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Seed money

Seed money, also known as seed funding or seed capital, is a form of securities offering in which an investor puts capital in a startup company in exchange for an equity stake or convertible note stake in the company. The term seed suggests that this is a very early investment, meant to support the business until it can generate cash of its own (see cash flow), or until it is ready for further investments. Seed money options include friends and family funding, seed venture capital funds, angel funding, and crowdfunding.

Usage
Traditionally, companies that have yet to meet listing requirements or qualify for bank loans, recognize VC as providers of financial support and value added services. Seed money can be used to pay for preliminary operations such as market research and product development. Investors can be the founders themselves, using savings and loans. They can be family members and friends of the founders. Investors can also be outside angel investors, venture capitalists, accredited investors, equity crowdfunding investors, revenue-based financing lenders, or government programs.

Early-stage funding
Seed capital can be distinguished from venture capital in that venture capital investments tend to come from institutional investors, involve significantly more money, are arm's length transactions, and involve much greater complexity in the contracts and corporate structure accompanying the investment. Seed funding is generally one of the first steps investors offer to get startups on their feet before they become fully operational. Seed funding involves a higher risk than normal venture capital funding since the investor does not see any existing projects to evaluate for funding. Hence, the investments made are usually lower (in the tens of thousands to the hundreds of thousands of dollars range) as against normal venture capital investment (in the hundreds of thousands to the millions of dollars range), for similar levels of stake in the company. Seed funding can be raised online using equity crowdfunding platforms such as SeedInvest, Seedrs and Angels Den. Investors make their decision whether to fund a project based on the perceived strength of the idea and the capabilities, skills and history of the founders.

Government funding
This is the most selective type of funding. Government funds may be targeted toward youth, with the age of the founder a determinant. Often, these programmes can be targeted towards adolescent self-employment during the summer vacation. Depending on the political system, municipal government may be in charge of small disbursements. The European Commission runs microfinance programmes (loans under €25 000) for self-employed people and businesses with fewer than 10 employees. European seed capital is available, but typically is limited to a 50% share. European SMEs can often benefit from the Eureka programme, which federates SMEs and research organisations, such as universities. Government programmes are often tied to political initiatives.

Other sources
Seed money may also come from product crowdfunding or from financial bootstrapping, rather than an equity offering. Bootstrapping in this context means making use of the cash flow of an existing enterprise, such as in the case of Chitika and Cidewalk.

Types of Seed funding

 * Friends and family funding: This type of seed funding involves raising money from friends and family members.
 * Angel investing: As mentioned above, angel investors are wealthy individuals who provide seed funding in exchange for equity ownership.
 * Seed accelerators: These are programs that provide startups with seed funding, mentorship, and resources to help them grow their businesses.
 * Crowdfunding: This type of funding allows startups to raise money from a large number of people, typically through an online platform.
 * Incubators: These are organizations that provide startups with seed funding, office space, and resources to help them grow their businesses.
 * Government grants: Some government agencies provide seed funding for startups working on specific projects or in specific industries.
 * Corporate ventures: Some big companies set up venture arms to provide seed funding to startups in their industry or complementary field.
 * Micro-Venture Capital: A type of venture capital that provides seed funding to new startups and early-stage companies with a small amount of money.

title: Seed money


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Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Computer music

Comment on the WikiProject X proposal
Hello there! As you may already know, most WikiProjects here on Wikipedia struggle to stay active after they've been founded. I believe there is a lot of potential for WikiProjects to facilitate collaboration across subject areas, so I have submitted a grant proposal with the Wikimedia Foundation for the "WikiProject X" project. WikiProject X will study what makes WikiProjects succeed in retaining editors and then design a prototype WikiProject system that will recruit contributors to WikiProjects and help them run effectively. Please review the proposal here and leave feedback. If you have any questions, you can ask on the proposal page or leave a message on my talk page. Thank you for your time! (Also, sorry about the posting mistake earlier. If someone already moved my message to the talk page, feel free to remove this posting.) Harej (talk) 22:47, 1 October 2014 (UTC)

WikiProject X is live!

Hello everyone!

You may have received a message from me earlier asking you to comment on my WikiProject X proposal. The good news is that WikiProject X is now live! In our first phase, we are focusing on research. At this time, we are looking for people to share their experiences with WikiProjects: good, bad, or neutral. We are also looking for WikiProjects that may be interested in trying out new tools and layouts that will make participating easier and projects easier to maintain. If you or your WikiProject are interested, check us out! Note that this is an opt-in program; no WikiProject will be required to change anything against its wishes. Please let me know if you have any questions. Thank you!

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license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/


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The Reindeer Section

The Reindeer Section are a Scottish indie rock supergroup formed in 2001 by Gary Lightbody of Snow Patrol, which released albums and gigged in 2001 and 2002.

Lightbody describes the band's sound as "pretty much all very slow, quiet, folky-type stuff. Stuff that I really love listening to, like Low, for example, and Neil Young and Joni Mitchell and all that end of things. It's sort of inspired by those records rather than by the American rock music that inspired me to start a band in the first place."

The songs "You Are My Joy" and "Cartwheels" were featured on the 2009 Snow Patrol best-of album, Up to Now.

Formation and Y'All Get Scared Now, Ya Hear!: 2001
The Reindeer Section arose – according to Lightbody – out of a chance get-together of musicians at a Lou Barlow gig in Glasgow in 2001, at which Lightbody drunkenly laid down the challenge to others to "make an album together", to which everyone said "yeah yeah". Lightbody "went home and next day wrote the album" and later convinced Johnny Davis of Bright Star to fund a recording session and release the proposed album. The group met over three days of rehearsal and ten days of recording to produce the first album. Y'All Get Scared Now, Ya Hear! was released on 20 October 2001 with a mini tour, the first venue of which was Belfast's The Limelight. In television, the track "Will You Please Be There For Me" was used in the closing of episode 39 of NBC's Ed.

Son of Evil Reindeer and hiatus: 2002
Son of Evil Reindeer was released ten months after the first, with a slightly different line-up. The single, "You Are My Joy" appeared on US show, Grey's Anatomy, and on the fourth series of US TV series Queer as Folk. The song "Cartwheels" appeared on "The Second Chance", an episode of The O.C.. The band's most recent gig was on 14 December 2002 at the Queen Margaret Union in Glasgow.

Band members

 * Alfie
 * Ben Dumville
 * Lee Gorton
 * Sam Morris
 * Arab Strap
 * Colin Macpherson
 * Malcolm Middleton
 * Aidan Moffat
 * Astrid
 * William Campbell
 * Charlie Clark
 * Neil Payne
 * Gareth Russell
 * Belle & Sebastian
 * Richard Colburn
 * Mick Cooke
 * Bobby Kildea
 * Cadet
 * Iain Archer
 * Eva
 * Jenny Reeve (Strike The Colours)
 * Sarah Roberts
 * Idlewild
 * Roddy Woomble
 * Gareth Russell (joined Idlewild in 2006)
 * Mogwai
 * John Cummings
 * Mull Historical Society
 * Colin MacIntyre
 * Snow Patrol
 * Gary Lightbody
 * Mark McClelland
 * Jonny Quinn
 * Teenage Fanclub
 * Norman Blake
 * The Vaselines
 * Eugene Kelly
 * The Wendys
 * Johnny MacArthur
 * Jonathan Renton
 * The Moth & the Mirror
 * Stacey Sievwright
 * Michael Bannister
 * Roy Kerr
 * Paul Fox
 * Marcus Mackay
 * Gill Mills
 * The Noisy Geese

title: The Reindeer Section


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South Ronaldsay

South Ronaldsay (, also, Sooth Ronalshee) is one of the Orkney Islands off the north coast of Scotland. It is linked to the Orkney Mainland by the Churchill Barriers, running via Burray, Glimps Holm and Lamb Holm.

Name
Along with North Ronaldsay, the island is named after St Ronald. The original name from which the English name derives, Rǫgnvaldsey, comes from Old Norse; Rǫgnvalds ("Ronald's") + ey ("island").

Geography and geology
With an area of 4980 ha, it is the fourth largest of the Orkney islands after The Mainland, Hoy and Sanday. Ferries sail from Burwick on the island to John o' Groats on the Scottish mainland and from St Margaret's Hope to Gills Bay.

South Ronaldsay's main village is St Margaret's Hope, Orkney's third largest settlement. It is named either after Margaret, Maid of Norway, the heir to the Scottish throne who died in Orkney age seven or possibly St. Margaret. The village has a small blacksmith's museum and is known for its annual Boys' Ploughing Match. During this event young girls and boys dressed in dark jackets play the part of the horses and young boys using miniature ploughs compete with one another at ploughing a 4-foot square rig in the nearby sands.

The cardinal points of the island are Ayre of Cara, by Churchill Barrier no. 4 (north), Grimness (east), Brough Ness, (south) and Hoxa Head, (west). The highest elevation is Ward Hill, which reaches 118 m. This name is common one in Orkney for the highest point on an island and comes from the historic use of these places used for the lighting of warning beacons.

Prehistory
The island is known for the Neolithic Isbister Chambered Cairn, popularly known as the "Tomb of the Eagles". Discovered by Ronald Simison in 1958 in the south east of the island, 16,000 human bones and 725 bird bones were found at the site, the latter predominantly belonging to the White-tailed Sea Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla). The evidence suggests that the human bodies had been exposed to the elements to remove the flesh before burial. The tomb was in continuous use for a millennium or more.

