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Jammu & Kashmir National Conference

The Jammu and Kashmir National Conference (JKNC) is a regional political party in Indian-administered Kashmir's union territories of Jammu and Kashmir and Ladakh. Founded as the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference by Sheikh Abdullah and Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas in 1932 in the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the organisation renamed itself to "National Conference" in 1939 in order to represent all the people of the state. It supported the accession of the princely state to India in 1947. Prior to that, in 1941, a group led by Ghulam Abbas broke off from the National Conference and revived the old Muslim Conference. The revived Muslim Conference supported the accession of the princely state to Pakistan and led the movement for Azad Kashmir.

Since 1947, the National Conference was in power in Jammu and Kashmir in one form or another till 2002, and again between 2009 and 2015. It implemented land reforms in the state, ensured the state's autonomy under the Article 370 of the Indian Constitution, and formulated a separate Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir in 1957. Sheikh Abdullah's son Farooq Abdullah (1981–2002, 2009–present) and grandson Omar Abdullah (2002–2009) have led the party after Sheikh Abdullah's death as the president. The party is a member of the People's Alliance for Gupkar Declaration electoral alliance.

The pre-independence period
In October 1932, Sheikh Abdullah founded the All Jammu and Kashmir Muslim Conference in collaboration with Mirwaiz Yusuf Shah and Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas. On 11 June 1939 it was renamed as the All Jammu and Kashmir National Conference. This prompted a section of the leadership to break away and re-establish the Muslim Conference, with links to the All-India Muslim League. The National Conference was affiliated to the All India States Peoples Conference. Sheikh Abdullah was elected its president in 1947. In 1946, the National Conference launched an intensive agitation against the state government. It was directed against the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, Hari Singh. The slogan of the agitation was "Quit Kashmir".

The post-independence period
In the elections held in September 1951, National Conference won all 75 seats of the Constituent assembly of Jammu and Kashmir. Sheikh Abdullah remained prime minister until his dismissal in August 1953 on the grounds of conspiracy against the state of India. Bakshi Ghulam Mohammad became prime minister of the state, and Sheikh Abdullah was arrested on 9 August 1953.

In 1965, the National Conference merged with the Indian National Congress (INC) and became the Jammu and Kashmir branch of the Indian National Congress. Sheikh Abdullah was again arrested in 1965 until 1968 for conspiracy against the state. Sheikh Abdullah's splinter Plebiscite Front faction later appropriated the name of the original party when Abdullah was allowed to return to power in February 1975 after striking a deal with the central government. In 1977, the National Conference he led won the state assembly elections, and Sheikh Abdullah became chief minister. His son Farooq Abdullah succeeded him as the chief minister on his death on 8 September 1982. In June 1983 elections, the JKNC, led by Farooq Abdullah, again won a comfortable majority.

In July 1984, Farooq's brother-in-law Ghulam Mohammad Shah split the party. Acting on the behest of the central government, the Governor dismissed Farooq as chief minister and replaced him with Ghulam Mohammad Shah. His government was dismissed in March 1986 and Presidential rule was imposed. In the contested state assembly elections of 1987, the JKNC formed an alliance with the INC, and was declared to have won a majority. Farooq Abdullah again became chief minister and on Abdullah's watch an insurgency against the State government and India began. Abdullah was dismissed again in 1990 by the Union Government and Presidential rule was imposed in the state. In 1991, the state elections were cancelled due to a revolt by the people.

1996 onwards
In the Jammu and Kashmir state assembly elections in 1996, the JKNC led by Abdullah was awarded the election yet again winning 57 seats out of a total 87. Like its predecessors, this election has been deemed to be rigged and Abdullah stepped down in 2000. His son, Omar Abdullah then took up the reins of power in the state. But in 2002 state assembly elections, the JKNC won only 28 seats, with the Jammu and Kashmir People's Democratic Party (PDP) emerging in the Kashmir Valley as a contender for power. In the December 2008 state assembly elections, no single party was able to get the majority. The JKNC led by Farooq's son Omar Abdullah emerged as a single largest party, winning 28 seats. After the elections, on 30 December 2008 the JKNC formed an alliance with the INC which had won 17 seats. Omar Abdullah became the Chief Minister of this coalition government on 5 January 2009.

JKNC and INC contested 2009 general election in alliance. INC won all the two seats of Jammu region but lost Ladakh seat to NC rebel who contested as an independent candidate. NC won all the three seats of the Kashmir Valley in 2009.

During this period, the JKNC has experienced increasing controversies over the Accession of Kashmir to India. Protests against the government in 2010 when approximately 100 protesters (one as young as 11) were killed as the result of live ammunition being fired by state paramilitary forces. A torture scandal was exposed by the WikiLeaks, revelations which were subsequently aired on Channel 4.

In the 2014 general election, the NC contested the election in an alliance with Indian National Congress but did not win a single seat. Out of six seats in the state, PDP and Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) won three each.

During the 2014 Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly election, INC broke its alliance with JKNC. JKNC contested all the assembly seats but won only 15 seats, a decrease of 13 seats. PDP won 28 seats and became the largest party in the assembly followed by BJP winning 25 seats. Omar Abdullah resigned as a chief minister on 24 December 2014.

title: Jammu & Kashmir National Conference


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User talk:Shane Lin

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia, and thanks for your contributions so far. Drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

If you need editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. You can use the Show preview button before you save, to make sure your edits do what you intended.

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If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 06:07, 8 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Budapest panorama
Hi, thanks for the panorama. It's good but the best photos of Budapest are arguably taken from one of the bridges at dawn. You might've left the city already but if you return feel free to take an even more spectacular panorama (for example from Margaret bridge) that could find a permanent niche on the Budapest article. Cheers. Gregorik (talk) 15:59, 18 April 2009 (UTC)

TUSC token 00a2356522e4ec01ba8c082c0352f8c1
I am now proud owner of a TUSC account!

Omega Speedmaster
Thanks for your thoughtful expansion of Omega Speedmaster. Well done, and wow, some excellent photos! Are you by any chance one of the regulars on PMWF? - LuckyLouie (talk) 22:10, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I'm happy to contribute! I've got an account at PMWF, but I'm usually over at Watchuseek under ASRSPR. Shane Lin (talk) 22:26, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I started Ollech & Wajs but ran out of source material. If you've got anything feel free to expand. - LuckyLouie (talk) 22:56, 10 February 2011 (UTC)

 * I'll take a look at it. I don't know much about the brand, but maybe I can contribute something. Shane Lin (talk) 01:07, 11 February 2011 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Shane Lin


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Disorders of calcium metabolism

Disorders of calcium metabolism occur when the body has too little or too much calcium. The serum level of calcium is closely regulated within a fairly limited range in the human body. In a healthy physiology, extracellular calcium levels are maintained within a tight range through the actions of parathyroid hormone, vitamin D and the calcium sensing receptor. Disorders in calcium metabolism can lead to hypocalcemia, decreased plasma levels of calcium or hypercalcemia, elevated plasma calcium levels.

Hypocalcemia
Hypocalcemia is common and can occur unnoticed with no symptoms or, in severe cases, can have dramatic symptoms and be life-threatening. Hypocalcemia can be parathyroid related or vitamin D related. Parathyroid related hypocalcemia includes post-surgical hypoparathyroidism, inherited hypoparathyroidism, pseudohypoparathyroidism, and pseudo-pseudohypoparathyroidism. Post-surgical hypoparathyroidism is the most common form, and can be temporary (due to suppression of tissue after removal of a malfunctioning gland) or permanent, if all parathyroid tissue has been removed. Inherited hypoparathyroidism is rare and is due to a mutation in the calcium sensing receptor. Pseudohypoparathyroidism is maternally inherited and is categorized by hypocalcemia and hyperphosphatemia. Finally, pseudo-pseudohypoparathyroidism is paternally inherited. Patients display normal parathyroid hormone action in the kidney, but exhibit altered parathyroid hormone action in the bone. Vitamin D related hypocalcemia may be associated with a lack of vitamin D in the diet, a lack of sufficient UV exposure, or disturbances in renal function. Low vitamin D in the body can lead to a lack of calcium absorption and secondary hyperparathyroidism (hypocalcemia and raised parathyroid hormone). Symptoms of hypocalcemia include numbness in fingers and toes, muscle cramps, irritability, impaired mental capacity and muscle twitching.

Hypercalcemia
Hypercalcemia is suspected to occur in approximately 1 in 500 adults in the general adult population. Like hypocalcemia, hypercalcemia can be non-severe and present with no symptoms, or it may be severe, with life-threatening symptoms. Hypercalcemia is most commonly caused by hyperparathyroidism and by malignancy, and less commonly by vitamin D intoxication, familial hypocalciuric hypercalcemia and by sarcoidosis. Hyperparathyroidism occurs most commonly in postmenopausal women. Hyperparathyroidism can be caused by a tumor, or adenoma, in the parathyroid gland or by increased levels of parathyroid hormone due to hypocalcemia. Approximately 10% of individuals with cancer experience hypercalcemia due to malignancy. Hypercalcemia occurs most commonly in breast cancer, lymphoma, prostate cancer, thyroid cancer, lung cancer, myeloma, and colon cancer. It may be caused by secretion of parathyroid hormone-related peptide by the tumor (which has the same action as parathyroid hormone), or may be a result of direct invasion of the bone, causing calcium release. Symptoms of hypercalcemia include anorexia, nausea, vomiting, constipation, abdominal pain, lethargy, depression, confusion, polyuria, polydipsia and generalized aches and pains.

Plasma Calcium
The amount of biologically active calcium varies with the level of serum albumin, a protein to which calcium is bound, and therefore levels of ionized calcium are better measures than a total calcium; however, one can correct a total calcium if the albumin level is known.

 * A normal ionized calcium is 1.12-1.45 mmol/L (4.54-5.61 mg/dL).
 * A normal total calcium is 2.2-2.6 mmol/L (9-10.5 mg/dl).
 * Total calcium of less than 8.0 mg/dL is hypocalcaemia, with levels below 1.59 mmol/L (6 mg/dL) generally fatal.
 * Total calcium of more than 10.6 mg/dL is hypercalcaemia, with levels over 3.753 mmol/L (15.12 mg/dL) generally fatal.

title: Disorders of calcium metabolism


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SUNY Brockport

State University of New York Brockport (also known as SUNY Brockport or Brockport State, and previously The College at Brockport) is a public university in Brockport, New York. It is part of the State University of New York (SUNY).

History
SUNY Brockport was originally founded in 1835 as an institution of higher learning as the Brockport Collegiate Institute.

