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Neuquén Province

Neuquén is a province of Argentina, located in the west of the country, at the northern end of Patagonia. It borders Mendoza Province to the north, Rio Negro Province to the southeast, and Chile to the west. It also meets La Pampa Province at its northeast corner.

History

The Neuquén Province receives its name from the Neuquén River. The term "Neuquén" derives from the Mapudungun word "Nehuenken" meaning drafty, which the aborigines used for the river. The word (without the accentuation) is a palindrome.

Lácar Department in Neuquén Province has the southernmost known remains of maize before it was further diffused by the Inca Empire. Maize remains were found as far south as 40°19' S in Melinquina, with it being found inside pottery dated to 730 ±80 BP and 920 ±60 BP. This maize was probably brought across the Andes from Chile.

Agriculture was practised in Pre-Hispanic Argentina as far south as southern Mendoza Province just north of Neuquén Province. Agriculture was at times practised beyond this limit in nearby areas of Patagonia but populations reverted at times to non-agricultural lifestyles. By the time of the Spanish arrival to the area (1550s) there is no record of agriculture being practised in northern Patagonia. The extensive Patagonian grasslands and an associated abundance of guanaco game may have contributed for the indigenous populations to favour a hunter-gathered lifestyle.

Inhabited by Tehuelches and Pehuenche at the time of European contact, the territory was initially explored by conquistadores coming from Chile. In 1670 Nicolás Mascardi, a Jesuit priest established in Chiloé Archipelago, founded the mission Nuestra Señora de Nahuel Huapi on the northern shores of Nahuel Huapi Lake. The Jesuit missions lasted few years and the last mission in Neuquén was destroyed in 1717. The suppression of the Society of Jesus in 1767 halted further missionary activity.

Royalist hideout
During the independence wars rumours about the imminent arrival of Spanish troops to Patagonia, either from Peru or Chiloé, were common among indigenous peoples of the Pampas and northern Patagonia. The last royalist armed group in what is today Argentina and Chile, the Pincheira brothers, moved from the vicinities of Chillán across the Andes into northern Neuquén as patriots consolidated control of Chile. The Pincheira brothers was a large mounted outlaw gang made of European Spanish, American Spanish, Mestizos and local indigenous peoples. This group was able to move to Patagonia thanks to its alliance with two indigenous tribes, the Ranqueles and the Boroanos. In Varvarco, far from the de facto territory of the Republic of Chile and the United Provinces, the Pincheira brothers established a permanent encampment with thousands of settlers. From this and other bases the Pincheira brothers led numerous raids into the countryside of the newly established republics.

In 1827 Chilean troops commanded by Jorge Beauchef retaliated by crossing the Andes and raided the royalist encampment. Chileans forced about three thousand people back across the Andes to repopulate Antuco.

Integration to Argentina (1875–1955)
The Neuquén area came under Argentine influence after explorer Perito Francisco Moreno made several trips to Patagonia and made accurate descriptions of the area in his book "Viaje al Pais de las Manzanas", reaching Nahuel Huapi lake in 1875. In 1879 Julio Argentino Roca started the Conquest of the Desert (Conquista del Desierto) that finally broke the aboriginal resistance. In 1884 Patagonia's political divisions were restructured and the Territory of Neuquén acquired its current boundaries. The capital of the province moved several times to Norquín (1884–85), Campana Mahuida (current Loncopué) (1885–1888), Chos Malal (1885–1901), and finally Confluencia currently known as Neuquén.

At the beginning of the 20th century the railway reached the city of Neuquén, and a new irrigation system was finished, facilitating the production and later transportation of crops. Petroleum was found in Plaza Huincul in 1918, giving Neuquén a new push forward.

Local politics have long been dominated by a single political party, the MPN or Movimiento Popular Neuquino founded by Elias Sapag, a prosperous businessman born in Lebanon.

Migrating to Argentina, the Sapag family arrived in Neuquén Territory around 1910 with the railroad, eventually making their home in Zapala, whose dry, fertile mountain valleys and orchards were reminiscent of their native Lebanon. Neuquén is rich in natural resources such as natural gas, petroleum, virgin forests and water resources suitable for electric power and tourism alike. These resources were formerly managed by the central National Government, which resulted in little local benefit at the time. Because of social unrest, Elias Sapag and two younger brothers, Felipe and Amado, started the MPN, an active political movement rooted in federalism and greater local rights over the territory and its resources.

Argentine Province (1955–present)
The territory was made a province on June 15, 1955, and its constitution promulgated on November 28, 1957. Felipe Sapag soon became politically prominent. Although he was elected governor in 1962 representing the Movimiento Popular Neuquino, a coup against progressive President Arturo Frondizi that March prevented Sapag from taking office. Eventually becoming governor in 1963-66 and 1973–76, he presided over one of Argentina's fastest-growing provinces. The national government established the University of Neuquén in 1964, later incorporated into the new National University of Comahue in 1971. Removed as governor following the violent March 1976 coup against Isabel Perón, Felipe Sapag was returned to office in 1983-87 and 1995-99. His emphasis on public works and political independence from Buenos Aires have helped him and his successors with the MPN win every province-wide election since. His brother Elias Sapag became senator in 1963-66, 1973–76 and from 1983 until his death in 1993, becoming the longest-serving senator in national history. The MPN also elected Governors Pedro Salvatori (1987–91), Jorge Sobisch (1991–95 and 1999–2007) and current Governor Jorge Sapag (2007–11).

Geography

The province's limits are the Colorado River to the northeast, separating it from the Mendoza Province, the Limay River to the southeast toward the Río Negro Province, and the Andes mountains to the west, separating it from Chile.

There are two main distinctive landscapes; the mountainous fertile valleys with forest on the west, and the arid plateau with fertile land only near the basins of the rivers on the east, mostly the Limay River and Neuquén River.

The lacustrine system includes other less-important rivers such as the Aluminé River, the Malleo, and the Picún Leufú River, and a series of lakes including Nahuel Huapi Lake (550 km2), shared with Río Negro Province, Aluminé Lake (58 km2), Lácar Lake (49 km2), Huechulaufquen Lake (110 km2), Lolog Lake (35 km2), Traful, Hermoso, Quillén, Ñorquinco, Tromen and Falkner.

The province is home to the magnificent Arrayanes (Luma apiculata) forest at the Los Arrayanes National Park. Other National parks include Lanín National Park and the Lanín extinct volcano, the Nahuel Huapí National Park shared with Río Negro Province, and the Laguna Blanca National Park.

Climate

Neuquén Province, being relatively far away from both the Atlantic coast and the Pacific ocean by the Andes mountains, which help to block most moisture coming from the Pacific Ocean results in a climate that is the most continental in Patagonia with large diurnal ranges.

Temperature
Mean temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the high altitude. The warmest region is the eastern parts of the province where mean annual temperatures range from 13 to 15 C. The coldest areas are located in the Andean region where mean annual temperatures are below 5 C or even below 0 C at the highest peaks. During the summer months, mean December and January temperatures reach up to 24 C in the eastern parts although during heat waves, temperatures can exceed 40 C. In July, the mean temperature ranges from 7 C in the east to 5 C in the west at the foothills of the Andes.

Humidity and precipitation
Humidity throughout the province varies significantly, depending on the location. The Andean region has a mean humidity exceeding 60% or even 70% due to lower temperatures while in the eastern parts, humidity is lower owing to higher temperatures. In all locations, humidity is significantly lower during the summer than in the winter.

Because the Andes block most of the moisture from the Pacific Ocean from coming in, causing it to release most of the precipitation on its western slopes, most of the province is dry, averaging less than 200 mm a year. Northern and eastern parts of the province have mean annual precipitation exceeding 300 mm. In the western parts of the province, precipitation ranges from 200 to 1000 mm from the Andes to areas 100 km east of it. This area represents a transitional climate between the more arid east and the wetter climates to the west and has a Mediterranean like precipitation pattern, similar to central Chile. This is due to the seasonal migration of the South Pacific Anticyclone. Summer months are drier since the South Pacific high is more southwards, inhibiting rainfall. During the winter months, this high is displaced to the north, allowing frontal and low pressure systems from the west to come in, resulting in higher precipitation during this season. As such, most of the precipitation in this area falls during the winter months. In the southernmost parts of the province, some areas receive more than 3000 mm of precipitation a year.

Wind and sunshine
The winds in the province are moderately strong (slightly stronger in the south) and play a role in making most of the province arid by favoring evaporation. The predominant wind directions are from the west or southwest, which occur 40–50% of the time. In general, high altitude areas and flat areas receive stronger winds while summers tend to be windier than winters.

Cloud cover in the province varies widely with the eastern parts receiving less cloud cover than the Andean region which tends to be cloudier. Winters tend to be cloudier than summers with mean daily sunshine hours ranging from a high of 11 hours/day in January to a low of 3 hours in June.

Demographics
According to the 2022 Argentine national census, the Province of Neuquén has 726,590 inhabitants.

Economy

Neuquen is one of Argentina's most prosperous provinces, its estimated 47.648 billion Peso (about US$10.495 billion) economy in 2012, or, 80,566 pesos (US$17,744) per capita.

No province in Argentina, however, is as dependent on any one sector as is Neuquen's. Roughly half its output is accounted for by its mining and extractive sector, mainly on account of its massive gas and petroleum production, the most important in Argentina. That dependency is only likely to increase: development of the province's huge unconventional hydrocarbon reserves is beginning, above all in the Vaca Muerta formation.

The province generates a significant part of Patagonia's electric power through the hydroelectric plants of Piedra del Águila, El Chocón, Pichi Picún Leufú, Planicie Banderita (in the Cerros Colorados Complex), and Alicurá. The town of Arroyito hosts the only heavy water plant in the country.

Another important activity is the production of apples, pears, peaches and others, specially in the Alto Valle area, shared with Río Negro.

The piquetero movement (organizations of unemployed workers) was born in Neuquén in the 1990s, during the presidency of Carlos Menem.

Tourism

 * See also Tourism in Argentina article

A destination of many Argentines and foreigners, the province has a number of year-round attractions, including:
 * San Martín de los Andes
 * Villa La Angostura
 * Los Arrayanes National Park
 * Lanín National Park
 * Nahuel Huapí National Park
 * Laguna Blanca National Park
 * Copahue hot baths.

During the winter, there are the ski resorts in Chapelco, Cerro Bayo and Caviahue.

Many hike or fish, mainly for river trout, the lake district region of Southwestern Neuquén that stretches into Río Negro and Chubut Provinces.

