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Robert F. Stockton

Robert Field Stockton (August 20, 1795 – October 7, 1866) was a United States Navy commodore, notable in the capture of California during the Mexican–American War. He was a naval innovator and an early advocate for a propeller-driven, steam-powered navy. Stockton was from a notable political family and also served as a U.S. senator from New Jersey.

Biography
Robert F. Stockton was born at Morven, Stockton Street, Princeton, New Jersey, into a political family; his father Richard Stockton was a U.S. senator and representative, and his grandfather, Judge Richard Stockton was attorney general for New Jersey and a signer of the Declaration of Independence. Robert F. Stockton was of English descent, and his family had been in what is now the United States since the early colonial period. On March 4, 1823, he married Harriet Maria Potter in Charleston, South Carolina. Ten children were born to this marriage.

Early naval service
Stockton was appointed a midshipman in the U.S. Navy in September 1811, shortly after his 16th birthday, and served at sea and ashore during the War of 1812. After that conflict, Lieutenant Stockton was assigned to ships operating in the Mediterranean, in the Caribbean and off the coast of West Africa. He was the first naval officer to act against the slave trade and captured several slave ships. In December 1821, while commanding the U.S.S. Alligator along the African Windward Coast, Lt. Stockton, along with Dr. Eli Ayers of the American Colonization Society, negotiated a treaty that led to the founding of the state of Liberia.

One source said that he "leveled a pistol at King Peter's head and thereby convinced the latter to sell some of his territory". Though this story of coercion is now being severely challenged by Smithsonian Magazine as being fraudulent propaganda, because the original contract, records, and contemporary press articles have been found.

These show that Liberia was founded when "the two men [Ayers & Stockton] spent four days ashore negotiating a contract with local leaders to purchase a narrow tract of land that scholars estimate covered about 140 acres. Payment would come in the form of trade goods... together worth roughly $7,000 in today's money. Both parties also pledged to live in peace and friendship for ever. Ayers recorded the deal in careful script on the front and back of a single sheet of paper. He signed it along with Stockton and six local leaders, who referred to themselves as Peter, George, Zoda, Long Peter, Governor, and Jimmy. They were called "kings" in the contract, although they were not monarchs in the European sense... American Newspapers published accounts of the purchase and transcripts of the contract...". Fourteen years later, in 1835 the Contract, which had been brought to the U.S. under safekeeping of the American Colonization Society, mysteriously went missing. "... Over the ensuing decades that loss [of the original document] contributed to the myth that the contract had never existed at all - that the Americans had simply seized the land by force or fraud... Because Ayers kept a detailed journal of the 1821 journey to Cape Mesurado [now Liberia], and newspapers printed the text of the agreement, we now know much of what happened that December. But the absence of the original document left an enormous hole in the historical record.

That myth was exploded by the August 2021 re-discovery of that Contract at the Chicago History Museum, among the donated papers of Elias Caldwell, clerk for the Supreme Court during the tenure of George Washington's nephew Justice Bushrod Washington, who was a co-founder of the American Colonization Society. The Contract was among the co-founder's papers and, while "out of sight/out of mind", it was forgotten.

Business affairs
During the later 1820s and into the 1830s, Stockton primarily devoted his attention to business affairs in New Jersey. In addition, Stockton owned and operated the Tellurium gold mine in Goochland and Fluvanna counties in Virginia. He had purchased it in 1848, after its discovery in 1832. His son John P. Stockton was born during this period. He later followed his father into politics and was elected as a U.S. senator representing New Jersey.

In 1835, Stockton purchased a property in Monmouth County, New Jersey, called "Sea Girt". The property was purchased in 1875 by a group of land developers, with the name of Stockton's estate ultimately leading to the choice of the name Sea Girt, New Jersey, when the borough was established in 1918.

Resumes active naval service
In 1838, Stockton resumed active naval service as a captain. He served in the European area, but took leave in 1840 to undertake political work. Offered the post of U.S. Secretary of the Navy by President John Tyler in 1841, he declined the offer, but worked successfully to gain support for the construction of an advanced steam warship with a battery of very heavy guns.

This ship became USS Princeton (1843), the Navy's first screw-propelled steamer. The ship was designed by John Ericsson. Stockton commanded her when she was completed in 1843. The ship was armed with two long 225-pounder wrought iron guns, called the "Peacemaker" and the "Oregon". Although he was the deviser of the defective gun, Captain Stockton's political influence allowed him to be absolved of all responsibility for the February 1844 explosion of the gun, the Peacemaker, on board the ship. The explosion killed two cabinet secretaries and several others.

Cleared by the court of any wrongdoing in the explosion incident, Stockton was sent by President James K. Polk to Texas. Stockton carried with him Polk's offer to annex Texas, sailing on the Princeton and arriving in Galveston. Stockton's observations while in Texas made him aware of the looming war with Mexico, a fact he communicated directly to Polk once he arrived back in Washington. No vessel during the Mexican war was more useful than the Princeton in the Gulf of Mexico. The records of the Navy Department showed she performed more service than all the rest of the Gulf squadron put together.

Mexican–American War
Conquest of California

On July 23, 1846, Commodore Stockton arrived in Monterey, California, and took over command from the ailing Commodore John D. Sloat of the Pacific Squadron of U.S. naval forces in the Pacific Ocean. Commodore Sloat had previously raised the US flag, without resistance, at Monterey, but had no plan to conduct any further military operations on shore and once relieved, sailed home to the United States, leaving Commodore Stockton in command of all US forces. Stockton's command ship was USS Congress (1841) and his combined fleet of three frigates with about 480 men each, one ship of the line with about 780 men and up to four sloops with about 200 men each as well as three storeships made him the strongest force in California as well as the senior military commander and military governor. He was the main driving force in continuing to take possession of Alta California.

On August 11, 1846, Commodore Stockton marched on Pueblo de Los Angeles to meet in battle with General Castro's army. Upon learning of the imminent arrival of Commodore Stockton, Castro retired, leaving behind all his artillery and made off in the direction of Sonora. Immediately after these events Stockton dispatched a courier, Kit Carson, to inform Washington of the proceedings and details of his conquest of California.

On December 6, 1846, Stockton learned that General Stephen Kearny had arrived in California with a small force and that he was besieged by vastly superior enemy forces at the Battle of San Pasqual. Kearny was among the wounded and in command of only 60 weary dragoons mounted on tired mules who were in a perilous position and under attack from a Californio-Mexican cavalry force under Andrés Pico. But for Commodore Stockton's immediate decision to take personal command of a relief column, the outcome could have been disastrous for Kearny.

Later, the combined forces consolidated control over San Diego, and in January 1847 won the minor skirmishes at the Battle of Rio San Gabriel and Battle of La Mesa taking back control of Los Angeles. Faced with the approximate 200 men under John C. Fremont's California Battalion as well as Stockton and Kearny's troops, the Californios sued for peace and signed the Treaty of Cahuenga, which ending fighting in Alta California. Stockton, as senior military authority and military governor of the occupied territory, authorized John C. Fremont's appointment to succeed him as military governor and commander of the California Battalion militia force. When General Kearny finally arrived with orders to assume control of the temporary government Stockton turned over control to Kearny.

Political pursuits
Stockton resigned from the Navy in May 1850 and returned to business and political pursuits. In 1851, he was elected as a Democrat from New Jersey to the United States Senate, where he sponsored a bill to abolish flogging as a Navy punishment. He resigned on January 10, 1853, to serve as president of the Delaware and Raritan Canal Company, a position he held until 1866.

He was a delegate to the unsuccessful Peace Conference of 1861 that attempted to settle the secession crisis; instead the American Civil War began later that year. In 1863, he was appointed to command the New Jersey militia when the Confederate Army invaded Pennsylvania. Stockton died at Princeton, New Jersey, in October 1866, and is buried in the Princeton Cemetery.

Legacy
Four U.S. Navy ships have been named USS Stockton in his honor. The cities of Stockton, California and Stockton, Missouri are named in his honor, as is the borough of Stockton, New Jersey, Stockton Street in San Francisco, and Fort Stockton, San Diego, California, which is now a ruin, but was occupied during the Mexican–American War. In Mariposa County, California Stockton Creek is named after him due to a mine he owned in the California Gold Rush. In Liberia, Stockton Creek, a tidal channel that connects the Mesurado River and the Saint Paul River, and that separates Bushrod Island from the mainland in Monrovia, is also named for him.

Formerly Commodore Stockton Elementary School in San Francisco between Clay and Pacific Streets was named after him. Stockton Street in San Jose was named after him and his Garden Alameda San Jose neighborhood. In Sacramento, Stockton Boulevard is the historic thoroughfare linking Sacramento and Stockton, now superseded by Highway 99 and Interstate 5.

 * Fort Stockton California Historical Landmark No. 54.

title: Robert F. Stockton


text:
Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon

Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon (9 September 1854 – 7 January 1917) was a Norwegian linguist and historian. He was a professor of Semitic Languages at the University of Oslo from 1907.

Knudtzon was born in Trondheim, the son of consul Hans Nicolay Knudtzon (1814–89) and his wife Catharina (1831–79) née Trampe. Having finished his secondary education in 1872, he enrolled at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania. After a short spell at the Cathedral School in Trondheim, he returned to Christiania to study Semitic languages, in particular Akkadian, Arabian and Hebrew, the last of which he also gave lectures on. His first scholarly contribution was Textkritische Bemerkungen zu Lay 17,18, which was published in 1882. In the same decade he studied assyriology and theology in Germany on a university stipend. He returned to Norway after only two years, and resumed his Hebrew teaching. In 1889, he took his dr. phil. degree with the thesis Det saakaldte Perfektum og Imperfektum i Hebraisk ("The So-called Perfect and Preterite in Hebrew").

