text:
User talk:Ahoerstemeier/Archive 3

Images on italian wikipedia
Hi Andy, I haven't possibility to insert image in italian Wikipedia, the only way to work with image is link to the english version. For the problem of Somalia Map, i have copied a map presente on the english data base, modifying the topography information from English to Italian (For examples: "Ethiopia" became "Etiopia". Excuse me for my english. Ciao. Renato Caniatti

Deep apology for vandalism
Sorry, I clicked this button on the computer ctr A think and was about to talk then it all deleted. GrahamWhite

I was terribly embarrassed when you blocked me as user Didora. A friend of mine was at my place and went through my passwords and abused my account. I have two accounts - this and Didora. Again, would you please consider unblocking me and my IP.

Sorry from a supporter of Wikipedia, User:GrahamWhite, 07 Nov 2003

Michael vandalism
Any way we can ban the IP that Michael is using? Just a thought, because you're going through a lot of trouble to keep reverting him. -- Mattworld 16:34, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Guess what I am doing. The problem is AOL - their proxy is using a new IP every time, so it is not just one IP to block, but a whole IP range, so a blocked IP don't help for long. andy 16:38, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

United Nations Mission in Liberia should probably be deleted, as it was created by him. -- Mattworld 16:40, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Nevermind, looks like you took care of it. -- Mattworld 16:40, 10 Nov 2003 (UTC)

IP blocks and email
Hey - I just got an email from a legit user who shares an IP you blocked (62.253.96.42) with a vandal (I've since unblocked that address). That's not a big deal - it is regrettable, but it happens. However the person who was blocked had no way to contact you because you do not have an email address set-up in your preferences. So if you want to help us block the IPs of vandals in the future, then it would be very helpful if you set-up a valid email address in your preferences. This will not expose your email address to spammers or even the people who email you (unless you respond to their email). Thanks! --mav 01:29, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)~

 * Strange, I had given my email their once already. I now re-added it, but I have no idea why it was lost - I even got mail that way before. And just yesterday I also got an email from someone who got the AOL IPs Michael had used before (152.163.253.xx), and I did unban those IPs as well, but seems like that user found my email via the link to my homepage on my user page. andy 08:29, 11 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Adolph Hitler
Andy - is Adolph Hitler a German spelling? As far as I'm aware the correct spelling is Adolf - but I'm not German. Secretlondon 15:03, Nov 12, 2003 (UTC)

 * "ph" is an old spelling of "f" in German which gets more and more uncommon - e.g. Photo is nowadays always written Foto. At Hitler's time it was probably more common to use the ph, but I am not aware that Hitler changed the spelling of his first name - and normally names don't change their spelling. andy 15:12, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Macedonia
Hello Andy, do you want me to protect the Macedonia Talk? Muriel 16:55, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * I don't think that is necessary. I discussed enough with that one, anything else is a waste of time - now I will just correct his frauds. Why these nationalists don't recognize they loose all sympathy when trying to press their point that way. andy 17:00, 12 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * Just dont let yourself be upset by wacos ok? :) Muriel

WikiProject German districts
Just wanted to let you know, that I will revive my participation in the WikiProject German districts. I just started with Landshut. (Probably you've already seen, you seem to be here 24 hours a day ;-).) Take care -- Baldhur 14:34, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, I am a Wikipediholic, I have to admit it. As you guessed, I saw it before you notified me :-) It's good you're back, maybe we can still make it to finish them this year... andy 20:25, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Signing in article
Re your note on User talk:132.246.28.65: Isn't it actively discouraged to sign one's contributions on the article page itself? --snoyes 16:59, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Yes, I guess so, but I didn't find the FAQ page about it, so I explained the rationale instead. But without proof I didn't want to scare away the new contributor. andy 20:25, 14 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * You accidentally told the user, that it is common practice here to sign the contributions. You just forgot a "not" ;-) That's what Snoyes was talking about. -- Baldhur 13:47, 15 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Image deletion
Hi, you said on Image talk:Manta Ray.jpg today that images can not be deleted, so I thought I'd tell you that now they can, as of about 25 hours ago. I think there needs to be a place to announce such things, but the Announcements page doesn't seem the right place. Angela 00:42, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * That must have changed within the last two days - as last time I read the Vfd/copyvio page in more detail it still had the long list of images to be deleted. But thanks for the note, so I will not continue to spread this ancient status :-) andy 08:33, 19 Nov 2003 (UTC)

New whale species
Andy, Thank you very much indeed for the note about the new baleen whale announced in Nature you added to Whale. I would've probably missed that journal article otherwise! Pete 14:53, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * You're welcome. I found it in a science section of a german online news site, I only quoted Nature as the actual source of the news article. Last time I even compiled an article from such a news article - see Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis. But maybe this time I leave it to the whale specialists here. andy 15:00, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * I won't dare call myself a whale specialist/expert, but they are a topic of fascination for me, and I have ended up writing probably half the cetacean articles here, so I will try to scrape out an article on it if you don't beat me to it. The nature abstract and first paragraph are available online though they probably say the same as you read on the news site you read. Pete 15:08, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)
 * I noticed you noticed the article almost straight away. It is pretty bare at the moment - I have academic access to Nature online but that lags a week behind normal publication, I think... so when I can get hold of the full article there may be more to add. Pete 16:02, 20 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Time Cube
Thanks for the persistent defense of my talk page! -- VV 11:23, 21 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Lumbricus terrestris
Thanks for adding a taxobox to L. terrestris. It stirred me to action. WormRunner 03:17, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Good work - you also cleaned up that article about Lumbricus which made me find the stub of L. terrestris at first. andy 08:47, 26 Nov 2003 (UTC)

Changwat Songkhla
Hello, my name is Walter (waerth on wikipedia.nl). As to your question about Changwat Songkhla. I have been living in Thailand for 4 years and according to my Thai friends here Hat Yai is the capital and not Songkhla. I have to agree that my Thai is not perfect, and I have not found it written anywhere. But then again, Thai statistics ............... . I do use them though for the details like population etc. I will try to make interwiki links myself. Nice to hear from you, good luck. Waerth 16:37, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * It's true that Hat Yai is the biggest settlement in the Songkla province, as well as the most popular and well-known one, however e.g. says: "The following day we made a day trip to Songkla. This seaside town is the capital of Songkla Province, not Hat Yai as many people think.". And my wife also confirms that it's always the Amphoe Mueang which is the one which is the capital. andy 22:04, 28 Nov 2003 (UTC)

 * Ok, as I checked it again with the government district office and indeed, Songkhla is the Amphoe Muang. So far for Thai "folk" wisdom ...............
 * Thanx for mentioning it, I will get rid of the text asap. 203.147.0.44 11:18, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

From Mero
Thanks for deleting all those stupid articles by 64.66.89.197 --Mero

newts
I don't know where I got the species name; it was some time ago, probably in a book I got from a library. -- Tarquin 22:55, 2 Dec 2003 (UTC)

plural names for taxonomic groups
I see you're pluralizing names of general types of salamanders. I had to think about that a while back with common names of fish families, and decided it wasn't a great idea. Although one could argue the plural is appropriate because the term refers to a group of types rather than a single type, it's still the case that in running text we want to able to refer to either one or multiple members of the type without relying on redirs. Almost all general types are singular now; presumably you're not proposing to also change frog, mammal, snake, etc, because like lungless salamander they designate multiple species? Stan 22:11, 3 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * In the taxonomic listing I use to sort those pages they are all listed in plural, and the latin family is plural by itself as well. And it has at least two cases where it has a specific species with the same name as the higher order group (the Mole Salamander and Pacific Great Salamander) - so either it needs an article title like Mole Salamander (family) or the plural one. But for now I will keep the simple cases in singular, and post the question in the Wikiproject TreeOfLife - I thought it had a guideline there. andy 22:37, 3 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Animal taxa have always been in singular case here. I consider this a good idea. The guideline in German wikipedia to place families in plural case and species in singular case and genera sometimes in plural and sometimes in singular case is often leading to a complete confusion of duplicate articles and inconsistencies. So in my view it is the best solution to place everything in singular case. -- Baldhur 08:53, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I think those (common) article names, at least for families should be in plural if possible to avoid problems. Sometimes common names for families are (in singular) the same as a Latin name for a genus like Agamas for Agamidae (family) and Agama (genus). Therefore I used the plural form for the family.Jurriaan 09:06, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * I tend to oppose that. Most users will search for the information in the Agamas article; they are probably less interested in a list of scientific species names. Unfortunately they probably won't find the information under Agamas, if they previously searched for Agama. We have disambiguation pages in order to point users to a page, if family and genus are ambiguous. At least you should point from the Agama page to the Agamas page in another way than the expert-only Agamidae link. -- Baldhur 10:30, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * Maybe we better continue the discussion at Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Tree of Life, as there it should have a bigger audience than on my talk. andy 10:51, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

(Unrelated) vandalism cleaning messages
Thanks, snoyes 15:06, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Hi! Would you like to block 24.2.152.139 ? He is vandalizing several articles including Kaliningrad. -- Nico 17:26, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

 * If I see it correctly it is an edit war about the bolding or italication of the old city names. That does not call for a blocking, that does call for a protection of the pages in state of that edit war, to make you discuss the topic. I don't follow these polish-german fights, and I don't like to be taken into them. Besides, I am offline in a minute now... andy 17:30, 4 Dec 2003 (UTC)

Andy. It looks like people would like us to put on the talk pages of vandals before we delete the articles. Obviously it takes longer but its probably a way of avoiding biting the newbies. Secretlondon 15:26, Dec 10, 2003 (UTC)

Thai statistics
Hello Andy, I have bought a book wich publishes the basic census numbers of all Thai provinces, it has inhabitants, division male/female, nr of schools, gdp, hospitals, etc etc. It was published in 2003. It states the inhabitants etc. as of December 2002. I can make a list linked to my userpage for you. Apart from inhabitants anything else you might want? Walter

