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Chasseurs d'Afrique

The Chasseurs d'Afrique were a light cavalry corps of chasseurs in the French Armée d'Afrique (Army of Africa). First raised in 1831 from regular French cavalry posted to Algeria, they numbered five regiments by World War II. For most of their history they were recruited from either French volunteers or French settlers in North Africa doing their military service. As such they were the mounted equivalent of the French Zouave infantry. The other major cavalry element in the Armee d'Afrique were the Spahis—recruited from the indigenous peoples of Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco with mostly French officers.

History
First raised in 1831, shortly after the French occupation of Algiers, the Chasseurs d'Afrique (Chass. d'Af. in common vernacular) were created through transfers from the chasseurs à cheval, other metropolitan cavalry regiments and some infantry units. Initially about 40 members of each squadron were locally recruited indigenous horsemen. Two additional regiments were created in 1832 and 1833 respectively, while the Arab and Berber troopers were transferred to the newly organised Spahis in 1836.

In addition to numerous campaigns in North Africa, these colorful regiments also served in the Crimean War, Second Italian War of Independence, Franco-Prussian War, Indochina, France's invasion of Mexico, Dahomey (1892), Madagascar (1895) and both world wars. The 1st and 4th Regiments of ''Chass. d'Af.'' distinguished themselves by securing the flank of Lord Cardigan during the ill-fated Charge of the Light Brigade. On this and other occasions they used their characteristic African tactic of advancing rapidly in open order, in contrast to the rigid lines of the Light Brigade.

On 5 May 1863 the 1st Chasseurs d'Afrique distinguished itself in a clash with Mexican lancers during the Battle of San Pablo del Monte. The regimental flag was subsequently decorated with the Cross of the Legion of Honour, the first French cavalry regiment to receive this distinction. 5 May remains the annual day of celebration for the modern ''Chass. d'Af.''

All four of the regiments then in existence participated in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, with only depot squadrons remaining in Algeria. They suffered heavy casualties in a series of charges at the Battle of Sedan. Drawing on reservists and volunteers it was possible to reconstitue three provisional regiments, two of which continued to fight on as part of the new Republican armies.

World War I

At the outbreak of World War I in 1914, six regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique were in existence. The 1er and 2e RCA had detached squadrons on active service in eastern Morocco while the four remaining regiments were on garrison duty in Algeria and Tunisia. Seven regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique (including three marching regiments) were transferred to France between 1914 and 1918.

Four squadrons were present during the Gallipoli campaign with the Corps Expéditionnaire d'Orient, the unit being renamed as the 8th Marching Regiment of Chasseurs d'Afrique on 29 July 1915. Two squadrons of the 1er and 4e RCA ended the war in the Middle East fighting against the Turks as part of the 5th Light Horse Brigade, while the 5e RCA detached squadrons to serve in the Balkans.

Mechanisation
In 1933 the regiments de chasseurs d'Afrique (RCA) began the process of conversion to mechanised units. The first vehicles adopted were White TBC armoured cars, followed by White-Laffly 50 AMs. Both models were obsolete for European warfare but suitable for colonial campaigning. Other vehicles were provided for individual squadrons and in 1939 Hotchkiss H35 and H39 light tanks were received by the 1er RCA.

On the outbreak of World War II (September 1939) regiments of chasseurs d'Afrique were deployed as follows:

 * 1er RCA in Morocco;
 * 2e, 3e, and 5e RCA in Algeria;
 * 4e RCA in Tunisia;

Only the 1er and 4e RCA were fully mechanised at this date, the other regiments comprising a mix of mounted and mechanised squadrons.

In 1941, 6e and 7e RCA were created in the Levant, that is in Syria and Lebanon. Both were involved in heavy fighting against Allied forces in 1941 Operation Exporter, equipped with 90 tanks (mostly Renault R-35 with a few Renault FTs) and a similar number of armoured cars.

In the course of World War II the process of mechanisation was completed. The 3e and 5e RCA were equipped with M4 Sherman and M5 light tanks. The 5e RCA notably landed in Provence in August 1944, and was one of the first units to be fully operational for combat. It was engaged in several battles during the taking of Toulon, in the Rhone valley, through Burgundy, Alsace, and in the Black Forest. The regiment earned the Rhine and Danube badge.

The dissolution dates for the individual regiments were:

 * 2e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique
 * 4e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique
 * fr:5e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique
 * fr:6e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique
 * fr:7e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique (1914-16, 1940-63)
 * fr:8e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique (stationed in Tunisia after the Second World War, became 8e régiment inter-armes de Bizerte 1961, dissolved 1963).
 * fr:9e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique (1941-1959)
 * fr:10e groupe autonome des chasseurs d'Afrique (June 1941-1943)
 * fr:11e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique (1941-October 1961)

Modern regiment
Algerian independence brought an end to the corps through a series of disbandments and transfers between 1962 and 1964, after over a century of service. However one regiment (fr:1er régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique) was re-established in 1998 to preserve the force's traditions. The modern regiment is one of the mechanised units of the French Army. Now stationed at Canjuers, it is divided into one instruction squadron and three combat squadrons and is equipped with approximately 45 armoured vehicles.

Two other training centers also have names associated with the 3rd and 12th Regiments.

Serving units today:
 * 1er régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique at Canjuers Camp
 * fr:3e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique at Valdahon (training centre).
 * fr:12e régiment de chasseurs d'Afrique at Bitche, reformed 2019 as Centre de formation initiale de la 2e brigade blindée (training centre).

Uniforms
The Chasseurs d'Afrique were until 1914 clothed in light blue tunics tucked into a red sash and red breeches. Their normal headdress was the taconnet—a light blue and red shako, similar in shape to that worn by the equivalent light cavalry regiments (hussars and chasseurs à cheval) of the metropolitan army, but worn with a white or light khaki cover. Prior to 1873 the casquette d'Afrique had been worn. The traditional fez and sash were worn off duty or when in barracks until World War II. The light blue tunics had yellow facings and reportedly earned the Chasseurs d'Afrique the nickname of "Blue Butchers" amongst some of their opponents.

From 1915, as was the case with other units of the Armée d'Afrique, a more practical khaki uniform was adopted for service. The khaki uniforms worn by the Chasseurs d'Afrique from 1915 onwards were distinguished by dark blue collar patches with yellow braiding and regimental numbers. The modern armoured regiment had by 2014 reintroduced the historic red sash, and on occasion the fez, for parade. More commonly worn is the light blue and red kepi of the French cavalry.

American Civil War
The name was also applied to the first all African-American regiment formed by the United States Army in New Orleans in 1862.

External sources

 * Gazette des Uniformes, Juillet-août 2005.
 * R. Huré. L'Armée d'Afrique 1830–1962. Paris: Charles-Lavauzelle, 1977.

title: Chasseurs d'Afrique


text: Template:Wave class tanker

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

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Portage County

Portage County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Portage County, Ohio
 * Portage County, Wisconsin

title: Portage County


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Pope County

Pope County is the name of three counties in the United States:

 * Pope County, Arkansas
 * Pope County, Illinois
 * Pope County, Minnesota

title: Pope County


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title: Template:Salmon class submarine


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Pontotoc County

Pontotoc County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Pontotoc County, Mississippi
 * Pontotoc County, Oklahoma

title: Pontotoc County


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Talk:Madhhab

RfC on Sunni Islam template
Please comment on this RfC, related to the Zahiri school and the Sunni Islam template. Eperoton (talk) 03:27, 20 April 2016 (UTC)

Madhabs
Hi

In the article there are confusion between madhabs (schools) and branches. We know the madhabs of sunnismn but not shia madhabs. So each branch of shia have one madhab of the notion does not exist in shia? --Panam2014 (talk) 08:02, 11 July 2019 (UTC)
 * Zaydiyya and Jaafarism are shia school but not madhahhib. The term is only used for sunni schools. --Panam2014 (talk) 23:14, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Madhhab


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Polk County

Polk County is the name of twelve counties in the United States, all except two named after president of the United States James Knox Polk:

 * Polk County, Arkansas
 * Polk County, Florida
 * Polk County, Georgia
 * Polk County, Iowa, containing Des Moines, the state capital.
 * Polk County, Minnesota
 * Polk County, Missouri, named after Col. Ezekiel Polk who fought in the American Revolutionary War (grandfather of James K. Polk)
 * Polk County, Nebraska
 * Polk County, North Carolina, named after Col. William Polk who fought in the American Revolutionary War (first cousin once-removed of James K. Polk)
 * Polk County, Oregon
 * Polk County, Tennessee
 * Polk County, Texas
 * Polk County, Wisconsin

Other uses

 * Polk County, a play by Zora Neale Hurston

title: Polk County


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Ren

Ren or REN may refer to:

Abbreviations

 * Orenburg Tsentralny Airport, IATA code REN, civil airport in Russia
 * Redes Energéticas Nacionais (REN), Portuguese company
 * Renanthera, abbreviated as Ren, orchid genus
 * Ringer equivalence number (REN), a number which denotes the loading effect of a telephone ringer on a telephone line

Geography

 * Ren County, in Hebei, China
 * Ren, Iran, a village in Kerman Province, Iran
 * Ren (building), a high-rise residential building in Seattle, Washington, United States

Science, technology and medicine

 * REN (gene)
 * Ren, in anatomy, a kidney
 * Ren (command), a shell command in computing

People

 * A diminutive of the given name Renée
 * Ren (surname) (任), Chinese surname
 * MC Ren, rapper from the group NWA
 * Ren (singer), member of South Korean boy band NU'EST
 * Ren Gill, Welsh-born, UK-based singer-songwriter, rapper, poet, producer and multi-instrumentalist.
 * Renforshort, Canadian singer formerly known as Ren
 * Ren Yano (矢野 仁), Japanese traditional calligrapher
 * Shōji Ren (庄司 廉), Japanese businessman
 * Ren Osugi (大杉 漣), Japanese actor
 * Ren Sato (politician) (佐藤 錬), Japanese politician
 * Ren Sengoku (仙石 廉), Japanese football player
 * Ren Ozawa (小澤 廉), Japanese actor
 * Ren Kazahari (風張 蓮), Japanese baseball pitcher
 * Ren Wada (和田 恋), Japanese baseball player
 * Ren Ikeda (池田 廉), Japanese footballer
 * Ren Kawashiri (川尻 蓮), Japanese singer and member of JO1
 * {{nihongo|Ren Yamamoto (footballer, born 1997)|山本 蓮}||born 1997}}, Japanese footballer
 * Ren Meguro (目黒 蓮), Japanese singer, actor, and member of Snow Man
 * Ren Narita (成田 蓮), Japanese wrestler
 * Ren Hiramoto (平本 蓮), Japanese mixed martial artist
 * Ren Omagari (大曲 錬), Japanese baseball player
 * {{nihongo|Ren Yamakawa|山川 廉}||born 1998}}, Japanese footballer
 * {{nihongo|Ren Yamamoto (footballer, born 1999)|山本 廉}||born 1999}}, Japanese footballer
 * Ren Nagase (永瀬廉), Japanese singer, actor, and member of King & Prince
 * Ren Kato (加藤 蓮), Japanese footballer
 * Ren Fujimura (藤村 怜), Japanese football player
 * Ren Ishihara (石原 怜), Japanese footballer
 * Ren Sato (racing driver) (佐藤 蓮), Japanese racing driver

