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September Massacres

The September Massacres were a series of killings and summary executions of prisoners in Paris that occurred in 1792, from Sunday, 2 September until Thursday, 6 September, during the French Revolution. Between 1,176 and 1,614 people were killed by sans-culottes, fédérés, and guardsmen, with the support of gendarmes responsible for guarding the tribunals and prisons, the Cordeliers, the Committee of Surveillance of the Commune, and the revolutionary sections of Paris.

With Prussian and royalist armies advancing on Paris, and widespread fear that prisoners in the city would be freed to join them, on 1 September the Legislative Assembly called for volunteers to gather the next day on the Champs de Mars. On 2 September, around 1:00 pm, Minister of Justice Georges Danton delivered a speech in the assembly, stating: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death. The bell we are about to ring... sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." The massacres began around 2:30 PM in the middle of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, and within the first 20 hours more than 1,000 prisoners were killed.

The next morning, the surveillance committees of the commune published a circular that called on provincial patriots to defend Paris by eliminating counter-revolutionaries, and the secretary, Jean-Lambert Tallien, called on other cities to follow suit. The massacres were repeated in a few other French cities; in total 65–75 incidents were reported.

The exact number of victims is not known, as over 440 people had uncertain fates, including from 22 to 200 Swiss soldiers. The identity of the perpetrators, called "septembriseurs", is poorly documented, but a large number were Parisian national guards and provincial federates who had remained in the city since their arrival in July. 72% of those killed were non-political prisoners including forgers of assignats (galley convicts), common criminals, women, and children, while 17% were Catholic priests.

The minister of the interior, Roland, accused the commune of the atrocities. Charlotte Corday held Jean-Paul Marat responsible, while Madame Roland blamed Georges Danton. Danton was also accused by later French historians Adolphe Thiers, Alphonse de Lamartine, Jules Michelet, Louis Blanc and Edgar Quinet of doing nothing to stop them. According to modern historian Georges Lefebvre, the "collective mentality is a sufficient explanation for the killing". Historian Timothy Tackett deflected specific blame from individuals, stating: "The obsession with a prison conspiracy, the desire for revenge, the fear of the advancing Prussians, the ambiguity over who was in control of a state that had always relied in the past on a centralized monarchy: all had come together in a volatile mixture of anger, fear, and uncertainty."

The Duke of Brunswick's manifesto

In April 1792 France declared war on the Habsburg monarchy, prompting the War of the First Coalition. In July, an army under the Duke of Brunswick, and composed mostly of Prussians, joined the Austrian side and invaded France. As the army advanced, Paris went into a state of hysteria, especially after the Duke issued the "Brunswick Manifesto" on 25 July. His avowed aim was "to put an end to the anarchy in the interior of France, to check the attacks upon the throne and the altar, to reestablish the legal power, to restore to the king the security and the liberty of which he is now deprived and to place him in a position to exercise once more the legitimate authority which belongs to him."

The manifesto threatened the French population with instant punishment should it resist the imperial and Prussian armies or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The manifesto was frequently described as unlawful and offensive to national sovereignty. Its authorship was frequently in doubt.

Revolutionaries like Marat and Hébert preferred to concentrate on the internal enemy. On 3 August Pétion and 47 sections demanded the deposition of the king.

The insurrection of the Paris Commune
On the evening of 9 August 1792, a Jacobin insurrection overthrew the leadership of the Paris municipality, proclaiming a new revolutionary commune headed by transitional authorities. The next day the insurrectionists stormed the Tuileries Palace. King Louis XVI was imprisoned with the royal family, and his authority as king was suspended by the Legislative Assembly. The following day the royalist press was silenced.

A provisional executive (conseil exécutif) was named and busied itself with reorganizing or solving questions concerning the police, justice, the army, navy, and paper money, but actual power now rested with the new revolutionary commune, whose strength resided in the mobilized and armed sans-culottes, the lower classes of Paris, and fédérés, armed volunteers from the provinces that had arrived at the end of July. The 48 sections of Paris were equipped with munitions from the plundered arsenals in the days before the assault, substituting for the 60 national guard battalions.

Supported by a new armed force, the commune dominated the Legislative Assembly and its decisions. The commune pushed through several measures: universal suffrage was adopted, the civilian population was armed, all remnants of noble privileges were abolished and the properties of the émigrés were sold. These events meant a change of direction from the political and constitutional perspective of the Girondists to a more social approach given by the commune as expressed by Pierre-Joseph Cambon: "To reject with more efficacy the defenders of despotism, we have to address the fortunes of the poor, we have to associate the Revolution with this multitude that possesses nothing, we have to convert the people to the cause."

Besides these measures, the commune engaged in a policy of political repression of all suspected counter-revolutionary activities. Beginning on 11 August, every Paris section named surveillance committees (committees of vigilance) for conducting searches and making arrests. It was mostly these decentralized committees, rather than the commune as a whole, which engaged in the repression of August and September 1792. Within a few days each section elected three commissioners to take seats in the insurrectionary commune; one of them was Maximilien Robespierre.

To ensure that there was some appropriate legal process for dealing with suspects accused of political crimes and treason, rather than arbitrary killing by local committees, a revolutionary tribunal, with extraordinary powers to impose the death sentence without any appeal, was installed on 17 August. Robespierre, who had proposed this measure, refused to preside over the tribunal, arguing that the same man ought not to be a denouncer, an accuser, and a judge.

Already, on 15 August, four sections called for all priests and imprisoned suspects to be put to death before the volunteers departed. Robespierre proposed to erect a pyramid on Place Vendôme to remember the victims of 10 August. On 19 August the nonjuring priests were ordered to leave the country within two weeks, which meant before 2 September 1792. In Paris, all monasteries were closed and would soon be in use as hospitals, etc. The remaining religious orders were banned by the law of 15 August. Marat left nothing in doubt when he urged "good citizens to go to the Abbaye, to seize priests, and especially the officers of the Swiss Guards and their accomplices and run a sword through them". From 15 to 25 August, around 500 detentions were registered; some were sent to Orléans. Half the detentions were of nonjuring priests, but even priests who had sworn the required oath were caught in the wave.

Prussian advance and Paris reaction
Around 26 August, news reached Paris that the Prussian army had crossed the French border and occupied Longwy without a battle. Roland proposed that the government should leave Paris, whereas Robespierre suggested in a letter to the sections of the commune that they should defend liberty and equality and maintain their posts, and die if necessary. The assembly decreed that all the non-juring priests had to leave Paris within eight days and the country within two weeks. In the evening, in the presence of 350,000 people, a funeral ceremony was held in the gardens of the Tuileries for those killed while storming the Tuileries.

On 28 August, the assembly ordered a curfew for around two days. The city gates were closed; all communication with the country was stopped. At the behest of Justice Minister Danton, thirty commissioners from the sections were ordered to search in every (suspect) house for weapons, munition, swords, carriages and horses. "They searched every drawer and every cupboard, sounded every panel, lifted every hearthstone, inquired into every correspondence in the capital. As a result of this inquisition, more than 1,000 "suspects" were added to the immense body of political prisoners already confined in the jails and convents of the city."

On 29 August, the Prussians attacked Verdun. When this news arrived it escalated panic in the capital; the situation was highly critical.

Throughout August, the Legislative Assembly, which had been greatly diminished as more than half of the deputies had fled since the storming of the Tuileries, had acquiesced to the activities of the commune and its sections. On 30 August, the Girondins Roland and Marguerite-Élie Guadet tried to suppress the influence of the commune, which they accused of exercising unlawful power. The assembly, tired of the pressures, declared the commune illegal and suggested the organization of communal elections and a doubling of the number of seats. However, the assembly canceled the decree the next day at the request of Jacques-Alexis Thuriot. The balance of power was disrupted and the conflict between the Girondins and the Montagnards would influence the progress of the French Revolution.

On 1 September the prisons were full. The citizens of Paris were told to prepare themselves for the defense of the country and gather immediately upon the sound of the tocsin. Their imminent departure from the capital provoked further concern about the crowded prisons, now full of counter-revolutionary suspects who might threaten a city deprived of so many of its defenders.

Marat called for a "new blood-letting", larger than the one on 10 August. Marat and his Committee of Surveillance of the Commune organized the massacres, first voting to round up 4,000 mostly ordinary people, "suspects" of the committee, agreed to kill them in "whole groups," voting down a Marat proposal to murder them by setting them on fire, then finally agreeing to a proposal by Billaud-Varennes to "butcher them". The bulk of the butchers were made up of "Marseilles," "hired assassins" from the prisons of Genoa and Sicily, paid twenty-four dollars, whose names were listed by "M. Granier de Cassagnac." The rest were murderers and others previously imprisoned for violent crimes released ahead of time from the prisons they would soon be returning to for the massacres.

The British ambassador reported: "A party at the instigation of someone or other declared they would not quit Paris, as long as the prisons were filled with Traitors (for they called those so, that were confined in the different Prisons and Churches), who might in the absence of such a number of Citizens rise and not only effect the release of His Majesty but make an entire counterrevolution."

On 1 September, the gates of the city closed the days before, were opened on the orders of Pétion, providing an opportunity for suspects to flee the capital. According to Louis-Marie Prudhomme people still profited from the opportunity on Sunday morning 2 September. (Verdun capitulated on 2 September gaining a clear westward path to Paris. ) The Assembly decreed arming the volunteers; a third would stay in Paris and defend the city with pikes, the others were meant for the frontier and the trenches. It further decreed that traitors who refused to participate in the defense or hand over their arms deserved death. The sections, gathered in the town hall, decided to remain in Paris; Marat proposed to have Roland and his fellow Girondist Brissot arrested. The commune ordered the gates closed and an alarm gun fired. After the tocsin was rung around 14:00, 50 or 60,000 men enrolled for the defense of the country on the Champs de Mars.

On 2 September, around 13:00, Georges Danton, a member of the provisional government, delivered a speech in the assembly: "We ask that anyone refusing to give personal service or to furnish arms shall be punished with death." "The bell we are about to ring is not an alarm signal; it sounds the charge on the enemies of our country." After the applause, he continued, "To conquer them we must dare, dare again, always dare, and France is saved." His speech acted as a call for direct action among the citizens, as well as a strike against the external enemy. Madame Roland and Hillary Mantel weren't the only ones who thought his speech was responsible for inciting the September Massacres, also Louis Mortimer−Ternaux.

