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Tawaif

A tawaif was a highly successful courtesan singer‚ dancer‚ and poet who catered to the nobility of the Indian subcontinent, particularly during the Mughal era. Many tawaifs (nautch girls to the British) were forced to go into prostitution due to a lack of opportunities by the time of the British Raj.

Known variously as tawaifs in North India, Baijis in Bengal and naikins in Goa these professional singers and dancers were dubbed as “nautch girl” during the British rule. Tawaifs were largely a North Indian institution central to Mughal court culture from the 16th century onwards and became even more prominent with the weakening of Mughal rule in the mid-18th century. They contributed significantly to the continuation of traditional dance and music forms. The tawaifs excelled in and contributed to music, dance (mujra), theatre, and the Urdu literary tradition, and were considered an authority on etiquette.

History
Tawaifs have existed for centuries in the Indian subcontinent, with one of the earliest references to the profession being the character Vasantasena from the 5th century BC Sanskrit drama Mṛcchakatika. In early India, Gaṇikā referred to a public dancing girl. Ganikas were trained in fine arts like dance and music in order to entertain kings, princes, and other wealthy patrons on religious and social occasions. Women competed to win the title of a Nagarvadhu. The most beautiful woman, and most talented in various dance forms, was chosen as the Nagarvadhu. For example, Amrapali is a famous Nagarvadhu or royal dancer.

It is believed in folkloric history that Urvashi was said to have been born on earth as a devadasi and imparted the divine knowledge of dance unto humans. The first dance of the devadasi took place in a temple in the presence of a king who honoured her with titles and gifts and she would be well versed in temple rituals and took part in temple festivals. Devadasis were well received across North India and modern-day Pakistan and Chinese pilgrim Huein Tsang who visited India in the 7th century testified to the large number of dancing girls in the Sun Temple of Multan. Al-Biruni in his famous study of India in the 11th century recorded that about 500 dancing girls were active in the Somnath temple.

The patronage of the Mughal court in the Doab region and the subsequent atmosphere of 16th century Awadh made arts-related careers a viable prospect. Mughal Emperor Akbar himself was enchanted by a Portuguese expert dancing girl whom he named Dilruba (heart warmer). Many girls were taken at a young age and trained in both performing arts, including mujra, Kathak, and Hindustani classical music, as well as literature, poetry (particularly ghazal), thumri, and dadra. The training of young tawaifs also encompassed Urdu writing and enunciation, as well as social skills employed in cultivating patrons and retaining them, particularly the complex etiquette associated with their craft, in which they were seen as experts.

Once a trainee had matured and possessed a sufficient command over dancing and singing, she became a tawaif, high-class dancers who served the rich and noble. Unsurprisingly then, their training in music and dance started at a very young age, under the guidance and tutelage of renowned ustaads (masters). Young girls regularly spent hours in riyaz, learning songs and dance to the exacting standards set by their teachers. The term riyaz, from Arabic, connotes abstinence, devotion, discipline and hard labour. At a mundane level, regular riyaz is necessary for a flawless performance before an audience. Many well-known tawaifs practiced and learned music throughout their careers, seeking masters from different music traditions (gharanas) to add to their performance style.

The tawaif's introduction into her profession was marked by a celebration, the so-called missī ceremony, that customarily included the inaugural blackening of her teeth.

It is also believed that young nawabs-to-be were sent to these tawaifs to learn tameez and tehzeeb which included the ability to recognise and appreciate good music and literature, perhaps even practice it, especially the art of ghazal writing. They also became teachers for the sons of wealthy and elite families, who would often send their sons to kothas so that they could learn Urdu speaking, poetry and etiquette from tawaifs. The boys would be told to sit and observe how a tawaif goes about her interactions. The Tawaif's contribution to society came from a tradition of families and enjoyed a hierarchy. The uppermost echelon of tawaifs was entrusted with the responsibility of teaching adab (etiquette) and qa'ida (manners) to the kings and young princes. They would also familiarize the royalty with the finer nuances of poetry, music, dance and literature. By the 18th century, they had become the central element of polite, refined culture in North India.

The kotha of a tawaif is a performance space and as a guardian of arts and culture, and is only open to the city's elite and wealthy patrons. In these rarified spaces, tawaifs would compose poetry, sing and dance with live musical composition, as well as performing at banquets, all of which required years of rigorous training. Tawaif is a performer who thrives on sponsorship from the royal and aristocratic families, and the dancers are responsible for performing mujra dance with good manners. True mujra dance is elegant, complex, and artistic, presented in an elegant manner. At grand occasions such as a marriage or the birth of a male heir, the tawaif is also invited to perform. In such occasions, they usually perform a mythological or legendary story, like singing. The tawaifs would dance, sing (especially ghazals), recite poetry (shairi) and entertain their suitors at mehfils.

Like the geisha tradition in Japan, their main purpose was to professionally entertain their guests, and while sex was often incidental, it was not assured contractually. High-class or the most popular tawaifs could often pick and choose among the best of their suitors. Tawaifs performed at temples during holidays and participated in temple celebrations, which had been passed down from generation to generation. They also had the tradition of performing at the Burhwa Mangal bazaar in the spring after Holi festival. Such events provided significant platform for tawaifs, not just for the patronage but also for the opportunity it offered for tawaifs to showcase their skills to general audiences and, thereby, retain societal acceptability for their trade. As a result of their popularity many dancing girls became very wealthy, according to Portuguese traveller, Domingo Paes the dancing girls were fabulously rich and Domingo was "struck by their collars of gold studded with diamonds, rubies and pearls, bracelets on their arms, girdles below and, of necessity, anklets on their feet.".

There were hierarchies among the performing artists, and the tawaifs were at the top, a class distinct from street performers and prostitutes. (A Tawaif is a dancer, not a prostitute.) Tawaif kothas, where the tawaifs often lived and performed, would host meetings of local intelligentsia, presided mostly by the most senior tawaif of the kotha. Tawaifs enjoyed influence among writers, journalists and poets. The poets longed for a tawaif to sing their works and asked the famous tawaif if she could sing his poems. In those days, having tawaif perform his own work was a way to ensure that poetry would be remembered and passed down from generation to generation. A Tawaif had an unconventional approach to relationships, where female performers were expected to remain unmarried but were permitted to have relationships with patrons. Tawaifs traditionally served loyal mistresses to wealthy patrons. Only once a relationship was terminated, either due to the death of their patron or a mutual decision to part ways, would a tawaif look to enter into another relationship.

However by the time the British Raj had annexed Punjab, the services of Tawaifs were no longer valued and even the most highly trained dancing girls were reviled as lewd by the Victorian standards of the British. Despite this, British men were happy to take local women as concubines and mistresses but were uninterested in becoming patrons of the formerly well tolerated tawaifs of Lahore, and even less interested in spending lavish sums upon them.

Some of the most prominent tawaifs in history were Anarkali, Mah Laqa Bai, Bhagmati, Lal Kunwar, Qudsia Begum, Zainabadi Mahal, Mubarak Begum and Begum Samru (who rose to rule the principality of Sardhana in western Uttar Pradesh), Moran Sarkar (who became the wife of Maharaja Ranjit Singh),Azizan Bai(female warrior),Wazeeran (patronised by Lucknow's last nawab Wajid Ali Shah), Begum Hazrat Mahal (Wajid Ali's first wife who played an important role in the Indian Rebellion), Gauhar Jaan (a notable classical singer who sang for India's first-ever record), and Zohrabai Agrewali.

A number of television and film actresses from Pakistan were tawaifs, including Niggo, Nadira, and Naina. A number of singers from Pakistan also were tawaifs, including Zeenat Begum and Tamancha Jan.

