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Laura Miller (politician)

Laura Miller (born November 18, 1958) is an American journalist and politician who served as the 57th mayor of Dallas, Texas from 2002 through 2007. She decided not to run for re-election in 2007. She was the third woman to serve as mayor of Dallas.

Early life
Laura Miller was born in Baltimore, Maryland. She attended the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where she graduated with a degree in political science and journalism in 1980.

Journalism
Miller spent the early part of her career as a journalist working as a staff writer for The Miami Herald and The Dallas Morning News and then as a columnist for the New York Daily News and the now-defunct Dallas Times Herald. In 1991, Miller became an investigative reporter for the Dallas Observer and then a columnist for D Magazine.

Politics
In 1998, Miller was elected to the Dallas City Council representing Oak Cliff and southwest Dallas. In 2002, Miller was elected as Mayor of Dallas, replacing Ron Kirk who left the post to run for the United States Senate position vacated by retiring Texas Senator Phil Gramm.

She fought for and won approval of a strengthened smoking ban, an ordinance prohibiting discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation, a revamped public housing system, a $23 million homeless assistance center, major changes to the city's Trinity River Corridor improvement plan and a taxpayer-funded downtown redevelopment effort.

She participated in an agreement between American Airlines, the City of Fort Worth, DFW Airport and Southwest Airlines to revise the federal flight restrictions at Love Field Airport, which involved: replacing geographic limitations on Love Field service with: flight caps determined by a limitation on the number of gates allowed at Love Field, restrictions on the rights of any new air carrier to service North Texas via any airport other than DFW Airport, and banning international commercial air travel at Love Field. The unique agreement and resulting oligopoly required an exemption from federal antitrust laws, which Miller also successfully helped obtain.

David Levey, executive vice president for Forest City Enterprises, credited Miller for reviving a $250 million deal to renovate downtown's long vacant Mercantile National Bank Building.

During her term, the Dallas Cowboys announced plans to build Cowboys Stadium and many citizens hoped it would be built in Dallas. The city and the Dallas Cowboys, however, failed to reach a deal and the stadium was built in Arlington.

She announced parade plans for the Dallas Mavericks championship in 2006, prior to the Mavericks losing four straight games and ultimately the NBA championship to the Miami Heat in six games.

Miller was succeeded in office by Republican Tom Leppert.

In May 2019. Miller made an unsuccessful run for Dallas City Council to represent District 13.

Environmental efforts
Laura Miller serves as Director of Projects, Texas, for Summit Power Group, a Seattle-based developer of wind, solar and gas-fired power plants. Summit was recently selected by the U.S. Department of Energy to receive a $350 million cost-sharing award to build the world’s first IGCC (Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle) clean-coal power plant located near Odessa, Texas. The low-emissions project, called the Texas Clean Energy Project, is projected to capture just under 3 million tons a year of carbon dioxide, which will be used for enhanced oil recovery in the West Texas Permian Basin.

Miller's other environmental accomplishments included the formation and co-leading (with former Houston mayor Bill White) of the Texas Clean Air Cities Coalition, made up of 36 cities, counties and school districts in Texas that opposed the construction of 11 coal plants (which would have used older technology) by TXU, a Dallas-based energy company. Ultimately, TXU (now called Energy Future Holdings) officially suspended its plans to build eight of the eleven plants. As a result of these efforts, Miller won a 2008 Climate Protection Award from the Environmental Protection Agency for this nationally-recognized effort, which has been memorialized in a documentary film, produced and narrated by Robert Redford, and entitled Fighting Goliath: The Texas Coal Wars.

Personal life
Miller is married to Dallas attorney and former Texas State Representative Steven D. Wolens. They have three children.

In 1998, Miller was diagnosed with breast cancer. She underwent chemotherapy and radiation treatments which effectively eradicated the cancer.

title: Laura Miller (politician)


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Drusus

Drusus may refer to to:

 * Gaius Livius Drusus (jurist), son of the Roman consul of 147 BC
 * Marcus Livius Drusus (consul) (155–108 BC), opponent of populist reformer Gaius Gracchus
 * Marcus Livius Drusus (reformer) (died 91 BC), whose assassination led to the Social War (91–87 BC)
 * Nero Claudius Drusus ("Drusus I", 38–9 BC), brother of Roman emperor Tiberius.
 * Drusus Julius Caesar ("Drusus II", 14 BC–AD 23), son of Roman emperor Tiberius
 * Drusus Julius Caesar ("Drusus III", AD 8–33), son of Germanicus, adoptive grandson of Tiberius
 * Claudius, born Tiberius Claudius Drusus (10 BC–AD 54), Roman emperor from 41 to 54
 * Tiberius Claudius Drusus (circa AD 10–20), son of emperor Claudius

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Drusus


text:
Andrzej Pilipiuk

Andrzej Pilipiuk (born 20 March 1974 in Warsaw), Polish humoristic science-fiction and fantasy author. He debuted in 1996 with short story "Hiena", which featured the first appearance of Jakub Wędrowycz, an alcoholic exorcist. Since that time, Pilipiuk has written several dozen other short stories about that character.

Nine times nominated to the Janusz A. Zajdel Award, won it in 2002 for his short story Kuzynki, which he expanded into a novel in 2003 and followed by sequels: Księżniczka in 2004 and Dziedziczki in 2005. The series describes the adventures of 3 women: a more-than-1000-year-old teenage vampire, a 300-year-old alchemist-szlachcianka, and her relative, a former Polish secret agent from CBŚ (Polish 'FBI'). A recurring character in the series alchemist Michał Sędziwój, and the universe is the same as the one of Wędrowycz (who makes appearances from time to time).

Plipiuk lives in Kraków.

Series of Jakub Wędrowycz

 * Chronicles of Jakub Wędrowycz, (Kroniki Jakuba Wędrowycza, 2001)
 * Ivanov the Wizard, (Czarownik Iwanow, 2002)
 * Ye Shall Take a Black Hen, (Weźmisz czarno kure..., 2002)
 * Mystery of Jack the Reaper, (Zagadka Kuby Rozpruwacza, 2004)
 * Hanging for everybody, (Wieszać każdy może, 2006)
 * Homo moonshinicus, (Homo bimbrownikus, 2009)
 * Poison, (Trucizna, November 2012)
 * Conan the Distiller, (Konan destylator, 2016)

Series Womenfolk (Kuzynki)

 * Tome 1: Womenfolk (Kuzynki, 2003)
 * Tome 2: Princess (Księżniczka, 2004)
 * Tome 3: Heiress (Dziedziczki, 2005)

Series of Pan Samochodzik
In 1999-2005 Andrzej Pilipiuk under a pseudonym "Tomasz Olszakowski" also released 19 tomes continuing adventures about Pan Samochodzik:

 * Pan Samochodzik i... Arka Noego
 * Pan Samochodzik i... rubinowa tiara
 * Pan Samochodzik i... tajemnice warszawskich fortów
 * Pan Samochodzik i... zaginiony pociąg
 * Pan Samochodzik i... sekret alchemika Sędziwoja
 * Pan Samochodzik i... zaginione poselstwo
 * Pan Samochodzik i... łup Roman Ungern von Sternberg|barona Ungerna
 * Pan Samochodzik i... zagubione miasto
 * Pan Samochodzik i... wynalazek Franciszek Rychnowski|inżyniera Rychnowskiego
 * Pan Samochodzik i... potomek szwedzkiego admirała
 * Pan Samochodzik i... ikona z Warszawy
 * Pan Samochodzik i... Czarny Książę
 * Pan Samochodzik i... więzień Jasnej Góry
 * Pan Samochodzik i... brązowy notes
 * Pan Samochodzik i... Adam z Wągrowca
 * Pan Samochodzik i... diable wiano
 * Pan Samochodzik i... mumia egipska
 * Pan Samochodzik i... Relikwiarz świętego Olafa
 * Pan Samochodzik i... Zamek w Chęcinach

Series The Norwegian diary (Norweski dziennik)

 * Tome 1: Escape (Ucieczka, 2005)
 * Tome 2: Foreign paths (Obce ścieżki, 2006)
 * Tome 3: Northern Winds (Północne wiatry, 2007)

Series Deer`s eye (Oko Jelenia)

 *  The Way to Nidaros (Droga do Nidaros, 2008)
 * Silver Doe From Visby (Srebrna Łania z Visby, 2008)
 * The Wooden Stronghold (Drewniana Twierdza, 2008)
 * The Master of Wolves (Pan Wilków, 2009)
 * Triumph of Fox Reinicke (Tryumf Lisa Reinicke, 2010)
 * Armillary Sphere (Sfera armilarna, 2011)
 * The Owl's Mirror (Sowie Zwierciadło)

Other

 * Azure Leprosy (Błękitny trąd, 2001)
 * The greatest mystery of mankind (Największa tajemnica ludzkości, never released)
 * 2586 Steps (2586 kroków, 2005) Short stories
 * Operation: Resurrection Day (Operacja Dzień Wskrzeszenia, 2006)
 * Red Fever (Czerwona gorączka, 2007) Short stories
 * The Tree Butcher (Rzeźnik drzew, 2009) Short stories
 * The Vampire from M-3 (Wampir z M-3, 2011)

In preparation

 * Liberty Bell (Dzwon wolności, 2010) Short stories
 * Deer's eye t. 7 Incinerated city (Miasto spopielone, 2011) has been canceled due to the story's closure in a previous book Armillary sphere

title: Andrzej Pilipiuk


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B. B. Warfield

Benjamin Breckinridge Warfield (November 5, 1851 – February 16, 1921) was an American professor of Reformed theology at Princeton Seminary from 1887 to 1921. He served as the last principal of the Princeton Theological Seminary from 1886 to 1902. After the death of Warfield in office, Francis Landey Patton took over the functions of the office as the first president of seminary. Some conservative Presbyterians consider him to be the last of the great Princeton theologians before the split in 1929 that formed Westminster Theological Seminary and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

Biography
Warfield was born near Lexington, Kentucky on November 5, 1851. His parents were William Warfield and Mary Cabell Breckinridge, originally from Virginia and quite wealthy. His maternal grandfather was the Presbyterian preacher Robert Jefferson Breckinridge (1800–1871), the son of John Breckinridge, a former United States Senator and Attorney General. Warfield's uncle was John C. Breckinridge, the fourteenth Vice President of the United States, and a Confederate general in the American Civil War. His brother, Ethelbert Dudley Warfield was a Presbyterian minister and college president. His fourth cousin twice removed was Wallis Warfield Simpson, whom Great Britain's King Edward VIII abdicated his throne in order to marry.

