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Traction engine

A traction engine is a steam-powered tractor used to move heavy loads on roads, plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location. The name derives from the Latin tractus, meaning 'drawn', since the prime function of any traction engine is to draw a load behind it. They are sometimes called road locomotives to distinguish them from railway locomotives – that is, steam engines that run on rails.

Traction engines tend to be large, robust and powerful, but also heavy, slow, and difficult to manoeuvre. Nevertheless, they revolutionized agriculture and road haulage at a time when the only alternative prime mover was the draught horse.

They became popular in industrialised countries from around 1850, when the first self-propelled portable steam engines for agricultural use were developed. Production continued well into the early part of the 20th century, when competition from internal combustion engine-powered tractors saw them fall out of favour, although some continued in commercial use in the United Kingdom well into the 1950s and later. All types of traction engines have now been superseded in commercial use. However, several thousand examples have been preserved worldwide, many in working order. Steam fairs are held throughout the year in the United Kingdom and in other countries, where visitors can experience working traction engines at close hand.

Traction engines were cumbersome and ill-suited for crossing soft or heavy ground, so their agricultural use was usually either "on the belt" – powering farm machinery by means of a continuous leather belt driven by the flywheel, a form of power take-off – or in pairs, dragging an implement on a cable from one side of a field to another. However, where soil conditions permitted, direct hauling of implements ("off the drawbar") was preferred; in America, this led to the divergent development of the steam tractor. This aside, American designs were far more varied than those of the British with different boiler positions, wheel numbers and piston placements being used. Additionally American engines often had higher top speeds than those of Britain as well as the ability to run on straw.

History

Limits of technical knowledge and manufacturing technology meant that practicable road vehicles powered by steam did not start to appear until the early years of the 19th century. In 1841, Ransomes, Sims & Jefferies produced an early traction engine. The design (which was led by a horse to steer it) failed to attract any purchasers. They tried again in 1849, this time without the steering horse, but the machine was under-built for threshing work it was designed for.

The commercially successful traction engine was developed from an experiment in 1859 when Thomas Aveling modified a Clayton & Shuttleworth portable engine, which had to be hauled from job to job by horses, into a self-propelled one. This alteration was made by fitting a long driving chain between the crankshaft and the rear axle. Aveling is regarded as "the father of the traction engine". Aveling's first engine still required a horse for steering. Other influences were existing vehicles which were the first to be referred to as traction engines such as the Boydell engines manufactured by various companies and those developed for road haulage by Bray. The first half of the 1860s was a period of great experimentation, but by the end of the decade the standard form of the traction engine had evolved and would change little over the next sixty years.

As part of these improvements the steering was improved to no longer need a horse, and the drive chain was replaced with gears. In America traction engines fitted with continuous tracks were being used from 1869. Compound engine designs were introduced in 1881. Until the quality of roads improved there was little demand for faster vehicles, and engines were geared accordingly to cope with their use on rough roads and farm tracks.

Right through to the first decades of the twentieth century, manufacturers continued to seek a way to reach the economic potential of direct-pull ploughing and, particularly in North America, this led to the American development of the steam tractor. British companies such as Mann's and Garrett developed potentially viable direct ploughing engines; however, market conditions were against them and they failed to gain widespread popularity. These market conditions arose in the wake of the First World War when there was a glut of surplus equipment available as a result of British Government policy. Large numbers of Fowler ploughing engines had been constructed in order to increase the land under tillage during the war and many new light Fordson F tractors had been imported from 1917 onwards.

Decline
Road steam disappeared through restrictions and charges that drove up their operating costs. Through 1921, steam tractors had demonstrated clear economic advantages over horse power for heavy hauling and short journeys. However, petrol lorries were starting to show better efficiency and could be purchased cheaply as war surplus; on a busy route a 3-ton petrol lorry could save about £100 per month compared to its steam equivalent, in spite of restrictive speed limits and relatively high fuel prices and maintenance costs.

Throughout the 1920s and 1930s there were tighter restrictions on road steam haulage, including speed, smoke and vapour limits and a 'wetted tax', where the tax due was proportional to the size of the wetted area of the boiler; this made steam engines less competitive against domestically produced internal combustion engined units (although imports were subject to taxes of up to 33%). As a result of the Salter Report on road funding, an 'axle weight tax' was introduced in 1933 in order to charge commercial motor vehicles more for the costs of maintaining the road system and to do away with the perception that the free use of roads was subsidising the competitors of rail freight. The tax was payable by all road hauliers in proportion to the axle load and was particularly restrictive on steam propulsion, which was heavier than its petrol equivalent.

Initially, imported oil was taxed much more than British-produced coal, but in 1934 Oliver Stanley, the Minister for Transport, reduced taxes on fuel oils while raising the Road Fund charge on road locomotives to £100 per year (equivalent to around £9000 today, 2024) provoking protests by engine manufacturers, hauliers, showmen and the coal industry. This was at a time of high unemployment in the mining industry, when the steam haulage business represented a market of 950,000 tons of coal annually. The tax was devastating to the businesses of heavy hauliers and showmen and precipitated the scrapping of many engines.

The last new UK-built traction engines were constructed during the 1930s, although many continued in commercial use for many years while there remained experienced enginemen available to drive them.

Preservation
Perhaps the first organisation to take a general interest in traction engine preservation was the Road Locomotive Society formed in 1937.

From the 1950s, the 'preservation movement' started to build as enthusiasts realised that traction engines were in danger of dying out. Many of the remaining engines were bought by enthusiasts, and restored to working order. Traction engine rallies began, initially as races between engine owners and their charges, later developing into the significant tourist attractions that take place in many locations each year.

The Traction Engine Register records the details of traction engines, steam road rollers, steam wagons, steam fire engines and portable engines that are known to survive in the United Kingdom and Irish Republic. It recorded 2,851 self moving engines and wagons, 687 portable engines (non-self moving), 160 steam fire engines existing in 2016. A new edition of the Register is planned in 2020. It was previously estimated in May 2011 by an unknown source that over 2,000 traction engines have been preserved. This figure may include engines preserved elsewhere in the world, particularly the US, Canada, Australia and New Zealand, but if so, is an underestimate. Comprehensive information on past UK manufacturers and their production is recorded by the Road Locomotive Society based in the UK.

Operation

Although the first traction engines employed a chain drive, it is more typical for large gears to be used to transfer the drive from the crankshaft to the rear axle.

The machines typically have two large powered wheels at the back and two smaller wheels for steering at the front. However, some traction engines used a four-wheel-drive variation, and some experimented with an early form of caterpillar track.

Types and usage
Traction engines saw commercial use in a variety of roles between the mid-nineteenth and mid-twentieth centuries. Each role required a machine with a different set of characteristics, and the traction engine evolved into a number of different types to suit these different roles.

Agricultural (general purpose) engine
General purpose engines were the most common form in the countryside. They were used for hauling and as a stationary power source. Even when farmers did not own such a machine they would rely upon it from time to time. Many farms would use draught horses throughout the year, but during the harvest, threshing contractors would travel from farm to farm hauling the threshing machine which would be set up in the field and powered from the engine – a good example of the moveable stationary engine.

US (agricultural) traction engine
Favourable soil conditions meant that US traction engines usually pulled their ploughs behind them, thereby eliminating the complexities of providing a cable drum and extra gearing, hence simplifying maintenance. American traction engines were manufactured in a variety of sizes, with the 6 nhp Russell being the smallest commercially made, and the large engines made by Russell, Case, and Reeves being the largest.

Ploughing engine
A distinct form of traction engine, characterised by the provision of a large diameter winding drum driven by separate gearing from the steam engine. Onto the drum a long length of wire rope was wound, which was used to haul an implement, such as a plough, across a field, while the engine remained on the headland. This minimized the area of land subject to soil compaction.

The winding drum was either mounted horizontally (below the boiler), vertically (to one side), or even concentrically, so that it encircled the boiler. The majority were underslung (horizontal), however, and necessitated the use of an extra-long boiler to allow enough space for the drum to fit between the front and back wheels. These designs were the largest and longest traction engines to be built.

Mostly the ploughing engines worked in pairs, one on each side of the field, with the wire rope from each machine fastened to the implement to be hauled. The two drivers communicated by signals using the engine whistles. Occasionally an alternative system was used where the plough was pulled between a single engine and an anchor.

