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Walled City of Lahore

The Walled City of Lahore (اندرونِ شہر لہور;, "Inner City of Lahore"), also known as the Old City, forms the historic core of the city of Lahore in Punjab, Pakistan. The city was established around 1000 CE in the western half of the Walled City, which was fortified by a mud wall during the medieval era. It is the cultural centre of the Punjab region.

The Walled City rose in prominence after being selected as the Mughal capital, which resulted in the construction of the Lahore Fort – now a UNESCO World Heritage Site, as well as the city's new reinforced walls. The Walled City was bestowed with numerous monuments during the Mughal era, with some of Lahore's most iconic structures being located in the Walled City, such as the lavishly decorated Wazir Khan Mosque, the massive Badshahi Mosque, and the Shahi Hammam. Under Sikh rule, the city was again selected as the capital, and the Walled City again rose in prominence with numerous religious buildings built in the Walled City at the time, including the Samadhi of Ranjit Singh, and the Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das.

The Walled City today remains the cultural heart of Lahore, and is home to many of its tourist attractions. In 2012, the Pilot Urban Conservation and Infrastructure Improvement Project—the Shahi Guzargah Project was launched to restore a section of Shahi Guzargah ("Royal Passage") between the Wazir Khan Mosque and Delhi Gate under the management of the Walled City of Lahore Authority. The first phase of the project was completed in 2015 with support from the governments of Norway and the United States of America.

Founding
The origins of Lahore are vague. According to carbon dating evidence from archaeological finds in the Lahore Fort, settlements in the region have existed as early as 2,000 BCE. Lahore had many names throughout its history. Mohallah Maulian represents one of the two most probable sites of first the original Lahore.

Medieval period
Though the modern city's founding may have been as early as 1000 CE, Lahore gained prominence only with the invasion of Muslim rulers from Central Asia. The city served as a capital during the Ghaznavid, Ghorid, and Delhi Sultanate periods, but was not widely mentioned until around 1400. Ibn Battuta knew of the city, but chose not to visit it, while Tamerlane spared the city destruction in his 1398 invasion, and delegated its sacking to a subordinate.

The entire city of Lahore during the medieval Ghaznavid era was probably located west of the modern Shah Alami, and north of the Bhatti Gate. Many of the city's pre-Mughal tombs were built along the perimeter of this outline, including the Data Darbar shrine, the Tomb of Malik Ayaz, and the Aybak tomb. The modern Gumti Bazaar forms an arc along what may have been the southern boundary of the pre-Mughal city.

Mughal period
By the time of Mughal rule, a majority of its residents did not live within the walled city itself, but instead lived in suburbs that had spread outside of the city's walls. Only 9 of the 36 urban quarters around Lahore, known as guzars, were located within the city's walls during the Akbar period. During this period, Lahore was closely tied to smaller market towns known as qasbahs, such as Kasur, Eminabad, and Batala in modern-day India. These, in turn, linked Lahore's markets to supply chains starting in villages surrounding each qasbah.

Urban administration under the Mughals was minimal, and most streets aside from major thoroughfares were privately maintained. The kotwal was imbued with the responsibility to manage day-to-day affairs in the city, and was subordinate to a Qazi judge. The local Mohalladar would surveil individual mohalla neighbourhoods, and register births and deaths within his mohallah. The positions were also maintained later during Sikh and British rule.

Akbar
Lahore's eminence largely began after 1584, when the Emperor Akbar ordered a palace to be built at what is now the Lahore Fort after shifting his capital to Lahore from Fatehpur Sikri. He also ordered rebuilt and fortified the city's walls, and ordered their extension east of the modern Shah Alami Bazaar to encompass an open plain known as the Rarra Maidan. Lahore's old gates were also built around this time. Akbar also established the Akbari Mandi as a grain market at the city's easternmost edge - a grain market that still exists in the present day. During his reign, Mughal nobles were encouraged to build palaces and gardens in and around Lahore, and many of Lahore's first haveli mansions date from this period.

European visitors in the 16th and 17th centuries described the city as populous, with bazaars stocking valuable goods. Akbar's court chronicler, Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak, described the city as a "grand resort of all countries" with manufacturers that produced an astonishing variety of items. The Venetian traveler, Niccolao Manucci, described the city's bazaars as being packed with foreigners.

Jahangir
During the reign of Emperor Jahangir, Lahore was still considered less important than the old Mughal capital of Agra, as evidenced by the construction of the Tomb of I'timād-ud-Daulah there rather than in Lahore. However, the importance of the city grew drastically with the presence of the Mughal Court, and the city's suburbs spread out more than 5 kilometres beyond the Walled City. The Emperor Jahangir was later buried in an extravagant tomb in the Shahdara Bagh across the River Ravi, whose construction was overseen by his wife, Nur Jahan. The family of Nur Jahan built several garden-residences within and around the Walled City, and was later buried in Shahdara Bagh.

Shah Jahan
The Emperor Shah Jahan was born in Lahore in 1592, and bestowed the city with its famous Shalimar Gardens. By the time of his reign, six times as many Lahoris lived outside of the city walls than within. As a nobleman under Shah Jahan, Wazir Khan embarked on a program of architectural patronage. His first monumental project in the city was the Wazir Khan Mosque, built at the site of a simple pre-Mughal shrine. As Lahore's first monumental mosque, it is lavishly embellished with extensive fresco-work that synthesizes Mughal and Punjabi influences. It is now considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque. He also built two other mosques in the Walled City, as well as the Shahi Hammam - famous for its lavish use of frescoes as a decorative element. He built for himself a haveli in the old city near the Shah Alami Bazaar called the Peri Mahal, or "Fairy Palace." He also laid a pleasure garden south of the Walled City known as Nakhla Bagh, where he also built for himself a baradari.

Aurangzeb
Shah Jahan's son, Emperor Aurangzeb, built the largest Mughal monument in Lahore, the iconic Badshahi Mosque. Emperor Aurangzeb also ordered the construction of the massive Alimgiri Gate at the Lahore Fort. He also improved civil infrastructure, and ordered the construction of the Alamgiri Bund - a channel built to divert the flow of the River Ravi.

Sikh period
Following the collapse of Mughal rule, Lahore ceased to function as an imperial city. Trade abruptly stopped, and large areas of the city's suburbs were abandoned. By 1780, the city had fallen under the rule of small Sikh states known as Misls. The city and its revenues were partitioned among 3 Sikh chiefs - Gujjar Singh, Lahna Singh, and Sobha Singh. Instability during the Misl period contributed to the rise of nearby Amritsar as a commercial centre. The city's population rapidly declined during this era, and the entire population of the city was said to live within the confines of the Walled City, with numerous citadels and suburbs depopulated.

Instability hindered Lahore's progress until the arrival of Maharaja Ranjit Singh, who in 1799 made Lahore the Sikhs' administrative capital for the next 50 years, ruling from the Old City's Lahore Fort. Though the city's urban fabric lay in ruins by 1799, Sikh reconstruction from this era were based upon Mughal precedent. In 1812, they refurbished the city's defenses and added a second circuit of walls around the city that largely followed the outline of walls from the Akbari period. Numerous Mughal monuments were damaged, desecrated, or destroyed during this period.

Ranjit Singh and his descendant bestowed the Walled City with religious monuments such as the Gurdwara Dera Sahib, Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das, and Samadhi of Ranjit Singh, and numerous Hindu temples, as well as secular buildings such as the Haveli of Nau Nihal Singh, and Hazuri Bagh Baradari. They also refurbished the nearby Shalimar Gardens, while numerous gardens were laid outside the city walls by Sikh nobles.

By the end of Sikh rule, most of Lahore's massive Mughal haveli compounds had been occupied by settlers. New neighbourhoods occasionally grew up entirely within the confines of an old Mughal haveli, such as the Mohallah Pathran Wali, which grew within the ruins of a haveli of the same name that was built by Mian Khan. By 1831, all Mughal havelis in the Walled City had been encroached upon by the surrounding neighbourhood, leading to the modern-day absence of any Mughal havelis in Lahore.

British period
After the British captured Lahore from the Sikhs in 1846, annexation of the Punjab in 1849, the Walled City's administrative practices were largely maintained. By the early 20th century, the Walled City's mohallahs were incorporated into a new municipal administrative system. Several of the city's older Mughal and Sikh monuments were repurposed by British authorities during their early rule, as resources for planning and building new administrative buildings were scarce. The Tomb of Anarkali, for example, was appropriated first for office space, before its conversion in 1851 into an Anglican church until 1891. It thereafter was used once again for civil purposes as a document repository - a function which it serves until present day. Chauburji was used as a police station during British rule. Several other Mughal tombs were used as residences by high ranking British administrators.

