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John Joseph Montgomery

John Joseph Montgomery (February 15, 1858 – October 31, 1911) was an American inventor, physicist, engineer, and professor at Santa Clara University in Santa Clara, California, who is best known for his invention of controlled heavier-than-air flying machines.

In the 1880s Montgomery, a native of Yuba City, California, made manned flight experiments in a series of gliders in the United States in Otay Mesa near San Diego, California. Although not publicized in the 1880s, these early flights were first described by Montgomery as part of a lecture delivered at the International Conference on Aerial Navigation at Chicago, 1893. These independent advances came after gliding flights by European pioneers such as George Cayley's coachman in England (1853) and Jean-Marie Le Bris in France (1856). Although Montgomery never claimed firsts, his gliding experiments of the 1880s are considered by some historians and organizations to have been the first controlled flights of a heavier-than-air flying machine in America or in the Western Hemisphere,       depending on the source.

Montgomery devised different control methods for his gliders, including weight shifting for roll and an elevator for pitch (1884). Subsequent designs used hinged, pilot-operated trailing edge flaps on the wings (1885–1886) for roll control,  and later, full wing warping systems for roll (1903–1905)  and for both pitch and roll (1911).

Education
Montgomery attended St. Ignatius High School, graduating in 1873. At age 16 he attended the preparatory division at Santa Clara College from 1874 to 1876 to prepare for college.

Montgomery attended St. Ignatius College, now known as the University of San Francisco. Here, he studied under Fathers Joseph Bayma, S.J., and Joseph Neri, S.J., two gifted and influential educators. As a student in San Francisco, Montgomery must have mentioned his desire to build a flying machine, according to Fogel and Harwood. They include an observation in their book, made by Montgomery's contemporary, Rev. Fred Morrison, S.J.: “In those days anyone who even mentioned ‘man being able to fly’ was considered a little bit off. So, when John was in the vicinity, there was a general tapping of heads, which in our present day would be the sign that the party was crazy.” At St. Ignatius College, Montgomery received a Bachelor of Arts in physics in 1879 and a master's degree in physics in 1880. He also received an honorary PhD in physics from Santa Clara University in 1901.

Ornithology
In the early 1880s Montgomery began studying the anatomy of a variety of large soaring birds to determine their basic characteristics like wing area, weight and curved surfaces. He made detailed observations of birds in flight, especially large soaring birds such as eagles, hawks, vultures and pelicans which soared on thermals near San Diego Bay.

He initially attempted to achieve manned flight with ornithopters. In 1883, he built and experimented with a series of three ornithopters but found that human strength was insufficient to generate the necessary lift. He abandoned flapping-wing flight, preferring instead to emulate soaring birds with fixed-wing craft. He reasoned that it would be possible to solve the physics of gliding and soaring flight and then add a motor.

Fixed-wing gliders
Montgomery first tested his concepts for the design, construction and control of gliders with small-scale, free flight models. His first glider in 1883-84 had a cambered airfoil based on the curve of the seagull wing. Pitch was controlled by an operable elevator and roll was controlled by pilot weight shift. Yaw was uncontrolled. This aircraft design served as the basis for three gliders over the period 1883–1886. In the spring of 1884, Montgomery made flights of up to 600 feet (180 m) from the rim of Otay Mesa. During experiments with this craft, Montgomery found that the glider would not respond well to side gusts. He returned to ornithology and noted how turkey vultures had significant dihedral and twisted their wings as a form of lateral balance.

Emulating these control methods, in 1884-1885 he incorporated hinged flaps into the trailing edge of a second glider. These were held under spring tension for automatic balance in gusts, but were also connected through cables to the pilot's seat so they could be operated mechanically by the pilot for roll control. In essence these flaps were early ailerons. The second glider had a flat plate airfoil, considerable dihedral for stability and an operable elevator for pitch control. Montgomery devised an inclined rail system so the piloted glider could roll from the top of a hill and attain flight speed.

In the winter of 1885–86, Montgomery constructed a third glider. It had a cambered airfoil modeled after the wings of a vulture, though the leading and trailing edges were turned upward slightly. The wing, spanwise, was "gull" shaped. Controls allowed the pilot to vary the angle of incidence of the left and right wing either in unison or independently. Dihedral and an operable elevator were also included. Montgomery concluded that a better understanding of aerodynamics was needed for the design of a proper airfoil.

In an 1893 speech, Montgomery said that flights were made in these three craft during the period 1884–1886, with the occasional assistance of at least three friends and two younger brothers. Of the flight trials with the second craft (of 1885) Octave Chanute's account in 1893 noted "several trials were made, but no effective lift could be obtained." Of the third craft (of 1886) Chanute wrote "this last apparatus proved an entire failure, as no effective lifting effect could be obtained from the wind sufficient to carry the 180 lbs. it was designed to bear.""

Montgomery's own account made clear that he considered the technology of the second and third gliders of 1885 and 1886 as effective, but the airfoil designs were a disappointment in terms of lift-generation as they produced much shorter gliding flights in comparison to the first craft of 1884. He realized he was getting increasingly farther from understanding the mechanism of lift and began controlled laboratory experiments to investigate airfoils. In 1886, he briefly considered filing a patent caveat for lateral balancing, but did not.

Aerodynamics
About 1885 Montgomery began a long series of experiments with a whirling arm device, a smoke chamber, a water current table and large wooden surfaces angled into the wind in order to understand the physics of flow around curved surfaces. He also used dried bird wings placed in wind currents to observe the effect. His work in the 1880s confirmed that mechanical systems used by a pilot could preserve lateral balance and some degree of equilibrium in gliding flight. His experiments also confirmed the value of a cambered surface for obtaining lift.

In 1893 Montgomery visited the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, intending initially to attend a lecture by electrical expert Nikola Tesla. Upon arrival, he heard of the International Conference on Aerial Navigation to take place the first week of August. He introduced himself to Octave Chanute and Albert F. Zahm, who were collaborating in chairing the conference. He did not present a paper, but was subsequently invited by Chanute and Zahm to participate in the conference by giving two lectures of his own. His first focused on his experiments with surfaces in air and water currents. This talk was revised into an article and included in the conference proceedings. The article was later published in the July 1894 edition of Aeronautics. With encouragement from Chanute, Montgomery decided to give a second lecture. Although he refrained from providing enough detail that might be useful to designers, he did discuss use of hinged wing sections for lateral control. His second lecture was not published as part of the conference proceedings, because Chanute thought Montgomery wanted to seek patent protection. Instead, Chanute presented his own comments on Montgomery's flight experiments in his article series Progress in Flying Machines, which was published serially in the American Engineer and Railroad Journal in 1893, and in the following year as a book of the same name. Montgomery reprised his second lecture in a talk to the Aeronautical Society of New York in 1910, and the contents were later published in several journals and books.

From 1893 to 1895, while teaching at Mount St. Joseph's College in Rohnerville, California, Montgomery conducted further experiments into the physics of flow over a wing and lift generation using a smoke chamber and water table. From these experiments he developed a theory of lift based on vorticity, or what modern aerodynamicists refer to as a "circulation theory" or "lifting-line theory". Montgomery compiled his results into a 131-page manuscript titled Soaring Flight and attempted to have it published by Matthias N. Forney and the editors of Scientific American with the help of Octave Chanute. Chanute was reluctant to endorse it due to his disagreements with some of its theoretical content and suggested that it be edited to distinguish between experimental results and theoretical inferences. Scientific American rejected the manuscript, but later published an abstract. Chanute also directed one of his collaborators, Augustus Herring, to study the manuscript, as he considered it instructive in understanding "ground effect."

Invention
In 1884 Montgomery received a patent for a process to vulcanize and de-vulcanize India rubber. In 1895 and again in the period 1901 to 1904, Montgomery occasionally supplemented his aeronautical research with work in other branches of science, including electricity, communication, astronomy and mining. In 1895 he received four patents (American, German, British, and Canadian) for improvements in the efficiency of petroleum burning furnaces. In 1897 he took a teaching position at Santa Clara College and directed study of wireless telegraphy with Father Richard Bell. They were first to successfully transmit messages from Santa Clara College to San Francisco. Montgomery also patented two gold concentrator devices to assist miners in extracting gold from beach sands (see patent list).

Tandem-wing gliders
In early 1903, veteran balloonist Thomas Scott Baldwin sought Montgomery's knowledge of aeronautics. Baldwin had also been assisting August Greth in constructing and experimenting with an airship (dubbed the California Eagle) at San Jose, California. Baldwin wanted improved propeller designs for dirigibles. He stopped working with Greth and came to Santa Clara College for an extended period to learn aeronautics from Montgomery. Their work together included wind tunnel tests at the college. At Baldwin's suggestion, they entered into a business arrangement in 1904 to make public exhibitions with manned Montgomery gliders launched at high altitudes from unmanned Baldwin balloons. By late May 1904, Montgomery made test flights with a new glider. However, Baldwin abandoned their collaboration and instead constructed his own airship (the California Arrow) at San Jose incorporating Montgomery's propeller design and a 7-horsepower motorcycle engine (the Hercules of G.H. Curtiss Mfg Co.). The California Arrow would be first in America to make repeated circuits under control. During a protracted period of acrimony between Montgomery and Baldwin, Baldwin entered the California Arrow in the aeronautic competition at the St. Louis World's Fair in November, 1904 and took first place.

