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History of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was founded c. 1299 by Osman I as a small beylik in northwestern Asia Minor just south of the Byzantine capital Constantinople. In 1326, the Ottomans captured nearby Bursa, cutting off Asia Minor from Byzantine control. The Ottomans first crossed into Europe in 1352, establishing a permanent settlement at Çimpe Castle on the Dardanelles in 1354 and moving their capital to Edirne (Adrianople) in 1369. At the same time, the numerous small Turkic states in Asia Minor were assimilated into the budding Ottoman sultanate through conquest or declarations of allegiance.

As Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (today named Istanbul) in 1453, transforming it into the new Ottoman capital, the state grew into a substantial empire, expanding deep into Europe, northern Africa and the Middle East. With most of the Balkans under Ottoman rule by the mid-16th century, Ottoman territory increased exponentially under Sultan Selim I, who assumed the Caliphate in 1517 as the Ottomans turned east and conquered western Arabia, Egypt, Mesopotamia and the Levant, among other territories. Within the next few decades, much of the North African coast (except Morocco) became part of the Ottoman realm.

The empire reached its apex under Suleiman the Magnificent in the 16th century, when it stretched from the Persian Gulf in the east to Algeria in the west, and from Yemen in the south to Hungary and parts of Ukraine in the north. According to the Ottoman decline thesis, Suleiman's reign was the zenith of the Ottoman classical period, during which Ottoman culture, arts, and political influence flourished. The empire reached its maximum territorial extent in 1683, on the eve of the Battle of Vienna.

From 1699 onwards, the Ottoman Empire began to lose territory over the course of the next two centuries due to internal stagnation, costly defensive wars, European colonialism, and nationalist revolts among its multiethnic subjects. In any case, the need to modernise was evident to the empire's leaders by the early 19th century, and numerous administrative reforms were implemented in an attempt to forestall the decline of the empire, with varying degrees of success. The gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire gave rise to the Eastern Question in the mid-19th century.

The empire came to an end in the aftermath of its defeat in World War I, when its remaining territory was partitioned by the Allies. The sultanate was officially abolished by the Government of the Turkish Grand National Assembly in Ankara on 1 November 1922 following the Turkish War of Independence. Throughout its more than 600 years of existence, the Ottoman Empire has left a profound legacy in the Middle East and Southeast Europe, as can be seen in the customs, culture, and cuisine of the various countries that were once part of its realm.

Ottoman etiology
With the end of the First World War and the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, questions arose in a geopolitical and historical context about the reasons for the emergence and decline of the Ottomans, the reasons for the emergence and decline of their empire and how both events were defined. On the eve of World War II, the geographical position and the geopolitical weight of Turkey, the major historical heir to the Ottoman Empire, gave weight to the issues as propaganda. The first item on the agenda of the Tehran conference was the issue of Turkey's participation in World War II by the end of 1943.

Those about the emergence of the Ottoman Empire

 * 1) Ghaza thesis — it is formulated first, but it is the most criticized and politicized. The thesis most clearly advocates the ethnic pan-Turkic principle. It was developed by Paul Wittek;
 * 2) Renegade thesis — represented in studies, articles and books by various authors. It is based on numerous eyewitness accounts. It is supplemented by the hypothesis of the geographical and to some extent civilizational succession of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm) by the Eastern Roman Empire;
 * 3) Socio-economic thesis — the newest and most modern, sustained in the traditions of Marxist historiography. The thesis is found in various articles and studies. It is based on the aftermath of the Black Death and the legacy of the Byzantine civil wars.

Those about the decline of the Ottoman Empire

 * 1) Classic thesis — as a result of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) with the subsequent Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca. Previously marked by the beginning of the reign of Catherine the Great, the writing of "Istoriya Slavyanobolgarskaya" and the death of Koca Ragıp Pasha;
 * 2) Ottoman decline thesis — now-controversial thesis clearly formulated for the first time in 1958 by Bernard Lewis. Aligns with Koçi Bey's risalets, but arguably ignores the Köprülü era and its reform of the Ottoman state, economy and navy heading into the 18th century;
 * 3) Neoclassical thesis — to some extent it unites the previous ones about the beginning of the Ottoman decline, which are divided even nearly two centuries in time. The beginning of the end was marked by the Treaty of Karlowitz, the Edirne event and the reign of Ahmed III.

Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299–1453)
With the demise of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum during 12th to 13th century, Anatolia was divided into a patchwork of independent states, the so-called Anatolian Beyliks. For the next few decades, these Beyliks were under the sovereignty of Mongolians and their Iranian Kingdom Ilkhanids. By 1300, a weakened Byzantine Empire had lost most of its Anatolian provinces to these Turkish principalities. One of the beyliks was led by Osman I (d. 1323/4), from which the name Ottoman is derived, son of Ertuğrul, around Eskişehir in western Anatolia. In the foundation myth expressed in the story known as "Osman's Dream", the young Osman was inspired to conquest by a prescient vision of empire (according to his dream, the empire is a big tree whose roots spread through three continents and whose branches cover the sky). According to his dream the tree, which was Osman's Empire, issued four rivers from its roots, the Tigris, the Euphrates, the Nile and the Danube. Additionally, the tree shaded four mountain ranges, the Caucasus, the Taurus, the Atlas and the Balkan ranges. During his reign as Sultan, Osman I extended the frontiers of Turkish settlement toward the edge of the Byzantine Empire.

During this period, a formal Ottoman government was created whose institutions would change drastically over the life of the empire.

In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. Osman's son, Orhan, captured the city of Bursa in 1326 and made it the new capital of the Ottoman state. The fall of Bursa meant the loss of Byzantine control over Northwestern Anatolia.

After securing their flank in Asia Minor, the Ottomans then crossed into Europe from 1352 onwards; within a decade, almost all of Thrace had been conquered by the Ottomans, cutting off Constantinople from its Balkan hinterlands. The Ottoman capital was moved to Adrianople Edirne in 1369. The important city of Thessaloniki was captured from the Venetians in 1387. The Ottoman victory at Kosovo in 1389 effectively marked the end of Serbian power in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe. The Battle of Nicopolis in 1396, widely regarded as the last large-scale crusade of the Middle Ages, failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottoman Turks. With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective. The Empire controlled nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when Timur invaded Anatolia in the Battle of Ankara in 1402. He took Sultan Bayezid I as a prisoner. The capture of Bayezid I threw the Turks into disorder. The state fell into a civil war that lasted from 1402 to 1413, as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when Mehmed I emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power, bringing an end to the Interregnum.

Part of the Ottoman territories in the Balkans (such as Thessaloniki, Macedonia and Kosovo) were temporarily lost after 1402, but were later recovered by Murad II between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad II defeated the Hungarian, Polish and Wallachian armies under Władysław III of Poland (also King of Hungary) and János Hunyadi at the Battle of Varna, which was the final battle of the Crusade of Varna. Four years later, János Hunyadi prepared another army (of Hungarian and Wallachian forces) to attack the Turks, but was again defeated by Murad II at the Second Battle of Kosovo in 1448.

The son of Murad II, Mehmed the Conqueror, reorganized the state and the military, and demonstrated his martial prowess by capturing Constantinople on 29 May 1453, at the age of 21.

Classical Age (1453–1566)

The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II cemented the status of the Empire as the preeminent power in southeastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean. After taking Constantinople, Mehmed met with the Orthodox patriarch, Gennadios and worked out an arrangement in which the Eastern Orthodox Church, in exchange for being able to maintain its autonomy and land, accepted Ottoman authority. Because of bad relations between the latter Byzantine Empire and the states of western Europe as epitomized by Loukas Notaras's famous remark "Better the Sultan's turban than the Cardinal's Hat", the majority of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule as preferable to Venetian rule.

Upon making Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) the new capital of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, Mehmed II assumed the title of Kayser-i Rûm (literally Caesar Romanus, i.e. Roman Emperor.) In order to consolidate this claim, he would launch a campaign to conquer Rome, the western capital of the former Roman Empire. To this aim he spent many years securing positions on the Adriatic Sea, such as in Albania Veneta, and then continued with the Ottoman invasion of Otranto and Apulia on 28 July 1480. The Turks stayed in Otranto and its surrounding areas for nearly a year, but after Mehmed II's death on 3 May 1481, plans for penetrating deeper into the Italian peninsula with fresh new reinforcements were given up on and cancelled and the remaining Ottoman troops sailed back to the east of the Adriatic Sea.

During this period in the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a long period of conquest and expansion, extending its borders deep into Europe and North Africa. Conquests on land were driven by the discipline and innovation of the Ottoman military; and on the sea, the Ottoman Navy aided this expansion significantly. The navy also contested and protected key seagoing trade routes, in competition with the Italian city states in the Black, Aegean and Mediterranean seas and the Portuguese in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean.

The state also flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.

The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective Sultans. Sultan Selim I (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the Empire's eastern and southern frontiers by defeating Shah Ismail I of Safavid Persia, in 1514 at the Battle of Chaldiran. Selim I established Ottoman rule in Egypt, and created a naval presence on the Red Sea. After this Ottoman expansion, a competition started between the Portuguese Empire and the Ottoman Empire to become the dominant power in the region. This conquest ended with the execution of Tuman Bay II.

Selim's successor, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520–1566), further expanded upon Selim's conquests. After capturing Belgrade in 1521, Suleiman conquered the southern and central parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (the western, northern and northeastern parts remained independent).

After his victory in the Battle of Mohács in 1526, he established Turkish rule in the territory of present-day Hungary (except the western region) and other Central European territories, (See also: Ottoman–Hungarian Wars). He then laid siege to Vienna in 1529, but failed to take the city after the onset of winter forced his retreat.

In 1532, he made another attack on Vienna, but was repulsed in the Siege of Güns, 97 km south of the city at the fortress of Güns. In the other version of the story, the city's commander, Nikola Jurišić, was offered terms for a nominal surrender. However, Suleiman withdrew at the arrival of the August rains and did not continue towards Vienna as previously planned, but turned homeward instead.

