text:
Talk:Marine VHF radio

Scope of article
Uses of VHF radio are much wider than just marine. I'm pretty sue that all aircraft use VHF for approach/landing/take-off and indeed for air traffic control. Lots of the rescue services have probably moved on to UHF. A lot of VHF mobile radio exists for despatching, taxis etc. User:Rjstott
 * Agreed with rjstott -- this is essentially an article about marine VHF, which is one particular band of VHF using narrowband FM. It's a very important band, but there's rather a lot more to it. I'm going to add some stuff to it, but the marine VHF material needs to be broken out into its own article. Haikupoet 03:30, 9 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * I renamed the page Marine VHF radio and merged the non-marine stuff, particularly the info on non-licensed operation, into VHF. I also set up VHF radio as a disambiguation page, with links to marine VHF radio, Airband, Amateur radio, etc. --agr 15:20, 9 Mar 2005 (UTC)

It seems to me that the page is currently limited to sea/ocean use. There are different rules for inland shipping (e.g. Basle agreement for Europe). So "maritime" here does not include inland shipping. 07:55, 15 June 2009 (UTC)~ —Preceding unsigned comment added by 193.172.18.3 (talk)

Minor link edit
In the operating procedures section, I have added a link to the article on pro-words. posted this for completism and reference Editus 18:05, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

UK Marine VHF Channels and Frequencies
An IP user added the table under the section, UK Marine VHF Channels and Frequencies. It is not in proper format and uses HTML. It needs to be converted into usual Wiki Table format.

Also, we need to provide information for areas outside of the UK. Billscottbob (talk) 22:21, 10 December 2007 (UTC)
 * ✅ Done. Table converted and columns made for other countries Billscottbob (talk) 19:11, 20 January 2008 (UTC)

strongly discouraged by some countries...
I never cease to be amazed at how the regulators in on country will forbid you to do a certain thing while the regulators in another country will require you to do precisely the same thing when both regulations were supposedly written to achieve the same end.

Here in the U.S. of A., The helmsman of every commercial vessel and, of every vessel greater than 20m LOA is required to stand watch on channel 13 (except in the lower Mississippi River where it's channel 67) whenever the vessel is under command so that he may chat with the helmsmen of other vessels about whose turn it is to enter the lock chamber, and who's to turn to the left and who's to turn to the right and so forth. The regulators consider channel 13 to be of such importance that the helmsman's radio must be dedicated to the purpose. It must not scan, and in particular, it must not be the same radio that is used to monitor channels 16, and 70.

71.253.13.216 (talk) 13:53, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

 * Remember, this page is just for discussing improivements to the article, not for discussing what's wrong with the world.   Will Beback    talk    19:16, 9 February 2009 (UTC)

TWC
In the table, I know what UKSAR is, but what does TWC stand for. It needs explaining on the page, I think.

CharlwoodHouse (talk) 09:58, 11 October 2009 (UTC)

Team Working Channel, see http://forum.mrmap.org.uk/uploaded_files/uksar_implementation_control_v6.1.pdf

--83.216.95.154 (talk) 12:50, 6 May 2015 (UTC)

unicode
It seems some relatively obscure characters from unicode that aren't supported on my system are being used in the table, looking one of them up it seems to be a cirled letter A. Is it really a good idea to have an important part of a table heading done using such a character?! Plugwash (talk) 11:42, 10 November 2010 (UTC)

Channel 16 frequencies
The table shows channel 16 as a duplex (ship/coast) channel and a change by an ip was reverted. In the handbook I have (from the Finnish communications ministry) it is half duplex only, at 156,800 kHz, with 161.400 kHz not mentioned. Same thing with all channels in the ranges 8-12, 13-17 and 67-77 (the use of most of these does of course vary internationally).

Are the coast channels in question used (somewhere) or are they just allocated in technical specifications? There should be some clear note about this, especially at channel 16 (which should be standardized globally).

--LPfi (talk) 10:20, 15 January 2011 (UTC)

 * This is the systematic pattern of channel allocation that countries are free to deviate from in their official maritime communication plans. Half-duplex channel use is indicated by a circled letter "A" or "B". --  Denelson83  18:16, 15 January 2011 (UTC)

Frequency use table
In the table the use of the frequencies are given for five countries. It is of course useful for people from those countries and people sailing in those waters. Are they chosen with some thought or just the countries of contributors with the information at hand?

Is there some standardisation, e.g. in Europe or East Asia? Are the treaties regulating channel use or some summaries available on-line? For us not in the countries in the table those global or regional regulations would be far more important.

--LPfi (talk) 10:39, 15 January 2011 (UTC)

 * Added Finland. We cannot have all countries here, but I suppose the channel use is representative for a larger area (at least the Baltic Sea, I suppose).

 * Are the AIS channels and frequencies correct? My frequency guide gives 161,975 and 162,025 for AIS, which would be the B-channels of 87 and 88, but does allocate the A-channels for normal use.

 * --LPfi (talk) 11:59, 14 March 2011 (UTC)

Channel M and M2
In the UK Channel M (157.850MHz tx/rx) and M2 (161.425MHz tx/rx) are special UK only channels used for communications with designated shore stations with unlicensed operators including marinas and yacht clubs see http://www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/ra/publication/ra_info/ra264/ra264.htm As this is English language Wikipedia I think it is good to have the channels for English speaking countries correct. I would fix it myself but the table is hard to edit Billlion (talk) 19:00, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

Loads of errors
I am not sure what the source was for the table of frequencies but much of it is wrong. For example (see Ofcom site above for example) channels 8-17 are simplex so tx and rx should be the same. Billlion (talk) 19:19, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

The Table
I have moved the table here for convenience. For the moment it is better to have it not in the article as it is misleading. The main point is to fix the frequencies for the simplex chanels which are spurious. The HMCG table is referred to, and this agrees with Ofcom. I need to check the ITU to see if some channels are duplex in other countries as these are UK references. Here is the table as it was.

Notes:

1: Some radios enable channels 3A, 61A, and 64A when configured for "USA mode" even though those channels are allocated exclusively for Public Safety use by the FCC. The frequencies 156.075, 156.150, and 156.225 MHz are used for interoperability communication by police and fire departments in many areas.

2: Channel 22A is reserved for communication between the U.S. Coast Guard vessels and private vessels. The Coast Guard does not monitor 22A: Contact must first be established on 16.

3: UKSAR land based search & rescue teams have access to the simplexed versions of 24, 62, 63, 64, 85 for operational & training needs. These include Mountain Rescue teams in England, Wales & Scotland.

4: CCG public operations moved from 22A to 04A to avoid interference from USCG stations in northern Washington state.

