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Enver Pasha

İsmail Enver (اسماعیل انور پاشا; İsmail Enver Paşa; 23 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), better known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer, revolutionary, and convicted war criminal who formed one-third of the dictatorial triumvirate known as the "Three Pashas" (along with Talaat Pasha and Cemal Pasha) in the Ottoman Empire.

While stationed in Ottoman Macedonia, Enver joined the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), an organization affiliated with the Young Turkey movement that was agitating against Sultan Abdul Hamid II's despotic rule. He was a key leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution which reestablished the Constitution and parliamentary democracy in the Ottoman Empire, and along with Ahmed Niyazi was hailed as "hero of the revolution". However multiple crises in the Empire including the 31 March Incident, the Balkan Wars, and the power struggle with the Freedom and Accord Party made Enver and the Unionists disillusioned with liberal Ottomanism. After the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état that brought the CUP directly to power, Enver become War Minister, while Talaat took control over the civilian government.

As war minister and de facto Commander-in-Chief (despite his role as the de jure Deputy Commander-in-Chief, as the Sultan formally held the title), Enver was one of the most powerful figures of the government of the Ottoman Empire. He led a disastrous attack on Russian forces in the Battle of Sarikamish, after which he blamed Armenians for his defeat. Along with Talaat, he was one of the principal perpetrators of the Late Ottoman Genocides  and thus is held responsible for the death of between 800,000 and 1,800,000   Armenians, 300,000 Assyrians and 750,000 Greeks. Following defeat in World War I, Enver, along with other leading Unionists, escaped the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman Military Tribunal convicted him and other Unionists and sentenced them to death in absentia for bringing the Empire into World War I and organizing massacres against Greeks and Armenians. Enver ended up in Central Asia, where he was killed leading the Basmachi Revolt against the Bolsheviks. In 1996, his remains were reburied in Turkey and he received rehabilitation by then Turkish president Süleyman Demirel who also praised him and his contributions to Turkish nationalism.

In the course of his career he was known by increasingly elevated titles as he rose through military ranks, including Enver Efendi (انور افندی), Enver Bey (انور بك), and finally Enver Pasha, "pasha" being the honorary title Ottoman military officers gained on promotion to the rank of Mirliva (major general).

Early life and career
Enver was born in Constantinople (Istanbul) on 22 November 1881. Enver's father, Ahmed (c. 1860–1947), was either a bridge-keeper in Monastir (modern Bitola) or an Albanian small town public prosecutor in the Balkans. His mother Ayşe Dilara was a Tatar. According to Şuhnaz Yilmaz, he was of Gagauz descent. His uncle was Halil Pasha (later Kut). Enver had two younger brothers, Nuri and Mehmed Kamil, and two younger sisters, Hasene and Mediha. He was the brother in law of Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım. At the age of six he moved with his father to Monastir where he attended primary school. He studied in different military institutions and ultimately graduated from the Ottoman Military Academy in 1902, making him a Mektebli.

Between 1903 and 1908 he was stationed in Ottoman Macedonia during the Macedonian Struggle, where he developed a reputation as an expert counterinsurgent (mostly Bulgarian bands). Fighting no less than 54 engagements, he became convinced of a need for reform of the Ottoman military.

Joining the CUP
Enver, through the assistance of his uncle Halil Kut became the twelfth member of the Ottoman Freedom Society (OFS) while the organisation was still at an early phase of development. The OFS merged later with the Paris-based Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) led by Ahmed Rıza. The CUP gained access to the Third Army through Enver. In 1906 upon returning to Monastir, Enver formed a CUP cell within the town and worked closely with an Ottoman officer Kâzım Karabekir. Enver became the main figure in the CUP Monastir branch and he initiated Ottoman officers like Ahmet Niyazi bey and Eyüp Sabri into the CUP organisation.

In the early twentieth century some prominent Young Turk members such as Enver developed a strong interest in the ideas of Gustave Le Bon. For example, Enver saw deputies as mediocre and in reference to Le Bon he thought that as a collective mind they had the potential to become dangerous and be the same as a despotic leader. As the CUP shifted away from the ideas of members who belonged to the old core of the organisation to those of the newer membership, this change assisted individuals like Enver in gaining a larger profile in the Young Turk movement.

In Ohri (modern Ohrid) an armed band (çete) called the Special Muslim Organisation (SMO) composed mostly of notables was created in 1907 to protect local Muslims and fight Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO) bands. Enver along with Sabri recruited the SMO and turned it into the Ohri branch of the CUP with its band becoming the local CUP band. CUP Internal headquarters proposed that Enver go form a CUP band in the countryside. Approving the decision by the committee to assassinate his brother in law Lieutenant Colonel Ömer Nâzım, Enver under instructions from CUP headquarters traveled from Selanik (Thessaloniki) to Tikveş on 26 June 1908 to establish a band. CUP headquarters conferred upon Enver the title of "CUP Inspector General of Internal Organisation and Executive Forces".

Young Turk Revolution
On 3 July 1908, Niyazi, protesting the rule of Abdul Hamid II, fled with his band from Resne (modern Resen) into the mountains where he initiated the Young Turk Revolution and issued a proclamation that called for the restoration of the constitution of 1876. Following his example, Enver in Tikveş, and other officers such as Sabri in Ohri, also went into the mountains and formed guerilla bands. It is unclear whether the CUP had a fixed date for the revolution; in comments made in an interview following the event Enver stated that they planned for action in August 1908, yet events had forced them to begin the revolution at an earlier time. For the revolt to get local support Enver and Niyazi played on fears of possible foreign intervention. Enver led a band composed of volunteers and deserters. For example, he allowed a deserter who had engaged in brigandage in areas west of the river Vardar to join his band at Tikveș. Throughout the revolution, guerilla bands of both Enver and Niyazi consisted of Muslim (mostly Albanian) paramilitaries.

Enver sent an ultimatum to the Inspector General on 11 July 1908 and demanded that within 48 hours Abdul Hamid II issue a decree for CUP members that had been arrested and sent to Constantinople to be freed. He warned that if the ultimatum was not complied with by the Inspector General, he would refuse to accept any responsibility for future actions. In Tikveș a handwritten appeal was distributed to locals calling for them to either stay neutral or join with him. Enver possessed strong authority among fellow Muslims in the area where he resided and could communicate with them as he spoke both Albanian and Turkish. During the revolution, Enver stayed in the homes of notables, and as a sign of respect they would kiss his hands since he had earlier saved them from an attack by an IMRO band. He stated that the CUP had no support in the countryside apart from a few large landowners with CUP membership that lived in towns, yet they retained influence in their villages and were able to mobilise the population for the cause. Whole settlements were enrolled into the CUP through councils of village elders convened by Enver in Turkish villages of the Tikveş region. As the revolution spread by the third week and more officers deserted the army to join the cause, Enver and Niyazi got like minded officials and civilian notables to send multiple petitions to the Ottoman palace. Enver wrote in his memoirs that while he still was involved in band activity in the days toward the end of the revolution he composed more detailed rules of engagement for use by paramilitary units and bands.

On 23 July he proclaimed an age of liberty in front of the government mansion of Köprülü. In Salonica, he spoke from the balconies of the Grand Hôtel D'Angleterre to a crowd in the city center, where he declared that absolutism was finished, and Ottomanism would prevail. The square would be named Eleftherias Square, or the Square of Liberty thereafter. Facing a deteriorating situation in the Balkans, on 24 July Sultan Abdul Hamid II restored the constitution of 1876.

Aftermath
In the aftermath of the revolution Niyazi and Enver remained in the political background due to their youth and junior military ranks with both agreeing that photographs of them would not be distributed to the general public; however, this decision was rarely honoured. Instead Niyazi and Enver as leaders of the revolution elevated their positions into near legendary status, with their images placed on postcards and distributed throughout the Ottoman state. Toward the latter part of 1908, photographs of Niyazi and Enver had reached Constantinople and school children of the time played with masks on their faces that depicted the revolutionaries. In other images produced of the time the sultan is presented in the centre flanked by Niyazi and Enver to either side. As the actions of both men carried the appearance of initiating the revolution, Niyazi, an Albanian, and Enver, a Turk, later received popular acclaim as "heroes of freedom" (hürriyet kahramanları) and symbolised Albanian-Turkish cooperation.

