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Pomona Valley

The Pomona Valley is located in the Greater Los Angeles Area between the San Gabriel Valley and San Bernardino Valley in Southern California. The valley is approximately 30 miles east of downtown Los Angeles.

History
The earliest inhabitants of Pomona Valley were the Gabrielino (Tongva) and Serrano Indians.

On March 1, 1893 the California Assembly voted 54–14 for a new county to form in the region, to be named San Antonio County, with Pomona as its seat. Los Angeles interests in the Senate rejected the concept, however, and today the eastern and western portions of the valley remain divided between San Bernardino and Los Angeles counties (San Antonio Creek).

Geography
The alluvial valley is formed by the Santa Ana River and its tributaries. The Pomona Valley is separated from San Gabriel Valley to the west by the northeastern end of the San Jose Hills, running approximately along State Route 57. The eastern boundaries are the Jurupa Hills and the Cajon Pass, (the eastern end of the San Gabriel Mountains) running near Interstate 15, which separates the Pomona Valley from the San Bernardino Valley. The northern boundary is the San Gabriel Mountains. The Chino Hills are the southern boundary that separates the Pomona Valley from northern Orange County. Historic U.S. Route 66 runs east-west across the north side of Pomona Valley. San Antonio Creek runs right through the center of the valley dividing the valley into west and east, and also acts as a section of the border between Los Angeles County and San Bernardino County. It originates from the San Gabriel Mountains watershed around Mount San Antonio (known locally as Mt. Baldy) and joins the Santa Ana River south of Chino. The Pomona Valley ranges from the city of San Dimas from the far west to Rancho Cucamonga to the far east portion of the valley.

Climate
The Pomona Valley experiences a Mediterranean Climate. In contrast to much of the Greater Los Angeles Area, The Pomona Valley can get much hotter summers with high temperatures ranging from the triple digits. Due to its elevation ranging from 800 to 2200 feet, winters in the Pomona Valley can also get cold. Trace amounts of snowfall can occur anywhere above 1500 feet. On the valley floor, average rainfall amounts range anywhere from 12 to 16 inches. Foothill communities can get anywhere from 14 to 18 inches of rain a year. In the fall (fire season), Santa Ana Winds can occur giving strong offshore winds from the Cajon Pass.

Demographics
The residents of the Pomona Valley are predominantly Latino and White. In contrast to the San Gabriel Valley, the population of Asian Americans is much smaller. Northern areas of the valley that contain the cities of Claremont, La Verne, and Upland have large Caucasian populations. Central portions of the valley that contain the cities of Pomona, Montclair, Chino, and Ontario have large Hispanic populations. Southern portions of the Pomona Valley such as Chino Hills, and Ontario Ranch contain rather large Asian populations. Rancho Cucamonga, a city in the north west of the valley is very diverse, with large groups of Hispanics, Whites, Asians, and Blacks.

Points of interest

 * American Museum of Ceramic Art, Pomona
 * Fairplex, annual Los Angeles County Fair - Pomona
 * California State Polytechnic University, Pomona - Pomona
 * University of La Verne - La Verne
 * Montclair Plaza - Montclair
 * Pomona Valley Air Fair - Upland
 * Pomona Valley Art Association - Gallery SOHO (located in the Pomona Arts Colony, Pomona)
 * The Shoppes at Chino Hills - Chino Hills
 * Raging Waters, water park - San Dimas
 * Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden - Claremont
 * Claremont Village - Claremont
 * Claremont Colleges - Claremont
 * Mt. San Antonio College - Walnut
 * Ygnacio Palomares Adobe, List of Registered Historic Places in Los Angeles County, California - Pomona
 * La Casa Primera de Rancho San Jose, List of Registered Historic Places in Los Angeles County, California - Pomona
 * Victoria Gardens - Rancho Cucamonga
 * Ontario Mills - Ontario

Communities

 * Los Angeles County
 * Claremont
 * La Verne
 * Pomona
 * San Bernardino County
 * Chino
 * Chino Hills
 * Montclair
 * Ontario
 * Rancho Cucamonga
 * San Antonio Heights
 * Upland

Institutions of higher learning

 * California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona), public - Pomona
 * Chaffey College, community college - Rancho Cucamonga
 * Citrus College, community college - Glendora
 * Claremont Colleges, liberal arts and engineering - Claremont
 * Pomona College
 * Claremont Graduate University
 * Scripps College
 * Claremont McKenna College
 * Harvey Mudd College
 * Pitzer College
 * Keck Graduate Institute
 * Claremont School of Theology
 * DeVry University, technical institute - Pomona
 * Mt. San Antonio College, community college - Walnut
 * University of La Verne, private - La Verne
 * Western University of Health Sciences, private - Pomona

International Airports

 * Ontario International Airport
 * Los Angeles International Airport

Public transit

 * Foothill Transit
 * Omnitrans
 * Amtrak (Sunset Limited, Texas Eagle)
 * Metrolink (San Bernardino Line, Riverside Line)
 * Los Angeles Metro Rail (A Line)

Highways
The Pomona Valley is served by several freeways:
 * Interstate 10 (San Bernardino Freeway) - connects to San Bernardino and Los Angeles
 * State Route 210 (Foothill Freeway) - connects to Pasadena and San Bernardino
 * Interstate 15 (Ontario Freeway) - connects to Las Vegas, Nevada and San Diego
 * State Route 60 (Pomona Freeway) - connects to Riverside and Los Angeles
 * State Route 71 (Chino Valley Freeway)- connects to Corona
 * State Route 57 (Orange Freeway) - connects to Anaheim

Major surface thoroughfares

 * Central Ave. (Chino, Montclair, Upland)
 * Mountain Ave. (Upland, Ontario, Chino)
 * Euclid Ave.  (Ontario, Upland, Chino)
 * Archibald Ave. (Rancho Cucamonga, Ontario)
 * Chino Hills Pkwy. (Diamond Bar, Chino Hills, Chino)
 * Haven Ave. (Rancho Cucamonga, Ontario)
 * Milliken Ave. (Rancho Cucamonga, Ontario)
 * Monte Vista Ave. (Claremont, Upland, Montclair, Chino)
 * Foothill Blvd. (San Dimas, La Verne, Claremont, Upland, Rancho Cucamonga, Pomona)
 * Bonita Ave. (San Dimas, La Verne, Pomona, Claremont)
 * Base Line Rd. (San Dimas, La Verne, Claremont, Rancho Cucamonga; becomes 16th St. through Upland)
 * Indian Hill Blvd. (Claremont, Pomona)
 * Grand Ave.  (Chino Hills, Diamond Bar, Walnut)
 * Towne Ave. (Claremont, Pomona)
 * Garey Ave.  (Chino Hills, Pomona, Claremont)
 * Arrow Hwy. ''(San Dimas, La Verne, Pomona, Claremont, Montclair)
 * Arrow Rte. (Upland, Rancho Cucamonga)
 * Holt Ave. (Pomona, Montclair, Ontario; becomes Valley Blvd from Pomona to Los Angeles; Eastern end merges with the 10 Fwy)
 * Valley Blvd. (Walnut, Pomona)
 * Holt Blvd. (Pomona, Montclair, Ontario)
 * Mission Blvd. (Pomona, Montclair, Ontario)
 * Mount Baldy Road  (Claremont, San Antonio Heights, Mount Baldy, and Mt. San Antonio)

In Claremont, Mt. Baldy Road leads into the Mt. Baldy Ski Lifts of Mount San Antonio in the San Gabriel Mountains.

Media

 * Claremont Courier
 * Inland Valley Daily Bulletin, with its offices located in Rancho Cucamonga
 * San Gabriel Valley Tribune, serves western Pomona Valley

title: Pomona Valley


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Protein disulfide-isomerase

Protein disulfide isomerase , or PDI, is an enzyme in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) in eukaryotes and the periplasm of bacteria that catalyzes the formation and breakage of disulfide bonds between cysteine residues within proteins as they fold. This allows proteins to quickly find the correct arrangement of disulfide bonds in their fully folded state, and therefore the enzyme acts to catalyze protein folding.

Structure
Protein disulfide-isomerase has two catalytic thioredoxin-like domains (active sites), each containing the canonical CGHC motif, and two non catalytic domains. This structure is similar to the structure of enzymes responsible for oxidative folding in the intermembrane space of the mitochondria; an example of this is mitochondrial IMS import and assembly (Mia40), which has 2 catalytic domains that contain a CX9C, which is similar to the CGHC domain of PDI. Bacterial DsbA, responsible for oxidative folding, also has a thioredoxin CXXC domain.

Protein folding
PDI displays oxidoreductase and isomerase properties, both of which depend on the type of substrate that binds to protein disulfide-isomerase and changes in protein disulfide-isomerase's redox state. These types of activities allow for oxidative folding of proteins. Oxidative folding involves the oxidation of reduced cysteine residues of nascent proteins; upon oxidation of these cysteine residues, disulfide bridges are formed, which stabilizes proteins and allows for native structures (namely tertiary and quaternary structures).

Regular oxidative folding mechanism and pathway
PDI is specifically responsible for folding proteins in the ER. In an unfolded protein, a cysteine residue forms a mixed disulfide with a cysteine residue in an active site (CGHC motif) of protein disulfide-isomerase. A second cysteine residue then forms a stable disulfide bridge within the substrate, leaving protein disulfide-isomerase's two active-site cysteine residues in a reduced state.

Afterwards, PDI can be regenerated to its oxidized form in the endoplasmic reticulum by transferring electrons to reoxidizing proteins such ER oxidoreductin 1 (Ero 1), VKOR (vitamin K epoxide reductase), glutathione peroxidase (Gpx7/8), and PrxIV (peroxiredoxin IV). Ero1 is thought to be the main reoxidizing protein of PDI, and the pathway of reoxidation of PDI for Ero1 is more understood than that of other proteins. Ero1 accepts electrons from PDI and donates these electrons to oxygen molecules in the ER, which leads to the formation of hydrogen peroxide.

Misfolded protein mechanism
The reduced (dithiol) form of protein disulfide-isomerase is able to catalyze a reduction of a misformed disulfide bridge of a substrate through either reductase activity or isomerase activity. For the reductase method, a misfolded substrate disulfide bond is converted to a pair of reduced cysteine residues by the transfer of electrons from glutathione and NADPH. Afterwards, normal folding occurs with oxidative disulfide bond formation between the correct pairs of substrate cysteine residues, leading to a properly folded protein. For the isomerase method, intramolecular rearrangement of substrate functional groups is catalyzed near the N terminus of each active site. Therefore, protein disulfide-isomerase is capable of catalyzing the post-translational modification disulfide exchange.