Education
Like many children born into a wealthy family, Warfield's childhood education was private. Warfield entered Princeton University in 1868 and graduated in 1871 with high honors. Although Warfield studied mathematics and science in college, while traveling in Europe he decided to study theology, surprising even many of his closest friends. He entered Princeton Seminary in 1873, in order to train for ministry as a Presbyterian minister. He graduated in 1876.

Ministry
For a short time in 1876 he preached in Presbyterian churches in Concord, Kentucky and Dayton, Ohio as a "supply pastor" — the latter church calling him to be their ordained minister (which he politely refused). In late 1876 Warfield and his new wife moved to Germany where he studied under Christoph Ernst Luthardt and Franz Delitzsch. Warfield was the assistant pastor of First Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, Maryland for a short time. Then he became an instructor at Western Theological Seminary, which is now called Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. He was ordained on April 26, 1879.

In 1881 Warfield wrote a joint article with A. A. Hodge on the inspiration of the Bible. It drew attention because of its scholarly and forceful defense of the inerrancy of the Bible. In many of his writings, Warfield attempted to demonstrate that the doctrine of Biblical inerrancy was simply orthodox Christian teaching, and not merely a concept invented in the nineteenth century. His passion was to refute the liberal element within Presbyterianism and within Christianity at large. Throughout his life, he continued to write books and articles, which are still widely read today.

Marriage
In August 1876 Warfield married Annie Pierce Kinkead. Soon afterward they visited Germany as Warfield was studying at Leipzig. During their time there, the two were overcome by a fierce thunderstorm. The experience of the storm was so shattering that Kinkead never fully recovered and remained a functional invalid for the rest of her life. Warfield continued to care for her until her death in 1915, managing to fit his work as a theologian with his role as caregiver. They had no children.

Princeton and death
In 1887 Warfield was appointed to the Charles Hodge Chair at Princeton Theological Seminary, where he succeeded Hodge's son A. A. Hodge. Warfield remained there until his death as the last conservative successor to Hodge to live prior to the re-organization of Princeton Seminary. Warfield is often regarded by Protestant scholarship as the last of the Princeton theologians.

He died in Princeton, New Jersey on February 16, 1921.

Bible
During his tenure, his primary thrust (and that of the seminary) was an authoritative view of the Bible. This view was held in contrast to the emotionalism of the revival movements, the rationalism of higher criticism, and the heterodox teachings of various new religious movements that were emerging. The seminary held fast to the Reformed confessional tradition — that is, it faithfully followed the Westminster Confession of Faith.

Warfield believed that modernist theology was problematic, since it relied upon the thoughts of the Biblical interpreter rather than upon the divine author of Scripture. He therefore preached and believed the doctrine of sola scriptura — that the Bible is God's inspired word and is sufficient for the Christian to live his or her faith.

Much of Warfield's work centered upon the Bible's "inspiration" by God — that while the authors of the Bible were men, the ultimate author was God himself. The growing influence of modernist theology denied that the Bible was inspired, and alternative theories of the origin of the Christian faith were being explored.

After comparing grammatical and linguistic styles found within the Bible itself, modernist scholars suggested that because the human authors had clearly contributed to the writing of the biblical text, the Bible was written by people alone, not God. Warfield was a central figure in responding to this line of thinking by arguing that the supernatural work of the Holy Spirit did not lead to a form of "mechanical" inspiration (whereby the human authors merely wrote down what God dictated to them), but one in which the human author's intellect was fully able to express itself linguistically, while at the same time being supervised by the Holy Spirit to ensure its inspiration. This approach is essential to understanding the view of inspiration held by many Reformed and Evangelical Christians today. 'Verbal plenary inspiration' is the term that has come to describe this view.

Studies in religious experience
Warfield was a conservative critic of much religious revivalism that was popular in America at the time. He believed that the teachings and experience of this movement were too subjective and therefore too shallow for deep Christian faith. His book Counterfeit Miracles advocated cessationism over and against miracles after the time of the Apostles. Such attacks did not go unnoticed, and even today Warfield is criticized by proponents of revivalism in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements. For example, Jack Deere wrote Surprised by the Power of the Spirit with the intention of refuting Counterfeit Miracles. Warfield's book was published before the worldwide spread of Pentecostalism and addressed the issue of claims to the possession of miraculous gifts under the headings, "Patristic and Mediǣval Marvels", "Roman Catholic Miracles", "Irvingite Gifts", "Faith-Healing" and "Mind-Cure".

Calvinism
Underpinning much of Warfield's theology was his adherence to Calvinism as espoused by the Westminster Confession of Faith. It is sometimes forgotten that, in his battles against modernism on the one hand, and against revivalism on the other, he was simply expressing the Calvinist faith when applied to certain situations.

It was Warfield's belief that the 16th century Reformers, as well as the 17th century Confessional writers, were merely summarizing the content and application of Scripture. New revelations, whether from the minds of celebrated scholars or popular revivalists, were therefore inconsistent with these confessional statements (and therefore inconsistent with Scripture). Throughout his ministry, Warfield contended that modern world events and thinking could never render such confessions obsolete. Such an attitude still prevails today in many Calvinist churches and Christians who embrace Calvinism. "Calvinism is just religion in its purity. We have only, therefore, to conceive of religion in its purity, and that is Calvinism."

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Evolution
Warfield's views on evolution have been a source of dispute. Scholars David N. Livingstone and Mark A. Noll highlighted Warfield's statements on evolution to demonstrate his acceptance of the theory in their article A Biblical Inerrantist as Evolutionist. Theologian Fred G. Zaspel argues that these statements have led Livingstone and Noll to assume too much about Warfield's views on the subject. Zaspel writes "That Warfield actually committed himself to a doctrine of evolution seems impossible to affirm simply because although there are some indications that he entertained the idea, he never admits to accepting it."

Warfield studied and wrote about Charles Darwin's religious views. In an article on Darwin's religious life, he concluded that Darwin's doctrine of evolution directly expelled Darwin's Christian belief. Warfield writes, "Thus the doctrine of evolution once heartily adopted by him (Darwin) gradually undermined his faith, until he cast off the whole Christianity as an unproven delusion." Warfield did not believe that evolution required such a rejection of faith. His 1889 review of The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin included this statement: "There have been many evolutionists who have been and have remained theists and Christians."

In his 1915 article Calvin's Doctrine of Creation, Warfield wrote "It should scarcely be passed without remark that Calvin's doctrine of creation is, if we have understood it aright, for all except the souls of men, an evolutionary one. The 'indigested mass,' including the 'promise and potency' of all that was yet to be, was called into being by the simple fiat of God. But all that has come into being since- except the souls of men alone – has arisen as a modification of this original world-stuff by means of the interaction of its intrinsic forces. Not these forces apart from God, of course…" And further more he says, "What concerns us here is that he [Calvin] ascribed the entire series of modifications by which the primal 'indigested mass,' called 'heaven and earth,' has passed into the form of the ordered world which we see, including the origination of all forms of life, vegetable and animal alike, inclusive doubtless of the bodily form of man, to the second causes as their proximate account. And this, we say, is a very pure evolutionary scheme."

Warfield also points out that, "Calvin doubtless had no theory whatsoever of evolution; but he teaches a doctrine of evolution." In that same article, Warfield adds a significant footnote: "H. Bavinck in the first of his Stone Lectures ('The Philosophy of Revelation,' 1909, pp. 9–10) remarks: 'The idea of a development is not a production of modern times. It was already familiar to Greek philosophy. More particularly Aristotle raised it to the rank of the leading principle of his entire system by significant distinction between potentia and actus... This idea of development aroused no objection whatsoever in Christian theology and philosophy. On the contrary, it received extension and enrichment by being linked with the principle of theism.' Calvin accordingly very naturally thought along the lines of a theistic evolutionism."

In a separate reference: "I do not think that there is any general statement in the Bible or any part of the account of creation, either as given in Genesis 1 and 2 or elsewhere alluded to, that need be opposed to evolution.” B.B. Warfield"

Church politics
While he was certainly supportive of political moves within various churches to strengthen and push conservative theology, he was never interested in the actual process itself, preferring to use his work at Princeton to influence future generations of Presbyterian ministers.

Race
Warfield came from a family of emancipationists and was himself an outspoken opponent of segregation and racism at Princeton Seminary. This led to Warfield, when he was principal of the seminary, to allow a black student to live in white university halls, an action which was met by opposition from fellow faculty members. Warfield termed segregation a "wicked caste system" and wrote a number of theological treaties and essays to undermine the segregationist position.

Influence and legacy
Along with Abraham Kuyper and Herman Bavinck, Warfield is acknowledged as one of the major influences on the thought of Cornelius Van Til. However, that influence was limited to certain areas. In apologetics, Warfield was a thoroughgoing evidentialist and the most prominent exponent of the Old Princeton school, whereas van Til, who was the most prominent figure in the Dutch wing of presuppositionalist apologetics, absolutely rejected the central tenets of Old Princeton evidentialism and protested violently against the evidentialism of his contemporary J. Oliver Buswell.

Warfield's influence on contemporary evangelicalism can be seen in the Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy.

