text:
Fiat 500

The Fiat 500 (Cinquecento, ) is an economy / city car that was manufactured and marketed by Fiat Automobiles from 1957 until 1975. It was sold as a two-door semi-convertible or saloon car and as a three-door panel van or estate car.

Launched as the Nuova (new) 500 in July 1957, as a successor to the 500 "Topolino", it was an inexpensive and practical small car. Measuring 2.97 m long, and originally powered by a rear-mounted 479 cc two-cylinder, air-cooled engine, the 500 was 24.5 cm smaller than Fiat's 600, launched two years earlier, and is considered one of the first purpose-designed city cars.

In 1959, Dante Giacosa received a Compasso d'Oro industrial design prize for the Fiat 500. This marked the first time a Compasso d’Oro was awarded to an automotive manufacturer.

History
In 1936, Fiat released the front engine Fiat 500 "Topolino" economy car. In 1949 to meet the demands of the post-war market, production resumed as the 500C with revised front and rear bodywork. Initially, it only had a 2-door coupé body with sun-roof, like before the war, which was later complemented by an Estate version, importantly offering some family-valued rear seating space. Both continued until 1957 when they were replaced by an all-new, lighter car. The new car had a rear-mounted engine, on the pattern of the Volkswagen Beetle, just like its bigger brother, the 1955 Fiat 600. Several car makers followed the until then uncommon rear engine and drive configuration at the time and were quite successful. From October 1961, a 'Neckar' version of the 500 was manufactured in Heilbronn, Germany, under a complicated deal involving NSU motorcars, and Steyr-Puch produced a Fiat 500 version under licence in Graz, Austria.

Despite its very small size, the 500 proved to be an enormously practical vehicle with large sales throughout Europe. Besides the two-door coupé, it was also available as the "Giardiniera" estate; this variant featured the standard engine laid on its side, the wheelbase lengthened by 10 cm to provide a more convenient rear seat, a full-length sunroof and larger brakes from the Fiat 600.

Sports models were produced by Abarth, as well as by Giannini. An Austrian variant, produced by Steyr-Daimler-Puch, the 1957–1973 Steyr-Puch 500, had a Puch boxer twin motor, a sports model of which was the 1965–1969 Steyr-Puch 650 TR2.

Production of the 500 ended in 1975, although its replacement, the Fiat 126, was launched two years earlier. The 126 was not as successful as its predecessor in Italy, but sold well in the Eastern Bloc countries, being assembled and manufactured in Poland as a Polski Fiat. The Fiat 500 has a Cx (aerodynamic resistance coefficient) of 0,38, a very good performance for its time.

In 2006 the magazine Top Gear voted the Fiat 500 "the sexiest car"

In 2007, the 50th anniversary of the Nuova 500's launch, Fiat launched another new 500, stylistically inspired by the 1957 Nuova 500, featuring a front-mounted engine and front-wheel drive.

In 2017 Fiat celebrated the 60th anniversary with an exhibit at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and received one of the Corporate Art Awards by pptArt at an event hosted by the President of the Italian Republic Sergio Mattarella at the Quirinal Palace.

Nuova 500 (1957–1960)
The 500 features a 479 cc (500cc nominal) two-cylinder engine, hence the name, producing just 13 horsepower. This model also features a fabric roof, foldable to the rear of the vehicle, like that of a Fiat 500 Topolino — rather than the later roof design, which only folds half way back along the roof. The Nuova 500 is one of three models featuring "suicide doors."

Including the Sport model, in total 181,036 examples of the Nuova 500 were produced from 1957 until 1960.

Nuova 500 Sport (1958–1960)
In mid-1958 Fiat introduced the Nuova 500 Sport, featuring a more powerful engine and a two-tone livery—white with a red stripe along the flanks. Unique to the Sport was an all-metal rigid roof with three longitudinal grooves. A short-open-roof model was added a year later, in 1959.

Coded type 110.004, the 500 Sport's two-cylinder engine had been bored out to 499.5 cc from the original 479 cc (bore and stroke now 67.4 × 70 mm), giving it a very respectable horsepower with the same block: 21.5 PS. Top speed was over 105 km/h.

500 D (1960–1965)
Replacing the original Nuova in 1960, the D looks very similar to the Nuova, but there are two key differences. One is the engine size (the D features an uprated 499 cc engine producing 17 bhp as standard—this engine is used right through until the end of the L in 1973) and the other is the roof: the standard D roof does not fold back as far as the roof on the Nuova, though it was also available as the "Transformable" with the same roof as the Nuova. The D also features "suicide doors".

In New Zealand, where it was locally assembled by Torino Motors, the 500 D was sold as the "Fiat Bambina" (Italian for "baby"), a name that is still in use there to describe this car.

500 Giardiniera (1960–1968)
The 500 Giardiniera (500 K on some markets) estate version of the Fiat 500 is the longest running model. The engine is laid under the floor of the boot to create a flat loading surface. The roof on this model also stretches all the way to the rear, not stopping above the driver and front passenger as it does in other models of the same period. The Giardiniera also features "suicide doors" and was the only model to continue to use this door type into the 1970s. In 1966 production was transferred to Desio where the Giardiniera was built by Fiat subsidiary Autobianchi under their marque from 1968 to 1977. A total of 327,000 Giardinieras were produced, and from 1968 sold only as Autobianchi Giardiniera.

500 Furgoncino
A panel van variant of the Giardiniera (estate) was offered as the Furgoncino.

500 F or Berlina (1965–1972)
The F spans two periods of 500 production, the D and the L. As such, it is the most frequently misidentified model. Between 1965 and 1969 the F carried the same badging as the D, but the two models are distinguishable by the positioning of their door hinges. The D has "suicide doors": the F, produced from June 1965, at last featured front-hinged doors. Between 1969 and 1972 the F was sold alongside the Lusso model as a cheaper "base model" alternative. While the F and L are mechanically very similar, the key differences are the bumpers (the L has an extra chrome nudge bar) and the interior (the F interior is nearly identical to the original 1957 design while the L sports a much more modern look).