Religion

 * Ren, "name, identity", an Ancient Egyptian concept of the soul or spirit
 * Ren (Confucianism), Confucian concept

Single name

 * Ren, the titular heroine from the fantasy webseries Ren: The Girl with the Mark from Mythica Entertainment and Kate Madison
 * Ren (Tsukihime), a character from the game Kagetsu Tohya and Melty Blood: Re-ACT
 * Ren, son of Primus, protagonist of the animated series The Pirates of Dark Water
 * Ren (Star Wars) (not to be confused with Kylo Ren), a character in the Star Wars franchise

First name

 * Ren Akiyama of Kamen Rider
 * Ren Amamiya, the name used for Joker, the main protagonist, in the anime adaptation of Persona 5
 * Ren Ashbell, an alias used by the protagonist of Bladedance of Elementalers, Kamito Kazehaya
 * Ren Gottlieb, a character from the Australian soap Neighbours
 * Ren Höek, a fictional chihuahua from the Nickelodeon animated series The Ren & Stimpy Show
 * Ren Honjo, a character from the manga, anime, and film NANA
 * Ren Mihashi, main character from the manga, anime and game from Big Windup!
 * Ren Jinguuji, a character from the anime, game and manga from Uta no Prince-sama
 * Ren Karas, a character from the anime and manga Element Hunters
 * Ren Krawler, the Darkus protagonist from the animated series Bakugan: Gundalian Invaders
 * Ren, a character from the game and anime "DRAMAtical Murder"
 * Ren, a character from the video game Oxenfree
 * Ren Kosaka, main character from the 2008 Japanese tokusatsu television series, Go-ongers
 * Ren Maka, a character from the anime Chibi Vampire
 * Ren McCormack, the main character from the film Footloose
 * Ren Ren Ren Nagusaran Renshia Rurunnren Nakora, heroine of DearS
 * Ren Sohma, the mother of Akito Sohma in the manga Fruits Basket
 * Ren Stevens, a character from Even Stevens
 * Ren Tsuruga, character in the manga Skip Beat
 * Tao Len, sometimes romanized as Tao Ren, a character in Shaman King
 * Ren Suzugamori, a character in the anime series Cardfight!! Vanguard

Last name

 * Wuying Ren, a character from Shenmue II
 * Kylo Ren, a character from the Star Wars sequel trilogy
 * Hakuryuu Ren, Fourth Imperial Prince of Kou in the anime Magi: The Labyrinth of Magic and Magi: The Kingdom of Magic
 * Lie Ren, a character from the American animated series RWBY

Other uses

 * Ren (fictional weapon), an alternate term for lightsaber in the Star Wars franchise
 * REN TV, a Russian free-to-air television network
 * Ren - meaning to connect or link in Japanese culture - see also renga / renku
 * Ren - the name given to the Chinese sports car Techrules Ren.

title: Ren


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Polycarbonate

Polycarbonates (PC) are a group of thermoplastic polymers containing carbonate groups in their chemical structures. Polycarbonates used in engineering are strong, tough materials, and some grades are optically transparent. They are easily worked, molded, and thermoformed. Because of these properties, polycarbonates find many applications. Polycarbonates do not have a unique resin identification code (RIC) and are identified as "Other", 7 on the RIC list. Products made from polycarbonate can contain the precursor monomer bisphenol A (BPA).

Structure
Carbonate esters have planar OC(OC)2 cores, which confer rigidity. The unique O=C bond is short (1.173 Å in the depicted example), while the C-O bonds are more ether-like (the bond distances of 1.326 Å for the example depicted). Polycarbonates received their name because they are polymers containing carbonate groups (−O−(C=O)−O−). A balance of useful features, including temperature resistance, impact resistance and optical properties, positions polycarbonates between commodity plastics and engineering plastics.

Phosgene route
The main polycarbonate material is produced by the reaction of bisphenol A (BPA) and phosgene. The overall reaction can be written as follows:

The first step of the synthesis involves treatment of bisphenol A with sodium hydroxide, which deprotonates the hydroxyl groups of the bisphenol A.

 * (HOC6H4)2CMe2 +  2 NaOH   →  Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2  +  2 H2O

The diphenoxide (Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2) reacts with phosgene to give a chloroformate, which subsequently is attacked by another phenoxide. The net reaction from the diphenoxide is:

 * Na2(OC6H4)2CMe2 +  COCl2   →  1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n  +  2 NaCl

In this way, approximately one billion kilograms of polycarbonate is produced annually. Many other diols have been tested in place of bisphenol A, e.g. 1,1-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)cyclohexane and dihydroxybenzophenone. The cyclohexane is used as a comonomer to suppress crystallisation tendency of the BPA-derived product. Tetrabromobisphenol A is used to enhance fire resistance. Tetramethylcyclobutanediol has been developed as a replacement for BPA.

Transesterification route
An alternative route to polycarbonates entails transesterification from BPA and diphenyl carbonate:
 * (HOC6H4)2CMe2 +  (C6H5O)2CO   →  1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n  +  2 C6H5OH

Properties and processing
Polycarbonate is a durable material. Although it has high impact-resistance, it has low scratch-resistance. Therefore, a hard coating is applied to polycarbonate eyewear lenses and polycarbonate exterior automotive components. The characteristics of polycarbonate compare to those of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA, acrylic), but polycarbonate is stronger and will hold up longer to extreme temperature. Thermally processed material is usually totally amorphous, and as a result is highly transparent to visible light, with better light transmission than many kinds of glass.

Polycarbonate has a glass transition temperature of about 147 C, so it softens gradually above this point and flows above about 155 C. Tools must be held at high temperatures, generally above 80 C to make strain-free and stress-free products. Low molecular mass grades are easier to mold than higher grades, but their strength is lower as a result. The toughest grades have the highest molecular mass, but are more difficult to process.

Unlike most thermoplastics, polycarbonate can undergo large plastic deformations without cracking or breaking. As a result, it can be processed and formed at room temperature using sheet metal techniques, such as bending on a brake. Even for sharp angle bends with a tight radius, heating may not be necessary. This makes it valuable in prototyping applications where transparent or electrically non-conductive parts are needed, which cannot be made from sheet metal. PMMA/Acrylic, which is similar in appearance to polycarbonate, is brittle and cannot be bent at room temperature.

Main transformation techniques for polycarbonate resins:
 * extrusion into tubes, rods and other profiles including multiwall
 * extrusion with cylinders (calenders) into sheets (0.5 - 20 mm) and films (below 1 mm), which can be used directly or manufactured into other shapes using thermoforming or secondary fabrication techniques, such as bending, drilling, or routing. Due to its chemical properties it is not conducive to laser-cutting.
 * injection molding into ready articles

Polycarbonate may become brittle when exposed to ionizing radiation above 25 kGy (kJ/kg).

Electronic components
Polycarbonate is mainly used for electronic applications that capitalize on its collective safety features. A good electrical insulator with heat-resistant and flame-retardant properties, it is used in products associated with power systems and telecommunications hardware. It can serve as a dielectric in high-stability capacitors. Commercial manufacture of polycarbonate capacitors mostly stopped after sole manufacturer Bayer AG stopped making capacitor-grade polycarbonate film at the end of 2000.

Construction materials
The second largest consumer of polycarbonates is the construction industry, e.g. for domelights, flat or curved glazing, roofing sheets and sound walls. Polycarbonates are used to create materials used in buildings that must be durable but light.

3D Printing
Polycarbonates are used extensively in 3D FDM printing, producing durable strong plastic products with a high melting point. Polycarbonate is relatively difficult for casual hobbyists to print compared to thermoplastics such as Polylactic acid (PLA) or Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) because of the high melting point, difficulty with print bed adhesion, tendency to warp during printing, and tendency to absorb moisture in humid environments. Despite these issues, 3D printing using polycarbonates is common in the professional community.

Data storage
A major polycarbonate market is the production of compact discs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These discs are produced by injection-molding polycarbonate into a mold cavity that has on one side a metal stamper containing a negative image of the disc data, while the other mold side is a mirrored surface. Typical products of sheet/film production include applications in advertisement (signs, displays, poster protection).

Automotive, aircraft, and security components
In the automotive industry, injection-molded polycarbonate can produce very smooth surfaces that make it well-suited for sputter deposition or evaporation deposition of aluminium without the need for a base-coat. Decorative bezels and optical reflectors are commonly made of polycarbonate. Its low weight and high impact resistance have made polycarbonate the dominant material for automotive headlamp lenses. However, automotive headlamps require outer surface coatings because of its low scratch resistance and susceptibility to ultraviolet degradation (yellowing). The use of polycarbonate in automotive applications is limited to low stress applications. Stress from fasteners, plastic welding and molding render polycarbonate susceptible to stress corrosion cracking when it comes in contact with certain accelerants such as salt water and plastisol. It can be laminated to make bullet-proof "glass", although "bullet-resistant" is more accurate for the thinner windows, such as are used in bullet-resistant windows in automobiles. The thicker barriers of transparent plastic used in teller's windows and barriers in banks are also polycarbonate.

So-called "theft-proof" large plastic packaging for smaller items, which cannot be opened by hand, is typically made from polycarbonate.

The cockpit canopy of the Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor jet fighter is fabricated from high optical quality polycarbonate. It is the largest item of its type.

Niche applications
Polycarbonate, being a versatile material with attractive processing and physical properties, has attracted myriad smaller applications. The use of injection molded drinking bottles, glasses and food containers is common, but the use of BPA in the manufacture of polycarbonate has stirred concerns (see Potential hazards in food contact applications), leading to development and use of "BPA-free" plastics in various formulations.

Polycarbonate is commonly used in eye protection, as well as in other projectile-resistant viewing and lighting applications that would normally indicate the use of glass, but require much higher impact-resistance. Polycarbonate lenses also protect the eye from UV light. Many kinds of lenses are manufactured from polycarbonate, including automotive headlamp lenses, lighting lenses, sunglass/eyeglass lenses, swimming goggles and SCUBA masks, and safety glasses/goggles/visors including visors in sporting helmets/masks and police riot gear (helmet visors, riot shields, etc.). Windscreens in small motorized vehicles are commonly made of polycarbonate, such as for motorcycles, ATVs, golf carts, and small airplanes and helicopters.

The light weight of polycarbonate as opposed to glass has led to development of electronic display screens that replace glass with polycarbonate, for use in mobile and portable devices. Such displays include newer e-ink and some LCD screens, though CRT, plasma screen and other LCD technologies generally still require glass for its higher melting temperature and its ability to be etched in finer detail.

As more and more governments are restricting the use of glass in pubs and clubs due to the increased incidence of glassings, polycarbonate glasses are becoming popular for serving alcohol because of their strength, durability, and glass-like feel.

Other miscellaneous items include durable, lightweight luggage, MP3/digital audio player cases, ocarinas, computer cases, riot shields, instrument panels, tealight candle containers and food blender jars. Many toys and hobby items are made from polycarbonate parts, like fins, gyro mounts, and flybar locks in radio-controlled helicopters, and transparent LEGO (ABS is used for opaque pieces).

