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Postage stamps and postal history of the Confederate States

The postage stamps and postal system of the Confederate States of America carried the mail of the Confederacy for a brief period in U.S. history. Early in 1861 when South Carolina no longer considered itself part of the Union and demanded that the U.S. Army abandon Fort Sumter, plans for a Confederate postal system were already underway. Indeed, the Confederate Post Office was established on February 21, 1861; and it was not until April 12 that the American Civil War officially began, when the Confederate Army fired upon U.S. soldiers who had refused to abandon the fort. However, the United States Post Office Department continued to handle the mail of the seceded states as usual during the first weeks of the war. It was not until June 1 that the Confederate Post Office took over collection and delivery, now faced with the task of providing postage stamps and mail services for its citizens.

The C.S. Constitution had provided for a national postal service to be established, then required it to be self-financing beginning March 1, 1863 (Section 8. Powers of Congress, Item 7). President Jefferson Davis had appointed John Henninger Reagan on March 6, 1861, to head the new Confederate Post Office Department. The Confederate Post Office proved to be very efficient and remained in operation for the entire duration of the Civil War.

Beginnings
During the first seven weeks of the Civil War, the U.S. Post Office still delivered mail from the seceded states. Mail that was postmarked after the date of a state's admission into the Confederacy through May 31, 1861, and bearing U.S. (Union) postage is deemed to represent 'Confederate State Usage of U.S. Stamps'. i.e., Confederate covers franked with Union stamps. After this time, private express companies still managed to carry the mail across enemy lines. The three major express companies in operation throughout the south were Adams Express, American Letter Express, and Whiteside's Express. They had been operating freely for approximately two months when the U.S. Post Office ordered an end to such traffic, effective August 26, 1861. Mail destined to states that were not among their own unions now had to be sent by Flag of Truce, although some express companies still continued to run their mail operations illegally; Adams continued its Southern operations under a nominally-separate Southern Express Company, in actuality a subsidiary. Mail was also smuggled in and out by blockade-running ships—which, however, were often captured or destroyed by Union ships on blockade patrol. Because Confederate post offices existed for only a few years and official and informal records of them are lacking, relatively little is known about their operations in many regions of the South. Existing data has been studied by several experts in the field, who have reconstructed an account of their existence and operation largely from surviving Confederate covers (stamped-addressed envelopes), and by researchers specializing in advanced studies of Confederate philately, notably Colonel Harvey E. Sheppard, United States Army, Fort Hood, Texas; the late Van Dyk MacBride, Newark, New Jersey; George N. Malpass, St. Petersburg, Florida; Earl Antrim, Nampa, Idaho; David Kohn, Washington, D. C., and a few others, each contributing material in the concerted effort to create an overall account of Confederate postal history.

Confederate Post Office
One of the first undertakings in establishing the Confederate Post Office was the appointment of John H. Reagan (1818–1905) to Postmaster General, by Jefferson Davis in 1861, making him the first Postmaster General of the newly formed Confederate Post Office. Reagan was a Democratic congressman from Texas (many years after the Civil War, Texas would elect him to a Senate seat). Upon appointment Reagan became a close friend of Davis and was Postmaster General for the duration of the war, making him the only PMG of the short-lived Confederacy. In preparation for wartime mail delivery Reagan proved to be very resourceful. He sent an agent to Washington, D.C. with letters asking the various heads of the U.S. Post Office Department to come work for the new Confederate Post Office. Amazingly nearly all of them did, bringing copies of records and account books along with them. "Reagan in effect had stolen the U.S. Post Office," notable historian William C. Davis wrote. Reagan was obviously an able administrator, presiding over the only C.S.A. cabinet department that functioned well during the war. It established new rates rather higher than those in the Union: 5¢ (equal to $0 today) per half-ounce under 500 mi, 10¢ per half-ounce over 500 mi, 2¢ for drop letters and circulars. Later the under-500 mi rate was raised to 10¢ also. There was a 50¢ rate for express mail, and after 1863 a 40¢ rate for Trans-Mississippi mail to cover the costs of smuggling the mail through a Federal blockade that operated along the entire length of the lower Mississippi River. At the beginning of the war, Union blockades prevented supplies from reaching their destinations in the South, which from time to time resulted in the shortage of postage stamps, paper and other basic supplies that were much needed throughout the Confederate states.

Although the Confederate government had contracted for the printing of its own stamps, they were not yet available on June 1, forcing postmasters all over the South to improvise. Most of the time they simply went back to the old practice of accepting payment in cash and applying a "PAID" hand-stamp to the envelope. However, a number of postmasters, particularly those in the larger cities, could not afford to be handling long lines of cash customers, and developed a variety of Postmaster's provisionals. These took a variety of forms, from envelopes prestamped with a postmark modified to say "paid" or an amount, to regular stamps produced by local printers. Some are today among the great rarities of philately.

Confederate postage
Within a month after his appointment as Postmaster General, Reagan ordered that ads be placed in both Southern and Northern newspapers seeking sealed proposals from printing companies for producing Confederate postage stamps. Bids arrived from companies in New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Newark, New Orleans, and Richmond. After the war started, however, it became evident that the contract to print Confederate stamps should go to a Confederate firm. The Confederate Post Office Department therefore awarded the contract to lithographers Hoyer & Ludwig, a small firm in Richmond. The stamps they produced were inferior in image quality to the line engraved stamps printed by the U.S. Post Office, but with what resources they had, they produced some handsome images by many accounts. The first Confederate postage issues were placed in circulation in October 1861, five months after postal service between the North and South had ended. Jefferson Davis is depicted on the first issue of 1861. The appearance of a living person on a postage stamp marked a break from the tradition adhered to by the U.S. Post Office, that a person may be depicted on U.S. postage or currency only after death.

Provisional stamps
During the five months between the U.S. Post office's withdrawal of services from the seceded states and the first issue of Confederate postage stamps, postmasters throughout the Confederacy used temporary substitutes for postal payment. Postmasters had to improvise and used various methods to apply confirmation of postage to mailed covers, ranging from the creation of their own adhesive postage stamps to the marking of letters with either rate-altered hand-stamps or the manuscript indication "Paid." The improvised stamps and pre-paid covers are known to collectors as 'Postmaster Provisionals', so-called because they were used 'provisionally' until the first Confederate general postage stamp issues appeared. Some Confederate post offices would subsequently experience shortages in postage stamps and would revert to the use of Provisional stamps and hand-stamps. There are many dozens of types of Provisional stamps and hand-stamps from different towns and cities about the Confederacy. In some circles, Postmaster Provisionals are referred to as 'locals' since they were intended only for use from the town in which they were issued.

The following places are known to have issued such provisionals. [Where a name appears (other than in manuscript) on the stamp(s), such as that of the Post Master [P.M.] or printer, this is appended here in italics]:
 * ATHENS, Georgia [T. Crawford, P.M.]
 * BATON ROUGE, Louisiana [J. McCormick]
 * BEAUMONT, Texas
 * BRIDGEVILLE, Alabama
 * CHARLESTON, South Carolina
 * DANVILLE, Virginia [W.D Coleman P.M]
 * EMORY, Virginia
 * FREDERICKSBURG, Virginia [R.T. Thom]
 * GOLIAD, Texas [J.A. Clarke, Post Master]
 * GONZALES, Texas [Coleman & Law, Booksellers and Druggists]
 * GREENVILLE, Alabama
 * GREENWOOD, Virginia
 * GROVE HILL, Alabama
 * HELENA, Texas
 * INDEPENDENCE, Texas (some issues erroneously inscribed INDEPENDANCE)
 * JETERSVILLE, Virginia
 * KNOXVILLE, Tennessee [CH Charlton PM]
 * LENOIR, North Carolina
 * LIBERTY, Louisiana - used stamp of Salem, Virginia
 * LIVINGSTON, Alabama
 * LYNCHBURG, Virginia [R.H. Glass PM]
 * MACON, Georgia
 * MARION, Virginia
 * MEMPHIS, Tennessee [M.C Callaway]
 * MOBILE, Alabama
 * MOUNT LEBANON, Louisiana (only a single example is known to exist)
 * NASHVILLE, Tennessee [W.D. McNish, P M.]
 * NEW ORLEANS, Louisiana [J.L. Riddell]
 * NEW SMYRNA, Florida
 * PETERSBURG, Virginia [W.E. Bass, P.M]
 * PITTSYLVANIA, Virginia [J.P. Johnson, P.M.]
 * PLEASANT SHADE, Virginia [W.E. Davis, P.M.]
 * RHEATOWN, Tennessee [D. Pence, P.M]
 * SALEM, Virginia (stamp also used in Liberty, Louisiana)
 * SPARTANBURG, South Carolina
 * TELLICO PLAINS, Tennessee [M.F. Johnson, P.M.]
 * UNIONTOWN, Alabama
 * UNIONVILLE, South Carolina
 * VICTORIA, Texas [J.A. Moody, P.M.]

Postage stamps
As the Confederate States existed for only four years, it was able to issue only a modest number of postage stamps, nine basic types in all. During this brief span, the Confederate Post Office contracted with five different printing companies to produce postage stamps: Archer & Daly of Richmond, Virginia; Hoyer & Ludwig of Richmond, Virginia; J. T. Paterson & Co. of Augusta, Georgia; Thomas de la Rue & Co., Ltd., of London, England; and Keatinge & Ball of Columbia, South Carolina. Among them, these firms employed all three methods of printing commonly in use at that time: lithography, typography and line-engraving. The first Confederate Postage stamps were issued and placed in circulation on October 16, 1861, five months after postal service between the North and South had been suspended.