Over thirty years later, the school, through the leadership of principal Malcolm MacVicar, was absorbed into a New York-wide system of state-run normal schools in 1867 and changed its name to the Brockport State Normal School. For the next seven decades, the new institution would be primarily dedicated to training teachers, although other academic programs were maintained.

In 1942, the school gained the right to grant bachelor's degrees and was thus renamed as the Brockport State Teachers College. Six years later, the college joined the newly-established State University of New York system, becoming the State University of New York at Brockport. Only two years later, Brockport State began to grant graduate degrees, with the first master's degrees awarded in 1950.

Later name changes would again take place in 2005, becoming the College at Brockport, State University of New York, and 2020, when it returned to a name similar to the one originally adopted in 1948, the State University of New York Brockport.

Greek life
In 1869, with the assistance of Professor Charles Donald McLean, the principal of the school, Gamma Sigma fraternity was established at The Brockport Normal School. Gamma Sigma was the first fraternity to be formed at the high school level in the United States. On October 11 of that year, eighteen young men gathered in the chemistry room with the aim of enhancing their skills in debate, original composition, and other literary exercises. The founding members were: Edward L. Adams, John D. Burns, Charles Cunningham, William K. Dean, Martin L. Deyo, John Norris Drake, A. James Knox, S. E. Loomis, John M. Milne, A. Judson Osborn, Frederick Palmer, George T. Quinby, George Hebert Raymond, William H. Sybrandt, James W. White, Stephen D. Wilbur, Ara Wilkinson, and George F. Yeoman. Mr. Yeoman was elected as the first President, and James Knox served as the chairman of the constitution committee.

On a side note, in later years Mr. Yeoman took the oath of office as a justice of the Supreme Court for the Seventh Judicial District of the State on November 15, 1893. In the book "Notable Men of Rochester" published in 1902 by Dwight J. Stoddard, there is a mention of Mr. Yeoman's high level of respect and admiration.

Talon Television and Production (previously Brockport Television)
Funded by BSG, Talon Television is the official TV station club at The College at Brockport. This student-run organization is responsible for producing videos and covering a wide range of school programs and events. The club comprises different departments, including News, Sports, Entertainment, and Promotions.

Brockport Student Government (BSG)
The Brockport Student Government (BSG), funded by mandatory student fees, organizes a wide range of programming on campus. BSG encompasses the three traditional branches of government: legislative, judicial, and executive. The annual budget for BSG amounts to approximately $1,400,000. Among the programming events are the Spring Break Challenge, where five individuals have the opportunity to win $5,000 to fund their preferred spring break destination. Additionally, BSG arranges major concerts featuring artists such as Big Sean, Gym Class Heroes, Machine Gun Kelly, and Kesha, as well as lectures featuring notable speakers like Abby Wambach. These events are carefully planned and executed by the Brockport Student Government in collaboration with the Union Programming Team.

Harlequins Performing Arts Club
The Harlequins Performing Arts Club (Harlequins) is a student organization. Each semester, the club organizes a variety of student performances, workshops, and social events.

The Stylus
The Stylus is the student-run weekly newspaper of The College at Brockport. It is financially supported by the BSG Mandatory Fee and reaches a circulation of 5,000 copies.

WBSU 89.1 The Point
89.1 The Point is a student-run radio station located in the Seymour College Union and funded by the Brockport Student Government. The Point broadcasts to a wide audience of up to 500,000 people across the Western New York region, spanning from west Rochester to Buffalo. While the station has several communications majors as members, it also welcomes students from other majors to join. The Point operates various departments, including FM, Sports, News, Production, Circuit, Public Relations, Website, Engineering, and Sales. Additionally, The Point actively participates in community initiatives such as the Hilton Apple Fest in the fall and Coats for Kids in the winter, among other local events.

Athletics
Brockport offers 23 athletic teams that compete at the NCAA Division III level.

Notable faculty

 * Garth Fagan (emeritus), Founder of Garth Fagan Dance
 * Anne Panning, writer, winner of the 2006 Flannery O'Connor Award and 2009 NY Professor of the Year
 * Albert Paley, Professor Emeritus, American sculptor
 * Mary Mortimer, "preceptress," i.e. head, of the "female department," 1841–1844. A pioneer of higher education for women, assisted Catherine Beecher in starting the Milwaukee Female Seminary.

Notable alumni

 * George Boley, Liberian ex-warlord, former leader of the Liberian Peace Council
 * Wayne Cilento (B.S. in Dance, 1972): Tony Award-winning choreographer and director
 * Scott Donaldson (2004): football coach
 * John Faso, (B.A. Political Science and History, 1974) Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives, from New York's 19th district
 * William Fichtner (B.A. Criminal Justice, 1978), actor, known for his roles in Prison Break and The Dark Knight
 * Joseph Griffo, (B.A. Political Science, 1978) New York State Senator, former mayor of Rome, NY, and former county executive of Oneida County, New York
 * Emma Stark Hampton, fifth national president, Woman's Relief Corps
 * Delphine Hanna (teaching credential, 1874), physical education professor, Oberlin College
 * Nancy Hewitt (B.A. in History, 1974): Professor emeritus at Rutgers University and expert on gender history and feminism
 * Joey Jackson (B.A. in Political Science, 1988): Attorney and legal analyst on CNN and HLN
 * James Howard Kunstler (B.S. in Leisure/Recreational Activity, 1971): author, social critic, public speaker, blogger
 * Christine Lavin (B.S. in English, 1973): Singer-songwriter and promoter of contemporary folk music
 * Ryan Nobles (B.S. in Communication, 1998): journalist with CNN
 * Oliver North, later attended the United States Naval Academy, known for Iran-Contra Affair
 * Paul Pape (B.A. in Theatre, Speech & Hearing, 1974): actor and voice actor known for role as Double J in 1977 film Saturday Night Fever
 * Yendi Phillips (BFA in Dance, 2006): Jamaican TV host, model, and beauty queen
 * Gene Spafford (B.A. Mathematics and Computer Science, 1979), professor at Purdue University and leading computer security expert
 * Elizabeth Streb (B.S. in Dance, 1972): choreographer, performer and teacher of contemporary dance
 * Joe Torres (B.S. Communications), news anchor WABC-TV in NYC
 * Dave Trembley (B.A. Physical Education, 1973, M.A.), former manager of the Baltimore Orioles
 * Stan Van Gundy (B.S. in Physical Education, 1981): Head coach of the New Orleans Pelicans of the NBA
 * Al Walker (born 1959), former basketball player and college coach, now a scout for the Detroit Pistons of the NBA
 * Jessamine Chapman Williams (teaching credential, 1901), home economist and college professor

title: SUNY Brockport


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Bray Productions

Bray Productions was a pioneering American animation studio that produced several popular cartoons during the years of World War I and the early interwar era,  becoming a springboard for several key animators of the 20th century, including the Fleischer brothers, Walter Lantz, Paul Terry, Shamus Culhane and Grim Natwick among others.

History
The studio was founded sometime before 1912 by John Randolph Bray. It was perhaps one of the first studios entirely devoted to serial animation at the time instead of one-off experiments. Its first series was Bray's Colonel Heeza Liar, but from the beginning, the studio brought in outsiders to direct promising new series. Carl Anderson, later known for the comic strip Henry, directed The Police Dog from the beginning of the company.

The year 1915 brought Earl Hurd and Paul Terry; the former became J. R. Bray's business partner and directed Bobby Bumps, the latter was employed under duress and directed Farmer Al Falfa. The brothers Max and Dave Fleischer joined in 1916. In 1918, the rival International Film Service studio folded and owner William Randolph Hearst licensed Bray to continue the IFS series, which included Jerry on the Job films adapted from Walter Hoban's comic strip. Many staff members of the former studio transferred to Bray, and most of the new cartoons were directed by the same man who directed them for IFS, Gregory La Cava.

Bray's goal was to have four units working on four cartoons at any one time; since it took a month to complete a film, four units with staggered schedules produced one cartoon a week for use of the "screen magazines" (a one-reel collection of live-action didactic pieces and travelogs in addition to the cartoon, that was played before the feature). Bray started with Pathé as his distributor, switched to Paramount in 1916, and then switched to Goldwyn Pictures in 1919.

Of the units, one produced his Colonel Heeza Liar, one produced Hurd's Bobby Bumps, and one produced non-series cartoons, usually topical commentaries on the news directed by Leighton Budd, J. D. Leventhal, and others. The fourth unit was the one that kept changing hands. It produced Terry's Farmer Al Falfa in 1916, until Terry left a year later, and the Farmer went with him. It then produced Max Fleischer's Out of the Inkwell until 1921, when Fleischer left, taking Koko the Clown with him. The influx of IFS series at the same time broke up the four-unit system — in 1920 there were ten series going simultaneously, with Heeza Liar in hiatus from 1917.

Bray was constantly looking to expand his studio. He financed the semi-independent studio of C. Allen Gilbert to create a series of serious Silhouette Fantasies on classical themes (he actually did some of the animation work for this series). In 1917 he bought out his distributor's screen magazine to produce one of his own, moving him into the realm of live-action shorts producer. During World War I, he assigned Leventhal and Max Fleischer's units to create training and educational cartoons for the U.S. Army. These did so well that after the war, Bray was swamped with orders from the government and big business to make films for them.

Over a period of years, Bray moved the focus of his company from entertainment to education, putting Leventhal and E. Dean Parmelee in charge of the technical department. Dr. Rowland Rogers became educational director, while Jamison "Jam" Handy was put in charge of a Chicago–Detroit branch for creating films for the auto industry, Bray's largest private client. The 1919 move from Paramount to Goldwyn also included a re-incorporation of the studio, now called Bray Pictures Corporation. The studio was putting out more than three reels of screen magazines per week, as well as educational and training films. Bray Pictures also made the first cartoon made in color, The Debut of Thomas Cat, shot in Brewster Color and released on February 8, 1920 (although some claim the first animated short was the British In Gollywog Land, a stop motion/live-action hybrid shot in Kinemacolor and made in 1912 or the animation/live-action hybrid Pinto's Prizma Comedy Revue made by Pinto Colvig in 1919 and shot in the Prizma process) and was apparently involved in an unnamed sound-on-film cartoon by Walt Lantz (co-producer/director) and Hugo Riesenfeld (composer) in 1927 for Movietone, in between the releases of Don Juan and The Jazz Singer and coincidentally shortly before Bray Pictures' demise.

The expenses quickly outweighed the revenue, and in January 1920, Samuel Goldwyn bought a controlling interest in Bray Pictures and ordered a massive reorganization. Max Fleischer and J. D. Leventhal became supervising directors of the entertainment and technical branches of the studio respectively, and the company was streamlined to work more like Goldwyn Picture Corporation, with two cartoons released a week, which meant a much bigger workload than most were willing to take.

