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Detroit People Mover

The Detroit People Mover (DPM) is a 2.94 mi elevated automated people mover system in Detroit, Michigan, United States. The system operates in a one-way loop on a single track encircling downtown Detroit, using Intermediate Capacity Transit System linear induction motor technology developed by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation. In, the system had a ridership of , or about per weekday as of.

The People Mover is supplemented by the QLine streetcar, which connects the system with Midtown, New Center, and the Detroit Amtrak station. The system also connects to DDOT and SMART bus routes as part of a comprehensive network of transportation in metropolitan Detroit.

Background
In 1964 the creation of the federal Urban Mass Transportation Administration (UMTA) allowed stronger investment into cities' declining transit systems. By the late 1960s there was gaining momentum for exploring new forms of transit to improve the quality of urban life, and UMTA's scope was expanded for development of such systems. In the early 1970s two automated guideway transit (AGT) demonstrators were sponsored; a "group rapid transit" concept, the Vought Airtrans, at Dallas Fort Worth International Airport; and a "personal rapid transit" concept, Morgantown Personal Rapid Transit, at the University of West Virginia. Additionally, four companies would receive grants to develop automated systems to be demonstrated at Transpo '72. While these AGT systems ended up being popular with zoos, airports, and abroad, they failed to attract popularity among municipalities and planning organizations.

Planning
In the early 1970s pressure was mounting for a high-capacity rapid transit network for Detroit. In early 1972 Southeastern Michigan Transportation Authority (SEMTA) and Southeast Michigan Council of Governments (SEMCOG) commenced a study of such a network. During the study, it became apparent that automated people movers were useful in complimenting transit services, recommending systems for Downtown, Medical Center & Wayne State, Fairlane Town Center, Southfield, and Metro Airport. The study, released in 1974, would ultimately see realization as the QLine.

In 1975, following the failure to produce any large-scale development from the AGT program and increased pressure to show results, UMTA created the Downtown People Mover Program (DPM) and sponsored a nationwide competition that offered federal funds to cover much of the cost of planning and construction of such a system. UMTA reviewed thirty-five full proposals. From these, they selected proposals from Cleveland, Houston, Los Angeles, and St. Paul. In addition, UMTA decided they would approve proposals from Baltimore, Detroit, and Miami to develop People Mover systems if they could do so with existing grant commitments. Of the seven cities with UMTA approval for their People Mover proposals, only Detroit and Miami persevered to build and operate systems.

The Ford Motor Company was involved in one of the designs of the People Mover and had hired AlScott Service Company to design and build a room size working model of the system. This model was used for Ford's proposals in their attempt to build the system. Ford previously developed the ACT, a rubber-tired monorail, which was exhibited at Transpo '72; a production version of the system ran at Fairlane Town Center in nearby Dearborn from 1976 to 1988.

The People Mover was intended to be the downtown distributor for a proposed city and metro-wide light rail transit system for Detroit in the early 1980s; however, funding was scaled back. President Gerald Ford had promised $600 million in federal funds. Plans included a subway line along Woodward Avenue that would turn into a street level train at McNichols and eventually go all the way to Pontiac, with additional rail lines running along Gratiot and a commuter line between Detroit and Port Huron. Inability of local leaders to come to an agreement led to the $600 million commitment being withdrawn by the Reagan administration, though plans for the People Mover still moved forward. At the time of planning, the system was projected to have a ridership of 67,700 daily.

During construction, the system was initially owned by the Southeastern Michigan Transportation Authority (SEMTA). It was acquired by the Detroit Transportation Corporation (DTC) on October 4, 1985. DTC was incorporated in 1985 as a Michigan Public Body Corporate for the purpose of acquiring, owning, constructing, furnishing, equipping, completing, operating, improving, enlarging, and/or disposing of the Central Automated Transit Systems (CATS). DTC was created by the City of Detroit, Michigan pursuant to Act 7 of Public Acts of 1967 and is a component unit of the City of Detroit and accounts its activity as per proprietary funds.

Opening
The Downtown People Mover opened on July 31, 1987. A ceremony was held the Financial District station, with appearances by Mayor Coleman Young and People Mover supporter Max Fisher. After opening speeches and awards, Young and Fisher cut a five-foot-long cake shaped like a People Mover car, and boarded the inaugural run. The train broke through a green ribbon accompanied by the simultaneous release of 10,000 balloons, also shaped like a People Mover car. A block party was hosted below on Larned Street, and the service was open to the public by 1:30pm. That weekend trains were usually packed, with passengers waiting around 20 minutes to board at some stations. Transit officials controlled crowds, encouraging only taking one round-trip to let others ride. The system carried an estimated 2,000 passengers per hour on Friday and Saturday. Rides were free for the first week, with a $0.50 fare going into effect on August 8.

In the first year, an average of 11,000 riders used the People Mover each day; the one-day record was 54,648. Originally, the People Mover System was operated and maintained by UTDC on a month-to-month basis; DTC took over operations and maintenance on November 18, 1988.

Service disruptions from construction
In October 1998, the implosion of the J. L. Hudson Department Store damaged part of the nearby track and forced the system to shut down. The system ran limited service until the track was completely repaired in late 1999.

In 2000, the David Whitney Building closed, cutting off access to the Grand Circus Park station. The station later reopened, though it lacked elevator access until the station was renovated with the building's reopening in 2015.

During construction of Compuware World Headquarters, the Cadillac Center station was temporarily closed as part of the parking structure was built around it. The station remained largely untouched and unmodified, although the entrance was slightly expanded, and a walkway to the garage was added.

In 2002, the original Renaissance Center station was closed and demolished. This was part of a multi-year renovation of the Renaissance Center, in which concrete berms in front of the complex were removed to make it more inviting to the rest of downtown. The system ran limited service due to the gap in the track during construction, leading to a drop in ridership, before the new station and track opened on September 3, 2004. The original station's tile artwork was destroyed in the demolition, though its creator, George Woodman, designed a replacement work for the new station.

The Grand Circus Park station closed for renovations on August 16, 2014, as part of renovation work in the David Whitney Building. A new station lobby was added with a direct entrance to the building, and an elevator was added to provide step-free access. Trains continued to operate in a one-way loop, bypassing Grand Circus Park, for most of the station's closure, though the line was briefly split into two segments (with transfers at Millender Center) while part of the track was closed. The Grand Circus Park station officially reopened on June 13, 2015. A connecting QLine station was added shortly thereafter, opening with the system in May 2017.

Changes in direction
The system originally ran counter-clockwise. It changed directions to run clockwise in August 2008, following a short closure to replace sections of the track. This change in direction was intended to reduce the time needed to connect between more popular destinations. The switch to clockwise also reduced the time required to complete the loop, as the route, run clockwise, has one short, relatively steep uphill climb, and then coasts downhill for most of the route, allowing trains to use gravity to accelerate.

In late December 2019, the People Mover tested counter-clockwise operation. The system began running counter-clockwise on weekends in February 2020, and then switched back to counter-clockwise full-time on March 1.

COVID-19 shutdown and reopening
The People Mover shut down on March 30, 2020, due to reduced ridership amid the COVID-19 pandemic.

After a planned 2021 reopening was postponed, the system resumed limited service on May 20, 2022, running six days a week, stopping at six of the 13 stations (Michigan Avenue, Huntington Place, West Riverfront, Millender Center, Greektown, Grand Circus Park). Broadway and Financial District reopened thirteen days later on June 2, followed by Renaissance Center and Fort/Cass on September 14, Bricktown on November 21, Cadillac Center on May 23, 2023, and Times Square on June 26, 2023.

To attract riders, fares were initially waived from reopening day through August, and later extended through October 2022.

System upgrades and free service pilot
In October 2023, DTC announced that its administrative headquarters would move from the Buhl Building to the nearby Guardian Building.

In December 2023, DTC's board of directors approved a one-year pilot program to eliminate fares on the People Mover, supported by a large donation from a corporate sponsor. The program commenced on January 2, 2024, and is scheduled to continue for the entire year. Priority Waste, a waste management company based in nearby Clinton Township, was announced as the presenting sponsor in March 2024. Following a June 2024 evaluation of the program, in which it was found to have increased system ridership, the Board approved an extension through 2025.

Also in December 2023, DTC announced plans to acquire railcars and other surplus equipment from the Toronto Transit Commission, following the decommissioning of the Scarborough RT, a similar system, the prior July.

Fares
The People Mover is currently free to ride, with fares waived for the entirety of 2024 as part of a sponsored pilot program.

When fares are charged, the regular fare is $0.75 per trip, paid at turnstiles with quarters, or with tokens dispensed by machines in the stations. Children aged five and under ride for free with a paying adult. Monthly and annual passes are available for $10 and $100 respectively; they can be purchased from the People Mover's website or the agency's administrative offices. Discounted tokens and passes are available for seniors and disabled riders.

The fare was originally $0.50, before being raised to the current rate in November 2011.

Cost-effectiveness and use
In 2006, it was reported that the People Mover cost $8.3 million annually in city and state subsidies to run, and the system has drawn criticism for its cost-effectiveness. In every year between 1997 and 2006, the cost per passenger mile exceeded $3, and was $4.28 in 2009, compared with Detroit bus routes that operated at $0.82 (for comparison, the New York City Subway operates at $0.30 per passenger mile). Edward Glaeser, in his 2011 book, Triumph of the City, referring to high cost of maintenance, calls the Mover "perhaps the most absurd public transit project in the country".

The Mackinac Center for Public Policy reported that according to a 2004 survey, fewer than 30% of the riders were Detroit residents and that Saturday ridership (likely out-of-town residents) dwarfed that of weekday usage.

Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the People Mover generated about $1 million to $1.5 million in revenue annually from fares, conventions, and advertising space. In 2019, about 50% to 60% of riders were office workers in the downtown area, while others included weekend social riders, area residents, tourists, and convention-goers.

Expansion proposals
There have been proposals to extend the People Mover northward to the New Center and neighborhoods not within walking distance of the city's downtown. A proposal was put forward by Marsden Burger, former manager of the People Mover, to double the length of the route by extending the People Mover along Woodward Avenue to West Grand Boulevard and into the New Center area. New stops would have included the Amtrak station, Wayne State University, the Detroit Medical Center, and Henry Ford Hospital. The plan was proposed at a tentative cost of $150–200 million, and would have been paid for by a combination of public and private financing.

Much of the proposed route to the New Center was ultimately adopted by the QLine streetcar, which opened in 2017.

Rolling stock
The People Mover's fleet consists of twelve automated Intermediate Capacity Transit System Mark I cars, built by the Urban Transportation Development Corporation in Kingston, Ontario. The model is also used on the SkyTrain in Vancouver, and was previously operated on the Scarborough RT in Toronto before its shutdown in 2023. They operate in two-car trains.

The trains originally bore a white livery with green and yellow stripes. Beginning in the early 2000s, the cars began to be wrapped with advertisements; by the 2010s, every car was adorned with an ad wrap.

As of 2023, DTC is planning to acquire the Scarborough RT's S series railcars from the Toronto Transit Commission, potentially replacing the People Mover's entire existing fleet.

Operations and maintenance
The People Mover's operations center, garage, and maintenance facilities are located at the Times Square station. Cars enter the garage via a siding, which branches off from the main line to a second platform at Times Square. This siding allows the system to be used in a two-way bypass manner when part of the circular track is closed. Maintenance equipment is lifted up to track level by crane, but not stored with the DPM cars.

Governance
The People Mover is owned and operated by the Detroit Transportation Corporation (DTC), a public body corporate funded primarily by, but independent of, the Detroit city government.

The agency is currently headquartered on the 29th floor of the Guardian Building, near the Financial District station. It is governed by a six-member Board of Directors, which appoints an executive General Manager to oversee day-to-day operations. The Board consists of four officers from the Mayor of Detroit's cabinet, the president of the Detroit City Council, and the chair of the board of directors of SMART.

Transit Police and security
The People Mover is patrolled by its own dedicated police agency, the Detroit Transit Police, which operates as a division of DTC, independent of the Detroit Police Department.

From 2014 to 2024, the Transit Police were the primary law enforcement agency serving DDOT, providing police services on the agency's buses and at its transit centers. This contracted arrangement began in March 2014 in response to rising crime on buses, and a shortage of Detroit Police Department officers amid the Detroit bankruptcy. The Detroit Police took over DDOT police duties on July 1, 2024, with a newly formed division dedicated to transit operations.

The Transit Police also provided police services on the QLINE from the system's opening in 2017 until February 1, 2024, when those services were also transferred to the Detroit Police.

From 2022 to 2024, regular security patrols on the People Mover were conducted by private security guards, as the Transit Police were primarily dedicated to DDOT and the QLINE. DTC initially hired Detroit-based City Shield Security Services for the People Mover, before switching to Securitas in April 2023.

Ridership
The system was designed to move up to 15 million riders a year. In 2008 it served approximately 2 million riders. This meant the system averaged about 7,500 people per day, about 2.5 percent of its daily peak capacity of 288,000. In 2006, the Mover filled less than 10 percent of its seats.

Among the busiest periods was the five days around the 2006 Super Bowl XL, when 215,910 patrons used the service. In addition to major downtown concerts and sporting events, other high ridership times include the week of the annual North American International Auto Show in January and the Youmacon anime convention at the end of October, ever since the convention expanded in 2012 to use Huntington Place in addition to the Renaissance Center. The system had 92,384 riders during the 2014 extended con weekend.

1990 derailment
In 1990, a train derailed at Cadillac Center after a manhole cover fell onto the track.

2015 derailment
On January 22, 2015, at approximately 10:10 PM, one of the cars jumped a rail, hitting the platform at Times Square. No injuries were reported, and the system was shut down for 17 hours for an investigation. According to a DTC press release, a bracket beneath the train dislodged and caught underneath the rear car, causing the train to disengage from the track. A door was dislodged upon impact.

2016 accident
On May 15, 2016, 53-year-old Michael Whyte fell onto the track between the cars of a stopped train at Times Square. The train then departed automatically as normal, dragging Whyte along the track to his death. Following the incident, bollards were added to the system's platforms, preventing passengers from falling into the space between the cars. Whyte's family filed a lawsuit, alleging negligence on the part of DTC. Whyte's death is, to date, the only fatal accident in the People Mover's history.

Stations
The network has 13 stations. As the system runs in a one-way loop with a single track, each station only has one side platform, except for Times Square, which has a siding leading to the system's garage and an island platform.

Public art
Originally, the 13 stations were not planned to have any distinctive features. However, in 1984, after construction had recently begun, Irene Walt assembled a volunteer committee to persuade the project agency to include artwork in each station. Called the Downtown Detroit People Mover Art Commission (later known as Art in the Stations), they raised $2 million to finance the project. As a result, there are 18 new original pieces of art spread throughout the stations, plus a piece from 1903 that had previously been in storage, on permanent loan from the Detroit Institute of Arts.

The commission's efforts and art installation were documented in a 30-minute film, Art in the Stations, by Sue Marx and Pamela Conn, who had recently won an Academy Award for the short documentary Young at Heart. Art in the Stations premiered at the Detroit Institute of Arts in 1989. In 2004, a coffee table book by Walt, also titled Art in the Stations, was published, with photographs by Balthazar Korab and information on all the station artwork and the artists who created them.

Art was completed with the system opening in 1987 unless otherwise noted:

 * Grand Circus Park
 * Catching Up (Artist: J. Seward Johnson Jr – bronze statue)
 * Times Square
 * In Honor of W. Hawkins Ferry (Artist: Tom Phardel / Pewabic Pottery – glazed tile)
 * Untitled (1993) (Artist: Anat Shiftan / Pewabic Pottery – tile mural)
 * Michigan Avenue
 * Voyage (Artist: Allie McGhee – tile mural)
 * On the Move (Artist: Kirk Newman – cast bronze shape on tile)
 * Fort/Cass
 * Untitled (Artist: Farley Tobin – tile mural)
 * Progression II (1993) (Artist: Sandra jo Osip – bronze sculpture)
 * Huntington Place
 * Calvacade of Cars (1988) (Artist: Larry Ebel/Linda Cianciolo Scarlett – mural)
 * West Riverfront
 * Voyage (Artist: Gerome Kamrowski – venetian glass mosaic)
 * Financial District
 *  'D' for Detroit (Artist: Joyce Kozloff – hand painted ceramic mural)
 * Millender Center
 * Detroit New Morning (Artist: Alvin D. Loving Jr. - painted glazed tiles)
 * Renaissance Center
 * Dreamers and Voyagers Come to Detroit (Artist: George Woodman – ceramic tile mural; destroyed with original station's demolition in 2002)
 * Siberian Ram (1993) (Artist: Marshall Fredericks – cast bronze sculpture)
 * Path Games (2004) (Artist: George Woodman – ceramic tile mural)
 * Bricktown
 * Beaubien Passage (Artist: Glen Michaels – bas relief on porcelain panels)
 * Greektown
 * Neon for the Greektown Station (Artist: Stephen Antonakos – free form neon light display)
 * Cadillac Center
 * In Honour of Mary Chase Stratton (Artist: Diana Kulisek Pancioli/Pewabic Pottery – tile mural interspersed with bronze plaque by Carlo Romanelli 1903)
 * Broadway
 * The Blue Nile (Artist: Charles McGee – painted mural panels)
 * Untitled (Artist: Jun Kaneko – tile)

City Walls murals
In 2024, the exterior walls of five People Mover stations were adorned with large painted murals, as part of the Detroit City Walls public art program.

 * Michigan Avenue
 * A Peaceful Place (Artist: Kenyada Kelsaw – acrylic latex paint on Polytab cloth)
 * Fort/Cass
 * Slice of Life in Detroit: Homage to the Working Class (Artist: Nicole Macdonald – spray paint)
 * West Riverfront
 * Detroit Moves People (Artist: Nick Pizaña)
 * Bricktown
 * Detroit Music Love (Artist: Anthony Lee – enamel and spray paint)
 * Broadway
 * Welcome to Date Night in Paradise (Artist: Charles Martin Miller – latex paint on Polytab cloth)

title: Detroit People Mover


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National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation and Reconstruction of Haiti

The National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation and Reconstruction of Haiti (Front pour la libération et la reconstruction nationales) was a rebel group in Haiti that controlled most of the country following the 2004 Haitian coup d'état. It was briefly known as the "Revolutionary Artibonite Resistance Front", after the country's central Artibonite region, before being renamed on February 19, 2004, to emphasize its national scope.

The group can be considered an alliance between two elements within the coup: armed anti-government gangs and former soldiers of the disbanded Haitian army. The most prominent of the gangs was the one based in Gonaïves, formerly known as the "Cannibal Army", who had once supported Lavalasian-party President, Jean-Bertrand Aristide but later turned against him. The coup initiated with the Cannibal Army's capture of Gonaïves on February 5, 2004. It has been led by Buteur Metayer since the murder (allegedly on Aristide's orders) of Buteur's brother, Amiot Metayer, in late 2003.

The group’s name had been used a fear-tactic to spread intimidation who aimed to “eat the spoils of the Lavalasian state”, were not actual cannibals.