Books

 * Dr. Edwin A. Abbott on the Genuineness of Second Peter (1883)
 * Some Difficult Passages in the First Chapter of 2 Corinthians (1886)
 * The Canon of the New Testament: How and When Formed (1892)
 * The Witness of the Stars (1893)
 * Number in Scripture (1894, 1921 4th revised edition)
 * The Right of Systematic Theology (1897)
 * Acts and Pastoral Epistles Timothy, Titus, and Philemon, Vol. 26 of The Temple Bible (1902)
 * The Power of God Unto Salvation (1903)
 * The Lord of Glory : A Study of the Designations of Our Lord in the New Testament with Especial Reference to His Deity, (1907)
 * The Westminster Assembly and its Work (1908)
 * Commentary on Revelation (1909, revised and corrected)
 * The Religious Life of Theological Students (1911)
 * Concerning Schmiedel's "Pillar-passages." (1913)
 * The Plan of Salvation (1915)
 * The Bible, The Book of Mankind (1915)
 * Faith and Life (1916)
 * The Saviour of the World (1916)
 * Counterfeit Miracles (1918)
 * Are They Few That Be Saved? (1918)
 * The Divine Origin of the Bible
 * Biblical Doctrines
 * Augustine and the Pelagian Controversy
 * Studies in Theology
 * The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible
 * The Making of the Westminster Confession
 * The Emotional Life of Our Lord
 * The Person of Christ According to the New Testament
 * An Introduction to the Textual Criticism of the New Testament

 * Posthumous works

 * Perfectionism: Articles reprinted from periodicals, etc. edited by Ethelbert Dudley Warfield, William Park Armstrong, and Caspar Wistar Hodge (1931)
 * Calvin and Calvinism (1931)
 * The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible, edited by Samuel G. Craig ; with an introduction by Cornelius Van Til. (1948)
 * Biblical and Theological Studies, edited by Samuel G. Craig (1952)

Essays and sermons (external links)

 * Site dedicated to the life and writings of B. B. Warfield
 * The Leading of the Spirit
 * The Rights of Criticism and of the Church
 * What is Calvinism?
 * A Brief and Untechnical Statement of the Reformed Faith
 * Calvinism - The Meaning And Uses of the Term
 * The Theology of John Calvin
 * Augustine & The Pelagian Controversy: The Origin & Nature of Pelagianism
 * Augustine & The Pelagian Controversy: The Theology of Grace
 * Augustine & The Pelagian Controversy: The External History of the Pelagian Controversy
 * Inspiration (of Scripture)
 * The Formation of the Canon of the New Testament
 * God-Inspired Scripture
 * Calvin and the Bible
 * Calvin and the Reformation
 * John Calvin The Theologian
 * Election
 * Some Thoughts on Predestination
 * The Plan of Salvation (Part I) (Part II) (Part III) (Part IV) (Part V)
 * Photographs of B.B. Warfield's grave at Princeton Cemetery.
 * Darwin's Arguments Against Christianity And Religion by Benjamin B. Warfield

title: B. B. Warfield


text:
Works Volume 2

Works Volume 2 is the sixth studio album by Emerson, Lake & Palmer, released on 25 November 1977. Unlike Works Volume 1 (which consisted of three solo sides and one ensemble side), Works Volume 2 was a single album compilation of leftover tracks from other album sessions, similar to the Who's Odds & Sods or Led Zeppelin's Coda. While many derided the album for its apparent lack of focus, others praised it for showing a different side of the band than usual, with blues, bluegrass and jazz being very prominent as musical genres in this recording.

The remastered 2017 version of the album is expanded to a double-CD by the inclusion of the complete Works Live, an extended version of Emerson, Lake & Palmer in Concert.

Songs
"When the Apple Blossoms Bloom...", "Tiger in a Spotlight" and "Brain Salad Surgery" had been recorded at the 1973 sessions for the album Brain Salad Surgery but did not appear on it. The funk-fusion tinged "Apple Blossoms" first appeared as the B-side to "Jerusalem", "Brain Salad Surgery" had first surfaced as part of a 1973 BSS promotional flexi-disc before becoming the flip side to "Fanfare for the Common Man", and "Tiger in a Spotlight" was briefly considered as a 1974 single but held over until this album. All three are heavily synth dominated while two also feature electric guitars, much in the style of the rest of Brain Salad Surgery.

Two solo singles released during the group's sabbatical were also included. An orchestral version of Greg Lake's "I Believe in Father Christmas" had been released at the close of 1975 and hit #2 in the UK, becoming an annual Christmas standard there. The version on this album replaced the orchestra with new synth parts from Emerson. Meanwhile, Keith Emerson's cover of "Honky Tonk Train Blues" had been released as a single in April 1976, reaching #21 on the UK singles chart. Its B-side, "Barrelhouse Shakdown", was also included.

The rest of the songs were outtakes from the 1976 sessions that produced Works Volume 1. "Maple Leaf Rag" was a faithful ragtime cover from Emerson, "Watching Over You" and "So Far To Fall" were guitar-based outtakes from Lake's solo side, while "Bullfrog" and "Close But Not Touching" came from Palmer's sessions. There is also a group cover of "Show Me the Way to Go Home" which closes the album.

Reception
The album was not as commercially successful as the band's previous albums; it reached No. 20 in the UK and No. 37 in the US. Three tracks from the album were released as singles: "Tiger in a Spotlight", "Maple Leaf Rag", and "Watching Over You".

In a contemporary review, Robert Christgau of The Village Voice facetiously remarked that it is "news" when "the world's most overweening 'progressive' group" makes an album "less pretentious than its title", but questioned whether it is "rock and roll". In a retrospective review, AllMusic's David Ross Smith felt that it was "highly underrated" and wrote that the album's "brief pieces sustain interest; there really isn't a weak tune in the set." Paul Stump, in his 1997 History of Progressive Rock, commented that "Even Progressive militants have trouble defending Vol. 2, although 'When the Apple Blossoms Bloom in the Windmills of Your Mind' does have a perverse charm. 'Tiger in a Spotlight', however, a cheesy plod, shows just how low the band's collective inspiration had sunk."

The two Works albums were supported by North American tours which lasted from May 1977 to February 1978, spanning over 120 dates. Some early concerts in 1977 were performed with a hand-picked orchestra and choir, but the idea was shelved after 18 shows with the band due to budget constraints. The final concert with the orchestra and choir took place on 26 August 1977 at the Olympic Stadium in Montreal that was attended by an estimated 78,000 people, the highest attended Emerson, Lake & Palmer concert as a solo act. According to Lake on the Beyond the Beginning DVD documentary, the band lost around $3 million on the tour. Lake and Palmer blame Emerson for the loss as the use of an orchestra on tour was his idea.

2001 bonus tracks

 * "Tiger in a Spotlight" - (live at New Haven Veterans Memorial Coliseum, New Haven, Connecticut, USA, 30 November 1977) 4:14
 * "Watching Over You" - (live at New Haven Veterans Memorial Coliseum, New Haven, Connecticut, USA, 30 November 1977) 4:30
 * "Show Me the Way to Go Home" - (live at Hulman Civic Center, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana, USA, 24 January 1978) 5:34

Emerson, Lake & Palmer

 * Keith Emerson - keyboards, piano, Hammond organ, synthesizers, accordion, production
 * Greg Lake - vocals, guitars, bass guitar, production
 * Carl Palmer - drums, percussion, production

Additional musicians

 * Peter Sinfield - lyrics, production
 * London Philharmonic Orchestra on "Maple Leaf Rag"
 * Ron Aspery - saxophone on "Bullfrog" (uncredited in the original release)
 * Colin Hodgkinson - bass guitar on "Bullfrog" (uncredited in the original release)
 * Graham Smith - Harmonica on "Watching Over You"

title: Works Volume 2


text:
Vasodilation

Vasodilation, also known as vasorelaxation, is the widening of blood vessels. It results from relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the vessel walls, in particular in the large veins, large arteries, and smaller arterioles. Blood vessel walls are composed of endothelial tissue and a basal membrane lining the lumen of the vessel, concentric smooth muscle layers on top of endothelial tissue, and an adventitia over the smooth muscle layers. Relaxation of the smooth muscle layer allows the blood vessel to dilate, as it is held in a semi-constricted state by sympathetic nervous system activity. Vasodilation is the opposite of vasoconstriction, which is the narrowing of blood vessels.

When blood vessels dilate, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output. Vascular resistance is the amount of force circulating blood must overcome in order to allow perfusion of body tissues. Narrow vessels create more vascular resistance, while dilated vessels decrease vascular resistance. Vasodilation acts to increase cardiac output by decreasing afterload, −one of the four determinants of cardiac output.

By expanding available area for blood to circulate, vasodilation decreases blood pressure. The response may be intrinsic (due to local processes in the surrounding tissue) or extrinsic (due to hormones or the nervous system). In addition, the response may be localized to a specific organ (depending on the metabolic needs of a particular tissue, as during strenuous exercise), or it may be systemic (seen throughout the entire systemic circulation).

Endogenous substances and drugs that cause vasodilation are termed vasodilators. Many of these substances are neurotransmitters released by perivascular nerves of the autonomic nervous system Baroreceptors sense blood pressure and allow adaptation via the mechanisms of vasoconstriction or vasodilation to maintain homeostasis.

Function
The primary function of vasodilation is to increase blood flow in the body to tissues that need it most. This is often in response to a localized need for oxygen but can occur when the tissue in question is not receiving enough glucose, lipids, or other nutrients. Vasodilation, both localized and systemic, also facilitates immune response. Localized tissues have multiple ways to increase blood flow, including releasing vasodilators, primarily adenosine, into the local interstitial fluid, which diffuses to capillary beds, provoking local vasodilation. Some physiologists have suggested that it is the lack of oxygen itself that causes capillary beds to vasodilate by the smooth muscle hypoxia of the vessels in the region. This latter hypothesis is posited due to the presence of precapillary sphincters in capillary beds. These approaches to the mechanism of vasodilation have not been found to be mutually exclusive.

Immune system
Vasodilation plays a major role in immune system function. Wider blood vessels allow more blood containing immune cells and proteins to reach the infection site. Vasodilation occurs as part of the process of inflammation, which is caused by several factors including presence of a pathogen, injury to tissues or blood vessels, and immune complexes. In severe cases, inflammation can lead to sepsis or distributive shock. Vasodilation is also a major component of anaphylaxis.

Inflammation causes not only vasodilation but also causes increased vascular permeability, allowing neutrophils, complement proteins, and antibodies to reach the site of infection or damage. Elevated vascular permeability can allow excess fluid to leave blood vessels and collect in tissues resulting in edema; vasodilation prevents blood vessels from constricting to adapt to reduced volume in the vessels, causing low blood pressure and septic shock.

In the case of inflammation, vasodilation is caused by cytokines. Interferon gamma, TNF-a, interleukin 1 beta, and interleukin 12 are a few examples of some inflammatory cytokines produced by immune cells such as natural killer cells, B cells, T cells, mast cells and macrophages. Anti-inflammatory cytokines that regulate inflammation and help prevent negative results such as septic shock are also produced by these immune cells. Vasodilation and increased vascular permeability also allow immune effector cells to leave blood vessels and follow chemoattractants to the infection site via a process called leukocyte extravasation. Vasodilation allows the same volume of blood to move more slowly according to the flow rate equation Q = Av, where Q represents flow rate, A represents cross-sectional area, and v represents velocity. Immune effector cells can more easily attach to selectins expressed on endothelial cells when blood is flowing slowly, enabling these cells to exit the blood vessel via diapedesis.