After further advances by the Turks in 1543, the Habsburg ruler Ferdinand officially recognized Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. During the reign of Suleiman, Transylvania, Wallachia and, intermittently, Moldavia, became tributary principalities of the Ottoman Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took Baghdad from the Persians in 1535, gaining control of Mesopotamia and naval access to the Persian Gulf. By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire's population totaled about 15,000,000 people.

Under Selim and Suleiman the Magnificent, the Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the Mediterranean. The exploits of the Ottoman admiral Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, who commanded the Ottoman Navy during Suleiman's reign, led to a number of military victories over Christian navies. Important naval victories of the Ottoman Empire in this period include the Battle of Preveza (1538); Battle of Ponza (1552); Battle of Djerba (1560); conquest of Algiers (in 1516 and 1529) and Tunis (in 1534 and 1574) from Spain; conquest of Rhodes (1522) and Tripoli (1551) from the Knights of St. John; capture of Nice (1543) from the Holy Roman Empire; capture of Corsica (1553) from the Republic of Genoa; capture of the Balearic Islands (1558) from Spain; capture of Aden (1548), Muscat (1552) and Aceh (1565–67) from Portugal during the Indian Ocean expeditions; among others.

The conquests of Nice (1543) and Corsica (1553) occurred on behalf of France as a joint venture between the forces of the French king Francis I and the Ottoman sultan Suleiman I, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha and Turgut Reis. A month prior to the siege of Nice, France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the Ottoman conquest of Esztergom in 1543. France and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to Habsburg rule in both Southern and Central Europe, became strong allies during this period. The alliance was economic and military, as the sultans granted France the right of trade within the Empire without levy of taxation. By this time, the Ottoman Empire was a significant and accepted part of the European political sphere. It made a military alliance with France, the Kingdom of England and the Dutch Republic against Habsburg Spain, Italy and Habsburg Austria.

Suleiman I's policy of expansion throughout the Mediterranean basin was however halted in Malta in 1565. During a summer-long siege which was later to be known as the Siege of Malta, the Ottoman forces which numbered around 50,000 fought the Knights of St. John and the Maltese garrison of 6000 men. Stubborn resistance by the Maltese led to the lifting of the siege in September. The unsuccessful siege (the Turks managed to capture the Isle of Gozo together with Fort Saint Elmo on the main island of Malta, but failed elsewhere and retreated) was the second and last defeat experienced by Suleiman the Magnificent after the likewise inconclusive first Ottoman siege of Vienna in 1529. Suleiman I died of natural causes in his tent during the Siege of Szigetvár in 1566. The Battle of Lepanto in 1571 (which was triggered by the Ottoman capture of Venetian-controlled Cyprus in 1570) was another major setback for Ottoman naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea, despite the fact that an equally large Ottoman fleet was built in a short time and Tunisia was recovered from Spain in 1574.

As the 16th century progressed, Ottoman naval superiority was challenged by the growing sea powers of western Europe, particularly Portugal, in the Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean and the Spice Islands. With the Ottoman Turks blockading sea-lanes to the East and South, the European powers were driven to find another way to the ancient silk and spice routes, now under Ottoman control. On land, the Empire was preoccupied by military campaigns in Austria and Persia, two widely separated theatres of war. The strain of these conflicts on the Empire's resources, and the logistics of maintaining lines of supply and communication across such vast distances, ultimately rendered its sea efforts unsustainable and unsuccessful. The overriding military need for defence on the western and eastern frontiers of the Empire eventually made effective long-term engagement on a global scale impossible.

Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1566–1700)
European states initiated efforts at this time to curb Ottoman control of the traditional overland trade routes between East Asia and Western Europe, which started with the Silk Road. Western European states began to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly by establishing their own maritime routes to Asia through new discoveries at sea. The Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in 1488 initiated a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars in the Indian Ocean throughout the 16th century. Economically, the Price Revolution caused rampant inflation in both Europe and the Middle East. This had serious negative consequences at all levels of Ottoman society.

The expansion of Muscovite Russia under Ivan IV (1533–1584) into the Volga and Caspian region at the expense of the Tatar khanates disrupted the northern pilgrimage and trade routes. A highly ambitious plan to counter this conceived by Sokollu Mehmed Pasha, Grand Vizier under Selim II, in the shape of a Don-Volga canal (begun June 1569), combined with an attack on Astrakhan, failed, the canal being abandoned with the onset of winter. Henceforth the Empire returned to its existing strategy of utilizing the Crimean Khanate as its bulwark against Russia. In 1571, the Crimean khan Devlet I Giray, supported by the Ottomans, burned Moscow. The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the Battle of Molodi. The Crimean Khanate continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of slave raids, and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe and a threat to Muscovite Russia in particular until the end of the 17th century. In southern Europe, a coalition of Catholic powers, led by Philip II of Spain, formed an alliance to challenge Ottoman naval strength in the Mediterranean. Their victory over the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Lepanto (1571) was a startling blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility. However, historians today stress the symbolic and not the strictly military significance of the battle, for within six months of the defeat a new Ottoman fleet of some 250 sail including eight modern galleasses had been built, with the shipyards of Istanbul turning out a new ship every day at the height of the construction. In discussions with a Venetian minister, the Ottoman Grand Vizier commented: "In capturing Cyprus from you, we have cut off one of your arms; in defeating our fleet you have merely shaved off our beard". The Ottoman naval recovery persuaded Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, and the Ottomans were able to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa. However, what could not be replaced were the experienced naval officers and sailors. The Battle of Lepanto was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.

By contrast, the Habsburg frontier had settled into a reasonably permanent border, marked only by relatively minor battles concentrating on the possession of individual fortresses. The stalemate was caused by a stiffening of the Habsburg defences and reflected simple geographical limits: in the pre-mechanized age, Vienna marked the furthest point that an Ottoman army could march from Istanbul during the early spring to late autumn campaigning season. It also reflected the difficulties imposed on the Empire by the need to support two separate fronts: one against the Austrians (see: Ottoman wars in Europe), and the other against a rival Islamic state, the Safavids of Persia (see: Ottoman wars in Near East).

Changes in European military tactics and weaponry in the military revolution caused the Sipahi cavalry to lose military relevance. The Long War against Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of infantry equipped with firearms. This resulted in a relaxation of recruitment policy and a significant growth in Janissary corps numbers. Irregular sharpshooters (Sekban) were also recruited for the same reasons and on demobilization turned to brigandage in the Jelali revolts (1595–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in Anatolia in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. With the Empire's population reaching 30,000,000 people by 1600, shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.

However, the 17th century was not an era of stagnation and decline, but a key period in which the Ottoman state and its structures began to adapt to new pressures and new realities, internal and external. The Sultanate of women (1534–1683) was a period in which the political influence of the Imperial Harem was dominant, as the mothers of young sultans exercised power on behalf of their sons. This was not wholly unprecedented; Hürrem Sultan, who established herself in the early 1530s as the successor of Hafsa, the first valide sultan, was described by the Venetian baylo Andrea Giritti as "a woman of the utmost goodness, courage and wisdom" even though she "thwarted some while rewarding others". But the inadequacy of Ibrahim I (1640–1648) and the minority accession of Mehmed IV in 1646 created a significant crisis of rule, which the dominant women of the Imperial Harem filled. The most prominent women of this period were Kösem Sultan and her daughter-in-law Turhan Hatice, whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.

This period gave way to the highly significant Köprülü Era (1656–1703), during which effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of Grand Viziers from the Köprülü family. On 15 September 1656 the octogenarian Köprülü Mehmed Pasha accepted the seals of office having received guarantees from the Valide Turhan Hatice of unprecedented authority and freedom from interference. A fierce conservative disciplinarian, he successfully reasserted the central authority and the empire's military impetus. This continued under his son and successor Köprülü Fazıl Ahmed (Grand Vizier 1661–1676). The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of Crete completed in 1669 and expansion into Polish southern Ukraine, with the strongholds of Khotyn and Kamianets-Podilskyi and the territory of Podolia ceding to Ottoman control in 1676.

This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end when Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha in May 1683 led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of Vienna in the Great Turkish War of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king Jan at the Battle of Vienna.

The alliance of the Holy League pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna and, thus, fifteen (15) years of see-sawing warfare, culminated in the epochal Treaty of Karlowitz (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War. For the first time, the Ottoman Empire surrendered control of significant European territories (many permanently), including Ottoman Hungary. The Empire had reached the end of its ability to effectively conduct an assertive, expansionist policy against its European rivals and it was to be forced from this point to adopt an essentially defensive strategy within this theatre.

Only two Sultans in this period personally exercised strong political and military control of the Empire: the vigorous Murad IV (1612–1640) recaptured Yerevan (1635) and Baghdad (1639) from the Safavids and reasserted central authority, albeit during a brief majority reign. Mustafa II (1695–1703) led the Ottoman counterattack of 1695–96 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at Zenta (11 September 1697).

Stagnation and reform (1700–1827)
During this period threats to the Ottoman Empire were presented by the traditional foe—the Austrian Empire—as well as by a new foe—the rising Russian Empire. Certain areas of the Empire, such as Egypt and Algeria, became independent in all but name, and later came under the influence of Britain and France. Later, in the 18th century, centralized authority within the Ottoman Empire gave way to varying degrees of provincial autonomy enjoyed by local governors and leaders.

However, Russian expansion presented a large and growing threat. Accordingly, King Charles XII of Sweden was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the Battle of Poltava in 1709 (part of the Great Northern War of 1700–1721.) Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war on Russia, which resulted in the Ottoman victory at the Pruth River Campaign of 1710–1711. Following the Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718), the subsequent Treaty of Passarowitz signed on 21 July 1718, brought a period of peace between wars. However, the Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.

During the Tulip Era (1718–1730), named for Sultan Ahmed III's love of the tulip flower and its use to symbolize his peaceful reign, the Empire's policy towards Europe underwent a shift. The Empire began to improve the fortifications of its cities in the Balkan peninsula to act as a defence against European expansionism. Cultural works, fine arts and architecture flourished, with more elaborate styles that were influenced by the Baroque and Rococo movements in Europe. A classic example is the Fountain of Ahmed III in front of the Topkapı Palace. The famous Flemish-French painter Jean-Baptiste van Mour visited the Ottoman Empire during the Tulip Era and crafted some of the most renowned works of art depicting scenes from daily life in the Ottoman society and the imperial court.