Standard polycarbonate resins are not suitable for long term exposure to UV radiation. To overcome this, the primary resin can have UV stabilisers added. These grades are sold as UV stabilized polycarbonate to injection moulding and extrusion companies. Other applications, including polycarbonate sheets, may have the anti-UV layer added as a special coating or a coextrusion for enhanced weathering resistance.

Polycarbonate is also used as a printing substrate for nameplate and other forms of industrial grade under printed products. The polycarbonate provides a barrier to wear, the elements, and fading.

Medical applications
Many polycarbonate grades are used in medical applications and comply with both ISO 10993-1 and USP Class VI standards (occasionally referred to as PC-ISO). Class VI is the most stringent of the six USP ratings. These grades can be sterilized using steam at 120 °C, gamma radiation, or by the ethylene oxide (EtO) method. Trinseo strictly limits all its plastics with regard to medical applications. Aliphatic polycarbonates have been developed with improved biocompatibility and degradability for nanomedicine applications.

Mobile phones
Some smartphone manufacturers use polycarbonate. Nokia used polycarbonate in their phones starting with the N9's unibody case in 2011. This practice continued with various phones in the Lumia series. Samsung started using polycarbonate with Galaxy S III's hyperglaze-branded removable battery cover in 2012. This practice continues with various phones in the Galaxy series. Apple started using polycarbonate with the iPhone 5C's unibody case in 2013.

Benefits over glass and metal back covers include durability against shattering (advantage over glass), bending and scratching (advantage over metal), shock absorption, low manufacturing costs, and no interference with radio signals and wireless charging (advantage over metal). Polycarbonate back covers are available in glossy or matte surface textures.

History
Polycarbonates were first discovered in 1898 by Alfred Einhorn, a German scientist working at the University of Munich. However, after 30 years' laboratory research, this class of materials was abandoned without commercialization. Research resumed in 1953, when Hermann Schnell at Bayer in Uerdingen, Germany patented the first linear polycarbonate. The brand name "Makrolon" was registered in 1955.

Also in 1953, and one week after the invention at Bayer, Daniel Fox at General Electric (GE) in Pittsfield, Massachusetts, independently synthesized a branched polycarbonate. Both companies filed for U.S. patents in 1955, and agreed that the company lacking priority would be granted a license to the technology.

Patent priority was resolved in Bayer's favor, and Bayer began commercial production under the trade name Makrolon in 1958. GE began production under the name Lexan in 1960, creating the GE Plastics division in 1973.

After 1970, the original brownish polycarbonate tint was improved to "glass-clear".

Potential hazards in food contact applications
The use of polycarbonate containers for the purpose of food storage is controversial. The basis of this controversy is their hydrolysis (degradation by water, often referred to as leaching) occurring at high temperature, releases bisphenol A:
 * 1/n [OC(OC6H4)2CMe2]n +  H2O  →   (HOC6H4)2CMe2  +  CO2

More than 100 studies have explored the bioactivity of bisphenol A derived from polycarbonates. Bisphenol A appeared to be released from polycarbonate animal cages into water at room temperature and it may have been responsible for enlargement of the reproductive organs of female mice. However, the animal cages used in the research were fabricated from industrial grade polycarbonate, rather than FDA food grade polycarbonate.

An analysis of the literature on bisphenol A leachate low-dose effects by vom Saal and Hughes published in August 2005 seems to have found a suggestive correlation between the source of funding and the conclusion drawn. Industry-funded studies tend to find no significant effects whereas government-funded studies tend to find significant effects. Sodium hypochlorite bleach and other alkali cleaners catalyze the release of the bisphenol A from polycarbonate containers. Polycarbonate is incompatible with ammonia and acetone. Alcohol is a recommended organic solvent for cleaning grease and oils from polycarbonate.

Disposal
Studies have shown that at temperatures above 70 °C, and high humidity, polycarbonate will hydrolyze to bisphenol A (BPA). After about 30 days at 85 °C/96% RH, surface crystals are formed which for 70% consisted of BPA. BPA is a compound that is currently on the list of potential environmental hazardous chemicals. It is on the watch list of many countries, such as United States and Germany.

 * -(-OC6H4)2C(CH3)2CO-)-n + H2O  → (CH3)2C(C6H4OH)2 + CO2

The leaching of BPA from polycarbonate can also occur at environmental temperature and normal pH (in landfills).The amount of leaching increases as the polycarbonate parts get older. A study found that the decomposition of BPA in landfills (under anaerobic conditions) will not occur. It will therefore be persistent in landfills. Eventually, it will find its way into water bodies and contribute to aquatic pollution.

Photo-oxidation of polycarbonate
In the presence of UV light, oxidation of this polymer yields compounds such as ketones, phenols, o-phenoxybenzoic acid, benzyl alcohol and other unsaturated compounds. This has been suggested through kinetic and spectral studies. The yellow color formed after long exposure to sun can also be related to further oxidation of phenolic end group

 * (OC6H4)2C(CH3)2CO )n + O2, R* → (OC6H4)2C(CH3CH2)CO)n

This product can be further oxidized to form smaller unsaturated compounds. This can proceed via two different pathways, the products formed depends on which mechanism takes place.

Pathway A

 * (OC6H4)2C(CH3CH2)CO +  O2, H* $$\longrightarrow$$                  HO(OC6H4)OCO + CH3COCH2(OC6H4)OCO

Pathway B

 * (OC6H4)2C(CH3CH2)CO)n + O2, H* $$\longrightarrow$$               OCO(OC6H4)CH2OH + OCO(OC6H4)COCH3

Photo-aging reaction
Photo-aging is another degradation route for polycarbonates. Polycarbonate molecules (such as the aromatic ring) absorb UV radiation. This absorbed energy causes cleavage of covalent bonds which initiates the photo-aging process. The reaction can be propagated via side chain oxidation, ring oxidation or photo-Fries rearrangement. Products formed include phenyl salicylate, dihydroxybenzophenone groups, and hydroxydiphenyl ether groups.

 * (C16H14O3)n $$\longrightarrow$$ C16H17O3 + C13H10O3

Thermal degradation
Waste polycarbonate will degrade at high temperatures to form solid, liquid and gaseous pollutants. A study showed that the products were about 40–50 wt.% liquid, 14–16 wt.% gases, while 34–43 wt.% remained as solid residue. Liquid products contained mainly phenol derivatives (~75wt.%) and bisphenol (~10wt.%) also present. Polycarbonate, however, can be safely used as a carbon source in the steel-making industry.

Phenol derivatives are environmental pollutants, classified as volatile organic compounds (VOC). Studies show they are likely to facilitate ground level ozone formation and increase photo-chemical smog. In aquatic bodies, they can potentially accumulate in organisms. They are persistent in landfills, do not readily evaporate and would remain in the atmosphere.

Effect of fungi
In 2001 a species of fungus in Belize, Geotrichum candidum, was found to consume the polycarbonate found in compact discs (CD). This has prospects for bioremediation. However, this effect has not been reproduced.

title: Polycarbonate


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Cinnamaldehyde

Cinnamaldehyde is an organic compound with the formula  or C₆H₅CH=CHCHO. Occurring naturally as predominantly the trans (E) isomer, it gives cinnamon its flavor and odor. It is a phenylpropanoid that is naturally synthesized by the shikimate pathway. This pale yellow, viscous liquid occurs in the bark of cinnamon trees and other species of the genus Cinnamomum. The essential oil of cinnamon bark is about 90% cinnamaldehyde. Cinnamaldehyde decomposes to styrene because of oxidation as a result of bad storage or transport conditions. Styrene especially forms in high humidity and high temperatures. This is the reason why cinnamon contains small amounts of styrene.

Structure and synthesis
Cinnamaldehyde was isolated from cinnamon essential oil in 1834 by Jean-Baptiste Dumas and Eugène-Melchior Péligot and synthesized in the laboratory by the Italian chemist Luigi Chiozza in 1854.

The natural product is trans-cinnamaldehyde. The molecule consists of a benzene ring attached to an unsaturated aldehyde. As such, the molecule can be viewed as a derivative of acrolein. Its color is due to the π → π* transition: increased conjugation in comparison with acrolein shifts this band towards the visible.

Biosynthesis
Cinnamaldehyde occurs widely, and closely related compounds give rise to lignin. All such compounds are biosynthesized starting from phenylalanine, which undergoes conversion.

The biosynthesis of cinnamaldehyde begins with deamination of L -phenylalanine into cinnamic acid by the action of phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL). PAL catalyzes this reaction by a non-oxidative deamination. This deamination relies on the MIO prosthetic group of PAL. PAL gives rise to trans-cinnamic acid. In the second step, 4-coumarate–CoA ligase (4CL) converts cinnamic acid to cinnamoyl-CoA by an acid–thiol ligation. 4CL uses ATP to catalyze the formation of cinnamoyl-CoA. 4CL effects this reaction in two steps. 4CL forms a hydroxycinnamate–AMP anhydride, followed by a nucleophile attack on the carbonyl of the acyl adenylate. Finally, Cinnamoyl-CoA is reduced by NADPH catalyzed by CCR (cinnamoyl-CoA reductase) to form cinnamaldehyde.

Preparation
Several methods of laboratory synthesis exist, but cinnamaldehyde is most economically obtained from the steam distillation of the oil of cinnamon bark. The compound can be prepared from related compounds such as cinnamyl alcohol, (the alcohol form of cinnamaldehyde), but the first synthesis from unrelated compounds was the aldol condensation of benzaldehyde and acetaldehyde; this process was patented by Henry Richmond on November 7, 1950.

As a flavorant
The most obvious application for cinnamaldehyde is as flavoring in chewing gum, ice cream, candy, e-liquid and beverages; use levels range from 9 to 4,900 parts per million (ppm) (that is, less than 0.5%). It is also used in some perfumes of natural, sweet, or fruity scents. Almond, apricot, butterscotch, and other aromas may partially employ the compound for their pleasant smells. Cinnamaldehyde can be used as a food adulterant; powdered beechnut husk aromatized with cinnamaldehyde can be marketed as powdered cinnamon. Some breakfast cereals contain as much as 187 ppm cinnamaldehyde.

As an agrichemical
Cinnamaldehyde has been tested as a safe and effective insecticide against mosquito larvae. A concentration of 29 ppm of cinnamaldehyde kills half of Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae in 24 hours. Trans-cinnamaldehyde works as a potent fumigant and practical repellant for adult mosquitos. It also has antibacterial and antifungal properties.

Miscellaneous uses
Cinnamaldehyde is a corrosion inhibitor for steel and other alloys. It is believed to form a protective film on the metal surface.

Derivatives
Numerous derivatives of cinnamaldehyde are commercially useful. Dihydrocinnamyl alcohol (3-phenylpropanol) occurs naturally but is produced by double hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde. It has the fragrances of hyacinth and lilac. Cinnamyl alcohol similarly occurs naturally and has the odor of lilac but can be also produced starting from cinnamaldehyde. Dihydrocinnamaldehyde is produced by the selective hydrogenation of the alkene subunit. α-Amylcinnamaldehyde and α-hexylcinnamaldehyde are important commercial fragrances, but they are not prepared from cinnamaldehyde. Hydrogenation of cinnamaldehyde, if directed to the alkene, gives hydrocinnamaldehyde.

