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Édouard Thomas Burgues de Missiessy

Édouard-Thomas de Burgues, comte de Missiessy (23 April 1756, Forcalquier, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence – 24 March 1837, Toulon) was a French naval officer and admiral. He joined the navy in April 1766, as a volunteer aboard his father's ship and spent most of his early service in the Mediterranean, in the frigates of the Toulon Fleet. When France entered the American Revolutionary War, Missiessy joined the 64-gun Vaillant in Admiral d'Estaing's fleet, where he took part in the initial engagements off Newport, St Lucia and Grenada, and in September 1779, the failed attack on Savannah. Missiessy's first command came in 1782 when he was promoted to lieutenant de vaisseau of the cutter Le Pygmée. He was soon after captured by the British but later released in an exchange of prisoners.

In 1789, the year of the outbreak of the French Revolution, Missiessy was a frigate commander in the Mediterranean. Promoted to capitaine de vaisseau in January 1792, he received the command of the ship Centaure in Admiral Truguet's squadron. In January 1793, he was promoted to contre-amiral. The Revolution became more radical and Missiessy was arrested on 21 May 1793 for being of noble birth. He was released and returned to duty on 30 June but when Toulon declared for the King, Missiessy fled to Italy. He did not return to France until 1795 and despite being acquitted by a court of enquiry, he was not given a ship and spent the next six years working ashore.

In 1804, Missiessy was appointed commander-in-chief of the Rochefort squadron with a key role in Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom. The Rochefort squadron was intended to rendezvous with Villeneuve's fleet in the West Indies and draw British ships there, before racing back across the Atlantic and seizing control of the English Channel. The failure of this plan was blamed in part on Missiessy and he was dismissed from the service. He was not employed again until February 1808 when he was made Commander-in-Chief of the defences at the Scheldt, foiling the British attacks on Antwerp that occurred between July and September 1809. Missiessy ceased active service on 17 September 1824 and was officially acknowledged as retired on 23 April 1832, when his name was entered on the retirement list. He died at Toulon on 24 March 1837, aged 80.

Early life and career
Édouard-Thomas de Burgues, comte de Missiessy was born on 23 April 1756, in Forcalquier, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence. He joined the navy in April 1766, at the age of 10, as a volunteer aboard his father's ship, Altier. Most of his early service was spent in the Mediterranean, aboard the frigates of the Toulon Fleet. In April 1773, while a Garcon-Major on the Engageante, he embarked on a lengthy cruise to the Levant which lasted until January 1774. Another 9 month trip to the Levant took place between May 1774 and February 1775. Missiessy undertook a third cruise to the Levant between October 1775 and September 1776, this time as a Garde du Pavillon aboard the frigate Flore. Missiessy was promoted to enseigne de vaisseau in April 1777 and joined Sultane for an expedition to the Barbary Coast, where he helped prevent attacks on French shipping by corsairs.

During the American War of Independence, he served Admiral d'Estaing's fleet. Aboard the 64-gun Vaillant, Missiessy participated in initial engagements off Newport, St Lucia and Grenada, and in September 1779 took part in the failed attack on Savannah. In December, Missiessy sailed for Lorient but by February the following year, he was on his way back to America in the 32-gun frigate, Surveillante.

Command
Missiessy was promoted to lieutenant de vaisseau on 9 May 1781 and returned to France in December 1781. He received his first command in March 1782, the cutter Le Pygmée, stationed at Brest but was shortly after captured by the British on 27 July 1782. Briefly confined at Deal, Kent, he was exchanged and by September, was serving as second officer aboard the 64-gun Reflechi. In early February 1783, he joined the 74-gun Censeur, returning home in April. From May 1786, Missiessy commanded transport ships operating in the Baltic.

Imprisonment and exile
The French Revolution broke out in May 1789 and Missiessy spent August through to January 1792 in the Mediterranean, where he commanded the frigates Belette and Modeste. Promoted to capitaine de vaisseau in January 1791, he received the command of the ship Centaure in Admiral Truguet's squadron. In January 1793, he was promoted to contre-amiral. However, the Revolution was becoming more radical and Missiessy was suspected of noble birth and opposing the new regime. He was sent ashore and arrested on 21 May 1793 but was released and returned to duty on 30 June.

When Toulon revolted, declaring for King Louis XVII and inviting the British in, Missiessy abandoned his command and fled to Italy. He returned to France in May 1795, where he faced a court of enquiry. On 25 August, Missiessy was acquitted and released. He was not given another ship however and instead served at the department of Charts and Maps, in Paris, until 1796, then as Director of the School of Naval Construction for four years after.

In June 1801, Missiessy's old commander, Truget, requested him as his Chief of Staff for the combined French and Spanish fleet stationed at Cadiz but when peace was declared in March 1802, he was ordered back to Paris and made Maritime Prefect. This was one of the first appointments of its kind, with responsibility for port facilities and fleet services. It was soon after decided to create similar positions for all French naval bases and in July, Missiessy took the job at the port of Le Havre.

West Indies
Truget called upon Missiessy again in October 1801, when he needed someone to command a squadron of ships at Brest. Missiessy held the post until 10 September 1804, when he was appointed commander-in-chief of the Rochefort squadron. The Rochefort squadron was a key element in Napoleon's planned invasion of the United Kingdom; intended to rendezvous with Villeneuve's fleet in the West Indies and draw British ships there, before racing back across the Atlantic and seizing control of the English Channel. On 11 January 1805 the blockading British ships were blown off station, allowing Missiessy's force to escape. Aboard the five ships-of-the-line, three frigates and two corvettes were 3500 troops under General Joseph Lagrange and artillery, supplies and weapons to reinforce the French garrisons of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Saint-Domingue. The same wind that disrupted the British blockade, kept the French ships pinned to the coast for five days, delaying arrival in Martinique until 20 February.

The approach to Martinique was guarded by a British battery mounted on Diamond Rock, forcing visiting ships to make a long detour through unfavourable open sea with strong winds and currents. HMS Diamond Rock, as it had been impudently named by those occupying it, was a constant irritation to Napoleon and Missiessy was keen to expel the British from it. He could not, however, convince either Lagrange or the Captain-General of Martinique, Villaret-Joyeuse, of the merits of his proposal. It was agreed instead to attack the British held island of Dominica. The assault began on 22 February but the small British contingent, outnumbered three to one, fought fiercely and when the French failed to capture Prince Rupert Fort, they left on 25 February, destroying and burning as much as they could on the way.

On 28 February, Missiesy transported reinforcements and supplies to Guadeloupe. Between 5 and 10 March Missiessy's force attacked the British colonies of St Kitts, Nevis and Montserrat, collecting £25,000 in ransom money in the process. Returning to Martinique, Missiessy discovered that he and his squadron had been ordered home and that Napoleon's invasion plan had been postponed. Missiessy dropped the remaining troops at Saint-Dominique and set sail for France, arriving in Rochefort on 20 May. Despite carrying out his orders in full, Missiessy was made a scapegoat for Pierre-Charles Villeneuve's failings and lambasted by Napoleon for not recapturing Diamond Rock. He was dismissed and command of the Rochefort squadron passed to his second-in-command, Zacharie Allemand.

Later career
In February 1808, having been unemployed since his return from the West Indies, Missiessy was given command of the Scheldt squadron and successfully defended Antwerp from the British attacks that occurred between July and September 1809, part of the ill-fated Walcheren Campaign. Having already been promoted Vice-Admiral on 9 March, he was rewarded for his efforts with appointment to Commander-in-Chief of the Northern Coasts and made a Count of the Empire on 23 February 1811, the latter position coming with an annuity of 20,000 francs.

In August 1814, the restored French king, Louis XVIII awarded Missiessy the Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour. During the Hundred Days uprising, Missiessy avoided taking sides and was further rewarded following the Bourbon restoration in June 1815: He was Maritime Prefect of Toulon and was elevated to Commander-in-Chief there in January 1816, later serving on the Council of the Admiralty, and finally Commander-in-Chief of the navy.

Missiessy ceased active service on 17 September 1824. In June 1827, he was made a Knight Commander of the Holy Spirit and was officially acknowledged as retired on 23 April 1832, when his name was entered on the retirement list. He died at Toulon on 24 March 1837, aged 80.

title: Édouard Thomas Burgues de Missiessy


text:
Richard Hofstadter

Richard Hofstadter (August 6, 1916 –October 24, 1970) was an American historian and public intellectual of the mid-20th century. Hofstadter was the DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History at Columbia University. Rejecting his earlier historical materialist approach to history, in the 1950s he came closer to the concept of "consensus history", and was epitomized by some of his admirers as the "iconic historian of postwar liberal consensus." Others see in his work an early critique of the one-dimensional society, as Hofstadter was equally critical of socialist and capitalist models of society, and bemoaned the "consensus" within the society as "bounded by the horizons of property and entrepreneurship", criticizing the "hegemonic liberal capitalist culture running throughout the course of American history".

His most widely read works are Social Darwinism in American Thought, 1860–1915 (1944); The American Political Tradition (1948); The Age of Reform (1955); Anti-intellectualism in American Life (1963); and the essays collected in The Paranoid Style in American Politics (1964). He was twice awarded the Pulitzer Prize: in 1956 for The Age of Reform, an analysis of the populism movement in the 1890s and the progressive movement of the early 20th century; and in 1964 for the cultural history Anti-intellectualism in American Life. He was an elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.