In the fall of 1904 Montgomery conducted tests of his tandem-wing glider, the Montgomery Aeroplane, with associates Frank Hamilton and Daniel J. Maloney. On March 16, 17 and 20, 1905, in Aptos, California, Daniel Maloney made several successful flights in the glider at Leonard's ranch (Rancho San Antonio, now known as Seascape), after releasing from a hot-air balloon at high altitude. The resulting glides were well-controlled, and flights lasted up to 13 minutes. News of these flights received attention in both the U.S. and Europe. After this success, Montgomery gave a press conference to provide for the first time a history of his efforts in aeronautics and announced a patent application for his aeroplane and methods of wing warping. On April 29, 1905, Montgomery, Maloney, and Hamilton provided a public demonstration of the Montgomery Aeroplane, rechristened that day as The Santa Clara in honor of Santa Clara College. In view of hundreds of spectators and members of the press, Maloney released from the balloon at an approximate altitude of 4,000 feet above Santa Clara College. Maloney performed a series of pre-determined maneuvers and made a soft landing near the college grounds. This exhibition brought widespread recognition for Montgomery and was generally accepted as a milestone in aviation. In the following months Montgomery and Maloney made many exhibitions with The Santa Clara and another tandem wing glider The California in the San Francisco bay area. On July 18, 1905, Maloney was killed when a rope from the balloon damaged the glider during the ascent, causing structural failure after release. Despite this, Montgomery continued experiments with other tandem-wing gliders and pilots for some time.

Evergreen

Following the catastrophic 1906 San Francisco earthquake, Montgomery's gliding experiments were curtailed until 1911. Montgomery began experimenting with a new control system in which pitch and roll of the glider were managed by wing warping, while the tail assembly was fixed. Montgomery intended to add a motor and apply for a patent. This glider, The Evergreen (named after the Evergreen district of San Jose, California where flight tests occurred), was flown by Montgomery as well as another aeronaut Reinhardt more than 50 times in October 1911.

Death
On October 31, 1911, Montgomery was attempting to land Evergreen at low speed and encountered turbulence, which caused a stall. He crashed and died from his injuries at the site. The hillside (now known as "Montgomery Hill") is just behind Evergreen Valley College. John J. Montgomery was buried at Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma, California on November 3, 1911.

Organizational memberships

 * The Pacific Aero Club (1909), founding member.
 * The Aero Club of Illinois (1910).
 * The Aeronautical Society of New York (1910), elected honorary member "in recognition of his manifold labors to advance the art of aviation."
 * The Aeronautical Society (1911), as invited member of the Research Committee of the Technical Board and Organization and Convention Committee.
 * The Santa Clara Valley Aero Club (1911), first Vice President.

Gallant Journey
In 1946, Columbia Pictures released Gallant Journey, a full-length movie based on John J. Montgomery's life and work. The film was directed by William A. Wellman, and starred Glenn Ford as Montgomery, Janet Blair as his wife Regina (née Cleary), whom he had married in 1910, and Charles Ruggles. The stunt pilots for the film were Paul Mantz, Paul Tuntland and Don Stevens. The film included several different historical reenactments of Montgomery's glider flights. Gallant Journey premiered in San Diego, California on September 2, 1946, and had its full national release September 24, 1946. As part of the publicity for the movie, Columbia Pictures sponsored a cross-country Boston to Los Angeles tour featuring a 1911 vintage auto, the same vintage as Montgomery's last flight. William Wellman had served previously in the U.S. Army Air Corps and was stationed as an officer at Rockwell Field, San Diego, California and Glenn Ford had also served in San Diego during World War II.

Historical landmarks
Two California Historical Landmarks are associated with Montgomery:

 * Montgomery Memorial, Otay Mesa. The Montgomery Memorial was dedicated on May 21, 1950, and features a silver static test wing panel for the Consolidated B-32 Dominator mounted upright that is visible for miles. It is also associated with a recreation center near the location of his first glides (Montgomery-Waller Recreation Center, San Diego, California ). The memorial was designed by pioneering modernist Lloyd Ruocco.
 * Montgomery Hill, San Jose near Evergreen Valley College. Evergreen Valley College also honors his memory with a green space (Montgomery Grove), a lecture hall (Montgomery Hall), and an observatory (Montgomery Hill Observatory). On March 15, 2008, a sculpture was unveiled at San Felipe and Yerba Buena roads in San Jose, California as a tribute to Montgomery. The 30-foot-tall steel structure of a glider wing was placed on a 32-foot-diameter plaza (later designated Montgomery Plaza) designed by San Francisco artist Kent Roberts.

Airports and aviation clubs
In 1919, the San Francisco Board of Supervisors changed the name of the Marina Flying Field just east of Crissy Field to "Montgomery Field." From 1920 to 1944 Montgomery Field served as an airmail facility. This field still exists along the Embarcadero as Marina Green.

On May 20, 1950, Montgomery Field (KMYF) in San Diego, California, one of the busiest general aviation airports in the world, was named in his honor.

Civil Air Patrol Squadron 36 in San Jose, California is named the "John J. Montgomery Memorial Cadet Squadron 36" in his honor. Their motto is "Exceed the Challenge." Experimental Aircraft Association Chapter 338 in San Jose, California is also named in honor of Montgomery.

Schools

 * Chula Vista Elementary School District
 * John J. Montgomery Elementary School, Chula Vista, California
 * Evergreen Elementary School District
 * John J. Montgomery Elementary School, San Jose, California
 * San Diego Unified School District
 * Montgomery Middle School, San Diego, California
 * Sweetwater Union High School District
 * Montgomery High School, San Diego, California
 * Montgomery Middle School, San Diego, California

Other recognition
John J. Montgomery was inducted into the National Aviation Hall of Fame in 1964, U.S. Soaring Hall of Fame in 2001, California Aviation Hall of Fame in 2015., and International Aerospace Hall of Fame in 2017.

In 1924, a new engineering building was dedicated as the Montgomery Laboratories on the campus of Santa Clara University. This laboratory was located where Mayer Theatre is today. A celebration was held March 18, 1934 at Santa Clara University to mark the 50th anniversary of Montgomery's first glider flight. Also on the campus of Santa Clara University, an obelisk was dedicated by the citizens of Santa Clara, California to Montgomery on April 29, 1946, at the location of Maloney's 1905 glider flights.

In 1949, a section of what is now part of the Interstate 5 freeway that passes through the former site of the Montgomery 1880s Fruitland Ranch and goes from the Mexican border to downtown San Diego, California was named the John J. Montgomery Freeway.

In the 1960s, the National Society of Aerospace Professionals and the San Diego Aerospace Museum established a John J. Montgomery Award for aerospace excellence. Members of the X-15, Mercury, and Polaris programs received the award, including astronauts such as Neil Armstrong.

On May 11, 1996, Montgomery's 1883 glider was recognized as an International Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

On March 19, 2005, John J. Montgomery was the focus of a Centennial Celebration of Soaring Flight, held in Aptos, California at the location of some of his early glider experiments. At this celebration, a marker was placed in Aptos in honor of the first manned high−altitude flights.

On April 5, 2008, a celebration of the 125th anniversary of John Montgomery's first glide took place at the Hiller Aviation Museum in San Carlos, California.

In May 2016, the San Diego Air & Space Museum established a new exhibit for John J. Montgomery in their main rotunda, including The Evergreen glider from 1911 and Montgomery's original Soaring Flight manuscript from 1896. In 2017, Montgomery was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the Museum.

In June 2023, a replica of The Santa Clara glider was installed in the lobby of Crownair Aviation at Montgomery-Gibbs Executive Airport in San Diego. The glider is on loan from the San Diego Air and Space Museum.

Publications

 * Montgomery, John J. Discussions on the Various Papers on Soaring Flight Proceedings of the International Conference on Aerial Navigation, Chicago, Aug. 1–4. 1893 pp. 246–249.
 * Montgomery, John J. Soaring Flight, manuscript, 1895 (under flickr.com)
 * Montgomery, John J. The Mechanics Involved in a Bird's Wing in Soaring and Their Relation to Aeronautics, Address to the Southern California Academy of Sciences, Los Angeles, Nov. 9, 1897.
 * Montgomery, John J. The Aeroplane, The Aeroplane Advertising Co., Santa Clara, California, 1905.
 * Montgomery, John J. "New Principles in Aerial Flight", Scientific American, November 25, 1905.
 * Montgomery, John J. Principles Involved in the Formation of Winged Surfaces and the Phenomenon of Soaring, presented at the Aeronautics Congress, New York, Oct. 28–29, 1907. Published as a series in Aeronautics Vol. 3, No. 4, pp. 30–33, October, 1908; Vol. 3, No. 5, pp. 34–40, November, 1908; Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 32–36, December, 1908; Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 43–46.
 * Montgomery, John J. "Some Early Gliding Experiments in America", Aeronautics, Vol. 4, No. 1, 1909, pp. 47–50.
 * Montgomery, John J. "The Origin of Wing Warping: Professor Montgomery's Experiments", Aeronautics (London), Vol. 3, No. 6, 1910, pp. 63–64.
 * Montgomery, John J. "Our Tutors in the Art of Flying", Aeronautics, September 22, 1915, pp. 99–100 (article printed posthumously).

