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Arval Brethren

In ancient Roman religion, the Arval Brethren (Fratres Arvales, "Brothers of the Fields") or Arval Brothers were a body of priests who offered annual sacrifices to the Lares and gods to guarantee good harvests. Inscriptions provide evidence of their oaths, rituals and sacrifices.

Origin
Roman legend held that the priestly college was originated by Romulus, first king of Rome, who took the place of a dead son of his nurse Acca Laurentia, and formed the priesthood with the remaining eleven sons. They were also connected originally with the Sabine priesthood of Sodales Titii who were probably originally their counterpart among the Sabines. Thus, it can be inferred that they existed before the founding of the city. There is further proof of the high antiquity of the college in the verbal forms of the song with which, down to late times, a part of the ceremonies was accompanied, and which is still preserved. They persisted to the imperial period.

Structure and duties
The Arval Brethren formed a college of twelve priests, although archaeologists have found only up to nine names at a time in the inscriptions. They were appointed for life and did not lose their status even in exile. According to Pliny the Elder, their sign was a white band with the chaplet of sheaves of grain (Naturalis Historia 18.2).

The Brethren assembled in the Regia. Their task was the worship of Dea Dia, an old fertility goddess, possibly an aspect of Maia or Ceres. On the three days of her May festival, they offered sacrifices and chanted secretly the Carmen Arvale inside the temple of the goddess, at her lucus. The magister (master) of the college selected the exact three days of the celebration by an unknown method.

The celebration began in Rome on the first day, was transferred to a sacred grove outside the city wall on the second day and ended back in the city on the third day. Their duties included ritual propitiations or thanksgivings such as the Ambarvalia, the sacrifices done at the borders of Rome at the fifth mile of the Via Campana or the Salaria (a place now on the hill Monte delle Piche at Magliana Vecchia on the right bank of the Tiber). Before the sacrifice, the sacrificial victim was led three times around a grain field where a chorus of farmers and farm-servants danced and sang praises for Ceres and offered her libations of milk, honey and wine.

Archaic traits of the rituals included the prohibition of the use of iron, the use of the olla terrea (a jar made of unbaked earth) and of the sacrificial burner of Dea Dia made of silver and adorned with grassy clods.

Restoration of the priesthood
The importance of Arval Brethren apparently dwindled during the Roman Republic, but emperor Augustus revived their practices to enforce his own authority. In his time the college consisted of a master (magister), a vice-master (promagister), a priest (flamen), and a praetor, with eight ordinary members, attended by various servants, and in particular by four chorus boys, sons of senators, having both parents alive. Each wore a wreath of corn, a white fillet and the toga praetexta. The election of members was by co-optation on the motion of the president, who, with a flamen, was himself elected for one year.

After Augustus' time emperors and senators frequented the festivities. At least two emperors, Marcus Aurelius and Elagabalus, were formally accepted as members of the Brethren. The first full descriptions of their rituals also originate from this time.

It is clear that, while the members were themselves always persons of distinction, the duties of their office were held in high respect. And yet no mention of them occurs in the writings of Cicero or Livy, and literary allusions to them are very scarce. On the other hand, we possess a long series of the acta or minutes of their proceedings, drawn up by themselves, and inscribed on stone. Excavations, commenced in the 16th century and continued to the 19th, in the grove of the Dea Dia, yielded 96 of these records from 14 to 241 AD. The last inscriptions (Acta Arvalia) about the Arval Brethren date from about 325 AD. They were abolished along with Rome's other traditional priesthoods by 400 AD.

title: Arval Brethren


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Cape May

Cape May consists of a peninsula and barrier island system in the U.S. state of New Jersey. It is roughly coterminous with Cape May County and runs southwards from the New Jersey mainland, separating Delaware Bay from the Atlantic Ocean. The southernmost point in both New Jersey and the northeastern United States lies on the cape. A number of resort communities line the Atlantic side of the cape, including Ocean City, the most populous community on the cape, The Wildwoods, known for its architecturally significant hotel district, and the city of Cape May, which has served as a resort community since the mid-1700s, making it the oldest such resort in the U.S.

Etymology
The peninsula is named for Cornelius Jacobsen May, a Dutch explorer who worked for the Dutch East India Company.

Geography and ecology
The peninsula comprises the municipalities of Avalon, Cape May, Cape May Point, Dennis Township, Lower Township, Middle Township, North Cape May, North Wildwood, Stone Harbor, West Cape May, West Wildwood, and Wildwood Crest. The region is a popular destination for Québécois tourists. It is part of the Southern Shore Region.

The city of Cape May, located on the island and south of the peninsula, is home to the oldest seaside resort in the nation with historical roots dating back to the 18th century. The entire city was designated as a National Historic Landmark on May 11, 1976, and many of the buildings throughout the town are original Victorian structures that have been maintained in pristine condition. The basic training camp of the United States Coast Guard is located in Cape May. This facility is the only enlisted basic training center for the United States Coast Guard in the country. Each recruit goes through eight weeks of training before being shipped out.

Cape May is also famous as one of the top birding sites in North America. There are many different parks and birding sites in the area. Due to its location at the southern tip of New Jersey and numerous nature preserves and wildlife refuges, large concentrations of birds can be found in Cape May, especially during spring and fall migration. Cape May Bird Observatory acts as the central coordinator of birding activities in Cape May, including the World Series of Birding, held in Cape May and throughout New Jersey annually in May.

Cape Island
Cape Island is a man-made island at the southern tip of Cape May County, which consists of Cape May, Cape May Point, West Cape May and portions of Lower Township. The island is separated from the mainland and the rest of Cape May County by the man-made Cape May Canal, Cape Island Creek and Cape May Harbor, which cut it off from the rest of the Cape May Peninsula. Cape May Canal is a 2.9 nmi waterway connecting Cape May Harbor to the Delaware Bay, at the southern tip of Cape May County, New Jersey. Before the canal was built, "Cape Island" referred to the site of the City of Cape May, southeast of Cape Island Creek, a tidal "creek" and marsh that has been partly filled in at its southern end.

History
The Kechemeche tribe of the Lenni Lenape were the first residents of the area that historians know of. Each summer, the Native Americans vacationed at what is now Cape May to escape the summer heat. While there, they fished, hunted, and collected fruits before the advent of autumn mandated the return to their inland villages.

The first European to catch a glimpse of Cape May was navigator Henry Hudson and 18 of his crew mates on the Halve Maen. On August 28, 1609, while searching for the Northwest Passage, Hudson decided to sail up the unexplored Delaware Bay. Several miles up the coast, strong tides pulled the Halve Maen to a sandbar, and the crew was stranded until thunderstorms and wind aided the ship around the Cape May peninsula. This event was recorded by Hudson's first mate, Robert Juet.

News of his discovery sparked a search for the location of a new trading post. English explorer Samuel Argall explored the bay and named it for the governor of the Virginia Colony, Lord De La Warr. Not to be outdone, the Dutch also sent some navigators to look for suitable sites for trading ventures. Among the band of explorers were Cornelis Henderson, Adriaen Block, and Cornelis Jacobsen Mey.

The recorded history of Cape May stretches back to 1620, when Captain Cornelius Jacobsen Mey surveyed and named the area for himself. It later grew from a small settlement to the large beach resort it has been since the 19th century. The City of Cape May asserts that its status as a vacation spot began in 1766, with Philadelphians coming in by stagecoaches, ships, and horse-drawn wagons, and that the Kechemeche Lenape had primarily used the land for hunting beforehand. Hotels were already on Cape May as of 1834.

In 1782 during the American Revolutionary War, the young Continental Navy Lieutenant Joshua Barney fought with a British squadron at Cape May and Delaware Bay. Barney's force of three sloops defeated a Royal Navy frigate, a sloop-of-war and a Loyalist privateer. The battle ended with the loss of two British vessels and one American sloop.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cape May


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Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region

The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region (Metropolregion Rhein-Ruhr) is the largest metropolitan region in Germany, with over ten million inhabitants. A polycentric conurbation with several major urban concentrations, the region covers an area of 7,110 km2, entirely within the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region spreads from the Ruhr area (Dortmund-Bochum-Essen-Duisburg) in the north to the urban areas of the cities of Mönchengladbach, Düsseldorf (the state capital), Wuppertal, Leverkusen, Cologne (the region's largest and Germany's fourth largest city), and Bonn in the south. The location of the Rhine-Ruhr at the heart of the European Blue Banana makes it well connected to other major European cities and metropolitan areas such as the Randstad, the Flemish Diamond and the Frankfurt Rhine Main Region.

The metropolitan area is named after the Rhine and Ruhr rivers, which are the region's defining geographical features and historically its economic backbone.

Subdivisions
The largest cities in the Rhine-Ruhr area are Cologne, with over one million inhabitants, followed by Düsseldorf, Dortmund and Essen, each of which has slightly more than 580,000.

Many unofficial compositions of the Rhine-Ruhr area differ from one another, while the officially defined border of the metropolitan area itself comprises Hamm in the east, Mönchengladbach in the west, Bonn in the south, with the small city of Wesel as its northernmost point. The northern border is similar to that of the Ruhr Area.

This first unofficial table here characterizes the Rhine-Ruhr area as comprising three regions, which together constitute an area much larger than officially defined.

Eurostat's Urban Audit splits the Rhine-Ruhr region into six Larger Urban Zones (LUZ). None of these six Urban Zones includes the cities of Remscheid and Solingen or the district of Rhein-Kreis Neuss.

Economy
Historically, most of the Ruhr area was for the most part characterized by heavy industry since the age of industrialisation in the late 19th and early 20th century. Since the Middle Ages, Cologne, Dortmund, and other cities were important regional trading cities, but during the 19th century the city of Düsseldorf grew to become the administrative center of the region and since 1945, its political capital.

Today, the Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region accounts for roughly 15% of the GDP of the German economy, which would place it as the 2nd largest metropolitan area GDP in the European Union. Despite this size, the Rhine-Ruhr region as a whole often lacks international competitiveness because it lacks a unified presentation. Cities and urban areas within it often pursue separate investment policies against each other.

