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Nominal rigidity

In economics, nominal rigidity, also known as price-stickiness or wage-stickiness, is a situation in which a nominal price is resistant to change. Complete nominal rigidity occurs when a price is fixed in nominal terms for a relevant period of time. For example, the price of a particular good might be fixed at $10 per unit for a year. Partial nominal rigidity occurs when a price may vary in nominal terms, but not as much as it would if perfectly flexible. For example, in a regulated market there might be limits to how much a price can change in a given year.

If one looks at the whole economy, some prices might be very flexible and others rigid. This will lead to the aggregate price level (which we can think of as an average of the individual prices) becoming "sluggish" or "sticky" in the sense that it does not respond to macroeconomic shocks as much as it would if all prices were flexible. The same idea can apply to nominal wages. The presence of nominal rigidity is an important part of macroeconomic theory since it can explain why markets might not reach equilibrium in the short run or even possibly the long run. In his The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, John Maynard Keynes argued that nominal wages display downward rigidity, in the sense that workers are reluctant to accept cuts in nominal wages. This can lead to involuntary unemployment as it takes time for wages to adjust to equilibrium, a situation he thought applied to the Great Depression.

Evidence
There is now a considerable amount of evidence about how long price-spells last, and it suggests that there is a considerable degree of nominal price rigidity in the "complete sense" of prices remaining unchanged. A price-spell is a duration during which the nominal price of a particular item remains unchanged. For some items, such as gasoline or tomatoes, prices are observed to vary frequently resulting in many short price spells. For other items, such as the cost of a bottle of champagne or the cost of a meal in a restaurant, the price might remain fixed for an extended period of time (many months or even years). One of the richest sources of information about this is the price-quote data used to construct the Consumer Price Index (CPI). The statistical agencies in many countries collect tens of thousands of price-quotes for specific items each month in order to construct the CPI. In the early years of the 21st century, there were several major studies of nominal price rigidity in the US and Europe using the CPI price quote microdata. The following table gives nominal rigidity as reflected in the frequency of prices changing on average per month in several countries. For example, in France and the UK, each month on average, 19% of prices change (81% are unchanged), which implies that an average price spell lasts about 5.3 months (the expected duration of a price spell is equal to the reciprocal of the frequency of price change if we interpret the empirical frequency as representing the Bernoulli probability of price change generating a negative binomial distribution of durations of price-spells).

The fact that price spells last on average for 3.7 months does not mean that prices are not sticky. That is because many price changes are temporary (for example sales) and prices revert to their usual or "reference price". Removing sales and temporary price cuts raises the average length of price-spells considerably: in the US it more than doubled the mean spell duration to 11 months. The reference price can remain unchanged for an average of 14.5 months in the US data. Also, it is prices that we are interested in. If the price of tomatoes changes every month, the tomatoes price will generate 12 price spells in a year. Another price that is just as important (for example, canned tomatoes) might only change once per year (one price spell of 12 months). Looking at these two goods prices alone, we observe that there are 13 price spells with an average duration of (12+13)/13 equals about 2 months. However, if we average across the two items (tomatoes and canned tomatoes), we see that the average spell is 6.5 months (12+1)/2. The distribution of price spell durations and its mean are heavily influenced by prices generating short price spells. If we are looking at nominal rigidity in an economy, we are more interested in the distribution of durations across prices rather than the distribution of price spell durations in itself. There is thus considerable evidence that prices are sticky in the "complete" sense, that the prices remain on average unchanged for a prolonged period of time (around 12 months). Partial nominal rigidity is less easy to measure, since it is difficult to distinguish whether a price that changes is changing less than it would if it were perfectly flexible.

Linking micro data of prices and cost, Carlsson and Nordström Skans (2012), showed that firms consider both current and future expected cost when setting prices. The finding that the expectation of future conditions matter for the price set today provides strong evidence in favor of nominal rigidity and the forward looking behavior of the price setters implied by the models of sticky prices outlined below.

Modeling sticky prices
Economists have tried to model sticky prices in a number of ways. These models can be classified as either time-dependent, where firms change prices with the passage of time and decide to change prices independently of the economic environment, or state-dependent, where firms decide to change prices in response to changes in the economic environment. The differences can be thought of as differences in a two-stage process: In time-dependent models, firms decide to change prices and then evaluate market conditions; In state-dependent models, firms evaluate market conditions and then decide how to respond.

In time-dependent models price changes are staggered exogenously, so a fixed percentage of firms change prices at a given time. There is no selection as to which firms change prices. Two commonly used time-dependent models are based on papers by John B. Taylor and Guillermo Calvo. In Taylor (1980), firms change prices every nth period. In Calvo (1983), price changes follow a Poisson process. In both models the choice of changing prices is independent of the inflation rate.

The Taylor model is one where firms set the price knowing exactly how long the price will last (the duration of the price spell). Firms are divided into cohorts, so that each period the same proportion of firms reset their price. For example, with two-period price-spells, half of the firms reset their price each period. Thus the aggregate price level is an average of the new price set this period and the price set last period and still remaining for half of the firms. In general, if price-spells last for n periods, a proportion of 1/n firms reset their price each period and the general price is an average of the prices set now and in the preceding n − 1 periods. At any point in time, there will be a uniform distribution of ages of price-spells: (1/n) will be new prices in their first period, 1/n in their second period, and so on until 1/n will be n periods old. The average age of price-spells will be (n + 1)/2 (if the first period is counted as 1).

In the Calvo staggered contracts model, there is a constant probability h that the firm can set a new price. Thus a proportion h of firms can reset their price in any period, whilst the remaining proportion (1 − h) keep their price constant. In the Calvo model, when a firm sets its price, it does not know how long the price-spell will last. Instead, the firm faces a probability distribution over possible price-spell durations. The probability that the price will last for i periods is (1 − h)i−1, and the expected duration is h−1. For example, if h = 0.25, then a quarter of firms will rest their price each period, and the expected duration for the price-spell is 4. There is no upper limit to how long price-spells may last: although the probability becomes small over time, it is always strictly positive. Unlike the Taylor model where all completed price-spells have the same length, there will at any time be a distribution of completed price-spell lengths.

In state-dependent models the decision to change prices is based on changes in the market and is not related to the passage of time. Most models relate the decision to change prices to menu costs. Firms change prices when the benefit of changing a price becomes larger than the menu cost of changing a price. Price changes may be bunched or staggered over time. Prices change faster and monetary shocks are over faster under state dependent than time. Examples of state-dependent models include the one proposed by Golosov and Lucas and one suggested by Dotsey, King and Wolman.

Significance in macroeconomics
In macroeconomics, nominal rigidity is necessary to explain how money (and hence monetary policy and inflation) can affect the real economy and why the classical dichotomy breaks down.

If nominal wages and prices were not sticky, or perfectly flexible, they would always adjust such that there would be equilibrium in the economy. In a perfectly flexible economy, monetary shocks would lead to immediate changes in the level of nominal prices, leaving real quantities (e.g. output, employment) unaffected. This is sometimes called monetary neutrality or "the neutrality of money".

For money to have real effects, some degree of nominal rigidity is required so that prices and wages do not respond immediately. Hence sticky prices play an important role in all mainstream macroeconomic theory: Monetarists, Keynesians and new Keynesians all agree that markets fail to clear because prices fail to drop to market clearing levels when there is a drop in demand. Such models are used to explain unemployment. Neoclassical models, common in microeconomics, predict that involuntary unemployment (where an individual is willing to work, but unable to find a job) should not exist, as this would lead employers to cut wages; this would continue until unemployment was no longer a problem. While such models can be useful in other markets where prices adjust more readily, sticky wages are a common way to explain why workers cannot find jobs: as wages cannot be cut instantaneously, they will sometimes be too high for the market to clear.

Since prices and wages cannot move instantly, price- and wage-setters become forward looking. The notion that expectations of future conditions affect current price- and wage-setting decisions is a keystone for much of the current monetary policy analysis based on Keynesian macroeconomic models and the implied policy advice.

Huw Dixon and Claus Hansen showed that even if only part of the economy has sticky prices, this can influence prices in other sectors and lead to prices in the rest of the economy becoming less responsive to changes in demand. Thus price and wage stickiness in one sector can "spill over" and lead to the economy behaving in a more Keynesian way.

Mathematical example: a little price stickiness can go a long way
To see how a small sector with a fixed price can affect the way rest of the flexible prices behave, suppose that there are two sectors in the economy: a proportion a with flexible prices Pf and a proportion 1 − a that are affected by menu costs with sticky prices Pm. Suppose that the flexible price sector price Pf has the market clearing condition of the following form:

 * $$ \frac{P_f}{P}=\theta $$

where $$P=P_f^{a}P_m^{1-a} $$ is the aggregate price index (which would result if consumers had Cobb-Douglas preferences over the two goods). The equilibrium condition says that the real flexible price equals some constant (for example $${\theta}$$ could be real marginal cost). Now we have a remarkable result: no matter how small the menu cost sector, so long as a < 1, the flexible prices get "pegged" to the fixed price. Using the aggregate price index the equilibrium condition becomes
 * $$ \frac{P_f}{P_f^a P_m^{1-a}}=\theta$$

which implies that
 * $$ P_f^{1-a}=P_m^{1-a}\theta,$$

so that
 * $$ P_f=P_m\theta^{1/(1-a)}.$$

What this result says is that no matter how small the sector affected by menu-costs, it will tie down the flexible price. In macroeconomic terms all nominal prices will be sticky, even those in the potentially flexible price sector, so that changes in nominal demand will feed through into changes in output in both the menu-cost sector and the flexible price sector.

Now, this is of course an extreme result resulting from the real rigidity taking the form of a constant real marginal cost. For example, if we allowed for the real marginal cost to vary with aggregate output Y, then we would have

 * $$P_f=P_m\theta Y^{1/(1-a)}$$

so that the flexible prices would vary with output Y. However, the presence of the fixed prices in the menu-cost sector would still act to dampen the responsiveness of the flexible prices, although this would now depend upon the size of the menu-cost sector a, the sensitivity of $$\theta$$ to Y and so on.

Sticky information
In macroeconomics, sticky information is old information used by agents as a basis for their behavior—information that does not take into account recent events. The first model of sticky information was developed by Stanley Fischer in his 1977 article. He adopted a "staggered" or "overlapping" contract model. Suppose that there are two unions in the economy, who take turns to choose wages. When it is a union's turn, it chooses the wages it will set for the next two periods. In contrast to John B. Taylor's model where the nominal wage is constant over the contract life, in Fischer's model the union can choose a different wage for each period over the contract. The key point is that at any time t, the union setting its new contract will be using the up-to-date latest information to choose its wages for the next two periods. However, the other union is still setting its wage based on the contract it planned last period, which is based on the old information.

The importance of sticky information in Fischer's model is that whilst wages in some sectors of the economy are reacting to the latest information, those in other sectors are not. This has important implications for monetary policy. A sudden change in monetary policy can have real effects, because of the sector where wages have not had a chance to adjust to the new information.

