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Sustainable fishery

A conventional idea of a sustainable fishery is that it is one that is harvested at a sustainable rate, where the fish population does not decline over time because of fishing practices. Sustainability in fisheries combines theoretical disciplines, such as the population dynamics of fisheries, with practical strategies, such as avoiding overfishing through techniques such as individual fishing quotas, curtailing destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for appropriate law and policy, setting up protected areas, restoring collapsed fisheries, incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystems into fishery economics, educating stakeholders and the wider public, and developing independent certification programs.

Some primary concerns around sustainability are that heavy fishing pressures, such as overexploitation and growth or recruitment overfishing, will result in the loss of significant potential yield; that stock structure will erode to the point where it loses diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations; that ecosystems and their economic infrastructures will cycle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less productive than its predecessor; and that changes will occur in the trophic balance (fishing down marine food webs).

Overview
Global wild fisheries are believed to have peaked and begun a decline, with valuable habitats, such as estuaries and coral reefs, in critical condition. Current aquaculture or farming of piscivorous fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem because farmed piscivores are fed products from wild fish, such as forage fish. Salmon farming also has major negative impacts on wild salmon. Fish that occupy the higher trophic levels are less efficient sources of food energy.

A report at the High-level Political Forum on Sustainable Development in 2021 stated that: "Sustainable fisheries accounted for approximately 0.1 per cent of global GDP in 2017".

Defining sustainability
Three ways of defining a sustainable fishery exist:
 * Long term constant yield is the idea that undisturbed nature establishes a steady state that changes little over time. Properly done, fishing at up to maximum sustainable yield allows nature to adjust to a new steady state, without compromising future harvests. However, this view is naive, because constancy is not an attribute of marine ecosystems, which dooms this approach. Stock abundance fluctuates naturally, changing the potential yield over short and long-term periods.
 * Preserving intergenerational equity acknowledges natural fluctuations and regards as unsustainable only practices which damage the genetic structure, destroy habitat, or deplete stock levels to the point where rebuilding requires more than a single generation. Providing rebuilding takes only one generation, overfishing may be economically foolish, but it is not unsustainable. This definition is widely accepted.
 * Maintaining a biological, social and economic system considers the health of the human ecosystem as well as the marine ecosystem. A fishery which rotates among multiple species can deplete individual stocks and still be sustainable so long as the ecosystem retains its intrinsic integrity. Such a definition might consider as sustainable fishing practices that lead to the reduction and possible extinction of some species.

Social sustainability
Fisheries and aquaculture are, directly or indirectly, a source of livelihood for over 500 million people, mostly in developing countries.

Social sustainability can conflict with biodiversity. A fishery is socially sustainable if the fishery ecosystem maintains the ability to deliver products the society can use. Major species shifts within the ecosystem could be acceptable as long as the flow of such products continues. Humans have been operating such regimes for thousands of years, transforming many ecosystems, depleting or driving to extinction many species.

According to Hilborn, the "loss of some species, and indeed transformation of the ecosystem is not incompatible with sustainable harvests." For example, in recent years, barndoor skates have been caught as bycatch in the western Atlantic. Their numbers have severely declined and they will probably go extinct if these catch rates continue. Even if the barndoor skate goes extinct, changing the ecosystem, there could still be sustainable fishing of other commercial species.

Environmental sustainability
The focus of sustainable fishing is often on the fish. Other factors are sometimes included in the broader question of sustainability. The use of non-renewable resources is not fully sustainable. This might include diesel fuel for the fishing ships and boats: there is even a debate about the long term sustainability of biofuels. Modern fishing nets are usually made of artificial polyamides like nylon. Synthetic braided ropes are generally made from nylon, polyester, polypropylene or high performance fibers such as ultra high modulus polyethylene (HMPE) and aramid.

Energy and resources are employed in fish processing, refrigeration, packaging, logistics, etc. The methodologies of life-cycle assessment are useful to evaluate the sustainability of components and systems. These are part of the broad question of sustainability.

Overfishing
Overfishing can be sustainable. According to Hilborn, overfishing can be "a misallocation of societies' resources", but it does not necessarily threaten conservation or sustainability".

Overfishing is traditionally defined as harvesting so many fish that the yield is less than it would be if fishing were reduced. For example, Pacific salmon are usually managed by trying to determine how many spawning salmon, called the "escapement", are needed each generation to produce the maximum harvestable surplus. The optimum escapement is that needed to reach that surplus. If the escapement is half the optimum, then normal fishing looks like overfishing. But this is still sustainable fishing, which could continue indefinitely at its reduced stock numbers and yield. There is a wide range of escapement sizes that present no threat that the stock might collapse or that the stock structure might erode.

On the other hand, overfishing can precede severe stock depletion and fishery collapse. Hilborn points out that continuing to exert fishing pressure while production decreases, stock collapses and the fishery fails, is largely "the product of institutional failure".

Today over 70% of fish species are either fully exploited, overexploited, depleted, or recovering from depletion. If overfishing does not decrease, it is predicted that stocks of all species currently commercially fished for will collapse by 2048.

A Hubbert linearization (Hubbert curve) has been applied to the whaling industry, as well as charting the price of caviar, which depends on sturgeon stocks. Another example is North Sea cod. Comparing fisheries and mineral extraction tells us that human pressure on the environment is causing a wide range of resources to go through a Hubbert depletion cycle.

Habitat modification
Nearly all the world's continental shelves, and large areas of continental slopes, underwater ridges, and seamounts, have had heavy bottom trawls and dredges repeatedly dragged over their surfaces. For fifty years, governments and organizations, such as the Asian Development Bank, have encouraged the fishing industry to develop trawler fleets. Repeated bottom trawling and dredging literally flattens diversity in the benthic habitat, radically changing the associated communities.

Changing the ecosystem balance
Since 1950, 90 percent of 25 species of big predator fish have gone.
 * How we are emptying our seas, The Sunday Times, May 10, 2009.
 * Pauly, Daniel (2004) Reconciling Fisheries with Conservation: the Challenge of Managing Aquatic Ecosystems Fourth World Fisheries Congress, Vancouver, 2004.

Climate change
Rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are radically altering aquatic ecosystems. Climate change is modifying fish distribution and the productivity of marine and freshwater species. This reduces sustainable catch levels across many habitats, puts pressure on resources needed for aquaculture, on the communities that depend on fisheries, and on the oceans' ability to capture and store carbon (biological pump). Sea level rise puts coastal fishing communities at risk, while changing rainfall patterns and water use impact on inland (freshwater) fisheries and aquaculture. As climate change causes oceans to warm up, fish are forced to move away, into cooler Northern waters. This can cause overcrowding in these areas.

Ocean pollution
A recent survey of global ocean health concluded that all parts of the ocean have been affected by human development and that 41 percent has been fouled with human polluted runoff, overfishing, and other abuses. Pollution is not easy to fix, because pollution sources are so dispersed, and are built into the economic systems we depend on.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) mapped the impacts of stressors such as climate change, pollution, exotic species, and over-exploitation of resources on the oceans. The report shows at least 75 percent of the world's key fishing grounds may be affected.

Diseases and toxins
Large predator fish can contain significant amounts of mercury, a neurotoxin which can affect fetal development, memory, mental focus, and produce tremors.

Irrigation
Lakes are dependent on the inflow of water from its drainage basin. In some areas, aggressive irrigation has caused this inflow to decrease significantly, causing water depletion and a shrinking of the lake. The most notable example is the Aral Sea, formerly among the four largest lakes in the world, now only a tenth of its former surface area.

Fisheries management
Fisheries management draws on fisheries science to enable sustainable exploitation. Modern fisheries management is often defined as mandatory rules based on concrete objectives and a mix of management techniques, enforced by a monitoring control and surveillance system.

 * Ideas and rules: Economist Paul Romer believes sustainable growth is possible providing the right ideas (technology) are combined with the right rules, rather than simply hectoring fishers. There has been no lack of innovative ideas about how to harvest fish. He characterizes failures as primarily failures to apply appropriate rules.

 * Fishing subsidies: Government subsidies influence many of the world fisheries. Operating cost subsidies allow European and Asian fishing fleets to fish in distant waters, such as West Africa. Many experts reject fishing subsidies and advocate restructuring incentives globally to help struggling fisheries recover.

 * Economics: Another focus of conservationists is on curtailing detrimental human activities by improving fisheries' market structure with techniques such as salable fishing quotas, like those set up by the Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization, or laws such as those listed below.

 * Valorization of by-catch: helping to avoid discards (and their associated adverse ecological impacts) by valorizing by-catch products, as they are good sources for protein hydrolizates, peptones, enzymatic mixtures or fish oil being these products of interest different industrial sectors.
 * Payment for Ecosystem Services: Environmental economist Essam Y Mohammed argues that by creating direct economic incentives, whereby people are able to receive payment for the services their property provides, will help to establish sustainable fisheries around the world as well as inspire conservation where it otherwise would not.
 * Sustainable fisheries certification: A promising direction is the independent certification programs for sustainable fisheries conducted by organizations such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea. These programs work at raising consumer awareness and insight into the nature of their seafood purchases.
 * Ecosystem based fisheries: See next section

Ecosystem based fisheries
According to marine ecologist Chris Frid, the fishing industry points to marine pollution and global warming as the causes of recent, unprecedented declines in fish populations. Frid counters that overfishing has also altered the way the ecosystem works: "Everybody would like to see the rebuilding of fish stocks and this can only be achieved if we understand all of the influences, human and natural, on fish dynamics. ... fish communities can be altered in a number of ways, for example they can decrease if particular-sized individuals of a species are targeted, as this affects predator and prey dynamics. Fishing, however, is not the sole cause of changes to marine life—pollution is another example.... No one factor operates in isolation and components of the ecosystem respond differently to each individual factor."The traditional approach to fisheries science and management has been to focus on a single species. This can be contrasted with the ecosystem-based approach. Ecosystem-based fishery concepts have been implemented in some regions. In a 2007 effort to "stimulate much needed discussion" and "clarify the essential components" of ecosystem-based fisheries science, a group of scientists offered the following ten commandments for ecosystem-based fisheries scientists: "* Keep a perspective that is holistic, risk-averse and adaptive.
 * Maintain an 'old growth' structure in fish populations, since big, old and fat female fish have been shown to be the best spawners, but are also susceptible to overfishing.
 * Characterize and maintain the natural spatial structure of fish stocks, so that management boundaries match natural boundaries in the sea.
 * Monitor and maintain seafloor habitats to make sure fish have food and shelter.
 * Maintain resilient ecosystems that are able to withstand occasional shocks.
 * Identify and maintain critical food-web connections, including predators and forage species.
 * Adapt to ecosystem changes through time, both short-term and on longer cycles of decades or centuries, including global climate change.
 * Account for evolutionary changes caused by fishing, which tends to remove large, older fish.
 * Include the actions of humans and their social and economic systems in all ecological equations."