Early life and education
Hofstadter was born in Buffalo, New York, in 1916 to a Jewish father, Emil A. Hofstadter, and a German-American Lutheran mother, Katherine (née Hill), who died when Richard was ten. He attended Fosdick-Masten Park High School in Buffalo. Hofstadter then studied philosophy and history at the University at Buffalo, from 1933, under the diplomatic historian Julius W. Pratt. Despite opposition from both families, he married Felice Swados (whose brother was Harvey Swados) in 1936 after he and Felice spent several summers at Hunter Colony, New York, run by Margaret Lefranc, their close friend for years; they had one child, Dan.

Hofstadter was raised as an Episcopalian but later identified more with his Jewish roots. Antisemitism may have cost him fellowships at Columbia and attractive professorships. The Buffalo Jewish Hall of Fame lists him as one of the "Jewish Buffalonians who have made a lasting contribution to the world."

In 1936, Hofstadter entered the doctoral program in history at Columbia University where his advisor Merle Curti was demonstrating how to synthesize intellectual, social, and political history based upon secondary sources rather than primary-source archival research. In 1938, he became a member of the Communist Party USA, but soon became disillusioned by the Stalinist party discipline and show trials. After withdrawing from the party in August 1939 following the Hitler–Stalin Pact, he retained a critical left-wing perspective that was still obvious in American Political Tradition in 1948.

Hofstadter earned his PhD in 1942. In 1944, he published his dissertation Social Darwinism in American Thought, 1860–1915. It was a commercially successful (200,000 copies) critique of late-19th-century American capitalism and its ruthless "dog-eat-dog" economic competition and Social Darwinian self-justification. Conservative critics, such as Irwin G. Wylie and Robert C. Bannister, disagreed with his interpretation. The sharpest criticism of the book focused on Hofstadter's weakness as a researcher: "he did little or no research into manuscripts, newspapers, archival, or unpublished sources, relying instead primarily on secondary sources augmented by his lively style and wide-ranging interdisciplinary readings, thereby producing well-written arguments based on scattered evidence he found by reading other historians."

From 1942 to 1946, Hofstadter taught history at the University of Maryland, where he became a close friend of the popular sociologist C. Wright Mills and read extensively in the fields of sociology and psychology, absorbing ideas of Max Weber, Karl Mannheim, Sigmund Freud, and the Frankfurt School. His later books frequently refer to behavioral concepts such as "status anxiety".

Assessment as a "consensus historian"
In 1946, Hofstadter joined Columbia University's faculty, and in 1959 he succeeded Allan Nevins as the DeWitt Clinton Professor of American History, where he played a major role in directing Ph.D. dissertations. According to his biographer David Brown, after 1945 Hofstadter philosophically "broke" with Charles A. Beard and moved to the right, becoming leader of the "consensus historians," a term Hofstadter disapproved of, but that was widely applied to his apparent rejection of the Beardian idea that the sole basis for understanding American history is the fundamental conflict between economic classes.

In a widely held revision of this view, Christopher Lasch wrote that, unlike the "consensus historians" of the 1950s, Hofstadter saw the consensus of classes on behalf of business interests not as a strength but "as a form of intellectual bankruptcy and as a reflection, moreover, not of a healthy sense of the practical but of the domination of American political thought by popular mythologies."

As early as his American Political Tradition (1948), while still viewing politics from a critical left-wing perspective, Hofstadter rejected black-and-white polarization between pro-business and anti-business politicians. Making explicit reference to Jefferson, Jackson, Lincoln, Cleveland, Bryan, Wilson, and Hoover, Hofstadter made a statement on the consensus in the American political tradition that has been seen as "ironic". He said:

"The fierceness of the political struggles has often been misleading: for the range of vision embraced by the primary contestants in the major parties has always been bounded by the horizons of property and enterprise. However much at odds on specific issues, the major political traditions have shared a belief in the rights of property, the philosophy of economic individualism, the value of competition; they have accepted the economic virtues of capitalist culture as necessary qualities of man."

Hofstadter later complained that this remark in a hastily written preface requested by the editor had been the reason for "lumping him" unfairly into the category of "consensus historians" like Boorstin, who celebrated this kind of ideological consensus as an achievement, whereas Hofstadter deplored it. Hofstadter expressed his dislike of the term consensus historian several times, and criticized Boorstin for overusing the consensus and ignoring the essential conflicts in history. In an earlier draft of the preface, he wrote: "American politics has always been an arena in which conflicts of interests have been fought out, compromised, adjusted. Once these interests were sectional; now they tend more clearly to follow class lines; but from the beginning American political parties, instead of representing single sections or classes clearly and forcefully, have been intersectional and interclass parties, embracing a jumble of interests which often have reasons for contesting among themselves."

Hofstadter rejected Beard's interpretation of history as a succession of exclusively economically motivated group conflicts and financial interests of politicians. He thought that most of the periods of US history, except the Civil War, could be fully understood only by taking into account an implicit consensus, shared by all groups across the conflict lines. He criticized the generation of Beard and Vernon Louis Parrington because they had "put such an excessive emphasis on conflict, that an antidote was needed.... It seems to me to be clear that a political society cannot hang together, at all, unless there is some kind of consensus running through it, and yet that no society has such a total consensus as to be devoid of significant conflict. It is all a matter of proportion and emphasis, which is terribly important in history. Of course, obviously, we have had one total failure of consensus, which led to the Civil War. One could use that as the extreme case in which consensus breaks down."

In 1948 he published The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It, interpretive studies of 12 major American political leaders from the 18th to the 20th centuries. The book was a critical success and sold nearly a million copies at university campuses, where it was used as a history textbook; critics found it "skeptical, fresh, revisionary, occasionally ironical, without being harsh or merely destructive." Each chapter title illustrated a paradox: Thomas Jefferson is "The Aristocrat as Democrat"; John C. Calhoun is the "Marx of the Master Class"; and Franklin Roosevelt is "The Patrician as Opportunist". In writing the book, Hofstadter was influenced by literary figures as well as historians: two key influences on him were the critic Edmund Wilson and the novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald. Hofstadter's style was so powerful and engrossing that professors kept assigning the book long after scholars had revised or rejected its main points.

On April 13, 1970, less than a year before his death, Hofstadter wrote historian Bernard Bailyn, expressing concerns about scholarly depictions of recent studies by both of them as "consensus." Bailyn's response has not yet been examined by third-party sources.

Later works
As a historian, Hofstadter's groundbreaking work came in using social psychology concepts to explain political history. He explored subconscious motives such as social status anxiety, anti-intellectualism, irrational fear, and paranoia as they propel political discourse and action in politics. Historian Lloyd Gardner wrote that "in later essays Hofstadter specifically ruled out the possibility of a Leninist interpretation of American imperialism."

Rural ethos
The Age of Reform (1955) analyzes the yeoman ideal in America's sentimental attachment to agrarianism and the farm's moral superiority to the city. Hofstadter—himself very much a big-city person—noted the agrarian ethos was "a kind of homage that Americans have paid to the fancied innocence of their origins; however, to call it a myth does not imply falsity, because it effectively embodies the rural values of the American people, profoundly influencing their perception of the correct values, hence their political behavior." In this matter, the stress is on the importance of Jefferson's writings, and of his followers, in the development of agrarianism in the US, as establishing the agrarian myth, and its importance, in American life and politics—despite the rural and urban industrialization that rendered the myth moot.

(1963) and (1965) describe American provincialism, warning against anti-intellectual fear of the cosmopolitan city, presented as wicked by the xenophobic and anti-Semitic Populists of the 1890s. They trace the direct political and ideological lineage between the Populists and anti-communist Senator Joseph McCarthy and McCarthyism, the political paranoia manifest in his time. Hofstadter's dissertation director Merle Curti wrote that Hofstadter's "position is as biased, by his urban background... as the work of older historians was biased by their rural background and traditional agrarian sympathies.”

Irrational fear
(1969) describes the origins of the First Party System as reflecting fears that the (other) political party threatened to destroy the republic. (1968) systematically analyzes and criticizes the intellectual foundations and historical validity of Beard's historiography and revealed Hofstadter's increasing inclination toward neoconservatism. Privately, Hofstadter said that Frederick Jackson Turner was no longer a useful guide to history, because he was too obsessed with the frontier and his ideas too often had "a pound of falsehood for every few ounces of truth."

Howe and Finn argue that, rhetorically, Hofstadter's cultural interpretation repeatedly drew upon concepts from literary criticism ("irony," "paradox," "anomaly"), anthropology ("myth," "tradition," "legend," "folklore"), and social psychology ("projection," "unconsciously," "identity," "anxiety," "paranoid"). He artfully employed their explicit scholarly meanings and their informal prejudicial connotations. His goal, they argue, was "destroying certain cherished American traditions and myths derived from his conviction that they provided no trustworthy guide for action in the present." Thus Hofstadter argued, "The application of depth psychology to politics, chancy though it is, has at least made us acutely aware that politics can be a projective arena for feelings and impulses that are only marginally related to the manifest issues." C. Vann Woodward wrote that Hofstadter seemed "to have a solid understanding, if not a private affection" for "the odd, the warped, the 'zanies' and the crazies of American life—left, right and middle."

Political views
Influenced by his wife, Hofstadter was a member of the Young Communist League in college, and in April 1938 he joined the Communist Party USA; he quit in 1939. Hofstadter had been reluctant to join, knowing the orthodoxy it imposed on intellectuals, telling them what to believe and what to write. He was disillusioned by the spectacle of the Moscow Show Trials, but wrote: "I join without enthusiasm but with a sense of obligation.... [M]y fundamental reason for joining is that I don't like capitalism and want to get rid of it." He remained anti-capitalist, writing, "I hate capitalism and everything that goes with it," but was similarly disillusioned with Stalinism, finding the Soviet Union "essentially undemocratic" and the Communist Party rigid and doctrinaire. In the 1940s, Hofstadter abandoned political causes, feeling that intellectuals were no more likely to "find a comfortable home" under socialism than they were under capitalism.