The idea of sticky information was later developed by N. Gregory Mankiw and Ricardo Reis. This added a new feature to Fischer's model: there is a fixed probability that you can replan your wages or prices each period. Using quarterly data, they assumed a value of 25%: that is, each quarter 25% of randomly chosen firms/unions can plan a trajectory of current and future prices based on current information. Thus if we consider the current period, 25% of prices will be based on the latest information available, and the rest on information that was available when they last were able to replan their price trajectory. Mankiw and Reis found that the model of sticky information provided a good way of explaining inflation persistence.

Evaluation of sticky information models
Sticky information models do not have nominal rigidity: firms or unions are free to choose different prices or wages for each period. It is the information that is sticky, not the prices. Thus when a firm gets lucky and can re-plan its current and future prices, it will choose a trajectory of what it believes will be the optimal prices now and in the future. In general, this will involve setting a different price every period covered by the plan.

This is at odds with the empirical evidence on prices. There are now many studies of price rigidity in different countries: the US, the Eurozone, the UK and others. These studies all show that whilst there are some sectors where prices change frequently, there are also other sectors where prices remain fixed over time. The lack of sticky prices in the sticky information model is inconsistent with the behavior of prices in most of the economy. This has led to attempts to formulate a "dual stickiness" model that combines sticky information with sticky prices.

Sticky inflation assumption
The sticky inflation assumption states that "when firms set prices, for various reasons the prices respond slowly to changes in monetary policy. This leads the rate of inflation to adjust gradually over time." Additionally, within the context of the short run model there is an implication that the classical dichotomy does not hold when sticky inflation is present. This is the case when monetary policy affects real variables. Sticky inflation can be caused by expected inflation (e.g. home prices prior to the recession), wage push inflation (a negotiated raise in wages), and temporary inflation caused by taxes. Sticky inflation becomes a problem when economic output decreases while inflation increases, which is also known as stagflation. As economic output decreases and unemployment rises the standard of living falls faster when sticky inflation is present. Not only will inflation not respond to monetary policy in the short run, but monetary expansion as well as contraction can both have negative effects on the standard of living.

title: Nominal rigidity


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Prevlaka

Prevlaka is a small peninsula in southern Croatia, near the border with Montenegro, at the entrance to the Bay of Kotor on the eastern Adriatic coast.

Because of its strategic location in the southern Adriatic, in the aftermath of the SFR Yugoslav breakup, the peninsula became subject to a territorial dispute between Croatia and FR Yugoslavia, a federal state that included Montenegro. The territory was functional under UN until 2002. The UN mission ended in December 2002 and the territory that had previously been part of SR Croatia was returned to the Republic of Croatia. An agreement was signed by both sides five days before the departure of the UNMOP that demilitarized Prevlaka and effectively made it a neutral territory, though implementation still has a temporary character.

Geography
The narrow, uninhabited peninsula is 2.6 km long and only 150–500 m wide, covering an area of 93.33 ha (just under 1 km2).

The word prevlaka means 'portage'. Cape Oštro (Punta Oštro/Punta d'Ostro), located at the very tip of the peninsula, is the southernmost point of mainland in Croatia. Along with the small Montenegrin island of Mamula, which sits some 2 km east of Cape Oštro, in addition to being two sides of an international maritime border, the two spots present observation entry points into the Bay of Kotor.

North of the Prevlaka isthmus, just within the Bay of Kotor, lie the two less prominent capes Konfin and Kobila, to the northwest of which is a road border crossing between Croatia and Montenegro. The D516 highway connects it to Konavle and the D8; northwards the road connects to Njivice, Sutorina, and Igalo.

History
Konavle and the Prevlaka peninsula was bought by the Republic of Ragusa from the Bosnian Kingdom in the early 15th century to protect its eastern flank. Ragusans fortified Cape Oštro in 1441. Cape Kobila was the boundary with Sutorina under the Ottoman Empire's control since 1699.

In 1806, during Napoleon's conquest of Europe, King Alexander I of Russia was intent on stopping French advances in the Adriatic and to that end deployed a Mediterranean expedition led by vice-admiral Dmitry Senyavin, that by September 1806 made considerable territorial gains in the area, including Prevlaka and the entire Bay of Kotor. In July 1807, the Russians and the French struck a deal in the first Treaty of Tilsit for the area to be handed over to the First French Empire. In 1808, the French assigned the newly acquired territory over to their client state called the Napoleonic Kingdom of Italy before in 1810 reassigning it back into the First French Empire proper as part of the Illyrian Provinces, their recently created autonomous subdivision.

Following Napoleon's defeat, former Ragusan territory including Prevlaka came under the rule of the Austrian Empire in 1813. Austrian rule was ratified by the Congress of Vienna in 1815, and the territory became part of its newly created internal administrative subdivision, the Kingdom of Dalmatia. It remained as such after the transformation of Austrian Empire into the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary following the Congress of Berlin in 1867. Towards the end of the 19th century, on the suggestion of General Lazar Mamula, the Austro-Hungarian authorities decided to build a fort on Punta d'Ostro, along with another in the island of Mamula in order to ensure military control over the entrance into the Bay of Kotor. The Austrian authorities successfully fortified cape Mirište and the islet of Mamula. The authorities reportedly also decided to compensate local farmers for the expropriated land, but no money was paid until the collapse of the dual monarchy.

In 1918, after the end of World War I and collapse of Austria-Hungary, Prevlaka became part of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. By 1922, once the new state determined its internal administrative subdivisions, dividing its territory into 33 oblasts, the peninsula got included in kingdom's Dubrovnik Oblast. In 1929, as Kingdom of SCS transformed into the Kingdom of Yugoslavia along with its internal administrative subdivisions being reconfigured into 9 banovinas, Prevlaka was included into Zeta Banovina together with Dubrovnik. During the 1930s, Royal Yugoslav Army further fortified Prevlaka. In 1939, the area was assigned to the newly created Banovina of Croatia subdivision of the Yugoslav kingdom.

World War II was the only period since the 15th century when the boundaries of Konavle were modified. In April 1941 Nazi Germany invaded Yugoslavia, conquering it in less than three weeks before proceeding to dismember its territory by creating a handful of locally-administered fascist puppet states. Due to its strategic importance, the Axis-aligned Kingdom of Italy under prime minister Benito Mussolini would not let either of the two newly propped up local fascist puppet regimes, the Independent State of Croatia or the Italian governorate of Montenegro, control the Bay of Kotor region. The Bay of Kotor along with its surrounding areas including eastern Konavle and Prevlaka was controlled directly by Italy based on the May 1941 Treaties of Rome.

As World War II dragged on, in summer 1943, in response to the Allied advances in their Italian campaign, Nazi Germany took over the administration of the Bay of Kotor including Prevlaka. On 22 December 1944, the Yugoslav Partisans took control of the region, and after the war Prevlaka became part of the newly proclaimed FPR Yugoslavia, specifically its constituent unit the People's Republic of Croatia.

In 1955, the Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) closed down access to Prevlaka because of its coastal artillery installations.

During the Yugoslav Wars that followed the breakup of Yugoslavia, the territory was occupied by Yugoslav forces like most of the Dubrovnik region during the siege of Dubrovnik. At one point, the Croatian military gained temporary control over Prevlaka, before it was retaken. The two sides agreed on the demilitarization of the peninsula and the United Nations Security Council Resolution 779 of October 6, 1992 extended the mandate of UNPROFOR to the implementation of this agreement, together with the European Community Monitoring Mission. A resolution to the conflict took shape in 1996 when the United Nations mediated the conflict and established an observer mission (UNMOP) which oversaw the demilitarization and acted as a buffer.

The Konfin/Kobila border crossing has operated since 1999.

The UN mission ended in December 2002 and the territory that had previously been part of SR Croatia was returned to the Republic of Croatia. An agreement was signed by both sides five days before the departure of the UNMOP that demilitarized Prevlaka and effectively made it a neutral territory, though implementation still has a temporary character.

In 2002, the two states agreed on a temporary solution stipulating that Croatia would receive the entire land mass of the Prevlaka peninsula including some 500 m of the sea belt entrance into Boka Kotorska while the sea bay on the side of Prevlaka facing Herceg Novi was declared no man's waters.

Montenegro became independent in 2006 and the temporary agreement remained in effect. In 2008, a mixed commission was created, tasked with preparing the legal case for the border settlement in front of the International Court of Justice at The Hague. In search of the permanent border settlement, the two states have the option of settling the issue between themselves bilaterally or opting for the international arbitration.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Prevlaka


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Savitri Devi

Savitri Devi Mukherji (born Maximiani Julia Portas, ; 30 September 1905 – 22 October 1982) was a Greek fascist, Nazi sympathizer, and spy who served the Axis powers by committing acts of espionage against the Allied forces in India. She was later a leading member of the Neo-Nazi underground during the 1960s.

Savitri was a proponent of a synthesis of Hinduism and Nazism, proclaiming Adolf Hitler to have been an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu. She depicted Hitler as a sacrifice for humanity that would lead to the end of the worst World Age, the Kali Yuga, which she believed was induced by the Jews, whom she saw as the powers of evil.

Her writings have influenced neo-Nazism and Nazi occultism. Rejecting Judaism and Christianity, she believed in a form of pantheistic monism, a single cosmos of nature composed of divine energy-matter. Within neo-Nazism, she promoted occultism and ecology, and her works have influenced the alt-right. She also influenced the Chilean diplomat Miguel Serrano. In 1982, Franco Freda published a German translation of her work Gold in the Furnace, and the fourth volume of his annual review, Risguardo (1980–), was devoted to Savitri Devi as the "missionary of Aryan Paganism".

Savitri was an associate in the post-war years of Françoise Dior, Otto Skorzeny, Johann von Leers, and Hans-Ulrich Rudel. She was also one of the founding members of the World Union of National Socialists.

Early years
Born as Maximiani Julia Portas in 1905 in Lyon, Savitri Devi was the daughter of Maxim Portas, a French citizen of Greek descent and an English woman of Italian descent, Julia Portas (née Nash). Maximiani Portas was born two and a half months premature, weighing only 930 g, and was not at first expected to live. She formed her political views early. From childhood and throughout her life, she was a passionate advocate for animal rights. Her earliest political affiliations were with Greek nationalism.

Portas studied philosophy and chemistry, earning two master's degrees and a PhD in philosophy from the University of Lyon. She next traveled to Greece, and surveyed the legendary ruins. Here, she became familiar with Heinrich Schliemann's discovery of swastikas in Anatolia. Her conclusion was that the Ancient Greeks were Aryan in origin. Her first two books were her doctoral dissertations: Essai-critique sur Théophile Kaïris (Critical Essay on Theophilos Kairis) (Lyon: Maximine Portaz, 1935) and La simplicité mathématique (Mathematical Simplicity) (Lyon: Maximine Portaz, 1935).