Redox signaling
In the chloroplasts of the unicellular algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii the protein disulfide-isomerase RB60 serves as a redox sensor component of an mRNA-binding protein complex implicated in the photoregulation of the translation of psbA, the RNA encoding for the photosystem II core protein D1. Protein disulfide-isomerase has also been suggested to play a role in the formation of regulatory disulfide bonds in chloroplasts.

Immune system
Protein disulfide-isomerase helps load antigenic peptides into MHC class I molecules. These molecules (MHC I) are related to the peptide presentation by antigen-presenting cells in the immune response.

Protein disulfide-isomerase has been found to be involved in the breaking of bonds on the HIV gp120 protein during HIV infection of CD4 positive cells, and is required for HIV infection of lymphocytes and monocytes. Some studies have shown it to be available for HIV infection on the surface of the cell clustered around the CD4 protein. Yet conflicting studies have shown that it is not available on the cell surface, but instead is found in significant amounts in the blood plasma.

Chaperone activity
Another major function of protein disulfide-isomerase relates to its activity as a chaperone; its b' domain aids in the binding of misfolded protein for subsequent degradation. This is regulated by three ER membrane proteins, Protein Kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), inositol-requiring kinase 1 (IRE1), and activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6). They respond to high levels of misfolded proteins in the ER through intracellular signaling cascades that can activate PDI's chaperone activity. These signals can also inactivate translation of these misfolded proteins, because the cascade travels from the ER to the nucleus.

Activity assays
Insulin turbidity assay: protein disulfide-isomerase breaks the two disulfide bonds between two insulin (a and b) chains that results in precipitation of b chain. This precipitation can be monitored at 650 nm, which is indirectly used to monitor protein disulfide-isomerase activity. Sensitivity of this assay is in micromolar range.

ScRNase assay: protein disulfide-isomerase converts scrambled (inactive) RNase into native (active) RNase that further acts on its substrate. The sensitivity is in micromolar range.

Di-E-GSSG assay: This is the fluorometric assay that can detect picomolar quantities of protein disulfide-isomerase and therefore is the most sensitive assay to date for detecting protein disulfide-isomerase activity. Di-E-GSSG has two eosin molecules attached to oxidized glutathione (GSSG). The proximity of eosin molecules leads to the quenching of its fluorescence. However, upon breakage of disulfide bond by protein disulfide-isomerase, fluorescence increases 70-fold.

Effects of nitrosative stress
Redox dysregulation leads to increases in nitrosative stress in the endoplasmic reticulum. Such adverse changes in the normal cellular environment of susceptible cells, such as neurons, leads to nonfunctioning thiol-containing enzymes. More specifically, protein disulfide-isomerase can no longer fix misfolded proteins once its thiol group in its active site has a nitric monoxide group attached to it; as a result, accumulation of misfolded proteins occurs in neurons, which has been associated with the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.

Inhibition
Due to the role of protein disulfide-isomerase in a number of disease states, small molecule inhibitors of protein disulfide-isomerase have been developed. These molecules can either target the active site of protein disulfide-isomerase irreversibly or reversibly.

It has been shown that protein disulfide-isomerase activity is inhibited by red wine and grape juice, which could be the explanation for the French paradox.

Members
Human genes encoding protein disulfide isomerases include:

 * AGR2
 * AGR3
 * CASQ1
 * CASQ2
 * DNAJC10
 * ERP27
 * ERP29
 * ERP44
 * P4HB
 * PDIA2
 * PDIA3
 * PDIA4
 * PDIA5
 * PDIA6
 * PDIALT
 * TMX1
 * TMX2
 * TMX3
 * TMX4
 * TXNDC5
 * TXNDC12

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Protein disulfide-isomerase


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Patani (historical region)

Patani Darussalam (Malay: Kesultanan Patani Darussalam, Jawi: كسلطانن ڤطاني دارالسلام, also sometimes Patani Raya or Patani Besar, Greater Patani; ปตานี) is a historical region and sultanate in the Malay Peninsula. It includes the southern Thai provinces of Pattani, Yala (Jala), Narathiwat (Menara), and parts of Songkhla (Singgora). Its capital was the town of Patani.

The Patani region has historical affinities with the Singgora (Songkhla), Ligor (Nakhon Si Thammarat), Lingga (near Surat Thani) and Kelantan sultanates dating back to the time when the Patani Kingdom was a semi-independent Malay sultanate paying tribute to the Siamese kingdoms of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya. After Ayutthaya fell to the Burmese in 1767, the Sultanate of Patani gained full independence, but under King Rama I, it again came under Siam's control.

In recent years, a secessionist movement has sought the establishment of a Malay Islamic state, Patani Darussalam, encompassing the three southern Thai provinces. This campaign has taken a particularly violent turn after 2001, resulting in an intractable insurgency across southern Thailand and the imposition of martial law.

Founding legend
According to legend, the founder of Patani was a raja from Kota Malikha named Phaya Tunakpa. Phaya Tunakpa went hunting one day and saw a beautiful albino mouse-deer the size of a goat, which then disappeared. He asked his men where the animal had gone, and they replied: "Pata ni lah!" ("This beach!" in the Patani Malay language). They searched for the mouse-deer but found instead an old man fishing, who identified himself as Che' Tani. The old man said that he was sent by the raja's grandfather to build a new town further beyond but had fallen ill on the journey; as he could not go any further, he stayed at that place. The raja later ordered a town be built at the site where the mouse-deer had disappeared. The town became Patani, which is believed to be named either after "this beach" where the mouse-deer had disappeared, or the old man as Pak Tani meaning "Father Tani".

Patani, Pattani
In Thailand's southernmost provinces, "Patani" has become a controversial term used to refer to the area encompassing the provinces of Pattani (with two t's), Yala, Narathiwat, and parts of Songkhla, mostly inhabited by Malay Muslims. Patani in Malay is written with one "t", but in Thai sources with two "t"s. When written in Thai, "Patani" (ปตานี) "pa-ta-ni" sounds markedly different from "Pattani" (ปัตตานี) "pat-ta-ni". Malays say P’tani (ปตานี), pronounced as "pa-ta-ni" with a very brief first syllable and stress on the second syllable. "P'tani", the original Malay word for the region, has been used for a long time and is usually never written in Thai. So while technically being the same word as "P'tani", "Patani" with one "t" has a certain separatist political connotation.

Culture
From the cultural point of view the term "Patani" may refer to the territories of the historical Sultanate of Patani, as well as to the wider areas that were once under its rule.

Cultural background: Patani traditions

The inhabitants of the Patani region have been traditionally part of the Malay culture, having a historical background in which Islam has constituted a major influence.

The Patani people speak a form of the Malay language locally known as Jawi. Patani had a complex and distinct culture that included a rich oral literature, rice harvest ceremonies, colourful paintings on the hulls of Korlae boats, and the performances of a kind of Wayang theatre. Living in a borderland at the northern end of the Malay Peninsula, over the centuries the Patani people adapted themselves to a life of harmony with the local Chinese, Buddhist, Indian, Arab and Orang Asli communities.

Despite the ethnic affinity of the Patani with their Malay neighbours to the south, The Patani Kingdom was led by sultans who historically preferred to pay tribute to the distant Siamese kings in Bangkok. For many centuries the King of Siam restricted himself to exacting a periodic tribute in the form of Bunga mas, ritual trees with gold leaves and flowers that were a symbolic acknowledgment of Siamese suzerainty, leaving the Patani rulers largely alone.

The 20th century: forced assimilation
Until well into the 20th century, the government in Bangkok had relied on local officials in the implementation of policies within the Patani region, including the exemption in implementing Thai Civil Law, which had allowed Muslims to continue their observance of local laws based on Islam regarding issues on inheritance and family. However, by 1934 Marshall Plaek Phibunsongkhram set in motion of a process of Thaification which had as its objective the cultural assimilation of the Patani people, among other ethnic groups in Thailand.

The National Culture Act was enforced as a result of the Thaification process, promoting the concept of 'Thai-ness' and its centralist aims. Its "Mandate 3" was directly aimed at the Patani people. By 1944, Thai civil law was enforced throughout the land including the Patani region over-riding the earlier concessions to local Islamic administrative practices. The school curriculum was revised to that of a Thai-centric one with all lessons in the Thai language. Traditional Muslim courts that were used to handle civil cases were removed and replaced with civil courts run and approved by the central government in Bangkok. This forced assimilation process and the perceived imposition of Thai-Buddhist cultural practices upon their society became an irritant for the harmonious relationship of the ethnic Malay Patani people and the Thai state.

Denied recognition as a culturally separate ethnic minority, Patani leaders reacted against the Thai government policy towards them and a nationalist movement began to grow, leading to the South Thailand insurgency. Initially the goal of the nationalist movement such as the Patani United Liberation Organisation (PULO) was secession, pursuing an armed struggle towards an independent state where Patani people could live with dignity without having alien cultural values imposed on them.

The 21st century: traditional culture under threat
After 2001, the Patani insurgency was taken over by groups whose leaders are mainly Salafist religious teachers who have promoted religion, rejecting the nation-building ideology of the early secessionist movements. Current insurgent groups proclaim militant jihadism and are not separatist any more. They have extreme and transnational religious goals, such as an Islamic Caliphate, to the detriment of a constructive cultural or nationalistic Patani identity. Salafi-based groups are hostile to the heritage and practices of traditional Malay Muslims, accusing them of being un-Islamic. They are not concerned about Patani cultural values, instead their immediate aim is to make the Patani region ungovernable.

So far, and in the present circumstances, to preserve an identity free of the influence of Militant Islam has been next to impossible for the people of the hapless Patani Region. The activity of the present-day insurgents has changed the face of Patani society by the imposition of extreme religious undercurrents and the enforcement of the stern Salafi rules on local people.

Early history
The area was home to the Hindu-Buddhist kingdom of Langkasuka as early as the second century, as accounts from Chinese travellers attest. Langkasuka reached its peak in the sixth and seventh centuries, and then declined as a major trade center. Pattani subsequently became part of the Hindu-Buddhist Empire of Srivijaya, a maritime confederation based in Palembang, which spanned the seventh to the thirteenth centuries. Regional influence during these early centuries also came from the developing Khmer, Siamese and Malay cultures.

The founding of the Islamic kingdom of Patani is thought to have been around the mid-13th century, with folklore suggesting it was named after an exclamation made by Sultan Ismail Shah, "Pantai Ini!" ("This beach" in the local Malay language). However, some think it was the same country known to the Chinese as Pan Pan.