Patents

 * 1)  - Devulcanizing and restoring vulcanized rubber - 1884 November 18
 * 2)  - Petroleum burner - 1895 November 12
 * 3) British Patent 21477 - Petroleum burner and furnace - 1895 November 12
 * 4) German Patent 88977 - Petroleum oven - 1895 November 12
 * 5) Canadian Patent 50585 - Petroleum burner - 1895 November 14
 * 6) Canadian Patent 70319 - Concentrator - 1901 February 19
 * 7)  - Concentrator - 1901 July 23
 * 8)  - Concentrator - 1903 November 3
 * 9)  - Aeroplane - 1906 September 18
 * 10)  - Rectifying electric currents - 1910 November 1
 * 11)  - Process for compelling electric motors to keep in step with the waves or impulses of the current driving them, and a motor embodying the process - 1910 November 1

Biographies

 * Spearman, Arthur Dunning John J. Montgomery: Father of Basic Flying. Santa Clara University 1967 and 2nd ed. 1977.
 * Harwood, Craig S. and Fogel, Gary B. Quest for Flight: John J. Montgomery and the Dawn of Aviation in the West. University of Oklahoma Press 2012.

Research archives

 * John J. Montgomery Collection, Santa Clara University, Santa Clara, California.
 * John J. Montgomery Personal Papers, San Diego Air and Space Museum, San Diego, California.
 * John J. Montgomery Papers 1885–1947, The Southern Historical Collection, University of North Carolina Library, Chapel Hill, North Carolina.

title: John Joseph Montgomery


text: User talk:195.92.168.169

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:195.92.168.169


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Lollywood

Lollywood is Pakistan's film industry, which has served as the base for both Urdu- and Punjabi-language film production.

Lahore has been the center of Pakistani cinema since independence in 1947. However, with Urdu film hub largely shifting to Karachi by 2007, film industry in Lahore became synonymous with Pakistani Punjabi film Industry.

The word "Lollywood" is a portmanteau of "Lahore" and "Hollywood", coined in 1989 by Glamour magazine gossip columnist Saleem Nasir, and is usually used comparatively with respect to other film industries in South Asian cinema.

Etymology
"Lollywood" is a portmanteau derived from Lahore and "Hollywood", a shorthand reference for the American film industry, Hollywood.

History
Prior to the 1947 partition of India into the Republic of India and Pakistan, the Lahore film industry was initially part of the British Raj-era cinema of India. The Bombay cinema industry (now known as Hindi cinema or "Bollywood" in modern India) was closely linked to the Lahore film industry, as both produced films in the Hindustani language, also known as Hindi-Urdu, the lingua franca of northern and central British India. Many actors, filmmakers and musicians from the Lahore industry migrated to the Bombay industry during the 1940s, including actors K. L. Saigal, Prithviraj Kapoor, Dilip Kumar and Dev Anand as well as playback singers Mohammed Rafi, Noorjahan and Shamshad Begum. After the 1947 partition and the foundation of Pakistan, the Lahore film industry transitioned to becoming the centre of the new Pakistani cinema.

Films
Lollywood films in Punjabi were most popular in the 1960s and are often referred to as the golden age of Pakistani Punjabi cinema.

title: Lollywood


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Combtooth blenny

Combtooth blennies are blenniiformids; percomorph marine fish of the family Blenniidae, part of the order Blenniiformes. They are the largest family of blennies with around 401 known species in 58 genera. Combtooth blennies are found in tropical and subtropical waters in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian Oceans; some species are also found in brackish and even freshwater environments.

Description
The body plan of the combtooth blennies is archetypal to all other blennioids; their blunt heads and eyes are large, with large continuous dorsal fins (which may have three to 17 spines). Their bodies are compressed, elongated, and scaleless; their small, slender pelvic fins (which are absent in only two species) are situated before their enlarged pectoral fins, and their tail fins are rounded. As their name would suggest, combtooth blennies are noted for the comb-like teeth lining their jaws.

By far the largest species is the eel-like hairtail blenny at 53 cm in length; most other members of the family are much smaller. Combtooth blennies are active and often highly colourful, making them popular in the aquarium hobby.

Habitat and behaviour
Generally benthic fish, combtooth blennies spend much of their time on or near the bottom. They may inhabit the rocky crevices of reefs, burrows in sandy or muddy substrates, or even empty shells. Generally found in shallow waters, some combtooth blennies are capable of leaving the water for short periods during low tide, aided by their large pectoral fins which act as "feet". Small benthic crustaceans, mollusks, and other sessile invertebrates are the primary food items for most species; others eat algae or plankton.

One exceptional group of combtooth blennies deserves special mention: the so-called sabre-toothed blennies of the genera Aspidontus, Meiacanthus, Petroscirtes, Plagiotremus, and Xiphasia. These blennies have fang-like teeth with venom glands at their bases. Species of the genera Aspidontus and Plagiotremus (such as the false cleanerfish) are noted for their cunning mimicry of cleaner wrasses: by imitating the latter's colour, form, and behaviour, the blennies are able to trick other fish (or even divers) into letting down their guard, long enough for the blennies to nip a quick mouthful of skin or scale.

Some combtooth blennies form small groups, while others are solitary and territorial. They may be either diurnal or nocturnal, depending on the species. Females lay eggs in shells or under rock ledges; males guard the nest of eggs until hatching.

In some species, the eggs may remain in the oviduct of the female until hatched. The fry of some species undergo an 'ophioblennius' stage, wherein the fish are pelagic (i.e., inhabiting the midwater) and have greatly enlarged pectoral fins and hooked teeth.

Classification
This family is currently divided into two subfamilies and approximately 58 genera and 397 species.

The following genera are classified within the family Blenniidae:

 * Subfamily Salarinae Gill, 1859
 * Aidablennius Whitley, 1947
 * Alloblennius Smith-Vaniz & Springer, 1971
 * Alticus Lacepède, 1800
 * Andamia Blyth, 1858
 * Antennablennius Fowler, 1931
 * Atrosalarias Whitley 1933
 * Bathyblennius Bath, 1977
 * Blenniella Reid, 1943
 * Chalaroderma Norman, 1944
 * Chasmodes Valenciennes, 1836
 * Cirripectes Swainson, 1839
 * Cirrisalarias Springer, 1976
 * Coryphoblennius Norman, 1944
 * Crossosalarias Smith-Vaniz & Springer, 1971
 * Dodekablennos Springer & Spreitzer, 1978
 * Ecsenius McCulloch, 1923
 * Entomacrodus Gill, 1859
 * Exallias Jordan & Evermann, 1905
 * Glyptoparus J.L.B. Smith, 1959
 * Hirculops J.L.B. Smith, 1959
 * Hypleurochilus Gill, 1861
 * Hypsoblennius Gill, 1861
 * Istiblennius Whitley, 1943
 * Lipophrys Gill, 1896
 * Litobranchus Smith-Vaniz & Springer, 1971
 * Lupinoblennius Herre, 1942
 * Medusablennius Springer, 1966
 * Microlipophrys Almada, Almada, Guillemaud & Wirtz, 2005
 * Mimoblennius Smith-Vaniz & Springer, 1971
 * Nannosalarias Smith-Vaniz & Springer, 1971
 * Ophioblennius Gill, 1860
 * Parablennius Miranda Ribeiro, 1915
 * Parahypsos Bath, 1982
 * Paralticus Springer & Williams, 1994
 * Pereulixia J.L.B. Smith, 1959
 * Praealticus Schultz & Chapman, 1960
 * Rhabdoblennius Whitley, 1930
 * Salaria Forsskål, 1775
 * Salarias Cuvier, 1816
 * Scartella Jordan, 1886
 * Scartichthys Jordan & Evermann, 1898
 * Stanulus J.L.B. Smith, 1959

 * Subfamily Blenniinae Rafinesque, 1810
 * Adelotremus Smith-Vaniz & Rose, 2012
 * Aspidontus Cuvier, 1834
 * Blennius Linnaeus, 1758
 * Enchelyurus Peters, 1868
 * Haptogenys Springer, 1972
 * Laiphognathus J.L.B. Smith, 1955
 * Meiacanthus Norman, 1944
 * Oman Springer, 1985
 * Omobranchus Valenciennes, 1836
 * Omox Springer, 1972
 * Parenchelyurus Springer, 1972
 * ''Petroscirtes Rüppell, 1830
 * Phenablennius Springer & Smith-Vaniz, 1972
 * Plagiotremus Gill, 1865
 * Spaniblennius Bath & Wirtz, 1989
 * Xiphasia Swainson. 1839

title: Combtooth blenny


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Cecil Walker

Sir Alfred Cecil Walker (17 December 1924 – 3 January 2007) was an Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) politician, who was the Member of Parliament (MP) for North Belfast from 1983 to 2001.

