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Orthopnea

Orthopnea or orthopnoea is shortness of breath (dyspnea) that occurs when lying flat, causing the person to have to sleep propped up in bed or sitting in a chair. It is commonly seen as a late manifestation of heart failure, resulting from fluid redistribution into the central circulation, causing an increase in pulmonary capillary pressure and causing difficulty in breathing. It is also seen in cases of abdominal obesity or pulmonary disease. Orthopnea is the opposite of platypnea, shortness of breath that worsens when sitting or standing upright.

Causes
Orthopnea is often a symptom of left ventricular heart failure and/or cardiogenic pulmonary edema. It can also occur in those with asthma and chronic bronchitis, as well as those with sleep apnea or panic disorder. It is also as associated with polycystic liver disease. From a neuromuscular perspective, orthopnea is potentially a sign of severe diaphragmatic weakness. Under such circumstances, patients may describe shortness of breath when they bend over (e.g. when tying shoelaces), called bendopnea.

Mechanism
Orthopnea is due to increased distribution of blood to the pulmonary circulation when a person lies flat or closer to a horizontal position. Lying flat decreases the inhibitory effect that the gravity usually has on the blood when coming back to the heart from the lower extremities of the body. This increases the right sided venous return. In a normal person, this redistribution of blood has little effect on respiratory function as the left ventricle has the adequate capacity to suddenly increase its stroke volume (as a result of the Frank-Starling mechanism). In a person with heart failure, the left ventricle has an inadequate capacity to respond to increased arrival of blood from the pulmonary circulation. This leads to the pooling up of blood in the pulmonary circulation. The increased intra-parenchymal pulmonary intravascular pressure can also result in hydrostatic pressure related fluid transudation into the alveoli, thus causing cardiogenic pulmonary edema and further worsening shortness of breath. Thus, shortness of breath is commonly experienced after a reasonably short time lying near to flat for a person with left ventricular failure. This is different from the dyspnea experienced by someone with lung parenchymal pathology (both restrictive and obstructive) when lying down, which is sudden and instead related to an acute change in diaphragmatic/accessory respiratory muscle mechanical advantage lost when moving the body into a more horizontal position.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is based mostly on the clinical features and symptoms, as well as finding causes like heart failure.

Treatment
Based on the cause, Orthopnea can be treated with respiratory support devices such as CPAP or biPAP while the disease causing it is addressed.

Etymology
The word orthopnea uses combining forms of ortho- + -pnea, from Greek ortho, straight, regular, + pnoia, breath. See pronunciation information at dyspnea.

title: Orthopnea


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1768 in music

This is a list of music related events in 1768.

Events

 * Johann Christian Bach gives the first ever solo piano performance, in London on an instrument by Johannes Zumpe.
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and his family are resident in Vienna until December.
 * Antonio Sacchini returns to Venice to become director of the Conservatorio dell'Ospadeletto.
 * Giuseppe Tartini suffers a stroke.
 * Michael Haydn marries Maria Magdalena Lipp, a singer and the daughter of the court organist.

Popular music

 * "The Liberty Song", with words by John Dickinson – considered the first American patriotic song. He used the music to the traditional British song, Hearts of Oak.

Opera

 * Johann Adolf Hasse – Piramo e Tisbe
 * Joseph Haydn – Lo speziale
 * Niccolò Jommelli
 * Fetonte
 * La schiava liberata
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Bastien und Bastienne, K. 50/46b (his first published opera)
 * La finta semplice, K.51/46a
 * Giovanni Paisiello – Olimpia
 * Antonio Zingarelli – I quattro pazzi

Classical music

 * Luigi Boccherini
 * Cello Concerto in D Major
 * Cello Sonata in C major, G.6
 * 6 Violin Sonatas, G.25-30, Op. 5
 * Muzio Clementi – Sonata for Harpsichord in G major
 * John Garth –
 * Pietro Alessandro Guglielmi – 6 Harpsichord Quartets, Op. 1
 * Joseph Haydn
 * Applausus
 * 6 String Trios, Op. 5
 * Symphony No.49 in F minor, Hob.I:49 "La passione", "Il quakuo di bel'humore"
 * Michael Haydn – Missa sancti Francisci Seraphici, MH 119
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Symphonies No. 7 and No. 8
 * Friedrich Schwindl – 6 Trio Sonatas, Op. 5

Methods and theory writings

 * William Hayes – Anecdotes of the 5 Music-Meetings
 * Johann Caspar Heck – A Complete System of Harmony
 * Gabriele Leone Méthode raisonnée pour passer du Violon à la Mandoline (Rational method for migrating from the violin to the mandolin)
 * Jean-Jacques Rousseau – Dictionnaire de musique
 * Francisco Inácio Solano – Nova arte, e breve compendio de musica

Births

 * January 16 – Carl Andreas Göpfert, German composer (died 1818)
 * March 12 – Carolus Antonius Fodor, composer
 * April 7 – Karl Theodor Toeschi, composer
 * July 6 – Johann Georg Heinrich Backofen, composer and clarinetist (died 1830)
 * September 1 – Carl Bernhard Wessely, composer
 * September 12 – Benjamin Carr, composer
 * September 14 – Georg Johann Schinn, composer
 * September 21 – Louis-Emmanuel Jadin, composer, pianist and harpsichordist (c. 1863)
 * November 24 – Jean-Engelbert Pauwels, composer
 * December 6 – Johann Baptist Henneberg, composer
 * date unknown
 * Gaetano Crivelli, operatic tenor (d. 1836)
 * Margarethe Danzi, collaborator and composer (died 1800)

Deaths

 * January 1 – Jean-Laurent Krafft, composer
 * January 28 – John Wainwright, composer
 * March 3 – Nicola Porpora, composer
 * March 14 – Vigilio Blasio Faitello, composer
 * July 6 – Johann Conrad Beissel, composer
 * July 11 – José Melchior de Nebra Blascu, composer
 * August 21 (buried) – William Walond, English composer (born 1719)
 * October 28 – Michel Blavet, flautist and composer
 * October 31 – Francesco Maria Veracini, violinist and composer
 * November 1 – Pierre van Maldere, composer
 * probable – Domenico Gallo, composer and musician (born 1730)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1768 in music


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Truce of Ulm (1647)

The Truce of Ulm (Waffenstillstand von Ulm) (also known as the Treaty of Ulm) was signed in Ulm on 14 March 1647 between France, Sweden, and Bavaria. This truce was developed after France and Sweden invaded Bavaria during the Thirty Years' War. Both invading nations forced Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria, to conclude the truce and renounce his alliance with Emperor Ferdinand III. However, Maximilian broke the truce on 14 September and returned to his alliance with Ferdinand.

title: Truce of Ulm (1647)


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Osteotomy

An osteotomy is a surgical operation whereby a bone is cut to shorten or lengthen it or to change its alignment. It is sometimes performed to correct a hallux valgus, or to straighten a bone that has healed crookedly following a fracture. It is also used to correct a coxa vara, genu valgum, and genu varum. The operation is done under a general anaesthetic.

Osteotomy is one method to relieve pain of arthritis, especially of the hip and knee. It is being replaced by joint replacement in the older patient.

Due to the serious nature of this procedure, recovery may be extensive. Careful consultation with a physician is important in order to ensure proper planning during a recovery phase. Tools exist to assist recovering patients who may have non–weight bearing requirements and include bedpans, dressing sticks, long-handled shoe-horns, grabbers/reachers and specialized walkers and wheelchairs.

Osteotomies of the hip
Two main types of osteotomies are used in the correction of hip dysplasias and deformities to improve alignment/interaction of acetabulum – (socket) – and femoral head (femur head) – (ball), innominate osteotomies and femoral osteotomies. The bones are cut, reshaped or partially removed to realign the load-bearing surfaces of the joint.

Adjustments are made to part of the hip-bone. Many operating methods and variations have been developed. They are defined by the type of cut and adjustment made. Some acetabular procedures are named after the surgeons who first described them as Salter (R. Salter), Dega (W. Dega), Sutherland (D.H. Sutherland), Chiari (K. Chiari): other names one may encounter are Ludlov, P. Pemberton, and James B. Steele. Some are named after the shape of cut (e.g. Chevron, Wedge) or the way the bones are aligned (Dial=old style rotary dial phone).

A femoral derotation osteotomy can be performed to correct version abnormalities such as excessive anteversion or retroversion of the hip joint. Excessive anteversion of the femur results in anterior instability of the hip joint while excessive retroversion results in femoroacetabular hip impingement.

A subtrochanteric blade plate or an intramedullary rod can be used to stabilize the osteotomy site in a femoral derotation osteotomy until compete bone healing is achieved; an approach employing an intramedullary rod is much less invasive than one using a subtrochanteric blade plate.}

Femoral osteotomies, as the name indicates, involves adjustments made to the femur head and/or the femur.

Osteotomy of the knee
Knee osteotomy is commonly used to realign arthritic damage on one side of the knee. The goal is to shift the patient's body weight off the damaged area to the other side of the knee, where the cartilage is still healthy. Surgeons remove a wedge of the tibia from underneath the healthy side of the knee, which allows the tibia and femur to bend away from the damaged cartilage.

A model for this is the hinges on a door. When the door is shut, the hinges are flush against the wall. As the door swings open, one side of the door remains pressed against the wall as space opens up on the other side. Removing just a small wedge of bone can "swing" the knee open, pressing the healthy tissue together as space opens up between the femur and tibia on the damaged side so that the arthritic surfaces do not rub against each other.

Osteotomy is also used as an alternative treatment to total knee replacement in younger and active patients. Because prosthetic knees may wear out over time, an osteotomy procedure can enable younger, active osteoarthritis patients to continue using the healthy portion of their knee. The procedure can delay the need for a total knee replacement for up to ten years.

Surgery
The location of the removed wedge of bone depends on where osteoarthritis has damaged the knee cartilage. The most common type of osteotomy performed on arthritic knees is a high tibial osteotomy, which addresses cartilage damage on the inside (medial) portion of the knee. The procedure usually takes 60 to 90 minutes to perform.

During a high tibial osteotomy, surgeons remove a wedge of bone from the outside of the knee, which causes the leg to bend slightly inward. This resembles the realigning of a bowlegged knee to a knock-kneed position. The patient's weight is transferred to the outside (lateral) portion of the knee, where the cartilage is still healthy.

After regional or general anesthesia is administered, the surgical team sterilizes the leg with antibacterial solution. Surgeons map out the exact size of the bone wedge they will remove, using an X-ray, CT scan, or 3D computer modeling. A four- to five-inch incision is made down the front and outside of the knee, starting below the kneecap and extending below the top of the shinbone.Guide wires are drilled into the top of the shinbone (tibia plateau) from the outside (lateral side) of the knee. The wires usually outline a triangle form in the shinbone.