Anaphylaxis is a severe allergic reaction characterized by elevated vascular permeability, systemic vasodilation, gastrointestinal dysfunction, and respiratory dysfunction. Anaphylatoxins, specifically complement proteins C3a and C5a, bind to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing degranulation. Granules in these cells contain histamine, platelet-activating factor, and other compounds causing clinical manifestation of anaphylaxis- including systemic vasodilation causing dangerously low blood pressure. Immunoglobulin E, an antibody produced by plasma cells, also binds to receptors on mast cells and basophils causing degranulation.

Mechanism
A basic understanding of cardiac output, vascular resistance, and blood pressure is necessary to understand the causes and impacts of vasodilation. Cardiac output is defined as the amount of blood pumped through the heart over 1 minute, in units of liters per minute, equal to heart rate multiplied by stroke volume. It is directly related to heart rate, myocardial contractility, and preload, and inversely related with afterload. Elevated vascular resistance due to constricted blood vessels causes in increase in afterload, the amount of force against which the heart must contract. Vasodilation therefore decreases vascular resistance, which decreases afterload, elevating cardiac output and allowing perfusion of tissues. Blood pressure measures how much pressure blood exerts on blood vessel walls; systolic blood pressure measures pressure while the heart contracts (systole), and diastolic blood pressure reflects pressure between contractions (diastole). Mean arterial pressure (MAP)is a weighted average of systolic and diastolic blood pressures, and is a better measurement of perfusion over the duration of the cardiac cycle. Vasodilation works to decrease vascular resistance and blood pressure through relaxation of smooth muscle cells in the tunica media layer of large arteries and smaller arterioles. When vasodilation causes systolic blood pressure to fall below 90 mmHg, circulatory shock is observed.

Vascular resistance depends on several factors, including the length of the vessel, the viscosity of blood (determined by hematocrit) and the diameter of the blood vessel. The latter is the most important variable in determining resistance, with the vascular resistance changing by the fourth power of the radius. An increase in either of these physiological components (cardiac output or vascular resistance) causes a rise in MAP. Arterioles create the most vascular resistance of any blood vessel type, as they are very narrow and possess concentric layers of smooth muscle unlike venules and capillaries.

Vasodilation occurs in superficial blood vessels of warm-blooded animals when their ambient environment is hot; this process diverts the flow of heated blood to the skin of the animal, where heat can be more easily released to the environment. The opposite physiological process is vasoconstriction. These processes are naturally modulated by local paracrine agents from endothelial cells (e.g., nitric oxide, bradykinin, potassium ions, and adenosine), and by the autonomic nervous system and the adrenal glands, both of which secrete catecholamines, such as norepinephrine and epinephrine, respectively.

Smooth muscle physiology
The tunica media of the walls of arteries, arterioles, and veins is composed of smooth muscle and causes vasodilation and vasoconstriction. Contraction of smooth muscle cells causes vasoconstriction, and relaxation of smooth muscle causes vasodilation. Smooth muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system and is non-striated (does not contain sarcomeres). Contraction is dependent on concentrations of Ca2+ in the cytosol, either via Ca,Mg-ATPase from the sarcoplasmic reticulum or voltage-gated calcium channels from the extracellular matrix. Calcium ions bind with calmodulin, activating myosin light-chain kinase which phosphorylates the myosin light-chain. Phosphorylated light-chain myosin interacts with actin filaments forming a cross-bridge, allowing muscle contraction causing vasoconstriction. Vasodilation is caused by myosin-light-chain phosphatase, which dephosphorylates the myosin light chain causing muscle relaxation. Smooth muscle cells can remain contracted without use of ATP due to action of the myosin-binding subunit of myosin light-chain phosphatase. Phosphorylation of this subunit by Rho-kinase prevents it from binding to and dephosphorylating the myosin light-chain, allowing the cell to remain contracted.

Vasodilation is the result of relaxation in smooth muscle surrounding the blood vessels. This relaxation, in turn, relies on removing the stimulus for contraction, which depends on intracellular calcium ion concentrations and is tightly linked with phosphorylation of the light chain of the contractile protein myosin. Thus, vasodilation works mainly either by lowering intracellular calcium concentration or by dephosphorylation (really substitution of ATP for ADP) of myosin. Dephosphorylation by myosin light-chain phosphatase and induction of calcium symporters and antiporters that pump calcium ions out of the intracellular compartment both contribute to smooth muscle cell relaxation and therefore vasodilation. This is accomplished through reuptake of ions into the sarcoplasmic reticulum via exchangers and expulsion across the plasma membrane. There are three main intracellular stimuli that can result in the vasodilation of blood vessels. The specific mechanisms to accomplish these effects vary from vasodilator to vasodilator.

PDE5 inhibitors and potassium channel openers can also have similar results.

Compounds that mediate the above mechanisms may be grouped as endogenous and exogenous.

Endogenous
The vasodilating action of activation of beta-2 receptors (such as by adrenaline) appears to be endothelium-independent.

Autonomic nervous system control
As referenced in the explanation of smooth muscle physiology, smooth muscle within the tunica media is innervated by the autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls essential involuntary body functions and originates as nerves leaving the brain stem or spinal cord; it contains both sensor and motor nerves. The two divisions of the ANS, the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS), impact blood vessels differently. Traditionally we understand that these two divisions work against each other, the SNS producing "fight or flight" and the PSNS producing "rest and digest", but in the case of vascular innervation this line becomes blurred ANS nerves do not directly innervate the vasculature via synapses with muscle cells; instead, they release neurotransmitters that reach target cells and effect smooth muscle contraction or relaxation. Physical characteristics of the SNS and PSNS cause the SNS to have a prolonged, systemic impact on blood vessels, while the PSNS causes short-lived, localized change. SNS stimulation causes a base level of vasoconstriction often referred to as basal neural tone, maintaining blood pressure. Often vasodilation is simply the result of insufficient neurotransmitter to maintain basal neural tone, without the presence of a compound directly causing vasodilation.

Neurotransmitters can act by binding directly to smooth muscle cells or by binding to endothelial cells mediating the effects of the neurotransmitter. Below is a table summarizing major neurotransmitters involved in regulation of the vasculature. Also worthy of mention when discussing neural control of vasodilation is the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, or RAAS. The kidneys retain water by reabsorbing sodium ions, or eliminate water by eliminating sodium ions. Sympathetic nervous system activity, reduced blood volume or reduced arterial pressure trigger β-adrenergic receptors in select kidney cells to release renin, which converts facilitates formation of angiotensin II from its substrate angiotensin. Angiotensin II triggers adrenal glands to secrete aldosterone, a potent vasoconstrictor.

Epinephrine, either exogenous or endogenous, is another vasoconstrictor released by the adrenal glands in response to stress. It binds to α and β adrenergic receptors like norepinephrine, causing vasodilation and vasoconstriction in different body parts to redistribute circulation to critical areas.

Cold-induced
Cold-induced vasodilation (CIVD) occurs after cold exposure, possibly to reduce the risk of injury. It can take place in several locations in the human body but is observed most often in the extremities. The fingers are especially common because they are exposed most often.

When the fingers are exposed to cold, vasoconstriction occurs first to reduce heat loss, resulting in strong cooling of the fingers. Approximately five to ten minutes after the start of the cold exposure of the hand, the blood vessels in the finger tips will suddenly vasodilate. This is probably caused by a sudden decrease in the release of neurotransmitters from the sympathetic nerves to the muscular coat of the arteriovenous anastomoses due to local cold. The CIVD increases blood flow and subsequently the temperature of the fingers. This can be painful and is sometimes known as the 'hot aches' which can be painful enough to bring on vomiting.

A new phase of vasoconstriction follows the vasodilation, after which the process repeats itself. This is called the Hunting reaction. Experiments have shown that three other vascular responses to immersion of the finger in cold water are possible: a continuous state of vasoconstriction; slow, steady, and continuous rewarming; and a proportional control form in which the blood vessel diameter remains constant after an initial phase of vasoconstriction. However, the vast majority of responses can be classified as the Hunting reaction.

Miscellaneous

 * Other suggested vasodilators or vasodilating factors include:
 * absence of high levels of environmental noise
 * adenosine - adenosine agonist, used primarily as an anti-arrhythmic
 * alpha blockers (block the vasoconstricting effect of adrenaline)
 * atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) - a weak vasodilator
 * ethanol (alcohol) causes immediate vasodilation followed by increase in blood pressure
 * nitric oxide inducers
 * l-arginine (a key amino acid)
 * citrulline (causes increased levels of L-arginine in the body)
 * glyceryl trinitrate (commonly known as nitroglycerin)
 * isosorbide mononitrate and isosorbide dinitrate
 * pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN)
 * sodium nitroprusside
 * PDE5 inhibitors: these agents indirectly increase the effects of nitric oxide
 * sildenafil (Viagra)
 * tadalafil (Cialis)
 * vardenafil (Levitra)
 * tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the principal psychoactive constituent of cannabis
 * theobromine, the principal alkaloid found in Theobroma cacao, specifically in cocoa solids (which is found in chocolate, especially dark chocolate)
 * minoxidil
 * papaverine an alkaloid found in the opium poppy papaver somniferum
 * estrogen

Direct vasodilation drugs
These drugs can keep vessels staying opened or help vessels refrain from being narrowed.
 * Angiotensin II receptor blockers
 * ACE inhibitors
 * Calcium channel blockers

Alpha-2A adrenergic receptor agonists
Drugs that appear to work by activating the α2A receptors in the brain thereby decreasing sympathetic nervous system activity.
 * methyldopa

 * According to American Heart Association, Alpha-methyldopa may cause Orthostatic syncope as it exerts a greater blood pressure lowering effect when one is standing upright which may lead to feeling weak or fainting if the blood pressure has been lowered too far. Methyldopa's prominent side effects include drowsiness or sluggishness, dryness of the mouth, fever or anemia. Additionally to these, male patients may experience impotence.

 * clonidine hydrochloride
 * guanabenz acetate
 * guanfacine hydrochloride

 * Clonidine, guanabenz or guanfacine may give rise to severe dryness of the mouth, constipation or drowsiness. Abrupt cessation taking may raise blood pressure quickly to dangerously high levels.