Thanks from Anjouli
Just to say thanks for that quick unblock. Just hope the vandal does not come back. If so, what's to be done? Nothing I expect. Kind regards, Anjouli 16:39, 12 Jan 2004 (UTC)

delete request
I think Paul Stacey should be deleted. It's a joke page. Thanks! - UtherSRG 15:43, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Too late, User:Secretlondon was faster :-) andy 15:59, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Yeah... I can never tell who will be faster... sometimes I make 2 requests, sometimes only one, to the most recent Deletion Log logger. Thanks anyway. Is there some better process for immediate deletes? - UtherSRG 16:10, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * There are two standard ways how non-admins can help the admins to spot the articles to be deleted. One is to blank the nonsense page, then it cannot do so much harm anymore, and it is also quite easy to spot in the New Pages list (if that one isn't disabled due to performance problems). The other even better one is to replace it with, then it can be found on the pages which link to Deleted test - and it also is notable in the new pages as a very short article with just 13 bytes. andy 16:21, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Thanks! New Pages must be an admin link. msg:Dtest is now in my vocabulary. :) - UtherSRG 16:30, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * No, the new pages are for everyone - see Special:Newpages. You can also find that link in the Utilities section on top of the Recent Changes. And you can find more of these handy messages like Dtest at MediaWiki custom messages. andy 20:38, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah! I was expecting it to be a siderbar link. Cool. I knew of both Utilities and MediaWiki custom messages, but that doesn't mean I have the content commited to memory. *grins* Thanks again! - UtherSRG 20:44, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Yeti disagreement
I would appreciate your input on talk:Yeti. Thanks! - UtherSRG 01:34, 20 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Protection request
Can you protect September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks? Wik keeps moving the page before consensus to do so has been established. --Jia ng 22:37, 16 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Macaca
Schoene Gruessen aus Kalifornien... Many thanks for providing the species list for Macaca, and the picture. I changed the spelling you'd used (Makaque), because I've never seen that used in English. If you know of a community where it is used, though, we should include it on the page as an alternative - presumably it is a transcription of some non-English word so there is unlikely to be one "right" spelling, if there ever is of any word at all.

Now all we have to do is write the 19 species accounts (no, maybe 2 or 3 are done already). seglea 05:00, 20 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * I just noticed that I have this photo in my archive and searched for a good article to place it - and then I noticed that the species list was a bit confusing and I tried to clean it up. I hope the source I used for it uses the currently accepted species and the "official" names. I don't know what is the most common english name - according to a online dictionary the german Makake is Macaque in english, which looks like it originally comes from a french word. Macaca is the latin name of the genus. But, well, you are the native speaker... andy 08:42, 20 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, "macaque" is the normal English spelling. I'm slowly working my way round the primates area of Wikipedia (which is a bit of a mess) checking things against the scientific literature, so I will sort out any obsolete names in due course.  But the ones you've provided agree with my memory.  seglea 16:08, 20 Jan 2004 (UTC)

BTW, I haven't been including disambig messages on ship index articles, because for every one there are at least two situations where we want people to leave the link alone; from the list of ships by name, and from the ships' namesake, for which any specific hull is wrong, and where we really don't want to list all the hulls. Stan 17:23, 21 Jan 2004 (UTC)

Making a redirect
Hi Ahoerstemeier - I see you converted my Austrian pine "= European black pine" line into a redirect; that's what I wanted it to be (so thanks!), but I don't know how to create a new redirect. How's it done, please? Thanks! MPF 13:24, 22 Jan 2004 (UTC)
 * OK, just been given the details by Andy, got it worked out now thanks! MPF

Weingarten
I'm no expert on Germany, but Weingarten in Baden is Weingarten in Wurttemburg, because it is Baden-Wurttemburg. - UtherSRG 16:26, 27 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * No, Baden and Württemberg are two different former states of Germany, which were merged around 1950 to form Baden-Württemberg. So both refer to different areas, and thus the Weingarten in Württemberg is a city, the Weingarten in Baden is a much smaller town. And it even has several villages with the same name in other parts of Germany as well - you can find the more complete list in the German wikipedia . andy 16:32, 27 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah! That makes sense. Ok. Like I said.... I'm no expert on Germany. grins - UtherSRG 16:35, 27 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * No problem, you're welcome. And without your moving I wouldn't noticed that article, so now I could fix that one, and the link in the district page. And I am sure you can find mistakes in my contributions on other topics as well :-) andy 16:39, 27 Jan 2004 (UTC)

141.209.33.144
Hi Andy, regarding one of your reverts to an edit of User:141.209.33.144, I no longer have an issue with that user as they have explained their intentions at their talk page, so I put their additions back in. If you had your own reasons you may revert it back, but I just wanted to make sure it wasn't being done because of me :) thanks, Dori | Talk 23:36, Jan 27, 2004 (UTC)

Mecklenburg
I just saw that my special friend Nico moved Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania to Mecklenburg-Vorpommern. Obviously that happened some months ago, but I missed it. What do you think about moving it back? Do you usually link to the English or the German variant? -- Baldhur 19:00, 28 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Worse, he did not move it, he copied the contents (probably as the move target already had a history and thus a move wasn't possible). Most districts link to the english version, but for some I was lazy to write the full english name (I always forget where to put the hyphen) and thus used the german version. But still more links go to the redirect than to the german one. andy 12:45, 29 Jan 2004 (UTC)

 * Okay, I see. Then I will cut and paste it back and leave a message on the talk page. -- Baldhur 13:16, 29 Jan 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Ahoerstemeier/Archive 3


text:
Nothofagus

Nothofagus, also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere in southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea, and New Caledonia. The species are ecological dominants in many temperate forests in these regions. Some species are reportedly naturalised in Germany and Great Britain. The genus has a rich fossil record of leaves, cupules, and pollen, with fossils extending into the late Cretaceous period and occurring in Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, and South America.

Description
The leaves are toothed or entire, evergreen or deciduous. The fruit is a small, flattened or triangular nut, borne in cupules containing one to seven nuts.

Reproduction
Many individual trees are extremely old, and at one time, some populations were thought to be unable to reproduce in present-day conditions where they were growing, except by suckering (clonal reproduction), being remnant forest from a cooler time. Sexual reproduction has since been shown to be possible.

Taxonomy
The genus Nothofagus was first formally described in 1850 by Carl Ludwig Blume who published the description in his book Museum botanicum Lugduno-Batavum, sive, Stirpium exoticarum novarum vel minus cognitarum ex vivis aut siccis brevis expositio et descriptio. Nothofagus means "false beech", which Blume chose to indicate that Nothofagus species were different from beeches in the Northern Hemisphere.

In the past, they were included in the family Fagaceae, but genetic tests revealed them to be genetically distinct, and they are now included in their own family, Nothofagaceae.

Species list
The following is a list of species, hybrids and varieties accepted by the Plants of the World Online as of April 2023:
 * Nothofagus aequilateralis (Baum.-Bod.) Steenis (New Caledonia)
 * Nothofagus alessandrii Espinosa (Central Chile)
 * Nothofagus alpina (Poepp. & Endl.) Oerst. (Argentina South, Chile Central, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus antarctica (G.Forst.) Oerst. (Argentina South, Chile Central, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus balansae (Baill.) Steenis (New Caledonia)
 * Nothofagus baumanniae (Baum.-Bod.) Steenis (New Caledonia)
 * Nothofagus betuloides (Mirb.) Oerst. (Argentina South, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus brassii Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus carrii Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus cliffortioides (Hook.f.) Oerst. (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus codonandra (Hook.f.) Oerst. (New Caledonia)
 * Nothofagus crenata Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus cunninghamii (Hook.f.) Oerst. (Tasmania, Victoria)
 * Nothofagus discoidea (Baum.-Bod.) Steenis (New Caledonia)
 * Nothofagus dombeyi (Mirb.) Oerst. (Argentina South, Chile Central, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus flaviramea Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus fusca (Hook.f.) Oerst. (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus glauca (Phil.) Krasser (Chile Central)
 * Nothofagus grandis Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus gunnii (Hook.f.) Oerst. (Tasmania)
 * Nothofagus macrocarpa (A.DC.) F.M.Vázquez & R.A.Rodr. (Chile Central)
 * Nothofagus menziesii (Hook.f.) Oerst. (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus moorei [F.Muell.) Krasser (New South Wales, Queensland)
 * Nothofagus nitida (Phil.) Krasser (Chile South)
 * Nothofagus nuda Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus obliqua (Mirb.) Oerst. (Argentina South, Chile Central, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus perryi Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus pseudoresinosa Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus pullei Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus pumilio (Poepp. & Endl.) Krasser (Argentina South, Chile Central, Chile South)
 * Nothofagus resinosa Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus rubra Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus rutila Ravenna (Chile Central)
 * Nothofagus solandri (Hook.f.) Oerst. (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus starkenborghiorum Steenis (Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus stylosa Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus truncata (Colenso) Cockayne (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus womersleyi Steenis (New Guinea)
 * Nothofagus × apiculata (Colenso) Cockayne (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus × blairii Kirk (New Zealand North, New Zealand South)
 * Nothofagus × dodecaphleps Mike L.Grant & E.J.Clement (artificial hybrid)
 * Nothofagus × eugenananus Gilland. (artificial hybrid)
 * Nothofagus × leoni Espinosa (Chile Central)
 * Nothofagus × solfusca Allan (New Zealand North)

Subgenera
Four subgenera are recognized, based on morphology and DNA analysis:
 * Subgenus Fuscospora, six species (N. alessandri, N. cliffortioides, N. fusca, N. gunnii, N. solandri, and N. truncata) in New Zealand, Tasmania, and southern South America.
 * Subgenus Lophozonia, seven species (N. alpina, N. cunninghamii, N. glauca, N. macrocarpa, N. menziesii, N. moorei, and N. obliqua) in New Zealand, Australia, and southern South America.
 * Subgenus Nothofagus, five species (N. antarctica, N. betuloides, N. dombeyi, N. nitida, and N. pumilio) in southern South America.
 * Subgenus Brassospora (or Trisyngyne), 20 accepted species (N. aequilateralis, N. balansae, N. baumanniae, N. brassii, N. carrii, N. codonandra, N. crenata, N. discoidea, N. flaviramea, N. grandis, N. nuda, N. perryi, N. pseudoresinosa, N, pullei, N. recurva, N. resinosa, N. rubra, N. starkenborghiorum, N. stylosa, and N. womersleyi) in New Guinea and New Caledonia.