A standard oscillating saw is run along the guide wires, removing most of the bone wedge from underneath the outside of the knee, below the healthy cartilage. The cartilage surface on the top of the outside (lateral side) of the shinbone is left intact. The top of the shinbone is then lowered on the outside and attached with surgical staples or screws, depending on the size of the wedge that was removed. The layers of tissue in the knee are stitched together, usually with absorbable sutures.

Rehabilitation and prevention
A fall or torque to the leg during the first two months after surgery may jeopardize healing. Patients must exercise extreme caution during all activities, including walking, until healing is complete.

After rehabilitation, preventing osteoarthritis involves slowing the progression and spread of the disease. Maintaining aerobic cardiovascular fitness has been an effective method for preventing the progression of osteoarthritis. Light, daily exercise is much better for an arthritic knee than occasional, heavy exercise.

It is especially important to avoid any serious knee injuries, such as torn ligaments or fractured bones, because arthritis can complicate knee injury treatment. High-impact or repetitive stress sports, like football and distance running, should be avoided.

Because osteoarthritis has multiple causes and may be related to genetic factors, no universal prevention tactic exists.

General recommendations include:
 * Keeping a slight bend in the knees will take the pressure off during standing.
 * Avoid activities that causes pain which lasts over an hour.
 * Perform controlled range of motion activities that do not overload the joint.
 * Avoid heavy impact on the knees during everyday and athletic activities.
 * Gently strengthen thigh and lower leg muscles to help protect the bones and cartilage in the knee.
 * Non-contact activities keep joints and bones healthy and maintain fitness over time. Exercise also helps promote weight loss, which can take stress off knees.

Osteotomy of the jaw
This is performed to realign the mandible (lower jaw) or maxilla (upper jaw) with the rest of the skull and/or teeth. This is usually performed to correct skeletal malocclusions, that is discrepancies in tooth position that cannot be corrected by simple orthodontic movement, and realignment of the temporomandibular joints, or to correct facial deformities such as mandibular retrognathia. There is little scarring, and all of the surgery takes places inside of the mouth. Orthodontic braces may have to be worn pre- and post- operation to realign the teeth to match the newly realigned jaw.

Osteotomy of the chin
Chin osteotomy is most often done to correct a vertically short chin. As opposed to putting an implant on top of the chin bone to bring it forward, an alternative approach is to cut the chin bone itself and bring it forward or other directions as well. It can also be used to lengthen the chin (which is more difficult with an implant) or to shorten or narrow a chin. (which is impossible with an implant).

Chin osteotomies (cutting the bone and moving it) are done through an incision inside the mouth. It is technically more difficult than an implant and has more swelling and recovery than a simple chin implant. Also, there is usually temporary loss of feeling of the lip and chin after that takes several weeks to months for full return of sensation.

Veterinary osteotomy procedures
In veterinary medicine, osteotomies are frequently performed to address rupture of the canine cranial cruciate ligament, which is analogous to the anterior cruciate ligament. The tibial plateau leveling osteotomy and tibial tuberosity advancement are two of the most common osteotomy procedures performed in the United States. Recovery is often 6–8 weeks and the osteotomy can be filled with autologous bone grafts, scaffolds (hydroxyapatite, TR Matrix, etc.) or ceramics.

title: Osteotomy


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Coxa vara

Coxa vara is a deformity of the hip, whereby the angle between the head and the shaft of the femur is reduced to less than 120 degrees. This results in the leg being shortened and the development of a limp. It may be congenital and is commonly caused by injury, such as a fracture. It can also occur when the bone tissue in the neck of the femur is softer than normal, causing it to bend under the weight of the body. This may either be congenital or the result of a bone disorder. The most common cause of coxa vara is either congenital or developmental. Other common causes include metabolic bone diseases (e.g. Paget's disease of bone), post-Perthes deformity, osteomyelitis, and post traumatic (due to improper healing of a fracture between the greater and lesser trochanter). Shepherd's Crook deformity is a severe form of coxa vara where the proximal femur is severely deformed with a reduction in the neck shaft angle beyond 90 degrees. It is most commonly a sequela of osteogenesis imperfecta, Paget's disease, osteomyelitis, tumour and tumour-like conditions (e.g. fibrous dysplasia).

Coxa vara can happen in cleidocranial dysostosis.

Anatomy
In early skeletal development, a common physis serves the greater trochanter and the capital femoral epiphysis. This physis divides as growth continues in a balance that favors the capital epiphysis and creates a normal neck shaft angle (angle between the femoral shaft and the neck). The corresponding angle at maturity is 135 ± 7 degrees. Another angle used for the measurement of coxa vara is the cervicofemoral angle which is approximately 35 degrees at infancy and increases to 45 degrees after maturity.

Developmental

 * primary defect in endochondral ossification of the medial part of the femoral neck (Most common cause)
 * Excessive interuterine pressure on the developing fetal hip
 * vascular insult
 * Faulty maturation of the cartilage and metaphyseal bone of the femoral neck

Clinical feature: presents after the child has started walking but before six years of age. Usually associated with a painless hip due to mild abductor weakness and mild limb length discrepancy.

If there is a bilateral involvement the child might have a waddling gait or trendelenburg gait with an increased lumbar lordosis. The greater trochanter is usually prominent on palpation and is more proximal. Restricted abduction and internal rotation.

X-ray: decreased neck shaft angle, increased cervicofemoral angle, vertical physis, shortened femoral neck decrease in femoral anteversion. HE angle (Hilgenriener epiphyseal angle- angle subtended between a horizontal line connecting the triradiate cartilage and the epiphysis); normal angle is <30 degrees.

Treatment: HE angle of 45–60 degrees: observation and periodic follow up.

Indication for surgery: HE angle more than 60 degrees, progressive deformity, neck-shaft angle <90 degrees, development of Trendelenburg gait

Surgery: subtrochanteric valgus osteotomy with adequate internal rotation of distal fragment to correct anteversion; common complication is recurrence. If HE angle is reduced to 38 degrees, less evidence of recurrence; post operative spica cast is used for a period of 6–8 weeks.

Coxa vara is also seen in Niemann–Pick disease.

Congenital
Presence at birth is extremely rare and associated with other congenital anomalies such as proximal femoral focal deficiency, fibular hemimelia or anomalies in other part of the body such as cleidocranial dyastosis. The femoral deformity is present in the subtrochanteric area where the bone is bent. The cortices are thickened and may be associated with overlying skin dimples. External rotation of the femur with valgus deformity of knee may be noted. This condition does not resolve and requires surgical management. Surgical management includes valgus osteotomy to improve hip biomechanics and length and rotational osteotomy to correct retroversion and lengthening.

title: Coxa vara


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Enteritis

Enteritis is inflammation of the small intestine. It is most commonly caused by food or drink contaminated with pathogenic microbes, such as Serratia, but may have other causes such as NSAIDs, radiation therapy as well as autoimmune conditions like coeliac disease. Symptoms include abdominal pain, cramping, diarrhoea, dehydration, and fever. Related diseases of the gastrointestinal system (including gastritis, gastroenteritis, colitis, and enterocolitis) involve inflammation of the stomach and large intestine.

Duodenitis, jejunitis, and ileitis are subtypes of enteritis which are localised to a specific part of the small intestine. Inflammation of both the stomach and small intestine is referred to as gastroenteritis.

Signs and symptoms
Signs and symptoms of enteritis are highly variable and vary based on the specific cause and other factors such as individual variance and stage of disease. Symptoms may include abdominal pain, cramping, diarrhea, dehydration, fever, nausea, vomiting, and weight loss.

Immune Mediated
Crohn's disease – also known as regional enteritis, it can occur along any surface of the gastrointestinal tract. The most common location for Crohn's disease to manifest, with or without the involvement of the colon or other parts of the GI tract, is in the terminal ileum (the final segment of the small intestine). In 40% of cases, it is limited to the small intestine.

Autoimmune
Coeliac disease – caused by an autoimmune reaction to gluten by genetically predisposed individuals.

Eosinophilic gastroenteritis, also known as eosinophilic enteropathy or eosinophilic enteritis – a rare and heterogeneous condition where eosinophils build up in the gastrointestinal tract and blood vessels, leading to polyp formation, necrosis, inflammation and ulcers. It is most commonly seen in patients with a history of atopy, however is overall relatively uncommon.

Infectious enteritis
In Germany, 90% of cases of infectious enteritis are caused by four pathogens, Norovirus, Rotavirus, Campylobacter and Salmonella. Other common causes of infectious enteritis include bacteria such as Shigella and E. coli, as well as viruses such as adenovirus, astrovirus and calicivirus. Other less common pathogens include Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium difficile and Staphylococcus aureus.

Campylobacter jejuni is one of the most common sources of infectious enteritis, and the most common bacterial pathogen found in two-year-old and smaller children with diarrhoea. It has been linked to consumption of contaminated water and food, most commonly poultry and milk. The disease tends to be less severe in developing countries, due to the constant exposure which people have with the antigen in the environment, leading to early development of antibodies.

Rotavirus is responsible for infecting 140 million people and causing 1 million deaths each year, mostly in children younger than five years. This makes it the most common cause of severe childhood diarrhoea and diarrhea-related deaths in the world. It selectively targets mature enterocytes in the small intestine, causing malabsorption, as well as inducing secretion of water. It has also been observed to cause villus ischemia, and increase intestinal motility. The net result of these changes is induced diarrhoea.

Enteritis necroticans is an often fatal illness, caused by β-toxin of Clostridium perfringens. This causes inflammation and segments of necrosis throughout the gastrointestinal tract. It is most common in developing countries; however, it has also been documented in post-World War II Germany. Risk factors for enteritis necroticans include decreased trypsin activity, which prevent intestinal degradation of the toxin, and reduced intestinal motility, which increases likelihood of toxin accumulation.

Vascular disease
Ischemic enteritis is uncommon compared to ischemic colitis due to the highly vascularised nature of the small intestine, allowing for sufficient blood flow in most situations. It develops due to circulatory shock of mesenteric vessels in the absence of major vessel occlusion, often associated with an underlying condition such as hypertension, arrhythmia, or diabetes. Thus, it has been considered to be associated with atherosclerosis. Surgical treatment is usually required due to the likelihood of stenosis or complete occlusion of the small intestine. Ischemic damage can range from mucosal infarction, which is limited only to the mucosa; mural infarction of the mucosa and underlying submucosa; to transmural infarction of the full thickness of the gastrointestinal wall. Mucosal and mural infarcts in and of themselves may not be fatal, however may progress further to a transmural infarct. This has the potential for perforation of the wall, leading to peritonitis.

