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Thutmose II

Thutmose II was the fourth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt, and his reign is generally dated from 1493 to 1479 BC (Low Chronology). Little is known about him and he is overshadowed by his father Thutmose I, half-sister and wife Hatshepsut, and son Thutmose III. He died around the age of 30 and his body was found in the Deir el-Bahri Cache above the Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut.

Family
Thutmose II (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis II, Thothmes in older history works in Latinized Greek; Ancient Egyptian: /ḏḥwty.ms/ Djehutymes, meaning "Thoth is born") was the son of Thutmose I and his minor wife, Mutnofret, who was a daughter of Ahmose I. He was, therefore, a lesser son of Thutmose I and chose to marry his fully royal half-sister, Hatshepsut, in order to secure his kingship. While he successfully put down rebellions in Nubia and the Levant and defeated a group of nomadic Bedouins, these campaigns were specifically carried out by the king's Generals, and not by Thutmose II himself. This is often interpreted as evidence that Thutmose II was still a minor at his accession. Thutmose II fathered Neferure with Hatshepsut, as well as a male heir, the famous Thutmose III, by a lesser wife named Iset before his death.

Some archaeologists believe that Hatshepsut was the real power behind the throne during Thutmose II's rule because of the similar domestic and foreign policies that were later pursued under her reign and because of her claim that she was her father's intended heir. She is depicted in several raised relief scenes from a Karnak gateway dating to Thutmose II's reign both together with her husband and alone. She later had herself crowned Pharaoh several years into the rule of her husband's young successor Thutmose III; this is confirmed by the fact that "the queen's agents actually replaced the king's name in a few places with her own cartouches" on the gateway.

Manetho's Epitome refers to Thutmose II as "Chebron" (a reference to his prenomen, Aakheperenre) and gives him a reign of 13 years, but this figure is highly disputed among scholars. Some Egyptologists prefer to shorten his reign by a full decade to only three years because his highest Year Date is only a Year 1 II Akhet day 8 stele.

Dates and length of reign
Manetho's Epitome has been a debated topic among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign, but a 13-year reign is preferred by older scholars while newer scholars prefer a shorter 3-4 year reign for this king due to the minimal amount of scarabs and monuments attested under Thutmose II. It is still possible to estimate when Thutmose II's reign would have begun by means of a heliacal rise of Sothis in Amenhotep I's reign, which would give him a reign from 1493 to 1479 BC, although uncertainty about how to interpret the rise also permits a date from 1513 to 1499 BC, and uncertainty about how long Thutmose I ruled could also potentially place his reign several years earlier still. Nonetheless, scholars generally assign him a reign from 1493 or 1492 to 1479.

Argument for a short reign
Ineni, who was already aged by the start of Thutmose II's reign, lived through this ruler's entire reign into that of Hatshepsut. In addition, Thutmose II is poorly attested in the monumental record and in the contemporary tomb autobiographies of New Kingdom officials. A clear count of monuments from his rule, which is the principal tool for estimating a king's reign when dated documents are not available, is nearly impossible because Hatshepsut usurped most of his monuments, and Thutmose III in turn reinscribed Thutmose II's name indiscriminately over other monuments. However, apart from several surviving blocks of buildings erected by the king at Semna, Kumma, and Elephantine, Thutmose II's only major monument consists of a limestone gateway at Karnak that once lay at the front of the Fourth Pylon's forecourt. Even this monument was not completed in Thutmose II's reign but in the reign of his son Thutmose III, which hints at "the nearly ephemeral nature of Thutmose II's reign". The gateway was later dismantled and its building blocks incorporated into the foundation of the Third Pylon by Amenhotep III.

In 1987, Luc Gabolde published an important study that statistically compared the number of surviving scarabs found under Thutmose I, Thutmose II and Hatshepsut. While monuments can be usurped, scarabs are so small and comparatively insignificant that altering their names would be impractical and without profit; hence, they provide a far better insight into this period. Hatshepsut's reign is believed to have lasted for 21 years and 9 months. Gabolde highlighted, in his analysis, the consistently small number of surviving scarabs known for Thutmose II compared to Thutmose I and Hatshepsut respectively; for instance, Flinders Petrie's older study of scarab seals noted 86 seals for Thutmose I, 19 seals for Thutmose II and 149 seals for Hatshepsut while more recent studies by Jaeger estimate a total of 241 seals for Thutmose I, 463 seals for Hatshepsut and only 65 seals for Thutmose II. Hence, unless there was an abnormally low number of scarabs produced under Thutmose II, this would indicate that the king's reign was rather short-lived. On this basis, Gabolde estimated Thutmose I and II's reigns to be approximately 11 and 3 full years, respectively. Consequently, the reign length of Thutmose II has been a much debated subject among Egyptologists with little consensus given the small number of surviving documents for his reign.

Argument for a long reign
Thutmose's reign is still traditionally given as 13 or 14 years. Although Ineni's autobiography can be interpreted to say that Thutmose reigned only a short time, it also calls Thutmose II a "hawk in the nest", indicating that he was perhaps a child when he assumed the throne. Since he lived long enough to father two children—Neferure and Thutmose III—this suggests that he may have had a longer reign of 13 years in order to reach adulthood and start a family. The German Egyptologist, J. Von Beckerath, uses this line of argument to support the case of a 13-year reign for Thutmose II. Alan Gardiner noted that at one point a monument had been identified by Georges Daressy in 1900, dated to Thutmose's 18th year, although its precise location has not been identified. This inscription is now usually attributed to Hatshepsut, who certainly did have an 18th year. Von Beckerath observes that a Year 18 date appears in a fragmentary inscription of an Egyptian official and notes that the date likely refers to Hatshepsut's prenomen Maatkare, which had been altered from Aakheperenre Thutmose II, with the reference to the deceased Thutmose II being removed. There is also the curious fact that Hatshepsut celebrated her Sed Jubilee in her Year 16, which von Beckerath believes occurred 30 years after the death of Thutmose I, her father, who was the main source of her claim to power. This would create a gap of 13 to 14 years where Thutmose II's reign would fit in between Hatshepsut and Thutmose I's rule. Von Beckerath additionally stresses that Egyptologists have no conclusive criteria to statistically evaluate the reign length of Thutmose II based on the number of preserved objects from his reign.

Catherine Roerig has proposed that tomb KV20, generally believed to have been commissioned by Hatshepsut, was the original tomb of Thutmose II in the Valley of the Kings. If correct, this would be a major project on the part of Thutmose II, which required a construction period of several years and implies a long reign for this king. Secondly, new archaeological work by French Egyptologists at Karnak has produced evidence of a pylon and an opulent festival court of Thutmose II in front of the 4th pylon according to Luc Gabolde. Meanwhile, French Egyptologists at Karnak have also uncovered blocks from a chapel and a barque sanctuary constructed by Thutmose II there. Finally, Zygmunt Wysocki has proposed that the funerary temple of Hatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari was originally begun as Thutmose II's own mortuary temple. Thutmose III here later replaced depictions of Hatshepsut with those by Thutmose II in those parts of the temple that are proposed to have been executed by the latter king before Hatshepsut took over the temple following Thutmose II's death. Thutmose II also contributed to the decoration of the temple of Khnum at Semna.

A reconsideration of this new archaeological evidence would remove several arguments usually advanced in support of a short reign: namely the absence of a tomb that can be assigned to Thutmose II, the absence of a funerary temple and the lack of any major works undertaken by this pharaoh. Thutmose II's Karnak building projects would also imply that his reign was closer to 13 years rather than just 3 years.

Archaeologists from Warsaw University’s Institute of Archaeology led by Andrzej Niwiński have discovered a treasure chest and a wooden box dated 3,500 years back in the Egyptian site of Deir el-Bahari in March 2020.

The stone chest consisted of several items and all of them covered with linen canvas. Three bundles of flax were found during the excavation. A goose skeleton was found inside one of them, sacrificed for religious purposes. The second one included goose eggs. It is believed that what the third bundle contained was an ibis egg which had a symbolic meaning for the ancient Egyptians. In addition, a little wooden trinket box was discovered inside the bundle, believed to contain the name Pharaoh Thutmose II.

According to the Andrzej Niwiński, "The chest itself is about 40 cm long, with a slight smaller height. It was perfectly camouflaged, looked like an ordinary stone block. Only after a closer look did it turn out to be a chest."

Military Campaigns
Upon Thutmose's coronation, Kush rebelled, as it had the habit of doing upon the transition of Egyptian kingship. The Nubian state had been completely subjugated by Thutmose I, but some rebels from Khenthennofer rose up, and the Egyptian forces retreated into a fortress built by Thutmose I. On account of his relative youth at the time, Thutmose II dispatched an army into Nubia rather than leading it himself, but he seems to have easily crushed this revolt with the aid of his father's military generals. An account of the campaign is given by the historian Josephus who refers to it as the Ethiopic War.

Thutmose also seems to have fought against the Shasu Bedouin in the Sinai, in a campaign mentioned by Ahmose Pen-Nekhbet. Although this campaign has been called a minor raid, there is a fragment recorded by Kurt Sethe that records a campaign in Upper Retenu, or Syria, which appears to have reached as far as a place called Niy where Thutmose I hunted elephants after returning from crossing the Euphrates. This quite possibly indicates that the raid against the Shasu was only fought en route to Syria.

Burial
His tomb is not known for certain. It is speculated that it may have originally been KV42. Another option is tomb C4 near the Valley of the kings. The much destroyed tomb dates to the early 18th Dynasty and shows many features typical for a royal burial, such as remains of an Amduat depicted on the walls. However, his remains were found in the Royal Cache of Mummies at Deir el-Bahari (Theban Necropolis).

Mummy
Thutmose II's mummy was discovered in the Deir el-Bahri cache, revealed in 1881. He was interred along with other 18th and 19th dynasty leaders including Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Thutmose I, Thutmose III, Ramesses I, Seti I, Ramesses II, and Ramesses IX. It included a label that indicated it had been re-wrapped in the Twenty-first Dynasty. It can be viewed today in the National Museum of Egyptian Civilization in Cairo.

