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Red Cloud's War

Red Cloud's War (also referred to as the Bozeman War or the Powder River War) was an armed conflict between an alliance of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho peoples against the United States and the Crow Nation that took place in the Wyoming and Montana territories from 1866 to 1868. The war was fought over control of the western Powder River Country in present north-central Wyoming.

In 1863, European Americans had blazed the Bozeman Trail through the heart of the traditional territory of the Cheyenne, Arapaho, and Lakota. It was the shortest and easiest route from Fort Laramie and the Oregon Trail to the Montana gold fields. From 1864 to 1866, the trail was traversed by about 3,500 miners, emigrant settlers and others, who competed with the Indians for the diminishing resources near the trail.

The United States named the war after Red Cloud, a prominent Oglala Lakota chief allied with the Cheyenne and Arapaho. The United States army had built forts in response to attacks on civilian travelers, using a treaty right to "establish roads, military and other post". All three forts were located in 1851 Crow Indian territory and accepted by these Indians. The Crow believed they guarded their interests best by cooperating with the US army.

Red Cloud's War consisted mostly of constant small-scale Indian raids and attacks on the soldiers and civilians at the three forts in the Powder River country, wearing down those garrisons. The largest action of the war, the Fetterman Fight (with 81 men killed on the U.S. side), was the worst military defeat suffered by the U.S. on the Great Plains until the Battle of the Little Bighorn in the Crow Indian reservation ten years later. " ... the most dramatic battles between the army and the Dakota [in the 1860s and 1870s] were on lands those Indians had taken from other tribes since 1851."

With peace achieved under the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868, the Lakota and their allies were victorious. They gained legal control of the western Powder River country, took down the forts and permanently closed the Bozeman trail. The Crow lost their hunting grounds in the Powder River region to their enemies. With the treaty, "... the [United States] government had in effect betrayed the Crows, who had willingly helped the army to hold the posts for two years". The victory of the Lakota and their allies endured for eight years until the Great Sioux War of 1876, when the US resumed taking their territories, including the sacred Black Hills. In a 1980 Supreme Court case, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, the court ruled that tribal lands covered under the treaty had been taken illegally by the US government, and the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018 this amounted to more than $1 billion.

Background
As early as 1805, a Crow camp allowed French-Canadian fur trader François Antoine Larocque to follow it across parts of the Powder River area. According to him, the Crow "... inhabit the Eastern part of the Rocky Mountains at the head of the Rivière aux Roches Jaunes (Yellowstone River) and its Branches, Bighorn River, Tongue River, Powder River and others and Close to the head of the Missouri".

From the late 17th century, the Lakota had been moving west into the Plains, enlarging their territory so that by the early 19th century, they controlled the mid-Missouri River region. Cheyenne and Lakota warriors committed a carnage on a big Crow camp at Tongue River in 1820, known today as the Tongue River Massacre, making their enmity permanent. In 1843, United States explorer John Frémont said that Lakota had told him that they would soon fight the Crow and take their land, as the Crow country had about the best bison range in the west.

In 1851, the area in question was included in a treaty with the United States for the first time, namely in the Fort Laramie treaty. This peace agreement defined territories for the tribes, in an effort by the US to establish peace among Native tribes and protect its own settlers. The treaty was signed by representatives of some factions of the numerous tribes of the Plains and mountainous West, including Crow, Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho; Gros Ventre, Mandan, and Arikara; Assiniboine and other nations. Intertribal warfare had been common among the tribes to gain social and economic advantages in furs, slaves, horses, hunting grounds, and other interests. They continued to wage war against each other into the late 19th century, conducting affairs separate from interaction with US forces and representatives.

As the big game dwindled in the mid-1850s, the Lakota began to enlarge their hunting grounds and encroached and "ignored the boundaries" of the 1851 treaty. They crossed Powder River (the dividing line between the Lakota territory and that of the Crow) and launched their "own program for expansions" westward at the expense of other Natives. For the Crow, the plains near present-day Wyola, Montana became a field for "large-scale battles with invading Sioux". By 1860, the Lakota and their allies had driven the Crows away from their treaty-guaranteed hunting grounds on the west side of Powder River.

The Lakota winter count by Ben Kindle (Oglala) reflects the fighting between the Crow and the Oglala during these decisive years. In five out of eight "winters" (years) from 1857 to 1864, he refers to Oglala triumphs over the Crow or the reverse. The year 1857 is remembered for a battle in which "The Sioux killed ten Crow Indians." In an 1863 fight, "The Crow killed eight Oglala Sioux."

The discovery of gold in 1863 around Bannack, Montana was a catalyst for white settlers to find an economical route to the gold fields. While some emigrants went to Salt Lake City and then north to Montana, pioneer John Bozeman and John M Jacobs developed the Bozeman Trail from Fort Laramie north through the Powder River country east of the Bighorn Mountains to the Yellowstone, then westward over what is now Bozeman Pass. "It is apparent that the great northern routes of travel to and from Montana, both by land and water, lie through the country of the Crow Indians..." established the Commissioner of Indian Affairs in 1867. However, the Lakotas "had gradually driven the Crows back upon the headwaters of the Yellowstone", and now they claimed "as a conquest almost the entire country traversed by what is called the Powder River route [Bozeman Trail] ...". The trail passed through the Powder River hunting grounds of the Lakota or Western (Teton) Sioux,. A second trail, the Bridger Trail, passed west of the Bighorns but was longer and therefore less favored.

The Powder River country encompasses the numerous rivers (the Bighorn, Rosebud, Tongue and Powder) that flow northeastward from the Bighorn Mountains to the Yellowstone. The Cheyenne had been the first tribe in this area, followed by bands of Lakota. As more of the northern plains became occupied by white settlement, this region became the last unspoiled hunting ground of the Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho and several of the seven bands of the Lakota. The treaty breaking annexation of the Crow's Powder River area in the 1850s by the Lakotas was the basis for Red Cloud's War against the United States on exactly the same soil a decade later. The United States vs. the Lakota was a conflict between "... two expanding empires, with the most dramatic battles occurring on lands only recently taken by the Sioux from other tribes". In 1865, Maj. Gen. Grenville M. Dodge ordered the Powder River Expedition against the Lakota, Cheyenne and Arapaho. Three columns of soldiers numbering 2,675 men, commanded by Patrick E. Connor, moved into the Powder River country. The expedition failed to defeat the Indians in any decisive battles, although it destroyed an Arapaho village at the Battle of the Tongue River. The expedition was a failure in most respects as Lakota Indian resistance to white emigrants traveling the Bozeman Trail became more determined than ever.

After the Powder River Expedition, the U.S. attempted to negotiate safe passage for settlers through Indian territory. In autumn 1865, it negotiated several treaties with Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho leaders. The treaties provided monetary compensation to the Indians in exchange for their agreement to withdraw from the overland routes, established and to be established, in the Powder River country. However, the signatories to these treaties were "Laramie loafers"—Indians who lived near Fort Laramie and lived off handouts. For a treaty to be effective, the Indians who had fought Connor, especially Red Cloud, had to be engaged. No white man could be found to undertake a dangerous mission to find Red Cloud and bring him to Fort Laramie for negotiations, so several of the "loafers" took the task. On March 12, 1866, Red Cloud and his Oglala rode into Fort Laramie. Red Cloud committed to remain peacefully at the Fort until such time as the U.S.'s chief negotiator, E. B. Taylor, arrived with presents for the assembled Indians.

Crows such as Wolf Bow tried to push the whites to take action against the Indian intruders: "Put the Sioux Indians in their own country, and keep them from troubling us. Don't stop fighting them". When possible, the Crow warned the troops of imminent attacks from hostile Indians and they joined soldiers in fending off attempts to capture horses. The strikes and attacks on the soldiers by the Lakota "... appeared to be a great Sioux war to protect their land. And it was - but the Sioux had only recently conquered this land from other tribes and now defending the territory both from other tribes and from the advance of white settlers".

Council at Fort Laramie
Negotiations between Red Cloud and other Native American leaders and the United States' representatives began in June 1866. On June 13, however, with the worst possible timing, Colonel Henry B. Carrington commanding the 18th Infantry, arrived at Laramie with the two battalions of the regiment (approximately 1,300 men in 16 companies) and construction supplies. He had orders to establish forts in the Powder River country using the 2nd Battalion of the 18th Infantry. The 3rd Battalion was to garrison posts along the old Oregon Trail, now the Platte Road. Carrington chose the 2nd Battalion because it contained 220 veteran soldiers consolidated after the American Civil War. When Carrington appeared at the negotiations the following day, Red Cloud refused to acknowledge him and accused the U.S. of bad faith in the negotiations. Red Cloud, Young Man Afraid Of His Horses, and others withdrew from the negotiations and departed Fort Laramie.Negotiations continued with a reduced number of Indian leaders. The US offered a substantial inducement for their cooperation: 70,000 dollars per year for the Lakota and 15,000 dollars per year for the Cheyenne. The Indians may have learned that the US often failed to deliver on its promises in treaties for annuities. On June 29, Taylor reported to Washington that a treaty had been concluded and that a "most cordial feeling prevails" between white and Indian. He said that only about 300 warriors, led by Red Cloud, objected to the treaty. The US government expressed optimism that the treaty would be successful in keeping the peace. In December, President Andrew Johnson in his State of the Union address said that the Indians had "unconditionally submitted to our authority and manifested an earnest desire for a renewal of friendly relations." Unbeknownst to Johnson, Carrington at that time was under virtual siege by the Indians at Fort Phil Kearny.

The agreement was not ratified. The United States, as signer of the 1851 Fort Laramie treaty, could only undertake meaningful negotiations about the western Powder River plains with the legitimate holder of the area, the Crow tribe.

Opposing forces
Carrington left Fort Laramie for the Powder River Country on June 17, 1866. He led 700 soldiers, 300 civilians, including wives and children of soldiers, and civilian contractors; 226 wagons full of supplies, a 35-man regimental band, and 1,000 head of cattle for a supply of fresh meat. The number of soldiers reflected the reductions that had been made in the army since the Civil War. Previous military expeditions against the Sioux by Alfred Sully, Henry Hastings Sibley, and Patrick Edward Connor from 1863 to 1865 had numbered more than 2,000 soldiers.

Five hundred of Carrington's men were new recruits and most were infantry, rather than cavalry. He had much less ammunition than the 100,000 rounds promised him. Carrington's men were armed with muzzle-loading Springfield rifles from the Civil War rather than new, faster-firing Spencer carbines and breech loading rifles. He had been "equipped with the men, arms, and supplies to build and garrison forts, not to wage war with an active army."

