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Conflict of the Orders

The Conflict of the Orders, also Struggle of the Orders, was a political struggle between the plebeians (commoners) and patricians (aristocrats) of the ancient Roman Republic lasting from 500 BC to 287 BC in which the plebeians sought political equality with the patricians. It played a major role in the development of the Constitution of the Roman Republic. Shortly after the founding of the Republic, this conflict led to a secession from Rome by the Plebeians to the Sacred Mount at a time of war. The result of this first secession was the creation of the office of plebeian tribune, and with it the first acquisition of real power by the plebeians.

At first, only patricians were allowed to stand for election to political office, but over time these laws were revoked, and eventually all offices were opened to the plebeians. Since most individuals who were elected to political office were given membership in the Roman Senate, this development helped to transform the Senate from a body of patricians into a body of both patrician and plebeian aristocrats. This development occurred at the same time that the plebeian legislative assembly, the Plebeian Council, was acquiring additional power. At first, its acts ("plebiscites") applied only to plebeians, although after 339 BC, with the institution of laws by the second plebeian dictator Q. Publilius Philo, these acts began to apply to both plebeians and patricians. The most fundamental change, however, was the granting of tribunicia potestas (tribunician power) in which tribunes of the plebs could veto unfavorable legislation.

The Era of Patricians (494–367 BC)
The Conflict of the Orders began less than 20 years after the Republic was founded. Under the existing system, the poorer plebeians made up the bulk of the Roman army. During their military service, the farms on which their livelihood depended were left abandoned. Unable to earn a sufficient income, many turned to the patricians for aid, which left them open to abuse and even enslavement. As the patricians controlled Roman politics, the plebeians found no help from within the existing political system. Their solution was to go on strike. In 494 BC Rome was at war with three Italic tribes (the Aequi, Sabine and Volsci), but the plebeian soldiers, advised by Lucius Sicinius Vellutus, refused to march against the enemy and instead seceded to the Sacred Mount outside Rome. A settlement was negotiated and the patricians agreed that the plebs be given the right to meet in their own assembly, the Plebeian Council (Concilium Plebis), and to elect their own officials to protect their rights, the plebeian tribune (tribunus plebis).

During the 5th century BC, there were a number of unsuccessful attempts to reform Roman agrarian laws to distribute newly conquered territories amongst the plebs. In a number of instances, these reforms were advocated by the plebeian tribunes.

In 471 BC, the Lex Publilia was passed, marking an important reform shifting practical power from the patricians to the plebeians. The law transferred the election of the tribunes of the plebs to the Tribal Assembly (comitia populi tributa), thereby freeing their election from the influence of the patrician clients.

During the early years of the republic, the plebeians were not allowed to hold magisterial office. While the plebeian tribunes regularly attempted to block legislation unfavorable to their order, the patricians frequently tried to thwart them by gaining the support of another tribune. One example of this occurred in 448 BC when only five tribunes were elected to fill ten positions; following tradition and pressured by the patricians, they co-opted five colleagues, two of whom were patricians. Concerns that the patricians would attempt to influence future elections in this manner, or by obtaining the office themselves to prevent the plebeian tribunes from exercising their powers, led to the passage of the Lex Trebonia, forbidding the plebeian tribunes from co-opting their colleagues in the future.

In 445 BC, the plebeians demanded the right to stand for election as consul (the chief-magistrate of the Roman Republic), but the Roman Senate refused to grant them this right. Ultimately, a compromise was reached, and while the consulship remained closed to the plebeians, consular command authority (imperium) was granted to a select number of military tribunes. These individuals, the so-called consular tribunes ("military tribunes with consular powers" or tribuni militum consulari potestate) were elected by the Centuriate Assembly, and the Senate had the power to veto any such election. This was the first of many attempts by the plebeians to achieve political equality with the Patricians.

Starting around the year 400 BC, a series of wars were fought against several neighboring tribes (in particular the Aequi, the Volsci, the Latins, and the Veii). The disenfranchised plebeians, who made up significant portion of the army, grew restless from bloodshed while the patrician aristocracy enjoyed the fruits of the resulting conquests. The plebeians, by now exhausted and bitter, demanded real concessions, so the tribunes Gaius Licinius Stolo and Lucius Sextius Lateranus passed a law in 367 BC (the Lex Licinia Sextia) which dealt with the economic plight of the plebeians. However, the law also required the election of at least one plebeian consul each year. The opening of the consulship to the plebeians was probably the cause behind the concession of 366 BC, in which the praetorship and curule aedile were both created, but opened only to patricians.

Shortly after the founding of the republic, the Centuriate Assembly became the principal Roman assembly in which magistrates were elected, laws were passed, and trials occurred. Also around this time, the plebeians assembled into an informal plebeian Curiae Assembly, which was the original Plebeian Council. Since they were organized on the basis of the Curia (and thus by clan), they remained dependent on their Patrician patrons. In 471 BC, a law was passed due to the efforts of the Tribune Volero Publilius, which allowed the plebeians to organize by tribe, rather than by curia. Thus, the Plebeian Curiae Assembly became the Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and the plebeians became politically independent.

During the regal period, the king nominated two equestrians to serve as his assistants, and after the overthrow of the monarchy, the Consuls retained this authority. However, in 447 BC, Cicero tells us that the Equators began to be elected by a tribal assembly that was presided over by a magistrate. It seems as though this was the first instance of a joint Patricia-Plebeian Tribal Assembly, and thus was probably an enormous gain for the plebeians. While patricians were able to vote in a joint assembly, there were never very many Patricians in Rome. Thus, most of the electors were plebeians, and yet any magistrate elected by a joint assembly had jurisdiction over both plebeians and patricians. Therefore, for the first time, the plebeians seemed to have indirectly acquired authority over Patricians. Most contemporary accounts of an assembly of the Tribes refer specifically to the Plebeian Council.

The distinction between the joint Tribal Assembly (composed of both Patricians and Plebeians) and the Plebeian Council (composed only of Plebeians) is not well defined in the contemporary accounts, and because of this, the very existence of a joint Tribal Assembly can only be assumed through indirect evidence. During the 5th century BC, a series of reforms were passed (the leges Valeria Horatio or the "laws of the consuls Valerius and Horatius"), which ultimately required that any law passed by the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both plebeians and Patricians. This gave the plebeian tribunes, who presided over the Plebeian Council, a positive character for the first time. Before these laws were passed, tribunes could only interpose the sacrosanct of their person (intercessio) to veto acts of the Senate, assemblies, or magistrates. It was a modification to the Valerian law in 449 BC which first allowed acts of the Plebeian Council to have the full force of law over both plebeians and patricians, but eventually the final law in the series was passed (the "Shortening Law"), which removed the last check that the patricians in the Senate had over this power.

The end of the Conflict of the Orders (367–287 BC)
In the decades following the passage of the Licinio-Sextian law of 367 BC, a series of laws were passed which ultimately granted plebeians political equality with patricians. The patrician era came to a complete end in 287 BC, with the passage of the Hortensian law. When the curule aedileship had been created, it had only been opened to Patricians. However, an agreement was ultimately secured between the plebeians and the patricians. One year, the curule aedileship was to be open to plebeians, and the next year, it was only to be open to patricians. Eventually, however, this agreement was abandoned and the plebeians won full admission to the curule aedileship. In addition, after the consulship had been opened to the plebeians, the plebs acquired a de facto right to hold both the Roman dictatorship and the Roman censorship since only former consuls could hold either office. 356 BC saw the appointment of the first plebeian dictator, and in 339 BC the plebeians facilitated the passage of a law (the lex Publilia), which required the election of at least one plebeian censor for each five-year term. In 337 BC, the first plebeian praetor (Q. Publilius Philo) was elected. In addition, during these years, the plebeian Tribunes and the senators grew increasingly close. The Senate realized the need to use plebeian officials to accomplish desired goals, and so to win over the tribunes, senators gave the tribunes a great deal of power, and unsurprisingly, the tribunes began to feel obligated to the Senate. As the tribunes and the senators grew closer, plebeian senators were often able to secure the tribunate for members of their own families. In time, the tribunate became a stepping stone to higher office.