The mummy was unwrapped by Gaston Maspero on July 1, 1886. There is a strong familial resemblance to the mummy of Thutmose I, his likely father, as the mummy's face and shape of the head are very similar. The body of Thutmose II suffered greatly at the hands of ancient tomb robbers, with his left arm broken off at the shoulder-joint, the forearm separated at the elbow joint, and his right arm chopped off below the elbow. His anterior abdominal wall and much of his chest had been hacked at, possibly by an axe. In addition, his right leg had been severed from his body. All of these injuries were sustained post-mortem, though the body also showed signs that Thutmose II did not have an easy life, as the following quote by Gaston Maspero attests:

"He had scarcely reached the age of thirty when he fell a victim to a disease of which the process of embalming could not remove the traces. The skin is scabrous in patches, and covered with scars, while the upper part of the skull is bald; the body is thin and somewhat shrunken, and appears to have lacked vigour and muscular power."

James Harris and Fawzia Hussien (1991) conducted an X-ray survey on New Kingdom royal mummies and examined the mummified remains of Thutmose II. The results of the study determined that the mummy of Thutmose II had a craniofacial trait measurement that is common among Nubian populations.

His mummy has the inventory number CG 61066. In April 2021 his mummy was moved from the Museum of Egyptian Antiquities to National Museum of Egyptian Civilization along with those of 17 other kings and 4 queens in an event termed the Pharaohs' Golden Parade. The identity of the mummy has been questioned. The re-wrapping label appears to identify him as Thutmose II but it may have been modified from Thutmose I.

title: Thutmose II


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User talk:FBuzzard

No mention is made of Wax Trax label in Chicago, IL and the company that bought them out as well as the big Industrial music labels in Antwerp, Belgium.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:FBuzzard


text:
Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica

The Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (abbr. CWI; English: "National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science") is a research centre in the field of mathematics and theoretical computer science. It is part of the institutes organization of the Dutch Research Council (NWO) and is located at the Amsterdam Science Park. This institute is famous as the creation site of the programming language Python. It was a founding member of the European Research Consortium for Informatics and Mathematics (ERCIM).

Early history
The institute was founded in 1946 by Johannes van der Corput, David van Dantzig, Jurjen Koksma, Hendrik Anthony Kramers, Marcel Minnaert and Jan Arnoldus Schouten. It was originally called Mathematical Centre (in Dutch: Mathematisch Centrum). One early mission was to develop mathematical prediction models to assist large Dutch engineering projects, such as the Delta Works. During this early period, the Mathematics Institute also helped with designing the wings of the Fokker F27 Friendship airplane, voted in 2006 as the most beautiful Dutch design of the 20th century.

The computer science component developed soon after. Adriaan van Wijngaarden, considered the founder of computer science (or informatica) in the Netherlands, was the director of the institute for almost 20 years. Edsger Dijkstra did most of his early influential work on algorithms and formal methods at CWI. The first Dutch computers, the Electrologica X1 and Electrologica X8, were both designed at the centre, and Electrologica was created as a spinoff to manufacture the machines.

In 1983, the name of the institute was changed to Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica (CWI) to reflect a governmental push for emphasizing computer science research in the Netherlands.

Recent research
The institute is known for its work in fields such as operations research, software engineering, information processing, and mathematical applications in life sciences and logistics. More recent examples of research results from CWI include the development of scheduling algorithms for the Dutch railway system (the Nederlandse Spoorwegen, one of the busiest rail networks in the world) and the development of the Python programming language by Guido van Rossum. Python has played an important role in the development of the Google search platform from the beginning, and it continues to do so as the system grows and evolves. Many information retrieval techniques used by packages such as SPSS were initially developed by Data Distilleries, a CWI spinoff.

Work at the institute was recognized by national or international research awards, such as the Lanchester Prize (awarded yearly by INFORMS), the Gödel Prize (awarded by ACM SIGACT) and the Spinoza Prize. Most of its senior researchers hold part-time professorships at other Dutch universities, with the institute producing over 170 full professors during the course of its history. Several CWI researchers have been recognized as members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, the Academia Europaea, or as knights in the Order of the Netherlands Lion.

In February 2017, CWI in association with Google announced a successful collision attack on SHA 1 encryption algorithm.

European Internet
CWI was an early user of the Internet in Europe, in the form of a TCP/IP connection to NSFNET. Piet Beertema at CWI established one of the first two connections outside the United States to the NSFNET (shortly after France's INRIA) for EUnet on 17 November 1988. The first Dutch country code top-level domain issued was cwi.nl. When this domain cwi.nl was registered, on 1 May 1986, .nl effectively became the first active ccTLD outside the United States. For the first ten years CWI, or rather Beertema, managed the .nl administration, until in 1996 this task was transferred to its spin-off SIDN.

The Amsterdam Internet Exchange (one of the largest Internet Exchanges in the world, in terms of both members and throughput traffic) is located at the neighbouring SARA (an early CWI spin-off) and Nikhef institutes. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) office for the Benelux countries is located at CWI.

Spin-off companies
CWI has demonstrated a continuing effort to put the work of its researchers at the disposal of society, mainly by collaborating with commercial companies and creating spin-off businesses. In 2000 CWI established "CWI Incubator BV", a dedicated company with the aim to generate high tech spin-off companies. Some of the CWI spinoffs include:
 * 1956: Electrologica, a pioneering Dutch computer manufacturer.
 * 1971: SARA (now called SURF), founded as a center for data processing activities for Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Universiteit van Amsterdam, and the CWI.
 * 1990: DigiCash, an electronic money corporation founded by David Chaum.
 * 1994: NLnet, an Internet Service Provider.
 * 1994: General Design / Satama Amsterdam, a design company, acquired by LBi (then Lost Boys international).
 * 1995: Data Distilleries, developer of analytical database software aimed at information retrieval, eventually becoming part of SPSS and acquired by IBM.
 * 1996: Stichting Internet Domeinregistratie Nederland (SIDN), the .nl top-level domain registrar.
 * 2000: Software Improvement Group (SIG), a software improvement and legacy code analysis company.
 * 2008: MonetDB, a high-tech database technology company, developer of the MonetDB column-store.
 * 2008: Vectorwise, an analytical database technology company, founded in cooperation with the Ingres Corporation (now Actian) and eventually acquired by it.
 * 2010: Spinque, a company providing search technology for information retrieval specialists.
 * 2013: MonetDB Solutions, a database services company.
 * 2016: Seita, a technology company providing demand response services for the energy sector.
 * 2021: DuckDB Labs, a data processing company offering support and consulting services for DuckDB (a column-oriented RDBMS, designed for high performance on complex queries against large databases in embedded configurations).

Software and languages

 * ABC programming language
 * Algol 60
 * Algol 68
 * Alma-0, a multi-paradigm computer programming language
 * ASF+SDF Meta Environment, programming language specification and prototyping system, IDE generator
 * Cascading Style Sheets
 * DuckDB
 * MonetDB
 * NetHack
 * Python programming language
 * RascalMPL, general purpose meta programming language
 * RDFa
 * SMIL
 * van Wijngaarden grammar
 * XForms
 * XHTML
 * XML Events

Notable people

 * Richard Askey
 * Adrian Baddeley
 * Theo Bemelmans
 * Piet Beertema
 * Jan Bergstra
 * Gerrit Blaauw
 * Peter Boncz
 * Hugo Brandt Corstius
 * Stefan Brands
 * Andries Brouwer
 * Harry Buhrman
 * Dick Bulterman
 * David Chaum
 * Ronald Cramer
 * Theodorus Dekker
 * Edsger Dijkstra
 * Constance van Eeden
 * Peter van Emde Boas
 * Richard D. Gill
 * Piet Groeneboom
 * Jan Friso Groote
 * Dick Grune
 * Michiel Hazewinkel
 * Jan Hemelrijk
 * Martin L. Kersten
 * Willem Klein
 * Jurjen Ferdinand Koksma
 * Tom Koornwinder
 * Kees Koster
 * Monique Laurent
 * Gerrit Lekkerkerker
 * Arjen Lenstra
 * Jan Karel Lenstra
 * Gijsbert de Leve
 * Barry Mailloux
 * Massimo Marchiori
 * Lambert Meertens
 * Rob Mokken
 * Albert Nijenhuis
 * Steven Pemberton
 * Herman te Riele
 * Guido van Rossum
 * Alexander Schrijver
 * Jan H. van Schuppen
 * Marc Stevens
 * John Tromp
 * John V. Tucker
 * Paul Vitányi
 * Hans van Vliet
 * Marc Voorhoeve
 * Adriaan van Wijngaarden
 * Ronald de Wolf
 * Peter Wynn

title: Centrum Wiskunde & Informatica


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Eureka Tower

Eureka Tower is a 297.3 m skyscraper located in the Southbank precinct of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia. Construction began in August 2002 and the exterior was completed on 1 June 2006. The plaza was finished in June 2006 and the building was officially opened on 11 October 2006. The project was designed by Melbourne architectural firm Fender Katsalidis Architects and was built by Grocon (Grollo Australia). The developer of the tower was Eureka Tower Pty Ltd, a joint venture consisting of Daniel Grollo (Grocon), investor Tab Fried and one of the Tower's architects Nonda Katsalidis.

Construction began August 2002. The tower was officially opened on 11 October 2006. The building's design is themed around the Eureka Stockade. It contains 556 apartments serviced by 13 lifts. Level 88 features an observation deck and level 89, a restaurant, cocktail bar and event space. The building is home to the annual Eureka Climb and a 2013 experiment involving airplants.

It was the world's tallest residential tower when measured to its highest floor, until surpassed by Ocean Heights and the HHHR Tower in Dubai. From 2006 to 2020, it was the tallest building in Melbourne, until the topping out of Australia 108. It is currently the third tallest building in Australia, behind the Q1 in Queensland and Australia 108, as well as the second tallest to roof (excluding spire) behind the latter skyscraper. As of 2016 it was the 15th tallest residential building in the world.

Design and features
Eureka Tower is named after the Eureka Stockade, a rebellion during the Victorian gold rush in 1854. This has been incorporated into the design, with the building's gold crown representing the gold rush and a red stripe representing the blood spilt during the revolt. The blue glass cladding that covers most of the building represents the blue background of the stockade's flag and the white lines also represent the Eureka Stockade flag. The white horizontal stripes also represent markings on a surveyor's measuring staff.

At the base of the tower is an art installation containing bees inside a white box, resembling a manmade beehive. There are two regular sized bees outside the box, and one queen bee on the top. The gold colour of the bees complements the gold at the top of the tower. The installation was created by Richard Stringer and Nonda Katsalidis, and was complete in December 2007.