Radiation enteritis
Inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract is common after treatment with radiation therapy to the abdomen or pelvis. It is classified as early if it manifests within the first three months, and delayed if it manifests three months after treatment. Early radiation enteritis is caused by cell death of the crypt epithelium and subsequent mucosal inflammation, however usually subsides after the course of radiation therapy is completed. Delayed radiation enteritis is a chronic disease which has a complex pathogenesis involving changes in the majority of the intestinal wall.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be simple in cases where the patient's signs and symptoms are idiopathic. However, this is generally not the case, considering that many pathogens which cause enteritis may exhibit similar symptoms, especially early in the disease. In particular, campylobacter, shigella, salmonella and many other bacteria induce acute self-limited colitis, an inflammation of the lining of the colon which appears similar under the microscope.

A medical history, physical examination and tests such as blood counts, stool cultures, CT scans, MRIs, PCRs, colonoscopies and upper endoscopies may be used in order to perform a differential diagnosis. A biopsy may be required to obtain a sample for histopathology.

Treatment
Mild cases usually do not require treatment and will go away after a few days in healthy people. In cases where symptoms persist or when it is more severe, specific treatments based on the initial cause may be required.

In cases where diarrhea is present, replenishing fluids lost is recommended, and in cases with prolonged or severe diarrhoea which persists, intravenous rehydration therapy or antibiotics may be required. A simple oral rehydration therapy (ORS) can be made by dissolving one teaspoon of salt, eight teaspoons of sugar and the juice of an orange into one litre of clean water. Studies have shown the efficacy of antibiotics in reducing the duration of the symptoms of infectious enteritis of bacterial origin, however antibiotic treatments are usually not required due to the self-limiting duration of infectious enteritis.

Autoimmune
Autoimmune causes of enteritis such as Crohn's disease require significant chronic treatment to avoid nutritional deficiencies, cancer, bacterial overgrowth, and other complications. Some patients with mild forms of the disease may not need treatment, but a majority of people with Crohn's disease require glucocorticoid medications.

For treating eosinophilic gastroenteritis, the main treatment is usually a corticosteroid medication, as these have been shown to have good efficacy in managing eosinophilic gastroenteritis. Other treatments include modifying diets to avoid food allergies, azathioprine and antibodies, including mepolizumab, omalizumab, infliximab, and adalimumab.

Etymology
The word enteritis uses combining forms of entero- and -itis, both Neo-Latin from Greek, respectively from ἑντερον (enteron, small intestine) and -ιτις (-itis, inflammation).

title: Enteritis


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Wawona, California

Wawona (formerly Big Tree Station, Clark's Station, Clarks Station, Wah-wo-nah, and Clark's Ranch ) is a census-designated place in Mariposa County, California, United States. The population was 111 at the 2020 census.

It is located entirely within Yosemite National Park, as it preceded the founding of the park as a national recreation area. The number of inhabitants increases dramatically during peak tourist seasons, due to the large number of rental cabins in the town. It is located at 37.53694°N, -119.65639°W, 20 mi north of Oakhurst and 26 mi south of the center of Yosemite Valley, at an elevation of 3999 ft.

The ZIP Code is 95389. The community is inside area code 209.

History
It was known to the local Native American Miwok in their language as Pallachun ("a good place to stay"). The origin of the word Wawona is not known. A popular story claims Wawō'na was the Miwok word for "big tree", or for "hoot of the owl", a bird considered the sequoia trees' spiritual guardian.

Galen Clark, who helped gain preservation legislation for Mariposa Grove and what became Yosemite National Park, occupied this area in 1855. He established a tourist rest and modest ranch in 1856. Clark sold the property to the Washburn brothers in 1874, who built a larger hotel in 1876, adding to it later. Hotel keeper Jean Bruce Washburn named the resort property Wawona in 1883.

Wawona is the location of the historic Wawona Hotel, built by Washburn in 1876, with additional structures added into the early 20th century. A classic Victorian resort, it was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1987.

The Clark's Station US Post Office opened in 1878. In 1883 its name was changed to Wawona.

Geography
The town is located in a large mid-elevation basin with Wawona Meadow as its centerpiece. Situated in the southwest part of Yosemite National Park, it lies along the South Fork of the Merced River at an elevation of about 4,000 feet (1,200 m). The town is accessible via State Route 41, the main highway from Fresno to Yosemite Valley. Wawona is the closest town to Chilnualna Falls and the Mariposa Grove of Giant Sequoia. It also serves as the main gateway to the southern Yosemite wilderness, with several principal trailheads located here.

According to the United States Census Bureau, the Wawona CDP covers an area of 1.08 sqmi, all of it land.

Demographics
The 2010 United States Census reported that Wawona had a population of 169. The population density was 26.6 PD/sqmi. The racial makeup of Wawona was 138 (81.7%) White, 2 (1.2%) African American, 3 (1.8%) Native American, 4 (2.4%) Asian, 0 (0.0%) Pacific Islander, 8 (4.7%) from other races, and 14 (8.3%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 12 persons (7.1%).

The Census reported that 163 people (96.4% of the population) lived in households, 6 (3.6%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.

There were 71 households, out of which 16 (22.5%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 29 (40.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 3 (4.2%) had a female householder with no husband present, 4 (5.6%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 4 (5.6%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 2 (2.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 26 households (36.6%) were made up of individuals, and 2 (2.8%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.30. There were 36 families (50.7% of all households); the average family size was 2.94.

The population was spread out, with 32 people (18.9%) under the age of 18, 10 people (5.9%) aged 18 to 24, 46 people (27.2%) aged 25 to 44, 66 people (39.1%) aged 45 to 64, and 15 people (8.9%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 43.6 years. For every 100 females, there were 141.4 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 149.1 males.

There were 370 housing units at an average density of 58.3 /sqmi, of which 22 (31.0%) were owner-occupied, and 49 (69.0%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 4.3%; the rental vacancy rate was 2.0%. 45 people (26.6% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 118 people (69.8%) lived in rental housing units.

Government
In the state legislature, Wawona is in, and in.

In the United States House of Representatives, Wawona is in.

Attractions

 * Camp Wawona
 * Chilnualna Falls
 * Wawona Hotel
 * Wawona Tunnel Tree
 * Pioneer Yosemite History Center

title: Wawona, California


text:
Thomas Blakiston

Thomas Wright Blakiston (27 December 1832 – 15 October 1891) was an English explorer and naturalist.

Early life and career
Born in Lymington, Hampshire, Blakiston was the son of Major John Blakiston. His grandfather was Sir Matthew Blakiston, 2nd Baronet Blakiston. His mother Jane was the daughter of Reverend Thomas Wright, Rector of Market Bosworth, Leicestershire.

Blakiston explored western Canada with the Palliser Expedition between 1857 and 1859. Mount Blakiston, the highest point in Waterton Lakes National Park was named for him in 1858. In 1861, he traveled up the Yangtze River in China, going further than any Westerner before him. He spent the next part of his life in Japan and became one of the major naturalists in that country. Blakiston was the first person to notice that animals in Hokkaidō, Japan's northern island, were related to northern Asian species, whereas those on Honshū to the south were related to those from southern Asia. The Tsugaru Strait between the two islands was therefore established as a zoogeographical boundary, and became known as "Blakiston's Line". Blakiston collected an owl specimen in Hakodate, Japan in 1883. This was later described by Henry Seebohm and named Blakiston's fish owl.

He moved to the United States in 1885.

Personal life and death
Blakiston married Ann Mary Dun in 1885. She was the daughter of James Dun and the sister of Edwin Dun. They had one daughter and one son. Ann Mary survived him by 46 years and died in England in March 1937.

Blakiston died of pneumonia in October 1891 while in San Diego, California. He was buried at Green Lawn Cemetery in Columbus, Ohio, in his wife's family plot.

title: Thomas Blakiston


text:
Verapamil

Verapamil, sold under various trade names, is a calcium channel blocker medication used for the treatment of high blood pressure, angina (chest pain from not enough blood flow to the heart), and supraventricular tachycardia. It may also be used for the prevention of migraines and cluster headaches. It is given by mouth or by injection into a vein.

Common side effects include headache, low blood pressure, nausea, and constipation. Other side effects include allergic reactions and muscle pains. It is not recommended in people with a slow heart rate or heart failure. It is believed to cause problems for the fetus if used during pregnancy. It is in the non–dihydropyridine calcium channel blocker family of medications.

Verapamil was approved for medical use in the United States in 1981. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Verapamil is available as a generic medication. Long acting formulations exist. In 2021, it was the 196th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.

Medical uses
Verapamil is used for controlling ventricular rate in supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) and migraine headache prevention.

Verapamil is also used for the treatment of angina (chronic stable, vasospastic or Prinzmetal variant), unstable angina (crescendo, preinfarction), and for the prevention of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia (PSVT).

Verapamil is a class-IV antiarrhythmic and more effective than digoxin in controlling ventricular rate. Verapamil is not listed as a first line antihypertensive agent by the guidelines provided by JAMA in JNC-8. However, it may be used to treat hypertension if patient has co-morbid atrial fibrillation or other types of arrhythmia.

Verapamil is used intra-arterially to treat cerebral vasospasm. It is also used to treat cluster headaches. Tentative evidence supports the use of verapamil topically to treat plantar fibromatosis.

Use of verapamil in people with recent onset of type 1 diabetes may improve pancreatic beta cell function. In a meta-analysis involving data from 2 randomized controlled trials (113 patients with recent onset type-1 diabetes), Dutta et al. demonstrated use of verapamil over 1 year was associated with significantly higher C-peptide area under the curve levels at 1-year [MD 0.27 nmol/L (95%CI: 0.19-0.35); P < 0.01]. Higher C-peptide levels means better pancreatic insulin production and beta cell function.

Verapamil has been reported to be effective in both short-term and long-term treatment of mania and hypomania. Addition of magnesium oxide to the verapamil treatment protocol enhances the antimanic effect.

Contraindications
Use of verapamil is generally avoided in people with severe left ventricular dysfunction, hypotension (systolic blood pressure less than 90 mm Hg), cardiogenic shock, and hypersensitivity to verapamil. It is also contraindicated in people with atrial flutter or fibrillation and an existing accessory tract such as in Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome.

Side effects
The most common side effect of verapamil is constipation (7.3%). While the definite mechanism by which Verapamil causes constipation has not been studied, studies have been conducted to rule out mechanisms of actions that might yield this adverse effect. In a study conducted by The National Library of Medicine titled, "Effect of Verapamil on the Human Intestinal Transit", the study found that verapamil does not have an effect on upper GI transit but rather in the colon.

Other side effects include dizziness (3.3%), nausea (2.7%), low blood pressure (2.5%), and headache 2.2%. Other side effects seen in less than 2% of the population include: edema, congestive heart failure, pulmonary edema, diarrhea, fatigue, elevated liver enzymes, shortness of breath, low heart rate, atrioventricular block, rash and flushing. Along with other calcium channel blockers, verapamil is known to induce gingival enlargement.

