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Talk:Operation Infinite Reach

Cruise missile strikes is it too weak?
The problem not settled, so 911 could succeed. Maybe should have a critise chapter in this article. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Lynxlea (talk • contribs) 01:07, 27 May 2009 (UTC)

Bring Out Your Dead
The page on the US Embassy Bombings says 212 PEOPLE were killed at Nairobi, INCLUDING 12 Americans. This page says 224, INCLUDING 12 Americans. Having made a serious study of parallel errors in other contexts, my money is on there having been 212 killed in all; I could cite other instances in which a number like this has been swollen by having one component added twice. In other words, reporting too many is a more probable type of error than reporting too few. Still, I note this in the hope that someone with more ready access to first-hand sources will correct it and save me the trouble of digging. (I always say that. It hasn't happened yet, but hope springs eternal.)

Terry J. Carter (talk) 23:33, 14 June 2008 (UTC)

Lawrence Wright's The Looming Tower puts the death toll at 213 in Kenya, including 12 Americans, and 11 in Tanzania, for a total of 224. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 129.240.158.78 (talk) 18:37, 10 July 2008 (UTC)

Condoleezza Rice on Daily Show
I'm not sure this belongs here:

Notable Misinformation ''On November 1st 2011, Condoleezza Rice stated these attack were targeted against Iraq and as lending legitimacy for the Iraq War during her interview segment [25] on The Daily Show. No such attacks were launched at that time.''

Also, this seems to have been posted in response (under the wrong subsection).

Does anyone else have an opinion on the suitability of this content for this article? KConWiki (talk) 04:09, 9 January 2012 (UTC)

CW in al-Shifa
It would be great to use this article for information about the strikes and al-Shifa in particular. GABHello! 01:44, 24 October 2015 (UTC)

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Requested move 2 June 2016

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the move request was: page moved.  Event horizon51  (talk) 02:21, 19 June 2016 (UTC)

Cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan (August 1998) → Operation Infinite Reach – Operation Infinite Reach is the event's common name, and the current title is simply far too unwieldy and implausible for anyone to search. "Operation Infinite Reach" also has over three times the number of Google hits than "Cruise missile strikes on Afghanistan and Sudan," and over seven times the hits of the current title. In this case, WP:MILMOS may not be the best guide, since "Operation Infinite Reach" is far more widely used and the operation is very well-known and covered. GABgab 14:17, 2 June 2016 (UTC) --Relisting. — Music1201  talk  17:46, 11 June 2016 (UTC)
 * Support: current title is too vague. Also, as per Commonname, people interested in the operation, know it by its codename. DaltonCastle (talk) 21:44, 11 June 2016 (UTC)

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page or in a move review. No further edits should be made to this section.

POV
The section declaring the attacka a failure and an al-Qaeda propaganda victory is subjective opinion and not neutral POV.

It doesn't matter if a source also gives that opinion--plenty of people have opinions--that's not a neutral fact that belongs in an encyclopedia.

If nobody wants to rewrite it objectively, it should be removed,24.93.185.231 (talk) 23:21, 7 April 2017 (UTC)

Newsweek, "Our target was terror"
As of 2022-12-06 this article includes the following:

 * Following the strikes, Osama bin Laden's spokesman announced that "The battle has not started yet. Our answer will be deeds, not words."

I'm concerned that the article in the URL has the same title but different dates and authors:
 * Date: citation = August 31, 1998. URL:  8/30/98:  Presumably, the date should be August 30, not 31.
 * Authors: The URL says, "Newsweek Staff". The citation says Watson and Barry.

I suspect that the article was first published August 30, as indicated in the link, then updated the following day to add the byline. If someone can find a link to the August 31 version by Watson and Barry, it should be corrected here.

This article is currently cited in 4 places as reference [8]. Might someone confirm that the information for which this article was cited is actually in the URL? It would, of course, help if it were the same person or people who added those citations to the article. If that can be done, I suggest the date be changed to August 30 and the authors be deleted. (In support of this suggestion, I found pages for both "Russell Watson Newsweek" and "John Barry Newsweek". Both contained articles by these authors in 1997 and 1999, but I didn't see this article.)

Can someone help fix this? Thanks, DavidMCEddy (talk) 08:43, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

DavidMCEddy (talk) 08:43, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

 * Note: I just created a Wikidata item for this:
 * If someone fixes this item here, it should also be fixed in Wikidata.
 * Thanks, DavidMCEddy (talk) 09:06, 6 December 2022 (UTC)
 * Thanks, DavidMCEddy (talk) 09:06, 6 December 2022 (UTC)

Is it right to say the strikes were "on Al-Qaeda bases"?
The opening line of the article states that Operation Infinite Reach was the codename for "cruise missile strikes on al-Qaeda bases". This seems imprecise to me as it implies that all the targets of the strikes were indeed Al-Qaeda bases, which is highly disputed in the case of the al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory.

Would it be better to say something like "Operation Infinite Reach was the codename for American cruise missile strikes on an al-Qaeda base in Afghanistan and an alleged al-Qaeda base at the al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory in Sudan"? Zinedine Socrates (talk) 23:50, 14 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Operation Infinite Reach


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User:AaronW

I'm a college senior going for a BS in computer science and a BA in English. My contributions are usually limited to fixing broken windows, because I generally don't have time to create Wikipedia-calibre articles. My philosophy is to be bold when editing, and then never return to the page so that I don't feel any distress if someone else decides I was too bold and changes it. This also helps to avoid revert wars and other WikiStress. I try to avoid mistakes whenever I can, but one of the great things about Wikipedia is knowing that if I slip up, anyone who notices my mistake can fix it. And, it goes without saying, if you think I've edited a Wikipedia article in a way that is less than perfect, by all means, change it at will.

I get a guilty voyeuristic pleasure out of reading nasty debates in talk pages, but I try never to get involved in debates myself.

As my 10th grade English teacher Mr. Fick used to say, I believe in Anapaest Destiny — that America was put on this Earth to promote the use of a metrical foot of two unstressed beats and one stressed beat. ;)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User:AaronW


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Congress of People's Deputies

Congress of People's Deputies:
 * Congress of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies, sometimes shortened as Congress of People's Deputies
 * Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union
 * Congress of People's Deputies of Russia
 * Congress of People's Deputies (Russia, 2022)
 * Congress of People's Deputies of the Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic

title: Congress of People's Deputies


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User:Patrick/test page 2/subsubtest

test

title: User:Patrick/test page 2/subsubtest


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Talk:Anne Stine Ingstad

hoax
(Unsure why "hoax" was added here. It says Wetman added it, but when I asked, he said he'd never seen the page) wiegee 05:29, Jan 6, 2005 (UTC)

Doctorates
I've added "dr." in front of Anne Stine Ingstad. She was a Dr. Philos., University of Oslo, 1978, on the L'Anse aux Meadows excavations. In addition, both Anne Stine and Helge Ingstad held several honorary doctorates.

I'm also OK with dropping both "dr." titles. What's the custom on Wikipedia?

 * Would it not be an idea to put academic (and other) titles under a separate heading? Also, please sign your edits --

Grumpy444grumpy 10:51, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

 * I heard Helge Ingstad speak on several occasions and he always laughed when someone in the audience addressed him as "Dr. Ingstad," protesting that he had earned only a law degree, and that the only "Dr. Ingstad" in his home was his wife. When it came to academic archaeology, he thought of himself only as an experienced amateur. --Michael K. Smith 16:48, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

Just dating
Stine's page says discovery was 1960. So does L'Anse aux Meadows. Ingstad's says '61. Which is it? Trekphiler (talk) 08:33, 5 February 2008 (UTC)

There is a New York Times article from November 1963, published the day after Ingstad and Stine publicly reported their discovery. The article says that digging at the L'Anse site began in 1960. I suppose the appropriate date depends on one's definition of "discovery." The ruins were discovered in 1960. Solid evidence that it was a Norse Greenlander settlement may have been determined in subsequent years. Jrgilb (talk) 16:46, 27 November 2009 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anne Stine Ingstad


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Revillagigedo Islands

The Revillagigedo Islands (Islas Revillagigedo, ) or Revillagigedo Archipelago are a group of four volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean, known for their unique ecosystem. They lie approximately 458 km from Socorro Island south and southwest of Cabo San Lucas, the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula, and 698 to 1092 km west of Manzanillo. Historically linked to the Mexican state of Colima, to which they were granted in 1861 to establish a penal colony, the islands are under Mexican federal property and jurisdiction.

In July 2016, the Revillagigedo Archipelago was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and in November 2017 they were declared to be a marine reserve and a national park of Mexico. Some of the volcanoes are active, with the last eruption of Volcán Bárcena in 1953, and Socorro in 1993. Travelling to the islands from their nearest land point takes approximately 26 to 30 hours, as they are typically reached by sea; a small military airstrip exists on Socorro.

Geography
The total area is 157.81 km2 (60.93 mi2), spread over an east-to-west extent of about 420 km (261 mi). A naval station in the south of Socorro Island has a population of 45 (staff). On Clarión is a small naval garrison with nine men. The islands are otherwise uninhabited. The islands are named after Don Juan Vicente de Güemes, 2nd Count of Revillagigedo, the 53rd viceroy of New Spain.

