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Henry Hunt (politician)

Henry "Orator" Hunt (6 November 1773 – 13 February 1835) was a British radical speaker and agitator remembered as a pioneer of working-class radicalism and an important influence on the later Chartist movement. He advocated parliamentary reform and the repeal of the Corn Laws. He was the first member of parliament to advocate for women's suffrage; in 1832 he presented a petition to parliament from a woman asking for the right to vote.

Background
Hunt was born on 6 November 1773 in Upavon, Wiltshire.

Career

Hunt became a prosperous farmer. He was first drawn into radical politics during the Napoleonic Wars, becoming a supporter of Francis Burdett. His talent for public speaking became noted in the electoral politics of Bristol, where he denounced the complacency of both the Whigs and the Tories, and proclaimed himself a supporter of democratic radicalism. It was thanks to his particular talents that a new programme beyond the narrow politics of the day made steady progress in the difficult years that followed the conclusion of the war with France.

Orator
After his rousing speeches at mass meetings held in Spa Fields in London in 1816, Hunt became known as the "Orator", a nickname attributed to Robert Southey. He embraced a programme that included annual parliaments and universal suffrage, promoted openly and with none of the conspiratorial element of the old Jacobin clubs. The tactic he most favoured was that of 'mass pressure', which he felt, if given enough weight, could achieve reform without insurrection.

His efforts at mass politics had the effect of radicalising large sections of the community unrepresented in Parliament, although the direct success of these efforts was limited.

Peterloo

Hunt was invited by the Patriotic Union Society, formed by the Manchester Observer, to be one of the scheduled speakers at a rally in Manchester on 16 August 1819, which turned into the Peterloo massacre. Arrested for high treason and convicted of the lesser charge of seditious conspiracy, he was sentenced to a term of 30 months at Ilchester Gaol. For the establishment, Hunt believed in some concepts that could threaten the profits of the business establishment: equal rights, universal suffrage, parliamentary reform, and an end to child labour.

The debacle at Peterloo, caused by an over-reaction of the local Manchester authorities, added greatly to his prestige. Moral force was not sufficient in itself, and physical force entailed too great a risk. Although urged to do so after Peterloo, Hunt refused to give his approval to schemes for a full-scale insurrection. Thereby momentum was lost, as more desperate souls turned to worn out cloak-and-dagger schemes, which surfaced in the Cato Street conspiracy.

While in prison for his role at Peterloo, Hunt turned to writing to disseminate his message, through a variety of forms including an autobiography. After his release he attempted to recover some of his lost fortune through new business ventures in London, which included the production and marketing of a roasted corn Breakfast Powder, the "most salubrious and nourishing Beverage that can be substituted for the use of Tea and Coffee, which are always exciting, and frequently the most irritating to the Stomach and Bowels." He also made shoe-blacking bottles, which carried the slogan "Equal Laws, Equal Rights, Annual Parliaments, Universal Suffrage, and the Ballot." Synthetic coal, intended specifically for the French market, was another of his schemes. After the July Revolution in 1830 he sent samples to Gilbert du Motier, marquis de La Fayette and other political heroes, along with fraternal greetings.

Parliament
Business interests notwithstanding, he still found time for practical politics, fighting battles over a whole range of issues, and always pushing for reform and accountability. In 1830 he became a member of Parliament for Preston defeating the future British Prime Minister Edward Stanley, but was defeated when standing for re-election in 1833. As a consistent champion of the working classes, a term he used with increasing frequency, he opposed the Whigs, both old and new, and the Reform Act 1832, which he believed did not go far enough in the extension of the franchise. He gave speeches addressed to the "Working Classes and no other", urging them to press for full equal rights. In 1832 he presented the first petition in support of women's suffrage to Parliament. It was received however with much ribald laughter and antagonism. Also in that year, he petitioned parliament on behalf of the radical preacher John Ward, who had been imprisoned for blasphemy.

In his opposition to the Reform Bill, Hunt revived the Great Northern Union, a pressure group he set up some years before, intended to unite the northern industrial workers behind a platform of full democratic reform; and it is in this specifically that his influence on Chartism can be detected.

Death
Hunt's health declined during 1834, and in early 1835 he suffered a severe stroke at Alresford, Hampshire, where he died on 13 February 1835. He was buried at Parham Park, Sussex.

Legacy
A monument to Hunt was erected in 1842 by "the working people", in Every Street, Manchester, in Scholefield's Chapel Yard. A "spiral" march was held on the anniversary of Peterloo, from Piccadilly around the town past the Peterloo site, down to Deansgate and through Ancoats to the monument. The monument's stonework deteriorated, and it was demolished in 1888.

In popular culture
In Mike Leigh's 2018 film Peterloo, Hunt is portrayed by Rory Kinnear.

title: Henry Hunt (politician)


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Level

Level or levels may refer to:

Engineering

 * Level (optical instrument), a device used to measure true horizontal or relative heights
 * Spirit level or bubble level, an instrument designed to indicate whether a surface is horizontal or vertical
 * Canal pound or level
 * Regrading or levelling, the process of raising and/or lowering the levels of land
 * Storey or level, a vertical unit of a building or a mine
 * Level (coordinate), vertical position
 * Horizontal plane parallel

Gaming

 * Level (video games), a stage of the game
 * Level (role-playing games), a measurement of character development

Music

 * Level (music), similar to but more general and basic than a chord
 * "Level" (The Raconteurs song)
 * Levels (album), an album by AKA
 * "Levels" (Avicii song)
 * "Levels" (Bilal song)
 * "Levels" (Nick Jonas song)
 * "Levels" (Meek Mill song)
 * "Levels" (NorthSideBenji song), featuring Houdini
 * "Levels" (Sidhu Moose Wala song)

Places

 * Level Mountain, a volcano in northern British Columbia, Canada
 * Levél, Győr-Moson-Sopron, Hungary
 * Levels, New Zealand
 * Level, Ohio, United States
 * The Level, Brighton, a park in Brighton, UK
 * Level Valley
 * Levels, West Virginia

Science and mathematics

 * A quantity, generally
 * Level (algebra), the lowest number of squares that sum to $$-1$$ in a field
 * Level (logarithmic quantity), a logarithmic measure defined as the logarithm of a ratio of two like quantities
 * Level, the different values that a categorical variable can have
 * Level, the different values that a factor can have in factor analysis
 * Level, the different treatments that are applied within a factor in the design of experiments

Other uses

 * Level (airline brand), a pan-European airline brand
 * Level (magazine), a video game magazine in the Czech Republic, Romania, and Turkey
 * Level Vodka, a brand of vodka
 * Level, a collection of objects with the same rank in an overlapping hierarchy
 * Level, a layer of defense in two-level defense in American football
 * Level, an indication of the number of previous posts to a forum thread
 * LEVEL, a website for men of color published by Medium
 * The Level (TV series)

People with the surname

 * Annick Level (born 1942), French fencer
 * Calvin Levels (born 1954), American film actor
 * Dwayne Levels (born 1979), American football player
 * Janou Levels (born 2000), Dutch footballer
 * Léon Level (1910–1949), French professional road bicycle racer
 * Maurice Level (1875–1926), French writer
 * Tobias Levels (born 1986), German-Dutch footballer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Level


text:
Li Yu

Li Yu may refer to:

 * Emperor Suzong of Tang (711–762), personal name Li Yu, emperor of the Tang dynasty
 * Emperor Daizong of Tang (727–779), personal name Li Yu, emperor of the Tang dynasty, Emperor Suzong's son
 * Li Yu, Prince of Dan (died 820), Emperor Daizong of Tang's son
 * Li Yu, Prince of De (died 905), Emperor Zhaozong of Tang's son, briefly a puppet emperor
 * Li Yu (Later Tang) (died 935), chief councilor of the Later Tang dynasty
 * Li Yu (Southern Tang) (937–978), ruler of the Southern Tang dynasty, also a famous poet
 * Li Yu (author) (1610–1680), Chinese author during the Ming and Qing dynasties
 * Li Yu (speed skater) (born 1961), Chinese short track speed skater
 * Li Yu (director) (born 1973), Chinese film director and screenwriter

title: Li Yu


text:
Singular perturbation

In mathematics, a singular perturbation problem is a problem containing a small parameter that cannot be approximated by setting the parameter value to zero. More precisely, the solution cannot be uniformly approximated by an asymptotic expansion

 * $$\varphi(x) \approx \sum_{n=0}^N \delta_n(\varepsilon) \psi_n(x) \,$$

as $$\varepsilon \to 0$$. Here $$\varepsilon$$ is the small parameter of the problem and $$\delta_n(\varepsilon)$$ are a sequence of functions of $$\varepsilon$$ of increasing order, such as $$\delta_n(\varepsilon) = \varepsilon^n$$. This is in contrast to regular perturbation problems, for which a uniform approximation of this form can be obtained. Singularly perturbed problems are generally characterized by dynamics operating on multiple scales. Several classes of singular perturbations are outlined below.

The term "singular perturbation" was coined in the 1940s by Kurt Otto Friedrichs and Wolfgang R. Wasow.

Methods of analysis
A perturbed problem whose solution can be approximated on the whole problem domain, whether space or time, by a single asymptotic expansion has a regular perturbation. Most often in applications, an acceptable approximation to a regularly perturbed problem is found by simply replacing the small parameter $$\varepsilon$$ by zero everywhere in the problem statement. This corresponds to taking only the first term of the expansion, yielding an approximation that converges, perhaps slowly, to the true solution as $$\varepsilon$$ decreases. The solution to a singularly perturbed problem cannot be approximated in this way: As seen in the examples below, a singular perturbation generally occurs when a problem's small parameter multiplies its highest operator. Thus naively taking the parameter to be zero changes the very nature of the problem. In the case of differential equations, boundary conditions cannot be satisfied; in algebraic equations, the possible number of solutions is decreased.

Singular perturbation theory is a rich and ongoing area of exploration for mathematicians, physicists, and other researchers. The methods used to tackle problems in this field are many. The more basic of these include the method of matched asymptotic expansions and WKB approximation for spatial problems, and in time, the Poincaré–Lindstedt method, the method of multiple scales and periodic averaging. The numerical methods for solving singular perturbation problems are also very popular.

For books on singular perturbation in ODE and PDE's, see for example Holmes, Introduction to Perturbation Methods, Hinch, Perturbation methods or Bender and Orszag, Advanced Mathematical Methods for Scientists and Engineers.

Examples of singular perturbative problems
Each of the examples described below shows how a naive perturbation analysis, which assumes that the problem is regular instead of singular, will fail. Some show how the problem may be solved by more sophisticated singular methods.