The result was a massive exodus of talent, including Max Fleischer and even Earl Hurd, which also led to an increasingly poor output which led Goldwyn to drop Bray Pictures. In the wake of this setback, Vernon Stallings took over as Bray's entertainment production supervisor, being replaced by Walter Lantz by 1924. Stallings directed Krazy Kat and the revival of Heeza Liar, while Lantz directed Dinky Doodle. Among the big names who passed through the studio were Wallace Carlson, Milt Gross, Frank Moser, Burt Gillett, Grim Natwick, Raoul Barré, Pat Sullivan, Jack King, David Hand, Clyde Geronimi and Shamus Culhane.

J.R. Bray paid little attention to the animation side of things during the 1920s, focusing instead on beating Hal Roach as the king of two-reel comedy, with the disastrous series "The McDougall Alley Kids". When this adventure failed, he slipped out of the business. Meanwhile, Walter Lantz practically became a full-fledged producer as head of the cartoon division, with some trade publications referring to the studio as "Lantz-Bray" by the time the entertainment branch of Bray Pictures Corporation closed in 1928. The educational/commercial branch, Brayco, made mostly filmstrips from the 1920s until it closed in 1963. The Jam Handy Organization began life as a subsidiary of Bray Studios to fulfill its business contracts, making several thousand industrial and sponsored films and tens of thousands of filmstrips, mostly for the automobile industry, as an independent entity from 1928 until 1983. Max Fleischer, after being ousted from his own studio in the early 1940s, worked for Handy and later on Brayco in the 1940s and 1950s.

Series produced by Bray Productions

 * Colonel Heeza Liar (1913–1917, 1922–1924): directed by J. R. Bray 1913–1917; Vernon Stallings 1922–1924
 * The Police Dog (1914–1916, 1918): directed by C. T. Anderson
 * The Trick Kids (1916): directed by Alexander Leggett
 * Plastiques (1916): directed by Ashley Miller
 * Bobby Bumps (1916–1922): directed by Earl Hurd
 * Farmer Al Falfa (1916–1917): directed by Paul Terry
 * Silhouette Fantasies (1916): directed by C. Allen Gilbert
 * Miss Nanny Goat (1916–1917): directed by Clarence Rigby
 * Quacky Doodles (1917): directed by F.M. Follett
 * Picto Puzzles (1917): Sam Lloyd
 * Otto Luck (1917): directed by Wallace A. Carlson
 * Goodrich Dirt (1917–1919): directed by Wallace A. Carlson
 * Out of the Inkwell (1918–1921): directed by Max Fleischer and Dave Fleischer
 * Hardrock Dome (1919): directed by Pat Sullivan
 * Us Fellers (1919–1920): directed by Wallace A. Carlson
 * Jerry on the Job (1919–1922): directed by Gregory La Cava, Vernon Stallings, (Inherited from International Film Service)
 * Lampoons (1920): directed by Burt Gillett
 * Ginger Snaps (1920): directed by Milt Gross
 * Shenanigan Kids (1920): directed by Gregory La Cava, Burt Gillett, and Grim Natwick (Inherited from International Film Service)
 * Krazy Kat (1920–1921): directed by Vernon Stallings (Inherited from International Film Service)
 * Happy Hooligan (1920–1921): directed by Gregory La Cava, Bill Nolan (Inherited from International Film Service)
 * Judge Rummy (1920–21): directed by Gregory La Cava, Burt Gillett, Grim Natwick and Jack King (Inherited from International Film Service)
 * Technical Romances (1922–1923): directed by J.A. Norling, Ashley Miller, and F. Lyle Goldman
 * Ink Ravings (1922–1923): directed by Milt Gross
 * Bray Magazine (1922–1923): directed by Milt Gross
 * Dinky Doodle (1924–1926): directed by Walter Lantz
 * Un-Natural History (1925–1927): directed by Walter Lantz and Clyde Geronimi
 * Hot Dog Cartoons (1926–1927): directed by Walter Lantz and Clyde Geronimi
 * A McDougall Alley Comedy (1926–1928): directed by Joe Rock, Stan DeLay and Robert Wilcox

title: Bray Productions


text: Talk:Catchphrase

title: Talk:Catchphrase


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State University of New York at Fredonia

The State University of New York at Fredonia (alternatively SUNY Fredonia, Fredonia State, or Fredonia) is a public university in Fredonia, New York. It is the westernmost member of the State University of New York. Founded in 1826, it is the sixty-sixth-oldest institute of higher education in the United States, seventh-oldest college in New York, and second-oldest public school in New York (SUNY and CUNY) after SUNY Potsdam (1816).

Fredonia was one of the state teachers' colleges traditionally specializing in music education, but now offers programs in other areas, including a graduate division. Areas of study include science, communication, music, education, and the social sciences. There are over 80 majors and over 50 minors.

Fredonia Academy (1826–1867)
Opened in 1826 as Fredonia Academy under its first principal Austin Smith, the academy enrolled eight students. The first classes began on October 4, 1826. Within one year the academy had 136 students, 81 boys and 55 girls. In 1827 it was a state normal school.

The academy reached peak enrollment in 1856 with 217 students. The school was plagued by financial shortages and was forced to close its doors in 1867.

Normal School (1867–1948)
In 1867, the college re-emerged for its second phase of existence, as a New York State Normal School. On December 2, 1867, the Fredonia Normal School (as it became commonly known) began classes with 147 students, 62 boys and 85 girls. For students preparing to be teachers, no tuition was charged, books were supplied, and travel costs were reimbursed; in return, students had to promise to teach after graduation. Those students not studying for the teaching profession paid tuition and provided their own textbooks.

During its 82 years, Fredonia Normal had a tumultuous existence. With a fluctuating student enrollment and threats of state funding reductions, the school seemed to be in constant jeopardy of closing. Nonetheless, gradually the school was upgraded. In 1930, 58 acre of land west of Central Avenue in the Village of Fredonia were bought to house a future campus. In 1938, music building (Mason Hall) was the first to be constructed on the Central Avenue site. New York State Governor Herbert Lehman signed the Feinberg Law in 1942 that changed all state Normal Schools into Teacher Colleges. With this new law, the school officially became the Fredonia State Teachers College.

State University System (1948–present)
With the formation of the State University of New York on March 13, 1948, the school's name changed again, becoming the State University of New York College at Fredonia. The college created a Division of the Humanities in 1958, and, in 1960, Fredonia was selected by State University to grant the A.B. degree. Previously, Fredonia's curriculum was restricted for teacher training only.

From the 1940s through the early 1960s, additional buildings were erected: Fenton Hall (administration), Jewett Hall (sciences), Dods Hall (physical education and athletics), an addition to Mason Hall, and residence halls Gregory, Alumni, McGinnies, Chautauqua, and Nixon.

In 1968, the master plan for the modern Central Avenue campus was drafted by the architectural firm of I. M. Pei & Partners of New York at the request of then-president Oscar E. Lanford. A complex came into being that consisted of the Rockefeller Arts Center (building for fine arts), Maytum Hall (administration), Daniel A. Reed Library, McEwen Hall, Campus Center student union (now Williams Center), Houghton Hall (sciences), and LoGrasso Medical Center (infirmary). Maytum Hall, McEwen Hall (lecture rooms), Reed Library, and the Williams Center were all inter-connected, including an elevated walkway connecting McEwen Hall and the Williams Center. Also included in the plan were the suite-style residence halls Kasling, Disney, Grissom, Eisenhower, and Erie Dining Hall (now closed); In 1970, Pei and Cobb returned to Fredonia to construct the second suite-style residence halls of Hemingway, Schulz, Igoe, and Hendrix.

In the early 1970s a second addition was made to Mason Hall (including practice rooms), science building Houghton Hall, and multi-discipline Thompson Hall. In 1981, construction was finally begun on the long-awaited major indoor sports facility, Steele Hall, which had been delayed for nearly nine years due to state funding difficulties throughout much of the 1970s. More recent campus buildings and additions have been the University Commons residence and dining hall, additions to Steele and Mason Halls, and another long-awaited project—the new science building adjoining Houghton Hall. A stadium for athletics—mainly soccer and lacrosse—which included an upgraded, lighted playing field, was recently built over the existing playing fields.

Between 1981 and 1999, the school was an official training camp site of Buffalo Bills.

In 2023, the college received university designation from the state of New York, thus changing its name to its current State University of New York at Fredonia. Because of the university's multiple graduate level programs, SUNY Fredonia met the requirement for this change, that a state college have at least three.

Presidents

 * Note: Earlier Presidents were Principals of Fredonia Academy and are not included list.

Architectures
Architects I. M. Pei and Henry N. Cobb designed the master plan for the modernized campus in 1968. Many of the buildings are listed in architectural guides as examples of exceptional modern architecture. Some are described in architectural history books. The National Building Museum listed the SUNY Fredonia campus as one of I. M. Pei's ideal places to visit in its 1991 journal Blueprints.

Pei is credited with designing Maytum Hall, Williams Center, Reed Library, Rockefeller Arts Center, and McEwen Hall, as well as its characteristic circular perimeter road, aptly named Ring Road. The design of Daniel Reed Library earned Henry Cobb and I. M. Pei the 1969 Prestressed Concrete Institute Award.

