text:
Talk:Johnny Thunders

Suggested Merge

 * I don't see why Johnny Thunders should be merged with the Heartbreakers. Both articles need more work but both are seperate topics. Johnny Thunders had a prominent solo career and did a lot outside of stints with the Heartbreakers. The article on L.A.M.F. has information to add to the Heartbreakers aswell. Anyone disagree? Merely because the Heartbreakers article is short at this time, I don't think it should be merged.Case 18:09, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

The Heartbreakers are a very important band to the history of punk music. The Heartbreakers deserves its own article - because of the band's significance and influence. Kingturtle 20:29, 20 January 2006 (UTC)

AFIC, the Heartbreakers are more of a Richard Hell band than a Johnny Thunders band. At any rate, their importance is in their incarnation as an early Richard Hell band and their relation to latter Hell band the Voidoids, not as a late career band for Johnny Thunders.

___ The Heartbreakers were NOT in any way a "Richard Hell band." When Johnny and Jerry left the Dolls, they formed a band and brought Richard Hell into the fold. When Hell tried to become the band "leader," Johnny and Jerry promptly kicked him out of the band and hired Billy Rath. Go to Richard Hell's official site and you'll read this in his bio pt. 2: "That week Johnny Thunders calls Hell to say he and Jerry Nolan have left the Dolls and asks if Richard'd like to start a new band with them. "Yeah," and the Heartbreakers are born." ___ ___

Do not merge. While for all practical purposes the Heartbreakers IS Johnny Thunders, their existence and influence as a band and a clique are independent. While mildly relevant to Richard Hell, the Heartbreakers fit in more with New York Dolls/Johnny Thunders history than Hell's. Richard Hell was a member of the band briefly, helping to write a couple Heartbreakers and Thunders standards (Hurt Me, Chinese Rocks). However, other bands that are more associated with their leader (such as a The Modern Lovers and even the Voidoids) have their own articles, so unless those articles are also merged, the Heartbreakers should have their own article. Kwalka 18:03, 22 February 2006 (UTC)

___ I agree with the others... do NOT merge Johnny Thunders and the Heartbreakers sections. Ok, J.T was a verry important part of Heartbreakers but the band also was A BAND with other fame members and therefor the Heartbreakers deserve a article of there own... And J.T for sure deserve his own article, because of his own solo career! /rigg, 15 mars 2006.

the heartbreakers sold out theaters of thousands of seats and signed major record label deals, without richard hell. they were the biggest band in new york around 76” and 77”. they were neither a backing band for johnny. they were a BAND in the proper sense of the word. Shhsbavavaa (talk) 23:12, 1 February 2023 (UTC)

Eliminate Discography?
This discography is so incomplete it's practically worthless. I think it should be nixed until someone bothers to post the dozens of titles which go there, or at least pare it down to proper albums (not compilations). Mg196 05:53, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

Personal Info
No mention made of kids, relationships (ie: Sable Starr), etc. Sylvain1972 20:32, 12 September 2007 (UTC)

Gang War
No mention of the collab with Wayne Kramer? Wwwhatsup (talk) 07:34, 6 January 2008 (UTC)

DISCOGRAPHY EDITS NEEDED!
Someone needs to separate the legitimate releases from the bootlegs. In the cases where bootlegs cover the same material as an official release, the bootleg should be linked to the OFFICIAL album, and in the official album description the bootleg should be mentioned. make sense? MG196 09:05, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Be bold. Edit it how you see fit. Kingturtle (talk) 13:12, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Looking at the article for the first time in a while now, I find myself wondering if it's even necessary to have WP articles on the individual bootlegs. MUSIC would suggest not (unless there's an odd one that's had significant coverage in reliable sources). Bootleg tracklistings/info and cover scans are probably more appropriate for the various JT fansites out there. Any thoughts, folks? --Kurt Shaped Box (talk) 22:35, 15 January 2008 (UTC)

genre
"Rock and roll, glam rock, punk rock, glam punk, rhythm and blues, protopunk" is what's written. I think all that verbeage is a little silly. Having 6 genres imples JT's music was very diverse and varied, when in fact his style was singular. The list reflects maybe disagreement over what to call this style. It should be called punk rock. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 96.224.205.58 (talk) 14:30, 25 July 2012 (UTC)

The impossible grandfather
Dead men do not become grandfathers, and this factoid is of no general interest. Nicmart (talk) 00:09, 24 March 2013 (UTC)

External links modified
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Date of death
According to Thunders' Social Security death certificate, he actually died on April 15, 1991. Why is the date given as April 23 in the article? Esszet (talk) 13:12, 28 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Because that's what reliable, fact-checked sources such as The New York Times and Variety say? The Social Security Death Index, which you reference, is not a death certificate. — Malik Shabazz Talk/Stalk 00:53, 29 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Whatever it is, it is a reliable source, and further research is necessary to determine exactly what's going on here. Esszet (talk) 13:39, 29 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Opinion about whether the SSDI is a reliable source is mixed. Look at the archives at WP:RS/N. In my work experience dealing with pension plans, I've found it to be generally trustworthy for reporting deaths, but (a) we get copies of death certificates from family members, so I've never had to rely on it for dates of death and (b) my experience is limited to retirees who have been collecting Social Security benefits, not people -- like Thunders -- who died in their 30s. If the majority of reliable sources say April 23, and only one source says April 15, I would assume April 15 is wrong. By the way, AllMusic also says April 23. — MShabazz Talk/Stalk 14:55, 29 December 2016 (UTC)
 * I was going to say that the SSDI isn't just any old reliable source because it's an official government database, but if there is significant doubt as to its reliability (and my own experience with it in doing genealogical research leads me to believe that such doubts are well-founded), enough weight probably shouldn't be accorded to it to single-handedly trump all the other sources. I also have to admit that it seems strange (though not impossible) that it took news of his death over a week to reach major media outlets, so the April 23 date should just be left in there for now, although if possible, it may be worth checking his death certificate. Esszet (talk) 21:29, 29 December 2016 (UTC)

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Discogs link broken
The Discogs link at the bottom of the page points to "Kemeticjust* Feat Terrance Downs – I Got Life". I would correct it, but I don't understand the syntax used there. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.0.208.64 (talk) 19:17, 25 August 2018 (UTC)

 * Hello. Thank you for your message. I just fixed the link. It was using a template intended for an album instead of the one intended for an artist. Thanks again. — MShabazz Talk/Stalk 19:52, 25 August 2018 (UTC)

I find the primary photo of Thunders offensive or at least in poor taste
The primary photo being shown for Johnny Thunders appears to have been taken at a recording session where he is exhausted, half-passed out, and looking very ill. I've never seen such an awful photo on Wikipedia of anyone else. Can't Johnny Thunders be portrayed with a decent photograph instead of something that looks like it was taken by tabloid paparazzi trying to capture someone's worst possible look?

Napooi (talk) 19:35, 12 September 2018 (UTC)

 * Hello Napooi. Because of Wikipedia's copyright policy, we are limited to "free" images of Thunders (i.e., those that are not subject to copyright). The easiest ones to find are on Wikimedia Commons in Commons:Category:Johnny Thunders. I replaced the image, but the new one isn't a whole lot better. If you prefer one of the other images on Commons, replace it. If you know of a "free" image we can use, please upload it so we can add it to the article. Thank you. — Malik Shabazz Talk/Stalk 01:51, 13 September 2018 (UTC)

Birth name
Shouldn't birth name read Giovanni Antonio Genzale Jr? Does anybody know if the birth certificate say Johnny or Giovanni? I've read and heared him be called both.

title: Talk:Johnny Thunders


text:
NAMC YS-11

The NAMC YS-11 is a turboprop airliner designed and built by the Nihon Aircraft Manufacturing Corporation (NAMC), a Japanese consortium. It was the only post-war airliner to be wholly designed and manufactured in Japan until the development of the Mitsubishi SpaceJet during the 2010s, roughly 50 years later.

Development of the YS-11 can be largely attributed to Japan's Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI), which had encouraged Japanese aircraft companies to collaborate on the development of a short-haul airliner as early as 1954. In 1959, NAMC was formed to design and produce an aircraft to satisfy MITI's requirements, dubbed the YS-11. On 30 August 1962, the first prototype performed its maiden flight. Deliveries commenced on 30 March 1965, and commercial operations began the following month. The majority of orders for the type were issued from various Japanese airlines. While sales to such customers were swift in the YS-11's initial years of availability, this limited market soon became saturated, leading to a slump in demand.

Production of the type came to an end in 1974 as a result of efforts to increase sales to international clients, including the creation of the better YS-11A variation. In the end, the YS-11 had shown that Japan was capable of building an airliner, but NAMC had racked up a huge debt, and the type is generally regarded as a commercial failure. Large numbers of the type continued to be in service until 2006, at which point tighter Japanese aircraft regulations imposed by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism necessitated either the withdrawal or refitting of all YS-11s. By 2018, only a single example reportedly remained in commercial service.