From within, Düsseldorf, Essen, and Cologne are by far the largest economic centers, with specialisation in financial/high tech and insurance/multi media services respectively. Other major economic centers are Bonn and Dortmund. The region is home to twelve Fortune Global 500 companies, among them E.ON AG (Essen), Deutsche Post AG (Bonn), Metro AG (Düsseldorf), Deutsche Telekom AG (Bonn), ThyssenKrupp AG (Essen), RWE AG (Essen), Bayer AG (Leverkusen), Franz Haniel & Cie. GmbH (Duisburg), Evonik Industries (Essen), Hochtief AG, (Essen), and the Henkel Group, (Düsseldorf).

Climate
The Rhine-Ruhr area's climate is characterized by having the warmest winters in Germany, especially its western part at the Lower Rhine area. Classified by Köppen-Geiger climate classification to be oceanic (Cfb).

Air
The area has four international commercial airports, and several smaller aerodromes for general aviation.

Road
The network of Autobahns in North Rhine-Westphalia is the most dense in all of Germany.

Public transport
The rail, S-Bahn, U-Bahn and bus companies are administered through a consortium of local and regional transport lines, the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Ruhr. It offers a rapid transit system which interconnects all cities and their respective local buses, trams, U- and S-Bahn systems, partly under the umbrella of Deutsche Bahn. Their systems are highly integrated where even some subway lines continue from one city to the next (for example between Düsseldorf and Duisburg or Bochum and Herne, which is unique in Germany, as the city border is crossed underground). The region is divided into several urban zones and fares are paid according to the amount of urban areas (or zones) passed through. Tickets include door to door transportation with all forms covered in one ticket with the exception of high speed rail (which only stops in the major cities). Some excursions, theatre and opera tickets as well as museums offer free transportation from any point in the Rhine Ruhr area to the venue and return.

Waterways
Duisburg Inner Harbour (Duisport) and Dortmund Port are large industrial inland ports and serve as hubs along the Rhine and the German inland water transport system.

Events
The region is host to numerous large events, comprising fun fairs and cultural events like the Cologne and Düsseldorf carnivals (carnival is however a public event in almost all cities and towns of the area), the Cologne Comedy Festival, Ruhrfestspiele Recklinghausen, and the RuhrTriennale, as well as Gamescom and other trade fairs at Koelnmesse—Cologne Trade Fair and Messe Düsseldorf; and Essen Motor Show in Essen. With a capacity of up to 20,000 people, the Lanxess Arena and Westfalenhallen are amongst the largest indoor arenas in Germany.

The region is home to a total of 13 Bundesliga football clubs, of which five are active in the season of 2017–18. The most successful among them are Borussia Dortmund, Borussia Mönchengladbach, 1. FC Köln, FC Schalke 04 and Bayer 04 Leverkusen. The Revierderby is the rivalry between Borussia Dortmund and Schalke 04, one of the most significant in German football. Westfalenstadion, the stadium of Borussia Dortmund, is the biggest stadium in Germany. The area had plans to bid for the 2032 Summer Olympics, before the IOC declared Brisbane to be the host.

Landmarks
Several tourist destinations within the region attract over 12 million tourists per year. Cologne Cathedral, Augustusburg and Falkenlust Palaces at Brühl and the Zollverein Coal Mine Industrial Complex at Essen are UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Other sights include Schloss Benrath in Düsseldorf and several anchor points of the European Route of Industrial Heritage.

Museums
NRW Forum, Kunstsammlung Nordrhein-Westfalen, Kunsthalle Düsseldorf, Museum Koenig, Museum Ludwig, Romano-Germanic Museum, Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Neanderthal Museum, Museum Folkwang, Museum Ostwall, Lehmbruck Museum, German Mining Museum and Deutsches Museum Bonn are some of the most famous examples.

Education
The Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region is home to nine universities and over 30 partly postgraduate colleges, with a total of over 300.000 students. The largest and oldest university is the University of Cologne (Universität zu Köln), founded in 1388 AD. Other universities include:
 * the Ruhr University Bochum,
 * the University of Bonn,
 * the German Sport University Cologne,
 * the Technical University of Dortmund,
 * the University of Duisburg-Essen,
 * the University of Düsseldorf,
 * the FernUniversität Hagen and
 * the University of Wuppertal.

Municipalities

The following register lists all municipalities that officially belong to Rhine-Ruhr area. Demographically, these municipalities include 20 cities (German: Kreisfreie Städte) each with more than 100,000 inhabitants, and 11 districts (German: Kreis), each with a population of more than 250,000 inhabitants. Some districts only belong partly to Rhine-Ruhr area. In such a case only the municipalities that belong to the metro area are listed.

title: Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan region


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Cité station

Cité is a metro station on Line 4 of the Paris Métro in the 4th arrondissement of Paris.

Location
Cité station lies underneath the Île de la Cité, one of two islands on the Seine within the historical boundaries of Paris. In relation to the rest of the city, it lies within the 4th arrondissement, near Kilometre Zero, the official geographical and historical centre of Paris. The only station on the Île de la Cité, it lies near many famous landmarks, the most famous being the Notre-Dame de Paris (Cathedral of Notre Dame). To the west are the Sainte-Chapelle chapel and the Palace of Justice, while Notre Dame and the Hôtel-Dieu are to the east.

History
The station was opened on 10 December 1910 on the section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. This section of the line had actually opened on 9 January 1910 but trains passed through the station without stopping until the December of that year. On 16 January it was completely submerged by the 1910 Great Flood of Paris.

It owes its name to its location under Île de la Cité, considered the ancient cradle of the city of Paris, formerly Lutetia. The name Cité refers to the fortified boundaries of Paris as they were at the end of antiquity, on the island, and which was the urban nucleus of the medieval city.

The station is also, with Rome on Line 2, Iéna on Line 9 as well as the Haxo ghost station between the 3 bis and 7 bis lines, one of the four whose name consists of four letters.

Along with the nearby Saint-Michel metro station, it was one of two stopping points equipped in 1911 with an elevator connecting the distribution room to the platforms, the other, the République metro station, which was the first in the network to benefit from it in 1910.

Tunnels were later built linking the station to the nearby Prefecture of Police of Paris and the Palais de Justice which were about 100 metres from the current entrance. These undergrounds were used in particular to escape the Germans during the Second World War. However, for security reasons, these tunnels have now been closed for more than thirty years.

The platforms were modernized after 1988 by the adoption of a particular variation of the Ouï-dire style, in this case green, characterized by globe candelabra lighting. As part of the RATP's Un métro + beau programme, the station corridors were renovated on 20 December 2012.

On 9 October 2019, half of the nameplates on the station's platforms were temporarily replaced by the RATP to celebrate the 60th anniversary of Asterix and Obelix, as in eleven other stations. Taking the characteristic typography of the comic strip of René Goscinny and Albert Uderzo, Cité is humorously renamed "Lutèce", a French-language form of the name used by the Romans to refer to Paris.

In 2019, according to RATP estimates, the station's annual travellers was 1,740,572 passengers, placing it 264th in the number of metro stations out of 302.

Access
The station has a single entrance entitled Place Louis Lépine, leading to the right of building, 2 Place Louis Lépine. Consisting of a fixed staircase, it is decorated with a Guimard edicule, which is the subject of an inscription under the title of historical monuments by the decree of 25 July 1965.

The old exit, still visible, gave direct access to the police prefecture and the courthouse (Palais de Justice) in the Cour du Mai to the right of the monumental gate as one enters.

Access to the platforms is via fixed stairs or elevators.

Platforms
Similar to most Paris Métro stations, Cité utilises a side platform setup with two tracks. However, unlike other stations on Line 4, the platforms are 110 m in length, longer than the 90-105m platforms at other stations. This makes it possible for the station to handle seven-car trains. Saint-Michel station, immediately after Cité, has even longer platforms measuring 118 m (making it possible to handle eight-car trains). However, due to the length of other station platforms and the automation process on Line 4, the train length will be limited to six cars.

Because of the station's depth, passengers must walk down to a mezzanine level, which contains ticket machines and fare control gates, and then another three flights of stairs before reaching the platform level. As the Paris Métro runs inversely to normal railways in the rest of France, the eastern track is used by trains heading northbound to Porte de Clignancourt and the western southbound to Montrouge.

Bus connections
The station area is served by lines 21, 27, 38, 47, 58, 85, 96 and the Paris L'OpenTour tourist line of the RATP Bus Network and at night, by the N12, N13, N14, N15, N21 and N22 lines of the Noctilien network.

title: Cité station


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Saint-Michel station (Paris Métro)

Saint-Michel is a station on Line 4 of the Paris Métro in the 5th arrondissement. Located in the Quartier Latin, it offers a connection to the St-Michel - Notre-Dame RER station on RER lines B and C.

The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. It is named after the Boulevard Saint-Michel.

Architecture
Like nearby Cité, Saint-Michel features a pioneering construction technique, made necessary by the proximity of the Seine. The station comprises three steel caissons – one for the train hall and two for access at each end – which were assembled at the surface and then lowered into place.

The platforms are 118 metres long, more than the standard length on the network. This allows it to potentially handle eight-car trains, however, due to the other stations having an average of 100-meter platforms (excluding Cité, which has 110-meter platforms), and the Line's ongoing process for automatic operations, the trains in the Line 4 will be limited to six-car trains.

Nearby attractions

 * Île de la Cité
 * Île Saint-Louis
 * Notre Dame Cathedral

title: Saint-Michel station (Paris Métro)


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Odéon station

Odéon is a station on lines 4 and 10 of the Paris Métro. It is located in the 6th arrondissement, on the Rive Gauche. It is named after the nearby Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe and is located under the Carrefour de l'Odéon, in the 6th arrondissement of Paris.

History
The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of line 4 under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. It was one of the many stations on line 4 that were flooded during the Great Flood of Paris in 1910, interrupting service for several weeks

Line 10's platforms opened on 14 February 1926 as part of the line's extension from Mabillon. It served as its eastern terminus until its extension to Place d'Italie (now on line 7) on 15 February 1930.

Between October 1966 and October 1967, like most stations on line 4, its platforms were lengthened to 90 metres to cater for six-car trains due to the increased traffic on the line. The walls of the platform were clad in a metal casing to improve the general appearance of the station.