As a tribute to his role in the Young Turk Revolution that began the Second Constitutional Era of the Ottoman Empire, Niyazi is mentioned along with Enver in the March of the Deputies (Mebusan Marşı or Meclis-i Mebusan Marşı), the anthem of the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Ottoman parliament. It was performed in 1909 upon the opening of the new parliament. The fourth line of the anthem reads "Long live Niyazi, long live Enver" ("Yaşasın Niyazi, yaşasın Enver"). The Ottoman newspaper Volkan, a strong supporter of the constitution published adulatory pieces about Enver and Niyazi in 1909.

Following the revolution Enver rose within the ranks of the Ottoman military and had an important role within army–committee relations. By 1909 he was the military attaché at Berlin and formed personal ties with high ranking German state officials and the Kaiser. It was during this time that Enver came to admire the culture of Germany and power of the German military. He invited German officers to reform the Ottoman Army. In 1909 a reactionary conspiracy to organise a countercoup culminated in the 31 March Incident; the countercoup was put down. Enver for a short time in April 1909 returned to Constantinople and joined the Action Army. As such he took an active role in the suppression of the countercoup, which resulted in the overthrow of Abdul Hamid II, who was replaced by his brother Mehmed V, while the power of the CUP was consolidated. Throughout the Young Turk era, Enver was a member of the CUP central committee from 1908 to 1918.

Italo-Turkish War
In 1911, Italy launched an invasion of the Ottoman vilayet of Tripolitania (Trablus-i Garb, modern Libya), starting the Italo-Turkish War. Enver decided to join the defense of the province and left Berlin for Libya. There, he assumed the overall command after successfully mobilizing 20,000 troops. Because of the outbreak of the Balkan Wars, however, Enver and other Ottoman generals in Libya were called back to Constantinople. This allowed Italy to take control of Libya. In 1912, thanks to his active role in the war, he was made lieutenant colonel.

However, the loss of Libya cost the CUP in popularity, and it fell from government after rigging the 1912 elections (known as the Sopalı Seçimler, "Election of Clubs"), to be replaced by the Freedom and Accord Party (which was helped by its military arm, the Savior Officers, that denounced the CUP's actions during the 1912 elections).

Balkan Wars and 1913 coup
In October 1912, the First Balkan War broke out, and the Ottoman armies suffered severe defeats at the hands of the Balkan League. These military reversals weakened the government, and gave the committee the chance to seize power from Freedom and Accord. In a coup in January 1913, Enver and CUP leader Mehmed Talaat regained power for the committee and introduced a triumvirate that came to be called the "Three Pashas" which included Enver, Talaat, and Ahmed Cemal Pasha. Turkey then withdrew from the peace negotiations then under way in London and did not sign the Treaty of London (1913), resuming the First Balkan War. The change in government did not change the fact that the war was lost, and the Ottoman Empire gave up almost all of its Balkan territory to the Balkan League. Afterwards the Grand Vizier Mahmud Shevket Pasha was assassinated, allowing the CUP to take full control over the empire.

In June 1913, however, the Second Balkan War broke out between the Balkan Allies. Enver Bey took advantage of the situation and led an army into Eastern Thrace, recovering Adrianople (Edirne) from the Bulgarians, who had concentrated their forces against the Serbs and Greeks, with the Treaty of Constantinople (1913). Enver is therefore recognised by some Turks as the "conqueror of Edirne".

In 1914, he became Minister of War in the cabinet of Said Halim Pasha, and married HIH Princess Emine Naciye Sultan (1898–1957), the daughter of Prince Süleyman, thus entering the royal family as a damat ("bridegroom" to the ruling House of Osman).

World War I
Being able to communicate in German, Enver Pasha, along with Talaat and Halil Bey were architects of the Ottoman-German Alliance, and expected a quick victory in the war that would benefit the Ottoman Empire. Without informing the cabinet, he allowed the two German warships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau, under the command of German admiral Wilhelm Souchon, to enter the Dardanelles to escape British pursuit; the subsequent "donation" of the ships to the neutral Ottomans worked powerfully in Germany's favor, despite French and Russian diplomacy to keep the Ottoman Empire out of the war. Finally on 29 October, the point of no return was reached when Admiral Souchon, now Commander-in-Chief of the Ottoman navy, took Goeben, Breslau, and a squadron of Ottoman warships into the Black Sea and bombed the Russian ports of Odessa, Sevastopol, and Theodosia. Russia declared war on Ottoman Empire on 2 November, and Britain followed suit on 5 November. Most of the Turkish cabinet members and CUP leaders were against such a rushed entry to the war, but Enver Pasha held that it was the right course of action.

As soon as the war started, 31 October 1914, Enver ordered that all men of military age report to army recruiting offices. The offices were unable to handle the vast flood of men, and long delays occurred. This had the effect of ruining the crop harvest for that year.

Battle of Sarikamish, 1914

Enver Pasha assumed command of the Ottoman forces arrayed against the Russians in the Caucasus theatre. He wanted to encircle the Russians, force them out of Ottoman territory, and take back Kars and Batumi, which had been ceded after the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. Enver thought of himself as a great military leader, while the German military adviser, Liman von Sanders, thought of him as incompetent. Enver ordered a complex attack on the Russians, placed himself in personal control of the Third Army, and was utterly defeated at the Battle of Sarikamish in December 1914 – January 1915. His strategy seemed feasible on paper, but he had ignored external conditions, such as the terrain and the weather. Enver's army (118,000 men) was defeated by the Russian force (80,000 men), and in the subsequent retreat, tens of thousands of Turkish soldiers died. This was the single worst Ottoman defeat of World War I. On his return to Constantinople, Enver Pasha blamed his failure on his Armenian soldiers, although in January 1915, an Armenian named Hovannes had saved his life during a battle by carrying Enver through battle lines on his back. Nonetheless, Enver Pasha later initiated the deportations and sporadic massacres of Western Armenians, culminating in the Armenian genocide.

Commanding the forces of the capital, 1915–1918

After his defeat at Sarıkamısh, Enver returned to Istanbul (Constantinople) and took command of the Turkish forces around the capital. He was confident that the capital was safe from any Allied attacks. The British and French were planning on forcing the approaches to Constantinople in the hope of knocking the Ottomans out of the war. A large Allied fleet assembled and staged an attack on the Dardanelles on 18 March 1915. The attack (the forerunner to the failed Gallipoli campaign) was a disaster, resulting in the loss of several ships. As a result, Enver turned over command to Liman von Sanders, who led the successful defence of Gallipoli. Enver then left to attend to pressing concerns on the Caucasus Front. Later, after many towns on the peninsula had been destroyed and women and children killed by the Allied bombardment, Enver proposed setting up a concentration camp for the remaining French and British citizens in the empire. Henry Morgenthau, the American ambassador to the Ottoman Empire, convinced Enver not to go through with this plan.

Yildirim
Enver's plan for Falkenhayn's Yildirim Army Group was to retake Baghdad, recently taken by Maude. This was nearly impossible for logistical reasons. Turkish troops were deserting freely, and when Enver visited Beirut in June 1917, soldiers were forbidden to be stationed along his route for fear that he would be assassinated. Lack of rolling stock meant that troops were often detrained at Damascus and marched south.

Army of Islam

During 1917, due to the Russian Revolution and subsequent Civil War, the Russian army in the Caucasus fell apart and dissolved. At the same time, the CUP managed to win the friendship of the Bolsheviks with the signing of the Ottoman-Russian friendship treaty (1 January 1918). Enver looked for victory when Russia withdrew from the Caucasus region. When Enver discussed his plans for taking over southern Russia, he ordered the creation of a new military force called the Army of Islam which would have no German officers. Enver's Army of Islam avoided Georgia and marched through Azerbaijan. The Third Army under Vehib Pasha was also moving forward to pre-war borders and towards the First Republic of Armenia, which formed the frontline in the Caucasus. General Tovmas Nazarbekian was the commander on the Caucasus front, and Andranik Ozanian took the command of Armenia within the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman advance was halted at the Battle of Sardarabad.

The Army of Islam, under the control of Nuri Pasha, moved forward and attacked Australian, New Zealand, British, and Canadian troops led by General Lionel Charles Dunsterville at Baku. General Dunsterville ordered the evacuation of the city on 14 September, after six weeks of occupation, and withdrew to Iran. As the Army of Islam and their Azerbaijani allies entered the city on September 15 following the Battle of Baku, up to 30,000 Armenian civilians were massacred.

