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Dummy Hoy

William Ellsworth "Dummy" Hoy (May 23, 1862 – December 15, 1961) was an American center fielder in Major League Baseball (MLB) who played for several teams from 1888 to 1902, most notably the Cincinnati Reds and two Washington, D.C. franchises.

Hoy is the most accomplished deaf player in MLB history, and is credited by some sources with causing the establishment of signals for safe and out calls. He held the MLB record for games in center field (1,726) from 1889 to 1902, set records for career putouts (3,958) and total chances (4,625) as an outfielder, and retired among the leaders in outfield games (2nd; 1,795), assists (7th; 273), and double plays (3rd; 72).

He was an excellent baserunner, scoring over 100 runs nine times, and often finishing among the top base stealers. He is one of only 29 players to have played in four different Major Leagues. His 1,006 career walks put him second in MLB history behind Billy Hamilton when he retired. He ended his career ranking eighth in career games played (1,796).

Career
Born in the small town of Houcktown, Ohio, Hoy became deaf after meningitis at age three. He graduated from the Ohio State School for the Deaf in Columbus as class valedictorian. He opened a shoe repair store in his hometown and played baseball on weekends, earning a professional contract in 1886 with an Oshkosh, Wisconsin, team which was managed by Frank Selee in 1887. In 1888, with the Washington Nationals of the National League, Hoy became the third deaf player in the major leagues, after pitcher Ed Dundon and pitcher Tom Lynch. In his rookie year he led the league in stolen bases (although the statistic was defined differently prior to 1898), and also finished second with 69 walks while batting .274. At 5'4" and batting left-handed, he was able to gain numerous walks with a small strike zone, leading the league twice and compiling a .386 career on-base percentage.

Hoy's speed was a great advantage in the outfield, and he was able to play shallow as a result. On June 19, 1889, he set an MLB record (which has since been tied twice) by throwing out three runners at home plate in one game, with catcher Connie Mack recording the outs. In 1890, he and Mack joined the Buffalo Bisons of the Players' League. In 1891 Hoy returned to the AA with the St. Louis Browns under player-manager Charles Comiskey for the league's final season, leading the league with 119 walks and scoring a career-high 136 runs, second in the league. He returned to Washington for two years with the Washington Senators of the National League. He was traded to the Reds in December 1893, where he was reunited with Comiskey.

Hoy later joined the Louisville Colonels, where his teammates included Honus Wagner, Fred Clarke and Tommy Leach, who was his roommate. He hit .304 and .306 in his two seasons with the club. In 1899 he broke Mike Griffin's Major League record of 1,459 games in center field. After playing for the Chicago White Sox in the American League during its last minor league season in 1900, where Comiskey was now the team owner, Hoy stayed with the team when the AL achieved major league status in 1901, helping them to the league's (and his) first pennant.

In 1901, he broke Tom Brown's record of 3,623 career outfield putouts, and led the league with 86 walks and 14 times hit by pitch. He finished fourth in runs (112) and on-base percentage (.407). He ended his Major League career with the Reds in 1902, batting .290 and breaking Brown's record of 4,461 career total chances in the outfield. He played for Los Angeles in the Pacific Coast League in 1903. In May of his last season with the Reds, he batted against pitcher Dummy Taylor of the New York Giants in the first faceoff between deaf players in the Major Leagues. Hoy got two hits.

Hoy retired with a .288 batting average, 2,048 hits, 1,429 runs, 725 runs batted in, 248 doubles, 121 triples and 40 home runs. He had 488 stolen bases from 1888 through 1897, and 108 more after the statistic was redefined to its present meaning in 1898. His 1,795 games in the outfield ranked second to Jimmy Ryan (then at 1,829) in MLB history. Jesse Burkett broke his MLB record for career putouts in 1905, and Clarke topped his record for career total chances in 1909. His record for career games in center field was broken by Tris Speaker in 1920.

Personal life

In Hoy's time, the word "dumb" was used to describe someone who could not speak, rather than someone who was stupid. But since the ability to speak was often connected to one's intelligence, the epithets "dumb" and "dummy" became interchangeable with stupidity. Hoy himself often corrected individuals who addressed him as William, and referred to himself as Dummy. Said to have been able to speak with a voice that resembled a squeak, he was one of the most intelligent players of his time.

He is sometimes credited with developing the hand signals used by umpires to this day, though this view is widely disputed. Cy Rigler is believed to have created signals for balls and strikes while working in the minor leagues. In the November 6, 1886 issue of The Sporting News, the deaf pitcher Ed Dundon is credited as using hand signals while umpiring a game in Mobile, Alabama on October 20, 1886. Bill Klem is credited with introducing those signals to the Major Leagues, in the early 20th century.

No articles printed during Hoy's lifetime have been found to support the suggestion that he influenced the creation of signals, nor did he ever maintain that he had such a role. Nonetheless, due to the possibility that he may have played a role in the use of signals, as well as for his all-around play, there is a movement to support his election to the Baseball Hall of Fame in Cooperstown, New York.

In retirement, Hoy and his wife Anna Maria, who was also deaf, operated a dairy farm in Mount Healthy, Ohio, outside Cincinnati. Among their six children was Carson, an Ohio judge, and their grandson, Judson, became a member of the Ohio House of Representatives. They raised his nephew, Paul Hoy Helms, the founder of the Helms Athletic Foundation in Los Angeles. Hoy also worked as an executive with Goodyear after supervising hundreds of deaf workers during World War I.

In 1951 he was the first deaf athlete elected to membership in the American Athletic Association of the Deaf Hall of Fame. At the age of 99 and just two months before his death in Cincinnati following a stroke, the Reds brought him back to Crosley Field, built on the site of his former home field, to throw out the first ball before Game 3 of the 1961 World Series. He could see, if not hear, the standing ovation he received. Upon his death that December, his remains were cremated according to family tradition and were scattered at Lytle Park in Cincinnati.

Legacy
Upon his death in 1961 at the age of 99, Hoy was the longest-lived former MLB player ever. In 1973, Ralph Miller broke Hoy's record by becoming the first ex-major leaguer to reach the age of 100. Altogether, 25 former big league ballplayers have become centenarians, with one of the 25, Silas Simmons, becoming an supercentenarian, dying at the age of 111 in 2006.

At the time of his death, Dummy Hoy was the last surviving participant of both the American Association and the Players' League.

In 2001 the baseball field at Gallaudet University was named the William "Dummy" Hoy Baseball Field. He was inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in 2003. Hoy was inducted into the Baseball Reliquary's Shrine of the Eternals in 2004.

The William "Dummy" Hoy Classic is a baseball game held every two years during Rochester, New York Deaf Awareness Week; it is contested between members of the Rochester Recreation Club of the Deaf and the Buffalo, New York Club of the Deaf, at a recreated 19th-century ballpark at Genesee Country Village and Museum.

In 2008, the Documentary Channel aired the biography Dummy Hoy: A Deaf Hero (aka: I See the Crowd Roar). The documentary, using photographs of Hoy and actors to recreate certain events, chronicled the highlights of Hoy's life and his contributions to baseball; Hoy was portrayed by Ryan Lane.

At least three picture books for children have been published: Silent Star: The Story of Deaf Major Leaguer William Hoy by Bill Wise (2012), The William Hoy Story: How a Deaf Baseball Player Changed the Game Nancy Churnin (2016)., and The Little-Known Heroes: William 'Dummy' Hoy by Kaushay and Spencer Ford (2021).

The 2019 limited-release movie The Silent Natural, tells the story of Hoy, who is played by Miles Barbee, who is deaf in real life.

title: Dummy Hoy


text:
Talk:Lapidary

Comments
I've made some additions y'all may like, but I've changed some statements about the term "lapidary" that I think don't agree with good dictionaries. Page History will reveal my meddling. The arts of a sculptor or stone-mason are generally too broad in scale to fall within the definition, is the main change I've made. Mount Rushmore may be stonework, I thought, but it's not really lapidary. Wetman 19:29, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I made some spelling and other minor changes and added information about the Tucson Gem and Mineral Society Show in Arizona. 4 Oct 2005. Rick Dalrymple rockshop@rocks4u.com www.rocks4u.com

LapidaryNews.com appears to be a dead hypertext link as of this time. It wasn't on the AOL search engine. Maybe their server is just down. So, I won't take the liberty of deleting it until it is checked and certified as being out of service on a permanent basis. T.E. Goodwin 05:10, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I added 3 dictionary links and incorporated some of those extra meanings, and "lapidarist" into the first paragraph. I also attempted to clarify.  Needs more cleanup.  The arcane term/topic: "Hardstone carving" prolly shouldn't be there, (in a lede section or quasi-stub) —except for talk of a merger. Also I think it wrongly describes-emphasizes a lapidarist as a stone cutter when in fact he is typically an object creator (such as jewelry). --68.127.92.191 (talk) 09:09, 22 June 2012 (UTC)Doug Bashford
 * Hardstone carving is now the standard museum term for many of the larger objects produced, including ones that count as jewellery. The term lapidarist seems inescapably somewhat vague, & is probably just as arcane to those without an interest in the subject. I have modified the text slightly. Johnbod (talk) 09:16, 22 June 2012 (UTC)

Interwiki conflict
The Hungarian interwiki link (Lapidárium) has a different meaning (a "museum" for stones). The other languages should be checked, and the interwiki graph shold be split in two. --Tgr 11:06, 9 August 2006 (UTC)

History of Lapidary Machine
I placed information here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lapidary_machine that may be deleted. If anyone is interested in merging it (prior to deletion), that would be wonderful. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Twillisjr (talk • contribs) 04:16, 18 December 2011 (UTC)

merged with hardstone carving ??
Quote: "It has been suggested that this article or section be merged with Hardstone carving."