A variety of implements were constructed for use with ploughing engines. The most common were the balance plough and the cultivator – ploughing and cultivating being the most physically demanding jobs to do on an arable farm. Other implements could include a mole drainer, used to create an underground drainage channel or pipe, or a dredger bucket for dredging rivers or moats. The engines were frequently provided with a 'spud tray' on the front axle, to store the 'spuds' which would be fitted to the wheels when travelling across claggy ground.

Ploughing engines were rare in the US; ploughs were usually hauled directly by an agricultural engine or steam tractor.

History
The first steam ploughing engine built and trialled was in 1837 when John Heathcoat MP demonstrated a steam powered vehicle he designed for ploughing very soft ground. This used a very early form of continuous tracks, and its twin-cylinder steam engine could be either used for the ploughing winch or for propulsion. Another ploughing engine, devised by Peter Drummond-Burrell, 22nd Baron Willoughby de Eresby, possibly designed by Daniel Gooch and constructed at Swindon Works, the Royal Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, awarded £100 out of a possible £500 of its prize for creating a steam ploughing engine,. Lord Willoughby had indicated that his design could be copied freely, and Fowler had visited Grimsthorpe Castle, the estate where the ploughing engines were deployed. Between 1855 and 1857 a farmer by the name of William Smith and John Fowler developed wire driven ploughing engines that were powered by portable engines. By 1863 W. Savory and Sons had introduced a mobile ploughing engine and were using engines at both ends of the field. Their wire drum was vertical and was mounted around the boiler of the engine.

Production took place outside the UK with Kemna Bau of Germany producing ploughing engines.

Use of ploughing engines declined in the 1920s as internal combustion engine powered tractors took over. John Fowler & Co. stopped producing of ploughing engines in 1935. Low prices in the aftermath of World War 2 resulted meant a few farmers purchased them and continued to use them into the 1950s.

Steam tractor (US)
In North America, the term steam tractor usually refers to a type of agricultural tractor powered by a steam engine, used extensively in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Steam tractor (UK)
In Great Britain, the term steam tractor is more usually applied to the smallest models of traction engine – typically those weighing below five tons for the engine to be single manned (up until 1923 anything above had to be manned by at least two people; a driver and steersman); used for hauling small loads on public roads. In 1923 the weight limit was raised to 7.5 tons. Although known as light steam tractors, these engines are generally just smaller versions of the road locomotive.

They were popular in the timber trade in the UK, although variations were also designed for general light road haulage and showman's use.

The most popular of these designs was probably the Garrett 4CD, meaning 4 nominal horse power compound.

Road locomotive

Designed for haulage of heavy loads on public highways, it was common for two or even three to be coupled together to allow heavier loads to be handled.

The characteristic features of these engines are very large rear driving wheels fitted with solid rubber tyres, three-speed gearing (most traction engine types have only two gears), rear suspension, and belly tanks to provide a greater range between the stops needed to replenish water. All these features are to improve the ride and performance of the engine, which were used for journeys of hundreds of miles. Most road locomotives are fitted with a winch drum on the back axle. This can be used by removing the driving pins from the rear wheels, allowing the drive train to power the winch drum instead of the wheels.

James Boydell worked with the British steam traction engine manufacturer Charles Burrell & Sons to produce road haulage engines from 1856 that used his Dreadnaught Wheels which were particularly suited to bad roads or off-road use.

One place where road locomotives found a significant amount of use was in hauling timber from where it was felled to timber yards. Once the timber had been moved to a road the road movements were carried out hauling the trunks on pole wagons. In France road locomotives were used to move mail in the 1880s.

A number of road locomotives are fitted with a crane boom on the front. The boom pivot is mounted on the front axle assembly and a small winch is mounted on an extension to the smokebox in front of the chimney, the cable passing over a sheave at the top of the boom arm. The winch is powered by bevel gears on a shaft driven directly from the engine, with some form of clutch providing raise/lower control. These road locomotives can be used to load a trailer as well as to haul it to a new location. They are often referred to as 'crane engines'.

A particularly distinctive form of road locomotive was the showman's engine. These were operated by travelling showmen both to tow fairground equipment and to power it when set up, either directly or by running a generator. These could be highly decorated and formed part of the spectacle of the fair. Some were fitted with a small crane that could be used when assembling the ride. About 400 were built with 107 surviving into preservation.

The poor state of the roads and the larger distances involved meant road locomotives (including showman's engines) were less used in the US.

History
In Britain the rise of the use of road locomotives was held back by high tolls charged by turnpike roads. The tolls were eventually limited by the Locomotive Act 1861. Four years later, the Locomotives Act 1865 was passed limiting engines to 4 mph and requiring that they preceded by a person carrying a red flag. The first traction engine focused on road haulage was offered for sale by Charles Burrell & Sons in 1856 and tyres were introduced around the same time. In 1896 the speed limit in the UK was raised to 6MPH and the red flag carrier requirement was dropped.

Steamroller
Related to the steam traction engine, the steam roller was used for road building and flattening ground. They were typically designed with a single heavy roller (in practice, usually a pair of adjacent rollers) replacing the front wheels and axle, and smooth rear wheels without strakes.

Some traction engines were designed to be convertible: the same basic machine could be fitted with either standard treaded road wheels, or else smooth rolls – the changeover between the two being achieved in less than half a day.

Relatives of the traction engine

A number of other steam-powered vehicles share design features with the traction engine, usually because the same technology was re-used in a new application.

Portable engine
A portable engine is a type of self-contained steam engine and boiler combination that may be moved from site to site. Although bearing a strong family resemblance, in both appearance and (stationary) operation, the portable engine is not classed as a traction engine as it is not self-propelled. However, it is included in this list because the traction engine is a direct descendant.

Steam wagon
A steam wagon is a steam-powered road vehicle for carrying freight. It was the earliest form of lorry (truck) and came in two basic forms: overtype and undertype – the distinction being the position of the engine relative to the boiler. Among the firms that specialized in them in the 1900s was the short-lived Invicta Works of Maidstone, owned by Jesse Ellis.

The overtype had a steam engine mounted on top of a fire-tube boiler, in a similar manner to a traction engine. The front of an overtype steam wagon bears a close family resemblance to traction engines, and manufacturers who made both may well have been able to use some common parts.

The undertype had the steam engine mounted under the boiler, usually between the frames of the chassis. The boiler was usually mounted well forward and was often a vertical and/or water tube type.

Steam wagons were the dominant form of powered road traction for commercial haulage in the early part of the twentieth century, although they were a largely British phenomenon, with few manufacturers outside Great Britain. Competition from internal-combustion-powered vehicles and adverse legislation meant that few remained in commercial use beyond the Second World War.

Traction engines as railway locomotives
Several traction engine builders (such as Aveling and Porter and Fowler) built light railway locomotives based on their traction engines. In their crudest form these simply had flanged steel wheels to enable them to run on rails. More sophisticated models had the boiler and engine mounted on a chassis which carried railway-wagon style axles. The rear axle was driven from the engine by gear or chain-drive. These unusual locomotives were sold to small industries for use in shunting and marshalling duties, although they also found favour with engineering firms engaged in the construction of mainline railways for hauling men, equipment and materials over the partly constructed line.

Terminology

 * spud or lug – strip of angled metal that could be bolted to the driving wheels to provide greater traction on soft or heavy ground. Spuds were often required on ploughing engines when moving across farmland.
 * strake – name for the diagonal strips cast into or rivetted onto the wheel rims to provide traction on unmade ground (similar to the tread on a pneumatic tyre).
 * Nominal horse power – nhp is the typical way that traction engines are rated. However, it has long been accepted that nominal horse power greatly understates the actual power of the engine. There are many ways to estimate the actual horse power but none of them gives an accurate answer; for example, a 4 nhp engine is said to be approximately 36 hp; however a 4 nhp engine can easily pull a laden 8-wheeler lorry, while a diesel engine of 36 hp cannot. Thus, many have resigned themselves that this debate will never be settled and, while nominal horsepower gives a convenient way of rating traction engines, it may never be converted accurately into diesel HP.

Modern use
Although no longer used commercially, traction engines of all types continue to be maintained and preserved by enthusiastic individuals and are frequently exhibited at agricultural shows in Europe (particularly the UK), Canada and the United States. They are often a main attraction in a live steam festival (see List of steam fairs).

Model traction engines, powered by steam, are manufactured by several companies, notably Mamod and Wilesco. Larger scale model engines are popular subjects for model engineers to construct, either as a supplied kit of parts, or machined from raw materials. A small number of full size traction engines have been built including a Case 150.