During the era of the kingdom, the Roman King appointed new senators through a process called lectio senatus, but after the overthrow of the kingdom, the consuls acquired this power. Around the middle of the 4th century BC, however, the Plebeian Assembly enacted the "Ovinian Plebiscite" (plebiscitum Ovinium), which gave the power to appoint new senators to the Roman censors. It also codified a commonplace practice, which all but required the censor to appoint any newly elected magistrate to the Senate. While this was not an absolute requirement, the language in the law was so strict that the censors rarely disobeyed it. It is not known what year this law was passed, although it was probably passed between the opening of the censorship to plebeians (in 339 BC) and the first known lectio senatus by a censor (in 312 BC). By this point, plebeians were already holding a significant number of magisterial offices, and so the number of plebeian senators probably increased quickly. It was, in all likelihood, simply a matter of time before the plebeians came to dominate the Senate.

Under the new system, newly elected magistrates were awarded with automatic membership in the Senate, although it remained difficult for a plebeian from an unknown family to enter the Senate. On the rare occasion that an individual of an unknown family (ignobilis) was elected to high office, it was usually due to the unusual character of that individual, as was the case for both Gaius Marius and Marcus Tullius Cicero. Several factors made it difficult for individuals from unknown families to be elected to high office, in particular the very presence of a long-standing nobility, as this appealed to the deeply rooted Roman respect for the past. In addition, elections were expensive, neither senators nor magistrates were paid, and the Senate often did not reimburse magistrates for expenses associated with their official duties. Therefore, an individual usually had to be independently wealthy before seeking high office. Ultimately, a new patricio-plebeian aristocracy (nobilitas) emerged, which replaced the old patrician nobility. It was the dominance of the long-standing patrician nobility which ultimately forced the plebeians to wage their long struggle for political power. The new nobility, however, was fundamentally different from the old nobility. The old nobility existed through the force of law, because only patricians were allowed to stand for high office, and it was ultimately overthrown after those laws were changed. Now, however, the new nobility existed due to the organization of society, and as such, it could only be overthrown through a revolution.

The Conflict of the Orders was finally coming to an end, since the plebeians had achieved political equality with the patricians. A small number of plebeian families had achieved the same standing that the old aristocratic Patrician families had always had, but these new plebeian aristocrats were as uninterested in the plight of the average plebeian as the old patrician aristocrats had always been. During this time period, the plebeian plight had been mitigated due to the constant state of war that Rome was in. These wars provided employment, income, and glory for the average plebeian, and the sense of patriotism that resulted from these wars also eliminated any real threat of plebeian unrest. The lex Publilia, which had required the election of at least one plebeian censor every five years, contained another provision. Before this time, any bill passed by an assembly could only become a law after the patrician senators gave their approval. This approval came in the form of an auctoritas patrum ("authority of the fathers"). The lex Publilia modified this process, requiring the auctoritas patrum to be passed before a law could be voted on by one of the assemblies, rather than after the law had already been voted on. It is not known why, but this modification seems to have made the auctoritas patrum irrelevant.

By 287 BC, the economic condition of the average plebeian had become poor. The problem appears to have centered around widespread indebtedness, and the plebeians quickly demanded relief. The senators, most of whom belonged to the creditor class, refused to abide by the demands of the plebeians, and the result was the final plebeian secession. The Plebeians seceded to the Janiculum Hill, and to end the secession, a dictator named Quintus Hortensius was appointed. Hortensius, a plebeian, passed the lex Hortensia which ended the requirement that an auctoritas patrum be passed before any bill could be considered by either the Plebeian Council or the Tribal Assembly. The requirement was not changed for the Centuriate Assembly. The Hortensian Law also reaffirmed the principle that an act of the Plebeian Council have the full force of law over both plebeians and patricians, which it had originally acquired as early as 449 BC. The importance of the Hortensian law was in that it removed from the patrician senators their final check over the Plebeian Council.

Historicity
The traditional account was long accepted as factual, but it has a number of problems and inconsistencies, and almost every element of the story is controversial today. For instance, the fasti report a number of consuls with plebeian names during the 5th century BC, when the consulate was supposedly only open to patricians, and explanations to the effect that previously patrician gentes somehow became plebeians later are difficult to prove. Another point of difficulty is the apparent absence of armed revolt; as the history of the late Republic shows, similar types of grievances tended to lead to bloodshed rather quickly, yet Livy's account seems to entail debate mostly, with the occasional threat of secessio. None of this is helped by our basic uncertainty as to who the plebs actually were; many of them are known to have been wealthy landowners, and the "lower class" label dates from the late Republic.

Some scholars, such as Richard E. Mitchell, have even argued that there was no conflict at all, the Romans of the late Republic having interpreted events of their distant past as if they were comparable to the class struggles of their own time. The crux of the problem is that there is no contemporaneous account of the conflict; writers such as Polybius, who might have met persons whose grandparents participated in the conflict, do not mention it (which may not be surprising, since Polybius' history covered a period after the conflict), while the writers who do speak of the conflict, such as Livy or Cicero, are sometimes thought to have reported fact and fable equally readily, and sometimes assume that there were no fundamental changes in Roman institutions in nearly 500 years.

title: Conflict of the Orders


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User:Stijn Ghesquiere

Stijn AI Ghesquiere Lives in [Belgium]. He obtained his PhD in molecular genetics in 2006 at the University of Maastricht and currently works as clinical cytogeneticist at the Academic Hospital Maastricht.

He created and maintains a website dedicated to the Ampullariidae : http://www.applesnail.net. Besides apple snails, Stijn also tries to gather more attention to the old and unfortunately rare chicken breed, the brakel.

He is a big fan of GNU-linux and open source in general. He strongly opposes software patents, and believes that copyright should be limited to no longer then the life of the author. After all, we all benefit from the work and creativity other people. No-one can say he/she did invent everything without using work and information derived from other people. So once money has been earned, Stijn believes, it's time to give other chances to fully benefit from your work too.

title: User:Stijn Ghesquiere


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Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532

The Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532 (24 Hen. 8. c. 12), also called the Statute in Restraint of Appeals, the Act of Appeals and the Act of Restraints in Appeals, was an Act of the Parliament of England.

It was passed in the first week of April 1533. It is considered by many historians to be the key legal foundation of the English Reformation.

The Act, drafted by Thomas Cromwell on behalf of King Henry VIII of England, forbade all appeals to the Pope in Rome on religious or other matters, making the King the final legal authority in all such matters in England, Wales, and other English possessions. This was achieved by claiming that England was an Empire and the English crown was an Imperial Crown – Henry's historians claimed that they could trace the lineage back to Brutus and the fall of Troy.

This far-reaching measure made accepting papal authority, or following papal rulings in church, faith or other matters illegal. It was followed a year later by the Act of Supremacy 1534 which made Henry "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England called Anglicana Ecclesia, and shall have and enjoy annexed and united to the imperial crown of this realm". Those in his realms had to acknowledge this as they were by Acts of Parliament that automatically changed any previous constitutional arrangements. Not to do so was high treason, which would lead to trial and execution as happened to Thomas More. The Acts enabled Thomas Cranmer to finally grant King Henry his long-desired divorce from queen Catherine of Aragon, so that he could marry Anne Boleyn.

Extract
"WHERE by divers sundry old authentic histories and chronicles, it is manifestly declared and expressed, that this realm of England is an empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one supreme head and king, having the dignity and royal estate of the imperial crown of the same, unto whom a body politic, compact of all sorts and degrees of people, divided in terms, and by names of spiritualty and temporalty, be bounden and ought to bear, next to God, a natural and humble obedience: he being also institute and furnished, by the goodness and sufferance of Almighty God, with plenary, whole, and entire power, pre-eminence, authority, prerogative and jurisdiction, ... the body spiritual whereof having power, when any cause of the law divine happened to come in question, ... and the laws temporal, for trial of property of lands and goods, and for the conservation of the people of this realm in unity and peace, without rapine or spoil, was and yet is administered, adjudged, and executed by sundry judges and ministers of the other part of the said body politic, called the temporalty; and both their authorities and jurisdictions do conjoin together in the due administration of justice, the one to help the other.

... by his royal assent, and by the assent of the lords spiritual and temporal, and the commons, in this present parliament assembled, and by authority of the same, enact, establish, and ordain, that all causes testamentary, causes of matrimony and divorces, rights of tithes, oblations and obventions ... already commenced, moved, depending, being, happening, or hereafter coming in contention, debate, or question within this realm, or within any the king's dominions, or marches of the same, or elsewhere, whether they concern the king our sovereign lord, his heirs and successors, or any other subjects or residents within the same, of what degree soever they be, shall be from henceforth heard, examined, discussed, clearly, finally, and definitively adjudged and determined within the king's jurisdiction and authority and not elsewhere ...; any foreign inhibitions, appeals, sentences, summons, citations, suspensions, interdictions, excommunications, restraints, judgments, or any other process or impediments, of what natures, names, qualities, or conditions soever they be, from the see of Rome, or any other foreign courts or potentates of the world, or from and out of this realm, or any other the king's dominions, or marches of the same, to the see of Rome, or to any other foreign courts or potentates, to the let or impediment thereof in any wise notwithstanding.

