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Bar-Ilan University

Bar-Ilan University (BIU, אוניברסיטת בר-אילן, Universitat Bar-Ilan) is a public research university in the Tel Aviv District city of Ramat Gan, Israel. Established in 1955, Bar Ilan is Israel's second-largest academic institution. It has 20,000 students and 1,350 faculty members.

Bar-Ilan's mission is to "blend Jewish tradition with modern technologies and scholarship and the university endeavors to ... teach the Jewish heritage to all its students while providing [an] academic education." The university is among the best in the Middle East in the field of computer science, engineering, engineering physics and applied physics. In 2024 the university got donation of 260 million dollars, one of the biggest donations to university in Israel.

History
Bar-Ilan University has Jewish-American roots: It was conceived in Atlanta in a meeting of the American Mizrahi organization in 1950, and was founded by Professor Pinkhos Churgin, an American Orthodox rabbi and educator, who was president from 1955 to 1957 where he was succeeded by Joseph H. Lookstein who was president from 1957 to 1967. When it was opened in 1955, it was described by The New York Times "as Cultural Link Between the [Israeli] Republic and America". Presidents who followed were Max Jammer (1967–77), Emanuel Rackman (1977–86), Michael Albeck (1986–89), Ernest Krausz (1989), Zvi Arad (1989–92), and Shlomo Eckstein (1992–96).

The university was named for Rabbi Meir Bar-Ilan (originally Meir Berlin), a Religious Zionist leader who served as the inspiration for its establishment. Although he was trained in Orthodox seminaries in Berlin, he believed there was a need for an institution providing a dual curriculum of secular academic studies and religious Torah studies.

BIU's student population is diverse and includes both Jewish and non-Jewish students.

At least five courses in Jewish studies are required for graduation (Non-Jewish students can choose general courses instead). These are available as academic Jewish studies courses, as well as through more traditional Torah study, offered primarily by the Machon HaGavoah LeTorah, established in the 1970s. The "Machon" operates a Kollel / Bet midrash for men, and a Midrasha for women. The Kollel offers traditional yeshiva studies with an emphasis on Talmud and Halakha (Jewish law), while the midrasha offers courses in "Tanakh" (The Bible), practical Halakha, and Machshavah (Jewish philosophy). The Midrasha is the largest in Israel. These programs are open to all students free of charge.

Yitzhak Rabin's convicted assassin, Yigal Amir, was a student of law and computer science at Bar-Ilan, prompting charges that the university had become a hotbed of political extremism. One of the steps taken by the university following the 1995 assassination was to encourage dialogue between left-wing and right-wing students.

Under university president Moshe Kaveh (1996–2013), Bar-Ilan underwent a major expansion, with new buildings added on the northern side of the campus. New science programs have been introduced, including a multidisciplinary brain research center and a center for nanotechnology. The university has placed archaeology as one of its priorities, and this includes excavations such as the Tell es-Safi/Gath archaeological excavations and the recently opened Bar-Ilan University/Weizmann Institute of Science joint program in Archaeological Sciences.

Bar-Ilan's Faculty of Law made headlines in 2008 by achieving the highest average Israeli bar exam grade of 81.9 by its graduates. Daniel Hershkowitz was university president from 2013 to 2017.

Arie Zaban was elected as the president of the university in 2017.

In June 2024, the university received a $260 million donation from the estate of an anonymous American donor, the largest bequest in the university's history and the second largest ever to an Israeli university. The donation is earmarked for science and technology, specifically to recruit researchers, build laboratories, and create partnerships.

Academics
Bar-Ilan University has nine faculties: Exact Sciences, Life Sciences, Social Sciences, Education, Humanities, Jewish Studies, Medicine, Engineering, and Law. There is also a special Unit of Interdisciplinary Studies. At the undergraduate level, as mentioned, ten courses in Jewish studies related subjects are required from all students.

Bar-Ilan offers several special programs, including its international B.A. program, taught entirely in English, and is the first university in Israel to offer a full undergraduate program taught entirely in English. Currently, students can choose between a B.A. degree in interdisciplinary social sciences, where students can choose between a macro track in economics, political sciences, and sociology, or the Micro Track in Criminology, Psychology, and Sociology, or a major in communications, with a minor in either English literature or political science. The degrees are internationally recognized and are open to students from all over the world.

In addition, Bar-Ilan offers a preparatory program that readies new immigrants for Israeli colleges. The university also runs a one-year overseas program called Torah Im Derech Eretz Program, which combines traditional Kollel Torah studies in the morning, separate for men and women, as well as co-ed general university studies and Jewish history classes in the afternoon. Many American students enrolled in regular programs of study in the university also take these Jewish history classes to fulfill their Jewish studies requirements.

Bar-Ilan also houses several research institutions such as the above-mentioned Gonda Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, focused on neuroscience, which may have their own requirements.

Awards and recognition
The Bar Ilan Responsa Project was awarded the Israel Prize in 2007. The university's Bible project, in danger of being eliminated by continued budget cuts, was saved at the last minute by an anonymous donor.

In its capacity as a business school, Bar-Ilan was placed as the fourth best business school in Africa and the Middle East in the 2010 QS Global 200 Business Schools Report.

Notable alumni

 * Zvi Arad (1942–2018) – mathematician, acting president of Bar-Ilan University, president of Netanya Academic College
 * Ami Ayalon – former head of the Shin Bet and member of the Knesset for the Labor Party.
 * Michael Ben-Ari – Israeli politician and formerly a member of the Knesset for the National Union Party.
 * Kotel Da-Don – Croatian Orthodox rabbi of the Bet Israel community in Zagreb.
 * Avi Dichter – former minister of home front defence. Former Shin Bet director.
 * Yuval Diskin – 12th director of the Israeli Internal Security Service Shin Bet.
 * Esther Farbstein – Holocaust scholar
 * Baruch Fischer - Professor Emeritus in the Andrew and Erna Viterbi Faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Technion
 * Tzipi Hotovely – Israeli diplomat and former politician who serves as the current ambassador of Israel to the United Kingdom. Formerly deputy minister of foreign affairs, minister of diaspora affairs, minister of settlement affairs, and as a member of the Knesset for the Likud Party
 * Gila Gamliel – Israeli politician for the Likud Party. Formerly minister for social equality, and minister of environmental protection
 * Anat Guetta – chair of the Israel Securities Authority (ISA) since 2018
 * Michael Harris – named the best Israeli in the field of academics, as one of "The 10 Most Successful Israelis in 10 Different Fields in the World" by Maariv in April 2012.
 * Joseph Klafter – chemical physics professor, the eighth president of Tel Aviv University
 * Joshua Kulp – Talmudic scholar
 * Norman Lebrecht (born 1948) – British commentator on music and cultural affairs, and novelist
 * Tzipi Livni – Israeli lawyer and politician, head of the Opposition from 2009 to 2012. Formerly minister of justice, and in charge of negotiations with the Palestinians
 * Gadeer Mreeh (born 1984) – first woman of Druze descent to become a member of the Knesset
 * Orit Peleg – professor of biophysics at the University of Colorado

Notable faculty

 * Doron Aurbach
 * Nathan Aviezer
 * Moshe Bar
 * Avi Bell
 * Pinkhos Churgin
 * Cyril Domb
 * Shlomo Eckstein
 * Avraham Faust
 * Adam Ferziger
 * Jonathan Fox
 * Hillel Furstenberg
 * Ruth Halperin-Kaddari
 * Oren Harman
 * Shlomo Havlin
 * Arye L. Hillman
 * Max Jammer
 * Efraim Karsh
 * Mordechai Kedar
 * Sarit Kraus
 * Ernest Krausz
 * Baruch Kurzweil
 * Aren Maeir
 * Nina Pinto-Abecasis
 * Arie Reich
 * Tamar Ross
 * Mary Schaps
 * Daniel Sperber
 * Avraham Trahtman
 * Eli Vakil
 * Zeev Zalevsky

title: Bar-Ilan University


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Resonator

A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant behavior. That is, it naturally oscillates with greater amplitude at some frequencies, called resonant frequencies, than at other frequencies. The oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical (including acoustic). Resonators are used to either generate waves of specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal. Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves of specific tones. Another example is quartz crystals used in electronic devices such as radio transmitters and quartz watches to produce oscillations of very precise frequency.

A cavity resonator is one in which waves exist in a hollow space inside the device. In electronics and radio, microwave cavities consisting of hollow metal boxes are used in microwave transmitters, receivers and test equipment to control frequency, in place of the tuned circuits which are used at lower frequencies. Acoustic cavity resonators, in which sound is produced by air vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators.

Explanation
A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom; each degree of freedom can vibrate as a harmonic oscillator. Systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums, balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies. A crystal lattice composed of N atoms bound together can have N resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant. The vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next.

