerals. This is a quasi-decimal system analogous to Greek numerals.

A titlo is also used as a scribal abbreviation mark for frequently written long words and also for nouns describing sacred persons. In place of, for example, 'God' was written under the titlo and  '[he] speaks' is abbreviated as. Fig. 3 shows a list of the most common of these abbreviations in current use in printed Church Slavonic. Fig. 2 shows 'Lord' abbreviated to its first letter and stem ending (also a single letter here, in the nominative case). Around the 15th century, titla in most schools came to be restricted to a special semiotic meaning, used exclusively to refer to sacred concepts, while the same words were otherwise spelled out without titla, and so, for example, while "God" in the sense of the one true God is abbreviated as above, "god" referring to "false" gods is spelled out; likewise, while the word for "angel" is generally abbreviated, "angels" is spelled out in "performed by evil angels" in Psalm 77. This corresponds to the Nomina sacra (Latin: "Sacred names") tradition of using contractions for certain frequently occurring names in Greek Scriptures.

A short titlo is placed over a single letter or over an entire abbreviation; a long titlo is placed over a whole word.

A further meaning was in its use in manuscripts, where the titlo was often used to mark the place where a scribe accidentally skipped the letter, if there was no space to draw the missed letter above.

Titlo is encoded in Unicode as, and.

title: Titlo


text:
José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia

José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco (6 January 1766 – 20 September 1840) was a Paraguayan lawyer and politician, and the first dictator (1814–1840) of Paraguay following its 1811 independence from the Spanish Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata. His official title was "Supreme and Perpetual Dictator of Paraguay", but he was popularly known as El Supremo.

He is considered to be the chief ideologue and political leader of the faction that advocated for the full independence of Paraguay from the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata and from the Empire of Brazil.

Early life and education
Francia was born in Yaguarón, in modern-day Paraguarí Department. Francia's father was an officer turned tobacco planter from São Paulo, and his mother was a Paraguayan descended from Spanish colonists. He was christened Joseph Gaspar de Franza y Velasco but later used the more popular name Rodríguez, and changed Franza to the more Spanish Francia. Although his father was simply García Rodríguez Francia (Portuguese: Garcia Rodrigues França), the dictator inserted the article de to style himself "Rodríguez de Francia y Velasco". He was of Portuguese descent.

He studied at the monastery school of San Francisco, Asunción, originally in training for the Catholic priesthood, but never became a priest. On 13 April 1785, after four years studying, he became a doctor of theology and master of philosophy at the College of Monserrat at the National University of Córdoba in what would soon become Argentina.

Although he was dogged by suggestions that his father, a Brazilian tobacco exporter, was a mulatto, Francia was awarded a coveted chair of theology at the Seminary of San Carlos in Asunción in 1790. His radical views made his position as a teacher there untenable, and he soon gave up theology to study law. Eventually, he became a lawyer and learned five languages: Guarani, Spanish, French, Latin, and some English.

During his studies, he was influenced by the ideas of Enlightenment and then the French Revolution. Francia was disgusted by Paraguay's casta system, which was imposed by Spain, and as a lawyer, he would defend the less fortunate against the affluent. A devotee of the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, a keen reader of Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and the French Encyclopedists, Francia had the largest library in Asunción. His interest in astronomy, combined with his knowledge of French and other subjects considered arcane in Asunción, caused some superstitious Paraguayans to regard him as a wizard who could predict the future.

Political career
He demonstrated an early interest in politics. He became a provincial cabildo member in 1807, fiscal officer in 1808 and attained with difficulty the position of alcalde del primer voto, or head of the Asunción cabildo, by August 1809, the highest position he could aspire to as a criollo (a native-born White). He had tried in 1798 but failed because of his humble background. Other significant members included Fulgencio Yegros; Pedro Juan Caballero; Manuel Atanasio Cabañas; and the last colonial governor, Bernardo de Velasco.

After the May Revolution in Buenos Aires, Governor Velasco convened the Congress of the province on 24 July 1810. Francia shocked the other members by saying it was irrelevant which king they had. When Paraguay's independence was declared on 15 May 1811, he was appointed secretary to the three-man ruling junta and included in the five-man governing junta by Congress meeting on 17 June 1811. On 1 August, he resigned because of the army's dominance over Congress. He retired to the countryside, where he spread rumours that the country was going to be betrayed by the incompetent government. He was one of the few men in the country with any significant education and soon became the country's real leader. Only one other Paraguayan had a doctorate: Juan Bogarin, one of the five junta members.

From his retirement in his modest chacra (farm or country estate) at Ibaray near Asunción, he told countless ordinary citizens who came to visit him that their revolution had been betrayed, the change in government had only traded a Spanish-born elite for a criollo one, and the government was incompetent and mismanaged. He returned to the junta in October if Bogarin was removed and resigned again on 15 December. He did not return again until 16 November 1812 and then only if he was in charge of foreign policy and half of the army.

Paraguayans often referred to him simply as "Dr. Francia" or Karai Guasu ("great lord" in Guarani). A few Indians believed that he had supernatural powers: when some saw him measuring the stars with his theodolite, they thought he was talking to night demons. Francia would later use it to straighten the streets of Asunción.

On 1 October 1813, Congress named Francia and Fulgencio Yegros as alternate consuls for a year. Francia was given an initial term of four months. Francia's initial term was followed by a four-month term for Yegros, which was then followed by a second four-month term for Francia. Each consul controlled half of the army. On 12 October 1813 Paraguay declared independence from the Spanish Empire.