And if it shall happen any person or persons hereafter to pursue or provoke any appeal contrary to the effect of this Act, or refuse to obey, execute, and observe all things comprised within the same, concerning the said appeals, provocations, and other foreign processes to be sued out of this realm, for any the causes aforesaid, that then every such person or persons so doing, refusing, or offending contrary to the true meaning of this Act, their procurers, fautors, advocates, counsellors, and abettors, and every of them, shall incur into the pains, forfeitures, and penalties ordained and provided in the said statute made in the said sixteenth year of King Richard II., and with like process to be made against the said offenders, as in the same statute made in the said sixteenth year more plainly appeareth."

Repeal
The whole Act, in so far as it extended to Northern Ireland, was repealed by section 1(1) of, and Schedule 1 to, the Statute Law Revision Act 1950.

The whole Act, so far as unrepealed, was repealed by section 1 of, and Part II of the Schedule to, the Statute Law (Repeals) Act 1969.

Section 2
This section was repealed by section 13(2) of, and Part I of Schedule 4 to the Criminal Law Act 1967.

Section 3
In this section, the words from "in manner and forme as hereafter ensueth" to the end were repealed by section 87 of, and Schedule 5 to, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963 (No 1).

Section 4
In this section, the words from the beginning to "any other courte or courtes" were repealed by section 87 of, and Schedule 5 to, the Ecclesiastical Jurisdiction Measure 1963 (No 1). This section, so far as unrepealed, was repealed by section 13(2) of, and Part I of Schedule 4 to the Criminal Law Act 1967.

title: Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532


text:
SRI International

SRI International (SRI) is an American nonprofit scientific research institute and organization headquartered in Menlo Park, California. The trustees of Stanford University established SRI in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region.

The organization was founded as the Stanford Research Institute. SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977. SRI performs client-sponsored research and development for government agencies, commercial businesses, and private foundations. It also licenses its technologies, forms strategic partnerships, sells products, and creates spin-off companies. SRI's headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus.

SRI's annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $540 million, which tripled from 1998 under the leadership of Curtis Carlson. In 1998, the organization was on the verge of bankruptcy when Carlson took over as CEO. Over the next sixteen years with Carlson as CEO, the organizational culture of SRI was transformed. SRI tripled in size, became very profitable, and created many world-changing innovations using the NABC framework. One of its best-known successes—Siri, the personal assistant on the iPhone—came from a company SRI created and then sold to Apple. William A. Jeffrey served as SRI's president and CEO from September 2014 to December 2021. David Parekh is the chief executive officer as of December 2021.

SRI employs about 2,100 people. Sarnoff Corporation, a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988, was fully integrated into SRI in January 2011.

SRI's focus areas include biomedical sciences, chemistry and materials, computing, Earth and space systems, economic development, education and learning, energy and environmental technology, security and national defense, as well as sensing and devices. SRI has received more than 4,000 patents and patent applications worldwide.

Foundation
In the 1920s, Stanford University professor Robert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in the Western United States. Herbert Hoover, then a trustee of Stanford University, was also an early proponent of an institute but became less involved with the project after being elected president of the United States. The development of the institute was delayed by the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s, with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946.

In August 1945, Maurice Nelles, Morlan A. Visel, and Ernest L. Black of Lockheed made the first attempt to create the institute with the formation of the "Pacific Research Foundation" in Los Angeles. A second attempt was made by Henry T. Heald, then president of the Illinois Institute of Technology. In 1945, Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast and a close association with Stanford University with an initial grant of $500,000 (equivalent to $0 in ). A third attempt was made by Fred Terman, Stanford University's dean of engineering. Terman's proposal followed Heald's but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research.

The trustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946. It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university—to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large, not just the students of Stanford University. The trustees were named as the corporation's general members, and elected SRI's directors (later known as presidents); if the organization were dissolved, its assets would return to Stanford University.

Research chemist William F. Talbot became the institute's first director. Stanford University president Donald Tresidder instructed Talbot to avoid work that would conflict with the interests of the university, particularly federal contracts that might attract political pressure. The drive to find work and the lack of support from Stanford faculty caused the new research institute to violate this directive six months later through the pursuit of a contract with the Office of Naval Research. This and other issues, including frustration with Tresidder's micromanagement of the new organization, caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation, which Tresidder eventually accepted. Talbot was replaced by Jesse Hobson, who had previously led the Armour Research Foundation, but the pursuit of contract work remained.

Early history
SRI's first research project investigated whether the guayule plant could be used as a source of natural rubber. During World War II, rubber was imported into the U.S. and was subject to shortages and strict rationing. From 1942 to 1946, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) supported a project to create a domestic source of natural rubber. Once the war ended, the United States Congress cut funding for the program; in response, the Office of Naval Research created a grant for the project to continue at SRI, and the USDA staff worked through SRI until Congress reauthorized funding in 1947.

SRI's first economic study was for the United States Air Force. In 1947, the Air Force wanted to determine the expansion potential of the U.S. aircraft industry; SRI found that it would take too long to escalate production in an emergency. In 1948, SRI began research and consultation with Chevron Corporation to develop an artificial substitute for tallow and coconut oil in soap production; SRI's investigation confirmed the potential of dodecylbenzene as a suitable replacement. Later, Procter & Gamble used the substance as the basis for Tide laundry detergent.

The institute performed much of the early research on air pollution and the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere. SRI sponsored the First National Air Pollution Symposium in Pasadena, California, in November 1949. Experts gave presentations on pollution research, exchanged ideas and techniques, and stimulated interest in the field. The event was attended by 400 scientists, business executives, and civic leaders from the U.S. SRI co-sponsored subsequent events on the subject.

In April 1953, Walt and Roy Disney hired SRI (and in particular, Harrison Price) to consult on their proposal for establishing an amusement park in Burbank, California. SRI provided information on location, attendance patterns, and economic feasibility. SRI selected a larger site in Anaheim, prepared reports about the operation, provided on-site administrative support for Disneyland, and acted in an advisory role as the park expanded. In 1955, SRI was commissioned to select a site and provide design suggestions for the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts.

In 1952, the Technicolor Corporation contracted with SRI to develop a near-instantaneous, electro-optical alternative to the manual timing process during film copying. In 1959, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented the Scientific and Engineering Award jointly to SRI and Technicolor for their work on the design and development of the Technicolor electronic printing timer which greatly benefited the motion picture industry. In 1954, Southern Pacific asked SRI to investigate ways of reducing damage during rail freight shipments by mitigating shock to railroad box cars. This investigation led to William K. MacCurdy's development of the Hydra-Cushion technology, which remains standard today.

In the 1950s, SRI worked under the direction of the Bank of America to develop ERMA (Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting) and magnetic ink character recognition (MICR). The ERMA project was led by computer scientist Jerre Noe, SRI's assistant director of engineering at the time. As of 2011, MICR remains the industry standard in automated check processing.

Rapid expansion
Douglas Engelbart, the founder of SRI's Augmentation Research Center (ARC), was the primary force behind the design and development of the multi-user oN-Line System (or NLS), featuring original versions of modern computer-human interface elements including bit-mapped displays, collaboration software, hypertext, and precursors to the graphical user interface such as the computer mouse. As a pioneer of human-computer interaction, Engelbart is arguably SRI's most notable alumnus. He was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation in 2000.

Bill English, then chief engineer at ARC, built the first prototype of a computer mouse from Engelbart's design in 1964. SRI also developed inkjet printing (1961) and optical disc recording (1963). Liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology was developed at RCA Laboratories in the 1960s, which later became Sarnoff Corporation in 1988, a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI. Sarnoff was fully integrated into SRI in 2011.

In the early 1960s, Hewitt Crane and his colleagues developed the world's first all-magnetic digital computer, based upon extensions to magnetic core memories. The technology was licensed to AMP Inc., who then used it to build specialized computers for controlling tracks in the New York City Subway and on railroad switching yards.