Marine protected areas
Strategies and techniques for marine conservation tend to combine theoretical disciplines, such as population biology, with practical conservation strategies, such as setting up protected areas, as with Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) or Voluntary Marine Conservation Areas. Each nation defines MPAs independently, but they commonly involve increased protection for the area from fishing and other threats.

Marine life is not evenly distributed in the oceans. Most of the really valuable ecosystems are in relatively shallow coastal waters, above or near the continental shelf, where the sunlit waters are often nutrient rich from land runoff or upwellings at the continental edge, allowing photosynthesis, which energizes the lowest trophic levels. In the 1970s, for reasons more to do with oil drilling than with fishing, the U.S. extended its jurisdiction, then 12 miles from the coast, to 200 miles. This made huge shelf areas part of its territory. Other nations followed, extending national control to what became known as the exclusive economic zone (EEZ). This move has had many implications for fisheries conservation, since it means that most of the most productive maritime ecosystems are now under national jurisdictions, opening possibilities for protecting these ecosystems by passing appropriate laws.

Daniel Pauly characterises marine protected areas as "a conservation tool of revolutionary importance that is being incorporated into the fisheries mainstream." The Pew Charitable Trusts have funded various initiatives aimed at encouraging the development of MPAs and other ocean conservation measures.

Sustainable Fish Farming
Over the years, fish farming has made a name for itself in the fishing industry as a means of ensuring that the world's fish supplies do not deplete so rapidly. Sometimes referred to as "aquaculture", fish farming, when done right, can be one a very environmentally-friendly way to harvest fish. Fish farms are regulated by laws and management plans, which prevents it from falling prey to the same phenomenon of overfishing, which cripples the fish populations and marine ecosystem as a whole. The basic premise of fish farming is just what it sounds like—to breed and raise fish in enclosed environments, then eventually sell the grown fish as food for consumers. Salmon, cod, and halibut are three types of finfish that are often farm-raised. The actual enclosures in which the fish grow and swim are made of mesh "cages" submerged underwater.

Because they are not catching the fish out in the open ocean, fish farmers are able to control the environment in which the fish exist. Sustainable fish farming practices do not use dangerous chemicals, hormones, or antibiotics on their fish, which benefits the surrounding marine environment, and the human consumers themselves. In addition to this, sustainable fish farming is able to control what their fish eat: farmers will take care to keep the fish's diet healthy and balanced. Conversely, one of the most unsustainable practices within the fish farming industry occurs is when farmers feed the fish pellets of animal waste. The quality of ocean water in and around fish farms is up to the farmers to maintain, and due to the fact that the mesh cages take up only a certain amount of space in the ocean, fish farmers can ensure that waste and other byproducts are not polluting the water. Everything from fish oils to fish skin may be incorporated into something new: for example, fish oils can become a beneficiary supplement for both animals and humans.

Laws and treaties
International laws and treaties related to marine conservation include the 1966 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas. United States laws related to marine conservation include the 1972 Marine Mammal Protection Act, as well as the 1972 Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act which established the National Marine Sanctuaries program. Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act.

Reconciling fisheries with conservation

At the Fourth World Fisheries Congress in 2004, Daniel Pauly asked, "How can fisheries science and conservation biology achieve a reconciliation?", then answered his own question, "By accepting each other's essentials: that fishing should remain a viable occupation; and that aquatic ecosystems and their biodiversity are allowed to persist."

A relatively new concept is relationship farming. This is a way of operating farms so they restore the food chain in their area. Re-establishing a healthy food chain can result in the farm automatically filtering out impurities from feed water and air, feeding its own food chain, and additionally producing high net yields for harvesting. An example is the large cattle ranch Veta La Palma in southern Spain. Relationship farming was first made popular by Joel Salatin who created a 220 hectare relationship farm featured prominently in Michael Pollan's book The Omnivore's Dilemma (2006) and the documentary films, Food, Inc. and Fresh. The basic concept of relationship farming is to put effort into building a healthy food chain, and then the food chain does the hard work.

Awareness campaigns
Various organizations promote sustainable fishing strategies, educate the public and stakeholders, and lobby for conservation law and policy. The list includes the Marine Conservation Biology Institute and Blue Frontier Campaign in the U.S., The U.K.'s Frontier (The Society for Environmental Exploration) and Marine Conservation Society, Australian Marine Conservation Society, International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Langkawi Declaration, Oceana, PROFISH, and the Sea Around Us Project, International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, World Forum of Fish Harvesters and Fish Workers, Frozen at Sea Fillets Association and CEDO.

Some organizations certify fishing industry players for sustainable or good practices, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Friend of the Sea.

Other organizations offer advice to members of the public who eat with an eye to sustainability. According to the marine conservation biologist Callum Roberts, four criteria apply when choosing seafood:
 * Is the species in trouble in the wild where the animals were caught?
 * Does fishing for the species damage ocean habitats?
 * Is there a large amount of bycatch taken with the target species?
 * Does the fishery have a problem with discards—generally, undersized animals caught and thrown away because their market value is low?

The following organizations have download links for wallet-sized cards, listing good and bad choices:
 * Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch, USA
 * Blue Ocean Institute, USA
 * Marine Conservation Society, UK
 * Australian Marine Conservation Society
 * The Southern African Sustainable Seafood Initiative

Global goals
The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include, as goal number 7: target 2, the intention to "reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the rate of loss", including improving fisheries management to reduce depletion of fish stocks.

In 2015, the MDGs then evolved to become the Sustainable Development Goals with Goal 14 aimed at conserving life below water. Its Target 14.7 states that "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism".

Data quality
One of the major impediments to the rational control of marine resources is inadequate data. According to fisheries scientist Milo Adkison (2007), the primary limitation in fisheries management decisions is poor data. Fisheries management decisions are often based on population models, but the models need quality data to be accurate. Scientists and fishery managers would be better served with simpler models and improved data.

Unreported fishing
Estimates of illegal catch losses range between $10 billion and $23 billion annually, representing between 11 and 26 million tonnes.

 * Incidental catch

Shifting baselines
Shifting baselines is the way significant changes to a system are measured against previous baselines, which themselves may represent significant changes from the original state of the system. The term was first used by the fisheries scientist Daniel Pauly in his paper "Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries". Pauly developed the term in reference to fisheries management where fisheries scientists sometimes fail to identify the correct "baseline" population size (e.g. how abundant a fish species population was before human exploitation) and thus work with a shifted baseline. He describes the way that radically depleted fisheries were evaluated by experts who used the state of the fishery at the start of their careers as the baseline, rather than the fishery in its untouched state. Areas that swarmed with a particular species hundreds of years ago, may have experienced long-term decline, but it is the level of decades previously that is considered the appropriate reference point for current populations. In this way large declines in ecosystems or species over long periods of time were, and are, masked. There is a loss of perception of change that occurs when each generation redefines what is "natural".

History
In his 1883 inaugural address to the International Fisheries Exhibition in London, Thomas Huxley asserted that overfishing or "permanent exhaustion" was scientifically impossible, and stated that probably "all the great sea fisheries are inexhaustible". In reality, by 1883 marine fisheries were already collapsing. The United States Fish Commission was established 12 years earlier for the purpose of finding why fisheries in New England were declining. At the time of Huxley's address, the Atlantic halibut fishery had already collapsed (and has never recovered).

Traditional management of fisheries
Traditionally, fisheries management and the science underpinning it was distorted by its "narrow focus on target populations and the corresponding failure to account for ecosystem effects leading to declines of species abundance and diversity" and by perceiving the fishing industry as "the sole legitimate user, in effect the owner, of marine living resources." Historically, stock assessment scientists usually worked in government laboratories and considered their work to be providing services to the fishing industry. These scientists dismissed conservation issues and distanced themselves from the scientists and the science that raised the issues. This happened even as commercial fish stocks deteriorated, and even though many governments were signatories to binding conservation agreements.

title: Sustainable fishery


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Dan Barrett (politician)

C. Daniel Barrett is an attorney, legal author, and North Carolina political figure.

Barrett unsuccessfully sought the Republican nomination for governor in the 2004 election. His gubernatorial campaign was noted for its grassroots efforts, including Barrett personally walking across the length of the state from Murphy in the mountains to Manteo on the Outer Banks. Prior to that campaign, he served as Chairman of the Davie County Board of Commissioners.

In the 2008 general election, he ran for the North Carolina Court of Appeals, but was defeated by incumbent Judge Linda Stephens. He stated that he had a "conservative judicial philosophy." Dan Barrett's 2008 candidacy was endorsed by several leading North Carolina political figures, including former Governor James G. Martin and former Governor James Holshouser.

Barrett was again elected to the Davie County Commission in 2014. He was a candidate for the open 13th district US Congressional seat in 2016 but finished 8th out of 17 candidates in the June Primary.

In August 2017, Barrett was selected to fill the seat of Sen. Andrew Brock, who retired. He has since served as the State Senator from the 34th District representing Davie, Rowan, and Iredell counties.

As part of a long battle over redistricting, Barrett found himself in a different state Senate district, in which long-time Republican Sen. Joyce Krawiec also resided. Barrett ran against Krawiec in the 2018 primaries and narrowly lost, according to unofficial results.