There were a number of dinosaurs in the area, of which the bones of a 95 million years old Argentinosaurus are in display at the Carmen Funes Museum in Plaza Huincul.

Government
The provincial government is divided into the usual three branches: the executive, headed by a popularly elected governor, who appoint the cabinet; the legislative; and the judiciary, headed by the Supreme Court.

The Constitution of Neuquén Province forms the formal law of the province.

In Argentina, the most important law enforcement organization is the Argentine Federal Police but the additional work is carried out by the Neuquén Provincial Police.

Political division

The province is divided into 16 departments (departamentos).

Villages

 * La Buitrera
 * Mari Menuco

Notable people

 * Marcos Acuña, football player
 * Gregorio Álvarez, physician and historian
 * Stephanie Beatriz, actor
 * Marcelo Berbel, poet
 * Raúl di Blasio, pianist
 * Irma Cuña, poet
 * José María Memet, poet

 * Jaime de Nevares, bishop

 * Jorge Rojas (singer)
 * Rubens Sambueza, football player
 * Felipe Sapag, politician
 * Valentín Sayhueque, Mapuche chieftain

 * Mario Daniel Vega, football player

title: Neuquén Province


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Eminent Domain

Eminent Domain may refer to:

 * Eminent domain, the power of a state to take private property for public use
 * Eminent domain in the United States
 * Eminent Domain (film), 1990
 * "Eminent Domain" (Hell on Wheels), a 2013 episode of the TV drama
 * "Eminent Domain" (The Killing), a 2013 episode of the TV drama
 * Pax Imperia: Eminent Domain, a video game

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Eminent Domain


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Soft rock

Soft rock (also known as light rock) is a form of rock music that originated in the late 1960s in Southern California and the United Kingdom which smoothed over the edges of singer-songwriter and pop rock, relying on simple, melodic songs with big, lush productions. Soft rock was prevalent on the radio throughout the 1970s and eventually metamorphosed into a form of the synthesized music of adult contemporary in the 1980s.

Mid- to late 1960s
Softer sounds in rock music could be heard in mid-1960s songs, such as "A Summer Song" by Chad & Jeremy (1964) and "Here, There and Everywhere" by the Beatles and "I Love My Dog" by Cat Stevens, both from 1966.

By 1968, hard rock had been established as a mainstream genre. From the end of the 1960s, it became common to divide mainstream rock music into soft and hard rock, with both emerging as major radio formats in the US. Late 1960s soft rock artists include the Bee Gees, whose song "I Started a Joke" was a number one single in several countries; Neil Diamond with the 1969 hit "Sweet Caroline", the Hollies with their US and UK top 10 hit "He Ain't Heavy, He's My Brother", and Elton John with his popular song "Skyline Pigeon".

Early 1970s
By the early 1970s, softer songs by the Carpenters, Anne Murray, John Denver, Barry Manilow, and even Barbra Streisand began to be played more often on "top 40" radio and others were added to the mix on many adult contemporary stations.

Major artists of that time included Bread, Carly Simon, Carole King, Cat Stevens, James Taylor, Lobo and Gilbert O'Sullivan who achieved number-one hit singles between 1970 and 1972 with "Nothing Rhymed", "Alone Again (Naturally)" and "Clair".

The Hot 100 and Easy Listening charts became more similar again toward the end of the 1960s and into the early and mid-1970s when the texture of much of the music played on top 40 radio once more began to soften. The adult contemporary format began evolving into the sound that later defined it, with rock-oriented acts as Chicago, the Eagles and Elton John becoming associated with the format. The Carpenters' hit version of "(They Long to Be) Close to You" was released in the summer of 1970, followed by Bread's "Make It with You", both early examples of a softer sound that was coming to dominate the charts.

The soft rock album Tapestry by Carole King, released in February 1971, became one of the best-selling albums of all time. The lead double-sided single from the album, "It's Too Late"/"I Feel the Earth Move", spent five weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 beginning in mid-June 1971.

Los Angeles station KNX-FM, under program director Steve Marshall, introduced a "mellow rock" format in 1971.

Albert Hammond scored a major hit single with "It Never Rains in Southern California" in 1972, which went top 10 in at least six countries including Canada and the U.S. at numbers 2 and 5, respectively.

In the spring of 1972, Neil Young scored his only number-one single with "Heart of Gold", from the album Harvest. Topping the charts in both the U.S. and Canada, this soft rock ballad featured backing vocals from Linda Ronstadt and James Taylor, heard near the end of the song.

In 1973, Paul McCartney and Wings had a U.S. number one with "My Love", which also reached No. 1 on the Adult Contemporary charts of both the U.S. and Canada.

Mid- to late 1970s
Soft rock reached its commercial peak in the mid-to-late 1970s with acts such as Toto, England Dan & John Ford Coley, Air Supply, Seals and Crofts, America and the reformed Fleetwood Mac, whose Rumours (1977) was the best-selling album of the decade.

Denver station KIMN-FM introduced a "mellow rock" album format in 1975. Program director Scott Kenyon told Billboard magazine, Michael Murphey's "Wildfire" is a perfect example; it feels like Colorado, you can tell it came from this part of the country. There's a sound of the Rockies... the best description is mellow rock. Take that kind of music and make it into a Colorado sounding station."

By 1977, some radio stations, notably New York's WTFM and NBC-owned WYNY, had switched to an all-soft rock format. Chicago's WBBM-FM adopted a soft rock/album rock hybrid format in 1977 and was known as "Soft Rock 96" presenting the "Mellow sound of Chicago". Five years later, they would flip to a "Hot Hits" top 40 format.

In the mid- to late 1970s, prominent soft rock acts included Billy Joel, Elton John, Jefferson Starship, Chicago, Toto, Boz Scaggs, the Alessi Brothers, Michael McDonald, Paul Davis, Eric Carmen, the Doobie Brothers, the Alan Parsons Project, Captain & Tennille, the Hollies, and Dr. Hook.

By the 1980s, tastes had changed and radio formats reflected this change, including musical artists such as Journey.

A prominent counterpart of soft rock in the late 1970s and early 1980s came to be known as yacht rock; its name coined in 2005 by the makers of the online video series Yacht Rock. Originating from California's session musicians, yacht rock only partially overlapped with soft rock; it could include soft to mid-level (but rarely ever purely hard) rock. Much of the "West Coast sound" of yacht rock bore similarity to some of the East Coast soft rockers of the era such as Rupert Holmes and Hall & Oates, leading to the conflation.

1980s
In the early 1980s, the radio format evolved into what came to be known as "adult contemporary" or "adult album alternative", a format that has less overt rock bias than its forebear radio categorization. In Los Angeles, KOST 103.5 FM, under program director Jhani Kaye, debuted its soft adult contemporary format in November 1982. Soft rock songs still enjoyed success from artists such as Sheena Easton, Ambrosia, Lionel Richie, Christopher Cross, Dan Hill, Gino Vannelli, Leo Sayer, Air Supply, Julio Iglesias and Bertie Higgins.

Chris Norman, former lead singer of the band Smokie, scored several solo hits between 1986 and 1988 in Europe, particularly in Germany, including "Some Hearts Are Diamonds", "Broken Heroes" and "Midnight Lady", the latter reaching number one in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria.

1990s
Soft rock persisted in the 1990s, with artists from previous decades continuing to release new music, such as Genesis, whose 1992 soft rock single "Hold on My Heart" topped the Canadian singles chart and Billboard Adult Contemporary chart. Extreme's 1991 single "More Than Words" was internationally successful, topping the national singles charts in at least five countries, including Canada and the United States. Mr. Big's 1992 single "To Be with You" was a number one hit in at least twelve countries. Eric Clapton's 1992 single "Tears in Heaven" was also successful, topping the national singles charts in Canada, Ireland, New Zealand, and six other countries.

Richard Marx's 1994 single "Now and Forever" topped the Canadian adult contemporary chart and peaked in the top ten of the national singles charts in that country, Norway, and the United States. New bands and artists emerged such as the Danish band Michael Learns to Rock, who saw massive popularity in Asia, with many singles becoming commercially successful in the continent starting with their 1991 hit "The Actor", and Australian band Southern Sons, who enjoyed success on the ARIA Charts with three top 10 singles.

title: Soft rock


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Limit-preserving function (order theory)

In the mathematical area of order theory, one often speaks about functions that preserve certain limits, i.e. certain suprema or infima. Roughly speaking, these functions map the supremum/infimum of a set to the supremum/infimum of the image of the set. Depending on the type of sets for which a function satisfies this property, it may preserve finite, directed, non-empty, or just arbitrary suprema or infima. Each of these requirements appears naturally and frequently in many areas of order theory and there are various important relationships among these concepts and other notions such as monotonicity. If the implication of limit preservation is inverted, such that the existence of limits in the range of a function implies the existence of limits in the domain, then one obtains functions that are limit-reflecting.

The purpose of this article is to clarify the definition of these basic concepts, which is necessary since the literature is not always consistent at this point, and to give general results and explanations on these issues.

Background and motivation
In many specialized areas of order theory, one restricts to classes of partially ordered sets that are complete with respect to certain limit constructions. For example, in lattice theory, one is interested in orders where all finite non-empty sets have both a least upper bound and a greatest lower bound. In domain theory, on the other hand, one focuses on partially ordered sets in which every directed subset has a supremum. Complete lattices and orders with a least element (the "empty supremum") provide further examples.

In all these cases, limits play a central role for the theories, supported by their interpretations in practical applications of each discipline. One also is interested in specifying appropriate mappings between such orders. From an algebraic viewpoint, this means that one wants to find adequate notions of homomorphisms for the structures under consideration. This is achieved by considering those functions that are compatible with the constructions that are characteristic for the respective orders. For example, lattice homomorphisms are those functions that preserve non-empty finite suprema and infima, i.e. the image of a supremum/infimum of two elements is just the supremum/infimum of their images. In domain theory, one often deals with so-called Scott-continuous functions that preserve all directed suprema.

The background for the definitions and terminology given below is to be found in category theory, where limits (and co-limits) in a more general sense are considered. The categorical concept of limit-preserving and limit-reflecting functors is in complete harmony with order theory, since orders can be considered as small categories defined as poset categories with defined additional structure.