In 1966, SRI's Artificial Intelligence Center began working on "Shakey the robot", the first mobile robot to reason about its actions. Equipped with a television camera, a triangulating rangefinder, and bump sensors, Shakey used software for perception, world-modeling, and acting. The project ended in 1972. SRI's Artificial Intelligence Center marked its 45th anniversary in 2011.

On October 29, 1969, the first connection on a wide area network to use packet switching, ARPANET, was established between nodes at Leonard Kleinrock's laboratory at University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Douglas Engelbart's laboratory at SRI using Interface Message Processors at both sites. The following year, Engelbart's laboratory installed the first TENEX system outside of BBN where it was developed. In addition to SRI and UCLA, University of California, Santa Barbara and the University of Utah were part of the original four network nodes. By December 5, 1969, the entire four-node network was connected. In the 1970s, SRI developed packet-switched radio (a precursor to wireless networking), over-the-horizon radar, Deafnet,  vacuum microelectronics, and software-implemented fault tolerance.

The first true Internet transmission occurred on November 22, 1977, when SRI originated the first connection between three disparate networks. Data flowed seamlessly through the mobile Packet Radio Van between SRI in Menlo Park, California, and the University of Southern California in Los Angeles via University College London, England, across three types of networks: packet radio, satellite, and the ARPANET. In 2007, the Computer History Museum presented a 30th-anniversary celebration of this demonstration, which included several participants from the 1977 event. SRI would go on to run the Network Information Center under the leadership of Jake Feinler.

Split and diversification
The Vietnam War (1955–1975) was an important issue on college campuses across the United States in the 1960s and 1970s. As a belated response to Vietnam War protesters who believed that funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) made the university part of the military–industrial complex, the Stanford Research Institute split from Stanford University in 1970. The organization subsequently changed its name from the Stanford Research Institute to SRI International in 1977.

In 1972, physicists Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ undertook a series of investigations of psychic phenomena sponsored by the CIA, for which they coined the term remote viewing. Among other activities, the project encompassed the work of consulting "consciousness researchers" including artist/writer Ingo Swann, military intelligence officer Joseph McMoneagle, and psychic/illusionist Uri Geller. This ESP work continued with funding from the US intelligence community until Puthoff and Targ left SRI in the mid-1980s. For more information, see Parapsychology research at SRI.

Social scientist and consumer futurist Arnold Mitchell created the Values, Attitudes and Lifestyles (VALS) psychographic methodology in the late 1970s to explain changing U.S. values and lifestyles. VALS was formally inaugurated as an SRI product in 1978 and was called "one of the ten top market research breakthroughs of the 1980s" by Advertising Age magazine.

Throughout the 1980s, SRI developed Zylon, stealth technologies, improvements to ultrasound imaging, two-dimensional laser fluorescence imaging, and many-sorted logic. In computing and software, SRI developed a multimedia electronic mail system, a theory of non-interference in computer security, a multilevel secure (MLS) relational database system called Seaview, LaTeX, Open Agent Architecture (OAA), a network intrusion detection system, the Maude system, a declarative software language, and PacketHop, a peer-to-peer wireless technology to create scalable ad hoc networks. SRI's research in network intrusion detection led to the patent infringement case SRI International, Inc. v. Internet Security Systems, Inc. The AI center's robotics research led to Shakey's successor, Flakey the robot, which focused on fuzzy logic.

In 1986, SRI.com became the 8th registered ".com" domain. The Artificial Intelligence Center developed the Procedural Reasoning System (PRS) in the late 1980s and into the early 1990s. PRS launched the field of BDI-based intelligent agents. In the 1990s, SRI developed a letter sorting system for the United States Postal Service and several education and economic studies.

Military-related technologies developed by SRI in the 1990s and 2000s include ground- and foliage-penetrating radar, the INCON and REDDE command and control system for the U.S. military, and IGRS (integrated GPS radio system)—an advanced military personnel and vehicle tracking system. To train armored combat units during battle exercises, SRI developed the Deployable Force-on-Force Instrumented Range System (DFIRST), which uses GPS satellites, high-speed wireless communications, and digital terrain map displays.

SRI created the Centibots in 2003, one of the first and largest teams of coordinated, autonomous mobile robots that explore, map, and survey unknown environments. It also created BotHunter, a free utility for Unix, which detects botnet activity within a network.

With DARPA-funded research, SRI contributed to the development of speech recognition and translation products and was an active participant in DARPA's Global Autonomous Language Exploitation (GALE) program. SRI developed DynaSpeak speech recognition technology, which was used in the handheld VoxTec Phraselator, allowing U.S. soldiers overseas to communicate with local citizens in near real-time. SRI also created translation software for use in the IraqComm, a device which allows two-way, speech-to-speech machine translation between English and colloquial Iraqi Arabic.

In medicine and chemistry, SRI developed dry-powder drugs, laser photocoagulation (a treatment for some eye maladies), remote surgery (also known as telerobotic surgery), bio-agent detection using upconverting phosphor technology, the experimental anticancer drugs Tirapazamine and TAS-108, ammonium dinitramide (an environmentally benign oxidizer for safe and cost-effective disposal of hazardous materials), the electroactive polymer ("artificial muscle"), new uses for diamagnetic levitation, and the antimalarial drug Halofantrine.

SRI performed a study in the 1990s for Whirlpool Corporation that led to modern self-cleaning ovens. In the 2000s, SRI worked on Pathway Tools software for use in bioinformatics and systems biology to accelerate drug discovery using artificial intelligence and symbolic computing techniques. The software system generates the BioCyc database collection, SRI's growing collection of genomic databases used by biologists to visualize genes within a chromosome, complete biochemical pathways, and full metabolic maps of organisms.

Early 21st century
SRI researchers made the first observation of visible light emitted by oxygen atoms in the night-side airglow of Venus, offering new insight into the planet's atmosphere. SRI education researchers conducted the first national evaluation of the growing U.S. charter schools movement. For the World Golf Foundation, SRI compiled the first-ever estimate of the overall scope of the U.S. golf industry's goods and services ($62 billion in 2000), providing a framework for monitoring the long-term growth of the industry. In April 2000, SRI formed Atomic Tangerine, an independent consulting firm designed to bring new technologies and services to market.

In 2006, SRI was awarded a $56.9 million contract with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to provide preclinical services for the development of drugs and antibodies for anti-infective treatments for avian influenza, SARS, West Nile virus and hepatitis. Also in 2006, SRI selected St. Petersburg, Florida, as the site for a new marine technology research facility targeted at ocean science, the maritime industry and port security; the facility is a collaboration with the University of South Florida College of Marine Science and its Center for Ocean Technology. That facility created a new method for underwater mass spectrometry, which has been used to conduct "advanced underwater chemical surveys in oil and gas exploration and production, ocean resource monitoring and protection, and water treatment and management" and was licensed to Spyglass Technologies in March 2014.

In December 2007, SRI launched a spin-off company, Siri Inc., which Apple acquired in April 2010. In October 2011, Apple announced the Siri personal assistant as an integrated feature of the Apple iPhone 4S. Siri's technology was born from SRI's work on the DARPA-funded CALO project, described by SRI as the largest artificial intelligence project ever launched. Siri was co-founded in December 2007 by Dag Kittlaus (CEO), Adam Cheyer (vice president, engineering), and Tom Gruber (CTO/vice president, design), together with Norman Winarsky (vice president of SRI Ventures). Investors included Menlo Ventures and Morgenthaler Ventures.

For the National Science Foundation (NSF), SRI operates the advanced modular incoherent scatter radar (AMISR), a novel relocatable atmospheric research facility. Other SRI-operated research facilities for the NSF include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the Sondrestrom Upper Atmospheric Research Facility in Greenland. In May 2011, SRI was awarded a $42 million contract to operate the Arecibo Observatory from October 1, 2011, to September 30, 2016. The institute also manages the Hat Creek Radio Observatory in Northern California, home of the Allen Telescope Array.

In February 2014, SRI announced a "photonics-based testing technology called FASTcell" for the detection and characterization of rare circulating tumor cells from blood samples. The test is aimed at cancer-specific biomarkers for breast, lung, prostate, colorectal, and leukemia cancers that circulate in the bloodstream in minute quantities, potentially diagnosing those conditions earlier.

In September 2018, the NSF announced that SRI International would be awarded $4.4 million to establish the backbone organization of a national network.

In April 2023, Xerox announced that it would donate PARC and its related assets to SRI. As part of the deal, Xerox would keep most of the patent rights inside PARC, and benefit from a preferred research agreement with SRI/PARC.