The term resonator is most often used for a homogeneous object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back and forth between the sides of the resonator. The material of the resonator, through which the waves flow, can be viewed as being made of millions of coupled moving parts (such as atoms). Therefore, they can have millions of resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves interfere with each other, and at its resonant frequencies reinforce each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is $$d\,$$, the length of a round trip is $$2d\,$$. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The condition for resonance in a resonator is that the round trip distance, $$2d\,$$, is equal to an integer number of wavelengths $$\lambda\,$$ of the wave:

 * $$2d = N\lambda,\qquad\qquad N \in \{1,2,3,\dots\}$$

If the velocity of a wave is $$c\,$$, the frequency is $$f = c / \lambda\,$$ so the resonant frequencies are:

 * $$f = \frac{Nc}{2d}\qquad\qquad N \in \{1,2,3,\dots\}$$

So the resonant frequencies of resonators, called normal modes, are equally spaced multiples (harmonics) of a lowest frequency called the fundamental frequency. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and that the shape of the resonator is rectilinear. If the resonator is inhomogeneous or has a nonrectilinear shape, like a circular drumhead or a cylindrical microwave cavity, the resonant frequencies may not occur at equally spaced multiples of the fundamental frequency. They are then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single resonator, corresponding to different modes of vibration.

Resonant circuits
An electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, or due to resistance of the inductor windings. Such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for the components.

A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate lumped capacitors, inductors, or resistors. An example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator.

An inductor consisting of a coil of wire, is self-resonant at a certain frequency due to the parasitic capacitance between its turns. This is often an unwanted effect that can cause parasitic oscillations in RF circuits. The self-resonance of inductors is used in a few circuits, such as the Tesla coil.

Cavity resonators
A cavity resonator is a hollow closed conductor such as a metal box or a cavity within a metal block, containing electromagnetic waves (radio waves) reflecting back and forth between the cavity's walls. When a source of radio waves at one of the cavity's resonant frequencies is applied, the oppositely-moving waves form standing waves, and the cavity stores electromagnetic energy.

Since the cavity's lowest resonant frequency, the fundamental frequency, is that at which the width of the cavity is equal to a half-wavelength (λ/2), cavity resonators are only used at microwave frequencies and above, where wavelengths are short enough that the cavity is conveniently small in size.

Due to the low resistance of their conductive walls, cavity resonators have very high Q factors; that is their bandwidth, the range of frequencies around the resonant frequency at which they will resonate, is very narrow. Thus they can act as narrow bandpass filters. Cavity resonators are widely used as the frequency determining element in microwave oscillators. Their resonant frequency can be tuned by moving one of the walls of the cavity in or out, changing its size.

Cavity magnetron
The cavity magnetron is a vacuum tube with a filament in the center of an evacuated, lobed, circular cavity resonator. A perpendicular magnetic field is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving directly to this anode. Spaced about the rim of the chamber are cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and so they connect with the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past these openings they induce a resonant high frequency radio field in the cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups. A portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected to a waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The waveguide directs the extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high gain antenna in the case of radar.

Klystron
The klystron, tube waveguide, is a beam tube including at least two apertured cavity resonators. The beam of charged particles passes through the apertures of the resonators, often tunable wave reflection grids, in succession. A collector electrode is provided to intercept the beam after passing through the resonators. The first resonator causes bunching of the particles passing through it. The bunched particles travel in a field-free region where further bunching occurs, then the bunched particles enter the second resonator giving up their energy to excite it into oscillations. It is a particle accelerator that works in conjunction with a specifically tuned cavity by the configuration of the structures.

The reflex klystron is a klystron utilizing only a single apertured cavity resonator through which the beam of charged particles passes, first in one direction. A repeller electrode is provided to repel (or redirect) the beam after passage through the resonator back through the resonator in the other direction and in proper phase to reinforce the oscillations set up in the resonator.

Application in particle accelerators
On the beamline of an accelerator system, there are specific sections that are cavity resonators for radio frequency (RF) radiation. The (charged) particles that are to be accelerated pass through these cavities in such a way that the microwave electric field transfers energy to the particles, thus increasing their kinetic energy and thus accelerating them. Several large accelerator facilities employ superconducting niobium cavities for improved performance compared to metallic (copper) cavities.

Loop-gap resonator
The loop-gap resonator (LGR) is made by cutting a narrow slit along the length of a conducting tube. The slit has an effective capacitance and the bore of the resonator has an effective inductance. Therefore, the LGR can be modeled as an RLC circuit and has a resonant frequency that is typically between 200 MHz and 2 GHz. In the absence of radiation losses, the effective resistance of the LGR is determined by the resistivity and electromagnetic skin depth of the conductor used to make the resonator.

One key advantage of the LGR is that, at its resonant frequency, its dimensions are small compared to the free-space wavelength of the electromagnetic fields. Therefore, it is possible to use LGRs to construct a compact and high-Q resonator that operates at relatively low frequencies where cavity resonators would be impractically large.

Dielectric resonators
If a piece of material with large dielectric constant is surrounded by a material with much lower dielectric constant, then this abrupt change in dielectric constant can cause confinement of an electromagnetic wave, which leads to a resonator that acts similarly to a cavity resonator.

Transmission-line resonators
Transmission lines are structures that allow broadband transmission of electromagnetic waves, e.g. at radio or microwave frequencies. Abrupt change of impedance (e.g. open or short) in a transmission line causes reflection of the transmitted signal. Two such reflectors on a transmission line evoke standing waves between them and thus act as a one-dimensional resonator, with the resonance frequencies determined by their distance and the effective dielectric constant of the transmission line. A common form is the resonant stub, a length of transmission line terminated in either a short circuit or open circuit, connected in series or parallel with a main transmission line.

Planar transmission-line resonators are commonly employed for coplanar, stripline, and microstrip transmission lines. Such planar transmission-line resonators can be very compact in size and are widely used elements in microwave circuitry. In cryogenic solid-state research, superconducting transmission-line resonators contribute to solid-state spectroscopy and quantum information science.

Optical cavities
In a laser, light is amplified in a cavity resonator that is usually composed of two or more mirrors. Thus an optical cavity, also known as a resonator, is a cavity with walls that reflect electromagnetic waves (i.e. light). This allows standing wave modes to exist with little loss.

Mechanical
Mechanical resonators are used in electronic circuits to generate signals of a precise frequency. For example, piezoelectric resonators, commonly made from quartz, are used as frequency references. Common designs consist of electrodes attached to a piece of quartz, in the shape of a rectangular plate for high frequency applications, or in the shape of a tuning fork for low frequency applications. The high dimensional stability and low temperature coefficient of quartz helps keeps resonant frequency constant. In addition, the quartz's piezoelectric property converts the mechanical vibrations into an oscillating voltage, which is picked up by the attached electrodes. These crystal oscillators are used in quartz clocks and watches, to create the clock signal that runs computers, and to stabilize the output signal from radio transmitters.

Mechanical resonators can also be used to induce a standing wave in other media. For example, a multiple degree of freedom system can be created by imposing a base excitation on a cantilever beam. In this case the standing wave is imposed on the beam. This type of system can be used as a sensor to track changes in frequency or phase of the resonance of the fiber. One application is as a measurement device for dimensional metrology.

Acoustic
The most familiar examples of acoustic resonators are in musical instruments. Every musical instrument has resonators. Some generate the sound directly, such as the wooden bars in a xylophone, the head of a drum, the strings in stringed instruments, and the pipes in an organ. Some modify the sound by enhancing particular frequencies, such as the sound box of a guitar or violin. Organ pipes, the bodies of woodwinds, and the sound boxes of stringed instruments are examples of acoustic cavity resonators.

Automobiles
The exhaust pipes in automobile exhaust systems are designed as acoustic resonators that work with the muffler to reduce noise, by making sound waves "cancel each other out". The "exhaust note" is an important feature for some vehicle owners, so both the original manufacturers and the after-market suppliers use the resonator to enhance the sound. In "tuned exhaust" systems designed for performance, the resonance of the exhaust pipes can also be used to remove combustion products from the combustion chamber at a particular engine speed or range of speeds.

Percussion instruments
In many keyboard percussion instruments, below the centre of each note is a tube, which is an acoustic cavity resonator. The length of the tube varies according to the pitch of the note, with higher notes having shorter resonators. The tube is open at the top end and closed at the bottom end, creating a column of air that resonates when the note is struck. This adds depth and volume to the note. In string instruments, the body of the instrument is a resonator. The tremolo effect of a vibraphone is achieved via a mechanism that opens and shuts the resonators.

Stringed instruments
String instruments such as the bluegrass banjo may also have resonators. Many five-string banjos have removable resonators, so players can use the instrument with a resonator in bluegrass style, or without it in folk music style. The term resonator, used by itself, may also refer to the resonator guitar.

The modern ten-string guitar, invented by Narciso Yepes, adds four sympathetic string resonators to the traditional classical guitar. By tuning these resonators in a very specific way (C, B♭, A♭, G♭) and making use of their strongest partials (corresponding to the octaves and fifths of the strings' fundamental tones), the bass strings of the guitar now resonate equally with any of the 12 tones of the chromatic octave. The guitar resonator is a device for driving guitar string harmonics by an electromagnetic field. This resonance effect is caused by a feedback loop and is applied to drive the fundamental tones, octaves, 5th, 3rd to an infinite sustain.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Resonator


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The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex

The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex is a book by English naturalist Charles Darwin, first published in 1871, which applies evolutionary theory to human evolution, and details his theory of sexual selection, a form of biological adaptation distinct from, yet interconnected with, natural selection. The book discusses many related issues, including evolutionary psychology, evolutionary ethics, evolutionary musicology, differences between human races, differences between sexes, the dominant role of women in mate choice, and the relevance of the evolutionary theory to society.