Toxicology
Cinnamaldehyde is used in agriculture because of its low toxicity, but it is a skin irritant. Cinnamaldehyde may cause allergic contact stomatitis in sensitised individuals, however allergy to the compound is believed to be uncommon.

DNA repair
Cinnamaldehyde is a dietary antimutagen that effectively inhibits both induced and spontaneous mutations. Experimental evidence indicates that cinnamaldehyde induces a type of DNA damage in the bacterium Escherichia coli and in human cells that elicits recombinational DNA repair that then reduces spontaneous mutations. In mice, X-ray– induced chromosome aberrations were reduced when cinnamaldehyde was given orally to the mice after X-ray irradiation, perhaps due to cinnamaldehyde-stimulated DNA repair.

title: Cinnamaldehyde


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Modus ponendo tollens

Modus ponendo tollens (MPT; Latin: "mode that denies by affirming") is a valid rule of inference for propositional logic. It is closely related to modus ponens and modus tollendo ponens.

Overview
MPT is usually described as having the form: For example:
 * 1) Not both A and B
 * A
 * 1) Therefore, not B
 * 1) Ann and Bill cannot both win the race.
 * 2) Ann won the race.
 * 3) Therefore, Bill cannot have won the race.

As E. J. Lemmon describes it: "Modus ponendo tollens is the principle that, if the negation of a conjunction holds and also one of its conjuncts, then the negation of its other conjunct holds."

In logic notation this can be represented as:
 * 1) $$ \neg (A \land B)$$
 * 2) $$ A$$
 * 3) $$ \therefore \neg B$$

Based on the Sheffer Stroke (alternative denial), "|", the inference can also be formalized in this way:
 * 1) $$ A\,|\,B$$
 * 2) $$ A$$
 * 3) $$ \therefore \neg B$$

Strong form
Modus ponendo tollens can be made stronger by using exclusive disjunction instead of non-conjunction as a premise:
 * 1) $$ A \underline\lor B$$
 * 2) $$ A$$
 * 3) $$ \therefore \neg B$$

title: Modus ponendo tollens


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Pocahontas County

Pocahontas County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Pocahontas County, Iowa
 * Pocahontas County, West Virginia

title: Pocahontas County


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title: Template:Fort class stores ship


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Plymouth County

Plymouth County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Plymouth County, Iowa
 * Plymouth County, Massachusetts

title: Plymouth County


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William Newcomb

William Newcomb (1927 – 29 May 1999) was an American theoretical physicist and professor at the University of California's Lawrence Livermore Laboratory, who is best known as the creator of Newcomb's paradox, devised in 1960. He was the great-grandnephew of the astronomer Simon Newcomb.

Newcomb started at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (then University of California Radiation Laboratory) probably in 1955 in the Energy Directorate. He was also an adjunct professor in the UC Davis Livermore Department of Applied Science since 1971.

title: William Newcomb


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Picture Frame Seduction

Picture Frame Seduction (PFS) is a hardcore punk band originally from Haverfordwest, Wales, but later jointly based in Cadiz and Málaga in Spain and London and Bristol in the UK. In their formative years in Wales the band was considered too aggressive in their musical style and attitude to book and were continually ignored by established Welsh venues. The band's influences included their peers of the day, Charged GBH and Discharge. With many other bands of the time, such as The Varukers and Chaos UK, they helped develop the hardcore punk scene in the United Kingdom in the early to mid-1980s, recording from 1979 to 1987 on numerous labels.

PFS disbanded in 1987 but reformed in 1999, after being featured on several punk compilation albums in the intervening years.

Releases

 * Four from the Mountains 1979, 4 track tape cassette release, no label.
 * Demolition Blues Compilation 1982, Track "Get Your Rocks Off", Insane Records UK.
 * "I'm Good Enough For Me" 7" single 1984, So So Records UK.
 * The Hand of the Rider 12" album 1985, PFS Records & Rot Records UK.
 * In the Clouds Live in Manchester Clouds 1985, no label,
 * A Kick up the Arse Compilation 1986, Rot Records UK.
 * The End of an Era Compilation 1987, Rot Records UK.
 * What You Doing About that Hole in Your Head Compilation  1989, Rot Records UK.
 * What's that Hardcore Noise? CD : 2003, Retch Records UK.
 * Sex War CD album - CultJam Records: 2005
 * Fistful of hope CD Compilation: 2005
 * Stop The Bloody Slaughter - Grand Theft Audio Records USA : Retro full back catalogue 1978 - 86 CD album ; Nov 2006
 * Skateboarding down Merlins Hill with Penny Harry - CultJam Records ; split cd album ; December 2006
 * All Grown Up The Movie - Psychopunk Productions New York City ; DVD Film ; Worldwide release January 2008
 * Bullsheep Detector - All Welsh punk compilation album 1980 - 1984 ; Vinyl ; Anti Society Records worldwide release November 2012
 * Hand of the Rider - LP vinyl Reissue in USA only on Queer Pills Records, California with extra tracks ; January 2013
 * Interrupted Piss EP, 7 inch vinyl release on Cider City Records UK : July 2018.
 * Suicide Run CD album - Violated Records, USA: 2019.
 * Suicide Run Vinyl album - Violated Records, USA:December 2019.
 * Spirit of DIY Compilation CD album - Punkboot promotions, UK : November 2019. Track "Maximum Rock n Roll"
 * Fundraising Album for Welsh Music Venues’ CD album - All Systems Go Records, XIII promotions, Track "Sex War" 2020.

Members

 * Keith Haynes, Robin Folland, Tim Horsley, Jonathon Griffiths (1978–1983)
 * Keith Haynes, Nigel Drumm, Robin Folland, Tim Horsely (1980)
 * Keith Haynes, Jonathon Griffiths, Steve Parkin, Mark Bozier (1984–1987)
 * Keith Haynes, Jonathon Griffiths, Robin Folland, Steve Arthur (2003–2008)
 * Keith Haynes, Jonathon Griffiths, Ashley Shannon, Steve Arthur (2008-November 2009)
 * Keith Haynes, Jonathon Griffiths, Steve Arthur, Robin Folland (November 2009 – 2011)
 * Keith Haynes, Ewen Hyde, Josh Read, Dave Pearce. ( 2016 - 2018 )
 * Keith Haynes, Mihails 'Mish' Zizkuns, Dave Crisis, Martin Hope, Can Oguz (2019–present)

title: Picture Frame Seduction


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title: Template:Fort class replenishment ship


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title: User talk:192.147.58.6


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Chonburi (disambiguation)

Chonburi is the capital of Chonburi Province, Thailand.

Chonburi may also refer to:
 * Chonburi province, a province of Thailand
 * Mueang Chonburi district, the capital district of the province
 * Chonburi F.C., a Thai professional football club based in the city of Chonburi
 * Chonburi Stadium, a multi-use stadium in Chonburi Province, Thailand

title: Chonburi (disambiguation)


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title: Template:Rover class tanker


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Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake

Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake is a 1990 action-adventure stealth video game developed and published by Konami for the MSX2 computer platform. It serves as a sequel to the MSX2 version of the original Metal Gear, written and designed by series's creator Hideo Kojima, who conceived the game in response to Snake's Revenge, a separately-produced sequel that was being developed at the time for the NES specifically for the North American and European markets. The MSX2 version of Solid Snake was only released in Japan, although Kojima would later direct another sequel titled Metal Gear Solid, which was released worldwide for the PlayStation in 1998 to critical acclaim. This later led to Solid Snake being re-released alongside the original Metal Gear as additional content in the Subsistence version of Metal Gear Solid 3 for the PlayStation 2 in 2005. It was also included in the HD remastered ports of Metal Gear Solid 3 released for PlayStation 3, PlayStation Vita, and Xbox 360, and was given a standalone re-release in Japan as a downloadable game for mobile phones and the Wii Virtual Console.

Set in 1999, a few years after the events of the original game, Solid Snake must infiltrate a heavily defended territory known as Zanzibar Land to rescue a kidnapped scientist and destroy the revised "Metal Gear D". The game significantly evolved the stealth-based game system of its predecessor, and uses a storyline dealing with themes such as the nature of warfare and nuclear proliferation. It is considered one of the best 8 bit games ever made.

Gameplay

Solid Snake builds upon the stealth-based gameplay system of its predecessor. As in the original Metal Gear, the player's objective is to infiltrate the enemy's stronghold, while avoiding detection from soldiers, cameras, infrared sensors and other surveillance devices. The biggest change in the game was done to the enemy's abilities. Instead of remaining stationed in one screen like in the first game, enemy soldiers can now patrol different screens across a single map. Moreover, guards now have an expanded field of vision of 45 degrees, along with the ability to turn their heads left or right to see diagonally. The enemy can also detect sounds, with the enemy able to hear any noise made by the player, such as a punch to the wall and gunshots made without a suppressor, and will investigate the source of the sound once it is made. They can also detect sounds made from the player walking on certain surfaces, which means players need to be careful about what surfaces they walk on. If the player is discovered by the enemy, then a counter will be displayed on the upper right side of the screen that will go down after the enemy has lost track of the player. When the counter reaches zero, the alert phase will go off and the game will return to normal.

The player is given a variety of new maneuvers and tools to help them remain undetected and complete the game. For example, the player can now kneel and crawl in addition to walking, allowing the player to avoid making noise over certain terrains, pick up land mines, and hide in tight spaces such as under desks or inside air ducts. A radar with a 3x3 grid on the upper right of the screen shows the player's current area in the center grid (as a red dot), with enemy soldiers as white dots, allowing the player to determine what's ahead. However, the radar is disabled when the game enters alert phase. The radar can also be used with the mine detector equipped to determine the locations of enemy mines or launch Stinger missiles onto an airborne target. Many of the weapons and equipment from the first game are brought over along with new items such as robotic mice used to distract enemies, a camouflaged mat and three different types of rations, each with special attributes. Health and carrying capacity are increased each time a boss is defeated.

The transceiver has also been greatly revamped from the first game as well, with conversations now being context-sensitive rather than being simply area-oriented. The transceiver screen now displays the faces of Snake and the radio contact he's currently communicating with. The player can also talk to children living in the fortress to gain new information; the player is penalized with a loss of health if he kills a child. The areas are more varied than in the previous MSX2 game and a number of puzzles must be fulfilled to complete the game, such as luring a carrier pigeon with a specific kind of ration, chasing after a female spy to the ladies' lavatory, and deciphering secret tap codes to gain new frequency numbers.

The MSX2 version requires the use of either, a floppy disk drive or a Game Master II utility cartridge to save progress. In the absence of either media, a password can also be written down to reload progress. Later versions of the game removed the password feature in favor of standardized storage media such as memory cards and internal hard disk drives.

Setting
Solid Snake is set in a near-future world in which the Cold War continued into the 1990s, with the game's events taking place in 1999 – three years after the events of the original Metal Gear (later retconned to four years in Metal Gear Solid).