Formal definition
Consider two partially ordered sets P and Q, and a function f from P to Q. Furthermore, let S be a subset of P that has a least upper bound s. Then f preserves the supremum of S if the set f(S) = {f(x) | x in S} has a least upper bound in Q which is equal to f(s), i.e.
 * f(sup S) = sup f(S)

This definition consists of two requirements: the supremum of the set f(S) exists and it is equal to f(s). This corresponds to the abovementioned parallel to category theory, but is not always required in the literature. In fact, in some cases one weakens the definition to require only existing suprema to be equal to f(s). However, Wikipedia works with the common notion given above and states the other condition explicitly if required.

From the fundamental definition given above, one can derive a broad range of useful properties. A function f between posets P and Q is said to preserve finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary suprema if it preserves the suprema of all finite, non-empty, directed, or arbitrary sets, respectively. The preservation of non-empty finite suprema can also be defined by the identity f(x v y) = f(x) v f(y), holding for all elements x and y, where we assume v to be a total function on both orders.

In a dual way, one defines properties for the preservation of infima.

The "opposite" condition to preservation of limits is called reflection. Consider a function f as above and a subset S of P, such that sup f(S) exists in Q and is equal to f(s) for some element s of P. Then f reflects the supremum of S if sup S exists and is equal to s. As already demonstrated for preservation, one obtains many additional properties by considering certain classes of sets S and by dualizing the definition to infima.

Special cases
Some special cases or properties derived from the above scheme are known under other names or are of particular importance to some areas of order theory. For example, functions that preserve the empty supremum are those that preserve the least element. Furthermore, due to the motivation explained earlier, many limit-preserving functions appear as special homomorphisms for certain order structures. Some other prominent cases are given below.

Preservation of all limits
An interesting situation occurs if a function preserves all suprema (or infima). More accurately, this is expressed by saying that a function preserves all existing suprema (or infima), and it may well be that the posets under consideration are not complete lattices. For example, (monotone) Galois connections have this property. Conversely, by the order theoretical Adjoint Functor Theorem, mappings that preserve all suprema/infima can be guaranteed to be part of a unique Galois connection as long as some additional requirements are met.

Distributivity
A lattice L is distributive if, for all x, y, and z in L, we find

 * $$x \wedge \left( y \vee z \right)

= \left( x \wedge y \right) \vee \left( x \wedge z \right) $$

But this just says that the meet function ^: L -> L preserves binary suprema. It is known in lattice theory, that this condition is equivalent to its dual, i.e. the function v: L -> L preserving binary infima. In a similar way, one sees that the infinite distributivity law

 * $$x \wedge \bigvee S

= \bigvee \left \{ x \wedge s \mid s \in S \right \}$$

of complete Heyting algebras (see also pointless topology) is equivalent to the meet function ^ preserving arbitrary suprema. This condition, however, does not imply its dual.

Scott-continuity
Functions that preserve directed suprema are called Scott-continuous or sometimes just continuous, if this does not cause confusions with the according concept of analysis and topology. A similar use of the term continuous for preservation of limits can also be found in category theory.

Important properties and results
The above definition of limit preservation is quite strong. Indeed, every function that preserves at least the suprema or infima of two-element chains, i.e. of sets of two comparable elements, is necessarily monotone. Hence, all the special preservation properties stated above induce monotonicity.

Based on the fact that some limits can be expressed in terms of others, one can derive connections between the preservation properties. For example, a function f preserves directed suprema if and only if it preserves the suprema of all ideals. Furthermore, a mapping f from a poset in which every non-empty finite supremum exists (a so-called sup-semilattice) preserves arbitrary suprema if and only if it preserves both directed and finite (possibly empty) suprema.

However, it is not true that a function that preserves all suprema would also preserve all infima or vice versa.


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PVP

PVP may refer to:

Media and culture

 * Player versus player (PVP), a type of combat in multiplayer video games
 * PrankvsPrank, a YouTube channel
 * PvP (webcomic), a webcomic
 * PVP Live, an Esports news and statistics database website
 * Pony VS Pony, a web-based Flash game developed by Artix Entertainment
 * , a Spanish punk band

Medicine

 * Post-vasectomy pain syndrome, a chronic pain condition
 * Povidone-iodine prep, an iodine antiseptic
 * alpha-PVP, also called flakka, the drug alpha-Pyrrolidinopentiophenone
 * Photoselective vaporization of the prostate, a surgical treatment for an enlarged prostate

Military

 * Petit Véhicule Protégé, a French light armoured vehicle

Science and technology

 * PVP-OPM (Protected Video Path – Output Protection Management), a form of digital rights management
 * Poly-4-vinylphenol, a plastic similar to polystyrene
 * Polyvinylpyrrolidone, a water-soluble polymer

Companies

 * PVP Karting, a Danish manufacturer of racing Superkarts

Other

 * Plant variety protection, a legal principle protecting plant varieties developed by selective breeding
 * P v P, a New Zealand court case regarding promissory estoppel
 * Palos Verdes Peninsula, a peninsula in Southern California
 * Parti des Verts pour le Progrès, a Tunisian political party

title: PVP


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WrestleMania XX

WrestleMania XX was the 20th annual WrestleMania professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It featured professional wrestlers from both of the promotion's two brand divisions – Raw and SmackDown!. The event took place on March 14, 2004, at Madison Square Garden in New York City. It was the third WrestleMania at Madison Square Garden (after WrestleMania I in 1985 and WrestleMania X in 1994) and the fourth of six WrestleManias in the New York metropolitan area (alongside WrestleMania I, 2, X, 29, and 35). To this date it is the last WrestleMania to have been held at the Garden. Its calendar date of March 14 also stands as the earliest that WrestleMania has ever been held in any year.

The match card featured two main events. The pay-per-view main event, which was also the main match for the Raw brand, was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship, which saw champion Triple H defending the world title against Shawn Michaels, and that year's Royal Rumble match winner, Chris Benoit. Benoit won the match, making Triple H submit via the Crippler Crossface, resulting in his first and only world championship in the WWE. The main match for the SmackDown! brand featured Eddie Guerrero versus Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship, which Guerrero won by a Small Package pin. The event also featured the return of The Undertaker in his Deadman persona, who defeated Kane, after a Tombstone Piledriver. John Cena made his in-ring WrestleMania debut at the event, by defeating Big Show to win his first title in WWE, the WWE United States Championship.

Also on the card was a match between Goldberg and Brock Lesnar, with Stone Cold Steve Austin as the special guest referee. This was both Lesnar's and Goldberg's final match with WWE until the 2012 edition of Extreme Rules, and the 2016 edition of Survivor Series, respectively. After Goldberg won the match following a Jackhammer, both men were given a Stone Cold Stunner by Austin on their way out. The event also featured the in-ring return of The Rock, teaming up with Mick Foley and reuniting the Rock 'n' Sock Connection to take on Evolution in a 3-on-2 Handicap match, in which Evolution were victorious. This would be The Rock's final match in WWE until Survivor Series 2011.

The event grossed $2.4 million in ticket sales, making the pay-per-view the highest grossing event ever for WWE at Madison Square Garden. More than 20,000 people from 16 countries and 48 states attended the event, which was also televised in more than 90 countries. The event generated an estimated $13.5 million of economic activity for New York City and created an equivalent of 96 full-year jobs.

Background
WrestleMania is considered World Wrestling Entertainment's (WWE) flagship pay-per-view (PPV) event, having first been held in 1985. It has become the longest-running professional wrestling event in history and is held annually between mid-March to mid-April. It was the first of WWE's original four pay-per-views – which includes Royal Rumble, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series – referred to as the "Big Four". WrestleMania XX was scheduled to be held on March 14, 2004, at Madison Square Garden in New York City, the third time at this venue, after WrestleMania I in 1985 and WrestleMania X in 1994. The event featured wrestlers from the Raw and SmackDown! brand divisions.

Storylines
The event comprised 12 matches that resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters in scripted events that built tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers on the Raw and SmackDown brands, while storylines were produced on WWE's weekly television shows, Monday Night Raw and Friday Night SmackDown.

The main feud heading into the pay-per-view was for the Raw brand, with Triple H, Shawn Michaels, and Chris Benoit feuding over the World Heavyweight Championship. The rivalry began on the December 29 episode of Raw, when Michaels challenged Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship in Michaels' hometown of San Antonio, Texas. It appeared as if Michaels would win, with the then-Raw General Manager Eric Bischoff coming into the ring at the last minute and making the pinfall, counting to three for what appeared to be Michaels winning the title. However, as Michaels' shoulders were on the mat at the same time as Triple H's, the match was later declared a draw, and Triple H retained the championship. At the Royal Rumble, Triple H and Michaels again faced each other in a Last Man Standing match for the title, which resulted in another draw. As a result, Triple H retained the title yet again, but leaving open the question as to which of the two truly deserved the championship. Later that night, during the Royal Rumble match, SmackDown!'s Benoit won the contest by last-eliminating Big Show, after being the first entrant to the event (a feat only 2 other wrestlers had achieved at the time). On the following night, Michaels and Triple H were involved in an in-ring confrontation when Raw's Sheriff Steve Austin made his way to the ring. He stated that, although Michaels should have a rematch, he had to "enforce the law", and that even though the Royal Rumble rules gave the winner of the match a shot at "the (world) championship", there was not any specification as to which world title that was. Benoit, who at the time was a member of the SmackDown! brand, then came to the ring and said he was taking advantage of the loophole, joining the Raw brand and challenging Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XX. On the February 9 episode of Raw, a contract signing took place between Benoit and Triple H. As Triple H signed his name on the paper, Michaels came out to inform Benoit that the last thing he wanted to do is "rain on [his] parade". He then stated that he, more than anybody, can respect Benoit's effort to win the Royal Rumble match and earn a World title shot, but suggested that Benoit should've stayed on SmackDown! to take care of business while Michaels, himself, was trying to finish his feud with Triple H. Benoit refused to relinquish his guaranteed title shot, resulting in Michaels hitting Benoit with Sweet Chin Music and signing the contract himself. After the two men wrestled a match marred by interference from the champion on the February 16 episode of Raw, Austin decided to make Triple H's title defense a triple threat match. On the March 1 episode of Raw, after Michaels and Benoit lost to Randy Orton and Batista, Triple H's stablemates in Evolution, the entire group attacked Michaels and Benoit, ending with Triple H hitting both with the Pedigree and rubbing his World title belt into their faces while they lied motionless in the ring.