The burnt mound at nearby Liddle, discovered by Simison in 1972, is the best example of a Bronze Age cooking place in Orkney. Made of flat slabs originally sealed with clay, the central stone trough would have been filled with water heated by stones using peat as a fuel. The building was probably roofless.

There is a broch site at Howe of Hoxa in the north west that may have been the burial place of Thorfinn "Skullsplitter".

History
In 1627 nine chapels were recorded on the island with some of the names hinting at the existence of Christian worship prior to the Norse conquest of Orkney. They were: Sant Androis at Woundwick, Our Ladie at Halcro, Sant Colmis at Loch of Burwick, Ruid chappell in Sandwick, Sant Tola [Olaf] in Wydwall, Sant Colme in Hoxay, Sant Margrat in the Howp, Sant Colmeis in Grymnes and Sant Ninian in Stow. The locations are all known although little physical evidence remains in several cases. In the late seventeenth century South Ronaldsay was described as "fertile in Corns and abounding with People". Murdoch MacKenzie's 1750 map of the island indicates the site of lead workings near Grimness and a visitor in 1774 "saw several deep holes which I was informed were sunk in search of Lead ore" although only small quantities were mined.

By the late eighteenth century South Ronaldsay was divided into two unequally sized parishes, St. Peter's covered the northern two thirds of the island while St. Mary's formed the southern third. St. Peter's church has a date stone of 1642 and appears on Blaeu's 1654 map. By 1793 the building had no roof and was "exposed to all the winds of heaven" but as probably repaired by 1801. A Pictish symbol stone was discovered in a window in the church. On one face of the slab is a mirror-case underlying part of an undecorated crescent and V-rod and on the other a crescent and V-rod, ornamented with scrollwork, below a decorated panel.

During the 19th century the island's economy benefited from the herring fishing industry and St Margaret's Hope became the main trading centre for the South Isles. In 1890 there were 20 shops and 18 tradesmen located there.

Tomison's Academy was founded by William Tomison, a native of the island who became Governor of the Hudson's Bay Company. When it opened it had 170 pupils but the school closed in the 1960s. Tomison is buried nearby in the grounds of his former home, Dundas House.

In 1991, the island was rocked by false allegations of widespread child abuse, as part of the worldwide Satanic panic, that saw nine children being removed from their families by police and social workers. The case was thrown out of court when it was found the social workers were using unorthodox interrogation techniques to force confessions from the children, who all denied the abuse.

There are many well-preserved houses and other structures in the local vernacular style.

Local politics
The island is part of the "East Mainland, South Ronaldsay and Burray" ward, represented on the Orkney Islands Council by three independent councillors. The local community council covers both South Ronaldsay and Burray.

Natural history
Microtus arvalis ronaldshaiensis is one of five varieties of the Orkney vole, a sub-species of the common vole found only in the Orkney islands. Larger than the common vole, it resembles the field vole but has shorter, paler fur.

The Orkney voles were introduced to the archipelago in Neolithic times. The oldest known radiocarbon-dated fossil of the Orkney vole is 4600 years BP, which marks the latest possible date of introduction.

title: South Ronaldsay


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Matti Nykänen

Matti Ensio Nykänen (17 July 1963 – 4 February 2019) was a Finnish ski jumper who competed from 1981 to 1991. He is one of the most successful ski jumpers of all time, having won five Winter Olympic medals (four gold), nine World Championship medals (five gold), and 22 Finnish Championship medals (14 gold). Most notably, he won three gold medals at the 1988 Winter Olympics, becoming, along with Yvonne van Gennip of the Netherlands, the most medaled athlete that winter.

Nykänen is the only ski jumper in history to have won all five of the sport's major individual titles: a gold medal at the Winter Olympics (three times), the Ski Jumping World Championships (once), the Ski Flying World Championships (once), four World Cup overall titles, and the Four Hills Tournament (twice). His four World Cup titles is an all-time male record shared with Adam Małysz. Nykänen remains the only male five-time ski flying world record holder in history.

From the 1990s onwards, Nykänen's status as a celebrity was mainly fueled by his personal relationships, his career as a pop singer, and various incidents often related to heavy use of alcohol and violent behaviour. He was sentenced to 26 months in prison following a stabbing incident in 2004, and again for 16 months following an aggravated assault on his wife in 2009.

Ski jumping career
For most of the 1980s, Nykänen and Jens Weißflog of East Germany dominated the sport. Nykänen won gold and silver at the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo. His 17.5-point gold medal victory was the largest margin of victory in Olympic ski jumping history at the time. He was also the first ever to win gold medals on both hills at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary.

In 1985 he flew 191 metres in Planica, a world record that stood briefly until Piotr Fijas (Poland) flew 194 metres, again in Planica, in 1987. His other achievements include a total of nine medals (five golds) at the World Championship level. He also won a total of 46 World Cup competitions (only now topped by the current record-holder Gregor Schlierenzauer, Austria) and won the overall title four times (also a record, currently shared with Adam Małysz Poland).

He won the prestigious Four Hills Tournament twice. He competed in the FIS Ski Flying World Championships five times and placed in the medals every time. Nykänen also won the ski jumping competition at the Holmenkollen ski festival twice (1982, 1985). In 1987, Nykänen was awarded the Holmenkollen Medal (shared with Hermann Weinbuch).

On 28 February 2008, he won the International Masters Championship for veteran ski jumpers.

The only one with five world records
On 16 March 1984, he set ski jumping world distance record on official training two times at 182 metres (597 ft). And on the next day at 185 metres (607 ft), all three in Oberstdorf, West Germany.

On 15 March 1985, he set two ski jumping world distance records on official training at 187 metres (614 ft) and at 191 metres (627 ft), both of them on Velikanka bratov Gorišek in Planica, Yugoslavia.

Ski jumping world records
He set five world records in total, the most of any ski jumper in history.

Personal life
Nykänen was married six times:
 * Tiina Hassinen (1986–1988), one son
 * Pia Hynninen (1989–1991), one daughter
 * Sari Paanala (1996–1998) (Nykänen changed his surname to Paanala during this marriage )
 * Mervi Tapola (2001–2003, remarried 2004–2010)
 * Pia Talonpoika (2014– his death)

Relationship with Mervi Tapola
Nykänen met millionaire “sausage heiress” Mervi Tapola (1954–2019 ) in 1999, and they were married from 2001 to 2003. They got divorced in 2003, and remarried again in 2004. The marriage was tempestuous and gave rise to many well-publicised incidents: The first reported assault against Tapola occurred in June 2000, following a restraining order that was imposed upon Nykänen. In 2004, Nykänen was handed a suspended sentence for assaulting Tapola again. Nykänen had already been accused of assaulting Tapola in 2001, but the charges were withdrawn because Tapola exercised her right to remain silent.

In September 2005, while on probation for another assault, Nykänen was re-arrested four days after his release for abusing his partner again. Nykänen was convicted and imprisoned for four months on 16 March 2006. Soon after his release, he stabbed a man in a pizza restaurant in Korpilahti. In the summer of 2009, Tapola (then Tapola-Nykänen) petitioned for divorce a 14th time, but cancelled it.

On Christmas Day 2009, Nykänen allegedly injured his wife with a knife and tried to throttle her with a bathrobe belt. He was charged for attempted manslaughter and held in custody by Tampere police, but was released on 28 December after charges were dropped for insufficient evidence. On 24 August 2010, Nykänen was convicted of grievous bodily harm and sentenced to 16 months in prison and ordered to pay €5,000 in compensation to his wife for pain and emotional suffering and €3,000 for legal expenses. In August 2010, Tapola made a 15th request for divorce.

Assault incident
On 24 August 2004, Nykänen was arrested on suspicion of attempted manslaughter of a family friend after losing a finger pulling competition in Tottijärvi, Nokia. In October 2004, he was found guilty of aggravated assault, and sentenced to 26 months in prison. As it was a first offence, he was released in September 2005.

As an entertainer
When Nykänen's ski jumping career was drawing to a close, a group of businessmen proposed to make him a singer. His first album Yllätysten yö (Night of surprises) was released in 1992 and sold over 25,000 copies. Nykänen became the second Olympic gold medalist after Tapio Rautavaara to be awarded a golden record in Finland. His next album Samurai (1993) was not as successful.

At the end of the 1990s, due to serious financial problems, Nykänen worked as a stripper in a Järvenpää restaurant. The restaurateur was reproached for exploitation of Nykänen.

In 2002, Nykänen made a comeback as a singer and released the single "Ehkä otin, ehkä en" ("Maybe I took [it], maybe I didn't"). He also gave his name to a cider brand with the same advertisement slogan. In 2006 Nykänen released his third studio album Ehkä otin, ehkä en (Maybe I took it, maybe I didn't). During most of his musical career, Nykänen worked with professional musician Jussi Niemi. Nykänen toured Finland performing two to three times a week with the Samurai ensemble led by Niemi. Many of Nykänen's singles were named after some (in)famous quotes by Nykänen, such as Elämä on laiffii ("Life is life"), Jokainen tsäänssi on mahdollisuus ("Every chance is a possibility"), and Ehkä otin, ehkä en.

In November 2009, Nykänen began to present his own cooking web series Mattihan se sopan keitti (After all, it's a soup kitchen).

ADHD diagnosis
In the early 2000s, Nykänen was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Death
Matti Nykänen died at his home in Lappeenranta, shortly after midnight on 4 February 2019, from a sudden illness, at the age of 55. He had complained of dizziness and nausea earlier that night. He had been diagnosed with diabetes less than three months earlier. The news of his death was widely reported by the media both in Finland and abroad, with many tributes also paid to him by fellow ski jumpers of his time. He was survived by his fifth wife and three children, two from previous relationships and one outside of marriage. In May 2019 Nykänen's sisters confirmed that the cause of death was pancreatitis and pneumonia.