 * The first postage stamp issued by the Confederate States (1861) was a 5¢ green depicting Jefferson Davis. It was printed by the lithograph process by Hoyer and Ludwig of Richmond, Virginia. Like almost all Confederate issues, these stamps were imperforate, and single stamps had to be cut from the sheet with razors or scissors. This stamp was reprinted in blue in 1862.
 * A 10¢ blue with Thomas Jefferson also appeared in 1861, designed by Charles Ludwig of Hoyer & Ludwig, Richmond, Virginia. This issue was printed by two different companies: Hoyer & Ludwig and, later, J. T. Paterson & Co. of Augusta, Georgia. The image of Thomas Jefferson used on both printings lithographically reproduced the same image that had been engraved on the U.S. 5-cent issue of 1856. Secret marks were added by the Paterson firm to the transfer stones to distinguish its version from the Hoyer & Ludwig prints of the same design. The most typical use was for the ten-cent rate after July 1, 1862. This stamp, like the 5¢ Davis, was reprinted in 1862, in a rose-colored version that is considerably rarer than the blue original.
 * In 1862, a 2¢ stamp of Andrew Jackson appeared, in green, and was issued imperforate. This issue was again lithographed by Hoyer & Ludwig of Richmond, Virginia. Only one transfer stone used in this printing. The earliest known usage of this stamp was March 21, 1862. Sheets of this issue consisted of two panes of 100 stamps each arranged in two blocks of fifty (10X5) taken from the 50-subject transfer stone with a wide vertical gutter between panes. This was the last lithographed stamp produced by the Confederate Post Office.
 * Also in 1862, a new 5¢ stamp of Davis, this time utilizing typography, was issued in large quantities. Produced by the De La Rue firm in London (which had been supplying postage stamps for England since 1855), it employed an engraving of Davis by Ferdinand Joubert (1810–1884). De La Rue shipped 12,000,000 copies of this issue to the Confederacy, accompanied by a set of printing plates and a supply of English paper so that additional copies could be produced locally. More than 36,000,000 of the 5¢ Davis stamps were subsequently printed from the De La Rue plates by Archer & Daly in Richmond. Archer & Daly eventually ran out of the English paper, and their later printings on Confederate paper tended to become increasingly coarse, with individual examples exhibiting blank areas in the design from plate damage or filled in areas due to plate wear. (Today they can be purchased for approximately US$10 depending on condition.)
 * De La Rue also printed and shipped a typographed 1¢ orange stamp depicting John C. Calhoun. The Confederate Post Office had planned to reduce the drop-letter rate to one cent, but this proved impractical and, as a result, the 1¢ stamp was never put into use. Joubert De La Ferte again engraved the central image of Calhoun, placing it in the same framework design used for the Jefferson Davis 5-cent issue, a clear attempt to show that the two stamps were part of the same series. (Later, De La Rue sent altered plates of both typographed stamps to the Confederacy with revised denominations, intended for 2-cent Calhoun and 10-cent Davis issues, but neither stamp was put into production. The printed versions of these that are sometimes seen all date from the 20th century, and cannot be considered true Confederate stamps.)

 * In 1863, a new 2¢ Jackson design appeared, engraved in steel by Frederick Halpin (1805–1880) and printed by Archer & Daly in pale red. A second printing appeared in brown red. Line-engraving would be employed in all subsequent Confederate stamps.
 * Also in 1863, a 10-cent stamp was released bearing the profile of Jefferson Davis in blue. This issue was designed and engraved on steel by John Archer and transferred to either copper plates or steel plates. Many shades of exist for these stamps, ranging from light milky blue and darker blue to shades that tend toward greenish blue and green. There are four similar designs of engraved ten cent stamps.

 * The easiest to distinguish from the other three has the value expressed as "TEN". The portrait of Jefferson Davis was designed and line engraved by John Archer, and then transferred to a copper plate. This issue was imperforate and was printed on soft, porous paper of varying thickness and with colorless gum. The earliest recorded usage is April 23, 1863. Color variations occur from dark-blue to gray-blue.

 * The next easiest to distinguish (on which the value is expressed as "10") has straight lines enclosing the design in a rectangle. Several distinct shades of blue occur in this printing. The earliest recorded usage is April 23, 1863. All of these were printed by Archer and Daly of Richmond. This "frame-line" variety is by far the rarest of the stamps issued by the Confederate Post Office. Even poor copies shorn of most of the framing can command prices upwards of US$1000.
 * Type I, initially printed by Archer & Daly, Bank Note Engravers, Richmond, Virginia, employs the same engraving as the "Frame Line" issue but without the frame lines. There were approximately 23,800,000 stamps printed from two plates, each with two panes of one hundred. The earliest recorded usage is April 21, 1863.
 * Type II, also at first printed by Archer & Daly, is very similar to type I. Frederick Halpin designed and engraved the image of Davis. The corner ornaments are filled, and a faint line follows the outside of the design and encloses it. The Archer & Daly plates for both Type I and Type II were moved from Richmond to Columbia, South Carolina, when the fall of Richmond became imminent in late 1864. The company of Keatinge & Ball then printed the two stamps. A small number of Types I and II in Archer & Daly printings were perforated and released for use by the Confederate Post Office Department in 1864. The perforations (gauge $12 1/2$) on these were often of notably poor quality, and forgeries abound, many of which betray themselves by perforations that either employ the wrong gauge or are cut too crisply.
 * A 20¢ stamp with George Washington also appeared in 1863, again employing a design engraved in steel by Halpin and printed by Archer & Daly. This issue saw only limited use, with the result that genuine used copies are today worth 10 times more than mint examples.

Covers
[[File:Csa Jef'Dav 1863-10c.jpg|thumb|300px|Confederacy War Department cover, 1863

The franking privilege (free postage) for various C.S.A. government officials officially ended in March 1861 except for the Postmaster General and other members of his department. Other government agencies were required to prepay postage, even the secretary of war during wartime, as evidenced on this cover. ]] A considerable number of Confederate covers (i.e. stamped - addressed envelope) survived the Civil War and through the many years since they were mailed and have been avidly sought after and preserved by historians and collectors alike. The war had divided family members and friends across the country, and letter writing naturally increased dramatically, especially to and from the men who were away serving in an army. Letters written by soldiers reveal how they would frequently ask parents, wives and family members to write often and to also ask others to write letters back to them. As mail sent to and from the soldiers became more commonplace in the mail streams of the divided states, various Christian charity groups provided pens, paper and envelopes for the soldiers in response to their constant need for these items, since soldiers on active duty during wartime rarely had the opportunity to buy these things. The variety of mail from this time period provides the student of Civil War history with an excellent cross-reference of the history involved then. Special categories of interest include covers to and from soldiers, patriotic covers, prisoner-of-war covers, Flag of Truce and through-the-lines mail, mail carried by blockade runners to and from Europe, and a variety of other types. All of these specialties have been intensively studied. Although contemporary official records are often fragmentary or missing, and many details remain unclear, the covers with their addresses, dated postmarks, special markings and the letters themselves have provided much insight for historians and collectors in their studies of Civil War postal history. Some forging of material went on in the late 19th century, and authentication is a challenge for experts. As a rule of thumb a collector should be wary of fancy cancels on Confederate mail, as the C.S.A. Post Office never used fancy cancels. Other common types of forgeries include added stamps to a cover and forged postmarks. Another common oversight of the forger is postmarking stamps with dates before the stamp was issued. Many collectors over the years have marked or destroyed fakes and forgeries upon identification in an effort to keep the collecting pool safe from such material. This is a practice common to most of philately.

Prisoner of war mail
During the American Civil War the number of Union and Confederate soldiers in prisoner of war prisons and camps would reach an astonishing one and a half million men. The prison population at the Andersonville Confederate POW camp alone reached 45,000 men by the war's end. At the onset of the war the United States did not recognize the legitimacy of the Confederate States and refused to establish a system that allowed for a formal prisoner and mail exchange. By the summer of 1862, more than a year into the war, prison populations in the north were at alarming proportions and the U.S. government began to see the necessity of a prisoner and mail exchange system. On July 2, 1862 it signed what was referred to as a Prisoner exchange cartel, and by September of that year prison populations were almost emptied. However, as the war dragged on the U.S. government had increasing distrust for the Confederate government and stopped the prisoner and mail exchanges in June 1863, less than a year after it had signed the exchange agreement. Flag of Truce mail exchanges resumed a month later and were used until the end of the war. Prisoner mail that was carried by Flag-of-Truce had to be put in an unsealed envelope with address and postage for delivery on the other side, then placed in an outer cover for delivery to the exchange point where the outer envelope would be destroyed and the inner envelope containing the prisoner's letter was inspected. The letter would then be placed in and sealed in the stamped addressed envelope and hand-stamped indicating that the item had been inspected. Often correspondents did not observe the two-envelope regulation, so there are examples of covers where instead of an inner and outer envelope arrangement both U.S. and Confederate postage was applied to the prisoner's letter and where both U.S. and Confederate markings were applied. These covers are often referred to as dual-use postage covers. Mail exchange between the divided states was only allowed to cross the lines at specified exchange points. Mail which was going from the North destined to points in the South passed primarily at City Point, Virginia, while most of the mail going from the South to the North passed through at Fortress Monroe, Virginia, and usually bear an Old Point Comfort postmark. A prisoner's cover was usually docketed with the prisoner's name, rank, and company. The marking, "Examined", on the face of the cover, usually in manuscript, indicated that the cover had been opened and examined by prison officials. Once at the exchange point, the outer envelope was removed and discarded while the inner cover containing the prisoner's letter was examined by military officials and delivered. There also exist covers that were carried to transfer points by exchanged prisoners and consequently bear no confederate examiner's markings. Mail to and from the various military prisons and prison camps is one of the most intriguing and challenging areas in Civil War postal history. Letters addressed to the various prisoner of war prisons are in most cases much scarcer than letters sent from these facilities. The south had its paper shortages and, because Confederate prisons limited the amount of correspondence, mail from Confederate prisons is much rarer than mail from Union prisons.

Prisoner of war prisons and camps
When the Civil War got underway, both sides were ill-prepared to deal with the very large numbers of captured troops. For a time a prisoner and mail exchange program was in use that lasted until June 1863, when the U.S. government terminated any further cooperation due to mounting war tensions and increased mistrust. The postmarks and stampings found on wartime mail from military prisons and camps during the war are sought after by historians and collectors, not only for their souvenir value but also as confirmation that various people, events and places existed at the time of mailing indicated by the name, address, postmark and other official markings. The mailed covers often bear the postmark of the nearest town or city from where the prison or camp was located. The study of Civil War military postal history and postmarks is an area of philately that involves a great volume of material covering town names, history, rarity, postmarks, and other official markings found on mail to and from POW facilities. In the navigation boxes below are two partial lists of some of the larger prison facilities, Union and Confederate, in operation during some or all of the war. Numbers for inmate totals are included to provide insight into knowing the amount of any surviving mail that is or may be in existence. There were also prison facilities that contained much smaller numbers of prisoners (a couple listed here) also. Records for some prison facilities are completely lacking, the total numbers of prisoners held, peak prison population amounts, escapes and deaths remaining unknown at the present time. Surviving prisoner of war mail to or from some of these places is exceedingly rare, and in some cases no covers are known to exist.