Characters
Solid Snake, formerly retired FOXHOUND agent and hero of the original Metal Gear returns as the playable character. His new mission is to rescue the kidnapped Czechoslovak biologist Dr. Kio Marv from the forces of Zanzibar Land. He is assisted by a radio support crew consisting of Roy Campbell, his new commanding officer; McDonnell Miller, a survival coach and drill instructor; George Kesler ("George Kasler" in later versions), a military strategist; and Yozev Norden (renamed Johan Jacobsen in the later revised versions), a wildlife expert. Also assisting him on-site are Holly White, a CIA agent posing as a journalist; Natasha Marcova (Gustava Heffner in later versions), an StB agent and Dr. Marv's bodyguard; and Dr. Petrovich Madnar ("Drago Pettrovich Madnar" in newer versions), the Metal Gear designer from the first game, who was captured along with Dr. Marv. Also appearing in the game are Big Boss, the renegade former commander of FOXHOUND, and Grey Fox ("Gray Fox" in later versions), who disappeared following the events of the Outer Heaven incident.

The bosses of this installment consist of Black Color (Black Ninja in later versions), an experimental drug-enhanced ninja from a disbanded NASA project (who is revealed to be Kyle Schneider from the original Metal Gear); Running Man, a former Olympic runner turned terrorist; Red Blaster, an explosive expert from Spetsnaz; Ultra Box (the Four Horsemen in later version), an assassination squad specializing in confined spaces; Predator (Jungle Evil in later versions), a jungle warfare expert from the South African Reconnaissance Command; and Night Sight (Night Fright in later versions), an assassin from Vietnam who uses a state of the art stealth suit that renders him invisible to both radar and the human eye.

Story
A major oil crisis seriously affects the global economy in the late 1990s, with petrol deposits running out faster than previous estimates. Efforts to adopt alternative energy sources and attempts to drill for more oil fail to take up the slack. To counter the problem, Czech scientist Dr. Kio Marv bio-engineers a new species of algae, OILIX, that could produce petroleum-grade hydrocarbons with little expense and effort. He unveils the algae to the World Energy Conference in Prague and was on his way to a demonstration in the United States when he was kidnapped by soldiers from Zanzibar Land, a Central Asian country established in 1997 after a successful independence war against the Soviet Union. NATO discovers that Zanzibar Land's leaders plan to hold the world hostage by controlling the supply of oil through OILIX and nuclear warheads pillaged from old stockpiles marked for dismantling in light of global efforts toward nuclear disarmament. FOXHOUND's new commander, Roy Campbell, brings Solid Snake out of retirement and sends him to Zanzibar Land to rescue Dr. Marv on Christmas Eve 1999.

Over the course of his mission, Snake teams up with Holly White, a CIA operative posing as a journalist, and Gustava Heffner, an StB agent and Dr. Marv's bodyguard. He is also reunited with Dr. Drago Pettrovich Madnar, the Metal Gear inventor from Outer Heaven, who claims to have been once again kidnapped and forced to work on another Metal Gear project (named Metal Gear D) for Zanzibar Land, as well as oversee mass-production of smaller, non-nuclear-equipped Metal Gear units. Snake learns from Dr. Madnar that Big Boss, Snake's former superior, survived the events of the first game and now leads Zanzibar Land.

As Snake, Heffner, and Dr. Madnar head toward Zanzibar Land's main prison, Heffner is killed by a missile fired by Metal Gear D and Dr. Madnar is recaptured by the enemy. The new Metal Gear's pilot is revealed to be Gray Fox. Determined to finish his mission, Snake fights against Zanzibar Land's elite mercenary force and manages to reach Dr. Marv's cell.

Snake arrives too late, as he finds Dr. Marv's corpse and the OILIX data. Holly later tips him off that he actually died under Dr. Madnar's torture. In addition, Snake learns that Madnar volunteered his services to Zanzibar Land to finish work on Metal Gear as revenge against the scientific community shunning him after the events of the first game. Snake incapacitates Madnar when the latter attempts to attack him.

Snake faces off against Gray Fox in Metal Gear D and eventually destroys the mech. Both men later fight hand-to-hand in a minefield, and Snake defeats him. As he tries to escape, Snake meets Big Boss. Having lost his equipment and with no weapons at his disposal, Snake is forced to improvise using the only items he can find: a lighter and aerosol can. Fashioning a makeshift flamethrower, Snake defeats Big Boss for the second time. Snake and Holly escape together, and they deliver the OILIX formula to Campbell.

Development
Following the success of the NES version of Metal Gear, which sold over a million units in North America, Konami began the development of a sequel for the same platform titled Snake's Revenge designed specifically for the overseas market. Hideo Kojima, who directed the first MSX2 game but was not involved with either of the two NES versions, did not have any plans to develop a sequel himself at the time until he became reacquainted with a junior coworker who was assigned to work on Snake's Revenge on a train ride in Tokyo. The coworker revealed his involvement with the project and encouraged Kojima to create his own sequel. By the end of the train ride, Kojima had already envisioned the basic premise for the game. After undergoing a business trip to the sales division of Konami, Kojima successfully convinced his superiors to approve the development of Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake.

In order to accurately portray realism in the game, Kojima and his crew consulted various references, including a former Green Beret turned author, and even participated in a series of survival games in a forest located in a mountain near their workplace. Originally Solid Snake was announced with a February to March 1990 release window, but was delayed to July, undergoing an increase in ROM size from 3-Megabit to 4-Megabit. Development of Solid Snake was briefly suspended in order to help out on the development of SD Snatcher, which was being developed at the same time by a separate team.

Kojima originally wanted the title of the sequel to be simply Solid Snake, the decision to use the protagonist's name for the title of a sequel being inspired by the Indiana Jones movie series, but Metal Gear 2 was added as a fore-title under the insistence of Konami's sales and marketing department.

Releases

The MSX2 version of Solid Snake was released in Japan on July 20, 1990. Unlike the first MSX2 game, no official English localization was produced (as Konami had already discontinued sales of their MSX games in Europe), although a fan translation was later produced in 1997 by the MSX hobbyist group G&T International. Unofficial imports of the game had reached Europe by 1996, with some fans at the time requesting a port for the PlayStation.

The first port of Solid Snake to another platform was the Japanese feature phone version released on October 1, 2004 as a downloadable app on i-mode, EZweb, and Yahoo! Mobile services. This version features a few additions over the original MSX2 version, such as an easy mode and an unlockable boss rush mode after clearing the main game once, but also include some other adjustments and changes, most notably the replacement of the portraits used during the conversation sequences. While the portraits in the MSX2 version were modeled after real life celebrities, the new portraits were instead designed to more closely resemble Metal Gear Solid illustrator Yoji Shinkawa's character designs in the later installments. These changes would also be implemented in the version included in Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence for the PlayStation 2, an expanded edition of Metal Gear Solid 3: Snake Eater released in Japan in 2005 that included full ports of both, the original Metal Gear and Solid Snake, as part of its newly-added content.

Subsistence would later be released in North America and Europe in 2006 with full English localizations of both MSX2 games, marking the first time that Solid Snake was given an international release. The two MSX2 games would later be included in the HD remastered version of Metal Gear Solid 3 released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in 2011 and PlayStation Vita in 2012.

Solid Snake was also released for the Wii Virtual Console exclusively in Japan on March 30, 2010. Like all Virtual Console games, Solid Snake is emulated from the original MSX2 hardware rather than being ported from the mobile phone version like the Subsistence and HD Edition ports, although this version of the game has been patched to use the revised character portraits rather than the original ones.

Metal Gear Solid: Master Collection Vol. 1
A port of Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake was released as a part of volume 1 of the Metal Gear Solid: Master Collection for the Nintendo Switch, PlayStation 5, Windows, and Xbox Series X/S on October 24, 2023.

Soundtrack
The game's music was written by Konami Kukeiha Club members Tsuyoshi Sekito, Masahiro Ikariko, Mutsuhiko Izumi, Yuko Kurahashi, Tomoya Tomita, Kazuhiko Uehara, and Yuji Takenouchi. The cartridge for the MSX2 version carried a custom sound chip, the SCC (previously employed in games such as Nemesis 2 and Snatcher), which enhanced the music and sound effects beyond the MSX's basic capabilities.

Arranged music based on Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake was used for the VR training disc in Metal Gear Solid: Integral (which was released in North America as Metal Gear Solid: VR Missions). Additionally, Integral features two hidden tunes based on Solid Snake available via a secret codec frequency in the main game. One is an arranged version of the "Theme of Solid Snake", while the other is an arrangement of "Zanzibar Breeze" (both listenable by contacting CODEC frequency 140.66 in certain locations). "Theme of Solid Snake" also made an appearance in Nintendo's 2008 crossover fighting game Super Smash Bros. Brawl and a re-arranged version is included in the 2018 fighting game Super Smash Bros. Ultimate.

Reception
During its initial release, Solid Snake was ranked on MSX Magazine's Top 30 best selling MSX games list for six months, premiering at the no. 1 spot on the October 1990 issue. Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake would later receive near universal-acclaim by retro game reviewers. According to Paul Soth of GameSpy, the game surpassed its predecessor Metal Gear in every way. In addition to praising the gameplay, he also praised the game's "gripping, well written storyline" for its "rich characterization" and its "same quality of storytelling that made MGS so compelling." He concluded that players will not be disappointed by "the great gameplay and story," and that it remains "one of the best 8 bit games ever made." Game Informer was more critical of the game, however, giving it a 7 out of 10. They wrote that in order to reach the most pivotal moments in the game's story, "you must endure some of the most ridiculous situations Solid Snake has ever seen," and that "the game's focus on constant backtracking and keycard acquisition makes it too repetitive." They concluded that "only diehard fans will find the experience rewarding" and that the best way to play the game is through the bonus disc of Metal Gear Solid 3: Subsistence.

The game mechanics of its sequel Metal Gear Solid, despite its transition to 3D, remained largely similar to its 2D predecessor and included plot summaries of the first two MSX2 games (accessible in the Special mode under "Previous Operations"). As such, Retro Gamer regarded Solid Snake to be "as close as anyone can get to playing Metal Gear Solid in 2D", putting it above the Game Boy Color game released a decade later in 2000. Retro Gamer also included it among top ten MSX games. Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com referred to Metal Gear Solid as "basically a high-spec remake of Solid Snake." Nickolai Adkins of 1UP also noted how much of the scenario and plot elements in Solid Snake were recycled in Metal Gear Solid, ranging from "Snake emerging from retirement to rescue a kidnapped non-soldier personnel" in the beginning to "an escape sequence where Snake is accompanied by his female accomplice/love interest" at the end. IGN notes that Solid Snake introduced stealth mechanics such as making noise to attract guards, crouching and crawling on the ground, disarming mines, and enemies having view cones.

title: Metal Gear 2: Solid Snake


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William Gascoigne

Sir William Gascoigne (c. 1350 – 17 December 1419) was Chief Justice of England during the reign of King Henry IV.

Life and work
Gascoigne (alternatively spelled Gascoyne) was a descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. He was born in Gawthorp to Sir William Gascoigne and Agnes Franke.

He is said to have studied at the University of Cambridge, but his name is not found in any university or college records. According to Arthur Collins, Gascoigne was a law student at the Inner Temple. It appears from the year-books that he practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III and Richard II. When Henry of Lancaster was banished by Richard II, Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry's accession to the throne was made chief justice of the court of King's Bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon Richard Scrope (Archbishop of York), and the Earl Marshal Thomas Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their peers. Although both were later executed, Gascoigne had no part in this. This is Collins's account; but it has been doubted whether Gascoigne could have displayed such independence of action without prompt punishment or removal from office.