Following the capture of Gonaïves, the rebels quickly moved into several neighboring towns, expelling the police from them. Some of these, such as Saint-Marc, were retaken by the police and pro-Aristide militants within days. However. On February 14, the rebels were reinforced by opponents of the government who had returned from exile in the Dominican Republic: 20 former soldiers, led by Louis-Jodel Chamblain, a former militia leader who headed army death squads in 1987 and a militia known as the Front for the Advancement and Progress of Haïti (FRAPH), which killed and maimed at least 4,000 people, and raped and tortured thousands more in the early 1990s. By February 17, the rebel forces had captured the central town of Hinche, near the Dominican border. According to reports, this attack was led by Chamblain. The rebels also controlled most of the roads connecting the central Artibonite province with the north and south of the country.

It has been alleged that, from 2001 to 2004, the United States Government funded and implemented training operations for a group of 600 anti-Aristide paramilitary soldiers, with the approval of the Dominican Republic's president, Hipolito Mejia. This training was allegedly carried out by roughly 200 members of the US Special Forces. Among the soldiers trained during this operation were known human-rights violators, Guy Philippe and Louis-Jodel Chamblain.

On February 4, 2004, the paramilitary groups led by Buteur Metayer, Guy Philippe, and Louis-Jodel Chamblain began marching on the capital of Haiti, Port-au-Prince. On February 22, the rebels captured the country's second-largest city, Cap-Haïtien. By February 25, nearly the entire north was in rebel hands, and the rebels were threatening to attack the capital, Port-au-Prince. On February 29, Aristide resigned under intense pressure from the United States Government and an impending attack from rebel groups, including the National Revolutionary Front for the Liberation of Haiti. Aristide was Haiti's first democratically elected president. April 24, 2004, Louis-Jodel Chamblain surrendered to Haitian authorities after being convicted in absentia of the slaughter of dozens in Haiti in 1999.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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Canadian Pacific Hotels

Canadian Pacific Hotels (CPH) was a division of the Canadian Pacific Railway (CPR) that primarily operated hotels across Canada, since passenger revenue made a significant contribution to early railway profitability. CPR restructured the division as a subsidiary in 1963. In 1988, CPR purchased the Canadian National Hotels chain, making Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts the nation's largest hotel owner. In 1998, all CPH properties were branded as either Fairmont or Delta.

In 2006, Kingdom Hotels International and Colony Capital purchased Fairmont, consolidating their hotel brands to form Fairmont Raffles Hotels International (FRHI), which in turn became a subsidiary of AccorHotels in 2016. In 2007, BC Investment Management Corp. bought Delta Hotels, which was purchased by Marriott International in 2015.

Early hotels

Since passenger revenue made a significant contribution to railway profitability, facilities, such as hotels, were essential for attracting passenger traffic. The three earliest locations (Mount Stephen House, Glacier House and North Bend) were initially only dining stops, necessary because steep railway grades made hauling a dining car uneconomical. Thomas Sorby's design for these three hotels was inspired by Swiss Chalets.

Hotels were established mainly at locations that connected with other passenger rail or ferry routes, but some rural locations, especially in the Canadian Rockies/Selkirk Mountains, became tourist destinations in their own right. After the success of the original Banff Springs Hotel, described as a "Tudor chalet in wood", CPR lobbied the government to create Banff National Park, the first in Canada. Indisputably, national parks protected CPH's commercial interests in such localities. The opportunity to participate in mountaineering excursions, led by professional Swiss guides, featured in CPH's promotion of the respective accommodation. Scenic images, often including a hotel, illustrated the CPH publicity brochures.

Urban and township land sales financed the construction of the early hotels. In the late-19th to early-20th century, CPH commonly adopted a châteauesque architectural style for building, or enlarging, significant hotels. The earliest example was Château Frontenac. Notable features included steeply pitched copper roofs, blue-green from oxidation, ornate gables, dormer windows, and an irregular placement of towers and turrets.

The visual appeal of this design prompted other railway companies to imitate it. CPR, or its later competitors, Canadian Northern Railway and Grand Trunk Pacific Railway that became Canadian National Railway (CN), built grandiose railway hotels in every major Canadian city. However, CPR quickly reverted to a simpler style of a flat roof and limited ornamental features when designing most city hotels.

With growing automobile traffic, and tourists seeking cheaper accommodation, CPH retained only the more profitable urban and destination hotels. The resort hotels opened in summer only. Year round opening began in 1969 for Banff Springs Hotel, and in 1974 for Chateau Lake Louise.

CPR restructured the division as a subsidiary in 1963.

Bungalow camps & tea houses

Each bungalow camp, comprising a group of cabins with a communal lodge, was in a relatively remote forest area, reached by hiking or horseback. Although initially catering to an elite, mainly American, tourist, they ultimately attracted a broader audience. The log cabin at Lake Louise (1891–1893) was perhaps a forerunner to this concept. The subsequent adoption of the log design not only created a pioneer appearance, but also provided the necessary insulation for a cold mountainous region. CN copied the concept at Jasper Park Lodge. Despite the rustic cabin exteriors, the interiors contained the modern comforts of the period. Presented as more adventurous than a hotel stay, it was scarcely roughing it. Although primarily in the west, Ontario also had three camps.

The CPH rest structures and teahouses, at scenic locations along nearby trails, similarly adopted a rustic design. Teahouses existed at Summit Lake, Twin Falls, Natural Bridge, Lake Agnes and the Plain of Six Glaciers, the latter two still operating. Most rest houses were one-storey cabins at lower elevations.

CPH initially encouraged automobile travel by building camps along the Banff-Windermere Highway, which opened in 1923. In the 1930s, the term "bungalow" disappeared from the Canadian lexicon. When automobile vacationers switched to inexpensive campgrounds at this time, CPH disposed of the least profitable bungalow camps, followed by the remainder in the 1950s.

Later hotels
After a 24-year break in building or acquiring properties, CPH constructed a series of hotels and motels during 1955–1999. The larger ones mostly adopted the "Chateau" prefix. Several international properties were operated, before exiting that market.

Chains acquired

In 1988, CPR purchased the Canadian National Hotels chain, making Canadian Pacific Hotels and Resorts the nation's largest hotel owner. In 1998, CPR purchased the Canadian Delta Hotels chain and the international Princess Hotels chain. The following year, San Francisco-based Fairmont Hotels and Resorts chain was acquired. Minority shareholders were Kingdom Hotels (USA) Ltd. and Maritz Wolff & Co, each holding a 16.5 per cent interest. All CPH properties were branded as either Fairmont or Delta. In 2001, CPH was renamed Fairmont Hotels and Resorts. Later that year, Canadian Pacific Limited spun off all of its subsidiaries into separately traded companies, which included Fairmont Hotels and Resorts.

In 2006, Kingdom Hotels International and Colony Capital, which also owned the Raffles and Swissôtel chains, bought Fairmont. The following year, BC Investment Management Corp. bought Delta Hotels. In 2015, AccorHotels acquired a controlling interest in FRHI, adding the Fairmont, Raffles, and Swissôtel chains to its Luxury Hotel Brands portfolio. That year Marriott International bought the Delta chain.

Once under Delta brand
(See Delta Hotels)

Once under CP brand
{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"

Bahamas

 * Balmoral Beach Hotel, Nassau, Bahamas - now Sandals Royal Bahamian Resort
 * Lucayan Harbour Inn and Marina, Freeport, Bahamas, demolished to build Grand Bahama Yacht Club

Curaçao

 * Curaçao Plaza, Willemstad - now Plaza Hotel Curaçao

Germany

 * Bremen Plaza, Bremen, Germany, leased/operated 1985–1989 - now Swissôtel Bremen.
 * Frankfurt Plaza, Frankfurt, Germany, leased/operated 1976–1989 - now Frankfurt Marriott.
 * Hamburg Plaza, Hamburg, Germany, leased/operated 1973–1988 - now Radisson Blu Hotel Hamburg.

Israel

 * Jerusalem Plaza, Jerusalem, operated 1970s–1980s - now Leonardo Plaza Hotel Jerusalem.
 * Tiberias Plaza, Tiberias, operated 1970s–1980s - now Leonardo Plaza Hotel Tiberias.

Mexico

 * Continental Hilton, Mexico City, D.F. - Rebranded as Château Royal under CP Hotels ownership (1973–1980). Demolished after the 1985 earthquake.
 * El Mirador Plaza, Acapulco, Guerrero - now Mirador Acapulco Hotel.
 * Club Akumal Caribe, Caribe, Quintana Roo - now Hotel Akumal Caribe

United States

 * Franklin Plaza, Philadelphia, operated 1979–1984 - now Sheraton Philadelphia Downtown.
 * }

title: Canadian Pacific Hotels


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Tzniut

Tzniut (צְנִיעוּת, Sephardi: , Ashkenazi: ; "modesty" or "privacy"; באשיידנקייט ) describes the character trait of modesty and discretion, as well as a group of Jewish laws pertaining to conduct. The concept is most important within Orthodox Judaism.

Description
Tzniut includes a group of Jewish laws concerned with modesty of both dress and behavior. In the Babylonian Talmud, Rabbi Elazar Bar Tzadok interprets the injunction at Micah 6:8 to "go discreetly with your God" as referring to discretion in conducting funerals and weddings. The Talmud then extends his interpretation: "If in matters that are generally performed in public, such as funerals and weddings, the Torah instructed us to go discreetly, matters that by their very nature should be performed discreetly, such as giving charity to a poor person, how much more so must one take care to do them discreetly, without publicity and fanfare".