However, after the Armistice of Mudros between Great Britain and the Ottoman Empire on 30 October, Ottoman troops were obliged to withdraw and replaced by the Triple Entente. These conquests in the Caucasus counted for very little in the war as a whole but they did however ensure that Baku remained within the boundaries of Azerbaijan while a part of the Soviet Union and later as an independent nation.

Armistice and exile
Faced with defeat, the Sultan dismissed Enver from his post as War Minister on 4 October 1918, while the rest of Talaat Pasha's government resigned on 14 October 1918. On 30 October 1918, the Ottoman Empire capitulated by signing the Armistice of Mudros. Two days later, the "Three Pashas" all fled into exile. On 1 January 1919, the new government expelled Enver Pasha from the army. He was tried in absentia in the Turkish Courts-Martial of 1919–20 for crimes of "plunging the country into war without a legitimate reason, forced deportation of Armenians and leaving the country without permission" and condemned to death.

Enver first attempted to link up with Halil and Nuri to reopen the Caucasus campaign, but his boat ran aground and hearing the army was demobilizing he gave up and went to Berlin like the other Unionists émigrés did. He settled in Babelsberg, and in April 1919 after meeting with Karl Radek with Talaat, he took on the role of a secret envoy for his friend General Hans von Seeckt who wished for a German-Soviet alliance. In August 1920, Enver sent Seeckt a letter in which he offered on behalf of the Soviet Union the partition of Poland in return for German arms deliveries to Soviet Russia. Besides working for General von Seeckt, Enver envisioned cooperation between the new Soviet Russian government against the British, and went to Moscow.

Accompanying Mehmed Ali Sâmi, Enver's new pseudonym, was his Unionist comrade Bahaeddin Şakir. Sâmi would be a doctor representing the Turkish Red Crescent in Russia. On 10 October 1919, their plane flight took off from the German border and stopped in Königsberg and then Šiauliai but crashed in the outskirts of Kaunas, Lithuania. Stranded in a country teeming with Allied soldiers, they weren't recognized by journalists or occupation forces until they were about to escape. They were eventually arrested for two months, but Enver and Şakir managed to escape from the Lithuanian prison back to Berlin. Enver and Şakir tried again to enter Russia by air but their plane broke down and crashed not even beyond the German border. After tending to their wounds in a near by village, they returned to Berlin. Enver's insistence to arrive to Moscow by plane costed them another plane crash in flight trials. Eventually Cemal joined the duo, and using a plane that successfully passed flight tests they set off once again for Moscow. But hearing strange noises from the engine, Enver asked the pilot to turn back. After small repairs to the plane Enver attempted a fifth flight to Moscow, where the plane disintegrated one hour into the flight. While Enver was determined to make a grand entrance from the sky, Şakir and Cemal gave up and instead joined a Russian prisoner of war convoy heading back to their homeland. Enver's new alias was now Herr Altman, "a German Jewish Communist of no importance". In his sixth attempt, a one-seat plane carrying Enver and a pilot malfunctioned in mid-air and landed in British-occupied Danzig. Enver begged the pilot to repair the plane lest he would be captured by the British. Taking off once again, they only made it as far as Königsburg. The plane once again repaired, they made it to Bolshevik occupied Estonia to refill on gas, but the Bolsheviks arrested Enver, mistaking him for a fugitive Baltic German count that fled to Germany, and imprison him in the city of Reval. Enver's case for his identity was not helped when an Estonian peasant identified him as the abusive count. Enver took up painting in prison, at one point painting a portrait of the warden and his family. With the Estonian-German peace treaty, Enver was repatriated to Germany as the German count.

Enver finally made it to Moscow in August 1920 (he came by land in the end). There he was well-received, and established contacts with representatives from Central Asia and other exiled CUP members as the director of the Soviet Government's Asiatic Department. He also met with Bolshevik leaders, including Georgy Chicherin, Radek, Grigory Zinoviev and Vladimir Lenin. He tried to support the Turkish national movement and corresponded with Mustafa Kemal, giving him the guarantee that he did not intend to intervene in the movement in Anatolia. Between 1 and 8 September 1920, he was in Baku for the Congress of the Peoples of the East, representing Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco. His appearance was a personal triumph, but the congress failed in its aim to create a mass pro-Bolshevik movement among Muslims. Victor Serge, a witness, recorded that:

"At Baku, Enver Pasha put in a sensational appearance. A whole hall full of Orientals broke into shouts, with scimitars and yataghans brandished aloft: 'Death to imperialism' All the same, genuine understanding with the Islamic world...was still difficult."

Relations with Mustafa Kemal
Much has been written about the poor relations between Enver and Mustafa Kemal, two men who played pivotal roles in the Turkish history of the 20th century. Both hailed from the Balkans, and the two served together in North Africa during the wars preceding World War I, Enver being Mustafa Kemal's senior. Enver disliked Mustafa Kemal for his circumspect attitude toward the political agenda pursued by his Committee of Union and Progress, and regarded him as a serious rival. Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk) considered Enver to be a dangerous figure who might lead the country to ruin; he criticized Enver and his colleagues for their policies and their involvement of the Ottoman Empire in World War I. In the years of upheaval that followed the Armistice of October 1918, when Mustafa Kemal led the Turkish resistance to occupying and invading forces, Enver sought to return from exile, but his attempts to do so and join the military effort were blocked by the Ankara government under Mustafa Kemal.

Last years
On 30 July 1921, with the Turkish War of Independence in full swing, Enver decided to return to Anatolia. He went to Batum to be close to the new border. However, Mustafa Kemal did not want him among the Turkish revolutionaries. Mustafa Kemal had stopped all friendly ties with Enver Pasha and the CUP as early as 1912, and he explicitly rejected the pan-Turkic ideas and what Mustafa Kemal perceived as Enver Pasha's utopian goals. Enver Pasha changed his plans and traveled to Moscow where he managed to win the trust of the Soviet authorities. In November 1921 he was sent by Lenin to Bukhara in the Bukharan People's Soviet Republic to help suppress the Basmachi Revolt against the local pro-Moscow Bolshevik regime. Instead, however, he made secret contacts with some of the rebellion's leaders and, along with a small number of followers, defected to the Basmachi side. His aim was to unite the numerous Basmachi groups under his own command and mount a co-ordinated offensive against the Bolsheviks in order to realise his pan-Turkic dreams. After a number of successful military operations he managed to establish himself as the rebels' supreme commander, and turned their disorganized forces into a small but well-drilled army. His command structure was built along German lines and his staff included a number of experienced Turkish officers.

According to David Fromkin: "However Enver's personal weaknesses reasserted themselves. He was a vain, strutting man who loved uniforms, medals and titles. For use in stamping official documents, he ordered a golden seal that described him as 'Commander-in-Chief of all the Armies of Islam, Son-in-Law of the Caliph and Representative of the Prophet.' Soon he was calling himself Emir of Turkestan, a practice not conducive to good relations with the Emir whose cause he served. At some point in the first half of 1922, the Emir of Bukhara broke off relations with him, depriving him of troops and much-needed financial support. The Emir of Afghanistan also failed to march to his aid."

On 4 August 1922, as he allowed his troops to celebrate the Kurban Bayramı (Eid al-Adha) holiday while retaining a guard of 30 men at his headquarters near the village of Ab-i-Derya near Dushanbe, the Red Army Bashkir cavalry brigade under the command of ethnic Armenian, Yakov Melkumov (Hakob Melkumian), launched a surprise attack. According to some sources, Enver and some 25 of his men mounted their horses and charged the approaching troops, when Enver was killed by machine-gun fire. In his memoirs, Enver Pasha's aide Yaver Suphi Bey stated that Enver Pasha died of a bullet wound right above his heart during a cavalry charge. Alternatively, according to Melkumov's memoirs, Enver managed to escape on horseback and hid for four days in the village of Chaghan. His hideout was located after a Red Army officer infiltrated the village in disguise. Melkumov's troops ambushed Enver at Chaghan, and in the ensuing combat he was killed by machine gun fire. Some sources write that Melkumov personally killed Enver Pasha with his sabre, although Melkumov does not claim this in his memoirs.