In 2013, Peter Brian Heenan and Rob D. Smissen proposed splitting the genus into four, turning the four recognized subgenera into the new genera Fuscospora, Lophozonia and Trisyngyne, with the five South American species of subgenus Nothofagus remaining in genus Nothofagus. The proposed new genera are not accepted at the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families.

Extinct species
The following additional species are listed as extinct:
 * †Nothofagus australis (Argentina, Early Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus balfourensis (Tasmania, Late Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus beardmorensis (Antarctica, Late Pliocene)
 * †Nothofagus bulbosa (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus cethanica (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus cooksoniae (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus crenulata (Argentina, Mid Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus cretacea (Antarctica, Late Cretaceous)
 * †Nothofagus densinervosa (Argentina, Mid Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus elongata (Argentina, Early Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus glandularis (Tasmania, Mid Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus glaucifolia (Antarctica, Late Cretaceous)
 * †Nothofagus lanceolata (Argentina, Late Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus lobata (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus magelhaenica (Argentina, Early Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus magellanica (Argentina, Late Oligocene-Mid Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus maideni (Tasmania, Early Oligocene-Mid Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus microphylla (Tasmania, Late Oligocene-Mid Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus mucronata (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus muelleri (New South Wales, Late Eocene)
 * †Nothofagus novae-zealandiae (New Zealand, Mid-Late Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus pachyphylla (Tasmania, Early Pleistocene)
 * †Nothofagus palustris (New Zealand, Late Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus peduncularis (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus robusta (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus serrata (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus serrulata (Argentina, Mid Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus simplicidens (Argentina, Mid Oligocene-Early Miocene)
 * †Nothofagus smithtonensis (Tasmania, Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus tasmanica (Tasmania, Eocene-Early Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus ulmifolia (Antarctica, Late Cretaceous)
 * †Nothofagus variabilis (Argentina, Oligocene)
 * †Nothofagus zastawniakiae (Antarctica, Late Cretaceous)

Distribution
The pattern of distribution around the southern Pacific Rim suggests the dissemination of the genus dates to the time when Antarctica, Australia, and South America were connected in a common land-mass or supercontinent referred to as Gondwana. However, genetic evidence using molecular dating methods has been used to argue that the species in New Zealand and New Caledonia evolved from species that arrived in these landmasses by dispersal across oceans. Uncertainty exists in molecular dates and controversy rages as to whether the distribution of Nothofagus derives from the break-up of Gondwana (i.e. vicariance), or if long-distance dispersal has occurred across oceans. In South America, the northern limit of the genus can be construed as La Campana National Park and the Vizcachas Mountains in the central part of Chile.

Evolutionary history
Nothofagus first appeared in Antarctica during the early Campanian stage (83.6 to 72.1 million years ago) of the Late Cretaceous. During the Campanian Nothofagus diversified and became dominant within Antarctic ecosystems, with the appearance of all four modern subgenera by the end of the stage. Nothofagus shows a progressive decline in the Antarctic pollen record through the Maastrichtian, before substantially recovering after the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Nothofagus persisted in Antarctica deep into the Cenozoic, despite the increasingly inhospitable conditions, with the final records from the late Neogene, around 15-5 million years old, which were small tundra-adapted prostrate shrubs, similar to Salix arctica (Arctic willow).

Nothofagus first appeared in southern South America during the late Campanian. During the Paleocene and Eocene they were mostly restricted to southern Patagonia, before reaching a peak abundance during the Miocene. Their distribution contracted westwards during the late Miocene due to the aridification of Patagonia.

Although the genus now mostly occurs in cool, isolated, high-altitude environments at temperate and tropical latitudes, the fossil record shows that it survived in climates that appear to be much warmer than those that Nothofagus now occupies.

Ecology
Nothofagus species are used as food plants by the larvae of hepialid moths of the genus Aenetus, including A. eximia and A. virescens. Zelopsis nothofagi is a leaf hopper, endemic to New Zealand, which is found on Nothofagus.

Cyttaria is genus of ascomycete fungi found on or associated with Nothofagus in Australia and South America. Misodendrum are specialist parasitic plants found on various species of Nothofagus in South America. Additionally, the beetle, Brachysternus prasinus, has been known to live in ''Nothofagus in Chile and in parts of Argentina. The geographic range of B. prasinus is highly dependent on the availability and distribution of Nothofagus on which B. prasinus is believed to feed. B. prasinus have been observed in the Nothofagus forests near the cities of Coquimbo and Llanquihue in Chile as well as the areas of Neuquén and Chubut in Western Argentina.''

The species of subgenus Brassospora are evergreen, and distributed in the tropics of New Guinea, New Britain, and New Caledonia. In New Guinea and New Britain Nothofagus is characteristic of lower montane rain forests between 1000 and 2500 meters elevation, occurring infrequently at elevations as low as 600 meters, and in upper montane forests between 2500 and 3150 meters elevation. Nothofagus is most commonly found above the Castanopsis-Lithocarpus zone in the lower montane forests, and below the conifer-dominated upper montane forests. Nothofagus grows in mixed stands with trees of other species or in pure stands, particularly on ridge crests and upper slopes. The Central Range has the greatest diversity of species, with fewer species distributed among the mountains of western and northern New Guinea, New Britain, and Goodenough and Normanby islands.

The New Caledonian species are endemic to the main island (Grand Terre), most commonly on soils derived from ultramafic rocks between 150 and 1350 meters elevation. They occur in isolated stands, forming a low or stunted and irregular and fairly open canopy. The conifers Agathis and Araucaria are sometimes present as emergents, rising 10 to 20 meters above the Nothofagus canopy.

Beech mast
Every four to six years or so, Nothofagus produces a heavier crop of seeds and is known as the beech mast. In New Zealand, the beech mast causes an increase in the population of introduced mammals such as mice, rats, and stoats. When the rodent population collapses, the stoats begin to prey on native bird species, many of which are threatened with extinction. This phenomenon is covered in more detail in the article on stoats in New Zealand.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Nothofagus


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User talk:78kachiu

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
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Dori | Talk 15:55, Feb 29, 2004 (UTC)

Image:SOHO1.JPG
Thanks for uploading this image. I notice it currently doesn't have an image copyright tag. Could you add one to let us know its copyright status? (You can use if you release it under the GFDL, or  if you claim fair use, etc.) If you don't know what any of this means, just let me know where you got the images and I'll tag them for you. Thanks so much, Duk 07:19, 23 Dec 2004 (UTC)

The pictures you uploaded
Hi. Many of your great pictures are deleted because they contain no copyright information. Please be reminded to add right copyright tags to the image pages, or else the precious pictures will be lost. — Instantnood 14:42, 7 October 2005 (UTC)

Image:SOHO3.JPG listed for deletion
An image or media file that you uploaded or altered, Image:SOHO3.JPG, has been listed at Images and media for deletion. Please see the to see why this is (you may have to search for the title of the image to find its entry), if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. User:Gay Cdn (talk) (Contr) 20:50, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

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title: User talk:78kachiu


text:
User talk:Signorbean

Hello, welcome to Wikipedia. Here are some useful links in case you haven't already found them:

 * How to edit a page
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Dori | Talk 15:55, Feb 29, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Signorbean


text:
Public holidays in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The holidays of Bosnia and Herzegovina include, in various jurisdictions:

Public Holidays
{{legend|#DCDCDC|Public holiday of Bosnia and Herzegovina}} {{legend|Wheat|Public holiday of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina}} {{legend|Tan|Public holiday of Republic of Srpska}} {{legend|Khaki|Roman Catholic feast (public holiday of counties and municipalities in which Croats are majority)}} {{legend|DarkSalmon|Orthodox feast (public holiday of municipalities in which Serbs are majority)}} {{legend|PaleGreen|Islamic feast (public holiday of counties and municipalities in which Bosniaks are majority)}}

Feasts that are not official public holidays
{{legend|Khaki|Roman Catholic feast }} {{legend|DarkSalmon|Orthodox feast}} {{legend|PaleGreen|Islamic feast}}


text:
SERPS

SERPS may refer to:

 * State Earnings-Related Pension Scheme, a UK Government pension arrangement from April 6, 1978 to April 5, 2002
 * SERPs, short for search engine results pages

title: SERPS


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Adrian Goldsworthy

Adrian Keith Goldsworthy (born 1969) is a British historian and novelist who specialises in ancient Roman history.

Education
Adrian Goldsworthy attended Westbourne School, Penarth. He then read Ancient and Modern History at St John's College, Oxford, completing a D.Phil. in ancient military history from the University of Oxford in 1994. That dissertation laid the foundation of his first book, The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200.

Career
Goldsworthy was appointed a Junior Research Fellow at Cardiff University for two years, taught briefly at King's College London and was an assistant professor on the University of Notre Dame's London programme for six years. His expertise is in Roman history, but he has also taught a course on the military history of the Second World War.

Goldsworthy has appeared on History Channel documentaries and the television game show Time Commanders, serving as an expert on battles being fought by the contestants, and he gave a speech about Roman history and politics to the cast of a 2010 Liverpool production of Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra.