Vanishing coefficients in ordinary differential equations
Differential equations that contain a small parameter that premultiplies the highest order term typically exhibit boundary layers, so that the solution evolves in two different scales. For example, consider the boundary value problem

 * $$\begin{matrix}

\varepsilon u^{\prime \prime }(x)+u^{\prime }(x) =-e^{-x},\ \ 0<x<1 \\ u(0) =0,\ \ u(1)=1. \end{matrix}$$

Its solution when $$\varepsilon=0.1$$ is the solid curve shown below. Note that the solution changes rapidly near the origin. If we naively set $$\varepsilon=0$$, we would get the solution labelled "outer" below which does not model the boundary layer, for which x is close to zero. For more details that show how to obtain the uniformly valid approximation, see method of matched asymptotic expansions.

Examples in time
An electrically driven robot manipulator can have slower mechanical dynamics and faster electrical dynamics, thus exhibiting two time scales. In such cases, we can divide the system into two subsystems, one corresponding to faster dynamics and other corresponding to slower dynamics, and then design controllers for each one of them separately. Through a singular perturbation technique, we can make these two subsystems independent of each other, thereby simplifying the control problem.

Consider a class of system described by the following set of equations:

 * $$\dot{x}_1 = f_1(x_1,x_2) + \varepsilon g_1(x_1,x_2,\varepsilon), \,$$
 * $$\varepsilon\dot{x}_2 = f_2(x_1,x_2) + \varepsilon g_2(x_1,x_2,\varepsilon), \, $$
 * $$x_1(0) = a_1, x_2(0) = a_2, \,$$

with $$0<\varepsilon \ll 1$$. The second equation indicates that the dynamics of $$x_2$$ is much faster than that of $$x_1$$. A theorem due to Tikhonov states that, with the correct conditions on the system, it will initially and very quickly approximate the solution to the equations

 * $$\dot{x}_1 = f_1(x_1,x_2), \,$$
 * $$f_2(x_1,x_2) = 0, \,$$
 * $$x_1(0)=a_1,\,$$

on some interval of time and that, as $$\varepsilon$$ decreases toward zero, the system will approach the solution more closely in that same interval.

Examples in space
In fluid mechanics, the properties of a slightly viscous fluid are dramatically different outside and inside a narrow boundary layer. Thus the fluid exhibits multiple spatial scales.

Reaction–diffusion systems in which one reagent diffuses much more slowly than another can form spatial patterns marked by areas where a reagent exists, and areas where it does not, with sharp transitions between them. In ecology, predator-prey models such as

 * $$u_t = \varepsilon u_{xx} + uf(u) - vg(u), \,$$
 * $$v_t = v_{xx} + vh(u), \,$$

where $$u$$ is the prey and $$v$$ is the predator, have been shown to exhibit such patterns.

Algebraic equations
Consider the problem of finding all roots of the polynomial $$p(x) = \varepsilon x^3-x^2+1$$. In the limit $$\varepsilon\to 0$$, this cubic degenerates into the quadratic $$1 - x^2$$ with roots at $$x = \pm 1$$. Substituting a regular perturbation series

 * $$x(\varepsilon) = x_0 + \varepsilon x_1 + \varepsilon^2 x_2+\cdots$$

in the equation and equating equal powers of $$\varepsilon$$ only yields corrections to these two roots:

 * $$x(\varepsilon) = \pm 1 + \frac{1}{2}\varepsilon \pm \frac{5}{8}\varepsilon^2+\cdots .$$

To find the other root, singular perturbation analysis must be used. We must then deal with the fact that the equation degenerates into a quadratic when we let $$\varepsilon$$ tend to zero, in that limit one of the roots escapes to infinity. To prevent this root from becoming invisible to the perturbative analysis, we must rescale $$x$$ to keep track with this escaping root so that in terms of the rescaled variables, it doesn't escape. We define a rescaled variable $$y= x \varepsilon^{\nu}$$ where the exponent $$\nu$$ will be chosen such that we rescale just fast enough so that the root is at a finite value of $$y$$ in the limit of $$\varepsilon$$ to zero, but such that it doesn't collapse to zero where the other two roots will end up. In terms of $$y$$ we have

 * $$y^3 -\varepsilon^{\nu-1}y^2 + \varepsilon^{3\nu - 1} = 0 .$$

We can see that for $$\nu < 1$$ the $$y^3$$ is dominated by the lower degree terms, while at $$\nu =1$$ it becomes as dominant as the $$y^2$$ term while they both dominate the remaining term. This point where the highest order term will no longer vanish in the limit $$\varepsilon$$ to zero by becoming equally dominant to another term, is called significant degeneration; this yields the correct rescaling to make the remaining root visible. This choice yields

 * $$y^3 -y^2 + \varepsilon^2 = 0 .$$

Substituting the perturbation series

 * $$y(\varepsilon) = y_0 + \varepsilon^2 y_1 + \varepsilon^4 y_2+\cdots$$

yields

 * $$y_0^3 - y_0^2 = 0.$$

We are then interested in the root at $$y_0 = 1$$; the double root at $$y_0 = 0$$ are the two roots that we've found above that collapse to zero in the limit of an infinite rescaling. Calculating the first few terms of the series then yields

 * $$x(\varepsilon) = \frac{y(\varepsilon)}{\varepsilon} = \frac{1}{\varepsilon} - \varepsilon - 2\varepsilon^3+\cdots.$$

title: Singular perturbation


text:
Talk:Desert bighorn sheep

Origin
See Talk:Bighorn_Sheep for origins of this article. -- hike395

Biology
Can someone add more about the biology of this animal? Life cycle, habitat, what it eats, etc.? thanks.

Mexico
why does this article only talks about US territory? It should include information from Mexico too.

It should also note that Ovis Canadensis Nelsoni is Nevada's Official State Animal. Its on our drivers licenses and most Government seals in at least Southern Nevada. 24.242.79.44 (talk) —Preceding undated comment was added at 09:10, 16 January 2009 (UTC).

vgjffg\ I replaced the existing image with a larger image. The images are of equivalent quality, but the new one is larger, which makes it more appealing in my book. Since this is the second time I've edited this page in a couple of days, I thought I'd justify myself, in case it looks like edit warring. Alex Dodge 05:09, 13 March 2007 (UTC)

nelsoni or mexicana ?
The article currently (July 2008) lists this animal as Ovis canadensis nelsoni; however, the New Mexico Game and Fish Department list it as Ovis canadensis mexicana. See "Desert Bighorn Sheep" Wildlife Notes. What is the authority behind each name? Which is the proper zoological terminology? --Bejnar (talk) 22:28, 9 July 2008 (UTC)

mexicana is a related subspecies thats genetically distinct from nelsoni on a really minor level. Basically if it lives outside of the Mojave and Blackrock Deserts (which would make sense coming from New Mexico) its generally, though not always, a mexicana, and its really difficult if not downright impossible to tell the difference in subspecies except for a slight coloration difference as Mexicana tend to have darker fur and thinner horns than Nelsoni but again this varies from animal to animal. 24.242.79.44 (talk) —Preceding undated comment was added at 09:03, 16 January 2009 (UTC).

Low populations?
If the desert sheep have "low populations" then why is it listed as "least concern?" — Preceding unsigned comment added by 209.252.183.253 (talk) 01:17, 17 September 2016 (UTC)
 * Where does the article say the species has low population? —hike395 (talk) 02:15, 18 September 2016 (UTC)

right here:

"As of 2004, desert bighorn sheep numbers remain extremely low, although the overall population trend has increased since 1960."

It says, that the numbers are "extremely low". Right there. So, it they're low, then why is it listed as "least concern"? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 47.138.92.237 (talk) 03:21, 27 September 2016 (UTC)
 * I added a reference to McCutchen, USGS report. The phrase "extremely low" is taken verbatim from that report. —hike395 (talk) 06:10, 27 September 2016 (UTC)
 * The IUCN status is for the whole species, not the subspecies, so it isn't applicable. I will investigate further. —hike395 (talk) 12:00, 27 September 2016 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Desert bighorn sheep


text:
Expander

Expander may refer to:

 * Dynamic range compression operated in reverse
 * Part of the process of signal compression
 * Part of the process of companding
 * A component used to connect SCSI computer data storage, devices together
 * Turboexpander, a turbine for high-pressure gas
 * Expander graph, a sparse graph used in the combinatorics branch of mathematics
 * StuffIt Expander, a computer file decompressor software utility
 * Micro Expander, also known as the Expander, an 8-bit S-100 microcomputer released in 1981
 * "Expander" (song), a 1994 song by The Future Sound of London
 * Orthodontic expander, a device to widen the upper jaw
 * Disclosure widget, a widget that hides non-essential settings or information, also known as an expander

title: Expander


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James E. Webb

James Edwin Webb (October 7, 1906 – March 27, 1992) was an American government official who served as Undersecretary of State from 1949 to 1952. He was the second Administrator of NASA from February 14, 1961, to October 7, 1968. Webb led NASA from the beginning of the Kennedy administration through the end of the Johnson administration, thus overseeing each of the critical first crewed missions throughout the Mercury and Gemini programs until days before the launch of the first Apollo mission. He also dealt with the Apollo 1 fire.

In 2002, the Next Generation Space Telescope was renamed the James Webb Space Telescope as a tribute to Webb.

Early and personal life
Webb was born in 1906 in Tally Ho in Granville County, North Carolina. His father, John Frederick Webb, was superintendent of Granville County's segregated public schools. Sarah Gorham Webb was his mother. He completed his college education at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he received a Bachelor of Arts in Education in 1928. He was a member of the Acacia fraternity. Webb became a second lieutenant in the United States Marine Corps, and he served as a Marine Corps pilot on active duty from 1930 to 1932. Webb then studied law at The George Washington University Law School, where he received a J.D. degree in 1936. In the same year, he was admitted to the Bar of the District of Columbia.

Webb married Patsy Aiken Douglas in 1938, and they had two children. He was a Freemason.

U.S. House of Representatives staff
Webb began his long career in public service in Washington, D.C., by serving as secretary to U.S. Representative Edward W. Pou of North Carolina from 1932 to 1934. Pou was chairman of the Rules Committee and Dean of the House. With Webb's assistance, Pou was influential in pushing through the first legislation of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal during the first hundred days of Roosevelt's term. In addition to his secretarial duties, Webb provided physical assistance to the aging and ailing Pou.

Assistant to private attorney
Webb next served as an assistant in the office of Oliver Max Gardner, an attorney, former governor of North Carolina and friend of President Roosevelt, from 1934 to 1936. Gardner supported Webb in finishing law school.