Siamese rule
Patani came under Thai rule briefly during the Sukhothai period, and more extensively during the later Ayuthaya period.

In 1791 and 1808, there were rebellions within Pattani against Thai rule, following which Pattani was divided into 7 largely autonomous states (Mueang): Pattani, Nongchik, Saiburi (Teluban), Yala (Jala), Yaring (Jambu), Ra-ngae (Legeh) and Raman. All were ruled by the King of Ligor.

In 1909 Great Britain and Thailand signed the Bangkok Treaty of 1909. The British recognised Thailand's sovereignty over Pattani, and, in return, Thailand gave up the kingdoms of Kedah, Kelantan, Perlis and Terengganu to the British. All seven mueang were reunited into a monthon and incorporated into the kingdom. Later, the central government in Bangkok renamed certain localities with Thai versions of their names and merged some of the mueang.

When the monthon system was dissolved in 1933, three provinces remained: Pattani, Yala and Narathiwat.

Greater Malay Patani state
On 8 December 1941, during the Second World War, the Japanese invaded Thailand, and crossed Pattani to invade British Malaya. The Thai government, led by Marshall Plaek Phibunsongkhram became an active ally of Japan by promising to help Thailand retake some territorial claims back from the British and the French. This included Sirat Malai, the former Malay dependencies of Kelantan, Trengganu, Kedah, and Perlis. It is arguable that this move not only gave more territory to the Thai state but on the contrary, it strengthened the old Malay ties between the Pattani region and the northern Malayan peninsula states.

Tengku Mahmud Mahyuddin, a prominent Pattani leader and the son of the last Raja of Pattani, allied himself with the British in the hopes that Pattani would be granted independence after an Allied victory. His main support came from ethnic Malays displeased by the nationalistic policies of the Phibun regime, which were seen by the southern Malays as forcing them to give up their own language and culture and the economic hardship that ensued as a result of alleged mismanagement. According to Ockey, even leading Thai politicians such as Pridi Phanomyong and Seni Pramot were among those that "overtly or covertly" supported this resistance against the Japanese. During this time the electoral seats for in this region were mainly held by non-Muslim representatives except Satun. Mahyuddin assisted the British by launching guerrilla attacks against the Japanese. In 1945, a petition by Malay leaders led by Tengku Abdul Jalal demanded that Britain guarantee independence for the southernmost provinces of Thailand. At the war's end, the Greater Malay Pattani State (Negara Melayu Patani Raya) flag did fly briefly in Pattani. However, since the British had no power over Thailand, the Thai continued to rule over Pattani, while the British kept Thailand stable as a counterweight to the communist insurgency in Malaya. This led to the formation of several insurgent groups seeking the independence of Pattani.

After World War II had ended, the US had wanted to treat Thailand as an ally because of the resistance movement against the Japanese during the war but the British on the other hand had wanted to treat it as a defeated enemy. With this notion in the balance, the newly elected government led by Pridi had to address the issue of the South. With the aid of advisor Chaem Phromyong, a Muslim, the government began policies of accommodation and integration of the South. With the closure of the war, the government also approved the Patronage of Islam Act. This act recognised the work and role of religious figures in the South and gave them authority once more in the affairs of the Muslims in that region. Coincidentally, this act also paved the way for Haji Sulong to become the president of the Pattani Islamic Committee in 1945. It was from this appointment that Sulong began to take an interest in the restoration of the Islamic courts which had earlier been abolished by the Phibun regime. Ockey points out that Sulong was not entirely pleased with the restoration process because the authority in the Islamic courts was still preceded by the presence of a judge from the Ministry of Justice alongside the Muslim judge in cases. However, the negotiations over this supposed unhappiness was in the form of meetings to discuss terms and not open confrontation. These peaceful attempts at resolution would all come to an end in November 1947 when Pridi was forced out of power by opposing army personnel.

Secessionist movements in Patani
During World War II, along with the Greater Patani Malay Movement led by Tengku Mahmud Mahyuddin, another resistance force under the leadership of Islamic scholar Haji Sulong Tokmina also fought against the Japanese. Their stated goal was to create an Islamic republic in Patani, which frequently put it at odds with Prince Tengku Mahmud, who wanted to reestablish the Pattanese Sultanate.

Haji Sulong had emerged at a time when the region of Pattani was in need of new political direction. His appearance supposedly gave new light to the nationalistic intents of the Malays in the region based on Islamic principles. Haji Sulong was born in 1895 to a family in Kampong Anak Rhu. He had completed his Islamic studies locally before being sent by his father to further education in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. There in Mecca, he apparently met up with and studied with famous Islamic scholars and teachers. He even opened a school in Mecca and had students from all over the world study under him. Eventually he married and settled in Mecca. During this period, there was a wave of nationalism sweeping the world in the earlier part of the 20th century and Sulong himself was exposed to Arab nationalism. Sulong's return to Pattani happened almost by chance due to the death of his first infant son to alleviate the grief of his family.

Upon his return, he had apparently looked upon the plight of the Pattani region being a distant shadow of its former glory as the 'cradle of Islam' in Southeast Asia. According to Thai historian Thanet, this notion set him into action. From teaching in a khru (small Muslim village school), he eventually opened up a pondok to spread his teachings due to his popularity amongst villagers. Even Pridi Phanomyong visited Haji Sulong at his school and it soon became the most popular Islamic school in Thailand. According to Thanet, the rise of Islamic nationalism in the South is not only attributed to Haji Sulong himself but also the religious students who 'were inclined towards modernism' from the northern states in Malaya. Haji Sulong was an ulama who openly distrusted the government's involvement in the religious affairs of the community. His conviction in the matter stemmed from his ideal that a community cannot be established in the south as long as it is solely under Thai rule.

On 3 April 1947, a commission of inquiry by the Bangkok government was sent to the four Muslim states in the South to check on the apparent plight of the Muslims living there. It was during this time that the Provincial Islamic Council of Pattani drafted out a seven-point demand to the central government in Bangkok which sought for the betterment of Muslims in the region. According to Thanet, the commission of inquiry pointed to Haji Sulong as the leader behind the conceptualisation of this demands. Prime Minister Thamrong brought the seven point demand for consideration with his cabinet and then decided that they could not be met because he felt that the existing structure of the Bangkok government was still (then) adequate to govern the Pattani region. He concluded that an exclusive reorganisation of the governmental structure in the area to suit the people there would then "divide the country".

By the late part of 1947, Haji Sulong and his supporters realised that their efforts with the government to negotiate better terms for the Muslims in the south was not working. They then decided to adopt a policy of non-co-operation and this included the boycott of the January 1948 elections. Moreover, at this time, the Pridi government had been ousted in a coup by the military which meant a return to the old rigid ways towards the southern states. During this period, Haji Sulong and his associates were arrested and charged for treason. This was a move purported by Phibun even though he was not back yet in power according to Thanet's research (Phibun returned to power a few months after in April 1948). This arrests were soon followed by clashes between Muslim villagers and the police/military forces at Duson Nyior. This event was known was the Dusun Nyior Incident which was led by a religious leader by the name of Haji Abdul Rahman. The ensuing violence involved over 1000 men in open battle and led to the deaths of an estimated 400 Malay Muslim peasants and 30 policemen. After the clashes had been settled, there was an exodus of Malays across the border to Malaya. There was even a petition by the Pattani Muslims to the United Nations to step in to broker the separation of the southern states to join the Federation of Malaya.

While on trial, the court provided many descriptions of the alleged activities that Haji Sulong had carried out to incite unrest amongst the people. This include accusations that he held meetings which invoked "arousing rebellious feelings among the people almost to the point of creating unrest in the kingdom". According to Thanet, the most serious accusation was that he incited the people to seek for self-government with the intention of inviting Tengku Mahmud Mayuddin, who was the son of the last raja of Pattani, to preside as leader over the four southern provinces. On top of this, the prosecution also stated that Haji Sulong had recommended that Islamic law be implemented and if the government did not comply to the said demands, Haji Sulong would then urge the Malay population to make their complaints heard until the government did something about it. Haji Sulong was convicted and spent time in jail until 1952 and after his release, he was ordered by the government to give up his public activities and subject himself to checks by the police on demand. The prosecutor in that trial wanted to press for a heavier sentence, citing evidence that Haji Sulong was planning something bigger to the scale of a rebellion. Originally as a result of the state's prosecution citing these evidences, the sentence had been longer but due to the willingness of Haji Sulong to co-operate in the investigations, the court reduced the sentence to four years and eight months. In 1954, Haji Sulong, his eldest son Ahmad and some of his associates were told to report to a police station at Songkhla. Upon leaving to report to the station, they were never seen or heard from again. After his disappearance, his family inquired about his whereabouts but never got any answers. In 1957, his son Ameen Tokmina ran for parliament in the elections in the hope that a position in the government could help him look for more information.

Today, the goals and ideas of Haji Sulong Tokmina are still carried on by minor resistance groups interested in creating an Islamic republic. After the war, though, British and Thai policies essentially removed the possibility of an independent republic in Pattani. The British originally had the intention to deliver on their promise to the anti-Japanese Malay leaders in South Thailand that they would either create an independent territory out of the Malay-based southern Thai states or incorporate them in British Malaya as a punishment of Thailand for aiding the Japanese conquest of Malaya and profiting from it. However, they were dissuaded by the USA who needed Thai rice to feed the war-ravaged region and Thai friendship to face up to the possibility of China's fall to the Chinese communist army.

Current insurgency
Patani separatist groups, most notably the Barisan Revolusi Nasional-Koordinasi (BRN-C), began to use increasingly violent tactics after 2001. There have been suggestions of links between the BRN-C and foreign Islamist groups, such as Jemaah Islamiyah, however the strength of these relationships remains unknown.

title: Patani (historical region)


text:
Shannon Lucid

Shannon Matilda Wells Lucid (born January 14, 1943) is an American biochemist and retired NASA astronaut. She has flown in space five times, including a prolonged mission aboard the Russian space station Mir in 1996, and is the only American woman to have stayed on Mir. From 1996 to 2007, Lucid held the record for the longest duration spent in space by an American and by a woman. She was awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in December 1996, making her the tenth person and the first woman to be accorded the honor.

Lucid is a graduate of the University of Oklahoma, where she earned a bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1963, a master's degree in biochemistry in 1970, and a PhD in biochemistry in 1973. She was a laboratory technician at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation from 1964 to 1966, a research chemist at Kerr-McGee from 1966 to 1968, and a research associate at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation from 1973 to 1978.