Billlion (talk) 19:30, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

Authoritative source
So I have found the ITU publication here

It is Circular Letter CM/19 To Administrations of Member States of the ITU 27 March 2009, and it details "Regulations dealing with the Table of transmitting frequencies in the VHF maritime mobile band" It has a table with the correct frequencies, it refers to (See Appendix 18 (Rev.WRC-07)) so I am not sure it is the primary source. Note in this table the simplex channels have same tx and rx frequencies. Billlion (talk) 19:41, 22 September 2013 (UTC)

license requirements?
I would like to see this article document various requirements to have the right to operate on the marine frequencies. Some countries probably require a license to operate on those frequencies. The US, i *think* do *not* require a license *if* you are on a sailboat - reading those documents may help: http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=mtBoater http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/?pageName=mtWatch --TheAnarcat (talk) 00:23, 28 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Ofcom regulations says "The use of International Maritime Mobile VHF channels by the international Radio Regulations as laid down by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in Geneva. The ITU is the branch of the United Nations responsible for the co-ordination of radio use worldwide. The Radio Regulations have treaty status for member nations of which the UK is one. The information in this sheet can be found in a fuller form in the 'Manual for use by the Maritime Mobile and Maritime Mobile-Satellite Services' available from the ITU." and

"It is an international requirement that every vessel, port or marina that uses radio be licensed. Anyone who operates radio equipment with access to international maritime frequencies must hold the relevant certificate of competence or be under the direct supervision of someone who does. Further information about certificates of competence is available from the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, at the address overleaf." Billlion (talk) 21:11, 28 October 2014 (UTC)
 * Under FCC rules, in the USA, a "ship station" license is granted by rule for any OPTIONAL radio on-board operating in the "maritime services" frequencies (152-162MHz), provided it does not enter foreign ports or communicate with "international stations". All use of that band by others (e.g., portables ashore, coastal stations, or on ships requiring VHF radios) must have individual or fleet licenses. 47 CFR §§ 80.13, 80.501. The FCC has been cracking down on unlicensed shore-based users, such as duck hunters, using the cheap and powerful marine-band walkie-talkies. The point is well worth making, if it saves someone the $10,000 fine and keeps the channels open for their intended users. Lupinelawyer (talk) 02:58, 15 November 2017 (UTC)

Channel 31 in NL
I have just come back from the Netherlands and found that marinas inland use Ch 31 but of course my UK set does not have that. In the UK it is a private channel used by the RNLI. I intend to put that in the table but I would like to check if it is used more generally in continental Europe first. Any suggested sources?Billlion (talk) 15:24, 1 September 2016 (UTC)

External links modified (January 2018)
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title: Talk:Marine VHF radio


text:
Lucky (Melissa Etheridge album)

Lucky is the eighth album by singer-songwriter Melissa Etheridge, released in 2004. The album made a debut on Billboard chart at No. 15 with almost 92,000 copies sold.

"Tuesday Morning" was dedicated to the memory of Mark Bingham and his family and friends, paying tribute to all the heroes of 9/11.

Shortly after the album's release, Etheridge was diagnosed with breast cancer and was forced to cancel all promotion to undergo chemotherapy treatments.

Track listing
All songs by Melissa Etheridge, except where noted

 * 1) "Lucky" – 3:58
 * 2) "This Moment" (Etheridge, Shanks) – 3:27
 * 3) "If You Want To" – 3:08
 * 4) "Breathe" (Armstrong, Dwiggins, Jordan, Randall, Wanninger) – 3:15
 * 5) "Mercy" (Etheridge, Taylor) – 4:20
 * 6) "Secret Agent" (Etheridge, Taylor) – 4:52
 * 7) "Will You Still Love Me" – 4:13
 * 8) "Meet Me in the Dark" – 5:34
 * 9) "Tuesday Morning" (Etheridge, Taylor) – 4:49
 * 10) "Giant" – 5:15
 * 11) "Come on Out Tonight" – 3:12
 * 12) "Kiss Me" – 3:54
 * 13) "When You Find the One" – 4:06

Personnel

 * Melissa Etheridge – acoustic guitar, piano, electric guitar, lead vocals
 * Kenny Aronoff – percussion, drums, tambourine
 * Bernie Barlow – background vocals ("Mercy")
 * Jay Bellerose – drums, programming
 * Mark Browne – bass guitar
 * Paul Bushnell – bass guitar
 * Jon Plum – keyboards, programming
 * Brandi Carlile – background vocals
 * David Channing – baritone guitar
 * David N. Cole – keyboards, programming
 * Trace Foster – guitar, keyboards
 * James Harrah – electric guitar
 * Ross Hogarth – keyboards
 * Richard (Rick) Hopkins – Hammond organ
 * Rami Jaffee – keyboards
 * Matt Laug – percussion, drums
 * Kipp Lennon – background vocals
 * Brian MacLeod – drums
 * Jamie Muhoberac – keyboards
 * Dean Parks – acoustic guitar, mandolin, electric guitar
 * Josh Freese – drums
 * Blues Saraceno – electric guitar
 * Philip Sayce – guitar
 * Eric Schermerhorn – electric guitar
 * John Shanks – acoustic guitar, electric guitar
 * Cameron Stone – cello
 * Jonathan Taylor – programming
 * Jeffrey C.J. Vanston – bass guitar, keyboards, programming
 * Patrick Warren – keyboards

Production

 * Producers: Melissa Etheridge, David N. Cole, Ross Hogarth, Rick Parashar, John Shanks
 * Engineers: David N. Cole, Marc DeSisto, Ross Hogarth, Terese Joseph, Christian Mack, Rick Parashar, Jeff Rothschild, Mark Valentine
 * Assistant engineers: Keith Armstrong, Jaime Sickora
 * Mixing: Ross Hogarth, Chris Lord-Alge, Geoff Ott, Rick Parashar
 * Digital editing: David Channing, Christian Mack
 * Tracking assistants: Sergio Chavez, Mark Kiczula, Joey Paradise, Jeremy Parker, Shawn "Fox" Phelps
 * A&R: Jeff Fenster, Tara Podolsky, Paul Pontius
 * Production coordination: Steven Girmant
 * Coordination: Shari Sutcliffe
 * Assistants: Chris Reynolds, Honchol Sin, Jason Warner
 * Creative director: Rick Patrick
 * Art direction: Sara Cumings, Jeri Heiden
 * Design: Sara Cumings, Jeri Heiden
 * Illustrations: Tavis Coburn
 * Photography: Cynthia Daniels

Charts
Singles – Billboard (North America)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Lucky (Melissa Etheridge album)


text:
User:Zzyzx

=Zzyzx Wolfe= I am as I was as I always will be.

I should put some stuff about me on here, but I just haven't had the time.

title: User:Zzyzx


text:
Global Maritime Distress and Safety System

The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is a worldwide system for automated emergency signal communication for ships at sea developed by the United Nations' International Maritime Organization (IMO) as part of the SOLAS Convention.

It is a set of safety procedures, types of equipment, and communication protocols used for safety and rescue operations of the distressed ships, boats, and aircraft. It is supplemental to the International Convention on Maritime Search and Rescue (ICMSaR) adopted in 1979 and provides basis for the communication.

GMDSS consists of several systems which are intended to perform the following functions: alerting (including position determination of the ship in distress) ships in the vicinity and ashore authorities, search and rescue coordination, locating (homing), maritime safety information broadcasts, general communications, and bridge-to-bridge communications. Specific radio carriage requirements depend upon the ship's area of operation, rather than its tonnage. The system also provides redundant means of distress alerting, and emergency sources of power.

Recreational vessels do not need to comply with GMDSS radio carriage requirements, but will increasingly use the Digital Selective Calling (DSC) Marine VHF radios. Offshore vessels may elect to equip themselves further. Vessels under 300 gross tonnage (GT) are not subject to GMDSS requirements.

History
Since the invention of radio at the end of the 19th century, ships at sea have relied on Morse code, invented by Samuel Morse and first used in 1844, for distress and safety telecommunications. The need for ship and coast radio stations to have and use radiotelegraph equipment, and to listen to a common radio frequency for Morse encoded distress calls, was recognized in the aftermath of the sinking of the liner RMS Titanic in the North Atlantic in 1912. The U.S. Congress soon enacted legislation, requiring U.S. ships to use Morse code radiotelegraph equipment for distress calls. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)—which now is a United Nations agency—followed suit for ships of all nations. Morse encoded distress calling has saved thousands of lives since its inception almost a century ago, but its use requires skilled radio operators spending many hours listening to the radio distress frequency. Its daytime range on the medium frequency (MF) distress band (500 kHz) is limited, and the amount of traffic Morse signals can carry is also limited.