Blood vessel muscle relaxants
Directly relax the muscle in the walls of the blood vessels (especially the arterioles), allowing the vessel to dilate (widen).
 * hydralazine
 * minoxidil

 * Hydralazine may cause headaches, swelling around the eyes, heart palpitations or aches and pains in the joints. In clinical setting, hydralazine is not usually used alone.
 * Minoxidil is a potent direct vasodilator used only in resistant severe high blood pressure or when kidney failure is present. Noted adverse effects comprise fluid retention (marked weight gain) and excessive hair growth.

Therapeutic applications
Vasodilators are used to treat conditions such as hypertension, wherein the patient has an abnormally high blood pressure, as well as angina, congestive heart failure, and erectile dysfunction, and where maintaining a lower blood pressure reduces the patient's risk of developing other cardiac problems. Flushing may be a physiological response to vasodilators. Some phosphodiesterase inhibitors such as sildenafil, vardenafil and tadalafil, work to increase blood flow in the penis through vasodilation. They may also be used to treat pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).

title: Vasodilation


text:
Baron ffrench

Baron ffrench, of Castle ffrench in the County of Galway, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland created on 14 February 1798 for Rose, Lady ffrench. She was the widow of Charles ffrench, who had been created a Baronet, of Clogha in County Galway, in the Baronetage of Ireland on 17 August 1779. Their son Thomas succeeded in both the baronetcy and barony. Both titles have descended via primogeniture to the present Baron.

The title and the family name are both spelled with a lower-case double-'f'.

ffrench baronets, of Castle ffrench (1779)

 * Sir Charles ffrench, 1st Baronet (died 1784)
 * Sir Thomas ffrench, 2nd Baronet (c. 1765–1814) (succeeded as Baron ffrench in 1805)

Barons ffrench (1798)

 * Rose ffrench, 1st Baroness ffrench (died 1805)
 * Thomas ffrench, 2nd Baron ffrench (c. 1765–1814)
 * Charles Austin ffrench, 3rd Baron ffrench (1786–1860)
 * Thomas ffrench, 4th Baron ffrench (1810–1892)
 * Martin Joseph ffrench, 5th Baron ffrench (1813–1893)
 * Charles Austin Thomas Robert John Joseph ffrench, 6th Baron ffrench (1868–1955)
 * Peter Martin Joseph Charles John ffrench, 7th Baron ffrench (1926–1986)
 * Robuck John Peter Charles Mario ffrench, 8th Baron ffrench (born 1956)

There is no heir to the title.

title: Baron ffrench


text:
Archibald Alexander Hodge

Archibald Alexander Hodge (July 18, 1823 – November 12, 1886), an American Presbyterian minister, was the principal of Princeton Seminary between 1878 and 1886.

Biography
He was born on July 18, 1823, to Sarah and Charles Hodge in Princeton, New Jersey. He was named after Charles' mentor, the first principal of Princeton Seminary, Archibald Alexander. Hodge attended the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) in 1841 and then Princeton Theological Seminary in 1847.

He served as a missionary in India for three years (1847–1850). He held pastorates at Lower West Nottingham, Maryland (1851–1855), Fredericksburg, Virginia (1855–1861), and Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania (1861–1864). In 1864 he accepted a call to the chair of systematic theology in Western Theological Seminary (later Pittsburgh Theological Seminary) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. There he remained until in 1877 he was called to Princeton to be the associate of his father, Charles Hodge, in the distinguished chair of systematic theology. He took on the full responsibilities of the chair of systematic theology in 1878.

He died on November 12, 1886, in Princeton, New Jersey, from "a severe cold ... which settled in his kidneys".

Influence
At the time of his death, he was a trustee of the College of New Jersey and a leader in the Presbyterian Church. His interests extended beyond religion. He touched the religious world at many points. During the years immediately preceding his death he did not slacken his work, but continued his work of writing, preaching, lecturing, making addresses, coming into contact with men, influencing them, and by doing so widening the influence of Christianity. Among the most influential was an article titled Inspiration that began a series in the Presbyterian Review which established the discipline of biblical theology as a historical science. This article was coauthored with B. B. Warfield in 1880.

Characteristics
Hodge's distinguishing characteristic as a theologian was his power as a thinker. He had a mind of singular acuteness, and though never a professed student of metaphysics, he was essentially and by nature a metaphysician. His theology was that of the Reformed confessions. He had no peculiar views and no peculiar method of organizing theological dogmas; in this he may be identified with his father, who claimed at the end of his life that he had taught and written nothing new. Though he taught the same theology that his father had taught before him, he was independent as well as reverent. His first book and that by which he is best known was his Outlines of Theology (New York City, 1860; enlarged ed., 1878; reprinted 1996, ISBN 0-85151-160-0), which was translated into Welsh, modern Greek, and Hindustani. The Atonement (Philadelphia, 1867; reprinted 1989, ISBN 0-685-26838-1) is still one of the best treatises on the subject. This was followed by his commentary on the Westminster Confession of Faith (1869, ISBN 0-8370-0932-4), a very useful book, full of clear thinking and compact statement. He contributed some important articles to encyclopedias – Johnson's, McClintock and Strong's, and the Schaff-Herzog (the Schaff-Herzog encyclopedia furnished the kernel from which this article developed). He was one of the founders of the Presbyterian Review, to the pages of which he was a frequent contributor.

Sermons
In the pulpit, Hodge had few sermons, and he preached them frequently. They were never written nor deliberately planned. They grew from small beginnings and, as he went through the process of thinking them over as often as he preached them, they gradually became more elaborate.

Publications

 * The Rule of Faith and Practice
 * The Protestant rule of faith
 * The Rules of Interpreting Scripture
 * The Holy Scriptures - Canon and Inspiration (Part 1) (Part 2)
 * The Inspiration of the Bible
 * Commentary on the Westminster Confession of Faith
 * God - His Nature And Relation To The Universe
 * Assurance and Humility
 * A Short History of Creeds and Confessions
 * God's Covenants With Man--The Church
 * Baptism
 * The Mode of Baptism
 * Sanctification (revised by B.B. Warfield)
 * Free Will
 * Outlines of Theology
 * Justification (Part 1) (Part 2) (Part 3)
 * Predestination
 * Selected Essays by Archibald Alexander Hodge
 * A commentary on the Confession of Faith : with questions for theological students and Bible classes
 * (1869) https://archive.org/details/commentaryonconf00hodguoft (Robarts - University of Toronto)
 * (1869) https://archive.org/details/acommentaryonthe00hodguoft (Knox - University of Toronto)
 * (1869) https://archive.org/details/commentaryonconf00hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1901 printing) https://archive.org/details/commentaryonconf1901hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * A commentary on the confession of faith [of the Assembly of divines] ed. by W.H. Goold (1870)
 * https://archive.org/details/acommentaryonco00hodggoog (Oxford University)
 * Comentario de la Confesion de fe de Westminster de la Iglesia Presbiteriana (1897)
 * https://archive.org/details/comentariodelaco00hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * The atonement (1867)
 * (1867) https://archive.org/details/theatonement00hodguoft (Trinity College - University of Toronto)
 * (1867) https://archive.org/details/atonement00hodguoft   (Robarts - University of Toronto)
 * (1867) https://archive.org/details/atonement00publgoog   (New York Public Library)
 * (1867) https://archive.org/details/atonement00hodg       (New York Public Library)
 * Outlines of theology
 * (1860) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo1860hodg  (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1861) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo00hodg    (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1863) https://archive.org/details/outlinestheolog03hodggoog (Harvard University)
 * (1863) (ed. by W.H. Goold) https://archive.org/details/outlinestheolog01hodggoog (Oxford University)
 * (1865) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo1865hodg  (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1866) https://archive.org/details/outlinestheolog02hodggoog (unknown library)
 * (1876) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheo00hodg      (New York Public Library)
 * (1877) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo00hodguoft (Emmanuel - University of Toronto)
 * (1878) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo1878hodg  (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1879) https://archive.org/details/outlinesoftheolo1879hodg  (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * (1879) (ed. by W.H. Goold) https://archive.org/details/outlinestheolog00hodggoog (Oxford University)
 * There is also a companion to this book by William Passmore (1873)A compendium of evangelical theology given in the words of holy Scripture https://archive.org/details/acompendiumevan00unkngoog
 * The life of Charles Hodge ... professor in the Theological seminary, Princeton, N.J. (1880)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifeofcharleshodg00hodg   (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifeofcharleshod00hodg0   (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifeofcharlesh00hodg      (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifeofcharleshod00hodgrich (University of California Libraries)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifecharleshodg01hodggoog (University of California)
 * https://archive.org/details/lifecharleshodg02hodggoog (New York Public Library)
 * (1881) https://archive.org/details/lifecharleshodg00hodggoog (Oxford University)
 * Popular lectures on theological themes (1887)
 * https://archive.org/details/popularlectures00hodggoog
 * https://archive.org/details/popularlectures00publgoog
 * https://archive.org/details/popularlectures00hodguoft
 * https://archive.org/details/popularlectureso00hodg
 * Inspiration (1881) (Reprinted from the Presbyterian review, April, 1881) https://archive.org/details/inspiration00hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * Westminster doctrine anent holy scripture : tractates by professors A. A. Hodge and Warfield (1891)
 * https://archive.org/details/westminsterdoct00howi (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * Manual of forms for baptism, admission to the communion, administration of the Lord's Supper, marriage and funerals : conformed to the doctrine and discipline of the Presbyterian Church (1877)
 * https://archive.org/details/manualofformsfor00hodg
 * https://archive.org/details/manualofforms00hodg
 * (1882 copyright, 1883 published) https://archive.org/details/manualofforms00hodguoft (Emmanuel - University of Toronto)
 * The system of theology contained in the Westminster shorter catechism opened and explained (1888) https://archive.org/details/systemoftheology00hodg
 * Questions on the text of the Systematic Theology of Dr. Charles Hodge : together with an exhibition of various schemes illustrating the principles of theological construction (by A. A. Hodge)(1885)
 * https://archive.org/details/questionsontexto00hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * Address at the funeral of the Rev. Henry Augustus Boardman, D.D. (1881)
 * https://archive.org/details/addressatfuneral00hodg (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)
 * Van Dyke, Joseph Smith (1886) Theism and evolution : an examination of modern speculative theories as related to theistic conceptions of the universe. With an introduction by d Alexander Hodge
 * https://archive.org/details/theismandevolut00vanduoft (Trinity College - University of Toronto)
 * https://archive.org/details/theismevolutione00vand   (Princeton Theological Seminary Library)

Articles

title: Archibald Alexander Hodge


text:
Archibald Alexander

Archibald Alexander (April 17, 1772 – October 22, 1851) was an American Presbyterian theologian and professor at the Princeton Theological Seminary. He served for 9 years as the President of Hampden–Sydney College in Virginia and for 39 years as Princeton Theological Seminary's first professor from 1812 to 1851.

