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Cow Creek (Montana)

Cow Creek is a tributary of the Missouri River, approximately 35 mi long, in north central Montana in the United States. Cow Creek rises in the southern foothills of the Bear Paw Mountains in western Blaine County and flows east and then south, joining the Missouri approximately 25 mi northeast of Winifred, Montana—or 22 mi upstream from the Fred Robinson Bridge.

Name
The creek's Gros Ventre name is báasikɔ́hʔɔ́wuh, meaning 'big gulch'.

Prehistory
Cow Creek flows from the southern foothills of the Bear Paw Mountains to the Missouri through a unique and remote area known as the Missouri Breaks. The breaks are extensive and steeply eroded badlands. They are so rough that they are a barrier to travel by animals or man. They extend along the Missouri River for over 200 mi. In this long stretch of river the Missouri Breaks extend back from the river on either side, for many miles. As the Missouri flows through this 200 mile stretch, the breaks limit access to the river from the wide undulating grasslands north and south of the river.

Cow Creek provides one of the few access routes down to the Missouri River through the Missouri Breaks. As Cow Creek flows through the breaks it passes between high canyon like walls, but the stream meanders back and forth over a canyon floor that is relatively level and from 100 to(-) in width.

The canyon bottom along Cow Creek creates a corridor of travel from the northern Montana plains down to the river through the breaks. Sediments seasonally washed out from the mouth of Cow Creek into the Missouri River formed Cow Island, just downriver from the creek mouth. Cow Island divides the Missouri into two channels, which makes crossing the broad Missouri easier at this point. On the south side of the river opposite the Cow Island, a steep but relatively short four mile climb out of the breaks gains the wide plains of Central Montana south of the river.

This combination of geographic features made Cow Creek and the ford at Cow Island an ancient highway of travel. For thousands of years, Cow Creek and the Cow Island ford was used by migrating buffalo herds and other migrating animals, and by nomadic Native Americans bent on going between the plains north of the Missouri River Breaks and the plains lying south of the Missouri Breaks.

Lewis and Clark expedition
Lewis and Clark passed Cow Creek on May 26, 1805 after they had camped two miles below Cow Creek. Cow Creek was originally named Windsor Creek in the journals of the expedition for Pvt. Richard Windsor, but was later named Cow Creek by fur traders. May 26, 1805 was the day that Clark climbed out of the breaks (probably going up Bull Whacker Creek, and climbing up on a ridge), where he saw the Rocky Mountains for the first time. When Windsor/Cow Creek was noted by Lewis, it was reported to be 30 yards wide, which meant it would be in spring flood stage. Normally Windsor/Cow Creek would be a few yards wide, and in very dry weather (during a dry summer, or in the depth of a dry winter) it can become a trickle between stagnant pools of water.

Steamboat landing

The mouth of Cow Creek became a steamboat landing, known as Cow Island landing, in the later months of the summer and fall when the Missouri river level dropped to a level so that steamboats could not get through a series of rapids above Cow Island, which are Bird Rapids, Cabin Rapids, Dauphine Rapids, and Deadman Rapids. Being some 126 river miles short of Ft. Benton, steamboats had to offload their cargo at the Cow Island landing for it to be freighted the rest of the way up the Cow Island trail.

Once gold was discovered in the Montana Territory in 1862, the Missouri River became the most reliable pathway to bring passengers and freight—particularly heavy or bulky freight—to the booming gold fields. In the era from 1860 the mid-1880s steamboats brought supplies and heavy equipment some 2600 mi from ports like St. Louis in "the states" to the upriver terminus port of Ft. Benton in the Montana Territory.

The final 1300 mi of the river was called the "upper Missouri" – this stretch traversed remote unsettled plains, and the last few hundred miles to Ft. Benton passed through the Missouri Breaks. In May and June the Missouri River has "high water" from mountain snow melt, and steamboats who caught this flood could travel all the way through the breaks to reach the upriver terminus at Ft. Benton. Later, in the summer and fall the water levels dropped, and there was "low water" on the upper Missouri. When "low water" came, deeper draft steamboats often could not reach Ft. Benton, and they had to drop their cargos downstream in the Missouri Breaks.

Each year during the steamboat era, in the late summer and fall, if there wasn't a full three feet of water depth in the channel, Cow Island and the mouth of Cow Creek became a river port, known as Cow Island landing. The mouth of Cow Cree is 126 river miles below Ft. Benton. Some 24 miles above Cow Island was Dauphine Rapids, which was the worst of the rapids. It was difficult to run even in high water, but was a deadly barrier to riverboats in low water. If a steamboat could get through Dauphine Rapids, they then faced Deadman Rapids, some 18 miles further up the river. In the stretch of river below Deadman and Dauphine Rapids, Cow Island landing was the best place from which freight could be offloaded and then transported overland to Ft. Benton, via the Cow Island Trail.

To offload cargo at Cow island, the steamboats used a landing point several hundred yards above Cow Creek, in front of the now abandoned buildings of the Kipp homestead (see photo), or down river, several hundreds of yards below Cow Creek. The steamboats used landing sites where the water of the Missouri was deep up against the north bank, so the river boats could pull in close to the bank to discharge cargo.

Cow Island Trail
The wagon road that started at Cow Island Landing and went up Cow Creek, then out onto broad grassy plains and on to Ft. Benton, was called the Cow Island Trail. This road up Cow Creek traversed the only possible team-and-wagon route in this part of the rough badlands known as the Missouri Breaks. At 35 miles long, Cow Creek is one of the longer Missouri tributaries in the breaks. It extends north to the Bearpaw Mountains where it receives seasonal spring snow melt. Over many millenniums, this greater seasonal discharge eroded and widened the creek bottom so it became flat enough for a team and wagon to traverse. From the steamboat landing on the Missouri, the trail went north up the Cow Creek bottom for 15 mi to Davidson Coulee, at which time the trail turned west and climbed up a long steep grade on Davidson Ridge to reach the plains north of the Missouri River Breaks.

From year to year, and month to month the volume of freight on the Cow Island Trail fluctuated depending on whether the riverboats had high water so they could get up river to Fort Benton, or whether low water over the Dauphine and other rapids caused riverboats to offload at Cow Island Landing. Starting in 1863 the Cow Island Trail had high volumes of freight traffic. 1863 was a low water year, and word was spreading that there were rich strikes in Montana Territory gold fields. In 1866 there was good water till July, so freight volume declined. 1868 was a different story. By year end, 2,500 men, 3,000 teams and 20,000 oxen ere involved in freighting on the Cow Island Trail to Ft. Benton.

No permanent storehouses were erected at Cow Island. Once freight was offloaded at Cow Island, it was tarped and remained only briefly before being moved to Ft. Benton. The high profits on freight could only be realized once the goods had gotten to Ft. Benton. A common outfit on the trail was 2 wagons, each pulled by six to eight oxen, with two bullwhackers. Oxen were preferred over horses and mules because they required less food and water, did not wander during storms, and "Indians didn't steal them because they couldn't ride them and they were to tough to eat".

The Cow Creek Trail was far from ideal, and carrying freight to Fr. Benton was never an easy task. In the confines of Cow Creek's narrow but relatively flat creek bottom, the creek meanders from one steep coulee sidewall to the other. While traveling the 15 miles up Cow Creek the heavy freight wagons had to ford Cow Creek 31 times. The fords would wash out if the area had a heavy rain. In wetter weather heavy wagons could bog down at a creek crossing. After going 15 miles up the creek bottom, the freighters encountered long steep grades. The freighters had to stop, unhitch and "double team" or even "triple team" each of the wagons. In 1864 while ascending a steep grade on the trail, a wagon ran its outside wheels off the trail and went over, dragging the ox team with it. The descent of 300 feet killed the oxen, badly damaged the wagon and scattered its contents.

Nez Perce War
On September 23, 1877 several hundred Nez Perce crossed the Missouri at Cow Creek in their flight toward Canada. An army garrison of twelve men under Sergeant William Molchert was at Cow Island Landing, along with four civilian clerks who represented freighting interests in the region. Fifty tons of freight, which had been offloaded from steamboats, lay under tarpaulins at the landing awaiting shipment by wagon to Fort Benton or other remote corners of the Montana Territory.

The Nez Perce crossed the Missouri at several places. The group observed by soldiers first sent an advance guard of 20 or so warriors across, who spread out on the north bank. Then the women and children crossed with pack animals and camp equipment, and finally a rear guard of warriors crossed.

Several armed encounters involving the Nez Perce occurred on Cow Creek, but the most important event was the fateful decision made while in camp on Cow Creek on September 25, 1877.

The squad of soldiers at Cow Island Landing on September 23, 1877 had been sent to guard the stockpiled supplies, which had been offloaded from steamboats. Upon the arrival of the Nez Perce, the soldiers and the clerks retreated into an earthen entrenchment which had been built around their tents to divert rain water. The entrenchment was a few hundred yards from the ford. Significantly the entrenchment was also a few hundred yards from the stacked supplies.