Publication
As Darwin wrote, he sent chapters to his daughter Henrietta for editing to ensure that damaging inferences could not be drawn, and also took advice from his wife Emma. The zoological illustrator T. W. Wood, (who had also illustrated Wallace's The Malay Archipelago (1869)), drew many of the figures in this book. The corrected proofs were sent off on 15 January 1871 to the publisher John Murray and published on 24 February 1871 as two 450-page volumes, which Darwin insisted was one complete, coherent work, and were priced at £14 shillings.

Within three weeks of publication a reprint had been ordered, and 4,500 copies were in print by the end of March 1871, netting Darwin almost £1,500. Darwin's name created demand for the book, but the ideas were old news. "Everybody is talking about it without being shocked," which he found "proof of the increasing liberality of England".

Editions and reprints
Darwin and some of his children edited many of the large number of revised editions, some extensively. In late 1873, Darwin tackled a new edition of the Descent of Man. Initially, he offered Wallace the work of assisting him, but, when Emma found out, she had the task given to their son George, so Darwin had to write apologetically to Wallace. Huxley assisted with an update on ape-brain inheritance, which Huxley thought "pounds the enemy into a jelly... though none but anatomists" would know it. The manuscript was completed in April 1874 and published on 13 November that year. This has been the edition most commonly reprinted after Darwin's death and to the present day.

Evolution of physical traits

In the introduction to Descent, Darwin lays out the purpose of his text:
 * "The sole object of this work is to consider, firstly, whether man, like every other species, is descended from some pre-existing form; secondly, the manner of his development; and thirdly, the value of the differences between the so-called races of man."

Darwin's approach to arguing for the evolution of human beings is to outline how similar human beings are to other animals. He begins by using anatomical similarities, focusing on body structure, embryology, and "rudimentary organs" that presumably were useful in one of man's "pre-existing" forms. He then moves on to argue for the similarity of mental characteristics.

Evolution of mental traits
Based on the work of his cousin, Francis Galton, Darwin asserts that human character traits and mental characteristics are inherited in the same way as physical characteristics, and argues against the mind/body distinction for the purposes of evolutionary theory. From this Darwin then provides evidence for similar mental powers and characteristics in certain animals, focusing especially on apes, monkeys, and dogs for his analogies for love, cleverness, religion, kindness, and altruism. He concludes on this point that "Nevertheless the difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, certainly is one of degree and not of kind." He additionally turns to the behaviour of "savages" to show how many aspects of Victorian England's society can be seen in more primitive forms.

In particular, Darwin argues that even moral and social instincts are evolved, comparing religion in man to fetishism in "savages" and his dog's inability to tell whether a wind-blown parasol was alive or not. Darwin also argues that all civilisations had risen out of barbarism, and that he did not think that barbarism is a "fall from grace" as many commentators of his time had asserted.

Natural selection and civilised society
In this section of the book, Darwin also turns to the questions of what after his death would be known as social Darwinism and eugenics. Darwin notes that, as had been discussed by Alfred Russel Wallace and Galton, natural selection seemed to no longer act upon civilised communities in the way it did upon other animals:

"With savages, the weak in body or mind are soon eliminated; and those that survive commonly exhibit a vigorous state of health. We civilised men, on the other hand, do our utmost to check the process of elimination; we build asylums for the imbecile, the maimed, and the sick; we institute poor-laws; and our medical men exert their utmost skill to save the life of every one to the last moment. There is reason to believe that vaccination has preserved thousands, who from a weak constitution would formerly have succumbed to small-pox. Thus the weak members of civilised societies propagate their kind. No one who has attended to the breeding of domestic animals will doubt that this must be highly injurious to the race of man. It is surprising how soon a want of care, or care wrongly directed, leads to the degeneration of a domestic race; but excepting in the case of man himself, hardly any one is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals to breed.

The aid we feel impelled to give to the helpless is mainly an incidental result of the instinct of sympathy, which was originally acquired as part of the social instincts, but subsequently rendered, in the manner previously indicated, more tender and more widely diffused. Nor could we check our sympathy, even at the urging of hard reason, without deterioration in the noblest part of our nature. The surgeon may harden himself whilst performing an operation, for he knows that he is acting for the good of his patient; but if we were intentionally to neglect the weak and helpless, it could only be for a contingent benefit, with an overwhelming present evil. We must therefore bear the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their kind; but there appears to be at least one check in steady action, namely that the weaker and inferior members of society do not marry so freely as the sound; and this check might be indefinitely increased by the weak in body or mind refraining from marriage, though this is more to be hoped for than expected. (Chapter 5)"

Darwin felt that these urges towards helping the "weak members" was part of our evolved instinct of sympathy, and concluded that "nor could we check our sympathy, even at the urging of hard reason, without deterioration in the noblest part of our nature". As such, '"we must therefore bear the undoubtedly bad effects of the weak surviving and propagating their kind". Darwin did feel that the "savage races" of man would be subverted by the "civilised races" at some point in the near future, as stated in the human races section below. He did show a certain disdain for "savages", professing that he felt more akin to certain altruistic tendencies in monkeys than he did to "a savage who delights to torture his enemies". However, Darwin is not advocating genocide, but clinically predicting, by analogy to the ways that "more fit" varieties in a species displace other varieties, the likelihood that indigenous peoples will eventually die out from their contact with "civilization", or become absorbed into it completely.

His political opinions (and Galton's as well) were strongly inclined against the coercive, authoritarian forms of eugenics that became so prominent in the 20th century. Note that even Galton's ideas about eugenics were not the compulsory sterilisation which became part of eugenics in the United States, or the later genocidal programs of Nazi Germany, but rather further education on the genetic aspects of reproduction, encouraging couples to make better choices for their wellbeing.

For each tendency of society to produce negative selections, Darwin also saw the possibility of society to itself check these problems, but also noted that with his theory "progress is no invariable rule." Towards the end of Descent of Man, Darwin said that he believed man would "sink into indolence" if severe struggle was not continuous, and thought that "there should be open competition for all men; and the most able should not be prevented by laws or customs from succeeding best and rearing the largest number of offspring", but also noted that he thought that the moral qualities of man were advanced much more by habit, reason, learning, and religion than by natural selection. The question plagued him until the end of his life, and he never concluded fully one way or the other about it.

On the Races of Man
In the first chapters of the book, Darwin argued that there is no fundamental gap between humans and other animals in intellectual and moral faculties as well as anatomy. Retreating from his egalitarian ideas of the 1830s, he ranked life on a hierarchic scale which he extended to human races on the basis of anthropology published since 1860: human prehistory outlined by John Lubbock and Edward Burnett Tylor combined archaeology and studies of modern indigenous peoples to show progressive evolution from Stone Age to steam age; the human mind as the same in all cultures but with modern "primitive" peoples giving insight into prehistoric ways of life. Darwin did not support their view that progress was inevitable, but he shared their belief in human unity and held the common attitude that male European liberalism and civilisation had progressed further in morality and intellect than "savage" peoples.

He attributed the "great break in the organic chain between man and his nearest allies" to extinction, and as spreading civilisation wiped out wildlife and native human cultures, the gap would widen to somewhere "between man in a more civilised state, as we may hope, than the Caucasian, and some ape as low as a baboon, instead of as at present between the negro or Australian and the gorilla." While there "can be no doubt that the difference between the mind of the lowest man and that of the highest animal is immense", the "difference in mind between man and the higher animals, great as it is, is certainly one of degree and not of kind." At the same time, all human races had many mental similarities, and early artefacts showing shared culture were evidence of evolution through common descent from an ancestral species which was likely to have been fully human.

Introducing Chapter 7 ("On the Races of Man"), Darwin wrote: "It is not my intention here to describe the several so-called races of men; but to inquire what is the value of the differences between them under a classificatory point of view, and how they have originated." In answering the question of whether the races should rank as varieties of the same species or count as different species, Darwin discussed arguments which could support the idea that human races were distinct species. This included the geographical distribution of mammal groups which was correlated with the distribution of human races, and the finding of Henry Denny that different species of lice affected different races differently. Darwin then presented the stronger evidence that human races are all the same species, noting that when races mixed together, they intercrossed beyond the "usual test of specific distinctness" and that characteristics identifying races were highly variable. He put great weight on the point that races graduate into each other, writing "But the most weighty of all the arguments against treating the races of man as distinct species, is that they graduate into each other, independently in many cases, as far as we can judge, of their having intercrossed", and concluded that the stronger evidence was that they were not different species.

This conclusion on human unity was supported by monogenism, including John Bachman's evidence that intercrossed human races were fully fertile. Proponents of polygenism opposed unity, but the gradual transition from one race to another confused them when they tried to decide how many human races should count as species: Louis Agassiz said eight, but Morton said twenty-two. Darwin commented that the "question whether mankind consists of one or several species has of late years been much agitated by anthropologists, who are divided into two schools of monogenists and polygenists." The latter had to "look at species either as separate creations or as in some manner distinct entities" but those accepting evolution "will feel no doubt that all the races of man are descended from a single primitive stock". Although races differed considerably, they also shared so many features "that it is extremely improbable that they should have been independently acquired by aboriginally distinct species or races." He drew on his memories of Jemmy Button and John Edmonstone to emphasise "the numerous points of mental similarity between the most distinct races of man. The American aborigines, Negroes and Europeans differ as much from each other in mind as any three races that can be named; yet I was incessantly struck, whilst living with the Fuegians on board the Beagle, with the many little traits of character, shewing how similar their minds were to ours; and so it was with a full-blooded negro with whom I happened once to be intimate." Darwin concluded that "when the principles of evolution are generally accepted, as they surely will be before long, the dispute between the monogenists and the polygenists will die a silent and unobserved death."

