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Henry Hobson Richardson

Henry Hobson Richardson, FAIA (September 29, 1838 – April 27, 1886) was an American architect, best known for his work in a style that became known as Richardsonian Romanesque. Along with Louis Sullivan and Frank Lloyd Wright, Richardson is one of "the recognized trinity of American architecture".

Early life
Richardson was born at the Priestley Plantation in St. James Parish, Louisiana, and spent part of his childhood in New Orleans, where his family lived on Julia Row in a red brick house designed by the architect Alexander T. Wood. He was the great-grandson of inventor and philosopher Joseph Priestley, who is usually credited with the discovery of oxygen.

Richardson went on to study at Harvard College and Tulane University. Initially, he was interested in civil engineering, but shifted to architecture, which led him to go to Paris in 1860 to attend the famed École des Beaux Arts in the atelier of Louis-Jules André. He was only the second U.S. citizen to attend the École's architectural division—Richard Morris Hunt was the first —and the school was to play an increasingly important role in training Americans in the following decades.

He did not finish his training there, as family backing failed due to the U.S. Civil War.

Career

Richardson returned to the U.S. in 1865, settling in New York that October. He found work with a builder, Charles, whom he had met in Paris. The two worked well together but Richardson was not being challenged. He had little to do and yearned for more. With no work Richardson fell into a state of poverty looking for more work. One of his first commissions was the William Dorsheimer House on Delaware Ave in Buffalo, NY, which is in the style of the Second Empire with a Mansard roof. This important commission led to many other commissions. The style that Richardson developed over time, however, was not the more classical style of the École, but a more medieval-inspired style, influenced by William Morris, John Ruskin and Viollet le Duc. Richardson developed a unique and highly personal idiom, adapting in particular the Romanesque of southern France. His early works, however, were not very remarkable. "There are few hints in the mediocre work of Richardson's early years of what was to come in his maturity, when, beginning with his competition-winning design ... for the Brattle Square Church in Boston, he adopted the Romanesque."

In 1869, he designed the Buffalo State Asylum for the Insane (now known as the Richardson Olmsted Complex) in Buffalo, the largest commission of his career and the first appearance of Richardsonian Romanesque style. A massive Medina sandstone complex, it is a National Historic Landmark and, as of 2009, was being restored.

Trinity Church in Boston, designed by Richardson and built 1872–1877, solidified his national reputation and led to major commissions for the rest of his life. Although incorporating historical elements from a variety of sources, including early Syrian Christian, Byzantine, and both French and Spanish Romanesque, it was more "Richardsonian" than Romanesque. Trinity was also a collaboration with the construction and engineering firm of the Norcross Brothers, with whom the architect would work on some 30 projects.

He designed the Ames Monument, which was constructed from 1880 to 1882, and is located at the highest point of the original Transcontinental Railway (the financing of which was spearheaded by Oliver Ames Jr. and his brother Oakes Ames), east of Laramie, Wyoming. The Ames brothers and family provided generous patronage for Richardson's works, and after Oliver's death, Richardson was commissioned to design the Ames Free Library established in 1883 by a bequeath in Ames's will.

He was well-recognized by his peers; of ten buildings named by American architects as the best in 1885, fully half were his: besides Trinity Church, there were Albany City Hall, Sever Hall at Harvard University, the New York State Capitol in Albany (as a collaboration), and Oakes Ames Memorial Hall in North Easton, Massachusetts.

Despite the success of Trinity, Richardson built only two more churches, focusing instead on the monumental buildings he preferred, plus libraries, railroad stations, commercial buildings, and houses. Of his buildings, the two he liked best, the Allegheny County Courthouse (Pittsburgh, 1884–1888) and the Marshall Field Wholesale Store (Chicago, 1885–1887, demolished 1930), were completed posthumously by his assistants.

Later years
Richardson spent much of his later years in his house at 25 Cottage St. in Brookline, Massachusetts, which had a studio attached.

Richardson died in 1886 at age 47 of Bright's disease. On his last day, he signed an informal will directing the three assistants still remaining to carry on the business, which was soon formalized as Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge. One example includes Richardson's design for the Greater Cincinnati Chamber of Commerce Building. Richardson had won the selection process in 1885 and nearly finalized the work, but after his death his successors completed the project.

He was buried in Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, Massachusetts. Despite an enormous income for an architect of his day, his "reckless disregard for financial order" meant that he died deeply in debt, leaving little to his widow and six children.

Trinity Church
Richardson's most acclaimed early work is Trinity Church. The interior of the church is one of the leading examples of the arts and crafts aesthetic in the United States. It was at Trinity that Richardson first worked with Augustus Saint Gaudens, with whom he would work many times in the ensuing years. Across the square is the Boston Public Library, built later (1895) by Richardson's former draftsman, Charles Follen McKim. Together these and the surrounding buildings comprise one of the outstanding American urban complexes, built as the centerpiece of the newly developed Back Bay.

Richardson Olmsted Campus
The largest building complex of HH Richardson's career, Richardson Olmsted Complex in Buffalo, New York, United States was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1986. The first building to display his characteristic style the complex of buildings was designed in concert with the famed landscape team of Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux in the late 1800s, incorporating a system of enlightened treatment for people with mental illness developed by Dr. Thomas Story Kirkbride. Over the years, as mental health treatment changed and resources were diverted, the buildings and grounds began a slow deterioration. In 2006, the Richardson Center Corporation was formed with a mandate to save the buildings and bring the Campus back to life through a state appropriation.

Today, the Richardson Olmsted Campus is being transformed into a cultural amenity for the city. Arriving in 2018, the Richardson Olmsted Campus will also have the Lipsey Architecture Center of Buffalo. The remaining buildings have been stabilized pending future opportunities.

Building types

Richardson pointedly claimed ability to create any type of structure a client wanted, insisting he could design anything "from a cathedral to a chicken coop." "The things I want most to design are a grain elevator and the interior of a great river-steamboat." However, architectural historian James F. O'Gorman sees Richardson's achievement particularly in four building types: public libraries, commuter train station buildings, commercial buildings, and single-family houses.

Public libraries
A series of small public libraries donated by patrons for the improvement of New England towns makes a small coherent corpus that defines Richardson's style: Winn Memorial Library (Woburn), Ames Free Library (Easton), the Converse Memorial Library (Malden), and the Thomas Crane Public Library (Quincy), (1880–1882) "generally regarded by architectural historians as the masterpiece of Richardson's libraries", the Hubbard Memorial Library (Ludlow, Massachusetts), and Billings Memorial Library on the campus of the University of Vermont. These buildings seem resolutely anti-modern, with the atmosphere of an Episcopalian vicarage, dimly lit for solemnity rather than reading on site. They are preserves of culture that did not especially embrace the contemporary flood of newcomers to New England. Yet they offer clearly defined spaces, easy and natural circulation, and they are visually memorable. Richardson's libraries found many imitators in the "Richardsonian Romanesque" movement.

The Thomas Crane Public Library is regarded as the best of Richardson's libraries. In his earlier libraries, Richardson's approach was to conceive the parts and then assemble them, while in the later ones such as Crane he thought in terms of the whole. Richardson also engaged in a process of simplification and elimination with each successive library, until in Crane "Richardson's concentration on the relation of solid to void, of wall to window, becomes the basis for a harmonious abstraction with scarcely a reference to any past style."

Railroad buildings

Richardson also designed nine railroad station buildings for the Boston & Albany Railroad as well as three stations for other lines. More subtle than his churches, municipal buildings and libraries, they were an original response to this relatively new building type. Beginning with his first at Auburndale (1881, demolished 1960s), Richardson drew inspiration for these station buildings from Japanese architecture that he learned about from Edward S. Morse, a Harvard zoologist who began traveling to Japan in 1877, originally for biological specimens. Falling in love with Japan, upon his return that same year Morse began giving illustrated "magic lantern" public lectures on Japanese ceramics, temples, vernacular architecture, and culture. Richardson incorporated Japanese concepts "in both sihouette and spatial concept", including the karahafu ("excellent gable", but generally poorly translated as "Chinese gable" despite its Japanese origin), the eyelid dormer, and the wide hip roof with extended eaves, all shown by Morse.

Among the few stations still extant, these influences are perhaps best illustrated in his Old Colony station (Easton, Massachusetts, 1881–1884). Here he uses the Syrian arch that became a hallmark of Richardson designs for both the porte-cochère and the windows of the main structure. Reminiscent of a courtyard and temple that Morse illustrated from Nikkō in Tochigi prefecture, Japan, the hip roof on wide, bracketed eaves nearly hides the rough stonework below in shadow. Richardson even included a carved dragon at each end of the beam spanning the arches of windows. The walls "become horizontal planes hovering above one another with bands of windows in between."

Richardson was an early although not the first U.S. architect to look to Japan, but his train stations "form the earliest sustained application of Japanese inspiration in American architecture, an undeniable precursor to Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie house designs". As with his libraries, Richardson evolved and simplified as the series continued, and his famous Chestnut Hill station (Newton, Massachusetts, 1883–1884, demolished circa 1960) featured clean lines with less Japanese influence.

After his death, more than 20 other stations were designed in Richardson's style for the Boston and Albany line by the firm of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, all draftsmen of Richardson at the time of his death. Many Boston and Albany stations were landscaped by Richardson's frequent collaborator, Frederick Law Olmsted. Additionally, a railroad station in Orchard Park, New York (near Buffalo) was built in 1911 as a replica of Richardson's Auburndale station in Auburndale, Massachusetts. The original Auburndale station was torn down in the 1960s during construction of the Massachusetts Turnpike. The original Richardson stations on the Boston and Albany Highland branch have either been demolished or converted to new uses (such as restaurants). Two of the stations designed by Shepley, Rutan, and Coolidge (both in Newton, Massachusetts) are still used by Boston's MBTA (green line) public transit service: and Newton Highlands station and Newton Centre station.