Biographer Susan Baker writes that Hofstadter "was profoundly influenced by the political Left of the 1930s.... The philosophical impact of Marxism was so intense and direct during Hofstadter's formative years that it formed a major part of his identity crisis.... The impact of these years created his orientation to the American past, accompanied as it was by marriage, establishment of life-style, and choice of profession." Geary concludes that, "To Hofstadter, radicalism always offered more of a critical intellectual stance than a commitment to political activism. Although Hofstadter quickly became disillusioned with the Communist Party, he retained an independent left-wing standpoint well into the 1940s. His first book, Social Darwinism in American Thought (1944), and The American Political Tradition (1948) had a radical point of view."

In the 1940s, Hofstadter cited Beard as "the exciting influence on me". Hofstadter specifically responded to Beard's social-conflict model of U.S. history, which emphasized the struggle among competing economic groups (primarily farmers, Southern slavers, Northern industrialists, and workers) and discounted abstract political rhetoric that rarely translated into action. Beard encouraged historians to search for economic belligerents' hidden self-interest and financial goals. By the 1950s and 1960s, Hofstadter had a strong reputation in liberal circles. Lawrence Cremin wrote that "Hofstadter's central purpose in writing history ... was to reformulate American liberalism so that it might stand more honestly and effectively against attacks from both left and right in a world which had accepted the essential insights of Darwin, Marx, and Freud." Alfred Kazin identified his use of parody: "He was a derisive critic and parodist of every American Utopia and its wild prophets, a natural oppositionist to fashion and its satirist, a creature suspended between gloom and fun, between disdain for the expected and mad parody."

In 2008, conservative commentator George Will called Hofstadter "the iconic public intellectual of liberal condescension" who "dismissed conservatives as victims of character flaws and psychological disorders—a 'paranoid style' of politics rooted in 'status anxiety.' etc. Conservatism rose on a tide of votes cast by people irritated by the liberalism of condescension."

Later life
Angered by the radical politics of the 1960s, and especially by the student occupation and temporary closure of Columbia University in 1968, Hofstadter began to criticize student activist methods. His friend David Herbert Donald said, "as a liberal who criticized the liberal tradition from within, he was appalled by the growing radical, even revolutionary, sentiment that he sensed among his colleagues and his students. He could never share their simplistic, moralistic approach." Brick says he regarded them as "simple-minded, moralistic, ruthless, and destructive." Moreover, he was "extremely critical of student tactics, believing that they were based on irrational romantic ideas, rather than sensible plans for achievable change, that they undermined the unique status of the university, as an institutional bastion of free thought, and that they were bound to provoke a political reaction from the right." Coates argues that his career saw a steady move from left to right, and that his 1968 Columbia commencement address "represented the completion of his conversion to conservatism".

Despite strongly disagreeing with their political methods, he invited his radical students to discuss goals and strategy with him. He even employed one, Mike Wallace, to collaborate with him on American Violence: A Documentary History (1970); Hofstadter student Eric Foner said the book "utterly contradicted the consensus vision of a nation placidly evolving without serious disagreements."

Hofstadter planned to write a three-volume history of American society. At his death, he had only completed the first volume, America at 1750: A Social Portrait (1971).

Death and legacy
Hofstadter died of leukemia on October 24, 1970, at Mount Sinai Hospital in Manhattan, at age 54. He showed more interest in his research than in his teaching. In undergraduate classes, he read aloud the draft of his next book. As a senior professor at a leading graduate university, Hofstadter directed more than 100 finished doctoral dissertations but gave his graduate students only cursory attention; he believed this academic latitude enabled them to find their own models of history. Among them were Herbert Gutman, Eric Foner, Lawrence W. Levine, Linda Kerber, and Paula S. Fass. Some, such as Eric McKitrick and Stanley Elkins, were more conservative than he; Hofstadter had few disciples and founded no school of history writing.

Following Hofstadter's death, Columbia dedicated a locked bookcase of his works in Butler Library to him. When the library's physical conditions deteriorated, his widow Beatrice—who later married the journalist Theodore White—asked that it be removed.

Published works

 * "The Tariff Issue on the Eve of the Civil War," The American Historical Review Vol. 44, No. 1 (Oct. 1938), pp. 50–55 full text in JSTOR
 * "William Graham Sumner, Social Darwinist," The New England Quarterly Vol. 14, No. 3 (Sep. 1941), pp. 457–77 online at JSTOR
 * "Parrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition," Journal of the History of Ideas Vol. 2, No. 4 (Oct. 1941), pp. 391–400 JSTOR
 * "William Leggett, Spokesman of Jacksonian Democracy," Political Science Quarterly Vol. 58, No. 4 (Dec. 1943), pp. 581–94 JSTOR
 * ; online
 * The American Political Tradition and the Men Who Made It (New York: A. A. Knopf, 1948). online
 * "Beard and the Constitution: The History of an Idea," American Quarterly (1950) 2#3 pp. 195–213 JSTOR
 * The Age of Reform: from Bryan to FDR (New York: Knopf, 1955).
 * The Development of Academic Freedom in the United States (New York: Columbia University Press, 1955) with Walter P. Metzger online
 * Hofstadter's contribution was published separately as Academic Freedom in the Age of the College, Columbia University Press, [1955] 1961.
 * Hofstadter's contribution was published separately as Academic Freedom in the Age of the College, Columbia University Press, [1955] 1961.

 * The United States: the History of a Republic (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1957), college textbook; several editions; coauthored with Daniel Aaron and William Miller
 * Anti-intellectualism in American Life (New York: Knopf, 1963). online
 * The Progressive Movement, 1900–1915 (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1963). edited excerpts.
 * The Paranoid Style in American Politics, and Other Essays (New York: Knopf, 1965). ISBN 978-0-226-34817-9 online
 * includes "The Paranoid Style in American Politics", Harper's Magazine (1964)
 * The Progressive Historians: Turner, Beard, Parrington (New York: Knopf, 1968) online.
 * The Idea of a Party System: The Rise of Legitimate Opposition in the United States, 1780–1840 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1969). online
 * American Violence: A Documentary History, co-edited with Mike Wallace (1970) ISBN 978-0-394-41486-7
 * "America As A Gun Culture" American Heritage, 21 (October 1970), 4–10, 82–85.
 * America at 1750: A Social Portrait (1971)
 * America at 1750: A Social Portrait (1971)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Richard Hofstadter


text:
Talk:Life for Rent

Comment
This reads a lot like a review of the CD, more than an encyclopedia entry Earl Andrew 05:37, 9 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I very much agree :P I wrote this when I was very very new to Wikipedia. I'll rewrite it, I promise :) Sarge Baldy 09:01, Mar 9, 2004 (UTC)

Orchestral Intro on White Flag
Does anyone know if those few seconds at the beginning were written for the song, or lifted from elsewhere? - Darkhawk

A Bonus Track
I've heard of a bonus track on some editions or promos. Can anyone confirm this and name the song?

answer
The 12th (last) track on LIFE FOR RENT is a "bonus track", it seems; I am not sure of the name but it seems a continuation of 11th track. I found it by accident after seeing what appeared as a scratch on CD, which I assumed caused the 2-3 minutes of silence. Today, after splicing the tracks together I found realised that it may have been a "bonus track."

Enjoy! --Shelli

Yes, the song "Closer" follows "See the Sun". The minutes of silence are deliberate, though they irritate me greatly. By the by, I just noticed it's not on the "List of albums containing hidden tracks". Adding that now. Octavo 04:55, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

Closer
Closer is the bonus/hidden track, but what's the background of this song? It doesn't sound like a high quality studio recording to me. Does anyone know?

copy protection
does it contain sony's rootkit thing?

Fair use rationale for Image:Lfrd.jpg
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BetacommandBot 11:27, 6 July 2007 (UTC)

Orphaned references in Life for Rent
I check pages listed in Category:Pages with incorrect ref formatting to try to fix reference errors. One of the things I do is look for content for orphaned references in wikilinked articles. I have found content for some of Life for Rent's orphans, the problem is that I found more than one version. I can't determine which (if any) is correct for this article, so I am asking for a sentient editor to look it over and copy the correct ref content into this article.

Reference named "guardian": From Safe Trip Home:  From Absolution (album):  From I Dreamed a Dream (album):  From Blur (band): Sullivan, Caroline. "Down and outstanding". The Guardian. 5 March 2008. Retrieved on 21 July 2008. From Metacritic:  From Rockferry:  From Michael Jackson:

I apologize if any of the above are effectively identical; I am just a simple computer program, so I can't determine whether minor differences are significant or not. AnomieBOT ⚡ 04:16, 3 March 2010 (UTC)

Sells in week vs. 5 days
'It sold one million in 5 days, on the way there it sold 102,500 on day one and 400,351 in the first week on its way to the record.' Err, what? It sold 1,000,000 in 5 days, but only 400,351 in 7 days (a week)? 82.141.125.162 (talk) 00:51, 17 August 2010 (UTC) Tb hotch Ta lk C. 01:00, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

Dead external links to Allmusic website – January 2011
Since Allmusic have changed the syntax of their URLs, 1 link(s) used in the article do not work anymore and can't be migrated automatically. Please use the search option on http://www.allmusic.com to find the new location of the linked Allmusic article(s) and fix the link(s) accordingly, prefereably by using the Allmusic template. If a new location cannot be found, the link(s) should be removed. This applies to the following external links: --CactusBot (talk) 19:15, 1 January 2011 (UTC)
 * http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=A5ukvikmsbb69

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title: Talk:Life for Rent


text:
List of subcamps of Mauthausen

This is a list of subcamps of the Mauthausen concentration camp. The slave labour of the inmates was also used by a variety of companies and farms that accommodated a small number of inmates on their own.