Carrington did not use Indian scouts, but they could have provided him essential intelligence on his opponents and informed him of a mobile search-and-destroy attack force. Nearly all of the meager successes of the Powder River Expedition a year earlier were attributable to the Pawnee and Omaha scouts who had accompanied the expedition. A scout in another Indian war would say of US soldiers, "Uncle Sam's boys are too slow for this kind of work." Carrington's guide was the seasoned Mountain man Jim Bridger.

Carrington's opponents, the migratory hunting and warrior societies of the Lakota Sioux, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho, had advantages in mobility, horsemanship, knowledge of the country, guerrilla hit-and-run tactics, and the capability to concentrate their forces to achieve numerical superiority. They also had many weaknesses as a fighting force, especially in organization and weapons. During winter and spring, the scarcity of natural resources resulted in their living in small, scattered autonomous groups. In late summer and fall they congregated into large encampments for ceremonies and to make political decisions and plan collective action. Bands were highly decentralized and individual Indians felt little obligation to obey group decisions. The Lakota consisted of seven independent bands, each made up of numerous sub-bands, all of whom operated independently. The Cheyenne had a more structured and centralized political organization.

Some historians have estimated that Red Cloud's warriors numbered up to 4,000 men. The total number of Lakota in 1865 was about 13,860. The Northern Cheyenne and Arapaho numbered about 3,000, adding up to a total of about 17,000 Indian men, women, and children. Thousands of people in all three of those tribes were not in the Powder River country with Red Cloud; others stayed aloof from warfare. As had been typical of United States militias, Indian men were part-time warriors. They had to spend much of summer and fall each year hunting buffalo and other game to feed their families. In the late winter and spring, they were limited in mobility until the grass turned green and their horses could recover their strength after the severe winters of the northern Great Plains. The effectiveness of Indian forces were diminished by their lack of cohesion and organization.

The Indians had few guns and little ammunition; only six of the 81 soldiers who were later killed in the Fetterman Fight had gunshot wounds, and two of those may have shot themselves accidentally. Their basic weapon was the bow and arrow. The short (usually less than four feet long) and stout Indian bow was designed for short-distance hunting from horseback. Although deadly at short range, it probably had less than one-half the range of the English longbow, which was effective to 200 yards (180 m). Indian warriors lacked the capability to do significant damage to their opponents at ranges of more than 100 yards (90 m). By contrast, the soldier's Springfield Model 1861 muskets had an effective range of 300 yards or more. The Springfield musket, however, had a much lower rate of fire than the bow, offsetting to an extent its range advantage.

War
Carrington and his caravan reached Fort Reno on June 28, and left two companies (about 100 men) there to relieve the two companies of the 5th U.S. Volunteers (nicknamed the "Galvanized Yankees"), who had garrisoned the fort over the winter. Proceeding north, on July 14, Carrington founded Fort Phil Kearny on Piney Creek, near present-day Buffalo, Wyoming.

From there two companies of the 18th advanced 91 miles to the northwest, where on August 13, they established a third post, Fort C. F. Smith on the Bighorn River. Given the typically early and severe winters of the high plains, the middle of August was very late in the year to begin constructing forts, but Carrington's march had been slowed by having to transport a large mechanical "grass-cutting machine." With replacements and reinforcements, Carrington's total force did not much exceed 700, of whom 400 were located at Fort Kearny.

Carrington was an engineer and political appointee, inexperienced in combat. He spent manpower resources building superior fortifications. Arriving in the region in mid-July, he tried to prepare for winter. Given the severity of the Wyoming winters, this was reasonable, but many of his junior officers, anxious for battle, were infuriated. Most were Civil War veterans, but they were unfamiliar with Indian fighting and believed the warriors could be easily defeated.

On July 16, a group of Cheyenne, including Dull Knife and Two Moons, visited Carrington at Fort Reno and proclaimed their desire for peace. They said that Red Cloud was nearby with 500 warriors. Two white civilians were killed that day, and the Lakota campaign against the forts along the Trail began the next day. Red Cloud's warriors infiltrated the picket lines near the fort and stampeded 175 horses and mules. About 200 soldiers pursued the Indians in a running 15 mile fight, attempting unsuccessfully to recover the animals and suffering two men killed and three wounded. Returning to the fort, they found the bodies of six civilian traders killed by the Indians.

On July 20, Red Cloud's warriors attacked a wagon train of 37 soldiers and civilians, killing two, at Crazy Woman Fork of the Powder River. After they attacked other civilian wagon trains, nearly all civilian traffic on the Bozeman Trail ceased. Carrington could only be re-supplied with food and ammunition by heavily guarded wagon trains. In the weeks and months that followed, the Indians repeatedly attacked the wagon trains that sallied out of Fort Kearny to cut construction timber in a forest six miles away. For defense, the wood trains were large, consisting of two parallel lines of 24 to 40 wagons guarded by mounted soldiers on either flank. In the event of an attack, the wagons were quickly drawn into an corral for defense. Fifteen Indian attacks near Fort Kearny between July 16 and September 27 resulted in the deaths of 6 soldiers and 28 civilians and the loss of several hundred horses, mules, and cattle. Carrington's hay-cutting machine was also destroyed.

Battle of the Hundred Slain/Fetterman Fight
In November 1866, Captains William J. Fetterman and James Powell arrived at Fort Phil Kearny from the 18th Infantry's headquarters garrison at Fort Laramie to replace several officers recently relieved of duty. Unlike Carrington, Fetterman had extensive combat experience during the Civil War. But he lacked experience fighting Native Americans. Fetterman disagreed with Carrington's strategy, reportedly saying it was "passive" and boasting that given "80 men," he "would ride through the Sioux nation." Later, Carrington reported these boasts while trying to defend his own reputation.

On December 6, a force of Company C, 2nd Cavalry tasked to protect a wood train, was attacked by Red Cloud. Commanding officer Second Lieutenant Horace S. Bingham was among those killed as he had followed them as they retreated over Lodge Trail Ridge and been overwhelmed. Carrington worried about his officers' tendency to blindly follow such Indian decoy parties. Fetterman was outraged by what he considered the ineffectiveness of Carrington's leadership. He understood the commander of the Department of the Platte, Gen. Philip St. George Cooke, to have ordered the garrison to mount an aggressive winter campaign.

On the morning of December 21, 1866, the wood train was attacked again. Carrington ordered a relief party, composed of 49 infantrymen of the 18th Infantry, 27 mounted troopers of the 2nd Cavalry, with Captain James Powell to command. Powell had led a similar effort two days earlier and declined to pursue the Indians over the ridge. However, by claiming seniority as a brevet lieutenant colonel, Fetterman asked for and was given command of the relief party. Powell remained behind. Another officer of the 18th, Lt. George W. Grummond, also a vocal critic of Carrington, led the cavalry, which had been leaderless since Lt. Bingham's death in early December. Captain Frederick Brown, until recently the post quartermaster and another of Carrington's critics, and two civilians, James Wheatley and Isaac Fisher, joined Fetterman, bringing the relief force up to 81 officers and men. The infantry marched out first; the cavalry had to retrieve its mounts before it could follow and catch up.

Colonel Carrington said he ordered Fetterman not to cross Lodge Trail Ridge, where relief from the fort would be difficult, and that he told Grummond to remind Fetterman of his order. Upon leaving the fort, Fetterman, instead of marching down the wood road to the relief of the wood train, turned north and crossed the Sullivant Hills toward Lodge Trail Ridge. Within a few minutes of their departure, a Lakota decoy party including Oglala warrior Crazy Horse appeared on Lodge Trail Ridge. Fetterman took the bait; several of the warriors stood on their ponies and insultingly waggled their bare buttocks at the troopers. Fetterman and his company were joined by Grummond at the crossing of the creek; they deployed in skirmish line and marched over the Ridge in pursuit. They raced into the Peno Valley, where an estimated 1,000-3,000 Indians were concealed. They had fought the soldiers there on December 6.

The ambush was not observed from the fort, but around noon, men at the fort heard gunfire, beginning with a few shots followed immediately by sustained firing. When the Oglala and Cheyenne sprang their trap, the soldiers had no escape; none survived. Evidence indicated the cavalry probably had charged the Indians; the bodies of the cavalry's most advanced group were found nearly a mile down the ridge beyond the infantry.

Reports from the burial party sent to collect the remains said the soldiers had died in three groups. The most advanced, and probably most effective, were the two civilians, armed with 16-shot Henry repeating rifles, and a small number of cavalrymen who had dismounted and taken cover in the rocks. Up the slope behind them were the bodies of most of the retreating cavalrymen, armed with new 7-shot Spencer carbines, but encumbered by their horses and lacking cover. Further up the slope were Fetterman, Brown, and the infantrymen. They had nearly obsolete Civil War muzzle-loading muskets; the Indians were armed with equally obsolete weaponry. These foot soldiers fought from cover for a short while, until their ammunition ran out and they were overrun.

Carrington heard the gunfire and immediately sent out a 40-man support force on foot under Captain Tenedor Ten Eyck. Shortly after, the 30 remaining cavalrymen of Company C were sent dismounted to reinforce Ten Eyck, followed by two wagons, the first loaded with hastily loaded ammunition and escorted by another 40 men. Carrington called for an immediate muster of troops to defend the post. Including the wood train detail, the detachments had left only 119 troops remaining inside the fort.

Ten Eyck took a roundabout route and reached the ridgetop just as the firing ceased about 12:45 p.m. He sent back a message reporting that he could not see Fetterman's force, but the valley was filled with groups of Indians taunting him to come down. Ten Eyck suffered severe criticism for not marching straight to battle, though doing so would have resulted only in the destruction of his force, too. Ten Eyck reached and recovered the bodies of Fetterman's men. Because of continuing Indian threat, they could not recover those of the cavalry for two days.

By that time, Fetterman and his entire 81-man detachment were dead. Carrington's official report said that Fetterman and Brown shot each other to avoid capture. Army autopsies recorded Fetterman's death wound as a knife slash. It remains a subject of debate. The warriors mutilated most of the bodies of the soldiers. Most of the dead soldiers were scalped, beheaded, dismembered, disemboweled, and often castrated, facts widely publicized by the newspapers. The only body left untouched was that of a young teenage bugler, Adolph Metzler. He was believed to have fought several Indians with just his bugle as a bludgeon. Aside from his fatal head and chest injuries, his body was left untouched and covered with a buffalo robe by the Indians. The reason for this remains unknown.

This battle was called the "Battle of the Hundred Slain" or the "Battle of the Hundred in the Hand" by the Indians and the "Fetterman Massacre" by the soldiers. It was the Army's worst defeat on the Great Plains until the Little Big Horn battle nearly ten years later.