Upon the death of Peter the Great in 1725, Catherine, Peter's wife succeeded to the throne of the Russian Empire as Czarina Catherine I. Together with Austria, Russia, under Empress Anne, Catherine I's niece, engaged in a war against the Ottoman Empire from 1735 until 1739. The Treaty of Belgrade signed on 18 September 1739, ended this war and resulted in Ottoman recovery of Belgrade and other territories from Austria, but the loss of the port of Azov to the Russians. However following the Treaty of Belgrade, the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of the Prussians under King Frederick the Great.

This long period of Ottoman peace and, indeed, stagnation is typically characterized by historians as an era of failed reforms. In the latter part of this period there were educational and technological reforms, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the Istanbul Technical University. Ottoman science and technology had been highly regarded in medieval times, as a result of Ottoman scholars' synthesis of classical learning with Islamic philosophy and mathematics, and knowledge of such Chinese advances in technology as gunpowder and the magnetic compass. By this period, though, the influences had become regressive and conservative. In 1734, when an artillery school was established with French teachers in order to impart Western-style artillery methods, the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of theodicy. Not until 1754 was the artillery school reopened on a semi-secret basis. Earlier, the guilds of writers had denounced the printing press as "the Devil's Invention", and were responsible for a 53-year lag between its invention by Johannes Gutenberg in Europe in c. 1440 and its introduction to the Ottoman society with the first Gutenberg press in Istanbul that was established by the Sephardic Jews of Spain in 1493 (who had migrated to the Ottoman Empire a year earlier, escaping from the Spanish Inquisition of 1492.) However, the printing press was used only by the non-Muslims in the Ottoman Empire until the 18th century. In 1726, Ibrahim Muteferrika convinced the Grand Vizier Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha, the Grand Mufti, and the clergy on the efficiency of the printing press, and later submitted a request to Sultan Ahmed III, who granted Muteferrika the permission to publish non-religious books (despite opposition from some calligraphers and religious leaders.) Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729, and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes (each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.)

Other tentative reforms were also enacted: taxes were lowered, there were attempts to improve the image of the Ottoman state, and the first instances of private investment and entrepreneurship occurred.

Following the period of peace, which had lasted since 1739, Russia began to assert its expansionistic desires again in 1768. Under the pretext of pursuing fugitive Polish revolutionaries, Russian troops entered Balta an Ottoman-controlled city on the border of Bessarabia and massacred its citizens and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the First Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca of 1774 ended the First Russo-Turkish War and allowed that the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled Rumanian provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia would be allowed freedom to worship. Russia was made the guarantor of their right to Christian worship.

A series of wars were fought between the Russian and Ottoman empires from the 18th to the 19th century. By the late 18th century, a number of defeats in several wars with Russia led some people in the Ottoman Empire to conclude that the reforms of Peter the Great had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.

Ottoman military reform efforts begin with Selim III (1789–1807) who made the first major attempts to modernize the army along European lines. These efforts, however, were hampered by reactionary movements, partly from the religious leadership, but primarily from the Janissary corps, who had become anarchic and ineffectual. Jealous of their privileges and firmly opposed to change, they created a Janissary revolt. Selim's efforts cost him his throne and his life, but were resolved in spectacular and bloody fashion by his successor, the dynamic Mahmud II, who eliminated the Janissary corps in 1826.

The Serbian revolution (1804–1815) marked the beginning of an era of national awakening in the Balkans during the Eastern Question. Suzerainty of Serbia as a hereditary monarchy under its own dynasty was acknowledged de jure in 1830. In 1821, the Greeks declared war on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the Peloponnese, which, along with the northern part of the Gulf of Corinth, became the first parts of the Ottoman empire to achieve independence (in 1829). By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "sick man" by Europeans. The suzerain states – the Principality of Serbia, Wallachia, Moldavia and Montenegro – moved towards de jure independence during the 1860s and 1870s.

Decline and modernization (1828–1908)
During this period, the empire faced challenges in defending itself against foreign invasion and occupation. The empire ceased to enter conflicts on its own and began to forge alliances with European countries such as France, the Netherlands, Britain and Russia. As an example, in the 1853 Crimean War, the Ottomans united with Britain, France and the Kingdom of Sardinia against Russia.

Modernization
During the Tanzimat period (from Arabic: تنظيم tanẓīm, meaning "organisation") (1839–76), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern conscripted army, banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law and guilds with modern factories. In 1856, the Hatt-ı Hümayun promised equality for all Ottoman citizens regardless of their ethnicity and religious confession; which thus widened the scope of the 1839 Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane.

Overall, the Tanzimat reforms had far-reaching effects. Those educated in the schools established during the Tanzimat period included Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and other progressive leaders and thinkers of the Republic of Turkey and of many other former Ottoman states in the Balkans, the Middle East and North Africa. These reforms included guarantees to ensure the Ottoman subjects perfect security for their lives, honour and property; the introduction of the first Ottoman paper banknotes (1840) and opening of the first post offices (1840); the reorganisation of the finance system according to the French model (1840); the reorganisation of the Civil and Criminal Code according to the French model (1840); the establishment of the Meclis-i Maarif-i Umumiye (1841) which was the prototype of the First Ottoman Parliament (1876); the reorganisation of the army and a regular method of recruiting, levying the army and fixing the duration of military service (1843–44); the adoption of an Ottoman national anthem and Ottoman national flag (1844); the first nationwide Ottoman census in 1844 (only male citizens were counted); the first national identity cards (officially named the Mecidiye identity papers, or informally kafa kağıdı (head paper) documents, 1844); the institution of a Council of Public Instruction (1845) and the Ministry of Education (Mekatib-i Umumiye Nezareti, 1847, which later became the Maarif Nezareti, 1857); the abolition of slavery and slave trade (1847); the establishment of the first modern universities (darülfünun, 1848), academies (1848) and teacher schools (darülmuallimin, 1848); establishment of the Ministry of Healthcare (Tıbbiye Nezareti, 1850); the Commerce and Trade Code (1850); establishment of the Academy of Sciences (Encümen-i Daniş, 1851); establishment of the Şirket-i Hayriye which operated the first steam-powered commuter ferries (1851); the first European style courts (Meclis-i Ahkam-ı Adliye, 1853) and supreme judiciary council (Meclis-i Ali-yi Tanzimat, 1853); establishment of the modern Municipality of Istanbul (Şehremaneti, 1854) and the City Planning Council (İntizam-ı Şehir Komisyonu, 1855); the abolition of the capitation (Jizya) tax on non-Muslims, with a regular method of establishing and collecting taxes (1856); non-Muslims were allowed to become soldiers (1856); various provisions for the better administration of the public service and advancement of commerce; the establishment of the first telegraph networks (1847–1855) and railways (1856); the replacement of guilds with factories; the establishment of the Ottoman Central Bank (originally established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganised as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863) and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası, established in 1866); the Land Code (Arazi Kanunnamesi, 1857); permission for private sector publishers and printing firms with the Serbesti-i Kürşad Nizamnamesi (1857); establishment of the School of Economical and Political Sciences (Mekteb-i Mülkiye, 1859); the Press and Journalism Regulation Code (Matbuat Nizamnamesi, 1864); among others.

The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul on 23 October 1840. The first post office was the Postahane-i Amire near the courtyard of the Yeni Mosque. In 1876 the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the vast Ottoman Empire was established. In 1901 the first money transfers were made through the post offices and the first cargo services became operational.

Samuel Morse received his first ever patent for the telegraph in 1847, at the old Beylerbeyi Palace (the present Beylerbeyi Palace was built in 1861–1865 on the same location) in Istanbul, which was issued by Sultan Abdülmecid who personally tested the new invention. Following this successful test, installation works of the first telegraph line (Istanbul-Adrianople–Şumnu) began on 9 August 1847. In 1855 the Ottoman telegraph network became operational and the Telegraph Administration was established. In 1871 the Ministry of Post and the Telegraph Administration were merged, becoming the Ministry of Post and Telegraph. In July 1881 the first telephone circuit in Istanbul was established between the Ministry of Post and Telegraph in the Soğukçeşme quarter and the Postahane-i Amire in the Yenicami quarter. On 23 May 1909, the first manual telephone exchange with a 50 line capacity entered service in the Büyük Postane (Grand Post Office) in Sirkeci.

The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the Kanûn-u Esâsî (meaning "Basic Law" in Ottoman Turkish), written by members of the Young Ottomans, which was promulgated on 23 November 1876. It established the freedom of belief and equality of all citizens before the law. The empire's First Constitutional era, was short-lived. But the idea of Ottomanism proved influential. A group of reformers known as the Young Ottomans, primarily educated in Western universities, believed that a constitutional monarchy would give an answer to the empire's growing social unrest. Through a military coup in 1876, they forced Sultan Abdülaziz (1861–1876) to abdicate in favour of Murad V. However, Murad V was mentally ill and was deposed within a few months. His heir-apparent, Abdülhamid II (1876–1909), was invited to assume power on the condition that he would declare a constitutional monarchy, which he did on 23 November 1876. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it. When forced to reconvene it, he abolished the representative body instead. This ended the effectiveness of the Kanûn-ı Esâsî.

The Christian millets gained privileges, such as in the Armenian National Constitution of 1863. This Divan-approved form of the Code of Regulations consisted of 150 articles drafted by the Armenian intelligentsia. Another institution was the newly formed Armenian National Assembly. The Christian population of the empire, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment on the part of the latter. In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the same time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology. In turn, the higher educational levels of the Christians allowed them to play a large role in the economy. In 1911, of the 654 wholesale companies in Istanbul, 528 were owned by ethnic Greeks.

Railways
New railways were built during this period, including the first in the Ottoman Empire.

Crimean War
The Crimean War (1853–1856) was part of a long-running contest between the major European powers for influence over territories of the declining Ottoman Empire. Britain and France successfully defended the Ottoman Empire against Russia.