List of subcamps

 * 1) Aflenz
 * 2) Amstetten
 * 3) Frauenlager
 * 4) Männerlager
 * 5) Attnang-Puchheim
 * 6) Bachmanning
 * 7) Bretstein: KZ-Nebenlager Bretstein
 * 8) Dipoldsau
 * 9) Ebelsberg
 * 10) Ebensee: KZ Ebensee
 * 11) Eisenerz
 * 12) Enns
 * 13) Ennsdorf
 * 14) Floridsdorf
 * 15) Frankenburg am Hausruck (Schlier-Redl-Zipf)
 * 16) Graz
 * 17) Grein
 * 18) Großraming
 * 19) Gunskirchen
 * 20) Waldwerke I
 * 21) Sammellager
 * 22) Gusen complex
 * 23) Gusen I (located at Gusen in the community of Langenstein)
 * 24) Gusen II (located at St Georgen in the community of Sankt Georgen an der Gusen)
 * 25) Gusen III (located at Lungitz in the community of Katsdorf)
 * 26) Haidfeld
 * 27) Schloß Hartheim, not properly a subcamp of Mauthausen but an institution of the Aktion T-4 where some thousands inmates of Mauthausen-Gusen and Dachau were killed.
 * 28) Hinterbrühl
 * 29) Hirtenberg
 * 30) Hollenstein
 * 31) Jedlsee
 * 32) Klagenfurt
 * 33) Lambach
 * 34) Schloß Lannach
 * 35) Leibnitz
 * 36) Lenzing
 * 37) Schloß Lind
 * 38) Lindau
 * 39) Linz
 * 40) Aufräumungskommando
 * 41) Linz I
 * 42) Linz II
 * 43) Linz III
 * 44) Loibl-Paß
 * 45) Nord
 * 46) Süd
 * 47) Marialanzendorf
 * 48) Mauthausen
 * 49) main camp
 * 50) Mauthausen Soviet prisoners of war camp
 * 51) Zeltlager Mauthausen (tent camp)
 * 52) Schiff — Donauhafen Mauthausen
 * 53) Melk
 * 54) Mistelbach am der Zaya
 * 55) Schloß Mittersill (Zell am See)
 * 56) Moosbierbaum
 * 57) Passau
 * 58) Passau I (Oberilzmühle)
 * 59) Passau II (Waldwerke Passau-Ilzstadt)
 * 60) Passau III (Jandelsbrunn)
 * 61) Peggau
 * 62) Perg (Arbeitseinsatzstelle)
 * 63) Rheydt
 * 64) Ried
 * 65) Schönbrunn
 * 66) Schwechat
 * 67) Steyr
 * 68) St. Aegyd am Neuwalde
 * 69) St. Lambrecht
 * 70) Frauenlager
 * 71) Männerlager
 * 72) St. Valentin
 * 73) Steyr-Münichholz
 * 74) Ternberg
 * 75) Vöcklabrück
 * 76) Vöcklabrück I
 * 77) Vöcklabrück II
 * 78) Vöcklamarkt (Schlier Redl-Zipf)
 * 79) Wagram
 * 80) Wels
 * 81) Wels I
 * 82) Wels II
 * 83) Weyer
 * 84) Wien
 * 85) AFA-Werke
 * 86) Wien-Floridsdorf
 * 87) Wien-Floridsdorf II (Schwechat II)
 * 88) Wien-Floridsdorf III (Schwechat III)
 * 89) Wien-Heidfeld (Schwechat I)
 * 90) Wien-Hinterbrühl (Arbeitslager Haidfeld)
 * 91) Wien-Hinterbrühl (See Grotte)
 * 92) Wien-Jedlesee
 * 93) Wien-Maria-Lanzendorf
 * 94) Wien-Mödling
 * 95) Wien-Schönbrunn (Kraftfahrtechnische Lehranstalt)
 * 96) Wien-Schwechat ("Santa")
 * 97) Wien-West (Saurerwerke)
 * 98) Wiener Neudorf
 * 99) Wiener Neustadt
 * 100) Raxwerke GmbH (opened twice)

title: List of subcamps of Mauthausen


text:
1960 Quebec general election

The 1960 Quebec general election was held on June 22, 1960, to elect members of the Legislative Assembly of Quebec, Canada. It was one of the most significant elections in Quebec history, rivalled perhaps only by the 1976 general election. The incumbent Union Nationale, led by Antonio Barrette, was defeated by the Quebec Liberal Party, led by Jean Lesage.

The 1960 election set the stage for the Quiet Revolution, a major social transformation of all aspects of Quebec society throughout the 1960s. Among many other changes, the influence and power of the Catholic Church fell sharply as Quebec became a secular society.

This election put an end to 16 years of continuous Union Nationale rule, much of it under Maurice Duplessis. Duplessis had died in 1959, ending a period that was later derisively referred to as La Grande Noirceur (the Great Darkness).

Duplessis' successor, longtime minister Paul Sauvé, saw the need to modernize a government that had long been one of the most conservative provincial governments in Canada. He initiated a "hundred days of change" that began to transform Quebec society, but they were cut short when Sauvé died suddenly after only a few months in office. He was succeeded by another longtime minister, Antonio Barrette. However, with its second new leader in less than a year and its third in less than two years, and no published platform, the Union Nationale was thus in disarray when it went into the election.

Background
On September 7, 1959, Maurice Duplessis died during a visit to the northern mining town of Schefferville. His nearly 20 years as premier (interrupted from 1939 to 1944 by Adélard Godbout) were marked by conservatism, clientelism, deference to the Catholic hierarchy, defence of provincial powers from federal interference, opposition to Keynesianism, and fierce anti-syndicalism. Contrary to some accounts of the Grande Noirceur, however, Quebec in the late 1950s was on the path to modernization, with a largely urbanized population and a significant manufacturing sector.

Three days after the death of "le Chef" (the Boss), the cabinet chose Paul Sauvé as his successor. Sauvé undertook his "100 days" of change under the slogan "désormais " (From now on), determined to modernize the machinery of government after years of stagnation under Duplessis. On January 2, 1960, while he had wind in his sails and threatened the Liberals' momentum, the new premier died suddenly in Saint-Eustache, in his riding of Deux-Montagnes. On January 7, Antonio Barrette was chosen as premier. The party thus headed into the election with its third leader in under a year. Further undermining the government's stability was the exposure of the natural gas scandal, reported by Le Devoir on June 13, 1958.

Jean Lesage had been elected leader of the Liberal Party on May 31, 1958, succeeding Georges-Émile Lapalme. Lesage aimed to take advantage of the government's setbacks. Particularly critical of official corruption and Union Nationale policies on federal-provincial relations, he promised to create a "strong and dynamic state" against the "occupying regime". The party could also count on recently recruited star candidate René Lévesque to promote its program.

In addition to the two main parties, the Social Democratic Party (the Quebec branch of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation) participated in the election, led by trade unionist Michel Chartrand. Lacking funds, however, it failed to present a candidate.

On March 18, 1960, an Act was passed that raised the number of seats in the legislature to 95:

 * Duplessis, named in honour of the late premier, was created from parts of Saguenay.
 * Bourget was carved out of Laval.

The writ of election dropped on April 27, setting the electoral campaign in motion.

Campaign
Despite the Liberal Party's ambitious program and the disarray of the UN, it was difficult to predict the outcome of the vote at the outset of the campaign. The incumbent party still enjoyed significant support and many constituencies faced close races. No leaders' debate was held as the parties could not agree on a format.

The campaign revolved around the two leaders, Barrette and Lesage. Barrette stressed continuity with his predecessors, frequently appearing in publicity campaigns featuring Duplessis and Sauvé. He travelled across the province, relying more on voters' faith in him personally than on an electoral platform, which the UN did not publish. At the beginning of the campaign, he even wrote in the party's organ Montréal-Matin: "Our program was formulated in 1931 and current legislation bears witness to its implementation."

Lesage meanwhile led an "American-style" campaign, focusing on voter outreach to counter the public's perception of him as haughty. He took inspiration from Harry Truman, sometimes spending up to three days in the same region listening to local demands.

The majority of races were two- and three-way contests, but some ridings had more fractured campaigns:

Controversy in L'Assomption
After a judicial recount, the UN had won L'Assomption by only one vote. In July 1961, a panel of judges overturned the result, voiding the reelection of Victor-Stanislas Chartrand and declaring the Liberal candidate Frédéric Coiteux the victor by 10 votes. Allegations of voter impersonation, threats and bribery were cited by the judges in voiding 11 votes in the count. Chartrand had attempted to resign his seat and thus trigger a byelection, but that was not accepted pending the outcome in court.