Fromkin writes: "There are several accounts of how Enver died. According to the most persuasive of them, when the Russians attacked he gripped his pocket Koran and, as always, charged straight ahead. Later his decapitated body was found on the field of battle. His Koran was taken from his lifeless fingers and was filed in the archives of the Soviet secret police."

Enver's body was buried near Ab-i-Derya in Tajikistan. In 1996, his remains were brought to Turkey and reburied at Abide-i Hürriyet (Monument of Liberty) cemetery in Şişli, Istanbul. He was re-buried on the 4 August, the anniversary of his death in 1922. Enver Pasha's image remains controversial in Turkey, since Enver and Atatürk had a personal rivalry at the end of the Ottoman Empire and his memory was cultivated by the Kemalists. But upon his body's arrival in Turkey, he was rehabilitated by the Turkish President Süleyman Demirel who held a speech acknowledging his contributions to Turkish nationalism. Following renewed hostilities between Armenia and Azerbaijan over the Nagorno Karabakh region in 2020, Enver Pasha's role during World War I was praised by Turkish President Erdoğan during an Azeri victory parade in Baku. In 2023, Azerbaijani officials issued a map of the formerly Armenian Stepanakert, renaming one of the streets after Pasha.

Family
After Enver's death, three of his four siblings, Nuri (1889–1949), Mehmed Kamil (1900–62), and Hasene Hanım, adopted the surname "Killigil" after the 1934 Surname Law required all Turkish citizens to adopt a surname.

Enver's sister Hasene Hanım married Nazım Bey. Nazım Bey, an aid-de-camp of Abdul Hamid II, survived an assassination attempt by Talaat during the 1908 Young Turk Revolution of which his brother-in-law Enver was a leader. With Nazım, Hasene gave birth to Faruk Kenç (1910–2000), who would become a famous Turkish film director and producer.

Enver's other sister, Mediha Hanım (later Mediha Orbay; 1895–1983), married Kâzım Orbay, a prominent Turkish general and politician. On 16 October 1945, their son Haşmet Orbay, Enver's nephew, shot and killed a physician named Neşet Naci Arzan, an event known as the "Ankara murder". At the urging of the Governor of Ankara, Nevzat Tandoğan, Haşmet Orbay's friend Reşit Mercan initially took the blame. After a second trial revealed Haşmet Orbay as the perpetrator, however, he was convicted. The murder became a political scandal in Turkey after the suicide of Tandoğan, the suspicious death of the case's public prosecutor Fahrettin Karaoğlan, and the resignation of Kâzım Orbay from his position as Chief of the General Staff of Turkey after his son's conviction.

Djevdet Bey who was the Vali of Van in 1915, was also a brother-in-law of his.

Marriage
Around 1908, Enver Pasha became the subject of gossip about an alleged romance between him and Princess Iffet of Egypt. When this story reached Istanbul, the grand vizier, Hüseyin Hilmi Pasha decided to exploit Enver's marital eligibility by arranging a rapprochement between the Committee for Union and Progress and the imperial family. After a careful search, the grand vizier chose the twelve-year-old Naciye Sultan, a granddaughter of Sultan Abdulmejid I, as Enver's future bride. Both the grand vizier and Enver's mother then notified him of this decision. Enver had never seen Naciye, and he did not trust his mother's letters, since he suspected her of being enamored with the idea of having a princess as her daughter-in-law.

Therefore, he asked a reliable friend, Ahmed Rıza Bey, who was a member of the Turkish Parliament to investigate. When the latter reported favorably on the prospective bride's education and beauty, as well as on the prospective dowry, Enver took a practical view of this marriage and accepted the arrangement. Naciye had been previously engaged to Şehzade Abdurrahim Hayri. However, Sultan Mehmed V broke off the engagement, and in April 1909, when Naciye was just twelve years old, engaged her to Enver, fifteen years older than her. Following the old Ottoman pattern of life and tradition, the engagement ceremony was celebrated in Enver's absence as he remained in Berlin.

The marriage took place on 15 May 1911 in the Dolmabahçe Palace, and was performed by Şeyhülislam Musa Kazım Efendi. Head clerk of the sultan Halid Ziya Bey served as Naciye's deputy, and her witnesses were director of the imperial kitchen Galib Bey, and the personal physician of the sultan Hacı Ahmed Bey. Minister of war Mahmud Şevket Pasha served as Enver's deputy, and his witnesses were aide-de-camp of the sultan Binbaşı Re'fet Bey and chamberlain of the imperial gates Ahsan Bey. The wedding took place about three years later on 5 March 1914 in the Nişantaşı Palace. The couple were given one of the palaces of Kuruçeşme. The marriage was very happy.

On 17 May 1917, Naciye gave birth to the couple's eldest child, a daughter, Mahpeyker Hanımsultan. She was followed by a second daughter, Türkan Hanımsultan, born on 4 July 1919. Both of them were born in Istanbul. During Enver's stay in Berlin, Naciye and her daughters Mahpeyker and Türkan joined him. When Enver left for Russian SSR his family remained there. His son, Sultanzade Ali Bey was born in Berlin on 29 September 1921, after Enver's departure and he never saw him. Naciye was widowed at Enver's death on 4 August 1922.

After his death Naciye remarried with his brother Mehmed Kamil Killigil (1900–1962) in 1923, and had one other daughter, Rana Hanımsultan.

Issue
By his wife, Enver had two daughters and a son:
 * Mahpeyker Hanımsultan (17 May 1917 – 3 April 2000). Married once, had a son.
 * Türkan Hanımsultan (4 July 1919 – 25 December 1989). Married once, had a son.
 * Sultanzade Ali Bey (29 September 1921 – 2 December 1971). Married twice, had a daughter.

In arts and culture
Enver Pasha plays an important role in The Golden House of Samarkand, a comic book by Hugo Pratt, from the Italian series Corto Maltese.

Works

 * Enver authored a book in German, Enver Pascha «um Tripolis», which is his diaries during the war in Libya (1911–12).

title: Enver Pasha


text:
British Pacific Fleet

The British Pacific Fleet (BPF) was a Royal Navy formation that saw action against Japan during the Second World War. It was formed from aircraft carriers, other surface warships, submarines and supply vessels of the RN and British Commonwealth navies in November 1944.

After formation in Ceylon, the BPF began with operations against Japanese resources in Sumatra before moving to Australia where it made its headquarters at Sydney with a forward base at Manus Island off Papua New Guinea. The fleet supported the invasion of Okinawa in March 1945 by neutralising the Sakishima Islands. Though subjected to heavy attacks by Japanese aircraft, their well-armoured carriers and modern fighter aircraft gave effective protection. Submarines attached to the fleet sank Japanese shipping, and in July 1945 the fleet joined in the bombardment of the Japanese home islands. By the time Japan surrendered in August 1945, the fleet included four battleships, six fleet carriers, fifteen smaller carriers and over 750 aircraft.

Background
Following their retreat to the western side of the Indian Ocean in 1942, British naval forces did not return to the South West Pacific theatre until 17 May 1944, when an Allied carrier task force implemented Operation Transom, a joint raid on Surabaya, Java.

The US was liberating British territories in the Pacific and extending its influence. It was therefore seen as a political and military imperative by the British Government to restore a British presence in the region and to deploy British forces against Japan. The British Government was determined that British territories, such as Hong Kong, should be recaptured by British forces.

The British Government was not initially unanimous on the commitment of the BPF. Churchill, in particular, argued against it, not wishing to be a visibly junior partner in what had been exclusively the United States' battle. He also considered that a British presence would be unwelcome and should be concentrated on Burma and Malaya. Naval planners, supported by the Chiefs of Staff, believed that such a commitment would strengthen British influence and the British Chiefs of Staff considered mass resignation, so strongly held were their opinions.

The Admiralty had proposed a British role in the Pacific in early 1944 but the initial USN response had been discouraging. Admiral Ernest King, Commander-in-Chief United States Fleet and Chief of Naval Operations, was reluctant to concede any such role and raised a number of objections, and insisted that the BPF should be self-sufficient. These were eventually overcome or discounted and at a meeting, US President Franklin D. Roosevelt "intervened to say that the British Fleet was no sooner offered than accepted. In this, though the fact was not mentioned, he overruled Admiral King's opinion."