In popular culture

 * In 1988 DPR Korea issued a postage stamp depicting Nykänen in the flight during competition.
 * In 2016, Swedish actor Edvin Endre portrayed Nykänen, in the British biographical sports film Eddie the Eagle.

Discography

 * Yllätysten yö (1992)
 * Samurai (1993)
 * Ehkä otin, ehkä en (2006)

Biographies

 * A film about the life of Nykänen, simply entitled Matti, was released in 2006 with Finnish actor Jasper Pääkkönen cast as Nykänen. The movie focused on Nykänen's exploits beyond ski jumping.

Books

 * Matti Nykänen, Päivi Ainasoja and Manu Syrjänen: Mattihan se sopan keitti (2007)
 * Juha-Veli Jokinen: Missä me ollaan ja oonko mäkin siellä (2007)
 * Juha-Veli Jokinen: Elämä on laiffii (2006)
 * Kai Merilä: Matin ja minun rankka reissu (2005)
 * Egon Theiner: Grüsse aus der Hölle (2004) (the English version of the book Greetings from Hell was published in January 2006)
 * Antero Kujala: Voittohyppy (1999)
 * Antti Arve: Matti Nykänen Maailman paras (1988)
 * Kari Kyheröinen and Hannu Miettinen: Takalaudasta täysillä: Matti Nykäsen tie maailmanhuipulle (1984)
 * Juha-Veli Jokinen: Myötä- ja vastamäessä (2010)

title: Matti Nykänen


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User talk:Jerf

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
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If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 17:21, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Jerf


text:
User talk:T3Liryan

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Manual of Style

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian! If you feel like it, you may leave a note at the new user log too.

Tip: you can sign your name with ~

Dori | Talk 17:21, Feb 23, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:T3Liryan


text:
Ernest Charles Drury

Ernest Charles Drury (January 22, 1878 – February 17, 1968) was a farmer, politician and writer who served as the eighth premier of Ontario, from 1919 to 1923 as the head of a United Farmers of Ontario–Labour coalition government.

Family
Drury was the grandson of Richard Drury, who arrived in Crown Hill, Ontario, from Kenilworth, Warwickshire, England, in 1819.

His father, Charles Alfred Drury, continued the family farm and was a forward-looking farmer, who used new techniques and technologies. In 1882, he was president of the Agricultural and Arts Association of Ontario. He also served as reeve of Oro Township, in Simcoe County, for 13 years and was elected to the Ontario Legislature as an Ontario Liberal Party member. He served from 1882 to 1890, the last two years as Ontario's first Minister of Agriculture.

Early career
Drury was an Opposition candidate in Simcoe North in the 1917 wartime election, which was held during the Conscription Crisis of 1917, but was defeated by the Government candidate.

Premier of Ontario
Drury was a co-founder of the UFO in 1913 but did not run in the 1919 election, which returned farmer candidates as the largest bloc in the provincial legislature. Not having a leader, the UFO Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs) asked Drury to lead them. The UFOs 49 MLAs joined with 11 Labour members to form a coalition government. It was the first of a wave of United Farmers governments that took power in several provinces and that founded the Progressive Party of Canada. Drury was the first premier of Ontario to have been born in the province after confederation.

Drury was elected to the Legislative Assembly in Halton in 1920, after John Featherstone Ford, the sitting UFO MLA, had stepped aside.

Achievements
The Drury government had a significant impact on the Province:

 * It introduced allowances for widows and children, a minimum wage for women, a mandatory weekly day of rest, broadened workmen's compensation benefits improved the support mechanisms for parents and children born out of wedlock, and standardized adoption procedures.
 * Ontario Hydro saw greater expansion in the field of rural electrification and in 1921, Hydro acquired the Toronto Electric Light Company, together with various railway interests, thus making it the largest electric power system in the world.
 * The Province of Ontario Savings Office was created, effectively a provincially-owned bank that was designed to lend money to farmers at a lower rate.
 * It began the first major reforestation program in North America, and initiated construction of the modern highway system.
 * Drury also arranged for a grant to Frederick Banting and Charles Best, at that time relatively unknown researchers, as a result of their discovery of insulin.

Temperance controversies
The government was also a strict enforcer of temperance measures, amidst mixed publicity. The newly-elected Labour MLA George Grant Halcrow was immediately convicted of violating the Ontario Temperance Act, which prevented him from receiving an expected appointment to the Cabinet. He became House Leader for the Labour Party but found himself at odds with Attorney-General William Raney over temperance by admitting, "I was an out-and-out wet in the Legislature."

When police and liquor officials were authorized to search automobiles and private yachts for illegal liquor, The Toronto Telegram observed that the only means of transportation where citizens could be free from search were "balloons and submarines". Another Act was passed which effectively prevented any movement of liquor within the Province, but it was later held not to prohibit exports to the United States.

In 1920, Reverend J. O. L. Spracklin, a Provincial Temperance enforcer, shot and killed an illicit liquor trader. The pastor, a strongly zealous and articulate personality, was acquitted of manslaughter, but the resultant publicity, generally linked with a major professed aim of Drury's administration, served to call the aim of rigorous temperance enforcement into question in the minds of many Ontarians.

Ontario Hydro
Dougall Carmichael, appointed as Minister without Portfolio, was given the responsibility of being the government representative on the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, and specifically with keeping its chairman Adam Beck in line. At one point in 1922, Carmichael announced to the Legislature that he was quitting his position as Commissioner because Hydro "was either inefficient or dishonest". He was forced to retract the allegation of dishonesty, and continued to be a Commissioner until the following year.

In 1920, responding to a campaign to have Hydro's rates made uniform, a Legislature committee headed by John G. Lethbridge proposed a levy of $2 per 1 hp on all electricity generated in the province in order to subsidize up to 80% of construction costs on rural transmission lines (whenever there was an average of three customers per mile of line). Beck rejected the idea of a levy, but put forward his own plan (which generated great controversy). An Act that favoured Beck's view, through subsidizing up to 50% of construction costs in the rural power zone, was passed in 1921, which effectively tightened Hydro's control over public distributors and denied payments to private electricity producers.

Hydro's plans for the promotion of interurban railways were significantly scaled back after the Sutherland Commission's report on the subject recommended it in 1921, and its affairs in general were the subject of the Gregory Commission appointed in 1922.

By battling with Beck and his plans for expansion of the province's hydro-electric system, Drury also alienated industrialists and many workers.

Forest policy
The Drury government investigated the administration of forest concessions granted under the previous Hearst administration, which had been directed by its minister Howard Ferguson, and passed an Act to provide for corrective measures with regard to permits that had been improperly issued.

A particular issue with Ferguson's previous actions was that he had sold timber limits to the Shevlin-Clarke Lumber Company (headed by fellow Conservative James Arthur Mathieu) for less than half the price they would have normally fetched, and the company later paid a fine of $1.5 million for breaching the Crown Timber Act. This transaction, as well as others, were criticized in a subsequent inquiry by the Latchford-Riddell Commission, which reported:

We are of the opinion that no officer, Minister or otherwise, should have the power to grant rights over large areas of the public domain at will without regard to Regulation; that power was never contemplated by the statutes; it does not at present exist, and should not be given to any individual. Such an arbitrary power subject to no control is obviously open to abuse.

Despite the amount of evidence gathered about the improper administration of forest lands (including Ferguson's self-professed arrogance in the matter) and the recommendations given as to how it should be improved, the industry and Ferguson launched a vigorous attack against the United Farmers. Ferguson described the Commission as "claptrap political conspiracy", accused Drury and Raney of "political knavery", and the UFO as "intellectual and political freaks who were projected into prominence by accident and who grew out of garbage". This scuttled any attempts at reform and helped to contribute to their later downfall.

Other difficulties
Many labour leaders distrusted a government dominated by farmers, feeling that they could not understand the problems of urban workers. Drury's failure to establish fair wage provisions in government contracts and his commitment to free trade that threatened the livelihood of industrial workers alienated urban workers further.

The government was also harmed by the Ontario Bond Scandal that resulted in Provincial Treasurer Peter Smith being jailed.

The government was opposed by all the major newspapers in the province, with the exception of the Toronto Star, and, despite its attempt to broaden its base, was opposed by business.

Fall from power
The government under Drury tried to be a "people's government" rather than a "class government", but in so doing, alienated the base of its support, particularly farmers. In a series of erratic events, the UFO government clashed with the uncooperative UFO organization (led by James J. Morrison throughout Drury's term) which ultimately withdrew its support.

The Drury government collapsed after it introduced bills in the Legislature that would have brought in proportional representation and a preferential ballot and Drury called an early election. The government was defeated when it ran for re-election in the 1923 provincial election, in part, due to false claims that Drury had used $100 to purchase a new coal scuttle for his personal use. In fact, the device was an old scuttle which had been retrieved from storage and polished up. Drury never responded to the false claim, however, and it contributed to opposition claims of the government's extravagance.

Later life
Drury retired from politics but later ran as a federal candidate. Unlike many other members of the UFO, he never joined either the Liberal Party of Canada or the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation.

Drury was active with the Progressive Party of Canada following the demise of his provincial government. He ran as a Progressive candidate in Simcoe North in the 1925 Canadian federal election, 1926 and 1930 federal elections but was defeated by Conservative candidates by margins of 600, 200 and 800 votes respectively.