In March 1814, Francia imposed a law that no Spaniard may intermarry with another Spaniard, and that they may only wed mestizos, Amerindians, or Africans. This was done to eliminate any socioeconomic disparities along racial lines, and also to end the predominantly criollo and peninsulare influence in Paraguay. De Francia himself was not a mestizo, but feared that racial disparities would create tensions that could threaten his absolute rule.

Dictator
On 1 October 1814, Congress named him as sole consul, with absolute powers for three years. He consolidated his power to such an extent that on 1 June 1816, another Congress voted him absolute control over the country for life. For the next 24 years, he ran the country with the aid of only three other people. According to the historian Richard Alan White, the congresses were actually very progressive for the era; all men over 23 could vote for them. From 1817, he appointed cabildo members, but in 1825, he decided to end the cabildo.

Policies
One Latin American scholar, Antonio de la Cova, summarised Francia's rule as follows:

"... we find a strange mixture of capacity and caprice, of far-sighted wisdom and reckless infatuation, strenuous endeavours after a high ideal and flagrant violations of the simplest principles of justice. He cut off Paraguay from the rest of the world by stopping foreign commerce, but carefully fostered its internal industries and agriculture under his personal supervision. Dr. Francia disposed to be hospitable to strangers from other lands, and kept them prisoners for years; lived a life of republican simplicity, and severely punished the slightest want of respect. As time went on he appears to have grown more arbitrary and despotic. Deeply imbued with the principles of the French Revolution, he was a stern antagonist of the church. He abolished the Inquisition, suppressed the college of theology, did away with the tithes, and inflicted endless indignities on the priests. He kept the aristocracy in subjection and discouraged marriage both by precept and example, leaving behind him several illegitimate children. For the extravagances of his later years the plea of insanity has been put forward."

Francia aimed to found a society on the principles of Rousseau's Social Contract and was also inspired by Robespierre and Napoleon. To create such a utopia, he imposed a ruthless isolation upon Paraguay, interdicting all external trade, and he fostered national industries.

Francia in some ways resembles the caudillos of the post-colonial era, but he deviated from the elitist tendencies of most of his contemporaries. Instead, he attempted to reorganize Paraguay in accordance with the wishes of the lower classes and other marginalized groups. He greatly limited the power of the Church and the landed elites in favor of giving peasants a way to make a living on state-run estancias. He is criticized by some scholars for being entirely against the Church, he wanted only to diminish the institution's all-encompassing political control. He actually built new churches and supported religious festivals using state funds. Francia's government also took over services usually under church supervision, such as orphanages, hospitals, and homeless shelters, to manage them more efficiently. Francia and his policies were in fact very well received by the majority of Paraguayans, excluding the small ruling classes, and his neutrality in foreign affairs kept peace in a period of turmoil.

Francia's authoritarian regime built the foundations of a strong and dirigiste state in order to undertake the economic modernization of the country. Paraguay thus instituted rigorous protectionism at a time when most other countries were adopting the free-trade system promoted by the United Kingdom while entrusting their national bourgeoisie with the task of piloting wealth creation. This model, continued after Francia's death by his successors Carlos Antonio López and Francisco Solano López, made Paraguay one of the most modern and socially advanced countries in Latin America: the redistribution of wealth was so great that many foreign travelers reported that the country had no begging, hunger or conflict. The agrarian reform has allowed for a fairly equitable distribution of land. Asunción was one of the first capitals on the continent to inaugurate a railroad network. The country had a growing industry and a merchant fleet made up of ships built in national shipyards, had a trade surplus and was debt-free.

1820 uprising and police state
In February 1820, Francia's political police called the Pyraguës ("hairy feet") uncovered and quickly crushed a plot by the elites and many leading independence figures to assassinate him. Juan Bogarin, the only conspirator who was still free, confessed the plot to his priest and then Francia. Almost 200 prominent Paraguayans were arrested by Francia, who executed most of them. On 9 June 1821, a letter detailing an anti-Francia conspiracy was found by two slaves and Francia's priest, who had knowledge of the plot from the confessions of a conspirator. Francia had all 200 Spaniards arrested and made them stand in the plaza while he read the letter out. They were released 18 months later only when they had paid 150,000 pesos (by comparison, the 1820 budget was 164,723 pesos). The arch-conspirators, Fulgencio Yegros and Pedro Caballero, were arrested and imprisoned for life. Caballero committed suicide on 13 July 1821, and Yegros was executed four days later.

Francia outlawed all opposition and established a secret police force. His underground prison was known as the "chamber of truth", and most of Paraguay's manufactures were made with prison labor. He abolished flogging, but his implementation of the death penalty was brutal, as he insisted all executions be carried out at a banquillo ("stool") under an orange tree outside his window. To avoid wasting bullets, most victims were bayoneted, and their families were not allowed to collect the corpses until they had been lying there all day to make sure that they were dead.

Many prisoners were also banished to Tevego, a prison camp 70 mi away from any other settlements, surrounded by a large swamp on the east, and by the Gran Chaco desert on the west. Upon his death, there were 606 prisoners in Paraguay's jails, who were mainly foreigners.

In 1821, Francia ordered the arrest and imprisonment of the famous French botanist and explorer Aimé Bonpland, who was running a private farm harvesting Yerba mate on the banks of the Paraná, which was seen to be a threat to the Paraguayan economy. Francia later granted Bonpland clemency because of his value as a physician and allowed him to live in a house if he acted as a doctor to the local garrison.