In 2010 Goldsworthy began writing a series of military novels - based not in Roman times but in the Napoleonic era and concentrating on Wellington's redcoat army, another period in which he has great interest. His first novel, True Soldier Gentlemen, was published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson in 2011 and was followed by Beat the Drums Slowly and Send Me Safely Back Again. The titles of each of his novels are taken from the lyrics of popular military songs of the period.

Asked about his philosophy of life, Goldsworthy responded that he was "English, so obviously do not have a philosophy. I am a Christian, though, if you want to know about important beliefs." Goldsworthy lives in South Wales.

Works
Goldsworthy has written several historical works on ancient Rome, especially the Roman army, and nine novels.

Nonfiction

 * The Roman Army at War 100 BC – AD 200 (OUP, 1996)
 * Roman Warfare (Cassell, 2000) ISBN 0-304-35265-9
 * The Punic Wars (Cassell, 2000) ISBN 0-304-35967-X
 * Reprint title: The Fall of Carthage: The Punic Wars 265–146 BC, (Cassell, 2003) ISBN 978-0-304-36642-2
 * Fields of Battle: Cannae (Orion, 2001) ISBN 0-304-35714-6
 * Caesar's Civil War: 49–44 BC (2002), Osprey Publishing
 * In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire (Orion, 2003) ISBN 0-7538-1789-6
 * The Complete Roman Army (Thames & Hudson, 2003) ISBN 0-500-05124-0
 * Caesar, Life of a Colossus, (Yale University Press, 2006) ISBN 0-300-12048-6
 * The Fall of the West: The Death of the Roman Superpower (Orion 2009)
 * U.S. title: How Rome Fell: Death of a Superpower, (Yale University Press, 2009) ISBN 0-300-13719-2
 * Antony and Cleopatra (2010); Yale University Press
 * Augustus: First Emperor of Rome, (Yale University Press, 2014) ISBN 0-300-17872-7
 * Pax Romana. War, Peace and Conquest in the Roman World, (Orion Publishing Co, 2016) 528 p ISBN 0-297-86428-9
 * Hadrian's Wall (Basic Books, 2018). ISBN 978-1-541-64442-7
 * Philip and Alexander: Kings and Conquerors (Head of Zeus, 2020)
 * The Eagle and the Lion: Rome, Persia and an Unwinnable Conflict (Head of Zeus, 2023) ISBN 978-1-838-93195-7
 * U.S. title: Rome and Persia: The Seven Hundred Year Rivalry, (Basic Books, 2023) ISBN 978-1-541-61996-8

Novels

 * Napoleonic Wars Series
 * True Soldier Gentlemen (2011), (George Weidenfeld & Nicolson) ISBN 0-297-86035-6; his first novel
 * Beat the Drums Slowly (2011)
 * Send Me Safely Back Again (2012)
 * All in Scarlet Uniform (2013)
 * Run Them Ashore (2014)
 * Whose Business is to Die (2015)
 * Roman Britain Series
 * Vindolanda (Head of Zeus, 2017) ISBN 9781784974701
 * The Encircling Sea (Head of Zeus, 2018) ISBN 9781784978167
 * Brigantia (Head of Zeus, 2019) ISBN 9781784978198
 * The Fort (Head of Zeus, 2021) ISBN 9781789545746
 * The City (Head of Zeus, 2022) ISBN 9781789545784
 * The Wall (Head of Zeus, 2023)

title: Adrian Goldsworthy


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Großdeutschland (disambiguation)

Pan-Germanism is a pan-nationalist political idea.

Großdeutschland can also refer to:

 * Kleindeutschland (Lesser Germany) and Großdeutschland (Greater Germany), two competing ideas for unifying German-speaking lands in the 19th century
 * Großdeutschland, the name informally adopted by Nazi Germany after annexing Austria in March 1938.
 * Großdeutsches Reich, Nazi Germany's official state name from 1943 to 1945.
 * Infantry Regiment Großdeutschland, a German Army formation in World War II
 * Panzer-Grenadier-Division Großdeutschland, a mechanized infantry / armor division created from the Infantry Regiment in 1942.
 * Panzerkorps Großdeutschland, a panzer corps created with elements from the Grenadier Division and others in 1944.
 * Magna Germania (Latin: Greater Germania), the Roman term for the region east of the Rhine River.

title: Großdeutschland (disambiguation)


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User:Signorbean

Signorbean -- the online alias of Tim Moran. Before you ask, the name comes from the fact that I look like Mr. Bean.

I'm currently an A-Level student in the UK, studying at Peter Symonds College in Winchester. The subjects I study at the moment are Physics, Maths and Computing, and I'm looking to study for a degree in Physics at Imperial College next year.

Stuff I like doing includes various stuff with computers -- be it programming, or creating animations in Blender -- as well as films, music and generally enjoying myself with friends. If you really like the sound of me, why not take a look at my fan club (I'm not responsible for it, honest!).

title: User:Signorbean


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Talk:Ynglinga saga

[Untitled]
Anglings=Asa? Can that be proven????? This needs to be rewritten. More like Anglings=Vanir or Ingvanir. User:Kenneth Alan

[Odin travels to Scandinavia]
-''As a result, Odin led a section of the Æsir to the north looking for new lands in which to settle. They used the Viking route up the Don and the Volga through Garðaríki, Viking Russia. From there they went to Saxland (Germany) and to the lands of Gylfi in Scandinavia (Section 5). The historical view, of course, is mainly fantastical. The Germanics were in Germany and Scandinavia during earliest mention of them in Roman literature, long before the Romans had even conquered Italy. To what extent Snorri's presentation is poetic creation only remains unclear.''

--Snorri never makes the claim that there were no Germanic people living in the area. Assyria is Ásaland. Assyr is Æsir and Assur is Össur. Greater Sweden is Skutþjóð/Scythia. And Odin is not a God he is a Goð witch in Old Norse does not mean God. If it did mean god then Goðar in Iceland would also be considered gods witch they were not. Goð/Goði is a person of high importance. Odin was him self a Dróttinn this means that he was a high priest. He had many others with him as is stated in Heimskringla. But this priest class died out and it is not explained why.

[Origin of Germanics]
''-The historical view, of course, is mainly fantastical. The Germanics were in Germany and Scandinavia during earliest mention of them in Roman literature, long before the Romans had even conquered Italy. ''

-- Where is the proof of that? I haven't seen any proof of that there were any Germanics before the common era. The most probable scenario that I can see is that they left the region around the Black Sea sometime between 700 BCE and 200 BCE; probably two nations just as Snorri described, nations that are represented by the R1a and R1b Y-DNA haplotypes in Scandinavia, while the I1 haplotype is indigenous. I'm not ruling out that there had been a previous incursion by a small band of Celtics who might have set up small kingdoms which the Proto-Germanics later took over.

This hypothesis explains a huge number of mysteries surrounding Norse civilization, Norse language and cultural artifacts that they introduced to Europe.

 * The Germanic peoples were most likely the bearers of the Nordic Bronze Age culture and therefore left the black sea region long before 700 BC if that is indeed their Urheimat. Germanic peoples in northern Europe had been noted by figures such as Pytheas since at least the fourth century BC, centuries before the common era. Canodae (talk) 13:34, 25 October 2019 (UTC)

Synopsis Rewrite
The entire synopsis needs a rewrite; far too much of it is modern interpretation, far too little is summary of the text as presented. E.g. there are no references to the Caucasus in Snorri's text; the placement of Turks on the other side of Svithjod's mountain boundary more than likely makes this range the Urals (ostensibly known to Germanics through integration of Finns, Kvens, Permian and other Uralic populations - please do homework).

While Turks were present south of the Caucasus in Snorri's day [Seljuks], they had originated from further north, persisted further north, had ravaged Gothic lands from their Central Asian abode in centuries prior - one might consider that the generally astute Germanic lore regarding nearby Turkic peoples would appropriately place them north of the Caucasus, where they persisted even beyond the Ottoman period (whereas, it could hardly be said that Turks existed south of the Caucasus prior to the Seljuks, who must postdate Odin & co.). Either Snorri is getting his own timeframes mixed up, or some half-educated early modern scholar (unsourced) has made a woefully inappropriate guess.

There are numerous other points I could make about this "synopsis," ranging from misunderstandings of ancient uses of the term "Troy" (it literally means "town") to misunderstandings of directionality of Roman ethnoculture (the "Kingdom of the Romans" starts in the east, in/around Dacia [Romania], produces Byzantium, before colonising western Italy, founding the "Rome" we know today [whence Western Empire] *edit: certainly to Snorri and his kin, "Rome" would mean "Byzantium" i.e. Greece, potentially stretching back in time beyond Mycenean civilisation [Cucuteni-Tripilya culture is a good candidate for Ur-Rome]). In fact, such a woeful understanding not only of geographical, cultural, and political realities of Snorri's time and the time that he is supposedly describing (which is certainly older than the Western Empire, of that there can be no doubt), but also of the spiritual character of the people in question (the Norse) - I can only say that this is probably the worst interpretation of a Norse text I have ever read, and I am horrified that people are reading this page and considering that this "synopsis" is a fair rendition of the contents of Snorri's work.

Given that there are no sources for any of the mad assertions in this "synopsis," I suggest that someone take the time to merely condense the cleanest English translation into fewer words - that is what a synopsis is supposed to be, not a litany of assumptions, unsourced guesswork, and academic solipsism.

title: Talk:Ynglinga saga


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Scarlet tiger moth

The scarlet tiger moth (Callimorpha dominula, formerly Panaxia dominula) is a colorful moth belonging to the tiger moth subfamily, Arctiinae. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.