Barrett is a graduate of Wake Forest University and Wake Forest University School of Law. Barrett is the author of a book on labor and employment law.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dan Barrett (politician)


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Talk:List of U.S. communities with Asian-American majority populations

Untitled
Jengod: There's nothing UNCATOGERIZED about the other cities you've included - they are cities of a certain population level. You've just not wanted to do the work to explain the information is based on 2004 population estimates and not the 2000 Census. Well, do the work. They certainly aren't UNCATOGERIZED (a nebulous phrase that helps no one).

I agree. This should be changed. Just go to the pages for each city and figure out what their populations is. But I have serious questions about the inclusion of those "uncategorized" locations. These number don't match what is in the city articles. Either they should be removed from this page, or the numbers updated on the city article pages, with some indication as to where they number is coming from. RickK 01:56, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Jengod: Are you really not clear on what the 2000 CENSUS means?? Either change the header to reflect that the data you've put in the article is from 2004, or don't include the new data. It's not rocket science. Moncrief, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Dude, I was just trying to help. You can have your glorious little province. Enjoy. jengod 03:02, Feb 22, 2004 (UTC)

Yes, it's unforunate that this RickK person has to put a damper on things. (self-righteous people: ugh!) Actually, it's at least a good start for Jengod to add those cities to show there are indeed more cities with Asian American predominance. By the way, Moncrief, judging by Jengod's personal homepage, she's female!

(I'm the guy that keeps working and updating the San Gabriel Valley article constantly.) S. 172.198.51.117 07:34, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * As I mentioned, I have no problem including those cities that an article in the LA Times now estimates are majority Asian American. However, if you're going to include them, you need to either put an asterisk next to those cities citing the fact that the information about them is not from the 2000 Census or otherwise reformulate the entry to show that what it says in the header about this being official census data does not apply to these additional cities.  That's all.  Moncrief 07:38, 23 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Some cities to watch out for (Asian American populations almost reaching 50%): San Gabriel, California; Rosemead, California; San Marino, California.

It's too bad we have to wait till 2010 to get the updated official statistics.

S. 172.194.119.14 23:59, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Don't be put off, Jengod. There are some people who think they know everything and think they're the ones in charge (unfortunately). :(

Second table
The second table should be sorted automatically. It is also very confusing with rank numbers missing.

Additionally, the first two tables do not agree with the lead which repeatedly states that the page only includes cities with a majority (>50%) Asian. — Naddruf (talk ~ contribs) 20:58, 16 October 2019 (UTC)


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Bill Cobey

William Wilfred Cobey Jr. (born May 13, 1939) is an American politician. A member of the Republican Party, he served one term in the United States House of Representatives for North Carolina's 4th congressional district from 1985 to 1987.

Biography
Cobey was born in Washington, D.C. and reared in the suburb of University Park in Prince George's County, Maryland. His father, William W. Cobey, Sr., was the athletic director for the University of Maryland from 1956 to 1969. Cobey is a graduate of Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in Chemistry. Cobey also earned an M.B.A. in Marketing from the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and an M.Ed. from the University of Pittsburgh.

Early career
Cobey originally worked as a bank administrative assistant and then as a chemical salesman. In 1968, he became, like his father, an athletic administrator. From 1976 to 1980, he was athletic director at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. In the early 1980s, he was the president of his own corporation, Cobey & Associates.

Congress
In 1980, Cobey was the Republican nominee for North Carolina Lieutenant Governor. In 1984, he was elected to represent North Carolina's 4th congressional district in the U.S. Congress. However, he was defeated in a bid for re-election in 1986 by the Democrat David Price.

Later career
After serving in Congress, Cobey joined the administration of North Carolina Governor James G. Martin, first as Deputy Secretary of Transportation and then as Secretary of the Department of Environment, Health and Natural Resources. After serving as town manager of Morrisville, North Carolina, he did government relations consulting for Capitol Link, Inc.

Cobey served two terms (1999–2003) as the voluntary chairman of the North Carolina Republican Party. He replaced Sam Currin. Under Cobey's leadership, the state party purchased a new headquarters building. He was succeeded by Ferrell Blount as party chair.

Cobey was one of the leading candidates for the Republican gubernatorial nomination to challenge Democratic Governor Mike Easley in the 2004 election. In July 2003, Cobey received the endorsement of former North Carolina Senator Jesse Helms in the Republican primary contest. Rarely had Helms endorsed any candidate in primaries, other than Ronald W. Reagan for the 1976 presidential nomination. In the July 2004 Republican primary, Cobey ran a strong third with 26.7% of the vote (97,461 votes), lagging behind nominee Patrick Ballantine (30.3% and 110,726 votes) and Richard Vinroot (29.9% and 109,217 votes).

In 2007-2008, Cobey was the North Carolina campaign chairman for defeated presidential candidate Mike Huckabee, the former governor of Arkansas.

From 2005-2012, Cobey was a presidential-appointee to the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority Board of Directions, which governs Reagan National and Dulles Airports. He is a former chairman of the board at Trinity School of Durham and Chapel Hill, a former board chairman of the Jesse Helms Foundation, and a former president of the Chapel Hill-Carrboro YMCA. From 2013-2018, he was chairman of the North Carolina State Board of Education, a board member for the NC Center for the Advancement of Teaching (NCCAT), a member of the NC Education Workforce Innovation Commission, and a member of the governor's education cabinet.

Personal life
Cobey resides in Chapel Hill, North Carolina with his wife, Nancy. They have two children and five grandchildren.

title: Bill Cobey


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Wikipedia talk:Press releases/February 2004

Umm. Whats the relationship between this page and the Meta 'pedia's page? Should we change the other one if we change this one? Perl 01:25, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * This is the English Wikipedia version. The Meta one was for finding wording that we could all agree on. That version was available for translation by other languages and adaptation by en.wiki. The Meta version is now (mostly) obsolete as far as the English Wikipedia is concerned. But other languages need to check it and update their versions. --mav 01:30, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I'm concerned about this part:
 * Presently, fewer than one hundred articles in the English version of Wikipedia have their neutrality disputed by other participants in the project.

This was true in August, but is it true now? --mav 01:38, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * i dont know. Perl 02:15, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

There are certainly more than a hundred articles linking to NPOV dispute (see ). I don't know how many exactly - I stopped counting at 110, and I was barely halfway through the list (I didn't count user and talk pages). --Camembert

 * OK - sentence removed. Thanks. --mav

 * I just processed the list, and excluding talk:, wikipedia:, User:, etc., there were 171 items (=articles) listed. Tomos 16:27, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

eo and fr
What's the difference between the eo and fr links at the top of the article and the standard inter-language links? --Spikey 03:51, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * For some reason their versions of the press release are on Meta. I have no idea why they would do that. --mav 03:57, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

public domain
I find the last sentence a bit confusing: "Unlike the rest of Wikimedia's content, the text of this press release is placed into the public domain." given the earlier statement that "All Wikimedia content is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, which permits anyone to reuse Wikimedia content in any way they wish, etc". Perhaps add to the first sentence: ", thus can be used in any way without referring to the source" or something like that Erik Zachte 13:14, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, since it is public domain, it can also be used under the GFDL as well, so it is effectively available under the GFDL as well.  Link to previous comment about public domain.. Jrincayc 19:16, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Wednesday release?
Why are we waiting until Februrary 25 to release it since it hit 500,000 on feb 22? Jrincayc 22:14, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * To give more time for other languages to draft their version, more time to finish this version, more time to finish Main Page/Test, and more time for the developers to batten down the hatches. This should spare the servers from much strain (each language version is going to choose its own release day - some are releasing now, others are waiting). --mav 22:31, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

number of edits and different writers
Should this be changed to indicate how many individuals edited on the English wikipedia? Perl 22:30, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Why not? I'm already counted though. --mav

The Hook Up Front
I would like to see the word collaborative in the firsts couple of sentences. This is what in the public relations business is called the "hook". It is the reason people might be interested in the story, and the reason news directers might play it. Without the hook clearly explained somewhere in the first two sentences (most press releases are not read beyond the second sentence), this is just another promotional product release, of which media outlets get dozens each day. I know it talks about "all volunteer", and this is good, but it is not enough. First we have to convince them to read the release and run the story, then we provide all the details. mydogategodshat 15:46, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * This is a very good point. It really should put collaborative up front.  Also, I moved down the mention of the new front page, since it's still being debated, and not final.  Also, not sure there's any consensus it was created in "celebration" of anything.  When is the press release considered "final"? Fuzheado 16:40, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Done. As far as I am concerned this press release can be distributed but won't be in a hard freeze or listed on the Main Page until the 25th actually arrives (UTC). --mav 16:48, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I think it is very good. Kudos to all contributors. Before I came to this talk page, the quibble I had was with the last sentence "Unlike the rest of WIkipedia..." and I noticed another user has queried it too. I think it is dangerous because readers are likely to NOT read the whole thing, but are likely to read the first and last bits (its just what skim readers do). Particularly in this context, I think the last line is confusing more than anything else. Remove it unless editors specifically need to know that the text is PD, which they probably don't as press releases are quoted extensively every day of the week without anyone saying anything explicit about permissions. As Mydogategodshat says above, historically the hook for Wikipedia has been collaboration, not copyrights, and I don't see this changing tomorrow. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 17:12, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks. The PD note is needed so that this text can be adapted into news articles, just not quoted as a press release. It says Wikimedia, BTW. --mav

 * Given that a PD notice is required, I believe simply saying The text of this press release is placed into the public domain instead of Unlike the rest of Wikimedia's content, the text of this press release is placed into the public domain. would be better. The made with the opening clause is too subtle, IMO. At the first reading it says "we don't normally let people use our stuff, but we are this time." when in fact it means "we care a lot that people can use our stuff and indeed we use a special licence so that people can use it." So we are at risk of appearing to say the opposite what we mean. Am I worrying too much? Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 19:02, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * That does make sense. But I took a nap and woke up after the 25th had arrived. The press release is in hard freeze right now... --mav

 * P.S. Wrist duly slapped, re p instead of m!