Disagree, "hardstone carving" is not about the verb; "carving," aka lapidary. I started in "hardstone carving," and was frustrated, it seemed off topic. And I've never heard that term before, so I presume it's jargon (of historians?). see also: http://www.yourdictionary.com/lapidary --68.127.92.191 (talk) 08:28, 22 June 2012 (UTC)Doug Bashford
 * Also oppose this merge proposal, which has not been set up properly, with nothing at Hardstone carving. I think the article explains adequately why this is a wider term. I think it can now be removed after 3 months with only 2 opposes. Johnbod (talk) 08:55, 22 June 2012 (UTC)

Merge proposal
Merge Gemcutter into Lapidary. The two are used as synonyms, and the Gemcutter is a long-standing unreferenced article. Any distinctions between the terms can be discussed on the one page. Klbrain (talk) 13:54, 27 January 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ Klbrain (talk) 14:35, 13 December 2020 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Lapidary


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WFSH

WFSH may refer to: Current stations: Former stations:
 * WFSH-FM, a radio station (104.7 FM) licensed to Athens, Georgia, United States
 * WFSH (AM), a former station (1340 AM) licensed to Valparaiso-Niceville, Florida, United States

title: WFSH


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WMAX

WMAX may refer to:

 * Wmax, a Cinemax channel.
 * WMAX (AM), a radio station (1440 AM) licensed to Bay City, Michigan, United States
 * WMAX-FM, a radio station (96.1 FM) licensed to Holland, Michigan, United States
 * WRDG, a radio station (105.3 FM) licensed to Bowdon, Georgia, United States, which used the call sign WMAX-FM from February 2002 to September 2004
 * WMGP, a radio station (98.1 FM) licensed to Hogansville, Georgia, United States, which used the call sign WMAX-FM from August 1999 to February 2002
 * WSLI (AM), a radio station (1480 AM) licensed to Kentwood, Michigan, United States, which used the call sign WMAX from the 1950s until July 1992

title: WMAX


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WAKL (FM)

WAKL (106.7 MHz, branded 106.7 K-Love) is a non-commercial FM Christian contemporary radio station licensed to Gainesville, Georgia. Owned by the Educational Media Foundation, WAKL serves the Atlanta metropolitan area as the local affiliate for the national K-Love network. Besides a standard analog transmission, WAKL broadcasts in the HD Radio hybrid format.

WAKL is a Class C FM radio station, with an effective radiated power (ERP) of 77,000 watts. In 1985, the transmitter location was moved from the Gainesville area to a site off Piney Grove Road in Loganville, Georgia, bringing it about 30 miles closer to Intown Atlanta, though Gainesville remains as its city of license. WAKL programming is heard on an FM translator station, 19–watt W223BP, 92.5 MHz in Dallas, Georgia.

Early years (1949–1984)
On April 3, 1949, this facility first signed on as WDUN-FM. It was co-owned with WDUN (1400 AM; now at 550 AM). At first, it was only powered at 300 watts and it simulcast its AM sister station. In the 1960s, the station moved to 106.7 MHz and power was dramatically increased to 50,000 watts. It switched to an automated beautiful music format.

By late 1976, WDUN-FM was WWID "Wide 107", continuing its easy listening format. Then it became WWLT "Lite 106" in early 1983, playing soft adult contemporary music.

Country (1984–2008)
WWLT was sold to Katz Broadcasting in 1984. On June 25, 1984, the call sign changed to WYAY, flipping to a country music format as "Y106", a moniker it retained until 2000. From 1989 to 1994, Y106 was paired with a station known as "Y104", on the opposite (southwest) side of metro Atlanta, broadcasting at 104.1 MHz. Y106 and Y104 simulcast their programming, except for advertisements. 104.1 FM became urban adult contemporary WALR-FM after it was sold to Cox Radio in late 1994.

In 1993, WYAY was bought by ABC Radio for $19 million. ABC kept the country format in place, with popular disc jockey Rhubarb Jones hosting mornings.

On September 1, 2000, at 3 p.m., the station changed to a classic country format as "Eagle 106.7". The station still played some current music but mainly focused on the classics. The first song on the new "Eagle" was "T-R-O-U-B-L-E" by Marietta native Travis Tritt.

In late 2005, WYAY changed transmitter locations to a new tower in Loganville, that the station shares with Salem-owned WFSH-FM, which improved south metro coverage for the 106.7 signal. In 2007, ABC, under the ownership of The Walt Disney Company, decided to sell all of its radio stations to Citadel Media.

Oldies/classic hits (2008–2012)
On February 29, 2008, Citadel announced that WYAY would drop its country format for oldies. A majority of the on-air talent was released, including Rhubarb Jones, who had served at the station since 1985. This format change was triggered by Citadel's financial hardships that occurred after the company's purchase of ABC Radio. Jones had been the longest-running morning DJ on Atlanta radio. Dallas McCade and traffic reporter Greg Talmadge were the only on-air survivors of the switch to oldies. They later moved to co-owned country station WKHX. Jones died in 2017.

On March 9, 2008 at 12:56 p.m., WYAY played its last country song, "Stealing Cinderella" by Chuck Wicks. The station then aired a live NASCAR radio broadcast (the Kobalt Tools 500 from Atlanta Motor Speedway). Then at 7:00 p.m., just after the race had finished, the station switched to an oldies format, rebranding itself as "True Oldies 106.7". The first song played was "Revolution" by The Beatles. The station featured the syndicated Imus in the Morning and ABC's The True Oldies Channel all day, similar to a format flip that occurred on sister station WJZW in Washington, D.C., on February 29, 2008. The oldies format had been absent from the metro Atlanta area for several years. WYAY promoted a playlist of over 5,000 songs, while most oldies stations only play a fraction of that many titles.

On November 7, 2008, WYAY announced that it would not carry NASCAR races in 2009, and would become the new FM home of Georgia Tech football and men's basketball.

On April 6, 2009, it was announced that Imus would move from WYAY to talk station WCFO. The "Spiff & Fred Show", hosted by former Fox 97 personality Spiff Carner with co-host Freddie Brooks, moved from afternoons to mornings to replace Imus.

On November 22, 2010, the station changed its branding to "106.7 Atlanta's Greatest Hits", dropping The True Oldies Channel network, and shifted its format to a mix of hit songs from the 1970s and 1980s, eliminating songs from the 1960s.

Citadel merged with Cumulus Media on September 16, 2011.

All news (2012–2014)
On April 6, 2012, Cumulus registered the domain name AllNews1067.com. On April 27, Cumulus announced the switch to "All News 106.7" would be sometime in May. CNN Radio, based in Atlanta, had discontinued operations several months earlier, with WYAY hiring many former CNN Radio employees to staff the station, including Greg Black, Maria Boynton, Andy Rose, Andy Flick, Michelle Wright and Jackie Howard. The station also hired Marshall Adams, former program director for KDKA in Pittsburgh. WYAY also partnered with WAGA-TV for weather and traffic reports, as well as WCNN for sports updates.

In May 2012, an application was filed with the FCC to change the frequency from 106.7 to 106.5, change the city of license from Gainesville to Sandy Springs, and change class from C to C1, any of which would require a rulemaking proceeding to amend the FCC table of allotments. In addition, it would affect co-channel WSKZ in Chattanooga, also owned by Cumulus. That station would have to reduce its signal strength toward the south and southeast to prevent RF interference between the two. WYAY's application lists the Inman Park tower east of downtown Atlanta as the proposed site. This was built for WUPA, although that station has since moved. However, in June 2012, the FCC denied the application.

On May 29, 2012 at 4:50 a.m., WYAY ended its classic hits format by playing "Another One Bites the Dust" by Queen, "Last Dance" by Donna Summer, and "A Day in the Life" by the Beatles. This would be followed by a 10 minute stunt montage of random song and movie soundclips, with a common theme of them being themed around news. At 5:00 a.m., the station began its all-news format. Ratings during this time were poor.

On October 21, 2013, Cumulus announced the first of two changes to the station's programming, with former WGST host Kim Peterson, better known as "The Kimmer", hosting a midday talk and interview program for WYAY known as "Newsmakers" beginning the following month. WYAY also became the flagship station for the Atlanta Braves Radio Network effective with the start of the 2014 season.

News/talk (2014–2019)
On May 12, 2014, WYAY relaunched with a news/talk format, branded as "Newsradio 106.7". The station began to focus more on talk shows and slowly phased out its remaining all-news blocks. Over time, the only all-news block was weekday morning drive time. In January 2018, the station relaunched again as "Talk 106.7" with an emphasis on personality-driven programming, and no all-news blocks.

On February 13, 2019, Cumulus Media announced it would sell six stations, including WYAY, to the Educational Media Foundation for $103.5 million. Also included were stations in New York City, Washington, D.C., San Jose, Savannah and Syracuse. As a result of the impending format change, Atlanta Braves broadcasts would move back to WNNX and WCNN.

Christian music (2019–present)
On May 31, 2019, WYAY concluded its talk format. Throughout the day, the hosts allowed listeners to call in and share their thoughts about the end of the station. At 7:00 p.m. that evening, EMF officially took over the station and began airing K-Love programming. Upon taking over the station, EMF changed the station's call letters to WAKL, a call sign previously held on what is now WKVR in Flint, Michigan.

The Atlanta radio market is now served by three Contemporary Christian music stations: WAKL, Salem-owned WFSH-FM, and WVFJ-FM. WAKL and WVFJ are supported by listener contributions, while WFSH, one of the market's top rated stations, is a commercial radio outlet.

EMF turned on the HD signal on July 30, 2019, and has its sister networks "Air 1" on 106.7-HD2, and Classic contemporary Christian Music "K-Love Classics" on 106.7-HD3.

title: WAKL (FM)


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Mido

Mido may refer to:

 * Mido (watch), a traditional Swiss watch brand owned by the Swatch Group
 * Mido, one of the nicknames for males named Muhammad or Ahmad in the Arab World
 * Midō, a Japanese family name
 * Manufacturing Inspection District Offices, a body of the FAA

People

 * Mido (footballer), an Egyptian football player.
 * Mido Hamada, a German-Egyptian actor.
 * Jeon Mi-do, a South Korean actress

Fictional characters

 * Ban Mido from GetBackers.
 * Shingo Mido from Death Note.
 * Madoka Mido from Starship Girl Yamamoto Yohko.
 * Miko Mido from La Blue Girl.
 * Kusabi Mido from Rosario + Vampire.
 * Mido, a fictional character from the video game The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time

title: Mido


text:
Talk:Harry Kim

Harry Kim the mayor and Harry Kim the fictional character
I think we are going to have to turn this into a disambiguation page, pointing to Harry Kim (Star Trek) and Harry Kim (mayor). Normally, I'm loath to append "(Star Trek)" to the title of an article on a Star Trek character, but in this case it appears that the mayor may have a stronger claim to having the article "Harry Kim" without any parenthetical clarifications. ShutterBugTrekker 23:40, 2 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I looked at Naming conventions for guidance on this issue. I did not find anything that gave a clear directive to this specific case. But, given my understanding of the naming conventions, this is what I think we should do: like it or not, Harry Kim the fictional Star Trek character is more widely known so he keeps the article titled Harry Kim. Harry Kim the mayor gets Harry Kim (mayor). Robert Happelberg 14:29, 22 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * I think it would be much more fair to use this page as a disambiguation page and link them to Harry Kim (fictional) and Harry Kim (politician). --Gerald Farinas 16:29, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Agree with you the Council does, Gerald Farinas, except on the small detail of what to put in parenthesis for the fictional character. For Star Trek characters needing disambiguation, the usual format is characterName (Star Trek), so in this case we would have Harry Kim (Star Trek). Though I suppose Harry Kim(fictional) would be OK since as far as I know there are no other fictional universes besides Star Trek with a Harry Kim. ShutterBugTrekker 18:59, 6 Jul 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Harry Kim


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Nyala, South Darfur

Nyala (Daju: "the place of chatting") is the capital of the state of South Darfur in the south-west of Sudan.