500 L or Lusso (1968—1972)
In September 1968 Fiat put on sale the 500 L or Lusso (tipo 110 F/L), a more richly trimmed and better appointed version of the standard 500 F. The 500 L remained on sale until 1972, when the new Fiat 126 was introduced.

Perhaps the most obvious new feature of the 500 L were tubular guards protecting the front bumper and the corners of the rear one. As a result, the car was about undefined cm longer than the 500 F at 3025 mm. Other model-specific exterior items were a new Fiat badge at the front, redesigned hubcaps, chrome plastic mouldings covering the roof drip rails, and bright trim around windscreen and rear window. Inside the dashboard was entirely covered in black anti-glare plastic material instead of being bare painted metal, and was fitted with a new trapezoid instrument binnacle replacing the round one used on all other 500 models. The steering wheel was black plastic with metal spokes. The door cards—upholstered in the same pleated pattern leatherette used on the seats—carried redesigned and relocated door handles and new door pockets. More storage space was provided in the form of a tray on the centre tunnel, which like the rest of the floor was covered in carpet rather than rubber mats. Except for radial instead of bias ply tires, from a mechanical standpoint the 500 L was identical to the coeval 500 F.

500 R or Rinnovata (1972—1975)
The last incarnation of the Fiat 500 was the R model, or "Rinnovata" (Renovated). Launched alongside the new Fiat 126 in November 1972, it had the same 594 cc engine of the 126, however, the power rating is the same as the L but at lower rpm (4000 instead of 4400) and with a bit more torque; a full synchromesh gearbox is still missing. The floor-pan which was from either the 'L', or later, the new 126. It was also more comfortable, but more simply trimmed and equipped than before — the fuel gauge was omitted and only the low fuel indicator remained. The 500 R was also a stop-gap for Fiat prior to the launch of the Fiat 126, and when the new 126 was launched, sales of the old Fiat 500 R plummeted. It was sold alongside the Fiat 126 for another three years before Fiat retired the 500.

Fiat 500 America
During the years in which it was produced the 500 in Italy, Fiat designed and produced a US-market version of the car with prominent headlamps (also used on the American 500 Jolly). About 300 were made between 1958 and 1962.

Abarth 695 SS (1964–1971)
Of all the performance-oriented models created by Karl Abarth, later known as Carlo Abarth, perhaps the 695 esse esse is the best representation of the scorpion-branded firm's collaboration with Fiat. Around 1,000 Fiat Abarth 695 SS were produced and only 150 are believed to remain.

Abarth introduced its 695 SS version in 1966, after the previous presentation back in 1964. The rear-engine, rear-wheel-drive layout Fiat 500 was the basis of the project. When compared to the production version of the 500, aesthetically the 695 was virtually identical except for the logo, badge on the radiator grille and the coat of arms on both sides of the car. The 695 SS was the only version to feature flared arches and the need to raise the engine cover for extra stability and cooling.

Like all Abarths, the differences are found in the mechanical upgrades that helped to increase its top speed to around 140 km/h. The OHV 2 valves per cylinder inline-two engine, exhaust pipe, head and valve-springs were upgraded and specially designed pistons and camshaft fitted. It had an equal square bore and stroke ratio of 76x76 mm for a total displacement of 689.5 cc and the original single Solex 34PBIC carburetor was increased in size with a compression ratio of 9.8:1 developing 38 PS at 5200 rpm and 57 Nm of torque at 4000 rpm.

Fiat 500 Jolly Ghia
Carrozzeria Ghia custom manufactured a "Jolly" variant of the 500, inspired by the limited edition Fiat 600 Jolly, and featuring an open-air, doorless design with wicker seats and a removable fabric canopy roof — similar in concept to the Citroën Méhari, BMC Mini Moke and Volkswagen Type 181.

2007 Fiat 500
First announced in May 2006, Fiat previewed an all-new four-seat three-door hatchback 500 model in March 2007 – fifty years after the first Fiat 500 was presented. The design of the 2007 Fiat 500 is based on the 2004 Fiat Trepiùno concept.

The new model features a distinctive retro style – following the pattern of the Volkswagen New Beetle and BMW MINI – as modern reinterpretation of Dante Giacosa's 1957 original rear-engined Fiat 500. Production started in mid-2007 in Fiat facilities in Tychy, Poland, and later in Toluca, Mexico. Numerous trim, equipment, and performance versions are offered with a convertible body style available starting in 2009.

The 500 is also offered in Abarth trim, with 1.4L Turbo Petrol engine, sport exhaust, suspension, and transmission.

The Fiat 500 automobile platform is the basis of the second-generation Ford Ka.

title: Fiat 500


text:
Baruch College

Baruch College (officially the Bernard M. Baruch College) is a public college in New York City. It is a constituent college of the City University of New York system. Named for financier and statesman Bernard M. Baruch, the college operates undergraduate and postgraduate programs through the Zicklin School of Business, the Weissman School of Arts and Sciences, and the Marxe School of Public and International Affairs.

History
Baruch College is one of the senior colleges in the CUNY system. It traces its roots back to the 1847 founding of the Free Academy, the first institution of free public higher education in the United States. The New York State Literature Fund was created to serve students who could not afford to enroll in New York City's private colleges. The Fund led to the creation of the Committee of the Board of Education of the City of New York, led by Townsend Harris, J.S. Bosworth, and John L. Mason, which brought about the establishment of what would become the Free Academy, on Lexington Avenue in Manhattan.