Results
! colspan=2 rowspan=2 | Political party ! rowspan=2 | Party leader ! colspan=4 | MPPs ! colspan=4 | Votes ! Candidates !1956 !1960 !± !# ! ± !% ! ± (pp)

 * style="text-align:left;"|Jean Lesage
 * 95 || 20  || 52  || 32  || 1,077,135  || 248,871  || 51.38% || 6.50

 * style="text-align:left;"|Antonio Barrette
 * 95 || 72  || 42  || 30 || 977,307  || 21,225  || 46.61% || 5.19

 * || 14 || 1  || 1  ||   || 22,187  || 11,018 || 1.06% || 0.74

 * || 22 || – || – || – || 10,531  || 6,423  || 0.50% || 0.28

! colspan="3" style="text-align:left;" | Total ! " colspan="2"|95 ! " colspan="2"|2,096,586 ! " colspan="2"| 100%
 * || 20 || – || – || – || 8,208  || 3,770  || 0.39% || 0.15
 * rowspan="7" |
 * style="text-align:left;" colspan="10"|Other candidates
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 2 || – || – || – || 536  || 5,981 || 0.03% || 0.33
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 188  || 188  || 0.01% ||New
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 166  || 11,066 || 0.01% || 0.60
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 ||– || – || – || 144  || 51  || 0.01% || –
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 134  || 382 || 0.01% || 0.02
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 50  || 1,224 || 0.00% || 0.07
 * 1 ||– || – || – || 144  || 51  || 0.01% || –
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 134  || 382 || 0.01% || 0.02
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 50  || 1,224 || 0.00% || 0.07
 * colspan="2" style="text-align:left;" |
 * 1 || – || – || – || 50  || 1,224 || 0.00% || 0.07
 * 253||93
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Rejected ballots
 * 33,521
 * 4,740
 * colspan="2"|
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Voter turnout
 * 2,130,107
 * 255,597
 * 81.66
 * 3.34
 * colspan="7" style="text-align:left;" | Registered electors
 * 2,608,439
 * 215,079
 * colspan="2"|
 * }
 * 215,079
 * colspan="2"|
 * }

Synopsis of results

 * = open seat
 * = turnout is above provincial average
 * = winning candidate was in previous Legislature
 * = incumbent had switched allegiance
 * = not incumbent; was previously elected to the Legislature
 * = incumbency arose from byelection gain
 * = other incumbents renominated
 * = multiple candidates
 * = adjusted on judicial recount

title: 1960 Quebec general election


text:
List of Allied warships that served at Gallipoli

This is a list of Allied warships that served at the Battle of Gallipoli in 1915.

Royal Navy warships
All British warships which served in the Dardanelles region received the battle honour Dardanelles 1915 after the war

 * Seaplane carriers
 * HMS Ark Royal (1914)
 * HMS Ben-my-Chree
 * Battleships
 * HMS Queen Elizabeth (1913)
 * Battlecruisers
 * HMS Indefatigable (1909)
 * HMS Indomitable (1907)
 * HMS Inflexible (1907) (mined and damaged on March 18)
 * Pre-dreadnought battleships
 * HMS Agamemnon (1906)
 * HMS Albion (1898)
 * HMS Canopus (1897)
 * HMS Cornwallis (1901)
 * HMS Exmouth (1901)
 * HMS Glory (1899)
 * HMS Goliath (1898) (torpedoed and sunk on May 13 at Cape Helles, 570 men killed)
 * HMS Hibernia (1905)
 * HMS Implacable (1899)
 * HMS Irresistible (1898) (mined and sunk on March 18, 150 men killed)
 * HMS London (1899)
 * HMS Lord Nelson (1906)
 * HMS Magnificent (1894)
 * HMS Majestic (1895) (torpedoed and sunk on May 27 at Cape Helles, 49 men killed)
 * HMS Mars (1896)
 * HMS Ocean (1898) (mined and sunk on March 18, little loss of life)
 * HMS Prince George (1895)
 * HMS Prince of Wales (1902)
 * HMS Queen (1902)
 * HMS Russell (1901)
 * HMS Swiftsure (1903)
 * HMS Triumph (1903) (torpedoed and sunk on May 25 at Anzac, 78 men killed)
 * HMS Venerable (1899)
 * HMS Vengeance (1899)
 * Zealandia
 * Cruisers
 * HMS Amethyst (1903)
 * HMS Bacchante (1901)
 * HMS Blenheim (1890)
 * HMS Chatham (1911)
 * HMS Cornwall (1902)
 * HMS Dartmouth (1911)
 * HMS Doris (1896)
 * HMS Dublin (1912)
 * HMS Edgar (1890)
 * HMS Endymion (1891)
 * HMS Europa (1897)
 * HMS Euryalus (1901)
 * HMS Grafton (1892)
 * HMS Kent (1901)
 * HMS Minerva (1895)
 * HMS Phaeton (1914)
 * HMS Sapphire (1904)
 * HMS Talbot (1895)
 * HMS Theseus (1892)
 * Destroyers
 * HMS Arno (1915)
 * HMS Beagle (1909)
 * HMS Bulldog (1909)
 * HMS Chelmer (1904)
 * HMS Colne (1905)
 * HMS Foxhound (1909)
 * HMS Grampus (1910)
 * HMS Grasshopper (1909)
 * HMS Hussar (1894)
 * HMS Jed (1904)
 * HMS Kennet (1903)
 * HMS Louis (1913) (ran aground during a gale and destroyed by shellfire on October 31)
 * HMS Lydiard (1914)
 * HMS Laforey (1913)
 * HMS Lawford (1913)
 * HMS Mosquito (1910)
 * HMS Partridge (1916)
 * HMS Pincher (1910)
 * HMS Racoon (1910)
 * HMS Rattlesnake (1910)
 * HMS Renard (1909)
 * HMS Ribble (1904)
 * HMS Savage (1910)
 * HMS Scorpion (1910)
 * HMS Scourge (1910)
 * HMS Usk (1903)
 * HMS Wear (1905)
 * HMS Wolverine (1910)
 * Monitors
 * HMS Abercrombie (1915)
 * HMS Earl of Peterborough
 * HMS Havelock (1915)
 * HMS Humber (1914)
 * HMS Raglan
 * HMS Roberts (1915)
 * HMS Sir Thomas Picton
 * HMS M33
 * Sloops
 * Anemone
 * Aster
 * HMS Heliotrope (1915)
 * HMS Honeysuckle (1915)
 * HMS Jonquil (1915) (HQ for British IX Corps at Suvla)
 * Submarines
 * HMS B6
 * HMS B11
 * HMS E2
 * HMS E7 (scuttled on September 5)
 * HMS E11
 * HMS E14
 * HMS E15 (destroyed on April 19)
 * HMS E20 (torpedoed and sunk on November 5)
 * Other
 * HMS Beryl (Trawler / minesweeper)
 * HMS Canning (Kite balloon ship)
 * Egmont (Ironclad, formerly HMS Achilles (1863))
 * (Hospital ship)
 * HMS Hector (1915) (Kite balloon ship)
 * HMS Heroic (1914) (Armed Boarding Steamer)
 * HMS Manica (Kite balloon ship)
 * HMS Triad (1915) (Yacht)
 * Barryfield (paddle steamer converted to landing vessel)http://historicalrfa.org/requisitioned-auxiliaries/161-requisitioned-auxiliaries-b/1575-requisitioned-auxiliary-barry

French warships

 * Battleships
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Bouvet (mined and sunk on March 18, 1915, 660 men killed)
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Charlemagne
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Gaulois
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Henri IV
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Jauréguiberry
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Masséna (hulk scuttled off Cape Helles in November 1915)
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Saint Louis
 * FRENCH BATTLESHIP Suffren
 * Cruisers
 * FRENCH CRUISER Jeanne d'Arc
 * FRENCH CRUISER Latouche-Tréville
 * Submarines
 * FRENCH SUBMARINE Bernoulli
 * FRENCH SUBMARINE Joule (mined and sunk on May 1, 31 men killed)
 * FRENCH SUBMARINE Mariotte (scuttled on July 27)
 * FRENCH SUBMARINE Saphir (sunk on January 15, 1915, 15 men killed)
 * FRENCH SUBMARINE Turquoise (captured on October 30)

Other warships

 * RUSSIAN CRUISER Askold - Russian light cruiser
 * HMAS AE2 - Australian submarine (attacked, later scuttled on April 29)


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Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes

The Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes (NAAFI ) is a company created by the British government on 9 December 1920 to run recreational establishments needed by the British Armed Forces, and to sell goods to servicemen and their families. It runs clubhouses, bars, shops, supermarkets, launderettes, restaurants, cafés and other facilities on most British military bases and also canteens on board Royal Navy ships. Commissioned officers are not usually supposed to use the NAAFI clubs and bars, since their messes provide these facilities and their entry, except on official business, is considered to be an intrusion into junior ranks' private lives.

NAAFI personnel serving aboard ship are part of the Naval Canteen Service (NCS), wear naval uniform and have action stations, but remain ordinary civilians. NAAFI personnel can also join the Expeditionary Force Institutes (EFI), which provides NAAFI facilities in war zones. EFI personnel are members of the Army Reserve serving on special engagements, who bear ranks and wear uniform. NCS personnel can similarly volunteer to join the Royal Navy when it goes on active service.

Background
In 1892, the Hon. Lionel Fortescue, Canteen President of the 17th Lancers, became dissatisfied with the corrupt way in which canteen finances were being handled. He established a system for keeping a locked till in the canteen and put Sergeant John Gardner in charge, an honest and able man who would later look after hundreds and thousands of pounds as one of the staff of the Navy and Army Canteen Board during the First World War.

The locked till practice was soon adopted by other regiments, until another Canteen Officer, Major Harry Crauford of the Grenadier Guards was also dissatisfied with the food provided for his canteen and approached Lionel Fortescue with the idea of forming a co-operative society and doing their own buying. Together, they managed to raise £400 and founded the Canteen and Mess Co-operative Society. The rule was that interest was not to exceed five percent and all further profits were to be handed to the regimental canteens as a rebate.

They hoped that in time the co-operative would become a buying and distributing agency for the whole Army. In August 1914, all arrangements were upset by the outbreak of the First World War.

The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) - the greater part of Britain's regular Army - was sent to France and hundreds of thousands of young men enlisted to fight for the King and the country.

