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Lanškroun

Lanškroun (Landskron) is a town in Ústí nad Orlicí District in the Pardubice Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 9,800 inhabitants. It lies on the border of the historical lands of Bohemia and Moravia. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected by law as an urban monument zone.

Administrative parts
Lanškroun is made up of the town parts of Dolní Třešňovec, Lanškroun-Vnitřní Město, Ostrovské Předměstí and Žichlínské Předměstí.

Etymology
The original historic name of Lanškroun was Landeskrone, meaning "Land's crown". It referred to its location on the border of the historical lands of Bohemia and Moravia.

Geography
Lanškroun is located about 10 km northeast of Ústí nad Orlicí and 50 km east of Pardubice. It lies in the Orlické Foothills. The highest point is at 449 m above sea level.

The stream Třešňovský potok flows through the town. In the northwestern part of the municipal territory is a set of six fishponds on the stream Ostrovský potok. The largest of them is Dlouhý, used for recreational purposes and water sports. The northernmost ponds (Pšeničkův and Olšový) and the area around the stream Zadní potok before its confluence with the Ostrovský potok is protected as the nature reserve Landškrounské rybníky within the Lanškroun Ponds Nature Park.

History
The first written mention of Lanškroun is from 1285, when it was donated by King Wenceslaus II to Záviš of Falkenstein. Lanškroun was founded during the colonization in the second half of the 13th century under the name Landeskrone. It became the economical centre of the large estate of Lanšperk and later of separate Lanškroun estate.

In 1304, Lanškroun property of the Zbraslav Monastery and in 1358, it was acquired by Roman Catholic Diocese of Leitomischl. In 1371, an Augustinian monastery was founded. In 1421, the town was conquered by Jan Žižka. After the Hussite Wars, the estate was acquired by the noble family of Kostka of Postupice. It began to prosper and obtained various privileges. In 1507, it was bought by the Pernštejn family. Then it was shortly held by the Hrzáns of Harasov, and after the Battle of White Mountain, it was bought by the Liechtenstein family.

During the Thirty Years' War, the town was repeatedly burned down and looted by the Swedish army and the catholicization began. After the war, the population was significantly decreased. It was repopulated by German settlers and in 1683, German has become the official language.

During the 18th century, Lanškroun was an average serf town. In 1848, the serfdom was abolished and Lanškroun became a district town. In the 1870s, the industrialization began. The railway was built in 1884–1885.

Until 1918, the town was part of Austria-Hungary as the seat of the district Landskron in Bömen, one of the 94 Bezirkshauptmannschaften in Bohemia. After 1919 it became part of Czechoslovakia. In 1938 it was occupied by German troops according to the Munich Agreement. Since 1939 it was administered as part of Reichsgau Sudetenland.

Shortly after the end of World War II, on 17 May 1945, the event known as the Lanškroun Massacre or Lanškroun Blood Court happened. Czech partisans drove all the Germans into the town square. Several hundred Germans had to stand there with their hands above their heads and 31 of them were sentenced to death by a self-proclaimed people's court. It was a retribution for the atrocities against the Czech population during the war, which, according to historians, got out of control.

Until the expulsion of the German speaking population from Lanškroun in 1946, the majority of population of the town had been German. After the expulsion, the town became completely Czech. In 1945, it ceased to be a district town.

Economy
Lanškroun is an industrial town. The most important sectors are the electronics industry, engineering and paper industry. The largest employers are Kyocera AVX Component and Schott CR (both manufacturers of electronic components), and Schaeffler Production CZ (manufacturer of rolling element bearings).

Transport
The I/43 road from Brno and Svitavy to the Czech-Polish border in Králíky passes through the town.

Lanškroun is the terminus and start of the railway line heading from/to Česká Třebová.

Sights
Lanškroun is known for its large Renaissance town hall, which is one of the symbols of the town. It was built in 1581–1582. The two original Renaissance portals are preserved.

The original monastery from the 14th century was rebuilt into a Renaissance castle. The reconstruction was completed in 1601. From the 1650s to 1716, it was rebuilt to its current appearance. Today it houses the town museum. The Church of Saint Wenceslaus is adjacent to the castle and stood here before the founding of the monastery. It was first mentioned in 1350 and originally was consecrated to the Virgin Mary. It was reconstructed several times; the tower was added in 1768.

Notable people

 * Jan Marek Marci (1595–1667), physician and scientist
 * Josef Johann Steinmann (1779–1833), Austrian pharmacist and chemist
 * Friedrich Gustav Piffl (1864–1932), Cardinal and Archbishop of Vienna
 * Herwig Schopper (born 1924), Czech-German experimental physicist
 * Jan Smejkal (born 1946), chess player
 * Jan Ambrož (born 1954), chess player
 * Ludmila Müllerová (born 1954), politician
 * Robert Dušek (born 1967), politician
 * Roman Šebrle (born 1974), decathlete, Olympic winner

Twin towns – sister cities
Lanškroun is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇹 Castiglione in Teverina, Italy
 * 🇵🇱 Dzierżoniów, Poland
 * 🇭🇺 Hajdúszoboszló, Hungary
 * 🇸🇰 Kežmarok, Slovakia
 * 🇵🇱 Serock, Poland

title: Lanškroun


text:
Ground proximity warning system

A ground proximity warning system (GPWS) is a system designed to alert pilots if their aircraft is in immediate danger of flying into the ground or an obstacle. The United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) defines GPWS as a type of terrain awareness and warning system (TAWS). More advanced systems, introduced in 1996, are known as enhanced ground proximity warning systems (EGPWS), a modern type of TAWS.

History
In the late 1960s, a series of controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) accidents took the lives of hundreds of people. A CFIT accident is one where a properly functioning airplane under the control of a fully qualified and certified crew is flown into terrain, water or obstacles with no apparent awareness on the part of the crew.

Beginning in the early 1970s, a number of studies examined the occurrence of CFIT accidents. Findings from these studies indicated that many such accidents could have been avoided if a warning device called a ground proximity warning system (GPWS) had been used. As a result of these studies and recommendations from the U.S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB), in 1974, the FAA required all large turbine and turbojet airplanes to install TSO-approved GPWS equipment.

The UN International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), recommended the installation of GPWS in 1979.

C. Donald Bateman, a Canadian-born engineer, developed and is credited with the invention of GPWS.

In March 2000, the U.S. FAA amended operating rules to require that all U.S. registered turbine-powered airplanes with six or more passenger seats (exclusive of pilot and copilot seating) be equipped with an FAA-approved TAWS. The mandate affects aircraft manufactured after March 29, 2002.

Effects and statistics
Prior to the development of GPWS, large passenger aircraft were involved in 3.5 fatal CFIT accidents per year, falling to 2 per year in the mid-1970s. A 2006 report stated that from 1974, when the U.S. FAA made it a requirement for large aircraft to carry such equipment, until the time of the report, there had not been a single passenger fatality in a CFIT crash by a large jet in U.S. airspace.

After 1974, there were still some CFIT accidents that GPWS was unable to help prevent, due to the "blind spot" of those early GPWS systems. More advanced systems were developed.

Older TAWS, or deactivation of the EGPWS, or ignoring its warnings when an airport is not in its database, still leave aircraft vulnerable to possible CFIT incidents. In April 2010, a Polish Air Force Tupolev Tu-154M aircraft crashed near Smolensk, Russia, in a possible CFIT accident killing all passengers and crew, including the President of Poland Lech Kaczyński. The aircraft was equipped with TAWS made by Universal Avionics Systems of Tucson. According to the Russian Interstate Aviation Committee, the TAWS was turned on. However, the airport where the aircraft was going to land (Smolensk (XUBS)) is not in the TAWS database. In January 2008 a Polish Air Force Casa C-295M crashed in a CFIT accident near Mirosławiec, Poland, despite being equipped with EGPWS; the EGPWS warning sounds had been disabled, and the pilot-in-command was not properly trained with EGPWS.

Commercial aircraft

The system monitors an aircraft's height above ground as determined by a radar altimeter. A computer then keeps track of these readings, calculates trends, and will warn the flight crew with visual and audio messages if the aircraft is in certain defined flying configurations ("modes").

The modes are:
 * 1) Excessive descent rate ("SINK RATE" "PULL UP")
 * 2) Excessive terrain closure rate ("TERRAIN" "PULL UP")
 * 3) Excessive large obstacle closure rate ("OBSTACLE" "PULL UP")
 * 4) Altitude loss after takeoff or with a high power setting ("DON'T SINK")
 * 5) Unsafe terrain clearance ("TOO LOW – TERRAIN" "TOO LOW – GEAR" "TOO LOW – FLAPS")
 * 6) Excessive deviation below glideslope ("GLIDESLOPE")
 * 7) Excessively steep bank angle ("BANK ANGLE")
 * 8) Windshear protection ("WINDSHEAR")

The traditional GPWS does have a blind spot. Since it can only gather data from directly below the aircraft, it must predict future terrain features. If there is a dramatic change in terrain, such as a steep slope, GPWS will not detect the aircraft closure rate until it is too late for evasive action.

In the late 1990s, improvements were developed and the system is now named "Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System" (EGPWS/TAWS). The system is combined with a worldwide digital terrain database and relies on Global Positioning System (GPS) technology. On-board computers compare current location with a database of the Earth's terrain. The Terrain Display gives pilots a visual orientation to high and low points near the aircraft.

EGPWS software improvements are focused on solving two common problems: no warning at all, and late or improper response.

No warning
The primary cause of CFIT occurrences with no GPWS warning is landing short. When the landing gear is down and landing flaps are deployed, the GPWS expects the airplane to land and therefore, issues no warning. However, the GPWS can also malfunction because of a short circuit. On September 26, 1997, Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 crashed into a hilly area, killing all 222 passengers and 12 crew on board. Despite the fact that the plane was nearing terrain, the GPWS did not activate, even though the landing gear and landing flaps were not deployed. EGPWS introduces the Terrain Clearance Floor (TCF) function, which provides GPWS protection even in the landing configuration.