Nazism
In early 1928, she renounced her French citizenship and acquired Greek nationality. Joining a pilgrimage to Palestine during Lent in 1929, Portas decided that she was a Nazi.

In 1932, she traveled to India in search of a living pagan Aryan culture, believing that the country represented "the best of racial segregation." Formally adhering to Hinduism, she took the name Savitri Devi (Hindi: सावित्री देवी; which means "Sun-rays Goddess" in Sanskrit). She volunteered to work at the Hindu Mission as an advocate against Judaism and Christianity, and wrote A Warning to the Hindus in order to offer her support for Hindu nationalism and independence, and rally resistance to the spread of Christianity and Islam in India. During the 1930s, she distributed pro-Axis propaganda and engaged in intelligence gathering on the British in India. She claimed that, during World War II, she enabled Subhas Chandra Bose (the leader of the Axis-affiliated Indian National Army) to contact representatives of the Empire of Japan.

World War II
During World War II, Devi's connection to the Axis powers led to a clash with her mother, who served with the French Resistance during the German occupation of France. In 1940, Devi married Asit Krishna Mukherji, a Bengali Brahmin with Nazi views who edited the pro-German newspaper New Mercury. During 1941, Devi chose to interpret Allied military support for Greece, against Italian and German forces, as an invasion of Greece. Devi and Mukherji lived in Calcutta and continued to gather intelligence for the Axis cause. This included entertaining Allied personnel, which gave Devi and Mukherji an opportunity to question them about military matters. The information which they gathered was passed on to Japanese intelligence officials and the Japanese military found it useful when they launched attacks against Allied airbases and army units.

Post-war Nazi activism
After World War II, she travelled to Europe in late 1945 under the name Savitri Devi Mukherji as the wife of a British subject from India, with a British Indian passport. She briefly stopped in England, then she visited her mother in France, with whom she would quarrel over the latter's support for the French Resistance and then she traveled to Iceland, where she witnessed the eruption of Mount Hekla on 5–6 April 1947. She briefly returned to England, then she traveled to Sweden, where she met Sven Hedin.

On 15 June 1948, she boarded the Nord-Express and traveled from Denmark to Germany, where she distributed thousands of copies of handwritten leaflets in which she encouraged the "Men and women of Germany" to "hold fast to our glorious National Socialist faith, and resist!" She recounted her experience in Gold in the Furnace (which was re-edited and released as Gold in the Furnace: Experiences in Post-War Germany to coincide with the hundredth anniversary of her birth).

Arrested for posting bills, she was tried in Düsseldorf on 5 April 1949 for the promotion of Nazi ideas on German territory as a subject of the Allied Control Council, and sentenced to three years imprisonment. She served time in Werl Prison, where she befriended her fellow Nazi and SS prisoners (recounted in Defiance), before she was released early in August 1949 and expelled from Germany. She then went to stay in Lyon, France.

In April 1953, she obtained a Greek passport in her maiden name in order to re-enter Germany, and while she was there, she went on a pilgrimage, as she called it, to Nazi "holy" sites. She flew from Athens to Rome and then she traveled by rail over the Brenner Pass into "Greater Germany", which she regarded as "the spiritual home of all racially conscious modern Aryans". She traveled to a number of sites which were significant in the life of Adolf Hitler and the history of the Nazi Party (NSDAP), as well as German nationalist and heathen monuments, as recounted in her 1958 book Pilgrimage.

Savitri Devi became a friend of Hans-Ulrich Rudel, and she completed her manuscript of The Lightning and the Sun at his home in March 1956. Through his introductions, she was able to meet a number of Nazi émigrés in Spain and the Middle East. In 1957, she visited Johann von Leers in Egypt and traveled across the Middle East before she returned to her home in New Delhi, making stops in Beirut, Damascus, Baghdad, Tehran, and Zahedan. In 1961 she stayed with Otto Skorzeny in Madrid.

Savitri Devi took employment teaching in France during the 1960s, spending her summer holidays with friends at Berchtesgaden. In the spring of 1961, while she was on her Easter holiday in London, she learned about the existence of the original British National Party. This group emerged after the Second World War when a handful of former members of the British Union of Fascists took on the name. (The original BNP was quickly absorbed into the Union Movement – it has no direct connection to the present-day BNP.) She met the British National Party's president Andrew Fountaine. Beginning a correspondence with Colin Jordan, she became a devoted supporter of the National Socialist Movement.

In August 1962, Savitri Devi attended the international Nazi conference in Gloucestershire and she was also a founder-signatory of the Cotswold Agreement which established the World Union of National Socialists (WUNS). At this conference she met, and was greatly impressed by, George Lincoln Rockwell. When Rockwell became the leader of the WUNS, he appointed William Luther Pierce the editor of its new magazine: National Socialist World (1966–68). Along with articles by Jordan and Rockwell, Pierce devoted nearly eighty pages of the first issue of the magazine to a condensed edition of The Lightning and the Sun. Because of the enthusiastic response, Pierce included chapters from Gold in the Furnace and Defiance in subsequent issues.

After retiring from teaching in 1970, Savitri Devi spent nine months at the Normandy home of her close friend Françoise Dior while she was working on her memoirs; although she was welcome at first, her annoying personal habits began to disrupt life at the presbytery (among her habits, she did not take baths during her stay and she continually chewed garlic). Concluding that her pension would go much further in India and encouraged by Françoise Dior, she flew from Paris to Bombay on 23 June 1971. In August, she moved to New Delhi, where she lived alone, with a number of cats and at least one cobra.

Savitri Devi continued to correspond with Nazi enthusiasts in Europe and the Americas, particularly with Colin Jordan, John Tyndall, Matt Koehl, Miguel Serrano, Einar Åberg and Ernst Zündel. She was the first person to tell Zündel of her claim that the Nazi genocide of the Jews was untrue; he proposed a series of taped interviews (conducted in November 1978) and published a new illustrated edition of The Lightning and the Sun in 1979.

Animal rights activism
Devi was an animal rights activist, as well as a vegetarian from a young age, and she also espoused ecologist views in her works. She wrote The Impeachment of Man in 1959 in India in which she espoused her views on animal rights and nature. According to her, human beings do not stand above the animals; in her ecologist views, humans are a part of the ecosystem and as a result, they should respect all life, including animals and the whole of nature.

She always held radical views with regard to vegetarianism and believed that people who do not "respect nature or animals" should be executed. She also believed that vivisection, circuses, slaughter and fur industries among others do not belong in a civilized society.

Death
By the late 1970s, she had developed cataracts and her eyesight was rapidly deteriorating as a result. Myriam Hirn, a clerk from the French embassy in India, looked after her, making regular house visits. She decided to leave India, returning to Germany to live in Bavaria in 1981 before re-moving to France in 1982.

Savitri died in 1982 in Sible Hedingham, Essex, England, at a friend's home. The cause of her death was recorded as a heart attack and coronary thrombosis. She was en route to lecture in the United States at the invitation of Matthias Koehl at the time of her death. Devi's ashes were shipped to the headquarters of the American Nazi Party in Arlington, Virginia, where they were purportedly placed next to those of George Lincoln Rockwell in a "Nazi hall of honor" in New Berlin, Wisconsin.

title: Savitri Devi


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Jonang

The Jonang is a school of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Its origins in Tibet can be traced to the early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje. It became widely known through the work of the popular 14th century figure Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen. The Jonang school's main practice is the Kālacakra tantra (Wheel of Time Tantra), and they are widely known for their defense of the philosophy known as shentong ("empty of other").

After a period of influence, the Jonang tradition suffered a series of reversals, partly due to its suppression by the politically dominant Gelug school under the Fifth Dalai Lama in the 17th century. Jonang did survive in Amdo, from which they eventually re-established themselves in other regions like Golok, Nakhi, and Kham. They have continued practicing uninterrupted to this day. An estimated 5,000 monks and nuns of the Jonang tradition practice today in these areas. However, their teachings were limited to these regions until the Rimé movement of the 19th century encouraged the study of non-Gelug traditions of Tibetan Buddhism.

The Jonang shentong view was influential on various figures in other Tibetan Buddhist schools, including the 3rd Karmapa Rangjung Dorje (1284–1339), the eighth Tai Situpa (1700–1774), Katok Tsewang Norbu (1698–1755), Situ Panchen (1700–1774), Jamgön Kongtrül (1813–1899), Kalu Rinpoche (1905–1989), and Khenpo Tsultrim Gyamtso (1934–present).

Development
The monk Künpang Tukjé Tsöndrü (, 1243–1313) established a kumbum or stupa-vihara in the Jomonang Valley about 160 km northwest of the Tashilhunpo Monastery in Ü-Tsang (modern Shigatse). The Jonang tradition took its name from this "Jomonang" monastery, where Tsöndrü established a practice tradition that integrated seventeen different transmission of the Kālacakra Tantra completion stage yogas, and which was significantly expanded by later figures, including Dolpopa.

The Jonang tradition combines two specific teachings, what has come to be known as the philosophy of shentong ("empty of other") madhyamaka, and the Dro lineage of the Kalachakra Tantra. The origin of this combination in Tibet is traced to the master Yumo Mikyö Dorjé (c. 11th-12th century), a pupil of the Kashmiri master Somanātha, whose treatises compiled sources emphasizing the unique approach to emptiness of the Kalachakra Tantra.

The shentong view holds that the non-dual nature of the mind (the buddha-nature) is real (and not empty of inherent existence), while all other phenomena are empty in this way. The buddha-nature can be described empty, but not of its own-nature, rather it is empty of all defiled and illusory phenomena. Thus, in Jonang, the emptiness of ultimate reality should not be characterized in the same way as the emptiness of relative phenomena. This is because ultimate reality is a stream of luminosity (prabhāsvara-saṃtāna), endowed with limitless Buddha qualities. It is empty of all that is false, not empty of the limitless Buddha qualities that are its innate nature.

The key figure in Jonang is Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen (1292–1361), a great yogi and scholar who widely promoted the philosophy of shentong. He was initially educated at Sakya monastery, and he also studied Kagyu and Nyingma lineages. He was very impressed by the yogis of Jonang Monastery and eventually studied there under Khetsun Yonten Gyatso (1260–1327), receiving a complete transmission of the Jonang Kālacakra tradition. After some years in meditative retreat, Dolpopa assumed the leadership of Jonang monastery. Over the years, Dolpopa became extremely popular and was invited to teach throughout Tibet. He wrote various influential works on the shentong philosophy.

Post-Dolpopa era and suppression
After Dolpopa's time, the Jonang school generated a number of renowned Buddhist scholars, its most famous being Lama Tāranātha (1575–1634), who placed great emphasis on the Kālacakra Tantra, Sanskrit study and the history of Indian Buddhism. Tāranātha studied under various figures, such as Je Draktopa, Yeshe Wangpo, Kunga Tashi and Jampa Lhundrup, but his main teacher was the mahāsiddha Buddhaguptanātha. In the 17th century, the Gelug school became the dominant political force in Tibet, which was now ruled by the Dalai Lamas. The Gelug school worked to suppress the Jonang school and its distinct philosophy of shentong. Modern historians have identified two other reasons which more likely led the Gelugpa to suppress the Jonangpa. First, the Jonangpa had political ties that were very vexing to the Gelugpa. The Jonang school, along with the Kagyu, were historical allies with the powerful house of Tsangpa, which was vying with the 5th Dalai Lama and the Gelug school for control of Central Tibet.