Academic and administrative buildings

 * Reed Library was constructed in 1969. It is approximately the size of a regulation football field, provides seating for over 850 readers, and houses over 250,000 books. It is named for Daniel A. Reed (1875–1959), U.S. Representative from the Fredonia area for over 40 years. A four-story addition to Reed Library, known as the Carnahan-Jackson Center, was constructed in 1992; it includes several study areas, a scholarship center, atrium, elevators, tower study lounge which leads to a fifth story, the Tutoring Center, and the Special Collections & Archives Division of Reed Library.
 * Michael C. Rockefeller Arts Center, constructed in 1968, is named after the youngest son of former Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller, who disappeared in 1961 during an anthropological expedition in New Guinea. Designed by I. M. Pei and Partners, Rockefeller Arts Center includes King Concert Hall (a 1,200-seat concert hall), Marvel Theatre (a 400-seat proscenium theatre), Alice E. Bartlett Theatre (a 200-seat maximum black box theatre), an art gallery, and 24 classrooms. This building houses the Department of Theatre and Dance, and the Department of Visual Arts and New Media. The arts center was opened in 1968 by Clint Norton as its first managing director. He was followed by Robert B. D'Angelo who served from 1970 to 1974 while he also served as a speech writer and adviser to then Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller. Following D'Angelo in the directorship were Ted Dede, Nancy Palmer, Katherine Rushworth and Radford Thomas. Jefferson Westwood has served as director since 1982.
 * Fenton Hall was named for Reuben Fenton (1819–1885), U.S. Senator, and Governor, who was born in Carroll, Chautauqua County. Fenton Hall houses the office of the University President, the Graduate Studies office, as well as classrooms, academic departments and Sprout Café. Computer Science, Modern Languages, English, and Philosophy are some of the departments located in Fenton.
 * Mason Hall is home to the School of Music and was named after American music education pioneer Lowell Mason. This hall is actually three buildings, "Old Mason" (the oldest building on the present-day campus site), "New Mason," and the recent addition of two rehearsal rooms, which are all connected together. Mason Hall includes over 100 personal practice rooms, several small ensemble practice rooms, and large ensemble rooms. Both Juliet J. Rosch Recital Hall and Diers Recital Hall are located here, as well as two MIDI technology labs, and a Studio Recording Department.
 * Maytum Hall is an eight-story, semi-circular office building and computer center, and was named after Arthur Maytum (1866–1953). He served as chairman of the Board of Visitors of the Fredonia Normal School and Teachers college from 1928 to 1953. He also served as supervisor of the Town of Pomfret from 1931 to 1938.
 * Steele Hall is mainly used as a sports center with a basketball court, indoor track, and an ice rink which are used for both campus and community events. It also contains classrooms, a newly constructed natatorium, racquetball courts, dancing practice rooms, and many other facilities.
 * Thompson Hall is the largest academic building at SUNY Fredonia. It houses the departments of Multicultural Affairs, Psychology, Political Science, Speech Pathology, Sociology, Business Administration, History, plus the College of Education. The building, planned during the period of nationwide campus upheavals in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was designed to be riot-proof, with its narrow stairwells, dimly lighted hallways, and no operable windows.
 * Houghton Hall, Jewett Hall, and the Science Center are the three science buildings at SUNY Fredonia. They house the departments of Geology, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, and Biochemistry, and the 3-2 Cooperative Engineering Program. The Science Center features an observatory, a greenhouse, and an herbarium.
 * LoGrasso Hall On campus medical services, along with counseling, and the office of international education.
 * McEwen Hall Four-level building, Contains lecture halls, Sheldon Media Labs, and Fredonia Radio Systems (WCVF-FM).
 * The College Lodge, located in Brocton, NY and operated by the Faculty Student Association at SUNY Fredonia, is a nature reserve and a certified experiential training facility and conference and events center that offers workforce development, employee training, meetings and other services for businesses and organizations.
 * The Center for Innovation & Economic Development (CIED), located in Dunkirk, NY, is a facility that encourages and instructs the development of small businesses and entrepreneurship skills. The CIED was formerly called the Fredonia Technology Incubator.

Residence halls
SUNY Fredonia has 15 residence halls. Students have a choice of building style: corridor, suite, kitchen suite, or independent living. Corridor-style residence halls are long, staggered hallways with no sections, whereas suites are short corridors with either staggered hallways extending from the main corridor or doors leading into the individual suites.

Rankings
U.S. News & World Report's 2022-2023 edition of America's Best Colleges ranked Fredonia 70th on their list of Regional Universities North. Fredonia's graduate program in Speech-Language Pathology is ranked 146th.

Colleges and Schools
The university is organized into 2 colleges and 2 schools:

 * College of Liberal Arts and Sciences
 * College of Education, Health Sciences, and Human Services
 * School of Business
 * School of Music

On campus student media
WCVF-FM is a public FM radio station located in McEwen Hall, broadcasting from the top of Maytum Hall on campus. Licensed to the State University of New York at Fredonia, the station broadcasts on 88.9 MHz on the FM dial. "CVF" stands for "Campus and Community Voice of Fredonia," the station's slogan. The station primarily features "alternative" rock, but includes an eclectic mix of genres at consistent times throughout the week. Listeners can catch blocks of Polka, Spanish, Blues, Jazz, Folk, Reggae, Hip Hop and anything in between. Live programs hosted by student and community jocks can be of any format/genre from talk, music, to radio drama. WCVF also covers local sports and includes live broadcasts/commentary for several Blue Devil teams. WCVF broadcasts National Public Radio (NPR) Monday through Friday: Morning Edition (7–9 am) and All Things Considered (4–6 pm). These broadcasts are achieved through a partnership with NPR member station WQLN-FM in Erie, Pennsylvania. WCVF-FM has a sister station WDVL which broadcasts via internet streaming and a local cable channel.

The Normal Leader was created in May 1892 by the Agonian Society, an all-male literary organization, and later the Zetesian Society, an all-female organization. The first issues were entirely handwritten, and printed issues began with a renumbered Volume 1, Issue 1 in February 1893. The Normal Leader was a monthly newspaper, costing ten cents a copy or fifty cents for a yearly subscription. On September 28, 1936 The Normal Leader became The Leader on its Vol. XXXVI article No. 3 even though the school would not change its name to SUNY Fredonia until 1948. The Leader is produced by a team of Fredonia students, some of whom receive stipends from the Student Association. The Leader is printed by the Corry Journal in Corry, Pennsylvania and is distributed free on campus and in the surrounding community. Today, The Leader features mainly news which is pertinent to the SUNY Fredonia campus and community. This weekly publication comes out every Wednesday during the academic year and can be found around the SUNY Fredonia Campus.

WNYF is the Student television station of the university. WNYF is sponsored by the Student Association, and was founded in 1979 by two communications students. WNYF's programming includes student-produced programs ranging from entertainment, music, educational television and even a student-written soap opera. In the station's first few months of existence, it began televising the annual dance marathon that raised funds for muscular dystrophy. WNYF maintains an archive of every show produced by the students since 1979. The station was relocated several times, and WNYF settled into its current location in Hendrix Hall in 1997. WNYF broadcasts to the campus on cable TV Channel 8, and to the Public-access television on Channels 17 in Fredonia and 19 in Dunkirk.

Athletics
SUNY Fredonia teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association's Division III. The Blue Devils are a member of the State University of New York Athletic Conference (SUNYAC). Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, ice hockey, soccer, swimming & diving and track & field; while women's sports include basketball, cheerleading, cross country, lacrosse, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field and volleyball.

When SUNY Fredonia was first known as the Fredonia Normal School, the athletics teams were known as the "Normalites". On January 27, 1936, The Leader issued an article which publicized a contest to come up with a new name for the teams. There were two names the committee had chosen, Blue Jackets and Blue Devils. The name Blue Devils seemed to be used more than Blue Jackets. In the issue of The Leader on September 30, 1952; the name Blue Devils was used officially for the first time.

Business

 * Benjamin Franklin Goodrich, 1857 – founder of B.F. Goodrich tire company
 * Karl Holz, 1973 – president of Disney Cruise Lines
 * James H. McGraw, 1884 – founder of McGraw-Hill Companies

Entertainment

 * Nick Bernardone, 2008 – writer/producer, five-time Emmy multiple WGA Award winner/nominee and PGA Award winner
 * Rich Ceisler, 1978 – stand-up comedian, actor, writer
 * Jennifer Cody, 1991 – actress
 * Pete Correale, 1992 – stand-up comedian
 * Brian Frons, 1977 – president, daytime, Disney-ABC Television Group
 * Peter Michael Goetz, 1965 – actor
 * Mary McDonnell, 1974 – Academy Award-nominated actress
 * Tom Pokel, 1991 – Head coach, Italy national ice hockey team
 * Andrea Romano, 1977 – casting and voice director; Peabody Award winner, Emmy Award winner
 * Kevin Sylvester, 1995 – co-owner of the Buffalo Sports Page

Music

 * Lance Bernard Bryant, 2002 – vocalist, current member of The Platters
 * Greg Collins, Grammy Award-winning recording engineer/producer
 * Dave Fridmann – Grammy Award-winning recording engineer/producer
 * Marcus Goldhaber, 2000 – (BFA in Musical Theatre) – NYC-based jazz vocalist, bandleader
 * Roberta Guaspari, 1969 – music educator
 * Onaje Allan Gumbs, 1971 – pianist, composer, and bandleader
 * James Houlik, 1964 – American tenor saxophonist
 * Don Menza – saxophonist, arranger, composer, jazz educator
 * Kevin Moore – original keyboardist for Dream Theater
 * Bob McChesney – studio and jazz trombonist
 * Chris Poland, 1981 – Guitar player for heavy metal band Megadeth
 * Stephen Roessner, 2004 – Grammy Award-winning recording engineer/producer
 * Gar Samuelson, 1982 – Drummer for heavy metal band Megadeth

Politics, Government and Law

 * Marcus M. Drake, 1852 – Mayor of Buffalo, 1882
 * Paul Cambria, 1969 – First Amendment lawyer

 * William Conrad III, 2000- member of the New York State Assembly

 * Reuben Fenton – U.S. Senator and Governor of New York State from 1865 to 1868 (Attended part of a term at Fredonia Academy)
 * James Brendan Foley, 1979 – Diplomat, served as the U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Haiti, and as the U.S. Ambassador to the Republic of Croatia
 * Ozra Amander Hadley – Governor of the State of Arkansas from 1871 to 1873
 * Robert Spitzer, 1975 – political scientist
 * Frank Manly Thorn, lawyer, politician, government official, essayist, journalist, humorist, and inventor, sixth Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey (1885–1889)

Literature and Education

 * Lucille Clifton, 1955 – American poet
 * Gaelen Foley, 1991 – author
 * Greta Morine-Dershimer – American education researcher
 * Neil Postman, 1953 – educator and author
 * Wendy Corsi Staub, 1986 – author
 * Jean Webster, 1894 – Novelist. Graduated from Fredonia Normal School

Science

 * Jeffery W. Kelly, 1982 – B.S. Chemistry
 * Michael Marletta, 1973 – chemist and MacArthur Fellow


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Lance Acord

Lance Acord is an American cinematographer and film director. He is best known for his work on the films, Buffalo '66 (1998), Being John Malkovich (1999), Adaptation (2002), and Lost in Translation (2003).

Early life
Acord studied photography and filmmaking at the San Francisco Art Institute.

Cinematographer
Acord began his career with photographer/filmmaker Bruce Weber, which whom he made documentaries, commercials and music videos. His breakthrough came after he shot the music video for Björk's "Big Time Sensuality", directed by Stéphane Sednaoui. Acord continued to work extensively in commercials and music videos through the 1990s. He earned the MTV Video Music Award for Best Cinematography for his work on the Fatboy Slim music video for "Weapon of Choice", which featured Christopher Walken and was directed by Spike Jonze. He also worked with R.E.M. on a regular basis.