Madame de Staël
Around 4 in the afternoon Madame de Staël, as ambassadress of Sweden, who lived in Rue du Bac near Champ de Mars, tried to flee through crowded streets but her carriage was stopped and the crowd forced her to go to the Paris town hall, where Robespierre presided. (However, according to Maximilien's sister Charlotte, he never presided over the insurrectionary commune. According to Louvet de Couvrai he "governed" the Paris Conseil Général of the département. ) Late in the evening, she was conveyed home, escorted by the procurator Louis Pierre Manuel. The next day the secretary-general to the Commune of Paris, Tallien, arrived with a passport and accompanied her to the barrier.

Massacres

The first massacre began in the quartier Latin around 14:30 on Sunday afternoon when 24 non-juring priests were being transported to the prison de l'Abbaye near the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, after being interrogated by Billaud-Varenne in the town hall. One of the carriages, escorted by Fédérés, was attacked after an incident. The fédérés killed three men in the middle of the street, before the procession arrived at the prison. Eighteen of the arrested were taken inside. They then mutilated the bodies, "with circumstances of barbarity too shocking to describe" according to the British diplomatic dispatch. One of their victims was the former minister of foreign affairs Armand Marc, comte de Montmorin. Roch-Ambroise Cucurron Sicard was recognized as a beneficent priest and released.

Carmes prison
In the late afternoon 115 priests in the former convent of Carmelites, detained with the message they would be deported to French Guiana, were massacred in the courtyard with axes, spikes, swords and pistols by people with a strong patois accent. They forced the priests one by one to take the oath on the Civil Constitution of the Clergy and "swear to be faithful to the nation and to maintain liberty and equality or die defending it".

Some priests hid in the choir and behind the altar. Several tried to get away by climbing in the trees and over the walls and making their escape through the Rue Cassette.

At around 1700 hours, a group of 200 "Septembriseurs" came to the house of Roland on Place Dauphine to arrest him, but, as he was at the ministry, they went there.

Prison de l'Abbaye

Between 19:00 and 20:00, the group of fédérés, etc. was back at the Abbaye prison. The Abbaye prison was located in what is now the Boulevard Saint-Germain just west of the current Passage de la Petite Boucherie. The door was closed, but the killing was resumed after an intense discussion with Manuel, the procurator, on people's justice and failing judges. Manuel and Jean Dussaulx belonged to a deputation sent by the "Conseil Général" of the commune to ask for compassion. They were insulted and escaped with their lives.

A tribunal composed of twelve people presided over by Stanislas-Marie Maillard, started the interrogation by asking the prisoner why he or she was arrested. A lie was fatal, and the prisoners were summarily judged and either freed or executed. Each prisoner was asked a handful of questions, after which the prisoner was either freed with the words "Vive la nation" and permitted to leave, or sentenced to death with the words "Conduct him to the Abbaye" or "Let him go", after which the condemned was taken to a yard and was immediately killed by a waiting mob consisting of men, women, and children.

The massacres were opposed by the staff of the prison, who allowed many prisoners to escape, one example being Pauline de Tourzel. The Prison de l'Abbaye contained a number of prisoners formerly belonging to the royal household, as well as survivors of the Swiss Guards from the royal palace. Among them were the royal governesses Marie Angélique de Mackau and Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel; the ladies-in-waiting the Princess de Tarente and the Princess de Lamballe; the queen's ladies-maids Marie-Élisabeth Thibault and Mme Bazile; the dauphin's nurse St Brice; the Princesse de Lamballe's lady's maid Navarre; and the valets of the king, Chamilly and Hue. All ten former members of the royal household were placed before the tribunals and freed from charges, with the exception of the Princess de Lamballe, whose death would become one of the most publicized of the September Massacres. Louise-Élisabeth de Croÿ de Tourzel was released on order of Manuel by the Commune.

Of the Swiss Guard prisoners 135 were killed, 27 were transferred, 86 were set free, and 22 had uncertain fates. According to George Long 122 died and 43 people were released. The victims had to leave behind money, jewelry, silver, gold, assignats, but also an Aeneid which is widely regarded as Virgil's masterpiece. Most of the victims' clothes were pierced with spade marks and had bloodstains. According to Louvet four armed men came to the house of Roland to get paid. On Monday morning nine o'clock, Billaud-Varenne came to the Abbaye prison and declared that the tribunal should stop stealing and would get paid by the Commune. At ten Maillard and his twelve judges resumed their work. In three days 216 men, and only three women were massacred in the Abbey. De Virot, responsible for the safeguarding of large stocks of weapons stored in the Hotel des Invalides, and his daughter survived.

Conciergerie, Saint Firmin and Bernardins

Late in the afternoon, they went to Tour Saint-Bernard (belonging to a confiscated monastery Collège des Bernardins, located in the Sansculotte district) where forgers of assignats were jailed. (Almost all of them were locked up in the previous three months.) The pattern of semi-formal executions followed by the popular tribunals was for condemned prisoners to be ordered "transferred" and then taken into the prison courtyard where they would be cut down. One man was released after he was recognized as a thief. The participants in the killing received bread, wine and cheese, and some money.

In the early evening, groups broke into another Paris prison, the Conciergerie, via an open door in a side stair. The massacre was more uncontrolled in the Conciergerie than in the Prison de l'Abbaye. In the Conciergerie, the staff did not cooperate by turning the prisoners to the mob; instead, the mob broke into the cells themselves. The massacre continued from late evening through the night until morning. Of 488 prisoners in the Conciergerie, 378 were killed during the massacre. One woman in the Conciergerie, Marie Gredeler, a bookseller who was accused of murder, was tied to a pole, killed, and mutilated.

According to Prudhomme people sat on the stairs of the Palace of Justice watching the butchery in the courtyard. Not far away Restif de la Bretonne saw bodies piled high on Pont au Change in front of the Châtelet, then thrown in the river. He recorded the atrocities he witnessed in Les Nuits de Paris (1794).

Before midnight the seminary Saint Firmin was visited by just four men, who killed all the seminarians. All of them were detained in August according to Cassignac; the average age of the prisoners was 47. At 2.30 in the morning, the Assembly was informed that most of the prisons were empty. The next morning the Assembly was still involved with the defense of the city; Hérault de Séchelles presided. It decided the other prisoners had to wait for their trial because of a temporary lack of judges.

Bicêtre and Salpêtrière

Bicêtre, a hospital for men and boys that also served as a prison for beggars and the homeless, was visited twice that day after a rumor that there were thousands of rifles stored there. The commander brought seven cannons. According to Cassignac François Hanriot and his battalion were present; 56 prisoners were released. The average age of the 170 victims was 24–25 years, 41 were between 12 and 18 years old, and 58 were under 20. Mayor Pétion did not have much influence discussing humanity with them.

At dawn Salpêtrière, a hospice for women and girls to which a prison was attached, was visited. The number of victims is exactly known: 35 women, including 23 underaged. The average age of the 35 victims was 45 – only one of them, Marie Bertrand, a diocesan from Dyon, was 17 years old – and 52 were released according to Cassignac.

The end
On Tuesday afternoon the killing in the Abbey finally stopped. Police commissioners Etienne-Jean Panis and Sergent-Marceau gave orders to wash away all the blood from the stairs and the courtyard, to spread straw, to count the corpses, and to dispose of them on carts to avoid infections. A contract was signed with the gravedigger of the nearby Église Saint-Sulpice, Paris, who also had to purchase quicklime. On 5 September, the day of the election, it was perfectly quiet in Paris according to Le Moniteur Universel. There were still 80 prisoners in "La Force".

On 6 September the massacres finally ended. The next day the gates were opened, but it was impossible to travel to another department without a passport.

Contemporary reports

In a letter from 25 January 1793 Helen Maria Williams accused Robespierre and Danton, saying that Marat was only their instrument. Francois Buzot, a Girondin, mentions Camille Desmoulins and Fabre d'Eglantine.

According to Galart de Montjoie, a lawyer and royalist, in those days everyone believed the Fédérés from Marseille, Avignon and Brest were involved in the killing. About 800–1000 were staying in barrack, but moved supposedly to where events would take place. It seems around 300 Fédérés from Brest and 500 from Marseille were then lodged in Cordeliers Convent. Servan planned to give them military training before using them to supplement the army at the front.

"The fact is that the reports of conspiracies in the prisons, however improbable, and the constant propaganda about the people's will and the people's anger, held everyone in a sort of stupor and gave the impression that this infamous performance was the work of the populace, whereas in reality there were not above 200 criminals."

"Though it is an ascertained fact that the perpetrators of the atrocious murders were but a few; yet it is not so clear that this work was not connived at, or consented to, by a much greater number, and those perhaps in authority; for otherwise, two or three companies of the town guard would have been sufficient to disperse those who were employed on the occasion."

"Perry describes the restoration of order after the events, giving the impression that the massacres may even have had a cathartic effect. He also suggests that France was plagued by fewer foreign enemies afterward. What emerges therefore from Perry's report is a view that, if massacres did take place, they occurred not out of spontaneous popular madness but because of comprehensible grievances." According to Robert Lindet, Adolphe Thiers, George Long, and Stanley Loomis not an outburst of passion, but coldly and carefully organized.

"Rather than being proof of the unprecedented depravity of an entire population, the prison massacres were the explicable result of both the 'wrath and fury' of the victims of 10 August and the machinations of the Paris Commune, who gave their tacit consent to the killings. Those targeted in the attacks had not been imprisoned unjustly but had been suspected of having aided the court in its negotiations with foreign princes. In a similar way to Perry, Williams emphasizes the understandable impatience of the people, who had been kept waiting too long for justice after the August Days, when husbands, brothers, and fathers had been killed."

Numbers
According to Pierre Caron there were almost 2,800 prisoners in early September. Between 1,250 and 1,450 prisoners were condemned and executed. According to Caron and Bluche 70% of the victims were killed in a 20-hour interval. Among the victims were 223 nonjuring Catholic priests and (arch)bishops who refused to submit to the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, 81 Swiss guards, and 40–80 political suspects, mostly royalists, aristocrats, and some former judges and ministers including the queen's best friend, the Princesse de Lamballe, the only political victim in "La petite Force".

The lives of about 1,250–1,600 prisoners brought before the people's courts were saved. In a few cases people were acclaimed as "patriots" by Robespierre, Tallien, Desmoulins, and Danton. Several prisoners for debts or alimony were released by Louis Pierre Manuel or by the police before 2 September.

A total of nine prisons were violently entered during the five days of the massacres before the killings concluded on the night of 6–7 September; four were not visited (Sainte-Pélagie Prison, Prison Saint-Lazare, Tour du Temple and palais Bourbon). About 700 surviving Swiss soldiers, locked up in Palais Bourbon, marched to the town hall to take the oath and joined the volunteers. After initially indiscriminate slayings, ad hoc popular tribunals were set up to distinguish between "enemies of the people" and those who were innocent, or at least were not perceived as counter-revolutionary threats. In spite of this attempted sifting, estimated three-quarters of the 1,250–1,450 killed were not counter-revolutionaries or "villains", but included all the galley convicts, forgers of assignats, 37 women (including the Princess de Lamballe and Marie Gredeler) and 66 children. Some priests and women were of age, about prostitutes or insane not much is known.