Commercial buildings

The noted Marshall Field Wholesale Store (Chicago, 1885–1887, demolished 1930) is Richardson's "culminating statement of urban commercial form", and its remarkable design influenced Louis Sullivan, Frank Lloyd Wright, and many other architects. According to Jeffrey Karl Ochsner, who has compiled all of Richardson's architectural works, despite its demolition in 1930, the Marshall Field Wholesale Store "is probably the most famous of Richardson's buildings, one that Richardson himself saw as among his most significant." Architectural critic Henry-Russell Hitchcock states that in the Field Store, Richardson "was, perhaps, never more creative architecturally." Drawing from his own earlier work and both Romanesque and Renaissance precedents, Richardson designed this "massive but integrated" seven-story stone warehouse. Minimizing ornamentation in an era that employed much of it, he stressed what he termed "the beauty of material and symmetry rather than mere superficial ornamentation" with "the effects depending on the relations of 'voids and solids'... on the proportion of the parts." Not requiring the new steel frame technology because of its comparatively low height, Richardson used multi-storied windows topped by arches to tie the stories together, and the regular patterns of the windows to tie the entire building into "a simple and unified solid occupying an entire block."

Single-family houses
Richardson designed many important single-family residences, but his famous John J. Glessner House (Chicago, 1885–87) is his best and most influential urban house. The Mary Fisk Stoughton House (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1882–1883), the Henry Potter House (St. Louis, 1886–1887, demolished 1958), and the Robert Treat Paine Estate (aka Stonehurst) (Waltham, Massachusetts, 1886) play that role for suburban and country settings. The Glessner House in particular influenced Frank Lloyd Wright as he began developing what would become his Prairie School houses. With his house for Reverend Percy Browne (Marion, Massachusetts, 1881–82) Richardson revived "the old colonial form (of the gambrel roof) to shape the facade of an artistically ambitious house. Perhaps he used the gambrel to signify the humility appropriate to the profession of his client, but in doing so he sanctioned its use for wealthier patrons and by other architects. Within three years the crumpled gambrel profile was showing up everywhere" and became one of the notable features of Shingle Style architecture.

Richardsonian Romanesque
Richardson is one of few architects to be immortalized by having a style named after him. "Richardsonian Romanesque", unlike Victorian revival styles like Neo-Gothic, was a highly personal synthesis of the Beaux-Arts predilection for clear and legible plans, with the heavy massing that was favored by the pro-medievalists. It featured picturesque roofline profiles, rustication and polychromy, semi-circular arches supported on clusters of squat columns, and round arches over clusters of windows on massive walls.

Following his death, the Richardsonian style was perpetuated by a variety of proteges and other architects, many for civic buildings like city halls, county buildings, court houses, train stations and libraries, as well as churches and residences. These include:
 * the successor firm of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, who completed some two dozen unfinished projects and then continued to produce work in the same style, and continued to employ his collaborators the Norcross Brothers for construction and engineering expertise, Frederick Law Olmsted for landscape architecture, and the English sculptor John Evans for stonecarving
 * Stanford White and Charles Follen McKim, who worked in Richardson's office as young men, went on to form McKim, Mead and White and moved into the radically different Beaux-Arts architecture style
 * Richardson's great admirer Louis Sullivan adapted Richardson's characteristic lessons of texture, massing, and the expressive language of stone walling (see Richardson's noted Chicago building Marshall Field's Wholesale Store), particularly at Chicago's Auditorium Building, and these influences are detectable in the work of Sullivan's own student Frank Lloyd Wright.
 * Richardson found sympathetic reception among young Scandinavian architects of the following generation, notably Eliel Saarinen
 * The Patrick F. Taylor Library, formerly known as the Howard Memorial Library, was built soon after Richardson's death. It is sometimes called "the only Richardson building located in the South". Residents of New Orleans had wanted an example of Richardson's work, a native son of New Orleans. The office of Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge used a Richardson design which had been submitted and rejected some years earlier for a library in Saginaw, Michigan. This leads some, particularly those in New Orleans, to argue that the building can be said to be by Richardson; the counter argument is that the design was not originally intended for this location and the building was constructed after Richardson's death with no input from the architect beyond the initial design. The library building is currently part of the Ogden Museum of Southern Art.
 * The Amelia S. Givin Library in Mount Holly Springs, PA was designed by James T. Steen, a well known Pittsburgh architect who worked extensively in the Richardsonian Romanesque style. The Givin Library was built in 1889 in the Richardsonian style.  Its interior was finished in an Orientalism theme which used the 1885 patented Moorish Fretwork screens of Moses Younglove Ransom. The Givin Library is still in use as a public library.

Replicas
Although many structures exist in the Romanesque style and some borrow so heavily that they are often mistaken for Richardson designs, several buildings have been built specifically to mimic a single Richardson structure.
 * Wellesley Farms Railroad Station – This structure was built by Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge (draftsmen of Richardson) soon after Richardson's death. Although this firm built many stations in Richardson's style, they were specifically penalized for this one because it was so similar to Richardson's Eliot station in Newton, Massachusetts. Eliot station was torn down in the 1950s.
 * A railroad station in Orchard Park, New York (near Buffalo), was built in 1911 as a replica of Richardson's Auburndale station in Auburndale, Massachusetts. The original Auburndale station, Richardson's first for the Boston & Albany Railroad and which was described by Henry Russell Hitchcock as "the best he ever built", was torn down in the 1960s during construction of the Massachusetts Turnpike.
 * The Old Orange County Courthouse in Santa Ana, California, was completed in 1906 and is heavily influenced by Richardson's designs, bearing a strong resemblance to Richardson's Sever Hall at Harvard.
 * Castle Hill Light is a lighthouse in Newport, Rhode Island, which is often attributed to Richardson. Richardson drew a sketch for the lighthouse at that location which may have been the basis for the design, though the actual structure does not include the residence featured in Richardson's sketch.

Chronological list of works
This is a partial list of works by Richardson:
 * 1867 Church of the Unity – Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 1867 Western Railroad Offices – Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 1867 Grace Episcopal Church – Medford, Massachusetts
 * 1868 Benjamin W. Crowninshield House – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1868 H. H. Richardson House – Clifton, Staten Island, New York
 * 1868 Alexander Dallas Bache Monument – Washington, DC
 * 1868 William Dorsheimer House – Buffalo, New York
 * 1869 Agawam National Bank – Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 1869 Brattle Square Church (now First Baptist Church) – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1869 New York State Asylum – Buffalo, New York
 * 1869 Worcester High School – Worcester, Massachusetts
 * 1871 Hampden County Courthouse – Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 1871 North Congregational Church – Springfield, Massachusetts
 * 1872 Trinity Church – Boston, Massachusetts (National Historic Landmark)
 * 1872 Frank William Andrews House – Newport, Rhode Island
 * 1874 William Watts Sherman House – Newport, Rhode Island
 * 1875 Hayden Building – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1875 R. and F. Cheney Building – Hartford, Connecticut PostcardHartfordCTMainStGFoxBuilding1905.jpg
 * 1875 New York State Capitol – Albany, New York
 * 1876 Rev. Henry Eglinton Montgomery Memorial – New York City
 * 1876 Winn Memorial Library – Woburn, Massachusetts
 * 1877 Oliver Ames Free Library – North Easton, Massachusetts
 * 1878 Sever Hall – Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * 1879 Oakes Ames Memorial Hall – North Easton, Massachusetts
 * 1879 Rectory for Trinity Church – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1879 Ames Monument – Sherman, Wyoming
 * 1880 F.L. Ames Gate Lodge – North Easton, Massachusetts
 * 1880 Bridge in the Fenway – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1880 Stony Brook Gatehouse – Boston, Massachusetts
 * 1880 Thomas Crane Public Library – Quincy, Massachusetts (National Historic Landmark)
 * 1880 Dr. John Bryant House – Cohasset, Massachusetts
 * 1880 Albany City Hall – Albany, New York
 * 1881 Austin Hall – Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * 1881 Pruyn Monument – Albany, New York
 * 1881 Rev. Percy Browne House – Marion, Massachusetts
 * 1881 North Easton station - Old Colony Railroad Station – North Easton, Massachusetts
 * 1882 Grange Sard Jr. House – Albany, New York
 * 1882 Mary Fiske Stoughton House – Cambridge, Massachusetts
 * 1883 Billings Memorial Library – Burlington, Vermont
 * 1883 Connecticut River Railroad Station – Holyoke, Massachusetts
 * 1883 Allegheny County Courthouse and Allegheny County Jail – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * 1883 Robert Treat Paine Estate – Waltham, Massachusetts
 * 1883 Boston & Albany Railroad Station – Framingham, Massachusetts
 * 1884 Boston & Albany Railroad Station – Newton, Massachusetts
 * 1884 F.L. Ames Gardener's Cottage – North Easton, Massachusetts
 * 1884 Immanuel Baptist Church – Newton, Massachusetts
 * 1884 Ephraim W. Gurney House – Beverly, Massachusetts
 * 1884 Union Station – Palmer, Massachusetts
 * 1885 Converse Memorial Library/Building – Malden, Massachusetts (National Historic Landmark)
 * 1885 Benjamin H. Warder House – Washington, DC
 * 1885 Bagley Memorial Fountain – Detroit, Michigan
 * 1885 John J. Glessner House – Chicago, Illinois (National Historic Landmark)
 * 1885 Boston & Albany Railroad Station – Wellesley Hills, Massachusetts
 * 1885 Union Passenger Station – New London, Connecticut
 * 1885 Emmanuel Episcopal Church – Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
 * 1886 Lululaund or the Sir Hubert von Herkomer House – Bushey, Hertfordshire, England
 * 1886 Dr. H.J. Bigelow House – Newton, Massachusetts
 * 1886 Isaac H. Lionberger House – St. Louis, Missouri

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title: Henry Hobson Richardson


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Menapii

The Menapii were a Belgic tribe dwelling near the North Sea, around present-day Cassel, during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

History
The Menapii were persistent opponents of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul, resisting until 54 BC. They were part of the Belgic confederacy defeated by Caesar in 57 BC, contributing 9,000 men. The following year they sided with the Veneti against Caesar. Caesar was again victorious, but the Menapii and the Morini refused to make peace and continued to fight against him. They withdrew into the forests and swamps and conducted a hit-and-run campaign. Caesar responded by cutting down the forests, seizing their cattle and burning their settlements, but this was interrupted by heavy rain and the onset of winter, and the Menapii and Morini withdrew further into the forests. In 55 BC the Menapii tried to resist a Germanic incursion across the Rhine, but were defeated. Later that year, while Caesar made his first expedition to Britain, he sent two of his legates and the majority of his army to the territories of the Menapii and Morini to keep them under control. Once again, they retired to the woods, and the Romans burned their crops and settlements. The Menapii joined the revolt led by Ambiorix in 54 BC. Caesar says that they, alone of all the tribes of Gaul, had never sent ambassadors to him to discuss terms of peace, and had ties of hospitality with Ambiorix. For that reason he decided to lead five legions against them. A renewed campaign of devastation finally forced them to submit, and Caesar placed his ally Commius of the Atrebates in control of them.