Darwin rejected both the idea that races had been separately created, and also the concept that races had evolved in parallel from separate ancestral species of apes. He reviewed possible explanations of divergence into racial differences such as adaptations to different climates and habitats, but found inadequate evidence to support them, and proposed that the most likely cause was sexual selection, a subject to which he devoted the greater part of the book, as described in the following section.

Part II and III: Sexual selection
Part II of the book begins with a chapter outlining the basic principles of sexual selection, followed by a detailed review of many different taxa of the kingdom Animalia which surveys various classes such as molluscs and crustaceans. The tenth and eleventh chapters are both devoted to insects, the latter specifically focusing on the order Lepidoptera, the butterflies and moths. The remainder of the book shifts to the vertebrates, beginning with cold blooded vertebrates (fishes, amphibians and reptiles) followed by four chapters on birds. Two chapters on mammals precede those on humans. Darwin explained sexual selection as a combination of "female choosiness" and "direct competition between males".

Darwin's theories of evolution by natural selection were used to try to show women's place in society was the result of nature. One of the first women to critique Darwin, Antoinette Brown Blackwell published The Sexes Throughout Nature in 1875. She was aware she would be considered presumptuous for criticising evolutionary theory but wrote that "disadvantages under which we [women] are placed...will never be lessened by waiting". Blackwell's book answered Darwin and Herbert Spencer, who she thought were the two most influential living men. She wrote of "defrauded womanhood" and her fears that "the human race, forever retarding its own advancement...could not recognize and promote a genuine, broad, and healthful equilibrium of the sexes".

In the Descent of Man, Darwin wrote that by choosing tools and weapons over the years, "man has ultimately become superior to woman", but Blackwell's argument for women's equality went largely ignored until the 1970s when feminist scientists and historians began to explore Darwin. As recently as 2004, Griet Vandermassen, aligned with other Darwinian feminists of the 1990s and early 2000s (decade), wrote that a unifying theory of human nature should include sexual selection. But then the "opposite ongoing integration" was promoted by another faction as an alternative in 2007. Nonetheless, Darwin's explanation of sexual selection continues to receive support from both social and biological scientists as "the best explanation to date".

Apparently non-adaptive features
In Darwin's view, anything that could be expected to have some adaptive feature could be explained easily with his theory of natural selection. In On the Origin of Species, Darwin wrote that to use natural selection to explain something as complicated as a human eye, "with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration" might at first appear "absurd in the highest possible degree," but nevertheless, if "numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist", then it seemed quite possible to account for within his theory.

More difficult for Darwin were highly evolved and complicated features that conveyed apparently no adaptive advantage to the organism. Writing to colleague Asa Gray in 1860, Darwin commented that he remembered well a "time when the thought of the eye made me cold all over, but I have got over this stage of the complaint, & now small trifling particulars of structure often make me very uncomfortable. The sight of a feather in a peacock's tail, whenever I gaze at it, makes me sick!" Why should a bird like the peacock develop such an elaborate tail, which seemed at best to be a hindrance in its "struggle for existence"? To answer the question, Darwin had introduced in the Origin the theory of sexual selection, which outlined how different characteristics could be selected for if they conveyed a reproductive advantage to the individual. In this theory, male animals in particular showed heritable features acquired by sexual selection, such as "weapons" with which to fight over females with other males, or beautiful plumage with which to woo the female animals. Much of Descent is devoted to providing evidence for sexual selection in nature, which he also ties into the development of aesthetic instincts in human beings, as well as the differences in coloration between the human races.

Darwin had developed his ideas about sexual selection for this reason since at least the 1850s, and had originally intended to include a long section on the theory in his large, unpublished book on species. When it came to writing Origin (his "abstract" of the larger book), though, he did not feel he had sufficient space to engage in sexual selection to any strong degree, and included only three paragraphs devoted to the subject. Darwin considered sexual selection to be as much of a theoretical contribution of his as was his natural selection, and a substantial amount of Descent is devoted exclusively to this topic.

Darwin's background issues and concerns
It was Darwin's second book on evolutionary theory, following his 1859 work, On the Origin of Species, in which he explored the concept of natural selection and which had been met with a firestorm of controversy in reaction to Darwin's theory. A single line in this first work hinted at such a conclusion: "light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history." When writing The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication in 1866, Darwin intended to include a chapter including humans in his theory, but the book became too big and he decided to write a separate "short essay" on ape ancestry, sexual selection and human expression, which became The Descent of Man.

The book is a response to various debates of Darwin's time far more wide-ranging than the questions he raised in Origin. It is often erroneously assumed that the book was controversial because it was the first to outline the idea of human evolution and common descent. Coming out so late into that particular debate, while it was clearly Darwin's intent to weigh in on this question, his goal was to approach it through a specific theoretical lens (sexual selection), which other commentators at the period had not discussed, and consider the evolution of morality and religion. The theory of sexual selection was also needed to counter the argument that beauty with no obvious utility, such as exotic birds' plumage, proved divine design, which had been put strongly by the Duke of Argyll in his book The Reign of Law (1868).

Human faculties
The major sticking point for many in the question of human evolution was whether human mental faculties could have possibly been evolved. The gap between humans and even the smartest ape seemed too large, even for those who were sympathetic to Darwin's basic theory. Alfred Russel Wallace, the co-discoverer of evolution by natural selection, believed that the human mind was too complex to have evolved gradually, and began over time to subscribe to a theory of evolution that took more from spiritualism than it did the natural world. Darwin was deeply distressed by Wallace's change of heart, and much of the Descent of Man is in response to opinions put forth by Wallace. Darwin focuses less on the question of whether humans evolved than he does on showing that each of the human faculties considered to be so far beyond those of beasts—such as moral reasoning, sympathy for others, beauty, and music—can be seen in kind (if not degree) in other animal species (usually apes and dogs).

Human races

Darwin was a long-time abolitionist who had been horrified by slavery when he first came into contact with it in Brazil while touring the world on the Beagle voyage many years before (slavery had been illegal in the British Empire since 1833). Darwin also was perplexed by the "savage races" he saw in South America at Tierra del Fuego, which he saw as evidence of man's more primitive state of civilisation. During his years in London, his private notebooks were riddled with speculations and thoughts on the nature of the human races, many decades before he published Origin and Descent.

When making his case that human races were all closely related and that the apparent gap between humans and other animals was due to closely related forms being extinct, Darwin drew on his experiences on the voyage showing that "savages" were being wiped out by "civilized" peoples. When Darwin referred to "civilised races" he was almost always describing European cultures, and apparently drew no clear distinction between biological races and cultural races in humans. Few made that distinction at the time, an exception being Alfred Russel Wallace.

Social implications of Darwinism

Since the publication of Origin, a wide variety of opinions had been put forward on whether the theory had implications towards human society. One of these, later known as Social Darwinism, has been attributed to Herbert Spencer's writings before publication of Origin, and argued that society would naturally sort itself out, and that the more "fit" individuals would rise to positions of higher prominence, while the less "fit" would succumb to poverty and disease. On this interpretation, Spencer alleged that government-run social programmes and charity hinder the "natural" stratification of the populace. But while Spencer did first introduce the phrase "survival of the fittest" in 1864, he always vigorously denied this interpretation of his works, arguing that the natural course of social evolution is toward greater altruism, and that the good done by charity and giving aid to the less fortunate, so long as done without coercion and in such a way as to foster independence rather than dependence, outweighs any harm done by saving the less fit. In any case, Spencer was primarily a Lamarckian evolutionist; hence, fitness could be acquired in a single generation and thus in no way did "survival of the fittest" as a tenet of Darwinian evolution predate it.

Another of these interpretations, later known as eugenics, was put forth by Darwin's cousin, Francis Galton, in 1865 and 1869. Galton argued that just as physical traits were clearly inherited among generations of people, so could be said for mental qualities (genius and talent). Galton argued that social mores needed to change so that heredity was a conscious decision, to avoid over-breeding by "less fit" members of society and the under-breeding of the "more fit" ones. In Galton's view, social institutions such as welfare and insane asylums were allowing "inferior" humans to survive and reproduce at levels faster than the more "superior" humans in respectable society, and if corrections were not soon taken, society would be awash with "inferiors." Darwin read his cousin's work with interest, and devoted sections of Descent of Man to discussion of Galton's theories. Neither Galton nor Darwin, though, advocated any eugenic policies such as those undertaken in the early 20th century, as government coercion of any form was very much against their political opinions.

Sexual selection
Darwin's views on sexual selection were opposed strongly by his co-discoverer of natural selection, Alfred Russel Wallace, though much of his "debate" with Darwin took place after Darwin's death. Wallace argued against sexual selection, saying that the male-male competition aspects were simply forms of natural selection, and that the notion of female mate choice was attributing the ability to judge standards of beauty to animals far too cognitively undeveloped to be capable of aesthetic feeling (such as beetles).

