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Sheila Greibach

Sheila Adele Greibach (born 6 October 1939 in New York City) is an American researcher in formal languages in computing, automata, compiler theory and computer science. She is an Emeritus Professor of Computer Science at the University of California, Los Angeles, and notable work include working with Seymour Ginsburg and Michael A. Harrison in context-sensitive parsing using the stack automaton model.

Besides establishing the normal form (Greibach normal form) for context-free grammars, in 1965, she also investigated properties of W-grammars, pushdown automata, and decidability problems.

Early career
Greibach earned an A.B. degree (summa cum laude) in Linguistics and Applied Mathematics from Radcliffe College in 1960, and two years after achieved an A.M. degree. In 1963, she was awarded a PhD at Harvard University, advised by Anthony Oettinger with a PhD thesis entitled "Inverses of Phrase Structure Generators".

She continued to work at Harvard at the Division of Engineering and Applied Physics until 1969 when she moved to UCLA, where she has been a professor until present (as of March 2014).

Work and contributions
Among her students were Ronald V. Book and Michael J. Fischer. The following list indicates some of her work. The top portion of the list is from the ACM Digital Library and the remainder from the FOCS Bibliography by David M. Jones.

From ACM Digital Library
"Jump PDA's, deterministic context-free languages, principal AFDLs and polynomial time recognition (Extended Abstract)," Proceedings of the fifth annual ACM symposium on Theory of Computing, April 1973

 * Every deterministic context-free language can be accepted by a deterministic finite delay pda with jumps. Increasing the number of types or occurrences of jumps increases the family of languages accepted with finite delay. Hence the family of deterministic context-free language is a principal AFDL; there is a context-free language $$L_0$$ such that every context-free language is an inverse gsm image of $$L_0$$ or $$L_0 - \{e\}$$.

"Some restrictions on W-grammars" Proceedings of the sixth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, April 1974

 * The effect of some restrictions on W-grammars (the formalization of the syntax of ALGOL 68) are explored. Two incomparable families examined at length are WRB (languages generated by normal regular-based W-grammars) and WS (languages generated by simple W-grammars). Both properly contain the context-free languages and are properly contained in the family of quasirealtime languages. In addition, WRB is closed under nested iterate ...

"An Infinite Hierarchy of Context-Free Languages," Journal of the ACM, Volume 16 Issue 1, January 1969

"A New Normal-Form Theorem for Context-Free Phrase Structure Grammars," JACM, Volume 12 Issue 1, January 1965

"The Unsolvability of the Recognition of Linear Context-Free Languages," JACM, Volume 13 Issue 4, October 1966
 * The problem of whether a given context-free language is linear is shown to be recursively undecidable.

Co-authored works
"Multitape AFA," co-authored with Seymour Ginsburg, Journal of the ACM, Volume 19 Issue 2, April 1972

"Superdeterministic PDAs: A Subcase with a Decidable Inclusion problem", co-authored with E. P. Friedman, "JACM", October 1980, Volume 27 Issue 4

"Stack automata and compiling," co-authored with Seymour Ginsburg and Michael A. Harrison, "JACM", January 1967, Volume 14 Issue 1

 * Compilation consists of two parts, recognition and translation. A mathematical model is presented which embodies salient features of many modern compiling techniques. The model, called the stack automaton, has the desirable feature of being deterministic in nature. This deterministic device is generalized to a nondeterministic device (nondeterministic stack automaton) and particular instances of this more general device are noted. Sets accepted by nondeterministic stack automata are recursi ...

"Quasi-realtime languages (Extended Abstract)," co-authored with Ronald V. Book, Proceedings of the first annual ACM symposium on Theory of Computing, May 1969

 * Quasi-realtime languages are the languages accepted by nondeterministic multitape Turing machines in real time. The family of quasi-realtime languages forms an abstract family of languages closed under intersection, linear erasing, and reversal. It is identical with the family of languages accepted by nondeterministic multitape Turing machines in linear time. Every quasi-realtime language can be accepted in real time by a non-deterministic one stack, one pushdown store machine, and can be e ...

"One-way stack automata," co-authored with Seymour Ginsburg and Michael A. Harrison, "JACM", April 1967, Volume 14 Issue 2

 * A number of operations which either preserve sets accepted by one-way stack automata or preserve sets accepted by deterministic one-way stack automata are presented. For example, sequential transduction preserves the former; set complementation, the latter. Several solvability questions are also considered.

"Tape- and time-bounded Turing acceptors and AFLs (Extended Abstract)" co-authored with Ronald V. Book and Ben Wegbreit, Proceedings of the second annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, May 1970

 * Complexity classes of formal languages defined by time- and tape-bounded Turing acceptors are studied with the aim of showing sufficient conditions for these classes to be AFLs and to be principal AFLs.

"Uniformly erasable AFL", co-authored with Seymour Ginsburg and Jonathan Goldstine, Proceedings of the fourth annual ACM symposium on Theory of computing, May 1972

 * This paper showed that a number of well-known families have property (*). In particular, the authors proved that the family of context-free languages does indeed have this property. In addition, we show that several familiar subfamilies of the context-free languages, such as the one-counter languages, have property (*). Finally, we show that there are families satisfying (*) which are not subfamilies of the context-free languages, for we prove that any family generated from one-let ...

 * Formal parsing systems
 * Sheila A. Greibach
 * August 1964
 * Communications of the ACM, Volume 7 Issue 8

 * Automatic syntactic analysis has recently become important for both natural language data processing and syntax-directed compilers. A formal parsing system G = (V, μ, T, R) consists of two finite disjoint vocabularies, V and T, a many-many map, μ, from V onto T, and a recursive set R of strings in T called syntactic sentence classes ...

From FOCS Bibliography

 * Seymour Ginsburg and Sheila Greibach.
 * Deterministic context free languages.
 * In Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Symposium on Switching Circuit Theory and Logical Design, pages 203-220. IEEE, 1965.

 * Seymour Ginsburg, Sheila A. Greibach, and Michael A. Harrison.
 * One-way stack automata (extended abstract).
 * In Conference Record of 1966 Seventh Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 47-52, Berkeley, California, 26–28 October 1966. IEEE.

 * Sheila A. Greibach.
 * An infinite hierarchy of context-free languages.
 * In Conference Record of 1967 Eighth Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 32-36, Austin, Texas, 18–20 October 1967. IEEE.

 * Seymour Ginsburg and Sheila Greibach.
 * Abstract families of languages.
 * In Conference Record of 1967 Eighth Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 128-139, Austin, Texas, 18–20 October 1967. IEEE. Citations.

 * Sheila Greibach.
 * Checking automata and one-way stack languages (extended abstract).
 * In Conference Record of 1968 Ninth Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 287-291, Schenectady, New York, 15–18 October 1968. IEEE. Citations.

 * Sheila A. Greibach.
 * Full AFLs and nested iterated substitution.
 * In Conference Record of 1969 Tenth Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 222-230, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 15–17 October 1969. IEEE.

 * J. W. Carlyle, S. A. Greibach, and A. Paz.
 * A two-dimensional generating system modeling growth by binary cell division (preliminary report).
 * In 15th Annual Symposium on Switching and Automata Theory, pages 1-12, The University of New Orleans, 14–16 October 1974. IEEE.

 * S. A. Greibach.
 * Formal languages: Origins and directions.
 * In 20th Annual Symposium on Foundations of Computer Science, pages 66-90, San Juan, Puerto Rico, 29–31 October 1979. IEEE.

Others

 * Ronald Book, Shimon Even, Sheila Greibach and Gene Ott.
 * Ambiguity in Graphs and Expressions.
 * IEEE Transactions on Computers, vol. c-20, No. 2, February 1971. IEEE.

title: Sheila Greibach


text:
Talk:10

Non-information
There are a number of facts that are the equivalent to '10' is the same as '10'.
 * 1) 10 is the lowest two digit number in base 10. Well of course it is just as 2 is the lowest 2 digit number in binary and 8 is the lowest two digit number in octal. It's part of the definition of a number base.
 * 2) The basic calculation section is simply reiterating that we use numbers base ten. $$abc \times 10 = abc0$$ and $$abc \div 10 = ab \cdot c $$. Similarly $$10^n = 10...0 $$(n zeroes).
 * 3) The indexed sequence of triangle numbers is just a statement that our numbers are written using base ten. In octal and hex
 * 4) ;$$\triangle 10_8 = 44_8$$, $$\triangle 10_{16} = 88_{16}$$
 * 5) ;$$\triangle 100_8 = 404_8$$, $$\triangle 100_{16} = 808_{16}$$
 * 6) Age ten is a preteen and a denarian. This is from the definition of these words

Is there any reason not to delete these statements? OrewaTel (talk) 05:26, 14 June 2023 (UTC)

 * reverse 60 9 12 10 3@OrewaTel 41.218.196.60 (talk) 02:40, 20 March 2024 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:10


text:
CUSU

CUSU can refer to:

 * Cambridge University Students' Union
 * Cardiff University Students' Union
 * Coventry University Students' Union

title: CUSU


text: User talk:193.122.47.162

title: User talk:193.122.47.162


text:
Akiyama Saneyuki

Akiyama Saneyuki (秋山 真之) was a Meiji-period career officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy. He was famous as a planner of Battle of Tsushima in the Russo-Japanese War. The Japanese general Akiyama Yoshifuru was his elder brother and the Japanese politician Hisako Ōishi was his granddaughter.

Early life and career
Akiyama was born in Matsuyama Domain, Iyo Province, as a son of a poor samurai. As a youth, he studied literature, especially traditional waka poetry. The famous poet Masaoka Shiki was his friend from childhood. Later the two young men went to Tokyo to study literature and Akiyama began to prepare for entry into the Literature Department of Tokyo Imperial University. However, Akiyama was forced to abandon his study of letters as his elder brother Yoshifuru ordered him to go to Naval Academy in Tsukiji, Tokyo instead, largely due to the economically severe condition of the Akiyama family.

While Akiyama was a student, the Naval Academy moved to Etajima, in Hiroshima prefecture, and was renamed the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy. Akiyama was an outstanding student, graduating on 17 July 1890 as a midshipman at the top of the 17th class, out of 88 cadets. He graduated just weeks after the publication of the first and last chapters of Alfred Thayer Mahan's classic study, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 in its Japanese translation in July 1890.

Akiyama served his midshipman tour on the Hiei and cruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Takachiho. On commissioning as an ensign on 23 May 1892, he rose through the ranks in a variety of routine shipboard assignments and duties that included deployments throughout the Pacific Ocean, Mediterranean Sea, and European waters. He was assigned to the Ryūjō. He subsequently served on the JAPANESE CRUISER Matsushima, JAPANESE CRUISER Yoshino, JAPANESE GUNBOAT Tsukushi (during the Battle of Weihaiwei in the First Sino-Japanese War), JAPANESE CRUISER Izumi and JAPANESE CRUISER Yaeyama. Following the hostilities he served a tour at the Imperial Navy's Torpedo school and then was assigned to naval intelligence, where he spent several months posing as a laborer and conducting missions in Manchuria and Korea.