His reputation is that of a great lawyer who in times of doubt and danger asserted the principle that the head of state is subject to law, and that the traditional practice of public officers, or the expressed voice of the nation in parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part of the legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country.

The popular tale of his committing the Prince of Wales (the future Henry V) to prison must also be regarded as inauthentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic. It is said that Gascoigne had directed the punishment of one of the prince's riotous companions, and the prince, who was present and enraged at the sentence, struck or grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne immediately committed him to prison, and gave the prince a dressing-down that caused him to acknowledge the justice of the sentence. The King is said to have approved of the act, but it appears that Gascoigne was removed from his post or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and was buried in All Saints' Church, the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. (This even attracted gazetteers in the 19th century, suggesting his tomb amongst places worthy of visit). Some biographies of him have stated that he died in 1412, but this is disproved by Edward Foss in his Lives of the Judges. Although it is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long under Henry V, it is not impossible that the scene in the fifth act of Shakespeare's Henry IV, Part 2, (in which Henry V is crowned king, and assures Gascoigne that he shall continue to hold his post), could have some historical basis, and that his resignation shortly thereafter was voluntary.

Family
He was born in Gawthorp - in the valley below Harewood House, in an area later flooded to facilitate the landscape at Harewood (not in Gawthorpe in the West Riding of Yorkshire) - to Sir William Gascoigne and Agnes Franke. He married, firstly, in 1369 Elizabeth de Mowbray (1350–1396), daughter of Alexander de Mowbray, son of Roger de Mowbray, 1st Baron Mowbray. He married, secondly, Joan de Pickering, widow of Henry de Greystock.

The issue by his first marriage were:
 * Sir William Gascoigne II (1370–1422) m. Joan Wyman.
 * Elizabeth Gascoigne, m. John Aske
 * Margaret Gascoigne, m. Robert Hansard

Issue by second marriage:
 * Sir Christopher Gascoigne (born 1407)
 * James Gascoigne (born 1404), ancestor of poet George Gascoigne
 * Agnes Gascoigne (c. 1401 – after 1466), m. Robert Constable.
 * Robert Gascoigne (born c. 1410)
 * Richard Gascoigne (born c. 1413)

His brother, Nicholas Gascoigne, was ancestor of the Gascoigne baronets. Another brother, Richard (c. 1365 – 1423), married Beatrice Ellis, and was possibly the father of Thomas Gascoigne, Chancellor of Oxford University.

In popular culture
Gascoigne is portrayed by Sean Harris in The King (2019 film).

title: William Gascoigne


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Jean Leloup

Jean Leclerc (born May 14, 1961) is a Québécois singer-songwriter and author from Sainte-Foy, Quebec, Canada. He is popularly known as Jean Leloup (which he likes to translate to John the Wolf), a stage name he kept using until 2006, when he temporarily changed his name to Jean Leclerc, only to resurrect his wolf character in August 2008. He is known for his colourful personality and unique musical style in the francophone rock community.

Biography
Born in Sainte-Foy in 1961 to Québécois parents, Jean Leclerc grew up in Africa, more precisely in Togo and Algeria. The culture and way of life of his host country had an important influence on him and influenced many of his songs.

He learned to play guitar by listening to the Rolling Stones, the Beatles and Jimi Hendrix. He was also influenced by colorful French music icons such as Jacques Dutronc, Jacques Higelin, Serge Gainsbourg and Michel Polnareff.

He returned to Quebec in 1976, and appeared on the music scene in the 1980s. In 1983, he was noticed at the Festival international de la chanson de Granby and participated in the rock opera Starmania in 1986. However, he quickly distanced himself from the latter because of its "clean" character. Opting for the stage name of Jean Leloup (nicknamed John the Wolf by fans and by himself), he appeared on stage in Montreal in the late 1980s. From the beginning of his career, he made waves with his provocative lyrics--in his song "1990", he compares the high-tech actions of Desert Storm to his sexual activities with his girlfriend.

His 1990 album L'amour est sans pitié was a hit outside of Quebec, and was released in the rest of Canada, USA, France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Japan.

He was the recipient of a Félix Award in 1997, following the success of his 1996 album Le Dôme.

At the end of 2003, Leclerc retired the name Jean Leloup and went on hiatus from his recording career. In August 2005, he announced his temporary return to the music scene with a collaboration with a band called the Porn Flakes. A first single called "Les Corneilles" has been heard on Quebec's radio stations.

In the months preceding his return, Leclerc wrote the philosophical novel Noir destin que le mien (originally entitled Le Tour du monde en complet) under the pen name Massoud Al-Rachid; it was published on October 5, 2005 at Leméac editions.

Leclerc released the album Mexico in September 2006, his first under the name Jean Leclerc.

Jean Leclerc returned to the stage on August 29, 2008 for the 400th year of Quebec City's founding. He revived the name Jean Leloup for the occasion. The show was held at the Colisée Pepsi. Although controversial, Jean Leclerc mentioned that the "last hour of the show was the best of his life".

Under the name Jean Leloup, Leclerc released the album Mille Excuses Milady (translated to "a thousand apologies, Milady") on April 28, 2009, the first since he publicly declared that he wouldn't produce another album.

In 2016, his album À Paradis City was nominated for the Juno Award for Album of the Year, and won the Juno Award for Francophone Album of the Year. He received another Juno Award nomination for Francophone Album of the Year at the Juno Awards of 2020, for his 2019 album L'Étrange pays.

Discography

 * 1989: Menteur
 * 1990: L'amour est sans pitié
 * 1996: Le Dôme
 * 1998: Les Fourmis
 * 2002: La Vallée des réputations
 * 2004: Exit (live album)
 * 2005: Je joue de la guitare 1985–2003 (compilation)
 * 2006: Mexico (as Jean Leclerc)
 * 2009: Mille excuses Milady
 * 2015: À Paradis City
 * 2019: L'Étrange Pays

Collaborations

 * 1997: Glee (with Bran Van 3000)
 * 2001: Discosis (with Bran Van 3000)
 * 2002: Jouisseland by Martin Villeneuve
 * 2011: The Last Assassins (with The Last Assassins)

title: Jean Leloup


text:
Platte County

Platte County is the name of three counties in the United States:

 * Platte County, Missouri
 * Platte County, Nebraska
 * Platte County, Wyoming
 * Platte County, Colorado Territory, an unorganized county of the Territory of Colorado from 1872 to 1874

title: Platte County


text:
Template talk:Star Trek starships

Added some ship classes
I've added some ship classes from other cultures to Starship class. Do you think that this message should be redefined as Starfleet-only, the new ones should be added in some way that distinguishes them by culture, or the new ones should just be added like any other class? -- Djinn112 02:02, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * Honestly, I think it should just keep Starfleet classes, although I wouldn't object to putting in other cultures' classes so long as they were kept separate (see, for example, msg:startrek, which separates television and movies). -Branddobbe 04:53, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

This is starting to look cumbersome. How about something like this?:

My markup for the subtable probably isn't Wiki-standard, though. -- Djinn112 18:59, Mar 19, 2004 (UTC)

I'll repeat what I asked
I'll repeat what I asked on Talk:NX class starship - I don't think NX is a pre-Federation class ship...does it not just refer to experimental ships? The USS Prometheus in Voyager's "Message in a Bottle" was also an NX ship, for example (I'm sure there have been other on-screen examples of NX ships as well). Also, is "NX" really a class? It's just a registry prefix, if anything. Adam Bishop 02:32, 25 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Question
I see Akira on the edit page, but why is it not visible on the actual template? Alyeska 00:11, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

title: Template talk:Star Trek starships


text:
Ford Trimotor

The Ford Trimotor (also called the "Tri-Motor", and nicknamed the "Tin Goose") is an American three-engined transport aircraft. Production started in 1925 by the companies of Henry Ford and ended on June 7, 1933, after 199 had been made. It was designed for the civil aviation market, but also saw service with military units.

Design and development

In the early 1920s, Henry Ford, along with a group of 19 others including his son Edsel, invested in the Stout Metal Airplane Company. Stout, a bold and imaginative salesman, sent a mimeographed form letter to leading manufacturers, blithely asking for $1,000 and adding: "For your one thousand dollars you will get one definite promise: Stout raised $20,000, including $1,000 each from Edsel and Henry Ford.

In 1925, Ford bought Stout and its aircraft designs. The single-engined Stout monoplane was turned into a trimotor, the Stout 3-AT with three Curtiss-Wright air-cooled radial engines. After a prototype was built and test-flown with poor results, the "4-AT" and "5-AT" emerged.

The Ford Trimotor using all-metal construction was not a revolutionary concept, but it was certainly more advanced than the standard construction techniques of the 1920s. The aircraft resembled the Fokker F.VII Trimotor (except for being all metal which Henry Ford claimed made it "the safest airliner around"). Its fuselage and wings followed a design pioneered by Junkers during World War I with the Junkers J.I and used postwar in a series of airliners starting with the Junkers F.13 low-wing monoplane of 1920 of which a number were exported to the US, the Junkers K 16 high-wing airliner of 1921, and the Junkers G 24 trimotor of 1924. All of these were constructed of aluminum alloy, which was corrugated for added stiffness, although the resulting drag reduced its overall performance. So similar were the designs that Junkers sued and won when Ford attempted to export an aircraft to Europe. In 1930, Ford countersued in Prague, and despite the possibility of anti-German sentiment, was decisively defeated a second time, with the court finding that Ford had infringed upon Junkers' patents.

Although designed primarily for passenger use, the Trimotor could be easily adapted for hauling cargo, since its seats in the fuselage could be removed. To increase cargo capacity, one unusual feature was the provision of "drop-down" cargo holds below the lower inner wing sections of the 5-AT version.

One 4-AT with Wright J-4 200-hp engines was built for the U.S. Army Air Corps as the C-3, and seven with Wright R-790-3 (235 hp) as C-3As. The latter were upgraded to Wright R-975-1 (J6-9) radials at 300 hp and redesignated C-9. Five 5-ATs were built as C-4s or C-4As.

The original (commercial production) 4-AT had three air-cooled Wright radial engines. It carried a crew of three: a pilot, a copilot, and a stewardess, as well as eight or nine passengers. The later 5-AT had more powerful Pratt & Whitney engines. All models had an aluminum corrugated sheet-metal body and wings. Unlike many aircraft of this era, extending through World War II, its control surfaces (ailerons, elevators, and rudders) were not fabric covered, but were also made of corrugated metal. As was common for the time, its rudder and elevators were actuated by metal cables that were strung along the external surface of the aircraft. Engine gauges were also mounted externally, on the engines, to be read by the pilot while looking through the aircraft windshield. Another interesting feature was the use of the hand-operated "Johnny brake."

Like Ford cars and tractors, these Ford aircraft were well designed, relatively inexpensive, and reliable (for the era). The combination of a metal structure and simple systems led to their reputation for ruggedness. Rudimentary service could be accomplished "in the field" with ground crews able to work on engines using scaffolding and platforms. To fly into otherwise-inaccessible sites, the Ford Trimotor could be fitted with skis or floats.