Overdose
Acute overdose is often manifested by nausea, weakness, slow heart rate, dizziness, low blood pressure, and abnormal heart rhythms. Plasma, serum, or blood concentrations of verapamil and norverapamil, its major active metabolite, may be measured to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients or to aid in the medicolegal investigation of fatalities. Blood or plasma verapamil concentrations are usually in a range of 50–500 μg/L in persons on therapy with the drug, but may rise to 1–4 mg/L in acute overdose patients and are often at levels of 5–10 mg/L in fatal poisonings.

Mechanism of action
Verapamil's mechanism in all cases is to block voltage-dependent calcium channels. In cardiac pharmacology, calcium channel blockers are considered class-IV antiarrhythmic agents. Since calcium channels are especially concentrated in the sinoatrial and atrioventricular nodes, these agents can be used to decrease impulse conduction through the AV node, thus protecting the ventricles from atrial tachyarrhythmias. Verapamil is also a Kv voltage gated potassium channel blocker.

Calcium channels are also present in the smooth muscle lining blood vessels. By relaxing the tone of this smooth muscle, calcium channel blockers dilate the blood vessels. This has led to their use in treating high blood pressure and angina pectoris. The pain of angina is caused by a deficit in oxygen supply to the heart.

Calcium channel blockers like verapamil dilate the coronary blood vessels, which increases the supply of blood and oxygen to the heart. They also cause dilatation of systemic peripheral vessels as well, causing a reduction in the workload of the heart. Thereby reducing myocardial oxygen consumption.

Cluster headaches
Preventive therapy with verapamil is believed to work because it has an effect on the circadian rhythm and on CGRPs. As CGRP-release is controlled by voltage-gated calcium channels.

Pharmacokinetic details
More than 90% of verapamil is absorbed when given orally, but due to high first-pass metabolism, bioavailability is much lower (10–35%). It is 90% bound to plasma proteins and has a volume of distribution of 3–5 L/kg. It takes 1 to 2 hours to reach peak plasma concentration after oral administration. It is metabolized in the liver to at least 12 inactive metabolites (though one metabolite, norverapamil, retains 20% of the vasodilatory activity of the parent drug). As its metabolites, 70% is excreted in the urine and 16% in feces; 3–4% is excreted unchanged in urine. This is a nonlinear dependence between plasma concentration and dosage. Onset of action is 1–2 hours after oral dosage. Half-life is 5–12 hours (with chronic dosages). It is not cleared by hemodialysis. It is excreted in human milk. Because of the potential for adverse reaction in nursing infants, nursing should be discontinued while verapamil is administered.

Veterinary use
Intra-abdominal adhesions are common in rabbits following surgery. Verapamil can be given postoperatively in rabbits which have suffered trauma to abdominal organs to prevent formation of these adhesions. Such effect was not documented in another study with ponies.

Uses in cell biology
Verapamil inhibits the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter family of proteins found in stem cells and has been used to study cancer stem cells (CSC) within head and neck squamous cell carcinomas.

Verapamil is also used in cell biology as an inhibitor of drug efflux pump proteins such as P-glycoprotein and other ABC transporter proteins. This is useful, as many tumor cell lines overexpress drug efflux pumps, limiting the effectiveness of cytotoxic drugs or fluorescent tags. It is also used in fluorescent cell sorting for DNA content, as it blocks efflux of a variety of DNA-binding fluorophores such as Hoechst 33342. Radioactively labelled verapamil and positron emission tomography can be used with to measure P-glycoprotein function.

title: Verapamil


text:
Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre

Charles-Irénée Castel, abbé de Saint-Pierre (18 February 1658 – 29 April 1743) was a French author whose ideas were novel for his times. His proposal of an international organisation to maintain peace was among the first in history, with possible exceptions such as George of Poděbrady's Tractatus (1462–1464) and Émeric Crucé. He influenced Rousseau and Kant.

Biography
Saint-Pierre was born at the château of Saint-Pierre-Église near Cherbourg, where his father, the Marquis de Saint-Pierre, was grand bailli of Cotentin. He was educated by the Jesuits. The youngest of five children and unsuited to a military career owing to poor health, he became a priest.

He was introduced by family connections into the salons of Madame de la Fayette and the Marquise de Lambert in Paris. He was elected to the Académie française in 1695, although he had previously produced no notable work; his election was an episode in the Quarrel of the Ancients and the Moderns, Saint-Pierre being a clear representative of the latter. The same year he gained a footing at court as chaplain to Madame, the king's sister-in-law. From 1703 to his death, he was abbot of Tiron.

Contrary to a widely believed opinion, it is not while working as a negotiator of the Treaty of Utrecht (1712–13) that he developed his project of universal peace. Saint-Pierre worked on the idea from 1708 and published early versions from 1712.

In 1718, he published Discours sur la polysynodie, where he proposed that appointed ministers be replaced by elected councils. As a consequence of his criticism of the policy of Louis XIV (died 1715) he was expelled from the Académie later the same year.

In 1723, with Pierre-Joseph Alary he founded the Club de l'Entresol, an early modern think tank in Paris; the club was closed for political reasons in 1731.

He died in Paris on 29 April 1743 aged 85.

Ideas
Saint-Pierre's works are centered on an acute and visionary criticism of politics, law and social institutions. He had a great influence on Rousseau, who left elaborate examinations of some of them, and was a forerunner of Kant's 1795 essay on perpetual peace. He can be seen as an early proponent of the ideas of the Enlightenment. His Projet de paix perpétuelle, which was destined to exercise considerable influence on the development of the various schemes for securing universal peace which culminated in the Holy Alliance, was published in 1713 in Utrecht, where he was acting as secretary to the French plenipotentiary, the Abbé de Polignac, and his Polysynodie contained severe strictures on the government of Louis XIV, with projects for the administration of France by a system of councils for each department of government. His works include a number of memorials and projects for stopping duelling, equalizing taxation, treating mendicancy, reforming education and spelling, etc. It was not, however, for his suggestions for the reform of the constitution that he was disgraced, but because in the Polysynodie he had refused to Louis XIV the title of le Grand.

Saint-Pierre was one of the first to mention the possibility of a European union made by independent and autonomous states. His work on a European community directly inspired the idea of an international order based on the principle of collective self-defense, and was important to the creation of the Concert of Europe, and later the League of Nations, whose successor is the United Nations Organisation. Friederich the Great of Prussia, writing to Voltaire about the Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe, stated that: "The Abbe de Saint-Pierre has sent me a fine work on how to re-establish peace in Europe. The thing is very practicable. All it lacks to be successful, is the consent of all Europe and a few other such small details."

Ideas contributed by Saint-Pierre include:
 * an equitable tax system, including a graduated income tax,
 * free public education, for women as well as men,
 * state improvement of transportation to further commerce,
 * an international court and league of states (Projet de paix perpétuelle 1713),
 * a constitutional monarchy, aided by a system of councils and an academy of experts (Discours sur la polysynodie 1718).

Printed books

 * Ouvrages de morale et de politique. Rotterdam: J.-D. Beman ; Paris: Briasson, 1733–1740
 * Projet pour rendre la paix perpétuelle en Europe. Utrecht: A. Schouten, 1713
 * A lasting peace through the federation of Europe; and, The state of war English translation
 * Discours sur la polysynodie. Amsterdam: Du Villard & Changuion, 1719
 * Projet pour perfectionner l'éducation. Paris: Briasson, 1728
 * Abrégé du projet de paix perpétuelle. Rotterdam: J.-D. Bernan, 1729.
 * An Abridged Version of the Project for Perpetual Peace, ed. Roderick Pace, trans. Carmen Depasquale. Valletta: Midsea Books, 2009. ISBN 978-9993272373
 * De la douceur. Amsterdam: Briasson, 1740
 * André Robinet (ed.), Correspondance G. W. Leibniz, Ch. I. Castel de Saint-Pierre, Paris: Centre de philosophie du droit, 1995. ISBN 978-2911495007

Correspondence
Saint-Pierre exchanged letters with a number of luminaries of his time, including Voltaire. His letters often ended with the formula "Paradise to those who do good".

title: Charles-Irénée Castel de Saint-Pierre


text:
1767 in music

Events

 * February 22 – Lovisa Augusti performs at a concert in Gothenburg directed by a musician of the Hovkapellet.
 * September 11 – Eleven-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, his father Leopold, his mother Anna Maria, and his older sister Nannerl) left Salzburg for Vienna, travelling via Melk (where young Wolfgang plays the organ). A few weeks later, an outbreak of smallpox in Vienna causes them to flee the city, and they travel to Brno.
 * October 26 – Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart is diagnosed with smallpox. He recovers by November 10, but Nannerl then contracts the disease; she also survives.
 * Dictionnaire de musique by Jean-Jacques Rousseau is published.
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composes the first act of an oratorio, Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebots, to be completed by Michael Haydn and Anton Cajetan Adlgasser.

Popular music

 * James Hook's first collection of songs for the Vauxhall Gardens.