In the legal dimension of Orthodox Judaism, the issue of tzniut is discussed in more technical terms: how much skin may a person expose, and so on. These details underscore the concept of tzniut as a code of conduct, character, and awareness, which in practice is more noticeable among women than men.

Gender-specific garb
Originating from the Biblical pair of commands (Deut. 22:5) regarding "male and female garb." Aside from pants and zippers, there is also the matter of buttons on clothing. Classic clothing has the button on the left side for women and on the right side for men. Some Jews reverse that, with men buttoning right on the left as part of Tzniut. The principal guiding point of tzniut regarding dress is that a Jew should not dress in ways that attract undue attention. That does not mean dressing poorly but means neither men nor women should dress in a way that overly emphasizes their physical appearance or attracts undue attention. There are many different interpretations of tzniut and so people from different communities dress differently.

Community-specific garb
Orthodox Judaism requires both men and women to substantially cover their bodies. According to many opinions, that involves covering the elbows and knees.

In Haredi communities, men wear long trousers and usually long-sleeved shirts; most will not wear short sleeves at all. Haredi Ashkenazi practice discourages sandals without socks both inside and outside the synagogue, but Haredi Sefardi communities tend to permit sandals at least outside of synagogue. Dress inside a synagogue and, according to many, in public should be comparable to that worn by the community when it meets royalty or the government.

Haredi women wear blouses covering the elbow and collarbone and skirts covering the knees while standing and sitting. The ideal sleeve and skirt length varies by community. Some women try not to follow fashion, but others wear fashionable but modest clothing. Haredi women avoid skirts with slits but prefer kick pleats. They also avoid overly eye-catching colors, especially red, as well as tight clothing. The prohibition on wearing red is Ashkenazic, originally formulated by Joseph Colon Trabotto, Moses Isserles, and Shabtai HaKohen. In modern interpretation, Moshe Feinstein restricts the prohibition to women, but many other authorities apply it to both genders. Many will wear only closed-toe shoes and always wear stockings or tights, the thickness of which varies by community.

Modern Orthodox women also usually adhere to tzniut and dress in a modest fashion (as compared to general society), but their communal definition does not necessarily include covering their elbows, collarbones, or knees, and may allow for wearing pants although most Modern Orthodox women will, when in front of men or in public, wear skirts that cover their knees, preferably loose ones, and cover their shoulders and cleavage.

Modern Orthodox men's dress is often indistinguishable from their non-Orthodox peers, apart from them wearing a skullcap. They may wear short-sleeved shirts, and sometimes even shorts. Sandals without socks are generally not worn in a synagogue but are usually accepted in Modern Orthodox and Religious Zionist communities in Israel for daily dress for both men and women.

Conservative Judaism formally encourages modest dress. While day-to-day dress often simply reflects trends in wider society, many Conservative synagogues expect somewhat more modest dress (although not necessarily as stringent as in Orthodox Judaism) for synagogue attendance, and may have specific dress requirements to receive synagogue honors (such as being called for a Torah reading).

Reform Judaism has no religious dress requirements.

The style of dress also involves cultural considerations aside from religious requirements. Members of Conservative and Reform synagogues may abide by dress codes generally ranging from business casual to informal. There are many Orthodox synagogues (especially in Israel) in which dress, while meeting religious modesty requirements, is quite casual. Many Haredi and Hasidic communities have special customs and styles of dress that serve to identify members of their communities but regard those special dress features as more customary to their particular communities than a general religious requirement expected of all observant Jews.

Further cultural considerations include the increasing use of modest dress as an act of female empowerment and self-actualization, which are not directly related to religious observance.

Hair covering
Jewish law governing tzniut requires married women to cover their hair in the presence of men other than their husband or close family members. Such covering is common practice nowadays among Orthodox Jewish women.

Orthodox Judaism
In Orthodox Judaism, men are generally not allowed to hear women sing, a prohibition called kol isha (literally "a woman's voice"). The Talmud classifies that as ervah (literally "nakedness"). The majority view of halakhic authorities is that the prohibition applies at all times and forbids a man from praying or studying the Torah in the presence of a woman who is singing; it is similar to other prohibitions classified as ervah. A minority view holds that the prohibition of praying or studying in the presence of kol isha applies only while the Shema Yisrael prayer is being recited.

There is a debate between poskim whether the prohibition applies to a recorded female voice if the singer cannot be seen, the woman is not known to the man who is listening, and he has never seen her or a picture of her. There are also opinions, following Samson Raphael Hirsch and Azriel Hildesheimer, that exclude singing in mixed groups from this prohibition, such as synagogue prayer or dinner-table zemirot, based on the idea that the female voice is not distinctly heard as separate from the group in those cases.

Yehiel Yaakov Weinberg and Rabbi David Bigman of Yeshivat Ma'ale Gilboa hold that the kol isha prohibition does not apply to women singing zemirot, songs to children, and lamentations for the dead because in those contexts, men do not derive sexual pleasure from the woman's voice.

Other denominations
Conservative Judaism interprets the relevant passage of the Talmud as expressing a rabbi's opinion, rather than imposing a requirement.

Reform Judaism fundamentally reconsidered the status of women within Judaism in a series of synods from 1837 onward in both Europe and the United States and formally abolished most distinctions between men and women in the observance of Jewish life, particularly concerning dress and public participation. It no longer regards that law as applicable to modern times.

Touch
In Orthodox Judaism, men and women who are not married and not closely related are generally forbidden to touch each other sensually. A person who refrains from touching the opposite sex is said to be "shomer negiah". Any touching but especially in an affectionate manner ("b'derech chiba") is prohibited.

Opinions are divided regarding a quick handshake in a business setting: some authorities (mainly of Modern Orthodox background) permit it, but other people (nearly all Haredim, and many other Orthodox Jews) prohibit it. The question is, "What is sensual?" One may, however, touch certain relatives (parents, children, grandparents, grandchildren) to whom one is presumed not to be sexually attracted. Whether or not children adopted at a young age are included in the prohibition is a matter of dispute and varies from case to case. One may touch one's spouse outside the niddah period, but any married couples will also not publicly touch one another.

Conservative and Reform Judaism do not follow those laws.

Yichud
In Orthodox Judaism, men and women who are not married to each other and are not immediate blood relatives are forbidden to enter into a secluded situation (yichud) in a room or area that is locked and private. That measure is taken to prevent the possibility of sexual relations, which are prohibited outside of marriage. According to some authorities, it applies even between adoptive parents and adoptive children over the age of maturity, but others are more lenient with children adopted from a young age. Seclusion does not consist of merely being alone in a room together, and it is only if the situation is private, with no one else expected to enter, that the restriction applies. Originally, the prohibition applied only to married women who were secluded with men other than their husbands, but it was later extended to include single women. According to the Talmud, the extension occurred in the time of King David, when his son Amnon raped his other son Absalom's sister, Tamar. On the issue of elevators, opinions vary; some allow yichud in an elevator for a time of no more than 30 seconds, but others forbid it under all circumstances, partly because of the possibility of an elevator getting stuck. The laws concerning yichud are complicated and detailed, and especially so for women in modern contexts, promoting the suggestion to reread them as a nonspecific mandate for personal space at a time that society can generally acknowledge the darkest aspects of the human sexual psyche in today's social interactions.

Conservative and Reform Judaism do not regard those rules as applicable.

Synagogue services
In Orthodox Judaism, men and women are not allowed to mingle during prayer services, and Orthodox synagogues generally include a divider, a mechitza, to create separate men's and women's sections. The idea comes from the old Jewish practice when the Temple in Jerusalem stood: there was a women's balcony in the Ezrat Nashim to separate male and female spectators at the special Sukkot celebrations. There is also a prophecy in Zechariah (12:12) that mentions men and women mourning separately. The Talmud took that account and inferred that if men and women should be separate in times of mourning, they certainly should be separate in times of happiness.

Mechitzot are usually seen in Orthodox synagogues but never in Reform ones. Original German Reform synagogues had balconies although in modified form. While many Conservative synagogues also had balconies or separate seating for women in the past, most of them have switched to "family seating" (mixed seating of relatives) in the 1960s. Today, the Conservative movement puts a strong emphasis on egalitarianism so that men and women have equal roles in prayer services. However, non-egalitarian services, separate seating, and the use of a mechitza are still considered valid options for Conservative congregations.

Dancing
Orthodox Jews following the laws on negiah do not participate in mixed dancing, as it entails sensual touch and may also be considered immodest even if there is no physical contact.

In 2013, the Rabbinical Court of the Ashkenazi Community in the Haredi city of Beitar Illit ruled against Zumba (a type of dance fitness) classes although they were held with a female instructor and all-female participants. It stated: "Both in form and manner, the activity [Zumba] is entirely at odds with both the ways of the Torah and the holiness of Israel, as are the songs associated with it."

Observance
There are several levels to the observance of physical and personal tzniut according to Orthodox Judaism, as derived from various sources in halakha. Observance of the rules varies from aspirational to mandatory to routine across the spectrum of Orthodox stricture and observance.