The three eastern islands are called the inner islands. They fall in the time zone UTC-7 (Mountain Time), while the major part of Colima is UTC-6 (Central Time Zone). Clarión is comparatively far to the west, by more than 200 km in comparison with the inner islands, and in UTC-8 (Pacific Time Zone). The Revillagigedo Islands are one of three Mexican island groups in the Pacific Ocean that are not on the continental shelf; the others are Guadalupe Island and Rocas Alijos.

Sixteenth to nineteenth century
No evidence of human habitation on any of the islands exists before their discovery by Spanish explorers. Hernando de Grijalva and his crew discovered an uninhabited island on 19 December 1533, and named it Santo Tomás (Socorro Island) and on 28 December they discovered Isla de los Inocentes (San Benedicto) which owed its name to having been found on the day of the Holy Innocents.

In November 1542, Ruy López de Villalobos, while exploring new routes across the Pacific, rediscovered Inocentes and Santo Tomás and charted the latter as Anublada ("Cloudy"). Villalobos was the first to report sighting of Roca Partida Island giving it its present-day name. In 1608, Martín Yánez de Armida, in charge of another expedition, visited Anublada and changed its name to Socorro. In 1779 José Camacho was the first to report sighting of the island remaining, that he charted as Santa Rosa ("Saint Rose"). Santa Rosa was later renamed Clarion after the vessel commanded by Henry Gyzelaar at that time.

The Revillagigedo Islands have been visited by a number of other explorers: Domingo del Castillo (1541), Miguel Pinto (1772), Alexander von Humboldt (1811), Benjamin Morrell (1825), Sir Edward Belcher (1839) who made the first botanical collections and Reeve, who witnessed the eruption of Mount Evermann in 1848. On 25 July 1861, President Benito Juárez signed a decree awarding territorial control over the four islands to the state of Colima. His plan was to build an offshore penitentiary on Isla Socorro; although this never happened, the decree whereby they were attached to Colima has never been repealed. In 1865, the island was explored by ornithologist Andrew Jackson Grayson, who discovered the Socorro dove, Socorro mockingbird and the Socorro elf owl which were later given scientific names in his honor.

Twentieth century
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Dr. Barton Warren Evermann, director of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco, California, promoted the scientific exploration of the islands. The most comprehensive biological collections were obtained at this time. The volcano on Isla Socorro was renamed in his honor. In 1957 the Mexican Navy established a naval base on Socorro and has had a permanent presence on the island since then. A tiny outpost also exists on Clarión, as noted above. On 21 March 1972, Pablo Silva García became the first Governor of Colima to visit his state's island territories. A plaque was unveiled to mark the event and cement Colima's claim.

The seas surrounding the larger islands are popular with scuba divers; a variety of marine life such as cetaceans, sharks and manta rays can be observed. Visitors usually stay aboard expedition vessels during their visit to the islands, which is desirable from an ecological standpoint to prevent introduction of further invasive species. The islands are considered dangerous to visit for purposes beyond diving since it is difficult to make a landing; some have nearly lost their lives attempting to do so on Clarion for example.

They are occasionally visited by amateur radio operators, who usually use the ITU prefix XF4. Because of their distance from the mainland, for award credit they are considered to be an "entity" separate from Mexico. Expeditions from organizations engaged in biological conservation of the islands visit the islands for fieldwork on a regular basis. No tourism facilities exist; the islands have no reliable sources of fresh water of their own.

Twenty-first century
On 24 November 2017, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto created North America's largest marine protected area around the Revillagigedo Islands. This protected area covers 57,000 mi2 around the islands, and bans fishing, mining, and tourism development in the protected area and on the islands.

Ecology
The Revillagigedo Islands are home to many endemic plant and animal species, and are sometimes called Mexico's "little Hawaii". They are recognized as a distinct terrestrial ecoregion, part of the Neotropical realm. Socorro is the most diverse in flora, fauna, and topography. The Mexican Government established the islands as a Biosphere Reserve on June 4, 1994. Oceanographic Magazine stated in 2020 that, "Its remoteness, protection and peculiar oceanography makes it one of the most biodiverse and exciting marine destinations on earth."

The islands are mostly covered with tropical dry forest, with several distinct plant communities that vary with elevation, soils, and exposure. Hopbush (Dodonaea viscosa) and Guettarda insularis are common dry forest species. Green buttonwood mangrove (Conocarpus erectus) and the shrub Hibiscus tiliaceus subsp. pernambucensis grow along the seacoast. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), 14 of the islands' 16 generally accepted resident taxa of landbirds are endemic, and include the Clarión wren (Troglodytes tanneri), Socorro wren (Troglodytes sissonii), Socorro mockingbird (Mimus graysoni), Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni), and Socorro parakeet (Arahuga brevipes). Clarión is home to endemic subspecies of burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia rostrata), mourning dove (Zenaida macroura clarionensis), and common raven (Corvus corax clarionensis). A variety of yellow-crowned night heron, Nyctanassa violacea bancrofti (gravirostris), is endemic to Socorro. Townsend's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis) is a seabird that breeds only around Cerro Evermann on Socorro. It formerly bred on Clarión and San Benedicto, but has not bred on Clarión since 1988 nor on San Benedicto since 1952.

The islands' four native terrestrial vertebrates are all endemic, and include a whip snake (Masticophis anthonyi), a night snake (Hypsiglena unaocularis) and two iguanids (Urosaurus auriculatus and U. clarionensis). Numerous seabird taxa breed no further north(east)wards than San Benedicto; storm-petrels are notably absent as breeders though they breed in the region and visit the islands to forage. Albatrosses are also not normally found here. Among landbirds, the absence of the house finch, widespread on northeastern Pacific offshore islands, is the most conspicuous one.

Apart from the native birds, migrant shorebirds and others are often found on the islands. Bahia Azufre (Sulfur Bay) on Clarión seems to be a favorite stopover location, as it is one of the few longer stretches of beach in the islands; mostly, the shoreline is steep cliffs. The archipelago is also a part of wintering grounds for humpback whales in the North Pacific.

Socorro has numerous endemic plant taxa, whereas Clarión has only a few. The San Benedicto ecosystem was nearly wiped out in the devastating eruption of Bárcena volcano on August 1, 1952. The ecosystem there has since recovered, but the event is known to have caused the extinction of the San Benedicto rock wren. Most if not all native plants found on San Benedicto today are shared with Clarión, but not with the closer Socorro to the south, due to the prevailing winds and ocean currents. The native flora of Clarión is about equally shared with both other large islands.

As opposed to the interchange between the islands, the animals and plants that colonized them initially are apparently all from mainland populations generally to the northeastward of the Revillagigedos. Plants are most often derived from Baja California founder populations, whereas the endemic nonavian reptiles seem to be rather derived directly from mainland populations of the Sonora-Sinaloa area. The ancestors of the islands' terrestrial birds probably came from the general area of southern North and northern Central America. As illustrated by the fact that no endemic landbird taxon occurs on more than one island and the cases of the Socorro and Clarión wrens as well as the Socorro dove and Clarión mourning dove, each bird population seems to have arisen independently. The archipelago has been recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International for its breeding seabirds and endemic landbirds.

Ilex socorroensis, Aristolochia socorroensis, Bidens socorrensis, Coreocarpus insularis, Eremosis littoralis, Erigeron socorrensis, Perityle socorrosensis, Zapoteca formosa subsp. socorrensis, Lepechinia hastata subsp. socorrensis, Salvia pseudomisella, Triumfetta socorrensis, Botrychium socorrense, Acianthera unguicallosa, Castilleja bryantii var. socorrensis, Peperomia socorronis, Muhlenbergia solisii, Paspalum longum, Guettarda insularis, Meliosma nesites, Cestrum pacificum, Physalis mimulus, Citharexylum danirae, and Verbena sphaerocarpa are endemic to Socorro. Portulaca masonii is endemic to Clarión. Aristolochia islandica and Erigeron crenatus are endemic to San Benedicto. Plants endemic to two or more islands include Cryptantha foliosa, Bulbostylis nesiotica, Cyperus duripes, Croton masonii, Teucrium townsendii, Oenothera resicum, Aristida tenuifolia, Aristida vaginata, Spermacoce nesiotica, and Nicotiana stocktonii.

Threats and conservation
As late as 1956, it was said that: "'The future of the avifauna of the islands appears to be secure at present. There are no human inhabitants, and no mammals of any kind except the moderate and apparently stable population of sheep on Socorro.'" But the unique ecology of the islands has since then come under threat from introduced species. The sheep were introduced to Socorro in 1869. Cats became established after 1953, probably in the early 1970s. Pigs were introduced to Clarión in 1979, and rabbits became feral at some earlier date.

Several endemic species of Socorro are now threatened with extinction. The Socorro mockingbird (Mimodes graysoni) numbers less than 400 individuals altogether. The endemic Socorro parakeet (Psittacara brevipes) and Townsend's shearwater (Puffinus auricularis), are also endangered. The Socorro dove (Zenaida graysoni) is now extinct in the wild, but is being bred in captivity. The elf owl's Socorro subspecies Micrathene whitneyi graysoni appears to be extinct. Other plant and animal taxa in the archipelago are also considered threatened or nearly so.