 * To hell with it - I made the change. --mav

Nitpicking
I think the commas and the end at the end of the first list should be removed (or, less preferred, add them to the second list to make them uniform). Dori | Talk 17:31, Feb 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * I'll take them out.--mav

 * Fuzheado beat you to it :) I also got a conflict with him on changing frontpage -> front page (exact same subject header too). I think Wikipedia has indoctrinated us to think alike. Dori | Talk 17:37, Feb 24, 2004 (UTC)

 * Nitpicking mindshare! We're obviously doing something right. :) Fuzheado 17:50, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Mention change history?
A brief mention of change history and logging might be a nice way to pre-answer some vandal vulnerability and quality objections - it's mentioned that people keep a watchful eye, but doesn't make clear that every change is logged and tracked, and so momentary lack of watchfulness is not a disaster. Dunno how to phrase sufficiently succinctly though. Stan 18:48, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Good point - change made in footer. --mav

Please add link to esperanto : eo:Vikipedio:Dua gazetara komuniko. Thanks Arno Lagrange  10:37, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Done. --mav

All Wikimedia content is free?
All Wikimedia content is available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, which permits anyone to reuse Wikimedia content in any way they wish [...]

IMHO this is not correct. Unfortunately we have some content which is not free in the GFDL sense. For example all "fair use" images aren't. -- mkrohn 17:49, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * So we should strip all fair use quotations from Wikipedia? That's absurd. --mav 20:22, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Huh? I didn't wrote anything about removing content. But perhaps you or someone else should correct the above statement in the press release. Perhaps something like "Almost all Wikipedia content is available ..." -- mkrohn 21:12, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * All Wikimedia content is available under terms of the GNU FDL. Fair use materials like quotations and low res images are not Wikimedia content. --mav

Omission
Since this mentions the sister projects, it should also indicate their size. After all the English Wiktionary already has the third largest number of articles. Eclecticology 17:48, 2004 May 19 (UTC)

Interlinks
May you remove the interlinks? They're all on Wikidata now, and some of them were also wrong. Thank you. --Horcrux92 (talk) 13:08, 8 January 2014 (UTC)


text:
Clara Rockmore

Clara Reisenberg Rockmore (9 March 1911 – 10 May 1998) was a Litvak classical violin prodigy and a virtuoso performer of the theremin, an electronic musical instrument. She was the sister of pianist Nadia Reisenberg.

Early years
Clara Rockmore was born in Vilnius, then in the Russian Empire, to a family of Litvaks. She had two elder sisters, Anna and Nadia. Early in her childhood she emerged as a violin prodigy. At the age of four, she became the youngest ever student at the Saint Petersburg Conservatory, where she studied under the prominent violinist Leopold Auer. After the October Revolution the family moved back to Vilnius, and then to Warsaw, before obtaining visas and leaving for the United States in 1921.

In America, Rockmore enrolled at the Curtis Institute of Music. As a teenager, tendinitis affected her bow arm, attributed to childhood malnutrition, and resulted in her giving up the violin. However, after meeting fellow immigrant Léon Theremin and being introduced to his electronic instrument, the theremin, she became its most prominent player. She performed widely and helped Theremin to refine his instrument.

Career
Rockmore made orchestral appearances in New York and Philadelphia and went on coast-to-coast tours with Paul Robeson, but it was not until 1977 that she released a commercial recording called The Art of the Theremin. The album, which was produced by Bob Moog and Shirleigh Moog, featured Rockmore's theremin playing with piano accompaniment by her sister Nadia. Rockmore's approach to theremin playing emphasized physical and emotional control.

As she described it herself in an interview: "You must not only hit a note, but you must hit the center of it. You cannot register any of your internal emotion at all. You cannot shake your head, for instance, or sway back and forth on your feet. That would change your tone."

Personal life and death
Although Léon Theremin had proposed to her once, she married attorney Robert Rockmore, and thereafter used his name professionally. They had no children.

She died in New York City on May 10, 1998, aged 87. Although her health had been in rapid decline for almost a year, she declared her determination to live to see the birth of her great-grandniece, who was born just two days before her death.

Contributions to the theremin
Rockmore's classical training gave her an advantage over the many other theremin performers of the time. The intonation control she acquired as a violinist and her innate absolute pitch were both helpful in playing the instrument.

She had extremely precise, rapid control of her movements, important in playing an instrument that depends on the performer's motion and proximity rather than touch. She developed a unique technique for playing the instrument, including a fingering system that allowed her to perform accurately fast passages and large note leaps without the more familiar portamento, or glide, on theremin.

She also discovered that she could achieve a steadier tone and control the vibrato by keeping the tips of her right-hand thumb and forefinger in contact.

Developmental influence
Rockmore saw limitations of the original instrument and helped to develop the theremin to fulfill her needs. Working together with Léon Theremin her suggestions and changes included increasing the sensitivity of the theremin's volume control to facilitate rapid staccato, lowering the profile of the instrument so the performer is more visible, increasing the sensitivity of the pitch antenna, and increasing range from three octaves to five.

Public influence
By the time Rockmore was playing large scale public concerts, such as New York City's Town Hall in 1938, she was becoming increasingly known for impressing critics with her artistry of the theremin during a time in which much of the general public had come to rather negative conclusions of what was possible on the instrument.

These performances with world class orchestras were also critical in establishing “electronic and experimental music as a viable art form in the public imagination.”

Clara owned an RCA theremin given to her and substantially modified by Theremin. Through his modifications, the instrument's normal 5 to 5.5 octave playable range was expanded by 1.5 octaves. Theremin made several other customizations including improvements to tonal quality and its responsiveness to hand movements. The tubes are also customized and labeled in Theremin's own writing.

This instrument was later restored by Robert Moog in October 1998; it can be viewed at the Clara Rockmore exhibit in the Artist's Gallery of the Musical Instruments Museum in Phoenix, Arizona and is on long-term loan to the museum by Peter Sherman of the Reisenberg family.

Albums

 * The Art of the Theremin (1977)
 * Clara Rockmore's Lost Theremin Album (2006; recorded 1975)
 * Music in and on the air. (2011) Romeo Records.
 * Music and Memories: Clara Rockmore (2020) Romeo Records.
 * Music and Memories: Clara Rockmore (Bonus Album) (2020) Romeo Records.

In popular culture

 * The Irish electropop band The Garland Cult included the song "Clara Rockmore" on their 2007 album Protect Yourself from Hollywood.
 * Sean Michaels' novel Us Conductors, the winner of the 2014 Scotiabank Giller Prize, is a fictionalized account of the relationship between Rockmore and Léon Theremin.
 * Rockmore was the subject of a Google Doodle on March 9, 2016, which would have been her 105th birthday.
 * In Bill & Ted Face the Music, Bill's daughter Thea compliments Ted's theremin playing at Missy's wedding, saying that it rivaled Clara Rockmore. Ted admits she was an inspiration for him.

title: Clara Rockmore


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Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas

Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas is a 1997 direct-to-video animated Christmas musical fantasy film produced by Walt Disney Television Animation. It is the follow-up to Disney's 1991 animated feature film Beauty and the Beast. The film sold 7.6million VHS tapes in 1997. This is the first of two sequels to Beauty and the Beast that were released, with the other being Belle's Magical World (1998).

Plot
A Christmas party is held at the Beast's castle sometime after the enchantress' spell is broken, attended by almost the entire village. While reminiscing about the previous year's Christmas, Lumiere and Cogsworth get into an argument over who "saved" Christmas, prompting Mrs. Potts to tell the story.

One year ago, not long after the Beast saved Belle from the wolves, Belle anticipates the coming Christmas season, as do the other servants, though they reveal that the Prince is against the season since that’s when he was transformed into a Beast and the enchanted rose was put under the bell jar on Christmas Eve. To lighten his spirit, Belle teaches the Beast how to ice skate. They are observed from the West Wing by Forte, a pipe organ who was formerly the Prince's court composer and does not want the spell to break (meaning he never wanted to be human again) as he believes that he is of more use in his enchanted form. He sends his piccolo minion, Fife, to sabotage their newfound friendship, causing Belle and the Beast to crash into the snow. Then, when Belle makes a snow angel, the Beast sees his snow figure as a shadow of a monster. He roars, thrashes the snow and storms off in a fit of rage. As Fife claims that Forte will be proud of him, the Beast stomps back into his castle in fury and depression.

Despite the Beast's misgivings, Belle decides to celebrate Christmas without his consent, though the Beast gradually opens up to the idea with advice from Lumiere. Belle meets Forte in the West Wing and he suggests that she venture into the Black Forest to find a Christmas tree, but he secretly tells the Beast that Belle is abandoning him. Forte then continues to manipulate the Beast (under his mind control) into a rage, destroying the Christmas decorations in the dining room and storming off outside to look for Belle. Angel ornamentation decorator Angelique cries after the Beast had destroyed everything, thinking it's hopeless. Belle and a few more servants find and chop the tree down, but Belle falls through thin ice and almost drowns. The Beast intervenes and saves her in time, though he locks her in the dungeon for supposedly breaking her promise not to leave.

As Belle is comforted inside the room by the servants and Fife, who felt guilty for what happened. Forte tempts the Beast to destroy the rose when a petal flutters beside the storybook present Belle left him. The Beast then has a change of heart after reading it makes him realize that all she wants is for him to be happy and let go of the past. He then frees Belle, giving his consent to celebrate Christmas. Powerless to prevent the inevitable, thinking that when human again he would once more fade into the background, Forte, in a lasting attempt, attempts to use his powers to bring the castle down, thinking that they can't fall in love if they're dead. Fife confronts Forte and it is revealed that the solo Forte promised him was all along blank, even going as far as to tell him that he's only second fiddle and that's all he'll ever be. Beast then storms up to confront Forte, but by then unreasonable to obey him. Belle and the others reach the West Wing where Lumiere, Cogsworth and Angelique try to save the rose, while Belle joins the Beast in confronting Forte. Fife points to the Beast's Forte's keyboard where he clambers up and pulls it away, removing Forte's magic abilities. The Beast violently smashes Forte's keyboard. Forte then tries to pull away from the wall, causing him to come crashing down into the floor, killing him. Soon after, the castle is repaired, Fife receives a royal pardon as everybody forgives him, and Christmas is celebrated.