In recognizing the Hittite language as Indo-European on the basis of two letters from Arzawa (in Western Anatolia), found in Egypt (Die zwei Arzawa-Briefe, 1902), he played an important role in the deciphering of the Hittite language script. In two landmark volumes (1907 and 1915) he published the Amarna letters, diplomatic correspondence of the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep IV, better known as Akhenaten (1351–1334 BC).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jørgen Alexander Knudtzon


text:
Talk:Cost management

Cut from body
''Mostly irrevant discourse. Mikkalai 07:56, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)''

Internal control it is the device which assures the mastery of the piloting and the performances of the company. Control interns been a part of the usual life of the company. The vocation of the company being the creation of wealth measured by the profit the search for earnings productivity and for efficiency is a part of its activity. But up to here the internal device was strongly dependent on the expertise external.

Besides, before governmental measures 2002/2003, internal control was confused with the management control. If one judges it by certain reactions some believe that it is always case.

 * I- Problem and definition of terms

Usually internal control declines in terms of strategy, management and exploitation. One distinguishes so strategic control, management control and control of the exploitation.

But established internal control would not know how to be a set of scattered activities. Various forms must be integrated to establish the system of economic regulation made compulsory by the law; the transparency of the internal reports established by the management control being guaranteed by an external listener. The solution of integration of the internal control, (the missing link of the device of piloting of the internal consequent chain), must be found by every begun and automated according to the level reached by the computer technology.

 * Strategic control has for function to define the axes of development of the company for years to come to the horizon of 3-5 years, considering the evolution which it anticipates of the socioeconomic environment. Strategic control concerns the development of products, the new technologies, the investments, and the politics of financing, the savings of costs and the management of the performance.

 * Management control refers to the implemented of the general strategy over an active period, generally the year. It is about the control of the execution. It is set up to assure that the combination and the use of the average human beings, material and financial allow to reach the annual strategic objectives .Le management control assures the coherence between the strategy and the exploitation in the daily: professional standards, earnings generated with the implemented of the action plans of progress. It assures the synthesis of the accounting and extra-accounting information (volumes, quality, and dysfunctions) emphasizing the key points of the competitiveness of the company.

 * The control of the exploitation is the means by which the company makes sure that the actions which recover from the authority of the responsible will be implemented according to ends without these responsible have to assure the piloting of these actions. The control of the exploitation assures the release of automatisms relative to professional standards (standards of tolerance of manufacturing, standards of preventive maintenance, standards of arbitrage, standards of treatment of outstanding payments, etc.). Information at this level is extra-countable and must be available in real time: the indicator of control of the piloting of the margin [(contribution schedule to the margin on costs variable (CSMCV)], quotations of manufacturing, banking positions, level of stocks, and reception of regulations ?

 * II- Structural genetic plan of the internal control

How is one past particular practices of companies in a system of regulation?

The traditional company needed councillors, firms of auditors or external consultants of whom role was to understand what happens within the company, to help it to set up and to support the mechanisms of regulation being able to make it more effective.

The modern company endowed with new information technologies and with the communication needs councillor?s experts, internal executives responsible for process, (coordinator, coach or a co-pilot). Their activity carries from the point of view of actions to which elaboration and mastery allow to get closer at most of final result. This type of qualified management ?control of the piloting " is liable for the control of the strategy, for the control of the exploitation and for the management control integrating the control of the income.

The income gets in the social purpose of the company: to produce some profit or the prestige not only for the shareholders, the leaders, and the employees but also and especially to supply the possessions and the services asked with the community (consumers, job-seekers, and state, regional and local authorities). It is towards this function that is organized economic public law, corporate law and governance of companies.

The responsible for company, notably the financial responsible who assume a dominating role need to have a plan, a model explicative which gives them locations: a point of departure, the evaluation of the crossed road, the place of destination.

Model explicative of such processes is said ?genetic structural ". The function is to make understandable observations and to interpret the information which one arranges on the situation, to elaborate significant syntheses for the action to be engaged.

?	Model is constituted by positions or recurring situations. This means that even though observed phenomena take place in more or less long temporal cycles, described positions would not know how to represent sequences of evolution or stages scheduled beforehand as when W.W. Rostow (1970) speak about stages of the economic growth (The stage of Economic Growth), or imply that all the companies cross them inevitably, the some, the others in the order supposed with the logical plan. ?	Genetic structural logic supposes only that the realization of a position must be considered as the level of almost still balance engendering elements necessary for the passage in the following position. It supplies indicators for a railing of reading and the decision-taking which are convenient for the establishment of new balance integrating the set of current data, so constituting a progress, a significant overhang.

?	 Structural genetic model is dialectical, that is that it articulates three positions to loosen a logical plan: an initial position where is expressed the thesis of the management, a passing position said by expertise where are engaged corrections and experiment of the processes of control; a position of auto control or auto regulation where are realized syntheses allowing the implementation of the mechanisms of systematic regulation.

It is marked by searches on the structures of collaboration and the conditions of performances.
 * 2-1-The initial position of the internal control

Hawthorne's inquiry is often quoted as the first search for this kind. It was realized by * Elton MAYO at the request of the leaders of Western Company. It was a question of studying the likely reports between conditions of employment and variations of return on the workers.

Study ends in the following results: ?	The environment of any work is soaked with a set of psychological and social meanings; ?	The group of task engenders an informal structure which recovers from the affectivity and not only from the cognition. This informal structure has for function to maintain the model of collective behaviour adopted by the group to protect itself at the same moment from itself and against the attempts of change begun outside.

The impact of the works of * K. LEWIN: later, more exactly in 1946, Kurt Levin?s searches were going to direct definitively the development of structures collaborative. It is in this date that was lawful the * Centre of Search on the Dynamics of the Groups. It is in this centre that were realized experiences become famous on the informal structure of the groups, the change of food customs and the processes of decision of the groups. The dynamics of groups became the central element of any process of organizational development. It explains: -	 The evolution of the individuals in the sense of a better socialization; -	 The increase of the cooperative sense and the sense of responsibility; -	 The intensification of the general capacity of participation; -	 The capacity of the people to be learnt continues it to improve competence and to stay in grip with a society in accelerated development.

 * 2-2-The passing position of the internal control

Passing position is marked by two major events: the re-foundation of the management control and the deepening of the socioeconomic management

It begins with * Michael Porter (1985) who proposes, among others to recreate a strong link between the measures of performance and the strategic intention. This link passes by the concept of ?consequent chain ". In the work ?competitive advantage "he indicates that the consequent chain allows to decompose the activity of the company into sequences of elementary operations and to identify the sources of potential competitive advantages. To carry present a classification of the inductors of costs in 10 possible causes: economies of scale, phenomena of learning which create a relation between the unit cost and the time, the configurations of capacity, etc.
 * 2-2-1/ The re-foundation of the management control

Practice preceded really theory; the preoccupation of costs is as ancient as industrial economy and beyond: industrialization is not a sufficient condition of the appearance of the accounting of costs (Nikitin, on 1992).

The preoccupation of costs is the result of the competition; it obliges the elaboration of strategies. Already during the recession of 1772, industrial earthenware English, * Josiah Wedgwood, felt the need to finalize a system of accounting information on: -	 The costs of each of the products, -	 The state of the finance, -	 The cost price, -	 Economies of scale, -	 Wage politics. It is clear that a situation of monopoly does not pull a significant preoccupation of cost (J. To eat Fells, on 1919).

Positivist step began however only with the concern to direct behaviour to act on costs. Taylor?s doctrine is in it the precursor with the theory of costs. Taylor (1896) and his followers * (L. Gantt, 1915, Nemours's Coleman Dupont, 1920, Alfred Sloan, 1921, HP. Buxton Going, 1922 ?) showed that business accounting does not limit itself to the calculation of the costs of returns from products, but to follow streams, to watch, to compare obtained result and forecasts; but also to measure competitiveness, to pilot the performances of the responsible which can act on costs by improving the processes which they steer.

They forged for it the concept of " management accounting " well to stand out opposition enters the approach which privileges the fact that they are the human beings who use figures and who try to influence the behaviour of the decision-makers, and those that take charge only of the " mechanics of figures ", which have for only objective to discover the costs of products (a certain cost accounting).

Originally, after the second war, management control is only a control of costs moving closer to forecasts and to realizations. The environment of the company considered as stable during its years of growth evolved with the crisis stemming from oil crisis towards a context turbulent and inclined to strategic surprises. Management control filled out then. Besides the budgetary control with financial dominant, it comes along also with a tool of follow-up anticipative tendencies of the market.

Distribution, marketing, management of products and strategic economic planning of the company are the essential beneficiaries of information in grip about the market, supplied by the management control.

Earnings reports established according to the calculation of analytical results on sales give information in real time about margins. It is so possible to analyze his location on the market and to arrest new segments of the market. Costs and incomes from sales are not only brought back to products and to variously structured fields of activity, but so integrated into systems of control.

Often placed except structure, the management controller is then confronted with two logics: concerns financier emanating from the hierarchy and the message of the performance in the concrete coming from the ground. The role is to help the managers in the grip of decision and to influence the behaviour of the objectives of costs. The definition of * Anthony of 1988, translates this evolution: ??management control is process, by which the manager influences the other members of the organization to implement the strategies of the organization ".

Creative and qualitative dimension tends to get the upper hand over the quantitative dimension. This last one consists of tools however indispensable to the management controller: the management of costs, the budget management, the dashboards, and the organization of the company. The difficulty of the management control lives in the adaptation of methods pre-established as complete costs or express costing. Every company possesses a structure of costs an appropriate organization composing with its activity an only environment.

Principles and methods of the management control evolve according to the structure of the costs which depend besides on the nature of the activity: the indirect loads (Advertisement, search, and development) can be superior to direct costs, making obsolete the traditional cost accounting. The method of the ABC (ACTIVITY BASED COSTING) establishes in 1984 takes into account this new structure of costs with the concept of activities and inductors of costs. The corollary is the ABM (Activity-based management).

The ABC suggests returning traceable links between the indirect expenses of the company and their final object: the product, the customer, the project etc. This best allocation of resources leans on the notion of activities, as well as on the choice of the inductors of costs (costs drivers) on model proposed To carry.