Traction engines in popular culture
In film
 * The 1962 film The Iron Maiden featured a showman's engine as the film's star, along with many others, at the annual rally at Woburn Abbey.
 * In the 2004 film Tremors 4: The Legend Begins, the people of Rejection, Nevada had a traction engine and were proud of it. During the final battle, two of the characters fired their guns from the traction engine, and the traction engine rammed and killed the last graboid.

In literature
 * Trevor the Traction Engine is one of the non-railway characters featured in The Railway Series of children's books by the Rev. W. Awdry. Appearing in several of the books, the traction engine was originally 'saved from scrap' by The Vicar of Wellsworth with the help of Edward the Blue Engine. Trevor has also appeared in a number of episodes in the TV spin-off Thomas & Friends. Another traction engine, Fergus the Railway Traction Engine, also appears in Thomas & Friends, but unlike Trevor, Fergus runs on rails instead of roads. Theo from Journey Beyond Sodor is based on a Brill Tramway No. 1.
 * In the book Gumdrop and The Farmer's Friend, by Val Biro, the vintage motor-car Gumdrop is rescued from a snowy ditch by "The Farmer's Friend", a traction engine belonging to a local farmer. Some months later, the two vehicles are instrumental in thwarting a pair of car thieves. The end-papers of the book include a simplified cut-away drawing of the traction engine: a single-cylinder, 6 nhp Fowler light tractor built in 1903.
 * Traction engines for road haulage feature prominently in Keith Roberts' alternate-history novel Pavane.
 * In the 1960s, cutaway drawings of traction engines by Geoffrey Wheeler featured in Eagle comics and a Blue Peter annual.

On television
 * Fred Dibnah of Bolton, England, was known as a National Institution in Great Britain for the conservation of old traction engines and other steam engines. His television series Fred Dibnah's Made in Britain shows him touring the United Kingdom in his rebuilt 10-ton traction engine.
 * In the television play Threads, depicting the consequences of nuclear war in the United Kingdom, traction engines come back into use as petrol becomes unavailable.

Research

 * Database of historical agricultural engineering companies of the UK – (MERL)
 * Steam Traction magazine – searchable article archive (1951-date)   Covers mainly-US traction engines and steam tractors, threshing machines and steam-powered agricultural machinery.
 * Steam Scenes – extensive searchable photo library – preserved traction engines in the UK, Europe, Australia and New Zealand
 * Steam-Up – photo library – UK-based preserved traction engines
 * Traction Time – vast searchable photo library & discussion forums – Information about UK-based traction engines

History

 * Concise history of the traction engine – evolution, from earliest experiments to widespread manufacture, plus definitions of the six main types
 * History of steam ploughing – particularly covers the very early years as different techniques were tried
 * Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland – (c.1871) report of trial of Fiskens Steam Cultivation Machinery (a windlass ploughing apparatus) -- including description and diagram
 * History of Waterloo Gasoline Traction Engine Company (Iowa) – the first gasoline-powered traction engine, and forerunner of the John Deere tractor range
 * "Steam Dinosaur" – world's oldest surviving traction engine (plus much history of early Aveling products)
 * The Road Locomotive Society – charitable society founded in 1937 for education and research into history of traction engines and portable engines

Preservation

 * Hollycombe Steam Collection
 * Aspects of restoring and owning a traction engine
 * National Traction Engine Trust
 * East Anglian Traction Engine Society
 * Engine Resources
 * UK Traction engine rallies
 * Rough and Tumble

Further information

 * Interactive diagram of a traction engine showing major components.
 * Glossary of traction engine terminology
 * Vintage Spirit magazine
 * Old Glory magazine
 * Types of Steam Traction Engines
 * The Traction Engine Register – The official website of The Traction Engine Register

title: Traction engine


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Manic Miner

Manic Miner is a platform game written for the ZX Spectrum by Matthew Smith. It was published by Bug-Byte in 1983, then later the same year by Software Projects. The first game in the Miner Willy series, the design was inspired by Miner 2049er (1982) for the Atari 8-bit computers. Retro Gamer called Manic Miner one of the most influential platform games of all time, and it has been ported to numerous home computers, video game consoles, and mobile phones.

Gameplay
In each of the twenty caverns, each one screen in size, are several flashing objects, which the player must collect before Willy's oxygen supply runs out. Once the player has collected the objects in one cavern, they must then go to the now-flashing portal, which will take them to the next cavern. The player must avoid enemies, listed in the cassette inlay as "...Poisonous Pansies, Spiders, Slime, and worst of all, Manic Mining Robots..." which move along predefined paths at constant speeds. Willy can also be killed by falling too far, so players must time the precision of jumps and other movements to prevent such falls or collisions with the enemies.

Extra lives are gained every 10,000 points, and the game ends when the player has no lives left. Above the final portal is a garden. To the right is a house with a white picket fence and red car parked in front. To the left is a slope leading to backyard with a pond and tree; a white animal, resembling a cat or mouse, watches the sun set behind the pond. Upon gaining his freedom, the game restarts from the first level with no increase in difficulty.

The in-game music is In the Hall of the Mountain King from Edvard Grieg's music to Henrik Ibsen's play Peer Gynt. The music that plays during the title screen is an arrangement of The Blue Danube.

Release
There are some differences between the Bug-Byte and Software Projects versions:

 * 1) In "Processing Plant", the enemy at the end of the conveyor belt is a bush in the original, whereas the Software Projects one resembles a Pac-Man ghost.
 * 2) In "Amoebatrons' Revenge", the original Bug-Byte amoebatrons look like alien octopuses with tentacles hanging down, whereas the Software Projects amoebatrons resemble the Bug-Byte logo.
 * 3) In "The Warehouse", the original game has threshers travelling up and down the vertical slots, rotating about the screen's X-axis. The Software Projects version has Penrose triangles (i.e. the Software Projects logo) instead, which rotate about the screen's Z-axis.
 * 4) The Bug-Byte cheat code was the numerical sequence "6031769", based on Matthew Smith's driving licence. In the Software Projects version this changed to "typewriter".

Ports
The game was officially ported to the Commodore 64, Commodore 16, Amstrad CPC, BBC Micro, Dragon 32/64, Amiga, Oric 1, Game Boy Advance, MSX, SAM Coupé, and mobile phones.

SAM Coupé
The SAM Coupé version, programmed by Matthew Holt, like the ZX original requires pixel-perfect timing, and both graphics and audio, the latter by František Fuka, were greatly updated. In addition to the original twenty caverns, forty additional caverns were included in this release. Levels were designed by David Ledbury, and winners of a competition run by SAM Computers Ltd.

PMD 85
The game was ported for Czechoslovak Computers PMD 85 in 1985. The authors of the PMD 85 version are Vít Libovický and Daniel Jenne. They made it as accurate as they could.

BBC Micro
The BBC Micro version does not have the Solar Power Generator, instead containing a completely different room called "The Meteor Shower". This has the "reflecting machines" from the Solar Power Generator, but there is no beam of light. Instead, it has meteors which descend from the top of the screen and disintegrate when they hit platforms, like the Skylabs in Skylab Landing Bay. It also has forcefields which turn on and off, and the layout is completely different.

Also, the last screen (which is still called "The Final Barrier") is complex and difficult (unlike the Spectrum version, which is considered to be fairly easy) and has a completely different layout. It also features the blinking forcefields.

Amstrad CPC
The Amstrad version was effectively the same as the Spectrum version by Software Projects, except that Eugene's Lair was renamed "Eugene Was Here", and the layout of "The Final Barrier" was again completely different (but is more similar to the Spectrum version than the BBC version).

Dragon 32/64
The Dragon 32 version, programmed by Roy Coates, had two extra rooms (i.e. 22 altogether) and a cheat mode accessed by typing "P", "P", "ENGUIN". To retain the resolution of the original, the Dragon version used PMODE 4 in black/white mode.

Oric/Atmos
Programmed by Chris Larkin, the Oric version has 32 screens instead of 20.

Commodore 16
The Commodore 16 version was limited in a number of respects - this was mainly due to the initial lack of developer material for the C16 machine, and a two-week deadline to produce and test the game, then generate a master tape for the duplication house. Other issues were the lack of a fast loader system for the C16 cassette deck, and as a result it took about seven minutes for the game to load, and a bug resulted in the game entering the first screen as soon as the tape had finished loading instead of waiting for the user to start the game. Further issues related to the lack of music and in game sound, and the way that video memory was mapped in the C16, this resulted in a number of the screens having to be removed so that load time and video mapping could be correctly handled.

