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Old-time music

Old-time music is a genre of North American folk music. It developed along with various North American folk dances, such as square dancing, contra dance, clogging, and buck dancing. It is played on acoustic instruments, generally centering on a combination of fiddle (see old time fiddling) and plucked string instruments, most often the banjo, guitar, and mandolin. Together, they form an ensemble called the string band, which along with the simple banjo-fiddle duet have historically been the most common configurations to play old-time music. The genre is considered a precursor to modern country music.

History
Reflecting the cultures that settled North America, the roots of old-time music are in the traditional musics of the British Isles, Europe, and Africa. African influences are notably found in vocal and instrumental performance styles and dance, as well as the often cited use of the banjo; in some regions, Native American, Spanish, French and German sources are also prominent. While many dance tunes and ballads can be traced to European sources, many others are of North American origin.

Etymology
Old-time music, especially if defined to include ballads and other vocal music, represents perhaps the oldest form of North American traditional music other than Native American music, and thus the term "old-time" is an appropriate one. In popular usage at 21st century fiddlers' conventions and summer music camps, it frequently describes styles of pre-bluegrass fiddle and banjo music as played in the Southern United States, so that "bluegrass banjo" and "bluegrass fiddle" can be judged separately. However, definitions of the phrase vary historically and geographically, including racially segregated titles used in record catalogs of the 1920s and 1930s, literal use to describe nostalgic song and tune collections over the years, and concert organizers' and record companies' use of the phrase in the 1960s to identify traditional instrumental and vocal music by rural white and black musicians, distinct from the then-commercialized "folk revival" music that included urban "interpreters" and singer-songwriters. (See "Revival" below.)

Contemporary fiddler's conventions, music camps and festivals often use the terms "old-time" and "old-time string band" interchangeably, heavily weighted toward instrumental performance and often placing vocal music in a separate folk song category.

When some of its early country music recordings became hits, the Okeh company, which had previously coined the terms "hillbilly music" to describe Appalachian and Southern fiddle-based and religious music and "race record" to describe the music of African American recording artists, began using "old-time music" as a term to describe the music of white artists including Fiddlin' John Carson, who began recording in 1923.

The term thus originated as a euphemism, but proved a suitable replacement for other terms that were considered disparaging by many inhabitants of these regions. It remains the term preferred by performers and listeners of the music. It is sometimes referred to as "old-timey" or "mountain music" by long-time practitioners.

Other sources
The early 19th century Minstrel Show configuration of banjo, fiddle, rhythm bones and tambourine, at first performing tunes learned from Black players, soon added tunes adapted from white players previous European-roots repertoire, and songs composed specifically for those ensembles, such as those of Stephen Foster, some of which are still in the old-time string band repertoire. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the guitar and mandolin became increasingly available, as well as factory made banjos, and tunes originating in Tin Pan Alley, gospel, ragtime, blues and other musics were adapted into the old-time style. People played similar music in all regions of the United States in the 18th and 19th centuries, but by the mid 20th century it was associated primarily with rural areas, particularly the Appalachian region.

Revival
Important revivalists including Mike Seeger and Pete Seeger brought banjo and string-band music to New York City as early as the 1940s. The New Lost City Ramblers in particular took the revival across the country and often featured older musicians in their shows. The band was originally Mike Seeger, John Cohen, and Tom Paley. When Tom left the band, he was replaced by Tracy Schwarz. New Lost City Ramblers sparked new interest in "old-time" or "old-timey" music, and wrote about it in record notes, magazine articles, and the New Lost City Ramblers Songbook, later reissued as the Old-Time String Band Songbook.

Folkways Records, founded in 1948, began to use the phrase "Old Time Music" prominently in conjunction with Mike Seeger, the New Lost City Ramblers, other performers (e.g., Canadian fiddler Jean Carignan), and events ("The 37th Old Time Fiddler's Convention at Union Grove North Carolina"), including a 1960s New York City organization called the "Friends of Old-Time Music" (F.O.T.M. for short), with headquarters at Izzy Young's Folklore Center in Greenwich Village. The group's goal was to "reach deep into the grassroots and bring traditional folk music, performed by traditional artists, to the New York City area," according to Richard Rinzler's booklet accompanying a collection of concert recordings. Under its "Old-Time Music" umbrella, rather than the phrase "folk music" then being used heavily by commercial record companies and young singer-songwriters, the group presented a wide range of older black and white traditional and "roots" musicians, including Southern singers, fiddlers, banjo players, guitarists and string bands in styles ranging from unaccompanied and banjo-accompanied ballad-singing to bluegrass and blues artists, some of whom had recorded as early as the 1920s. (Among the concert performers were Clarence Ashley, Doc Boggs, Gus Cannon, Jesse Fuller, Roscoe Holcomb, Mississippi John Hurt, Furry Lewis, Bill Monroe, the Stanley Brothers, and Doc Watson.)

A 2006 three-CD box set from Folkways reissued more of the original 14 concerts, under the title "Friends of Old Time Music: The Folk Arrival 1961-1965," accompanied by a 60-page book by Peter K. Siegel, with essays by John Cohen (musician) and Jody Stecher. Among its observations, "When Ralph Rinzler, Cohen and Young decided to call their new organization the Friends of Old Time Music, they were referring to language that had been used by the commercial recording industry almost four decades  earlier." In a separate essay, Cohen observes, "Ralph and I looked for name for our proposed organization, one that would avoid the pitfalls of the word 'folk,' for we needed to establish our own distinct identity as something apart from the folk revival," with its "commercialization of folk music by the music industry" and "urban performers who were interpreting and inventing folk music".

Vanguard Records used "Old Time Music at Newport" as the title for one of its several LPs from the Newport Folk Festival of 1963, including several Southern players who had performed at FOTM concerts and Folkways records, and others: Clarence "Tom" Ashley, Doc Boggs, Maybelle Carter, Jenes Cottrell, Dorsey Dixon, Clint Howard, Fred Price, and Doc Watson. The New Lost City Ramblers were included on a "Country Music and Bluegrass at Newport" record, and Mississippi John Hurt was among performers on "Blues at Newport." Ashley, whose band featured Doc Watson, appeared on both the "Old Time" and "Country Music and Bluegrass" collections.

Arhoolie Records in 1962 started a label called "Old Timey," reissuing dozens of LPs based on old 78s by old-time string bands and more -- not only volumes of "Old-Time Southern Dance Music: Ballads And Songs," but "Pioneers Of Cajun Accordion 1926-1936," "Amadé Ardoin* – The First Black Zydeco Recording Artist (His Original Recordings 1928-1938)," "Classic Country Duets," and collections of " Western Swing, Blues, Boogie And Honky Tonk."

Instrumentation
Old-time music is played using a wide variety of stringed instruments. The instrumentation of an old-time group is often determined by what instruments are available, as well as by tradition. The most common instruments are acoustic string instruments. Historically, the fiddle was nearly always the leading melodic instrument, and in many instances (if no other instruments were available) dances were accompanied only by a single fiddler, who often also acted as dance caller.

By the early 19th century, the banjo had become an essential partner to the fiddle, particularly in the southern United States. The banjo, originally a fretless instrument made from a gourd, provided rhythmic accompaniment to song, dance and the fiddle, incorporating a high drone provided by the instrument's short "drone string." The banjo used in old-time music is typically a 5-string model with an open back (i.e., without the resonator found on most bluegrass banjos). Today, old-time banjo players most commonly utilize the clawhammer style, but there were numerous styles, most of which are still used to some extent today. The major styles are down-picking (generally referred to today as "clawhammer," though historically myriad names were used to describe it), two-finger index lead, two-finger thumb lead, and a three-finger "fiddle style" that seems to have been influenced in part by late-19th century urban classical style. Young players might learn whatever style a parent or older sibling favored, or take inspiration from phonograph records, radio, traveling performers and migrant workers, local guitarists and banjo players, as well as other musicians they met when traveling to neighboring areas. Having a fiddle play the lead melody with a banjo playing rhythmic accompaniment is the most common form of Appalachian old-time music today.

Individualistic three-finger styles were developed independently by such important figures as Uncle Dave Macon, Dock Boggs, and Snuffy Jenkins. Those early three-finger styles, especially the technique developed by Jenkins, led to the three-finger Scruggs style created by Earl Scruggs in the 1940s, which helped advance the split between the old-time genre and the solo-centric style that became known as bluegrass. Jenkins developed a three-finger "roll" method that, while obviously part of the old-time tradition, inspired Scruggs to develop the smoother, faster and more complex rolls that are now standard fare in bluegrass music.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, musicians began to add other stringed instruments to the fiddle-banjo duo—including guitar, mandolin, and double bass (or washtub bass). These provided chordal, bass line, and pitched rhythmic accompaniment, and occasionally took over the melody, usually during a "break" section that lasted the duration of a verse, refrain, or verse and refrain. This, along with a Dobro (resonator guitar), is also considered 'standard' bluegrass instrumentation, but old-time music tends to focus on sparser instrumentation and arrangements compared to bluegrass. Such an assemblage, of whatever instrumentation, became known simply as a "string band." Less frequently used are the cello, piano, hammered dulcimer, Appalachian dulcimer, tenor banjo, tenor guitar, lap-steel guitar, mandola, mouth bow, as well as other instruments such as the jug, harmonica, autoharp, jaw harp, concertina, button or accordion, washboard, spoons, or bones.

The fiddle is sometimes played by two people at the same time, with one player using the bow and fingers, while another player stands to the side and taps out a rhythm on the fiddle strings using small sticks called fiddlesticks (also spelled "fiddle sticks"). This technique (also sometimes called "beating the straws") is utilized in performance most notably by the duo of Al and Emily Cantrell.

Each regional old-time tradition accompanies different dance styles. Some of these include clogging and flatfoot dancing (Appalachia), contra dancing (New England), square dancing (Southern states) and step dancing (Nova Scotia, particularly Cape Breton Island), though there is some overlap between regions.

Regional styles
There are numerous regional styles of old-time music, each with its own repertoire and playing style. Nevertheless, some tunes (such as "Soldier's Joy") are found in nearly every regional style, though played somewhat differently in each.

Appalachia
Appalachian folk music is brought to the United States by immigrants and slaves. In turn it influenced country music and old-time music.