Following the Indian Rebellion of 1857, British colonialists destroyed Lahore's city walls, as well as its gateways, though several were later rebuilt. The British built the Lahore Junction railway station outside the city's former walls, in a unique fortified style complete with turrets and crenellations, and loopholes for directing rifle fire. The Circular Garden which once encompassed the Walled City on three sides was established by 1892. The Walled City's Rang Mahal was used first as a school for the American Presbyterian Mission, before being used as the first location of Lahore's prestigious Forman Christian College in 1896.

The British regarded the Walled City as a potential hotbed for disease and social instability, and instead focused development away from the Walled City, and into suburban areas to the south and east, where numerous British-era buildings now stand, along with the Lahore Cantonment - originally laid by British administrators. By the early 20th century, the Walled City's mohallahs came under the administration of British municipal laws which had only previously applied in Civil Station.

Urban form
The city of Lahore during the Ghaznavid era was probably located in the southwest portion of today's Walled City, with several of the city's pre-Mughal tombs built along the perimeter of this area. The Gumti Bazaar forms an arc along what may have been the southern boundary of the pre-Mughal city. A mud fort is believed to have surrounded the medieval city, and may have been built by Malik Ayaz, the first Muslim governor of Lahore.

As late as 1864, the Lahori Mandi area had been known as kacha kot, meaning "the mud fort," a name derived from the gradient of the land, the water flow, and the formation of mohallahs, kuchas, and kattrahs. The curve of Kucha Pir Bola. for example, merges with Waachowali Bazaar, the Lahori Bazaar merges with Chowk Lahori Mandi, and Chowk Mati merges with Papar Mandi, which may outline the old fort.

The Mughal period beginning in the Akbari period until the early 18th century most decisively determined the city's character. Mughal Emperors embellished the city with monuments, and the city accumulated monuments from several different periods - in contrast to Fatehpur Sikri or Old Delhi which were largely built during the reign of a single Mughal Emperor. The Mughal city was divided into urban quarters known as guzārs. During the Akbari period, only 9 of Lahore's 26 guzārs were located within the boundaries of Lahore's city walls. Suburbs grew around the Walled City in areas to its east and south, and most was done in an ad hoc manner with concern paid to the developments immediate environment, rather than a larger masterplan.

During the Jahangir period, the city grew rapidly. Lahore's suburban areas extended up to 5 kilometres from the Walled City. Empress Nur Jahan and her family built a number of residences and gardens within the Walled City, and outside of the city walls in the suburbs during this period. Her practice of building garden-residences successfully wove a culture of gardens into the rapidly urbanizing city.

Properties in the Walled City were often carved into smaller pieces over time. Inhabitants of the same building, and mohallah, were inhabited by members of different religions and castes. Though some neighbourhoods in the Walled City are named after individual groups, these areas did not remain homogeneous.

During the British era, the city's eastern walls were shifted about 100 metres further east. Whereas Chitta Gate had served as the city's original "Delhi Gate", and previously opened directed onto Wazir Khan Chowk. During the British era, a new gate was built next to the Shahi Hammam, and new streets built in that area.

The Shah Alami Bazaar area was once a largely Hindu quarter of the Walled City, and was the busiest and most densely populated part of the city where sunlight would rarely reach the street below. During the 1947 riots that accompanied the Partition of British India, much of the area was burnt down, with rebuilding of the area beginning in 1949. Rebuilding was done in a contemporary style, rather than the historic style of the rest of the city, in order to widen streets and to create more commercial space.

The convoluted and picturesque streets of the inner city remain almost intact, but the rapid demolition and frequently illegal rebuilding taking place throughout the city is causing the historic fabric to be eroded and replaced by inferior constructions.

Demographics
The Walled City of Lahore covers an area of 256 ha with a population of 200,000. Before partition, in 1947, the Walled City had a concentration of 48% Hindus, 38% Muslims and 12% Sikhs. Once Pakistan and India were formed - the area saw a mass exodus of Hindus and Sikhs, with the area now being populated primarily by the Punjabis from West Pakistan, immigrants from East Punjab (Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, of India) and Pashtuns. As of now, the population is 99% Muslims, comprising Punjabis, mostly.

In the past two decades, there has been an ever-increasing Pashtun population, with traders arriving and settling from the KPK, and parts of Afghanistan. This part of Lahore is a bustling community, with history etched in every corner of its streets, and attracts people from all across Pakistan, both for tourism and business purposes.

Lahore Fort

The Lahore Fort (Punjabi and : Shahi Qila, or "Royal Fort") is a citadel at the northern end of Lahore's Walled City that spreads over an area greater than 20 hectares. It contains 21 notable monuments, some of which date to the era of Emperor Akbar. Some of its monuments are famous sites themselves, including the white marble Naulakha Pavilion, the Sheesh Mahal ("Palace of Mirrors"), Pearl Mosque, and the fort's massive Picture Wall.

The Lahore Fort is notable for having been almost entirely rebuilt in the 17th century, when the Mughal Empire was at the height of its splendour and opulence. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its "outstanding repertoire" of Mughal monuments dating from the era when the empire was at its artistic and aesthetic zenith.

Badshahi Mosque
The Badshahi Mosque (, or "Imperial Mosque") is a Mughal era mosque built in 1671-73 that is located west of Lahore Fort, and fronts the fort across the Hazuri Bagh quadrangle. The architecture and design of the Badshahi Masjid is closely related to the Jama Masjid in Delhi, India, which was built in 1648 by Aurangzeb's father and predecessor, Shah Jahan.

Badshahi Mosque was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb in 1671, with construction of the mosque lasting for two years until 1673. The mosque is an important example of Mughal architecture, with an exterior that is decorated with carved red sandstone with marble inlay. It is the largest and most recent of the grand imperial mosques of the Mughal-era, and is the second-largest mosque in Pakistan. The mosque is now widely considered to be one of Lahore's most iconic landmarks.

Wazir Khan Mosque
The Wazir Khan Mosque (مسجد وزیر خان; Masjid Wazīr Kh ān) is a 17th-century mosque near the Delhi Gate and Chitta Gate that was commissioned during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as part of an ensemble of buildings that also included the nearby Shahi Hammam baths. Construction of Wazir Khan Mosque began in 1634 C.E., and was completed in 1641.

Considered to be the most ornately decorated Mughal-era mosque, Wazir Khan Mosque is renowned for its intricate faience tile work known as kashi-kari, as well as its interior surfaces that are almost entirely embellished with elaborate Mughal-era frescoes. The mosque has been under extensive restoration since 2009 under the direction of the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Government of Punjab, with contributions from the governments of Germany, Norway, and the United States.

Begum Shahi Mosque
The Begum Shahi Mosque (بیگم شاہی مسجد) is an early 17th-century mosque that was built between 1611 and 1614 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Jahangir in honour of his mother. It is Lahore's earliest surviving example of a Mughal-era mosque, and influenced construction of the larger Wazir Khan Mosque a few decades later.

Sunehri Mosque

The Sunheri Mosque (, or Golden Mosque), also known as the Talai Mosque, is a late Mughal architecture-era mosque in Lahore's walled city that is named in honour of its gilded domes. Unlike the Wazir Khan Mosque and Badshahi Mosque which were built at the zenith of the Mughal Empire in the 17th century, the Sunehri Mosque was built in 1753 when the empire was in decline.

During Sikh rule, the mosque was seized by Sikh authorities and converted into a gurdwara, after a copy of the Guru Granth Sahib was installed in the mosque following Sikhs complaints that the Muslim call to prayer from the mosque was disturbing their religious ceremonies at a newly constructed baoli (stepped well) nearby.

Neevin Mosque
The Neevin Mosque (نیویں مسجد), is a 15th-century mosque built during the Lodi dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Neevin Mosque is notable for its foundation 25 feet below street level. The mosque is further noted for being one of Lahore's few remaining pre-Mughal monuments.

Samadhi of Ranjit Singh
The Samadhi of Ranjit Singh (رنجیت سنگھ کی سمادھی) is a 19th-century shrine that houses the funerary urns of the Sikh ruler Ranjit Singh (1780 - 1839). It is located adjacent the Lahore Fort and Badshahi Mosque, as well the Gurdwara Dera Sahib which marks the spot where the 5th guru of Sikhism, Guru Arjan Dev, died.

Gurdwara Dera Sahib

Gurdwara Dera Sahib (گوردوارہ ڈیہرا صاحب) commemorates the spot where the 5th guru of Sikhism, Guru Arjan Dev, died in 1606. Construction of the building was started by Kharak Singh on the spot where he was cremated, and was completed by his youngest son, Duleep Singh in 1848. The gurdwara combines elements of Sikh, Hindu, and Islamic architecture. Portions of the building are believed to have been plundered from the adjacent Lahore Fort.

Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das
The Gurdwara Janam Asthan Guru Ram Das (گردوارہ جنم استھان گورو رام داس) is a gurdwara built atop the site traditionally believed to be the location of the birthplace and childhood home of Guru Ram Das, the 4th Sikh gurus. The gurdwara is located in the Chuna Mandi Bazaar in the Walled City of Lahore, near the Lahore Fort, and Begum Shahi Mosque. The shrine is located along the Shahi Guzargah, or "Royal Passage" that began at Delhi Gate, and terminated at the Lahore Fort.

Havelis
There are many havelis inside the Walled City of Lahore, some in good condition while others need urgent attention. Many of these havlis are fine examples of Mughal and Sikh Architecture. Some of the havelis inside the Walled City include:

Haveli of Nau Nihal Singh
The Haveli of Nau Nihal Singh is considered to be one of the finest examples of Sikh architecture in Lahore, and is the only Sikh-era haveli that preserves its original ornamentation and architecture. The haveli is noted for its lavishly decorated western façade, displaying vivid Kangra-style painting. The site has been used as a girls' school since the British colonial-era.

 * Nisar Haveli
 * Mubarak Haveli
 * Haveli Barood Khana
 * Mubarak Begum Haveli
 * Salman Sirhindi's Haveli
 * Haveli of Dina Nath
 * Chuna Mandi Havelis
 * Fakir Khana Haveli
 * Lal Haveli
 * Haveli Sir Wajid Ali Shah (Near Nisar Haveli)
 * Haveli Mian Khan (Rang Mehal)
 * Haveli Shergharian (Near Lal Khou)

Royal baths
The Shahi Hammam ("Royal Baths"), is a Persian-style bath which was built in 1635 C.E. during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan. The Shahi Hammam is noted for its extensive embellishment with Mughal-era frescoes that have recently been restored. The baths were built to serve as a waqf, or endowment, for the maintenance of the Wazir Khan Mosque.

No longer used as a hammam, the baths were restored between 2013 and 2015 by the Aga Khan Trust for Culture and the Walled City of Lahore Authority. The restoration project was given an Award of Merit by UNESCO in 2016 for the hammam's successful conservation which returned it to its "former prominence."

Hazuri Bagh Baradari
The Hazuri Bagh Baradari is a baradari of white marble located in the Hazuri Bagh quadrangle, which forms the space between the Alamgiri Gate of the Lahore Fort, and the Badshahi Mosque. It was built by Maharaja Ranjit Singh, Sikh ruler of Punjab in 1818. The pavilion consisted of two storeys until it was damaged by lightning in 1932.

Fort Road Food Street
The Fort Road Food Street is a pedestrianised area located on the Fort Road within the walled city that is dedicated to culinary stalls and restaurants specialising Lahori cuisine. The street has colourful lights and views of Badshahi Mosque and is near the Roshnai Gate

Gates
The Walled City of Lahore once had 13 gates. All survived until the 1857 Uprising when in an effort to de-fortify the city, all but one of the gates were destroyed by the British. Three were rebuilt as simpler structures, while the Delhi Gate, Shah Alami Gate, and Lohari Gate were built in a more elaborate style. The Shah Alami Gate was destroyed during riots following the Partition of British India.

Shahi Guzargah Project
In 2012, the Pilot Urban Conservation and Infrastructure Improvement Project—the Shahi Guzargah Project was launched by the Government of Punjab and the Aga Khan Trust for Culture (an agency of the AKDN) which restored a section of Shahi Guzargah ("Royal Passage") between the Wazir Khan Mosque and Delhi Gate under the management of the Walled City of Lahore Authority. The project was completed in 2015 with support from the governments of Norway and the United States of America.

Prior to completion of the project's first phase, the vicinity around the Wazir Khan Mosque had been encroached upon by illegally erected shops which blocked off much of the mosque from the surrounding neighborhood. Tangled power lines further spoiled views of the mosque, and the Wazir Khan Chowk had been badly neglected and had shrunk in size due to illegally constructed shops. The first phase of the project removed illegally constructed shops, restoring views of the mosque. Wazir Khan Chowk was extensively rehabilitated by the removal of encroachments, while the well of Dina Nath was restored. Power lines along the project corridor were also placed underground, and the Chitta Gate at the eastern entrance to Wazir Khan Chowk was rehabilitated.

Historic suburbs

 * Anarkali
 * Shahdara Bagh
 * Mughalpura
 * Baghbanpura

title: Walled City of Lahore


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Zabo

Zabo may refer to:

 * Zabo, Burkina Faso
 * Zerzabelshof (de), locally usually abbreviated to Zabo, a district in the German city of Nuremberg
 * Calvin Zabo, the alter ego of Marvel Comics character Mister Hyde

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Großauheim

Großauheim (13,369 inhabitants, without Wolfgang 11,669) is the largest district of Hanau, Hesse, Germany, on the north bank of the Main. It was first mentioned in 806 under the name "Ewichheim". It was a farming village until the end of the 19th century but during the 20th century, numerous branches of industry settled there. The Hanau Port built in 1924 is mainly in Großauheim. In 1956, Großauheim was made a free town. In 1972, Großauheim included Wolfgang but due to the Hessian regional reform, Großauheim and Wolfgang were incorporated into Hanau in July 1974. In the 1970s, the industry began to migrate and it has almost vanished today. It was the site of multiple American military bases until 2008.

A well-known "Auheim Child" is the famous German sculptor August Gaul.

In honor of Saint Rochus, who was beseeched for relieving the town from pestilence, a yearly procession is done to a central place "Rochusplatz" in the town, where a memorial of the Saint Rochus stands today. The Rochusmarkt ("Rochus market") takes place every year in September in the town center of Großauheim.

Großauheim's twin town is the French town Conflans-Sainte-Honorine which is located near Paris on the river Seine.

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Willie Colon

Willie Colon may refer to:

 * Willie Colón (born 1950), American salsa musician and social activist
 * Willie Colon (American football) (born 1983), American offensive guard

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Jaan Einasto

Jaan Einasto (born 23 February 1929) is an Estonian astrophysicist and one of the discoverers of the large-scale structure of the Universe.

Family and early life
Born Jaan Eisenschmidt in Tartu, the name "Einasto" is an anagram of "Estonia" (it was chosen by his patriotic father in the 1930s to replace the family's German name).

Einasto married and had 3 children, 2 daughters and the youngest, a son. His daughter, Maret, is also an astrophysicist, who collaborates with her father.

Education and career
He attended the University of Tartu, where he received the Ph.D. equivalent in 1955 and a senior research doctorate in 1972. From 1952, he has worked as a scientist at the Tartu Observatory (1977–1998) Head of the Department of Cosmology; from 1992–1995, he was Professor of Cosmology at the University of Tartu. For a long time, he was Head of the Division of Astronomy and Physics of the Estonian Academy of Sciences in Tallinn. Einasto is a member of the Academia Europaea, the European Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society; he has received three Estonian National Science Awards.

 * 1947 Tartu Secondary School No. 1
 * 1952 University of Tartu
 * 1955 Cand.Sc. in physics and mathematics
 * 1972 D.Sc. in physics and mathematics
 * 1992 Professor

Since 1991 he is member of Academia Europaea. Since 1994 he is member of the Royal Astronomical Society.

In 1974, in a seminal work with Kaasik and Saar at the Tartu Observatory, Einasto argued that "it is necessary to adopt an alternative hypothesis: that the clusters of galaxies are stabilised by hidden matter." This was a key paper in recognizing that a hidden matter, i.e., dark matter, could explain observational anomalies in astronomy.

Einasto showed in 1977 at a Symposium in Tallinn (Estonia) that the universe has a cell structure, in which the observed matter surrounds huge empty voids.

Awards, honours, legacy
The asteroid 11577 Einasto, discovered in 1994, is named in his honour.

The Einasto Supercluster, a galaxy supercluster discovered in 2024, is named in his honour.

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Ideal (order theory)

In mathematical order theory, an ideal is a special subset of a partially ordered set (poset). Although this term historically was derived from the notion of a ring ideal of abstract algebra, it has subsequently been generalized to a different notion. Ideals are of great importance for many constructions in order and lattice theory.

Definitions
A subset $I$ of a partially ordered set $$(P, \leq)$$ is an ideal, if the following conditions hold:

 * 1) $I$ is  non-empty,
 * 2) for every x in $I$ and y in P, $y ≤ x$ implies that y is in $I$  ($I$ is a lower set),
 * 3) for every x, y in $I$, there is some element z in $I$, such that $x ≤ z$ and $y ≤ z$  ($I$ is a directed set).