History
Nyala was the capital of the Daju Empire, which was established around Jebel Um-Kurdós. However, many sites of ancient antiquities, pottery, engraved pictures of battles, horses, animals and hunting are still awaiting further scientific archaeological work at Jebel Daju. The most important archaeological sites undiscovered yet are Nari, Kedingnyir, Dobo, Simiat Hills, Jebel Keima, Kalokitting, Jebel Wara, and Jebel Marra itself.

When the United Kingdom conquered present-day Sudan, the British commander-in-chief met Sultan Adam Suleiman in 1932, seeking his advice for his knowledge of the best places in terms of availability of water sources and land topography in order to establish the British Administration Headquarters in Darfur. Sultan Adam Suleiman had chosen Nyala for that purpose.

Darfur conflict
During the Darfur conflict, thousands of internally displaced persons have gathered near the city in the hopes of protection. The refugee camp in the southern portion of Nyala is Kalma. Around 90,000 people reside in the camp.

Sudan war
In April 2023, the east of the city and the airport were captured by the RSF during the 2023 Sudan conflict. After the city was captured, satellite images captured neighbouring villages destroyed by the militias, as well as parts of Nyala. According to local activists, over 600,000 people have been displaced from the region and are unable to receive humanitarian aid due to the fighting. While a ceasefire was declared, sporadic fighting occasionally broke out in the city throughout May. Later that year, on 26 October, reports stated that RSF took control of Nyala, as the conflict forced more than 670,000 people to flee their homes.

Economy
Local industries produce textiles, as well as processed food and leather goods. Nyala has terminus ends for both road and railway, and also has a domestic airport, Nyala Airport. Nyala serves as a trading place for gum arabic and has branches of the Agricultural Bank of Sudan and the People's Cooperative Bank. Nyala is home to Nyala University, a public university.

Water infrastructure
Nyala suffers from severe water infrastructure problems caused by droughts and poor water management, including poor source treatment and delivery methods. Most of the water used in and around Nyala is ground water; this is heavily contaminated due to human activity, bearing the consequences of inadequate waste management and lack of proper sanitation. Water resources in the city have tested to contain bacteria levels higher than permissible amounts, which in turn creates health issues. In many cases the water collected for distribution is not properly chlorinated, allowing further increase in bacteria levels.

Education

The educational institutions in the country nearly doubled between the years of 2000 and 2010. In the year 2000 there were 135 primary schools and 58 secondary schools; in 2010 there were 308 primary schools and 106 secondary schools. The main concern with the educational system in the city is the quality of the education. The schools’ staff is underpaid and unqualified for adequate teaching in these institutions. The government often does not commit to their financial responsibility with the schools. This affects the schools’ operations and burdens the schools to invest from their resources. Also, many children do not attend school so they can work and add to their family’s income.

Climate
Despite receiving almost 400 mm of rainfall annually, Nyala has a marginal hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification BWh), just below a hot semi-desert climate (BSh), owing to the extremely high potential evapotranspiration.

The Amel Center
Run by Mossaad Mohamed Ali Mossaad and former Secretary-General of the United Nations Kofi Annan, the Amel Center is a treatment and rehabilitation center in Nyala for victims of torture. The center has earned Mossaad and Annan the Olof Palme Prize. Mohammed Ahmed Abdallah served as director of the center until 2007, earning the Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award for his work.

title: Nyala, South Darfur


text:
Intracranial pressure

Intracranial pressure (ICP) is the pressure exerted by fluids such as cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) inside the skull and on the brain tissue. ICP is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and at rest, is normally 7–15 mmHg for a supine adult. This equals to 9–20 cmH2O, which is a common scale used in lumbar punctures. The body has various mechanisms by which it keeps the ICP stable, with CSF pressures varying by about 1 mmHg in normal adults through shifts in production and absorption of CSF.

Changes in ICP are attributed to volume changes in one or more of the constituents contained in the cranium. CSF pressure has been shown to be influenced by abrupt changes in intrathoracic pressure during coughing (which is induced by contraction of the diaphragm and abdominal wall muscles, the latter of which also increases intra-abdominal pressure), the valsalva maneuver, and communication with the vasculature (venous and arterial systems).

Intracranial hypertension (IH), also called increased ICP (IICP) or raised intracranial pressure (RICP), refers to elevated pressure in the cranium. 20–25 mmHg is the upper limit of normal at which treatment is necessary, though it is common to use 15 mmHg as the threshold for beginning treatment.

Signs and symptoms of raised intracranial pressure
In general, symptoms and signs that suggest a rise in ICP include headache, vomiting without nausea, ocular palsies, altered level of consciousness, back pain, and papilledema. If papilledema is protracted, it may lead to visual disturbances, optic atrophy, and eventually blindness. The headache is classically a morning headache that may wake the person up. The brain is relatively poorly supplied by oxygen as a result of mild hypoventilation during the sleeping hours leading to hypercapnia and vasodilation. Cerebral edema may worsen during the night due to the lying position. The headache is worse on coughing, sneezing, or bending, and progressively worsens over time. There may also be personality or behavioral changes.

In addition to the above, if mass effect is present with resulting displacement of brain tissue, additional signs may include pupillary dilatation, abducens palsies, and Cushing's triad. Cushing's triad involves an increased systolic blood pressure, a widened pulse pressure, bradycardia, and an abnormal respiratory pattern. In children, a low heart rate is especially suggestive of high ICP.

Irregular respirations occur when injury to parts of the brain interfere with the respiratory drive. Biot's respiration, in which breathing is rapid for a period and then absent for a period, occurs because of injury to the cerebral hemispheres or diencephalon. Hyperventilation can occur when the brain stem or tegmentum is damaged.

As a rule, patients with normal blood pressure retain normal alertness with ICP of 25–40 mmHg (unless tissue shifts at the same time). Only when ICP exceeds 40–50 mmHg does CPP and cerebral perfusion decrease to a level that results in loss of consciousness. Any further elevations will lead to brain infarction and brain death.

In infants and small children, the effects of ICP differ because their cranial sutures have not closed. In infants, the fontanels (soft spots on the head where the skull bones have not yet fused) bulge when ICP gets too high. ICP correlates with intraocular pressure (IOP) but seems to lack the accuracy necessary for close management of intracranial pressure in the acute post-traumatic period.

Papilledema (swelling of the optic disc) can be a reliable sign of elevated ICP. Unlike other conditions that may result in the swelling of the optic disc, it is in the case of papilledema that vision may go largely unaffected.

Increased ICP
Causes of increased intracranial pressure can be classified by the mechanism in which ICP is increased:
 * Mass effect such as brain tumor, infarction with edema, contusions, subdural or epidural hematoma, or abscesses all tend to deform the adjacent brain.
 * Generalized brain swelling can occur in ischemic-anoxia states, acute liver failure, hypertensive encephalopathy, hypercarbia (hypercapnia), and Reye hepatocerebral syndrome. These conditions tend to decrease the cerebral perfusion pressure but with minimal tissue shifts.
 * Increase in venous pressure can be due to venous sinus thrombosis, heart failure, or obstruction of superior mediastinal or jugular veins.
 * Obstruction to CSF flow and/or absorption can occur in hydrocephalus (blockage in ventricles or subarachnoid space at base of brain, e.g., by Arnold–Chiari malformation), extensive meningeal disease (e.g., infection, carcinoma, granuloma, or hemorrhage), or obstruction in cerebral convexities and superior sagittal sinus (decreased absorption).
 * Increased CSF production can occur in meningitis, subarachnoid hemorrhage, or choroid plexus tumor.
 * Idiopathic or unknown cause (idiopathic intracranial hypertension, a common cause in otherwise well people especially younger women)
 * Craniosynostosis

One of the most damaging aspects of brain trauma and other conditions, directly correlated with poor outcome, is an elevated intracranial pressure. ICP is very likely to cause severe harm if it rises too high. Very high intracranial pressures are usually fatal if prolonged, but children can tolerate higher pressures for longer periods. An increase in pressure, most commonly due to head injury leading to intracranial hematoma or cerebral edema, can crush brain tissue, shift brain structures, contribute to hydrocephalus, cause brain herniation, and restrict blood supply to the brain. It is a cause of reflex bradycardia.

Drug-induced intracranial hypertension
Drug-induced intracranial hypertension (DIIH) or medication-induced intracranial hypertension is a condition of higher than normal intracranial pressure with the main cause being a drug. This condition is similar to idiopathic intracranial hypertension, however the etiology in this instance is a drug. The most frequent symptoms are headaches, pulsatile tinnitus, diplopia, and impairment of visual acuity. The only observable signs of the condition may be papilledema and bilateral sixth cranial nerve (abducens) palsies.

Low ICP
Spontaneous intracranial hypotension may occur as a result of an occult leak of CSF at the level of the spine, into another body cavity. More commonly, decreased ICP is the result of lumbar puncture or other medical procedure involving the spinal cord. Various medical imaging technologies exist to assist in identifying the cause of decreased ICP. Often, the syndrome is self-limiting, especially if it is the result of a medical procedure.

If persistent intracranial hypotension is the result of a lumbar puncture, a blood patch may be applied to seal the site of CSF leakage. Various medical treatments have been proposed; only the intravenous administration of caffeine and theophylline has shown to be particularly useful.

The International Classification of Headache Disorders (ICHD) Third Edition diagnostic criteria for spontaneous intracranial hypotension includes any headache attributed to low CSF pressure (low CSF opening pressure) or CSF leakage (evidence of CSF leakage on imaging). Further, the headache must have a temporal relation to the low CSF pressure or leakage and the headache cannot be better explained by another ICHD diagnosis. The final criteria is that in the rare cases of spontaneous intracranial hypotension with no headache present, the neurologic symptoms that are present must be attributable to low CSF or explained by the diagnosis of spontaneous intracranial hypotension.

Pathophysiology
Cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP), the pressure of blood flowing to the brain, is normally fairly constant due to autoregulation, but for abnormal mean arterial pressure (MAP) or abnormal ICP the cerebral perfusion pressure is calculated by subtracting the intracranial pressure from the mean arterial pressure: CPP = MAP − ICP. One of the main dangers of increased ICP is that it can cause ischemia by decreasing CPP. Once the ICP approaches the level of the mean systemic pressure, cerebral perfusion falls. The body's response to a fall in CPP is to raise systemic blood pressure and dilate cerebral blood vessels. This results in increased cerebral blood volume, which increases ICP, lowering CPP further and causing a vicious cycle. This results in widespread reduction in cerebral flow and perfusion, eventually leading to ischemia and brain infarction. Increased blood pressure can also make intracranial hemorrhages bleed faster, also increasing ICP.