Not all ship-to-shore radio communications were short-range. Some radio stations provided long-range radiotelephony services, such as radio telegrams and radio telex calls, on the HF bands (3–30 MHz) enabling worldwide communications with ships. For example, Portishead Radio, which was the world's busiest radiotelephony station, provided HF long-range services. In 1974, it had 154 radio operators who handled over 20 million words per year. Such large radiotelephony stations employed large numbers of people and were expensive to operate. By the end of the 1980s, satellite services had started to take an increasingly large share of the market for ship-to-shore communications.

For these reasons, the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a United Nations agency specializing in safety of shipping and preventing ships from polluting the seas, began looking at ways of improving maritime distress and safety communications. In 1979, a group of experts drafted the ICMSaR, which called for development of a global search and rescue plan. This group also passed a resolution calling for development by IMO of a Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) to provide the communication support needed to implement the search and rescue plan. This new system, which the world's maritime nations are implementing, is based upon a combination of satellite and terrestrial radio services, and has changed international distress communications from being primarily ship-to-ship based to ship-to-shore (Rescue Coordination Center) based. It spelled the end of Morse code communications for all but a few users, such as amateur radio operators. The GMDSS provides for automatic distress alerting and locating in cases where a radio operator does not have time to send an SOS or MAYDAY call, and, for the first time, requires ships to receive broadcasts of maritime safety information which could prevent a disaster from happening in the first place. In 1988, IMO amended the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) Convention, requiring ships subject to it to fit GMDSS equipment. Such ships were required to carry NAVTEX and satellite EPIRBs by August 1, 1993, and had to fit all other GMDSS equipment by February 1, 1999. US ships were allowed to fit GMDSS in lieu of Morse telegraphy equipment by the Telecommunications Act of 1996.

Components of GMDSS
The main types of equipment used in GMDSS are:

Emergency position-indicating radio beacon (EPIRB)
Cospas-Sarsat is an international satellite-based search and rescue system, established by Canada, France, the United States, and Russia. These four countries jointly helped develop the 406 MHz Emergency Position-Indicating Radio Beacon (EPIRB), an element of the GMDSS designed to operate with Cospas-Sarsat system. These automatic-activating EPIRBs, now required on SOLAS ships, commercial fishing vessels, and all passenger ships, are designed to transmit to alert rescue coordination centers via the satellite system from anywhere in the world. The original COSPAS/SARSAT system used polar orbiting satellites, but in recent years the system has been expanded to also include 4 geostationary satellites and 50 medium orbiting navigation satellites. Newest designs incorporate GPS receivers to transmit highly accurate positions (within about 20 metres) of the distress position. EPIRB manufacturers offer AIS (Automatic Identification System) enabled beacons. 406 MHz EPIRBs transmit an ID which is linked to a database of information about the vessel. Typically a vessel has a unique ID: MMSI. The serviceability of these items is checked monthly and annually and they have limited battery shelf life, between two and five years using mostly lithium-type batteries.

NAVTEX
Navtex is an international, automated system for instantly distributing maritime safety information (MSI) which includes navigational warnings, weather forecasts and weather warnings, search and rescue notices and similar information to ships. A small, low-cost and self-contained "smart" printing radio receiver is installed on the bridge, or the place from where the ship is navigated, and checks each incoming message to see if it has been received during an earlier transmission, or if it is of a category of no interest to the ship's master. The frequency of transmission of these messages is 518 kHz in English, while 490 kHz is sometime used to broadcast in a local language. The messages are coded with a header code identified by the using single letters of the alphabet to represent broadcasting stations, type of messages, and followed by two figures indicating the serial number of the message. For example: FA56 where F is the ID of the transmitting station, A indicates the message category navigational warning, and 56 is the consecutive message number.

Satellite
As of January 2020, there are two certified providers of GMDSS satellite services: Inmarsat, with several of their commsats in equatorial geosynchronous orbit, and Iridium Communications, with their 66-satellite constellation in low Earth orbit (LEO) that can cover higher latitudes and operate with lower communications latency. The certification of Iridium in 2020 ended a monopoly on the provision of the satellite-based portion of maritime distress services that had previously been held by Inmarsat since the system became operational in 1999.

Satellite systems operated by the Inmarsat company, overseen by the International Mobile Satellite Organization (IMSO) are important elements of the GMDSS. The types of Inmarsat ship earth station terminals recognized by the GMDSS are: Inmarsat C and F77. Inmarsat F77, an updated version of the now redundant Inmarsat A and B, provide ship-to-shore, ship-to-ship and shore-to-ship telephone, telex and high-speed data services, including a distress priority telephone and telex service to and from rescue coordination centers. Fleet 77 fully supports the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) and includes advanced features such as emergency call prioritisation. Unfortunately Fleet 77 has an end of life scheduled for 1 December 2020. No definite alternatives are currently defined. The Inmarsat C provides ship/shore, shore/ship and ship/ship store-and-forward data and email messaging, the capability for sending preformatted distress messages to a rescue coordination center, and the Inmarsat C SafetyNET service. The Inmarsat C SafetyNET service is a satellite-based worldwide maritime safety information broadcast service of high seas weather warnings, NAVAREA navigational warnings, radionavigation warnings, ice reports and warnings generated by the USCG-conducted International Ice Patrol, and other similar information not provided by NAVTEX. SafetyNET works similarly to NAVTEX in areas outside NAVTEX coverage.

Inmarsat C equipment is relatively small and lightweight, and costs much less than a F77 station. A F77 ship earth station requires a relatively large gyro-stabilized unidirectional antennas; the antenna size of the Inmarsat C is much smaller and is omnidirectional. Inmarsat C being a low power system allows for its operation from the vessels emergency 24volt battery supply under emergency conditions. This coupled to the omni directional antenna arrangements allow for a guaranteed response to a distress alert between 76 degrees North and 76 degrees South (Sea area A3).

Under a cooperative agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), combined meteorological observations and AMVER reports can now be sent to both the USCG AMVER Center, and NOAA, using an Inmarsat C ship earth station, at no charge.

SOLAS now requires that Inmarsat C equipment have an integral satellite navigation receiver, or be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver. That connection will ensure accurate location information to be sent to a rescue coordination center if a distress alert is ever transmitted.

Also, the new LRIT long-range tracking systems are upgraded via GMDSS Inmarsat C, which are also compliant, along with inbuilt SSAS, or ship security alert system. SSAS provides a means to covertly transmit a security alert distress message to local authorities in the event of a mutiny, pirate attack, or other hostile action towards the vessel or its crew.

High frequency
A GMDSS system may include high-frequency (HF) radiotelephone and radiotelex (narrow-band direct printing) equipment, with calls initiated by digital selective calling (DSC). Worldwide broadcasts of maritime safety information can also be made on HF narrow-band direct printing channels. All ships trading in Sea area A4 must carry HF DSC and NBDP equipment which can also operate from the ships reserve energy supply (typically a 24v battery supply). This HF provision is necessary as the Inmarsat coverage does not extend to the polar regions.