Back in the present, Mrs. Potts concludes that it was Belle who saved Christmas. Belle and the Prince enter the court to greet their guests, presenting Chip with a storybook as a present. As Fife, now the new court composer, leads the orchestra, the Prince and Belle share a moment on the balcony, where he gives her a rose as a gift.

Cast

 * Paige O'Hara as Belle
 * Robby Benson as Prince Adam/Beast
 * Jerry Orbach as Lumière
 * David Ogden Stiers as Cogsworth
 * Angela Lansbury as Mrs. Potts
 * Haley Joel Osment as Chip.
 * Andrew Keenan-Bolger provides his singing voice.
 * Bernadette Peters as Angelique
 * Paul Reubens as Fife
 * Tim Curry as Forte
 * Frank Welker as Phillippe the Horse and Sultan
 * Jeff Bennett as Axe
 * Kath Soucie as The Enchantress
 * Rodger Bumpass as additional vocals

Production
In the wake of the success of The Return of Jafar (1994), The Walt Disney Company opened the Walt Disney Animation Canada studios in January 1996 to produce direct-to-video and potential theatrical films, as well as utilize the talent pool of Canadian animators. With 200 animators hired, Disney Animation Canada had two separate animation facilities in Toronto and Vancouver which were supervised by Joan Fischer, a former Canadian public television executive. Their first project was Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas, which went into pre-production later that spring. Additional animation work was done by Walt Disney Television Animation Australia, Wang Film Productions Co., Ltd. located in Xindian District, Taipei, Taiwan, and Character Builders. It was Disney's first direct-to-video animated film to use digital ink and paint.

Initially, the film was going to be a direct sequel to the original film with the main villain slated to be Avenant, here depicted as Gaston's younger brother. Avenant's goal was to avenge Gaston by ruining the lives of Belle and the prince and threatening to kill them, reportedly using sorcery to transform the prince back into a Beast and frame Belle for it. Although he was cut out of the story and the plot had changed, these traits were incorporated into Forte, the pipe organ, who did not want the Beast to become human again. Unlike the other characters, Forte was animated entirely by computers.

Incidentally, the antagonist's name "Avenant" was taken from the French 1946 live action black and white film Beauty and the Beast (La Belle et la Bête), being the name of the antagonist of its film. The film is one of the first and most popular adaptations of the story, and have been the most influential on future adaptations, including the original Disney film whose antagonist, Gaston, in fact, was himself inspired by Avenant.

Release
The film was first released on VHS and LaserDisc by Walt Disney Home Video in the United States and Canada on November 11, 1997. A bare-bones DVD was released on October 14, 1998. Both editions were quickly taken out of print, and the film remained unavailable until Disney released the Special Edition DVD and VHS on November 12, 2002, just a month after the studio released the original film's Platinum Edition DVD and VHS release. The new DVD featured a remake music video of the song "As Long As There's Christmas" by Play. Also featured was a game titled Forte's Challenge, a 10-minute behind-the-scenes featurette, Disney Song Selection, and Enchanted Environment, where it shows the Beast's Castle during the different seasons. The original film's Platinum Edition and this film's Special Edition were taken out of print at the same time in January 2003.

A Special Edition of the film was released on DVD and on Blu-ray/DVD combo packs on November 22, 2011, following the release of the Diamond Edition of the first film on October 5, 2010. In Australia, the film was released on Region 4 DVD on November 3, 2011 with the same features as the original Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas DVD. The Blu-ray release was placed into the Disney Vault along with the other two films.

A little over one month after the first film's 25th anniversary Signature Edition was released, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment re-released Beauty and the Beast: The Enchanted Christmas on October 25, 2016 on DVD as well as a Blu-ray / DVD / Digital HD combo pack — the latter of which was a Disney Movie Club Exclusive.

In 2019, the film was released on Disney+.

Reception
Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film has "rotten" approval rating with an average rating of 4.1/10, based on  reviews.

Ty Burr, reviewing for Entertainment Weekly, graded the film a C−, concluding in his review, "All in all, a pretty soggy Christmas fruitcake. Will your kids eat it up? Sure, and that makes Enchanted Christmas worth a rental. But Disney really wants you to put this sucker in your permanent collection. And next to Beauty and the Beast — still the company's crown jewel — Christmas looks like a lump of coal."

Music
A soundtrack was released on September 9, 1997. The original score and songs were composed by Rachel Portman with lyrics written by Don Black, marking the first time in history that a Disney animated feature film has been scored by a woman. The film's songs were recorded "live" with an orchestra and the cast in a room, similar to the first film.

"Stories", sung by Paige O'Hara, is about what Belle will give the Beast for a Christmas: a story book, and is heavily based on the motif in the finale of Jean Sibelius' symphony no. 5. "As Long As There's Christmas", the theme of the film, is about finding hope during Christmas Time. The song was sung by the cast of the film with a back-up chorus and is sung when Belle and the enchanted objects redecorate the castle for Christmas. "Don't Fall In Love", sung by Tim Curry, displays Forte's plan on keeping the Beast away from Belle to stop the spell from breaking. "A Cut Above The Rest", also sung by the cast, is about how teamwork and friends are very important in life.

"Deck The Halls" is performed during the opening title by Jerry Orbach, David Ogden Stiers, Bernadette Peters, and the Chorus. Tracks 8 to 15 also act as a Christmas album of traditional carols sung by Paige O'Hara.


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Cape York Peninsula

Cape York Peninsula is a peninsula located in Far North Queensland, Australia. It is the largest wilderness in northern Australia. The land is mostly flat and about half of the area is used for grazing cattle. The relatively undisturbed eucalyptus-wooded savannahs, tropical rainforests and other types of habitat are now recognised and preserved for their global environmental significance. Although much of the peninsula remains pristine, with a diverse repertoire of endemic flora and fauna, some of its wildlife may be threatened by industry and overgrazing as well as introduced species and weeds.

The northernmost point of the peninsula is Cape York. The land has been occupied by a number of Aboriginal Australian peoples for tens of thousands of years. In 1606, Dutch sailor Willem Janszoon on board the Duyfken was the first European to land in Australia, reaching the Cape York Peninsula.

Aboriginal history
Prior to British settlement, Cape York Peninsula was inhabited by the Djagaraga peoples who claim their main rights of the native title. Their complex cultural landscapes have been shaped by the presence of ancestral creation beings for tens of thousands of years.

European exploration

In February 1606, Dutch navigator Willem Janszoon landed near the site of what is now Weipa, on the western shore of Cape York Peninsula. This was the first recorded landing of a European in Australia, and it also marked the first reported contact between European and Aboriginal Australian people.

Edmund Kennedy was the first European explorer to attempt an overland expedition of Cape York Peninsula. He had been second-in-command to Thomas Livingstone Mitchell in 1846 when the Barcoo River was encountered. The aim was to establish a route to the tip of the peninsula, where Sydney businessmen were attempting development of a port for trade with the East Indies.

The expedition set out from Rockingham Bay near the present town of Cardwell in May 1848, and it turned out to be one of the great disasters of Australian exploration. Of the thirteen men who set out, only three survived. The others died of fever or starvation, or were speared by hostile Aboriginal people. Kennedy died of spear wounds almost within sight of his destination in December 1848. The only survivor to complete the journey was Jackey Jackey, an Aboriginal man from New South Wales. He led a rescue party to the other two who had been unable to continue.

The tip of the peninsula (Cape York) was finally reached by Europeans in 1864 when the brothers Francis Lascelles (Frank) and Alexander William Jardine, along with eight companions, drove a mob of cattle from Rockhampton to the new settlement of Somerset (on Cape York) where the Jardines' father was commander. En route they lost most of their horses, many of their stores and fought pitched battles with Aboriginal people, finally arriving in March 1865.

First contact
The first known contact between European and Aboriginal people occurred on the west coast of the peninsula in 1606, but it was not settled by Europeans until the 19th century when fishing communities, then stations and later mining towns were established. European settlement led to the displacement of Aboriginal communities and the arrival of Torres Strait Islanders on the mainland.

Geography and geology
The west coast borders the Gulf of Carpentaria and the east coast borders the Coral Sea. The peninsula is bordered by water on three sides (north, east and west). There is no clear demarcation to the south, although the official boundary in the Cape York Peninsula Heritage Act 2007 of Queensland runs along at about 16°S latitude.

At the peninsula's widest point, it is 430 km from the Bloomfield River in the southeast, across to the west coast just south of the aboriginal community of Kowanyama. It is some 660 km from the southern border of Cook Shire, to the tip of Cape York.

At the tip of the peninsula lies Cape York, the northernmost point on the Australian mainland. It was named by Lieutenant James Cook on 21 August 1770 in honour of Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany, a brother of King George III of the United Kingdom, who had died three years earlier:

"The point of the Main, which forms one side of the Passage before mentioned, and which is the Northern Promontory of this Country, I have named York Cape, in honour of his late Royal Highness, the Duke of York."

The tropical landscapes are among the most stable in the world. Long undisturbed by tectonic activity, the peninsula is an extremely eroded, almost level low plain dominated by meandering rivers and vast floodplains, with some very low hills rising to 800 m elevation in the McIlwraith Range on the eastern side around Coen.

The backbone of Cape York Peninsula is the peninsula ridge, part of Australia's Great Dividing Range. This mountain range is made up of ancient (1.5 billion-year-old) Precambrian and Palaeozoic rocks. To the east and west of the peninsula ridge lie the Carpentaria and Laura Basins, respectively, themselves made up of ancient Mesozoic sediments. There are several outstanding landforms on the peninsula: the large expanses of undisturbed dunefields at the eastern coast around Shelburne Bay and Cape Bedford-Cape Flattery, the huge piles of black granite boulders at Kalkajaka National Park and Cape Melville, and the limestone karsts around Palmerston in the peninsula's far south.

Soil
The soils are remarkably infertile even compared to other areas of Australia, being almost entirely laterised and in most cases so old and weathered that very little development is apparent today (classified in USDA soil taxonomy as orthents). It is because of this extraordinary soil poverty that the region is so thinly settled: the soils are so unworkable and unresponsive to fertilisers that attempts to grow commercial crops have usually failed.