A number of conservation initiatives are dedicated to halting the destruction of the native ecosystems of the islands. Dr. Harmunt Walter of the University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) and Dr. Luis F. Baptista of the California Academy of Sciences have coordinated breeding and reintroduction efforts for the Socorro dove since 1988, through the Island Endemics Institute. The Comité Científico para la Conservación y Restauración del Archipiélago Revillagigedo ("Scientific Committee for the Conservation and Restoration of the Revillagigedo Islands") was founded in 1996, and is a committee representing several organizations, including the Island Conservation & Ecology Group, Island Endemics Institute, the University of Missouri–St. Louis (UMSL), the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) and others. It is chaired by Dr. Walter and Dr. Luis Medrano of UNAM is its secretary. The committee has been advocating removal of the exotic species from the islands, especially the estimated 2000 sheep on Socorro, to allow the islands' ecology to recover, and adoption of a management plan to promote the recovery of the islands' native species, including reintroduction of the Socorro dove.

Brattstrom and Howell who gave the optimistic outlook in 1956 went on to caution: "it may be hoped that the Mexican government will guard against the introduction of mammals such as rabbits, cats, goats and others that have invariably brought disaster to the flora and fauna of insular regions."

Marine protected area
On 25 November 2017, President of Mexico Enrique Peña Nieto acted to protect the biodiversity of the region by creating North America's largest marine protected area around the islands, and prohibiting mining, fishing, and tourism development on or near the islands. In total, marine protected areas cover 4.6% of Mexico's exclusive economic zone for fishing. Marine protected areas have been shown to positively contribute to ocean diversity, improve nearby fishing locations, and combat climate change. A study published five years after the establishment of the marine protected area found that fishing activity within the protected zone had decreased by an average of 82% per vessel. The study also found that industrial fishing catches in Mexico's exclusive economic zone had not decreased.

title: Revillagigedo Islands


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Fritz London

Fritz Wolfgang London (March 7, 1900 – March 30, 1954) was a German born physicist and professor at Duke University. His fundamental contributions to the theories of chemical bonding and of intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) are today considered classic and are discussed in standard textbooks of physical chemistry. With his brother Heinz London, he made a significant contribution to understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors with the London equations and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry on five separate occasions.

Biography
London was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) as the son of Franz London (1863-1917). Being a Jew, London lost his position at the University of Berlin after Hitler's Nazi Party passed the 1933 racial laws. He took visiting positions in England and France, and emigrated to the United States in 1939, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1945. Later in his life, London was a professor at Duke University. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1953. He died from a heart ailment in Durham, North Carolina, in 1954.

Academic achievements

London's early work with Walter Heitler on chemical bonding is now treated in any textbook on physical chemistry. This paper was the first to properly explain the bonding in a homonuclear molecule such as H2. It is no coincidence that the Heitler–London work appeared shortly after the introduction of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, because quantum mechanics was crucial in their explanation of the covalent bond. Another necessary ingredient was the realization that electrons are indistinguishable, as expressed in the Pauli principle.

Other early work of London was in the area of intermolecular forces. He coined the expression "dispersion effect" for the attraction between two rare gas atoms at large (say about 1 nanometer) distance from each other. Nowadays this attraction is often referred to as "London force". In 1930 he gave (together with R. Eisenschitz) a unified treatment of the interaction between two noble gas atoms that attract each other at large distance, but repel each other at short distances. Eisenschitz and London showed that this repulsion is a consequence of enforcing the electronic wavefunction to be antisymmetric under electron permutations. This antisymmetry is required by the Pauli principle and the fact that electrons are fermions.

For atoms and nonpolar molecules, the London dispersion force is the only intermolecular force, and is responsible for their existence in liquid and solid states. For polar molecules, this force is one part of the van der Waals force, along with forces between the permanent molecular dipole moments.

London was the first theoretical physicist to make the fundamental, and at the time controversial, suggestion that superfluidity is intrinsically related to the Einstein condensation of bosons, a phenomenon now known as Bose–Einstein condensation. Bose recognized that the statistics of massless photons could also be applied to massive particles; he did not contribute to the theory of the condensation of bosons.

London was also one of the early authors (including Schrödinger) to have properly understood the principle of local gauge invariance (Weyl) in the context of the then new quantum mechanics.

London predicted the effect of flux quantization in superconductors and with his brother Heinz postulated that the electrodynamics of superconductors is described by a massive field. I.e. that whilst magnetic flux is expelled from a superconductor, this happens exponentially over a finite length with an exponent which is now called the London penetration depth.

London also developed a theory of a rotational response of a superconductor, pointing out that rotation of a superconductor generates magnetic field London moment. This effect is used in models of rotational dynamics of neutron stars.

Fritz London Memorial Lectures and Prize
Since 1956, the Fritz London Memorial Lectures have brought to the scientific community at Duke University a distinguished group of lecturers including twenty Nobel laureates. The scientific interests of each lecturer impinge at one or more points upon the various fields of physics and chemistry to which Fritz London contributed. In December 1972, John Bardeen, two-time winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, established an endowment fund "to perpetuate the memory of Fritz London, distinguished scientist and member of the Duke faculty from 1939 to the time of his death in 1954, and to promote research and understanding of Physics at Duke University and in the wider scientific community". The fund is to be used to underwrite the Fritz London Memorial Prize, given in recognition of outstanding contributions in Low Temperature Physics, and provide support for the London Memorial Lectures at Duke University.

title: Fritz London


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Congress of Soviets

The Congress of Soviets was the supreme governing body of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and several other Soviet republics from 1917 to 1936 and a somewhat similar Congress of People's Deputies from 1989 to 1991. After the creation of the Soviet Union, the Congress of Soviets of the Soviet Union functioned as its legislative branch until its dissolution in 1936. Its initial full name was the "Congress of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies". It was also sometimes known as the "Congress of People's Deputies." A similar name also applied in communist-held China in the Republican era.

The more precise modern English translation of "s'yezd" (съезд) would be convocation, not congress, making the more precise translation of the full term "Convocation of Councils" rather than "Congress of Soviets".

Russia and the Soviet Union
The Congress of Soviets was an assembly of representatives of local councils. In theory, it was the supreme power of the Soviet State, an organ of the dictatorship of the proletariat. No bourgeois, no noble, no aristocrat, no priest could vote – only working people. Officially, the Congress of Soviets created laws and elected the Council of People's Commissars, which was the government. In the interim its functions were performed by designated executive bodies, titled Central Executive Committees, such as the All-Russian Central Executive Committee in Russia. In practice the Congresses became increasingly deferential to the Bolsheviks after the Russian Revolution.

By the time of Lenin's death in 1924 the Congress of Soviets effectively only rubber-stamped the decisions of the Communist Party and served as a propaganda tribune. The 1936 Constitution eliminated the Congress of Soviets, making the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union its highest legislative institution. During this time the Central Committee of the AUCP(b) held de facto control over the government.
 * Eighth All-Russia Congress of Soviets December 29, 1920

Ukraine
The Bolsheviks convened an All-Ukrainian Congress of Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies in Kyiv, on December 17, 1917, and in Kharkiv on December 25, 1917.

China
The Chinese Communist Party had convened the National Congress of Chinese Soviets of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies in Ruijin, a city in Jiangxi Province on November 7, 1931. The National Congress of Chinese Soviets is the forerunner to the National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China.

title: Congress of Soviets


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Patrick Duffy

Patrick Duffy (born March 17, 1949) is an American actor and director widely known for his role on the CBS primetime soap opera Dallas, where he played Bobby Ewing, the youngest son of Miss Ellie, and the brother of J.R. Ewing (played by Barbara Bel Geddes and Larry Hagman respectively) from 1978 to 1985 and from 1986 to 1991. Duffy returned to reprise his role as Bobby in a continuation of Dallas, which aired on TNT from 2012 to 2014. He is also well known for his role on the ABC sitcom Step by Step as Frank Lambert from 1991 to 1998, and for his role as Stephen Logan on the CBS daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful (2006–2011, 2022, 2023). Duffy played the lead character's father in the 2014 NBC sitcom Welcome to Sweden.

Early life
Duffy was born in Townsend, Montana, in 1949, the son of tavern owners Terence and Marie Duffy. Duffy is of Irish ancestry. During high school, Duffy was living in Everett, Washington, and attended Cascade High School. At Cascade, he participated in the Drama Club and the Pep Club, for which he was a Yell King. Academically, Duffy graduated from the University of Washington in 1971 with a degree in drama. He ruptured both his vocal cords during his senior year of college, but was hired as actor-in-residence, where he worked as an interpreter for ballet, opera, and orchestra companies in Washington. He also taught mime and movement classes during this period. In a 2021 interview with David A. Weiner, Duffy credits his sister, an international champion diver, with teaching him the necessary swimming techniques for his first career break. She became a police officer in Seattle.