After the Fetterman Fight
The evening after the Fetterman disaster, a civilian, John "Portugee" Philips," volunteered to carry a distress message to Fort Laramie. Carrington's message to General Cooke reported Fetterman's defeat and requested immediate reinforcements and supplies of repeating Spencer carbines. Philips accomplished the 236 mi ride to Fort Laramie in four days. A blizzard began on December 22, and Philips rode through a foot (30 cm) of snow and temperatures below 0 F. He did not see any Indians during his ride. He arrived at Fort Laramie late in the evening on December 25, during a full-dress Christmas ball. He staggered, exhausted, into the party to deliver his message. General Cooke immediately relieved Carrington of command, replacing him with Brigadier General Henry W. Wessells. Wessells arrived safely at Fort Kearny on January 16 with two companies of cavalry and four of infantry. One man in his command froze to death during the journey. Carrington left Fort Kearny on January 23 with his wife and the other women and children, including the pregnant wife of the deceased Lt. Grummond, and braved temperatures as low as -38 F during the journey to Fort Laramie. One half of his 60-soldier escort suffered frostbite. General Ulysses S. Grant, commanding the U.S. Army, was not inclined to blame only Carrington. He relieved Cooke on January 9, 1867. Both an Army court of inquiry and the Secretary of the Interior investigated the Fetterman Fight. The Army reached no official conclusion, and Interior exonerated Carrington. After a severe hip injury, Carrington resigned his commission in 1870. He spent the rest of his life defending his actions and condemning Fetterman's alleged disobedience.

After the Fetterman Fight, the Indians dispersed into smaller groups for the 1866-1867 winter. Conflict subsided for the season. Wessells and his men at Fort Phil Kearny had a difficult time through the winter. Food was short, most of the horses and mules died from lack of forage, and scurvy was common among the soldiers. He cancelled plans for a punitive winter campaign against the Indians. In April, Indians began raids along the Oregon Trail in the North Platte River valley. Journalist Henry M. Stanley, (later achieving fame in Africa), said, "Murders are getting to be so tame from their plurality, that no one pays any attention to them."

Most serious was the Indian threat to the construction of the First transcontinental railroad routed through southern Wyoming. Although army forces had been augmented along the Bozeman Trail and at Fort Laramie in the wake of the Fetterman disaster, resources were still insufficient to take the offensive against the Indians. Peace negotiations conducted by the friendly Lakota chieftain Spotted Tail with Red Cloud initially seemed promising, but proved to be only a delaying tactic by the Indians. The Lakota held their annual Sun Dance in July, delaying the renewal of major hostilities.

Hayfield and Wagon Box fights
In late July 1867, the Lakota and Cheyenne took two different paths in attacks. A force composed primarily of Cheyenne and Arapaho gathered for an attack at Fort C. F. Smith on the Bighorn River in Montana. Another, mostly Lakota, decided to attack Fort Phil Kearny, 90 mi southeast. Crow people lived near Fort Smith and provided intelligence to the soldiers at the fort, warning of upcoming attacks. On July 23, the fort was reinforced by two companies of infantry under Lt. Col. Luther P. Bradley, bringing the complement of the fort up to 350 soldiers.

Most importantly, the reinforcements were armed with breech-loading Springfield Model 1866 rifles, replacing the muskets the soldiers had previously been issued. The new rifles had a rate of fire of 8 to 10 shots per minute compared to 3 to 4 for the muzzle-loading muskets; also, they could be easily reloaded by men lying in a prone position.

The supply of the new Springfields was perhaps the biggest change in the conflict since the Fetterman Fight. They allowed the soldiers to reload quickly, ending the Indian tactic of charging defenses before the soldiers could reload. With the new rifles, the soldiers could also remain behind cover while reloading.

The soldiers at Fort Smith were tasked with protecting civilians cutting hay for winter food for the fort's horses. On the morning of August 1, 21 soldiers and 9 civilians were working in the hayfield 3 mi from Fort Smith, when several hundred mounted Indians charged them; the soldiers and civilians took cover behind logs in a makeshift fort and in rifle pits. During the course of the day, the Americans repulsed several attacks with their fast-firing rifles. The Indians broke off the attack in the afternoon. American casualties were two soldiers and one civilian killed and three wounded. The Indians claimed they had lost eight dead; the soldiers estimated they had killed 18 to 23.

The Wagon Box Fight near Fort Kearny the next day was similar. Twenty-six soldiers and 6 civilians were escorting a wood-cutting detail outside the fort. The heavy wooden boxes of 14 wagons had been placed on the ground in an oval corral near the main cutting site, and most of the soldiers and civilians took refuge there when hundreds of mounted Indian warriors suddenly appeared. Armed with the new breech-loading rifles, the Americans held off the Indians for six hours before being rescued by a relief force from Fort Kearny. Three Americans were killed and two wounded in the corral, and four woodcutters were killed about 1 mi away. The Wagon Box Fight was hailed at the time as the "greatest Indian battle in the world," with Indian casualties fancifully estimated at up to 1,500. Historian George E. Hyde has said the Indians had 6 killed and 6 wounded and did not regard the fight as a defeat, as they captured a large number of mules and horses. Many years later Red Cloud claimed not to remember the Wagon Box Fight, although given the large number of Indians engaged that seems unlikely.

The outcomes of the Hayfield and Wagon Box fights discouraged the Indians from mounting additional large-scale attacks, but they continued harassment of the forts along the Bozeman Trail, killing soldiers and civilians. On August 7 the Indians attacked a Union Pacific Railroad train at Plum Creek near present-day Lexington, Nebraska, far from the Powder River Country and in a region considered by the US to be peaceful until then. This alarmed the government.

Treaty of Fort Laramie
Despite the military successes in the Hayfield and Wagon Box Fights, the U.S. government increasingly sought a peaceful rather than a military solution to Red Cloud's War. The successful completion of the transcontinental railroad took priority, and the Army did not have the resources to defend both the railroad and the Bozeman Trail from Indian attacks. The military presence in the Powder River Country was both expensive and unproductive, with estimates that 20,000 soldiers might be needed to subdue the Indians.

Peace commissioners were sent to Fort Laramie in the spring of 1868. Red Cloud refused to meet with them until the Army abandoned the Powder River forts, Phil Kearny, C. F. Smith, and Reno. In August 1868, Federal soldiers abandoned the forts and withdrew to Fort Laramie. The day after the soldiers left the forts, the Indians burned them. The Bozeman Trail was closed for all time.

Red Cloud did not arrive at Fort Laramie until November. He signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie of 1868, which created the Great Sioux Reservation, including the Black Hills. The reservation included all of South Dakota west of the Missouri River. Northern Arapaho representatives also signed the treaty. The treaty declared the Powder River country as "unceded Indian territory", as a reserve for the Indians who chose not to live on the new reservation, and as a hunting reserve for the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. The treaty also accorded the Lakota Indians continued hunting rights in western Kansas and eastern Colorado, along with other peoples such as the Pawnees. These far, southern hunting grounds along the forks of Republican River remained holdings of the United States, as they had been since 1833, when the Pawnee Indians sold this area and other parts of their country to the whites. Most importantly, the treaty specified what Red Cloud sought: "no white person or persons shall be permitted to settle upon or occupy any portion" of the Powder River country "or without the consent of the Indians first had and obtained, to pass through" the Powder River country.

The Lakotas on their part allowed the construction of "any railroad" outside the reservation. They would give up "all right to occupy permanently the territory outside" it and "regard said reservation their permanent home". They accepted "not to attack any persons at home, or travelling ...".

Although a treaty between the United States and the Lakotas, it had profound consequences for the Crows. In order to realize the Lakota demand to the western Powder River area, the United States first had to buy it from the 1851 treaty right holder, the Crow, and then recognize the Lakota tribe as the next proprietor. Consequently, parallel with the negotiations with the Lakota, the United States had treaty talks with the Crow Indians. On May 7, 1868, the Crows accepted to sell large parts of their 1851 treaty territory to the United States. The ceded area included the western Powder River hunting grounds of the Crow, already for years taken in possession by the Lakotas and their allies without consent. The Crows also agreed to settle on a smaller reservation right on the south side of the Yellowstone, in the center of their 1851 territory. The Crow reservation included "The Valley of Chieftains", to the whites known as the valley of Little Bighorn River.

The small Ponca tribe was another Indian nation affected by the new Fort Laramie treaty. By mistake, the United States had given the Lakotas treaty right to the reservation of the Poncas.

Aftermath

Lakota Indian sovereignty over the Powder River country endured for eight years until renewed US interest in Great Sioux Reservation land due to the discovery of gold in the Black Hills, leading to the Great Sioux War of 1876 and violations of the treaty. In a 1980 Supreme Court case, United States v. Sioux Nation of Indians, the court ruled that tribal lands covered under the treaty had been taken illegally by the US government, and the tribe was owed compensation plus interest. As of 2018 this amounted to more than $1 billion.

The peace of 1868 forced upon the whites allowed the Oglalas and other Lakotas to turn their focus on the intertribal wars again. In November, chief Red Cloud asked the United States for firearms to fight the Crows after the loss of two band members. The Lakotas also "continued their destructive raids" against the Poncas, "resentful of the Poncas living on what was now Sioux land". While using their new treaty right to hunt along the Republican River in United States' territory in the summer of 1873, two big Lakota camps made a large-scale attack on a travelling group of Pawnees in what has ever since been called the Massacre Canyon.

After 1868, Red Cloud lived on the reservation. Seeing that the numbers of new emigrants and technology of the United States would overwhelm the Sioux, Red Cloud adapted to fighting the US Indian Bureau for fair treatment for his people. He was an important leader of the Lakota through the years of transition from their plains culture to the relative confinement of the reservation system. He outlived all the major Lakota leaders of the Indian wars. He lived until 1909, when he died on the Pine Ridge Reservation and was buried there.

Fetterman, Brown and the U.S. soldiers killed in the 1866 Fetterman Fight were reinterred at the U.S. National Cemetery at Little Bighorn Battlefield National Monument, near Crow Agency, Montana.

title: Red Cloud's War


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Lists of fictional locations

Following are lists of fictional locations, as large as a universe and as small as a pub.