R. COOPER will make of this tendency a decision-making instrument. The real reach is less bound to the strategy than to the motivation of the operational. Then will follow perspectives such as the EVA (ECONOMIC VALUE ADDED) conceived by the Stern cabinet and Steward. This concept which measures the operational profit of the investors is taken away well from the notion of ?government of company ".

 * 2-2-2/ The deepening of the socioeconomic management

Socioeconomic management arose from difficulties of the management control relative to the normalization and to the mastery of the inductors of costs

One fast realized that accounting treats only certain aspects of the internal control and the costs; accounting is competent to analyze and to calculate the distances from accounts. Certain direct and indirect costs totally escape the accounting. It is case for example direct costs of absenteeism bound to salaries and social advantages and indirect costs relative to overtime, replacement, decline of the profit, etc. On the column "absenteeism" only, sums are considerable. One estimates them in the United States in 30 billions and in Canada in 14 billions, or 80 000 $ a year and a person.

On the other hand the structure of costs is the determining element of the management control; now it live in the adaptation of methods pre-established as complete costs or express costing. Besides every company possesses a structure of costs an appropriate organization composing with its activity an unique environment. Principles and methods of the management control evolve according to the structure of costs depending on the nature of the activity.

One noticed as well as the indirect loads (Advertisement, search, development) are superior to direct costs, making obsolete the traditional cost accounting.

?	The method of the ABC (ACTIVITY BASED COSTING) establishes in 1984 established its reputation on the consideration of this new structure of costs with the concept of activities and has to show efforts with sound hanging ABM for the search for the causes of heaviness of costs: the inductors of costs.

?	 The ABM if support STILL on the classification of the inductors of costs in 10 categories made by Michael Porter to carry in 1986.

?	The cost accounting was never able to normalize, or standardize the inductors of costs.

All the specialists, including the founders of the step ABC agree to recognize that: ?	Accounting is competent to analyze the behaviour of the costs of activities, the calculation of the cost price and to calculate it distances. ?	The strategic piloting of costs is of the domain of management and not accounting operations. ?	Management understood as set of the measures by which a responsible influences the behaviour of his co-workers to reach fixed objectives acquires scientific legitimacy only when he if support on the psychology (science of the behaviour), notably social psychology in the part " psychology of organizations ", science of the interaction, the working relations or the processes of collaboration, (dynamics of the groups / development of the organization). ?	Psychology is besides only experimental science in the vast domain of economics, social and human.

HUMAN FACTOR is indeed the main inductor of costs; it is also the main inductor of the performance. The cost accounting bases on the inductor of activity, the event which activates foreseen activity. It can not logically seize or to normalize the inductor of costs, the phenomenon or the abnormality which provokes the increase of costs.

The inductors of costs are not governed by the same logic as the inductors of activities with which charged costs are seized with the accounting tool. So methods stemming from the cost accounting or financial accounting should again it be discussed their typology, while description in socioeconomic management bases on concepts and standards of the established possessions.

For methods stemming from the accounting, the reduction of costs is not a practice; it is rather a search in posterior for causes and for solutions by the manager and her frame by means of methods such as the ABM. The managers assume the financial consequences of their strategic choices. Still it is necessary that the accounting operations of costs (the ABC) seized and analyzed the true inductors of costs or causes of heaviness of accounts. How do they can it, if the costs of dysfunctions are not charged? These costs escape the standards of seizure of data in financial accounting.

 * 2-2-3/ The updating of the value explicative laws of the informal structure of the groups

This concept expressed by Elton Mayo and Kurt Lewin in first half of 20-th century has a value explicative on the costs of dysfunctions. This value explicative was put in motto by Pascal LELE in his book of 1986: Handbook of applied social Psychology. The conclusions are the following ones: ?	Every group, (organization or begun) engenders an emotional structure, an informal, unofficial, underlying system in the organization chart, which determines the behaviour of the individuals, the inductors of activities and costs. This structure is intended to protect the group itself against the change and the outside pressures.

?	Certain individuals of the group take some influence and become informal leaders; their influence extends in processes: organization of the group with the aim of the task, the definition of what happens and of what it is necessary to make in unpredictable situation, activation or reduction of tensions, maintains and promotion of the values of the group, representation of the group with the other groups.

?	Tensions give rhythm to the life of the group: tensions among individuals, tensions between sub-systems, tensions provoked by the concern or the feeling insecurity, the tensions determined by the conflicts of leadership, tensions resulting from repressed dissatisfactions.

?	 The level of cohesion of the group is a function of the feeling membership. This feeling strengthens when interests and personal expectations are satisfied or are susceptible to be it. The concepts of stake work it which ensue from it are two orders:

?	The convergence of interests: when individuals contact in situations which present them important purposes, but which can not be reached(affected) by the isolated resources of a minority or the only one, they will tend to cooperate to reach(affect) this purpose above orderly; this cooperation eventually reduced the negative attitudes and the possibilities of conflict.

?	Participation and solidarity: without any ambiguity, the actions of the individuals tend to favour the members of the intra-group to the detriment of those of except group. However, they act as well as in a situation where their individual profit is not in cause.

(This aspect makes suspect all the balances of control not subjected to one against expertise).

The reformulation of the effects of the informal structure of the groups under the concept of ?costs hidden from dysfunctions ??is a major fact. It allowed the management to reach a determining level of efficiency because it normalizes the causes of variation of costs, making of the express costing reference method in accounting of management; the accounts of variable costs (count loads and produced accounts) in front of the axes of mastery of the inductors of costs and of connection of the management with the financial accounting.

The interaction of structures and behaviour within the company creates six families of dysfunctions: -	 Bonuses: past by a person holder of a post better paid in an activity which is not attributes to him; -	 Supplementary times (over times): past in the regulation of a dysfunction; -	 Over-consumption: quantities of products consumed in more to regulate dysfunction; -	 Non-productions: losses of production or activity engendered by the dysfunction; -	 The non-creations of potential: performances delayed because of the annual dysfunctions. -	 Risks: unemployment, liquidation, degradation of image, ?

. The indicators of these dysfunctions are among five: -	 Absenteeism, -	 Occupational accidents, -	 Non-quality, -	 Underproduction, -	 The personnel turnover

Costs engendered by these dysfunctions are called "hidden" by opposition from visible costs (on invoices and states) which possess an accounting naming such as the loads of staff or the purchases of raw materials: -       The classic methods of information which has the company (budgets, general accounting or analytics, financial dashboards). Do not allow to seize hidden costs. These costs are neither quantified so, nor watched. -        They have nevertheless an incidence on the result of the company but, as they are hidden, they are not considered during the decision-taking management.

2-3-The implementation of the mechanisms of auto regulation

Numerous scientific schools agree on the characteristics of organizational systems in phase of maturity: -	The psychoanalytical school with the concept of "Collective unconscious " (D. ANZIEU, on 1975) or of "Psychic device of the groups " (R. KAES,1980), -	 The school of the development of the intelligence with the concept of epistemology of human sciences (J. PIAGET, 1970) -	The anthropological school with the concept of " basic personality " (DUFRENNE, 1966) -	 The school of the genetic social psychology with the concept of ?social constructions? (DOISE, W, 1981); -	 The cybernetic school with the concept of «morphogenesis» (R.THOM, 1972);

The processes of auto control or auto regulation are processes homeostatic. Their implementation allows the company to pass of static?s of order in the dynamics of balance. This device allows passing of static?s of order of the organization chart in the dynamics of balance of the management by process. Maturity is the phase of ?structures interactions". This means that the structure of the organizational system became such as automatisms of meadow - correction or anticipation are integrated into the functioning.

This way, change is a part of the functioning of the company. In this stage the "productions" of the company make only one with the internal alterations, without there is to distinguish forming and alterations; auto-regulation constitutes the reason of its balance.

The implementation of the processes of regulation creates a requirement of synthesis or integration of the previous experiences: -	 Establishment of safety standards and confidence inter-staff, inter and intra-groups for the initial period; -	 Development of the maximum consensus and the participation for the period of deepening.

Conflict remains the driving element of the change; this antagonism is structuring in the sense that during interactions (of the committee of piloting, factory committees or meetings of workshops), several speeches, several tendencies, divergent interests contradict themselves simultaneously, putting the problem of their coordination in systems of group of regulation: interactions which arouse stakes in common, result from regulations of dysfunctions.

Working as safety valves, if the processes of auto-regulation do not put the company completely shielded from the confusions of dysfunctions; they allow to regulate in the least cost absenteeism, occupational accidents, qualitative defects, distances from direct productivity, the distances from personnel turnover and from forming of the staff.

The processes of auto regulation generalize indeed the dynamics of resolution of problems in real time in the company. Everything becomes active. Auto regulation is bound to the capacity of the company to be estimated its own progress, to control its functioning, to adjust tensions between members, sub-systems and other structures of the environment. It is strictly speaking the era of the ?governments of companies ".

 * IV-Les solutions of help of the integration and the automation of the internal control

Model known in the industry this day is a model patented under the title "Systems and technical processes allowing the treatment and the automation of the procedures of economy of costs and management of the performance in curly industrial environments?.

It is this model which allowed the production of flat forms of software packages of Performance Management Systems, BWA " (Business Workflow Analysis): system of control of the piloting of the chain of internal value activating  ETL's engines (Extraction, Transformation and Loading) for the origin, the transformation and the data analysis of costs and accounting performances and quality of different bases, to normalize them then to integrate them into the good place of the decision-making base in strategic purposes, the management control and the control of the exploitation.

The BWA is a system of information at the same moment parallel and at the same time integrated into the general system of information. Parallel because it leans on specific, sharp technologies and extreme reactionary successful with the technologies of reporting, the engines OCBD, the specific normalizations ? Integrated with technical interfaces then user developed in particular with the " intelligent gates " or the analytical " push " and of calculation, requests, creation of reports (connections), broadcasting (distribution) of reports (connections), Exploitation and administration, security, protects data, tractability). The BWA is the first patented system of integration of the internal control.

Before the BWA, it was impossible to proceed to an automation of the function of economy of costs. To fill the task of integration of the control interns data processing became today an indispensable tool and it is there that intervenes Oberon BWA.