Climate
The climate on Cape York Peninsula is tropical savanna in the south, with a heavy monsoon season from November to April, during which time the forest becomes almost uninhabitable, and a dry season from May to October. The temperature is warm to hot, with a cooler climate in higher areas. The mean annual temperatures range from 18 °C at higher elevations to 27 °C on the lowlands in the drier southwest. Temperatures over 40 °C and below 5 °C are rare.

Annual rainfall is high, ranging from over 2000 mm in the Iron Range and north of Weipa to about 700 mm at the southern border. Almost all this rain falls between November and April, and only on the eastern slopes of the Iron Range is the median rainfall between June and September above 5 mm. Between January and March, however, the median monthly rainfall ranges from about 170 mm in the south to over 500 mm in the north and on the Iron Range.

Rivers

The Peninsula Ridge forms the drainage divide between the Gulf of Carpentaria and the Coral Sea. To the west, a series of large, winding river systems including the Mitchell, Staaten, Coleman, Holroyd, Archer, Watson, Wenlock, Ducie and Jardine catchments empty their waters into the Gulf of Carpentaria. During the dry season, those rivers are reduced to a series of waterholes and sandy beds. Yet, with the arrival of torrential rains in the wet season, they swell to mighty waterways, spreading across extensive floodplains and coastal wetlands and giving life to a vast array of freshwater and wetland species.

On the Eastern slopes, the shorter, faster-flowing Jacky Jacky Creek, Olive, Pascoe, Lockhart, Stewart, Jeannie and Endeavour Rivers flow towards the Coral Sea, providing important freshwater and nutrients to the healthiest section of the Great Barrier Reef. On their way, those wild, undisturbed rivers are lined with dense rainforests, sand dunes or mangroves.

The floodplains of the Laura Basin, which are protected in the Rinyirru and Jack River National Parks, are crossed by the Morehead, Hann, North Kennedy, Laura, Jack and Normanby Rivers.

The Peninsula's river catchments are noted for their exceptional hydrological integrity. With little disturbance on both water flows and vegetation cover throughout entire catchments, Cape York Peninsula has been identified as one of the few places where tropical water cycles remain essentially intact. Cape York Peninsula contributes as much as a quarter of Australia's surface runoff. Indeed, with only about 2.7 percent of Australia's land area, it produces more run-off than all of Australia south of the Tropic of Capricorn. Tapping those heavy tropical rainfalls, the peninsula's rivers are also of particular importance for replenishing central Australia's Great Artesian Basin. The Queensland Government is currently poised to protect 13 of Cape York Peninsula's wild rivers under the Wild Rivers Act 2005.

Geological history

The peninsula is formed from the northern part of the Great Dividing Range, folded during the Carboniferous period some 300 million years ago, when Australia collided with what is now parts of South America and New Zealand. The range has experienced significant erosion since. Around 40 million years ago, the Indo-Australian tectonic plate began to split apart from the ancient supercontinent Gondwana. As it collided with the Pacific Plate on its northward journey, the high mountain ranges of central New Guinea emerged around 5 million years ago. In the lee of this collision zone, the ancient rock formations of what is now Cape York Peninsula remained largely undisturbed.

Throughout the Pleistocene epoch Australia and New Guinea were alternately land-linked and separated by water. During periods of glaciation and resulting low sea levels, Cape York Peninsula provided a low-lying land link. Another link existed between Arnhem Land and New Guinea, at times enclosing an enormous freshwater lake (Lake Carpentaria) in the centre of what is now the Gulf of Carpentaria. Australia and New Guinea remained connected in this way until the shallow Torres Strait was last flooded around 8,000 years ago.

People and culture today
Today the peninsula has a population of only about 18,000, of which a large percentage (~60%) are Aboriginal people and Torres Strait Islanders.

The administrative and commercial centre for much of Cape York Peninsula is Cooktown, located in its far southeastern corner while the peninsula's largest settlement is the mining town Weipa on the Gulf of Carpentaria. The remainder is extremely sparsely populated, with about half the population living in very small settlements and cattle ranches. Along the peninsula developmental road, there are small service centres at Lakeland, Laura and Coen. About 30 km offshore north of the tip of Cape York, there is a sizeable service centre on nearby Thursday Island. Aboriginal communities are at Hopevale, Pormpuraaw, Kowanyama, Aurukun, Lockhart River, Napranum, Mapoon, Injinoo, New Mapoon and Umagico. Torres Strait Islander communities on the mainland are at Bamaga and Seisia. A completely sealed inland road links Cairns and the Atherton Tableland to Lakeland and Cooktown. The road north of Lakeland Downs to the tip of the peninsula is sometimes cut after heavy rains during the wet season (roughly December to May).

The peninsula is a popular tourist destination in the dry season for camping, hiking, bird watching and fishing enthusiasts. Many people make the adventurous, but rewarding, drive to the tip of Cape York, the northernmost point of mainland Australia.

Some of the world's most extensive and ancient Aboriginal rock painting galleries surround the town of Laura, some of which are available for public viewing. There is also a new interpretive centre from which information on the rock art and local culture is available and tours can be arranged.

Indigenous languages and peoples
Over 30 Aboriginal languages are spoken on Cape York Peninsula, including Linngithigh, Umpila, Wik Mungkan, Wik-Me'nh, Wik-Ngathan, Kugu Nganhcara, Guugu Yalandji, Guugu Yimithirr, Kuuk Thaayorre and a multitude of Australian Aboriginal sign languages. Some of these languages are being acquired by children or are spoken by all generations in remote communities. Most Wik languages are being quickly absorbed by Wik-Mungkan, which seems to be the only aboriginal language on the peninsula that is developing very quickly, as it is the second language of the Wikalkan, Wik-Ngathana, and Wikngenchera.

Djagaraga (also known as Yadhaigana, Dyagaraga and Yagulleone) is an Australian Aboriginal language from the tip of Cape York. The language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Northern Peninsula Area Regional Council. Traditionally the language was spoken on Eastern Cape York particularly in the localities of Albany Island and Mount Adolphus Island.

Linngithigh (also known as Winda Winda and Linginiti) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Linngithigh people. The Linngithigh language region includes landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cook Shire Council: Western Cape York, Winda Winda Creek, Mission River, and Archer River.

Luthigh (also known as Lotiga, Tepiti and Uradhi, see also Uradhi related languages) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Luthigh people. The traditional language area for Luthigh includes landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cook Shire: Eastern Cape York, Ducie River, Northern Peninsula, New Mapoon, Injinoo, and Cowal Creek.

Teppathiggi (also known Tepithiki and Teyepathiggi) is an Australian Aboriginal language of Western Cape York, Middle Dulcie River, Lower Batavia River, Ducie River, and Mapoon. The language region includes areas within the local government boundaries of Cook Shire Council.

Thaynakwith (also known as Awngthim, Tainikuit and Winduwinda) is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken on Western Cape York in the Weipa area taking in Albatross Bay and Mission River. The language region includes areas within the local government boundaries of Weipa Town Council and Cook Shire.

Uradhi (also known as Anggamudi, Ankamuti, Atampaya, Bawtjathi, and Lotiga) is an Australian Aboriginal language of the Western Cape York Peninsula. The traditional language region includes north of Mapoon and Duyfken Point and east of the coast strip to the north of Port Musgrave (Angkamuthi country) incorporating the mouth of the Ducie River, the lower reaches of the Dulhunty River and the upper reaches of the Skardon River in the north. Following the displacement of Indigenous people by British settlement, it was also spoken in the Northern Peninsula Area Region including the communities of New Mapoon, Injinoo and Cowal Creek.

Yir Yiront (also known as Yiront, Jirjoront, Yir-yiront, and Kokomindjan) is an Australian Aboriginal language. Its traditional language region is in Western Cape York within the local government areas of Aboriginal Shire of Kowanyama and Shire of Cook, in the catchments of the Coleman River and Mitchell River. Following the removal of Aboriginal people from their traditional lands, it is also spoken in Pormpuraaw and Kowanyama.

Kuuku Ya'u (also known as Gugu Yau, Yao, Ya'o, Koko Ya'o and Koka-yao) is an Australian Aboriginal language. The traditional language area of Kuuku Ya'u includes landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cook Shire: Eastern Cape York, Uu'ungun south to Claudie River and hinterland.

Kuuk Thaayorre (also known as Koko-Daiyuri, Kuku Yak, Thayorre, and used as a generic name for several related languages/dialects) is an Australian Aboriginal Language spoken on Western Cape York Peninsula, particularly in the area around Pormpuraaw (Edward River). The Thaayorre language region includes the landscape within Pormpuraaw Community Council and the Cook Shire Council.

Kugu Yi'anh is a language of Cape York. The traditional language area of Kugu Yi'anh includes areas within Cape York.

Kugu Nganhcara (also known as Wik, Wiknantjara, Wik Nganychara, Wik Ngencherr) is a traditional language of the area which includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cook Shire.

Kugu Muminh (also known as Kuku-Muminh) is one of the traditional languages which includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of the Cook Shire.

Kunjen (also known as Koko Wanggara, Ngundjan and Olkola) is a language of Western Cape York. The Kunjen language region includes the landscape within the local government boundaries of Kowanyama Community Council and Cook Shire Council.

Native title claims
The Cape York Land Council, established in 1990 as a land council, has fought for native title rights, and has won such rights over 45% per cent of the region by around 2018.

On 25 November 2021, 2,188 km2 of land on the eastern side of the peninsula were handed back to the Kuuku Ya'u and Uutaalnganu peoples, in a native title claim that was lodged seven years prior. The landmark ruling was delivered by Justice Debra Mortimer of the Federal Court of Australia, sitting at the Supreme Court of Queensland in Cairns.

In December 2022 the Federal Court recognised the native title claims for the Kaurareg, Kulkulgal, Kemer Kemer Meriam, Ankamuthi, and Gudang/Yadhaykenu peoples.