While this is the most general way to define an ideal for arbitrary posets, it was originally defined for lattices only. In this case, the following equivalent definition can be given: a subset $I$ of a lattice $$(P, \leq)$$ is an ideal if and only if it is a lower set that is closed under finite joins (suprema); that is, it is nonempty and for all x, y in $I$, the element $$x \vee y$$ of P is also in $I$.

A weaker notion of order ideal is defined to be a subset of a poset $P$ that satisfies the above conditions 1 and 2. In other words, an order ideal is simply a lower set. Similarly, an ideal can also be defined as a "directed lower set".

The dual notion of an ideal, i.e., the concept obtained by reversing all ≤ and exchanging $$\vee$$ with $$\wedge,$$ is a filter.

Frink ideals, pseudoideals and Doyle pseudoideals are different generalizations of the notion of a lattice ideal.

An ideal or filter is said to be proper if it is not equal to the whole set P.

The smallest ideal that contains a given element p is a and p is said to be a  of the ideal in this situation. The principal ideal $$\downarrow p$$ for a principal p is thus given by $x ≤ p\}$.

Terminology confusion
The above definitions of "ideal" and "order ideal" are the standard ones, but there is some confusion in terminology. Sometimes the words and definitions such as "ideal", "order ideal", "Frink ideal", or "partial order ideal" mean one another.

Prime ideals
An important special case of an ideal is constituted by those ideals whose set-theoretic complements are filters, i.e. ideals in the inverse order. Such ideals are called s. Also note that, since we require ideals and filters to be non-empty, every prime ideal is necessarily proper. For lattices, prime ideals can be characterized as follows:

A subset $I$ of a lattice $$(P, \leq)$$ is a prime ideal, if and only if

 * 1) $I$ is a proper ideal of P, and
 * 2) for all elements x and y of P, $$x \wedge y$$ in $I$ implies that $x ∈ I$ or $y ∈ I$.

It is easily checked that this is indeed equivalent to stating that $$P \setminus I$$ is a filter (which is then also prime, in the dual sense).

For a complete lattice the further notion of a  is meaningful. It is defined to be a proper ideal $I$ with the additional property that, whenever the meet (infimum) of some arbitrary set $A$ is in $I$, some element of A is also in $I$. So this is just a specific prime ideal that extends the above conditions to infinite meets.

The existence of prime ideals is in general not obvious, and often a satisfactory amount of prime ideals cannot be derived within ZF (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice). This issue is discussed in various prime ideal theorems, which are necessary for many applications that require prime ideals.

Maximal ideals
An ideal $I$ is a if it is proper and there is no proper ideal J that is a strict superset of $I$. Likewise, a filter F is maximal if it is proper and there is no proper filter that is a strict superset.

When a poset is a distributive lattice, maximal ideals and filters are necessarily prime, while the converse of this statement is false in general.

Maximal filters are sometimes called ultrafilters, but this terminology is often reserved for Boolean algebras, where a maximal filter (ideal) is a filter (ideal) that contains exactly one of the elements {a, ¬a}, for each element a of the Boolean algebra. In Boolean algebras, the terms prime ideal and maximal ideal coincide, as do the terms prime filter and maximal filter.

There is another interesting notion of maximality of ideals: Consider an ideal $I$ and a filter F such that $I$ is disjoint from F. We are interested in an ideal M that is maximal among all ideals that contain $I$ and are disjoint from F. In the case of distributive lattices such an M is always a prime ideal. A proof of this statement follows.

$$

However, in general it is not clear whether there exists any ideal M that is maximal in this sense. Yet, if we assume the axiom of choice in our set theory, then the existence of M for every disjoint filter–ideal-pair can be shown. In the special case that the considered order is a Boolean algebra, this theorem is called the Boolean prime ideal theorem. It is strictly weaker than the axiom of choice and it turns out that nothing more is needed for many order-theoretic applications of ideals.

Applications
The construction of ideals and filters is an important tool in many applications of order theory.
 * In Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras, the maximal ideals (or, equivalently via the negation map, ultrafilters) are used to obtain the set of points of a topological space, whose clopen sets are isomorphic to the original Boolean algebra.
 * Order theory knows many completion procedures to turn posets into posets with additional completeness properties. For example, the ideal completion of a given partial order P is the set of all ideals of P ordered by subset inclusion. This construction yields the free dcpo generated by P. An ideal is principal if and only if it is compact in the ideal completion, so the original poset can be recovered as the sub-poset consisting of compact elements. Furthermore, every algebraic dcpo can be reconstructed as the ideal completion of its set of compact elements.

History
Ideals were introduced by Marshall H. Stone first for Boolean algebras, where the name was derived from the ring ideals of abstract algebra. He adopted this terminology because, using the isomorphism of the categories of Boolean algebras and of Boolean rings, the two notions do indeed coincide.

Generalization to any posets was done by Frink.

title: Ideal (order theory)


text:
User:Khalid hassani

''The zeroeth law of Wikipedia : The problem with Wikipedia is that it only works in practice. In theory, it can never work, anonymous''.

Wikipedia Tools

 * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Upload/Flickr How to import a file from flickr
 * http://stats.grok.se/ Wikipedia statistics
 * http://toolserver.org A useful query tool of Wikipedia
 * wikiwax is a really cool Google suggest like, search tool and index for Wikipedia. http://wiki.lumrix.net is another one using AJAX
 * The future of Wikimedia proposed Wikimedia projects. Wikipedia Tools.

Wikipedia basics

 * Etiquette
 * Replies to Wikipedia common objections
 * The Five Pillars of Wikipedia
 * How to edit a page
 * Editing, policy, conduct, and structure tutorial
 * Picture tutorial
 * How to write a great article
 * Naming conventions
 * Categorization
 * Manual of Style
 * Style and How-to Directory
 * Merging, redirecting, and renaming pages
 * Criticism of Wikipedia
 * Our_Replies_to_Our_Critics
 * Wikipedia policies and guidelines
 * Wikipedia_culture
 * Wikipedia_official_policy
 * Glossary
 * Village_pump Where all Wikipedians hang out

Wikipedia useful tools

 * Wikipedia Templates
 * Criteria_for_speedy_deletion
 * WikiProject_Spam
 * Notability Guidelines
 * Vanity_guidelines
 * FlickrLickr bot How to import Creative Commons licensed images from Flickr into WP.
 * Template messages
 * WikiProject_Missing_encyclopedic_articles or how to make WP the most comprehensive encyclopedia on the planet, by helping including all the subjects other encyclopedias contain! a good way to Wikipedia Systemic bias in coverage too.
 * Wikipedia resources for researchers Tools For searching ISBN, References, Etc.
 * Counter_Vandalism_Unit
 * RC patrol
 * Wikipedia maintenance
 * PlanetMath_sourced_articles
 * a tool for suggesting and adding possible wiki links to articles

Other interesting entries

 * Wikipedia_essays
 * WikiProject_Missing_encyclopedic_articles

Draft articles

 * /Demande d'inclusion de texte ou d'image dans Wikipedia
 * /Conveyor belt
 * /Powder slurry coating
 * Les Zénètes du Gourara d’hier à aujourd’hui A very good article about the Zénètes.
 * /Tests et brouillons

Other Wikipedias
I also contribute to the french Wikipedia, you can visist my french page by clicking in  other languages fr:User:Khalid hassani

title: User:Khalid hassani


text:
User:MetaMind

I'm quite impressed by the Wikipedia. It's the way everything on the Net should be done. I'm the creator of the MetaMind at http://metamind.us Please drop by and sign up for an account. I wabt to share data with anyone who wants to create an open data quality discernment system. "Find the good stuff and tell everyone." I've found a lot of good stuff on Wikipedia and I'm telling everyone. We need to build an open data multi-node search engine network. Public domain data is the way to go; anything else is too complicated.

Steve Moyer http://metamind.us/steve http://nodes.net/steve

title: User:MetaMind


text:
Argentavis

Argentavis is an extinct genus of teratornithids known from three sites in the Epecuén and Andalhualá Formations in central and northwestern Argentina dating to the Late Miocene (Huayquerian), where a good sample of fossils have been obtained. The type species, A. magnificens, is sometimes called the giant teratorn. It was among the largest flying birds ever to exist. While it is still considered the heaviest flying bird of all time, Argentavis was likely surpassed in wingspan by Pelagornis sandersi, which is estimated to have possessed wings some 20% longer than Argentavis and which was described in 2014.