 * List of fictional bars and pubs
 * List of fictional castles
 * List of fictional city-states in literature
 * List of fictional countries on the Earth
 * List of fictional countries by region
 * List of fictional African countries
 * List of fictional African countries
 * List of fictional Asian countries
 * List of fictional European countries
 * List of fictional Oceanian countries
 * List of fictional galactic communities
 * List of fictional islands
 * Planets in science fiction
 * List of fictional police states
 * List of fictional prisons
 * List of fictional railway stations
 * List of fictional rapid transit stations
 * List of fictional schools
 * List of fictional British and Irish universities
 * List of fictional Cambridge colleges
 * List of fictional Oxford colleges
 * List of fictional settlements
 * List of fictional towns in animation
 * List of fictional towns in comics
 * List of fictional towns in film
 * List of fictional towns in literature
 * List of fictional towns in television
 * List of films featuring space stations
 * List of fictional universes in animation and comics
 * List of fictional shared universes in film and television
 * List of fictional universes in literature
 * List of fantasy worlds
 * List of science fiction universes

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lists of fictional locations


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Ramesseum

The Ramesseum is the memorial temple (or mortuary temple) of Pharaoh Ramesses II ("Ramesses the Great", also spelled "Ramses" and "Rameses"). It is located in the Theban Necropolis in Upper Egypt, on the west of the River Nile, across from the modern city of Luxor. The name – or at least its French form Rhamesséion – was coined by Jean-François Champollion, who visited the ruins of the site in 1829 and first identified the hieroglyphs making up Ramesses's names and titles on the walls. It was originally called the House of millions of years of Usermaatra-setepenra that unites with Thebes-the-city in the domain of Amon.  Usermaatra-setepenra was the prenomen of Ramesses II.

History
Ramesses II modified, usurped, or constructed many buildings from the ground up, and the most splendid of these, in accordance with New Kingdom royal burial practices, would have been his memorial temple: a place of worship dedicated to pharaoh, god on earth, where his memory would have been kept alive after his death. Surviving records indicate that work on the project began shortly after the start of his reign and continued for 20 years.

The design of Ramesses's mortuary temple adheres to the standard canons of New Kingdom temple architecture. Oriented northwest and southeast, the temple itself comprised two stone pylons (gateways, some 60 m wide), one after the other, each leading into a courtyard. Beyond the second courtyard, at the centre of the complex, was a covered 48-column hypostyle hall, surrounding the inner sanctuary. An enormous pylon stood before the first court, with the royal palace at the left and the gigantic statue of the king looming up at the back. As was customary, the pylons and outer walls were decorated with scenes commemorating the pharaoh's military victories and leaving due record of his dedication to, and kinship with, the gods. In Ramesses's case, much importance is placed on the Battle of Kadesh (ca. 1274 BC); more intriguingly, however, one block atop the first pylon records his pillaging, in the eighth year of his reign, a city called "Shalem", which may or may not have been Jerusalem. The scenes of the great pharaoh and his army triumphing over the Hittite forces fleeing before Kadesh, as portrayed in the canons of the "epic poem of Pentaur", can still be seen on the pylon.

Only fragments of the base and torso remain of the syenite statue of the enthroned pharaoh, 19 m high and weighing more than 1000 tons. This was alleged to have been transported 170 mi over land. This is the largest remaining colossal statue (except statues done in situ) in the world. However, fragments of four granite colossi of Ramesses were found in Tanis (northern Egypt) with an estimated height of 69 to 92 feet (21 to 28 meters). Like four of the six colossi of Amenhotep III (Colossi of Memnon), there are no longer complete remains, so the heights are based on unconfirmed estimates.

Remains of the second court include part of the internal façade of the pylon and a portion of the Osiride portico on the right. Scenes of war and the rout of the Hittites at Kadesh are repeated on the walls. In the upper registers, are shown a feast in honour of the phallic god Min, god of fertility. On the opposite side of the court the few Osiride pillars and columns still left furnish an idea of the original grandeur. Scattered remains of the two statues of the seated king which once flanked the entrance to the temple can also be seen, one in pink granite and the other in black granite. The head of one of these has been removed to the British Museum. Thirty-nine out of the forty-eight columns in the great hypostyle hall (41 x 31 m) still stand in the central rows. They are decorated with the usual scenes of the king before various gods. Part of the ceiling, decorated with gold stars on a blue, ground has also been preserved. The sons and daughters of Ramesses appear in the procession on the few walls left. The sanctuary was composed of three consecutive rooms, with eight columns and the tetrastyle cell. Part of the first room, with the ceiling decorated with astral scenes, and a few remains of the second room are all that is left.

Adjacent to the north of the hypostyle hall was a smaller temple; this was dedicated to Ramesses's mother, Tuya, and to his beloved chief wife, Nefertari. To the south of the first courtyard stood the temple palace. The complex was surrounded by various storerooms, granaries, workshops, and other ancillary buildings, some built as late as Roman times.

A temple of Seti I, of which nothing is now left but the foundations, once stood to the right of the hypostyle hall. It consisted of a peristyle court with two chapel shrines. The entire complex was surrounded by mudbrick walls which started at the gigantic southeast pylon.

A cache of papyri and ostraca dating back to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 8th centuries BC) indicates that the temple was also the site of an important scribal school.

The site was in use before Ramesses had the first stone put in place: beneath the hypostyle hall, modern archaeologists have found a shaft tomb from the Middle Kingdom, yielding a rich hoard of religious and funerary artefacts.

Remains
Unlike the massive stone temples that Ramesses ordered carved from the face of the Nubian mountains at Abu Simbel, the inexorable passage of three millennia was not kind to his "temple of a million years" at Thebes. This was mostly due to its location on the very edge of the Nile floodplain, with the annual inundation gradually undermining the foundations of this temple and its neighbours. Neglect and the arrival of new faiths also took their toll: for example, in the early years of the Christian Era, the temple was put into service as a Christian church.

This is all standard fare for a temple of its kind built at that time. Leaving aside the escalation of scale – whereby each successive New Kingdom pharaoh strove to outdo his predecessors in volume and scope – the Ramesseum is largely cast in the same mould as the ruined temple of Amenhotep III that stood behind the "Colossi of Memnon" a kilometre or so away, and Ramesses III's Medinet Habu which closely followed the plan of the Ramesseum. Instead, the significance that the Ramesseum enjoys today owes more to the time and manner of its rediscovery by Europeans.

The Ramesseum king list is a minor list of kings which still remain in situ on the few remains of the second pylon.

Storage
The storerooms surround the temple on three sides, forming three groups, with the oldest behind the temple. The site is notable for its true arches made of mud bricks that were not wedge-shaped as proper voussoirs, but simply held in place by mortar and thus prone to collapse, leaving very few examples still standing. Ramesseum has the oldest such arch still standing in Egypt (c. 1300 BC).

Each granary in the oldest group was approximately 32 meters in length, 3.7 m wide and 3.5 m high, with bottom wall thickness of 1.5 m. The springing level of a barrel vault at the height of approximately 2.5 m, with arcs build as four courses of mud bricks 40x20x12-14 centimeters in size.

Excavation and studies
The origins of modern Egyptology can be traced to the arrival in Egypt of Napoleon Bonaparte in the summer of 1798. While undeniably an invasion by an alien imperialist power, this was nonetheless an invasion of its times, informed by Enlightenment ideas: alongside Napoleon's troops went men of science, the same whose toil under the desert sun would later yield the seminal 23-volume Description de l'Égypte. Two French engineers, Jean-Baptiste Prosper Jollois and Édouard de Villiers du Terrage, were assigned to study the Ramesseum site, and it was with much fanfare that they identified it with the "Tomb of Ozymandias" or "Palace of Memnon" of which Diodorus of Sicily had written in the 1st century BC.

The next visitor of note was Giovanni Belzoni, a showman and engineer of Italian origin and, latterly, an archaeologist and antiques dealer. Belzoni's travels took him in 1815 to Cairo, where he sold Mehemet Ali a hydraulic engine of his own invention. There he met British Consul General Henry Salt, who hired his services to collect from the temple in Thebes the so-called 'Younger Memnon', one of two colossal granite heads depicting Ramesses II, and transport it to England. Thanks to Belzoni's hydraulics and his skill as an engineer (Napoleon's men had failed in the same endeavour a decade or so earlier), the 7-ton stone head arrived in London in 1818, where it was dubbed "The Younger Memnon" and, some years later, given pride of place in the British Museum.

It was against the backdrop of intense excitement surrounding the statue's arrival, and having heard wondrous tales of other, less transportable treasures still in the desert, that the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley penned his sonnet "Ozymandias". In particular, one massive fallen statue at the Ramesseum is now inextricably linked with Shelley, because of the cartouche on its shoulder bearing Ramesses's throne name, User-maat-re Setep-en-re, the first part of which Diodorus transliterated into Greek as "Ozymandias". While Shelley's "vast and trunkless legs of stone" owe more to poetic license than to archaeology, the "half sunk... shattered visage" lying on the sand is an accurate description of part of the wrecked statue. The hands, and the feet, lie nearby. Were it still standing, the Ozymandias colossus would tower 19 m (62 ft) above the ground, rivalling the Colossi of Memnon and the statues of Ramesses carved into the mountain at Abu Simbel.

A joint French-Egyptian team has been exploring and restoring the Ramesseum and its environs since 1991. Among their discoveries during excavations include kitchens, bakeries and supply rooms for the temple to the south, and a school where boys were taught to be scribes to the southeast. Some of the challenges in preserving the area have been the control of modern Egyptian farmers using the area for farming and encroaching on the ruins.

title: Ramesseum


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Peter Bowles

Peter John Bowles (16 October 1936 – 17 March 2022) was an English screen and stage actor. He gained prominence for television dramas such as Callan: A Magnum for Schneider and I, Claudius. He is however, best remembered for his roles in sitcoms and television comedy dramas, including: Rumpole of the Bailey, Only When I Laugh, To the Manor Born, The Bounder, The Irish R.M., Lytton's Diary, Executive Stress and Perfect Scoundrels.

Early life and education
Bowles was born in Kensington, London, England, but lived for a while at Boddington manor in Warwickshire, where his father Herbert Reginald Bowles, worked as a butler and chauffeur for David Margesson, 1st Viscount Margesson. His father was next employed as a valet-companion and chauffeur to Drogo Montagu, son of George Montagu, 9th Earl of Sandwich, and later butler to Montagu's widow, a daughter of Lord Beaverbrook.

Bowles' mother, Sarah Jane (née Harrison), was from Scotland, and served as a nanny to the family of the Duke of Argyll, before working for Beaverbrook's family in England, which is how they met.

In Nottingham, the family lived in the working-class area of Hyson Green. Bowles attended Berridge Road Juniors and High Pavement Grammar School.

Personal life and death
Bowles married Susan Bennett on 8 April 1961. The couple lived in Barnes, south-west London and had three children together.

Bowles died aged 85, on 17 March 2022, from cancer.