As part of the "Un métro + beau" programme by the RATP, the station's corridors, lighting, as well as platforms of line 4 were renovated on 7 October 2008, removing the metal cladding on the platforms of line 4. As part of the automation of line 4, the platforms of line 4 were partially renovated and modernised. Its platform levels were raised to accommodate the installation of platform screen doors which took place from July to August 2019. This was in addition to new lighting being installed, tiling the floor, and the installation of new seats.

In 2019, the station was used by 5,600,764 passengers, making it the 70th busiest of the Métro network out of 302 stations.

In 2020, the station was used by 2,412,888 passengers amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the 91st busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

In 2021, the station was used by 3,478,491 passengers, making it the 80th busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

Access
The station has four accesses:

 * Access 1: rue de l'École de Médecine (with an ascending escalator)
 * Access 2: Carrefour de l'Odéon
 * Access 3: rue Danton
 * Access 4: Boulevard Saint-Michel

Platforms
Both lines have a standard configuration with 2 tracks surrounded by 2 side platforms, although line 4's platforms have had platform screen doors installed since August 2019.

Other connections
The station is also served by lines 58, 63, 70, 86, 87, and 96 of the RATP bus network, and at night, by lines N12 and N13 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby

 * Luxembourg Palace
 * Odéon-Théâtre de l'Europe

title: Odéon station


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Saint-Germain-des-Prés station

Saint-Germain-des-Prés is a station on line 4 of the Paris Métro. It serves the Saint-Germain-des-Prés neighbourhood on the Rive Gauche in the 6th arrondissement.

It is named after Place Saint-Germain and the Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, dedicated on 23 December 558 by the son of Clovis, Childebert I (ruled 511–558), at the request of St. Germain, Bishop of Paris. Childebert died the same day and was buried in it. More than a thousand years later the remains of the philosopher René Descartes were also buried in it. The expression "des-Prés" refers to the Prés aux Clercs ("fields of the scholars") used for the erection of buildings to house the University of Paris.

Although the station is in close proximity to Mabillon on line 10 (less than 100 metres away), there is no free transfer between the two stations.

History
The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail.

Since the métro's centenary in 2000 and until 2016, the station's platforms have had numerous temporary exhibitions on the history literature in the neighbourhood. The platforms also had displays that presented the stories of young literary talents. As part of the automation of line 4, the platforms of line 4 were partially renovated and modernised. Its platform levels were raised to accommodate the installation of platform screen doors which took place from February to May 2019. This was in addition to new lighting being installed, tiling the floor, and the installation of new seats.

In the spring of 2021, a cultural fresco, Le Mythe Saint-Germain: un lexique amoureux (The legend of Saint-Germain: an A to Z of love), was installed on the walls of the platforms. It features several portraits and anecdotes of renowned people who had lived in the vicinity in the past: Boris Vian, Jacques Prévert, Marguerite Duras, Amélie Nothomb, Roland Topor, Juliette Gréco, and Sonia Delaunay. It illustrates a unique neighbourhood that is literary, stylish, creative, and full of culture. It is planned to update the gallery over the years, each time adding an additional 10 new portraits. Several other works of art are also installed in the station: Les Messagers, a bronze sculpture by Gualtiero Busato and a mosaic by André Ropion paying homage to Johannes Gutenberg.

In 2019, the station was used by 3,866,889 passengers, making it the 126th busiest of the Métro network out of 302 stations.

In 2020, the station was used by 1,712,923 passengers amidst the COVID-19 pandemic, making it the 144th busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

In 2021, the station was used by 2,378,860 passengers, making it the 142nd busiest of the Métro network out of 304 stations.

Access
The station has two accesses (both adorned with a Val d'Osne candelabra):

 * Access 1: Église Saint-Germain-des-Prés École des Beaux Arts
 * Access 2: rue de Rennes

Platforms
The station has a standard configuration with 2 tracks surrounded by 2 side platforms, with platform screen doors installed since May 2019.

Bus connections
The station is also served by lines 39, 63, 70, 86, 87, 95, 96 of the RATP Bus Network, and at night, by lines N01, N02, N12, and N13 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby

 * Beaux-Arts de Paris
 * Café de Flore
 * Church of Saint-Germain-des-Prés
 * Les Deux Magots

title: Saint-Germain-des-Prés station


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Saint-Sulpice station (Paris Métro)

Saint-Sulpice is a station on Line 4 of the Paris Métro. It is located on the Rive Gauche, in the 6th arrondissement. In 2018, 2,350,813 travelers entered this station which places it at the 234th position of Métro stations for its traffic.

Location
The station is located under the Rue de Rennes at the intersection with the Rue du Vieux-Colombier.

History
The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. It is named after the nearby Church of Saint-Sulpice, famous for its gnomon.

In the spring of 2010, the station underwent renovations as part of the Un métro + beau operation. From June to July 2019, platform doors were installed on the platforms as part of the line's ongoing full automation.

Access
The station has three entrances:
 * Entrance 1: Rue de Rennes, Rue du Four side in front of 65 Rue de Rennes
 * Entrance 2: in front of 69 Rue de Rennes
 * Entrance 3: rue de Rennes, rue de Mézières (escalator)

The two entrances located on the Rue de Rennes on either side of the Rue du Vieux-Colombier are decorated with a Val d'Osne candelabra.

Bus connections

 * RATP buses 39, 63, 70, 84, 87, 95, 96
 * Night buses N01, N02, N12, N13

Nearby
Also nearby are the Church of Saint-Sulpice of Paris, Luxembourg Palace, the Saint-Germain-des-Prés neighbourhood, Rue Bonaparte, Institute of Intercultural Management and Communication and the mairie of the 6th arrondissement.

title: Saint-Sulpice station (Paris Métro)


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Gideon Force

Gideon Force was a small British and African special force, a Corps d'Élite with the Sudan Defence Force, Ethiopian regular forces and Arbegnoch (Amharic for Patriots). Gideon Force fought the Italian occupation in Ethiopia, during the East African Campaign of the Second World War. The leader and creator of the force was Major (later Colonel) Orde Wingate. At its peak, Gideon Force had fifty officers, twenty British NCOs, 800 trained Sudanese troops and 800 part-trained Ethiopian regulars, a few mortars but no artillery and no air support, except for intermittent bombing sorties.

The force operated in difficult country at the end of a long, tenuous supply-line, on which perished nearly all of the 15,000 camels used as beasts of burden. Gideon Force and the Arbegnoch ejected the Italian forces commanded in Ethiopia by General Guglielmo Nasi (the conqueror of British Somaliland). The campaign took six weeks; 1,100 Italian and 14,500 Ethiopian troops were captured along with twelve guns, many machine-guns, rifles, much ammunition and over 200 pack animals. Gideon Force was disbanded on 1 June 1941, Wingate resumed this substantive rank of Major and returned to Egypt, as did many of the troops of Gideon Force, who joined the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) in the Eighth Army.

Italian East Africa
During the First Italo-Abyssinian War (1895–1896), the Royal Italian Army (Regio Esercito) had been defeated by the forces of Emperor Menelik II of Ethiopia at the Battle of Adowa. During the Second Italo-Abyssinian War in October 1935, the Italians invaded Ethiopia from Italian Somaliland and Eritrea. On 9 May 1936, the Italian dictator, Benito Mussolini, proclaimed Italian East Africa (Africa Orientale Italiana, AOI), formed from the newly conquered Ethiopia and the colonies of Italian Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. On 10 June 1940, Mussolini declared war on Britain and France, making the AOI a threat to the British supply route along the Red Sea and the Suez Canal. The Kingdom of Egypt remained neutral during the war but the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 allowed the British to occupy Egypt to defend the Suez Canal. Egypt included the Sudan as a condominium known as Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Egypt, the Suez Canal, French Somaliland and British Somaliland were vulnerable to an Italian invasion but Mussolini looked forward to propaganda triumphs in the Sudan and British East Africa (Kenya, Tanganyika and Uganda). Comando Supremo (the Italian General Staff) had planned for a war after 1942 and in the summer of 1940 was not prepared for a long war or the occupation large parts of Africa.

Middle East Command
The British had based forces in Egypt since 1882 but these were greatly reduced by the terms of the treaty of 1936. A small British and Commonwealth force garrisoned the Suez Canal and the Red Sea route, which was vital to British communications with its Indian Ocean and Far Eastern territories. In mid-1939, Lieutenant-General Archibald Wavell was appointed General Officer Commanding-in-Chief (GOC-in-C) of the new Middle East Command, over the Mediterranean and Middle East. Until the Franco–German Armistice of 22 June 1940, French divisions in Tunisia faced the Italian 5th Army on the western Libyan border. In Libya, the Italian Army had about 215,000 men and in Egypt, the British had about 36,000 troops, with another 27,500 men training in Palestine. Wavell had about 86,000 troops at his disposal for Libya, Iraq, Syria, Iran and East Africa, whose frontiers were guarded by an average of about eight men to 1 mi.

Wavell resolved to conduct the delaying actions recommended in Operations against Italian East Africa by his Operations Section of August 1940. Pressure was to be maintained everywhere to make the Italians exhaust their resources, a limited offensive in Sudan was to be conducted at Kassala and an advance was to be made on Kisimayu by January or February 1941. The Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden convened a conference in Khartoum at the end of October 1940, with the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie and others. Attempts would be made to encourage unrest among local civilians, particularly in Ethiopia, where Mission 101 had crossed the frontier on 12 August and the inclusion Ethiopian irregular forces was agreed upon at the conference. In November 1940, the British and Commonwealth forces gained an intelligence advantage when the Government Code and Cypher School (GC & CS) at Bletchley Park broke the high grade cypher of the Regio Esercito in East Africa. Later that month, the replacement cypher for the Italian Air Force (Regia Aeronautica) was broken by the Combined Bureau, Middle East (CBME).

Mission 101
In August 1939, Wavell had ordered a plan covertly to encourage the rebellion in the western Ethiopian province of Gojjam, that the Italians had never been able to repress. In September, Colonel Daniel Sandford arrived to run the project but until the Italian declaration of war, the conspiracy was held back by the policy of appeasement. Mission 101 (named after the No. 101 fuze) was a force composed of British, Sudanese and Ethiopian soldiers formed to co-ordinate the activities of the Ethiopian resistance. In June 1940, Selassie arrived in Egypt and in July, went to Sudan to meet Platt and discuss plans to re-capture Ethiopia, despite Platt's reservations.