Severely raised ICP, if caused by a unilateral space-occupying lesion (e.g. a hematoma) can result in midline shift, a dangerous sequela in which the brain moves toward one side as the result of massive swelling in a cerebral hemisphere. Midline shift can compress the ventricles and lead to hydrocephalus.

Monro–Kellie hypothesis
The pressure–volume relationship between ICP, volume of CSF, blood, and brain tissue, and cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) is known as the Monro–Kellie doctrine or hypothesis.

The Monro–Kellie hypothesis states that the cranial compartment is inelastic and that the volume inside the cranium is fixed. The cranium and its constituents (blood, CSF, and brain tissue) create a state of volume equilibrium, such that any increase in volume of one of the cranial constituents must be compensated by a decrease in volume of another. *This concept only applies to adults, as the presence of fontanelles and open suture lines in infants that have not yet fused means there is potential for a change in size and intracranial volume.

The principal buffers for increased volumes include CSF and, to a lesser extent, blood volume. These buffers respond to increases in volume of the remaining intracranial constituents. For example, an increase in lesion volume (e.g., epidural hematoma) will be compensated by the downward displacement of CSF and venous blood. Additionally, there is some evidence that brain tissue itself may provide an additional buffer for elevated ICP in circumstances of acute intracranial mass effect via cell volume regulation.

The Monro–Kellie hypothesis is named after Edinburgh doctors Alexander Monro and George Kellie.

Diagnosis
The most definitive way of measuring the intracranial pressure is with transducers placed within the brain. A catheter can be surgically inserted into one of the brain's lateral ventricles and can be used to drain CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) in order to decrease ICPs. This type of drain is known as an external ventricular drain (EVD). This is rarely required outside brain injury and brain surgery settings.

In situations when only small amounts of CSF are to be drained to reduce ICP's (e.g. in idiopathic intracranial hypertension), drainage of CSF via lumbar puncture can be used as a treatment. Non-invasive measurement of intracranial pressure is being studied.

Treatment
The treatment for ICP depends on the cause. In addition to management of the underlying causes, major considerations in acute treatment of increased ICP relates to the management of stroke and cerebral trauma.

For long-term or chronic forms of raised ICP, especially idiopathic intracranial hypertension (IIH), a specific type of diuretic medication (acetazolamide) is used. In cases of confirmed brain neoplasm, dexamethasone is given to decrease ICP. Although the exact mechanism is unknown, current research shows that dexamethasone is capable of decreasing peritumoral water content and local tissue pressure to decrease ICP.

Ventilation
In people who have high ICP due to an acute injury, it is particularly important to ensure adequate airway, breathing, and oxygenation. Inadequate blood oxygen levels (hypoxia) or excessively high carbon dioxide levels (hypercapnia) cause cerebral blood vessels to dilate, increasing the flow of blood to the brain and causing the ICP to rise. Inadequate oxygenation also forces brain cells to produce energy using anaerobic metabolism, which produces lactic acid and lowers pH, also dilating blood vessels and exacerbating the problem. Conversely, blood vessels constrict when carbon dioxide levels are below normal, so hyperventilating a person with a ventilator or bag valve mask can temporarily reduce ICP. Hyperventilation was formerly a part of the standard treatment of traumatic brain injuries, but the induced constriction of blood vessels limits blood flow to the brain at a time when the brain may already be ischemic—hence it is no longer widely used. Furthermore, the brain adjusts to the new level of carbon dioxide after 48 to 72 hours of hyperventilation, which could cause the vessels to rapidly dilate if carbon-dioxide levels were returned to normal too quickly. Hyperventilation is still used if ICP is resistant to other methods of control, or there are signs of brain herniation, because the damage herniation can cause is so severe that it may be worthwhile to constrict blood vessels even if doing so reduces blood flow. ICP can also be lowered by raising the head of the bed, improving venous drainage. A side effect of this is that it could lower pressure of blood to the head, resulting in a reduced and possibly inadequate blood supply to the brain. Venous drainage may also be impeded by external factors such as hard collars to immobilize the neck in trauma patients, and this may also increase the ICP. Sandbags may be used to further limit neck movement.

Medication
In the hospital, the blood pressure can be increased in order to increase CPP, increase perfusion, oxygenate tissues, remove wastes, and thereby lessen swelling. Since hypertension is the body's way of forcing blood into the brain, medical professionals do not normally interfere with it when it is found in a person with a head injury. When it is necessary to decrease cerebral blood flow, MAP can be lowered using common antihypertensive agents such as calcium channel blockers.

If there is an intact blood–brain barrier, osmotherapy (mannitol or hypertonic saline) may be used to decrease ICP.

It is unclear whether mannitol or hypertonic saline is superior, or if they improve outcomes.

Struggling, restlessness, and seizures can increase metabolic demands and oxygen consumption, as well as increasing blood pressure. Analgesia and sedation are used to reduce agitation and metabolic needs of the brain, but these medications may cause low blood pressure and other side effects. Thus if full sedation alone is ineffective, people may be paralyzed with drugs such as atracurium. Paralysis allows the cerebral veins to drain more easily, but can mask signs of seizures, and the drugs can have other harmful effects. Paralysing drugs are only introduced if patients are fully sedated (this is essentially the same as a general anaesthetic)

Surgery
Craniotomies are holes drilled in the skull with the help of cranial drills to remove intracranial hematomas or relieve pressure from parts of the brain. As raised ICP's may be caused by the presence of a mass, removal of this via craniotomy will decrease raised ICP's.

A drastic treatment for increased ICP is decompressive craniectomy, in which a part of the skull is removed and the dura mater is expanded to allow the brain to swell without crushing it or causing herniation. The section of bone removed, known as a bone flap, can be stored in the patient's abdomen and resited back to complete the skull once the acute cause of raised ICP's has resolved. Alternatively a synthetic material may be used to replace the removed bone section (see cranioplasty)

title: Intracranial pressure


text:
WAMJ

WAMJ (107.5 FM, "Majic 107.5/97.5") is a commercial radio station licensed to Roswell, Georgia, and serving Metro Atlanta. It airs an urban adult contemporary radio format, simulcasting with sister station 97.5 WUMJ in Fayetteville. The station is currently owned by Radio One, via licensee Radio One Licenses, LLC. The studios and offices are located inside the Centennial Tower building in downtown Atlanta.

WAMJ's transmitter is on Goshen Springs Road in the Gwinnett Village section of Norcross, near Interstate 85. It has an effective radiated power (ERP) of 18,000 watts horizontal and 33,000 watts vertical, broadcasting from a tower at 185 meters (607 feet) in height above average terrain (HAAT). This gives WAMJ a good signal in Atlanta and its northern suburbs, but may not be received well south of Atlanta. To expand their coverage area, WAMJ simulcasts on WUMJ, with its tower located in Tyrone.

WAMJ broadcasts in HD Radio hybrid format. Its HD2 subchannel carries urban oldies music, known as "Classix 102.9", and is rebroadcast on 125 watt FM translator W275BK at 102.9 MHz in Decatur.

Programming
Weekdays begin with the nationally syndicated "Steve Harvey Morning Show." Maria Moore is heard middays, Ryan Cameron afternoons, Jerard J nights and Big Ray overnight.

WTHA/first incarnation of WAMJ
The station is the result of Federal Communications Commission (FCC) Docket 80-90, which reduced the required spacing between FM stations. That rule permitted a new FM station in the Atlanta area on 107.5 MHz. The original call sign was WTHA when the construction permit was issued at the beginning of October 1996. The original plan was to create a simulcast partner for 97.5 WHTA, with the new 107.5 using similar call letters.

By the time it signed on the air on February 6, 1998, it became "Majic 107.5," broadcasting an R&B format with the WAMJ call sign. This was the original incarnation of WAMJ and the "Majic" brand which, at first, lasted only three years.

Smooth Jazz WJZZ-FM
On June 27, 2001, that format and the WAMJ call sign were sent to also-new 102.5 FM as "Grown Folks Radio." At the same time, 107.5 became WJZZ-FM "Smooth Jazz 107.5". The WHTA call letters were moved to "Hot 107.9" a couple of months later, with all three stations owned by Radio One.

The on-air jingles heard on WJZZ-FM were similar to those heard on Clear Channel-owned smooth jazz stations, such as WSMJ Baltimore, WNUA Chicago, KKSF San Francisco, and WJJZ Philadelphia. However, the WJZZ-FM jingles used an opposite order of frequency and call letters. For WJZZ-FM, the frequency preceded the call sign.

The smooth jazz format enjoyed a surprisingly long era of success in the Atlanta radio market. Before smooth jazz came to 107.5 in 2001 for nine years, it had a six-year run on WJZF (now WALR-FM) from 1994 to 2000.

Return of "Majic 107.5"
On January 28, 2009, WJZZ dropped smooth jazz, and returned to an Urban AC format, resurrecting the original branding "Majic 107.5." On February 16, 2009, the "Praise 97.5" format and WPZE call sign was moved to 102.5 FM. 97.5 FM then began simulcasting WJZZ-FM as "Majic 107.5 | 97.5" (and would adopt the WUMJ call letters).

After seven and a half years at 102.5, the WAMJ call sign returned to 107.5 on February 27, 2009. In light of the move, the old WAMJ moniker from its 102.5 days, "Grown Folks Radio," was dropped.

Atlanta's Best Mix of R&B
The call letter switch to WAMJ also led to a change in slogans to "Atlanta's Best Mix of R&B." This became the third incarnation of the urban AC format for WAMJ.

With the format shuffle, WAMJ incorporated more 1980s and 1990s R&B into its playlist. This led competitor WALR-FM to adjust its Urban Oldies format to more recent adult music to maintain a competitive edge. WAMJ became the Atlanta home for the nationally syndicated Steve Harvey Morning Show; this was in contrast to most of Radio One's Urban AC stations, which instead ran the Tom Joyner Morning Show.

WUMJ received a signal upgrade in 2013, going from 21,300 watts to 50,000 watts. The simulcast with 97.5 ended on January 10, 2016, as WUMJ's signal now overlapped with WUMJ's coverage area. However, WUMJ resumed its simulcast with WAMJ on July 29, 2016, when some listeners told management that they were not able to receive 107.5 MHz clearly.

title: WAMJ


text:
WHTA

WHTA (107.9 FM) is a commercial radio station licensed to Hampton, Georgia, and serving the Atlanta metropolitan area. It is owned by Urban One and it airs an mainstream urban radio format, focused on hip hop and r&b music. The studios and offices are located inside the Centennial Tower building in downtown Atlanta.