Search and rescue transponder (SART)
The GMDSS installation on ships include one (two on vessels over 500 GT) search-and-rescue locating device called Search and Rescue Radar Transponders (SART) which are used to locate survival craft or distressed vessels by creating a series of twelve dots on a rescuing ship's 3 cm radar display. The detection range between these devices and ships, dependent upon the height of the ship's radar mast and the height of the Search and Rescue Locating device, is normally about 15 km (8 nautical miles). Once detected by radar, the Search and Rescue Locating device will produce a visual and aural indication to the persons in distress.

Digital selective calling
The IMO also introduced digital selective calling (DSC) on MF, HF and VHF maritime radios as part of the GMDSS system. DSC is primarily intended to initiate ship-to-ship, ship-to-shore and shore-to-ship radiotelephone and MF/HF radiotelex calls. DSC calls can also be made to individual stations, groups of stations, or "all stations" in one's radio range. Each DSC-equipped ship, shore station and group is assigned a unique 9-digit Maritime Mobile Service Identity.

DSC distress alerts, which consist of a preformatted distress message, are used to initiate emergency communications with ships and rescue coordination centers. DSC was intended to eliminate the need for persons on a ship's bridge or on shore to continuously guard radio receivers on voice radio channels, including VHF channel 16 (156.8 MHz) and 2182 kHz now used for distress, safety and calling. A listening watch aboard GMDSS-equipped ships on 2182 kHz ended on February 1, 1999. In May 2002, IMO decided to postpone cessation of a VHF listening watch aboard ships. That watchkeeping requirement had been scheduled to end on February 1, 2005.

IMO and ITU both require that the DSC-equipped MF/HF and VHF radios be externally connected to a satellite navigation receiver (GPS). That connection will ensure accurate location information is sent to a rescue coordination center if a distress alert is transmitted. The FCC requires that all new VHF and MF/HF maritime radiotelephones type accepted after June 1999 have at least a basic DSC capability.

VHF digital selective calling also has other capabilities beyond those required for the GMDSS. The US Coast Guard uses this system to track vessels in Prince William Sound, Alaska, Vessel Traffic Service. IMO and the USCG also plan to require ships carry a Universal Shipborne automatic identification system, which will be DSC-compatible. Countries having a GMDSS A1 Area should be able to identify and track AIS-equipped vessels in its waters without any additional radio equipment. A DSC-equipped radio cannot be interrogated and tracked unless that option was included by the manufacturer, and unless the user configures it to allow tracking.

GMDSS telecommunications equipment should not be reserved for emergency use only. The International Maritime Organization encourages mariners to use GMDSS equipment for routine as well as safety telecommunications.

Power supply requirements
GMDSS equipment is required to be powered from three sources of supply:

 * ship's normal alternators/generators;
 * ship's emergency alternator/generator (if fitted); and
 * a dedicated radio battery supply.

The batteries are required to have a capacity to power the equipment for 1 hour on ships with an emergency generator or built prior to February 1995, and 6 hours on ships not fitted with an emergency generator or built after February 1995 in order to comply with SOLAS. The batteries must be charged by an automatic charger, which is also required to be powered from the main and emergency generators. Changeover from AC to battery supply must be automatic, and effected in such a way that any data held by the equipment is not corrupted ("no break").

During Coast Guard inspections, the batteries must be able to go from 100% discharge to fully charged in no longer than 10 hours in order to pass certification. The charger too must be obtainable at all times during vessel operation and should be inspected to make sure it functions properly. When the reserve source of energy consists of batteries, the battery capacity must be checked at intervals not exceeding 12 months. If not completed within past 12 months, this must be done during inspection.

Storage batteries provided as a reserve source of energy must be installed in accordance with applicable electrical codes and good engineering practice. They must be protected from adverse weather and physical damage. They must be readily accessible for maintenance and replacement.

GMDSS sea areas
GMDSS sea areas serve two purposes: to describe areas where GMDSS services are available, and to define what radio equipment GMDSS ships must carry (carriage requirements). Prior to the GMDSS, the number and type of radio safety equipment ships had to carry depended upon its tonnage. With GMDSS, the number and type of radio safety equipment ships have to carry depends upon the GMDSS areas in which they travel. GMDSS sea areas are classified into the following four areas: A1, A2, A3 and A4. In 2024 the definitions of A3 and A4 were updated to account for the global coverage now provided by Iridium.

 * Sea Area A1—An area within the radiotelephone coverage of at least one VHF coast station in which continuous digital selective calling (Ch.70/156.525 MHz) alerting and radiotelephony services are available. Such an area could extend typically 30 to 40 nmi from the Coast Station.
 * Sea area A2—An area within a coverage of at least one coast station continuous listening on MF (2187.5 kHz) other than Area A1
 * Sea Area A3—An area, excluding sea areas A1 and A2, within the coverage of an RMSS (Recognised Mobile Satellite System). For ships fitted with Inmarsat geostationary satellite, this area lies between about latitude 76 Degrees North and South, but excludes A1 and/or A2 designated areas. Inmarsat guarantees their system will work between 70 South and 70 North though it will often work to 76 degrees South or North. For vessel fitted with Iridium A3 also includes the polar regions
 * Sea Area A4—An area outside Sea Areas A1, A2 and A3 is called Sea Area A4. For ships fitted with Inmarst as their RMSS this is essentially the polar regions, north and south of about 76 degrees of latitude, excluding any A1, A2 and A3 areas. For ships that carry Iridium as their RMSS, there is no Area A4.

In addition to equipment listed, all GMDSS-regulated ships must carry a satellite EPIRB, a NAVTEX receiver (if they travel in any areas served by NAVTEX), an Inmarsat-C SafetyNET receiver (if they travel in any areas not served by NAVTEX), a DSC-equipped VHF radiotelephone, two (if between 300 and less than 500 GRT) or three VHF handhelds (if 500 GRT or more), and two 9 GHz search and rescue radar transponders (SART).

GMDSS radio equipment required for U.S. coastal voyages
Presently, until an A1 or A2 Sea Area is established, GMDSS-mandated ships operating off the U.S. coast must fit to Sea Areas A3 (or A4) regardless of where they operate. U.S. ships whose voyage allows them to always remain within VHF channel 16 coverage of U.S. Coast Guard stations may apply to the Federal Communications Commission for an individual waiver to fit to Sea Area A1 requirements. Similarly, those who remain within 2182 kHz coverage of U.S. Coast Guard stations may apply for a waiver to fit to Sea Area A2 requirements.

As of August 2013, the U.S. Coast Guard provides a Sea Area A1 service through its Rescue 21 system.

Licensing of operators (USA)
National maritime authorities may issue various classes of licenses. The General Operator’s Certificate is required on SOLAS vessels operating also outside GMDSS Sea Area A1, while a Restricted Operator’s Certificate is needed on SOLAS vessels operated solely within GMDSS Sea Area A1,

Long Range Certificate may be issued, and is required on non-SOLAS vessels operating outside GMDSS Sea Area A1, while a Short Range Certificate is issued for non-SOLAS vessels operating only inside GMDSS Sea Area A1.

Finally there is a restricted radiotelephone operator's certificate, which is similar to the Short Range Certificate but limited VHF DSC radio operation. Some countries do not consider this adequate for GMDSS qualification.

In the United States four different GMDSS certificates are issued:

 * A GMDSS Radio Maintainer's License allows a person to maintain, install, and repair GMDSS equipment at sea.
 * A GMDSS Radio Operator's License is necessary for a person to use required GMDSS equipment.
 * The holder of both certificates can be issued one GMDSS Radio Operator/Maintainer License.
 * Finally, the GMDSS Restricted License is available for VHF operations only within 20 nmi of the coast.