Reception
In August 1983, sales of Bug-Byte's original ZX Spectrum release of Manic Miner took the game to the top of the UK video games charts replacing Jet Pac. The Commodore 64 version, released by Software Projects, reached the number one position in early 1984. It went on to become the best selling Commodore 64 game and third best selling ZX Spectrum game of 1984.

The SAM Coupé version scored 84% in Your Sinclair and 88% in Crash.

Manic Miner was the winner of "Best Arcade Style Game", and placed third in the "Game of the Year" category at the 1983 Golden Joystick Awards voted for by readers of Computer and Video Games magazine. Manic Miner was placed at number 25 in the "Your Sinclair official top 100" Spectrum games of all time, and was later voted number 6 in the Readers' Top 100 Games of All Time.

In 1991, ACE magazine listed Manic Miner and its sequel Jet Set Willy, along with Hunchback, Impossible Mission, and the Mario series, as the greatest platform games of all time, calling Manic Miner "the first great home computer platform game".

The game was #97 on Polygon's 2017 retrospective list of the 500 best games of all time.

Legacy
Unofficial ports exist for Microsoft Windows, MS-DOS, Linux, Macintosh, Atari ST, ZX81, TRS-80 Color Computer, PlayStation, Playdate, Nintendo 64, Neo Geo Pocket Color, Acorn Archimedes, Orao, Cambridge Z88, PMD 85, HP48, Zune, Acorn Atom, Acorn Electron, Commodore 128, and VIC-20.

The sequel to Manic Miner is Jet Set Willy, and was followed by Jet Set Willy II. Software Projects also released a game in the style of Manic Miner for the VIC-20 called The Perils of Willy.

Manic Miner 360 was released for the Xbox 360 as an Xbox Live Indie Game in June 2012.

A homage to the Manic Miner loading screen appears in one episode of the 2005 British sitcom Nathan Barley.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Manic Miner


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Wikipedia talk:List of empty images

My YorkshireNorthRiding is really Image:YorkshireNorthRiding1965.png. I tried deleting it but since the image file is one of the 'missing' ones from late january, it won't actually let me delete it! Morwen 14:14, Mar 10, 2004 (UTC)

There's really no point in converting this page to the crazy table format, since it's being updated from HTML anyway. silsor 14:32, Mar 10, 2004 (UTC)

Image:Shermer-B&W.jpg is yet another jammed image which cannot be deleted. silsor 00:54, Mar 11, 2004 (UTC)

One of my images is listed here (Interpolation_linear_example.png), which was uploaded as Interpolation_example_linear.png. So Interpolation_linear_example.png can be deleted. How do I achieve this? It would be nice this is explained somewhere on this page... -- Jitse Niesen 10:23, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * If you are not a sysop and want an image deleted, you should list it on Images for deletion. See that page for further instructions.
 * I also wrote this to the project page. --SirJective 20:11, 26 Aug 2004 (UTC)

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Jagertee

Jagertee (also Jägertee) is an alcoholic punch historically made by mixing "Inländer-Rum" with spiced black tea. It is served warm and is typically consumed during winter in the cold parts of Central Europe.

Although Jagertee is easily made at home, ready-made mixtures which already contain spices and sugar are sold in shops. The Austrian rum Stroh is often used for making it; this brand also produces its own ready-made variety.

Jagertee has become a popular après-ski drink, especially among tourists in the Alps. Jagertee carts sell the beverage outside at ski resorts and winter festivals.

Etymology
The name Jagertee (alternatively Jagatee or Jägertee) is derived from the Austro-Bavarian pronunciation of the standard German Jäger "hunter" + Tee "tea". According to EC Regulation 110/2008, Annex III, No. 32, it is a Protected Designation of Origin reserved for the beverage made in Austria. Therefore, varieties made in Germany are sold under names like Hüttentee ("hut tea") or Förstertee ("forester tea"). It has also been sold under the name of Grog in the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

Some rural establishments also serve Wilderertee ("poacher's tea"), which is even stronger.

title: Jagertee


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Draft horse

A draft horse (US) or draught horse (UK), also known as dray horse, carthorse, work horse or heavy horse, is a large horse bred to be a working animal hauling freight and doing heavy agricultural tasks such as plowing. There are a number of breeds, with varying characteristics, but all share common traits of strength, patience, and a docile temperament.

While indispensable to generations of pre-industrial farmers, draft horses are used today for a multitude of purposes, including farming, draft horse showing, logging, recreation, and other uses. Draft breeds have been crossbred with light riding breeds such as the Thoroughbred to create sport horses or warmbloods. While most draft horses are used for driving, they can be ridden and some of the lighter draft breeds are capable performers under saddle.

Characteristics
Draft horses are recognizable by their extremely muscular build. They tend to have broad, short backs with powerful hindquarters. In general, they are taller and tend to have heavier bone and a more upright shoulder than riding horses, producing conformation that is well suited for pulling. Many draft breeds have heavier hair, called feathering on their lower legs. Draft breeds range from approximately 16 to 19 hands high and from 1,400 to 2000 lb.

Background
Humans domesticated horses and used them to perform a variety of duties. One type of horse-powered work was the hauling of heavy loads, plowing fields, and other tasks that required pulling ability. A heavy, calm, patient, and well-muscled animal was desired for this work. Conversely, a light, more energetic horse was needed for riding and rapid transport. Thus, to the extent possible, a certain amount of selective breeding was used to develop different types of horse for different types of work.

It is a common misunderstanding that the Destrier that carried the armoured knight of the Middle Ages had the size and conformation of a modern draft horse, and some of these Medieval war horses may have provided some bloodlines for some of the modern draft breeds. The reality was that the high-spirited, quick-moving Destrier was closer to the size, build, and temperament of a modern Andalusian or Friesian. There also were horses of more phlegmatic temperaments used for pulling military wagons or performing ordinary farm work which provided bloodlines of the modern draft horse. Records indicate that even medieval drafts were not as large as those today. Of the modern draft breeds, the Percheron probably has the closest ties to the medieval war horse.

By the 19th century horses weighing more than 1,600 lb that also moved at a quick pace were in demand. Tall stature, muscular backs, and powerful hindquarters made the draft horse a source of horsepower for farming, hauling freight and moving passengers. The advent of railroads increased demand for working horses, as a growing economy still needed transport over the 'last mile' between the goods yard or station and the final customer. Even in the 20th century, until motor vehicles became an affordable and reliable substitute, draft horses were used for practical work.

Over half a million draft horses were used during World War I. The British were importing American draft horses to supplement their dwindling stock even before America joined the war, preferring Percheron crosses which they said had "great endurance, fine physique, soundness, activity, willingness to work, and almost unfailing good temper". British buyers were buying 10,000 to 25,000 American horses and mules a month, eventually making up about two-thirds of British Army war horses.

In the late 19th century and early 20th century, thousands of draft horses were imported from Western Europe into the United States. Percherons came from France, Belgians from Brabant, Shires from England, Clydesdales from Scotland. Many American draft breed registries were founded in the late 19th century. The Percheron, with 40,000 broodmares registered as of 1915, was America's most numerous draft breed at the turn of the 20th century. A breed developed exclusively in the U.S. was the American Cream Draft, which had a stud book established by the 1930s.

Beginning in the late 19th century, and with increasing mechanization in the 20th century, especially following World War I in the US and after World War II in Europe, the popularity of the internal combustion engine, and particularly the tractor, reduced the need for the draft horse. Many were sold to slaughter for horse meat and a number of breeds went into significant decline.

Modern uses

Today, draft horses can be seen in horse shows, pulling competitions, heavy horse trials, parades pulling large wagons, and pulling tourist carriages. However, they are still seen on some smaller farms in the US and Europe. They are particularly popular with agrarian groups such as the Amish and Mennonites. Draft horses are still used for logging, a forestry management practice to remove logs from dense woodland where there is insufficient space for mechanized vehicles or for other conservation considerations.

Draft horse breeds have played a significant role in the development of many warmblood breeds, popular today in advanced level equine sports.

Small areas still exist where draft horses are widely used as transportation due to legislation preventing automotive traffic, such as on Mackinac Island in the United States.