Employees and financials
As of February 2015, SRI employs approximately 2,100 people. In 2014, SRI had about $540 million in revenue. In 2013, the United States Department of Defense consisted of 63% of awards by value; the remainder was composed of the National Institutes of Health (11%); businesses and industry (8%); other United States agencies (6%); the National Science Foundation (6%); the United States Department of Education (4%); and foundations (2%).

As of February 2015, approximately 4,000 patents have been granted to SRI International and its employees.

Facilities
SRI is primarily based on a 63 acre campus located in Menlo Park, California, which is considered part of Silicon Valley. This campus encompasses 1300000 sqft of office and lab space. In addition, SRI has a 254 acre campus in Princeton, New Jersey, with 600000 sqft of research space. There are also offices in Washington, D.C., and Tokyo, Japan. In total, SRI has 2300000 sqft of office and laboratory space.

Organization
SRI International is organized into seven units (generally called divisions) focusing on specific subject areas.

Staff members and alumni

SRI has had a chief executive of some form since its establishment. Before the split with Stanford University, the position was known as the director; after the split, it is known as the company's president and CEO. SRI has had nine so far, including William F. Talbot (1946–1947), Jesse E. Hobson (1947–1955), E. Finley Carter (1956–1963), Charles Anderson (1968–1979), William F. Miller (1979–1990), James J. Tietjen (1990–1993), William P. Sommers (1993–1998) Curtis Carlson (1998–2014). More recently, the role was split into two. The current CEO is David Parekh and the president is Manish Kothari (formerly president of SRI Ventures).

SRI also has had a board of directors since its inception, which has both guided and provided opportunities for the organization. The current board of directors includes Samuel Armacost (Chairman of the Board Emeritus), Mariann Byerwalter (chairman), William A. Jeffrey, Charles A. Holloway (vice-chairman), Vern Clark, Robert L. Joss, Leslie F. Kenne, Henry Kressel, David Liddle, Philip J. Quigley, Wendell Wierenga and John J. Young Jr.

Its notable researchers include Elmer Robinson (meteorologist), co-author of the 1968 SRI report to the American Petroleum Institute (API) on the risks of fossil fuel burning to the global climate. Many notable researchers were involved with the Augmentation Research Center. These include Douglas Engelbart, the developer of the modern GUI; William English, the inventor of the mouse; Jeff Rulifson, the primary developer of the NLS; Elizabeth J. Feinler, who ran the Network Information Center; and David Maynard, who would help found Electronic Arts.

The Artificial Intelligence Center has also produced a large number of notable alumni, many of whom contributed to Shakey the robot; these include project manager Charles Rosen, as well as Nils Nilsson, Bertram Raphael, Richard O. Duda, Peter E. Hart, Richard Fikes, and Richard Waldinger. AI researcher Gary Hendrix went on to found Symantec. Former Yahoo! President and CEO Marissa Mayer performed a research internship at the Center in the 1990s. The CALO project (and its spin-off, Siri) also produced notable names including C. Raymond Perrault and Adam Cheyer.

Several SRI projects produced notable researchers and engineers long before computing was mainstream. Early employee Paul M. Cook founded Raychem. William K. MacCurdy developed the Hydra-Cushion freight car for Southern Pacific in 1954; Hewitt Crane and Jerre Noe were instrumental in the development of Electronic Recording Machine, Accounting; Harrison Price helped The Walt Disney Company design Disneyland; James C. Bliss developed the Optacon; and Robert Weitbrecht invented the first telecommunications device for the deaf.

Spin-off companies

Working with investment and venture capital firms, SRI and its former employees have launched more than 60 spin-off ventures in a wide range of fields, including Siri (acquired by Apple), Tempo AI (acquired by Salesforce.com), Redwood Robotics (acquired by Google), Desti (acquired by HERE), Grabit, Kasisto, Passio, Artificial Muscle, Inc. (acquired by Bayer MaterialScience), Nuance Communications, Intuitive Surgical, Ravenswood Solutions, and Orchid Cellmark.

Some former SRI staff members have also established new companies. In engineering and analysis, for example, notable companies formed by SRI alums include Weitbrecht Communications, Exponent and Raychem. Companies in the area of legal, policy and business analysis include Fair Isaac Corporation, Global Business Network and Institute for the Future.

Research in computing and computer science-related areas led to the development of many companies, including Symantec, the Australian Artificial Intelligence Institute, E-Trade, and Verbatim Corporation. Wireless technologies spawned Firetide and venture capital firm enVia Partners. Health systems research inspired Telesensory Systems.

title: SRI International


text:
Raul Khajimba

Raul Jumkovich Khajimba (Рауль Џьумка-иԥа Ҳаџьымба, რაულ ჯუმკას-ძე ჰაჯიმბა; born 21 March 1959) is an Abkhazian politician, and served as President of Abkhazia from 25 September 2014 until 12 January 2020. He was also Chairman of the Forum for the National Unity of Abkhazia from 2010 to 2015. Khajimba previously held the offices of Vice President (2005–2009), Prime Minister (2003–2004) and Defence Minister (2002–2003). He unsuccessfully ran for president in 2004, 2009 and 2011. He resigned the presidency in 2020 due to protests against him.

Early life and career
Raul Khajimba was born on 21 March 1959 in Tkvarcheli, where he went to school and worked as a mechanic at the power station. From 1976 until 1978, he served in the Soviet Air Defence Forces. From 1979 until 1984, he graduated from the Law Faculty of the Abkhazian State University. From 1985 until 1986 Khajimba studied at the KGB school in Minsk, and he subsequently served as a KGB agent in Tkvarcheli until 1992.

During the 1992–1993 war with Georgia, Khajimba was the head of the military intelligence and counterintelligence operation on the eastern front. For his work, he was awarded the Order of Leon.

From 1996 until 1998, Khajimba headed the anti-smuggling division of the State Customs Committee. In 1998, he became its deputy chairman.

Security Service chairman, First Vice Premier and Minister of Defence (1999–2003)
After a bomb attack on 13 December 1999 in Sukhumi targeting government officials, President Ardzinba dismissed Astamur Tarba as Security Service chairman and appointed Khajimba in his stead. On 18 June 2001, he additionally became First Vice Premier. On 1 November he was succeeded as Head of the State Security Service by Interior Minister Zurab Agumava. On 16 May 2002, Khajimba was appointed Defence Minister, replacing Vladimir Mikanba, while remaining First Vice Premier.

Prime Minister (2003–2004)
In the evening of 7 April 2003, Prime Minister Gennadi Gagulia filed for resignation. Early in the morning of that day, nine prisoners had escaped, four of which had been sentenced to death due to their involvement in the 2001 Kodori crisis. President Ardzinba initially refused to accept Gagulia's resignation, but was forced to agree on 8 April. Vice President Valery Arshba denied on 8 April that the government's resignation was due to the prison escape, and stated that instead it was caused by the opposition's plans to hold protest rallies on 10 April. On 22 April 2003, Raul Khajimba was appointed the new Prime Minister. He remained Prime Minister until October 2004.

As then-President Vladislav Ardzinba was seriously ill and did not appear in public during his term, Khajimba acted as a de facto head of state in his absence. In this role, he met a number of political leaders, including Igor Ivanov, foreign minister of Russia. He has been a sharp opponent of reunification with Georgia, and vehemently condemned Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili's proposal for a two-state federation in May 2004.

2004 and 2005 presidential elections
Khadjimba was tipped as the favourite to win the October 2004 presidential elections, and was strongly endorsed by both outgoing president Ardzinba and Russian President Vladimir Putin. Both men campaigned on his behalf and dedicated significant resources to assisting the Khadjimba campaign. However, opposition candidate Sergei Bagapsh polled more votes on election day, in what was widely attributed as a backlash against the strong Russian influence in his campaign.

After the election, both Bagapsh and Khadjimba claimed victory, with Khadjimba alleging that electoral fraud in the pro-Bagapsh Gali region had been responsible for Bagapsh's win. Ardzinba soon dismissed Khadjimba as Prime Minister, replacing him with a compromise candidate, Nodar Khashba, and two months of drawn-out disputes followed, involving public protests, court action and parliamentary proceedings.

In December 2004, Khadjimba and Bagapsh came to an agreement which would see the pair run as part of a national unity ticket in repeat elections, with Khadjimba running as Bagapsh's vice-president. As part of this deal, the position of vice-president was given expanded powers covering defence and foreign affairs. The joint ticket easily won the January 2005 election, winning more than 90% of the vote.