Career
Duffy appeared in a Taco Bell commercial in the early 1970s, playing an employee describing an Enchirito. In 1977, he landed the role of Mark Harris in the short-lived television series Man from Atlantis. Following the series' cancellation in early 1978, he got his big break in the role of Bobby Ewing, opposite Barbara Bel Geddes and Larry Hagman, on the prime-time soap opera Dallas. The show became a worldwide success. Despite its success, Duffy opted to leave the series in 1985 with his character being killed off onscreen. However, with both the show and his career on the decline, he returned in 1986 in the infamous shower scene that rendered the entire 1985–1986 season "just a dream." Duffy then remained with the series until its cancellation in 1991. He also appeared in several episodes of the spin-off series Knots Landing between 1979 and 1982. Throughout the 13-year run of Dallas, Duffy directed several episodes of the series. Along with Dallas fame, Duffy has also tried his hand at singing, and in 1983, he had a hit in Europe with "Together We're Strong", a duet with French female singer Mireille Mathieu. The single reached No. 5 in the Netherlands in April 1983.

At the end of Dallas' run in 1991, Duffy began another television role, as Frank Lambert on the family sitcom, Step by Step in which he co-starred with Suzanne Somers. The series ran until 1998, and Duffy also directed numerous episodes. Also in the 1990s, he appeared in two Dallas reunion television films; J.R. Returns (1996) and War of the Ewings (1998), both of which he also co-produced. He has reunited on several occasions with many of his Dallas co-stars both onscreen and off, most notably for the non-fiction television special Dallas Reunion: Return to Southfork in 2004. Duffy later continued to act in occasional guest or voice acting appearances, including the series Family Guy (in which he appeared in a live action scene with Victoria Principal as they spoofed the Dallas shower scene), as well as Justice League and Touched by an Angel. Duffy starred in the television films Falling in Love With the Girl Next Door and Desolation Canyon. In 2006, he began a recurring role on the daytime soap opera The Bold and the Beautiful as Stephen Logan. From April to July 2008, he hosted Bingo America, a partially interactive game show on GSN. Duffy reprised his role as Bobby Ewing in TNT's continuation series of Dallas. The series aired from 2012 to 2014.

Duffy played a surreal double of Bobby Ewing in the experimental documentary Hotel Dallas, directed by artist duo Ungur & Huang. The film premiered at the 2016 Berlin International Film Festival.

On August 8, 2005, Barbara Bel Geddes died of lung cancer. Duffy had met Bel Geddes through his future father-in-law when he was a boy. At the time of his TV mother's death, he said: "When Barbara joined the cast of 'Dallas,' as Miss Ellie, I considered her to be like Helen Hayes, Katherine Cornell, and Ethel Barrymore — a real 'name' in American theater. But you'd never have known it. She exhibited no large ego because of her history. She'd schlepp in and drop your jaw with every performance — whether it was drinking a cup of coffee, having a mastectomy, or losing Jock Ewing. It was remarkable, her ordinariness despite that pedigree. We called Barbara 'BBG' on the set. She was the mama figure. Larry Hagman was obviously the prow of the boat, but he couldn't have functioned without a strong mother, and I don't think there's been a mother like her on dramatic television since then. People related to her because she was the epitome of compassion despite her own pain. Off screen, she was a pistol. She cussed like a mule skinner, and she really liked to have her drinks. But she also had an endless capacity to include everybody that she loved, and that was the entire cast."Then, 7 years after his TV mother’s death, at the revival of Dallas, he said: "Barbara is a big piece of our history, and it's important to me to honor her. To come back with Linda Gray as Sue Ellen and Larry Hagman in his J.R. hat, and then see the words Ellie Southworth Ewing Farlow on the gravestone made me think, 'Oh, that's right -- she's gone.'   " The last thing he said about the revived series, without Bel Geddes as one of the stars: "Through the whole first season, I don't think an episode goes by that Mama is not mentioned in reference to Southfork and the land."

Personal life
Duffy married Carlyn Rosser, a professional ballerina 13 years his senior, in 1974. She danced with the First Chamber Dance Company of New York. Her nephew is former Major League Baseball pitcher Barry Zito. The Duffys lived near Eagle Point, Oregon, with their sons Padraic (b. 1974) and Conor (born c. 1980).

Introduced to Buddhism by his wife, Duffy converted to Nichiren Buddhism and began chanting Nam Myōhō Renge Kyō. He and his family are longtime members of the Buddhist organization Soka Gakkai International.

On November 18, 1986, Duffy's parents were murdered at their tavern in Boulder, Montana by two young men, Kenneth Miller and Sean Wentz, during an armed robbery. Wentz and Miller, who were teenagers at the time, were convicted of the murders and sentenced to 75 years in prison. In 2001, Miller appeared before the Montana Parole board after Sean Wentz recanted his original story and admitted that he, Wentz, was the sole gunman. Miller was denied clemency in 2001 but was released on parole in December 2007. Sean Wentz was granted parole in 2015.

Duffy's wife Carlyn Rosser died in 2017. In 2020, he entered into a relationship with actress Linda Purl.

title: Patrick Duffy


text:
Talk:Military history of the United States

War on Terror
Has the War on Terror shifted to a new focus in recent years? Enough maybe to warrant a new section? Notable battles and reasons why need to be added to almost each conflict un War on Terror. What do the current situations in each of these countries look like as a result of US intervention? CarricoHayden08 (talk) 17:44, 19 February 2021 (UTC)


text:
Bennington College

Bennington College is a private liberal arts college in Bennington, Vermont, United States. Founded as a women’s college in 1932, it became co-educational in 1969. It is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.

1920s
The planning for the establishment of Bennington College began in 1924 and took nine years to be realized. While many people were involved, the four central figures in the founding of Bennington were Vincent Ravi Booth, Mr. and Mrs. Hall Park McCullough, and William Heard Kilpatrick.

A Women's Committee, headed by Mrs. Hall Park McCullough, organized the Colony Club Meeting in 1924, which brought together some 500 civic leaders and educators from across the country. As a result of the Colony Club Meeting, a charter was secured and a board of trustees formed for Bennington College. One of the trustees, John Dewey, helped shape many of the college's signature programs such as The Plan Process and Field Work Term through his educational principles.

In 1928, six years before the college would begin, Robert Devore Leigh was recruited by the Bennington College executive committee to serve as the first president of Bennington. Leigh presided over the forging of Bennington's structure and its early operation. In 1929 Leigh authored the Bennington College Prospectus which outlined the "Bennington idea".

1930s
The first class of eighty-seven women arrived on campus in 1932. The college was the first to include the visual and performing arts as full-fledged elements of the liberal arts curriculum.

Every year since the college began in 1932, every Bennington College student has engaged in internships and volunteer opportunities each winter term. Originally called the Winter Field & Reading Period, the two-month term was described by President Robert Devore Leigh in his 1928 Bennington College Prospectus as "a long winter recess giving students and faculty opportunity for travel, field work, and educational advantages of metropolitan life". This internship was renamed twice, as Non-Resident term and, as it is called today, Field Work Term.

In 1934 the Bennington School of Dance summer program was founded by Martha Hill. Martha Graham, Doris Humphrey, Hanya Holm, and Charles Weidman all taught at this laboratory. The program gained attendance by José Limón, Bessie Schonberg, Merce Cunningham, and Betty Ford. In 1935 the administration agreed to admit young men into the Bennington Theater Studio program, since men were needed for theatrical performances. Among the men who attended was the actor Alan Arkin.

Between 1935 and 1939 the famous social psychologist Theodore Newcomb conducted a study about the change of political attitude during the New Deal period.

President Leigh resigned in 1941, at the age of 50, saying he thought no college should be "shackled by executive leadership gradually growing stale, feeble or lacking in initiative". He was succeeded by a member of the Bennington faculty, Dr. Lewis Webster Jones, economist and labor mediator.

1940s–1980s
In 1946, Paula Jean Welden, a sophomore at the college, disappeared while on a hike of the nearby Long Trail. She was living in Dewey House at the time and had traveled alone. Many students assisted in the search, but Paula was never found. Frederick H. Burkhardt, who had been ready to decline an invitation to become president of the college, visited the campus was impressed with the cohesion and support of the community in the face of this tragedy and accepted the offer. At age 35, he became the youngest college president in the nation.

In 1951 the U.S. State Department issued a documentary on Bennington highlighting its unique educational approach as a model for the Allied rebuilding of German society after the War.

The college continued to expand its physical infrastructure. Built in 1959, the Edward Clark Crossett Library was designed by the modernist architect Pietro Belluschi. After opening, Crossett Library was featured in Architectural Forum and became a focus of study for many architecture students in the 1960s. Crossett Library went on to win the 1963 Honor Award for library design. In 1968, three new student houses were completed to help house the growing student population and were named in honor of William C. Fels, Jessie Smith Noyes, and Margaret Smith Sawtell. These houses were designed by the distinguished modernist architect, Edward Larrabee Barnes, who posthumously earned the 2007 American Institute of Architects Gold Medal.

In 1969, Bennington became fully coeducational, a move that attracted major national attention, including a major feature story in The New York Times Magazine. The presidency of Gail Thain Parker from 1972 to 1976 was marked by controversy over curriculum reform, affirmative action, and relations between faculty and administration.

1990s
In 1993, the Bennington College Board of Trustees initiated a process known as "The Symposium". Arguing that the college suffered from "a growing attachment to the status quo that, if unattended, is lethal to Bennington's purpose and pedagogy", the board of trustees "solicit[ed] ... concerns and proposals on a wide and open-ended range of issues from every member of the faculty, every student, every staff member, every alumna and alumnus, and dozens of friends of the College." According to the trustees, the process was intended to reinvent the college, and the board said it received over 600 contributions to this end.