After crossing the river, the main body of the Nez Perce went past the soldiers without incident, and camped about two miles up Cow Creek. A small group of Nez Perce rode to the entrenchment. They indicated friendly intentions and asked for some of the stockpiled food. The army sergeant in charge at first ignored their request which reduced the Nez Perce to begging. Finally the sergeant gave them one bag of hardtack and one side of bacon from the soldier's own stores. At sundown gunfire broke from Indians in the breaks, who had located themselves so they could fire down into the entrenchment. Two civilians were wounded and the soldiers, though able to return fire, were now pinned down. The supplies were far enough from the entrenchment so that, as night fell, the Indians could filter out of the steep eroded breaks and get to the supplies without coming under effective fire. After dark the Indians broke into the supplies, and took what they found desirable in the dark. The supplies were set on fire. A large stockpile of bacon burned brightly for most of the night. The soldiers attributed the illumination from this blaze with preventing a concerted attack, but it is more likely that the Nez Perce only wanted the supplies and not a pitched battle with the soldiers. The Indians and the soldiers exchanged sporadic gunfire through the night until about 10:00 in the morning, after which the Nez Perce moved off up Cow Creek. Two civilians and one Nez Perce warrior were wounded.

On September 22, 1877, before the arrival of the Nez Perce, a wagon train had left Cow Island Landing with 35 tons of freight and a herd of cattle, heading up Cow Island Trail for Ft. Benton. On September 24 while still in Cow Island Canyon, the train was overtaken by the Nez Perce who approached them unthreateningly and camped one and one half miles away. That evening some Nez Perce visited the camp of the wagon train and there were civil exchanges between the members of the wagon train and the Nez Perce who wanted to trade for ammunition and other goods.

On the morning of September 25, a small army relief force under Major Guido Igles approached the rear of the Nez Perce assemblage on Cow Creek. Major Igles had come from Ft. Benton to the aid of the outpost at Cow Island Landing. He was leading a handful of soldiers and civilian volunteers from Ft. Benton. After reaching Cow Island on September 24, he had continued on the trail of the Nez Perce.

When the Nez Perce discovered Major Igles coming up Cow Creek, some warriors went down the canyon to take up positions to meet this threat. Other Nez Perce attacked the wagon train. One teamster was killed and the others fled into willows along the creek or into the breaks. The main body of the Nez Perce helped themselves to some goods in the wagons, set them on fire, and continued on up Cow Creek.

Meanwhile, the Nez Perce warriors forming the rear guard had taken up positions on heights facing Major Igles small force which was down in Cow Creek canyon. Firing broke out. The Nez Perce were in a position to fire into Igles position. One civilian was killed. Another was saved when a bullet was deflected by his belt buckle, bruising his abdomen. After two hours, the Nez Perce broke off the engagement. Fearing an ambush and knowing he was greatly outnumbered, Major Igles began a slow and cautious withdrawal to Cow Island Landing. He reported two Nez Perce wounded in the encounter.

On the night of September 25 the steamer Benton arrived at Cow Island Landing, discharging fifty tons of freight, and the steamer Silver City approached with an additional one hundred tons. Major Igles sent couriers reporting the Nez Perce location to General Miles who was advancing cross country from Ft. Keogh with fresh troops to intercept the Nez Perce.

When the Nez Perce started up Cow Creek, they were only 80 mi from Canada. While camped on Cow Creek on the evening of September 25 following the skirmish with Major Igles dissention broke out among the Nez Perce leadership between those who wanted to press on and those who wanted to slow to rest tired and weakened people and horses. The Nez Perce believed the soldiers were now far behind them. They were unaware that General Miles was coming cross country from Ft. Keogh as fast as his troops could travel. Those who wanted to go slower won out. Because the Nez Perce paused instead of pressing ahead, on September 30, General Miles' column caught up with the Nez Perce who were camped on Snake Creek east of the Bear Paw Mountains, just 40 mi from Canada. Miles immediately attacked. On October 5, 1877 after six days of fighting, and with Nez Perce men, women and children suffering and dying from wounds and exposure to freezing weather, Chief Joseph surrendered the Nez Perce to the U.S. Army commanders.

The capture of the Nez Perce occurred because they delayed in crossing the Canada–US border, allowing General Miles to catch up to them with a fresh force of soldiers, who were superior in number and firepower. The events, "battles" and skirmishes on Cow Creek added to the overall delay, allowing General Miles to close the gap. However the deciding factor that determined the fate of the Nez Perce was the fateful decision made during the tribal council on the evening of September 25, 1877 while in camp along Cow Creek.

Homesteading
Where small creeks or streams emerge from the breaks to meet the Missouri, there are broad riverside "bottoms" with meadows and cottonwoods. Cow Creek opens to such a bottom at its junction with the Missouri, and further downstream Bull Creek opens up another bottom as it flows into the Missouri.

Just upstream from the mouth of Cow Creek, the Kipp homestead lies in Cow Creek bottom. It is adjacent to the site of the old upper steamboat landing, above the mouth of Cow Creek. One source reports that the Kipp homestead was originally filed by the historic figure James Kipp (1788–1880) and was lived in by his son, Joseph and then his grandson, James Kipp, but that this Kipp homestead and the homestead downriver on Bull Creek became the property of the Jones family, related by marriage to the Kipp family. Another source indicates the homestead was claimed by Jim Kipp in 1913. Jim was the son of Joseph Kipp (1849–1913) who was the son of the historic figure James Kipp (1788–1880) and his wife Earth Woman. The elder historic James Kipp (1788–1880) helped establish Ft. Union at the mouth of the Yellowstone in 1828 and he also founded Ft. Piegan at the mouth of the Marias River in 1831. The Kipp homestead is abandoned but a few cabins and outbuildings remain standing at the homestead site.

Road access to both homesteads was along a primitive road that traveled downstream along the Missouri on the north side of the river to the site of a power plant. This road was still passable from the power plant site to Cow Creek a few years ago. During the homesteading years, one of the few ferries in the Missouri breaks operated at the site of the power plant. From the power plant ferry a road went north to the Zortman area, and another road went south toward Lewistown, Montana.

Today

Once an ancient and much used highway for migrating animals and nomadic natives, Cow Creek and the Cow Island Crossing has been reduced to dormant inactivity by the passage of time. The migrating herds of buffalo were hunted to near extinction. The nomadic Native Americans were all placed on reservations, all long removed from Cow Creek. Railroads put an end to the Missouri River steamboat. The Missouri Breaks homesteader went broke or just got discouraged and left. Highway projects through the breaks chose more conveniently located routes than Cow Island or Cow Creek. A few ranches remain along the 35 mile extent of Cow Creek, and these are in the upper portion of the creek, in or near the foothills of the Bear Paw Mountains.

Cow Creek is now one of the more remote and uninhabited spots in an area – the Missouri Breaks – notorious for its isolation. This condition is recognized by the United States Bureau of Land Management (BLM), which is currently considering the lower portion of Cow Creek for wilderness status.

The abandoned buildings of the Kipp homestead on Cow Creek bottom and the homestead on Bull bottom continue to deteriorate. For many years a snubbing post, used to tie up steamboats, was buried in the river bank between the Kipp homestead and the river. The snubbing post may have since washed into the river. It is reported that the remains of the entrenchments are still visible that used by the soldiers in the 1877 skirmish with the Nez Perce that is now known as the "Battle of Cow Island". For many years the metal wreckage from wagons burned by the Nez Perce on September 25, 1877 could be seen in Cow Creek canyon. An unsupported (and very likely apocryphal) local rumor developed that the wagon train had been carrying gold and it was taken by the Nez Perce and buried in the vicinity.

Lower Cow Creek, where the deserted homesteads are located, is difficult to visit. A mostly dirt surfaced BLM road runs west from Montana Highway 66 for 14 mi, before dropping down into Bull Creek. Bull Creek joins the Missouri very near Cow Island, and from Bull Creek one can get to the adjacent mouth of Cow Creek. In the descent from the high ridges of the breaks into the Missouri bottom at Bull Creek, this road has steep rutted inclines and several switchbacks. The road is often cut into the side of steep cliffs. This stretch is sharply eroded with washouts, and there are precious few places to turn around, if the traveler decides he has had enough.

As for the old freight trail that went upstream from the mouth of Cow Creek, there is no longer any road to speak of in the first 15 miles. The multiple creek crossings of the old Cow Creek trail have been eroded away into cut banks, and the gravel bars where the wagons crossed have been swept down stream. Here and there the remnants of the old Cow Creek Trail can be observed along Cow Creek but it is sketchy. Upper Cow Creek is not so isolated. About 15 miles up from the Missouri, where Davidson Coulee flows into Cow Creek, Blaine County Road 330 (Cow Creek Trail) drops down Davidson ridge to Cow Creek Bottom from the west. One ranch is located near this point. The name "Cow Island Trail" is still applied to the road that goes from the junction of Cow Creek and Davidson Coulee up to the bench and on to the west, and this is probably the same route that the original Cow Island freight trail followed as it went on to Ft. Benton. Above Davidson Coulee Cow Creek is paralleled by Blain County Road 314 (Birdtail Road) for about 6 mi. In the upper reaches of Cow Creek a County road (Birdtail Road) descends to a second ranch. Blaine County Road 300 crosses Cow Creek at it upper end, near the forks of West and East Cow Creek, just under the southern flank of the Bears Paw Mountains.