This was bad enough, but soon after the death of Taranatha, an even more ominous event occurred. Taranatha's tulku was discovered to be a young boy named Zanabazar, the son of Tüsheet Khan, Prince of Central Khalkha. Tüsheet Khan and his son were of Borjigin lineage (the imperial clan of Genghis Khan and his successors), meaning they had the birth authority to become khagan. When the young boy was declared the spiritual leader of all of Mongolia, suddenly the Gelugpa were faced with the possibility of war with the former military superpower of Asia. While the Mongol Empire was long past its zenith, this was nonetheless a frightening prospect and the Dalai Lama sought the first possible moment of Mongol distraction to take control of the Jonang monasteries.

As a result of the suppression of Jonang, the writings of Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen and even those of Sakya proponents of shentong (like Sakya Chokden) were sealed and banned from publication and study. Jonang monasteries were also gradually converted to the Gelug lineage by the political authorities.

The 14th Dalai Lama has also said that the main reason for the suppression of Jonang was political, not religious sectarianism (since the 5th Dalai Lama was himself a student of numerous lineages, including Bon).

Survival and revival
The Jonang tradition was able to survive in Amdo where a couple of monasteries had been founded in ’Dzam thang and rGyal rong. From here Jonang was able to spread to other regions like Golog and Ngawa. Dzamtang Tsangwa dzong (in Zamtang County, Sichuan), established by Ngag dbang bstan ’dzin rnam rgyal (1691–1728), eventually became the school's main seat. Due to the efforts of figures like Ngag dbang blo gros grags pa (1920–1975) and Ngag dbang yon tan bzang po (1928–2002), about fifty Jonang monasteries survived the cultural revolution.

The Jonang school also experienced a revival in the modern era during the Rime period. Important modern Jonang scholars include Bamda Gelek Gyatso (1844–1904), Tsoknyi Gyatso (1880–1940), Ngawang Lodro Drakpa (1920–75), Kunga Tukje Palsang (1925–2000) and Ngawang Yonten Sangpo (1928–2002). Modern Jonang figures also had close relationships with masters of the non-sectarian (Rime) movement such as Jamgon Kongtrul (1813–1899) and Patrul Rinpoche (1808–1887) and these Rime figures also visited and studied at Dzamtang. Until recently little was known about the survival of Jonang until Tibetologists discovered around 40 monasteries, with around 5000 monks, including some in the Amdo Tibetan and rGyalgrong areas of Qinghai, Sichuan and Tibet.

One of the primary supporters of the Jonang lineage in exile has been the 14th Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama donated buildings in Himachal Pradesh state in Shimla, India for use as a Jonang monastery (now known as the Main Takten Phuntsok Choeling Monastery) and has visited during one of his recent teaching tours. The Karmapa of the Karma Kagyu lineage has also visited.

The Jonang tradition has been actively petitioning for the past 20+ years to the Tibetan Government in exile, requesting them to recognize the Jonang as the sixth living Buddhist tradition of Tibetan Buddhism, and seek equal religious rights and representation to the Bon, Nyingma, Sakya, Kagyu and Gelug. The 14th Dalai Lama assigned Jebtsundamba Khutuktu of Mongolia (who is considered by the Gelug tradition to be an incarnation of Tāranātha) as the leader of the Jonang tradition.

More recently, the Jonang school has been growing in the West (led by teachers like Khentrul Jamphel Lodrö Rinpoché and Khenpo Chokyi Nangwa) and among the Chinese (led by teachers like Tulku Jamyang Lodrö and mKhan po Chos kyi dbang phyug).

Texts
Much of the Tibetan literature of the Jonang has survived, including the Ocean of Definitive Meaning: A Teaching for the Mountain Hermit (commonly referred to as Mountain Dharma), an extensive presentation of the ground, path, and fruit from the shentong perspective by Dolpopa.

Tathagatagarbha sutras
According to Dolpopa, his main sources for the ultimate truth and definitive meaning (nītārtha) are the tathagatagarbha sutras, the most important of which are the following:
 * Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra (Sutra on the Tathagata Essence, Tib. )
 * Avikalpapraveśadhāraṇī (Dharani for Entering the Nonconceptual; Tib. )
 * Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra (Sutra of the Lions Roar of Srimaladevi)
 * Mahābherīsūtra (Sutra of the Great Drum)
 * Aṅgulimālīya Sūtra (Sutra to Benefit Angulimala)
 * Śūnyatānāmamahāsūtra (Sutra of Great Emptiness)
 * Tathāgatamahākaruṇānirdeśasūtra (Sutra Presenting the Great Compassion of the Tathagata), also known as the Dhāraṇīśvararājasūtra
 * Tathāgataguṇajñānācintyaviṣayāvatāranirdeśasūtra (Sutra Presenting the Inconceivable Qualities and Primordial Awareness of the Tathagata)
 * Mahāmeghasūtra (Extensive Sutra of the Great Cloud)
 * Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra (Sutra of Great Final Nirvana), which exists in two Tibetan versions, a condensed and an extensive version.

Sutras of Definite Meaning
Another Jonang list of sutras of definitive meaning, i.e. which teach the ultimate truth, not the relative or provisional meaning (neyārtha) for the Jonang traditions is the following:
 * Pañcaśatikā-prajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Perfection of Wisdom in 500 Lines)
 * the “Maitreya Chapter” ("Maitreya's Questions" is a chapter found in two versions of the Tibetan Large Prajñaparamita sutra, the 18,000 line and the 25,000 line versions.)
 * Ghanavyūha Sūtra ("Dense Array Sutra")
 * Praśāntaviniścayaprātihāryanāmasamādhisūtra (Sutra on Utterly Quiescent and Certain Magical Meditative Concentrations)
 * Ratnameghasūtra (Clouds of Jewels Sutra)
 * Suvarṇaprabhāsottamasūtra (Golden Light Sutra)
 * Saṃdhinirmocanasūtra (Explanation of the Profound Secrets Sutra)
 * Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra (Descent into Laṅka Sutra)
 * Sarvabuddha-viṣayāvatāra-jñānālokālaṃkāra Sūtra
 * Buddhāvataṃsakasūtra

Tantric sources
The most important Buddhist tantra in the Jonang tradition is the Kālacakra tantra.

Regarding tantric commentaries, Jonang relies on The Bodhisattva Trilogy (sems 'grel skor gsum), which comprises the following three texts: The Vimalaprabhā (an 11th-century Indian commentary on the Kalacakra tantra), the Hevajrapiṇḍārthaṭīkā (Toh 1180, a commentary on the Hevajra tantra in 6000 lines), and the Laksabhidhanaduddhrtalaghutantrapindarthavivarana (Toh 1402), a commentary on the Chakrasamvara tantra by Vajrapani.

Key śāstras
The Jonang tradition also relies on several important Indian and Tibetan śāstras (treatises), including:
 * The works of Nagarjuna, especially his Mūlamadhyamakakārikā
 * The Five Maitreya Texts: Abhisamayalankara, Mahayanasutralankara, Ratnagotravibhāga, Dharmadharmatavibhanga, Madhyantavibhanga
 * The works of Dolpopa, especially his Ocean of Definitive Meaning: A Teaching for the Mountain Hermit (Wylie: ri chos nges don rgya mtsho) and his Great Calculation of the Doctrine that have the Significance of a Fourth Council.
 * The works of Taranatha, especially his The Essence of Other-Emptiness, Meaningful to Behold (Mthong ba don ldan) and his Commentary on the Heart Sutra.

title: Jonang


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Christmas on Mars

Christmas on Mars is a 2008 independent psychological science fiction film from the alternative rock band the Flaming Lips, written and directed by the band's frontman, Wayne Coyne, and featuring the entire band in the cast, as well as many of their associates, including Steve Burns, Adam Goldberg, and Fred Armisen.

The film began development in 2001, filming was completed in October 2005, and the film premiered on May 25, 2008 at the Sasquatch! Music Festival. For its general release in the United States, Christmas on Mars was booked into several dozen cities for unconventional screenings, in venues which included a former Ukrainian Socialist Social Club in New York City. The film was released in three different packages on November 11, 2008 through conventional retailers as well as through the band's website. A vinyl edition was released November 25, 2008.

Plot
The film tells the story of the experiences of Major Syrtis during the first Christmas on a newly colonized Mars.

The main character, Major Syrtis (played by Steven Drozd), is trying to organize a Christmas pageant to celebrate the birth of the first colonist baby. The hype they've added to this Mars mission is that this beautiful woman is giving birth to a baby from an artificial impregnation from the bubble she wears on her stomach. It's all scientifically timed, so she gives birth to this baby the second it hits midnight on Christmas. It is symbolically the beginning of a new civilization. But instead of being born from religious ideas, it's from a scientific idea.

A Martian that lands, but the Martian isn't really perceived as a Martian. People think he's another crazy guy who's flipped and turned himself green. They can't find a quick replacement for Santa, so they use this Martian guy. The Martian guy becomes the Martian and Santa Claus simultaneously.

Cast

 * Steven Drozd as Major Syrtis
 * Wayne Coyne as the Alien Super-Being
 * Michael Ivins as Deuteronilus
 * Kliph Scurlock as Orcus
 * Steve Burns as Astronaut
 * Scott Booker as Sirenum
 * Adam Goldberg as Dr. Scott Zero
 * Fred Armisen as Noachis
 * Mark Degraffenreid as Captain Icaria
 * Jimmy Pike as Jim Eleven
 * Kenny Coyne as Ed Fifteen

 * Cast notes:
 * Contrary to early reports, Isaac Brock of Modest Mouse and Elijah Wood do not appear in the film's final cut. However, a scene with Isaac Brock and Adam Goldberg exists on the DVD as an Easter egg.

Production
At the beginning of 2002, over 20 minutes of edited film were ready, with music and preliminary sound effects also completed for these scenes. Most of the movie was shot on 16 mm film, with most of the sets based in Wayne's Oklahoma City house. Most scenes were filmed in and around Oklahoma City, using locations such as old industrial facilities. Further filming was done in Boston, Texas.

Release
Originally, Christmas on Mars was not to be released at conventional movie theaters. Instead, a DVD release would be preceded by a number of screenings at rock venues. Speaking to mtv.com, Coyne has explained "We want to show the movie with a mega-sound system and snow machines and just make it like a bigger event than what has become the typical movie-going experience. I'm hoping that people can watch this movie while they drink beer, smoke cigarettes, and have a good time."