Description
The single known humerus (upper arm bone) specimen of Argentavis is somewhat damaged. Even so, it allows a fairly accurate estimate of its length in life. Argentavis humerus was only slightly shorter than an entire human arm. The species apparently had stout, strong legs and large feet which enabled it to walk with ease. The bill was large, rather slender, and had a hooked tip with a wide gape.

Size

Argentavis wingspan estimates varied widely depending on the method used for scaling, i.e. regression analyses or comparisons with the California condor. At one time, wingspans have been published for the species up to 7.5 to 8 m but more recent estimates put the wingspan more likely in the range of 5.09 to 6.5 m. Whether this span could have reached 7 m appears uncertain per modern authorities. At the time of description, Argentavis was the largest winged bird known to exist but is now known to have been exceeded by another extinct species, Pelagornis sandersi, described in 2014 as having a typical wingspan of 7 to 7.4 m. Argentavis had an estimated height when standing on the ground that was roughly equivalent to that of a person, at 1.5 to 1.8 m, furthermore its total length (from bill tip to tail tip) was approximately 3.5 m.

Prior published weights gave Argentavis a body mass of 80 kg, but more refined techniques show a more typical mass would likely have been 70 to 72 kg, although weights could have varied depending on conditions. Argentavis retains the title of the heaviest flying bird known still by a considerable margin, for example Pelagornis weighed no more than 22 to 40 kg. For comparison, the living bird with the largest wingspan is the wandering albatross, averaging 3 m and spanning up to 3.7 m. Since A. magnificens is known to have been a land bird, another good point of comparison is the Andean condor, the largest extant flighted land bird going on average wing spread and weight, with a wingspan of up to 3.3 m and an average wingspan of around 2.82 m. This condor can weigh up to 15 kg. New World vultures such as the condor are thought to be the closest living relations to Argentavis and other teratorns. Average weights are of course much less in both the albatross and condor than this teratorn, at approximately 8.5 kg and 11.3 kg, respectively.

The ability to fly is not a simple question of weight ratios, except in extreme cases; size and structure of the wing must also be taken into account. As a rule of thumb, a wing loading of 25 kg/m2 is considered the limit for avian flight. The heaviest extant flying birds are known to weigh up to 21 kg (there are several contenders, among which are the European great bustard and the African kori bustard). An individual mute swan, which may have lost the power of flight due to extreme weight, was found to have weighed 23 kg. Meanwhile, the sarus crane is the tallest flying bird alive, at up to 1.8 m tall, standing about as high as Argentavis due to its long legs and neck.

The largest flying creatures overall that are known to have existed are not birds, but instead distantly-related archosaurs, namely the azhdarchid pterosaurs of the Cretaceous. The wingspans of larger azhdarchids, such as Quetzalcoatlus and Hatzegopteryx, have been estimated to exceed 10 m, with less conservative estimates being 12 m or more. Mass estimates for these azhdarchids are on the order of 200 – and their estimated height on the ground was roughly analogous to an elephant or small giraffe.

Currently accepted estimates for the size of Argentavis are:

 * Wingspan: 5.09 - 6.5 m
 * Wing area: 8.11 m2
 * Wing loading: 84.6 N/m2 (1.77 lb/ft2)
 * Body length: 3.5 m
 * Height: 1.5 to 1.8 m
 * Mass: 70 to 72 kg

Life history
Comparison with extant birds suggests it laid one or two eggs with a mass of somewhat over 1 kg (smaller than an ostrich egg) every two years. Climate considerations make it likely that the birds incubated over the winter, mates exchanging duties of incubating and procuring food every few days, and that the young were independent after some 16 months, but not fully mature until aged about a dozen years. Mortality must have been very low; to maintain a viable population less than about 2% of birds may have died each year. Because of its large size and ability to fly, Argentavis suffered hardly any predation, and mortality was mainly from old age and disease.

Flight
From the size and structure of its wings, it is inferred that A. magnificens flew mainly by soaring, using flapping flight only during short periods. It is probable that it used thermal currents as well. It has been estimated that the minimal velocity for the wing of A. magnificens is about 11 m/s or 40 km/h. Especially for takeoff, it would have depended on the wind. Although its legs were strong enough to provide it with a running or jumping start, the wings were simply too long to flap effectively until the bird was some height off the ground. However, skeletal evidence suggests that its breast muscles were not powerful enough for wing flapping for extended periods. Argentavis may have used mountain slopes and headwinds to take off, and probably could manage to do so from even gently sloping terrain with little effort. It may have flown and lived much like the modern Andean condor, scanning large areas of land from aloft for carrion. The climate of the Andean foothills in Argentina during the late Miocene was warmer and drier than today, which would have further aided the bird in staying aloft atop thermal updrafts.

Studies on condor flight indicate that Argentavis was fully capable of flight in normal conditions as modern large soaring birds spend very little time flapping their wings regardless of environment.

Food
Argentavis' territories measured probably more than 500 km2, which the birds screened for food, possibly utilizing a generally north–south direction to avoid being slowed by adverse winds. This species seems less aerodynamically suited for predation than its relatives. It probably preferred to scavenge for carrion, and it is possible that it habitually chased metatherian carnivores such as thylacosmilids from their kills. The largest land predators in Miocene South America were the giant, ground-dwelling "terror birds", the phorusrhacids. Phorusrhacids were probably the most formidable rivals that Argentavis faced, with the largest species weighing about three times as much as the teratorn. Unlike extant condors and vultures, teratorns generally had long, eagle-like beaks and are believed to have been active predators. This is seemingly true as well of Argentavis but other teratorns were likely far less ponderous considering the substantial size differences. Argentavis may have used its wings and size to intimidate metatherian mammals and small phorusrhacids from their kills. Argentavis may have also ambushed some small live prey, i.e. large rodents, small armadillos and the young of large animals such as ground sloths. The species would've required about 2.5 to 5 kg of meat each day. When hunting, Argentavis may have lain in wait from a ground position, which would render them likely grounded until heavy winds allowed them to fly. Skull structure suggests that it ate most of its prey whole rather than tearing off pieces of flesh.

title: Argentavis


text: User talk:169.139.185.1

title: User talk:169.139.185.1


text:
Wish (The Cure album)

Wish is the ninth studio album by English rock band the Cure, released on 21 April 1992 by Fiction Records in the United Kingdom and Elektra Records in the United States. Wish was the most commercially successful album in the band's career, debuting at number one in the UK and number two in the US, where it sold more than 1.2 million copies.

On 25 November 2022, a remastered 30th-anniversary deluxe edition of Wish was released, containing four previously unreleased demos with vocals, instrumental demos, the Lost Wishes instrumental cassette and remix versions.

Recording
The record is the final studio album by the Cure to feature drummer Boris Williams and the first to feature guitarist/keyboardist Perry Bamonte, who previously worked as a roadie for the band, as well as being the last album to feature guitarist Porl Thompson for sixteen years.

Whilst retaining their trademark gothic rock sound and mood on some tracks, Wish often found the band emphasizing the lighter, broader guitar-driven alternative rock direction that was hinted on their previous three records. According to Thompson, Wish was recorded on 48 tracks and "almost everything was used". Robert Smith also revealed the hit song "Friday I'm in Love" was accidentally sped up a quarter-tone sharp on the tape, halfway between D and E-flat. Smith commented on the speeding up of the tape of the song in a 1993 interview: "[…] that was an accident. I was playing with the vari-speed and forgot to turn it off. But the whole feel changed, and the fact that it's the only song on Wish that's not in concert pitch really lifts it out and makes it sound different. After working on the record for months, hearing something a quarter-tone off makes your brain take a step backwards." Smith also revealed that the "detuning" of the guitars played a role in the unique "sound" of the album, as did the subliminal overdubs and the extensive use of feedback. "A lot of things on our record that sound like heavy chorusing are actually just detuned instruments. The only drawback to that is onstage it's very confusing sometimes, especially with lots of phasing effects going on. It turns into this overwhelming pulsing sound, and you can't hear anything."

Smith also revealed that the songs "Mesmerise" by Chapterhouse, and "Human" by The Human League were an influence on the album, he commented on both songs in 1993: "For every album we do, I assemble a bunch of songs that have something that I'm trying to capture. For Wish, I would listen to 'Mesmerise' by Chapterhouse for its feeling of abandon and 'Human' by The Human League. You couldn't spot anything sonically or structurally that would influence anything we did, but there's an indefinable something that I'm trying to capture. One night I must have played 'Mesmerise' 20 times, drinking and turning it louder and louder, putting myself into a trance."