Subspecies
Subspecies within this species include:
 * Callimorpha dominula dominula (Linnaeus, 1758) (Baltic, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, western Russia and central Europe)
 * Callimorpha dominula lusitanica Staudinger, 1894 (Portugal)
 * Callimorpha dominula pompalis Nitsche, [1926] (valleys of the southern Alps)
 * Callimorpha dominula persona (Hübner, 1790) (Italy south of the Alps, excluding Piedmont and southern Alpine valleys)
 * Callimorpha dominula trinacriae Nardelli & Giandolfo, 1996 (Sicily)
 * Callimorpha dominula profuga (Goeze, 1781) (Balkans: Macedonia (Scopje); Albania; Greece; western Turkey)
 * Callimorpha dominula rossica Kolenati, 1846 (Caucasus, Transcaucasia, except Talysh Mountains; north-western Iran)
 * Callimorpha dominula philippsi Bartel, 1906 (Talysh Mountains, northern Iran, southern Turkmenistan)
 * Callimorpha dominula kurdistanica Thomas, 1983 (south-eastern Turkey, possibly Iraq)

Distribution and habitat
This species is present in most of Europe and in the Near East (Turkey, South Caucasus and northern Iran). These moths prefer damp areas (wet meadows, river banks, fens and marshes), but they also can be found on rocky cliffs close to the sea.

Description
Callimorpha dominula has a wingspan of 45 - 55 mm. Adults of this species are quite variable in color. The forewings usually have a metallic-green sheen on the blackish areas, with white and yellow or orange markings. Hindwings are red with three large and irregular black markings. These moths may also occur in rare color forms, one with yellow hindwings and body and one with extended black on hindwings. The thorax is black glossed with green and shows two longitudinal short yellow stripes. The abdomen is black. The scarlet tiger moth has developed mouthparts, that allow it to feed on nectar. The caterpillars can reach a length of about 40 mm. They are dark gray with yellow stripes and small white dots.

Biology
The imagines are active during the day in May and June. This species has a single generation. The caterpillars are polyphagous. They mainly feed on comfrey (Symphytum officinale), but also on a number of other plants (Urtica, Cynoglossum, Fragaria, Fraxinus, Geranium, Lamium, Lonicera, Myosotis, Populus, Prunus, Ranunculus, Rubus, Salix and Ulmus species).

The three morphs occurring in the population at the Cothill reserve in Oxfordshire, Britain, have been the subject of considerable genetic study (McNamara 1998), including research by E. B. Ford, Ronald Fisher and Denis Owen. Don McNamara (1998) describes how amateurs can rear this species.

title: Scarlet tiger moth


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Talk:United States fifty-dollar bill

Bill nicknames
At the pages for the $5 bill, $10 bill, $20 bill, and $100 bill, there are some old-fashioned names for the bills that date to the days of the large-sized notes, prior to 1928. However, the $50 bill doesn't mention a name like this. Do you know what it is?? If so, please put it in the following table:

Denomination Portrait             Nickname $5          Abraham Lincoln   Fin $10         Andrew Jackson    Sawbuck $20         Grover Cleveland  Double sawbuck $50         Ulysses Grant     ? $100        Benjamin Franklin C-note

Please note that the portraits mentioned in the portrait column are those that were on the large sized notes that were printed when the nicknames were common, not necessarily the same as those on the small-sized notes of today. 66.32.89.215 17:13, 10 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * My copy of "The Slang of Sin" by Tom Dalzell lists "half C," "half century," and "half yard" as nicknames for a $50 bill. I've never heard them before so I can't say how common they are/were.

 * And for the record the nicknames were still used for decades after the small notes were introduced. Read up on your Raymond Chandler and Dashiell Hammett. :) Andrewlevine 18:01, 10 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Mr Jackson is on the $20 bill. He was/is the most common banknote in the (eastside of) the United States. He is therefore not on the tenner. Never the less, I do believe the $50 bill will become more common. If that would be correct, there would be one state where that banknote is most/more common. Which one would that be? --85.164.221.63 (talk) 20:31, 25 June 2012 (UTC)

The new $50 bill
On April 26, 2004, the new $50 bill will be revealed according to a Google search. Sometime between April 26 and May 3, can you put up a picture of the new $50 bill on the Wikipedia article?? 66.32.138.124 01:30, 24 Apr 2004 (UTC)

The Liberty Bill

 * The "liberty bill" a further comment on this idea

This is an idea that got some attention recently. Does it belong in the encyclopedia? Does it belong here? Mr. Jones 17:20, 29 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * It's a student project, and lacks notability. It certainly wouldn't belong in this particular article! -- Orange Mike 14:54, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

William Seward
On the page for William Seward (Secretary of State, 1861-69) it says that his face is on the 1891 series fifty-dollar bill. Is this true? If so, it should probably be on this page...

Phrasing of section titles
According to several sources, "large size note" and "small size note" do not need to be hyphenated. However, "large-sized note" or "small-sized note" is hyphenated if used within the context of a sentance. --8 August 2005 Kurthalomieu J. McCool

Next $50 bill to be released
When do you think the next $50 bill will be released?? There was one in 1997 and one in 2004, and so I guess the next will be in 2011. Is this right?? Georgia guy 20:31, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

Better title
The better title for this article would be Fifty dollar Federal Reserve Note. There's no such thing, strictly speaking, as a "United States fifty-dollar bill"....and, while it may seem like numismatic-cruft, there should be an article for each denomination of United States Note, Federal Reserve Note, silver certificate, et al. Kthx Paul 01:10, 18 August 2006 (UTC)
 * Can you explain what you mean when you say there is no such thing?? Georgia guy 01:20, 18 August 2006 (UTC)
 * It's an ideological thing. According to some theories of money, Federal Reserve Notes are not obligations of the "real" United States government like silver certificates, etc. were. -- Orange Mike 14:58, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

Contradiction
This is about the physical size of the notes. Please discuss at Talk:Large-sized note. --ChoChoPK (球球PK) (talk | contrib) 08:29, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

Interest Bearing Note
There has been a redlink with the above title for some time. Just about all the information I found in Wiki on this topic is in this article, I "fixed" the redlink by piping to that article. Obviously this is not a sound fix. Can somebody who knows more about the topic winnow out the Interest Bearing Note information from the United States fifty-dollar bill article and create a proper one? -- Orange Mike 14:58, 12 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Resolved. --LondonYoung (talk) 14:02, 4 June 2009 (UTC)

Web address
Why does Wikipedia have a different format for the $100 US and the $50 US and the $20 US? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.81.211.63 (talk) 01:17, 15 October 2013 (UTC)

Size
The sizes of present US currency were stated in an info box in metric terms to six digits of precision. I doubted that the printing bureau ever stated such a precision, or that they regulated the cutters to slice the printed sheets into notes down to +/- .00005 mm for the height and .0005 mm for the width. I found the US government site https://uscurrency.gov/history-american-currency which states the dimensions as 6.14 inches by 2.61 inches, an achievable 3 digits of precision. I suggest that the dimensions of US currency in the infobox should be given in US units rather than metric units. This is not a science article, so metric units being standard for science is not convincing. I have no serious problem with leaving currency measurements metric, but I strongly object to implying the measurements are specified to 6 digits of precision, which is an artifact of mindlessly using a unit conversion program. Edison (talk) 21:40, 20 March 2016 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:United States fifty-dollar bill


text:
Ogre, Latvia

Ogre is the state city in the Ogre Municipality (and previously Ogre District) in the Vidzeme region of Latvia, 36 km east of the capital Riga, and is situated at the confluence of the Daugava and Ogre rivers. It has been a city since 1928. The population in 2020 was 23,273.

Ogre is composed of three parts: Jaunogre (meaning "New Ogre"), Ogre (the center of the city), and Pārogre (meaning "Ogre across [the river]" though not all the named region is across the river).

The name of the city comes from the Ogre river. The Ogre village was first mentioned in 1206, called "Oger" in German. In 1861, when a railway Riga–Daugavpils was built, Riga's residents started to build summer cottages here. In 1862 Ogre became a health resort.

The city's coat of arms was granted in 1938, and shows the river and pinewoods of Ogre. There is a cultural centre, an art school and a music school in Ogre. It has three Latvian language schools, and one Russian language school — Jaunogre Secondary School.

The city also has a cemetery with the remains of German soldiers who died during the First and Second World Wars, or died in captivity between 1944 and 1951.

Ogre is the homecity for most recent (2016/17) Latvian ice hockey champions HK Kurbads.

Etymology
There are three main versions of the etymology of Ogre's name (both town and river). The first states that the name of the river from which this city derives its name is of Russian origin (угри, ugri, meaning "eels") because there used to be many eels in the river Ogre. A popular folk legend says that Catherine the Great of Russia was the one who gave the river this name because there were a lot of eels in the river; however, this lacks any evidence. Whereas Estonian linguist Paul Alvre takes into consideration an older form of the Ogre river's name (Wogene, Woga) first found in Livonian Chronicle of Henry (1180–1227), and argues that it cognates with Estonian word voog (with possible meanings: "stream, flow, waves"), therefore showing connection with Finno-Ugric languages, most probably early Livonian language.

A third etymology gives a reconstructed form *Vingrē, related to Lithuanian vingrùs, "meandering, curly" or Latvian vingrs, "nimble;" thus meaning "the meandering river"; the village of Engure has the same root.

Sports
Ice hockey, basketball and handball are the most popular sports in Ogre.

Ice hockey club Essamika won the only Latvian Hockey Higher League championship title up to this day. In later years, Ogre had acquired 8 silver medals: 5 with ASK/Ogre and 3 with HK Kurbads.

Ogre has a Latvian Basketball League and Baltic Basketball League team, the BK Ogre/Kumho Tyre, which entered the Latvian highest league after winning the gold in Latvian second league.

Ogre's handball team HK Ogre/Miandum has won multiple medals in the Latvian Handball Higher League and won the silver medal at the 2013–14 season as the highest achievement.

FK Ogre, the city's main association football club, plays in the Latvian First League.