Studies in the United States
After his promotion to lieutenant on 24 October 1896, Akiyama was sent to the United States as a naval attaché from 26 June 1897 to 27 December 1899. It was a time of heightened tension between Japan and the United States, due to the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii by American marines and settlers, which nearly led to a rupture of diplomatic relations.

On Akiyama's arrival in New York, he attempted to contact Alfred Thayer Mahan for advice and recommendations on how to study at either the US Naval Academy or Naval War College. Mahan was unwilling to help, aside from giving Akiyama a list of books to read. Akiyama then contacted the Assistant Secretary of the Navy, Theodore Roosevelt, but his pleas to be allowed to attend the Naval War College were refused.

Akiyama’s tour of duty coincided with the start of the Spanish–American War, and he joined the American fleet as a foreign military observer. He was able to watch American forces capture Santiago de Cuba in June 1898, and the blockade of Havana harbor in July. Akiyama submitted a lengthy report back to Japan on his observations, and noting problems in the blockade and landing operations. On conclusion of his tour, he served a short tour as a naval attaché with the Japanese Embassy in Washington D.C.

In February 1899, due to the efforts of the Japanese ambassador, Akiyama received permission to serve a six-month tour on board a US Navy warship, the USS New York (ACR-2), where he was able to observe American tactics and fleet operations in the North Atlantic and Caribbean firsthand. As a result of his service on board, Akiyama participated in several lectures at the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island. On completion of his studies in the United States, Akiyama traveled to England from 27 December 1899 to 20 May 1900.

Instructor at the Navy War College
On his return to Japan, Akiyama was promoted to lieutenant commander on 1 October 1901 and assigned to various staff posts, and was the senior strategy instructor at Japan's Naval War College from July 1902-November 1903. Akiyama initiated a curriculum reform using hypothetical situations to simulate the formulation of orders and development of realistic contingency plans. He also introduced the concepts of wargaming and tabletop map exercises, and developed theories for a new strategic and tactical doctrines for the Japanese Navy based upon his observations during the Spanish–American War. Akiyama focused on Russia as the primary threat to Japan in his lectures.

Akiyama was 34 years old, and was lecturing to officers who were of the same age, or in some cases his senior. Nonetheless, he achieved the respect of his peers due to his professional knowledge, expertise and personality.

Russo-Japanese War
With the outbreak of the Russo-Japanese War Akiyama was promoted to commander on 1 September 1904. However, he remained on the planning staff and was a close confidant of Japanese Commander in Chief of the Combined Fleet, Togo Heihachiro. Togo insisted that Akiyama accompany him on his battleship JAPANESE BATTLESHIP Mikasa as a staff officer. Akiyama played a central role in the planning for the Battle of Port Arthur, the Battle of the Yellow Sea, the planning for the arrival of the Russian Baltic Fleet and its subsequent destruction in the Battle of Tsushima. The objective of the Japanese navy in the Battle of Tsushima was to destroy the Russian fleet completely, thereby denying Russia any influence in the Sea of Japan. Akiyama devised the tactic of changing the direction of the fleet while in front of the enemy. He had borrowed this tactic from an old book of the late twelfth century, Old Piratical Tactics of the Nojima School, which described the tactics used by Japanese pirates.

Following Japan's victory Akiyama was designated the senior naval representative for the preliminary negotiations for the Treaty of Portsmouth. However, the untimely death of his mother necessitated his replacement.

Postwar activities
Promoted to captain on 25 September 1908, Akiyama received an assignment as executive officer on Mikasa, and subsequently his first command, as captain of Akitsushima. He was subsequently captain of the JAPANESE CRUISER Otowa, JAPANESE CRUISER Hashidate, JAPANESE CRUISER Izumo, and battlecruiser JAPANESE CRUISER Ibuki.

Akiyama was promoted to rear admiral on 1 December 1913. Soon afterwards, the Siemens-Vickers Naval Armaments Scandal of 1914 shook up the government, forcing the resignations of Yamamoto Gonnohyōe and Ōkuma Shigenobu. Akiyama remained one of the few senior officers completely untouched by suspicion or corruption, and was nominated by Yashiro Rokuro as Director-General of the Navy in an effort to restore public confidence. Akiyama served on the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff until his retirement on 1 December 1917. His major accomplishment during this period was to have the Otowa stationed permanently at Shanghai, from which it helped support a large network of intelligence agents posing as exchange students in all corners of China. At the same time, Akiyama maintained a regular and secret correspondence with Sun Yat-sen, assisting him also materially in his efforts to prevent Yuan Shikai from establishing a new empire. With the outbreak of World War I, Akiyama traveled to Europe via the Trans-Siberian Railroad to Finland, and from there to England, where he met with his old acquaintance, former British naval observer Commander William Christopher Pakenham. In June 1916, King George V conferred upon him a Knight Commandership of the Order of St. Michael and St. George. As Sir Saneyuki, K.C.M.G., he was reportedly the first Japanese outside the Imperial family to receive a knighthood from a British sovereign.

He returned to Japan via the United States to assume command of the IJN 2nd Fleet in October 1917, but by this time he was already very ill, and was forced to retire in late 1917 with the rank of vice admiral. In his final years, he became obsessed with religion, especially with the Oomoto movement and Nichiren sect Buddhism and the Heart Sutra. Akiyama died of peritonitis in 1918 at the young age of 49 (In the East Asian age reckoning, it is sometimes described as being 51 years old), His grave is at Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.

Cultural impact
Akiyama and his brother, Akiyama Yoshifuru, along with their friend Masaoka Shiki, are the main characters in Shiba Ryotaro's popular multi-volume novel, Saka no ue no kumo. The novel is also the basis for a three-year NHK television series, also called Saka no ue no kumo.

The Akiyama birthplace in Matsuyama is now a tourist attraction.

Honors
Translated from the corresponding Japanese Wikipedia article

Decorations

 * Order of the Sacred Treasure, 4th Class (30 May 1905, for service at the Battle of Tsushima)
 * Order of the Rising Sun, Second Class, Gold and Silver Star (7 November 1915; Third Class, Gold Rays with Neck Ribbon: 1 April 1906)

Order of precedence

 * Senior eighth rank (5 July 1892)
 * Seventh rank (21 December 1896)
 * Senior seventh rank (8 March 1898)
 * Sixth rank (17 December 1901)
 * Senior sixth rank (6 October 1904)
 * Fifth rank (11 December 1908)
 * Senior fifth rank (30 January 1914)
 * Fourth rank (4 February 1918, posthumous)

title: Akiyama Saneyuki


text:
Leslie Manigat

Leslie François Saint Roc Manigat (August 16, 1930 – June 27, 2014) was a Haitian politician who was elected as President of Haiti in a tightly controlled military held election in January 1988. He served as President for only a few months, from February 1988 to June 1988, before being ousted by the military in a coup d'état.

In education
Leslie Manigat was a professor at the prestigious l'Université de Paris-VIII Vincennes, where he gave courses on World History. He also published articles on education in various Haitian newspapers: Le Nouvelliste, La Phalange, and Le Matin.

1988 Haitian presidential elections
According to the Provisional Electoral Council (Conseil Electoral Provisoire, or CEP) he won the presidential election of January 17, 1988 with 50.29% of the votes, defeating ten other candidates. However, voter turnout was well under 10%. Few historians and vote monitors consider this election to have been democratic. He was inaugurated on February 7, 1988, and named Martial Célestin as his Prime Minister in March. He was overthrown by general Henri Namphy on June 20, 1988, in the June 1988 Haitian coup d'état. He ran for president again in the February 2006 election but was defeated, receiving 12.40% of the vote and placing a distant second behind René Préval.

Death
He died on June 27, 2014, at the age of 83.

Family
Manigat was born in Port-au-Prince. His second wife, Mirlande Manigat, whom he married in 1970, was a candidate in the 2010 presidential election.

Award
Leslie Manigat won The Haiti Grand Prize of literature 2004, given at the Miami Book Fair International of 2004. Nominees for the Prize were: Edwidge Danticat, René Depestre, Jean-Claude Fignolé, Odette Roy Fombrun, Frankétienne, Gary Klang, Dany Laferrière and Josaphat-Robert Large.

Selected works

 * Une date littéraire, un événement pédagogique - Essay, Port-au-Prince, 1962
 * L'Amérique latine au XXe Siècle - History, Université de Paris I Sorbonne, 1973

title: Leslie Manigat


text:
Henry B. Ollendorff

Henry Bernard Ollendorff (March 14, 1907 – February 10, 1979) was a German-Jewish social worker.

He was born as Heinz Bernard Ollendorff to an oculist in the town of Esslingen am Neckar, Germany. He grew up in the city of Darmstadt. He received his doctor's degree in law from the University of Heidelberg. The discrimination laws of Nazi Germany severely hindered him in his work and he even had to spend 13 months in prison before he emigrated together with his wife to the United States, in 1938.

In Cleveland, Ohio he studied social work. In 1954, the US Department of State asked him to participate in the re-education programme for Germans and he conducted courses for youth leaders and social workers in Hesse. He also had the idea to start an exchange program.

Now the Council of International Fellowship is a world wide organisation for professionals working in the field of social work.

Ollendorff died in Cleveland, Ohio.

Legacy
In 2007 the German city of Darmstadt gave his name to a square.

title: Henry B. Ollendorff


text:
Roland Perusse

Roland I. Perusse (May 18, 1921 – July 27, 2007) was the author of Haitian Democracy Restored: 1991–1995, a book about the coup-to-democracy period in Haiti, a political history.

He was a Professor of Political Science at the Interamerican University of Puerto Rico.

title: Roland Perusse


text:
Talk:List of counties in Vermont

Untitled
Seems like this page has gotten way out of control. It's difficult to tell the 14 counties. My recommendation is to move the history into a separate section and onto the individual county pages. Keep the map of course. Unless somebody objects I'm going to clean it up. - Redjar 14:00, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I've created my proposed cleaned up version. User:Redjar/Sandbox/Vermont counties - Redjar 15:05, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * After no objections I've made the cleaned up version live. - Redjar 14:58, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Very nice, indeed. Clean and coherent. DavidWBrooks 14:59, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Wikiproject help
Some helpful information on U.S. county lists can be found at WP:COUNTYLISTS. Tom pw (talk) (review) 16:31, 24 June 2007 (UTC)

Washington County
This article says:
 * In 1781, Cumberland County was separated into three counties in Vermont plus another county named Washington (not the same as the modern Washington County) that eventually became part of New Hampshire.

Would it not be the case that it "became part of New Hampshire" in the 1782 agreement between VT and NH that the Connecticut River would be the boundary? Should the article say so? Michael Hardy (talk) 20:40, 19 April 2015 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:List of counties in Vermont


text:
User:Matt Crypto

 2024 Monday 29 July Information wants to be free.

You will assimilate into our free information.