Origins
During the mid-to-late 1950s, the Japanese Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) identified a requirement for a short-haul airliner to replace Douglas DC-3s flying on Japan's domestic routes, and encouraged companies in Japan's aircraft industry to collaborate to develop and produce a domestic airliner to meet this need. Towards this purpose, in May 1957, the Commercial Transport Design Research Association was established and the availability of government subsidies guaranteed. From the government's viewpoint, the development of such an airliner was viewed as a key initiative towards the post-war revival of the nation's aircraft companies, which came in addition to the serious ambition to become a major international competitor in the global airliner business. Furthermore, while this requirement had been conceived primarily in a commercial context, there was an early recognition of the value for multiple branches of the Japanese Defense Agency (JDA) to be readily able to adopt the type as well; as a philosophy, this not only extended to the prospective airliner itself, but the various technologies involved in its development and manufacture.

In response to this encouragement, during 1957, a joint venture between Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Kawasaki Heavy Industries, Fuji Heavy Industries, Shin Meiwa, Showa Aircraft Industry Company and Japan Aircraft Industry Company was established for the purpose of developing and manufacturing the envisioned airliner. Two years later, this partnership was formalised as the Nihon Aeroplane Manufacturing Company (NAMC). The ownership of NAMC was initially divided between the Japanese government, which held 54% of the shares, while the constituent aircraft manufacturers held an 18% stake and several components/materials suppliers owned 11%; the remaining shares were small stakes belonging to various banks, insurance companies, and stock firms who chose to invest in the programme. However, NAMC was essentially a "paper company", being reliant upon both personnel and infrastructure provided by its constituent manufacturers.

NAMC designed a low-winged twin-turboprop-engined monoplane, capable of seating up to 60 passengers, dubbed the YS-11. Amongst the design team was Jiro Horikoshi, who had previously been the designer of the famed wartime Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter. Another prominent engineer on the project was Teruo Tojo, the second son of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo, who later became chairman of Mitsubishi Motors. The twin-engined YS-11 was projected as delivering similar operational performance to the four-engined British-built Vickers Viscount, while possessing 50% greater capacity than the similarly configured Dutch-built Fokker F27 Friendship. MITI supervised the pricing of the aircraft in order to ensure that it was competitive with the American-built Martin 4-0-4.

Although the tentative aircraft was mainly designed and manufactured in Japan, the engine selected to power the airliner was the 2,275 kW (3,050 ehp) Rolls-Royce Dart RDa.10/1 powerplant, which was both developed and produced by British-based company Rolls-Royce. Furthermore, according to author Stephen C Mercado, due to the lack of available domestic technology at the time, several of the key aircraft systems, such as cabin pressurization, were copied from foreign sources; such information was gleaned from a combination of Japanese airlines, trading companies and diplomats. Throughout the YS-11's production lifetime, its electronic equipment, avionics, mechanical and fuselage components were supplied by a combination of Japanese companies and foreign suppliers.

Name
The “YS” of the YS-11 comes from a combination of the first letter sounds of the two Japanese words yusō (transport) and sekkei (design), which refer to the Association for Research on Transport Aircraft Design (Yusōki sekkei kenkyū kyōkai). Meanwhile, the first “1” of the “11” refers to the various engine candidates considered for the YS-11; the Rolls-Royce Dart RDa.10/1, which was the engine selected, had been designated “number 1.” The second “1” refers to the aircraft specification plan selected for the YS-11, which had been one among many plans that differed by wing placement and size. There had also been a “plan 0” at one point.

A catchphrase developed around the public reveal of the YS-11 mockup, which was “Let’s meet on the 11th at Sugita in Yokohama.” Here, Yokohama represented the “Y,” the Sugita neighborhood stood for the “S,” and the 11th referred both to the plane and to the date of the public reveal (December 11, 1958). Because of this, it became common to read the “11” in “YS-11” as “eleven” (jūichi in Japanese). For those involved in designing the plane, meanwhile, the designation had originally been pronounced “YS-one-one” (or YS ichi ichi).

Into flight
On 30 August 1962, the first prototype performed its maiden flight from Nagoya Airport; it was soon followed by the second prototype, flying on 28 December 1962. Early flight testing revealed several issues to troubleshoot, including poor steering, excessive vibration and noise. There was also an acute lack of safety during sideways maneuvers; the wake of the propeller produced abnormal forces that inclined the aircraft to the right; all of the rudders were ineffective; and the maneuverability was worst of all. These problems produced a tailspin during the flight test, and were the direct cause of a crash. This was known as the “three rudder problem.”

In one prestigious early flight of the type, All Nippon Airways used a YS-11 to carry the Olympic torch in the run-up to the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo. It received its Japanese Type certificate on 25 August 1964, while American Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification followed on 9 September 1965. Prior to applying for certification, the FAA had been involved in the programme at NAMC's invitation, performing informal project reviews so that defects could be identified and eliminated early on.

During the late 1960s, a lack of significant international sales led to the programme incurring persistent losses, the outstanding debt eventually growing to $600 million. Due to the organisation of the programme, the aircraft manufacturers themselves did not have any of this debt apportioned to themselves, NAMC being held solely responsible; Mercado criticised this approach as it meant there was no incentive for the individual companies to make cost savings while simultaneously guarantee profit to them on every plane produced. Furthermore, it had been alleged that some participants saw the YS-11 as only a training programme to develop their employees' skills, rather than a serious commercial initiative; some participants chose to rotate large numbers of staff in and out of the project for brief periods before re-tasking them to work on internal projects.

Mercado claims that the programme's operational mindset was closer to that of a military project than a commercial one, while a preoccupation with government-issued performance criteria obstructed considerations towards the actual desires of the commercial operators, such as operating costs and cabin configuration, that the YS-11 was marketed towards. As this was Japan's first, and for a long time only, post-war airliner, NAMC lacked any staff with experience in marketing towards airlines, a disadvantage against the salesmen of rival airframers. This failure to address a crucial factor in acquiring new customers has been attributed as a major contributing cause of the programme's poor commercial reception.

The end of the YS-11 programme was precipitated by the 1971 Smithsonian Agreement, which led to an appreciation in the value of the Japanese yen and the resulting impact upon the nation's economy. By this point, it was clear that there was little chance that the YS-11 could ever come close to breaking even. These myriad factors contributed to the decision for production to be terminated after the completion of 182 aircraft. On 11 May 1973, the last YS-11 was delivered to the Japanese Maritime Self-Defence Force (JMSDF).

Operational history
On 23 October 1964, the first production YS-11 conducted its first flight; it was delivered to its customer on 30 March 1965. During April 1965, initial airline operations commenced with launch customer Toa Airways. By 1968, the YS-11 programme accounted for about half of all aircraft production taking place in Japan that year. Early deliveries were mainly made to Japanese airlines, but orders for the type slowed drastically after the satisfaction of the outstanding needs of the Japanese commuter airlines for which the aircraft had been designed. Initial attempts were made to market the airliner towards various countries across Southeast Asia; at one point, the Japanese government was allegedly encouraging such sales as a form of war reparations.

Seeking to make the aircraft more attractive to the highly active North American market, NAMC decided to develop the YS-11A, a new variant which possessed a higher gross weight. During 1966, a lease agreement was signed between NAMC and Hawaiian Air Lines, a move which was hailed as the "first step" in the programme's new America-focused campaign. While a number of aircraft would be sold internationally, these were often at a loss as the sales price had been set so low, deliberately as to undercut competing airliners, but paid little heed to production costs; this deficit led to losses mounting more rapidly than anticipated.

A major customer for the YS-11 was the American operator Piedmont Airlines, who had been seeking the optimal modern airliner to serve their existing routes, which mostly comprised a number of small, mountainous airports. After evaluating numerous aircraft around the world, the company determined that the Japanese airliner was the most suitable; according to Piedmont's president, Thomas H Davis: "The YS‐11 was the only one we could find which would do it on an economical basis". During October 1967, Piedmont Airlines ordered a batch of ten YS-11A-200s along with an option for an additional ten aircraft for $22.5 million. The company was so impressed by its performance, it both exercised the option for ten aircraft and purchased an additional YS-11, operating a combined fleet of 21 YS-11s by mid-1970. Piedmont would be the type's largest international operator; ultimately, no other airline would place another order of this scale.