An ERP includes an accounting tool, a system of management of production, software of pay. ERP applications (Enterprise Resource Planning) and CRM (CUSTOMER RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT) is mainly conceived to allow the companies to concentrate on their activities, by automating most of processes profession specific in missions, such as the seizure of commands, the economic planning of the chains of supply or the management of accounts.

But the ERP does not arrange functions of savings of costs, being these extra-countable processes. The various modules of the ERP serve all the departments of the company and constitute of this fact of bases where from Oberon BWA extracts specific data necessary for the diagnosis of the potential, for the analysis and for the quantification of indicators to be supplied in the operational for the piloting, extracts the data of evaluation of the performance, the accounting reporting and the management of the quality.
 * http://www.oberon.bwa.com

title: Talk:Cost management


text:
Talk:San Ysidro, San Diego

Thank you
Thanks for checking. Moncrief

 * No prob. I'm new to this, so I don't know all of the procedures.  Should I use the talk page for posting the link instead of the edit summary field?

Either one is fine. Probably the talk page is the best to make sure your comment gets noticed but if you think the person you're communicating with is on Wikipedia right then, the summary field works too. Moncrief

 * Cool.
 * Please sign your entries by striking the tilde key four times. Sincerely, GeorgeLouis (talk) 20:23, 25 January 2008 (UTC)

Appropriate use of photos
While the two photos representing the border/beach area are near San Ysidro, they technically are not of San Ysidro. That area is located in Border Field State Park, a California State Park, which is part of the city of Imperial Beach, California. These photos should be replaced with actual images of San Ysidro or referenced correctly. Ljmajer (talk) 22:56, 17 November 2007 (UTC)

92173
92173 is a zip code in [San Ysidro, California]You should add that.75.33.13.220 (talk) 21:24, 15 June 2008 (UTC)

Little Landers Community
As written, I can't quite see what this section has to do with the rest of the article. I am going to delete it for now. However, if the original contributor can rewrite it so that the relevance is more readily apparent, I will have no objections to reinstating the article. Thank you.

Jjc16 (talk) 19:28, 28 March 2010 (UTC)

On second thought, it can stay, although it does seem very obscure. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jjc16 (talk • contribs) 19:29, 28 March 2010 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: Move. Jafeluv (talk) 22:28, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

San Ysidro, San Diego, California → San Ysidro (San Diego) — These 9 of 49 San Diego neighborhoods proposed to be moved are listed here for technical reasons. NOTE: Please discuss the proposal to move all 49 at Talk:Alta Vista, San Diego, California. Born2cycle (talk) 06:36, 8 December 2010 (UTC)

 * Shelter Island, San Diego, California → Shelter Island (San Diego)
 * South Park, San Diego, California → South Park (San Diego)
 * Stockton, San Diego, California → Stockton (San Diego)
 * Talmadge, San Diego, California → Talmadge (San Diego)
 * Torrey Pines, San Diego, California → Torrey Pines (San Diego)
 * University City, San Diego, California → University City (San Diego)
 * University Heights, San Diego, California → University Heights (San Diego)
 * Webster, San Diego, California → Webster (San Diego)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Removal of Incidents section
I moved the following from the main page, as it seemed more "newsy" than encyclopedic. Dohn joe (talk) 06:19, 3 January 2011 (UTC)

Incidents
On the night of December 30, 2005, Guillermo Martinez Rodriguez, 20, was shot by agent Fausto Campos of the U.S. Border Patrol after the man entered the United States by climbing the fence between San Ysidro and Tijuana. The agent said he shot in self-defense because he was threatened by a rock that was thrown at him. In contrast, the victim's brother said the agent shot the victim in the back as the two Mexicans climbed over the fence to return to their country. Guillermo died in a Tijuana hospital the next day. On January 5, 2006, Raul Martinez, a Border Patrol spokesman in San Diego, said the victim had been detained many times as a people smuggler. The victim's mother denied these claims, stating that her son crossed the border only to find work so that he could feed his children. In Mexico, the Attorney General's Office concluded that Martinez Rodriguez had been shot in the back, with the bullet exiting through the chest.

On May 18, 2006, the border crossing was closed for nine hours after federal authorities shot and killed the driver of a car bound for Mexico, just 50 ft north of the Port of Entry after the driver pinned an officer between his car and another. The vehicle was reportedly seen picking up illegal immigrants.

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 1 one external link on San Ysidro, San Diego. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive http://web.archive.org/web/20040214093907/http://www.catholic-forum.com:80/saints/sainti03.htm to http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/sainti03.htm

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the checked parameter below to true or failed to let others know (documentation at ).

Cheers.—cyberbot II  Talk to my owner :Online 11:35, 28 February 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:San Ysidro, San Diego


text:
Talk:Rhodesia

untitled
Sorry. I’ve been looking for the demographics of Rhodesia bu found nothing. What ws the percentage of the white pupolation in 1965 and in 1978? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.167.31.18 (talk) 04:08, 20 November 2017 (UTC)

"self-government" in lede
Currently a sentence in the lede reads:

"Rhodes and his Pioneer Column marched north in 1890, acquiring a huge block of territory that the company would rule until the early 1920s. In 1923, the company's charter was revoked, and Southern Rhodesia attained self-government and established a legislature."

I'm wondering if we could modify "self-government" here. I know that this is the official/customary term here, but if you were coming into this article with no context you might take "self-government" to mean that the entire population was participating in the country's governance, when in fact it was only a small minority composed of European settlers. This is important because it sets the stage for the entire rest of the country's 20th century history. Would "and Southern Rhodesia's white minority attained self-government" or the like be appropriate? --Jfruh (talk) 18:47, 11 November 2021 (UTC)

 * The use of "self-government" is misleading. And White Supremacists are currently rallying behind nostalgia for this state, let's not help them. 47.217.109.142 (talk) 02:30, 17 April 2023 (UTC)
 * It would seem that the issue of self-governance has to do with not being governed by another country. The issue of who was doing the governing is properly a topic for inclusion in the article. BoonDock (talk) 12:49, 17 April 2023 (UTC)

Unnecessary quotation marks
The quotation marks around the Phrases “incompetent insurgents” and "superbly professional government troop's” aren’t need, the PF forces where extremely incompetent and the Security Forces where extremely skilled and beat the PF in every battle during the bush war. To keep these quotation marks in useless. TheChadeditor (talk) 18:00, 25 August 2022 (UTC)

 * By the nature of insurgency, it is expected that insurgents will lose actual battles against nation-state forces. ForeverStainedWithAutism (talk) 22:25, 19 July 2023 (UTC)

Article's Map
i hate to nitpick, but shouldn't this article's map show Sudan as a unified state? similarly to South West Africa's map. Dawnslayer (talk) 17:41, 15 May 2023 (UTC)

South Africa in the first paragraph
Why is South Africa called "Apartheid South Africa" at the end of the first paragraph as if it was country's official name? Wouldn't it be better to keep it at a neutral "...the other being the Union of South Africa"? 91.231.66.254 (talk) 17:51, 23 September 2023 (UTC)
 * Agree on the naming front. However, the Union of South Africa came to an end in 1961, so linking to that is also anacrhonistic. Have corrected.  Mangwanani  (talk) 18:45, 23 September 2023 (UTC)

Country area
Why is the stated area of Rhodesia 177 km2 less that the stated area of Zimbabwe? Was there some sort of territory change/gain in 1980? --24.80.199.58 (talk) 13:47, 14 October 2023 (UTC)

The music file for the anthem "God save the Queen" is named "God save the King.ogg" and the subtitles are also in the masculine form. Since the anthem was removed in 1970, the music file with subtitles should match what the title accurately describes.
 * What I think should be changed (format using textdiff):
 * Why it should be changed:

Additionally, the usage is inconsistent across the three pages "Rhodesia" "Southern Rhodesia" and "Rhodesia (1964-1965)", with two different music files and all subtitles in the masculine form. I also question (for lack of a better word) the Daseinsberechtigung of the article "Rhodesia (1964-1965)", but that may be due a different discussion. 2A02:8388:1AC6:E580:5905:A23A:8F00:9BA9 (talk) 00:35, 27 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rhodesia


text:
Redcap

The redcap (or powrie) is a type of malevolent, murderous goblin found in Border folklore. He is said to inhabit ruined castles along the Anglo-Scottish border, especially those that were the scenes of tyranny or wicked deeds and is known for soaking his cap in the blood of his victims. He is also known as Redcomb and Bloody Cap.

Description and behaviour
Redcap is depicted as "a short, thickset old elf with long prominent teeth, skinny fingers armed with talons like eagles, large eyes of a fiery red colour, grisly hair streaming down his shoulders, iron boots, a pikestaff in his left hand, and a red cap on his head". When travellers take refuge in his lair, he flings huge stones at them and if he kills them, he soaks his cap in their blood, giving it a crimson hue. He is unaffected by human strength, but can be driven away by words of Scripture or by the brandishing of a crucifix, which cause him to utter a dismal yell and vanish in flames, leaving behind a large tooth.

Variants
The tale of a redcap in Perthshire depicts him as a more benign little man living in a room high up in Grantully Castle. He bestows good fortune on those who see or hear him.

The Kabouter (Kaboutermannekins), or redcaps of Dutch folklore, are also very different and more akin to brownies.

The ruin of Blackett Tower, a border fortress that was owned by the Bell family in the parish of Kirkpatrick-Fleming in Dumfriesshire, was haunted by a more traditional ghost known as "Old Red Cap" or "Bloody Bell". A description of the tower and ghost was given by William Scott Irving in the poem "Fair Helen" in which the "ghastly phantom" holds a bloody dagger beneath a red eastern moon.

The term redcap is also used in a more general sense. For example, in the village of Zennor in Cornwall fairies were often referred to as "red-caps" (including the more benevolent trooping fairies) because of their fondness for wearing green clothing and scarlet caps. This characteristic is demonstrated by an excerpt from the poem "The Fairies" by the Irish poet William Allingham: Wee folk, good folk/trooping all together/Green jacket, red cap/and white owl's feather.