In July, the British recognised Selassie as emperor and in August, Mission 101 entered Gojjam province to reconnoitre. Sandford requested that supply routes be established before the rains ended, to the area north of Lake Tana and that Selassie should return in October, as a catalyst for the uprising. Gaining control of Gojjam required the Italian garrisons to be isolated along the main road from Bahrdar Giorgis south of Lake Tana, to Dangila, Debre Marqos and Addis Ababa, to prevent them concentrating against the Arbegnoch. Italian reinforcements arrived in October and patrolled more frequently, just as dissensions among local potentates were reconciled by Sandford's diplomacy.

The Frontier Battalion of the Sudan Defence Force, established in May 1940, was joined at Khartoum by the 2nd Ethiopian and 4th Eritrean battalions, raised from émigré volunteers in Kenya. Operational Centres of an officer, five NCOs and several Ethiopian troops, were formed and trained in guerrilla warfare, to provide leadership cadres; £1 million was set aside to finance operations. Major Orde Wingate was sent to Khartoum with an assistant to join the HQ of the SDF. On 20 November, Wingate was flown to Sakhala to meet Sandford and the RAF managed to bomb Dangila, drop propaganda leaflets and supply Mission 101, which raised Ethiopian morale, having suffered much from Italian air power since the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. Mission 101 managed to persuade the Arbegnogh north of Lake Tana to spring several ambushes on the Metemma–Gondar road and the Italian garrison at Wolkait was withdrawn in February 1941.

British plans, Gideon Force
Platt planned to take a stronghold in Gojjam, install Selassie and then expand the revolt. The Frontier Battalion was to capture Belaya, 70 mi over the border as an advanced base for the Operational Centres moving into the province. Sandford was to send recruits to Belaya and collect 3,000 mules to add to camels from Sudan for transport and Selassie was to move to Belaya as soon as possible. The Italians retaliated by returning Ras Hailu to Gojjam, where he had great prestige, to weaken the Arbegnoch. By January 1941, the Frontier Battalion had made two routes to Belaya and delivered stores but Sandford had failed to provide the mules, thought essential for climbing the escarpment if camels proved unsuitable. Only two Operational Centres were ready and Ethiopian nobles had been reluctant to provide recruits. On 21 January, just after the Italian retirement from Kassala, Selassie crossed into Ethiopia and reached Belaya. Sandford was promoted to act as liaison between Selassie, Wavell, Platt and Cunningham, Wingate took over Mission 101 and in February, the Frontier Battalion SDF, 2nd Ethiopian Battalion and Nos 1 and 2 Operational Centres, were renamed Gideon Force. Wingate was ordered to capture Dangila and Bure, which had garrisons of a colonial brigade each and gain control of the road to Bahrdar Giorgis, to provide a base for Selassie. The Arbegnoch were to attack the main roads from Gondar and Addis Ababa and keep as many Italian troops back defending Addis Ababa as possible.

Gojjam province
After Italian defeats in the Balkans and North Africa, exaggerated reports of British and Ethiopian troops operating from Sudan and increasing hostility from the Ethiopian population, a retirement by the Italians from western Gojjam, to Bahrdar Giorgis and Debre Marqos appeared imminent. A retreat would free the road needed by Gideon Force and on 19 February, the force reached Matakal, by a route which was found passable by the camel trains. Selassie and Gideon Force rallied Arbegnoch, using loudspeakers to announce the presence of the emperor and induce local notables and Italian Askari to desert. The Dangila garrison had retreated towards Bahrdar Giorgis and Wingate ordered that the remaining garrisons on the road were to be eliminated using guerrilla tactics to magnify the threat perceived by the defenders.

From 27 February to 3 March, Gideon Force harassed the forts at Bure, while propagandists talking through megaphones, fostered the belief that the Italians were being attacked by a substantial force, rather than 450 men, provoking many desertions. On 4 March, fearing that the road to Debre Marqos was threatened Natale retreated for Dembacha on the Debre Marqos road. Pursued by the Frontier Battalion, the Italians ran into the 2nd Ethiopian Battalion west of Dembacha and was overrun after a determined defence, suffering about 400 casualties, 2,000 prisoners, four guns and a quantity of vehicles and supplies. The 2nd Ethiopian Battalion lost 100 casualties and many pack animals, reducing it to the size of a company. The west end of the Gojjam road was freed and Selassie entered Bure on 14 March. The most westerly Italian positions were now at the Debre Marqos forts, which Wingate besieged with the Frontier Battalion and moved the rest of Gideon Force towards the Blue Nile.

Ras Hailu, with several thousand followers appeared, joining the Italians at Debre Marqos, by when Nasi realised that the size of Gideon Force had been exaggerated. Colonel Natale at Markos was sacked and replaced by Colonel Maraventano. Nasi announced that Bure would be reoccupied; re-took Fort Emmanuel and attacked the force at Bahrdar Giorgis. Wingate could retire on his communications towards Bure or attack boldly against the much superior Italian force and chose to go on the offensive. Guerilla attacks were made at night after careful preparation and needed great skill, discipline and dash from the Sudanese troops involved. In the middle of the night, parties of about fifty men crept to within 10 yd of a post and attacked with grenades and bayonets. By early April, the defenders had been forced back to the inner defensive ring of Debre Marqos. Aosta ordered a withdrawal and on 4 April, 12,000 people (including 4,000 women), began a 200 mi trek to Safartak and then on to Dessie. The attack on Bahrdar Giorgis by Colonel Adriano Torelli, with five infantry battalions with pack artillery also failed. Selassie entered Debre Marqos on 6 April, the same day that Addis Ababa was captured from the south. The British successes in Eritrea, Italian Somaliland and Southern Ethiopia transformed the strategic outlook. British policy became one of re-installing Selassie and mobilising Ethiopian military potential to participate in the reduction of the remaining Italian garrisons.

Wingate arranged for Lij Belay Zeleke to block a route of retreat from Debre Marqos over the Blue Nile, assisted by Bimbashi Wilfred Thesiger and Captain Foley, with a platoon of the Ethiopian Battalion. Zaleka apparently intrigued with Ras Hailu, remained passive and the Italians got across the Blue Nile, heading for Addis Deraa. Three platoons of the Frontier Battalion and one from the Ethiopian Battalion pursued, despite running out of supplies and ammunition. At the end of April, two Operational Centres arrived to encourage the Arbegnoch and command was taken by Major D. H. Nott of Mission 101. The local population remained reluctant to participate but by guile and bluff, the pursuers kept the Italians disorganised as they ascended the escarpment before Addis Deraa.

An Italian counter-attack was repulsed and a counter-raid inspired the civilian population to help and donate food. On 15 May, Wingate arrived from Addis Ababa on the night that the Italians retreated towards Agibar and the Debra Tabor–Gondar road. Wingate took no notice of orders calling him away and sent part of the force to cut off the Italians, as the main force with another 300 Arbegnoch (Amharic for Patriots) who had arrived, continued the pursuit. On 19 May, Wingate called on Maraventano to surrender, who refused but undertook to consult with HQ by wireless. The Italians attempted another counter-attack and Wingate claimed that his troops were going to leave and that only the Arbegnoch would remain. The ruse worked and Maraventano surrendered with 1,100 Italian and 7,000 Ethiopian troops.

Gideon Force received new orders to cut roads over a wide area to stop the Italians at Amba Alagi, Gondar, Dessie (and Jimma to the south-west) from uniting. Two Operational Centres were sent to Begemdir, east of Lake Tana, to cut the main road through Debra Tabor. The centres managed to spring several ambushes, recruited many more Arbegnoch and kept the Italians inside their fortifications. In late April, the company of the Frontier Battalion at Bahrdar Giorgis repulsed an attack and soon afterwards the Italians retreated along the east side of Lake Tana. Part of the Frontier Battalion remained to watch over Ras Hailu and then went with Selassie to Addis Ababa, joining the 1st South African Brigade advance to Asmara. The rest of the battalion advanced north from Debre Marqos to Lake Tana (in summer uniforms over a 14000 ft pass in a blizzard), got to Mota and by an audacious bluff persuaded the last Italian battalion in Gojjam to surrender. On 5 May, Platt handed command of Gideon Force and Arbegnoch operations beyond the curve of the Blue Nile to Cunningham, commander on the Southern Front, where the East African Force had invaded Ethiopia from Italian Somaliland.

Analysis
At its peak, Gideon Force had fifty officers, twenty British NCOs, 800 trained Sudanese troops and 800 partially trained Ethiopian regulars, a few mortars but no artillery and no air support, except for intermittent bombing sorties. The force operated in difficult country at the end of a long and tenuous supply-line, on which nearly all of the 15,000 camels perished. Assisted by the Arbegnoch, Gideon Force ejected the Italian forces under Nasi in six weeks and captured 1,100 Italian and 14,500 Ethiopian troops, twelve guns, many machine-guns, rifles, ammunition and over 200 pack animals.

Subsequent events
Gideon Force was disbanded on 1 June 1941, Wingate was demoted to Major and returned to Egypt along with many of the troops of Gideon Force, who joined the Long Range Desert Group (LRDG) of the Eighth Army. Wingate's request for decorations for his men was ignored and his attempts to get back-pay for them was obstructed. Wingate wrote a report on 18 June, to Wavell, in which he outlined the successes of the campaign and his views on future actions of a similar type,

"To sum up it is proposed to assemble and employ a force of the highest fighting qualities capable of employment in widely separated columns...that it should be allocated an objective behind the enemy's lines, the gaining of which will decisively affect the campaign; and that to enable it to carry out its task it must be given a political doctrine consonant with our war aims."

- Wingate

Wavell rebuked Wingate for the language of the report and undertook to look into the grievances but was sacked and posted to India soon after. Wingate languished in Cairo, came down with malaria and was sent back to Britain by troop ship, much to the relief of the general staff in Cairo, who had feared that he would meddle in the post-war politics of Ethiopia.

title: Gideon Force


text:
Saint-Placide station

Saint-Placide is a station on Line 4 of the Paris Métro. Situated in the 6th arrondissement, it was used by 3,376,988 passengers in 2018, making it the 163rd busiest Métro station out of 302.