End of production
Commercial sales of the YS-11 began to stall without a stable structure in place for sales. Especially outside of Japan, the YS-11 was forced to compete with other country's models with long-term low deferred interest payments. Nor was it rare for NAMC to have to sell the YS-11 at a discount, as this was Japan's first commercial airliner since the end of World War II, and had no proven track record. Additionally, it was also said that there was mismanagement of the program's cost management, as initial estimates had neglected to include the cost advertising or company administration. Moreover, because multiple companies were involved with the aircraft manufacturing, it was unclear who held ultimate responsibility, nor could the price of delivered parts be reduced. An increase in former government employees appointed to the company began to spread a culture of bureaucracy, making necessary drastic management reforms impossible and further increasing the program's deficit.

In particular, there was deficit in sales activities outside of Japan that were a result of fundamental problems in NAMC's administrative activities in the United States, as indicated by the Japanese government Board of Audit; this is to say nothing of the unforeseen loss due to a less favorable currency exchange that resulted after the American government switched to a floating exchange rate in 1971. When Jenks Caldwell of Charlotte Aircraft Corporation, a sales dealer of used aircraft and aviation parts headquartered in North Carolina, expressed a strong desire to become a sales agent in the United States through a modification of YS-11A, NAMC signed an exclusive agency contract with his company to manage sales for North America, Latin America and Spain. However, Charlotte Aircraft did not actually carry out the promised activities, and when a sales agreement with Piedmont Airlines was concluded with Mitsui, Charlotte Aircraft demanded damages under their status as exclusive dealer, and Piedmont Airlines and Cruzeiro do Sul handed over 33 used aircraft traded in for YS-11 to Charlotte Aircraft; Japan's Board of Audit complained these actions were unfair. This event became a problem in the Diet, and the managing director of NAMC resigned. NAMC had no experience of selling passenger planes, and so it concluded a contract with Charlotte Aircraft without conducting an investigation into the company's trustworthiness or business practices, nor without creating a clause in the event Charlotte Aircraft refused to conduct sales. When the contract with Charlotte Aircraft was terminated, NAMC was forced to pay 23,000,000 yen and turn over used aircraft.

In addition, any requests for a reduction in sales price or delayed payments by airlines had to be reviewed by governmental organizations like the Ministry of Finance or the Ministry of International Trade and Industry. It was said that there were many instances of contracts that could not be concluded due to the absence of the various ministry's approval.

By 1994, 112 YS-11s remained in service; the lengthy service life of the type, despite the short manufacturing lifespan, has been hailed by some officials as evidence of the type being successful in some respect. The YS-11 was slowly phased out by Japanese airlines up until the early 2000s, at which point the withdrawal rate spiked in response to new directives issued by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism that required all commercial aircraft in Japan to be fitted with a Traffic Collision Avoidance System (TCAS); any aircraft lacking TCAS were forced to cease operations at the end of 2006. Reportedly, equipping a YS-11 with TCAS had been estimated as costing around ¥100 million (about US$1 million), such a refit was deemed economically unsound. Those aircraft that remained in a flight-worthy condition were typically sold to foreign companies. On 30 September 2006, Japan Air Commuter Flight 3806 marked the final flight of a YS-11 within Japan's commercial aviation industry.

In 2007, the YS-11 was added to the Mechanical Engineering Heritage of Japan as item number 13. , fifteen were operated by the Japanese military, and two in Mexico. , only eight remained in service with the Japan Air Self-Defense Force, which were being used for flight checks and other ancillary purposes. , two aircraft remain in commercial service in South America and Africa. , the Japan Air Self-Defense Force retired the YS-11 after 57 years of service.

In popular culture
In railroad journals, YS-11 was linked to the 0 Series Shinkansen, another Japanese-made form of transportation that debuted around the time of the 1964 Olympics. Additionally, the Shinkansen and the YS-11 were both developed by individuals who were involved with the creation of military aircraft (this was to be expected with an airplane like the YS-11, but men like Migi Tadanao and Matsudaira Tadashi were also involved with the Shinkansen).

Variants

 * YS-11
 * YS-11-100
 * Initial production variant. 23,500 kg (51,810 lb) gross weight. 48 built.

 * YS-11A-200
 * Increased gross weight (24,500 kg (54,010 lb) passenger airliner.

 * YS-11A-300
 * Combi version of YS-11-200, fitted with large cargo door and capable of carrying both passengers and freight.

 * YS-11A-400
 * Pure cargo version of -200, used only by Japanese defence forces.

 * YS-11A-500
 * Passenger airliner with further increased (25,000 kg (55,110 lb)) gross weight produced from 1970.

 * YS-11A-600
 * Combi version of -500.

 * YS-11E
 * JASDF "Super YS" powered by T64-IHI-10J.

Customer variants

 * YS-11-101: TOA Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11-102: All Nippon Airways
 * YS-11-103: Japan Air Self Defense Force
 * YS-11-104: Japan Civil Aviation Bureau
 * YS-11-105: Japan Air Self Defense Force
 * YS-11-106: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11-107: Filipinas Orient Airways
 * YS-11-108: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11-109: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11-110: Japan Civil Aviation Bureau
 * YS-11-111: All Nippon Airways
 * YS-11-113: Japan Maritime Self Defense Force
 * YS-11-114: TOA Airways
 * YS-11-115: Aeronautic College
 * YS-11-116: Filipinas Orient Airways
 * YS-11-117: Hawaiian Airlines
 * YS-11-118: Japan Civil Aviation Bureau
 * YS-11-120: LANSA
 * YS-11-121: Filipinas Orient Airways
 * YS-11-124: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11-125: Cruzeiro do Sul
 * YS-11-128: Austral (later Austral Líneas Aéreas)
 * YS-11-129: TOA Airways
 * YS-11A-201: NAMC
 * YS-11A-202: Cruzeiro do Sul
 * YS-11A-205: Piedmont Airlines
 * YS-11A-206: Japan Maritime Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-207: Japan Maritime Safety Agency
 * YS-11A-208: All Nippon Airways
 * YS-11A-209: Southwest Air Lines
 * YS-11A-211: VASP
 * YS-11A-212: VASP
 * YS-11A-213: All Nippon Airways
 * YS-11A-214: Southwest Air Lines
 * YS-11A-217: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11A-218: Japan Air Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-219: China Airlines
 * YS-11A-220: Olympic Airways
 * YS-11A-222: TOA Airways
 * YS-11A-223: All Nippon Airways
 * YS-11A-227: Japan Domestic Airlines / TOA Airways
 * YS-11A-301: Korean Air Lines
 * YS-11A-305: Japan Air Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-306: Transair
 * YS-11A-307: Japan Domestic Airlines
 * YS-11A-309: Aerotransportes Litoral Argentino (later Austral Líneas Aéreas)
 * YS-11A-310: Korean Air Lines
 * YS-11A-313: TOA Airways
 * YS-11A-314: Air Afrique
 * YS-11A-321: Air Gabon
 * YS-11A-402: Japan Air Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-404: Japan Maritime Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-500: Piedmont Airlines
 * YS-11A-523: Philippine Civil Aeronautics Administration
 * YS-11A-621: Trans Gabon
 * YS-11A-623: Pelita Air Service
 * YS-11A-624: Japan Maritime Self Defense Force
 * YS-11A-626: Reeve Aleutian Airways

Civil operators
Former and present operators of the NAMC YS-11 include:

🇦🇷

 * Aerolíneas Argentinas
 * Aerotransportes Litoral Argentino
 * Austral Líneas Aéreas

🇦🇼 Aruba

 * Air Aruba

🇧🇷 Brazil

 * Cruzeiro do Sul
 * VASP

 Brunei

 * BIMP - EAGA Air Alliance

🇨🇦 Canada

 * Norcanair
 * Transair Ltd

 Democratic Republic of the Congo

 * Societe Generale d'Alimentation

🇪🇬 Egypt

 * Pyramid Airlines

🇬🇦 Gabon

 * Trans Gabon Airlines
 * Gabon Express
 * Gabon Express Cargo

🇬🇲 Gambia

 * Gambia AW

🇬🇷 Greece

 * Olympic Airways

🇮🇩 Indonesia

 * Bouraq Indonesia Airlines
 * Pelita Air Service
 * Mandala Airlines
 * Merpati Nusantara Airlines

 Ivory Coast

 * Air Afrique

🇯🇵 Japan

 * Air Nippon
 * All Nippon Airways
 * Japan Air Lines
 * Japan Air System
 * Japan Domestic Airlines
 * Japan TransOcean Air
 * Toa Airways
 * Toa Domestic Airlines
 * Nihon Kinkyori Airlines
 * Southwest Air Lines Japan

🇲🇽 Mexico

 * Aerolitoral
 * Aerodan Cargo
 * Gacela Air Cargo
 * AeroSierra
 * ALCON Servicios Aereos

🇵🇪 Peru

 * Líneas Aéreas Nacionales S.A.