When measured either by the height of its roof, or by the height of its highest habitable floor, Eureka Tower was the tallest residential building in the world when completed. It was also the building with the most floors available for residential occupancy in the world. The building stands 297 m in height, with 91 storeys above ground plus one basement level. At the time of its completion, it was one of the only buildings in the world with 90 or more storeys. It is also the third-tallest building in Australia and the second tallest building in Melbourne, behind Australia 108 which topped out in November 2019. The single level basement and first 9 floors contain car parking. The building's proximity to the water table as well as the Yarra River made the construction of a basement car park uneconomical. In all, there are 84 floors of apartments (including some floors shared between car parking and apartments), with the remainder being used for building facilities and the observation deck.

According to the ranking system developed by the U.S.-based Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat, the Eureka Tower qualified as the tallest building in three of the four categories in which heights are ranked, namely height to the floor of the highest occupied floor of the building. For comparison, the Q1 apartment tower on the Gold Coast has its highest habitable floor (the observation deck), reaching a height of 235 m, some 62 m lower than Eureka Tower's highest habitable floor. Q1's highest penthouse apartment is 217 m whilst Eureka's penthouse is 278 m high. However, the spire attached to the top of Q1 exceeds the Eureka Tower in the other two categories, namely "Height to the tip of spire, pinnacle, antenna, mast or flag pole" – in this case, spire – and height to architectural top of the building.

Specifications

 * 556 apartments
 * 13 lifts travelling up to 9 m/s
 * 52000 m2 of windows
 * 3,680 stairs
 * 110000 t of concrete
 * 5000 t of reinforced steel
 * Building weighs 200000 t

Floors 82 to 87, marketed as Summit Levels, contain only one apartment per floor, each with an original price of A$7 million for the unfurnished floor space alone.

The highest floors of the tower house an observation deck (level 88), restaurant (level 89), communication rooms and balcony (90) and water tanks (90 and 91). A system of pumps constantly moves water between the two 300,000-litre tanks to counteract wind-induced oscillations.

Observation deck (Melbourne Skydeck)
The observation deck (Melbourne Skydeck) occupies the entire 88th floor of the Eureka Tower and is the highest public vantage point in a building in the Southern Hemisphere at 285 m. It opened to the public on 15 May 2007. An entry fee applies to access the Skydeck.

The Skydeck features twenty viewfinders that help visitors to pinpoint numerous significant landmarks around all parts of Melbourne, along with several free binoculars. There is a small outside area called The Terrace which is closed in high winds. There is also a glass cube called The Edge, which extends itself 3 metres from the building to hang over the edge of the tower and add to the viewing experience.

On 10 January 2005, Grocon, the firm building Eureka Tower, proposed adding a 53.8 m communications mast/observation tower. The proposal is currently before the local planning commission. This mast would be a significant structure, used for providing an adventure climb to the tip of the summit.

On 16 April 2006, a new proposal was announced that the construction company and developers were considering options for the building to have a "skywalk" that would take daring people up 350 m high. The proposed structure may also include a communications tower.

The Edge
Skydeck 88 features The Edge – a glass cube which projects 3 m out from the building with visitors inside, suspended almost 300 m above the ground. When one enters, the glass is opaque as the cube moves out over the edge of the building. Once fully extended over the edge, the glass becomes clear.

Eureka 89 Dining & Events
Located on the top floor (level 89) of the Eureka Tower, Eureka 89 Dining & Events is a restaurant, cocktail bar and event space offering a modern Australian menu by award winning chef Renee Martillano. Eureka 89's location on the tower's top floor makes it the Southern Hemisphere's highest restaurant & bar at a staggering 292.3 m (959 ft) high.

Construction
Construction began August 2002 and took 4 years and 2 months.

The tower was built using reinforced concrete using a slipform method. Eureka Tower's lift core superseded the height of Rialto Towers on 9 November 2004.

On 23 May 2006, the crane on top of the tower was dismantled by a smaller crane, which was dismantled by a smaller crane that could be taken down the service elevator.

Eureka Tower has 24 carat (99.9%) gold plated glass windows on the top 10 floors of the building. Installation of the gold glass was completed in March 2006. Apartment owners and tenants had taken up residence in the building between Ground Level and Level 80 as of July 2006.

On 11 October 2006, the tower was officially opened by then Premier of Victoria, Steve Bracks.

Construction methods
A 2-floor Grocon-Lubeca jumpform system was used to halve work time, concrete and joints required in the core, as well as increasing structural integrity.

Grocon purchased the Singapore company Lubeca in 2000, and then did more R&D to design the 2-floor jumpform system.

Eureka Climb
Since 2012, the Eureka Climb event has been held annually. Participants climb 1642 steps to the observation deck. The current record is 7 minutes to climb up 88 floors.

Air plant experiment
From June 2013, a team of researchers placed Tillandsia airplants on four locations on the tower. Two different species were placed at four levels: 56, 65, 91, and on top at level 92. These plants grow with no soil or watering / nutrient system and on Eureka Tower were exposed to the elements where they proved to grow through winter, saw winds over 200 km/h and a hot dry summer. Not all plants survived. Those on eastern aspects died because of lack of rain. However, plants in the most exposed sites, facing west and on the open roof sites have survived and flourished. The plants have been regularly checked over a number of years (last check Dec 2021) and have grown into resilient colonies. As far as can be ascertained this is the highest building with plants on and the experiment paved the way for utilising Tillandsia on high-rise buildings.

title: Eureka Tower


text:
New York Heart Association Functional Classification

The New York Heart Association (NYHA) Functional Classification provides a simple way of classifying the extent of heart failure. It places patients in one of four categories based on how much they are limited during physical activity; the limitations/symptoms are in regard to normal breathing and varying degrees in shortness of breath and/or angina.

It originated in 1928, when no measurements of cardiac function were possible, to provide a common language for physicians to communicate. Despite difficulties in applying it, such as the challenge of consistently classifying patients in class II or III, because functional capacity is such a powerful determinant of outcome, it remains arguably the most important prognostic marker in routine clinical use in heart failure today. With time the classification system evolved and updated multiple times. Presently, the ninth edition of the NYHA classification is being used in the clinical practice released in the year 1994 by the Criteria Committee of the American Heart Association, New York City Affiliate.

Another frequently used functional classification of cardiovascular disease is the Canadian Cardiovascular Society grading of angina pectoris.


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Marginal distribution

In probability theory and statistics, the marginal distribution of a subset of a collection of random variables is the probability distribution of the variables contained in the subset. It gives the probabilities of various values of the variables in the subset without reference to the values of the other variables. This contrasts with a conditional distribution, which gives the probabilities contingent upon the values of the other variables.

Marginal variables are those variables in the subset of variables being retained. These concepts are "marginal" because they can be found by summing values in a table along rows or columns, and writing the sum in the margins of the table. The distribution of the marginal variables (the marginal distribution) is obtained by marginalizing (that is, focusing on the sums in the margin) over the distribution of the variables being discarded, and the discarded variables are said to have been marginalized out.

The context here is that the theoretical studies being undertaken, or the data analysis being done, involves a wider set of random variables but that attention is being limited to a reduced number of those variables. In many applications, an analysis may start with a given collection of random variables, then first extend the set by defining new ones (such as the sum of the original random variables) and finally reduce the number by placing interest in the marginal distribution of a subset (such as the sum). Several different analyses may be done, each treating a different subset of variables as the marginal distribution.

Marginal probability mass function
Given a known joint distribution of two discrete random variables, say, $X$ and $Y$, the marginal distribution of either variable – $X$ for example – is the probability distribution of $X$ when the values of $Y$ are not taken into consideration. This can be calculated by summing the joint probability distribution over all values of $Y$. Naturally, the converse is also true: the marginal distribution can be obtained for $Y$ by summing over the separate values of $X$.

 * $$p_X(x_i)=\sum_{j}p(x_i,y_j)$$, and $$ p_Y(y_j)=\sum_{i}p(x_i,y_j)$$

A marginal probability can always be written as an expected value: $$p_X(x) = \int_y p_{X \mid Y}(x \mid y) \, p_Y(y) \, \mathrm{d}y = \operatorname{E}_{Y} [p_{X \mid Y}(x \mid y)]\;.$$

Intuitively, the marginal probability of X is computed by examining the conditional probability of X given a particular value of Y, and then averaging this conditional probability over the distribution of all values of Y.

This follows from the definition of expected value (after applying the law of the unconscious statistician) $$\operatorname{E}_Y [f(Y)] = \int_y f(y) p_Y(y) \, \mathrm{d}y.$$

Therefore, marginalization provides the rule for the transformation of the probability distribution of a random variable Y and another random variable $I(X; Y)$: $$p_X(x) = \int_y p_{X \mid Y}(x \mid y) \, p_Y(y) \, \mathrm{d}y = \int_y \delta\big(x - g(y)\big) \, p_Y(y) \, \mathrm{d}y.$$

Marginal probability density function
Given two continuous random variables X and Y whose joint distribution is known, then the marginal probability density function can be obtained by integrating the joint probability distribution, $4⁄32$, over Y, and vice versa. That is

 * $$f_X(x) = \int_{c}^{d} f(x,y) \, dy $$
 * $$f_Y(y) = \int_{a}^{b} f(x,y) \, dx $$

where $$x\in[a,b]$$, and $$y\in[c,d]$$.

Marginal cumulative distribution function
Finding the marginal cumulative distribution function from the joint cumulative distribution function is easy. Recall that:

 * For discrete random variables, $$F(x,y) = P(X\leq x, Y\leq y)$$
 * For continuous random variables, $$F(x,y) = \int_{a}^{x} \int_{c}^{y} f(x',y') \, dy' dx'$$

If X and Y jointly take values on [a, b] × [c, d] then

 * $$F_X(x)=F(x,d)$$ and $$F_Y(y)=F(b,y)$$

If d is ∞, then this becomes a limit $F_X(x) = \lim_{y \to \infty} F(x,y)$. Likewise for $$F_Y(y)$$.

Definition
The marginal probability is the probability of a single event occurring, independent of other events. A conditional probability, on the other hand, is the probability that an event occurs given that another specific event has already occurred. This means that the calculation for one variable is dependent on another variable.