Location
The station is located under the Rue de Rennes at the intersection with the Rue de Vaugirard. Oriented approximately along a north–south axis, it is located between Saint-Sulpice and Montparnasse – Bienvenue, while being very close geographically to Rennes on Line 12.

History
The station was opened on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. The station, in the Montparnasse area, is after Rue Saint-Placide, commemorating Saint Placidus. It was opened on 9 January 1910 under the name of Vaugirard, but its name was changed on 15 November 1913 to avoid confusion with the Nord-Sud Company's Vaugirard, now on Line 12.

Like most of the stations on Line 4, between October 1966 and October 1967, the platforms were extended to 90 metres in order to accommodate trains of six cars to cope with significant chronic overcrowding as well as the pneumatization of the said line. As part of the RATP Renouveau du métro program, the station corridors and platform lighting were renovated on 24 May 2005.

From 2017, the platforms were undergoing a partial modernisation as part of the automation of Line 4, including their elevation to accommodate platform screen doors, which were installed from August to September 2019.

Access
The station has a main entrance as well as a secondary exit:
 * Entrance 1: Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs, consisting of a fixed staircase decorated with a Val d'Osne candelabra, located at the right of number 127 of the Rue de Rennes, at the corner with Rue Notre-Dame-des-Champs;
 * Entrance 2: Rue de Rennes, consisting of an escalator allowing only an exit from the platform in the direction of Mairie de Montrouge, leading to front of number 120 of the Rue de Rennes.

Platforms
Saint-Placide is a standard configuration station. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the arch is elliptical.

Bus connections
The station is served by lines 39, 89, 94, 95 and 96 of the RATP Bus Network as well as, at night, by lines N01, N02, N12 and N13 of the Noctilien network.

Nearby

 * Rue de Rennes: the station serves the southern part of this shopping street in the 6th arrondissement.
 * Institut Catholique de Paris: the station is relatively close to the establishment, located at 21 Rue d'Assas.

title: Saint-Placide station


text:
Delaware Bay

Delaware Bay is the estuary outlet of the Delaware River on the northeast seaboard of the United States, lying between the states of Delaware and New Jersey. It is approximately 782 sqmi in area, the bay's freshwater mixes for many miles with the saltwater of the Atlantic Ocean.

The bay is bordered inland by the states of Delaware and New Jersey, and the Delaware Capes, Cape Henlopen and Cape May, on the Atlantic. Delaware Bay is bordered by six counties: Sussex, Kent, and New Castle in Delaware, along with Cape May, Cumberland, and Salem in New Jersey. The Cape May–Lewes Ferry crosses Delaware Bay from Cape May, New Jersey, to Lewes, Delaware. The bay's ports are managed by the Delaware River and Bay Authority.

The shores of the bay are largely composed of salt marshes and mudflats, with only small communities inhabiting the shore of the lower bay. Several of the rivers hold protected status for their salt marsh wetlands bordering the bay, which serves as a breeding ground for many aquatic species, including horseshoe crabs. The bay is also a prime oystering ground.

Delaware Bay was designated a Ramsar Wetland of International Importance on May 20, 1992. It was the first site classified in the Western Hemisphere Shorebird Reserve Network.

Hydrology
While the Delaware River is by far the largest tributary of Delaware Bay, numerous smaller rivers and streams also drain to the bay. These include the Appoquinimink River, Leipsic River, Smyrna River, St. Jones River, Mispillion River, Broadkill River and Murderkill Rivers on the Delaware side, and the Salem River, Cohansey River, and Maurice Rivers on the New Jersey side.

Ecology
Delaware Bay ecosystem is a key stopover site for over 30 species of migrating shorebirds that migrate north come May. Many birds like red knots use this Bay area to fuel up their energy reserves on horseshoe crab eggs after the long journey. Delaware Bay hosts the largest population of horseshoe crabs in the world.

History
At the time of the arrival of the Europeans in the early 17th century, the area around the bay was inhabited by the Native American Lenape people. They called the Delaware River "Lenape Wihittuck", which means "the rapid stream of the Lenape". Delaware Bay was called "Poutaxat", which means "near the falls".

In 1523, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón had received from Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor a grant for the land explored in 1521 by Francisco Gordillo and slave trader Captain Pedro de Quejo (de Quexo). Ayllón sent Quejo northward in 1525 and received reports of the coastline from as far north as Delaware Bay. That same year, De Ayllon and Captain Quejo called Delaware Bay by the name "Saint Christopher's Bay". In the 1600s, the bay was known as "Niew Port May" after Captain Cornelius May.

Another recorded European visit to the bay was by Henry Hudson, who claimed it for the Dutch East India Company in 1609. The Dutch called the estuary "Godyns Bay", or "Godins Bay" after a director of the company, Samuel Godijn. As part of the New Netherland colony, the Dutch established several settlements (the most famous being Zwaanendael) on the shores of the bay and explored its coast extensively. The thin nature of the corporate colony's presence in the bay and along what was called the South River (now the Delaware) made it possible for Peter Minuit, the former director of New Netherland, to establish a competing Swedish sponsored settlement, New Sweden in 1638. The resulting dispute with the Dutch colonial authorities in New Amsterdam (New York City) was settled when Petrus Stuyvesant led a Dutch military force into the area in 1655. After the English took title to the New Netherland colony in 1667 at the Treaty of Breda the bay came into their possession and was renamed Delaware Bay, the name given it in 1610 by Samuel Argall, after the then new Governor of Virginia, Thomas West, 3rd Baron De La Warr. The Native American tribe living along the bay and river were later called the Delaware by the Europeans due to their location. The U.S. state also takes its name from the bay and the river.

Conflicting crown grants were made to the James, Duke of York and William Penn on the west bank of the bay and river. Settlement grew rapidly, leading Philadelphia, upriver on the Delaware, to become the largest city in North America in the 18th century. Penn viewed access to Delaware Bay as being so critical to Pennsylvania's survival that he engaged in an eighty-year long legal boundary dispute with the Calvert family to secure it. During the French and Indian War the dissemination of Joshua Fisher's original publication of the "Chart of Delaware Bay" was restricted by the authorities as its accuracy might advantage an enemy approach. In 1782 during the American Revolutionary War, Continental Navy Lieutenant Joshua Barney fought with a British squadron within the bay. Barney's force of three sloops defeated a Royal Navy frigate, a sloop-of-war and a Loyalist privateer.

The strategic importance of the bay was noticed by the Marquis de Lafayette during the American Revolutionary War, who proposed the use of Pea Patch Island at the head of the bay for a defensive fortification to protect the important ports Philadelphia and New Castle, Delaware. Fort Delaware was later constructed on Pea Patch Island. During the American Civil War it was used as a Union prison camp.

In 1855, the United States government systematically undertook the formation of a 26 ft channel 600 ft wide from Philadelphia to deep water in Delaware Bay. The Rivers and Harbors Act of 1899 provided for a 30 ft channel 600 ft wide from Philadelphia to the deep water of the bay. Other names for the bay have been "South Bay" and "Zuyt Baye".

Today
The bay is one of the most important navigational channels in the United States; it is the second busiest waterway after the Mississippi River. Its lower course forms part of the Intracoastal Waterway. The need for direct navigation around the two capes into the ocean is circumvented by the Cape May Canal and the Lewes and Rehoboth Canal at the north and south capes respectively. The upper bay is connected directly to the north end of Chesapeake Bay by the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal.

The U.S Coast Guard sector for Delaware Bay was established in 2005, and has 570 active personnel, and 195 reservists.

title: Delaware Bay


text:
User:Venugopal

I'm a 26 year old. I finished my B.E.(Mechanical) from U.V.C.E Bangalore. Later I was more interested in Computers and I chose Java as my favourite technology, and I'm continuing to work in J2EE for the past 3 years.

My future plans are to get into the software design field and to do MS/MBA from BITS Pilani. I'm also interested to learn Management skills.

Other then Computers I very much interested in Cricket, listening to music and helping out my father and brother in business during my free time.

title: User:Venugopal


text:
Tabular Islamic calendar

The Tabular Islamic calendar (التقويم الهجري المجدول) is a rule-based variation of the Islamic calendar. It has the same numbering of years and months, but the months are determined by arithmetical rules rather than by observation or astronomical calculations. It was developed by early Muslim astronomers of the second hijra century (the 8th century of the Common Era) to provide a predictable time base for calculating the positions of the moon, sun, and planets. It is now used by historians to convert an Islamic date into a Western calendar when no other information (like the day of the week) is available. Its calendar era is the Hijri year. An example is the Fatimid or Misri calendar.

It is used by some Muslims in everyday life, particularly in Ismaili and Shi'a communities, believing that this calendar was developed by Ali. It is believed that when Ali drew up this calendar, the previous events of the earlier prophets also fell into line with this calendar. It is their belief that all Fatimid Imams and their Da'is have followed this tradition.

Each year has 12 months. The odd numbered months have 30 days and the even numbered months have 29 days, except in a leap year when the 12th and final month Dhu al-Hijjah has 30 days.

30-year cycle
In its most common form there are 11 leap years in a 30-year cycle. Noting that the average year has 354 11/30 days and a common year has 354 days, at the end of the first year of the 30-year cycle the remainder is 11/30 day. Whenever the remainder exceeds a half day (15/30 day), then a leap day is added to that year, reducing the remainder by one day. Thus at the end of the second year the remainder would be 22/30 day which is reduced to −8/30 day by a leap day. Using this rule the leap years are year number 2, 5, 7, 10, 13, 16, 18, 21, 24, 26 and 29 of the 30-year cycle.

If leap days are added whenever the remainder equals or exceeds a half day, then all leap years are the same except 15 replaces 16 as the sixth long year per cycle.

The Ismaili Tayyebi community delays three leap days by one year: the third to year 8, the seventh to year 19 and the tenth to year 27 in their 30-year cycle. There is another version where, in addition, the fourth leap day is postponed to year 11 and the last leap day is in the last year of the 30-year cycle.