Robin Redcap and William de Soulis

The redcap familiar of Lord William de Soulis, called "Robin Redcap", is said to have wrought much harm and ruin in the lands of his master's dwelling, Hermitage Castle. Ultimately, William was (according to legend) taken to the Ninestane Rig, a stone circle near the castle, then wrapped in lead and boiled to death. In reality, William de Soulis was imprisoned in Dumbarton Castle and died there, following his confessed complicity in the conspiracy against Robert the Bruce in 1320.

Sir Walter Scott in Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border records a ballad written by John Leyden entitled "Lord Soulis" in which Redcap has granted his master safety against weapons and lives in a chest secured by three strong padlocks. Scott states that the Redcap is a class of spirits that haunts old castles, and that every ruined tower in the south of Scotland was supposed to have one of these spirits residing within. Robin Redcap should not be confused with the mischievous hobgoblin known as Robin Roundcap of East Yorkshire folklore.

title: Redcap


text:
Acrylate

Acrylates (IUPAC: prop-2-enoates) are the salts, esters, and conjugate bases of acrylic acid. The acrylate ion is the anion CH2\dCHCO2(-). Often, acrylate refers to esters of acrylic acid, the most common member being methyl acrylate. These acrylates contain vinyl groups. These compounds are of interest because they are bifunctional: the vinyl group is susceptible to polymerization and the carboxylate group carries myriad functionalities.

Monomers
Acrylates are defined by the formula CH2\dCHCO2R, where R can be many groups: The versatility of the resulting polymers is owed to the range of R groups.
 * Acrylic acid
 * Methyl acrylate
 * Ethyl acrylate
 * 2-Chloroethyl vinyl ether
 * 2-Ethylhexyl acrylate
 * Butyl acrylate
 * Trimethylolpropane triacrylate (TMPTA)

Acrylate derivatives
Methacrylates ( CH2\dC(CH3)CO2R) and cyanoacrylates ( CH2\dC(CN)CO2R,) are closely related to acrylates. The feature a methyl and a nitrile in place of the H alpha to the carboxy functional group. They share several properties, being polymerized by radicals and being colorless.

Polymers

Some acrylate polymers (poly(methyl methacrylate) etc. not included): Acrylate monomers are used to form acrylate polymers. Most commonly, these polymers are in fact copolymers, being derived from two monomers.
 * Poly(methyl acrylate) (PMA)
 * Poly(ethyl acrylate) (PME)
 * Poly(butyl acrylate)

Related polymers
In the same way that several variants of acrylic esters are known, so too are the corresponding polymers. Their properties strongly depends on the substituent.

A large family of acrylate-like polymers are derived from methyl methacrylate and many related esters, especially polymethyl methacrylate.

A second large family of acrylate-like polymers are derived from ethyl cyanoacrylate, which gives rise to cyanoacrylates.

Yet another family of acrylate-related polymers are the polyacrylamides, especially the parent derived from acrylamide.

Other uses
In addition to forming polymers, acrylate esters participate in other reactions relevant to organic chemistry. They are Michael acceptors and dienophiles. They undergo transesterification.

Production
Acrylates are industrially prepared by treating acrylic acid with the corresponding alcohol in presence of a catalyst. The reaction with lower alcohols (methanol, ethanol) takes place at 100–120 °C with acidic heterogeneous catalysts (cation exchanger). The reaction of higher alcohols (n-butanol, 2-ethylhexanol) is catalysed with sulfuric acid in homogeneous phase. Acrylates of even higher alcohols are obtainable by transesterification of lower esters catalysed by titanium alcoholates or organic tin compounds (e.g. dibutyltin dilaurate).

title: Acrylate


text:
Sigma Nu

Sigma Nu (ΣΝ) is an undergraduate college fraternity founded at the Virginia Military Institute in 1869. Since its founding, Sigma Nu has chartered more than 279 chapters across the United States and Canada and has initiated more than 235,000 members. It is part of the Lexington Triad, a trio of national fraternities that were founded at colleges in Lexington, Virginia.

The fraternity's values are summarized by the principles of love, honor, and truth. Because of its military heritage, Sigma Nu retains many military trappings in its chapter ranks and traditions, and places importance on the concept of personal honor. The fraternity's mission statement is:
 * To develop ethical leaders inspired by the principles of Love, Honor, and Truth.
 * To foster the personal growth of each man's mind, heart, and character.
 * To perpetuate lifelong friendships and commitment to the Fraternity.

History
The fraternity was founded by James Frank Hopkins, Greenfield Quarles and James McIlvaine Riley shortly after Hopkins witnessed what he considered a hazing ritual by upperclassmen at the Virginia Military Institute.

James Frank Hopkins, Greenfield Quarles, and James McIlvaine Riley enrolled at the Virginia Military Institute in 1866. Hopkins entered the institute at the age of 21 and was, at the time, one of the oldest cadets entering the institute. Both Hopkins and Quarles had served in the American Civil War as Confederate soldiers.

At this time, many secret societies were being formed on the VMI campus. In Hopkins' third year at VMI, he joined the Masonic Lodge in Lexington. The masons inspired him to create a similar organization at VMI. Hopkins shared his ideas with Quarles and Riley, and in October 1868, the three came together on a limestone rock on the edge of the VMI parade ground to form the Legion of Honor. The three founders would go on to bring others into the Legion of Honor over the rest of the year. On January 1, 1869, the founders, along with the rest of the members of the Legion of Honor, held their first official meeting as Sigma Nu. The fraternity's existence remained secret until the founders publicly announced their new society on January 1, 1869.

Hopkins designed the fraternity's badge, which stands mostly unchanged from its original form. The badge was introduced in the spring of 1869. Early members, Edward Arthur and Linton Buck, both wrote the original Constitution and Law, respectively. Some conflict arose because Arthur had been a member of the Honduras Emigrant Society and had included some influences from that organization in the constitution. Buck felt these influences should be removed. His revision became the first Law of Sigma Nu. This first chapter of Sigma Nu chose as its motto nulli secundus, a Latin phrase meaning "second to none."

There were many efforts in the beginning years to establish chapters at other schools. By 1883, Alpha chapter chartered eleven additional chapters, of which only three survived. One of the many factors was the anti-fraternity sentiment during this time. Kappa chapter was established in 1881 at North Georgia College & State University, giving the fraternity an important member, John Alexander Howard. Howard suggested that the fraternity drop the use of Roman numerals for chapter designation in favor of using a Greek letter designation. He is also responsible for the creation of The Delta, Sigma Nu's fraternity magazine which was first published in April 1883. The name The Delta originated from the location of the three active chapters of Sigma Nu forming a Delta.

Howard's editorials in The Delta inspired Isaac P. Robison, founder of Lambda chapter, to propose a convention for the national fraternity. On July 10, 1884, Sigma Nu's first convention was held in the Maxwell House Hotel in Nashville, Tennessee. The first national headquarters for the fraternity was established in Indianapolis in 1915. It relocated to Lexington, Virginia in 1958. Additional wings were added to the headquarters building in 1969 and 1994 for Sigma Nu's 100th and 125th anniversaries.

In 1909, Sigma Nu was a founding member of the North American Interfraternity Conference.

Symbols and traditions
Sigma Nu's colors are black, white, and gold. Its flower is the white rose, specifically the wild English 'Floribunda. Its song is "The White Star of Sigma Nu".

Its gold badge was designed by Hopkins, one of the fraternity's founders. It has a round center with a golden coiled serpent on a black enamel background. From the center are five arms that feature a pair of crossed swords and a single letter on a background of white enamel; the letters collectively spell the Greek letters ΣΝΕΤΤ. Its pledge pin looks like the center of the member's badge.

Chapters
Sigma Nu has some 160 active chapters in colleges and universities throughout the United States and Canada.

Membership
Since the founding of Sigma Nu, it has initiated over 235,000 members.

Activities
The fraternity sponsors various programming including ethical leadership development through its LEAD program and philanthropic events through its Helping Hand Initiative. It recruits new members using its Values Based Recruitment method.

College of Chapters
The Sigma Nu College of Chapters is a three-day training program held annually. College of Chapters is designed for collegiate chapter Commanders, and the program emphasizes chapter management, leadership, core competencies, and networking. The curriculum focuses on best practices and is presented by fraternity staff, alumni volunteers, and advisers.

LEAD
The LEAD (Leadership, Ethics, Achievement, Development) Program is designed to be a four-year educational and development curriculum for its collegiate members. In 1988, Sigma Nu created the LEAD Program. Since its launch in 1988 the Program has been updated twice, once in 1997 and again in 2008. The 2008 updates included the online version of the LEAD Program that currently exists today. The program trains candidates in general life skills, with an emphasis on alcohol use disorder awareness.

Awards
Sigma Nu has several awards that are presented to chapters. The Rock Chapter Award is the highest award a Sigma Nu chapter can receive. The LEAD Chapter of the Year award is for the LEAD program. The Gallaher Cup is awarded to the chapter with the highest GPA.

Following is a list of chapters that have Sigma Nu Awards.

Philanthropy
In 1945, William Yates (University of Pennsylvania) inspired the formation of the "Sigma Nu Inc., Educational Foundation". Its name was changed to the "Sigma Nu Educational Foundation, Inc." The foundation assists collegiate members with financial aid supplements, and the fraternity in the development of a leadership program.

Grand Chapter
The Grand Chapter of Sigma Nu is a four-day legislative convention where representatives of the fraternity's collegiate and alumni chapters and grand officers meet to determine new legislation and operational direction of the Fraternity for the next biennium. The Grand Chapter meets every two years. The Grand Chapter body is composed of two voting representatives from each collegiate chapter of Sigma Nu Fraternity. Laws are discussed and voted on by the collegiate representatives in Robert's Rules of Order style business meeting conducted by the national regent of the fraternity.

The Law
The Law gave the fraternity and is a three-part document, including the fraternity's constitution, statutes, and trial code. It sets membership requirements, standards of conduct, and the framework for the operation of all entities of the fraternity, including collegiate chapters. The Law is designed to allow for autonomy and self-governance in collegiate chapters. It may be amended by the Grand Chapter to accommodate changing needs of Sigma Nu's membership. The first edition of the Law was formally adopted at Sigma Nu's first convention in 1884.