British colonial period
The annexation of Oudh by the East India Company in 1856 sounded the first death-knell for this medieval-era institution. It was soon looked down upon with disfavour by the colonial government, and the tawaifs were eventually forced to go into prostitution due to a lack of employment opportunities. Social reformers in India opposed them as social decadence. The institutions survived until India's independence in 1947. Some of the famous tawaifs include:

 * Begum Akhtar (7 October 1914 – 30 October 1974), Indian singer and actress, known as "Mallika-e-Ghazal" (Queen of Ghazals).
 * Binodini Dasi (1862–1941), Indian actress, pioneering entrepreneur of the Bengali stage.
 * Fatma Begum (1892–1983), Indian actress, director and screenwriter.
 * Husna Bai, thumri singer.
 * Jaddanbai (1892–1949), Indian master music composer, singer, actress, and film maker.
 * Rattan Bai (15 July 1890 – 1 January 1986), Indian actress and singer.
 * Kajjanbai (15 February 1915 – December 1945) Indian singer and actress, often referred to as the "Nightingale of Bengal".
 * Malika Pukhraj (1912 – 2004), Pakistani ghazal and folk singer.
 * Malka Jaan, and daughter Gauhar Jaan (1873–1930), who created the first Indian song recording in 1902.
 * Mukhtar Begum (12 July 1901 – 25 February 1982), Pakistani classical, ghazal singer and actress. She was known as The Queen of Music for singing songs in films and on radio.
 * Rasoolan Bai (1902 – 15 December 1974), Indian Hindustani classical music vocal musician.
 * Roshan Ara Begum (1917 – 6 December 1982), vocalist belonging to the Kirana gharana of Hindustani classical music. She is also known by her honorific title Malika-e-Mauseeqi (The Queen of Music) in both Pakistan and India.
 * Shobha Gurtu (1925–2004), Indian singer in the light Hindustani classical style, known as The Thumri Queen.
 * Zareena Begum of Lucknow (1947 – 12 May 2018),Indian classical singer.
 * Zohrabai(1868-1913), Hindustani classical singer of the Agra gharana.
 * Zeenat Begum (11 November 1931 – 11 December 2007), Pakistani singer, known as "The Queen of Yesteryear" for singing songs in films and on radio.
 * Tamancha Jan (10 July 1918 – 20 October 2008), Pakistani folk singer, known as "The Singing Siren" and "The Nightingale of Lahore".

The tawaifs had actively participated in anti-British actions behind the scenes. Their buildings, known as "kothas", became meeting areas and hiding places for anti-British elements. Those tawaifs who accumulated wealth provided financial support to anti-British elements. Some tawaifs suffered retaliation from colonial authorities. Their kotha was searched and their belongings confiscated.The Victorian-era morality project, which placed a premium on women’s chastity and domesticity.As public performers, tawaifs were equated with prostitutes and their kothas were branded as brothels. Mujra dance originally did not refer to vulgar dance, but an elegant and ceremonial dance, usually performed by tawaif. During the British colonial period, some tawaifs became prostitute. The distinction between prostitutes and tawaifs began to blur. Some prostitutes also called their erotic dances mujra dance. Mujra dance gradually became associated with sex and prostitution. They used to be the only source of popular music and dance and were often invited to perform on weddings and other occasions. Some of them became concubines and wives of maharajas and wealthy individuals. They were the first singers to record on gramophone with the emergence of that new technology. With the emergence of movies, however, they lost popularity. With their traditional spaces and modes of music rehearsal under attack, many tawaifs found space as performers in the newly emerging industries of mass entertainment, such as the gramophone, theatre and later films. The earliest singers to record for the gramophone, in the early 20th century, came from tawaif backgrounds, as did the first actresses of Parsi theatre and, later, the ‘talkies’, films with sound. A majority of tawaifs could not make this transition, however, and continued to perform within their kothas to a dwindling group of patrons.

Decline
After the British colonization, although more brothels and prostitutes were operating in Heera Mandi, there were still tawaif performing activities in the area, Heera Mandi retained its reputation as a centre of the performing arts. After the partition, young and attractive tawaifs from Heera Mandi became the first choice of Pakistan filmmakers. Tawaifs from Heera Mandi joined the Lollywood industry and gained much fame and wealth. Some of the most skilled tawaifs performed as backup dancers in early Pakistan films. In heeramandi and surrounding areas, there were many dance classrooms and music classrooms, which were closed as the tawaifs and musicians left.

With the development of time, the tawaif in India has gradually disappeared. In the 1980s, when kothas were no longer recognized as centres for aesthetics, and society disapproved of the tawaif’s art, as they felt it was sex work in the guise of adakari (performance). It was an era when tawaifs had to dodge guns, goons and Ghalib’s ghazals.The tawaifs who are still performing no longer have the same literary education as before, but they are not sex workers, "a courtesan is no less than a circus performer, balancing a bottle on her head". They are all trained in Kathak, to regale the men who visit them in the evenings. Another skill they are expected to master is singing. Ghazals, hori and thumris, they know it all to the best of their ability. But just enough to earn a livelihood. In addition to performing at kotha, tawaifs also performed during weddings at home, celebrations of child birth and other festivities, provided the entertainment of singing and dancing. The 1993 Bow Bazaar bomb blast in Calcutta brought an end to the kothas in the busy commercial district. As dance bars and disco music replaced mujras, kathak and thumri, the tawaifs abandoned the profession.

The Courtesan Project
Indian artist and Kathak dancer Manjari Chaturvedi founded "The Courtesan Project",dedicated to work towards removing social stigmas associated with tawaifs and thereby giving them much deserved respect and place as artists par excellence.

Manjari Chaturvedi performed with Zareena Begum, on her traditional Tawaif songs that she sang live in 1999.

In 2009, Manjari Chaturvedi directed & performed in “Nazo - An Ode to the Courtesan” at Kamani Auditorium, New Delhi. She presented old traditional compositions of Tawaifs and Mirasins, that were sung by Zareena Begum of Nanpara, Radhika Chopra of Delhi and Nurul Hasan Of Bilhera. This became the start of The Courtesan Project.

In 2014, Manjari Chaturvedi fulfilled Zareena Begum's final wish of singing in a mehfil by organizing a program called "The Last Song of Awadh." Manjari had been supporting Zareena, who was old, paralyzed, and frail, for many years. Manjari recognized the stigma attached to courtesans and tawaifs, so she held an academic discussion on their performance art during the program.

In 2019,Manjari Chaturvedi curated a comprehensive about tawaif seminar featuring films, talks, discussions, and performances, which took place in both Delhi and Mumbai.

Manjari Chaturvedi continues to speak and perform the art of tawaif at every platform till date. In year 2020 a session was held at Algebra as “Subversive Ustads” the riveting, un charted history of India’s Courtesan or Tawaif. And why they were the true radicals of their time.Manjari seeks to chronicle the historically remarkable role of the ‘tawaif’ ( women performers) in artistic life: as muse to poets and painters, writers and kings, musicians and leaders. And in so doing, she seeks to claim for these maligned women the reverence due to them for their learning and their performance art. Manjari Chaturvedi performs mujra dance of tawaif on stage to restore the true form of mujra.At the core of the Courtesan Project, Chaturvedi’s primary mission is to redefine three significant terms: “tawaif,” “mujra” (an Indigenous dance form in India), and “kotha”. Chaturvedi contends that these words have been misappropriated as derogatory labels, despite their historical association with an esteemed art form. At the same time, Manjari Chaturvedi also pointed out that historically tawaif performed kathak, and tawaif participated in the performance of kathak, one of the classical Indian dances.

Tawaif and Kotha roam activities
"Tawaifs & Kothas" cultural tour initiated by "Enroute Indian History".Explore the lives of the tawaifs or dancing girls on a heritage walk through the streets of Shahjahanabad with Enroute Indian History.

In films
The image of the tawaif has had an enduring appeal, immortalized in Bollywood and Lollywood movies and Pakistani dramas. Films with a tawaif as a character include:

 * Devdas (1935)
 * Devdas (1936)
 * Devdas (1937)
 * Anhonee (1952)
 * Anarkali (1953)
 * Devadasu (1953)
 * Chandni Chowk (1954)
 * Mirza Ghalib (1954)
 * Devdas (1955)
 * Anarkali (1955)
 * Mehndi (1958)
 * Zindagi Ya Toofan (1958)
 * Jalsaghar (1958)
 * Mughal-E-Azam (1960)
 * Ghalib (1961)
 * Sahib Bibi Aur Ghulam (1962)
 * Uttar Falguni (1963)
 * Mujhe Jeene Do (1963)
 * Benazir (1964)
 * Devdas (1965)
 * Kaajal (1965)
 * Mamta (1966)
 * Teesri Kasam (1966)
 * Anarkali (1966)
 * Bahu Begum (1967)
 * Mere Huzoor(1968)
 * Sunghursh (1968)
 * Kaviya Thalaivi (1970)
 * Sharafat (1970)
 * Anjuman (1970)
 * Aansoo Aur Muskan (1970)
 * Insaan Aur Aadmi (1970)
 * Khilona (1970)
 * Pakeezah (1972)
 * Umrao Jaan Ada (1972)
 * Gomti Ke Kinare (1972)
 * Amar Prem (1972)
 * Dharma (1973)
 * Pran Jaye Par Vachan Na Jaye (1974)
 * Devadasu(1974)
 * Sharafat Chhod Di Maine (1976)
 * Harmonium (1976)
 * Surraya Bhopali (1976)
 * Shatranj Ke Khilari (1977)
 * Kasme Vaade (1978)
 * Muqaddar Ka Sikandar (1978)
 * Devadasu Malli Puttadu (1978)
 * Suhaag (1979)
 * Pakeeza (1979)
 * Umrao Jaan (1981)
 * Daasi (1981)
 * Deedaar-e-Yaar (1982)
 * Prem Tapasya (1983)
 * Ghungroo (1983)
 * Maati Maangey Khoon (1984)
 * Tawaif (1985)
 * Angaaray (1986)
 * Maa Beti(1986)
 * Bazar-e-Husn(1988)
 * Pati Patni Aur Tawaif (1990)
 * Dil Aashna Hai (1992)
 * Sardari begum (1996)
 * Devdas (2002)
 * Mangal Pandey: The Rising (2005)
 * Kisna: The Warrior Poet (2005)
 * Bhagmati (2005)
 * Umrao Jaan (2006)
 * Yatra (2006)
 * Devdas (2010)
 * Dedh Ishqiya (2014)
 * Jaanisaar (2015)
 * Mah e Mir (2016)
 * Thugs Of Hindostan (2018)
 * Ek Je Chhilo Raja (2018)
 * Kalank (2019)
 * Hamidabai Ki Kothi (2019)
 * Qala (2022)
 * The Black Woman (depicts a tawaif in a supporting role, often in situations where a man in a loveless marriage goes to her.)