Resistance is futile.

Quick links: crypto-rc | WP:FAC | New pages | /scratch | /reading bookmarks | /todo | News | /WikiThoughts | /GCCS -

About me

 * I joined Wikipedia in March 2004.
 * I'm an administrator, both here and on the Swahili Wikipedia (although I don't spend a great deal of time on admin tasks).
 * While I like to read all sorts of articles on Wikipedia, when editing I tend to do a lot of work on cryptography articles.
 * I'd like to edit more on Africa topics.
 * I'm a participant in WikiProject Cryptography; see also the Crypto WikiPortal.

 * I write a blog on cryptography.

 * I'm a big fan of the No personal attacks and Civility policies. I subscribe to the editing style of the Harmonious editing club. I'm a member of the Association of Apathetic Wikipedians. Update: I'm experiencing mergist leanings of late.

 * I've been either the primary author of, or one of the primary authors of, five Featured Articles: Caesar cipher, Data Encryption Standard, Enigma (machine), Marian Rejewski and ROT13; I've also contributed to a sixth, Cryptography.
 * So that I can keep track of them, here's the list of non-crypto articles that I've started (mostly stubs, I'm afraid): Africa Inland Mission, Bagwere, Beau Peep, Biffy Dunderdale, Bouncy castle, Boxmoor, British Tabulating Machine Company, Bumfights, Chief Mkwawa, The Chronicles of Narnia (TV miniseries), Creed & Company, Domestic discipline (lifestyle), Courtney Pine, Georg Hamel, G20, Hehe, Iringa, James Macrae Aitken, Kirkham Priory, Lumajangdong Co, Maralal, Matt Redman, Mwanza, Narok, Ndorobo, Nicholas Biwott, Norwich Union, Para Red, Party political broadcast, Post-it note, Powers-Samas, Press up, Qian Zhijun, Ruiru, The Matthew's Range, U-33, UCCF, Uchumi, War Medal 1939-1945, Whitecross, World Wide Message Tribe, Worship leader
 * I'm an occasional maintainer of Category:Fictional chickens.
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Tit for tat
I'm extremely overdue: See Reward board or Reward board.

Pending:
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Crypto

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My illustrations (and a couple of photos) can be found here:
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I want others to be able to use my contributions with as few restrictions as possible. Hence, all my edits to Wikipedia (to which I have the copyright) are released into the public domain. I've been told that in some jurisdictions the concept of the public domain does not exist; if this is the case, then my contributions are available under the GFDL (of course), and any Creative Commons license.

sw:User:Matt Crypto

title: User:Matt Crypto


text:
User talk:Chronocide

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

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Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 14:04, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Jimbo Wales to Attend San Diego Meetup on October 18 2005
Hello, Jimbo Wales will be in San Diego to attend OOPSLA and has agreed to come by and visit with the San Diego wikipedians. If you are interested, you will find more info on my talk page. Johntex\talk 00:54, 13 October 2005 (UTC)

July 2007
Welcome to Wikipedia. An article you recently created, David Scott Kaplan, may not conform to some of Wikipedia's guidelines for new articles, so it will shortly be removed (if it hasn't been already). Please use the sandbox for any tests you may want to do and please read our introduction page to learn more about contributing. Thank you. JForget 23:48, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

Wikipedia Loves Art
First off, I apologize for the spam. You are receiving this message because you have indicated that you are in Southern California or interested in Southern California topics (either via category or WikiProject).

I would like to invite you to the Los Angeles edition of Wikipedia Loves Art, a photography scavenger hunt to be held at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art (LACMA) on Saturday, February 28, 2009, from 1:00 to 7:00 PM. All photos are intended for use in Wikipedia articles or on Wikimedia Commons. There will be a prize available for the person who gets the most photos on the list.

If you don't like art, why not come just to meet your fellow Wikipedians. Apparently, we haven't had a meetup in this area since June 2006!

If you are interested in attending, please add your name to Wikipedia Loves Art. Please make a note if you are traveling to the area (train or plane) and need transportation, which can probably be arranged via carpool, but we need time to coordinate. Lodging is as of right now out of scope, but we could discuss that if enough people are interested.

Thank you and I hope to see you there!  howcheng  {chat} 23:40, 9 January 2009 (UTC)

Wikipedia Meetup
You are invited to "Come Edit Wikipedia!" at the West Hollywood Library on Saturday, July 27th, 2013. There will be coffee, cookies, and good times! -- Olegkagan (talk) — Message delivered by Hazard-Bot at 04:22, 11 July 2013 (UTC)

Wikipedia Meetup
Help build the Wikipedia community in Southern California at "Come Edit Wikipedia!" presented by the West Hollywood Library on Saturday, August 31st, 2013 from 1-5pm. Drop in for some lively editing and conversation! Plus, it's a library, so there are plenty of sources. --Olegkagan (talk) — Message delivered by Hazard-Bot at 02:03, 22 August 2013 (UTC)

title: User talk:Chronocide


text:
User talk:ColinGorilla

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title: User talk:ColinGorilla


text:
Alpha Group

Spetsgruppa "A", also known as Alpha Group (a popular English name), or Alfa, whose official name is Directorate "A" of the FSB Special Purpose Center (TsSN FSB) (Russian: Спецназ ФСБ "Альфа"), is a stand-alone sub-unit of Russia's special forces within the Russian Federal Security Service (FSB). It was created by the Soviet KGB in 1974. Although little is known about the exact nature of its primary directives, it is speculated that the unit is authorised to act under the direct control and sanction of Russia's top political leadership, similar to its sister unit, the Directorate "V" (Vympel), which is officially tasked with protecting Russia's strategic installations, as well as conducting black operations inside and outside Russia. It is also available for extended police duties, for paramilitary operations, and for covert operations, both domestically and internationally.

Creation and organization
On 28 July 1974, Alpha Group was created on the orders of the KGB Chairman, Yuri Andropov, in the aftermath of the 1972 Munich massacre. It might have been established as a response to West Germany's creation of the Grenzschutzgruppe 9 (or the GSG 9). By attaching a special-purpose unit to the office of the First Chief Directorate in Moscow (later the Seventh Directorate ), it was hoped that the Soviet Union's defensive capacity against terrorist attacks would increase significantly. At the time, other, more offensive special forces of the KGB included the groups Zenit and Kaskad/Omega. Another important mission for Alpha was to provide security for the Soviet leadership against enemy special forces in times of crisis or war.

Later, territorial Alpha units were established across the Soviet Union:
 * 7th Group formed in the Russian SSR, Khabarovsk Krai
 * 10th Group formed the Ukrainian SSR, Kiev Oblast – Later forming the basis of Ukraine's Alpha Group
 * 11th Group formed in the Belarusian SSR, Minsk Oblast – Later forming the basis of Belarus' Alpha Group
 * 12th Group formed in the Kazakh SSR, Almaty Oblast – Later forming the basis of Kazakh NSC Arystan unit
 * 13th Group formed in the Russian SSR, Krasnodar Krai
 * 14th Group formed in the Russian SSR, Sverdlovsk Oblast

Operations
Initially, this special-purpose counter-terrorism unit was involved in delicate operations which necessitated its members have a unique skill set. In 1979, the Alpha Group shot a young Soviet Ukrainian, named Yuri Vlasenko, who was occupying a room in the Consular Section of the Embassy of the United States in Moscow, demanding he be granted asylum in the United States. He was either killed by gunfire, or by the detonation of his home-made bomb, which also slightly damaged the building. Throughout the 1980s, Alpha became increasingly deployed domestically to respond to a rising number of hostage taking situations, including at least two cases which involved buildings being taken over and hostages taken by violent groups of deserters from the Soviet Army, as well as other armed organizations. Notably, the 1983 hijacking of Aeroflot Flight 6833 in Tbilisi, Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic, was thwarted when Alpha stormed the airplane, killing three and capturing three other hijackers who were attempting to escape to the west, which also resulted in the loss of five hostages. The unit also became involved in the ethnic conflicts throughout the Soviet Union in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Alpha was also used as the "spearhead" of KGB counterintelligence operations, interdicting hostile intelligence operations on Soviet territory and seizing enemy spies such as CIA agent Adolf Tolkachev in 1985. Two commanding officers of Group "A" were awarded the title Hero of the Soviet Union: Gen. Viktor Karpukhin and Gen. Gennady Zaitsev.

Foreign operations
Soon, Alpha was assigned missions far exceeding its formal scope. On 27 December 1979, Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev launched a surprise armed intervention and regime change operation in the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan. Soviet forces, including KGB commandos who had infiltrated the country on a pretense to guard the Soviet Embassy, were able to quickly secure important government institutions throughout Kabul. Those institutions included: the Ministry of the Interior; the headquarters of the KHAD security service; the Ministry of Defense (Darul Aman Palace); and the Tajbeg Palace, in which, during a 34-minute storming, they successfully assassinated President Hafizullah Amin, along with his mistress and his young son (the orders were to kill every Afghan in the building). The assault on Tajbeg Palace was given the name Operation Storm-333 and involved a combined force of Soviet Airborne paratroopers (VDV), and special forces groups from the GRU and the KGB, including 24 men from the "Thunder" detachment of Alpha Group. The Alpha detachment were dressed in Afghan uniforms and headed by Grigoriy Boyarinov, commandant of the special operations school of the KGB's Department 8. It was Boyarinov who ordered that all Afghan witnesses of the operation be killed, and he was accidentally shot dead by Alpha troops when he was mistaken for a palace guard. According to Russian sources, the members of this highly trained group performed remarkably well, losing only two men; the lightest casualties of any of the forces involved in the raid. However, the success of Storm-333, and the initial invasion, marked the beginning of the ten-year Soviet–Afghan War, and subsequently, Alpha Group's extensive involvement throughout the conflict.

Six years later, in October 1985, Alpha Group was dispatched to war-torn Beirut, Lebanon. The Kremlin was informed of the kidnapping of four Soviet diplomats by the militant group, the Islamic Liberation Organization (a radical offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood). It was believed that this was retaliation for the Soviet support of Syrian involvement in the Lebanese Civil War. However, by the time Alpha arrived, one of the hostages had already been killed. Through a network of supporting KGB operatives, members of the task-force identified each of the perpetrators involved in the crisis, and once identified, began to take the relatives of these militants as hostages. Following the standard Soviet policy of no negotiations with terrorists, one of the hostages taken by Alpha Group had his testicles removed and sent to the militants before being killed. The warning was clear: more would follow unless the remaining hostages were released immediately. The show of force worked; and, for a period of 20 years, no Soviet or Russian officials were taken captive, until the 2006 abduction and murder of four Russian embassy staff in Iraq. However, the veracity of this story has been brought into question. Another version says that the release of the Soviet hostages was the result of extensive diplomatic negotiations with the spiritual leader of Hezbollah, Grand Ayatollah Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, who appealed to King Hussein of Jordan, and the leaders of Libya and Iran, to use their influence on the kidnappers.