Killings outside Paris
On 3 September the surveillance committees of the Commune, on which Marat now served, published a circular that called on provincial Patriots to defend Paris and asked that, before leaving their homes, they eliminate counter-revolutionaries. Marat advised the entire nation "to adopt this necessary measure".

A circular letter was sent to regional authorities by Deforgues, an assistant of Danton, and Tallien, the secretary of the Paris Commune, advising that "ferocious conspirators detained in the prisons had been put to death by the people".

The Girondins afterward made much of this circular, but there is no evidence that it had any influence. As before, murders in the provinces continued: the blood-letting did not cease until the countryside was purged. Smaller-scale executions took place in Reims, Meaux, and Lyon on 2, 4 and 9 September. Most notable was the killing of 44 political prisoners near Château de Versailles transported from the High Court in Orléans back to Paris, the 9 September massacres. The next day Brissot wrote in "Le Patriote français", his newspaper: "No doubt you will be told that it is a vengeance of the people; it will be a slander. The people were not involved in this event."

Official role

According to Timothy Tackett: "For a period of some 48 hours between the 29th and 31 August, the whole of Paris was systematically searched by the national guard for lurking conspirators and hidden arms. By that time section assemblies were already passing motions demanding "the death of conspirators before the departure of citizens".

On 31 August the Committee of Vigilance was created with Panis and Sergent-Marceau. According to Madame de Staël on 31 August "it was already known, that only those who were destined to be massacred were sent to that prison [of the Abbey]."

On 1 September the Commune declared a state of emergency by decreeing that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-bodied citizens convened in the Champ de Mars.

On Sunday 2 September the 1792 French National Convention election started. Robespierre publicly accused Brissot and the Brissotins of plotting with the Duke of Brunswick. Marat was appointed as one of the six additional members of the Committee of Vigilance, but without the approval of the Executive Council.

According to Adolphe Thiers on Sunday morning 2 September: "The keeper of the Abbaye sent away his children in the morning. Dinner was served to the prisoners two hours before the accustomed time, and the knives were taken from their plates."

Such municipal and central government as existed in Paris in September 1792 was preoccupied with organizing volunteers, supplies, and equipment for the armies on the threatened frontiers. Accordingly, there was no attempt to assuage popular fears that the understaffed and easily accessed prisons were full of royalists who would break out and seize the city when the national guards and other citizen volunteers had left for the war. According to Madame Roland Danton responded to an appeal to protect the prisoners with the comment: "To hell with the prisoners! They must look after themselves." On 3 September Roland said: "Yesterday was a day that we should perhaps throw a veil on." The other members of the provisional government – Clavière, Lebrun-Tondu, Monge and Servan, involved in organizing the country did not do much to stop the killing, or could not foresee or prevent these excesses. Mayor Pétion de Villeneuve turned a blind eye when he visited Bicêtre. Olympe de Gouges and Brissot's newspaper were the only ones condemning the September murders.

Debate in the Convention

The Brissotins in the Convention first attacked Danton; he was asked to resign as minister on the 25th but forced to step down on 9 October. He kept his seat in the Convention as deputy. Then the Brissotins decided to attack Robespierre and Marat.

On 29 October 1792, the Convention reviewed these recent events. Jean-Baptiste Louvet de Couvray accused Robespierre of creating a personality cult, governing the Paris "Conseil General" and paying the "Septembriseurs". Marat was accused of being asocial and establishing a dictatorship. He was taken by surprise and had to be defended by Danton. Robespierre was given eight days to reply. On 5 November Robespierre stated that Marat had visited him only once since January. He insisted that most of the victims were aristocrats, which wasn't the case. He admitted the arrests at the end of August were illegal, as illegal as the revolution, the fall of the monarchy and the Bastille. He asked the convention: "Citizens, did you want a revolution without revolution?" Robespierre, Danton, and Marat insisted that the "new bloodletting" had been a spontaneous popular movement. Their opponents, the Girondins, spoke of a systematically planned conspiracy. Louvet de Couvrai who published his speech was no longer admitted to the Jacobin Club.

Political repercussions
The massacres first damaged the political position of the Girondins, who seemed too moderate, and later the Jacobins, who seemed too bloodthirsty. A new mayor Nicolas Chambon was installed on 1 December 1792. On 4 February 1793 Robespierre defended the September massacres as necessary. On 13 February Pierre Gaspard Chaumette received a list of victims in the La Force Prison.

It was Servan's proposal to bring armed volunteers from the provinces. He was arrested during the Terror, but released in February 1795. In 1796 24 or 39 craftsmen and small businessmen were accused; although only three were condemned. The vinegar maker Damiens was sentenced to twenty years of imprisonment.

Martyrs

One hundred and fifteen churchmen killed in the Carmes Prison were beatified by Pope Pius XI on 17 October 1926. Among the martyrs were Pierre-Louis de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Saintes; Jean-Marie du Lau d'Alleman, archbishop of Arles; François-Joseph de la Rochefoucauld, bishop of Beauvais; and Ambroise Chevreux, the last superior-general of the monastic Congregation of Saint Maur.

Eyewitnesses

 * Madame de Staël (1818) Considerations on the Principal Events of the French Revolution, Band 2, p. 68
 * La Vérité toute entière sur les vrais acteurs de 2. Septembre 1792 par Jean Claude Hippolyte Méhée de la Touche
 * Histoire de la conjugation de Maximilien Robespierre
 * Nicolas-Edme Restif de la Bretonne (1793) Les nuits de Paris, ou Le spectateur nocturne, p. 371-394
 * The September Massacres witnessed by Earl Gower, a British diplomat

Fictional accounts

 * Dickens, Charles, A Tale of Two Cities (1859).
 * Henty, George Alfred, In the Reign of Terror.
 * Neville, Katherine, The Eight (1988).

title: September Massacres


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Albemarle Sound

Albemarle Sound is a large estuary on the coast of North Carolina in the United States located at the confluence of a group of rivers, including the Chowan and Roanoke. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Currituck Banks, a barrier peninsula upon which the town of Kitty Hawk is located, at the eastern edge of the sound, and part of the greater Outer Banks region. Roanoke Island is situated at the southeastern corner of the sound, where it connects to Pamlico Sound. Much of the water in the Albemarle Sound is brackish or fresh, as opposed to the saltwater of the ocean, as a result of river water pouring into the sound.

Some small portions of the Albemarle have been given their own "sound" names to distinguish these bodies of water from other parts of the large estuary. The Croatan Sound, for instance, lies between mainland Dare County and Roanoke Island. The water bordering the eastern shore of the island to the Outer Banks is commonly referred to as Roanoke Sound (this is also a historical name for the entire body of water now known as Albemarle Sound ). The long stretch of water from near the Virginia state line south to around the Currituck County southern boundary is known as the Currituck Sound.

Albemarle Sound forms part of the Atlantic Intracoastal Waterway. Early English colonists, mostly migrants from Virginia, settled along its in the first permanent European settlements in what became North Carolina; these were known as the English Albemarle Settlements. Many inland Tidewater communities along the Albemarle today are classified as part of the Inner Banks region of the state.

History
The indigenous Pamlico and their ancestors lived in the region for thousands of years. They traveled the sound in dugout canoes, and trapped fish. The Pamlico often set up seasonal fishing camps for this purpose, retreating inland in winter weather.

In 1586 the first European explorers sailed up the 55 mi length of the Albemarle Sound. Half a century later, the first European settlers came south from Virginia, establishing agricultural and trading colonies along the shores of the Sound. The Albemarle Sound soon became an important thoroughfare: small trading ships called coasters carried cargo to and from other colonies, and larger merchant ships brought spices, silks, and sugars from the West Indies in exchange for products such as tobacco (a major export of the southern colonies), herring, and lumber.

In 1663, King Charles II of England designated Albemarle Sound as part of the Province of Carolina; it was assigned to eight Lords Proprietors. One of these royal beneficiaries was George Monck, 1st Duke of Albemarle, for whom the sound is named.

Ferries were a common method of transportation through the swamps surrounding the Albemarle Sound throughout the history of the region. One ferry that linked the towns of Edenton and Mackeys, North Carolina, continued in service from 1734 to 1938, when a bridge was built across the Sound. Another, longer bridge of more than 3 mi in length was built in 1990.

Fishing was a major industry in the Albemarle Sound from the colonial period. In late spring, when the fish runs started, planters set enslaved workers to fish for shad, striped bass, and herring. Fishermen sometimes had enormous nets, with some more than a mile (1600 m) long, and they were frequently staffed 24 hours a day. Herring was cut and salted for export to Europe, while shad was packed in ice and shipped up the Chowan River to be sold in northern colonies.

In more recent times of the twentieth century, regional striped bass tournaments attracted sports fishermen to the area. This was considered by many to be the greatest striped bass fishery in the world. But water pollution from industry, agriculture and other development in recent years has depleted the fisheries of the Albemarle Sound by seventy percent.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Albemarle Sound


text:
Lucius II: The Prophecy

Lucius II: The Prophecy is a horror adventure sandbox game that serves as a loose sequel to the original Lucius. Developed and published by Shiver Games, it was announced in August 2014 and released in February 2015 for Microsoft Windows. The game received mixed reviews from critics. A sequel, titled Lucius III, was released in 2018.

Gameplay
Focusing on addressing the criticisms of linearity in the original Lucius, Lucius II offers players a variety of ways to complete their objectives. Players are given the supernatural powers of Mind Control, Telekinesis, and Pyrokinesis to use as they wish. Killing NPCs and finding secrets scattered throughout levels allows players to level up in order to upgrade and earn new supernatural powers.

Plot
The narrative revolves around Lucius being confined to the psychiatric ward of St. Benedict's Hospital. Players must guide Lucius as he escapes from the hospital and navigates the eerie town of Ludlow. Detective McGuffin becomes a crucial ally, recognizing Lucius's true potential and assisting him along the way.

Sequel
A sequel titled Lucius III was subsequently released on 13 December 2018, continuing the narrative and expanding on the gameplay mechanics introduced in Lucius II.

Reception
Upon its release, Lucius II received mixed reviews from critics. While some praised the game's departure from linearity, diverse gameplay mechanics, and eerie atmosphere, others expressed concerns about certain aspects of the game.

title: Lucius II: The Prophecy


text:
Index of Texas-related articles

The following is an alphabetical list of articles related to the U.S. state of Texas.