The transmitter is off Swanson Road in Tyrone, Georgia, about 30 miles south southwest of Atlanta. At an effective radiated power (ERP) of 35,000 watts, the signal covers the city and its southern suburbs, and may not be easily received north of Atlanta. WHTA broadcasts in IBOC digital radio, using the HD Radio system from iBiquity.

Programming
The weekday on-air lineup consists of the syndicated "The Morning Hustle Show", which is based at WHTA. It is followed by Su-Solo in middays, Trap House with Stuey Rock in the Afternoons. “Posted on the Corner” has been consistently crowned the #1 Night Show (Monday-Friday) with Incognito featuring DJ Misses, DJ Montay, DJ Iceberg & radio kid Ozzie1st on WHTA. Posted on the Corner can be described as a party on the radio where the listener is the star. This fast paced show keeps the audience entertained with features such as Top 7 Countdown, Posted on the Corner Trivia, Pull-Up Game and Posted After Dark. All of the features provide an opportunity for the audience to be involved and feel as though they are part of the show. This element of inclusion has been a proven success within the show which the show is based at WHTA.

WCRY-FM Macon
The station began as WCRY-FM in Macon, Georgia, about 85 miles south of Atlanta. It signed on the air on October 19, 1973, and was owned by Central Georgia Broadcasting. At first, it mostly simulcast its AM counterpart, WCRY at 900 kHz (now WYPZ). By the late 1970s, WCRY-FM was airing a beautiful music format. In 1981, it switched its call sign to WPEZ, playing easy listening music, powered at 100,000 watts. It later shifted to soft adult contemporary music as "Lite Rock" WPEZ. The station was later known as Z108 in the mid-1980s, which is one out of 2 stations using the "Z" name in the Macon market, with the other being WQBZ.

The station was acquired in 1996 by U.S. Broadcasting, which had plans to move it into the more lucrative Atlanta radio market. To gain Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approval, a few stations in Middle Georgia were relocated: WPEZ's Soft AC format was switched from 107.9 to an existing frequency at 93.7 in Jeffersonville, while the original Top 40 format on 93.7 was shifted to a new Macon-area station as WMGB at 95.1 MHz. U.S. Broadcasting petitioned the FCC to reallocate the broadcast license for 107.9 from Macon to Hampton.

With the FCC giving its OK, Radio One, a large minority-owned broadcasting company, paid $60 million for the new "move in" Atlanta-area station at 107.9. Radio One already owned a station in the Atlanta market, 97.5 WHTA, in Fayetteville, airing an Urban Contemporary format. WHTA had signed on as an urban station on July 17, 1995; Radio One had plans to put WHTA's call letters and format on its new acquisition.

WHTA Hot 107.9
At first, Radio One didn't want its competitors in Atlanta to figure out its game plan, so in September 2001, the new Atlanta-area 107.9 transmitter signed on as WEGF "107.9 the End" with a modern rock format. Stunting on its first day, it played "Smooth Criminal" by Alien Ant Farm and "Rollin'" by Limp Bizkit continuously.

After several weeks with the rock format on 107.9 FM, "Hot 97.5" morning host Ryan Cameron made an announcement that "Hot" was moving to 107.9, revealing that the rock format was a publicity stunt. WHTA officially switched frequencies on November 1, 2001. 107.9 became "Hot 107.9" WHTA, while 97.5 became WPZE, playing urban gospel music. (WPZE later moved to 102.5 MHz in Mableton.)

WHTA's move to 107.9 gave it a stronger signal over Intown Atlanta and surrounding suburbs, despite being considered a "move-in" station.

Residents in Tyrone, Georgia have complained to the FCC that WHTA's transmitter interferes with their electrical items, from phones to computer speakers. WHTA got a construction permit from the FCC to increase the height of the antenna on the tower, but this only reduced the problem rather than eliminating it.

Digital Hip Hop
On July 31, 2007, WHTA began using a new slogan, "Hot 107.9, Your Digital Hip Hop Station."

In October 2008, WHTA became the Atlanta network affiliate of the Rickey Smiley Morning Show. It was originally based at co-owned KBFB in the Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex. In 2011, WHTA became the flagship station for the show.

In 2011, Radio One changed several of its Atlanta-area stations' formats and call signs; WAMJ moved from 102.5 to 107.5, and began simulcasting its Urban AC format on 97.5 as WUMJ, while WPZE's urban gospel format moved from 97.5 to 102.5. That left WHTA as the only station in Radio One's Atlanta cluster that was unaffected by the change.

Radio One was renamed Urban One on May 8, 2018.

title: WHTA


text:
Pyruvate kinase

Pyruvate kinase is the enzyme involved in the last step of glycolysis. It catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) to adenosine diphosphate (ADP), yielding one molecule of pyruvate and one molecule of ATP. Pyruvate kinase was inappropriately named (inconsistently with a conventional kinase) before it was recognized that it did not directly catalyze phosphorylation of pyruvate, which does not occur under physiological conditions. Pyruvate kinase is present in four distinct, tissue-specific isozymes in animals, each consisting of particular kinetic properties necessary to accommodate the variations in metabolic requirements of diverse tissues.

Isozymes in vertebrates
Four isozymes of pyruvate kinase expressed in vertebrates: L (liver), R (erythrocytes), M1 (muscle and brain) and M2 (early fetal tissue and most adult tissues). The L and R isozymes are expressed by the gene PKLR, whereas the M1 and M2 isozymes are expressed by the gene PKM2. The R and L isozymes differ from M1 and M2 in that they are allosterically regulated. Kinetically, the R and L isozymes of pyruvate kinase have two distinct conformation states; one with a high substrate affinity and one with a low substrate affinity. The R-state, characterized by high substrate affinity, serves as the activated form of pyruvate kinase and is stabilized by PEP and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), promoting the glycolytic pathway. The T-state, characterized by low substrate affinity, serves as the inactivated form of pyruvate kinase, bound and stabilized by ATP and alanine, causing phosphorylation of pyruvate kinase and the inhibition of glycolysis. The M2 isozyme of pyruvate kinase can form tetramers or dimers. Tetramers have a high affinity for PEP, whereas, dimers have a low affinity for PEP. Enzymatic activity can be regulated by phosphorylating highly active tetramers of PKM2 into an inactive dimers.

The PKM gene consists of 12 exons and 11 introns. PKM1 and PKM2 are different splicing products of the M-gene (PKM1 contains exon 9 while PKM2 contains exon 10) and solely differ in 23 amino acids within a 56-amino acid stretch (aa 378-434) at their carboxy terminus. The PKM gene is regulated through heterogenous ribonucleotide proteins like hnRNPA1 and hnRNPA2. Human PKM2 monomer has 531 amino acids and is a single chain divided into A, B and C domains. The difference in amino acid sequence between PKM1 and PKM2 allows PKM2 to be allosterically regulated by FBP and for it to form dimers and tetramers while PKM1 can only form tetramers.

Isozymes in bacteria
Many Enterobacteriaceae, including E. coli, have two isoforms of pyruvate kinase, PykA and PykF, which are 37% identical in E. coli (Uniprot: PykA, PykF). They catalyze the same reaction as in eukaryotes, namely the generation of ATP from ADP and PEP, the last step in glycolysis, a step that is irreversible under physiological conditions. PykF is allosterically regulated by FBP which reflects the central position of PykF in cellular metabolism. PykF transcription in E. coli is regulated by the global transcriptional regulator, Cra (FruR). PfkB was shown to be inhibited by MgATP at low concentrations of Fru-6P, and this regulation is important for gluconeogenesis.

Glycolysis
There are two steps in the pyruvate kinase reaction in glycolysis. First, PEP transfers a phosphate group to ADP, producing ATP and the enolate of pyruvate. Secondly, a proton must be added to the enolate of pyruvate to produce the functional form of pyruvate that the cell requires. Because the substrate for pyruvate kinase is a simple phospho-sugar, and the product is an ATP, pyruvate kinase is a possible foundation enzyme for the evolution of the glycolysis cycle, and may be one of the most ancient enzymes in all earth-based life. Phosphoenolpyruvate may have been present abiotically, and has been shown to be produced in high yield in a primitive triose glycolysis pathway. In yeast cells, the interaction of yeast pyruvate kinase (YPK) with PEP and its allosteric effector Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP,) was found to be enhanced by the presence of Mg2+. Therefore, Mg2+ was concluded to be an important cofactor in the catalysis of PEP into pyruvate by pyruvate kinase. Furthermore, the metal ion Mn2+ was shown to have a similar, but stronger effect on YPK than Mg2+. The binding of metal ions to the metal binding sites on pyruvate kinase enhances the rate of this reaction. The reaction catalyzed by pyruvate kinase is the final step of glycolysis. It is one of three rate-limiting steps of this pathway. Rate-limiting steps are the slower, regulated steps of a pathway and thus determine the overall rate of the pathway. In glycolysis, the rate-limiting steps are coupled to either the hydrolysis of ATP or the phosphorylation of ADP, causing the pathway to be energetically favorable and essentially irreversible in cells. This final step is highly regulated and deliberately irreversible because pyruvate is a crucial intermediate building block for further metabolic pathways. Once pyruvate is produced, it either enters the TCA cycle for further production of ATP under aerobic conditions, or is converted to lactic acid or ethanol under anaerobic conditions.

Gluconeogenesis: the reverse reaction
Pyruvate kinase also serves as a regulatory enzyme for gluconeogenesis, a biochemical pathway in which the liver generates glucose from pyruvate and other substrates. Gluconeogenesis utilizes noncarbohydrate sources to provide glucose to the brain and red blood cells in times of starvation when direct glucose reserves are exhausted. During fasting state, pyruvate kinase is inhibited, thus preventing the "leak-down" of phosphoenolpyruvate from being converted into pyruvate; instead, phosphoenolpyruvate is converted into glucose via a cascade of gluconeogenesis reactions. Although it utilizes similar enzymes, gluconeogenesis is not the reverse of glycolysis. It is instead a pathway that circumvents the irreversible steps of glycolysis. Furthermore, gluconeogenesis and glycolysis do not occur concurrently in the cell at any given moment as they are reciprocally regulated by cell signaling. Once the gluconeogenesis pathway is complete, the glucose produced is expelled from the liver, providing energy for the vital tissues in the fasting state.

Regulation
Glycolysis is highly regulated at three of its catalytic steps: the phosphorylation of glucose by hexokinase, the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate by phosphofructokinase, and the transfer of phosphate from PEP to ADP by pyruvate kinase. Under wild-type conditions, all three of these reactions are irreversible, have a large negative free energy and are responsible for the regulation of this pathway. Pyruvate kinase activity is most broadly regulated by allosteric effectors, covalent modifiers and hormonal control. However, the most significant pyruvate kinase regulator is fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), which serves as an allosteric effector for the enzyme.