Early life
Archibald Alexander was born at South River, Rockbridge County, Virginia, on April 17, 1772, son of William Alexander, a farmer of means. He was raised under the tuition and ministry of Presbyterian minister William Graham (1745–1799), a man who had been trained in theology by John Witherspoon.

His grandfather, of Scottish descent, came from Ireland to Pennsylvania in 1736, and after a residence of two years removed to Virginia. William, father of Archibald, was a farmer and trader. His nephew was the American novelist William Alexander Caruthers (1802–1846).

At the age of ten Archibald was sent to the academy of William Graham at Timber Ridge meetinghouse (since developed into Washington and Lee University), at Lexington. At the age of seventeen he became a tutor in the family of General Thomas Posey, of The Wilderness, twelve miles west of Fredericksburg, but after a few months resumed his studies with his former teacher. At this time a remarkable movement, still spoken of as "the great revival," influenced his mind and he turned his attention to the study of divinity.

Career
On October 1, 1791, he was licensed to preach, ordained by the presbytery of Hanover on June 9, 1794, and for seven years was an itinerant pastor in Charlotte and Prince Edward counties.

By the time he was 21, Alexander was a preacher of the Presbyterian Church. He was appointed the president of Hampden–Sydney College, where he served from 1797 until a revolt among the students forced him to retire in 1806, and from 1807 to 1812 he was acted as pastor of the old Vine street Presbyterian Church of Philadelphia.

The Princeton Theological Seminary was established at Princeton, New Jersey in 1812 and Alexander was appointed its first professor, inaugurated on August 12, 1812. In 1824, he helped to found the Chi Phi Society along with Robert Baird and Charles Hodge. In 1843, he returned to Washington College to deliver an alumni address, which was one of his many publications.

Alexander was one of the earliest supporters of the American Colonization Society that arranged the emigration of free Black and enslaved Black Americans to Liberia. In 1827, he and his close friend Samuel Miller defended the organization's mission against attacks by John Brown Russwurm in Russwurm's paper, Freedom's Journal. He later served as the Colonization Society's vice president and wrote the most comprehensive history of the movement written before the twentieth century, A History of Colonization on the Western Coast of Africa (1846).

Samuel Miller became the second professor at the seminary and for 37 years Alexander and Miller were considered together as pillars of the Presbyterian Church in maintaining its doctrines. Charles Hodge, a famous student and successor of Alexander, named his son Archibald Alexander Hodge after his mentor.

Archival collections
The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania has a collection of Archibald Alexander's personal papers dating from 1819 to 1851 including outgoing correspondence, manuscript articles and lecture notes.

Personal life
On April 5, 1802, Alexander married Janetta Waddel, the daughter of a Presbyterian preacher, James Waddel (1739–1805), whose eloquence was described in William Wirt's Letters of a British Spy (1803). Together, they were the parents of:

 * James Waddel Alexander (1804–1859), who was a Princeton graduate and Presbyterian minister. He wrote the life of his father, and edited his posthumous works.
 * William Cowper Alexander (1806–1874), who served as president of the New Jersey State Senate and as the first president of the Equitable Life Assurance Society.
 * Joseph Addison Alexander (1809–1860), who was a biblical scholar.
 * Samuel Davies Alexander (1819-1894), a minister
 * Henry Martyn Alexander (1822–1899), who was a lawyer and one of the Trustees of Princeton University.

Alexander died on October 22, 1851, at Princeton Township, New Jersey.

Descendants
His grandson, William C. Alexander (1848–1937), was an executive with the Equitable Life Assurance Society, author, and founder of Pi Kappa Alpha fraternity. His great-grandson, James Waddell Alexander II (1888–1971), was a noted mathematician and topologist.

Works

 * Christ's gracious invitation
 * Biographical sketches of the founder, and principal alumni of the Log college : together with an account of the revivals of religion, under their ministry
 * Outlines of moral science
 * Love to an unseen saviour
 * A history of the Israelitish nation, from their origin to their dispersion at the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans
 * A History of Colonization on the Western Coast of Africa (1846)
 * An address to candidates for the ministry : on the importance of aiming at eminent piety in making their preparation for the sacred office
 * Suggestions in vindication of Sunday-schools, but more especially for the improvement of Sunday-school books, and the enlargement of the plan of instruction
 * The evidences of Christianity
 * Thoughts on the education of pious and indigent candidates for the ministry
 * Thoughts on religious experience
 * Thoughts on religious experience' To which is added an appendix, containing "Letters to the aged," &c., &c
 * A discourse occasioned by the burning of the theatre in the city of Richmond, Virginia, on the twenty-sixth of December, 1811. By which lawful calamity a large number of lives were lost. Delivered in the Third Presbyterian church, Philadelphia, on the eighth day of January, 1812, at the request of the Virginia students attached to the medical class in the University of Pennsylvania
 * The canon of the Old and New Testaments ascertained
 * The canon of the Old and New Testaments ascertained; or, The Bible, complete, without the Apocrypha and unwritten traditions (Entered, according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1851 by A.W. Mitchell in the office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania.)
 * Evidences of the authenticity, inspiration and canonical authority of the Holy Scriptures
 * Practical sermons to be read in families and social meetings
 * Practical truths
 * A brief compend of Bible truth
 * A brief outline of the evidences of the Christian religion
 * A dialogue between a Presbyterian and a "Friend"
 * A Memorial of Mrs. Margaret Breckinridge
 * Remarks on a paragraph in the Rev. Doctor Davidson's History of the Presbyterian Church in Kentucky : in reference to the character of the late Mr. John Lyle, ruling elder in the Timberridge Church, Virginia
 * The way of salvation familiarly explained : in a conversation between a father and his children
 * A pocket dictionary of the Holy Bible. Containing, a historical and geographical account of the persons and places mentioned in the Old and New Testaments: and also a description of other objects, natural, artificial, civil, religious, and military; together with a copious reference to texts of Scripture under each important word

Sermons

title: Archibald Alexander


text:
J. Gresham Machen

John Gresham Machen (1881–1937) was an American Presbyterian New Testament scholar and educator in the early 20th century. He was the Professor of New Testament at Princeton Seminary between 1906 and 1929, and led a revolt against modernist theology at Princeton and formed Westminster Theological Seminary as a more orthodox alternative. As the Northern Presbyterian Church continued to reject conservative attempts to enforce faithfulness to the Westminster Confession, Machen led a small group of conservatives out of the church to form the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. When the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America (PCUSA) rejected his arguments during the mid-1920s and decided to reorganize Princeton Seminary to create a liberal school, Machen took the lead in founding Westminster Seminary in Philadelphia (1929) where he taught New Testament until his death. His continued opposition during the 1930s to liberalism in his denomination's foreign missions agencies led to the creation of a new organization, the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions (1933). The trial, conviction and suspension from the ministry of Independent Board members, including Machen, in 1935 and 1936 provided the rationale for the formation in 1936 of the OPC.

Machen is considered to be the last of the great Princeton theologians who had, since the formation of the seminary in the early 19th century, developed Princeton theology: a conservative and Calvinist form of Evangelical Christianity. Although Machen can be compared to the great Princeton theologians (Archibald Alexander, Charles Hodge, A. A. Hodge, and B. B. Warfield), he was neither a lecturer in theology (he was a New Testament scholar) nor did he ever become the seminary's principal.

Machen's influence can still be felt today through the existence of the institutions that he founded: Westminster Theological Seminary, the Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions, and the Orthodox Presbyterian Church. In addition, his textbook on basic New Testament Greek is still used today in many seminaries, including PCUSA schools.

Early life
Machen was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on July 28, 1881, to Arthur Webster Machen and Mary Jones Gresham. Arthur, a Baltimore lawyer, was 45 and Mary was 24 when they married. While Arthur was an Episcopalian, Mary was a Presbyterian, and taught her son the Westminster Shorter Catechism from an early age. The family attended Franklin Street Presbyterian Church.

Machen attended a private college and received a classical education including Latin and Greek. He also learned to play the piano.

Early adulthood
In 1898, the 17-year-old Machen began studying at Johns Hopkins University for his undergraduate degree, and performed sufficiently well to gain a scholarship. He majored in classics and was a member of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. Machen was a brilliant scholar and in 1901 was elected to the Phi Beta Kappa Society after graduation.

Despite having some indecisiveness about his future, in 1902 Machen opted to study theology at Princeton Seminary, while simultaneously studying a Master of Arts in philosophy at Princeton University.

He also pursued theological studies in Germany for a year in 1905. In a letter to his father, he admitted being thrown into confusion about his faith because of the liberalism taught by Professor Wilhelm Herrmann. Although he had an enormous respect for Herrmann, his time in Germany and his engagement with Modernist theologians led him to reject the movement and embrace conservative Reformed theology more firmly than before.

Pre-war period
In 1906, Machen joined the Princeton Seminary as an instructor in the New Testament, after receiving an assurance that he would not have to sign a statement of faith. Among his Princeton influences were Francis Landey Patton, who had been the prosecutor in a nineteenth-century heresy trial, and B. B. Warfield, whom he described as the greatest man he had ever met. Warfield maintained that correct doctrine was the primary means by which Christians influenced the surrounding culture. He emphasized a high view of scripture and the defence of supernaturalism. It appears that under their influence Machen resolved his crisis of faith. In 1914, he was ordained and the next year he became an assistant professor of New Testament studies.

Machen did not serve "conventionally" during the First World War, but instead went to France with the YMCA to do volunteer work near and at the front—a task he continued for some time after the war. Though not a combatant, he witnessed first-hand the devastations of modern warfare. Suspicious of his family friend Woodrow Wilson's project of spreading democracy and of imperialism, he was staunchly opposed to the war, and upon returning to the US, he saw that many of the provisions of, "the Treaty of Versailles constituted an attack upon international and interracial peace.... [W]ar will follow upon war in a wearisome progression."