As a result of the terrain of the region, the societies and cultures were fairly isolated from outside intervention. In 1916, Cecil Sharp arrived in Appalachia and began recording the folk songs on the Mountains. Sharp, an authority on British ballads, was able to identify 1,600 versions of 500 songs from 281 singers, almost all having their origins in the English/Scottish Child Ballads. After his first study in Appalachia, he published English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians. Some examples of songs preserved in the Appalachian Mountains and recorded by Sharp include, "The Hangman Song", "Barbara Allen", etc. The primary sources for many of Sharp's recordings came from a string of related families around Shelton Laurel, N.C. Of note is the fact that these families maintained a specific, unique vocal tradition and traditional English lyrical pronunciations across several generations, until gaining fame in the 1960s and 1970s through similar field recordings completed by John Cohen. These records featured Dillard Chandler, Berzilla Wallin (recorded by Sharp) and Dellie Norton. Relatives of those individuals continue to keep this unique vocal style alive to this day.

A Scottish fiddler named Niel Gow (note the unorthodox spelling) is usually credited with developing (during the 1740s) the short bow sawstroke technique that defines Appalachian fiddling. This technique was altered during the next century, with European waltzes and polkas being most influential.

African Americans, who were not only slaves but also free blacks working in timber, coal mining, and other industries, influenced Appalachian music as the banjo was adopted from African Americans by white musicians (such as Joel Walker Sweeney) in the years leading up to the Civil War.

Appalachian folk became a major influence on styles like country music and bluegrass. It is one of the few regional styles of old-time music that, since World War II, has been learned and widely practiced in all areas of the United States and Canada (as well as in Europe, Australia, and elsewhere). In some cases (as in the Midwest and Northeast), its popularity has eclipsed the indigenous old-time traditions of these regions. There is a particularly high concentration of performers playing Appalachian folk music on the East and West Coasts (especially in New York City, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and the Pacific Northwest). A number of American classical composers, in particular Henry Cowell and Aaron Copland, have composed works that merge the idioms of Appalachian folk music with the Old World–based classical tradition.

Appalachian old-time music is itself made up of regional traditions. Some of the most prominent traditions include those of North Georgia (The Skillet Lickers) Mount Airy, North Carolina (specifically the Round Peak style of Tommy Jarrell) and Grayson County/Galax, Virginia (Wade Ward and Albert Hash), West Virginia (the Hammons Family), Eastern Kentucky (J. P. Fraley and Lee Sexton), Middle Tennessee (Uncle Dave Macon, The McGee Brothers, Thomas Maupin, and Fiddlin' Arthur Smith), and East Tennessee (Charlie Acuff, The Roan Mountain Hilltoppers, G.B. Grayson).

The banjo player and fiddler Bascom Lamar Lunsford, a native of the North Carolina mountains, collected much traditional music during his lifetime, also founding the old-time music festival in Asheville, North Carolina. Notable North Carolina traditional banjo players and makers include Frank Proffitt, Frank Proffitt Jr. and Stanley Hicks, who all learned to make and play fretless mountain banjos from a family tradition. These players, among others, learned their art primarily from family and show fewer traces of influence from commercial hillbilly recordings. The Proffitts and Hicks were heirs to a centuries-old folk tradition, and through the middle to late 20th century they performed in a style older than the stringbands often associated with old time music. Their style has been recently emulated by contemporary musician Tim Eriksen.

The Southern states (particularly coastal states such as Virginia and North Carolina) also have one of the oldest traditions of old-time music in the United States.

States of the Deep South such as Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and Louisiana also have their own regional old-time music traditions and repertoires, as does the Ozark Mountains region of Arkansas and Missouri. While the music of the Louisiana Cajuns has much in common with other North American old-time traditions it is generally treated as a tradition unto itself and not referred to as a form of old-time music.

Native American
Several distinctive Native American and First Nations old-time traditions exist, including Métis fiddle and Athabaskan fiddle.

Old-time music has also been adopted by individual Native American musicians including Walker Calhoun (1918–2012) of Big Cove, in the Qualla Boundary (home to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians, Matthew Kinman of the Apache Tribe, and Wovoka Herrera of the Northern Paiute people . Calhoun played three-finger-style banjo and sang in the Cherokee language.

New England
The New England states, being among the first settled by Europeans, have one of the oldest traditions of old-time music. Although the Puritans (the first Europeans to settle in the region), frowned upon instrumental music, dance music flourished in both urban and rural areas beginning in the 17th century. Primary instruments today include the fiddle, piano, and guitar, with the wooden flute sometimes also used. As with Appalachian folk, a number of classical composers have turned to New England folk music for melodic and harmonic ideas, most famously Charles Ives, as well as Aaron Copland, William Schuman, and John Cage, among others. Rhythmically, this style is more diverse than most southern old time, featuring schottisches, hornpipes, and waltzes in addition to reels.

Midwest
Beginning in the early 19th century, when the Midwestern states were first settled by immigrants from the eastern United States and Europe, the Midwest developed its own regional styles of old-time music. Among these, the Missouri style is of particular interest for its energetic bowing style, while Michigan is one of the few areas in North America with a continuous hammered dulcimer tradition through the twentieth century.

The region of central and southern Illinois has its own distinct style and repertoire of old-time music as well.

In the Upper Midwest, especially Minnesota, old-time music most typically refers to a mixture of Scandinavian styles, especially Norwegian and Swedish.

Texas and the West
Texas developed a distinctive twin-fiddling tradition that was later popularized by Bob Wills as Western swing music. Fiddle music has also been popular since the 19th century in other Western states such as Oklahoma and Colorado. The National Oldtime Fiddlers' Contest has been held each year in Weiser, Idaho since 1953.

Oklahoma, with its high concentration of Native American inhabitants, has produced some Native American old-time string bands, most notably Big Chief Henry's Indian String Band (consisting of Henry Hall, fiddle; Clarence Hall, guitar; and Harold Hall, banjo and voice), which was recorded by H. C. Speir for the Victor company in 1929.

A California old-time music scene arose from college-city folk music scenes of the 1960s and '70s, from Fresno to Berkeley, including the Sweets Mill music camps and the crossover between square dance, folk dance and instrumental music scenes, documented in oral history interviews collected by musician, teacher and author Evo Bluestein, including the contributions of multi-instrumentalists Kenny Hall, Hank Bradley, and others. The Berkeley old-time scene of the late 1960s is documented in 1971 notes by Rita Weill to the Folkways LP "Berkeley Farms." The Berkeley Old Time Fiddler's Convention, she said, was "Conceived in the back of a Volkswagen bus, on the way to a party in Marin County, in 1968, by a group of people who wanted to retain the good music and interplay they'd witnessed at Southern fiddle-banjo contests, without the competition and corruption extant there. They wished to avoid the effects of regionalism that decreed there was a right way to play a tune and a wrong way, as wel. After all, they felt, who could pinpoint one tradition for Berkeley? So it happened with but one rule, 'No fair 'lectric instruments.'"

The Pacific Northwest has a vibrant old-time music community. Extending the north–south corridor from Seattle to Portland and east to Weiser, ID and Boise, gatherings and festivals such as the Portland Old Time Gathering, Festival of American Fiddle Tunes in Port Townsend, WA, an annual campout in Centralia, WA and the National Oldtime Fiddlers' Contest have helped build a growing and multi-generational old time music community.

Canada
Among the prominent styles of old-time music in Canada are the Scottish-derived tradition of Nova Scotia (particularly Cape Breton Island), the French Canadian music of Quebec and Acadia, the old-time music of Ontario, and the prairie fiddling traditions of the central-western provinces. It is here (primarily in Manitoba and Saskatchewan) that the fiddle tradition of the Métis people is found. The traditional folk music of Newfoundland and Labrador, though similar in some ways to that of the rest of Atlantic Canada, has a distinct style of its own. As such, it is generally considered as its own genre.

Contemporary musicians
The current old-time music scene is alive and well, sparked since the mid-1990s by the combined exposure resulting from several prominent films, more accessible depositories of source material, institutions like the Field Recorders Collective, and the work of touring bands, including The Freight Hoppers, The Wilders, Uncle Earl, Old Crow Medicine Show, Glade City Rounders, Foghorn Stringband, and the Carolina Chocolate Drops.

A new generation of old-time musicians performs as solo acts and band leaders all over the country, including: Brad Leftwich, Dan Levenson, Bruce Molsky, Rafe Stefanini, Bruce Greene, Rhys Jones, Rayna Gellert, Riley Baugus, Leroy Troy, Alice Gerrard, Dirk Powell, Walt Koken, Clifton Hicks, and Martha Scanlan. The Appalachian dulcimer has long been a part of string bands in the Galax, Virginia, area and is seeing new popularity re-emerging as a key instrument for old-time music, thanks to the influence of musicians such as Don Pedi, David Schnaufer, Lois Hornbostel, Wayne Seymour his disciples, Milltown and Stephen Seifert. American hammered dulcimer players like Ken Kolodner, Mark Alan Wade and Rick Thum continue this tradition. Family bands, such as The Martin Family Band, from Maryland, are continuing the traditions of old time music played on fiddle, banjo, lap dulcimer, hammered dulcimer, mandolin, piano, guitar, bass and percussion. The Carolina Chocolate Drops and the solo careers of former members Rhiannon Giddens and Dom Flemons have directly addressed the nearly lost tradition of black stringband music.

Living elders of the music include Charlie Acuff of Alcoa, Tennessee, Chester McMillian of Mount Airy, North Carolina, Lee Sexton of Line Fork, Kentucky, Thomas Maupin of Murfreesboro, Tennessee, George Gibson of Knott Co., Kentucky, Michael Defosche Jackson Co., TN, Rob Morrison of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Jimmy Costa of Talcott, West Virginia, Curtis Hicks of Chattanooga, Tennessee, Clyde Davenport of Monticello, Kentucky, Delmer Holland of Waverly, Tennessee, and Harold Luce of Chelsea, Vermont.