In documentary films

 * The Courtesans of Bombay (1983)
 * The Other Song (2009)

In Indian television

 * Umrao jaan ada (2014)
 * Lajwanti (2015)
 * Bhabiji Ghar Par Hain! (2015)
 * Dastaan-E-Mohabbat Salim Anarkali (2018)
 * A Suitable Boy (TV series) (2020)
 * Jubilee (TV series) (2023)
 * Heeramandi:The Diamond Bazaar (2024)

In Pakistani television

 * Chand Grehan (1995), drama on STN
 * Red Card (1995), drama on STN
 * Samandar Hai Darmiyan (1998)
 * Ghulam Gardish (1998)
 * Umrao Jaan Ada (2003)
 * Aatish (2004), PTV drama
 * Adhoray Khawab (2004)
 * Bazar (2004), PTV telefilm based on story by Saadat Hasan Manto
 * Kaantay (2004), PTV drama
 * Bheegi Palkain (2005)
 * Makan Aka Home a Heaven (2006)
 * Bhool (2006), PTV drama
 * Sitam (2006), PTV drama
 * Jhumka Jaan (2007)
 * Mere Humnasheen (2009), a television film
 * Saza Aur Jaza (2010), PTV drama
 * Chand Chehra (2013)
 * Anjuman (2013), a television film
 * Mein Sitara (2016)
 * Alif Allah Aur Insaan (2017)
 * Kahan Ho Tum(2018)
 * Alif (2019)
 * Deewar-e-Shab (2019)
 * Raqs e Bismil (2020)
 * Khuda Aur Mohabbat (2021)
 * Badzaat (2022)
 * Dil Awaiz (2022)
 * Nauroz (2023)

In literature

 * Tawaifnama by Saba Dewan
 * Mera Naam Gauhar Jaan Hai by Vikram Sampath
 * TABOO: The Hidden Culture of a Red Light District by Fouzia Saeed
 * Umrao Jaan Ada novel by Mirza Hadi Ruswa
 * Nashtar novel by Hasan Shah
 * Bazar story by Saadat Hasan Manto
 * The Last Courtesan by Manish Gaekwad
 * Song Sung True by Malika Pukhraj
 * Akhtari : The Life and Music of Begum Akhtar by Yatindra Mishra, Maneesha Taneja
 * Nautch Girls of India by Pran Nevile
 * ''The Unsung Martyred Tawayafs by Dr. K.S. Bhardwaj
 * ''Dance to Freedom by A.K. Gandhi

title: Tawaif


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Random encounter

A random encounter is a feature commonly used in various role-playing games whereby combat encounters with non-player character (NPC) enemies or other dangers occur sporadically and at random, usually without the enemy being physically detected beforehand. In general, random encounters are used to simulate the challenges associated with being in a hazardous environment—such as a monster-infested wilderness or dungeon—with uncertain frequency of occurrence and makeup (as opposed to a "placed" encounter). Frequent random encounters are common in Japanese role-playing games like Dragon Quest, Pokémon, and the Final Fantasy series.

Role-playing games
Random encounters—sometimes called wandering monsters—were a feature of Dungeons & Dragons from its beginnings in the 1970s, and persist in that game and its offshoots to this day. Random encounters are usually determined by the gamemaster by rolling dice against a random encounter table. The tables are usually based on terrain (and/or time/weather), and have a chance for differing encounters with different numbers or types of creatures. The results may be modified by other tables, such as whether the encounter is friendly, neutral or hostile. GMs are often encouraged to make their own tables. Specific adventures often have specific tables for locations, like a temple's hallways.

Wandering monsters are often used to wear down player characters and force them to use up consumable resources, such as hit points, magic spells and healing potions, as a way of punishing them for spending too much time in a dangerous area.

Video games
Random encounters were incorporated into early role-playing video games and have been common throughout the genre. Placed and random encounters were both used in 1981s Wizardry and by the mid-1980s, random encounters made up the bulk of battles in genre-defining games such as Dragon Warrior, Final Fantasy, and The Bard's Tale. Random encounters happen when the player is traversing the game world (often through the use of a "world map" or overworld). Most often, the player encounters enemies to battle, but occasionally friendly or neutral characters can appear, with whom the player might interact differently than with enemies. Random encounters are random in the respect that players cannot anticipate the exact moment of encounter or what will be encountered, as the occurrence of the event is based on factors such as programmed probabilities; Pseudo-random number generators create the sequence of numbers used to determine if an encounter will happen. The form and frequency can vary depending on a number of factors, such as where the player is located in the game world and the statistics of the player character. In some games, items can be found to increase or decrease the frequency of random encounters, even to eliminate them outright, or increase the odds of having a particular encounter.

Random encounters often occur more frequently in dungeons, caves, forests, deserts, and swamps than in open plains. The simplest sort of random encounter algorithm would be as follows:

 * 1) Each step, set X to a random integer between 0 and 99.
 * 2) If in plains, and X < 8, a random encounter occurs.
 * 3) If in swamp, desert, or forest, and X < 16, a random encounter occurs.

The problem with this algorithm is that random encounters occur "too" randomly for the tastes of most players, as there will be "droughts" and "floods" in their distribution. Random encounters in rapid succession are considered undesirable as they lead to the player's perception of getting "bogged down", but with the simple algorithm, it is possible to have an encounter from taking only one step after an encounter. The early games in the Dragon Quest series, for example, allow random encounters to occur one step after the other. A more elaborate random encounter algorithm (and similar to those used in many games) would be the following:

 * 1) Set X to a random integer between 64 and 255.
 * 2) For each step in plains, decrement X by 4. For each step in forest, swamp, or desert, decrement X by 8.
 * 3) When X < 0, a fight ensues. Go to step 1.

This ensures that, in any terrain, the player will not experience more than one random encounter every eight steps. A game with this type of system can sometimes be taken advantage of by initiating some action that will reset the counter (pausing, opening a menu, saving), especially when using an emulator. This is a popular trick in speedruns to skip time-consuming or dangerous battles or it can be used to ensure that each battle results in a rare or valuable encounter.

Random encounters have become less popular in video games with the passage of time, as gamers often complain that they are annoying, repetitive or discouraging to exploration. The Final Fantasy and Tales series have abandoned random encounter systems with successive games, while relatively newer franchises such as the Chrono series and Kingdom Hearts have never used them.

A more commonly used tactic in later RPGs (used in Final Fantasy XII, Radiata Stories, Fallout and Fallout 2 (although the Fallout games have unlimited random encounters on the world map)), like Legend of Legaia and all Kingdom Hearts games have a finite number of enemies in a given area. This cuts down on grinding and does not discourage exploration to the same extent. A similar approach is spawning, where visible monsters always (re)appear at the same location, as seen in Chrono Trigger and most of Dragon Quest IX. Both approaches give players the opportunity to anticipate, evade, or select encounters.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Random encounter


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Maputo River

The Maputo River (Portuguese Rio Maputo), also called Great Usutu River, Lusutfu River, or Suthu River, is a river in South Africa, Eswatini, and Mozambique. The name Suthu refers to Basotho people who lived near the source of the river, but were attacked and displaced by Swazis. It is also said to mean 'dark brown', a description of the river's muddy water.

Course
The river rises near Amsterdam, Mpumalanga, South Africa, and flows easterly through Eswatini, where it enters the Lebombo Mountains. The 13 km gorge forms the boundary between Eswatini and South Africa. For approximately twenty kilometres, it forms the border between South Africa (province of KwaZulu-Natal) and Mozambique. There, in the Ndumo Game Reserve, it absorbs its largest tributary, the Pongola River. It then meanders through the Mozambican coastal plain and empties into southern Maputo Bay, some 85 kilometres downstream.