Local government
In 1934, he was appointed sheriff and registrar of Simcoe County, a position which he held until 1959. A portrait of Drury is still displayed prominently at the local courthouse in Barrie.

Writings
He wrote for magazines such as Maclean's and also wrote two local histories of Simcoe County. He did not write his memoirs until 1966.

In June 2019, the city of Barrie published a poem of Drury’s entitled An Ode to Freedom in Canada along with interviews with his descendants on a website called Barrie Today.com.

Drury remained interested in political matters. During the debate on whether or not Canada should install American-operated nuclear-tipped Bomarc missiles in the 1960s, Drury wrote "the next government of Canada... should refuse to accept nuclear arms. The whole nuclear program of the United States is dangerous."

Recognition
In 2011, the Ontario Heritage Trust erected a marker at Drury's gravesite, as part of its Premiers' Gravesites Program.

There was a secondary school, E. C. Drury High School, which was closed and replaced by Craig Kielburger Secondary School in 2012. The provincial E. C. Drury School for the Deaf is still in operation in Milton, Ontario.

title: Ernest Charles Drury


text:
Running Start

Running Start is a dual credit enrollment program in Washington, Hawaii, New Hampshire, Montana and Illinois which allows high school juniors and seniors to attend college courses numbered 100 or above, while completing high school. It is similar to other dual enrollment programs common at public and private colleges and universities in other states like Concurrent Enrollment or Dual Enrollment. Running Start credits are held in equally high regard as Advanced Placement or International Baccalaureate.

History
Washington State implemented their Running Start program in 1993. Following Washington State was New Hampshire in 1999, Montana in 2001, Hawaii in 2007, and Illinois in 2012. Running Start and Dual Enrollment Programs across the United States have seen a huge increase in enrollment. Washington State has seen a 56 percent increase in enrollment in the past ten years and had over 26,000 students enrolled in the 2016–2017 school year. Across the United States there are an estimated 2 million high school students enrolled in a dual enrollment program.

Washington State
The Running Start program in Washington state was piloted in the early 1990s and officially approved to begin in the fall of 1993.

Running Start provides up to two years of paid tuition at any of Washington's community and technical colleges, and at Central Washington University, Eastern Washington University, Washington State University, and Northwest Indian College. High school juniors who can pass the entrance exam for a local community college may take part or all of their coursework at the community college. Successfully passing a course earns a student both high school and college credit.

Running Start students can complete a substantial number of their first two years of college credits early. After high school, they pay for fewer community college credits before moving on to four-year institutions; It is possible for a motivated student to earn both a high school diploma and certain two-year college associate's degrees simultaneously.

New state regulations took effect on July 26, 2011, limiting Running Start students to a 1.0 FTE (full-time equivalent) limit for high school or higher education courses each, and a 1.2 FTE limit for both institutions combined. (1.0 FTE is equivalent to 15 college credits, or 1,500 high school weekly minutes of instruction). Students who wish to take more than 15 college credits may pay the regular tuition rate and still receive dual credit. Fee waiver for additional credits might be available if the student belongs to low-income family (e.g., enrolled in free or reduced lunch program in high school).

While tuition is paid for by the student's current school district, students have to pay fees, purchase textbooks, and provide transportation for themselves.

University of Hawaii
Open to most high school juniors and seniors, Running Start allows students to receive credit with their public high school as well as receive college credit from the University of Hawaii. Unlike Washington, tuition is sometimes charged, with costs varying from school to school. GEAR UP Hawaii currently offers a limited number of scholarships who currently receive free or reduced lunch. In order to participate in Running Start, students must first receive parental consent, complete an online application, have up-to-date vaccinations, take a placement test, and complete a TB test.

Criticism
Statistics from 2016–2017 have showed that Running Start is not as effective as Advanced Placement in reaching low-income families. Fewer than 5 percent of Running Start students were from low-income families, compared with 13 percent of Advanced Placement classes. Demographically speaking, the Running Start program has been credited as having made a notable impact, as a study done in Texas revealed that 5 percent of African-American students credit stemmed from concurrent enrollment and white students credit was double that as of 2016. Since the popularity of dual enrollment programs such as Running Start, college professors are noting a decrease of middle-class American students in their classrooms. Concurrent enrollment is similar to dual enrollment in that the student will receive college and high school credit but concurrent enrollment involves staying at a high school campus and is significantly cheaper. Both programs are capable of reducing a mass amount of money that would otherwise go into years spent at university, although concurrent enrollment eliminates certain fees that a student would have to pay in Running Start.

title: Running Start


text:
Talk:Block cipher mode of operation

Archives
The talk page was getting cluttered and I was afraid that some important comments would get overlooked. Creating: /Archive 1 Lunkwill 20:43, 7 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Yeah, it was starting to get cluttered. Thanks. I added the archive boxes to the top of the pages. --David Göthberg 00:03, 8 October 2006 (UTC)
 * davidpech 201.175.216.173 (talk) 07:20, 29 August 2023 (UTC)

Is it needed to keep the IV secret?
This article states directly that there is no need to keep the IV secret. There is a well known argument for keeping it secret though. See: http://www.ciphersbyritter.com/NEWS6/CBCIV.HTM for a discussion about this. The book Network Security Essentials 2nd ed by Stallings, also states on page 45 that the IV should be kept secret.

The risk created by not keeping the IV secret is quite small I think, but these are the possible problems as I see it:

- A man-in-the-middle (MITM) can, by changing the IV, alter bits in the first block of the plaintext received. The MITM knows exactly which bits in the plaintext received that will be altered. This will compromise integrity, but not make the plaintext available for the MITM.

- The case described over can be used as a tool for making a cryptanalyze of the ciphered text easier (it would be related to being able to select the plaintext when doing the cryptanalze). I'm not totally sure if this point is valid though.

My opinion is that the statement about it there not being any need for keeping the IV secret should be removed/altered.

Any thoughts?

 * The discussion you reference includes several well known and respected researchers pointing out what I also consider to be the best answer (which is stated in the article): CBC only provides secrecy in a strong sense, not integrity. In a very very weak sense, you could deduce integrity in CBC by looking for "garbled" of message blocks. That could suggest that tampering has occurred, but as a trivial example, if I'm sending you encryptions of output from my random number generator (maybe so you can run some statistical tests on it), how are you going to distinguish "garbled" random bits from "ungarbled" bits?  Since MACs, by contrast, provide very strong integrity protection, why quibble about the slightly weaker integrity of the already uselessly weak integrity offered by CBC?  Just use the right tool for the job.  As to aiding cryptanalysts, the standard we use for security already includes chosen plaintext attacks; if CBC wasn't CPA secure, we wouldn't consider it secure at all.  That's the great thing about strong security -- we make sure that constructs work securely under such stringent constraints that you never have to worry about detecting "garbledness" or preventing attackers from choosing plaintexts.  Lunkwill 02:22, 20 Jan 2005 (UTC)

 * I think its vaguely relevent here:
 * In Linux, users who have been using dm-crypt/cryptoloop in plain CBC mode are using a public IV. This lead to issues of watermark attacks, to get around that a ESSIV mode which keeps the IV's used for secret was written. Look at page 59 of http://clemens.endorphin.org/nmihde/nmihde-A4-os.pdf for mention of ESSIV/CBC - "CHAPTER 4. CBC ATTACKS"

 * I think your "content leak" attack is rather well known (doesn't AC talk about it?) and not especially worrying; For a 128-bit IV, you have about 2^64 expected blocks before a collision, just as with MD5. If 2^64 isn't enough, go to AES-256 and get 2^128 security.  But that's not what you asked about; as to watermarking, it seems to only work because the attacker can modify the ciphertext, and that suggests that people are expecting integrity from a secrecy mode.  IOW, you should be using a MAC.  But I guess the attack does have something to do with secrecy; has this attack been considered in the literature? Lunkwill 20:19, 12 August 2005 (UTC)

 * You guys seem to talk about the same weekness as is discussed in the question below (Random IV in CBC). I took the liberty of moving that question up to right below here. The answer seems to be that the IV does not have to be secret, but for several of the modes the IV has to be unpredictable. That is, the attacker must not be able to predict what IV will be used for future messages being encrypted. See next section for more details about this. (The "ESSIV" link that some one gave above is relevant in this case and also does describe this. But note that this problem is relevant also for other systems than disk encryption.) Oh, and note that MACs doesn't solve this IV problem. What solves it is to use a CSPRNG fed with a secret seed for creating the IVs. Or kind of make a CSPRNG using the block cipher itself like this: If a counter is used as IV then simply encrypt the IV with the block cipher (you can use the same secret key as the message key) to create a unpredictable IV that then is the IV used in the block mode. --David Göthberg 14:09, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

 * > - A man-in-the-middle (MITM) can, by changing the IV, alter bits in the first block of the plaintext received.
 * > The MITM knows exactly which bits in the plaintext received that will be altered. This will compromise integrity,
 * > but not make the plaintext available for the MITM.
 * This is incorrect in practice. One would not use the cipher text without authenticity assurances. Period.Jeffrey Walton 19:18, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

 * > In a very very weak sense, you could deduce integrity in CBC by looking for "garbled" of message blocks.
 * No, this is not correct. "A common misconception is that encryption provides data origin authentication and data integrity, under the argument that if a message is decrypted with a key shared only with party A, and the message is meaningful, then it must have originated from A." - from Hanbook of Applied Cryptography, ISBN 0-8493-8253-7, p. 364. Jeffrey Walton 19:23, 21 February 2012 (UTC)

Random IV in CBC
We really should include the caveat that in CBC mode, the IV must not be predicable to the attacker but must be randomly generated once plaintext is known. If this condition is is not met the proofs of security are broken and there is an effective distinguishing attack. — ciphergoth 10:27, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Can you give a citation for that, please? I can't see why (who?) knowing the plaintext should affect the operation of my random number generator. Lunkwill 18:44, 28 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Ah, I see what ciphergoth means. It seems to me the problem is that an attacker under some circumstances can test if he guessed right about the content of a previous message. (Which I guess is what a "distinguishing attack" means.) That is if he can trick the sender to encrypt messages designed by the attacker but the sender still using the same key and a predictable IV such as a message counter used as an IV. Then if the attacker has guesses of a previous message he can design new messages with the same content but with the first block changed so that when xored with the new IV will cause the same input to the first encryption. If the attacker guessed right then the new encrypted ciphertext will look exactly as the ciphertext of the old message. If the attacker can design several messages and have the sender encrypt all of them then the attacker can even try several different guesses! And he can guess and check one message block at a time thus incrementally guess the whole message. Scary stuff.