 * Not dwelling on lascivious or immoral thoughts.
 * Not staring at members of the opposite sex, particularly any part of the opposite sex's "private" anatomy.
 * Keeping the majority of one's body covered in respectable clothing at all times.
 * Avoiding the company of uncouth individuals or situations if an atmosphere of levity and depravity prevails.
 * Avoiding pictures or scenes that are likely to be sexually arousing.
 * Refraining from touching a person of the opposite sex.
 * Not looking at animals copulating.
 * Not hugging or kissing one's spouse in public; among Haredim, all physical contact is avoided between spouses in public. The primary reason is not to arouse jealousy and hence the evil eye in those without a partner. That is a law between men, and not primarily between man and God.
 * Not talking to a member of the opposite sex unnecessarily.

title: Tzniut


text:
Christopher Finney

Christopher Finney, (born 23 May 1984) is a former British soldier of the Blues and Royals who was awarded the George Cross for bravery under friendly fire during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

Finney grew up in Marple, near Stockport, before moving to Dorset. He joined the British Army in September 2000. His first operational deployment came in the Iraq War. On 28 March 2003, the Scimitar armoured vehicle he was driving came under attack from a pair of American ground attack aircraft in a friendly fire incident. Finney rescued several of his comrades despite being hit by the attacking aircraft. For his valour he was awarded the George Cross: the highest award for acts of conspicuous gallantry performed when not in the face of the enemy, becoming the youngest serviceman in the British Armed Forces to receive it.

Early life
Finney grew up in Marple, near Stockport, later moving to Wimborne, Dorset.

Army career
Finney joined the British Army in September 2000, at the age of 15 years and 9 months. Initially he joined the Coldstream Guards before moving to the Blues and Royals after being persuaded by his section commander during his training. At the age of 16 he attended the a year-long course for junior soldiers attending the Army Foundation College in Harrogate. He joined up with the Household Cavalry Regiment at Windsor in January 2002, after completing his initial training. Finney left the UK for Iraq, along with his squadron.

Iraq War and George Cross
On 28 March 2003 the Scimitar armoured vehicle Finney was driving near the Shatt al-Arab waterway north of Basra came under attack from a pair of American ground attack aircraft in a friendly fire incident. Finney escaped from the burning vehicle, but returned to it when he realised that his gunner was trapped in the turret, and succeeded in rescuing him. Realising that his comrades were all injured, Finney returned to the vehicle a second time to inform his headquarters of the situation. He then proceeded to help the wounded gunner to safety even while the two aircraft carried out a second attack, hitting Finney in the lower back and legs. Finally, he returned to the scene of the attack a third time to attempt to rescue the injured driver of another burning vehicle. The citation concludes with: "During these attacks and their horrifying aftermath, Trooper Finney displayed clearheaded courage and devotion to his comrades which was out of all proportion to his age and experience. Acting with complete disregard for his own safety even when wounded, his bravery was of the highest order throughout."

On 31 October 2003, Finney was awarded the George Cross (GC) — the highest award for acts of conspicuous gallantry performed when not in the face of the enemy, becoming the youngest serviceman in the British Armed Forces to receive it, and only the 154th direct recipient since its inception in 1940 (a number of recipients of other medals had their award converted to a GC). Lance-Corporal of Horse Mick Flynn, also of the Blues and Royals, was awarded the Conspicuous Gallantry Cross for the same action. Sergeant Andrew Sindall of the Royal Engineers, who was attached to D Squadron, was also awarded the Queen's Gallantry Medal. The award was presented to Finney at Buckingham Palace on 25 February 2004 by Queen Elizabeth II.

It had been suggested that Trooper Finney was to be nominated for the Victoria Cross, the highest military award of the British military, but the suggestion was rejected because the Victoria Cross is for acts of valour "in the face of the enemy", and as Trooper Finney and his comrades were under attack from American forces, he did not qualify for the medal.

Finney was awarded a special award at the Pride of Britain Awards in 2004 in recognition of his bravery. He also received an engraved gold watch from "the citizens of Marple" to congratulate him on his "deed of heroism". After he returned from medical leave, Finney continued to serve in the army. He was promoted to lance-corporal of horse. In January 2005, he became part of the regimental information team that travels around the country at schools and recruiting fairs.

Post-army career
After leaving the army, Finney took a course in fibre optics and copper cable installation but was unable to find employment. He found work in a call centre in Poole, Dorset. After giving an interview in a national newspaper that criticised the government and the situation he now found himself in, Finney was offered a job by Joe Calzaghe Enterprises as a corporate ambassador. He was employed to promote a testimonial dinner for the charity Help for Heroes.

Finney lives with his wife, Liz, and their daughters in Cornwall where they run Goonhavern Garden Centre and Chacewater Garden Centre. In 2022 he took over as Chairman of the Victoria Cross and George Cross Association.

Finney took part in the coronation of King Charles III. As chair of the VCGCA, he had been selected as the "representative of those who serve the Crown". He was one of four persons to present the king to those gathered in Westminster Abbey as part of the first element of the service titled the Recognition.

title: Christopher Finney


text:
Sweden during World War II

Sweden maintained its policy of neutrality during World War II. When the war began on 1 September 1939, the fate of Sweden was unclear. But by a combination of its geopolitical location in the Scandinavian Peninsula, realpolitik maneuvering during an unpredictable course of events, and a dedicated military build-up after 1942, Sweden kept its official neutrality status throughout the war. At the outbreak of hostilities, Sweden had held a neutral stance in international relations for more than a century, since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1814 and the invasion of Norway.

At the outbreak of war in September 1939, twenty European nations were neutral. Sweden was one of only nine of these nations to maintain this stance for the remainder of the war, along with Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, and the microstates of Andorra, Liechtenstein, Vatican City, and San Marino. The Swedish Government made a few concessions, and sometimes breached the nation's neutrality in favor of both Germany and, later, the Western Allies.

During the German invasion of the Soviet Union (June–July 1941), Sweden allowed the Wehrmacht to use Swedish railways to transport the German 163rd Infantry Division along with heavy weapons from Norway to Finland. Until 1943, German soldiers traveling on leave between Norway and Germany were allowed passage through Sweden—the so-called permittenttrafik. Iron ore was sold to Germany throughout the war and Germany owned several mines in Sweden that had been bought by German companies before the outbreak of the war. These mines were called Tyskgruvorna ("German mines"). For the Allies, Sweden shared military intelligence and helped to train soldier refugees from Denmark and Norway, to be used in the liberation of their home countries. It also allowed the Allies to use Swedish airbases between 1944 and 1945.

Swedish neutrality remains a subject of debate. Proponents argue that during the war, Sweden softened its policy against accepting refugees, admitting thousands of Jews and political dissenters from Norway and Denmark. Conversely, opponents such as Winston Churchill suggest that Sweden "ignored the greater moral issues of the war and played both sides for profit."

Political
Between 1523 and Sweden's final war with Russia in 1809, a state of war had existed between these two countries for 67 out of those 286 years. Russia was seen as the historical hereditary enemy of Sweden. In the peace that followed the Finnish War in 1809, all of Finland had been ceded to Russia and Sweden was reduced to two thirds of its former size.

As the end of the 19th century approached, and the beginning of the 20th began, Sweden, like many other nations, became beset by strikes and public disorder. Appalling working conditions were no longer tolerated and the working class was rising against the state. In 1908 alone, there were about 300 strikes in Sweden. By 1917, Sweden's need for a new political system was apparent from these riots. Sweden had remained neutral during World War One but with a tendency to side with the Central Powers. Since the 1880s, the socialist movement in Sweden had been divided into two opposing groups: the revolutionary socialists, a communist movement; and the reformists, a social democratic movement – the latter of which being the larger of the two. In 1917, the rules of democracy were changed in Sweden, the electorate's size grew and in 1921, women were also allowed to vote.

But even these reforms were seen as far too radical by some conservatives. Some wanted strong leadership and did not believe in democracy. In the 1920s and 1930s, confrontations between employers and employees in Sweden continued. In 1931, this culminated with the Ådalen shootings, an incident where the military opened fire on a protest march. In the same year, a secret right-wing militia, the Munckska kåren, was exposed. It had recruited about 2000 men and had access to heavy weaponry. It was disbanded the next year.

At the other end of the political spectrum, following the Russian Civil War the Russian Empire had become the Soviet Union and many Swedish communists were cooperating with this new Soviet regime, seeking to realize a world revolution. Compromise and a parliamentary system were thought to stand in the way of a more equal and just society.

A new cabinet led by the social democrats with Per Albin Hansson as Prime Minister, took control in 1932. A policy of cooperation and consensus was pursued, which led to a furthering of the divide between the two socialist factions: the communists and the reformist left. The distance between these two, at least at the ideological level, became so great that the communists often referred to the social democrats as "the social fascists". Apart from a period termed "the vacation government" (Sw: semesterregeringen) between 19 June and 28 September 1936, Per Albin Hansson was to be the Prime Minister of Sweden until his death in 1946.

Military
Sweden had very few tanks in the inter-war era. For a time, the entire armoured corps consisted of ten Stridsvagn mf/21s. This was a design based upon a German First World War tank and had been secretly purchased by Sweden in the form of tractor assembly kits.

In the Defence Act of 1936, it was decided to form two tank battalions. Captain Fale Burman, chief of "Army Procurement" (Arméns utrustningsdetalj) in 1937, commented:

"... Härför krävdes total nyanskaffning av deras viktigaste innehåll, stridsvagnarna. Redan på ett tidigt stadium fick vi dock klart för oss att om vi enbart valde kanonutrustade vagnar skulle de högst komma upp till ett antal av 15–20.''

(This required the purchase of their main piece of military hardware, tanks. Already at an early stage, it was clear to us that if we simply chose the cannon-equipped tanks, we could have at most 15–20 of them.)"

To make sure training at the battalion level would be possible, machine gun–equipped tanks were purchased as well. By 1939, Sweden had 48 Czechoslovakian-built tanks with machine gun armament and about 20 Stridsvagn L-60 tanks armed with a 20 mm main gun.

The Swedish Army had been organized into four divisions since the 1890s, with the regiments of northern Norrland and Gotland standing as separate units. This was outdated, and in 1942, a new military organization was adopted.