The mean number of days per month in the 30-year cycle is 29.5305555 days, or 29d 12h 44m. Six months of 29 days and six with 30 days, plus 11 days of the leap years. (29 days * 6 months + 30 days * 6 months)*30 years + 11 leap days = 10,631 days and 10,631 / 360 = 29.530555.. (360 is number of months in 30 years). And this is approximately how long it takes for the moon to make full lunar cycle.

Microsoft's Kuwaiti algorithm is used in Windows to convert between Gregorian calendar dates and Islamic calendar dates. There is no fixed correspondence defined in advance between the algorithmic Gregorian solar calendar and the Islamic lunar calendar determined by actual observation. As an attempt to make conversions between the calendars somewhat predictable, Microsoft claims to have created this algorithm based on statistical analysis of historical data from Kuwait. According to Rob van Gent, the so-called "Kuwaiti algorithm" is simply an implementation of the standard Tabular Islamic calendar algorithm used in Islamic astronomical tables since the 11th century.

8-year cycle
Tabular Islamic calendars based on an 8-year cycle (with 2, 5 and 8 as leap years) were also used in the Ottoman Empire and in South-East Asia. The cycle contains 96 months in 2835 days, giving a mean month length of 29.53125 days, or 29d 12h 45m.

Though less accurate than the tabular calendars based on a 30-year cycle, it was popular due to the fact that in each cycle the weekdays fall on the same calendar date. In other words, the 8-year cycle is exactly 405 weeks long, resulting in a mean of exactly 4.21875 weeks per month.

120-year cycle
In the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) into the early 20th century, the 8-year cycle was reset every 120 years by omitting the intercalary day at the end of the last year, thus resulting in a mean month length equal with that used in the 30-year cycles.

Literature

 * Marcus Gossler, "Basisformeln zur programmierten Umrechnung einiger astronomischer Kalendertypen", Astronomische Nachrichten, 301 (1980), 191–194 online link.
 * D.A. Hatcher, "Generalized Equations for Julian Day Numbers and Calendar Dates", Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society, 26 (1985), 151–155 online link.
 * Denis Savoie, "Calcul des concordances entre calendrier musulman et calendrier grégorien ou julien", Observations et Travaux (Société astronomique de France), 26 (1991), 12–19 online link.
 * LeRoy E. Doggett, "Calendars", in: P. Kenneth Seidelmann (ed.), Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac: A Revision to the Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac (Mill Valley [CA]: University Science Books, 1992), pp. 575–608 (cf. sections 12.4 & 12.93 for the Islamic calendar) online link.
 * Jean Meeus, "Jewish and Moslem Calendars", in: Astronomical Algorithms: Second Edition (Richmond: Willmann-Bell, 1998), chapter 9.
 * Edward G. Richards, "Calendars", in: S.E. Urban & P. Kenneth Seidelmann (eds.), Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac: Third Edition (Mill Valley [CA]: University Science Books, 2013), pp. 585–624 (cf. sections 15.6 & 15.11 for the Islamic calendar).
 * Edward M. Reingold & Nachum Dershowitz, Calendrical Calculations: The Ultimate Edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018), chapters 7 & 18.3.

title: Tabular Islamic calendar


text:
Montparnasse–Bienvenüe station

Montparnasse–Bienvenüe station is a station of the Paris Métro which is a transfer point between Line 4, Line 6, Line 12 and Line 13. The fourth busiest station on the Métro system as of 2019 with 29.9 million riders, it is located in Montparnasse at the intersection of the 6th, 14th and 15th arrondissements.

Location
The stations of Lines 4 and 12 are located to the north under the Boulevard du Montparnasse while those of Lines 6 and 13 are south under Boulevard de Vaugirard and Avenue du Maine respectively.

History
On 24 April 1906 the station opened as Montparnasse station on the Avenue du Maine at the southern end of the old Gare Montparnasse (at the site currently occupied by the Tour Montparnasse, before the station was moved south of the Avenue du Maine in the 1960s) with the opening of the extension of Line 2 South from Passy to Place d'Italie. On 14 October 1907 Line 2 South became part of Line 5. On 11 March 1910 the Montparnasse station was renamed Avenue du Maine and on 30 June 1933 it was again renamed, to Bienvenüe in honour of the principal engineer of the Paris Métro, Fulgence Bienvenüe (accounting for the unusual diaeresis in the station's name). On 12 October 1942 the section of Line 5 between Étoile and Place d'Italie, including Bienvenüe, was transferred from Line 5 to Line 6 in order to separate the underground and elevated sections of the Métro (because the latter were more vulnerable to air attack during World War II).

The Line 4 platforms opened as Montparnasse in the Boulevard du Montparnasse, near the main entrance of the old Gare Montparnasse (on its northern side) on 9 January 1910 as part of the connecting section of the line under the Seine between Châtelet and Raspail. The Line 12 platforms were opened in the Boulevard du Montparnasse on 5 November 1910 as part of the first section of the Nord-Sud Company's Line C from Porte de Versailles to Notre-Dame-de-Lorette. This line was taken over by the Compagnie du chemin de fer métropolitain de Paris and was renamed Line 12 on 27 March 1931. In 1913 a connection was opened between the platforms of Lines 4 and Line 12 situated on the Boulevard du Montparnasse, both called Montparnasse.

The Line 13 platforms opened in the Avenue du Maine as Bienvenüe on 21 January 1937 as part of the original Line 14 between there and Porte de Vanves, and were connected to the Line 5 platforms. This line became part of Line 13 on 9 November 1976.

Connecting the southern and northern stations
At the end of the 1930s, a long corridor was built to connect the Montparnasse and Bienvenüe stations. Accordingly, the stations' names were fused to create Montparnasse-Bienvenüe on 6 October 1942. This long corridor is now equipped with moving walkways to facilitate access between the two parts of the station. The old Bienvenüe station serves lines 6 and 13, while the old Montparnasse station serves lines 4 and 12.

In 2002, in an experimental move, the RATP installed a moving walkway that moved at 12 km/h, which was then termed the "fastest in the world." (The speed has however since been reduced to 9 km/h). The first several metres consist of metal rollers that accelerate passengers as they hold onto the handrail, because it would be dangerous to step directly onto the fast-moving conveyor. However, RATP announced in May 2009 that they would replace the walkway with an ordinary one in March 2011 in response to 'numerous customer complaints concerning safety and unreliability'.

Barrière du Maine
The southern part of the station in the Avenue du Maine was the location of the Barrière du Maine, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished in the nineteenth century.

Access
The station has seven entrances:
 * Entrance 1: Porte Océane: direct access to the SNCF station, stairs and escalators;
 * Entrance 2: Place Bienvenüe: a staircase at 32 Avenue du Maine;
 * Entrance 4: Tour Montparnasse: a staircase at Place Raoul-Dautry (between the tower and the train station);
 * Entrance 5: Boulevard du Montparnasse: two staircases at 71 and 73 Boulevard du Montparnasse;
 * Entrance 6: Rue d'Odessa: a staircase and escalator at 1 Rue du Départ;
 * Entrance 7: Rue du Départ: direct access to the basement of the shopping center;
 * Entrance 8: Rue de Rennes: a staircase at 59 bis, Boulevard du Montparnasse.

Platforms
The platforms of Line 6 are decorated in the Mouton style with orange tiles and orange luminous lighting strips. Those of Line 12 are in the Ouï-dire style with green lighting strips and Motte seats, white flat tiles, and white cylindrical advertising frames. The platforms of Line 13 are built in the Andreu-Motte style with green lightning strips and green tiled benches, tunnel exits and corridor openings. Green Motte seats are married with the original CMP decoration (white bevelled tiled walls, the name in faience and honey colour advertising frames). These platforms are equipped with platform screen doors.

Bus connections
The station is served:
 * on or near the 18-June-1940 square: by Lines 28, 39, 58, 82, 89, 91, 92, 94, 95 and 96 of the RATP Bus Network, as well as by the OpenTour tourist line and, at night, by lines N01, N02, N12 and N13 of the Noctilien bus network;
 * near the Montparnasse station: by Lines 28, 39, 58, 59, 91, 92, 94, 95 and 96 of the RATP Bus Network as well as by Lines 1 and 4 of the Bus Direct bus network and, at night by lines N01, N02, N12, N13, N61, N62, N63, N66 and N145 of the Noctilien bus network.

Nearby
Nearby are the Montparnasse district, the Tour Montparnasse office tower, the Musée Bourdelle (art museum), the Montparnasse Cemetery, the Musée de La Poste (postal museum) and the Jardin Atlantique (a rooftop garden on the roof of the Gare Montparnasse rail terminal).

title: Montparnasse–Bienvenüe station


text:
Diving shot

A diving shot line, shot line, or diving shot, a type of downline or descending line (US Navy), is an item of diving equipment consisting of a ballast weight (the shot), a line and a buoy. The weight is dropped on the dive site. The line connects the weight and the buoy and is used by divers to as a visual and tactile reference to move between the surface and the dive site more safely and more easily, and as a controlled position for in-water staged decompression stops. It may also be used to physically control rate of descent and ascent, particularly by surface-supplied divers.

A "lazy shot" is a shot which is suspended above the bottom. It may be tethered to the main shot line at a convenient depth. It is used for decompression and frees the main shot line for other divers. The lazy shot's line does not need to be longer than the decompression depth and is often only deep enough for the longer stops. It only needs a weight heavy enough to provide diver buoyancy control and sufficient buoyancy to avoid being dragged down under reasonably foreseeable circumstances.

Purposes
The shot has several purposes. The basic purpose to facilitate control of descent and ascent rate by the diver, and to control the location of the diver during descent and ascent. The line is useful for divers in conditions of low visibility or strong tides where underwater navigation between the surface and the dive site is difficult or on deep dives where a navigation error would dramatically reduce useful underwater time. Divers can use the line to help buoyancy control, to ease long decompression stops and to prevent drift when ascending in a current.

The buoy marks the dive site for the people on the surface, who are generally on the dive boat, who provide safety cover for the divers. This helps them focus on the place where the divers are likely to return to the surface and helps them return to the dive site more quickly after the boat has moved away from the site.