The results of the process were published in June 1994 in a 36-page document titled Symposium Report of the Bennington College Board of Trustees. Recommended changes included the following:
 * Adoption of a "teacher-practitioner" ideal;
 * Abandonment of academic divisions in favor of "polymorphous, dynamically changing Faculty Program Groups";
 * Replacement of the college's system of presumptive tenure with "an experimental contract system"; and
 * A 10% tuition reduction over the following five years. In 1988, according to The New York Times, Bennington was the most expensive college in the country.

Near the end of June 1994, 27 faculty members (approximately one-third of the total faculty body) were notified by certified mail that their contracts would not be renewed. (The exact number of fired faculty members is listed as 25 or 26 in some reports, a discrepancy partly because at least one faculty member, photographer Neil Rappaport, was reinstated on appeal shortly after his firing.) As recommended in the Symposium, the trustees abolished the presumptive tenure system, leaving the institution with no form of tenure. The firings attracted considerable media attention.

Some students and alumni protested, and the college was censured for its actions by the American Association of University Professors, who said, "academic freedom is insecure, and academic tenure is nonexistent today at Bennington College." Critics of the Symposium, and the 1994 firings, have alleged that the Symposium was essentially a sham, designed to provide a pretext for the removal of faculty members to whom the college's president, Elizabeth Coleman, was hostile. Some have questioned the timing of the firings, arguing that by waiting until the end of June, the college made it impossible for students affected by the firings to transfer to other institutions.

President Coleman responded that the decision was fundamentally "about ideas", stating that "Bennington became mediocre over time" and that the college was in need of radical change. Coleman argued that the college was in dire financial straits, saying that "had Bennington done nothing ... the future of this institution was seriously in doubt." In a letter to The New York Times, John Barr, chairman of the board of trustees, asserted that Coleman was "not responsible for the redesign of the college ... It was the board of trustees".

In May 1996, 17 of the faculty members terminated in the 1994 firings filed a lawsuit against Bennington College, seeking $3.7 million in damages and reinstatement to their former positions. In December 2000, the case was settled out of court; as part of the settlement, the fired faculty members received $1.89 million and an apology from the college. In the immediate wake of the controversy, for the 1994–1995 academic year, the college's enrollment dropped to a record low of 370 undergraduates, and the following year (1995–1996), undergraduate enrollment declined to 285. According to Coleman, a student body of 600 undergraduates was required for the college to break even.

2000s and 2010s
, the college reports a total enrollment of 755 students with steady increases in quality student applications. Bennington College appeared on the Princeton Review's 2018 Best Northeastern Colleges List, which includes the schools that it considers "academically outstanding and well worth consideration in your college search". Bennington also appeared on Princeton's "Green Schools" list. Notably, Bennington was also featured in a 2016 article by Forbes as one of "Tomorrow's Hot Colleges" highlighting the institution's recent flourishing "under bold, entrepreneurial leadership".

In 2015 Bennington College announced a $5 million gift from the Helen Frankenthaler Foundation. The largest single gift ever awarded by the foundation has helped establish the Helen Frankenthaler Fund for the Visual Arts and provides support for all aspects of the school's visual arts program including curricula, facilities, programs, and faculty. In recognition of the gift, the visual arts wing of the college's 120,000-square-foot arts facility was renamed the Helen Frankenthaler Visual Arts Center.

In October 2016 the faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.

In the summer of 2020, the board of trustees announced that Laura Walker would be the next college president.

Bennington College has an acceptance rate of 45%.

Academics
In 2015, the college had a student to faculty ratio of 8:1 and an average class size of 13 students. Bennington College is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education. In 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Bennington #76 in National Liberal Arts Colleges and #38 in Best Undergraduate Teaching Programs for National Liberal Arts Colleges.

Plan Process
At Bennington, students receive graduate-style advising from a faculty member who assists with course selection, internship and job applications, graduate school preparation, and more. Bennington does not have traditional academic majors for undergraduate students. Instead, the Plan Process is an alternative to majors, which encourages students to lead their own education, rather than choosing from pre-existing paths. Within the Plan Process, there are no required courses, so from the moment students arrive, they are free to begin crafting their plan of study to meet their interests and explore new fields. In their second year, students must submit an essay-style Plan proposal, which details their desired primary and secondary areas of study, a summary of their interests and previous coursework, and a framework for how their studies should progress to culminate in senior work in one of the existing disciplines such as Society, Culture and Thought, Advancement of Public Action, Dance, Environmental Studies, Visual Arts, and others. Students then meet with a committee of faculty members and their academic adviser to review the proposed Plan and make any necessary changes. After their Plan is improved, students regularly meet with their adviser to choose relevant courses and meet again with the Plan committee each fall to discuss their progress towards completion. Because of the Plan Process, no two students at Bennington will graduate with the same exact mix of learning.

Field Work Term
Field Work Term is a required annual internship program that gives students the opportunity to gain professional experience beyond the classroom before graduating. Field Work Term experiences often inform students' decisions about career planning and can even lead to job opportunities post graduation. Bennington is the only college that has required an annual internship for students since its founding.

Special programs

 * Center for Creative Teaching
 * Isabelle Kaplan Center for Languages and Culture
 * The Museum Fellows Term
 * Quantum Leap Program

Graduate programs
Bennington college offers the Master of Fine Arts (MFA) in multiple disciplines and the Postbaccalaureate Premedical Program. Previously an MAT or BA/MAT was offered in Education through the Center for Creative Teaching, until discontinued around 2012.

Bennington Writing Seminars
Bennington Writing Seminars is a low-residency Master of Fine Arts program in writing founded by Poet Liam Rector in 1994. After Rector's death in August 2007, Sven Birkerts was director until 2017. Poet Mark Wunderlich is the current director of Bennington Writing Seminars. U.S. Poet Laureate Donald Hall was a long time writer-in-residence.

In 2007, The Atlantic named it one of the nation's best, and Poets & Writers Magazine named it one of the top three low-residency programs in the world in 2011. Core faculty has included fiction writers David Gates, Amy Hempel, Alice Mattison, Jill McCorkle, Rick Moody, Lynne Sharon Schwartz, and Paul Yoon; nonfiction writers Eula Biss, Jenny Boully, Susan Cheever, Melissa Febos, Phillip Lopate, and James Wood; and poets April Bernard, Jennifer Chang, Amy Gerstler, Major Jackson, Timothy Liu, Ed Ochester, Carmen Giménez Smith, Craig Morgan Teicher, and Mark Wunderlich.

Notable alumni of the program include Bill Ayers, Lisa Brennan-Jobs, Jasmin Darznik, Amy Gerstler, Tod Goldberg, Nathalie Handal, Erica Hunt, Angela Jackson, Suleika Jaouad, Morgan Jerkins, Molly Jong-Fast, Fedwa Malti-Douglas, Megan Mayhew Bergman, Susan Scarf Merrell, Marie Mutsuki Mockett, Ivy Pochoda, Rolf Potts, Jamie Quatro, Mark Sarvas, Cynthia D'Aprix Sweeney, and Sarai Walker.

Dance
The MFA in Dance is designed as a two-year, four-term program; however, those who cannot commit to four consecutive terms are encouraged to propose an alternative schedule when applying.

Music
Like the MFA in Dance program, the MFA in Music is a two-year, four-term program. Students pursue work at an advanced level in either composition or voice. (In exceptional cases, students wishing to pursue postgraduate work in other performance areas may be considered.)

Public Action
The Center for the Advancement of Public Action at Bennington College established a Master of Fine Arts in Public Action in 2018. Directed by Susan Sgorbati, the program aims to support artists working in social justice.

PostBac PreMed
Bennington's PostBac program was suspended indefinitely in 2021. It was a one-year program, beginning and ending in June, and it covered the basic requirements for medical school and other health profession tracks.

Campus
The groundbreaking ceremony for Bennington College took place on August 16, 1931, and construction of the original Bennington College campus was completed by 1936. The Boston architectural firm, J.W. Ames and E.S. Dodge designed Commons, the 12 original student houses, as well as the reconfiguration of the Barn from a working farm building into classrooms and administrative offices. The original student houses were named for the people integral to the founding of the college. The campus was built by more than 100 local craftsmen, many of whom had been out of work since the stock market crash of 1929. The campus stretches 440 acres with main campus centered on 10 acres. There are 300 wooded acres, 15 acres of wetland, and 5 acres of tilled farmland.

Historic elements of the campus were listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2022.

Academic buildings

 * The Barn
 * Center for the Advancement of Public Action
 * Crossett Library
 * Dickinson Science Building
 * Jennings Music Building
 * Deane Carriage Barn
 * Stickney Observatory
 * Tishman Lecture Hall
 * East Academic Center Buildings
 * Visual and Performing Arts Center

Residence halls
94% of students live on campus. There are 21 student houses and all dorms are co-educational. Each dorm hosts a weekly "Coffee Hour" on Sunday evenings where students discuss campus and house issues together. There are also 15 staff/faculty houses.