The conditional distribution of a variable given another variable is the joint distribution of both variables divided by the marginal distribution of the other variable. That is,

 * For discrete random variables,$$p_{Y|X}(y|x) = P(Y=y \mid X=x) = \frac{P(X=x,Y=y)}{P_X(x)}$$
 * For continuous random variables,$$f_{Y|X}(y|x)=\frac{f_{X,Y}(x,y)}{f_X(x)}$$

Example
Suppose there is data from a classroom of 200 students on the amount of time studied (X) and the percentage of correct answers (Y). Assuming that X and Y are discrete random variables, the joint distribution of X and Y can be described by listing all the possible values of p(xi,yj), as shown in Table.3. The marginal distribution can be used to determine how many students scored 20 or below: $$p_Y(y_1) = P_Y(Y=y_1) = \sum_{i=1}^4 P(x_i,y_1) = \frac{2}{200} + \frac{8}{200} = \frac{10}{200}$$, meaning 10 students or 5%.

The conditional distribution can be used to determine the probability that a student that studied 60 minutes or more obtains a scored of 20 or below: $$p_{Y|X}(y_1|x_4) = P(Y=y_1|X=x_4) = \frac{P(X=x_4,Y=y_1)}{P(X=x_4)} = \frac{8/200}{70/200} = \frac{8}{70} = \frac{4}{35}$$, meaning there is about a 11% probability of scoring 20 after having studied for at least 60 minutes.

Real-world example
Suppose that the probability that a pedestrian will be hit by a car, while crossing the road at a pedestrian crossing, without paying attention to the traffic light, is to be computed. Let H be a discrete random variable taking one value from {Hit, Not Hit}. Let L (for traffic light) be a discrete random variable taking one value from {Red, Yellow, Green}.

Realistically, H will be dependent on L. That is, P(H = Hit) will take different values depending on whether L is red, yellow or green (and likewise for P(H = Not Hit)). A person is, for example, far more likely to be hit by a car when trying to cross while the lights for perpendicular traffic are green than if they are red. In other words, for any given possible pair of values for H and L, one must consider the joint probability distribution of H and L to find the probability of that pair of events occurring together if the pedestrian ignores the state of the light.

However, in trying to calculate the marginal probability P(H = Hit), what is being sought is the probability that H = Hit in the situation in which the particular value of L is unknown and in which the pedestrian ignores the state of the light. In general, a pedestrian can be hit if the lights are red OR if the lights are yellow OR if the lights are green. So, the answer for the marginal probability can be found by summing P(H | L) for all possible values of L, with each value of L weighted by its probability of occurring.

Here is a table showing the conditional probabilities of being hit, depending on the state of the lights. (Note that the columns in this table must add up to 1 because the probability of being hit or not hit is 1 regardless of the state of the light.)

To find the joint probability distribution, more data is required. For example, suppose P(L = red) = 0.2, P(L = yellow) = 0.1, and P(L = green) = 0.7. Multiplying each column in the conditional distribution by the probability of that column occurring results in the joint probability distribution of H and L, given in the central 2×3 block of entries. (Note that the cells in this 2×3 block add up to 1).

The marginal probability P(H = Hit) is the sum 0.572 along the H = Hit row of this joint distribution table, as this is the probability of being hit when the lights are red OR yellow OR green. Similarly, the marginal probability that P(H = Not Hit) is the sum along the H = Not Hit row.

Multivariate distributions

For multivariate distributions, formulae similar to those above apply with the symbols X and/or Y being interpreted as vectors. In particular, each summation or integration would be over all variables except those contained in X.

That means, If X1,X2,…,Xn are discrete random variables, then the marginal probability mass function should be $$p_{X_i}(k)=\sum p(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_{i-1},k,x_{i+1},\dots,x_n);$$ if X1,X2,…,Xn are continuous random variables, then the marginal probability density function should be $$f_{X_i}(x_i)=\int_{-\infty}^{\infty}\int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} \cdots \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(x_1,x_2,\dots,x_n) dx_1 dx_2 \cdots dx_{i-1} dx_{i+1} \cdots dx_n .$$

title: Marginal distribution


text:
Jean Paul Gaultier

Jean Paul Gaultier (born 24 June 1952) is a French haute couture and prêt-à-porter fashion designer.

He is described as an "enfant terrible" of the fashion industry and is known for his unconventional designs with motifs including corsets, marinières, and tin cans. Gaultier founded his eponymous fashion label in 1982, and expanded with a line of fragrances in 1993. He was the creative director for French luxury house Hermès from 2003 to 2010, and retired following his 50th-anniversary haute couture show during Paris Fashion Week in January 2020.

As a costume designer, Gaultier created Madonna's cone bra for the 1990 Blond Ambition World, and the costumes for the movies The City of Lost Children (1995), The Fifth Element (1997) and Bad Education (2004).

Early life
Gaultier grew up in a suburb of Paris. His mother was a clerk and his father an accountant. It was his maternal grandmother, Marie Garrabe, who introduced him to the world of fashion.

He never received formal training as a designer. Instead, he began to send sketches to famous couture stylists at an early age. Pierre Cardin was impressed by his talent and hired him as an assistant in 1970. Then he worked with Jacques Esterel in 1971 and Jean Patou later that year again worked for Cardin managing the Pierre Cardin boutique in Manila for a year until 1974. Despite Gaultier's youth, Cardin sent him to Manila to manage the local office. Imelda Marcos was one of his clients. He found himself on a "no leave" list and had to pretend to have a family emergency in order to leave. He never returned.

Fashion career
Gaultier's first individual collection was released in 1976. Although most people found his designs decadent at the time, fashion editors, notably Melka Tréanton of Elle, Claude Brouet and Catherine Lardeur of French Marie Claire, were impressed by his creativity and mastery of tailoring, and later launched his career. In 1980, he designed women's dresses out of plastic trash bags. Gaultier founded his eponymous fashion label in 1982. His 1983 collection "Boy Toy" relaunched the marinière for men. His garments were on sale at Bergdorf Goodman in New York as soon as 1984, and already lauded by Dawn Mello and Polly Allen Mellen. The term "Gaultiered" was coined to describe the classic pieces that were reinterpreted by the designer. During the 1984 Fall London and Paris shows, Jean Paul Gaultier introduced his line of skirts for men (actually kilts), a breakthrough in men's fashion that stirred a bit of controversy. In 1984 he also introduced the iconic women's corset with cone bra. Gaultier has also worked in close collaboration with Wolford Hosiery.

By 1985, his company made $50 million in sales worldwide. For the premiere of the 1985 movie Desperately Seeking Susan, Madonna wore a skirt with men's suspenders she had bought from Gaultier. Besides his ready-to-wear collection, in 1988 Gaultier expanded his brand to include the label Junior Gaultier, a lower-priced line of products. The Junior Gaultier outfit was selected by Jeff Banks as the Dress of the Year. In 1988, he also recorded the music video How to do that. At the end of the 1980s he invented a new look for the French accordionist Yvette Horner which relaunched her career. In 1989, he was tailoring a costume for Prince when the singer walked away, offended, thinking Gaultier had told him "fuck you" where the couturier with a heavy French accent had said "faux cul" (false bottom). In 1990, he designed Madonna's clothes for her Blond Ambition World Tour.

At the end of the 1980s, Gaultier suffered some personal losses, and in 1990 his boyfriend and business partner, Francis Menuge, died of AIDS-related causes. It is also around that time that he decided to tone down his showmanship and started to plan more intimate events.

Gaultier launched a line of fragrances (Classique) in 1993. The Junior Gaultier label was replaced in 1994 with JPG by Gaultier, a unisex collection that followed the designer's idea of fluidity of the sexes. Gaultier Jean's, a similar line consisting mainly of denim and more simply styled garments with a heavy street influence, followed in 1992, which was then replaced with Jean's Paul Gaultier from 2004 to 2008. Junior Gaultier's name was reused in 2009 for the launching of the child's wear, to be completed with a Baby Line in 2011.

In 1998, Jean Paul Gaultier's company generated €12.9 million ($13.2 million) in sales. In 1999, Hermès acquired 35% of Gaultier's label for 150 million francs ($23 million). Jean Paul Gaultier owned 93% of his company prior to this deal. In 2002, Gaultier's label opened its first fully-fledged stand-alone store. Then, from 2003 to 2010, Gaultier was the creative director of Hermès where he succeeded Martin Margiela. Hermès later increased its stake in Jean Paul Gaultier to 45%. By 2008, 40 Jean Paul Gaultier stores opened worldwide.

He sponsored the 2003–04 exhibit in the Costume Institute of New York's Metropolitan Museum of Art entitled "Braveheart: Men in Skirts", which showed designs by Dries van Noten, Vivienne Westwood, and Rudi Gernreich in addition to Gaultier's in order to examine "designers and individuals who have appropriated the skirt as a means of injecting novelty into male fashion, as a means of transgressing moral and social codes, and as a means of redefining an ideal masculinity." He also designed some furniture for the French furniture brand Roche Bobois and an Evian bottle in 2008. Gaultier's spring 2009 couture was influenced by the visual style of singer Klaus Nomi, and he used Nomi's recording of "Cold Song" in his runway show.

In 2011, the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts in collaboration with the Maison Jean Paul Gaultier organized a retrospective exhibit, "The Fashion World of Jean Paul Gaultier: From the Sidewalk to the Catwalk." That exhibit is on tour with venues at the Swedish Centre for Architecture and Design (Arkitektur- och designcentrum, ArkDes) in Stockholm, the Brooklyn Museum in New York City, the Barbican Centre in London, the National Gallery of Victoria in Melbourne, and the Grand Palais in Paris. The exhibition in Paris, which took place from April to August 2015, was the subject of a documentary called Jean Paul Gaultier at the Grand Palais aired exclusively on Eurochannel. In 2012, he participated in the Cali ExpoShow in Cali (Colombia), showing his extensive collection of perfumes and all classic clothes.

Up until 2014, he designed for three collections: his own couture and ready-to-wear lines, for both men and women. At the spring/summer 2015 show he announced that he was closing the ready-to-wear labels to focus on haute couture. In 2016, he designed more than 500 costumes for the revue THE ONE Grand Show at Friedrichstadt-Palast Berlin.

In 2018, he staged a cabaret show that was loosely based on his life called "Fashion Freak Show" which took place at the Folies Bergere theater in Paris. In 2019, Gaultier collaborated with the New York streetwear brand Supreme.

He announced on 17 January 2020 that his next Paris haute couture fashion show would be his last and that he was retiring from the runway.