The Government was unprepared for the problem of supplying and feeding the forces on a scale never before experienced, so a large Army entered the field with insufficient official provision. Fortunately the Canteen and Mess Society was still active and was the only contractor which was more concerned with the welfare of the troops than with making money. The Head of the society was summoned to the War Office together with the managing director of Richard Dickenson & Co., the soundest and most experienced firm of the canteen contractors. The two organisations were invited to establish a special department and subsequently joined as the Expeditionary Canteens to serve the nation.

Even with the extra money and their combined strength, the service could not be increased fast enough to match the huge expansion of the Armed Forces. In the meantime, many new contractors were finding loopholes for exploiting the situation and it became clear that safeguards were needed to protect the interests of the soldiers and supervise the operations of all these vested interests.

In January 1915, a Board of Control was formed and exactly two years later the Army Canteen Committee was registered at the Board of Trade as a company trading not for profit. It absorbed the Canteen and Mess Society, and took over the contracts of Dickenson's and all the other firms supplying the Army in the UK. Within three months it also took over all canteens abroad where British troops were stationed during peace times. The Expeditionary Force Canteens were left in charge in the main theatres of war.

In June 1917, the Royal Navy was keen to share in the benefits now being felt by the British soldier and so the Army Canteen Committee assumed the new title of the Navy and Army Canteen Board. When the Royal Air Force (RAF) became a separate arm of the nation's defences in 1918, their canteens were absorbed into the Navy and Army Canteen Board.

Lionel Fortescue's vision of a unified canteen system for the Forces was starting to take shape and the nucleus of NAAFI was now in place.

Establishment
After the First World War, the Expeditionary Force Canteens (EFC) and the Navy and Army Canteen Board (NACB) did not return to the gratitude of the nation. This was because EFC had made a large amount of profit from the sales of goods to the troops and opinion was divided as to what should be done with the money.

In March 1920, Winston Churchill, then Secretary of State for War, set up a committee to advise on the kind of organisation which would be needed for the Armed Forces in the future. The findings were unanimous; there should be one organisation to serve all three services, it should be permanent and it should be able to rapidly expand or contract at times of war or peace. The Navy, Army, Air Force Institutes was therefore established on 6 December 1920 and started trading as NAAFI in 1921.

As a not for profit organisation, with no shareholders to reward, NAAFI was asked to run the catering and recreational establishments needed by the armed forces. It had to make a profit for the good of the NAAFI customers - the men and women of the British Armed Forces- and so in addition it undertook to sell goods to servicemen and their families over and above those that were initially provided by the Royal Army Service Corps (RASC). The servicemen would benefit directly by getting cash rebates and discounts on purchases and indirectly through surpluses given back as a whole from each year's trading.

For the first time the troops overseas were able to buy the same things in the canteen abroad as they could at home. NAAFI first saw overseas service in Ireland in 1922. Six years later NAAFI would have a presence in Bermuda, Ceylon, Germany, Gibraltar, Iraq, China, Jamaica, Malta, and the Middle East.

Second World War
The NAAFI's greatest contribution was during the Second World War. The Chairman & CEO during the war years was Sir Lancelot Royle and by April 1944 the NAAFI ran 7,000 canteens and had 96,000 personnel (expanded from fewer than 600 canteens and 4,000 personnel in 1939). It also controlled ENSA, the forces entertainment organisation. In the 1940 Battle of France alone, the EFI had nearly 3,000 personnel and 230 canteens.

Male EFI personnel were members of the Royal Army Service Corps until 1965, then the Royal Army Ordnance Corps. Since 1993 they have been members of the Royal Logistic Corps. Female personnel were members of the Auxiliary Territorial Service until 1949, then the Women's Royal Army Corps until 1992, when they joined the RAOC (and later the RLC).

Falklands War
Petty Officer John Leake, NCS canteen manager onboard HMS Ardent, was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) in the 1982 Falklands War for his courage while manning a machine gun.

In popular culture

 * The movie Carry On Sergeant, the first in the Carry On movies, is set in a National Service depot, many scenes are set in the base NAAFI.
 * The 1950s BBC Radio comedy series The Goon Show often made reference to the NAAFI in scripts, mostly by Peter Sellers' character, Major Dennis Bloodnok. One episode was entitled "The Jet-Propelled Guided NAAFI". In the episode "Operation Christmas Duff", NAAFI is described as "an organisation working for the downfall of the British Army."
 * The expression, "You're as dim as a NAAFI candle," (i.e. stupid) is an update of the Great War veteran's slang "dim as a Toc H lamp".
 * The expression to lie "like a cheap NAAFI watch" unfairly relies on the supposed shoddy workmanship of said equipment.
 * In the "Camping In" episode of Are You Being Served?, when Mr Rumbold mentions he was in the Army Catering Corps, Mr Lucas incorrectly assumes that Mr Rumbold actually worked in the NAAFI. He angrily exclaims, "You were in THE NAAFI?" Additionally, in season 1 episode 2 of Grace & Favour, Miss Brahms replies to a statement by Captain Peacock by saying, "He used to cycle down to the NAAFI to get his five Woodbines," after he mentions that when he was in the Army, he "did occasionally climb into the saddle".
 * In chapter 16 of Lucky Jim, Dixon recalls that Margaret's face reminded him of a man who "had never been seen doing anything except sweeping out the NAAFI and wiping his nose on his sleeve."
 * In J. Lee Thompson's Ice Cold in Alex, a character questions whether the gin is imported or NAAFI, raising concerns about the spirit's quality.
 * The NAAFI is continuously mentioned throughout Spike Milligan's war memoirs. Every week his artillery unit is serviced by the NAAFI, who bring round the NAAFI rations of cigarettes, etc., as well as selling various other sundries such as shoelaces. Even when Milligan leaves the Army, as he is part of an army entertainment troupe, he still gets issued with a NAAFI ration each week.
 * In the sitcom Get Some In about RAF conscripts doing their National Service, in about every other episode there is a NAAFI canteen scene.
 * Lovejoy season 3, episode 5, scene 3 has Tinker Dill proclaiming he, "Left his sense of adventure behind in the NAAFI in 1953."

In addition to being the name of the institute, NAAFI is also used in British service talk as a noun for a type of break, i.e. a "NAAFI break", which is a short break or tea break; or an insult to the character of another soldier, e.g. "He's NAAFI!" (No Aim, Ambition and Fuck-all Interest). NAAFI has been humorously said to mean "Never 'Ave Any Fags In", referring to frequent shortages of cigarettes. A "NAAFI sandwich" consists of two pieces of bread spread with margarine placed together; that is, it is a "sandwich" with no filling.

Today

NAAFI now operates out of bases in British Forces Germany, Brunei, Gibraltar, the South Atlantic Islands and onboard HM Ships through the Naval Canteen Service (NCS). In Germany, it provides the supply of all catering, retail and leisure. This includes running the officers' and NCOs' messes, providing the catering service as well as a number of retail outlets, coffee forums, bars and the sale of tax-free cars.

title: Navy, Army and Air Force Institutes


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Moreton Island

Moreton Island (Mulgumpin) is an island on the eastern side of Moreton Bay on the coast of South East Queensland, Australia. The Coral Sea lies on the east coast of the island. Moreton Island lies 58 km northeast of the Queensland capital, Brisbane. 98% of the island is contained within a national park and a popular destination for day trippers, four wheel driving, camping, recreational angling and whale watching and a 75-minute ferry ride from Brisbane. It is the third largest sand island in the world. Together with Fraser Island, Moreton Island forms the largest sand structure in the world. It was the traditional country of the Ngugi before settlement.

The island is within the City of Brisbane and is gazetted into four localities, the small townships of Bulwer (on the north-west coast), Cowan Cowan (on the west coast) and Kooringal (on the south-west coast) with the bulk of the island being the locality of Moreton Island. The private Tangalooma Island Resort is also within the locality of Moreton Island. All residential areas are located on the western coast of the island facing Moreton Bay.

The island was named by Matthew Flinders. At least five lighthouses have been built on the island. A small number of residents live in four small settlements. Tangalooma was the site of a whaling station. Access to the island is by vehicular barge or passenger ferry services. Moreton Island is a popular destination for camping and fishing.

It is one of the wettest parts of the City of Brisbane with precipitation spread evenly throughout the year compared to other parts of South East Queensland. Cape Moreton receives an annual average rainfall of 1567 mm.

Geography
The island covers an area of approximately 186 km2, and extends for 37 km from north to south and is 13 km at its widest point. Cape Moreton, at the north eastern tip of the island, is the only rock outcrop on the island. It was named Cape Morton by Captain James Cook in May 1770, and was at that time assumed to be part of the mainland. The current spelling came about because of a clerical error later.

The highest point on the island is named Mount Tempest, which at 280 m is reputedly the highest, stabilised, coastal sandhill in the world. Close to Mount Tempest is another large sandhill—Storm Mountain at 264 m. High parabolic dunes are found along a central spine. Behind the beaches are many sand blow-outs where disturbances in natural dune vegetation has permitted high winds to blow sand inland.