(List of Prisons/Camps currently not complete)

(Numbers for inmate totals are approximate. )
 * Alton Military Prison - Alton, Illinois - 12,000
 * Camp Butler - Springfield, Illinois - 3,000
 * Camp Chase – Columbus, Ohio - 10,000
 * Camp Douglas – Chicago, Illinois - 18,000
 * Camp Morton - Indianapolis, Indiana - 3,000
 * Castle Williams - Governors Island, New York City - 1,500
 * Davids Island – New York City - 2,500
 * Elmira Prison – Elmira, New York - 12,000
 * Fort Delaware – Delaware City, Delaware - 12,500
 * Fort Lafayette - New York City - 163
 * Fort McHenry - Baltimore, Maryland - 6,900
 * Fort Warren – Boston, Massachusetts - 1,000
 * Gratiot Street Prison – St. Louis, Missouri - 2,000
 * Hart Island New York City - 3,400
 * Johnson's Island – Lake Erie, Sandusky, Ohio - 10,000
 * Ohio Penitentiary – Columbus, Ohio - 360
 * Old Capitol Prison – Washington, D.C. - 300
 * Point Lookout – Saint Mary's County, Maryland - 52,000
 * Rock Island Prison – Rock Island, Illinois - 12,000

Postal History Exhibits

(List of Prisons/Camps currently not complete) (Numbers for inmate totals are approximate. )
 * Andersonville – Andersonville, Georgia - 45,000 - 50,000
 * Belle Isle – Richmond, Virginia - 18,000
 * Blackshear Prison – Blackshear, Georgia - 5,000
 * Cahaba Prison (Castle Morgan) – Selma, Alabama - 600
 * Camp Ford – near Tyler, Texas - 5,300
 * Camp Groce, Camp Gillespie and Camp Felder - Camp Groce 2 miles east of Hempstead, Texas, Camp Gillespie near Burleigh, Texas, and Camp Felder 6.5 miles Northeast of Chappell Hill, Texas - 1,110 held of which 220 died or are missing
 * Camp Oglethorpe - Macon, Georgia 1,200
 * Castle Pinckney – Charleston, South Carolina - 300
 * Castle Sorghum – Columbia, South Carolina - 1,400
 * Castle Thunder – Richmond, Virginia - 1,400
 * Danville Prison – Danville, Virginia - 4,000
 * Florence Stockade – Florence, South Carolina - 18,000
 * Fort Pulaski – Savannah, Georgia - 600
 * Libby Prison – Richmond, Virginia - 50,000
 * Salisbury Prison – Salisbury, North Carolina - 1,700

Postal History Exhibits

Blockade mail
At the onset of the American Civil War it was imperative for the Confederacy to get crucial correspondence to suppliers and other mail into and out of the country. On April 19, 1861, President Lincoln proclaimed a blockade along the entire coastline of the Confederacy to prevent it from obtaining supplies and to prevent it from communicating with the rest of the world by means of mail. Twelve major ports and approximately 3500 mi of coastline along the Confederate States were patrolled by some 500 ships that were commissioned by the U.S. Navy; however, some accounts vary considerably and place the number of commissioned ships for blockade patrol at about 200, taking into account the high numbers of Union ships that were withdrawn from blockade duty for repairs. The blockade played a major role in the Union's victory over the Confederate states. By the end of the Civil War, the Union Navy had captured more than 1,100 blockade runners and had destroyed or run aground another 355 vessels. The Union blockade reduced a vital source of revenue for the south, cotton exports, to a fraction of what they were prior to the war, as well as preventing much of its mail from being sent or received. In response to the blockade various specially-built steamers were built and put to use by British investors who were heavily invested in the cotton and tobacco trade. These vessels were typically smaller and lighter in weight, often giving them an advantage of maneuverability and record speeds of up to 17 knots, which enabled them to evade or outrun Union ships on patrol. Their cargoes were usually small, light-weight and often included mail.

Blockade runners
During the beginning of the Civil War, getting Confederate mail in and out of the Confederacy to and from foreign suppliers and other interested parties overseas posed a problem. At first, getting a ship through the Union blockade was easier, but as the war progressed the number of Union ships on blockade patrol increased while veteran crews were becoming more experienced and growing wiser to the evasive tactics employed by blockade-runners. To escape detection, blockade-runners would often try to get the mail and cargo through by making night runs, especially when the moon was new. Many of the vessels were also painted a dark gray color to help them blend in with the backdrop of the night sea, a practice that earned these vessels the nickname of Greyhounds. Some of the steamers also burned a smokeless anthracite coal which greatly reduced their profile against the horizon. However, as the war went on, the prospect of getting a ship through diminished greatly, and many of these ships faced capture or destruction, their cargoes and mail never reaching their ports of destination. As many of the vessels used as blockade-runners were built in England for British investors, the captured crews and passengers were usually British also. The cargo aboard was rewarded to the captain and crew of the capturing vessel, it is assumed as an added incentive for captains and crews on blockade patrolling ships to be extra vigilant. Mail was also confiscated and sometimes used as evidence against the parties involved with the ship and its cargo. Consequently, inbound covers that were prepared by forwarding agents for transfer to and delivery within the Confederacy never received various postmarks or other markings from the Confederate post office.

Among the most notable blockade runners were steamers like the SS Syren, a 169 ft steel-hulled sidewheel steamer that made a record 33 successful runs through the Union blockade. Another steamer called the Alice, a 177 ft steel-hulled vessel, made 24 successful runs, while the Kate, a wooden-hulled steamer, made 20 successful runs before being run aground in November 1862. It is likely that most of the blockade runners brought mail into the Confederate mail stream, as the Confederate states were in dire need of basic supplies, the procurement of which was conducted through mailed correspondence. The various cargoes would likely have mail attached to them to notify various parties that their shipment has arrived at port. Today, Confederate blockade covers are highly sought after by collectors and historians who often regard these mailings as figurative time-stamps and historical confirmation that various people, ships and post offices existed in and among these times and places.

The principal transfer points for mail arriving from or destined to Europe and other locations were Nassau in the Bahamas, Bermuda, and Cuba. Ships carrying letters that were addressed to points in the Confederacy would deposit their cargo of mail at one of these transfer points. Here the inbound mail was handled by a forwarding agent who would remove the mail or inner cover and prepare it for transfer on a blockade runner. Often the forwarding agents would apply their own markings to the cover of mail. Mail placed aboard a blockade runner would then, perhaps with some luck, make its way to the ports of New Orleans, Charleston, or Wilmington, where it was received by Confederate postal operators who would then include it in with the regular Confederate mail for delivery. The captain of the blockade runner would typically get two cents for every letter he delivered to port, which was a nominal sum, as his main source of revenue was from delivering his cargo. The average number of successful runs by a blockade runner was only about four, many of them meeting a fateful ending on their first run. Various ports along the coastline of the Confederacy saw the most traffic from blockade runners. Charleston in South Carolina was particularly well situated as a port for blockade runners with their shallow drafts, as was the Port in Wilmington in North Carolina which saw the most traffic. Because the lower Mississippi River was being blockaded effectively dividing the Western Confederate states from those east, New Orleans became one of the busiest of ports. Consequently, many blockade covers have postmarks from these locations.

Patriotic covers
The years during the American Civil War were a period marked with strong sentiments and loyalties towards both sides involved, and this sentiment is clearly displayed on various Civil War correspondence known to collectors and historians as Patriotic Covers. Citizens, many of whom had family members and friends off fighting in the war, or who had died in battle, often expressed their loyalties with envelopes illustrated with flags, portraits, slogans and allegorical figures such as that of Liberty, which clearly captured the sentiments of that time. This practice was most evident in the North where there were many printers, especially in the larger cities, who produced an assortment of envelopes that proudly displayed these designs and which quickly became popular among the citizenry. The situation in the south was quite different. The demand for printers in the agrarian South was much less, and consequently established and qualified printers were generally nonexistent throughout most of the Confederacy. The South also lacked the North's industrialized advantages and supplies, and so the various Confederate patriotic covers that have survived the years are scarce and rare and usually have considerable value.

Adversity covers
Due to the Union blockade, the South was unable to get many needed basic supplies including paper, and as such envelopes and writing paper were scarce throughout most of the South. People would reuse old paper and envelopes, bags, and old forms and sometimes would use wallpaper to construct envelopes with. These covers are usually referred to by collectors as adversity covers.

Mourning covers
Mourning covers are also widely collected. These are covers which bear signs of sympathy or recognition of an adverse event. The most common type of adversity cover that occurs in Civil War postal history, Confederate or Union, are what is referred to by collectors as Mourning covers. Many families shared in the loss of loved ones and friends who died in battle during the four-year war. Letters of sympathy were often sent between family members and friends. The covers often bear various markings, usually pen inscribed by the sender. One of the most common markings found on these covers is the symbolic black border put about the outer face of the envelope. As many thousands of men died during the war, the black border became commonplace in the Union and Confederate mail streams and in Civil War philately.

Manuscript covers

 * Manuscript covers are addressed envelopes that were designated as Paid or where the amount of postage due was hand-written with pen and ink. Manuscript markings can also be found along with various hand-stamp markings, or in combination with postage stamps, which were sometimes applied prior to or after the manuscript marking(s). If the manuscript cover was mail carried by a blockade runner, the cover is usually referred to then as a blockade cover, and so forth with patriotic and other covers.

Postal history exhibits
(Image sizes vary but actual cover sizes are generally the same.)

(Image sizes vary but actual cover sizes are generally the same.)

Prisoner of War Mail

(Image sizes vary but actual cover sizes are generally the same.)

(Image sizes vary but actual cover sizes are generally the same.)

Other sources

 * August Dietz, Postal Service of the Confederate States of America (1929) - the standard work on Confederate philately
 * Dietz Confederate States Catalog and Hand-Book (1931–1986)
 * AskPhil – Glossary of Stamp Collecting Terms
 * Encyclopaedia of Postal History
 * Stuart Rossiter & John Flower: The Stamp Atlas
 * Stanley Gibbons Ltd: various catalogues
 * Civil War Prisons and Their Covers, by Earl Antrim
 * Prisoners' Mail from the American Civil War, by Galen D. Harrison. Union and Confederate Civil War covers from prisoners of war in 83 Union and 58 Confederate Prisons, compiled from a total over 2,700 covers.
 * The Handbook of Civil War Patriotic Envelopes and Postal History, Grant, 1977


text:
Andy Stanfield

Andrew William Stanfield (December 29, 1927 – June 15, 1985) was an American sprinter and Olympic gold and silver medallist.

Biography
Andy Stanfield born in Washington, D.C., but moved to Jersey City as a child. He graduated from Lincoln High School in 1946, where he was already a talented athlete, excelling in the sprints and long jump. After his army service, Stanfield entered Seton Hall University in 1948. The following year, he won his first of a long list of national titles. His list includes six AAU titles (1949: 100 and 200 m; 1950: 60 y; 1951: long jump; 1952: 200 m; 1953: 220 y) and nine IC4A titles (both indoor and outdoor). He was coached by Johnny Gibson, a former world record holder in 400 m hurdles.