By October 2007, the film was in the final editing stage and the band was also transferring it to HD and adding "in-depth special effects." On September 12, 2008, the film made its New York City debut at 7am within the KGB Complex, a former Ukrainian Socialist Social Club, on the Lower East Side.

DVD
The film was released on DVD November 11, 2008 in three different packages designed by the band's visual generalist George Salisbury. One is a conventional DVD available at conventional retailers. There is also a deluxe edition containing the film on DVD in addition to a soundtrack CD. The Mega Deluxe Edition includes: The Film and Soundtrack (in special Deluxe Edition packaging), an exclusive T-shirt, a collectible movie ticket replicating those used during the rock festival tour, trading cards featuring all four members of the band from the movie on one side and performing on stage on the other, an "Eat Your Own Spaceship" bumper sticker, and a box of "Flaming Lips" popcorn featuring Wayne as the Martian. The first 1,000 Mega Deluxe Edition versions will have the popcorn boxes signed by all four members of the Flaming Lips. Of those 1,000 copies ten will contain a "golden ticket" good for two tickets to the Lips annual New Year's Eve concert in Oklahoma City. The vinyl edition is slated for release on November 25, 2008. The DVD contains at least one easter egg.

Soundtrack
Two tracks from the movie soundtrack, "Protonilus Death March" and "Syrtis Major" were released as a 5000-only picture-disc EP late in 2004, available only through the band's online store in conjunction with the purchase of their limited-edition pictorial biography Waking Up With a Placebo Headwound. "Syrtis Major" and another soundtrack cut, "Xanthe Terra", were also released as B-sides to the 2-part European single release of "Do You Realize??" These songs are both entirely instrumental, in a similar style to acclaimed Lips instrumentals such as the Grammy-winning Approaching Pavonis Mons by Balloon (Utopia Planitia). For the final soundtrack release, "Protonilus Death March" has been renamed to "The Gleaming Armament of Marching Genitalia," "Syrtis Major" is now "Space Bible With Volume Lumps" and "Xanthe Terra" is now "Suicide and Extraordinary Mistakes."

title: Christmas on Mars


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Milwaukee Art Museum

The Milwaukee Art Museum (MAM) is an art museum in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Its collection contains nearly 25,000 works of art.

Location and visit
Located on the lakefront of Lake Michigan, the Milwaukee Art Museum is one of the largest art museums in the United States. Aside from its galleries, the museum includes a cafe, named Cafe Calatrava, with views of Lake Michigan, and a gift shop.

Hours
Normal operating hours for MAM are Tuesday–Wednesday and Friday–Sunday 10:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m., Thursday 10:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m.

Origins
Beginning around 1872, multiple organizations were founded in order to bring an art gallery to Milwaukee, as the city was still a growing port town with few or no facilities to hold major art exhibitions. Over the span of at least nine years, all attempts to build a major art gallery had failed. Shortly after, Alexander Mitchell donated all of his collection in support of constructing Milwaukee's first permanent art gallery.

In 1888, the Milwaukee Art Association was created by a group of German panorama artists and local businessmen. The same year, British-born businessman Frederick Layton built, endowed and provided artwork for the Layton Art Gallery, now demolished. In 1911, the Milwaukee Art Institute, another building constructed to hold other exhibitions and collections, was completed, adjacent to the Layton Art Gallery.

The claim of the Milwaukee Art Institute to be Milwaukee's first art gallery was disputed by the Layton Art Gallery, which opened the same year, 1888. Nevertheless, in 1957, the Milwaukee Art Institute and Layton Art Gallery merged their collections to form the Milwaukee Art Center, now the Milwaukee Art Museum, and moved into the newly-built Eero Saarinen-designed Milwaukee County War Memorial.

Quadracci
The Quadracci Pavilion is a multi-purpose 13,197-square-meter (142,050-square-foot) building with areas that include a reception hall, auditorium, exhibition space, and stores. It was designed by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava. The construction method of concrete slabs into timber frames was revolutionary in architecture. Windover Hall is a 90 ft-tall grand reception area topped with a glass roof. The style and symbolism of the building are based on Gothic architecture and designed to represent the shape of a ship looking over Lake Michigan. Calatrava states, “the building’s form is at once formal (completing the composition), functional (controlling the level of light), symbolic (opening to welcome visitors), and iconic (creating a memorable image for the Museum and the city).”

Kahler and Calatrava Buildings
In the latter half of the 20th century, the museum came to include the War Memorial Center in 1957 as well as the brutalist Kahler Building (1975) designed by David Kahler and the Quadracci Pavilion (2001) created by Spanish architect Santiago Calatrava.

The Quadracci Pavilion contains a movable, wing-like Burke brise soleil that opens up for a wingspan of 217 ft during the day, folding over the tall, arched structure at night or during inclement weather. There are sensors on the wings that monitor wind speeds, so if the wind speeds are over 23 mph for over 3 seconds, the wings close. The pavilion received the 2004 Outstanding Structure Award from the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering. This iconic building, often referred to as "the Calatrava", is used in the museum logo.

2015 Shields Building
In November 2015, the museum opened a $34 million expansion funded jointly by a museum capital campaign and by Milwaukee County. The new expansion, called the Shields Building, designed by Milwaukee architect James Shields of HGA, provides an additional 30,000 square feet for art, including a section devoted to light-based media, photography, and video installations. The building includes a new atrium and lakefront-facing entry point for visitors and was designed with cantilevered elements and concrete columns to complement, respectively, the existing Calatrava and Kahler structures on the site. The final design emerged after a lengthy process that included the main architect's departure because of design disputes and his return to the project.

Cudahy Gardens
The Cudahy Gardens were designed in conjunction with the Quadracci Pavilion by landscape architect Dan Kiley. This garden measures 600 feet by 100 feet, a rectangular shape that is divided into five lawns by a series of 10-foot-tall hedge lines. In this garden there is a center fountain that creates a 4-foot-tall water curtain. There are linden trees and crabapple trees scattered throughout this garden as well. The gardens were named after philanthropist Michael Cudahy, whose donations greatly contributed to their construction.

Collection
The museum houses nearly 25,000 works of art housed on four floors, with works from antiquity to the present. Included in the collection are 15th- to 20th-century European and 17th- to 20th-century American paintings, sculpture, prints, drawings, decorative arts, photographs, and folk and self-taught art. Among the best in the collection are the museum's holding of American decorative arts, German Expressionism, folk and Haitian art, and American art after 1960.

The museum holds one of the largest collections of works by Wisconsin native Georgia O'Keeffe. Other artists represented include Gustave Caillebotte, Nardo di Cione, Francisco de Zurbarán, Jean-Honoré Fragonard, Winslow Homer, Auguste Rodin, Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Gabriele Münter, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, Frank Lloyd Wright, Pablo Picasso, Joan Miró, Wassily Kandinsky, Mark Rothko, Robert Gober, and Andy Warhol.

It also has paintings by European painters Francesco Botticini, Jan Swart van Groningen, Ferdinand Bol, Jan van Goyen, Hendrick Van Vliet, Franz von Lenbach (Bavarian Girl), Ferdinand Waldmüller (Interruption), Carl Spitzweg, William-Adolphe Bouguereau, Jean-Léon Gérôme (2 Majesties), Gustave Caillebotte, Camille Pissarro, Alfred Kowalski (Winter in Russia), Jules Bastien-Lepage (The Wood Gatherer), and Max Pechstein.

Management
Directors
 * 1977–1985 Gerald Nordland
 * 1985–2002 Russell Bowman
 * 2002–2008 David Gordon – director and CEO
 * 2008–2016 Daniel Keegan
 * 2016 Marcelle Polednik – Donna and Donald Baumgartner director

Funding
As of 2015, the museum’s endowment is around $65 million. Endowment proceeds cover a fraction of the museum's expenses, leaving it overly dependent on funds from day-to-day operations such as ticket sales. Daniel Keegan, who has served as the museum's director since 2008, negotiated an agreement with Milwaukee County and the Milwaukee County War Memorial for the long-term management and funding of the facilities in 2013.

Controversy
In June 2015 the museum's display of a work depicting Benedict XVI, composed of 17,000 latex condoms, created outrage among Catholics and others.

In popular culture
The Quadracci Pavilion has an appearance in the 2008 EA racing video game Need for Speed: Undercover.

The pavilion is also prominently featured in the episode “Joe Pera Shows You How to Do Good Fashion” in “Joe Pera Talks With You””.

title: Milwaukee Art Museum


text:
Kalanchoe

Kalanchoe, also written Kalanchöe or Kalanchoë, is a genus of about 125 species of tropical, succulent plants in the stonecrop family Crassulaceae, mainly native to Madagascar and tropical Africa. A Kalanchoe species was one of the first plants to be sent into space, sent on a resupply to the Soviet Salyut 1 space station in 1979. The majority of kalanchoes require around 6–8 hours of sunlight a day; a few cannot tolerate this, and survive with bright, indirect sunlight to bright shade.

Description
Most are shrubs or perennial herbaceous plants, but a few are annual or biennial. The largest, Kalanchoe beharensis from Madagascar, can reach 6 m tall, but most species are less than 1 m tall.

Kalanchoes open their flowers by growing new cells on the inner surface of the petals to force them outwards, and on the outside of the petals to close them. Kalanchoe flowers are divided into 4 sections with 8 stamens. The petals are fused into a tube, in a similar way to some related genera such as Cotyledon.

Taxonomy
The genus Kalanchoe was first described by the French botanist Michel Adanson in 1763.

The genus Bryophyllum was described by Salisbury in 1806 and the genus Kitchingia was created by Baker in 1881. Kitchingia is now regarded as a synonym for Kalanchoe, while Bryophyllum has also been treated as a separate genus, since species of Bryophyllum appear to be nested within Kalanchoe on molecular phylogenetic analysis, Bryophyllum is considered as a section of the former, dividing the genus into three sections, Kitchingia, Bryophyllum, and Eukalanchoe. these were formalised as subgenera by Smith and Figueiredo (2018).

Etymology
Adanson cited Georg Joseph Kamel (Camellus) as his source for the name. The name came from the Cantonese name 伽藍菜 (Jyutping: gaa1 laam4 coi3).

Kalanchoe ceratophylla and Kalanchoe laciniata are both called 伽蓝菜 (apparently "Buddhist monastery [samghārāma] herb") in China. In Mandarin Chinese, it does not seem very close in pronunciation (qiélán cài, but possibly jiālán cài or gālán cài as the character 伽 has multiple pronunciations), but the Cantonese gālàahm choi is closer.