Notable people

 * Igors Stepanovs (born 1976), football coach
 * Kaspars Bērziņš (born 1985), basketball player
 * Oskars Bārtulis (born 1987), ice hockey player
 * Anete Šteinberga (born 1990), basketball player

Twin towns – sister cities
See twin towns of Ogre Municipality.

title: Ogre, Latvia


text:
Arctiinae

The Arctiinae (formerly called the family Arctiidae) are a large and diverse subfamily of moths with around 11,000 species found all over the world, including 6,000 neotropical species. This subfamily includes the groups commonly known as tiger moths (or tigers), which usually have bright colours, footmen, which are usually much drabber, lichen moths, and wasp moths. Many species have "hairy" caterpillars that are popularly known as woolly bears or woolly worms. The scientific name Arctiinae refers to this hairiness (Gk. αρκτος = a bear). Some species within the Arctiinae have the word "tussock"' in their common names because they have been misidentified as members of the Lymantriinae subfamily based on the characteristics of the larvae.

Taxonomy
The subfamily was previously classified as the family Arctiidae of the superfamily Noctuoidea and is a monophyletic group. Recent phylogenetic studies have shown that the group is most closely related to litter moths Herminiinae and the Old World Aganainae, which are subfamilies of the family Erebidae. The Arctiidae as a whole have been reclassified to represent this relationship. The family was lowered to subfamily status as the Arctiinae within the Erebidae. The subfamilies and tribes of Arctiidae were lowered to tribes and subtribes, respectively, of this new Arctiinae to preserve the internal structure of the group.

Tribes (former subfamilies)
Many genera are classified into these tribes, while others remain unclassified (incertae sedis).
 * Arctiini
 * Lithosiini
 * Syntomini

Description
The most distinctive feature of the subfamily is a tymbal organ on the metathorax. This organ has membranes that are vibrated to produce ultrasonic sounds. They also have thoracic tympanal organs for hearing, a trait with a fairly broad distribution in the Lepidoptera, but the location and structure is distinctive to the subfamily. Other distinctive traits are particular setae (hairs) on the larvae, wing venation, and a pair of glands near the ovipositor. The sounds are used in mating and for defense against predators. Another good distinguishing character of the subfamily is presence of anal glands in females.

Aposematism
Many species retain distasteful or poisonous chemicals acquired from their host plants. Some species also have the ability to make their own defenses. Common defenses include cardiac glycosides (or cardenolides), pyrrolizidine alkaloids, pyrazines, and histamines. Larvae usually acquire these chemicals, and may retain them in the adult stage, but adults can acquire them, too, by regurgitating decomposing plants containing the compounds and sucking up the fluid. Adults can transfer the defenses to their eggs, and males sometimes transfer them to females to help with defense of the eggs. Larval "hairs" may be stinging in some species, due to histamines their caterpillars make.

The insects advertise these defenses with aposematic bright coloration, unusual postures, odours, or in adults, ultrasonic vibrations. Some mimic moths that are poisonous or wasps that sting. The ultrasound signals help nocturnal predators to learn to avoid the moths, and for some species can jam bat echolocation.

Behavior and life cycle

Many of the caterpillars and adults are active during the daytime, but most species of this taxon are night-flying. Moths are attracted by light, but one species, Borearctia menetriesii,  never comes to the light. Basking to accelerate digestion is common in the larval stages, and social behaviour may range from solitary to gregarious. Like most Lepidoptera, larvae produce a small silk pad before each moult, in which their prolegs are engaged.

If disturbed, woolly bear caterpillars roll into a tight spiral or drop from their perch suspended by a strand of silk. Isabella tiger moths (Pyrrharctia isabella) overwinter in the caterpillar stage. They can survive freezing at moderate subzero temperatures by producing a cryoprotectant chemical. The larvae of another species, Phragmatobia fuliginosa, may be found on snow seeking a place to pupate. Species in Arctic and temperate belts overwinter in the larval stage.

Some tiger moths produce ultrasonic clicks in response to the echolocation of bats to protect themselves.

Many species are polyphagous in the larval stage. Monophagous species, such as the cinnabar moth (Tyria jacobaeae), are scarce.

Although abundant, few species in this subfamily are of economic importance. Even the fall webworm, an abundant and highly polyphagous tree-feeding species that has spread from North America to Asia and Europe, does not do lasting damage to healthy hosts.

Folklore
Local folklore of the American Northeast and South hold that "woolly bears" (or "woolly worms" in the South) help humans predict the weather, similar to the groundhog. The forthcoming severity of a winter may be indicated by the amount of black on the Isabella tiger moth's caterpillar—the most familiar woolly bear in North America. More brown than black is said to mean a mild winter, while more black than brown is supposed to mean a harsh winter. However, the relative width of the black band varies among instars, not according to weather. The mythical qualities attributed to woolly bears in America have led to such things as the Woollybear Festival in Ohio, the Woolly Worm Festival in Beattyville, Kentucky and the Woolly Worm Festival in Banner Elk, North Carolina.

Notable species

 * Pale tiger moth, Halysidota tessellaris
 * Banded woolly bear or Isabella tiger moth, Pyrrharctia isabella
 * Buff ermine, Spilarctia lutea
 * Cinnabar moth, Tyria jacobaeae
 * Common footman, Manulea lurideola
 * Dogbane tiger moth or delicate cycnia, Cycnia tenera
 * Fall webworm, Hyphantria cunea
 * Garden tiger moth, Arctia caja
 * Grote's Bertholdia, Bertholdia trigona
 * Giant leopard moth, Hypercompe scribonia
 * Hickory tiger moth, Lophocampa caryae
 * Jersey tiger moth, Euplagia quadripunctaria
 * Milkweed tiger moth, Euchaetes egle
 * Scarlet tiger moth, Callimorpha dominula
 * Maltese ruby tiger moth, Phragmatobia fuliginosa ssp. melitensis
 * Ornate moth, Utetheisa ornatrix
 * Muxta, Muxta xanthopa

Other references

 * Science Fridays: Moths Can Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar
 * Science Fridays: Moths Can Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar
 * Science Fridays: Moths Can Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar
 * Science Fridays: Moths Can Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar
 * Science Fridays: Moths Can Escape Bats By Jamming Sonar

Main species catalogs

 * Goodger DT, Watson A. (1995). The Afrotropical Tiger-Moths. An illustrated catalogue, with generic diagnosis and species distribution, of the Afrotropical Arctiinae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Apollo Books Aps.: Denmark, 55 pp.
 * Goodger DT, Watson A. (1995). The Afrotropical Tiger-Moths. An illustrated catalogue, with generic diagnosis and species distribution, of the Afrotropical Arctiinae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Apollo Books Aps.: Denmark, 55 pp.
 * Goodger DT, Watson A. (1995). The Afrotropical Tiger-Moths. An illustrated catalogue, with generic diagnosis and species distribution, of the Afrotropical Arctiinae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Apollo Books Aps.: Denmark, 55 pp.
 * Goodger DT, Watson A. (1995). The Afrotropical Tiger-Moths. An illustrated catalogue, with generic diagnosis and species distribution, of the Afrotropical Arctiinae (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae). Apollo Books Aps.: Denmark, 55 pp.

Phylogenetic analyses

 * Dubatolov VV (2006) Cladogenesis of tiger-moths of the subfamily Arctiinae: development of a cladogenetic model of the tribe Callimorphini (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) by the SYNAP method. Euroasian Entomological Journal 5(2):95–104 (in Russian).
 * Dubatolov VV (2008) Construction of the phylogenetic model for the genera of the tribe Arctiini (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) with the SYNAP method. Entomological Review 88(7):833-837. Translated from: Entomologicheskoe Obozrenie 87(3):653–658
 * Dubatolov VV (2009) Development of a phylogenetic model for the tribe Micrarctiini (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) by the SYNAP method. Entomological Review 89(3):306–313. Translated from: Zoologicheskii Zhurnal. 88(4):438–445
 * Jacobson NL, Weller SJ (2002) A cladistic study of the Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) by using characters of immatures and adults. Thomas Say publications in entomology. Entomological Society of America | Lanham, Maryland, 98 pp.
 * Jacobson NL, Weller SJ (2002) A cladistic study of the Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) by using characters of immatures and adults. Thomas Say publications in entomology. Entomological Society of America | Lanham, Maryland, 98 pp.
 * Jacobson NL, Weller SJ (2002) A cladistic study of the Arctiidae (Lepidoptera) by using characters of immatures and adults. Thomas Say publications in entomology. Entomological Society of America | Lanham, Maryland, 98 pp.

title: Arctiinae


text:
Japamala

A japamala, jaap maala, or simply mala (माला;, meaning 'garland') is a loop of prayer beads commonly used in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism. It is used for counting recitations (japa) of mantras, prayers or other sacred phrases. It is also worn to ward off evil, to count repetitions within some other form of sadhana (spiritual practice) such as prostrations before a holy icon. They are also used as symbols of religious identification.

The main body of a mala usually consists of 108 beads of roughly the same size and material as each other, although smaller versions, often factors of 108 such as 54 or 27, exist. A distinctive 109th "guru bead" or mother bead, which is not counted, is very common.

Mala beads have traditionally been made of a variety of materials such as wood, stone, gems, seeds, bone and precious metals—with various religions often favouring certain materials—and strung with natural fibres such as cotton, silk, or animal hair. In the modern era, synthetic materials can also be used, such as plastic or glass beads, and nylon cords. Malas are similar to other forms of prayer beads used in various world religions, such as the misbaha in Islam and the rosary in Christianity.

Origin
The specific origin of the mala is unknown, with the use of beads for counting being a widespread practice in ancient cultures. No references to malas occur in Chinese literature before the introduction of Buddhism during the Han dynasty, suggesting that the practice may have originated in India, and then spread to China. No mention of a mala occurs in the Buddhist Agamas or Pali Nikayas, generally regarded as the oldest Buddhist literature, and it is unclear if their use originated with Buddhists or with Brahmins, Jains, or some other Indian religious community.