In 1978, Lucid was recruited by NASA for astronaut training with NASA Astronaut Group 8, the first class of astronauts to include women. She flew in space five times: on STS-51-G, STS-34, STS-43, STS-58, and her mission to Mir, for which Lucid traveled to the space station on with STS-76 and returned six months later with STS-79. She was the NASA Chief Scientist from 2002 to 2003 and a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) at Mission Control for numerous Space Shuttle missions, including STS-135, the final mission of the Space Shuttle program. Lucid announced her retirement from NASA in 2012.

Early life
Shannon Wells was born in Shanghai, Republic of China, on January 14, 1943, the daughter of Joseph Oscar Wells, a Baptist missionary, and his wife Myrtle, a missionary nurse. Due to America's ongoing war with Japan, when she was six weeks old, the family was detained by the Japanese, who had occupied Shanghai at the time. The three of them were imprisoned in an internment camp but were released during a prisoner exchange later that year. They returned to the United States on the Swedish ocean liner MS Gripsholm (1924) and stayed in the US until the end of the war.

After the war ended, the family returned to China but decided to leave again after the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949. They moved to Lubbock, Texas, and then settled in Bethany, Oklahoma, the family's original hometown, where Wells graduated from Bethany High School in 1960. She was fascinated by stories of the American frontier and wanted to become an explorer. She concluded that she had been born too late for this, but discovered the works of Robert Goddard, the American rocket scientist, and decided that she could become a space explorer. Wells sold her bicycle to buy a telescope so she could look at the stars, and began building her own rockets. Shortly after graduating from high school, Wells earned her private pilot's license with instrument and multi-engine ratings and bought a preowned Piper PA-16 Clipper that she used to fly her father to revival meetings. She applied for jobs as a commercial pilot, but was rejected, as women were not yet accepted for training as commercial pilots in the United States.

Wells attended Wheaton College in Illinois, where she majored in chemistry. She then transferred to the University of Oklahoma, where she earned her bachelor's degree in chemistry in 1963. She was a teaching assistant in the University of Oklahoma's Department of Chemistry from 1963 to 1964 and a senior laboratory technician at the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation in Oklahoma City, from 1964 to 1966. She then became a research chemist at Kerr-McGee, an oil company there. At Kerr-McGee she met Michael F. Lucid, a fellow research chemist. They married in 1967, and their first child, Kawai Dawn, was born in 1968.

Afterward, Lucid left Kerr-McGee and returned to the University of Oklahoma as graduate assistant in the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, where she pursued a master's degree in biochemistry. She sat for her final examinations two days after the birth of her second daughter, Shandara Michelle, in 1970. She went on to earn her PhD in biochemistry in 1973, writing her thesis on the Effect of Cholera Toxin on Phosphorylation and Kinase Activity of Intestinal Epithelial Cells and Their Brush Borders under the supervision of A. Chadwick Cox. She then returned to the Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation as a research associate. A third child, Michael Kermit, was born in 1975.

Selection and training
On July 8, 1976, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) issued a call for applications for at least 15 pilot candidates and 15 mission specialist candidates. For the first time, new selections would be considered astronaut candidates rather than fully-fledged astronauts until they finished training and evaluation, which was expected to take two years. The enactment of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972 reinforced the promise of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to address the persistent and entrenched employment discrimination against women, African Americans and minority groups in American society. While they had never been explicitly precluded from becoming NASA astronauts, none had ever been selected either. This time, minorities and women were encouraged to apply. Lucid's was one of the first of 8,079 applications received.

As one of 208 finalists, Lucid was invited to come to the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Houston, Texas, for a week of interviews, evaluations and examinations, commencing on August 29, 1977. She was part of the third group of twenty applicants to be interviewed, and the first one that included women. The eight women in the group included Rhea Seddon, Anna Sims, Nitza Cintron and Millie Hughes-Wiley. On January 16, 1978, NASA announced the names of the 35 successful candidates, of whom 20 were mission specialist candidates. Of the six women in this first class with female astronauts, Lucid was the only one who was a mother at the time of being selected. George Abbey, the Director of Flight Crew Operations at JSC and the chairman of the selection panel, later stated that this was not taken into consideration during the selection process.

Group 8's name for itself was "TFNG". The abbreviation was deliberately ambiguous; for public purposes, it stood for "Thirty-Five New Guys", but within the group itself, it was known to stand for the military phrase, "the fucking new guy", used to denote newcomers to a military unit. Much of the first eight months of their training was in the classroom. Because there were so many of them, the TFNGs did not fit easily into the existing classrooms, so for classroom instruction they were split into two groups, red and blue, led by Rick Hauck and John Fabian respectively. Classroom training was given on a wide variety of subjects, including an introduction to the Space Shuttle program, space flight engineering, astronomy, orbital mechanics, ascent and entry aerodynamics and space flight physiology. Those accustomed to military and academic environments were surprised that subjects were taught, but not tested. Training in geology, a feature of the training of earlier classes, was continued, but the locations visited changed because the focus was now on observations of the Earth rather than the Moon.

Astronaut candidates had to complete survival training, be able to swim and scuba dive, and master the basics of aviation safety, as well as the specifics of the spacecraft they would have to fly. Water survival training was conducted with the 3613th Combat Crew Training Squadron at Homestead Air Force Base in Florida and parasail training at Vance Air Force Base in Oklahoma. On August 31, 1979, NASA announced that the 35 astronaut candidates had completed their training and evaluation, and were now officially astronauts, qualified for selection on space flight crews. Their training, which had been expected to last eighteen to twenty-four months, had been completed in fourteen. That of subsequent classes was shortened to twelve months.

Each of the new astronauts specialized in certain aspects of the Space Shuttle program, providing astronaut support and input. Lucid was involved with Spacelab 1 crew training, and the development of the Shuttle Avionics Integration Laboratory (SAIL) at JSC and Rockwell International's Flight Systems Laboratory (FSL) in Downey, California. She also worked on the Hubble Space Telescope and rendezvous proximity operations. She was at Edwards Air Force Base as a member of the exchange crew for the landing of the STS-5 mission in November 1982. The exchange crew took over from the flight crew after they had landed, and handled the post-flight activities. She was an astronaut support person (ASP) at the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) for the STS-8 mission in August 1983. Also known as a "Cape Crusader", an ASP was an astronaut who supported vehicle and payload testing at KSC, and strapped the flight crew into their seats before takeoff. For the STS-41-B mission in February 1984 she was the backup ASP and once again a member of the exchange crew.

STS-51-G
On November 17, 1983, Lucid was assigned to her first flight, the STS-51-A mission. Tentatively scheduled for October 24, 1984, the mission would be commanded by Daniel Brandenstein, with pilot John O. Creighton and Lucid, Fabian and Steven R. Nagel as mission specialists. She would be the last of the six women in the TFNG group to fly. Due to slippages, the crew was reassigned to the STS-51-D mission in August 1984. This mission had a different payload, and it was scheduled to be launched on March 18, 1985. The mission was scrubbed just three weeks before the launch date. In May 1985 the crew was reassigned to the STS-51-G mission. A French astronaut, Patrick Baudry, and a Saudi Arabian prince, Sultan bin Salman Al Saud were assigned as payload specialists.

STS-51-G lifted off from Launch Complex 39A at KSC in the on June 17, 1985. The seven-day mission was to deploy three communications satellites: Morelos I for Mexico, Arabsat-1B for the Arab League, and Telstar 303 for the United States. The satellites were launched on successive days during the first three days of the mission. Lucid and Fabian operated the Remote Manipulator System (RMS) to deploy the satellites, which were boosted into geostationary transfer orbits by Payload Assist Module (PAM-D) booster stages.

Lucid also used the RMS to deploy the Spartan (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy) satellite, which performed 17 hours of X-ray astronomy experiments while separated from the Space Shuttle, while Fabian handled its retrieval 45 hours later. In addition to the satellite deployments, the crew activated the Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF), six Getaway Specials and participated in biomedical experiments. Discovery landed at Edwards Air Force Base in California on June 24. The mission was accomplished in 112 orbits of the Earth, traveling 2.9 e6mi in 169 hours and 39 minutes (just over one week).

The publicity tour that usually followed a Space Shuttle mission included a trip to Saudi Arabia. Married women were not permitted to travel to Saudi Arabia without their husband, and Michael Lucid was unavailable, so Lucid decided not to go. A devout Christian, she disapproved of the way Saudi Arabia treated women. When the rest of the crew arrived in Riyadh, her absence was noted. This prompted a call from King Fahd of Saudi Arabia to President Ronald Reagan. Lucid went to Saudi Arabia and shook hands with the king, but she stayed for only one day.

STS-34

After the STS-51-G mission, Lucid was assigned to Capsule Communicator (CAPCOM) duty. She served as the CAPCOM for the STS-51-J mission in October 1985, the STS-61-A mission in November 1985, STS-61-B mission in November and December 1985, and the STS-61-C mission in January 1986. The January 1986 Space Shuttle Challenger disaster later that month halted Space Shuttle operations for 32 months while NASA conducted investigations and remediation. Flight crews were stood down. One consequence of the disaster was the Galileo project, an unmanned probe to Jupiter, which lost both its launch window and its ride due to the cancelation of the Shuttle-Centaur project.

On November 30, 1988, NASA announced that Galileo would be deployed by the on the STS-34 mission, which was scheduled for October 12, 1989. The mission was commanded by Donald E. Williams, with pilot Michael J. McCulley and Lucid, Ellen S. Baker and Franklin Chang-Diaz as mission specialists. The launch was delayed for five days due to a faulty Space Shuttle main engine controller, and then for an additional day due to bad weather. Atlantis lifted off from KSC on October 18.

As the lead mission specialist, Lucid was primarily responsible for the Galileo spacecraft, and initiated its deployment by pressing a button to separate Galileo from Atlantis. Galileo was successfully deployed six and a half hours into the flight using the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS). As this was much less powerful than the Shuttle-Centaur upper stage, Galileo had to employ a gravity assist from Venus and two from Earth, and it took six years instead of two for the Galileo to reach Jupiter. "Both Ellen and I sighed a great sigh of relief, because we figured Galileo was not our concern at that point, because we'd gotten rid of it," Lucid reported. "Happiness was an empty payload bay and we got happier and happier as the IUS and Galileo went further away from us."

The mission also conducted a five-day Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment carried in the cargo bay, and experiments related to growth hormone crystal distribution (GHCD) and polymer morphology (PM), a sensor technology experiment (STEX), a mesoscale lightning experiment (MLE), a Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiment that investigated ice crystal formation in zero gravity, and a ground-based Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) experiment. Lucid and Chang-Diaz operated the PM experiment, which used a laptop computer to collect two gigabytes of data from an infrared spectrometer to study the effects of microgravity on minerals. The crew filmed their activities with an IMAX camera. The mission completed 79 orbits of the Earth, traveling 2 e6mi in 119 hours and 39 minutes before landing at Edwards Air Force Base on October 23.