Most of the fighting took place when the allies landed on Russia's Crimean Peninsula to gain control of the Black Sea. There were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia, the Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea. It was one of the first "modern" wars, as it introduced new technologies to warfare, such as the first tactical use of railways and the telegraph. The subsequent Treaty of Paris (1856) secured Ottoman control over the Balkan Peninsula and the Black Sea basin. That lasted until defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

The Ottoman Empire took its first foreign loans on 4 August 1854, shortly after the beginning of the Crimean War. The war caused an exodus of the Crimean Tatars. From the total Tatar population of 300,000 in the Tauride Province, about 200,000 Crimean Tatars moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration. Toward the end of the Caucasian Wars, 90% of the Circassians were exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus and settled in the Ottoman Empire. Since the 19th century, the exodus to present-day Turkey by the large portion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans, Caucasus, Crimea and Crete, had great influence in molding the country's fundamental features. These people were called Muhacir under a general definition. By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia. Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Turkish education.

Ethnic nationalism
The rise of nationalism swept through many countries during the 19th century, and it affected territories within the Ottoman Empire. A burgeoning national consciousness, together with a growing sense of ethnic nationalism, made nationalistic thought one of the most significant Western ideas imported to the Ottoman Empire. It was forced to deal with nationalism both within and beyond its borders. The number of revolutionary political parties rose dramatically. Uprisings in Ottoman territory had many far-reaching consequences during the 19th century and determined much of Ottoman policy during the early 20th century. Many Ottoman Turks questioned whether the policies of the state were to blame: some felt that the sources of ethnic conflict were external, and unrelated to issues of governance. While this era was not without some successes, the ability of the Ottoman state to have any effect on ethnic uprisings was seriously called into question.

In 1804 the Serbian Revolution against Ottoman rule erupted in the Balkans, running in parallel with the Napoleonic invasion. By 1817, when the revolution ended, Serbia was raised to the status of self-governing monarchy under nominal Ottoman suzerainty. In 1821 the First Hellenic Republic became the first Balkan country to achieve its independence from the Ottoman Empire. It was officially recognised by the Porte in 1829, after the end of the Greek War of Independence.

Balkans
The Tanzimat reforms did not halt the rise of nationalism in the Danubian Principalities and the Principality of Serbia, which had been semi-independent for almost six decades. In 1875, the tributary principalities of Serbia and Montenegro, and the United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia, unilaterally declared their independence from the empire. Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, the empire granted independence to all three belligerent nations. Bulgaria also achieved independence (as the Principality of Bulgaria); its volunteers had participated in the Russo-Turkish War on the side of the rebelling nations.

Congress of Berlin

The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the leading statesmen of Europe's Great Powers and the Ottoman Empire. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) that ended with a decisive victory for Russia and her Orthodox Christian allies (subjects of the Ottoman Empire before the war) in the Balkan Peninsula, the urgent need was to stabilise and reorganise the Balkans, and set up new nations. German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to adjust boundaries to minimise the risks of major war, while recognising the reduced power of the Ottomans, and balance the distinct interests of the great powers.

As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire, but was not allowed to keep all its previous territory. Bulgaria lost Eastern Rumelia, which was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia, which was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, but had to turn over part of Bessarabia to Russia. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories.

In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar, but the Ottoman government contested this move and maintained its troops in both provinces. The stalemate lasted for 30 years (Austrian and Ottoman forces coexisted in Bosnia and Novi Pazar for three decades) until 1908, when the Austrians took advantage of the political turmoil in the Ottoman Empire that stemmed from the Young Turk Revolution and annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, but pulled their troops out of Novi Pazar in order to reach a compromise and avoid a war with the Turks.

In return for British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's advocacy for restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878 and later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 with the pretext of helping the Ottoman government to put down the Urabi Revolt; effectively gaining control in both territories (Britain formally annexed the still nominally Ottoman territories of Cyprus and Egypt on 5 November 1914, in response to the Ottoman Empire's decision to enter World War I on the side of the Central Powers.) France, on its part, occupied Tunisia in 1881.

The results were first hailed as a great achievement in peacemaking and stabilisation. However, most of the participants were not fully satisfied, and grievances regarding the results festered until they exploded into world war in 1914. Serbia, Bulgaria and Greece made gains, but far less than they thought they deserved. The Ottoman Empire, called at the time the "sick man of Europe", was humiliated and significantly weakened, rendering it more liable to domestic unrest and more vulnerable to attack. Although Russia had been victorious in the war that occasioned the conference, it was humiliated at Berlin, and resented its treatment. Austria gained a great deal of territory, which angered the South Slavs, and led to decades of tensions in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Bismarck became the target of hatred of Russian nationalists and Pan-Slavists, and found that he had tied Germany too closely to Austria in the Balkans.

In the long-run, tensions between Russia and Austria-Hungary intensified, as did the nationality question in the Balkans. The Congress succeeded in keeping Istanbul in Ottoman hands. It effectively disavowed Russia's victory. The Congress of Berlin returned to the Ottoman Empire territories that the previous treaty had given to the Principality of Bulgaria, most notably Macedonia, thus setting up a strong revanchist demand in Bulgaria that in 1912 led to the First Balkan War in which the Turks were defeated and lost nearly all of Europe. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank in size, military power and wealth, many Balkan Muslims migrated to the empire's remaining territory in the Balkans or to the heartland in Anatolia. Muslims had been the majority in some parts of the Ottoman Empire such as the Crimea, the Balkans and the Caucasus as well as a plurality in southern Russia and also in some parts of Romania. Most of these lands were lost with time by the Ottoman Empire between the 19th and 20th centuries. By 1923, only Anatolia and eastern Thrace remained Muslim land.

Egypt
After gaining some amount of autonomy during the early 1800s, Egypt had entered into a period of political turmoil by the 1880s. In April 1882, British and French warships appeared in Alexandria to support the khedive and prevent the country from falling into the hands of anti-European nationals. In August 1882 British forces invaded and occupied Egypt on the pretext of bringing order. The British supported Khedive Tewfiq and restored stability with was especially beneficial to British and French financial interests. Egypt and Sudan remained as Ottoman provinces de jure until 1914, when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers of World War I. Great Britain officially annexed these two provinces and Cyprus in response. Other Ottoman provinces in North Africa were lost between 1830 and 1912, starting with Algeria (occupied by France in 1830), Tunisia (occupied by France in 1881) and Libya (occupied by Italy in 1912).

Armenians
Although granted their own constitution and national assembly with the Tanzimat reforms, the Armenians attempted to demand implementation of Article 61 from the Ottoman government as agreed upon at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Following pressure from the European powers and Armenians, Sultan Abdul Hamid II, in response, assigned the Hamidiye regiments to eastern Anatolia (Ottoman Armenia). These were formed mostly of irregular cavalry units of recruited Kurds. From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. Armenian militants seized the Ottoman Bank headquarters in Istanbul in 1896 to bring European attention to the massacres, but they failed to gain any help.

Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922)
The Ottoman Empire had long been the "sick man of Europe" and after a series of Balkan wars by 1914 had been driven out of nearly all of Europe and North Africa. It still controlled 28 million people, of whom 17 million were in modern-day Turkey, 3 million in Syria, Lebanon and Palestine, and 2.5 million in Iraq. Another 5.5 million people were under nominal Ottoman rule in the Arabian peninsula.

The Second Constitutional Era began after the Young Turk Revolution (3 July 1908) with the sultan's announcement of the restoration of the 1876 constitution and the reconvening of the Ottoman Parliament. It marked the beginning of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. This era is dominated by the politics of the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), and the movement that would become known as the Young Turks. Although it began as a uniting progressive party, the CUP splintered in 1911 with the founding of the opposition Freedom and Accord Party (Liberal Union or Entente), which poached many of the more liberal Deputies from the CUP. The remaining CUP members, who now took a more dominantly nationalist tone in the face of the enmity of the Balkan Wars, dueled Freedom and Accord in a series of power reversals, which ultimately led to the CUP (specifically its leadership, the "Three Pashas") seizing power from the Freedom and Accord in the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état and establishing total dominance over Ottoman politics until the end of World War I.

Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, but pulled its troops out of the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, another contested region between the Austrians and Ottomans, to avoid a war. During the Italo-Turkish War (1911–12) in which the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play a role in the origins of World War I.

World War I (1914–1918)
The Young Turk government had signed a secret treaty with Germany and established the Ottoman-German Alliance in August 1914, aimed against the common Russian enemy but aligning the Empire with the German side. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I after the Goeben and Breslau incident, in which it gave safe harbour to two German ships that were fleeing British ships. These ships then—after having officially been transferred to the Ottoman Navy, but effectively still under German control—attacked the Russian port of Sevastopol, thus dragging the Empire into the war on the side of the Central Powers, in which it took part in the Middle Eastern theatre. There were several important Ottoman victories in the early years of the war, such as the Battle of Gallipoli and the Siege of Kut, but there were setbacks as well, such as the disastrous Caucasus Campaign against the Russians. The United States never declared war against the Ottoman Empire.

In 1915, as the Russian Caucasus Army continued to advance in eastern Anatolia with the help of Armenian volunteer units from the Caucasus region of the Russian Empire, and aided by some Ottoman Armenians, the Ottoman government decided to issue the Tehcir Law, which started the deportation of the ethnic Armenians, particularly from the provinces close to the Ottoman-Russian front, resulting in what became known as the Armenian genocide. Through forced marches and gang skirmishes, the Armenians living in eastern Anatolia were uprooted from their ancestral homelands and sent southwards to the Ottoman provinces in Syria and Mesopotamia. Estimates vary on how many Armenians perished, but scholars give figures ranging from 300,000 (per the modern Turkish state), 600,000 (per early estimates by Western researchers) to up to 1.5 million (per modern Western and Armenian scholars).

The Arab Revolt which began in 1916 turned the tide against the Ottomans at the Middle Eastern front, where they initially seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. When the Armistice of Mudros was signed on 30 October 1918, the only parts of the Arabian peninsula that were still under Ottoman control were Yemen, Asir, the city of Medina, portions of northern Syria and portions of northern Iraq. These territories were handed over to the British forces on 23 January 1919. The Ottomans were also forced to evacuate the parts of the former Russian Empire in the Caucasus (in present-day Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan), which they had gained towards the end of World War I, following Russia's retreat from the war with the Russian Revolution in 1917.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres, the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire was solidified. The new countries created from the former territories of the Ottoman Empire currently number 39.

