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Inuit Circumpolar Council

The Inuit Circumpolar Council (ICC; Inuit Issittormiut Siunnersuisooqatigiiffiat; formerly the Inuit Circumpolar Conference) is a multinational non-governmental organization (NGO) and Indigenous Peoples' Organization (IPO) representing the 180,000 Inuit and Yupik (sometimes referred to as Eskimo) people living in Alaska (United States), Canada, Greenland (Kingdom of Denmark), and the Chukchi Peninsula (Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Russia). ICC was ECOSOC-accredited and was granted special consultative status (category II) at the UN in 1983.

The Conference, which first met in June 1977 in Barrow, Alaska (now Utqiaġvik), initially represented Native Peoples from Canada, Alaska and Greenland. In 1980 the charter and by-laws of ICC were adopted. The Conference agreed to replace the term Eskimo with the term Inuit. This has not however met with widespread acceptance by some groups, most pre-eminently the Yupik (see Background section below). The goals of the Conference are to strengthen ties between Arctic people and to promote human, cultural, political and environmental rights and polities at the international level.

ICC holds a General Assembly every four years. ICC is one of the six Arctic indigenous communities to have the status of Permanent Participant on the Arctic Council.

Background
The Inuit population includes the following groups and regions:
 * Canada: Inuit Nunangat: Central Inuit (Nunavut), Inuvialuit (Inuvialuit Settlement Region, Northwest Territories), Nunavimmiut (Nunavik, Nord-du-Québec), and Nunatsiavummiut or Labradormiut (Nunatsiavut, Labrador)
 * United States (Alaska): Iñupiat, Yup'ik (Central Yup’ik & Cup’ik), and Siberian Yupik (St. Lawrence Island Yupik)
 * Greenland: Greenlandic Inuit: Kalaallit, Inughuit, and Tunumiit
 * Russia: Siberian Yupik (Chukchi Peninsula, Chukotka)

All of these peoples are sometimes collectively referred to by the exonym Eskimo, the use of which is frowned upon by many of the Inuit, especially in eastern Canada. ICC uses the term Inuit to refer to them all, which has its own problems. One of those is administrative: an Inuk in the United States could be considered "Native American," "Alaskan Native" or "Aboriginal American." The Yupik of both Alaska and Russia generally prefer being called Yupik. Inuit is currently used in Alaska but it is not a word in the Yupik languages, nor a word which they traditionally used to describe themselves. Eskimo, which was formerly used in Alaska is generally dying out.

Structure and functions
The main goals of the organization are to strengthen unity among Inuit, to promote their human rights (Indigenous and linguistic) and interests, and to ensure the development of Inuit culture.

Structurally, the organization is made up of four separate offices in each of the four Inuit nations, chartered individually under their national rules. The Presidents of ICC Chukotka, ICC Alaska, ICC Canada, and ICC Greenland, along with one Executive Council Member elected from each of the nations, make up the eight-member ICC Executive Council. The Executive Council is presided over by an International Chair (formerly International President—the title was changed in 2002).

ICC holds a General Assembly every four years, bringing together Inuit from across the northern circumpolar region to discuss issues of international importance to their communities, provide direction for the work of the organization over the next four years, and divide responsibility for issue areas between the national offices. Assembly delegates appoint an international chair from the General Assembly host-country, along with the members of the Executive Council, and develop policies and resolutions for the coming term.

The General Assembly, and thus the International Chair position, rotates between the four Inuit nations quadrennially at the General Assemblies. At the 2002 General Assembly in Kuujjuaq, Nunavik, Canada, the Chair passed from Greenland, where it had been held for the previous seven years by Aqqaluk Lynge, now a member of the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, to Canada, where Sheila Watt-Cloutier, formerly the President of ICC Canada, took the position.

In 2006, the Chair passed to ICC Alaska at the General Assembly in Barrow, and was then occupied by Patricia L. Cochran, formerly executive director of the Alaska Native Science Commission. At that Assembly, ICC also voted to change its name to Inuit Circumpolar Council as there has been perennial confusion over an organizational name that sounds more like a past meeting.

Leadership
The leadership of the ICC was initially organized with one president and three regional vice presidents. A fourth vice-president was added when Russia/Chukotka joined the ICC. The president later came to be unknown as chairperson or international chairperson.

title: Inuit Circumpolar Council


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Borislav Paravac

Borislav Paravac (Борислав Паравац; born 18 February 1943) is a Bosnian Serb politician who served as the 4th Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 2003 to 2006.

Previously, he was a member of both the national House of Peoples and House of Representatives. Paravac is a member of the Serb Democratic Party.

Early life and education
Paravac was born on 18 February 1943 in Kostajnica near Doboj in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina. He graduated from the Faculty of Economics at the University of Zagreb in 1966.

Career
From 13 October 1998 until 14 October 2000, Paravac was the member of the national House of Peoples. At the 2002 general election, he was elected to the national House of Representatives.

Following the dismissal of Mirko Šarović from his post at the Bosnian Presidency by the High Representative for Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lord Paddy Ashdown, Paravac was appointed to the post on 10 April 2003. He held the position of Presidency Chairman on two occasions. His term as Presidency member ended on 6 November 2006 and was succeeded by Nebojša Radmanović.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Borislav Paravac


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Mirko Šarović

Mirko Šarović (Мирко Шаровић; born 16 September 1956) is a Bosnian Serb politician who served as the 3rd Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina from 2002 to 2003. From 2000 to 2002, he also served as the 4th president of Republika Srpska and was Minister of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations on two occasions as well.

Šarović graduated from the Faculty of Law at the University of Sarajevo in 1979. Following the Bosnian War in the 1990s, he was elected to the National Assembly of Republika Srpska. In 2000, he became president of Republika Srpska, serving until 2002.

At the 2002 general election, Šarović was elected as Serb member of the Bosnian Presidency, serving in office only until 2003, when he resigned amid allegations of his involvement in organising illegal military trading with Iraq. From 2012 to 2013 and again from 2015 to 2019, he served as Minister of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations.

In 2019, Šarović became the new president of the Serb Democratic Party (SDS). At the 2022 general election, he once again ran for a seat in the Presidency as a Serb member, but was not elected. Following the election, Šarović resigned as president of the SDS.

Early life and education
Šarović was born in Rogatica, PR Bosnia and Herzegovina, FPR Yugoslavia on 16 September 1956. He graduated from the Faculty of Law in Sarajevo in 1979. During the 1980s, Šarović was employed in the Engine Factory Sarajevo (Famos) and Unis Sarajevo.

Career
Šarović entered politics before the Bosnian War, as secretary of the municipality of Novo Sarajevo. In one term, he was president of the Executive Board and mayor of East Sarajevo. Šarović was a member of the National Assembly of Republika Srpska for two terms.

As president of Republika Srpska, he signed the historic Agreement on Special Parallel Relations between FR Yugoslavia and Republika Srpska on 5 March 2001 in Banja Luka, together with FR Yugoslavia President Vojislav Koštunica. The Assembly of FR Yugoslavia ratified the signed agreement 10 May 2001. From 28 October 2002 until 2 April 2003, Šarović served as the 3rd Serb member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina. He resigned from the Presidency on 2 April 2003 amid allegations of his involvement in organising illegal military trading with Iraq.

Šarović was Minister of Foreign Trade and Economic Relations in the Council of Ministers of Bosnia and Herzegovina on two occasions. On 30 June 2019, he became the new president of the Serb Democratic Party (SDS), succeeding Vukota Govedarica. As president of the SDS, the major opposition party in Republika Srpska, Šarović has been a fierce opponent and critic of Bosnian Serb leader and current Bosnian Presidency member Milorad Dodik, having clashes with him on numerous occasions.

On 23 June 2022, Šarović announced his candidacy in the Bosnian general election, running again for Bosnia and Herzegovina's three-person Presidency member, representing the Serbs. At the general election however, held on 2 October 2022, he was not elected, obtaining 35.45% of the vote, with Alliance of Independent Social Democrats candidate Željka Cvijanović getting elected with 51.65% of the vote. Following his defeat and a poor showing of the SDS in the election as well, Šarović announced his resignation as president of the party in November 2022.

Personal life
Mirko was married to Stojanka Šarović and together they had two children. On 11 February 2024, his wife committed suicide at their home in East Sarajevo.

Orders

 * BIH Order of the Republic of Srpska sash ribbon.svg Order of the Republika Srpska: 2012

title: Mirko Šarović


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Pula

Pula, also known as Pola (Pola; Puola; Pulj; Póla), is the largest city in Istria County, Croatia, and the seventh-largest city in the country, situated at the southern tip of the Istrian peninsula in northwestern Croatia, with a population of 52,220 in 2021. It is known for its multitude of ancient Roman buildings, the most famous of which is the Pula Arena, one of the best preserved Roman amphitheaters. The city has a long tradition of wine making, fishing, shipbuilding, and tourism. It was the administrative centre of Istria from ancient Roman times until superseded by Pazin in 1991.

Pre-history
Evidence of the presence of Homo erectus one million years ago has been found in the cave of Šandalja near Pula. Pottery from the Neolithic period (6000–2000 BC), indicating human settlement, has been found around Pula. In the Bronze Age (1800–1000 BC), a new type of settlement appeared in Istria, called 'gradine', or hill-top fortifications. Many late Bronze Age bone objects, such as tools for smoothing and drilling, sewing needles, as well as spiral bronze pendants, have been found in the area around Pula. The type of materials found in Bronze Age sites in Istria connects these with sites along the Danube. The inhabitants of Istria in the Bronze Age are known as Proto Illyrians.

Greek pottery and a part of a statue of Apollo have been found, attesting to the presence or influence of Greek culture. Greek tradition attributed the foundation of Polai to the Colchians, mentioned in the context of the story of Jason and Medea, who had stolen the golden fleece. The Colchians, who had chased Jason into the northern Adriatic, were unable to catch him and ended up settling in a place they called Polai, signifying "city of refuge".

Ancient period
In classical antiquity, it was inhabited by the Histri, a Venetic or Illyrian tribe. Strabo, Pomponius Mela and Lycophron wrote that it was inhabited by Colchians. The Istrian peninsula was conquered by the Romans in 177 BC, starting a period of Romanization. The town was elevated to colonial rank between 46 and 45 BC as the tenth region of the late Roman Republic, under Julius Caesar. During that time the town grew and had at its zenith a population of about 30,000. It became a significant Roman port with a large surrounding area under its jurisdiction.