Release
The album's lead single was "High", released on 16 March 1992. The single peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart, number 42 on the US Billboard Hot 100, and number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The album's second single, "Friday I'm in Love", was released on 15 May 1992, a Friday, later reaching number six on the UK Singles Chart, number 18 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. The final single was "A Letter to Elise", issued on 5 October 1992. This song reached number twenty-eight in the UK and number two on the Modern Rock Tracks chart.

Wish was released on 21 April. It received positive reviews upon release, including a four-star review in Rolling Stone that stated: "For its cult of millions, the Cure offers the only kind of optimism that makes sense." Wish was also the band's overall highest-charting album, and most commercially successful in the band's career. Upon release, Wish would soon debut at number one on the UK Albums Chart, and number two on the US Billboard 200, where it sold more than 1.2 million copies. It also reached number one on Cash Box Top 200 Pop Albums chart in the US on 16 May 1992. Wish was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album in 1993.

On 16 November 1993, a limited-edition EP titled Lost Wishes was released on cassette with four new tracks on it. In 1995, Q included Wish in its publication "In Our Lifetime: Q's 100 Best Albums 1986–94", a list compiled to celebrate its 100th issue. In 2000 it was voted number 646 in Colin Larkin's All Time Top 1000 Albums.

Reissues
On 13 April 2018, in an interview with BBC Radio 6 Music, Robert Smith confirmed that the deluxe edition of Wish had been finished. On 28 July 2022, the band announced a remastered and expanded 30th-anniversary deluxe edition of Wish, releasing it on 25 November 2022. The 30th-anniversary edition contains 24 previously unreleased demos, out-takes, the Lost Wishes EP and a collection of 12-inch remixes of all three singles from the Wish period. The recordings were remastered by Smith and Miles Showell at Abbey Road Studios.

Track listing
All songs composed by the Cure (Perry Bamonte, Simon Gallup, Robert Smith, Porl Thompson, Boris Williams).

Personnel
All credits taken from liner notes

The Cure
 * Robert Smith – vocals, guitars, six-string bass, keyboards
 * Perry Bamonte – guitars, keyboards, six-string bass on "Friday I'm In Love" and "A Letter to Elise"
 * Porl Thompson – guitars
 * Simon Gallup – bass
 * Boris Williams – drums, percussion

Additional musicians
 * Kate Wilkinson – viola on "To Wish Impossible Things"

Production
 * Producers: Dave Allen, the Cure
 * Engineers: Dave Allen, Steve Whitfield
 * Assistant engineer: Chris Bandy
 * Mixing: Mark Saunders
 * Mixing assistants: Andy Baker, William Parry, Danton Supple, Mark Warner
 * Album cover: Parched Art (Porl Thompson and Andy Vella)

title: Wish (The Cure album)


text:
Bam Margera

Brandon Cole "Bam" Margera (born September 28, 1979) is an American former professional skateboarder, stunt performer, television personality, and filmmaker. He rose to prominence in the early 2000s as one of the stars of the MTV reality stunt show Jackass and subsequent sequels. He also created the Jackass spin-off shows Viva La Bam (2003–2006), Bam's Unholy Union (2007), Bam's World Domination (2010), and Bam's Bad Ass Game Show (2014), and co-wrote and directed the films Haggard (2003), and Minghags (2009).

Since the mid-2000s, Margera has struggled with alcoholism and subsequent legal troubles. He first entered rehab in 2009 but left after four days and has since had at least seven subsequent attempts at rehab without completing the program. Following the death of childhood friend Ryan Dunn and the end of his television projects in 2011–12, Margera's drinking and drug use intensified. In 2020, he was fired from the production of Jackass Forever (2022) due to his drug and alcohol issues.

Early life and CKY videos
Margera was born on September 28, 1979, in West Chester, Pennsylvania, the son of April and Phil Margera. He is the younger brother of rock musician Jess Margera and nephew of television personality Vincent "Don Vito" Margera. His grandfather nicknamed him "Bam Bam" at the age of three after noticing his habit of purposely running into walls; over time, that nickname was shortened to "Bam" by his schoolmates. Before their television fame, Margera's parents April and Phil worked as a hairdresser and baker respectively.

Margera got his first video camera from his father in 1993 after he enrolled in a digital media class with childhood friend Chris Raab, where they also met future collaborators Art Webb, Brandon DiCamillo, and Ryan Dunn. They began shooting videos of Margera and his friends skateboarding and doing stunts, which eventually turned into the CKY video series. CKY stands for "Camp Kill Yourself", a name shared with his brother Jess Margera's band, CKY, which was named as a tribute to the film Sleepaway Camp (1983).

In 1994, Margera dropped out of school after Chris Raab was expelled, but was homeschooled by his mother and received his GED. On September 21, 1995, Margera, his brother Jess, Dunn and Raab were involved in a serious car accident near their home town. In later interviews, Margera revealed that Raab had "forced him" to wear a seatbelt as the car was going nearly 100mph, and that this probably saved his life. Other than his brother Jess suffering a broken arm, none of the four were seriously injured.

Following years of recording and editing, Margera independently released the first CKY film, then titled CKY: Landspeed, in 1999. The film is a collection of stunts and pranks interspersed with skateboarding tricks and footage set to music by CKY. Subsequent releases of the film removed the Landspeed subtitle. In the following years, the sequels CKY2K, CKY3 and CKY4: The Latest and Greatest were released. These early videos feature many of Margera's friends, including Dunn, Raab, DiCamillo, Rake Yohn and Brandon Novak, who formed a loose collective known as the CKY crew. During this period, the videos and band projects were heavily interlinked, with two of the band's albums being unofficial soundtracks to the videos.

Television and film

Following CKY's success, former Big Brother editor Jeff Tremaine noticed Margera's videos and drafted him into the team that would eventually become MTV's Jackass. Margera and Ryan Dunn became mainstays of the cast while other CKY crew members played supporting roles to various degrees. In the original series, several of the features stunts were taken directly from the CKY videos. Margera went on to appear in Jackass: The Movie (2002), Jackass Number Two (2006), Jackass 2.5 (2007), Jackass 3D (2010), and Jackass 3.5 (2011), with a minor appearance in Jackass Forever (2022). Several skits in the first Jackass movie were CKY-style pieces filmed in and around West Chester, while similar scenes in the second movie were removed after the arrest and conviction of Margera's uncle Vincent Margera (also known as Don Vito) inappropriately touching two minors.

After the Jackass series ended in 2002, Margera was given a follow-up, Viva La Bam, which ran for five seasons from 2003 to 2005. A mixture of stunts and reality, the show followed Margera and his crew as they performed various stunts and missions, but also offered insight into their daily lives. The show was primarily filmed in West Chester but also visited New Orleans, Las Vegas, Los Angeles, Brazil, Finland, Mexico, Netherlands, France, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Monaco, and Transylvania. In addition to the regular series, special episodes have included "Viva La Spring Break" and a "lost" episode included on the Viva La Bands CD, which was originally filmed in Iceland for the first season. A two-part special episode, "Viva La Spring Break", aired in 2006.

In 2003, Margera played himself in the movie Grind, which portrays four young men following a professional skateboarder from Chicago to California. The film contains numerous cameos by Jackass members, as well as many professional skateboarders and other celebrities. Upon release, it was met with generally unfavorable reviews from critics, but was rated much higher by the general public.

In 2007, Margera's engagement and wedding planning was filmed for Bam's Unholy Union as a follow-up to Viva la Bam. The show follows Margera, his then-fiancée Missy Rothstein, and their friends in the lead-up to their wedding. In 2008, Margera had a "prominent, non-sex role" in a pornographic film by Gina Lynn, The Fantasstic Whores 4, with Brandon Novak. In 2009, Margera appeared on Nitro Circus, and the following year Margera starred alongside Dunn and skateboarder Tim O'Connor in the one-off special Bam's World Domination on Spike TV, which showcased Margera and his friends' attempt to conquer an obstacle course race in the Tough Guy Competition, held in Staffordshire, England.

In March 2016, Bam and his parents appeared on the VH1 reality television show Family Therapy with Dr. Jenn to address Bam's self-destructive behavior.

Skateboarding career
Margera started skateboarding at age 7, and by the time he entered high school it had developed into a full-time hobby. His brother Jess later described his abilities as "a natural talent" and noted that their parents had been very supportive of Margera's decision to go into skateboarding "from day one", and revealed that he used to travel with Bam to Love Park in Philadelphia as early as 1991, when they were 12 and 13 years old. In 1992, Margera got his first sponsorship from Fairman's Skate Shop and began appearing in skate videos. In 1994, Margera dropped out of high school to pursue a full-time skateboarding career.