During the Air Mail scandal of 1934, the government halted the carrying of airmail by private airline companies. A group of airline executives, led by Thomas Morgan, the President of the Sperry Gyroscope Company in Brooklyn, hired Gardner's firm to represent them. The successful resolution resulted in the resumption of contracts with private airlines.

Personnel director for Sperry Gyroscope
As a result of their interactions, Sperry Gyroscope hired Webb as the personnel director and assistant to Thomas Morgan, the president of Sperry. Between 1936 and 1944, Webb became the secretary-treasurer and later the vice president of Sperry. During his tenure, Sperry expanded from 800 employees to more than 33,000 and became a major supplier of navigation equipment and airborne radar systems during World War II.

Marine re-enlistment
Although he wished to re-enlist in the Marines at the start of the war, Webb was deferred because of the importance of his work at Sperry to the war effort. He reentered the Marine Corps on February 1, 1944 and soon became the commanding officer of Marine Air Warning Group One, 9th Marine Aircraft Wing, first as a captain and later as a major. Webb's brother, Henry Gorham Webb, was also a Marine Corps officer who was at that time a prisoner of war in Japan, having served with VMF-211 during the Battle of Wake Island, and then subsequently captured.

He was put in charge of a radar program for the invasion of the Japanese mainland. He had orders to leave for Japan on August 14, 1945, but his orders were delayed, and the Surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945, meant that he did not see combat.

Bureau of the Budget
After World War II, Webb returned to Washington, DC and served as executive assistant to Gardner, now the Undersecretary of the Treasury, for a short while before he was named as the director of the Bureau of the Budget in the Office of the President of the United States, a position that he held until 1949. Webb was recommended for the appointment to Harry S. Truman by Gardner and Treasury Secretary John Snyder. Because of Webb's association with the Treasury Department, his appointment was seen as subordinating the BoB to the Treasury. His appointment surprised Webb, who had not been told of the final decision to appoint him.

The Bureau of the Budget prepared the President's proposed budget each year for presentation to Congress. Truman's objective for the budget was to bring it to balance after the large expenditures of World War II.

State Department
President Truman next nominated Webb to serve as an undersecretary of state in the U.S. Department of State, which he began in January 1949. Webb's first assignment from Secretary Dean Acheson was to reorganize the department, adding 12 new presidential appointees and reducing the power of subordinate officers. Webb also consolidated the flow of foreign policy information and intelligence through the secretariat. When President Truman signed the bill codifying the reorganization on May 26, 1949, the department, which had been losing power and influence to the military, strengthened its ties to the President.

A question facing the Department of State at the time was whether the Soviet Union could be contained through only diplomatic means or whether the military would be needed. Paul Nitze, as Director of Policy Planning, wrote a classified memo, NSC 68, arguing for a military build-up of NATO forces. Although Secretary of Defense Louis A. Johnson opposed an increase in the Defense budget, Webb got Truman to convince him to support the recommendations of NSC68.

On June 25, 1950, the North Korean Army invaded South Korea. Webb and Secretary Acheson devised three recommendations: involve the United Nations, send the Navy Pacific Fleet into the Yellow Sea, and authorize an Air Force strike on the Korean tanks. Truman implemented the first two recommendations immediately but delayed the use of force by several days. The Defense Department was blamed for the lack of U.S. preparedness, and Johnson tried to blame Acheson. Webb worked with his contacts in Congress and others to convince Truman to replace Johnson, and George Marshall was called out of retirement to become the new Secretary of Defense.

In 1950, Webb established an alliance with university scientists, Project Troy, to bolster the United States' psychological warfare capabilities, in particular studying how to circumvent Soviet attempts to jam Voice of America broadcasts.

With the attention of the department focused on the Korean War, Webb's influence weakened. As the author of NSC68, State Department Director of Policy Planning Paul Nitze became the principal advisor to Secretary Acheson, and a misunderstanding between Webb and Nitze led to Nitze outwardly calling for Webb's resignation, but the rift eventually blew over. Webb started suffering from migraines and resigned in 1952.

Webb left Washington for a position in the Kerr-McGee Oil Corp. in Oklahoma City, but he was still active in government circles, for instance in serving on the Draper Committee in 1958.

NASA

On February 14, 1961, Webb accepted President John F. Kennedy's appointment as administrator of NASA, taking the reins from interim director, Deputy Administrator Hugh L. Dryden. Webb directed NASA's undertaking of the goal set by Kennedy of landing an American on the Moon before the end of the 1960s through the Apollo program. For seven years after Kennedy's announcement on May 25, 1961, of the goal of a crewed lunar landing, Webb lobbied for support for NASA in Congress, until he left NASA in October 1968. As a longtime Washington insider and with the backing of President Lyndon B. Johnson, he was able to produce continued support and resources for Apollo.

During Webb's administration, NASA developed from a loose collection of research centers to a coordinated organization. He had a key role in creating the Manned Spacecraft Center, later the Johnson Space Center, in Houston. Despite the pressures to focus on the Apollo program, Webb ensured that NASA carried out a program of planetary exploration with the Mariner and Pioneer space programs. Webb was an early champion of space telescopes, like the one that would later bear his name.

Encouraged by Kennedy and Johnson, Webb made racial integration a priority for the agency. NASA publicly supported the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and initiated a series of innovative programs aimed at increasing black participation including specifically targeting black colleges and schools with recruitment programs. On one occasion Webb and Wernher von Braun famously confronted and lectured segregationist Alabama Governor George Wallace on racial integration in front of the press. NASA had the worst black representation of any government agency in 1961, but by the time Webb stepped down, it was the best and considered the model for other government agencies on racial integration.

After the Apollo 1 accident in 1967, Webb told the media, "We've always known that something like this was going to happen sooner or later... Who would have thought that the first tragedy would be on the ground?" Webb went to Johnson and asked for NASA to be allowed to handle the accident investigation and to direct its recovery, according to a procedure that was established following the in-flight accident on Gemini 8 (1966). He promised to be truthful in assessing blame regarding Apollo 1, even to himself and NASA management, as appropriate. The agency set out to discover the details of the tragedy, to correct problems, and to continue progress toward the Apollo 11 lunar landing. Webb reported the investigation board's findings to various congressional committees and took personal blame at nearly every meeting. Whether by happenstance or by design, Webb managed to deflect some of the backlash over the accident away from both NASA as an agency and from the Johnson administration. As a result, NASA's image and popular support were largely undamaged.

Webb was informed by CIA sources in 1968 that the Soviet Union was developing its own heavy N1 rocket for a crewed lunar mission, and he directed NASA to prepare Apollo 8 for a possible lunar orbital mission that year. At the time, Webb's assertions about the Soviet Union's abilities were doubted by some people, and the N-1 was dubbed "Webb's Giant". However, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, revelations about the Soviet Moonshot have given support to Webb's conclusion.

Webb was a Democrat tied closely to Johnson, and since Johnson chose not to run for reelection, Webb decided to step down as administrator to allow the next president, Republican Richard Nixon, to choose his own administrator. Webb left NASA on October 7, 1968, his sixty-second birthday, just before the first crewed flight in the Apollo program.

Drawing on his NASA experience, Webb published Space Age Management: The Large-Scale Approach (1969), in which he presented the space program as a model of successful administration that could be broadened to address major societal problems.

In 1969, Johnson presented Webb with the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Webb is also a 1976 recipient of the Langley Gold Medal from the Smithsonian Institution.

Later life and death
After retiring from NASA, Webb remained in Washington, DC, serving on several advisory boards, including serving as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. In 1981, he was awarded the Sylvanus Thayer Award by the U.S. Military Academy at West Point for his dedication to his country.

Webb died from a heart attack at Georgetown University Hospital in Washington on March 27, 1992, at age 85. He was buried in Arlington National Cemetery.

Legacy
Webb was played by Dan Lauria in the 1998 miniseries From the Earth to the Moon, and by Ken Strunk in the 2016 film Hidden Figures.

NASA's James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), originally known as the Next Generation Space Telescope, was renamed after Webb in 2002. Launched on December 25, 2021, it is considered the successor to the Hubble Space Telescope.

Controversy about telescope name
In March 2021, a commentary in Scientific American urged NASA to rename the James Webb Space Telescope, accusing Webb of complicity in the State Department's purge of homosexuals from the federal workforce in the 1940s and 1950s, known as the "lavender scare". This controversy was reported in the press. The scientists who proposed renaming the telescope pointed to the case of NASA budget analyst Clifford Norton.

Personnel matters fell under the purview of the Deputy Administrator of NASA Robert Seamans; direct evidence of Webb's knowledge of Norton's firing has not come to light. Such firings have been claimed to be a "custom within the agency" in that era. Historian David K. Johnson, author of 2004 book The Lavender Scare, has stated that there is no evidence Webb led or instigated any persecution, nor played "any sort of leadership role in the lavender scare". According to astrophysicist Hakeem Oluseyi, the initial accusations that Webb was part of the lavender scare were based on a quote from John Peurifoy (who, like Webb, had the rank of "Undersecretary of State") which was wrongly attributed to Webb.

On September 30, 2021, NASA announced that it would keep the JWST name after running an investigation and finding "no evidence at this time that warrants changing the name".

Former administrator Sean O'Keefe, who made the decision to name the telescope after administrator Webb, stated that to suggest that Webb should "be held accountable for that activity when there's no evidence to even hint [that he participated in it] is an injustice".

On October 24, 2022, the Royal Astronomical Society released a statement on the matter, in which they indicated the editorial policy of their journals would be to not spell out Webb's name when referring to the telescope until such time as an investigation was completed and a report made public. Less than a month later, NASA released the report of their investigation and accompanying evidence. The report, based on an examination of more than 50,000 documents, found there was no evidence of wrongdoing by Webb either in his time in the State Department or at NASA. In regard to his time at State, the report mirrors Johnson's earlier findings – Webb played no role in helping the Hoey committee or their agents. With regard to Norton's firing at NASA, the report indicates Webb probably was not told of the incident; it also notes that the policy under which Norton was fired was not a NASA policy but an Executive Order applying to all government agencies, that was not enforced by NASA, but rather the Civil Service Commission, over which Webb had no influence. This led to the Royal Astronomical Society reversing its position.

title: James E. Webb


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Similitude (Star Trek: Enterprise)

"Similitude" is the tenth episode from the third season of the science fiction television series Star Trek: Enterprise. It first aired on November 19, 2003 and was the 62nd episode in the series. Captain Archer orders a short-lived clone of Trip Tucker to be made to save Tucker's life. This episode won an Emmy for musical composition. When the series was reappraised ten years after its initial broadcast, "Similitude" (along with "Dear Doctor") was noted by some reviewers as one of the most thought provoking episodes of Enterprise. In particular, they cited the examination of ethics on Enterprise, especially the questionable decisions Archer makes in Season 3.

