text:
User:Garrett Albright

Hello there.
My name is Garrett Albright. I'm originally from Fortuna, California but am currently trapped in Boise, Idaho - if I cold be anywhere in the world I'd be back in Tokyo. I have a degree in English literature from Sonoma State University and am very close to getting one in IT from Western Governors University.

My edits, to the extent they will be political, will have an anarcho-capitalist perspective. (What will your edits have? You are not as neutral as you pretend to be.) That said, the majority of my edits in the last decade or so have been just typo fixes and such. It's annoying to edit facts into an article just to have them reverted by other editors with more time to waste than me. I used to be a big animation nerd and my early major contributions reflected that.

I'm a freelance web developer mostly working with the LAMP stack. I used to be a Drupal specialist but haven't been able to work with it much recently.

Pages I have made substantial contributions to

 * Para Para, the modern Japanese dance.
 * Destino (original contributor!), the cartoon co-created by Walt Disney and Salvador Dalí.
 * Traditional animation (original contributor!), the oldest and most popular form of animation.
 * FLCL, the high-energy Japanese animated series and comic.
 * Tag (original contributor!), the simple sport often played by children.
 * Linguicism (original contributor… but stubby and kinda crappy), the word for prejudice based on language.
 * Tank man (original contributor!), AKA Wang Weilin, the names ascribed to the protester photographed standing before a line of tanks during the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989.
 * Sonoma State University (original contributor!), my alma mater. A California State University.
 * Craig McCracken (original contributor!), the animator and creator of The Powerpuff Girls and Foster's Home
 * Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends (see above)
 * Company town (original contributor!), a town which is entirely owned by a company
 * Mac gaming (original contributor!), games for the rest of us.

title: User:Garrett Albright


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Capital District (New York)

The Capital District, also known as the Capital Region, is the metropolitan area surrounding Albany, the capital of the U.S. state of New York. The Capital District was first settled by the Dutch in the early 17th century and came under English control in 1664. Albany has been the permanent capital of the state of New York since 1797. The Capital District is notable for many historical events that predate the independence of the United States, including the Albany Plan of Union and the Battles of Saratoga.

Etymology
The earliest known reference to the name "Capital District" stems from a Capital Police District that was created in the Albany area in the late 1860s.

In the 1910s, several economic and government organizations covering the area used "Capital District" in their name, such as the Capital District Conference of Charities and Corrections in 1913, the Capital District Life Underwriters Association also in 1913, and the Capital District Recreation League. The Capital District Recreation League, formed in 1916, proposed to create a Capital District Park in the area of the Shaker settlement.

Nicknames
Capitaland, Metroland, the Tri-City Area, and Tech Valley are nicknames sometimes used to refer to the Capital District. The region is often also called the 518 after the telephone area code that serves the Capital District.

The Capital District is a part of the area marketed under the name "Tech Valley" in recognition of the technology companies that have moved to the region. The 19-county Tech Valley region, which extends from the Canada–US border south to Orange County, is marketed by organizations such as the Tech Valley Chamber Coalition, the Albany-Colonie Regional Chamber of Commerce, and the Albany-based Center for Economic Growth. In 2011, New York launched a Regional Council initiative under which the "Capital Region" became the state's official name for the eight-county region consisting of 1.1 million people in Albany, Columbia, Fulton, Greene, Montgomery, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, Warren and Washington counties.

First settlements
Permanent European claims and settlement began in 1609, when Henry Hudson sailed north up the Hudson River in the name of the Dutch. During the same year, Samuel Champlain explored south down Lake Champlain and Lake George in the name of France. Conflict soon ensued between the French and Dutch for control of the fur trade and both made alliances with different Native American tribes. In 1630, Kiliaen van Rensselaer founded the Manor of Rensselaerswyck, a Dutch patroonship in the area, which encompassed much of the area that is now the Capital District. In 1664, the English successfully conquered the Dutch while rivalry with the French continued. The Dutch, and then the English, maintained focus on settlement and farming while the French incursion into this area was limited to hunting for furs, trading with the natives, and building a few forts. Conflict arose when the French-built Fort Carillon and the British-built Fort William Henry near each other, both in order to control the route between the Hudson River Valley and the Champlain Valley.

Through the Dongan Charter, Governor Thomas Dongan granted Albany the right to purchase 500 acres in "Schaahtecogue" (today Schaghticoke, in Rensselaer County) and 1000 acres at "Tionnondoroge" (today Fort Hunter, in Montgomery County). Arent van Curler founded Schenectady in 1662; Fort Saratoga was built at present-day Schuylerville in 1691; and Greenbush (present-day city of Rensselaer) was settled in the 1620s. South of Albany, settlement occurred quickly at first, but slowed as growth on the frontier pushed people north and west of Albany and left the southern reaches of the Capital District behind. Hudson, in Columbia County, was purchased from the natives in 1662 by Dutch farmers and speculators but did not see actual settlement and growth until 1783 when New Englanders, mainly from southeastern Massachusetts and Rhode Island, arrived. It was chartered as a city in 1785, becoming only the third city in the state.

The French and Indian War saw several major battles in the Capital District, including at the aforementioned forts. In the end, the French were defeated, freeing the land for further settlement to the west and north of Albany. During the American Revolution the area again saw fighting and Fort Ticonderoga experienced notable action. The Battle of Saratoga, which took place in the present-day town of Stillwater, is considered the turning point of the war. In 1776, General Philip Schuyler built a small fleet of ships at Whitehall. They were used by Benedict Arnold in the Battle of Valcour Island. The event led to Whitehall's modern-day claim to be the birthplace of the United States Navy.

After the Revolution, settlements continued to proliferate west and north of the Albany area. North of Albany, along the river, settlements grew quickly: Waterford (oldest continuously incorporated village in the US, incorporated in 1794), Troy (settled in 1787, chartered as a village 1801, city in 1816), Lansingburgh (a village in 1763, annexed to Troy in 1900), and Watervliet (settled in 1643 and incorporated as a village in 1836 as West Troy, city in 1897). West from Schenectady, land purchases in the 1750s led to settlements at Fonda and Fultonville in Montgomery County, but land purchases elsewhere, such as at Gloversville in Fulton County did not see settlement until the end of the 18th century when the Iroquois threat had been eliminated by the Sullivan Expedition in 1779, which came as retaliation for the Cherry Valley Massacre in nearby Otsego County.

Creation of the counties
The entire area of the Capital District was within the original boundaries of Albany County as established by the Province of New York on November 1, 1683; it was one of the original 12 counties. In 1772, Charlotte County and Tryon County were both formed from parts of Albany County. Charlotte County was renamed Washington County in 1784, and from part of that, Warren County was created in 1813. Tryon County was renamed Montgomery County in 1784, and from part of that, Fulton County was created in 1838. Tryon County was large: it encompassed the lands from five miles (8 km) west of Schenectady to the western indeterminate boundary of the Province of New York.

What remained of Albany County in 1774 became the most populated county in the state with a population of 42,921 and it continued to be the most populous county until at least 1790, when the population was 75,921. Albany lost population as new counties were created from within: Columbia County was created in 1786; Rensselaer and Saratoga counties were formed in 1791; Schoharie County was created in 1795 from parts of both Albany and Otsego counties (Otsego having been created from part of Montgomery County in 1791); Greene County was formed in 1800 from parts of both Albany and Ulster counties; Schenectady County was created in 1809; and Warren County was formed in 1813 from Washington County. Fulton County was the last county in the Capital District to be formed. A graphical representation of the county breakup timeline can be seen below.

Urbanization and transportation
The Champlain and Erie canals were opened in 1823, and 1825, respectively. Their completion connected the area to the Great Lakes and Saint Lawrence River, leading to a large influx in industrialization and immigration. Shortly after the completion of the canals, in 1831, the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad Company (M&H) built the Albany and Schenectady Railroad between those two cities. This was the first railway in the state. Railroads, like the plank/post roads and canals before them, made Albany an even more important transportation hub. In 1853 Erastus Corning consolidated 10 railroads stretching from Albany to Buffalo as the New York Central Railroad, headquartered in Albany until Cornelius Vanderbilt took over in 1867 and moved the company to New York City.

Industry consequently became prominent in the area. Gloversville was labeled the "headquarters of the glove and mitten industry" and became the preeminent glove-manufacturing and leather-working region in New York. Cohoes became known as the "Spindle City" for its large cotton mills, due mainly to Harmony Mills, the largest cotton mill complex in the world when it opened in 1872. Troy became famous for its iron works due to Burden Iron Works, though later Troy would earn the nickname of "Collar City" due to Cluett, Peabody & Co., which made Arrow brand shirts at the largest collar, cuff, and shirt factory in the world at the time. In 1887 Thomas Edison moved his Edison Machine Works to Schenectady, and in 1892 Schenectady became the headquarters of the General Electric Company (GE). Schenectady Locomotive Works, along with seven other locomotive manufacturers, merged in 1901 and the American Locomotive Company (ALCO) was formed and headquartered in Schenectady. Due to the dominance of GE and ALCO in their respective industries, Schenectady would gain the nicknames of "Electric City" and "The City that Lights and Hauls the World". The nature of this industry lent itself to the creation of many labor-saving inventions, such as the horseshoe machine of Henry Burden, the pre-shrinking fabric machines of Sanford Cluett, the power knitting loom of Timothy Bailey, the railroad air-brake of George Westinghouse, and the hundreds of electricity-related improvements of General Electric Company scientists.

Rise of the suburbs and urban decline and renewal
Starting with the 1980 U.S. Census, Albany posted a decline in population until the 2000 U.S. Census. Meanwhile, the suburbs saw an influx in population and grew at the expense of the city of Albany. There were many causes to this, including the building of interstates and other highways allowing for more commuting, lack of available suitable land within the urban centers, and the subsequent location of shopping centers following the people to the suburbs.