Military
Francia believed the states of Latin America should form a confederation based on equality of nations and joint defence. He created a small but well-equipped army, which was equipped largely with the confiscated Jesuit arsenal. The size of the army varied compared to the magnitude of the threat. In 1824, for example, the army had over 5,500 troops, but in 1834, it had only 649. Francia deliberately misled foreigners into thinking that the army was over 5,000 strong, but it rarely exceeded 2,000. He maintained a large militia of 15,000 reservists. The first Paraguayan-built warship was launched in 1815, and by the mid-1820s, a navy of 100 canoes, sloops and flatboats had been built. People had to remove their hats when meeting any soldier, and Indians who could not afford headgear wore nothing but a hat brim so that they could obey this rule. Cash could be exported only in exchange for arms and ammunition, and in 1832, 2000 muskets and sabres were imported from Brazil.

No wars were fought, but there were disputes over Candelaria with Argentina. Francia initially abandoned it in 1815, but in 1821, he built a fort on the border, another the next year, and a third in 1832. In 1838, the army again occupied Candelaria on the grounds that Francia was protecting the native Guaraní people who lived there.

Paraguayan soldiers saw action only on the outposts of the frontier, which frequently came under attack from the Guaycurú. In 1823, Francia allowed Brazilian merchants to trade in Candelaria. Francia would spend most of the state's budget on the army, but soldiers were also used for labour on public projects.

Education
Francia abolished higher education on the grounds that it was the nation's financial priority to fund the army and that private study could be freely conducted in his library. Francia closed the country's only religious seminary in 1822, mainly because of the bishop's mental illness but also because of his purge of the power of the Church. Nevertheless, he made state education compulsory for all males in 1828, but he neither helped nor hindered private schools. However, illiteracy decreased, and the pupil-teacher ratio grew, with one teacher to 36 pupils by 1825, according to Richard Alan White. In 1836, Francia opened Paraguay's first public library, which was stocked with books confiscated from his opponents. Books were one of the few duty-free items, munitions being another.

Agriculture
In October 1820, a plague of locusts destroyed most of the crops. Francia ordered a second harvest planted. It proved abundant and so from then on, Paraguay's farmers planted two crops a year. Throughout the decade, Francia nationalised half the land in four stages. He started by confiscating the lands of traitors and continued with clerics (1823), squatters (1825) and finally unused land (1828). The land was run directly by soldiers to make their own supplies, or it was leased to the peasants. By 1825, Paraguay was self-sufficient in sugarcane, and wheat was introduced. At the end of his life, Francia ruthlessly confined all cattle at Ytapua to stop a plague spreading from Argentina until it died out.

Refugees
Contrary to popular belief, Paraguay was not completely isolated. Francia welcomed political refugees from various countries. José Artigas, the hero of Uruguay's independence, was given asylum in 1820, along with 200 of his men. Artigas stayed in Paraguay even after Francia's death on a pension of $30 a month and was pursued by Francisco Ramírez, who saw one of his warships also desert to Paraguay. In 1820, Francia ordered for runaway slaves to be given refuge and for refugees from Corrientes to be given canoes and land. In 1839, a whole company of Brazilian deserters was welcomed. Many ex-slaves were also sent to guard the penal colony of Tevego.

Relationship with the Catholic Church
Dr. Francia inherited the "Patronato Regio" (Regal Patronage) of the Spanish Empire, that was originally given to the colonial Viceroys and Governors. He used this Regal Patronage in a severe way, controlling every aspect of the Catholic Church in Paraguay; however, there is no evidence nor tangible proof that Dr. Francia provoked a schism with the Pope. At most, Paraguay's isolation, forced both by external pressures and by Dr. Francia himself, made it very difficult for Rome to establish communications with priests of the country.

Taking the prerrogatives of the "Real Patronato" to an extreme, in mid-June 1816, Dr. Francia ordered all nighttime processions to be banned except that of Corpus Christi. In 1819, the bishop was persuaded to transfer authority to the vicar-general, and in 1820, friars were secularised. On 4 August 1820, all clergy were forced to swear allegiance to the state, and their clerical immunities were withdrawn. The four monasteries in the country were nationalised in 1824, with one later demolished and another becoming a parish church. The remaining two became an artillery park and barracks, and three convents also became barracks. Francia abolished the Inquisition, repurposed confessional boxes as sentry posts, and had the hangings made into lancers' red waistcoats.

Personal life
Francia took several precautions against assassination. He would lock the palace doors himself, unroll the cigars that his sister made to ensure there was no poison, prepare his own yerba mate, and sleep with a pistol under his pillow. Even so, a maid tried to poison him with a piece of cake. No one could come within six paces of him or even bear a cane near him. Whenever he would go out riding, he had all bushes and trees along the route uprooted so that assassins could not hide, all shutters had to be closed, and pedestrians had to prostrate before him as he passed.

Francia lived a spartan lifestyle, and apart from some books and furniture, his only possessions were a tobacco case and a pewter confectionery box. Francia left the state treasury with at least twice as much money in it as when he took office, including 36,500 pesos of his unspent salary, the equivalent of several years' pay.

The final chapter of Rengger & Longchamps' work published in English in 1827 describes details of his personal life. This work seems to have had great impact in the English-speaking world, for many of its claims and descriptions have been accepted and used in other works. Thus, White's fictional account of Francia relies heavily on snippets of the work (e.g., one sentence in a footnote dealing with a tailor and cloth becomes an almost tragi-comic scene in El Supremo). The work is cited by historians to this day, as one of the few personal accounts, even if biased against him.