The Free Academy became the College of the City of New York, now The City College of New York (CCNY). In 1919, what would become Baruch College was established as City College School of Business and Civic Administration. On December 15, 1928, the cornerstone was laid on the new building which would house the newly founded school. At this point, the school did not admit women. At the time it opened it was considered the biggest such school for the teaching of business education in the United States. By the 1930s, women were enrolled in the School of Business. The total enrollment at CCNY reached an all-time high of 40,000 students in 1935, and the School of Business had an enrollment of more than 1,700 students in the day session alone. In 1953, it was renamed the Baruch School of Business in honor of Bernard Baruch, an 1889 graduate of CCNY who went on to become a prominent financier and adviser to two presidents. In 1961, the New York State Education Law established the City University of New York (CUNY) system. In 1968, the Baruch School of Business was spun off as Baruch College, an independent senior college in the CUNY system.

The first president of the new college (1969–1970) was the previous Federal Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Robert C. Weaver. In 1971, the college appointed Clyde Wingfield, a noted educator, as its president. He was succeeded by economist Joel Edwin Segall in 1977. Segall recruited several well-known faculty members to the School of Business and established the college's permanent home on Lower Lexington Avenue. Matthew Goldstein was president of the school from 1991 to 1998 (he later went on to serve as the Chancellor of CUNY from 1999 to 2013). He was responsible for raising admissions requirements and creating the School of Public Affairs in 1994. Edward Regan, former comptroller of New York state, served as president from 2000 to 2004. During his tenure, test scores rose, student retention rates increased, and many new faculty members were hired. In 2001, the Vertical Campus opened and Baruch College accepted its first students from the CUNY Honors College, now known as the Macaulay Honors College. The college also implemented a common core curriculum for all undergraduates.

Kathleen Waldron became the president in 2004. Under Waldron, Baruch College received large donations from its alumni, which resulted in the Vertical Campus, 23rd Street building, and Performing Arts complex being renamed in honor of the three largest donors respectively. Alumni giving has increased under "Baruch Means Business," a $150 million capital campaign. In August 2009, Waldron resigned from her position to become a University Professor at the Graduate Center. Stan Altman, the former dean of the School of Public Affairs from 1999 to 2005, was named interim president.

On February 22, 2010, Mitchel Wallerstein, Dean of the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at Syracuse University, was appointed as the president of the college. He took office on August 2, 2010, and remained until June 30, 2020, after which he became a University Professor at CUNY. Under his leadership, Baruch College established degree programs with universities globally, ranked as a top college for social mobility, and achieved the best graduation rate within the CUNY system.

Baruch College was the scene of student protests in 2011 as a result of tuition hikes. This resulted in arrests.

S. David Wu is the current President of Baruch College, taking office on July 1, 2020.

Academics
Baruch College is composed of three academic schools, the Zicklin School of Business, the Weissman School of Arts and Sciences, and the Marxe School of Public and International Affairs. The Zicklin School of Business grants a Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) degree in 19 different business-related areas, a Masters of Business Administration (MBA) in 14 business-related areas, and a Masters of Science (MS) in 8 business-related programs.

The Weissman School of Arts and Sciences grants a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree in over 27 different arts and science-related areas, a Masters of Arts (MA) in Corporate Communications and Mental Health Counseling, and a Masters of Science (MS) in Financial Engineering and Industrial-Organizational Psychology.

The Austin W. Marxe School of Public and International Affairs grants a Bachelor of Science (BS) degree in Public Affairs, a Masters of Public Administration (MPA) in 5 different public affairs-related areas, and a Masters of Science in education (MSEd) in Higher Education Administration.

The college also houses several doctoral (PhD) programs offered through the CUNY Graduate Center. They include Business (with specializations in Accounting, Finance, Information Systems, Marketing or Organizational Behavior) as well as Industrial and Organizational Psychology. As of June 2013, the CUNY PhD in Business degree is offered jointly by the Graduate Center and Baruch College.

Lawrence and Eris Field Building
The Lawrence and Eris Field Building, also known as the 23rd Street Building, is still in use by the college today. The 23rd Street Building began renovation in 2013. The ten-year renovation project will finally bring the 23rd Street Building to twenty-first century standards. The building is home to the Marxe School of Public and International Affairs and several administrative offices.

Information and Technology Building
The Information and Technology Building is located across East 25th Street from the Newman Vertical Campus. The structure, which was once a substation for New York City streetcars, it is home to the William and Anita Newman Library. A computer lab, the Baruch Computing and Technology Center, is on the sixth floor. The building also contains the offices of the Registrar, Undergraduate Admissions, Financial Aid and the International Student Center. It is colloquially known as the "Library Building" by students and staff.

Newman Vertical Campus
After decades of renting space for classrooms, the college began constructing what is now the Newman Vertical Campus in 1998; the 17-story building was designed by Kohn Pedersen Fox. Named after businessman William Newman and inaugurated on August 27, 2001, the building is a 786,000 ft2, 17-floor building, which cost $327 million to erect. It is now home to the Zicklin School of Business and the Weissman School of Arts and Sciences (the Marxe School of Public and International Affairs is housed in the Field Building). It houses classrooms, faculty offices, additional computer labs for student use, along with the Athletic and Recreation Complex (ARC), Cafeteria, and Baruch Bookstore. The Newman Vertical Campus received the American Institute of Architects' highest award for an individual building in 2003. East 25th Street between Lexington and Third Avenue was renamed "Bernard Baruch Way", and the college now uses the Vertical Campus as its official address.