STS-43
In May 1990 NASA announced that Lucid was assigned to the crew of the STS-43 mission, which was scheduled to be flown in Discovery in April 1991. The mission was commanded by John E. Blaha, with Michael A. Baker as the pilot and Lucid, G. David Low, and James C. Adamson as the mission specialists. The objective of the mission was to deploy TDRS-E, a communications satellite that would form part of NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System.

The launch date was postponed to July 23, and the orbiter was changed to Atlantis. The launch was delayed by a day to replace a faulty integrated electronics assembly that controlled the separation of the orbiter and the external tank, and then the countdown was halted with five hours to go due to a faulty main engine controller, and the launch was postponed to August 1. Unfavorable weather prompted yet another 24-hour delay. Atlantis lifted off on August 2. The crew deployed TDRS-E without incident using the IUS. The crew also conducted 32 physical, material and life science experiments, mostly related to the Extended Duration Orbiter and Space Station Freedom. These included experiments with the Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator ElementII (SHAREII), the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) instrument, Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE), and Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW). There was also an auroral photography experiment (APE-B), a protein crystal growth experiment, testing of the bioserve / instrumentation technology associates materials dispersion apparatus (BIMDA), investigations into polymer membrane processing (IPMP), the space acceleration measurement system (SAMS), a solid surface combustion experiment (SSCE), use of the ultraviolet plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui optical site (AMOS) experiment.

Atlantis performed 142 orbits of the Earth, traveling 3.7 e6mi in 213 hours and 21 minutes. STS-43 was the eighth mission to land at KSC, and the first one scheduled to do so since STS-61-C in January 1986.

STS-58

On December 6, 1991, Lucid was assigned to STS-58, the Spacelab Life Sciences2 (SLS-2) mission. This was the second mission dedicated to the study of human and animal physiology on Earth and in spaceflight. The techniques developed for this flight were intended to be precursors of those to be conducted on the Space Station Freedom and subsequent long-duration space flights. Fellow TFNG Rhea Seddon was designated as the mission payload commander, with David Wolf, like Seddon a medical doctor, as the other mission specialist. Originally scheduled as one mission, the number of Spacelab Life Sciences objectives and experiments had grown until it was split into two missions, the first of which, STS-40/SLS-1, was flown in June 1991. The rest of the crew were not named until August 27, 1992. Blaha was designated the mission commander, with pilot Richard A. Searfoss and William S. McArthur Jr. as a fourth mission specialist. A payload specialist, Martin J. Fettman, was assigned to the mission on October 29.

The with SLS-2 on board lifted off from KSC on October 18, 1993. During the fourteen-day flight the crew performed neurovestibular, cardiovascular, cardiopulmonary, metabolic and musculoskeletal medical experiments on themselves and 48 rats. The crew investigated the phenomenon of bone density loss. They also studied the effects of microgravity on their sensory perception, and the mechanism of space adaptation syndrome. To study this, on the second day of the mission Lucid and Fettman wore headsets, known as accelerometer recording units, which recorded their head movements during the day. Along with Seddon, Wolf and Fettman, Lucid collected blood and urine samples from the crew for metabolic experiments. They also drew blood from the tails of the rats to measure how weightlessness affected their red blood cell counts. They performed sixteen engineering tests aboard Columbia and twenty Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project experiments. The mission completed 225 orbits of the Earth, traveling five million miles in 336 hours, 13 minutes and 1 second. Landing was at Edwards Air Force Base, California. On completion of this flight, Lucid had logged 838 hours and 54 minutes in space.

Shuttle-Mir

In 1992 the United States and Russia reached an agreement on cooperation in space so that Russian cosmonauts could fly on the Space Shuttles, and American astronauts on the Russian Mir space station. The prospect of a long stay on Mir was not one calculated to appeal to most astronauts: they had to learn Russian and train at Star City for a year to spend several months on board Mir carrying out science experiments with Russian cosmonauts. "I was wondering what it would be like to spend a long period of time in space," Lucid later recalled. "I told everybody I wanted to do it, and they couldn't find anybody else who had volunteered. So they said: 'Well OK, go do it.'" In January 1995 Lucid and Blaha joined fellow astronauts Bonnie Dunbar and Norman Thagard for Mir training in Star City. On March 30, 1995, NASA announced that Lucid would be the second astronaut to stay aboard Mir, after Thagard, who arrived on the space station on March 16.

Lucid's mission to Mir commenced on March 22, 1996, with liftoff from KSC aboard Atlantis on the STS-76 mission. Atlantis docked with Mir on March 24, and Lucid became the first American woman to live on the station. She joined cosmonauts Yuri Onufriyenko and Yuri Usachov, neither of whom spoke English. During the course of her stay aboard Mir, Lucid performed numerous life science and physical science experiments. She lit candles to study the behavior of fire in a microgravity environment; studied the way that quail embryos developed in their shells; grew protein crystals; and cultivated wheat in a tiny greenhouse. She injected herself with an immune system stimulant and collected blood and saliva samples to study the effects of microgravity on the immune system.

In her free time, she read books. One novel she enjoyed immensely was The Mirror of Her Dreams, but she reached the end only to find that it ended on a cliffhanger. "I floated there, alone in Spectra, in stunned disbelief, holding only volume one," she later recalled. "I was stranded, the impossibility of running to the local bookstore forefront in my mind... How could my daughter have done this to me? Who would send only one volume of a two-volume set to her mother in space?" She arranged for the second volume to be sent on the next Progress resupply freighter. She left her books on Mir for later astronaut visitors, but they became inaccessible after the Progress M-34 collision in June 1997. Thagard had warned Lucid about the Russians' fondness for jellied fish and borscht. She brought a supply of M&M's and jello with her, and lived on a combination of Russian and American food.

Lucid's return journey to KSC was made aboard Atlantis. The STS-79 mission docked with Mir on September 18, bringing Blaha as her relief, and landed back at KSC on September 26, 1996. One of the catches that released her helmet from the neck ring became stuck, and technicians had to use pliers and a screwdriver to remove it. During her stay on Mir, Lucid had spent nearly 400 hours exercising on a stationary bicycle and a treadmill, and was able to stand and walk off Atlantis. Administrator of NASA Daniel Goldin presented her with a giftwrapped box of M&M's, a gift from President Bill Clinton, since she had told him that she craved them.

In completing this mission Lucid traveled 75.2 e6mi in 188 days, 4 hours, 0 minutes. This included 179 days on Mir. Her stay on Mir was not expected to last so long but her return was delayed twice, extending her stay by about six weeks. As a result of her time aboard Mir, she held the record for the most hours in orbit by a non-Russian, and most hours in orbit by a woman until June 16, 2007, when her record for longest duration spaceflight by a woman was exceeded by Sunita Williams on the International Space Station.

CAPCOM

Lucid had a short cameo in the 1998 film Armageddon. From 2002 to 2003, she served as Chief Scientist of NASA. Starting in 2005, she served as lead CAPCOM on the Planning (overnight) shift at the Mission Control for sixteen Space Shuttle missions, including STS-135, the final mission. On January 31, 2012, she announced her retirement from NASA.

Later life
Lucid retired from NASA to take care of her husband Mike, who had dementia. He died on December 25, 2014. She later wrote about this experience in her book No Sugar Added: One Family's Saga of Dementia and Caretaking (2019). She wrote about her experiences on Mir in Tumbleweed: Six Months Living on Mir (2020).

Awards and honors
Lucid was awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor in December 1996 (for her mission to Mir), making her the tenth person and first woman to be given this honor. She was also awarded the NASA Space Flight Medal in 1985, 1989 (twice), 1991, 1993 and 1996; the NASA Exceptional Service Medal in 1988, 1990, 1992 and 2003 (twice); and the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1994 and 1997. She was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1990, the Oklahoma Women's Hall of Fame in 1993, the National Women's Hall of Fame in 1998, and the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame in 2014. In 2002 Discover magazine recognized her as one of the fifty most important women in science.

title: Shannon Lucid


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Ini Kamoze

Ini Kamoze (, born Cecil Campbell; 9 October 1957) is a Jamaican reggae artist who began his career in the early 1980s and rose to prominence in 1994 with the signature song "Here Comes the Hotstepper". The single topped the US Billboard Hot 100 as well as record charts in Denmark and New Zealand, reaching number four on the UK Singles Chart.

Career
He made his first single, "World Affairs", in 1981. Kamoze then released a 12-inch single "Trouble You A Trouble Me"/"General" in 1983.

His self-titled debut album was released in 1984 as a six track mini-LP on Island Records. In the album notes he describes himself as a "pencil thin... disentangled... six-foot vegetarian". The album included the song "World a Music (Out in the Streets They Call It Merther)", which was to be sampled by Damian Marley on his 2005 hit "Welcome to Jamrock". The album was recorded with and produced by Sly and Robbie, with whom he also toured internationally along with Yellowman and Half Pint. By 1988, however, Kamoze had effectively disappeared from the music scene following lukewarm reactions to his intermittent releases.

Kamoze founded his own label, releasing a compilation album Selekta Showcase which featured a popular Kamoze single titled "Stress". Four years later he released his next album, 16 Vibes of Ini Kamoze.

In 1994, Kamoze released the song which would become his signature, "Here Comes the Hotstepper". Adopting another nickname from the song title, Kamoze would become known as the "Hotstepper", from the patois for a man on the run from the law. The song was originally recorded with Philip "Fatis" Burrell and later remixed by Salaam Remi, and initially featured on a reggae music compilation Stir It Up, released on the Epic label. "Here Comes the Hotstepper" was not an entirely new composition, having roots in the song "Land of 1000 Dances", which was a number one R&B hit for Wilson Pickett in 1966 and was first recorded by Chris Kenner in 1962 and reprised in 1963 by Fats Domino. The remixed version of the track also incorporates the bass line from Taana Gardner's 1981 single "Heartbeat". The song appeared on the soundtrack to the fashion-industry satire feature film Prêt-à-Porter. "Here Comes the Hotstepper" remains Kamoze's only US number one hit (see Hot 100 No. 1 Hits of 1994).

The success of the single sparked an intense bidding war with several major labels hoping to sign him. Kamoze signed a seven-album deal with Elektra Records in November 1994.

Kamoze's career after this high-water mark featured the compilation album Here Comes the Hotstepper which was released in 1995 by Columbia Records (against Kamoze's wishes), around the same time as his first album for Elektra, Lyrical Gangsta.