Care
Management of a large draft horse can be costly, including feed, shoeing, and veterinary care. Although many draft horses can work without a need for shoes, if they are required, farriers may charge twice the price to shoe a draft horse as a light riding horse because of the extra labor and specialized equipment required. Historically, draft horses were shod with horseshoes that were significantly wider and heavier than those for other types of horses, custom-made, often with caulkins.

The draft horse's metabolism is a bit slower than lighter horse breeds, more akin to that of ponies, requiring less feed per pound of body weight. This is possibly due to their calmer nature. Nonetheless, because of their sheer size, most require a significant amount of feed per day. Generally a supplement to balance nutrients is preferred over a large quantity of grain. They consume hay or other forage from 1.5% to 3% of their body weight per day, depending on work level. They also can drink up to 25 gal of water a day. Overfeeding can lead to obesity, and risk of laminitis can be a concern.

World records
The largest horse in recorded history was probably a Shire named Sampson (later Mammoth), who was born in 1846. He stood 21.2 hands high, and his peak weight was estimated at 1524 kg.

At over 19 hands, a Shire gelding named Goliath was the Guinness Book of World Records record holder for the world's tallest horse until his death in 2001.

Draft breeds
A number of horse breeds are used as draft horses, with the popularity of a given breed often closely linked to geographic location. In North America there were five draft horse breeds on the classic list: Belgian, Clydesdale, Percheron, Shire, and Suffolk.

In the United States, Draft Cross Breeders and Owners Association recognizes the following breeds as draft horses: • American Belgian Draft

• American Cream Draft

• Ardennais

• Belgian Draught/Brabant

• Boulonnais

• Breton

• Clydesdale

• Comtois

• Dølehest

• Dutch Draft

• Finnhorse

• Fjord

• Freiberger

• Friesian

• Haflinger

• Irish Draught

• Italian Heavy Draft

• Jutland

• Latvian

• Međimurje

• Noriker

• North Swedish Horse

• Percheron

• Rhenish German Coldblood

• Russian Heavy Draft

• Schleswig Coldblood

• Shire

• South German Coldblood

• Soviet Heavy Draft

• Suffolk Punch

• Vladimir Heavy Draft

Other breeds may be classified as draft horses by various organizations.

title: Draft horse


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Bolesław V the Chaste

Bolesław V the Chaste (Bolesław Wstydliwy; 21 June 1226 – 7 December 1279) was Duke of Sandomierz in Lesser Poland from 1232 and High Duke of Poland from 1243 until his death, as the last male representative of the Lesser Polish branch of Piasts.

Birth and nickname
Bolesław V was born on 21 June 1226 at Stary Korczyn, as the third child and only son of Leszek I the White by his wife Grzymisława, a Rurikid princess of disputed parentage.

Named after his great-grandfather Bolesław Wrymouth, the numeral V was assigned to him in the Poczet królów Polskich. His nickname of "Chaste" (Latin: Pudicus ), appeared relatively early and was already mentioned in the Rocznik franciszkański krakowski. It was given to him by his subjects because of the vows of chastity that Bolesław V and his wife Kinga of Hungary had jointly taken; for this reason, their marriage was never consummated.

Father's death
On 24 November 1227, during the Congress of Gąsawa, Bolesław V's father, Leszek the White, was killed. Like his own father and paternal grandfather before him, he was orphaned at young age. After Duke Leszek's death many people claimed the custody of his only son. The nobility of Kraków wanted the regency to be exercised by Dowager Duchess Grzymisława, jointly with the local voivode and bishop; however, this was contrary to the treaty of mutual inheritance signed in 1217 by Leszek and Władysław III Spindleshanks, under which it was agreed that in the event of the death of one of them, the other would take the government of his domains and custody of his minor children.

On 6 December 1227 Casimir I of Kuyavia - who probably represented his father Konrad I of Masovia at the funeral of Leszek I - advanced his father's claims over the custody of Bolesław V and his inheritance as his closest male relative. Due to the lack of response, Konrad I came to Skaryszew to negotiate with Grzymisława and the local nobility in the first half of March 1228, with regard to assuming the guardianship of his nephew during his minority. The nobility, especially the Gryfici family, preferred the rule of Władysław III Spindleshanks, but at that point he was in the midst of fighting with his nephew Władysław Odonic and was unable to claim his rights. Konrad I then appeared in the northern part of Kraków, but at his side were only the Topór and Sztarza families, and so this attempt to take the Seniorate failed. According to Kazimierz Krotowski, the absence from Lesser Poland was the cause of the Prussian invasion to Masovia.

Adoption by Władysław Spindleshanks
On 5 May 1228, a meeting was organized in Cienia between Władysław Spindleshanks and a delegation of Kraków nobles, which included Bishop Iwo Odrowąż; voivode Marek Gryfita; Pakosław Awdaniec the Old, voivode of Sandomierz; and Mściwój, castellan of Wiślica. Under the terms of the meeting, Władysław agreed to the adoption of Bolesław V, making him his successor over Kraków and Greater Poland. After the meeting, Władysław arrived in Kraków, where Grzymisława formally gave him the rule of the city. The dowager duchess and her son received the Duchy of Sandomierz, where she exercised the regency.

Shortly afterwards Władysław Odonic escaped from prison and the fight for Greater Poland was resumed. Władysław Spindleshanks was forced to leave Kraków. Then the local nobility, with the consent of Grzymisława, called Henry the Bearded to Kraków, but only to rule as a governor. In the summer of 1228 Konrad I of Masovia attacked Kraków, but was defeated at the Battle of Skała by Henry I's son, Henry the Pious. However, a year later Konrad I captured Henry the Bearded and occupied Sieradz-Łęczyca and later Sandomierz, removing Grzymisława from power, despite resistance from the local nobility. In 1230 Władysław Spindleshanks, with the help of Henry I, made an unsuccessful attempt to recover his lands. Władysław died one year later in exile in Racibórz.

Władysław's will named Henry the Bearded heir to Kraków and Greater Poland. In 1231, with the support of the Gryfici family, Henry obtained the rule over Sandomierz, after Grzymisława (who feared for the future of the inheritance of her infant son) surrendered the regency. During 1231-1232 Henry fought against Konrad for Lesser Poland; by the autumn of 1232 Henry finally obtained control over Lesser Poland and Konrad could only keep Sieradz-Łęczyca.

Imprisonment by Konrad I of Masovia
In 1233 Konrad I of Masovia captured Grzymisława and her son after personally robbing and beating them, according to a bull of Pope Gregory IX. Bolesław V and his mother were imprisoned firstly in Czersk and then in Sieciechów. The humiliations to the dowager duchess continued there, including a slap in the face by Konrad I.

Henry the Bearded decided to rescue the imprisoned prince and his mother; shortly thereafter Bolesław and Grzymisława managed to escape from the monastery of Sieciechów with the help of Kraków voivode Klement of Ruszcza and Mikołaj Gall, who was in charge of the prisoners. Both Klement and Mikołaj bribed the guards, who were busy drinking, and did not pay attention to the prisoners, who left the monastery in disguise. Jan Długosz described the events as follows:

 * When one night the guards after drink and feast forgot their duties, abandoned their posts and quietly during the night Duke Bolesław and his mother secretly left the monastery.

For safety reasons, Henry the Bearded hid Bolesław and his mother in the fortress of Skała near the valley of the Prądnik river. Then, on behalf of her son, Grzymisława renounced his rights over Kraków to Henry. In 1234 a war between Henry and Konrad for Lesser Poland broke out. Thanks to Archbishop Pełka, the Treaty of Luchani was signed in August of that year, under which Bolesław received Sandomierz and gave several castles to Henry. In June 1235, Pope Gregory IX approved the Treaty of Luchani; however, shortly afterwards Konrad invaded Sandomierz, and as a result of this invasion Bolesław lost the district of Radom.

Henry the Bearded died in 1238, and his son Henry the Pious succeeded him. Like his father, he took the regency of Bolesław and his Duchy of Sandomierz. In 1239 in Wojnicz, the 13-year-old Bolesław met his bride, the 15-year-old Kinga (also known as Kunigunda), daughter of King Béla IV of Hungary. The wedding was celebrated shortly thereafter. Kinga spent her first years in Sandomierz with her mother-in-law. On 9 July of that year, a meeting also took place in Przedbórz between Bolesław and Konrad, at which the Masovian ruler agreed to renounce his claims over Sandomierz. It was at this point that Bolesław began his personal government.