The rapid development of aircraft at this time (the vastly superior Boeing 247 first flew at start of 1933), along with the death of his personal pilot, Harry J. Brooks, on a test flight, led to Henry Ford's losing interest in aviation. While Ford did not make a profit on its aircraft business, Henry Ford's reputation lent credibility to the infant aviation and airline industries, and Ford helped introduce many aspects of the modern aviation infrastructure, including paved runways, passenger terminals, hangars, airmail, and radio navigation.

In the late 1920s, the Ford Aircraft Division was reputedly the "largest manufacturer of commercial airplanes in the world." Alongside the Ford Trimotor, a new single-seat commuter aircraft, the Ford Flivver or "Sky Flivver" had been designed and flown in prototype form, but never entered series production. The Trimotor was not to be Ford's last venture in aircraft production. During World War II, the largest aircraft manufacturing plant in the world was built at the Willow Run, Michigan plant, where Ford produced thousands of B-24 Liberator bombers under license from Consolidated Aircraft.

William Stout left the Metal Airplane division of the Ford Motor Company in 1930. He continued to operate the Stout Engineering Laboratory, producing various aircraft. In 1954, Stout purchased the rights to the Ford Trimotor in an attempt to produce new examples. A new company formed from this effort brought back two modern examples of the trimotor aircraft, renamed the Stout Bushmaster 2000, but even with improvements that had been incorporated, performance was judged inferior to modern designs.

Operational history

Production ran from 1926 and 1933 and 199 were built, including 79 4-ATs, and 117 5-ATs, plus some experimental craft. Well over 100 airlines of the world flew the Ford Trimotor. From mid-1927, the type was also flown on executive transportation duties by several commercial nonairline operators, including oil and manufacturing companies.

The impact of the Ford Trimotor on commercial aviation was immediate, as the design represented a "quantum leap over other airliners." Within a few months of its introduction, Transcontinental Air Transport was created to provide coast-to-coast operation, capitalizing on the Trimotor's ability to provide reliable and, for the time, comfortable passenger service. While advertised as a transcontinental service, the airline had to rely on rail connections with a deluxe Pullman train that would be based in New York being the first part of the journey. Passengers then met a Trimotor in Port Columbus, Ohio, that would begin a hop across the continent ending at Waynoka, Oklahoma, where another train would take the passengers to Clovis, New Mexico, where the final journey would begin, again on a Trimotor, to end up at the Grand Central Air Terminal in Glendale, a few miles northeast of Los Angeles. This demanding trip would be available for only a year before Transcontinental was merged into a combine with Western Air Service.

Ford Trimotors were also used extensively by Pan American Airways, for its first international scheduled flights from Key West to Havana, Cuba, in 1927. Eventually, Pan American extended service from North America and Cuba into Central and South America in the late 1920s and early 1930s. One of Latin America's earliest airlines, Cubana de Aviación, was the first to use the Ford Trimotor in Latin America, starting in 1930, for its domestic services.

The heyday for Ford's transport was relatively brief, lasting only until 1933, when more modern airliners began to appear. Rather than completely disappearing, the Trimotors gained an enviable reputation for durability with Ford ads in 1929 proclaiming, "No Ford plane has yet worn out in service." First being relegated to second- and third-tier airlines, the Trimotors continued to fly into the 1960s, with numerous examples being converted into cargo transports to further lengthen their careers, and when World War II began, the commercial versions were soon modified for military applications.

Some of the significant flights made by the Ford Trimotor in this period greatly enhanced the reputation of the type for strength and reliability. One example was Ford 4-AT Trimotor serial number 10, built in 1927. It flew in the United States and Mexico under registration number C-1077, and for several years in Canada under registration G-CARC. It had many notable accomplishments; it was flown by Charles Lindbergh and Amelia Earhart, among many others. It made the first commercial flight from the United States to Mexico City, as well as the first commercial flight over the Canadian Rockies. After damage on landing in 1936, it was grounded and remained for decades at Carcross, Yukon. In 1956, the wreck was salvaged and preserved, and in the mid-1980s, Greg Herrick took over C-1077 and began restoring it. As of 2006, C-1077 is in flying condition again, restored to its December 1927 appearance.

On November 27 and 28, 1929, Commander Richard E. Byrd (navigator), chief pilot Bernt Balchen, and two other crewmen, the copilot and the photographer, made the first flight above the geographic South Pole in a Ford Trimotor that Byrd named the Floyd Bennett. This was one of three aircraft taken on this polar expedition, with the other two being named The Stars and Stripes and The Virginian, replacing the Fokker Trimotors that Byrd previously used.

A Ford Trimotor was used for the flight of Elm Farm Ollie, the first cow to fly in an aircraft and to be milked mid-flight.

Franklin Roosevelt flew aboard a Ford Trimotor in 1932 during his presidential campaign in one of the first uses of an aircraft in an election, replacing the traditional "whistle stop" train trips.

A Ford Trimotor was used in a search for the lost flyers of the Sigizmund Levanevsky trans-polar flight in 1937. Movie stunt flyer Jimmie Mattern flew a specially modified Lockheed Electra along with fellow movie flyer, Garland Lincoln, flying a stripped-down Trimotor donated by the president of Superior Oil Company. With 1,800 gallons of avgas and 450 gallons of oil in the modified cabin, the Trimotor was intended to act as a "tanker" for the expedition. The Electra was able to transfer fuel in the air from the Trimotor, through a hose cast out the 4-AT's door. With the first aerial refueling test successful, the pair of pilots set out for Fairbanks, landing first at Burwash Landing, Yukon Territory, Canada, on August 15, 1937, but the Trimotor ran out of fuel and crashed in inclement weather the following day. The Trimotor was abandoned on the tundra.

One of the major uses of the Trimotor after it was superseded as a passenger aircraft by more modern aircraft like the Boeing 247 (1933) or the Douglas DC-2 (1934), then DC-3, was the carrying of heavy freight to mining operations in jungles and mountains. The Trimotor was employed for decades in this role.

In 1942, during the Battle of Bataan, a Trimotor was used in evacuations. The aircraft would haul 24 people nearly 500 miles a trip, twice daily. The aircraft was eventually strafed and destroyed by Japanese aircraft.

In postwar years, the Ford Trimotors continued in limited service with small, regional air carriers. Scenic Airways Ford Trimotor N414H was used for 65 years as a sightseeing aircraft flying over the Grand Canyon.

Ford designations

 * 2-AT Pullman: Stout's monoplane with a single 400 hp Liberty L-12 V-12 engine, developed into 3-AT. 11 Built.
 * 3-AT: Stout's tri-motor prototype with three 200 hp Wright J-4 Whirlwind radial engines. Outboard engines on wings, and nose engine mounted very low. One built.
 * 4-AT: Prototype with three 200 hp J-4 Whirlwinds, with outer engines below wings. Two pilots in open cockpit, and eight passengers given half-round windows. One built.
 * 4-AT-A: Production enclosed-cockpit version with rectangular windows with top corners rounded. 14 built.
 * 4-AT-B: 4-AT-Bs with three 220 hp Wright J-5 Whirlwind radials. Carried 12 passengers. 39 built.
 * 4-AT-C: 4-AT-B with nose engine replaced by a 400 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340 Wasp radial. One built.
 * 4-AT-D: 4-AT-Bs with lengthened 78 ft wings and fitted with various engines and other minor modifications. One built and two modified.
 * 4-AT-E: 4-AT-Bs with three 300 hp Wright J-6-9 Whirlwind nine-cylinder radials. 24 built with rectangular windows as used on 5-AT-A.
 * 4-AT-F: 4-AT-E but stressed for higher loads. One built.
 * 5-AT-A: 4-AT-E with longer 77 ft wing and fuselage with an extra window on each side, powered by three 420 hp Wasps. Carried 13 passengers. Three built.
 * 5-AT-B: 5-AT-A powered by 420 hp Wasp C-1 or SC-1 radials. Carried 15 passengers. 41 built.
 * 5-AT-C: Improved version with engine cowlings and wheel pants, similar to the Ford 5-AT-A. Carried 17 passengers. 51 built.
 * 5-AT-CS: 5-AT-C floatplane with twin Edo floats. One built.
 * 5-AT-D: Wings 8 in higher for taller cabin, and weights increased. Powered by three 450 hp Wasp SC radials. 20 built.
 * 5-AT-DS: 5-AT-D floatplane with Edo floats. One built.
 * 5-AT-E: Version with outboard engines moved to wing leading edges. One 5-AT-C modified for tests, but converted back.
 * 6-AT-A: Economy 5-AT-A with reduced power, load and performance. Three 300 hp Wright J-6-9 Whirlwind radials. Three built.
 * 6-AT-AS: 6-AT-A floatplane with Edo floats. One modified.
 * 7-AT-A: 6-AT-A with 420 hp Pratt & Whitney Wasp radial in the nose.
 * 8-AT: 5-AT-C converted to single-engine freighter. Six different engines ranging from 575 to 700 hp installed. One built.
 * 9-AT: 4-AT-B with three 300 hp Pratt & Whitney R-985 Wasp Junior radial engines. One built.
 * 10-AT: Project for larger aircraft with two engines above fuselage and two on wings. None built but developed into 12-AT and built as 14-A as a trimotor.
 * 11-AT: 4-AT-E with three 225 hp Packard DR-980 Diesel radial engines. One built.
 * 12-AT: Project, development of 10-AT, not built.
 * 13-A: 5-AT-D with two 300 hp Wright J-6-9 Whirlwind radials, and a 575 hp Wright Cyclone radial in the nose. 1 built.
 * 14-A: Similar to 10-AT and 12-AT, 1 built but not flown, was to have carried 32 passengers.

United States Army Air Corps

 * XC-3: One 4-AT-A evaluated by the USAAC.
 * C-3: 4-AT-A redesignated from XC-3 following evaluation
 * C-3A: 4-AT-E with three 235 hp Wright R-790-3 Whirlwind radials. Seven built, all converted to C-9 standard.
 * C-4: One 4-AT-B for evaluation.
 * C-4A: 5-AT-D, with three 450 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340-11 Wasp radials. Four built
 * C-4B: Single C-4A re-engined with three 450 hp R-1340-7 Wasps.
 * C-9: Redesignation of C-3As fitted with 300 hp Wright R-975-1 Whirlwind radials
 * XB-906: 5-AT-D modified into bomber with three 500 hp Wasps for United States Army Air Corps. One built.

US Navy and US Marines

 * XJR-1: One 4-AT-A evaluated by the United States Navy
 * JR-2: U.S. Marine Corps 4-AT-E transport, with three Wright J-6-9 engines. Two built, redesignated RR-2 in 1931.
 * JR-3: 5-AT-C for U.S. Navy (one) and U.S. Marine Corps (two). Three built.
 * RR-1: XJR-1 redesignated in 1931.
 * RR-2: JR-2 redesignated in 1931.
 * RR-3: JR-3 redesignated in 1931.
 * RR-4: Single 5-AT-C for Navy.
 * RR-5: 4-AT-Ds, one each for the U.S. Navy and U.S. Marines.