0–9

 * .tx.us – Internet second-level domain for the state of Texas
 * 7-Eleven

A

 * Abortion in Texas
 * Abilene, Texas
 * Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819
 * Adjacent states: (one of three states with eight neighbors)
 * Arkansas
 * Chihuahua
 * Coahuila
 * Louisiana
 * New Mexico
 * Nuevo León
 * Oklahoma
 * Tamaulipas
 * Adolphus Hotel
 * ADV Films
 * Agriculture in Texas
 * Alamo
 * Alamo Village
 * Allen, TX
 * Alley Theatre
 * Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca
 * Amarillo Dillas
 * Amarillo Gorillas
 * Amarillo, Texas
 * American Airlines
 * American Airlines Center
 * Ameriquest Field in Arlington
 * Amusement parks in Texas
 * Anahuac Disturbances
 * Anahuac, Texas
 * Anthony, Texas
 * Angleton, Doris
 * Angleton, Robert
 * Angleton, Roger
 * Aquaria in Texas
 * commons:Category:Aquaria in Texas
 * Aransas Bay
 * Aransas Pass
 * Arboreta in Texas
 * commons:Category:Arboreta in Texas
 * Archaeology of Texas
 * Category:Archaeological sites in Texas
 * commons:Category:Archaeological sites in Texas
 * Architecture of Texas
 * Area codes in Texas
 * Ark-La-Tex
 * Arlen, Texas
 * Arlington Stadium
 * Arlington, Texas
 * Armadillo
 * Armadillo World Headquarters
 * ArtCar Museum
 * Art museums and galleries in Texas
 * commons:Category:Art museums and galleries in Texas
 * Astronomical observatories in Texas
 * commons:Category:Astronomical observatories in Texas
 * Austin, Texas
 * Austin-Bergstrom International Airport
 * Austin City Limits (television)
 * Austin Ice Bats
 * Austin, Stephen F.
 * Austin, Texas, republican and state capital since 1839
 * Austin Wranglers

B

 * Balcones Fault
 * Bank of America (Austin)
 * Bank of America Center, Houston
 * Bank of America Plaza (Dallas)
 * Bank One Center (Houston)
 * Baptist General Convention of Texas
 * Bartlett, Steve
 * Barton Springs
 * Barton Springs Salamander
 * Battle of the Alamo
 * Battle of Gonzales
 * Battle of San Jacinto
 * Battle of Velasco
 * Bauer College of Business
 * Bay Ridge Christian College
 * Baylor College of Medicine
 * Baylor University
 * Baytown, Texas
 * Beaches of Texas
 * commons:Category:Beaches of Texas
 * Beaumont, Texas
 * Bentsen, Lloyd
 * Bevo (mascot)
 * Bible Belt
 * Big Bend National Park
 * Big Tex
 * Bill Dauterive
 * Black Belt in the American South
 * Blaffer Gallery
 * Blockbuster Video
 * Blue Bell Creameries
 * Bluebonnet
 * Blue Line (Dallas Area Rapid Transit)
 * Bobby Hill (King of the Hill)
 * Bonnell, Joseph
 * Bonnie and Clyde
 * Boomhauer
 * Botanical gardens in Texas
 * commons:Category:Botanical gardens in Texas
 * Bowie, Jim
 * Brazoria, Texas
 * Brazos River
 * Briscoe, Dolph
 * Brown, Lee P.
 * Brownsville, Texas
 * Bryan, Texas
 * Buchanan Dam
 * Buildings and structures in Texas
 * commons:Category:Buildings and structures in Texas
 * Burleson, Edward
 * BNSF Railway
 * Burnet, David G.
 * Bush, George H. W.
 * Bush, George W.

C

 * Cabeza de Vaca, Álvar Núñez
 * Caddo Lake
 * Cadillac Ranch
 * Cao, Anh "Joseph"
 * Canyons and gorges of Texas
 * commons:Category:Canyons and gorges of Texas
 * Capital of the State of Texas
 * Capitol of the State of Texas
 * commons:Category:Texas State Capitol
 * Carrollton, Texas
 * Catholic bishops of Texas
 * Caves of Texas
 * commons:Category:Caves of Texas
 * Central Texas tornado outbreak
 * Chinatown, Houston
 * Chuck Norris
 * Church of the SubGenius
 * Clark, Edward
 * Clemens, Roger
 * Clements, Bill
 * Climate of Texas
 * Category:Climate of Texas
 * commons:Category:Climate of Texas
 * College Station, Texas
 * Colorado River of Texas
 * Columbia, Republic of Texas, republican capital 1836-1837
 * Communications in Texas
 * commons:Category:Communications in Texas
 * Compaq Center (Houston)
 * CompUSA
 * Connally, John
 * ConocoPhillips
 * Conroe, Texas
 * Continental Airlines
 * Convention centers in Texas
 * commons:Category:Convention centers in Texas
 * Convention of 1836
 * Cornyn, John
 * Corpus Christi International Airport
 * Corpus Christi, Texas
 * Cotton Hill
 * Counties of Texas
 * Cowboy
 * Craft, Juanita
 * Crockett, Davy
 * Cruz, Ted
 * Cuban, Mark
 * Cuisine of Texas
 * Culture of Texas
 * Category:Texas culture
 * commons:Category:Texas culture

D

 * The Daily Cougar
 * Dale Gribble
 * Dallas Area Rapid Transit
 * Dallas Cowboys
 * Dallas Desperados
 * Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport
 * Dallas/Fort Worth Metroplex
 * Dallas Love Field
 * Dallas Mavericks
 * The Dallas Morning News
 * Dallas Observer
 * Dallas Stars
 * Dallas (1978 TV series)
 * Dallas, Texas
 * The Dateline Downtown
 * Dealey Plaza
 * Debbie Does Dallas
 * Deep Ellum
 * Dell Computer
 * Demographics of Texas
 * Category:Demographics of Texas
 * Demographics of Dallas-Fort Worth
 * Demographics of Houston
 * Dell, Michael
 * Denison, Texas
 * Denton, Texas
 * Dixie Chicks
 * Dobie, J. Frank
 * Don't Mess with Texas
 * Downtown Houston
 * Dr Pepper

E

 * Eagle Pass, Texas
 * East Texas
 * East Texas Baptist University
 * East Texas Musical Convention
 * Echo Hill Ranch
 * Economy of Texas
 * Category:Economy of Texas
 * commons:Category:Economy of Texas
 * Edinburg Roadrunners
 * Edinburg, Texas
 * Education in Texas
 * Category:Education in Texas
 * commons:Category:Education in Texas
 * Edwards Plateau
 * Elections in the State of Texas
 * Category:Texas elections
 * commons:Category:Texas elections
 * Electronic Data Systems
 * Ellington Field
 * El Paso International Airport
 * El Paso, Texas
 * Elections in the State of Texas
 * Enchanted Rock
 * Enron
 * Environment of Texas
 * commons:Category:Environment of Texas
 * Estuaries of Texas
 * Excel Communications
 * Extreme points of Texas
 * ExxonMobil

F

 * Fair Park
 * Faulk, John Henry
 * F.C. Dallas
 * Festivals in Texas
 * commons:Category:Festivals in Texas
 * Flag of the State of Texas
 * The Flame
 * Flyleaf
 * Fort Parker Massacre
 * Fort Worth Cats
 * Fort Worth Dallas Birthing Project
 * Fort Worth, Texas
 * Forts in Texas
 * Fort Bliss
 * Category:Forts in Texas
 * commons:Category:Forts in Texas
 * Fountain Place
 * Francisco Vásquez de Coronado
 * Franklin Mountains
 * Fredericksburg, Texas
 * Friedman, Kinky
 * Frisco RoughRiders
 * Frisco, Texas
 * Frontier Fiesta
 * Frito Lay
 * FUNimation

G

 * Galveston, Texas, republican capital 1836
 * Galveston County, Texas
 * Galveston County Bar Association
 * Galveston Hurricane of 1900
 * Gambling in Texas
 * Gardens in Texas
 * commons:Category:Gardens in Texas
 * Garland, Texas
 * Geography of Texas
 * Category:Geography of Texas
 * commons:Category:Geography of Texas
 * Geology of Texas
 * Category:Geology of Texas
 * commons:Category:Geology of Texas
 * Geology of Wichita Falls, Texas
 * George Bush Intercontinental Airport
 * Ghost towns in Texas
 * Category:Ghost towns in Texas
 * commons:Category:Ghost towns in Texas
 * Gilmore, Jimmie Dale
 * Golf clubs and courses in Texas
 * Goodnight, Charles
 * Goodnight-Loving Trail
 * Government of the State of Texas website
 * Category:Government of Texas
 * commons:Category:Government of Texas
 * Governor of the State of Texas
 * List of governors of Texas
 * Grace Point Church
 * Gramm, Phil
 * Grand Prairie, Texas
 * Guadalupe River (Texas)

H
History of Sugar Land, Texas
 * Hagerman, Amber
 * Hall of State
 * Halliburton
 * Hank Hill
 * Harlingen, Texas
 * Harrisburgh, Republic of Texas, republican capital 1836
 * Hawkins, Aubrey
 * Heritage railroads in Texas
 * commons:Category:Heritage railroads in Texas
 * Hicks, Tom
 * Highway system of Texas
 * Hilton College of Hotel and Restaurant Management
 * Hilton University of Houston
 * Hiking trails in Texas
 * commons:Category:Hiking trails in Texas
 * Hines College of Architecture
 * Hightower, Jim
 * Hippie Hollow Park
 * Hispanics and Latinos in Texas
 * History of African Americans in Dallas-Ft. Worth
 * History of African Americans in Houston
 * History of African Americans in San Antonio
 * History of African Americans in Texas
 * History of Houston
 * History of Mexican-Americans in Texas
 * History of Mexican Americans in Dallas-Fort Worth
 * History of Mexican Americans in Houston
 * History of Texas
 * Historical outline of Texas
 * Category:History of Texas
 * commons:Category:History of Texas
 * Hockaday School, The
 * Holly, Buddy
 * Holy Land Foundation for Relief and Development
 * Hotter'N Hell Hundred
 * Houston Aeros (1994–2013)
 * Houston Aeros (WHA)
 * Houston Astros
 * Houston Chronicle
 * Houston Comets
 * Houston Galleria
 * Houston Independent School District
 * Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo
 * Houston Museum District
 * Houston Rockets
 * Houston, Sam
 * Houston–Sugar Land–Baytown Metropolitan Area (Greater Houston)
 * Houston Texans
 * Houston, Texas, republican capital 1837-1839
 * Houston Zoo
 * Hurricane Alicia
 * Husband, Rick
 * Hutchison, Kay Bailey