Opera

 * Felice Alessandri – Ezio
 * Michael Arne – Cymon
 * Christoph Willibald Gluck – Alceste
 * Johann Adam Hiller – Lottchen am Hofe
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart – Apollo et Hyacinthus
 * Josef Mysliveček
 * Il Bellerofonte
 * Farnace , ED.10:D5
 * Giovanni Paisiello – L'idolo cinese, R.1.10
 * Johann Adolph Hasse – Partenope

Classical music

 * Carl Friedrich Abel – 6 Symphonies, Op. 7
 * Thomas Arne – Four Symphonies
 * Luigi Boccherini – Symphony in D major, G.500
 * Joseph Haydn
 * Symphony No.35 in B-flat major, Hob.I:35
 * Symphony no 39
 * 6 Flute Quartets, Op. 5 (Amsterdam: J. J. Hummel)
 * String Trio in E-flat major, Hob.V:4
 * Divertimento in C major, Hob.XIV:3
 * Divertimento in G major, Hob.XVI:11 (attribution in contest)
 * Divertimento in A major, Hob.XVI:12
 * Michael Haydn – Divertimento for 2 basset-horns, 2 horns and bassoon in C
 * Gabriele Leone – 6 Sonatas for mandolin and basso continuo, Book 1 opus 1
 * Antonio Lolli – 6 Violin Sonatas, Op. 3
 * Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart
 * Die Schuldigkeit des ersten Gebotes, K.35
 * Piano Concerto No.1 in F major, K.37
 * Piano Concerto No.3 in D major, K.40
 * A Berenice, K.70/61c
 * Josef Mysliveček – 6 String Quartets, Op. 2
 * Giuseppe Paolucci – Preces octo vocibus concinendae in oratione quadraginta horarum
 * Antonio Sacchini – Sinfonia in D major
 * William Selby – 10 Voluntarys

Methods and music theory

 * Johann Daniel Berlin – Anleitung zur Tonometrie (Kopenhagen and Leipzig: Friedrich Christian Pelt)
 * Johann Philipp Kirnberger – Der allezeit fertige Polonoisen- und Menuettencomponist (Berlin: George Ludewig Winter), a method for composing by throwing dice
 * Johannes Schmidlin – Deutliche Anleitung zum gründlichen Singen der Psalmen (Zürich: Bürgkli)
 * Granville Sharp – A Short Introduction to Vocal Musick
 * Georg Andreas Sorge – Anleitung zur Fantasie

Births

 * March 17 – Luigi Capotorti, Italian composer (died 1842)
 * March 19 – Leonhard von Call, Austrian composer (died 1815)
 * April 27 – Andreas Romberg, violinist and composer (died 1821)
 * May 4 – Tyagaraja – composer and singer (died 1848)
 * September 17 – Henri Montan Berton, composer, teacher and writer, son of Pierre Montan Berton (died 1844)
 * September 20 – José Maurício Nunes Garcia, composer (died 1830)
 * September 26 – Wenzel Müller, composer (died 1835)
 * November 13 – Bernhard Romberg, cellist and composer (died 1841)
 * December 8 – Fabre d'Olivet, French poet and composer (died 1825)
 * December 10 – Johannes Spech, Hungarian composer (died 1836)
 * December 13 – August Eberhard Müller, German composer (died 1817)
 * date unknown
 * Gottlieb Graupner, musician, composer, educator and publisher (died 1836)
 * Filip Višnjić, poet and guslar player (died 1834)
 * Luigi Zamboni, operatic bass-baritone (died 1837)
 * probable
 * Lewis Lavenu, music seller and publisher (died 1818)

Deaths

 * January 3 – Luca Antonio Predieri, composer (born 1688)
 * April 7 – Franz Sparry, composer (born 1715)
 * June 22 – Johan Henrik Freithoff, violinist and composer (born 1713)
 * June 25 – Georg Philipp Telemann, composer (born 1681)
 * July 3 – Matthew Dubourg, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1707)
 * August 28 – Johann Schobert, harpsichordist and composer (b. c. 1720)
 * September 10 – Charles John Frederick Lampe, organist and composer (born 1739)

title: 1767 in music


text:
Talk:Symbian OS

First Symbian phone
Isnt the first Symbian 6.0 phone Nokia 7650? --194.106.188.16 20:38, 14 July 2006 (UTC) Nope, that was Symbian 6.1. 9210 was the first 6.0 phone, R380 first ER5U phone. Adetaylor 22:38, 16 July 2006 (UTC)

Moving the Symbian article
Most of the conversation below is off-topic, though a lot of it contains valuable suggestions and input. The question was specifically whether this article should be renamed as History of Symbian instead of being a current article on Symbian OS. Short answer - No, do not move the article. The operating system is still in use and the article would be harder to find under the "History of..." name. Perhaps the discussions below incent those with a Symbian bias to update the existing article? 74.241.226.172 (talk) 17:08, 29 September 2010 (UTC)Tal Stewart, 9/29/2010
 * I agree to some extent. It will only be an improvement after rewriting/reshuffling Symbian platform and Symbian OS/History of Symbian. The current organization of the articles in not acceptable to me, because it keeps on causing confusion to all people/readers who are unfamiliar with the subject. Andries (talk) 17:22, 29 September 2010 (UTC)

Symbian and open source
I thought Symbian OS was open source, can someone verify this off hand (and what license it is?) --ShaunMacPherson 12:09, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Symbian OS IS NOT Open Source. It is however an "Open platform" which means an API is provided to third parties allowing applications to be developed outside of Symbian.  Symbian's old tagline (that used to accompany the Logo) was "Innovation through openness" which unintentionally mislead some people into believing that Symbian OS was Open source.    —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.194.43.136 (talk) 14:50, 3 February 2008 (UTC)

 * No that is not correct, Symbian OS source is sold via a development kit license (for development purposes) or customisation kit license (for device creation). --Edderly 22:34, 13 May 2004 (UTC)

 * So I guess this makes it impossible to run free software on Symbian OS, or is it? G-u-a-k-@ 18:40, 11 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Running free software application on an OS does not require the source code to the OS. There is free software running on Symbian OS, since the software development kit (SDK) is available to all. For cross developing on PCs for the Symbian OS devicez, you can use the MS VC++ and/or Borland C++. You can also develop in Java for Symbian OS versions that have the Java runtime. See ...
 * Symbian SDKs
 * Open source development resources for Symbian
 * -- sabre23t 23:06, 11 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * I just found http://symbianos.org, a collection of free software for symbian :)

I think it is open source as from now! —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jeshan (talk • contribs) 16:07, 24 June 2008 (UTC)

That still does not explain why specific open source programs are mentioned in this article. It has absolutely nothing to do with Symbian OS, other than some people apparently liking those tools or not liking proprietary alternatives. 63.241.31.130 (talk) 01:44, 22 November 2008 (UTC)

The Symbian Foundation platform (comprising the former Symbian OS and S60 UI) will be released under the Eclipse Public Licence. See Symbian Foundation website  Thing  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.93.61.49 (talk) 20:21, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

Symbian processors
On what processors does Symbian run, and could it be possible to install a free operating system next to or instead of Symbian? 18:41, 11 Sep 2004 (UTC)
 * I believe Symbian mostly run on Arm9 based CPUs. May be possible to install free OS alongside Symbian, but I haven't come across any when I was using Nokia 9210. You'd have to ask "real" Symbian OS developer this. Try ...
 * Symbian OS discussion forums
 * -- sabre23t 23:06, 11 Sep 2004 (UTC)

 * Symbian OS runs on ARM CPUs. Earlier versions of Symbian OS were used in Psion Series 5 organisers. There is an active project here:
 * Open Psion
 * Which lets you run Linux (and X!) on a Psion Series 5, Series 7, Revo or netBook. In theory the same could be done on phones running later versions of Symbian OS, but I'm not aware of anyone attempting it.
 * --Rob

Can Symbian Os be installed in pentium processors and with a normal desktop configuration.if so how?.
 * Emulator from SDK can be installed, but it can't run native binaries, only those compiled for windows. Serg3d2 07:27, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Symbian redirect
Should it really come here rather than going to Symbian Ltd. which seems rather more natural?

 * Symbian usually associated with OS, not company.Serg3d2 08:47, 27 March 2007 (UTC)

Cleanup tags, Merge
I'm removing the {{cleanup}} tag, if only because the article is now significantly different from when it was originally tagged, and has seen review by many others. Also, regarding the merge-tag from EPOC (computing) to here... does anyone have any comments on that? I'm slightly in favor of keeping the articles separate because: 1) The Symbian OS article is somewhat long already (17k).  2) the EPOC OS work was done by Psion, eg. done by a slightly different company, and we also have separate pages for details like Psion 3 and Psion 5, those pages are similar in length to the EPOC page, and if the EPOC page was felt to be too short, we could even go as far to merge those three together. 3) many people have edited the article, and none of them have performed the merge despite the suggestion. I don't have a really strong feeling on this, though if nobody comments for a while, I might remove the merge tag.  --Interiot 17:35, 8 December 2005 (UTC)
 * Merge because EPOC was an important part of Symbian's history and Psion probably deserve more credit for this than they're getting currently. Plus the EPOC article is short and there is already EPOC info in this article. -- samj in out 13:43, 25 February 2009 (UTC)
 * Merge complete, basic integration done, needs cleanup by expert. -- samj in out 13:51, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

Thoughts on the merge
EPOC really is Symbian OS. There's more difference between Symbian OS 8 and 9 than there is between EPOC 5 and Symbian OS 6. So I am in favour of the merge, but haven't been able/willing to approach it myself.

Once it's all merged into one page then it might be sensible to separate them out a bit, e.g. more pages for different versions. Just my 2p worth, anyway.

Adetaylor 21:38, 9 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Symbian is used on mobile phones, EPOC was more for Psion devices, so for users it's a real difference, also in interface, interaction... I'd suggest leave them as separate articles.

Marijn de Jong 1:57, 14 December 2005 (CET)

I agree that the pages should be merged -- anonymous owner of several Psion PDA devices. 21:19 5 April 2006 (PST)

I'd keep them separate as the devices they run on are different. Stephen B Streater 06:28, 6 April 2006 (UTC)

To give each OS their fair due (which won't happen if they're merged) I think all EPOC (computing) material from this Symbian OS article should be moved (without loss) to the EPOC (computing) article. Just because the OS was merged, doesn't mean we should merge their articles too. The EPOC (computing) article has more historic value and the Symbian OS has more current value. Similar example here is eventhough Windows Mobile is based on Windows CE they're still kept seperate. The suggested content move to EPOC, will also help make this Symbian OS article more focused.—IncidentFlux [ TalkBack 21:32, 26 December 2008 (UTC)

 * Missed this discussion but just finished the merge. Symbian is effectively EPOC, rebadged and run differently. It doesn't justify a separate article (I'd have AfD'd otherwise) and EPOC will see more eyeballs in the Symbian article, giving Psion their due credit. -- samj in out 13:53, 25 February 2009 (UTC)

External link explosion
I'd prefer if the article had only 5-8 external links, beyond those directly connected to Symbian or Nokia. Having a long list of low-quality sites just encourages others to add more low-quality links (and wikipedia isn't a repository of links).

I'm not really closely familiar with all the sites listed here, but I have a few suggestions for organizing these: --Interiot 12:02, 17 April 2006 (UTC)
 * 1) separate out the links that are more associated with developer information, from the sites that list software/hacks to download (since devs and end-users probably want different kinds of content)
 * 2) single-contributor blogs are less valuable than sites that are maintained or contributed to by many people.  I removed symbianreview.com because it's hardly ever updated.  symbianwatch.com is updated somewhat regularly...  could we vote on this one?
 * 3) If there are a lot of forums/wikis out there, can we try to just list the top 3 or 4 of them?

Help with Carbide.c++ page
Hi, given my job at Nokia making Carbide.c++ I'm destined to be biased about my product but thought it would be useful to have a separate page for the tool, much like Visual Studio has its own. Now the Carbide.c++ page has been flagged as advertising... I could use some outside help to weigh the content for neutrality.