In Eswatini, the river is called the Great Usutu or Lusutfu and flows through the towns of Bhunya, Luyengo, Siphofaneni, and Big Bend. The town of Big Bend is near a point in which the river meanders abruptly. The Great Usutu is the largest river in Eswatini, it is the site of Eswatini's lowest point (21 m above sea level), and is known for whitewater rafting. No large towns have been able to form along its banks because of deep narrow valleys and dense forests. It is, however, home to some golf courses, hotels, and nature reserves.

Tributaries
From the origin to its mouth, in order, tributaries are the: Sihanahana, Bonnie Brook, Mpuluzi, Buhlungu, Umvenvane, Lusushwana, Sidvokodvo, Mkhondvo, Mhlamani, Mzimneni, Mzimphofu, Mhlathuzane, Mtsindzekwa, Nyetane, Funuane, and the Pongola Rivers.

Dams on this river

 * Westoe Dam
 * Lubovane Dam

title: Maputo River


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Preparedness Movement

The Preparedness Movement was a campaign led by former Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, Leonard Wood, and former President Theodore Roosevelt to strengthen the U.S. military after the outbreak of World War I. Wood advocated a summer training school for reserve officers to be held in Plattsburgh, New York.

The movement was at first opposed by President Woodrow Wilson, who believed the United States should be in a position of neutrality in order to broker a compromise peace in Europe. Several organizations were formed around the Preparedness Movement and held parades and organized opposition to Wilson's policies. After the Lusitania was sunk by German U-boats on May 7, 1915, and Pancho Villa launched his raid against Columbus, New Mexico, Wilson's attitude changed. The United States Congress passed the National Defense Act of 1916 in June 1916 to authorize an increase in the size of the U.S. Army from 100,000 men in 1916 to 200,000 on active duty and 400,000 in the U.S. National Guard, by 1921. It also padded a large long-term increase in the U.S. Navy.

The movement

In 1915, a strong "preparedness" movement emerged. It argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that the United States would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), ex-president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind the preparedness movement, along with many of the nation's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. There emerged an "Atlanticist" foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper-class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeastern US, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism.

A representative leader was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported US intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo-American cooperation would be the guiding principle of post-war international organization.

The preparedness movement had a "realistic" philosophy of world affairs—it believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self-determination. Emphasizing the weak state of national defenses, the movement showed that America's 100,000-man army, even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by the German Army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training", i.e. conscription. Preparedness backers proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily serve as a training agency.

This proposal ultimately failed, but it fostered the Plattsburg Movement, a series of summer training camps that in 1915 and 1916 hosted some 40,000 men largely of elite social classes, and the later Citizens' Military Training Camps that trained some 400,000 men from 1921 to 1940.

Opposition
The Socialist Party was a bulwark of opposition to the preparedness movement. Antimilitarists and pacifists—strong in Protestant churches and women's groups—protested the plan would make the United States resemble Germany, which required two years' compulsory military service from every male citizen.

Another source of criticism of the Preparedness Movement and particularly its demands for "100% Americanism" came, quite understandably, from those increasingly dubbed Hyphenated Americans; America's enormous number of White ethnic immigrants and their descendants. Criticism from White ethnic circles occasionally argued that "100% Americanism" really meant Anglophilia, as particularly demonstrated by escalating demands for both the "Special Relationship" and for tolerating only the English language in the United States. In a letter published on 16 July 1916 in the Minneapolis Journal, Edward Goldbeck, a member of Minnesota's traditionally very large German-American community, announced that his people would, "abandon the hyphen", as soon as English-Americans did so. Meanwhile, Goldbeck argued, "Let the exodus of Anglo-Americans start at once! Let all those people go who think that America is a new England!"

Furthermore, in June 1917, anti-war essayist Randolph Bourne also raised the possibility that the Preparedness Movement may have been one of the multiple covert operations used by both French and British Intelligence propagandists in order to bring America into the war against the Central Powers, "The nerve of the war feeling centered ... In the richer and older classes of the Atlantic seaboard, and was keenest where there were French or English business and particularly social connections. The sentiment then spread out across the country as a class-phenonemon, touching everywhere those upper-class elements in each section who identified themselves with this Eastern ruling group... In every community, it was the least liberal and least democratic elements among whom the Preparedness and later the war sentiment was found."

While defenders of the Movement retorted that military "service" was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism." Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better-paid work force. The hostility to military service was so strong at the time it is difficult to imagine such a program winning approval; indeed, even in World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated. Underscoring its commitment, the preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps (at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites) where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps.

Suggestions by labor unions that talented working-class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle class leadership of most of small town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The National Guard was one of the nation's few institutions that (at least in some northern states) accepted African-Americans on an equal footing with whites.

Democrats
The Democratic Party saw the preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation's military was in excellent shape. Wilson had to resist the demands for preparedness because there was a powerful anti-preparedness element of the party, led by William Jennings Bryan, women, Protestant churches, the American Federation of Labor, and Southern Democrats such as Claude Kitchin, chairman of the powerful House Ways and Means Committee. John Morton Blum, a biographer of Wilson, wrote: "Wilson's long silence about preparedness had permitted such a spread and such a hardening of antipreparedness attitudes within his party and across the nation that when he came in at late last to his task, neither Congress nor the country was amenable to much persuasion."

In July 1915, Wilson instructed the Army and Navy to formulate plans for expansion. In November, he asked for far less than the experts said was needed, seeking an army of 400,000 volunteers at a time when European armies were 10 times as large. Congress ignored the proposal and the Army remained at 100,000 soldiers. Wilson was severely handicapped by the weaknesses of his cabinet. According to Blum, his Secretaries of the Navy and War displayed a "confusion, inattention to industrial preparation, and excessive deference to peacetime mores [that] dangerously retarded the development of the armed services." Even more, Wilson was constrained by the traditional American non-interventionism. Wilson believed that a massive military mobilization could only take place after a declaration of war, even though that meant a long delay in sending troops to Europe. Many Democrats felt that no American soldiers would be needed, only American money and munitions. Wilson had more success in his request for a dramatic expansion of the Navy. Congress passed the Naval Act of 1916, which encapsulated the planning by the Navy's professional officers to build a fleet of top-rank status, but it would take several years to become operational.

Wilson's program
Wilson, less fearful of the navy, embraced a long-term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the Royal Navy by the mid-1920s. "Realism" was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none—that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored. The Administration's proposals touched off a firestorm of antiwar protest. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserves and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J. P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics such as Wisconsin's Republican Senator La Follette blasted them, saying there was an unnamed "world-wide organization" that was "stimulating and fomenting discord in order that it may make profit out of the furnishing of munitions of war." The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan, speaking for the antiwar Democrats.

Garrison's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors.

Peace leaders
Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan, president of Stanford University, redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against Wilson because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste." Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee.

Wilson appeals to the people
Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warm-up for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness. (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles.")

Compromise reached
Congress reached a compromise in May 1916. The army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserves, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburgh model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. The United States would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained: "Both sides [Britain and Germany] treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly." The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy" plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The Battle of Jutland (May 31/June 1, 1916) saw the German fleet nearly sunk by the stronger British fleet. Only brilliant seamanship and luck allowed it to escape. Arguing this battle proved the validity of Mahanian doctrine, the navalists took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three-year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor-plate factory. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led Berlin to make war on the U.S. in 1917. The very weakness of U.S. military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with the United States, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious.

title: Preparedness Movement


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John Guy (colonial administrator)

John Guy (25 December 1568 – February 1629) was an English merchant adventurer, colonist and politician who sat in the House of Commons from 1621 to 1624. He was the first proprietary governor of Newfoundland Colony, the first attempt to establish a colony on Newfoundland.

Early life
Guy was the eldest son and second child of Thomas Guy, a cordwainer (shoemaker) of Bristol. He was born on 25 December 1568, and baptized a week later on 1 January 1569 at St Mary le Port Church, Bristol. He spent his youth growing up amongst his siblings, and was well educated for his times, he managed in later life to write poetry in Latin. He was apprenticed to a yeoman farmer, and on his parents' deaths, he inherited the family shoemaking business, he had various farming interests, and served as a factor representing the interests of the Bristol merchant community overseas for a period in Spain, where he mastered the art of navigation. Guy became a merchant and was admitted to the corporation of the city in 1603, as a Councillor of Bristol. He was also appointed the Sheriff of Bristol for the year 1605–06. During the emergency of 1605 when the country was threatened with invasion from overseas, he was appointed one of Rear-Admirals in the Royal Navy, as Bristol was at the time of the two main naval ports in the country. In 1607 he was also appointed Surveyor of Bristol, a post which gave him the responsibility for obtaining provisions for the naval vessels that visited the port of Bristol.