Early attestations
Malas may appear in early Hindu art as part of the garb of deities or worshippers, but are difficult to distinguish from decorative necklaces or garlands. The earliest clear depiction of a mala being used as a tool for recitation, rather than as a (possible) decorative necklace, comes from a bodhisattva image created during the Northern Wei dynasty (4th - 6th century) in China; the mala is held in the hand, rather than worn.

The first literary reference to the use of a mala for the recitation of mantras comes from the Mu Huanzi Jing (木槵子經 or 佛說木槵子經, "Aristaka/Soap-Berry Seed Scripture/Classic", Taishō Tripiṭaka volume 17, number 786), a Mahayana Buddhist text purported to have been translated into Chinese during the Eastern Jin era, sometime in the 4th - 5th century CE.

No mention of this text occurs in standard bibliographies before the 6th century, but an independent translation in the 8th century suggests an origin as a Sanskrit text transmitted from Central Asia, rather than a Chinese composition. According to this text, a king asks the Buddha for "an essential method that will allow me during the day or night to engage easily in a practice for freeing us from all sufferings in the world in the future." The Buddha instructs the king to make a mala from the seeds of a soapberry tree (likely the aristaka, the Indian soapberry tree) and recite an homage to the three jewels while passing the mala through his fingers. The text also states the mala should be worn at all times, and that if a million recitations were completed, the king would end the one hundred and eight passions.

Another Mahayana Buddhist source which teaches the use of a mala is found in the Chinese canon in The Sutra on the Yoga Rosaries of the Diamond Peak (金剛頂瑜伽念珠経, Ch.: Chin-kang-ting yü-ch’ieh nien-chu ch’ing, Taisho 789) which was translated by the Buddhist vajracarya Amoghavajra (705–774). The text states that the mala should be worn around the neck and that this purifies bad karma.

Rudraksha japamalas are discussed in some Hindu sources, such as in the Devi-Bhagavata Purana (9th-14th century) which explains how to make a rudraksha garland, and in the late tantric Rudrakṣajābāla upaniṣad. The Rudrakṣajābāla upaniṣad states that the rudrakshas are tears of Shiva, and as such, they should always be worn by devotees of Shiva. It discusses various ways of wearing them, and which mantras to use with them.

Regarding Vaishnava sources, the Garuda Purana and the Padma Purana both teach the use and wear of a mala made from tulasi wood (tulasi kanthi mala). The Garuda Purana explains that by wearing this mala, Hari (Vishnu) will always be with the devotee. It also states that wearing a tulasi mala will multiply the benefit of doing good karmic deeds, as well as providing magical protection from harm. The Padma Purana says one should always wear the tulasi mala, whether one is pure or impure, even while bathing, eating or going to the toilet.

China

While the earliest Buddhist story about the mala is associated with lay practice, in China it was initially primarily associated with monastic practice. The first Chinese Buddhist author to promote the use of malas was the Pure Land patriarch Daochuo (562–645). Images of monks with malas began to appear in China in the 7th century CE and the mala seems to have been regarded as a common piece of monastic equipment by around this era. While there are relatively few pre-Song Dynasty depictions or references to the mala, this may be due to its use in private religious practice rather than public ceremony. Chinese authors criticized monks who recited mantras on their malas in public, as monks were generally expected to remain silent while on public alms rounds.

By the Ming Dynasty-era, malas increasingly began to be valued for their aesthetic qualities as much or more than their spiritual use and were often worn by royals and high officials. Malas of expensive or rare materials became common as gifts given among the wealthy, and the materials allowed to different grades of wives and concubines was regulated by sumptuary laws. Depictions of Qing Dynasty court officials often include malas, intended to show their status and wealth rather than as an indication of spirituality.

Materials

Common materials are wood from the sandalwood tree, along with the seeds of various trees, and precious or semiprecious stones.

Strings may be made from practically any fibre, traditionally silk or wool or cotton though synthetic monofilaments or cords such as nylon can now be found and are favoured for their low cost and good wear resistance. Elastic cords, such as milliner's elastic, may be used and have the advantage that they can stretch to fit over the wearer's hand if worn on the wrist whereas other material may not wrap a sufficient number of times to prevent the mala from slipping off. Beads may also be joined by metal chains.

Hinduism
Beads made from the fruitstones of the rudraksha tree (Elaeocarpus ganitrus) are considered sacred by Saivas, devotees of Siva, and its use is taught in the Rudrakshajabala Upanishad. It is believed that the Rudraksha Japa Mala epitomizes ancient wisdom and mystical energies, offering seekers a conduit to inner peace and spiritual harmony. Beads made from the wood of the tulsi plant are used and revered by Vaishnavas, followers of Vishnu.

Mahayana Buddhism

A very popular type of mala among Mahayana Buddhists are those made of the so called "bodhi seeds", which do not come from the "bodhi tree" i.e. ficus religiosa (these seeds are tiny and cannot be strung on a mala). Instead, "bodhi seed" beads are made from various species belonging to Arecaceae and Fabaceae. The most common bead types in China and Tibet are:

 * "Phoenix eye" beads, made from Ziziphus abyssinica or Ziziphus jujuba
 * "Moon and Stars" beads, made from Calamus jenkinsianus
 * "Bodhi root" beads, made from Corypha umbraculifera
 * "King Kong" beads (i.e. Rudraksha), made from Elaeocarpus angustifolius

Tibetan Buddhism

Various types of malas (Tibetan: trengwa) are used in Tibetan Buddhism, including "Bodhi seed" (commonly made from seeds of a Ziziphus tree), wood (such as sandalwood), bone and precious stones. Tibetan Buddhists generally consider malas made from precious stones as the best kind. Some popular stones are agate, sapphire or lapis lazuli. Semiprecious stones such as carnelian and amethyst may be used, as well.

Some common general-purpose malas in Tibetan Buddhism are made from rattan seeds (especially Calamus jenkinsianus). These beads are called "moon and stars" by Tibetans, and variously called "lotus root", "lotus seed" and "linden nut" by various retailers (though it does not come from any Nelumbo plants). The bead itself is very hard and dense, ivory-coloured (which gradually turns a deep golden brown with long use), and has small holes (moons) and tiny black dots (stars) covering its surface.

Tibetan Buddhists also teach that certain types of malas can enhance specific practices or bring specific benefits. For example:

 * malas made of wood (sandalwood or bodhi tree wood), bodhi seeds, various jewels, or ivory are all purpose malas and are said to be good for all kinds of mantras and practices
 * crystal, pearl, conch, nacre, wood, seeds, or other clear or white in colour beads may be used to count mantras used for peaceful deity yoga practices and for purification practices. For these types of practices, white colored beads and a white colored thread is preferred.
 * beads made of precious metals like gold or silver may be used for increasing practices, such as increasing lifespan, knowledge, or merit; For these types of practices, yellow colors and colored thread are preferred.
 * Red Coral is for magnetizing / power practices, and red color is used for the threads. The colour red is also associated with the Padma family of buddhas (who are highly revered in Tibet).
 * Rudraksha, bone, iron, steel and turquoise is preferred for subjugating malicious spirits or for the tantric transformation of powerful afflictions like anger (this is sometimes called "wrathful practice"). For these types of practices, black is the preferred colour.

One type of wooden mala bead has a shallow trench engraved around their equator into which tiny pieces of red coral and turquoise are affixed. Due to the cost of already harvested or fossilized red coral and its conservation status, as well as the cost of turquoise, plastic or glass may be used instead.

Nepal
In Nepal, mala beads are made from the natural seeds of Ziziphus budhensis, a plant in the family Rhamnaceae endemic to the Temal region of Kavrepalanchok in Bagmati Province.

The Government of Nepal's Ministry of Forestry has established a committee and begun to distribute seedlings of these plant so as to uplift the economic status of the people living in this area.

Japanese Buddhism

In Buddhism in Japan, Buddhist prayer beads are known as ojuzu (数珠) or onenju (念珠), where the "o" is the honorific o-. Different Buddhist sects in Japan have different shaped prayer beads, and use them differently.

For example, the Shingon and Tendai generally use longer prayer beads (108 beads) with counter strands on both ends for recording multiple rounds of recitation (Tendai malas have 2 recorder bead strands, Shingon malas have four). These recorder strands usually end in decorative tassels.

During devotional services, the beads may be rubbed together with both hands to create a soft grinding noise, which is considered to have a purifying and reverential effect. A notable feature of Tendai school's prayer beads is the use of flat beads called "soroban beads" for the main beads (while most of the other sects use spherical beads). For the Shingon school, they use a red string as the main string for the 108 beads and white tassels for the counter beads.

Nichiren schools generally use long 108 bead nenjus with five counter strands with ornamental tassels.

The Japanese Zen schools use long 108 bead nenjus without counter / recorder bead strands.

Meanwhile, in Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land), prayer beads are typically shorter and held draped over both hands and are not ground together, as this is forbidden.

Jōdo-shū is somewhat unusual because of the use of a double-ringed prayer beads, called nikka juzu (日課数珠), which are used for counting nenbutsu recitations (i.e. recitation of the name of Amitabha Buddha): one ring contains single beads used to count a single recitation while the other ring is used to count full revolutions of the first ring. Additionally, other beads hang from the strings, which can count full revolutions of the second ring (flat beads), or full revolutions of the first string of beads. In all, it is possible to count up to 120,000 recitations using these beads. The design is credited to a follower of Hōnen named Awanosuke.

Theravada Buddhism
Theravada Buddhists in Myanmar use prayer beads called seik badi (MY စိပ်ပုတီး ), shortened to badi. 108 beads are strung on a garland, with the beads typically made of fragrant wood like sandalwood, and series of brightly coloured strings at the end of the garland. It is commonly used in samatha meditation, to keep track of the number of mantras chanted during meditation.

Mantra recitation with malas is also common in the various forms of Southern Esoteric Buddhism, a class of esoteric traditions within Southeast Asian Theravada Buddhism.