Late warning or improper response
The occurrence of a GPWS alert typically happens at a time of high workload and nearly always surprises the flight crew. Almost certainly, the aircraft is not where the pilot thinks it should be, and the response to a GPWS warning can be late in these circumstances. Warning time can also be short if the aircraft is flying into steep terrain since the downward-looking radio altimeter is the primary sensor used for the warning calculation. The EGPWS improves terrain awareness and warning times by introducing the Terrain Display and the Terrain Data Base Look Ahead protection.

Incidents
In commercial and airline operations, there are legally mandated procedures that must be followed should an EGPWS caution or warning occur. Both pilots must respond and act accordingly once the alert has been issued. In Indonesia, the captain of Garuda Indonesia Flight 200 was charged with manslaughter for not adhering to these procedures.

In 2015, Air France Flight 953 (a Boeing 777-200ER aircraft) avoided controlled flight into terrain after the EGPWS detected Mount Cameroon in the aircraft's flight path. The pilot flying immediately responded to the initial warning from the EGPWS.

General aviation
TAWS equipment is not required by the U.S. FAA in piston-engined aircraft, but optional equipment categorised as TAWS Type C may be installed. Depending on the type of operation, TAWS is only required to be installed into turbine-powered aircraft with six or more passenger seats.

A smaller and less expensive version of EGPWS was developed by AlliedSignal (now merged with Honeywell) for general aviation and private aircraft.

Fast military aircraft
For fast military aircraft, the high speed and low altitude that may frequently be flown make traditional GPWS systems unsuitable, as the blind spot becomes the critical part. Thus, an enhanced system is required, taking inputs not only from the radar altimeter, but also from inertial navigation system (INS), Global Positioning System (GPS), and flight control system (FCS), using these to accurately predict the flight path of the aircraft up to 5 mi ahead. Digital maps of terrain and obstacle features are then used to determine whether a collision is likely if the aircraft does not pull up at a given pre-set g-level. If a collision is predicted, a cockpit warning may be provided. This is the type of system deployed on aircraft such as the Eurofighter Typhoon. The U.S. FAA has also conducted a study about adapting 3-D military thrust vectoring to recover civil jetliners from catastrophes.

On May 5, 2016, a military GPWS called Automatic Ground Collision Avoidance System (Auto-GCAS) equipped aboard an F-16 made a dramatic save after a trainee pilot lost consciousness from excessive G forces during basic fighter manoeuvre training. In an approximately 55 degree nose down attitude at 8,760 ft and 652 KIAS (750 mph), the Auto-GCAS detected the aircraft was going to strike the terrain and executed an automatic recovery, saving the pilot's life.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Ground proximity warning system


text:
Talk:Countee Cullen

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): IdaVictoria, AshleeBurks.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 18:33, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Harlem renaissance
"Harlem Renaissance The 1920s also saw the rise of an artistic black community centered in New York City in Harlem, a fashionable black neighborhood. African-Americans had brought a lively, powerful music called jazz with them as they moved to northern cities: the jazz clubs of Harlem became chic night spots in the 1920s. The nation suddenly discovered "the new Negro," an articulate urban black, conscious of his or her racial identity. Magazines and newspapers dedicated to black writing sprang up. New poets such as Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen wrote about what it meant to be black. They used exotic images drawn from their African and slavery pasts, and incorporated the rhythms of black music such as jazz, blues and the folk hymns called "spirituals". The Harlem Renaissances gave African-American culture prominence and an impetus to grow."

Reverting Vandalism Americans had brought a lively, powerful music called jazz with them as they moved to northern cities: the jazz clubs of Harlem became chic night spots in the 1920s. The nation suddenly discovered "the new Negro," an articulate urban black, conscious of his or her racial identity. Magazines and newspapers dedicated to black writing sprang up. New poets such as Langston Hughes and Countee Cullen wrote about what it meant to be black. They used exotic images drawn from their African and slavery pasts, and incorporated the rhythms of black music such as jazz, blues and the folk hymns called "spirituals". The Harlem Renaissances gave African-American culture prominence and an impetus to grow."

 * Removed this from the page, I think it may be a copyvio, in any event it is not directly relevant. Mark Richards 22:51, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

External links modified
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Places named after Countee Cullen
In addition to the library, PS 194 is named the Countee Cullen school 69.202.184.235 (talk) 01:46, 27 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Countee Cullen


text:
Talk:Alan Cox (computer programmer)

Old Discussion
So that Alan you wrote a computer Game called Seas of Blood in 1986 based on the fighting fantasy book of the same name? Htaccess 07:14, 8 Jun 2004 (UTC)
 * I worked on Robin of Sherwood, Seas of Blood, Blizzard Pass, Personal Nightmare and bits of Elvira, also Demons of the Deep (never released). The only one of them I did the full game design for is Blizzard Pass. Seas of Blood was done by a team of people led by Mike Woodroffe. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by AlanCox (talk • contribs) 02:12, 3 November 2005 (UTC)

Programming freedom
Article references "programming freedom." What does this refer to, specifically? Free (GNU-style) software? Can we turn this phrase into a link to a Wikipedia article? Jdavidb 19:24, 9 Jul 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, that would be correct.  Possibly a link to the League for Programming Freedom, but that's not quite right.  Ted 19:57, 15 October 2005 (UTC)

 * Closer would be the fsf.org discussion on 'free software' but it really spans both AlanCox

Programming experience
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adventure_Soft

 * "Blizzard Pass" (a single player game closely related to AberMUD) by Alan Cox and "Kayleth" (by Stefan Ufnowski and Ann Ufnowski) followed as the company diversified the game range. Adventure Soft also began producing games for Tynesoft including the game of Supergran and "Terraquake" (featuring He-Man).

Alan Cox doing MUD games? Wow!

born?
born??

 * Yes Alan Cox (talk) 16:03, 24 June 2010 (UTC)

"Dense" comments?
Is that an attempt to literally translate a word from another language? According to a dictionary, this meaning is:
 * slow to learn or understand; lacking intellectual acuity

Let's change it to something that more accurately represents the meaning?

Actually it can also mean
 * 1.1 Having relatively high density.
 * 1.2 Crowded closely together; compact: a dense population.
 * 2 Difficult to understand because of complexity or obscurity: a dense novel.

And more I think the point that the writer was trying to make was that the comments were highly imformative (lots of facts "crowded closely together"). It's actually standard English, no foreign languages needed at all: generally the idea conveyed is of a lot of complex facts and other information compacted together into one small work. It doesn't look like it needs much changing to me - Bryan

another Alan Cox
Actor, starred as young Watson in Young Sherlock Holmes, 1985. Actually there may be four actors by this name, according to imdb.

There is also another Alan Cox who works on FreeBSD which causes confusion —The preceding unsigned comment was added by AlanCox (talk • contribs) 22:26, 14 February 2006 (UTC)

While vs. whilst
I'd much prefer "while", as I have never seen "whilst" before. Whilst this is not the "simple English" encyclopedia, we shouldn't needlessly scare away readers.

PS: I tried googling for whilst, and it seems the (major) hits are mostly people explaining the word, whilst the hits for while are people using the word.--Per Abrahamsen 19:38, 22 July 2006 (UTC)

Whilst is in very common usage in the U.S.
 * You mean "while"... Peter O. (Talk) 19:18, 14 October 2006 (UTC)

Present Linux Kernel Involvement
Can someone add information regarding his current Linux Kernel involvement (Sept 2006)? I remember reading (and it is mentioned in the article) that Alan was taking time off to work on his MBA, but it looks like he is involved in the Linux mailing list again (I have seen some e-mails from him on KernelTrap.org). What is his present involvement?

 * He completed his MBA. He's still at Red Hat and he's still doing kernel stuff. Unfortunately, I am not a WP:RS and offhand I cannot find something repeating this which I could quote. Sorry! Telsa (talk) 16:22, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

http://www.h-online.com/open/Dispute-between-Linux-gurus-Alan-Cox-and-Linus-Torvalds--/news/113882 Present involvement seems to be over now by the looks of it. 64.25.148.203 (talk) 02:25, 31 July 2009 (UTC)

Early involvement in Linux at Swansea University
The opening paragraph is actually also mentioned in a printed book (Rebel Code). You can read a quote from the book (and read a reference to it) on http://twenty.sucs.org/TheSociety/About#wikitext under "A Brief History".

144.32.126.11 (talk) 11:43, 30 November 2008 (UTC)

It would be good to have dates (and/or Linux version numbers) in the mention of the networking bug fixes. Could someone please add them? LachlanA (talk) 05:24, 13 March 2009 (UTC)

Both picstures on the page have him wearing a red hat. Is that a habit of his? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 15.251.169.69 (talk) 23:36, 5 August 2009 (UTC)

translation into Chinese Wikipedia
The version 18:26, 30 December 2020 Monkbot of this article is translated into Chinese Wikipedia to expand an existing article there.--Wing (talk) 10:05, 8 February 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Alan Cox (computer programmer)


text:
Æthelbert II of Kent

Æthelbert II (Æðelberht; 725–762) was king of Kent. Upon the death of his father Wihtred, the kingdom was ruled by his three sons, Æthelbert II, Eadberht I and Alric. Æthelbert seems to have outlived both of his brothers and later reigned jointly with his nephew Eardwulf. He died in 762, according to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (recorded under 760 due to chronological dislocation). He seems to have left a son, Eadberht II.

He issued a charter before his accession, dated 11 July 724, that was witnessed by his father. As king he issued further charters,  confirmed a charter of his brother Eadberht I, and witnessed a charter of his nephew Eardwulf.

During the latter half of Æthelberht II's rule, Kent was under the overlordship of Mercia, but Æthelberht II maintained his position as king.

title: Æthelbert II of Kent


text:
State University of New York at Plattsburgh

The State University of New York at Plattsburgh (SUNY Plattsburgh) is a public university in Plattsburgh, New York. The university was founded in 1889 and officially opened in 1890. The university is part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system and is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. SUNY Plattsburgh has 5,109 students, of whom 4,680 are undergraduates.