Allosteric effectors
Allosteric regulation is the binding of an effector to a site on the protein other than the active site, causing a conformational change and altering the activity of that given protein or enzyme. Pyruvate kinase has been found to be allosterically activated by FBP and allosterically inactivated by ATP and alanine. Pyruvate Kinase tetramerization is promoted by FBP and Serine while tetramer dissociation is promoted by L-Cysteine.

Fructose-1,6-bisphosphate
FBP is the most significant source of regulation because it comes from within the glycolysis pathway. FBP is a glycolytic intermediate produced from the phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate. FBP binds to the allosteric binding site on domain C of pyruvate kinase and changes the conformation of the enzyme, causing the activation of pyruvate kinase activity. As an intermediate present within the glycolytic pathway, FBP provides feedforward stimulation because the higher the concentration of FBP, the greater the allosteric activation and magnitude of pyruvate kinase activity. Pyruvate kinase is most sensitive to the effects of FBP. As a result, the remainder of the regulatory mechanisms serve as secondary modification.

Covalent modifiers
Covalent modifiers serve as indirect regulators by controlling the phosphorylation, dephosphorylation, acetylation, succinylation and oxidation of enzymes, resulting in the activation and inhibition of enzymatic activity. In the liver, glucagon and epinephrine activate protein kinase A, which serves as a covalent modifier by phosphorylating and deactivating pyruvate kinase. In contrast, the secretion of insulin in response to blood sugar elevation activates phosphoprotein phosphatase I, causing the dephosphorylation and activation of pyruvate kinase to increase glycolysis. The same covalent modification has the opposite effect on gluconeogenesis enzymes. This regulation system is responsible for the avoidance of a futile cycle through the prevention of simultaneous activation of pyruvate kinase and enzymes that catalyze gluconeogenesis.

Hormonal control
In order to prevent a futile cycle, glycolysis and gluconeogenesis are heavily regulated in order to ensure that they are never operating in the cell at the same time. As a result, the inhibition of pyruvate kinase by glucagon, cyclic AMP and epinephrine, not only shuts down glycolysis, but also stimulates gluconeogenesis. Alternatively, insulin interferes with the effect of glucagon, cyclic AMP and epinephrine, causing pyruvate kinase to function normally and gluconeogenesis to be shut down. Furthermore, glucose was found to inhibit and disrupt gluconeogenesis, leaving pyruvate kinase activity and glycolysis unaffected. Overall, the interaction between hormones plays a key role in the functioning and regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis in the cell.

Inhibitory effect of metformin
Metformin, or dimethylbiguanide, is the primary treatment used for type 2 diabetes. Metformin has been shown to indirectly affect pyruvate kinase through the inhibition of gluconeogenesis. Specifically, the addition of metformin is linked to a marked decrease in glucose flux and increase in lactate/pyruvate flux from various metabolic pathways. Although metformin does not directly affect pyruvate kinase activity, it causes a decrease in the concentration of ATP. Due to the allosteric inhibitory effects of ATP on pyruvate kinase, a decrease in ATP results in diminished inhibition and the subsequent stimulation of pyruvate kinase. Consequently, the increase in pyruvate kinase activity directs metabolic flux through glycolysis rather than gluconeogenesis.

Gene Regulation
Heterogenous ribonucleotide proteins (hnRNPs) can act on the PKM gene to regulate expression of M1 and M2 isoforms. PKM1 and PKM2 isoforms are splice variants of the PKM gene that differ by a single exon. Various types of hnRNPs such as hnRNPA1 and hnRNPA2 enter the nucleus during hypoxia conditions and modulate expression such that PKM2 is up-regulated. Hormones such as insulin up-regulate expression of PKM2 while hormones like tri-iodothyronine (T3) and glucagon aid in down-regulating PKM2.

Carbohydrate response element binding protein (ChREBP)
ChREBP is a transcription factor that regulates expression of the L isozyme of pyruvate kinase. A glucose-sensing module contains domains that are targets for regulatory phosphorylation based on the concentrations of glucose and cAMP, which then control its import into the nucleus. It may also be further activated by directly binding glucose-6-phosphate. Once in the nucleus, its DNA binding domains activate pyruvate kinase transcription. Therefore, high glucose and low cAMP causes dephosphorylation of ChREBP, which then upregulates expression of pyruvate kinase in the liver.

Deficiency
Genetic defects of this enzyme cause the disease known as pyruvate kinase deficiency. In this condition, a lack of pyruvate kinase slows down the process of glycolysis. This effect is especially devastating in cells that lack mitochondria, because these cells must use anaerobic glycolysis as their sole source of energy because the TCA cycle is not available. For example, red blood cells, which in a state of pyruvate kinase deficiency, rapidly become deficient in ATP and can undergo hemolysis. Therefore, pyruvate kinase deficiency can cause chronic nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia (CNSHA).

PK-LR gene mutation
Pyruvate kinase deficiency is caused by an autosomal recessive trait. Mammals have two pyruvate kinase genes, PK-LR (which encodes for pyruvate kinase isozymes L and R) and PK-M (which encodes for pyruvate kinase isozyme M1), but only PKLR encodes for the red blood isozyme which effects pyruvate kinase deficiency. Over 250 PK-LR gene mutations have been identified and associated with pyruvate kinase deficiency. DNA testing has guided the discovery of the location of PKLR on chromosome 1 and the development of direct gene sequencing tests to molecularly diagnose pyruvate kinase deficiency.

Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) Inhibition
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are chemically reactive forms of oxygen. In human lung cells, ROS has been shown to inhibit the M2 isozyme of pyruvate kinase (PKM2). ROS achieves this inhibition by oxidizing Cys358 and inactivating PKM2. As a result of PKM2 inactivation, glucose flux is no longer converted into pyruvate, but is instead utilized in the pentose phosphate pathway, resulting in the reduction and detoxification of ROS. In this manner, the harmful effects of ROS are increased and cause greater oxidative stress on the lung cells, leading to potential tumor formation. This inhibitory mechanism is important because it may suggest that the regulatory mechanisms in PKM2 are responsible for aiding cancer cell resistance to oxidative stress and enhanced tumorigenesis.

Phenylalanine inhibition
Phenylalanine is found to function as a competitive inhibitor of pyruvate kinase in the brain. Although the degree of phenylalanine inhibitory activity is similar in both fetal and adult cells, the enzymes in the fetal brain cells are significantly more vulnerable to inhibition than those in adult brain cells. A study of PKM2 in babies with the genetic brain disease phenylketonurics (PKU), showed elevated levels of phenylalanine and decreased effectiveness of PKM2. This inhibitory mechanism provides insight into the role of pyruvate kinase in brain cell damage.

Pyruvate Kinase in Cancer
Cancer cells have characteristically accelerated metabolic machinery and Pyruvate Kinase is believed to have a role in cancer. When compared to healthy cells, cancer cells have elevated levels of the PKM2 isoform, specifically the low activity dimer. Therefore, PKM2 serum levels are used as markers for cancer. The low activity dimer allows for build-up of phosphoenol pyruvate (PEP), leaving large concentrations of glycolytic intermediates for synthesis of biomolecules that will eventually be used by cancer cells. Phosphorylation of PKM2 by Mitogen-activated protein kinase 1 (ERK2) causes conformational changes that allow PKM2 to enter the nucleus and regulate glycolytic gene expression required for tumor development. Some studies state that there is a shift in expression from PKM1 to PKM2 during carcinogenesis. Tumor microenvironments like hypoxia activate transcription factors like the hypoxia-inducible factor to promote the transcription of PKM2, which forms a positive feedback loop to enhance its own transcription.

Alternatives
A reversible enzyme with a similar function, pyruvate phosphate dikinase (PPDK), is found in some bacteria and has been transferred to a number of anaerobic eukaryote groups (for example, Streblomastix, Giardia, Entamoeba, and Trichomonas), it seems via horizontal gene transfer on two or more occasions. In some cases, the same organism will have both pyruvate kinase and PPDK.

title: Pyruvate kinase


text:
Alois Negrelli

Nikolaus Alois Maria Vinzenz Negrelli, Ritter von Moldelbe (born Luigi Negrelli; 23 January 1799 – 1 October 1858) was a Tyrolean civil engineer and railroad pioneer mostly active in parts of the Austrian Empire, Switzerland, Germany and Italy.

Biography
Alois Negrelli was born Luigi Negrelli as the seventh of ten children to an Italian-speaking father and a German-speaking mother in Fiera di Primiero (German Markt Primör) in the Dolomites. The village is situated in the Trentino (Trient), once the south of the County of Tyrol (then with the Austrian Empire, today in northern Italy). Being in part of Welschtyrolean heritage (Romance-speaking southern Tyroleans), the father and one of his older sisters actively supported the Tyrolean Rebellion of 1809, led by Andreas Hofer against the occupation of their homeland by French and Bavarian troops. Alois's father was held prisoner for years, finally returning home in 1814. The family, having lost a substantial part of their wealth, struggled at first to enable good education and safe livelihood for Alois and his siblings. This toil was facilitated by governmental authorities in recognition of their commitment. Alois Negrelli received an Austrian scholarship and went to secondary school in Feltre in 1812, together with his brothers. He later studied in Padua and Innsbruck in 1817, the capital of the Crownland of Tyrol.

Civil engineering
After beginning his career in 1818 as assistant to the Department of Construction in Innsbruck, Austria, he also worked in Vorarlberg from 1825 onwards residing in Bregenz. Negrelli constructed the Gschwendtobel-Brücke in Lingenau, a covered wooden bridge still in existence, and earned a reputation for taking part in the channelisation of the Alpenrhein and of the various Austrian and Swiss interests connected therewith. He moved to Switzerland in 1832 and took part in the erection of various constructions in the Canton of St. Gallen. In 1835, Negrelli was called to Zürich, where he continued with similar activity, notably working on the Münsterbrücke (Munster Bridge) crossing the Limmat together with Ferdinand Stadler, who was responsible for the carpentry. Stone bridges were still built over a wooden timber frame at this time. He also created the new Kornhaus (granary) in 1839 which later became the first Tonhalle (concert hall) of Zürich. In 1895 it was replaced by a newly constructed second building for this purpose.

Railway construction
Beginning in 1836 Negrelli started planning a first railway line in this country. The Swiss Northern Railway was built years later in 1846 from Zürich to Baden, Switzerland, under his supervision. At around this time he was also appointed to different governmental commissions, working for other cantons. During a journey to England, France and Belgium he, like many other engineers, studied recent advances in railway construction and subsequently published his ideas of adapting this technology to mountainous regions in papers, receiving wide attention in the industry. In 1837 he advocated the creation of the railway Innsbruck–Kufstein in Tyrol and made preliminary plans for it, upon which the project was later based.