The Australian Government had sought US military assistance in 1942, when it was faced with the possibility of Japanese invasion. While Australia had made a significant contribution to the Pacific War, it had never been an equal partner with its US counterparts in strategy. It was argued that a British presence would act as a counterbalance to the powerful and increasing US presence in the Pacific.

Allied co-operation
British and American political objectives were in conflict: Britain needed to "show the flag" in an effective way while the US wished to demonstrate, beyond question, its own pre-eminence in the Pacific. In practice, there were cordial relations between the fighting fleets and their sea commanders. Although Admiral King had stipulated that the BPF should be wholly self-sufficient, in practice, material assistance was freely given.

Constituent forces
The fleet was founded when Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser struck his flag at Trincomalee as Commander-in-Chief of the British Eastern Fleet and hoisted it in the gunboat HMS Tarantula, a worn out ship in use as offices, as Commander-in-Chief British Pacific Fleet. He later transferred his flag to a more suitable vessel, the battleship HMS Howe (32).

The Eastern Fleet was based in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), and reorganised into the British East Indies Fleet, subsequently becoming the British Pacific Fleet (BPF). The BPF operated against targets in Sumatra, (operations Robson and Meridian) gaining experience until early 1945, when it departed Trincomalee for Sydney.

The Royal Navy provided the majority of the fleet's vessels and all the capital ships but elements and personnel included contributions from the Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA), as well as the Commonwealth nations, including the Royal Australian Navy (RAN), Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN). With its larger vessels integrated with United States Navy (USN) formations since 1942, the RAN's contribution was limited. A high proportion of naval aviators were New Zealanders and Canadians. The USN also contributed to the BPF, as did personnel from the South African Navy (SAN). Port facilities in Australia and New Zealand also made vital contributions in support of the British Pacific Fleet.

During World War II, the fleet was commanded by Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser. In practice, command of the fleet in action devolved to Vice-Admiral Sir Bernard Rawlings, with Vice-Admiral Sir Philip Vian in charge of air operations by the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm (FAA). The fighting end of the fleet was referred to as Task Force 37 from 28 May 1945 (previously  57) and the Fleet Train was Task Force 113. The 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron was the lead carrier formation.

No. 300 Wing RAF was established in Australia in late 1944 to fly transport aircraft in support of the BPF, and came under the direct command of Fraser. The wing was expanded to a group in 1945 and conducted regular flights from Sydney to the fleet's forward bases.

The aviation squadrons were formed into air groups from June 1945 for administering each carrier's embarked squadrons.

Supply

The requirement that the BPF be self-sufficient meant the establishment of a fleet train that could support a naval force at sea for weeks or months. The Royal Navy had been accustomed to operating close to its bases in Britain, the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Infrastructure and expertise were lacking in the Pacific rim. In the north Atlantic and Mediterranean, the high risk of submarine and air attack precluded routine refuelling at sea. Fortunately for the BPF "the American logistics authorities... interpreted self-sufficiency in a very liberal sense." American officers told Rear Admiral Douglas Fisher, commander of the British Fleet Train, that he could have anything and everything "that could be given without Admiral King's knowledge."

The Admiralty sent Vice Admiral Charles Daniel to the United States for consultation about the supply and administration of the fleet. He then proceeded to Australia where he became Vice Admiral, Administration, British Pacific Fleet, a role that "if unspectacular compared with command of a fighting squadron, was certainly one of the most arduous to be allocated to a British Flag officer during the entire war." The US Pacific Fleet had assembled an enormous fleet of oilers and supply ships of every type. Even before the war, it had been active in the development of underway replenishment techniques.

In February 1944 the Admiralty estimated that the Fleet Train would require 134 merchant ships, of about 1½ million gross tons. As only 20 ships could be provided "in due course" the remainder would have to come from: the United States, the Admiralty's resources (although only a "handful" of its 560 merchant ships were actually available), or the general pool of merchant shipping (on which there were "many demands"). And the Admiralty requirements increased from 80 ships (totalling 590,000 tons) in January to 134 then by the end of March to 158. The Prime Minister had been alarmed for the original requirements for 80 ships, and on 9 April he issued a minute defining the limits of the Fleet Train based on a minimum of 24 million tons of imports "this year". He referred to the Navy getting 230,000 tons of new merchant shipping in about a year. The minute referred to operations "in the Indian ocean or in the South-West Pacific", reflecting his own preference for Operation Culverin against northern Sumatra and Malaya rather than the "Middle Strategy".

The Admiralty realised that it needed a great deal of new equipment and training, in a short time and with whatever it had to hand. Lacking specialist ships, it had to improvise a fleet train from RN, RFA and merchant ships. On 8 February 1944, the First Sea Lord, Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham, informed the Defence Committee that 91 ships would be required to support the BPF. This was based on an assumption that the BPF would be active off the Philippines or would have a base there. By March, the war zone had moved north and the Americans were unwilling to allow the British to establish facilities in the Philippines. The estimate had grown to 158 ships, as it was recognised that operations eventually would be fought close to Japan. This had to be balanced against the shipping needed to import food for the population of the UK. In January 1945, the War cabinet was forced to postpone the deployment of the fleet by two months due to the shortage of shipping.

The BPF found that its tankers were too few, too slow and in some cases unsuitable for the task of replenishment at sea. Its oiling gear, hoses and fittings were too often poorly designed. British ships refuelled at sea mostly by the over-the-stern method, a safer but less efficient technique compared with the American method of refuelling in parallel. Lack of proper equipment and insufficient practice meant burst hoses or excessive time at risk to submarine attack, while holding a constant course during fuelling. As the Royal Australian Navy had discovered, British-built ships had only about a third of the refrigeration space of a comparable American ship. They also suffered from limited fuel tankage and less efficient machinery, particularly the capital ships (A comparison of HMS King George V and USS Washington conducted in 1942 found the British ship burned 39 per cent more fuel at cruising speed and 20 per cent at high speed, giving her half the action radius.) British ships therefore required replenishment more frequently than American ships. In some cases even American-built equipment was not interchangeable, for FAA aircraft had been "Anglicized" by the installation of British radios and oxygen masks, while Vought Corsairs had their wing-folding arrangements modified to fit into the more cramped hangars of British carriers. Replacement aircraft therefore had to be brought from the UK.

The British Chiefs of Staff decided early on to base the BPF in Australia rather than India. While it was apparent that Australia, with its population of only about seven million could not support the projected 675,000 men and women of the BPF, the actual extent of the Australian contribution was undetermined. The Australian government agreed to contribute to the support of the BPF but the Australian economy was fully committed to the war effort and manpower and stores for the BPF could only come from taking them from American and Australian forces fighting the Japanese.

Unfortunately, Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser arrived in Sydney on 10 December 1944 under the mistaken impression that Australia had asked for the BPF and promised to provide for its needs. Two days later, the Acting Prime Minister of Australia Frank Forde announced the allocation of £21,156,500 for the maintenance of the BPF. In January 1945, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur agreed to release American stockpiles in Australia to support the BPF. The Australian government soon became concerned at the voracious demands of the BPF works programme, which was criticised by Australian military leaders. In April 1945, Fraser publicly criticised the Australian government's handling of waterside industrial disputes that were holding up British ships. The government was shocked and angered but agreed to allocate £6,562,500 for BPF naval works. Fraser was not satisfied. On 8 August 1945, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Clement Attlee felt obliged to express his regret for the misunderstandings to the Australian government.

After bombarding the Sumatra oil refineries for Nimitz, the Fleet arrived in Australia on 4 February 1945; it comprised two battleships, four fleet carriers, three cruisers and accompanying destroyers. The Fleet Train comprised over 300,000 tons of shipping as built or converted since the beginning of 1944. In June 1945 the Fleet was to comprise four battleships, ten aircraft carriers, sixteen cruisers (including two from New Zealand and one from Canada), forty destroyers and about ninety escorts (including Canadian escorts).

The distance from Sydney was too far to allow efficient fleet support so with much American support, a forward base was established at Seeadler Harbor, Manus atoll, in the Admiralty Islands, which was described as "Scapa Flow with bloody palm trees". As well as its base at Sydney, the Fleet Air Arm established Mobile Naval Air Bases (MONABs) in Australia to provide supplies and technical support for the aircraft. The first of these became active in Sydney in January 1945.