Colonist
In 1608 Guy and other members of the Society of Merchant Venturers, decided to act upon the letter received by the mayor from Chief Justice Sir John Popham concerning the colonisation of Newfoundland. Since John Cabot had discovered the island and Sir Humphrey Gilbert had formally taken possession of it for Elizabeth I of England, the merchants of the city had a special interest in Newfoundland, but there had been little attempt to exploit and colonise the island. The merchants decided not to embark on the scheme without the co-operation of King James VI of Scotland and Elizabeth I of England, which was forthcoming. Guy visited the island in 1608 to scout possible locations for a settlement, selecting Cuper's Cove (present day Cupids, Newfoundland and Labrador) as the site of the colony. In 1609, he put forward a proposal "to animate the English to plant [or colonise] in Newfoundland." The merchants of Bristol and London took up the idea with enthusiasm and a list of contributions was made out with Guy and others subscribing twenty marks a year for five years. The idea was popular with members of the court. Amongst the 50 shareholders were John Guy and his younger brother Philip Guy, in effect, Guy had the largest shareholding invested in the venture. On 27 April 1610 James I granted a charter to Henry Howard, 1st Earl of Northampton, Keeper of the Privy Seal, and others including John Guy and his brother Philip Guy, which incorporated them as the "Treasurer and Company of Adventurers and Planters of the Cities of London and Bristol, for the purpose of colonising Newfoundland, and comprehending as their sphere of action the southern and eastern parts of the new found land between 46° and 52° N. L."

Guy was appointed governor in 1610 by the London and Bristol Company and arrived at Cupers Cove in August of that year with colonists, grain and livestock, after a quick passage of 21 days. Thirty-nine colonists spent the winter of 1610–1611 in the colony. During his governorship the colonists built and fortified the settlement, explored the area and planted crops. Guy returned to England in 1611 leaving William Colston - one of his brothers-in-law, and distantly related to the family of Edward Colston, and his brother Philip to manage the colony, as the first two Lieutenant-Governors of the Colony. Back in England, he was elected to the Bristol Society of Merchant Venturers, and he was then elected as the treasurer of the merchant venturers from 1611 to 1612 and then returned the next year with more livestock and female settlers.

In 1612, the actions of the English pirate Peter Easton convinced Guy to abandon a second colony established at Renews in the spring of that year and strengthen the fortifications at Cupers Cove. At one point, Guy and three other colonists in a canoe were attacked by the pirates and captured; the colonist with the musket was injured. The pirates were discussing the best way to execute John Guy and his men when they escaped with the help of a former colonist who had decided to throw in his lot with the pirates but who remembered the help John Guy had given him in the past and wasn't prepared to stand aside whilst his former friend was possibly murdered. The colonists built a boat called the Endeavour, which Guy used to lead a voyage into Trinity Bay in the Autumn of 1612 in an attempt to contact and establish a fur trade with the Beothuk tribe of red Indians, the native inhabitants of the island. On 6 November, Guy's party met, shared a meal and exchanged gifts with a group of Beothuk somewhere in Bull Arm, Trinity Bay.

Politician
Guy returned to England in April 1613. In that same year, a cousin of the first Governor, Nicholas Guy, became the father of the first son born in Newfoundland, from whom most of the current Guys now living in Canada are descended. John Guy returned to Newfoundland in 1614-15, when he had the indignity of being sent home in irons by the second Governor of the Colony, John Mason, who didn't really want the previous Governor being around, as he felt threatened by Guy's knowledge and respect amongst the colonists. His withdrawal was also in part the result of the troubles caused by the pirates led by Peter Easton. Five years later a visitor to Newfoundland wrote that the Bristol citizens had "planted a large circuit of the country, and builded there many fine houses, and done many other good services" Guy became disillusioned due to the lack of support from the London merchants, and remained in Bristol, though he later received a grant of land in Newfoundland which he named Sea Forest, and which he divided amongst his younger sons in his will in 1624.

In 1618, Guy became Mayor of Bristol, and in 1619 he was appointed an Alderman of Bristol, a post he held until his death in 1629, and he was also a member of the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society Court of Assistants in 1620 and 1621. John Guy in his capacity as an admiral in the Royal Navy fought against Turkish pirates operating in the English Channel during 1620, for which the grateful merchants of Bristol, provided him with a sum of money as a vote of thanks for his efforts. He was elected as one of the 2 Members of Parliament for Bristol in 1620, and remained its MP until 1621. In a debate on 27 February on the scarcity of money he spoke of the abundance of English coin in foreign parts, and recommended that the exportation of money should be forbidden. He received and wrote several letters about the interests of the merchant venturers company. His fellow MP for Bristol - John Whitson, the founder of the Red Maids School, Bristol - wrote in October 1621 on the "business of Sir Ferdinando Gorges" referring to the restraint of trade with New England as a result of articles and orders of the president and council for New England, which the merchants "in noe sorte did like".

In February 1622, Guy wrote about his 'conference with the lord treasurer and others concerning the new imposition of wines and composition of grocery. He was the Master of the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society for 1622-23, during which time his eldest son-in-law was admitted to the position of Junior Warden in the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society. In 1624, he was re-elected MP for Bristol, and remained the MP for Bristol until he decided to retire from Parliament on the death of James I. Guy was actively involved in the House of Commons - sitting on Committees and introducing a private Members Bill to reduce interest rates by 2% from 10% to 8%. He was an elected as a Member of the Court of Assistants again from 1624 to 1628 for the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society.

Guy was buried in St Stephen's Church, which was known as the church for the Bristol Merchant Venturer's Society. The register books of the church show that his burial took place on 23 February 1629. The will of his son John (who died in 1640, from the plague which he caught whilst studying at the Middle Temple) calls for the erection of a monument for his father in St Stephen's Church. There is no monument to John Guy anywhere in Bristol, but his name is recorded in the list of mayors of Bristol in the Bristol City Council House for the year 1618. John Guy's widow Ann survived him until 1660, by which time she had outlived all but 2 of their 10 children (five sons and five daughters) -- their eldest daughter and youngest son still remaining alive.

Legacy
Archaeological excavations indicate that Cupers Cove continued to be occupied throughout the 17th century, and was never abandoned. Today the town of Cupids has a population of about 800.

title: John Guy (colonial administrator)


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Fist of the North Star

Fist of the North Star (北斗の拳) is a Japanese manga series written by Buronson and illustrated by Tetsuo Hara. It was serialized in Shueisha's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump for 245 issues published from 1983 to 1988 and initially collected in 27  volumes under the Jump Comics imprint. Set on a post-apocalyptic Earth after a nuclear war, the story centers on a warrior named Kenshiro, the successor of a deadly martial art known as Hokuto Shinken, which gives him the ability to kill his opponents by striking their secret vital points, which often results in an exceptionally violent and gory death. Kenshiro dedicates his life to fighting against the various gangs, bandits, and warlords who threaten the lives of the defenseless and innocent, as well as rival martial artists.

Fist of the North Star was adapted into two anime television series produced by Toei Animation, which together aired on Fuji TV and its affiliates from 1984 through 1988, comprising a combined total of 152 episodes. It has since expanded into a media franchise, including several anime films, a live-action film, original video animations (OVAs), video games, and a series of spin-offs centering on other characters from the original story. It also has a number of video games and pachinko machines produced by Sega Sammy. A new anime adaptation was announced in September 2023.

English adaptations of the manga were published by Viz Communications as a monthly comic book, and later by Gutsoon! Entertainment as a series of colorized graphic novels, although neither translation was completed. In October 2020, Viz Media announced that they published the title as a series hardcover editions starting in June 2021. English adaptations of other Fist of the North Star media have been licensed to other companies, including the TV series and the 1986 film.

The manga has sold over 100 million copies, making it one of the best-selling manga series of all time. The series is considered as one of the most influential manga series of all time.

Plot
A worldwide nuclear war sometime in the 1990s has resulted in the destruction of most of civilization, turning the world into a desert wasteland. The remnants of mankind fight over whatever supply of food and uncontaminated water still remaining as the strong prey on the weak. Kenshiro is the successor to Hokuto Shinken, an ancient martial art of assassination that trains its practitioners to kill from within an opponent's body through the use of hidden meridian points. Kenshiro wishes to live his life in peace, but after he is separated from his fiancée Yuria by a jealous rival, he begins his journey to become the savior of the post-apocalyptic world, defending the weak and innocent from the many gangs and organizations that threaten their survival. Along the way, Kenshiro meets a young thief named Bat and an orphaned girl named Lin, who join him as his traveling companions and bear witnesses to Ken's many battles.