🇵🇭 Philippines

 * Philippine Airlines
 * Air Philippines
 * Air Link International Airways
 * Airlink International Aviation College
 * 2GO
 * Aboitiz Air
 * Asian Spirit
 * Aero Majestic Airways
 * South Phoenix Airways

🇰🇷 South Korea

 * Korean Air
 * Korean Air Cargo

🇹🇼 Taiwan

 * China Airlines

🇹🇿 Tanzania

 * Air Star Zanzibar

🇹🇹 Trinidad and Tobago

 * Air Caribbean

🇹🇭 Thailand

 * Phuket Air
 * Air Phoenix

🇦🇪 United Arab Emirates

 * Global Air Cargo

🇺🇸 United States

 * American Eagle
 * Continental Express
 * Piedmont Airlines
 * Simmons Airlines
 * Reeve Aleutian Airways
 * Provincetown-Boston Airlines
 * Pinehurst Airlines
 * MPAC
 * Midwest Air Charter/Airborne Express
 * Far West Airlines
 * Fort Worth Airlines
 * Hawaiian Airlines
 * Pacific Southwest Airlines
 * Mid Pacific Air
 * Tauk Tours
 * United States Postal Service

Former military operators

 * Greek Air Force – 6 ex-Olympic Airways YS-11A aircraft were supplied in 1981.
 * Japan Air Self-Defense Force
 * 401st Tactical Airlift Squadron (1969–1989)
 * 402nd Tactical Airlift Squadron (1968–2001)
 * 403rd Tactical Airlift Squadron YS-11P (1978–2017)
 * Flight Check Squadron YS-11FC (–2021)
 * Electronic Warfare Squadron YS-11EA
 * Electronic Intelligence Squadron YS-11EB
 * Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force
 * Air Transport Squadron 61 YS-11M/M-A (1971–2014)
 * Japan Coast Guard (1969–2011)
 * Japan Coast Guard (1969–2011)

JSDF delivery breakdown: JASDF

2 YS-11EA for Electronic Warfare

4 YS-11EB for ELINT

3 YS-11FC for Flight Checker

1 YS-11NT for Navigation Trainer

3 YS-11P for Passenger/VIP Transport

JMSDF

2 YS-11M for Freighter

2 YS-11M-A for Freighter

6 YS-11T-A for MPA trainer

Accidents and incidents
There have been over twenty hull loss accidents involving YS-11 aircraft.
 * 13 November 1966, All Nippon Airways Flight 533 crashed into the sea near Matsuyama, Japan with the loss of all five crew and 45 passengers.
 * 20 October 1969, All Nippon Airways Flight 104 overran the runway at Miyazaki Airport, Japan. All four crew and 49 passengers survived.
 * 11 December 1969, a Korean Air flight from Gangneung to Seoul was hijacked and flown to Sǒndǒk Airfield near Wonsan. The aircraft was damaged on landing and written off. The aircraft, its crew, and seven passengers are still held in North Korean territory.
 * 12 August 1970, China Airlines Flight 206 crashed into Yuan Mountain on approach to Taipei, Taiwan. Two crew and 12 passengers were killed.
 * 1 April 1971, a Merpati Nusantara Airlines YS-11 made a wheels-up landing at Kemayoran Airport, Jakarta, Indonesia while on a training flight.
 * 3 July 1971, Toa Domestic Airlines Flight 63 flew into Yokotsu Mountain while on approach to Hakodate Airport, Japan. All four crew and 64 passengers were killed, the worst loss of life in an accident involving the YS-11.
 * 7 November 1971, A VASP YS-11 was destroyed by fire after a candle was lit inside when the aircraft was being guarded overnight after being bogged down at Aragarças Airport in Aragarças, Brazil. Both guards were killed.
 * 12 April 1972, a VASP flight between São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro crashed 50 km north of Rio de Janeiro. All four crew and 21 passengers were killed.
 * 18 October 1972, a Cruzeiro do Sul YS-11 overshot the runway at Congonhas Airport, São Paulo and was damaged beyond repair.
 * 21 October 1972, an Olympic Airlines YS-11 en route from Corfu (Kerkyra) to Athens crashed into the sea in Voula whilst attempting an approach to Ellinikon International Airport, Athens, in a heavy storm. One crew member (the co-pilot) and 36 passengers were killed, while the captain, the two stewardesses and 16 passengers survived.
 * 23 October 1973, a VASP YS-11 overran the runway at Santos Dumont Airport, Rio de Janeiro after a rejected take-off and ended up in Guanabara Bay. Eight passengers were killed.
 * 5 March 1974, a Pacific Southwest Airlines YS-11 crash landed in the desert 14 km east of Borrego Springs, California while on a training flight. Aircraft was written off.
 * 6 November 1974, a Reeve Aleutian Airways YS-11 was written off in a hangar fire at Anchorage, Alaska.
 * 28 May 1975, TOA Domestic Airlines Flight 621 was damaged beyond repair in a landing accident at Osaka International Airport when a tyre burst and the aircraft departed the runway.
 * 23 November 1976, Olympic Airways Flight 830 flew into Mount Metaxas near the village of Servia in Kozani, Greece, in low clouds and almost zero visibility. All four crew and 46 passengers were killed.
 * 29 April 1977, a Cruzeiro YS-11 departed the runway on landing at Ministro Victor Konder International Airport, Navegantes, Brazil.
 * 17 July 1977, a Philippine Airlines YS-11 ditched on approach to Mactan–Cebu International Airport after an engine failure.
 * 11 March 1983, Nihon Kinkyori Airlines Flight 497 undershot the runway at Nakashibetsu Airport, Japan.
 * 13 January 1987, a Mid Pacific Air YS-11 force landed in a field at Remington, Indiana after both engines were mismanaged.
 * 10 January 1988, TOA Domestic Airlines Flight 670 overran the runway at Miho-Yonago Airport, Yonago, Japan after a rejected take-off and ended up in the sea. Aircraft had not been de-iced prior to take-off.
 * 15 March 1989, a Mid Pacific Air YS-11 undershot the runway at Purdue University Airport, Lafayette, Indiana due to loss of pitch control caused by icing on the tail. The aircraft was on a positioning flight, both crew members were killed.
 * 6 March 1992, an Airborne Express YS-11 made a wheels-up landing at Airborne Airpark, Wilmington, Ohio while on a training flight due to pilot error.
 * 24 June 1996, an Air Philippines YS-11 struck a ground power unit while taxiing at Naga Airport, Naga City. Aircraft was destroyed in the subsequent fire.
 * 16 February 2000, Air Nippon Flight 354 departed the runway at Okadama Airport, Sapporo, Japan and collided with a bank of snow.
 * 3 November 2001, a YS-11 being prepared for delivery to an airline in Burundi was destroyed by a fire caused by a stray firework at London Southend Airport.
 * 11 September 2005, Phuket Airlines Flight 326 skids off the runway at Mae Sot Airport, Thailand.
 * 2 January 2008, Asian Spirit Flight 321 suffered an undercarriage collapse on landing at Masbate Airport, Philippines.
 * 28 September 2009, Japanese Maritime Self-Defense Force YS-11M-A serial number 9044 overran the runway upon landing at Ozuki Air Field and was substantially damaged.

Aircraft on display

 * Brazil
 * 2080 – YS-11A-200 on static display as a restaurant in Tijucas, Santa Catarina.

 * Greece
 * 2137 (Hellenic Air Force) - YS-11A-220 at the Elefsis Heritage Park

 * Japan
 * JA8611 – YS-11 prototype at the Museum of Aeronautical Science in Narita, Chiba.
 * JA8731 - YS-11A-213 at the Kakamigahara Aerospace Museum.
 * JA8732 – YS-11A-213 at the Tokorozawa Aviation Memorial Park in Tokorozawa, Saitama.
 * JA8733 - YS-11A-213 at Saga Airport
 * JA8734 – YS-11A-500R at Tajima Airport in Toyooka, Hyogo Prefecture.
 * JA8743 - YS-11A-213 at Sanuki Kodomono Kuni amusement park near Takamatsu Airport.
 * JA8766 - YS-11A-227 at Misawa Aviation & Science Museum
 * JA8809 - YS-11A-202 at the Michinoku Traditional Wooden Boat Museum.
 * 52-1152 (JASDF) at the Aichi Museum of Flight in Komaki, Aichi Prefecture.
 * JA8160 The first mass-produced YS-11 has been in storage at Haneda Airport since 1999, where it has been maintained and kept airworthy by the National Museum of Nature and Science and is occasionally available for public viewing.

 * Philippines
 * RP-77 – YS-11A-523 at the Philippine Air Force Aerospace Museum in Manila, National Capital.