Campus location
The college is located between East 22nd and 25th Streets in Manhattan, along Lexington Avenue. The campus is served by the following transportation:
 * New York City Subway: the 23rd Street and 28th Street subway stations at Park Avenue, served by the.
 * New York City Bus: routes.

Academic centers and institutes

 * Baruch College Survey Research
 * CCI – Corporate Communication International
 * CUNY Institute for Demographic Research
 * Center for Educational Leadership
 * Center on Equality, Pluralism and Policy
 * Lawrence N. Field Center for Entrepreneurship
 * Jewish Studies Center
 * Steven L. Newman Real Estate Institute
 * New York Census Research Data Center
 * Center for Nonprofit Strategy and Management
 * Center for the Study of Business and Government (CSBG)
 * The Bernard L. Schwartz Communication Institute at Baruch College is an academic service unit and faculty development program. It supports educational technology and communications instructional projects in the college.
 * The Starr Career Development Center, named after the Starr Foundation, provides career services to all Baruch College undergraduates and alumni with bachelor's degrees from Baruch.
 * The Subotnick Financial Services Center, which opened in 2000, provides a simulation of practical trading experience. Its centerpiece is the Bert W. and Sandra Wasserman Trading Floor.
 * Center for Teaching and Learning
 * Computer Center for Visually Impaired People
 * Weissman Center for International Business
 * Robert Zicklin Center for Corporate Integrity

Partnerships

 * The Zicklin School of Business:
 * has established a corporate-university partnership with JPMorgan Chase.
 * maintains a joint JD/MBA program with Brooklyn Law School and New York Law School.
 * Baruch College Campus High School is a public high school operated by the New York City Department of Education that is affiliated with the college.
 * The Executive Master of Science in finance, and Executive Master of Science in marketing programs at the American Graduate School in Paris are affiliated with Baruch College.

Student life
WBMB Baruch College Radio currently provides around the clock radio broadcasts via their website stream and local FM frequency 94.3. The Ticker has been the student newspaper since 1932. The school is home to over 130 clubs and student organizations, including large chapters of such national and international organizations as Finance and Economics Society, ISACA Cybersecurity Club, ALPFA, AIESEC, Toastmasters, Alpha Kappa Psi, Sigma Alpha Delta, Muslim Student Association, Bangladesh Student Association, United Chinese Language Association, InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, and Golden Key. Most undergraduate clubs meet on Thursdays between 12:40 p.m. to 2:20 p.m., which is known as “Club Hours.” Baruch college also has an art gallery on campus (Mishkin Gallery) that showcases various exhibitions that engage and educate the students.

Athletics
Baruch College competes in Division III of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. The sports teams, referred to as the Bearcats (with Binturong being the actual name of these animals from many parts of Asia) are a member of the City University of New York Athletic Conference (CUNYAC). Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis and volleyball. Women's sports include basketball, cross country, softball, swimming & diving, tennis and volleyball.

Admissions
The undergraduate admissions for Baruch College are considered to be "Selective" by the College Board with a 43% acceptance rate. Baruch College follows a holistic admissions process by considering teacher recommendations, application essay, and extracurricular activities, in addition to standardized test scores and GPA. For 2022, the average admitted student's GPA was 3.7, with an SAT score range of 1170–1350 and average ACT score of 27. The college has a 70% graduation rate within six years.

Rankings
Baruch College has been ranked by multiple sources, including:

 * In its annual "Social Mobility Index" for 2015, CollegeNet ranked Baruch #1 in the country, among more than 900 schools considered, in providing social mobility for students.
 * Washington Monthly ranked Baruch #1 in the Northeast in 2015 in providing "Best Bang for the Buck."
 * CNBC Says Baruch College is #2 Best Public Institution Nationwide for Return on Investment in 2020.
 * Entrepreneur magazine and The Princeton Review ranked Baruch #5 in 2018 among colleges for its undergraduate entrepreneurship program, and #10 for the graduate school.
 * Forbes ranked Baruch #9 in the country among "Best Value Schools" for 2019. The magazine also ranked Baruch #55 nationally among "Best Business Schools."
 * In 2015, Business Insider recognized Baruch as #19 in its ranking of the 25 business schools that offer the best value.
 * U.S. News & World Report ranked Baruch 20th in 2017 among Regional Universities in the North. The magazine also ranked Baruch #4, Most Ethnically Diverse (in the North Region); #5, Top Public Schools (in the North Region); #1, Least Debt (in the North Region); #15, City Management and Urban Policy; #29, Health Care Management; #35, Accounting; #45, Top Public Affairs Schools; #61, Best Undergraduate Business programs; #66, Best Part-time MBA.
 * U.S. News & World Report, in its 2023 ranking of "Best Business Schools," listed Zicklin as #49 nationally.

Notable alumni
Before 1968, alumni of Baruch College were officially alumni of the City College of New York.