During the civil war of 42 BC of the triumvirate of Octavian, Mark Antony and Lepidus against Caesar's assassins Brutus and Cassius, the town took the side of Cassius, since the town had been founded by Cassius Longinus, brother of Cassius. After Octavian's victory, the town was demolished. It was soon rebuilt at the request of Octavian's daughter Iulia and was then called Colonia Pietas Iulia Pola Pollentia Herculanea. The colony was part of Venetia et Histria, a region of Roman Italy. Great classical constructions were built of which a few remain.

A great amphitheatre, Pula Arena, was constructed between 27 BC and 68 AD, much of it still standing to this day. The Romans also supplied the city with a water supply and sewage systems. They fortified the city with a wall with ten gates. A few of these gates remain: the triumphal Arch of the Sergii, the Gate of Hercules (in which the names of the founders of the city are engraved), and the Twin Gates. During the reign of the emperor Septimius Severus the name of the town was changed to "Res Publica Polensis". The town was the site of Crispus Caesar's execution in 326 AD and Gallus Caesar's execution in 354 AD. In 425 AD the town became the centre of a bishopric, attested by the remains of foundations of a few religious buildings.

Middle Ages

After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the city and region were attacked by the Ostrogoths, Pula being virtually destroyed by Odoacer, a Germanic foederati general in 476 AD. The town was ruled by the Ostrogoths from 493 to 538 AD. When their rule ended, Pula came under the rule of the Exarchate of Ravenna (540–751). During this period Pula prospered and became the major port of the Byzantine fleet and an integral part of the Byzantine Empire. The Basilica of Saint Mary Formosa was built in the 6th century.

From 788 on Pula was ruled by the Frankish Empire under Charlemagne, with the introduction of the feudal system. Under the Franks it was part of the Kingdom of Italy. Pula became the seat of the elective counts of Istria until 1077. The town was taken in 1148 by the Venetians and in 1150 Pula swore allegiance to the Republic of Venice, thus becoming a Venetian possession. For centuries thereafter, the city's fate and fortunes were tied to those of Venetian power. It was conquered by the Pisans in 1192 but soon reconquered by the Venetians.

In 1238 Pope Gregory IX formed an alliance between Genoa and Venice against the Empire, and consequently against Pisa too. As Pula had sided with the Pisans, the city was sacked by the Venetians in 1243. It was destroyed again in 1267 and again in 1397 when the Genoese defeated the Venetians in a naval battle. Pula then slowly went into decline. This decay was accelerated by the infighting of local families: the ancient Roman Sergi family and the Ionotasi (1258–1271) and the clash between Venice and Genoa for the control of the city and its harbour (late 13th and 14th centuries). In 1291, by the Peace of Treviso, Patriarch Raimondo della Torre gained the city as part of the secular realm of the Patriarchate of Aquileia, only to lose it to Venice in 1331, which then held it until its downfall in 1797.

Pula is quoted by the Italian poet Dante Alighieri, who had visited Pula, in the Divine Comedy: "Sì come a Pola, presso del Carnaro, ch'Italia chiude e i suoi termini bagna" or "As Pola, along the Quarnero, that marks the end of Italy and bathes its boundaries".

Venetian, Napoleonic and early Habsburg rule
The Venetians took over Pula in 1331 and would rule the city until 1797. During the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, Pula was attacked and occupied by the Genoese, the Hungarian army and the Habsburgs; several outlying medieval settlements and towns were destroyed. In addition to war, the plague, malaria and typhoid ravaged the city. By the 1750s there were only 3,000 inhabitants left in ancient city, an area now covered with weeds and ivy.

With the collapse of the Venetian Republic in 1797 following Napoleon's Treaty of Campo Formio, the city became part of the Habsburg monarchy. It was invaded again in 1805 after the French had defeated the Austrians. It was included in the French Empire of Napoleon as part of the Kingdom of Italy, then placed directly under the French Empire's Illyrian Provinces.

Austrian Littoral province and union with Italy
In 1813, Pola (with Istria) came back to the Austrian Empire. Under the compromise of 1867, the town – under the original Italian name, Pola – remained in Austria-Hungary until the latter's defeat and dissolution in 1918. Under Austrian rule, Pola regained prosperity. Its large natural harbour became Austria's main naval base and a major shipbuilding centre. It was chosen for the base in 1859 by Hans Dahlerup, a Danish admiral in the service of Austria. Subsequently, Pola grew from a fading provincial town into an industrial city. The island of Brioni (in Croatian renamed Brijuni) to the North West of Pola became the summer vacation resort of Austria's Habsburg royal family. In World War I, the port was the main base for Austro-Hungarian dreadnoughts and other naval forces of the Empire. During this period many inhabitants were Italian speaking. The 1910 Austrian census recorded a city population of 58,562 (45.8% Italian speaking; 15.2% Croatian, the rest were mostly German-speaking military).

Following the collapse of Austria-Hungary in 1918, Pola and the whole of Istria – except the territory of Castua Kastav – went to Italy. Pola became the capital of the Province of Pola. The decline in population after World War I was mainly due to economic difficulties caused by the withdrawal of Austro-Hungarian military and bureaucratic facilities and the dismissal of workers from the shipyard. Under the Italian Fascist government of Benito Mussolini, non-Italians, especially Croatian residents who came to Pola under Austro-Hungarian rule, faced stringent political and cultural repression because they had now to integrate themselves into the Kingdom of Italy and learn the Italian language. Many left the city and went back to the newly created Yugoslavia. After the collapse of Fascist Italy in 1943, the city was occupied by the German Wehrmacht and remained a base for U-boats. Consequently, the city was subjected to repeated Allied bombing from 1942 to 1944. In the last phase of the war, Pola saw the arrest, deportation, and execution of people suspected of aiding the Axis, by the partisans who together with the Yugoslav communists killed many soldiers and civilians, in the first episodes of what would have been named, later on, the Foibe massacres.

Post–World War II and modern era

After World War II, the Istrian Italians of Pula left Yugoslavia towards Italy (Istrian-Dalmatian exodus). For two years after 1945, Pola was administered by the Allied Military Government for Occupied Territories (AMG). Pola formed an enclave within south Istria that was occupied by Yugoslavia since 1945 with the help of Churchill. The AMG was occupied by a company of the United States 351st Infantry and a British battalion of the 24th Guards Brigade. Istria was partitioned into occupation zones until the region became officially united with the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia) on 15 September 1947, under terms of the Paris Peace Treaties. The city became part of the Socialist Republic of Croatia, a federal state within SFR Yugoslavia, upon the ratification of the Paris Peace Treaties on 15 September 1947 – which also created the Free Territory of Trieste. Initially, Pola's population of 45,000 was largely made up of ethnic Italians, however, between December 1946 and September 1947, the vast majority of Italians fled to Italy. Subsequently, the city's Croatian name, Pula, became the official name. Today the city of Pola or Pula is officially bilingual, Croatian and Italian, hence both Pula and Pola are official names. Since the collapse of Yugoslavia in 1991, Pula has been part of the Republic of Croatia.

Geography and climate
The city lies on and beneath seven hills on the inner part of a wide gulf and a naturally well-protected port (depth up to 38 m) open to the northwest with two entrances: from the sea and through Fažana channel.

Today, Pula's geographical area amounts to 5165 ha, 4159 ha on land and 1015 ha at sea, bounded from the north by islands Sv. Jerolim and Kozada, city areas Štinjan/Stignano, Veli Vrh/Monte Grande and Sianna with its 'Kaiserwald' forest; from the east area Monteserpo, Valmade, Busoler and Valdebek; from the south with the old gas works, commercial port Veruda and island Veruda; and from the west Verudela, Lungomare and Musil.

Protected from the north by the mountain chain of Alps as well the inner highland, the climate is humid subtropical (Köppen climate classification: Cfa), with the highest air temperature averaging 23 °C during July and August and lowest averaging 6 °C, in January and February. Summers are usually quite hot, although some strange heat wave patterns are also common.

Normally, it is humid. Temperatures above 10 °C last for more than 240 days a year. There are two different kinds of winds here – the bora brings cold and clear weather from the north in winter, and the southern Sirocco bringing rain in summer. The 'Maestral' is a summer breeze blowing from the inland to the sea.

Like the rest of the region Pula is known for its mild climate and tame sea with an average of sunny days of 2,316 hours per year or 6.3 hours a day, with an average air temperature of 13.7 °C (6.1 °C in February to 26.4 °C in July and August) and sea temperature from 7 °C to 26 °C.

Population
Pula is the largest city in Istria County, with a metropolitan area of 90,000 people. The city itself has 57,460 residents (census 2011), while the metropolitan area includes Barban/Barbana (2,802 residents), Fažana/Fasana (3,050 residents), Ližnjan/Lisignano (2,945 residents), Marčana/Marzana (3,903 residents), Medulin/Medolino (6,004 residents), Svetvinčenat/Sanvicenti (2,218 residents) and Vodnjan/Dignano (5,651 residents). Its population density is 1093.27 PD/km2, ranking Pula fifth in Croatia.

Its birth rate is 1.795 per cent and its mortality rate is 1.014 per cent (in 2001 466 people were born and 594 deceased), with a natural population decrease of −0.219 per cent and vital index of 78.45. The majority of its citizens are Croats representing 70.14% of the population (2011 census). The largest ethnic minorities are: 3,454 Serbs (6.01 per cent), 2,545 local Italians (4.43 per cent), 2,011 Bosniaks (3.5 per cent), 549 Slovenians (0.96 per cent).

Sights
The city is best known for its many surviving ancient Roman buildings, the most famous of which is its 1st-century amphitheatre, which is among the six largest surviving Roman arenas in the world. and locally known as the Arena. This is one of the best-preserved amphitheatres from antiquity and is still in use today during summer film festivals. During the World War II Italian fascist administration, there were attempts to dismantle the arena and move it to mainland Italy, which were quickly abandoned due to the costs involved.

Two other notable and well-preserved ancient Roman structures are the 1st-century BC triumphal arch, the Arch of the Sergii and the co-eval Temple of Augustus, built in the 1st century AD built on the forum during the reign of the Roman emperor Augustus.