 * But if the IV is not a counter but a random value (a CSPRNG can be used) and created/published by the sender AFTER the message to send is chosen/created then the attacker can not design the first block properly and thus can not do such tests. Oh, there seems to be a simple solution to this. If you use a message counter as IV simply encrypt the IV before using it for the XORing of the first block. This is the same thing as making the IV with a CSPRNG. Note that the IV need not be secret, it can be sent in cleartext. As long as both sender and receiver "mess up" the IV enough by doing the encryption on it so each new IV gets unpredictable before it is used for XORing. It can also be sent in the encrypted form. It doesn't matter if the attacker can see what is used to XOR with, as long as he can not predict what will be used for XORing in future messages.

 * This might be the reason that in some old books I have seen the IV is encrypted before use in CBC mode. But in the new books I have they don't do that. Seems the cryptographers have forgotten about this attack since then?

 * Anyway, yet another good reason to avoid using CBC mode. Simply put, this means CBC mode as presented here and in modern books is not secure.

 * --David Göthberg 05:25, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

 * Cryptographers have not forgotten about these attacks. Rather they have found new ones. What you describe is just a special case of a blockwise adaptive chosen plaintext attack. That is, an attacker can learn the ciphertext of block i and then choose the plaintext block i+1. In this case a distinguishing attack is possible (as you describe above). For example it is a bad idea to use the last block of an encrypted packet as an IV for the encryption of the next packet. Thus as you describe the IV just has to be unpredictable, but not necessarily secret and it must not be known to the attacker to avoid chosen plaintext attacks. Exactly the same must be true for every ciphertext block: the attacker must not learn it before chosing plaintext blocks. So the IV should simply be treated the same way any ciphertext block is treated. CBC is very tricky to use and should never be used without MAC. But it is not insecure. 67.84.116.166 15:33, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

 * So why would it not be secure to use an encrypted CTR as the IV? Just curious... 83.64.176.129 19:19, 30 August 2007 (UTC)

 * 83.64.176.129: You misunderstood us. What both I and 67.84.116.166 are saying is that using an encrypted counter as IV is secure. That is, the counter has to be encrypted to make it random and unpredictable (for the attacker) before it is used to XOR onto the first plaintext. But it seems it doesn't matter if is transferred in plaintext or in its encrypted form. --David Göthberg 00:36, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

 * I realised there is a similar problem with CTR mode. If for instance a message counter is used as IV for CTR mode and we use the normal aproach to have an IV the size of the block cipher's block size and we simply add the mode internal counter (CTR) to the IV then the message counter and the CTR will interact in a bad way. So we need that the IV changes in a more unpredictable way between each message. That is, in a way that does not interact with the CTR. The solution seems to be the same as to the IV problem in CBC mode: Either use a CSPRNG to create the IVs or build a kind of CSPRNG by using the block cipher itself letting it encrypt the simple IV before it is actually used. (You can use the same key as for the message). To me it seems that for all modes the IV should be encrypted to "mess it up" in an unpredictable way before first use/combination with any other data. The CFB and OFB modes seems ok as described in this article since they do exactly that. Note that for none of the modes the IV need to be secret, just see to that it is random/unpredictable enough. (If you worry about the secresy of the IV then you are thinking of message authentication and not secresy and for that you should use MACs.) --David Göthberg 14:27, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

Is the CFB decode diagram correct?
I've just been looking at the decode diagram for CFB, this has the plaintext being fed back into the cipher encode block. I think it should the encrypted text that is fed back?

 * Right you are. Fixed. Lunkwill 18:37, 30 May 2005 (UTC)

Also, it seems to me that something's still off. From what I've learned, only the high t bits of the output from the encryption algorithm are used as the input to the XOR. That produces the next t bits of the ciphertext. Those t bits of ciphertext are then used as the low-order bits of the input to the next encryption algorithm round (with the high-order bits being simply shifted t bits to the left). Typical values for t are 1 and 8. Jipis 02:51, 6 October 2006 (UTC)

I agree with Jipis in that the figure for CFB may be improved. I am looking at the encryption figure for CFB in Stallings' Cryptography and Network Security 5th Ed. (Figure 6.5) and looks different from the one in the wikipedia. In the book it is clear that we take s bits from the output of the encryption block and discard the remaining b-s bits (where b is the block size). In the book, the s bits of cyphertext are fed to a shift register. Jbarcelo (talk) 10:50, 25 October 2010 (UTC)

The text describes how the method is used when the segment size is less than the block size. However, this is so important part of this mode that a figure describing that should be included. The description how the segmenting is incorporated to the algoritm can be found in Schneier's Applied Cryptography (2nd ed. sect. 9.6), NIST SP800-38a (sect 6.3), and Manezes et al, Handbook of Applied Cryptography (sect 7.2.2 (iii) and fig. 7.1(c)).Lauri.pirttiaho (talk) 07:21, 20 February 2011 (UTC)

I sectioned the CFB article, and left the image under "CFB Simplified". The complete CFB description for the NIST CFB-1, CFB-8 etc I left under a different section. The separation is fairly significant as the IV=0 vulnerability of Zerologon attack did not make sense under the initial description and the simplified image. Perhaps the proper image from NIST SP800-38A could be painted and inserted later, to enable easier understanding of CFB modes in the future. Blaufish (talk) 13:35, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

Maybe some external references?
Does anyone think this is worth adding to the references?

Recommendation for Block Cipher Modes of Operation; Methods and Techniques http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-38a/sp800-38a.pdf

It's a bit more verbose than the descriptions here (covers CBC, CFB, OFB, CTR, ECB) and clarified many things for me. Other things it covers are: - test vectors for AES in the 5 modes - generation of IVs - Error propagation - Message padding - Counters

 * That sounds like an excellent reference. I've gone ahead and added it as an external link. Zetawoof(ζ) 22:21, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

It is worth noting that in the first paragraph of History and Standardization the article states "Other confidentiality modes exist which have not been approved by NIST. For example, CTS is ciphertext stealing mode and available in many popular cryptographic libraries." but this example is in error. NIST published an Addendum to NIST Special Publication 800-38A, October, 2010 that adds 3 variants of Ciphertext Stealing for CBC mode making these variants "approved" in the FIPS 140-2 sense of the word. I suggest changing the text and adding this document as an external reference. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.29.187.229 (talk) 19:51, 9 May 2017 (UTC)

OFB vulnerable to known plaintext attack
Is it worth mentioning? I'd like to think so.

83.147.140.156 (talk) 11:59, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

 * The article already notes in the section IV that reusing the same IV makes OFB insecure. If you know another "known plaintext attack" then please provide a reference. 85.2.23.131 (talk) 21:04, 27 February 2008 (UTC)

CFB used with a shift register
I just added a section about using CFB with a shift register. If anyone wants to add a diagram to this that would be awesome. There is an example of one here, but it doesn't make it very clear when the shift register is being updated relative to the other operations. Wingedsubmariner (talk) 20:23, 1 March 2009 (UTC)

OFB may also refer to the Austrian Football Association?
''"OFB" redirects here. OFB may also refer to the Austrian Football Association.''

IMHO this is wrong. The Austrian Football Association is the ÖFB or OEFB - have a loot at their website, which is http://www.oefb.at/. On the other hand is OEFB not redirecting to the Austrian Football Association. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 217.194.34.103 (talk) 12:32, 24 November 2009 (UTC)

SVG graphics
Shouldn't all of the graphics be svg? I am not so good at making svgs, but we can put a template requesting a conversion. Should this be done? --Chrismiceli (talk) 19:33, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * Why? They look good as they are, and they are just as easy to edit as PNGs as SVGs.
 * Translating the text in a PNG to other languages (if wanting to reuse the images on for instance the Spanish Wikipedia) is just as easy as translating the text in an SVG.
 * Actually, I think editing PNGs is easier since PNGs don't come with all the rendering bugs that SVGs still have. SVGs we created some year ago look bad here on Wikipedia since Wikipedia has changed its SVG rendering engine. While PNGs we made many years ago still look fine. And images we do with today's SVG tools often render badly or don't render at all on Wikipedia, so we constantly have to work around bugs. And SVGs made with one SVG editor sometimes don't load at all in another SVG editor, so we can't even update some of the images made as SVGs.
 * Using bitmapped formats such as PNG is simpler and probably more future proof. It is more likely the PNG images still can be rendered and edited in the future. I think SVGs should only be used where using vector graphics is clearly the better choice. For the simple images here using SVGs simply isn't worth the trouble.
 * And the people doing PNG to SVG conversions often don't know cryptography, so when they remake the images they often loose or damage some details that are essential to the images. I seen it happen with lots of our crypto images. So please don't request a remake of these images.
 * --David Göthberg (talk) 22:05, 20 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I respect your opinions. SVG usage in Wikipedia is not great.  Perhaps when vector graphics have better support in Wikipedia, we can reconsider this idea. --Chrismiceli (talk) 06:21, 21 February 2010 (UTC)

Article Introduction
I feel like the article's introduction is more appropriate for block ciphers rather than block cipher modes of operation. I somewhat agree with 85.1.208.213's reversion. It seems to me that the first paragraph should include (1) a definition of a 'block cipher mode of operation' (or more generically, 'mode of operation'), and (2) a list of the three modes: (a) confidentiality, (b) authenticity, and (c) authenticated encryption. I envision something similar to, "In cryptography, a block cipher mode of operation is.... There are three modes of operation...."