Turkish War of Independence (1919–1923)

The occupation of Constantinople along with the occupation of İzmir mobilized the establishment of the Turkish national movement, which won the 1919–1923 Turkish War of Independence under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Pasha. The Sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, Mehmed VI Vahdettin ((r. 1918 – 1922)), left the country on 17 November 1922. The new independent Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNA) was internationally recognized with the Treaty of Lausanne on 24 July 1923. The GNA officially declared the Republic of Turkey on 29 October 1923. The Caliphate was constitutionally abolished several months later, on 3 March 1924. The Sultan and his family were declared personae non gratae of Turkey and exiled.

Ottoman dynasty after dissolution
In 1974, descendants of the dynasty were granted the right to acquire Turkish citizenship by the Grand National Assembly, and were notified that they could apply. Mehmed Orhan, son of Prince Mehmed Abdul Kadir of the Ottoman Empire, died in 1994, leaving the grandson of Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II, Ertuğrul Osman, as the eldest surviving member of the deposed dynasty. Osman for many years refused to carry a Turkish passport, calling himself a citizen of the Ottoman Empire. Despite this attitude, he put the matter of an Ottoman restoration to rest when he told an interviewer "no" to the question of whether he wished the Ottoman Empire to be restored. He was quoted as saying that "democracy works well in Turkey." He returned to Turkey in 1992 for the first time since the exile, and became a Turkish citizen with a Turkish passport in 2002.

On 23 September 2009, Osman died at the age of 97 in Istanbul, and with his death the last of the line born under the Ottoman Empire was extinguished. In Turkey, Osman was known as "the last Ottoman".

Harun Osmanoğlu, the 3rd generation grandson of Abdul Hamid II, is the eldest living member of the former ruling dynasty.

Fall of the Empire
In many ways, the circumstances surrounding the Ottoman Empire's fall were a result of tensions between the Empire's different ethnic groups and the various governments' inability to deal with these tensions. The introduction of increased cultural rights, civil liberties and a parliamentary system during the Tanzimat proved too late to reverse the nationalistic and secessionist trends that had already been set in motion since the early 19th century.

General surveys

 * The Cambridge History of Turkey
 * Volume 1: Kate Fleet ed., "Byzantium to Turkey 1071–1453." Cambridge University Press, 2009.
 * Volume 2: Suraiya N. Faroqhi and Kate Fleet eds., "The Ottoman Empire as a World Power, 1453–1603." Cambridge University Press, 2012.
 * Volume 3: Suraiya N. Faroqhi ed., "The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603–1839." Cambridge University Press, 2006.
 * Volume 4: Reşat Kasaba ed., "Turkey in the Modern World." Cambridge University Press, 2008.

 * Two volumes.
 * Kia, Mehrdad, ed. The Ottoman Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2017u)
 * McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. 1997
 * Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
 * Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.
 * McCarthy, Justin. The Ottoman Turks: An Introductory History to 1923. 1997
 * Mikaberidze, Alexander. Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia (2 vol 2011)
 * Quataert, Donald. The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922. 2005. ISBN 0-521-54782-2.

The Classical Age

 * Şahin, Kaya. “The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century,” Renaissance Quarterly 70#1 (Spring 2017): 220–234.
 * Şahin, Kaya. “The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century,” Renaissance Quarterly 70#1 (Spring 2017): 220–234.
 * Şahin, Kaya. “The Ottoman Empire in the Long Sixteenth Century,” Renaissance Quarterly 70#1 (Spring 2017): 220–234.

Military

 * Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
 * Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)
 * Hall, Richard C. ed. War in the Balkans: An Encyclopedic History from the Fall of the Ottoman Empire to the Breakup of Yugoslavia (2014)

title: History of the Ottoman Empire


text:
Stillwater River

Stillwater River may refer to:

New Zealand

 * Stillwater River (New Zealand), on the South Island

United States

 * Stillwater River (Maine)
 * Stillwater River (Nashua River tributary), Massachusetts
 * Stillwater River (Stillwater County, Montana), a tributary of the Yellowstone River
 * Stillwater River (Flathead County, Montana), a tributary of the Whitefish River
 * Stillwater River (Ohio)
 * Stillwater River (Rhode Island)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Stillwater River


text:
List of birds of South Asia: part 2

This list includes those birds of South Asia in the non-passerine families other than the Megapodes, Galliformes, Gruiformes and near passerines.

For an introduction to the birds of the region, see List of birds of the South Asia.

For the rest of the species lists, see:
 * part 1 – Megapodes, Galliformes, Gruiformes and near passerines
 * part 3 – passerines from pittas to cisticolas
 * part 4 – passerines from Old World warblers to buntings

Pterocliformes

 * Family: Pteroclidae
 * Tibetan sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes tibetanus – r
 * Pallas's sandgrouse, Syrrhaptes paradoxus – V
 * Pin-tailed sandgrouse, Pterocles alchata – W
 * Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse, Pterocles exustus – r
 * Spotted sandgrouse, Pterocles senegallus – W
 * Black-bellied sandgrouse, Pterocles orientalis – r w
 * Crowned sandgrouse, Pterocles coronatus
 * Painted sandgrouse, Pterocles indicus – r
 * Lichtenstein's sandgrouse, Pterocles lichtensteinii – r

Charadriiformes

 * Family: Scolopacidae
 * Eurasian woodcock, Scolopax rusticola – r W
 * Solitary snipe, Gallinago solitaria – r
 * Wood snipe, Gallinago nemoricola – V r
 * Pintail snipe, Gallinago stenura – W
 * Swinhoe's snipe, Gallinago megala – W
 * Great snipe, Gallinago media – V
 * Common snipe, Gallinago gallinago – r W
 * Jack snipe, Lymnocryptes minimus – W
 * Black-tailed godwit, Limosa limosa – W
 * Bar-tailed godwit, Limosa lapponica – W
 * Whimbrel, Numenius phaeopus – W
 * Eurasian curlew, Numenius arquata – W
 * Far Eastern curlew, Numenius madagascariensis
 * Spotted redshank, Tringa erythropus – W
 * Common redshank, Tringa totanus – s W
 * Marsh sandpiper, Tringa stagnatilis – W
 * Common greenshank, Tringa nebularia – W
 * Nordmann's greenshank, Tringa guttifer – E V
 * Green sandpiper, Tringa ochropus – W
 * Wood sandpiper, Tringa glareola – W
 * Terek sandpiper, Xenus cinereus – W
 * Common sandpiper, Actitis hypoleucos – s W
 * Grey-tailed tattler, Heteroscelus brevipes
 * Ruddy turnstone, Arenaria interpres – W
 * Long billed dowitcher, Limnodromus scolopaceus
 * Asian dowitcher, Limnodromus semipalmatus – N W
 * Great knot, Calidris tenuirostris – W
 * Red knot, Calidris canutus – W
 * Sanderling, Calidris alba – W
 * Spoon-billed sandpiper, Eurynorhynchus pygmeus – V w
 * Little stint, Calidris minuta – W
 * Red-necked stint, Calidris ruficollis – W
 * Temminck's stint, Calidris temminckii – W
 * Long-toed stint, Calidris subminuta – W
 * Sharp-tailed sandpiper, Calidris acuminata – V
 * Pectoral sandpiper, Calidris melanotos – V
 * Dunlin, Calidris alpina – W
 * Curlew sandpiper, Calidris ferruginea – W
 * Buff-breasted sandpiper, Tryngites subruficollis – V
 * Broad-billed sandpiper, Limicola falcinellus – W
 * Ruff, Philomachus pugnax – W
 * Red-necked phalarope, Phalaropus lobatus – W
 * Grey phalarope, Phalaropus fulicaria – V
 * Family: Rostratulidae
 * Greater painted-snipe, Rostratula benghalensis – r
 * Family: Jacanidae
 * Pheasant-tailed jacana, Hydrophasianus chirurgus – R
 * Bronze-winged jacana, Metopidius indicus – R
 * Family: Burhinidae
 * Stone curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus – R
 * Great thick-knee, Esacus recurvirostris – r
 * Beach thick-knee, Esacus neglectus – N r
 * Family Haematopodidae
 * Eurasian oystercatcher, Haematopus ostralegus – W
 * Family Recurvirostridae
 * Ibisbill, Ibidorhyncha struthersii – r
 * Black-winged stilt, Himantopus himantopus – R W
 * Pied avocet, Recurvirostra avosetta – r W
 * Family Charadriidae
 * Eurasian golden plover, Pluvialis apricaria – V
 * Pacific golden plover, Pluvialis fulva – W
 * Grey plover, Pluvialis squatarola – W
 * Common ringed plover, Charadrius hiaticula – W
 * Long-billed plover, Charadrius placidus – W
 * Little ringed plover, Charadrius dubius – R W
 * Kentish plover, Charadrius alexandrinus – R W
 * Lesser sand plover, Charadrius mongolus – s W
 * Greater sand plover, Charadrius leschenaultii – W
 * Caspian plover, Charadrius asiaticus – V
 * Oriental plover, Charadrius veredus – V
 * Black-fronted dotterel, Elseyornis melanops – V
 * Northern lapwing, Vanellus vanellus – W
 * Yellow-wattled lapwing, Vanellus malarbaricus – r
 * River lapwing, Vanellus duvaucelii – R
 * Grey-headed lapwing, Vanellus cinereus – W
 * Red-wattled lapwing, Vanellus indicus – R
 * Sociable lapwing, w Vanellus gregarius – V
 * White-tailed lapwing, Vanellus leucurus – W
 * Family Dromadidae
 * Crab-plover, Dromas ardeola – W
 * Family: Glareolidae
 * Jerdon's courser, Rhinoptilus bitorquatus – Cr
 * Cream-colored courser, Cursorius cursor – r w
 * Indian courser, Cursorius coromandelicus – r
 * Collared pratincole, Glareola pratincola – r w
 * Oriental pratincole, Glareola maldivarum – R
 * Small pratincole, Glareola lactea – R
 * Family Stercorariidae
 * Brown skua, Catharacta antarctica – s p
 * South polar skua, Catharacta maccormicki – V
 * Pomarine skua, Stercorarius pomarinus – W
 * Arctic skua, Stercorarius parasiticus – W
 * Family Rynchopidae
 * Indian skimmer, Rynchops albicollis – V r
 * Family: Laridae
 * White-eyed gull, Larus leucophthalmus – V
 * Sooty gull, Larus hemprichii – V
 * Common gull, Larus canus – V
 * Caspian gull, Larus cachinnans – W
 * Armenian gull, Larus armenicus
 * Heuglin's gull, Larus heuglini – W
 * Great black-headed gull, Larus ichthyaetus – W
 * Brown-headed gull, Larus brunnicephalus – s W
 * Black-headed gull, Larus ridibundus – W
 * Slender-billed gull, Larus genei – W
 * Little gull, Larus minutus – V
 * Family Sternidae
 * Gull-billed tern, Gelochelidon nilotica – r W
 * Caspian tern, Hydroprogne caspia – W
 * River tern, Sterna aurantia – R
 * Lesser crested tern, Sterna bengalensis – r
 * Great crested tern, Sterna bergii – r
 * Sandwich tern, Sterna sandvicensis – W
 * Roseate tern, Sterna dougallii – r
 * Black-naped tern, Sterna sumatrana – r
 * Common tern, Sterna hirundo – s W
 * Arctic tern, Sterna paradisaea – V
 * White-cheeked tern, Sterna repressa – p
 * Black-bellied tern, Sterna acuticauda – N r
 * Little tern, Sternula albifrons – r
 * Saunders's tern, Sternula saundersi – r
 * Bridled tern, Onychoprion anaethetus – s
 * Sooty tern, Onychoprion fuscata – s
 * Whiskered tern, Chlidonias hybridus – R W
 * White-winged black tern, Chlidonias leucopterus – W
 * Black tern, Chlidonias niger – V
 * Brown noddy, Anous stolidus – V
 * Black noddy, Anous minutus – V
 * Lesser noddy, Anous tenuirostris
 * White tern, Gygis alba – r