Pre-war trade
During World War II, Swedish industry had to supply an increased share of its own domestic goods owing to the British naval blockade of the North Sea, whilst satisfying the vastly increased demand for armaments. Before the war, the annual production of armaments was typically measured in tens of millions of Swedish kronor, but during the war, output exceeded SEK 1 billion (US$240 million).

Military balance
Sweden's long-standing policy of neutrality was tested on many occasions during the 1930s. The challenges came from a strongly rejuvenated, nationalistic Germany. From 1919 until 1935, Sweden had been an active supporter of the League of Nations and most of Sweden's political energy in the international arena had been directed towards the League's preservation.

The Swedish non-aligned policy during this period was founded on the assumption that there were two opposing powers in the Baltic Sea region, Germany and the Soviet Union; because these two powers needed to guard against each other, the hope was that they would only ever be able to deploy minor forces against Sweden or other non-aligned countries. It was this expectation which made the defence of a small country feasible. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, signed at the end of August 1939 between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union, upset this balance.

Pre-war preparations
In 1936, the Swedish government started to heighten its military preparedness as the international situation worsened. Military spending in Sweden went from US$37 million in 1936, to $50 million in 1937, to $58.6 million in 1938, and then increased over fivefold to $322.3 million in 1939. During World War II itself, military spending peaked at $527.6 million in 1942.

Not only was the Swedish government buying material to strengthen its defences, it began drafting conscripts. On 6 May 1938, the government called up all those aged 15 for short periods of training. In addition to this, the Swedish Cabinet ordered that one quarter of those conscripted in 1938 should be retained for further training.

In 1940, the Home Guard was created. Its units were small groups of former soldiers who were equipped with rifles, machine guns, ammunition, medicine and uniforms. They had the option to buy additional materials such as skis, sweaters and marching boots. The Swedish Women's Voluntary Defence Organization had already been in existence since 1924.

While arming itself, Sweden felt that it was necessary to articulate and enforce its policy of neutrality. Per Albin Hansson's statement shortly before World War II began:

"Friendly with all other nations and strongly linked to our neighbors, we look on no one as our enemy. There is no place in the thoughts of our people for aggression against any other country, and we note with gratitude, the assurances from others that they have no wish to disturb our peace, our freedom, or our independence. The strengthening of our defense preparations serves merely to underline our fixed determination to keep our country outside the conflicts that may erupt amongst others and, during such conflicts, to safeguard the existence of our people."

Georg Homin, a captain on the General Staff, stated:

"Without a defensive force we cannot follow any policy of our own, our declarations become merely empty words and we leave the country's fate to chance, or to the decisions of others. With a defense as strong as Swedish conditions allow, we secure for ourselves the basis of a continued independent Swedish policy."

War

When, in September 1939, Germany attacked Poland and both France and Britain declared war on Nazi Germany, Sweden declared itself a neutral country in regard to this escalating situation. An example illustrating this situation may be the failed Allied attempt to release Polish submarines (ORP Ryś, ORP Żbik, ORP Sęp) which were interned after they reached Swedish ports (requiring repairs of battle damage, unable to break the German blockade and sail to Britain).

On the outbreak of the Winter War between Finland and the Soviet Union in November 1939, Sweden declared itself to be "non-belligerent" in regard to this particular conflict, actively siding with Finland. This allowed Sweden to aid Finland economically, and with armaments. Sweden and Finland also jointly laid minefields in the Sea of Åland to deter Soviet submarines from entering the Gulf of Bothnia.

Foreign trade
Sweden was not directly attacked during World War II. It was, however, subject to British and German naval blockades and accidental bombings from the Soviets on some cities (e.g. Strängnäs), which led to problems with the supply of food and fuels. When Germany invaded Denmark and Norway in April 1940, coupled with a German blockade of the North Sea, every shipment had to be negotiated with both British and German authorities, which drastically reduced the volume of trade. Between 1938 and 1944, the Swedish import of petroleum products and coal decreased by 88% and 53% respectively, which led to severe shortages. Other critical items were natural rubber, alloy metals and food. This situation led to extensive rationing of fuels and food in Sweden and substitutes were developed and produced. Wood gas was used as a fuel for motor vehicles and shale oil as a substitute for bunker oil.

At the beginning of the war, agreements had been signed between Sweden and the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany in order to sustain vital trade; but in spite of this, and the fact that Sweden had declared itself a neutral country, Swedish shipping came under attack. Sweden's trade with Britain was cut by a total of 70%. Within the North Sea blockade, trade with Germany increased, until 37% of Sweden's exports were shipped to Germany. For very important goods such as ball bearings from SKF for the British aircraft industry, delivery was made by blockade runners, using rebuilt Motor Gun Boats, which could use winter darkness and high speed to penetrate the German blockade of the Skagerrak straits between Norway and the northern tip of Denmark.

Before the outbreak of the war, the Swedish Ministry of defence (Royal Swedish Air Force Materiel Administration) had ordered some 300 combat aircraft from the United States, primarily Seversky P-35s and P-66 Vanguards. In 1940, however, the US administration halted these exports. Only about 60 aircraft had been delivered. Sweden succeeded subsequently in buying 200 aircraft from Italy, a fascist ally of Germany at the time; these aircraft were primarily Fiat CR.42 Falcos, Reggiane Re.2000s, and Caproni Ca.313s.

Impact on domestic politics
War broke out between Finland and the Soviet Union in November 1939. In Sweden, the Liberal, Conservative and Agrarian parties were concerned about a perceived threat from the Soviet Union. The Social Democrats were in the main equally concerned. Leading social democrats like Rickard Sandler and Torsten Nilsson played a prominent role in mustering support for Finland. The Communists were openly loyal to the Soviet Union and supported its Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Germany. However, when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, they swung around to a pro-Allied view.

Defence of Finland
When the Soviet Union attacked Finland in November 1939, many Swedes favored some sort of involvement in the conflict, both on a humanitarian and on a military basis. Sweden's interest in Finland lay in the fact that Finland had been an integrated part of Sweden for more than six hundred years, with Sweden losing control of its eastern provinces in 1809. Despite several pleas from the Finnish government, the Swedish government declined to engage militarily with the Red Army as it advanced during the Winter War. However, Sweden declared itself "non-belligerent" rather than neutral during the conflict and as many as 8,000 Swedes voluntarily went to Finland to fight. The Swedish government and public also sent food, clothing, medicine, weapons and ammunition to aid the Finns during this conflict. This military aid included:

 * 135,402 rifles, 347 machine guns, and 450 light machine guns with 50,013,300 rounds of small arms ammunition
 * 144 field guns, 100 anti-aircraft guns and 92 anti-tank guns with 301,846 shells
 * 300 naval mines and 500 depth charges
 * 17 fighter aircraft, five light bombers, one DC-2 transport aircraft turned into a bomber, and three reconnaissance aircraft

Twelve of Sweden's most modern fighter aircraft, British Gloster Gladiators, were flown by volunteer Swedish pilots under Finnish insignia. These aircraft constituted one third of Sweden's fighter force at the time. In addition, Sweden received some 70,000 Finnish children who were sent to Sweden to find safety during the 1940s.

On 21 February 1940, seven Soviet bombers accidentally dropped around 150 bombs over Pajala in Norrbotten County. Six buildings caught fire and two people were injured. The event sparked further debate on whether Sweden should send aid to the Finns.

Possible Allied invasion

German industry was heavily dependent on Swedish iron ore. The Allies had intended to use the Soviet attack on Finland in November 1939 as cover for seizing the important Swedish iron ore deposits in the north, in addition to the Norwegian harbours through which this ore was shipped to Germany. The plan was to get Norwegian and Swedish permission to send an expeditionary force to Finland across northern Norway and Sweden, ostensibly to help the Finns. But once in place, they were to proceed to take control of the harbours and the iron ore mines, occupying cities such as Gävle and Luleå and denying German access to the Swedish iron ore. In this way, an unsuspecting Norway and Sweden would be presented with a fait accompli. Realizing this danger, however, and the consequent possibility of Allied or German occupation and of the war being waged on their territory, both the Swedes and the Norwegians refused to allow this proposal.

Meanwhile, the Germans, having suspected an Allied threat, were making their own plans for an invasion of Norway in order to protect their strategic supply lines. The Altmark Incident of 16 February 1940 convinced Hitler that the Allies would not respect Norwegian neutrality, so he ordered plans for an invasion.

Scandinavian reluctance to allow Allied troops onto their territory had halted the original Allied plan for using aid to Finland as a pretext for moving in troops, but on 12 March 1940, the Allies decided to try a "semi-peaceful" invasion nonetheless. Troops were to be landed in Norway, and proceed into Sweden to capture the Swedish iron ore mines. However, if serious military resistance was encountered, they were not to press the issue. The plan was abandoned with the ending of the Winter War on 13 March. The Germans were partly aware of these Allied intentions, as they had intercepted radio traffic showing that Allied transport groups were being readied. A few days later, they also intercepted messages confirming that the Allies had abandoned their plan and were to redeploy their forces.

German plans for an invasion of Norway continued, since Hitler feared that the Allies were nonetheless intent upon launching their own invasion. 9 April was set as the date of Operation Weserübung, the German attack on Norway.

Hitler was correct about Allied intentions. The Allied plan had two parts, Operation Wilfred and Plan R 4. Operation Wilfred was to take place on 5 April (it was in fact delayed until 8 April) when Norwegian territorial waters were to be mined, violating Norwegian neutrality. This would force the ships carrying ore to Germany to travel outside the protection of Norwegian territorial waters and thus become legitimate targets for the Royal Navy. It was hoped that this would provoke a German military reaction. As soon as the Germans reacted, under "Plan R 4", 18,000 Allied troops were to land in Narvik, closing the rail link to Sweden. Other cities that the Allies hoped to capture were Trondheim and Bergen.