Biography
Walker was born in Belfast. His father was a police constable. He was educated at Everton Elementary School, Model Boys' School, and Belfast Methodist College. He worked for the Belfast timber trader James P. Corry after leaving school in 1941 until he was elected to Parliament in 1983. He married Ann Verrant in 1953. They had two sons.

He became actively involved in Unionist politics in the 1970s, was an unsuccessful pro-White Paper Unionist candidate at the election to the 1973 Northern Ireland Assembly and was elected to Belfast City Council in 1977. He contested the Belfast North constituency in the 1979 general election, narrowly losing to John McQuade of the Democratic Unionist Party. He won the seat 4 years later, in the 1983 general election, after McQuade retired. He was one of the MPs with the lowest attendance rate at Westminster.

Along with all other Unionist MPs, he resigned his seat in December 1985 in protest at the Anglo-Irish Agreement. He was re-elected at a by-election in January 1986. In 1988, he advocated internment of Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) suspects to stem a series of murders, but also argued for the internment of suspects connected with the Ulster Defence Association and the Ulster Volunteer Force. In 1998, he was one of only two UUP MPs to support the Good Friday Agreement without reservation, and he backed UUP leader David Trimble until the end of Trimble's own political career in 2005.

However, he lost his own seat to Nigel Dodds of the DUP in the 2001 general election, following a disastrous televised debate at Crumlin Road Courthouse in his constituency, in which he stumbled over some of the most rudimentary questions. His vote declined from 21,000 to 4,000, his 13,000 majority was transformed into a 6,000 majority for the DUP and he was beaten into fourth place behind Sinn Féin and the Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) - although this was also partly because there had been no DUP candidate in the previous general election.

He was noted for the moderation of his Unionist views, which contrasted with the deep sectarian divisions in his constituency. He said he would have no objection to amending the Act of Settlement 1701 to allow the heir to the throne to marry a Roman Catholic, and caused controversy in 2001 by saying that a united Ireland in 30 years time may not be a bad thing, though he later said that was a "throwaway line that has been taken out of context". He was created a Knight Bachelor in the Queen's Birthday Honours in June 2002.

Death
He lived in Glengormley, in County Antrim, and died of a heart attack in Newtownabbey. He was survived by his wife and their two sons.

title: Cecil Walker


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Ceolred of Mercia

Ceolred (died 716) was king of Mercia from 709 to 716.

Mercia at the end of the 7th century

By the end of the 7th century, England was almost entirely divided into kingdoms ruled by the Anglo-Saxons, who had come to Britain two hundred years earlier. The kingdom of Mercia occupied what is now the English Midlands, bordered by Northumbria to the north, East Anglia to the east, and Wessex, the kingdom of the West Saxons, to the south. Essex, the kingdom of the East Saxons, included London and lay between East Anglia and the kingdom of Kent.

The main source for this period is Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (Ecclesiastical History of the English People), completed in about 731. Despite its focus on the history of the church, this work provides valuable information about the early Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. Bede had informants who supplied him with details of the church's history in Wessex and Kent, but he appears to have had no such contact in Mercia. Charters of Ceolred's, recording royal grants of land to individuals and to religious houses, also survive,  as does the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, compiled in Wessex at the end of the 9th century, but incorporating earlier material.

Ancestry and reign
Ceolred's father, Æthelred, came to throne of Mercia in 675 on the death of his brother, Wulfhere. Æthelred abdicated in 704 and went to Rome, leaving the kingdom to his nephew Coenred, Wulfhere's son.

The reduced prestige of both Ceolred and his predecessor, Coenred, may have stirred unrest among the Mercian nobility: Æthelbald was in exile during Ceolred's reign, and the survival of a hostile account of Ceolred may indicate a more general dissatisfaction with the ruling line.

In 709 Coenred abdicated in favour of Ceolred. Coenred went to Rome and was made a monk there by Pope Constantine. Historians have generally accepted Bede's report of Coenred's abdication, but Barbara Yorke has suggested that he may not have relinquished his throne voluntarily. There are instances of kings being forcibly removed and placed in holy orders to make them ineligible for kingship; one such was King Osred II of Northumbria, who was forced into a monastery.

Ceolred was Æthelred's son, but his mother was not Osthryth, Æthelred's only recorded wife. He may have still been young at the time of his accession. Much of what is recorded about Ceolred is highly negative, accusing him of crimes and immorality; this may reflect poor treatment of the Church. In 715, the Mercians under Ceolred fought a battle at "Woden's Barrow", either against the West Saxons under Ine or together with them against an unnamed opponent, possibly the British; the outcome of this battle was not recorded.

Charters
Ceolred confirmed a grant to Waldhere, the Bishop of London, evidence that London was firmly under Mercian overlordship. Later Mercian kings treated London as their direct possession, rather than as a province ruled by an underking, but Ceolred did not go that far. Three possibly genuine charters of Ceolred's have survived.

Death and succession
In the next year, Ceolred died; Saint Boniface later described him as dying in a crazed frenzy at a banquet, "gibbering with demons and cursing the priests of God". Æthelbald, a member of another branch of the Mercian royal line who had been forced into exile during Ceolred's rule, succeeded him.

Family
He was related to Coenred, the brother of Saint Werburgh of Mercia.

title: Ceolred of Mercia


text:
Curtiss P-36 Hawk

The Curtiss P-36 Hawk, also known as the Curtiss Hawk Model 75, is an American-designed and built fighter aircraft of the 1930s and 40s. A contemporary of the Hawker Hurricane and Messerschmitt Bf 109, it was one of the first of a new generation of combat aircraft—a sleek monoplane design with a retractable undercarriage making extensive use of metal in its construction.

Perhaps best known as the predecessor of the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, the P-36 saw little combat with the United States Army Air Forces during World War II. It was the fighter used most extensively and successfully by the French Air Force during the Battle of France. The P-36 was also ordered by the governments of the Netherlands and Norway but did not arrive in time to see action before both were occupied by Nazi Germany. The type was also manufactured under license in China, for the Republic of China Air Force, as well as in British India, for the Royal Air Force (RAF) and Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF).

Axis and co-belligerent air forces also made significant use of captured P-36s. Following the fall of France and Norway in 1940, several dozen P-36s were seized by Germany and transferred to Finland; these aircraft saw extensive action with the Finnish Air Force against the Soviet Air Forces. The P-36 was also used by Vichy French air forces in several minor conflicts; in one of these, the Franco-Thai War of 1940–41, P-36s were used by both sides.

From mid-1940, some P-36s en route for France and the Netherlands were diverted to Allied air forces in other parts of the world. The Hawks ordered by the Netherlands were diverted to the Dutch East Indies and later saw action against Japanese forces. French orders were taken up by British Commonwealth air forces, and saw combat with the South African Air Force (SAAF) against Italian forces in East Africa, and with the RAF over Burma. Within the Commonwealth, the type was usually referred to as the Curtiss Mohawk.

With around 1,000 aircraft built by Curtiss, the P-36 was a commercial success for the company. It also became the basis of the P-40 and two unsuccessful prototypes: the P-37 and the XP-42.

Design and development
The Curtiss Model 75 was a private venture by the company, designed by former Northrop Aircraft Company engineer Don R. Berlin. The first prototype, constructed in 1934, featured all-metal construction with fabric-covered control surfaces, a Wright XR-1670-5 radial engine developing 900 hp, and typical United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) armament of one .30 in and one .50 in machine gun firing through the propeller arc. Also typical of the time was the total absence of cockpit armor or self-sealing fuel tanks. The distinctive landing gear, which rotated 90° to fold the main wheels flat into the thin trailing portion of the wing, resting atop the lower ends of the maingear struts when retracted, was a Boeing-patented design for which Curtiss had to pay royalties.

The prototype first flew on 6 May 1935, reaching 281 mph at 10000 ft during early test flights. On 27 May 1935, the prototype was flown to Wright Field, Ohio, to compete in the USAAC fly-off for a new single-seat fighter, but the contest was delayed because the Seversky entry crashed on its way there. Curtiss took advantage of the delay to replace the unreliable engine with a Wright XR-1820-39 Cyclone producing 950 hp and to rework the fuselage, adding the distinctive scalloped rear windows to improve visibility. The new prototype was designated Model 75B with the R-1670 version retroactively designated Model 75D. The fly-off finally took place in April 1936. Unfortunately, the new engine failed to deliver its rated power and the aircraft only reached 285 mph.