Awards and honours

 * RADA Scholarship (1954)
 * Madge Kendal Prize (1955)
 * Male Comedy Star Award (1983)
 * ITV Personality of the Year (1984)
 * The Golden Gate Award (San Francisco International Film Festival, 1993)
 * Hon. Doctor of Literature, for contributions to the theatre, television drama and entertainment. (Nottingham Trent University, 2002)

Books

 * Autobiography: Ask Me if I'm Happy (Simon & Schuster, 2010)
 * Behind the Curtain: The Job of Acting (Oberon Masters Series, 2012)

title: Peter Bowles


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SJC

SJC may stand for:
 * IATA airport code for Norman Y. Mineta San Jose International Airport, San Jose, California, United States
 * San Jose, California, in Santa Clara County
 * San Juan Capistrano, a city in Orange County, California, United States
 * San Juan Creek, a creek flowing through the city
 * São José dos Campos, a city in São Paulo, Brazil
 * Senate Judiciary Committee, a standing committee of the United States Senate
 * SJC, postnominal for a member of Canons Regular of Saint John Cantius
 * Social Justice Coalition (South Africa) community based NGO in South Africa
 * Stuart James Campbell, British prisoner
 * Stuart John Crichton, British music producer

Colleges

 * St. John's College, University of British Columbia, a residential college in the University of British Columbia, Vancouver
 * St. John's College, University of Hong Kong, a student residential hall in the University of Hong Kong
 * St John's College, University of Queensland, a student residential college in the University of Queensland, Australia
 * St. John's College (Brantford), a Roman Catholic high school in Brantford, Ontario, Canada
 * St John's College, Oxford, a constituent college of the University of Oxford
 * St John's College, Cambridge, a constituent college of the University of Cambridge
 * St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe), a private liberal arts college with two U.S. campuses, one in Annapolis, Maryland, and one in Santa Fe, New Mexico.
 * St. John's College High School, a high school in Washington, D.C.
 * St. John's College, Hamilton, a high school in Hamilton, New Zealand
 * St. Joseph's College, Curepipe, a prestigious secondary school in Curepipe, Mauritius
 * St. Joseph's College, Allahabad, an English-medium school in Uttar Pradesh, India
 * St Joseph's College, Geelong, a Roman Catholic school in Geelong, Australia
 * St Joseph's College, Hong Kong, a secondary school in Hong Kong
 * St. Joseph's College, Hunters Hill, a Roman Catholic Marist school in Sydney, Australia
 * St. John's College (Harare), an independent school in Harare, Zimbabwe.
 * St. Joseph's College Sasse, a Roman Catholic College in Buea, Cameroon

Courts

 * Maine Supreme Judicial Court, the highest court in the United States state of Maine
 * Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court, the highest court in the United States state of Massachusetts

Other

 * SJC (cable system), pan-Asia submarine communications cable system

title: SJC


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User talk:Joao

pt:Usuário:JoaoMiranda

Convite
Olá Joao! Não quererás participar nas discussões em curso em Talk:Timeline of the Muslim Occupation of Spain e Talk:Roman Spain? A questão que aí se coloca, como poderás ver, é a da utilização da palavra "Spain", com todo o que isso implica, para designar toda a Península Ibérica em qualquer momento da sua história. Participa como te aprover! The Ogre 11:17, 19 August 2005 (UTC)

Portal de Portugal
Já abriu o Portal de Portugal na Wikipedia! Junta-te a nós para trabalharmos em prol de artigos, listas e imagens relacionadas com Portugal. No portal, encontrarás um artigo geral, um artigo biográfico, um artigo geográfico e uma imagem todas as semanas em destaque. Para além disso estão apresentadas também secções de Notícias, Curiosidades, Listas, Citações, Opentasks, informação sobre artigos recentes, etc. Futuramente teremos um WikiProject para geografia de Portugal (de modo a estandardizar todos os artigos relativos às localidades e divisões administrativas portuguesas), história de Portugal, biografias, e possivelmente desporto. Também temos em vista a criação de uma Colaboração Semanal para artigos sobre Portugal. Por isto, e tudo mais, pedimos-te que venhas ajudar-nos. Estamos também à procura de colaboradores, por isso, se estiveres interessado, é só pedires que já estás no grupo de manutenção do portal. Saudações! Gameiro 19:59, 28 February 2006 (UTC)

Nomination of List of lists for deletion
A discussion is taking place as to whether the article List of lists is suitable for inclusion in Wikipedia according to Wikipedia's policies and guidelines or whether it should be deleted.

The article will be discussed at Articles for deletion/List of lists until a consensus is reached, and anyone is welcome to contribute to the discussion. The nomination will explain the policies and guidelines which are of concern. The discussion focuses on high-quality evidence and our policies and guidelines.

Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. GZWDer (talk) 10:29, 26 September 2013 (UTC)

ArbCom elections are now open!
MediaWiki message delivery (talk) 08:51, 23 November 2015 (UTC)

Invitation to join the Fifteen Year Society
Dear ,

I'd like to extend a cordial invitation to you to join the Fifteen Year Society, an informal group for editors who've been participating in the Wikipedia project for fifteen years or more.

Best regards, Urhixidur (talk) 16:48, 6 June 2019 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Abd al-Rahman IV

The article Abd al-Rahman IV has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "Lacks WP:SOURCES for over 6 months"

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, pages may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the page to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. CommanderWaterford (talk) 12:26 2 February 2021 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joao


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Big Thompson River

The Big Thompson River is a tributary of the South Platte River, approximately 78 mi long, in the U.S. state of Colorado. Originating in Forest Canyon in Rocky Mountain National Park, the river flows into Lake Estes in the town of Estes Park and then through Big Thompson Canyon. It includes four crossings/bridges which are listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places.

Course of the river
The headwaters of the Big Thompson River begin in Forest Canyon within Rocky Mountain National Park in Larimer County, Colorado. The river flows east through Moraine Park to the town of Estes Park. There it is held in Lake Estes by Olympus Dam before being released into the Big Thompson Canyon. The North Fork Big Thompson River also begins in Rocky Mountain National Park, on the northern slopes of the Mummy Range. This tributary flows east, through the town of Glen Haven, where it merges with the Big Thompson River in the town of Drake, in the Big Thompson Canyon.

From Lake Estes, the river descends 1/2 mi in elevation through the mountains in the spectacular 25 mi Big Thompson Canyon, emerging from the foothills west of Loveland. It flows eastward, south of Loveland across the plains into Weld County and joins the South Platte approximately 5 mi south of Greeley. It receives the Little Thompson River approximately 4 mi upstream from its mouth.

Water resources in the Big Thompson River are managed by the Northern Colorado Water Conservancy District as part of the Colorado-Big Thompson Project.

1976 flood
On July 31, 1976, during the celebration of Colorado's centennial, the Big Thompson Canyon was the site of a devastating flash flood that swept down the steep and narrow canyon, claiming the lives of 143 people, 5 of whom were never found, making it the deadliest disaster in Colorado's history. This flood was triggered by a nearly stationary thunderstorm near the upper section of the canyon that dumped 300 mm of rain in less than 4 hours (more than 3/4 of the average annual rainfall for the area). Little rain fell over the lower section of the canyon, where many of the victims were. Around 9 p.m., a wall of water more than 6 m high raced down the canyon at about 6 m/s, destroying 400 cars, 418 houses and 52 businesses and washing out most of U.S. Route 34. This flood was more than 4 times as strong as any in the 112-year record available in 1976, with a discharge of 1,000 cubic meters per second (35,000 ft³/s).

In 2008, a man who was thought to have died in the flood was found to be alive and living in Oklahoma. Daryle Johnson and his family had rented a cabin east of Estes Park, but left without telling anyone on the morning of July 31. A woman who was researching the flood's victims discovered he was still alive.

2013 flood
The canyon was just one of the many areas along the Front Range that were devastated in the September 2013 flood. While not as intense as the 1976 flood, the storms that caused the flooding in 2013 still sent enough water down the canyon to wash out the highway in many places. The flood also damaged the US Bureau of Reclamation's Dille Diversion Dam. The biggest infrastructure casualty, however, was the City of Loveland's hydroelectric plant (rebuilt after the 1976 flood); the Idylwilde Reservoir was completely filled with silt and rocks, the Idylwilde Dam broke free of the bedrock, and the hydroelectric plant in the Viestenz-Smith Mountain Park was filled with water and silt. The dam was in the process of being relicensed with the FERC, but it was instead demolished, the dam material and contents of the reservoir being used as fill for highway repairs. The park has since been redone to accommodate the post-flood river channel and to harden it against potential future floods. The city also rebuilt its municipal electric distribution line into the canyon to replace the original 1925 transmission line and remove obsolete distribution equipment.

title: Big Thompson River


text: Template:Västernorrland County

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Caspar (disambiguation)

Caspar is a masculine given name.

Caspar may also refer to:

 * Caspar, California, a census-designated place
 * Fort Caspar, Wyoming, a former US Army military post on the National Register of Historic Places
 * CASPAR digital preservation project
 * Azerbaijan Caspian Shipping Company, abbreviated as Caspar

title: Caspar (disambiguation)


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Melchior

Melchior is the name traditionally given to one of the biblical Magi appearing in the Gospel of Matthew. There are many notable people with this name, or close variations.

As a first name

 * Melchior Anderegg (1828–1914), Swiss mountain guide
 * Melchior Berri (1801–1854), Swiss architect
 * Melchior Broederlam (c. 1350 – after 1409), Dutch painter
 * Melchior Cano (1525–1560), Spanish theologian
 * Melchior Cibinensis, 16th century Hungarian alchemical writer
 * Melchior Goldast (1576–1635), Swiss writer
 * Melchior d'Hondecoeter (1636–1695), Dutch animalier
 * Melchior de Polignac (1661–1742), French diplomat, Roman Catholic cardinal
 * Melchior de Vogüé (1848–1910), French diplomat, travel writer, archaeologist, philanthropist
 * Melchior Franck (1579–1639), German composer
 * Melchior Grodziecki (1584–1619), Catholic saint
 * Melchior Hoffman (c. 1495–1543), German-Dutch Anabaptist prophet
 * Melchior Inchofer (c. 1584–1648), Jesuit who took part in Galileo's trial
 * Melchior Klesl (1552–1630), Austrian bishop statesman
 * Melchior Lengyel (1880–1974), Hungarian writer
 * Melchior Lorck (1526–1583), Danish-German renaissance painter
 * Melchior Miguel Carneiro Leitão (1516–1583), Jesuit, first Bishop of Macao
 * Melchior Ndadaye (1953–1993), Burundian politician and president
 * Melchior Nunes Barreto (c. 1520–1571), Jesuit, missionary in Asia
 * Melchior Schildt (c. 1592–1667), German composer and organist
 * Melchior Vulpius (c. 1570–1615), German composer
 * Melchior Wathelet, Belgian politician
 * Melchior Wathelet, Jr., Belgian politician
 * Melchior Wańkowicz (1892–1974), Polish writer, journalist and publisher
 * Melchior Weiher (1574–1643), Polish nobleman