Wallace also argued that Darwin too much favoured the bright colours of the male peacock as adaptive without realising that the "drab" peahen's coloration is itself adaptive, as camouflage. Wallace more speculatively argued that the bright colours and long tails of the peacock were not adaptive in any way, and that bright coloration could result from non-adaptive physiological development (for example, the internal organs of animals, not being subject to a visual form of natural selection, come in a wide variety of bright colours). This has been questioned by later scholars as quite a stretch for Wallace, who in this particular instance abandoned his normally strict "adaptationist" agenda in asserting that the highly intricate and developed forms such as a peacock's tail resulted by sheer "physiological processes" that were somehow not at all subjected to adaptation.

Apart from Wallace, a number of scholars considered the role of sexual selection in human evolution controversial. Darwin was accused of looking at the evolution of early human ancestors through the moral lens of the 19th century Victorian society. Joan Roughgarden, citing many elements of sexual behaviour in animals and humans that cannot be explained by the sexual selection model, suggested that the function of sex in human evolution was primarily social. Joseph Jordania suggested that in explaining such human morphological and behavioural characteristics as singing, dancing, body painting, wearing of clothes, Darwin (and proponents of sexual selection) neglected another important evolutionary force, intimidation of predators and competitors with the ritualised forms of warning display. Warning display uses virtually the same arsenal of visual, audio, olfactory and behavioural features as sexual selection. According to the principle of aposematism (warning display), to avoid costly physical violence and to replace violence with the ritualised forms of display, many animal species (including humans) use different forms of warning display: visual signals (contrastive body colours, eyespots, body ornaments, threat display and various postures to look bigger), audio signals (hissing, growling, group vocalisations, drumming on external objects), olfactory signals (producing strong body odors, particularly when excited or scared), behavioural signals (demonstratively slow walking, aggregation in large groups, aggressive display behaviour against predators and conspecific competitors). According to Jordania, most of these warning displays were incorrectly attributed to the forces of sexual selection.

While debates on the subject continued, in January 1871 Darwin started on another book, using leftover material on emotional expressions, which became The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.

In recent years controversy also involved the peacock tail, the most famous symbol of the principle of sexual selection. A seven-year Japanese study of free-ranging peafowl came to the conclusion that female peafowl do not select mates merely on the basis of their trains. Mariko Takahashi found no evidence that peahens expressed any preference for peacocks with more elaborate trains, such as trains having more ocelli, a more symmetrical arrangement or a greater length. Takahashi determined that the peacock's train was not the universal target of female mate choice, showed little variance across male populations, and, based on physiological data collected from this group of peafowl, do not correlate to male physical conditions. Adeline Loyau and her colleagues responded to Takahashi's study by voicing concern that alternative explanations for these results had been overlooked and that these might be essential for the understanding of the complexity of mate choice. They concluded that female choice might indeed vary in different ecological conditions. Jordania suggested that peacock's display of colourful and oversize train with plenty of eyespots, together with their extremely loud call and fearless behaviour has been formed by the forces of natural selection (not sexual selection), and served as a warning (aposematic) display to intimidate predators and rivals.

Effect on society
In January 1871, Thomas Huxley's former disciple, the anatomist St. George Mivart, had published On the Genesis of Species as a critique of natural selection. In an anonymous Quarterly Review article, he claimed that the Descent of Man would unsettle "our half educated classes" and talked of people doing as they pleased, breaking laws and customs. An infuriated Darwin guessed that Mivart was the author and, thinking "I shall soon be viewed as the most despicable of men", looked for an ally. In September, Huxley wrote a cutting review of Mivart's book and article and a relieved Darwin told him "How you do smash Mivart's theology... He may write his worst & he will never mortify me again". As 1872 began, Mivart politely inflamed the argument again, writing "wishing you very sincerely a happy new year" while wanting a disclaimer of the "fundamental intellectual errors" in the Descent of Man. This time, Darwin ended the correspondence.


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Michael Andrews (musician)

Michael Andrews (born November 17, 1967), also known as Elgin Park, is an American multi-instrumental musician, producer, and film score composer. He is best known for a cover version of the Tears for Fears song "Mad World", which he recorded with Gary Jules for the Donnie Darko soundtrack, and which became the 2003 UK Christmas number one. He is a founding member of the San Diego soul-jazz band The Greyboy Allstars, where he goes by the moniker Elgin Park.

Soundtrack production
After joining The Greyboy Allstars following the dissolution of his band The Origin, Andrews fell into film score composition by chance in 1998 when The Greyboy Allstars were asked to score Jake Kasdan's first feature Zero Effect and worked on the music for the highly regarded (though short-lived) TV series, Freaks and Geeks. In 2000, Richard Kelly commissioned him to do the soundtrack for the film Donnie Darko. Its original score album went on to sell over 100,000 copies (in part because of Andrews's remake of Tears for Fears' "Mad World", featuring Gary Jules), and Andrews became a composer to watch. He has since gone on to compose scores for the movies Out Cold, Nothing, Cypher, Orange County, My Suicidal Sweetheart, Me and You and Everyone We Know, The TV Set, a segment of Paris, je t'aime, Unaccompanied Minors, Bridesmaids, Walk Hard: The Dewey Cox Story and Daddy's Home among others.

Donnie Darko
In early 2000, Jim Juvonen gave Andrews a copy of the script for the as-yet-unmade feature film Donnie Darko. Director Richard Kelly knew Andrews worked with The Greyboy Allstars, and made music under the name Elgin Park.

Like his role models John Barry and Ennio Morricone, Andrews wanted a song on his otherwise instrumental score. He chose "Mad World" by Tears for Fears (originally released in 1982), which his childhood friend Gary Jules sang as Andrews played piano.

The first soundtrack record was released by Andy Factor, a friend of Andrews, through his Everloving Records label in 2002. As Donnie Darko was not a hit at first, there was little interest in the soundtrack in the US. The film was more popular in Europe, especially in the UK, where it outgrossed the US release.

This sparked interest in the soundtrack and "Mad World", which was a 2003 Christmas #1 on the UK Singles Chart. It reached the top 30 of the American Billboard Modern Rock chart in 2004 and hit #1 on the Canadian Digital Singles chart in January 2007. It charted in countries like Ireland, Denmark, the Netherlands, and Australia in 2003 and 2004, and a snippet was used in the television commercial for the 2006 Xbox 360 video game Gears of War.

Me and You and Everyone We Know
In 2005, Andrews scored Me and You and Everyone We Know, a film by Miranda July praised at both Sundance and Cannes film festivals. The score to the film was released on Everloving Records on July 12, 2005.

Initially taking cues from the characters' dialogue, Andrews began writing the score. He came to understand the film's world as a kind of alternate reality where people believe in fate and chance—and this was the world he needed to paint with his music. He also saw the feelings July was trying to get across in her film as very primary. "She tries to break things down to very basic, simple shapes—the simplest shapes possible, and that totally influenced me in my music". Working out of his custom-built backyard studio in Glendale, California, Andrews spent three months creating the score using an orchestra of obscure vintage synthesizers (a miniature hotwired Casio keyboard was unearthed at a garage sale for $10) and drum machines. His concept was to play what he termed amateurish, emotional, naïve, magical and simple music on highly unemotional, inorganic instruments—for example, a calculator with built-in twelve-note keyboard that lends a haunting portamento melody to one of the film's motifs.

Other instruments used in the score include Andrews's modified piano (rather than hitting the strings directly, the hammers first make contact with a piece of soft felt, creating a warmer, slightly muffled tone), as well as his Moog and Vocoder synthesizers. Despite all the electronic gear, no MIDI was used in the recording, so that all the humanness, all the subtle variations of rhythm, are intact. Inara George adds vocals in several climactic moments throughout the film. In some cases, cues were composed of only two or three tracks in order to attain the magical simplicity for which the film called out.

Solo career
Andrews released his first solo album, Hand on String, on his own newly established label, Elgin Park Recordings, in Summer 2006. He is credited on the album as Mike Andrews.

In August 2012, Andrews's second solo record "Spilling A Rainbow" was released on Everloving Records performed mostly alone, and with Dan Long and Steve Kaye recording.