Internationally, the 200 m was Stanfield's strongest distance. In 1951, at the ICAAAA Championships, Stanfield—in the outside lane—won the Turn 220-Yard Dash in 20.6. The Turn-220 had never been commonly contested in the US. 220s were normally raced on "NoTurn" or "Straight" courses. In 1951 the IAAF commenced to establish world records for the Turn-200-Meters: the initial listing accepted was by Willie Applegarth of Great Britain in 21 1/5, set in London in 1914. That spring of 1951, Stanfield's Intercollegiate 220-Yard Dash in 20.6 was established by the IAAF as a new World-Record for the 200 m with 20.6 (220 yards is more than one meter longer than 200 meters).

Then, there was no "official" world record for the Turn-220. But in the United States, Ralph Metcalfe was generally agreed to have the American record at 21-flat set in Berlin 1933 (no wind). Then Jack Wierhauser of Stanford University clocked 20.9 (no wind) in 1936 at a US Olympics Trials at Randalls Island. Jesse Owens clocked 20.7 at the Berlin '36 Games with wind. Barney Ewell, at the US Nationals in 1939 at Lincoln, Nebraska, on the partial bend course on that track, clocked what was likely an AAU record of 21.1, but that course was never well-delineated. At the 1948 US Olympic Trials, Mel Patton beat Barney Ewell, both clocked in 20.7 (no wind). None of these were ratified for the simple reason that the IAAF did not distinguish between records made on a turn from those on a straight.

Stanfield would equal this performance twice, running 20.6 in 1952 and 1956. The '56 performance occurred at the AAU Championships, where Stanfield finished 2nd behind Thane Baker, the champion. As the world record holder, Stanfield in 1952 was not a surprise winner of the gold medal at the 1952 Summer Olympics, equalling the Olympic Record in the final. As a member of the American 4 x 100 m relay team, Stanfield won a second Olympic gold medal. He attempted to defend his 200 m title in the 1956 Games, but lost it, finishing second to Bobby Morrow.

Stanfield was a member of Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Andy Stanfield


text: Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/July

title: Wikipedia:Selected anniversaries/July


text:
Vermont Progressive Party

The Vermont Progressive Party, formerly the Progressive Coalition and Independent Coalition, is a political party in the United States that is active in Vermont. It is the third-largest political party in Vermont behind the Democratic and Republican parties. , the party has one member in the Vermont Senate and five members in the Vermont House of Representatives, as well as several more affiliated legislators who caucus with the Democratic Party.

The last time a third-party had members elected to the state legislature in Vermont was in 1917, with the election of James Lawson of the Socialist Party of America.

Background
William H. Meyer, a member of the Democratic Party, was elected to the United States House of Representatives from Vermont's at-large congressional district after defeating Republican nominee Harold J. Arthur in the 1958 election. Meyer's victory was the first time since the 1853 election that the Republicans had lost a statewide election in Vermont. Meyer was the most left-wing member of Congress from 1937 to 2002, according to Keith T. Poole. He lost reelection in the 1960 election against Republican nominee Robert Stafford.

Meyer formed the Liberty Union Party at a meeting in his home with Peter Diamondstone, Dennis Morrisseau, and twenty other people on June 27, 1970. Martha Abbott, a future chair of the Vermont Progressive Party, was one of the members of the Liberty Union Party's founding meeting. Bernie Sanders joined the party in 1971, and was selected to serve as the party's candidate for a Senatorial special election at his first meeting. During his time in the party, Sanders also ran for United States Senate in the 1974 election and for Governor in the 1972 and 1976 elecitons. Sanders left the party on October 11, 1977.

Sanders

Sanders announced on November 8, 1980, that he would run for mayor of Burlington, Vermont, in the 1981 election and formally announced his campaign on December 16, at a press conference in city hall. Sanders had been convinced to run for the mayoralty by Richard Sugarman, an Orthodox Jewish scholar at the University of Vermont, who had shown Sanders a ward-by-ward breakdown of the 1976 gubernatorial election which showed Sanders receiving 12% of the vote in Burlington despite only getting 6% statewide. Sanders defeated incumbent Democratic Mayor Gordon Paquette by ten votes in the election. Sanders was reelected as mayor in the 1983, 1985, and 1987 elections.

During his mayoral campaign Sanders formed the Independent Coalition which according to Richard Sartelle was to bring working people, students, college faculty, union members, and all independent-minded citizens together. Sartelle ran with the support of the Independent Coalition for a seat on the city council from the 4th district, but was defeated by the Republican nominee.

The Citizens Party attempted to have Greg Guma run with their nomination for mayor in 1981, but Guma declined as it would be "difficult to run against another progressive candidate" and the party instead endorsed Sanders. Terry Bouricius, a member of the Citizens Party, was elected to the city council from the 2nd district becoming the first member of the party elected to office in Vermont.

Following his victory in the 1981 election Sanders faced difficulties with the city council due to eleven of the thirteen members of the board of alderman opposing Sanders. The council would oppose measures proposed by Sanders and override his vetoes on legislation. Bouricius and Sadie White were the only members of the city council aligned with Sanders.

During the 1982 elections Sanders endorsed Citizens nominees Richard Musty and Zoe Breiner, and independent candidate Gary DeCarolis for city council and all of them won causing the council to have five pro-Sanders members, five Republican members, and three Democratic members. However, the Republicans and Democratic members of the city council united to select Robert Paterson, a Republican, as president of the city council instead of Sadie White, a Sanders supporter, by a vote of eight to five after six ballots and to prevent the pro-Sanders members of the city council from receiving positions. Sanders stated that "Probably the Democrats feel more comfortable dealing with the Republicans than with us".

DeCarolis asked for members of the media to referred to him and other pro-Sanders members of the city council as the Progressive Coalition rather than as just Sanders supporters. An organizational meeting for Progressive Coalition, which was attended by over 100 people, was held on November 10, 1983. The Progressive Coalition was not a political party, but an organization that gave out endorsements.

During the 1984 elections the Citizens Party only ran one candidate under its name and instead endorsed the Progressive Coalition candidates. Bouricius stated that the Citizens Party was the core of the coalition, but that the coalition was being built broader than the Citizens Party. The Progressive Coalition gained one seat from the Democratic Party during the 1984 city council elections bringing the composition of the city council to six Progressive members, five Republican members, and two Democratic members. The Citizens Party of Vermont disbanded in 1986.

The Progressive Coalition supported Jesse Jackson during the 1984 Democratic presidential primaries and later supported Walter Mondale in the presidential election.

Bouricius was selected to serve as president of the city council after thirty-one ballots and served until 1985. Bouricius was the only member of the Progressive Coalition to serve as president during Sanders' administration. After the 1985 elections William Skelton, a Republican member of the city council, was selected to serve as president of the city council against the Progressive-backed Zoe Breiner as Bouricius had dropped out.

Clavelle
The Vermont Progressive Alliance was formed by members of the Progressive Coalition and Rainbow Coalition on May 19, 1990, at Montpelier High School and inspired by the New Democratic Party. The organization endorsed ten independent candidates for seats in the state legislature in the 1990 election. Terry Bouricius and Tom Smith, who were endorsed by the organization, were elected to the Vermont House of Representatives in the 1990 election becoming the first member of the Progressive Coalition to do so. The Vermont Organizing Committee was formed by the organization in 1992.

The Franklin County Independent Coalition was also formed in 1990, to support Sanders' campaign for a seat in the United States House of Representatives during the 1990 election. The organization was founded by independent candidates for seats in the state house and Neil Bean, who was an independent member of the St. Albans city council and also grew out of Jeff Weaver's campaign for mayor of St. Albans and Jerry Colby's 1988 and 1990 campaigns for a seat in the Vermont Senate.

The Progressives regained control of the city council in 1994, with five of their members winning and three independents caucusing with them. The coalition expanded to Brattleboro, Vermont, with Shoshana Rihn's election to the town's select board in 1998. Rihn was sworn in, but was removed from office after a recount reported her losing by two votes.

Clavelle
The coalition started holding caucuses in twenty-five towns in October 1999, to form a political party. The Vermont Progressive Party was formally created after organizing in sixteen communities and held its first convention on July 9, 2000.

Post-Kiss
Emma Mulvaney-Stanak was the only Progressive member of the fourteen-member city council following the resignation of Marisa Caldwell in 2010, which was the lowest number for the party since 1981. The party ran and received its highest number of candidates, votes, and share of seats in the state house in the 2016 election with seven out of twenty candidates winning with a combined total of 18,954 votes.

David Zuckerman was elected lieutenant governor after he used electoral fusion to receive both the Democratic and Progressive nominations.

Robin Chesnut-Tangerman, the leader of the Progressive caucus in the state house, lost reelection in 2020. Mollie Burke and Heather Surprenant did not seek reelection with the Progressive ballot line in the 2022 state house elections and solely ran as Democrats. The 2022 elections, in which the party lost two state house and one state senate seat, resulted in the entire Progressive delegation being solely from Chittenden County for the first time since 2004. Zuckerman returned to the lieutenant governorship in the concurrent election.

Platform
The Progressive Party encompasses a progressive platform. The party's main focus has historically been advocacy for a single-payer health care system, which has recently made great strides with the implementation of Green Mountain Care, a health care program that was pushed by Democratic Governor Peter Shumlin due to pressure from the Progressive Party. Other major policy platforms are renewable energy programs and a phase-out of nuclear energy, public transportation proposals including one for a high-speed rail system, criminal justice reforms directed at reducing the state's prison population and better protecting convicts' rights, the creation of programs to end homelessness in the state, ending the War on Drugs and repealing No Child Left Behind and ending the focus on standardized testing in the school system. The party also has an anti-war stance, advocating for Vermont's national guard to be restricted from engaging in war zones outside the United States, an end to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan and opposition to all preemptive wars, strikes, or other offensive or interventionist military actions. The party is very supportive of LGBT rights and members of the party were involved in the legalization of same-sex marriage in the state.

Economically, the party also calls for converting the minimum wage to a living wage and having it tied to inflation rates, having the economy focus on small and local businesses, empowerment of worker cooperatives and publicly owned companies as democratic alternatives to multi-national corporations and to decentralize the economy, for the strengthening of state law to protect the right to unionize, for implementing a progressive income tax and repealing the Capital Gains Tax Exemption and residential education property tax, and for all trade to be subject to international standards on human rights. The party is also critical of privatization.