The first ship carrying Allied troops was to start its journey a few hours after the mine-laying. On 8 April, a Royal Naval detachment led by HMS Renown (1916) mined Norwegian waters as a part of Operation Wilfred, but German troops were already on their way and "Plan R 4" was quickly made obsolete.

Occupation of Denmark and Norway

On 9 April 1940, Germany launched Operation Weserübung, an operation with the objective of simultaneously occupying Denmark and Norway, and to stage a coup d'état in Norway. This move had several far-reaching consequences for Sweden. Sweden was in effect cut off from trade with the western world and therefore more dependent on German goodwill, ultimately leading to permittenttrafik. But it also lessened the immediate risk that Sweden would become a theater of war between the Axis and the Allies.

When Germany invaded both Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940, the 100,000 Swedish soldiers who had been deployed along the Finnish border in northern Sweden were in the process of being demobilized, owing to the end of the Winter War there. Before the outbreak of hostilities, Sweden had had no plans for defending Norway or any defence strategy against a German invasion from the direction of Norway. Moreover, an agreement from the dissolution of the union between Norway and Sweden in 1905 stated that no fortification was allowed along this border. One of Germany's demands on Sweden, as Germany's invasion progressed, was that Sweden was not to mobilize. However, Sweden re-organized its system of mobilization to allow for personal order by letter to be made possible as an alternative to official proclamation, so that 320,000 men were able to be raised in a few weeks. This was called "The Organization" and was barely different from a full mobilization when completed. Sweden also started to build fortifications at the Norwegian border and along the coast of Scania.

During its invasion of Norway, Germany demanded access to the Swedish telephone and telegraph lines between Germany and Norway. Sweden allowed this, but tapped the lines. In the early summer of 1940, the Swedish mathematician Arne Beurling succeeded in deciphering and discovering the source codes of the Geheimfernschreiber cypher machine that Germany used, which afforded the Swedes advance knowledge of Germany's military intentions. Although the British Plan R 4 had not been able to be carried out, Allied troops were swiftly sent to Norway and were able to fight alongside the Norwegians unsuccessfully against the German invaders. However, the success of the German campaign against France and the occupation of the Low Countries led to a British troop re-deployment and by 8 June 1940, British troops had been evacuated from Norway.

In his book Blodsporet ("The Blood Track"), Espen Eidum detailed how, at the request of Adolf Hitler, Nazi Germany sent three trains with 30 to 40 sealed carriages through Sweden to the battle of Narvik. These trains ostensibly transported medical personnel and food for the wounded German soldiers in Narvik. However, in reality there were 17 soldiers for every medical officer or orderly. Sweden knew that the trains were being used to transport troops because a Swedish representative in Berlin reported that he had watched them board. The trains also transported heavy artillery, anti-aircraft guns, ammunition, and communications and supply equipment.

Midsummer Crisis
At the start of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in the early summer of 1941, codenamed Operation Barbarossa, the Germans asked Sweden to allow the transportation of armed German troops, the 163rd Infantry Division, commanded by General Erwin Engelbrecht, along with all its military equipment, through Swedish territory by train from Norway to the eastern front in Finland. Finland also insisted on the transfer of the division.

The Swedish government granted this permission after two days of internal debate. In Sweden, the political deliberations surrounding this are known as the "Midsummer Crisis"; however, according to research by Carl-Gustaf Scott there never was a "crisis", he argues that "the crisis was created in historical hindsight in order to protect the political legacy of the Social Democratic Party and its leader Per Albin Hansson". Dick Harryson explains that there was a risk of the coalition government falling apart if the Social Democrats, for which Per Albin Hansson was the leader, voted no to the transfer and the right wing parties voted yes. Per Albin Hansson did not want a government in crisis and recommended to vote yes. Ernst Wigforss convinced the Social Democrats to vote no with a large majority by stating that this was about chosing side in the war. Per Albin Hansson then asked for a second vote on how the Social Democrats would react to the right wing voting yes. The opinion was split, but the majority would rather accept the transfer than bring down the government. Since Sweden was not neutral in relation to Finland during the Winter War but non-belligerent, it is debateable if the transfer constituted a violation of neutrality even if the transfer occurred after the Soviet Union attacked Finland starting the Continuation War and Sweden was yet to take a stance in this conflict.

1943 onward
From late 1942 and into 1943, Germany began to meet with a series of military reverses after its losses at the Second Battle of El Alamein, the Battle of Stalingrad and elsewhere. Germany was forced into a more defensive position as the Allied forces achieved success on the battlefield. It was becoming increasingly apparent to Sweden that Germany was unlikely to win the war. Prior to 1943, Sweden's policy of neutrality had been largely under the close scrutiny of Germany. After August and September 1943, however, Sweden was increasingly able to resist German demands and to soften its stance to Allied pressure. However, despite Germany's new, defensive posture, Sweden's constant fear was that the unexpected would happen, an attitude that continued until the very end of the war. With Germany's weakening position came stronger demands from the Allies. They pushed for Sweden to abandon its trade with Germany and to stop all German troop movements over Swedish soil. Sweden accepted payments from the Allies to compensate for this loss of income through reduced trade with Germany, but continued to sell steel and machine parts to Nazi Germany at inflated smugglers' rates.

Training of Norwegian and Danish troops

During the war, more than 50,000 Norwegians fled to Sweden. These refugees were sent to camps at Öreryd in Småland and Kjesäter in Södermanland. From the summer of 1943 onward, the military training of Norwegian troops was carried out in Sweden, in cooperation with the Swedish government and the Norwegian government-in-exile in London. To prevent protests from Nazi Germany, this training was ostensibly for the Norwegian police. From the start, the recruits only had light infantry weapons, but later they were able to train with artillery. Military exercises were held in Dalarna in December 1944 and in Hälsingland in spring 1945. 8,000 men took part in this latter exercise.

In all, around 15,000 men were trained and organized into ten battalions and at the end of the war, eight of these battalions, about 13,500 men, were ready for action. They entered Norway on 8 May 1945. The number of Danish refugees had been much lower than the 50,000 Norwegians, but a brigade of about 3,600 Danish men was also trained and they were transferred to Denmark on 5 May 1945.

The Bäckebo rocket

On 13 June 1944, a V-2 rocket under test by the Germans (test rocket V-89, serial number 4089 ) from Peenemünde crashed in Sweden after the rocket had flown into cumulus clouds which had strayed into the controller's line of sight. It was supposed to crash in the sea outside Bornholm in occupied Denmark. V-89 contained a FuG 230 Straßburg radio control receiver unit, normally commanded by a remote FuG 203 Kehl joystick-equipped radio control transmitter set that had also been meant for use with the Wasserfall anti-aircraft missile (code named Burgund), as a development of the same FuG 203/230 equipment pairing used to guide both the Fritz X gravity-propulsion guided ordnance and the Henschel Hs 293 glide bomb. The ground controller appeared to have no trouble manoeuvring the rocket until it disappeared into the high cloud layer.

A captured German prisoner later explained to the British that the controller was an expert at steering glider bombs from aircraft, but that the spectacle of a rocket launch had caused him to incorrectly operate the control lever in his astonishment. Peenemünde guidance and control expert Ernst Steinhoff explained that the excited operator applied a set of planned corrections (such as that for the Earth's rotation) in the opposite direction to the way he had been instructed. The rocket subsequently exploded in an air burst (a common V-2 malfunction) about 1500 metres above the county of Bäckebo, mainly over a farm with no injuries,  and the valuable wreckage was exchanged with Britain by the Swedes for Supermarine Spitfires.

On 31 July 1944, experts at the Royal Aircraft Establishment at Farnborough in Hampshire, England, began an attempt to reconstruct the missile. U.S. military scientists subsequently received some of the recovered parts from the British. The American rocket pioneer Robert H. Goddard examined those components as part of his work aiding the U.S. military, and Goddard is reported to have inferred that his brainchild had been turned into a weapon.

Soviet bombings of Sweden
The Soviet Union dropped more than a hundred bombs on Swedish cities and villages during World War II, though no one was killed in these strikes. The first time on 14 January 1940, when Soviet aircraft attacked Swedish airspace and dropped about 10 bombs in northern Sweden, close to the port of Luleå. On their return flight, the three DB-3 aircraft ran out of fuel and were forced to land in Finland, where they were captured by Finnish troops. On 21 February, seven Soviet bomber planes appeared in the village Pajala, 10 kilometres from the border to Finland. Pajala was hit by more than 130 bombs, causing damage to local buildings. A bomb hit the local school gym, where the Norrland Dragoon Regiment were stationed at the time, but did not detonate. There were two injuries during the bombing of Pajala.

On 22 February, Stockholm was bombed by four Soviet bombers, a 100 kg bomb destroying a newly opened theatre, injuring two Swedish soldiers. Sweden concluded that this instance was by mistake, but the Soviet Union refused to acknowledge the involvement of its bombers in the raid when requested to clarify. Though the event remains unclear, a theory developed that it was a deliberate attack in response to Sweden rejecting Soviet appeals for Vasily Sidorenko, who had been arrested for espionage, to be released.

Humanitarian effort
Before the war, thousands of European Jews sought temporary refuge in Sweden, and were denied. Sweden allowed Germans to pass freely to other countries, and sold iron ore that became vital to the Nazi campaign of war. As the war began to shift in favor of the Allies, the Swedes changed their strategy with regard to aiding the precariously situated European Jews, who up to that point had been refused refuge in Sweden. The first shift in Sweden's stance towards Jews occurred in 1942. When the Germans began their campaign of persecution against the Jews of Norway, the Swedish government accepted 900 Jewish refugees, slightly more than half of Norway's Jewish population.