A cohort of Menapian auxiliaries is attested by inscriptions dating to the 2nd century in Britain. Carausius, the 3rd century commander of the Roman fleet who declared himself emperor of Britain and northern Gaul, was a Menapian, born in Batavia. A legion called the Menapii Seniores is mentioned in the Notitia Dignitatum, a 5th-century register of Roman government positions and military commands.

Attestations
They are mentioned as Menapii by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Orosius (early 5th c. AD), Menápioi (Μενάπιοι; var. Μονάπιοι, Μενάσπιοι) by Strabo (early 1st c. AD) and Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), as Menapi by Pliny (1st c. AD) and the Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD), and under the accusative forms Menapios by Tacitus (early 2nd c. AD) and Menapíous (Μεναπίους) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).

Etymology
The Gaulish ethnonym Menapii has been phonetically compared with Manapii, the name of a tribe from southeastern Ireland mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century AD. These tribal names may ultimately derive from a Proto-Celtic form reconstructed as *Menakwī or *Manakwī, whose meaning remains uncertain, perhaps the 'mountain people' or the 'high-living people' (from the root *mon- 'mountain'; cf. MWelsh mynydd, OBret. monid, OCo. menit), or from the root *men- ('think, remember'; cf. OIr. muinithir 'think', Welsh mynnu 'wish').

The city of Cassel, attested on Peutinger's Tabula as Castellum Menapiorum (Cassello in 840–75, Cassel in 1110), is indirectly named after the tribe.

Territory
According to descriptions in such authors as Strabo, Caesar, Pliny the Elder and Ptolemy their territory had stretched northwards to the mouth of the Rhine in the north, but more lastingly it stretched along the west of the Scheldt river. In later geographical terms this territory corresponds roughly to the modern Belgian coast, the Belgian provinces of East and West Flanders. It also extended into neighbouring France and the river deltas of the Southern Netherlands.

To the north and east of the Menapii lay the Rhine–Meuse–Scheldt delta. In the time of Caesar, the Menapii had settlements throughout this region and as far as the Rhine in present-day Germany, or at least its branch, the Waal. During Roman times these islands were under the frontier province of Germania Inferior, and inhabited partly by various groups of people who had moved there under Roman rule. Pliny the elder lists the people in these "Gallic Islands" as Batavi and Canninefates on the largest island, Frisii and the Chauci whose main lands were to the north of the deltas, and the Frisiavones, Sturii, and Marsacii. Of these last three, the Marsaci appear to be mentioned in another place by Pliny as having a presence on the coast south of the delta, neighbouring the Menapii, within Gaul itself. The Frisiavones are also mentioned within the listing for Belgian Gaul, but probably therefore lived in the part of the delta south of the Batavi, northeast of the Menapii. In one inscription, from Bulla Regia, the Tungri, Batavians and Frisiavones are grouped together, apparently confirming that the Frisiavones lived inland. It is suggested that the Marsaci and the Sturii could be "pagi" belonging to the civitas of either the Frisiavones or the Menapii. South of the delta, east of the river Scheldt from the Menapii, and therefore apparently south of the Frisiavones, Pliny mentions the Toxandri, in a position apparently on the northern edge of Gaul. It is known that the Toxandri were associated with the civitates of both the Nervii and the Tungri, so they presumably had a presence in both.

While in Pliny the Menapii do not stretch beyond the Scheldt, in Strabo's 1st-century Geographica, they are situated further away than the Nervii and on both sides of the Rhine near its outlets to the sea, apparently not far from the Germanic Sigambri. Apparently following Caesar he said that they "dwell amongst marshes and forests, not lofty, but consisting of dense and thorny wood". They are also referred to in Ptolemy's 2nd century Geographia, situated "above" the Nervii, and near the Meuse river.

While these authors make it clear that the Menapii still lay north of the Nervii in Roman times, it is not clear if they still bordered directly upon the former territory of the Eburones, as they had been in Caesar's time, and which in imperial times was within the Civitas Tungrorum, or civitas of the Tungri. In any case as mentioned above they bordered in Roman times upon the Toxandrians, who apparently lived in the north of the lands of the Nervii and Tungri.

South of the Menapii were the Atrebates in Artois, and south-west along the coast were the Morini. The boundary with the Morini in classical times appears to have been the river Aa.

In the later Roman empire, The Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites reports that "Cassel was superseded as capital of the Menapii by Tournai after Gaul was reorganized under Diocletian and Constantine the Great. The civitas Menapiorum became the civitas Turnencensium." By medieval times, when these Roman districts evolved into medieval Roman Catholic dioceses, Cassel had in fact become part of the diocese of Thérouanne, which had been the civitas of the Morini.

Settlements
Their civitas, or administrative capital, under the Roman empire was Cassel in northern France, and later this was moved nearer to a river in Tournai, in present-day Belgium, on the Scheldt. Both of these are near Thérouanne, which was the civitas of the neighbouring Morini tribe, and indeed in the Middle Ages Cassel became part of the Catholic Diocese of Thérouanne. Cassel was therefore in the southern extreme of the Menapii lands. A pattern of placing Roman tribal capitals in the south is also found in the neighbouring Belgian tribal states, of the Nervii and Tungri. The positions of such Roman tribal capitals frequently didn't correspond to the centre of a tribe's territory in pre-Roman political geography. Similarly, in those neighbouring regions, the centre of Roman civilization was typically moved further south, and on to a major river, in late Roman times, after the area was threatened by Frankish tribes from outside the empire.

Economy
The economic activity of the Menapii was primally extraction of wool from sheeps, and the fabrication of primitive cloths, and these were perfected while the Roman Reign in the Region. These cloths were one of the most rare things in terms of goods, because of the geographical location where they were made. Besides, these cloths were exported to Italy and other regions through the Rhine.

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5.1 surround sound

5.1 surround sound ("five-point one") is the common name for surround sound audio systems. 5.1 is the most commonly used layout in home theatres. It uses five full bandwidth channels and one low-frequency effects channel (the "point one"). Dolby Digital, Dolby Pro Logic II, DTS, SDDS, and THX are all common 5.1 systems. 5.1 is also the standard surround sound audio component of digital broadcast and music.

All 5.1 systems use the same speaker channels and configuration, having a Front Left (FL) and Front Right (FR), a Center Channel (CNT), two surround channels (Surround Left - SL and Surround Right - SR) and the low-frequency effects (LFE) channel designed for a subwoofer.

History
A prototype for five-channel surround sound, then dubbed "quintaphonic sound", was used in the 1975 film Tommy.

5.1 dates back to 1976, when Dolby Labs modified the track usage of the six analogue magnetic soundtracks on Todd-AO 70 mm film prints. The Dolby application of optical matrix encoding in 1976 (released on the film Logan's Run) did not use split surrounds, and thus was not 5.1. Dolby first used split surrounds with 70 mm film, notably in 1979 with Apocalypse Now. Instead of the five screen channels and one surround channel of the Todd-AO format, Dolby Stereo 70 mm Six Track provided three screen channels, two high-passed surround channels and a low-frequency surround channel monophonically blended with the two surround channels.

A system of digital 5.1 surround sound was also used in 1987 at the Parisian cabaret the Moulin Rouge, created by French engineer Dominique Bertrand. To achieve such a system in 1985, a dedicated mixing console had to be designed in cooperation with Solid State Logic, based on their 5000 series, and dedicated speakers in cooperation with APG. The console included ABCDEF channels: respectively, A left, B right, C centre, D left rear, E right rear, F bass. The same engineer had already developed a similar 3.1 system in 1973, for use at the official International Summit of Francophone States in Dakar.

Digital sound and the 5.1 format were introduced in 1990, by Kodak and Optical Radiation Corporation, with releases of Days of Thunder and The Doors using the CDS (Cinema Digital Sound) format.

When digital sound was applied to 35 mm release prints, with Batman Returns in 1992, the 5.1 layout was adopted. The ability to provide 5.1 sound had been one of the key reasons for using 70 mm for prestige screenings. The provision of 5.1 digital sound on 35 mm significantly reduced the use of the very expensive 70 mm format.

5.1 digital surround, in the forms of Dolby Digital AC-3 and DTS, started appearing on several mid-1990s LaserDisc releases, among the earliest being Clear and Present Danger and Jurassic Park (the latter having both AC3 and DTS versions). Many DVD releases have Dolby Digital tracks up to 5.1 channels, due to the implementation of Dolby Digital in the development of the DVD format. In addition, some DVDs have DTS tracks, with most being 5.1 channel mixes (a few releases, however, have 6.1 "matrixed" or even discrete 6.1 tracks). Blu-ray and digital cinema both have eight-channel capability which can be used to provide either 5.1 or 7.1 surround sound. 7.1 is an extension of 5.1 that uses four surround zones: two at the sides and two at the back.

Channel order
The order of channels in a 5.1 file is different across file formats. The order in WAV files is (not complete) Front Left, Front Right, Center, Low-frequency effects, Surround Left, Surround Right.

Music

In music, the main goal of 5.1 surround sound is a proper localization and equability of all acoustic sources for a center-positioned audience. Therefore, ideally five matched speakers should be used.

Speaker placement
For playback the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) recommends the following configuration (ITU-R BS 775):
 * five speakers of the same size for front, center and surround
 * identical distance from the listeners for all five speakers
 * angle adjustment regarding viewing direction of audience: center 0°, front ±22.5° for movies ±30° for music, surround ±110°

title: 5.1 surround sound


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2D geometric model

A 2D geometric model is a geometric model of an object as a two-dimensional figure, usually on the Euclidean or Cartesian plane.

Even though all material objects are three-dimensional, a 2D geometric model is often adequate for certain flat objects, such as paper cut-outs and machine parts made of sheet metal. Other examples include circles used as a model of thunderstorms, which can be considered flat when viewed from above.