Princeton, 1918–1926
After returning from Europe, Machen continued his work as a New Testament scholar at Princeton. During this period he gained a reputation as one of the few true scholars who was able to debate the growing prevalence of modernist theology whilst maintaining an evangelical stance. The Origin of Paul's Religion (1921) is perhaps Machen's best known scholarly work. This book was a successful attempt at critiquing the Modernist belief that Paul's religion was based mainly upon Greek philosophy and was entirely different from the religion of Jesus. Christianity and Liberalism (1923) is another of Machen's books that critiqued theological modernism. The book compared conservative Protestantism to the rising popularity of modernist (or "liberal") theology. He concluded that "the chief modern rival of Christianity is Liberalism". In What Is Faith? (1925) he set before him the pastoral task of anchoring faith in the historical fact of Christ's atonement. He found liberal theology anti-intellectual, insofar as it spiritualized Christianity and treated it as merely an expression of individual experience, thus emptying the Bible and creeds of all definitive meaning. These books, along with a number of others, placed Machen firmly in one theological camp within the Presbyterian Church. His work throughout the 1920s was divided between his time at Princeton and his political work with evangelical Presbyterians. Despite his conservative theological beliefs, Machen was never able to fully embrace popularist fundamentalism either. His refusal to accept premillennialism and other aspects of fundamentalist belief was based upon his belief that Calvinist theology was the most biblical form of Christian belief—a theology that was generally missing from fundamentalism at the time. Moreover, Machen's scholarly work and ability to engage with modernist theology was at odds with fundamentalism's anti-intellectual attitude.

Controversies
In 1924 and 1925, relations among the Princeton faculty deteriorated when The Presbyterian questioned if there were two different parties on the faculty. In response Machen remarked that his differences with Charles Erdman related to the importance they attributed to doctrine. He noted that Erdman was tolerant of those in doctrinal error. Erdman wrote privately 'he (Dwight L. Moody) knew that controversialists do not usually win followers for Christ.'

Westminster Theological Seminary
The 1929 General Assembly voted to reorganise Princeton Seminary and appointed two of the Auburn Affirmation signatories as trustees. The Auburn Affirmation was a response by liberals within the Northern Presbyterian Church that condemned the General Assembly's response to the controversy arising out of Harry Emerson Fosdick's May 1922 sermon "Shall the Fundamentalists Win?" Machen and some colleagues withdrew and set up Westminster Theological Seminary to continue reformed orthodox theology.

Orthodox Presbyterian Church
In 1933, Machen, concerned about liberalism tolerated by Presbyterians on the mission field, formed The Independent Board for Presbyterian Foreign Missions. The next Presbyterian General Assembly reaffirmed that Independent Board was unconstitutional and gave the associated clergy an ultimatum to break their links. When Machen and seven other clergy refused, they were suspended from the Presbyterian ministry. The controversy divided Machen from many of his fundamentalist friends including Clarence Macartney who dropped away at the prospect of schism. Ultimately, Machen withdrew from the Northern Presbyterian Church and formed what later came to be known as the Orthodox Presbyterian Church.

In his book The Great Evangelical Disaster, Francis Schaeffer details the theological shift in American Christianity from conservatism to liberalism. In that discussion, Schaeffer describes how Machen's "defrocking" rightly became front-page news in the secular media of the country. Schaeffer concludes: "A good case could be made that the news about Machen was the most significant U.S. news in the first half of the twentieth century. It was the culmination of a long trend toward liberalism within the Presbyterian Church and represented the same trend in most other denominations" (p. 35).

Religion and politics
Machen was suspicious of mixing religion and politics. He found attempts to establish a Christian culture by political means insensitive to minorities. He was even more concerned about the corrupting influence of politics on Christianity and saw the social gospel as a terrible warning. He opposed school prayer and Bible reading in public school. This position, however, implied that Christians should run their own schools.

Historian George Marsden has described Machen as "radically libertarian. He opposed almost any extension of state power and took stands on a variety of issues. Like most libertarians, his stances violated usual categories of liberal or conservative." He opposed the establishment of a federal Department of Education, suggesting before a joint Congressional committee that government control of the children was the ultimate sacrifice of freedom (he was also opposed to the Child Labor Amendment, proposed in 1924). He was not against locally operated public schools per se, but feared the influence of materialist ideology and opposition to higher human aspirations. He also opposed Prohibition—a costly stance in an age when abstinence was almost a creed among Protestants. He was opposed to a foreign policy of imperialism and militarism.

Death
Much to the sadness of those who had been involved in the movements that he had led, Machen died on January 1, 1937, at the age of 55. Some commentators (notably Ned Stonehouse) point out that Machen's "constitution" was not always strong, and that he was constantly "burdened" with his responsibilities at the time.

Machen had decided to honor some speaking engagements he had in North Dakota in December, 1936, but developed pleurisy in the exceptionally cold weather there. After Christmas, he was hospitalized for pneumonia and died on January 1, 1937. Just before his death, he dictated a telegram to long-time friend and colleague John Murray, the content of which reflected deeply his lifelong faith: "I'm so thankful for active obedience of Christ. No hope without it." He is buried in Greenmount Cemetery in Baltimore. The stone covering his grave bears, very simply, his name, degree, dates, and the phrase "Faithful Unto Death", in Greek.

The Baltimore-born journalist H. L. Mencken wrote an editorial on Machen in December 1931 and later contributed an obituary titled "Dr. Fundamentalis" that was published in the  Baltimore Evening Sun on January 18, 1937. While disagreeing with Machen's theology, Mencken nevertheless articulated a great respect and admiration for his intellectual ability. He noted that Machen "fell out with the reformers who have been trying, in late years, to convert the Presbyterian Church into a kind of literary and social club, devoted vaguely to good works", and that "though he lost in the end and was forced out of Princeton, it must be manifest that he marched off to Philadelphia with all the honors of war." Mencken also compared Machen to William Jennings Bryan, another well-known Presbyterian, with the statement, "Dr. Machen himself was to Bryan as the Matterhorn is to a wart."

Machen left half his considerable estate to Westminster Seminary in Philadelphia. Giving $10,000 outright to the seminary, Dr. Machen provided that half of the balance, after certain bequests to his brothers and others were cared for, should be placed in the hands of five trustees to be held for the benefit of Westminster Seminary. Ten percent of the residuary estate was to go to the Independent Board. The will was drawn in 1935, before the establishing of The Presbyterian Guardian and before the organization of the new Church. The gross estate was estimated at $175,000.

Works
In addition to those mentioned in the main article, Machen's works include:

 * The Literature and History of New Testament Times (1915)
 * Recent Criticism of the Book of Acts (1919)
 * Teaching the Teacher: A First Book in Teacher Training (1921) (Contributing author)
 * A Brief Bible History: A Survey of the Old and New Testaments (1922)
 * New Testament Greek for Beginners (1923)
 * New ed. 2009 ISBN 9780802864994
 * What Is Faith? (1925)
 * The Virgin Birth of Christ (1930)
 * Things Unseen: A Systematic Introduction to the Christian Faith and Reformed Theology (1936-36) Three series of radio addresses given in Philadelphia
 * The Christian Faith in the Modern World (1936)
 * The Christian View of Man (1937)
 * God Transcendent (1949) edited by Ned B. Stonehouse from Machen's sermons, ISBN 0-85151-355-7.
 * What Is Christianity? And Other Addresses (1951) edited by Ned B. Stonehouse
 * The New Testament: An Introduction to Its Literature and History (1976) edited by W. John Cook from two sets of Machen's course materials, ISBN 0-85151-240-2
 * What Is Christianity? And Other Addresses (1951) edited by Ned B. Stonehouse
 * The New Testament: An Introduction to Its Literature and History (1976) edited by W. John Cook from two sets of Machen's course materials, ISBN 0-85151-240-2
 * The New Testament: An Introduction to Its Literature and History (1976) edited by W. John Cook from two sets of Machen's course materials, ISBN 0-85151-240-2

title: J. Gresham Machen


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SubSpace (video game)

SubSpace is a 2D space shooter video game created in 1995 and released in 1997 by Virgin Interactive which was a finalist for the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences Online Game of the Year Award in 1998. SubSpace incorporates quasi-realistic zero-friction physics into a massively multiplayer online game.

The game is no longer operated by VIE; instead, fans and players of the game provide servers and technical updates.

The action is viewed from above, which presents challenges very different from those of a three-dimensional game. The game has no built-in story or set of goals; players may enter a variety of servers, each of which have differing objectives, maps, sounds, and graphics.

SubSpace is considered an early entry in the massively multiplayer online genre due to its unprecedented player counts.

History
SubSpace evolved from a game originally called Sniper (1995), a project to test the effects and severity of lag in a massively multiplayer environment over dialup connections.

After its creators realized its viability as an actual game, public beta testing began in February, 1996, and it became fully public later that year.

The game was released commercially in December 1997 with a list price of US$27.99 for unlimited play, requiring no monthly or hourly fees. The game was originally developed by Burst, led by Jeff Petersen, Rod Humble and Juan Sanchez, for the US branch of the now-defunct Virgin Interactive. The title was showcased at E3 1997.

When the game was officially released, it was not a commercial success due to a lack of marketing and the relative newness of internet gaming. Two years of playing for free became problematic as many players refused to pay for a game that they had beta tested for two years, and instead opted to pirate the software.

SubSpace server software being distributed with the commercial release of the game allowed users to host their own servers on their own computers, enabling them to preserve the game.

Once VIE went under in 1998, many of its remaining US assets were purchased by Electronic Arts, but the SubSpace license was not.

This caused all of the commercially hosted servers, including the official VIE servers, to eventually go offline permanently, and independent user-run servers became the only choice for hosting zones, including original zones previously hosted by VIE.

Gameplay
SubSpace players control one of eight ships which are equipped with weapons and a variety of special abilities. These ships are the Warbird, Javelin, Spider, Leviathan, Terrier, Weasel, Lancaster, and Shark. Players interact with each other in zones, which are typically split into multiple arenas. Players in each arena are then divided into teams; friendly ships appear as yellow, while enemy ships appear blue. The keyboard is used exclusively for control of the ship and use of in-game chat functions.

Although each zone can have its own unique style of gameplay, certain basic gameplay mechanics are ubiquitous throughout all zones.