 * Thailand
 * HS-APA YS-11A-227 at Jesada Technik Museum
 * HS-KCU YS-11A-213 at Nong Khor

 * United States
 * P4-KFD – YS-11-120 on static display at the Grissom Air Museum near Peru, Indiana.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: NAMC YS-11


text:
Motor learning

Motor learning refers broadly to changes in an organism's movements that reflect changes in the structure and function of the nervous system. Motor learning occurs over varying timescales and degrees of complexity: humans learn to walk or talk over the course of years, but continue to adjust to changes in height, weight, strength etc. over their lifetimes. Motor learning enables animals to gain new skills, and improves the smoothness and accuracy of movements, in some cases by calibrating simple movements like reflexes. Motor learning research often considers variables that contribute to motor program formation (i.e., underlying skilled motor behaviour), sensitivity of error-detection processes, and strength of movement schemas (see motor program). Motor learning is "relatively permanent", as the capability to respond appropriately is acquired and retained. Temporary gains in performance during practice or in response to some perturbation are often termed motor adaptation, a transient form of learning. Neuroscience research on motor learning is concerned with which parts of the brain and spinal cord represent movements and motor programs and how the nervous system processes feedback to change the connectivity and synaptic strengths. At the behavioral level, research focuses on the design and effect of the main components driving motor learning, i.e. the structure of practice and the feedback. The timing and organization of practice can influence information retention, e.g. how tasks can be subdivided and practiced (also see varied practice), and the precise form of feedback can influence preparation, anticipation, and guidance of movement.

Structure of practice and contextual interference
Contextual interference was originally defined as "function interference in learning responsible for memory improvement". Contextual interference effect is "the effect on learning of the degree of functional interference found in a practice situation when several tasks must be learned and are practiced together". Variability of practice (or varied practice) is an important component to contextual interference, as it places task variations within learning. Although varied practice may lead to poor performance throughout the acquisition phase, it is important for the development of the schemata, which is responsible for the assembly and improved retention and transfer of motor learning.

Despite the improvements in performance seen across a range of studies, one limitation of the contextual interference effect is the uncertainty with regard to the cause of performance improvements as so many variables are constantly manipulated. In a review of literature, the authors identify that there were few patterns to explain the improvements in experiments that use the contextual interference paradigm. Although there were no patterns in the literature, common areas and limitations that justified interference effects were identified:

 * Although the skills being learned required whole-body movements, most tasks had a common feature; they all contained components that could be isolated.
 * Most of the studies supporting interference effect used slow movements that enabled movement adjustments during movement execution.
 * According to some authors bilateral transfer may be elicited through alternate practice conditions, as a source of information can develop from both sides of the body. Despite improvements seen in these studies, interference effects would not be attributed to their improvements, and it would have been a coincidence of task characteristics and schedule of practice.
 * The terminology of "complex skills" has not been well defined. Procedural manipulations, which vary between experiments (e.g., changing the similarity between tasks) has been cited as a contributor to skill complexity.

Feedback given during practice
Feedback is regarded as a critical variable for skill acquisition and is broadly defined as any kind of sensory information related to a response or movement. Intrinsic feedback is response-produced — it occurs normally when a movement is made and the sources may be internal or external to the body. Typical sources of intrinsic feedback include vision, proprioception and audition. Extrinsic feedback is augmented information provided by an external source, in addition to intrinsic feedback. Extrinsic feedback is sometimes categorized as knowledge of performance or knowledge of results.

Several studies have manipulated the presentation features of feedback information (e.g., frequency, delay, interpolated activities, and precision) in order to determine the optimal conditions for learning. See Figure 4, Figure 6, and summary Table 1 for a detailed explanation of feedback manipulation and knowledge of results (see below).

Knowledge of performance
Knowledge of performance (KP) or kinematic feedback refers to information provided to a performer, indicating the quality or patterning of their movement. It may include information such as displacement, velocity or joint motion. KP tends to be distinct from intrinsic feedback and more useful in real-world tasks. It is a strategy often employed by coaches or rehabilitation practitioners.

Knowledge of results
Knowledge of results (KR) is defined as extrinsic or augmented information provided to a performer after a response, indicating the success of their actions with regard to an environmental goal. KR may be redundant with intrinsic feedback, especially in real-world scenarios. However, in experimental studies, it refers to information provided over and above those sources of feedback that are naturally received when a response is made (i.e., response-produced feedback; Typically, KR is also verbal or verbalizable. The impact of KR on motor learning has been well-studied and some implications are described below.

Experimental design and knowledge of results
Often, experimenters fail to separate the relatively permanent aspect of change in the capability for responding (i.e. indicative of learning) from transient effects (i.e. indicative of performance). In order to account for this, transfer designs have been created which involve two distinct phases. To visualize the transfer design, imagine a 4x4 grid. The column headings may be titled "Experiment #1" and "Experiment #2" and indicate the conditions you wish to compare. The row headings are titled "Acquisition" and "Transfer" whereby: After a rest period, the change in the capability for responding (i.e. effects) are argued to be those attributed to learning, and the group with the most effective performance has learned the most.
 * 1) The acquisition block (2 columns) contains the test conditions in which some variable is manipulated (i.e. different levels of KR applied) and different groups receive different treatments. This block represents the transient effects of KR (i.e. performance)
 * 2) The transfer block (2 columns) contains the test conditions in which that variable is held constant (i.e. a common level of KR applied; normally a no-KR condition). When presented with a no-KR condition, this block represents the persistent effects of KR (i.e. learning). Conversely, if this block is given to subjects in a format where KR is available, transient and persistent effects of KR are convoluted and it is argued not interpretable for learning effects.

Functional role of knowledge of results and potential confounding of effects
KR seems to have many different roles, some of which can be viewed as temporary or transient (i.e. performance effects). Three of these roles include: 1) motivation, 2) associative function, and 3) guidance. The motivational influence can increase the effort and interest of the performer in the task as well as maintain this interest once KR is removed. Though important to create interest in the task for performance and learning purposes, however the extent to which it affects learning is unknown. The associative function of KR is likely to be involved in the formation of associations between stimulus and response (i.e., Law of Effect). However, this additional effect is not able to account for findings in transfer tasks manipulating the relative frequency of KR; specifically, decreasing relative frequency results in enhanced learning. For an alternate discussion on how KR may calibrate the motor system to the outside world (see schema theory in motor program). The guidance role of KR is likely the most influential to learning as both internal and external sources of feedback play a guiding role in performance of a motor task. As the performer is informed of errors in task performance, the discrepancy can be used to continually improve performance in following trials. However, the guidance hypothesis postulates that provision of too much external, augmented feedback (e.g., KR) during practice may cause the learner to develop a harmful dependency on this source of feedback. This may lead to superior performance during practice but poor performance at transfer – an indication of poor motor learning. Additionally, it implies that, as the performer improves, the conditions of KR must be adapted according to the performer's skill and difficulty of the task in order to maximize learning (see challenge point framework).

Specificity of learning hypothesis
The specificity of learning hypothesis suggests that learning is most effective when practice sessions include environment and movement conditions which closely resemble those required during performance of the task — replicating the target skill level and context for performance. p. 194 It suggests that the benefit of specificity in practice occurs because motor learning is combined with physical practice during the learned sport or skill. p. 90 Contrary to previous beliefs, skill learning is accomplished by alternating motor learning and physical performance, making the sources of feedback work together. The learning process, especially for a difficult task, results in the creation of a representation of the task where all relevant information pertaining to task performance is integrated. This representation becomes tightly coupled with increasing experience performing the task. As a result, removing or adding a significant source of information after a practice period where it was present or not, does not cause performance to deteriorate. Alternating motor learning and physical practice can ultimately lead to a great, if not better performance as opposed to just physical practice.

Physiological approach
The cerebellum and basal ganglia are critical for motor learning. As a result of the universal need for properly calibrated movement, it is not surprising that the cerebellum and basal ganglia are widely conserved across vertebrates from fish to humans.

Through motor learning the human is capable of achieving very skilled behavior, and through repetitive training a degree of automaticity can be expected. And although this can be a refined process much has been learned from studies of simple behaviors. These behaviors include eyeblink conditioning, motor learning in the vestibulo-ocular reflex, and birdsong. Research on Aplysia californica, the sea slug, has yielded detailed knowledge of the cellular mechanisms of a simple form of learning.

A type of motor learning occurs during operation of a brain–computer interface. For example, Mikhail Lebedev, Miguel Nicolelis and their colleagues recently demonstrated cortical plasticity that resulted in incorporation of an external actuator controlled through a brain–machine interface into the subject's neural representation.

At a cellular level, motor learning manifests itself in the neurons of the motor cortex. Using single-cell recording techniques, Dr. Emilio Bizzi and his collaborators have shown the behavior of certain cells, known as "memory cells," can undergo lasting alteration with practice.