Festivals
Prominent old-time music festivals (some of which also include bluegrass, dance, and other related arts) include the Northern Lights Bluegrass and Old Tyme Music Camp and Festival in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada (established 2005), Old Fiddler's Convention in Galax, Virginia (established 1935), the West Virginia State Folk Festival in Glenville, West Virginia (established 1950), the National Oldtime Fiddlers' Contest in Weiser, Idaho (established 1953), the Mount Airy Fiddlers Convention in Mount Airy, North Carolina (established 1972), Uncle Dave Macon Days in Murfreesboro, Tennessee, the Vandalia Gathering in Charleston, West Virginia (established 1977), the Appalachian String Band Music Festival in Clifftop, Fayette County, West Virginia (established 1990), Breakin' Up Winter in Lebanon, Tennessee, the Winfield Music Festival is held in Winfield, Kansas and the Smithville Fiddlers' Jamboree and Crafts Festival held in Smithville, Tennessee (established in 1972).
 * Gallery

Dancing
Because old-time fiddle-based string band music is often played for dances, it is often characterized as dance music. There are also long-standing traditions of solo listening pieces and fiddle songs, such as those documented in West Virginia by Erynn Marshall in Music in the Air Somewhere: The Shifting Borders of West Virginia's Fiddle and Song Traditions (WVU Press, 2006). In dance music as played by old-time string bands, emphasis is placed on providing a strong beat, and instrumental solos, or breaks, are rarely taken. This contrasts with bluegrass music, which developed in the 1940s as concert music. Bluegrass music developed from old-time music and shares many of the same songs and instruments, but is more oriented toward solo performance than is old-time music.

Many different types of dancing are done to old-time music, such as square dancing, contra dancing, and buck dancing.

While in the British Isles reels and jigs both remain popular, the reel is by far the predominant metric structure preferred by old-time musicians in the United States (though a few hornpipes are also still performed). Canadian musicians, particularly in the Maritime provinces where the Scottish influence is strong, perform both reels and jigs (as well as other types of tunes such as marches and strathspeys).

Education
Players traditionally learn old-time music by ear; even musicians who can read music. A broad selection of written music does exist, although many believe that the style of old-time music cannot be practically notated by written music. This is in part because there are many regional and local variations to old-time tunes, and because some of the most noted players often improvised and wouldn't play a tune exactly the same way every time.

Players usually learn old-time music by attending local jam sessions and by attending festivals scattered around the country. With the spread of broad-band Internet, more and more old-time recordings are available via small publishers. Internet streaming audio ("Web radio"), and small Web sites make the music more accessible.

Although it is one of the oldest and most prominent forms of traditional music in the United States and Canada, old-time music (with a few notable exceptions) is generally not taught in North American primary schools, secondary schools, or universities. Although square dancing is still occasionally taught in elementary schools (generally with recorded, rather than live music), old-time instruments and dances are not included in the educational system, and must be studied outside the school system.

Appalachia
The Digital Library of Appalachia provides online access to archival and historical materials related to the culture of the southern and central Appalachian region, including audio recording samples. Contents are drawn from special collections of Appalachian College Association member libraries.

Located in Johnson City, Tennessee, East Tennessee State University offers a comprehensive program in bluegrass and old time music studies. The program includes a variety of bluegrass and country music courses, both performance-oriented and academic. Minors in both Bluegrass and in Appalachian Studies are also offered.

Morehead State University offers a program also.

There are a variety of programs, mostly in the summer, such as the Augusta Heritage Festival in Elkins, W.V., The Swannanoa Gathering at Warren Wilson College, Blue Ridge Oldtime Music Week at Mars Hill University, the Cowan Creek Mountain Music School, or the Appalachian String Band Music Festival at Clifftop, W.V., that offer week-long immersions in old-time music and dance. These camps are family friendly and allow beginners to enter into the tradition and more advanced players to hone their sound with instruction from some of the best in the music.

In Floyd, Virginia, music lessons, workshops, and immersive "Old Time Music Get Together" long-weekend camps are offered by The Handmade Music School, a non-profit spin-off of local music venue The Floyd Country Store.

Outside Appalachia
A growing number of folk music schools in the greater United States, usually non-profit and community=based, have taken up the mantle of providing instruction in old-time music: The Old Town School of Folk Music in Chicago, Illinois began in 1957. Pinewoods Camp in Massachusetts, founded in 1935, has included Appalachian music and dance in its summer programs for many years, as well as British Isles music and dance. Numerous other folk-music and dance camps with "themed" weeks, like the Ashokan Center in New York, include specific "Southern" or "Old-time" weeks.

These schools and the subsequent music communities that spring from them offer a positive trend in keeping old-time music alive. Also, universities such as Berklee College of Music, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Brown University, UCLA, and Florida State University have "Old Time Ensembles" to teach and keep Old Time music alive. Regular old-time jam circles are also important to spreading and teaching this music. Regular old-time jams occur not only throughout the United States, but in places as far flung as Beijing, China, where the Beijing Pickers jam spawned a bluegrass/Americana group the Randy Abel Stable and the old-time band the Hutong Yellow Weasels. In the UK Friends of American Old Time Music and Dance was formed in 1995. A year later Sore Fingers Summer School was started.

Films

 * Appalachian Journey (1990). Original material recorded and directed by Alan Lomax. A Dibbs Directions Production for Channel Four TV in association with Alan Lomax. Presented by North Carolina Public TV. 1991 videocassette release of an episode from the 1990 television series American Patchwork: Songs and Stories of America.
 * Just Around The Bend: Survival and Revival in Southern Banjo Styles – Mike Seeger's Last Documentary (2019). DVD, CDs and 80 page booklet by Alexia Smith, song notes by Bob Carlin.
 * My Old Fiddle: A Visit with Tommy Jarrell in the Blue Ridge (1994). Directed by Les Blank. El Cerrito, California:  Flower Films. ISBN 0-933621-61-2.
 * New England Fiddles (1995). Produced and directed by John M. Bishop. A Media Generation production. Montpelier, Vermont: Distributed by Multicultural Media.
 * Songcatcher (dir. Maggie Greenwald, 2000) is a film about a musicologist researching Appalachian folk music in western North Carolina.
 * Sprout Wings and Fly (1983). Produced and directed by Les Blank, CeCe Conway, and Alice Gerrard. El Cerrito, California: Flower Films. ISBN 0-933621-01-9
 * O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000). Produced by Ethan Coen, Working Title Films, Studio Canal. Directed by Joel Coen.
 * Cold Mountain (2003), Anthony Minghella (Dir.) Miramax, Mirage Enterprises, Bona Fide Productions.
 * The Mountain Minor (2019). Directed by Dale Farmer. Produced by Susan Pepper. Alt452 Productions.

title: Old-time music


text:
Talk:MicroWorlds

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 * No dice on google for either of these three "games". Dysprosia 03:06, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * They have not been launched yet. I am a co-vice president of the company launching them. SmartBee 9:29. 17 Mar 2004 Central Time Zone

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Talk:Ida Nyrop Ludvigsen

Untitled
PS I am her oldest daughter and found this Wiki page empty - so I wanted to share some facts about my mother who died too early - we miss her so much, and are proud of her important work. Susanne Nyrop, Farum, Denmark

title: Talk:Ida Nyrop Ludvigsen


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Richmond, Jamaica

Richmond is a market town in Saint Mary parish, in the north-east of Jamaica.

There are several other settlements in Jamaica with this name.

History
Richmond was originally an estate owned a family named "Meek" and was called "Meek Spring". The Meeks sold it to the Duke of Richmond whence its name.

title: Richmond, Jamaica


text:
Hamming

Hamming may refer to:

 * Richard Hamming (1915–1998), American mathematician
 * Hamming(7,4), in coding theory, a linear error-correcting code
 * Overacting, or acting in an exaggerated way

title: Hamming


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Atlantean language

The Atlantean language is a constructed language created by Marc Okrand specially for the Walt Disney Feature Animation film Atlantis: The Lost Empire. The language was intended by the script-writers to be a possible mother language, and Okrand crafted it to include a vast Indo-European word stock with its very own grammar, which is at times described as highly agglutinative, inspired by Sumerian and North American Indigenous languages.

Creation
The Atlantean language (Dig Adlantisag) is a historically constructed, artistic language put together by Marc Okrand for Disney's 2001 film Atlantis: The Lost Empire and associated media. The Atlantean language is therefore based both on historic reconstructions as well as on the elaborate fantasy/science fiction of the Atlantis: The Lost Empire mythos. The fictional principles upon which the Atlantean language was created are: Atlantean is the “Tower of Babel language”, the “root dialect” from which all languages descended; it has existed without change since sometime before 100,000 B.C., in the First or Second Age of Atlantis until the present.

To accomplish this, Okrand looked for common characteristics from various world languages and was also heavily inspired by the Proto-Indo-European language. His main source of words (roots and stems) for the language is Proto-Indo-European, but Okrand combines this with Biblical Hebrew, later Indo-European languages such as Latin and Greek, and a variety of other known or reconstructed ancient languages.

Writing systems
Atlantean has its own script created expressly for the movie by John Emerson with the help of Marc Okrand, and inspired by ancient alphabetical scripts, most notably Semitic. There are, however, different kinds of transliteration into the Roman script.

Atlantean Script
There is no punctuation or capitalization in the native Atlantean Writing System. Okrand based this on ancient writing systems. The Atlantean Script is normally in boustrophedon, that is to say it is written left to right for the first line, right to left the second, and left to right again the third, to continue the pattern. This order was also suggested by Okrand, based on ancient writing systems, and it was accepted because, as he explained, "It's a back-and-forth movement, like water, so that worked."

The Atlantean script includes more characters than are actually employed in the language itself. These letters being c, f, j, q, v, x, z, ch, or th, they were created so that Atlantean might be used as a simple cipher code in the media and for promotional purposes. They are all also based on diverse ancient characters, just like the rest of the alphabet.

Roman Script
Apart from the native Atlantean script created for the show, the language can be transcribed using the Roman script. There are two versions for doing so:

 * 1) Standard Transcription, how the language is transliterated by Marc Okrand himself.
 * 2) Reader's Script, a Berlitz-style notation devised by Okrand, which he hoped would make the Atlantean easier to read for the actors.

Example sentence, broken down:

Nishentop Adlantisag, kelobtem Gabrin karoklimik bet gim demottem net getunosentem bernotlimik bet kagib lewidyoh.

NEE-shen-toap AHD-luhn-tih-suhg, KEH-loab-tem GAHB-rihn KAH-roak-lih-mihk bet gihm DEH-moat-tem net GEH-tuh-noh-sen-tem behr-NOAT-lih-mihk bet KAH-gihb LEH-wihd-yoakh.

spirit-PL-VOC Atlantis-GEN, chamber-ACC 2.PL.FAM-GEN defile-PPERF-1.SG for and land-ACC into intruder-PL-ACC bring-PPERF-1.SG for 1.SG-DAT forgive-IMP-PL

"Spirits of Atlantis, forgive me for defiling your chamber and bringing intruders into the land."