Music and TV career
In 1988, Gaultier released a dance single titled "How To Do That" on Fontana Records, from which came one of the first ever "single title" remix albums, Aow Tou Dou Zat, on Mercury Records. The album includes mixes by Norman Cook, J. J. Jeczalik, George Shilling, Mark Saunders, Latin Rascals, David Dorrell, Tim Atkins, Carl Atkins, and Kurtis Mantronik. It was co-written and produced by Tony Mansfield, and video directed by Jean-Baptiste Mondino. The album also featured a collaboration with accordion player Yvette Horner.

Gaultier is known as Eurovision enthusiast, and since 1991, he's dressed several of France's entrants. For the Eurovision Song Contest 2006, he dressed Greek entrant Anna Vissi, where she performed on homesoil. He commentated on the final of the 2008 contest with Julien Lepers on France Télévisions. He designed the dress that Anggun wore as she represented France during the grand-finals of the 2012 edition held in Baku, Azerbaijan. In Eurovision Song Contest 2013 he dressed the host Petra Mede.

Starting in 1993, he co-hosted the Channel 4 programme Eurotrash with Antoine de Caunes. Gaultier hosted the show until 1997.

In 2022, he appeared with Iris Mittenaere as a guest judge on Drag Race France.

Products
Jean Paul Gaultier fragrances have been licensed by Puig since 1 January 2016, and were previously licensed by Shiseido subsidiary Beauté Prestige International from 1991 through 31 December 2015. The BPI license was originally negotiated through 30 June 2016; however, Puig acquired the license for $79.2 million and paid $22.6 million for the early termination of the license. With this purchase, Puig now holds control of both the fashion and fragrance divisions of the Jean Paul Gaultier brand. The 1993 women's oriental floral Classique and the 1995 men's oriental fougere Le Male have been described by the brand as "flagship" products that "represent all the Jean Paul Gaultier values". Le Male was the top-selling men's fragrance in the European Union in 2012, and holds a strong market position in Australia and the United States.

, the Classique, Le Male, and Scandal lines are in production.

Style
Jean Paul Gaultier's characteristic irreverent style dating from 1981 has led to his being known as the enfant terrible of French fashion.

Many of Gaultier's subsequent collections have been based on street wear, focusing on popular culture, whereas others, particularly his haute couture collections, are very formal, yet at the same time unusual and playful. Jean Paul Gaultier says he is inspired by the baby boomers' TV culture, and the street culture where audacity sometimes triggers new trends. His main inspirations are French popular culture, the mixing of types and genders, sexual fetishism and futurist designs.

The advent of his haute couture line brought him massive success in 1997. Through this collection, he was able to freely express the scope and range of his aesthetic, drawing inspiration from radically divergent cultures, from Imperial India to Hasidic Judaism.

Gaultier caused shock by using unconventional models for his exhibitions, like older men and fat women, pierced and heavily tattooed models, and by playing with traditional gender roles in the shows. This earned him both criticism and enormous popularity. The "granny grey" hair colour trend is attributed to Gaultier, whose autumn/winter 2011 show featured models in grey beehives. In the spring of 2015, his catwalk show at Paris Fashion Week featured silver-haired models again, as did the shows of other fashion designers, Chanel and Gareth Pugh. The trend soon took off among celebrities and the general public.

Notable designs

 * Madonna: Gaultier produced sculptured costumes during the nineties, starting with her infamous cone bra for her 1990 Blond Ambition World Tour, and the wardrobe for her 2006 Confessions Tour.
 * Björk: The Icelandic artist modeled for him in 1994, and appeared on this occasion in Robert Altman's film Prêt à Porter.
 * Marilyn Manson: Gaultier has designed some of the costumes and outfits, including for The Golden Age of Grotesque album.
 * Mylène Farmer: In spring 2008 he signed a contract to be the fashion designer for her tour in 2009.
 * Kerry Washington: Dress worn at the 2007 Cannes Film Festival.
 * Marion Cotillard: He designed the white and silver mermaid dress she wore at the 80th Academy Awards in 2008 (Oscar for her performance in La Vie en Rose).
 * Lady Gaga: VMAs red carpet in 2009.
 * Rihanna : Grammys red carpet in 2011, couture dress worn at the American Music Awards in 2013.
 * Beyoncé: In the "Run The World (Girls)" music video in 2011.
 * Nicki Minaj.
 * Kylie Minogue: He designed the costumes for the international KylieX2008 tour.
 * Leslie Cheung: Gaultier designed eight costumes for his last concert tour in 2000.
 * Nik Thakkar: Gaultier created a digital first working with the artist and activist in 2013.
 * Tupac Shakur: Wore a leather utility vest designed by Gaultier for the cover shot of "All Eyez on Me" (1996).
 * Kim Kardashian: Grammys red carpet in 2015.
 * Katy Perry: Vanity Fair after-party in early 2017.
 * Solange Knowles: 2017 Glamour Women of the Year Awards in New York City.

Filmography
In 2012, Gaultier was a member of the jury for the main competition at the 2012 Cannes Film Festival, the first time a fashion designer was called to sit on a jury at the festival.

In 2024, he announced the production and imminent launch of his first feature animation film.

Personal life
Gaultier had always had an interest in fashion. In school, he found himself at odds with his classmates; though he did not fit in, they nonetheless wanted him to do drawings for them.

Uneasy with his sexuality, he was reassured when he learnt that some of the iconic fashion designers were also gay or bisexual, as he wanted to work in fashion himself. He met his partner Francis Menuge, who helped him to get established and start running shows. Gaultier and Menuge both learned about AIDS during its advent, and both were tested. Menuge was HIV positive, and both Gaultier and Menuge's parents looked after him until his death from AIDS.

title: Jean Paul Gaultier


text:
Australian indie rock

Australian indie rock is part of the overall flow of Australian rock history but has a distinct history somewhat separate from mainstream rock in Australia, largely from the end of the punk rock era onwards.

Beginnings
Rock and roll in Australia got started in the late 1950s and 1960s, influenced by the sounds coming from the United States and UK. Early on, the surf rock sound dominated, though in the mid-1960s, the beat genre from the UK had become established. Numerous garage bands formed in the cities and suburbs, and a vibrant musical culture began.

Isolated from the diversity of genres in the northern hemisphere, Australian mainstream record labels tried to replicate the success of trends imported from overseas and produce radio friendly singles by successful artists such as John Farnham and The Easybeats. In the meantime, Russell Morris enjoyed a surprise hit with singles such as "The Real Thing". Produced by music legend Ian Molly Meldrum, and written by singing star Johnny Young, the single encompassed high production values and a psychedelic approach in its use of instruments such as a sitar, sampling of a children's choir, and its 6-minute running time (unusually long for the time). While released by EMI, this domestic production inspired a generation of bands, singers and songwriters that home-grown Aussie talent could produce world-beating music. The single charted well in New York, Houston and Chicago.

Brisbane
The punk movement began in the mid-1970s, and resulted in an explosion of musical activity. Numerous bands formed, as did many independent record labels, often run out of bedrooms. An early band who gained a following in Australia were, The Saints, who grew out of Queensland and who recorded one of the first punk singles, releasing a single on vinyl before the Sex Pistols. Another important band who came out of Brisbane were the post-punk group, The Go-Betweens, who relocated to Britain in the early 1980s and were one of the most acclaimed bands of the decade.

Sydney
Sydney's Radio Birdman were heavily inspired by acts such as the MC5 and The Stooges, and the band defined the sound of the punk and post-punk movement in Sydney. The sound of both Midnight Oil and INXS were influenced by Radio Birdman, especially in their early albums. In 1970s Sydney, the Australian Federal Government's "youth station" Double J operated outside the mainstream radio stations and began playing various independent music from around the world. Double J (an AM station) eventually turned into Triple J (an FM station) in the early 1980s and began broadcasting nationally in 1989.

By the early 1980s Sydney had begun to eclipse the post-punk explosion of gloomy drug-addled Melbourne with its beach culture, summery pub music scene, and hubris. Phantom Records, a label which grew out of a popular import record store, began to record and distribute breakthrough indie acts such as The Hoodoo Gurus, The Sunnyboys and The Cockroaches. Phantom's success would inspire others to follow, with important indie champions, such as Died Pretty signed to the fledgling Citadel Label. Other labels, such as Waterfront Records, Hot Records and RooArt soon followed expanding opportunities for bands to record and release domestically. The number of venues exploded, and fueled by the expansion of FM radio and a prosperous economy, Sydney begun to prove that independent bands could make a healthy living on the amazing pub music circuit at home, without having to first strike out to tour overseas and release internationally acclaimed albums. Other legendary live indie bands from the 80's era include The Hard-Ons, Celibate Rifles, New Christs, GANGgajang and The Rockmelons.

Perth
A vibrant and interesting punk and post-punk scene also developed in Perth, Western Australia. Bands such as The Victims and Cheap Nasties, spawned icons of the Australian music scene such as Dave Faulkner and James Baker, who formed one of the most popular Australian bands of the 1980s, the power-pop band Hoodoo Gurus, and the legendary Kim Salmon, who formed the Scientists, an influence on bands such as Mudhoney and The Jesus Lizard. Kim Salmon claims to have been the first person to use the term grunge to describe music. Kim Salmon and James Baker later once again collaborated in the underground rock supergroup Beasts of Bourbon, also featuring Tex Perkins and Spencer P. Jones. Perth also spawned the critically acclaimed indie-rock band The Triffids.

Melbourne
Melbourne's post-punk scene was much more experimental than any of the other capital cities. The city spawned a lot of experimental and gothic rock, of which Nick Cave's band, the Boys Next Door (later to become the Birthday Party) was the most notable and influential.

Soon the raw energy of punk evolved into post punk, which combined the DIY ethos of punk with rule-breaking, genre-defying artistic experimentation. The profusion of small, defiantly non-commercial and often unhesitatingly experimental bands became known as the "little band scene". Throughout the 1980s, it flourished in most Australian major cities, evolving around venues (such as Melbourne's Seaview Ballroom) and community radio stations such as 3RRR. A few bands, like Models, crossed over to the mainstream; others, like The Birthday Party went on to achieve critical acclaim abroad.

This era can be said to have ended in the 1990s, when in the wake of the explosion of grunge, alternative music became mainstream. Major labels signed three-chord grunge/punk-style rock bands, commercial radio played them and the 'alternative' sound soon became ubiquitous, ultimately culminating in manufactured pop groups, styled to sound raucously 'alternative' and appearing on television commercials for mobile phones. In this way, this process of mainstreaming echoes what happened in the USA and UK.