Acord made his first foray into narrative feature filmmaking as the cinematographer of Vincent Gallo's Buffalo '66 (1998). He shot Spike Jonze's films Being John Malkovich (1999), Adaptation (2002), and Where the Wild Things Are (2009), Sofia Coppola's Lost in Translation (2003), Marie Antoinette (2006), and her short film Lick the Star (1998), as well as Peter Care's The Dangerous Lives of Altar Boys (2002).

Commercial director
In the late 1990s, Acord began to transition to commercial directing and in 1998, together with his business partner Jackie Kelman Bisbee, he founded the commercial production company Park Pictures. He received 35 Cannes Lions for his work with clients such as Nike, Apple, HP, Volkswagen, P&G, Subaru. He was nominated for Best Commercial Director by the DGA in 2003, 2011, 2012, and 2017. In 2011, his Super Bowl spot for Volkswagen, "The Force", was named the best ad of 2011 by AdWeek, Creativity, and YouTube and consistently ranks on lists of the greatest Super Bowl commercials of all time. His Apple film "Misunderstood" won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Commercial. In 2019, he won his second Emmy award for the Nike commercial "Dream Crazy," starring Colin Kaepernick.

In 2019, directed the short film commercial for Xfinity, A Holiday Reunion, based on the film E.T. the Extra-Terrestrial and starring Henry Thomas, who reprises his role as Elliott.

Director of photography
Short film

Feature film

Documentary film

Music videos

Producer

 * Robot & Frank (2012)
 * God's Pocket (2014)

Executive producer
 * The New Tenants (2009) (Short film)
 * Cop Car (2015)
 * Other People (2016)
 * The Rehearsal (2016)
 * The Hero (2017)
 * An Evening with Beverly Luff Linn (2018)
 * The Sentence (2018)
 * Hearts Beat Loud (2018)
 * Lazy Susan (2019) (Short film)
 * Farewell Amor (2020)
 * The Last Shift (2020)
 * The Truffle Hunters (2020) (Documentary)
 * The Heart Still Hums (2020) (Documentary short)
 * Born to Play (2020) (Documentary)
 * Another Hayride (2021) (Documentary short)
 * Long Weekend (2021)
 * There There (2022)
 * Aisha (2022)
 * Broadway Rising (2022) (Documentary)
 * The Independent (2022)
 * Earth Mama (2023)
 * Late Bloomers (2023)
 * Flipside (2023)

title: Lance Acord


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Raymond Sabouraud

Raymond Jacques Adrien Sabouraud (24 November 1864 – 4 February 1938) was a French physician born in Nantes. He specialized in dermatology and mycology, and was also an accomplished painter and sculptor.

He studied medicine in Nantes and Paris, and worked as a hospital interne at the Hôpital Saint-Louis under Ernest Besnier and at the Hôpital des Enfants-Assistés under Edouard Francis Kirmisson. Afterwards he studied bacteriology with Pierre Paul Émile Roux at the Pasteur Institute. In 1894 he received his doctorate, and he later served as chief of Jean Alfred Fournier's laboratory at the Hôpital Saint-Louis.

In 1904, Sabouraud introduced radiological treatment against ringworm of the scalp. He was well known for his knowledge of scalp diseases, and had a clinic which attracted patients from all over the world.

He invented a method to select fungi with a medium of low pH and a rather high concentration of sugar. This medium, called Sabouraud agar is named after him.

With Ferdinand-Jean Darier (1856–1938) and Henri Gougerot (1881–1955), he was the editor of an eight-volume encyclopedia of dermatology titled Nouvelle Pratique Dermatologique. His Manuel élémentaire de dermatologie topographique régionale (1905), was translated into English and published as Elementary Manual of Regional Topographical Dermatology (1906), and several years later re-published as A Manual of Regional Topographical Dermatology (1912).

Associated eponyms

 * Sabouraud's agar: a growth medium for micro-organisms that is selective for fungi.
 * Gruby–Sabouraud disease: a disease caused by Microsporon audouini. named with microbiologist David Gruby (1810–1898)
 * Sabouraud's method: radiological treatment of ringworm
 * Sabouraud's pastils: disks containing barium platino-cyanide that undergo a color change when exposed to X-rays
 * Sabouraud's syndrome: Monilethrix, a congenital disease with early progressive loss of hair
 * Sabouraud–Noiré instrument: a dosimeter that measures the quantity of X-rays via the barium platino-cyanide method

title: Raymond Sabouraud


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Rugby sevens

Rugby sevens (commonly known as simply sevens and originally known as seven-a-side rugby) is a variant of rugby union in which teams are made up of seven players playing seven-minute halves, instead of the usual 15 players playing 40-minute halves. Rugby sevens is administered by World Rugby, the body responsible for rugby union worldwide. The game is popular at all levels, with amateur and club tournaments generally held in the summer months. Sevens is one of the most well distributed forms of rugby, and is popular in parts of Africa, Asia, Europe, and the Americas, and especially in the South Pacific.

Rugby sevens originated in Melrose, Scotland, in the 1880s; the Melrose Sevens tournament is still played annually. The popularity of rugby sevens increased further with the development of the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1970s and was later followed by the inclusion of the sport into the Commonwealth Games for the first time in 1998 and the establishment of the annual World Rugby Sevens Series in 1999 and the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series in 2012. In 2016, rugby sevens was contested in the Summer Olympics for the first time. It has also been played in events such as the Games of the Small States of Europe, Pan American Games and the Asian Games, and in 2018 a women's tournament was played for the first time at the Commonwealth Games.

Overview
Rugby sevens is sanctioned by World Rugby, and is played under similar laws (with exceptions noted below) and on a field of the same dimensions as the 15 player game. While a regular rugby union match lasts at least 80 minutes, a normal sevens match consists of two halves of seven minutes with a two-minute half-time break. Previously, the final of a competition could be played over two halves of ten minutes each, but beginning in 2017, final-round matches were limited to seven-minute halves (excluding ties) in an effort to reduce injuries. Sevens scores are generally comparable to regular rugby scores, but scoring occurs much more frequently in sevens, since the defenders are more spaced out. The scoring system is the same as regular rugby union, namely five points for a try, three points for a penalty or drop goal and two points for a post-try conversion.

The shorter match length allows rugby sevens tournaments to be completed in a day or a weekend. Many sevens tournaments have a competition for a cup, a plate, a bowl, and a shield, allowing many teams of different standards to avoid leaving empty-handed.

Sevens tournaments are traditionally known for having more of a relaxed atmosphere than fifteen-a-side games, and are often known as "festivals". Sevens tournaments gained their "popularity as an end of season diversion from the dourer and sterner stuff that provides the bulk of a normal season's watching." Fans frequently attend in fancy dress, and entertainment is put on for them.

The Hong Kong Sevens tournament has been especially important in popularising the game in Asia, and rugby sevens has been important as a form of international rugby "evangelism"; hence it is perhaps the most widely played form of the game, with tournaments in places as far apart as Bogota and Bangkok, Kuala Lumpur and Kenya, Singapore and Scandinavia, as well as the countries in which rugby union is well known.

Rules
Sevens is played on a standard rugby union playing field. The field measures up to 100 m long and 70 m wide. On each goal line is an H-shaped goal.

Variations to the laws of the game

There are several variations in laws which apply to rugby sevens, primarily to speed up the game and to account for the reduced number of players. The main changes can be summarised as follows:

 * 7 players per team on field (instead of 15).
 * Five substitutes, with five interchanges (instead of 8).
 * Seven minute halves (instead of 40-minute halves, in fifteen-a-side).
 * Maximum of two minutes half-time (instead of ten minutes).
 * Matches drawn after regulation are continued into golden point extra time, in multiple 5-minute periods.
 * All conversion attempts must be drop-kicked (instead of having the option to place-kick).
 * Conversions must be taken within 30 seconds of scoring a try (instead of 90 seconds). Prior to 2016, the limit had been 40 seconds.
 * Three player scrums (instead of eight players).
 * Kick-offs: in sevens, the team which has just scored kicks off, rather than the conceding team, as in fifteen-a-side.
 * Yellow cards net a 2-minute suspension (instead of 10 minutes) to the offender.
 * Referees decide on advantage quickly (where one play usually ends advantage, unlike in fifteens).
 * In major competitions, there are additional officials present (in-goal touch judges) to judge success of kicks at goals, which means the game is not delayed waiting for touch judges to move into position to judge conversion attempts.

Positions and gameplay
Teams are composed of seven players – three forwards and four backs. Scrums are made up of three players from each team. The chart below shows a team's typical formation at scrum time, with three forwards bound into the scrum, a scrum-half waiting to retrieve the ball once it exits the scrum, and three backs positioned to receive a pass. The numbers shown here are for illustrative purposes only. Unlike rugby fifteens, where a player's number corresponds to his position, numbering in rugby sevens is more flexible. In a squad of twelve players, the players will be numbered one through twelve. The starting players can have any of the twelve numbers, not necessarily one through seven. No set numbers differentiate positions; for example, numbers one through three are not reserved for forwards, but can be worn by any squad player.

In open play, a typical defensive formation involves a line of six defenders, with one sweeper behind the line. With the attacking team using all seven players against the defending team's six in the line, the attacking team often attempts to move the ball to create an overload. The defensive line can be put under pressure if the defending team makes a tackle and commits players to the ruck; with fewer players in the defending line, it leaves more space for the attacking team to exploit.

Pace of the game
Rugby sevens tends to be played at a faster pace than rugby fifteens. Because of the faster nature of the game, sevens players are often backs or loose forwards in fifteens rugby. The differences are most notable on game restarts. Because scrums in sevens involve three players forming one row instead of eight players forming three rows, scrums tend to assemble more quickly, require fewer restarts, and the ball exits the scrum more quickly. Penalties in sevens are generally taken with a quick tap, instead of a kick for touch and a line out, resulting in the ball being put back in play more quickly. When a player is tackled and a ruck is formed, the ball tends to exit the ruck more quickly, as the attacking team generally has only three players involved in the ruck – the tackled player, one support player, and one scrum-half.

Origins
At Loretto School in Musselburgh, Scotland, the then headmaster Hely Hutchinson Almond got the schoolboys to play short-sided matches in the 1860s and 1870s. This was to improve the players' passing. A full rugby union match, at the time, was twenty-a-side and individualism was the style. Almond stated that he: urged on his boys in the sixties that if only they would pass constantly and systematically to each other, they would baffle any side unaccustomed to such tactics. Almond, a pioneer in collectivism in rugby union, struggled to get his schoolboys to get used to the system. The schoolboys stated this was 'funking'; but by 1872 he was organising eleven-a-side matches with Edinburgh Academicals. In 2007, Almond was nominated for the IRB Hall of Fame but was not inducted.