The following is a table that shows the correspondences between the different modes of transcription and also provides the probable IPA values.

Numerals
John Emerson, Marc Okrand, and the filmmakers also created numerals for 0–9. They are stacked horizontally, however, and hold place values of 1, 20, and 400. Their components are based on Mayan numerals and internally composed for the font (example above) like Roman numerals. If used according to the now-offline Official Website's directions, they are used, alternatively, like Arabic numerals.

Numeral suffixes
Ordinals are formed adding the suffix -(d)lag: sey 'three', seydlag 'third'. The d is omitted if the root ends with an obstruent or nasal consonant: dut 'two', dutlag 'second'. Fractions are formed with the suffix -(d)lop: kut 'four', kutlop 'quarter', sha 'five', shadlop 'fifth (part)'. And finally, distributives are formed with the suffix noh: din 'one', dinnoh 'one at a time, one each'.

Vowels
Atlantean's phonetic inventory includes a vowel system with five phonemes. Most vowels have two prominent allophonic realizations, depending on whether it occurs in a stressed or unstressed syllable.

Vowels in stressed syllables tend to be tense, and likewise unstressed ones tend to be more lax. Thus, for example, is realized as  or  in stressed and unstressed syllables, respectively. Likewise, is realized as  or, and so on. There are three diphthongs, namely ay, ey, oy.

Aside from the stressed-syllable-based vowel system, the only other example of prominent phonological phenomenon seems to be a special kind of sandhi occurring in verbs, when the pronoun is combined with the aspect marker.

When the suffix for the first person singular -ik combines with tenses that employ -i, -o (Past and Future tenses), it becomes -mik.

 * bernot-o-ik → bernot-o-mik

But when combined with suffixes that feature -e (Present tenses), the same suffix becomes -kik.
 * bernot-e-ik → bernot-e-kik

Grammar
Atlantean has a very strict subject–object–verb word order, with no deviations from this pattern attested. Adjectives and nouns in the genitive case follow the nouns they modify, adpositions appear only in the form of postpositions, and modal verbs follow the verbs that they modify and subsequently take all personal and aspectual suffixes. However, adverbs precede verbs. The language includes the use of an interrogative particle to form questions with no variation in word order.

Some sentences appear to employ some kind of particles sometimes termed "sentence connectors". These particles are of obscure meaning but are theorized to relate two clauses in a logical yet idiomatic manner. The exact meaning and usage of these particles is not known, but without them sentences are difficult to reconcile with their translations.

Wiltem neb gamosetot deg duweren tirid.

city-ACC DEM see-PRES-3SG PART outsider-PL all.

"No outsiders may see the city and live." (But more literally: "He sees the city all outsiders.")

In the example above there is no actual mention of the consequences for outsiders, yet the subtitle in the movie translates it as a warning even without any mention of living or dying. A possibility exists that, in order to match the lip movement of the characters in the movie and the time of the dialogue, the language had to be shortened, often leaving out key parts of the sentence. It is known that the Atlantean lines in the movie were ad-libbed afterwards.

Tab.top, lud.en neb.et kwam gesu bog.e.kem deg yasek.en gesu.go.ntoh.

father-VOC, person-PL DEM-PL NEG help {be able}-PRES-1SG PART noble-PL help-FUT.POSB-3PL

"Father, these people may be able to help us." (But more literally: "Oh Father, we cannot help these people they will help the nobles."

In this example the sentences seem to be better connected, and the particle is rendered as almost "but, yet". It is difficult to reconcile the two, however.

Nouns
Atlantean has seven cases for nouns, five for pronouns and two for numbers.

Grammatical cases
Notes:

Other suffixes
Nouns are marked as plural with the suffix -en. Case suffixes never precede the -en plural suffix. "-Mok" occurs after it.

Pronouns
There are five cases for pronouns.

Grammatical cases
Notes:

Verbs
Verbs are inflected with two suffixes, one for tense/aspect and the next for person/number.

Tense/aspect suffixes
 OBLG:obligatory mood POSB:possible

title: Atlantean language


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User talk:Joe Cetina

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Thanks for your contributions at Marc Okrand, Writing system, and [Constructed language. Now that you're here, why don't you drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself?

If you need any editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style

Some time when you're bored, you can read through our policies and guidelines. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

To sign your name to a post, just add three tildes or four if you want a time stamp.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump.

Also, feel free to drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 03:28, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Yup. It takes a while to get used to all of the conventions, but one of the great things about Wikipedia is that folks will (eventually) adjust the formatting to standard even if you aren't sure what that standard is. Hope you find working on Wikipedia a productive endeavour, and don't hesitate to ask questions... -- Seth Ilys

Joe - I just saw your comment on Isomorphic's talk page, and I thought I too would welcome you to Wikipedia. Glad to have you onboard. →Raul654 05:40, Feb 21, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Joe Cetina


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User talk:Zidane~enwiki

Hi Zidane.

You recently edited Benicia, California and changed "White" to "Caucasian". While I see the reasoning behind your edit, I believe that we should use "White". Race (US Census), which provides explainations of the catagories used in census information, uses the term "White", as do most (if not all) other city entries. The popular use of Caucasian on Wikipedia seems to be slightly different from that of "White", and to ensure that the statistics on Benicia, California aren't opened to misinterpretation, I think that we should maintain use of the term "White". What do you think? -- Will 03:41, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Works for me. If you haven't already changed it back, I'll do it eventually. I'd do it now, but I'm pretty busy with other stuff.
 * --Zidane 22:58, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Just changed it back. -- Will 00:12, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Zidane. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Zidane~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 03:33, 20 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
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title: User talk:Zidane~enwiki


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Calcium silicate

Calcium silicate can refer to several silicates of calcium including: This article focuses on Ca2SiO4, also known as calcium orthosilicate. It is also referred to by the shortened trade name Cal-Sil or Calsil. All calcium silicates are white free-flowing powders. They are components of important structural materials because they are strong, cheap, and nontoxic.
 * 2CaO·SiO2, larnite (Ca2SiO4)
 * 3CaO·SiO2, alite or (Ca3SiO5)
 * 3CaO·2SiO2, (Ca3Si2O7)
 * CaO·SiO2, wollastonite (CaSiO3).

Production and occurrence
Calcium silicates are produced by treating calcium oxide and silica in various ratios. Their formation is relevant to Portland cement.

Calcium silicate is a byproduct of the Pidgeon process, a major route to magnesium metal. The process converts a mixture of magnesium and calcium oxides as represented by the following simplified equation:
 * MgO*CaO +Si -> 2 Mg + Ca2SiO4

The calcium oxide combines with silicon as the oxygen scavenger, yielding the very stable calcium silicate and releasing volatile (at high temperatures) magnesium metal.

Via the carbonate–silicate cycle, carbonate rocks convert into silicate rocks by metamorphism and volcanism and silicate rocks convert to carbonates by weathering and sedimentation.

The production of sulfuric acid from anhydrous calcium sulfate produces calcium silicates. Upon being mixed with shale or marl, and roasted at 1400 °C, the sulfate liberates sulfur dioxide gas, a precursor to sulfuric acid. The resulting calcium silicate is used in cement clinker production.
 * 2 CaSO4 + 2 SiO2 + C → 2 CaSiO3 + 2 SO2 + CO2

Structure
As verified by X-ray crystallography, calcium silicate is a dense solid consisting of tetrahedral orthosilicate (SiO44-) units linked to Ca2+ via Si-O-Ca bridges. There are two calcium sites. One is seven coordinate and the other is eight coordinate.

As a component of cement
Calcium silicates are the major ingredients in Portland cements.

High-temperature insulation
Calcium silicate is commonly used as a safe alternative to asbestos for high-temperature insulation materials. Industrial-grade piping and equipment insulation is often fabricated from calcium silicate. Its fabrication is a routine part of the curriculum for insulation apprentices. Calcium silicate competes in these realms against rockwool and proprietary insulation solids, such as perlite mixture and vermiculite bonded with sodium silicate. Although it is popularly considered an asbestos substitute, early uses of calcium silicate for insulation still made use of asbestos fibers.

Passive fire protection
It is used in passive fire protection and fireproofing as calcium silicate brick or in roof tiles. It is one of the most successful materials in fireproofing in Europe because of regulations and fire safety guidelines for commercial and residential building codes. Where North Americans use spray fireproofing plasters, Europeans are more likely to use cladding made of calcium silicate. High-performance calcium-silicate boards retain their excellent dimensional stability even in damp and humid conditions and can be installed at an early stage in the construction program, before wet trades are completed and the building is weather-tight. For sub-standard products, silicone-treated sheets are available to fabricators to mitigate potential harm from high humidity or general presence of water. Fabricators and installers of calcium silicate in passive fire protection often also install firestops.

While the best possible reaction to fire classifications are A1 (construction applications) and A1Fl (flooring applications) respectively, both of which mean "non-combustible" according to EN 13501-1: 2007, as classified by a notified laboratory in Europe, some calcium-silicate boards only come with fire classification of A2 (limited combustibility) or even lower classifications (or no classification), if they are tested at all.

Acid mine drainage remediation
Calcium silicate, also known as slag, is produced when molten iron is made from iron ore, silicon dioxide and calcium carbonate in a blast furnace. When this material is processed into a highly refined, re-purposed calcium silicate aggregate, it is used in the remediation of acid mine drainage (AMD) on active and passive mine sites. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in AMD systems by removing free hydrogen ions from the bulk solution, thereby increasing pH. As its silicate anion captures H+ ions (raising the pH), it forms monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute. Monosilicic acid remains in the bulk solution to play other important roles in correcting the adverse effects of acidic conditions. As opposed to limestone (a popular remediation material), calcium silicate effectively precipitates heavy metals and does not armor over, prolonging its effectiveness in AMD systems.

As a product of sealants
It is used as a sealant in roads or on the shells of fresh eggs: when sodium silicate is applied as a sealant to cured concrete or egg shells, it chemically reacts with calcium hydroxide or calcium carbonate to form calcium silicate hydrate, sealing micropores with a relatively impermeable material.