List of selected species

 * Kalanchoe adelae
 * Kalanchoe arborescens
 * Kalanchoe beauverdii
 * Kalanchoe beharensis – velvet leaf, felt plant, felt bush
 * Kalanchoe bentii
 * Kalanchoe blossfeldiana – flaming katy, Christmas kalanchoe, florist kalanchoe, Madagascar widow's-thrill
 * Kalanchoe bouvetii
 * Kalanchoe bracteata
 * Kalanchoe brasiliensis
 * Kalanchoe ceratophylla
 * Kalanchoe crenata
 * Kalanchoe crundallii
 * Kalanchoe daigremontiana – Devil's backbone, Mexican-hat plant, mother of thousands
 * Kalanchoe delagoensis
 * Kalanchoe dineshii
 * Kalanchoe dinklagei
 * Kalanchoe eriophylla
 * Kalanchoe fadeniorum
 * Kalanchoe farinacea
 * Kalanchoe fedtschenkoi
 * Kalanchoe figuereidoi
 * Kalanchoe flammea
 * Kalanchoe gastonis-bonnieri – donkey ears, life plant
 * Kalanchoe glaucescens
 * Kalanchoe garambiensis
 * Kalanchoe gracilipes
 * Kalanchoe grandidieri
 * Kalanchoe grandiflora
 * Kalanchoe hildebrantii – silver teaspoons
 * Kalanchoe humilis - Desert Surprise
 * Kalanchoe jongmansii
 * Kalanchoe kewensis
 * Kalanchoe laciniata
 * kalanchoe laetivirens
 * Kalanchoe lateritia
 * Kalanchoe laxiflora
 * Kalanchoe linearifolia
 * Kalanchoe longiflora – long-flower kalanchoe
 * Kalanchoe luciae – paddle plant
 * Kalanchoe macrochlamys
 * Kalanchoe manginii – beach bells
 * Kalanchoe marmorata – penwiper
 * Kalanchoe marnieriana
 * Kalanchoe millotii
 * Kalanchoe miniata
 * Kalanchoe mortagei
 * Kalanchoe nyikae
 * Kalanchoe obtusa
 * Kalanchoe orgyalis
 * Kalanchoe petitiana
 * Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.
 * Kalanchoe porphyrocalyx
 * Kalanchoe prasina
 * Kalanchoe prolifera
 * Kalanchoe pubescens
 * Kalanchoe pumila
 * Kalanchoe quartiniana
 * Kalanchoe rhombopilosa – pies from heaven
 * Kalanchoe robusta
 * Kalanchoe rolandi-bonapartei
 * Kalanchoe rosei
 * Kalanchoe rotundifolia
 * Kalanchoe schizophylla
 * Kalanchoe serrata
 * Kalanchoe sexangularis
 * Kalanchoe streptantha
 * Kalanchoe suarezensis
 * Kalanchoe synsepala – cup kalanchoe, walking kalanchoe
 * Kalanchoe thyrsiflora – flapjacks, desert cabbage, white lady, geelplakkie, meelplakkie, plakkie
 * Kalanchoe tomentosa – panda plant
 * Kalanchoe uniflora
 * Kalanchoe producta
 * Kalanchoe viguieri

List of hybrids
Several hybrids within Kalanchoe are known:
 * K. houghtonii = K. daigremontiana × K. delagoensis
 * K. lokarana
 * K. poincarei
 * K. rechingeri
 * K. richaudii = K. delagoensis × K. rosei

Distribution and ecology
The genus is predominantly native to the Old World. Only one species originates from the Americas. 56 are from southern and eastern Africa and 60 species on the island of Madagascar. It is also found in south-eastern Asia and China.

These plants are food plants for caterpillars of the Red Pierrot butterfly. The butterfly lays its eggs on leaves, and after hatching, caterpillars burrow into the leaves and eat their inside cells.

Cultivation and uses
These plants are cultivated as ornamental houseplants and rock or succulent garden plants. They are popular because of their ease of propagation, low water requirements, and wide variety of flower colors typically borne in clusters well above the leaves. The section Bryophyllum—formerly an independent genus—contains species such as the "air-plant" Kalanchoe pinnata. In these plants, new individuals develop vegetatively as plantlets, also known as bulbils or gemmae, at indentations in leaf margins. These young plants eventually drop off and take root. No males have been found of one species of this genus which does flower and produce seeds, and it is commonly called the mother of thousands: Kalanchoe daigremontiana is thus an example of asexual reproduction.

The cultivars 'Tessa' and 'Wendy' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Traditional medicine
In traditional medicine, Kalanchoe species have been used to treat ailments such as infections, rheumatism and inflammation. Kalanchoe extracts also have immunosuppressive effects. Kalanchoe pinnata has been recorded in Trinidad and Tobago as being used as a traditional treatment for hypertension.

A variety of bufadienolide compounds have been isolated from various Kalanchoe species. Five different bufadienolides have been isolated from Kalanchoe daigremontiana. Two of these, daigremontianin and bersaldegenin 1,3,5-orthoacetate, have been shown to have a pronounced sedative effect. They also have the strong positive inotropic effect associated with cardiac glycosides, and with greater doses an increasing effect on the central nervous system.

Bufadienolide compounds isolated from Kalanchoe pinnata include bryophillin A which showed strong anti-tumor promoting activity, and bersaldegenin-3-acetate and bryophillin C which were less active. Bryophillin C also showed insecticidal properties.

title: Kalanchoe


text:
List of cruiser classes of the Royal Navy

This is a list of cruisers of the Royal Navy of the United Kingdom from 1877 (when the category was created by amalgamating the two previous categories of frigate and corvette) until the last cruiser was decommissioned more than a century later. There are no longer any cruisers in the Royal Navy.

First class cruisers
Armoured cruisers were protected by a belt of side armour and an armoured deck. In the Royal Navy this classification was not actually used, the term first class cruiser being used instead for both armoured cruisers and large protected cruisers. Thus, the first class cruisers built between the Orlando class (1886) and the Cressy class (1897) were, strictly speaking, protected cruisers as they lacked an armoured belt. The first class cruiser was succeeded by the battlecruiser in the Royal Navy.

 * Shannon first class armoured cruiser, (1875) 5,670 tons, 2×10in, 7×9inch
 * Shannon (1875) – Sold 1899
 * Nelson class first class armoured cruiser, 7,473 tons, 4×10-inch, 6×9-inch
 * Nelson (1876) – Sold 1910
 * Northampton (1876) – Sold 1905
 * Imperieuse class first class armoured cruiser, 8,500 tons, 4×9.2inch, 10×6inch
 * Imperieuse (1883) – Sold 1913
 * Warspite (1884) – Sold 1905
 * Orlando class first class armoured cruiser, 5,600 tons, 2×9.2-inch, 10×6-inch
 * Orlando (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Australia (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Undaunted (1886) – Sold 1907
 * Narcissus (1886) – Sold 1906
 * Galatea (1887) – Sold 1905
 * Immortalite (1887) – Sold 1907
 * Aurora (1887) – Sold 1907
 * Blake class first class protected cruiser, 9,150 tons, 2 × 9.2-inch, 10 × 6-inch
 * Blake (1889) – Sold 1922
 * Blenheim (1890) – Sold 1926
 * Edgar class first class protected cruiser, 7,700 tons, 2× 9.2-inch, 10×6-inch
 * Edgar (1890) – Sold 1921
 * Hawke (1891) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Endymion (1891) – Sold 1920
 * Royal Arthur (1891) – Sold 1921
 * Gibraltar (1892) – Sold 1923
 * Grafton (1892) – Sold 1920
 * St George (1892) – Sold 1920
 * Theseus (1892) – Sold 1921
 * Crescent (1892) – Sold 1921
 * Powerful class first class protected cruiser, 14,200 tons, 2×9.2-inch, 12× 6-inch
 * Powerful (1895) – Sold 1929
 * Terrible (1895) – Sold 1932
 * Diadem class first class protected cruiser, 11,000 tons, 16× 6-inch
 * Diadem (1896) – Sold 1921
 * Niobe (1897) – To Canada as HMCS Niobe, BU 1922
 * Europa (1897) – Sold 1920
 * Andromeda (1897) – Sold 1956
 * Amphitrite (1898) – Sold 1920
 * Argonaut (1898) – Sold 1920
 * Ariadne (1898) – Torpedoed 1917
 * Spartiate (1898) – Sold 1932
 * Cressy class first class armoured cruiser, 12,000 tons, 2×9.2-inch, 12×6-in
 * Cressy (1899) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Sutlej (1899) – Sold 1924
 * Aboukir (1900) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Hogue (1900) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Bacchante (1901) – Sold 1920
 * Euryalus (1901) – Sold 1920
 * Drake class first class armoured cruiser, 14,150 tons, 2× 9.2-inch, 16×-6-inch
 * Drake (1901) – Torpedoed 1917
 * Good Hope (ex-Africa) (1901) – Sunk during the Battle of Coronel, 1914
 * King Alfred (1901) – Sold 1920
 * Leviathan (1901) – Sold 1920
 * Monmouth class first class armoured cruiser, 9,800 tons, 14× 6-inch
 * Monmouth (1901) – Sunk during the Battle of Coronel, 1914
 * Bedford (1901) – Wrecked on 21 August 1910 off Quelport Island in the China Sea
 * Essex (1901) – Sold 1921
 * Kent (1901) – Sold 1920
 * Berwick (1902) – Sold 1920
 * Cornwall (1902) – Sold 1920
 * Cumberland (1902) – Sold 1921
 * Donegal (1902) – Sold 1920
 * Lancaster (1902) – Sold 1920
 * Suffolk (1903) – Sold 1920
 * Devonshire class first class armoured cruiser, 10,850 tons, 4× 7.5-inch, 6× 6-inch
 * Devonshire (1904) – Sold 1921
 * Hampshire (1903) – Mined 1916
 * Carnarvon (1903) – Sold 1921
 * Antrim (1903) – Sold 1922
 * Roxburgh (1904) – Sold 1921
 * Argyll (1904) – Wrecked 1915
 * Duke of Edinburgh group first class armoured cruiser
 * Duke of Edinburgh class 13,550 tons, 6× 9.2-inch, 10× 6-inch
 * Duke of Edinburgh (1904) – Sold 1920
 * Black Prince (1904) – Sunk at the Battle of Jutland, 1916
 * Warrior class 13,550 tons, 6x 9.2-in, 4x 7.5-in
 * Warrior (1905) – Sunk at the Battle of Jutland, 1916
 * Cochrane (1905) – Wrecked 1918
 * Achilles (1905) – Sold 1921
 * Natal (1905) – Explosion 1915
 * Minotaur class first class armoured cruiser, 14,600 tons, 4× 9.2-inch, 10× 7.5-inch
 * Minotaur (1906) – Sold 1920
 * Shannon (1906) – Sold 1922
 * Defence (1907) – Sunk at the Battle of Jutland, 1916