Although the competing Seversky P-35 also underperformed and was more expensive, it was still declared the winner and awarded a contract for 77 aircraft. However, on 16 June 1936, Curtiss received an order from USAAC for three prototypes designated Y1P-36. The USAAC was concerned about political turmoil in Europe, and about Seversky's ability to deliver P-35s in a timely manner, and therefore wanted a backup fighter. The Y1P-36 (Model 75E) was powered by a 900 hp Pratt & Whitney R-1830-13 Twin Wasp engine, and the scalloped rear canopy was further enlarged. The new aircraft performed so well that it won the 1937 USAAC competition with an order for 210 P-36A fighters.

The aircraft's extremely low wing loading of just 23.9 lb/ft2 gave it outstanding turning performance, and its high power-to-weight ratio of 0.186 hp/lb gave superb climbing performance for the time. The single speed supercharger was a serious handicap at high altitudes. Compared to the later Allison-engined P-40, the P-36 shared the P-40's traits of excellent high-speed handling, roll rate that improved at high speed, and relatively light controls at high speed. However, it was underpowered, affecting its acceleration and top speed, and it did not accelerate in a dive as well as the P-40.

Argentina

Argentina bought a number of the simplified, fixed landing gear Hawk 75Os, (intended for rough-field operations and ease of maintenance) and purchased a manufacturing license for the type; 30 were built and delivered by Curtiss, and 20 produced locally. These aircraft used the same engine, Wright Cyclone R-1820-G5 as the Martin 139WAA's and Northrop 8A-2s used by the Argentine Army Aviation at the time. Usually armed with one 11.35 mm Madsen machine gun heavily modified for aircraft use and three 7.65 mm Madsen light machine guns, there was provision for up to 10 30 lb bombs on underwing pylons. The last Argentinian Hawks remained in service until November 1954.

Brazil
In March 1942, 10 USAAC P-36As were transferred to Brazil.

British Commonwealth

The Royal Air Force (RAF) also displayed interest in the aircraft. Comparison of a borrowed French Hawk 75A-2 with a Supermarine Spitfire Mk I revealed that the Hawk had several advantages over the early variant of the iconic British fighter. The Hawk was found to have lighter controls than the Spitfire at speeds over 300 mph, especially in diving attacks, and was easier to maneuver in a dogfight (thanks to the less sensitive elevator). The Hawk also had better all-around visibility and was easier to control on takeoff and landing. Not surprisingly, the Spitfire's superior acceleration and top speed ultimately gave it the advantage of being able to engage and leave combat at will.

Although the British decided not to purchase the aircraft, they soon came into possession of 229 Hawks by way of shipments diverted from occupied France and aircraft flown by escaping French pilots. The aircraft received the designations Mohawk I through IV, mirroring French Hawk 75A-1 through A-4, and were fitted with 0.303-cal. machine guns and conventional throttles (forward to increase power).

Although the Hawk was considered obsolete, a number saw service with the RAF and Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) in India and Burma. In April 1941, the government of British India ordered 48 Cyclone-powered Mohawk IVz (Hawk 75A) for the RIAF, to be built by Hindustan Aircraft. The first such aircraft completed was test flown on 31 July 1942. Only four additional aircraft were completed before the project was abandoned. However, Chinese license production of the Hawk 75A-5 was moved to India, and these aircraft were also absorbed into the RAF/RIAF as Mohawk IVs. They were supplemented by 10 Hawk 75A-9s that were captured in Iran, during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran of August 1941. A further 74 Mohawk IVs that had originally been ordered by France were shipped to India from the United Kingdom. The only RAF units to see combat in Mohawks were No. 5 Squadron RAF and No. 155 Squadron RAF, using the type mainly for bomber escort and ground attack. The type was retired by the RAF/RIAF in 1944.

The South African Air Force received 72 Mohawks. Its first Mohawks were delivered to East Africa in mid-1941, where they were used by 3 Squadron SAAF to support operations in the East African Campaign, taking part in the Battle of Gondar which ended the campaign, and helping to patrol the border with Vichy French held Djibouti. These Mohawks were then sent to South Africa, where, supplemented by fresh deliveries, they were used for training and for home defense.

China
The prototype of the Hawk 75H—a simplified version with fixed landing gear, like the 75O—was eventually sold to the Chinese Nationalist government who presented it to Claire L. Chennault for personal use. China also received two similar demonstrators, the Hawk 75Q. They also used a number of simplified Hawk 75Ms against the Japanese. On 11 January 1939, five Hawk 75Ms of the veteran CAF 25th Fighter Squadron led by commander Liu Yijun (劉依鈞) were flown to the new wartime capital of Chongqing in preparations for defense duties there; Liu Yijun and his four specially-trained Hawk 75 pilots all died in the crash of transport aircraft in the return flight. These Hawk 75Ms were intended for the newly established 16th and 18th Fighter Squadrons that were previously light attack-bomber squadrons, but did not supersede the increasingly obsolescent Polikarpov I-15 and I-16 that formed the backbone of most of China's fighter squadrons from 1938 to 1941. The Hawk 75A-5 was built under license in China, but production was later moved to India, and these aircraft were absorbed into the RAF as the Mohawk IV.

Finland

After the fall of France, Germany agreed to sell captured Curtiss Hawk fighters to Finland in October 1940. In total, 44 captured aircraft of five subtypes were sold to Finland with three deliveries from 23 June 1941 – 5 January 1944. Not all were from the French stocks, 13 were initially sold to Norway and captured when the Germans conquered that country. The aircraft were given serial codes CU-501 to CU-507 (A-4 submodel with Cyclone) and CU-551 to CU-587 (all other submodels with Twin Wasp).

In Finnish service, the Hawk was well liked, affectionately called Sussu ("Sweetheart"). The Finnish Air Force enjoyed success with the type, credited with 190⅓ kills by 58 pilots, between 16 July 1941 and 27 July 1944, for the loss of 15 of their own. Finnish Hawk pilots included the type's highest-scoring ace, Altto Kalevi "Kale" Tervo, with between 14¼ and 15¾ victories in the type; another ace, Kyösti "Kössi" Karhila, scored 12¼ or 13¼ of his 32¼ victories in the Hawk.

The Finnish Hawks were initially armed with either four or six 7.5mm machine guns. While sufficient during the early phase of the Continuation War, the increasing speeds and armor of Soviet aircraft soon showed this armament was not powerful enough. From 1942, the State Aircraft Factory replaced the fuselage machine guns with either one or two .50 in Colt or Browning FN machine guns and installed two or four .303 in Browning machine guns in each wing. The 12.7mm Berezin UB or LKk/42 heavy machine guns were also used. The installation of heavier armament did not change the very good flying characteristics of the fighter, and the armament was much more effective against Soviet aircraft. The Finnish Hawks were also equipped with Revi 3D or C/12D gunsight.

Surviving Finnish aircraft remained in service with the FAF aviation units HLeLv 13, HLeLv 11 and LeSK until 30 August 1948, when the last operational Finnish Hawks were put into storage. In 1953, the stored aircraft were scrapped.

France
Even before the P-36A entered production, the French Air Force entered negotiations with Curtiss for delivery of 300 aircraft. The negotiating process ended up being very drawn-out because the cost of the Curtiss fighters was double that of the French Morane-Saulnier M.S.406 and Bloch MB.150, and the delivery schedule was deemed too slow. Since the USAAC was unhappy with the rate of domestic deliveries and believed that export aircraft would slow things down even more, it actively opposed the sale. Eventually, it took direct intervention from U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt to give the French test pilot Michel Detroyat a chance to fly the Y1P-36.

Detroyat's enthusiasm, problems with the MB.150, and the pressure of continuing German rearmament finally forced France to purchase 100 aircraft and 173 engines. The first Hawk 75A-1 (or H75A-1 n°1) arrived in France in December 1938 and began entering service in March 1939. A few months later, this aircraft was part of "Groupe de Chasse II/5 La Fayette" (heir of the Escadrille Lafayette that fought in France during World War I), wearing the famous Sioux Head on its fuselage side. After the first few examples, aircraft were delivered in pieces and assembled in France by the Société Nationale de Constructions Aéronautiques du Centre.

Officially designated as the Curtiss H75-C1 (the "Hawk" name was not used in France), the aircraft were powered by Pratt & Whitney R-1830-SC-G engines of 900 hp and had instruments calibrated for the metric system, a seat for French dorsal parachutes, a French-style throttle which operated in reverse from U.S. and British aircraft (full throttle was to the rear rather than to the front) and armament of four (later models had six with two firing through the prop and four in the wings) 7.5 mm FN-Browning machine guns, aimed with a French-supplied Baille-Lemaire gun sight. The aircraft evolved through several modifications, the most significant being the installation of the Wright R-1820 Cyclone engine. The H75-C1 variant saw little operational use due to its late delivery and reliability problems with the Wright radial engine. A total of 316 H75s were delivered to France before the German occupation.