Fall of Kraków
In 1241 the first Mongol invasion of Poland occurred. In January the Mongols took Lublin and Zawichost. Bolesław, with his mother and wife, fled to Hungary at the side of his older sister Salomea, wife of the Hungarian prince Coloman, leaving his lands without his leadership. On 13 February the Mongols conquered and burned Sandomierz, and on 11 March he refused to participate in the Battle of Chmielnik. One month later, on 9 April, the Battle of Legnica took place, in which the army commanded by High Duke Henry II the Pious was defeated, and the duke himself was killed. After the defeat of the Hungarian army at the Battle of the Sajó River two days later (11 April) - where Prince Coloman was seriously injured and died shortly after - Bolesław V and his family (including Salomea, now a widow) fled to Moravia, and then eventually returned to Poland.

After the death of Henry the Pious, his eldest son, Bolesław the Bald, took the title of high duke; however, he did not appear in Kraków, where the government was exercised by Klement of Ruszcza on his behalf. Konrad I of Masovia took this opportunity, and despite the strong resistance of the knights and nobility, he finally entered Kraków on 10 July 1241. A few months later, the fortress of Skała, held by Klement of Ruszcza, capitulated. Despite his success, Konrad failed to gain the support of the local nobility, victims of Konrad's mercenaries (the Teutonic Order) themselves, who in 1243 appointed Bolesław the Chaste as their new ruler. On 25 May of that year the Battle of Suchodoły took place, in which the Lesser Poland and Hungarian (Sarmatian) troops, under the command of Klemens of Ruszcza, defeated the Masovian troops of Konrad. With this victory, Bolesław the Chaste regained the government over Kraków. Now at the age of 17, he was the high duke of Poland; however, he remained under the strong influence of his mother until her death. Later that year, Konrad tried to regain the control over Kraków and attacked Bolesław, but was again defeated.

Struggle with Konrad
Konrad I of Masovia until his death attempted to realize his ambition to become high duke and ruler of Kraków. In 1246, together with his son Casimir and supported by Lithuanian and Opole troops, he attacked Lesser Poland again. In the Battle of Zaryszów the troops of Bolesław were defeated. The duke of Kraków lost Lelów, but Kraków and Sandomierz managed to resist. The lack of funds for war forced Bolesław to take some properties of his wife, Kinga, which were paid only on 2 March 1257 during a meeting at Nowy Korczyn, when she received the district of Stary Sącz. In the autumn of 1246 was brought the final solution to the conflict when Bolesław retook Lelów. Konrad died on 31 August 1247, but his son Casimir continued the fight.

During 1254-1255 Bolesław sought the release of Siemowit I of Masovia and his wife, Pereyaslava, who were captured by his brother Casimir. They were finally released in the spring of 1255 after lengthy negotiations. In 1258 Bolesław the Pious started a long and destructive war against Casimir and his ally Świętopełk (Swantopolk) II for the castellany of Ląd. Bolesław the Chaste joined in the Greater Poland coalition against the duke of Kuyavia.

Between 29 September and 6 October 1259 Bolesław the Chaste, together with Bolesław the Pious, sacked Kujawy. A peace treaty was finally concluded on 29 November 1259. In 1260, Casimir I took over the fortress of Lelów. On 12 December during a meeting at Przedbórz, Bolesław the Chaste mediated the dispute between Casimir and Siemowit, which ended in a mutual treaty.

Cooperation with Hungary
Bolesław the Chaste and Bolesław the Pious were both allies of the Kingdom of Hungary. Their links with the Hungarians probably resulted from their family relationships, as both of their wives were daughters of King Béla IV and most of their Polish and Hungarian knights were descendants of the Sarmatian Iazyges, Siraces and Serboi. In 1245 both rulers supported the expedition of Rostislav Mikhailovich, who was the Hungarian candidate for the throne of Halych. On 17 August the Battle of Jarosław took place, where the Polish and Hungarian troops were defeated. Finally, a peace treaty was signed at Łęczyca.

In June and July 1253 Polish-Russian forces, including the army of Bolesław the Chaste, rushed to Moravia in support of the Hungarian expedition to Vindelicia (Austria), which was under the rule of King Ottokar II of Bohemia. The war failed to achieve a settlement, despite the Polish-Russian army looting several villages. The conflict ended with a treaty; at this time, Ottokar (with the help of Bishop Paweł of Kraków) tried to persuade Bolesław the Chaste to join at his side.

In 1260 another conflict erupted between Hungary and Bohemia, when the Hungarian prince Stephen organized a marauding expedition to the Duchy of Carinthia. From June to July 1260 Bolesław, with Leszek the Black, helped the Hungarians with troops in their fight against Bohemia. On 12 July the Battle of Kressenbrunn took place, which ended with the defeat of the Hungarian army.

On 29 January 1262 during a meeting at Iwanowice, Bolesław the Chaste promised to give military support to Bolesław the Pious in his conflict with Henry the White, who was a supporter of the Kingdom of Bohemia. On 7 June a second meeting took place at Danków, where peace negotiations with Henry took place. At this opportunity, Władysław Opolski tried unsuccessfully to make a quadruple alliance with the Bohemian king, Bolesław the Chaste, and Bolesław the Pious.

King Béla IV came into conflict with his son Stephen, which caused a civil war in Hungary. In March 1266 Bolesław and his wife Kinga arranged a meeting at Buda, at which Stephen was committed to maintain peaceful relations with his father, Ottokar II, Bolesław the Chaste, Leszek the Black, and Bolesław the Pious.

In 1270 the new King Stephen V of Hungary visited Bolesław the Chaste in Kraków, where they signed an eternal peace. In the same year, Stephen V renewed the war against Bohemia for the Babenberg inheritance, which ended in the defeat of Hungary. In 1271 Bolesław, with the help of Rurikid princes, organized an expedition to the Duchy of Wrocław, because Henry the White was an ally of Bohemia.

King Stephen V died on 6 August 1272, and after this the alliance between Bolesław the Chaste and the Kingdom of Hungary was completely broken. In 1277 Bolesław finally made a peace treaty with Bohemia at Opava. With the new king of Hungary, Ladislaus IV, a minor, Bolesław became an ally of the Kingdom of Bohemia; however, during the conflict between Ottokar and King Rudolph I of Germany, he opted for the Hungarian side. On 26 August 1278 Bolesław was present in the decisive Battle on the Marchfeld, where Ottokar was defeated and killed.

Christianization of the Yotvingians
One of the aims of Bolesław's foreign policy was the Christianization of the Yotvingians. During 1248-1249 he organized an expedition against them, supported by Siemowit I. However, the expedition ended in failure.

Between 1256-1264 the Yotvingians invaded and plundered Lesser Poland. In the spring of 1264, Bolesław organized a retaliatory expedition against them, which ended with a victory of the Kraków-Sandomierz troops and the death of the Yotvingian prince Komata. For the Christianization of this tribe, Bolesław created a bishopric in Łuków on the northeastern border of Lesser Poland. In this cause he counted on the support of his sister Salomea and Pope Innocent IV, who in 1254 issued a special document. In the end the mission failed.

Second Mongol invasion
Prince Daniel of Galicia was at the side of Bolesław as an ally of Hungary in the conflict with the Kingdom of Bohemia. In 1253 after the war with Bohemia, the relation between Bolesław and Daniel was good. Daniel visited Kraków, where he met the papal legate Opizo, who wanted to crown him. The coronation finally took place at Drohiczyn on the Bug River. Bolesław and his sister Salomea supported this event, because they wanted Daniel and his principality to acquire the Latin rite. The second Mongol invasion of Poland shattered those plans.

In November 1259 the Mongols and Ruthenians invaded and destroyed Sandomierz, Lublin and Kraków; Bolesław fled to either Hungary or Sieradz, ruled by Leszek the Black. In February 1260 the Mongols left Lesser Poland, and Bolesław then returned to his lands. At this point his relations with Daniel of Galicia improved; in 1262 they signed a treaty in Tarnawa.

After Daniel's death in 1265 a Lithuanian-Russian army invaded and ravaged the Lesser Poland districts of Skaryszew, Tarczek, and Wiślica. During 1265−66 Bolesław fought against Daniel's son Shvarn and brother Vasilko Romanovich, who helped the Lithuanians in their invasion into Lesser Poland. On 19 June 1266 Shvarn was defeated at the Battle of Wrota. The conflict ended in 1266, when Bolesław abandoned his expeditions to Yotvingia.