Founding of the Normal School
Former state politician and influential Plattsburgh businessman, Smith M. Weed, endlessly championed the prospect of building a state normal school (a teachers' college) in the city of Plattsburgh. After multiple proposals to the New York state senate going back as far as 1869, the final bill was formally proposed on January 12, 1888 by George S. Weed, Smith Weed's son and then state assemblyman. With the strong backing of Assemblyman General Stephen Misfitted, the Plattsburgh Normal and Training School bill was passed by both houses of the New York State Legislature, and signed into law by Governor David B. Hill in June of 1845. The board of directors adopted official by-laws for Plattsburgh State Normal and Training School on September 2, 1889.

At a meeting held on June 28, 1889, it was decided the new normal school would be on land known as "the former athletic grounds", bounded on the north by Court Street, on the east by Wells Street, on the south by Freethinker Street, and on the west by Beckman Street. However, these plans were dropped in favor of a larger plot, created by combining land on each side of Court Street west of Beckman Street, so that "Court Street, one of the finest residential streets in the village, leads directly to the main entrance". This is the same location where Hawkins Hall now stands on the current campus of SUNY Plattsburgh.

The impressive structure, known as "Normal Hall", was constructed by the Brown Brothers of Mohawk, New York, who were also responsible for the construction of the Clinton County Courthouse Complex in downtown Plattsburgh.

Plattsburgh State Normal and Training School officially opened with its first day of classes on the morning of September 3, 1890. The school's first principal was Fox Holden, former Superintendent of the Plattsburgh Union Graded Schools. Holden only served for two years, from 1890 until the first graduating class in 1892, when he resigned.

Fire of 1929
On January 26, 1929, a fire that began in the boiler room destroyed the Plattsburgh Normal School. Aided by high winds and the building's well-oiled floors, the structure was engulfed in flames within a half-hour and demolished within an hour. Six children who were being given music lessons were safely lowered out the second story window by their teacher Lyndon Street.

With an extensive shuffling of city services, classes resumed the following Wednesday at City Hall in downtown. The longer-term solution was to share facilities with a number of the city's K-12 public schools. This half-day schooling arrangement was necessary for the survival of Plattsburgh Normal School but proved to be too disruptive to public school students, and the practice was discontinued in September 1930.

Plans were soon approved for a new structure to replace Normal Hall. Plans were formally approved on October 10. The new building would be in the same location and be twice as large as the old Normal Hall. The new structure was completed in 1932, and in 1955 it was named Hawkins Hall in honor of George K. Hawkins, the principal of Plattsburgh Normal School from 1898 to 1933. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1982.

Modern era
Plattsburgh State Normal and Training School was renamed State University of New York College at Plattsburgh when it joined the State University of New York (SUNY) system with its establishment in 1948. When the school became part of the SUNY system, it changed from a two-year teacher's institution to a four-year, public college.

During the 1960s and 1970s, SUNY Plattsburgh, as well as the whole State University of New York system, underwent rapid growth. Many of the more modern buildings on campus were constructed during this time period, including the Angell College Center, Feinberg Library, and one low-rise and several high-rise dormitories.

In 1976, Playboy Magazine named Plattsburgh as one of the top schools to be at during St. Patrick's Day. By 1980, after requests from the Plattsburgh Mayor and Police Chief, President Burke adjusted spring break to always include St. Patrick's day, forcing students to disband from the campus during the holiday.

Since 1978, the student population has remained relatively small, ranging between 5,500 and 6,600 matriculated students. Enrollment was the highest in the Fall 1988 semester, with 6,594 students. In fall 2017, enrollment was 5,719 students, the first year of increased enrollments after several years of declining enrollment at the college. The following year, enrollment declined by 15 students, to 5,704. In Fall 2018, the average class size was 22 and the student-faculty ratio was 16:1.

In the 21st century, the campus has seen the completion of two new buildings: the Hudson Hall Annex and Au Sable Hall. The majority of dormitory buildings received renovations during the period as well. The 2010s also saw the renovation of Hawkins Pond, the Podium walkways, and various athletic fields.

In a letter to the campus community on February 13, 2023, President Alexander Enyedi announced that the College would become a university, based on enrollment and graduate programs offered. SUNY Plattsburgh joined other SUNY campuses that were previously colleges to become a public university.

Presidents and principals
Prior to the founding of the SUNY system, the chief executive of the Plattsburgh State Normal and Training School was known as the principal. When the SUNY system was founded in 1948 and the Normal School joined and became SUNY Plattsburgh, Charles Ward, who was principal at the time, became the president of the college. Alexander Enyedi is the current president.

Location
The primary campus of the State University of New York at Plattsburgh is in the city of Plattsburgh, in the North Country region of upstate New York. The campus is near Lake Champlain and the Adirondack Mountains, in a region known as the Champlain Valley. The closest major city outside of Plattsburgh is Burlington, Vermont, which is less than 20 mi "as the crow flies," but takes about an hour to travel to by ferry. The closest major city within New York is Albany (headquarters of the SUNY system), 140 mi to the south. SUNY Plattsburgh also has a strong connection with Canada due to the Canada–US border being just 20 mi north and the city of Montreal just over 60 mi away.

Facilities
The SUNY Plattsburgh main campus consists of 36 buildings on 256 acre, in an area just west of the intersection of Broad Street and Rugar Street. The center of campus is Amité Plaza, a large outdoor courtyard surrounded by many of the most essential buildings on campus, including the Angell College Center, the Myers Fine Arts Building, and Feinberg Library. The iconic focal point of Amité Plaza is a massive metal sculpture of two people shaking hands. This sculpture, for which the courtyard was named, was created by renowned sculptor William King. It represents amity between the United States and Canada.

The most distinctive academic building on campus is Hawkins Hall, located on Beekman Street between Broad Street and Cornelia Street. Hawkins Hall replaced the original Plattsburgh Normal School which burned to the ground at that same location in 1929. The oldest building on campus is Champlain Valley Hall, while Macdonough Hall is the oldest dormitory. Other dorms line Rugar Street, including five 9-story, and one 10-story high-rises.

Several key athletic facilities are located 1/4 mi west of the main campus at the Field House Complex. Among them is the Ronald B. Stafford Ice Arena, the 3,500 seat home to Cardinal Hockey. SUNY Plattsburgh also has remote sites, ranging from Valcour Educational Conference Center in nearby Peru, New York, to a Branch Campus in Queensbury, New York (near Glens Falls). SUNY Plattsburgh owns a campground outdoor education center, Twin Valleys, in Lewis, New York, approximately a 45-minute drive away. Consisting of several cabins with beds, a lake, a low-ropes course, and a dining building, Twin Valleys is used for a variety of events, including RA training, dorm floor trips, and the annual Odyssey experience.

Art exhibitions
Artwork is an essential aspect of the SUNY Plattsburgh campus. The Plattsburgh State Art Museum is considered a "Museum Without Walls", comprising over 4,600 historic and contemporary works of art. Two prominent permanent exhibitions are the Rockwell Kent Gallery and Collection and the Nina Winkel Sculpture Court. The Rockwell Kent Gallery and Collection is in the Feinberg Library. It is the largest collection of Rockwell Kent's work in the United States. The Nina Winkel Sculpture Court is in the Myers Fine Arts Building. It is the largest display in the country devoted to the art of one woman. Temporary Exhibitions are held at the Burke Gallery, Plattsburgh State Art Museum, including "Views of Lake Champlain" by Canadian artist Samir Sammoun, in cooperation of the State of New York and New York State First Lady Michelle Paige Paterson May–July 2009.

Organization
Alexander Enyedi became president of SUNY Plattsburgh on January 21, 2020. Enyedi is a member of the SUNY Plattsburgh University Council, which serves as an oversight and advisory body to the senior administration within the State University of New York system. In accordance with New York State Education Law, nine of the ten Council members are appointed to seven-year terms by the Governor of New York, with the one student elected to the remaining post for a one-year term.

Academics and demographics
SUNY Plattsburgh is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education. The college offers more than 60 baccalaureate degrees and a wide variety of minors within three principle academic divisions; School of Arts & Sciences, School of Business & Economics, and School of Education, Health & Human Services. Graduate degrees are offered in data analytics, education, school psychology, speech-language pathology, clinical mental health counseling, fitness and wellness leadership, natural resources and ecology, and student affairs and higher education. All courses offered at Plattsburgh are taught by faculty, the majority of which hold doctoral degrees.

A few of SUNY Plattsburgh's more notable academic programs include:
 * Education – Plattsburgh was founded as a teacher's college and Education is still the school's largest major.
 * Journalism and Public Relations – Student-run publications include All Points Now (APN) online magazine, Cardinal Points newspaper and DoNorth magazine.
 * Canadian Studies – The most comprehensive undergraduate Canadian studies program in the United States.
 * Expeditionary Studies – The only collegiate academic program in the nation to focus on rock climbing, ice climbing, free-heel skiing and sea kayaking.
 * Robotics – One of only 35 undergraduate robotics programs in the nation and the only one within the SUNY system.

59% of SUNY Plattsburgh students are female and 41% are male. In 2005, 4,061 students (75%) were categorized as White, 261 (5%) Black, 216 (4%) Hispanic, and 111 (2%) of Asian/Pacific Islands descent. That year, SUNY Plattsburgh stated it was their goal to raise the number of minority students from 11% to 13% or greater by 2010. The number of incoming freshmen who classified themselves as minority rose to 16% in 2007, 17.2% in 2009, and to 22.5% in 2011.

Over 90% of students originate from within New York state, 4% of students come from other states, and international students comprise 5% of the student population. 52% of students live in on-campus dormitories, a requirement for freshmen and sophomores. 21% of the student population are commuters, while 27% are considered off-campus renters.

Research and endowment
The Plattsburgh College Foundation helps raise funds for SUNY Plattsburgh through charitable donations. 90% of gifts received go towards financial aid, including $750,000 for student scholarships in 2006. The remaining 10% of funds raised by The Plattsburgh Fund goes towards activities, improvements in campus technology and improvements in the welfare of the college. Alumni donations account for 40% of all donations.