Plot
Commander Trip Tucker, while endeavoring to increase the stable speed of Enterprise to Warp 5, becomes comatose when the engines destabilize and explode. Doctor Phlox suggests a radical and controversial procedure to save him: growing a mimetic symbiote as a neurological donor. Archer, concerned with the overarching goal of their mission, authorizes the procedure. The symbiote, with a natural lifespan of two weeks, is then injected with Tucker's blood and is soon born. Phlox names him Sim, and as he develops rapidly, Tucker's memories and personality begin to express themselves, including an interest in engineering, and a romantic attraction to Sub-Commander T'Pol.

The window of time approaches when Phlox must perform the transplant—which, it turns out, will be fatal to Sim. Sim, having now "met himself" in Sick Bay, reveals knowledge of an experimental procedure that might allow for a significant extension of his lifespan. Archer learns that Phlox knew of this procedure, but concealed his knowledge due to its highly experimental and poorly researched nature. Sim expresses a strong desire to live—Tucker's own life notwithstanding—through the rest of his natural life. Later, a tired-looking Archer, angered at finding Sim in Tucker's quarters, states he would rather Sim voluntarily submit to the fatal procedure than be forced to do so.

Sim planned an escape but resigned himself to the transplant, after contemplating the death of his sister due to the Xindi attack on Earth. He realizes his and the crew's options are limited. Before leaving for Sick Bay, T'Pol arrives and gives him a kiss. Sim thanks Phlox for being a good father to him. With the medical procedure successful, Archer honors his sacrifice in the presence of the crew, including Trip. The episode begins and ends with the funeral and burial of Sim in space.

Production
This was the first episode written by Manny Coto. Coto was the creator of the science fiction series Odyssey 5. Scott Bakula called it "one of our best scripts in three years." Coto was proud of the episode, and thought it was a good story premise: "It's actually the question of, 'What if an individual can be grown in seven days? And what if that individual could then be harvested to help another individual?' I thought it presented a fascinating dilemma and a great opportunity for drama."

The episode is a bottle show set on the ship, using only existing sets, although it does feature guest cast portraying the younger versions of Commander Tucker. The newborn clone "Sim" was played by a set of eight-week-old triplets, and the eight-month-old baby was portrayed by twins. Maximillian Kesmodel was the four-year-old and Shane Sweet played the seventeen-year-old Tucker. Adam Taylor Gordon, who previously played young Trip in The Xindi, returned as eight-year old-Sim, working for four of the seven days of production.

"Similitude" is the sixth Enterprise episode directed by LeVar Burton.

Reception
The episode first aired on UPN on November 19, 2003. It saw increased Nielsen ratings earning a 3.0/5 total rating share. This means that approximately 3% of American households were tuned to UPN, while "North Star" was viewed by 5% of households at the time. This translated to an average audience of 4.59 million viewers, the most viewers the show had achieved for an episode since Future Tense in February 2003.

Herc of Ain't It Cool News gave the episode 3.5 out of 5. He praised the casting of the various versions of Trip, the "intellectual and, yes, emotional journey" of T'Pol, and appreciated the emphasis on "solidly paced, thought-provoking science fiction" although he was critical of the contrived circumstances needed to set up the moral dilemma. Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation thought the ending was a cop out, and that like the Voyager episode Tuvix, the character being murdered was "far more than the sum of his parts". She continued "I didn't have to feel this way, because it's not only a question of ethics but a question of plot holes" and she thought it would have been better if Sim had taken Tucker's place.

Den of Geek ranked this the ninth best episode of this television series. TechRepublic included the episode on its list of the 5 best episodes of Enterprise. The A.V. Club include this episode on their list of 10 episodes that best represented the series, and called it a "contender for the best episode of Enterprise". Vulture listed this episode as one of the best of Star Trek: Enterprise. Vox listed it as one of the 25 essential episodes of Star Trek.

John Billingsley said "Similitude" was probably the best episode of the series, for several reasons: "Everyone in the cast was involved and everyone had an emotional through-line. Some episodes, of any show, actors are used to convey information or they’re shunted aside. That episode, I thought it was the best of our ensemble pieces and it did what Star Trek does best, which is to deal with a topical question that has some sociological significance in a way that brings humanist values into play."

The Hollywood Reporter interviewed various cast and production crew of the Star Trek franchise to determine the "100 Greatest Episodes" from across the five series, and rated "Similitude" the 85th best episode of all Star Trek episodes.

Awards
Composer Velton Ray Bunch won an Emmy for musical composition, for this episode. Bunch had previously received two Emmy nominations, for the television series Quantum Leap and the television film Papa's Angels both featuring Scott Bakula, and in his acknowledgments Bunch thanked Bakula "who has been a fan and so loyal to me over the years."

title: Similitude (Star Trek: Enterprise)


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Gehyra mutilata

Gehyra mutilata, also known commonly as the common four-clawed gecko, Pacific gecko, stump-toed gecko, sugar gecko in Indonesia, tender-skinned house gecko, and butiki in Filipino, is a species of lizard in the family Gekkonidae. The species is native to Southeast Asia. It has made its way to several areas of the world including Sri Lanka, Indochina, and many of the Pacific Islands. Compared to the common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), the appearance of G. mutilata is somewhat plump, with delicate skin. The skin is usually colored a soft purplish/pinkish gray, with golden spots on younger specimens; these spots eventually fade with age.

Description
The head of G. mutilata is longer than broad. The snout is longer than the distance between the eye and the ear-opening, about 1.3 times the diameter of the orbit. The forehead has a median groove. The ear-opening is moderately large and suboval. The body and limbs are moderately elongate and depressed. A fold of the skin borders the hind limb posteriorly. The digits are short and more or less webbed at the base. The inferior lamellae are angular and divided by a median groove. The upper surface of the body and the throat are covered with small granular scales, which are largest and flat on the back. The abdominal scales are moderate. The rostral is quadrangular, broader than deep, with a median cleft above. The nostril is pierced between the rostral, the first labial, and three nasals, the upper much the largest and generally in contact with its fellow. There are 8 or 9 upper labials, and 6 or 7 lower labials. The mental is moderately large and pentagonal. There are 3 pairs of chin shields. The innermost pair is very large and elongate. The outermost pair is small, frequently broken up into small scales. The femoral pores are in a doubly curved line, angular in the middle, 14 to 19 on each side. The tail is depressed, normally with a sharpish, minutely serrated lateral edge. The upper surface of the tail is covered with very small flat scales. Its lower surface generally has a median series of large transversely dilated scales. G. mutilata is greyish or reddish brown above, uniform or dotted or variegated with darker. The lower surfaces are uniform whitish.

G. mutilata may attain a snout-to-vent length (SVL) of 2.25 in, with a tail length equal to SVL.

A key identification character is the absence of a claw on the innermost digit.

Geographic range
The species G. mutilata is widely distributed throughout Borneo, southeastern China, French Polynesia, Hawaii (Maui), India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the Mascarene Islands, western Mexico, Myanmar, New Guinea, the Philippines, the Pitcairn Islands, Seychelles, and Sri Lanka.

Behavior and habitat
Like many other geckos, G. mutilata is very adaptable to its surroundings, although it usually prefers woodlands, rocky areas, and human dwellings, at altitudes from sea level to 1,400 m. It is also very common on sand beaches in Hawaii, where it is considered an invasive species. It makes itself at home in people's houses, and doesn't seem to mind the humans living beside it. Many people don't mind the gecko either, perhaps because, being a nocturnally active species, it spends much of its time high up on walls and ceilings. It is quite unobtrusive and helpfully preys on household insects. Like many gecko species, G. mutilata is able to make noises to communicate. Its call, which sounds like "tock", is repeated six to eight times with increasing volume. It is also capable of running faster than other house geckos.

G. mutilata are often compared to the common gecko (H. frenatus) when it comes to habitat location, and it is often said that G. mutilata will not be found around H. frenatus although this pattern can differ depending on location.

Diet
G. mutilata preys upon isopods, termites, and other small insects.

Reproduction
G. mutilata is oviparous. Clutch size is one to three eggs, usually two.

title: Gehyra mutilata


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Post (Björk album)

Post is the second studio album by Icelandic singer Björk. It was released on 7 June 1995 by One Little Indian Records. Continuing the style developed on her first album Debut (1993), Björk conceived of Post as a bolder and more extroverted set of songs than its predecessor, featuring an eclectic mixture of electronic and dance styles such as techno, trip hop, IDM, and house, but also ambient, jazz, industrial, and experimental music. Björk produced Post herself with co-producers including Nellee Hooper, 808 State's Graham Massey, and former Massive Attack member Tricky. She wrote most of the songs after moving to London and intended the album to reflect her new life in the city.

The album reached number one in Iceland, number two in the United Kingdom and number 32 in the United States. It was certified gold in New Zealand and Sweden, and platinum in Australia, Canada, the US, and the UK. Six singles were released: "Army of Me", "Isobel", "It's Oh So Quiet", "Hyperballad", "Possibly Maybe", and "I Miss You", with three reaching the UK top 10. Their accompanying music videos were noted for their surrealism, themes of nature and technology, and artistic development of the medium. A remix album titled Telegram was released in 1996.

During the album's commercial peak, Björk was affected by media attention and Post 's promotional tour. She survived a murder attempt, and caused controversy by assaulting a reporter. Björk would relocate to Spain away from the press and produce her next album, Homogenic (1997). Considered an important exponent of art pop, Post has been praised by critics for its ambition and timelessness. It was named one of the greatest albums of 1995 by numerous publications, and has since been named one of the greatest albums of all time by publications including Entertainment Weekly and Rolling Stone.

Recording and production
Björk released her previous studio album Debut in 1993. At that time, she had moved to London. The production of Debut was "long and laborious", as Björk sought to fully realise her compositional ideas from the past. After its release, she was free to concentrate on her present life for new musical clues for her following album. She contacted producer Nellee Hooper who had worked with her on her previous album. He refused initially, encouraging her to produce the album herself, but agreed when she insisted. However, Björk agreed to co-produce along with other enlisted producers; "to make it stay fresh, she had to think about other people being involved". With Hooper's confirmation, Björk commenced work on the album in late 1994 at the Compass Point Studios in Nassau. The picturesque locale inspired Björk to meld the recording process with the exotic natural environment. Biographer Mark Pytlik writes: "The tales surrounding these recording sessions are appropriately evocative". For example, Rolling Stone wrote that for her vocals: "Björk extended her mic cord to a beach so she could sing to the sea". In fact, Björk waded out into the ocean and recorded her vocals while the sun set, captured to a digital recorder powered by a generator on the beach. Additionally, the first version of "Cover Me" was recorded entirely from a nearby cave.