In July 1273 the Lithuanians invaded Lublin. In retaliation, Leszek the Black organized an expedition to Yotvingia in December of that year. In 1278 the Lithuanians again invaded Lublin, and they clashed with Leszek's army at the Battle of Łuków.

Adoption of Leszek the Black
Because Bolesław and his wife Kinga made a vow of chastity, their marriage was childless. In 1265 Bolesław adopted Leszek the Black as his heir. In 1273 Władysław Opolski organized a military expedition to Kraków, because he refused to accept the adoption. On 4 June the Battle of Bogucin Mały took place, where the army from Opole-Racibórz was defeated. At the end of October, Bolesław made a retaliatory expedition against Opole-Racibórz; however, the forces were limited only to destroy specific areas of the duchy. In 1274 Władysław and Bolesław V the Chaste decided to conclude a peace, under which the Duke of Opole-Racibórz gave up his claims to the throne of Kraków.

Internal policies
Bolesław V paid particular attention to urban development. On 27 February 1253 he granted privileges to the city of Bochnia. On 5 June 1257 during a meeting at Kopernia near Pińczów, he granted the Magdeburg rights to the district of Kraków, and a year later to the city of Nowy Korczyn. In 1264, the city of Skaryszew also received the rights, and in 1271 during a meeting at Kraków, the city of Jędrzejów also obtained the rights. The implementation of the German-styled law led to the rapid economic development in the principality, which experienced losses, up to 75% in population alone, due to Mongol raids.

In addition, the reform in the administration of the salt mines of Bochnia and Wieliczka was noteworthy. In 1251 deposits of halite were discovered in Bochnia; previously, only brine had been found there. Bolesław V prompted the district to mine the salt, which became a source of regular income.

During his reign, Bolesław took special care of the church, and above all, to the Bishopric of Kraków. In 1245, thanks to the efforts of Bolesław's sister Salomea, a Poor Clare monastery was founded in Zawichost. On 28 August 1252 during a meeting at Oględów, the Duke and his mother Grzymisława granted an immunity privilege to the Bishopric, which guaranteed to the local clergy greater autonomy in economic and judicial matters. On 17 September 1253, thanks to the joint efforts of Bolesław and the bishop of Kraków, Pope Innocent IV canonized Stanisław (Stanislaus) of Szczepanów. On 8 May 1254 celebrations were held in Kraków to honour Saint Stanislaus, including a meeting of the Piast princes. On 18 June another meeting took place at Chroberz, where Bolesław confirmed the privileges granted to the Bishopric of Kraków at Oględów. In 1257 a synod was held in Łęczyca, where it was established that any ruler who kidnapped a bishop would be automatically excommunicated, and his domains placed under the interdict. Between 11–12 June 1258 a meeting was held at Sandomierz, at which Bolesław approved further privileges for the Church in Lesser Poland. At the invitation of Bolesław V and his wife Kinga, the Franciscans came to Kraków around 1258.

Death
Bolesław the Chaste died on 7 December 1279. Jan Długosz recorded the event as follows:

 * He was deeply grieved not only by his own people, but also by the neighboring nations because of the modesty and majesty that he showed.

His funeral took place three days later, on 10 December. He was buried in the Church of St. Francis of Assisi in Kraków. There is a gravestone with the inscription:

 * Anno Domini MCCLXX obiit ilustrissimus princeps et dnus, Vladislaus dictus pius dux Cracov.

Kazimierz Stronczyński alleged that the gravestone was false, but the fact that contemporary sources established that Bolesław's body was placed in the church, does not raise any objections.

After the death of her husband, Kinga entered the Poor Clares convent in Stary Sącz. By virtue of the previous agreement, Leszek II the Black inherited Kraków and Sandomierz.

Church foundations
In 1263 Bolesław founded a church dedicated to Mark the Evangelist in Kraków (pl: Kościół św. Marka w Krakowie) built in the Gothic style.

title: Bolesław V the Chaste


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Bed Bath & Beyond

Bed Bath & Beyond was an American big-box retail chain specializing in housewares, furniture, and specialty items. Headquartered in Union, New Jersey, the chain operated stores in the United States and Canada, and was once counted among the Fortune 500 and the Forbes Global 2000. The chain filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in April 2023 and liquidated all of its remaining stores, with the last closing on July 30, 2023. Following the retail chain's liquidation, its name was adopted by online retailer Overstock.com, which acquired the company's trademarks in a bankruptcy auction. The name is also still used by the chain's former Mexican division, which is now independent.

Retail history
Warren Eisenberg and Leonard Feinstein worked in management positions at discount store chain Arlan's. As the company suffered financial difficulties, and the two believed that the market would shift toward specialty stores, they decided to leave and form their own company. In 1971, they opened a store in Springfield, New Jersey, called Bed 'n Bath. By 1985, Eisenberg and Feinstein were operating 18 stores in the New York metropolitan area and California. Also in 1985, the first superstore was opened, as an attempt to remain competitive with Linens 'n Things, Pacific Linen, and Luxury Linens. In order to properly represent the size increase in its retail stores, the company changed its name to Bed Bath & Beyond in 1987.

Growth and acquisitions
By 1991, Bed Bath & Beyond had opened seven new superstores in New Jersey, California, Virginia, Illinois, Maryland, and Florida. The following June, the company made its IPO on the NASDAQ stock exchange. The company adopted integrated computer-based inventory management systems in 1993 to better compete with Linens ‘n Things, which had utilized computer inventory management since the late 1980s. The chain's 100th store opened in Irvine, California, in October 1996; the 200th, in Palm Beach Gardens, Florida, followed less than three years later in August 1999. That year, Bed Bath & Beyond reached $1 billion in sales for the first time.

In 2002, Bed Bath & Beyond acquired Harmon Discount Health & Beauty, later renamed Harmon Face Values. Five years later in 2007, the company acquired Buy Buy Baby, a chain of baby supply stores founded by Feinstein's sons, and began international expansion, opening their first Canadian store in Richmond Hill, Ontario. By 2011, Bed Bath & Beyond had 1,142 stores. In 2012, the company acquired Cost Plus World Market for $495 million.

In 2016, the company acquired One Kings Lane, a luxury furniture e-commerce retailer; the following year, the company acquired Decorist, an online interior design platform.

Decline
In March 2019, three activist investment firms—Legion Partners, Macellum Advisors, and Ancora Advisors—announced their intent to remove current CEO Steven Temares and restructure Bed Bath & Beyond's current board of directors. The activist investors highlighted several instances of perceived nepotism, including the acquisition of Buy Buy Baby, which was founded by two of Bed Bath & Beyond co-founder Leonard Feinstein's children, and the acquisition of Chef Central, which was created by co-founder Warren Eisenberg's son, as examples of poor business practices at Bed Bath & Beyond. This pressure led five independent directors to step down on April 22, 2019, and also resulted in the company restructuring its board to include only 10 directors instead of the previous 12 members.

On April 13, 2019, there was a report that the chain would close 40 stores but open 15 new locations.

On May 13, 2019, Bed Bath & Beyond announced that CEO Steven Temares would step down "effectively immediately" and would resign his seat on the board of directors. Mary Winston, who had been appointed to the company's board as a result of the activist investment firms' efforts, replaced Temares as interim CEO. On November 4, 2019, Mark Tritton, previously chief merchandising officer at Target, started as Bed Bath & Beyond's CEO.

To combat declining profitability, Bed Bath & Beyond, which had for decades used coupon mailers and other promotional discounting tactics to attract consumers, announced in April 2019 that it would reduce its use of promotional coupons and tighten restrictions on their use. The chain also announced the development of new private label brands and concept stores.

As of 2019, Bed Bath & Beyond operated approximately 1,530 stores in all 50 U.S. states, as well as in the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and Canada. In addition to more than 1,020 Bed Bath & Beyond stores, the company also operated approximately 280 Cost Plus World Markets, 100 Buy Buy Baby stores, roughly 80 Christmas Tree Shops, and more than 50 Harmon stores.

Bed Bath & Beyond announced in January 2021 that it would stop selling MyPillow, citing poor sales. The announcement came in the wake of the January 6 United States Capitol attack, that CEO Mike Lindell supported conspiracy theories and efforts to overturn the 2020 presidential election, and amidst similar announcements by Kohl's and Wayfair.