Agriculture
Calcium silicate is often used in agriculture as a plant available source of silicon. It is "applied extensively to Everglades mucks and associated sands planted to sugarcane and rice"

Other
Calcium silicate is used as an anticaking agent in food preparation, including table salt and as an antacid. It is approved by the United Nations' FAO and WHO bodies as a safe food additive in a large variety of products. It has the E number reference E552.

title: Calcium silicate


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Beni Suef

Beni Suef (بني سويف ) is the capital city of the Beni Suef Governorate in Egypt. The city is the location of Beni Suef University. An important agricultural trade centre on the west bank of the Nile River, the city is located 110 km (70 miles) south of Cairo.

Etymology
The modern name of the town is a corruption of its original name Manfiswayh (منفسويه), which itself comes from a Coptic toponymic construction ⲡ-ⲙⲁ-ⲛ-... ("the place of..."); however, its exact etymology is unknown.

History
From the early Pharaonic era to the Roman period, the area was home to the city of Heracleopolis, 10 miles west of the modern city. which also served as the capital of Lower and Middle Egypt during the 9th and 10th dynasties. The modern city rose to prominence during the Middle Ages, when it was renowned for its linen manufacturing, which continues to the present day through the city's carpet making and cotton spinning industries. Beni Suef became the chief town of the second province of Upper Egypt during the reign of Muhammad Ali in the 19th century.

Geography
The total area of the governorate is 1,954 square kilometers, and it is divided into six governorates. It is bordered to the north by Giza governorate and Helwan, to the northeast by Suez, to the east by the Red Sea governorate, to the west by Fayoum governorate, and to the south by Minya governorate. This region connects the north of Egypt to the south, and the east to the west, and this identity of centrality has formed the population, civilization, and economic characters of the region. The geographical proximity to vital governorates such as Cairo and Giza is significant, and the governorates of the Red Sea, Suez, Fayoum and Ismailia tourist areas all act as markets for the industrial products made in Beni Suef.

Climate
Beni Suef has a hot desert climate (BWh) in Köppen-Geiger classification, as does all of Egypt. It has very hot summers and warm winters with cool nights.

Accidents

 * A train accident in 1995 near Beni Suef left 75 people dead.
 * The Beni Suef Cultural Palace Fire, on September 5, 2005, killed 46 people.

Notable people

 * Berlenti Abdul Hamid, actress
 * Ali Khalil, Egyptian footballer

Sports

 * Telephonat Beni Suef football team was promoted for the first time to the Egyptian Premier League for the 2011/2012 season.

title: Beni Suef


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New Brunswick Route 3

Route 3 is 92 kilometres long and goes from Route 170 in St. Stephen to Route 2 (the Trans-Canada Highway) at Longs Creek, near Fredericton.

From St. Stephen, Route 3 goes north along the west bank of Dennis Stream, through the community of Moores Mills. The road turns northeast through Lawrence Station and mostly uninhabited land to meet Route 4 near York Mills. From there, Route 3 continues in a northeasterly direction through Harvey Station, then turns north to the Trans-Canada Highway at Longs Creek.

There have been no major changes or realignments to Route 3 since the 1950s.

title: New Brunswick Route 3


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Nasdaq-100

The Nasdaq-100 (^NDX ) is a stock market index made up of equity securities issued by 100 of the largest non-financial companies listed on the Nasdaq stock exchange. It is a modified capitalization-weighted index. The stocks' weights in the index are based on their market capitalizations, with certain rules capping the influence of the largest components. It is limited to companies from a single exchange, and it does not have any financial companies. The financial companies are in a separate index, the Nasdaq Financial-100.

History
The Nasdaq-100 was launched on January 31, 1985, by the Nasdaq. It created two indices: the Nasdaq-100, which consists of Industrial, Technology, Retail, Telecommunication, Biotechnology, Health Care, Transportation, Media and Service companies, and the Nasdaq Financial-100, which consists of banking companies, insurance firms, brokerage firms, and Mortgage loan companies.

The base price of the index was initially set at 250, but when it closed near 800 on December 31, 1993, the base was reset at 125 the following trading day, leaving the halved Nasdaq-100 price below that of the more commonly known Nasdaq Composite. The first annual adjustments were made in 1993 in advance of options on the index that would trade at the Chicago Board Options Exchange in 1994. Foreign companies were first admitted to the Nasdaq-100 in January 1998, but had higher standards to meet before they could be added. Those standards were relaxed in 2002, while standards for domestic firms were raised, ensuring that all companies met the same standards.

Investing in the Nasdaq-100
The Invesco QQQ, an exchange-traded fund sponsored and overseen since March 21, 2007, by Invesco, trades under the ticker nasdaq: QQQ. It is nicknamed “triple Qs” or “cubes”. It was formerly called Nasdaq-100 Trust Series 1. On December 1, 2004, it was moved from the American Stock Exchange, where it had the symbol QQQ, to the Nasdaq, and given the new ticker symbol QQQQ, sometimes called the "quad Qs" by traders. On March 23, 2011, Nasdaq changed its symbol back to QQQ. Retail buy and hold investors might prefer to purchase Invesco's similar Nasdaq: QQQM, or "QQQ Mini" which has a lower fee structure, but lacks the liquidity that high-frequency traders need in the traditional QQQ product.

QQQ is one of the most actively traded exchange-traded funds in the United States.

The Nasdaq-100 is often abbreviated as NDX, NDQ, NAS100 or US100 in the derivatives markets. Its corresponding futures contracts are traded on the Chicago Mercantile Exchange. The regular futures are denoted by the Reuters Instrument Code ND, and the smaller E-mini version uses the code NQ. Both are among the most heavily traded futures at the exchange.

Price history and milestones
The index set highs above the 4,700 level at the peak of the dot-com bubble in 2000, but fell 78% during the stock market downturn of 2002.

After a gradual 5-year recovery to an intraday high of 2,239.51 on October 31, 2007, the highest reached since February 16, 2002, the index corrected below the 2,000 level in early 2008 amid the late-2000s recession, the United States housing bubble and the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Panic focusing on the failure of the investment banking industry culminated in a loss of more than 10% on September 29, 2008, subsequently plunging the index firmly into a bear market. The Nasdaq-100, with much of the broader market, experienced a limit down open on October 24 and reached a 6-year intraday low of 1,018 on November 20, 2008.

Amid quantitative easing (QE) from the Federal Reserve and optimism that the financial crisis was ending, the index embarked on a volatile four-year climb higher, closing above 3,000 on May 15, 2013, for the first time since November 15, 2000. By October 18, 2013, with GOOG passing $1,000 per share for the first time, the index had made a closing high of 3,353.88 and intraday high of 3,355.63, its highest levels since the 2000 United States elections and more than triple the 2008 low.

Annual returns
The following table shows the annual development of the Nasdaq-100 since 1985.

Selection criteria
The Nasdaq has refined a series of stringent standards which companies must meet to be indexed. Those standards include:
 * Being listed exclusively on Nasdaq in either the Global Select or Global Market tiers.
 * Being publicly offered on an established American market for at least three months.
 * Having average daily volume of 200,000 shares.
 * Being current in regards to quarterly and annual reports.
 * Not being in bankruptcy proceedings.

Additionally, since 2014, companies with multiple classes of stock are allowed to have multiple classes included in the index, provided they meet Nasdaq's criteria. Prior to 2014, companies were limited to one class of stock in the index (usually the one with the larger market capitalization).

Yearly rebalancing and re-ranking
While the composition of the Nasdaq-100 changes in the case of delisting (such as transferring to another exchange, mergers and acquisitions, or declaring bankruptcy, and in a few cases, being delisted by Nasdaq for failing to meet listing requirements), the index is rebalanced once a year, in December, when Nasdaq reviews its components, compares them with those not in the index, re-ranks all eligible companies and makes the appropriate adjustments.

There are two tools the Nasdaq uses to determine the market values of companies for the annual review:
 * Share Prices as of the last trading day in October.
 * Publicly announced share totals as of the last trading day of November.

Those components that are in the top 100 of all eligible companies at the annual review are retained in the index. Those ranked 101 to 125 are retained only if they were in the top 100 of the previous year's annual review. If they fail to move into the top 100 in the following year's review, they are dropped. Those not ranked in the top 125 are dropped regardless of the previous year's rank.

The index also drops a company if, at the end of two consecutive months, it fails to have an index weighting of at least one-tenth of a percent. This can occur at any time. Companies that are dropped are replaced by those with the largest market value that are not already in the index. Anticipation of these changes can lead to changes in the stock prices of affected companies.

The index publicly announces all changes, regardless of when they occur, via press releases at least five business days before the change takes place. The 2018 results of the re-ranking and rebalancing were announced on December 14, with the changes effective the morning of December 24, coinciding with the expiration of options on December 21.

Differences from Nasdaq Composite index
The Nasdaq-100 is frequently confused with the Nasdaq Composite Index. The latter index (often referred to simply as "The Nasdaq") includes the stock of every company that is listed on Nasdaq (more than 3,000 altogether).

The Nasdaq-100 is a modified capitalization-weighted index. This particular methodology was created in 1998 in advance of the creation of the Nasdaq-100 Index Trust, which holds portions of all Nasdaq-100 firms. The new methodology allowed Nasdaq to reduce the influence of the largest companies and to allow for more diversification. However, the weights of the stocks were not changed after that, which led to more problems. In May 2011, Nasdaq did a major rebalance of the index to bring it closer to market-cap weighting.

The index is rebalanced quarterly only if:
 * One company is worth 24% of the index
 * Companies with a weighting of at least 4.5% make up 48% or more of the index

The index is rebalanced annually, after the quarterly rebalancing, only if:
 * One company is worth 15% of the index
 * The five largest companies by market capitalizations have weights of 40% or more of the index

Differences from other indices
In addition to its almost complete lack of financial companies, the Nasdaq-100 includes five companies incorporated outside the United States. Although the S&P 500 Index includes non-U.S. companies, the Dow Jones Industrial Average has never included foreign companies.

As of June 2024, the index's seven companies incorporated in foreign countries are as follows:
 * Cayman Islands (all headquartered in China) - PDD Holdings
 * The Netherlands - ASML Holding, NXP Semiconductors
 * United Kingdom - Arm Holdings, AstraZeneca, Coca-Cola Europacific Partners, Linde plc

Additionally, the Nasdaq-100 is also the only index of the three that has a regularly scheduled re-ranking of its index each year (in December), ensuring that the largest non-financial companies on Nasdaq are accurately included.