Most of the roads in the breaks are simply dirt roads. Only a few are graveled. Dirt roads in the Cow Creek area (as well as most of the Missouri Breaks) can be traversed only with extreme difficulty (if at all) when wet. The breaks are partially eroded from clays of the Cretaceous formations which contain bentonite. When wet the surface of these clays becomes slick and then becomes "gumbo" which clings to and builds up on tires, wheels, feet and hooves. If caught on dirt roads in the breaks by rain the best (and sometimes the only) course is to simply wait till the surface dries out.

title: Cow Creek (Montana)


text:
West Jefferson

West Jefferson is the name of several communities in the United States of America:
 * West Jefferson, Alabama
 * West Jefferson, North Carolina
 * West Jefferson, Ohio, a village
 * West Jefferson, Williams County, Ohio, an unincorporated community

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: West Jefferson


text:
Shorenstein Properties

Shorenstein is a real estate investment company based in San Francisco that owns interests in 23 e6sqft of office space throughout the United States. The company has sponsored twelve closed-end real estate funds, with total equity commitments of $8.8 billion, including $723.5 million from the company.

The main office of the social media company Twitter at 1355 Market Street, San Francisco, belongs to Shorenstein, as was reported when Twitter was in arrear for paying rent.

History
In 1946, after being discharged from the military, Walter Shorenstein joined Milton Meyer & Company, which was later renamed Shorenstein Company.

In the early 1990s, Walter Shorenstein stepped back from day-to-day operations of the company. His son, Douglas W. Shorenstein, became chief executive officer of the company in 1995. Walter Shorenstein died in 2010 at age 95 and Douglas Shorenstein died at age 60 of cancer in 2015. In 2020, Brandon Shorenstein, Doug's son, was named chairman and CEO.

Shorenstein, purchased the Aon Center in 2014, and sold the building to a consortium of investors including Carolwood in December 2023.

title: Shorenstein Properties


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Cow Creek

Cow Creek may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Cow Creek, Kentucky
 * Cow Creek, South Dakota

Streams and rivers in the United States

 * Cow Creek (California), a creek in the area now known as Palo Cedro, California
 * Cow Creek (Sacramento River tributary), California
 * Cow Creek (Kansas)
 * Cow Creek (Spring River tributary), in Kansas
 * Cow Creek (Montana), a tributary of the Missouri River
 * Cow Creek (Jordan Creek), Oregon
 * Cow Creek (South Umpqua River), a stream in southern Oregon
 * Cow Creek (Washington), a river in Washington

Other uses

 * Cow Creek Band of Umpqua Tribe of Indians, a Native American tribe from the Cow Creek area of Oregon
 * Cow Creek Skirmish, Pittsburg, Kansas

title: Cow Creek


text:
ESV (disambiguation)

ESV is an abbreviation of the English Standard Version, a translation of the Bible in contemporary English.

ESV may also refer to:
 * Emergency shutdown valve
 * Employer-supported volunteering, a form of corporate volunteering
 * End-systolic volume
 * ESV, a brand of Cadillac Escalade
 * Exact sequence variant, also called an amplicon sequence variant
 * Experimental safety vehicle
 * M1132 Engineer Squad Vehicle

title: ESV (disambiguation)


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Kalmyk Oirat

Kalmyk Oirat (, Haľmg Öördin keln, ), commonly known as the Kalmyk language (, Haľmg keln, ), is a variety of the Oirat language, natively spoken by the Kalmyk people of Kalmykia, a federal subject of Russia. In Russia, it is the standard form of the Oirat language (based on the Torgut dialect), which belongs to the Mongolic language family. The Kalmyk people of the Northwest Caspian Sea of Russia claim descent from the Oirats from Eurasia, who have also historically settled in Mongolia and Northwest China. According to UNESCO, the language is "Definitely endangered". According to the Russian census of 2021, there are 110,000 speakers of an ethnic population consisting of 178,000 people.

History
Kalmyk is now only spoken as a native language by a small minority of the Kalmyk population. Its decline as a living language began after the Kalmyk people were deported en masse from their homeland in December 1943, as punishment for limited Kalmyk collaboration with the Nazis. Significant factors contributing to its demise include: (1) the deaths of a substantial percentage of the Kalmyk population from disease and malnutrition, both during their travel and upon their arrival to remote exile settlements in Central Asia, south central Siberia and the Soviet Far East; (2) the wide dispersal of the Kalmyk population; (3) the duration of exile, which ended in 1957; (4) the stigma associated with being accused of treason, and (5) assimilation into the larger, more dominant culture. Collectively, these factors discontinued the intergenerational language transmission.

In 1957, the Soviet government reinstated the Kalmyk Autonomous Oblast and later reestablished the Autonomous Republic of Kalmykia. The Kalmyk people were permitted to return to the Republic in 1957, 14 years after exile. The Russian language, however, was made the official language of the Republic, and Sovietisation was imposed on the Kalmyk people, leading to drastic cuts in Kalmyk language education. The Cyrillic alphabet became firmly established among the Kalmyks (and other peoples, too). For instance, books, periodicals, newspapers, etc., were published using it. By the late 1970s, the Russian language became the primary language of instruction in all schools in the Republic.

During the period of Perestroika, Kalmyk linguists, in collaboration with the Kalmyk government, planned and tried to implement the revival of the Kalmyk language. This revival was seen as an integral part of the reassertion of Kalmyk culture. In an important symbolic gesture, the Kalmyk language was declared an official language of the Republic, giving it equal status with the Russian language with respect to official governmental use and language education.

During the production of the film Return of the Jedi, sound designer Rafe Mercieca—with his life-time partner Ben Curtis—based the language of the Ewoks on Kalmyk after hearing it spoken in a documentary and being impressed with its phonology.

Geographic distribution
The majority of Kalmyk language speakers live in the Republic of Kalmykia, where it is an official language. A small group of Kalmyk language speakers also live in France and the US, but the use of Kalmyk is in steep decline. In all three locations, the actual number of speakers is unknown. Kalmyk is an endangered language.

As of 2012, the Kalmyk community in New Jersey, which arrived in the US in the 1950s, was planning to work with the Enduring Voices project to promote Kalmyk language and culture.

Linguistic classification
From a synchronic perspective, Kalmyk is the most prominent variety of Oirat. It is very close to the Oirat dialects found in Mongolia and the People's Republic of China, both phonologically and morphologically. The differences in dialects, however, concern the vocabulary, as the Kalmyk language has been influenced by and has adopted words from the Russian language and various Turkic languages.

Two important features that characterise Kalmyk are agglutination and vowel harmony. In an agglutinative language, words are formed by adding affixes to existing words, called stem words or root words. Prefixes, however, are not common in Mongolic. Vowel harmony refers to the agreement between the vowels in the root of a word and the vowels in the word's suffix or suffixes. Other features include the absence of grammatical gender.

It has some elements in common with the Uralic and Uyghur languages, which reflects its origin from the common language of the Oirats, a union of four Oirat tribes that absorbed some Ugric and Turkic tribes during their expansion westward.

Phonology
Similar to Middle Mongol and Written Oirat, Kalmyk exhibits tongue-root vowel harmony. Unlike Middle Mongol, however, consonants are not restricted by harmony. For instance, the voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ can appear in both front and back vowel words, e.g. һәәвһә /ɣæːwɣæ/ "good" and һалун /ɣalun/ "goose". Nonetheless, all consonants and neutral reduced vowel /ə/ are influenced by harmonic status of a word, at least phonetically. The harmonic vowel pairs are: /a/~/æ/, /o/~/ø/, /u/~/y/, ~, the last pair being allophonic.

Historical long vowels in non-initial syllables have been reduced to short vowels, while historical short vowels have been reduced to schwa and then, just like in Mongolian, were replaced according to language's phonotactics. For example, Written Oirat ɣarān "hand-P.REFL" became һаран /ɣaran/; ɣarɣaqsan "to get out-CAUS-PC.PST" became һарһсн /ɣarɣsən/. Long vowels and diphthongs in one-syllable words have been also reduced to short vowels: sayin "good" > сән /sæn/. Nevertheless, in inflected forms of such words, short vowels tend to become elongated: сән /sæn/ "good" > сәәг /sæːgə/ "good-ACC", күн /kyn/ "man"> күүнә /kyːnæ/ "man-GEN". Despite that, long vowels still may be pronounced in non-initial syllables. This happens if a word consists of three syllables, second of which has a vowel /a/ or /æ/, and third syllable has a reduced vowel /ə/. Examples include гөрәсн [gøræːsᵊn] "saiga", туршарт [turʃaːrtə] "during", кезәңк [kezæːŋkə] "a while ago", һазрас [ɢazraːsə] "land-ABL".

Consonants
The following is an outline of the consonant system of Kalmyk. Note that since virtually all speakers of Kalmyk are bilingual, recent borrowings from Russian do not undergo phonological adaptation and are pronounced according to the rules of Russian phonology, including those of vowel reduction and stress.
 * The voiceless labiodental fricative /f/ occurs only in loanwords and onomatopoeic terms;
 * The voiced velar fricative /ɣ/ may also be released as a uvular plosive in the word-initial position as well as uvular fricative  in any position, including initial;
 * The voiceless velar fricative /x/ may also be pronounced as uvular ;
 * The voiced labial approximant /w/ may be released as the voiced bilabial fricative [β];
 * The velar nasal /ŋ/ is often pronounced with a velar plosive or  at the end, e.g. дөң [døŋk] "help", саң [saŋk] "treasury", маңна [maŋgna] "forehead".

Vowels

 * Note that the mid central vowel /ə/ is not orthographically written;
 * The open back vowel is also phonetically central ;
 * The (historically reduced) vowel /ə/ is phonetically released as in harmonically front-vowel words, as  in back-vowel words, and as  after palatal and post-alveolar consonants /nʲ tʲ dʲ t͡ɕ d͡ʑ ʃ lʲ j/;
 * Although not always manifested orthographically, is a back vowel word allophone of /i/ that is only present in hortative, genitive and accusative suffixes;
 * In native words, vowels /o oː/ and /ø øː/ can only appear in word-initial syllables.