Flora
Cape York Peninsula supports a complex mosaic of intact tropical rainforests, tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannahs, shrublands, heath lands, wetlands, wild rivers and mangrove swamps. The savannah woodlands consist typically of a tall dense grass layer and varying densities of trees, predominantly eucalypt of which the most common is Darwin stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta). These various habitats are home to about 3300 species of flowering plants and almost the entire area of Cape York Peninsula (99.6%) still retains its native vegetation and is little fragmented. Although abundant and fully functioning on the peninsula, tropical savannahs are now rare and highly degraded in other parts of the world. Cape York Peninsula also contains one of the highest rates of endemism in Australia, with more than 260 endemic plant species found so far. Therefore, parts of the peninsula have been noted for their exceptionally high wilderness quality.

The flora of the peninsula includes original Gondwanan species, plants that have emerged since the breakup of Gondwana and species from Indomalaya and from across the Torres Strait in New Guinea with the most variety being found in the rainforest areas. Most of the Cape York Peninsula is drier than nearby New Guinea which limits the rainforest plants of that island from migrating across to Australia.

Tropical rainforests cover an area of 748000 ha, or 5.6 percent of the total land area of Cape York Peninsula. Rainforests depend on some level of rainfall throughout the long dry season, climatic conditions that are mostly found on the eastern slopes of the peninsula's coastal ranges. Being almost exclusively untouched, old-growth forests and supporting a disproportionately high biodiversity including flora of Gondwanan and New Guinean origin, the rainforests are of high conservation significance. The largest contiguous rainforest area on the peninsula occurs in the McIllwraith Range-Iron Range area. The Gondwanan flora of this area includes Araucariaceae and Podocarpaceae conifers and Arthrochilus, Corybas, and Calochilus orchids. In all, this rainforest contains at least 1000 different plants, including 100 rare or threatened species, and 16% of Australia's orchid species.

On poor, dry soils tropical heathlands can be found. Northeast Cape York Peninsula supports Australia's largest areas of this highly diverse ecosystem.

The extensive wetlands on Cape York Peninsula are "among the largest, richest and most diverse in Australia". 19 wetlands of national significance have been identified, mostly on the large floodplains and in coastal areas. Important wetlands include the Apudthama Complex, Rinyirru systems and the estuaries of the great rivers of the western plains. Many of these wetlands come into existence only during the wet season and support rare or uncommon plant communities.

The peninsula's coastal areas and river estuaries are lined with mangrove forests of kwila and other trees. Australia's largest mangrove forest can be found at Newcastle Bay.

Fauna
The peninsula harbours an extraordinary biodiversity, with more than 700 vertebrate land animal species of which 40 are endemic. As a result, from its geological history, "the flora and fauna of Cape York Peninsula are a complex mixture of Gondwanan relics, Australian isolationists and Asian or New Guinean invaders" (p. 41). Birds of the peninsula include buff-breasted buttonquail (Turnix olivii), golden-shouldered parrot (Psephotus chrysopterygius), lovely fairywren (Malurus amabilis), white-streaked honeyeater (Trichodere cockerelli), and yellow-spotted honeyeater (Meliphaga notata) while some such as pied oystercatcher are found in other parts of Australia but have important populations on the peninsula. The peninsula is also home to the eastern brown snake, one of the world's most venomous snakes. Mammals include the rodent Cape York melomys, related to the extinct Bramble Cay melomys, which was found only on Bramble Cay in the Torres Strait and confirmed extinct in 2016.

The rainforests of the Kutini-Payamu National Park support species that are also found in New Guinea, including the eclectus parrot and southern common cuscus. Other rainforest fauna includes 200 species of butterfly including 11 endemic butterflies one of which is the huge green birdwing, the green tree python and the northern quoll, a forest marsupial that is now severely depleted from eating the introduced poisonous cane toads.

The riverbanks of the lowlands are home to specific wildlife of their own while the rivers including the Jardine, Jackson, Olive, Holroyd and the Wenlock are rich in fish. The wetlands and coastal mangroves are noted for their importance as a fish nursery and crocodile habitat, providing important drought refuge and finally the Great Barrier Reef lies off the east coast and is an important marine habitat.

Threats and preservation

Cattle station leases occupy about 57% of the total area, mostly located in central and eastern Cape York Peninsula. Indigenous land comprises about 20%, with the entire West coast being held under native title. The remainder is mostly declared as National Park and managed by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service. Land uses include broad-acre pastoralism, bauxite and silica sand mining, nature reserves, tourism and fishing.

There are extensive deposits of bauxite along the west or Gulf of Carpentaria coast. Weipa is the centre for mining. Much has been damaged by overgrazing, mining, poorly controlled fires and feral pigs, cane toads, weeds, and other introduced species but Cape York Peninsula remains fairly unspoilt with intact and healthy river systems and no recorded plant or animal extinction since European settlement.

The "Cape York Peninsula Land Use Strategy" study was commissioned by the Australian government in 1990 to create plans to protect the wilderness and a nomination for World Natural Heritage is currently being considered by the Queensland and Australian Federal governments. Major national parks include the Apudthama National Park in the far north, Oyala Thumotang National Park near Aurukun, and Rinyirru National Park in the southeast of the bioregion. On 16 June 2024, a submission was made for the Cape York Peninsula to be a mixed world-heritage site under the title Cultural Landscapes of Cape York Peninsula.

Transport

There are two roads passing north–south through Cape York Peninsula to Cape York: the Peninsula Developmental Road (PDR) and the Northern Peninsula Road (also called Bamaga Road and Telegraph Road).

Bamaga Road now bypasses the overland telegraph line (OTL) track, which is often referred to as the tele track. The tele track was used for construction and maintenance of the OTL until it was superseded by first microwave relay towers and then by fibre optic cables, and is now used by four-wheel drive vehicle enthusiasts in the dry season. Many crossings, such as the bridge over the Wenlock near Moreton station, have been upgraded; however, many fords remain. The roads are unsealed and in places are difficult to traverse. They are considered suitable for four-wheel-drive vehicles only and also considered only suitable to be driven in the dry season.

In 1986, Cape York became the proposed site of a spaceport, which a consortium of companies, the Cape York Space Agency, promoted with support from the federal government. In 1992, investor support failed, and in 2017, legal ownership of 160000 ha of land required was returned to the Wuthathi, Kuku Yau and Northern Kaanju people. The development, which was heavily supported by Queensland premier Joh Bjelke-Petersen, would have included a new town, tourist resorts, an airport and a harbour.

title: Cape York Peninsula


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Baron Rossmore

Baron Rossmore, of Monaghan in the County of Monaghan, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1796 for the soldier Robert Cuninghame, with remainder to his wife Elizabeth's nephews Henry Alexander Jones (the son of Theophilus Jones and Anne Murray, eldest sister of Elizabeth; Henry Alexander Jones died childless before his uncle Lord Rossmore) and Warner William Westenra, son of Henry Westenra and Harriet Murray, youngest sister of Elizabeth. Cuninghame was a General in the Army and served as Commander-in-Chief of Ireland. From January to August 1801 he also sat in the House of Lords as an Irish representative peer.

Lord Rossmore died childless (his death gave rise to the legend of the Rossmore banshee) and was succeeded according to the special remainder by his nephew Warner William Westenra, the second Baron. He represented Monaghan in the British House of Commons and also served as Lord Lieutenant of Monaghan from 1831 to 1842. In 1838 he was created Baron Rossmore, of the County of Monaghan, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. This gave the barons an automatic seat in the House of Lords. His eldest son, Henry Robert Westenra, the third Baron, represented Monaghan in Parliament as a Whig and was Lord Lieutenant of Monaghan from 1843 to 1852. Henry's younger son, the fifth Baron (who succeeded his elder unmarried brother), was Lord Lieutenant of Monaghan from 1897 to 1921. the titles are held by the latter's great-grandson, the eighth Baron, who succeeded his father in that year.

The Westenra family is of Dutch descent. Warner Westenra (died 1676) immigrated to Dublin and became an Irish subject. The seat of the Barons Rossmore was Rossmore Castle, County Monaghan. Warner Westenra, grandfather of the second Baron, represented Maryborough in the Irish Parliament. Henry Westenra, father of the second Baron, represented County Monaghan in the Irish Parliament. The Honourable John Westenra, third son of the second Baron, was Member of Parliament for King's County.

The family seat was Rossmore Park, near Monaghan, County Monaghan, in Ireland.

Baron Rossmore (1796, 1838)

 * Robert Cuninghame, 1st Baron Rossmore (1726–1801)
 * Warner William Westenra, 2nd Baron Rossmore (1765–1842)
 * Henry Robert Westenra, 3rd Baron Rossmore (1792–1860)
 * Henry Cairnes Westenra, 4th Baron Rossmore (1851–1874)
 * Derrick Warner William Westenra, 5th Baron Rossmore (1853–1921)
 * William Westenra, 6th Baron Rossmore (1892–1958)
 * William Warner Westenra, 7th Baron Rossmore (1931–2021)
 * Benedict William Westenra, 8th Baron Rossmore (b. 1983)

There is currently no heir to the title.

title: Baron Rossmore


text:
Baron Rendlesham

Baron Rendlesham, of Rendlesham, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1806 for the businessman Peter Thellusson, who also represented Midhurst, Malmesbury and Bossiney in Parliament. The Thellusson (pronounced "Tellusson") family were of French Protestant origin, but settled in Geneva, Switzerland, after the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre of 1572.

A later member of the family, Peter Thellusson, emigrated to England in 1762 where he established a successful London business. From the wealth acquired, he purchased several estates around the country, notably Brodsworth Hall in South Yorkshire. After his death his estate was embroiled in the Thellusson Will Case. His eldest son was the aforementioned Peter Isaac Thellusson, 1st Baron Rendlesham, who took over the family business. Lord Rendlesham's younger son, the fourth Baron (who succeeded his twin brother), sat as a Member of Parliament for Suffolk East. His only son, the fifth Baron, also represented this constituency (as a Conservative). the title is held by the latter's great-grandson, the ninth Baron, who succeeded his father in 1999.