The main feud for the SmackDown! brand was between Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship. Angle and Guerrero were initially allies while Guerrero feuded with his nephew Chavo Guerrero. This changed when, on the January 29 episode of SmackDown!, Guerrero last eliminated Angle in a 15-man Royal Rumble match, to earn a shot at the WWE Championship. At No Way Out, Kurt Angle defeated The Big Show and John Cena in a triple threat match to earn a title shot at WrestleMania, and Guerrero defeated Brock Lesnar for the WWE Championship. On the February 19 episode of SmackDown!, Angle was the special guest referee in a WWE Championship match between Eddie Guerrero and Chavo Guerrero. As Eddie was about to gain the victory, Angle stopped the 3-count and turned on Guerrero. On the February 26 episode of SmackDown!, Guerrero was eager to get his revenge on Angle, but when he finally saw Angle, he shoved SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman and his assistant Dawn Marie out of his way, only for Heyman to have Guerrero escorted out of the arena by security. Guerrero was scheduled to team with John Cena to take on Chavo Guerrero and the Big Show in a tag team match on that night, but due to Guerrero being escorted out of the arena, he was replaced by Rey Mysterio for the tag match, which Mysterio and Cena won. Later that night, Angle appeared and stated that he attacked Guerrero for the SmackDown! fans and for the WWE. He then referred to Guerrero as a former drug addict who should not represent SmackDown! as the WWE Champion, and stated that, one day, people would be thanking him for giving them a champion to be proud of. Guerrero then re-entered the arena and assaulted Angle until he was arrested on the orders of Heyman. As Guerrero got taken out of the building in handcuffs, Angle made some insulting comments to him, before the officers drove away with Guerrero in the police car. On the March 4 episode of SmackDown!, during Guerrero's match with Heyman (while he was handcuffed), Angle interfered and knocked him down a few times, until Guerrero defended himself by spitting on Angle. As Guerrero begged Angle to hit him with the WWE Championship belt, Angle did so and raised the title belt over his head to hype their match at Wrestlemania XX.

This was the first WrestleMania to have a match billed as "inter-promotional", which means that a party from Raw would wrestle a party from SmackDown!. WWE owner Vince McMahon named three matches to be inter-promotional on the February 16 episode of Raw. The first was a tag team match featuring SmackDown!'s Torrie Wilson and Sable, who had recently been featured in a pictorial in Playboy magazine, against Raw's Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie, who had protested the decision made by Hugh Hefner not to feature them in his magazine.

On the January 26 episode of Raw, Goldberg came to the ring, and demanded a match between himself and Brock Lesnar, with whom he had problems over the past two months. At the Royal Rumble, Goldberg was entered in the Royal Rumble match, only to have Lesnar (who, as the reigning WWE Champion, was not entered into the match) interfere and execute an F-5, causing Goldberg to be eliminated by Kurt Angle. On the February 2 episode of Raw, as a result of the rivalry between the two programs, Sheriff Steve Austin gave Goldberg the option of attending No Way Out by giving him a front-row ticket. At No Way Out, Goldberg was seen arriving at the arena and being escorted to his front seat by security. Then SmackDown! General Manager Paul Heyman gave a promotional in-ring speech on how SmackDown! was the better program than Raw. Lesnar then came down to the ring to promote his match and to insult Goldberg. Goldberg immediately jumped over the barricade and entered the ring, where Lesnar performed a running shoulder block to Goldberg's stomach and tried to perform another F-5 on him. However, Goldberg countered it and lifted Lesnar vertically in the air before slamming him down in a Jackhammer. Goldberg was then escorted out of the arena by security. During Lesnar's WWE title defense against Eddie Guerrero later that night, Goldberg returned to the arena and interfered by executing a Spear, which caused Lesnar to lose the title after Guerrero nailed him with a Frog splash. On the February 23 episode of Raw, Vince McMahon set the interpromotional singles match as pitting Lesnar versus Goldberg for WrestleMania XX, with Austin as the special guest referee. Later that night during the match between McMahon and Eric Bischoff, Lesnar appeared and nailed Austin with an F-5 then stole Austin's four-wheeler. On the February 26 episode of SmackDown!, Lesnar stated that he appeared on Raw just to get back at Austin for giving Goldberg the front-row seat ticket and suggesting that Goldberg would attack Lesnar at No Way Out. Behind the scenes, it was widely known that the match would be Goldberg's last in WWE. Only a week before WrestleMania, rumors surfaced that Lesnar, too, was leaving, in order to pursue a career in the National Football League. On the March 11 episode of SmackDown!, Austin appeared to get his four-wheeler back from Lesnar, only for the entire roster to get in his way by orders of SmackDown! General Manager Heyman. Moments later, the entire roster had decided to move aside and let Austin by, to confront Lesnar in the ring. As Austin got into the ring, he and Lesnar traded punches, with Austin ramming Lesnar headfirst into the steel ring post and attempting to nail Lesnar with the Stone Cold Stunner, only for Lesnar to escape, leaving Austin to finally get back his four-wheeler and close the show with his trademark beer bash.

The next match was at the request of Kane, and had its roots in a match at Survivor Series, in which Kane's storyline brother, The Undertaker challenged Vince McMahon to a Buried Alive match. Kane interfered in the match and buried his brother under several tons of dirt, apparently killing him. On the November 20 episode of SmackDown!, Kane appeared to give the eulogy for his brother, claiming that The Undertaker was no longer his brother and had died a long time before, as he no longer embraced his dark side. This rewarded him with a match for the World Heavyweight Championship at Armageddon, which was won by Triple H in a Triple Threat Match also involving Goldberg. Kane participated in the Royal Rumble and was eliminated by Booker T when The Undertaker's old theme music began playing and distracted him. Over the following weeks, Kane repeatedly insisted that The Undertaker was "dead", only to be met with various paranormal incidents, such as a rainstorm over the ramp on which he stood. On the March 8 episode of Raw, Kane appeared in the ring and saw an empty casket; as he opened it, he saw an urn inside of it. He then grabbed the microphone and stated that it was going to take more than an empty casket and an urn to intimidate him. He then stated that The Undertaker's legacy, his 11–0 WrestleMania streak and his life, was coming to an end. He said: "it's back to the grave for you for good". He claimed that it's over and that he's not afraid of The Undertaker. But, the lights went out, and the 10,000-pound wrestling ring lifted off the ground with Kane standing in it and tilted sideways, which would be the final message sent from The Undertaker before their match at WrestleMania XX.

A rivalry had been simmering for some time between Mick Foley and Randy Orton. On the June 23 episode of Raw, following an on-air ceremony honoring Foley for his achievements, Orton and Ric Flair attacked him backstage and threw him down a flight of stairs. Foley returned as the replacement for Steve Austin as Raw co-general manager and gave himself a shot at Orton's Intercontinental Championship on the December 15 episode of Raw, but he walked out of the match and would not face Orton, even after Orton spat on him. On the January 19 episode of Raw, a furious Austin declared that Foley would be entered in the Royal Rumble match and be expected to return and wrestle, which he did by eliminating Orton (and himself) from the match. On the March 1 episode of Raw, Foley was later joined by The Rock in the feud, and the re-formed Rock 'n' Sock Connection challenged Orton, Batista, and Flair to a handicap tag team match at WrestleMania.

Preliminary matches
WrestleMania XX began with the Boys Choir of Harlem singing "America the Beautiful". The first match that aired was a singles match between Big Show and John Cena for the WWE United States Championship, the first time the title was ever defended at the event. The match began with Big Show beating down Cena, who then came back, executing an FU for a near-fall against Big Show. Cena grabbed his signature chain and tried to attack Big Show with it, however, the referee saw the chain and confiscated it due to its being illegal in the match. With the referee distracted, Cena hit Big Show with hidden brass knuckles and executed another FU to win the match and the title.

The next match was a fatal four-way tag team match – involving Rob Van Dam and Booker T, Garrison Cade, and Mark Jindrak, the Dudley Boyz (Bubba Ray Dudley and D-Von Dudley), and La Résistance (René Duprée and Rob Conway) – for the World Tag Team Championship. The match saw quick action between all four teams, and ended when Conway was pinned by Van Dam after Booker T performed a scissor kick on him, which was then followed by Van Dam's Five-Star Frog Splash, leading to the two retaining the titles.

The third match was between Christian and Chris Jericho. The match centered around both men furiously attacking each other; Christian won the match after Jericho's love interest, Trish Stratus, attacked Jericho thinking he was Christian, allowing Christian to roll him up for the win. Following the match, Stratus turned on Jericho and slapped him several times, allowing Christian to perform the Unprettier on Jericho. This was the last match officiated by referee Tim White, who retired after this.

Next up was a handicap match featuring Evolution (Randy Orton, Batista, and Ric Flair) against the Rock 'n' Sock Connection (The Rock and Mick Foley). Evolution won the match when Orton pinned Foley after executing an RKO.

"Mean" Gene Okerlund then introduced the WWE Hall of Fame Class of 2004. This was followed by the inter-promotional Playboy Evening Gown match between the team of Torrie Wilson and Sable against Stacy Keibler and Miss Jackie, where both teams wore lingerie. Wilson and Sable won after Wilson pinned Jackie with a roll up.

The next match was a Cruiserweight Open for the Cruiserweight Championship. Último Dragón and Shannon Moore started the match, with Dragón getting a pinfall victory after a Dragon-DDT, but was then forced to submit by Jamie Noble, with a Dragon Sleeper, who next eliminated Funaki in 8 seconds. Nunzio was then in the match, but was eliminated after being counted out of the match when he was unable to return to the ring by the referee's count of ten. Billy Kidman then entered the match, pinning and eliminating Noble, following a top rope BK-Bomb. Kidman was then pinned and eliminated by Rey Mysterio with a Sunset Flip Powerbomb from the top rope. Tajiri was the next entrant, but was also pinned by Mysterio, following a Victory Roll. Akio was the next scheduled entrant but was unable to compete, due to being inadvertently attacked by Tajiri with his signature green mist that he spat out of his mouth when Mysterio ducked. The Cruiserweight Champion, Chavo Guerrero, was the final entrant; and he pinned Mysterio with a reversal of Mysterio's Sunset Flip to win with the assistance of his father Chavo Classic, thus retaining the title. This was the last time in WrestleMania that the Cruiserweight Championship was defended.