As a middle name

 * Henry Melchior Muhlenberg, (1711-1787), Lutheran minister and missionary
 * Henry Melchior Muhlenberg Richards, United States Military Officer
 * John Melchior Bosco, (1815-1888), Catholic saint and founder of the Salesians
 * Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto, (1835-1914), Catholic saint, Pope (Pius X)

As a family name

 * Arne Melchior (1924–2016), Danish politician, government minister, son of Marcus
 * Bent Melchior (1929–2021), chief rabbi of Denmark, son of Marcus
 * Carl Melchior, German banker, advisor for the financial and economic negotiations that began at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919
 * Dan Melchior, British singer, songwriter, and guitarist
 * Daniela Melchior, Portuguese actress
 * Eberhard Melchior, German mathematician
 * Eberhard Melchior (naturalist), active around 1700
 * Ernst Melchior (1920–1978), Austrian football player
 * Friedrich Melchior, Baron von Grimm (1723–1807), German author
 * Hans Melchior (1894–1984), German botanist
 * Hans Bøchmann Melchior (1773–1831), Danish naturalist
 * Ib Melchior (1917–2015), American science-fiction filmmaker, son of Lauritz
 * Israel B. Melchior (1827–1893), Danish engineer, manufacturer and amateur photographer
 * Lauritz Melchior, Danish operatic tenor, especially Wagnerian roles
 * Marcus Melchior (1897–1969), chief rabbi of Denmark
 * Michael Melchior (born 1954), Danish-Norwegian rabbi, Israeli politician and son of Bent
 * Moses Melchior (1825–1912), Danish businessman
 * Simone Melchior Cousteau (1919–1990), wife of undersea explorer Jacques-Yves Cousteau
 * Tracy Melchior (born 1970), American actress

Fictional characters

 * A character in Tom Stoppard's On the Razzle (play)
 * One of three parts of the biological super computer in Neon Genesis Evangelion manga and anime
 * One of three sages of Shevat in the game Xenogears
 * A Ceyah immortal from the video game Kohan II: Kings of War
 * A laptop/webgoblin in Kelly McCullough's Ravirn series.
 * A cosmic being in the Ascended Master Teachings of Joshua David Stone
 * A centaur character in Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone
 * Melchior Mayvin, an antagonist in Tales of Berseria.
 * As "Melkhior", the wizard in Knight Lore who will create the spell to cure Sabreman of his lycanthropy
 * As "Melchyor", a character in the 2012 novel Unholy Night by Seth Grahame-Smith
 * The Guru of Life in the game Chrono Trigger
 * Melchior Boehni, a character in the novella Kleider Machen Leute by Gottfried Keller
 * Melchior Gabor, the lead male character in Spring Awakening (play) and Spring Awakening (musical)
 * Melchior Hazard, father of Dora and Nora in Angela Carter's novel Wise Children
 * Melchior von und zu Panke, a character in the German TV series Binny and the Ghost
 * Melchior Sternfels von Fuchshaim, protagonist in the Baroque German novel Simplicius Simplicissimus
 * Melchior Tresich, the main protagonist of Ranko Marinković's novel Kiklop (1965)
 * Melchior Wakenstede, the main protagonist of Estonian book and movie series Melchior the Apothecary by Indrek Hargla
 * Wilhelm Melchior, fictional playwright and director in Clouds of Sils Maria

Other

 * A Swiss robot that tells time by L'Epée Clocks

title: Melchior


text:
List of radio stations in the United Kingdom

This is a list of radio stations in the United Kingdom.

DAB
This list does not include stations which broadcast on numerous local digital multiplexes or MW licences to achieve near-national coverage.

DAB frequencies:
 * 11A - radio stations operated under the Sound Digital multiplex
 * 11D / 12A - radio stations operated under the Digital One multiplex (12A in Scotland and 11D in England, Wales and Northern Ireland)
 * 12B - radio stations operated under the BBC National DAB multiplex

DAB+
List of stations on the Digital One and Sound Digital multiplexes broadcasting in the newer DAB+ Digital Radio standard

DAB frequencies:
 * 11A - radio stations operated under the Sound Digital multiplex
 * 11D / 12A - radio stations operated under the Digital One multiplex (12A in Scotland and 11D in England, Wales and Northern Ireland)

NOTE: Heart Xmas available as an additional, temporary station on Digital One DAB+ from 22 September until 26 December (2023).

Semi-national analogue and digital stations
Stations which are available nationally on Freeview and satellite and / or broadcast on more than one local DAB multiplex:

BBC Local Radio
Local radio stations from the BBC in England and the Channel Islands:

BBC Nations Radio
BBC radio stations from Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, broadcast in their respective areas via analogue and digital radio, Freeview and across the UK on satellite and cable television and BBC Sounds:

England
England's radio stations adhere to the statistical regions of East Midlands, East, Greater London, Greater Manchester, North East, North West, South East, South West, West Midlands and Yorkshire and the Humber.

Former English stations
This list details radio stations which have lost their licence to broadcast or have closed down due to financial reasons.

The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man
''Although the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are not part of the UK, they are served by the UK's national radio stations. Additionally services in the Channel Islands are licensed by the UK's regulator, Ofcom. Services in the Isle of Man are not licensed by a UK regulator but rather by the Broadcasting Act 1990 of Tynwald.''

Former community radio stations
The followed stations have closed down and returned their licences to Ofcom:

Small-scale DAB multiplexes
Permanent small-scale multiplexes licensed by Ofcom:

Small-scale trial DAB multiplexes
Small-scale multiplexes licensed by Ofcom for a trial period allowing a "more affordable way for smaller stations to broadcast on DAB digital radio":

RSL stations
Temporary Restricted Service Licence stations are licensed by Ofcom and broadcast for up to 28 days. RSLs are used for a number of purposes including coverage of events and festivals, trial broadcasts by groups aiming to launch a full-time service, student radio and training projects and religious festivals including the Sikh festival Vaisakhi, the Muslim month of Ramadan, Jehovah's Witness conventions and Christian events such as Easter and Christmas.

The following list is a small selection of regular RSL stations which have been set up to cover various festivals and events across the UK:

Student radio stations
Most universities plus a number of colleges operate student radio stations with the vast majority only available online. The Student Radio Association represents around 65 student stations.

The following stations are available via an FM community licence or via LPFM transmitters:

Hospital radio stations
Typically available within the grounds of a single hospital, these stations broadcast to bedside units and occasionally public areas of the hospital. Hospital radio is free of charge on bedside entertainment systems operated by Hospedia and Premier Bedside and an increasing number of stations are available online.

Around 200 stations are supported by the Hospital Broadcasting Association (HBA).

The following stations are available via LPAM or LPFM transmitters or as Ofcom licensed community stations:

Television radio stations
Stations which are broadcast to the UK via satellite, cable and digital terrestrial television:

Frequencies
To conserve space in the listings, the waveband has not been listed after each frequency, but they are easy to tell apart.
 * Whole numbers always refer to a kHz (AM) frequency - i.e. 999 = 999 kHz.
 * Decimal numbers always refer to a MHz (FM) frequency - i.e. 96.2 = 96.2 MHz.
 * A number and letter combination refers to a DAB channel - i.e. 12C = frequency block 12C on 227.360 MHz.


text:
Tongue River

Tongue River may refer to:

 * Tongue River (North Dakota), U.S.
 * Tongue River (Montana), a tributary of the Yellowstone River, in the U.S. states of Wyoming and Montana
 * Tongue River Dam
 * Tongue River Indian Reservation
 * Tongue River Reservoir State Park
 * Tongue River Railroad, a proposed rail line
 * Tongue River (Texas), U.S.

title: Tongue River


text:
CAE

CAE may refer to:

Aviation

 * CAE Aviation, a Luxembourgian aviation services company
 * CAE Inc. (formerly Canadian Aviation Electronics), a Canadian manufacturer of simulation technologies and training provider
 * Régional Compagnie Aérienne Européenne, a former subsidiary airline of Air France

 * Continental Aviation and Engineering, a US aircraft engine maker that later became Teledyne CAE

Economics

 * Conseil d'Analyse Économique, a French government advisory body

Education

 * Centre for Adult Education, an adult education course provider in Melbourne, Australia
 * Center for American Education (disambiguation), an old name for American-style institutions in countries including the UAE and India
 * College of Advanced Education, a now abolished tier of Australian tertiary institutions

Engineering

 * Canadian Academy of Engineering, the national academy of Canada for engineering
 * Chinese Academy of Engineering, the national academy of the People's Republic of China for engineering, established in 1994
 * College of Aeronautical Engineering, part of the Pakistan Air Force Academy

Science and technology

 * Compressed air engine, a type of pressure pneumatic actuator using expanding compressed air
 * Computer-aided engineering, the broad usage of computer software to aid in engineering analysis tasks
 * Caelum (Standard IAU abbreviation), a constellation

Computing

 * Common Application Environment, from X/Open Portability Guide, a specification for Unix-like operating systems
 * Computer-aided engineering, computer software to aid in engineering tasks

Medicine

 * Caprine arthritis encephalitis, a disease in goats
 * Childhood absence epilepsy, a childhood seizure disorder
 * Carbonic anhydrase enzyme, that catalyzes the interconversion between carbon dioxide and water and the dissociated ions of carbonic acid

Media

 * Critical Art Ensemble, collective of tactical media practitioners of various specializations
 * Radio Canadian Army Europe, Radio CAE, from World War II and the 1950s & 1960s, now replaced by Canadian Forces Radio and Television

Places

 * Columbia Metropolitan Airport (IATA airport code), West Columbia, South Carolina, United States
 * Central African Empire, a short-lived empire in Central Africa
 * Caernarfonshire (Chapman code), historic county in Wales

Other uses

 * Certificate in Advanced English, the fourth level of the University of Cambridge ESOL examination
 * Chief audit executive, or Director of audit, a high level independent executive with overall responsibility for internal audit
 * Child Abduction Emergency (SAME code), or AMBER Alert
 * Canadian Arctic Expedition, 1913–1916, a Canadian Arctic Expedition

title: CAE


text:
ESD

ESD may refer to:

Science

 * ESD (gene), a human gene/enzyme
 * Electrostatic discharge, a sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged objects
 * Electrostatic-sensitive device, any component which can be damaged by common static charges
 * Energy spectral density, a part of a function in statistical signal processing
 * Environmental secondary detector, a gaseous detection device used with environmental scanning electron microscopes
 * Equivalent spherical diameter, a diameter of a sphere of equivalent volume
 * Extreme subdwarf, a type of star