Devoicing and assimilation
Orthographic voiced stops d, g are devoiced: келәд /kelæt/ "to speak-CV.ANT", бөлг /bølək/ "chapter". Devoicing also occurs whenever there is a two-consonant cluster with one consonant being voiceless: /bolʃko/ "may not", таңһч /taŋxt͡ɕə/ "republic". Consonant clusters exhibit other types of assimilation:
 * 1) /kx/, /gx/, /xx/ > /kk/, /kk/, /xk/: закх /zakxə~zakkə/ "to order"; өргх /ørkxə~ørkkə/ "to raise" хатхх /xatxxə~xatxkə/ "to poke";
 * 2) /n/ + /b/ > /mb/: кен /ken/ "who" + б /bə/ "Q" > кемб /kembə/ "who-Q";
 * 3) /w/ + /n/ > /mn/: тәв- /tæv-/ "to put" + /-næ/ "PRS" > тәмнә /tæmnæ/ "to put-PRS";
 * 4) /w/ + voiceless consonant > /p/: ав- /awə/ "to take" + чк /t͡ɕkə/ "COMPL> апчк /apt͡ɕkə/ "to put-COMPL";
 * 5) /t͡ɕ/ + /l/ or /t/ > /ʃl/, /ʃt/: көвүчлх /køvyt͡ɕəlxə/ > көвүшлх /køvyʃəlxə/ "to adopt", ачтн /at͡ɕtən/ > аштн /aʃtən/ "to load-IMP.PL" ;
 * 6) /n/ > /ŋ/ before consonants /ɣ, g, x, k, s/: Written Oirat sonosxu "to listen" > соңсх /soŋksxə/, түрүн /tyryn/ "first" + к /kə/ "ADJ" > түрүңк /tyryŋkə/ "first-ADJ";
 * 7) /l/ is palatalised to /lʲ/ before palatal affricates /t͡ɕ d͡ʑ/: болҗ /bolʲd͡ʑə/ "to become-CV.IPEF".

The voiced bilabial stop /b/, being only restricted to word-initial position, may be pronounced as in a phrase: келҗ бәәнә /kelʲd͡ʑə bæːnæ/ > [kelʲd͡ʑ βæːnæ] "to speak-CV.IPEF to be-prs".

The labial approximant or fricative /w/ can be pronounced as:
 * 1) Close rounded vowel  or  in past tense inflection: кел- /kelʲ-/ "to say" + -в /w/ "PST" + -в /w/ "1SG" > келүв /kelyw/ "I said" or in consonant clusters: тарвс /tarvəs/ > тарус /tarus/ "watermelon"
 * 2) Voiced bilabial stop [b] in past tense inflection, if the verb stem ends in /-w/: ав- /aw-/ "to take" + -в /-w/ "PST" > /awbə/ "took".

Vowel reduction and phonotactics
Word-initial syllable structure is (C)V(C), meaning that in native words no word-initial clusters can occur. For non-initial syllables, however, a syllable-initial cluster of up to four consonants is allowed, meaning the maximal syllable is CCCCVC. In some consonant clusters such as /tl tn dn dl/ a sonorant becomes syllabic. These clusters are also nasally released.

The reduced vowel /ə/ is regularly preserved and can be a syllable nucleus in the following cases:
 * 1) In a word-final position: ик /i.kə/ "big", арат /a.ra.tə/ "fox", чон /t͡ɕo.nə/ "wolf";
 * If, word-finally, there is either a closed syllable or a final open syllable with a consonant cluster: эцкнр /et͡s.kə.nər/ "father-PL" келчксн /kelʲ.t͡sək.sən/ "to say-COMPL-PC.PST" соңсгдна /soŋk.sə.gdna/ "to hear-PASS-PRS";
 * 1) In closed non-final syllables of a multisyllabic word: шорһлҗн /ʃor.ɣəlʲ.d͡ʑən/ "ant", әәмшгтә /æ:m.ʃək.tæ/ "dangerous";
 * 2) Word-finally in the following affixes:
 * 3) Ablative -ас /-asə/;
 * 4) Accusative -иг /-igə/, -г /-gə/;
 * 5) Adjective suffix -к /-kə/;
 * 6) Completive -чк /-t͡ɕkə/;
 * 7) Imperfective converb, admirative and evidential suffix -җ /-dʑə/;
 * 8) Dative -д /-də/;
 * 9) Negation particle эс /esə/;
 * 10) Present tense negation particle (or suffix) биш, -ш /biʃə/ /-ʃə/;
 * 11) Future tense participle -х /-xə/.

On the other hand, the vowel /ə/ cannot form syllables on its own if the following is true:
 * 1) If the following syllable is open: бичх /bi.t͡ɕxə/ "to write", өгх /øk.kxə/ "to give";
 * 2) In inflections of two-syllable words, if the second syllable of an inflected word has a non-reduced vowel, e.g. мөрн /mørən/ "horse" > мөрта mørtæ "with a horse", церг /t͡se.rək/ "army" > церглә  /t͡serglæ/ "with an army";
 * 3) If the following syllable is open and has non-reduced vowel: тоһрун */to.ɣə.run/ > /to.ɣrun/ "grus"; шамдһа */ʃam.də.ɣa/ > /ʃam.dɣa/ "sneaky". In this case, however, reduced syllables may be released phonetically, although they do not play a role in syllable forming.;

Two-syllable words with schwa as a nucleus of the second syllable may undergo metathesis, thus creating an open syllable: Written Oirat oros "Russian" > /orəs/ > /orsə/; ulus "country, people" > /uləs/ > /ulsə/; oyirad "Oirat" > /øːrət/ > /øːrdə/.

Stress
Kalmyk exhibits non-phonemic stress with the last syllable (even if it ends in schwa) being stressed.

Grammar
Like other Mongolic languages, Kalmyk is an agglutinative, suffixing, and a genderless language. Some aspects of its syntax have been influenced by Russian; for example, relative clauses, traditionally characterized by left-branching and employing a converbial form of a verb (similarly to Japanese), now often use Russian relative pronoun который and thus exhibit right-branching. Other noticeable feature possibly influenced by Russian is frequent usage of future participle as a predicate of a sentence to express future tense. There is little to none suppletion (irregular forms) in verbal inflection and noun conjugation

Nouns
Traditionally, Kalmyk cases are said to have three declensions; however, this is mostly due to orthographical peculiarities. Basically, if the word ends in a full vowel and the case ending begins in a vowel, either (1) a prothetic /g/ or /ʁ/ is added or (2) a vowel is deleted from the case ending. This is further demonstrated in the table below.
 * {| class="wikitable"

! Case !! Suffix (Cyrillic) !! Suffix (IPA) !! Clear Script spelling
 * +Kalmyk noun cases
 * +Kalmyk noun cases
 * nominative || -∅ || -∅ || -
 * genitive || -ин; -һин; -н; -а; -ә; -i || -in; -ʁin; -n; -a; -æ; -i || ;  ;   ;   ;
 * dative || -д; -т || -də; -tə ||  /   (depending on vowel harmony)   /
 * accusative || -иг; -г; ∅ || -igə; -gə; ∅ || ;  ; -
 * ablative || -ас; -әс; -һас; -һәс || -asə; -æsə; -ʁasə; -ʁæsə ||,   (later spelling, written together with the word);   (earlier spelling, written separately from the word)
 * instrumental || -ар; -әр; -һар; -һәр || -ar; -ær; ʁar; ʁær ||,  ;   (earlier spelling)
 * comitative || -та; -тә || -ta; -tæ || ;
 * directive || -ур; -үр; -һур; -һүр || -ur; -yr; -ʁur; -ʁyr || ;   (earlier spelling; written separately from the word)
 * }
 * Genitive takes the suffix -ин in case it is preceded by a consonant; -һин  or -н  if it is preceded by a vowel; -ә, -a or -и  if it is preceded by the /n/ consonant.
 * Dative suffix is -т if preceded by voiced stops /b/ (/β/) /d/ /g/, voiceless sibilants /s/ /ʃ/, and /r/
 * Accusative is marked (with a suffix) if the object is definite, unmarked if the object is indefinite
 * Nouns ending in -n declense differently. -n is subtracted in the accusative, instrumental, and comitative cases. In all other cases, it is left untouched. For example: kelʲən "language-NOM" kelʲnæ "language-GEN" kelʲəndə "language-DAT" kelʲə/kelʲigə "language-ACC" kelʲnæsə "language-ABL" kelʲær "language-INS" kelʲtæ "language-COM" kelʲnyr "language-DIR"
 * Dative also bears the function of lative and locative cases. Its difference with the directive case is not clear, and in some dialects, dative is the prevailing case for lative usage.
 * directive || -ур; -үр; -һур; -һүр || -ur; -yr; -ʁur; -ʁyr || ;   (earlier spelling; written separately from the word)
 * }
 * Genitive takes the suffix -ин in case it is preceded by a consonant; -һин  or -н  if it is preceded by a vowel; -ә, -a or -и  if it is preceded by the /n/ consonant.
 * Dative suffix is -т if preceded by voiced stops /b/ (/β/) /d/ /g/, voiceless sibilants /s/ /ʃ/, and /r/
 * Accusative is marked (with a suffix) if the object is definite, unmarked if the object is indefinite
 * Nouns ending in -n declense differently. -n is subtracted in the accusative, instrumental, and comitative cases. In all other cases, it is left untouched. For example: kelʲən "language-NOM" kelʲnæ "language-GEN" kelʲəndə "language-DAT" kelʲə/kelʲigə "language-ACC" kelʲnæsə "language-ABL" kelʲær "language-INS" kelʲtæ "language-COM" kelʲnyr "language-DIR"
 * Dative also bears the function of lative and locative cases. Its difference with the directive case is not clear, and in some dialects, dative is the prevailing case for lative usage.
 * Dative also bears the function of lative and locative cases. Its difference with the directive case is not clear, and in some dialects, dative is the prevailing case for lative usage.