Intervention in the Baltics
On 11 March 1990, the Supreme Council of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic made public their intent to secede from the Soviet Union and re-establish the independent Republic of Lithuania. As a result of this pronouncement, on 9 January 1991, the Soviet leadership dispatched Alpha Group to quell the independence movement and maintain Lithuania's status as a Soviet republic. This attempt to re-establish Soviet dominance culminated in the violent seizure of the Vilnius TV Tower on 13 January 1991, during which the Soviet forces killed 13 unarmed Lithuanian protesters, as well as one Alpha operative (Lt. Viktor Shatskikh, who was apparently struck in the back by friendly fire). In 2011, the former commander of Alpha Group, retired KGB Col. Mikhail Golovatov, was detained at Vienna International Airport on a European Arrest Warrant due to this incident, issued by Lithuania, but Austrian authorities released him within 24 hours, claiming that the information provided by Lithuania was "too vague". In response, the Lithuanian parliament discussed breaking diplomatic ties with Austria in protest. A joint statement by the Foreign Ministers of all three Baltic States condemned Golovatov's release, and said that it should have been one of "... the occasions when suspects are detained and extradited, particularly when they are accused of war crimes and crimes against humanity ..." as "... the crimes performed in 1991 in Vilnius and Riga have no limitation ..." ("Riga" referring to a similar crackdown in January 1991, when six Latvian policemen and civilians were killed by Soviet OMON and KGB forces, possibly including Alpha Group members).

1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt
During the events of the Soviet coup attempt in August 1991, Alpha Group's commanding officer, Gen. Karpukhin, was commanded by KGB chairman, Vladimir Kryuchkov, to forcibly enter the White House, Russia's acting parliament, after paratroopers secured the entrance, to eliminate the President of the Russian SFSR, Boris Yeltsin, and various other anti-coup leaders assembled there. In addition to Alpha Group, Gen. Karpukhin was also given authority of Vega Group (Vympel), elements of the Soviet Airborne, Internal Troops, special units of the Dzerzhinsky Division (OMSDON), mobilised units of the Moscow OMON, three tank companies, and a squadron of helicopters. On-site analysis of the area was conducted by Airborne deputy commander Alexander Lebed, and other senior officers who mingled with the crowds of anti-coup protesters nearest to the White House. There was a general consensus among the military officials who gathered that day, as evidenced by their statements months after the botched coup attempt, that had they followed through on their endeavour it would have succeeded. The stated mission objectives could have been reached in no more than half-an-hour, but it would have come at a terrible human cost. Shortly after their assessment was made, Gen. Karpukhin and Vympel's Boris Beskov convinced the KGB Deputy chairman, Gennady Ageyev, that such a massive undertaking should be cancelled.

Decorated servicemen
As of 2018, nine officers of Alpha have been awarded the title Hero of the Russian Federation:
 * Lt. Gennady Sergeyev (posthumously)
 * Col. Anatoly Saveliev (posthumously)
 * Maj. Vladimir Ulyanov (posthumously)
 * Maj. Yuri Danilin (posthumously)
 * Col. Sergei Dyachenko
 * Col. Valery Kanakin
 * Lt. Artyom Sevshencko
 * Maj. Alexander Perov (posthumously)
 * Col. Andrei Kum.

Shuffling and reforms
Alpha Group was severely downgraded during the dissolution and collapse of the Soviet Union. After the fall of the USSR, both Alpha and Vympel were transferred to the newly formed Main Guard Directorate (GUO), which was established on the basis of the KGB's Ninth Chief Directorate. In 1993, they were taken from GUO control, and for a time being put under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). As part of the government shakeup following the June 1995 Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis in which the Alpha Group had a leading role, Yeltsin fired the first Director of the Federal Security Service (FSB), Sergei Stepashin. Two months later, Alpha and Vityaz were both transferred from the MVD to the FSB. Simultaneously, Mikhail Barsukov became the new head of the organization, and created the FSB Anti-Terrorist Center (ATC), headed by Gen. Viktor Zorkin. Directorate "A" (Alpha) was tasked with protecting transportation and buildings while Directorate "V" (Vega/Vympel) was tasked with protecting strategic sites (another Directorate, "K", was tasked with ideological counterintelligence); "A" and "V" were soon joined in a Tsentr Spetsnaz (Special Purpose Center) under Gen. Vladimir Pronichev.

Meanwhile, Alpha veterans became active in legitimate businesses (such as the private security company Alpha-B co-founded by Col. Golovatov in August 1993 ) in organised crime, as well as in politics. The Alpha veterans' association, led by Sergey Goncharov, strongly opposed Russian President Yeltsin faction's party, Our Home – Russia, in the legislative election of 1995 (Goncharov later became a State Duma deputy). Gen. Karpukhin, who resigned from the service following the 1991 coup attempt, became chief of security to Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev, after which he worked with private security companies in Moscow, and ran unsuccessfully for the Duma as a member of the Union of Patriots in 1995.

Operations
In October 1995, Alpha killed the armed man who hijacked a bus carrying South Korean tourists in Moscow. He had demanded $1 million and to be flown out of the country. In December 1997, Alpha freed the Swedish trade counsellor Jan-Olof Nyström who was kidnapped in Moscow by a gunman similarly demanding a ransom and a flight out of Russia. The hostage was swapped for Alpha's Colonel Anatoly Saveliev (Savelyev), and the hostage-taker was killed during the storming of the embassy. Colonel Savelyev was injured during the action, and died in hospital of a heart attack shortly thereafter.

1993 Russian constitutional crisis
In 1993, during the Russian constitutional crisis, Yeltsin, who by then was President of the Russian Federation, used Alpha and Vympel during a deadly showdown in central Moscow against the pro-parliament forces that sided with Vice-President Alexander Rutskoy (declaring him an acting president). The pro-parliament faction had seized the Russian White House, along with several Supreme Soviet deputies who had been taken hostage. Yeltsin ordered Russian troops to storm the building, including elements of the paratroopers, the Alpha and Vympel Groups, Russian ground forces, and the Internal Troops's special forces unit, Vityaz. However, the Alpha troops initially refused to attack the White House, reportedly bringing their commander, Gen. Zaitsev, to the brink of suicide over the open insubordination of his troops in the face of a presidential order. When one of the Alpha troops, Lt. Sergeyev, who was near the White House, was mortally wounded by sniper fire from the nearby Hotel Ukraina, the unit finally agreed to move. Opposition gunmen were blamed for the shooting, but it is possible that the shots were actually fired by members of a special unit loyal to Yeltsin; it was rumoured that the snipers in the hotel were commanded by Alexander Korzhakov, chief of the Presidential Security Service (SBP). The crisis ended when Yeltsin's forces, paratroopers supported by tanks and armoured personnel carriers, many of which were manned not by conscripts but members of the Union of Afghanistan Veterans, stormed and seized the White House on 4 October 1993, killing dozens, and possibly hundreds, of people, and ensuring the total victory of Yeltsin's faction. In the end, Rutskoy and the other leaders of anti-Yeltsin faction, including Ruslan Khasbulatov, Vladislav Achalov and Viktor Barannikov, all negotiated their surrender to the Alpha troops, who had entered the shelled and burning building after the shooting stopped, and brought them, along with the detained Supreme Soviet deputies, to Lefortovo Prison.

Conflicts in Chechnya and the North Caucasus

The Alpha Group was involved in the First Chechen War of 1994–1996, following the Chechens' declaration of independence from the Russian SFSR and then the Soviet Union in 1990–1991. In the fall of 1994, Alpha provided personal security details for the main commanders of the invasion of Chechnya, Defense Minister Pavel Grachev and federal Interior Minister Viktor Yerin, as they travelled to the Mozdok airbase in North Ossetia, which was the main headquarters, staging area and logistics base for Russian forces entering Chechnya. Later, many Alpha troops served in "mobile anti-terror groups" (mobilnye gruppy antiterrora), as well as providing security for the pro-Moscow Chechen government complex and the regional FSB headquarters in the Chechen capital Grozny. In August 1996, when the city was retaken by Chechen separatist forces, 35 of them (including 14 members of the territorial Alpha unit from Krasnodar Krai) took part in a defence of the FSB headquarters. The separatist forces began to systematically retake individual buildings which were being defended by cut-off groups of Russian military and security forces. By the war's final ceasefire, the main FSB office was one of the few key structures still being held by federal forces in central Grozny, but at the cost of 70 of its defenders' lives in some of the fiercest fighting during the last battle.

Allegations arose, following the Khasavyurt Accord of August 1996, that the ATC carried out clandestine operations intended to discredit the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria, so that it would not receive international recognition of its independence. According to Jonathan Littell, the service "... was most likely deeply involved ..." in many of the high-profile kidnappings which damaged Chechnya's reputation. Littell wrote: "It is impossible to say whether these provocations were part of a more general FSB policy or whether the [ATC] and its departments were running their own show; certainly it did not reflect the official policy of the government, nor of those officials like Ivan Rybkin, the Secretary of the Security Council, tasked with the Chechen dossier between 1996 and 1999."

Alpha was active during the Second Chechen War that began in 1999, as well as the subsequent Insurgency in the North Caucasus. During the 2000 Battle of Komsomolskoye, Alpha snipers attached to Vladimir Shamanov's Western Group of federal forces, were deployed in an attempt to suppress Ruslan Gelayev's snipers in the village. According to the unit's veterans, operations in which Alpha took part led to the arrest of Chechen commander Salman Raduyev in 2000, the killing of Chechen commander Arbi Barayev in 2001, the killing of Chechen separatist President Aslan Maskhadov in 2005, and the killing of foreign militant leader Abu Hafs in Dagestan in 2006. Following the transfer of responsibility for operations in Chechnya from the Ministry of Defence to the FSB in January 2001, and prior to the "Chechenization" policy that began in 2003, Alpha members (along with the other Russian personnel and pro-Moscow Chechen militia) participated in at least 10 mixed "combined special groups" (svodnye spetsialnye gruppy, SSGs), considered death squads by human rights groups and outside observers. It is believed that the SSGs were behind many of the numerous "name/address cleansings" (imeny/adressny zachistki): usually night-time raids by masked men in unmarked vehicles, targeting specific active or former rebel combatants, their supporters, their relatives, or other civilians for either forced disappearance or outright extrajudicial killing. In 2005, Human Rights Watch declared that the disappearances had reached the scale of a crime against humanity, and that "Russia has the inglorious distinction of being a world leader in enforced disappearances." Chechnya's UFSB also formed a local Alpha unit, believed to be similar in its role to the SSGs.

Mass hostage crises

The group was instrumental in the Russian government's attempts to forcibly bring an end to a series of mass hostage crisis incidents, in which groups of Chechen and other separatist militants took hostages. These events took place in Russia's southern territories near Chechnya as well as in the Russian heartland, and were made up of the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis in June 1995, the Kizlyar-Pervomayskoye hostage crisis in January 1996, the Moscow theatre hostage crisis in October 2002, and the Beslan school hostage crisis in September 2004. Each of these high-profile incidents resulted in hundreds of fatalities and injuries among the hostages and, with the exception of the Moscow siege, significant losses among the unit's personnel.