Collectivism did eventually take hold with new clubs, and Scotland exported it through Sevens around the world, and sides like New Zealand and South Africa quickly realised the benefits of collectivism. The bigger clubs in Scotland were reluctant to change their ways. They were winning, and could attract the best individualists from other clubs to maintain their position. In 1895 the Scottish Referee newspaper was still criticising West of Scotland for not using the collective method.

In England, the push for smaller sides eventually resulted in the formation of rugby league; and there was experimentation with numbers in the north of England prior to the split. There was a six-a-side tournament in Huddersfield in September 1879, played under regular rules but with 10 minute halves. Other tournaments were played over the next few years across the North before being replaced by a nine-a-side game. Matches attracted large crowds and raised thousands to support the clubs or local hospital charities. In August 1890, Yorkshire suspended 8 teams and in September Lancashire banned games with less than 15-a-side over allegations of professionalism; short sided games effectively ended in England.

Scotland
Rugby sevens was initially conceived in 1883 by Ned Haig and David Sanderson, who were butchers from Melrose, Scotland as a fund-raising event for their local club, Melrose RFC. The first-ever sevens match was played at The Greenyards, the Melrose ground, where it was well received. Two years later, Tynedale was the first non-Scottish club to win one of the Borders Sevens titles at Gala in 1885.

Rugby union sevens' popularity in the Borders spread north throughout Scotland:- Aberdeen hosting Sevens in 1889; Edinburgh hosting Sevens in 1896; Glasgow hosting Sevens in 1898; Dundee hosting Sevens in 1901. The popularity of Sevens exploded in the 1920s and 1930s. From the 19th century to today, over 150 Sevens tournaments in Scotland are known; and though some tournaments have folded; new tournaments continue to be born.

Sevens remain popular in Scotland; and the Melrose Sevens annually attracts around 12,000 spectators to the small Borders town. The Melrose Sevens centenary tournament in 1983 attracted 17,500 fans.

England
A rugby sevens tournament was played by St. Helens Cricket Club on 29 May 1886; and the final took place a week later. A rugby sevens tournament was organised by Warrington F.C. (a rugby club) on their athletics day on 14 August 1886 but it was not repeated. A rugby sevens match was played in Chorley, Lancashire as part of the Chorley Rugby and Athletic club's sports day on 22 July 1888; another match looks to have taken place the following year on 24 August 1889. The Rainford Athletics Club hosted a Sports Day on 7 August 1888 with a 3 team rugby sevens tournament, but this was a one-off and not repeated. Sevens then ended in England and it would be a long wait for any future English Sevens tournaments to arrive, with the exception of a Whitsuntide event, which included sevens, at Hexham in 1894 which seemed to go ahead without official backing. The Hexham Whitsuntide Sports committee tried to invite Hawick RFC as their star guests, but without backing this did not come off.

For a long time the English Rugby Union held against rugby sevens being played in England. English clubs, particularly those close to the Scottish border and aware of the game's success in Scotland, wanted to play their own tournaments. Their pleas went in vain.

England finally hosted its first Sevens tournament in 1921 as the Scottish game crept south over the border. This was on 23 April 1921 by Carlisle rugby club; they beat a Hawick 'B' side in the final. Next was on 3 September 1921 in north east England at the Percy Park Sevens in North Shields. It was close to the Scottish Borders and Scottish sides were invited to play in the tournament with local English sides. The final was contested between Selkirk and Melrose; with Selkirk winning the event.

First played in 1926, the Middlesex Sevens were set-up by Dr J.A. Russell-Cargill, a London-based Scot. The tournament was intended as a fundraiser for King Edward VII Hospital. It raised £1,600; at a time when standard admission was a shilling, and stand seats cost five shillings. This became England's premier Sevens tournament:- it had some formidable figures on its sub-committee such as Wavell Wakefield and Bill Ramsay; it was close to London – and 10,000 spectators attended the second Middlesex tournament; and it helped rugby in London develop – featuring the aforementioned Wavell Wakefield, Carl Aarvold (later Recorder of the City of London) of Blackheath FC, Wick Powell of London Welsh RFC, and John Tallent, who would later become chairman of the Four Home Unions Tours Committee. Invitation sides graced the Sevens tournament:- such as Sale RFC in 1936, which included such players as Wilf Wooller and Claude Davey of and Ken Fyfe of  amongst their backs; and in 1939, Cardiff RFC, which included players such as Wilf Wooller again, and Les Spence and Wendy Davis.

India
The Earl of Dalhousie became Governor-General of India in the middle of the nineteenth century. He took his summers in the Indian western Himalayas. His base there, also called Dalhousie, and the neighbouring Khajjiar region, remains known as a 'Little Scotland of India'. Teams from Dalhousie and Chamba played various sports against one another at the Khajjiar Gymkhana. The Chamba side was a mixed civilian and native side; the Dalhousie side was a military side. On 29 June 1886 at 1am they played a rugby sevens match, as the Dalhousie players favoured rugby union; and the Chamba players, that had already beaten Dalhousie in cricket and association football, confidently obliged. The Dalhousie side unsurprisingly won the match; with the newspaper report seeming to blame Chamba's native players for the loss, a sad reflection of the times.

New Zealand
Sevens then spread from Scotland to Dunedin; a Scottish expatriate city in New Zealand. The first Dunedin Sevens tournament was the Charity tournament in aid of Dunedin hospital on 28 September 1889. From Dunedin, sevens spread north to Christchurch where Canterbury Rugby Union held a Sevens tournament on 16 September 1893. On 23 May 1894, sevens had almost reached the North Island with a tournament in Nelson.

Australia
The first notice of a Sevens tournament in Australia is that of Central Queensland Rugby Union's tournament in Rockhampton on 4 July 1891. The Wanderers won the tournament beating the Waratahs and the Berserkers.

Ireland
In Ireland, Douglas RFC of Cork attempted to host a Sevens tournament on 8 December 1900. However, due to inclement weather this did not come off. The first Sevens tournament in Ireland was then the Belfast tournament of 30 April 1921 in aid of the Warriors Day fund. This was run by the northern branch of the IRFU.

Argentina
The next country to host a Sevens tournament was Argentina; arriving again via Scottish expatriates. The Buenos Aires Cricket & Rugby Club hosted their own Sevens event on 9 July 1921. The Buenos Aires club defeated Belgrano Athletic Club in the final. The Buenos Aires club went on to host Sevens tournaments on 9 July every year; however a pitch-invasion tradition at the final meant that no further winners were recorded until 1937. The 9 July is Argentina's Independence Day holiday; and a feast is often prepared in celebration. It is said that the pitch invasion tradition started when a bell, announcing that food was ready, rang out during the final.

First international tournament
The first-ever officially sanctioned tournament for national teams was the 1973 International Seven-A-Side Tournament held at Murrayfield as part of the "Scottish Rugby Union's Celebration of Rugby" centenary celebrations.

Hong Kong Sevens
Due to the success of the format, the Scottish connection continued in the establishment of the Hong Kong Sevens in the 1970s. Founded largely by expats such as "Tokkie" Smith, the Hong Kong Sevens were ahead of their time and an influential force in the modernisation of rugby union. For example, the Hong Kong Sevens was one of the first rugby union tournaments to attract major sponsorship when the airline Cathay Pacific sponsored the inaugural tournament in 1976. They also provided a level of cosmopolitan international competition, which tended not to exist in rugby before the first Rugby World Cup in 1987, especially since was not seen as one of the "Big Eight". By 1986, the Hong Kong Sevens were held up as a positive example to others, although many of the smaller nations' teams were largely made up of expatriates.

World Cup
The Rugby World Cup Sevens, in which the Melrose Cup is contested, was launched in 1993.

International development
Rugby sevens continues to be popular in the Scottish Borders, where the ten most prestigious tournaments make up a league competition known as the Kings of the Sevens. In honour of the role of Melrose RFC in the creation of rugby sevens, the club was inducted, along with Haig, to the IRB Hall of Fame in 2008. Top club sides and international sides frequently enter the Sevens tournaments in Scotland; the Melrose Sevens, as the founding event of the sport, being the most prestigious.

Sevens has also taken strong root in the Pacific island nations of Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa, as well as in Kenya. In many minor rugby nations, such as in Poland, development has tended to concentrate on rugby sevens as a means of introducing the sport to people. Rugby sevens has become popular in places such as Hong Kong, Singapore and Dubai, which are not so successful in the fifteen-a-side code. In addition, seven of the 15 current "core teams" that compete in all legs of the World Series represent nations that are not within the recognised top tier of the 15-man game – Fiji, Samoa, Kenya, the United States, Canada, Portugal, and Japan. Recently there has been the introduction of many new teams to the sevens circuit such as Russia and Germany.

Rugby league sevens
Rugby league also has a long heritage in the seven-a-side game. The world record rugby league crowd for sevens was 80,000 in Roundhay Park, Leeds, 1932, before a royal audience. In the modern era, however, small-sided rugby league has concentrated on the Nines format, which boasts similar adaptations to the league code as sevens does with the union code.

World Rugby Sevens Series
The World Series was a series held every season since the 1999–2000 inaugural season. Each season the Sevens Series held from seven to eleven tournaments, from around October and concluding around June. Most tournaments see 16 teams competing – mostly "core teams" that participate in each event, but also some teams that win the right to participate in select events. The last tournament was held in the 2022-2023 season.

New Zealand has been the dominant force in the Sevens Series, winning 13 out of the 23 seasons, including the first six seasons from 1999–2000 to 2004–05. In recent years, however, several other teams have challenged New Zealand's dominance. Fiji won the Series in 2005–06 and again in 2014–15 and 2015–16; South Africa won in 2008–09 and 2016–17; and Samoa claimed the 2009–10 crown. Other strong contenders include England and Australia, each of whom have had several top four finishes in recent seasons. The 2015 London Sevens, saw the United States win their first-ever tournament in the World Series.

Notable World Series players include England's Dan Norton, who has scored more tries (>230) than any other player; and England's Ben Gollings, who has scored more points (2,652) than any other player.

World Rugby Women's Sevens Series
The Rugby Women's Sevens Series was held every season since the 2012-13 inaugural season. Each season the Sevens Series held from five to six tournaments, usually starting around November and concluding around June. Most tournaments see 12 teams competing – mostly "core teams" that participate in each event, but also some teams that win the right to participate in select events. The last series was held in the 2022-2023 season

New Zealand have been the most dominant team in the series since its establishment by winning four of the six competitions held up to and including 2018.