Operations

Major actions in which the fleet was involved included Operation Meridian, air strikes in January 1945 against oil production at Palembang, Sumatra. These raids, conducted in bad weather, succeeded in reducing the oil supply of the Japanese Navy. A total of 48 FAA aircraft were lost due to enemy action and crash landings against claims of 30 Japanese aeroplanes destroyed in dogfights and 38 on the ground.

The United States Navy (USN), which had control of Allied operations in the Pacific Ocean Areas, gave the BPF combat units the name Task Force 57 (TF-57) when it joined Admiral Raymond Spruance's United States Fifth Fleet on 15 March 1945. On 27 May 1945, it became Task Force 37 (TF-37) when it became part of Admiral William Halsey's United States Third Fleet.

In March 1945, while supporting the invasion of Okinawa, the BPF had sole responsibility for operations in the Sakishima Islands. Its role was to suppress Japanese air activity, using gunfire and air attack, at potential kamikaze staging airfields that would otherwise be a threat to US Navy vessels operating at Okinawa. The British fleet carriers with their armoured flight decks were subject to heavy and repeated kamikaze attacks, but they proved highly resistant, and returned to action relatively quickly. The USN liaison officer on HMS Indefatigable (R10) commented: "When a kamikaze hits a US carrier it means 6 months of repair at Pearl [Harbor]. When a kamikaze hits a Limey carrier it's just a case of 'Sweepers, man your brooms'."

Fleet Air Arm Supermarine Seafires saw service in the Pacific campaigns. Due to their good high altitude performance, short range and lack of ordnance-carrying capabilities (compared to the Hellcats and Corsairs of the Fleet) the Seafires were allocated the defensive duties of combat air patrol (CAP) over the fleet. Seafires were vital in countering the kamikaze attacks during the Iwo Jima landings and beyond. The Seafires' best day was 15 August 1945, shooting down eight attacking aircraft for one loss.

In April 1945, the British 4th Submarine Flotilla was transferred to the big Allied submarine base at Fremantle, Western Australia, as part of the BPF. Its most notable success in this period was the sinking of the heavy cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Ashigara, on 8 June 1945 in Banka Strait, off Sumatra, by the submarines HMS Trenchant (P331) and HMS Stygian (P249). On 31 July 1945, in Operation Struggle, the British midget submarine XE3, crewed by Lieutenant Ian Fraser, Acting Leading Seaman James Magennis, Sub-Lieutenant William James Lanyon Smith, RNZNVR and Engine Room Artificer Third Class, Charles Alfred Reed, attacked Japanese shipping at Singapore. They seriously damaged the heavy cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Takao, while docked at her berth at Selatar Naval Base. Fraser and Magennis were awarded the Victoria Cross, Smith received the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) and Reed the Conspicuous Gallantry Medal (CGM).

Battleships and aircraft from the fleet also participated in the Allied naval bombardments on Japanese home islands. For the assaults on Japan, the British commanders accepted the BPF should become a component element of the US 3rd Fleet, commanded by Admiral William Halsey. Battleship HMS King George V (41) bombarded Hitachi, about 80 mi (130 km) northeast of Tokyo, and Hamamatsu, near Toyohashi. This was the last time a British battleship fired in action; the US fleet commander, William Halsey, excluded British forces from the bombing of Kure naval base. Halsey wrote in his memoirs: "it was imperative that we forestall a possible postwar claim by Britain that she had delivered even a part of the final blow that demolished the Japanese fleet.... an exclusively American attack was therefore in American interests". Carrier strikes by British naval aircraft were carried out against land and harbour targets during the attacks on Kure and the Inland Sea, 24–28 July 1945. Naval aircraft attacked the port of Osaka, airfields, and, notably, sank Japanese escort carrier Shimane Maru and disabled the Kaiyō. Two escort ships and several smaller vessels were also sunk.

The BPF would have played a major part in a proposed invasion of the Japanese home islands, known as Operation Downfall, which was cancelled after Japan surrendered. The last naval air action in World War II was on VJ-Day when British carrier aircraft shot down Japanese Zero fighters.

By August 1948, the Fleet had shrunk to comprise cruisers London, HMS Sussex (96); destroyers HMS Cossack (R57), HMS Comus (R43); Concord, Consort, HMS Constance (R71); frigates HMS Alacrity (U60), Ametheyst, HMS Hart (U58) and HMS Black Swan; submarines HMS Aeneas, HMS Affray, HMS Auriga; despatch vessel HMS Alert (K647); fleet tug HMS Encore; RFA salvage vessels RFA King Salvor (A291), RFA Prince Salvor (A292); survey ship HMS Dampier; controlled minesweeper Dabchick and seven minesweepers, including Michael and Flying Fish.

Ships
The fleet included six fleet carriers, four light carriers, two aircraft maintenance carriers and nine escort carriers (with a total of more than 750 aircraft), five battleships, 11 cruisers, 35 destroyers, 14 frigates, 44 smaller warships, 31 submarines, and 54 large vessels in the fleet train.

 * Fleet carriers
 * HMS Formidable (67): approximate air group 36 Corsairs, 15 Avengers (Flagship 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron)
 * HMS Illustrious (87): approximate air group 36 Corsairs, 15 Avengers
 * HMS Victorious (R38): 36 Corsairs, 15 Avengers, plus Supermarine Walrus amphibian
 * HMS Indomitable (92): 39 Hellcats, 21 Avengers
 * HMS Implacable (R86): 48 Seafire, 21 Avenger, 12 Fairey Firefly
 * HMS Indefatigable (R10): 40 Seafire, 18 Avenger, 12 Firefly

 * Light carriers
 * HMS Colossus (1943): 24 Corsairs, 18 Fairey Barracudas
 * HMS Glory (R62): 21 Corsairs, 18 Barracudas
 * HMS Venerable (R63): 21 Corsairs, 18 Barracudas
 * HMS Vengeance (R71): 24 Corsairs, 18 Barracudas

 * Maintenance carriers
 * HMS Pioneer (R76)
 * HMS Unicorn (I72)

 * Escort carriers

 * Striker (flag ship 30th Aircraft Carrier Squadron)
 * HMS Arbiter (D31)
 * HMS Chaser (D32)
 * HMS Fencer (D64)
 * Ruler
 * Reaper
 * Slinger
 * Speaker
 * Vindex

 * Battleships
 * HMS Howe (32) (Flagship 1st Battle Squadron)
 * HMS King George V (41)
 * Duke of York arrived in July 1945
 * Anson arrived in July 1945
 * Nelson arrived in July 1945

 * Cruisers
 * HMNZS Achilles (70)
 * HMS Argonaut (61)
 * HMS Belfast (C35)
 * HMS Bermuda (C52)
 * HMS Black Prince (81)
 * HMS Ceylon (C30)
 * HMS Euryalus (42)
 * HMNZS Gambia
 * HMS Newfoundland (C59)
 * HMS Newcastle (C76)
 * HMCS Ontario (C53)
 * HMS Swiftsure (08) (Flagship 4th Cruiser Squadron)
 * HMCS Uganda (C66)

 * Cruiser-minelayers
 * HMS Apollo (M01)
 * HMS Ariadne (M65)
 * HMS Manxman (M70)

 * Auxiliary anti-aircraft cruiser
 * HMCS Prince Robert
 * Destroyers

 * HMCS Algonquin
 * Barfleur
 * Grenville (U-class flotilla leader)
 * Kempenfelt (W-class flotilla leader)
 * HMAS Napier
 * HMAS Nepal
 * HMAS Nizam
 * HMAS Norman
 * Quadrant
 * HMS Quality (G62)
 * HMAS Queenborough
 * HMAS Quiberon
 * HMAS Quickmatch
 * HMS Teazer (R23)
 * Tenacious
 * Termagant
 * Terpsichore
 * Troubridge
 * Tumult
 * Tuscan
 * Tyrian
 * Ulster
 * Ulysses
 * Undaunted
 * Undine
 * Urania
 * Urchin
 * Ursa
 * Wager
 * Wakeful
 * Wessex
 * Whelp
 * Whirlwind
 * Wizard
 * Wrangler