Configuration
Several configurations are in general use, depending on the conditions.

Basic shotline
The basic shotline has a line fixed to the weight and the float, and does not compensate for depth changes. This is adequate in many circumstances, and has the advantage of simplicity. If there is any current or wind, the buoy will drift until tension in the line prevents further movement. Large waves will cause the buoy and the top end of the line to bob up and down, jerking on the line.

Bottom tensioned shotline
A bottom tensioned shotline controls the tension of the line in one of two ways:
 * A length of fairly heavy chain may be used between the bottom of the line and the shot. This chain should be long enough to take up any depth variations due to tides or waves. The weight of the chain pulls down on the shotline whenever part of the chain is off the bottom, maintaining some tension, but the tension varies depending on the amount of chain lifted. The length of line must be adjusted so that some chain is always suspended, but never all.
 * The other method is to run the line through a loop on the weight and attach it to a small float which will pull up on the line to maintain tension. the float must either be sufficiently rigid to withstand the pressure, or an open bag inflated at the bottom by a diver. When this method is used a heavier shot is generally necessary, as the lift from the buoyancy of the float is doubled by the mechanical advantage of passing the line through the loop.

Top tensioned shotline
Top tensioning is achieved by running the line through a loop on the buoy and hanging a small weight on the end. This weight will hang down and double its weight will pull on the float due to the mechanical advantage of the system. This is not usually a major problem, as it is relatively easy to get a buoy of adequate volume.

The top tensioning system also prevents the line from being pulled up and down by wave action, but instead there is a tensioning weight going up and down twice as much as the buoy, which can be hazardous when the divers are in the depth range of its motion.

Lazy shot
A lazy shot is a shotline that does not reach the bottom. The weight hangs suspended from the surface and the line is used to provide a decompression station. A lazy shot may be hung from a buoy, a boat or a structure as circumstances warrant. Though it is not an essential part of the lazy shot, it is often used with a full depth shotline, or when the anchor rope is used as a substitute for a shotline, as it provides a more stable vertical reference than the anchor line, which tends to shift considerably as the boat moves under the influence of wind and wave. When used with the full shotline, the lazy shot provides a place away from the bubbles of other divers where the divers can decompress, and keeps them clear of the shotline if it is used by other divers. The lazy shot may be tethered to the main shotline and unclipped to drift after the last diver has reached it.

Decompression trapeze
A decompression trapeze is a horizontal bar or series of horizontal bars supported at the appropriate decompression stop depths, and provides controlled place for a group of divers to decompress in the water in relative comfort and in less crowded conditions than on a shotline.Construction is basically two lines suspended from the surface, by buoys, a boat, or a structure. The transverse bars are connected to the lines at the depths appropriate to the planned decompression stops, though usually a trapeze is not used for stops of only a few minutes, so several stops may be completed before the diver reaches the trapeze. Spreading the divers out across the current allows them to hold on without getting in each other's way, and lets the bubbles go past without obstructing the other divers' view or disturbing their buoyancy.The bars must either be inherently negatively buoyant or ballasted so that the hang below the surface at the correct depth, and it is common to provide enough weight to compensate for minor irregularities in diver buoyancy control. The decompression trapeze is generally associated with a shotline, and if it is not close-coupled to the shotline, by using the shotline as one of the suspension lines, there will be a line from the shotline to the lowest bar of the trapeze, which will be either horizontal, or slope upwards toward the trapeze, so the divers can follow it without ascending above their decompression ceiling.

When a decompression bar is used in a strong current, it may be convenient for the last diver to unclip it from the shotline, so it drifts at the speed of the current, and the drag on the divers is eliminated. The chase boat would accompany the drifting trapeze which would be clearly identified by the supporting buoys.

Some dive teams will hang a spare cylinder of decompression gas on the trapeze, where it will be on hand in case of an emergency. This would normally be pressurised but with a closed valve, so that current pressure on the demand valve will not cause a free flow. More than one second stage can be fitted to allow more than one diver to use it at the same time.

Spar buoy
A high volume buoy with a large waterplane area such as a sphere or short cylinder will try to follow the wave profile, this will produce a cyclic jerking load near the surface, making it difficult to maintain a consistent depth at the stops. A spar buoy with a small waterplane area will dip into the water as each wave crest passes, with a far lower variation of tension on the shotline, so divers holding on will be more comfortable. If the spar buoy has insufficient volume for safety, a larger volume buoy can linked to it on a short tether as a backup.

Construction
Typically the weight is lead or iron, and weighs around 20 kg (44 lb). To prevent the assembly sinking and being lost, the buoy should provide more buoyancy than is required to make the complete system float. For example, if a 20 kg/44 lb weight is used, the buoy must provide more than 20 kg buoyancy: it needs to be more than 20 litres/4.4 gallons in volume, as it must also support its own weight.

Some agencies and codes of practice recommend a buoy that can not be dragged underwater by the divers relying on it for depth control.

If used in a current, the shot must be prevented from being dragged away. This can be done by attaching it to a small anchor by a short line. Another method used is to tie the shot off to an object on the bottom by a thin line, which can be either released by the last diver, or broken when the shotline is recovered.

The line should be longer than the depth of the dive site at the deepest state of the tide during the dive, and at least 10 mm (0.4 inch) in diameter. A thick line is used because the shot weight is often lifted by pulling the line by hand and the pressure of a thin line can cause pain and injury to the hands when the shot is recovered.

Floating line, such as polypropylene, although cheap, can foul the propellers of boats and is an entanglement hazard to divers if it is allowed to accumulate near the surface. There are several ways of avoiding this:
 * coil the excess line after deployment, this can be done on a storage and deployment reel.
 * use a "top tensioning" arrangement: the line runs freely through a ring on the buoy and is weighted at the top end by a small weight
 * use a "bottom tensioning" arrangement: the line runs freely through a ring on the weight and is lifted at the bottom end by a small, rigid buoy.

Line which sinks will accumulate excess length at the bottom and may snag, making recovery of the shot difficult or impossible.

A large float will go up and down with the passing waves. This can be disconcerting and inconvenient for the divers if they need to hold onto it in a current, as they will to some extent go up and down with the line. This effect is minimised if a small diameter spar buoy is used as the primary buoy to tension the line, as it will tend to react less to the waves, with a large volume safety buoy on a short tether, which will prevent the spar buoy from being dragged down if the tension gets too much.

If a large float is used the divers can clip off to the shotline using a jonline, a short length of rope or webbing with a clip or loop that will hold one end to the shotline, allowing the diver to hold the other end at a short distance downstream. Vertical movements of the clipped end are absorbed by the horizontal length of the jonline.

Using shots
The shot is deployed, generally from a boat, after the dive site is located using position fixing such as GPS and an echo sounder.

Shots are more difficult to use in strong currents. The weight may drag along the seabed especially if the divers pull on the line as they descend. To avoid this the shot is often positioned upstream of an obstruction at the dive site so the obstruction prevents it dragging. A further problem is caused by diving at slack water; the direction of the current reverses during slack, so although the weight may be securely up current of the obstruction before slack, after the tide turns the weight is down current of the obstruction and may drag.

At the surface, the direction of the current is indicated by three signs at the buoy: the direction of the line to the weight, a "horseshoe" bow-wave on the front of the buoy and a wake at the back of the buoy.

Sometimes, two buoys are used at the surface. The second buoy can further indicate the strength and the direction of the current or be misleading because it may indicate the direction of the wind. A second buoy can be used to provide additional buoyancy if one buoy is dragged underwater.

Sometimes the line, once at the dive site on the seabed, is tied to the dive site to guard against the weight dragging away from the site. The line itself may be tied to the dive site or a thin "waster" line may attach the strong line to the dive site. If a waster is used, the boat at the surface can be used to break the waster at the end of diving before the shot is lifted. If the main line is attached to the dive site, the divers must untie it before ascending at the end of diving otherwise they lose their shot.

In a current, the buoy may be dragged under the surface by water resistance of the divers holding the line as they ascend and reach shallow water. If this happens divers will not want to descend with the buoy and will prefer to release the shot line and be swept away from the shot. In strong currents divers often decompress on decompression buoys instead of using a shot.

Sometimes, a lifting bag is attached to the weight and used to help raise the weight at the end of the dive.

title: Diving shot


text:
Family tree of Danish monarchs

The Danish royal family traces its descent from the 10th century to the present monarch, King Frederik X.

House of Estridsen
Note: This chart also includes the kings from the Houses of Bjelbo (Olaf II); Pomerania (Eric VII) and Palatinate-Neumarkt (Christopher III) + the son of Hakon Sunnivasson (Eric III)

title: Family tree of Danish monarchs


text:
Cape Henlopen

Cape Henlopen is the southern cape of the Delaware Bay along the Atlantic coast of the United States. It lies in the state of Delaware, near the town of Lewes, where the Delaware Bay meets the Atlantic Ocean. Off the coast on the bay side are two lighthouses, called the Harbor of Refuge Light and the Delaware Breakwater East End Light.

Early history
Cape Henlopen, originally spelled Cape Hinlopen (after its namesake Thijmen Jacobsz Hinlopen who was a prominent Dutch trader), was New Netherland's southernmost border on the 37th parallel north.

In 1620, Thijmen Jacobsz Hinlopen became the business partner of Cornelis Jacobsen Mey in the now washed out Cape Cornelius and the incorrectly spelled Cape May with the ships Blijde Boodschap (English: "Good News") and Bever both of which focused on exploration and trade with the Indians on the Delaware River (then Zuidt Rivier).

The area between the 38th and 40th parallels (i.e., the Delaware Bay area) as well as the Delaware River from north to south had previously been surveyed and charted by Cornelis Hendricksz from Monnikendam on the ship "Onrust" in 1614, 1615 and 1616. From August until November 1616, the New Netherland Company, which had an exclusive trading patent for the New Netherland territory between 40° and 45° latitude, had tried unsuccessfully to obtain an exclusive patent from the States General of the Dutch Republic for the territory between 38° and 40° latitude.