I

 * id Software
 * Images of Texas
 * commons:Category:Texas
 * Inks Dam
 * Inks Lake
 * Institute for Christian Studies
 * Interstate highway routes in Texas
 * Ireland, John
 * Irving, Texas
 * Islands of Texas

J

 * JCPenney
 * John Connally Unit
 * John F. Kennedy assassination
 * John Redcorn
 * John Sealy Hospital
 * Johnson, Lady Bird
 * Johnson, Lyndon Baines
 * Johnston, Albert Sidney
 * Jones, Anson
 * Jones, Jerry
 * Joplin, Janis
 * Jordan, Barbara
 * Joseph Gribble
 * JPMorgan Chase Tower - Dallas
 * JPMorgan Chase Tower - Houston

K

 * Katy, Texas
 * Kettle Restaurants
 * Killeen, Texas
 * Kimberly-Clark
 * King of the Hill
 * King Ranch
 * Kirk, Ron
 * Knowles, Beyoncé
 * Koresh, David
 * KTRK-TV

L

 * Laguna Atascosa National Wildlife Refuge
 * Lake Marble Falls
 * Lakes in Texas
 * Lady Bird Lake
 * Lake Austin
 * Lake Buchanan
 * Lake LBJ
 * Lake Travis
 * Category:Lakes of Texas
 * commons:Category:Lakes of Texas
 * Lamar, Mirabeau B.
 * Landmarks in Texas
 * commons:Category:Landmarks in Texas
 * Landry, Tom
 * Lane, Walter P.
 * Laredo International Airport
 * Laredo, Texas
 * Las Colinas
 * Lee College
 * Legal status of Texas
 * Leland, Mickey
 * LeTourneau University
 * Lipan Apache language
 * Lipan Apache people
 * Lists related to the State of Texas:
 * List of airports in Texas
 * List of book publishing houses in Texas
 * List of census statistical areas in Texas
 * List of cities in Texas
 * List of colleges and universities in Texas
 * List of companies in Texas
 * List of counties in Texas
 * List of county name etymologies in Texas
 * List of county seat name etymologies in Texas
 * List of farm to market roads in Texas
 * List of forts in Texas
 * List of freeways in the Dallas-Fort Worth area
 * List of ghost towns in Texas
 * List of governors of Texas
 * List of high schools in Texas
 * List of highways in the Houston area
 * List of highways in the San Antonio area
 * List of hospitals in Texas
 * List of individuals executed in Texas
 * List of Interstate highway routes in Texas
 * List of islands of Texas
 * List of lakes in Texas
 * List of law enforcement agencies in Texas
 * List of mayors of Austin, Texas
 * List of mayors of Dallas, Texas
 * List of mayors of El Paso, Texas
 * List of mayors of Fort Worth, Texas
 * List of mayors of Houston, Texas
 * List of mayors of Plano, Texas
 * List of mayors of San Antonio, Texas
 * List of museums in Texas
 * List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
 * List of newspapers in Texas
 * List of people from Texas
 * List of radio stations in Texas
 * List of railroads in Texas
 * List of Registered Historic Places in Texas
 * List of rivers of Texas
 * List of school districts in Texas
 * List of state forests in Texas
 * List of state highway loops in Texas
 * List of state highway spurs in Texas
 * List of state highways in Texas
 * List of state parks in Texas
 * List of state prisons in Texas
 * List of symbols of the State of Texas
 * List of telephone area codes in Texas
 * List of television stations in Texas
 * List of United States congressional delegations from Texas
 * List of United States congressional districts in Texas
 * List of United States representatives from Texas
 * List of United States senators from Texas
 * List of U.S. highway routes in Texas
 * Literature of Texas
 * Llano Estacado
 * Llano River
 * Llano Uplift
 * Longhorn Dam
 * Longview, Texas
 * Louisiana Purchase of 1803
 * Love Field
 * Lower Colorado River Authority
 * Luanne Platter
 * Lubbock, Francis
 * Lubbock International Airport
 * Lubbock, Texas
 * Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center

M

 * Machemehl, Charles W.
 * Machemehl, Chuck
 * Machemehl, Louis A.
 * Machemehl, Paul
 * McAllen, Texas
 * McAllen-Miller International Airport
 * McClure, Jessica
 * Magnolia Hotel (Dallas, Texas)
 * Magnolia Hotel (Houston)
 * Mansfield Dam
 * Mass shootings in Texas
 * Maps of Texas
 * commons:Category:Maps of Texas
 * Marshall, Texas
 * Mesquite Championship Rodeo
 * Mesquite, Texas
 * Metropolitan Transit Authority of Harris County, Texas
 * METRORail
 * Mexican Texas
 * Michelson Museum of Art
 * Midland, Texas
 * Miller, Laura
 * Minute Maid Park
 * Missing in Brooks County
 * Mission, Texas
 * Monuments and memorials in Texas
 * commons:Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas
 * Moody Gardens
 * Moores School of Music
 * Mountains of Texas
 * commons:Category:Mountains of Texas
 * Mount Bonnell
 * Murrah, Pendleton
 * Museums in Texas
 * Category:Museums in Texas
 * commons:Category:Museums in Texas
 * Music of Texas
 * Category:Music of Texas
 * commons:Category:Music of Texas
 * Category:Musical groups from Texas
 * Category:Musicians from Texas
 * Mustangs at Las Colinas

N

 * Nancy Gribble
 * National Forests of Texas
 * commons:Category:National Forests of Texas
 * Natural history of Texas
 * commons:Category:Natural history of Texas
 * Nature centers in Texas
 * commons:Category:Nature centers in Texas
 * Neiman Marcus
 * New Braunfels, Texas

O

 * Odessa, Texas
 * Option fee (Texas)
 * Orange, Texas
 * Orbison, Roy
 * Outdoor sculptures in Texas
 * commons:Category:Outdoor sculptures in Texas

P

 * Palo Duro Canyon
 * Parker, Cynthia Ann
 * Parker, Daniel
 * Parker, Quanah
 * Pasadena, Texas
 * Pecos River
 * Pedernales River
 * Peggy Hill
 * People from Texas
 * Category:People from Texas
 * commons:Category:People from Texas
 * Category:People by populated place in Texas
 * Category:People from Texas by county
 * Category:People from Texas by occupation
 * Perry, Rick
 * Plano, Texas
 * Poe, Ted
 * Politics of Texas
 * Category:Politics of Texas
 * commons:Category:Politics of Texas
 * Port Arthur, Texas
 * Protected areas of Texas
 * commons:Category:Protected areas of Texas

Q

 * Quinn, Paul

R

 * Radio Shack
 * Railroad museums in Texas
 * commons:Category:Railroad museums in Texas
 * Red Line (Dallas Area Rapid Transit)
 * Red River of the South
 * Registered Historic Places in Texas
 * Redneck
 * Reliant Astrodome
 * Reliant Energy
 * Reliant Park
 * Reliant Stadium
 * Religion in Texas
 * Category:Religion in Texas
 * commons:Category:Religion in Texas
 * Renaissance Tower (Dallas)
 * Republic of Texas
 * Republic of Texas (group)
 * Resendiz, Angel Maturino
 * Reunion Arena
 * Rice University
 * Rice, William Marsh
 * Richards, Ann
 * Richardson, Texas
 * Rick Husband Amarillo International Airport
 * Rio Grande
 * Rio Grande Valley
 * Rio Grande Valley White Wings
 * Rivas, George
 * Rock formations in Texas
 * commons:Category:Rock formations in Texas
 * Roller coasters in Texas
 * commons:Category:Roller coasters in Texas
 * Round Rock Express
 * Ryan, Nolan

S
the
 * Sabine River
 * St. Edward's University
 * Saint Mary's University of San Antonio
 * San Angelo Colts
 * San Angelo, Texas
 * San Antonio Bay
 * San Antonio de Béxar, colonial capital 1772-1824
 * San Antonio Area Foundation
 * San Antonio International Airport
 * San Antonio Silver Stars
 * San Antonio Spurs
 * San Antonio, Texas
 * San Benito, Texas
 * San Jacinto College
 * San José Island (Texas)
 * San Marcos, Texas
 * Santa Ana National Wildlife Refuge
 * Schlitterbahn
 * Seal of the State of Texas
 * Seguin, Texas
 * Selena
 * Selena, Death of
 * Service Corporation International
 * Settlements in Texas
 * Cities in Texas
 * Towns in Texas
 * Villages in Texas
 * Census Designated Places in Texas
 * Other unincorporated communities in Texas
 * List of ghost towns in Texas
 * Sharpstown scandal
 * Sherman, Texas
 * Shasta
 * Shiner beer
 * Sid Richardson College
 * Six Flags
 * Six Flags Astroworld
 * Smith, Preston
 * South by Southwest Festival
 * Southeast Texas Regional Airport
 * Southern Methodist University
 * South Padre Island, Texas
 * South Park Mexican
 * Southwest Airlines
 * Southwest Conference
 * Spindletop
 * Sports in Texas
 * Category:Sports in Texas
 * commons:Category:Sports in Texas
 * Category:Sports venues in Texas
 * commons:Category:Sports venues in Texas
 * Max Starcke Dam
 * State Fair
 * State Fair of Texas
 * State of Texas website
 * Government of the State of Texas
 * Category:Government of Texas
 * commons:Category:Government of Texas
 * Strauss, Annette
 * Structures in Texas
 * commons:Category:Buildings and structures in Texas
 * Sugar Land Regional Airport
 * Sugar Land, Texas
 * Superconducting Super Collider
 * Superfund sites in Texas
 * Symbols of the State of Texas
 * Category:Symbols of Texas
 * commons:Category:Symbols of Texas