The seventh match featured Brock Lesnar and Goldberg, with special guest referee Steve Austin. The beginning of the match began with both men staring each other down, jawing back and forth, with no physical action for several minutes, causing an exasperated Austin at one point to coax them into locking up. The fact that they both were leaving the WWE immediately after the match, as well as the lack of effort brought forth by both Goldberg and Lesnar, drew large heat from the fans throughout the match, with fans chanting, "You sold out", the chorus of Steam's "Na Na Na Hey Hey Kiss Him Goodbye", "Austin", "This match sucks", "We want Bret", "Boring", "Goldberg sucks", and "Hogan". Goldberg then executed a Spear on Lesnar for a near-fall. Lesnar then executed the F-5 on Goldberg for a near-fall. Afterward, Lesnar tried to use Goldberg's signature spear on him and missed, hitting the ring post, allowing Goldberg to execute another spear and a Jackhammer for the victory. After the match, Lesnar responded to the fans' criticism by gesturing his middle finger, seemingly at the crowd, but which was actually directed towards Vince McMahon, and to Austin. Austin then executed a Stone Cold Stunner on both competitors, to the crowd's delight, and celebrated with beer in the ring.

The next match was another four-way tag team match for the WWE Tag Team Championship, involving Rikishi and Scotty 2 Hotty versus the APA (Bradshaw and Faarooq), the Basham Brothers (Doug Basham and Danny Basham), and the World's Greatest Tag Team (Shelton Benjamin and Charlie Haas). Rikishi and Scotty retained the title after Rikishi pinned Danny with a Banzai Drop.

The ninth match was between Victoria and Molly Holly for the WWE Women's Championship, where Holly would have her hair shaved if she lost. Victoria would counter a Widow's peak attempt by Holly into a backslide pin to win the match and retain the WWE Women's Championship. Holly tried running towards the backstage area to escape the match's stipulation, but was eventually stopped by Victoria, who would knock her out and shave her bald.

Main event matches
The 10th match of the night was for the WWE Championship, between the champion Eddie Guerrero and the challenger Kurt Angle. The match began with both men maneuvering on the mat. Guerrero then performed a DDT and Frog Splash on Angle that would result in a pin attempt. Angle then recovered and applied an ankle lock, but Guerrero escaped the hold by rolling through it and throwing Angle out of the ring. As Angle was outside, Guerrero loosened his own boot. When Angle returned to the ring, he tried to apply the hold again. This time, Guerrero pushed Angle off with his other foot and allowed his boot to come off and thus break free from Angle's hold. With Angle confused, Guerrero pinned Angle with a roll-up with his feet on the ropes to win the match and retain the WWE Championship.

The 11th match of the event was the encounter between The Undertaker and Kane. After Kane made his entrance, he was seen looking toward the entrance ramp saying, "You're not coming back tonight. You're not coming back, I buried you alive." After this, the lights in the arena went out and Paul Bearer, Undertaker's former manager and Kane's (storyline) father, was heard screaming "Oh, yes!". Blue light began to fill the arena as Bearer, carrying the Undertaker's former trademark urn, led a group of Druids, all chanting and carrying torches, onto the entrance ramp. As the Druids made a formation at the top of the ramp, Bearer walked to ringside, turned and said to Kane, "My son... You're no son of mine." He then turned back to face the entryway and raised the urn to summon The Undertaker. As Kane continued to watch in the ring, refusing to believe his brother was back, Undertaker entered the arena in his "Deadman" persona, wearing a long black trenchcoat and hat, and walked through the Druid formation. Bearer met him at ringside and directed him to the ring steps, where Undertaker raised his arms to bring the arena lights back up. Before the match officially got underway, a now visibly shaken and distressed Kane began shouting at his brother repeatedly, saying things like "I killed you!", "I buried you alive!", and "You're not real!", while Undertaker simply stood staring stoically at Kane. Eventually, Kane decided to see if Undertaker was indeed standing in front of him by slowly inching forward with his hand outstretched. Undertaker responded by punching Kane, knocking him down; and the match got underway. The two continued brawling until Kane delivered a Chokeslam to Undertaker, who sat up shortly afterward while Kane was taunting Paul Bearer. The Undertaker then retaliated with a Chokeslam of his own and a Tombstone piledriver to win the match and remain undefeated at WrestleMania with a 12–0 record.

The main event was a triple threat match for the World Heavyweight Championship between Chris Benoit, Shawn Michaels, and champion Triple H. The match started with Benoit and Michaels wanting to face the champion, but would wrestle each other to try and gain an advantage, before Triple H's intervention led to the match going back-and-forth between all three men, performing their signature holds and maneuvers throughout. Benoit soon gained control over Michaels when he applied the Crippler Crossface. As Michaels was about to submit, Triple H saved the match, attacking both men. Triple H and Michaels then teamed up to suplex Benoit through a broadcast table. Triple H performed the Pedigree on Michaels and Benoit broke up a pinfall. Michaels then attempted Sweet Chin Music on Benoit, who countered it by throwing Michaels out of the ring. As this occurred, Triple H again attempted to execute a Pedigree on Benoit, but Benoit countered and applied the Crippler Crossface, with Triple H submitting, making it the first time ever that a WrestleMania main event ended in a submission. As a result, Benoit won the match and the World Heavyweight Championship, crying tears of joy. After the match, Eddie Guerrero came to the ring and the two champions embraced while confetti showered down as the event ended.

Reception
WrestleMania XX was met with a generally mixed-to-positive critical reception. Robert Leighty Jr. of 411Mania gave the event an overall score of 7.3 out of 10.0 and noted that:

This is a very long show with a lot of filler to get as many people as possible involved, but the Main Matches all delivered in some way. The 2 Main Title matches were fantastic, and the handicap match was a blast. You throw in a strong Jericho/Christian match and the unique crowd response of Goldberg/Lesnar and you have a strong WrestleMania. Not the greatest ever thanks to a mediocre run in the middle, but a good show that could have been better.

The triple threat match between Shawn Michaels, Chris Benoit, and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship received critical acclaim, with many wrestling publications and websites calling this match one of the greatest wrestling matches of all time. Leighty wrote that the main event was, "The greatest three-way match in the history of professional wrestling. Everything was perfect about this match including the finish." The match was #2 on IGN's list of Top 20 Matches in WrestleMania History. However, due to the events surrounding the death of Chris Benoit, the match is rarely, if ever, mentioned by the WWE.

John Powell of Canadian Online Explorer's professional wrestling section rated the entire event 4 out of 10 stars, which was a lower rating than he gave to the previous year's event. The Triple Threat match between Shawn Michaels, Chris Benoit, and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship receiving the highest rating of 7.5 out of 10 stars; the match between Eddie Guerrero and Kurt Angle for the WWE Championship was rated 7 out of 10 stars; the match between The Undertaker and Kane was rated 2 out of 10 stars; and the match between Bill Goldberg and Brock Lesnar received the lowest rating, 0 out of 10 stars.

The Goldberg–Lesnar match is widely considered one of the worst matches in WrestleMania history. Writing for Bleacher Report, Mike Krakalovich named it the 4th worst match in the history of the event. The match was also inducted into WrestleCrap.

Aftermath
Brock Lesnar and Goldberg left the WWE after their event, but both returned to WWE (Lesnar in 2012, Goldberg in 2016) and reignited their rivalry, including feuding for several months on social media and during promotional work for the WWE 2K17 video game, which featured Lesnar as the cover star and Goldberg as the pre-order bonus. This would set up a rematch between the two at the 2016 Survivor Series, which Goldberg won in one minute and 26 seconds. After Goldberg entered himself into the 2017 Royal Rumble match the next night on Raw, Lesnar's advocate Paul Heyman said that Lesnar would also be in the match after being embarrassed at Survivor Series; however, Goldberg eliminated Lesnar. Lesnar challenged Goldberg to a final match at WrestleMania 33 which Goldberg accepted. The match then became a championship match after Goldberg defeated Kevin Owens at Fastlane to win the Universal Championship. At WrestleMania 33, Lesnar defeated Goldberg to win the championship and end the feud.

At Backlash, the original main event match was between Chris Benoit and Shawn Michaels for the World Heavyweight Championship. Triple H appeared to be out of the picture, as the annual WWE Draft Lottery took place eight days after WrestleMania; and he was drafted to SmackDown!. Almost immediately after the draft lottery, the dethroned champion was traded back to Raw; and on March 29 he demanded that the intended match at Backlash be changed to Benoit and Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship. Raw general manager Eric Bischoff liked the idea of the match, but concluded that he had promised Michaels a World title match at Backlash. To solve this, Bischoff booked a return triple threat match to serve as the main event for Backlash. Benoit emerged victorious by submission for the second consecutive pay-per-view, this time forcing Michaels to submit to a Sharpshooter. Benoit went on to hold the title until August 2004, losing it to Randy Orton at SummerSlam.

The feud between Kurt Angle and Eddie Guerrero continued. Angle, however, went in for surgery on his neck shortly after WrestleMania and was not scheduled to return to action for some time. To cover this in storyline, Angle was made the on-screen General Manager of SmackDown! after previous GM Paul Heyman was drafted off the brand and promptly quit rather than work for his hated rival Bischoff. On April 15, Angle's legitimate neck problems were further incorporated into the story by having The Big Show chokeslam Angle off a ledge and render him crippled to the point where he could not walk without crutches and required a wheelchair. At The Great American Bash, Guerrero defended his title in a Texas Bull Rope match against John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL). The match ended with Guerrero appearing to have won, but Angle reversed the decision and awarded the match and WWE Championship to JBL.

Shortly after the Bash, Angle interfered in a Guerrero match under the guise of a masked wrestler named "El Gran Luchador", but was exposed by the former champion. On July 22, 2004, WWE Chairman Vince McMahon confronted Angle, who was still using crutches and the wheelchair, demanding his resignation for faking his handicap. When Angle would not do so, McMahon fired him and began attacking him with one of the crutches. McMahon saw that Angle was completely healthy as he fended off the attack and thus put him back on the active roster and ordered Angle to wrestle Guerrero at SummerSlam. Angle defeated Guerrero after he forced Guerrero to submit to the ankle lock. At Survivor Series their feud finally ended in a Four-on-Four Traditional Survivor Series Tag Team Match, with Guerrero's team (composed of Eddie Guerrero, The Big Show, Rob Van Dam, and John Cena) being victorious against Team Angle (composed of Kurt Angle, Luther Reigns, Mark Jindrak, and Carlito).

After WrestleMania XX, Trish Stratus teamed with Christian in a losing effort against Chris Jericho in a handicap match at Backlash. Elsewhere in the Divas Division, Victoria retained her WWE Women's Championship against Lita at the same event. On the SmackDown side, Sable reverted to her heel persona and engaged in a short feud with Torrie Wilson.