Protected cruisers
Protected cruisers were so-called because their vital machinery spaces were protected by an armoured deck and the arrangement of coal bunkers. The ships below are all protected cruisers, but were rated as second and third class cruisers by the Royal Navy. The third class cruiser was not expected to operate with the fleet, was substantially smaller than the second class and lacked the watertight double-bottom of the latter. With the advent of turbine machinery, oil firing and better armour plate the protected cruiser became obsolete and was succeeded by the light cruiser.
 * Iris class second class cruiser, 3,730 tons, 10 × 64-pdr
 * Iris (1877) – Sold 1905
 * Mercury (1878) – Hulked 1914, sold 1919
 * Comus class third class cruiser, 2,380 tons (Constance 2,590 tons), 2 × 7 in + 12 × 64-pdr (except Comus 4 × 6 in + 8 × 64-pdr; Canada & Cordelia 10 × 6 in)
 * Comus (1878) – Sold 1904
 * Curacoa (1878) – Sold 1904
 * Champion (1878) – Sold 1919
 * Cleopatra (1878) – Sold 1931
 * Carysfort (1878) – Sold 1899
 * Conquest (1878) – Sold 1899
 * Constance (1880) – Sold 1899
 * Canada (1881) – Sold 1897
 * Cordelia (1881) – Sold 1904
 * Leander class second class cruiser, 4,300 tons, 10 × 6 in
 * Leander (1882) – Sold 1920
 * Arethusa (1882) – Sold 1905
 * Phaeton (1883) – Sold 1947
 * Amphion (1883) – Sold 1906
 * Calypso class third class cruiser, 2,770 tons, 4 × 6 in + 12 × 5 in
 * Calypso (1883) – Sold 1922
 * Calliope (1884) – Sold 1951 (drill ship from 1907)
 * Surprise class third class cruiser, 1,700 tons, 4 × 5 in
 * Surprise (1885) – Sold 1919
 * Alacrity (1885) – Sold 1913
 * Mersey class second class cruiser, 4,050 tons, 2 × 8 in, 10 × 6 in
 * Mersey (1885) – Sold 1905
 * Severn (1885) – Sold 1905
 * Thames (1885) – Renamed General Botha, scuttled 1947
 * Forth (1886) – Sold 1921
 * Scout class third class torpedo cruiser, 1,580 tons, 4 × 5 in
 * Scout (1885) – Sold 1904
 * Fearless (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Archer class third class torpedo cruiser, 1,770 tons, 6 × 6 in
 * Archer (1885) – Sold 1905
 * Mohawk (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Brisk (1886) – Sold 1906
 * Porpoise (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Cossack (1886) – Sold 1905
 * Tartar (1886) – Sold 1906
 * Serpent (1887) – Wrecked 1890
 * Racoon (1887) – Sold 1905
 * Marathon class second class cruiser, 2,850 tons, 6 × 6 in
 * Magicienne (1888) – Sold 1905
 * Medea (1888) – Sold 1914
 * Medusa (1888) – Sold 1920
 * Marathon (1888) – Sold 1905
 * Melpomene (1888) – Sold 1905
 * Barracouta class third class cruiser, 1,580 tons, 6 × 4.7 in
 * Barracouta (1889) – Sold 1905
 * Barrosa (1889) – Sold 1905
 * Blanche (1889) – Sold 1905
 * Blonde (1889) – Sold 1905
 * Barham class third class cruiser, 1,830 tons, 6 × 4.7 in
 * Barham (1889) – Sold 1914
 * Bellona (1890) – Sold 1906
 * Pearl class third class cruiser, 2,575 tons, 8 × 4.7 in
 * Pandora (1889) – Sold 1906
 * Psyche (1889) – Sold 1906
 * Phoenix (1889) – Sold 1906
 * Pelorus (1889) – Sold 1906
 * Persian (1890) – Sold 1920
 * Pallas (1890) – Sold 1906
 * Phoebe (1890) – Sold 1906
 * Pearl (1890) – Sold 1906
 * Philomel (1890) – Sold 1947, scuttled 1949
 * Apollo class second class cruiser, 3,400 tons, 2 × 6 in, 6 × 4.7 in
 * Latona (1890) – Sold 1920
 * Melampus (1890) – Sold 1910
 * Andromache (1890) – Sold 1920
 * Sirius (1890) – Scuttled 1918
 * Terpsichore (1890) – Sold 1914
 * Naiad (1890) – Sold 1922
 * Pique (1890) – Sold 1911
 * Thetis (1890) – Scuttled 1918
 * Sybille (1890) – Wrecked 1901
 * Apollo (1891) – Sold 1920
 * Tribune (1891) – Sold 1911
 * Spartan (1891) – Renamed Defiance 1921, sold 1931
 * Indefatigable (1891) – Sold 1913
 * Rainbow (1891) – To Canada as HMCS Rainbow 1910; sold 1920
 * Sappho (1891) – Sold 1921
 * Intrepid (1891) – Scuttled 1918
 * Brilliant (1891) – Scuttled 1918
 * Retribution (1891) – Sold 1911
 * Scylla (1891) – Sold 1914
 * Aeolus (1891) – Sold 1914
 * Iphigenia (1891) – Scuttled 1918
 * Astraea class second class cruiser, 4,360 tons, 2 × 6 in, 8 × 4.7 in
 * Bonaventure (1892) – Sold 1920
 * Cambrian (1893) – Sold 1923
 * Astraea (1893) – Sold 1920
 * Charybdis (1893) – Sold 1922
 * Fox (1893) – Sold 1920
 * Hermione (1893) – Renamed Warspite, sold 1940
 * Flora (1893) – Renamed Indus II, sold 1922
 * Forte (1893) – Sold 1914
 * Eclipse class second class cruiser, 5,600 tons, 5 × 6 in, 6 × 4.7 in
 * Eclipse (1894) – Sold 1921
 * Talbot (1895) – Sold 1921
 * Venus (1895) – Sold 1921
 * Minerva (1895) – Sold 1920
 * Juno (1895) – Sold 1920
 * Diana (1895) – Sold 1920
 * Doris (1896) – Sold 1919
 * Dido (1896) – Sold 1926
 * Isis (1896) – Sold 1920
 * Arrogant class second class cruiser, 5,750 tons, 4 × 6 in, 6 × 4.7 in
 * Arrogant (1896) – Sold 1923
 * Furious (1896) – Renamed Forte 1915, sold 1923
 * Gladiator (1896) – Collision 1908, refloated, sold 1909
 * Vindictive (1897) – Scuttled 1918
 * Pelorus class third class cruiser, 2,135 tons, 8 × 4 in
 * Proserpine (1896) – Sold 1919
 * Pelorus (1896) – Sold 1920
 * Pactolus (1896) – Sold 1921
 * Pegasus (1897) – Sunk 1914
 * Perseus (1897) – Sold 1914
 * Pomone (1897) – Sold 1922
 * Pyramus (1897) – Sold 1920
 * Psyche (1898) – To Australia 1915; sold 1922; sank 1940
 * Prometheus (1898) – Sold 1914
 * Pioneer (1899) – To Australia 1912, scuttled 1931
 * Pandora (1900) – Sold 1913
 * Highflyer class second class cruiser, 5,650 tons, 11 × 6 in
 * Hermes (1898) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Highflyer (1898) – Sold 1921
 * Hyacinth (1898) – Sold 1923
 * Challenger class second class cruiser, 5,880 tons, 11 × 6 in
 * Challenger (1902) – Sold 1920
 * Encounter (1902) – To Australia 1912 as HMAS Encounter, renamed Penguin 1923, scuttled 1932
 * Topaze class third class cruiser, 3,000 tons, 12 × 4 in
 * Topaze (1903) – Sold 1921
 * Amethyst (1903) – Sold 1920
 * Diamond (1904) – Sold 1921
 * Sapphire (1904) – Sold 1921

Scout cruisers
The scout cruiser was a smaller, faster, more lightly armed and armoured cruiser than the protected cruiser, intended for fleet scouting duties and acting as a flotilla leader. Essentially there were two distinct groups – the eight vessels all ordered under the 1903 Programme, and the seven later vessels ordered under the 1907-1910 Programmes. The advent of better machinery and larger, faster destroyers and light cruisers effectively made them obsolete.
 * Sentinel class 2,880 tons, 10 × 12-pdr
 * Sentinel (1904) – Sold 1923
 * Skirmisher (1905) – Sold 1920
 * Adventure class 2,640 tons, 10 × 12-pdr
 * Adventure (1904) – Sold 1920
 * Attentive (1904) – Sold 1920
 * Forward class 2,860 tons, 10 × 12-pdr
 * Forward (1904) – Sold 1921
 * Foresight (1904) – Sold 1920
 * Pathfinder class 2,900 tons, 10 × 12-pdr
 * Pathfinder (1904) – Torpedoed 1914
 * Patrol (1904) – Sold 1920
 * Boadicea class 3,300 tons, 6 × 4in
 * Boadicea (1908) – Sold 1926
 * Bellona (1909) – Sold 1921
 * Blonde class 3,350 tons, 10 × 4in
 * Blonde (1910) – Sold 1920
 * Blanche (1909) – Sold 1921
 * Active class 3,440 tons, 10 × 4in
 * Active (1911) – Sold 1920
 * Amphion (1911) – Sunk 1914
 * Fearless (1912) – Sold 1921