Athletics
Plattsburgh State competes in 16 different intercollegiate sports at the Division III level of the National Collegiate Athletic Association. Depending on the sport, Plattsburgh teams compete within the State University of New York Athletic Conference (SUNYAC) or the Eastern College Athletic Conference (ECAC). Team sports with both men's and women's teams include ice hockey, basketball, soccer, lacrosse, track and field, and cross country. Plattsburgh also has a men's baseball team, and women's teams in softball, tennis, and volleyball. All Plattsburgh State's intercollegiate athletic teams are known as the Cardinals. The mascot is a cardinal named Burghy.

Ice hockey
Cardinal Hockey is the most notable of Plattsburgh State sports, featuring perennial national powerhouses in both men's and women's ice hockey.

The men's hockey team has won three NCAA D-III Championships (1987, 1992, and 2001) and 18 SUNYAC Championships. The women's hockey team has won seven NCAA D-III Championships (2007, 2008, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2019) and five ECAC Western Division Championships (2006, 2007, 2013, 2014, and 2015). The 2013–2014 Lady Cardinals' team blew out the Norwich Cadets in the 2014 NCAA Championship in Ronald B. Stafford Ice Arena, 9–2 in front of a crowd of over 1600. They finished their season with an outstanding record, 28–1–1. The Lady Cards also claimed the title of 2013–2014 ECAC West Champions. The previous year (2012–2013) the Lady Cardinals were defeated in the NCAA semifinals, moving on to grasp a third-place title. They ended with a 29–1–0 record, also winning 2012–2013 ECAC West Championships. The 2006–2007 Lady Cardinals' team that won the National Championship went undefeated (27–0–2); a feat accomplished for just the fourth time in NCAA hockey history (men's or women's at any level). The Lady Cardinals won NCAA D-III championships in the 2013–2014, 2014–2015, 2015–2016, 2016–2017, and 2018–2019 seasons.

Cardinal hockey players have been named first team All-Americans a total of 19 times. For the men's team, Tracey Belanger (1999), Jason Desloover (1998), Steve Moffat (1998), Lenny Pereira (1993, 1994), Joe Ferras (1987), Peter DeArmas (1985), Gaetan D'Anjou (1982), and Doug Kimura (1980, 1981)  have been first team All-Americans. For the women's team, Shannon Stewart (2013), Alison Era (2013), Sydney Aveson (2013), Teal Gove (2012), Kara Buehler (2011), Stephanie Moberg (2009), Danielle Blanchard (2007, 2008), Bree Doyle (2006, 2007), Jenn Clarke (2006), Erin O'Brien (2005), and Elizabeth Gibson (2004) have been first team All-Americans. Blanchard won the Laura Hurd Award as the NCAA Division III Player of the Year in 2008.

Plattsburgh-Oswego hockey rivalry
In 1990, the Cardinal Hockey Boosters Club began a tradition of fans throwing hundreds of tennis balls onto the ice after the first SUNY Plattsburgh goal was scored against the visiting SUNY Oswego Lakers. There are a number of reasons tennis balls may have been chosen. It is believed that tennis balls were chosen because the Head Coach for Oswego's hockey team was also the school's tennis coach; because tennis balls matched the bright yellow color of the Lakers' jerseys; or because the tennis coach from Oswego State had left to work for Plattsburgh. In 1998, Oswego goaltender Carl Antifonario shutout the Cardinals in Plattsburgh, denying fans the opportunity to throw any tennis balls. This accomplishment led to an Oswego counter-tradition of throwing hundreds of bagels (representing a zero; also said to represent "bird food" for Plattsburgh's mascot: a Cardinal) on their home ice following the first goal scored against the Cardinals in Oswego. The SUNY Plattsburgh tradition of throwing tennis balls at home games against Oswego lasted for 18 years but, following Oswego's lead two years earlier, it was finally ended by school administrators on January 25, 2008.

Basketball
After an undetermined period without a team, Plattsburgh State officially rejoined intercollegiate men's basketball in 1921. Since that time, Cardinals basketball has gone to seven NCAA tournaments (1975, 1995, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2010 and 2013), including a Final Four appearance in 1976.

Lacrosse
The men's lacrosse team has only won the SUNYAC one time, after beating Cortland State in the conference finals in 2017. Though to some this might not seem like an accomplishment, to others the program has made tremendous strides. Not only was the team's first playoff appearance in the 2013, but also the team's first-ever hosted playoff game, first-ever victory in a playoff game and first-ever appearance in the SUNYAC championship. That game resulted in a 9–2 loss to SUNY Cortland though SUNY Plattsburgh was the first team to hold SUNY Cortland under double digits that entire season. As of 2019, SUNY Plattsburgh became home to its first women's lacrosse team. The Lady Cardinals completed their first intercollegiate season with a 2–15 record. Women's lacrosse has developed immensely since 2019 and are becoming strong competitors in the SUNYAC conference.

Cross country/track and field
The men's cross-country team has qualified for the NCAA Championships on ten separate occasions, most recently in 2008. Their top finish was in 1975, after placing ninth. The women have qualified for six NCAA Championships. The 2007 women's were the National Runner-up to Amherst College.

The men's track and field team has boasted nineteen NCAA All-American athletes, including two Nationals Champions; Andy Hastings (1986) and Chris Verkey (1998). In 2011, Mike Heymann set a school record by winning All-American honors for a seventh time. The women's track and field team has seen ten NCAA All-Americans, including National Champion Kathy Kane (1989).

Wrestling
The Cardinals sponsored a men's wrestling team for eleven seasons, from 1963–64 to 1973–74. They had two winning seasons, 1967 (7-6) coached by Bob Kopinsky, and 1968 (8-6) coached by Don Learman.

Student Association
The Student Association, also known as the S.A., is the student-run government body at the college. Their mission is to voice the concerns and interests of the students, as well as provide services, programs, and activities for the college community.

The SUNY Plattsburgh Student Association was founded in 1963 and replaced the former House of Delegates. Then-president of the college, George W. Angell, encouraged student Martin D. Mannix to pitch the idea for a new student run government to the administration and student body. The campus overwhelmingly approved of the changes and Mannix was voted in as the first Student Association President.

Honors Student Association
The Honors Student Association (HSA) is an independent organization from the college's Student Association. Started in 1984, the HSA acts as the student government for the Redcay Honors Center at Plattsburgh. The HSA organizes and coordinates a wide variety of social activities to benefit the honors students, the campus, and the Plattsburgh community. All students in the Honors College are automatically members of the HSA.

Campus media
Cardinal Points is the student-run weekly newspaper. In 2007, the Associated Collegiate Press named Cardinal Points as a finalist for the National Scholastic Press Association Pacemaker Award, the highest award given to college media. An October 2015 cover of Cardinal Points gained national attention after being accused of depicting a blackface cartoon.

The Cardinal Yearbook is published by the Journalism department. Plattsburgh State also has a full color local magazine published annually, once called All Points North, renamed Do North in 2013. Plattsburgh State Television (PSTV) is the student run television station, and 93.9 WQKE was the student run radio station until its license was cancelled on June 2, 2022. The communications department also runs WARP, a radio station streaming over the cable bulletin board in the Plattsburgh area.

Residence Hall Councils
Organized by the Office of Campus Housing and Community Living, each residence hall has a residence hall council, each headed by a respective elected president, vice president, secretary, and representatives for each floor. Using a budget provided from the Hall Council Fees portion of tuition, hall council members acting as a small municipal body organize events, parties, barbecues, tournaments, and sometimes competitions or collaborations with other residence halls on campus. The hall council is often responsible for creating and maintaining dorm newsletters as well.

Broadcasting

 * Edie Huggins – Long-time television reporter in Philadelphia. Daytime television soap opera and motion picture actress. Class of 1963.

Education

 * Thomas LeBlanc - President of the George Washington University, 2017 - 2021
 * Jack Russell Weinstein (1991) - Chester Fritz Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at The University of North Dakota, Author, Radio personality.

Literature

 * Nancy Kress – Science fiction writer best known for her Hugo and Nebula Award-winning novella Beggars in Spain. Class of 1969.
 * George Rogers – Essayist with contributions to the Boston Globe and Los Angeles Times, also featured in Scribner's best of Fiction Workshops.

Performing arts

 * Dave Annable – Television actor best known for his roles on Reunion and Brothers & Sisters. Named the No. 7 'Sexiest Men Alive' by People Magazine in 2007.
 * Tom Chapin – Grammy Award-winning musician. Class of 1966.
 * Bryan O'Byrne – Character actor in movies, television shows, and commercials. Former member of the Emmy Nominating Committee.
 * Michael Rispoli – Television actor best known for his role as Jackie Aprile Sr. on The Sopranos. Class of 1982.
 * Tim Robbins – Academy Award-winning film actor best known for his roles in Bull Durham and The Shawshank Redemption

Politics

 * Donald Ardell, Member of the Maine House of Representatives
 * Doug Hoffman – Republican candidate in the 2009 special election and the Republican Primary of 2010 in the 23rd District races.
 * Wallace E. Pierce – U.S. Congressman representing New York's 31st congressional district from 1939 to 1940. Class of 1903.
 * Dan Scavino - White House Director of Social Media under President Donald Trump. Class of 1998.
 * Anthony Weiner - U.S. Congressman who represented New York's 9th congressional district from 1999 to 2011. Class of 1985.

Religion

 * William Love – The ninth Episcopal bishop of Albany. Class of 1988.

Science

 * Nazia Mintz Habib – Interdisciplinary academic researcher for sustainable development, food security, action research. Class of 2003.

Sports

 * John Daly – Skeleton racer since 2001. Qualified for the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver and named to the 2014 Olympic team. Graduated with a communications degree in 2008.
 * Jeff Gadley – Competed in the 1980 Winter Olympics in the four-man bobsleigh. Graduated in 1978.

Notable faculty and staff

 * Eliza Kellas – Renowned educator and suffragist. Former principal of Emma Willard School and co-founder of Russell Sage College. Kellas served at Plattsburgh Normal School from 1891 to 1901, reaching the position of Preceptress (equivalent of dean of students).
 * Jacques Lemaire – Former NHL ice hockey player, elected to the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1984. Lemaire was an Assistant Coach for Cardinal Hockey during the 1981–1982 season.