Both the riddim (known as "World Jam") and the hook of Damian Marley's 2005 hit "Welcome to Jamrock" were sampled from Kamoze's 1984 track "World-A-Music". The opening line – "Out in the streets, they call it merther" – has been sampled in countless drum and bass and dubstep tracks. His dub version of "Here Comes the Hotstepper", otherwise known as "I'm Steppin' it Hotter This Year", released in 1993, remains a dancehall anthem.

In 2005, Kamoze recorded and released a double album, Debut, on which he re-recorded a number of tracks from earlier in his career. Debut was released on his own 9 Sound Clik label.

In 2009, Kamoze released 51 50 Rule on 9SoundClik. The album includes tracks such as "Rapunzel" (feat. Maya Azucena) and "Hungry Daze". The album also had some guest features from Sizzla ("R.A.W"), and Busy Signal ("Ta Da Bang"). This was his second album released on the 9 Sound Clik label.

The artist's most recent album release is 2016's Ini Kamoze Meets Xterminator: Tramplin' Down Babylon on his label, 9SoundClik. This is a collection of newly recorded and previously recorded tracks that were originally released as singles on Xterminator Records by producer Phillip "Fattis" Burrell.

Kamoze has also written a book on the history of Port Royal, and a play, Runnings.

His name means "mountain of the true God".

Albums
Studio albums
 * Ini Kamoze (1984), Island
 * Statement (1984), Mango
 * Pirate (1986), Mango
 * Shocking Out (1988), RAS
 * Here Comes the Hotstepper (1995), Columbia/SMDE
 * Lyrical Gangsta (1995), East West America/Elektra
 * Debut (2006), 9SoundClik
 * 51 50 Rule (2009), 9SoundClik
 * Ini Kamoze meets Xterminator: Tramplin' Down Babylon (2016), 9SoundClik

Compilation albums
 * 16 Vibes of Ini Kamoze (1992), Sonic Sounds

title: Ini Kamoze


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User:Cardmagic

Hello, my name is Lucas Carlson. I am currently attending Reed College where I study Physics. In addition, I run a number of sites that can be accessed from www.rufy.com.

title: User:Cardmagic


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Interstate 355

Interstate 355 (I-355), also known as the Veterans Memorial Tollway, is an Interstate Highway and tollway in the western and southwest suburbs of Chicago in the U.S. state of Illinois. Like most other toll roads in the northeastern portion of the state, I-355 is maintained by the Illinois State Toll Highway Authority (ISTHA). I-355 runs from I-80 in New Lenox north to I-290 in Itasca, a distance of 32.5 mi. With the exception of a 4 mi expansion in 2009, from U.S. Route 34 (US 34, Ogden Avenue) to 75th Street, the highway is six lanes wide for its entire length.

The tollway authority opened I-355 as the North–South Tollway in 1989 to ease congestion on Illinois Route 53 (IL 53), a parallel two-lane state highway in central DuPage County. Initially, I-355 ran from I-55 north to I-290. The new highway helped cut travel times for commuters traveling north and south in the county. According to commercial real estate developers at the time, the new tollway also opened the western suburbs of Chicago to commercial and industrial development.

On November 11, 2007, the tollway authority opened a southern extension of I-355, which runs 12.5 mi between I-55 and I-80. The extension was routed through Will County and a small portion of Cook County, which together formed one of Illinois' fastest-growing regions at the time. The tollway authority expected the extension to cut travel times in the region by 20 percent. Upon the extension's opening, the tollway authority changed the name of the tollway to "Veterans Memorial Tollway".

Early history
From 1963 to 1970, the Illinois Department of Transportation (IDOT) planned and built a new expressway north from Army Trail Road through Schaumburg to the Northwest Tollway (now the Jane Addams Memorial Tollway). After its completion, IDOT rerouted IL 53 onto this new expressway from Rohlwing Road.

The original alignment of I-355 was defined in the Chicago Area Transportation Study (abbreviated CATS) Transportation Plan of April 1962. The plan called for a supplemental system of limited-access expressways to be built in the Chicago metropolitan area by 1980, and defined corridors where the expressways were to be located. Most of these corridors, including the Des Plaines River expressway, the Crosstown Expressway running north–south along the west side of Chicago, and most of a proposed northern extension of IL 53 were scrapped because of intense local opposition.

Initially, state and county officials anticipated building a freeway for the expressway south of Army Trail Road, similar to the existing freeway north of Army Trail Road. In 1979, Chicago mayor Jane Byrne canceled plans for the proposed Crosstown Expressway. Following the move, Congress gave the rights to half of the $200 million (equivalent to $ in ) that had been earmarked for the Crosstown Expressway to DuPage County. However, county officials found this amount insufficient for construction of the new freeway. The officials then handed authority for the project over to the tollway authority, and spent the money on other projects in the county.

In June 1984, Republican minority leader of the Illinois House of Representatives James "Pate" Philip helped push through legislation authorizing the construction of the tollway, then referred to as simply the DuPage Tollway. Officials at the Morton Arboretum, one of the nation's premier woodland research centers, promptly filed a federal lawsuit to block construction of the tollway. They also promised to prevent the tollway authority from obtaining environmental approval from federal officials.

In April 1985, the two agencies came to an agreement regarding construction of the new tollway. To protect the arboretum from salt spray and other pollutants caused by cars on the tollway, the tollway authority agreed to build I-355 below grade around the perimeter of the arboretum. The tollway authority would build a water collection system to divert runoff from the arboretum. In addition, they would build earthen berms along the new road, preventing salt spray from damaging arboretum plants. In exchange, the DuPage County Forest Preserve District agreed to a 99-year lease providing 189 acre of its land to the arboretum for the development of an "urban vegetation laboratory". Under the agreement, Morton Arboretum agreed to charge DuPage County residents lower admissions one day of the week, build a bicycle path connecting the arboretum to nearby forest preserves, and begin a joint clean-streams program to improve the water quality of DuPage County's lakes and streams. In January 1986, the tollway paid out $2.5 million (equivalent to $ in ) to a trust fund as a part of the settlement to help finance the arboretum's new programs.

The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers released a preliminary environmental impact statement on March 13, 1986. At a public hearing a month later, arboretum executives and Woodridge officials strongly criticized the report as "fatally flawed" and a repeat of tollway-provided research, including typographical errors. The opposition also cited outdated and inaccurate data regarding wetlands replacement, salt dispersion, and the lack of compensation to residents for lowered property values. The tollway authority agreed to run the road below-grade at 75th Street instead of as a 28 ft elevated highway. In addition, they agreed to spend an extra $1 million (equivalent to $ in ) on the redesigned elevation and interchange.

The Corps of Engineers issued a permit for the tollway on October 8, 1986, rejecting last-minute concerns from the Sierra Club to reroute the toll road around sections of Churchill Woods Prairie, between Glen Ellyn and Lombard. The permit allowed the first two earth moving contracts issued by the tollway authority to move forward. The tollway authority put the total cost of 17.7 mi of new pavement at $450 million (equivalent to $ in ). Of the total cost, $325 million (equivalent to $ in ) was allocated for construction, $30 million (equivalent to $ in ) to alleviating environmental concerns, including moving and enlarging 117 acre of wetlands, and $30 million (equivalent to $ in ) for utility relocation. Work in 1987 consisted primarily of excavation, embankment building and land acquisition.

Because of problems with pavement on other roads in the system and anticipation of heavy traffic on the new Interstate, the tollway authority decided to pave I-355 with pavement expected to last 20 years. Construction workers laid concrete on the tollway to a thickness of 12 in over an 8 in sub-base. The new pavement also incorporated fly ash and less cement, allowing the pavement to achieve maximum strength faster than pure concrete.

One of the last issues settled prior to the opening of the tollway was the highway's number. Originally, tollway officials designated the new road I-355. Early in 1988, however, the tollway administration received a letter from the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) indicating that the highway should be named Interstate 455. FHWA policy at the time dictated that auxiliary Interstate routes that join two other Interstate Highways should start with an even number. IDOT argued the highway more closely resembles a spur from I-55. Ultimately, the tollway authority kept the I-355 designation.

Governor James R. Thompson and U.S. Secretary of Transportation Samuel K. Skinner dedicated the North–South Tollway on December 22, 1989. When it opened, officials estimated travel times from Schaumburg to Oak Brook would be reduced from 55 minutes to 34 minutes, and from Wheaton to Darien from 60 to 34 minutes. Tollway officials also estimated that 200,000 cars per day would use I-355. This figure has since been shown to be slightly optimistic, with maximum average daily traffic values approaching 170,200 only at the northern end of the Interstate. The initial length of I-355 was 20.01 mi from I-55 north to I-290.

Opening
I-355 opened at the stroke of midnight on December 24, 1989. As a Christmas gift, the first two days of operation were free. Because of lower traffic counts at the north and south ends of the highway and lack of construction money, tollway officials built the road with four lanes from North Avenue (IL 64) to the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway (I-88) on the north end, and around I-55 on the south end. As early as 1991, tollway officials had drawn up plans to widen the highway to three lanes in each direction. Widening from North Avenue to Butterfield Road (IL 56) took place in 1995. The old lines marking the former shoulder can still be seen in the right lane as a result of the tollway authority's attempt to grind them away.

After the new road opened, congestion decreased considerably on nearby north–south arteries. The DuPage County Division of Transportation calculated that congestion had decreased on IL 53 by 20%, and the volume of cars on nearby north–south roads IL 53, IL 59 and IL 83 had decreased. On IL 53 between Ogden Avenue and Roosevelt Road, traffic counts sank from 21,400 to 11,800 vehicles per day. In addition, traffic on the exit ramp from the Tri-State Tollway (I-294) to I-55 dropped 10 percent in 12 months. Drivers also reported decreases in travel time from one end of the county to the other of up to 40 minutes. However, the opening of the tollway also greatly increased congestion on I-290 near the northern terminus. A construction project in the summer months of 1990 widened I-290 just north of the tollway, at a cost of $2–2.5 million (equivalent to $– in ).

In spite of the apparent success of the tollway opening, traffic counts and projected toll revenues were initially lower than projected, with an estimated 65,000 motorists per day traveling along the tollway, generating $55,000–65,000 (equivalent to $0–0 in ) in daily toll revenues. In addition, a spate of lawsuits were filed regarding the payment of contractors and subcontractors. Numerous liens filed by subcontractors against the tollway were settled in June, 1990 at a cost of $10.1 million (equivalent to $ in ). The tollway authority released an additional $1 million (equivalent to $ in ) in May 1992 to further settle claims made by the general contractor, entering arbitration soon afterwards to settle another $1.6–27 million (equivalent to $– in ) the contractor claimed it was owed. By 2005, average annual daily traffic values had risen to a range of 77,400 to 170,200 vehicles per day.