For this record, Björk incorporated shelved songs she wrote in Manchester with 808 State's Graham Massey, which had preceded the recording sessions for Debut. These included "Army of Me" and "The Modern Things", which had become live staples over the summer, and did not need to undergo extensive transformations at Compass Point. Björk explained her decision to include "Army of Me" in Post rather than Debut: "I was gonna make it as a part of Debut but for me [that album] was a more gentle energy and Post was more raw, more brutal. And maybe you can say that Debut was London but Post was more a little bit Manchester, a little bit Scotland, a little bit Bristol. So it was not so sleek. At that time, anything that came from London was a little bit sleek, and people from Scotland and Manchester and Bristol looked down at all things sleek, they wanted things to be raw. When I use the word 'sleek' I actually don't use it as a bad word, I think it worked really well on Debut, to kinda glue everything together. But I think on Post I was like: 'okay, I've put aside this raw energy, now I want to bring it in." Massey stated: "With 'Army of Me' we wanted to try something that was quite hard and techno-y. I'm not sure how she wrote those lyrics so fast but I remember that song being almost instantaneous. [...] We kind of knocked that off in one day and then started on 'The Modern Things' the same day and finished that the next".

Although the album was supposed to be delivered the day after she returned from the Bahamas, Björk felt it was not yet complete and decided to continue its production back in London. She enlisted a new team of engineers and programmers, and spent the next months "tweaking, rearranging, and sometimes completely rerecording her pre-existing tracks". Ultimately, it was the inclusion of more "real" instruments that "resuscitated Post for Björk". Björk continued to compose songs such as "Isobel", which was created while she was visiting Reykjavík for Christmas, before bringing it back to Hooper's studio. The song's lyrics were written in collaboration with Icelandic poet Sjón, which was his first songwriting experience. Sjón would become a frequent collaborator throughout Björk's career. She also enlisted trip hop artist Tricky to assist in producing the album, on the condition that he would work on two tracks on her album and she would contribute two vocals for his album. Their collaboration resulted in the Post songs "Enjoy" and "Headphones"—in addition to "Keep Your Mouth Shut" and "Yoga", which appeared on Tricky's 1996 studio album, Nearly God.

The track that underwent the most extensive change was "I Miss You", an old song from the Debut era. Howie Bernstein gave the song its "Latin-tinged [rhythm]". Back in London, Björk contacted "old standby" Talvin Singh to record additional percussion parts for it. Fellow former Sugarcubes member Einar Örn Benediktsson was also contacted to play the trumpet on "Enjoy". English sessionist Gary Barnacle was enlisted to play the saxophone. Although he had not been involved in music for a long time, Brazilian composer Eumir Deodato immediately agreed to participate on the album at Björk's request. Björk decided to contact him after being impressed by his arrangements of a rare Milton Nascimento song called "Travessia". Deodato's presence as composer and conductor "immediately bolstered" "Hyperballad", "You've Been Flirting Again" and "Isobel". This addition of strings, brass and percussion elements gave Post the balance Björk felt her original recordings had lacked. "It's Oh So Quiet" was the last track to be recorded. By the time the album was finished in April 1995, the list of co-producers included Björk, Hooper, Bernstein, Massey, and Tricky. Björk has said: "The people I collaborated with were all people I was hanging out with in clubs in London. I had known them all for a while before we ended up working together."

Musical style
Björk's website described Post as "a bit of a bolder side of [Björk], who now had ventured all the way from Iceland to England, and was exploring the faster pace and big city life that this new country brought. This album became influenced of that and became more adventurous and club-friendly as a contrast to the shy first album, Debut." Likewise, The Guardian wrote in 2011 that "Post tapped into the vortex of multicultural energy that was mid-90s London where she had relocated, and where strange hybrids such as jungle and trip-hop were bubbling". Noted for its eclectic nature, Björk described Post as "musically promiscuous" and "spastic". Peter Tabakis of Pretty Much Amazing said that it has a protean form and "wide emotional palette". While the album is recognised as an experimental work, it is also characterised by its accessibility and pop framework. Post has been described as art pop, experimental pop, and avant-pop.

Post touches on various musical styles, including industrial music, big-band jazz, trip hop, chillout, and experimental music. Jim Farber, reviewing the album in 1995 for Entertainment Weekly, considered Post to be a "connecting point between industrial-disco, ambient-trance, and catchy synth pop". When asked if this variety of genres was intentional, Björk replied: "Yes, I'm very aware of that. I've got very many sides to me." She recognises Post as darker and more aggressive than Debut, and has identified independence, strength, and instinct as its lyrical themes. The balance between synthetic and organic elements in the album—generated through the combination of electronic and "real" instruments—is a recurring characteristic of Björk's output. In 1999, Vibe stated: "Fusing techno, industrial, ambient, punk, and the rarefied yet tuneful spheres of art rock, Björk explores a jungle of tones, supported by her eternally buoyant voice from Mars." Part of the album's innovation was Björk's further embrace of electronic instrumentation, an interest established on Debut. While IDM and trip hop influences were present on Debut, Post is characterised by Björk's fuller incorporation of these genres.

The Rolling Stone review stated that Björk "[foraged] for inspiration in the soundscapes of orchestral jazz, ambient techno and classical". Influences of jazz fusion were also noted by a contemporary review by The New York Times. In 1996, when asked about the album's musical influences, Björk stated: "I'm influenced by everything. By books, by the weather, by the water, by my shoes, if they're comfortable or not. Everything."

Songs
The album opens with "Army of Me", an aggressive song with industrial rock, and trip hop influences. It incorporates a looped drum sample of Led Zeppelin's "When the Levee Breaks". Dedicated to Björk's younger brother, the song's lyrics are, according to Björk herself, "about telling someone who is full of self-pity and doesn't have anything together to get a life and stand up"; as she sings: "And if you complain once more/You'll meet an army of me!" "Hyperballad", which incorporates a spectrum of electronic and orchestral styles, has been described as "a love song penned by Aphex Twin". NME wrote that its music "altered from gentle folktronica to drum and bass-tinted acid house"; an attempt to reflect the song's lyrics, which are about "the art of not forgetting about yourself". In them, Björk describes living at the top of a mountain and going to a cliff at sunrise. She throws objects off the cliff while pondering her own suicide. The ritual allows her to exorcise darker thoughts and return to her partner. The track is followed by "The Modern Things", a song that, in a magical realist tone, "playfully posits the theory that technology has always existed, waiting in mountains for humans to catch up". Interview described it in 1995 as a "spooky tune", noting "the odd scratchings at the end" of the track. In a startling shift in style, the big band track "It's Oh So Quiet" covers a German composition made famous by Betty Hutton. It has been described as "a palate-cleanser during the course of the record". Björk included the song "just to make it absolutely certain that the album would be as schizophrenic as possible, that every song would be a shock".

The following track, "Enjoy", a song concerning the links between sex and fear, has been considered "decidedly trippy", and "Post's most abrasive track". NME described it in its 1995 review as, "a dark and deranged techno thing". Over military drums and "squalls of noise", Björk sings about "her hedonistic tendencies". The orchestral interlude "You've Been Flirting Again", like the previous track "Enjoy", features "mysterious or open-ended lyrics". They are an attempt to describe the ambiguous nature of flirting. "Isobel" is a string-laden, orchestral trip hop song, Craig McLean of The Face called the track "Broadway on breakbeats". Conceived by Björk as "part autobiography part storytelling", its lyrics concern Isobel, a woman magically born in a forest who finds people in the city "a bit too clever for her", eventually retreating back to nature and sending them a message of instinct through trained moths. Inspired by South American literature—particularly Gabriel García Márquez—the track's lyrics discuss "the duality between reason and emotions, between intuition and intellect"; in Björk's words, "asking how 20th century civilisation clashes with nature and, in places like Iceland and Thailand, people really believe they can have a TV remote control in one hand and a ghost sitting beside them".

"Possibly Maybe" is an ambient dub track that fuses trip-hop and chill-out music. Björk has said that it was the first unhappy song she wrote, stating in 1997: "That was very hard for me. [...] I was ashamed writing a song that was not giving hope". Its lyrics document the various stages of Björk's ill-fated relationship with Stéphane Sednaoui. With the track, De Vries "create[d] a vinyl-crackling ambience, full of glissando strings and leaden, muted bass. The slide guitar heard in the background of the song was originally intended to be its focal point, as Björk initially strived for an "ambient country" sound inspired by Chris Isaak's "Wicked Game". "I Miss You" was described in 1997 as an "amalgam of styles, with electronic drums melding into African bongos mixed with jazzy horn playing". A house music number, its "horn-infused Afro-Cuban strains [...] reflect the romantic whimsy of [its] lyrics". Björk wrote "Cover Me", one of the quieter moments on the album, to her co-producer Nellee Hooper after he agreed to participate in the making of Post. She has said: "I guess I was trying to make fun of myself, how dangerous I manage sometimes to make album making. And trying to lure him into it. But it is also a admiration [sic] thing from me to him". The album ends with the experimental "Headphones", an ambient track. Featuring "just-for-headphones studio tricks", it has been described as "a chiming, somnolent dip into Björk's heavy-lidded pre-dream state". Its lyrics were written as a thank you to Graham Massey, who would make compilation cassettes for Björk. She also stated: "But, of course, it is also a love letter to sound. The sound of sound. Resonances, frequencies, silences and such... a music-worship thing".

Title and artwork
Björk chose the title Post for two reasons. Firstly, it refers to the fact that all the songs on the album were written after her move to England, while the songs on Debut were songs she had written during the previous ten years of her life in Iceland. In a 1996 interview, Björk said: "I always knew it would be two albums and that's why I called them Debut and Post. Before and after". Secondly, the title was inspired by Björk's desire to communicate with friends and family back in Iceland, giving Post the additional meaning of "mail".