Notable faculty

 * Ervand Abrahamian, Professor of history, Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
 * Abraham J. Briloff, Professor of accounting, Inductee of The Accounting Hall of Fame in 2014
 * Joel Brind, Professor of biology, Scientific advocate of the abortion–breast cancer hypothesis
 * Mario Cuomo, Former 3-term Governor of New York State, Taught a public affairs seminar in the fall of 2008
 * Matthew Goldstein, Former chancellor of The City University of New York, Taught mathematics and statistics
 * David Gruber, Marine biologist and National Geographic Explorer, Presidential Professor of Biology and Environmental Sciences at the City University of New York
 * Ted Joyce, Professor of economics, research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research
 * Douglas P. Lackey, Professor of philosophy, playwright
 * John Liu, Former New York City Comptroller, mayoral candidate, and former member of the New York City Council, Taught municipal finance and policy in the School of Public Affairs
 * Kenneth L. Marcus, Former Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights at the United States Department of Education, Taught courses on Diversity Management and Civil Rights Law
 * Harry Markowitz, Professor of Finance, recipient of Nobel Prize in Economics (1990)
 * Wendell Pritchett, Chancellor of Rutgers University–Camden, Interim Dean and Presidential Professor at the University of Pennsylvania Law School, and Provost of the University of Pennsylvania
 * Carla Robbins, Clinical Professor, Former deputy editorial page editor of The New York Times
 * David Rosner, Ronald H. Lauterstein Professor of Sociomedical Sciences and professor of history in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences at Columbia University; Co-director of the Center for the History and Ethics of Public Health at Columbia's Mailman School of Public Health; member, National Academy of Sciences' Institute of Medicine (class of 2010)
 * Donna Shalala, Secretary of Health and Human Services under the Clinton Administration, Taught politics at Baruch in the 1970s
 * Clarence Taylor, Emeritus Professor of history
 * John Trinkaus, Former Professor of Management and Dean, recipient of Ig Nobel Prize
 * Yoshihiro Tsurumi, Professor of international business, scholar in multinational business strategy and national competitiveness

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baruch College


text:
Fiat 126

The Fiat 126 (Type 126) is a four-passenger, rear-engine, city car manufactured and marketed by Fiat over a twenty-eight year production run from 1972 until 2000, over a single generation. Introduced by Fiat in October 1972 at the Turin Auto Show, the 126 replaced the Fiat 500, using major elements from its design. A subsequent iteration, marketed as the 126 Bis, used a horizontally oriented, water-cooled engine, and featured a rear hatchback with additional cargo space.

The majority of 126s (some 3.3 million) were manufactured in Tychy and Bielsko-Biała plants, Poland and were marketed as the Polski Fiat 126p in many markets. Fiat stopped marketing the 126 in 1993 in favor of its new front-engined Cinquecento. Total production reached approximately 4.7 million units.

In Poland, the car became a people's car, and a cultural icon, earning the nickname Maluch, meaning "The Little One" or "Toddler", a name that eventually became official in 1997, when 'Maluch' started appearing, badged on the rear of the car.

Inearly 2020, the 28-year production run of the Fiat 126 was counted as the twenty-sixth most long-lived single-generation car in history by Autocar magazine."

History
The 126 shared its wheelbase and much of the mechanical underpinnings and layout with the Fiat 500, featuring a revised, slightly larger bodyshell designed by Sergio Sartorelli with improved safety and interior space. The added interior space resulted from moving the starter from the top of the engine bellhousing to the side which permitted shifting the bulkhead/rear seat rearward approximately 10 cm, and the lengthening of the roof for rear-seat headroom.

The engine capacity was increased from 594 cc to 652 cc at the end of 1977 when the cylinder bore was increased from 73.5 to 77 mm. Claimed power output was unchanged at 23 hp-metric, but torque was increased from 39 N·m to 43 N·m. The 594 cc engines were still available in early 1983 production.

A subsequent change in 1987 by FSM was the BIS version that was made until 1991. The 126 BIS gained a hatchback to access an additional cargo space on the rear, which was freed by replacing the air-cooled engine with the water-cooled 704 cc 26 hp-metric flat-twin.

The 126 was manufactured at Fiat's Cassino and Termini Imerese plants until 1979, with an overall production of 1,352,912 manufactured in Italy.

The 126 was also manufactured under license by Zastava in Yugoslavia. In Austria, it was briefly assembled by Steyr Puch as a successor to the successful Puch 500, with the assembly of 2,069 cars through 1975. In Greece, there was an attempt to produce a small car named DIM whose technical layout was primarily based on the 126, but only ten were produced before the project was abandoned.

The 126 did not achieve the popularity of the 500 in Western Europe, as the rear-engined layout was displaced by better packaging and handling front-engine, front-wheel drive cars. The 126 became one of the last and longest-production rear-engine small cars manufactured in Europe, survived only by the VW Beetle whose production lasted until 1978 (2003, globally). The 126 was also the last rear-engine small car manufactured in Europe until the advent of the Smart Fortwo.

For a brief period in the early 1990s, a German company called POP also offered convertible versions of the 126 BIS. Two models were offered: a lesser equipped one called the "POP 650" and a more luxurious model called the "POP 2000".

Polski Fiat 126p

In Poland, the car was produced under license by Fabryka Samochodów Małolitrażowych (FSM) (En: Small-Displacement Car Factory) in Bielsko-Biała and Tychy under the brand Polski Fiat 126p (literally in English: Polish Fiat 126p) between 1973 and 2000.

Due to its relatively low price, it was prevalent in Poland and was arguably the most common Polish car in the 1980s. Its tiny size gave it the nickname maluch ("the small one", "small child", pronounced ). The nickname became so popular that in 1997, it was accepted by the manufacturer as the car's official name. At first, it was almost identical to the basic model: differences included a higher chassis, a modified grille on the back, and the front indicator lenses that were clear white in Italy, but orange in other markets. The letter "p" was added to its name to distinguish it from the original Italian car.

Throughout the 1980s, the 126p was continuously modified. First, it received upgraded brakes and new wheels from Italian Fiat. Hazard warning lights were added to meet new lighting requirements.

In 1984, the 126 received a facelift, giving it plastic bumpers (for all versions) and a new dashboard. This model was named the Fiat 126p FL. In 1985, a single rear fog light and reversing light (on opposite sides) were added to the standard plastic bumpers; an electronic ignition system and alternator replaced the undersized generator around 1987. In 1994, the 126p received another facelift and some parts from the Fiat Cinquecento; this version was named 126 EL. The 126 ELX introduced a catalytic converter. In 1987, the 126 BIS began production, featuring a water-cooled 704 cc engine of Polish construction. However, the original model continued to be produced for the Polish market. BIS used some parts from the Fiat Cinquecento.