Albums

 * Elgin Park (2000)
 * Hand on String (2006)
 * Spilling a Rainbow (2012)

Productions/appearances

 * The Origin – The Origin (1990)
 * The Origin – Bend (1992)
 * 'The Greyboy Allstars – West Coast Boogaloo (1993)
 * Robert Walter – Spirit of '70 (player) (1994)
 * Brendan Benson – One Mississippi (bass, guitars, background vocals) (1994)
 * DJ Greyboy – Land of the Lost (guitar) (1996)
 * Gary Jules – Greetings From The Side (producer) (1998)
 * Elgin Park - Elgin Park (2000)
 * DJ Greyboy – Mastered The Art (guitar) (2000)
 * The Greyboy Allstars – Greyboy Allstars Live (2001)
 * Gary Jules – Trading Snakeoil For Wolftickets (piano, producer) (2001)
 * Michael Andrews – Donnie Darko: Music from the Original Motion Picture Score (songwriter, performer) (2002)
 * Brendan Benson – Metarie EP (producer) (2003)
 * Metric – Old World Underground, Where Are You Now? (producer) (2004)
 * Les Sans Culottes – Fixation Orale (producer) (2004)
 * DJ Greyboy – Soul Mosaic (guitar) (2004)
 * Inara George – All Rise (producer) (2005)
 * Michael Andrews – Me and You and Everyone We Know (Original Motion Picture Score) (composer, performer) (2005)
 * Michael Andrews – Hand on String (2005)
 * Charlie Wadhams – Free Up Your Schedule (producer/player) (2007)
 * The Greyboy Allstars – What Happened to Television (2007)
 * Inara George & Van Dyke Parks – An Invitation (producer) (2008)
 * Inara George – Accidental Experimental (producer/cowriter) (2009)
 * Michael Andrews – Spilling a Rainbow (2012)
 * The Greyboy Allstars – Inland Emperor (2013)
 * Robert Walter – Get Thy Bearings (producer/player) (2013)
 * Inara George – Dearest Everybody (producer) (2019)
 * The Greyboy Allstars – Como De Allstars (2020)
 * Brooks Nielsen – One Match Left (producer/player/songwriter) (2022)
 * Brooks Nielsen – The Circle EP (producer/player/songwriter) (2023)

Television scores

 * Freaks and Geeks (1999–2000)
 * Undeclared (2001–2002)
 * Wonderfalls (2004)
 * Desire – Ford Mondeo (2007) – TV advertisement
 * New Girl (2011) – Main Title Theme
 * Ben and Kate (2012) – Main Title Theme
 * Togetherness (Seasons 1&2 – 2016 HBO)
 * The Zen Diaries of Garry Shandling (2017 HBO)
 * Friends from College (2019 Netflix)
 * City Of Ghosts (2021 Netflix)
 * El Deafo (2022 Apple TV+)

title: Michael Andrews (musician)


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Ochanomizu Station

Ochanomizu Station (御茶ノ水駅) is a railway station in Tokyo, Japan, operated by the East Japan Railway Company (JR East) and Tokyo subway operator Tokyo Metro. The station straddles the boundary between the Chiyoda and Bunkyō special wards; the JR station is in the former while the Tokyo Metro station is in the latter.

Lines
Ochanomizu Station is serviced by the following lines:
 * Chūō Main Line (including Chūō Line and Chūō-Sōbu Line)
 * Sōbu Main Line (including Chūō-Sōbu Line)
 * Sōbu Main Line (including Chūō-Sōbu Line)

Passengers can also transfer to nearby Shin-ochanomizu Station on the Tokyo Metro Chiyoda Line.

Location
JR East's Ochanomizu station lies south of the Kanda River in Chiyoda ward. During the Edo period, the Kanda River was rerouted to pass through Ochanomizu, which was otherwise a highland between two valleys. Hijiribashi (聖橋, also known as Hijiri Bridge, Hijiribashi Bridge) crosses over the river near a station exit. The subway Marunouchi Line makes a short above-ground appearance as it passes over the river. Holy Resurrection Cathedral (Nicholai-dō) is easily accessible from the Hijiribashi Exit of this station. The Ochanomizu neighborhood is known for its many guitar and instrument shops.

The Tokyo Metro station is located in Bunkyō Ward, separate from the JR East station, and is served by the Marunouchi Line. The area is also served by the at Shin-Ochanomizu, which is connected to Ogawamachi on the.

JR East
The JR East portion of the station has two island platforms serving four tracks. Tracks 1 and 4 (the outer tracks) serve trains on the Chūō Line whilst tracks 2 and 3 are used by trains on the Chūō-Sōbu Line.

Platforms
There are two exits from Ochanomizu to street level. The larger of the two is the Ochanomizu-bashi exit on the western end of the station which features ticket vending machines, a JR reservation office, toilets, and lockers. The other is the Hijiri-bashi exit which only has ticket vending machines and toilets.

Tokyo Metro
The Tokyo Metro station consists of two side platforms serving two tracks.

History
The JR East station opened on 31 December 1904. The Tokyo Metro station opened on 20 January 1954.

Passenger statistics
In fiscal 2013, the JR East station was used by 104,737 passengers daily (boarding passengers only), making it the 34th-busiest station operated by JR East. In fiscal 2013, the Tokyo Metro station was used by an average of 55,529 passengers per day (exiting and entering passengers), making it the 66th-busiest station operated by Tokyo Metro. The average daily passenger figures for each operator in previous years are as shown below.

 * Note that JR East figures are for boarding passengers only.

Surrounding area

 * Shin-Ochanomizu Station
 * Akihabara
 * Jinbōchō
 * Kanda River
 * Kanda Shrine
 * Manseibashi
 * Yasukuni-dōri

Connecting bus services
The Toei Bus operates local bus services from the following Ochanomizu Station bus stops.

Ochanomizu-ekimae (Ochanomizu Station)

No.1
 * Cha 51: for Komagome-eki-minamiguchi (Komagome Station South Entrance)

No.2
 * Cha 51: for Akihabara-ekimae (Akihabara Station)

No.3
 * Higashi 43: for Tokyo-eki-Marunouchi-kitaguchi (Tokyo Station Marunouchi North Entrance)

No.4
 * Higashi 43: for Arakawa-dote-sōshajō-mae (Arakawa Riverbank Depot) and Kōhoku-ekimae (Kōhoku Station)

Ochanomizu-ekimae (Higashi-guchi) (Ochanomizu Station (East Entrance))

No.5
 * Gaku 07: for Tōdai-kōnai (The University of Tokyo Hongo Campus)

title: Ochanomizu Station


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User:Jeff relf

Proposed deletion of Bradley Amendment

The article Bradley Amendment has been proposed for deletion because of the following concern: "No assertion of notability; very few sources even mention the subject law in question by name and much of the information lacks secondary sources. Even what little is left looks like WP:OR."

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title: User:Jeff relf


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Talk:Rastapopoulos/Archive 1

Mistake?
There must be some mistake. In 'Tintin in America', a picture on p. 57 indeed shows a character bearing a likeness to Rastapopoulos. However, the head of that character is rather elongated and somewhat folded back, while Rastapopoulos' head is rather spherical. The character resembling Rastapopoulos must be Senator GOODNEWS (see p. 51), a victim of 'KIDNAP, Inc.', a 'public company' run by an unnamed gangster leader (p. 50).

On the other hand, the same picture on p. 57 shows another character wearing a uniform: it must be General M. R. C. SWORD, another victim of the same 'company', who was put in a cell next of Sen. Goodnews' one (p. 51). Both men should have been freed from their jail after Tintin succeeded in capturing the kidnapper gang. —Prhartcom  (talk)  22:19, 17 August 2013 (UTC)

Move back to Rastapopoulos
This article was moved without consensus to Roberto Rastapopoulos. That is the character's name, referenced once in the series, but he is known throughout the series by his last name only. If there is no objection, I will be asking an administrator to help us move it back to Rastapopoulos. —Prhartcom  (talk)  22:19, 17 August 2013 (UTC)
 * As the individual who made this move, I personally think that it should stay as "Roberto Rastapopoulos". It is the characters' full name after all, as canonically specified in the series. Most works of Tintinology also choose to refer to the character by his full name, rather than just his surname. For these reasons, I think that it really should retain the name at which it currently stands. Best, Midnightblueowl (talk) 22:29, 17 August 2013 (UTC)
 * To clarify, I accept the technical move back to "Rastapopoulos" at the moment, although would like to discuss the issue further in future. Best, Midnightblueowl (talk) 19:23, 18 August 2013 (UTC)
 * I accept Midnightblueowl's gracious acceptance to move back to "Rastapopoulos" at the moment, and agree to discuss the issue further in future. I'll submit the technical move. Thanks again to Midnightblueowl.  —Prhartcom   (talk)  19:51, 18 August 2013 (UTC)

title: Talk:Rastapopoulos/Archive 1


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Erwin Stresemann

Erwin Friedrich Theodor Stresemann (22 November 1889, in Dresden – 20 November 1972, in East Berlin) was a German naturalist and ornithologist. Stresemann was an ornithologist of extensive breadth who compiled one of the first and most comprehensive accounts of avian biology of its time as part of the Handbuch der Zoologie (Handbook of Zoology). In the process of his studies on birds, he also produced one of the most extensive historical accounts on the development of the science of ornithology. He influenced numerous ornithologists around him and oversaw the development of ornithology in Germany as editor of the Journal für Ornithologie. He also took an interest in poetry, philosophy and linguistics. He published a monograph on the Paulohi language based on studies made during his ornithological expedition to the Indonesian island.