The Twin Gates (Porta Gemina) is one of the few remaining gates after the city walls were pulled down at the beginning of the 19th century. It dates from the mid-2nd century, replacing an earlier gate. It consists of two arches, columns, a plain architrave, and a decorated frieze. Close by are a few remains of the old city wall.

The Gate of Hercules dates from the 1st century. At the top of the single arch, one can see the bearded head of Hercules, carved in high-relief, and his club on the adjoining voussoir. A damaged inscription, close to the club, contains the names of Lucius Calpurnius Piso and Gaius Cassius Longinus who were entrusted by the Roman senate to found a colony at the site of Pula. Thus it can be deduced that Pula was founded between 47 and 44 BC.

The Augustan Forum was constructed in the 1st century BC, close to the sea. In Roman times it was surrounded by temples of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. This Roman commercial and administrative centre of the city remained the main square of classical and medieval Pula. It is still the main administrative and legislative centre of the city. The temple of Augustus is still preserved today. A part of the back wall of the temple of Juno was integrated into the Communal Palace in the 13th century.

Two Roman theatres have withstood the ravages of time: the smaller one (diameter c. 50 m; 2nd century AD) near the centre, the larger one (diameter c. 100 m; 1st century AD) on the southern edge of the city.

The city's old quarter of narrow streets, lined with Medieval and Renaissance buildings, are still surfaced with ancient Roman paving stones.

The Byzantine chapel of Santa Maria del Canneto (or St. Mary Formosa) was built in the 6th century (before 546) in the form of a Greek cross, resembling the churches in Ravenna. It was built by Maximianus of Ravenna, then a deacon, but later Archbishop of Ravenna. It was, together with another chapel, part of a Benedictine abbey that was demolished in the 16th century. The floors and the walls are decorated with 6th-century mosaics. The decoration bears some resemblance to the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia at Ravenna. The wall over the door contains a Byzantine carved stone panel. The 15th-century wall paintings may be restorations of Early Christian paintings. When the Venetians raided Pula in 1605, they removed many treasures from this chapel to Venice, including the four columns of oriental alabaster that stand behind the high altar of St Mark's Basilica.

The Cathedral of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary was built in the 6th century, when Pula became the seat of a bishopry, over the remains of the original site where the Christians used to gather and pray in Roman times. It was enlarged in the 10th century. After its destruction by Genoese and Venetian raids, it was almost completely rebuilt in the 15th century. It got its present form when a late Renaissance façade was added in the early 16th century. The church still retains several Romanesque and Byzantine characters, such as some parts of the walls (dating from the 4th century), a few of the original column capitals and the upper windows of the nave. In the altar area and in the room to the south one can still see fragments of 5th- or 6th-century floor mosaics with memorial inscriptions from worshippers who paid for the mosaics. The windows of the aisles underwent reconstruction in Gothic style after a fire in 1242. The belfry in front of the church was built between 1671 and 1707 using stones from the amphitheatre. There also used to stand a baptistery from the 5th century in front of the church, but it was demolished in 1885.

The Orthodox Church of St. Nicholas with its Ravenna-style polygonal apse originally dates from the 6th century, but was partially rebuilt in the 10th century. In 1583 it was assigned to the Orthodox community of Pula, mainly immigrants from Cyprus and Nauplion. The church owns several icons from the 15th and the 16th century and an iconostasis from the Greek artists Tomios Batos from the 18th century.

The star-shaped castle with four bastions is situated on top of the central hill of the old city. It was built, over the remains of the Roman capitolium, by the Venetians in the 17th century, following the plans of the French military architect Antoine de Ville. Since 1961 it now houses the Historical Museum of Istria. Close by, on the north-eastern slopes, one can see the remains of a 2nd-century theatre.

The Church of St. Francis dates from the end of the 13th century. It was built in 1314 in the late Romanesque style with Gothic additions such as the rose window. The church consists of a single nave with three apses. An unusual feature of this church is the double pulpit, with one part projecting into the street. A 15th-century wooden polyptych from an Emilian artist adorns the altar. The west portal is decorated with shell motifs and a rose window. The adjoining monastery dates from the 14th century. The cloisters display some antique Roman artefacts.

The Archaeological Museum of Istria is situated in the park on a lower level than the Roman theatre and close to the Twin Gates. Its collection was started by Marshall Marmont in August 1802 when he collected the stone monuments from the temple of Augustus. The present-day museum was opened in 1949. It displays treasures from Pula and surroundings from prehistory until the Middle Ages. The building was constructed under Austro-Hungarian rule and was the former k.u.k. Staatsgymnasium, the Austrian high school. The Aquarium Pula is the biggest aquarium in Croatia, located in the Austro-Hungarian fortress Verudela, which was built in 1886 on the peninsula 3 km from the centre of the city of Pula. Transforming the fortress into the aquarium has been in progress since 2002. The installation encompasses about 60 tanks on the ground floor, the moat, and the first floor of the fortress. In an area of approximately 2000 m2, visitors can view inhabitants of the Northern and Southern Adriatic Sea, tropical marine and freshwater fish, and representatives of European rivers and lakes. From the roof of the fort, visitors may view the entire city of Pula. It is also possible to see the first marine turtle rescue centre in Croatia.

Fort Bourguignon is one of many fortresses in Pula that the Austrian empire erected to protect the port for its navy.

Nesactium is an ancient hill fort settlement, which is considered to be the oldest urban settlement in Istria. The town is settled about 10 km north of Pula, next to Valtura and Pula Airport. The site itself is located above Bay of Budava, and it is well protected by its steep hills. Nesactium is first mentioned as the main settlement of the Histri, the oldest people on the peninsula, which was the eponym for Istria. Livy was the first who mentioned Nesactium, and the altar dedicated to Emperor Gordian from the 3rd century, where "Res Republica Nesactiensium" is mentioned, confirmed the actual existence of this city. The search for the city began in 1900, when Pietro Kandler first put together the toponym Vizače with ancient Nesactium.

As a result of its rich political history, Pula is a city with a cultural mixture of people and languages from the Mediterranean and Central Europe, ancient and contemporary. Pula's architecture reflects these layers of history. Residents are commonly fluent in both Croatian and Italian but also in foreign languages like German and English. From 30 October 1904 to March 1905 Irish writer James Joyce taught English at the Berlitz School; his students were mainly Austro-Hungarian naval officers who were stationed at the Naval Shipyard. While he was in Pola he organised the local printing of his broadsheet The Holy Office, which satirised both William Butler Yeats and George William Russell.

Tourism

Pula's surrounding natural environment, countryside and the turquoise water of the Adriatic have made the city popular summer holiday destination. The pearl nearby is Brioni island or Brijuni national park visited by numerous world leaders since it was the summer residence of Josip Broz Tito. Roman villas and temples still lie buried among farm fields and along the shoreline of the dozens of surrounding fishing and farming villages. The coastal waters offer beaches, fishing, wreck dives to ancient Roman galleys and World War I warships, cliff diving, and sailing to unspoiled coves and islands large and small.

Pula is the end point of the EuroVelo 9 cycle route that runs from Gdańsk on the Baltic Sea through Poland, the Czech Republic, Austria, Slovenia and Croatia.

It is possible to track dinosaur footprints on the nearby seashores; certain more important finds have been made at an undisclosed location near Bale.

Transport

Pula had an electric tramway system in the early 20th century. It was built in 1904 as a part of Pula's economic crescendo during the Austro-Hungarian rule. After World War I, during the Fascist rule, the need for tram transportation declined and it was finally dismantled in 1934.

Pula Airport is located north-east of Pula, and serves both domestic and international destinations. Similarly to nearby Rijeka Airport, it is not a major international destination. However, this has changed over recent years as low-cost airline Ryanair started scheduled flights to Pula in November 2006. Easyjet offers many flights to UK airports. Jet2 also offers flights from Newcastle, Birmingham, Glasgow, Leeds-Bradford, Belfast, Manchester, and East Midlands Airports. Scandinavian Airlines (SAS) operates scheduled flights from Stockholm and Copenhagen during summertime. Nearby international airports include Trieste in Italy, Zagreb, Croatia's capital and Ljubljana, Slovenia's capital. There are direct flights into Pula airport from London during the whole year and several other large airports in Western Europe during summer. On 9 April 2015 European Coastal Airlines established a daily seaplane service from the downtown seaplane terminal at the city's main waterfront. Destinations as of April 2015 are Rijeka, the island of Rab and Mali Lošinj. The airline ceased operation in 2016.

A train service operates north from Pula through to Slovenia, however, the line remains disconnected from the rest of the Croatian Railways network. Plans to tunnel the 'missing link' between this line and from Rijeka have existed for many years, and despite work commencing on this project previously, have never seen completion. People traveling to Rijeka or Zagreb by train must get off in Lupoglav and take a bus to Rijeka.

Pula Bus Terminus/Terminal is the main hub for Istria and is located on the edge of town just west of the Amphitheatre. From there, excellent service to a wide range of local, domestic, and international locations is available throughout the year. Several bus companies operate from this Terminus including the local service run by Pulapromet. There is also a guaranteed direct line from Pula to Trieste/Venice, especially into spring/summertime.

Passenger ferries also operate from the port area to nearby islands, and also to Venice and Trieste in Italy from June to September.