The factory battery in 126p had a 35-amp hour capacity, which, combined with the undersized generator, the car had a fully charged battery only if driven for an extended time. Upgrading a 45-amp hour battery from the Fiat 125p (1.5 Litre engine) improved the cold start reliability.

The 126p was exported to many Eastern Bloc countries, and for several years, it was one of the most popular cars in Poland and in Hungary as well. It also found a minor market in Australia between 1989 and 1992 under the name FSM Niki. During that period, it was Australia's cheapest car. There was a convertible version developed for the Australian market. It was also successful in Cuba where it was one of the best-selling cars of its time and an estimated 10,000 are still registered today.

The 126p also has a history in China: In the early 1980s, it became one of the first passenger cars to be imported to the country. The government initially bought 10,000, mainly used as taxis, but later, the 126p became available for private buyers - a rarity in the country then. In the 1980s, it was one of the best-selling cars in China, selling around 30,000 units per year.

Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, several experimental prototypes were developed in Poland. A cargo version was designed in 1974 called "Bombel" (literally "bubble", but also a colloquial term for "small child") because of its fiberglass bubble-shaped cargo area; an off-road version propelled by caterpillar tracks and a front-wheel drive, front-engined model, with a longer front end and a flat cargo area in the rear where the original 126 had its engine. The rear of this prototype was similar to the 126 Bis which also had a rear hatch for accessing a cargo space created by mounting its flat water-cooled engine under the floor.

There was also an attempt at installing a small diesel engine (due to gasoline rationing) in the classic 126p body. It is also a popular platform for electric motor and motorcycle engine swaps.

Timeline of PF 126p

 * 1972 – the FSM car factory was built in Bielsko-Biała.
 * 6 June 1973 – the first Polski Fiat 126p constructed from Italian parts. The official price was 69,000 Polish złotys with PKO Bank Polski accepting pre-payments on savings books starting 5 February 1973.
 * 22 July 1973 – the official opening of the factory's production line. By the end of that year, over 1,500 Fiats were manufactured.
 * September 1975 – production started in the Tychy factory.
 * 1977 – engine capacity increased from 594 cc to 652 cc. Engine power increased to about 24 hp.
 * 1978 – production of types with engine capacity 594 cc ended.
 * 1979 – production of Polski Fiat 126p continued only in Bielsko-Biała.
 * 1981 – 1,000,000th Polski Fiat 126p produced.
 * December 1984 – technical changes in the construction and body. Type FL introduced.
 * 1987 – production begins of a water-cooled Polski Fiat 126p Bis version – a three-door hatchback with 704 cc capacity.
 * May 1993 – 3,000,000th Polish Fiat 126p produced.
 * September 1994 – body improvement, creating type "el" with parts similar to those used in Fiat Cinquecento.
 * January 1997 – introduction of a catalytic converter.
 * 22 September 2000 – production ended after a production run of 3,318,674 units. All Fiats of the last limited Happy End series were yellow or red (500 cars in red and 500 cars in yellow).

The car's global production was 4,673,655 units: 1,352,912 in Italy, 2,069 in Austria by Fiat-Steyr, and 3,318,674 in Poland.

Political connotations

The PF 126p has a special meaning for Poles, and its story is connected to Polish politics during the communist period (Polish People's Republic, up to 1989). During the absolute rule of the PZPR, a private car was considered a luxury item due to limited availability and low salaries. In 1971, there were only 556,000 passenger cars in Poland. In a top-down planned economy, decisions on whether a state-owned factory could produce a car were taken on political and not just economic grounds. The authorities themselves initially did not find the idea of private cars attractive. The first relatively cheap Polish car was the Syrena, but it needed to be updated, and its production was low. Limited numbers of cars were also imported from other Eastern Bloc countries. It was challenging to buy a Western car because the Polish złoty, like other currencies in communist states, was not convertible to Western funds, and the country had no free market.

Thus, the PF 126p was intended to be the first real, popular, and affordable car to provide mobility for ordinary families. The license was bought after the rise to power of a new PZPR leader, Edward Gierek, who wanted to gain popularity by increasing consumer spending after the austerity period under Władysław Gomułka. Even though it was a tiny city car, it was the only choice for most families, filling the role of a family car. During holidays, it was common to see families of four driving PF-126s abroad with huge suitcases on a roof rack; sightings of PF-126s towing a small Niewiadów N126 caravan especially designed for the PF 126 were also occasionally reported. PF 126p production, however, was not sufficient and the PF 126p was on sale with a waiting list. Usually, families had to wait a few years to buy a car. The authorities could also give a coupon to purchase a car based on merit or relationship.

Nicknames
In Polish it is called Maluch, which literally means "small one" or toddler (and was an official name since 1997), as well as mały Fiat ("small Fiat"), in contrast to Fiat 125p, called duży Fiat ("big Fiat"). In some regions, it is also called Kaszlak, literally "cougher" (derived from kaszel, "cough", as its engine's sound resembles a cough when it is started). In Albanian it is known as Kikirez, meaning a "little rooster".

In Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian it is known as Peglica (meaning "little iron")., or, occasionally, as "klompa" (meaning "clog")

In Slovene the 126 is also called Bolha ("flea"), Piči-poki (loosely translated as "fast-and-loud") or Kalimero on Slovenian coast after a cartoon character Calimero.

In Hungarian, it is known as kispolszki ("Little Polish", while the 125p is the nagypolszki, meaning "Big Polish"), kispolák ("Little Pole") or kispók ("Little spider"); also, the car was nicknamed egérkamion, meaning "mouse truck".