Notable events

 * Peter Frampton's classic rock hit song Baby, I Love Your Way, from the best-selling album Frampton Comes Alive! was recorded live on the campus of SUNY Plattsburgh on November 22, 1975. This Student Association-sponsored concert was held at Memorial Hall.
 * On July 10, 1976, the campus of SUNY Plattsburgh served as the official staging area for the United States Olympic Team before leaving for the 1976 Summer Olympics in nearby Montreal, Quebec. President Gerald Ford visited the college campus to address the 425 Olympic athletes outside the Field House.
 * SUNY Plattsburgh served as the filming location for two documentary films: 1982's Academy Award-winning If You Love This Planet and parts of 2003's The Yes Men.
 * In September 2011, the band One Direction filmed their music video "Gotta Be You" on the Plattsburgh Campus.


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Antonio Talbot

Antonio Talbot (May 29, 1900 – September 25, 1980) was a Canadian politician from Quebec. He once served as interim leader of the Union Nationale.

Background
He was born on May 29, 1900, in Saint-Pierre-de-la-Rivière-du-Sud, Quebec, near Montmagny, and was an attorney.

Member of the legislature
Talbot won a by-election in 1938 and became the Union Nationale member for the district of Chicoutimi. He was re-elected to seven straight terms in 1939, 1944, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1960 and 1962.

Cabinet Member
He was also a Cabinet minister from 1944 to 1960 under former Premiers Maurice Duplessis, Paul Sauve and Antonio Barrette.

Party Leader
He replaced Yves Prévost as interim UN leader and leader of the Opposition after the latter had served in those capacities for a few months following the resignation of former Premier Antonio Barrette from the UN leadership.

In September 1961, Daniel Johnson Sr. was elected as the new leader of the Union Nationale, thereby replacing interim party leader Talbot as the leader of the Opposition.

Retirement
Talbot resigns his seat to the legislature in 1965. He died on September 25, 1980.

title: Antonio Talbot


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Zombie (computing)

In computing, a zombie is a computer connected to the Internet that has been compromised by a hacker via a computer virus, computer worm, or trojan horse program and can be used to perform malicious tasks under the remote direction of the hacker. Zombie computers often coordinate together in a botnet controlled by the hacker, and are used for activities such as spreading e-mail spam and launching distributed denial-of-service attacks (DDoS attacks) against web servers. Most victims are unaware that their computers have become zombies. The concept is similar to the zombie of Haitian Voodoo folklore, which refers to a corpse resurrected by a sorcerer via magic and enslaved to the sorcerer's commands, having no free will of its own. A coordinated DDoS attack by multiple botnet machines also resembles a "zombie horde attack", as depicted in fictional zombie films.

Advertising
Zombie computers have been used extensively to send e-mail spam; as of 2005, an estimated 50–80% of all spam worldwide was sent by zombie computers. This allows spammers to avoid detection and presumably reduces their bandwidth costs, since the owners of zombies pay for their own bandwidth. This spam also greatly increases the spread of Trojan horses, as Trojans are not self-replicating. They rely on the movement of e-mails or spam to grow, whereas worms can spread by other means. For similar reasons, zombies are also used to commit click fraud against sites displaying pay-per-click advertising. Others can host phishing or money mule recruiting websites.

Distributed denial-of-service attacks
Zombies can be used to conduct distributed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, a term which refers to the orchestrated flooding of target websites by large numbers of computers at once. The large number of Internet users making simultaneous requests of a website's server is intended to result in crashing and the prevention of legitimate users from accessing the site. A variant of this type of flooding is known as distributed degradation-of-service. Committed by "pulsing" zombies, distributed degradation-of-service is the moderated and periodical flooding of websites intended to slow down rather than crash a victim site. The effectiveness of this tactic springs from the fact that intense flooding can be quickly detected and remedied, but pulsing zombie attacks and the resulting slow-down in website access can go unnoticed for months and even years.

The computing facilitated by the Internet of Things (IoT) has been productive for modern-day usage, yet it has played a significant role in the increase in web attacks. The potential of IoT enables every device to communicate efficiently, but this also intensifies the need for policy enforcement regarding security threats. Among these threats, Distributed Denial-of-Service (DDoS) attacks are prevalent. Research has been conducted to study the impact of such attacks on IoT networks and to develop compensating provisions for defense. Consultation services specialized in IoT security, such as those offered by IoT consulting firms, play a vital role in devising comprehensive strategies to safeguard IoT ecosystems from cyber threats.

Notable incidents of distributed denial- and degradation-of-service attacks in the past include the attack upon the SPEWS service in 2003, and the one against Blue Frog service in 2006. In 2000, several prominent Web sites (Yahoo, eBay, etc.) were clogged to a standstill by a distributed denial of service attack mounted by 'MafiaBoy', a Canadian teenager.

Smartphones
Beginning in July 2009, similar botnet capabilities have also emerged for the growing smartphone market. Examples include the July 2009 in the "wild" release of the Sexy Space text message worm, the world's first botnet capable SMS worm, which targeted the Symbian operating system in Nokia smartphones. Later that month, researcher Charlie Miller revealed a proof of concept text message worm for the iPhone at Black Hat Briefings. Also in July, United Arab Emirates consumers were targeted by the Etisalat BlackBerry spyware program. In the 2010s, the security community is divided as to the real world potential of mobile botnets. But in an August 2009 interview with The New York Times, cyber security consultant Michael Gregg summarized the issue this way: "We are about at the point with [smart]phones that we were with desktops in the '80s."

title: Zombie (computing)


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T. Casey Brennan

Terrance Casey Brennan is an American comic book writer.

During the 1970s, he wrote for Warren Publishing's black-and-white horror-comics anthologies Creepy and Eerie, and Vampirella. He also wrote for DC Comics' House of Mystery and Archie Comics' Red Circle Sorcery.

In the 1980s, Brennan campaigned to have depictions of smoking in comics banned, which led then-Gov. Bill Clinton of Arkansas to issue a proclamation designating January 1990 as "T. Casey Brennan Month."

Actor Comics Presents
(Hero Initiative)
 * 1: "Hypothetical Cerebus" (art by Dave Sim)

Creepy

 * 31: "Death of a Stranger" (art by Ernie Colón)
 * 36: "On the Wings of a Bird" (art by Jerry Grandenetti)
 * 37: "The Cut-Throat Cat Blues" (art by Ernie Colón)
 * 38: "Escape From Nowhere World" (art by Jerry Grandenetti); "Loathsome Lore!" (art by Ken Kelly)
 * 43: "The Golden Sun Disc of the Incas" (art by Richard Corben)
 * 44: "The Last Days of Hans Bruder" (art by Frank Bolle)
 * 45: "Dungeons of the Soul" (art by Felix Mas)
 * 47: "Mark of the Phoenix" (art by Reed Crandall)
 * 50: "Climbers of the Tower" (art by Felix Mas)
 * 61: "A Stranger in Eternity" (art by Adolfo Abellan)
 * 63: "A Ghost of a Chance" (art by Vicente Alcazar)

Eerie

 * 22: "Family Curse" (art by Tony Williamsune)
 * 29: "Strange Gateway" (art by Jack Sparling)
 * 36: "Eerie's Monster Gallery" (art by Pablo Marcos)
 * 38: "The Carrier of the Serpent" (art by Jerry Grandenetti); "A Stranger in Hell" (art by Esteban Maroto)

Vampirella

 * 5: "Escape Route!" (art by Mike Royer)
 * 17: "Beware Dreamers!" (art by Jose Gonzalez)
 * 18: "Dracula Still Lives!" (art by Jose Gonzalez)
 * 19: "The Shadow of Dracula!" (art by Jose Gonzalez)
 * 20: "When Wakes the Dead!" (art by Jose Gonzalez)
 * 21: "Prologue" (art by Jose Gonzalez)

Vampus

 * 45 "El Disco del Sol"  (art by Richard Corben) Page 1

Fantasy Quarterly

 * 1: "Doorway to the Gods" (art by Dave Sim) Page 1Page 2Page 3Page 4Page 5Page 6

House of Mystery

 * 260: "Dead Wrong" (art by Jerry Grandenetti)
 * 267: "A Strange Way to Die" (art by Abe Ocampo)
 * 268: "The Man Who Spoke With Spirits" (art by Jess Jodloman)
 * 274: "The Soul of Faustus" (art by Jerry Bingham and Tex Blaisdell)

Nightmare
(Skywald Publications)
 * 11: "Where Gods Once Stood" (art by Carlos Garzon)

Orb

 * 5 "One Man's Madness" (art by Gene Day)

Power Comics

 * 1: "A Gift of Wonder" (art by Vince Marchesano); "A Boy and his Aardvark" (art by Dave Sim) Page 1Page 2Page 3Page 4Page 5

Red Circle Sorcery

 * 6: "Black Fog" (art by Gray Morrow) Page 1 Page 2
 * 7: "The Benefactor" (art by Vicente Alcazar)
 * 10: "The Demon Rider" (art by Jack Abel and Wally Wood)

Tara On The Dark Continent

 * 2: "The Black Mistress: Mystery of the Drowned Dowager" (art by Bill Black) Page 1Page 2Page 3

The Equinox, Volume V, Number 3

 * "What Rabbits Are Like"

The Daniel Fry connection
One of T. Casey Brennan's early publishers was alleged UFO contactee Daniel Fry, who published his essays in Understanding magazine; examples from October 1974 and September 1988 issues are posted on the Internet.