Nearby towns and villages

 * Bale / Valle d'Istria
 * Banjole / Bagnole
 * Barban / Barbana d'Istria
 * Brijuni / Brioni (Isole)
 * Fažana / Fasana
 * Galižana / Gallesano
 * Ližnjan / Lisignano
 * Medulin / Medolino
 * Pomer / Pomero
 * Premantura / Promontore (Capo)
 * Šišan / Sissano
 * Štinjan / Strugnano
 * Valtura / Valtura
 * Vinkuran/ Vincurano
 * Vodnjan / Dignano d'Istria

Twin towns – sister cities
Pula is twinned with:

 * Other forms of city partnership

 * Friendly relationships

Notable people

 * Archduke Karl Albrecht of Austria, Austrian and Polish officer and landowner
 * Danijel Aleksić, Serbian footballer
 * Susy Andersen, Italian actress
 * Laura Antonelli, Italian actress
 * Giovanni Arpino, Italian writer and journalist
 * Lidia Bastianich, Italian American chef-restaurateur
 * Erma Bossi, Italian expressionist painter
 * Crispus, Roman caesar
 * Lilia Dale, Italian actress
 * Pietro Tradonico, Venetian Doge
 * Jadranka Đokić, Croatian actress
 * Wilhelm Ehm, German admiral and chief of the Volksmarine
 * Sergio Endrigo, Italian singer-composer
 * Samanta Fabris, Croatian volleyball player
 * Pasqualino Gobbi, Italian Catholic cleric and author
 * Stjepan Hauser, Croatian cellist
 * James Joyce, Irish writer, lived in Pula from 1904 to 1905 with his wife Nora Barnacle
 * Helena Minić, Croatian actress
 * Johann Palisa, Austrian astronomer
 * Mate Parlov, Croatian boxer
 * Jolanda di Maria Petris, Italian-Finnish operatic soprano and voice pedagog
 * Herman Potočnik, Austrian officer, electrical engineer and astronautics theorist
 * Rossana Rossanda, Italian journalist
 * Orlando Sain, Italian footballer
 * Antonio Smareglia, Italian-Croatian classical composer
 * Roberto Soffici, Italian pop singer-songwriter
 * Raimondo Vianello, Italian actor
 * Alida Valli, Italian actress
 * Geppino Micheletti, Italian surgeon
 * Hede von Trapp, painter
 * Vladimir Arsenijević, Serbian author
 * Dženan Čišija, Swedish politician

title: Pula


text:
Talk:Pula

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20081013234448/http://www.mdc.hr:80/pula/eng/zbirke/sredvijek/index.htm to http://www.mdc.hr/pula/eng/zbirke/sredvijek/index.htm

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A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 15:07, 20 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Pula Arena exterior.jpg

Influence
I haven’t said it has Mediterranean climate, but a Mediterranean pattern!

Which the winters are wetter than the summers!! דולב חולב (talk) 16:50, 4 January 2024 (UTC)

 * Stuff on Wikipedia is ideally based on WP:RELIABLESOURCES, not our own judgement. If you can bring a reliable source that says the city has a "Mediterranean rainfall pattern", or a similarly reliable source that defines such a pattern to include a city of this precipitation regime, your edit would likely be accepted. Uness232 (talk) 21:09, 4 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Alexandroupolis first of all, look at this Mediterranean climate pattern or every other city with a Mediterranean climate.
 * and on the other hand, look at Atlanta with summers a bit wetter than winters.
 * so Pula has a climate combining those two. דולב חולב (talk) 00:33, 5 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Sort of, but that doesn't matter. What matters is sources; do you have any reliable sources to bring to the table about Mediterranean rainfall patterns, where they start and end? If not, your edits can be challenged and/or deleted on Wikipedia. Uness232 (talk) 01:34, 5 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Look, Atlanta, a well known Humid subtropical climate, has a pretty equal rainfall throughout the year, a peak in July. Same as Charlotte, North Carolina. Another well known humid subtropical city. This climate type used has a summer peak. If Pula has wetter winters and drier summers, that making it a bit similar to Split, Croatia a Mediterranean climate city. דולב חולב (talk) 15:26, 6 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Not all humid subtropical climates have a summer peak. Kutaisi has a winter maximum for example. So do many places in Japan. That doesn’t matter though, your opinions are not reliable sources. Material needs to be cited to reliable sources on Wikipedia. Uness232 (talk) 15:52, 6 January 2024 (UTC)
 * It’s not my opinion, it’s a known fact 😤🙄 דולב חולב (talk) 23:25, 8 January 2024 (UTC)
 * Sure. Bring me sources and I'll accept this change. Uness232 (talk) 01:47, 9 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Pula


text:
E!

E! Entertainment Television is an American basic cable television network. It is owned by the NBCUniversal Media Group division of Comcast's NBCUniversal. The channel focuses primarily on pop culture, celebrity based reality shows and movies.

, E! is available to approximately 71,000,000 pay television households in the United States-down from its 2011 peak of 99,000,000 households.

Movietime
E! was originally launched on July 31, 1987, as Movietime, a service that aired movie trailers, entertainment news, event and awards coverage, and interviews as an early example of a national barker channel. The channel was founded by Larry Namer and Alan Mruvka. Early Movietime hosts included Greg Kinnear, Katie Wagner, Julie Moran, Suzanne Kay (daughter of Diahann Carroll), Mark DeCarlo, Sam Rubin and Richard Blade.

E!
Controlling ownership was originally held by a consortium of five cable television providers (Comcast, Continental Cablevision, Cox Cable, TCI, and Warner Cable), HBO/Warner Communications, and various founding shareholders, with HBO directly programming and managing the network. In 1989, after Time Inc. bought Warner Communications to fend off a takeover bid by Paramount, the new Time Warner company held four of the eight major ownership positions and took over management control of Movietime and renamed the network as E!: Entertainment Television on June 1, 1990 based in Los Angeles; this name change was made to emphasize its widening coverage of the celebrity–industrial complex, contemporary film, television and music, daily Hollywood gossip, and fashion.

In 1997, Comcast, one of the minority partners, teamed up with Disney/ABC Cable Networks to buy the channel after Time Warner had exercised their put agreement. Comcast increased the ownership stakes in the network through mergers with forerunners of TCI and Continental under various circumstances. In November 2006, Comcast acquired Disney's 39.5% share of E! for $1.23 billion to gain full ownership of the network as part of a broader programming carriage agreement between Disney/ABC and Comcast.

In January 2011, Comcast Entertainment Group, the company's television unit, became a division of the NBCUniversal Television Group, after Comcast acquired a 51% majority stake in NBCUniversal from General Electric. E!'s only sister networks prior to the NBC Universal merger were the now-defunct channels Style Network (then Esquire Network), PBS Kids Sprout and G4, along with Comcast's sports networks: Versus, Comcast SportsNet and Golf Channel. In the case of Versus, E! staff produced that network's Sports Soup and G4's Web Soup, while the Orlando-based Golf Channel featured no crossovers with E! at all due to incompatible audiences and operations. Versus and Golf Channel were taken under the direct control of the NBC Sports division, with the former being renamed NBC Sports Network in January 2012, and are no longer connected to their former sister networks beyond advertising and in-house operations.

On July 9, 2012, the channel introduced a revised logo (the first change to its logo since the network rebranded as E! in 1990), removing the exclamation mark background behind the "E" but keeping the exclamation point underneath, along with a new slogan "Pop of Culture", which coincided with the launch of the new series Opening Act. The network also started the process of introducing scripted programming (the first series, The Royals, premiering in March 2015), in addition to its existing reality and documentary series. The changes were announced during E!'s programming upfront presentation on April 30, 2012.

News
E! is one of the few U.S. general-entertainment cable channels that broadcasts a daily news program; its flagship entertainment news program is E! News, which debuted on September 1, 1991. The weekday program (which also has an hour-long weekend edition) features stories and gossip about celebrities, and the film, music and television industries, and has been broadcast under various formats since its launch, even being aired live for a time during the mid-2000s. It was first hosted by Dagny Hultgreen. Steve Kmetko was a host from 1994 to 2002. It has been hosted by Terrence Jenkins and Giuliana Rancic since 2012 and 2006, respectively, with Ryan Seacrest (who co-anchored the program from 2006 to 2012) serving as managing editor of the news operation.

E! News was the only entertainment news show on the channel for much of its history until 2006, when the channel launched The Daily 10, hosted by Sal Masekela and Catt Sadler (Debbie Matenopoulos also co-hosted from the show's inception until 2008); the series was cancelled in September 2010 after E! announced that the weekday editions of E! News would be expanded to one hour starting on October 25, 2010.

E! also carried a simulcast of business news channel Bloomberg Television from 2004 to January 2009, when the latter network had expanded its cable and satellite carriage to a level that allowed the discontinuation of the simulcast.

Outside E! News telecasts, the channel runs an E! News–branded news ticker displaying entertainment news headlines each half-hour during regular programming; fast-breaking entertainment headlines (such as a celebrity arrest or death) may also be displayed on a ticker, during any program when warranted.

On August 5, 2020, E! canceled both New York-based shows, along with In The Room, one of the first of many program and employee cuts and staff realignments announced across NBCUniversal that week due to the pandemic. The news operation continued to maintain the E! News website, and its social media presences. Two years later, E! announced that E! News would be revived as a late-night entertainment news program and would return to the E! network after a two-year hiatus, with Adrienne Bailon-Houghton and Justin Sylvester (the latter of whom returned to the show for the revival) serving as co-hosts; it premiered on November 14, 2022.

Original series
The network was known early on for its daily video simulcast of the Howard Stern Show, which aired from June 20, 1994, until July 8, 2005, weeknights in a truncated half-hour form, airing three times in late night. The program was discontinued several months after Stern moved to Sirius Satellite Radio and sold the video rights to his show to pay-per-view provider In Demand as a monthly pay offering (video rights are now held by Sirius XM).

E! is known for its live red carpet pre-shows for the industry's three prominent award shows, the Primetime Emmy Awards, the Golden Globe Awards, and the Academy Awards, and were famous for their fashion critiques by Joan Rivers; Rivers also hosted post-awards specials under the title Fashion Police, which became a regular weekly series in September 2010. In April 2017, it was announced that E! had acquired the People's Choice Awards, which will move to the network from CBS in 2018 with a new November scheduling. The network promoted that the show would be given an "end-to-end" experience that will leverage its existing experience in awards show coverage. As ratings declined across all of cable television overall, the People's Choice returned to broadcast television in 2021, with E! simulcasting the ceremony with NBC.

The network also produces many documentary and biographical series, most notably E! True Hollywood Story; many of E!'s original specials are entertainment-related ranging from light fare (such as 25 Cutest Child Stars All Grown Up) to serious fare (such as 15 Most Unforgettable Hollywood Tragedies). It also produces specials centering on investigative and crime stories including E! Investigates, which features topical investigative reports on subjects ranging from child prostitution to teenage pregnancy.