To obtain any of these licenses a person must be a U.S. citizen or otherwise eligible for work in the country, be able to communicate in English, and take written examinations approved by the Federal Communications Commission. Like the amateur radio examinations, these are given by private, FCC-approved groups. These are generally not the same agencies who administer the ham tests. Written test elements 1 and 7 are required for the Operator license, and elements 1 and 7R for the Restricted Operator. (Passing element 1 also automatically qualifies the applicant for the Marine Radiotelephone Operator Permit, the MROP.)

For the Maintainer license, written exam element 9 must be passed. However, to obtain this certificate an applicant must also hold a General radiotelephone operator license (GROL), which requires passing commercial written exam elements 1 and 3 (and thus supersedes the MROP). Upon the further passing of optional written exam element 8 the ship radar endorsement will be added to both the GROL and Maintainer licenses. This allows the holder to adjust, maintain, and repair shipboard radar equipment.

Until March 25, 2008 GMDSS operator and maintainer licenses expired after five years but could be renewed upon payment of a fee. On that date all new certificates were issued valid for the lifetimes of their holders. For those still valid but previously issued with expiration dates, the FCC states:

Any GMDSS Radio Operator's License, Restricted GMDSS Radio Operator's License, GMDSS Radio Maintainer's License, GMDSS Radio Operator/Maintainer License, or Marine Radio Operator Permit that was active, i.e., had not expired, as of March 25, 2008, does not have to be renewed.

Since an older certificate does show an expiration date, for crewmembers sailing internationally it may be worth paying the fee (as of 2010 it was $60) to avoid any confusion with local authorities.

Finally, to actually serve as a GMDSS operator on most commercial vessels the United States Coast Guard requires additional classroom training and practical experience beyond just holding a license.

Licensing of operators (UK and Europe)
In the United Kingdom and Europe four different GMDSS certificates of Competence are issued:

 * Short Range Certificate (SRC)
 * Long Range Certificate (LRC)
 * Restricted Operator Certificate (ROC)
 * General Operator Certificate (GOC)

Each certificate is issued on the successful completion of a course and exam and each Certificate is recognised internationally.

Which Certificate of Competence a seafarer requires will depend on two factors. Firstly officers on board SOLAS vessels (GMDSS compulsory fit vessels) require the ROC or GOC. Operators onboard non SOLAS vessels (which includes leisure craft) may take the shorter Short Range Certificate or Long Range Certificate Courses.

The second deciding factor is the intended operating area of the vessel. Craft operating exclusively in Sea Area A1 can use the SRC or ROC certificates, where as vessels venturing further offshore into Sea Areas A2, A3 and/or A4 require the LRC or GOC.


text:
User:Artjt

This is my page.

title: User:Artjt


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Digital selective calling

Digital selective calling (DSC) is a standard for transmitting predefined digital messages via the medium-frequency (MF), high-frequency (HF) and very-high-frequency (VHF) maritime radio systems. It is a core part of the Global Maritime Distress Safety System (GMDSS).

Workings
DSC was developed to replace a voice call in older procedures. Because a DSC signal uses a stable signal with a narrow bandwidth and the receiver has no squelch, it has a slightly longer range than analog signals, with up to twenty-five percent longer range and significantly faster. DSC senders are programmed with the ship's Maritime Mobile Service Identity (MMSI) and may be connected to the ship's Global Positioning System (GPS), which allows the apparatus to know who it is, what time it is and where it is. This allows a distress signal to be sent very quickly.

Often, ships use separate VHF DSC and MF/HF DSC controllers. For VHF, DSC has its own dedicated receiver for monitoring Channel 70, but uses the main VHF transceiver for transmission. However, for the user, the controller is often a single unit. MF/HF DSC devices monitor multiple bands for distress, urgency and safety sécurité transmissions in the 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 16 MHz marine bands. At minimum, controllers will monitor 2187.5 kHz and 8414.5 kHz and one more band. However for automated monitoring a second, receive-only antenna is often needed (especially on non-commercial leisure boats) since a separate tuner is used apart from the main one; this is separate from programming radios to monitor user-defined DSC frequencies (which would use the main antenna).

Distress
When sending a distress signal, the DSC device will at minimum include the ship's MMSI number. It may also include the coordinates if radio is connected to GPS system and, if necessary, the channel for the following radiotelephony or radiotelex messages. The distress can be sent either as a single-frequency or multi-frequency attempt. In the former, a distress signal is sent on one band and the system will wait up to four minutes for a DSC acknowledgment from a coast station. If none is received, it will repeat the distress alert up to five times. In a multi-frequency attempt, the distress signal is sent on the MF and all the HF distress frequencies in turn. As this requires retuning the antenna for each sending, without waiting for an acknowledgment, a multi-frequency attempt should only be done if there are only a few minutes until the ship's batteries are under water. As the distress message can only be sent on one of the bands, many ships and coast stations may be listening to a band without the message, and will after five minutes relay the distress signal to a coast station.

Distress calls can be both non designated and designated. The latter allows one of ten predefined designations to be sent along with the distress signal. These are "abandoning ship", "fire or explosion", "flooding", "collision", "grounding", "listing", "sinking", "disabled and adrift", "piracy or attack" and "man overboard". To avoid false distress alerts, distress buttons normally have protective covers, often with a spring-loaded cover so two hands need to be used simultaneously. Alternatively, some devices have two-button systems. Operators are required to cancel falsely sent distress alerts with a transmission on the channel designated by the distress signal.

A coast station which receives a DSC distress alert will wait 2.75 minutes prior to sending an acknowledgment to allow other vessels in the nearby area to receive the alert. This helps shore stations narrow down where a vessel without GPS is located. The sending device will then both stop repeating the alert, and tune to the designated channel for the distress message to be sent. Ships receiving a distress alert who are outside coast station range or do not receive an acknowledgment, are required to relay the distress alert by any means to land.

Other priorities
The priorities for communication are, Distress, Urgency, Safety and Routine. A Distress DSC call is called an Alert. Urgency, Safety and Routine are called Announcements.

Class A VHFs, used on commercial ships, have the ability to send distress, distress relay, all ships urgency, all ships safety, individual, group, geographic area and telephone alerts/announcements on DSC channel 70 (Digital channel reserved for DSC only.). Class D VHFs, used for most leisure vessels, can send distress, all ships urgency, all ships safety and individual alerts/announcements on VHF channels on DSC channel 70. On both class A and D you can be directed to Ch 06, 08, 72, 77 or other simplex channel for the follow-up RT (radio telephony [voice]) call. Class D has only one antenna and thus can only watch Channel 70 when not transmitting. For routine alerts, which are used to establish communication with another station on a working channel, the receiver acknowledges to confirm that communication can be done on the appropriate channel.

While there are reserved frequencies for distress HF DSC calls, there is no prohibition against broadcasting non-distress, "routine" calls on other DSC-designated frequencies, which are defined in ITU M.541 as:
 * 2177, 2189.5 kHz
 * 4208, 4208.5, 4209 kHz
 * 6312.5, 6313, 6313.5 kHz
 * 8415, 8415.5, 8416 kHz
 * 12577.5, 12578, 12578.5 kHz
 * 16805, 16805.5, 16806 kHz
 * 18898.5, 18899, 18899.5 kHz
 * 22374.5, 22375, 22375.5 kHz
 * 25208.5, 25209, 25209.5 kHz

There is a general consensus for routine calls to use 2177.0, 4208.0, 6312.5, 8415.0, 12577.5, and 16805.0 kHz (the first frequency listed above in each band).