As early as 1989, the tollway authority had discussed implementing automatic toll collection across the entire system to relieve congestion caused by traffic stopping at mainline toll barriers. The tollway authority began testing I-Pass, the tollway system's electronic payment method, on the entire stretch of I-355 in 1993 at various tollbooths; by September 1994, every plaza on I-355 accepted I-Pass. By 1998, the tollway authority had installed dedicated I-Pass lanes (lanes specifically set aside for electronic toll collections) at both mainline toll barriers. In 1999, I-355 became the first tollway to receive I-Pass Express Lanes (also known as open road tolling, or ORT). With the installation of the express lanes, vehicles with I-Pass could be tolled at highway speeds of 55 mph. In 2005, the tollway authority widened the express lanes from two lanes to three lanes in each direction. This allowed the number of express lanes to match the number of travel lanes on the tollway.

Unlike the other tollways in the tollway system at the time, there were no oases on the Veterans Memorial Tollway when it was opened. This is primarily due to the widespread access to food and fuel throughout the western suburbs when construction began in the late 1980s. When the southern extension was opened in Will County in 2007, that segment of road also did not have any oases.

Southern extension
In addition to the original alignment of I-355, the Transportation Plan of April 1962 included the concept of a route that ran from Bolingbrook south to Joliet. After the northern portion of I-355 opened in 1989, the Illinois General Assembly authorized the tollway authority to begin studying the southern extension of I-355.

The discovery of the Hine's Emerald Dragonfly, an endangered species, and related concerns for the environmental health of the Des Plaines River wetlands in 1995, ignited a series of legal challenges that delayed construction of the I-355 extension for several years. The Sierra Club filed a lawsuit in 1996 to block planning of the southern extension. In January 1997, a federal judge sided with the Sierra Club, halting construction of the southern extension while the state appealed. In 1999, the state dropped its appeal and amended the environmental impact study (EIS) to meet the Sierra Club's concerns. The state released the supplemental EIS in 2000, and in 2002 the FHWA issued a Record of Decision, allowing construction of the tollway to proceed after six years of delays. Land acquisition and utility relocation took place in 2004. Governor Rod Blagojevich's $5.6 billion Congestion-Relief Program for the Illinois Tollway passed the General Assembly in September 2004, with $729.3 million being set aside for the extension (equivalent to $ and $ in, respectively). Bidding on an excavation contract passed on November 18, 2004 with construction beginning several days later.

To document and reduce the impact of construction on the dragonfly's habitat, construction crews agreed to keep carcasses of any dragonfly kills. In addition, the tollway authority funded the construction of separate habitats for the dragonfly near the Waterfall Glen Forest Preserve in Lemont and in two other preserves in Cook and Will counties. In late 2005, construction began on the roadway of the 12.5 mi southern extension of I-355 from I-55 in Bolingbrook to I-80 in New Lenox.

Another controversy erupted in February 2006, when the tollway authority threatened to build the tollway with no interchanges unless the suburbs through which the new extension ran contributed $20 million (equivalent to $ in ) for construction of the interchanges. This marked the first time that the tollway authority had required local municipalities to contribute funds for interchange construction. The towns of Homer Glen, Lemont, New Lenox, Lockport and Will County agreed in a June 2006 intergovernmental agreement to provide $20 million in both cash and in-kind contributions for the interchanges.

The southern extension is expected to become an economic catalyst for municipalities located along the tollway. The Village of New Lenox estimates that it will receive an additional $12 million in sales taxes after its two malls are built out. In Lockport, officials have announced that new Home Depot and SuperTarget stores are planned for the areas near 159th Street and I-355. Commercial developers are also building large warehouse facilities in areas near the Lockport interchanges.

One of "the most impressive engineering feats on the state's 274 mi of toll roads" is the Des Plaines River Valley Bridge, a bridge over the Des Plaines River, the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal, the Illinois and Michigan Canal, Bluff Road, New Avenue, numerous railroads, and a major Commonwealth Edison utility corridor. The bridge is 1.3 mi long, and constituted $125 million of the cost of the extension. Work on the bridge included the construction of 34 piers and elevation of existing high-voltage electricity lines to accommodate the highway. To limit the number of piers in the valley, the tollway authority built the bridge with both 170 ft pre-stressed bulb tee girders and 270 ft post-tensioned segmental concrete girders. This was $12 million (equivalent to $ in ) cheaper than the concrete box girder design option, and $50 million (equivalent to $ in ) less than the steel plate girder design option. A design-build clause in the original contract for the bridge, in addition to success in the design-build contracts on the 2004–07 Tri-State Tollway widening and reconstruction, allowed project managers to redesign and build the new bridge.

The tollway authority held a ribbon cutting and dedication ceremony on Veterans Day (November 11), 2007, officially renaming the entire length of I-355 the Veterans Memorial Tollway. Ceremonies were held on the tollway near the 127th Street interchange in Lemont, at 147th Street in Homer Glen, and at US 6 in New Lenox. In addition to the dedication, the tollway authority sponsored a Charity Walk/Run/Roll and "Roll the Tollway", a charity pre-opening bicycle ride on the highway's south extension. After noting the success of the festival, a tollway spokesman announced plans to repeat the event annually, including the closure of the entire southern extension. He later clarified the tollway's position, indicating that while the extension would probably not be closed in its entirety in the future, a possible 5 mi ride across the Des Plaines River Valley Bridge may be held. At around 10:00 p.m. on November 11, a group of Illinois State Police vehicles and tollway maintenance vehicles escorted the first motorists southbound along the I-355 extension, stopping at each interchange to remove barricades. By the time the maintenance crews began to remove barricades along the northbound lanes of the extension, a group of 50 to 60 vehicles had gathered behind the crews.

Veterans Memorial Trail
As part of constructing the southern extension, the tollway authority donated a 15 to(-) corridor to local municipalities for the construction of a multi-use trail, named the Veterans Memorial Trail, that will run along most of the length of the tollway from I-80 to I-55. Completion of the trail is expected to cost $10 million, with funding to be provided by local communities along the path. A new construction fund for the trail was created from registration fees collected for "Roll the Tollway". The Active Transportation Alliance announced on January 29, 2008 that about $108,000 (equivalent to $0 in ) was raised through "Roll the Tollway". Of this amount, $70,000 (equivalent to $0 in ) was set aside for preliminary engineering studies on the 10.5 mi bicycle trail. The remaining amount was directed towards advocacy efforts for the Chicago Bicycle Federation and other local bicycle clubs.

The initial engineering phase of the bike trail has been completed in the form of the I-355 Area Trails Master Plan, a framework created by Housel Lavigne Associates designed to distribute the work of creating and funding the trail among local communities. The Forest Preserve District of Will County has begun work on the Veterans Memorial Trail from International Parkway, Woodridge, to 135th Street, Romeoville, and will then extend the trail to US 6 in the Village of New Lenox. This addition will link the trail to a number of businesses in New Lenox, including a shopping mall currently being constructed, Silver Cross Hospital, and medical offices. The Omnibus Appropriations Act included $470,000 (equivalent to $0 in ) in federal funding for construction of the first phase of the trail.

Route description
The southern terminus of I-355 is northeast of New Lenox, where the highway intersects I-80. I-355 is routed north and slightly west through rural, hilly portions of Will County. Just after the US 6 interchange (mile 1.0), tollway drivers pay a toll at Spring Creek Toll Plaza, the only toll plaza on the southern extension of I-355. It continues north through the rural sections of Will County, having exits that serve the towns of Homer Glen and Lockport. At 135th Street (approximately mile 8.0) in Lemont, I-355 briefly enters Cook County. After an interchange at 127th Street (mile 9.0), I-355 crosses over the Des Plaines River on the Des Plaines River Valley Bridge before returning to Will County. Shortly north of the bridge, I-355 intersects I-55 at Bolingbrook (mile 12.5). Multiple flyover ramps connect all directions of both highways.

North of I-55, I-355 continues to run almost due north through the established western suburbs of Chicago in DuPage County. Travelers pay another toll just north of Boughton Road, at the Boughton Road Toll Plaza (mile 13.5). Continuing north, I-355 has another multiple flyover interchange with I-88 (miles 19.5 and 23.0), officially designated the Ronald Reagan Memorial Tollway. On the southern end of the interchange, northbound I-355 has exits to both directions of I-88. I-355 then swings below I-88 and runs side-by-side with the other tollway for 1 mi. Southbound exits to both directions of I-88 are at the northern end of the interchange. At the Army Trail Road Toll Plaza (mile 29.0), through traffic pays the last toll of the tollway. I-355 has no tolls north of the Army Trail Road exit (mile 30) in Addison. There is one untolled exit (mile 31.5) at US 20 (Lake Street) north of the tollway. I-355 terminates at the I-290 interchange near the border of the villages of Itasca and Addison.

As a result of a toll rate increase effective January 1, 2012, the northernmost two toll plazas (Boughton Road and Army Trail Road) charge $1.90 cash and $0.95 for cars with I-Pass and E-ZPass. The Spring Creek Toll Plaza charges $3.80 for travelers paying with cash and $1.90 for I-Pass and E-ZPass. All three toll plazas force traffic paying with cash to exit right into an area separate from the dedicated I-Pass lanes. Drivers paying with cash then pay their tolls at staffed plaza tollbooths. I-Pass and E-ZPass equipped cars and trucks are permitted to stay on the mainline and pay tolls at highway speeds in the tollway's ORT lanes.

On I-355, the only control cities that are actual cities are Joliet, St. Louis, Missouri, and from I-80, Rockford. Other control cities on I-355 are limited to general areas of suburban Chicago. For example, control cities for I-355 while on I-55 are "West Suburbs" and "Southwest Suburbs". The control city for areas north of I-88 are "Northwest Suburbs".