Early life
Stresemann was born in Dresden to Richard, an apothecary and Marie. His grandfather Theodor owned the Zum Roten Adler pharmacy in Berlin-Kölln while his father and a brother Gustav owned the Mohrenapotheke in Dresden from 1876. The family was affluent, providing a stimulating environment and he took an interest in beetles and maintained a vivarium. When he joined the Vitzthum Gymnasium, the teacher of mathematics and biology, Dr. Otto Koepert, gave Erwin the job of organizing the school's collection of American and African birds. At a comparatively young age he was able to travel to Heligoland, Bornholm and Moscow. After high school he went to study zoology at the University of Jena in 1908, and then transferred to the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich to study under Richard von Hertwig, and still later at the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology. He made contact with Ernst Haeckel and studied marine biology at Bergen. He took a break from 1910 to 1912 to join as an ornithologist the "Second Freiburg Expedition" to the Moluccas (1910–12). The expedition was led by Karl Deninger, a geologist who had visited the islands in 1906–1907. They were joined by ethnologist Odo Deodatus Tauern. The cost had to be borne by the participants, and Stresemann prepared himself on fauna, geology and ethnology of the Moluccas. He went to Tring and consulted with Ernst Hartert and then climbed hills and trained to stand the heat by climbing Mount Vesuvius. The three had a custom built boat but it did not arrive in the Mollucas when they reached Singapore by a Lloyd Steamer in September 1910. They interacted with the Sekai through the Italian explorer G. Emilio Cerruti who had lived there for two decades (as the king of the tribe!). Their boat "Friborg" arrived in November but the boat did not do well and they were stranded in Bali. Repair of the boat in Java would take three weeks with Deninger handling it while Stresemann and Tauern crossed Bali examining the fauna (adding 53 new species of birds from Bali). The Friborg sank while Deninger was returning to Bali and subsequently all journey were made on a Dutch steamer. They travelled into central Seram and during this time Stresemann took a great deal of interest in the native Alfurians. He spent six months studying the language and exploring Buru. They finally returned to Europe on 1 April 1912 with 1,200 bird skins. Stresemann then studied the bird collections at the Rothschild Museum in Tring where Ernst Hartert worked. His study was supported by Rothschild, and several new species were named in his honour. Stresemann also published his studies on the now near-extinct Paulohi language and wrote a monograph on the topic and a paper on language relations. He also published on the religious customs on Seran. Stresemann also took an interest in poetry, the writings of Goethe, Descartes and Bismarck. Stresemann's studies were interrupted by the First World War and he was conscripted, serving initially in an artillery unit on the Western Front. From an anchored balloon used to study the accuracy of artillery, he made studies using rangefinders on the heights of flight of swifts. He was transferred to Italy and was wounded in November 1917. He returned to Munich and resumed his studies and graduated with majors in zoology and minors in botany and anthropology. He briefly studied under Richard von Hertwig in Munich and examined the avifauna of Macedonia. He graduated summa cum laude in March 1920.

Aves
One of Stresemann's early achievements was his authorship of the parts on Aves in the Handbuch der Zoologie. In 1914, the editor of the series, Willy Kükenthal (1861–1922), offered the task to him after others like Anton Reichenow (1847–1941), Valentin Haecker (1864–1927) and Oskar Heinroth (1871–1945) refused to take it up as they were preoccupied. His position as a 24-year old zoology student in comparison to the others was remarkable and Jurgen Haffer notes that this work acted as a springboard for his future career. Stresemann had eminent peers and mentors in Ernst Hartert, Carl Zimmer, Otto Kleinschmidt and Carl Eduard Hellmayr. The Aves work continued to be updated until 1934 and Stresemann produced one of the most comprehensive treatises on birds. It covered anatomy, morphology, behaviour, physiology, and evolution in ways that no other work had done before. It was not until the 1960s that anything comparable was produced in the English language in the multi-author work edited by A.J. Marshall (1960–1961) and later in the multi-volume series on Avian Biology edited by Farner and King.

Berlin
In 1920 he succeeded Anton Reichenow (in his seventies) as curator of ornithology at the Zoological Museum in Berlin, a position he stayed in until his retirement in 1961. The surprise appointment was through Kükenthal's influence. He attended meetings of the Deutsche Ornithologen-Gesellschaft where he was known for his argumentation. He proved himself as a person of wide reading and immense knowledge. His first student was Bernard Rensch. This was followed by Theodor Elsässer who studied iridescent feathers for his doctorate. This was followed by Ernst Mayr on zoogeography, Ernst Schüz on the evolution of powder down, Wilhelm Meise on systematics, Emil Kattinger and Fritz Frank. They pursued diverse topics in ornithology. He was made professor in 1930 and from 1946 to 1961 he was tenured professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin. In November 1935, Stresemann was invited to Yale University by Leonard Cutler Sanford and was offered a position there. Stresemann however felt that he belonged to Berlin. He wrote that he could have worked there but could not live there. During the war years from 1941, he ensured that the 40,000 bird skins and rare books were safely stored in an underground locker. They were safely restored after the war. He also kept up communication with European ornithologists who became German prisoners of war such as David Bannerman. He ensured that they obtained the latest research papers as well. During his career, he worked continuously on several areas of ornithology and maintained a broad interest that allowed him to produce a major treatise on the history and development of the field of ornithology. Towards the 1960s he recognized his own weaknesses in not understanding the applications of statistics in ornithology or the biochemical approaches to systematics. At this point, he shifted focus, along with his second wife Vesta, to the study of the patterns of moults in birds. The Frank M. Chapman Memorial Fund allowed him to examine bird collections around the world to study moult. In his 1966 work dedicated to Oskar Heinroth, he examined moulting patterns and sought to see if there were phylogenetic patterns in them and concluded that they did not show any clear relationship. He found several other biological traits that seemed to influence moult, at least of the flight feathers. He was decorated with GDR Patriotic Order of Merit. In the 1960s and 70s he and his wife were provided special permissions to pass through the Berlin wall at any time to visit the Zoological Museum.

When the Natural History Museum in London established their ornithology collections at Tring in July 1972, Stresemann and his wife were special invitees at the inauguration.

Influences
Stresemann was one of the outstanding ornithologists of the 20th century but is often not recognized outside Germany because most of his works were written in German and ignored due to the wartime rivalries. At the age of 40, Stresemann was elected President of the 8th International Congress. He encouraged a number of young German scientists, including his most famous student Ernst Mayr and Bernhard Rensch. Stresemann had proposed that geographic isolation was key to the speciation of birds, an idea which was developed further by Mayr. Stresemann's influence in ornithology was through his work Aves, the editorship of the Journal für Ornithologie, the leadership of the DO-G and through mentoring students. He established what has been called the "New Avian Biology." Mayr however noted that despite being progressive, Stresemann did not fully grasp or understand the synthesis of evolution and genetics.

Stresemann was the long-standing editor of the Journal für Ornithologie (1922 onwards). As editor, he moved away from the traditional emphasis on faunistics and collections to a preference for articles dealing with the anatomy, physiology, life-history studies and the behaviour of birds. His major publication was the volume Aves (1927–1934) in the Handbuch der Zoologie (Handbook of Zoology). He also wrote Entwicklung der Ornithologie von Aristoteles bis zur Gegenwart (1951), a review of the development of ornithology from Aristotle to modern times, translated into English in 1975 as "Ornithology from Aristotle to the Present".

Personal life
Stresemann married Elisabeth Deninger, sister of his expedition-mate Karl Deninger, in 1916. She was the daughter of chemist Albert Deninger, known for his work on fluoride toothpastes. They divorced in 1939. Stresemann married Vesta née Grote (who was widowed after her husband Friedrich Hauchecorne (1894 – 1938), director of the Halle zoo, was killed in a hunting accident) during the war years in 1941 and they worked on many ornithological papers, especially on moult, and she survived him to live to 103 years. Stresemann was known for his impeccable sense of dressing, his affable personality and excellent dancing in his youth. He was an excellent speaker, carefully adding wit and humour, and proud of the German language despite knowing excellent English. At the Ornithological Congress at Oxford in 1934 he intentionally gave a one-hour presidential speech in German. His German pride was always tempered by his meticulousness and when surprise was expressed after turkey frescoes were found in the Schleswig Cathedral during restoration Stresemann carefully examined the evidence to see if indeed the pictures were made in the 13th century. It however turned out that the frescoes were added by Hanover artist August Olbers who confessed adding them when restoring damage in 1890.

Stresemann died after suffering from poor health since his 80th birthday. In February 1972 he had a cataract removal for his eyes and was delighted with his new found vision. He however suffered that autumn with a heart-trouble and he had wished to be buried alongside his mentor Ernst Hartert. He was cremated and according to his wishes the ashes were interred into the grave of Ernst Hartert in the Waldfriedhof (forest cemetery) at Dahlem.

Legacy
Stresemann is commemorated in the scientific names of numerous species of animals including a species of gecko, Cyrtodactylus stresemanni, at least two butterflies (Walter Rothschild named some butterflies from the Mollucca expedition after Stresemann. One of them, Papilio stresemanni, was mistaken by the German press who thought it linked Gustav Stresemann, then foreign minister, with the Jewish banking magnate ), a grasshopper Oxya stresemanni and several birds (Hylexetastes stresemanni described by Emilie Snethlage in 1925 and Zaratornis stresemanni are full species but a much larger number of birds honour him in their subspecific name), a bat Rousettus stresemanni, and a mollusc Isidora stresemanni. Some of these species were described from Stresemann's Molluccas expedition.

Nazi affiliation
Stresemann's association with and affinity for Nazi ideology is ambiguous. There is no evidence that he was a member of the NSDAP; however, when Stresemann visited the bird collection at the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in January 1936, he was questioned by a newspaper reporter about Hitler’s imperialist agenda and its vision of Aryan supremacy. Stresemann reportedly stated that “There is a pure Aryan race politically—if not anthropologically ... The Hitler Government preaches the idea of the emergence of a race of tall, fair, blue-eyed men and women which we shall believe to be superior, racially, economically and artistically ... I do not believe Germany can be great if the German strain is mixed with the blood of alien races.”