Early in his professional career, Margera was sponsored by Toy Machine Skateboards, Speed Metal Bearings, Adio Footwear, Electric Sunglasses, Volcom, Landspeed Wheels, Destroyer Trucks, Destructo Trucks, and Fairman's Skateshop. In 2001, Margera became a member of Team Element, the demonstration team for Element Skateboards, which he remained affiliated with for the rest of his professional career.

In 2012, Margera was forced to put his skating career on hold due to bone spurs and worsening alcoholism. After a five-year hiatus, he returned to skateboarding casually, resulting in a renewed partnership with Element Skateboards to celebrate the brand's 25th anniversary in 2017, by re-releasing a series of ten of his most memorable deck designs. The boards were released weekly between September 6 and November 8, 2017; each deck is signed by Margera and limited to 50 units.

As of 2024, Margera is without any major sponsorships.

Independent films
Margera has written, produced and starred in three independent films as of 2024, with a fourth scheduled but on hold since 2017. He co-wrote, directed and starred in Haggard (2003), an independent film based on real events in the life of his friend Ryan Dunn. Dunn played himself as the main character while Margera played "Valo", a character based on himself and elements of HIM singer and friend Ville Valo.

Margera also directed Minghags, formerly titled Kiss a Good Man's Ass. The film is a loose sequel to Haggard and features the "garbage juicer" invention from that film. Filming started April 5, 2007. On an episode of Radio Bam, Margera said that they were trying to make the movie PG-13 rated, but with the amount of swearing and a shot of nudity, an R rating could not be avoided. The first viewing of the rough version of the film was on August 7, 2007, at Sikes Hall. The movie was released straight to DVD in December 2008.

Also in December 2008, Margera released a Christmas-themed movie, Bam Margera Presents: Where the#$&% Is Santa?. The movie is about Bam and his friends going to the Arctic Circle in Finland on a quest to find Santa Claus. The film features Ville Valo from HIM, the Dudesons, Hanoi Rocks, and Mark the Bagger.

In January 2015, Margera announced that he had been working on an autobiographical documentary film which he hoped to premiere in the near future. The film will deal primarily with Margera's life after the death of his close friend and co-star, Ryan Dunn, who died in a car crash in 2011. According to Margera the film has been three years in the making, and will give viewers a glimpse into his childhood, career and rise to fame, while focusing mainly on his recovery from the death of Dunn. Musician Brent Hinds of the band Mastodon will play Dunn in what has been described as "dramatic fantasy interludes" that ties the film together while also re-enacting what Margera considers his "darkest moments" after Dunn's death.

During a Facebook Q&A on December 7, 2015, Margera stated that the name of the film would change from I Need Time to Stay Useless to Earth Rocker and that it would be released February 2016. In a 2017 episode of Vice's Epicly Later'd, Margera stated that after working on the film for four years straight, sometimes for weeks at a time, he had reached the point where he had had enough of doing so. Margera stated that he had approximately eleven terabytes worth of video footage and that editing it down into a two-hour film was impossible. When asked if the project was on pause for the moment, he responded that it was.

As of 2024, the documentary remains unreleased, with no scheduled release date.

Radio Bam and music
Margera began a weekly Sirius Satellite Radio show on Sirius channel 28 Faction on November 24, 2004, called Radio Bam. The show initially featured Margera and his friends from the CKY and Jackass crews, while later shows featured less of the two crews and more of Margera's newer friends. In 2005, Margera formed a music label, Filthy Note Records, and has since directed music videos for Clutch, Turbonegro, Viking Skull, Vains of Jenna and several for CKY. He also directed four music videos, "Buried Alive by Love", "The Sacrament", "And Love Said No", and "Solitary Man", for the Finnish band HIM, and three for The 69 Eyes, "Lost Boys", "Dead Girls Are Easy" and "Dead N Gone".

A competent amateur musician, Margera also played keyboards in a novelty band called Gnarkill along with his brother Jess Margera, Brandon DiCamillo, Rich Vose and Matt Cole. The group released two albums, Gnarkill in 2003 and Gnarkill vs. Unkle Matt and the Shitbirdz in 2006. Margera also plays guitar, frequently seen doing so in episodes of Viva La Bam.

Since 2013, he has featured in two musical projects; Fuckface Unstoppable, which was written about in 2013 on the Buddyhead website in an article questioning the seriousness of the band ("a joke band(?)"). The band featured Margera, Jess Margera, his then-partner Nikki Boyd, and Brandon Novak. Chad Ginsburg, of CKY, was the band's guitarist before quitting. Matt Deis, also of CKY, performed with the band as well. The band released their debut album FFU in May 2014 through Artery Records.

A second project, The Evesdroppers, featuring Bam, Jess, Nikki, Mike Nappi, and Chad I Ginsburg, released a self-titled album in September 2016 through Casual Madness.

Other projects
Margera has been animated as a character in the Tony Hawk's video game franchise, specifically Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 3, Tony Hawk's Pro Skater 4, Tony Hawk's Underground, Tony Hawk's Underground 2, Tony Hawk's American Wasteland, Tony Hawk's Project 8 and Tony Hawk's Proving Ground. He also voiced a character in the video game Scarface: The World Is Yours. He made cameo appearances in the movies Grind and Destroying America.

In late September 2008, Margera opened a bar/theater called "The Note", in his hometown of West Chester, Pennsylvania. Serious restrictions from West Chester Borough Council caused a multitude of issues for Margera and the bar, and The Note closed its doors in January 2014.

In late 2009, Margera released a book containing private writings and pictures titled Serious as Dog Dirt.

In 2020, Margera started appearing in YouTube videos including a viral water balloon fight video with model Jeb Carty.

Relationships
Margera was engaged to Jenn Rivell, who played a prominent part in several of his projects. The couple appeared to be cohabiting in various episodes of Viva La Bam. Their seven-year relationship ended in 2005. In November 2006, Margera filed for "protection from abuse" from Rivell after she allegedly broke into his house.

In 2006, Margera became engaged to childhood friend Melissa "Missy" Rothstein. The events leading up to their wedding (with about 350 friends and family in attendance) on February 3, 2007, in downtown Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, were chronicled on the MTV series Bam's Unholy Union. The couple's honeymoon was in Dubai. In 2008, during an appearance on LA Ink, Margera told Kat Von D about $13,000 in damage that occurred during his wedding celebration, explaining, "I was kind of ready for it, though. I was like, 'I'm inviting the Jackass crew. If something doesn't get broken then that's not right.'" In October 2010, Margera told Howard Stern that he and Rothstein were living in separate cities, they meet once a week, and that Rothstein knew that he had girlfriends. The couple divorced in November 2012.

On October 5, 2013, Margera married Nicole Boyd in Reykjavík, Iceland. In June 2017, Margera announced that Boyd was pregnant with the couple's first child. In September 2017, it was announced that the child, a boy, would be named Phoenix Wolf. Margera's son was born in December 2017.

On September 16, 2021, Boyd filed for child custody of their son Phoenix Wolf. However, she did not file a divorce petition to end their eight-year marriage. On February 15, 2023, Boyd filed for legal separation and spousal support, citing irreconcilable differences. The couple has been living separately since 2021. Legal documents state that Boyd is seeking physical and legal custody and that Margera can have parental visitation as long as he and his son remain within Los Angeles County. It further details that her reasoning for filing for separation was based on Margera behaving inappropriately while spending time with their son, leading Boyd to believe Margera was under the influence.

He started dating model Dannii Marie in July 2023. He proposed to her in October 2023. They got officially married on May 28, 2024.

Name and residence
Margera owns two houses in the West Chester area – his present residence and his former home, known as Castle Bam, which he bought in 2004. Castle Bam is a large house in Pocopson Township, Pennsylvania, that was often featured on Viva La Bam. The house has a gothic theme, a skatepark in the driveway, and is situated on 14 acre of land. In January 2007, Margera built a ramp in the backyard which caused trouble with the township.

In 2018, April Margera began renovating the home in order for it to be used for short-term rentals via Airbnb. Margera has made it known that the home will not look the way it did on Viva La Bam. Rentals of the home were expected to be made available in 2018.

In an October 24, 2007, interview with the Cleveland Free Times, Margera stated that although he had completed paperwork that would legally change his first name to Bam, he was "still debating" filing it after a conversation with his father.

Health and alcoholism
Margera has had a history of alcohol abuse since his early twenties, and was frequently seen drinking and/or intoxicated on-camera in Viva La Bam, Bam's Unholy Union, and in behind-the-scenes footage from the Jackass films. In July 2009, Margera was taken to the hospital by paramedics and state troopers after a four-day alcohol binge. His drinking habits had worsened after his previous shows ended in 2007. In December 2009, he entered rehab for the first time after an intervention from his friends and family, but did not complete the program, leaving after only four days. Following close friend Ryan Dunn's death in 2011, Margera's drinking intensified further, and by Margera's own account, he considers 2012 as the year he lost control of his drinking, both due to Dunn's death, but also because bone spurs forced him to put his skating career on hold, and he began binge drinking "to kill the boredom".