Legacy
His reputation abroad was negative: Charles Darwin, for one, hoped he would be overthrown, though Thomas Carlyle (himself no friend to democracy) found material to admire even in the publications of Francia's detractors. Carlyle wrote in an 1843 essay that "Liberty of private judgement, unless it kept its mouth shut, was at an end in Paraguay", but considered that under the social circumstances this was of little detriment to a "Gaucho population ... not yet fit for constitutional liberty."

Francia imbued Paraguay with a tradition of autocratic rule that lasted, with only a few breaks, until 1989. He is still considered a national hero, with a museum dedicated to his memory in Yaguarón. It contains portraits of him and his daughter as well as his sweets box, candlestick and tobacco case. Paraguayan author Augusto Roa Bastos wrote an ambivalent depiction of the life of Francia, a novel entitled Yo el Supremo (I, the Supreme).

The American author Edward Lucas White published a historical work of fiction regarding Francia and Paraguay of the mid-1810s in 1916. The author reworks some history in a playful fashion. For example, he has an almost comedic section (Chapter XX, "Gold Combs in Church") where the protagonist helps two friends whose family members were humiliated at the big Cathedral Sunday Mass by being removed for wearing corsets and gold combs in their hair. In the next chapter, "Service By Edict", Francia forces the Catholic clerics he assembles to hold a third Sunday Mass before noon and give public prominence to the two women, who are allowed their corsets but not their gold hair combs:

 * El Supremo: A Romance of the Great Dictator of Paraguay (E. P. Dutton & Co., 1916)

title: José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia


text: User talk:64.12.96.71

title: User talk:64.12.96.71


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Mastiff bat

The name mastiff bat is applied to certain species of the bat family Molossidae or so called free-tailed bats. It is usually applied specifically to the following genera:

 * Eumops, mastiff bats or bonneted bats
 * Mops (bat), greater mastiff bats, a genus of bats in the family Molossidae
 * Promops, dome-palate mastiff bats
 * Chaerephon (bat), lesser mastiff bats

and sometimes more loosely to the rest of the family.

title: Mastiff bat


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Suikoden

Suikoden (幻想水滸伝) is a series of role-playing video games created by Yoshitaka Murayama. The games are loosely based on the classical Chinese novel Water Margin, whose title is rendered as Suikoden (水滸伝) in Japanese. Each individual game centers on themes of politics, corruption, revolution, mystical crystals known as True Runes, and the "108 Stars of Destiny"—the 108 protagonists who are loosely interpreted from the source material.

Although the events of the games are not chronological, the entire series (except for Tierkreis and Tsumugareshi Hyakunen no Toki) takes place within the same world, among continuing and overlapping histories. In some cases, several characters appear in multiple installments.

A spiritual successor to the series titled Eiyuden Chronicle: Hundred Heroes was released on April 23, 2024. A high-definition remaster of the first two games under the title Suikoden I & II HD Remaster: Gate Rune and Dunan Unification Wars is set to release later in 2024.

Gameplay
In the Suikoden series, the player takes control of a battle party having a maximum of six people (consisting of the protagonist and 5 other characters), Suikoden IV, however, reduces the party to four fighters and one support. The goal of the game is for the protagonist to defeat the opponents who are trying to oppose his/her team. This becomes possible as every game in the series revolves around the recruitment of the 108 Stars of Destiny; wherein the fighter characters recruited from the bunch can be used as members for the battle party; every game in the series has their respective Stars of Destiny. The series practically makes use of running around towns on different islands and into dungeons filled with monsters or enemies. A base or headquarters will also be obtained by the player which is usually abandoned, monster-infested castles which turns into bustling communities when captured.

Battle modes
The most typical form of battle in the series is the turn-based battle wherein the 6-man team faces the opponents. However, it is not the sole form of battle featured in the games. There are 3 different types of battle present which recurs and have been accustomed to every game. They are: 'Basic Battle', 'One-on-one Duel' and 'Strategic War Battle'.

 * 1) Basic Battle: It is the most common form of battle. It is when the protagonist's 6-man team will have to battle out. This mode allows the player to control the 6 party members with different commands such as the 'Fight' where the player designates the action he/she wants the characters to perform, 'Run' to escape, 'Bribe' to use the party's money called Potch to bribe the enemy for escape and the 'Auto' command in which the game automatically designates the 'Attack' command for every character.
 * 2) One-on-one Duel: A battle where only a single character fights and happens only in special events. It is a turn-based duel in which the player chooses command to attack (instead of manually controlled fighting). Duels in the series is typically not time-based except Suikoden V wherein choosing a command is timed for 3 seconds. Duels are usually accompanied by dialogue exchange between the player and the enemy, with the dialogue giving clues to what command the enemy will choose next (Essentially rock, paper scissors with the enemy commentary telling the player which they chose).
 * 3) Strategic War Battle: A turn-based strategic battle between the protagonist's side and the enemy. In more accurate terms, this is a battle between armies of the protagonist and the enemy. The protagonist's army is made up of many units which could be organized by the player however he/she desires. Every game in the series has different forms of war battles most notably in Suikoden IV, where the battles are done in the sea. Suikoden V however, is the first game to make use of real-time strategy.

Development
The Suikoden series was created, written, produced, and overseen by Yoshitaka Murayama, who left Konami near the end of Suikoden III's development. Noritada Matsukawa took over as Senior Director of Suikoden III following Murayama's departure. Suikoden IV was directed by Matsukawa as well but was produced by Junko Kawano, who was the chief designer in Suikoden I. Suikoden V was directed by Takahiro Sakiyama, a relative newcomer to RPGs.