At Budyonnovsk (Budennovsk) in Stavropol Krai, two abortive storming attempts by Alpha and Vympel killed scores of hostages in a major public relations disaster for the Russian government, as the carnage was televised live across the country. In the first, a pre-dawn raid, only 86 out of more than 1,500 hostages were freed, but more than 30 hostages were killed before the rescuers were forced to retreat after four hours of fighting, which also resulted in the deaths of several men on both sides. After that, the leader of the hostage-takers, Chechen commander Shamil Basayev, agreed to release pregnant and nursing women, and to allow emergency services to put out a fire in the main building and to collect and remove dead bodies. The assault was then resumed at noon and included the use of tear gas; it stopped after over an hour later when Basayev agreed to release the remaining women and children. The overall death toll of more than 120 people included three Alpha members. In the end, the crisis was resolved through negotiations that led to an agreement involving a ceasefire in Chechnya and high-level peace talks, both of which later broke down, with full-scale hostilities resuming in October 1995. Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin claimed that both attacks had not been authorised by the government, but were launched by troops acting without orders.

At Pervomayskoye, a small settlement on the outskirt of Kizlyar in Dagestan, in an operation that was conducted under the direct control of Barsukov, Alpha Group was mostly held in reserve during multiple failed storming attempts spearheaded by Vityaz and the SOBR (a special forces unit of the Moscow police), supported by tanks and armoured vehicles. Further attacks were conducted with heavy artillery, including Grad launchers firing salvos of rockets into the village, and helicopter gunship support. According to statements made to justify the use of unlimited force, the FSB had been informed, falsely, that the hostages had been executed by their captors, prior to the commencement of military operations. This full-scale offensive continued for three days, until the Chechen militants fought their way through the siege lines in a night-time break-out, escaping with many of the surviving hostages in another major humiliation for the Kremlin. 26 out of the 150 hostages lost their lives (most of the original 2,000 hostages had been released in Kizlyar), and in all the incident resulted more than 300 fatalities, mostly among the Russian forces. Although they avoided the kind of devastating losses that decimated the Moscow SOBR (including the death of their commanding officer) and the 22nd Independent Brigade of Spetsnaz GRU, Alpha Group still suffered casualties at Pervomayskoye. These included a friendly fire incident which occurred after fighting had ended, when a regular soldier accidentally fired his vehicle's Grom gun, killing two Alpha members. When the Alpha Group was deployed, they were sent in without winter clothing and quartered in unheated buses. One of the unit's commanders claimed they were "set up", saying: "The first day it was 15 below and we were standing in the fields with no warm clothes. There were no sleeping bags, no water, no food. The hostages were being destroyed, the rebels were being destroyed and we were being destroyed there. That's what happened."

Several highly controversial actions made the force susceptible to criticism revolving around the loss of life among the hostages. One of these actions was the use of an unknown chemical agent to assist Alpha Group and the SOBR break the October 2002 Moscow hostage crisis, by knocking out the people inside the building. The FSB chemical attack resulted in the deaths of at least 129 hostages and serious damage to the health of many others, yet was hailed by the group's officers as their "... first successful operation for years". In 2011, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) ordered Russia to pay compensation to 64 survivors of the siege for their physical and emotional suffering, and to prosecute the officials who committed the human rights violations, ruling that the authorities had failed to minimise the risks to the hostages. Russia failed to uphold the ECHR ruling, paying the compensation to victims but not launching an investigation into the violations.

Another controversy was the use of tank cannons, portable flamethrowers, and other weapons such as grenade launchers in Beslan, North Ossetia. On 3 September 2004, the local school was taken over by Chechen-led militants from Ingushetia, and was subsequently raided by the heavily armed FSB special forces of Alpha and Vympel. The operation was overseen by the head of the Special Purpose Center, Gen. Alexander Tikhonov, who forbade extinguishing the fire in the school, while the actual attack was personally led by Gen. Pronichev, and supported by tanks, armoured personnel carriers and attack helicopters. John McAleese, a member of the Special Air Service (SAS) team which had liberated the Iranian Embassy in London in 1980, immediately called it one of the worst hostage rescue attempts he had seen or heard about. The Beslan siege turned out to be particularly bloody, costing the lives of more than 333 people, including 186 children (age 1 to 17), 111 relatives, guests and friends, 17 school staff members and 10 Alpha members. No ballistic tests were carried out, and prosecutors were not allowed to examine the special forces' weapons to determine who exactly killed the hostages. In 2007, 447 survivors and relatives of victims of the Beslan massacre brought a complaint against the Russian government in seven applications to the ECHR.

In Belarus
The Minsk territorial unit of Alpha continues to exist within the State Security Committee (KGB) of Belarus, known simply as "Alfa" («Альфа»).

In Kazakhstan
The Almaty territorial unit of Alpha was turned into the special unit Arystan (meaning "Lions" in Kazakh) of the National Security Committee (KNB) of Kazakhstan. In 2006, five members of Arystan were arrested and charged with the kidnapping of the opposition politician Altynbek Sarsenbayuly, his driver, and his bodyguard; the three victims were then allegedly delivered to the people who murdered them.

In Ukraine
Special Group "Alpha" is a branch of the Security Service of Ukraine; and a successor of the Soviet Union's Alpha Group. It has continued to be informally called "Alpha".

In Georgia
Georgia established its own Alpha unit in 1992. It was created as one of the three special forces units belonging to the Ministry of State Security, the other two being named Delta and Omega. In 1995, members of Alpha and the Minister of State Security, Igor Giorgadze, were blamed for the failed bombing attempt on the life of President Eduard Shevardnadze. After that, Giorgadze fled to Moscow, and Georgia's Alpha was purged and reorganised.

In Kyrgyzstan
A special unit named "Alfa" Special Operations Executive (ASOE) was established within the State Committee on National Security (GKNB) of Kyrgyzstan. In 2010, eight members of ASOE, including five snipers and the unit's commander, were charged with shooting and killing unarmed people during the Second Kyrgyz Revolution. Criminal cases were brought to the court under the articles: 97 (murder), and 305 part 2 (exceeding the limits of authority).

Equipment
As a 'Tier 1' force, Alpha Group operators have access to a wide array of small arms.

 * Assault rifles
 * Various AK-74 variants
 * AS Val
 * AK-12
 * AK-105
 * M4A1 or AR-15 variants (Limited Use)
 * HK417
 * AN-94 (Limited Use)

 * Light machine guns
 * PKP Pecheneg
 * PKM

 * Sniper and designated marksman rifles
 * Various Dragunov variants
 * H&K MR308 (civilian version of the HK417).
 * Vintorez
 * Accuracy International AWM
 * Orsis T-5000
 * Lobaev Arms M2 Urbana and M4 Dark Matter

 * Submachine guns and personal defense weapons
 * Heckler & Koch MP5
 * Vityaz-SN
 * Brügger & Thomet MP9

 * Handguns
 * Glock 19
 * Glock 17
 * Strizh
 * MP-443
 * Stechkin APS
 * Makarov PM
 * OTs-33 Pernach

General sources

 * , pages 389–391

title: Alpha Group


text:
Charles Johnson

Charles, Charlie or Charley Johnson may refer to:

Academics

 * Charles Johnson (historian) (1870-1961), English historian and archivist
 * Charles Willison Johnson (1863–1932), American naturalist
 * Charles S. Johnson (1893–1956), African-American sociologist president of Fisk University
 * Charles R. Johnson (born 1948), African-American scholar and author
 * Charles Royal Johnson (born 1948), professor of mathematics
 * Charles Willis Johnson, dean of the University of Washington Pharmacy Department

Arts and entertainment

 * Charles Johnson (writer) (1679–1748), English playwright and poet
 * Captain Charles Johnson, pseudonym of unknown English author of 1724 book, A General History of the Robberies and Murders of the Most Notorious Pyrates
 * Charles Ellis Johnson (1857–1926), American photographer
 * Charles Howard Johnson (1868–1896), American illustrator and newspaper artist
 * Charles L. Johnson (1876–1950), composer of ragtime tunes
 * Charlie Johnson (bandleader) (1891–1959), jazz musician and pianist
 * Charles Johnson (1903–1974), American actor who used stage name Chubby Johnson
 * Little Jody Rainwater (born Charles Edward Johnson, 1920–2011), bluegrass musician and radio personality
 * Charles K. Johnson (1924–2001), American promoter and president of Flat Earth Society, 1972–2001
 * Charlie Johnson, stage name of rock singer Charles Westover (1934–1990), a.k.a. Del Shannon
 * Charles Foster Johnson (born 1953), jazz guitarist, blogger at Little Green Footballs

Politics

 * Charles Johnson (North Carolina politician) (died 1802), Democratic-Republican politician who represented 8th congressional district
 * Charles C. Johnson (born 1988), white supremacist activist and website operator
 * Charles E. Johnson (government official) (born 1936), acting U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services from January 2004 to April 2004
 * Charles Elliott Johnson, Democratic Party politician from North Carolina; member of the General Assembly from 2003 to 2005
 * Charles Fletcher Johnson (1859–1930), Democratic Party politician from Maine, U.S. Senator, and judge
 * Charles G. Johnson (1880–1957), Californian state treasurer from 1923 to 1956
 * Charles George Johnson (1886–1950), chemist, businessman, and political figure in Adelaide, South Australia
 * Charles H. Johnson, member of the Californian state assembly from 1861 to 1862
 * Charles Phillip Johnson (1836–1920), lieutenant governor of Missouri from 1873 to 1875
 * Charles R. Johnson (California merchant) (1830–1904), American merchant and Los Angeles City Council member
 * Charles W. Johnson (jurist) (born 1951), Associate Chief Justice of Washington State Supreme Court
 * Charles William Johnson, Canadian politician
 * Charles C. Johnson (politician) (born 1864), Michigan state representative
 * Charles R. Johnson Jr. (born 1894), Florida state representative

American football

 * Charley Johnson (born 1938), quarterback
 * Charles Johnson (arena football) (born 1983)
 * Charles Johnson (defensive back) (born 1956), San Francisco 49ers and St. Louis Cardinals
 * Charles Johnson (defensive end) (born 1986), Carolina Panthers
 * Charlie Johnson (defensive tackle) (1952–2021), American NFL player
 * Charles Johnson (defensive tackle) (born 1957), Green Bay Packers
 * Charlie Johnson (offensive lineman) (born 1984), American football guard
 * Charles Johnson (wide receiver, born 1972) (1972–2022) Pittsburgh Steelers
 * Charles Johnson (wide receiver, born 1989), Orlando Apollos