The decline of exporting from the United States contributed to a general decline as well. Watervliet, Cohoes, and especially Troy lost a competitive edge that came with being at the confluence of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers: the location no longer meant better access to markets, waterfalls no longer made the cheapest power, and cheap labor in the southern and western parts of the nation became important to companies. General Electric moved part of their headquarters to Connecticut from Schenectady in the mid-1980s. Within the Capital District focus shifted to the suburbs. The suburbs had large open spaces for office parks and homes while the cities were constrained in available land. Albany International, with their headquarters and factory straddling the Menands and Albany border, built a new headquarters in 1987 in suburban East Greenbush, as did Garden Way, headquartered in Troy. The region's first technology park was built in the 1980s in North Greenbush by Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (RPI).

Not only was there a shift in population to the suburbs, a shift in retail shopping occurred as well. Retail sales in the cities declined a percent between 1972 and 1987, while having increased 63 percent in the suburbs. Although it was, and still is, within the city limits of Albany, Westgate Plaza opened in 1957 as the area's first "suburban"-style shopping center. Two years later, Stuyvesant Plaza was built outside Albany, in the neighboring town of Guilderland. 1966 saw the opening of the area's first enclosed shopping mall, Colonie Center in Colonie, which drew shoppers from hundreds of miles away. Both Macy's, which up until this time only had locations in the New York City area, and Sears originally wanted to build stores in downtown Albany, but chose to move into suburban Colonie Center after having encountered interference from Albany's Mayor Corning.

Several more enclosed malls were built in the area after Colonie Center's debut, all outside Albany limits: Mohawk Mall in Niskayuna in 1970, Aviation Mall in Queensbury in 1975, Clifton Park Center in Clifton Park in 1976 (originally known as Clifton Country Mall), Rotterdam Square outside Schenectady in 1988, and the Wilton Mall at Saratoga in Wilton, in 1990. The first mall built within a downtown area was completed in 1977 as the Amsterdam Mall in Amsterdam. In 1979, the Uncle Sam Atrium opened in downtown Troy and, in 1986 Cohoes Commons opened in Cohoes, but by 2000 was nearly empty and is now office space. Crossgates Mall, a large upscale mall built in Guilderland in 1984, is now the fourth-largest mall in New York state. A modern expansion of Crossgates Mall in 1994 attracted luxury retailer Lord & Taylor as an anchor, as well as another Macy's to the area.

Capitalizing on young professionals’ growing interest in living in walkable urban downtowns, the City of Albany has countered the shift to the suburbs with an apartment building boom. The effort to bring more residents to downtown Albany began gaining momentum in 1996 through the creation of the Albany Business Improvement District. Since 2002, the Capitalize Albany Corp. has been fueling the downtown residential strategy by allocating resources to building owners, developers and investors. In the early 2000s, the effort started with a series of small luxury apartment projects on Albany's North Pearl  and State Streets   and later expanded to several major developments both in downtown and just beyond it. Those major projects include: the conversion of a vacant industrial building into the 42-unit Monroe Apartments in 2012; the redevelopment of the former arcade building on Broadway into a 60-unit complex; and the $80 million redevelopment of the former Knickerbocker News building into The Knick, a 132-apartment complex in 2019. By 2020, more than $110 million in downtown investments had supported the completion of 650 residential units had been completed in Albany and 400 more were in development.

Other Capital Region cities have also similarly pursued downtown revitalization efforts. In the 20 years since its creation in 1998, Schenectady's Metroplex Development Authority leveraged $249 million in sales tax revenues and grants to support 700 projects with a value of $1.3 billion and 8,000 jobs. Glens Falls was the winner of the Capital Region city to be awarded $10 million through Gov. Andrew Cuomo's Downtown Revitalization Initiative (DRI) in 2017. Subsequent $10 million DRI winners have included Hudson and Albany. In the city of Saratoga Springs, there was a 1,352, or 11.7 percent, increase in housing units between 2000 and 2010.

Geography
According to the Albany Times Union, the Capital District includes 11 counties: Albany, Columbia, Fulton, Greene, Montgomery, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, Schoharie, Warren, and Washington. The lower part of the Capital District is sometimes considered to be part of the Hudson Valley. The map in the infobox at the top of this page highlights those 11 counties. However, the Empire State Development Corporation (ESDC) asserts that the Capital District consists of only eight counties (the counties of Fulton, Montgomery, and Schoharie are not included). The ESDC's definition of the Capital District is reflected in the map below the infobox, which is marked "Regions of New York". This page will utilize the Times Union's definition unless otherwise indicated.

The 11 counties of the Capital District are divided into 13 cities and 143 towns, with 62 villages that are inside one or more towns. One village, Green Island, is coterminous with its town.

The Capital District encompasses parts of the southern and southeastern Adirondacks to the northern parts of its limits.

Climate
The Capital District has a humid continental climate, with cold, snowy winters, and hot, wet summers. The region stands at a temperate sweet spot in New York State, annually receiving on average much less snow than other upstate metro areas and much less precipitation than downstate cities. For example, between 1980 and 2010, the 25-mile area around Albany on average received 60.3 inches of snow. That was 105 percent less snow than the same sized area around Syracuse received, 65 percent less than the Rochester area, 57 percent less than the Buffalo area and 38 percent less than the Binghamton area. During the same period, the Albany area averaged received 39.35 inches of rain. That was 18 percent less rain than the Poughkeepsie area, 25 percent less rain than the Westchester area and 18 percent less rain than the Islip area.

Albany receives around 36.2 inches of rain per year, with 135 days of at least .01 inches of precipitation. Snowfall is significant, totaling about 63 inches annually, but with less accumulation than the lake-effect areas to the north and west, being far enough from Lake Ontario. The core of the region is however, close enough to the coast to receive heavy snow from Nor'easters, and the region gets the bulk of its yearly snowfall from these types of storms. The region also occasionally receives Alberta clippers. Mohawk–Hudson convergence occasionally prolongs snowfall events in the Capital District, where precipitation has ended elsewhere across the region.

Albany receives on average per year 69 sunny days, 111 partly cloudy days, and 185 cloudy days; and an average, over the course of a year, of less than four hours of sunshine per day, with just over an average of 2.5 hours per day over the course of the winter. The chance during daylight hours of sunshine is 53%, with the highest percentage of sunny daylight hours being in July with 64%, and the lowest month is November with 37%.

Architecture
The Capital District, having a history of settlement stretching back 400 years, has had many different architectural styles built over the years. Early Dutch farmhouses are still standing in the rural towns, especially west of Albany, such as the Mabee House. The Van Ostrande-Radliff House (1728) in Albany and the Rosa House in Schenectady (before 1700) are the oldest houses in each city. In 1885 American Architect and Building News, a magazine with national circulation, polled its readers asking what the nation's Top Ten most beautiful buildings were. Two buildings in the city of Albany made the list: Albany City Hall and the New York State Capitol; both finished in 1883 and designed by Henry Hobson Richardson.

Troy has many distinctive features in architecture that sets it apart, such as its ornamental ironwork, cast-iron storefronts such as the Arts Center of the Capital Region, and the abundance of windows by Tiffany such as St. John's Episcopal Church, Troy Public Library, and St. Paul's Episcopal Church. The Capital District also has a large selection of brownstone buildings especially in the Center Square neighborhood of Albany and the Washington Park neighborhood in Troy. Washington Park in Troy is one of only two privately owned urban ornamental parks in the state.

Schenectady's Stockade neighborhood has representations of residential architecture from all periods in its 300-year history including Dutch, Federal, Greek Revival, Gothic Revival, and Victorian. Also in Schenectady is the GE Realty Plot built by General Electric as homes for their employees, the houses are in revival styles such as Tudor, Georgian, Queen Anne, Dutch Colonial, and Spanish Colonial. The first all electric house was built by GE in the Realty Plot to showcase its products. In Albany's Pine Hills neighborhood is a style of residential architecture that is rare in the rest of the Capital District, bungalows in the Spanish revival style, with red tile roofs and stucco walls, only 27 still exist and are the remnants of the Winchester Gables development.

Festivals
One of the largest events in the Capital District is the Tulip Fest held in Albany every spring at Washington Park. The tradition stems from when Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd got a city ordinance passed declaring the tulip as Albany's official flower on July 1, 1948. In addition, he sent a request to Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands to name a variety as Albany's tulip. On July 11, 1948, her reply was "Her Majesty gladly accepts the invitation to designate a tulip as the official flower of Albany." She picked the variety "Orange Wonder", a bronzy orange shaded scarlet. The first Tulip Fest was celebrated the next year on May 14, 1949, with opening ceremonies still carried on today as tradition, such as the sweeping of State Street and the crowning of a Tulip Queen. The African-American tradition of Pinksterfest, whose origins are traced back even further to Dutch festivities, was later incorporated into the Tulip Fest. Attendance to the festival in 2010 was approximately 80,000.

The largest Flag Day parade in the United States had been held every year in Troy until 2017. The 42nd annual parade in 2009 is along a two-mile (3 km) long route. First Night celebrations are held in Saratoga Springs, while in 2006 Albany decided to eliminate its First Night celebrations in favor of a new "Albany WinterFestival" (WinterFest).

Other major festivals in the Capital District include ethnic festivals. The Albany LatinFest, which has been held since 1996, drew 10,000 people to Washington Park in 2008. In Schenectady the growing Guyanese community has celebrated the Guyanese Family Fun Day for several years in that city's Central Park. PolishFest is a three-day celebration of Polish culture in the Capital District, held in the town of Colonie for the past eight years.

Entertainment
The Capital District has many enclosed malls that are regional malls (malls over 400,000 sqft), and two that are classified as super-regional malls (malls with over 800,000 sqft). Crossgates Mall in Guilderland and Colonie Center in Colonie are the two super-regional malls.