Related indices
In 2006, Nasdaq created a "farm team" index, the Nasdaq Q-50, representing the next fifty stocks in line to enter the Nasdaq-100. With some exceptions, most stocks that are added to the index come up through the Q-50. In 2011, Nasdaq created the NASDAQ-500 to track the 500 largest stocks on Nasdaq, and the Nasdaq-400, tracking those stocks not included in the Nasdaq-100.

Nasdaq has also divided the 100 into two distinct sub-indices; the Nasdaq-100 Tech follows those components who service the tech sector, and the Nasdaq-100 Ex-Tech, which follows those components that are not considered tech companies. The latter index includes noted e-commerce companies Amazon.com and eBay, which are classified as retailers.

Components
''This table is current as of the open of trading on June 24, 2024. An up-to-date list is available in the External links section.''

Historical components
As of March 2024, 512 companies have been components of the index. Of these, only four, Apple, Costco (through its merger in 1993 with Price Club, with Costco, as a separate entity, not becoming a component until at least 1989), Intel and PACCAR, have been components, continuously, since the first dissemination of the index in 1985. Two other current components, KLA Corporation and Micron Technology, were also components when the index started, but have been removed from the index over time for various reasons.

Changes from 2008–2011
DirecTV replaced BEA Systems on April 30, 2008 CA, Inc. replaced Tellabs on May 19, 2008. FLIR Systems replaced UAL Corporation on July 21, 2008, and on November 10, 2008 Seagate Technology replaced Monster Worldwide. On December 22, 2008, Nasdaq added the following companies to the Nasdaq-100 index: Automatic Data Processing, First Solar, Life Technologies, Ross Stores, Maxim Integrated Products, Illumina, Inc., Pharmaceutical Product Development, O'Reilly Auto Parts, Urban Outfitters, J. B. Hunt, and Warner Chilcott, replacing Amylin Pharmaceuticals, Cadence Design Systems, Discovery Communications, Lamar Advertising Company, Leap Wireless International, Level 3 Communications, PetSmart, SanDisk, Sirius XM Radio, Virgin Media, and Whole Foods Market.

On January 20, 2009, News Corporation was added to the index, replacing Focus Media Holding, which did not meet the minimum monthly weight requirements. On July 17, 2009, Cerner replaced Sun Microsystems after Sun Microsystems was acquired by Oracle Corporation. On October 29, 2009, Priceline.com replaced Juniper Networks after Juniper transferred its listing to the NYSE. On December 21, 2009, seven stocks joined the Nasdaq-100 index before the market open: Vodafone, Mattel, BMC Software, Mylan, Qiagen, SanDisk and Virgin Media. These stocks replaced Akamai Technologies, Hansen Natural, IAC/InterActiveCorp, Liberty Global, Pharmaceutical Product Development, Ryanair and Steel Dynamics.

On December 20, 2010, seven companies were added to the Nasdaq-100 index: F5 Networks, Akamai Technologies, Netflix, Micron Technology, Whole Foods Market, Ctrip and Dollar Tree, replacing Cintas, Dish Network, Foster Wheeler, Hologic, J. B. Hunt, Logitech and Patterson Companies. These were the only changes made to the index that year and the fewest since 1997.

On April 4, 2011, Alexion Pharmaceuticals replaced Genzyme before the market open. On May 27, 2011, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters replaced Millicom International Cellular after Millicom (MICC) withdrew its Nasdaq listing. On July 15, 2011, Sirius XM Radio replaced Cephalon in the index, and on December 6, 2011, Perrigo joined the index, replacing Joy Global, which transferred its listing to the NYSE. Perrigo had been a member of the index in the 1990s, being dropped in 1996. On December 19, 2011, five companies joined the Nasdaq-100 index due to the annual reranking of the index: Avago Technologies, Fossil, Inc., Monster Beverage (Hansen Natural Corporation), Nuance Communications, and Randgold Resources, replacing FLIR Systems, Illumina, NII Holdings, Qiagen, and Urban Outfitters.

Changes in 2012
On April 23, 2012, Texas Instruments replaced First Solar. On May 30, 2012, Viacom became a component of the index, replacing Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, which transferred to the NYSE. On July 23, 2012, Kraft Foods, now known as Mondelez, became a component of the index, replacing Ctrip. Kraft Foods was the fourth component of the Nasdaq-100 to also be included in the Dow Jones Industrial Average, joining Cisco Systems, Intel, and Microsoft, but was removed from the DJIA when it subsequently split into two companies. On Wednesday December 12, 2012, Facebook, Inc. was added to the index, replacing Infosys, which transferred its listing to the NYSE. On December 24, 2012, 20 changes to the index took place. The ten companies joining the index were Analog Devices, Catamaran Corporation, Discovery Communications, Equinix, Liberty Global, Liberty Media, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, SBA Communications, Verisk Analytics and Western Digital. The ten companies being dropped were Apollo Group, Electronic Arts, Flextronics, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters, Lam Research, Marvell Technology Group, Netflix, Research in Motion, VeriSign and Warner Chilcott.

Changes in 2013
On January 15, 2013, Starz Inc. replaced Liberty Media after a spinoff. On March 18, 2013, Kraft Foods Group Inc. replaced Starz Inc. On June 5, 2013, Liberty Media replaced Virgin Media after the companies merged. On June 6, 2013, Netflix replaced Perrigo, which had transferred to the NYSE. On July 15, 2013, Tesla Motors replaced Oracle Corporation, which transferred to the NYSE. On July 25, Charter Communications replaced BMC Software. On August 22, Green Mountain Coffee Roasters returned to the index, replacing Life Technologies. On October 29, VimpelCom Ltd. replaced DELL. On November 18, Marriott International was added to the index, replacing Randgold Resources.

On December 23, 2013, 10 changes to the index took place. The five companies joining the index were DISH Network Corporation, Illumina, NXP Semiconductors, Tractor Supply Company, and TripAdvisor. The five companies that were dropped were Fossil, Inc., Microchip Technology, Nuance Communications, Sears Holdings Corporation, and Dentsply.

Changes in 2014
On April 3, 2014, the Class C common stock of Google was added to the index as a result of Google's stock split. This meant the index had 101 components. Later in 2014, additional classes of stock from other index companies were added to the index, bringing the number of constituent securities in the index to 107. On December 12, 2014, Nasdaq announced that American Airlines Group, Electronic Arts, and Lam Research would be added to the index, effective December 22, replacing Expedia, Inc., F5 Networks, and Maxim Integrated Products.

Changes in 2015
On March 23, Walgreens Boots Alliance replaced Equinix in the index. Although it was still listed on NASDAQ, Equinix converted into a real estate investment trust, making it ineligible for inclusion in the Nasdaq-100, but it did gain eligibility for the Nasdaq Financial-100. On July 1, Liberty Interactive created two new tracking stocks, tracking the company's interests in Latin America. Both tracking stocks were added to the index the same day. On July 2, Kraft Foods merged with Heinz, becoming the Kraft Heinz Company. Catamaran Corporation was removed from the index after the close of trading on July 23, after going private. JD.com replaced it on July 29. DirecTV was removed from the index on July 24 due to its acqusition by AT&T, and replaced by BioMarin Pharmaceutical on July 27. Sigma-Aldrich was removed on July 31, after being acquired by Merck KGaA. Skyworks Solutions replaced Sigma-Aldrich on August 3.

Altera was removed on October 7 as a result of its merger with Intel. Incyte replaced Altera's on that date. PayPal was added to the index on November 11, as Broadcom was in the process of merging with Avago.

Nasdaq announced on December 11 that seven companies would be replaced in the index on December 21 due to annual re-ranking: Ctrip, Endo International, Expedia, Inc., Maxim Integrated Products, Norwegian Cruise Line, T-Mobile US, and Ulta Beauty, replacing C. H. Robinson Worldwide, Expeditors International, Garmin, Keurig Green Mountain, Staples, Inc., VimpelCom, and Wynn Resorts. Two Liberty Media (Liberty Global plc) tracking stocks (LILA) and (LILAK) were removed from the index, leaving 106 separate components.

Changes in 2016
On February 1, Avago Technologies changed its name to Broadcom Limited. On February 22, CSX Corporation replaced KLA-Tencor as a member of the index. On March 16, NetEase replaced SanDisk as a member of the index. On April 18, Liberty Media established two tracking stocks (BATRA), (BATRK) to follow the performance of its investment in the Atlanta Braves. On June 20, Dentsply Sirona returned to the index, replacing four Liberty Media tracking stocks (LMCA), (LMCK), (BATRA), (BATRK).

On July 18, Microchip Technology Incorporated returned to the index, replacing Endo International plc. On October 19, Shire PLC replaced Linear Technology in the index. On December 9, the annual re-ranking of the index was announced, resulting in four changes. Joining the index December 19 were Cintas, Hasbro, Hologic and KLA-Tencor. Bed Bath & Beyond, NetApp, Stericycle and Whole Foods Market were dropped from the index.

Changes in 2017
On February 1, Tesla Motors changed its corporate name to simply Tesla. On February 7, J. B. Hunt replaced NXP Semiconductors in the index. On March 20, Idexx Laboratories replaced SBA Communications in the index after SBA converted to a REIT, rendering it ineligible for inclusion. On April 24, Wynn Resorts replaced TripAdvisor. On June 19, MercadoLibre replaced Yahoo! Inc due to its acquisition by Verizon and subsequent conversion to a closed-end fund.

On October 23, Align Technology replaced Mattel in the index. On December 8, Nasdaq announced that five companies would enter the index on December 18. They were ASML Holding, Cadence Design Systems, Synopsys, Take-Two Interactive, and Workday, Inc. These companies replaced Akamai Technologies, Discovery Communications – both classes listed in the index (DISCA) (DISCK), Norwegian Cruise Lines, Tractor Supply and Viacom.