In German, the Fiat 126 was known as the Bambino, the Italian word for child.

In Cuban Spanish it is known as the "Polqi" or "Polaquito", meaning "Little Pole" or "Little Polish man", and in Chilean Spanish as "Bototo".

title: Fiat 126


text:
Maybach

Maybach is a German luxury car brand owned by and a part of Mercedes-Benz AG. The original company was founded in 1909 by Wilhelm Maybach and his son Karl Maybach, originally as a subsidiary of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH, and it was known as Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH until 1999.

In 1960, Maybach was acquired by Daimler-Benz. The name returned as a standalone ultra-luxury car brand in 2002, sharing significant components with Mercedes-Benz cars. After slow sales, Maybach ceased to be a standalone brand by 2013, and it became (in 2015) a sub-brand of Mercedes-Benz, which the Mercedes-Benz Group owns. , Daimler produces an ultra-luxury edition of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class, the Mercedes-Benz EQS SUV and the Mercedes-Benz GLS-Class under the Mercedes-Maybach name.

1909–1940: Early history
Wilhelm Maybach was the technical director of the Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) until he left in 1907. On 23 March 1909, he founded the new company, Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH (literally "Aircraft Engine Building Company"), with his son Karl Maybach as director. In 1912, they renamed it to Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH ("Maybach Engine Construction Company"). The company originally developed and manufactured diesel and petrol engines for Zeppelins, and then rail cars. Its Maybach Mb.IVa was used in aircraft and airships of World War I.

The company first built an experimental car in 1919, introduced as a production model two years later at the Berlin Motor Show. Between 1921 and 1940, the company produced a variety of opulent vehicles, now regarded as classics. The company also continued to build heavy-duty diesel engines for marine and rail purposes.

Maybach had a British subsidiary, Maybach Gears Ltd., that specialised in gearboxes. In 1938, in conjunction with Dr Henry Merritt, they produced a gearbox and steering system – the 'Merritt-Maybach' – for the abortive Nuffield A.16E1 Cruiser tank design.

1940–1945

During the Second World War, Maybach produced the engines for most of Nazi Germany's tanks and half-tracks. These included almost all the production tank engines through Panzer I, II, III, IV and V, the Tiger I and II (Maybach HL230) and other heavy tanks: and also engines for half-tracks such as the Sd.Kfz. 251 personnel carrier and prime movers like the Sd.Kfz. 9. The engine plant was one of several industries targeted at Friedrichshafen.

After WWII, the factory performed some repair work, but automotive production was never restarted, and some 20 years later, the company was renamed MTU Friedrichshafen.

1960s
Daimler-Benz purchased the company in 1960. Post-1960, the company was mainly used to make special editions of Mercedes cars in the W108 and W116 model range, which were virtually hand built. These cars however carried the Mercedes badge and serial numbers.

Rolls-Royce Power Systems AG, based in Friedrichshafen, used to manufacture the commercial Maybach diesel engines under the MTU brand through its subsidiary MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH.

1997–2013
Daimler presented a luxury concept car at the 1997 Tokyo Motor Show. A production model based on it was introduced in two sizes – the Maybach 57 and the Maybach 62, reflecting the lengths of the automobiles in decimetres. In 2005 the 57S was added, powered by a 6.0 L V12 bi-turbo engine producing 450 kW and 1000 Nm of torque, and featuring various cosmetic touches.

To promote the new Maybach line, Mercedes-Benz engaged figures such as Maybach heir Ulrich Schmid-Maybach and golfer Nick Faldo to serve as brand ambassadors.

Initially, Daimler-Chrysler predicted annual sales of 2,000 worldwide with 50 per cent coming from the United States; however, these expectations never materialized. In 2007, Mercedes bought back 29 US dealers, reducing the total from 71 to 42. In 2010, only 157 Maybachs were sold worldwide, compared to 2,711 similarly priced Rolls-Royces. By the time of the announcement that the brand was to be laid back to rest, 3,000 had been sold worldwide since the brand was revived in 2002.

Daimler announced in November 2011 that Maybach would cease to be a brand by 2013 and manufactured the last Maybach vehicle in December 2012. This was because of poor sales.

Cancellation
With poor sales and the heavy impact of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, Daimler AG undertook a complete review of the Maybach division, approaching Aston Martin to engineer and style the next generation of Maybach models along with the next generation of Lagondas. According to Automotive News, only 44 Maybachs had been sold in the US in the first ten months of 2011.

An article in Fortune noted that Mercedes had missed out on the chance to purchase Rolls-Royce and Bentley when they were up for sale in the 1990s: "'Mercedes backpedaled and decided it needed to be in the ultra-luxury business too, but it went after it in a remarkably clumsy way." It further stated that the first Maybach models had poor driving dynamics compared to its contemporaries from Rolls-Royce and Bentley. "Mercedes took an aging S-class chassis and plopped an absurdly elongated body on it ... rather than develop a new car from the wheels up, as BMW did with Rolls-Royce, or cleverly use the underpinnings of an existing model like the Volkswagen Phaeton for a new Bentley.'" Furthermore, Maybachs were never advertised as owner-driven vehicles, as the company believed that the luxury amenities would be sufficient to drive sales, and they even insisted that auto journalists (who usually test drive the vehicle) ride in the back seat.

Another suggestion for Maybach's struggles was that parent Daimler had failed to differentiate it from its Mercedes-Benz brand. While all three ultra-luxury marques share platforms and engines with other luxury brands from their parent auto company, Maybachs are built alongside the Mercedes-Benz S-Class flagship sedan, whereas Rolls-Royce and Bentley are assembled in England (separate from the rest of BMW and Volkswagen Group's respective production plants), and thus are regarded as being more "exclusive". Furthermore, the Maybach's pedigree was virtually unknown outside of Germany, unlike its British rivals which have long enjoyed renown worldwide; indeed the 2006 Rolls-Royce Phantom's interior evokes memories of a 1930s car while the Maybach 57S's inside makes no reference to its marque's history.