Light cruisers
The light armoured cruiser – light cruiser – succeeded the protected cruiser; improvements in machinery and armour rendering the latter obsolete. The Town-class cruiser of 1910 were rated as second-class protected cruisers, but were effectively light armoured cruisers with mixed coal and oil firing. The Arethusa-class cruiser of 1913 were the first oil-only fired class. This meant that the arrangement of coal bunkers in the hull could no longer be relied upon as protection and the adoption of destroyer-type machinery resulted in a higher speed. This makes the Arethusas the first "true example" of the warship that came to be recognised as the light cruiser. In the London Naval Treaty of 1930, light cruisers were officially defined as cruisers having guns of 6.1 inches (155 mm) calibre or less, with a displacement not exceeding 10,000 tons.
 * Town class
 * Bristol group 4,800 tons, two 6-in & ten 4-in guns
 * Bristol (1910) – sold 1921
 * Glasgow (1910) – sold 1927
 * Gloucester (1910) – sold 1921
 * Liverpool (1910) – sold 1921
 * Newcastle (1910) – sold 1921
 * Weymouth group 5,250 tons, eight 6-in guns
 * Weymouth (1911) – sold 1928
 * Dartmouth (1911) – sold 1930
 * Falmouth (1911) – sunk 1916
 * Yarmouth (1912) – sold 1929
 * Chatham group 5,400 tons, eight 6-in guns
 * Chatham (1912) – sold 1926
 * Dublin (1913) – sold 1926
 * Southampton (1912) – sold 1926
 * HMAS Brisbane (1915) (1916) – sold 1936
 * HMAS Melbourne (1912) (1913) – sold 1929
 * HMAS Sydney (1912) (1913) – scrapped 1929
 * Birmingham group 5,440 tons, nine 6-in guns
 * Birmingham (1914) – sold 1931
 * Lowestoft (1914) – sold 1931
 * Nottingham (1914) – sunk 1916
 * HMAS Adelaide (1918) (1922) – sold 1949
 * Birkenhead group 5,185 tons, ten 5.5-in guns
 * Birkenhead (1915) – sold 1921
 * Chester (1916) – sold 1921
 * Arethusa class, 3,750 tons, two 6-in & six 4-in guns
 * Arethusa (1914) – wrecked 1916
 * Aurora (1914) – to Canada 1920; sold 1927
 * Galatea (1914) – sold 1921
 * Inconstant (1915) – sold 1922
 * Penelope (1914) – sold 1924
 * Phaeton (1915) – sold 1923
 * Royalist (1915) – sold 1922
 * Undaunted (1914) – sold 1923
 * C class
 * Caroline group 4,219 tons, two 6-in & eight 4-in guns
 * Caroline (1914) – museum ship 2016
 * Carysfort (1914) – sold 1931
 * Cleopatra (1915) – sold 1931
 * Comus (1914) – sold 1934
 * Conquest (1915) – sold 1930
 * Cordelia (1914) – sold 1923
 * Calliope group 4,228 tons, two 6-in & eight 4-in guns
 * Calliope (1914) – sold 1931
 * Champion (1915) – sold 1934
 * Cambrian group 4,320 tons, two 6-in & eight 4-in guns
 * Cambrian (1916) – sold 1934
 * Canterbury (1915) – sold 1934
 * Castor (1915) – sold 1936
 * Constance (1915) – sold 1936
 * Centaur group 4,165 tons, five 6-in guns
 * Centaur (1916) – sold 1934
 * Concord (1916) – sold 1935
 * Caledon group 4,180 tons, five 6-in guns
 * Caledon (1916) – sold 1948
 * Calypso (1917) – torpedoed 1940
 * Cassandra (1916) – struck a mine 1918
 * Caradoc (1916) – sold 1946
 * Ceres group 4,190 tons, five 6-in guns
 * Cardiff (1917) – sold 1946
 * Ceres (1917) – scrapped 1946
 * Coventry (1917) – sunk 1942
 * Curacoa (1917) – sunk in collision 1942
 * Curlew (1917) – bombed 1940
 * Carlisle group 4,290 tons, five 6-in guns
 * Cairo (1918) – torpedoed 1942
 * Calcutta (1919) – bombed in 1941
 * Capetown (1919) – sold 1946
 * Carlisle (1918) – scrapped 1949
 * Colombo (1918) – sold 1948
 * Danae class 4,850 tons, six 6-in guns
 * Danae (1918) – scrapped 1948
 * Dauntless (1918) – scrapped 1946
 * Dragon (1918) – scuttled 1944
 * Delhi (1919) – sold 1948
 * Dunedin (1919) – torpedoed 1941
 * Durban (1921) – scuttled 1944
 * Despatch (1922) – sold 1946
 * Diomede (1922) – sold 1946
 * Emerald class 7,580 tons, seven 6-in guns
 * Emerald (1926) – sunk as target 1947; scrapped 1948
 * Enterprise (1926) – sold 1946
 * Leander class
 * Leander group 7,200 tons, eight 6-in guns
 * HMNZS Achilles (70) (1933) – to the Indian Navy 1948 as the INS Delhi (1948); scrapped 1978
 * Ajax (1935) – scrapped 1949
 * HMNZS Leander (1933) – sold 1949
 * Neptune (1934) – struck a mine 1941
 * Orion (1934) – sold 1949
 * Amphion group 6,900 tons, eight 6-in guns
 * Amphion (1936) – to Royal Australian Navy 1939 as HMAS Perth (D29) – torpedoed 1942
 * Apollo (1936) – to RAN 1938 as HMAS Hobart (1939); sold 1962
 * Phaeton (1935) – to RAN 1935 as HMAS Sydney (1934) – sunk 1941
 * Arethusa class 5,220 tons, six 6-in guns
 * Arethusa (1935) – scrapped 1950
 * Aurora (1937) – Sold to Republic of China Navy 1948; to People's Republic of China 1949; sunk 1949
 * Galatea (1935) – torpedoed 1941
 * Penelope (1936) – torpedoed 1944
 * Town class
 * Southampton group 9,100 tons, 12 6-in guns
 * Southampton (1937) – sunk 1941
 * Birmingham (1937) – scrapped 1960
 * Glasgow (1937) – sold 1958
 * Newcastle (1937) – sold 1959
 * Sheffield (1937) – scrapped 1967
 * Gloucester group 9,400 tons, 12 6-in guns
 * Gloucester (1939) – bombed 1941
 * Liverpool (1938) – sold 1958
 * Manchester (1938) – sunk 1942
 * Edinburgh group 10,565 tons, 12 6-in guns
 * Edinburgh (1939) – sunk 1942
 * Belfast (1939) – Currently a museum ship in London
 * Dido class
 * Dido group 5,600 tons, ten 5.25-in guns
 * Bonaventure (1940) – torpedoed 1941
 * Dido (1940) – scrapped 1957
 * Hermione (1941) – torpedoed 1942
 * Naiad (1940) – torpedoed 1942
 * HMS Phoebe (43) (1940) – scrapped 1956
 * Euryalus (1941) – scrapped 1959
 * Sirius (1942) – scrapped 1956
 * Charybdis (1941) – torpedoed 1943
 * Cleopatra (1941) – scrapped 1958
 * Scylla (1942) – scrapped 1950
 * Argonaut (1942) – scrapped 1955
 * Bellona group 5,770 tons, eight 5.25-in guns
 * Bellona (1943) – to Royal New Zealand Navy 1946; scrapped 1959
 * Black Prince (1943) – to Royal New Zealand Navy 1946; scrapped 1962
 * Diadem (1943) – to Pakistani Navy 1956 as PNS Babur; scrapped 1985
 * Royalist (1943) – to Royal New Zealand Navy 1956; scrapped 1967
 * Spartan (1943) – bombed 1944
 * Fiji-class cruiser
 * Fiji group 8,525 tons, 12 6-in guns
 * Bermuda (1942) – scrapped 1965
 * Fiji (1940) – bombed 1941
 * HMS Gambia (48) (1942) – scrapped 1968
 * Jamaica (1942) – sold 1960
 * Kenya (1940) – scrapped 1955
 * Mauritius (1941) – scrapped 1962
 * HMS Nigeria (60) (1940) – to Indian Navy as INS Mysore (1957) 1957; scrapped 1986
 * Trinidad (1941) – bombed 1942
 * Ceylon group 8,875 tons, nine 6-in guns
 * HMS Ceylon (30) (1943) – to Peruvian Navy as BAP Coronel Bolognesi 1960; scrapped 1985
 * Newfoundland (1943) – to Peruvian Navy as BAP Capitán Quiñones 1959; scrapped 1979
 * Uganda (1943) – scrapped 1955 Royal Canadian Navy as HMCS Quebec 1944; scrapped 1961
 * Minotaur class 8,800 tons, nine 6-in guns
 * Swiftsure (1944) – scrapped 1962
 * Minotaur (1945) – to Royal Canadian Navy 1945 as Ontario 1944; scrapped 1960
 * Superb (1945)– scrapped 1960
 * Tiger class 11,700 tons, four 6-in & six 3-in guns. Laid down during World War II as Minotaur-class ships
 * Tiger (1959) – scrapped 1986
 * Lion (1960) – sold 1975
 * Blake (1961) – sold 1982

Heavy cruisers
The heavy cruiser was defined in the London Naval Treaty of 1930 as a cruiser with a main gun calibre more than 6 inches but not exceeding 8 inches. The earlier Hawkins class were therefore retrospectively classified as such, although they had been initially built as "improved light cruisers". The County were built as light cruisers with most of them in service at the time of the Treaty of London, after which they were also redesignated as heavy cruisers. A further three Countys were cancelled. The York class was a reduced version of the County to build more ships within tonnage limits.
 * Hawkins class (also known as Cavendish) or 9,860 tons, 7x 7.5-inch
 * Cavendish (1918) – completed as aircraft carrier Vindictive, converted to cruiser in 1925, to training ship 1937; scrapped 1946
 * Hawkins (1919) – scrapped 1947
 * Raleigh (1920) – wrecked 1922
 * Frobisher (1924) – scrapped 1949
 * Effingham (1925) – wrecked 1940
 * County class, 8x 8-inch
 * Kent group 10,570 tons
 * Cumberland (1928) – scrapped 1959
 * Berwick (1928) – scrapped 1948
 * Cornwall (1928) – bombed 1942
 * Suffolk (1928) – scrapped 1948
 * Kent (1928) – scrapped 1948
 * Australia (1928) – Royal Australian Navy, scrapped 1955
 * Canberra (1928) – Royal Australian Navy, torpedoed 1942
 * London group 9,830 tons
 * London (1929) – scrapped 1950
 * Devonshire (1929) – scrapped 1954
 * Shropshire (1929) – to Royal Australian Navy 1943, scrapped 1955
 * Sussex (1929) – scrapped 1950
 * Norfolk group 10,300 tons
 * Norfolk (1930) – scrapped 1950
 * Dorsetshire (1930) – sunk by dive bombers in Far East 1942
 * York class modified County design 8,250 tons, 6x 8-inch
 * York (1930) – damaged by explosive motor boats, salvage abandoned and wrecked 1941, scrapped 1952
 * Exeter (1931) – sunk 1942, Far East

Large light cruisers
The "large light cruisers" were a pet project of Admiral Fisher to operate in shallow Baltic Sea waters and they are often classed as a form of battlecruiser.
 * 'Courageous or Glorious class'
 * Glorious group 19,320 tons, 4 × 15 in, 18 × 4 in
 * Glorious (77) (1916) – converted to aircraft carrier 1924–1930; sunk 1940
 * Courageous (50) (1916) – converted to aircraft carrier 1924–1928; sunk 1939
 * Furious  19,513 tons, 2 × 18 in, 11 × 5.5 in
 * Furious (47) (1917) – completed as aircraft carrier; sold 1948

Minelaying cruisers
These "minelaying cruisers" were the only purpose-built oceangoing minelayers of the Royal Navy. The Abdiel class could reach 38 knots and in practice were used as fast transports to supply isolated garrisons, such as those at Malta and Tobruk.
 * Adventure  6,740 tons, 4 × 4.7 in
 * Adventure (M23) (1926) – converted to repair ship 1944, scrapped 1947
 * Abdiel class
 * 1938 group 2,650 tons, 6 × 4 in
 * Abdiel (M39) (1941) – sunk in Taranto Bay 1943
 * Latona (M76) (1941) – sunk off Libya 1941
 * Manxman (M70) (1941) – scrapped 1972
 * Welshman (M84) (1941) – sunk off Crete 1943
 * Wartime Emergency Programme group 2,650 tons, 4 × 4 in
 * Ariadne (M65) (1944) – scrapped 1965
 * Apollo (M01) (1944) – scrapped 1962

Helicopter cruisers
Two ships of the Tiger-class were rebuilt to each operate four helicopters. Tiger (C20) and Blake (C99) served for part of the 1970s before they were withdrawn from service.

Through-deck cruisers
Although at times called "through-deck cruisers", the Invincible class of the 1980s were small aircraft carriers.