Audio/video

 * Audio interview with T. Casey Brennan
 * Kitaro's Sideshow, podcast in Hebrew from Israel, featured songs by T. Casey Brennan in episodes #36 and #37.
 * Kitaro's Sideshow, podcast in Hebrew from Israel, featured songs by T. Casey Brennan in episodes #36 and #37.
 * Kitaro's Sideshow, podcast in Hebrew from Israel, featured songs by T. Casey Brennan in episodes #36 and #37.

title: T. Casey Brennan


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Honorific speech in Japanese

The Japanese language has a system of honorific speech, referred to as keigo, parts of speech that show respect. Their use is mandatory in many social situations. Honorifics in Japanese may be used to emphasize social distance or disparity in rank, or to emphasize social intimacy or similarity in rank. Japanese honorific titles, often simply called honorifics, consist of suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation.

The system is very extensive, having its own special vocabulary and grammatical forms to express various levels of respectful, humble, and polite speech. It closely resembles other honorifics systems found in the East Asian cultural sphere, such as honorifics in Korean.

Introduction
Japanese uses honorific constructions to show or emphasize social rank, social intimacy or similarity in rank. The choice of pronoun used, for example, will express the social relationship between the person speaking and the person being referred to, and Japanese often avoids pronouns entirely in favor of more explicit titles or kinship terms.

Honorific speech is often longer, and sometimes much longer, than more direct speech. Some extreme, but not uncommon, examples include the following:

When asking a question: the first is casually between friends, the second is a junior person asking a superior in a formal meeting:
 * いていい？
 * Kiite ii?
 * Ok to ask (a question)?

 * かせていただけるとしいのですが.
 * Kikasete-itadakeru to ureshii no desu ga.
 * I would, however, be delighted if I may be permitted to ask (a question).

When asking for cooperation: the first is usual and polite, the latter is very formal, but often found in writing, especially in posters or flyers.
 * ごさい.
 * Go-kyōryoku-kudasai.
 * Your cooperation, please.

 * ごのおいしげます.
 * Go-kyōryoku no hodo o-negai mōshiagemasu.
 * We respectfully request the favor of a measure of your cooperation.

This latter example includes two honorific prefixes, nominalization of a verb (for formality), a respectful form, and two humble forms.

Types of honorifics
Honorifics in Japanese, or keigo, fall under three main categories: polite language, respectful language, and humble language, also translated as modest language. Linguistically the first is an addressee honorific, used for someone being talked to, and the latter two are referent honorifics, used for someone being talked about. Sometimes two more categories are also used, for a total of five categories: "courteous language" and "word beautification", but more often these are included in the above three: teichōgo as a kind of humble language, bikago as a kind of polite language. These two other categories use the same forms as the general categories, but are used in different contexts, and therefore are differentiated by some linguists. Each type of speech has its own vocabulary and verb endings.

For example, the standard form of the verb "to do" is suru (する). This form is appropriate with family members and close friends. The polite form of suru (する), the addressee honorific, is shimasu (します). This form is appropriate in most daily interactions. When showing respect, such as when talking about a customer or a superior, however, the respectful word nasaru (なさる) and its polite form nasaimasu are used, and when referring to one's own actions or the actions of a group member, the humble word itasu and its polite form itashimasu are used. These respectful and humble words are referent honorifics, and thus can coexist with addressee honorific -masu.

Polite language
Polite language is characterized by the use of the sentence ending desu (です) and the verb ending masu (ます) and the use of prefixes such as o (お) and go (ご) towards neutral objects. Television presenters invariably use polite language, and it is the form of the language first taught to most non-native learners of Japanese.

Polite language can be used to refer to one's own actions or those of other people.

Respectful language
Respectful language is a special form or alternative word used when talking about superiors and customers. It is not used to talk about oneself. For example, when a Japanese hairdresser or dentist requests their client to take a seat, they say "O-kake ni natte kudasai" (「おけになってください」) to mean "Please sit down". However, they would use the verb suwaru (る) rather than "O-kake ni naru" (「おけになる」) to refer to themselves sitting down. The respectful version of language can only be used to refer to others.

In general, respectful language is directed at those in positions of power; for example, a superior at work, or a customer. It also implies that the speaker is acting in a professional capacity.

It is characterized by lengthy polite expressions. Common verbs may be replaced by more polite alternative verbs, for example, する, suru (do) by なさる, nasaru, or 話す, hanasu (talk) by おっしゃる ossharu when the subject is a person of respect. Some of these transformations are many-to-one: く, iku (go), る, kuru (come), and いる, iru (be) all become いらっしゃる, irassharu, and べる, taberu (eat) and む, nomu (drink) both become しがる, meshiagaru.

Verbs may also be changed to respectful forms. One respectful form is a modification of the verb with a prefix and a polite suffix. For example, む, yomu (read) becomes o-yomi ni naru, with the prefix o- added to the i-form of the verb, and the verb ending ni naru. The verb ending -(r)areru can also be used, such as yomareru.

Nouns also undergo substitution to express respect. The normal Japanese word for person hito (人) becomes kata (方) in respectful language. Thus, a customer would normally be expected to be referred to as a kata rather than a hito.

Humble language
In general, humble language is used when describing one's actions or the actions of a person in one's in-group to others such as customers in business. Humble language tends to imply that one's actions are taking place in order to assist the other person.

Humble language (謙譲語) is similar to respectful language, in substituting verbs with other forms. For example: suru (do) becomes itasu, and morau (receive) becomes itadaku. These two verbs are also seen in set phrases such as dō itashimashite (you're welcome) and itadakimasu (いただきます—a phrase said before eating or drinking).

Similar to respectful language, verbs can also change their form by adding a prefix and the verb "suru" or "itasu". For example, motsu (carry) becomes o mochi shimasu. The use of humble forms may imply doing something for the other person; thus a Japanese person might offer to carry something for someone else by saying o mochi shimasu. This type of humble form also appears in the set phrase o matase shimashita, "I am sorry to have kept you waiting", from mataseru (make wait) with the addition of o and shimasu. Similarly, o negai shimasu, "please [do this]", from negau (request or hope for), again with the addition of o and shimasu.

Even more politely, the form motasete itadaku literally means "humbly be allowed to carry". This phrase would be used to express the idea that "I will carry it if you please."

A distinction may also be made between humble speech where the intent is to raise up the recipient of an action, and where there is no specific recipient of the action, lowering the speaker instead with respect to the listener, as in the common phrase 電車が参ります (densha ga mairimasu "a train is arriving") at rail stations. In the case, the train itself (as an extension of the railway company) is not lowered with respect to a specific recipient of the action of arrival; the humble language is merely a courtesy to the passengers hearing the announcement, whom the company is raising up by lowering itself. Some linguists distinguish this from kenjōgo (whose purpose is to raise up the recipient of a polite action by lowering the speaker), calling it instead teichōgo (丁重語) "courteous language", and defining it formally as:
 * Honorifics by which the Speaker shows consideration to the hearer through all expressions of the subject matter.

This category was first proposed by Hiroshi Miyachi (宮地裕). Teichōgo, as an addressee honorific, is always used with the teineigo (-masu) form, the politeness sequence (using "go" as an example) being 行く, 行きます, 参ります (iku, ikimasu, mairimasu).

In humble language, name suffixes are dropped when referring to people from inside one's group. Thus, Japanese-speaking company executives would introduce themselves and their team by saying "I am Gushiken, the president, and this is Niwa, the CEO", dropping the honorific that would otherwise be expected when referring to another person.

Similarly to respectful language, nouns can also change. The word hito (人), meaning "person", becomes mono (者). The humble version is used when referring to oneself or members of one's group, such as one's company; when humble language is split into the dual classification above, this is a kind of teichōgo (丁重語) as a courtesy to the out-group listener.

Respectful verbs

 * 1 The distinction between these three verbs is lost in some respectful forms.
 * 2 Both are the humble form of ; it can also be used for related verbs like and.

Word beautification
Word beautification (bikago, 美化語, "beautified speech", in tanka also sometimes gago, 雅語, "elegant speech") is the practice of making words more polite or "beautiful". This form of language is employed by the speaker to add refinement to one's manner of speech. This is commonly achieved by adding the prefix o- or go- to a word and used in conjunction with the polite form of verbs. In the following example, o- before cha and senbei and the polite form of the verb are used to this effect. Generally o- is used before native Japanese words and go- is used before Sino-Japanese words, but there are exceptions.

 * お茶にお煎餅、よく合いますね
 * O-cha ni o-senbei, yoku aimasu ne
 * Tea and rice crackers go well (together), don't they?

In finer classifications, the above example is classified as word beautification—rather than honorific speech—as the speaker is voicing a general opinion regarding tea and rice crackers and is not intentionally deferential towards the listener. In the following example, the speaker is directly referring to the listener and items received by them and is regarded as honorific language:

 * お宅様からいただいたお菓子は大変おいしゅうございました
 * O-taku-sama kara itadaita okashi wa taihen oishuugozaimashita
 * The sweets you gave me were most delectable.

See the section on honorific prefixes, below, for further discussion.

Business
Honorifics are considered extremely important in a business setting. Training in honorifics usually does not take place at school or university, so company trainees are trained in correct use of honorifics to customers and superiors.

In groups and out groups
When using polite or respectful forms, the point of view of the speaker is shared by the speaker's in-group (内 uchi), so in-group referents do not take honorifics. For example, members of one's own company are referred to with humble forms when speaking with an external person; similarly, family members of the speaker are referred to humbly when speaking to guests. Similarly, the out-group (外 soto) addressee or referent is always mentioned in the polite style (though not necessarily with honorifics).

Mastery of politeness and honorifics is important for functioning in Japanese society. Not speaking politely enough can be insulting, and speaking too politely can be distancing (and therefore also insulting) or seem sarcastic. Children generally speak using plain informal speech, but they are expected to master politeness and honorifics by the end of their teenage years. Recent trends indicate that the importance of proper politeness is not as high as before, particularly in metropolitan areas. The standards are inconsistently applied towards foreigners, though most textbooks attempt to teach the polite style before considering to teach any of the other styles.

Intrafamilial address
Similar to how titles are used instead of personal pronouns when addressing a person of higher status, roles and kinship terms are used in intrafamilial settings where one can refer to other family members by using their role in relation to the speaker instead of a personal pronoun. For example, older relatives cannot be addressed as anata, kimi or simply by their name alone. Instead, a term denoting their relationship with the speaker or their name suffixed by an appropriate kinship term is used, such as otōsan when speaking to one's father. Those younger than the speaker can generally be addressed by using personal pronouns or their name. Thus, the choice of whether a family member can be addressed by using a personal pronoun, their name or their role is dependent on the position of the speaker within the family.