Cactus Jack and Randy Orton continued their feud at Backlash, with Jack challenging Orton to a hardcore match for the Intercontinental Championship. Orton won after performing an RKO to slam Cactus Jack onto a barbed wire baseball bat.

After WrestleMania, Kane and The Undertaker went their separate ways. Before the year was out, both men would receive shots at their respective brands' top championships. Kane faced Benoit at Bad Blood for the World Heavyweight Championship, while Undertaker received multiple shots at JBL for the WWE Championship, the last of which came at Armageddon in December. Kane spent the rest of his time in a feud with Lita and Matt Hardy, which led to the debut of Gene Snitsky and a feud with him.

title: WrestleMania XX


text:
Battle of Saint-Mihiel

The Battle of Saint-Mihiel was a major World War I battle fought from 12–15 September 1918, involving the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) and 110,000 French troops under the command of General John J. Pershing of the United States against German positions. The U.S. Army Air Service played a significant role in this action.

This battle marked the first use of the terms "D-Day" and "H-Hour" by the Americans.

The attack at the Saint-Mihiel salient was part of a plan by Pershing in which he hoped that the Americans would break through the German lines and capture the fortified city of Metz. It was the first large offensive launched mainly by the United States Army in World War I, and the attack caught the Germans in the process of retreating. This meant that their artillery was out of place and the American attack, coming up against disorganized German forces, proved more successful than expected. The Saint-Mihiel attack established the stature of the U.S. Army in the eyes of the French and British forces, and again demonstrated the critical role of artillery during World War I and the difficulty of supplying such massive armies while they were on the move. The U.S. attack faltered as artillery and food supplies were left behind on the muddy roads. The attack on Metz was not realized, as the Supreme Allied Commander Ferdinand Foch ordered the American troops to march towards Sedan and Mézières, which would lead to the Meuse–Argonne offensive.

Background: The Saint-Mihiel salient
Saint-Mihiel is a town in the Meuse department in northeastern France. After the end of the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War, the town was no longer considered important strategically, and France did not develop military installations. This changed early in World War I, when the town was inside the battlefront.

In 1914, the German command wished to take the Verdun fortifications, which formed a strong point in the French lines. A first attempt, at Bois-le-Pretre (Priesterwald in German), failed, despite violent fighting. During two more attempts (Battle of Flirey), German troops took Saint-Mihiel and Fort du Camp-des-Romains, but they were ultimately stopped at Fort de Troyon to the south of Verdun.

During the course of the war, the front did not change much in this area. Saint-Mihiel formed a salient inside the French lines, blocking communications between Nancy and Verdun. The area near St. Mihiel suffered much fighting: In spite of French attacks, the German forces were able to retain this strategic location until the last months of the war.
 * The Crête des Éparges (Les Éparges crest): February–April 1915.
 * At the Bois d'Ailly (Ailly Wood) and the Tranchée de la Soif (Trench of Thirst): isolated behind German lines, Commander d'André's men fought three days without food or water before surrendering in May 1915.
 * At Bois Brûlé (The Burned Forest), the French suffered many casualties when German conquered a redoubt in December 1914. It was here that the sub-officer Jacques Péricard pronounced the famous words: "Debout les morts!" (Dead men, arise!) on 8 April 1915.
 * The forêt d'Apremont (Apremont forest), the Tête à vache (Cow's head) trenches, Calonne trenches...

Prelude

General John Pershing thought that a successful Allied attack in the region of St. Mihiel, Metz, and Verdun would have a significant effect on the German Army. General Pershing was also aware that the area's terrain setting first dictated that the restricted rail and road communications into Verdun (restrictions that had been imposed by the German attack during the Battle of Flirey) be cleared, and that a continuation of the attack to capture the Germany railroad center at Metz would be devastating to the Germans. For this, he placed his confidence in a young First Infantry Division Major, George Marshall, to move troops and supplies effectively throughout the battle. After these goals were accomplished, the Americans could launch offensives into Germany proper. The American First Army had been activated in August and taken over the sector of the Allied line. Pershing had to persuade Marshal Foch (the supreme Allied military commander) to permit an American attack on the salient.

Weather reports
The weather corps of Corps I Operation Order stated: "Visibility: Heavy driving wind and rain during parts of day and night. Roads: Very muddy." This would pose a challenge to the Americans when the order to advance was given. In some parts of the road, the men were almost knee-deep in mud and water. After five days of rain, the ground was nearly impassable to both the American tanks and infantry. Many of the tanks were wrecked by water leaking into their engines, while others got stuck in mud flows. Some of the infantrymen developed early stages of trench foot, even before the trenches were dug.

German defensive positions
Prior to the American operation, the Germans installed many in-depth series of trenches, wire obstacles, and machine-gun nests. The battlefields' terrain included the nearby premises of three villages: Vigneulles, Thiaucourt, and Hannonville-sous-les-Cotes. Their capture would accelerate the envelopment of the German divisions near St. Mihiel. The American forces planned to breach the trenches and then advance along the enemy's logistical road network.

The Germans knew many details about the Allied offensive campaign coming against them. One Swiss newspaper had published the date, time, and duration of the preparatory barrage. However, the German Army stationed in the area of St. Mihiel lacked sufficient manpower, firepower and effective leadership to launch a counter-attack of its own against the Allies. With Allied offensives to the north, the Germans decided to pull out of the St. Mihiel Salient and consolidate their forces near the Hindenburg Line. The order to evacuate the area was given on 8 September. The Allied forces discovered the information on a written order to Army Group Gallwitz.

Allied tank support
Although the AEF was new to the French theater of war, it trained hard for nearly a year in preparation for fighting against the German armies. In June 1917 Pershing ordered the creation of a tank force to support the AEF's infantry. As a result, by September 1918, Lieutenant Colonel George S. Patton Jr. had finished training two tank battalions – 144 French-built Renault FT light tanks organized as the 344th and 345th Battalions of the United States Tank Corps – at Langres, France for an upcoming offensive at the St. Mihiel salient. "Due to the serious resistance of the enemy, especially along the eastern edge of the FORET d’ARGONNE and in the vicinity of CHEPPY and VARENNES, and due also the lack of support of the Infantry, all the Tanks had contrary to plan entered the action before evening of the first day. The 344th Battalion left the positions of departure and advanced ahead of the Infantry at H-hour (5:30 a.m.) On the morning of the 26th, Colonel G. S. Patton, Jr., commanding the Brigade of Tanks, was wounded while getting Tanks forward and rallying disorganized Infantrymen to attack enemy resistance. Major Sereno E. Brett, commanding the 344th Battalion, was then placed in command of the Brigade." Patton was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his "extraordinary heroism" that day. In addition to the 144 AEF tanks, the attack was joined by 275 French tanks (216 FTs and 59 Schneider CA1 and Saint-Chamond tanks) of the French 1st Assault Artillery Brigade; a total of 419 tanks.

Allied air support
Chief of the United States Army Air Service Mason Patrick oversaw the organization of 28 air squadrons for the battle, with the French, British, and Italians contributing additional units to bring the total force numbers to 701 pursuit planes, 366 observation planes, 323 day bombers, and 91 night bombers. The 1,481 total aircraft made it the largest air operation of the war. The French Army engaged the newly created Division Aérienne (Air Division), under command of General Duval, with a strength of 717 planes (24 fight squadron / 432 SPAD VII, 15 Close Air Support squadron / 225 BREGUET XIV, 4 reconnaissance squadron / 60 CAUDRON R XI). Five French fighter groups and 3 US Army fighter / bomber groups were also engaged.

Battle

The Saint-Mihiel offensive began on 12 September with a threefold assault on the salient. The main attack was made against the south face by two American corps. On the right was the I Corps (from right to left the 82nd, 90th, 5th, and 2nd Divisions in line with the 78th in reserve) covering a front from Pont-à-Mousson on the Moselle west toward Limey; on the left, the IV Corps (from right to left the 89th, 42d, and 1st Divisions in line with the 3rd in reserve) extending along a front from Limey west toward Marvoisin. A secondary thrust was carried out against the west face along the heights of the Meuse, from Mouilly north to Haudimont, by the V Corps (from right to left the 26th Division, the French 15th Colonial Division, and the 8th Brigade, 4th Division in line with the rest of the 4th in reserve). A holding attack against the apex, to keep the enemy in the salient, was made by the French II Colonial Corps (from right to left the French 39th Colonial Division, the French 26th Division, and the French 2nd Cavalry Division in line). In First Army reserve were the American 35th, 80th, and 91st Divisions.

The American V Corps location was at the northwestern vertices, the II French Colonial Corps at the southern apex, and the American IV and I Corps at the southeastern vertices of the salient. Furthermore, General Pershing's intent was obvious; to envelop the salient by using the main enveloping thrusts of the attack against the weak vertices. The remaining forces would then advance on a broad front toward Metz. This pincer action, by the IV and V Corps, was to drive the attack into the salient and to link the friendly forces at the French village of Vigneulles, while the II French Colonial Corps kept the remaining Germans tied down. The French II Colonial Corps were successful in the attack on the apex and entered Saint-Mihiel on 15 September 1918, taking 4000 prisoners. They then pushed into the plain of Woëvre up to Haumont-Woël-Doncourt.

The Allies mobilized 1,481 aircraft to provide air superiority and close air support over the front. About 40% were American-flown in American units, the remainder were British, French, and Italian. Nine bomber squadrons of the British RAF, although provided for the battle, were not under Pershing's operational control.

Defending the salient was German "Army Detachment C", consisting of eight divisions and a brigade in the line and about two divisions in reserve. Now desperately short of manpower, they had begun a step-by-step withdrawal from the salient only the day before the offensive began.

Pershing's plan had tanks supporting the advancing infantry, with two tank companies interspersed into a depth of at least three lines, and a third tank company in reserve. The result of the detailed planning was an almost unopposed assault into the salient. The American I Corps reached its first day's objective before noon, and the second day's objective by late afternoon of the second. The attack went so well on 12 September that Pershing ordered a speedup in the offensive. By the morning of 13 September, the 1st Division, advancing from the east, joined up with the 26th Division, moving in from the west, and before evening all objectives in the salient had been captured. At this point, Pershing halted further advances so that American units could be withdrawn for the coming Meuse-Argonne Offensive.