On September 20, Sergeant André-Armand Legrand, pilot of the H75A-1 n°1 in the Groupe de Chasse II/5 La Fayette was credited of the first Allied air victory of World War II on the Western front with shooting down a Messerschmitt Bf 109E of the Luftwaffe 3/JG 53, over Überherrn. During 1939–1940, French H75 pilots claimed 230 air-to-air kills (of a total of 1,009 air-to-air kills by the French Air Force during 1939–1940) and 81 probable victories in H75s against only 29 aircraft lost in aerial combat. While making up only 12.6 per cent of the French Air Force single-seater fighter force, the H75 accounted for almost a third of the air-to-air kills during the 1940 Battle of France.

Of the 11 French aces of the early part of the war, seven flew H75s. The leading ace of the time was Lieutenant Edmond Marin la Meslée with 15 confirmed and five probable victories in the type. H75-equipped squadrons were evacuated to French North Africa before the Armistice to avoid capture by the Germans. While under the Vichy government, these units clashed with British aircraft during the Battle of Mers El-Kebir and the Battle of Dakar. During Operation Torch in North Africa, French H75s fought against U.S. Navy F4F Wildcats, losing 15 aircraft while shooting down seven American aircraft. From late 1942, the Allies started re-equipping the formerly Vichy-controlled French H75 units with P-40s and P-39s.

Iran
The Hawk 75A-9 variant was also ordered by the Imperial State of Iran (previously Persia). In or before mid-1941, 10 of these aircraft arrived in Iran, partly-assembled and in crates. They had not been assembled by the time of the Allied invasion of Iran. Seized by Commonwealth forces, these Hawk 75s were shipped to India, where they were assembled and used by the RAF/RIAF, as the '''Mohawk Mk. IV'''.

Dutch East Indies
In October 1939, the Netherlands ordered 24 Hawk 75A-7s for their colonies of the Dutch East Indies (Oost Indië). These planes were powered by 1,200 hp Cyclones. Factory armament was one .50 inch and one .303 inch machine gun in the cowl with two .303 machine guns in the wings. After delivery, the .50 weapons were replaced to standardize parts and ammo. The plane could carry six 23 kg bombs. The fighters were shipped in 1940 and almost rerouted to the Netherlands when Germany invaded. But as the mainland surrendered, the aircraft continued to the colonies where they were used extensively against the Japanese attack on the Far Eastern part of the kingdom. By that time, the aircraft had flown so many hours that the engines were showing serious wear and tear.

Most Dutch Hawks were assigned to the 1ste JachtVliegAfdeling - VliegtuigGroep IV (1ste JaVA - 1-VlG IV; "1st Fighter Squadron - Flying Group IV") of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force (ML-KNIL), although some flew with 1-VlG V. These aircraft saw action over Malacca, Sumatra and Java, successfully bombing the railroad and intercepting bombers and participated in the extensive dogfights over Soerabaja, where USAAF, RAF and ML aircraft fought Japanese bombers and fighters together.

Norway
Norway ordered 24 Twin Wasp-powered Hawk 75A-6s, of which 19 were delivered and seven assembled at the time of the German invasion. None of the aircraft were combat-ready. The disassembled aircraft were disabled by a single customs employee who smashed the instruments and cut all the wires he could reach. Thirteen Norwegian Hawks captured by the Germans were part of the first batch of 29 P-36s sent to Finland. Norway also ordered 36 Cyclone-powered Hawk 75A-8s. Most of this batch (a total of 30) were delivered as advanced trainers to "Little Norway" near Toronto, Ontario, Canada, a Norwegian training base established by the London-based government-in-exile. Still later, they were resold to the U.S. and redesignated the P-36G model.

Peru
In 1943, the U.S. sent 28 Hawks to Peru under the Lend-Lease agreement. These were ex-Norwegian P-36Gs that had served in Canada.

Portugal

Portugal was officially neutral during World War II, although the Allies were allowed to use or establish ports and airfields on various Portuguese territories. One result of these friendly relations was the transfer by the British government of 12 Hawk 75A variants to the Portuguese Air Force, or Força Aérea Portuguesa (FAP), which assigned them to air defense duties in the Azores.

Thailand
A few Hawk 75Ns were used by Thailand during the French-Thai War. They also fought at the Battle of Prachuab Khirikhan against Japanese forces during the Japanese Invasion of Thailand. On 28 January 1941, the Royal Thai Air Force (RTAF) dispatched nine Ki-30 Nagoyas, escorted by three Hawk 75s, to bomb Pailin and Sisophon in French Indochina. Thailand was perhaps the only country operating both Japanese and American aircraft just before World War II.

United States
The first production P-36As were delivered to the 20th Pursuit Group at Barksdale Field in Louisiana in April 1938. The aircraft's service history was marred by numerous teething problems with the engine exhaust, skin buckling over landing gear, and weak points in the airframe, severely restricting the performance envelope. By the time these issues were resolved, the P-36 was considered obsolete and was relegated to training units and overseas detachments at Albrook Field in the Panama Canal Zone, Elmendorf Field in Alaska, and Wheeler Field in Hawaii.

The P-36s had been delivered to Hawaii in February 1941 by being loaded on the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise in California, then in a first for the USAAC, flown off the carrier's deck by the P-36's U.S. Army Air Corps pilots when the Enterprise neared the coast of Hawaii. This saved considerable time over the traditional shipping method of having the fighters first disassembled, crated and then loaded by crane in the hold of a freighter, then unloaded and reassembled in Hawaii.

The only combat by U.S.-operated P-36s took place during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Five of the 39 P-36A Hawks at Pearl Harbor, delivered previously by the USS Enterprise, were able to take off during the attack and were credited with shooting down two Japanese Mitsubishi A6M2 Zeros for the loss of one P-36, thereby scoring U.S. aerial victories that were among the first of the Second World War.

Variants

 * Model 75A
 * Company-owned demonstrator aircraft flown with several engine fits

 * Model 75B
 * Prototype with Wright R-1820 radial engine

 * Model 75D
 * First prototype, Wright Whirlwind R-1670 radial

 * Model 75H
 * Internal company designation for a simplified export version with fixed landing gear, two slightly differing aircraft built, first sold to China, second to Argentina

 * Model 75I
 * Company designation for the P-37.

 * Model 75J
 * Company-owned 75A temporarily fitted with an external supercharger

 * Model 75K
 * Unbuilt version, intended to use the Pratt & Whitney R-2180 Twin Hornet radial.

 * Model 75P
 * Production P-36A (serial 38-010) fitted with Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled engine, prototype for Curtiss P-40

 * Model 75R
 * Company-owned 75A temporarily fitted with R-1830-SC2-G with turbo-supercharger, attained 330 mph but proved complex and unreliable

 * Model 75S
 * Company designation for the P-42

 * Y1P-36 (Model 75E)
 * USAAC prototype, Pratt & Whitney R-1830

 * P-36A (Model 75L)
 * USAAC version

 * P-36B
 * Production P-36A fitted with an R-1830-25 producing 1100 hp, reached 313 mph, returned to original P-36A configuration

 * P-36C
 * An additional 0.30 in machine gun installed in each wing with external ammunition boxes under the wings, R-1830-17 of 1200 hp; last 30 production aircraft were completed as P-36Cs

 * XP-36D
 * Production P-36A modified with two .50 in machine guns in the nose and four 0.30 in machine guns in the wings

 * XP-36E
 * Production P-36A armed with four 0.30 in machine guns in the wings, retained standard fuselage guns

 * XP-36F
 * Production P-36A fitted with two 23 mm Madsen autocannons under the wings, reverted to P-36A because guns imposed an unacceptable performance penalty with top speed of only 265 mph.

 * P-36G
 * Hawk 75A-8 used by Norway for training in Canada; later delivered to Peru. R-1820-G205A of 1,200 hp.

 * Hawk 75A-1
 * First production batch for France, four 7.5 mm machine guns, R-1830-SC-G of 900 hp; 100 built

 * Hawk 75A-2
 * Second production batch for France, either R-1830-SC-G or 1050 hp R-1830-SC3-G, six 7.5 mm machine guns; 100 built

 * Hawk 75A-3
 * Third production batch for France, similar with Hawk 75A-2; 135 built (133 delivered).

 * Hawk 75A-4
 * Last production batch for France, Hawk 75A-2 with Wright R-1820-G205A Cyclone radial with 1,200 hp: 285 built, 81 delivered to France; others to Great Britain as Mohawk IV

 * Hawk 75A-5
 * Similar to Hawk 75A-4. Built under license in China (production was later moved to India), absorbed into RAF as Mohawk IV

 * Hawk 75A-6
 * Version for Norway; aircraft captured during the German invasion were eventually sold to Finland.

 * Hawk 75A-7
 * Version for Netherlands East Indies: 1,200 hp Cyclone, one .5 in and one .303 inin cowl and two .303 inin wings; later four .303 in (two in nose, one in each wing) and six 50 lb bombs.

 * Hawk 75A-8
 * Export version for Norway. Later redesignated P-36G.

 * Hawk 75A-9
 * 10 aircraft delivered to Persia, captured still in crates and used by RAF in India as Mohawk IVs

 * Hawk 75M
 * Simplified version with fixed landing gear and Wright R-1820 Cyclone for China, built by both Curtiss and Central Aircraft Manufacturing Company in China

 * Hawk 75N
 * Simplified version for Siam (Thailand) with non-retractable landing gear and wheel pants.