In recent years, the network has become known for its reality television programs. Its most popular series for over a decade has been Keeping Up with the Kardashians, which spawned eight spin-off series and countless specials. Other original reality programming airing on the network currently includes Total Divas–a series featuring the WWE's Bella Twins, Hollywood Medium with Tyler Henry, the plastic surgery repair series Dr. 90210 and Botched, along with Very Cavallari with Kristin Cavallari and her (later ex-) husband Jay Cutler, Ladygang–a television version of the popular podcast, and dating show Dating #NoFilter,

E! has had five comedy programs: the late night talk show Chelsea Lately, hosted by comedian Chelsea Handler, its scripted/improvised spin-off After Lately, and The Soup (based on the popular 1991–2002 E! series Talk Soup), featuring clips of the previous week's TV shows with humorous commentary delivered by the host, actor/comedian Joel McHale. Handler also produced Love You, Mean It, a weekly comedic look at pop culture hosted by Whitney Cummings, and a nightly talk show from actress Busy Philipps, Busy Tonight. The Soup returned in February 2020, with new host Jade Catta-Preta, though it, and many of E!'s in-studio shows, were cancelled in the last quarter of 2020 due to the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic hampering production.

On September 8, 2020, it was announced the network's most popular series Keeping Up with the Kardashians would be ending with season 20 in 2021.

Acquired series and films
Over the years, E! has occasionally run acquired programming including reruns of Alice, Absolutely Fabulous, 20/20 lifestyle-based interview shows from ABC (since removed under NBCUniversal ownership), and edited 60-minute versions of Saturday Night Live, though fewer of these programs currently air. The only programming currently airing on E! that it does not produce are broadcast standards-edited reruns of the former HBO series Sex and the City originally carried by HBO's sister network TBS, and feature films that air under the banner "Movies We Love"; the latter was part of a since-abandoned initiative by the network to use films to increase the network's ratings, though the branding remains, and low and mid-grossing female-focused films from the Universal Pictures library usually receive their basic cable premiere on E!, with higher-grossing films premiering on USA Network. The network has aired same-week runs of NBC series (such as The Voice, Fashion Star, Whitney, and Are You There, Chelsea?), and in the past aired previews of G4 programming to give that network an extended promotional platform due to their lowered carriage when it was removed from DirecTV in November 2010. The network also airs selected shows from the Peacock streaming service (which E!'s parent company NBCUniversal owns).

Sports programming
Since Comcast's acquisition of NBCUniversal, E! has infrequently aired sporting events as an overflow outlet for NBC Sports. It has participated in NBC's "Championship Sunday" effort to broadcast all matches on the final matchday of the Premier League soccer season. In January 2022—amid the shutdown of long-time sister channel NBCSN—E! was incorporated into NBC Sports' coverage of two figure skating events ahead of the 2022 Winter Olympics, the 2022 European Figure Skating Championships and Four Continents Figure Skating Championships.

E! served as a cable broadcaster for the 2024 Paris Olympics, airing several live events alongside NBC, USA Network, CNBC on weekends only, Telemundo and Universo in Spanish, and Golf Channel.

E! HD
E! HD is a high definition simulcast feed of E! launched on December 8, 2008, in Comcast's default 1080i resolution format. Currently, the network's entire original programming roster post-2010 is carried in high definition, along with most films. Available on the vast majority of pay television providers, it is downscaled at the provider headend level to provide a standard definition equivalent for those systems.

During E!'s run as a broadcast service in Canada, the E! Ontario version of the service until the December 2008 discontinuation of the E! broadcast television system was available in HD over Hamilton, Ontario-based CHCH-TV (channel 11) on its channel 18 ATSC digital signal, though the majority of E!'s programming outside American primetime series before the shutdown of the television system was not available in the format.

E! Online
E! Online is the online arm of E!, featuring live updates on entertainment news stories; the website includes an online-only entertainment news bulletin titled E! News Now, which is updated each weekday. The website also provides live streaming video of major red carpet events including movie premieres and award shows such as the Academy Awards and the Emmys, along with some blogs involving shows such as The Soup. Columnists featured on the website include Kristin dos Santos (the "Watch with Kristin" television blog), Ted Casablanca ("The Awful Truth" gossip blog), and Marc Malkin (writer of an eponymous gossip blog and host of a daily video blog on the site).

As part of the rebrand of the cable channel on July 9, 2012, EOnline.com was redesigned for HTML5, including tablet and mobile devices.

Canada
Unlike most international cable channels that have licensed an American cable channel's branding and programming, E! has existed as two separate television channels in Canada – in both broadcast and pay television forms.

On September 7, 2007, Canwest Global Communications rebranded its CH television system as E!. CH originally launched on February 12, 2001, by CHCH/Hamilton, Ontario as a secondary service of the Global Television Network; the CH/E! system would later include four additional Canwest-owned stations in Quebec (CJNT/Montreal), British Columbia (CHEK/Victoria and CHBC/Kelowna) and Alberta (CHCA/Red Deer), and three affiliates owned by Jim Pattison Group in British Columbia (CKPG/Prince George and CFJC/Kamloops) and Alberta (CHAT/Medicine Hat). The E! television system shut down on September 1, 2009, due to low ratings and corporate financial difficulties that eventually led to Canwest filing for bankruptcy protection and selling its properties to Shaw Media for US$6.7 million; the E! owned-and-operated stations experienced varied fates (CHCH and CJNT were sold to Channel Zero, CHEK was sold to an employee-led group; CHBC remained with Canwest and was converted into a Global O&O, and CHCA ceased operations outright), while the Pattison Group stations affiliated with the Rogers Media-owned Citytv system. As E!, local news and other regional programming, as well as most local community sponsorships on the O&O stations, used local branding (incorporating the callsign branding scheme common with Canadian stations not owned by a network or television system). This decision was at least partly made to avoid confusion with E! News, but likely intended to ensure that local newscasts were not perceived as celebrity-oriented.

The E! brand would later return to Canada on November 1, 2010, when CTVglobemedia (whose assets are now owned by Bell Media) signed a multi-year/multi-platform agreement with Comcast to rebrand Category 2 specialty channel Star! (which had a similar format to E! U.S. and had carried some of its programming prior to the 2007 rebranding of CH) into a Canadian version of E! on November 29, 2010.

Asia
E!'s Asian network aired across Southeast Asia and the Philippines from May 3, 1995, until December 31, 2019.

Philippines
Some of E! programs started to air on Cinema Television during its inception by RMN (thru UHF Channel 31; now acquired by BEAM). But in 2000, both RMN and E! announced its partnership to relaunch CTV into E! Philippines. It was originally broadcast 24 hours a day, but eventually reduced in 2001 to a primetime 6-midnight block, before ending in 2003. Some of E!'s programs were brought to the Philippines and remade in a local version, one of which was ''Wild On! Philippines''.

Three years after the relaunch as a standalone cable channel, E! produced its first original reality series in Asia, It Takes Gutz to Be A Gutierrez starring the Gutierrez family.

Israel
E! is broadcast in Israel by cable provider HOT and by satellite provider yes.

Latin America
E! it is distributed in Latin America, since January 1, 1997, being operated by NBCUniversal International Networks and distributed by Ole Distribution (a joint venture between Warner Bros. Discovery and Ole Communications). Its operations center is located in Caracas, Bogotá and Mexico City.

title: E!


text:
Esquire Network

Esquire Network was an American pay television network that was a 50/50 joint venture between NBCUniversal and the Hearst Corporation. Launched on October 1, 1998 as Style Network, a spin-off of E!, the channel initially consisted of fashion, design, and urban lifestyle-themed programming. In 2008, Style shifted its programming towards personality-centric reality shows. The network was relaunched as Esquire Network on September 23, 2013; said rebrand was supposed to be on G4, but that was given to Style due to G4's low ratings. As Esquire Network, the channel focused on travel, cooking, sports and fashion, and also aired reruns of popular sitcoms and dramas.

Due to low ratings and subsequent carriage decline by cable providers, Esquire Network ceased operations as a cable channel on June 28, 2017, to become an online-only brand; no further comments have been made about the online-only model since.

Style Network

The channel was originally launched as Style Network (although on-air promotions typically referred to it as simply "Style") on October 1, 1998, serving as a spin-off of E!. It was intended to leverage E!'s coverage of fashion and to provide an expanded venue for shows such as Fashion Emergency. The network focused on fashion, design, interior decoration and urban lifestyle-related programming. Style provided coverage of events like New York Fashion Week and showcased various designers. Early programming included: The Look for Less, Shabby Chic with Rachel Ashwell, Glow: The Beauty Show, Vogue Takes..., Stylemaker, Model, Runway, Dining with Style, and Homes with Style. Around 2003, the channel began airing a variety of "makeover" shows. The home makeover show Clean House lasted for ten seasons on the network; How Do I Look? lasted eight seasons.

Starting around 2008, Style shifted its focus to personality-based reality programing such as Jerseylicious, Tia & Tamera, and Big Rich Texas, along with a female-focused spin-off of The Soup known as The Dish. On June 25, 2012, Style Network was rebranded with a revised logo and a new slogan: "Work it. Love it. Style it." In 2013, the channel launched two real estate related shows: Hot Listings: Miami and Built, which featured male models remodeling houses.

Esquire Network transition
In December 2012, NBCUniversal signed a brand licensing deal with the Hearst Corporation, owner of Esquire magazine, to relaunch G4 into Esquire Network, which would air shows aimed at a metrosexual audience about travel, cooking, fashion and other male-targeted programming that is not sports related, including the addition of acquired and archived program content from the NBCUniversal library such as Party Down, Parks and Recreation and week-delayed episodes of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon.

The rebranding was scheduled to take place on April 22, 2013, but was moved to an unspecified date in the summer on April 15, 2013, as network general manager Adam Stotsky stated the rebranding was pushed back in order to have a broader slate of original series to launch than would have been available for the April launch. In May 2013, the launch date was pushed to September 23, 2013, with its first program being an 80th anniversary special on Esquire which was rebroadcast later in primetime.

On September 9, 2013, NBCUniversal announced that it would replace Style Network with Esquire Network, leaving G4 "as is for the foreseeable future, though it's highly unlikely the company will invest in more original programming" according to The Hollywood Reporter. One of the factors was likely Style's distribution on DirecTV, giving Esquire more homes at launch with the Style channel slot than they would have had with G4 (G4 had earlier been dropped by DirecTV in 2010 due to the channel's low viewership and had never been able to come to terms on a new carriage agreement).