High Council
The High Council serves as the board of directors of Sigma Nu Fraternity, Inc. and is elected by the Grand Chapter. It serves as the governing arm of the general fraternity during the period between Grand Chapters. Governance of the High Council is relegated to those duties especially prescribed by The Law. In cases where The Law prescribes no special duty, the High Council shall act on those situations through interpretation of The Law. There are five roles on the High Council: the regent, who acts as the national president and chairman of the board of Sigma Nu for a term of two years; the regent-elect, the grand treasurer; the vice-regents, appointed members of the board; and the collegiate grand councilmen, who serve as collegiate representatives to the High Council.

Scandals and controversies

 * The fraternity began debating allowing non-white and Jewish members shortly after the Supreme Court of the United States desegregated schools in 1954. In 1964, following a failed civil rights amendment to the Sigma Nu's constitution, the Dartmouth College chapter seceded from the fraternity in protest. The organization did not allow non-white members until the late 1960s. The Dartmouth chapter rejoined in 1983.
 * Actor Jon Hamm, a member of the Upsilon chapter, was arrested for participating in a violent hazing in November 1990 during which pledge Mark Sanders was beaten with a paddle and a broom, led by Hamm around the fraternity house with the claw of a hammer beneath his genitals, and had his clothes set on fire. The chapter closed and Hamm completed the terms of a deferred adjudication; his charges were dismissed in 1995.
 * In 2004, nine members at Fresno State University were arrested for kidnapping after playing a prank on their vice president. Other students witnessed the prank and called the police because they thought it was a real abduction.
 * In 2010, a fraternity member at Arizona State University stabbed a fellow member when he tried to throw him into a pool.
 * Sigma Nu suspended all chapter events at University of North Carolina Wilmington after a fight broke out at a party it hosted in February 2014, resulting in an East Carolina University student driving with a US Marine on his hood. The driver hit a tree, killing the Marine, and was arrested for DWI and felony death by vehicle.
 * In May 2014, the fraternity at Emory University was suspended five years following a hazing investigation.
 * In October 2015, during a party held at the Sigma Nu fraternity house at Penn State University, a 19-year-old college student from New York City (later identified as John Mateer) was assaulted by another party-goer after revealing that he was gay. Photographs of the incident were posted on Twitter and gained widespread media attention. Mateer’s assailant was later identified by State College Police as 18-year-old Matthew Chandlee who was not a member of the fraternity. The case was most notable for starting a national conversation surrounding hate crime legislation, as Pennsylvania does not protect members of the LGBT community under their hate crime laws.
 * Also in 2015, Sigma Nu suspended its chapter at Old Dominion University pending an investigation after they placed banners with slogans like "Rowdy and Fun, Hope Your Baby Girl is Ready for a Good Time..." and the story went viral.
 * In February 2016, the fraternity at University of North Georgia was suspended due to hazing and alcohol violations.
 * In August 2016, a Sigma Nu member at Texas A&M University died of an illegal drug overdose in the fraternity house. Six members were arrested for possession and distribution of illegal drugs on campus such as cocaine, meth, LSD, MDMA, marijuana, heroin, and ecstasy. In October 2017, the deceased member's father, Eugene Gridnev, instituted a wrongful death suit against the fraternity itself, as well as several of the members present during his son's death.
 * In October 2016, the fraternity at College of Charleston was suspended for drug, alcohol, and hazing violations. Sigma Nu was the third fraternity on campus to get suspended that year.
 * Also in October 2016, Sigma Nu suspended its chapter at University of Nevada, Reno when a freshman pledge fell down the stairs and died after a night of excessive drinking in the fraternity house.
 * In October 2017, the fraternity at Indiana University Bloomington was suspended for alcohol and hazing violations. The fraternity was placed on probation by the university a few months prior to the suspension.
 * In May 2018, the fraternity at Cornell University was suspended for three years due to hazing allegations reported to the university. According to university reports, their pledges were blindfolded, dropped off in a wooded area, pressured to excessively drink alcohol, hosed down while in their underwear, and was subject to inappropriate gesturing, physical exercise and homophobic slurs.
 * In December 2019, the fraternity at University of Central Florida was suspended for violating the university's code of conduct. A pledge was blindfolded and pressured to consume cocaine. He was also required to stay in the fraternity house for a week before being initiated. The fraternity was already under investigation for threatening to beat up a man after he confronted them for randomly throwing drinks on him and others at a local bar.
 * In October 2021, the fraternity at University of Southern California was suspended following allegations of sexual assault against at least seven women.
 * In 2021, the fraternity at University of California, Santa Barbara (UCSB) was suspended after a second-year fraternity member died on an unsanctioned fraternity trip. In September 2022, the fraternity chapter at UCSB closed down following financial delinquency, alcohol violations, and dishonesty with the university and national organization.

title: Sigma Nu


text:
Polyacrylamide

Polyacrylamide (abbreviated as PAM or pAAM) is a polymer with the formula (-CH2CHCONH2-). It has a linear-chain structure. PAM is highly water-absorbent, forming a soft gel when hydrated. In 2008, an estimated 750,000,000 kg were produced, mainly for water treatment and the paper and mineral industries.

Physicochemical properties
Polyacrylamide is a polyolefin. It can be viewed as polyethylene with amide substituents on alternating carbons. Unlike various nylons, polyacrylamide is not a polyamide because the amide groups are not in the polymer backbone. Owing to the presence of the amide (CONH2) groups, alternating carbon atoms in the backbone are stereogenic (colloquially: chiral). For this reason, polyacrylamide exists in atactic, syndiotactic, and isotactic forms, although this aspect is rarely discussed. The polymerization is initiated with radicals and is assumed to be stereorandom.

Copolymers and modified polymers
Linear polyacrylamide is a water-soluble polymer. Other polar solvents include DMSO and various alcohols. Cross-linking can be introduced using N,N-methylenebisacrylamide. Some crosslinked materials are swellable but not soluble, i.e., they are hydrogels.

Partial hydrolysis occurs at elevated temperatures in aqueous media, converting some amide substituents to carboxylates. This hydrolysis thus makes the polymer particularly hydrophilic. The polymer produced from N,N-dimethylacrylamide resists hydrolysis.

Copolymers of acrylamide include those derived from acrylic acid.

Uses
In the 1970s and 1980s, the proportionately largest use of these polymers was in water treatment. The next major application by weight is additives for pulp processing and papermaking. About 30% of polyacrylamide is used in the oil and mineral industries.

Flocculation
One of the largest uses for polyacrylamide is to flocculate solids in a liquid. This process applies to water treatment, and processes like paper making and screen printing. Polyacrylamide can be supplied in a powder or liquid form, with the liquid form being subcategorized as solution and emulsion polymer.

Even though these products are often called 'polyacrylamide', many are actually copolymers of acrylamide and one or more other species, such as an acrylic acid or a salt thereof. These copolymers have modified wetting and swellability.

The ionic forms of polyacrylamide has found an important role in the potable water treatment industry. Trivalent metal salts, like ferric chloride and aluminum chloride, are bridged by the long polymer chains of polyacrylamide. This results in significant enhancement of the flocculation rate. This allows water treatment plants to greatly improve the removal of total organic content (TOC) from raw water.

Fossil fuel industry
In oil and gas industry polyacrylamide derivatives especially co-polymers have a substantial effect on production by enhanced oil recovery by viscosity enhancement. High viscosity aqueous solutions can be generated with low concentrations of polyacrylamide polymers, which are injected to improve the economics of conventional water-flooding. In a separate application, hydraulic fracturing benefits from drag reduction resulting from injection of these solutions. These applications use large volumes of polymer solutions at concentration of 30–3000 mg/L.

Soil conditioning
The primary functions of polyacrylamide soil conditioners are to increase soil tilth, aeration, and porosity and reduce compaction, dustiness and water run-off. Typical applications are 10 mg/L, which is still expensive for many applications. Secondary functions are to increase plant vigor, color, appearance, rooting depth, and emergence of seeds while decreasing water requirements, diseases, erosion and maintenance expenses. FC 2712 is used for this purpose.

Molecular biology laboratories
Polyacrylamide is also often used in molecular biology applications as a medium for electrophoresis of proteins and nucleic acids in a technique known as PAGE. PAGE was first used in a laboratory setting in the early 1950s. In 1959, the groups of Davis and Ornstein and of Raymond and Weintraub independently published on the use of polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to separate charged molecules. The technique is widely accepted today, and remains a common protocol in molecular biology labs.

Acrylamide has other uses in molecular biology laboratories, including the use of linear polyacrylamide (LPA) as a carrier, which aids in the precipitation of small amounts of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Many laboratory supply companies sell LPA for this use. In addition, under certain conditions, it can be used to selectively precipitate only RNA species from a mixture of nucleic acids.

Mechanobiology
The elastic modulus of polyacrylamide can be changed by varying the ratio of monomer to cross-linker during the fabrication of polyacrylamide gel. This property makes polyacrylamide useful in the field of mechanobiology, as a number of cells respond to mechanical stimuli.

Niche uses
The polymer is also used to make Gro-Beast toys, which expand when placed in water, such as the Test Tube Aliens. Similarly, the absorbent properties of one of its copolymers can be utilized as an additive in body-powder.

It has been used in Botox as a subdermal filler for aesthetic facial surgery (see Aquamid).

It was also used in the synthesis of the first Boger fluid.

Environmental effects
Considering the volume of polyacrylamide produced, these materials have been heavily scrutinized with regards to environmental and health impacts.

Polyacrylamide is of low toxicity but its precursor acrylamide is a neurotoxin and carcinogen. Thus, concerns naturally center on the possibility that polyacrylamide is contaminated with acrylamide. Considerable effort is made to scavenge traces of acrylamide from the polymer intended for use near food.

Additionally, there are concerns that polyacrylamide may de-polymerise to form acrylamide. Under conditions typical for cooking, polyacrylamide does not de-polymerise significantly. The single claim that polyacrylamide reverts to acrylamide has been widely challenged.