Number of beads

There are numerous explanations why there are typically 108 beads, with the number 108 bearing special religious significance in a number of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.

For example, in traditional Buddhist thought, people are said to have 108 afflictions or kleshas. In another reckoning, 108 is the number of possible dharmas or phenomena. In East Asian Buddhism, 108 can also represent 108 meditations, or the Buddhist 108 deities in the Diamond Realm Mandala. Despite the varying explanations for the use of this number, the number itself has been kept consistent over centuries of practice.

Smaller malas are also known, most commonly with a factor of 108 beads (such as 54, 42, 27, 21, 18 and 14), and may be worn on the wrist or used to more conveniently keep count of prostrations. The 54, whether in a 54 bead mala or the first 54 beads in a full 108 bead mala, is often interpreted as signifying the first 54 stages of the bodhisattva path (as understood in East Asian Buddhism). One source even mentions a mala with 1080 beads.

Many malas will have a 109th bead which is variously called the guru bead, mother bead (Japanese: boju), parent bead, Buddha bead, Sumeru bead, or bindu bead. It is often larger, more elaborate, or of a distinctive material or colour. Some malas also have a secondary larger or more ornate bead halfway through the mala, marking the halfway point. These are sometimes called middle beads (Japanese: nakadama).

In some Buddhist traditions, the guru bead represents The Buddha, Buddha Amitabha or Avalokitesvara. The Sūtra on the Rosary of the Vajraśekhara Yoga states that the mother bead is Amitabha, the string is Avalokiteshvara and the other beads are the fruits of the bodhisattva path. Tibetan Buddhist malas may have three extra beads as the guru beads, instead of just one. These symbolize the three vajras (the Buddha's body, speech and mind).

It is common to find prayer beads in Japan that contain a small image inside the guru bead, usually something associated with the particular temple or sect. When held up to the light the image is clearly visible.

Additional beads
Mala may have extra beads hanging from the guru/mother bead or middle bead. These may be decorative elements, especially when unable to move along the cord because knots hold them in place. They may or may not have religious symbolism (for example, three beads representing the Buddhist Triple Gem of Buddha, Dharma and Sangha) but are not used for counting recitations in any way.

Counting markers and cords

Vajrayana Buddhism can require that a practitioner complete a particular number of repetitions of an activity as a foundational practice or to become eligible for initiation into an esoteric teaching, for example, one may need to complete 100,000 recitations of Vajrasattva mantra.

To aid this, some Buddhist malas can be made with additional functional beads over and above the 108 main beads. These beads take two main forms serving two different purposes: three marker beads inline with the 108 beads; two short cords of ten beads each hanging from the main loop which are used as counters.

Japanese malas may also contain tassels (房, fusa) with counter beads, also known as recorder beads (記子珠, kishi- or kisu-dama). They are seen as symbolizing the ten pāramitās.

Inline marker beads
In some more complex malas, three distinctive, often smaller, beads are placed so that, with the guru bead, they divide the regular beads into four sections of 27 beads each. They allow quick estimation of the fraction of a round completed. Their presence raises the number of beads (not counting the guru bead) to 111.

Japanese malas may also contain a set of four inline marker beads which often differ in size, color, or material. These are called four points beads (shiten 四天) or “Four Heavenly Kings” (四天王, shitennō). These are usually located after the seventh and the twenty-first beads on either side of the mother bead. In the Shingon school, these four symbolize four bodhisattvas: Fugen (Skt. Samantabhadra), Kannon, Monju (Skt. Mañjuśrī), and Miroku (Skt. Maitreya).

Beads on separate cords
The short cords may either be permanently attached to the mala or they may be obtained separately; they do not need to match the main beads. These short cords may either be attached individually to the main loop or they may be joined at their common top. The cords end in small charms, usually a different charm on each, with a dorje and a bell shape being common. Their cord is thicker than normal so that the beads on them will not slide under their own weight but can be moved by the chanter.

After a single round of chanting, the user will slide up one bead on the cord with the dorje which represents 108 (or 111) recitations. After ten rounds all ten dorje beads have been moved up, one bead on the bell cord is raised representing 1080 (or 1110) recitations and the dorje beads are all reset to their low position.

To keep track of more recitations, the chanter may use a small metal charm called a bhum counter. (Bhum, approximately pronounced "boom", is Tibetan for "one hundred thousand".) The bhum counter starts next to the guru bead and is attached to the main string by a clip or a slip knot. When the tenth bell bead has been raised (10 800 or 11 100 recitations), the chanter moves the bhum counter to the next space between beads (and resets the beads on the bell cord). By consistently moving the bhum counter in the same direction about 1.2 million recitations can be counted.

Religious usage

The main use of a mala is to repeat mantras or other important religious phrases and prayers (like the Pure Land Buddhist nianfo). Mantras are typically repeated hundreds or even thousands of times. The mala is used so that those who are trying to achieve an exact number of repetitions can focus on the meaning or sound of the mantra rather than counting its repetitions.

In addition to their practical use as an aide in recitation, malas have traditionally been ascribed to have additional spiritual qualities. Different materials may be ascribed the power to help with different practical or spiritual problems, and the mala itself may be ascribed talismanic, magical, and apotropaic characteristics. Buddhist sources such as the Sutra of Mañjuśrï’s Fundamental Ritual state that wearing a mala can purify bad karma and ward off evil spirits. In East Asian Buddhism, some malas are made specifically to be worn for warding off evil and for attracting good fortune.

In some traditions, malas are consecrated before use in a manner similar to images of deities, through the use of mantras, dharani, or the application of some substance or pigment like saffron water.

In Tibetan Buddhism, malas are often blessed by lamas. They are also often consecrated with a fragrant substance like sandalwood oil. Some lamas teach that before using a new mala, the practitioner should wash the mala (and his hands as well) and then scent it with oil. A practitioner can then consecrate the mala by holding it and practicing a tantric visualization and reciting a mantra. This is believed to empower the mala and multiply one's mantra recitations.

Malas purchased from temples and monasteries may have been blessed by the residents of that institution. Mala may also be blessed after purchase. Popular folk tales may describe malas as becoming imbued with the power of the many recitations it has been used for, or a mala given by a respected monk may be said to have the power to cure illnesses or to restore fertility to barren individuals.

Furthermore, wearing a distinctive mala can also serve as a symbol of religious identification, marking its wearer as a member of a specific religious community and as "physical evidence of faith, devotion, and practice."

A mala used by a particular holy figure may then serve as a relic after their death.

Carrying and storing

A Mala may be worn by practitioners in several ways:

 * Wrapped several times to fit on the wrist
 * As a necklace, especially if made from large, consequently heavy, beads
 * Suspended from a belt

However they are worn the wearer is supposed to keep the mala from making contact with the floor or ground.

Some Tibetan Buddhist teachers teach that it is a root samaya (tantric commitment) that a consecrated and blessed mala should always be kept on one's person. For Tibetan Buddhists, the mala is a symbol of their yidam meditation deity and a reminder of their main mantra and tantric commitments (samayas).

Mala may be carried in small pouches from which they are removed before use. Some practitioners, such as the Vaishanava members of ISKCON, may carry their malas in larger pouches which hang from the back of the hand and allow the mala to be manipulated while it is being used without it being significantly exposed to public view or risking contact with the ground.

In the home, mala may be stored in a pouch or not. Some practitioners may store their malas in jewelry boxes or similar containers.

Practitioners who have an altar or shrine in their homes may additionally choose to keep their malas on the altar when not being used or carried.

Method of use

In Hinduism, the loop is draped over the index finger of the right hand and held in place by the right thumb of the first bead next to the guru bead. As each recitation is completed the loop is advanced by one bead. Some practitioners will hold their other three fingers next to their index finger so that all four fingers are inside the loop. Other practitioners will have only their index finger inside the loop, separating this finger from the other three (for similar reasons as in the next paragraph).

Some practitioners will drape the loop over their second finger (with their third and fourth fingers also inside) and use their index finger to move the beads towards the thumb. This is said to be symbolic of the atma (represented by the index finger) moving towards Paramatma (represented by the thumb) by the vehicle of the mantra (the beads) overcoming elements of the material world (the three other fingers).

In Buddhism, there are numerous ways of holding a mala and using it during recitation. This differs across traditions. It is commonly taught that the left hand is used to hold a mala. However, sometimes both hands are involved in the recitation and counting process. In Chinese Buddhism it is common for monks to wear it around their necks when not in use. In other traditions, the mala is left on one's altar or placed in a pouch when not in use. In Tibetan Buddhism, malas used for esoteric (mantrayana) practices are often kept private and should not be shown to anyone.

Tibetan Buddhists generally teach the use of the left hand for counting mantras. Different methods of holding it and moving the beads are taught in Tibetan Buddhism, depending on the type of practice. For example, for peaceful deity practices, one moves the beads towards the body over the forefinger and one holds the mala at the heart. For increasing practices meanwhile, one moves the beads over the middle finger and holds the mala at the navel.

A common taboo is that the guru bead is not used for counting repetitions; counting for each round begins and ends with either of the beads next to the guru bead. In the Hindu tradition and some Buddhist traditions, practitioners who undertake more than one round at a time will, rather than moving their fingers across the guru bead, turn the mala around so that the same bead which was used at the end of the previous round becomes the first bead use for the next round.

While there are typically 108 regular beads, some practitioners will count a round as only 100 repetitions to allow for an accidentally skipped bead or an imperfect recitation.

Aesthetic usage
In recent years, it has become common for non-religious individuals to wear such beads as a fashion accessory with the beads having no religious connotation whatsoever.

Similar practices have been noted since the Ming Dynasty, when malas began to be used as fashionable accessories by members of the Chinese court. Sumptuary laws regulated the materials of malas in Qing Dynasty-era China.

Opinion is divided as to whether a mala that is worn as decoration can also be used for the practise of japa or if two separate malas are required.

title: Japamala