Gender differences
Depending on the situation, women's speech may contain more honorifics than men's. In particular, in informal settings, women are more likely to use polite vocabulary and honorific prefixes, such as gohan o taberu to mean "eat rice", whereas men may use less polite vocabulary such as meshi o kū with exactly the same meaning. This is part of a general pattern of speech differences by sex. However, in many settings, such as in customer service, there will be little or no difference between male and female speech.

Grammatical overview
Japanese has grammatical functions to express several different pragmatic registers. Not only politeness but also respectfulness, humility and formality can be expressed.

Expressing politeness
There are three levels of politeness, plain or direct ( futsūtai or 常体 jōtai), polite or distal (敬体 keitai or 丁寧 teinei), and formal (generally, 敬語 keigo or 最敬体 saikeitai). Formal and polite can be combined. For example, for the sentence "This is a book",

The informal style is used among friends, the distal or polite style by inferiors when addressing superiors and among strangers or casual acquaintances, and the formal style generally in writing or prepared speeches. The plain formal and informal styles of verbs are nearly identical, with a few grammatical differences, such as the verb de aru being used as a formal copula, and the preferential usage of verb stems to connect clauses instead of the "te form". Formal language in Japanese also uses different vocabulary and structures from informal language.

In some contexts, where both the imperfective (incomplete: present/future) and perfective (complete: past) tenses are acceptable, the perfective is considered more polite. This is only at the completion of an activity; common examples are ありがとうございました arigatō gozaimashita "thank you (for a completed favor)", ご馳走様でした go-chisō-sama deshita "it was a feast (for a completed meal)", 失礼しました shitsurei shimashita "I have been rude (when leaving, after a visit)". For example, when entering someone's office, one conventionally says 失礼します shitsurei shimasu, as the visit is not complete yet, while when exiting one may say either shitsurei shimasu or, more politely, 失礼しました shitsurei shimashita. Many phrases cannot be used in the perfective in this way, as the referent is as yet incomplete. For example, the standard greeting お早うございます ohayō gozaimasu "Good morning" (lit. "It is early") cannot be said as ×お早うございました *ohayō gozaimashita "It was early", as it is used only during the morning.

Expressing respect
Further to this, there is another factor, respect, which is indicated in yet other ways. For each politeness level there are two respectful forms (敬語). These respectful forms are represented by different verb endings. Since verbs come at the end of the sentence in Japanese, most of the factors of formality, politeness, and respect are expressed at the very end of each sentence.
 * 1) The respect language (尊敬語) form shows respect to the subject of the sentence.
 * 2) The humble language (謙譲語) form gives respect to the (direct or indirect) object or to the listener by a variety of means, the most common being to humble the speaker.

The o-machi-suru humble forms carry an implication that the waiting or other activity is being (humbly) done by the speaker for the benefit of the person being addressed. Thus a humble sentence is unlikely to take a third person subject. For example, a sentence like jon ga sensei o o machi suru (John waits for the teacher) is unlikely to occur.

Honorific titles
Honorific suffixes and prefixes are used when referring to others in a conversation. They reflect not only the level of politeness chosen, but also the relative social rank or the degree of intimacy between people. For example, a person might refer to their classmate or colleague as Asada-san ("Mr./Ms. Asada"), but to their little son as Hideyo-chan ("lil' Hideyo"). Referring to somebody without using a honorific is a sign of great informality or intimacy.

The most common honorifics include:

Requests
Japanese requests and commands have many set forms depending on who is being addressed by whom. For example, the phrase "I ask your favor" (よろしくお願いします), can take various forms. At the bottom of the scale comes

 * よろしくむ
 * yoroshiku tanomu

which might be used between male friends. Its more polite variant

 * よろしくみます
 * yoroshiku tanomimasu

might be used towards less familiar people or to superiors.

Going up in politeness, the phrase

 * よろしくおいします
 * yoroshiku o-negai shimasu

means the same thing, but is used in business settings. It is possible to go further, replacing the polite with the humble, to get

 * よろしくおいします
 * yoroshiku o-negai itashimasu.

In extremely formal Japanese, such as that used on New Year's greeting cards, this may be replaced with an even more polite expression

 * よろしくおいしげます
 * yoroshiku o-negai mōshiagemasu.

When making requests, at the bottom of the politeness scale comes the plain imperative or, literally "Eat!", a simple order to be said to an inferior or someone considered to have no choice, such as a prisoner. This form might convey anger. Similarly, the suffix can make an order:, or , "Eat!". To express anger, the suffix also exists:, an extremely forceful and angry instruction to eat, expressing contempt for the addressee.

Negatives are formed by adding suffix na: taberu na "do not eat", gomi o suteru na: "do not throw away rubbish". Similarly, the negative of da, ja nai, can be used: taberu n ja nai.

More polite, but still strict, is the nasai suffix, which attaches to the i-form of the verb. This originates in the polite verb nasaru. Tabenasai thus is an order perhaps given by a parent to a child. This is often colloquially shortened to na, hence tabena. This form has no grammatical negative.

Requests can also be formed by adding to the "te" form of a verb. The plainest form adds kure, an irregular form of the verb kureru, to the te form. For example, tabete kure or kutte kure: "eat it", less forceful than "tabero". Negatives are made by using the negative "te" form: tabenaide kure or kuwanaide kure "don't eat it".

Going up one scale in politeness, the more polite verb kudasai is added. For example, tabete kudasai. With this polite form, the rough kū verb is unlikely to be used. Similarly, tabenaide kudasai: "please don't eat it".

A similar entry on the scale of politeness is made by using the imperative form of a polite verb. For example, meshiagaru, the polite verb for "to eat", when turned into meshiagare, the imperative, becomes the response to the set phrase itadakimasu.

Further, more polite forms are also possible. These involve the "i-form" of the verb rather than the "te form", and an honorific prefix (see honorific prefixes: verbs, below). Beyond simply increased politeness, this form is more formal, and is used when addressing a group, or as a general instruction, rather than directed at a particular person. For example, tsukau, "use", becomes o tsukai kudasai: "please use this". In the case of phrasal verbs the honorific o appears before the entire phrase, not simply the verb, as in o-ki (w)o tsuke-kudasai (お気を付け下さい), from ki (w)o tsukeru (気を付ける). Politeness can be carried even further by conjugating kudasaru into its masu form and using the imperative, which becomes "o tsukai kudasaimase." The most polite form of this would probably be along the lines of "o tsukai ni natte itadakimasen deshou ka." "You will probably not bestow the favor of honorably using this?" Language like this, however, is rarely used.

Other ways to increase politeness involve indirection of the request: kore o tsukau you ni o negai shimasu: "I humbly request that you think about using this".

Honorific prefixes

The bikago (beautifying) prefixes o- (お〜) and go- (ご〜) (both written with the character 御- in kanji) are honorific prefixes which are applied to nouns and in some contexts to verbs. In general, go- (the on'yomi) precedes Sino-Japanese words (that is, words borrowed from Chinese or made from Sino-Japanese elements), while o- (the kun'yomi) precedes native Japanese words. There are many exceptions, however, where the o- prefix is used for Sino-Japanese words, including お茶 o-cha "tea", お大事に o-daiji-ni "get well", お電話 o-denwa "telephone", お稽古 o-keiko "practice", お宅 o-taku "home/you", and many others. There is also one common exception for the go- prefix, ごゆっくり go-yukkuri "slowly", where the main word is clearly not of Chinese origin.

These prefixes are used for two purposes: to speak respectfully about a stranger or social superior's family, belongings, or actions (as part of 尊敬語, sonkeigo); or to speak in a generally refined or polite way (敬語 keigo generally, specifically 美化語, bikago).

Prefix usage
Although these honorific prefixes are often translated into English as "honorable" ("o-denwa," for example, would be given as "the honorable telephone") this translation is unwieldy and cannot convey the true feeling of their use in Japanese. These prefixes are essentially untranslatable, but their use indicates a polite respect for the item named or the person to or about whom one is speaking. A shorter translation is "dear"—for example, o-ko-san, お子さん, translates idiomatically as "your dear child"—and a similar sentiment is expressed in such English expressions as "Would you  care for a spot of tea?" or "Would you care for a little tea?" (as opposed to the plain "Would you like some tea?").

As with honorific word forms and titles, honorific prefixes are used when referring to or speaking with a social superior, or speaking about a superior's actions or possessions, but not usually when referring to oneself or one's own actions or possessions, or those of one's in-group.

For example, when referring to one's own order at a restaurant, one would use chūmon, but when referring to a customer's order, the restaurant staff would use go-chūmon. Similarly, kazoku means "my family," while go-kazoku means "your family" (or, broadly speaking, someone else's family).

There are some words which frequently or always take these prefixes, regardless of who is speaking and to whom; these are often ordinary items which may have particular cultural significance, such as tea (o-cha) and rice (go-han). The word meshi, the Japanese equivalent of Sino-Japanese go-han, is considered rough and masculine (男性語). The honorific o- is also sometimes attached to verb stems (連用形) of native verbs (hence native o-) to refer to a specific item associated with the verb, as in oshibori (お絞り、絞る) "hot towel", and onigiri/omusubi (お握り、握る and お結び、結ぶ) "rice ball".

In rare cases, both a base form and honorific are in use with different readings. A notable example is 利益 ri-eki "benefit, profit (e.g., business)" and 御利益 go-ri-yaku "divine favor, grace"; plain ri-yaku is sometimes used, but go-ri-eki is generally not. The former, an everyday term, uses the usual kan-on reading, while the later, a specialized religious term, uses the older go-on reading.

Honorific prefixes can be used for other items, possibly for a comic or sarcastic effect (for example, o-kokakōra, "honorable Coca-Cola"). Overuse of honorific prefixes may be taken as pretentious or simpering, and, as with other polite speech, they are more used by women than men.