Gold Coast
A small but active Indie Rock movement was evident on the Gold Coast in the late 1970s and early 80's. The Seven Ballerinas were an Australian Indie rock band from the Gold Coast, active from 1981 to 1984. They are a significant contributor to the alternative rock music scene on the Gold Coast, Brisbane and Sydney, being one of the first bands from the Gold Coast to perform original material to audiences Australia wide.

The Ballerinas was formed in 1981 on the Gold Coast from an amalgamation of two pre-existing new-wave bands, Ratpak and The Strand. At the time, there was a mood for change on the Gold Coast music scene, as seen at the Macintosh Island concert, attended by around 2,000 people was headlined by The Strand, and also included Ratpak and several other local bands. The Macintosh Island concert was a turning point in Gold Coast music. As noted at the time, it was a move away from disco, and towards a local sound that expressed the values and attitudes of Gold Coast youth.

1990s to the present
The mainstreaming of alternative music did not kill indie rock in Australia, though did signal a shift in its focus. The form of 'alternative' music that the major labels and commercial radio stations were interested in was predominantly three-chord rock informed by punk rock and Seattle-style grunge; loud, rebellious, and easily marketable to a generation of teenagers. Bands who did not fit this manifest were largely left behind by this process, and did attract smaller audiences (predominantly in their 20s and based in bohemian inner urban areas). In inner Melbourne, a considerable post rock scene flourished, with bands like Art of Fighting, Laura, Silver Ray and Gersey playing more subdued music using the traditional guitar/bass/drums structure; bands in this scene often played at inner-city venues such as the Punters Club and the Empress Hotel. Other bands, such as The Paradise Motel explored the more cinematic scope of string sections combined with guitar/bass/drums, especially on debut recordings such as Left Over Life To Kill. Meanwhile, others explored alternative instrumentation, including accordions, strings and chromatic percussion. In the early 2000s, a notable alternative and experimental music scene began out of Sydney, including acts such as The Captain's Package, Rica Tetas, Slimey Things and Darth Vegas.

Several indie labels of note have operated in Australia around this time. Chapter Music, established by Guy Blackman in Perth but later relocated to Melbourne, released recordings on both vinyl and CD by a wide range of artists, including Panel Of Judges and Sleepy Township, as well as a compilation of Australian 1970s/1980s post punk titled Can't Stop It. Sydney's Half A Cow, run by Nic Dalton, released albums by bands like Dalton's own Sneeze, Spdfgh, and Sydney shoegazers Swirl. Fitzroy-based Trifekta, run by Tom Larnach-Jones (and distributed by major label Festival Mushroom Records) also released recordings by various more established Melbourne bands, including the beings, Ninetynine, Minimum Chips, Gersey and Architecture in Helsinki, as well as local releases of international bands like Life Without Buildings. More recently, Tasmanian-cum-Melbourne label Unstable Ape Records have been releasing many recordings by independent local bands such as Love of Diagrams, Sir and the Bird Blobs.

title: Australian indie rock


text:
Melbourne Central

Melbourne Central may refer to:
 * Aurora Melbourne Central, a skyscraper in Melbourne, Australia
 * Melbourne Central Shopping Centre, a shopping centre in Melbourne, Australia
 * Melbourne Central railway station, a railway station in Melbourne, Australia

title: Melbourne Central


text:
Julius von Haast

Sir Johann Franz Julius von Haast (1 May 1822 – 16 August 1887) was a German-born New Zealand explorer, geologist, and founder of the Canterbury Museum in Christchurch.

Early life
Johann Franz Julius Haast was born on 1 May 1822 in Bonn, a town in the Kingdom of Prussia, to a merchant and his wife. As a child, he attended a local school but was also educated at a grammar school in Cologne. After completing his formal schooling, he then entered the University of Bonn, where he studied geology and mineralogy. However, he did not graduate. As a young man, he travelled throughout Europe before basing himself in Frankfurt, working in the trading of books and mineral samples collected on his journeys. On 26 October 1846, Haast married Antonia Schmitt at Frankfurt, Germany. The marriage, although unhappy, produced a son named Robert two years later.

Haast was fluent in English and, in 1858, was contracted by a British shipping firm, A. Willis, Gann & Company, to report on the suitability of New Zealand for German emigrants. He travelled to London and in September of that year embarked aboard the Evening Star, destined for New Zealand. He arrived in Auckland on 21 December 1858 and, the following day, met the Austrian Ferdinand von Hochstetter at the home of a German emigrant. Hochstetter, on a scientific cruise aboard the ship Novara, had been invited by the Governor of New Zealand, Thomas Gore Browne, to provide advice on a recent find of a coal field south of Auckland, in Drury. Haast discovered the two men had a shared interest in geology and they quickly became friends.

Exploring New Zealand
Haast accompanied Hochstetter on his journey to Drury a few days later so that he could assess the natural resources and attractions of Auckland as a place for German immigration. Also present on the trip were several of Hochstetter's fellow scientists as well as the explorer and surveyor Charles Heaphy. Haast assisted Hochstetter in his investigations of the coalfield before the party pushed further south, interacting with local Māori and journeying along part of the Waikato River before returning to Auckland in early January 1859.

Hochstetter's report on the Drury coalfield was well received and he was formally asked to conduct geological surveys of New Zealand. His work with the Novara expedition largely complete, he agreed to stay on in New Zealand for six months, although the Austrian government would pay his salary. Hochstetter, assisted by Haast, spent the first two months on geological expeditions in the immediate area around Auckland, for the most part examining extinct volcanic cones and a multitude of historic points of eruption. Hochstetter then turned his attention south, towards the Waikato area, and requested Haast join him. The Waikato, apart from a few roads and trails, was largely unknown—the expedition, which left Auckland on 7 March 1859, had to make its own maps on the journey south. In three months they travelled as far as Lake Taupō and also went as far west as Kāwhia Harbour and as far east as Maketu in the Bay of Plenty. Arriving back in Auckland on 24 May 1859, the party, which included a photographer, had covered 1000 kilometres. Numerous collected samples, sketches and photographs taken on the journey added to the scientific knowledge of the area. It was revealed to the citizens of Auckland during a well attended public lecture delivered by Hochstetter on 24 June.

At the end of their journey south Hochstetter had told a reporter from the New Zealander that Haast had collected a great variety of statistical information to send home to Germany. It is likely however that Haast's main focus was on geography and geology. As Hochstetter adapted his technique in the study of a new country under adverse conditions, he later referred to Haast as his enthusiastic assistant, who not only helped but pushed him forward. At the same time Haast learnt a great deal from Hochstetter's great expertise.

During June Hochstetter and Haast departed for the Coromandel to investigate the goldfields there. Then, in late July 1859, they travelled south by steamer to the Province of Nelson, stopping briefly at New Plymouth and Wellington on the way. After his lecture in Auckland, Hochstetter had received invitations from several other provinces to explore the geological makeup of their regions, but he had already accepted an invitation from the Nelson Provincial Council to inspect the mineral deposits of Nelson Province, which were believed to include gold, coal and copper. Again Haast assisted Hochstetter, and after they discovered moa bones in the Aorere Valley in Golden Bay, Hochstetter left Haast in charge of the dig while he continued with other fieldwork. Over several days, assisted by Christopher Maling of the provincial survey department, Haast extracted several near-complete skeletons of the long-extinct bird. Hochstetter then tasked him with carrying out independent fieldwork in Golden Bay and with investigating the mineral deposits to the east of Nelson. At Shakespeare Bay, near present-day Picton, he correctly predicted gold could be found based on his inspection of the rocks in the area.

Haast returned to Nelson on 24 September 1859 and met up with Hochstetter, whose time in New Zealand was drawing to a close. Hochstetter delivered a public lecture, which included both his and Haast's geological findings, and his conclusion that the minerals in the area would contribute significantly to the wealth of the region was well received by the interested citizens of Nelson. One final common expedition at the end of September investigated a newly discovered coalfield in Golden Bay; Hochstetter then sailed for Sydney on 2 October.

Following Hochstetter's departure from New Zealand, the Nelson Provincial Council asked Haast to build on the geological work already completed. In particular, he was to focus on identifying valuable minerals in the ranges between Nelson and the Grey River, to scout out travelling routes to Westland, and to complete a topographical map of the area.

Before beginning the survey Haast visited Canterbury Province, possibly to complete his German immigration report for A. Willis, Gann & Company. Hochstetter had written ahead to the Canterbury Provincial Government apologising for not visiting personally, but informing them that Haast would soon go there and during his stay would gather geological information on his behalf. While there Haast proposed that following on from his work in Nelson he could undertake a similar survey of Canterbury's portion of the West Coast.

Haast's topographical and geological survey of south west Nelson took eight months, from January to August 1860. His report to the Nelson Provincial Council was published in early 1861 and of note were his discoveries of coal near the present-day town of Westport. He also found that the coal seams discovered by Thomas Brunner in 1848 were of a higher quality than first thought. He found gold in several tributaries of the Upper Buller, and reported on his botanical and zoological findings.

Life in Canterbury
When Haast arrived in Canterbury to begin his survey of their portion of the West Coast, the Superintendent of Canterbury William Moorhouse instead requested that he investigate the mountain range between Lyttelton and Christchurch. A rail tunnel was proposed through the mountain to link Lyttelton and Christchurch but engineers had encountered particular tough basaltic rocks which jeopardised the proposed route. As a result of Haast's work, the rail link was able to proceed. He became provincial geologist to Canterbury, a post which he held from 1861 to 1868.

His work in this capacity saw Haast conducting numerous expeditions throughout Canterbury and Westland, making geological discoveries and topographical maps of the area. Late in 1861, he discovered a coal seam in Kowai and the following year searched for gold in the area around Aoraki/Mt Cook. He identified that the Mackenzie plains were once the bed of a major glacier and, as well as his geological observations, he collected numerous botanical specimens. He discovered and named many of the glaciers of the central South Island, including the Franz Joseph Glacier, in honour of the Emperor of Austria, Franz Joseph. He was the first person to study the bones of the extinct Haast's eagle.

In 1870, Haast was appointed the curator of Canterbury Museum. The specimens that he collected on his expeditions of earlier years were a key part of the early holdings of the museum. Following the establishment of the Canterbury University College, he lectured in geology from 1873, and was made professor in 1876.