Technical details
The DSC is a synchronous system using characters composed from a ten-bit error detecting code. The bits are encoded using frequency-shift keying. For High Frequency and Medium Frequency two tones 170 Hz apart either side of the allocated frequency with 100 Baud symbol rate are used. For VHF the two tones used are 1300 and 2100 Hz with a symbol rate of 1200 Baud. Each character is transmitted twice with a time delay. The detailed specification is published in the International Telecommunication Union recommendation ITU-R M.493, revision 15 published in 2019 being the most recent.

title: Digital selective calling


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Henry Bolte

Sir Henry Edward Bolte GCMG (20 May 1908 – 4 January 1990) was an Australian politician who served as the 38th premier of Victoria from 1955 to 1972. He held office as the leader of the Victorian division of the Liberal Party of Australia (LPA) and was a member of the Victorian Legislative Assembly (MLA) for the division of Hampden from 1947 to 1972. He is the longest-serving premier in Victorian state history, having been in office for over 17 consecutive years.

Early years
Bolte was born on 20 May 1908 in Ballarat East, Victoria. He was the son of Anna Jane (née Martin) and James Henry Bolte. His father, a miner, was the son of German immigrants and his mother was also half-German.

Shortly after his birth, Bolte's parents moved the family to Skipton in the Western District where they ran a local pub, the Ripon Hotel. His mother's stepfather William Warren was also a hotel proprietor, running the Skipton Hotel until 1921 when he sold it to the Boltes. During World War I the family faced anti-German sentiment.

Bolte began his education at Skipton State School. He entered Ballarat Grammar School as a boarder in 1922 on a technical scholarship, attending alongside his future parliamentary colleagues Tom Hollway and Edward Montgomery. He left school in 1924 and returned to Skipton, where he had land dealings and ran a haberdashery shop established by his father. He was also active in community organisations, playing cricket and football for local teams, qualifying as a swimming instructor and serving as secretary of the local racing club. His store failed in 1929 and during the Great Depression he worked as a shearer to support himself.

In 1934, with money from his grandmother, Bolte purchased Kialla, a sheep farming property of 900 acre at Bamganie near Meredith. In his early years on the land he faced rabbit plague and supplemented his income by trapping and hunting rabbits. In August 1940, Bolte enlisted in the Militia as a gunner. He was stationed at Puckapunyal for periods as an artillery instructor and pay clerk, but was rejected for overseas service and discharged in January 1943.

Parliamentary career
Bolte was founding president of the Liberal Party's Meredith branch in 1945 and was a delegate to its inaugural state council. He first stood for parliament at the 1945 state election, running unsuccessfully in the seat of Hampden, but reprised his candidacy in 1947 and defeated the incumbent Australian Labor Party (ALP) member Raymond Hyatt.

Victorian politics was volatile at this time, with a succession of weak short-term governments. The electoral system was malapportioned in favour of rural areas, which gave the Liberals' junior partner, the Country Party disproportionate power. As a rural Liberal, Bolte despised the Country Party nearly as much as the Labor Party. In April 1935, Country Party leader and Deputy Premier Albert Dunstan unexpectedly withdrew support for the Premier, Stanley Argyle, breaking the coalition agreement and forming a minority Country government, which Labor supported in return for some policy concessions.

When Bolte was elected to Parliament in 1947 the Liberal leader was Thomas Hollway, who also came from Ballarat but was somewhat less conservative than Bolte. In 1951 Hollway tried to reform the electoral system, which caused a split in the Liberal Party and his replacement by Les Norman, with Bolte as Deputy Leader. Norman would lose his seat to Hollway in 1952, and be replaced as leader by Trevor Oldham. When Oldham was killed on BOAC Flight 783 in May 1953, Bolte succeeded him.

The Labor Party under John Cain Sr. had come to power at the 1952 elections, but in 1955 the party suffered a split over the issue of communist influence in the trade unions. With Cain's government reeling, Bolte tabled a no-confidence motion on 19 April. The anti-communist Catholic MPs, who had organised as the Australian Labor Party (Anti-Communist), crossed the floor to support the no-confidence motion, bringing Cain down.

Due in large part to Labor (A-C) directing its second preferences to the Liberals, Bolte won the ensuing election with a huge majority, routing both Labor and the Country Party. There was little hint at the time that he would reverse the pattern of unstable government in Victoria; he headed the state's 11th government in 12 years. However, he was able to form the first stable non-Labor government in Victoria for many years.

Bolte was a rough-hewn politician who liked to be seen as a simple farmer, but he had a shrewd political mind. With the help of the expelled faction of the Labor Party, which became the Democratic Labor Party, Bolte was able to consolidate his position. Due in part to the DLP continuing to direct its preferences to the Liberals at elections, Bolte was reelected six times. His populist attacks on the trade unions, intellectuals, protesters and the press won him a large following. It peaked at the 1967 election, which saw the opposition reduced to just 28 seats (16 Labor and 12 Country) in total.

Infrastructure building
Bolte used state debt to provide a wide range of state infrastructure and he was very successful at winning overseas investment for the state. Some of the large projects undertaken during his time in government were increased coal production and power generation in the Latrobe Valley, new offshore oil and gas fields in Gippsland, the West Gate Bridge over the lower Yarra River, a new international airport for Melbourne at Tullamarine and two new universities (Monash University and La Trobe University). Bolte was easily re-elected at the 1958, 1961 and 1964 state elections.

Capital punishment controversy
Bolte was a proponent of using capital punishment as a deterrent against violent crime. Many believed he was foiled when Robert Peter Tait who had murdered Ada Hall, an elderly widow, at the Hawthorn vicarage where she lived with her son, and who subsequently had been sentenced to hang for the crime, was granted an eleventh-hour reprieve in 1962 after the High Court had found him insane.

Justice Starke subscribed to the substitute Tait theory, Starke had defended Tait but later on was the sentencing judge in the R v Ryan & Walker 1966. Starke said "After Bolte was denied with Tait he simply waited for the next cab off the ranks, and poor Ryan happened to be the next cab!"

In 1965, two prisoners, Ronald Ryan and Peter Walker, had escaped from Melbourne's Pentridge Prison, allegedly killing a prison guard in the process. They were recaptured, and Ryan was sentenced to death for murder. Bolte had the power to recommend clemency, but declined to exercise it, arguing that the death penalty was a necessary deterrent for crime against government officials and law enforcement officers.

All calls for clemency, petitions and protests were to no avail. Bolte was determined that the law be upheld. Ryan was hanged in February 1967. Bolte had said "If I thought the law was wrong I would change it".

A reporter at his daily press conference on the day of the hanging asked what he was doing at the time it took place. Bolte, replied: "One of the three Ss, I suppose." The reporter asked him what he meant. Bolte responded: "A shit, a shave or a shower." Peter Blazey later wrote 'For a man practically devoid of political or social idealism, the hanging had proved a way of tightening his control over cabinet, the party and the press.' Blazey also adds, however, that the Ryan hanging meant Bolte 'had become brutalized politically, even if he didn't know it...' Bolte's insistence on having Ryan hanged earned him the opposition of the Melbourne press, particularly The Age, the churches, the universities and most of the legal profession. It also alienated sections of the Liberal Party and some members of his own Cabinet, including his eventual successor, Dick Hamer. But Bolte had correctly interpreted the populist appeal of his putative law-and-order stand, and at the 1967 elections the Liberals went from 38 of 66 seats in 1964 to 44 of 73 in 1967.