During the winter months the Capital District has many places to go for such cold-weather activities as skiing, snowboarding, tubing, ice fishing, snowshoeing, snowmobiling, and ice climbing. Some downhill ski centers include West Mountain and Gore Mountain in Warren County, Maple Ski Ridge in Schenectady County, Willard Mountain in Washington County, Windham Mountain and Hunter Mountain in Greene County. In addition to downhill skiing most also have cross-country skiing trails as well. There are also cross-country trails at the state parks in the area, the Schenectady County Forest in Duanesburg and Pine Ridge XC Ski Area in Rensselaer County. There are over 18 mi of official trails for snowshoeing at the Albany Pine Bush Preserve.

Lake George also has an annual winter carnival every weekend in February.

Culture
Albany consistently ranks high on lists of top cities/metro areas for culture, such as being 23rd in the book Cities Ranked & Rated. Albany ranked 12th among large metro areas and Glens Falls ranked 12th among the small metro areas in Sperling's Best Places; and Expansion Management (a monthly business magazine) gave the Albany-Schenectady-Troy area five Stars, its highest ranking, for quality of life features. The Capital District has many museums, historical sites, art galleries, and festivals that stretch back to the 17th century. The Capital District has been pivotal in the history of Santa Claus in the United States, including the first written reference to Santa (Sinterclaas) in 1675 and the first publishing of 'Twas the Night before Christmas in 1823.

Cuisine
The Capital District has been the birthplace of several important foods in American food culture. Potato chips were invented by African-American/Native American chef George Crum, at the Moon Lake Lodge's restaurant in Saratoga Springs. The club sandwich was also invented in Saratoga Springs, at the Saratoga Club-house, today the Canfield Casino, in 1894. Pie à la Mode was first made at the Cambridge Hotel in Cambridge, Washington County in the 1890s.

Sturgeon in the Hudson River was once so plentiful that the fish was referred to as "Albany beef".

Sports
Since 1988, the Siena College men's basketball team (the Siena Saints) have appeared in six NCAA Tournaments (1989, 1999, 2002, 2008, 2009, and 2010), while their crosstown rivals, the Great Danes of the University at Albany (SUNY) have appeared five times 2006, 2007, 2013, 2014 and 2015.

Union College won the NCAA Division 1 National Championship in 2014 in men’s college hockey, while its rival, RPI, brought home the title in 1985 and 1954.

Professional teams

 * Albany Empire (Arena Football League)
 * Albany Legends (International Basketball League)
 * Tri-City ValleyCats (Frontier League, independent baseball league; 2010, 2013, 2018 New York–Penn League Champions)
 * New York Buzz (World Team Tennis)

Economy
The economy of the Capital District is heavily anchored by the state government. There have traditionally been three legs holding up the region's economy: State government, health care, and education. Albany has the fourth-highest amount of lawyers in its employment pool (7.5 lawyers per 1,000 jobs) in the nation, behind Washington, D.C.; Trenton, New Jersey; and New York City, respectively. Many important regional and national banks are headquartered in the area.

Tech Valley
Since the 2000s, the economy of the Capital District has been redirected toward high technology. Tech Valley is a marketing name for the eastern part of New York State, encompassing the Capital District and the Hudson Valley. Originated in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high-tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston, it has since grown to represent the counties in the Capital District and extending to IBM's Westchester County plants in the south and the Canada–US border to the north. The area's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute. Tech Valley encompasses 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway, and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy, has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high-technology industry, with great strides in the nanotechnology sector, digital electronics design, and water- and electricity-dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing. In April 2021, GlobalFoundries, a company specializing in the semiconductor industry, moved its headquarters from Silicon Valley, California to its most advanced semiconductor-chip manufacturing facility in Saratoga County, New York near a section of the Adirondack Northway, in Malta, New York.

Fueled by its urban counties (Albany, Schenectady, Rensselaer, Saratoga), the region is one of only 51 metros in the nation where businesses annually spend more than $1 billion on R&D. A substantial amount of those expenditures are in the field of semiconductor research, so much so that 1,404 semiconductor device-related patents awarded by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office in 2019 listed an inventor in the eight-county Capital Region – more than any other state in the nation except California and excluding the whole of New York.

Demographics
The Capital District is New York's most affluent metro area outside the New York City metropolitan area. Median household income was roughly $86,787 in 1999 and its educational attainment profile, with 28 percent of adults having a college degree, is slightly above state average and well-above the national average.

Metropolitan and micropolitan statistical areas
The Albany-Schenectady-Troy NY Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) is defined by the United States Office of Management and Budget. The MSA includes Albany, Rensselaer, Saratoga, Schenectady, and Schoharie counties; this area makes up a large portion of the Capital District. As of the 2020 census, the Albany-Schenectady-Troy MSA had a population of 899,262.

Combined Statistical Area
The Albany-Schenectady NY Combined Statistical Area (CSA) includes 10 of the 11 counties in the Capital District (excluding only Greene County). The Albany-Schenectady-Troy NY Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) combines with the Glens Falls MSA (consisting of Warren and Washington counties) and three Micropolitan Statistical Areas to make up the Albany-Schenectady NY Combined Statistical Area (CSA). The three Micropolitan Statistical Areas within the CSA are the Gloversville (μSA) (formed in 1990), which consists of Fulton County; the Amsterdam μSA (also formed in 1990), which consists of Montgomery County; and the Hudson μSA (also formed in 1990), which consists of Columbia County.

As of the 2020 U.S. census, the Albany-Schenectady NY Combined Statistical Area had a population of 1,190,727. Adding the 2020 population of Greene County (47,931) to the population of the CSA (1,190,727) yields a total 2020 Capital District population of 1,238,658.

Congressional representation
The Capital District contains portions of three congressional districts: New York's 19th, 20th, and 21st congressional districts. As of 2023, those three districts are represented by Marc Molinaro (R) (19th district), Paul Tonko (D) (20th district) and Elise Stefanik (R) (21st district), respectively.

School districts

In Albany, Rensselaer, Saratoga, and Schenectady counties there are 54 public school districts, each of which is under the umbrella of one of four Boards of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) in the area: Capital Region BOCES, Questar III (Rensselaer-Columbia-Greene BOCES), Washington-Saratoga-Warren-Hamilton-Essex BOCES, or Hamilton-Fulton-Montgomery BOCES. Some of these districts cross county borders since school district boundaries are independent of town and county borders. The smallest district by student enrollment is North Greenbush Common School District, with 20 students in 2006 and the largest school district is Shenendehowa Central School District, with 9,745 students in the end of the 2008 school year. According to Niche.com and U.S. News & World Report, Shaker High School in Latham, Niskayuna Central High School in Schenectady and Bethlehem Central Senior High School in Delmar are the highest ranked public high schools in the Capital District.

Colleges and universities
The largest educational institution in the Capital District is the University at Albany, one of the four major university centers of the State University of New York.

Founded in 1795, Union College was the alma mater of President Chester A. Arthur.

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy is the oldest continuously existing technical university in the English-speaking world.

Transportation
Albany has long been at the forefront of transportation technology from the days of turnpikes and plank roads to the Erie Canal, from the first passenger railroad in the state to the oldest municipal airport in the nation. Today, Interstates, Amtrak, and the Albany International Airport continue to make the Capital District a major crossroads of the Northeastern United States.

Interstate and other major highways
East-west Interstate 90 (I-90) and north–south Interstate 87 (I-87) meet at Exit 24 of the Thomas E. Dewey New York State Thruway in the Capital District. Exit 24 is the busiest exit on the Thruway. I-87 parallels the much older US Route 9W south of Albany and US Route 9 north and I-90 parallels New York State Route 5 west from Albany; all three highways are still important for local and regional traffic despite the proximity of the Interstates.

Mass transit
The four core counties of the Capital District are served by buses of the Capital District Transportation Authority, which has transit hubs in the three principal cities of Albany, Schenectady, and Troy. There is also express bus service between Saratoga Springs and Albany. The CDTA serves a large part of Albany, Rensselaer, and Schenectady counties. The city of Mechanicville, Saratoga County runs a public transit service on four routes which cover the city and the surrounding suburbs in the towns of Stillwater and Halfmoon in Saratoga County and the hamlet of Hemstreet Park in the town of Schaghticoke, Rensselaer County. CDTA also serves Bolton Landing (May to October), Glens Falls, Hudson Falls, Fort Edward, Lake George, Queensbury, and South Glens Falls. Gloversville Transit System (GTS) serves Gloversville, Johnstown, and Amsterdam.

Cities with intercity bus service to outside the region

 * Albany: Greyhound Lines, Trailways, and Peter Pan Bus Lines buses all serve a downtown terminal. Chinatown bus lines leave from Central Avenue with service to Chinatown, Manhattan.
 * Schenectady: Greyhound and Trailways serve a downtown terminal on State Street.
 * Glens Falls: Greyhound and Trailways serve a downtown terminal.
 * Gloversville: Greyhound and Trailway serve a downtown terminal on West Fulton Street.
 * Saratoga Springs: Greyhound
 * Rensselaer: Megabus operates regular service from the Albany-Rensselaer Train Station to New York City and Ridgewood, New Jersey

Airports

Nine of the 11 counties in the Capital District make up the Upper Hudson Region as defined by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA). In 1978 the FAA assigned the Capital District Regional Planning Commission to be responsible for this region's aviation system planning and to provide technical assistance. The Upper Hudson Region has 26 airports open to public use, with 13 designated as system airports. Those 13 airports are:

 * Albany International Airport in Colonie, Albany County, the only commercial service airport;
 * Schenectady County Airport in Glenville, Schenectady County;
 * Saratoga County Airport in Milton, Saratoga County;
 * Columbia County Airport in Columbia County;
 * Fulton County Airport in Johnstown, Fulton County;
 * Freehold Airport in Greenville, Greene County;
 * South Albany Airport in Bethlehem, Albany County;
 * Rensselaer County Airpark in Poestenkill, Rensselaer County;
 * Duanesburg Airport in Duanesburg, Schenectady County;
 * Burello-Mechanicville Airport in Schaghticoke, Rensselaer County;
 * Plateau Sky Ranch in Edinburg, Saratoga County;
 * Sharon Airport in Sharon, Schoharie County;
 * Maben Airport in Prattsville, Greene County.