Future
In an interview conducted by Japanese website 4gamers.net regarding the RPG Frontier Gate, Konami developers revealed that the Suikoden development team has been disbanded with members scattered about teams within Konami and elsewhere. This led to speculation that the franchise had indeed been abandoned following disappointing sales of the latest entries in the series.

Despite these rumours, Konami presented a trailer for a new Suikoden game on Tokyo Game Show 2011: Genso Suikoden: The Woven Web of a Century (Genso Suikoden Tsumugareshi Hyakunen no Toki). It came out in Japan for PSP on 12 February 2012 to generally lackluster reviews.

According to an article published by The Nikkei in 2015, development on the series has been halted.

In 2020, one of Suikoden's development crew left Konami and named a new studio called Rabbit & Bear, founded by some of the key creative minds behind the classic PlayStation-era roleplaying series, including Yoshitaka Murayama, director and writer on the first two Suikoden games, and the creative team also includes Junko Kawano, the lead artist on Suikoden 1 and 4; Junichi Murakami, art director on Castlevania: Aria of Sorrow; Suikoden Tactics director Osamu Komuta; and composers Motoi Sakuraba and Michiko Naruke. Murayama directed to a Suikoden follow-up game called Eiyuden Chronicle: Hundred Heroes, slated to release worldwide in 2024.

World, setting, and concepts
Essentially, each game follows the plot formula of a coup d'état by corrupt power holder(s) and the protagonist is an exile from his/her home. The plot also follows the disastrous misuse of the "True Runes" while the hero struggles, despite overwhelming odds, to bring peace to the land alongside his/her friends, and the climactic showdown with the corrupted True Rune incarnation.

The 27 True Runes
The 27 True Runes are powerful sources of all magic and primal forces in the world of Suikoden. Wholly sentient and possessing their own will, the True Runes hold immeasurable power, and are the equivalents of gods in the Suikoden world. Many wars have been fought over them in the past, some instigated by the will of the runes themselves. True Runes are often sought by the powerful and influential due to their shared property of granting immortality to those who will bear them. All bearers of True Runes stop aging and become immune to disease and all other natural causes of death, though they can still die from physical trauma such as accidents or murder.

The True Runes often attach themselves to living beings. Doing so gives the True Rune holder great power over the aspect of nature the Rune governs, as well as immortality so long as they bear the Rune. Bearing a True Rune can also have negative consequences, as in the case of the bearer of the Moon Rune being transformed into a vampire. A True Rune can also take the shape of a physical object, as is the case with the Star Dragon Sword being a manifestation of the Night Rune. They can also incarnate themselves unattached from a host, as the Beast Rune did during the Highland-Jowston conflict, self-activating and then feeding of its own will.

Origin of True Runes and the Creation of the Suikoden Universe

The story of the creation of the Suikoden universe can be found in books discovered in most games. The story from "Old Book Vol.1" from Suikoden I reads: "In the beginning...there was 'Darkness'. 'Darkness' lived for eons in a rift in time. Suffering in solitude for so long, 'Darkness' finally dropped a 'Tear'. Two brothers were born of 'Tear'. 'Sword' and 'Shield'. 'Sword' said he could cut anything to pieces. 'Shield' swore he could protect anything. And so, the two went to battle. The battle lasted seven days and seven nights. 'Sword' cut apart 'Shield', and 'Shield' broke 'Sword' into pieces.

Fragments of 'Sword' fell and became the sky. Fragments of 'Shield' fell and became the earth. Sparks from the battle became the stars. The 27 jewels that adorned 'Sword' and 'Shield' became the '27 True Runes,' and the World went into motion."