2D geometric models are also convenient for describing certain types of artificial images, such as technical diagrams, logos, the glyphs of a font, etc. They are an essential tool of 2D computer graphics and often used as components of 3D geometric models, e.g. to describe the decals to be applied to a car model. Modern architecture practice "digital rendering" which is a technique used to form a perception of a 2-D geometric model as of a 3-D geometric model designed through descriptive geometry and computerized equipment.

2D geometric modeling techniques

 * simple geometric shapes
 * boundary representation
 * Boolean operations on polygons

title: 2D geometric model


text:
User:Elgaard

Niels Elgaard Larsen

Copenhagen Denmark.

URL: http://www.agol.dk/elgaard/

I am also user Elgaard on Commons and on Wikivoyage: http://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/User:Elgaard

and Openstreetmap: http://www.openstreetmap.org/user/Niels%20Elgaard%20Larsen

title: User:Elgaard


text:
Eochaid

Eochaid or Eochaidh (earlier Eochu or Eocho, sometimes anglicised as Eochy, Achaius or Haughey) is a popular medieval Irish and Scottish Gaelic name deriving from Old Irish ech "horse", borne by a variety of historical and legendary figures.

List

 * Eochaid mac Eirc, mythological king of the Fir Bolg in the 16th or 20th century BC
 * Eochaid Ollathair, also known as The Dagda, mythical king of the Tuatha Dé Danann, said to have ruled Ireland in the 15th or 18th century BC
 * Eochaid Faebar Glas, legendary High King of Ireland of the 13th or 15th century BC
 * Eochaid Étgudach, legendary High King of Ireland of the 12th or 15th century BC
 * Eochaid Mumho, legendary High King of Ireland of the 12th or 15th century BC
 * Eochaid Apthach, legendary High King of Ireland of the 9th or 10th century BC
 * Eochaid Uaircheas, legendary High King of Ireland of the 8th or 9th century BC
 * Eochaid Fiadmuine, legendary High King of Ireland of the 8th or 9th century BC
 * Eochaid mac Ailella, legendary High King of Ireland of the 6th or 8th century BC
 * Eochaid Ailtleathan, legendary High King of Ireland of the 3rd or 5th century BC
 * Eochu Feidlech, legendary High King of Ireland of the 1st or 2nd century BC
 * Eochaid Airem, legendary High King of Ireland of the 1st or 2nd century BC
 * Eochaid Gonnat, legendary High King of Ireland of the 3rd century AD
 * Eochaid Mugmedon, semi-historical High King of Ireland of the 4th century AD
 * Eochaid Iarlaithe (died 666), king of the Cruthin or Dál nAraidi in Ireland
 * Eochaid Buide, historical king of Dál Riata in the 7th century AD
 * Eochaid mac Domangairt, historical king of Dál Riata in the 7th century AD
 * Eochaid mac Echdach, historical king of Dál Riata in the 8th century AD
 * Eochaid mac Áeda Find, spurious king of Dál Riata in the 8th century AD
 * Eochaid, son of Rhun, historical king of Strathclyde (or perhaps of the Picts) in the 9th century AD
 * Eochaid Muinremuir, father of Erc of Dalriada and grandfather of Fergus Mór
 * Dallan Forgaill, Eochaid Dallan Forgall, Saint and Poet 530 - 598

Two legendary Irish High Kings were called Rothechtaid, which appears to mean "Eochaid's wheels"

Fiction

 * The name Eochaid was used by Rutland Boughton for the king in his opera The Immortal Hour in 1914.
 * In Dungeons & Dragons 4th edition, in Dragon Magazine #381 Eochaid was used as an example patron for a fey pact warlock. It is described as a mixture of a fey humanoid and animal shapes, while the art shows a humanoid with fur and horns, green twines forming the arms, trees forming its legs and the roots forming its toes.
 * In the 2022 video game Elden Ring, "Eochaid" is a mentioned location and former home of the character "Elemer of the Briar". A collectable weapon "Regalia of Eochaid" also hails from the fictitious domain.

title: Eochaid


text:
Talk:Quantitative analyst

Business jargon
Having a PhD in statistics with a minor in math, having taught math and statistics at five different universities, I've never heard the term except here. I suspect it may have currency among business people, so that it should be labeled as business jargon rather than either "maths" (which would be appropriate if mathematicians or statisticians used the word quant). Those same business people who decided to use the term rocket scientist to refer to those who apply sophisticated mathematics to the financial markets are mathematical ignoramuses who don't know that, for example numerical is nowhere near synonymous with mathematical. Michael Hardy 00:50, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * ... and now I have moved this article. Michael Hardy 00:50, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I moved it again and re-wrote the article. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 16:46, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * You are probably right Dr Hardy. The equations used in these models are very similar or even identical to those used in Thermodynamics, which are naturally used to model real thermodynamic systems. I believe the praise was that a very complicated system such as markets, which have, statistically speaking, billions of degrees of freedom, could be so successfully described by such simple equations, until the market 'decided' to fight back, and throw all these Quants off-balance. Of course, when all these complicated looking formulae are evaluated, what is returned is just a number. An engineering friend told me that in engineering, when a confidence limit has to be given, what you do is just think of a number and double it. Successful traders may not have the mathematical knowledge of Quants, but they sure know which way the market is going. I agree with you, rocket science isn't really that complicated, although rocket engineering and technolgy are. 81.154.205.12 (talk) 19:27, 21 December 2007 (UTC)

No such thing as quant or not. Data analysis is just a tool. No nerdx or not. Use a tool is ok. — Preceding unsigned comment added by VunslK (talk • contribs) 07:45, 28 September 2018 (UTC)

Jaring phrase
Whatever else happens to this stub, I have to say I find the phrase "Within the industry, such workers are universally known" jarring. If the term is used only within the industry, why use the word "universally?" It's kind of like saying, "Only among people in Rhode Island, everyone in the whole world believes that ..." Slrubenstein

 * It is a legitimate bit of verbiage . It would also be legitimate to say "Rhode Islanders universally agree that they live in a pretty small state" for "All Rhode Islanders agree that they live in a pretty small state." But I changed it anyway, no point in jarring people unnecessarily. Pete/Pcb21 (talk) 17:00, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Thanks. I didn't mean the question the validity of the word, just its use in this context. I like your change and think it reads much better now. Slrubenstein

Usage in finance industry
Being a quant myself, and a PhD in Physics - I kinda like the word. And its usage IS ubiquitous in the Financial industry. To seal this discussion, read the "Uber-quant" Emanuel Derman's autobiography "My Life as a Quant". VSreekantan

 * what do u have to do to become a quant?

Seconded. I worked in finance and software in the Financial District of London since 1994, and I've known what a quant is for the last ~10 years, and so I took numerous courses and a Mathematical Finance PhD, and now finally my job title and role is Quantitative analyst WillSmith (talk) 21:47, 21 September 2016 (UTC)

Usage of the term
Mr Hardy, "Mathematical ignorami", surely?
 * Here's a 2007 NYTimes article that uses the term in its title: Even Quants Wobble When Markets Quake. For what it's worth. Ante  lan  talk  02:19, 18 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Since "ignoramus" is not a Latin noun but a verb inflection meaning "we do not know," and came into English in a 1615 play which used the word as a joke, "ignorami" is not the natural plural. Most dictionaries prefer "ignoramuses." 67.173.10.34 (talk) 08:30, 30 October 2010 (UTC)Larry Siegel

More work needed
I think this article needs a lot of work. The paragraphs about Paul Wilmott and CFA institute are completely out of place. They do nothing to further understanding of the topic of "quantitative analyst" and are arguably non-NPOV. Albertod4 (talk) 03:37, 22 January 2008 (UTC)

I wrote those paragraphs about Paul Wilmott and the CFA institute and I do not understand why they were out of place. Nor do I understand why they are non-NPOV. I do NOT say I approve their work. I do NOT say they will make you money. What I do say is that they are entirely typical of these approaches. I choose them not because I like them but because they were more typical than any other examples I could think of. A penguin is a bird, but it is not a typical bird the way a robin is, by way of analogy. I am trying to be adult about these things and I am fully willing to edit those paragraphs, but right now I think they make a positive contribution.

Part of what I wanted to do is to show that quantitative analysis is not one thing (which is what the article still implies, in large part) it is several things.JustAnInvestor (talk) 16:17, 26 January 2008 (UTC)

I have just reviewed the edits others have made to my additions to this article. All were correct and I would like to thank whoever made them. My one complaint is the removal of the footnote sourcing Gehm’s quote. As I understand the rules here, this is exactly the kind of stuff that needs to be sourced. His observation seems both correct (see everyone else’s argument above) and original (no one mentions it above or anywhere else.)

I also changed my description of Gehm from ‘quantitative analyst’ to ‘fund of fund analyst’ in the text. Judging by his website, this seemed a better description of him.--JustAnInvestor (talk) 16:14, 20 February 2008 (UTC)

Mayor layout rework
I hope you appreciate my layout rework. Previously, the introduction was almost longer than the rest of the article, with a lengthly narration on statistical and mathematical quants. I created a new section for this content. Still I think, even as a section this should be shortend. It partly reads like an advertisment, a strong form of POV. Then, I have also changed the sections sequence. I hope you agree that Histroy should come first. At last, I moved Mr Merton's picture into the section where he occurs. I am wondering, whether this picture is really necessary. Has he really had that paramount impact to the described job profile that we should display it? Since I am not an expert to the field, I am just suggesting and did not want to change the contents myself, but leave it up to others. Tomeasy (talk) 19:56, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Notable Quants
Does Nassim Taleb count as a quant? Rachelm1978 (talk) 10:18, 19 August 2008 (UTC)

DominicConnor (talk) 15:07, 25 February 2010 (UTC)He doesn't call himself a quant, and doesn't work as one. But his contributions to both the way people think in this field, even if they reject his ideas wholly is such that we have to reference him.

Time for a standard
The most recent changes seem to be disagreements about who should be on the list of well-known quants. I happen to disagree with some of the changes, for example, why is Bill Chen, who is indeed a quant but widely-known only for writing a book on poker, more important that Espen Haug, who has been a quant for many years longer and written three important quant books, including the canonical early work The Complete Guide to Options Pricing Models?