Rail
Amtrak has several routes servicing the stations of the Capital District. The Adirondack (north to Montreal, Quebec and south to the city of New York), Empire Service (west to Buffalo and Niagara Falls, south to New York), Ethan Allen Express (northeast to Burlington, Vermont and south to New York), Maple Leaf (west to Toronto and south to New York), Berkshire Flyer (east to Pittsfield and south to New York), and the Lake Shore Limited (at Albany-Rensselaer separate routes from Boston and New York merge to one train west to Chicago, on way east one train splits to two, one east to Boston another south to New York). Amtrak stations in the region are:

 * Albany-Rensselaer station in Rensselaer County
 * Schenectady station in Schenectady County
 * Saratoga Springs station in Saratoga County
 * Fort Edward station in Washington County
 * Hudson station in Columbia County
 * Amsterdam station in Montgomery County
 * Whitehall station in Washington County

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Capital District (New York)


text:
User talk:Titansolaris

TitanSolaris is an alias which basically refers to Giant Celestial Body. This term was coined by Marat Bruk, who searched for a specific form of signature to describe he's nature and origins of thoughts.

Hi and welcome. If I may make a suggestion, you might be well advised to read NPOV and What Wikipedia is not. Happy editing, Kosebamse 14:32, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)

People don't understand the mind control, sadly.

Which makes sense when you think about it... They're good.

savetube links
Please do not add inappropriate external links to Wikipedia. Wikipedia is not a mere directory of links, nor should it be used for advertising or promotion. Inappropriate links include (but are not limited to) links to personal web sites, links to web sites with which you are affiliated, and links that attract visitors to a web site or promote a product. See the external links guideline and spam policy for further explanations. Since Wikipedia uses nofollow tags, external links do not alter search engine rankings. If you feel the link should be added to the article, then please discuss it on the article's talk page before reinserting it. See the welcome page to learn more about Wikipedia. --PhantomS 00:56, 19 February 2007 (UTC)

Your edit to autism
Please do not add nonsense to Wikipedia. It is considered vandalism. If you would like to experiment, use the sandbox. Thank you. Sandy Georgia (Talk) 04:10, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

Mind scientist
A proposed deletion template has been added to the article Mind scientist, suggesting that it be deleted according to the proposed deletion process. All contributions are appreciated, but this article may not satisfy Wikipedia's criteria for inclusion, and the deletion notice should explain why (see also "What Wikipedia is not" and Wikipedia's deletion policy). You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the  notice, but please explain why you disagree with the proposed deletion in your edit summary or on its talk page. Also, please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Even though removing the deletion notice will prevent deletion through the proposed deletion process, the article may still be deleted if it matches any of the speedy deletion criteria or it can be sent to Articles for Deletion, where it may be deleted if consensus to delete is reached. If you agree with the deletion of the article, and you are the only person who has made substantial edits to the page, please add  to the top of Mind scientist.

Wikipedia is not the place to try to advance conspiracy theories. Particularly when you have absolutely no evidence that the supposed "mind scientist" ever existed as a profession. Neuroscience is a study which encompasses philosophy, society, drugs, and all the other things you mention in "mind scientist". I'm guessing that you created this article after people repeatedly deleted your additions from the neuroscience article. I'd further venture the guess that you'll think I'm part of some kind of giant conspiracy for "trying to cover up stuff about mind control" or some such paranoid nonsense. As I've said, Wikipedia is not a soap box for conspiracy theorists. As someone who studies these things very closely, I can tell you that "mind control" is the stuff of science fiction. You're deluding yourself if you truly believe that it exists. I'm not saying that it's impossible, I'm just saying that as of 2008, it is a non-existent and far-off technology. ("Far-off", as in hundreds of years away.) Fuzzform (talk) 18:37, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

November 2008
Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to contribute constructively to the encyclopedia, one or more of the external links you added do not comply with our guidelines for external links and have been removed. Wikipedia is not a collection of links; nor should it be used for advertising or promotion. Since Wikipedia uses nofollow tags, external links do not alter search engine rankings. If you feel the link should be added to the article, please discuss it on the before reinserting it. Please take a look at the welcome page to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. Zim Zala Bim talk  19:45, 27 November 2008 (UTC)

title: User talk:Titansolaris


text:
Humphry Osmond

Humphry Fortescue Osmond (1 July 1917 – 6 February 2004) was an English psychiatrist who moved to Canada and later the United States. He is known for inventing the word psychedelic and for his research into interesting and useful applications for psychedelic drugs. Osmond also explored aspects of the psychology of social environments, in particular how they influenced welfare or recovery in mental institutions.

Biography
Osmond was born in Surrey, England, and educated at Haileybury. As a young man, he worked for an architect and attended Guy's Hospital Medical School at King's College London. Following service as a surgeon-lieutenant in the Navy during World War II, Osmond trained to become a psychiatrist.

Work with psychedelics
After the war, Osmond joined the psychiatric unit at St George's Hospital, London, where he rose to become senior registrar. His time at the hospital proved pivotal in three respects: it was where he met his wife Amy "Jane" Roffey, who was working there as a nurse; he met John Smythies, who became one of his major collaborators; and he first encountered the drugs that became associated with his name, LSD and mescaline. While researching the drugs at St George's, Osmond noticed that they produced similar effects to schizophrenia and became convinced that the disease was caused by a chemical imbalance in the brain. These ideas were not well received amongst the psychiatric community in London at the time. In 1951, Osmond and Smythies moved to Saskatchewan, Canada, to join the staff of the Weyburn Mental Hospital.

At Weyburn, Osmond recruited a group of research psychologists to turn the hospital into a design-research laboratory. There, he conducted a wide variety of patient studies and observations using hallucinogenic drugs, collaborating with Abram Hoffer and others. In 1952, Osmond related the similarity of mescaline to adrenaline molecules, in a theory that implied that schizophrenia might be a form of self-intoxication caused by one's own body. He collected the biographies of recovered schizophrenics and held that psychiatrists can understand the schizophrenic only by understanding the rational way the mind makes sense of distorted perceptions. He pursued this idea with passion, exploring all avenues to gain insight into the shattered perceptions of schizophrenia, holding that the illness arises primarily from distortions of perception. Yet during the same period, Osmond became interested in the potential of psychedelics to foster mind-expanding and mystical experiences.

In 1953, Aldous Huxley was a renowned poet and playwright who, in his twenties, had gone on to achieve success and acclaim as a novelist and widely published essayist. He had lived in the U.S. for well over a decade and gained some experience screenwriting for Hollywood films. Huxley had initiated a correspondence with Osmond. In one letter, Huxley lamented that contemporary education seemed typically to have the unintended consequence of constricting the minds of the educated, closing students' minds to inspiration and many things other than material success and consumerism. In a letter, Huxley asked Osmond whether he would be kind enough to supply a dose of mescaline.

In May of that year, Osmond travelled to the US for a conference and, while there, gave Huxley the requested mescaline and supervised the ensuing experience in Huxley's neighborhood. As a result of his experience, Huxley produced the book The Doors of Perception, describing the look of the Hollywood Hills and his responses to artwork while under the influence. Osmond's name appears in four footnotes in the early pages of the book (in references to articles he had written about medicinal use of hallucinogenic drugs).

Osmond was respected and trusted enough that in 1955 he was approached by Christopher Mayhew, a politician, and guided Mayhew through a mescaline trip that was filmed for broadcast by the BBC. Though the recording was deemed too controversial and ultimately omitted from the show, Mayhew praised the experience, calling it "the most interesting thing I ever did". Part of the footage was included in the 1986 BBC documentary LSD – The Beyond Within.

Osmond and Abram Hoffer were taught a way to "maximize the LSD experience" by the influential layman Al Hubbard, who came to Weyburn. Thereafter they adopted some of Hubbard's methods.

Osmond first proposed the term "psychedelic" at a meeting of the New York Academy of Sciences in 1956. He said the word meant "mind-manifesting" (from "mind", ψυχή (psyche), and "manifest", δήλος (delos)) and called it "clear, euphonious and uncontaminated by other associations." Huxley had sent Osmond a rhyme containing his own suggested invented word: "To make this mundane world sublime, just half a gram of phanerothyme" (θυμός (thymos) meaning 'spiritedness' in Ancient Greek.) Osmond countered with "To fall in Hell or soar Angelic, you'll need a pinch of psychedelic" (Alternative version: "To fathom Hell or soar angelic, just take a pinch of psychedelic"

Osmond is also known for a study in the late 1950s in which he attempted to cure alcoholics with LSD. He claimed to have achieved a 50% success rate. Osmond noticed that some drinkers were only able to give up drinking after an episode of delirium tremens and tried to replicate this state in patients by giving them high doses of the drug. This came to be known as the psychedelic treatment model, contrasted to the psycholytic model that used low doses to help release repressed material from the mind which it was hoped would help the psychotherapeutic process. One of Osmond's patients during this time was Bill W., co-founder of Alcoholics Anonymous. But with psychedelics' growing reputation for enabling spiritual insight, Bill W. hoped to recapture a mystical state of consciousness that he had experienced, years earlier, without a drug.

Involvement with the Native American Church
Osmond participated in a Native American Church ceremony in which he ingested peyote, regarded by the Native Americans as sacred. His hosts were Plains Indians, members of the Red Pheasant Band. The all-night ceremony took place at Cando, Saskatchewan, near North Battleford (in the region of the South Saskatchewan River). Osmond published his report on the experience in Tomorrow magazine, Spring 1961. He reported details of the ceremony, the environment in which it took place, the peyote's effects, his hosts' courtesy, and his conjectures about the experience's meaning for them and for the Native American Church.