Cornelis Jacobsz Mey was also unable to trade in the South River (Delaware River) at the exclusion of competing Dutch companies. Those Dutch companies came in conflict with one another but were eventually able to reach agreement in New Netherland. Discord arose again which was settled, finally, by a judgment of arbitrators at Amsterdam on December 23, 1623. The 38th and 39th parallels region came under the final jurisdiction of the Dutch West India Company on behalf of the States General with the delivery of the first settlers to Governors Island in New Netherland in 1624. Those settlers were subsequently spread out onto Verhulsten Island (Burlington Island) in the Delaware, at Fort Orange (now Albany) in the Hudson River and at the mouth of the Connecticut River in order to finalize the claim to New Netherland as a North American province according to the Hugo Grotius Law of Nations (? year).

In 1782 during the American Revolutionary War, the young Continental Navy Lieutenant Joshua Barney fought with a British squadron at Cape May and Delaware Bay. Barney's force of three sloops defeated a Royal Navy frigate, a sloop-of-war and a Loyalist privateer. The battle ended with the loss of two British vessels and one American sloop.

State Park
Cape Henlopen State Park is a 5,193 acre (21 km2) Delaware state park on Cape Henlopen. William Penn made the beaches of Cape Henlopen one of the first public lands established in what has become the United States in 1682 with the declaration that Cape Henlopen would be for "the usage of the citizens of Lewes and Sussex County." Cape Henlopen State Park has a 24-hour and year-round fishing pier as well as campgrounds. The remainder of the park is only open from sunrise to sunset, and includes a bathhouse on the Atlantic Ocean, an area for surf-fishing, a disc golf course, and bicycle lanes, walking paths, and a World War II-era watchtower which is open to the public. The beach at Herring Point is also a popular surfing spot.

Camp Henlopen serves as the Eastern terminus for the American Discovery Trail, the only coast to coast hiking trail in the United States.

Timeline of Cape Henlopen

 * 1682 William Penn designates the area as public land.
 * 1767-9 Construction of the Cape Henlopen Lighthouse completed at the Great Dune – the sixth lighthouse on American soil. This construction was funded by the merchants of Philadelphia.
 * 1777 the Cape Henlopen Lighthouse was gutted by fire.
 * 1784 the Cape Henlopen Lighthouse was repaired and returned to active duty.
 * 1789 Pennsylvania cedes the lighthouse, associated land, and jurisdiction to the United States.
 * 1824 The Cape Henlopen Beacon was constructed on a 45-foot (14 m) tower about a mile (1.6 km) north of the Cape Henlopen Lighthouse.
 * 1855 Construction of the Delaware Breakwater East End Lighthouse completed.
 * 1869 Construction of the Delaware Breakwater West End Lighthouse and stone breakwater barrier completed.
 * 1885 The steel Strickland Lighthouse replaces the lighthouse on the inner breakwater.
 * 1901 Construction of the 8,000 foot (2.4 km) long outer stone breakwater barrier completed.
 * 1903 The Strickland Lighthouse is retired from service.
 * c. 1915 to 1920 Radio Compass Station built
 * 1918 6-inch gun platform built (World War I era)
 * 1920 Cape Henlopen Lighthouse badly damaged by a storm.
 * 1924 Cape Henlopen Lighthouse abandoned – lens removed.
 * 1926 (April 13) Cape Henlopen Lighthouse collapsed due to movement of Great Dune.
 * 1941 U.S. Army established Fort Miles at Cape Henlopen.
 * 1950 The Delaware Breakwater Lighthouse demolished and the East End Lighthouse was automated.
 * 1964 The U.S. Department of Defense declared 543 acre as surplus property and the State of Delaware established Cape Henlopen State Park.
 * 1966 The USS Buncombe County (LST-510) was renamed MV Cape Henlopen and converted to a passenger and auto ferry.
 * 1978 The Fenwick Lighthouse is decommissioned.
 * Gordon's Pond Wildlife Area established.
 * 1982 The State of Delaware assumed ownership of the Fenwick lighthouse and it was electrified and returned to operation.
 * 1997 The State of Delaware purchased the East End lighthouse and placed it on the National Register of Historic Places.
 * 2007 The two 300 ft groins of Herring Point originally built in 1950 are cleaned up and rebuilt.

National Harbor of Refuge, outer breakwater off Cape Henlopen. All metal, built in 1926 and automated in 1973. Maintained by US Coast Guard. Visible from Cape May-Lewes Ferry.

title: Cape Henlopen


text:
Sweden–Finland

Sweden–Finland (Ruotsi-Suomi; Sverige-Finland) is a Finnish historiographical term referring to Sweden from the twelfth century to the Napoleonic Wars. In 1809, the realm was split after the Finnish War. The eastern half came to constitute the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland, in personal union with Imperial Russia.

The term was coined by Finnish historians during the 1920s, but since then there has been an effort to drop it from professional historiography due to its perceived inaccuracy. However, it is often still used in everyday Finnish speech.

Although the term has didactic merits, for instance when used in conjunction with the term Denmark–Norway, it is misleading because Finland was an integrated part of the realm since the twelfth century, whereas Denmark and Norway were two sovereign kingdoms, which were united by personal union in 1380, but remained separate states until the sixteenth century.

The eastern and western regions of the realm became united mainly due to trade and settlements via Åland. A common misconception is that Finland was conquered by Sweden as a result of crusades. Crusades probably occurred, but had no decisive significance.

Until 1809 Finland was considered one of four Swedish lands. However, it was different from Götaland and Svealand, but not all of Norrland, in that Swedish was not the majority language in this part of the kingdom, except for areas along the coastline and amongst the nobility and the urban upper classes.

During the time of the Swedish Empire Sweden–Finland was identical to Sweden proper; other overseas possessions constituted the dominions of Sweden. However, a conceptual distinction was sometimes made between Sweden and Finland already before 1809: for example, in certain sixteenth century documents, Gustav Vasa occasionally uses the phrases the cities of Sweden and Finland and the cities of Finland and the cities of Sweden, thus implying that the two entities are not identical. In this context, however, "Finland" usually referred to the provinces of Finland Proper and Satakunta, not to Tavastia or Karelia.

title: Sweden–Finland


text:
Talk:Bre-X Minerals

Needs to be consolidated with Bre-X. Information should be compiled together and one made a redirect to the other. I'd do it but I'm not an expert in this field... Alex.tan 11:00, 4 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Redirecting Bre-X Minerals to Bre-X. The simple name "Bre-X" is better known, and the additional "Minerals" is not really an "essential" part of the name... for example, the full name of Coca-Cola is "The Coca-Cola Company", but the "Company" part is not really an essential part of the name, and the wikipedia article is Coca-Cola.

title: Talk:Bre-X Minerals


text:
Talk:Kamisese Mara

Untitled
I have incorporated a table, consistent with that used for the biographies of United States Presidents; I intend to do the same eventually for all of Fiji's political leaders. I have been reading his autobiography, and have accordingly corrected some of the errors I made earlier, as follows.
 * Date of Birth: His birth certificate says 13 May, 1920 - which is the death I earlier used. His autobiography, however, gives the date as 6 May - which he explains by saying that his family forgot to register the birth immediately, and entered the wrong date on the certificate.
 * Religion: I earlier described him as a Methodist. That is incorrect.  Mara states in his autobiography that he converted to Catholicism in his student days.  I have fixed the article accordingly.

 * What about the box at the bottom leaders have (e.g., Benjamin Harrison)? --♥ «Charles A. L.» 17:14, Apr 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * I didn't know about that box when I wrote the main body of the story. I'll get around to it sometime - I'll have to add it not only to Mara's page, but to that of every Fijian leader; I'll make time for it as soon as I can.  Thank you for pointing out the omission. David Cannon 19:43, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Rhodes Scholar?
The article said that he was a Rhodes Scholar. However I haven't been able to find any other source that confirms this. Although he did go to Oxford University I don't think it was as a Rhodes Scholar. Fiji does not seem to be awarded Rhodes Scholarships, so if he did receive one then it must have been from another country. He did study at an NZ university but he does not appear on the list of NZ Rhodes scholars. So I have removed the claim from the article. -- Popsracer 06:42, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Here is a source : XTRAMSN News Admittedly, there are inaccuracies in the story.  I know their claim that Mara was the first Fijian Oxford graduate to be incorrect: Ratu Sir Lala Sukuna was.  I realize that if one part of their information is wrong, something else may be too.  But yes, this is a source.  David Cannon 12:49, 19 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * The link doesn't seem to work any more. However I have seen other articles that say he was a Rhodes Scholar.  But also quite a few that make no mention of being a Rhodes Scholar. Such as Daily Telegraph (UK) it goes into detail about what he did at Oxford including sports he played Oxford, but it doesn't mention anything about being a Rhodes Scholar.  Also under the rules of the Scholarship he would have first had to graduate from a university before going to Oxford.  Which he does not seem to have done.  I think it is very unlikely that he received a Rhodes Scholarship. -- Popsracer 10:48, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Thank you. Also, I note that his autobiography (which I have recently read) makes no mention of his Rhodes Scholarship.  He goes into a great deal of detail about his university studies, both in New Zealand and at Oxford - but says absolutely nothing about any Rhodes Scholarship.  He mentioned everything else, so I think it unlikely that he would have omitted that detail if it were true.  Therefore, I concur with your opinion that it is probably a fiction.  By the way, thank you for your kind words on my talk page:-) And thanks for that Daily Telegraph link.  I think I'll put it in the article under "external links".  David Cannon 11:09, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

POV removed
I have deleted the word "sadly," which was added to the following sentence by an anonymous contributor: He sadly died in Suva on 18 April 2004, from complications arising from his 2001 stroke. Expression of personal feelings about the man is POV. I'll be upfront and say that I personally agree with this POV - Ratu Mara is and will always be a great hero of mine - that's why I wrote this article in the first place. But Wikipedia policy requires, rightly in my opinion, all articles to be written from a  neutral point of view. Therefore, even though I agree with the POV expressed by our anonymous user, I cannot allow it to remain. I'm sorry - and if you're reading this, by the way, I would like to welcome you to Wikipedia and invite you to take part in building this valuable internet resource. David Cannon 02:41, 20 Apr 2004 (UTC)

External links modified
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challenges faces as a local leader 45.117.246.230 (talk) 08:20, 26 April 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kamisese Mara