Later career
After 1968, when Bolte turned 60, his appeal to younger urban voters declined, and he showed little sympathy with new issues such as the environment and civil liberties. His standing was also reduced by a crisis in the state education system, with teacher shortages and overcrowded schools as the children of the baby boom passed through the education system. The government recruited large numbers of American schoolteachers to deal with the shortage. At the same time the Labor Party began to revive under a new leader, Clyde Holding.

At the 1970 state elections the Liberals seemed in serious danger of losing office, or at least being forced into a coalition with the Country Party, but Bolte was saved by Holding's left-wing enemies in the Labor Party, who sabotaged his campaign by publicly opposing government funding for non-government schools (which Holding and Gough Whitlam had made Labor policy). Nevertheless, the Liberals lost six seats.

Bolte was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George (GCMG) in the 1972 New Year Honours. Bolte on various occasions asked the prime minister, William McMahon, to approach the British authorities to have Bolte made a life peer of the UK Parliament. McMahon needed Bolte's political support, so he wrote to 10 Downing Street with a proposal, but it was declined.

As 1972 dawned, the Liberals lost further ground among younger voters in Melbourne. Bolte was shrewd enough to see that the Liberals had a year at most to broaden their appeal before a statutory general election, and concluded that they needed a new leader and a new image for the 1970s. In August 1972, he resigned, apparently with no regrets. He arranged for Deputy Premier Dick Hamer, a somewhat more progressive Melbourne-based Liberal, to succeed him. Despite misgivings from the more conservative wing of the party, Hamer was elected as Liberal leader and premier. This proved a sound judgement, since Hamer went on to win three more elections for the Liberals.

Retirement and death
After his resignation and retirement from Parliament, Bolte retired to his farm, 'Kialla', at Bamganie, near Meredith. When the Liberals lost government in Victoria to John Cain, Jr. Liberals in the Opposition would visit Bolte at his farm, "whisky bottle in hand, seeking consolation and advice." Bolte was deeply affected by the sudden death of his wife, Dame Edith, in 1986.

On 24 March 1984, Bolte was involved in a serious head-on accident when he was driving home after an evening in the local hotel near his property at Bamganie. Bolte and the occupants of the other car were taken to the Ballarat Base Hospital, where blood samples were taken to test for alcohol levels. Whilst there was no evidence of alcohol in the blood of the other driver involved, there were indications of an alcohol content in excess of 0.05%, the legal limit in Victoria, in Bolte's blood. Further samples were subsequently collected from the hospital by the police, but these were found to have been substituted, and the sample box containing them had been unlocked by an unknown person. An enquiry found that it would have been unfair to proceed with prosecution because of interference with the evidence. Bolte later told author Tom Prior "Of course I know nothing, I was unconscious".

Bolte died at his home on 4 January 1990.

Honours and memorials
Bolte was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (KCMG) in the New Year's Day honours list of 1966. In the 1972 New Year Honours he was advanced to the rank of Knight Grand Cross (GCMG). Despite "his intense lobbying", Bolte failed to secure a peerage.

His wife, Lady Edith Lilian Bolte, known as Jill Bolte, was appointed a Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1973 New Year Honours for "outstanding public service to Victoria".

A portrait of Bolte by William Dargie hangs in Queens Hall at Parliament House Victoria.

Bridge
The Bolte Bridge that spans Melbourne's Docklands is named after him.

title: Henry Bolte


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Kendell Airlines

Kendell Airlines was a regional airline of Australia, in the 1990s the largest in the country. It served major regional centres in New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania from Melbourne, Adelaide, and Sydney. Many of its services were in co-operation with its parent company Ansett Australia from the 1990s.

History
The airline was founded in 1967 as Premiair Aviation by aviation enthusiast Don Kendell and partners, originally serving as an air charter provider and flying school, based in Wagga Wagga. In 1971, the name of the company was changed to Kendell Airlines, which coincided with the launch of scheduled services using Piper PA-31 Navajo aircraft between Wagga Wagga and Melbourne, a route which had previously been operated by Ansett Airlines (later called Ansett Australia). Shortly afterwards, the route network was expanded with flights to Sydney and Canberra.

Flight operations saw a further increase when de Havilland DH.114 Heron and Swearingen Metro II aircraft were added to the fleet, the former in 1974 & the latter in May 1979 following the Second Oil Crisis. The De Havilland DH.114 Heron aircraft were introduced on additional new routes including to Merimbula and Cooma in New South Wales. On 25 February 1985 the airline introduced the 34-seat Saab 340, a more modern regional airliner; Kendell was the first airline in the southern hemisphere to operate the Saab 340, with further aircraft of that type being added over the following years. The route network was nearly doubled in early 1986 when the South Australian routes of Airlines of South Australia (which was owned by Ansett) were taken over as a consequence of the deregulation of the Australian airline market. During the 1990s, Kendell established further operating bases to add to its original one at Wagga Wagga Airport, namely at Devonport Airport, Albury Airport and Sydney Airport, which was due to the airline becoming a subsidiary of Ansett.

From March 1996, Kendell Airlines offered the Capital Shuttle – a high-frequency (up to 13 daily return flights) service between Sydney and Canberra – on behalf of Ansett, which was followed by scheduled flights to Coffs Harbour and Ballina, which also had previously been operated by Ansett. The Saab 340s that were acquired by Kendell Airlines during that period were painted in Ansett colors. In 1999, Kendell became a regional affiliate of the Star Alliance, of which Ansett Australia had become a member.

Between 1999 and 2001, Kendell Airlines took delivery of 18 Bombardier CRJ200 regional jets, the first jet aircraft to be operated by the airline. On 14 September 2001, shortly after the last CRJ had joined the fleet, Ansett Australia collapsed, also grounding the fleet of Kendell Airlines. Kendell Airlines was placed into administration, but continued to operate a limited schedule, and also filled a temporary void left by Ansett Australia by flying on the Sydney–Canberra–Melbourne and Melbourne–Mount Gambier–Adelaide routes. In 2002, Kendell, and fellow Ansett subsidiary, Hazelton Airlines, were sold to a consortium known as Australiawide Airlines, from which Regional Express Airlines (known as Rex) was formed. Most of the turboprop aircraft operated by Kendell Airlines at that time were taken over by Rex.

Awards

 * 1990: Best National Airline, by the Civil Aviation Safety Authority, surpassing Qantas.
 * 1992: Regional Airlines of the Year, by Air Transport World magazine.

Fleet
Over the years, Kendell Airlines operated the following aircraft types:

Accidents and incidents

 * On 1 July 1992, a Kendell Airlines, SAAB 340A, VH-EKT, on a scheduled passenger service from Melbourne, Victoria to Devonport, Tasmania with 17 passengers and 3 crew lost directional control on landing. The aircraft departed the runway and ran through a ditch in soft muddy ground. Substantial damage was sustained to the aircraft but there were no injuries to passengers or crew. The cause, a severe asymmetric thrust condition developed after landing when reverse thrust was selected but the right propeller remained at a positive blade angle. This was due to the right propeller control unit being defective from an internal oil leakage across the feathering solenoid valve. The aircraft was repaired and returned to service. It still flies today.
 * On 11 November 1998, a Kendell Airlines SAAB 340A, VH-LPI went into a stall with the two pilots losing control for around 10 seconds, due to icing of the aircraft that was experienced near Lake Eildon on a scheduled flight from Albury to Melbourne. The solitary flight attendant received a minor injury when the aircraft descended 2,300 feet (approximately 700 metres) during the loss of control and subsequent recovery. None of the 28 passengers were injured and the flight continued to Melbourne Airport.

title: Kendell Airlines


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Dutch cheese markets

Dutch cheese farmers traditionally take their cheeses to the town's market square to sell them. Teams (vemen) of official guild cheese-porters (kaasdragers), identified by differently coloured straw hats associated with their forwarding company, carried the farmers' cheese on barrows that weighed about 160 kilograms. Buyers sampled the cheeses and negotiated prices using a ritual system, called handjeklap, whereby buyers and sellers clapped each other's hands and shouted out prices. Once a price was agreed, porters carried the cheese to the weigh house (Waag) and weighed the cheese on a company scale.