Other interests
Peripherally related to his interest in drug-assisted therapeutics, Osmond conducted research on the long-term effects of institutionalization. He had interpreted and described the peyote ceremony he had experienced, with its tepee setting and its particular social pattern, in terms that drew attention to its contrast with the psychiatric institutions of his day. Osmond began a line of research into what he called "socio-architecture" to improve patient settings, coining the terms "sociofugal" and "sociopetal", starting Robert Sommer's career, and contributing to environmental psychology. (Sociofugal refers to a grouping of people arranged so that each can maintain some privacy from the others, while sociopetal refers to a grouping of people arranged so that each can see and interact with the others.)

Osmond's interests included the application of Jung's Typology of personality to group dynamics. He and Richard Smoke developed refinements of Jung's typology and applied them to analysis of the presidents and other world figures. Osmond also studied parapsychology.

Later, Osmond became director of the Bureau of Research in Neurology and Psychiatry at the New Jersey Neuro Psychiatric Institute (NJNPI) in Princeton, where he collaborated with Bernard Aaronson in hypnosis experiments. Still later, he became a professor of psychology at the University of Alabama in Birmingham. Osmond co-wrote 11 books and was widely published throughout his career.

Osmond died of cardiac arrhythmia in 2004.

title: Humphry Osmond


text:
Uniform Code of Military Justice

The Uniform Code of Military Justice (UCMJ) is the foundation of the system of military justice of the armed forces of the United States. The UCMJ was established by the United States Congress in accordance with their constitutional authority, per Article I Section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, which provides that "The Congress shall have Power . . . to make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval forces" of the United States.

History
On June 30, 1775, the Second Continental Congress established 69 Articles of War to govern the conduct of the Continental Army.

Effective upon its ratification in 1788, Article I, Section 8 of the United States Constitution provided that Congress has the power to regulate the land and naval forces. On 10 April 1806, the United States Congress enacted 101 Articles of War, which were not significantly revised until over a century later. Discipline in the sea services was provided under the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy (commonly referred to as Rocks and Shoals). The Articles of War evolved during the first half of the twentieth century and were amended in 1916 and 1920. In 1948, Congress substantially reformed the Articles pursuant to the Selective Service Act of 1948, but its naval counterpart remained little changed. The military justice system continued to operate under the Articles of War and Articles for the Government of the Navy until May 31, 1951, when the Uniform Code of Military Justice came into effect.

The UCMJ was passed by Congress on 5 May 1950, and signed into law by President Harry S. Truman the next day. It took effect on May 31, 1951. The word uniform in the Code's title refers to its consistent application to all the armed services in place of the earlier Articles of War, Articles of Government, and Disciplinary Laws of the individual services. Apart from consolidation of the existing military law, the UCMJ introduced United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces.

The UCMJ, the Rules for Courts-Martial (RCM) (analogous to the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure), and the Military Rules of Evidence (analogous to the Federal Rules of Evidence) have evolved since their implementation. They have often paralleled the development of the federal civilian criminal justice system. In some ways, the UCMJ has been ahead of changes in the civilian criminal justice system. For example, a rights-warning statement similar to the Miranda warnings (and required in more contexts than in the civilian world where it is applicable only to custodial interrogation) was required by a decade and a half before the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Miranda v. Arizona; Article 38(b) continued the 1948 Articles of War guarantee that qualified defense counsel be provided to all accused without regard to indigence (and at earlier stages than required in civilian jurisdictions), whereas the U.S. Supreme Court only guaranteed the provision of counsel to indigents in Gideon v. Wainwright. Additionally, the role of what was originally a court-martial's non-voting "law member" developed into the present office of military judge whose capacity is little different from that of an Article III judge in a U.S. district court. At the same time, the "court-martial" itself (the panel of officers hearing the case and weighing the evidence) has converted from being essentially a board of inquiry/review presiding over the trial, into a jury of military service-members.

In 2013, at the Department of Defense's Judicial Proceedings Panel, Cortney Lollar testified that the UCMJ needed to be updated to improve the sections regarding sexual assault.

The current version of the UCMJ is printed in the latest edition of the Manual for Courts-Martial (2019), incorporating changes made by the President (executive orders) and National Defense Authorization Acts of 2006 and 2007.

Courts-martial
Courts-martial are conducted under the UCMJ and the Manual for Courts-Martial (MCM). If the trial results in a conviction, the case is reviewed by the convening authority – the commanding officer who referred the case for trial by court-martial. The power of the convening authority was reduced in 2014.

If the sentence, as approved by the convening authority, includes death, a bad conduct discharge, a dishonorable discharge, dismissal of an officer, or confinement for one year or more, the case is reviewed by an intermediate court. There are four such courts – the Army Court of Criminal Appeals, the Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals, the Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals, and the Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals.

After review by any of these intermediate courts, the next level of appeal is the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (CAAF). The Supreme Court of the United States has discretion under to review cases under the UCMJ on direct appeal where the CAAF has conducted a mandatory review (death penalty and certified cases), granted discretionary review of a petition, or otherwise granted relief. If the CAAF denies a petition for review or a writ appeal, consideration by the Supreme Court may be obtained only through collateral review (e.g., a writ of habeas corpus). Since 2007, several bills have been introduced into Congress to expand the accessibility of service members to the Supreme Court. See also Equal Justice for United States Military Personnel legislation.

Personal jurisdiction
Within the exceptions below, as codified in Article 2 of the UCMJ, personal jurisdiction attaches, regardless of the physical global location of the service member, over all members of the Uniformed Services of the United States: the Army, Marine Corps, Navy, Air Force, Space Force, Coast Guard, NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps, and Public Health Service Commissioned Corps. While the Coast Guard is administered under Title 14 of the United States Code when not operating as part of the U.S. Navy, individuals commissioned or enlisted in the Coast Guard are subject to the UCMJ as an armed force. However, commissioned members of the NOAA and PHS, as uniformed services, are only subject to the UCMJ when attached or detailed to a military unit by competent orders, or when militarized by Presidential executive order during a national emergency or declaration of war.

Members of the military Reserve Components under Title 10 of the United States Code (Army Reserve, Marine Forces Reserve, Navy Reserve, and Air Force Reserve), or Title 14 of the United States Code, Coast Guard Reserve when not operating as part of the U.S. Navy, are subject to the UCMJ when they are:

 * 1) Full-Time Support (FTS) personnel on active duty orders serving pursuant to the authority of 10 USC 10211 or 10 USC 12310, including:
 * 2) Army/Air Force "Active Guard and Reserve (AGR),"
 * 3) Navy "Full-time Support (FTS),"
 * 4) Marine Corps "Active Reserve (AR)," or
 * 5) Coast Guard "Reserve Program Administrators (RPA)."
 * 6) "Traditional" reservists performing either:
 * 7) Full-time active duty service under orders for a specific period, i.e., Annual Training, Active Duty for Training, Active Duty for Operational Support, Active Duty Special Work, Mobilization or Recall to Active Duty, Canvasser Recruiter, etc., or
 * 8) Performing part-time Inactive Duty, i.e., Inactive Duty Training, Inactive Duty Travel and Training, Unit Training Assembly, Additional Training Periods, Additional Flying Training Periods, Reserve Management Periods, etc., all of which are colloquially known as "drills."
 * 9) Retired Reservists who are either recalled to active duty pursuant to secretarial authority, or who are receiving medical treatment in an armed forces hospital (see below).

Soldiers and airmen in the National Guard of the United States are subject to the UCMJ only if activated (mobilized or recalled to active duty) in a federal capacity under Title 10 by an executive order issued by the President, or during their annual training periods, which are orders issued under Title 10, during which periods of duty they are federalized into the National Guard of the United States. Otherwise, members of the National Guard are usually exempt from the UCMJ. However, under Title 32 orders, or State Active Duty orders issued directly under State authority, individual members of the Army National Guard and Air National Guard are still subject to their respective state codes of military justice, which often resemble the UCMJ very closely, and/or their state civil and criminal laws.

Several States also authorize either naval or military organized militia forces. These are collectively known as the State Guard. State Guard organizations are organized, trained, equipped, armed, disciplined, and administered under each State's own sovereign authority, and are not subject to a Federal recall to active duty, nor are the individual members subject to the UCMJ in their capacities as members of the State Guard. State Guard organizations typically are organized similarly to a military force, and usually report to the senior National Guard officer in each State, known as the Adjutant General. In this sense, the State Guard are auxiliaries to each State's Constitutionally authorized organized militia forces, the Army and Air National Guard. The State Guard is often specialized, based on each state's requirements, for missions such as wilderness search and rescue, light aviation, forest firefighting, law enforcement, or general emergency management roles. Under each state's own authorities, State Guard members may be ordered to State Active Duty (SAD), in a status similar to National Guard members in a Title 32 status but solely under state authority and discipline, and also may be provided with the training, equipment, and authority to act as law enforcement officers with powers of arrest. Each state sets the requirements to join, remain, be promoted or rewarded, and conditions of employment such as a minimum amount of duty performed in a year, and whether any duty is paid or unpaid, and whether the individuals are covered by various civil service or retirement pension plans. Most State Guard duty is performed without pay, in a volunteer status. While the State Guard organizations are subject to recall to SAD, or other workforce requirements as imposed by their state, they are not subject to either partial or full mobilization authorities under Title 10. However, the individual State Guard members often have dual-status as both State Guard and a federally recognized uniformed services member, such as a Texas State Guard officer who is also a retired U.S. military officer. Such an individual could be recalled to active duty under both SAD as a State Guard member, or under one of the various authorities to recall retired or reserve military members to active duty (10 USC 688, various 10 USC 123XX authorities, and others), but not both because a federal status trumps a state status. State Guard members could thus be subject to the UCMJ at all times under their federal status, and under specific state military and civil/criminal codes under their state status.

Cadets and midshipmen at the United States Military Academy, United States Naval Academy, United States Air Force Academy, and United States Coast Guard Academy, are subject to the UCMJ at all times because they are in an active duty status as members of the regular component while serving at a Military Service Academy, per Article 2(a)(2) of UCMJ. Army and Air Force Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) cadets are not subject to the UCMJ, except while on inactive or active duty training. Midshipmen of the United States Merchant Marine Academy and Navy ROTC (including marine-option) midshipmen are also subject to the UCMJ when on inactive or active duty for training orders.