Negrelli returned to working in Austria in 1840. He was chosen as inspector general for the private Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway, and the Northern State Railway in 1842. He was responsible for the construction of the railway lines from Vienna via Prague to the German border in direction of Dresden, and via Ostrava to the Polish border in direction of Kraków. Negrelli prepared the railway to the then Austrian Lviv and the extension to the Russian border further east. He led the construction of the Negrelli Viaduct between 1846 and 1849, a railway bridge crossing the Vltava (Moldau) river in Prague, with 1,110 m the longest bridge of its kind in Europe until 1910 Negrelli's authority in railway matters was of particular relevance in the process of decisions to have the mountainous Semmering railway built by a fellow engineer, Carl von Ghega, in 1848 and his advice was requested for projects by various other states like the Kingdom of Württemberg and the Kingdom of Saxony in Germany. In 1849, Negrelli was to travel to the then Austrian Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia with the task to oversee work on public buildings, railways and telegraph lines, and heading a commission regulating traffic on the river Po. In 1850 he was awarded for his services and received a title of nobility with the designation Ritter von Moldelbe, chosen by himself in memory of his times working on the rivers Vltava/Moldau and Elbe. After arriving back in Vienna in 1855, Negrelli was appointed inspector general of the newly founded Imperial Royal Privileged Austrian State Railway Company until 1857. It would later become the Staats-Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft (State Railway Company), one of the biggest railway enterprises of the Austrian Empire.

Channelisation projects in Egypt
Negrelli, like many other engineers of his time, had thought about possibilities to build an artificial waterway to connect the Mediterranean Sea with the Red Sea from 1836 onwards. In 1846 he had been invited by Barthélemy Prosper Enfantin to the Société d'Études du Canal de Suez and took part in the exploration tour to the isthmus of Suez in 1847. Because of the outbreak of revolutions of 1848 and the following years, and other circumstances the Société d'Études had to cease activities, Negrelli himself being sent to Lombardy–Venetia at that time.

In 1855 Negrelli was invited by Ferdinand de Lesseps to participate again, now in the International Commission for the piercing of the isthmus of Suez (Commission Internationale pour le percement de l'isthme de Suez). Consisting of thirteen experts from seven countries who were to examine the plans made by Linant de Bellefonds it had to advise on the feasibility of and on the best route for a canal project. Negrelli formed part of the surveying group travelling to Egypt in late 1855 and early 1856. In the final deliberations of the commission in Paris at the end of June 1856, his principal ideas of a canal without locks and a northern entry further to the west prevailed. A comprehensive final report was produced, including plans and profiles, according to which the Suez Canal was later to be built by the Suez Canal Company, established in late 1858 by Lesseps.

The Suez Canal project, as the first of its kind in modern times, caused headlines. Since the Commission Internationale had presented their report in 1856 critics were agitating against it to a great degree, among them Robert Stephenson, son of railway pioneer George Stephenson. Negrelli and others declared active support. The quarrel between defenders and repudiators went on for a time, this exchange was followed by publications throughout Europe, especially in France, Austria and the United Kingdom. Negrelli was prevented from travelling to Egypt another time and meeting with Lesseps, who went to London, in June 1858. Feeling unwell, he used his leave from work to stay in a health resort for recovery. On the way back, Negrelli was able to attend a congress on railway development held in Trieste before he arrived at home in Vienna. Already seriously ill by September, he managed to write one last reply on the comments of Stephenson. Negrelli's response was published in the Oesterreichische Zeitung (Austrian Gazette) on 26 September 1858.

Alois Negrelli von Moldelbe died in the morning hours of 1 October 1858 at age 59, probably from food poisoning causing bacterial infection. His death occurred only weeks shy of witnessing the establishment of the Suez Canal Company, and just half a year before the works on the canal project were to officially begin.

In his book Transportation and Communication of Egypt, Negrelli wrote in 1856 about the Suez Canal: "The connection of the two seas by a maritime canal, shortening the route between Europe and the rich countries of the Old World located at the Indian Ocean, not only for the development of global trade but also for the increase of cabotage (domestical shipping) for Egypt, related to the prosperity of inbound welfare to this country so blessed, is an undeniable necessity."

Selected works

 * Gutachten über den Bau einer obenfahrbarn Brücke über die Limmat in Zürich, eines neuen Kornhauses und Hafens, 1834 (German)
 * Ausflug nach Frankreich, England und Belgien zur Beobachtung der dortigen Eisenbahnen, mit einem Anhange über Anwendung von Eisenbahnen in Gebirgsländern, L. Negrelli, Oberingenieur der Kaufmannschaft in Zürich, Frauenfeld 1838 (German); digitised at Austrian Literature Online
 * Die Eisenbahnen mit Anwendung der gewöhnlichen Dampfwägen als bewegende Kraft über Anhöhen und Wasserscheiden sind ausführbar. Ein auf Erfahrungen begründeter und praktisch dargestellter Vorschlag. Beck'sche Universitäts-Buchhandlung, Vienna 1842 (German); digitised at Heinrich Heine University of Düsseldorf, Digital Library
 * Über Gebirgseisenbahnen ("About Railways in mountainous Areas"), Vienna 1842 (German)
 * Die Münsterbrücke in Zürich, Vienna 1844 (German)
 * Die gegenwärtigen Transport- und Kommunikationsmittel Egyptens, mit Beziehung auf die beantragte Durchstechung der Landenge von Suez ("Means of Transportation and Communication of Egypt"), Alois Negrelli von Moldelbe, Vienna 1856 (German)

title: Alois Negrelli


text:
College of San Mateo

College of San Mateo (CSM) is a public community college in San Mateo, California. It is part of the San Mateo County Community College District. College of San Mateo is located at the northern corridor of Silicon Valley and situated on a 153-acre site in the San Mateo hills. The college currently serves approximately 10,000 day, evening and weekend students. The college offers 69 A.A./A.S. degree majors and 81 certificate programs.

History
William L. Glascock, the principal of San Mateo High School, first proposed a junior college for San Mateo in the early 1920s as an alternative to the traditional four-year college. Tuition at four-year institutions costed up to US$1000 1922 per year at the time; at the junior college, students could instead live at home while earning credit equivalent to the freshman and sophomore years of a four-year school. The college was initially founded as the San Mateo Junior College (SMJC) after being approved by voters on March 31, 1922. The first classes started on August 22 of that year in a building shared with San Mateo High School. The first registered student was Marjorie Brace, who could not attend Stanford because of the high cost of tuition. She joined an initial class of 30 students, which would grow to 48 by the end of the academic year. The typical target for students graduating from the junior college was either Berkeley or Stanford; although the junior college was "in a valley between two mountains of conceit—Stanford and the University of California" as described by early faculty, the curriculum at San Mateo was designed to allow graduating students to continue studies at the larger four-year institutions.

The school colors of blue and white were chosen, according to anecdotes from early graduates, either from the colors of those two targets (white from Stanford, blue from Berkeley), or because those were the leftover ribbon colors from a student tasked with decorating a dance. The origins of the bulldog mascot are similarly murky: either all other animals had already been chosen by other colleges, or a local kennel which specialized in raising English bulldogs offered to have one of their animals, Rival Goldstone, appear at sporting events.

Second year students would haze incoming freshmen in one of the earliest traditions at SMJC, which required first year male students to carry decorated wooden paddles. Sophomore students would stop first-years so they could "frequently and strenuously [apply the paddle] for any of a dozen real or imagined infractions." Hazing culminated in an all-day event held semi-annually called The Brawl, which was filmed by Fox Movietone News on February 19, 1928. Incoming dean Charles S. Morris ended physical hazing in 1931.

Dean Morris had a fatal heart attack in 1952, and students and faculty members began proposing a name change for SMJC. Proposed names included San Mateo College, San Mateo City College, and Peninsula College, but the name was finally changed to College of San Mateo on April 14, 1954, in part because the initials (CSM) would also honor the memory of Dean Morris.

Enrollment
Enrollment at SMJC grew rapidly from the initial class of 30 in 1922: 137 students enrolled in 1923, and the freshman class alone was 102 in 1924. SMJC reached enrollments of 430 students (250 freshmen) in 1926 and 480 students in 1927, when classes moved back to the Baldwin campus. It was the only junior college on the Peninsula until 1935 and attracted commuter students from San Francisco (who used San Francisco and San Mateo Electric Railway and/or Peninsula Commute trains), San Jose, and the East Bay. By 1935, enrollment had reached 1,500, but fell back to 1,000 when San Francisco Junior College opened that fall.

The first classes for workers to develop additional skills were offered in 1932, when a vocational class in aeronautics started. An Adult Program was introduced in 1936 for evening classes at the Baldwin campus, and 500 students signed up by the end of the first week. By 1943, 5,073 were enrolled in evening classes. During World War II, enrollment dropped as many potential students were serving in the military instead; SMJC shifted to teaching servicemen and radar courses. Unused land at Delaware was planted with crops as a victory garden. The college set up a Community Canning Center in June 1944 and had produced 108,000 cans by the end of the year. Enrollment rebounded after the war; although there were only 35 graduates in 1945, there were 1,800 students enrolled in 1946 and 2,400 in 1947, with 307 graduating in 1949. 5,621 attended classes on September 30, 1963, the first day of classes at the new College Heights campus.

As initially founded, SMJC served students matriculating from the San Mateo Union High School District; Jefferson Union and Half Moon Bay were added in 1937; Sequoia Union and South San Francisco followed in the 1960s; and the college served all San Mateo County residents by 1976, when the La Honda-Pescadero Unified School District joined.

San Mateo Community College District
By then, two more campuses had opened in what had become the San Mateo County Community College District alongside the College of San Mateo: Cañada College (1968, Redwood City) and Skyline College (1969, San Bruno). Julio Bortolazzo is credited with the expansion of what had become the College of San Mateo into the three-college District. In 1956, he formed a 27-member Citizens Committee to study potential sites for a new campus for CSM. The final report filed by the Committee concluded that San Mateo County needed more than one community college.

County voters overwhelmingly approved a $5.9 million bond issue in 1957 based on Committee recommendations, which provided funds to purchase the present-day College Heights campus for CSM as well as the site for Skyline College. In 1962, the parcel for Cañada College was purchased. Voters approved another bond of $12.8 million in March 1964, which provided funds to construct Cañada College (opened 1968) and Skyline College (opened 1969).