Medicine

 * End-systolic dimension, the diameter across a ventricle in the heart
 * Endoscopic submucosal dissection, a medical therapy with endoscopy

Education

 * Education for sustainable development, international learning methodology
 * Educational service district (disambiguation), regional education unit in some U.S. states
 * Episcopal School of Dallas, day school in Texas, U.S.
 * Evangelical School for the Deaf, in Luquillo, Puerto Rico

Government and law

 * Electronic services delivery, government services provided through the Internet or other electronic means
 * Empire State Development Corporation, an American public benefit umbrella organization
 * Employment Security Department, a Washington state unemployment agency
 * Examination support document, a submission to the United States Patent and Trademark Office

Technology

 * Electronic smoking device, a device that simulates the feeling of smoking
 * Electronic software distribution, delivery of digital media content
 * ESD format, a file format
 * Emergency shutdown, the stoppage of a process plant in certain hazardous conditions
 * Engineering Society of Detroit, a multi-disciplinary association in Michigan, U.S.
 * Enlightened Sound Daemon, audio software
 * Environmentally sustainable design, complying with the principles of ecological sustainability in the design of objects and buildings

Transport

 * Elmstead Woods railway station (station code), in London, England
 * Esen Air (ICAO airline designator), a defunct airline from Kyrgyzstan
 * Essendon railway station, Melbourne
 * A US Navy hull classification symbol: Expeditionary transfer dock (ESD)
 * Orcas Island Airport (IATA code), Eastsound on Orcas Island, Washington, United States

Other uses

 * East Side Digital Records, an American record label
 * Eta Sigma Delta, an American honor society

title: ESD


text:
National Liberal and Conservative Party

The National Liberal and Conservative Party was the name adopted by the Conservative Party of Canada in 1920 after the end of the Unionist government of Robert Borden.

The Conservatives, led by Arthur Meighen, adopted the name in the hope of making permanent the war-time Unionist coalition of Conservatives and pro-conscription Liberals (known as Liberal-Unionists). Very few Liberals stayed with the party, and some Conservatives balked at the move. MP John Hampden Burnham quit the government caucus to sit as an Independent Conservative and then resigned from the House of Commons in an attempt to win a by-election on the issue.

After its defeat in the 1921 election the party caucus adopted the name Liberal-Conservative Party used under Sir John A. Macdonald though it was commonly known as the Conservative Party. The name was officially changed to the National Conservative Party at the party's 1938 convention.

title: National Liberal and Conservative Party


text:
Mayiladuthurai

Mayiladuthurai (formerly known as Mayavaram or Mayuram) is a Special grade Municipality and district headquarter of Mayiladuthurai district in Tamil Nadu, India. The town is located at a distance of 256 km from the state capital, Chennai.

Mayiladuthurai was ruled by Medieval Cholas and subsequently ruled by various dynasties, including the Vijayanagar Empire, Thanjavur Nayaks, Thanjavur Marathas and the British Empire. Mayiladuthurai was a part of the erstwhile Tanjore district until India's independence in 1947 and Thanjavur district until 1991 and subsequently a part of the newly formed Nagapattinam district. The town is known for agriculture and weaving. As Mayiladuthurai District is situated in East Coast, fishing plays a vital role on generating its revenue. In 2023, the district was declared as a protected agricultural zone.

Mayiladuthurai is administered by a town panchayat established in 1866. As of 2008, the Panchayat covered an area of 11.27 km2. Mayiladuthurai comes under the Mayiladuthurai assembly constituency which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years and it is a part of the Mayiladuthurai constituency which elects its Member of Parliament (MP) once in five years. It is well connected by road and rail transport. Mayiladuthurai serves as an important junction in main line connecting Chennai with Trichy. Roadways and Railways are the major mode of transportation to the town. The nearest airport, Pondicherry Airport, is located 116 km from the town.

Mayiladuthurai was carved out of Nagapattinam district and inaugurated as the 38th district of Tamil Nadu on December 28, 2020.

Etymology
Mayiladuthurai is derived from the word Mayil (peacock). Mayuranathaswami Temple dedicated to the Amman is one of the most important Hindu temples in the town. There is a statue depicting goddess Amman in a peahen form worshipping lingam, an iconic symbol of Shiva.

History
Mayiladuthurai is of significant antiquity, its oldest extant temples dating to the time of the Medieval Cholas. The region, however, is known to have been inhabited since the 3rd millennium BC. Sherds of megalithic black and red ware have been found at Akkur, 14 km to the east of Mayiladuthurai. In 2006, artifacts with Indus Valley signs dated between 2000 and 1500 BC were found at the nearby village of Sembiyankandiyur. There have been references to Mayiladuthurai in the works of the 7th century Saivite saint Sambandar. The Thanjavur Nayak king Raghunatha Nayak constructed mandapams in Mayiladuthurai. During the 17th and 18th centuries AD, Mayiladuthurai was ruled by the Thanjavur Marathas who invited Brahmins from the Telugu, Kannada and Maratha countries to settle in the region and gave large extents of land to them. In 1799, Mayiladuthurai, was ceded to the British East India Company, along with the rest of the Thanjavur Maratha kingdom, by the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II. Mayiladuthurai prospered under British rule emerging as an important town in Tanjore district. Carnatic musicians Madurai Mani Iyer and Gopalakrishna Bharathi and Samuel Vedanayagam Pillai, who wrote the first Tamil novel Prathapa Mudaliar Charithram were connected with Mayiladuthurai while Tamil writer Kalki Krishnamurthy, M.S.Udhaya Moorthy studied at the Municipal High School in Mayiladuthurai. According to local folklore, Mayiladuthurai was associated with Hindu holy men called "Siddhars". To this day, a neighbourhood of Mayiladuthurai is called Siddharkaadu. When the Tanjore district was trifurcated in 1991, Mayiladuthurai was transferred to the newly formed Nagapattinam district.

Mayiladuthurai was inaugurated as the 38th district of Tamil Nadu on December 28, 2020. The district was carved out of the existing Nagapattinam district and inaugurated by the Tamil Nadu Chief Minister K Palaniswami. The declaration was made earlier on March 24, 2020.

Geography and climate

Mayliladuthurai is situated at a distance of 281 km from Chennai and 122 km from Tiruchirappalli. The town is located at 11.1°N, 79.65°W. Situated at a distance of 24 km from the Bay of Bengal coast, the town is situated at an altitude of barely 10 m above mean sea level. The Kaveri River runs through the town bisecting it into Uttara Mayuram and Mayuram proper. Most of the town lies to the south of the river and the Mayuranathaswami Temple lies a mile to its south. The famous Parimala Ranganatha Perumal temple is situated at Tiruindalur, which lies North of Cauvery river. There is a bathing ghat on the Cauvery river. Agriculture is the most widely practised occupation. The climate of Mayiladuthurai is generally Tropical which features fairly hot temperatures over the year except during monsoon seasons.The average maximum temperature is 39.4 degrees Celsius while the average minimum temperature is 32.8 degrees Celsius. The average annual rainfall is 1,125 mm.

Administration and politics
It is the headquarters of the newly formed Mayiladuthurai district. The town of Mayiladuthurai is administered by a municipal council which was created in 1866 as per the Town Improvements Act 1865. The council initially had eleven members. This was increased to 18 in 1883 and currently stands at 36.

As of 2008, the municipality covered an area of 11.27 km2 and had a total of 36 members. In 2023 Mayiladuthurai selection grade municipality upgraded to special grade municipality. The functions of the municipality is devolved into six departments: General, Engineering, Revenue, Public Health, Town planning and the Computer Wing. All these departments are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner who is the supreme executive head. The legislative powers are vested in a body of 36 members, one each from the 36 wards. The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson assisted by a Deputy Chairperson. There are a total of four revenue villages with Mayiladuthurai - Thiruvilandur, Dharmapuram, Nanchilnadu and Kornad. The municipality has allocated a budget of ₹2,183,350,000 for the year 2010–11.

Construction of a new bus stand at Manakudi are underway.New Collectorate near Palpannai is recently started operating

Mayiladuthurai is represented in the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly by the Mayiladuthurai state assembly constituency seat.

Mayiladuthurai is a part of the Mayiladuthurai (Lok Sabha constituency). The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is S. Ramalingam of the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam party.

Utility services
Potable water is provided by the municipality. Mayiladuthurai's main source of water in the Kollidam River. A total of 7.50 MLD are pumped out every day from five water tanks located in various parts of the town. About 104 metric tonnes of solid waste is generated everyday, while 85 metric tonnes are collected from the town every day by door-to-door collection and subsequently the source segregation and dumping is carried out by the sanitary department of the municipality. There is limited underground drainage system in the town and the major sewerage system for disposal of sullage is through septic tanks, open drains and public conveniences. The municipality maintains a total of 39 km of surfaced storm water drains and 4 km kutcha drains in Mayiladuthurai. There are five government hospitals that include a maternity and a veterinary hospital and seventeen private hospitals and clinics that take care of the health care needs of the citizens. The municipality operates four markets, namely a vegetable market, weekly market, farmer's market (uzhavar santhai) and fish market that cater to the needs of the town and the rural areas around it.

Demographics
According to 2011 census, Mayiladuthurai had a population of 85,632 with a sex-ratio of 1,045 females for every 1,000 males, much above the national average of 929. A total of 7,720 were under the age of six, constituting 3,883 males and 3,837 females. Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 5.87% and .57% of the population respectively. The average literacy of the town was 83.55%, compared to the national average of 72.99%. The town had a total of 21929 households. There were a total of 29,855 workers, comprising 321 cultivators, 707 main agricultural labourers, 734 in house hold industries, 23,004 other workers, 5,089 marginal workers, 74 marginal cultivators, 485 marginal agricultural labourers, 246 marginal workers in household industries and 4,284 other marginal workers. As of 2001, there are 26 slums in Mayiladuthurai with a total population of 32,381.

The density of population is higher in the core areas along the banks of river Cauvery compared to the peripheral areas. As of 1996, a total 498.84 ha (44.27%) of the land was used for residential, 68.87 ha (6.11%) for commercial, 6.33 ha (0.56%) for industrial, 22.35 ha (1.98%) for educational, 24.27 ha (2.16%) for public & semi public purposes and 506.35 ha (44.92%) of agricultural area. As of 2008, there were a total of 26 notified slums, with 16,434 comprising 13% of the total population residing in those. The municipal data, however, pointed out an increase in population in slum areas.

Hinduism is the major religion followed in Mayiladuthurai and Tamil is the major language spoken. A vast majority of the populace is engaged in agriculture. About 15 percent of the total working population is engaged in trade while 25 percent is engaged in other commercial activities. As per the religious census of 2011, Mayiladuthurai had 88.69% Hindus, 6.38% Muslims, 4.19% Christians, 0.04% Sikhs, 0.03% Buddhists, 0.32% Jains and 0.35% following other religions.