Members of military auxiliaries such as the Civil Air Patrol and the Coast Guard Auxiliary are not subject to the UCMJ, even when participating in missions assigned by the military or other branches of government. However, members of the Coast Guard Auxiliary can be called by the Commandant of the Coast Guard into the Temporary Reserve of the Coast Guard, in which case they become subject to the UCMJ.

Additionally, the following categories of service members are subject to the UCMJ as indicated:

 * 1) Retired members of the regular component who are entitled to retirement pay, per Article 2(a)(4) of UCMJ, regardless of the authority under which retired from active service and transferred to the retired list of their respective service's regular component,
 * 2) Retired members of the reserve component, whether entitled to retired pay or awaiting retired pay at age 60 as a gray area reserve retiree, who are receiving hospital care from an armed force, per Article 2(a)(5) of UCMJ,
 * 3) Members of the Fleet Reserve/Fleet Marine Corps Reserve (FR/FMCR), as enlisted retired Navy or Marine Corps personnel who have not yet served a total of 30 years of combined active, fleet reserve, and retired service, per Article 2(a)(6) of UCMJ.  Both regular component and reserve component enlisted retirees are transferred to the FR/FMCR upon retirement if they have less than 30 total years, but more than 20 cumulative years of active service, and remain subject to the UCMJ in that status until they complete 30 total years of active and fleet reserve service, and are transferred to their respective original Service Retired List (regular component or retired reserve).  The FR/FMCR is not applicable to any officers, any service member retired for disability and transferred to the Temporary or Permanent Disability Retired Lists, nor any enlisted retirees except those of the Navy and Marine Corps as noted above.
 * 4) Persons in custody of the U.S. Armed Forces serving a sentence imposed by a court-martial, per Article 2(a)(7) of UCMJ,
 * 5) Members of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Public Health Service, and other organizations, when assigned to and serving with the armed forces, per Article 2(a)(8) of UCMJ,
 * 6) Prisoners of War (POW)/Enemy Prisoners of War (EPW) in the custody of the U.S. Armed Forces, per Article 2(a)(9) of UCMJ,
 * 7) In time of declared war or a contingency operation, persons serving with or accompanying a U.S. armed force in the field, per Article 2(a)(10), and
 * 8) Detained medical personnel and military chaplains in the custody of the U.S. Armed Forces.

Civilians are not subject to UCMJ. However, the federal government has exclusive jurisdiction over crimes committed on a military installation. A military investigation may be conducted to determine whether or not to prosecute a civilian who commits a crime on a military base. Civilians are not otherwise subject to military law, even when the crime is committed against a service member. When a civilian bus driver murdered an Army private off post in 1942, for example, the post commander was unable to investigate.

Military contractors
Historically, the UCMJ applied to "persons serving with or accompanying an armed force in the field" and thus included military contractors "in time of war." In the John Warner National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2007, which was enacted in 2006, Congress expanded the UCMJ's applicability to cover contractors during a "declared war or contingency operation." The change came following the Nisour Square massacre perpetrated by Blackwater Security personnel. In 2008, the first contractor was prosecuted under the new provision, marking the first time since 1968 that a contractor had been charged under military law. The civilian defendant, a dual Canadian-Iraqi citizen, was charged with stabbing a co-worker, another Iraqi civilian. The contractor ultimately pleaded guilty.

Non-judicial punishment
Under Article 15 of the Code (Subchapter III), specified military commanders have the authority to exercise non-judicial punishment (NJP) over their subordinates for minor breaches of discipline. These punishments are carried out after a hearing before the commander but without a judge and jury. Punishments are limited to a reduction in rank for enlisted members, loss of pay, restriction of privileges, extra-duty, reprimands, and, aboard ships, confinement. Guidelines for the imposition of NJP are contained in Part V of the Manual for Courts-Martial and the various service regulations.

Complaints of wrongs and loss of property
The UCMJ provides that any service member may bring a "complaint of wrongs" against their commanding officer to the next senior officer exercising general court-martial authority over their commander. That officer will investigate the complaint of wrongs, and then report the findings of the investigation to the service Secretary (i.e., Secretary of the Army, Navy, Air Force) concerned. Following said findings an investigation board can be convened to investigate and adjudicate claims of willful damage, destruction, or theft of personal property, only if both parties are subject to the Code.

Current subchapters
The UCMJ is found in Title 10, Subtitle A, Part II, Chapter 47 of the United States Code.

General provisions
Subchapter I, "General Provisions" has six sections (articles):

Article 1 (Definitions), defines the following terms used in the rest of the UCMJ: Judge Advocate General, the Navy, officer in charge, superior commissioned officer, cadet, midshipman, military, accuser, military judge, law specialist, legal officer, judge advocate, record, classified information, and national security. This article also provides that, "The Navy, the Marine Corps, and the Coast Guard when it is operating as a service in the Navy, shall be considered as one armed force" for the purposes of the UCMJ.

Pre-trial procedure
Under Article 31, coercive self-incrimination is prohibited as a right under the Fifth Amendment. Apprehending officers utilize the Article 31 warning and waiver to prevent this self-incrimination, much like the Miranda warning. Article 31 was already well-established before Miranda.

Article 32 refers to the pre-trial investigation and hearing conducted before charges are referred to trial for court-martial. It may be conducted by a Judge Advocate General (JAG) officer or non-JAG officer.

Punitive articles
Subchapter X, "Punitive Articles", is the subchapter that details offenses under the uniform code. The 2019 MCM incorporates both major and minor changes to certain articles, and relocates many articles; careful examination of the source document is required to ensure full understanding, and previous "cheat sheets" and training materials may therefore be outdated. Those articles with a title annotated by "*" were changed from the 2016 MCM:

General article (Article 134)
The general article (Article 134) authorizes the prosecution of offenses not specifically detailed by any other article: "...all disorders and neglects to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces, all conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces, and crimes and offenses not capital, of which persons subject to this chapter may be guilty." Clause 1 of the article involves disorders and neglect, "...to the prejudice of good order and discipline in the armed forces." Clause 2 involves, "...conduct of a nature to bring discredit upon the armed forces." Clause 3 deals with non-capital offenses violating other federal law; under this clause, any such offense created by federal statute may be prosecuted under Article 134. United States v. Perkins, 47 C.M.R. 259 (Air Force Ct. of Military Review 1973).

The most recent version of the Manual for Courts-Martial lists the following offenses commonly prosecuted under Article 134:
 * Animal abuse
 * Bigamy
 * Check, worthless making and uttering – by dishonorably failing to maintain funds
 * Child pornography
 * Dishonorably failing to pay debt
 * Disloyal statement
 * Disorderly conduct, drunkenness
 * Extramarital sexual conduct
 * Discharging firearm through negligence
 * Fraternization
 * Gambling with subordinate
 * Negligent homicide
 * Indecent conduct
 * Indecent language
 * Pandering and prostitution
 * Self-injury without intent to avoid service
 * Sexual act with an animal
 * Straggling
 * Visual depiction, nonconsensual distribution or broadcast

title: Uniform Code of Military Justice


text:
Talk:List of fictional extraterrestrials

Older discussion
I think this list would be much better if it were organized alphabetically by series as opposed to shape. It would certainly make it easier to read. Oberiko

 * My personal preference would be to sort by name and annotate each one as to series and category. The main problem with grouping like at present is that it gets really tricky if something should appear in more than one group. --Phil 10:09, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

 * List of fictional species lists species by name; list of fictional species by type lists them by type. I think that this page ought to follow those pages' lead and alphabetize the main page. -Sean 03:29, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Surely Pikmin would count as aliens? If Chozo are in the list, Pikmin should be too. Cheese 15:59, 6 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * who/what is it? IreverentReverend 28 June 2005 18:46 (UTC)

This is predominantly a Science Fiction list. I suggest expanding it. Any thoughts about that? Ereinion 06:10, 11 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Spock is not a race, and Vulcans are in the list. Delete? Or allow for hybrid Star Trek humanoids to feature? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Jorganos (talk • contribs) 14:56, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

Abydonians are a fictional human culture, not a separate race.Jorganos 15:01, 12 November 2007 (UTC)

Redundant?
I think it's confusing to have this page (and the set it came from) as well as the Category:Fictional alien species set of pages (which is more complete).
 * Actually, this set is more complete, as it was aliens and species listed that don't actually have pages, and thus cannot appear in the auto generated catagory listing. IreverentReverend 28 June 2005 18:46 (UTC)

This page seems overly redunant. There is alread a list of Alien speices by Type, and is more detailed and organized than this list.

Kromaggs
I question if they should be listed. According to Sliders the Kromaggs are not extraterrestials since they actually originate from Earth - albeit an alternate Earth. I suppose that's based on the specifics of the definition. At the least, I removed the mention of them being the descendents of Cro-Magnons since the Kromaggs' ancestors are actually "killer apes" that won the evolutionary race by murdering early homo-sapians. Their connection to Cro-Magnons is simply their name, which is meant to be a pun more than anything. --Bacteria 04:25, 25 July 2005 (UTC)

Well, Kromags are not native (ie. Alien) to our Earth (at least to the Dimension of protagonists of Sliders), and are a different, if related, speices. I say they can be considered an alien speices. I might also note that in the Sliders series, the Kromags also developed along side Homo Sapiens, so they didn't win the race.