Because of increasing congestion, the Veterans Memorial Tollway has been widened to eight lanes between 75th Street and US 34. The tollway authority added the 4 mi, $60.4-million project (equivalent to $ in ) to its Congestion Relief Plan in mid-2007, and the new lanes opened on October 24, 2009.

title: Interstate 355


text:
Kontakt-5

Kontakt-5 is a type of second-generation explosive reactive armour (ERA) originating in the Soviet Union. Due to the shortcomings of Kontakt-1, NII Stali further developed the reactive armor to Kontakt-5, so that it also repels APFSDS projectiles, which is not as effective in combat as stated. In addition, Kontakt-5 is not just additional armor, but is clearly integrated into the vehicle hull. The Kontakt-5 modules have a significantly thicker steel upper side. Depending on the module, they contain one or two 4S22 reactive elements. The explosive of a 4S22 element has the TNT equivalent of 330 g. It is so sensitive that even armor-piercing projectiles cause it to explode. Kontakt-5 produces a stronger defensive detonation than Kontakt-1 and the thicker layer of steel thrown at the arrow projectile breaks or bends it. The increase in defensive capability led to the development of reinforced arrow projectiles.

Kontakt-5 was first observed on a T-80U in 1985. Later, the T-72B, T-84 and T-90 tanks were also equipped with Kontakt-5. In addition, the T-55, T-62 and BMP-3 tank models can also be equipped or upgraded with Kontakt-5. According to the manufacturer, Kontakt-5 is the first type of reactive armor that effectively protects armored vehicles against tandem shaped charges.

Total mass of Kontakt-5 reactive armor: 2.8 - 3.0 t, Protective effect (RHA equivalent): against APFSDS: 200 mm, against shaped charges (HEAT): 600 mm,

Description
Introduced on the T-80U tank in 1985, Kontakt-5 is made up of "bricks" of explosive sandwiched between two metal plates. The plates are arranged in such a way as to move sideways rapidly when the explosive detonates. This forces an incoming kinetic energy penetrator or shaped charge jet to cut through more armour than the thickness of the plating itself since "new" plating is constantly fed into the penetrating body. A kinetic energy penetrator is also subject to powerful sideways forces which may cut the rod into two or more pieces. This significantly reduces the penetrating capabilities of the penetrator, since the penetrating force will be dissipated over a larger volume of armour.

Newer KE penetrators like the US M829A3 were "driven by the need to counter KE-effective explosive reactive armor (ERA)".

Relikt was designed by the Russian army in response to the new developments. Relikt is the 3rd generation of Russian ERA, and is claimed to be twice as effective as Kontakt-5. It can be installed on T-72B and T-90 tanks and was adopted in 2006. The Russian Army T-72B3M main battle tank incorporates Relikt. Developed by NII Stali, Relikt uses a completely new composition of explosives to achieve dynamics protection. Unlike Kontakt-1, it works equally reliably against both low-velocity and high-velocity missiles, doubling protection against shaped charges and increasing anti-tank guided missile protection by 50 percent. Relikt defends against tandem warheads and reduces penetration of APFSDS rounds by over 50 percent.

Kontakt-5 armour is employed by Russia, Ukraine, India (T-90S) and Serbia (on M-84AS MBT), among others.

Monolith which is often confused with the "Malachit" that was used on the Objekt.187 is the latest (4th) generation Russian explosive reactive armor, mounted on Armata project vehicles.

Operators

 * 🇲🇳 Mongolia BMP-1 and few other tanks, vehicles
 * 🇷🇺 Russia
 * 🇺🇦 Ukraine
 * 🇷🇸 Serbia M-84AS
 * 🇩🇿 Algeria T-90 and T-72AG
 * 🇦🇲 Armenia T-90
 * 🇦🇿 Azerbaijan T-90
 * 🇧🇾 Belarus T-72B3
 * 🇮🇳 India T-90
 * 🇮🇷 Iran Relikt allegedly on Karrar and on a T-72M upgrade by the IRGC, dubbed T-72M Rakhsh. Kontakt-5 used on an unnamed T-72S upgrade.
 * 🇮🇶 Iraq T-90 and T-72M Rakhsh
 * 🇰🇷 South Korea T-80U and T-80UK
 * 🇹🇲 Turkmenistan T-90
 * 🇺🇬 Uganda T-90
 * Vietnam T-90
 * Syria T-90 and T-72B3

title: Kontakt-5


text:
Super Sunday

Super Sunday may refer to:

Sports

 * Super Sunday or Super Bowl Sunday, the Sunday of the National Football League's championship game in the United States, the Super Bowl
 * Super Sunday or Ford Super Sunday, a live Sunday afternoon Premier League football broadcast on Sky Sports in the UK

Other

 * Super Sunday (TV series), a 1980s American cartoon anthology series from Sunbow and Marvel Productions featuring Hasbro characters
 * Super Sunday (phone-a-thon), the annual phone-a-thon fundraising drives held by Jewish federations throughout North America, on various Sundays of the year.
 * Super Sunday (computer game), a 1986 video game published by Avalon Hill for the Apple II and Commodore 64
 * Super Sunday, in New Orleans, refers to one of the annual celebrations staged by Mardi Gras Indian tribes, and held in Uptown, Downtown, or the west bank of New Orleans

title: Super Sunday


text:
Rob Dougan

Robert Don Hunter Dougan is an Australian composer, known for his genre-blending music. Mixing elements of orchestral music, trip hop, and bluesy vocals, his work is tangentially relatable to electronic music. He is known primarily for his breakthrough 1995 single "Clubbed to Death (Kurayamino Variation)", further popularised by 1999's The Matrix soundtrack. "Clubbed to Death" was re-released on his debut album Furious Angels in 2002, seven years after its initial release, as well as providing several variations of the song, most notably the Kurayamino variation; he has also provided a variation of the Moby song "Porcelain". In 1995, he teamed up with Rollo Armstrong to remix the U2 song "Numb"; the remix was titled "Numb (Gimme Some More Dignity Mix)".

Early life and education
Dougan was born in Melbourne, Australia in 1969 to Don and Margaret. One of six children, he was raised in Sydney, where he attended Saint Ignatius' College, Riverview and, later, the National Institute of Dramatic Art, where he studied acting. In one interview he recalled the only albums in the family home were of Beethoven, Louis Armstrong, Cleo Laine and Ennio Morricone. In 1990, he travelled to London and began to work in music with his friend Rollo, both of whom had worked together and released material in Australia. He moved permanently to London in 1996.

Career
From 1991 to 1995, Dougan was a producer and remix artist. In 1994, his remixes started charting in the United Kingdom. He also released his first single, "Hard Times".

In 1995, his hit single "Clubbed to Death" gave him a recognised name in the UK dance club scene. He produced half a dozen remixes of it, including the "Kurayamino Variation". His label Mo' Wax Records was pleased and commissioned the follow-up, "Clubbed to Death 2" (later the bonus track on the album). CTD2 was never released as a single, but appeared on the James Lavelle disc of the 1996 DJ mix compilation album, Cream Live 2. During this time, he's said to have contributed music to Impossible Princess, the studio album of fellow Australian, Kylie Minogue.

"Furious Angels" was not released on Mo' Wax, but Dougan eventually released it as a single in 1998 on Rollo's label Cheeky Records. Dougan worked for the following six years, doing remixes and licensing his tracks, in order to self-produce the album, which was backed by a full orchestra and a full choir. "Furious Angels" also featured as the musical score accompanying the introduction sequence for the 2000 racing simulation game Grand Prix 3.

In 1999, his exposure increased dramatically when his "Clubbed to Death (Kurayamino Variation)" was featured on the soundtrack of The Matrix. He contributed two more tracks to the soundtrack of 2003's The Matrix Reloaded, "Château" and "Kung Fu" (a shortened version of "Furious Angels" made for The Matrix Reloaded). Some of the orchestral material for these tracks was recorded at 20th Century Fox Newman Scoring Stage where Star Wars had been scored. "I'm Not Driving Anymore (instrumental)" was also used for the trailer of the film and as background music for the DVD menu. The song was also featured in the 2001 racing movie Driven with vocals. He credits this career breakthrough to support of American DJ Jason Bentley.

In 2002 in the UK, and 2003 in the rest of the world, Dougan released his debut album Furious Angels, which was met with "Generally favorable" reviews from critics. Later in 2003, a two-disc re-release of Furious Angels featured all-instrumental versions on the second disc.

In 2006, Dougan was reportedly writing "a couple of songs" for Sugababes (for whom he produced the single "Too Lost in You"), and working on two albums of his own — one original, one classical.

A short film made for jewelry designer Solange Azagury-Partridge, The Letter, directed by Laurence Dunmore and starring Thandie Newton and Jason Isaacs features new music by Rob Dougan; the short film, however, does not mention the title of the song.

In May 2015, Dougan released The 22nd Sunday in Ordinary Time Sessions on his official site. The EP, recorded at London's Air Lyndhurst Studios with a 84-piece orchestra and 50-voice choir, consists of five instrumental songs and a 20-minute film of the sessions.

In October 2016, Dougan released Misc. Sessions EP on his official site. The EP, recorded at Abbey Road Studios with a 10-piece and 50-piece string section, consists of five tracks, with orchestra and instrumental mixes and an 18-minute film.

In 2018 Dougan compiled and released Films: Past and Future his first solely instrumental release, comprising 21 tracks available for the first time on vinyl, CD and digital download. The album was released via direct-to-fan company PledgeMusic just at the time that the organisation announced it was experiencing issues and had failed to pay many artistes the monies that had been pledged to them. In a personal project update posted on 18 February, Rob confirmed that he had been affected by the issues but, having already released the album digitally, had met the costs of physical releases himself, with the CD, vinyl and accompanying book due for release on 4 March 2019.

In February 2019, Dougan released The Life of the World to Come, a brand new four track EP which includes "The Life of the World to Come", "Beautiful Things", "Quasimodo's Dream" and "And Then I Think of You". Each song was released with an accompanying instrumental version and two of the tracks were cover versions - "Beautiful Things" written by Leslie Bricusse and "Quasimodo's Dream" by The Reels. The EP is published by Engard Ltd and was released by Dougan himself via Gumroad.

Dougan's vocal style has been compared to Tom Waits and Leonard Cohen, his composition approach to that of film score composers John Barry, John Williams, Monty Norman, Hans Zimmer and Barry Adamson. He frequently uses orchestral elements in his music, notably Elgar's Enigma Variations in "Clubbed to Death (The First Mix)." Though placed in the camp of dance and techno, in an interview with the Guardian early in his career, Dougan distanced himself from the genre, identifying more strongly with Classical music:"'I'm associated with dance music, with electronica, which makes me feel ill. I only learnt all the boring computer crap as a means to an end. Virtually all musicians these days use computers, but if you write a book on a computer, nobody calls it electronic writing... I know it's not a fashionable attitude, but there is a musical hierarchy, and writing a song is not the same as writing a symphony. Classical music is a lot harder to do: it's richer, and it will leave you with more.'"

Non-musical activities
In 2004, Dougan founded a vineyard called La Pèira in the Terrasses du Larzac region of France.

title: Rob Dougan