Falconiformes

 * Family Pandionidae
 * Osprey, Pandion haliaetus – r W
 * Family: Accipitridae
 * Jerdon's baza, Aviceda jerdoni – r
 * Black baza, Aviceda leuphotes – r
 * Oriental honey-buzzard, Pernis ptilorhyncus – R W
 * Black-shouldered kite, Elanus caeruleus – R
 * Red kite, Milvus milvus – V
 * Black kite, Milvus migrans – R W
 * Brahminy kite, Haliastur indus – R
 * White-bellied sea eagle, Haliaeetus leucogaster – R
 * Pallas's fish eagle, Haliaeetus leucoryphus – V r
 * White-tailed eagle, Haliaeetus albicilla – N W
 * Lesser fish eagle, Ichthyophaga humilis – r N
 * Grey-headed fish eagle, Ichthyophaga ichthyaetus – N r
 * Lammergeier, Gypaetus barbatus – r
 * Egyptian vulture, Neophron percnopterus – R
 * White-rumped vulture, Gyps bengalensis – C r
 * Long-billed vulture, Gyps indicus – C r
 * Slender-billed vulture, Gyps tenuirostris – r ?
 * Himalayan griffon vulture, Gyps himalayensis – r
 * Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus – r
 * Cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus – N r w
 * Red-headed vulture, Sarcogyps calvus – N r
 * Short-toed eagle, Circaetus gallicus – r
 * Crested serpent eagle, Spilornis cheela – R
 * Nicobar serpent eagle, Spilornis minimus – N r
 * Andaman serpent eagle, Spilornis elgini – N r
 * Marsh harrier, Circus aeruginosus – W
 * Hen harrier, Circus cyaneus – W
 * Pallid harrier, Circus macrourus – N W
 * Pied harrier, Circus melanoleucos – r w
 * Montagu's harrier, Circus pygargus – W
 * Crested goshawk, Accipiter trivirgatus – r
 * Shikra, Accipiter badius – R
 * Nicobar sparrowhawk, Accipiter butleri – N r
 * Chinese sparrowhawk, Accipiter soloensis – W
 * Japanese sparrowhawk, Accipiter gularis – W
 * Besra, Accipiter virgatus – r
 * Eurasian sparrowhawk, Accipiter nisus – r w
 * Northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis – r w
 * White-eyed buzzard, Butastur teesa – R
 * Grey-faced buzzard, Butastur indicus – V
 * Common buzzard, Buteo buteo – r w
 * Long-legged buzzard, Buteo rufinus – r W
 * Upland buzzard, Buteo hemilasius – W
 * Rough-legged buzzard, Buteo lagopus – V
 * Black eagle, Ictinaetus malayensis – r
 * Lesser spotted eagle, Aquila pomarina – r
 * Greater spotted eagle, W Aquila clanga – V
 * Tawny eagle, Aquila rapax – R
 * Steppe eagle, Aquila nipalensis – W
 * Eastern imperial eagle, w Aquila heliaca – V
 * Golden eagle, Aquila chrysaetos – r
 * Bonelli's eagle, Hieraaetus fasciatus – r
 * Booted eagle, Hieraaetus pennatus – W
 * Rufous-bellied eagle, Hieraaetus kienerii – r
 * Changeable hawk eagle, Spizaetus cirrhatus – R
 * Mountain hawk eagle, Spizaetus nipalensis – r
 * Family: Falconidae
 * Collared falconet, Microhierax caerulescens – r
 * Pied falconet, Microhierax melanoleucus – r
 * Lesser kestrel, p Falco naumanni – V
 * Common kestrel, Falco tinnunculus – R W
 * Red-necked falcon, Falco chicquera – r
 * Amur falcon, Falco amurensis – p
 * Sooty falcon, Falco concolor
 * Merlin, Falco columbarius – W
 * Eurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo – rp
 * Oriental hobby, Falco severus – r
 * Laggar falcon, Falco jugger – r
 * Saker falcon, Falco cherrug – W
 * Peregrine falcon, Falco peregrinus – r w

Podicipediformes

 * Family: Podicipedidae
 * Little grebe, Tachybaptus ruficollis – R
 * Red-necked grebe, Podiceps grisegena – W
 * Great crested grebe, Podiceps cristatus – r w
 * Slavonian grebe, Podiceps auritus – W
 * Black-necked grebe, Podiceps nigricollis – r w

Pelecaniformes

 * Family: Phaethontidae
 * Red-billed tropicbird, Phaethon aethereus – W
 * Red-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon rubricauda – r
 * White-tailed tropicbird, Phaethon lepturus – r
 * Family: Sulidae
 * Masked booby, Sula dactylatra – r
 * Red-footed booby, Sula sula – r
 * Brown booby, Sula leucogaster – r
 * Family: Anhingidae
 * Oriental darter, Anhinga melanogaster – R N
 * Family: Phalacrocoracidae
 * Pygmy cormorant, Phalacrocorax pygmeus
 * Little cormorant, Phalacrocorax niger – R
 * Indian cormorant, Phalacrocorax fuscicollis – R
 * Great cormorant, Phalacrocorax carbo – R W
 * Family: Pelecanidae
 * Great white pelican, Pelecanus onocrotalus – r W
 * Dalmatian pelican, Pelecanus crispus – D W
 * Spot-billed pelican, Pelecanus philippensis – V R
 * Family: Fregatidae
 * Great frigatebird, Fregata minor – P
 * Lesser frigatebird, Fregata ariel – r
 * Christmas Island frigatebird, Fregata andrewsi – V

Ciconiiformes

 * Family: Ardeidae
 * Little egret, Egretta garzetta – R
 * Western reef egret, Egretta gularis – R
 * Pacific reef egret, Egretta sacra – r
 * Grey heron, Ardea cinerea – R W
 * Goliath heron, Ardea goliath – r?
 * White-bellied heron, Ardea insignis – E r
 * Great-billed heron, Ardea sumatrana – V
 * Purple heron, Ardea purpurea – R
 * Eastern great egret, Ardea modesta – R W
 * Intermediate egret, Mesophoyx intermedia – R
 * Cattle egret, Bubulcus ibis – R
 * Indian pond heron, Ardeola grayii – R
 * Chinese pond heron, Ardeola bacchus – r
 * Striated heron, Butorides striatus – r
 * Black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax – R
 * Malayan night heron, Gorsachius melanolophus – r
 * Little bittern, Ixobrychus minutus – r
 * Yellow bittern, Ixobrychus sinensis – r
 * Cinnamon bittern, Ixobrychus cinnamomeus – r
 * Black bittern, Dupetor flavicollis – r
 * Great bittern, Botaurus stellaris – W
 * Family: Phoenicopteridae
 * Greater flamingo, Phoenicopterus ruber – r W
 * Lesser flamingo, Phoenicopterus minor – N r
 * Family: Threskiornithidae
 * Glossy ibis, Plegadis falcinellus – R W
 * Black-headed ibis, Threskiornis melanocephalus – N R
 * Black ibis, Pseudibis papillosa – R
 * Eurasian spoonbill, Platalea leucorodia – R W
 * Family: Ciconiidae
 * Painted stork, Mycteria leucocephala – N R
 * Asian openbill, Anastomus oscitans – R
 * Black stork, Ciconia nigra – W
 * Woolly-necked stork, Ciconia episcopus – R
 * White stork, Ciconia ciconia – W
 * Oriental stork, Ciconia boyciana – V
 * Black-necked stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus – N r
 * Lesser adjutant, Leptoptilos javanicus – V r
 * Greater adjutant, Leptoptilos dubius – E r

Gaviiformes

 * Family: Gaviidae
 * Red-throated diver, Gavia stellata – V
 * Black-throated diver, Gavia arctica – V

Procellariiformes

 * Family: Procellariidae
 * Cape petrel, Daption capense – V
 * Barau's petrel, Pterodroma baraui – V
 * Bulwer's petrel, Bulweria bulwerii – V
 * Jouanin's petrel, Bulweria fallax – V
 * Streaked shearwater, Calonectris leucomelas – V
 * Wedge-tailed shearwater, Puffinus pacificus – s
 * Flesh-footed shearwater, Puffinus carneipes – s
 * Sooty shearwater, Puffinus griseus – V
 * Short-tailed shearwater, Puffinus tenuirostris – V
 * Audubon's shearwater, Puffinus lherminieri – r
 * Persian shearwater, Puffinus persicus – N P
 * Family Hydrobatidae
 * Wilson's storm-petrel, Oceanites oceanicus – P
 * White-faced storm-petrel, Pelagodroma marina – V
 * Black-bellied storm-petrel, Fregetta tropica – V
 * White-bellied storm-petrel, Fregetta grallaria – V
 * Swinhoe's storm-petrel, Oceanodroma monorhis – p

title: List of birds of South Asia: part 2


text:
Timeline of Rosetta (spacecraft)

Rosetta is a space probe designed to rendezvous with the comet 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko, perform flybys of two asteroids (2867 Šteins and 21 Lutetia), and carry lander Philae until its landing on 67P. This page records a detailed timeline of this mission.