Civil operators

 * SACO
 * SCADTA
 * 🇨🇦 Canada
 * BYN Co.(British Yukon Navigation Company) CF-AZB flew in the Yukon from April 1936 until damaged in August 1940.
 * China National Aviation Corporation (CNAC) operated at least three 5-ATs
 * Cubana
 * Czechoslovak Airlines
 * Dominicana de Aviación, Dominican Republic airline flew Ford Trimotors in the early 1930s.
 * 🇲🇽 Mexico
 * Mexicana
 * 🇪🇸 Spain
 * First CLASSA, then LAPE, after Iberia
 * 🇺🇸 USA
 * American Airways
 * Eastern Air Transport
 * Grand Canyon Airlines
 * Island Airlines, Bass Islands, Ohio
 * Maddux Air Lines
 * Northwest Airways
 * Pan American Airways
 * Southwest Air Fast Express (S.A.F.E.way)
 * Star Air Service
 * Texaco
 * Transcontinental Air Transport
 * Transcontinental & Western Air (TWA)
 * United Air Lines
 * Wien Air Alaska
 * AVENSA
 * Transcontinental Air Transport
 * Transcontinental & Western Air (TWA)
 * United Air Lines
 * Wien Air Alaska
 * AVENSA
 * AVENSA

Military operators

 * Royal Australian Air Force
 * No. 24 Squadron RAAF
 * 🇨🇦 Canada
 * Royal Canadian Air Force operated a single 6-AT-A/6-AT-AS.
 * Colombian Air Force
 * 🇪🇸 Spain
 * Spanish Republican Air Force
 * Royal Air Force
 * No. 271 Squadron RAF operated a single 5-AT-D during 1940.
 * 🇺🇸 USA
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * United States Marine Corps
 * United States Navy
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * United States Marine Corps
 * United States Navy

Accidents and incidents

 * On March 17, 1929, a Colonial Western Airways 4-AT-B Tri-Motor, NC7683, suffered a double engine failure during its initial climb after takeoff from Newark Airport in Newark, New Jersey. It failed to gain height and crashed into a railroad freight car loaded with sand, killing 14 of the 15 people on board the aircraft. At the time, it was the deadliest airplane accident in American history.
 * On April 21, 1929, a Maddux Air Lines 5-AT-B Tri-Motor, NC9636, collided with a United States Army Air Service (USAAS) Boeing PW-9D fighter, 28-037, over San Diego; all six on board both aircraft died. The pilot of the Boeing PW-9D was performing stunts and then attempted to pass in front of the airliner, but misjudged the speed of the Maddux aircraft and his aircraft struck the cockpit of the Ford Tri-Motor.
 * On September 3, 1929, a Transcontinental Air Transport 5-AT-B Tri-Motor, NC9649, named City of San Francisco, crashed into Mount Taylor near Grants, New Mexico in a thunderstorm; all eight people on board died.
 * On January 19, 1930, a Maddux Air Lines 5-AT-C Tri-Motor, NC9689, operating as Flight 7, crashed near Oceanside, California due to adverse weather conditions, killing all 16 on board.
 * On January 24, 1933, a Pacific Air Transport Ford Trimotor on a cargo flight crashed on takeoff, killing 2 out of the 3 occupants on board.
 * On June 24, 1935, Tri-Motor 5-AT-B of SACO Servicio Aéreo Colombiano registered F-31 collided with a Tri-Motor of SCADTA, (Sociedad Colombo-Alemana de Transportes Aéreos), registered C-31, at Olaya Herrera Airfield near Medellín, Colombia; of the 20 on board both aircraft, only three passengers survived. Among the dead was the tango singer Carlos Gardel.

Surviving aircraft
As of 2011, there are 18 Ford Trimotors in existence, eight of which have current FAA airworthiness certificates.

Airworthy

 * C/N:10 tail number: NC1077 (4-AT-B, September 1927) "NC1077, G-CARC Niagara" Currently owned by Greg Herrick's Yellowstone Aviation. Oldest flying Trimotor, C/N (Construction Number) 10. It is based at the Golden Wings Museum, near Minneapolis, Minnesota, US. This aircraft featured in the 2009 film Amelia (a biopic of aviator Amelia Earhart).
 * C/N:42 tail number: NC9610 (Formerly NC7684) (4-AT-B, September 1928) Currently owned by Yankee Air Force, based in Belleville, Michigan, US.
 * C/N:55 tail number: NC9612 (4-AT-E, 1929) The "City of Richmond" Originally owned by: Mamer Flying Service, Spokane, WA. Currently owned by: Scott Glover, Mid America Flight Museum. It is based in Mt. Pleasant, Texas, US.
 * C/N:69 tail number: NC8407 (4-AT-E, 1929) Originally owned by: Eastern Air Transport Currently owned by: The Experimental Aircraft Association is based at the EAA AirVenture Museum in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, US. It tours the United States performing at airshows and other aviation events.
 * C/N:8 tail number: NC9645 (5-AT-B, 1928) "City of Wichita/City of Port Clinton" Currently owned by: Liberty Aviation Museum. It is dressed in Transcontinental Air Transport livery. It is based at the Erie-Ottawa International Airport in Port Clinton, Ohio, US. It was previously owned by Evergreen Vintage Aircraft, Inc., and previously based at the Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon, US.
 * C/N:34 tail number: N9651 (5-AT-B, 1929) - The "City of Philadelphia" Originally owned by: Trans Continental Air Transport. Currently owned by: Kermit Weeks. It is based at Fantasy of Flight in Polk City, Florida, US. This aircraft has made many film appearances, including Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom.
 * C/N:58 tail number: NC8419 (5-AT-C, 1929) Originally owned by: Northwest Airlines. Currently owned by: Kalamazoo Aviation History Museum. Based at The Air Zoo in Kalamazoo, Michigan, US. The airplane combined several 5-AT airframes, one of which served with five carriers before being used by the United States Forest Service between 1951 and 1959. The original crashed and burned on August 4, 1959, while landing at a remote strip in the Nez Perce National Forest, killing two smokejumpers.
 * C/N:74 tail number: N414H (5-AT-C, 1928) Originally owned by: Ford Motor Co. Previously owned by Sopwith, Ltd. It was based at Valle Airport in Valle, Arizona, US. It was used in 2008 and 2009 for flight instruction and type ratings.  It is now owned by, and based at the Western Antique Aeroplane & Automobile Museum (WAAAM) in Hood River, Oregon, US.

On static display

 * C/N:15 tail number: NX4542 (4-AT-B, 1928) Richard E. Byrd's South Pole aircraft. Originally owned by: Ford Motor Company. Currently owned by: Henry Ford Museum. It is on display at The Henry Ford Museum in Dearborn, Michigan, USA.
 * C/N:46 tail number: NC7861 (4-AT-B, Unknown) Originally owned by: Union Electric, St. Louis. Currently owned by: National Museum of Naval Aviation Pensacola, Florida, USA. Displayed as Navy RR-5 serial A-9206.
 * C/N:11 tail number: NC9637 (5-AT-B,1929) Originally owned by: Pan Am. Currently owned by: the San Diego Air & Space Museum in San Diego, California, USA.
 * C/N:39 tail number: NC9683 (5-AT-B, 1929) Originally owned by: American Airlines. Currently owned by: The Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum. in Washington, D.C.
 * C/N:60 tail number: none - ex-RAAF (5-AT-C, 1929) Originally owned by: Ford Motor Company; in England. Currently owned by: Papua New Guinea National Museum and Art Gallery. Possible rebuild.

Under restoration

 * C/N:38 tail number: N7584 (4-AT-B, January 1928) Originally owned by: Robertson Aircraft, St Louis. Currently owned by: Kermit Weeks. It was badly damaged in Florida by Hurricane Andrew, in the fall of 1992. Currently Located: Vicksburg, Michigan, USA.
 * C/N:58 tail number: NC9642 (4-AT-E, January 1929) Originally owned by: Mohawk Airways, NY. Currently owned by: Maurice Hovius' Hov-aire, Inc. Possible rebuild. Sale reported. Currently Located: Vicksburg, Michigan, USA.
 * C/N:62 tail number: NC8400 (4-AT-E, January 1929) Originally owned by: Mohawk Airways, NY. Currently owned by: Maurice Hovius' Hov-aire, Inc. Possible rebuild. Currently Located: Vicksburg, Michigan, USA.
 * C/N:65 tail number: NC8403 (4-AT-E, May 1929) The "Ptarmigan II" Originally owned by: Mamer Flying Service. Currently owned by Alaska Aviation Heritage Museum. Possible restoration. As of February 10, 2005, currently Located at Golden Wings Museum near Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA.
 * C/N:13 tail number: NC9667 (5-AT-B, 1929) The "AN-AAR" Originally owned by Southwest Air Fast Express (S.A.F.E.way). Currently owned by: Maurice Hovius' Hov-aire, Inc. This is a restoration project undertaken by the "Tin Goose Chapter", EAA 1247, in Port Clinton, Ohio, USA.

From 1954 onwards, efforts were made to modernize the Trimotor as the Stout Bushmaster 2000. Saddled with financial, management and marketing problems, only two examples were completed with a third fuselage started but never completed.

title: Ford Trimotor


text:
Richard Biggs

Richard James Biggs II (March 18, 1960 – May 22, 2004) was an American television and stage actor, known for his roles on the television series Days of Our Lives and Babylon 5.

Early life
Born in Columbus, Ohio, Biggs graduated from Minot High School (Minot, ND). He attended the University of Southern California on scholarship, studying theatre. He briefly taught at a Los Angeles high school before landing his first major television role, that of Dr. Marcus Hunter on the soap opera Days of Our Lives.

Biggs was diagnosed with hearing problems when he was 13, and was partially deaf in one ear, completely deaf in the other. He frequently used his celebrity status to raise money for the Aliso Academy, a private school in Rancho Santa Margarita, California that serves deaf children.

Career
From 1987 until 1994, Biggs played the role of Dr. Marcus Hunter on the soap opera Days of Our Lives.

He appeared as Dr. Stephen Franklin on the well-regarded science fiction series Babylon 5 (1994–1998), reprising the role in the final aired episode of the spin-off show, Crusade ("Each Night I Dream of Home").

After Babylon 5, he played roles on Any Day Now and Strong Medicine,  as well as the recurring role of Clayton Boudreaux on the soap opera Guiding Light.

Biggs' stage credits include The Tempest, Cymbeline and The Taming of the Shrew.

At the time of his death, he was a regular on the television series Strong Medicine; following his death, his character was killed in an off-screen traffic accident. He also guest starred as a visiting scientist on Tremors: The Series. Biggs' final film appearance was in Special Report: Zombie Invasion, a short film also featuring Biggs' Babylon 5 costar, Bruce Boxleitner, released as a companion piece to the 2004 remake of Dawn of the Dead on DVD. His final television appearance was as a guest star on a 2004 episode of the Nickelodeon series Drake & Josh, entitled "The Gary Grill" portraying an FBI agent, which was dedicated to his memory. He only won one award in his career. That award was the Soap Opera Digest Award for Supporting Actor.

Personal life
He married Lori Gebers on August 1, 1998. They had two children, Richard James III and Hunter Lee.

Death
Biggs collapsed at his home in Los Angeles, and died at Providence Saint Joseph Medical Center of complications stemming from aortic dissection on May 22, 2004. He was 44 years old.

title: Richard Biggs