Kenshiro's many rivals and allies include the six grandmasters of Nanto Seiken, a rival assassin's art that split into two factions after the nuclear war, as well as his own "Brothers of Hokuto" who trained alongside him for the succession of Hokuto Shinken. Kenshiro's ultimate nemesis is his eldest brother-in-training Raoh, a warrior who broke the law of Hokuto Shinken by refusing to allow his fists to be "sealed", killing his master Ryuken and refusing to surrender the succession to Kenshiro. Raoh seeks to conquer the post-apocalyptic world as a warlord under the mantle of Ken-oh, the King of the Fist, by challenging every martial artist he sees as a threat. After a long series of battles, Kenshiro emerges victorious over Raoh, who dies peacefully, and peace arrives in the post-apocalyptic world, concluding the first half of the story.

The second half begins several years later after a tyrannical empire under the name of the Celestial Empress has risen to power, oppressing anyone who dares to oppose them. Kenshiro returns from seclusion, joining the now-grown Bat and Lin under the banner of the Hokuto Army. As they fight their way into the Empire's capital city, they discover that the Empire has been taken over by the Viceroy Jakoh, a usurper who is keeping the real Celestial Empress captive in his dungeon. The Hokuto Army free the Empress and Jakoh is vanquished shortly afterwards.

However, Lin is taken captive by the remnants of Jakoh's forces and is sent off to the mysterious Kingdom of Shura, a brutal land of warriors ruled by three overlords who have all mastered the ways of Hokuto Ryūken, a martial art which branched off from the same clan alongside Hokuto Shinken into the ways of darkness. Kaioh, the head of the three overlords, plans to conquer the post-apocalyptic world in the name of evil by wiping out the followers of Hokuto Shinken. Kenshiro uncovers the sealed testament of the Hokuto Shinken founder, Shuken, which holds the secret to overcoming Kaioh's ultimate technique. Kenshiro emerges victorious over Kaioh and rescues Lin, leaving her under Bat's care. During the final chapters, Kenshiro goes on a journey with Raoh's orphaned son Ryu, in order to lead him on the path to become the next Hokuto Shinken successor, encountering and battling various opponents along the way, before returning to Bat and Lin to protect them from a past enemy.

Production

In 1982, 21-year-old manga artist Tetsuo Hara was struggling with his career. His first serialized manga for Jump, the motocross racing-themed Iron Don Quijote, was discontinued with only 10 issues. A fan of Chinese martial artist and actor Bruce Lee and Japanese action film actor Yūsaku Matsuda as a teenager in the 1970s, he often drew versions of them from memory. Hara had previously pitched the idea of a martial arts manga with a protagonist that combined the appearances and character traits of the two actors to his editor Nobuhiko Horie. But Horie instead convinced Hara to create Iron Don Quijote. Now revisiting the martial arts theme, the two realized they needed a secret signature technique, but were at a loss for ideas until Horie browsed a used Chinese book store on Suzuran Street in Jinbōchō, Tokyo. He found an anecdote of a medical student in China, who, after overstimulating an acupressure point in order to help an eye issue, had instead made the condition worse. Horie believed that destroying bodies by attacking pressure points was perfect for a manga, as it allowed someone small to take out a much bigger opponent. He derived the manga's title and the name of the technique from a Chinese constellation myth that features two sages, Hokuto and Nanto, the gods of death and life respectively. The editor pictured the manga's protagonist, Kenshiro, as the son of Hokuto.

A prototype version of Fist of the North Star was published as a one-shot story in the April 1983 issue of Fresh Jump. It was chosen by readers as the best story in the magazine and featured many of the elements that would later appear in the serialized version, including Kenshiro's signature phrase; "You are already dead!". It was followed by Fist of the North Star II, a second one-shot published in the June 1983 issue. Both stories were later collected in the second volume of Iron Don Quijote (although the expanded 1995 editions moves the first part of the Fist of the North Star pilot to the first volume, leaving the second volume with just the second pilot).

The serialized version of Fist of the North Star began in Weekly Shōnen Jump on September 13, 1983. Manga author Buronson was assigned to work with Hara as writer of the series. He was given the job after Weekly Shōnen Jump could not come to an agreement with Horie's first choice. Buronson liked Hara's one-shot version, but insisted a modern-day setting would not work with a martial arts story, so they went with a futuristic one due to the then-popularity of the Mad Max film series. The storyline was revamped, with the 1980s present-day setting of the original version replaced by a post-apocalyptic future world, and the protagonist Kenshiro, originally a teenager framed for a murder he did not commit in Hara's prototype story, became an older and more stoic hero with a tragic past. For the new setting, Hara drew inspiration from the post-apocalyptic film Mad Max 2 (1981), the cyberpunk film Blade Runner (1982), Katsuhiro Otomo's post-apocalyptic Japanese cyberpunk manga Akira (1982), and the illustrations of artists Syd Mead and Frank Frazetta. Go Nagai's manga series Violence Jack (1973 debut), which similarly had a post-apocalyptic desert wasteland setting with biker gangs, anarchic violence, ruined buildings, innocent civilians, tribal chiefs and small abandoned villages, might have been another influence; it has been argued that Mad Max itself may have been influenced by Violence Jack.

Buronson was astonished by how good Hara's art was from the first chapter. He had asked the artist to give Kenshiro seven scars in the shape of the Big Dipper for no reason other than their cool aesthetic. But when they then began thinking of Kenshiro's backstory and the reason he wanders the wasteland, Buronson devised that they came from the guy who stole the woman he loved. The story to Fist of the North Star was planned only two or three chapters in advance, with Horie keeping an eye on the reader feedback. Buronson added three older brothers for Kenshiro. With Jagi representing cruelty, he made Raoh the strongest because he is the oldest, and made Toki the opposite of Raoh; a weak and compassionate man who uses his skills to heal. Buronson had previously looked at writing manga as only a way to make ends meet, but Fist of the North Star changed that. Before serialization began, he had taken a trip to Cambodia, where the genocidal regime of Pol Pot had recently fallen. Impacted by the human remains he saw piled up everywhere, it influenced his characters and the dialogue he wrote for them; the latter becoming a signature of the series. Hara was inspired by the Ultraman and Tiger Mask series to create interesting enemy designs. Fist of the North Star is known for the unique death cries shouted by enemies as they die, such as "Abeshi", "Hidebu", and "Tawaba". These were coined by Hara, who, with complete freedom to draw the action scenes, explained that he used them in order to try to add a bit of comedy to make the death scenes easier to digest. He had grown up with the strange words used in Fujio Akatsuka's manga, but the copy-editors of Fist of the North Star would often "correct" his own made-up words, which annoyed him.

Hara and Buronson did not see each other much during serialization and never had meetings directly about work. Instead, Horie acted as go-between for the two. Hara struggled to draw 20 pages a week and described being so "burned out" that he did not bathe for three or four days. He said he viewed Horie as the "devil", as the editor did not praise him and would instead hand him the script for the next chapter immediately after he completed the previous one. Similarly, Buronson said that Horie never compromises, and that he felt like hitting the editor many times. However, Hara admitted that by not praising him, Horie helped him succeed as an artist, as he is personally the type of person who needs someone to yell at him. Originally, Hara and Buronson were contracted to do Fist of the North Star for a three-year run, but due to its popularity and the publisher's demand, it was extended to a five-year run.

Manga
Fist of the North Star, written by Buronson and illustrated by Tetsuo Hara, premiered in Shueisha's manga magazine Weekly Shōnen Jump on September 13, 1983,  and was serialized until August 8, 1988, lasting 245 issues. Its chapters were collected in 27 volumes, published under Shueisha's Jump Comics imprint from March 9, 1984, to March 10, 1989. During the 1990s, Shueisha reprinted the series in a 15-volume hardcover edition from 1991 to 1992, as well as a 15-volume  edition from 1997 to 1998. The Fist of the North Star copyrights would be transferred over to Coamix, a company founded in June 2000 by Nobuhiko Horie after he left Shueisha. A 14-volume edition was published by Shogakukan in 2006, under the Big Comics Selection imprint, featuring the original water-colored artwork from the Weekly Shōnen Jump serialization, as well as almost all of the original opening pages that were omitted in earlier editions, although it lacked the added artwork featured in previous collected editions that were drawn to replace ad spaces. To celebrate the series' 30th anniversary, Tokuma Shoten re-published the series in an "Ultimate Edition", comprising eighteen volumes that were published from September 20, 2013 to July 19, 2014. This edition features new cover illustrations by Hara and include an additional chapter in the 11th volume (see below).