Order of Battle, First Army, 12 September 1918

 * Section source: OAFH

First United States Army – Gen. John J Pershing
 * I Corps: Maj Gen Hunter Liggett
 * Headquarters Observation Group
 * 2nd Balloon Company
 * 5th Balloon Company
 * 82nd Division – Maj Gen William P. Burnham
 * 50th Aero Squadron (split duty)
 * 42nd Balloon Company (split duty)
 * 90th Division – Maj Gen Henry Tureman Allen
 * 50th Aero Squadron (split duty)
 * 42nd Balloon Company (split duty)
 * 5th Division – Maj Gen John E. McMahon
 * 12th Aero Squadron
 * 1st Balloon Company
 * 2nd Division – Maj Gen John A. Lejeune
 * 1st Aero Squadron
 * 1st Balloon Company
 * 78th Division (Corps Reserve) – Maj Gen James H McRae
 * IV Corps – Maj Gen Joseph T. Dickman
 * Headquarters Observation Group
 * 69th Balloon Company
 * 89th Division – Maj Gen William M. Wright
 * 135th Aero Squadron
 * 43rd Balloon Company
 * 42nd Division – Maj Gen Charles T. Menoher
 * 90th Aero Squadron
 * 3rd Balloon Company
 * 1st Division – Maj Gen Charles Pelot Summerall
 * 8th Aero Squadron
 * 9th Balloon Company
 * 3rd Division (Corps Reserve) – Maj Gen Beaumont B. Buck
 * V Corps – Maj Gen George H. Cameron
 * Headquarters Observation Group
 * 99th Aero Squadron
 * 7th Balloon Company
 * 26th Division – Maj Gen Clarence Ransom Edwards
 * 88th Aero Squadron
 * 104th Aero Squadron
 * 6th Balloon Company
 * 15th Colonial Division (French)
 * 8th Balloon Company
 * 4th Division – Maj Gen John L. Hines
 * 8th Brigade
 * 4th Field Artillery Brigade
 * remainder of Division in reserve
 * 12th Balloon Company
 * US Army Reserve
 * 35th Division – Maj Gen Peter E. Traub
 * 80th Division – Maj Gen Adelbert Cronkhite
 * 91st Division – Maj Gen William H. Johnston
 * 2d Pursuit Group under First U.S. Army command
 * 13th Aero Squadron

Order of Battle, French Army, 12 September 1918

 * 2e corps d'armée colonial (2e CAC) - Gen Ernest Joseph Blondlat
 * 2e division de cavalerie à pied (2e DCP) - Gen Hennocque
 * 26e division d'infanterie - Gen de Belenet
 * 39e division d'infanterie - Gen Pougin
 * Division Aérienne (France) – Gen Duval
 * 1st Air Brigade
 * 2nd Air Brigade

Aftermath
One reason for the American forces' success at St. Mihiel was General Pershing's thoroughly detailed operations order. Pershing's operation included detailed plans for penetrating the Germans' trenches, using a combined arms approach to warfare. Another reason was the audacity of the small unit commanders on the battlefield. Unlike other officers who commanded their soldiers from the rear, Colonel George S. Patton and Brigadier General Douglas MacArthur and their subordinates would lead their men from the front lines. They believed that a commander's personal control of the situation would help ease the chaos of the battlefield.

American Captain Harry Truman, who commanded Battery D of the 129th Field Artillery Regiment during the battle, later became President of the United States.

In popular culture
The Battle of Saint-Mihiel is depicted in the climax of the 1927 film Wings.

Books

title: Battle of Saint-Mihiel


text:
Cuper's Cove

Cuper's Cove, on the southwest shore of Conception Bay on Newfoundland's Avalon Peninsula was an early English settlement in the New World, and the third one after Harbour Grace, Newfoundland (1583) and Jamestown, Virginia (1607) to endure for longer than a year. It was established in 1610 by John Guy on behalf of Bristol's Society of Merchant Venturers, who had been given a charter by King James I of England to establish a colony on the island of Newfoundland. Most of the settlers left in the 1620s, but apparently a few stayed on and the site was continuously inhabited.

The community is currently known as Cupids.

Site selection
In the early sixteenth century the island of Newfoundland was frequented by seasonal fisherman from many European countries. The competition was tough to be the first to sail to the rich fishing grounds around the island and indeed the rest of North America. The island had some obvious advantages over the rest of North America as a site to establish an English colony. The island was very familiar to fisherman and explorers, especially the bays and coves on the Avalon Peninsula where many would set up temporary shelters as they prosecuted the fishery. The merchants and owners of the vessels that made those trips to Newfoundland had recognized the importance that the strategic location that Newfoundland had placed on establishing a permanent settlement.

Time was ripe for a permanent settlement in Newfoundland. Given the failure of Walter Raleigh to establish a colony at Roanoke Island in 1584 and the successful settlement at Jamestown in 1607 and on learning that Samuel de Champlain had sailed into the St. Lawrence to initiate the settlement of New France, pressure was mounting to lay claim to the resource rich New World. King James was told that the French had made attempts to over-winter in Newfoundland and it was only a matter of time before a successful colony would be established by the French and lay claim to the island.

In 1607 Bristol's Society of Merchant Venturers which included Sir Francis Bacon, Sir Percival Willoughby and John Slany, had formed the Newfoundland Company with shares selling at £25. The Newfoundland Company had then petitioned the King James I, seeking approval to establish a colony in Newfoundland. John Guy visited the island in 1608 to scout possible locations for a settlement, selecting Cuper's Cove as his preferred location. The Privy Council accepted his petition on 2 May 1610 issuing a charter to the Earl of Northampton (Guy's patron).

In 1610 John Guy, his brother Phillip, his brother-in-law William Colston and 38 colonists had set sail from Bristol aboard three ships. In August 1610 they made landfall in the area Guy had visited two years earlier to set about building a settlement.

Site construction (1610—1611)
John Guy had landed at Cuper's Cove in August 1610 and is described in a letter from John Guy to Sir Percival Willoughby from Cuper's Cove, 6 October 1610 where it states in part:

The colonists all male were made up of masons, carpenters, blacksmiths and other apprentices to build fortifications and dwellings to prepare for the coming winter. The charter had stipulated that the settlers of Cuper's Cove were not to interfere with the operation of the migratory fishery in any way. It wasn't deemed a problem, for the Cuper's Cove area was not considered prime fishing grounds, but certainly over winter they would have time to prepare for the next year fishing season and they would be the first on those grounds.

Guy and his colonists began clearing the area and by May 1611 the colony consisted of a dwelling house and a store house contained within a 120 ft. x 90 ft. enclosure, a second dwelling house, a work house and a forge. Within the confines of the settlement were two saw pits and a wooden defense works upon which three cannons were mounted.

One of the first items of construction was to dig a cellar, which in recent excavations has determined it to be roughly 20 ft. across with a maximum depth of seven feet, walled-up with flat stone and back-filled with rubble. The dwellings were made of cobble and flagstone floors with some areas covered by wooden timbers and floor boards. The end of the first winter, a mild winter, the report back to England was very optimistic where Guy notes that the months of October and November are both warmer and drier than in England. The livestock they had brought from England had thrived and had added to their numbers.

The colonists built, along with the dwellings and support structures, six fishing vessels and a twelve tonne bark, Endeavour. Fortifications were by means of a palisade wall of local cut poles sixteen feet long set upright all around the perimeter of the settlement. The fortress was completed by the summer of 1612 to defend the plantation against the pirate Peter Easton.

Settlement expansion (1612–1613)
The plantation continued development and by 8 September 1612 a dwelling for Henry Crout and his ward Thomas Willoughby had begun. By the spring of 1613 at least sixteen structures were built on the site. Much of the land had been cleared for the planting of crops and to allow livestock to pasture.

John Guy had stayed at the colony during the winter of 1610 to 1611 and had returned to England in the autumn of 1611. Four of the colonists had died during the winter of 1610 to 1611. In the spring of 1612, Guy had returned, this time with more adventurers and livestock. Guy, an alderman and sound churchman, had also brought with him a clergyman, Rev. Erasmus Stourton.

During the winter of 1612 to 1613 sixty-two people were known to be at the plantation. That winter eight deaths were recorded, all apparently from scurvy. There was also a birth recorded, the first English child born in Newfoundland and what is now Canada. The child was born to Nicholas Guy and his wife on 27 March 1613.

Beothuk contact
No mention of the natives of Newfoundland, namely the Beothuk, is made in the petition of the charter of the Newfoundland Company, a fact that had helped speed it through the Privy Council. There was a brief notation in the charter that stated explicitly any contact with natives would be to convert them to Christianity. Guy had assumed that the natives had long since left Conception Bay, but he knew that they lived not far away. One reason for his construction of the bark Indeavour was to explore nearby Trinity Bay and to make contact with the Beothuk.

Two failed attempts to make contact with the Beothuk overland (see article on Henry Crout and construction of Crout's Way) Guy had readied his bark and one of his newly constructed fishing vessels to set off in search of the Beothuk at Trinity Bay. In October 1612, Guy, Crout and seventeen others set sail in both vessels in search of the Beothuks. They had entered Mount Eagle Bay (Hopeall) on October 22 and two days later they found several Beothuk houses in a place they called Savage Harbour located at Dildo Arm. They found a path leading to a freshwater pond that proved to also be a campground for the Beothuk. A modern excavation at this site called Russell's Point has yielded many artifacts of this campsite.

John Guy and his party eventually did meet with the Beothuk at a Bull Arm, where they shared gifts and a meal. The Beothuk had lit a fire to express their willingness to trade and they also produced a white flag made from a wolf skin.

Post colony use

Captain John Mason was appointed the new Proprietary Governor of the colony in 1615, but he too grew tired of disputes with fishermen and with the difficulties of the terrain, and abandoned the colony in 1621 for New England.

Patuxet tribesman, Tisquantum (better known as Squanto) was brought here by Sir John Slany in 1617 and worked with Captain John Mason, governor of the Newfoundland Colony. While being here, he encountered a ship's captain by the name of Thomas Dermer, who had worked with both Sir Ferdinando Gorges and Captain John Smith. After staying for many months at this site, Squanto thought he would be able to return home to the modern-day American state of Massachusetts, but Dermer took him back to London to meet Gorges and ask for permission about the trip to Squanto's homeland. He eventually found a ship bounding for his homeland, but later discovered that his tribe had been all wiped out by an unknown disease.

There is some evidence that an unorganized settlement remained here possibly into the eighteenth century before finally being abandoned, although the cove remained a popular location for visiting fishermen. Cuper's Cove is now known as the Town of Cupids.