Launch and cruise phase (2004 - 2014)

 * 16 February 2004 — The Rosetta spacecraft was placed on top of its Ariane 5 rocket at the Guiana Space Centre, Kourou.
 * 26 February 2004 — Countdown was stopped at 20 minutes and 40 seconds before lift off due to strong winds in the upper atmosphere, causing the launch to be rescheduled for the next day.
 * 27 February 2004 — Before launch, a piece of detached foam was discovered, which prompted a round of technical inspections. Launch was rescheduled to very early March.
 * 2 March 2004 — The spacecraft launched at 07:17 GMT. The Ariane 5 placed the upper stage and the Rosetta spacecraft into an eccentric coast orbit (200 x 4000 km). About two hours later, at 09:14 GMT, the upper stage fired to leave the orbit around the Earth and enter heliocentric orbit. Rosetta was released 18 minutes later, and soon afterwards ESA’s Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt established contact with the spacecraft.
 * 3 March 2004 — The S Band communication commenced with Rosetta, using both low- and high-gain antenna configurations. Also, all reaction wheels were in operation, compensating for large disturbances due to outgassing from the space craft, which was expected to last for a few days in the vacuum of space, whilst trapped atmospheric gases escaped.
 * 4 March 2004 — The power subsystem of Rosetta was tested and commissioned.
 * 5 March 2004 — Rosetta X band communications were commissioned.
 * 7-10 March 2004 — The first three instruments (Cosima, CONSERT(Orbiter part) and Osiris) were activated and completed their initial commissioning activities. The CONSERT Orbiter antenna was also deployed.
 * 11 March 2004 — The Rosetta Science Working Team announces that the accuracy of launch made it possible to select two asteroids as targets for a rendezvous fly-by of the probe. "Comets and asteroids are the building blocks of our Earth and the other planets in the Solar System. Rosetta will conduct the most thorough analysis so far of three of these objects," said Prof. David Southwood, Director of ESA's Science Programme in a press release.
 * 12-17 March 2004 — Starting on 12 March, the lander was commissioned. Only one step was rescheduled due to early release of the launch locks during the first mission day.
 * 17-19 March 2004 — The Rosetta Plasma Consortium (RPC) instruments were commissioned. An issue arose with the redundant power supply, but did not substantially affect the mission. The spacecraft booms, carrying the RPC MIP (Mutual Impedance Probe) and LAP (Langmuir Probe) instruments were deployed by using the primary systems.
 * 26 March 2004 — Checking out was completed on three instruments: ROSINA, ALICE, and VIRTIS, during commissioning activities. Each activity took two days and was within or ahead of schedule. The High Gain Antenna (HGA) emission pattern was calibrated by performing spiral maneuvers. The radio station at New Norcia was used to measure antenna gain.
 * 30 March 2004 — The RSI (Radio Science Instrument) completed five days of commissioning.
 * 3 April 2004 — The MIRO instrument checked out well after three commissioning passes through more spiral maneuvers, during which the planet Venus was scanned.
 * 4 April 2004 — The Rosetta spacecraft was pointed into its attitude towards Earth, which is to be kept for the remainder of the year. Slight adjustments are planned to avoid having the sunlight hit Rosetta head-on. (Also called "+X" axis). The GIADA instrument was activated and commissioned.
 * 4-9 April 2004 — The last instrument on board Rosetta (MIDAS) was turned on during 4 April and commissioning concluded on 9 April. By this point all science and engineering subsystems had been activated at least once.
 * Use of the radio station at New Norcia was reduced from 11 hours to 7 hours, to allow more time for the Mars Express mission.
 * 10-15 April 2004 — From 10 April to 15 April, checking out procedures were conducted on the Philae lander. This second lander activity focused on the lander's payload. The ALICE instrument was activated again and high voltage operations were executed. Other activities were also performed, including an adjustment of the internal heater system due to the decreasing distance to the Sun.
 * 17 April 2004 — An attempt was made to open the ALICE detector door. However a pyrotechnic fastener designed to open it did not fire.
 * 21 April 2004 — After some investigation, a backup pyro was fired to successfully release the ALICE detector door.
 * 25 April 2004 — During a test sequence using an Earth pointing attitude, the thruster temperature (heated by the sun) caused an unplanned "slew" to occur. This mechanism is used to prevent the thrusters from overheating. Due to this maneuver, a planned imaging activity of the Earth-Moon system was cancelled, but the remaining commissioning activities were completed satisfactorily.
 * 1 May 2004 — The first scientific observations were performed at this date. The instruments were pointed towards the comet C/2002 T7 (LINEAR), at that time close to the sun.
 * 6 May 2004 — In preparation for the first deep space maneuver of Rosetta a total of 12 pyro valves were fired, and the pressure in the reaction control system started to build up as expected.
 * 10 May 2004 — The most critical deep space maneuver was successfully executed. The four thrusters on board of Rosetta were fired for about 3.5 hours, and a velocity change (delta v) of 152.8 metre per second was imparted to the spacecraft.
 * 16 May 2004 — A planned "touch-up" deep space maneuver was successfully executed. A burn of just under 17 minutes was performed with high accuracy. Then Rosetta pointed its instruments again towards Comet LINEAR for observation.
 * 28 May 2004 — ESA released the first pictures taken with the OSIRIS camera during the April 30 observation tests pointed at comet LINEAR. The camera produced high-resolution images of the comet from a distance of about 95 million kilometres.
 * 7 June 2004 — Rosetta switched into "Cruise Mode" after completing all steps for commissioning the instruments.
 * 25 July 2004 — A week of increased activities during the "Cruise 1" phase included the commissioning of the two navigation cameras by taking pictures of the Earth and the Moon.
 * 4 March 2005 — The first planned flyby of Earth was executed successfully. ESA asks amateur astronomers that took pictures of the spacecraft to submit them. Also, tests with the Moon as target standing in for a comet or asteroid, produced pictures and other data as expected.
 * March 24 — Rosetta transitioned back into "cruise mode".
 * 15 April 2005 — A test of the Near Sun Hibernation Mode (NSHM) was successfully concluded. It started on April 11 and tested a special low activity mode of Rosetta. In this state the gyroscopes and reaction wheels are inactive, and the craft is using the star tracker and the thrusters to control its attitude, only.
 * 18 July 2005 — ESA reported that the observation of the Deep Impact encounter with comet Tempel 1 was very successful. Science data was recorded and down-linked to Earth during the period from June 28 until July 14, and the data is currently being analysed.
 * 8 August 2005 — Mission members performed an unplanned monitor pass to investigate anomalies in the spacecraft's dynamic behavior. On mission day 213 and 216 a total of 20 grams of fuel were spent and a delta-v of 2.5 mm per second were added unexpectedly.
 * 15 September 2005 — Telemetry received showed that a solar flare had hit the spacecraft around September 8 or 9. The star tracker subsystem was left in an abnormal state and needed to be fixed.
 * 12 March 2006 — The OSIRIS instrument was trained on the future flyby target asteroid Steins for science observation, and the data was downlinked to Earth over three days just before solar conjunction.
 * 6 July 2006 — The spacecraft comes within 0.06 AU of the ion trail of comet 45P/Honda-Mrkos-Pajdusakova and scientific observations are planned for this event.
 * 25 February 2007 — The spacecraft approaches Mars up to 250 km.
 * 14 November 2007 — Second Earth swing-by for Rosetta passing within 5295 km from the surface.
 * 5 September 2008 — Rosetta flies by asteroid 2867 Šteins at a distance of c. 800 km.
 * 13 November 2009 — Rosetta flies by Earth. Using the Earth's' gravitational pull to build speed. Rosetta does this on nearly every flyby of a planet.
 * 10 July 2010 — Flyby of asteroid 21 Lutetia
 * 8 June 2011 — The spacecraft was transferred into a spin stabilised mode and all electronics except the onboard computer and the hibernation heaters were switched off.