Vice President (2005–2009)
However, in the aftermath of the election win, many analysts have suggested that Khadjimba's executive authority would be somewhat limited under the new arrangement, with Bagapsh and his Prime Minister, Alexander Ankvab, likely to maintain ultimate control over the areas of policy nominally assigned to the vice-president.

The controversy resurfaced again in June 2008, when Khadjimba attended a congress of the Aruaa veteran organisation, of which he is a member. The congress issued a statement criticizing the Bagapsh administration's "multi-vector foreign policy", referring to the talks with Georgian and Western diplomats, and called for greater ties with Russia. The pro-Bagapsh politicians from the Amtsakhara veteran organisation described Khadjimba's criticism of the government, in which he was a vice-president, "immoral". Later that month, Khadjimba reiterated his stance towards Bagapsh's foreign policy, stating that Abkhazia's only protector could be Russia and using force would be inevitable for gaining control of the upper Kodori Valley in northeastern Abkhazia, the only part of Abkhazia under Georgian control at the time. In August 2008, the Abkhazian military did take the upper Kodory Valley by force during the August 2008 war over South Ossetia.

On 18 May 2009 the Forum of the National Unity of Abkhazia and Aruaa issued a press statement and on 20 May they gave a press conference with several other opposition parties, on both occasions voicing severe criticism over the achievements of the government and recent foreign policy decisions. On 28 May Khajimba resigned, saying that he agreed with the criticism, but attributing his failure to tackle corruption and improve security to lack of room for manoeuvre and no support from the president Bagapsh whom he also accused of violating the 2004 powersharing agreement and criticized him for signing a border protection agreement with Russia in 2009.

2009 presidential election
The Russian newspaper Kommersant reported that during the summer of 2009 Khajimba had entered negotiations with Beslan Butba over forming an alliance for in the presidential election, but the pair fell out following the visit of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin to Abkhazia. Putin had met with Khajimba, but not with Butba, and Butba considered this an unfriendly act on the part of Khajimba. During the nomination period for candidates, Khajimba then tried to form a team with Ardzinba. The alliance would have combined Ardzinba's backing by part of the business community and his financial resources with Khajimba's electoral popularity. The pair said they would run together during two meetings with voters, and the idea was that they would receive the joint nomination by the Forum of the National Unity of Abkhazia. According to the Kommersant, in the end the pair could not agree on what positions they would get. Khajimba wanted the presidency, and offered Ardzinba to become Prime Minister, but this was not acceptable to the latter. The congress of the Forum of the National Unity of Abkhazia planned on 29 October was called off, and Ardzinba was instead nominated by an initiative group that day.

Khajimba had already been officially nominated for the presidency by an interest group on 19 October, and received the additional support on 20 October of the Forum of the National Unity of Abkhazia, Aruaa and Akhatsa. Khajimba picked Vasilii Avidzba as his vice presidential candidate.

Nevertheless, on 18 November Khajimba and Ardzinba announced that they would continue to coordinate their campaigns, and that they had appointed chairman of Aruaa, Vadim Smyr to lead this coordination. On 20 November, Khajimba stated that he and Ardzinba had different visions on coming to power, but that he did not consider Ardzinba his opponent, and that in the case of a second round, he, Ardzinba and Butba would support each other.

A second round proved to be unnecessary, since incumbent President Sergei Bagapsh won a 61.16% first round victory. Khajimba came in second place with 15,584 votes, 15.32% of the total number cast.

Chairman of the Forum of the National Unity of Abkhazia
On 12 May 2010, Raul Khajimba was elected Chairman of the FNUA, after the party congress had reduced the number of chairmen from 2 to 1.

2011 presidential election
Khajimba again ran for president in 2011, after the death of President Sergei Bagapsh. His running mate was Svetlana Jergenia, widow of first President Vladislav Ardzinba. The pair was first nominated by an initiative group on 28 June and then by the Forum for the National Unity of Abkhazia on 16 July. They received the additional support of Akhatsa (5 July), Aruaa (7 July), former Prime Minister and 2004 presidential candidate Anri Jergenia (27 July) and the Union of the Cossacks of Abkhazia (5 August).

The pair scored a 19.82% third place, losing to Acting President Alexander Ankvab.

May 2014 revolution
Khajimba led opposition protests that forced Alexander Ankvab to resign as president on 1 June 2014. Khajimba won the subsequent presidential election with a slim 50.60% first-round victory.

President (2014–2020)
Khajimba was inaugurated as president on 25 September 2014. Two months into his presidency, he signed a treaty with Russian president Vladimir Putin deepening ties between Abkhazia and Russia. Provisions of the agreement included placing the Abkhazian military under the direct control of Russia's armed forces and committing Abkhazia toward bringing its trade laws into alignment with the Eurasian Economic Union. The treaty was widely condemned in the West and by the Republic of Georgia, with US newspaper The New York Times suggesting the Abkhazian government had no choice but to agree to Putin's terms. However, Khajimba hailed closer ties with Russia as promoting "the full scope of guarantees for the safety of our state and extensive opportunities for the social and economic development".

Raul Khajimba as the Leader of Abkhazia got awarded with Order of Leon (as Vice President in 2005), Order of Merit, II degree (Transnistria in 2006 as vice president), Order of Merit, I Degree (Transnistria in 2015 as president), Order of Friendship (Republic of South Ossetia in 2015 as president), Order of Friendship (Transnistria in 2016 as president), and Umayyad Order (Syrian Arab Republic in 2018 as president).

Raul Khajimba was reelected in September 2019 after winning 26.33% of votes in the first round and 48.68% in the second. In January 2020 protests broke out against Khajimba. On 10 January the Supreme Court of Abkhazia declared Khajimba's victory in the 2019 presidential election nullified, and called for new elections on 22 March. On 12 January Khajimba resigned the presidency.

title: Raul Khajimba


text:
Talk:Daisy

Transvaal Daisy
I moved Transvaal Daisy to Gerbera where it belongs. --Chino 09:15, 12 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Picture
Another picture of daisy. This is a Marigold (Calendula) - MPF 15:13, 13 July 2005 (UTC)

Not attinent
This article is not attinent to Bellis perennis. It is Wrong, see Bellis_perennis on Commons and frWiki.--Archenzo   Talk 10:41, 5 Apr 2005 (UTC)

WRONG
this is a marigold, not a daisy —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.173.71.114 (talk • contribs) 17:42, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

Word daisy
A question about a use of the word 'daisy': In the film 'Tombstone' (the story of the Earp brothers et al) the character Doc Holliday uses the term 'daisy' at least twice. I believe that its attribution to him is historically accurate. Is the term 'daisy' as used in this contect some archaic slang term from Holliday's time/place, or was it particular to him. In either case, what does it mean in this context? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.245.220.249 (talk • contribs) 23:06, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

No expert
I am no expert on Wikipedia; could somebody disambiguate this entry as I believe the default should be the Daisy flower and then offer disama biguation page for all the other meanings. This would be consistent with Rose, Carnation, etc. --SquareDeal 12:38, 26 Apr 2006

What "Daisy" means in terms of Tombstone, AZ
"Daisy" is an old word that used to mean "tough". Basically, the opposite of "Pansy". 69.230.196.223 00:03, 31 May 2007 (UTC)

Removed translations
Removed this
 * Daisy is more commonly known as Despina, in Greek. It is also known as Marguerite in French, or Margarida in portuguese.