T

 * Tandy Center Subway
 * Tejanos
 * Telecommunications in Texas
 * commons:Category:Communications in Texas
 * Telephone area codes in Texas
 * Temple, Texas
 * Texans for Fiscal Accountability
 * Texans for Vaccine Choice
 * Texarkana, Texas
 * Texas website
 * Category:Texas
 * commons:Category:Texas
 * commons:Category:Maps of Texas
 * Texas 7
 * Texas A&M University
 * Texas A&M University at Galveston
 * Texas Annexation
 * Texas Asia Society
 * Texas Association of Licensed Investigators
 * Texas Border Coalition
 * Texas Bureau of Child and Animal Protection
 * Texas Cart War
 * Texas Centennial Exposition
 * Texas Christian University
 * Texas City Disaster
 * Texas City, Texas
 * Texas Co-op Power magazine
 * Texas Civil Service Testing
 * Texas County & District Retirement System
 * Texas Declaration of Independence
 * Texas Fair Trade Coalition
 * Texas Fund Trapping Notice
 * Texas Gas Service
 * Texas Health and Science University
 * Texas Highland Lakes
 * Texas Highway Patrol Association
 * Texas Hill Country
 * Texas Historical Commission
 * Texas in the American Civil War
 * Texas Instruments
 * Texas Junior Golf Tour
 * Texas Legation
 * Texas Legislature
 * Texas literature
 * Texas Longhorn (cattle)
 * Texas Longhorn sports teams (The University of Texas)
 * Texas Medical Center
 * Texas Millionaires Chorus
 * Texas Mini GP Series
 * Texas Municipal Retirement System
 * Texas Night Train
 * Texas Our Texas
 * Texas Panhandle
 * Texas Parks and Wildlife Department
 * Texas Policy Evaluation Project
 * Texas Psychological Association
 * Texas Rangers (baseball)
 * Texas Ranger Division (the "Texas Rangers")
 * Texas Revolution
 * Texas Soaring Association
 * Texas Southern University
 * Texas State Capitol
 * Texas State Guard
 * Texas State Guard Commanding General's Individual Award
 * Texas State University
 * Texas Statutes
 * Texas Tech University
 * Texas Woman's University
 * Tex-Mex cuisine
 * Thanks-Giving Square
 * Theatres in Texas
 * commons:Category:Theatres in Texas
 * Timeline of the Texas Revolution
 * Toll bridges, tunnels, and ferries in Texas
 * Tom Miller Dam
 * Tonkawa
 * Tourism in Texas website
 * commons:Category:Tourism in Texas
 * Toyota Center (Houston)
 * Transportation in Texas
 * Category:Transportation in Texas
 * commons:Category:Transport in Texas
 * Travis, William B.
 * Treaty Oak (Austin, Texas)
 * Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo of 1848
 * Trinity Metro
 * Trinity Railway Express
 * Trinity River
 * Tropical Storm Allison
 * Turtle Bayou Resolutions
 * TX – United States Postal Service postal code for the State of Texas
 * Tyler, Texas

U

 * United States of America
 * States of the United States of America
 * United States census statistical areas of Texas
 * United States congressional delegations from Texas
 * United States congressional districts in Texas
 * United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit
 * United States District Court for the Eastern District of Texas
 * United States District Court for the Northern District of Texas
 * United States District Court for the Southern District of Texas
 * United States District Court for the Western District of Texas
 * United States representatives from Texas
 * United States senators from Texas
 * University of Houston
 * University of Houston–Clear Lake
 * University of Houston–Downtown
 * University of Houston Law Center
 * University of Houston System
 * University of Houston–Victoria
 * University of North Texas
 * University of Texas at Austin
 * University of Texas at El Paso
 * University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
 * University of Texas at San Antonio
 * University of Texas System
 * Unpuncliegut
 * Uptown Houston
 * U.S. highway routes in Texas
 * US-TX – ISO 3166-2:US region code for the State of Texas
 * USS Texas

V

 * Van Zandt, Isaac
 * Vaughan, Stevie Ray
 * Velasco, Republic of Texas, republican capital 1836
 * Victoria, Texas

W

 * Waco, Texas
 * Walker, Texas Ranger
 * Waller, Edwin
 * Walnut Springs Park
 * Washington, Republic of Texas, republican capital 1836
 * Water parks in Texas
 * Waterfalls of Texas
 * commons:Category:Waterfalls of Texas
 * Wells Fargo Plaza (El Paso)
 * Wells Fargo Plaza (Houston)
 * West Texas
 * West Texas A&M University
 * Whataburger
 * Wheatley Place
 * White, D. P.
 * White, Mark
 * Whitman, Charles
 * Wichita Falls, Texas
 * Wikimedia
 * Wikimedia Commons:Category:Texas
 * commons:Category:Maps of Texas
 * Wikinews:Category:Texas
 * Wikinews:Portal:Texas
 * Wikipedia Category:Texas
 * Wikipedia Portal:Texas
 * WikiProject Texas
 * Category:WikiProject Texas articles
 * WikiProject Texas
 * Wiley University
 * William P. Hobby Airport
 * Williams Tower
 * Wind power in Texas
 * Wines of Texas
 * Wirtz Dam
 * Women's Shelter of South Texas

X

 * XIT Ranch

Y

 * Yates, Andrea Pia

Z

 * Zellweger, Renée
 * Zoos in Texas
 * commons:Category:Zoos in Texas
 * ZZ Top

title: Index of Texas-related articles


text:
Certified first responder

A certified first responder is a person who has completed a course and received certification in providing pre-hospital care for medical emergencies. Certified individuals should have received much more instruction than someone who is trained in basic first aid and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) but they are not necessarily a substitute for more advanced emergency medical care rendered by emergency medical technicians and paramedics. First responders typically provide advanced first aid level care, CPR, and automated external defibrillator (AED) usage. The term "certified first responder" is not to be confused with "first responder", which is a generic term referring to the first medically trained responder to arrive on scene (EMS, police, fire) and medically trained telecommunication operators who provide pre-arrival medical instructions as trained Emergency Medical Dispatchers (EMD). Many police officers and firefighters are required to receive training as certified first responders. Advanced medical care is typically provided by EMS, although some police officers and firefighters also train to become emergency medical technicians or paramedics.

Terminology
Also called an Emergency Medical Responder, Emergency First Responder, Medical First Responder, or First Responder.

Canada
Many options are available in order to become a certified First Responder in Canada. Courses are offered by many sources including the Canadian Red Cross, and St. John Ambulance, and the Department of National Defence. Certified First Responder courses in Canada are separated into either "First Responder" or "Emergency Medical Responder" level courses. "First Responder" level courses are between 40 and 60 hours in length and is considered the minimum level of training for crews providing medical standby at events, as well as for employment with some private stable transport companies that provide inter-hospital transfer for patients in need of a bed, but are stable and do not require advanced medical care. "Emergency Medical Responder" level courses meet the Paramedic Association of Canada's National Occupational Competency Profile, and those who receive certification at this level can work for Emergency Medical Services in some provinces.

Examples
The Canadian Ski Patrol, St. John Ambulance Patient Care Divisions, Fire Departments, Campus Emergency Response Teams, few private medical services, and the Canadian Coast Guard all provide First Responder level emergency medical care, in some cases as a support to existing services, and in others as the primary emergency response organization.

Limitations on Certified First Responders
While all Certified First Responders in Canada are covered under Good Samaritan laws in jurisdictions where they are enacted, in some cases they have a Duty To Act for example, Ontario. Certified First Responders who are providing medical coverage to events (such as Red Cross, St. John Ambulance's Patient Care Divisions and private event medical companies), as well as those who are employed by Volunteer Fire Departments, Campus Response Teams, and others who are required to perform Emergency Medical Response as part of their duties all have a Duty to Act. While Certified First Responders in general are not required to render aid to injured/ill persons, those who work in the aforementioned areas can be accused of and prosecuted for negligence if they fail to respond when notified of a medical emergency, if their care does not meet the standard to which they were trained, or their care exceeds their scope of practice and causes harm to the patient. As with all medically trained and certified persons, Certified First Responders are immune to successful prosecution if assistance was given in good faith up to, and not beyond, the limits of certification and training.

France
In France, pre-hospital care is performed either by first responders from the fire department (sapeurs-pompiers, in most emergency situations) or from a private ambulance company (relative emergency at home), or by a medical team that includes a physician, a nurse and an emergency medical technician (called "SMUR"). The intermediate scale, the firefighter nurse (infirmier sapeur-pompier, ISP), is only a recent evolution and is performed by nurses who have been specially trained acting with emergency protocols; these nurses are the French equivalent of paramedics. The arrival of first responders is thus the most common result of an emergency call. In addition, in France there exists a network of first responder associations, as French Red Cross (Croix-rouge française), French Civil Protection (Protection civile), FFSS (Fédération Française de Sauvetage et de Secourisme) or others. These CFR volunteers are allowed to supervise massive outside meetings, student gatherings, et cetera. These volunteers have followed the same special rescuer training as firefighters (PSE 1 and PSE 2, in all 70 hours of training).

Thailand
In the Kingdom of Thailand (Thailand) First Responder is a certification most commonly achieved by local volunteers. This certification is referred to as Emergency Medical Responder or EMR. EMRs can provide emergency care for vehicle collisions, trauma, CPR, birthing, and other emergencies. EMRs must maintain their certification through a foundation, club, association, or government agency. The next level of certification in emergency response is Emergency Medical Technician Basic (EMT-B).

Training for EMR level must be done through an approved training. Most provincial hospitals provide training or are directly connected with teaching the training. EMR is a 50-hour course. The National Institute for Emergency Medicine of Thailand acts as the approving body for Emergency Medical Responder certification and provides the training curriculum. Guidelines for EMRs are published in the Emergency Medical Operation Manual for First Responder Units. Certification only lasts for two 2 years and requires refresher training to maintain.

Rescue clubs and ambulance foundations most often serve communities with volunteers to respond to emergencies with ambulances and other rescue resources. Most foundations and clubs request volunteers to acquire at least the Emergency Medical Responder level of training. Most EMR level units use pickup trucks with elevated caps to respond to emergencies. These vehicles usually are marked with the association name and seal along with lighting and sirens. Units at this level act as the first arriving responders, and must do much to stabilize the scene for other units, such as Advanced Life Support (ALS), to arrive. EMR units often transport patients to medical treatment facilities especially for basic level patients and when ALS units are unavailable. EMRs coordinate with firefighters, police, and other medical professionals in emergency situations.

United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, most statutory NHS ambulance services deploy paid first responders who drive dedicated rapid response vehicles. These are typically estate cars, MPVs or 4x4s, are liveried with high-visibility ambulance markings, and fitted with blue flashing lights and sirens. These vehicles are generally single-crewed, by a paramedic. This differs from most ambulances in the UK, which usually have two crew members.

Community First Responder Schemes
A Community First Responder Scheme is made up of groups of volunteers who, within the community in which they live or work, have been trained to attend emergency calls received by the NHS (National Health Service) Ambulance Service, providing potentially life-saving treatment and first aid until an emergency ambulance arrives.