Mission phase (2014 - 2016)

 * 20 January 2014 — At 10:00 CET the spacecraft woke up and started post-hibernation procedures. Rosetta restored communications with ESA's Operations Centre through NASA’s Goldstone ground station at 18:17 CET. Greets the Earth with a "Hello World" message. The message was received on a very low bit level. Over the next months ESA's job will be to raise communication speed through a software update.
 * 7 May 2014 — First of ten Orbital Correction Manoeuvres (OCMs) (1 h 33 min 13 s ) to align the trajectories of Rosetta and 67P/C-G, delta-v of 20 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 1900000 km)
 * 21 May 2014 — OCM 2 of 10, longest burn (7 h 16 min ) with largest delta-v (291 m/s ) using approximately 218 kg of fuel (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 1000000 km)
 * 4 June 2014 — OCM 3 of 10, 6 h 39 min burn time with a delta-v of 269.5 m/s using approximately 190 kg of fuel (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 425000 km)
 * 18 June 2014 — OCM 4 of 10, 2 h 20 min burn time with a delta-v of 88.7 m/s, this was an over performance of 5%, the first notable deviation from expected performance. (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 195,000 km)
 * 2 July 2014 — OCM 5 of 10, delta-v of 59 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 52,000 km)
 * 9 July 2014 — OCM 6 of 10, delta-v of 25 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 22,000 km)
 * 16 July 2014 — OCM 7 of 10, delta-v of 11 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 9,600 km)
 * 23 July 2014 — OCM 8 of 10, delta-v of 4.5 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 4,100 km)
 * 3 August 2014 — OCM 9 of 10, delta-v of 3.2 m/s (approximate distance to 67P/C-G - 1,000 km)
 * 6 August 2014 — OCM 10 of 10, delta-v of 1 m/s. Rosetta enters a hyperbolic orbit around 67P/C-G, becoming the first man made object to enter orbit around a comet.
 * 4 September 2014 — The first science data from Rosetta ALICE instrument was reported, showing that the comet is unusually dark in ultraviolet wavelengths, hydrogen and oxygen are present in the coma, and no significant areas of water-ice have been found on the comet's surface. Water-ice was expected to be found as the comet is too far from the Sun to turn water into vapor.
 * 10 September 2014 — Rosetta enters the Global Mapping Phase, orbiting 67/C-G at an altitude of 29 km.
 * 12 November 2014 — Philae successfully landed after touching down three times, on the surface of 67P/G-C without firing its harpoons. Touchdown 16:08 GMT.
 * 15 November 2014 — Philae battery exhausted after insufficient collection of solar energy. It is possible that the conditions may change as the comet moves closer to the Sun, making it possible to charge the battery.
 * 10 December 2014 — The Rosetta's Rosina mass spectrometers report that the ratio of heavy water to normal water on comet 67P is more than three times that on Earth. The ratio is regarded as a distinctive signature and the discovery means that Earth's water is unlikely to have originated from comets like 67P.
 * 14 April 2015 — Scientists report that the comet's nucleus has no magnetic field of its own.
 * 13 June 2015 — Philae lander says "Hello" and comes back online.
 * 29 July 2015 — Published analysis of the comet interaction with the solar wind.
 * 12 July 2015 — OSIRIS photographs Pluto.
 * 17 July 2015 — Rosetta/Philae Outreach Team wins Sir Arthur Clarke Award.
 * 3 August 2015 — First release of the science data from Rosetta instruments - COSIMA, OSIRIS, ROSINA and RPC-MAG.
 * 13 August 2015 — 67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko reaches perihelion.
 * 11 September 2015 — ESA releases details on Philae wakeup in June.
 * 14 September 2015 — Gaia photographs 67/P.
 * 23 September 2015 — Release of studies of the water-ice cycle on a comet.
 * 25 September 2015 — Detection of argon on a comet is announced.
 * 28 September 2015 — Scientists release an answer to how comet got its shape.
 * September - October 2015 — From late September to early October Rosetta flew up to 1500 km away from the comet for further study while it's still near the perihelion.
 * 1 October 2015 — Scientists release the results of a first study of the comet's southern pole made in August and October 2015.
 * 28 October 2015 — First detection of the molecular oxygen on a comet is announced.
 * 12 November 2015 — Release of the SESAME-CASSE instrument recording listening to MUPUS hammering the surface.
 * 13 January 2016 — Confirmation that the exposed ice on a surface of the comet is indeed water ice.
 * 2 September 2016 - Rosetta finds its lander Philae wedged against a large overhang.
 * 30 September 2016 — The Rosetta spacecraft ended its mission by an attempt to soft-land close to a 425 ft wide pit, called Deir el-Medina, on comet 67P. The walls of the pit contain 3 ft wide so-called "goose bumps", considered to be building blocks of the comet.

title: Timeline of Rosetta (spacecraft)


text:
Saint Mary Parish

Saint Mary Parish or Saint Mary's Parish may refer to:

Administrative parishes

 * Saint Mary Parish, Antigua and Barbuda
 * Sainte-Marie Parish, New Brunswick, Canada, in Kent County
 * Saint Marys Parish, New Brunswick, Canada, in York County
 * Saint Mary Parish, Jamaica
 * St. Mary Parish, Louisiana, United States

Ecclesiastic parishes

 * Saint Mary's Parish (Red Bluff, California), United States
 * St. Mary Parish, Torrington, Connecticut, United States
 * St. Mary Parish (Bridgeport, Connecticut), United States
 * St. Mary Parish (Newington, Connecticut), United States
 * St. Mary Parish, Ware, Massachusetts, United States
 * St. Mary's Parish (Bridgeton, Missouri), United States
 * St. Mary's Parish (Wharton, New Jersey), United States
 * St. Mary's Parish (Appleton, Wisconsin), United States
 * Parish of St. Mary's, a former parish named for St Mary's Church, Mary Street, Dublin, Ireland

title: Saint Mary Parish


text:
Moby Project

The Moby Project is a collection of public-domain lexical resources created by Grady Ward. The resources were dedicated to the public domain, and are now mirrored at Project Gutenberg. , it contains the largest free phonetic database, with 177,267 words and corresponding pronunciations.

Hyphenator
The Moby Hyphenator II contains hyphenations of 187,175 words and phrases (including 9,752 entries where no hyphenations are given, such as through and avoir). The character encoding appears to be MacRoman, and hyphenation is indicated by a bullet ($⟨•⟩$, character value 165 decimal, or A5 hexadecimal). Some entries, however, have a combination of actual hyphens and character 165, such as "bar•ber-sur•geon".

There is little to no documentation of the hyphenation choices made; the following examples might give some flavour of the style of hyphenation used: at•mos•phere; at•tend•ant; ca•pac•i•ty; un•col•or•a•ble.

Languages
Moby Language II contains wordlists of five languages: French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish. Their statistics are:

However, some of the lists are contaminated: for example, the Japanese list contains English words such as abnormal and non-words such as abcdefgh and m,./. There are also unusual peculiarities in the sorting of these lists, as the French list contains a straight alphabetical listing, while the German list contains the alphabetical listing of traditionally capitalized words and then the alphabetical listing of traditionally lower-cased words. The list of Italian words, however, contains no capitalized words whatsoever.

The lists do not use accented characters, so "e^tre" is how a user would look up the French word être'' ("to be").

Part-of-Speech
Moby Part-of-Speech contains 233,356 words fully described by part(s) of speech, listed in priority order. The format of the file is word\parts-of-speech, with the following parts of speech being identified:

Pronunciator
The Moby Pronunciator II contains 177,267 entries with corresponding pronunciations. Most of the entries describe a single word, but approximately 79,000 contain hyphenated or multiple word phrases, names, or lexemes. The Project Gutenberg distribution also contains a copy of the cmudict v0.3. The file contains lines of the format word[/part-of-speech] pronunciation. Each line is ended with the ASCII carriage return character (CR, '\r', 0x0D, 13 in decimal).

The word field can include apostrophes (e.g. isn't), hyphens (e.g. able-bodied), and multiple words separated by underscores (e.g. monkey_wrench). Non-English words are generally rendered, as stated in the documentation, without accents or other diacritical marks. However, in 36 entries (e.g. São_Miguel), some non-ASCII accented characters remain, represented using Mac OS Roman encoding.

The part-of-speech field is used to disambiguate 770 of the words which have differing pronunciations depending on their part-of-speech. For example, for the words spelled close, the verb has the pronunciation, whereas the adjective is. The parts-of-speech have been assigned the following codes:

Following this is the pronunciation. Several special symbols are present:

The rest of the symbols are used to represent IPA characters. The pronunciations are generally consistent with a General American dialect of English, that exhibits father-bother merger, hurry-furry merger and lot-cloth split, but does not exhibit cot-caught merger or wine-whine merger. Each phoneme is represented by a sequence of one or more characters. Some of the sequences are delimited with a slash character "/", as shown in the following table, but note that the sequence for is delimited by two slash characters at either end:

To this collection are added a number of extra sequences representing phonemes found in several other languages. These are used to encode the non-English words, phrases and names that are included in the database. The following table contains these extra phonemes, but note that the extent to which some of these may exist due to encoding errors is not clear.

Shakespeare
Moby Shakespeare contains the complete unabridged works of Shakespeare. This specific resource is not available from Project Gutenberg, but it is available in a 1993 version on the web.

Thesaurus
The Moby Thesaurus II contains 30,260 root words, with 2,520,264 synonyms and related terms – an average of 83.3 per root word. Each line consists of a list of comma-separated values, with the first term being the root word, and all following words being related terms.

Grady Ward placed this thesaurus in the public domain in 1996. It is also available as a Debian package although the package has been discontinued starting with Bullseye.

Words
Moby Words II is the largest wordlist in the world. The distribution consists of the following 16 files:

title: Moby Project


text:
Stillwater River (Stillwater County, Montana)

The Stillwater River is a tributary of the Yellowstone River. Approximately 70 miles (113 km) long, it runs through southern Montana in the United States. The Stillwater River has also been known as: the Itchkeppearja River, Rose River, Rosebud River and Stillwater Creek.

The river was affected by the 2022 Montana floods.

General
The Stillwater River rises in the Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness south of the Beartooth Mountains in southern Park County, near the state line with Wyoming and the boundary of Yellowstone National Park. It flows northeast, between the Absaroka Range to the west and the Beartooth Mountains to the east, through Custer National Forest, past Nye and Absarokee. It joins the Yellowstone near Columbus, Montana.

Fishing
This Stillwater is a Blue Ribbon fishery. Trout are the primary game fish, but Mountain Whitefish are also common. In the river's lower sections, Rainbow Trout and Brown Trout are the most common, but towards the headwaters Yellowstone Cutthroat Trout and Brook Trout show up with increased frequency. In the spring Rainbow Trout from the Yellowstone River enter the Stillwater to spawn, some traveling as far upstream as Nye. In the fall, Brown Trout also enter the river from the Yellowstone to spawn. It is during these seasons that larger fish up to 5 pounds can be more easily found. The Stillwater is often overlooked, but is one of Montana's greatest fisheries.

Despite its misleading name, the Stillwater's most popular stretches contain class II and III whitewater. While float fishing from a raft is a common way to fish the river, it is recommended that only experienced rowers attempt to navigate it.