Marguerite/Margarida comes from the Greek word for 'pearl', and according to Despoina, that name means 'damsel' or 'queen'. Rojomoke (talk) 21:41, 6 May 2009 (UTC)

People (and characters) with the given name Daisy
Reworded from my answer to a question on my Talk page: Lists of people who share a given name (or surname) do not normally go on disambiguation pages -- they go (if anywhere) on articles, and there's a project for it: WikiProject Anthroponymy. Since an anthroponymy article exists, try adding such a list of people with the given name "Daisy" to Daisy (given name), similar to the list on Juniper (given name), of, if the consensus there is to keep a list of name-holders off the article, create a separate list article such as List of Susans and link it from Daisy (given name). But disambiguation pages are not the place for them when the anthroponymy articles exist (WP:DABNAME). -- JHunterJ (talk) 11:21, 20 September 2009 (UTC)

Requested move 27 October 2019

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: not moved to the proposed titles at this time, per the discussion below. The format of the disambiguation page is an editorial decision and not mandated by this close; please continue the discussion on that topic as necessary. Dekimasu よ! 14:06, 4 November 2019 (UTC)

– According to the dab page, the primary topic for this word is . If so, its title should be the WP:COMMONNAME of "Daisy" rather than "Bellis perennis". If not, the dab page shouldn't say that the term has a primary meaning. —BarrelProof (talk) 07:00, 27 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Daisy → Daisy (disambiguation)
 * Bellis perennis → Daisy
 * Oppose Daisy has many meanings and uses. Many plants have several common names some of which are shared across several species. Qv mexican daisy.  Velella  Velella Talk 09:15, 27 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Support, common and most familiar name. Randy Kryn (talk) 11:15, 27 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose placing Bellis perennis as primary topic -- there are hundreds of plants that are commonly known as daisies (and without some close examination, they are mostly indistinguishable for most people). I could support a broad concept article about daisies. older ≠ wiser 11:43, 27 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose Bellis perennis should remain, as it is the only unique identifier. However, I would support "Daisy" becoming a straight redirect to Bellis perennis, and a new article "Daisy (disambiguation)" for all the other links. So there would be three articles;-
 * 1) Bellis perennis (the main article for the species)
 * 2) Daisy (straight redirect to Bellis perennis)
 * 3) Daisy (disambiguation) containing all the other links. Darorcilmir (talk) 14:43, 27 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose - there are too many daisies. I'd be happy to follow Bkonrad's suggestion and create an article about daisies (as cultural objects, more or less) and move this to Daisy (disambiguation). Guettarda (talk) 20:12, 28 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose and also oppose a WP:PRIMARYREDIRECT to Bellis perennis. But strongly support the creation of a WP:BROADCONCEPT article at the base name. I don't think that the term daisy alone is significantly more strongly associated with Bellis perennis than any other species. For example, a 1990 New York Times article on daisies and gardening says: The most memorable daisy that many gardeners know is the oxeye (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum). Britannica's "daisy" article (1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Daisy) is also broad-concept-esque. Colin M (talk) 15:19, 29 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose - Pretty much what said.  Too many daisies. --Nessie (talk) 15:04, 30 October 2019 (UTC)
 * Oppose per above -- too many daisies. power~enwiki ( π, ν ) 18:17, 31 October 2019 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

title: Talk:Daisy


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Talk:James Carville

Problems editing in new material (November, 2022)
Is anyone aware of any coding, constraints, or any other provisions of this article that would create a situation where existing edits and material here would be displaced by new edits? I attempted to edit in new and updated material on Carville working to defeat Pennsylvania Senator elect John Fetterman during this year's primary, and when I tried to do so, some of the existing sections at the bottom of the article were no longer visible. Many thanks in advance for any insight on this situation. Critical Chris   Critical Chris   20:48, 13 November 2022 (UTC)

Liz Cheney for speaker of the House
This without question is an opportunity for the Democrats to bring some sort of sanity back to the process. She is prune herself, moral and honest on the subjects of the past year without question. All of you have worked with her. This is a time sensitive situation. We must act always lose this opportunity once again. Liz Cheney speaker of the house 2603:6011:A500:2188:174:AB3E:D85D:2339 (talk) 15:12, 12 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:James Carville


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SAIL (programming language)

SAIL, the Stanford Artificial Intelligence Language, was developed by Dan Swinehart and Bob Sproull of the Stanford AI Lab. It was originally a large ALGOL 60-like language for the PDP-10 and DECSYSTEM-20. The language combined the earlier PDP-6/-10 language GOGOL compiler, essentially an integer-only version of ALGOL, with the associative store from the LEAP language. The first release was in November 1969 and it saw continued development into the 1980s, including a commercial derivative, MAINSAIL.

SAIL's main feature is a symbolic data system based upon an associative store based on LEAP by Jerry Feldman and Paul Rovner. Items may be stored as unordered sets or as associations (triples). Other features include processes, procedure variables, events and interrupts, contexts, backtracking and record garbage collection. It also has block-structured macros, a coroutining facility and some new data types intended for building search trees and association lists.

History
The GOGOL compiler was originally written by Bill McKeeman on the PDP-1. It was essentially an integer-only version of ALGOL-60 with a number of additions to provide direct access to the memory and other hardware to allow it to be used as a systems programming language. It reduced arrays to a single dimension, removed any ability to perform dynamic memory allocations, but did add some additional string functionality. A greatly updated version by John Sauter, GOGOL II, was written as part of a port of the underlying operating system from ODIN to THOR. When the Stanford AI Lab received their PDP-6, Sauter, Pettit and (mostly) Dan Swinehart wrote GOGOL III for the new machine.

Swinehart, joined by Robert Sproull, merged the GOGOL syntax with additions from the contemporary versions of the LEAP language to produce the first version of SAIL in November 1969. The main feature of LEAP as a language was its use of associative storage, more commonly known today as a Map or Dictionary. In LEAP, one could set the value of a field in a type using a triple, with the first entry being the variable name, the second being the field name, and the third the value.

Further improvements were added by Russell Taylor, Jim Low and Hana Samet, who added processes, procedure variables, interrupts, context, matching procedures, a new macro system, and other features. Development then passed to Taylor, John Reiser and Robert Smith, who added a debugger, a system-level print statement, records, and performed the conversion from Standord's own SUAI to TENEX. It was later ported to DEC's TOPS-10 as well, while the original TENEX version worked without modification under TOPS-20.

Basic structure and statements
Like many ALGOL systems, and the later Pascal, the basic structure of SAIL is based on the block, which is denoted by the code between the keywords BEGIN and END. Within a block there is further structure, with the declarations of local variables at the top, if any, and the code, or statements, following. In contrast to most dialects, SAIL allowed one to place a string after the BEGIN, like BEGIN "program", and then end the block with END "program". The compiler would use these, if entered, to check for proper bracketing. SAIL did not include the equivalent of a PROGRAM block as in Pascal, nor a main as in C, execution started with the first line of code in the outermost block.

Standard statements included IF...THEN...ELSE, FOR...STEP...UNTIL...DO, WHILE...DO for top-tested loops, WHILE...UNTIL for bottom-tested, and GOTO which used a label. The CASE was similar to switch in C, but normally used a somewhat different syntax, like CASE i OF ("Zero","One","Two");, which returns the appropriate string based on the value of i. If one wanted to test explicit values in the CASE, the values had to be in square brackets:

This code will ignore values like 1 to 3, and only return a value for the listed values. Note that the last item cannot have a semicolon following.

DONE exited from a block, typically used in loops, and CONTINUE returned to the top of the block. An infinite loop was typically implemented with WHILE TRUE DO....

Procedure declarations
Procedures were implemented in a fashion similar to the C programming language, with the return type, if any, in front of the name, for instance, STRING PROCEDURE toUpper(STRING originalStr);BEGIN.... Note the uncommon use of the semicolon here, whereas Pascal would immediately follow with a block, typically a BEGIN.

In order to improve performance, SAIL added two procedure qualifiers, SIMPLE and RECURSIVE. RECURSIVE told the compiler that the procedure might call itself, and thus its local variables had to be written to the stack, not just the subroutine return information. SIMPLE did the opposite, demanding the procedure have no local variables at all, not allowing GOTO out of the function, and could not refer to enclosing procedure's variables. These directives could avoid the requirement of filling out a complete activation record, thereby improving performance. This also had the side-effect of meaning that variables declared within a procedure that was not marked RECURSIVE would not be reset between calls, acting similar to C's static.

SAIL also included the FORWARD qualifier, used to insert forward declarations, typically when two procedures call each other. RETURN worked as in C, exiting the procedure and returning to the caller, as well as optionally returning a value if the procedure uses one. Parameters passed to the procedures could be by VALUE or REFERENCE, the later allowing values to be passed back.

Basic data types and operators
The basic variable types in SAIL are integers, reals (floating point), booleans, and strings. Type conversions were automatic, so INTEGER i;i←SQRT(5); would convert the value 5 to a double as that is what SQRT requires, and then cast the result to an integer. Any of these types can be turned into an array by adding the ARRAY qualifier and placing the array bounds in brackets, for instance, REAL ARRAY weeks[1:52]);. SAIL supported 1-d and 2-d arrays.

The language used the left-arrow for assignment, ←, or the underscore on platforms that did not have Stanford ASCII. It included a number of standard functions like square root, all of the common math operators, and was otherwise similar to most ALGOL derivatives for normal programming.