Known True Runes
 * Gate Rune
 * Governs the connection between worlds
 * Split between the Front and Back halves; Front Gate Rune formerly held by Windy, the Back Gate Rune held by Leknaat (Suikoden I, II, III, IV, V'')
 * The Blue/Pale Gate Rune is derived from this rune
 * Rune of Life and Death (also known as the Soul Eater)
 * Represents life and death, and grants the bearer power over them
 * Considered a cursed rune, it steers the fates of those near the rune bearer to their deaths
 * Held by Ted, Ted's grandfather, and the first Hero (Suikoden I, II, and IV)
 * The Darkness rune is derived from this rune
 * Rune of the Beginning
 * Represents the conflict between the brothers "Sword" and "Shield" at the creation of the Suikoden universe; governs war and conflict
 * Almost always exists split into two aspects: the Bright Shield Rune and Black Sword Rune, and the bearers of each rune are destined to fight each other (Suikoden II)
 * Held by Genkaku and Han Cunningham during the first Highland-Jowston conflict, later held by the second Hero and Jowy (Suikoden II)
 * The Shield rune is derived from the Bright Shield Rune
 * Rune of Punishment
 * Governs atonement and forgiveness
 * Considered a cursed rune, use of its power drains the rune bearer of life force, and bearers of the rune tend to have short lives
 * Held by the Queen of Obel, Graham Cray and his son, Rakgi's father, Steele, Brandeau, Glen Cott, and the Hero (Suikoden IV)
 * True Elemental Runes (Fire, Water, Earth, Wind, and Lightning)
 * Govern the five fundamental elements of the Suikoden universe; each rune grants the bearer great power over that element
 * All elemental runes are derived from these True Runes
 * True Fire Rune - held by the Flame Champion, and later either Hugo, Chris Lightfellow, or Geddoe (Suikoden III)
 * True Water Rune - held by Wyatt Lightfellow, and later either Chris Lightfellow or Hugo (Suikoden III)
 * True Earth Rune - held by Bishop Sasarai of Harmonia (Suikoden II and III)
 * True Wind Rune - held by Luc (Suikoden II and III)
 * True Lightning Rune - held by Geddoe or Hugo (Suikoden III)
 * Sun Rune
 * Governs the power of light
 * While the rune can be borne by a person, it drives its bearer insane and is typically kept sealed away
 * Two child runes, the Twilight Rune and Dawn Rune, were created from the separation of the Sun Rune and the Night Rune and govern the Sun Rune's power
 * A treasure of the Queendom of Falena, the Sun Rune was formerly held by Queen Arshtat Falenas
 * The Dawn Rune is held by the Prince, and the Twilight Rune is held by Alenia, Sialeeds, and Lyon (Suikoden V)
 * Sovereign Rune
 * Represents authority and the power to rule; grants bearer immunity from all other runes
 * Held by Emperor Barbarossa of the Scarlet Moon Empire (Suikoden I)
 * Hachifusa (Eight-Fold) Rune
 * Held by Yuber (never featured in a game; Yuber's Eight-Devil Rune in Suikoden III is assumed to be related to it)
 * Circle Rune
 * Represents order, harmony, and stagnation
 * Held by Harmonia's leader, High Priest Hikusaak (never featured in a game)
 * Rune of Change
 * Governs change
 * Speculated to be held by the leader of the ancient nomadic Sindar people (never featured in a game)
 * Moon Rune
 * Represents compassion and destruction
 * Transforms the rune bearer into a vampire
 * Held by Neclord, and then Sierra Mikain (Suikoden I, II)
 * Night Rune
 * Represents night and darkness, and is the opposite of the Sun Rune; originally born joined with the Sun Rune, it but it took the form of a sword and separated itself
 * Incarnated as the Star Dragon Sword (Zodiac Sword), which is wielded by Viktor during Suikoden I and II, and Edge in Suikoden III
 * Grants the wielder the power over "creatures of the night" such as vampires
 * Its child rune, the Star Rune, is held by Zerase (Suikoden V)
 * Beast Rune
 * Represents rage, passion, and bloodlust
 * Sealed in the capital of Highland, L'Renouille Palace (Suikoden II)
 * Dragon Rune
 * Governs dragons, and is the source of dragons in the Suikoden universe
 * Grants the bearer the ability to command dragons
 * Held by Joshua Levenheit, and later Milia, as leaders of the Dragon Knights

The 108 Stars of Destiny
A concept borrowed from the Chinese novel Shui Hu Zhuan, each Suikoden game has featured 108 characters who band together to ward off a threat. In each main Suikoden game (excluding the Suikogaiden games and Suikoden Tactics), there are 108 notable characters, all of which are recruitable except for in Suikoden III, where several of the stars of destiny were the antagonist characters. While recruiting all of the Stars of Destiny is not a requirement to finishing the game, recruiting all of them gives certain bonuses that affect the story of the game.

Geography
The Suikoden series is set in a world with many countries. The political geography has changed over the series chronology; while the most recent game in the setting is Suikoden V, chronologically, Suikoden IV is the earliest game while Suikoden III occurs latest within the time span of the series.

Suikoden, Suikoden II and Suikoden III are set on the Northern Continent, a land mass composed of several regions. Suikoden takes place in the Scarlet Moon Empire, which is located on southeastern coast of the Northern Continent, and is composed primarily of the Toran region, with Lake Toran at its centre. Notable locations in this area include Gregminister, the empire's capital situated in Arlus, the Warrior's Village in the Lorimar region, and the Great Forest. At the end of Suikoden, the empire is replaced by the Toran Republic.

Suikoden II is set in the Dunan region, north-west of the Toran Republic, and initially comprises the Highland Kingdom in the east and the Jowston City-States, a confederation of politically autonomous states, in the west. Significant locations in Jowston include the cities-states of South Window, Greenhill, Muse, and Two River, and the Knightdom of Matilda. Following the Dunan Unification War, the Highland Kingdom falls and it, along with the Jowston City-States unite to form the Dunan Republic. The Tinto region lying in the west, separated from Dunan by mountains, chooses to remain politically independent and becomes the Tinto Republic.

Sharing Dunan's western border and north of Tinto are the Grasslands, which stretch from the centre of the Northern Continent to a small portion of the continent's west coast. The area is composed of the six clans: the Lizard, Duck, Karaya, Chisha, Safir, and the Alma Kinan. Directly west of the Grasslands and bordered in the east by Tinto is the Zexen Confederacy, located on the west coast of the Northern Continent and historically an offshoot of the Grasslands. Important locations include the Zexen capital Vinay del Zexay and Budehuc Castle, which lies close to the Grasslands border in northwest Zexen. The primary conflict of Suikoden III occurs in these areas. The northwestern portion of the continent, due north of the Grasslands and Zexen, is the Knightdom of Camaro and the surrounding Nameless Lands.

The largest country in the north is the Holy Kingdom of Harmonia, located in the northeastern portion of the continent. Since its establishment, it has assimilated various neighbouring countries, such as Sanadia, as well as a portion of the Grasslands – the Kanaa clan of the Grasslands became Le Buque under Harmonian rule after the First Fire Bringer War. Notably, the Scarlet Moon Empire originally formed after obtaining political autonomy from Harmonia and taking Harmonia's old capital as its own, renaming it Gregminister, resulting in Harmonia establishing a new capital at the Crystal Valley. Harmonia is also home to the Tower, a location reserved for training and housing members of the Howling Voice Guild.