This forced last-second changes to Esquire Network's planned schedule outside of primetime. Cable-edited reruns of Sex and the City (a series which took heavy criticism from Esquire magazine during its original run) remained on its schedule until December 2013 (when the rights were shifted to E!), with most of Style's series quietly shelved, or transferred to E!, Bravo and Oxygen. International versions of Style Network continued to exist several years after, as the Esquire brand license was restricted solely to the United States. The original iteration of G4 ceased on December 31, 2014.

The sudden change in networks surprised both viewers and providers, who had already shifted or expected the G4 channel space to a more appropriate place among other men's networks, and now had to deal with shifting Esquire's channel position away from women's networks, along with having to answer customer inquiries about the sudden demise of the Style Network and its programming. More privately, talent which had been brought on for Style programming, including the Mowry twins, reacted angrily to seeing their projects cancelled without notice or be shifted among other networks with different programming priorities, and NBCUniversal would have to deal with the repercussions of ending a network's life with only two weeks' notice.

Style made no mention of the oncoming rebranding until September 18, when a 60-second farewell clip was posted on its YouTube channel serving as a retrospective of the network's history and ending with a thanks to the channel's audience for their viewership. Other social media platforms for individual Style programs also began to mention the end of the network on that day. The last program to air on Style on September 22, 2013, was an overnight repeat of the Tia & Tamera season finale episode "Twerkin' 9 to 5" (which became its de facto series finale as Tia and Tamera Mowry opted not to continue with the series) at 2 a.m. Eastern Time, with the nightly three-hour paid programming block leading into the Esquire Network launch special after a 30-second abbreviated version of the Style farewell clip aired on the channel space. The changeover occurred on September 23, 2013, at 6 a.m. Eastern Time.

2016–2017 carriage decline
Throughout 2015 and into 2016, the majority of the original programs produced for Esquire Network ended up being low-rated, with only the youth football reality series Friday Night Tykes and the network's Men in Blazers–produced live broadcasts of Pamplona's running of the bulls receiving any critical acclaim or notice. The rest of its lineup was criticized for depending on derivative and "copycat" formats of better programming, which was often found on other networks or produced for free consumption independently and uploaded to streaming video providers such as YouTube and Vimeo. After only several months, the network stopped airing repeats of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon after its February 2014 end, immediately upon his move to the higher-profile Tonight Show, which NBC refused to dilute the value of with cable repeats.

American Ninja Warrior, which had started on G4, was expected to be a linchpin of Esquire Network's lineup, but with the delay of the network's launch to the fall of 2013, NBCUniversal did not want to wait to launch the season, and the program had success airing on NBC during the summer as repeats in previous seasons. The show's sixth season, which had been taped expecting to air as part of Esquire Network and visually featured its logo in prominent places, then moved to NBC for the 2014 summer season, and airing as a new season on the broadcast network, proved the show's worth with great ratings. NBCUniversal decided to move the series permanently to NBC, leaving Esquire Network with repeats rather than new episodes, and even before its launch, removing one of the network's G4-era critical series from being used to promote its other content.

Though it did receive a spin-off as consolation, Team Ninja Warrior, Esquire Network had no other compatible programming to promote it, and it never cracked the top 100 cable shows in any of its first season airings. It was moved to USA Network for its second season and beyond.

Press attention for the network's programming soon was limited to the bookends of their premieres, then to their eventual notice of cancellation, including little to no promotion from Esquire magazine itself due to a lack of compatible promotion. The magazine, which under the brand licensing deal was expected to be used to source new series ideas or its writers participating in factual programming such as countdowns, was also severely underutilized, with most of the content developed for the network ending up being from traditional talent pipelines used by NBCUniversal, rather than the magazine itself.

Due to these multiple issues, the network began to carry more repeats of existing library comedy and drama series (many of which were seen over-the-air for free on sister networks Cozi TV, LXTV, and NBC's streaming apps, along with other NBCU networks), which again brought the network towards the same issues befalling G4, Chiller, and Cloo, where little original content being produced made it a network viewers and providers claimed provided little value for its monthly carriage fees.

On October 1, 2016, Dish Network removed the channel from the lineup. As with their earlier dropping of Cloo, the provider stated that most of the network's rerun-centric programming was duplicative of that available on other networks and streaming services. The only notice of the dropping was through the provider's monthly billing statement. AT&T then gave notice that Esquire Network would be dropped from U-verse and DirecTV on December 15, 2016, a move that cut the network's availability by 25% and removed almost all consumer-based satellite service availability outside of niche C-Band consumers. Charter Communications through its Time Warner Cable, Bright House Networks and Spectrum subsidiaries removed the channel from their lineup nationwide on April 25, 2017 (the same day they removed Chiller from their lineup, also nationwide), leaving Verizon FiOS and Google Fiber as a few of the last cable providers to carry Esquire Network until its demise; online access to the network's TV Everywhere live feed was maintained by Charter until the network's termination.

End of operations
On January 18, 2017, it was announced that the network would end all pay television distribution in the summer of 2017 and convert to an online-only model. The network went off the air on June 28 at noon Eastern time. The network programmed a final marathon of Friday Night Tykes that day, ending with the season one finale, "Finish What We Started". After the episode ended, a "thank you" slide was shown with the network's web address (which shortly thereafter was turned into a redirect to the main Esquire website). No further comment was made in regards to the supposed online-only version of the network, and Esquire's "TV" section on their website now contains the general features and behind-the-scenes footage prevalent on most magazine sites. The network's final two projects, Edgehill (a true crime series about the Murder of Suzanne Jovin) and Borderland USA (a reality series about the U.S. Border Patrol Tactical Unit) were promised to air on the new digital version of the network, but have since been abandoned.

By coincidence, G4's Canadian network outlived both its mother American network and the Esquire Network, ending operations on August 31, 2017, two months longer than Esquire.

G4 would relaunch in the United States in a new hybrid cable-digital form on November 16, 2021, after a year of lead-up promotions and announcements, though it ended operations itself on November 18, 2022.

Hearst has since re-established Esquire-branded programming through the stations of Hearst Television and its streaming network Very Local beginning in 2021, with In Transit, a tourism travelogue series hosted by Dave Holmes.

International
Internationally, Style Network was launched in the Arab world in December 2007 on Showtime Arabia, across Southern and Western Africa during back in November 2007 on DStv, in the United Kingdom and Ireland on June 10, 2008, in Japan on World on Demand, Australia in November 2009, and Poland in August 2011. The network was also launched in CEE, from February 19, 2011, until May 1, 2014

Style Network continues to air in international markets, though its British/Irish version ceased operations on December 9, 2013, while its African version ceased operations on March 31, 2015. The brand licensing agreement with Hearst for Esquire Network was exclusive to the United States, and NBCU and Hearst never pursued any international versions for Esquire Network.

In 2014, the Australian version of the Style Network made its first local commission, Fashion Bloggers, after its American counterpart rebranded. Style Australia shut down on 17 December 2019 as part of a restructuring of NBCU's Australian operations and a broad re-map of Foxtel's channel lineup.

title: Esquire Network


text:
Fluke

Fluke may refer to:

Biology

 * Fluke (fish), a species of marine flatfish
 * Fluke (tail), the lobes of the tail of a cetacean, such as dolphins or whales, ichthyosaurs, mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and metriorhynchids.
 * Fluke (flatworm), parasitic flatworms in the class Trematoda
 * Blood fluke
 * Liver fluke

Arts and entertainment

 * Fluke (album), a 1995 album by Canadian rock band Rusty
 * Fluke (band), a British electronic dance music group
 * Fluke (film), a 1995 film directed by Carlo Carlei
 * Fluke (General Hospital), a character in the American television series General Hospital
 * Fluke (novel), a 1977 novel by English horror writer James Herbert
 * Fluke, or, I Know Why the Winged Whale Sings, a 2003 novel by Christopher Moore
 * Fluke Mini-Comics & Zine Festival, a one-day mini-comics, small press, and 'zine festival held annually in Athens, Georgia

People

 * Emily Fluke (born 1992), American ice hockey player
 * Joanne Fluke (born c. 1943), American author from Minnesota
 * John Fluke (1911–1984), American engineer, Founder & CEO of Fluke Corporation
 * Louise Fluke (1900–1986), designer of the Flag of Oklahoma
 * Sandra Fluke (born 1981), attorney, feminist, LGBTQ activist
 * Gawin Caskey (born 1997), Thai actor, nicknamed Fluke
 * Natouch Siripongthon (born 1996), Thai actor, nicknamed Fluke

Other uses

 * Fluke (anchor), blades at the end of an anchor
 * Fluke (cue sports), an unintentionally fortuitous shot in cue sports such as snooker
 * Fluke Corporation, a manufacturer of electrical and electronic test equipment
 * Fluke Ridge, Artistotle Mountains, Graham Land, Antarctica
 * Snow fluke, an anchoring device for climbing and camping

title: Fluke


text:
Formation skydiving

Formation skydiving is a skydiving event where multiple skydivers attach themselves to one another by grabbing each other's limbs or by the use of "grippers" on their jumpsuit while free falling through the sky. The goal of this skydiving program is to build a formation of multiple divers arranged in a geometric pattern.

Sub-categories
Formation skydiving can be further divided into several sub-categories, so named for the number of members in a team:
 * 4-way sequential
 * 4-way vertical sequential (VFS, Vertical Formation Skydiving)
 * 8-way sequential
 * 16-way sequential
 * 10-way speed
 * Large formations (Big-ways)

Competitive format
A competition in 4-way formation skydiving (FS-4) takes place like this:

There are two kinds of formations, called randoms and blocks. The randoms are singular formations with full separation of all grips both before and after building the formation. The blocks are double formations with a special designated movement pattern in between, called an inter. The start formation may, or may not be similar to the ending formation. The inters are differently performed. Here are some examples:

Inter 1: The grips are released between some of the flyers, so they become two pieces of two team members. they both do a 270 degree turn, and reconnect to a different formation

Inter 2: Three people stay connected, and do a 360 turn, while the last person, flies alone.

Inter 15: All grips are released and everyone does a 360 turn back to the original formation.

Blocks are designated by numbers, while randoms got letters. Blocks are worth one point for each correct formation, that makes 2 points, and randoms count as 1 point. There are 22 blocks and 16 randoms.

competition consists of up to 10 rounds, and each round consists of 5 or 6 points, which the teams are to repeat as many times as they can within the working time of 35 seconds. The score judging are based on the videographers material.