Motor learning is also accomplished on the musculoskeletal level. Each motor neuron in the body innervates one or more muscle cells, and together these cells form what is known as a motor unit. For a person to perform even the simplest motor task, the activity of thousands of these motor units must be coordinated. It appears that the body handles this challenge by organizing motor units into modules of units whose activity is correlated.

Developmental coordination disorder
Impairments associated with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) involve difficulty in learning new motor skills as well as limited postural control and deficits in sensorimotor coordination. It appears that children with DCD are not able to improve performance of complex motor tasks by practice alone. However, there is evidence that task-specific training can improve performance of simpler tasks. Impaired skills learning may be correlated with brain activity, particularly, a reduction of brain activity in regions associated with skilled motor practice.

Apraxia
Motor learning has been applied to stroke recovery and neurorehabilitation, as rehabilitation is generally a process of relearning lost skills through practice and/or training. Although rehabilitation clinicians utilize practice as a major component within an intervention, a gap remains between motor control and motor learning research and rehabilitation practice. Common motor learning paradigms include robot arm paradigms, where individuals are encouraged to resist against a hand held device throughout specific arm movements. Another important concept to motor learning is the amount practice implemented in an intervention. Studies regarding the relationship between the amount of training received and the retention of the memory a set amount of time afterwards have been a popular focus in research. It has been shown that over learning leads to major improvements in long term retention and little effect on performance. Motor learning practice paradigms have compared the differences of different practice schedules, and it has proposed that repetition of the same movements is not enough in order to relearn a skill, as it is unclear whether true brain recovery is elicited through repetition alone. It is suggested that compensation methods develop through pure repetition and to elicit cortical changes (true recovery), individuals should be exposed to more challenging tasks. Research that has implemented motor learning and rehabilitation practice has been used within the stroke population and includes arm ability training, constraint-induced movement therapy, electromyograph-triggered neuromuscular stimulation, interactive robot therapy and virtual reality-based rehabilitation. A recent study ischemic conditioning was delivered via blood pressure cuff inflation and deflation to the arm, to facilitate learning. It showed for the first time in humans and animals, that ischemic conditioning can enhance motor learning and that the enhancement is retained over time. The potential benefits of ischemic conditioning extend far beyond stroke to other neuro-, geriatric, and pediatric rehabilitation populations. These findings were featured on Global Medical Discovery news.

title: Motor learning


text:
Vestibulo–ocular reflex

The vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) is a reflex that acts to stabilize gaze during head movement, with eye movement due to activation of the vestibular system, it is also known as the Cervico-ocular reflex. The reflex acts to stabilize images on the retinas of the eye during head movement. Gaze is held steadily on a location by producing eye movements in the direction opposite that of head movement. For example, when the head moves to the right, the eyes move to the left, meaning the image a person sees stays the same even though the head has turned. Since slight head movement is present all the time, VOR is necessary for stabilizing vision: people with an impaired reflex find it difficult to read using print, because the eyes do not stabilise during small head tremors, and also because damage to reflex can cause nystagmus.

The VOR does not depend on what is seen. It can also be activated by hot or cold stimulation of the inner ear, where the vestibular system sits, and works even in total darkness or when the eyes are closed. However, in the presence of light, the fixation reflex is also added to the movement. Most features of VOR are present in kittens raised in complete darkness.

In lower animals, the organs that coordinate balance and movement are not independent from eye movement. A fish, for instance, moves its eyes by reflex when its tail is moved. Humans have semicircular canals, neck muscle "stretch" receptors, and the utricle (gravity organ). Though the semicircular canals cause most of the reflexes which are responsive to acceleration, the maintaining of balance is mediated by the stretch of neck muscles and the pull of gravity on the utricle (otolith organ) of the inner ear.

The VOR has both rotational and translational aspects. When the head rotates about any axis (horizontal, vertical, or torsional) distant visual images are stabilized by rotating the eyes about the same axis, but in the opposite direction. When the head translates, for example during walking, the visual fixation point is maintained by rotating gaze direction in the opposite direction, by an amount that depends on distance.

Function

The vestibulo-ocular reflex is driven by signals arising from the vestibular system of the inner ear. The semicircular canals detect head rotation and provide the rotational component, whereas the otoliths detect head translation and drive the translational component. The signal for the horizontal rotational component travels via the vestibular nerve through the vestibular ganglion and end in the vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. From these nuclei, fibers cross to the abducens nucleus of the opposite side of the brain. Here, fibres synapse with 2 additional pathways. One pathway projects directly to the lateral rectus muscle of the eye via the abducens nerve. Another nerve tract projects from the abducens nucleus by the medial longitudinal fasciculus to the oculomotor nucleus of the opposite side, which contains motor neurons that drive eye muscle activity, specifically activating the medial rectus muscle of the eye through the oculomotor nerve.

Another pathway (not in picture) directly projects from the vestibular nucleus through the ascending tract of Deiter's to the medial rectus muscle motor neuron of the same side. In addition there are inhibitory vestibular pathways to the ipsilateral abducens nucleus. However no direct vestibular neuron to medial rectus motoneuron pathway exists.

Similar pathways exist for the vertical and torsional components of the VOR.

Oculomotor integrator
In addition to these direct pathways, which drive the velocity of eye rotation, there is an indirect pathway that builds up the position signal needed to prevent the eye from rolling back to center when the head stops moving. This pathway is particularly important when the head is moving slowly because here position signals dominate over velocity signals. David A. Robinson discovered that the eye muscles require this dual velocity-position drive, and also proposed that it must arise in the brain by mathematically integrating the velocity signal and then sending the resulting position signal to the motoneurons. Robinson was correct: the 'neural integrator' for horizontal eye position was found in the nucleus prepositus hypoglossi in the medulla, and the neural integrator for vertical and torsional eye positions was found in the interstitial nucleus of Cajal in the midbrain. The same neural integrators also generate eye position for other conjugate eye movements such as saccades and smooth pursuit.

The integrator is leaky, with a characteristic leaking time of 20 s. For example, when the subject is sitting still and focusing on an object, and suddenly the light is turned off, the eyes would return to their neutral position in around 40 seconds even as the subject is attempting to keep the focus.

Example
For instance, if the head is turned clockwise as seen from above, then excitatory impulses are sent from the semicircular canal on the right side via the vestibular nerve through Scarpa's ganglion and end in the right vestibular nuclei in the brainstem. From this nuclei excitatory fibres cross to the left abducens nucleus. There they project and stimulate the lateral rectus of the left eye via the abducens nerve. In addition, by the medial longitudinal fasciculus and oculomotor nuclei, they activate the medial rectus muscles on the right eye. As a result, both eyes will turn counter-clockwise.

Furthermore, some neurons from the right vestibular nucleus directly stimulate the right medial rectus motor neurons, and inhibits the right abducens nucleus.

Integrated neural control
The VOR is controlled by a neural integrator. The neuron from each horizontal semicircular canal fires at a rate of $$(90 + 0.4 \dot H) \; \mathrm{Hz}$$, where $$\dot H$$ is the sensed horizontal angular velocity of the semicircular canal. The motoneuron commanding the horizontal eye muscles fires at a rate of $$(4 \;\mathrm{Hz / deg}) \theta + (1.0 \;\mathrm{Hz / (deg/sec)}) \dot \theta $$, where $$\theta$$ is the horizontal turning angle, and $$\dot \theta $$ is its horizontal angular speed. The two terms account for the elasticity and viscosity of ocular tissue.

The rotational moment of inertia of the eye is negligible, as individuals wearing weighted contact lens that increases the rotational moment of inertia almost 100-fold still has the same VOR (p. 94 ).

Speed
The vestibulo-ocular reflex needs to be fast: for clear vision, head movement must be compensated almost immediately; otherwise, vision corresponds to a photograph taken with a shaky hand. Signals are sent from the semicircular canals using only three neurons, called the three neuron arc. This results in eye movements that lag head movement by less than 10 ms. The vestibulo-ocular reflex is one of the fastest reflexes in the human body.

VOR suppression
When a person tracks the movement of something with both their eyes and head together, the VOR is counterproductive to the goal of keeping the gaze and head angle aligned. Research indicates that there exists mechanisms in the brain to suppress the VOR using the active visual (retinal) feedback obtained by watching the object in motion. In the absence of visual feedback, such as when the object passes behind an opaque barrier, humans can continue to visually track the apparent position of the object using anticipatory (extra-retinal) systems within the brain, and the VOR is also suppressed during this activity. The VOR can even be cognitively suppressed, such as when following an imagined target with the eyes and head together, although the effect tends to be less dramatic than with visual feedback.