Line of succession

 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Peter Isaac Thellusson, 1st Baron Rendlesham (1761–1808)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] John Thellusson, 2nd Baron Rendlesham (1785–1832)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] William Thellusson, 3rd Baron Rendlesham (1798–1839)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Frederick Thellusson, 4th Baron Rendlesham (1798–1852)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Frederick William Brook Thellusson, 5th Baron Rendlesham (1840–1911)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Frederick Archibald Charles Thellusson, 6th Baron Rendlesham (1868–1938)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Percy Edward Thellusson, 7th Baron Rendlesham (1874–1943)
 * Hon. Hugh Edmund Thellusson (1876–1926)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Charles Anthony Hugh Thellusson, 8th Baron Rendlesham (1915–1999)
 * [[Image:Coronet of a British Baron.svg|15px|baseline]] Charles William Brooke Thellusson, 9th Baron Rendlesham (born 1954)
 * Hon. Peter Robert Thellusson (1920–2007)
 * (1) James Hugh Thellusson (born 1961)
 * (2) Benjamin Peter Thellusson (born 2002)
 * (3) Peter Richard Thellusson (born 1962)

The heir presumptive is present holder's first cousin, James Hugh Thellusson (born 1961). The heir presumptive's heir apparent is his son, Benjamin Peter Thellusson (born 2002).

title: Baron Rendlesham


text:
Louis Auchincloss

Louis Stanton Auchincloss (September 27, 1917 – January 26, 2010) was an American lawyer, novelist, historian, and essayist. He is best known as a novelist who parlayed his experiences into books exploring the experiences and psychology of American polite society and old money. His dry, ironic works of fiction continue the tradition of Henry James and Edith Wharton. He wrote his novels initially under the name Andrew Lee, the name of an ancestor who cursed any descendant who drank or smoked.

Early life
Born in Lawrence, New York, Auchincloss was the son of Priscilla Dixon (née Stanton) and Joseph Howland Auchincloss. His brother was Howland Auchincloss and his paternal grandfather, John Winthrop Auchincloss, was the brother of Edgar Stirling Auchincloss (father of James C. Auchincloss) and Hugh Dudley Auchincloss (father of Hugh D. Auchincloss, Jr.). He grew up among the privileged people about whom he would write, although, as he put it, "There was never an Auchincloss fortune…each generation of Auchincloss men either made or married its own money".

He attended St. Bernard's School, Groton School and Yale University, where he was editor of the Yale Literary Magazine. Although he did not complete his undergraduate studies at Yale, he was admitted to and attended law school at the University of Virginia. He graduated in 1941 and was admitted to the New York bar the same year.

Career
Auchincloss was an associate at Sullivan & Cromwell from 1941 to 1951 (with an interruption for war service from 1942 to 1945 in the United States Navy during World War II, which might have inspired his 1947 novel The Indifferent Children). He applied to join the Naval Reserve as an intelligence specialist on December 4, 1940 and was appointed as a lieutenant on December 1, 1942.

After taking a break to pursue full-time writing, Auchincloss returned to working as a lawyer, first as an associate (1954–58) and then as a partner (1958–86) at Hawkins, Delafield and Wood in New York City as a wills and trusts attorney, while writing at the rate of a book a year.

Literary career
Auchincloss is known for his closely observed portraits of old New York and New England society. Among his books are the multi-generational sagas The House of Five Talents (1960), Portrait in Brownstone (1962), and East Side Story (2004). The Rector of Justin (1964) is the tale of a renowned headmaster of a prep school like the one he attended, Groton School, trying to deal with changing times.

In the early 1980s, Auchincloss produced three novels which were not centered on the New York he knew so well, i.e. The Cat and the King, set in Louis XIV's Versailles, Watchfires, concerned with the American Civil War, and Exit Lady Masham, set in Queen Anne's England. Auchincloss would remain close to New York again, however, in his later fiction writing.

Gore Vidal said of his work: "Of all our novelists, Auchincloss is the only one who tells us how our rulers behave in their banks and their boardrooms, their law offices and their clubs.... Not since Dreiser has an American writer had so much to tell us about the role of money in our lives."

Personal life
In 1957, Auchincloss married Adele Burden Lawrence (1931–1991), the daughter of Florence Irvin (née Burden) Lawrence and Blake Leigh Lawrence. Her grandfather was prominent industrialist James A. Burden Jr. and her great-grandmother was Vanderbilt heiress Emily Thorn (née Vanderbilt) Sloane White. Adele was an artist, environmentalist and later became a deputy administrator of the New York City Parks and Recreation Department. Together they had three children:

 * Andrew Sloan Auchincloss, a lawyer who married Tracy Lee Ehrlich in 1999.
 * John Winthrop Auchincloss II, a lawyer who married Dr. Tracy Pennoyer, sister of architect Peter Pennoyer (both great-grandchildren of J.P. Morgan Jr.), in April 1988.
 * Blake Leigh Auchincloss, an architect who married in Lauren Stewart Moores, a daughter of John Duer Moores Jr., in June 1988.

He was president and chairman of the Museum of the City of New York and chairman of the City Hall Restoration Committee and was a member of the Century Association and the American Academy of Arts and Letters, where he served as president.

On January 26, 2010, Auchincloss died from complications of a stroke at Lenox Hill Hospital in New York City.

Politics
In his youth, Auchincloss was a "a Roosevelt-hating conservative." Once, while attending Yale, he waved a sunflower (the symbol of Republican Alfred Landon) at President Roosevelt's passing motorcade. Auchincloss wrote conservative articles in Virginia Law Review, which have been described as expressing "a nostalgic and romantic idealism".

In his adult life, Auchincloss was a registered Republican. However, he voted for Democrat Bill Clinton explaining, "I think we’re moving dangerously into a have and have not situation...for the first time in 150 years the rich are sneering at the poor."

Auchincloss described the Bush Family as “a big family of shits." He explained his decision to receive the National Medal of the Arts from President George W. Bush, saying, "I didn’t accept a prize from George W Bush, I accepted a prize from the President of the United States. Who am I to turn that down?"

Awards and legacy
Significant collections of Auchincloss's papers reside at the Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library at the University of Virginia and at the Beinecke Library at Yale University. In addition, he was the recipient of the following awards and accolades:
 * National Book Award Finalist (1960, 1961, 1965, 1967)
 * Member, American Academy of Arts and Letters (1965)
 * Honorary degree, New York University (Litt.D., 1974)
 * Honorary degree, Pace University (1979)
 * President, American Academy of Arts and Letters (19??)
 * Honorary degree, The University of the South (1986)
 * Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1997)
 * "Living Landmark" status (2000), New York Landmarks Conservancy
 * National Medal of Arts (2005)

Works
Auchincloss wrote more than 60 books.

Novels

 * The Indifferent Children (1947)
 * Sybil (1952)
 * A Law for the Lion (1953)
 * The Great World and Timothy Colt (1956)
 * Venus in Sparta (1958)
 * Pursuit of the Prodigal (1959): National Book Award Finalist
 * The House of Five Talents (1960): National Book Award Finalist
 * Portrait in Brownstone (1962)
 * The Rector of Justin (1964): National Book Award Finalist
 * The Embezzler (1966): National Book Award Finalist
 * A World of Profit (1968)
 * I Come as a Thief (1972)
 * The Dark Lady (1977)
 * The Country Cousin (1978)
 * The House of the Prophet (1980)
 * The Cat and the King (1981)
 * Watchfires (1982)
 * Exit Lady Masham (1983)
 * The Book Class (1984)
 * Honourable Men (1986)
 * Diary of a Yuppie (1987)
 * The Golden Calves (1988)
 * Fellow Passengers: A Novel in Portraits (1989)
 * The Lady of Situations (1990)
 * Three Lives (1993)
 * The Education of Oscar Fairfax (1995)
 * Her Infinite Variety (2000)
 * The Scarlet Letters (2003)
 * East Side Story (2004)
 * The Headmaster's Dilemma (2007)
 * Last of the Old Guard (2008)

Short story collections

 * The Injustice Collectors (1950)
 * The Romantic Egoists (1954)
 * Powers of Attorney (1963)
 * Tales of Manhattan (1967)
 * Second Chance: Tales of Two Generations (1970)
 * The Partners (1974)
 * The Winthrop Covenant (1976)
 * Narcissa and Other Fables (1982)
 * Skinny Island: More Tales of Manhattan (1987)
 * False Gods (1992)
 * Tales of Yesteryear (1994)
 * The Collected Stories of Louis Auchincloss (1994)
 * The Atonement and Other Stories (1997)
 * The Anniversary and Other Stories (1999)
 * Manhattan Monologues (2002)
 * The Young Apollo and Other Stories (2006)
 * The Friend of Women and Other Stories (2007)

Nonfiction

 * Reflections of a Jacobite (1961)
 * Pioneers and Caretakers: A Study of Nine American Women Novelists (1965)
 * On Sister Carrie (1968)
 * Motiveless Malignity (1969)
 * Edith Wharton: A Woman in Her Time (1972)
 * Richelieu (1972)
 * A Writer's Capital (1974)
 * Reading Henry James (1975)
 * Life, Law, and Letters: Essays and Sketches (1979)
 * Persons of Consequence: Queen Victoria and Her Circle (1979)
 * False Dawn: Women in the Age of the Sun King (1985)
 * The Vanderbilt Era: Profiles of a Gilded Age (1989)
 * Love without Wings: Some Friendships in Literature and Politics (1991)
 * The Style's the Man: Reflections on Proust, Fitzgerald, Wharton, Vidal, and Others (1994)
 * The Man Behind the Book: Literary Profiles (1996)
 * Woodrow Wilson (Penguin Lives) (2000)
 * Theodore Roosevelt (The American Presidents Series) (2002)
 * A Voice from Old New York: A Memoir of My Youth (2010)

Adaptations
Auchincloss's The Great World and Timothy Colt (1956) was adapted for television in an episode of the Climax! series (Season 4, Episode 22; Broadcast 27 March 1958). Composer Paul Reif adapted Portrait in Brownstone into an opera upon which he was working at the time of his death; it has remained unperformed.

title: Louis Auchincloss