State
State-wide office
 * David Zuckerman (P/D), Lieutenant Governor of Vermont (2017–2021); (2023–present)
 * Doug Hoffer (D/P), Vermont Auditor of Accounts (2013–present)

Vermont Senate
 * President pro tempore Tim Ashe (D/P), Chittenden, with 5 others (3 D, 1 D/P, 1 P/D) (2009–2021)
 * Senator Philip Baruth (D/P) Chittenden with 5 others (3 D, 1 D/P, 1 P/D) (2011–present)
 * Senator Cheryl Hooker (D/P) Rutland with 2 others (2 R) (2019–present)
 * Senator Tanya Vyhovsky (P/D), Chittenden, with 5 others (3 D, 2 D/P) (2017–present)
 * Senator Andrew Perchlik (D/P), Washington, with 2 others (1 D, 1 P/D) (2019–present)
 * Senator Anthony Pollina (P/D), Washington, with 2 others (1 D, 1 D/P) (2011–2023)

Vermont House of Representatives
 * Rep. Mollie Burke (P), Windham-3-2, single member district (2009–present)
 * Rep. Robin Chesnut-Tangerman (P), Rutland-Bennington, single member district (2015–present)
 * Rep. Brian Cina (P), Chittenden-6-4, with 1 (P) (2017–present)
 * Rep. Selene Colburn (P), Chittenden-6-4, with 1 (P) (2017–present)
 * Rep. Mari Cordes (D/P), Addison-4, with 1 (D) (2019–present)
 * Rep. Diana Gonzalez (P), Chittenden-6-7, with 1 (D) (2015–present)
 * Rep. Sandy Haas (P), Windsor-Rutland-2, single member district (2005–present)
 * Rep. Troy Headrick (P), Chittenden-15 (2023–present)
 * Rep. Zachariah Ralph (P), Windsor-1, with 1 (D) (2019–present)

County

 * Chittenden County
 * Daniel L. Gamelin (D/P/R), High Bailiff (2011–present)
 * Essex County
 * Vincent Illuzzi (R/P/D/L), State's Attorney (1999–present)
 * Trevor Colby (R/P), Sheriff (2011–present)
 * Grand Isle County
 * Ray C. Allen (D/P/R), Sheriff (2015–present)
 * Windham County
 * Alan Blood (P), Justice of the Peace, Putney, with 9 (8 D, 1 P) (2019–present)
 * Edith Gould (P), Justice of the Peace, Putney, with 9 (8 D, 1 P) (2017–present)
 * Caledonia County
 * Christian Bradley Hubbs (P), Justice of the Peace, Burke, with 6 (2 R, 2 I, 2 D) (2019–present)

City

 * Burlington
 * City Council
 * Perri Freeman (Central District-Ward 2 & 3) (2019–present)
 * Jack Hanson (East District-Ward 1 & 8) (2019–present)
 * Zoraya Hightower (Ward 1) (2020–present)
 * Max Tracy (Ward 2) (2012–present)
 * Joe Magee (Ward 3) (2021–present)
 * Ali Dieng (D/P) (Ward 7) (2017–present)
 * Jane Stromberg (Ward 8) (2020–present)
 * Ward Clerk
 * Wendy Coe (Ward 2) (2010–present)
 * Ward Inspector
 * Jane Stromberg (Ward 1) (2019–present)
 * Alex Rose (Ward 2) (2019–present)
 * Kit Andrews (Ward 3) (2013–present)
 * Bonnie Filker (Ward 3) (2019–present)
 * Montpelier
 * Mayor
 * Anne Watson (2018–present)

Town

 * Springfield
 * Selectboard
 * Stephanie Thompson (2010–present)
 * Fairlee
 * Zoning and Planning Administrator
 * John Christopher Brimmer (2012–present)
 * Berlin
 * Selectboard
 * Jeremy Hansen (2013–present)
 * Richmond
 * Selectboard
 * Steve May (2016–present)
 * The party also has a significant number of its members elected to other local offices in town governments and appointed to serve as town officials. However, in Vermont these elections are non-partisan and no party name appears before their names on election ballots or during an appointment process.

Party leaders
The current chair of the party's State Committee is State Senator and former Gubernatorial nominee and Congressional candidate Anthony Pollina, and the current vice-chair, Marielle Blais, was first elected in 2019. Secretary Chris Brimmer, also the Chair of the Caledonia County Committee, has served since 2009. The current Treasurer is Robert Millar, who briefly served as Acting Chair in 2001, and Assistant Treasurer Martha Abbott previously served as Treasurer and twice as chair. After being in the position of Acting Chair while the State Committee was not formalized, Heather Riemer served as the party's first chair at its formation as a statewide party in 1999. The position of executive director was added in 2011, and since 2015 has been the party's only paid staff, and has been occupied by Joshua Wronski. Current Treasurer Robert Millar previously served as executive director from 2011 to 2015.

 * Chair: Anthony Pollina (2007–2009, 2017–present)
 * Vice Chair: Marielle Blais (2019–present)
 * Secretary: John Christopher Brimmer (2009–present)
 * Treasurer: Robert Millar (2019–present)
 * Assistant Treasurer: Martha Abbott (2019–present)
 * Executive Director: Joshua Wronski (2015–present)
 * Senate Caucus Leader: Anthony Pollina (2013–present)
 * Senate Caucus Whip: Christopher Pearson (2017–present)
 * House Caucus Leader: Robin Chesnut-Tangerman (2017–present)
 * House Caucus Whip: Diana Gonzalez (2017–present)
 * Youth/Student Caucus Leader: Carter Neubieser (2015–present)
 * Coordinating Committee:
 * Nick Clark
 * Carter Neubieser
 * Adam Norton
 * Zachariah Ralph
 * Tanya Vyhovsky
 * Cindy Weed
 * Regional Advisers (Non-voting):
 * West-Central: Finnian Boardman Abbey
 * East-Central: Traven Leyshon
 * Northern: Jackie Stanton
 * Southeast: Pamela Whitefield
 * Southwest: Tim Guiles

title: Vermont Progressive Party


text:
Christian Campbell

Christian Campbell (born May 12, 1972) is a Canadian actor. He is known for his roles as Gabriel in the film Trick, Greg Ivey in the television series Big Love and on stage as Jimmy Harper in the musical Reefer Madness.

Early life
Campbell's mother, Marnie (née Neve), is a yoga instructor and psychologist from Amsterdam, Netherlands, who also ran a theatre in Guelph, Ontario. His father, Gerry Campbell, a Scottish immigrant to Canada from the East End of Glasgow, Scotland, taught high school drama classes in Mississauga, Ontario — first at Westwood Secondary School (now Lincoln M. Alexander Secondary School), later at Lorne Park Secondary School, and now at Erindale Secondary School. Campbell's maternal grandparents ran a theatre company in the Netherlands and his paternal grandparents were also performers. On his mother's side, Campbell descends from Sephardi Jews who immigrated to the Netherlands and converted to Catholicism.

Campbell's parents divorced when he was three years old. His siblings are actress Neve Campbell, actor Alex Campbell, and Damian McDonald. He and his sister, Neve, resided largely with their father (who received custody of the two), with regular periods at their mother's home. Born into an acting family (his maternal grandparents having been actors in Amsterdam) and his father an acting teacher, Campbell began training at an early age. He was acting professionally by the age of fourteen and attended Claude Watson School for the Arts in Toronto, Ontario.

Film
Campbell starred in the gay-themed romantic comedy Trick in 1999. The feature film was a Sundance Grand Jury Prize nominated film. It grossed the most per-screen average for a gay-themed film at the time. In celebration of the fifteenth anniversary of the picture, Campbell spoke of the social climate at the time and how he, a straight actor, had taken on a gay role. "Having been in that movie... opened up a community," he said. "The gay community was incredibly supportive of me."

In 2001, Campbell teamed up with Trick co-star John Paul Pitoc in the feature-film Thank You, Good Night, co-starring with Mark Hamill and Sally Kirkland. He then starred in the 2004 short film Pretty Dead Girl. In 2009, Campbell starred in the feature film Neighbor along with America Olivo, who would later become his wife. He played conservative American political activist Ralph Reed in the 2010 movie Casino Jack.

Campbell starred along with Amy Smart in director Russell Friedenberg's 2014 feature film Among Ravens.

Television
At the age of 16, Campbell made his television debut on the Canadian television series Degrassi High. Campbell's first starring role was in the television movie City Boy, in which he starred alongside James Brolin and Sarah Chalke. Campbell then starred in the 1995 ABC telefilm Picture Perfect. He moved to the United States in 1995 where he was soon cast as Teddy Delacourt in producer Aaron Spelling's primetime teen drama/soap opera Malibu Shores.

Campbell joined the cast of The $treet in 2000 as Tim Sherman. He then starred in the science fiction-action animated series Max Steel from 2000 to 2002, providing the voice of the protagonist, Josh McGrath, a 19-year-old fictional extreme sports star. Campbell joined All My Children as the recast Bobby Warner from 2004 to 2005, replacing Brian Gaskill for the role after a seven-year absence for the character. Along with Shannon Elizabeth, he starred in the 2008 made-for-TV movie You Belong To Me.

Before its abrupt cancellation, he had a starring role in the NBC drama The Book of Daniel.

In May 2010, Campbell had a guest-starring role as victim Ben Rooney in CSI: Miami season 8, episode 21, "Meltdown".

In 2013, Campbell joined the cast of the Lifetime original movie An Amish Murder, in which he played the brother of Kate Burkholder, who was played by his real life younger sister, Neve Campbell.

Campbell has a recurring role in the second season of HBO's True Detective. He can also be seen playing the villain Pierce Peters in the 2015 Disney Channel Original Movie Bad Hair Day.

Theatre
Campbell's theatre training began early and was extensive due to his father being an acting teacher and his mother's acting background. His earliest acting roles were on the stage for his father's panto productions for the Association for Scottish Traditions and Arts in Etobicoke, Ontario. Campbell said of his early work with his father that "Dad was always throwing Neve and me on the stage. The pantos are comedies, sort of fantasies-sometimes fairy tales like Jack and the Beanstalk. In these shows there's a lot of humor, and always a cross-dresser. That's part of the genre." His first starring role on the stage was as the role of Nick in A Thousand Clowns, which was held at his mother's dinner theatre. He then toured Europe in the early 1990s, acting in stage plays such as Der Ritter Von Mirakel and A Clockwork Orange at the Schaulspielhaus, Nürnberg.