Changes in 2018
On July 23, PepsiCo replaced Dish Network. On November 5, NXP Semiconductors rejoined the index following its failed acquisition by Qualcomm, replacing CA, which merged with Broadcom. On November 19, Xcel Energy replaced Dentsply Sirona. On December 14, Nasdaq announced that 6 stocks will join the index on December 24: Advanced Micro Devices, lululemon Athletica, NetApp, United Continental Holdings, Verisign, and Willis Towers Watson, replacing Express Scripts, Hologic, Qurate Retail Group, Seagate Technology, Shire and Vodafone.

Changes in 2019
On March 19, the two classes of stock of Fox Corporation replaced the two classes of stock of 21st Century Fox. On November 21, Exelon Corporation replaced Celgene. On December 13, Nasdaq announced that as a result of the annual re-ranking of the index, six companies would join December 23: Ansys, CDW, Copart, CoStar Group, Seattle Genetics, and Splunk, replacing Hasbro, Henry Schein, J.B. Hunt, Mylan, NortonLifeLock, and Wynn Resorts.

Changes in 2020
On April 20, Dexcom replaced American Airlines Group in the index, and Zoom Video Communications replaced Willis Towers Watson on April 30. On June 22, DocuSign replaced United Airlines Holdings, and other replacements that year included Moderna replacing CoStar Group on July 20, Pinduoduo replacing NetApp on August 24, and Keurig Dr Pepper replacing Western Digital on October 19. On December 21, six companies joined the index: American Electric Power, Atlassian, Marvell Technology Group, Match Group, Okta, and Peloton Interactive. They replaced BioMarin Pharmaceutical, Citrix Systems, Expedia Group, Liberty Global (both classes of shares), Take-Two Interactive, and Ulta Beauty.

Changes in 2021
On July 21, Honeywell replaced Alexion Pharmaceuticals, following its acquisition by AstraZeneca. On August 26, Crowdstrike replaced Maxim Integrated Products, which was acquired by Analog Devices.

On December 10, 2021, Nasdaq announced that six new companies would join the index prior to the market open on December 20, 2021. They are Airbnb (ABNB), Datadog (DDOG), Fortinet (FTNT), Lucid Group (LCID), Palo Alto Networks (PANW), and Zscaler (ZS). They will replace CDW (CDW), Cerner (CERN), Check Point (CHKP), Fox Corporation (FOXA/FOX), Incyte (INCY), and Trip.com (TCOM).

Changes in 2022
On January 24, Old Dominion Freight Line replaced Peloton.

On February 2, Constellation Energy was announced as being added to the index as of the end of the previous day. Exelon, from which Constellation was spun off, remained in the index; this increased the number of companies in the index to 101 and the number of stocks to 102 (because 2 classes of Alphabet Inc. stock are in the index).

On February 22, AstraZeneca replaced Xilinx, which was being acquired by AMD.

On November 21, Enphase Energy replaced Okta.

On December 19, the annual re-ranking of the index took place prior to market open. The six stocks joining the index were CoStar Group, Rivian Automotive, Warner Bros. Discovery, GlobalFoundries, Baker Hughes, and Diamondback Energy. They replaced Baidu, DocuSign, Match Group, NetEase, Skyworks Solutions, Splunk, and Verisign. Dropping seven components allowed the Nasdaq-100 index to once again have 100 companies.

Changes in 2023
On June 7, GE HealthCare Technologies replaced Fiserv.

On June 20, Onsemi replaced Rivian.

On July 17, The Trade Desk replaced Activision Blizzard.

On December 18, as part of the annual re-ranking, CDW, Coca-Cola Europacific Partners, DoorDash, MongoDB Inc., Roper Technologies and Splunk replaced Align Technologies, eBay, Enphase Energy, JD.com, Lucid Group and Zoom Video Communications. Additionally, SeaGen was dropped after its merger with Pfizer was completed on December 14, and was replaced by Take-Two Interactive.

Changes in 2024
On March 18, Linde plc replaced Splunk after Cisco Systems completed its acquisition of the company.

On June 24, Arm Holdings replaced Sirius XM as company failed to meet minimum standards.

On July 22, Supermicro will replace Walgreens Boots Alliance.

title: Nasdaq-100


text:
Uncle Nino

Uncle Nino is a 2003 American film directed by Robert Shallcross, produced by David James, and starring Joe Mantegna, Anne Archer, Pierrino Mascarino, Trevor Morgan, and Gia Mantegna.

The film deals with a dysfunctional family, who have lost their way, and a distant relative played by Pierrino Mascarino intends to bring them closer together.

Plot
A father, Robert Micelli (Joe Mantegna), has become a stranger to his family and thinks only of his lawn and job. After decades of no contact, Robert's Uncle Nino (Pierrino Mascarino) flies to the United States for an unexpected visit, with a suitcase full of homemade Italian wine. Nino helps the family realize the true value of family.

Cast

 * Joe Mantegna as Robert Micelli
 * Pierrino Mascarino as Uncle Nino
 * Anne Archer as Marie
 * Trevor Morgan as Bobby
 * Duke Doyle as Bones
 * Daniel Adebayo as Joey
 * Gia Mantegna as Gia
 * Gianfranco Landi as Italian Truck Driver
 * Jessica Szohr as MC
 * Maureen Gallagher as Ellen

title: Uncle Nino


text:
Fresh Cream

Fresh Cream is the debut studio album by the British rock band Cream, consisting of bassist Jack Bruce, guitarist Eric Clapton and drummer Ginger Baker. The album was released in the UK on 9 December 1966, as the first LP on the Reaction Records label, owned by producer Robert Stigwood. It was released in both mono and stereo versions, at the same time as the release of the single "I Feel Free". The album peaked at No. 6 on the UK Albums Chart. The album was released in a slightly different form in January 1967 by Atco Records in the US, also in mono and stereo versions.

The mono versions were deleted not long after release and for many years only the stereo recordings were available. The UK mono album was reissued on CD for the first time in Japan, by Universal Music, in late 2013 as part of a deluxe SHM-CD and SHM-SACD sets (both editions also contain the UK stereo counterpart).

In January 2017, the album was again reissued, by Polydor, in a 4-CD box-set containing mono and stereo versions of the original UK and US release along with singles and B-sides.

Background
Bass player Jack Bruce later said that the opening song "N.S.U." was written for the band's first rehearsal. "It was like an early punk song... the title meant "non-specific urethritis. It didn't mean an NSU Quickly – which was one of those little 1960s mopeds. I used to say it was about a member of the band who had this venereal disease. I can't tell you which one... except he played guitar."

Reception
In 2012, the album was ranked number 102 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of all time (the highest-ranking album by Cream on the list). Uncut describes the songs as "all about playing in a band and relaxing, the joy of being young, and they walk it like they talk it, being jumping-off points for wonderful spur-of-the moment improvisations". Writing for the BBC, Sid Smith notes that "blues, pop and rock magically starts to coalesce to create something brand new". Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic opined that the album was "instrumental in the birth of heavy metal and jam rock".

Later U.S. release
Original reissues in the U.S. on RSO/Polydor use the same track listing as the original UK edition given above in which "I Feel Free" is replaced with "Spoonful" on Side 1. Polydor's original CD release from the 1980s combines the UK and US track lists but also includes "The Coffee Song" and "Wrapping Paper," which were removed from subsequent CD releases starting in the 1990s.

Scandinavian release
An edition released originally only in Scandinavia was a 12-track release, It had the same ten tracks as the UK version plus added two tracks: "Wrapping Paper", written by Jack Bruce and Pete Brown, and "The Coffee Song", written by Tony Colton and Ray Smith. Both vinyl and cover were made in Germany and exported to the Swedish market only – the German original had the same 10 tracks as the UK. The group didn't want "Coffee Song" to be issued at all, but a mono version was mixed and coupled with "Wrapping Paper" as a single. There were no plans at this stage to release it in stereo, so for the Swedish issue, a crude stereo mix was used. This was made during the sessions in early August 1966 for instructive purpose – the whole track as basic mono is mixed far right and a solo guitar overdub far left. Never intended for release, this mix was soon lost and for later stereo issues a new one was made.

The front cover and record no. (623 031) are the same as the German issue, but three different back covers exist. The first listed the correct 12 tracks, the second listed 10 tracks, and a third where the 12 track listing has been "glued" over the 10 track listing.

This version of Fresh Cream was also released by Polydor (2384 067) in the UK in 1974 under the title "Cream".

This version of Fresh Cream was released by RSO (2658 142) & Polydor (2658 142) in Germany during 1981 as a boxset under the title "Cream".

Personnel
Cream
 * Ginger Baker – drums, percussion, vocals
 * Jack Bruce – vocals, bass guitar, harmonica, piano
 * Eric Clapton – guitar, vocals

Technical
 * Robert Stigwood – producer
 * John Timperley – engineer

title: Fresh Cream


text:
IPlanet

iPlanet was a product brand that was used jointly by Sun Microsystems and Netscape Communications Corporation when delivering software and services as part of a non-exclusive cross marketing deal that was also known as "A Sun|Netscape Alliance".

History
After AOL merged with Netscape, technology analysts speculated that AOL's major interest was the netscape.com website (specifically the millions of registered users thereof ), and to a lesser extent the Netscape Communicator suite, which some considered would be used to replace the Internet Explorer browser which AOL licensed from Microsoft and included as part of their software suite.

AOL entered into an agreement with systems and software company Sun Microsystems whereby engineers from both companies would work together on software development, marketing, sales, installation and support. Part of the deal was that Sun agreed to pay Netscape a fixed amount for each year of the deal regardless of whether any software was actually sold by the alliance. The code was written after the best parts of the Netscape Enterprise Server and the Sun Java System Web Server had been merged.

The iPlanet brand was already owned by Sun following the acquisition of i-Planet, Inc. in October 1998 (i-Planet was founded just two years before in January 1996).

In 2001, the three year alliance came to an end, at which point, under the terms of the deal, both AOL and Sun retained equal rights to the code that had been jointly developed. Toward the end of August 2001 many of the remaining Netscape employees were either laid off or transferred to Sun (mostly at its campuses in Santa Clara, California and Bangalore). During the period of the alliance, Netscape had hired very few people, most staff coming under the Sun umbrella.

AOL had continued to market the directory and certificate server products under the Netscape brand. But in 2004 AOL sold the directory and certificate server products to Red Hat, which open-sourced them and integrated both into its Red Hat Enterprise Server product portfolio (Red Hat Directory Server and Certificate System).

Most of the other iPlanet products were moved to the Sun ONE brand and then the Sun Java System brand.