In the 1870s Haast was involved with James Hector in one of New Zealand's "most bitter scientific arguments" involving the extinction of the Moa and Moa-hunter origins; the "Sumner Cave Controversy"; see Moriori in popular culture. Haast held that the Moriori Moa-hunters preceded Māori to New Zealand.

His Geology of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland, N.Z., was published in 1879. He was elected fellow of the Royal Society in 1867, and was given a hereditary knighthood by the Emperor of Austria in 1875. He was awarded the Royal Geographical Society's Patron's Medal in 1884 for his explorations in New Zealand.

Later life and legacy
Haast travelled to England in 1886, as New Zealand's commissioner to the Colonial and Indian Exhibition in London. While there, he was made Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George for his services. He had previously been made a Companion of the same order three years previously.

Haast died on 16 August 1887, following his return to Christchurch. He is buried in the grounds of Holy Trinity Church in Stanmore Road, Christchurch. He was survived by his second wife, Mary Dobson, daughter of the Canterbury Provincial Engineer Edward Dobson, and the couple's five children.

Several places in New Zealand are named after Haast, including Haast Pass and the Haast River (both named by himself). The town of Haast is located at the mouth of the Haast River. The schist found in New Zealand is called the "Haast Schist" as a tribute to his contributions to geology. James Mackay (1831–1912) named two peaks after Haast: Mount Haast in the Southern Alps and Mount Haast near Springs Junction in the Buller District. The Haast Glacier and Haast Range in the Southern Alps were named by James Hector. The Haast Ridge was named by William Spotswood Green.

title: Julius von Haast


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Robert Kerr (athlete)

Robert Kerr (June 9, 1882 – May 12, 1963) was an Irish Canadian sprinter. He won the gold medal in the 200 metres and the bronze medal in the 100 metres at the 1908 Summer Olympics.

Biography
Kerr was born in Enniskillen, County Fermanagh, Ireland. His family immigrated to Canada when he was five, eventually settling in Hamilton, Ontario. While working as a fireman, Kerr also enjoyed running in his spare time. He soon became the best regional sprinter, and in 1904 he used his savings to travel to Saint Louis, United States and compete in the 1904 Summer Olympics. There, he was eliminated in the heats of all three events he entered (60 metres, 100 metres and 200 metres).

However, Kerr's performances got better, and he set Canadian records in all sprint distances between 40 and 220 yards. He won Canadian titles in the 100 yards (1907) and 200 yards (1906 to 1908). In 1908, Kerr travelled to England, where he competed in the British Championships, winning both the 100 and 200 yards. At the 1908 Summer Olympics, held in London, Kerr was considered to be somewhat of a home favourite by the crowd, as they saw him as a representative of the British Empire. He greatly improved on his Olympic performances of 1904, placing for the final of the 100 and 200 metres. In the 100 metres, he finished in third (behind South Africa's Reggie Walker and the United States' James Rector) with a time of 11.0 seconds. In the final of the 200 metres, held the next day, Kerr crossed the line first with a time of 22.6 seconds. News of his victory set off celebrations in his home town Hamilton.

During the First World War, Kerr became an officer with the 205th (Tiger) Battalion, CEF, which was also known as the Sportsmen's Battalion because many of its members were prominent local athletes. When that unit was disbanded, he was transferred to the 164th (Halton and Dufferin) Battalion, CEF and eventually was assigned to the Canadian Machine Gun Corps (misnamed the 1st Tank Battalion, CEF]).

After his sprinting career, Kerr remained active in sports. He coached the athletics and football teams of Hamilton, and was an official at the 1928 and 1932 Summer Olympics. In 1928, he witnessed Percy Williams succeeding him as Canadian winner of the 200 metres. Furthermore, he was involved in the Canadian Olympic Association, and helped organize the 1930 British Empire Games in Hamilton.

Kerr died in Hamilton, aged 80. A park in his home town was named in his honour.

title: Robert Kerr (athlete)


text:
John Galliano

John Charles Galliano, (born 28 November 1960), is a British fashion designer. He was the creative director of his eponymous label John Galliano and French fashion houses Givenchy and Dior. Since 2014, Galliano has been the creative director of Paris-based fashion house Maison Margiela. Galliano has been named British Designer of the Year four times. In a 2004 poll for the BBC, he was named the fifth most influential person in British culture.

Early life and education
Galliano was born in Gibraltar to a Gibraltarian father of Italian descent, Juan Galliano, and a Spanish mother, Ana Guillén, and has two sisters. His father worked as a plumber. His family moved to England when Galliano was six, settling in Streatham and later Dulwich and Brockley, in South London. He was raised in a strict Catholic family.

Galliano attended St. Anthony's Primary School, Dulwich and Wilson's Grammar School in London. He went on to study at Central Saint Martins and graduated in 1984 with a first class honours degree in Fashion Design. His graduating collection was inspired by the French Revolution and entitled Les Incroyables. The collection received positive reviews and was bought in its entirety for resale in the London fashion boutique Browns. Galliano was appointed head designer of Givenchy in 1995, thus becoming the first British designer to head a French haute couture house.

London
Galliano then started his own eponymous label alongside long-term collaborators Amanda Harlech, at that time stylist with Harpers and Queen, and milliner  Stephen Jones. On the back of this success, Galliano rented studio space in London. Initially, financial backing came from Johan Brun, and when this agreement came to an end, Danish entrepreneur Ole Peder Bertelsen, owner of firm Aguecheek, who were also backing Katharine Hamnett at the time, took over. This agreement ended in 1988 and he went bankrupt after his own London-based label failed.

Paris
In 1989, Galliano moved to Paris in search of financial backing and a strong client base. Galliano secured the backing of Paris-based Moroccan designer Faycal Amor (owner and creative director of fashion label Plein Sud) who invited him to set up his base in Paris at the Plein Sud headquarters. His first show was in 1989 as part of Paris Fashion Week.

Media fashion celebrity Susannah Constantine has worked for Galliano, and he has also aided the future success of other designers including shoe designer Patrick Cox. In 1991, he collaborated with Kylie Minogue, designing the costumes for her Let's Get to It Tour.

In 1993, Galliano's financial agreement with Amor ended and he did not have a showing in October, missing the season. With the help of American Vogue editor-in-chief Anna Wintour and André Leon Talley, then European correspondent at Vanity Fair, Galliano was introduced to Portuguese socialite and fashion patron São Schlumberger and financial backers of venture firm Arbela Inc, John Bult and Mark Rice. It was through this partnership that Galliano received the financial backing and high society stamp needed to give him credibility in Paris. This collection was important in the development of Galliano as a fashion house, and is regarded as a 'fashion moment' in high fashion circles.

Givenchy
In July 1995, he was appointed as the designer of Givenchy by Bernard Arnault, owner of luxury goods conglomerate LVMH. On 21 January 1996, Galliano presented his first couture show at the helm of Givenchy at the Stade de France. The collection received high praise within the fashion media. Some of Galliano's designs for Givenchy were licensed to Vogue Patterns. He was then moved to Dior by LVMH, and succeeded at Givenchy by Alexander McQueen.

Dior
In October 1996, LVMH moved Galliano to Christian Dior, replacing Italian designer Gianfranco Ferré. At Dior, Galliano received widespread critical acclaim for his Haute Couture and ready-to-wear collections, for the whole duration of his tenure there.

Galliano designed the chinoiserie chartreuse gown worn by Nicole Kidman at the 69th Academy Awards in 1997.

In 2010, Galliano identified his love of theatre and femininity as central to his creations; he said "my role is to seduce", and credited Standard Oil heiress Millicent Rogers as an influence.

Antisemitic incident and firing
In December 2010, a drunken Galliano insulted a group of Italian women in Paris with antisemitic slurs, which was caught on camera. The video resurfaced in February 2011, just before Paris Fashion Week Autumn/Winter 2011/2012. Facing public and legal scrutiny, he was fired from his role as creative director at Dior.

Oscar de la Renta
In 2013, a Guardian article describing Galliano's incident claims "fashion forgave John Galliano" due to his "two years' exile" and "several statements expressing his sorrow and self-disgust."

In early 2013, Galliano accepted an invitation from Oscar de la Renta, brokered by Anna Wintour, for a temporary residency at de la Renta's design studio to help prepare for a showing of his Fall 2013 ready-to-wear collection during February New York Fashion Week. Galliano also received a measure of absolution from the Anti-Defamation League, which lauded his efforts to atone for his misdeeds and wished him well. The ADL again came to his defence after the New York Post ran a photo of him on his way to the de la Renta show dressed in what it claimed was Hasidic-like garb.

Galliano remained backstage at the show, which received favourable reviews amid speculation about his future, including as a possible successor to Oscar de la Renta and that Galliano might take up a teaching post at Parsons The New School for Design. On 12 June 2013, Galliano's first filmed interview since his dismissal from Christian Dior was broadcast on United States television. He closed this conversation by stating, "I am able to create. I am ready to create... [and] I hope through my atonement I'll be given a second chance".

Maison Margiela
On 6 October 2014, the OTB Group announced that John Galliano had joined Maison Margiela to take the responsibility of the creative direction of the house, marking the designer's return to a leading role in designing luxury fashion. Just a few weeks later, on the occasion of the annual British Fashion Awards, Galliano presented the Outstanding Achievement Award to Anna Wintour who wore Galliano's first creation for Maison Martin Margiela, "an unambiguous fashion blessing" from the Editor in Chief of American Vogue according to Vanessa Friedman, Fashion Director of The New York Times.

Galliano exhibited his first couture collection for Margiela during London Collections: Men, on 12 January 2015. He told French Elle in 2018 that he would stop using fur in his collections, citing as inspiration from a meeting with Penélope Cruz and PETA's Dan Mathews.

On 26 September 2018, Galliano made a statement in Paris at his Maison Margiela show, when he unveiled Mutiny, his first perfume for the fashion house. The perfume is a reflection of his vision of the Maison Margiela women.

Antisemitic outburst
Circa December 2010, a drunken Galliano insulted a group of Jewish women in Paris bar La Perle, saying: "I love Hitler... People like you would be dead. Your mothers, your forefathers would all be fucking gassed". The video resurfaced in February 2011, just before Paris Fashion Week Autumn/Winter 2011/2012.