The Welsh Ambulance Services NHS Trust, when looking at the locations for Responder Groups, take the following into consideration:

 * Towns or villages where it is challenging for an emergency ambulance to arrive at scene within 8 minutes – this is usually in the more rural areas of the county.
 * The total number of calls received within these locations must be significant enough for training to take place, ensuring motivation of the group members and that their contribution would have a valued, significant effect on patients.
 * Community first responders are members of the community who are trained to use an automated external defibrillator, give oxygen, and use other pieces of lifesaving equipment to assist ambulance crews, and maintain patient stability whilst professional crews are in attendance. Responders have no special dispensation to break the rules of the road whilst attending calls. Under the Road Traffic Act and various other UK traffic law, correct and permitted use of Blue Lights on a vehicle does not allow the driver to cross solid white lines to overtake, but does allow the driver to treat a red light as a 'Give Way' sign. Out of all the Ambulance trusts in the UK, a handful have CFR schemes with dedicated cars, and these are not given blue lights as CFR's do not undergo blue light training.

United States
See Emergency Medical Responder

History
The U.S. Department of Transportation (D.O.T.) recognized a gap between the typical eight hours training required for providing advanced first aid (as taught by the Red Cross) and the 180 hours typical of an EMT-Basic program. Also, some rural communities could not afford the comprehensive training and highly experienced instructors required for a full EMT-Basic course. The First Responder training program began in 1979 as an outgrowth of the "Crash Injury Management" course.

In 1995 the D.O.T. issued a manual for an intermediate level of training called "First Responder." This training can be completed in twenty-four to sixty hours. Importantly, this training can be conducted by an EMT-Basic with some field experience—which is a resource available "in-house" for many volunteer fire departments who do not have the resources for full EMT training. The first responder training is intended to fill the gap between First Aid and Emergency Medical Technician.

The American Red Cross conducts a course titled "Emergency Medical Response" that fits this definition.

In the US the term "Emergency Medical Responder" has largely replaced the term "Certified First Responder" or "Medical First Responder" beginning in 2012. "Emergency Medical Responder" or "EMR" is an EMS certification level recognized by the National Registry of Emergency Medical Technicians.

By 2015, most states recognize the level of Emergency Medical Responder.

Scope of practice
First Responders in the US can either provide initial emergency care first on the scene (police/fire department/search and rescue) or support Emergency Medical Technicians and Paramedics. The skills allowed at this level are very similar to an EMT's including bleeding control, positive pressure ventilation with a bag valve mask, oral airway, nasal airway, supplemental oxygen administration, suctioning, cardio-pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), use of an automated external defibrillator (AED), manual stabilization of fractures, and assisting in the administration of basic medications such as epinephrine auto-injectors, oral glucose, and inhalers. They are also trained in packaging, moving and transporting patients.

Skills and limitations
First Responders can serve as secondary providers with some volunteer EMS services. An Emergency Medical Responder can be seen either as an advanced first aid provider, or as a limited provider of emergency medical care when more advanced providers have not yet arrived or are not available.

Skillwise, a certified first responder in the US is often trained and allowed to do most of what an emergency medical technician is allowed to. Some exceptions in some jurisdictions include insertion of King airways or combi-tubes, traction splinting, and administration of nebulized albuterol.

Rescue
The National Fire Protection Association standards 1006 and 1670 state that all "rescuers" must have medical training to perform any technical rescue operation, including cutting the vehicle itself during an extrication. Therefore, in most all rescue environments, whether it is an EMS or Fire Department that runs the rescue, the actual rescuers who cut the vehicle and run the extrication scene or perform any rescue such as rope rescues or swift water rescue, etc., are Emergency Medical Responders, Emergency Medical Technicians, or Paramedics, as most every rescue has a patient involved.

Traditional first responders
The first responder training is considered a bare minimum for emergency service workers who may be sent out in response to an emergency call. It is almost always required for professional and volunteer firefighters. For example, all firefighters of the New York City Fire Department require a valid CFR-D (Certified First Responder - Defibrillation) certification. The first responder level of emergency medical training is also often required for police officers, rescue squad personnel, and search and rescue personnel. Many first responders have location specific training such as water rescue or mountain rescue and must take advanced courses to be certified (i.e. lifeguard).

Non-traditional first responders
Many people who do not fall into the earlier mentioned categories seek out or receive this type of training because they are likely to be first on the scene of a medical emergency, or because they work far from medical help.

Some of these non-traditional first responders include:
 * SCUBA Divers
 * Park rangers
 * Utility workers
 * Teachers, childcare workers, and school bus drivers
 * Designated industrial workers in a large facility (industrial plant) or at a remote site (fish-packing plant, commercial vessel, oil rig)
 * Security Officers
 * Emergency management personnel
 * Search and rescue personnel
 * Campus Responders and campus police
 * Lifeguards
 * Ski Patrollers
 * Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) members (varies by jurisdiction)
 * Stage Managers

title: Certified first responder


text:
Talk:September Massacres

mediocre
This is pretty mediocre as it stands, and the last paragraph -- "Some historians cite this outbreak of violence in the name of defending an imperiled Revolution as evidence of an inherent tendency toward bloodshed on the part of the Jacobins" -- is pure weasel: "Some historians" cite it as an "inherent tendency toward bloodshed on the part of" people they don't like.

Currently, I believe the material is covered in more detail at The Legislative Assembly and the fall of the French monarchy. Merge? Refactor? I'm at least adding a "see also". -- Jmabel 05:57, Jun 30, 2004 (UTC)

problems
A recent edit added "The September Massacres marked a period of violence against the Roman Catholic Church that spread throughout France and lasted for nearly a decade." I have two problems with that: (1) it tends to suggest that most of the victims were attacked for their connections to the Church. I am unaware of any reputable source that makes that claim. (2) As far as I know, violence against the Church and its institutions was, at most, intermittent after the fall of Robespierre: there was a flare-up at the time Rome was occupied by the French in 1799, but other than that just a smattering of incidents. No? -- Jmabel | Talk 04:41, Jun 21, 2005 (UTC)

 * I was only quoting J. McManners, The French Revolution and the Church (1969) and Gwynne Lewis, Life in Revolutionary France (1972). However, I did not mean it to say continual and massive like 1792, only sporadic but that acts of violence, plus demonstrations against the church that turned violent, continued until the Concordat. 17:07, 22 Jun 2005 (UTC)

"However this popular account of her being raped, dismembered or mutilated is disputed." Quite possibly; can someone please cite: disputed by whom? - Jmabel | Talk 03:49, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

Justification
Recently added, recently cut: "They justified their actions by claiming that they were preserving the republic." The place this was placed in the article, it is not clear who "they" are, though presumably the perpetrators of the massacres. I don't think this is necessarily false, but I don't think it is exactly true either: as I understand it, they justified their actions as an effort to destroy what would now be called a potential Fifth Column before heading off to war. Does someone have a citation for this? - Jmabel | Talk 05:38, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

Pcesse de Lamballe
moved here: 'However this popular account of her being raped, dismembered or mutilated is disputed." If this well-attested incident is "disputed", some details are required and the symptomatic "passive of non-attribution" corrected. --Wetman 04:04, 26 March 2006 (UTC)

Paris Commune
I think a description of the Paris Commune's actions just prior to the massacres is needed. Just days prior they sealed off the city and went door-to-door rounding up prisoners, and also they moved de Lamballe from the Temple (which wasn't targeted) to a nearby prison (which, of course, was). And it was just a few weeks earliers that the Commune became insurrectionary and orchestrated the assault on the Tuilleries. "They" is the Paris Commune.

Additions to the background
I've just writted down some more text in order to better this article, including some information about the background of the Paris Commune. I also added some aditional numbers of casualties. Besides, I made some changes in the way this articles was organized, in order to better its presentation. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Thaelman (talk • contribs) 08:35, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

 * Is Bergeron's universal history the very best source we can muster. What does Simon Schama's Citizens report of these days?--Wetman (talk) 00:32, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

Last line
Do you think this is the most blatant violation of POV in Wiki history? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.96.106.130 (talk) 19:27, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

Vague reference
"sans-culottes, the vast majority of Paris' fairly poor population"

To what or to whom does the phrase "fairly poor population" refer, to the vast majority who also happened to be fairly poor? to those who were fairly poor but not to those who were abjectly poor or only moderately poor? And was it a majority of this subset that formed the sans culottes? Remember when you write for public consumption you should take care to express a whole thought not a half; the reader can't read your mind (at least I can't).154.5.32.113 (talk) 11:06, 29 June 2011 (UTC)

I agree, clarification is needed, or else the statement should be removed. The sans culottes were made up of mostly working class tradesmen---butchers, bakers, printers etc. By the time of the massacres, they did compose a majority of the Parisian populace, by default, in that anyone who could afford to leave the city, had already done so by that time, leaving the sans culottes with a literal run of the city.Lorzu (talk) 00:36, 2 February 2012 (UTC)

Democratising (POV)
text says: The Commune took major steps towards democratizing the Revolution: the adoption of universal suffrage, the arming of the civilian population, absolute abolition of all remnants of noble privileges, the selling of the properties of the émigrés. I do not believe that an armed insurrection by a manipulated crowd, destituting the constitutional monarch, forcing the Assembly to dissolve itself, killing prisoners, intimidating voters (the suffrage was not secret), arming civilians, and confiscating properties is to be called "democratising" on the merit that it called for universal suffrage. The author (from North Korea :) should explain. Note that the noble privileges were already abolished in 1789 (August 4). The writer is clearly tendentious in trying to assign the merit to the Commune, by inventing a new "absolute" abolition. The short-lived universal suffrage (it was abolished again in 1795) increased the number of voters from an unrepresentative 10.2% in 1791 to and unrepresentative 11.9% in 1792. This was no step towards democracy. None of the revolutionary elections were democratic or representative for the French people in a modern democratic sense. Riyadi (talk) 14:40, 5 January 2012 (UTC)
 * All other objections aside (where I concede you have a point), I do believe that "democratising" is an apt description. As compared to most other political systems in the world at that time (including the U.S.) it certainly was one of the more democratic in regards to voting access. You can't judge it by modern day democratic standards, since systems which we today percieve as actual full universal suffrage wasn't introduced anywhere until late 19th early 20th century. --Saddhiyama (talk) 14:30, 2 February 2012 (UTC)

This article also seems to remove the context of elections, and the massacres relationship with them. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.72.133.15 (talk) 05:10, 6 November 2014 (UTC)

Changes
Dear User:Str1977, please don't complain so loud. This topic is too difficult for most Wikipedians. In five years time nobody added something on the talkpage. I spent weeks/months on this article to find out what happened and the article grew considerably since I started to work on it one year ago. You should cooperate not attack the other contributor. Nobody knows the truth. Taksen (talk) 09:07, 31 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I did not attack anyone nor did I shout. If so, please tell me where. I even stopped myself short of calling the article "a mess" a few times.
 * I disagree that "nobody knows the truth". While not all details might be clear, there has to be quite a few of historical research on this important topic. We should use that research for this article. To achieve this it is vital that every information is cited to a book where it can be looked up. "According to ..." should only be used if there is disagreement either between historians (e.g. J. Israel blames it all on Robespierre and Marat, while Professor X also includes Girondists among the culprits. Dr. Left thinks it was all okay) or between sources, as reported by historians, if the point of disagreement is important enough.
 * We are not helped by citing the works of Robespierre or pamphlets about " the king's Louis Capet's betrayal".
 * What I was trying to do right now is to bring the material that was already there into some coherent sequence, both chronologically and thematically. But I have to stumble over sentences likes:

"The first massacre began in quartier Latin around 2.30 in the afternoon when 24 non-juring priests were being transported to the prison de l'Abbaye near the Abbey of Saint-Germain-des-Prés, after being interrogated by Billaud-Varenne in the townhall. One of the carriages, escorted by Fédérés, was attacked after an incident. [ref] The Fédérés quickly killed three men in the middle of the street, before they could enter the prison. Eighteen arrested were taken inside. They then mutilated the bodies, "with circumstances of barbarity too shocking to describe" according to the British diplomatic dispatch."