Other major areas on the Northern Continent include the Kooluk region and Kanakan. The Kooluk region was originally the Kooluk Empire during the course of Suikoden IV and eventually dissolved in Suikoden Tactics to be left as a group of independent settlements. It takes up most of the southern edge of the Northern continent and directly borders the Toran Republic in the east and the Dunan Republic in the north. Off the eastern coast of Toran is the island of Kanakan.

Lying directly south of the Northern Continent is the ocean and several islands, including Obel, Middleport, and Razril. At the end of Suikoden IV, most of these islands are unified to become the Island Nations Federation. The largest island in the area, the Dukedom of Gaien, remains independent. West of Gaien is the island nation of the Kingdom of Zelant.

Due south of the Island Nations is the Southern Continent, a landmass composed primarily of three countries: the Queendom of Falena, and its neighbours, the theocracy of Nagarea in the southwest and the New Armes Kingdom in the southeast. As the setting for Suikoden V, Falena has a large network of rivers and lakes throughout the country and the Ashtwal Mountains in its northern region. Key locations include the cities of Stormfist and Doraat in the west; Rainwall, Estrise, and Sable, located on the Armes border, in the east; Lelcar, Lordlake, and Sauronix in the south; and the Falenan capital, Sol-Falena, and the holy land of Lunas, governed by the Oracle, in the north. Falena has been protected from the militant theocracy Nagarea since the mountain pass between the nations was destroyed, though Armes continues to remain a threat throughout Suikoden V.

Northeast of Falena also appears portion of a landmass of considerable size. West of the Northern and Southern Continents and the Island Nations is a landmass referred to as the Western Continent, of which few details are known. Scattered across the world are mysterious ruins attributed to the lost Sindar race, which is a recurring theme throughout the Suikoden series.

Music collections
The Suikoden games have generally been considered to have soundtracks very well liked by the gaming community, though they have only been released in Japan as of 2007.

A series of arranged soundtracks were released from late 2001–2004. Despite the first being released slightly before Suikoden III and the last at around the same time as Suikoden IV, the music was always taken from music in Suikoden, Suikoden II, Suikoden III, and (rarely) the Suikogaiden side-stories.

 * Genso Suikoden Music Collection Produced by Hiroyuki Nanba — a 10-track arrangement released on 29 December 2001. The production and arrangement were both done by Hiroyuki Namba, as the name indicates.
 * Genso Suikoden Music Collection Produced by Kentaro Haneda — another 10-track arrangement released on 24 April 2002. Kentarō Haneda was only the producer; the arrangements were done by Kousuke Yamashita, Michiru Oshima, Rie Akagi, Kenji Yamamoto, and Hiroshi Takagi.
 * Genso Suikoden Vocal Collection ~La passione commuove la storia~ — a 10-track arrangement released on 3 July 2002. The first piece is an instrumental, but the other tracks all feature vocals. The arrangement was done by Kousuke Yamashita, Hiroshi Takagi, and Megumi Ohashi. Performers included Yuko Imai, Risa Oki, and Yoko Ueno.
 * Genso Suikoden Vocal Collection ~Distant Stars, Echoes of Love~ — a 10-track arrangement released on 22 January 2003. The arrangement was once more done by Kousuke Yamashita, Hiroshi Takagi, and Megumi Ohashi. Performers included Sanae Shintani, Yuko Imai, and Tomoko.
 * Genso Suikoden Piano Collection ~Avertunerio Antes Lance Mao~ — a 13-track arrangement released on 18 December 2002, arranged by Shusei Murai. Despite the name, these are not piano solos; most include orchestral backup, and some have vocals as well.
 * Genso Suikoden Celtic Collection — a 12 track arrangement in the style of celtic music released on 5 March 2003. The arrangements were done by Yoko Ueno, Mina Kubota, Yuko Asai, Shigeyoshi Kawagoe, and "The Rain Book."
 * Genso Suikoden Celtic Collection 2 — a 12-track arrangement released on 20 August 2003. Arrangement was done by Yoko Ueno, Yuji Yoshino, Yuko Asai, and Shigeyoshi Kawagoe.
 * Genso Suikoden Music Collection ~Asian Collection~ — a 12-track arrangement released on 27 November 2003. It was arranged by Kiyoshi Yoshida, Hidenori Maezawa, Yuko Asai, and Shigeyoshi Kawagoe.
 * Genso Suikoden Piano Collection 2 — a 12 track arrangement released on 21 January 2004, arranged by Shusei Murai.
 * Genso Suikoden Celtic Collection III — a 13 track arrangement released on 14 April 2004, arranged by Yuji Yoshino.

Publications, adaptations, and other material
Many publications, such as the Suikoden World Guide and Suikoden Encyclopedia, exist for the Suikoden series, though the majority are only in Japanese. Suikoden and Suikoden II have light novel adaptations written by Shinjiro Hori released only in Japan. Suikoden III was adapted into a manga by Aki Shimizu, which was released in English markets by Tokyopop.