If we solve this by people adding and subtracting quants with comments like "in my opinion, not as important as the other guys" or "I've never heard of this guy," it won't do much good. I propose instead to agree on a reasonably verifiable standard. Some guys on the list have Nobel prizes for quant finance, if we eliminate everyone less important than them, we might as well title the list "Nobel prize winning quants." On the other hand, if we include everyone who works as a quant, it'll be like a telephone directory.

My suggestion is anyone with a biography on Wikipedia, whose primary fame comes from the practice or teaching of quantitative finance, should be listed. Granted, there is a wide range of importance of Wikipedia biography subjects, but if someone's important enough for that, they're important enough to be referenced on this list. If you don't think they're important enough for a biography, fight it out on the biography page instead of here. This list will then be a useful cross-reference for people interested in particular aspects of quantitative finance.

I'll wait a couple of weeks for objections or other suggestions. If there are no responses, I'll take a stab at implementing this standard.

AaCBrown (talk) 19:06, 4 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Sounds very reasonable to me. T om ea s y T C 19:32, 4 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I second the motion, but what standard to use for determining primary fame? Btyner (talk) 02:59, 5 January 2009 (UTC)
 * I am fine with the proposal. Alternatively, I was thinking about replacing the "short list of notable quants" with a timeline including notable papers and books relevant to the area of quantitive finace. This would also solve earlier discussed problem whether N.N.Taleb is a quant or not. Example:
 * 1977 - Oldrich Vasicek published paper An equilibrium characterisation of the term structure, his approach to modelling of interest rates is known as Vasicek model
 * 2001 - Nassim Nicholas Taleb published book Fooled by Randomness, criticizing over-reliance on models developed by quants and trading strategies with Taleb Distribution
 * I admit that my move of Espen Haug from short list to long list should have been discussed in advance. JanSuchy (talk) 13:08, 5 January 2009 (UTC)

 * The timeline idea is a good substitute for my proposal, I generally don't like lists in Wikipedia. The "notable" makes it worse, I don't think it makes much difference to the average Wikepedia user whether Espen's name is there or not, but it makes it seem like a value judgement.

 * The timeline is more work but if JanSuchy (or anyone else) is willing to do it, it removes the issue. The notable quants will be included, along with some possibly arguable candidates who happened to co-author an important paper or participate in a public event.

 * If we do revert to my idea, I don't think determining "primary" will be a problem. For many people, it's obvious. If you call your autobiography My Life as a Quant, it's hard to argue. Someone like Nassim Taleb could be included or not. Dynamic Hedging was pure quant, but his main fame comes from later books which I would call quant-flavored but not quant. Since a million times as many people bought The Black Swan as Dynamic Hedging, and he'd personally rather be called a philosopher, I guess I'd leave him off.

AaCBrown (talk) 19:13, 7 January 2009 (UTC)

 * I have prepared an initial timeline of "seminal publications" that could be used as replacement for "short list of notable autors". Sources include scholar.google.com, top cited autors/papers in Risk magazine in 1988-2006 etc. I did not find seminal publications in the area of quantitative finance of some autors currently included in the short list (Bill Chen, Andrew Kalotay), on the other hand there are widely cited papers of autors who are currently not included in the long list (for example paper Pricing with a smile by Bruno Dupire)

 * 1952 - Harry Markowitz, Portfolio Selection, Modern portfolio theory
 * 1973 - Fischer Black and Myron Scholes, The Pricing of Options and Corporate Liabilities and Robert C. Merton, Theory of Rational Option Pricing, Black–Scholes
 * 1976 - Fischer Black, The pricing of commodity contracts, Black model
 * 1977 - Phelim Boyle, Options: A Monte Carlo Approach, Monte Carlo methods for option pricing
 * 1985 - John C. Cox, Jonathan E. Ingersoll and Stephen Ross, A theory of the term structure of interest rates, Cox-Ingersoll-Ross model
 * 1988 - John Hull, Options, futures, and other derivatives (8th edition issued in 2008)
 * 1990 - Fischer Black, Emanuel Derman and William Toy, A One-Factor Model of Interest Rates and Its Application to Treasury Bond, Black-Derman-Toy model

 * The timeline is just a proposal, I am not against keeping the current "short list of notable quants" as long as it is reviewed AaCBrown or some other editor.

JanSuchy (talk) 17:30, 9 January 2009 (UTC)

This is great, go for it. I've stuck in a few more, but it doesn't have to be complete to be an improvement.

1900 - Louis Bachelier, Théorie de la spéculation

1956 - John Kelly, A New Interpretation of Information Rate, Bell System Technical Journal, 35, (1956), 917–926

1967 - Edward O. Thorp and Sheen Kassouf, Beat the Market

1972 - Eugene Fama and Merton Miller, Theory of Finance

1980 - Lawrence G. McMillan, Options as a Strategic Investment

1996 - Philippe Jorion, Value at Risk

1997 - Espen Haug, The Complete Guide to Option Pricing Formulas

1997 - Nassim Nicholas Taleb Dynamic Hedging: Managing Vanilla and Exotic Options

1998 - Paul Wilmott, Derivatives: The Theory and Practice of Financial Engineering

2004 - Emanuel Derman My Life as a Quant: Reflections on Physics and Finance

2004 - Riccardo Rebonato Volatility and Correlation: The Perfect Hedger and the Fox

AaCBrown (talk) 03:02, 15 January 2009 (UTC)

 * AaCBrown, your selection is perfect. I'll start an article about quants on Czech Wikipedia just to put it there. Regards JanSuchy (talk) 09:45, 24 January 2009 (UTC)

The word “quant”
is a jargon word. Unincyclopedic, needs to be replaced, as this article is not about the word itself.
 * done

DominicConnor (talk)It might jargon, but the term is so common that in my opinion it would be a disservice not to use it. The vast majority refer to themselves as quants. A plumber does not call himself a heating systems maintenance operative, even if that is what it says on his employment contract. —Preceding undated comment added 15:05, 25 February 2010 (UTC).

Role of Quants in the Financial Crisis
This is a controversial subject, with nothing that even resembles a consensus for the causes or the solutions. But it's the most important thing in this field, so we need to start thinking about how to cover this. —Preceding unsigned comment added by DominicConnor (talk • contribs) 17:50, 26 February 2010 (UTC)

Comment
Removed from main article. Comment: It has been educated several quants with specialisation in optimal stopping, Ito calculus, HJB optmisation etc at the University of Oslo, Norway since early -80. One of the most used books in quant-finance: "stochastic Differential Equations" is written by Øksendal. He has been and still is lecturing Stochastic calculus with applications in finance. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dilaudid (talk • contribs) 09:20, 20 May 2010 (UTC)

"Quant" is in OED
Oxford English Dictionary:

quant, adj. and n.3

B.n.3.

2. Finance and Econ.

A quantitative analyst; a person who excels at or depends upon quantitative methods of analysis.

1979   Forbes 16 Apr. 120/2   Russell isn't a ‘quant’, one of the young consultants who do much of their monitoring by questionnaire and most of their evaluating by quantitative analysis.

1989   Computers in Banking (Nexis) July 26   Quants, usually trained in mathematics, physics, or engineering disciplines, are being increasingly hired by Wall Street firms as analysts.

1993   Harper's Mag. Oct. 64  A group of ‘policy wonks’ and quants disdainful of the sticky dilemmas inherent in moral reasoning.

2000   S. Hörter in L. Schuster Shareholder Value Managem. Banks ii. 31  The top management of financial firms has to be able to interpret figures‥. Otherwise, power will informally shift to ‘quants’ and risk managers. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Umquant (talk • contribs) 12:08, 9 December 2010 (UTC)

Sell Side vs Buy Side
The article does not stress the sell side (market makers) vs the buy side (fund managers). The book by Patterson provoked confusion. Traditionally quants were sell side. Will add references in addition to "Derman's My Life as a Quant". — Preceding unsigned comment added by Limit-theorem (talk • contribs) 14:45, 25 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I think the notion that quants started on the sell side is inaccurate. Bernstein's "Capital Ideas" documents efforts by fund managers to apply the theories of Markowitz, Sharpe, and Lintner to portfolio construction and asset allocation in the 1960s. I propose some modification to the introduction to correct this, and to expand the history section with a key development that lead to the first stock index fund in the early-1970s, as well as elaborate a bit on Bachelier's work. S.detoro (talk) 22:31, 9 December 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Quantitative analyst


text:
10th Golden Raspberry Awards

The 10th Golden Raspberry Awards were held on March 25, 1990, at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel to recognize the worst the film industry had to offer in 1989.

The 1990 awards featured special awards for the worst motion picture performances of the 1980s. Unlike in prior years, no award was given for Worst New Star.

Awards and nominations
{{Legend|#B0C4DE|Winner (in bold)}}

Worst of the Decade
{{legend|#B0C4DE|Winner (in bold)}}

Films with multiple nominations
The following films received multiple nominations:

title: 10th Golden Raspberry Awards


text:
Dolls (2002 film)

Dolls (ドールズ) is a 2002 Japanese film written, edited and directed by Japanese director Takeshi Kitano. A highly stylized art film, Dolls is part of Kitano's non-crime film oeuvre, like 1991's A Scene at the Sea, and unlike most of his other films, he does not act in it. The film has been praised for its cinematography (Katsumi Yanagishima) and features costumes by Yohji Yamamoto.

Plot
The film features three primary sets of characters, each within their own distinct story:

 * A young man (Matsumoto, played by Hidetoshi Nishijima) who rejects his engagement to his fiancée (Sawako, played by Miho Kanno) to marry the daughter of his company's president. When his former fiancée attempts suicide and ends up in a semi-catatonic state, he takes her out of the hospital and they run away.
 * Another young man (Nukui, played by Tsutomu Takeshige) is obsessed with the pop-star Haruna (played by Kyoko Fukada); he blinds himself when she is involved in a disfiguring car accident.
 * An aged yakuza (Hiro, played by Tatsuya Mihashi), who tries to meet a girlfriend from his youth (played by Chieko Matsubara).