In November 2011, Daimler's CEO Dieter Zetsche announced that the Maybach-brand would cease to exist in 2012, making room for other models of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class. The Maybach-limousines were still being sold up to the year 2013, but after that, the name "Maybach" would not be used. On 14 August 2012, parent Daimler AG announced the official discontinuation of Maybach by releasing a price sheet officially discontinuing the Maybach 57, 57S, 62, 62S and Landaulet. On 17 December 2012, the last Maybach vehicle was manufactured in Sindelfingen.

Revival
The company announced that the line would be replaced by the next-generation of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class, Model W222, due for the 2014 model year, particularly the long wheelbase S-Class Pullman. An executive told a Frankfurt newspaper that "Daimler came to the conclusion that the sales chances for the Mercedes brand were better than that of Maybach."

Mercedes-Maybach

In November 2014, Daimler announced the revival of the Maybach name as a sub-brand of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (W222), positioned as an upscale version akin to the more sporty Mercedes-AMG sub-brand. In anticipation of its April 2015 launch, the flagship Mercedes-Maybach S600 was unveiled at car shows in Los Angeles, United States, and Guangzhou, China, and the production model at the 2015 Geneva Motor Show. During the facelift, the S 500 and S 550 were redesignated S 560 and the flagship was renamed S 650.

Assembled on the same Sindelfingen line used for the S-Class, the model is targeted against the Bentley Mulsanne and Rolls-Royce Phantom. At 5.453 metre long with a wheelbase of 3.365 m (132.5 inches), it is approximately 20 cm longer than the long-wheelbase S-Class models. The Mercedes-Maybach will be available as S500 (S550 in the US) and S600 models, with 4matic all-wheel-drive optional with the V8 engine. Acceleration is 0 to 60 mph in 5.0 seconds. The base car has several colour finish options and the choice between a three-seat rear bench, or two seats reclining. Options include: air-conditioned, heated and massaging seats; heated armrests; a system to pump scented, ionised air around the cabin; and a 1540 watt Burmester 3D surround sound system with 24 speakers. Maybach S500 assembly in Pune, India, began in September 2015, making India the second country to produce a Maybach.

Concept cars
The first Mercedes-Maybach concept car is the Vision Mercedes-Maybach 6, a large 2-door coupe with a fully electric drivetrain. The model was unveiled at the 2016 Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance.

Pre-war

 * 1919 Maybach W1: Test car based on a DMG chassis
 * 1921 Maybach W3: First Maybach, shown at Berlin Motor Show. Featured a 70 hp 5.7L inline six.
 * 1926 Maybach W5: 7L inline six, 120 hp
 * 1929 Maybach 12: V12 precursor to DS7/8
 * 1930 Maybach DSH: Doppel-Sechs-Halbe ("half a twelve cylinder") 1930–1937
 * 1930 Maybach DS7 Zeppelin: 7L V12, 150 hp
 * 1931 Maybach W6: Same engine as W5, longer wheelbase. 1931–1933
 * 1931 Maybach DS8 Zeppelin: 8L V12, 200 hp
 * 1934 Maybach W6 DSG: Featuring a twin overdrive transmission system
 * 1935 Maybach SW35: 3.5L 140 hp I6
 * 1936 Maybach SW38: 3.8L 140 hp I6
 * 1939 Maybach SW42: 4.2L 140 hp I6
 * 1945 Maybach JW61: 3.8L 145 hp I6

2 were the 5.7 L inline six engines built for and ordered by Spyker. Not all were purchased, and Karl had to build cars featuring the engines to offset costs.

Around 1800 Maybachs were built before WWII.

Engines

 * Maybach HL120
 * Maybach HL116
 * Maybach HL210
 * Maybach HL230

Post-revival

 * 2002 Maybach 57 and 62
 * 2005 Maybach Exelero (prototype shown at the IAA in Frankfurt)
 * 2005 Maybach 57S (the S standing for Special rather than Sport)
 * 2006 Maybach 62S
 * 2007 Maybach 62 Landaulet
 * 2009 Maybach 57 and 62 "Zeppelin"
 * 2011 Maybach Guard
 * 2014 Mercedes-Maybach S600
 * 2014 Mercedes-Maybach S400 (only for China)
 * 2015 Mercedes-Maybach S500/S550 (US)
 * 2015 Mercedes-Maybach S600 Pullman
 * 2016 Mercedes-Maybach S 650 Cabriolet
 * 2017 Mercedes-Maybach S560
 * 2017 Mercedes-Maybach S650
 * 2017 Mercedes-Maybach S680 (renamed S650 only for China)
 * 2017 Mercedes-Maybach G 650 Landaulet
 * 2019 Mercedes-Maybach GLS600
 * 2021 Mercedes-Maybach S480 (only for China)
 * 2021 Mercedes-Maybach S580
 * 2021 Mercedes-Maybach S680
 * 2023 Mercedes-Maybach EQS680 SUV
 * 2023 Mercedes Maybach "Project Maybach" – Abloh collaborated with Mercedes Benz's chief designer on Project Maybach. The partnership produced two unique Maybach vehicles: a massive, solar powered roadster designed for luxury off-roading, and a reimagined S680. The roadster remains under “show car” status, but the Virgil Abloh Maybach S680 was available to purchase in April 2023. Abloh died from cancer in 2021.

Sales
Daimler announced in November 2020 that it planned to double its Maybach sales, based on strong Chinese demand, where the car is used as a limousine.

title: Maybach