Gain
The "gain" of the VOR is defined as the change in the eye angle divided by the change in the head angle during the head turn. Ideally the gain of the rotational VOR is 1.0. The gain of the horizontal and vertical VOR is usually close to 1.0, but the gain of the torsional VOR (rotation around the line of sight) is generally low. The gain of the translational VOR has to be adjusted for distance, because of the geometry of motion parallax. When the head translates, the angular direction of near targets changes faster than the angular direction of far targets.

If the gain of the VOR is wrong (different from 1)—for example, if eye muscles are weak, or if a person puts on a new pair of eyeglasses—then head movement results in image motion on the retina, resulting in blurred vision. Under such conditions, motor learning adjusts the gain of the VOR to produce more accurate eye motion. This is what is referred to as VOR adaptation.

Nearsighted people who habitually wear negative spectacles have lower VOR gain. Farsighted people or aphakes who habitually wear positive spectacle have higher VOR gain. People who habitually wear contact lens show no change in VOR gain. Monocular, disconjugate adaptation of the VOR is possible, for example, after extraocular muscle palsy. (p. 27 )

The phase of the VOR can also adapt.

Leak
The oculomotor integrator is a leaky integrator, with a characteristic leaking time of ~20 s. If the leaking time is too low, some form of adaptation occurs to "patch the leak" to raise the leaking time. It is hypothesized that the leaking integrator is constructed by a feedback circuit with a gain of slightly below 1, and adaptation occurs by adjusting the gain of the feedback circuit. The hypothesis is tested by using an specially patterned optokinetic drum that simulates the visual effect of having a very leaky oculomotor integrator. After 1 hour of viewing, the integrator becomes "anti-leaky", meaning that its value grows exponentially even in the absence of input. The eye motion becomes positive-feedback, meaning that if it is slightly to the left of a fixation target, it would drift even further to the left, and similarly for the right. It is also accompanied by nausea. (p. 84 )

Disruption by ethanol
Ethanol consumption can disrupt the VOR, reducing dynamic visual acuity. In normal conditions, the cupula and the endolymph are equal in density (both are ). After ingesting ethanol, the ethanol diffuses into the cupula before it diffuses into the endolymph, because it is closer to blood capillaries. This makes the cupula temporarily lighter. In this state, if a person lies down with right cheek touching the ground, then the cupula in the left ear would float towards the left, creating an illusory sense of slow left-to-right head rotation. To compensate for this, the VOR moves the eyes towards the left slowly until it reaches the limit, and the eyes pull to the right rapidly (nystagmus). This is the positional alcohol nystagmus, phase I (PAN I). The unusual vestibular stimulation also caused motion sickness symptoms: illusions of bodily rotations, dizziness, and nausea. These symptoms subside in a few seconds after assuming an upright posture.

After some time, the density of cupula and endolymph equalizes, removing the nystagmus effect. After ethanol is fully metabolized, the cupula returns to normal density first, creating nystagmus in the opposite direction (PAN II) during the hangover.

As predicted, heavy water (1.1 density of water) consumption has the exact opposite nystagmus effect compared to ethanol consumption. Consuming a mixture of heavy water ($$4 \;\mathrm{ml/kg}$$) and ethanol ($$2 \;\mathrm{ml/kg}$$) largely cancels out the effect. Macroglobulinaemia, or consuming glycerol (1.26 density of water), have similar effects as heavy water.

Testing
This reflex can be tested by the rapid head impulse test or Halmagyi–Curthoys test, in which the head is rapidly moved to the side with force, and is controlled if the eyes succeed to remain to look in the same direction. When the function of the right balance system is reduced, by a disease or by an accident, a quick head movement to the right cannot be sensed properly anymore. As a consequence, no compensatory eye movement is generated, and the patient cannot fixate a point in space during this rapid head movement.

The head impulse test can be done at the bed side and used as a screening tool for problems with a person's vestibular system. It can also be diagnostically tested by doing a video-head impulse test (VHIT). In this diagnostic test, a person wears highly sensitive goggles that detect rapid changes in eye movement. This test can provide site-specific information on vestibular system and its function.

Another way of testing the VOR response is a caloric reflex test, which is an attempt to induce nystagmus (compensatory eye movement in the absence of head motion) by pouring cold or warm water into the ear. Also available is bi-thermal air caloric irrigations, in which warm and cool air is administered into the ear.

The vestibulo-ocular reflex can be tested by the aforementioned caloric reflex test; this plays an important part in confirming diagnosis of brainstem death. A code of practice must be followed in this process, namely that of the Academy of Medical Royal Colleges.

Cervico-ocular reflex
Summary: Cervico-ocular reflex, also known by its acronym COR, involves the achievement of stabilization of a visual target, and image on the retina, through adjustments of gaze impacted by neck and, or head movements or rotations. The process works in conjunction with the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR). It is conspicuous in certain animals that cannot move their eyes much, such as owls.

title: Vestibulo–ocular reflex


text:
Thelma Houston

Thelma Houston ( Jackson; born May 7, 1946) is an American singer. Beginning her recording career in the late 1960s, Houston scored a number-one hit record in 1977 with her recording of "Don't Leave Me This Way", which won the Grammy for Best Female R&B Vocal Performance.

Early life and career
Houston was born in Leland, Mississippi. Her mother was a cotton picker. She and her three sisters grew up primarily in Long Beach, California. After marrying and having two children, she joined the Art Reynolds Singers gospel group and was subsequently signed as a recording artist with Dunhill Records. Despite her surname, she is unrelated to Whitney Houston.

In 1969, Houston released her debut album, entitled Sunshower, produced, arranged and composed by Jimmy Webb except for one track. In 1971 she signed with Motown Records but her early recordings with them were largely unsuccessful. Her most notable single during that period was "You've Been Doing Wrong for So Long" which peaked at No. 64 on the US Billboard R&B chart in 1974. However Houston's vocal prowess on that track secured her a nomination for a Best Female R&B Vocal Performance. In 1973 Motown Productions announced a projected biographical film of Dinah Washington which would star Houston; however the project was dropped due to difficulties in getting clearance from Washington's relatives. In April 1974, Houston joined the cast of The Marty Feldman Comedy Machine, playing various characters during the show's skits. The show was canceled in August and for the next several years her work was limited to demo recordings and performing at small venues.

Houston took acting classes and received her first role in the 1975 made-for-television film Death Scream. In that same year Sheffield Lab released "I've Got the Music in Me" a direct-to-disc recording by Thelma Houston and Pressure Cooker that went on to become a benchmark vinyl recording for audiophiles. The following year she recorded songs for the soundtrack of the film The Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings starring Billy Dee Williams and James Earl Jones. In 1975 Houston appeared on the Golden Globe Award broadcast performing the nominated song "On & On" and also was featured in a tribute to Berry Gordy on that year's American Music Award broadcast singing "You've Made Me So Very Happy". That year Houston's version of "Do You Know Where You're Going To" was being set for single release when it was pulled and the song given to Diana Ross to serve as the theme song for the movie Mahogany. In 1976 Houston sang backing vocals for Motown labelmate Jermaine Jackson on his album My Name Is Jermaine.

"Don't Leave Me This Way"
Houston released her third solo album Any Way You Like It in 1976. The first single released was her version of Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes' 1975 song "Don't Leave Me This Way". In February 1977 the track hit Number 1 in the U.S. on the R&B and Club Play Singles charts, then in April 1977 on the Billboard Hot 100. "Don't Leave Me This Way" won Houston the Best Female R&B Vocal Performance at the Grammys for 1977. Besides its US success "Don't Leave Me This Way" became a hit in at least twelve countries, including the UK where it reached Number 13 despite the concurrent single release of the Harold Melvin & the Blue Notes original, which reached Number 7. Also in 1977 Houston teamed up with Jerry Butler to record the album Thelma & Jerry and that November 1977 she co-starred in the film Game Show Models. It was announced in February 1977 that Houston would star as Bessie Smith in a filmation of the play Me and Bessie, to be produced by Motown; after an announcement that December that Houston was set to portray Bessie Smith in a biopic to be produced in 1978 by Columbia Pictures nothing more was heard of the project.

The second single from Any Way You Like It was Houston's rendition of "If It's the Last Thing I Do", a standard written by Saul Chaplin and Sammy Cahn; the track had been recorded and prepped for single release in 1973 but canceled. The impact of "If It's the Last Thing I Do" was far less than that of "Don't Leave Me This Way", as the former fell short of both the R&B top ten and the Pop top 40.

Departure from Motown
With the lead single from her 1978 album The Devil in Me: "I'm Here Again", Houston returned to the style of "Don't Leave Me This Way" without recapturing the earlier single's success. Houston did enjoy considerable commercial success in 1978 via the inclusion of her track "Love Masterpiece" on the Thank God It's Friday soundtrack album which sold double platinum but her own album release that year Ready to Roll again failing to consolidate the stardom augured by "Don't Leave Me This Way". The album's second single: "Saturday Night, Sunday Morning", gradually accrued airplay entering the national charts in March 1979 and ascending as high as #34 (#19 R&B) that June. "Saturday Night, Sunday Morning" was issued on a new album by Houston: Ride to the Rainbow but the track's relative success was not enough to forestall Houston's planned departure from Motown.