In 1943, Sweden received nearly all of Denmark's 8,000 Jews (along with 9,000 Danish Christians who were seeking refuge from conditions of war). With the dissolution of the Danish government in the summer of 1943, the German authorities had decided to deport Denmark's Jewish population to concentration camps. However, the Danes successfully ferried all but 450 of the Danish Jews across the straits between Copenhagen and the Swedish mainland, across waters that were patrolled by German Schnellboots, in an unprecedented rescue effort. Once in Sweden, the Danish Jews were granted asylum and taken in by Swedish families. Many stayed in Sweden after the war. Sweden also received refugees from Finland and Norway, including some of Norway's Jews. All this, as well as the protection of Sweden's own Jewish population, was made possible by Sweden's neutrality. A daily newspaper in Sweden, the Svenska Dagbladet said that Sweden did more to assist and save Jews than any other country.

Neutrality also allowed Sweden to have physical access to Germany, which was not only useful to Swedish intelligence but to Allied intelligence as well. Employees at Asea, LM Ericsson and the Swedish Match Factory (Svenska Tändsticksfabriken) acted as couriers for the Polish resistance. King Gustav V of Sweden attempted to use his diplomatic connections with German leaders to convince them to treat Jews more humanely, as evidenced through his correspondence, although to little effect. Count Folke Bernadotte, a relative of the Swedish royal family, was able to communicate with the German government and relay information back to Sweden, as did other diplomats. He also contributed in saving 15,000 prisoners from concentration camps, as did Valdemar Langlet and the famous diplomat Raoul Wallenberg, who may have saved up to 100,000 Hungarian Jews.

Press freedom
Tiger295.jpg'', a famous World War II poster reminding Swedes to be wary of spies asking questions.

Svensk can mean both Swedish and Swede while tiger could be read as either the animal or stays silent giving the poster this double meaning: A Swedish tiger and A Swede stays silent – comparable to Loose lips sink ships. The tiger's stripes are in the Swedish national colors.]] The Swedish public's sentiments were widely published in the Swedish press, causing many protests from the German government and prompting the Swedish government to censor some areas of the press on a limited basis. In Sweden during this time, the press fell under the control of several authorities, despite contemporary claims that the Swedish press was free. The Swedish Government Information Board determined what military information could be released and what information should remain secret. The Swedish Press Council served as a self-regulatory body, promoting "good relations between the press and the public authorities and to serve as an instrument of self-discipline for the press". The Swedish Press Council issued warnings, both public and confidential, to those whom it considered to be abusing the freedom of the press.

The Swedish government was concerned that its neutrality might be compromised should the press become too vocal in its opinions. Both the Swedish Press Council and the Information Board issued advice such as: "As far as the received material permits, attempts should be made not to give prominence to the reports of one side at the expense of the other", or: "Headlines, whether on the billboards or in the newspapers, should be worded in such a way as to avoid favoring one side or the other", and: "Editorials and surveys as well as articles discussing military events or the military situation, should be strictly objective."

During World War II, six newspapers were de facto banned from distribution: Ture Nerman's Trots Allt!, the Nazi publication Sverige Fritt and Ny Dag, Arbetar-Tidningen, Norrskensflamman and Sydsvenska Kuriren (the last four were organs of the Communist Party of Sweden). A ban on the transport of these newspapers was imposed, since the printing of newspapers was protected in the Swedish constitution. There were indications that the bans imposed on the communist newspapers had served their political purposes by impressing the Germans, whilst at the same time not really restricting the work of the media.

To Nazi Germany
Perhaps the most important aspect of Sweden's concessions to Germany during the Second World War was the extensive export of iron ore for use in the German weapons industry, reaching ten million tons per year. As Germany's preparations for war became more apparent and the risk of another war became obvious, international interest in Swedish iron ore increased. At the time, British intelligence had estimated that German industry relied heavily on Swedish iron ore and a decrease or halt in Swedish ore exports could have a disastrous effect on Germany's military efforts. Sir Ralph Glyn, a British Member of Parliament, claimed that a cessation of Swedish iron ore exports would bring the war to an end within months. Winston Churchill himself said the following about the Swedish ore exports in an internal memo to the cabinet discussing the Norwegian trade route with shipments of Swedish iron ore.

"It must be understood that an adequate supply of Swedish iron ore is vital to Germany...the effectual stoppage of the Norwegian ore supplies to Germany ranks as a major offensive operation of the war. No other measure is open to us for many months to come which gives so good a chance of abridging the waste and destruction of the conflict, or of perhaps preventing the vast slaughters which will attend the grapple of the main armies."

Given that Britain had been unable to prevent the successful invasion by Nazi Germany of both France and Norway, the Swedish government was not convinced that the British could protect them and opted to continue exports. The iron ore provided much needed gold bullion, food and coal from Germany. The iron ore was transported by sea from the Norwegian town of Narvik and from Luleå in northern Sweden. These shipments were subject to attacks from British aircraft and submarines in the Atlantic and North Sea and by Soviet submarines in the Baltic Sea. About 70 vessels were sunk and 200 sailors killed during the war.

Responding to German appeals for volunteers to fight the Soviet Union, approximately 270 Swedes enlisted in Germany's Waffen-SS, and saw combat against Soviet troops on the Eastern Front. This was a choice made by individual Swedish citizens, contrary to Swedish government policy. Their number was small compared to occupied countries, in which officials encouraged enlisting for the Eastern Front (Norway 6,000; Denmark 6,000; France 11,000; Netherlands 20,000 ). Roughly 50 Swedish Waffen-SS men were killed or went missing in action. Most of the veterans were classified as security risks and spied on by Swedish intelligence for the rest of their lives. Security Police's archives showed that some of the men were implicated as direct participants in the killings of Jews. No Swedes stood trial for serving in the Waffen-SS, albeit some of them were prosecuted for espionage or desertion.

With a blockade of the Skagerrak straits between Norway and the northern tip of Denmark, the Swedish merchant navy found itself physically divided. The vessels that were inside the Baltic Sea traded goods with Germany during the war, whilst the greater number of vessels was leased to the Allies for convoy shipping. Approximately 1,500 Swedish sailors perished during the war, mostly victims of mines and U-boat attacks. German merchant raiders, too, would stop and capture or destroy Swedish vessels carrying cargoes for allies. For example, this was the fate of MVs Trolleholm and Sir Ernest Cassel, both destroyed by the German auxiliary cruiser Thor; the same Thor also accidentally collided with HM Bothnia in the fog while carrying cargoes for Germany causing it to sink. In the meantime, other German merchant raiders would masquerade as Swedish merchant vessels.

To the Allies
Sweden made efforts to help the Allied Forces. From May 1940, a large part of the Swedish merchant navy that found itself outside the Baltic Sea region, totalling about 8,000 seamen, was leased to Britain. 300 Swedes traveled to Norway to fight the German invasion. German telegraph traffic to occupied Oslo went through Swedish-leased cables which the Swedes intercepted. The traffic was encrypted with Germany's Geheimschreiber device, but the cypher code was broken by Swedish mathematics professor Arne Beurling in early summer 1940 and the results from this espionage were sent to the Allies through the Polish resistance movement. When the German battleship Bismarck embarked on her voyage to attack the Atlantic convoys, Swedish intelligence informed the British of her departure from port. Swedish businessmen and diplomats were also actively spying for the Allies, in Berlin and in the occupied territories.

In 1945, as the Allies were planning to liberate Denmark and Norway, the United States wanted Sweden to co-operate in this action. Sweden began preparing for Operation Rädda Danmark (Operation Save Denmark), in which Sweden was to invade Zealand from Scania. After Denmark had been liberated, Sweden was to assist the Allies in the invasion of Norway. This proved to be unnecessary, but US planes were allowed to use Swedish military bases during the liberation of Norway, from spring 1944 to 1945, and the Allies were also collaborating with the Swedish Military Intelligence and Security Service. Sweden allowed Allied spies to listen to German radio signals from a station on Öland. A radio beacon was also established in Malmö for the British military to guide bombing of Germany. Additionally, from 1943 onward, Norwegian and Danish soldiers (den danske Brigade) were trained at Swedish military bases. Sweden had also set up a series of training camps along the Norwegian border for the Norwegian resistance movement. Toward the end of the war Swedish intelligence cooperated with US air transport in relief efforts directed toward areas liberated by the Red Army.

Aftermath
The Prime Minister of the United Kingdom during World War II, Winston Churchill, accused Sweden of ignoring the greater moral issues and playing both sides for profit during the conflict, including its supply of steel and machine parts to Nazi Germany throughout the war. Such claims, however, use a different definition of the word "neutral" from that defined in the 1907 Hague convention, which set out the rights and duties of belligerents and neutral countries.

Forced refoulement to the Soviet Union

In January 1946, Sweden forcibly transferred to the Soviet Union over 146 Baltic Waffen-SS and 2,364 German soldiers who had been interned in Swedish prison camps. At least seven of the internees committed suicide at their camp in the village of Rinkaby, rather than allow themselves to be handed over to the Soviet Union.

In 1970, film director Johan Bergenstråhle made a documentary, Baltutlämningen (English title: A Baltic Tragedy), about the Latvian soldiers who were given to the Soviets to be sentenced to hard labor in prison camps.

title: Sweden during World War II


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Transactive communication

In communications, transactive communication occurs when sources transmit messages to one another simultaneously and send back acknowledgment messages.

title: Transactive communication