Cheers, Maahonen

Hi, I've made it more neutral, although that did involve including some criticism of Carbide. Hopefully you don't mind too much - I expect it should at least save the article from deletion. I definitely do agree it deserves a page. Cheers, Adetaylor 08:06, 13 October 2006 (UTC)

Skulls Virus?
Shouldn't there be a reference to the skulls virus? Solidsnake204 19:28, 11 December 2006 (UTC)
 * No, it's not an actual virus, just a proof of concept never found in the wild. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 81.168.1.18 (talk) 21:50, 28 April 2007 (UTC).

Symbian OS page needs major revamp
I was checking out the Windows Mobile page and its being very well maintained considering the fact Windows Mobile users have a much smaller market share. Can someone with lots of Symbian OS knowledge and experience contribute please. Current sate of this page is just pathetic! —The preceding unsigned comment was added by MMuzammils (talk • contribs) 06:23, 30 December 2006 (UTC).
 * ah but...windows mobile is a windows subset and there are *far* more windoze OS developers than Symbian OS. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 172.209.32.108 (talk) 20:52, 7 April 2007 (UTC).

Windows mobile is derivative of windows ce which is not a subset of windows for CISC. All are members of the superset of microsoft products

Competition section
The "Competition" section appears to be much confused technically, even somewhat self-contradictory.

For instance, there has been no need for real-time features in unix operating systems to properly drive the network stack, even at 10gbit, and this has not prevented them from breaking the land speed records. As long as hardware interrupts can be served with a minimum of latency and code (either delegating to software interrupts or other scheduling mechanisms such as a task or thread), a networking stack should be no issue for a non-realtime operating system with a single processor. Adding a second processor does not change this either.

Moreover, it is generally more common for an RTOS to explicitely dedicate tasks to specific processors, while the section appears to state otherwise (and an RT or non-RT OS can both properly function with single or multiple processors as long as the scheduler and structure of the OS allows it).

As for power saving, most multitasking OSs allow to temporarily halt the processor until an interesting hardware interrupt occurs (and the interesting ones can be specified in software via the interrupt mask).

Thus, it appears erroneous to directly link OS capability with hardware configuration, which the text appears to suggest.

IMO, it requires a rewrite. The competition issue more has to do with human decisions and market factors than with hardware or software capabilities in this context, because the processors and memory in units which can run Symbian OS are capable enough to run a variety of other OSs (as well as NetBSD or Linux, for instance).

66.11.179.30 10:23, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Hi, I wrote most of that originally, and I've no problem with anyone who wants to rewrite it. Adetaylor 13:40, 22 January 2007 (UTC)

Well it looks like someone completely re-wrote it. I took out the reference to Android, since that isn't yet technically competition. Also, should iPhone OS really be referenced as such? Apple claims it's OSX, which I'm technically dubious about, but I guess they can call it what they want to call it. Left as is for now. Morisy (talk) 12:06, 21 May 2008 (UTC)

Confusion in the Info box and the introductory lines.
The introductory line says that the Symbian OS "runs exclusively on ARM processors", whereas the info box says that the x86 platform is also supported. Well, as far as I know, 0x86 is nearly out of the market for mobile phones. So the info box is either redundant, or for the sake of completeness, is contradictory to the introduction lines. I could not find any site complementing the claim neither refuting it. So can anyone please make the necessary changes?

Musically ut 05:51, 1 February 2007 (UTC)
 * the emulator builds run on intel :)

Design
There are a bit too many claims about how the design of Symbian OS with leaves, cleanup stack and active objects help reduce memory.

To use the cleanup-stack and LEAVEs instead of for example auto pointers and exceptions, makes the programmer him/herself more directly responsible for memory management, which may or may not be safer than letting this be more automatic. Also it is really up to the programmer if this will save footprint.

Symbian descriptors save a couple of bytes per string compared with STL's strings, how much importance is this of today compared to code portability?

Also I doubt the CPU switches off when there are no events to process. --Magnez 22:51, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

 * You are correct. The claims, if any will be overstatements. Readers Write About Symbian, OS X and the iPhone will make an interesting read and it backs most of the claims made in the Article here. Musically ut 07:35, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Hi there, the article says:

" There is a strong emphasis on conserving memory, using Symbian-specific programming idioms such as descriptors and a cleanup stack. Together with other techniques, these keep memory usage low and memory leaks rare. "

I think I wrote that (and a lot of the rest of the article). The first sentence is obviously true - there's certainly a large emphasis on these things in Symbian OS programming, whether or not they do any good! You can't go two lines of code in a Symbian programme without bumping into one or the other. As for the second sentence - it probably could do with citing something, but I'd still say it's clearly true. Memory leaks are indeed rare on Symbian OS, and memory usage is low. It's the overall *emphasis* of the OS, including these individual features as examples, that make it that way.

In general terms I wish that Symbian OS did use STL strings and exceptions instead. I'm sure that would be the right decision decision nowadays (we can argue indefinitely about whether it was the right one when Symbian OS was made). But, nevertheless, there's still an emphasis on saving memory, with some success, and I reckon most Symbian books will tell you so.

CPU switching off: yes, that's an overstatement. The CPU goes into a low-power mode and doesn't process any instructions; it just waits for interrupts. This is made possible by a general OS architecture which largely removes the need for polling. For this reason, a Symbian OS phone can go many seconds or minutes between responding to interrupts, without the CPU powering up enough to process any instructions. This is only possible due to the universal provision of asynchronous APIs all over the place (which manifests itself in the universal use of active objects). I don't know for sure, but I have serious doubts that a Linux phone or any other desktop-oriented OS, is quite so focussed on asynchronity and thus able to be quite so aggressive in putting the CPU into a low power mode.

Generally: when I began, this page was basically a stub. I expanded it a lot. I'm sure I should have cited some sources etc. There seems to be a consensus that a lot of this page is rubbish, and needs redoing. I totally agree: I think that this page is woefully inadequate for coverage of Symbian OS, and I wish somebody else would muck in and revitalise it. But believe me it's better than when I started :-) Adetaylor 08:38, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

 * Actually, on some current silicon platforms the clocks and voltage regulators supplying the CPU core will be turned off when the platform is put into it's lowest power modes so by that definition, the CPU can be considered to be turned off. Obviously this needs some careful management to ensure that the CPU can be woken up in time to process any events but it would just not be possible to have a high speed processor in a phone with a standby time of several days on a small battery without this kind of technology - Anon

Openness and GPL
Can editor comment the latest "Openness" edit about GPL ? Is it applicable to GPL 1 ? What about LGPL ? What is the source of information ? Is it editor opinion, or there were some precedents ? I think this part need more in depth explanation and references.Serg3d2 16:58, 15 October 2007 (UTC)

Should be info about platform security hack put here ?Serg3d2 (talk) 18:27, 29 March 2008 (UTC)

Hard vs. Soft
The claim that this is a "hard" Real-Time OS (RTOS) needs to be backed-up with a reference. Most commercial real-time systems are soft; only medical and other safety/critical systems constitute hard real-time systems. PDAs and smart phones do not constitute hard systems. It is a very common misconception to think of any system with real-time response as a 'hard' real-time system. In fact, most are soft. This includes networking devices. Also, the designation is that of the entire system, including the hardware, not just of the RTOS. P00r 04:18, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

Tone
Why is there a flag in the Structure section questioning the articles tone? Mathiastck (talk) 20:05, 28 January 2008 (UTC)

Linux phones need two cores??
from artical:

"Symbian OS EKA2 supports sufficiently-fast real-time response that it is possible to build a single-core phone around it - that is, a phone in which a single processor core executes both the user applications and the signalling stack. This is not a feature that is available from Linux. "

...apparently this company has made a Linux phone running on a single core: http://www.purplelabs.com/news-press-release-view.php?code=76

"NXP offers powerful 3G and 3.5G multimedia platforms running on a single ARM926 processor core" —Preceding unsigned comment added by 81.172.90.47 (talk) 19:35, 4 February 2008 (UTC)

Performance problems
Should there be some part of the article talking about the bad performance problems (and fixes of some of them in later versions) of symbian OS. (especially file access was very slow on old versions, now faster but still not very good)Hkultala (talk) 07:05, 6 October 2008 (UTC)

Symbian is going open source
According to computerworld.com Symbian OS is going open source. Could someone with wiki-skills write this —Precedingunsigned comment added by 87.56.189.197 (talk) 14:27, 25 June 2008 (UTC)
 * That article says very little, and many news outlets seem to be confusing the marketing term "open operating system" (meaning that anyone can develop for it) with "open source" (which means something else entirely). There needs to be more proof than this that Symbian is turning open source, if this is the case. Xmoogle (talk) 22:53, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

"Open"
It seems Nokia and the other Symbian people are talking a lot about Symbian being an "open platform", meaning that anyone can develop software for it, which a lot of people (including people in this talk page) are mistaking for meaning that the OS itself is open source. In fact, before I made an edit to change it a few minutes ago, the article was calling Symbian an "Open Operating System" (a marketing phrase used a lot by the Symbian people), with the word "Open" linked to Open Source Software. As I'm 99% sure Symbian is *not* open source, this is misleading and wrong, and I intend to revert any edits that again make it look like it's an open source OS, unless such edits cite a reliable source confirming it to be open source - and be careful, as some news articles have *also* seemingly confused the "open OS" marketing term with "open source" - and preferably state what license the OS is under, and a link to where the source code can be downloaded would also be helpful (this doesn't seem to exist so far). So please, don't make the mistake of implying (or outright stating) that Symbian is open source unless there is reliable proof that this is the case. Xmoogle (talk) 22:50, 26 November 2008 (UTC)

 * It's not even open in that way, because developers need to get their software signed, but they can't access all features even after that, and other serious restrictions (e.g. locking to IMEI, 36 months time limit) are in effect. Sounds like Microsoft's illegal tactics. http://www.simplysymbian.com/2008/03/04/how-to-symbian-sign-applications-using-open-signed/

 * Some news about symbian & open source: http://www.computerworlduk.com/toolbox/open-source/open-source-business/news/index.cfm?newsid=12260 oc666 (talk) 13:31, 8 December 2008 (UTC)

Open, free, proprietary?
I just removed Category:Free_software_operating_systems, added added proprietary in the first line. This article also needs some references to what Symbian really means by "open", as in "open mobile operating system", from what I found it's not open as in open source. Guaka (talk) 12:28, 24 February 2009 (UTC)
 * http://news.zdnet.co.uk/0,1000000073,39672469,00.htm "Published: 09 Jul 2009 15:36 BST   - The Symbian Foundation has released its first open-source software package, the first step in the organisation's plan to eventually open source the entire Symbian mobile operating system." Guaka (talk) 05:29, 14 July 2009 (UTC)
 * eventually was the key word. Netrat (talk) 22:32, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

Help expand: Python, Mobile Web Server (Apache), P.I.P.S. for S60
Please help expand the following Symbian OS related articles:
 * Python for S60
 * Mobile Web Server (Apache HTTP Server)
 * P.I.P.S. Is POSIX on Symbian