In 2015, Margera entered rehab for a second time for alcoholism, but again left shortly after without finishing the program. Later that year, he took part in Family Therapy with Dr. Jenn on VH1 with his mother, April Margera, after which he remained sober for several months. and revealed how his unhealthy lifestyle had forced him to relearn skating after five years, and had also left him overweight. He then moved to Tallinn, Estonia for five months to get in better shape. After getting in better shape, he relocated to Barcelona, Spain with his family to focus on his skating career in late 2016, but moved back to Pennsylvania in 2017, before his son was born. In a 90-minute interview with YouTube series The Nine Club recorded and released in November 2017, Margera discussed his health issues and alcoholism, claiming that he had been "mostly sober" since 2015.

In January 2018, Margera entered rehab for the third time after a DUI, and remained sober for seven months. Later that year, he relapsed after being robbed at gunpoint during a vacation in Colombia. In January 2019, one year after his previous attempt, Margera entered rehab once more, but left after ten days, stating that he "didn't belong there", and was planning on beating his alcoholism on his own. In March 2019, TMZ released a video showing Margera screaming at and threatening his manager at West Side Comedy Club in New York City. Additionally, Margera made Instagram posts in which he insulted his wife and damaged his own home, leading to friends and family members coming together to have Margera committed to a mental health treatment facility. Margera was released from treatment and returned home after one week.

On August 3, 2019, a drunken Margera was removed from a commercial airline flight following an altercation with an airport police officer, who told him he was too intoxicated to fly. The following day, Margera posted a chain of videos on his Instagram account, publicly pleading for Dr. Phil's help. He directed a lengthy tirade towards his mother April, wife Nikki Margera, and childhood friend Brandon Novak, candidly stating his relationship with his family is broken. Dr. Phil reciprocated Margera's pleas the next morning, referring him to a treatment center following a one-on-one session.

On May 17, 2022, Margera announced that he had completed one year of sobriety treatment. He relapsed less than a month later, and on June 15, Margera was reported missing after fleeing his rehab center. He was found and voluntarily returned to rehab after being gone for a week. He was returned with police escort since he was in the rehabilitation facility under court order. On June 26, 2022, he was reported missing again after fleeing his rehab center for the second time. He was found and checked in to a new treatment facility on June 27, 2022. He was spotted at a bar after fleeing rehab once again on September 4, 2022. On September 25, 2022, it was reported that he was caught intoxicated in a bar in Atlanta, Georgia, amid rehab problems.

On December 9, 2022, it was reported that Margera was hospitalized and put on a ventilator in a San Diego ICU due to pneumonia and COVID-19. He was released from the hospital the next day. On Steve-O's Wild Ride! podcast, he said that he also suffered from five seizures during his stay at the hospital.

On February 15, 2023, his wife Nikki filed for legal separation and spousal support, citing irreconcilable differences. Legal documents detailed that her reasoning for filing for separation was based on Margera behaving inappropriately while spending time with their son, leading Boyd to believe Margera was under the influence of alcohol.

On March 29, 2023, Margera was arrested for public intoxication.

On May 26, 2023, it was reported that Margera wants a judge to dismiss his divorce with his wife Nikki, as she is not allowing him to see their son. On June 1, 2023, he posted a video on Instagram threatening to smoke crack until he's dead unless he sees his son. By June 4 police had located and taken custody of Margera in Los Angeles, California, after which he was involuntarily committed to a mental health facility for evaluation via a 5150 hold.

Legal troubles
On June 12, 2010, Margera was allegedly attacked with a baseball bat outside his bar, The Note. Margera spent the night at Crozer-Chester Medical Center, where he was treated for head injuries. According to the alleged assailant, Elizabeth Ray, it was because Margera allegedly called her a "nigger". Ray denies attacking Margera. Margera denies having said the word, claiming "I called her a crazy bitch and an idiot, but I definitely didn't use the n-word".

In July 2013, Margera was arrested at Keflavík Airport in Iceland, having left the country without paying damages following a rental car dispute the year before. Margera had rented a Toyota Land Cruiser during a vacation in Iceland in 2012, which he had returned in "terrible shape" five days later, but left the country before paying for the damage. Margera was released later the same day after paying the outstanding fees, and admitted in an interview that he had trashed the car in a drunken stupor.

He was arrested on March 2, 2023, for domestic violence, after he allegedly kicked a woman. He was released from custody after he posted a $50,000 bail the next day. On April 23, 2023, police were dispatched to Margera's home after he allegedly made death threats to his brother and subsequently punched him in the face. Margera reportedly fled on foot into the woods when police arrived. After being on the run for three days and allegedly making several threatening phone calls to his family, Margera surrendered to Pennsylvania Police. He also released a statement saying the allegations made by his brother were false.

Around June 7, 2023, Margera was placed on 5150 psychiatric hold at a Los Angeles mental health facility, following disturbing text messages Margera had been sending family members, and erratic speech and behavior when he was located by police.

Additionally, Margera encountered further legal issues in Delaware County when he was arrested for public intoxication and disorderly conduct. Prosecutors questioned whether his bail should be revoked due to these incidents, prompting Margera to appear before Judge Patrick Carmody and pledge his commitment to sobriety. The judge allowed Margera to remove his ankle bracelet temporarily to assess his alcohol use, with a warning of consequences for any future violations.

Jackass firing
During a January 2021 interview, Margera revealed that owing to his behavior over the last few years, Jackass co-creator Jeff Tremaine had to fight with the studio to keep Margera in the next Jackass film, Jackass Forever, and that Margera still was not certain that Paramount Pictures was ultimately going to allow him to partake in the filming of the movie, and that it depended on his sobriety and behaviour. On February 11, 2021, Margera posted several videos to his Instagram account, in which he admitted to breaking his sobriety, and indicated that he had officially been fired from the filming of Jackass Forever, which was officially confirmed soon after. Throughout the video, he could be seen crying, vomiting, and alluding to having looked up "how to tie a noose" before his move to Oceanside, California.

Margera alleged that Paramount had been forcing him to take antidepressants, submit to random urine tests, and to check in to two different rehabilitation facilities using his own money. He also expressed disdain for Tremaine, Johnny Knoxville, and Spike Jonze, before asking his fans to boycott Jackass Forever. He then solicited his followers to send him money to film his own movie to compete with Jackass Forever. The videos were removed from Margera's Instagram account soon after being posted.

On May 25, 2021, it was reported that Tremaine had filed a temporary restraining order against Margera, due to Margera's harassment of both Tremaine and Knoxville via Instagram. Tremaine was granted an additional three-year restraining order, extended to Tremaine's wife and children, after Margera allegedly sent the family death threats. On August 9, 2021, Margera filed a lawsuit against Tremaine, Knoxville, and Jonze, as well as against Paramount Pictures, MTV, Dickhouse Entertainment, and Gorilla Flicks, alleging that he was wrongfully fired from the production of Jackass Forever.

On January 12, 2022, Knoxville said that one scene Margera filmed for Jackass Forever would still be in the film, despite the ongoing lawsuit. They came with a settlement after Margera asked to dismiss the lawsuit on April 14, 2022. The terms of the settlement remain private. Margera eventually appeared in the film in one scene filmed before his termination and in archival footage.

Following the settlement, Margera ruled out any future involvements with his former Jackass colleagues, stating Knoxville and Tremaine “ruined the legacy of Jackass”, although he remains friends with Steve-O.

Discography
With CKY
 * Volume 2 (1999)

With Gnarkill
 * Gnarkill (2002)
 * GnarKill vs. Unkle Matt and the ShitBirdz (2006)

With Fuckface Unstoppable
 * Stórfréttir Í Reykjavík (2013)
 * Fuckface Unstoppable (2014)

With The Evesdroppers
 * The Evesdroppers (2016)

With Cult Shotta, Tanboymiguel and SinceWhen
 * Feel Like Bam (2023)

Books

 * Bam Margera, Serious as Dog Dirt (MTV; November 17, 2009) ISBN 1-4391-4773-6

title: Bam Margera


text:
His Infernal Majesty

His Infernal Majesty may refer to:
 * Satan
 * HIM (Finnish band), a Finnish metal band
 * Infernäl Mäjesty, a Canadian metal band
 * Him (The Powerpuff Girls), a cartoon villain

title: His Infernal Majesty