A competition draw may look like this:
 * 1: C-E-B-13
 * 2: 14-20-8
 * 3: 15-16-H
 * 4: J-O-1-D
 * 5: 6-18-19
 * 6: 5-F-21
 * 7: 10-K-G-M
 * 8: 22-3-P
 * 9: 12-9-4
 * 10:11-17-Q

The winning team will be the team that has collected most points, by completing the most correct formations within time after the final round is ended. In case of weather or technical problems, or other causes, a competition will be valid as long as all teams has completed at least one round.

A recent sub-category of formation skydiving is vertical formation skydiving (VFS). Skydivers build formations using higher-speed body positions normally associated with freeflying, such as head down and sitflying.

World Record
The current FAI world record for largest free-fall formation is a 400-way, set on February 8, 2006, in Udon Thani, Thailand by the World Team. It was held for 4.3 seconds. With the support of the Thai government, they used five C-130 Hercules airplanes and exited from an altitude of 25,400 feet. In April 2013 the World Team tried to break the record for the largest 2-point formation dive in skydiving history. All 222 members came together and made a formation, broke apart, and then reformed to make a completely different formation. The team attempted the jump many times and came very close to breaking the record, but were unsuccessful each time. The World Team has not made anymore official statements about attempting the record again.
 * BIG-WAY:

Longest sequence in one round: Set by the Belgian team(NMP-PCH Hayabusa), at the World Meet 2018 in round 6, where they posted 62 points in working time (35 seconds) Set by the U.S. (Golden Knights) national team, at the "5th Dubai International Parachute Championship" in 2015, in round 2, where they posted 33 points in working time (50 seconds)
 * 4-Way
 * 8-Way

title: Formation skydiving


text:
The Integral Trees

The Integral Trees is a 1984 science fiction novel by American writer Larry Niven (first published as a serial in Analog in 1983). Like much of Niven's work, the story is heavily influenced by the setting: a gas torus, a ring of air around a neutron star. A sequel, The Smoke Ring, was published in 1987.

It was nominated for the Nebula Award for Best Novel in 1984, and the Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1985.

Setting
The story occurs around the fictional neutron star Levoy's Star (abbreviated "Voy"). The gas giant Goldblatt's World (abbreviated "Gold") orbits this star just outside its Roche limit and therefore its gravity is insufficient to keep its atmosphere, which is pulled loose into an independent orbit around Voy and forms a ring that is known as a gas torus. The gas torus is huge—one million kilometers thick—but most of it is too thin to be habitable. The central part of the Gas Torus, where the air is thicker, is known as the Smoke Ring. The Smoke Ring supports a wide variety of life.

No "ground" exists in the Smoke Ring; it consists entirely of sky. Furthermore, the Smoke Ring is in orbit and therefore in free fall: there is no "up" or "down". Most animals have trilateral symmetry that allows them to see in all directions. The majority of Smoke Ring animals have evolved to fly on at least an occasional basis—even the fish. The Smoke Ring contains numerous "ponds," globs of water of various sizes which float free like everything else. While there are aquatic and amphibious animals in the Smoke Ring that live the majority of their lives in such ponds, these animals may find their habitat unsuitable at any moment. Whether their home pond drifts too far out of the habitable center of the Smoke Ring and into the gas torus, becomes too large and breaks up due to tidal forces, or impacts a large object such as an integral tree, aquatic animals must be able to propel themselves through the air sometimes in order to find a new place to live.

Most plants in the Smoke Ring are quite fragile because they do not need to support their own weight. A notable exception to this rule are the eponymous Integral Trees, which can grow up to 100 kilometers long. Tidal locking causes them to be radially oriented, with one end pointing in toward Voy while the other points toward space. The ends of the tree feel a tidal force of up to 1/5 $g_{0}$ on the largest trees. Each end of a tree is a green, leafy tuft.

An integral tree tuft is up to 50 kilometers from the tree's center of mass. Thus, a tuft is either orbiting too slowly (the "in" tuft) or too quickly (the "out" tuft) compared to the atmosphere, which is in orbit at all points. The ends of the tree are therefore subject to a constant gale-force wind that causes the ends to curve into the shape of an integral symbol ∫ and pushes water and food onto the tufts, or (less forcefully) onto the trunk, where the gravity-like tidal forces pull the material out towards the tufts.

Each tuft serves several main purposes for the tree. First, the green foliage is photosynthetic, providing the tree with energy from sunlight; second, the tufts are where the tree produces its seeds; and third, various plants, animals, and sundry other objects can become trapped in the tighter branches, which gradually migrate toward the "treemouth." The treemouth, a pit at the top of each tuft on the lee side of the trunk, is the integral tree's root; water collected along the trunk flows down due to tidal forces and is ingested by the treemouth. Tuft branches catch and capture various things and animals in the wind and gradually, over the course of years, migrate to the treemouth, where they and their catch are absorbed by the tree for nourishment. Many other large Smoke Ring plants have a scavenger/carnivore aspect similar to this, though with somewhat different mechanisms.

Plot summary
Twenty astronauts aboard an interstellar "ramship" colonized the Smoke Ring five hundred years before the story begins. Their descendants have adapted their cultures to the free-fall environment. Without gravity, even those who live in integral tree tufts are much taller than Earth-average humans, having grown up in much weaker tides. Many people are able to use their longer, prehensile toes as another set of fingers. The small number of devices left from the original crew are coveted items in Smoke Ring societies.

Quinn Tribe inhabits the "in tuft" of Dalton-Quinn tree. They normally subsist on the tree's cottony foliage, augmented by hunting and a flock of domesticated turkeys. But since the tree passed near Gold six earth years ago it has been falling toward Voy, nearly dropping out of the Smoke Ring. As a result, the tribe suffers a severe drought. The tribe's leader, the chairman, decides to send a party of nine up the tree, ostensibly to hunt and re-cut tribal markings into the trunk. The group consists mostly of people with disability and people the chairman dislikes, including the chairman's son-in-law (and rival) Clave, and Jeffer, the Scientist's apprentice.

When they approach the midpoint they notice that the tribal markings are different; upon reaching it, they are attacked by members of the Dalton-Quinn tribe who live at the other end of the tree. During the battle a massive tremor splits the tree in half, causing the in tuft to fall farther toward Voy (killing its inhabitants) and allowing the out tuft to find a new equilibrium that is closer to the Smoke Ring's median. The seven surviving members of the Quinn Tribe and one of the attackers jump clear of the shattered tree and are left adrift in the sky with only a few "jet pods" (high pressure seed cases that provide a temporary thrust when opened) as their only method of propulsion.

Before dying of thirst, they hook a passing "moby" (a flying whale-like creature) which takes them to a "jungle," which is a floating mass of plant life. They cut loose, crash, and find themselves in the middle of a battle between the Carther States, who live in the jungle, and slave-runners from London Tree. The group is split when six of them are captured by the slavers; the other two remain in the jungle.

Carther States counter-attacks some weeks later, and the Quinn Tribe group is reunited. During the battle they steal London Tree's CARM (Cargo And Repair Module), a small spacecraft—a relic of the original settlers. The CARM is still functional due to careful management and its robust design; its solar panels provide electricity to electrolyze water into hydrogen and oxygen, which it stores automatically and then burns for propulsion as needed. London Tree's "Navy", bow- and spear-armed warriors, use the CARM to conduct long-distance military actions and slave raids on a scale impossible for wingless humans in a zero-g environment.

Not fully understanding how to pilot the CARM, the Quinn and Carther warriors engage its main rocket motor, which accelerates the ship at several g, enough to prevent the crew from reaching the controls to turn the motor off. The CARM is propelled up into the thinnest part of the gas torus before running dangerously low on fuel. As a result, they become the first Smoke Ring inhabitants in centuries to see the naked stars.

Unknown to any of the inhabitants of the Smoke Ring, Discipline, the ship in which their ancestors arrived, remains in orbit, and its AI autopilot, Kendy, has been attempting to watch their progress. When Kendy sees the CARM dangerously far from the habitable area of the Ring he contacts them. With help from the on-board computer and after some interaction with Kendy, the occupants of the CARM eventually safely return to the Smoke Ring. Unable to reach any of the trees that they know, they decide to settle on a new tree, which they dub "Citizens' Tree".

Reception
Dave Langford reviewed The Integral Trees for White Dwarf #59, and called it "Delightfully ingenious stuff."

Awards and nominations
The Integral Trees won the 1985 Locus Award for a science fiction novel and was a nominee for these awards:
 * 1985 Hugo Award for Best Novel
 * 1985 Nebula Award for Best Novel
 * 1985 Science Fiction Chronicle Reader Awards

Reviews

 * Review by Debbie Notkin (1984) in Locus, #277 February 1984
 * Review by Baird Searles (1984) in Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine, September 1984, (1984)
 * Review by Gary Acton (1984) in Fantasy Review, October 1984
 * Review by Frank Catalano (1984) in Amazing Stories, November 1984
 * Review by Algis Budrys (1984) in The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction, September 1984, (1984)
 * Review by Ken Lake (1985) in Vector 124/125
 * Review by Roland J. Green (1985) in Far Frontiers, Volume III/Fall 1985
 * Review by David Langford [as by Dave Langford] (1985) in White Dwarf, October 1985
 * Review by Graham Andrews (1986) in Paperback Inferno, #58
 * Review by Darrell Bain (2005) in My 100 Most Readable (and Re-Readable) Science Fiction Novels

title: The Integral Trees


text:
Lunar Lander (video game genre)

Lunar Lander is a genre of video games loosely based on the 1969 landing of the Apollo Lunar Module on the Moon. In Lunar Lander games, players control a spacecraft as it falls toward the surface of the Moon or other astronomical body, using thrusters to slow the ship's descent and control its horizontal motion to reach a safe landing area. Crashing into obstacles, hitting the surface at too high a velocity, or running out of fuel all result in failure. In some games in the genre, the ship's orientation must be adjusted as well as its horizontal and vertical velocities.