Thanks!—IncidentFlux [ TalkBack 21:40, 26 December 2008 (UTC)

Install apps
How can I install programs (i.e. PDF reader) in Symbian phone ?. Do I have to download the file to a PC and them install it in the mobile phone ? How ?. Regards.--Nopetro (talk) 13:27, 30 April 2009 (UTC)

WorkAbout
Workabout mx is no longer in production, it appears in the 'discontinued products' category of Psion's website. Edited the article. A new version, Psion Workabout pro, running windows is in production however. Shyboy16 (talk) 16:45, 21 December 2009 (UTC)

Article split, deletion, merge, etc
This is just silly. Symbian OS and Symbian are not different products. This was a mere marketing trick, shortering OS name. It makes not sense having 2 separate articles or marking Symbian OS as "historic". Netrat (talk) 22:31, 22 September 2009 (UTC)

This article has been split. The new article is Symbian. I nominated the new article for deletion. At least it should be redirected to this article. You can comment at the nomination page here: Articles for deletion/Symbian.-- Lester  00:29, 4 October 2009 (UTC)

This thread has been active and discussed in Talk:Symbian, please see, Thanks! —-— .: Seth_Nimbosa :. (talk • contribs) 05:19, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

Qt
I expect Qt to have some words in this long Symbian text. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Comptrol (talk • contribs) 15:19, 27 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Indeed! I've now updated it to reference Qt. It's still possible to use Symbian C++ to develop so I guess we should leave the section as one of the possible languages (as well as keeping it for historical reasons). Although I wonder if we should trim it down now - there seems a lot of rant/criticism about Symbian C++ being poor, but that's no longer fair or relevant now that standard C++ with Qt is the official SDK for Symbian. Mdwh (talk) 22:06, 5 August 2010 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: no consensus for a simple rename. The proposed target article name is available, so anyone can perform the rename after then necessary rearrangement of information has taken place. Kotniski (talk) 10:42, 31 August 2010 (UTC)

Symbian OS → History of Symbian — The split between Symbian OS and Symbian platform keeps on causing confusion for the average reader and to contributors. The split may be acceptable from an inside perspective because of the significant changes in ownership of Symbian, but here in Wikipedia we treat subjects from an outside perspective. Andries (talk) 08:43, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

See talk:Symbian. I think the discussion should be there. Not here. Andries (talk) 09:00, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

I think part of the problem is that the whole split in the first place is premature - whilst Symbian platform is now the current OS being developed, AIUI there has yet to be a Nokia phone released using this, and won't be until the N8 is released. All the current Symbian phones you can buy in shops like the 5xxx series, X6 and N97, are Symbian OS (S60 5th edition) phones, which Wikipedia is talking about as being "historical". Also, all the figures such as getting 40-50% of the smartphone market refer to Symbian OS, not Symbian platform - so again, it seems odd to refer to it as "historical"! It's also confusing to me how Symbian^1 relates to S60 5th edition - are these different names for exactly the same thing? The articles are a bit vague.

Long term, yes I agree that having a primary page about Symbian, and a History page, makes best sense. For now, I would still expect discussion of Symbian OS (at least, the latest version that still ships of current phones), as well as the new Symbian platform, in the "main" Symbian article. Mdwh (talk) 15:20, 8 August 2010 (UTC)
 * But the current phones Nokia X6 and Nokia N97 are also part of the Symbian platform. See Symbian_platformAndries (talk) 15:26, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Well this is what I was wondering - are the current "S60 5th edition" also considered the Symbian^1 platform? If so, I would support renaming this to being a History article. Some of the content here would still be relevant for the "main" Symbian article (e.g., mentioning of it being the number 1 in sales), and should be moved across. Mdwh (talk) 22:20, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * Yes, Symbian^1= S60 5th Edition. Andries (talk) 22:25, 19 August 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Insert non-formatted text here

Recent merge into Symbian platform
See Talk:Symbian

title: Talk:Symbian OS


text:
Kraków uprising

The Kraków uprising (Polish: powstanie krakowskie, rewolucja krakowska; German: Krakauer Aufstand; Russian: краковское восстание) of 1846 was an attempt, led by Polish insurgents such as Jan Tyssowski and Edward Dembowski, to incite a fight for national independence. The uprising was centered on the city of Kraków, the capital of a small state of Free City of Krakow. It was directed at the powers that partitioned Poland, in particular the nearby Austrian Empire. The uprising lasted about nine days and ended with an Austrian victory.

Background
The uprising was primarily organized and supported by members of the Polish nobility and middle class, who desired the restoration of Polish independence after the 1795 partitions of Poland ended its existence as a sovereign state; there was also support for various political and social reforms (such as the demands for the emancipation of peasants and an end to serfdom). Many of the insurgents' ideas were developed in exile by activists from organizations such as the Polish Democratic Society. The uprising was supposed to take place in other locations, but poor coordination and arrests by authorities broke many other cells, most notably in Greater Poland. The uprising was also supported by some local peasants from the Free City and the miners of the Wieliczka salt mine. The Free City of Krakow, nominally independent, was a central place for pro-Polish independence activists to discuss their plans.

Initial success
The uprising began on the night of 20 February 1846. It was successful in a short term, briefly taking over the city of Kraków. Faced with riots, demonstrations and barricades, a small Austrian force in the city under General Ludwig Collin quickly retreated. A provisional government formed on 22 February. That day it issued a radical "Manifesto for the Polish Nation", in which it ordered the end of many elements of serfdom, such as corvée, declared universal suffrage, and other revolutionary ideas inspired by the French Revolution.

Most of the uprising was limited to the Free City of Krakow, where its leaders included Jagiellonian University philosophy professor Michał Wiszniewski, and lecturer and lawyer Jan Tyssowski, who declared himself a dictator on 24 February (Tyssowski was assisted by radical democrat, acting as his secretary, Edward Dembowski, who according to some might have been the real leader of the revolutionary government). On 27 February a struggle for power developed, and Wiszniewski, after a failed attempt to take power, was exiled by Tyssowski and Dembowski within a matter of hours.

Suppression
Austrian forces in the area were led by Ludwig von Benedek. The revolutionaries, despite some support from the Free City and its immediate surroundings, fared badly in the wider countryside. They had up to 6,000 volunteers, but many were badly trained and poorly armed. The rebels suffered a defeat on 26 February at the Battle of Gdów and were quickly dispersed by von Benedek's forces. The Polish commander, Colonel Jakub Suchorzewski, was criticized for poor leadership, and for not taking sufficient precautions despite scout reports of an approaching enemy force. The battle was very short, as the Polish forces collapsed almost immediately, with most of the infantry captured or killed by the peasants accompanying the Austrian forces.

The uprising was soon suppressed by the Austrian army with help from local peasants. The peasant counter-revolt, known as the Galician slaughter, was likely encouraged by the Austrian authorities, who exploited the peasants' dissatisfaction with the landowners. It was ironic, as historian Eric Hobsbawm has noted, that the peasants turned their anger on the revolutionaries, whose ideals included the improvement of peasant situation. Instead, most peasants trusted the Austrian officials, some of whom even promised the peasants to end serfdom and pay a stipend for their participation in the militia aimed at quashing the Polish noble insurgents. In one village, when the rebels tried to persuade the peasants that they would be better off if the Austrians were expelled, the peasants replied that they were familiar with stories of landowner brutality under the Polish Commonwealth and that they were glad they could now complain to the Austrian emperor.

It is estimated that about 1,000–2,000 Polish nobility who supported the uprising died in the conflict. According to Judson, the Austrian military in fact had to intervene at one point to stop the violence and protect the rebels.

According to Lerski, Dembowski was apprehended and executed by the Austrians. Others, such as Nance, Davies and Zamoyski however provide another account of his death; according to these sources he died on 27 February fighting the Austrian army, after a religious procession with which he attempted to quell the peasants was attacked. Whatever the case, the government of Tyssowski surrendered, just nine days after taking power, and Kraków was occupied first by Russians (on 3 March), and soon afterward (perhaps on the same day ), by the Austrians under Collin. (Davies however writes that Russians joined Austrians on 4 March). Tyssowski, who crossed the Prussian border with about 1,500 soldiers on 4 March, was interned, and later emigrated to the United States.

Aftermath
Austria and Russia signed a treaty on 16 November, deciding to end the status of Kraków as the Free City. Subsequently, Kraków and its surrounding area were annexed to the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, a province of the Austrian Empire, with its capital at Lemberg (Lwów, Lviv). This violation of the 1815 Treaty of Vienna caused a short lived scandal in European politics of the day. Kraków would be relegated to the role of a provincial capital in the Empire.

Significance
As noted by Anderson, despite its failure, the uprising was seen by some scholars, including Karl Marx, as a "deeply democratic movement that aimed at land reform and other pressing social questions". The uprising was praised by Marx and Friedrich Engels for being "the first in Europe to plant the banner of social revolution", and seen by them, as well as some modern scholars, precursor to the coming Spring of Nations. This view is common in the Polish historiography.

The Uprising, and related events in partitioned Poland (namely the Greater Poland Uprising 1846 and the Galician slaughter), were widely discussed in the contemporary European press.

The Austrian Empire, and the Metternich regime, ultimately lost out in the propaganda war that followed the Uprising. The fact that the peasantry supported the Austrians over a return to Polish rule was lost, with the rebels successfully claiming that the Austrians had effectively bought off the peasants and turned them against their national leaders. The conservative Metternich also would struggle to openly admit that peasant violence was justifiable, even if it was in support of the Habsburg Empire.

As soon as the Kraków Uprising was put down, the Austrians pacified the insurgent peasantry, briefly restoring the feudal order. Those peasants who stood down and followed the authorities, like the peasant leader Jakub Szela, were rewarded. Nonetheless, in Austria, reforms were spurred by the Kraków Uprising of 1846 and the Spring of Nations in 1848, resulting in the abolishment of serfdom in 1848.

Notable participant

 * Walerian Kalinka

title: Kraków uprising


text:
Little Russia

Little Russia (Малороссия; Малоросія), also known in English as Malorussia, Little Rus' (Малая Русь; Мала Русь), Rus' Minor (from Μικρὰ Ῥωσία), and the French equivalent Petite Russie, is a geographical and historical term used to describe Ukraine. Since 1334, Yuri II Boleslav, the ruler of the Ruthenian Kingdom of Galicia–Volhynia, signed his decrees Natus dux totius Russiæ minoris, but the expression μικρὰ Ρωσσία is found as early as 1292, in the Byzantine writer Codinus. The distinction between "Great" and "Little" Rus' probably originated among Byzantine, Greek-speaking clerics who wanted to separate the two Ruthenian ecclesiastical metropolises of Halych and Moscow.