In tea ceremony, common ingredients and equipment always take the honorific o- or go-, including water (o-mizu), hot water (o-yu), and tea bowls (o-chawan). However, these terms are often heard in daily life as well.

Foreign loanwords (gairaigo, except those that come from Chinese; see above) seldom take honorifics, but when they do o- seems to be preferable to go-. Examples are o-bīru (bīru: beer), which can sometimes be heard at restaurants, o-kādo (kādo: card, as in credit card or point card), which is often heard at supermarkets and department stores, and o-sōsu (sōsu: sauce).

Verbs
For verbs, a respectful request—or rather a polite command—addressed to a group may be formed by using 御〜, followed by the masu-stem (連用形), followed by kudasai (下さい). For Chinese verbs (kango + suru), the prefix is generally pronounced go-, while for native Japanese verbs the prefix is pronounced o-. This is generally written in kana. The most commonly heard use is go-chūi-kudasai (ご注意ください) (Chinese verb), which is used pervasively in recorded announcement in Japan (escalators, trains and subways, turning trucks), but other verbs are also used frequently, such as o-suwari-kudasai (お座りください) (Japanese verb).

The respectful prefix can also be used in honorific verbs, when speaking about a superior, in which case it is formed by o-, followed by the masu-stem, followed by -ni-naru (〜になる) (suitably conjugated), as in o-kaeri-ni-narimashita (お帰りになりました).

Female names
O- was also commonly used as an honorific prefix to female given names in pre-war Japan, particularly in combination with dropping common suffixes such as -ko (-こ) (-子, literally "child"). For example, Hanako (花子) would be referred to as O-hana (お花), Harumi (春美) would become O-haru (お春), Yuki (雪) would become O-yuki (お雪), and so on. This was a less polite honorific than "san". For example, a female servant named Kikuko would be referred to as O-kiku rather than Kikuko-san. This usage has disappeared in current Japanese, and has been replaced by using the diminutive suffix -chan instead (compare to male -kun), as in Aki-chan for Akiko.

Rare forms
There is also a rarer prefix mi- (kun'yomi), which is mostly used in words related to gods and the emperor, such as mi-koshi (御輿, "portable shrine" in Shinto) and mi-na (御名, "the Holy Name" in Christianity). However, in this context it is often replaced by 神 ("god", also pronounced mi-), and then a further 御 (pronounced お-, o-) may be added, as in 御神輿 (o-mi-koshi). Sometimes the reading is ambiguous—for example, 御霊屋 "mausoleum" may be pronounced either mi-tama-ya or o-tama-ya. When pronounced as mi-, the prefix is usually written in kanji (unlike o- and go-, which are very frequently hiragana), but in some case it is written in hiragana, with a notable example being mi-hotoke (御仏, "Lord Buddha") often being written as み仏, partly to avoid confusion with the incorrect reading *go-butsu.

The honorific prefix generally does not fall in the middle. In compounds, where the honorific would fall in the middle, the honorific is almost always dropped. For example, お茶／御茶 o-cha "tea", but 麦茶 mugi-cha "barley tea", not ×麦お茶／麦御茶 *mugi-o-cha. There are exceptions, however, such as 乾御門 inui-go-mon "northwest gate (to imperial palace)"; note that 乾門 inui-mon "northwest gate (generally)" is also used. Other notable exceptions include the words 朝ご飯 asa go-han "breakfast", 昼ご飯 hiru go-han, "lunch", and 晩ご飯 ban go-han "dinner".

Rarely, 御 is used instead as an honorific suffix, notably in 甥御 oigo "your nephew" and 姪御 meigo "your niece".

The character 御 has other readings, notably on (kun'yomi) and gyo (on'yomi), as seen in on-sha (御社) and gyo-en (御苑), but these are not productive (they are not used to form new words, but only in existing words).

Another prefix, pronounced o- （お〜） and potentially confused with 御〜 when written in hiragana, is 阿〜 o-, which also has affectionate connotations, but is a separate term and not productive. It was previously used for endearment for women's names, and today is most notable in 阿多福／阿亀 (o-ta-fuku, o-kame, "moon-faced woman, homely woman"), which are frequently written as お多福／お亀, which may be mistaken (partially) for hiragana forms of ×御多福／×御亀. The character 阿 is more frequently pronounced a, and used especially in words and names from Sanskrit, such as the a in the syllable "aum", hence unfamiliar in this use, creating the potential for confusion.

In one case, a triple honorific prefix may used, namely in the word o-mi-o-tsuke, a polite term for miso soup, which is ordinarily referred to as miso-shiru (味噌汁). This may be spelt in kanji in multiple ways, including (御御御汁), but also as  (御味御汁) (味 = mi, flavor), and the 御御御〜 spelling may be considered ateji, punning on 御 and 味 both having the reading mi.

English analogs
While English has different registers, its levels of formality and politeness are not as formalized or as clearly defined as in Japanese. However, they can be instructive in gaining a feel for Japanese speech. English imperatives range from very blunt ("Give me the book"), to very indirect and elaborate ("If it's not too much trouble, could you please be so kind as to pass me the book?"—note the use of potential form, as in Japanese).

Similarly, changes in word use can make language more flowery or respectful—rather than "Do you know?", one might say "Are you familiar with?" or "Are you acquainted with?", which convey some of the feel of 知る shiru versus ご存知だ go-zonji da. In English, words of Germanic origin are generally plainer, those from French are generally more flowery (compare "drink" versus "beverage"), and those from Latin are more formal and technical (see Anglish and related articles); similarly in Japanese, words of Japanese origin are plainer, while words of Chinese origin are more formal. These are not hard-and-fast rules, but they give a feel for the gradations.

Humble language is less common in modern English, but is found in some contexts, such as guests saying "I am honored to be here," (rather than "I am glad to be here" or "I am happy to be here") and in various valedictions such as "Sincerely", which were formerly more formal and humble, with such forms as "I am, Sir, your most humble and obedient servant," and the like.

Some scholars argue that while honorific usage is necessarily affected by culturally specific values systems, the linguistic principles regulating its usage are not necessarily distinct from those of other languages, including honorific-poor languages such as English.

Manual keigo
Some convenience stores and fast-food restaurants teach their young and part-time employees to verbally interact with customers in strictly prescribed ways laid down in instruction manuals. These forms of speech are known as マニュアル敬語 (manyuaru keigo, "manual keigo") or バイト敬語 (baito keigo, "part-timer keigo"). Manual keigo includes forms which would be considered incorrect or at least non-standard in terms of traditional usage (keigo and otherwise). A common example is udon ni narimasu (literally "[this] becomes udon", "[this] will be udon") as a polite form of udon desu ("[this] is udon"), instead of the standard udon de gozaimasu ("[this] is udon (polite)")—this manual keigo form is often criticized on the basis that the udon is not "becoming" anything, and therefore ni naru is incorrect, both as keigo and more generally.

Universal Politeness Theory
One theory to explain the usage of honorific language in Japan as it exists nowadays is the Universal Politeness Theory proposed by Brown and Levinson that argues that every member of society has a face. This face is defined as the public image and to protect that face they use a politeness strategy in order to reduce the chance of "losing face". More specifically, there are two type of faces, a positive and a negative one. The negative face is connected to an individual's territory and resources. On the other hand, the positive face is constituted by the desire to be valued within society by its members. The use of honorifics is a negative politeness strategy to protect one's face and is calculated with the factors of the social distance between the hearer and the speaker, measure of power that the hearer has over the speaker and the ranking of impositions within a specific culture.

Fukada's and Asato's Arguments for Universal Politeness Theory
Fukada and Asato stress the significance of power and distance as two variables that should be considered when evaluating Japanese politeness as Japan is a vertical society. On the basis of this, they utilise honorifics in order to not sound presumptuous or rude which could end up embarrassing themselves, losing face as a result, or threaten the hearer's face. A person in higher position asking something of a person with lower status will use strong honorifics as well because of the high rank of imposition. This shows that not just social values determine honorifics. Another factor is also the distance between people in a conversation that can trigger polite language for example in official meetings and such. In conclusion they add that these arguments support the social norm that being reserved and not speaking too much in front of people with higher status is considered a good trait in Japan. It is not just about using honorifics but also the amount the speaker talks to a hearer with a higher position. Just the act of speaking to such a person is an intrinsic face threat to the speaker.

Honorifics as Relation-Acknowledging Devices
Matsumoto critisised the Universal Politeness Theory and emphasises the sensitivity of the usage of honorifics in Japanese. She defines honorifics as relation-acknowledging devices that take the hierarchical position of the participants in a conversation more into account. She argues against honorifics as a strategy to preserve the negative face as the Japanese polite language system places emphasis on showing human relationships rather than minimising imposition (as one of the key factors in the Universal Politeness Theory). Matsumoto compared indirectness in both English and Japanese, concluding that Japanese sentences do not carry the sense of politeness that exists in English with indirectness. However, Fukada and Asato comment that Matsumoto only shows examples which only show the lack of convertibility of English expressions of request into Japanese and do not universally prove that Japanese indirect utterances are not considered polite and do not count as a negative politeness strategy to save face.

Volitional Type and Discernment Type of Politeness
Ide argues that there are two types of linguistic politeness in Japanese. One is the volitional type which is controlled by the speaker’s intention how polite they want to be in a conversation. The other one is the discernment type that is controlled by one’s assesment of the appropriate level of politeness within certain social norms. The usage of discernment encode the speaker’s perception of communication in a situation. Factors like status difference of the speaker and hearer, speaker’s role in the conversation and so on. She critisises that verbal and linguistic forms are treated the same way in the Universal Politeness Theory and that linguistic forms are determined and employed by social norms and not the desire of a speaker to save face. Another reason why these two forms should be differentiated is that verbal strategies are only oriented for the hearer while linguistic forms are used for both the speaker and the hearer. In this theory Fukada and Asato add that while Ide says verbal strategies are used for face-saving purposes of the speaker, it can also save the face of speaker and hearer.

title: Honorific speech in Japanese