Terellians, etc.
This list includes no less than three almost identically spelled races: Terellians, Terrelians, Terrellians, and possibly Tarellians as well. Looks to me like all four are the same race, and people only use different spellings for them. Unfortunately, none of them have articles on Wikipedia. Some have articles on Memory Alpha, but I can't currently contact the Memory Alpha servers at all, so I can't verify. What is the correct spelling? And don't tell me Star Trek is stupid enough to have four different alien races with such similar names. — J I P | Talk 14:53, 11 January 2006 (UTC)

 * It is stupid enough. See:

http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Terellian http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Tarellian http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Terrellian http://memory-alpha.org/en/wiki/Terrelian. They are actually five species - there are two species called the Terrellians. Ausir 13:12, 1 March 2006 (UTC)

 * This makes me wonder whether it was intentional or accidental. J I P | Talk 17:11, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

Larry Niven
I've removed this line: A Ptavv is a Thrint who lack 'The Power' and Pak are listed elsewhere. Bangers 14:53, 3 February 2006 (UTC)
 * Ptavv Pak Protector from Larry Niven's The World of Ptavvs

Sentient Species
This list would benefit greatly from either having sentient species marked prominently, or by having them broken out into a seperate list. DrHydeous 18:26, 15 October 2006 (UTC)

Zoidberg
Should Zoidberg be replaced with Decapodians? This article appears to be a listing of races, not individuals. Chronolegion 14:41, 24 January 2007 (UTC)

moai and Tayology
I tried deleting the reference to "Moai" and "Tayology", but the contributor put them back. The moai are the huge carved stone heads on Easter Island, and they have nothing to do with the topic of this page. I searched for "Tayology" on the Internet and found only a couple of personal blog pages. However, I found the answer on the contributor's own personal talk page - it all has to do with a person UFO abduction. I suggest that this material should go on a page that deals with UFO abductions, not aliens in fiction. If UFOs are real, then the insertion is clearly non-fiction and does not belong on this page. Cbdorsett 15:21, 16 February 2007 (UTC)

Saiyans
The Saiyan race was unconfirmed until the Dragonball Z series, therefore it is more appropriate to tag them specifically to that series. (Goku was confirmed as a Saiyan in the episode The Arrival of Raditz, where other Saiyans were introduced.)

Gargon
I don't know if it's appropriate to this list, but it appears that this is for creatures in movies as well as written fiction. Please consider:

Gargons: lobster-like creatures that arrived when Teenagers from Outer Space landed on Earth. They start out like small 1-2 kg lobsters and grow into giant (maybe 10-20 meters tall?) gargons. For more info about the movie, see Teenagers from Outer Space. AdderUser 00:41, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Ben 10 aliens
Shouldn't the Ben 10 aliens whose species names are known be referred to by their species name in this article, and not by what Ben names them? Just wondering.MegaWhatt 02:56, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

Videogames in general
Post video game aliens here. Anyways, you're missing the Seekers from Advent Rising.

Also missing Maximals and Predacons from Beast Wars.

Comics in general
Missing Venom, Carnage and the other symbiotes.

Comments about the article
From the looks of it: this list is a catchall for anything extraterrestial in fiction. Am I right? I certainly don't agree with that, as all of these might not be completely notable. A majority of things on the list indeed have articles on Wikipedia: but that certainly doesn't mean all are notable subjects for articles in the first place. Instead of dumping ground for everything, shouldn't the list be notable/important things only? RobJ1981 08:09, 28 September 2007 (UTC)
 * seems to me that it largely is--about half those listed have individual articles in WP, and 95% or so are characters in works that do. Would be a good idea to specify, though--e.g. that the formics are the species whose relationship to humans & annihilation most of the series is basically about. But it might be a good idea to separate the SF from the video games. DGG (talk) 00:38, 30 September 2007 (UTC)

Necris
The Necris from Unreal tournament should be added. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.9.81.118 (talk) 21:54, 3 January 2008 (UTC)

Merge
Per the suggested Merge with List of extraterrestrials in fiction by type, I think that's a good idea. We could place the data in a table, and it would be sortable by species name, fictional universe, and species type. (I'm not volunteering to do the merge (my wrists hurt just thinking about all that copying&pasting...), but I agree with the proposal.) -- Quiddity (talk) 20:58, 19 February 2008 (UTC)

 * I support the merge, but retaining that the classification is based on type (which would be eaiser to classify and easilly find) --Eldarone (talk) 04:03, 22 February 2008 (UTC)

I've merged the Humanoid section, and the 1st three Feline humanoids. Wrists hurt, and I need more monitors (whine). I might get back to it soon, but feel free to join in. ;) -- Quiddity (talk) 07:29, 26 February 2008 (UTC)
 * Addhoc redirected this article to List of extraterrestrials in fiction by type today. I've reverted, with the hope that the information can be merged first (in either direction), instead of just blanked and forgotten. Thinking about it some more, I've concluded that perhaps merging to the "by type" article is better, as a single huge table is both hard to navigate/edit, and difficult to include notes in, and difficult to include species under multiple types. I'll make a start on merging the tabular format to the "by type" article. -- Quiddity (talk) 20:21, 29 February 2008 (UTC)

I support the merge too. At first I was against it until I saw the "Type" column, which means the aliens can still be categorize by their type. So I'll help out by adding them into this article. ---Mediadimension (talk) 22:24, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

 * On second thought, this article should be merged with "List of extraterrestrials in fiction by type" only remove the "by type" part from it. Each of the alien lists should split into two columns like "Humanoid extraterrestrials". ---Mediadimension (talk) 22:34, 20 June 2008 (UTC)

Blue humanoids
Smerfs - Source Television cartoon —Preceding unsigned comment added by 216.234.218.231 (talk) 16:44, 22 March 2008 (UTC)

Organization
Is it possible to list these alphabetically? Colonel Marksman (talk) 01:13, 4 October 2008 (UTC)

 * I agree - breaking the list down alphabetically would be an improvement. --GentlemanGhost (talk) 22:45, 21 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes it would, and as the article is already over 69 kilobytes long, it should perhaps also be split into smaller subarticles. But the alphabetisation should be done first though. J I P | Talk 06:49, 17 December 2008 (UTC)

race, species, life form
my preference would be not to use the words race and species, unless the fictional sources use those words in their descriptions. i would, for instance, not call jabba the hut a member of an alien race, since no one in the movie says so. remember, he doesnt actually exist, so he doesnt have a history, biology, etc. other than what the authors have given him. every living thing does belong to a species, but this isnt true for fictional life forms. i prefer that last word, esp. as its used extensively in sf. either that, or words like "character", "monster", etc. often used in screenplays/summaries/movie dialog. minor point from a science nerd.Mercurywoodrose (talk) 04:49, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

are khorne slanesh tzentch and nurgle of warhammer 40k aliens??? more like gods —Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.75.122.16 (talk) 07:56, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

Na'vi as a non-sentient species?
It's a good joke, but... come on. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 84.0.42.97 (talk) 11:20, 30 May 2010 (UTC)

Gallaxhar
Gallaxhar, the main antagonist from the 3D film Monsters vs. Aliens, should be in the list, but where to put him under?

Links? Could someone please fix the links? At the moment most of them go to disambugation pages or totally unrelated pages. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 220.245.147.89 (talk) 01:04, 14 June 2010 (UTC) L D E J R u f f  (see what I've contributed ) 16:40, 7 June 2010 (EDT)

Fictional exobiological microorganisms
Is there any reason to exclude this class of "aliens"? they do feature prominently in some works, notably Andromeda Strain. perhaps we can add a subheading under nonsentient forms. The film brings up the possibility that this organism COULD be sentient, but presents no evidence for this being true.Mercurywoodrose (talk) 07:00, 11 October 2010 (UTC)

"Fictional"?
Aren't all extraterrestrials fictional? Corvus cornix talk  21:27, 21 November 2010 (UTC

no they accutally are real and the majority of the population belives and confides within the credentials validating them. the only individuals that dont are crabby scruffy old relgious folk who have issues with there feet and the brainwashed cronies that support them. please dont comment here if all you plan on doing is stirring up shit and inciting a problem. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.83.24.200 (talk • contribs) 13:50, 18 April 2011

While many people have strong opinions, the scientific community does not have a consensus answer yet. Some scientists think it highly likely that there is life on other worlds, while other scientists think the Earth may be unique in this respect. For further information, see Extraterrestrial life.Kalidasa 777 (talk) 07:39, 19 June 2011 (UTC)

Unlisted felinoids
What about the Farlans from Aldys Budrys's "Shadow on the Stars". Coeurl from "Black Destroyer"/The Voyage of the Space Beagle by A E Voght. Should these be listed here? 173.171.192.180 (talk) 21:03, 28 February 2012 (UTC)


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Larry Grossman (politician)

Lawrence Sheldon "Larry" Grossman, (December 2, 1943 – June 22, 1997) was a politician in Ontario, Canada. He served in the Legislative Assembly as a Progressive Conservative from 1975 to 1987, and was a cabinet minister in the governments of Bill Davis and Frank Miller. Grossman was leader of the Ontario Progressive Conservatives from 1985 to 1987.

Background
Born in Toronto, Grossman was the son of Allan Grossman, a former insurance agent who had represented a downtown Toronto riding in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario for twenty years after defeating Ontario's last Communist Member of Provincial Parliament, J. B. Salsberg. Grossman's family was of Polish Jewish origin. He attended Forest Hill Collegiate and went to University of Toronto and the Osgoode Hall Law School. He was admitted to the bar in 1969.

Politics
Grossman's first foray into politics was in the Toronto municipal election of 1972. He competed for alderman in Ward 11, but lost, coming third behind Anne Johnston and David Smith.

When his father retired, Grossman contested and won in the riding of St. Andrew—St. Patrick in the 1975 election, defeating Ontario New Democratic Party candidate Barbara Beardsley by 419 votes. He was re-elected in the 1977, 1981, and 1985 elections.

After serving as parliamentary assistant to the Attorney General from 1975 to 1977, Grossman was appointed to cabinet on September 21, 1977 as Minister of Consumer and Commercial Relations. On October 18, 1978, Grossman was shuffled to Minister of Industry and Tourism.

Grossman was promoted to the high-profile position of Health Minister on February 18, 1982, and was named Provincial Treasurer and Minister of Economics on July 6, 1983. In cabinet, Grossman's progressive views earned him a reputation as a Red Tory, and he clashed with his own party after then-Health Minister Frank Miller closed the Kensington Hospital in Grossman's riding.