Polyacrylamide is most commonly partially biodegraded by the action of amidases, producing ammonia and polyacrylates. Polyacrylates are hard to biodegrade, but some soil microbe cultures have been shown to do so in aerobic conditions.

title: Polyacrylamide


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Pavel Yablochkov

Pavel Nikolayevich Yablochkov (also transliterated as Jablochkoff; Павел Николаевич Яблочков; September 14 1847 – March 31 1894) was a Russian electrical engineer, businessman and the inventor of the Yablochkov candle (a type of electric carbon arc lamp) and the transformer.

Biography
Yablochkov graduated in 1866 as a military engineer from Nikolayev Engineering Institute, now Military engineering-technical university (Russian Военный инженерно-технический университет), and in 1869 from Technical Galvanic School in Saint Petersburg. After serving in the army, Yablochkov settled in Moscow in 1873, where he was appointed Head of Telegraph Office at the Moscow-Kursk railroad. He opened up a workshop for his experiments in electrical engineering, which laid down the foundations for his future inventions in the field of electric lighting, electric machines, galvanic cells and accumulators.

Yablochkov’s major invention was the first model of an arc lamp that eliminated the mechanical complexity of competing lights that required a regulator to manage the voltaic arc. He went to Paris the same year where he built an industrial sample of the "electric candle" (French patent № 112024, 1876). It was in Paris that he developed his arc light idea into a complete system of electric lighting powered by Zénobe Gramme direct current dynamos fitted with an inverter to supply single-phase alternating current. The first public use of the Yablochkov system was in October 1877 at Halle Marengo of the Magasins du Louvre which was lit by six Yablochkov candles. By 1880, the system had grown in size to 120 lamps with 84 lit at a time powered by a 100-horsepower steam engine and had been operating every night for two and one half years.

The Paris Exposition of 1878 presented Yablochkov with the unique opportunity to make a spectacular demonstration for a world audience, and through the promotional efforts of Gramme was successful in having 64 of his arc lights installed along the half mile (0.8 km) length of Avenue de l'Opéra, Place du Théâtre Français (today Place André-Malraux) and around the Place de l'Opéra. It was first lit in February 1878. Yablochkov candles required high voltage, and it was not long before experimenters reported that the arc lights could be powered on a 7-mile (11 km) circuit. Yablochkov candles were superior to Lontin-Serrin regulator arc lights that each required a separate Gramme generator. Beginning in 1880, the Paris Hippodrome's 20 Serrin lights powered by 20 generators were replaced by 68 additional Yablochkov candles, based on two years of positive experience with 60 candles powered by just three generators. The impact of the 1878 Paris demonstration was a depression in the value of gas company shares which did not recover until 1880. French, English, and American businessmen quickly set up companies licensing Yablochkov's patents.

As part of his arc lighting patents, Yablochkov described a method of employing Michael Faraday's discovery of induction to create a continuous current of higher voltage, where primary windings were connected to a source of alternating current and secondary windings could be connected to several electric "candles". Although it was not recognized at the time, Yablochkov's idea of using transformers to provide different voltages from the same AC line was the model that modern transmission and distribution systems would settle on. As the patent said such a system "allowed to provide separate supply to several lighting fixtures with different luminous intensities from a single source of electric power". In 1879, Yablochkov established “Electric Lighting Company, P.N. Yablochkov the Inventor and Co” and an electrical plant in Petersburg that would later produce illuminators for military vessels and factories. There was considerable international competition to his arc lights. His lasted only one and a half hours whereas those of Charles F. Brush lasted twice as long.

From the mid-1880s, Yablochkov mostly occupied himself with problems of generating electric energy. He constructed the so-called “magnet dynamo electric machine”, which had most of the features of the modern inductor. Yablochkov did extensive research on transformation of fuel energy into electric energy, suggested a galvanic cell with alkaline electrolyte, and created a regenerative cell (the so-called autoaccumulator).

Yablochkov participated in Electrical engineering exhibitions in Russia (1880 and 1882), Paris (1881 and 1889), and First International Congress of Electricians (1881). For participation in the exhibition and congress, he was awarded the French Order of the Legion of Honor.

Personal life
Yablochkov was an active Freemason. He was initiated in 1876 into the Supreme Council of France of the Scottish Rite. After being "Worshipful Master" of three lodges in Paris, he created a new lodge under the Supreme Council known as "Cosmos" in 25 June 1887. Through this he hoped to attract young and wealthy Russian emigrants in Paris. One member of his lodge was Maksim Kovalevsky, who would later help bring Freemasonry back to Russia and prepare the groundwork for the foundation of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples.

Legacy
In 1947, the USSR introduced the Yablochkov Award for the best work in the field of electrical engineering.

The crater Yablochkov on the Moon is named after him.

title: Pavel Yablochkov


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Lists of fictional species

There are a number of lists of fictional species:

Extraterrestrial

 * List of fictional extraterrestrials (by media type)
 * Lists of fictional alien species: A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z

Humanoid

 * Lists of humanoids
 * Literature
 * Comics
 * Television
 * Film
 * Video games
 * Paleoanthropological hoaxes
 * Cardiff Giant
 * Nebraska Man
 * Piltdown Man
 * Freak show
 * Humanzee
 * List of fictional extraterrestrials

Legendary

 * List of legendary creatures
 * List of legendary creatures by type
 * List of giants in mythology and folklore
 * Vampire folklore by region

Mythical

 * Legendary creatures of the Argentine Northwest region
 * Mythical creatures in Burmese folklore
 * List of Greek mythological creatures
 * List of legendary creatures from Japan
 * List of Philippine mythological creatures
 * Supernatural beings in Slavic folklore

Plants and fungi

 * List of fictional plants

Reptilian

 * List of dragons
 * List of dragons in mythology and folklore
 * List of dragons in literature
 * List of dragons in popular culture
 * List of dragons in film and television
 * List of dragons in games
 * List of fictional dinosaurs

Theological

 * List of fictional angels
 * List of fictional demons

title: Lists of fictional species


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Sri Lanka frogmouth

The Sri Lanka frogmouth, Sri Lankan frogmouth or Ceylon frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger) is a small frogmouth found in the Western Ghats of south India and Sri Lanka. Related to the nightjars, it is nocturnal and is found in forest habitats. The plumage coloration resembles that of dried leaves and the bird roosts quietly on branches, making it difficult to see. Each has a favourite roost that it uses regularly unless disturbed. It has a distinctive call that is usually heard at dawn and dusk. The sexes differ slightly in plumage.

Description
This bird reaches 23 cm in length. Like all frogmouths, this species has a wide and hooked bill with slit-like nostrils and the large head with eyes facing forward to provide a wide field of binocular vision. Compared to others of its genus it has small wings, which are distinguished by the wing coverts ending in black spots tipped with white. The male is gray-brown with fine barring and a spotted crown. Some males are browner and look more similar to females. The female is more rufous or chestnut brown. Indian female birds have very fine black speckles on the crown but Sri Lankan females may lack or may have reduced markings. The bird also has short, stiff bristles in front of and surrounding the eyes. The Western Ghats population, ssp. roonwali (named after Mithan Lal Roonwal), looks very slightly different. The male has a brownish-gray wing mirror and yellowish spots on the undersides, compared to gray or white in the nominate Sri Lankan form. The female has a bright reddish-brown wing mirror and the wings are unspotted below.

Habitat and distribution
This species is found in the Western Ghats of southwest India and Sri Lanka. Its habitat is tropical forest, usually with dense undergrowth. It can sometimes be found in more disturbed habitats, including plantations. Its presence may be overlooked due to its nocturnal behaviour and camouflage.

Behaviour
This frogmouth is rarely seen during the day except at roost sites or when flushed. It regularly uses the same roost spot for months. When alarmed at its perch, it slowly moves its head, pointing its bill upward, and it can easily be mistaken for a jagged, broken branch. It relies on this crypsis and will often sit still a long time before making an escape. It may open its mouth wide in a threat display. Like its congeners, it feeds on insects, catching them in flight or gleaning them from the ground or tree branches. It is sometimes mobbed at its day roost by small songbirds. It is vocal at dusk, the call of the female being a loud, screechy "shkeerauuw" which drops in volume and ends is a series of hiccups. Another call is a series of rapid "skwar-skwar-skwar" which is produced by both male and female.

The breeding season in southern India is January to April, and in Sri Lanka February to March. The nest is a small pad made of moss lined with down and covered on the outside with lichens and bark. The bird incubates a single white egg, covering the nest and holding the tail flush with the tree, taking on the outline of a lichen-covered snag. The male often broods during the day, while both parents share the duty during the night. After the chick fledges, the male destroys the nest. The parents often use the same branch for multiple nestings. The juvenile may stay with the parents for a couple of months, huddling between them at the roost.

title: Sri Lanka frogmouth


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Interstate 244

Interstate 244 (I-244), also known as the Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial Expressway (in honor of Martin Luther King Jr.) since 1984, the Crosstown Expressway, and the Red Fork Expressway, is a 15.8 mi east–west Interstate Highway bypass route of I-44 in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

At both I-244's western and eastern terminus, the highway connects with I-44. I-244 runs from the western bank of the Arkansas River, across the river and past downtown Tulsa, before running through the northern half of the city and connecting again with I-44.

In downtown Tulsa, I-244 forms the northern and western legs of the "Inner Dispersal Loop". The southern and eastern legs are formed by the unsigned I-444 (signed as U.S. Highway 75 (US-75)).

Route description
I-244 begins at a stack interchange with I-44 (which is concurrent with State Highway 66 (SH-66) at this point) and a short segment of the Gilcrease Expressway that is disconnected from the rest of that highway. I-244 continues northeast from here, running parallel to Southwest Boulevard. Two interchanges provide access to 33rd West Avenue, 40th Place, and Southwest Boulevard. US-75 northbound then merges into I-244 eastbound at exit 2, forming a concurrency with the Interstate; US-75 south of here is a freeway headed south toward Glenpool and Okmulgee. The next three interchanges only provide partial access to the roads they link to. Exit 3A, which lacks a westbound exit ramp, provides access to Southwest Boulevard; exit 3B to 21st Street and Union Avenue and exit 4A to 17th Street and Southwest Boulevard provide only a westbound exit and eastbound entrance. North of exit 4A, I-244 and US-75 cross the Arkansas River.