SVNS
In 2023 World Rugby re-branded the Sevens series to a new World Rugby SVNS Series (known for sponsorship reasons as the HSBC SVNS). World Rugby announced it will fully combine the men’s and women’s tours aligning with the Olympic competition model, with both taking place on the same weekends in the same cities and venues starting in December 2023 in Dubai and will conclude in Madrid in June 2024. The idea is to bring about a festival type atmosphere in each city across the world. Both men and women's teams will earn the same with equal participation fees. The new format will showcase the twelve best men's and women's teams, which will conclude in a Grand Final weekend where the top eight teams will compete to be crowned Series champions. The teams ranked ninth to twelfth will compete against the top four teams from a new Challenger Series in a relegation play-off to see who secures their place in the 2024–2025 season.

Summer Olympics
The International Olympic Committee voted in 2009 to include rugby sevens on the program for the 2016 Olympic Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. There were two open spots for sports and initially seven sports began the bidding for inclusion in the 2016 program. The event debuted in an Olympic program at the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics.

Two issues related to differences between the structures of rugby union and the Olympics were sorted out before the 2016 Olympic Games. The issue of a combined British team has proven less of a problem in rugby union. World Rugby chief executive Mike Miller endorsed the concept of a combined British sevens team in 2011 for the 2016 Olympics and beyond. Another issue is the status of Northern Ireland. World Rugby recognises the Irish Rugby Football Union as the sport's governing body for the entire island of Ireland. By contrast, the International Olympic Committee recognises the British Olympic Association as the governing body of the UK Olympic team, while the Olympic Council of Ireland usually fields teams representing all of Ireland in sports which are organised on an all-Ireland basis. Northern Irish sevens players play for the Irish team.

In the men's competition Fiji won the gold medal in the sport's Olympic debut, with Great Britain taking the silver and South Africa the bronze. The women's gold medal was won by Australia, with New Zealand taking silver and Canada bronze.

World Cup Sevens
The Rugby World Cup Sevens is held every four years and is the premier international rugby sevens tournament outside of the Olympic Games. The first tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993 with England becoming the first team to win the event. Fiji and New Zealand are the most successful, with Fiji winning two World Cups and New Zealand winning three World Cups. In the men's competition teams compete for the Melrose Cup and in the women's competition, launched in 2009, teams compete for the Women's Rugby World Cup Sevens Trophy.

Beginning with the 2018 edition, which was held in San Francisco, United States, the World Cup Sevens is held in the middle of the Summer Olympic cycle, two years after each Olympics. As part of the drive to include Sevens as an Olympic sport, World Rugby proposed ending the World Cup event entirely to ensure the Olympic event had the greatest prestige. However, following feedback, World Rugby and the IOC recognised the benefit to keeping the typically much larger World Cup event (24 teams), but to align it timewise with the more streamlined Olympic tournament (12 to 16 teams).

Commonwealth Games
Rugby sevens has been played at each of the Commonwealth Games every four years since its first appearance at the 1998 Commonwealth Games in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and was the first major international multisports event to include the sport. Rugby sevens is a "Core" sport by the Commonwealth Games Federation, necessitating its appearance at all future games. The New Zealand team has won the gold medal four times with South Africa winning the tournament at Glasgow 2014 beating the defending champions in the final. Through the 2014 Games in Glasgow, it was the last remaining male-only sport at the Commonwealth Games, after women's boxing was added for those Games. Women's sevens made its Commonwealth Games debut in the 2018 Games. The New Zealand teams won the gold medal in both the men's and women's competitions.

Regional tournaments
Rugby sevens is played at various regional multi-sport competitions, including the Asian Games and the Pacific Games. Rugby union was formerly played at the World Games, but this has ceased as rugby is now an Olympic sport.

Asian Games
A men's rugby sevens was introduced at the Asian Games in 1998. A women's tournament was added in 2010.

Pan American Games
Men's rugby sevens at the Pan American Games has been held every four years since the 2011 Pan American Games, with Canada, Argentina, and the United States placing for medals each time. Women's rugby sevens was later added to the program for the 2015 Pan American Games.

European Sevens Championship
The Rugby Europe Sevens Grand Prix Series serves as a regional qualifier for two types of tournaments. The top two finishing teams each year who are not core members of the World Rugby Sevens Series advance to the Hong Kong Sevens, the qualifying tournament for teams vying to achieve core team status in the World Rugby Sevens Series. The Europe Grand Prix also serves as a regional qualifier for major quadrennial tournaments, such as the summer Olympics and the Rugby World Cup Sevens.

In Europe, Portugal dominated in sevens during the Championship era (2002–10); only twice the team did not win the trophy, in 2007 and 2009, when both times the championships were won by Russia. In the Grand Prix Series era from 2011 to the present, the champions became England and France; both teams won the trophy twice in a row. Portugal won the first edition, while Russia is the current champion.

Premier Rugby Sevens
Premier Rugby Sevens is a standalone, professional rugby sevens circuit based in North America and sanctioned by USA Rugby as the highest level of domestic sevens. The league began play in 2021 and has been scheduled opposite to the World Rugby Sevens Series in order to feature top American and other international caliber players.

Women's rugby sevens
Women's rugby sevens has been dominated by New Zealand, with either the New Zealand team (1999–2001) or Aotearoa Maori Women's Rugby sevens team (playing as New Zealand), winning the annual Hong Kong Sevens tournament from 1997 until 2007. The United States won the Hong Kong Sevens in 2008 by defeating Canada in the final (New Zealand failed to send a team).

The inaugural Women's Rugby World Cup Sevens tournament took place in Dubai together with the men's tournament during the first weekend of March 2009. England defeated Canada 12–0 in the Bowl final while Australia edged New Zealand 15–10 in extra-time to become the first to win the Women's Rugby World Cup.

WR, then known as the International Rugby Board (IRB), organised its first official women's sevens tournament outside of the World Cup as part of the 2011 Dubai Sevens. This was part of a plan to launch a full IRB International Women's Sevens Series for 2012–13. The international series was officially christened as the IRB Women's Sevens World Series in an IRB announcement on 4 October 2012. The series, as planned, launched for the 2012–13 season and initially featured events in Dubai, the US, China and the Netherlands. Two additional events were planned for the 2013–14 series, but in the end only one of these events, in Brazil, took place. For the 2014–15 series, China dropped from the schedule, while Canada and England hosted new events. The series was rechristened for 2014–15 as the World Rugby Women's Sevens Series, following the November 2014 renaming of the IRB as World Rugby. The 2015–16 series included only five events; the England and Netherlands events were dropped and an event in France was added. The 2016–17 series returned to six events with the launch of an event in Japan.

Women's rugby sevens was included in the 2016 Olympic Games due to the IRB's successful bid to reintroduce rugby to the Summer games. Australia claimed the gold medal for the event, beating New Zealand in the final with a score of 24–17. Canada claimed the bronze medal after beating Great Britain 33–10 in the third place play-off. WR also successfully pushed for the inclusion of women's sevens in the 2018 Commonwealth Games.

Many of the Scottish Sevens club tournaments run women's events as part of their Sevens.

Sevens vs Fifteens
As sevens has proven a commercial and competitive success, sevens is starting to become divorced from the 15-man game. Former Wales rugby union player and current pundit John Taylor wrote in 2010, stating: [Sevens] is in danger of becoming a totally separate game. Ben Ryan, who coached both the England Sevens and the Fiji Sevens, dismisses the idea that it should be seen mainly as a development tool. A few years ago players would spend a year or two with the Sevens squad to improve their running and passing skills. Many international players refined their game on the Sevens circuit including all-time greats such as Jonah Lomu.

That is happening less and less. Players have to make a choice: Do they want to concentrate on Sevens or 15s? The techniques and training required are becoming very different. Modern professional players are already pretty lean but the forwards in 15-a-side do need bulk as well. In Sevens that is not required and new training regimes are making body fat levels even lower so they are not able to transfer from one game to the other.

Tournament sites
World Rugby Sevens Series
 * Singapore Sevens
 * Hong Kong Sevens
 * NZ Sevens
 * Dubai Sevens
 * USA Sevens
 * Edinburgh Sevens

Other Sevens tournaments
 * Punta del Este Sevens
 * Istanbul Rugby Sevens
 * Rhino Mendip Sevens
 * Braidholm 7s, Glasgow, Scotland
 * Noosa, Queensland, Australia

title: Rugby sevens


text:
Yampa River

The Yampa River flows 250 mi through northwestern Colorado, United States. Rising in the Rocky Mountains, it is a tributary of the Green River and a major part of the Colorado River system. The Yampa is one of the few free-flowing rivers in the western United States, with only a few small dams and diversions.

The name is derived from the Snake Indians word for the Perideridia plant, which has an edible root. John C. Frémont was among the first to record the name 'Yampah' in entries of his journal from 1843, as he found the plant was particularly abundant in the watershed.

Course
The headwaters of the Yampa are in the Park Range in Routt County, Colorado as the confluence of the Bear River and Phillips Creek, near the town of Yampa. The Bear River, larger of the two, flows from a source of 11600 ft at Derby Peak in the Flat Tops Wilderness. The Yampa River then flows north through a high mountain valley, through Stagecoach Reservoir and Lake Catamount, before reaching Steamboat Springs, where it turns sharply west. Below Steamboat Springs, the Yampa flows through a wider valley in the western foothills of the Rockies. It receives the Elk River from the north, then passes the towns of Milner and Hayden.

After entering Moffat County the Yampa passes Craig and is joined by the Williams Fork. West of Craig, the Yampa crosses arid, sparsely populated sagebrush country for about 50 mi before reaching Cross Mountain Canyon, where the river slices a 1000 ft deep gap through the namesake mountain. Below Cross Mountain the Yampa enters the open valley of Lily Park, where it is joined by its largest tributary, the Little Snake River. Further west it enters Dinosaur National Monument, where it traverses more than 40 mi of rugged canyons and rapids. The Yampa joins the Green in Echo Park at Steamboat Rock deep within the national monument, about 5 mi from the Colorado–Utah border.

Watershed
The Yampa drains 7660 mi2 of mostly semi-arid plateau country in northwestern Colorado and a small portion of southern Wyoming. The bulk of the watershed is located between the Park Range, to the east; the Flat Tops, to the south; and the Uinta Mountains, to the west. The Great Divide Basin, an area of closed drainage, borders the Yampa River basin to the north. The Continental Divide runs along the north and east sides of the Yampa basin, separating it from the headwaters of the North Platte River, which flows into the Mississippi River system. On the south, the Yampa River basin is bordered by that of the White River, which like the Yampa flows in a westerly direction to join the Green.

Volume

The Yampa River is a typical Western snow-fed stream, but unlike most other rivers in the western United States its seasonal discharge patterns are not affected by large dams and water projects. The river forms a noticeably wide, shallow braided stream throughout much of its course. The lower three fourths of the Yampa, from the Elk River down, are navigable by small craft. However the meandering, shallow nature of the river can render the river unnavigable during late summer in low water years.