On 25 February 2011, Dior announced their suspension of Galliano including the following statement:"Because of the particularly odious character of the behaviour and comments made by John Galliano in a video made public on Monday, the Dior house decided to suspend him immediately and has engaged in a process to dismiss him."The show-business industry expressed mixed feelings towards the designer's antisemitic speech. Natalie Portman, who had an endorsement contract with Dior, said she was "deeply shocked" by Galliano's comments and that "these still-existing prejudices... are the opposite of all that is beautiful" and "As an individual who is proud to be Jewish, [she] will not be associated with Mr. Galliano in any way". However, another model for Dior, French model and actress Eva Green, said of the incident: "Sometimes, you can make mistakes. I don't think he's antisemitic. I'm Jewish. I don't think he has anything against the Jews. I think it's more that he was probably a bit drunk".

Galliano denied the allegations through his lawyer, and launched a defamation lawsuit against the couple accusing him of antisemitism. On 1 March 2011, Dior announced that it had begun procedures of dismissal for Galliano, with Dior's chief executive Sidney Toledano stating, "I very firmly condemn what was said by John Galliano", Dior announced it will continue to support the Galliano brand financially due to licence despite the scandal, and Bill Gaytten would replace John Galliano as creative director at the helm of Dior and the Galliano brand.

In France, the expression of antisemitic ideas is illegal. It was reported on 2 March 2011 that Galliano was to face trial in Paris for allegedly making antisemitic comments to two fellow customers in a café. The trial commenced on 22 June 2011. Galliano's lawyer argued that the "series of public outbursts during which he uttered racist and anti-Semitic insults in a Paris café" were the result of "work-related stress and multiple addictions".

On 8 September 2011, Galliano was found guilty of making antisemitic remarks and sentenced to a total of €6,000 in suspended fines.

Subsequent legal action
On 21 November 2013, the Paris Court of Appeals rejected an appeal by Christian Dior Couture SA, which was seeking to move the case to a commercial court from the Conseil de prud'hommes (Labour Court) and ordered Christian Dior Couture SA and John Galliano SA each to pay Galliano €2,500 and court costs. Galliano had been "seeking compensation in the range of 6 million euros". He lost the case in the labor court and was required to pay each party €1.

Honours

 * British Designer of the Year (1987, 1994, 1995, 1997). In 1997, he shared the award with Alexander McQueen, his successor at Givenchy.
 * Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 2001 Birthday Honours List for his services to the Fashion Industry as a Fashion Designer. He received his CBE on 27 November 2001 at Buckingham Palace in London, England.
 * RDI for his contribution to the fashion industry (2002)
 * Appearance on The Independent on Sunday's 2007 "pink list" for being one of "the most influential gay people in Britain"
 * French Legion of Honour (2009). The medal was withdrawn by decree of the president of the Republic, François Hollande, published in the official journal on 20 August 2012.

Personal life
In interviews, Galliano has given his full name as Juan Carlos Antonio Galliano-Guillén. He had a relationship with fellow Central St Martins student and fashion designer John Flett (1963–1991), whom he described as his soulmate. Galliano currently shares his Paris home with his long-term partner Alexis Roche, a style consultant. He is vegetarian for health reasons, telling French Elle that "The energy that I get from having fewer toxins in my body is extraordinary".

title: John Galliano


text:
Mesillat Yesharim

Mesillat Yesharim or Mesillas Yeshorim (מסילת ישרים, lit. "Path of the Upright") is an ethical (musar) text composed by the influential Rabbi Moshe Chaim Luzzatto (1707–1746). It is different from Luzzato's other writings, which are more philosophical.

Mesillat Yesharim was written and published in Amsterdam. The earliest known manuscript version, written in 1738, was arranged as a dialogue between a hakham (wise man) and a hasid (pious person). Before publication, it was rearranged to have only one speaker. The dialogue version often sheds light on the more well-known version.

Mesillat Yesharim is probably Luzzato's most influential work, widely learned in virtually every yeshiva since formal study of musar texts was introduced to the yeshiva curriculum by the Mussar Movement of Rabbi Yisroel Salanter.

Aim of the work
The aim of this work extends beyond the achievement of the perfection of human character in Divine service. Its stated aim is to remind the reader of one's deepest obligations in this regard, as well as to encourage the centrality of the deep study of this subject matter in one's daily life. Unlike many other musar books, which are ordered according to the authors' own lists of character traits, Luzzato builds his work on a Beraita in the name of the sage Pinchas ben Yair, whose list goes in order of accomplishment:

 * "Rabbi Pinchas ben Yair said: Torah leads to watchfulness; watchfulness leads to alacrity; alacrity leads to cleanliness; cleanliness leads to abstention; abstention leads to purity; purity leads to piety; piety leads to humility; humility leads to fear of sin; fear of sin leads to holiness; holiness leads to prophecy; prophecy leads to the resurrection of the dead".

Within each step, Luzzatto explains the step itself, its elements, how it can be acquired, and what might detract from its acquisition. For example: Watchfulness can be acquired by setting aside time for introspection, and acquiring watchfulness can be impaired by excessive mundane responsibilities, wrong company or a cynical stance in life. The same pattern is used for every single one of the traits mentioned.

Luzzatto's expressed goal is to condition the reader to accept a disciplined approach to "restrain animal instincts" and encourage "the divine spark in every human into a bright, warming flame", according to Trude Weiss-Rosmarin.

Outline
Mesillat Yesharim is divided into 26 chapters, over which Luzzatoo explains the ethical and religious duties commanded in the Torah and elaborated by the Sages.

 * Introduction
 * Man's General Duty in His World (Ch. 1)
 * Watchfulness (zehirut) (Ch. 2-5)
 * Alacrity (zerizut) (Ch. 6-9)
 * Cleanliness (of sin, nekiyut) (Ch. 10-12)
 * Abstention (of improper practices, perishut) (Ch. 13-15)
 * Purity (tahara) (Ch. 16-17)
 * Piety (chassidut) (Ch. 18-21)
 * Humility (anava) (Ch. 22-23)
 * Fear of sin (yirat chet) (Ch. 24-25)
 * Holiness (kedusha) (Ch. 26-27)
 * Epilogue

Influence
Mesillat Yesharim is perhaps the most important Jewish ethical text of the early modern period. The Vilna Gaon is reported to have commented that he could not find a superfluous word in the first eleven chapters of the work, and stated that he would have traveled to meet the author and learn from his ways if he had still been alive. These and similar pronouncements largely cleared Luzzato from misgivings by others as to his suspected Sabbatean leanings.

Mesillat Yesharim became Luzzatto's most famous ethical tract and one of the most popular Jewish ethical treatises. It was published in ten different editions between 1740 and 1835. Along with Shirei Tiferet ("Poems of Glory") by Naphtali Hirz Wessely, Mesillat Yesharim became part of the canon of mussar literature of the course of the 1780s to the middle of the 19th century.

American rabbi Mordecai Kaplan published the first English translation of Mesillat Yesharim through the Jewish Publication Society of America in 1936.

Text, translations, and commentaries

 * Complete Messillat Yesharim online
 * Hebrew original
 * English translation
 * Translations
 * Luzzatto, Moses Hayyim. Messillat Yesharim: The Path of the Upright; translated by Mordecai Kaplan from the critical edition. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 978-0-8276-0856-6.
 * Luzzato, Rabbi Moshe Chayim. Mesillas Yeshorim; translated by Rav. Yaakov Bar Yosef. Netzari Faith Publishers. ISBN 9781329314627.
 * Luzzato, Rabbi Moshe Chayim. Mesillas Yeshorim; translated by Yosef Leiber. New York: Feldheim Publishers. ISBN 1-58330-691-9.
 * Luzzato, Rabbi Moshe Chayim. The Path of the Just; translated by Yaakov Feldman. New York: Jason Aronson Publishers. ISBN 1-56821-596-7.
 * Luzzato, Rabbi Moshe Chayim. The Complete Mesillat Yesharim; translated by Avraham Shoshana and associates. Cleveland: Ofeq Institute. ISBN 1-881255-44-1.
 * Commentaries on Messilllat Yesharim
 * Ira F. Stone's commentary, included in the new Jewish Publication Society edition of the book (ISBN 978-0-8276-0856-6).
 * Hillel, Yaakov Moshe. Ascending the Path: Insights Into Mesillat Yesharim. Jerusalem: Yeshivat Hevrat Ahavat Shalom. 7 vol
 * Ohr La'Yesharim on Mesilat Yesharim with a compendium of commentaries and explanations by great rabbis from the Musar Movement.
 * Mesilat Yesharim with commentary Sod L'Yesharim, a compendium of commentaries and explanations from other books by the Ramchal.
 * Mandelbaum, Alexander Aryeh. Bam'silah Naale.
 * Bilvavi Mishkan Evneh on Mesilias Yesharim

title: Mesillat Yesharim


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Talk:Marne-la-Vallée – Chessy (Paris Metro)

Should this (and other Paris metro pages created by the same user) be classed as stubs? There seems to be little info apart from lines serving the stations. Nick04 11:01, 5 Mar 2004 (UTC)


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Robert Alexander (Maryland politician)

Robert Alexander (c. 1740 – 1805) was an American planter, lawyer, and Tory political leader during the American Revolution. He was a delegate to the Continental Congress for Maryland in 1776.

Background
Robert Alexander was born on his family's estate at Head of Elk in Cecil County, Maryland about 1740. He was educated to the law and admitted to the bar, and practiced in Baltimore. From 1774 to 1776, he attended the Annapolis Convention as a representative of Baltimore County. He also represented Baltimore in the state's Committee of Safety.

On December 9, 1775 the Convention named Alexander one of their delegates to the Continental Congress. He attended sessions starting in January 1776, and on January 16 the Congress added him to their Secret Committee. Then in April he was added to the Marine Committee. He was re-elected, 4 July 1776, but soon after the promulgation of the Declaration of Independence he sailed for England with other Baltimore loyalists.

In August 1777, after British forces had landed at Head of Elk, he was visited at his home, first by George Washington on the 27th, and then by British General Howe three days later. When the British moved north towards Philadelphia he accompanied them, and was never to return. By the summer of 1778, when Howe abandoned the occupation of Philadelphia, Alexander fled to the Royal Navy, and made his way to London in 1782.

In 1780, the State of Maryland judged Alexander guilty of high treason, and seized most of his property. His estate became the town of Elkton, Maryland, although the wife he had abandoned was allowed to keep the main house that his father had built in 1735. The house still stands, and is located at 323 Hermitage Drive in Elkton.

Alexander died in exile in London on November 1805.

title: Robert Alexander (Maryland politician)