I don't feel the current first paragraph should be discarded due to the close relationship between a block cipher and its modes of operation. It simply should not be the first paragraph.

Would it be possible for someone with penmanship nail the first paragraph?

 * I'm not the right person to call for copy editing. However, there are multiple issues introduced during the last series of edits. You're pointing out one of them. Generally, the lead section is not very satisfactory at the moment (standard bodies are better mentioned in the body, the note regarding use for a asymmetric encryption primitive is more confusing than explanatory, the descriptions regarding padding and the introduction of block size, etc.). The History section should discuss that the need for integrity protection was not well understood in the beginning, and instead error propagation properties of modes were studied. Examples of MACs should not be discussed here. Padding is required for modes that do not turn the block cipher into a stream cipher. Regarding authenticated encryption, AFAIK all one-pass modes are patented. The phrase 'unfortunately, for the cryptographic community' is not very well chosen (even if true). The explanation of one-pass vs. two-pass is missing. Feel free to address these issues. Otherwise, I'll get to it when I find the time. Nageh (talk) 20:37, 8 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Part one done. Regarding MACs, the historical situation is much more than that it was finally realized that integrity protection was a separate goal from encryption (which happened more like in the late 80s/early 90s). CBC-MAC was defined in the early 80s. The main driver for HMAC was that CBC-MACs were slow, and ad-hoc designs based on hash functions were insecure. As HMAC is not based on a block cipher and is formally not a mode of operation (despite similarities in design of hash functions), the relevant paragraphs in the article need to be rewritten.

 * Regarding authenticated encryption as a reaction to people not understanding how to combine them, this is also just one side of the story. The primary driver for the myriad of recent authenticated encryption schemes in fact was the development of efficient 1-pass schemes.

 * Nageh (talk) 10:50, 18 September 2010 (UTC)

Suggestion for the first paragraph
Suggestion for the first paragraph:

 * In cryptography, a block cipher is only suitable for the secure encryption of one fixed-length group of bits called a block. To encrypt multiple blocks securely a multitude of modes of operation have been designed. The most common information security goals in designing these modes are confidentiality and authenticity.

 * A mode of operation describes the process of encrypting data in blocks, and generally uses randomization based on an additional input value, often called an initialization vector, to allow doing so securely. Typically, the last part of the data to be encrypted is smaller than a block. Some modes of operation require the last block to be extended to match the cipher's block length using a suitable padding scheme.

En.gravious (talk) 16:43, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

 * I want a simple and clear introduction.
 * The current version and this proposal remain too abstract and even a bit wrong. Modes don't address just encryption but also decryption. ECB is a mode, but it does not offer the same security as some other modes. Don't label the entire class with the benefits that don't exist for all members.
 * On my talk page, En.gravious stated, "NIST defines Mode of operation as An algorithm for the cryptographic transformation of data that features a symmetric key block cipher algorithm (NIST IR 7298 and NIST SP 800-38C)." I haven't checked the sources, but that seems a better explanation than what we have. Basic confidentiality is provided by the underlying block cipher.
 * To me, a mode of operation is just a description of how to use a block cipher to achieve some larger purpose (an algorithm). Say a user has an 8-byte block cipher such as DES (choke). There needs to be some agreement about how to use that cipher for messages longer than a block. A simple mode is ECB, but it has some problems (see Penguin pix). There are more involved modes that tend to alleviate some problems. They can offer more security by introducing an IV and/or chaining. Some modes can have a different purpose such as computing a MAC digest.
 * A block cipher always raises the issue of padding, but I don't see that as a fundamental issue of a mode. It's more an afterthought. Even if one were transmitting a message shorter than a block, padding/salting would be an issue. It is not peculiar to a mode of operation.
 * What is important to say in the introduction?
 * Glrx (talk) 18:45, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

 * Thanks Grlx for your comments I've tried to incorporate them and comment on them below:
 * New proposal for the first paragraph of Block cipher modes of operation:
 * In cryptography, a block cipher is only suitable for the secure cryptographic transformation (en- or decryption) of one fixed-length group of bits called a block. To transform multiple blocks securely a multitude of modes of operation have been designed. The most common information security goals in designing these modes are confidentiality and authenticity.
 * Second paragraph from first proposal unchanged :
 * A mode of operation describes the process of encrypting data in blocks, and generally uses randomization based on an additional input value, often called an initialization vector, to allow doing so securely. Typically, the last part of the data to be encrypted is smaller than a block. Some modes of operation require the last block to be extended to match the cipher's block length using a suitable padding scheme.
 * Benefits / design goals of ECB:
 * "ECB Mode is electronic codebook. ECB was originally specified by NIST in FIPS 81. The standard, issued in 1981, only offers confidentiality (Source: http://www.cryptopp.com/wiki/ECB_Mode)."
 * "The same input block always produces the same output block under a fixed keg in ECB mode. If this is undesirable in a particular application, the CBC, CFB or OFB modes should be used. (Source: FIPS 81)"
 * Even though confidentiality is compromised the intend is to provide confidentiality.
 * Padding:
 * Stream cipher modes such as OFB and CTR do not raise the issue of padding, padding is peculiar to block ciphers and modes of operation that use block ciphers.

En.gravious (talk) 21:47, 11 April 2013 (UTC)

 * I hit the first paragraph with a hammer. It's inspired by what you've suggested but not exactly the same. Please change it or tell me what you think. Skippydo (talk) 01:59, 12 April 2013 (UTC)

 * I've kept some of your hammering. Of your sentence: "A mode of operation describes the process of encrypting variable-length messages using a block cipher while achieving various performance, bandwidth, and security goals." referring to the Handbook of Applied Cryptography by Menezes, Oorschot, et al. The book mentions on page 5, 227 and 228, various evaluation criteria for block ciphers and modes of operation. These are mentioned in Block cipher under the heading Practical evaluation.

In Block cipher modes however, the security goals are now mentioned in the first line of the article. Performance applies more to the choice between block cipher primitives (AES, Serpent, Twofish, etc) than to mode of operation, and bandwidth applies more to stream cipher modes IMHO. En.gravious (talk) 14:11, 12 April 2013 (UTC)

Single bit errors and error propagation. Contradiction in text?
The section on cipher feedback mode (CFB) says that "if a whole blocksize of ciphertext is lost both CBC and CFB will synchronize, but losing only a single byte or bit will permanently throw off decryption." Later in the same section, however, it is stated that "a one-bit change in the ciphertext affects two plaintext blocks: a one-bit change in the corresponding plaintext block, and complete corruption of the following plaintext block", but that "Later plaintext blocks are decrypted normally." Likewise, the section on cipher-block chaining (CBC) states that "a one-bit change to the ciphertext causes complete corruption of the corresponding block of plaintext, and inverts the corresponding bit in the following block of plaintext, but the rest of the blocks remain intact."

How are these statements to be reconciled? Does a single-bit or byte error "permanently throw off decryption", or does it only throw off decryption for a couple of blocks? --66.50.16.13 (talk) 14:39, 21 March 2014 (UTC)

The two sections are talking about two different kinds of single-bit or single-byte damage to the ciphertext, which have two very different effects:

ciphertext : error-free original cipertext : lost one byte, and the rest of the message shifted over cipphertext : duplicated one byte, and the rest of the message shifted over cixhertext : one byte mangled, without shifting the rest of the message

Each bit-flip soft errors, including substituting one character for another character, cause the decrypted plaintext to have error(s) in one or two blocks; but -- with most block cipher modes of operation -- the rest of the decrypted "plaintext" is identical to the original plaintext.

With nearly all block cipher modes of operation, a single Bit slip error, including duplicating or losing an entire byte, generally corrupts all the rest of the decrypted plaintext,.

How could we improve this article to avoid making it seem self-contradictory? --DavidCary (talk) 16:48, 8 October 2014 (UTC)

Resolved hopefully; I removed parts of the text on error handling in CFB that did not fully make sense and/or were extremely detailed/verbose. I inserted the SP800-38A text about how well CFB-1 self synchronizes, and that other CFB modes are expected to require external synchronization. Then I inserted one of the old examples where CFB-XXX actually will self synchronize in a special case (single bit flip) and an example where it will not (single bit lost in transmission). Blaufish (talk) 14:34, 17 October 2020 (UTC)

OFB and CTR modes
Concerning the streaming nature of OFB and CTR modes, it would be good to indicate explicitly that the plaintext does not have to consist of complete blocks. For a partially filled final plaintext block, just the corresponding ciphertext symbols (an incomplete ciphertext block) are transmitted; this can still be decoded.