 * Hawk 75O
 * Simplified version for Argentina, 30 built and delivered by Curtiss with additional 200 to be built under license locally by Fabrica Militar de Aviones, however only 20 were completed.

 * Hawk 75Q
 * Two additional simplified demonstrators for China. At least one is reputed to have been given an armament similar to that of the XP-36F and to have engaged in combat over Shanghai during the Japanese attacks in September 1937, reportedly shooting down several bombers before being brought down with the loss of the American pilot.

 * XP-37
 * Allison V-1710 inline, cockpit moved to the rear of the fuselage

 * YP-37
 * Service test version of XP-37, 13 built

 * XP-40
 * Allison V-1710 inline, prototype of the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk, one converted from a P-36A

 * XP-42
 * Testbed for streamlining cowlings around air-cooled engines

Operators

 * ROC
 * Republic of China Air Force
 * Finnish Air Force
 * French Air Force
 * Indian Empire
 * Royal Indian Air Force
 * Royal Netherlands East Indies Army Air Force
 * Portuguese Air Force
 * Royal Thai Air Force
 * Royal Air Force
 * South African Air Force
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * United States Army Air Forces
 * Royal Thai Air Force
 * Royal Air Force
 * South African Air Force
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * United States Army Air Forces
 * United States Army Air Corps
 * United States Army Air Forces
 * United States Army Air Forces

Surviving aircraft

 * New Zealand
 * CU-554 – Hawk 75A-6 under restoration to airworthy condition at Ardmore Airport, New Zealand for Jerry Yagen's Military Aviation Museum. Formerly located at Omaka Aerodrome in Blenheim, New Zealand.

 * Thailand
 * Unknown ID – Hawk 75N on static display in the Royal Thai Air Force Museum in Bangkok.

 * United Kingdom
 * N°82 – Hawk 75A-1 airworthy at The Fighter Collection in Duxford, Cambridgeshire. It was one of the first 100 delivered to the French in April 1939. It wears French camouflage and is painted in markings from two different periods during its service on either side of the fuselage.
 * 38-210 – P-36C airworthy at The Fighter Collection in Duxford, Cambridgeshire. It was the last P-36C built and was restored in 2015 in Chino, California, before being shipped to England. It is painted in US Army Air Corps silver and yellow.

 * United States
 * 38-001 – P-36A on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. It is the first P-36A to be delivered to the Air Corps and is displayed in the markings of the P-36A flown by Lt Phil Rasmussen during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.

title: Curtiss P-36 Hawk


text:
Sarah Harmer

Sarah Lois Harmer (born November 12, 1970) is a Canadian singer, songwriter and environmental activist.

Early life
Born and raised in Burlington, Ontario, Harmer gained her first exposure to the musician's lifestyle as a teenager, when her older sister started taking her to Tragically Hip concerts.

Career
At the age of 17, Harmer was invited to join a Toronto band, The Saddletramps. For three years, she performed with them while pursuing her studies in philosophy and women's studies at Queen's University.

After leaving The Saddletramps, Harmer put together a band of her own with several Kingston, Ontario musicians, and chose the name Weeping Tile. The band released its first independent cassette in 1994. Soon afterward, they signed to a major label, and the cassette was re-released in 1995 as Eepee. The band performed regularly on the rock club circuit and on campus radio with their subsequent albums, but never broke through to the mainstream, and broke up in 1998 after being dropped from their label.

Also in 1998, Harmer recorded a set of pop standards as a Christmas gift for her father. After hearing it, her friends and family convinced her to release it as an album, and in 1999 she released it independently as Songs for Clem. Harmer began working on another album, and in 2000, she released You Were Here. In 2001 she toured around Canada and the US in support of the album.

A poppier, more laid-back effort than her work with Weeping Tile, You Were Here was a commercial success, and led to the hit singles "Basement Apartment" and "Don't Get Your Back Up". The album also appeared on many critics' year-end lists, including TIME magazine, which called it the year's best debut album. It was eventually certified platinum for sales of 100,000 copies in Canada. Almost half of the album (including both of its major hits) consisted of songs she had previously recorded with Weeping Tile or The Saddletramps.

In 2002, her song "Silver Road" was featured as the lead track of the soundtrack of the film Men With Brooms.

In 2004, she released All of Our Names. The album included the singles "Almost", which made the top 20 on Canadian pop charts, and "Pendulums". All of Our Names won the JUNO Award for Best Adult Alternative Album, a new award category in 2005.

Her fourth album, I'm a Mountain, was released in Canada in November 2005 and in the United States in February 2006. It was nominated for the 2006 Polaris Music Prize, a jury-selected $20,000 cash prize for the Canadian album of the year. Also in 2005 she had an acting role in Anita Doron's film The End of Silence.

Harmer has also appeared as a guest vocalist on albums by other artists, including Blue Rodeo, Great Big Sea, Rheostatics, Bruce Cockburn, Luther Wright and the Wrongs, Loomer, Skydiggers, The Weakerthans, Neko Case, Great Lake Swimmers, The Tragically Hip and Bob Wiseman.

In February 2007, Harmer received three Juno Award nominations. I'm a Mountain was nominated for Best Adult Alternative Album and her DVD Escarpment Blues won the JUNO Award for Best Music DVD. Harmer herself was also nominated for Songwriter of the Year for her work on "I Am Aglow", "Oleander" and "Escarpment Blues".

In 2010, Harmer released a fifth album, Oh Little Fire, which was nominated for three Juno Awards. The album signaled a shift toward a more rock-based sound.

In 2011, Harmer participated in the National Parks Project, visiting British Columbia's Gwaii Haanas National Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site with Bry Webb, Jim Guthrie and filmmaker Scott Smith. She was also commissioned by CBC Radio 2 to write an original campfire song for the network.

On August 19, 2016, Harmer and Jim Creeggan appeared on CBC Radio's Q to perform a live cover of The Tragically Hip's "Morning Moon". That year Harmer also performed at the Edmonton Folk Music Festival.

In 2018, Harmer contributed the song "Just Get Here" to the compilation album The Al Purdy Songbook. In the same year, she performed at the Juno Awards of 2018 in a tribute to the late Gord Downie, performing a medley of "Introduce Yerself" and "Bobcaygeon" in collaboration with Dallas Green and Kevin Hearn.

Her newest album, Are You Gone, was released in February 2020 on Arts & Crafts. It was longlisted for the 2020 Polaris Music Prize, and nominated for Best Adult Alternative Album at the Juno Awards of 2021.

Activism
In 2005, Harmer co-founded PERL (Protecting Escarpment Rural Land), an organization which campaigned to protect the Niagara Escarpment from a proposed gravel development which would see some parts of wilderness near the escarpment removed. To support the organization, she and her acoustic band embarked on a tour of the escarpment, hiking the Bruce Trail and performing at theatres and community halls in towns along the way. A documentary DVD of this tour was released in 2006 as Escarpment Blues. Harmer also coauthored a book about the campaign, The Last Stand: A Journey Through the Ancient Cliff-Face Forest of the Niagara Escarpment, which was published in 2007. In October 2012, PERL won their case against the development.

Harmer has performed and canvassed in support of the NDP and politician Marilyn Churley, who also promoted the protection of the Niagara Escarpment. She has also performed in support of Ontario Green Party Leader and MPP Mike Schreiner.

On March 24, 2018, she joined the demonstration at Kinder Morgan's Burnaby Terminal to protest against the expansion of the Trans Mountain pipeline.

In February 2019, she spoke against the Ontario government's proposed Bill 66 at a Kingston City Council meeting.

In January 2022, Sarah helped launch the Reform Gravel Mining Coalition with co-chair Graham Flint. The RGMC seeks to reform the gravel mining industry in Ontario.

Family
Her niece Georgia Harmer, the daughter of Sarah's sister Mary with their former Weeping Tile bandmate Gord Tough, is a singer-songwriter whose debut album Stay in Touch was released in April 2022 on Arts & Crafts Productions.

Singles
In 2007, Harmer also reunited with Weeping Tile to record a song, "Public Square", for the Rheostatics tribute album The Secret Sessions.

Publications

 * Peter E. Kelly, Douglas W. Larson, Sarah Harmer, The Last Stand : A Journey Through the Ancient Cliff-Face Forest of the Niagara Escarpment, Natural Heritage Books, 2007, ISBN 978-1-897045-19-0 (paperback).

title: Sarah Harmer


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Talk:Combtooth blenny

I was actually going to write this article later tonight; it's a ridiculously complex subject, and even a bit of preliminary research was discouraging enough.

There are actually several families whose members share the name "blenny"; it's about as specific as calling something a "minnow". Even the name "sabre-toothed blenny" is hardly standard and not confined to one species. Ah well.. I'll try to sort it out later. -- Hadal 23:03, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

- Looks like we did an edit at the same time, I added what you had to mine, altough the info about the sabre toothed blenny should go into the seperate requested article....