 * Frigates

 * Aire
 * Avon
 * Barle
 * Bigbury Bay
 * Derg
 * Findhorn
 * Helford
 * Odzani
 * Parret
 * Plym
 * Usk
 * Veryan Bay
 * Whitesand Bay
 * Widemouth Bay

 * Sloops

 * Alacrity
 * Amethyst
 * Black Swan
 * Crane
 * Cygnet
 * Enchantress
 * Erne
 * Flamingo
 * Hart
 * Hind
 * Opossum
 * Pheasant
 * Redpole
 * Starling
 * Stork
 * Whimbrel
 * Woodcock
 * Wren

 * Corvettes
 * HMNZS Arbutus
 * HMAS Ballarat
 * HMAS Bendigo
 * HMAS Burnie
 * HMAS Cairns
 * HMAS Cessnock
 * HMAS Gawler
 * HMAS Geraldton
 * HMAS Goulburn
 * HMAS Ipswich
 * HMAS Kalgoorlie
 * HMAS Launceston
 * HMAS Lismore
 * HMAS Maryborough
 * HMAS Pirie
 * HMAS Tamworth
 * HMAS Toowoomba
 * HMAS Whyalla
 * HMAS Wollongong

 * Submarines

 * Porpoise Minelayer
 * Rorqual Minelayer
 * Sanguine
 * Scotsman
 * Sea Devil
 * Sea Nymph
 * Sea Scout
 * Selene
 * Sidon
 * Sleuth
 * Solent
 * Spark
 * Spearhead
 * Stubborn
 * HMS Stygian (P249)
 * Supreme
 * Taciturn
 * Tapir
 * Taurus
 * Telemachus
 * Thorough
 * Thule
 * Tiptoe
 * Totem
 * Torbay
 * HMS Trenchant (P331)
 * Trump
 * Tudor
 * Turpin
 * Virtue Antisubmarine training
 * Voracious Antisubmarine training
 * Vox Antisubmarine training

 * Landing ships
 * Glenearn – landing ship, infantry (Large)
 * Lothian – landing ship, headquarters ship (Large)

 * Fleet train

 * Adamant submarine depot ship
 * Aorangi accommodation ship
 * Artifex repair ship
 * Assistance repair ship
 * RFA Bacchus Distilling ship
 * Bonaventure Submarine depot ship
 * Berry Head Repair ship
 * Deer Sound Repair ship
 * Diligence Repair ship
 * Dullisk Cove Repair ship
 * SS Empire Clyde Hospital ship
 * SS Empire Crest Water carrier
 * Fernmore Boom carrier
 * Flamborough Head Repair ship
 * Fort Colville Aircraft store ship
 * RFA Fort Langley Aircraft store ship
 * HMHS Gerusalemme Hospital ship
 * Guardian Netlayer
 * HMNZS Kelantan Repair ship
 * RFA King Salvor Salvage ship
 * Lancashire Accommodation ship
 * Leonian Boom carrier
 * Maidstone Submarine depot ship
 * NZHS Maunganui Hospital ship
 * Montclare Destroyer Depot Ship
 * HMHS Oxfordshire Hospital ship
 * Resource Repair ship
 * RFA Salvestor Salvage ship
 * RFA Salvictor Salvage ship
 * Shillay Danlayer
 * Springdale Repair ship
 * Stagpool Distilling ship
 * RNH Tjitalengka Hospital ship
 * Trodday Danlayer
 * Tyne Destroyer Depot Ship
 * Vacport Water carrier
 * RNH Vasna Hospital ship

 * Replenishment oilers

 * RFA Arndale
 * RFA Bishopdale
 * RFA Brown Ranger
 * RFA Cederdale
 * RFA Eaglesdale
 * RFA Green Ranger
 * RFA Olna
 * RFA Rapidol
 * RFA Serbol
 * RFA Wave Emperor
 * RFA Wave Governor
 * RFA Wave King
 * RFA Wave Monarch
 * Aase Maersk
 * Carelia
 * Darst Creek
 * Golden Meadow
 * Iere
 * Loma Nova
 * San Adolpho
 * San Amado
 * San Ambrosia
 * Seven Sisters

 * Store ships

 * Bosporus
 * City of Dieppe
 * Corinda
 * Darvel
 * Edna
 * Fort Alabama
 * Fort Constantine Victualling stores ship
 * Fort Dunvegan Victualling stores ship
 * Fort Edmonton Victualling stores ship
 * Fort Providence Naval stores ship
 * Fort Wrangell Naval stores ship
 * Gudrun Maersk
 * Hermelin
 * Heron
 * Hickory Burn
 * Hickory Dale
 * Hickory Glen
 * Hickory Steam
 * Jaarstrom
 * Kheti
 * Kistna
 * Kola
 * Marudu
 * Pacheco
 * Prince de Liege
 * Princess Maria Pia
 * Prome
 * Robert Maersk
 * San Andres
 * Sclesvig
 * Thyra S

Source: Smith, Task Force 57, pp. 178–184

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: British Pacific Fleet


text:
1976 Quebec general election

The 1976 Quebec general election was held on November 15, 1976 to elect members to National Assembly of the Province of Quebec, Canada. It was one of the most significant elections in Quebec history, rivalled only by the 1960 general election, and caused major repercussions in the rest of Canada. The Parti Québécois, led by René Lévesque, defeated the incumbent Quebec Liberal Party, led by Premier Robert Bourassa.

The Parti Québécois's campaign focused on providing good government, in contrast the many scandals that had plagued the Liberals since 1973, The PQ's stated goal of achieving independence for Quebec from Canada was portrayed as only secondary, but the election of a sovereigntist government in Quebec caused great upset in the rest of Canada and led to extensive discussions about reforming the Canadian Confederation and finding ways of accommodating Quebec.

The Parti Québécois used its term in office to introduce numerous bills to implement its agenda. The first bill introduced in the new session of the National Assembly was legislation to confirm French as the sole official language of Quebec, and to implement measures to make this a social reality. The legislative number of this bill, "Bill One," was intended to signify the importance of the bill for the new government. The bill was withdrawn and significantly altered, however, and was eventually re-introduced as "Bill 101" (or la Loi 101 in French), also known as the Charter of the French Language. With some modifications, the Charter of the French Language remains in effect today and has shaped modern Quebec society in far-reaching ways.

The 1976 election also set the stage for the 1980 Quebec referendum on the PQ's proposal for political independence in an economic union with the rest of Canada called sovereignty-association. The proposal was soundly defeated in the referendum.

Bourassa had called the election after only three years, well before the maximum possible term of five years. It is possible that he may have counted on a boost from his successful rescue of the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal after cost overruns and construction delays by the Montreal municipal government of Mayor Jean Drapeau. If so, he badly miscalculated. He not only lost the election, but was resoundingly defeated in his own riding by a PQ challenger. Bourassa resigned as Liberal leader, and his political career appeared to be over. He left Quebec and took up teaching positions in the United States and Europe. However, he later made a remarkable comeback in the 1985 general election.

The once-powerful Union Nationale made a modest comeback after being evicted from the legislature three years earlier. It won 11 seats under Rodrigue Biron and, for the first time, won significant support from some anglophone voters. An anglophone UN member, William Shaw was elected to the National Assembly. However, this proved to be the party's last hurrah. Successive floor-crossings, retirements, and resignations reduced the UN to only five members during the term. The party lost all of those remaining seats five years later, never to return; it would continue to exist nominally until 1989.

Campaign
The Liberals and péquistes both fielded full slates. The Unionists and the créditistes decided not to nominate candidates in Beauce-Sud, in order to clear the way for the pénépiste Fabien Roy to hold the riding. The Unionists did not have a candidate in Outremont. Otherwise, all other constituencies experienced at least four-way contests.

The election also saw the emergence of two other political groups. The Democratic Alliance, led by Nick Auf der Maur, ran 13 candidates in the anglophone areas of the Island of Montreal, while the Parti national populaire (founded by Fabien Roy and Jérôme Choquette) had 36 candidates provincewide but ran a less-organized campaign. The PNP had attempted to merge with the UN earlier in August, but the effort was called off  in September because of a falling-out between Choquette and the UN leader Rodrigue Biron.