Strings were manipulated using array slicing, with aStr[i TO j] returning the substring with characters from i to j, or aStr[i FOR j] which returned the substring starting at i and running for j characters. The INF(inity) keyword represented the end of the string, so one could aStr[i TO INF] to return everything from i on. String functions and operators included EQU for testing if two strings were equal, the ampersand for concatenation, LENGTH, and LOP which removes the first character from the string. There was no way to compare strings other than EQU, operators like < were defined only for numbers.

Records and pointers
The concept of records as a data type had only recently been introduced when SAIL was being written. This feature thus shows the signs of being "bolted on" to the language syntax. For instance a record structure was defined using the RECORD!CLASS statement: RECORD!CLASS person (STRING name, address; INTEGER accountnum; REAL balance). This statement worked in a fashion similar to the RECORD statement in Pascal, defining the template for the record. To create a record, one used the NEW!RECORD statement, which returned a RECORD!POINTER. Pointers were typed, and could be typed to more than one type, for instance, RECORD POINTER (person,university) rp; defines rp, a pointer to either a person or university record. Pointers could also be declared to point to ANY!CLASS. Accessing the data in a record was similarly idiosyncratic; to print the name file of a person, for instance, the syntax was PRINT(person:name[rp]);.

String scanner
In addition to basic string functionality, SAIL included a string scanner system as part of the basic language. SCAN worked on string variables, while the otherwise similar INPUT was used to scan strings being read from a file. Both used a system known as a "break table" which consisted of a set of characters that represented places to stop reading, examples include linefeeds, various whitespace, and punctuation. These tables were stored in special structures, and the system allowed only 54 of these, a number that is not explained in the documentation.

To build a new table, one first called GETBREAK which returned the next free slot in the table, or "table number". This would be followed by a SETBREAK, which took the table number, a string with the break characters, another string of "omit characters" which were simply ignored during reading (as if they were not in the string) and finally the "modes", flags that indicated how the system should work. Once set, the program could then repeatedly call SCAN or INPUT and be returned complete strings. This included a reference parameter, normally brkchar, that contained the character that caused the break, allowing one to test, for instance, for end-of-file characters. The system is conceptually similar to C's strtok functionality, which is part of stdlib as opposed to being part of the language itself as in SAIL.

Input/Output
SAIL's input/output system was based on the idea of numbered "channels" in a fashion somewhat similar to the scanner entries. To open a file, one first called GETCHAN to return a value of a free channel, and then OPENed it with various parameters to describe the file and modes of operation. RELEASE was equivalent to close. Once opened, the file could be read, subject to the scanning rules noted above, by calling INPUT and looking for the end-of-file. Files did not have names as part of the OPEN, instead, LOOKUP could be used to point a channel at a given file, ENTER made a new file associated with a channel, and RENAME allowed an existing file name to be changed. One can open an existing file for writing using GETCHAN... OPEN... LOOKUP... ENTER.

There were numerous special handlers and variables that were used during I/O. For instance, the INCHWL function was an INPUT hard-wired to the user terminal and always open, and it returns its break character in the system variable !SKIP!. The PRINT function normally output to the same terminal channel, but could also be directed at any other opened channel.

Compiler directives
As a systems programming language, performance was important and to help with this, SAIL included a DEFINE which used string-replacement in a fashion similar to C's #define macros. A difference was that the delimiters around the substitution had to be defined, for instance REQUIRE "[][]" DELIMITERS;DEFINE maxSize=[100];. One common use of these macros was to define character constants like CRLF, as these were not part of the basic language. Another was to redefine the COMMENT statement to the shorter !.

The system also included a conditional compilation system using statements, as opposed to pre-processor directives as found in C. IFCR would compile the blocks between the corresponding THENC and ELSEC or ENDC. The condition in the IFCR must be known at compile time, so, like C, was normally a DEFINEd value.

LEAP data
The main difference between SAIL and other ALGOL-derived languages was its inclusion of the associative store from the LEAP language. This system provided a system that allowed data to be placed in record-like structures and then saved, retrieved and searched. In this respect it was similar to the data handling features in COBOL. The basis for the store was the association or triple, which allowed a data value to be associated with a named slot in a record. For instance, one might make a record of the type Family_Member with Name "Tom" and set the Father field to "Harry". This results in a triple of the form (Father, Tom, Harry). The associated libraries could then find all the Family_Members with "Harry" as the Father, perhaps returning "Tom" and "Alice".

Example
The following code, found in the Tutorial, converts an input string to upper case.

Uses
A number of interesting software systems were coded in SAIL, including some early versions of FTP and TeX, a document formatting system called PUB, and BRIGHT, a clinical database project sponsored by the National Institutes of Health.

In 1978, there were half a dozen different operating systems for the PDP-10: ITS (MIT), WAITS (Stanford), TOPS-10 (DEC), CMU TOPS-10 (Carnegie Mellon), TENEX (BBN), Tymcom-X (Tymshare), and TOPS-20 (DEC, based on TENEX).

SAIL was ported from WAITS to ITS so that MIT researchers could make use of software developed at Stanford University. Every port usually required the rewriting of I/O code in each application.

A machine-independent version of SAIL called MAINSAIL was developed in the late 1970s and was used to develop many eCAD design tools during the 1980s. MAINSAIL was easily portable to new processors and operating systems, and was still in limited use.

title: SAIL (programming language)


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Adam Powell (game designer)

Adam James Powell (born 20 December 1976) is a Welsh computer programmer, game designer and businessman. He is the co-founder of Neopets and Meteor Games.

Career
Powell attended the University of Nottingham from 1995 to 1998 studying for a computer science degree. While at Nottingham, Powell (known as "Jander" at the time) and a user known as "Myurr" coded a DikuMUD-based MUD titled Dark Heart.

Before Neopets, Powell founded various companies. In 1997 he started Shout! Advertising, which went on to be acquired by ValueClick, Inc. in 2000. In 1999 he founded Netmagic and Powlex, which were online companies for online banner advertising and web page design, respectively.

Neopets
Powell first had the idea of Neopets in 1997, while studying at the University of Nottingham. He and Donna Powell (formerly Donna Williams) started programming the site in September 1999, and launched the site two months later on 15 November 1999. Powell programmed the entire site, and created most of the original activities and games.

In April 2000, Powell negotiated a significant investment in Neopets.com and transferred the company from the UK to Los Angeles, US. After the relocation, Powell remained on staff as creative director and technical lead. Under Powell's management, Neopets went from its initial launch to over 140 million accounts and 5 billion pageviews per month. On 20 June 2005, Viacom bought Neopets, Inc. for US$160 million.

Powell continued to work for Neopets.com until June 2007, aiding the transition following the purchase and continuing to develop high-end concepts for the site.

Powell has creative design and writing credits on a wide variety of Neopets products including SCEA's 2006 PlayStation Portable release Neopets: Petpet Adventures: The Wand of Wishing, Wizards of the Coast September 2003 release the Neopets Trading Card Game and Sony Computer Entertainment America Inc's 2005 release Neopets: The Darkest Faerie, for the PlayStation 2.

Meteor Games
In 2007, Adam and Donna Powell founded Meteor Games, an independent online gaming studio committed to developing immersive and innovative games spanning the web, social networks, and mobile devices. Meteor Games was headquartered in Los Angeles, and had 100 employees by 2010, including a former Neopets developer "TPOSG" ("The Phantom Orange Shirt Guy").

Meteor Games' first project was Twin Skies, a 3D MMO that blended casual gaming and social networking elements with traditional massively multiplayer online role-playing games. Meteor Games released their first web-based game Vikings, Pirates and Ninjas in March 2009. The game was free to play on the web and Facebook.

In the company's shift to the rapidly growing social gaming market it released several games and apps primarily for Facebook, including Island Paradise, Serf Wars, and Ranch Town. As of an interview with the CEO in February 2011, Meteor Games hadn't raised any venture capital but "was profitable".

Late in December 2011, Meteor Games laid off 90% of its staff, shut down the Viacom-backed game Treasure Keepers, and subsequently wound down all operations.

Moglings
Around June 2013, Adam stated that he, Donna, and TPOSG would be making a new game. In May 2014 Donna hosted an AMA on the Neopets subreddit, in which she revealed that the project's working title was Moglings. On September 22, 2014, Adam stated in a post to the Moglings subreddit that the project would be suspended for some time, perhaps to be taken up again in early 2016.

title: Adam Powell (game designer)