Map elements
Each arena uses a 1024x1024 map as the field of play. Some arenas may use the entire size of the map, while others may enclose the players in a smaller space. A coordinate system (A-T horizontal, 1–20 vertical) allows players to easily identify and communicate where they are on the map.

Maps may contain obstacles such as walls or asteroids which cannot be moved or destroyed. Maps often use gates, which open and close at random or regular intervals. If a player's ship gets caught in a gate when it closes, the ship is relocated ("warped") to a random location on the map.

Safe zones allow a players to evade enemies or simply take a break from the game. While in a safe zone, a ship cannot take damage but also cannot fire. Most safe zones have a time limit; players who stay in a safe zone too long are kicked from the game and must rejoin the zone. This prevents players from camping out in a safe zone and leaving their computer idle for an extended period of time in order to maintain their state in the game.

A flag or ball may be present as well. Their importance and role in the game depend on the zone.

The most common map elements in SubSpace are prizes, or "greens" (for their green color). Prizes allow players to upgrade their ships and gain special weapons or abilities. While prizes are generally plentifully scattered throughout the map, the upgrades or abilities they award are randomly selected by the zone.

Energy
Rather than dealing with ammunition counts and hit points separately, SubSpace combines both of these elements into a single unit of measure: energy. Each ship is equipped with a certain amount of energy, from which it must draw its health as well as its weapons power. When a ship's energy is reduced from its capacity (whether from firing weapons or enduring enemy fire), the ship will automatically recharge back to its maximum capacity over a period of time; however, sustained weapons fire or enemy fire will inevitably cause the energy to drop lower.

Once the ship's energy drops below zero, the ship is destroyed and the player is respawned elsewhere in the area. Any upgrades, weapons, or special abilities are lost. The energy mechanic forces players to be cautious of their energy usage, as reckless weapons fire could result in a quick death.

It is usually not possible for players to commit suicide; if a player's own weapon causes more damage than that player has energy, the player's energy will simply be reduced to one and begin recharging. However, suicide was possible in early beta versions of the game and the offline practice mode included with the original SubSpace client.

Ship Control
Thrust (Up for forward, Down for reverse) and rotation (Left for counter-clockwise, Right for clockwise) make up the basic movement of the ship. Ships maintain inertia once they are set in motion and cannot be brought to a complete stop except when in a safe zone. In addition, ships experience inelastic collisions with walls and asteroids but do not take damage from them. Ships do not collide with each other.

Players achieve their ship's top speed by maintaining thrust. Each ship is also equipped with afterburners (Shift+Up/Down) which allow the ship to exceed its typical top speed; however, this gradually drains the ship's energy. When afterburners are disengaged, the ship's inertia returns to its normal top speed, not its speed with afterburners.

Ships can instantly warp (Ins) to a random location on the map. This action requires the ship to be at full energy, and its energy is totally drained once the warp is complete, although the ship will begin recharging its energy immediately.

Ships may also attach to other friendly ships. In this scenario, the attaching ship loses thrust control and becomes a weapons turret on the back of another ship. This is technically achieved by performing a warp, thus requiring full energy to attach and draining energy in the process. A turret ship takes damage like a normal ship and may detach at any time. In addition, a ship carrying turrets may detach one or all of them at any time.

Scoring
Players primarily increase their score by killing other players. Each ship has a bounty, which is increased by collecting prizes, killing enemies, or other in-game mechanics. When a ship is killed, its bounty is added to the killer's score.

Each zone implements its own scoring system and may award bonuses for certain achievements.

Competitive Play
Many SubSpace players are organized into squads. These squadrons serve the same purpose as clans or teams do in other online games and allow players to cooperate and improve their skills, as well as to become more familiar with fellow players. In addition, many squads compete in competitive leagues hosted by various zones. Dueling is another favorite pastime and many zones have separate arenas for this purpose alone.

Ships
Within any given zone, a player can choose between up to eight different ships: Warbird, Javelin, Spider, Leviathan, Terrier, Weasel, Lancaster, and Shark.

Standard VIE Settings
Standard VIE Settings, SVS for short, (also referred to as Standard SubSpace Settings ) is a server configuration conforming to the physics and rules used in non-special game types hosted by Virgin Interactive Entertainment (VIE) before the company's dissolution. The term is sometimes used informally to describe servers which seek, through other means, to preserve the spirit of the game as it was originally played.

Zones
Gameplay can vary depending on the zone. Some zones are just free-for-all style gameplay, while others are capture the flag, or even powerball style. Zones typically have multiple public arenas, whose settings and maps are the same, which players are automatically distributed to upon joining the server. This serves to reduce crowding in highly populated arenas.

There are also numerous sub-arenas in SubSpace, and these sub-arenas can at times have greater populations than the "main/public" arenas. They differ from the main public arenas, in the sense that they may have their own settings, map, graphics, and bots (if required – or modules in ASSS zones).

Flag Games

 * War – Standard flag game whose name is derived from its original zone (War Zone). The objective is to claim all flags for one's own team.  Flags can be picked up by opponents only.  Flags that are picked up are dropped after a set time.  Flagging games usually involve bases to store flags and are heavily team-oriented.
 * Bounty Rabbit – One player is the rabbit, and has the 'flag'. The rabbit's kills are worth 101 points while a regular players' kills are only worth 1 point. Kill the current rabbit to become the new rabbit. The player with the most points at the end of the game wins. This game is usually run by bots in a main arena or sub-arenas.
 * Turf – Territorial flag game in which flags are located at specific locations around the map. Ownership is claimed by simply passing over the flag by any player. Turf games can either be won or involve periodic point rewards.
 * Basing – Similar to Turf, except there is a base with one flag. The team that controls that flag controls the base, and thus the base is often completely populated by the controlling team. Trench Wars is an example of a popular basing game.
 * Running – Flags in running zones do not have drop timers, and may only be claimed by killing an opponent carrying flags or picking up neutral flags. Variants include Rabbit Chase.

Kill Games
"Kill" games have no 'rounds' or 'games'; the objective is simply to kill as many opponents as possible while keeping one's own deaths to a minimum. The original Alpha and Chaos zones followed this basic premise.

However, some zones offer their own variants of this style of gameplay:

 * King of the Hill – Each player starts off with a crown, which may be lost if the set amount of time runs out. A player's timer, which is displayed at the top right of the screen, is reset every time they kill another player. However, if a player has already lost their crown, they may only regain it by either killing a flagger with a crown (sometimes marked by a red dot on the radar), or by destroying any two players. Generally though, flaggers with low bounty do not give others their crown. The game is then won when there is only one crowned player left standing.
 * Speed – Each round of a Speed game has a time limit. The winner of a round is the player with the most kills for the round.  In Speed Zone, ships began with a higher "bounty" (and more weapons and other power ups) than in other zones. Speed Zone proved to be less popular than the Jackpot/Running, Chaos, or "flag" zone games and support was discontinued shortly after SubSpace went to retail.

Ball Games
Ball games involve taking control of a ball and scoring it in the opposing team's goal. Players cannot fire weapons or warp while carrying the ball, and can only carry the ball for a few seconds. Before the ball timer runs out, they must pass the ball to a teammate (using Ins, Tab, or Ctrl keys), or the ball will shoot out from their ship in a random direction. If a player dies while carrying the ball, the ball is dropped immediately and may be picked up by anyone. A team wins a game when they achieve a certain number of goals, or the game may be timed, with the highest-scoring team winning when time expires.

 * Hockey simulates futuristic ice hockey in a space setting. the "ball" is the equivalent of the hockey puck.  Each ship's settings have been modified to fit that ship into a unique role on the team; for instance, Lancasters and Sharks are "goalie" ships. the Warbird, Javelin and Weasel are Forwards, Spiders and Terriers make up the midfield, and the Levithan is a defensive beast. The rules of the game are based on real hockey rules with some variations due to the 2d nature of the game.
 * Powerball (Soccer) – is similar to hockey, in that it also features two teams (Warbirds and Javelins) and goals at opposite ends of a symmetrical map. Powerball primarily uses SVS settings, except that the Warbird and Javelin have identical ship settings, creating two evenly matched teams.  Each ship starts with 100 bounty and comes "greened" with a number of basic upgrades and randomly selected special abilities (e.g. burst, repel, etc.).  It is not possible to choose any other type of ship.  Although scoring goals is the primary objective of Powerball, shooting and killing other players is very much an important part of the game.

Customization
A zone is a server to which players can connect using a client. Perhaps the most attractive feature of SubSpace is the extremely high degree of customization that zone sysops can implement. Almost every element of the game can be replaced, from the ship graphics to colors and sounds. Apart from a few basic settings, many game settings, such as ship speeds, energy levels, and such, can be changed. This allows a vast variety of zones to exist.

Game software
SubSpace utilizes a client–server architecture. Initially, both the client and server were provided by VIE. The client executable was titled SubSpace while the server was called SubGame. A new client, titled Continuum, was created by reverse engineering without access to the original source code by the players PriitK (one of the creators of Kazaa) and Mr Ekted. The original server software, heavily modified, is still the most common, although an open source alternative, A Small Subspace Server, is now available.

Continuum client
Continuum, first released in 2001, was developed as a clone of the SubSpace client, but now contains new original features exclusive to the client over the original. Continuum is the official client of the SubSpace Central Billing Server. It was developed primarily because of the original SubSpace client's failure to prevent hacking. As such, it has been adopted by several zones as a requirement in order to play.

A Small SubSpace Server
ASSS ( A S mall S ubSpace S erver) is an open source server designed for use on Linux and other Unix-like operating systems, but can be configured for use on Microsoft Windows. Both are downloadable from Bitbucket. ASSS is under active development.

Re-release
Continuum was released in the fan-reconstructed variant in digital distribution on Steam on July 3, 2015.

Reception
In 1997 Next Generation named SubSpace as number four on their "Top 10 Online Game Picks", reasoning that "Its minimal bandwidth requirements mean pretty damn good gameplay, and the software pings the various arenas to see where you'll receive the lowest latency. Nicely done: simple, addictive, and really multiplayer." During the inaugural Interactive Achievement Awards, SubSpace received a nomination for "Online Game of the Year" by the Academy of Interactive Arts & Sciences.

title: SubSpace (video game)


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Westminster Seminary

Westminster Seminary may refer to:
 * Westminster Theological Seminary, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
 * Westminster Seminary California, in Escondido, California

title: Westminster Seminary