Moreton Island has a few freshwater lakes. A number of perched and window lakes have formed on the island over many years. As the water table beneath the Island fills with rain water large lakes are formed, with Blue Lagoon being the largest and most popular on the Eastern side of the island. Honeyeater Lake, renowned for its birdlife is the smaller sister lake to Blue Lagoon. Dolphin Lake near Tangalooma named because it resembles a wild dolphin. The smallest and most impressive is Lake Trusiak near Bulwer named after Polish island adventurer George Trusiak. Four small settlements exist on the western side of the island. The northernmost of these is Bulwer near the north western corner of the island, whilst Cowan Cowan is approximately 4.5 km further south. Approximately 6 km further south lies the private Tangalooma Island Resort. This former whaling station features the Tangalooma Marine Education and Conservation Centre (TMECC) and is known for its dolphin feeding and wreck diving. Tangalooma is the main access point to the island with regular passenger ferry and vehicular barge services. The island's main airstrip is 1000 m long and lies between Cowan Cowan and Tangalooma. The other settlement is Kooringal which is located near the southern tip of the island. This township has its own 500 m airstrip and was serviced by a vehicular barge that ran to Amity Point on North Stradbroke Island until April 2009 when the barge was sold off due to limited business and high operation costs. A new vehicular barge called the Amity Trader now services the same route.

Fort Cowan Cowan, an old World War II bunker and fortification complex that was used to protect the approaches to Moreton Bay, is located north of Cape Cowan Cowan. The bar between the two islands is known as South Passage and is dangerous to cross in high seas.

Climate
Moreton Island experiences a marine-moderated humid subtropical climate (Köppen: Cfa with very warm, muggy summers and mild, pleasant winters. Precipitation is abundant year-round, averaging 1467.3 mm annually; and wind speeds are high, averaging 26.8 km/h at 3 pm; in part due to its exposed location.

History
Moreton Island is the traditional home of the Ngugi tribe. The islands contains numerous shell middens, indicating Aboriginal occupation of the island for at least 2000 years. While James Cook named the main headland on the island Cape Morton on the 17 May 1770, due to a clerical error those that came after him mistakenly used "Moreton". Matthew Flinders, on 31 July 1799, named the island after the Cape. Castaways Thomas Pamphlett, John Finnegan and Richard Parsons traversed the island in March and April 1823 before heading to the mainland via Stradbroke Island. The Ngugi, who comprised an estimated 100 people, together with the Nunukul of North Stradbroke Island, clashed with whites establishing a presence on their islands, usually over matters related to native women. Between July 1831 and December 1832 some 30 to 40 of both groups were wounded or killed. In one sortie arranged by Captain Clunie of the 17th Regiment, a score of Ngugi, surprised by a dawn ambush, were shot down at a fresh water lagoon near the southern end of Moreton Island.*

European residents settled on the island in 1848, after the Sovereign shipwrecked on the island and a pilot station was established at Bulwer. This pilot station was operated until 1909. The clipper Young Australia was wrecked on Moreton Island in 1872. At Cape Moreton is Queensland's oldest lighthouse, Cape Moreton Light, which was first lit in 1857. The lighthouse was followed by at least four other lighthouse erected since the 1860s, at Comboyuro Point, North Point, Cowan Cowan Point and Yellow Patch. During World War II, a number of defence installations were installed on the island by the Royal Australian Navy and Australian Army. These sites included anti aircraft guns and mine control buildings. Their purpose was to protect the approaches to the port of Brisbane and at its peak 900 troops were stationed on the island.

Between 1952 and 1962, Tangalooma, on the western side of the island, was the site of Queensland's only whaling station, with humpback whales being harvested on their annual migration north. Each season up to 600 whales were processed with a maximum of 11 whales per day. The site of the whaling station is now the Tangalooma Island Resort. The flensing plan of the station still exists as part of the resort.

Moreton Island was included in the Greater Brisbane area in 1974. The council initially permitted 60% of the island to potentially be sandmined, however a public outcry led to the council changing the zoning to open space. The sands on the island contain rutile and zircon. The Queensland Government, led by Joh Bjelke-Petersen supported sandmining on the island and established the Cook Inquiry which produced a report recommending that 94% of the island be banned from mining. Despite this more mining licences were granted until 1984 when the Federal government announced it would decline export licences for the island's mineral sands. In 1989, then Premier of Queensland, Wayne Goss halted mining of the island and compensated the companies involved.

A salt-water lagoon on the island was used as a temporary home to a dugong called Pig. Pig was the youngest dugong ever successfully reared in captivity. The dugong was placed in the lagoon to increase its natural instincts before being released into the wild.

Pacific Adventurer oil spill
On 11 March 2009 the container ship MV Pacific Adventurer lost bunker oil and cargo north of Moreton Island during heavy seas that were generated by Tropical Cyclone Hamish. The ship reportedly lost 31 containers of ammonium nitrate and as much as 230 tonnes of bunker oil. The spilled bunker oil was washed ashore on beaches along the northern end of Moreton Island including Honeymoon Bay, as well as along Bribie Island and beaches on the Sunshine Coast. These have been deemed disaster areas, although a controversy has arisen as to the lack of early response as well as the refusal to accept offers of help or allow access to clean up the area.

The ship's owners face the possibility of up to A$2 million in fines and the skipper could have to pay up to $200,000. They may also be liable for up to $250 million for environmental damage to the shoreline.

Britain's Swire Shipping Ltd., the Hong Kong-registered ship's owner, said containers aboard the ship had slipped from the deck as it rocked in cyclone-stirred waters, ripping a hole in a bunker oil tank and spilling the equivalent of more than 11000 impgal of bunk oil into the sea. Later, the company said a diver's inspection of the hull had led it to conclude the amount of spilled bunk oil was "significantly more" than that, but did not give a replacement figure.

Native title recognition
The Quandamooka people were granted native title of Mulgumpin on 27 November 2019. Joint management of the national park gives responsibility for camping book to the Quandamooka Yoolooburrabee Aboriginal Corporation

Heritage listings
Moreton Island has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * Cape Moreton: Cape Moreton Lightstation
 * 25 Dorothy Newnham Street: Signal Station, Moreton Island
 * 30 Jessie Wadsworth Street: Fort Cowan Cowan (Cowan Cowan Battery)

The island was also listed in 1981 on the now-defunct Register of the National Estate.

Recreation

Established in 1966, 98% of the island is contained within the Moreton Island National Park, which has a World Conservation Union (IUCN) category of II. The park is managed by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service.

Camping and four wheel driving is permitted and possible in many parts, with the appropriate fee. Motor vehicle access is by ferry, but is for four wheel drive vehicles only, as there are no sealed roads on the island. Camping is permitted, however permits must be obtained on the mainland. There are plenty of recreational activities including sand tobogganing which Moreton is famous for, snorkeling & diving, bird watching, feeding dolphins, whale watching from land, fishing and parasailing.

There are more islands to the south, South Stradbroke Island and North Stradbroke Island, and to the north; Bribie Island and Fraser Island (reputed to be the biggest sand island in the world, Moreton Island being the third largest to Fraser).

Management plan
The Queensland Government implemented a new management plan called the Moreton Island Management Plan on 1 July 2007. This plan includes a new camping booking system, designated routes for quads, trikes and trail bikes and other zoning which defines rules for access and recreational opportunities. The plan incorporated existing fire management plans, pest and plant control measures and feral animal eradication programs.

Transport
Access to the island is via vehicle ferry service from the Moreton Island Adventures MICAT at Port of Brisbane in Lytton, and the resort passenger services on the Tangalooma Island Resort Fleet departing from the Brisbane River at Holt St Pinkenba. A service from Amity Point on North Stradbroke Island was discontinued. Timetable details are available at. The Combie Trader barge service from Scarborough in Redcliffe City to Bulwer no longer operates. It ceased in July 2008 due to matters with the terminal and landing areas.

There is no public bus service on the island. Tours and taxi transfers by four wheel drive (off-road) vehicles operate from Bulwer. Private vehicles may be brought to the island by ferry. They can be driven on the island but require a vehicle access permit as the island is a national park. Four wheel drive (off-road) vehicles are necessary as roads are unsealed and often sandy tracks beyond resort areas. Many beaches, particularly on the east shore, also serve as roads. There is little or no petrol on the island.

title: Moreton Island


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Grand Fleet

The Grand Fleet was the main battlefleet of the Royal Navy during the First World War. It was established in August 1914 and disbanded in April 1919. Its main base was Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands.

History
Formed in August 1914 from the First Fleet and part of the Second Fleet of the Home Fleets, the Grand Fleet included 25–35 modern capital ships. It was commanded initially by Admiral Sir John Jellicoe.

The 10th Cruiser Squadron carried out the Northern Patrol between Shetland and Norway and cruisers from Cromarty and Rosyth operated a second line (and screened the fleet) in enforcing the blockade of Germany. The administrative complications of the distant blockade across the northern exits of the North Sea overwhelmed the capacity of Vice Admiral Francis Miller, the Base Admiral in Chief from 7 August 1914, devolving on the commander in chief, Admiral John Jellicoe. To relieve the administrative burdens on Miller and Jellicoe, the post of the Admiral of the Orkneys and Shetlands was created to oversee the defence of the islands, naval bases and shore duties. Vice-Admiral Stanley Colville was appointed to the command (7 September 1914 – 19 January 1916) with Miller under his authority.

Admiral Jellicoe was significantly concerned about the possibility of submarine or destroyer attacks on Scapa Flow. While the Grand Fleet spent almost the first year of the war patrolling the west coast of the British Isles, their base at Scapa was defensively reinforced, beginning with over sixty blockships sunk in the many entrance channels between the southern islands to enable the use of submarine nets and booms. These blocked approaches were backed by minefields, artillery and concrete barriers.

Admiral Jellicoe was succeeded by Admiral Sir David Beatty in December 1916.

The Grand Fleet was based first at Scapa Flow in the Orkney Islands, and later at Rosyth on the Firth of Forth. It participated with the biggest fleet action of the war – the Battle of Jutland – in June 1916.