Colonial houses

 * Bingham
 * Booth
 * Canfield
 * Dewey
 * Franklin
 * Kilpatrick

 * Leigh
 * McCullough
 * Stokes
 * Swan
 * Welling
 * Woolley

Barnes houses

 * Fels
 * Noyes
 * Sawtell

Woo houses

 * Merck
 * Paris-Borden
 * Perkins

Other houses

 * Longmeadow
 * Welling Town House
 * Shingle Cottage
 * Paran Creek Apartments

Dining, fitness, and recreation

 * Historic Commons Building
 * Meyer Recreation Barn & Climbing Gym
 * The Student Center & Snack Bar
 * The Upstairs/Downstairs Cafe
 * Soccer Field
 * Tennis Courts
 * Basketball Court
 * Running and Hiking Trails

Student life
Bennington College has a total undergraduate enrollment of 668, with a gender distribution of 32.9 percent male students and 67.1 percent female students. 94.0 percent of the students live in college-owned, -operated, or -affiliated housing and 6.0 percent of students live off campus. In 2021 the director of campus security resigned after hiring a white supremacist to the campus safety staff. Unfortunately, in the past ten years Bennington has had a high student suicide rate. The college goes to great lengths not to involve local media when this occurs, however, there have been at least 6 student suicides in the last 7 years.

Annual events
Bennington has annual events.

 * 24-Hour Play : Plays are written and performed in the span of one day.
 * Pigstock : Springtime party featuring live music and a pig roast.
 * Roll-a-rama : Roller skating in Greenwall Auditorium.
 * Sunfest : A day-long music festival in May.

Publications
The Silo is a student-run and produced journal of arts and letters at Bennington College. It has been published since 1943.

The Bennington Free Press is the student-run and produced newspaper of Bennington College. It has been published since 2003.

"Footnotes" is an academic journal created by the Student Educational Policies Committee, beginning in spring 2016.

Faculty
Faculty has included Wharton and James biographer R. W. B. Lewis, essayist Edward Hoagland, literary critics Camille Paglia and Stanley Hyman (whose wife Shirley Jackson referenced Bennington College in her writing, particularly Hangsaman), rhetorician Kenneth Burke, former United Artists' senior vice-president Steven Bach, novelists Arturo Vivante, Bernard Malamud and John Gardner, trumpeter/composer Bill Dixon, saxophonist and pianist Charles Gayle, composers Allen Shawn, Henry Brant, and Vivian Fine, painters Kenneth Noland, Mary Lum and Jules Olitski, politicians Mansour Farhang and Mac Maharaj, poets Léonie Adams and Howard Nemerov, sculptor Anthony Caro, dancer/choreographer Martha Graham, drummer Milford Graves, author William Butler (author of The Butterfly Revolution), economist Karl Polanyi and a number of Pulitzer Prize-winning and acclaimed poets including W. H. Auden, Stanley Kunitz, Mary Oliver, Theodore Roethke, Donald Hall, and Anne Waldman, and educator Joseph S. Murphy, the future Chancellor of the City University of New York.

Robert Frost Stone House Museum
In 2017, Bennington College acquired the Robert Frost Stone House Museum through a gift from the Friends of Robert Frost. Robert Frost lived in the colonial era home in Shaftsbury, VT from 1920 to 1929, during which time he wrote many of his well known works including the poem "Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening".

Frost was involved in the founding of Bennington during the 1930s, suggesting the use of narrative evaluations which became a core aspect of the college's academic process.

In literature
Camden College, a fictionalized version of Bennington, appears in the works of Bret Easton Ellis, Jill Eisenstadt, and Jonathan Lethem. Whereas Ellis's Camden College is located in New Hampshire, Lethem's Camden is in Vermont, and is notable for being the most expensive college in the United States. All three of the writers attended Bennington College, which is really located in Vermont, and was at one time notorious for being the most expensive college in the United States. Bennington graduate Donna Tartt uses the same Bennington-inspired backdrop for her 1992 novel The Secret History, but for her it is Hampden College. However, Eisenstadt and Lethem use 'Camden' in From Rockaway (1987) and The Fortress of Solitude (2003), respectively.

Camden is first mentioned in Ellis's debut novel Less than Zero (1985), and is the central setting of his next, The Rules of Attraction (1987). Eisenstadt's From Rockaway and Tartt's The Secret History both depict working class young people who gain scholarships to the fictionalized liberal arts college; both are alluded to in The Rules of Attraction (Ellis having read the first draft of Secret History). Characters said to have attended Camden appear in Ellis's American Psycho (1991), The Informers (1994) and Glamorama (1998), the last of which features flashback sequences to the characters' Camden days. In Jonathan Lethem's The Fortress of Solitude (2003), Camden appears later in the novel once main character Dylan Ebdus begins college. In Ellis's pseudo-autobiographical horror novel Lunar Park (2005), the fictional Bret Easton Ellis attended Camden College and recalls many of its fictional characters.

title: Bennington College


text:
Talk:Anheuser-Busch

Claims regarding "Anheuser family"
I'm removing this entire paragraph (under the history section), until someone can verify. I haven't found anything to back up the claims & referencing Anheuser rather than Busch is also a bit of a red flag.
 * The German heritage of Anheuser, along with its major competitors such as Miller, seriously affected the corporation's public image during World War I, when Anti-German sentiment in the United States reached moral panic proportions. Poor public relations, such as when part of the Anheuser family elected to stay in Germany after the war broke out to help with the home front efforts against the Allies, did not help change the perception of a large number of Americans who were predisposed by nascent mass media to distrust German-origin products during the first World War.

--Chimino (talk) 12:59, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

Budweiser bill
Added this:

After numerous deaths in football stadiums, Brazil passed a law in 2003 outlawing alcohol sales in stadiums. FIFA demanded that Brazil allow alcohol sales at the 2014 FIFA World Cup because Budweiser, a major World Cup sponsor is the "Official Beer of the FIFA World Cup", a role it has played since 1986. In response, Brazil passed a law paving the way for alcohol sales in the World Cup, nicknamed the "Budweiser Bill".

Wholesomegood (talk) 05:12, 10 June 2014 (UTC)

Copyright problem removed
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External links modified
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Improve reference
I don't know how to improve ref to Herbst, this is what i have so far but not sure how to change it.

209.93.15.127 (talk) 22:14, 4 February 2017 (UTC)

External links modified
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Fixed broken link in the references
Reference 1 was a link to a web page that no longer exists at anheuserbusch.com. I replaced the reference with the url to the current history page at that site. Siegele (talk) 00:44, 11 December 2017 (UTC)

Need new logo
Anheuser Busch has a new logo. https://www.brandinginasia.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/01/New-Anheuser-Busch-Logo.jpg FireDragonValo (talk) 17:08, 11 April 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: CMN2160A
— Assignment last updated by Zariagibson (talk) 20:14, 13 December 2022 (UTC)

Merge proposal: 2023 Anheuser-Busch boycott
Per WP:NOTNEWS, I don't believe 2023 Anheuser-Busch boycott justifies a standalone article. Perhaps with the benefit of time it will seem more likely to be notable in the long-term, but I think for now the topic ought to live at the 2023 Anheuser-Busch boycott Anheuser-Busch section. There are editors on the boycott article talk page arguing that we should use poor quality sources because the available sourcing is so sparse, which seems like a major red flag. GorillaWarfare (she/her • talk) 23:02, 14 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Pinging possibly interested users from Talk:2023 Anheuser-Busch boycott: GorillaWarfare (she/her • talk) 23:09, 14 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Just checking : did you mean perhaps to say that "for now the topic ought to live at the Anheuser-Busch section"? I am concerned about the sourcing the new article relies on; I do think a merge here would be the safest, with some content maybe also heading toward Dylan Mulvaney. There are quality news sources covering this topic, like The Independent and Washington Post, but they are not primarily focused on the issue through the boycott lens. Firefangledfeathers (talk / contribs) 01:29, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Ack, yes, bad copypaste. GorillaWarfare (she/her • talk) 02:07, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Okay, other than some articles on the war in Ukraine and some global election updates a day or two after they happen, this is the first current event that I've edited significantly. If you believe that it would fit better skimmed down and put in the Anheuser-Busch article than I would support that, as long as that's what the consensus is. Scu ba (talk) 02:48, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Thank you for the ping. I agree that a merger would be a good idea since the boycott article has had trouble standing on its own. FictiousLibrarian (talk). 02:59, 17 April 2023 (UTC)
 * As the article creator, I'm seeing people complain complain about the Fox and Newsweek sources, however, even before @GorillaWarfare removed large chunks of the article content, they still accounted for like a fifth of the sources, with most others coming from WP:RS sources. There are NY Post sources, but I purposely avoided them and were mainly added by @Scu ba and an IP. Fact is, this is a major controversy unlike most other culture war boycotts in that this was a conservative-led one of a scale never seen before that has been continuously sustained for weeks and has some effect. In fact, there were a lot more WP:RS coverage of this listed in the article that I presume were removed in the mass content deletions conducted by you. - Knightsoftheswords281  (Talk-Contribs) 02:15, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * All sources that I removed were of dubious quality at best, which you can verify by looking in the page history. Frankly the sources don't support that this is a boycott "of a scale never seen before", nor that there's been much impact — the supposed impact was incredibly cherry-picked or from NYPost/etc. GorillaWarfare (she/her • talk) 02:19, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Due to it being a conservative issue, most of the sources talking about it where conservative. It just so happens that most conservative media in the US fails to pass WP:RSP (Post, Fox, Caller). I felt that as long as the opinion pieces of the articles where cut out and just the numbers they where reporting where included that maybe the sources could be salvaged. But I would totally understand and even support their removal. Scu ba (talk) 02:50, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