The album cover was taken from an April 1, 1995 photoshoot with photographer Stephane Sednaoui. It shows Björk standing in a London street, her pale skin and dark hair contrasting with the vivid colours of the Japanese-inspired signs behind her. Designer Paul White of Me Company—who had been a frequent collaborator since the Sugarcubes —"surrounded her with giant postcards to represent communication with friends and family". Björk also said that "my musical heart was scattered at the time and I wanted the [cover] to show that". Me Company designed the artwork, while Martin Gardiner modeled the lotus flower used in the album's booklet and packaging. The jacket Björk wears, shown on the cover, was inspired by Royal Mail airmail envelopes, referencing the album's title. It was specially crafted from envelope paper called Tyvek by designer Hussein Chalayan. The jacket is displayed under glass at Hard Rock Reykjavík, and was part of a 2015 MoMA retrospective on Björk, Björk. Vice has identified the airmail jacket look as one of the "ultimate fashion moments" of Björk's career.

A shot of Björk surrounded by silver balls was planned as the cover, but it was scrapped in favour of something "more poppy". The photo would later appear in a 1995 article for The Face.

Release and promotion
Post was released on 7 June 1995, as a 12" record, CD, and compact cassette. It was issued on One Little Indian Records in the United Kingdom and Elektra Records in the United States and Canada; Polydor Records issued Post in Australia and Japan, also releasing the European edition of the album. In September 1995, Björk and poet Sjón released Post, a paperback book meant to be a "pictorial and verbal record of the making of that album". It contained interviews with Björk and also focused on the European leg of the tour. The Post tour was her first proper North American tour as a solo artist, with Aphex Twin as her opening act. While in the United States, she also appeared on Late Night with David Letterman; this tour "helped maintain Post's momentum and keep Björk in the public eye", since airings of "Army of Me" and "Isobel" had been relegated primarily to after-hours alternative music shows in MTV. In the United Kingdom, Björk also performed on Top of the Pops on several occasions. In 1996, Björk took part in Arnold Schoenberg's Pierrot lunaire, conducted by Kent Nagano and the Opera orchestra of Lyon. In addition, Björk also appeared in several music magazines.

In November 1996, Björk released the "often-delayed" remix project Telegram, which contained reworkings of several songs from Post, with her voice re-recorded. Telegram has been described as "effectively a completely new album". Author Mark Pytlik writes, "Promises of a Post remix album had been circulating since the release of "Army of Me" in April 1995. To compensate, Björk announced the release of a string of 12″ remixes beginning in June, limited to only 1,000 copies each. Producers and musicians featured on Telegram include: Dillinja, Eumir Deodato, LFO, and Graham Massey, among others; Björk only remixed "You've Been Flirting Again" herself. The album also contains a new composition, "My Spine", a collaboration with British percussionist Evelyn Glennie. Telegram spent five weeks on the US Billboard 200 chart, peaking at number 66. In the UK, it peaked at number 59, spending two weeks on the albums chart.

In 2005, the UNICEF charity record Army of Me: Remixes and Covers was released; it is a collection of seventeen eclectic remixes of "Army of Me". All profits went directly to the charity, to assist the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami. Live at Shepherds Bush Empire was released as a VHS in November 1998, containing the last performance of the Post tour, which took place at Shepherd's Bush Empire in February 1997. Post Live, a live album consisting of songs recorded during the Post tour, was included in the 2003 box set Live Box. The 2002 box set Family Tree includes demos and alternate versions of various tracks off the album. Post has been reissued several times, adapting to different formats such as colored records, 180g vinyl, and DualDisc. A remastered version of the album in surround sound was included in the box set Surrounded, which was released in 2006 on Elektra Records. In 2012, Universal Japan issued a limited edition of Debut and Post together as one compilation. All of Post's music videos were included on the 1998 video release Volumen, and its 2002 reissue Volumen Plus. They also appear on Greatest Hits – Volumen 1993–2003, a release that includes the videos featured on Volumen and Volumen Plus. They are also featured on video compilations of its directors, including The Work of Director Michel Gondry and The Work of Director Spike Jonze, all of them from 2003.

Singles
"Army of Me" was released as the lead single from Post on 24 April 1995, shortly after the album's production concluded. It was released in the United Kingdom as two different CD releases, with "Cover Me", "You've Been Flirting Again", "Sweet Intuition", and various remixes as its B-sides. A commercial success, it peaked atop the Íslenski Listinn Topp 40, as well as at numbers five and ten in Finland and the United Kingdom, respectively. In the United States, it peaked at number 21 on the Alternative Airplay chart. Michel Gondry directed the video for "Army of Me", which takes place in a cyberpunk environment. In the video, Björk is seen driving a massive truck, which has been described as "alternately [looking] like an overgrown SUV and a science fiction tank" as she quests to rescue her loved one from an art museum.

"Isobel" was released as the second single on 14 August, with B-sides "Charlene", "I Go Humble", "Venus as a Boy", and several remixes. Although the record company was against the idea of releasing "Isobel", Björk insisted because she "felt intuitively that this was the right choice". However, "Isobel" did not replicate the success of "Army of Me", peaking at number two in Iceland and number 23 in the UK. The music video for "Isobel", directed by Gondry "Isobel" represents the story of the title character Björk envisioned with Sjón. It tells the story of "a wild child discovering urban culture through installations of toy fighter planes", over lush superimposed imagery. Like in the lyrics, where Björk takes the role of narrator and protagonist, she plays two different parts in the music video: Björk is seen as the Isobel who "weaves and composes this world and this story on her organ", and as the Isobel who inhabits this primal world.

"It's Oh So Quiet" was released as the third single on 13 November. Its B-sides included "You've Been Flirting Again", "Hyperballad", "Sweet Sweet Intuition" (a rework of "Sweet Intuition"), and "My Spine". The music video for "It's Oh So Quiet" became one of the most played clips on MTV, and the song became Björk's most successful single, peaking at number one in Iceland and within the top ten in Australia, Finland, Ireland, Scotland and the UK, while peaking at number nine on the US Billboard Hot 100's extension Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. The single was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI) for shipments of 400,000 units in the UK. Spike Jonze directed the music video for "It's Oh So Quiet", a homage to Hollywood's Technicolor musicals that drew inspiration from Busby Berkeley and Jacques Demy's The Umbrellas of Cherbourg. Like Demy, Jonze "mines the magical from the mundane," as he transforms a drab auto shop into the location where Björk dances and sings with a full dance company, an attempt to reflect the "exuberance" of her vocal performance.

"Hyperballad" was released as the fourth single on 12 February 1996. The single—consisting of two separate CDs—also included remixes of the song, "Isobel" and "Cover Me". Some regions also included a double A-side single with the song "Enjoy", although it only received a number of promo remixes. It peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart and atop the US Dance Club Songs. The music video for "Hyperballad", also directed by Gondry, has been described as "a techno-dream visual story full of flashing lights, buzzing static, and holograms." It shows Björk as "a character running through a landscape that simulates that of a computer game, only to throw herself off a cliff." The clip is an attempt to reflect the song's story, so Gondry depicted Björk lying down as a dead body, with a holographic image of her singing superimposed on her.

"Possibly Maybe" was released as the fifth single on 28 October via several 12-inch records and three different CD releases. A limited-edition 12-inch double A-side with remixes of "Possibly Maybe" and "Enjoy" (by Mark Bell and Dom T., respectively) was also released. "Possibly Maybe" peaked at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart. Sednaoui directed the music video for "Possibly Maybe", despite the song being about his failed relationship with Björk. Björk and Sednaoui had previously worked together in the music video for "Big Time Sensuality". In the clip, she appears "as a goddess, floating out from a numinous light-streaked background." Sednaoui is known for having a particularly filmic technique for each of his clips; in "Possibly Maybe", the use of blacklighting "makes Björk glow sensuously and perversely". It was conceived in a theatrical way: nearly all of the scenes were filmed in the same space, which is transformed with changes in the mise-en-scène. The style of "Possibly Maybe"'s scenery and Björk's wardrobe reference East Asian imagery, and a Japanese traditional doll is featured as Björk's only accompaniment; as a silent witness, it is the object on which the protagonist casts reflections on her own identity. Regarding the video, Sednaoui said: "Her song and my video were a way of saying things to each other that we couldn't say otherwise."

"I Miss You" was released as the sixth and final single on 17 February 1997. Although it became Björk's third US Dance Club Songs number-one single, it was the least successful single from Post in Europe, as it peaked only at number 36 on the UK Singles Chart. The animation of its music video was produced by John Kricfalusi and directed by Erik Weiss. It was promptly censored on MTV because of its nudity and violence towards the end.

Critical reception
Upon its release, Post received universal acclaim from music critics. Lorraine Ali of Rolling Stone praised the album for differentiating from the alternative rock offerings of the early 1990s, and for successfully merging disparate styles. She concluded: "When Post comes to an end, it feels like getting back from a good vacation: the last thing you want to do is re-enter the real world". Writing for Entertainment Weekly, Jim Farber stated that despite Post's "bizarre" combination of diverse genres, the conviction of Björk's delivery and assuring hooks "[made] her most surreal passages as relatable as moon-June standards". He felt that Björk "[reinvented] that tradition, constructing standards for the cyber age".

Joy Press, who reviewed the album for The New York Times, praised the album for not being a "play-safe sequel" to Debut, pointing out that Björk, "[had] followed her most wonderfully wayward impulses". Los Angeles Times critic Richard Cromelin felt that Post was "an often heady mix of trendiness and nostalgia" that was capable of transcending Björk's self-consciousness. Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune found the album's backing tracks to be "even more varied and unusual" than on Debut, describing Björk as "an extra-terrestrial voice rummaging around in a sonic toybox". Spin's Barry Walters felt the album was an improvement over its predecessor, stating its songs were "stronger, more developed, and less reliant on Björk's wide-eyed delivery". He concluded that: "After years of (no) alternative fascist grunge domination, it's heartening that Björk and producer-co-songwriter Nellee Hooper stayed true to themselves and created another highly personal album that has a chance of interrupting the airwave flow of whiny rockers with little imagination".

Writing for MTV Online, Lou Stathis wrote that, "[it's mostly] Björk's wacky, mind-altered perspective that makes Post modern pop music at once both baffling and engaging". He believed that the album was a rewarding experience for both the casual consumer, as well as the serious listener, also pointing out that, "it not only sounds good while you're listening to it, but it leaves you feeling good when it's over, too". Robert Christgau, reviewing the album for The Village Voice, was less enthusiastic. He found that the album's "eccentric instrumentation" and "electronic timbres" failed to compensate for its lack of "groove" and was unmoved by Björk's lyrics, which he said "might hit home harder if she'd grown up speaking the English she'll die singing, but probably wouldn't".