English translations
In 1989, Viz Communications published the first sixteen chapters of Fist of the North Star in English as an eight-issue monthly comic. These were later reprinted in a single graphic novel collection in 1995. During the same year, Viz resumed publication of the series as a monthly comic until 1997, lasting eighteen issues (adapting chapters 17–44), divided into three parts. This second run was subsequently republished in three additional graphic novel volumes titled Night of the Jackal, Southern Cross and Blood Brothers. Viz's version featured mirrored artwork with translated sound effects and other retouched details.

In 2002, a second English adaptation was published by Gutsoon! Entertainment under the title of Fist of the North Star: Master Edition, which retained the original right-to-left orientation but featured digitally colored artwork. Each volume from the fourth one and onward featured new cover illustrations by Hara that were made specifically for the Master Edition. The Master Edition ceased publication only a year after its start in 2003, lasting only nine volumes due to Gutsoon!'s withdrawal from the North American market. These colorized editions were translated back to the Japanese market, but only four volumes were published.

In 2020, Viz Media announced a print and digital publication of the manga in hardcover editions, adapted from the 2013 ultimate editions. The first volume was released on June 15, 2021.

Follow-ups and spinoffs
Fist of the Blue Sky (Sōten no Ken), a prequel to Fist of the North Star written by Nobuhiko Horie and drawn by Hara with supervision by Buronson, began publication in the premiere issue of Weekly Comic Bunch (dated May 29, 2001), a manga anthology published by Shinchosha and edited by Coamix. The title ran during the entirety of the magazine's run, initially as a regular feature and later as a semi-regular, until it ceased publication with issue #445 (dated September 10, 2010). During this period various Fist of the North Star spinoffs by different authors were also serialized in the magazine (see Hokuto Gaiden), each focusing on a different character from the original manga. The first of these, Ten no Haoh by Yowkow Osada, began publication in Comic Bunch #231 (cover dated March 24, 2006). It was followed by Sōkoku no Garō by Yasuyuki Nekoi on Comic Bunch #286 (May 11–18, 2007), Shirogane no Seija by Yuka Nagate on Comic Bunch #301 (September 7, 2007), Gokuaku no Hana by Sin-ichi Hiromoto on Comic Bunch #366 (January 16–21, 2009) and Hōkō no Kumo by Missile Kakurai on Comic Bunch #414 (January 22, 2010). Jibo no Hoshi by Akimi Kasai, a spinoff focused on Yuria was also published as a limited series on Big Comic Superior for three issues in 2006, with a second run that lasted six issues in 2007.

In 2014, Buronson and Hara reunited to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the manga by producing a special two-part story for Coamix's subsequent manga anthology Monthly Comic Zenon. Titled Hokuto no Ken: Last Piece, it is set during the timeline gap between Chapters 136 and 137 of the original manga and focuses on Kokuoh, Raoh's former steed who ends up becoming Kenshiro's. The first part was published in the May 2014 issue of Comic Zenon, and the second part in the following issue. It was later included as an extra chapter in Vol. 11 of the Ultimate Edition of the original manga. Other Hokuto no Ken titles published on Comic Zenon include DD Hokuto no Ken by Kajio, which started on the magazine's premiere issue (dated December 2010), Kin'yoku no Garuda, a side-story which started on Comic Zenon #29 (April 2013) and the currently ongoing Sōten no Ken: Regenesis, a sequel to the original Sōten no Ken manga drawn by Hideki Tsuji and written by Hiroyuki Yatsu which began serialization in Comic Zenon #85 (December 2017). Hokuto no Ken: Ichigo Aji written by Yūshi Kawata and illustrated by Yukito the Younger, began serialization in 2013 on Coamix's online manga anthology Web Comic Zenyon.

Dedicated e-reader
In 2018, a dedicated e-reader was sold which shipped with 18 volumes of Fist of the North Star, without the option of loading anything else on to it. It has two screens that fold out like a book and sold for ¥30,000 in Japan. The read-only device is called an eOneBook and is powered by removable AAA batteries.

TV series
Fist of the North Star was first adapted into an anime television series by Toei Animation. It aired on Fuji Television from October 11, 1984, to March 5, 1987, lasting 109 episodes. It was immediately followed by a sequel series, titled Fist of the North Star 2, which aired from March 13, 1987, to February 18, 1988, lasting for 43 additional episodes (a combined total of 152 episodes between both series).

The full series was never released on VHS in Japan, although three-hour-long compilation movies were produced by Toei Video covering the first, second and fourth story arcs in that order. On July 24, 2002, Universal Music released a Region 2 DVD box set containing all 152 episodes spread across 26 discs. These discs were later released as individual volumes from May 21, 2003, through January 21, 2004. Three "best of" DVD compilations were also released in 2005, each featuring seven key episodes from the series. On March 28, 2008, Avex released a 25th-anniversary edition box set featuring new video transfers of all 152 episodes remastered in high definition, once again spread across 26 discs. This set also features two additional discs of bonus content (including the aforementioned compilation movies).

This show aired with English subtitles on Nippon Golden Network in the late 1980s. The first 36 episodes of the first series were translated and dubbed by Manga Entertainment in 1999, although only 24 episodes were released on VHS (spread across eight tapes). All 36 episodes of the dub version were aired on Showtime Beyond in the United States and on Sci-Fi Channel in the United Kingdom, and were later released on DVD in 2003 (spread across six individual volumes). In 2008, the US subsidiary of Toei Animation produced an official subtitle-only translation of all 152 episodes, which were released on various paid download and streaming websites available only for North American customers. Discotek Media announced on October 2, 2009, that they have licensed the entire Fist of the North Star TV series. The first two boxsets were released in that year, and the latter two in 2011. The episodes use the same transfers from the 2008 DVD box set in Japan, although it did not contain any of the special features. The first set featured the first 36 episodes along with Manga Entertainment's English dub, and a Japanese audio option with English subtitles; these subtitles were adjusted from the translation of Toei's streaming episodes. Discotek later released all discs from all four boxsets (a total of 21 discs) together in one set, Fist of the North Star: The Series - The Complete Series Collection, on March 25, 2014. Discotek released the complete series as a standard definition Blu-ray set on October 31, 2017.

In 2009, William Winckler Productions produced six compilation movies voiced in English. The movies cover major story arcs from the TV series, each one centering on a specific character (Shin, Rei, Toki, Souzer, Raoh, and Kaioh). These compilation movies had not been officially released in North America and Europe yet but were distributed to video streaming websites in Japan in 2012.

A new anime adaptation was announced on September 13, 2023.

Films and OVAs
The first animated feature film based on the series, simply titled Fist of the North Star, was produced by Toei Animation, which premiered in Japan on March 8, 1986. Produced by the same staff and cast who worked on the TV series, the movie adapts the storyline of the manga from the beginning and up to Kenshiro's first fight with Raoh, taking several liberties with the order of events and how the story unfolds. An English-dubbed version produced by Streamline Pictures was first released in 1991 in North America and in 1994 in Europe and Australia by Manga Entertainment.

In 2003, a three-episode original video animation (OVA) mini-series titled New Fist of the North Star was produced by OB Planning, based on a 1996 Fist of the North Star novel, Jubaku no Machi. An English dub version was produced by ADV Films in 2004.

In 2005, North Stars Pictures and TMS Entertainment announced the development of a five-part film series titled Fist of the North Star: The Legends of the True Savior. The series is composed of three theatrical films and two OVAs, which were released during a three-year period between 2006 throughout 2008, culminating with the 25th anniversary of the franchise.

At the Japanese box office, Fist of the North Star (1986) grossed ¥1.8 billion and Legend of Raoh: Chapter of Death in Love (2006) grossed ¥500 million, for a combined ¥billion (US$million). Chapter of Death in Love also grossed $1,258,568 overseas, and Legend of Raoh: Chapter of Fierce Fight (2007) grossed $1,479,911 in Japan, bringing the films' total worldwide box office gross to US$million.

Novels
An original novel was written by Buronson and Tetsuo Hara titled Shōsetsu Hokuto no Ken: Jubaku no Machi which was published by Jump Novel in Japan on December 13, 1996. The novel was the basis of the later three-episode OVA series New Fist of the North Star. A novelization of the movie Legend of Raoh: Chapter of Love in Death written by Eiichi Sakaki was published by Tokuma Novels on March 10, 2006.

There have also been two cell phone novels released via the mobile site Hokuto no Ken DX. Raoh Gaiden, a novelization of the manga of the same name, and Kenshiro Gaiden, an original novel by Jotaro Higashi.