Names and Details of the Original 39 Colonists

 * William Colston, brother-in-law of John Guy
 * Richard Fletcher, master pilot
 * John Guy
 * Philip Guy, brother of John Guy
 * John Morris, died 1 February 1610
 * Thomas Percy, died 11 December 1610
 * Thomas Stone, died 13 April 1611
 * Marmaduke Whittington, died 15 February 1610 of smallpox

title: Cuper's Cove


text:
Drum roll

A drum roll (or roll for short) is a technique used by percussionists to produce a sustained sound for the duration of a written note.

"All drum figures are based upon three fundamental beats, technically called roll, single stroke, and flam...Sustentation is accomplished upon wind instruments by blowing into the instrument; it is accomplished upon the violin and the allied instruments by drawing the bow across the string; it is accomplished upon the drum and allied percussion instruments by the roll.

THE SNARE DRUM ROLL.

The roll consists of an even reiteration of beats sufficiently rapid to prohibit rhythmic analysis. To produce an impression of sustentation, these beats must be absolutely even both in power and in sequence. Uneven beats in a roll destroy the impression of sustentation. Evenness is then the primary quality to strive for in roll; speed is the secondary quality to strive for.

There are two possible ways of producing an absolutely even sequence: (1) hand alternation of single stroke and (2) hand alternation of double strokes...The snare drum roll is produced by hand alternation of double strokes.

The 'open roll' is produced by [initially] slow hand alternation. Two strokes in each hand alternately are produced by wrist movement and each beat should follow its predecessor in clock-like precision."

Snare drum roll

A common snare drum roll is the closed roll. The closed concert roll (orchestral roll, buzz roll, or press roll) is performed by creating 3 (or more) equal sounding bounces on each hand alternating right to left, repeatedly and quickly. The aim of a closed roll is to reproduce the effect of a sustained note on an instrument which inherently produces a short, staccato sound. Because a multiple bounce stroke on a drum head loses energy, and volume, with each successive bounce, it is necessary to use special tactics and techniques to mitigate the loss of sound and cause the repeated notes to sound even. This involves the arm, the wrist, and the fingers. One way to mitigate the loss of sound is to overlap the 3rd bounce from one hand with the first bounce of the next in the manner of a Flam Tap, only much faster and smaller. The loud first bounce occurring closer to the quiet 3rd bounce from the preceding hand give the illusion that the bounces have a more even volume.

There are many interpretations of concert rolls and while the variations result in a similar rolling sound, there are subtle audible differences. One major point of differentiation between rolling techniques is between Metered and Unmetered rolls. Metered rolls require the players arms and wrists to play in time with the beat of the music and so a regular subdivision, such as 8th note triplets, 16th notes, or 16th note triplets must be chosen and maintained. The drawback of metered rolls is that the ideal rolling speed (for the player, the room, the sticks, and the instrument) may lie between exact subdivisions, depending on the tempo, and the sound quality may vary by tempo. The benefit is that it makes all the rolls fit neatly into the music in time and is easier to count. Unmetered rolls require the player to perform the best possible sounding roll they can, whether or not the arm movements correspond to the musical tempo. The drawback to this approach is that the player must count the beats of the music independently to, and in complete disregard of, the speed of the roll and the corresponding arm motion. The benefit is that the roll sounds optimal and smooth at any tempo. The metered closed roll should not be confused with the open or measured roll, as described below.

Examples of Drum rudiments that are similar to, or precisely like, a concert closed roll include:
 * American - Multiple Bounce Roll, Triple Stroke Roll, and Crushed Ruff
 * German - Druckruf
 * Scotch - Buzz Roll, stroked rolls 5 through 25 (metered closed rolls in Scottish tradition), and Trizzlet
 * Dutch - Ra stroke
 * Mexican - Rau Tau and Redoble
 * Spanish - Redoble de Zumbido
 * Bajoaragonés - Los Rufaos
 * Eporedian (Ivrea, Italy) - Rullo

The open roll ("double-stroke roll" or "long roll") is played with double strokes alternating between the left and right hands. Using a forearm stroke for the first and the fingers for the second stroke, the 2 strokes can be made to sound identical. This produces a near-continuous sound when the technique is mastered. In rudimental drumming, open rolls, consisting of double strokes, are often measured out to a specific number of strokes. A 3 stroke roll is the shortest possible open double stroke roll, but is commonly referred to by the specific name "Drag," "Ruff," or "Half Drag." Typically, any roll with an odd number of strokes is played with a single accent and any roll with an even number of strokes is played with 2 accents. This patterns holds for the 5 Stroke, 6 Stroke, 7 Stroke, 9 Stroke, 10 Stroke, 11 Stroke, 13 Stroke, 15 Stroke, and 17 Stroke Rolls of the PAS 40 rudiments. Note that some numbers between 5 and 17 are missing. These additional rolls are possible and are taught in modern hybrid drumming and in older pre-NARD rudimental systems, as well as those from other countries, notably the Basel and Scotch cultures. For example, the 8 Stroke Roll is present in the Moeller Book from 1925 but is lost in later publications. The 4 Stroke, 8 Stroke, 12 Stroke, 14 Stroke, and 16 Stroke are rare but all exist in official published sources. The Scotch Pipe Band style has a rudimental roll up to 25 strokes. This provides the drummer with a consistent set of rolls from 3 to 17 plus the 25, with any other number being an extrapolation from this system.

The snare drum was the standard for military communication from about 1700 to the 1860s, and a list of British army drum calls from 1800 included the long roll as a call to form a square. During the American Civil War the long roll called the troops to assemble and signaled an attack. Again the long roll of the drummers, Again the attacking cannon, mortars, Again to my listening ears the cannon responsive.

— Walt Whitman Song of Myself

Other than the open roll, there are many other rolls and rudiments that sound like rolls when they are played fast enough (like the freehand technique or single paradiddle).

In the table below, lower-case letters represent grace notes (drags, flams etc.) and hyphens represent rests.

Also, the six-stroke roll is often used in snare solo and marching percussion situations and is a favorite for jazz and rock drummers. It has four variations; each note is equal in length and consists of two double strokes (RRLL) and two singles (R L). The strokes are most commonly taught as (RLLRRL).

French and Dutch drumming include several variations on rolls with an uneven number of strokes between the hands. For example, the French Bâton Melée, or mixed stick, can be played in repeating combinations of 3: RRL, LLR, RLL, or LRR.

Timpani roll
Rolls on timpani are almost exclusively single-stroked. Due to the instruments' resonance, a fairly open roll is usually used, although the exact rate at which a roll is played depends greatly on the acoustic conditions, the size of the drum, the pitch to which is it tuned and the sticks being used. Higher pitches on timpani require a faster roll to maintain a sustained sound; some timpanists choose to use a buzz roll on higher notes at lower volumes; although there is no definite rule, most timpanists who employ this technique do so on a high "G", and above. In the end, it often comes down to the discretion of the timpanist.

Keyboard roll
These are similar to the timpani rolls in that they are done nearly the same way and are both single-stroked. Yarn mallets usually can be rolled much more easily on a marimba than plastic ones can be on a xylophone, because the extra reverberation of a marimba will mask the silent gaps between strokes. For this reason, the rolls can be much slower and still effective. But for xylophone and orchestra bells a much swifter roll is required, especially for rubber or plastic mallets. A brass mallet used with orchestra bells will add extra vibration to aid in the smoothing of the sound.

To get these faster rolls, percussionists (keyboard, snare and timpani) all often use the muscles of their fingers instead of those of the wrists. The fingers have a shorter rotation length and can move faster with less effort than the wrist.

Fulcrum roll/Gravity roll/Freehand roll
The fulcrum roll, or freehand roll, is a roll in which the rim of the drum momentarily replaces the original finger-created fulcrum. Thus is qualifies as a dual-fulcrum or multiple-fulcrum stroke. The initial stroke creates contact with the drum head in a relatively normal manner. Immediately subsequent, at the bottom or end of the down stroke motion, the rim is contacted approximately 1 inch in front of the thumb and forefinger. Contact with the rim rocks the front portion of the stick upwards from the point of contact with the rim. At this moment, the wrist is located just below the rim and the bead is a couple inches above the head. From the bottom of the down-stroke, the hand is then raised for the upstroke. While the hand raises, the bead of the stick is returning toward the head after its bounce off the rim. As the raising hand and falling bead reach the same height, the head is struck for the second time. This creates two beats contacting the drum head out of a single stroke motion of the arm. The precise moment of contact with the rim momentarily creates a new fulcrum at the drum stick's physical point of contact with the rim. This is one of the easier and more commonly used forms of a "one handed roll". When executed with precision, this doubling of contact means 16th notes can be played while the arm only strokes 8th notes, or 32nd notes can be played while stroking only 16th notes. The technique is also known amongst many drummers as the gravity blast, though gravity is not required as the technique can be performed inverted, sideways, or in a gravity free environment.

Notation
A tremolo in percussion indicates a roll on any percussion instrument, whether tuned or untuned. A tremolo is notated using strokes, or slashes, through the stem of a note. In the case of whole notes, the strokes or slashes are drawn above or below the note, where the stem would be if there were one. For the case of a snare drum and some other percussion instruments, rolls may be indicated by individual notes or with the use of tremolos, depending on the sheet music's notation.

In percussion, three types of tremolos may be seen in sheet music; a tremolo with a single, double, or triple slash going through the stem:

A single slash indicates a diddle, or two double strokes from a single hand, that subdivides the note in two. RR or LL

A double slash indicates two diddles, or two double strokes from each hand, that subdivides the note in four. RRLL or LLRR

A triple slash indicates four diddles, playing two double strokes twice from each hand, that subdivides the note into eight. RRLLRRLL or LLRRLLRR

In a 4/4 time signature, a triple slash quarter note would entail playing double strokes for two eighth notes with a single slash each, or four sixteenth notes RRLL or LLRR. A double slash eighth note would entail playing double strokes for four sixteenth notes RRLL or LLRR. A single slash sixteenth note would entail playing one pair of double stroke thirty-second notes RR or LL. In the case of a half note or whole note, it's common to play alternating double stroke sixteenth notes for the duration of the note.

Depending on the sheet music, individual notes with labeled sticking patterns can also be rolls. These rolls can be single stroke rolls, double stroke rolls, triple stroke rolls, or any multiple bounce roll variation. Rolls that don't use tremolos typically incorporate different articulations and dynamics, although this is not always the case.

title: Drum roll