The average flow at the confluence of the Green is 2154 cuft/s, averaging 5400 cuft/s during the spring runoff of April–July, and falling below 500 cuft/s during late summer and autumn. The upper section of the river freezes over between December and March.

According to a U.S. Geological Survey stream gage at Deerlodge Park, about 50 mi above the mouth, the average river flow was 2082 cuft/s between 1983 and 2013. The highest annual mean was 4431 cuft/s in 2011, and the lowest 678 cuft/s in 2002. Monthly recorded average flows were highest in May at 8200 cuft/s and lowest in September at 342 cuft/s. The highest recorded peak flow was 33200 cuft/s during the record snowmelt of May 18, 1984.

Ecology
Because the Yampa River maintains a relatively natural flow pattern, it supports a productive riparian zone environment along much of its course. In addition, much of the river is unconstrained by levees allowing it to maintain its natural floodplain. This is also true of its main tributary, the Little Snake River. The Yampa River Preserve 17 mi west of Steamboat Springs protects a rare riparian forest type consisting of narrowleaf cottonwood, box elder and red-osier dogwood that was once more common in the Upper Colorado River Basin. The Yampa's warm, silty waters are an ideal spawning ground for native fish such as the Colorado pikeminnow and humpback chub which have largely disappeared from dammed waterways in other parts of the Colorado River system.

Native Americans
Archaeological studies conducted in the Dinosaur National Monument have revealed evidence of human habitation up to 7000 BC. The Fremont culture or Desert Archaic people inhabited the Yampa River basin starting about 800 AD, but disappeared for reasons uncertain during the 1400s. The Fremont created petroglyphs along the Yampa River Canyon, of which more than 300 are still visible today. After the collapse of the Fremont culture, a branch of the Utes moved into the Yampa River basin. The White River Utes inhabited the valleys of the Yampa and White Rivers and the Rockies of northwestern Colorado. The band living in the Yampa River valley was known as the Yamparika or Yapudttka Utes. At times the river also served as a boundary between the Utes and Shoshone peoples to the north; there was also a band of Shoshone called the Yamparika.

The name Yamparika is a Snake Indians word meaning "yampa eaters", "yampa" referring to the edible roots of the Perideridia plant. "Yampa" itself probably meant "water-plant" or "common plant". In 1843 explorer John C. Frémont was among the first to record the name "Yampah", finding this plant to be of particular abundance in the watershed. Some fur traders in the 1800s thought Yampa was the Ute word for "bear", and the Yampa was often called the Bear River on early maps.

Dam and diversion proposals
During the 1960s, the Yampa and Green River canyons were slated to be flooded under a reservoir created by Echo Park Dam, a U.S. Bureau of Reclamation water project. Due to environmentalists' opposition, this dam was never built, and the free-flowing character of the Yampa was retained. However, as part of the compromise to preserve Echo Park, the controversial Glen Canyon and Flaming Gorge dam projects were allowed to move forward, damming the Colorado and Green Rivers, respectively. Today the Yampa remains the only major tributary in the Colorado River system without a single large dam along its course (the moderately sized Stagecoach Dam, built 1989 and several others on the headwaters have only a limited impact on its flow).

In December, 2006, a report proposed to pump water from the Yampa River 200 miles east, under the Continental Divide, to the state's major cities along the Front Range. The diversion was proposed to start near Maybell, 20 mi downstream of Craig, Colorado. The proposal faces widespread opposition because it could lower river flows in late summer due to the diversion.

title: Yampa River


text:
Talk:Battle of Pea Ridge

Where's the battle?
We've got the prelude section and the aftermath but we seem to have lost the section on the actual battle. (Seems to have been removed during the Nov 10, 2004 edit by 66.210.134.5). RJFJR 17:29, Mar 7, 2005 (UTC)

 * Removed by anon during a vandalism spree. All the other vandalisms where fixed, but this one was unnoticed for 4 months.  Oy.  Thanks for finding the missing section.  I put it back.  Please review.  --A D Monroe III 03:13, 8 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Graphics problems?
I'm getting some odd graphical corruption on the PNG files in this article? They appear as alternating lines of dark and light sections. Almost like looking at a picture of Saturn's rings, if that helps you visualize it.

Anyone else experiencing this? --Andy J. Ivey 18:07, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Addendum - When I click on the PNG file, the larger thumbnail appears distorted, but the full resolution picture is correct. --Andy J. Ivey 18:12, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I see the same problem with this article. I have had some other problems with the thumbnail-producing code in other articles, generally affecting large images over a megabyte. For my JPEG images, I have received error messages regarding memory errors in the conversion. I got around this by storing smaller, lower resolution files in the 500K range and below. Hal Jespersen 18:45, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

I too have problems with some of the illustrations rasmusdf 19:49, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

the two situation maps concerning Hoffman's battery (Union)
These two maps don't represent the battle as a whole, only a small portion involving that battery. Looking at the maps I believe the first one shows part of the engagement on the left flank the first day, certainly McCulloch's division and Pike's Indians. The second one seems to show part of the battle field on the right wing the second day. All in all both maps only show a very small portion of the battlefield and are likely to be confusing. Either their caption has to be improved, or they should be removed from the article entirely.--Caranorn 21:09, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I just removed the two images. This will probably just be temporary as I'd like to hear other opinions on the issue. These are situational sketches accompagnying Hoffman's report (can be found | here (two pages, 237 and 238)). They do not represent the entire battlefield on either day. The first day sketch must be relatively early on march 7, just showing the field in which I believe McCulloch and McIntosh fell (this definitelly is the Union left wing, or the so called battle of Leetown). The second shows the new Union left on the second day, again the battle itself extended far beyond that area. Possibly the images could be reinserted, but with a different caption, clarifying how it's just an instant and only represents the Union view (the sketch was drawn less then a week after the battle) of part of the battle.--Caranorn 13:06, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

Confederate Forces
I think the bit about Confederate Forces should be rewritten. It currently contains a number of errors. Price also had a number of newly formed Missouri regular units in his command (Little and Slack's brigades no longer belonged to the MSG), as it stands these are not included in the article. MCulloch in turn had Texas and Arkansas cavalry (4 Texan and 2 Arkansas Regiments, but also at least three battalions) but also Arkansas and Louisiana Infantry. I wonder whether it wouldn't be easiest to use the same format as for the Union forces and say there were troops from Missouri, Texas, Arkansas, Louisiana and the Cherokee Nation (some Chocktaw and Chickasaw of Cooper's brigade were also present near the battlefield, but I believe they took no part). Note currently the artillery (Missouri, Texas and Arkansas) is not at all named.--Caranorn 21:27, 5 May 2007 (UTC)

dispute of information
hey, there is a couple times that the the number of soldiers on each side are stated and yet each time it is different. once its the confederats have 14,000 troops the next its they had 16,000 troops. which is it? Crazydjman 02:11, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I believe it greatly varies according to sources. The National Park service gives 16,000 Confederates and 10,500 Union.--Caranorn 11:38, 6 May 2007 (UTC)

Leetown, Pike and Greer
Just for explanation.

It is often assumed that Pike was next in command for McCulloch's division. In reality he and his brigade were not part of that command. Pike was the commander in the Indian Territories (I'd have to look up his official title). He arrived late for Pea Ridge (he had his reasons, notably that by treaty his units were not supposed to leave the territories, he only managed to move them after offering to pay them..., causing this delay and also why half of his command never arrived on the battlefield (they were at Camp Stephens)). Anyhow, Pike's brigade was only attached to McCulloch's division.

The next ranking officer of the division was Elkanah Greer of the 3rd Texas Cavalry. He and his command were on Little Mountain at the time of McCulloch and McIntosh's death (note I'd have to reread Shea about McIntosh, I was under the impression he was never informed of McCulloch's death as his body was only discovered after the two regiments penetrated through the Timber Belt) and Hébert's capture. Greer was among those commanders not informed of McCulloch's fate (so were Van Dorn and Price). It was only when the fighting died down that Greer decided to find out what was happening, so he went off in search of McCulloch, even then he was not immediately informed of the other commanders' demise. When this happened he did assume command and tried to reorganise the remaining forces around the Farm (you'd think I'd remember the name after I just corrected the article)... Greer was after that commander of the division until a further reorganisation of the army took place some time later. Next in command would have been Churchill (he commanded a force on the second day) and McNair who later commanded Hébert's brigade.

There were some other things too, but as should be apparent by now, my memory is failing at the oddest moments. The sources I based these changes on are Shea and the OR, though without research I cannot give exact quotes, page numbers or the like.

Oh, I almost forgot, the material about the supposed killing of prisoners by Pike's men has to be sourced, I'm pretty certain it's not in Shea's, at least not in the way it's reported in the article right now.--Caranorn (talk) 10:04, 29 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Caranorn, I don't have an issue with your revisions, which I believe to be accurate. However, I did add a quote and citation from Shea that claimed the Cherokees murdered several wounded Iowans. I know this is a touchy issue, but I'm quoting verbatim. Djmaschek (talk) 03:39, 30 May 2008 (UTC)
 * Yes, found the section in the book. Though I might at one point look for the relevant entries in the OR and add a short counterpoint. Maybe we could add a controversies section at some point to explain some matters in more detail. It's unfortunate that Shea and Hess didn't write more about this issue than a single paragraph (and half of that deals with the general chaos after the cavalry charge).--Caranorn (talk) 10:36, 30 May 2008 (UTC)

 * Caranorn, thanks for your vote of confidence and for cleaning up McCulloch. Shea & Hess was a wonderful source. Djmaschek (talk) 14:58, 31 May 2008 (UTC)
 * No problem. And yes, Shea/Hess was a good read though I have some issues with it (a slight nativist and pro northern slant in my opinion, but that doesn't belong into the article, certainly not against respectable sources). Unfortuntatelly the authors never answered to my email trying to clarify some points. You did a good job expanding the article.--Caranorn (talk) 17:49, 31 May 2008 (UTC)

External links modified
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 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/web/20051020140241/http://www.mudcat.org/@displaysong.cfm?SongID=5861 to http://www.mudcat.org/@displaysong.cfm?SongID=5861
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Patriotic March
In 1862, composer Christoph Bach wrote a march entitled "Pea Ridge March" for piano to commemorate the bravery of the Union troops.

Musicwriter (talk) 22:23, 4 December 2016 (UTC)

CE
Cheeky little virus purdah drive-by CE. Altered deprecated image in infobox, rm dupe wikilinks, cleaned up references, auto ed, cite review, moved a pic below the header. Regards Keith-264 (talk) 11:18, 9 April 2020 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: Historian's Craft
— Assignment last updated by ACoaley (talk) 04:52, 11 March 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Battle of Pea Ridge