The first Lunar Lander game was a text-based game published under many names, including the Lunar Landing Game, written in the FOCAL programming language for the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-8 minicomputer by Jim Storer while a high school student in the fall of 1969. Several other versions were written soon after by other programmers in FOCAL and BASIC. The original Lunar Landing Game was converted to BASIC by David H. Ahl, who included three versions in his 1973 book 101 BASIC Computer Games. By the end of the decade, the type of game was collectively known as a "lunar lander" game.

In 1973, DEC commissioned the creation of a real-time, graphical version of Lunar Lander, which was intended to showcase the capabilities of their new DEC GT40 graphics terminals. The game, written by Jack Burness and named Moonlander, was distributed with DEC computers and displayed at trade shows. In 1979, Atari released a vector graphics arcade video game version of the concept as Lunar Lander. It has a fuel-for-money system allowing the player to purchase more fuel to continue their current game.

Lunar Lander games were a popular concept for home computer systems. Commodore published a version called Jupiter Lander for their VIC-20 in 1981. That same year, Electronic Games wrote that "sometimes it seems as though every company capable of copying a cassette is trying to sell a game on this theme."

Text games
The original Lunar Lander game was a 1969 text-based game published under many names, including the Lunar Landing Game. It was originally written in the FOCAL programming language for the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-8 minicomputer by Jim Storer while a student at Lexington High School in the fall of 1969, and uploaded to the system library as Rocket after Christmas break. His computer teacher submitted the game under the name FOCAL Lunar Landing Simulation (APOLLO) to the DEC users' newsletter, which distributed the source code to readers under the name Apollo. Different versions of the game were later submitted by other authors, including Apollo II and Apollo 12. DEC published a book of FOCAL-8 programs in 1970 and included the game as Lunar Module. Other versions of the concept were written soon after: a version called Rocket was written in BASIC by Eric Peters at DEC, and another BASIC version, LEM, was written by William Labaree II, among others.

The text-based games require the player to control a rocket attempting to land on the Moon by entering instructions to the rocket in a turn-based system in response to the textual summary of its current position and velocity relative to the ground. In the original Lunar, players controlled only the amount of vertical thrust to apply, based on their current vertical velocity and remaining fuel, with each round representing ten seconds of travel time. Rocket added a simple text-based graphical display of the distance from the ground in each round, while LEM added horizontal velocity and the ability to apply thrust at an angle. In 1970 and 1971, DEC employee and editor of the newsletter David H. Ahl converted two early mainframe games, Lunar and Hamurabi, from the FOCAL language to BASIC, partially as a demonstration of the language on the DEC PDP-8 minicomputer. Their popularity led him to start printing BASIC games in the DEC newsletter, both his own and reader submissions.

In 1973, Ahl released the book 101 BASIC Computer Games, which contained the source code of computer games written in BASIC. The games included were written by both Ahl and others and included both games original to the language and games ported from other languages such as FOCAL. 101 BASIC Computer Games was a landmark title in computer games programming and was a best-selling title with more than 10,000 copies sold. Its second edition in 1978, titled BASIC Computer Games, was the first million-selling computer book. As such, the BASIC ports of mainframe computer games included in the book were often more long-lived than their original versions or other mainframe computer games. Included in the book were all three versions of Lunar Lander, under the names ROCKET (Storer version), ROCKT1 (Peters version), and ROCKT2 (Labaree version). Ahl and Steve North then converted all three versions to Microsoft BASIC and published them in Creative Computing magazine and the Best of Creative Computing collection in 1976; they were reprinted in the 1978 edition of BASIC Computer Games as Lunar, LEM, and Rocket as the most popular of the existing versions of the game.

The first known use of the name Lunar Lander for a video game of this type was in the 1975 book What to Do After You Hit Return, a collection of BASIC computer games by the People's Computer Company similar to Ahl's book, which included versions named Crash and Lunar Lander. Prior to that, in 1970, the name was used for an electro-mechanical arcade game by former Atari, Inc. employees operating as Cointronics, in which the player uses a joystick to land a lunar lander model on targets, though it is unclear if the game was inspired by the video games or solely by the actual lunar lander. Another Lunar Lander video game was commercially distributed for some programmable calculators such as in 1975 for the Hewlett-Packard HP-25. With the advent of home computers in 1977, the game concept soon moved to those systems as well, with Moon Lander (1977) for the MK14 computer kit, which displayed the lander's speed, height, and fuel consumption on an eight-character calculator-style display, as an early example. While Ahl did not list a common name for the three similar titles in his book, the style of game was collectively seen as its own subgenre, with InfoWorld referring to LEM in February 1979 as "a lunar lander" and Antic terming the set of text-based games as "Lunar Landers" in 1986.

Graphical games
In 1973, DEC commissioned the creation of a real-time, graphical version of Lunar Lander, which was intended to showcase the capabilities of their new DEC GT40 graphics terminals, when connected to their PDP-10 or PDP-11 minicomputers. The game was written by Jack Burness, a DEC consultant and former employee, and named Moonlander; it was distributed with DEC computers and displayed at trade shows. Unlike the previous turn-based, textual games, Moonlander is a real-time graphical game. The goal remains to correctly land an Apollo Lunar Module on the surface of the Moon using the game's telemetry data. If the player miscalculates the module's landing, the module will either fly off into space or crash into the Moon's surface. The game is controlled with a light pen, and the output display was a vector graphics system; the light pen allowed adjusting the throttle value and the angle of the lunar lander. Burness completed the game on February 25, 1973, after spending ten days developing it plus one day visiting the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, which had co-designed the actual Apollo Lunar Module. There, he got the actual specifications for the lander, which he used to create the calculations of the fuel consumption for maneuvering the rocket. Burness has said that he does not recall playing the original Lunar, but that by 1973 there were numerous versions of the game which he had played. A few months prior to making the game, he attended the December 6 launch of the Apollo 17 Moon landing mission, which may have inspired the creation of the game.

Moonlander was the first multiple-perspective video game; when the lander gets close to the Moon, the view changes to a close-up view of the surface and lander. If the player successfully lands the spaceship, an astronaut climbs out to stand on the surface—the first depiction of a human in a video game and possibly the first cutscene in a video game. Moonlander was also the first video game to include an easter egg; if the player flies their ship horizontally enough in the close-up view, they encounter a McDonald's restaurant which the astronaut will visit upon landing and which the player can destroy by crashing the lander into it. Modified versions of Moonlander were made, with at least one renaming it to a variant of "Lunar Lander" such as RT-11 Lunar Lander, and another removing the McDonald's, as seen in a 1979 Dutch short film Mens en computer (Human and Computer). A port for the iPad was released for free by Paradigm Systems in 2013.

In August 1979, Atari, Inc. produced an arcade video game version of the concept as Lunar Lander. It uses monochrome vector graphics and allows the player to rotate the ship right or left and fire thrusters via proportional throttle control system using a joystick with a spring. Like Moonlander, both a graphical display of a repeating mountainous surface as well as a text readout of the ship's speed, altitude, and remaining fuel are displayed. Once a game begins, it only ends when a player runs out of fuel, rather than due to a time limit; players can insert quarters to add fuel to their current game. Bonus points are awarded for landing on difficult parts of the map. The game features four levels of difficulty in controlling the ship. Lunar Lander was Atari's first vector graphics game. The vector engine was inspired by Space Wars (1978) and created by Rick Moncrief and Howard Delman, who developed Lunar Lander alongside Rich Moore. The idea for the game came from Delman, who had seen a graphical version of the game, likely Moonlander, a few years prior; Atari employees had also seen Moonlander years prior at the NASA Ames Research Center and attempted to create an arcade version with raster graphics in 1975. Another arcade game based on the Lunar Lander concept from around the same time is Lunar Rescue (1979) by Taito.

Graphical Lunar Lander games have been produced for other systems. Although some were named Lunar Lander, many were not; regardless, the name of the type of game continued to be "lunar landers". Bill Budge developed Tranquility Base for the Apple II in 1980. Commodore published Jupiter Lander, a raster version of the game, in 1981 for the VIC-20 and 1982 for the Commodore 64. IBM released Rocket Lander for the IBM PC in 1982. Ahoy! magazine published a BASIC version of the game for the Commodore 64 in April 1984. Tom Hudson wrote Retrofire, a more elaborate version of the lander concept for Atari 8-bit computers in 1983; it uses a 3D isometric view, so there are three velocities to control (along the X, Y, and Z axes). Other games include Apollo 11 (1983) for the ZX Spectrum, Marslander (1983) for the Acorn Electron and BBC Micro, and versions of Lunar Lander for the Commodore PET and TRS-80.

Lunar Rescue (1988) for the Macintosh combines Lunar Lander gameplay with an economic model and trade simulation. George Moromisato developed Lander for Windows 3.1x in 1990, Nintendo released a version of Lunar Lander for the Game Boy that same year, and Psygnosis released a 3D, commercial version for Microsoft Windows in 1999 titled Lander. Modern versions and remakes have been made for computers, consoles such as the Wii U, iOS, Android, mobile phones, and browsers.

Reception
In the 1978 edition of BASIC Computer Games, David Ahl described the text-based version of Lunar Lander as "by far and away the single most popular computer game" of the time. Moonlander was similarly popular among users of DEC graphics terminals. The Lunar Lander arcade game proved popular and commercially successful, selling approximately 4,700 cabinets. Atari's Asteroids (1979) became so much more popular, however, that 300 Asteroids games were released in Lunar Lander cabinets.

Computer Gaming World described Lunar Lander in 1982 as one of the first fun programs entry level programmers start with and continually improve upon as they improve their skills. By 1973, there were numerous versions of the text-based game, and so many versions of the graphical game existed by 1981 that Electronic Games, in a review of a version by Scott Adams for Atari 8-bit computers and the TRS-80, claimed it was "yet another entry in a field as crowded as the category of Space Invaders imitators. Sometimes it seems as though every company capable of copying a cassette is trying to sell a game on this theme." Moon Lander for the MK14 was one of the first three commercial games in Britain for home computers. At least one metagame exists; Antic in March 1986 published Lunar Lander Construction Set for Atari 8-bit, in which the player constructs a custom graphical Lunar Lander. In Science Fiction Video Games (2014), while discussing the games' lack of science fiction concepts like aliens or unrealistic physics, Neal Roger Tringham described the series as "one of the few video games to be based on a real space program, as opposed to the many games inspired by fictional forms of space exploration".

title: Lunar Lander (video game genre)