Baseball

 * Charlie Johnson (baseball) (1885–1940), outfielder for Philadelphia Phillies
 * Charles Johnson (pitcher) (1909–2006), Negro leagues pitcher and outfielder
 * Charles Johnson (catcher) (born 1971), 4 time Gold Glove Award catcher

Basketball

 * Charles Johnson (basketball, born 1949) (1949–2007), NBA guard for Golden State Warriors
 * Charles Johnson (basketball, born 1961) (born 1964), basketball coach
 * Splinter Johnson (Charles Robert Johnson, 1920–2002), American professional basketball player

Other sports

 * Charley Johnson (wrestler) (1887–1967), American Olympic wrestler
 * Charles Johnson (cricketer) (died 1967), South African cricketer
 * Charles Johnson (diver) (1913–2000), British Olympic diver

Other

 * Charles Johnson (Royal Navy officer) (1869–1930), became Admiral Superintendent of Malta Dockyard
 * Charles Christopher Johnson, British soldier
 * Charles E. Johnson (FBI Most Wanted fugitive) (1907–?), American criminal
 * Charles B. Johnson (born 1933), American businessman, co-chairman of Franklin Resources, owner of San Francisco Giants
 * Charlie Johnson (pilot) (born 1942), Air force pilot, former president of Cessna Aircraft
 * Charles Cooper Johnson (1827–1905), British Indian Army officer
 * Charles Johnson (Tennessee) (1830–1863), son of U.S. President Andrew Johnson
 * Captain Charles Johnson, 1724 pen name of author

title: Charles Johnson


text: Talk:High Street

title: Talk:High Street


text:
User:Redjar/Sandbox

redjar sandbox
User:Redjar/Sandbox/town data table test

User:Redjar/Sandbox/vermont town map thumbnail syntax data

User:Redjar/Sandbox/iPod sales

Proposed Vermont Counties

User:Redjar/Sandbox/Champlain college clean up

title: User:Redjar/Sandbox


text:
Stan Fox

Stanley Cole Fuchs (July 7, 1952 – December 18, 2000), known professionally as Stan Fox (Fuchs being the German word for "fox" ), was an American open wheel race car driver. Fox was one of the last links between the midget car racing world and the Indianapolis 500.

Midget car career
Fox began his career as a midget car racer. He won the 1979 Badger Midget championship, and the 1979 and 1980 Belleville Midget Nationals. He placed in the top twelve in points in nine seasons, even after he raced sporadically after moving to United States Auto Club (USAC) open wheel events. He had 19 USAC career wins. He won the Turkey Night Grand Prix in 1990 at the last event at Ascot Park. He won the 1991 Turkey Night Grand Prix, two Copper Classics, three Rex Easton Memorials at Springfield, Illinois, two Rodger Mauro Classics, and the midget car portion of the 4-Crown National at Eldora Speedway.

IndyCar career
Fox competed in the Indianapolis 500 eight times between 1987 and 1995 driving for A. J. Foyt and Ron Hemelgarn. He was also a motorcycle racing enthusiast.

Near-fatal crash at Indianapolis
While driving for Ron Hemelgarn, Fox was seriously injured during the 1995 Indianapolis 500 in an accident. After starting ninth, Fox went low into the first turn on the first lap of the race and spun. His car connected with the car of Eddie Cheever, Jr. and slammed into the outside wall. Several other cars also became involved. The front nose-cone was ripped from his car, exposing his legs. Fox suffered serious head injuries which put him in a coma for five days, and had surgery to have a blood clot removed from his brain. After a month, Fox had been moved from the Methodist Hospital critical care unit to a private room, and was showing signs of improvement.

The accident ended Fox's racing career but he stayed involved with the sport. He started the non-profit organization Friends of the Fox which supports people with head injuries and brings a person to the track each May to meet drivers and get VIP treatment.

Death
Fox was killed in a head-on collision on December 18, 2000, on the Desert Road some 200 mi south of Auckland, New Zealand. Fox was driving through the night to attend a speedway meeting and collided head on with a northbound truck and trailer Unit.

Career award

 * He was inducted in the National Midget Auto Racing Hall of Fame.

American open–wheel racing results
(key)

NASCAR
(key) ( Bold – Pole position awarded by qualifying time. Italics – Pole position earned by points standings or practice time. * – Most laps led. )

title: Stan Fox


text: User talk:12.159.57.2

title: User talk:12.159.57.2


text:
User:Redjar/Sandbox/Vermont counties

The 14 Vermont counties List of Vermont counties:

The state of Vermont is broken into 14 counties. Each county has a county seat which is the capital of the county.

 * 1) Addison County: County seat: Middlebury
 * 2) Bennington County: County seat: Bennington
 * 3) Caledonia County: County seat: St. Johnsbury
 * 4) Chittenden County: County seat: Burlington
 * 5) Essex County: County seat: Guildhall
 * 6) Franklin County: County seat: St. Albans
 * 7) Grand Isle County: County seat: North Hero
 * 8) Lamoille County: County seat: Hyde Park
 * 9) Orange County:County seat: Chelsea
 * 10) Orleans County:County seat: Newport
 * 11) Rutland County: County seat: Rutland
 * 12) Washington County: County seat: Montpelier
 * 13) Windham County: County seat: Newfane
 * 14) Windsor County: County seat: Woodstock

History

 * In 1778, Vermont comprised of two counties. The western side of the state was called Bennington County and the East was called Unity County.  Unity County was later renamed Orange County.
 * By 1778, the two original counties were split into five. These new counties included Rutland County, Windham County, and Windsor County.  In 1785 Addison County was split off of Rutland County.
 * In 1787 Chittenden County was formed from Addison County.
 * In 1791 Franklin County was split off of Chittenden County. In addition, Essex and Orleans Counties were formed from part of Orange County.
 * In 1796 Caledonia County formed from part of Orange County.
 * In 1805 Grand Isle County was split off of Franklin County.
 * In 1805 Washington County was formed from part of Franklin County.
 * In 1835 Lamoille County was created from parts of Chittenden, Franklin, and Orleans counties.

Essex, Orleans, and Caledonia counties are commonly referred to as the Northeast Kingdom.

title: User:Redjar/Sandbox/Vermont counties


text:
Jim Crawford

Jim or Jimmy Crawford may refer to:

Entertainment

 * Jimmy Crawford (drummer) (1910–1980), American jazz drummer of the swing era
 * Jimmy Crawford (British singer) (born 1937), British pop singer in the 1960s
 * Jimmy Crawford (Home and Away), a fictional character on the Australian soap opera Home and Away

Sports

 * Jim Crawford (American football) (1935–2018), American football player for the Boston Patriots
 * Jim Crawford (baseball) (born 1950), former baseball player
 * Jim Crawford (footballer) (born 1973), Irish footballer
 * Jim Crawford (racing driver) (1948–2002), Scottish auto racing driver
 * Jim Crawford (runner), American track athlete and medalist in athletics at the 1971 Pan American Games
 * Jimmy Crawford (racing driver) (1944–2007), NASCAR Cup Series driver
 * Jim Crawford (sprinter), winner of the 1974 distance medley relay at the NCAA Division I Indoor Track and Field Championships

Others

 * James W. Crawford Jr. (born 1937), known as Jim, Democratic member of the North Carolina General Assembly
 * Jim Crawford (playwright) (1908–1973), Australian playwright and journalist

title: Jim Crawford


text:
David Miner

David Miner may refer to:

 * David M. Miner (born 1962), American politician, member of the North Carolina General Assembly, 1993–2004
 * David Miner (musician) (born 1945), American guitarist, singer and songwriter
 * David Miner (television producer) (born 1969), American film and television producer
 * David Manly Miner (born 1941), politician in Saskatchewan, Canada

title: David Miner


text:
Deborah Ross

Deborah Ross may refer to:

 * Deborah J. Ross (born 1947), American writer
 * Deborah Ross (politician) (born 1963), American politician from North Carolina
 * Deborah Ross (journalist), British journalist

title: Deborah Ross


text:
Talk:Buddhist texts

Comment
Good show. - NYK 14:24, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Thanks. Feel free to pitch in, it ain't done yet! mahābāla 15:27, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

i was wondering if this should be included.
Buddhism: "Do not go by revelation or tradition, do not go by rumor, or the sacred scriptures, do not go by hearsay or mere logic, do not go by bias towards a notion or by another person's seeming ability and do not go by the idea 'He is our teacher'. But when you yourself know that a thing is good, that it is not blamable, that it is praised by the wise and when practiced and observed that it leads to happiness, then follow that thing."

it was one of buddha's teachings as well

I just noticed that there was a pre-existing Mahayana Sutras page, started a while back by that guy acmuller. I tried to clean up the format a little, but maybe it should just be merged into this article. - NYK 17:30, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * If there are no objections I think I'll just rediect toBuddhist Texts : Mahayana texts section. [[User:acmuller|acmuller] was great, wonder what ever happened to him? You can still see external links to his dictionary everywhere - although I tend to delete them. mahābāla 13:17, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * You might like to reinstate links for Chuck's dictionary since it is now the on-line combined classical and Buddhist CJKV dictionary. It provides a major research tool with high standard entries provided by real scholars.--Stephen Hodge 01:00, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

No discussion yet of the British Library manuscripts? I'm not competent to discuss them, but I mentioned their existence at Gandhara.Wetman 04:59, 28 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * so feel free to add something. Where would they fit do you think? I'm aware that I've only covered the really mainstream stuff here - the Vajrayana section is quite weak, and there are many more non-canonical texts and genres which could well be included. mahābāla 09:42, 29 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Unless there are objections, I will go through and change all the "Early Wisdom Schools" references to the new "Nikaya" so that it can be standard across the wikipedia. I think the latter is preferable since it include Theravada which, far from being "early", is still in existence - Nat Krause 11:58, 15 Apr 2004 (UTC)

I changed "Arising of Faith" to "Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana" and created a new article for that treatise (later discovering there already was/is an "Awakening of Mahayana Faith"). Before we merge, can we get some consensus on "Arising" or "Awakening"? As I detail on Talk:Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana, the Chinese character in question does translate to "arising", not awakening, but all the translations are "Awakening of Faith..." and I see no precedent (except Wikipedia and common sense) for "Arising of Faith". I also see no precedent (except A. C. Muller's Web site) for "Mahayana Faith". In contrast, I do see some precedent (namely, Whalen Lai, who was presumably peer-reviewed) for "Mahayana Treatise". --Munge 07:38, 30 Jan 2005 (UTC)

There is this statement in the article: "The only complete Mahayana Canon surviving is in Chinese translation, though it was originally in Sanskrit". There are three problems with this: 1) In contrast to the Agamas / Nikayas, there was never a Mahayana canon in the normal sense of that word; 2) most Mahayana sutras translated into Chinese were also translated into Tibetan, while there are Tibetan translations that have no counterparts in the Chinese collection; and 3) some portions of the Mahayana collection of sutras may have been written in Prakrit.  One might also like to specify that Mahayana texts that survive in Indic mss are composed in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit.--Stephen Hodge 00:57, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