Shortly after his move to Los Angeles in 1995, Campbell co-founded the theatre company Blue Sphere Alliance. He began producing stage plays while working as an actor. Campbell made his directorial debut with Reach, a one-act play that starred Matthew Lillard and Sandra Thigpen.

In 2000, Campbell produced his first off-Broadway play, Trust, in New York City. Campbell starred in Reefer Madness in 2001. He then joined ill-fated Rent playwright Jonathan Larson's tick... tick... BOOM! in 2002, in which he performed on a national tour of the United States and in London at the Menier Chocolate Factory (July – September 2005). Campbell went on to work on Great Expectations with Kathleen Chalfant in 2004.

In July 2015 it was announced that Campbell would lead the cast of Harold Chapin's The New Morality at the Mint Theater.

Other work
Campbell has been a photographer for the last two decades and showcases his work on his personal website.

He currently sits on the board of directors of the Players Club in New York City.

He served as producer and director of the documentary concert series Live from Gramercy Park and is the producer and director of the Broadway Dreams documentary series. Both series are produced by Campbell and wife America Olivo's production company EsoteriCam Productions.

Personal life
Campbell met his second wife, actress America Olivo, in 2009 on the set of the horror film Neighbor. They were engaged after two weeks and married five months later on July 5, 2009, in a ceremony on Lake Como in Lombardy, Italy. Their first child, a daughter, was born in 2012, but died only days later due to the genetic condition Edwards syndrome.

After facing infertility issues of their own, Campbell and his wife decided to become spokespeople for the BabyQuest Foundation, a 501(c)(3) charitable organization that is "dedicated to helping couples and/or individuals build families through advanced fertility treatments". The couple had a second daughter in 2019.

Filmography

 * Degrassi High (1990) – Todd (1 episode)
 * Clarence (1990; TV) (as Chris Campbell) – Larry
 * 3x3 eyes (Manga Entertainment Version) (1991; V) – Yakumo Fujii (voice: English version)
 * School's Out (1992; TV) – Todd
 * City Boy (1992; TV) – Nick
 * Born to Run (1993; TV) – Jamie
 * Matrix (1993) – Tony Lusano (1 episode)
 * TekWar (1995–1996) – Danny Cardigan (4 episodes)
 * Picture Perfect (1995; TV) – Alan Walters
 * Side Effects (1995) – Drew Armstrong (1 episode)
 * 7th Heaven (1996) – Terry Daniels (1 episode)
 * Malibu Shores (1996) – Teddy Delacourt (10 episodes)
 * Seduced by Madness: The Diane Borchardt Story (1996) – Doug Vest (2 episodes)
 * Hairshirt (1998) – Adam Lipton
 * I've Been Waiting for You (1998; TV) – Eric Garrett
 * Next Time (1998) – Matt
 * Cruel Justice (TV) (1999) – Dean Joiner
 * Trick (1999) – Gabriel
 * Cold Hearts (1999) – John Luke
 * Max Steel (2000–2002) – Max Steel (voice) (33 episodes)
 * Angels! (2000) – Joe Bogsley
 * Plead (2001) – Alan
 * The Good Things (2001) – Rob Fambrough
 * The $treet (2000–2001) – Tim Sherman (12 episodes)
 * Thank You, Good Night (2001) – Lee
 * Who Is A.B.? (2001)
 * Red Faction II (2002; VG) – Alias (voice)
 * Jeremiah (2002) – Reece Davenport (1 episode)
 * The Piano Man's Daughter (2003; TV) – Charlie Kilworth
 * Blue Murder (2003) – Steff Marable (1 episode)
 * The Atwood Stories (2003) – Richard (1 episode)
 * Chaos Legion (2003; VG) – Sieg Wahrheit (voice: English version)
 * All My Children (2004–2005) – Robert 'Bobby' Thorne Warner #4 (9 episodes)
 * Pretty Dead Girl (2004) – Mortie
 * Max Steel: Endangered Species (2004; V) – Max Steel
 * Reefer Madness: The Movie Musical (2005) – Jimmy Harper
 * Max Steel: Forces of Nature (2005; V) – Max Steel
 * Max Steel: Countdown (2006; V) – Max Steel
 * Banshee (2006; TV) – Larch
 * The Book of Daniel (2006) – Peter Webster (8 episodes)
 * Max Steel: Dark Rival (2007; V) – Max Steel
 * One Night (2007) – Gregg
 * CSI: NY (2007) – Noah Hubler (1 episode)
 * You Belong to Me (2008; TV) – Michael McBride
 * Max Steel: Bio Crisis (2008; V) – Max Steel
 * NCIS (2008) – Nick Kingston (1 episode, Heartland 2008)
 * Ghost Whisperer (2008) – Lucas Marston (1 episode)
 * The Betrayed (2008) – Kevin
 * The Verdict (2008; TV) – Rob
 * Ibid (2008) – Lionel
 * Immortal Island (2009) – Agent Ron Cecil
 * Clear Blue Tuesday (2009) – Obnoxious Co-Worker
 * Neighbor (2009) – Don Carpenter
 * CSI: Miami (2010) – Ben Rooney (1 episode)
 * Casino Jack (2010) – Ralph Reed
 * Big Love (2011) – Greg Ivey (9 episodes)
 * Unkindness of Ravens (2012) – Will
 * Drawing Home (2012) – Cliff Whyte
 * Scooby-Doo! Music of the Vampire (2012) – Bram
 * Sworn to Silence (2012) – Jacob
 * Haven (2013) – Ben Harker Jr. (2 episodes)
 * Supernatural (2013) – James Frampton
 * Darkroom (2013) – Larry
 * Among Ravens (2014) – Will Deville
 * True Detective (2015) – Richard Brune
 * Bad Hair Day (2015) – Pierce
 * Her Composition (2015) – Client #1

title: Christian Campbell


text:
Gregory La Cava

Gregory La Cava (March 10, 1892 – March 1, 1952) was an American film director of Italian descent best known for his films of the 1930s, including My Man Godfrey and Stage Door, which earned him nominations for Academy Award for Best Director.

Career
La Cava was born in Towanda, Pennsylvania. His father was a shoemaker, and the family moved to Rochester, New York. La Cava reported for the Rochester Evening News and studied at the Art Institute of Chicago. He was a member of the Art Students' League.

Animator
Around 1913, he started doing odd jobs at the Barré Studio. By 1915, he was an animator on the Animated Grouch Chasers series. Towards the end of 1915, William Randolph Hearst decided to create an animation studio to promote the comic strips printed in his newspapers. He called the new company International Film Service, and he hired La Cava to run it (for double what he was making with Barré). La Cava's first employee was his co-worker at the Barré Studio, Frank Moser. Another was his fellow student in Chicago, Grim Natwick (later to achieve fame at Disney). As he developed more and more of Hearst's comics into cartoon series, he came to put semi-independent units in charge of each, leading to the growth of individual styles.

La Cava also had the significant advantage over other studios of an unlimited budget: Hearst's business sense completely broke down when it came to his Hearst-Vitagraph News Pictorial and the "living comic strips" they contained. La Cava's main fault as a producer and director was that his cartoons were too clearly animated comic strips, hampered by speech balloons when rival Bray Studio was creating more effective series with original characters. He was apparently aware of this fault, and he had his animators study Charlie Chaplin films to improve their timing and characterization. But he didn't have time to achieve very much, because in July 1918, Hearst's bankers caught up with him and International Film Service was shut down.

Hearst still wanted his characters animated, so he licensed various studios to continue the IFS series. La Cava and most of the IFS staff got jobs with John Terry's studio (not surprising since John Terry himself was an IFS alumnus). This only lasted a few months before Terry's studio went out of business. The animators were immediately hired by Goldwyn-Bray (as Bray Productions was now known), but La Cava was not, since Goldwyn-Bray had several producers of its own and La Cava was not interested in starting over. Instead, he moved west to Hollywood.

Live action reels and features
By 1922, La Cava had become a live-action director of two-reel comedies, the direct competitor to animated films. Among the actors he directed in the silent era are:

 * Bebe Daniels (Feel My Pulse, 1928)
 * Richard Dix
 * W. C. Fields (So's Your Old Man, 1926 and Running Wild, 1927) He became a good friend and drinking companion of Fields.

La Cava worked his way up to feature films in the silent era, but it is for his work in sound films of the 1930s—especially comedies—that he is best known today. And though he did not always get credit, he also often had a hand in creating the screenplays for his films. Among the sound films he directed are:
 * Laugh and Get Rich (1931) with Edna May Oliver and Hugh Herbert
 * The Half-Naked Truth (1932) with Lupe Vélez and Lee Tracy
 * The Age of Consent (1932) for RKO, starring Richard Cromwell, Eric Linden, and Dorothy Wilson.
 * Symphony of Six Million (1932) for RKO, based on a story by Fannie Hurst and starring Ricardo Cortez and Irene Dunne, which featured one of the first symphonic scores of the talkie era by Max Steiner.
 * Bed of Roses (1932) with Constance Bennett and Pert Kelton
 * Gabriel Over the White House (1933) with Walter Huston
 * What Every Woman Knows (1934) with Helen Hayes
 * The Affairs of Cellini (1934) with Constance Bennett and Fredric March
 * Private Worlds (1935) with Claudette Colbert, Charles Boyer and Joel McCrea
 * She Married Her Boss (1935) with Claudette Colbert and Melvyn Douglas
 * My Man Godfrey (1936, nominated for the Best Director Academy Award) with William Powell and Carole Lombard
 * Stage Door (1937, also nominated for Best Director) with Katharine Hepburn, Adolphe Menjou, and Gail Patrick, as well as his first of three consecutive films with Ginger Rogers
 * Fifth Avenue Girl (1939) with Ginger Rogers and Walter Connolly
 * Primrose Path (1940) with Ginger Rogers and Joel McCrea

His output dropped severely in the 1940s, and he only officially directed one film after 1942, Living in a Big Way (1947).

Personal life and death
La Cava and his first wife, Beryl, had a son. They were divorced in 1937. On December 2, 1940, La Cava married Mrs. Grace O. Garland, widow of William J. Garland. He died on March 1, 1952, in his sleep in his home. His remains were buried at Chapel of the Pines Crematory.

title: Gregory La Cava


text:
Slava (tradition)

Slava (Слава, ) is a family's annual ceremony and veneration of their patron saint. The ceremony is found mainly among Orthodox Serbs.

Although its origin is unknown, this old tradition is an important ethnic marker of Serbian identity. It is a tribute to the family's first ancestor, through the male lineage, who was baptized into Christianity, with its presiding saint. The family celebrates the Slava annually on the saint's day. In 2014, it was inscribed on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of Serbia.