Exit 4B marks I-244's entry into the Inner Dispersal Loop (IDL), a ring of freeways encircling Downtown Tulsa. At exit 4B, the southwest corner of the loop, US-75 splits away from I-244, joining I-444, which begins at this interchange and proceeds along the south and east edges of the loop. US-64 and SH-51 westbound join I-244 at this interchange, continuing along the westside of the loop with the Interstate. Two partial interchanges, exits 4C and 5A, provide access to Downtown Tulsa streets. I-244 then reaches the northwest corner of the IDL. At this point lies an interchange with two other freeways. US-64 and SH-51 split away from I-444 here to join westbound US-412, forming the Keystone Expressway. The L.L. Tisdale Parkway continues north from here. I-244 turns east from here, following the north leg of the IDL, joined by US-412 eastbound, which will overlap I-244 for the remainder of the highway. Three more exits to downtown streets are along this leg of the loop. At the northeast corner of the loop, I-244 junctions with I-444, which ends at this interchange, and US-75, which continues north toward Bartlesville. I-244 and US-412 exit the loop on an easterly course.

East of the IDL, I-244 and US-412 run generally parallel to Admiral Place. This segment of the Interstate provides access to several major north–south streets, including Lewis, Harvard, and Yale avenues. The interchanges at Sheridan Road and Memorial Drive are inverted single-point urban interchanges (SPUI) with lefthand entrance and exit ramps intersecting the surface street at a single traffic signal. East of here, I-244 intersects the Gilcrease Expressway again at its eastern terminus; this interchange also forms the eastern terminus of SH-11, which runs along the Gilcrease for its easternmost stretch. The next interchange to the east, serving Mingo Road, provides an exit for eastbound traffic and an entry to westbound traffic. I-244 then junctions with US-169, the Mingo Valley Expressway (a freeway). East of US-169 lies a parclo interchange with Garnett Road and a partial interchange, providing only an eastbound exit and westbound entrance, with 129th East Avenue. I-244 then reaches its eastern terminus at a yield sign, where it merges into eastbound I-44/SH-66. US-412 continues east along I-44.

History
I-244 was completed in December 1975. It was named the Martin Luther King Jr. Expressway east from Downtown by the Oklahoma Highway Commission in 1984.

The spans carrying I-244/US-75 across the Arkansas River to Downtown Tulsa were built in 1967. A $78 million (equivalent to $ in ) project commenced in April 2011 to replace the westbound bridge. The new westbound bridge across the Arkansas River opened to traffic on December 19, 2012.

Work started on the new eastbound bridge on June 7, 2013. A ribbon-cutting ceremony took place on September 15, 2014, for the completion of the span.

Future
More recently, the Greenwood District in Tulsa has called for the removal of the I-244 corridor, which is seen as just as damaging to the community as the Tulsa race massacre.

title: Interstate 244


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Dziemiany

Dziemiany is a village in Kościerzyna County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It is the seat of the gmina (administrative district) called Gmina Dziemiany. It lies approximately 19 km south-west of Kościerzyna and 70 km south-west of the regional capital Gdańsk. It was the location of the Nazi concentration camp Dzimianen - Sophienwalde, a subcamp of the concentration camp Stutthof. Here the SS-Truppenübungsplatz Westpreußen was located during the occupation of Poland in World War II.

History
Dziemiany was a royal village of the Polish Crown, administratively located in the Tczew County in the Pomeranian Voivodeship.

World War II

Dziemiany was overrun on the second day of the Nazi German invasion of Poland of September 1939. Several weeks later on 26 October 1939 by a decree of Adolf Hitler the region was annexed into the Reich as Reichsagau Danzig Westpreussen. Dziemiany was renamed Sophienwalde, population: 4,428 ethnic Poles. Deportations and expulsions of all prominent citizens followed. Polish schools and all institutions were shut down.

In the fall of 1943 during Operation Barbarossa the Germans began constructing military range called the Truppenübungsplatz Westpreußen in Dziemiany and neighbouring villages on an area of 700 km2. All farmers were deported to Potulice concentration camp. The range was designed for training of the new SS Sturm brigades including Waffen-SS, as well as rocket testing. It was built by around 1,000 international prisoners kept at the barracks of a temporary camp in Brusy, the 300 inmates of KL Potulice, and about 400–500 prisoners of KL Stutthof. Notable group of about 400 slave workers arrived in the fall of 1944, captured in the Warsaw Uprising. Also notable was the group of about 500 Jewish women kept at the sub-camp in Dziemiany (Sophienwalde) employed to service the SS soldiers. In total, the range was built by about 3,000 prisoners. The first trainees arrived from Latvia, Romania and Hungary. Average training lasted from two to six weeks. The range was never fully completed, because of the Soviet advance.

Notable people

 * Łukasz Chyła (born 1981 in Dziemiany) a track and field sprint athlete who competes internationally for Poland

title: Dziemiany


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Brusy

Brusy (Kashubian: Brusë; formerly Bruß) is a town in northern Poland, located in the Pomeranian Voivodeship. As of June 2023, the town has a population of 5,103.

History
Brusy was a royal village of the Polish Crown, administratively located in the Tuchola County in the Pomeranian Voivodeship.

Since the 19th century Brusy was an important center of the Kashub movement, although a fair amount of Kashubians from Brusy emigrated to Winona, Minnesota in the late 1900s. In 2007, the ninth Congress of Kashubians was held here, and in 2012, the annual Kashubian Unity Day celebration was conducted here. A Kashubian secondary school is also located in the town.

During the German occupation of Poland (World War II), inhabitants of Brusy were among over 450 Poles massacred by the Germans in autumn of 1939 in the Igielska Valley. In November 1939 the SS, Gestapo and Selbstschutz murdered local Polish teachers in a large massacre of Polish teachers near Skarszewy. Further executions of local Poles were carried out in January 1940 in the Igielska Valley and in the fields near Chojnice. In May 1942, the Germans expelled dozens of Poles, whose farms were handed over to Germans as part of the Lebensraum policy. The secret Polish resistance organization Pomeranian Griffin (Gryf Pomorski) operated in the Brusy area under the leadership of Colonel Józef Wrycza, who was also a Roman Catholic priest. The Germans set up a Waffen-SS training ground in the vicinity, and located its administration in Brusy. Brusy was also the location of the Nazi German Bruss subcamp of the Stutthof concentration camp, in which around 500 female prisoners were held as forced labour.

The town has obtained city rights on 1 January 1988.

Notable people

 * Stanisław Lamczyk (born 1957) a Polish politician, elected to the Sejm in 2005
 * Piotr Piekarski (born 1964) a retired Polish 800 metres runner, participated in the 1992 Summer Olympics
 * Jan Wyrowiński (born 1947) a Polish politician and Kashubian activist

title: Brusy


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Mbube (genre)

Mbube is a form of South African vocal music, made famous by the South African group Ladysmith Black Mambazo. The word mbube means "lion" in Zulu. Traditionally performed a cappella, the members of the group are male although a few groups have a female singer. In this form, groups of voices singing homophonically in rhythmic unison are employed to create intricate harmonies and textures.

Background
In Johannesburg, Solomon Linda, a man from Natal, created one of the most famous African songs, "Mbube", which eventually became its own genre. In 1933 Linda began singing with a group of friends called the Evening Birds. In 1939 they recorded a few tracks for Gallo Records when Linda improvised the first 15 notes of a song they called "Mbube". The success of this song led to the conception of a whole new genre, characterized by a loud and powerful cappella four part harmony, accompanied by dancing. The song was later made internationally famous, by The Weavers as "Wimoweh" in 1948 and then as "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" by The Tokens in 1961. Miriam Makeba's recording of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" in the 1960s helped popularize the genre and establish the singing tradition. But it was Robert John’s rendition of "The Lion Sleeps Tonight" that is the most well-known, reaching #3 on the US charts, and selling more than one million copies for which he was awarded a gold disc by the Recording Industry Association of America.

Associated with poor migrant workers, the origins of Mbube can be traced back to the 1920s in the Natal region when the area became heavily industrialized with coalmines and factories. According to Joseph Shabalala (leader and founder of Ladysmith Black Mambazo), young South African Zulu men from nearby towns and villages began to flock to this area to find work, often in mines. These men brought with them their own cultures and, in order to preserve a sense of community, formed choirs. These male workers were often lodging in hostels where they created a weekend social life that revolved around singing and dancing. There were competitions where the best groups would showcase their talents and a winner would be awarded not with money, but honor. As these competitions became more popular so did this new style of music. It spread to Johannesburg, one of the largest South African cities. Mbube is a precursor to the more currently popular African choral genres mbaqanga and iscathamiya. Since the formation of Ladysmith Black Mambazo, the mbube has fallen out of style in favor of isicathamiya, which is a softer, lighter genre.

General sources

 * Mbube Roots, Rounder Records #5025
 * AMARYONI Artist Biography African Cream Music, Johannesburg, South Africa. Retrieved 14 November 2008
 * Broughton, Simon, and Kim Burton. World Music: the Rough Guide. London: Rough Guides, 1994. Print
 * Malan, Rian. "In the Jungle". Rolling Stone. 25 May 2000. Web. "Africa". Def. 5. Southern Africa. Credo Reference. Harvard Dictionary of Music, 2003. Web. 31 Mar. 2011.
 * Johnson, Keith. "Mbube". AllMusic. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Mar. 2011.
 * Wassel, Deborah. "From Mbube to Wimoweh: African Folk Music in Dual Systems of Law". Fordham Intellectual Property, Media & Entertainment Law Journal XX.1 (2009): 290–326. Fordham Law Blog. Web. 31 Mar. 2011.

title: Mbube (genre)