Stresemann also stated, in response to a question about the anti-Jewish Nuremberg Laws in Germany that, "the Government is trying to work out a plan—a solution. I believe in time it will be found”, presumably referring to the Final Solution. Stresemann however supported British prisoners of war including John Buxton, Peter Conder, and George Waterston in Nazi Germany who were interested in birds, providing them books and supporting their bird studies.

Cited references

 * Haffer, Jürgen; Rutschke, Erich; Wunderlich, Klaus (2000). "Erwin Stresemann (1889–1972). Leben und Werk eines Pioniers der wissenschaftlichen Ornithologie". Acta Historica Leopoldina (34): 1–465. ISBN 3-8304-5091-5.

title: Erwin Stresemann


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Temple blocks

Temple blocks are a type of percussion instrument consisting of a set of woodblocks. It is descended from the muyu, an instrument originating from eastern Asia, where it is commonly used in religious ceremonies.

Description
It is a carved hollow wooden instrument with a large slit. In its traditional form, the muyu, the shape is somewhat bulbous like a bell, but modern instruments are often rectangular in shape. They are generally played in sets of four or more to give a variety of pitches, in which they are also known as "tone blocks". In Western music, they can be traced back to early jazz drummers where they were used as exotic instruments before being later adopted into widespread orchestral use. An updated version of the instrument made by Latin Percussion, known as "granite blocks", is made out of plastic rather than wood.

The sound of temple blocks is similar to that of normal woodblocks, although temple blocks have a darker, more "hollow" timbre. In their most common configuration of five, temple blocks are typically tuned to a pentatonic scale. Chromatic and diatonic sets have also been made. Despite this, they are not commonly treated as pitched percussion.

Temple blocks are often used as sound effects, such as in Leroy Anderson's "The Syncopated Clock" and "Sleigh Ride", where they mimic a ticking clock and a galloping horse, respectively. They can also be used to reinforce the melody. John Barnes Chance's Incantation and Dance and Variations on a Korean Folk Song both have temple blocks introduce and double the motifs that appear within the music, with the latter using the pentatonic nature of the temple blocks to evoke the sound of the Orient.

title: Temple blocks


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List of companies of South Africa

South Africa is the southernmost country in Africa. It is the 25th-largest country in the world by land area, and with close to 60 million people, is the world's 24th-most populous nation.

The World Bank classifies South Africa as an upper-middle-income economy, and a newly industrialised country. Its economy is the second-largest in Africa, and the 34th-largest in the world. In terms of purchasing power parity, South Africa has the seventh-highest per capita income in Africa. However, poverty and inequality remain widespread, with about a quarter of the population unemployed and living on less than US$1.25 a day. Nevertheless, South Africa has been identified as a middle power in international affairs, and maintains significant regional influence.

For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations, see "Business entities in South Africa".

Notable firms
This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct.

title: List of companies of South Africa


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Objet d'art

In art history, the French term objet d'art describes an ornamental work of art, and the term objets d’art describes a range of works of art, usually small and three-dimensional, made of high-quality materials, and a finely-rendered finish that emphasises the aesthetics of the artefact. Artists create and produce objets d’art in the fields of the decorative arts and metalwork, porcelain and vitreous enamel; figurines, plaquettes, and engraved gems; ivory carvings and semi-precious hardstone carvings; tapestries, antiques, and antiquities; and books with fine bookbinding.

The National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, describes their accumulated artworks as a: "collection of objets d’art [which] comprises over 800 objects. These are mostly small, decorative art items that fall outside the scope of the Museum’s ceramic, plate, textiles and glass collections." The artwork collection also includes metal curtain ties, a lacquered papier-maché tray, tobacco boxes, cigarette cases, découpage (cut-paper items), portrait miniatures, a gilt-brass clock finial, plaques, statuettes, plaquettes, a horse brass, a metal pipe tamper, a small glass painting, et cetera.

Objet de vertu
The objet de vertu, wherein vertu suggests rich materials and a higher standard of refined manufacture and finish; the classification usually excludes objects made for realising a practical function. As works of art, objets de vertu reflect the rarified aesthetic and conspicuous consumption characteristic of an aristocratic court — of the late-medieval Burgundian dukes, the Mughal emperors, or Ming China — such as the Lycurgus Cup, which is a cage cup made of Roman glass; the Byzantine agate "Rubens vase"; the Roman glass "Portland Vase", and onyx and chalcedony cameo carvings, whilst the pre–World War I production of objets d'art featured Fabergé eggs made of precious metals and decorated with gemstones.

A comparable term that appears in 18th- and 19th-century French sale catalogs, though now less used, is objets de curiosité, "objects of curiosity", now devolved into the less-valued curio. Elaborate late Renaissance display pieces in silver that incorporate organic elements such as ostrich eggs, nuts of the coco de mer and sea-shells are grouped in a volume, published in 1991, as "The Curiousities" in the catalogues of the Waddesdon Bequest at the British Museum.

title: Objet d'art


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Richard and Judy

Richard and Judy is the name informally given to Richard Madeley and Judy Finnigan, a British married couple who are both television presenters and columnists. They presented the daytime television programme This Morning from 1988 until 2001, and then hosted the daily chat show Richard & Judy from 2001 until 2009.

Marriage and family
Madeley and Finnigan met in 1982 when they worked on separate programmes for Granada Television. Both were married at the time. After divorcing their previous partners, the couple married in 1986 in Manchester. The couple had two children together, both born in Manchester: Jack Christopher (born 1986) and Chloe Susannah (born 1987).

This Morning
They hosted This Morning from its inception in 1988 until 2001. The series, a mix of celebrity interviews, household tips, cookery and phone-ins lasted approximately two hours each weekday morning on ITV. It first aired in October 1988 and was broadcast from the Albert Dock in Liverpool, although production moved to London in 1996. They were so closely associated with the show that the programme was often referred to as Richard and Judy, rather than This Morning.

Since leaving, Madeley has appeared on the show by himself, publicising his autobiography, and the couple joined the show's then-current presenters, Phillip Schofield and Holly Willoughby, on 5 October 2009, to celebrate its twenty-first birthday. They returned to the programme for a one-off 25th birthday show.

Richard & Judy
In 2001, they quit This Morning, having been approached by Channel 4 to host a similar show, simply called Richard & Judy, shown for an hour in the early evenings.

The show was produced by Cactus TV, run by Jonathan Ross's brother Simon and his wife Amanda Ross. In February 2007, the couple publicly apologised live on air due to the discovery of a TV quiz phone scam regarding the daily phone in You Say We Pay, in which winners were selected early on, but viewers were encouraged to continue calling the premium rate entry number. On the same show, Madeley and Finnigan decided to suspend the daily quiz until further notice. Later that week, the news media confirmed that police investigations would be pursued, meaning the couple could be subject to a police interview. Channel 4 have said that the scam may have been in force for two series of the show. The couple both denied being involved in the scam. The scam was revealed by the Mail on Sunday newspaper after it was sold the story through media publicist Jonathan Hartley.

The TV show also launched two ‘clubs’, the Richard & Judy Book Club and the Richard & Judy Wine Club, both of which are similar in style to those used by Oprah Winfrey. The book club featured literature by new and unknown writers. One book was reviewed each week and the winner, named "Read of the Year," was announced at an awards ceremony.

In July 2008, Finnigan underwent a knee operation and took a short leave of absence from the show in order to fully recuperate from the surgery. During this time, Madeley was joined by guest presenters Emma Bunton and Myleene Klass and presented one edition of the show on his own (Wednesday 23 July 2008). Madeley said of the show which he'd presented himself, that "it was probably one of the best shows I've ever shot, but without a doubt the best show I've ever watched".

In 2008, it was announced that their Channel 4 series which began in June would be the last for the programme, which ended on 22 August 2008. However, they signed a contract for a new prime-time show on UKTV's new channel, Watch. Their new show still contained features such as the "Book Club" and "Summer Read".

Move to Watch
After seven years at Channel Four, Richard and Judy began hosting a topical prime-time chat show on UKTV's new digital channel, Watch. From 7 October 2008, Richard and Judy’s New Position was broadcast on weeknights at 8.00 pm. 200,000 people watched the first episode, with numbers declining to 53,000 for the second. Viewing figures consistently fell, eventually declining to 11,000 viewers; their Channel 4 programme had seen figures as high as 2.5 million. Consequently, on 8 May 2009 it was announced that the show would end in July, the presenters saying in a statement that viewers "simply couldn't find us".

Other work together
Both co-wrote their autobiography, Richard and Judy: The Autobiography, in 2002, published by Hodder & Stoughton.

Political views
Madeley has expressed strong support for the former British Prime Minister Tony Blair and applauded the Iraq War, claiming international law on the issue was "incredibly complicated". He has been described as a neocon, Blair's “self-appointed apologist”, and Blair's “yapping Pekingese”. Madeley has condemned the former Labour Party leader, Jeremy Corbyn.

In an interview, Madeley named Cuban leader Fidel Castro as the person he most despises.

References in popular culture
Richard and Judy are mentioned in the song "Away from Here", which was released by the British band The Enemy in 2007.

title: Richard and Judy