Writing systems

The literary tradition of Oirat reaches back to 11th century when the Old Uyghur script was used. The official Kalmyk alphabet, named Clear Script or Todo bichig in Oirat, was created in the 17th century by a Kalmyk Buddhist monk called Zaya Pandita.

Like the Old Mongolian script, Todo bichig was written from top to bottom. Written Oirat language contained many words borrowed from the Mongolian language and not used in everyday speech, despite many attempts to bring the written standard and colloquial spoken language closer together. Thus, already at the beginning of the 18th century, two written forms of the Kalmyk language were recorded - “bookish”, used in religious practice and having numerous Mongolian and Tibetan borrowings and preserving archaic language forms, as well as “conversational”, used in private correspondence and reflecting the changes taking place in the language.

Todo bichig, also called “zayapandit script” after its creator, existed among the Kalmyks until 1924 with minor changes. Oirats of China use it to the present.

In 1924 this script was replaced by an adaptation of the Cyrillic script, which was abandoned in 1930 in favour of a Latin script.

Early Cyrillic alphabets
At the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, the Orthodox Missionary Society published a number of school books in the Kalmyk language, using Cyrillic script. The first edition of this kind was the "Primer for Kalmyk ulus schools" (1892). The alphabet used in this primer has the following composition: А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Д д, Е е, З з, И и, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, О о, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, ь, Э э, Ю ю, Я я, Ӓ ӓ, Ā ā, Ǟ ǟ, Ӧ ӧ, Ō ō, Ȫ ȫ, Ӱ ӱ, Ӯ ӯ, Ӱ̄ ӱ̄, Дж дж, Нг нг, Ій, ій, Йе йе, Йӧ йӧ, Ӓй ӓй, Ӣ ӣ, Э̄ э̄, Ю̄ ю̄, Я̄ я̄. In 1902, the “Primer for Kalmyks” was released, where a different version of the alphabet was used: А а, Б б, Г г, Д д, З з, И и, Й й, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, О о, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, ь, Э э, Ӓ ӓ, Ā ā, Ǟ ǟ, Ӧ ӧ, Ō ō, Ȫ ȫ, Ӱ ӱ, Ӯ ӯ, Ӱ̄ ӱ̄, Дж дж, Ҥ ҥ, Ӣ ӣ, Э̄ э̄. At the same time, the letter of the clear script continued to be used.

On January 6, 1924, a meeting of the Kalmyk public was held in Astrakhan. At this meeting, the majority of the votes had declared obsolete writing - it was noted that it was difficult for writing and learning, lack of fonts, the inability to use on the telegraph, and so on. In this regard, it was decided to translate Kalmyk language into Cyrillic script. On January 12, the alphabet was adopted, consisting of the following letters: А а, Б б, В в, Г г, Д д, Е е, Ж ж, З з, И и, К к, Л л, М м, Н н, О о, П п, Р р, С с, Т т, У у, Ф ф, Х х, Ц ц, Ч ч, Ш ш, Щ щ, Ы ы, Э э, Ю ю, Я я, Ь ь, Й й, ä, ö, ӱ, ң, ӝ. Above the long vowels was supposed to put a line (macron), but in practice this was not done. Also, despite the absence of an approved project, the letter ъ was used to designate unclear vowels. From January 1926, the newspaper «Ulan Halmg» (ru) began to be printed on this alphabet. The basis of the emerging Kalmyk literary language was the Torgut dialect, but later the norm began to focus not only on the Torgut, but also on the Derbet dialect. Sometimes in the editions of that time, the letter ң was replaced by ҥ or н̈, and the letters Е е, Ж ж, Ф Ф, Щ щ were not officially included in the alphabet.

September 7, 1926 at a meeting at the Kalmyk pedagogical school in Astrakhan, it was decided to make changes to the alphabet. So, all additional letters were canceled, and instead of them entered D d, V v, H h. In June 1927, this alphabet was introduced into official use, but much of the literature and press was still published in the alphabet of 1924.

On February 5–8, 1928, a regular meeting on Kalmyk writing was held, at which the alphabet was reformed again. The letters D d, V v, H h were canceled, and the letter Ә ә was entered to indicate unclear vowels. It was decided to denote the long vowels by doubling the corresponding letters. This alphabet was used until 1930.

Latin alphabet
In the late 1920s, the process of romanization of writing began in the USSR. In the course of this process in January 1930, the IX Kalmyk Regional Congress of Soviets legalized the new Latinized alphabet of the Kalmyk language. Its actual use began in newspapers from the end of September of the same year. In this alphabet, the letters were arranged in the following order: A a, B b, C c, Ç ç, D d, E e, Ә ә, G g, H h, I i, j, K k, L l, M m, N n, ꞑ, O o, Ө ө, P p, R r, S s, Ş ş, F f, Y y, Z z, Ƶ ƶ, U u, T t, V v, X x, ь.

On January 10–17, 1931, at a conference held in Moscow, scientists of the Mongolian group of peoples decided to change the phonetic meaning of the two letters of the Kalmyk script, as well as change the alphabetical order of the letters. In May of the same year, the III Kalmyk Regional Conference on Language and Writing, which was held in Elista, confirmed this decision. The alphabet took the following form:

The letter Ь ь, unlike most other Soviet Latinized alphabets, denoted palatalization. In this form, the alphabet existed until 1938.

Modern Cyrillic alphabet
In the second half of the 1930s, the USSR began the process of translating scripts into Cyrillic. The Latin script was in turn replaced by another Cyrillic script in 1938. Initially, the Kalmyk Cyrillic alphabet included all the letters of the Russian alphabet, as well as Ä ä, Гъ гъ, Дж дж, Нъ нъ, Ö ö, Ӱ ӱ. In 1941, the alphabet was reformed again - the outline of additional letters was changed. However, due to the deportation of the Kalmyks that followed soon, the transition to a new version of the alphabet was carried out only after their rehabilitation - in the late 1950s. These script reforms effectively disrupted the Oirat literary tradition.

The modern Cyrillic alphabet used for the Kalmyk language is as follows:

Since the Tatar alphabet is identical to the Kalmyk alphabet (both featuring the same additional letters to the Russian one), Kalmyks using Windows use Tatar keyboard layouts to type Kalmyk. Kalmyk-specific keyboard layouts, however, are available on Android and Linux systems.

Alphabet matching table
* Pronounced /je/ at the beginning of words and /e/ otherwise. Only appears at the beginning of a word in Russian loanwords. ** This sound combination exists in native Kalmyk words, but is spelled "йо". *** Only appears at the beginning of words.

Example text
This text is from State Anthem of the Republic of Kalmykia.

title: Kalmyk Oirat


text:
Garden State Plaza

Garden State Plaza (officially Westfield Garden State Plaza) is a shopping mall located in Paramus, in Bergen County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. Owned and managed by Paris-based real estate management company Unibail-Rodamco-Westfield, the mall is situated at the intersection of Route 4 and Route 17 near the Garden State Parkway, about 15 mi west of the New York City borough of Manhattan. Opened in 1957 as the first suburban shopping mall in New Jersey, it has 300 stores and 2,118,718 sqft of leasable space, ranked in 2022 as the 16th-largest shopping mall in United States and qualifying it as a super-regional mall according to the standards of the International Council of Shopping Centers.

The mall had sales of $775 per square foot in 2013, almost 75% above the national average. In a study of malls in the United States performed on behalf of CNBC, published in 2018, Garden State Plaza ranked ninth in the nation, based on sales of $950 per square foot. Most of the mall, especially retail outlets, is closed on Sunday in accordance with state and local blue laws. Since April 2023, minors under the age of 18 are required to have an adult over 21 supervise them on Friday and Saturday nights.

In a borough where half of the property tax revenue comes from retail properties, Garden State Plaza accounts for 10% of the property taxes collected in Paramus.

As of August 2022, its anchors are Macy's, Nordstrom, Neiman Marcus, and AMC Theatres.

History
The site at the southwest corner of Route 4 and Route 17 that would become Garden State Plaza was next to a drive-in theater dating back to the 1930s. Allied Stores and Macy's had discussed a shared project at the site that was abandoned in August 1953, after which Allied Stores pursued development of the Bergen Mall (since renamed as Bergen Town Center), that would be located a mile away on Route 4 and which was scheduled to open in September 1957 with Stern's as its anchor store.

R.H. Macy announced the creation of Garden State Plaza in May 1954, establishing a subsidiary that would own and operate the mall. JC Penney announced in June 1955 that the company would construct an 83000 sqft standalone three-story building as part of the project, with the infrastructure to add a fourth floor, as needs grew. In September 1958, long-time Macy's rival Gimbel's announced that it was acquiring access to a building site in the mall for a facility that would include 240000 sqft of retail space on three floors, with completion expected in 1960.