There is the statement: "This doctrine was later taken up by the Mahayana in a modified form as Vasubandu's Ten Stages Sutra". The Da`sabhuumika-suutra forms part of the Avatamsaka collection and thus was not "Vasubandhu's". It is also possible that Da`sabhuumika version is independent, though paralleling, from the the Mahavastu version.--Stephen Hodge 01:06, 25 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Tripitaka
The section on the Nikaya Canon is seriously flawed here. The organization is confusing, and it does not make clear that there is an existing Theravada Canon (the Tipitaka) that is highly organized. It's just unclear. In fact this extends to the Mahayana section too. At present, this is really just a list of texts. It doesn't make it clear that there are groupings of them. ---PhifeAlQuest

=Question== Are the Sanskrit versions of the Indian sutras extant or are they now lost? If not, why is it that major English translations of the sutras are made by Chinese scholars like Burton Watson and Red Pine? Mandel June 30, 2005 17:17 (UTC)

 * Presumably the original Sanskrit, Pali and so on versions were all translated into Chinese (and, presumably, some lost except in Chinese), whereas later ones written in other languages would not be understood by a Sanskrit scholar. elvenscout742 21:56, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

Just wondering, can anyone point me to a list of texts in chronological order, the historical order in which they were written? Roy Brumback 11:02, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I can't do that, but I can question whether such a list would be possible. Surely, even if such a thing could exist, it would be so loaded with relatively obscure "canon" that It would be near useless. elvenscout742 21:56, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

 * I don't know if it would be useless, one can easily only read the texts one wants to, but certainly one text was written first, then another, ect...Roy Brumback

 * And then another, and another, until you have however many thousand volumes that there are today. And I'm pretty sure the ages of a great many are very uncertain. elvenscout742 10:19, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

I think the problem here is a reasonable person would like to know where to "start"... And I don't think it unreasonable to ask for a chronology, so long as it focuses on the earliest extant texts. It is frustrating for myself. I have read the Old & New Testemant, then the Nag Hammadi texts (that are published). Then I read the Koran. This is the family tree of Judeo-Christian-Islamic monotheism; certainly other commentaries have been written inspired by these very books, but these later texts are of a contemporary nature and not historical, as the aforementioned are.

Having read some of the primary texts (abridged) of Hindu literature. I want to know where one would should start with Buddhism.

If Wikipedia is reliant upon sources, we wish to know upon what sources (of those earliest extant written sources) do the authorities of Buddhism (priest or scholarly) rely upon for their authority to guide the laiety or even construct a page on "Buddhist Texts"?

I can see how others are frustrated, and looking at this page, I find, not suprisingly, that I was not alone.

The response that there is no canon to Buddhism is not an honest answer; for if that is the case, then: NO SCRIPTURES SHOULD BE ALLUDED TO AT ALL. But if there is, then we have ourselves a canon. And we need not compile a 3000 year bibliography.

This is why I say this: by roughly what era did the society of Buddhism first acquire the philosophy and practices, and lifestyle which made their society homogeneous and distinct? We know this is nothing recent; thus, no contemporary sources or text need be included. We know that the Buddha way has been around for at least a 1000 years and no doubt even longer. But I only make this a conservative estimate of a 1000 years. If one wishes to make the cut off at 800 A.D. or 600 A.D., that's even better.

As far as the varying Buddha schools are concerned; that they differ should not deter one from asking, from what root(s) do these varying schools spring? And what are the primary sources? To afix a date by these most often referred text is no daunting task; you already mention some already. We ask that you afix the date; or, perhaps arrange in a separate column this very system. Once, again, this page is, after all, on "Buddhist Texts"...

Otherwise, how is a lay person ever to explore the doctrine of Buddhism? But if a person can do this -- only by joining a Buddhist Order, this would be as ridiculous as saying one cannot understand or even make a critique or evaluation of Islam without becoming a practitioner of Islam.

That's the gist of the poblem here.

Thank You. 71.109.178.91 (talk) 21:26, 15 February 2008 (UTC)

"If Wikipedia is reliant upon sources, we wish to know upon what sources (of those earliest extant written sources) do the authorities of Buddhism (priest or scholarly) rely upon for their authority to guide the laiety or even construct a page on "Buddhist Texts"?"

That was then - this is now! Since that question was asked in 2008, might it not have been answered? Or does the lack of an answer - as to the source and date of the written texts - indicate that we can be "pretty sure the ages of a great many are very uncertain"?

Canon
This article makes a distinction between canonical and noncanonical, which is not followed in other articles: though the article Pali Canon covers only canonical material, those on Tibetan Buddhist canon and Chinese Buddhist Canon cover noncanonical material as well. See my note on the talk page of the latter. Peter jackson 15:52, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I suppose it depends how you define canonical. OED, inter alia, has "authoritative, standard, accepted".  In the case of the Tibetan kanjur / Tenjur, the works included are ipso facto canonical.  You may not know much about the compilation of the Tibetan canon, but all the texts included did undergo scrutiny over menay centuries, beginning especially with the redactional work of Buton.  The Chinese Canon is a bit more flexible and the matter is confused somewhat by the range of material included in Taisho.  But there is no reason to query the overall canonicity of these texts -- the Chinese Canon per se (not in nits Taisho incarnation) also underwent considerable scrutiny, with mahy texts excluded precisely because they were not deemed to be canonical.  Or am I missing some arcane point you are trying to make ?--Stephen Hodge 22:36, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

 * The point I was trying to make was about inconsistency. Firstly, between articles, in that this article uses the same concept of canonicity as the Pali Canon article, while the Chinese & Tibetan ones use a different one. Secondly, that the standard listing of "Buddhist scriptures" found in the appendices of quite a few books (in nearly identical terms, presumably copied from a common source) has no obvious consistent concept of canonicity. Certainly there's a sense in which one can say the Tenjur is canonical. But then why not the Pali commentaries (and subcommentaries)? Peter jackson 15:30, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

As the term "canonical" is used in such inconsistent ways I've deleted it in favour of Buddhavacana, which at least has a fairly definite meaning. Probably quite a lot of articles need to be sorted out similarly. Peter jackson (talk) 11:43, 30 January 2008 (UTC)

new sutra images
Your page needed a few images, thus I choose two examples of early Sutra printing. Daiku Burusu, Japan

take out this link
http://www.dharmanet.org/files.html Doesn't work. 4.249.198.57 (talk) 01:15, 8 February 2008 (UTC)

Akashic Records
I've deleted th ereference to these, as the article on them says they're a Hindu idea adopted by theosophists, ie nothing to do with Tibetan Buddhism. Peter jackson (talk) 11:48, 11 February 2008 (UTC)

Does the Buddhacarita belong here?
I'm not seeing any mention of the Buddhacarita in this article--am I missing it? Should it be included? ? If so, where should it be mentioned--alongside the Sanskrit texts? Aristophanes68 (talk) 04:20, 3 October 2009 (UTC)

 * As far as I know it's still uncertain which school of Buddhism Asvaghosa belonged to, so it would probably go in the 1st Other texts section. Peter jackson (talk) 18:16, 4 March 2010 (UTC)

Timeline of Buddhist texts
Until now there is no timeline of Buddhist texts here. Anyone? See for a simple example Timeline of Hindu texts. Wiki-uk (talk) 04:33, 17 April 2012 (UTC)

RfC: Are texts written by Buddhist writers and teachers that explain basic Buddhist concepts reliable secondary sources?
The RfC by Dorje108 states that:

"I propose that texts written by Buddhist writers and teachers that explain basic Buddhist concepts should be considered secondary sources as long as they meet the criteria specified in the guidelines (regardless of whether or not the writer has Western academic training). Do you support this?"

Please see: Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Buddhism

Robert Walker (talk) 14:55, 18 December 2014 (UTC)

RfC on use of the word "redeath" in the article and lede for Four Noble Truths
Is the word redeath (sanskrit punarmrtyu) commonly used in Buddhist texts and teachings, and is it an appropriate word to use in the Four Noble Truths article, and in the statement of Buddha's Four Noble Truths in its lede?

Comments welcome. Please respond on the talk page for the article here: RfC on use of the word "redeath" in the article and lede for Four Noble Truths

I've posted here since it is closely connected to questions about how to interpret the four noble truths in the Pali Canon. So editors of this article may have a valuable perspective on the debate.

Thanks! Robert Walker (talk) 11:02, 4 May 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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title: Talk:Buddhist texts


text:
MG 151 cannon

The Maschinengewehr (MG) 151 is a low-caliber, belt-fed autocannon for aircraft use, developed in Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1940 and produced by Waffenfabrik Mauser during World War II. It was originally produced in 15.1 mm caliber from 1940, with a 15×96mm cartridge, but due to demand for higher effect against aircraft, especially with the introduction of mine shells for the 20 mm MG-FF/M aircraft cannon, the design was rechambered to 20 mm caliber in 1941, using a newly developed 20×82mm cartridge which traded projectile velocity for explosive power. The initial 15 mm variant then became known as the MG 151/15, with the new 20 mm variant becoming the MG 151/20.

The MG 151/20 cannon was widely used on German Luftwaffe combat aircraft throughout World War II, mainly as offensive armament, but also seeing some use as defensive guns. Existing MG 151/15 guns saw use as aircraft armament throughout the war, albeit more limited compared to the MG 151/20, but also as anti-aircraft guns in various configurations, such as the SdKfz 251/21 Drilling half-track which carried three MG 151/15.

Post-war, salvaged MG 151/20 saw usage by many nations. France had salvaged many guns and became the main user and exporter of the MG 151/20 during the Cold War, fitting it to not only aircraft, but also armoured fighting vehicles as anti aircraft weaponry. France continued exporting the gun all the way into the 1960s, then primarily as flexible dorsal gunship armament for the Aérospatiale SA-3160 and SA-3164 Alouette III utility helicopter. SA-3160s armed with MG 151/20s were bought by Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa in 1966 and saw service until the early 1990s. South Africa reused the 20×82mm cartridge from the MG 151/20 to chamber their Denel NTW-20 anti-materiel rifle.

Development and wartime history
The pre-war German doctrine for arming single-engine fighter aircraft mirrored that of the French. This doctrine favoured a powerful autocannon mounted between the cylinder banks of a V engine and firing through the propeller hub, known as a moteur-canon in French (from its first use with the Hispano-Suiza HS.8C engine in World War I, on the SPAD S.XII) and by the cognate Motorkanone in German by the 1930s. The weapon preferred by the French in this role was the 20 mm Oerlikon FF S model, but this proved too big for German engines. Mauser was given the task of developing a gun that would fit, with a minimum sacrifice in performance. As a stop-gap measure, the MG FF cannon was developed from the Oerlikon FF and put in widespread use, but its performance was lackluster.