These stories do have some incidental visual cross-over with each other in the film, but are mostly separate. The first story is the one on which the film centers. The film leads into it by opening with a performance of Bunraku theatre, and closes with a shot of dolls from the same. The performance is that of "The Courier for Hell" by Chikamatsu Monzaemon, and it alludes to themes that reappear later in the film. Because the rest of the film itself (as Kitano himself has said) can be treated as Bunraku in film form, the film is quite symbolic. In some cases, it is not clear whether a particular scene is meant to be taken literally. The film is also not in strict chronological order, but there is a strong visual emphasis on the changing of the seasons and the bonds of love over the progression of time (Matsumoto and Sawako spend most of the film physically connected by a red rope).

Cast

 * Miho Kanno as Sawako
 * Hidetoshi Nishijima as Matsumoto
 * Tatsuya Mihashi as Hiro, the boss
 * Kanji Tsuda as young Hiro
 * Chieko Matsubara as Ryoko, the woman in the park
 * Yūko Daike as young Ryoko
 * Kyoko Fukada as Haruna Yamaguchi, the pop star
 * Tsutomu Takeshige as Nukui, the fan
 * Kayoko Kishimoto as Haruna's aunt
 * Ren Osugi as Haruna's manager

Themes
The film and each of its vignettes revolve closely around the theme of death. It was Kitano's intent to show death as neither good nor bad but a relative event. In an interview, Kitano stated, "The reason why modern Japanese and Westerners loathe the notion of death so much is beyond me. There really is no reason to loathe death," adding, "How you perceive this film can considerably differ depending on the position where you stand."

Soundtrack
All compositions by Joe Hisaishi.

 * 1) "Sakura" − 4:40
 * 2) "Pure White" − 2:48
 * 3) "Mad" − 4:55
 * 4) "Feel" − 4:58
 * 5) "Dolls" − 4:09

Reception
The film received generally positive reviews. Dolls has an approval rating of 73% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, based on 41 reviews, and an average rating of 6.6/10. The website's critical consensus states: "Dolls doesn't offer easy answers, but for audiences attuned to its beguiling wavelength, writer-director Takeshi Kitano's work offers rich, distinctive rewards". Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 16 critics, indicating "generaly favourable reviews".

Adaptations
A stage adaptation of the film was directed by Carrie Cracknell in 2009 for Hush Productions and the National Theatre of Scotland.

title: Dolls (2002 film)


text:
User talk:Elgaard

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

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 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - Flockmeal 00:52, Mar 8, 2004 (UTC)

Palermo
That is really kind of you, thanks very much indeed, I couldn't find you here, so I will leave this message on Wiki travel also. Yes I wll put something at Palermo there also, and perhaps a link to the relatively unkmown glories of Sicily! Giano | talk 18:45, 18 October 2005 (UTC)

Notification about disabling the Wikipedia collections tool
Thank you for using the collections feature in Wikipedia beta! Due to technical and moderation issues, we will be turning off this experimental feature. Your collections will be available for viewing and export until March 1st. If you would like to save your collection as links on a special Wikipedia page, please fill out the following form. If you are interested in giving your feedback about Wikipedia Collections please do so here.

Thanks,

Jon Katz

Product manager, Wikimedia Foundation

Jkatz (WMF) (talk) 23:51, 26 February 2016 (UTC)

Middelgrundsfortet -> Ungdomsøen Requested move
Hi for your information, I've opened a discussion at Talk:Middelgrundsfortet to move Middelgrundsfortet to new title Ungdomsøen. Bogger (talk) 15:52, 26 August 2019 (UTC)

title: User talk:Elgaard


text:
Wikipedia talk:Selected anniversaries/April 30

 * 1803 - Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million more than doubling the size of the young nation overnight.
 * Already featured on Dec.20th. -- PFHLai 18:44, 2005 Apr 13 (UTC)

Hitler's Suicide?
I really think that Adolf Hitler's suicide should be on this list. I don't understand why it's not there. One of the most major leaders, in one of the most major wars. I would do it, but the article is locked, so could someone who can edit it do so?
 * User: Reub2000, Hitler was here yesterday for his last will and testament. Let's avoid featuring him on back-to-back days. -- PFHLai 19:57, 2005 Apr 30 (UTC)

Queen's Day
Maybe the text should be "Queen's Day in the Kingdom of the Netherlands". – Ilse@ 19:23, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

Kids' Day
Today (30 April) is Children's Day in Mexico. I think it should be included in the selected anniversaries. --Cumbiagermen (talk) 16:11, 30 April 2010 (UTC)

SN 1006
Shouldn't it say in "recorded" history? I am sure that in the span of 10 billion+ years, brighter supernovas have occurred. 71.169.183.93 (talk) 21:51, 30 April 2010 (UTC)

2012 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 06:15, 29 April 2012 (UTC)
 * New articles (unused): Casey Jones
 * Omitted: Louisiana Purchase; Death of Adolf Hitler; Bristol Bus Boycott, 1963; Iranian Embassy siege; 2009 attack on the Dutch Royal Family
 * Included: SN 1006 (4th appearance, last in 2010); Battle of Mataquito (first appearance); Coxey's Army (first appearance); Operation Mincemeat (first appearance); Fall of Saigon/Operation Frequent Wind (Saigon: 4th appearance, last in 2009, rescued from Ineligible; Frequent Wind: 2nd appearance, last in 2010)

2013 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 16:08, 30 April 2013 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Iranian Embassy siege (moved to May 5)
 * Moved to Ineligible: National Persian Gulf Day in Iran (maintenance)
 * Omitted: SN 1006; Battle of Mataquito; Coxey's Army; Fall of Saigon (blurb also previously featured Operation Frequent Wind, which is now ineligible)
 * Included: Licinius (3rd appearance, last in 2008; 1700th anniversary); Louisiana Purchase (7th appearance, last in 2011); Organization of American States (7th appearance, last in 2010); Bristol Bus Boycott, 1963 (2nd appearance, last in 2011; 50th anniversary); Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse (2nd appearance, last in 2009; rescued from Ineligible)
 * Repeats: Operation Mincemeat (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total; 70th anniversary)

2014 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 09:42, 29 April 2014 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: George Washington (maintenance); Casey Jones (maintenance); Clint Eastwood (date not in article)
 * New articles (unused): Azerbaijan State Oil Academy shooting
 * Omitted: Koninginnedag (moved to April 27); Licinius; Louisiana Purchase; Operation Mincemeat; Organization of American States; Bristol Bus Boycott
 * Included: SN 1006 (5th appearance, last in 2012); Siege of Schenkenschans (first appearance); Bijon Setu massacre (first appearance); Monica Seles (first appearance)
 * Repeats: Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse (2nd consecutive appearance, 3 total; 10th anniversary)

2015 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 11:15, 28 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Licinius (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Siege of Schenkenschans; Bijon Setu massacre; Monica Seles; Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse (ineligible—maintenance)
 * Included: Battle of Mataquito (2nd appearance, last in 2012); George Washington (7th appearance, last in 2010; rescued from Ineligible); Death of Adolf Hitler (7th appearance, last in 2011; u0th anniversary); Operation Frequent Wind/Fall of Saigon (Operation: 3rd appearance; Fall: 5th appearance; both last in 2012; 40th anniversary)
 * Repeats: SN 1006 (2nd consecutive appearance, 6 total)

2016 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:28, 28 April 2016 (UTC)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): Louisiana Purchase
 * Omitted: SN 1006; Battle of Mataquito; George Washington; Death of Adolf Hitler; Operation Frequent Wind
 * Included: Edict of Nantes (10th appearance, last in 2013; moved from April 13); William McIntosh (first appearance); Operation Mincemeat (3rd appearance, last in 2013); Bijon Setu massacre (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Azerbaijan State Oil Academy shooting (first appearance)

2017 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 04:31, 30 April 2017 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: SN 1006 (maintenance); Monica Seles (maintenance)
 * Omitted: Edict of Nantes; William McIntosh (ineligible—maintenance); Operation Mincemeat; Bijon Setu massacre; Azerbaijan State Oil Academy shooting
 * Included: Battle of Mataquito (3rd appearance, last in 2015); Siege of Schenkenschans (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Niagara Falls State Park (first appearance); Bristol Bus Boycott (3rd appearance, last in 2013); 2009 attack on the Dutch royal family (2nd appearance, last in 2014); Dorival Caymmi (first appearance); A. E. Housman (first appearance); Alben W. Barkley (first appearance)

2018 notes

 * Walpurgis Night and Reunification Day appear to have had references added since tagging. I have moved both to eligible. Cas Liber (talk · contribs) 01:08, 27 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Reunification Day was fine, but Walpurgis Night wasn't quite good enough. — howcheng  {chat} 06:36, 30 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Fair enough. Where I was my internet access was dodgy so couldn't really do much sourcing. Cas Liber (talk · contribs) 09:06, 30 April 2018 (UTC)

2018 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 02:15, 30 April 2018 (UTC)
 * Deleted: Clint Eastwood (moved to May 31, birthday)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Organization of American States (maintenance)
 * New articles (unused): Federal Prison Camp, Alderson; Faustina Kowalska
 * Omitted: Persian Gulf National Day (ineligible—maintenance); Battle of Mataquito; Siege of Schenkenschans; Niagara Falls State Park; Bristol Bus Boycott; 2009 attack on the Dutch Royal Family; Dorival Caymmi; Alben W. Barkley; Kirsten Dunst (ineligible—maintenance)
 * Included: Reunification Day (rescued from Ineligible); Licinius (4th appearance, last in 2013; rescued from Ineligible); Edict of Nantes (11th appearance, last in 2016); Louisiana Purchase (8th appearance, last in 2013); Operation Mincemeat (4th appearance, last in 2016; 75th anniversary); Azerbaijan State Oil Academy shooting (2nd appearance, last in 2016); Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline) (first appearance); Eugen Bleuler (first appearance); Roger L. Easton (first appearance)

2019 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 03:20, 28 April 2020 (UTC)
 * Omitted: Licinius; Edict of Nantes; Louisiana Purchase (ineligible—maintenance); Operation Mincemeat; Azerbaijan State Oil Academy shooting; Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline); Eugen Bleuler; Roger L. Easton
 * Included: Battle of Mataquito (4th appearance, last in 2017); Coxey's Army (2nd appearance, last in 2012; 125th anniversary); Death of Adolf Hitler (8th appearance, last in 2015); Bijon Setu massacre (3rd appearance, last in 2016); 2009 attack on the Dutch royal family (3rd appearance, last in 2017; 10th anniversary); Robert Plot (first appearance); Dadasaheb Phalke (first appearance); Meredith L. Patterson (first appearance)