Facilities
Upon opening, San Mateo Junior College initially shared facilities with San Mateo High School at what was known as the Baldwin campus, at Baldwin Avenue and San Mateo Drive (then called Griffith Avenue) near downtown San Mateo. One year after opening, San Mateo Junior College moved to the mansion built for Charles Polhemus and later purchased by William Kohl in what is now Central Park. At the Kohl mansion, classes were held in parlors and bedrooms, the veranda was enclosed to serve as the library, assemblies were held in the grand dining room, the women's gymnasium and locker room was created from the kitchen, and a student store opened in the former wine cellar in 1926. The Junior College soon outgrew the Kohl mansion, and temporary buildings (including tents) were erected in Central Park to hold classes.

In 1927, the high school moved to its present location at Delaware and Poplar, and the Junior College moved back to the Baldwin campus. However, enrollments rose rapidly, and by 1935, the Baldwin campus was hosting 1,500 students in a building designed for 500. Later that year, SMJC purchased 30 acre at North Delaware and Peninsula which had previously been occupied by Pacific Studios, a silent film production lot, for US$67500 1935.

In 1939, science classes started at new buildings on the Delaware campus to relieve overcrowding at the main Baldwin campus. However, after the start of World War II, work on the new campus was suspended. After the war, the college added a third location by leasing the training facility originally constructed for the United States Merchant Marine during World War II at Coyote Point. The Merchant Marines had vacated the Coyote Point facility by January 1947 due to budget cutbacks, and SMJC started offering courses there in September. Different subjects were taught at each of the three sites: science, mathematics, and shop courses at Delaware; art and business at Baldwin; other subjects at Coyote Point. The haste with which Coyote Point had been pressed into service soon became evident; steam pipes for heating developed leaks and airplane traffic to nearby San Francisco International Airport repeatedly interrupted instruction in classrooms built with inadequate insulation. A bond issue in 1957 overwhelmingly passed by County voters allowed the college to consolidate into a single site, at what is now known as the College Heights campus. The 153 acre parcel was purchased at a bargain price of $7,280 per acre with the help of an eminent domain lawsuit. Ground was broken at College Heights on October 21, 1960, and the new campus opened on September 30, 1963, one year behind schedule. CSM sold off the Delaware campus on February 21, 1963, for $2.3 million, and the last day at Coyote Point was September 6, 1963. Although classes at started at College Heights, work continued; the new library opened on November 15, and the new campus was dedicated on December 8 of that year. The new campus at College Heights cost nearly $19.5 million; it was refurbished in the 2000s funded by bond measures, including seismic upgrades and a new College Center.

Leadership

 * Notes

Accreditation
College of San Mateo is accredited by the Accrediting Commission for Community and Junior Colleges.

Transfer programs
CSM offers transfer admission guarantees with seven of the nine UC campuses, nearly all of the CSU campuses and many private colleges in California.

Career and technical programs
The college offers more than 75 programs in career areas including multimedia, green technologies, cosmetology, nursing, broadcasting, accounting, computer and information science, fire technology and dental assisting.

High school programs
San Mateo Middle College is an alternative high school program serving grades 11 and 12 which operates on the CSM campus. Middle College students take three high school classes on campus with high school teachers and fill the remainder of their schedule with college courses. Middle College students come from the San Mateo Union High School District; students in the Cabrillo Unified School District may also be eligible to participate with approval of the Middle College principal.

In Fall 2016, another alternative high school program, Jumpstart was put on the CSM campus, allowing high school students to finish their credits on an online program, and to give them an opportunity to take classes on campus. This allows for students to receive credit for both their high school and college graduation requirements.

Athletics
CSM's championship intercollegiate athletic teams compete at the highest community college level, offering student athletes an opportunity to participate in a team experience. The college offers the following men's sports: football, baseball, track & field, cross country and swimming; and the following women's sports: softball, basketball, track & field, cross country, sand volleyball, indoor volleyball, water polo and swimming.

Pitcher Scott Feldman walked on to the school's baseball team his freshman year. In two seasons, he went 25–2, with a 1.30 ERA and a strikeout-to-walk ratio of 8-to-1. "When Feldman pitched", said Bulldogs coach Doug Williams, "the game was 95% over." He earned Coast Conference Pitcher of the Year honors both as a freshman in 2002 and as a sophomore in 2003, and was also an All-American both years. "He has a gift", Williams said.

Athletics Hall of Fame
In 2011, CSM established an Athletics Hall of Fame. Among the notable inductees are John Madden, former professional football coach, analyst and broadcaster; Archie Williams, 1936 Olympic gold medalist; and Bill Ring, former professional football player. Names of all of the inductees are on display in CSM's Hall of Fame Plaza.

Notable alumni

 * Jeremy Anderson, sculptor
 * Jeanne Bates, actress
 * Ryan Boschetti, professional football player
 * Gregory Buckingham, Olympic swimmer
 * Lindsey Buckingham, Fleetwood Mac band member
 * Dana Carvey, actor/comedian
 * Julian Edelman, professional football player
 * Keith Hernandez, professional baseball player
 * Scott Feldman, professional baseball player
 * Liz Figueroa, politician
 * Warren Furutani, politician
 * Jennifer Granholm, former governor of Michigan
 * Merv Griffin, television personality, actor, singer
 * Dennis Haysbert, actor
 * Jan Henne, Olympic swimmer
 * Jerry Hill, politician
 * Tom Huening, politician
 * Keala Keanaaina, professional football player
 * John Lescroart, author
 * Phil Lesh, Grateful Dead band member
 * Dick Lotz, professional golfer
 * John Madden, professional football coach and sportscaster
 * Paul McClellan, professional baseball player
 * Bob McClure, professional baseball player
 * Guy McIntyre, professional football player
 * Jon Miller, San Francisco Giants broadcaster, member of Baseball Hall of Fame
 * Antonio Narcisse, professional football player
 * Daniel Nava, professional baseball player
 * Greg Proops, comedian
 * Bill Ring, professional football player
 * Edward V. Roberts, director, California State Department of Rehabilitation
 * Jeff Serr, radio personality, voice actor
 * Steve Shafer, professional football coach
 * Kurtwood Smith, actor
 * James Elms Swett, US Marine Corps fighter pilot; Medal of Honor recipient
 * Ted Tollner, college and professional football coach
 * Matangi Tonga, professional football player
 * Tom Torlakson, State Superintendent of Public Instruction
 * J. Craig Venter, scientist, human genome researcher
 * Dick Vermeil, professional football coach and sports analyst
 * Bill Walsh, professional football coach
 * John Wetteland, professional baseball player
 * Archie Williams, U.S. Air Force officer, Olympic runner, and teacher

title: College of San Mateo


text:
WRAL

WRAL may refer to:

 * WRAL-TV, a television station (channel 17, virtual 5) licensed to Raleigh, North Carolina
 * WRAL (FM), a radio station (101.5 FM) licensed to Raleigh, North Carolina
 * WPJL, a radio station (1240 AM) licensed to Raleigh, North Carolina, and once called WRAL

title: WRAL


text:
WKFT

WKFT may refer to:

 * WKFT (FM), a radio station (101.3 FM) licensed to Strattanville, Pennsylvania, United States
 * WKFT-TV, the former callsign of WUVC-DT, a television station (PSIP 40.1/RF38) licensed to Fayetteville, North Carolina, United States

title: WKFT


text:
Cusp

A cusp is the most pointed end of a curve. It often refers to cusp (anatomy), a pointed structure on a tooth.

Cusp or CUSP may also refer to:

Mathematics

 * Cusp (singularity), a singular point of a curve
 * Cusp catastrophe, a branch of bifurcation theory in the study of dynamical systems
 * Cusp form, in modular form theory
 * Cusp neighborhood, a set of points near a cusp
 * Cuspidal representation, a generalization of cusp forms in the theory of automorphic representations

Science and medicine

 * Beach cusps, a pointed and regular arc pattern of the shoreline at the beach
 * Behavioral cusp, a change in behavior with far-reaching consequences
 * Caltech-USGS Seismic Processing, software for analyzing earthquake data
 * Center for Urban Science and Progress, a graduate school of New York University focusing on urban informatics
 * CubeSat for Solar Particles, a satellite launched in 2022
 * Cusp (anatomy), a pointed structure on a tooth
 * Cusps of heart valves, leaflets of a heart valve
 * Nuclear cusp condition, in electron density

Other uses

 * Cusp (astrology)
 * Cusp (film), a 2021 American documentary following three teenage girls at the end of summer
 * Cusp (novel), a 2005 science fiction story by Robert A. Metzger
 * Cusp Conference, an annual gathering of thinkers, innovators, etc. from various fields
 * Cusp generation, a name given to those born during the transitional years of two generations
 * Concordia University, St. Paul

title: Cusp


text:
Sgùrr nan Gillean

Sgùrr nan Gillean is a peak in the northern part of the Cuillin mountains on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. With a height of 966 m, it is one of eleven Munros in the Cuillins. It is the Munro peak nearest to the settlement of Sligachan, and its impressive triangular profile makes it one of the most recognizable of the Cuillins.

Routes
The most popular route of ascent, known as the Tourist Route, follows a path leading south and west from Sligachan, crossing a burn known as the Allt Dearg Beag (small red burn). The route continues up into a corrie, the Coire Rhiabhach. The ascent of the coire headwall is on loose rock and scree. The continuation up the southeast ridge to the summit is exposed, and calls for scrambling ability. The path up is very narrow so calls for single file when a party ascends. The top is a ridge which must be traversed to reach the final summit, and like the climb, needs some scrambling ability. All sides are very exposed, and extra care is needed if mist descends. The small airy summit platform is surprisingly smooth and flat with outstanding views.

An alternative route is the north ridge, known as Pinnacle Ridge, which is a rock climb that requires a climber to have a rope and harness and be capable of abseiling, unless the third pinnacle is omitted by bypassing on the east side. While rope is a sensible option for the moderate climb up Gillean, it is not required for Knight's Peak if the correct route is taken. To reach the base of the Pinnacle Ridge a climber starts in the same place as for the route described above but instead of crossing the burn continues up hill on the right hand side until just below the start of the Basteir gorge when the stream exiting the gorge is crossed to reach the base of the lowest pinnacle.

Another alternative route of ascent or descent is the West Ridge. It leads from the summit down to a bealach separating Sgùrr nan Gillean from Am Basteir. About two-thirds of the way down, there is a particularly narrow and exposed section, which forms the remains of a large upright rock, known as the Gendarme which broke away due to the effects of frost shatter during the winter of 1986/87, leaving only the base. The narrow section can be avoided by abseiling down (or climbing up) a gully, known as Nicholson's Chimney, on the north side of the ridge.

Name and classification
In November 2013 it was found that Knight's Peak is 6+1/2 in too short to be classified as a Munro Top (a satellite peak of a Munro being over 3000 ft but without significant height drop between the two peaks) and is now considered a Corbett Top. Knight's Peak was named after W. Knight, who, with a guide, made the first recorded ascent in 1873.

title: Sgùrr nan Gillean