Commercial performance
Post reached the top ten of several countries, including Australia, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. Post also peaked at number two on the European Top 100 Albums chart. The album peaked at number 32 in the Billboard 200, almost 30 places higher than the peak position of its predecessor Debut. It also received an enthusiastic reception from college radios. Post also reached top 40 in Hungary and Japan. The album was certified platinum in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States, and Europe; and gold in Sweden and New Zealand. In 2007, The Washington Post reported that Post had sold 810,000 units in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan; it had sold 36,000 additional copies by 2015.

Controversies
The music video for "Army of Me" was removed from MTV's playlist before it aired because its ending depicted Björk bombing an art museum; the Oklahoma City bombing happened at this time. Author Mark Pytlik wrote that this "foreshadowed a string of unlucky events that would further hinder Post's unveiling".

An unsourced sample by Robin Rimbaud, prominently heard throughout "Possibly Maybe", resulted in a lawsuit demanding a co-songwriter credit. After Rimbaud's label New Electronica refused a sample clearance compensation of £1,000 from One Little Indian founder Derek Birkett, Björk and Birkett resolved to destroy over 100,000 copies of the album to create a new version without the sample. However, at the request of Rimbaud, New Electronica gave Björk permission use the sample.

Musician Simon Fisher sued Hooper and Björk over writing credits in Debut (1993), but these charges were cleared by judge Robin Jacob. According to Pytlik, these events resulted in "the strangest promotional tour anyone could have ever envisioned: in the week since Post had been released, Björk had seen her album deleted, her video banned, and two separate lawsuits brought against her". One Little Indian were also better prepared to promote the album, scheduling a string of European and American tour dates from the beginning of July into late August.

During the Post era, the extensive media attention and a world tour of 105 dates began to affect Björk. She repeatedly complained about the intrusiveness of tabloids and reporters. On tour in February 1996, Björk arrived at Bangkok International Airport with her son Sindri after a long flight. While the pair walked through the arrival terminals, reporter Julie Kaufman approached them and said, "Welcome to Bangkok!" Björk charged at Kaufman and wrestled her to the ground. It was later reported Kaufman had been bothering Björk and Sindri for days prior. The incident was reported around the world.

On 12 September, an obsessed American fan, Ricardo López, sent a letter bomb rigged with sulfuric acid to Björk's residence in London, returned home and filmed his suicide. Police contacted Scotland Yard, who intercepted the package without incident. To record in privacy away from the unwanted interest of the press, Björk's tour drummer Trevor Morais offered her his studio in Málaga, Spain, to record her next album, Homogenic.

Impact and legacy
Nick Coleman of The Independent considered Post to be an important release of the art pop genre, Retrospectively, Slant Magazine's Eric Henderson argued that Post "will likely always remain the Björk album that most successfully sustains her winning balance of experimental whimsy and solid pop magic", while Heather Phares of AllMusic wrote that the record was "not simply Debut redux" and concluded: "The work of a constantly changing artist, Post proves that as Björk moves toward more ambitious, complex music, she always surpasses herself". Celebrating the album's 20th anniversary, the British magazine NME described it as, "a masterful matching of hard, up-to-the-minute beats with complex, personal lyrics about the rush and rage of being a modern urban woman". American writer Tom Moon included Post in his 2008 reference book 1,000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die.

The album's influence has been identified as being increasingly palpable on the contemporary music landscape, and later reviews of the album also make note of the timeless aspect of the music. Writing for The Daily Review, James Rose wrote in 2015: "Post is where mainstream music could have gone. While modern chart music hasn't gone there entirely[,] she undoubtedly helped broaden the playing field. [The album] stands today as a body of work that still informs the more marginal artistic fringes of modern music and reminds us how narrow and staid our world would be without outliers like Björk. Also in 2015, Andrew Shaw of Nerdist felt that Post "chose to ignore expectation, market restrictions, and contemporary trends", and that Björk "pushed her vocal performances into new places, where no other vocalists could dare to sing". He compared the album's impact on audiences to that of Jimi Hendrix's 1967 album, Are You Experienced, writing it "set the benchmark for what was possible when you take tradition and set it on fire". Raymond Ang of The Wall Street Journal considered Post to be "Björk's last stab at the pop game… she would dig deeper into her increasingly avant-garde interests and, in the years to come, thrill and challenge her audience".

David Longstreth of Dirty Projectors is an admirer of the record, stating he was influenced by Björk's deconstruction of classic melodies. American singer-songwriter Amy Lee has said Post is "one of the biggest records in [her] life". DJ Shadow sampled "Possibly Maybe" in "Mutual Slump", a track off his 1996 album, Endtroducing...... The Vitamin String Quartet—known for its series of tribute albums to rock and pop acts—covered "Army of Me" and "You've Been Flirting Again" in the 2001 album, Ice: The String Tribute to Björk. In 2008, Stereogum released a compilation of cover versions in homage to the album, titled Enjoyed: A Tribute to Björk's Post. It features: Dirty Projectors, Liars, Xiu Xiu, High Places and Atlas Sound, among other artists.

Much of Post 's six music videos have gone on to become classics—most notably "It's Oh So Quiet" and "Army of Me". At the time of its release, music videos were beginning to be used as an art form, and Björk's visual output during this period—and her career in general—have become a clear example of the medium's artistic legitimation. Spanish writer Estíbaliz Pérez Asperilla has identified recurring motifs and themes through Björk's videography; these include nature and a magnified depiction of Björk. Surrealism and technology have also been identified as recurring features in Björk's visual output of this period. David Ehrlich of Time Out considered her "one of the first artists to meaningfully explore the aesthetic and semiotic value of CG and its relationship to the [videos]." Writing for Paste, Alexa Carrasco felt, "Björk has created some of the most beautiful and weird videos to ever play on MTV." The popularity of the music video for "It's Oh So Quiet" made the song one of Björk's most ubiquitous tracks, and was considered her first breakthrough on MTV. The music videos—and the pink boots Björk wears in "Hyperballad" (the work of Belgian designer Walter Van Beirendonck)—were displayed in the Museum of Modern Art, New York City, as part of the 2015 Björk exhibition. They were also featured in the 2016 exhibition, Björk Digital, which premiered at Carriageworks as part of the Vivid Sydney festival.

In 2008, when asked how she felt about the album in retrospect, Björk reflected: "I was kinda surprised how the odd spastic thing of the album had actually aged well."

Accolades
By the end of 1995, Post appeared on the year-end lists of multiple publications. In The Village Voice's Pazz & Jop critics' poll for 1995, the album placed at number seven. At the 1995 Icelandic Music Awards, Post received the award for Album of the Year; Björk was also awarded Artist of the Year, Female Singer of the Year, Composer of the Year, and was nominated for Songwriter of the Year. Additionally, "Army of Me" received the Song of the Year award, with "Isobel" also being nominated. She also received the Best Female award at the 1995 MTV Europe Music Awards, and Best International Female at the Rockbjörnen Awards. Björk was also nominated for the Nordic Council Music Prize. In 1996, she received her second Best International Female Solo Artist award at the 16th Brit Awards. She received the same distinction at the Danish Music Awards, the International Dance Music Awards, and the Italian Music Prize. In 1996, Post was nominated for Best Alternative Music Album at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards, was awarded an IFPI Platinum Europe Award, and the ASCAP Vanguard Award given by the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers. For the album's music videos, "Army of Me" was nominated for Best Special Effects in a Video and the International Viewer's Choice Award at the 1995 MTV Video Music Awards. "It's Oh So Quiet" was nominated for the Best Music Video award at the 38th Annual Grammy Awards, losing to Janet and Michael Jackson's "Scream". At the 1996 MTV Video Music Awards, the video was awarded the Best Choreography in a Video award, and was nominated for Best Female Video, Breakthrough Video, Best Direction, Best Art Direction in a Video, and International Viewer's Choice Award (MTV Europe).

Vibe included the album in its 1999 list of the 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century. Slant Magazine considered it the second best album of the decade in a 2011 list, only behind Björk's next release, Homogenic, writing it: "is [her] most scatterbrained work to date, but it's tied together flawlessly by [Björk's] singular whimsicality". In 2003, Pitchfork listed it as the 20th best album of the decade, with William Morris writing, "few artists on this list could rival [Björk] in terms of innovation, vision, talent, and high-yield experimentation, and Post was the record to establish this." In a 2012 article, Paste considered Post to be the sixty-fourth best album of the decade, with Ryan Reed stating: "no Björk album is as weird (or weirdly wonderful) as 1995's Post, a dizzying whirlwind of sonic textures and stylistic shifts that demonstrates every facet of her ever-expanding bag of tricks. [...] Björk clearly aimed to demonstrate the meaninglessness of genre boundaries. She succeeded." Post was ranked at number 376 on Rolling Stone's "500 Greatest Albums of All Time" list, with the publication praising its "utter lack of musical inhibition," and ranked at number 289 on the 2020 updated list. The American publication Consequence of Sound placed the album at number seventy-nine on their 2010 list of the Top 100 Albums Ever, with Harry Painter writing: "Björk is one of few artists who could put out an album juxtaposing blistering electro-pop with big band, club-ready tribal dance with downtempo trip-hop and find both critical and commercial success." In 2015, Post placed on number 69 on Spin's list of the 300 Best Albums of the Past 30 Years, claiming that "[Björk's] fearless plunge into styles is matched by the aplomb with which she bares her anxieties and aspirations." Also in 2008, FNAC placed the album at number 246 in its list of the 1000 best albums of all time. In an unordered list of 500 essential albums compiled for Vanity Fair in 2013, English musician Elvis Costello included Post and mentioned "Hyperballad" as a highlight of the record. In the album's entry of the "Women Who Rock: The 50 Greatest Albums of All Time" list of 2012, Rolling Stone felt, "Björk's artistic stature grew by yards in the course of this strange, affecting work, by turns harshly industrial, meditative and neon jubilant."

Track listing
Notes
 * "Army of Me" contains a sample from "When the Levee Breaks" (1971), performed by Led Zeppelin.
 * “Hyperballad” is named as “Hyperballad (Family Tree Version)” in some regions on streaming services.
 * "The Modern Things" contains a sample from "Latin-Esque" (1962) by Juan García Esquivel.
 * "Isobel" contains samples from "Infinity" (1973) by Shelly Manne and "Salut Mayoumba" (1983) by Yello.
 * “Isobel” is named as “Isobel (Family Tree Version)” in some regions on streaming services.
 * "Possibly Maybe" contains a sample from "Untitled (Side A)" (1994), performed by DJ Scanner. The sample was shortly removed from some early pressings of Post while it was disputed.
 * "I Miss You" contains samples from "L'Abeille" (1978) by Guem & Zaka Percussion, and "Industrial Bass (Backroom Remix)" (1990) by Project 86.

Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Post.

Musicians

 * Björk – vocals, arrangements, keyboards, organ, string arrangements, brass arrangements, beat programming
 * Howie Bernstein – programming
 * John Altman – orchestra arrangements, conducting
 * Marcus Dravs – programming
 * Lenny Franchi – programming
 * Graham Massey – keyboards, programming
 * Tricky – keyboards, programming
 * Marius de Vries – keyboards, programming
 * Gary Barnacle – soprano saxophone
 * Stuart Brooks – trumpet
 * Jim Couza – hammer dulcimer
 * Einar Örn Benediktsson – trumpet
 * Eumir Deodato – string arrangements, conducting
 * Isobel Griffiths – orchestral contracting
 * Maurice Murphy – trumpet
 * Tony Pleeth – cello
 * Guy Sigsworth – harpsichord
 * Talvin Singh – percussion
 * Rob Smissen – viola
 * Gavin Wright – orchestra leading

Technical personnel

 * Björk – production
 * Howie Bernstein – production, engineering, mixing
 * Marcus Dravs – engineering, mixing
 * Al Fisch – engineering
 * Lenny Franchi – engineering
 * Nellee Hooper – production
 * Graham Massey – production
 * Steve Price – engineering
 * Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing
 * Al Stone – engineering
 * Tricky – production

Artwork

 * Martin Gardiner – lotus flower modelling
 * Me Company – artwork packaging design
 * Stéphane Sednaoui – photography

title: Post (Björk album)


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Robert Smigel

Robert Smigel (born February 7, 1960) is an American actor, comedian, writer, director, producer, and puppeteer, known for his Saturday Night Live "TV Funhouse" cartoon shorts and as the puppeteer and voice behind Triumph the Insult Comic Dog. He also co-wrote the first two Hotel Transylvania films, You Don't Mess with the Zohan, and Leo, all starring Adam Sandler.

Early life
Smigel was born in New York City, to Lucia and Irwin Smigel, an aesthetic dentist, innovator and philanthropist. He is Jewish and frequently went to Jewish summer camp. He attended Cornell University, studying pre-dental, and graduated from New York University's College of Arts and Science in 1983 with a degree in political science.

Smigel began developing his comedic talent at The Players Workshop in Chicago, where he studied improvisation with Josephine Forsberg. Bob Odenkirk was a fellow student there. Smigel was also a member of the Chicago comedy troupe "All You Can Eat" in the early 1980s.

Career
Smigel first established himself as a writer on Saturday Night Live by joining the writing staff when Lorne Michaels returned as executive producer for the 1985–1986 season. Smigel was hired after then-SNL producers Al Franken and Tom Davis saw Smigel in a Chicago sketch show. Smigel was among the few writers who survived a purge of writers and cast at the conclusion of the "disappointing" 1985–1986 season. This is when Smigel began to write more memorable sketches, including one where host William Shatner urged worshipful attendees at a Star Trek convention to "get a life." Smigel rarely appeared on screen, though he was credited as a featured player in the early 1990s and played a recurring character in the Bill Swerski's Superfans sketches.

While on a writers' strike from Saturday Night Live following the 1987–88 season, Smigel wrote for an improvisational comedy revue in Chicago with fellow SNL writers Bob Odenkirk and Conan O'Brien called Happy Happy Good Show.

Smigel co-wrote Lookwell with Conan O'Brien for NBC. The pilot never went to series, but it has become a cult hit and has screened live at "The Other Network", a festival of un-aired TV pilots produced by Un-Cabaret, featuring live and taped intros by Smigel. Smigel later became the first head writer at Late Night with Conan O'Brien, where he created numerous successful comedy bits, including one where Smigel performed only the lips of public figures which were superimposed on photos of the actual people. (This technique was pioneered on the Clutch Cargo cartoon series as a cost-saving measure, and was known as Syncro-Vox.)

In 1996, Smigel wrote and performed on the short-lived Dana Carvey Show, a primetime sketch comedy program on ABC. Despite its premature end, the show provided Smigel the opportunity to debut his first cartoon The Ambiguously Gay Duo. Upon the show's cancellation, Smigel continued developing more cartoon ideas the following summer and would begin airing them on Saturday Night Live under the TV Funhouse banner. Smigel would later claim "My whole career came out of the impulse to do cartoons on The Dana Carvey Show."

Smigel's most famous creation, however, would be the foul-mouthed puppet Triumph the Insult Comic Dog, who mercilessly mocks celebrities and others in the style of a Borscht Belt comedian. This character debuted on Late Night with Conan O'Brien in February 1997 and would continue to make appearances on the show, as well as others, for many years to come.

Smigel continued to establish himself on Saturday Night Live by producing short animated segments under the title TV Funhouse, which usually satirizes public figures and popular culture. It spawned a TV show on Comedy Central featuring a mix of puppets, animation, and short sketches, although only eight episodes were aired (during the winter of 2000–2001). Smigel occasionally appears in films (usually alongside SNL veterans such as Adam Sandler). According to interviews, Smigel helped punch up the scripts for Little Nicky and The Wedding Singer. Smigel acted alongside fellow SNL writer Bob Odenkirk in Wayne's World 2 as a nerd backstage at an Aerosmith concert. His contributions were uncredited.

In 2000, he voiced a sage bulldog named Mr. Beefy in Little Nicky. Smigel, along with Adam Sandler and Judd Apatow, wrote the script for the film You Don't Mess with the Zohan in which Smigel played Yosi, an Israeli electronics salesman. Smigel is also one of the executive producers of the film, which is a first for him despite his frequent collaborations with Sandler.

It was reported in 2006 that Smigel and Adam Sandler were working on an animated sitcom for Fox called Animals. Fox has not made any official statement regarding the show. Additionally, Smigel played a gay mailman in the Adam Sandler film I Now Pronounce You Chuck and Larry and Yari the Mechanic in the "Mister Softee" episode of Curb Your Enthusiasm.

He voiced Ray and a parody of the Star Wars character, Emperor Palpatine, in the first episode of Robot Chicken: Star Wars, as well as the monster 100 in the episode of the same name of Aqua Teen Hunger Force.

Currently living in New York, he co-wrote and co-executive produced the films Hotel Transylvania (2012) and Hotel Transylvania 2 (2015), in which he voiced Marty, a fake version of Dracula, and Harry Three-Eye, respectively. In the fifth season of the FX show, Louie, Smigel received a story credit on the episode "Cop Story", as a similar incident as to what appears in the show actually happened to him, down to the cop crying in his apartment while Smigel went out, found the missing gun and carried it home, terrified that anyone would notice. Michael Rapaport's character wasn't based on the man Smigel knew, however, since all Smigel ever told Louis C.K. about was the gun itself.

Smigel created, wrote, executive produced, and starred as Triumph the Insult Comic Dog in The Jack and Triumph Show, alongside Jack McBrayer in 2015. It was announced in January 2016 that Smigel would be starring as Triumph in Triumph's Election Special 2016 on Hulu the following February.

In September 2020, after being brought on to develop the project in 2019, Fox announced that Smigel would executive produce Let's Be Real — a one-off adaptation of the French satirical series Les Guignols.

On June 16, 2022, Smigel was arrested for unlawful entry of the Longworth House Office Building in Washington, D.C, along with eight other individuals associated with The Late Show with Stephen Colbert. CBS released a statement saying that “Their interviews at the Capitol were authorized and pre-arranged through Congressional aides of the members interviewed," and that "After leaving the members’ offices on their last interview of the day, the production team stayed to film stand-ups and other final comedy elements in the halls when they were detained by Capitol Police.” Fox News pundit Tucker Carlson accused Smigel of "insurrection" and that it was "exactly like what happened" in apparent reference to the 2021 United States Capitol attack. Stephen Colbert addressed the incident in his monologue, stating that Smigel had committed "First-Degree Puppetry" and that "Drawing any equivalence between rioters storming our Capitol to prevent the counting of electoral ballots and a cigar-chomping toy dog is a shameful and grotesque insult to the memory of everyone who died.” The United States Capitol Police released a statement saying that “This is an active criminal investigation, and may result in additional criminal charges after consultation with the U.S. Attorney.” On July 19, it was announced no charges would be filed.

Personal life
Smigel has a wife, who was a lighting technician for the theater in Chicago presenting the comedy troupe All You Can Eat and the Temple of Dooom that he joined, later a comedy writer Michelle, and three children.

Michelle and Robert serve on the board of NEXT for AUTISM, formerly New York Collaborates for Autism, a non-profit organization founded in 2003 to address the needs of autistic individuals and their families, as their eldest child has autism. Smigel created the Night of Too Many Stars, a biannual celebrity fundraiser to benefit autism education. He won a writing Emmy for the 2012 broadcast of Night of Too Many Stars.

Recurring characters on SNL

 * Carl Wollarski, from "Bill Swerski's Superfans"
 * Hank Fielding, with "The Moron's Perspective" on Weekend Update
 * One of the Hub's Gyros employees (aka the "You like-ah the Juice?" guys)
 * Avi, the "Sabra Price is Right" announcer
 * Bighead, in "The Ambiguously Gay Duo" cartoons

Celebrity impressions

 * Alan Dershowitz (on SNL)
 * Woody Allen (on SNL)
 * Al Sharpton (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Al Franken (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * William Ginsberg (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Don McLean (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Lorne Michaels (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Pat Robertson (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Michael Gross (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Thomas Mesereau (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Sinbad (on SNL TV Funhouse cartoon)
 * Bob Dole (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Gene Shalit (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Joel Siegel (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Bob Ross (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Rip Torn (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Bill Walton (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Richard Nixon (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Sam Donaldson (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Hussein of Jordan (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Quentin Tarantino (on The Dana Carvey Show)
 * Ringo Starr (on The Dana Carvey Show)

Recurring characters on Late Night with Conan O'Brien

 * Triumph the Insult Comic Dog
 * "Clutch Cargo" celebrity interviews (Bill Clinton, George W. Bush, Arnold Schwarzenegger, Don King, Bob Dole, etc.)
 * One of the "Nicknames for Conan" guys (aka the "Conan the Barbarian" guys)
 * One of the "Ameri-clan" guys (with Doug Dale, Louis C.K. and Dino Stamatopoulos)
 * Voice of "The Late Night Emergency Guest" mannequin
 * Gibberish Speaking Ronald Reagan on the Phone
 * Ira, Conan's publicist

title: Robert Smigel