Production of the MG 151 in its original 15 mm calibre format began in 1940. After combat evaluation of the 15 mm cartridge as the main armament of early Messerschmitt Bf 109F-2 fighters, the cannon was redesigned with a larger cartridge as the 20 mm MG 151/20 in 1941. Combat experience showed that a more powerful explosive shell was preferable to a higher projectile velocity. The MG 151/20 cartridge was created by expanding the neck of the cartridge to hold the larger explosive shell used in the MG FF cannon, and shortening the length of the cartridge case to match the overall length of the original 15 mm cartridge. These measures simplified conversion of the 15 mm to the 20 mm MG 151/20, requiring only a change of barrel and other small modifications. A disadvantage of the simplified conversion was reduction of projectile muzzle velocity from 850 m/s for the 15 mm shell to 700 m/s for the larger and heavier 20 mm shell. A 20 mm AP projectile could penetrate only 10–12 mm of armor at 300 m (at 60 degrees), compared to 18 mm penetration for the 15 mm under the same conditions but this was not seen as a significant limitation. The 20 mm version became the standard inboard cannon from the Bf 109F-4 series. The 20 mm MG 151/20 offered more predictable trajectory, longer range and higher impact velocity than the 580 m/s cartridge of the earlier MG FF cannon. The MG FF was retained for flexible, wing and upward firing Schräge Musik mounts to the end of the war.

The German preference for explosive power rather than armor penetration was taken further with the development of the mine shell which had been first introduced for the MG FF (in the Bf 109 E-4) and later for the MG 151/20. Even this improvement in explosive power turned out to be unsatisfactory against the four-engine bombers that German fighters were up against in the second part of the war. By German calculations, it took about 15–20 hits with the MG 151/20 to down a heavy bomber but this was reduced to just 3–4 hits for a 30 mm shell with the shattering effects of its hexogen explosive filling used by the long-barreled MK 103 and shorter barreled MK 108 cannon. Only four or five hits with 20 mm calibre cannon were needed for frontal attacks on heavy bombers (Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress and Consolidated B-24 Liberator) but such attacks were difficult to execute. The 30 mm MK 108 cannon thus replaced the MG 151/20 as the standard, engine-mount Motorkanone centre-line armament starting with the Bf 109 K-4 and was also retrofitted to some of the G-series.

Eight hundred MG 151/20 were exported to Japan aboard the Italian submarine ITALIAN SUBMARINE Comandante Cappellini in August 1943 and used to equip 388 Japanese Kawasaki Ki-61-I Hei fighters. The 20 mm MG 151/20 was also fitted on the Macchi C.205, the Fiat G.55 and Reggiane Re.2005 of the Italian Regia Aeronautica and IAR 81B and 81C of the Romanian Royal Air Force.

An unknown number of cannons were converted for usage in the ground use role in early 1945, predominantly within Volkssturm units serving in the Posen area. Its effectiveness in this role are unknown but it was photographed on parade in Posen November 1944 with the Wartheland Volkssturm units.

Postwar use

After World War II, numbers of ex-Luftwaffe MG 151/20 cannon were removed from inventory and from scrapped aircraft and used by various nations in their own aircraft. The French Armée de l'air (AdA) and French Army aviation arm (Aviation légère de l'armée de Terre ,ALAT) used MG 151/20 cannon as fixed and flexible armament in various aircraft, including helicopters. The AdA and ALAT jointly developed a rubber-insulated flexible mount for the MG 151/20 for use as a door gun, which was later used in combat in Algeria aboard several FAF/ALAT Piasecki H-21C assault transport helicopters and on Sikorsky H-34 gunship helicopters. French Matra MG 151 20 mm cannons were used by Portugal and Rhodesia fitted to their Alouette III helicopters, while Denel designed its own variant for the South African Air Force.

Aircraft

 * 🇫🇷 Bloch MB.175T
 * Dornier Do 17
 * Dornier Do 217
 * 🇮🇹 Fiat G.55 Centauro
 * Focke-Wulf Fw 190
 * Focke-Wulf Ta 152
 * Heinkel He 162
 * Junkers Ju 87
 * 🇷🇴 IAR 79
 * 🇷🇴 IAR 80
 * 🇷🇴 IAR 81
 * 🇯🇵 Kawasaki Ki-61-I-Hei
 * 🇮🇹 Macchi C.205
 * Messerschmitt Bf 109
 * Messerschmitt Bf 110
 * Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet
 * Messerschmitt Me 210
 * Messerschmitt Me 410 Hornisse
 * Reggiane Re.2001 CN Falco II
 * 🇮🇹 Reggiane Re.2005 Sagittario
 * 🇫🇷 SNCASO SO.8000 Narval
 * 🇫🇮 Valmet MSv "Mörkö-Morane"

Armoured fighting vehicles

 * 🇫🇷 AMX-13t (SAMM S232 AA-turret)
 * 🇫🇷 AMX-50t (SAMM S36Z AA-gun mount)
 * 🇫🇷 FCM 12t (SAMM S232 AA-turret)
 * 🇫🇷 Lorraine 155 mm
 * SdKfz 251/21 Schützenpanzerwagen Drilling

Helicopters

 * 🇫🇷 Aérospatiale Alouette III SA-3160 – as gunships
 * 🇫🇷 Aérospatiale Alouette III SA-3164 – single prototype, also known as "Alouette-Canon"
 * 🇫🇷 Sikorsky H-34 Choctaw – as gunships
 * 🇫🇷 Sikorsky H-34A Pirate – gunship variant

MG 151/15 specifications

 * Barrel length: 1254 mm (L/83 caliber length)
 * Rifling: 8 grooves, right hand twist, 1 turn in 16"
 * Muzzle velocity:
 * 850 m/s (AP-T)
 * 960 m/s (HE-T, HEI-T)
 * 1030 m/s AP(WC)
 * Projectile types:
 * AP-T weighing 72 g
 * HE weighing 57 g. HE filler: 2.8 g
 * AP(WC) weighing 52 g

MG 151/20 specifications
{{Infobox weapon
 * name= Maschinengewehr MG 151/20
 * image= File:Mauser MG 151.JPG
 * image_size = 300
 * caption= Preserved MG 151/20.
 * origin= Germany
 * type= Aircraft cannon

 * is_ranged= Yes
 * is_bladed=
 * is_explosive=
 * is_artillery=yes
 * is_vehicle=
 * is_UK=

 * service=
 * used_by=
 * wars=

 * designer=
 * design_date=
 * manufacturer= Waffenfabrik Mauser AG
 * production_date=1941-1945
 * number=
 * variants=

 * weight= {{convert|42.7|kg|lboz|abbr=on}}
 * length= {{convert|1.766|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
 * part_length= {{convert|1.104|m|ftin|abbr=on}}
 * width=
 * height=
 * crew=

}}
 * cartridge=20×82mm Mauser
 * caliber= {{convert|20|mm|abbr=on}}
 * action=Short recoil, open-bolt
 * rate= 600–750 rpm
 * velocity={ {{convert|705|to|805|m/s|abbr=on}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1944|pp=384–385}}{{sfnp|Williams|2002|pp=165}}
 * range=
 * max_range=
 * feed=
 * sights=

Two versions of the 20 mm MG 151 were built. Early guns used a percussion priming system, and later E-models used electrical priming. Some rounds were available with a timer self-destruct and/or tracer (or glowtracer). There were also different types of high-explosive shell fillings with either standard Pentrit A which was pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) and aluminium, HA 41 (RDX mixed with Aluminium powder which had a 40 percent increased high explosive and incendiary effect), and a compressed version where more explosives (HA 41) were compressed into same space using large pressures (MX).
 * Rifling: 1 turn in 23 calibers
 * Effective range:800 m
 * Muzzle velocity was 805 m/s (HEI-HC (M)) and 705 m/s (HE-Tracer, armor piercing)

Ammunition types:
 * Tracer ammo
 * I-T – Incendiary, Tracer
 * API-T – Armour-Piercing Incendiary, Tracer
 * APHEF-T – Armour-Piercing High-Explosive Fragmentation, Tracer
 * HEF-T – High-Explosive Fragmentation, Tracer
 * HEFI-T – High-Explosive Fragmentation, Tracer
 * AP-T – Armour-Piercing, Tracer
 * Tracerless ammo
 * I – Incendiary
 * API – Armour-Piercing Incendiary
 * APHEF – Armour-Piercing High-Explosive Fragmentation
 * HEI-HC (M) – High-Explosive Incendiary, High Capacity

US derivatives (T17, T39, T51)
During World War II the US Army produced the 0.60-caliber T17, a reverse-engineered copy of the German MG 151 chambered for an experimental anti-tank rifle round. A speculative order of 5,000 T17 guns was placed, but only around 300 of them were built. However, none saw service despite the availability of 6 million rounds of .60 caliber ammunition. Almost one million rounds were fired during the T17 testing program. The main US version produced, the T17E3, was made by Frigidaire; it weighed 134 lb and had a rate of fire of only 600 rounds per minute. Further refinements led to the T39 and T51 versions, but these also did not enter service.

US ammunition
A cartridge originally based on an armor-piercing round designed in 1939 for use with the experimental T1 and T1E1 anti-tank rifles. It was cancelled in 1944 when it became clear that modern tanks had armor too thick to penetrate with a heavy rifle cartridge. Developments showed that shaped-charged rifle grenades and rocket launchers were the future of infantry anti-tank weapons, and the anti-tank rifle concept was abandoned.

Much like the British attempts to turn their stocks of obsolete .55 Boys anti-tank cartridges into a native-designed heavy machine gun cartridge, the .60-caliber cartridge was repurposed as an autocannon cartridge to succeed the older .50 Browning. The ammunition and the T17 cannon were produced from 1942 to 1946 but never proved a substantial improvement over the .50 Browning and the M2HB and M3 heavy machine guns. The cartridge was later shortened and necked up to produce the 20×102mm Vulcan autocannon round.
 * .60 Armor-Piercing [15.2×114mm T1 Rifle] - A 1180-grain (76.5-gram) kinetic penetrator projectile with a velocity of 3,600 feet per second (1,100 m/s) for a muzzle energy of over 34,000 ft./lbs. (46 kilojoules).
 * .60 T32 Ball [15.2×114mm T17 machine gun]
 * .60 T77 Ball [15.2×114mm T17 machine gun]
 * .60 T36 Incendiary [15.2×114mm T17 machine gun]
 * .60 T39 Armor-Piercing Incendiary [15.2×114mm T17 machine gun]
 * .60 T60 Armor-Piercing Incendiary [15.2×114mm T17 machine gun]

Users (MG 151/20)

 * 🇦🇴 Angola
 * 🇫🇮 finland
 * 🇫🇷 france
 * undefined
 * 🇭🇺 hungary
 * Italian Social Republic
 * Empire of Japan
 * 🇵🇹 portugal
 * undefined
 * 🇷🇴 romania
 * 🇿🇦 south africa

Wars

 * World War II
 * Algerian War
 * Portuguese Colonial War
 * Rhodesian Bush War

title: MG 151 cannon