The specific meaning of the adjectives "Great" and "Little" in this context is unclear. It is possible that terms such as "Little" and "Lesser" at the time simply meant geographically smaller and/or less populous, or having fewer eparchies. Another possibility is that it denoted a relationship similar to that between a homeland and a colony (just as "Magna Graecia" denoted a Greek colony).

The name "Little Rus'" went out of use in the late 15th century as distinguishing the "Great" and "Little" was no longer necessary since the Muscovite Rus' church was no longer tied to Kyiv/Kiev; in this period, the term Rus', including the Greek-influenced spelling "Rossiia", was used to refer to modern Belarus and Ukraine by their inhabitants. However, with the rise of the Catholic Ruthenian Uniate Church in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, Orthodox prelates attempting to seek support from Moscow revived the name using Greek-influenced spelling: "Malaia Rossiia" ("Little Russia"). Then "Little Russia" developed into a political and geographical concept in Russia, referring to most of the territory of modern-day Ukraine, especially the territory of the Cossack Hetmanate. Accordingly, derivatives such as "Little Russian" (Малоросс) were commonly applied to the people, language, and culture of the area. A large part of the region's elite population adopted a Little Russian identity that competed with the local Ukrainian identity. The territories of modern-day southern Ukraine, after being annexed by Russia in the 18th century, became known as Novorossiya ("New Russia").

After the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, and with the amalgamation of Ukrainian territories into one administrative unit (the Ukrainian People's Republic and then the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic), the term started to recede from common use. Today, the term is anachronistic, and many Ukrainians regard its usage as offensive.

Etymology and name variations

The toponym translates as Little or Lesser Rus’ and is adapted from the Greek term, used in medieval times by Patriarchs of Constantinople since the 14th century (it first appeared in church documents in 1335). The Byzantines called the northern and southern parts of Rus’ lands Μεγάλη Ῥωσσία (Megálē Rhōssía) – Greater Rus’) and Μικρὰ Ῥωσσία (Mikrà Rhōssía – Lesser or Little Rus’), respectively, similarly to Asia Minor vs Greater Asia. Initially Little or Lesser meant the nearer part, as after the division of the united Rus' Metropolis (ecclesiastical province) into two parts in 1305, a new southwestern metropolis in the Kingdom of Halych-Volynia consisted of only 6 of the 19 former eparchies. It later lost its ecclesiastical associations and became a geographical name only.

In the 17th century, the term Malorossiya was introduced into Russian. In English the term is often translated Little Russia or Little Rus’, depending on context.

The Russian-Polish geographer and ethnographer Zygmunt Gloger in his "Geography of historic lands of the Old Poland" ("Geografia historyczna ziem dawnej Polski") describes an alternative view of the term "Little" in relations to Little Russia where he compares it to the similar term of "Little Poland".

Historical usage
The first recorded usage of the term is attributed to Boleslaus George II of Halych. In a 1335 letter to Dietrich von Altenburg, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, he styled himself «dux totius Rusiæ Minoris». The name was used by Patriarch Callistus I of Constantinople in 1361 when he created two metropolitan sees: Great Rus' in Vladimir and Kiev and Little Rus' with its centers in Galich (Halych) and Novgorodok (Navahrudak). King Casimir III of Poland was called "the king of Lechia and Little Rus'." According to Mykhaylo Hrushevsky, Little Rus' was the Halych-Volhynian Principality, after the downfall of which the name ceased to be used.

In the post-medieval period, the name Little Rus' was first used by the Eastern Orthodox clergy of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, e.g. by influential cleric and writer Ioan Vyshensky (1600, 1608), Metropolitan Matthew of Kiev and All Rus' (1606), Bishop Ioann (Biretskoy) of Peremyshl, Metropolitan Isaiah (Kopinsky) of Kiev, Archimandrite Zacharias Kopystensky of Kiev Pechersk Lavra, etc. The term has been applied to all Orthodox Ruthenian lands of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Vyshensky addressed "the Christians of Little Russia, brotherhoods of Lviv and Vilna," and Kopystensky wrote "Little Russia, or Kiev and Lithuania."

The term was adopted in the 17th century by the Tsardom of Russia to refer to the Cossack Hetmanate of Left-bank Ukraine, when the latter fell under Russian protection after the Treaty of Pereyaslav (1654). From 1654 to 1721, the official title of Russian tsars contained the language (literal translation) "The Sovereign of all Rus': the Great, the Little, and the White."

The term Little Rus' has been used in letters of the Cossack Hetmans Bohdan Khmelnytsky and Ivan Sirko. Innokentiy Gizel, Archimandrite of the Kiev-Pechersk Lavra, wrote that the Russian people were a union of three branches—Great Russia, Little Russia, and White Russia—under the sole legal authority of the Moscow Tsars. The term Little Russia has been used in Ukrainian chronicles by Samiilo Velychko, in a chronicle of the Hieromonk Leontiy (Bobolinski), and in Thesaurus by Archimandrite Ioannikiy (Golyatovsky).

The usage of the name was later broadened to apply loosely to the parts of Right-bank Ukraine when it was annexed by Russia at the end of the 18th century upon the partitions of Poland. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the Russian Imperial administrative units known as the Little Russian Governorate and eponymous General Governorship were formed and existed for several decades before being split and renamed in subsequent administrative reforms.

Up to the very end of the 19th century, Little Russia was the prevailing term for much of the modern territory of Ukraine controlled by the Russian Empire, as well as for its people and their language. This can be seen from its usage in numerous scholarly, literary and artistic works. Ukrainophile historians Mykhaylo Maksymovych, Mykola Kostomarov, Dmytro Bahaliy, and Volodymyr Antonovych acknowledged the fact that during the Russo-Polish wars, Ukraine had only a geographical meaning, referring to the borderlands of both states, but Little Russia was the ethnonym of Little (Southern) Russian people. In his prominent work Two Russian nationalities, Kostomarov uses Southern Rus and Little Russia interchangeably. Mykhailo Drahomanov titled his first fundamental historic work Little Russia in Its literature (1867–1870). Different prominent artists (e.g., Mykola Pymonenko, Kostyantyn Trutovsky, Nikolay Aleksandrovich Sergeyev, photographer Sergey Prokudin-Gorsky, etc.), many of whom were native to the territory of modern-day Ukraine, used Little Russia in the titles of their paintings of Ukrainian landscapes.

The term Little Russian language was used by the state authorities in the first Russian Empire Census, conducted in 1897.

From Little Russia to Ukraine
The term Little Russia, which traces its origin to medieval times, was once widely used as the name for the geographic territory. The first appearance of the name Ukraine (Ukraina) was in 12th-century chronicles; it was used sporadically from the mid-17th century until it was reintroduced in the 19th century by several writers making a conscious effort to awaken Ukrainian national awareness. But it was not until the 20th century when the modern term Ukraine started to prevail, while Little Russia gradually fell out of use.

Modern context
The term Little Russia (Rus' Minor) is now anachronistic when used to refer to the country Ukraine and the modern Ukrainian nation, its language, culture, etc. Such usage is typically perceived as conveying an imperialist view that the Ukrainian territory and people ("Little Russians") belong to "one, indivisible Russia." Today, many Ukrainians consider the term disparaging, indicative of imperial Russian (and Soviet) suppression of Ukrainian identity and language. It has continued to be used in Russian nationalist discourse, in which modern Ukrainians are presented as a single people in a united Russian nation. This has provoked new hostility toward and disapproval of the term by some Ukrainians. In July 2021 Vladimir Putin published a 7000-word essay, a large part of which was devoted to expounding these views.

"Little Russianness"
The concept of "Little Russianness" (малоросійство) is defined by some Ukrainian authors as a provincial complex they see in parts of the Ukrainian community due to its lengthy existence within the Russian Empire. They describe it as an "indifferent, and sometimes a negative stance towards Ukrainian national-statehood traditions and aspirations, and often as active support of Russian culture and of Russian imperial policies". Mykhailo Drahomanov, who used the terms Little Russia and Little Russian in his historical works, applied the term Little Russianness to Russified Ukrainians, whose national character was formed under "alien pressure and influence" and who consequently adopted the "worse qualities of other nationalities and lost the better ones of their own". Ukrainian conservative ideologue and politician Vyacheslav Lypynsky defined the term as "the malaise of statelessness". The same inferiority complex has been said to apply to the Ukrainians of Galicia with respect to Poland (gente ruthenus, natione polonus). The related term Madiarony has been used to describe Magyarized Rusyns in Carpathian Ruthenia who advocated for the union of that region with Hungary.

The term "Little Russians" has also been used to denote stereotypically uneducated, rustic Ukrainians exhibiting little or no self-esteem. The uncouth stage persona of popular Ukrainian singer and performer Andriy Mykhailovych Danylko is an embodiment of this stereotype; his Surzhyk-speaking drag persona Verka Serduchka has also been seen as perpetuating this demeaning image. Danylko himself usually laughs off such criticism of his work, and many art critics argue that his success with the Ukrainian public is rooted in the unquestionable authenticity of his presentation.

In popular culture
Tchaikovsky's Symphony No 2 in C minor, Op 17, is nicknamed the "Little Russian" from its use of Ukrainian folk tunes. According to historian Harlow Robinson, Nikolay Kashkin, a friend of the composer as well as a well-known musical critic in Moscow, "suggested the moniker in his 1896 book Memories of Tchaikovsky."

title: Little Russia


text:
Great Russia

Great Russia, sometimes Great Rus' (Великая Русь, Velikaya Rus', Великая Россия, Velikaya Rossiya, Великороссия, Velikorossiya), is a name formerly applied to the territories of "Russia proper", the land that formed the core of the Grand Duchy of Moscow and later the Tsardom of Russia. This was the land to which the ethnic Russians were native and where the ethnogenesis of (Great) Russians took place. The name is said to have come from the Greek Μεγάλη Ῥωσ(σ)ία, Megálē Rhōs(s)ía.

From 1654 to 1721, Russian Tsars adopted the word – their official title included the wording (literal translation): "The Sovereign of all Rus': the Great, the Little, and the White".

The term is mentioned in the opening lines of the State Anthem of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics: "Unbreakable Union of freeborn Republics Great Russia has welded forever to stand!" (or lit. "An unbreakable union of free republics, Great Russia has sealed forever").

Similarly, the terms Great Russian language (Великорусский язык, Velikorusskiy yazyk) and Great Russians (Великороссы, Velikorossy) were employed by ethnographers and linguists in the 19th century, but have since fallen out of use.

The area became, together with the Volga-Ural region, North Caucasus and Siberia, the Russian SFSR, while Little Russia and White Russia became the Ukrainian SSR and the Byelorussian SSR respectively.

title: Great Russia