2020 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 02:59, 2 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: George Washington/Presidency of George Washington (POTD for 2020)
 * Omitted: Battle of Mataquito; Coxey's Army; Bijon Setu massacre; 2009 attack on the Dutch royal family; Robert Plot; Meredith L. Patterson
 * Included: Licinius/Battle of Tzirallum (Licinius: 5th appearance, last in 2018; Battle: first appearance); Edict of Nantes (12th appearance, last in 2018); Federal Prison Camp, Alderson (first appearance); Faustina Kowalska (first appearance; 20th anniversary); Jean-Baptiste de La Salle (first appearance); Kirsten Dunst (2nd appearance, last in 2017; rescued from Ineligible)
 * Repeats: Death of Adolf Hitler (2nd consecutive appearance, 9 total; 75th anniversary); Dadasaheb Phalke (2nd consecutive appearance, 2 total; 150th birthday)

2021 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 18:25, 1 May 2021 (UTC)
 * Moved to Ineligible: Battle of Mataquito (date contradicts related articles); Siege of Schenkenschans (maintenance)
 * Rescued from Ineligible (unused): George Washington/Presidency of George Washington
 * Omitted: Licinius/Battle of Tzirallum; Edict of Nantes (ineligible—date not certain); Federal Prison Camp, Alderson; Death of Adolf Hitler; Faustina Kowalska; Jean-Baptiste de La Salle; Dadasaheb Phalke; Kirsten Dunst
 * Included: Niagara Falls State Park (2nd appearance, last in 2017); Grauman's Chinese Theatre (first appearance); Bijon Setu massacre (4th appearance, last in 2019); Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse (4th appearance, last in 2014); Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes (first appearance); Luigi Russolo (first appearance); Roger L. Easton (2nd appearance, last in 2018; 100th birthday)

2022 notes
— howcheng  {chat} 07:39, 1 May 2022 (UTC)
 * New articles (ineligible): Charles S. Fairchild (POTD for 2022)
 * Omitted: Niagara Falls State Park; Grauman's Chinese Theatre; Abu Ghraib torture and prisoner abuse; Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes; Luigi Russolo; Roger L. Easton
 * Included: SN 1006 (7th appearance, last in 2015; rescued from Ineligible); George Washington/Presidency of George Washington (GW: 8th appearance, last in 2015; Presidency: 3rd, last in 2010, previously appeared on September 26); Death of Adolf Hitler (10th appearance, last in 2020); The Puppy Episode (first appearance; 25th anniversary); Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline) (3rd appearance, last in 2018; 350th anniversary); Emily Stowe (first appearance); Kirsten Dunst (3rd appearance, last in 2020; 40th birthday)
 * Repeats: Bijon Setu massacre (2nd consecutive appearance, 5 total; 40th anniversary)


text:
National Recovery Administration

The National Recovery Administration (NRA) was a prime agency established by U.S. president Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in 1933. The goal of the administration was to eliminate "cut throat competition" by bringing industry, labor, and government together to create codes of "fair practices" and set prices. The NRA was created by the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and allowed industries to get together and write "codes of fair competition". The codes intended both to help workers set minimum wages and maximum weekly hours, as well as minimum prices at which products could be sold. The NRA also had a two-year renewal charter and was set to expire in June 1935 if not renewed.

The NRA, symbolized by the Blue Eagle, was popular with workers. Businesses that supported the NRA put the symbol in their shop windows and on their packages, though they did not always go along with the regulations entailed. Though membership of the NRA was voluntary, businesses that did not display the eagle were very often boycotted, making it seem mandatory for survival to many.

In 1935, the U.S. Supreme Court unanimously declared that the NRA law was unconstitutional, ruling that it infringed the separation of powers under the United States Constitution. The NRA quickly stopped operations, but many of its labor provisions reappeared in the National Labor Relations Act (Wagner Act), passed later the same year. The long-term result was a surge in the growth and power of unions, which became a core of the New Deal Coalition that dominated national politics for the next three decades.

Background
As part of the "First New Deal", the NRA was based on the premise that the Great Depression was caused by market instability and that government intervention was necessary to balance the interests of farmers, business and labor. The NIRA, which created the NRA, declared that codes of fair competition should be developed through public hearings, and gave the Administration the power to develop voluntary agreements with industries regarding work hours, pay rates, and price fixing. The NRA was put into operation by an executive order, signed the same day as the passage of the NIRA.

New Dealers who were part of the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt saw the close analogy with the earlier crisis handling the economics of World War I. They brought ideas and experience from the government controls and spending of 1917–18.

In his June 13, 1933 "Statement on the National Industrial Recovery Act", President Roosevelt described the spirit of the NRA: "On this idea, the first part of the NIRA proposes to our industry a great spontaneous cooperation to put millions of men back in their regular jobs this summer." He further stated, "But if all employers in each trade now band themselves faithfully in these modern guilds—without exception—and agree to act together and at once, none will be hurt and millions of workers, so long deprived of the right to earn their bread in the sweat of their labor, can raise their heads again. The challenge of this law is whether we can sink selfish interest and present a solid front against a common peril."

Inception
The first director of the NRA was Hugh S. Johnson, a retired United States Army general who had been in charge of supervising the wartime economy in 1917–1918. He was named Time magazine's "Man of the Year" in 1933. Johnson saw the NRA as a national crusade designed to restore employment and regenerate industry.

Johnson called on every business establishment in the nation to accept a stopgap "blanket code": a minimum wage of between 20 and 45 cents per hour, a maximum workweek of 35 to 45 hours, and the abolition of child labor. Johnson and Roosevelt contended that the "blanket code" would raise consumer purchasing power and increase employment.

Historian Clarence B. Carson noted:

At this moment in time from the early days of the New Deal, it is difficult to recapture, even in imagination, the heady enthusiasm among a goodly number of intellectuals for a government planned economy. So far as can now be told, they believed that a bright new day was dawning, that national planning would result in an organically integrated economy in which everyone would joyfully work for the common good, and that American society would be freed at last from those antagonisms arising, as General Hugh Johnson put it, from "the murderous doctrine of savage and wolfish individualism, looking to dog-eat-dog and devil take the hindmost.

Coal
The negotiations of a code for the bituminous coal industry came against the background of a rapidly swelling union, the United Mine Workers headed by John L. Lewis and an unstable truce in the Pennsylvania coal fields. The NRA tried to get the principals to compromise with a national code for a decentralized industry in which many companies were anti-union, sought to keep wage differentials, and tried to escape the collective bargaining provisions of section 7A. Agreement among the parties was finally reached only after the NRA threatened that it would impose a code. The code did not establish price stabilization, nor did it resolve questions of industrial self-government versus governmental supervision or of centralization versus local autonomy, but it made dramatic changes in abolishing child labor, eliminating the compulsory scrip wages and company store, and establishing fair trade practices. It paved the way for an important wage settlement.

Price controls
In early 1935 the new chairman, Samuel Clay Williams, announced that the NRA would stop setting prices, but businessmen complained. Chairman Williams told them plainly that, unless they could prove it would damage business, NRA was going to put an end to price control. Williams said, "Greater productivity and employment would result if greater price flexibility were attained." Of the 2,000 businessmen on hand probably 90% opposed Mr. Williams' aim, reported Time magazine: "To them a guaranteed price for their products looks like a royal road to profits. A fixed price above cost has proved a lifesaver to more than one inefficient producer." However, it was also argued NRA's price control method promoted monopolies.

The business position was summarized by George A. Sloan, head of the Cotton Textile Code Authority:

"Maximum hours and minimum wage provisions, useful and necessary as they are in themselves, do not prevent price demoralization. While putting the units of an industry on a fair competitive level insofar as labor costs are concerned, they do not prevent destructive price cutting in the sale of commodities produced, any more than a fixed price of material or other element of cost would prevent it. Destructive competition at the expense of employees is lessened, but it is left in full swing against the employer himself and the economic soundness of his enterprise....But if the partnership of industry with Government which was invoked by the President were terminated (as we believe it will not be), then the spirit of cooperation, which is one of the best fruits of the NRA equipment, could not survive."

Background
The Blue Eagle was a symbol used in the United States by companies to show compliance with and support of the National Industrial Recovery Act. To mobilize political support for the NRA, Johnson launched the "NRA Blue Eagle" publicity campaign to boost his bargaining strength to negotiate the codes with business and labor. Businesses were entitled to display the logo only if they abided by the labor standards mandated by the NIRA, including increased hourly wages and maximum work hours. President Roosevelt's goal was for consumers to only shop at stores that displayed the Blue Eagle, and to avoid stores that did not. In doing this, Roosevelt hoped that those stores which did not comply with the policies of the NRA would change their stance, or they would risk experiencing "economic death" as a result.

Design
Many sources credit advertising art director Charles T. Coiner with the design. When the NRA was looking for someone to design its symbol, a governmental contract with Philadelphia advertising agency N.W. Ayer led them to Coiner, who had gotten a job with Ayer in 1924, 9 years before the creation of the NRA. According to a few sources, however, it was sketched by Johnson, based on an idea used by the War Industries Board during World War I. The eagle holds a gear, symbolizing industry, in its right talon, and bolts of lightning in its left talon, symbolizing power. The NRA's slogan, "We Do Our Part", often appeared below the eagle, encouraging consumers to feel part of a collective effort.

Symbolism to Citizens
All companies that accepted President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Re-employment Agreement or a special Code of Fair Competition were permitted to display a poster showing the Blue Eagle together with the announcement, "NRA Member. We Do Our Part." In addition, manufacturers began affixing the logo to product packaging and other advertising, with the Blue Eagle appearing on clothing labels, food packages, cigar labels, fruit crates, sheet music, shaving razors, and typewriter ribbons. When the Blue Eagle was first introduced, it arrived with a flurry of hope for businesses and individuals struggling as a result of the Great Depression. Shortly after the rules of the NRA were established, more than 10,000 businesses applied for the right to display the Blue Eagle in their store windows, by pledging their support to the program. Johnson decided to put together a Blue Eagle drive to gain support for the movement; while it worked initially, support dwindled as time went on. What started as mass support of the NRA and the Blue Eagle symbol that accompanied it turned into resentment and disapproval, especially from the businesses that were boycotted because they refused to display the symbol in their front windows.