Leadership
When Davis announced his resignation as leader of the party and premier of the province, Grossman ran to succeed him. He was widely regarded as the most progressive candidate, and was endorsed by members of the party's Toronto-based Big Blue Machine. His supporters included Susan Fish, Russ Ramsay, Phil Gillies, Bruce McCaffrey and George Taylor. However, delegates to the party's January 1985 leadership convention chose the more conservative Frank Miller as leader. Grossman placed third on the first ballot, ahead of Roy McMurtry, but behind Miller and Dennis Timbrell. With the support of the McMurtry campaign, Grossman moved six votes ahead of Timbrell on the second ballot. It was confirmed in 1987 by Dr. John Balkwill that the Miller campaign did not want the prospect of facing Timbrell on the final ballot, since their tracking of delegate intentions showed that their candidate would lose decisively to Timbrell, so about 30-40 Miller delegates voted strategically for Grossman to ensure Timbrell's elimination.

Timbrell, who was a bitter rival of Grossman but also wanted to prevent a Miller victory, reluctantly endorsed Grossman after the results were confirmed by a recount. He did not bring enough delegates on the third ballot, however, and Grossman lost to Miller. Grossman remained the Provincial Treasurer in Miller's government.

Miller ran a disastrous campaign in the 1985 election, and the party was reduced to a fragile minority government. Grossman was appointed as Minister of Education and Minister of Colleges and Universities after the election, but was unable to accomplish anything of significance before the Liberals and New Democrats joined forces to topple Miller's government in the legislature.

Miller quickly resigned as leader, and Grossman was chosen as the new leader over Dennis Timbrell and Alan Pope at a second leadership convention on November 16, 1985. Pope was forced on the defensive when one of his workers was caught polling party members as to whether religion would make a difference in the leadership race, which was seen as a reference to Grossman's Jewish background. Timbrell lost support when he declared his opposition to the full funding of Catholic schools, causing Norm Sterling to defect to Grossman's campaign. Grossman defeated Timbrell by only 19 votes on the second ballot, in a campaign that was marked by considerable acrimony.

Grossman became Leader of the Opposition to the Liberal Premier David Peterson.

Grossman's political hero was Benjamin Disraeli, whose portrait was displayed on his office wall. Shortly after winning the leadership of the Ontario Progressive Conservatives, he criticized American "neo-Conservatism" as "a shallow reconstitution of laissez-faire liberalism."

Opposition
The Peterson government was very popular, and Grossman's Tories, in opposition for the first time since 1943, had a difficult time adjusting to their new role. When the Liberals called an early election for the fall of 1987, Grossman's Tories tried to campaign on a right-wing platform of tax cuts and reduced government spending. Grossman's history as a Red Tory made for a poor contrast with the party's new platform. Peterson won a strong majority government in the 1987 election, and the Conservatives were reduced from 52 seats to 16, falling to third place behind the NDP—their worst showing in over half a century. Grossman lost his own seat to Liberal challenger Ron Kanter and promptly resigned. The party selected Andy Brandt as interim leader.

Retirement and last years
He assisted new party leader Mike Harris in the 1990 provincial election, and coached him to stay "on-message" with the issue of tax cuts.

In the early 1990s, Grossman hosted a weekend talk show on radio station CFRB.

In 1997, Larry Grossman died at the age of 53 from brain cancer. A few days before his death, he invited TVOntario cameras into his house to help with TVO's membership campaign. He was named to the Order of Ontario shortly before his death. He left behind his three children Melissa, Jaimie and Robbie. He was divorced from Carole, their mother, at the time of his death.

In 2004, the Forest Hill Arena, a local Toronto hockey and skating rink where his children played, was renamed the Larry Grossman Forest Hill Memorial Arena in his honour.

title: Larry Grossman (politician)


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40-bit encryption

40-bit encryption refers to a (now broken) key size of forty bits, or five bytes, for symmetric encryption; this represents a relatively low level of security. A forty bit length corresponds to a total of 240 possible keys. Although this is a large number in human terms (about a trillion), it is possible to break this degree of encryption using a moderate amount of computing power in a brute-force attack, i.e., trying out each possible key in turn.

Description
A typical home computer in 2004 could brute-force a 40-bit key in a little under two weeks, testing a million keys per second; modern computers are able to achieve this much faster. Using free time on a large corporate network or a botnet would reduce the time in proportion to the number of computers available. With dedicated hardware, a 40-bit key can be broken in seconds. The Electronic Frontier Foundation's Deep Crack, built by a group of enthusiasts for US$250,000 in 1998, could break a 56-bit Data Encryption Standard (DES) key in days, and would be able to break 40-bit DES encryption in about two seconds.

40-bit encryption was common in software released before 1999, especially those based on the RC2 and RC4 algorithms which had special "7-day" export review policies, when algorithms with larger key lengths could not legally be exported from the United States without a case-by-case license. "In the early 1990s ... As a general policy, the State Department allowed exports of commercial encryption with 40-bit keys, although some software with DES could be exported to U.S.-controlled subsidiaries and financial institutions." As a result, the "international" versions of web browsers were designed to have an effective key size of 40 bits when using Secure Sockets Layer to protect e-commerce. Similar limitations were imposed on other software packages, including early versions of Wired Equivalent Privacy. In 1992, IBM designed the CDMF algorithm to reduce the strength of 56-bit DES against brute force attack to 40 bits, in order to create exportable DES implementations.

Obsolescence
All 40-bit and 56-bit encryption algorithms are obsolete, because they are vulnerable to brute force attacks, and therefore cannot be regarded as secure. As a result, virtually all Web browsers now use 128-bit keys, which are considered strong. Most Web servers will not communicate with a client unless it has 128-bit encryption capability installed on it.

Public/private key pairs used in asymmetric encryption (public key cryptography), at least those based on prime factorization, must be much longer in order to be secure; see key size for more details.

As a general rule, modern symmetric encryption algorithms such as AES use key lengths of 128, 192 and 256 bits.

title: 40-bit encryption


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Črneče

Črneče is a village on the right bank of the Drava River in the Municipality of Dravograd in the Carinthia region in northern Slovenia.

Church
The local church in the centre of the settlement is dedicated to Saint Andrew and Saint James and dates to the early 15th century with some later rebuilding.

Castle
Close to the church there is a castle from the 15th century, first mentioned in 1408. In 1432, the castle was mentioned under the name Tscherberg. In the second half of the 17th century, the castle was owned by Adam Seyfrid Waldner. In 1936, ownership was transferred to Catholic nuns from Slovenska Bistrica. After the Second World War it was nationalized, and a cultural hall and apartments were arranged in the castle.

Lake Dravograd
Lake Dravograd (Dravograjsko jezero, Črneško jezero) lies east of the village. This reservoir was created after the Dravograd Hydroelectric Power Plant was built in 1944 and is located between Črneče and Dravograd. The shallow southern part on the Črneče side contains several shallow branches of the Drava River with reed-covered islands, and the main course of the river is to the north, below Dravograd.

The southern wetlands are an important natural habitat, because of which the area of Lake Dravograd was included in Natura 2000 as a protected area. More than 150 bird species have been observed here, the most common including the mute swan, grey heron, mallard Eurasian coot, sedge warbler, great reed warbler, common moorhen, and great crested grebe. The lake is an important stop for migrating birds, and a spawning ground for native fish and amphibians. Common fish species found here are the tench, common carp, European chub, common bream, common barbel, and northern pike. Fishing is widespread in the area and is also allowed around the lake. Typical amphibians of the region include the common toad, common frog, and European tree frog. Reptile species commonly found in the region include the grass snake, dice snake, horned viper, Aesculapian snake, European green lizard, and common wall lizard. Around 2000, the Eurasian beaver spread from lower parts of the Drava River and settled around the lake.

The flora is also diverse, and more than 160 plant species are known in the area. The dominant plant on the islands between the main flow and branches is reeds, forming extensive reed beds. Other typical plants from the area include Rumex aquaticus, yellow iris, celery-leaved buttercup, sweet flag, cowbane, common bulrush, willow, and common aspen.

History
During World War II, German forces attacked the Kingdom of Yugoslavia on April 6, 1941. On April 10, German forces reached Dravograd, crossed the Drava River on April 11, and continued their breakthrough towards Slovenj Gradec and Celje. Resistance was provided by scant Yugoslav forces along the Rupnik Line, which crossed Črneče and Dravograd, and could not significantly delay the advance of the Germans.

Later during the war, Russian prisoners of war building the Dravograd Hydroelectric Power Plant were stationed near Črneče. About 400 prisoners were transferred here from the POW camp in Wolfsberg. The prisoners lived in poor conditions and more of 100 of them died in just two months due to hunger and exhaustion. A memorial to 197 Russian prisoners is located in Črneče.

Notable people
Notable people that were born or lived in Črneče include:
 * Berta Jereb (born 1925), pediatric oncologist

title: Črneče


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Valerianaceae

The Valerianaceae Batsch, the valerian family, was a family of flowering plants that is now considered part of the Caprifoliaceae. Plants are generally herbaceous, and their foliage often has a strong, disagreeable odor. They are found native in most regions of the world except for Australia. Some species are cultivated as ornamentals or used in herbal medicine for inducing relaxation and sleep.

The genera that were placed in this family, along with some species, include:

 * Centranthus
 * C. ruber (red valerian, spur valerian or red spur valerian)

 * Fedia
 * F. cornucopiae (African valerian, horn of plenty)

 * Nardostachys
 * N. jatamansi (Spikenard)
 * N. chinensis

 * Patrinia
 * Plectritis
 * Valeriana
 * V. dioica (marsh valerian)
 * V. officinalis (valerian)

 * Valerianella
 * V. locusta (corn salad, lamb's lettuce)

DNA studies have found Valeriana to be paraphyletic with respect to Centranthus and Valerianella, and Valerianella with respect to Fedia. Some sources now include Centranthus, Fedia and Valerianella within Valeriana.

title: Valerianaceae