*Support: There is no Wikipedia page for the 2020 Goya Foods boycott, so I don't see why we need a page for this. Keeping this page could possibly lead to accusations of bias. If this boycott becomes a historical event, maybe it could stay, but I think it's too soon. GamerKiller2347 (talk) 07:35, 20 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Rename to "Bud Light transgender controversy" — The boycott itself is not notable, but the controversy is. elijahpepe@wikipedia (he/him) 04:19, 17 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Merge. Nice article, lots of good work done by Knightsofthesword281, but makes sense to merge with Anheuser-Busch. Also, don't see any issues with Fox News articles, they seem to capture the controversy in a straightforward way.EdJF (talk) 15:15, 18 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Weak oppose I wouldn't be too upset with a merge, but there's currently enough well-sourced text at the other article that I think it stands on its own. If a large volume of the text is seen as trivial (I'm agnostic on that), then perhaps a merge may be inorder, but as it stands now, porting all of the text from the Boycott article seems like it would overwhelm this one.  -- Jayron 32 18:27, 19 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Just because the wrong this was done once before in the past, doesn't mean that the wrong thing needs to continue to be done forever. That's a really terrible rationale.  -- Jayron 32 13:05, 20 April 2023 (UTC)
 * *Update: My support is definitely weak, and I am open to changing my opinion. GamerKiller2347 (talk) 03:06, 25 April 2023 (UTC)

*Support While it will still cause some issues when housed on the main page, I think it fits better there with the size and scope of the controversy/boycott and article. Glman99(talk) 19:12, 27 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose It seems at this point that this news event is "sticky" enough to justify its own article. Obviously, down the road, it can be evaluated whether it is best to retain it as a standalone article or merge it into a larger one.  Ergo Sum  14:54, 24 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose merge There are plenty of reliable sources for this event. And similar 'culture war' boycotts have their own articles: Chick-fil-A and LGBT people, Boycott of Maryland's 1st congressional district, 2018 NRA boycott, Boycott of The Ingraham Angle, etc.130.74.59.120 (talk) 01:30, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose: You know, the creator of this article did a good job, and there are several other pages for boycotts, as noted above by I think it should stay. GamerKiller2347 (talk) 04:27, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose I've come around after comparing some examples and reviewing the additional sources that have been added to the page. I think it's at least as well-written and extensive as previous articles, and has potential to continue to be "sticky". Glman99 (talk) 13:39, 1 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose at least for now. The boycott content will swallow this article up if we merge now. After the boycott ends, I think it will be a lot easier to contextualize and decide. There is no race, and having two articles is not hurting anything. ‡ El cid, el campeador  talk  13:55, 9 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose wide press coverage about this specific event. The coverage is still ongoing, for example this article from today. --Deansfa (talk) 23:47, 21 May 2023 (UTC)
 * Oppose Continues to get major coverage like yesterday’s Wall Street Journal piece. Thriley (talk) 03:12, 23 May 2023 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 15 April 2023
Remove Alissa Heinerscheid (Vice President) from key people. She is not a member of company leadership. Source: https://www.anheuser-busch.com/about/leadership Samoomoo (talk) 04:12, 15 April 2023 (UTC)
 * Red information icon with gradient background.svg Not done: She is mentioned in this capacity by the source in the article, which establishes her as a notable key individual. The distinction of "company leadership" is not essential to this. Actualcpscm (talk) 09:12, 15 April 2023 (UTC)

Inaccurate company information.
The first words incorrectly state AB is an Amercian company headquartered in St. louis Missouri, as it refers to another article describing this company as having a parent company with the same name. AB is the parent company and it's headquartered in Leuven Belgium. 69.123.125.184 (talk) 20:18, 29 April 2023 (UTC)
 * ❌ Anheuser-Busch is headquartered in St. Louis.  The parent company, which is mentioned in the second sentence, is AB InBev, and that one is in Belgium.  You've confused the subsidiary with the parent company.  -- Jayron 32 14:21, 1 May 2023 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: NAS 348 Global Climate Change
— Assignment last updated by TotalSolarEclipse (talk) 21:52, 16 March 2024 (UTC)

"Bud Man" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud_Man&redirect=no Bud Man] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Readers of this page are welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. GnocchiFan (talk) 16:43, 24 March 2024 (UTC)

Formatting
Never posted before, but something is wrong with this page, there seems to be a section placed above the page introduction? 153.33.188.28 (talk) 03:04, 11 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Anheuser-Busch


text:
TOPS-10

TOPS-10 System (Timesharing / Total Operating System-10) is a discontinued operating system from Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) for the PDP-10 (or DECsystem-10) mainframe computer family. Launched in 1967, TOPS-10 evolved from the earlier "Monitor" software for the PDP-6 and PDP-10 computers; this was renamed to TOPS-10 in 1970.

Overview
TOPS-10 supported shared memory and allowed the development of one of the first true multiplayer computer games. The game, called DECWAR, was a text-oriented Star Trek-type game. Users at terminals typed in commands and fought each other in real time. TOPS-10 was also the home of the original Multi User Dungeon, MUD, the forerunner to today's MMORPGs.

Another groundbreaking application was called FORUM. This application was perhaps the first so-called CB Simulator that allowed users to converse with one another in what is now known as a chat room. This application showed the potential of multi-user communication and led to the development of CompuServe's chat application.

TOPS-10 had a very robust application programming interface (API) that used a mechanism called a UUO or Unimplemented User Operation. UUOs implemented operating system calls in a way that made them look like machine instructions. The Monitor Call API was very much ahead of its time, like most of the operating system, and made system programming on DECsystem-10s simple and powerful.

The TOPS-10 scheduler supported prioritized run queues, and appended a process onto a queue depending on its priority. The system also included User file and Device independence.

Commands
The following list of commands are supported by TOPS-10.

 * ASSIGN
 * ATTACH
 * BACKSPACE
 * BACKUP
 * CCONTINUE
 * COMPILE
 * CONTINUE
 * COPY
 * CORE
 * CPUNCH
 * CREATE
 * CREDIR
 * CREF
 * CSTART
 * D(eposit)
 * DAYTIME
 * DCORE
 * DDT
 * DEASSIGN
 * DEBUG
 * DELETE
 * DETACH
 * DIRECTORY
 * DISABLE
 * DISMOUNT
 * DSK
 * DUMP
 * E(xamine)
 * EDIT
 * ENABLE
 * EOF
 * EXECUTE
 * FILCOM
 * FILE
 * FINISH
 * FUDGE
 * GET
 * GLOB
 * HALT
 * HELP
 * INITIA
 * JCONTINUE
 * KJOB
 * LABEL
 * LIST
 * LOAD
 * LOCATE
 * LOGIN
 * MAKE
 * MERGE
 * MIC
 * MOUNT
 * NETWORK
 * NODE
 * NSAVE
 * NSSAVE
 * OPSER
 * PJOB
 * PLEASE
 * PLOT
 * PRESERVE
 * PRINT
 * PROTECT
 * PUNCH
 * QUEUE
 * QUOLST
 * R
 * REASSIGN
 * REATTACH
 * REENTER
 * RENAME
 * RESOURCES
 * REWIND
 * RUN
 * SAVE
 * SSAVE
 * SCHED
 * SEND
 * SET
 * SKIP
 * START
 * SUBMIT
 * SYSTAT
 * TECO
 * TIME
 * TPUNCH
 * TYPE
 * UNLOAD
 * USESTAT
 * VERSION
 * WHERE
 * ZERO

Release history
The PDP-6 Monitor software was first released in 1964. Support for the PDP-10's KA10 processor was added to the Monitor in release 2.18 in 1967. The TOPS-10 name was first used in 1970 for release 5.01. Release 6.01 (May 1974) was the first TOPS-10 to implement virtual memory (demand paging), enabling programs larger than physical memory to be run. From release 7.00 onwards, symmetrical multiprocessing was available (as opposed to the master/slave arrangement used before). The final release of TOPS-10 was 7.04 in 1988.

TOPS-10 today
Hobbyists are now entitled to set up and use TOPS-10 under a Hobbyist's License.

The easiest way for the hobbyist to run TOPS-10 is to acquire a suitable emulator and an operating system image. TOPS-10 may also be generated from archived original distribution "tapes".

Paul Allen maintained several publicly accessible historic computer systems, including a DECsystem-2065 running TOPS-10.

Implemented programming languages
The TOPS-10 assembler, MACRO-10, was bundled with the TOPS-10 distribution.