Obli 23:06, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Oh, here's the old piece of the article that should go into the sabre toother blenny article:

One species of blenny (the sabre-tooth blenny) imitates the "dance" of a similarly colored species of cleaner wrasse, and tricks fish into offering their underparts over to be cleaned. Instead of eating parasites off the scales of the fish, the sabre-tooth blenny bites the victim and rushes away.

Obli 23:08, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Could use a new image
I deleted the old one since it didn't have any source or copyright info, so putting in a request for a new one. --Sherool (talk) 19:53, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

New PD image added, so I removed the image request template.-Dr Haggis - Talk 18:30, 16 January 2006 (UTC) [] — Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.46.189.12 (talk) 15:30, 3 November 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Combtooth blenny


text:
Charles Wardle

Charles Frederick Wardle (born 23 August 1939) is a retired British businessman and politician who was the Conservative Member of Parliament for Bexhill and Battle from 1983 until 2001. In April 2001 for the last four weeks of his parliamentary career he sat without the Conservative whip because he and a group of his Conservative constituency workers would not endorse his successor, Greg Barker, until questions were answered about Barker's activities in Russia and about money he had obtained offshore.

Early life and education
Charles Wardle is the son of Frederick Maclean Wardle, a civil engineer, and Constance (née Roach) the daughter of a Lincolnshire country parson. Raised in Tunbridge Wells he was educated at Tonbridge School from 1953 to 1958. Too young for National Service, he served for two years as an assistant district officer in Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and worked for six months in Jamaica before five years at university. At Lincoln College, Oxford, from 1961 to 1964, where he was president of the Junior Common Room and of the Fleming Society, he received an MA in Geography and at Harvard Business School, 1964-66 an MBA.

At Oxford he met Lesley Ann Wells who was reading Modern History at St Hugh's College and they married in August 1964 before going to America.

Business career
Graduating from Harvard Business School, Wardle worked in New York, 1966–69, as assistant to the president of American Express Company; in the City of London, 1969–71, as a corporate finance executive at Morgan Grenfell and 1971–74, as managing director of Robert Fraser & Partners; in the West Midlands, 1974–83, as managing director and from 1977 executive chairman of Benjamin Priest Group plc. He was a member of the CBI National Council and of the Engineering Employers Federation from 1980 until his election to Parliament in 1983.

During his 18 years in Parliament Wardle's non-executive part-time business roles included consultancies with the accountants, KPMG, and UniChem plc and the chairmanship of the Ray Powell Group, a KPMG client.

Harrods
In April 2000, after he had said he would be leaving Parliament the following year, he joined the board of Harrods Ltd as a non-executive director with the prior consent of the leader of the Conservative Party. His constituency association wrote that his private business interests were entirely a matter for himself. Wardle's contract with Harrods was submitted to and approved by the Parliamentary Commissioner for Standards

After leaving Parliament in 2001, Wardle's role at Harrods was upgraded to external affairs director in which capacity he met the prime minister of Thailand in Bangkok six times, the presidents of Pakistan and Chad and the King of Jordan. Having completed 21 months of his three-year contract at Harrods, however, Wardle identified an irregularity in the company's business in Thailand. He left the board with the balance of his three-year contract paid in full.

International negotiation
In 2003-04 working under the aegis of the Foreign & Commonwealth Office Wardle negotiated for Lloyd's of London insurers the settlement with the state of Libya of outstanding Lockerbie claims brought by the hull insurers of Pan Am 103 and by Pan Am's trustee in bankruptcy; and in 2005-06 he negotiated with the UN Compensation Commission in Geneva the payment to British insurers of claims arising from Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. These international settlements brought into the UK more than $260 million that had been in dispute since the early 1990s.

1982 - 1987
Wardle joined the Conservative Party’s approved candidates list in 1982. He applied for two seats, Stratford upon Avon and Solihull, reaching the final shortlist for both and was then selected for Bexhill and Battle, winning the seat in the 1983 general election.

In late 1983 he was appointed to the Trade and Industry Select Committee and in early 1984 he was made Parliamentary Private Secretary to Kenneth Clarke, Minister for Health and then to Norman Fowler, Secretary of State for Health and Social Services. Wardle campaigned with neighbouring MPs for local hospitals, by-passes and rail electrification; and campaigned unsuccessfully but with local acclaim to keep the Royal Greenwich Observatory at Herstmonceux.

1987 - 1992
After the 1987 general election Wardle declined the invitation to continue as a Parliamentary Private Secretary; was appointed to the Treasury Select Committee; was made chairman of the Conservative Party’s One Nation Forum; and joined the executive committee of the European Atlantic Alliance. In 1991 he spoke for the Party in Hong Kong, Taiwan, New Zealand and California. Later that year he resumed as a Parliamentary Private Secretary, to Ian Lang, Secretary of State for Scotland.

1992 - 1997
After the 1992 general election Wardle was appointed Parliamentary Under Secretary of State at the Home Office as Immigration Minister. He also had Commons responsibility for the Police and the Fire Service which were led by Lord Ferrers in the Lords. Wardle took the Asylum and Immigration Appeals Bill through its Commons stages; reviewed entry clearance procedures in Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh and Hong Kong; and deputised for the Home Secretary at EU Councils of Interior and Justice Ministers in Copenhagen, Athens, Thessaloniki, Brussels and Luxembourg. He took a Police Bill through its standing committee stage; chaired the National Board for Crime Prevention; and chaired meetings of Fire Service chief officers and the Fire Brigades Union.

Moved to the Department of Trade and Industry in July 1994, Wardle led trade delegations to the United States, Canada, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Sweden. As an Energy Minister he participated in the 16thand 17throunds of North Sea oil and gas licensing; addressed the World Energy Conference at Cartagena; and signed the Energy Charter Treaty in Lisbon. He was also the Government sponsor minister for Birmingham, Walsall and the Black Country. In 1995, after private correspondence and personal exchanges with Prime Minister John Major over fifteen months, Wardle resigned from the Government to speak independently to the whole political audience on the need to preserve British border controls within the framework of the European Treaty. The Sunday Express, Daily Telegraph, Daily Mail, The Times, Sunday Times and Independent on Sunday all supported Wardle's reasons for his resignation. The issue Wardle raised, to keep in place British immigration controls on non-EU nationals coming to the UK from mainland Europe, was achieved by an opt-out for the UK in European Treaty law at the Amsterdam Intergovernmental Conference in 1997 by the new Labour Government who acknowledged Wardle's campaign.

Having left the Government, Wardle sat on the Public Accounts Committee; was an international observer at Chita, Siberia as an international observer for the 1996 Russian Presidential Election; and joined a Conservative Central Office team of election advisers to the President of Moldova.

1997 - 2001
After the 1997 general election Wardle re-joined the Public Accounts Committee; with a member of the Defence Select Committee he attended a Moscow conference with senior Russian military personnel to discuss budgetary control of military field operations; he was part of a Parliamentary delegation to the US Senate, the IMF and the Federal Reserve; spoke for the Conservative Party in the Czech Republic; visited Taipei as a guest of the Taiwanese Government; was an Evelyn Wrench Fellowship speaker for the English Speaking Union in the USA; and gave lectures to the Civil Service College.

In January 2000 Wardle was re-adopted unanimously by his constituency association for the next general election expected the following year. In April 2000, however, he informed his association executive that with great personal regret he and his wife had changed their minds about continuing for another Parliament because he needed to revert to his business career to make long-term financial provision after serious illness in their family.

In July 2000 the Bexhill and Battle constituency association interviewed for a new Parliamentary candidate for the next election, having asked Wardle to comment on their list of 186 applicants. Wardle wrote congratulating his successor, but in November 2000 a group of Wardle's senior local Conservative supporters voiced concern about the new candidate's recent employment in Moscow and the origins of money he had obtained offshore.

Without the Conservative whip at the close of his 18-year Parliamentary career for persisting with questions about Greg Barker’s Russian activities, after the dissolution of Parliament Wardle was approached by Nigel Farage with whom he had no previous contact whatsoever. He met Farage who decided at the last minute to stand in Bexhill and Battle. During Farage’s campaign Wardle told the local press: "I am a Conservative who has decided to lend my support to Farage at this election".

During the 2001-05 Parliament Wardle was invited to discuss immigration controls with Tony Blair. He discussed technical issues of immigration control, notably the growing problem of illegal overstayers, with three of Blair's Home Secretaries. At the 2005 general election he attended a press conference to demolish a far-fetched Opposition claim that more than 200 UK ports of entry would be manned for immigration control.

Since he left Parliament in 2001 Wardle has not been a member of any political party. From time to time he is consulted on immigration controls. He voted Leave in the 2016 referendum.

Personal life
Charles and Lesley Wardle live at Whitehall Court, London SW1 with a second home at Cranbrook, Kent. Their daughter, Dr Sarah Wardle is an academic and poet with five collections of poetry published by Bloodaxe Books.

Wardle is a member of the Travellers Club and the Farmers Club.

title: Charles Wardle