Cameos

 * Tokimeki Memorial: Forever with You (1995) (PlayStation, Sega Saturn, PlayStation Portable)

The protagonist of Suikoden I is one of the characters in this game.
 * Mitsumete Knight R (1998) (PlayStation)

The protagonist of Suikoden I is one of the selectable characters in this game.
 * Konami Wai Wai Sokoban (2006) (mobile phones)

Tir appear as supportive character.
 * Professional Yakyuu Spirits A (2015) (mobile phones)

 * Super Bomberman R Online (2021)

title: Suikoden


text:
Talk:Gray-bellied night monkey

Range of species
The IUCN, seems to say the 4 subspecies are in 3 Central American countries and Colombia. Any verification? ...Mmcannis 17:08, 7 November 2006 (UTC)
 * MSW3 says this species is in Panama, Equador, and Colombia. - UtherSRG (talk) 17:50, 7 November 2006 (UTC)
 * The Taxonomy chapter of "New Perspectives in the Study of Mesoamerican Primates", of which Groves is a co-author, seems to back off from this. Apparently a study by Defler in 2001 (which I believe is subsequent to MSW3; at least it appears to be from the way the chapter is written) concluded that A. zonalis is a separate species.  So, we may want to consider using the subsequent taxonomy on this, instead of following MSW3.  I started an article on A. l. zonalis presuming subspecies status (but noting the controversy), so the taxonomy in that article may also need to be reconsidered. Rlendog (talk) 03:47, 30 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Msw3 was published in 2005, although mostly written in 2003, so the 2001 paper by Defler is older even than that. I'll ask Groves his thoughts on the genus. - UtherSRG (talk) 15:27, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Ah.... I'd already asked him about Aotus: "In as far as anything can be settled, yes. In my book, hence in MSW 3 (which was delayed for two years between completion of the manuscript and publication), I think I was much too much of a lumper in Aotus. Defler, in his publications and discussions, has convinced me that it is all much more complicated in Colombia than I had thought.  And this is not the last word either (the question of the identity of the “real” lemurinus, for example, is still not settled, and it looks like there may be a new species to be described), but of course we have to report to the wide world from time to time, and somehow to make it clear that discoveries are still being made." So it looks like the best thing to do is to hold on until something new is published, but we can note that things are more complicated and that the taxonomy is fluid. - UtherSRG (talk) 15:32, 1 December 2008 (UTC)

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Monkey
Monke :) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 140.232.188.74 (talk) 23:50, 29 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Gray-bellied night monkey


text:
Talk:Formidable-class battleship

Janes Fighting Ships 1919 lists 7 out of 8 of these ships as Formidable-class (exception is HMS Bulwark, unclassifised). www.battleships-cruisers.co.uk says only Formidable, Implacable and Irresistible are Formidable-class, the rest are London-class. Any idea which is right? Geoff 21:49, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * My Naval Annual 1913 doesn't have a lot to say, lists all eight together, with five including London getting a footnote noting a change in the bow armor. So I think the Londons could be considered a "subclass", which would explain the confusion. I would put them all in the Formidable class, add a redir, and use the article to explain the minor differences - when I get around to uploading the nice diagrams in my book, it will look kind of silly to clone the one diagram into two purportedly-different articles. Stan 22:11, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

MacDougall (Chatham built warships since 1860 - ISBN 0 907771 07 6) gives the following details for Venerable and Prince of Wales which differ from the values already present here.

Displacement 15,000 tons, Length 400 ft, Draught 29 ft. Complement 740 (Venerable), 750 (Prince of Wales)

And for Irresistible

Displacement 15,000 tons, length 430 ft, Draught 27 ft, Speed 18.5 knots.

He also comments against Venerable "Little difference externally from Irresistible, but the Venerable had a longer belt of armour amidships". This would lead one to expect a larger displacement from the Londons unless the difference in deck armour thickness was very significant or there were other differences.

While some of the difference could arise from one source using waterline measurements while the other uses OA (MacDougal states he has used BP lengths), photographs confirm that these all had the straight, vertical stem one would expect from ships of this era (and a fairly low freeboard to boot), so 30' seems decidedly excessive. This suggests the London's did have shorter hulls which would significantly compensate for a thicker belt.

More sources needed I think. 13:30 BST 20 Set 04

Mikasa
The Japanese battleship Mikasa was built as a modification of the Formidable-class, yet there's no mention of this on the article. Any suggestions as how to proceed? ip.address.conflict (talk) 16:35, 31 July 2015 (UTC)

 * - was about to add a new topic but see it's been expressed before...how do you propose readers might learn that an preserved Formidable sister-ship still exists for anyone interested in researching further without any mention of the fact that it's out there?(399scout (talk) 23:38, 26 January 2022 (UTC))
 * Mikasa wasn’t a member of this class, but her design was based on it. There’s no need to include anything beyond what’s now in the article. Ship design being an inherently iterative process, we should note where those connections exist, but we should keep articles as focused on the subject as we can.
 * In other words, further information on Mikasa, particularly the link to the virtual tour, would be excessive since that ship is not the subject of this article. Parsecboy (talk) 00:27, 27 January 2022 (UTC)
 * ah, i see what you did in the design section. agree the tour might be excesive, thanks. {399scout (talk) 21:57, 29 January 2022 (UTC)}

Heads up
Just a note in case anyone watches this article, but I'm planning on chopping it up in the next few days to bring it in line with how most historians treat the Formidable and London classes (see this discussion here). Gibbons seems to be the only historian who treats all 8 ships to be one class, so it hardly seems justifiable to give his opinion primacy of place. I'll wait a few days to see if there are any objections, but in the absence of any, I'll start hacking. Parsecboy (talk) 12:59, 6 November 2018 (UTC)
 * Since it's been a week and there have been no objections, I'm going to start chopping away. Parsecboy (talk) 21:06, 13 November 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Formidable-class battleship