After the Battle of Jutland, the German High Seas Fleet rarely ventured out of its bases at Wilhelmshaven and Kiel in the last two years of the war to engage with the British fleet.

Following the German defeat, 74 ships of the High Seas Fleet (Hochseeflotte) of the Imperial German Navy (Kaiserliche Marine) were interned in Gutter Sound at Scapa Flow pending a decision on their future in the peace Treaty of Versailles.

During April 1919 the Grand Fleet was disbanded, with much of its strength forming a new Atlantic Fleet.

Most of the interned German warships were later scuttled despite Royal Navy attempts to save them.

Order of battle

Not all the Grand Fleet was available for use at any one time, because ships required maintenance and repairs. At the time of the Battle of Jutland in May 1916, it had 32 dreadnought and super-dreadnought battleships. Of these, 28 were in the order of battle at Jutland.

The actual strength of the fleet varied through the war as new ships were built and others were transferred or sunk but the number of battleships steadily increased, adding to the margin of superiority over the German fleet. After the USA joined the war, the US Battleship Division Nine was attached to the Grand Fleet as the Sixth Battle Squadron, adding four, later five, dreadnought battleships.

The order of battle of the Grand Fleet at the end of the war in 1918 included 35 dreadnought battleships and 11 battlecruisers. Twenty ships had been completed since the outbreak of war. Five of these ships were from the United States Navy and one HMAS Australia (1911) from the Royal Australian Navy. It had five battle squadrons, each of four to ten capital ships, plus the flagship HMS Queen Elizabeth, three cruiser squadrons, the "Flying Squadron" of seaplane carriers, and six destroyer flotillas, with another destroyer flotilla and three minesweeper flotillas under its command. The Battle Cruiser Force was two battle squadrons and the flagship HMS Lion (1910) (9 ships in total), and five cruiser squadrons (21 ships).

title: Grand Fleet


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Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge

The Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge spans the St. Marys River between the United States and Canada connecting the twin cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario. The bridge is operated by the International Bridge Administration under the direction of the Sault Ste. Marie Bridge Authority, a bi-national governing body consisting of four directors appointed by the Governor of Michigan and four appointed by the Canadian government-owned Federal Bridge Corporation.

Description
The Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge is the tenth-busiest passenger crossing on the Canada–United States border, and the only land crossing for almost 700 miles (1125 km). It serves as the northern terminus of Interstate 75 (I-75). The bridge construction began in 1960 and officially opened to traffic on October 31, 1962. Contractors included Massman Construction Co. of Kansas City, MO and Bethlehem Steel of Bethlehem, PA. Daily operation is carried on by the International Bridge Administration (IBA) under the supervision of the Sault Ste. Marie Bridge Authority (SSMBA). The SSMBA replaced the previous Joint International Bridge Authority (JIBA) in 2009, which in turn had succeeded the International Bridge Authority (IBA, created in 1935) in 2000.

This is a steel truss arch bridge with a suspended deck. There are two separate spans, a double arch span on the U.S. side and a single arch span on the Canadian side. The double arch spans cross the four U.S. Soo Locks. The single arch spans the single Canadian Lock. In Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, the bridge ends at a city street, Huron Street, in the downtown core. The total length of the bridge approaches 2.8 mi. The Bridge allows bicycles to cross, but the lack of dedicated bike lanes requires cyclists to take proper precautions to ensure visibility.

The International Bridge Bus was operated by the CLM Community Action Agency (CLMCAA) of Sault Ste Marie Michigan. Bridge bus border crossings by CLMCAA ceased in March 2020, at the start of the COVID-19 border restrictions between Canada and the U.S. Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, the bridge bus crossed hourly from 8:00 am to 4:00 pm on weekdays serving both downtown areas and Lake Superior State University on the Michigan side and the Station Mall on the Ontario side.

A tourist information radio station, CIRS, broadcast at 530 AM from the Ontario side of the bridge from 1986 to 2010.

History

In 1954 the state of Michigan created the International Bridge Authority. Canada followed in 1955, creating the St.Mary's River Co. The bridge was opened in 1962.

Beginning in 1987, an annual International Bridge Walk has been held on the last Saturday in June, starting on the Michigan side, with participants finishing in Ontario.

In 1975, the bridge had its 10 millionth crossing.

On June 6, 2005, the Ontario government announced a construction project to build a dedicated truck bypass route to connect the bridge to Highway 17 in the north end of the city. The city had lobbied for this for some time, since the bridge's terminus at a city street was viewed by many residents of the city as a safety concern; however, the bridge terminus itself cannot be easily relocated due to the already highly urbanized nature of the Sault, Ontario waterfront. The truck route, known as Carmen's Way in memory of the city's former federal MP Carmen Provenzano, was officially opened in September 2006.

Construction work subsequently commenced in 2009 on a project to expand and modernize the Canadian bridge plaza, including a larger Canada Border Services Agency building with improved truck inspection facilities and a dedicated route to take trucks directly to Carmen's Way, thereby eliminating the need for trucking traffic to enter Huron Street.

Beginning in May 2014, construction work commenced on improvements to the plaza on the Michigan side of the bridge. The 100 millionth crossing occurred on March 1, 2018.

Border crossing
The Sault Sainte Marie Border Crossing connects the cities of Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan and Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario at the Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge. The US Port of Entry was established in 1843, as the cities on each shore of the river grew. Regular ferry service began in 1865, and border inspection services in both the US and Canada were provided at the ferry terminals since the early 1900s. Ferry service abruptly ended in 1962 when the International Bridge spanning the river was completed. Railroad trains cross the border on the adjacent Sault Ste. Marie International Railroad Bridge which was built in 1887.

title: Sault Ste. Marie International Bridge


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Pyrenean Sheepdog

The Pyrenean Sheepdog, the Chien de Berger des Pyrénées in French, is a small to medium-sized breed of herding dog from the Pyrenees Mountains region of France. It is found herding flocks of sheep throughout the Pyrenees alongside the much larger Pyrenean Mountain Dog which is kept as a flock guardian.

The Pyrenean Sheepdog is found in three coat types, the long-haired and goat-haired (together called the Chien de Berger des Pyrénées À Poil Long) as well as the smooth-faced (called the Chien de Berger des Pyrénées À Face Rase); the latter is recognised as a separate breed from the former two by the Société Centrale Canine.

History
The Pyrenean Sheepdog is found along the entire length of the French Pyrenees and is even known in Basque Country to the west. The breed is one of a number of similar rough-coated sheep herding-type breeds found throughout Europe including the Briard and Berger Picard from France, the Barbado da Terceira and Cao da Serra de Aires from the Azores and Portugal, the Polish Lowland Sheepdog from Poland, the Gos d'atura from Catalonia, the Pastore Fonnese from Sardinia, the Bearded Collie, Border Collie, Rough Collie and extinct Welsh Hillman from Britain, the Schafpudel from Germany, and the Schapendoes from Holland, as well as the Armant from Egypt (descended from French Briards). A number of scholars believe it is possible the ancestors of these herding-type dogs were introduced to Europe during Indo-European migrations over 4,000 years ago, and they spread throughout the continent evolving through selective breeding into the regional breeds with certain physical characteristics to suit the demands or preferences of the region.

Traditionally the Pyrenean Sheepdog is one of two breeds maintained by shepherds in the Pyrenees, the larger Pyrenean Mountain Dog was used as a flock guardian, protecting flocks from depredation from local predators (in particular wolves), as well as from thieves; the smaller Pyrenean Sheepdog was used to herd the flocks, an important function over the summer months when the flocks are grazed on mountain pastures.

The Pyrenean Sheepdog was first recognised by the Société Centrale Canine in 1926; today they recognise it as two breeds, the first the long-haired or Chien de Berger des Pyrénées À Poil Long and the second the smooth-faced or Chien de Berger des Pyrénées À Face Rase.

The Pyrenean Sheepdog is still used as a herding dog in the Pyrenees region, in France the breed is sometimes called the Labrit or Labri or the Berger des Pyrénées, it is often referred to as the Petit Berger which means Little Shepherd.

Appearance
The Pyrenean Sheepdog is a small to medium-sized breed (it is the smallest French herding breed) that resembles as small Berger Picard; they usually stand between 38 and 56 cm; the breed standards state the long-haired dogs are 40 to 50 cm and bitches 38 to 48 cm whilst smooth-faced dogs are 40 to 54 cm and bitches 40 - 52 cm. The breed weighs between 8 and 15 kg. The breed has a lean, athletic build which gives them both speed and endurance as is typical of smaller herding dogs; the varieties are anatomically almost identical, although the smooth-faced variety is described as being slightly shorter in the body and having more compact feet. The breed is considered very hardy and its build gives it impressive stamina, particularly so given the altitudes it works in, it easily covers over 32 km in a day.

The Pyrenean Sheepdog's coat can be medium (known as goat-haired) or long, the long-haired varieties have longer hair on the face whilst the smooth-faced variety has much shorter hair on its face. The breed's coat provides excellent protection from extreme weather, particularly the long-haired variety, the variations seen in the breed's coats is an indication that the breed is primarily bred for working ability and not appearance. The breed can be fawn, grey, blue, brindle or black in colour which can be overlaid with black and also can have some white on the chest and limbs.

Traditionally the Pyrenean Sheepdog's ears and tail were docked although this custom is no longer common due to the procedures being restricted/ banned in numerous countries.

Temperament
The Pyrenean Sheepdog is an extremely active breed, sometimes described as a 'ball of fire', it is very intelligent and quick-witted, mischievous, has quick reactions and abundant nervous energy; like many breeds of sheepdogs the breed is rather wary of strangers although the smooth-faced variety is said to be less so.

title: Pyrenean Sheepdog