Slavski kolač, also known simply as kolač, is a ritual bread often prepared during the celebration of the Slava.

Origin theses
Serbian historians consider that records of Slava amongst Serbs can be traced back at least to 1018. However, the true origin of the Slava is unknown. According to one hypothesis, the Slava has its origins in Greek and Roman hero cult. Proponents of the Greek hypothesis point to etymology in that the Serbian word for wheat, koljivo, an indispensable item of the Slava, is derived from the Greek term for gain of wheat, koliva. Proponents of the Roman hypothesis point to the fact that Slava customs mimic Roman forms of celebration including bread breaking and toasting. Another hypothesis states that the Slava has its origin in Medieval Serbia, connected to Saint Sava, the first Archbishop of the Serbs. There are indications that the institution of the Slava in the Serbian Orthodox Church dates from Saint Sava, that "in his understanding and tactful approach to Serbian folk religion", he "seems to have found a compromise formula satisfactory to both his people's pagan tradition and the requirements of theology". The slava is a reinterpretation of a Serbian pagan rite: the ancestor-protector became a Christian saint, frequently St. Nicholas, with the pagan rite being reduced of many religious elements and frequent ceremonies and becoming a social event with the annual meeting of the family and friends.

In the scientific literature exists a discussion about the historical and ethnological origin of the Slava, which has not been completed. According to some Serbian researchers, "the thesis of how Slava is Serbian ethnic identification marker is simply delusion of the romantic and patriotic citizenry".

Modern
The increased effective geographic mobility brought about by the post World War II urbanization of a previously highly agrarian society, combined with the suppression of Serbian Orthodox traditions under the Communist rule, has made some aspects of the custom more relaxed. In particular, in the second half of the 20th century it became common to see traditional patriarchal families separated by great distances, so by necessity Slava came to occasionally be celebrated at more than one place by members of the same family.

While the Slava kept something of a grassroots underground popularity during the Communist period, the post-Communist revival of Serbian Orthodox traditions has brought it a resurgence. It is recognized as a distinctly (if not quite exclusively) Serbian custom, and today it is quite common for nonobservant Christians or even atheists to celebrate it in one form or another, as a hereditary family holiday and a mark of ethnocultural identification.

The custom is also helpful in genealogical studies as an indicator in kinship relations between families, such as tracing one's family to a specific region. It "becomes a simultaneous signifier of national and spiritual kinship and a core expression of the Serbian cosmology, whereby the dialectics of temporal, physical, and spiritual continuity converge into validated perceptions of cultural and social reality—re-enacted on a recurrent (annual) basis.

In November 2014 it was inscribed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of Serbia.

Practicing groups
The tradition is an important ethnic marker of Serbian identity. The slogan: Где је слава, ту је Србин (Gde je slava, tu je Srbin, lit. 'Where there is a Slava, there is a Serb') was raised as a Serbian national identifier by Miloš Milojević after his travel to Kosovo and Metohija in 1871–1877. Serbs usually regard the Slava as their most significant and most solemn feast day. The tradition is also very well preserved among the Serb diaspora.

Besides present day Serbia, Slava is commonly celebrated amongst ethnic Serbs living in neighbouring Croatia, Bosnia and Montenegro. Despite the tradition being inherently tied to Serbian Orthodox Christianity it is also practiced to a lesser extent amongst some Catholic and Muslim ethnicities in the region, occasionally among Croats,  as well as Catholics from the Bay of Kotor, and Gorani living in present-day southern Kosovo. Furthermore, similar tradition can be found in Western Bulgaria and North Macedonia and also among some Vlachs and Aromanians.

Customs and feast
The Slava is a family's annual ceremony and veneration of their patron saint. It is a tribute to the family's first ancestor who was baptized into Christianity, with its presiding saint. The family's patron saint is passed down from father to son and only males are allowed to carry out the Slava's rituals. Upon marriage, women typically adopt the patron saint of their spouse although it is not uncommon for them to continue celebrating their native family's saint as well (in which case the secondary one is known as preslava). Close friends and family gather at the home for a ritual feast. Although a religious ceremony for the purpose of saint veneration, the family's intent behind the celebration is for "the good health of the living" as well as for a "general remembrance of the souls of the departed family members". Many Serbian communities (villages, cities, organizations, political parties, institutions, companies, professions) also celebrate their patron saint. For example, the city of Belgrade celebrates the Ascension of Jesus Christ as its patronal feast.

A Slava celebration incorporates aspects of pagan traditions with minimal clerical involvement. The ritual foods that are prepared for the feast are the slavski kolač (or simply kolač), a ritual bread, and koljivo (or žito), a dish of minced boiled wheat, sweetened and sometimes mixed with chopped walnuts. A beeswax candle stamped with an image of the saint is also a staple at the celebration.

Prior to the slava, a priest surrounded by family members blesses the house. This is done in front of the saint's icon and the lit candle whereby the priest recites a prayer. Every room in the house is then sprinkled with holy water along with the members of the family who are each named and wished good health.

The top of the kolač is adorned with the Christian cross, the peace dove, and other symbols. The kolač symbolizes the body of Jesus, and the wine with which the kolač is eaten represents his blood. The parish priest, either at the home or at the church, consecrates the kolač with wine; afterwards the man of the household cuts it into quarters and turns it cut-side up. It is further cut into pieces by other family members and oldest or most important guests, a total of three times. In other traditions the bread is "broken" together by the guests after being ritually turned. The koljivo is a symbol of the Resurrection of Christ (cf. "if the grain does not die..." in the Gospel) and partaken in memory of the dead (deceased family members). The cutting into the bread three times is a symbolism of the Holy Trinity.

The rest of the feast consists of a meal, the contents of which depends on whether or not the celebration falls in a period of fasting. During a fast (post), the meal would not contain any meat but seafood (pesco-vegan). Outside of a fasting period, these restrictions would not apply and the Slava is considered mrsna. Thus, colloquially, slavas can be referred to as posna or mrsna. Appropriately-made sweets are consumed, as well. Alcohol is served to adults.

The most common feast days are St. Nicholas (Nikoljdan, 19 December), St. George (Đurđevdan, 6 May), St. John the Baptist (Jovanjdan, 20 January), St. Demetrius (Mitrovdan, 8 November), St. Michael (Aranđelovdan, 21 November) and St. Sava (Savindan, 27 January). Dates given are according to the Gregorian calendar. The Serbian Orthodox Church uses the Julian calendar.

Annotations

 * Krsna slava (Крсна слава, "christened Slava") and Krsno ime (Крсно име, "christened name")

title: Slava (tradition)


text:
Talk:Module

page
If no one objects, I am going to start changing the mathematical links to Module (mathematics), and move the mathematical content there. -- Walt Pohl 07:41, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Redirecting modular to module is nonsense for the mathematical concepts modular representation theory and modular form which have no corresponding meaning of "module".--80.133.123.240 10:47, 27 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This appears to be a disambiguation page, but the introduction is clearly specific to one (class) of the meanings -- namely, computer terminology. The introduction text should be moved elsewhere. --PaulCook 01:25, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

"Modular Synthesiser" needs a mention on this topic. --194.46.255.32 02:52, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

December 3 2009 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 59.165.90.141 (talk) 12:05, 3 December 2009 (UTC)

Requested move

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved.  Ron h jones (Talk) 22:25, 4 July 2010 (UTC)

Module → — There is a primary topic: the general concept of a module, as in modular design, as in modularity. Module should redirect to modularity, the article that will come closest to the general concept of module. (Articles that link ambiguously to module will then have an appropriate target.) Relisted.   A rbitrarily 0   ( talk ) 21:40, 15 June 2010 (UTC) Pnm (talk) 01:22, 4 June 2010 (UTC)

 * Comment that page is tagged with a WP:WPDAB banner... 76.66.193.224 (talk) 02:38, 7 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Support. A general link to module and modular should redirect to modularity. Fences  &  Windows  18:29, 30 June 2010 (UTC)
 * Support. But I note that modularity must be fixed. Currently that's an odd mix between a disambiguation page (e.g. the two notions of "modularity" in mathematics have absolutely nothing to do with modularisation; the word comes from the "modules" in algebra, which in turn generalise the concept of calculations "modulo" a positive integer) and an article. Hans Adler 07:24, 1 July 2010 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Requested move 15 November 2017

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: moved. Jenks24 (talk) 11:54, 22 November 2017 (UTC)

Module (disambiguation) → Module – Presently, Module redirects to Modularity. This is the result of a move request of 2010 (just above in this page), which has involved only 3 editors, although "module" and "modularity" interest more than ten Wikipedia projects (see the "lead" and the TOC of Modularity).

The only reason invoked for the old move is that "modularity" would be the primary topic. This is wrong, at least etymologically, as modularity means ability to be decomposed into modules.

But this is not the main reason for reverting this old move. The main reason is that, in many scientific fields, the term "module" is used without referring to any concept of modularity. This is the case in biology: for example the word and the concept of "modularity" does not appear at all in Cis-regulatory module and Protein domain, while "module" is widely used, including in the article title in the first case, and in a section heading in the second case. This is also the case in mathematics: in this area, "module" and "modular" refer to the Latin word "modulus", and they are definitively not related with the concept of modularity. See Module (mathematics), Modular arithmetic, Modular group, Modular form, etc.

Thus the proposed move will make searching much simpler for many readers, without complicating things for the others. As the main objective of dab pages is to simplify readers search, this justifies the revert of the old move. This would also remove the ambiguity of the present redirect, which suggest wrongly that "module" and "modularity" refers always to the same concept. D.Lazard (talk) 11:24, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support, there is no clear primary topic, and in ambiguous cases, having a disambiguation page is better than being sent to the wrong topic. Modularity is also a bit confusing and not nearly as clear as this DAB page. —Kusma (t·c) 12:50, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support per nom --Deacon Vorbis (talk) 14:21, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support per nomTR 14:35, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support. No primary topic here. -- Necrothesp (talk) 16:51, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support. "Modularity" is not the primary topic.   Sławomir Biały  (talk) 17:55, 15 November 2017 (UTC)
 * Support per nom power~enwiki ( π, ν ) 21:06, 21 November 2017 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

Game module
Do we have nowhere to link for this? Modules (add-on game publications with new "adventures") are a key aspect of role-playing games like Dungeons & Dragons, and are the model for the later advent of DLCs for computer RPGs. Seems like a major omission from the encyclopedia, though we do have an article on the (renamed) concept for D&D in particular. What I've got in there right now is: Good enough for the short term, I guess, but it's just weird that Game module and Module (gaming) are redlinks. — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  23:41, 26 July 2018 (UTC)
 * Game module, an add-on publication for a role-playing game
 * Adventure (Dungeons & Dragons), formerly referred to as a module
 * Update: The article Expansion set covers this, so I redirected Game module, etc., there and updated the DAB page.  — SMcCandlish ☏ ¢ 😼  00:49, 27 July 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Module


text:
XIV Corps (United States)

XIV Corps was a corps-sized formation of the United States Army, originally constituted on 1 October 1933 in the Organized Reserves. The history of XIV Corps in World War II dates from December 1942. Then, under Major General Alexander Patch, the XIV Army Corps directed the American 23rd Infantry Division and 25th Infantry Divisions, the 2nd Marine Division, and the 147th Infantry Regimental Combat Team in the final drive that expelled the Japanese from Guadalcanal early in February 1943. The 70th Coast Artillery Regiment (Anti-Aircraft) landed on 23 May 1943. From air fields guarded by the XIV Army Corps, Allied aircraft began the neutralization of the enemy's vital Munda airfields on New Georgia.