The following programming languages were implemented on TOPS-10 as layered products:

 * ALGOL, as ALGOL-10 v10B, a compiler used for general computing
 * APL, as APL-SF V2, an interpreter used for mathematical modelling
 * BASIC, as BASIC-10 v17F, an interpreter used for general computing
 * BLISS, as BLISS-10 and BLISS-36, compilers used for systems programming
 * COBOL, as COBOL-68 and COBOL-74, compilers used for business computing
 * Fortran, as FORTRAN-10 v11, a compiler used for numerical computing

The following programming languages were implemented on TOPS-10 as contributions from DECUS members:

 * FOCAL, as FOCAL-10
 * Forth, a threaded interpreted language
 * IMP72
 * Lisp, an interpreter used for AI programming
 * Pascal, a compiler used for computing education
 * PILOT
 * SAM76
 * Simula, a compiler used for modeling
 * SNOBOL, an interpreter used for string processing
 * BCPL, a compiler implemented by Essex University

Implemented user utilities
The following major user utilities were implemented on TOPS-10:

 * RMS (Records Management Services)
 * IQL (Interactive Query language)
 * DBMS-10 (CODASYL Database Management System)

Notable games implemented on TOPS-10

 * ADVENT
 * DECWAR, as noted above
 * FORUM, as noted above
 * HAUNT, an early role-playing game
 * Mac Hack, a chess program by Richard Greenblatt
 * MUD

Legacy
MS-DOS was heavily influenced by TOPS-10. Identical elements include three characters long file extensions, several standard extensions (e.g., EXE, TXT), the asterisk (*) as a wildcard, the usage of the slash (/) as a switch separator and more.

title: TOPS-10


text:
Chemical specificity

Chemical specificity is the ability of binding site of a macromolecule (such as a protein) to bind specific ligands. The fewer ligands a protein can bind, the greater its specificity.

Specificity describes the strength of binding between a given protein and ligand. This relationship can be described by a dissociation constant, which characterizes the balance between bound and unbound states for the protein-ligand system. In the context of a single enzyme and a pair of binding molecules, the two ligands can be compared as stronger or weaker ligands (for the enzyme) on the basis of their dissociation constants. (A lower value corresponds to a stronger binding.)

Specificity for a set of ligands is unrelated to the ability of an enzyme to catalyze a given reaction, with the ligand as a substrate.

If a given enzyme has a high chemical specificity, this means that the set of ligands to which it binds is limited, such that neither binding events nor catalysis can occur at an appreciable rate with additional molecules.

An example of a protein-ligand pair whose binding activity can be highly specific is the antibody-antigen system. Affinity maturation typically leads to highly specific interactions, whereas naive antibodies are promiscuous and bind a larger number of ligands. Conversely, an example of a protein-ligand system that can bind substrates and catalyze multiple reactions effectively is the Cytochrome P450 system, which can be considered a promiscuous enzyme due to its broad specificity for multiple ligands. Proteases are a group of enzymes that show a broad range of cleavage specificities. Promiscuous proteases as digestive enzymes unspecifically degrade peptides, whereas highly specific proteases are involved in signaling cascades.

Binding
The interactions between the protein and ligand substantially affect the specificity between the two entities. Electrostatic interactions and Hydrophobic interactions are known to be the most influential in regards to where specificity between two molecules is derived from. The strength of these interactions between the protein and ligand often positively correlate with their specificity for one another.

The specificity of a binding process is strongly dependent of the flexibility of the binding partners. A rigid protein is very restricted in its binding possibilities. A flexible protein can adapt its conformation to a larger number of ligands and thus is more promiscuous. As the binding process usually leads to a rigidification of both binding partners in the complex, binding of a flexible protein usually comes with an entropic penalty. This is the main reason for the frequently found positive correlation of binding affinity and binding specificity. Antibodies show a strong correlation between rigidity and specificity. This correlation extends far beyond the paratope of the antibodies

Catalysis
Enzyme specificity refers to the interactions between any particular enzyme and its corresponding substrate. In addition to the specificity in binding its substrates, correct proximity and orientation as well as binding the transition state provide an additional layer of enzyme specificity.

Types
Enzymes vary in the specificity of the substrates that they bind to, in order to carry out specific physiological functions. Some enzymes may need to be less specific and therefore may bind to numerous substrates to catalyze a reaction. On the other hand, certain physiological functions require extreme specificity of the enzyme for a single specific substrate in order for a proper reaction and physiological phenotype to occur. The different types of categorizations differ based on their specificity for substrates. Most generally, they are divided into four groups: absolute, group, linkage, and stereochemical specificity.

Absolute specificity
Absolute specificity can be thought of as being exclusive, in which an enzyme acts upon one specific substrate. Absolute specific enzymes will only catalyze one reaction with its specific substrate. For example, lactase is an enzyme specific for the degradation of lactose into two sugar monosaccharides, glucose and galactose. Another example is Glucokinase, which is an enzyme involved in the phosphorylation of glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. It is primarily active in the liver and is the main isozyme of Hexokinase. Its absolute specificity refers to glucose being the only hexose that is able to be its substrate, as opposed to hexokinase, which accommodates many hexoses as its substrate.

Group specificity
Group specificity occurs when an enzyme will only react with molecules that have specific functional groups, such as aromatic structures, phosphate groups, and methyls. One example is Pepsin, an enzyme that is crucial in digestion of foods ingested in our diet, that hydrolyzes peptide bonds in between hydrophobic amino acids, with recognition for aromatic side chains such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine. Another example is hexokinase, an enzyme involved in glycolysis that phosphorylate glucose to produce glucose-6-phosphate. This enzyme exhibits group specificity by allowing multiple hexoses (6 carbon sugars) as its substrate. Glucose is one of the most important substrates in metabolic pathways involving hexokinase due to its role in glycolysis, but is not the only substrate that hexokinase can catalyze a reaction with.

Bond specificity
Bond specificity, unlike group specificity, recognizes particular chemical bond types. This differs from group specificity, as it is not reliant on the presence of particular functional groups in order to catalyze a particular reaction, but rather a certain bond type (for example, a peptide bond).

Stereochemical specificity
This type of specificity is sensitive to the substrate's optical activity of orientation. Stereochemical molecules differ in the way in which they rotate plane polarized light, or orientations of linkages (see alpha, beta glycosidic linkages). Enzymes that are stereochemically specific will bind substrates with these particular properties. For example, beta-glycosidase will only react with beta-glycosidic bonds which are present in cellulose, but not present in starch and glycogen, which contain alpha-glycosidic linkages. This is relevant in how mammals are able to digest food. For instance, the enzyme Amylase is present in mammal saliva, that is stereo-specific for alpha-linkages, this is why mammals are able to efficiently use starch and glycogen as forms of energy, but not cellulose (because it is a beta-linkage).

Determination
Specific equilibrium dissociation constant for formation of the enzyme-substrate complex is known as $$k_d$$. It is used as a measure of affinity, with higher values indicating a lower affinity.

For the given equation (E = enzyme, S = substrate, P = product),

 * $$E + S \overset{k_1}\underset{k_-{1}}\Longleftrightarrow ES \overset{k_2}\Longleftrightarrow E + P$$

$$k_d$$ would be equivalent to $$k_{-1}/k_1$$, where $$k_1$$ and $$k_{-1}$$ are the rates of the forward and backward reaction, respectively in the conversion of individual E and S to the enzyme substrate complex.

Information theory allows for a more quantitative definition of specificity by calculating the entropy in the binding spectrum.

Application to enzyme kinetics
The chemical specificity of an enzyme for a particular substrate can be found using two variables that are derived from the Michaelis-Menten equation. $$k_m$$ approximates the dissociation constant of enzyme-substrate complexes. $$k_{cat}$$ represents the turnover rate, or the number of reactions catalyzed by an enzyme over the enzyme amount. $$k_{cat}$$ over $$k_m$$ is known as the specificity constant, which gives a measure of the affinity of a substrate to some particular enzyme. Also known as the efficiency of an enzyme, this relationship reveals an enzyme's preference for a particular substrate. The higher the specificity constant of an enzyme corresponds to a high preference for that substrate.

Medical research relevance
Enzymatic specificity provides useful insight into enzyme structure, which ultimately determines and plays a role in physiological functions. Specificity studies also may provide information of the catalytic mechanism.

Specificity is important for novel drug discovery and the field of clinical research, with new drugs being tested for its specificity to the target molecule in various rounds of clinical trials. Drugs must contain as specific as possible structures in order to minimize the possibility of off-target affects that would produce unfavorable symptoms in the patient. Drugs depend on the specificity of the designed molecules and formulations to inhibit particular molecular targets. Novel drug discovery progresses with experiments involving highly specific compounds. For example, the basis that drugs must successfully be proven to accomplish is both the ability to bind the target receptor in the physiological environment with high specificity and also its ability to transduce a signal to produce a favorable biological effect against the sickness or disease that the drug is intended to negate.

Applications
Scientific techniques, such as immunostaining, depend on chemical specificity. Immunostaining utilizes the chemical specificity of antibodies in order to detect a protein of interest at the cellular level. Another technique that relies on chemical specificity is Western blotting, which is utilized to detect a certain protein of interest in a tissue. This technique involves gel electrophoresis followed by transferring of the sample onto a membrane which is stained by antibodies. Antibodies are specific to the target protein of interest, and will contain a fluorescent tag signaling the presence of the researcher's protein of interest.

title: Chemical specificity


text:
User:Pm67nz

I agree to multi-license all my contributions, with the exception of my user pages, as described below:

title: User:Pm67nz