After the Oracle acquisition of Sun, some of the former iPlanet products returned to be sold under the iPlanet brand, specifically Oracle iPlanet Web Server and Oracle iPlanet Web Proxy Server.

Products
The suite of iPlanet offerings included:
 * iPlanet Application Server (a Java EE application server system, based on the Netscape Application Server and NetDynamics Application Server)
 * iPlanet Calendar Server
 * iPlanet Directory Server (an LDAP server), renamed to Sun Java System Directory Server
 * iPlanet Instant Messaging Server
 * iPlanet Messaging Server (a SMTP, IMAP, POP3 and webmail mail server)
 * iPlanet Meta Directory
 * iPlanet Portal Search (formerly Netscape Compass)
 * iPlanet Portal Server
 * iPlanet Web Server (an HTTP and HTTPS web server), renamed to Sun Java System Web Server
 * iPlanet Web Proxy Server, renamed to Sun Java System Web Proxy Server

The suite also included a number of server-side infrastructure components, including distributed event management and tools for managing large populations of iPlanet server instances.

Additionally, iPlanet sold "iPlanet E-Commerce Applications", a suite of software tools intended for building e-commerce websites:

 * iPlanet BillerXpert (for handling billing and related financial processing activities)
 * iPlanet BuyerXpert (for business-to-business procurement software)
 * iPlanet ECXpert
 * iPlanet MerchantXpert
 * iPlanet SellerXpert (for implementing b2b and b2c sales websites)
 * iPlanet TradingXpert
 * Netscape PublishingXpert

title: IPlanet


text:
Kairo

Kairo may refer to:

 * Kairo (band), Mexican boy band from 1993 to 1999 with Eduardo Verástegui as member until 1996
 * Kairo (video game), independently published exploration video game made by Richard Perrin
 * Kairo (film), A.K.A. Pulse, a 2001 Japanese film directed by Kiyoshi Kurosawa
 * Kairo-kō, a 1905 novel by Japanese author Natsume Sōseki
 * Kai-ro, a superhero in episodes of Batman Beyond and Justice League Unlimited cartoons (a future Green Lantern), named after Green Lantern's alien sidekick Kairo.
 * Kairō, a cloister-like part of a Japanese Buddhist temple
 * Kairo is also a Japanese term for a hand warmer
 * Kairo block, a community development block in Jharkhand, India
 * Kairo, Lohardaga, a village in Jharkhand, India

title: Kairo


text:
Luxor Governorate

Luxor Governorate (محافظة الأقصر) has been one of Egypt's governorates since 7 December 2009, when former president Hosni Mubarak announced its separation from the Qena Governorate. It is located 635 km south of Cairo. It lies in Upper Egypt along the Nile. Luxor is the capital of the Luxor governorate, other important cities and tourist centers include Esna and Armant.

Overview
Despite the governorate being one of the top destinations for tourists in Egypt, the poverty rate is more than 60% in this governorate but recently some social safety networks have been provided in the form of financial assistance and job opportunities. The funding has been coordinated by the country's Ministry of Finance and with assistance from international organizations.

Municipal divisions
The governorate is divided into the following municipal divisions with a total estimated population as of January 2023 of 1,388,666. In some instances, there is a markaz and a kism with the same name.

Emblem
The emblem of Luxor represents the bust of Tutankhamun on board an Ancient Egyptian canoe boat, cruising in the Nile, with an obelisk and the sunlight in the background.

Geography
The governorate's total area is 2960 km2, representing 0.24% of the country's area.

Population
At the 2012 census, the population of the area which in 2009 was formed into the new Luxor Governorate was 1,064,000 people. 47.4% of them lived in urban areas, while 52.6% lived in rural areas. The annual population growth rate is 18.2 per thousand. Population estimates from 2015 put the same figure at 1,147,058 with an urbanization rate of 37.8%.

Industrial zones
According to the Egyptian Governing Authority for Investment and Free Zones (GAFI), in affiliation with the Ministry of Investment (MOI), the following industrial zones are located in this governorate:
 * El Boghdadi
 * (New urban community industrial zone) New Tiba

title: Luxor Governorate


text:
Mediolanum

Mediolanum, the ancient city where Milan now stands, was originally an Insubrian city, but afterwards became an important Roman city in Northern Italy.

The city was settled by a Celtic tribe belonging to the Insubres group and belonging to the Golasecca culture under the name Medhelanon around 590 BC, conquered by the Romans in 222 BC, who Latinized the name of the city into Mediolanum, and developed into a key centre of Western Christianity and informal capital of the Western Roman Empire. It declined under the ravages of the Gothic War, its capture by the Lombards in 569, and their decision to make Ticinum the capital of their Kingdom of Italy.

During the Principate the population was 40,000 in AD 200; when the city became capital of the Western Roman Empire under emperor Maximian (r. 286–305), the population rose to 100,000 people and thus Milan became one of the largest cities in Roman Italy.

History
The city was settled by a Celtic tribe belonging to the Insubres group and belonging to the Golasecca culture around 590 BC under the name Medhelanon According to the legend reported by Livy, the Gaulish king Ambicatus sent his nephew Bellovesus into northern Italy at the head of a party drawn from various Gaulish tribes; this Bellovesus was said to have founded Mediolanum (in the time of Tarquinius Priscus, according to this legend). The Romans, led by consul Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio Calvus, fought the Insubres and captured the city in 222 BC; the chief of the Insubres submitted to Rome, giving the Romans control of the city. They eventually conquered the entirety of the region, calling the new province Cisalpine Gaul – "Gaul this side of the Alps" – and may have given the site its Latinized Celtic name: in Gaulish *medio – meant "middle, center" and the name element -lanon is the Celtic equivalent of Latin -planum "plain", thus *Mediolanon (Latinized as Mediolānum) meant "(settlement) in the midst of the plain."

Mediolanum was important for its location as a hub in the road network of northern Italy. Polybius describes the country as abounding in wine, and every kind of grain, and in fine wool. Herds of swine, both for public and private supply, were bred in its forests, and the people were well known for their generosity.

During the Augustan age Mediolanum was famous for its schools; it possessed a theater and an amphitheatre (129.5 X 109.3 m ). A large stone wall encircled the city in Caesar's time, and later was expanded in the late third century AD, by Maximian. Mediolanum was made the seat of the prefect of Liguria (Praefectus Liguriae) by Hadrian, and Constantine made it the seat of the vicar of Italy (Vicarius Italiae). In the third century Mediolanum possessed a mint, a horreum and imperial mausoleum. In 259, Roman legions under the command of Emperor Gallienus soundly defeated the Alemanni in the Battle of Mediolanum.

In 286, Diocletian moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Rome to Mediolanum. He chose to reside at Nicomedia in the Eastern Empire, leaving his colleague Maximian at Mediolanum. Maximian built several gigantic monuments, the large circus (470 x 85 metres), the thermae or Baths of Hercules, a large complex of imperial palaces and other services and buildings of which fewer visible traces remain. Maximian increased the city area surrounded by a new, larger stone wall (about 4.5 km long) encompassing an area of 375 acres with many 24-sided towers. The monumental area had twin towers; one that was included in the convent of San Maurizio Maggiore remains 16,60 m high.

It was from Mediolanum that the Emperor Constantine issued what is now known as the Edict of Milan in AD 313, granting tolerance to all religions within the Empire, thus paving the way for Christianity to become the dominant religion of the Empire. Constantine was in Mediolanum to celebrate the wedding of his sister to the Eastern Emperor, Licinius. There were Christian communities in Mediolanum, which contributed its share of martyrs during the persecutions, but the first bishop of Milan who has a firm historical presence is Merocles, who was at the Council of Rome of 313. In the mid-fourth century, the Arian controversy divided the Christians of Mediolanum; Constantius supported Arian bishops and at times there were rival bishops. Auxentius of Milan (died 374) was a respected Arian theologian.

At the time of the bishop St. Ambrose (bishop 374–397), who quelled the Arians, and emperor Theodosius I, Mediolanum reached the height of its ancient power.

The city also possessed a number of basilicas, added in the late fourth century AD. These are San Simpliciano, San Nazaro, San Lorenzo and the chapel of San Vittore, located in the basilica of Sant'Ambrogio. In general, the Late Empire encouraged the development of the applied arts in Mediolanum, with ivory and silver work being common in public building projects. In the crypt of the Duomo survive ruins of the ancient church of Saint Tecla and the baptistry where St. Augustine of Hippo was baptized.

In 402, the city was besieged by the Goths and the imperial residence was moved to Ravenna. In 452, it was besieged again by Attila, but the real break with its imperial past came in 538, during the Gothic War, when Mediolanum was laid to waste by Uraia, a nephew of Vitiges, King of the Goths, with great loss of life. The Lombards took Ticinum as their capital (renaming it 'Papia', hence the modern Pavia), and Early Medieval Milan was left to be governed by its archbishops.

Extant structures
Some of the monuments of the Roman Mediolanum still to be seen in Milan:
 * in the basilica of S. Ambrogio:
 * the Chapel of S. Vittore, with Late Antique mosaics
 * the so‑called "Tomb of Stilicho", assembled from a Roman sarcophagus and other material.
 * a large collection of inscriptions.
 * the Colonne di San Lorenzo, a colonnade in front of the church of S. Lorenzo.
 * Roman lapidary material in the Archi di Porta Nuova.
 * the scant remains of a large amphitheatre, now in an archaeological park dedicated to their preservation.
 * a tower (16.6 m high) of the circus, now inside the Convento di San Maurizio Maggiore.
 * a bit of moenia (walls) and a tower with 24 sides (Maximian, 3rd century)
 * the church of San Lorenzo (IV-V sec.) and the San Aquilino chapel.
 * ruins of the imperial palace.
 * some ruins from the Baths of Hercules; further remains of ceilings and floors are in the archaeological museum.
 * the body of St. Ambrose (d. 397) and those possibly of SS. Gervasius and Protasius — or at any rate, of earlier men, found in St. Ambrose's time, are still seen in the crypt of the church of S. Ambrogio.
 * crypt of San Giovanni in Conca
 * a bit of the moenia and some remnants of pavements in piazza Missori and in the namesake station of Milan Metro.

Legacy
The ancient city name is commemorated in the Mediolanum Forum at Assago and the Mediolanum Corporate University, Milan.

title: Mediolanum