Major General Oscar Griswold succeeded Patch as XIV Corps commander on 26 April 1943. In a lightning campaign, which began 30 June 1943 with the invasion of Rendova Islands, General Griswold's forces, which included the 43rd (New England) and the 37th (Buckeye) Infantry Divisions with elements of the 25th Division, seized New Georgia and the important Munda airfield on 6 August. Mopping up the adjacent islands was completed and the New Georgia campaign ended on 6 October 1943. American and New Zealand aircraft operating from the Munda field began the neutralization of Kahili and other enemy airfields in Bougainville.

XIV Corps defeated the once fine Japanese 17th Army on Bougainville in March 1944. Part of this army was the Sixth Infantry Division, which was considered Japan's best division in the early Chinese campaigns and played a major part in the Rape of the Chinese city of Nanking in 1937.

In the Bougainville campaign, the 37th and Americal Divisions, and two battalions of the Fiji military forces, were the principal combat units of XIV Corps. Elements of the 93rd (Negro) Infantry Division arrived after the peak of the battle and assisted in harassing retreating Japanese troops. There were 65,000 Japanese on Bougainville when the Americans landed, of whom some 8,200 died in combat and 16,600 from illness.

The three airfields in the Bougainville perimeter were used as bases for allied aircraft that reduced the once mighty Japanese air and naval base of Rabaul, New Britain, to an impotent outpost of the enemy's island empire. The first raid on Truk, a large Japanese air and naval base in the Central Pacific, was staged through Bougainville by Liberators of the Thirteenth Air Force.

From the Solomons campaigns, XIV Army Corps gained the nickname "Kings of the Solomons".

Liberators of Manila
XIV Army Corps with its initial divisions, the 37th and the 40th (Sunshine) Infantry Division, landed on the shores of Lingayen Gulf, Luzon, Philippines, on S-Day, which was 9 January 1945. The landing was made without ground opposition as the Japanese garrison, completely surprised, fled three days before S-Day at the start of an intensive naval and aerial bombardment.

Meeting sporadic resistance, the corps drove rapidly south towards Manila, capturing successively Binmaley, San Carlos, Malasiqui and Tarlac. At Bamban, the enemy was strongly entrenched in the 40th's sector in the foothills of the Zambales Mountains. Attacking abreast, the 37th and 40th sufficiently reduced the resistance to allow the 37th to continue on to Manila. The 40th was left to contain and exterminate the stubbornly resisting Japanese.

The 1st Cavalry Division from Guimba began a drive to Manila overrunning the towns of Cabanatuan, Santa Rosa and Garapan, and by 1 February 1945, the 37th and the 1st Cavalry were poised north of Manila ready for the battle for the Philippines' capital city.

On 2 February, elements of the 11th Airborne Division made an airborne and amphibious invasion of Nasugbu on the west coast of Batangas Province, 32 miles southwest of the former American naval base of Cavite. This move was to seal off the Japanese forces south of Manila. The 11th, passing to XIV Corps control, began a push toward a junction with columns of the 37th and 1st Cavalry.

On 3 February, the 1st Cavalry entered Manila liberating 3,700 American internees at Santo Tomas and the next day soldiers of the 37th marched into Bilibid Prison freeing 800 American civilians and soldiers captured on Bataan and Corregidor in 1941.

Resistance was quickly reduced north of the Pasig River, but the Japanese fought ferociously in Southern Manila. Forces of the 37th, 1st Cavalry and 11th Airborne joined up in Manila on 13 February. Meanwhile, the 6th (Red Star) Infantry Division joined XIV Corps on 17 February and attacked well fortified enemy forces in the Shimbu Line east of Manila. In an amphibious, air, para-troop, ground assault, elements of the 11th Airborne Division aided by elements of XIV Corps Special Troops, freed 2,100 American internees from Los Banos Prison Camp, 23 February.

Main enemy resistance collapsed with the taking of the ancient walled city of Intramuros on 24 February by the 37th Division. Mopping up was completed in three public building that had been fortified by the Japanese and in Manila Bay, where Japanese has set up defenses in the hulks of sunken ships.

The cleanup of Southern Luzon with the 1st Cavalry and the 11th Airborne comprising major corps units was begun 15 March, and by 20 May the area was declared free of Japanese organized resistance. Then on 1 July, the corps with the 6th, 32nd (Red Arrow), 37th and 38th (Cyclone) Division began the cleanup of Northern Luzon.

Campaign credits and postwar service
XIV Corps is credited with service in the Guadalcanal, Northern Solomons, Bismarck Archipelago, and Luzon Campaigns. Subsequent to World War II, XIV Corps was active in Minneapolis, Minnesota, from 1957 to 1968.

title: XIV Corps (United States)


text:
Sisy Chen

Sisy Chen or Chen Wen-chien (born 25 March 1958) is a Taiwanese journalist, television commentator, writer and former politician. She hosts Sisy's World News, a weekly newscast at the Chung T'ien Television and UFO Dinner, a daily radio talk show at UFO Radio. She was an independent member of the Legislative Yuan from February 1, 2002 to January 31, 2005. Since 2005, she also hosted a political talk show on the Phoenix Television, Jie Ma Chen Wen Qian which focuses on exposing the flaws of Taiwan's democratic system.

Biography
She received her LL.B. from National Taiwan University. From 1982 to 1983 she worked as the Vice Editor of the American Version of the China Times Daily News. Throughout the early 1980s, she campaigned for Tangwai candidates and published opposition essays. As a founding member of the Democratic Progressive Party in 1984, she was editor of the opposition's New Tide magazine from 1985 to 1986.

Chen then travelled to the United States to pursue a doctorate at the University of California, Berkeley and later at the New School for Social Research in New York City. She did not complete her studies.

In the early 1990s, Sisy Chen remained active in Taiwanese society as a member of the UN Minority Group for Asia, the chairperson of the Taiwan Relations Center's office of the UN, and the producer for Italian National Broadcast's Asia Department. TVBS voted her No. 4 in its 1995 top ten list in Taiwan. In 1996, she worked as General Manager of Song Records. As she gained more fame as an outspoken and blunt commentator, her position in the Democratic Progressive Party rose and she was appointed director of the DPP Culture and Information Department. Beginning in 1998, she hosted Women's Talk on TVBS and promoted women's issues.

Sisy Chen, an ally of Hsu Hsin-liang, left the DPP in 1999 and emerged as one of its harshest critics. In 2001, as an independent, she won a seat in the Legislative Yuan representing South Taipei City. That same year she accepted a KMT controlled position on the board of Taiwan Television (TTV) and became spokesperson of the Mountain Alliance, a pro-unification think tank that included Hsu Hsin-liang and Shih Ming-teh.

She was a strategist for the Pan Blue Coalition in the 2004 ROC presidential election and debated Mainland Affairs Council Chairwoman Tsai Ing-wen on the March 20 referendum. In the night before the election, she invited a celebrity panel to her show and made the first high-profile claim that the shooting of Chen Shui-bian and Annette Lu earlier that day was probably staged. Some Pan-Blue officials believe this early accusation was a factor Lien-Soong's defeat as it alienated swing voters who switched over to the DPP in Chen's sympathy.

In 2003 Sisy Chen and Wu Cherng-dean joined the PFP legislative caucus.

During a press conference on March 19, 2004 she said that the assassination attempt on Chen Shui-bian and Annette Lu was staged. This caused her to receive political attacks from the blue-camp legislators.

She did not seek reelection in December 2004 and supported her friend Li Ao in his successful bid for a seat. In 2005, Chen published her new book. During the press conference, she revealed her thought of regarding herself as a re-incarnation of a witch in her previous life. She also confessed her deeper ache for love than before.

Outside politics Sisy Chen has been active in the media. From 2002 to the present time, Sisy Chen hosted "Wen Qian Xiao Mei Da," a talk show aimed at exploring and exposing political and social issues in Taiwan. In 2005, Sisy Chen became a host of "Jie Ma Chen Wen Qian," a talk show on Phoenix TV. On her TV shows, Sisy Chen frequently criticized the democratic system of Taiwan.

In 2006 Chen Shui-bian announced that he would file a lawsuit against Sisy Chen for her statement that Chen Shui-bian was going to use a scheduled trip to Palau to ship valuables of his away from Taiwan.

title: Sisy Chen


text:
Rhinencephalon

In animal anatomy, the rhinencephalon (from the Greek, ῥίς, rhis = "nose", and ἐγκέφαλος, enkephalos = "brain"), also called the smell-brain or olfactory brain, is a part of the brain involved with smell (i.e. olfaction). It forms the paleocortex and is rudimentary in the human brain.

Components
The term rhinencephalon has been used to describe different structures at different points in time.

One definition includes the olfactory bulb, olfactory tract, anterior olfactory nucleus, anterior perforated substance, medial olfactory stria, lateral olfactory stria, parts of the amygdala and prepyriform area.

Some references classify other areas of the brain related to perception of smell as rhinencephalon, but areas of the human brain that receive fibers strictly from the olfactory bulb are limited to those of the paleopallium. As such, the rhinencephalon includes the olfactory bulb, the olfactory tract, the olfactory tubercle and striae, the anterior olfactory nucleus and parts of the amygdala and the piriform cortex.

In different species
The development of the rhinencephalon varies among species. In humans it is rudimentary. A small area where the frontal lobe meets the temporal lobe and the area of cortex on the uncus of the parahippocampal gyrus (both belonging to the olfactory cortex) have a different structure (so called "allocortex") than most of the telencephalon and are phylogenetically older (so called paleocortex).

title: Rhinencephalon