Live-action film
An American-produced live-action movie version of Fist of the North Star was released in 1995, directed by Tony Randel based on a script by Peter Atkins and Wynne McLaughlin. The movie, loosely based on the Shin storyline of the manga, stars Gary Daniels as Kenshiro, Costas Mandylor as Shin and Japanese actress Isako Washio as Yuria, with Malcolm McDowell as Ryuken and Chris Penn as "Jackal" (actually a renamed Jagi). It also featured a cameo by professional wrestler Big Van Vader as Goliath, and Kevin Arbouet as "Rao" (unrelated to the actual Raoh from the manga). The movie was released straight-to-video in the United States and Japan (though it did receive a premiere on HBO). The Japanese dubbed version used the original voice actors from the 1980s anime series.

Stage musical
A stage musical adaptation of Fist of the North Star premiered at Nissay Theatre in December 2021, with tours across Japan in 2022 and China in 2023. It is a co-production of Horipro, Hakuhodo DY Music & Pictures, and Shanghai-based theatre performance firm Ranspace, in collaboration with Coamix. The musical is directed by Sachiko Ishimaru, with script and lyrics by Ako Takahashi, music by Frank Wildhorn, and choreography by Jasmine Chiu. It features Yūsuke Ōnuki as Kenshiro, Ayaka Hirahara and May'n as Yuria, Takuya Uehara and Kandai Ueda as Shin, Kazuki Katō, Ryūnosuke Onoda, and Ryōsei Konishi as Toki, Shōichi Fukui and Masaru Nagai as Raoh, Tatsuya Kawaguchi and Hiroaki Miyakawa as Ryuken, Rena Yamazaki and Manaka Kuwabara as Rin, Ao Watanabe as Bat, Ryōsuke Miura as Rei, Kanata Irei and Rio Uehara alternating as Rei and Juza, and Miisha Shimizu as Mamiya.

Video games
Numerous video game titles based on the Fist of the North Star have been produced since the 1986 release of the Enix adventure game, simply titled Hokuto no Ken for the PC-88. The earlier games in the franchise were released by Sega for the Mark III and Mega Drive and by Toei Animation for Nintendo's Famicom, Game Boy and Super Famicom. These titles included side-scrolling action games, role-playing video games and competitive-style fighting games. The two Sega titles were stripped of the license and rebranded for the international market under the titles of Black Belt for the Master System and Last Battle for the Sega Genesis. Two Toei titles, namely Fist of the North Star (a localized version of the Famicom's Hokuto no Ken 2) for the NES released by Taxan Soft in 1989 and Fist of the North Star: 10 Big Brawls for the King of Universe for the Game Boy released by Electro Brain in 1991, had American releases with the license intact.

Further games were released for the Sega Saturn, PlayStation, PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS, among other platforms. In 2000, Konami released an arcade game based on the franchise titled Fighting Mania. Another arcade game, a 2D fighting game simply titled Fist of the North Star, was produced by Sega and Arc System Works in 2005. Both of these games saw international distributions, although the PS2 version of the fighting game was released exclusively in Japan. Tecmo Koei produced a Dynasty Warriors spin-off focusing on the events from the first half of the manga, titled Fist of the North Star: Ken's Rage, for the PlayStation 3. It which was released in Japan, North America, and Europe in 2010. A sequel, Fist of the North Star: Ken's Rage 2, expanded on the first game and incorporated the events from the second half of the manga. It was released in Japan in 2012 and in North America in 2013. In 2018, Sega released Fist of the North Star: Lost Paradise for the PlayStation 4. It was developed by Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio, and features gameplay elements and voice actors from their flagship series, Yakuza. Rather than adapting the manga like previous games, Lost Paradise tells an original story that significantly diverges from the events of the manga. A Fist of the North Star version of Fitness Boxing for Nintendo Switch was released in Japan on December 22, 2022, and was released in the West on March 2, 2023.

Reception and legacy
Fist of the North Star was one of Weekly Shōnen Jump's most popular titles during the 1980s. It is one of the best-selling manga series in history, with over 100 million copies sold worldwide (over 60 million copies in circulation in Japan). In a poll conducted by TV Asahi in 2005 where it broadcast a popularity poll based on a nationwide survey, the Fist of the North Star anime series ranked 26th in a list of Top 100 anime TV series. In a second poll in 2006 where TV Asahi published a list of Top 100 favorite anime series, it ranked 89th. In a celebrity version of the poll, the series ranked fifteenth. In November 2014, readers of Da Vinci magazine voted Fist of the North Star as the eighth Weekly Shōnen Jump's greatest manga series of all time. On TV Asahi's Manga Sōsenkyo 2021 poll, in which 150,000 people voted for their top 100 manga series, Fist of the North Star ranked 22nd.

Impact
Fist of the North Star is considered one of the most influential manga series of all time. Geek.com called it "an epochal, generation-defining work that introduced madcap ultraviolence to the page and inspired tons of other manga artists". Berserk creator Kentaro Miura named Fist of the North Star as the work that had the biggest impact on his own. Vinland Saga author Makoto Yukimura was first inspired to become a manga artist after reading the series as a boy. The city of Hokuto, Hokkaido, collaborated with the series to commemorate its 40th anniversary in 2023 by hosting exhibitions, events, and selling merchandise.

It also had an influence on video games. Technōs Japan game designer Yoshihisa Kishimoto cited it as an influence on the setting and art style of arcade beat 'em up game Double Dragon (1987), which had a disaster-ridden city inspired by both Mad Max and Fist of the North Star. It has also been credited with originating the fatality finishing move concept which later appeared in the Mortal Kombat series of fighting games.

The 1980s series was controversial in France, particularly among those who feared anime in general was corrupting French youth. Politician Ségolène Royal was among its most prominent critics, lambasting its recidivist violence in her book Le Ras-le-Bol des Bébés Zappeurs (Fed Up of Baby Channel-Zappers).

Internet memes
In the 2010s, Kenshiro's catchphrase "Omae Wa Mou Shindeiru" ("You Are Already Dead") became one of the most popular anime-based Internet memes. In September 2017, music producer deadman 死人 (Noah Ryan Murphy) released the song "Omae Wa Mou" which references the meme and samples the Japanese song "Tiny Little Adiantum" (2013) from the Touhou Project video game music album Toho Bossa Nova 2. The rapper Lil Boom produced his own version of the song called "Already Dead" three months later. In 2019, "Omae Wa Mou" went viral on TikTok and topped Spotify's Viral 50 chart, before being taken off the chart after being struck with a copyright claim.

title: Fist of the North Star


text:
Talk:Two-stage-to-orbit

Why is TSTO so special
Answering "what" is the easy part. "Why" takes actual thought.

I hope today's anonymous editor will tell why a google search for "two stage to orbit" produces 950 results, while "three stage to orbit" generates only 18. What accounts for the 50 fold difference? Why is TSTO so special? Mackerm 08:03, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Hmmm, well I finally saw this talk function, only a month later. :)

 * I think there are three main reasons why TSTO is more commonly thought about than thre stage to orbit.

 * Firstly, the logistical problems which are annoying with two stages are horrible with three. If you have a 2:1 ratio of first stage to second stage, then the first stage comes down less than 500KM downrange of the launch site; that's managable.  It also never reaches very high velocities.  With three stages, you're mostly done fighting gravity and atmosphere when the second stage ignites, so it will come down far further away, and you have to put real thought into handling the heat of re-entry.  It especially makes alternating polar and equatorial orbits extremely hard, given the same launch site.

 * Secondly, TSTO is 'good enough.' Assume we can build an SSTO with current technology - which isn't settled, but I'm prepared to believe it.  It would need to be around 10% structural mass, and would have structural tolerance margins of between 10% and 25%. Given the same technology, it's fairly trivial to handwave that you can build a TSTO which is 20% sstructural mass and has 100% margins.  100% margins are the norm in commercial aviation; you just stopped talking about a cutting edge research project and started talking about a relatively routine aviation project (well, not quite because the difference between nominal and maximum loading is different between spacecraft and aircraft, but it's roughly correct.)

 * Thirdly, three stage to orbit would also have to be called TSTO, and since aerospace engineers are only capable of thinking in anacronyms... :)

 * I'm not too sure how to put any of this onto a page, though. Jamougha

History-section
I think the history section should be removed as it is because it hase nothing to to with the topic of this article. While the 14th-century Chinese rockted was a two stage rocket, it did not archive orbit, and therefor is not a two-stage-to-orbit rocket. 78.94.53.130 (talk) 09:29, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
 * As you added this text, I would like to hear your view on whether this should stay in the article or not. 78.94.53.130 (talk) 10:56, 18 January 2018 (UTC)

What is DSTO
Used twice but not defined. D=Dual ? (to allow TSTO for Triple?) Propose changing to TSTO. - Rod57 (talk) 08:49, 16 July 2018 (UTC)

Reusable launch system
Would Falcon 9 (not Heavy, seeing heavy would be more of a 3STO) and Blue Origin be considered as (partial) Reusable TSTO? George Leung (talk) 06:24, 17 February 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Two-stage-to-orbit