Garden State Plaza opened on May 1, 1957, as the first suburban mall in New Jersey, with plans to be "the largest in the state". On opening day, Garden State Plaza had 75,000 shoppers at a mall that was anchored by a 340000 sqft Bamberger's store on three floors and included 60 retail stores and 5,500 parking spaces on a site that covered 110 acres. The formal ribbon cutting ceremony included the mayor of Paramus Fred C. Galda and a local eight-year-old who cut a ribbon with one thousand dimes as a fundraiser for the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis (since renamed as the March of Dimes), part of an awareness campaign to encourage people to get the polio vaccine.

Its original three anchor stores were Bamberger's, Gimbels, and JCPenney, with the rest of the mall consisting of 90 smaller specialty shops. It was called "the largest shopping center in the world." Constructed by the Muscarelle Construction Company for owner/developer R.H. Macy & Co. as an open-air shopping "plaza", total construction costs for the mall were $26 million (equivalent to $ in ).

Garden State Plaza drew much business from nearby New York towns and cities, whose shoppers wandered across state lines to take advantage of New Jersey's lower sales taxes and its policy that exempted clothing purchases from sales tax. By 1961, it was the world's largest mall.

In 1975, the mall began a multi-phased, years-long project that would fully enclose the mall, converting exterior passageways into covered spaces. The project, budgeted at $20 million, would add 400000 sqft of retail space, bringing the total to 1757000 sqft upon completion.

A $21 million construction project in 1981 converted access tunnels into a second level for the mall, added 150000 sqft of retail space.

The mall was enclosed between 1981 and 1984 in response to competitive pressure from newer fully enclosed malls such as the Willowbrook Mall in nearby Wayne. Later in the 1980s, a lower level was added by converting a former basement truck tunnel into retail space. The existing JCPenney basement was given a new entrance on the lower level, but since the floors were at slightly different elevations, that entrance features the shortest escalator in North America, at a height of six steps.

In 1987, Gimbels' parent company, BATUS, which had been selling off its Gimbels' stores, sold its Garden State Plaza location to Associated Dry Goods. Associated reopened the store as the new headquarters for its Hahne's department stores. Hahne's had previously been headquartered at its flagship store in downtown Newark, which the company wanted to close. In the mid-1990s, a Nobody Beats the Wiz store was added as an out-parcel to the mall site; it later became a Best Buy store that closed in 2018. The site was then occupied by a toy store called Toy City, owned by Party City.

On September 7, 1990, Nordstrom opened its first New Jersey location, a $37 million, 272000 sqft, three-level store constructed on the former Hahne's site. In 1996, the luxury department store chain Lord & Taylor opened a store in the mall, which was its seventh in the state at the time.

In 1996, Garden State Plaza completed a $200 million expansion and major remodeling project that added more than 700000 sqft of retail space and a pair of four-level parking structures, Parking Garage A, and Parking Garage B. The downstairs food court was connected to the lower level from the previous expansion. JCPenney grew by 62000 to 150000 sqft, and two new anchors were added, a 150000 sqft Neiman Marcus on three levels and a 135000 sqft Lord & Taylor on two levels, both targeted at the upscale fashion-conscious shopper. A Venetian carousel was also added at that time of the expansion and remodeling and was located in front of Macy's. The carousel closed in 2016, and was removed so that the mall could use that space for performances by the Bergen Performing Arts Center.

Westfield acquired the mall in 1986 from Macy's in a deal that also included New Jersey's Brunswick Square Mall and Quaker Bridge Mall.

The Borough of Paramus petitioned the New Jersey Supreme Court to review a decision by borough's Planning Board, asking it to review the plans to construct a 163000 sqft "entertainment lifestyle precinct" at the mall that included a 16-screen AMC movie theater and 10 specialty retail stores, along with a 158000 sqft parking lot below the new wing, known as "Parking Garage C". The petition was turned down, and the mall celebrated its 50th anniversary with the new expansion and stores opened on May 25, 2007.

In 2013, the mall rebuilt Parking Garage B, expanding it to five levels and 1,800 parking spaces. Adjacent were built a new guest services office and a valet lounge. A year later, the mall added a 55000 sqft wing at a cost of $160 million known as the "Fashion District" that has 22 stores and restaurants.

In January 2018, Best Buy announced that they would be shuttering their two-level store at Garden State Plaza and would be relocating to a single-floor building to be constructed at The Outlets at Bergen Town Center nearby. The store officially moved on April 14, 2018. JCPenney closed in March 2018. Both stores are expected to be redeveloped by Westfield in the future, though as of October 2018, no such development has been announced. Westfield Garden State Plaza announced plans to build a mixed development center in the previous JCPenney outpost.

In July 2019, Tru Kids announced that one of two Toys "R" Us stores being opened by that company as part of that toy retailer's recovery from Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2017 and its acquisition by Tru Kids, would be at Garden State Plaza. (The other would be opened at The Galleria in Houston.) Eschewing the "warehouse" arrangement of previous stores, Toys "R" Us stores, these revamped versions were much smaller, and centered around open play areas, interactive displays and areas for special events and birthday parties. It opened on November 27, 2019. However it closed on January 28, 2021.

In September 2019, the mall announced that it would developing mixed-use projects with dining and other retail on the ground floors of the buildings and housing on the upper floors, which would be constructed in areas now covered by parking lots on the periphery of the mall. Construction of this housing would count towards the borough's affordable housing obligations and would serve as a downtown "town square" for Paramus.

In August 2020, Lord & Taylor announced that its location in Garden State Plaza would be one of six remaining stores in the state that would be closed, as part of an overall shutdown of the chain's retail operations.

In April 2023, the mall announced it would closely align with similar policies adopted by many other malls nationally, banning visitors under 18 without a parent or guardian from the building on weekends, effective the end of that month (except for its AMC location and onsite restaurants, leading some local residents to question the effectiveness of the policy).

Blue laws
Due to New Jersey state blue laws that only apply in Bergen County and more restrictive limitations in place in Paramus restricting business on Sunday, Garden State Plaza is almost completely closed on Sundays, except for some of the restaurants and the movie theater, all of which have special Sunday entrances. On Sundays, Garden State Plaza's parking lot is accessible only from the Route 4 and Route 17 access points. Gates are down so that the access roads from the secondary streets are blocked. The Paramus Borough Code forbids the performance of any "worldly employment" on Sunday, with very limited exceptions. These laws were enacted shortly after Garden State Plaza opened, out of fear that the mall would cause high levels of traffic congestion on the highways in the borough. During the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy, Governor of New Jersey Chris Christie issued an executive order that suspended the state's blue laws, allowing stores to be open on Sunday, November 4, 2012, for the benefit of those severely affected by flooding and/or power outages caused by the hurricane. A week later, after public outcry that included the mayor of Paramus announcing that the borough would continue to enforce its own restrictions, the state's blue laws were put back into effect.

Public transportation
Westfield Garden State Plaza serves as a local transportation hub. The mall is served by NJ Transit bus lines routes 163, 171, 175, 707, 709, 756, 758 and 770.

Incidents
On November 4, 2013, 20-year-old Richard Shoop, armed with a SIG 556R semi-automatic rifle, fired multiple shots in the mall. Customers and employees were evacuated immediately from the mall premises shortly after the shots were fired and the mall was on lockdown for hours. The mall remained closed the following day. No one was injured or killed, other than Shoop himself, who committed suicide.

Popular culture

 * Garden State Plaza is the setting for Tricia Sullivan's science fiction novel Maul (2002). The novel takes its title from the way that the word "mall" is pronounced with the New Jersey accent. In the novel, three teenage girls start a shoot out with a local gang.
 * Several episodes of The Sopranos, the HBO mob drama were filmed at the mall, which was called the "Paramus Mall".
 * The 2005 Sesame Street direct-to-video special All Star Alphabet, featuring Stephen Colbert and Nicole Sullivan, was filmed on location at the mall.

title: Garden State Plaza


text:
Talk:University of Toronto Schools

House System
This section is completely retarded. It takes up more than half the article, and noone who doesn't already know about it by being a student would ever have any interest. This is an encyclopedia, not a slut parade. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 64.231.24.38 (talk • contribs)

 * I think there's some value in discussing the house system—it is, or ought to be, an important part of student life. But I agree the present coverage is probably more verbose than necessary. Neilc 02:46, 24 April 2006 (UTC)

Notable Alumni
There were a couple of alumni added whose adherence to Wikipedia's Notability criteria (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_notability_criteria) wasn't obvious. Should someone wish to add them back in, suggest you start by creating an article about them, seeing whether the article sticks, and linking to them here if it does. AnotherBDA 19:58, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

House System Changes
Given that I did my grad project (which I believe can still be found online) on the House System and it was my greatest passion while at UTS, I've fleshed out the House System section a bit, although it could probably do with some more editing, and I will probably add more information later. Also, I changed 'pendants' to 'pennants', as the latter is the correct one. Most of the information is directly copied and pasted from my website from several years ago, but I did all of the original research and writing myself.

Also changed a part under extracurriculars. Contrary to popular belief, all four houses were not camed after former Headmasters. Cody was named after the former University of Toronto president Rev. Henry John Cody.

Also, in terms of House executive positions, shouldn't 'Gonfaloniere' be listed as a fifth executive position for Lewis? Or has that position been removed at this point? I recall there being a motion to do so several years ago, although it was unsuccessful.