It might be appropriate to note the relationship between OFB and CTR mode, and the One-time pad. In OFB/CTR mode, the key and the block cipher encryption function are used to generate a (pseudo-random) one-time pad, which is then XOR-ed with the plaintext to yield the ciphertext.

Wstomv (talk) 15:01, 30 May 2014 (UTC)

Explicit IV in CBC
It would be helpful to add the concept of explicit initialization vectors. This could be done either in its own section or as a part of CBC mode. In explicit IV mode a random data block is prepended to the plain text. The encrypted random block then takes the place of communicating the IV because the first block will always be thrown out. An example of where this is currently being used can be found on page 6 of "The Design and Implementation of Datagram TLS"

I could add it, but this is the first time I've edited any wikipedia article and I thought the talk page would be a better place to start. 216.45.141.162 (talk) 17:48, 2 January 2015 (UTC)

OFB formula incorrect
When j=1, you do not use I(0), you use I(1) and O(0). Therefore, the IV is O(0), not I(0). Alternatively you could say that I(1) is the IV. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.11.83.88 (talk) 02:06, 27 February 2015 (UTC)

^ O(0) is not IV, it is the output of Encrypt(IV), so the formula is correct. YoloMcSwagson (talk) 03:58, 1 May 2015 (UTC)

what about OpenSSL's "Infinite Garble Extension" ?
It is mentioned here and explained there but I didn't find anything about this mode in the Wikipedia. Who might want to add it here? --RokerHRO (talk) 12:13, 27 April 2015 (UTC)

"Block chain"
the usage and primary topic of is under discussion, see talk:Block chain (transaction database) -- 65.94.43.89 (talk) 04:22, 29 May 2015 (UTC)

"Blockchain"
The usage and primary topic of is under discussion, see talk:Blockchain -- 65.94.43.89 (talk) 08:39, 29 May 2015 (UTC)

Mention that CBC and CTR are "recommended"
I made a small edit recently removing this phrase "Along with CBC, CTR mode is one of two block cipher modes recommended by Niels Ferguson and Bruce Schneier". My edit message said:

 * let's not suggest to the casual reader that using CBC or CTR directly is "recommended" at all

It got reverted by intgr saying:

 * using none of this "directly" is "recommended" to a casual person, Should we blank the whole article then?

I'm not very familiar with wiki procedures but I guess the right thing is to take this to the talk page.

What I really meant to say there was that claiming that CBC or CTR are recommended at all is a bad idea, and doesn't contribute any useful information - it seems to make a statement that those modes are "better" than others which is, at best, meaningless, and more likely to be harmful than anything. It's probably taken out of context of the original citation, too.

I know that people should know better than to take crypto advice from wikipedia, but it was an attempt to reduce misinformation.

Dequis (talk) 22:26, 10 October 2015 (UTC)

 * Why is the statement that some modes are better than others meaningless or harmful? I believe there is widespread consensus among experts that the two recommended modes are better, compared to the others described in this article — ECB, PCBC, CFB and OFB — which are only useful in rare fringe applications.
 * You say "it's probably taken out of context", I don't think it is. From the source itself:
 * "Which Mode Should I use?
 * We have discussed several modes, but there are really only two modes we would consider using: CBC and CTR. We've already explained that ECB is not secure enough. OFB is a good mode, but CTR is better in some respects and doesn't suffer from the short cycle problem. There is no reason to choose OFB over CTR.""

 * If you're not convinced by this source alone, I'm sure more could be found.
 * There is a real problem with this article, that it puts too much emphasis on classical un-authenticated modes, without recognizing that there are multiple applications, for which different kinds of modes are applicable — authenticated encryption modes and disk encryption modes. But that's a separate issue. -- intgr [talk] 21:47, 11 October 2015 (UTC)

Including other rare cipher modes
It might be a good idea to add some of the other proposed Cipher Modes into the index of this article, and maybe they should have their own page, or just one page all-together. Reference: https://web.archive.org/web/20170904011624/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM/modes_development.html List:
 * Cipher State https://web.archive.org/web/20170827215419/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM/documents/proposedmodes/cs/cs-spec.pdf
 * EAX-Prime https://web.archive.org/web/20170215225642/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit//BCM/documents/proposedmodes/eax-prime/eax-prime-spec.pdf
 * IACBC https://web.archive.org/web/20170809010910/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit//BCM/documents/proposedmodes/iacbc/iacbc-spec.pdf
 * Input Output chaining https://web.archive.org/web/20170201033009/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM//documents/proposedmodes/ioc/ioc-spec-2014.pdf
 * Propagating Cipher Feedback https://web.archive.org/web/20170131091944/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM//documents/proposedmodes/pcfb/pcfb-spec.pdf
 * Random Key Chaining https://web.archive.org/web/20170126135553/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM//documents/proposedmodes/rkc/rkc-spec.pdf
 * Synthetic IV https://web.archive.org/web/20170214234135/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM//documents/proposedmodes/siv/siv.pdf
 * extended Cipher Block Chaining https://web.archive.org/web/20170215074417/http://csrc.nist.gov/groups/ST/toolkit/BCM//documents/proposedmodes/xcbc/xcbc-spec.pdf

— Preceding unsigned comment added by 202.40.137.199 (talk)

ECB/Citation needed
To explain why ECB should not be used :

 * https://www.notsosecure.com/hacking-crypto-fun-profit/ gives a clear explanation
 * And B. Schneier, about Zoom, says: "I'm okay with AES-128, but using ECB (electronic codebook) mode indicates that there is no one at the company who knows anything about cryptography ".

Could these references be used here? Janiko (talk)

kanatronjitjung@gmail.com
kanatronjitjung@gmail.com 49.237.11.134 (talk) 16:57, 25 January 2022 (UTC)

Acronym for Output Feedback in diagram is incorrect
I noticed that the acronym to the right of "Output Feedback" in the diagram is CFB - a duplicate of the acronym for Cipher Feedback above it. This should be OFB, right? Davidfinnie (talk) 23:44, 15 April 2024 (UTC)

 * You are 1000% correct. Good catch. It has been fixed. Epachamo (talk) 14:10, 16 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Block cipher mode of operation


text:
User:Jerf

Jerf is the nom-de-plume of Jeremy Bowers, owner of http://www.jerf.org/. Contributions to date come from the desire to point to some explanantion of some concept, failure to find a good link on the web that explains it adequately, and then fixing up the Wikipedia description to be what he needs.

title: User:Jerf


text:
Léon Teisserenc de Bort

Léon Philippe Teisserenc de Bort (5 November 1855 in Paris, France – 2 January 1913 in Cannes, France) was a French meteorologist and a pioneer in the field of aerology. Together with Richard Assmann (1845-1918), he is credited as co-discoverer of the stratosphere, as both men announced their discovery during the same time period in 1902. Teisserenc de Bort pioneered the use of unmanned instrumented balloons and was the first to identify the region in the atmosphere around 8-17 kilometers of height where the lapse rate reaches zero, known today as the tropopause.

Early life and career
He was the son of an engineer. He began his scientific career in 1880, when he entered the meteorological department of the Bureau Central Météorologique (Administrative Centre of National Meteorology, a department of the French government) in Paris under E. E. N. Mascart. In 1883, 1885 and 1887 he made journeys to North Africa to study geology and terrestrial magnetism, and during this period published some important charts of the distribution of pressure at a height of 4,000 metres. Between 1892 and 1896, Teisserenc de Bort was chief meteorologist to the Bureau.

Instrumented balloons pioneer
After his resignation from the Bureau in 1896, he established a private meteorological observatory in Trappes near Versailles. There he carried out investigations on clouds and the problems of the upper air. He conducted experiments with high-flying instrumented hydrogen balloons and was one of the first people to use such devices.

In 1898, Teisserenc de Bort published an important paper in Comptes Rendus detailing his researches by means of balloons into the constitution of the atmosphere. He noticed that while the air temperature decreased steadily up to approximately 11 kilometers of height, it remained constant above that altitude (up to the highest points he could reach). In other words, he discovered an indication of a temperature inversion or at least of a zero lapse rate above this altitude. For many years he was uncertain whether he discovered a true physical phenomenon or whether his measurements suffered from a systematic bias (indeed, the first measurements did have a positive temperature bias as the instruments were liable to radiative heating by solar radiation). That is why Teisserenc de Bort carried out 200+ more balloon experiments (with a substantial part of them being held during the night to eliminate radiative heating) until 1902, when he suggested that the atmosphere was divided into two layers.

Troposphere and stratosphere
During the years that followed, he named the two layers of the atmosphere known as the "troposphere" and the "stratosphere". This naming convention has since been maintained, with (higher-altitude) layers that were subsequently discovered being given names of this sort. After Teisserenc de Bort's death in 1913, the heirs donated the observatory to the state so that the research tasks could be continued.

Additional investigations
He also carried out investigations near Viborg in Denmark 1902-1903, in Sweden and over the Zuider Zee, the Mediterranean and the tropical region of the Atlantic, and fitted out a special vessel in order to study the currents above the trade winds. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Meteorological Society in 1903, honorary member in 1909, and was awarded the Symons Gold Medal of the Society in 1908. He collaborated with Hugo Hildebrandsson in Les bases de la météorologie dynamique (1907).

Named after him

 * The crater Teisserenc on the Moon.
 * The crater Teisserenc de Bort on Mars.

title: Léon Teisserenc de Bort


text:
Process theory

A process theory is a system of ideas that explains how an entity changes and develops. Process theories are often contrasted with variance theories, that is, systems of ideas that explain the variance in a dependent variable based on one or more independent variables. While process theories focus on how something happens, variance theories focus on why something happens. Examples of process theories include evolution by natural selection, continental drift and the nitrogen cycle.