Divestitures
Throughout 2020, Bed Bath & Beyond sold many of its subsidiaries. First, in April, One Kings Lane was sold to CSC Generation. Later that year in October, the company announced plans to sell the 80-store Christmas Tree Shops chain, along with its Massachusetts distribution center, to Massachusetts-based Handil Holdings LLC; the acquisition was finalized the following month. Finally, in December 2020, the company also announced plans to sell Cost Plus World Market to Front Burner LP; that sale was later finalized in February 2021.

Bed Bath & Beyond announced in July 2020 that it planned to close more than 200 stores, about 21% of its fleet, over two years, citing the COVID-19 pandemic. 63 locations targeted for closure were named that September, followed by another 43 in January 2021. In January 2022, Bed Bath & Beyond announced the closure of 37 more locations.

In March 2022, Ryan Cohen, former CEO of Chewy and a large shareholder of Bed Bath & Beyond, sent an open letter, as part of a Schedule 13D filing, to the Board of Directors calling for Buy Buy Baby to be sold or spun off at a favorable valuation. Subsequently, Bed Bath & Beyond reached a deal to give Cohen three board seats in exchange for his cooperation and the creation of a committee to execute his proposed plan. In July 2022, FCM BBBY Holdings, LLC, managed by Jake Freeman, also sent an open letter, as part of a Schedule 13G filing, asking the board of directors to consider their proposed plan to reduce Bed Bath & Beyond's debt and improve liquidity through convertible bond issuance.

Come July, significant changes to the company's executive leadership were announced: Mark Tritton would leave his role as president and chief executive officer, to be replaced by Sue Gove in an interim capacity. That August, the company announced that 20% of its corporate staff would be laid off, and 150 more stores would be closed. Gove was promoted to permanent president and CEO the following October.

On September 2, 2022, Gustavo Arnal, the company's chief financial officer, committed suicide, jumping from the balcony of his New York City apartment. Arnal was one of the targets of a class action lawsuit alleging that Bed Bath & Beyond's stock had become a pump-and-dump scheme. Two weeks later on September 16, the company named 56 stores targeted for closure of the 150 announced in August; later, on September 26, the company announced the closure of Decorist.

Bankruptcy and liquidation
Bed Bath & Beyond opened 2023 by warning investors that it might not survive the year. On January 5, shares of the company plunged almost 30% on the stock market, and the company announced it had "substantial doubt" in being able to continue to operate as a business. Wall Street analysts predicted that the company could file for Chapter 11 bankruptcy as soon as January 7. On January 9, Bed Bath & Beyond hired AlixPartners as a restructuring adviser, and announced the closure of 62 more stores.

Bed Bath & Beyond announced on January 26 that some banks had cut its line of credit. The next day, it was revealed that the company would shutter its Harmon Face Values chain, closing all 52 of its stores, and would also close five Buy Buy Baby stores and 87 Bed Bath & Beyond locations, including the last location in West Virginia.

On February 7, 2023, Hudson Bay Capital Management and several other investors arranged a public stock offering to raise over $1 billion to help the company avoid bankruptcy.

On February 10, 2023, it was revealed the company would shutter its Canadian division, closing all 54 Bed Bath & Beyond and 11 Buy Buy Baby stores in Canada. According to court documents, the business does not have the "capacity or ability to independently effect a recapitalization or restructuring of the Canadian operations without access to cash and the support". The same day, they also announced 149 more store closures in the United States, including the last two locations in Wyoming.

Bed Bath & Beyond announced on March 30 that if it was unable to sell $300 million in stock, the company would likely file for bankruptcy. In addition it also terminated its fundraising deal with Hudson Bay Capital Management.

On April 23, 2023, after failing to pay off stock, declining sales, high debt, and years of struggling, Bed Bath & Beyond, Buy Buy Baby, and 73 affiliated debtors and entities officially filed for Chapter 11 of the United States Bankruptcy Code in the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey. It was later confirmed that all remaining Bed Bath & Beyond and Buy Buy Baby stores in the United States would close unless a buyer was found for the chain. Even if the company could find a buyer, shareholders could be expected to be wiped out, with proceeds from the liquidation going to secured creditors and bondholders. By May 3, the company's stock was delisted from the Nasdaq exchange.

Following the bankruptcy filing, Bed Bath & Beyond stopped accepting their popular coupons on April 26, and liquidation sales commenced at all remaining stores the next day. Shortly thereafter, numerous other retailers, including The Container Store, Big Lots, Boscov's, and Kirkland's, announced that they would honor unused Bed Bath & Beyond coupons for a limited time. Liquidation sales continued through June and July, with the last stores closing permanently on July 30, 2023.

Industry analysts attribute Bed Bath & Beyond's failure to a number of factors, including a late entry to e-commerce, reduction in merchandise selection and quality, supply chain issues, competition from Walmart, Target, and HomeGoods, and debt accrued from stock buybacks. The latter is widely considered the largest reason for Bed Bath & Beyond's collapse, as the company's stock buyback schemes, in practice since 2004, were the source of much of its $5.2 billion debt. This resulted in an inability to pay vendors on time, which led many to halt merchandise shipments to the company.

Acquisition by Overstock.com and online revival
In a June 2023 bankruptcy auction, Overstock.com acquired the Bed Bath & Beyond name, and associated intellectual property, in a $21.5 million stalking-horse bid. Shortly thereafter, Overstock publicly announced its intention to rebrand its own operations under the Bed Bath & Beyond name after the acquisition closes. It did so on August 1, 2023, two days after the last brick-and-mortar Bed Bath & Beyond stores shuttered.

The acquisition did not include the now distant Buy Buy Baby brand, as bids were still being solicited for a separate sale of the chain until July; after no satisfactory bids were received, Buy Buy Baby's name and intellectual property were instead auctioned. A $15.5 million sale of the chain's intellectual property to New Jersey-based Dream On Me is pending.

Following the sale of the brand to Overstock, Bed Bath & Beyond, Inc. changed its name to 20230930-DK-Butterfly-1, Inc. and cancelled its stock on September 29, 2023.

Revival of Canadian stores as Rooms + Spaces and Babies "R" Us
The retailer's last Canadian stores closed four days earlier than planned in late April 2023. Following the closure of the chain's operations in Canada, Doug Putman, owner of Sunrise Records and Toys "R" Us Canada, acquired 21 former Bed Bath & Beyond locations, with plans to revive the chain in Canada as Rooms + Spaces, under the leadership of former Bed Bath & Beyond Canada general manager Greg Dyer. Putman also opened the first two stand-alone Babies "R" Us locations in Canada, in Edmonton in former Buy Buy Baby locations. The first Rooms + Spaces and stand-alone Babies "R" Us locations opened in July 2023.

Most stores were closed after being open for only a few months, as the leases were defaulted. As of February 2024, only two Rooms + Spaces locations remain open (at West Edmonton Mall and Brantford.) Leases for other locations in Canada were acquired by other retailers, including Mark's and Pro Hockey Life.

Christmas Tree Shops bankruptcy
On May 5, 2023, Christmas Tree Shops also filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy, despite having been separated from Bed Bath & Beyond two years prior. The now-independent chain later announced in July that it would liquidate; its last stores closed on August 12, 2023, two weeks after Bed Bath & Beyond.

Former subsidiaries

 * Bed Bath & Beyond Canada L.P. (2007–2023) – opened in 2007; operated 53 stores across 9 Canadian provinces; liquidated and closed in April 2023; brand relaunched in Canada by Overstock.ca alongside US relaunch in August 2023
 * Bed Bath & Beyond México – a joint venture with Home & More, S.A. de C.V to operate stores in Mexico under the Bed Bath & Beyond name. The Mexican unit is not affected by the closure in the US and Canada and will continue to operate normally.
 * Buy Buy Baby – founded by Richard and Jeffrey Feinstein; acquired in March 2007; closed with company in July 2023
 * Harmon Face Values (2002–2023) – acquired in March 2002; closed in February 2023
 * Cost Plus World Market (2012–2021) – acquired in May 2012; sold in February 2021
 * Christmas Tree Shops (2003–2020) – acquired in 2003; sold in 2020; closed in August 2023
 * One Kings Lane (2016–2020) – acquired in June 2016; sold in April 2020
 * Linen Holdings (2012–2020) – acquired in June 2012; sold in October 2020
 * Of a Kind (2015–2019) – acquired in August 2015; closed in October 2019
 * Decorist (2017–2022) – acquired in 2017; closed in September 2022

title: Bed Bath & Beyond