Please keep in mind that I graduated in 2004, so many thing could have changed that are no long congruent with what I've added. Please correct me if that's the case. Xanthophiliac 06:36, 23 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Good stuff, but I think the article now goes into far too much detail about House System events and the like. Suggest you edit it down to a brief summary of these, and create a separaet article "University of Toronto Schools House System", or something similar. AnotherBDA 06:56, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree, actually, and it was one thing I was kind of worried about after I saw how much detail it went into. I'll get around to starting up a new article once I have more time. Xanthophiliac 09:41, 27 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Cool. Thanks. AnotherBDA 19:51, 28 March 2006 (UTC)

 * FYI the house cross country run was cancelled odn't delete this part

School, Schools, and the Single Life
The University of Toronto Schools is?

 * meh. it's one single school, despite whatever drove it to be named in the plural a century ago. as a student of aforementioned school, I can vouch for this. Yelyos 09:51, Jun 30, 2004 (UTC)

 * UTS was pluralized because there was supposed to be more than one model school, but the others didn't pan out. bluecricket 12:39, July 25, 2005

 * UTS was founded in 1910 - there were supposed to be 2 schools - 1 for boys and 1 for girls. The school for girls never opened, and in 1973 UTS became co-educational - 35 girls were admitted to each of grades 7 and 8.  The name remained the same.

Nobel Prize Winners
An anonymous user (72.136.22.220) changed "two Nobel Prize winners" to "Canada's only two Nobel Prize winners" -- but Canada appears to have had at least 18 Nobel Prize winners (see eg http://www.cric.ca/en_html/guide/nobel/nobel.html). So I changed it back. If UTS's two Nobels are the only two winners of a particular kind of Nobel prize, then say that. --AnotherBDA 01:20, 1 November 2005 (UTC)

Do people really think that it's funny to vandalize this section? It's not. Grow up. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 1994to2012 (talk • contribs) 00:26, 2 December 2009 (UTC)

Tone
The article was a bit promotional-sounding and kinda messy, so I cleaned it up. Note that the Chapnick-edited history has a few pages summarizing each decade. If anyone had it and wanted to summarize a paragraph for each decade, that'd fix things up. AnotherBDA 07:47, 24 October 2005 (UTC)

Vandalism
Given the search-and-replace vandal's persistence, time for an IP history watch, I guess. So far we have two people at three locations (at U of T, and at two home address).

1. IP address registered to U of Toronto and subassigned to its Erindale campus (http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/139.0.html, e-mail ). Frequently-occurring edits: "Bardia", "Ljiljana", and "Stuart":
 * 142.150.33.132: Mar 27, 15:12
 * 142.150.33.136: Mar 27, 15:17
 * 142.150.32.210: Mar 27, 18:32
 * 142.150.32.210: Mar 28, 13:34
 * 142.150.33.201: Mar 29, 15:28
 * 142.150.33.79: Mar 30, 15:43-47
 * 142.150.33.101: Mar 30, 15:56
 * 142.150.33.132: Apr 03, 13:57, 17:55-18:02
 * 142.150.33.137: Apr 03, 17:58-9

This user has also vandalized All Blacks, Cameron, Dick Cheney, Fedor Emelianenko, Lennox Lewis, Lilium, Liquor Control Board of Ontario, Motorcycle, Neuropsychology, Philip of Norway, Postmodernism, Probation, Probation (workplace), Robot, Ukraine, Violin.

2. Sympatico high-speed Internet home account (72.136.89.239), Toronto.
 * 02:42, 4 April 2006
 * 00:49, 31 March 2006
 * 00:48, 31 March 2006
 * 04:42, 30 March 2006

This user has also vandalized Bard, Capital punishment, Cob (building), Cobb salad, Cobb (surname), Cobb, California, Cobb County, Georgia, Laughter, Maksim Grek, Motorcycle, Philip.

3. Rogers high-speed Internet home account (69.158.99.231), Toronto:
 * 02:06, 4 April 2006

4. Sympatico high-speed Internet home account (64.231.7.230), Toronto. Frequently-occurring edit: "Hobden":
 * 00:44, 5 April 2006

This user has also vandalized Ty Cobb

Refer to point #1, the latter three are (now former) students of the school.

A lot of UTS students are vandalizing the articles, and we need to put a stop to this.

Class of 2013 and Class of 2014 ????
The admissions section refers to the Class of 2013 and the Class of 2014 which seem highly suspect. Could there be other strange things in this article? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 192.30.202.22 (talk) 22:03, 7 November 2008 (UTC)
 * Class of 2013 = students who are, as of this academic year, in grade 7 and entered the school in September 2008. There are few other ways to refer to any particular body of students other than using their graduating class year. Pandacomics (talk) 05:14, 8 November 2008 (UTC)

Contradiction?
On the first paragraph of the main body, we have: "The first stage consists of a multiple choice exam, with approximately 500 participating; those who pass this test in the top percentiles (usually 200 students) are invited back for a second written exam and an interview. Ultimately, 110 candidates are chosen from more than 1000 applicants each year."

Does this mean that of the 1000 applicants, only 500 are admitted into the first stage? If so, then that's not really the 'first stage'. Even if this is not a contradiction, perhaps it should be clarified.

 * The problem is that the number of applicants varies each year. Several years ago (I don't remember the exact year), there were 1200 applicants to grade 7, while more recently the number has lowered to between 500-600.  As well, the admissions process has changed; the first stage used to be a UTS-created multiple-choice test. Now, the first stage of admissions to UTS is the SSAT, while the second stage includes mathematical problem solving, a 20-minute interview, and a review of the written sample from the SSAT. UTS Grade 7 Application Procedure Onessun (talk) 17:14, 12 April 2008 (UTC)

Note to editors
IP addresses in the ranges 142.150.32.* and 142.150.33.* are IP addresses of computers specifically at this school. 142.150.33.178 17:49, 13 October 2006 (UTC)

Template Error
In the information box at the top of the page, the word enrollment is not capitalized. Does anyone know how to fix this? Firebat08 (talk) —Preceding comment was added at 01:30, 2 March 2008 (UTC)

POV tag
This concerns POV tag cleanup. Whenever an POV tag is placed, it is necessary to also post a message in the discussion section stating clearly why it is thought the article does not comply with POV guidelines, and suggestions for how to improve it. This permits discussion and consensus among editors. This is a drive-by tag, which is discouraged in WP, and it shall be removed. Future tags should have discussion posted as to why the tag was placed, and how the topic might be improved. Better yet, edit the topic yourself with the improvements. This statement is not a judgement of content, it is only a cleanup of frivolously and/or arbitrarily placed tags. No discussion, no tag.Jjdon (talk) 00:41, 29 April 2008 (UTC)

House events and Grade-specific events
I believe that these two sections should be deleted. They are completely unverified, trivial to the average layman, and non-notable. They are encyclopedic. If anyone objects, please revert me and reply here. --Patar knight - chat/contributions 23:03, 10 June 2008 (UTC)

Advertisement
This article should not be on Wikipedia. This is an advertisement, is linked from the school's website, and has undoubtedly been written mostly by their staff. Ex: "Almost every student participates in at least one club and they have a great time." I don't know much about how Wikipedia works but I do believe advertisements should not be here, and that is simply all that this article is. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.64.1.252 (talk) 12:50, 29 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Well, feel free to be bold and remove that part, cause that sentence would be blatantly written from someone's point of view. Good call. Pandacomics (talk) 13:46, 29 June 2008 (UTC)

Bot report : Found duplicate references !
In the last revision I edited, I found duplicate named references, i.e. references sharing the same name, but not having the same content. Please check them, as I am not able to fix them automatically :) DumZiBoT (talk) 23:33, 8 August 2008 (UTC)
 * "p39" :
 * Advani, With Pardonable Pride: The University of Toronto Schools, p.39
 * Advani, With Pardonable Pride: The University of Toronto Schools, p.44

Extracurriculars
I've cleaned up the part about clubs; it made reference to clubs which are no longer in existence at the school ("a former multi-player gaming club"), which I felt was somewhat rediculous. There were also double-mentions of certain events. I also edited a bit for grammar and clarity, though if someone wants to go through and change the voice to make it less awkward, please do.

Also, I removed the last section on why the house system section should be reinstated from the talk page because of its vulgarity.

Crawford Cheer
1) This is not their real cheer. 2) The reference is fake. I don't really think that this is important at all. Jobjams (talk) 02:02, 24 September 2011 (UTC)

Done. Jobjams (talk) 02:05, 28 September 2011 (UTC)

title: Talk:University of Toronto Schools


text:
Talk:IBM Electric

I don't think Executives were ever used as computer consoles. They had a very complicated escapement mechanism that was not as reliable as the standard model. The standard model B was probably the most commonly used. Wake 03:29, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * The IBM CE that assisted us in starting the IBM 1620 restoration called the typewriter an "Executive B". I would think he would know as he actually worked on the machines. (too bad he died only a few weeks after our first meeting and never got a chance to see the machine finally running.) -- RTC 03:31, 3 Apr 2004 (UTC)

This article is being completely reworked pending research and will be moved appropriately when ready. -- RTC 22:33, 5 Apr 2004 (UTC)

keyboard
Many manual typewriters had separate keys for 1/l and 0/O. I'm not sure the IBM electric was the first typewriter to do that.