Economy
The economy of Mayiladuthurai is primarily agro-based. The main products of Mayiladuthurai are rice, coconuts and plaintains. Confectioneries, printing presses, vehicle manufacturing units and rice mills are the major industries in Mayiladuthurai. Industrial workers form barely 27.14 percent of the town's population. Mayiladuthurai is known for a unique variety of cloth known as the "Kornad cloths" which derives its name from the suburb of Kornad where they are manufactured. These cloths are made up of a mixture of cotton and silk and dyed in bright colours.

The municipality runs a vegetable market and fish market in the town. There are many departmental stores in Mayiladuthurai. The only shopping complex is the Kittappa commercial complex which is maintained by the municipality. The Indian Bank, Indian Overseas Bank, State Bank of India, Bank of India, Central Bank of India, Bank of Baroda, Canara Bank, City Union Bank, Vijaya Bank, Lakshmi Vilas Bank, Karur Vysya Bank, HDFC Bank, Tamilnad Mercantile Bank, ICICI Bank, Punjab National Bank, Axis Bank, Kotak Mahindra Bank, IndusInd Bank, Mayuram co-operative bank have their branches located in municipal town. also the other regional banks like Kumbakonam Central Cooperative Bank and the Kumbakonam Mutual Benefit Fund have their branches in Mayiladuthurai.

Education
The first schools in Mayiladuthurai were founded by Christian missionaries in April 1819. The Municipal High School constructed by the municipality between 1885 and 1893, was considered to be one of the premium educational institutions in the erstwhile Tanjore district. As of 2011, there were 16 municipal elementary schools, five nursery & primary schools, five middle schools, one high school, two municipal higher secondary schools, two private higher secondary schools, one government higher secondary school, one government arts college, eight matriculation schools, one industrial training institute, one school for blind and one school for handicapped. The A. V. C. College, A. V. C. College of Engineering, A. R. C. Vishwanathan College, C.I.I.T. Community College,(TNOU), Dharmapuram Adhinam Arts College, D. G. Government Arts College for Women, Mayiladuthurai Meenakshi Ramasamy Arts & Science College and Mayiladuthurai Community Centre are some of the important colleges in Mayiladuthurai. All these colleges are affiliated to the Annamalai University in Annamalai Nagar, Chidambaram.

By Air
The nearest international airport is the Puducherry Airport, located 116 km & Tiruchirappalli Airport, located 142 km from Mayiladuthurai while the nearest seaport is the Karaikal located 40 km away.

By Road
The newly constructed Muttam bridge provides connectivity to Kattumannarkoil which at the distance of 28 km in the north and considerably reduce the travel time to northern districts and Chennai. As of 2007, Mayiladuthurai municipality accommodated 87.54 km of roads: 5.6 km of cement roads, 75.8 km of bituminous roads, 3.46 km of WBM roads and 2.6 km of earthen roads. Additionally, there were 20.85 km of highways in the town. The State Highways SH-23 and SH-64 upgrade NH136B pass through Mayiladuthurai. There are 2 bus stands currently one serving Karaikkal, Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur routes and the other principal bus stand is located on the Kumbakonam-Sirkazhi SH-64 State Highway. It has a total of 12 bus bays and rated class B as it has basic restaurant, toilet and lighting facilities.New bustand construction work started. There are regular bus services to important cities in Tamil Nadu. There are also regular services to other South Indian cities like Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai and Pondicherry. Mayiladuthurai forms a part of the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation which is headquartered at Kumbakonam.

By Rail
Mayiladuthurai is connected by rail with most important towns and cities in South India. Mayiladuthurai Junction railway station is located on the Main line connecting the state capital Chennai with Tiruchirappali. There are lines from Mayiladuthurai - Karaikudi via Thiruvarur, making it one of the major junctions in Central region. The Mysuru - Mayiladuthurai Express connects Mayiladuthurai, Kumbakonam, Thanjavur and Tiruchirappali with Mysuru and Bengaluru. There are regular express trains that connect the city with major cities in the state like Chennai, Coimbatore, Madurai and Tiruchirappalli. There are passenger trains that connects Mayiladuthurai with Thanjavur, Tiruchirapalli, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam Chidambaram, Cuddalore and Viluppuram.

Culture

Mayiladuthurai has several ancient temples such as Mayuranathaswami Temple, a prominent Shaivite shrine and Parimala Renganathar Temple, a Vaishnavite shrine which are located in the city.

The Mayuranathaswami Temple complex was built during the time of the Medieval Cholas.

The Vadaranyeswarar temple and Kailasanathar temple in utthara mayuram, the Tulakattam Kashiviswanathar Temple, the Padithurai Vishwanathar temple, the Aiyaarappar Temple, and the Punukeeswarar Temple at Koranad, Mayiladuthurai are another important ancient Shiva temples in Mayiladuthurai.

The prominent Vaishnava temples in the town are Parimala Rangnathar Vishnu temple of lord Vishnu at Thiruvilandur on the northern banks of the Cauvery, a Divya desam and a Pancha rangam, Adhi Ranganathar temple and Kolikutti Vanamutti Perumal temple.

The Kadai Muzhukku, a famous festival of holy bath, is organised at the Tulakattam Kaveri river ghat during the month of Ippasi.

Other important festivals celebrated at the temple are Navarathri, Adi Pooram, Avani Moolam, Karthigai Deepam and Vaikashi Brahmavotsavam A yearly dance festival called the Mayura Natyanjali is conducted within the precincts of the Mayuranathaswami Temple by the Saptasvarangal Trust during Maha Shivaratri on the pattern of the Chidambaram Natyanjali festival.

Tourist attractions
The Navagraha temples in Tamil Nadu, Poombuhar, Tharangambadi, Pichavaram mangrove forest, Tirumullaivasal, Palaiyar and Karaikkal are the most prominent tourist attractions located around the town.

title: Mayiladuthurai


text:
POA

POA may refer to:

Organisations

 * Pakistan Olympic Association
 * POA (trade union), for UK prison officers
 * Prison Officers' Association (Ireland)
 * Russian Liberation Army

Science and technology

 * Poa, a genus in Poaceae (the grass family)
 * Place of articulation, a linguistic term
 * Pony of the Americas, a horse breed
 * Portable Object Adapter, in the CORBA specification
 * Preoptic area, a brain region
 * Price of anarchy, a concept in game theory
 * Program of Activities, for UNFCCC Clean Development Mechanism
 * Proof-of-authority, a blockchain algorithm

Law

 * Power of attorney
 * Public Order Act
 * Property owner association or homeowner association

Music

 * Paris Opera Awards
 * POA (album), 1973, by Blocco Mentale
 * "POA", a song from Future (Future album)
 * P.O.A: Pop on Arrival, 2005 album by Beat Crusaders

Places

 * Poa, Bazèga, Burkina Faso
 * Poa, Boulkiemdé, Burkina Faso
 * Poá, São Paulo, Brazil
 * Pacific Ocean Areas, World War II commands
 * Po Lam station, Hong Kong, China, station code
 * Salgado Filho International Airport, Porto Alegre, Brazil, IATA code

Other

 * Price on application, abbreviation
 * Plan of Action, abbreviation

title: POA


text:
AOA

Aoa, AOA, or AoA may refer to:

Government

 * Agreement on Agriculture, a World Trade Organization treaty
 * Administration on Aging, a health agency of the United States
 * Angolan kwanza, the currency of Angola
 * Auxiliary Organizations Association, an organized body related to the California State University system
 * Analysis of Alternatives, form of trade study used by the Department of Defense

Science and health

 * Aoa (genus), a genus of butterflies in the family Pieridae
 * Age of acquisition, a psycholinguistic term
 * Alpha Omega Alpha, a medical honor society
 * American Optometric Association, a health association
 * American Osteopathic Association, a medical association
 * Ammonia-oxidizing archaea performing oxidation of ammonia into nitrite (Nitrification)
 * Angle of arrival, direction from which a radio wave arrives at an antenna array
 * Angle of attack, a measure of a body through a fluid
 * Australian Orthopaedic Association, a not-for-profit organisation

Administration

 * Analysis of Alternatives, a method of analyzing choices
 * Articles of association, a document that establishes the basic details of a corporation
 * Activity on arrow, the activities on the arrows of the arrow diagramming method in project planning

Aviation

 * Air operations area, the area of an airport used for landing, takeoff, or surface maneuvering of aircraft
 * Airport Operators Association, a trade association for UK airport operators
 * American Overseas Airlines, a former transport company
 * Angle of attack, the angle between the chord line of the wing of a fixed-wing aircraft and the vector representing the relative motion between the aircraft and the atmosphere
 * Abort once around, a type of Space Shuttle abort mode

Entertainment

 * AOA (group), a South Korean girl group debuted in 2012
 * Act of Aggression, video game
 * Age of Apocalypse, a comic storyline
 * Aniplex of America, an anime licensor
 * Armies of Arcana, a tabletop war game
 * The Axis of Awesome, an Australian comedy band

Other

 * ʻAoa, a village in American Samoa
 * Adam-Ondi-Ahman, a sacred location for the Latter Day Saints
 * American Outlaws Association, a motorcycle club
 * Andrews Osborne Academy, a school
 * As-salamu alaykum, traditional meeting between Muslims, coined in late 90's by M. Shomail Haider

 * Automated online assistant, a program that attempts to assist users

title: AOA


text: Template:Västerbotten County

title: Template:Västerbotten County


text:
CFD

CFD may refer to:

Business and economics

 * Centre for Finance and Development in Geneva, Switzerland
 * Contract for difference, a type of financial derivative
 * Contracts for Difference (UK electricity market support)
 * Control-flow diagram, of a process
 * Cumulative flow diagram, in queueing theory

Firefighting services

 * Calgary Fire Department, Alberta, Canada
 * Chicago Fire Department, Illinois, U.S.
 * Cleveland Fire Department, Ohio, U.S.
 * Columbus Fire Department, Ohio, U.S.

Science and technology

 * Common fill device, in cryptography
 * Complement factor D, an enzyme
 * Computational fluid dynamics
 * Congenital Femoral Deficiency, a birth defect
 * Constant fraction discriminator, a signal processing device
 * Counterfactual definiteness, a concept in quantum mechanics

Transport

 * Caulfield railway station, Melbourne
 * Clarkefield railway station, Melbourne
 * Coulter Field (IATA: CFD), an airport in Bryan, Texas, U.S.
 * Compagnie des chemins de fer départementaux, French rail company in JV with Captrain France

title: CFD