Process theory archetypes
Process theories come in four common archetypes. Evolutionary process theories explain change in a population through variation, selection and retention—much like biological evolution. In a dialectic process theory, “stability and change are explained by reference to the balance of power between opposing entities” (p. 517). In a teleological process theory, an agent “constructs an envisioned end state, takes action to reach it and monitors the progress” (p. 518). In a lifecycle process theory, “the trajectory to the final end state is prefigured and requires a particular historical sequence of events” (p. 515); that is, change always conforms to the same series of activities, stages, phases, like a caterpillar transforming into a butterfly.

Applications and examples
Process theories are important in management and software engineering. Process theories are used to explain how decisions are made how software is designed and how software processes are improved.

Motivation theories can be classified broadly into two different perspectives: Content and Process theories.
 * Content theories deal with “what” motivates people and it is concerned with individual needs and goals. Maslow, Alderfer, Herzberg and McClelland studied motivation from a “content” perspective.
 * Process theories deal with the “process” of motivation and are concerned with “how” motivation occurs. Vroom, Porter & Lawler, Adams and Locke  studied motivation from a “process” perspective.

Process theories are also used in education, psychology, geology and many other fields; however, they are not always called "process theories".

title: Process theory


text:
Well of Souls

The Well of Souls (بئر الأرواح; sometimes translated Pit of Souls, Cave of Spirits, or Well of Spirits), is a partly natural, partly man-made cave located inside the Foundation Stone ("Noble Rock" in Islam) under the Dome of the Rock shrine on the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif) in Jerusalem. During the Crusader period, it was known to Christians as the "Holy of Holies", referring to the inner sanctum of the former Jewish Temple, which, according to modern scholarship, was probably located on top of the Foundation Stone.

The name "Well of Souls" derives from a medieval Islamic legend that at this place the spirits of the dead can be heard awaiting Judgment Day, although this is not a mainstream view in Sunni Islam. The name has also been applied to a depression in the floor of this cave and a hypothetical chamber that may exist beneath it.

Judaism and Islam
The Well of Souls is located under the Foundation Stone, an exposed bedrock which lies directly under the Dome of the Rock. The Dome of the Rock stands on the location of the destroyed Second Jewish Temple (built around 516 BCE to replace Solomon's Temple), which was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE. In traditional Jewish sources, the Foundation Stone is considered the place from which the creation of the world began, and where Abraham prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac. In Islam, the Foundation Stone is known as the Noble Rock. Al-Tabari, a Muslim writer of the 9th century CE, identified the rock with the place where the Romans had "buried the temple [] at the time of the sons of Israel." Some modern Muslims believe it to be the spot from which Muhammad ascended to heaven during his (Isra and Mi'raj, 'Night Journey'). According to a medieval Islamic tradition, the Foundation Stone tried to follow Muhammad as he ascended, leaving his footprint here while pulling up and hollowing out the cave below. The impression of the hand of the Archangel Gabriel, made as he restrained the Stone from rising, is nearby.

Both Jewish and Muslim traditions relate to what may lie beneath the Foundation Stone, the earliest of them found in the Talmud in the former and understood to date to the 12th and 13th centuries in the latter. The Talmud indicates that the Stone marks the center of the world and serves as a cover for the Abyss containing the raging waters of the Flood. The cave was venerated as early as 902 according to Ibn al-Faqih. Muslim tradition likewise places it at the center of the world and over a bottomless pit with the flowing waters of Paradise underneath. A palm tree is said to grow out of the River of Paradise here to support the Stone. Noah is said to have landed here after the Flood. The souls of the dead are said to be audible here as they await the Last Judgment, although this is not a mainstream view in Sunni Islam.

Crusader period
The Foundation Stone and its cave entered fully into the Christian tradition after the Crusaders conquered Jerusalem in 1099. These Europeans converted the Dome of the Rock into a church, calling it in Templum Domini (the 'Temple of the Lord'). They made many radical physical changes to the site at this time, including cutting away much of the rock to make staircases and paving the Stone over with marble slabs. The main entrance of the cave was enlarged, and Europeans of the Crusades are probably also responsible for creating the shaft ascending from the center of the chamber. The Crusaders called the cave the "Holy of Holies" and venerated it as the site of the archangel's announcement of John the Baptist's birth. Modern scholarship indicates that the Holy of Holies of the Jewish Temple was probably on top of the Foundation Stone, not inside it.

Legends and old interpretations

In 1871, Jerusalem was visited by the explorer and Arabist Sir Richard Francis Burton. Burton's wife Isabel later described their exploration of the Well of Souls as tourists:

The entrance
The entrance to the cave is at the southeast angle of the Foundation Stone, beside the southeast pier of the Dome of the Rock shrine. Here a set of 16 new marble steps descend through a cut passage thought to date to Crusader times. On the way down, bedrock masses project in towards the stair; the one to the right is called "the tongue". (According to legend, the Stone answered 'Caliph 'Umar I' when he addressed it.)

The chamber
The cave chamber is roughly square, about 6 m on a side, and ranges from around 1.5 - 2.5 m high. Inside the chamber are four prayer niches. As one descends, next to the staircase there are two (prayer niches): to the left (south) is one dedicated to Prophet Dawud (David), with a trefoil arch supported by miniature marble twisted-rope columns. To the right (southeast) is a shallower, but ornately decorated, prayer niche dedicated to the prophet Suleiman (Solomon). This is certainly one of the oldest in the world, considered to date at least to the late 9th century, with some even suggesting that it dates back to the 7th century and to the time of Abd al-Malik, builder of the Dome of the Rock—making it the oldest in the world—but this is disputed. To the north is a small shrine dedicated to prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) and to the northwest another one dedicated to Khidr-Elijah. A depression in the floor of the cave elicits an echo, which may indicate a chamber beneath it.

The chamber is supplied with electric lighting and fans.

The shaft
At the center of the ceiling is a shaft, 0.46 m in diameter, which penetrates 1.7 m up to the surface of the Stone above. It has been proposed that this is the 4,000-year-old remnant of a shaft tomb. Another theory is that it represents a Crusader "chimney" cut for ventilation to accommodate lighted shrine candles. Still others have tried to make a case that it was part of a drainage system for the blood of sacrifices from the Temple altar. There are no rope marks within the shaft, so it has been concluded that it was never used as a well, with the cave as a cistern. The ceiling of the cave appears natural, while the floor has been long ago paved with marble and carpeted over.

Literature

 * The earliest reference to a "pierced rock" (the shaft in the cave's roof) may be that in the Itinerarium Burdigalense by the anonymous "Pilgrim of Bordeaux" who visited Jerusalem in 333 CE.
 * References to the "Well of Souls" under the Foundation Stone date at least to the 10th-century Persian writer Ibn al-Faqih who mentions it as an Islamic sacred site.
 * The 11th-century Persian writer and traveler Nasir-i Khusraw related the traditional story of the origin of the cave in his classic travelogue :
 * The 16th-century rabbi David ben Solomon ibn Abi Zimra said there was a cave under the Dome of the Rock called the "Well of Souls".

title: Well of Souls


text:
User:Rei

Blah, my old info was boring. Some day I'll feel creative enough to put up something worth mentioning.

Feel free to email me at meQme@daQughterQsoftiresQias.orQg (delete Qs to despammify)

I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

title: User:Rei


text:
Ginger Group

The Ginger Group was not a formal political party in Canada, but a faction of radical Progressive and Labour Members of Parliament who advocated socialism. The term ginger group also refers to a small group with new, radical ideas trying to act as a catalyst within a larger body.

The Ginger Group split with the Progressive Party in 1924 when Progressive leader Robert Forke proved too eager to accommodate the Liberal government of William Lyon Mackenzie King and agreed to support the government's budget with only minimal concessions. J. S. Woodsworth, using his right as the leader of the Independent Labour MPs, moved a stronger amendment to the budget based on demands the Progressives had made in earlier years but had since abandoned. The Progressive and Labour MPs who broke with their Progressive colleagues to support Woodsworth became the "Ginger Group". It was made up of United Farmers of Alberta MPs George Gibson Coote, Robert Gardiner, Edward Joseph Garland, Donald MacBeth Kennedy and Henry Elvins Spencer as well as United Farmers of Ontario MP Agnes Macphail. The group was later joined by Labour MPs J. S. Woodsworth, William Irvine, Abraham Albert Heaps and Angus MacInnis, independent MP Joseph Tweed Shaw and Progressive MPs Milton Neil Campbell, William John Ward, William Charles Good, and Preston Elliott.

Members of the Ginger Group played a role in forming the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in 1932, with Woodsworth becoming the new party's leader.

The only sitting United Farmers of Alberta who did not join the CCF at its founding was William Thomas Lucas, who ran for re-election unsuccessfully as a Conservative in 1935.

The name Ginger Group was also used to refer to a group of Conservative MPs who, in 1917 opposed Prime Minister Robert Borden's use of the Military Service Act to introduce conscription during the Conscription Crisis of 1917.

title: Ginger Group


text:
Xico, Veracruz

Xico is a city located in the central part of the Mexican state of Veracruz. It produces coffee, tropical fruit, wine, handicrafts, and other products. It is 25 km from the state capital Xalapa. Every year in July, Xico has a very large bullfighting event. In 2006, Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera attended the event.

Three kilometres outside the town is Cascada de Texolo.

title: Xico, Veracruz


text: Talk:Hot hatch

title: Talk:Hot hatch