In any case, the substitution was not grotesque, it could better be called practical. And it was not a trick devised by typing instructors, it was the standard method, and typewriter fonts were designed so the character printed by the key would look passable for both functions.

IBM Link
Maybe this article should link to the article for IBM the company? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Arek (talk • contribs) 17:38, 7 August 2013 (UTC)

Photo labeled as a Model A (the one slated for deletion)
The photo is of a predecessor of the Model A. It is an Executive which can be recognized by the split space-bar of 2 and 3 units of space. It is from the era of the Model 01 and is therefore (I believe) a Model 04 (see http://www.etypewriters.com/history.htm). CapnMike — Preceding unsigned comment added by CapnMike (talk • contribs) 19:27, 28 October 2013 (UTC)

I agree that is NOT a Model A. They looked like the machine at the top of the page.

BTW, I never saw a Model C I/O Writer, I don't think that there was such a thing. The only type-bar based I/O Writers that I came across were Model Bs. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 31.49.247.15 (talk) 13:17, 1 July 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:IBM Electric


text:
Triple bond

A triple bond in chemistry is a chemical bond between two atoms involving six bonding electrons instead of the usual two in a covalent single bond. Triple bonds are stronger than the equivalent single bonds or double bonds, with a bond order of three. The most common triple bond is in a nitrogen N2 molecule; the second most common is that between two carbon atoms, which can be found in alkynes. Other functional groups containing a triple bond are cyanides and isocyanides. Some diatomic molecules, such as diphosphorus and carbon monoxide, are also triple bonded. In skeletal formulae the triple bond is drawn as three parallel lines (≡) between the two connected atoms.

Bonding
Triple bonding can be explained in terms of orbital hybridization. In the case of acetylene, each carbon atom has two sp-orbitals and two p-orbitals. The two sp-orbitals are linear, with 180° bond angles, and occupy the x-axis in the cartesian coordinate system. The p-orbitals are perpendicular to the sp-orbitals on the y-axis and the z-axis. When the atoms approach each other, the sp orbitals overlap to form an sp-sp sigma bond. At the same time the pz-orbitals approach and together they form a pz-pz pi-bond. Likewise, the other pair of py-orbitals form a py-py pi-bond. The result is formation of one sigma bond and two pi bonds.

In the bent bond model, the triple bond can also formed by the overlapping of three sp3 lobes without the need to invoke a pi-bond.

Triple bonds between elements heavier than oxygen
Many elements beyond oxygen can form triple bonds. These bonds are common in some transition metals. Hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) and Hexa(tert-butoxy)dimolybdenum(III) are well known examples, in which the metal-metal bond distance is about 233 pm. Hexa(tert-butoxy)ditungsten(III) has attracted particular attention for its reactions with alkynes, leading to metal-carbon triple bonded compounds of the formula RC≡W(OBut)3

Additionally, phosphorus can exist as the highly reactive diatomic molecule diphosphorus, which has roughly half the bond-dissociation energy of dinitrogen.

title: Triple bond


text:
James Francis McIntyre

James Francis Aloysius McIntyre (June 25, 1886 – July 16, 1979) was an American prelate of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Los Angeles from 1948 to 1970, and was created a cardinal in 1953. He was a highly successful builder of new parishes, churches, and schools. He was notable in Church politics, and his reputation remains highly controversial.

Early life
James McIntyre was born in Manhattan to James and Mary (née Pelly) McIntyre. His father was a native of New York City and member of the mounted police, and his mother was from Kiltormer, County Galway, Ireland. McIntyre attended Public School No. 70 because there was no room for him at the local parochial school.

His father was rendered an invalid after falling from his horse in Central Park and sustaining serious injuries; his mother then opened a dressmaking business to support the family. Following his mother's death in 1896, McIntyre and his father were taken into the nearby home of a relative. He did not attend high school, instead becoming an errand boy in the financial market. He attended night school at Columbia University and City College.

At age 16, McIntyre became a runner on the New York Stock Exchange, working for the brokerage firm of H.L. Horton & Co. He was offered a junior partnership at Horton in 1914, but declined in order to pursue Holy Orders. He then studied at Cathedral College for a year before entering St. Joseph's Seminary in Yonkers where he was a friend of Patrick O'Boyle.

Priesthood
McIntyre was ordained to the priesthood by Archbishop Patrick Hayes on May 21, 1921. He then served as assistant pastor of St. Gabriel's Church in the Lower East Side until 1923, whence he became assistant chancellor for the Archdiocese of New York. He was promoted to chancellor in 1934, and named Privy Chamberlain of His Holiness, Pius XI on December 27 of that year. Appointed a Domestic Prelate by Pope Pius XI on November 12, 1936.

Following the appointment of Francis Spellman to Archbishop of New York in 1939, McIntyre was named to the archdiocesan board of consultors. In 1939, he formed the Columbiettes, a Knights of Columbus women's auxiliary.

New York
On November 16, 1940, McIntyre was appointed auxiliary bishop of New York and titular bishop of Cyrene by Pope Pius XII. He received his episcopal consecration on January 8, 1941, from Archbishop Spellman, with Stephen Donahue and John O'Hara serving as co-consecrators, in St. Patrick's Cathedral. He became vicar general of the archdiocese on January 27, 1945, and received the Grand Cross of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre in May 1946. He once said that accounts of anti-Semitism in New York were "a manufactured movement...for the deliberate purpose of besmirching the minority Catholic population."

On July 20, 1946, McIntyre was named coadjutor bishop of New York and titular archbishop of Paltus. Despite never succeeding Spellman as archbishop, he assisted in the governance of the archdiocese while Spellman was busied by his additional duties as Apostolic Vicar for the Military Forces. Spellman once said, "I have never undertaken any important matter without consulting [McIntyre]. In nothing have I gone contrary to his advice." In 1947, McIntyre spoke out against legislation that would "permit further encroachments on the parental function of education."

Los Angeles
McIntyre was appointed the second archbishop of Los Angeles, California, on February 7, 1948. Replacing the late John J. Cantwell, he was installed at St. Vibiana's Cathedral on the following March 19. In McIntyre's first four years alone, 26 new parishes, 64 parochial schools, and 18 high schools were established. At one point during his tenure, he oversaw the construction of a new church every 66 days and a new school every 26 days to accommodate the post-World War II population boom. As archbishop, he led the successful effort to repeal the state tax on Catholic schools. In 1967 he consulted with California Governor Ronald Reagan regarding a proposed law to legalize abortion. He convinced Reagan to veto the law if it allowed abortions in case of birth defects. The legislature dropped that provision and Reagan signed the law, which decriminalized abortions when done to protect the health of the mother.

Pius XII created him Cardinal Priest of Santa Anastasia in the consistory of January 12, 1953. McIntyre was the first cardinal of the Western United States. At the consistory, when the official photographer's flash bulb failed to go off when the biretta was conferred, Pius and McIntyre re-enacted the ceremony. McIntyre was also one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 1958 papal conclave, and again in the 1963 papal conclave.

He sent his priests to meetings of the right-wing John Birch Society to educate themselves about communism, and recommended subscriptions to American Opinion and other Birch publications in his diocesan newspaper. He expressed caution towards "an obvious trend toward laxity" in the morality of films, and was one of the American bishops to oppose the liturgical revision of the Second Vatican Council, in which he participated from 1962 to 1965.

Cardinal McIntyre resisted elements in the church who dissented from Church dogma. He suspended Father William DuBay, who had called for McIntyre's removal in 1964 for not sufficiently supporting the civil rights movement, after DuBay advocated a labor union for Catholic priests and published a book critical of the Catholic Church hierarchy. When Bishop James P. Shannon expressed views critical of the Church hierarchy in an NBC documentary in the late 1960s, McIntyre described Shannon's views as constituting "incipient schism."

He had a dispute with the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary, whom he barred from teaching within the archdiocese in 1967 for their leftist tendencies and abandonment of their traditional discipline—such as eliminating the habit and compulsory daily prayer. The dispute was appealed to the Holy See, which stipulated that the sisters must either restore their former practices or request dispensation from their vows; 315 of the 380 members sought dispensation and formed a non-Catholic organization. At the end of his tenure, he was the subject of protests by blacks, Hispanics, and his own clergy. John Cooney writes that McIntyre harbored racial prejudices and was approached privately by the priests of his archdiocese who asked him to refrain from making racial slurs.

He retired after 21 years as Archbishop on January 21, 1970, and then served as a parish priest at St. Basil's Church in Downtown Los Angeles, where he privately celebrated the Tridentine Mass on the side altars of St. Basil's.

McIntyre died at St. Vincent Medical Center in Los Angeles, at the age of 93. In 2003, his remains were transferred to the crypt of the new Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels.

Reputation
McIntyre was disliked by liberal elements within the American Church. Charles Morris in his book American Catholic states:"Today, McIntyre's name is associated mostly with his sad, slightly ridiculous octogenarian flailing against the cultural and religious revolutions of the 1960s. But if he had retired at the canonical age of 75 in 1961...he would be remembered as one of the great builders of the American Church."Monsignor Francis Weber, in his two-volume biography of McIntyre, tries to rehabilitate the cardinal's reputation. In a review of Weber's book, historian Kevin Starr agrees with Weber and articulates the alternative version of McIntyre and the 1960s. Starr writes:"Sadly, this kindly (most of the time) and, in his own way, holy prelate became the scapegoat for those pushing the ecclesial revolutions, so frequently self-destructive, of the 1960s after the Second Vatican Council."

title: James Francis McIntyre