Other Uses
In addition to businesses displaying posters in storefront windows, in advertising, and in packaging and labels, American consumers and businesses used the Blue Eagle in a variety of other ways. Citizen consumers stitched the logo onto doilies, tapestries, and quilts to show their allegiance to the program. Grassroots quilt makers designed, constructed, and displayed quilts bearing the symbol, not following one pattern source, but creating their own. Some of these quilt makers sent their Blue Eagle quilts as gifts to the Roosevelts. Like any other art, there is more meaning behind these quilts than being simply quilts; the NRA and Blue Eagle were a big enough impact for artists to incorporate it into their work. Other items that used the Blue Eagle symbol include buttons, picture frames, candy boxes and tape packaging. The most famous use of the Blue Eagle is perhaps as an NFL team name, when the franchise from Philadelphia named their team the Eagles. Bert Bell and Lud Wray purchased the team in 1933 and changed the name of the team in honor of the NRA.

Critics
Most businesses adopted the NRA without complaint, but Henry Ford was reluctant to join.

The National Recovery Review Board, headed by noted criminal lawyer Clarence Darrow, a prominent liberal, was set up by President Roosevelt in March 1934 and abolished by him that same June. The board issued three reports highly critical of the NRA from the perspective of small business, charging the NRA with fostering cartels. The Darrow board, influenced by Justice Louis D. Brandeis, wanted instead to promote competitive capitalism.

Representing big business, the American Liberty League, 1934–40, was run by leading industrialists who opposed the liberalism of the New Deal. Regarding the controversial NRA, the League was ambivalent. Jouett Shouse, the League president, commented that "the NRA has indulged in unwarranted excesses of attempted regulation"; on the other, he added that "in many regards [the NRA] has served a useful purpose." Shouse said that he had "deep sympathy" with the goals of the NRA, explaining, "While I feel very strongly that the prohibition of child labor, the maintenance of a minimum wage and the limitation of the hours of work belong under our form of government in the realm of the affairs of the different states, yet I am entirely willing to agree that in the case of an overwhelming national emergency the Federal Government for a limited period should be permitted to assume jurisdiction of them."

The NRA in practice
The NRA negotiated specific sets of codes with leaders of the nation's major industries; the most important provisions were anti-deflationary floors below which no company would lower prices or wages, and agreements on maintaining employment and production. In a remarkably short time, the NRA won agreements from almost every major industry in the nation. According to some conservative economists, the NRA increased the cost of doing business by forty percent. Donald Richberg, who soon replaced Johnson as the head of the NRA said:

There is no choice presented to American business between intelligently planned and uncontrolled industrial operations and a return to the gold-plated anarchy that masqueraded as "rugged individualism."... Unless industry is sufficiently socialized by its private owners and managers so that great essential industries are operated under public obligation appropriate to the public interest in them, the advance of political control over private industry is inevitable.

By the time it ended in May 1935, industrial production was 22% higher than in May 1933.

Specific industries
Pennock (1997) shows that the rubber tire industry faced debilitating challenges, mostly brought about by changes in the industry's retail structure and exacerbated by the Depression. Segments of the industry attempted to use the NRA codes to solve these new problems and stabilize the tire market, but the tire manufacturing and tire retailing codes were patent failures. Instead of leading to cartelization and higher prices, which is what most scholars assume the NRA codes did, the tire industry codes led to even more fragmentation and price cutting.

Alexander (1997) examines the macaroni industry and concludes that cost heterogeneity was a major source of the "compliance crisis" affecting a number of NRA "codes of fair competition" that were negotiated by industries and submitted for government approval under the National Industry Recovery Act of 1933. The argument boils down to assumptions that progressives at the NRA allowed majority coalitions of small, high-cost firms to impose codes in heterogeneous industries, and that these codes were designed by the high-cost firms under an ultimately erroneous belief that they would be enforced by the NRA.

Storrs (2000) says the National Consumers' League (NCL) had been instrumental in the passage and legal defense of labor legislation in many states since 1899. Women activists used the New Deal opportunity to gain a national forum. General Secretary Lucy Randolph Mason and her league relentlessly lobbied the NRA to make its regulatory codes just and fair for all workers and to eliminate explicit and de facto discrimination in pay, working conditions, and opportunities for reasons of sex, race, or union status. Even after the demise of the NRA, the league continued campaigning for collective bargaining rights and fair labor standards at both federal and state levels.

Enforcement
About 23 million people were employed under the NRA codes. However, violations of codes became common and attempts were made to use the courts to enforce the NRA. The NRA included a multitude of regulations imposing the pricing and production standards for all sorts of goods and services. Individuals were arrested for not complying with these codes. For example, one small businessman was fined for violating the "Tailor's Code" by pressing a suit for 35 rather than NRA required 40 cents. Roosevelt critic John T. Flynn, in The Roosevelt Myth (1944), wrote:

"The NRA was discovering it could not enforce its rules. Black markets grew up. Only the most violent police methods could procure enforcement. In Sidney Hillman's garment industry the code authority employed enforcement police. They roamed through the garment district like storm troopers. They could enter a man's factory, send him out, line up his employees, subject them to minute interrogation, take over his books on the instant. Night work was forbidden. Flying squadrons of these private coat-and-suit police went through the district at night, battering down doors with axes looking for men who were committing the crime of sewing together a pair of pants at night. But without these harsh methods many code authorities said there could be no compliance because the public was not back of it."

The NRA was famous for its bureaucracy. Journalist Raymond Clapper reported that between 4,000 and 5,000 business practices were prohibited by NRA orders that carried the force of law, which were contained in some 3,000 administrative orders running to over 10 million pages, and supplemented by what Clapper said were "innumerable opinions and directions from national, regional and code boards interpreting and enforcing provisions of the act." There were also "the rules of the code authorities, themselves, each having the force of law and affecting the lives and conduct of millions of persons." Clapper concluded: "It requires no imagination to appreciate the difficulty the business man has in keeping informed of these codes, supplemental codes, code amendments, executive orders, administrative orders, office orders, interpretations, rules, regulations and obiter dicta."

Judicial review
On May 27, 1935, in the court case of Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States, the Supreme Court held the mandatory codes section of NIRA unconstitutional. Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes wrote for a unanimous Court in invalidating the industrial "codes of fair competition" which the NIRA enabled the President to issue. The Court held that the codes violated the United States Constitution's separation of powers as an impermissible delegation of legislative power to the executive branch.

The Court also held that the NIRA provisions were in excess of congressional power under the Commerce Clause because they regulated commerce that was not interstate in character. The Court distinguished between direct effects on interstate commerce, which Congress could lawfully regulate, and indirect, which were purely matters of state law. Though the raising and sale of poultry was an interstate industry, the Court found that the "stream of interstate commerce" had stopped in this case: Schechter's slaughterhouses bought chickens only from intrastate wholesalers and sold to intrastate buyers. Any interstate effect of Schechter was indirect, and therefore beyond federal reach.

Specifically, the Court invalidated regulations of the poultry industry promulgated under the authority of the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933, including price fixing and wage fixing, as well as requirements regarding a whole shipment of chickens, including unhealthy ones, which led to the case becoming known as "the sick chicken case". The ruling was one of a series which overturned some New Deal legislation between January 1935 and January 1936.

Subsequent to the decision, the remainder of Title I was extended until April 1, 1936, by joint resolution of Congress (49 Stat. 375), June 14, 1935, and NRA was reorganized by E.O. 7075, June 15, 1935, to facilitate its new role as a promoter of industrial cooperation and to enable it to produce a series of economic studies, which the National Recovery Review Board was already doing. Many of the labor provisions reappeared in the Wagner Act of 1935.

Legacy
The NRA tried to end the Great Depression by organizing thousands of businesses under codes drawn up by trade associations and industries. Hugh Johnson proved charismatic in setting up publicity that glorified his new NRA. Johnson was recognized for his efforts when Time named him Man of the Year of 1933—choosing him instead of FDR.

By 1934 the enthusiasm that Johnson had so successfully created had faded. Johnson was faltering badly, which historians ascribe to the profound contradictions in NRA policies, compounded by Johnson's heavy drinking on the job. Big business and labor unions both turned hostile.

According to biographer John Ohl (as summarized by reviewer Lester V. Chandler):"Johnson's priorities became evident almost immediately. In the prescription, 'Self regulation of industry under government supervision' the emphasis was to be on maximum freedom for business to formulate its own rules with a minimum of government supervision. Consumer protection and the interests of labor were of decidedly lesser importance. To induce business to formulate and abide by codes of fair competition Johnson was willing to condone almost any type of price fixing, restriction of production, limitation of productive capacity, and other types of anti-competitive practices....even with the benefit of a more efficient and diplomatic management and a more tolerant Supreme Court the NRA probably would not have survived much longer. It's inherent conflicts and inconsistencies were just too strong."

Historian William E. Leuchtenburg argued in 1963: The NRA could boast some considerable achievements: it gave jobs to some two million workers; it helped stop a renewal of the deflationary spiral that had almost wrecked the nation; it did something to improve business ethics and civilize competition; it established a national pattern of maximum hours and minimum wages; and it all but wiped out child labor and the sweatshop. But this was all it did. It prevented things from getting worse, but it did little to speed recovery, and probably actually hindered it by its support of restrictionism and price raising. The NRA could maintain a sense of national interest against private interests only so long as the spirit of national crisis prevailed. As it faded, restriction-minded businessmen moved into a decisive position of authority. By delegating power over price and production to trade associations, the NRA created a series of private economic governments. According to historian Ellis Hawley in 1976: "at the hands of historians the National Recovery Administration of 1933–35 has fared badly. Cursed at the time, it has remained the epitome of political aberration, illustrative of the pitfalls of “planning” and deplored both for hampering recovery and delaying genuine reform."

title: National Recovery Administration


text:
Manchester Victoria (disambiguation)

Manchester Victoria may refer to:

 * Manchester Victoria railway station
 * Manchester Victoria Reversing Sidings
 * Manchester Victoria stabbing attack
 * Victoria Park, Manchester
 * Victoria University of Manchester

title: Manchester Victoria (disambiguation)


text:
User talk:Flockmeal/newuser

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title: User talk:Flockmeal/newuser