Results
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Political party ! rowspan=2 | Party leader ! colspan=4 | MPPs ! colspan=4 | Votes ! Candidates !1973 !1976 !± !# ! ± !% ! ± (pp)

 * style="text-align:left;"|René Lévesque
 * 110 || 6  || 71  || 65  || 1,390,351  || 492,542  || 41.37% || 11.15

 * style="text-align:left;"|Robert Bourassa
 * 110 || 102  || 26  || 76 || 1,135,056  || 488,678 || 33.78% || 20.87

 * style="text-align:left;"|Rodrigue Biron
 * 108 || – || 11  || 11  || 611,666  || 465,457  || 18.20% || 13.28

 * style="text-align:left;"|Camil Samson
 * 109 || 2  || 1  || 1 || 155,451  || 139,255 || 4.63% || 5.29

 * style="text-align:left;"|Jérôme Choquette
 * 36 || – || 1  || 1  || 31,043  || 31,043  || 0.92% || New

 * style="text-align:left;"|Nick Auf der Maur
 * 13 || – || – || – || 17,762  || 17,762  || 0.53% || New

-RMS coalition
 * || 22 || – || – || – || 12,984  || 6,023  || 0.39% || 0.16
 * style="text-align:left;"|Henri-François Gautrin
 * 21 || – || – || – || 3,080  || 3,080  || 0.09% || New

 * style="text-align:left;"|Sam Walsh
 * 14 || – || – || – || 1,776  || 1,612  || 0.05% || 0.04

 * style="text-align:left;"|
 * 12 || – || – || – || 1,249  || 1,249  || 0.04% || New

! colspan="3" style="text-align:left;" | Total ! " colspan="2"|110 ! " colspan="2"|3,360,506 ! " colspan="2"| 100.00%
 * style="text-align:left;"|
 * 1 || – || – || – || 88  || 88  || – || New
 * 556||108
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Rejected ballots
 * 70,446
 * 15,686
 * colspan="2"|
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Voter turnout
 * 3,430,952
 * 405,214
 * 85.27
 * 4.89
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Registered electors
 * 4,023,743
 * 259,132
 * colspan="2"|
 * }
 * 259,132
 * colspan="2"|
 * }

Synopsis of results

 * = open seat
 * = turnout is above provincial average
 * = winning candidate was in previous Legislature
 * = incumbent had switched allegiance
 * = previously incumbent in another riding
 * = not incumbent; was previously elected to the Legislature
 * = incumbency arose from byelection gain
 * = other incumbents renominated
 * = previously an MP in the House of Commons of Canada
 * = multiple candidates

MPPs elected by region and riding
Party designations are as follows:

{{legend|#87CEFA|PQ }} {{legend|#EA6D6A|Liberal}} {{legend|#0088C2|UN}} {{legend|#90EE90|Créditiste}} {{legend|#923746|Parti national populaire}}

 * Gaspésie–Îles-de-la-Madeleine and Bas-Saint-Laurent
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Bonaventure: Gérard D. Levesque}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Gaspé: Michel Le Moignan}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Îles-de-la-Madeleine: Denise Leblanc}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Kamouraska-Témiscouata: Léonard Lévesque}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Matane:Yves Bérubé }}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Matapédia: Léopold Marquis}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Rimouski: Alain Marcoux}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Rivière-du-Loup: Jules Boucher}}

 * Côte-Nord and Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Chicoutimi: Marc-André Bédard}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Dubuc: Hubert Desbiens}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Duplessis: Denis Perron}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Jonquière: Claude Vaillancourt}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Lac-Saint-Jean: Jacques Brassard}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Roberval: Robert Lamontagne}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saguenay: Lucien Lessard}}

 * Capitale-Nationale
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Charlesbourg: Denis de Belleval}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Charlevoix: Raymond Mailloux}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Chauveau: Louis O'Neill}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Jean-Talon: Raymond Garneau}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Limoilou: Raymond Gravel}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Louis-Hébert: Claude Morin}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Montmorency: Clément Richard}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Portneuf: Michel Pagé}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Taschereau: Richard Guay}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Vanier: Jean-François Bertrand}}

 * Mauricie
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Champlain: Marcel Gagnon}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Laviolette: Jean-Pierre Jolivet}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Maskinongé: Yvon Picotte}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saint-Maurice: Yves Duhaime}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Trois-Rivières: Denis Vaugeois}}

 * Chaudière-Appalaches and Centre-du-Québec
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Arthabaska: Jacques Baril}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Beauce-Nord: Adrien Ouellette}}
 * {{legend|#923746|Beauce-Sud: Fabien Roy}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Bellechasse: Bertrand Goulet}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Drummond: Michel Clair}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Frontenac: Gilles Grégoire}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Johnson: Maurice Bellemare}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Lévis: Jean Garon}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Lotbinière: Rodrigue Biron}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Montmagny-L'Islet: Julien Giasson}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Nicolet-Yamaska: Serge Fontaine}}

 * Estrie
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Mégantic-Compton: Fernand Grenier}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Orford: Georges Vaillancourt}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Richmond: Yvon Brochu}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saint-François: Réal Rancourt}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Sherbrooke: Gérard Gosselin}}

 * Montérégie
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Beauharnois: Laurent Lavigne}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Brome-Missisquoi: Armand Russell}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Chambly: Denis Lazure}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Châteauguay: Roland Dussault}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Huntingdon: Claude Dubois}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Iberville: Jacques Beauséjour}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Laporte: Pierre Marois}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Laprairie: Gilles Michaud}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Richelieu: Maurice Martel}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Saint-Hyacinthe: Fabien Cordeau}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saint-Jean: Jérôme Proulx}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Shefford: Richard Verreault}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Taillon: René Lévesque}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Vaudreuil-Soulanges: Louise Sauvé Cuerrier}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Verchères: Jean-Pierre Charbonneau}}

 * Montreal East
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Anjou: Pierre-Marc Johnson}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Bourassa: Patrice Laplante}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Bourget: Camille Laurin}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Crémazie: Guy Tardif}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Dorion: Lise Payette}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Gouin: Rodrigue Tremblay}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Jeanne-Mance: Henri-E. Laberge}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|LaFontaine: Marcel Léger}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Laurier: André Marchand}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Maisonneuve: Robert Burns}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Mercier: Gérald Godin}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Rosemont: Gilbert Paquette}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saint-Jacques: Claude Charron}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Sainte-Marie: Guy Bisaillon}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Sauvé: Jacques-Yvan Morin}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Viau: Charles-A. Lefebvre}}

 * Montreal West
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|L'Acadie: Thérèse Lavoie-Roux}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|D'Arcy-McGee: Victor Charles Goldbloom}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Jacques-Cartier: Noël Saint-Germain}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Marguerite-Bourgeoys: Fernand Lalonde}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Mont-Royal: John Ciaccia}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Notre-Dame-de-Grâce: Bryce Mackasey}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Outremont: André Raynauld}}
 * {{legend|#0088C2|Pointe-Claire: William Shaw}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Robert-Baldwin: John O'Gallagher}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Sainte-Anne: Jean-Marc Lacoste}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Saint-Henri: Jacques Couture}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Saint-Laurent: Claude Forget}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Saint-Louis: Harry Blank}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Verdun: Lucien Caron}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Westmount: George Springate}}

 * Laval
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Fabre: Bernard Landry}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Laval: Jean-Noël Lavoie}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Mille-Îles: Guy Joron}}

 * Laurentides
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Argenteuil: Zoël Saindon}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Deux-Montagnes: Pierre de Bellefeuille}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Laurentides-Labelle: Jacques Léonard}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Prévost: Jean-Guy Cardinal}}

 * Lanaudière
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Berthier: Jean-Guy Mercier}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Joliette-Montcalm: Guy Chevrette}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|L'Assomption: Jacques Parizeau}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Terrebonne: Élie Fallu}}

 * Outaouais
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Gatineau: Michel Gratton}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Hull: Jocelyne Ouellette}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Papineau: Jean Alfred}}
 * {{legend|#EA6D6A|Pontiac-Témiscamingue: Jean-Guy Larivière}}

 * Abitibi-Témiscamingue and Nord-du-Québec
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Abitibi-Est: Jean-Paul Bordeleau}}
 * {{legend|#87CEFA|Abitibi-Ouest: François Gendron}}
 * {{legend|#90EE90|Rouyn-Noranda: Camil Samson}}

title: 1976 Quebec general election