 * So it began in the quartier Latin but the victims were transported from the townhall to the prison L'Abbaye after they were interrogated at the town hall. But the "federes" entered the prison. What about the "incident"? I have to admit that right now I do not know whether L'Abbaye is in the Latin Quarter. If so, this could be written in a much less confusing manner.
 * I have absolutely no objection against cooperation. Str1977 (talk) 09:56, 31 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I looked the locations up. L'Abbaye is not in the Latin Quarter but the transport from the town hall back to the abbey could have gone through the Latin Quarter. Is it correct that the first attack of the massacres was on the carriage taking the prisoners back, and that the federes then entered the prison to do more killing. Or was the incident/attack merely an interruption? Who were the three men "quickly killed". Prisoners? The attackers? Would such a street attack actually be part of the massacres? Str1977 (talk) 10:32, 31 December 2019 (UTC)
 * I don't know which site you used but the Abbaye prison was next to the Quartier Latin, which is according to the French Wikipedia in translation: Saint-Germain-des-Prés district, bounded to the west by Dauphine, de Buci, du Four and de Seine streets, to the north by the Seine, the Pont Royal and Ile des Cygnes, and to the south by the end of the Faubourg Saint-Germain from de Seine street to de Sèvres street. The incident happened when the carriages were in the bend of the Rue de Buci, in front of the prison. The prison or the abbey you can find on the map under number 40 between Rue de Colombier and Rue Marguerite. It is easy to find more details on the incident when you look for Abbé Sicard on internet. I suggest not to repeat it. It is easy and quite possible to loose track as each author tells the story a bit differently. Taksen (talk) 10:02, 1 January 2020 (UTC)

Page numbers
I don't understand why someone left the pagenumbers out. Could you explain for which reason? I think it is bad behavior.Taksen (talk) 19:11, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

Onward and upward
I've noticed a tendency for minor academics to publish University material on a subject and then splice in pages of florid, amateur prose into Wikipedia. Ultimately, they are trying to "flesh out" history, and add other perspectives than "history is written by the winners", but I see it as my ethical duty to pare this material down to the facts, and "re-balance" the viewpoint, not to some unrecognised Centrism, but to a reasonable inclusion. I'll whack this lead down and remove the notice, then cruise through the text for weasel words. Probably this merits an article, I'll leave that to others. Billyshiverstick (talk) 12:49, 2 September 2021 (UTC) cheers

 * Your prose is difficult to understand. Are you saying I am not going to do anything here? We don't need headmasters, but people who check and improve. If nothing happens I will revert your contribution one day. It looks as if you want to have everything presented on a silver tea tray, so you can lay back and see others struggling. Taksen (talk) 08:01, 3 September 2021 (UTC)

 * It was Bumbubookworm. He is an expert on swimmers and Vietnam. I am sorry, even the history of the article was difficult to understand. Taksen (talk) 13:31, 4 September 2021 (UTC) Only now I understand what happened. The article was used on the main page. In the old days the moderators would tell or warn you, but they skipped that. As a contributor to the article I am shocked each time. Did it help to ask in such a short time before the publication for more references and page numbers? I would say no.Taksen (talk) 14:18, 4 September 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:September Massacres


text:
Nicholas III

Nicholas III may refer to:

 * Patriarch Nicholas III of Constantinople (died 1111), ruled 1084–1111
 * Pope Nicholas III (c. 1225–1280), ruled 1277–1280
 * Nicholas III, Lord of Mecklenburg (after 1230–1289 or 1290)
 * Nicholas III of Saint Omer (died 1314)
 * Nicholas III, Duke of Opava (c. 1339–1394)
 * Patriarch Nicholas III of Alexandria, ruled 1389–1398
 * Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen (born 1952), pretender to the Russian throne as Nicholas III

title: Nicholas III


text:
First responder

A first responder is a person with specialized training who is among the first to arrive and provide assistance or incident resolution at the scene of an emergency. First responders typically include law enforcement officers (commonly known as police officers), emergency medical services members (such as EMTs or paramedics), fire service members (such as firefighters, search and rescue members, technical/heavy rescue members, etc) and Public Works employees such as Heavy Equipment Operators as well as Public Works Tree Department personnel. In some jurisdictions, emergency department personnel, such as doctors and nurses, are also required to respond to disasters and critical situations, designating them first responders; in other jurisdictions, military and security forces may also be authorized to act as first responders.

In a medical context, certified first responder is an individual who has received certification to provide pre-hospital care in a certain jurisdiction. A community first responder is a person dispatched to attend medical emergencies until an ambulance arrives. A wilderness first responder is trained to provide pre-hospital care in remote settings who has skills relevant to ad hoc patient care and transport by non-motorized means. Public Works departments are also recognized as First Responders as they are generally called to clean up natural disasters, plow snow and maintain roads as well as provide rescue support in extreme weather scenarios.

Etymology
The use of the term "first responder" in the current sense first emerged in the United States in the 1970s. Perhaps the earliest uses in print occurred in two articles in The Boston Globe in August 1973, about proposed ambulance regulations in Massachusetts. "'…any police or fireman who staff a 'dual-purpose' vehicle would have to be trained to offer 'first-responder' care — that is, to stabilize a patient until more sophisticated help arrived.'

'The chances are even better that your emergency call will be answered by a police or fire vehicle doing double duty instead of an adequately equipped ambulance and a paramedic trained in 'first responder' care.'"

There were some earlier uses of "first response", though not "first responder", in this sense. They included an article in the Grand Junction Daily Sentinel in March 1972, and another about the formation of a "First Response Group" composed of volunteers in The Burlington Free Press in April 1973.

A few months after its use in the Globe, the term "first-responders" appeared in a Boston Herald article about a master plan for emergency care from the Health Planning Council of Greater Boston. One of the recommendations in the plan, reported the Herald, was that "All ambulance personnel and first-responders (who are general police and firemen) should be adequately trained in emergency care such as cardopulmonary [sic] resuscitation."

"First-responder" was also used in a July 1974 classified advertisement for a deputy chief of EMT training—"to assist in developing and implementing statewide training programs for EMT's and first-responders"—from the Massachusetts Department of Public Health.

The term began appearing in newspaper articles from other parts of the United States in the second half of 1974, and was in widespread use by 1975. At some point, the dash between "first" and "responder" disappeared.

Specific jurisdictions
Some jurisdictions have special laws defining and establishing the rights and duties of first responders.

United States
The term first responder is defined in U.S. Homeland Security Presidential Directive, HSPD-8 and reads:

"The term 'first responder' refers to those individuals who in the early stages of an incident are responsible for the protection and preservation of life, property, evidence, and the environment, including emergency response providers as defined in section 2 of the Homeland Security Act of 2002, as well as emergency management, public health, clinical care, public works, and other skilled support personnel (such as equipment operators) that provide immediate support services during prevention, response, and recovery operations."

Emergency response providers are defined by as follows: "(6) The term 'emergency response providers' includes Federal, State, and local governmental and nongovernmental emergency public safety, fire, law enforcement, public safety telecommunicators/dispatcher, emergency response, emergency medical services providers (including hospital emergency facilities), and related personnel, agencies, and authorities."

Issues
First responders must be trained to deal with a wide array of potential emergencies. Due to the high level of stress and uncertainty associated with the position, first responders must maintain physical and mental health. Even with such preparation, first responders face unique risks of being the first people to aid those with unknown contagions. For example, in 2003 first responders were among the earliest cases of the previously unknown SARS virus, when they cared for patients affected with the virus.

Infectious disease has continued to be a major occupational health concern among first responders with the COVID-19 pandemic. The CDC and other agencies and organizations have issued guidance regarding workplace hazard controls for COVID-19. Specific precautions for first responders include modified call queries, symptom screening, universal PPE use, hand hygiene, physical distancing, and stringent disinfection protocols.

title: First responder


text:
Susquehanna

Susquehanna may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Susquehanna River, the source of the Chesapeake Bay

In Maryland

 * Susquehanna State Park (Maryland)

In Pennsylvania

 * Susquehannock tribe, Native American tribe of Pennsylvania
 * Susquehanna Bank
 * Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania
 * Susquehanna Depot, Pennsylvania, a borough in Susquehanna County
 * Susquehanna International Group, an institutional sales, research and market making firm
 * Susquehanna Area Regional Airport Authority
 * Susquehanna State Park (Pennsylvania)
 * Susquehanna Steam Electric Station, a nuclear power plant
 * Susquehanna Township, Pennsylvania (disambiguation), several places
 * Susquehanna Trails, Pennsylvania, a census-designated place in York County
 * Susquehanna University, in Selinsgrove, Pennsylvania
 * Sesquehanna Sub Division, in Independence, Missouri

Music, arts and entertainment

 * "Susquehanna", an unreleased song by Live recorded during the Throwing Copper sessions
 * "Oh, Susquehanna", a song by the band Defiance, Ohio on their 2006 album The Great Depression
 * Susquehanna (album), an album by the Cherry Poppin' Daddies
 * Susquehanna Radio Corporation, a media corporation from 1941, absorbed into Cumulus Media in 2005
 * Drej Queen Susquehana, the main antagonist of the 2000 animated film Titan A.E.

Companies and organizations

 * Susquehannah Company, a historical Connecticut company involved in a dispute with Pennsylvania
 * Susquehanna International Group, Pennsylvania-based financial services company
 * Susquehanna Polling & Research, Pennsylvania-based polling company

Other

 * Susquehanna, ferry of 453 tons, built in 1837 by Williamson & Richardson
 * USS Susquehanna, multiple ships
 * New York, Susquehanna and Western Railway, often called Susquehanna for short

title: Susquehanna