1980s
Houston continued recording music into the 1980s, beginning with the RCA release Breakwater Cat which reunited her with Jimmy Webb who produced her debut single Sunshower and which like their earlier collaboration was a commercially overlooked critical success. During the December 22, 1984 Billboard magazine interview, Houston admitted to "'no real commercial success' since the single 'Don't Leave Me This Way' broke on the Pop charts in late 1976" indicating that the disco backlash had left her with "no real base of audience support" and that her current album Qualifying Heat, executive produced by Houston herself, was a concentrated initiative to restore her as a viable chart presence; the album featured three cuts from Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis – including the single "You Used to Hold Me So Tight" – and production work from Glen Ballard, Dennis Lambert, Cliff Magness and – in his first known recording work – Lenny Kravitz (then billed as Romeo Blue), who each produced a cut apiece. "You Use to Hold Me So Tight" became Houston's most successful post-1970s release with a No. 13 R&B peak, but its parent album was a comparative failure – charting No. 41 R&B – and Houston would not cut another album for six years.

The constant ranking of her 1980s releases as moderate or minor R&B hits led Houston to concentrate on alternate exposure. After appearing in the independent film The Seventh Dwarf in 1979 Houston made guest-starring appearances into the mid-1980s in several popular television programs including Cagney & Lacey, Simon & Simon – a January 1986 appearance that featured her performing "You Used to Hold Me So Tight" – and Faerie Tale Theatre. Houston also appeared in the 1987 CBS after school special Little Miss Perfect (1987) – as "Prison Singer" – in the 1988 film And God Created Woman.

On the May 19, 1985 NBC broadcast Motown Returns to the Apollo Houston performed "What a Diff'rence a Day Makes" in the guise of Dinah Washington. Houston continued to contribute to movie soundtracks, recording "Keep It Light" for the 1985 film Into the Night and she remade Bill Withers' "Lean on Me" for the 1989 film entitled Lean on Me. Houston also co-wrote and sang back-up on the song "Be Yourself" for Patti LaBelle's 1989 album of the same title.

1990s
The Fall of 1990 saw the release of Houston's first album in six years, Throw You Down, a long-planned collaboration with producer Richard Perry which briefly extended Houston's career as a minor R&B chart presence. The title song reached No. 5 on the U.S. dance chart. A remix of "Don't Leave Me This Way" was released, and once again charted on the Hot Dance Club Play chart at No. 19 in 1995. Subsequent singles include "I Need Somebody Tonight" and "All of That".

In 1994, Houston participated in an AIDS benefit at New York's Algonquin Hotel, performing gospel music with Phoebe Snow, Chaka Khan and CeCe Peniston as "Sisters of Glory". Intended as a one-off performance troupe, the Sisters of Glory remained together – with the addition of Mavis Staples and Lois Walden, and without Chaka Khan – to perform at Woodstock '94. Houston performed with the Sisters of Glory for the Pope in Vatican City and in 1995 Houston, Phoebe Snow, CeCe Peniston, Lois Walden and Albertina Walker recorded the Warner Brothers album Good News in Hard Times as the Sisters of Glory.

Houston provided lead vocals on several tracks of guitarist Scott Henderson's 1997 Atlantic album, Tore Down House, and in 1998 she made cameo appearances in two films: in 54 Houston portrayed herself singing "Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas" supposedly at Studio 54, and in Beloved Houston played 'One of The Thirty Women'.

Recent career
In 2000, Houston toured successfully throughout Australia in the stage musical version of Fame. In 2002 she again guested on a Scott Henderson album, providing lead vocals for two of the tracks on Well to the Bone. Upon returning to the U.S. Houston toured with Nile Rodgers and Chic, and was among the opening acts of the originally intended finale of Cher's Farewell Tour in Toronto on October 31, 2003. Houston regularly performs at Teatro ZinZanni in Seattle and San Francisco.

Her version of "Don't Leave Me This Way" continues to be popular today. In recent years she has been invited to sing this song on dozens of TV shows and specials including NBC's Today Show, ABC's Motown 45 and The Disco Ball...A 30-Year Celebration, and PBS' specials American Soundtrack: Rhythm, Love and Soul, Soul Superstars, and Old School Superstars. "Don't Leave Me This Way" was mentioned by VH1 as being among the greatest dance songs in 2000, and was ranked number eighty-six on the channel's countdown of The 100 Greatest One-Hit Wonders. She won an episode of the NBC show Hit Me, Baby, One More Time with her renditions of her own hit and "Fallin'" by Alicia Keys. On September 20, 2004, Houston's rendition of "Don't Leave Me This Way" was inducted into the Dance Music Hall of Fame in New York City.

On August 14, 2007, Houston released her first studio album in seventeen years, A Woman's Touch. The album was produced by Peitor Angell and features cover versions of songs by male artists such as Luther Vandross, Marvin Gaye, and Sting that Houston had been inspired by. The first single from the album was "Brand New Day". On August 20, 2007, Houston's 1984 album Qualifying Heat was reissued as an import title in the U.S. with a bonus track.

She sang "Don't Leave Me This Way" on American Idol on April 22, 2009, and on America's Got Talent on September 16, 2009.

On July 29, 2013, a collaboration between Thelma and Los Angeles-based producer Janitor, entitled "Enemy", premiered on SoundCloud. Several tracks followed, culminating in the release of an EP, "Forty-Two", in September. This is the first new material from Thelma Houston in six years.

She is featured on British singer Morrissey's single "Bobby, Don't You Think They Know?", released on streaming platforms on January 10, 2020, from his album I Am Not a Dog on a Chain.

In 2024, Houston competed in season eleven of The Masked Singer as "Clock". She made it all the way to the semifinals, and finished in third place overall. As an encore, she sang her song "Don't Leave Me This Way".

Discography

 * Sunshower (1969)
 * Thelma Houston (1972)
 * I've Got the Music in Me (with Pressure Cooker) (1975)
 * Any Way You Like It (1976)
 * The Devil in Me (1977)
 * Thelma & Jerry (with Jerry Butler) (1977)
 * Two to One (with Jerry Butler) (1978)
 * Ready to Roll (1978)
 * Ride to the Rainbow (1979)
 * Breakwater Cat (1980)
 * Never Gonna Be Another One (1981)
 * Reachin' All Around (1982)
 * Thelma Houston (1983)
 * Qualifying Heat (1984)
 * Throw You Down (1990)
 * Thelma Houston (1994)
 * A Woman's Touch (2007)

Films

 * 1975: Death Scream — Lady Wing Ding
 * 1977: Game Show Models — Dana Sheridan
 * 1979: The Seventh Dwarf
 * 1988: And God Created Woman — prison singer
 * 1998: 54 — herself
 * 1998: Beloved — one of The Thirty Women

Television (guest)

 * 1969: The Ed Sullivan Show- guest singer, singing "Didn't We"(December 8)
 * 1969: The Price of Fame – Guest singer, singing "Jumpin' Jack Flash"
 * 1971: The Marty Feldman Comedy Machine — various characters
 * 1975: The Golden Globe Award — Guest Singer
 * 1980: The Two Ronnies- Guest singer, singing " The Candyman"
 * 1985: Cagney & Lacey (5,11: Play it again, Santa) — Ellie Hendricks
 * 1986: Simon & Simon — Venutia
 * 1986: Tall Tales & Legends — Edna
 * 1987: Little Miss Perfect — Ms. Bonner
 * 1989: Super Dave — Guest singer, "Lean on Me"
 * 2024: The Masked Singer - Herself/Clock, 3rd place”

Soundtracks

 * 1976: The Bingo Long Traveling All-Stars & Motor Kings — "Steal on Home", "Razzle Dazzle"
 * 1976: Norman... Is That You? — "One Out of Every Six"
 * 1978: Thank God It's Friday — "Love Masterpiece"
 * 1984: Getting Physical — "Hot Dance", "To Be Free"
 * 1985: Into the Night — "Keep It Light"
 * 1989: Lean on Me — "Lean on Me"

title: Thelma Houston


text:
Maoke Mountains

The Maoke Mountains is a mountain range in the province of Central Papua and Highland Papua. It extends over 692 km and is composed of the Sudirman and Jayawijaya ranges. It is part of the larger New Guinea Highlands or Central Cordillera.

Although Maoke means 'snow' in the local language, the glacier on Puncak Trikora in the Maoke Mountains disappeared completely some time between 1939 and 1962.

title: Maoke Mountains


text: Template:Genetics

title: Template:Genetics