There are currently five cheese markets operating in the Netherlands – Woerden, Alkmaar, Gouda, Edam, and Hoorn. Each of these was once a merchant cheese market in operation during the Dutch Golden Age of the 17th century. Today, the markets still function as farmers' markets for cheeses in addition to hosting dramatic re-enactments of sales techniques from the Golden Age. In the summer months, shows are surrounded by stalls selling traditional items steeped in Dutch culture.

Woerden
This commercial cheese market features farmers' cheeses with little of the spectacle or pageantry displayed by the other markets. For more than 100 years, every Wednesday morning, starting at around 9:00 am, there is a trading session between the cheese farmers and the marktmeester (market foreman), during which prices are set for the various types of cheeses. The cheeses for sale are boerenkazen (farmers' cheeses); this type of cheese is considered by cheese aficionados to be more authentic and to taste better than factory-made cheese.

Annual Historic Cheese Market Woerden
Every August, on the last Wednesday of the (central-Netherlands) school summer break, a historic cheese market is held. On this day the cheese farmers and their families re-enact the traditional cheese markets by dressing up in the attire worn by farmers in the distant past.

Alkmaar
This large 400-year-old cheese market located on the Waagplein ("weighing square") is open every Friday between 10:00 am and 1:00 pm, starting on the first Friday in April and ending on the last Friday of September. In 2017, evening cheese markets took place on 2 May, 23 May, 6 June, 4 July, 18 July, 1 August, August 15, and 29 August, from 7:00 to 9:00 pm. From opening ceremonies to final load, market activities are explained in Dutch, German, English, and Spanish or French, and sometimes Japanese.

The Alkmaar Cheese Guild
The Alkmaar Cheese Guild (Kaasdragersgilde) was established on June 17, 1593, and is composed of 30 men who accompany their leader, the Cheese Father. The guild meets in the weighing square, and its members are divided into four groups called Forwarding Companies. The Forwarding Companies are distinguished by the colour of their straw hats: red, blue, green, or yellow. Each Forwarding Company has six carriers, who fulfill any number of tasks within the market, and one Tasman, who is responsible for placing the weights onto the cheese scales. The roles that carriers can fulfill are: Zetter (the first guildsman to show up at the market and is responsible for taking the cheese from storage to the market in the morning; he must wear black pants with a blue shirt), Ingooier (takes the cheese from the market to storage at the end of the day; he must wear black pants with a light fawn shirt), Temporary worker (not considered to be a member of the guild and must train for at least two years before being allowed to join), Bootelier (responsible for getting drinks for his company after the market is over), and the Voorman (head of the Forwarding Company, and often the oldest member of the company. Every two years each Forwarding Company elects a Voorman, who then wears a silver sign with a ribbon and a bow tie in his company's color). Finally, the Cheese Father is the head of the entire guild; he wears a white suit with an orange hat to match his orange cane, and all members of the Forwarding Companies refer to him as "Dad".

Traditions
The men of the cheese guilds adhere to strict behavior and dress codes. Those who fail to adhere to the guild face repercussions. The provost marshal collects fees from men who show up late or men whose uniforms are not "white as snow", and the money collected from these fines is used to sponsor a local school. The carriers are expected to be at the weighing house at 7:00 am the morning of the market to set it up and have it ready to open by 10:00 am. Every Friday, right before the market opens, the Cheese Father gives a speech to the Forwarding Companies. In his speech, he takes a roll call to ensure that all the companies are there, informs them if any important guests will be attending, and tells them the amount of cheese, in metric tons, at the market that day. At exactly 10:00 am, the town bell is rung to signify the opening of the cheese market. Special guests are invited each week to ring the bell; it is considered a great honor. The market has opened in this manner every Friday since 1593. The only time that the cheese market did not take place was during World War II when it was temporarily put on hold for safety concerns. However, directly following the war, the market opened again. Cheese was very scarce during the war, so people were thrilled to see the markets return.

Once the market opens, samplers, in white lab coats, use a special scoop to inspect the insides of the cheese wheels. The sampler inspects the feel, smell, and taste of the cheese. He also does a visual analysis of the cheese to make sure it has holes, also known as "eyes", that are evenly spread throughout the wheel. Once a batch is sold, it is carried to the scales to be weighed. The cheese is transported on a wooden barrow that is carried between two men. The barrows can have up to 130 kilos (287 pounds) of cheese on them at a time. In order to carry the barrows keeping them as steady as possible for the safety of the cheese, the carriers walk in a synchronized rhythm known as the "cheese carriers’ dripple". Once the cheese reaches the scales, the Tasman weighs it in front of the Weighing Master or "Waagmeester", thus ensuring that the buyer receives the correct amount of cheese that they bought. The Weighing Master is a public servant who is not a member of the cheese guild. The guildsmen follow the motto "Een valse Waghe is de Heere een gruwel", which translates from Dutch as "a false balance is an abhorrence in the eyes of the Lord". The market ends promptly at 1:00 pm and all the unsold cheese is carried back to the hauler's lorry for storage.

Edam
At the Edam cheese market, which unsurprisingly features Edam cheese, horse-drawn carriages and boats bring farmers' cheeses to the Jan van Nieuwenhuizen Square to be presented at the current weigh house, built in 1778. This traditional-style cheese market opens in July and in August on Wednesday mornings from 10:30 am until 12:30 pm.

Gouda
Gouda cheese has been traded on the Goudse kaasmarkt for over three centuries. Nowadays, it is open from mid-June until August, every Thursday morning between 10:00 am and 12:30 pm. Farmers from the region gather to have their cheese weighed, tasted and priced. The Gouda cheese market is surrounded by many exhibitions of authentic Dutch professions, from cheese production to clog making and buttermilk preparation.

Hoorn
Opened in 2007 on the Roode Steen square, this cheese market takes place between June 28 and September 20 on Thursdays between 12:30 pm and 1:45 pm, and again between 9:00 pm and 10:15 pm. There are live commentaries regarding the process of carrying in the cheese, weighing the cheese, and negotiating in both Dutch and English.

title: Dutch cheese markets


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Leader of the Opposition (Ireland)

The Leader of the Opposition (Ceannaire an Fhreasúra) in Ireland is a de facto term sometimes used to describe the politician who leads the largest party in the Parliamentary Opposition in the lower house of the Irish Parliament, Dáil Éireann. In the Dáil, the Leader of the Opposition sits on the right-hand side of the Ceann Comhairle and directly opposite the Taoiseach. The role is not an official one and is not recognised in the Irish constitution, nor in legislation.

The Leader of the Opposition is, by convention, the leader of the largest political party in the Dáil that is not in government. Opposition leaders leading a political party with five members or more have full speaking rights under Dáil standing orders; smaller parties and independent politicians are allowed to speak less often.

Historically the two largest parties have nearly always been Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael, and so the position of Leader of the Opposition has alternated between them. However, immediately following Irish secession from the UK in 1922, the leader of the Labour Party acted as Leader of the Opposition as Sinn Féin, and later Fianna Fáil, refused to take their seats in Dáil Éireann. After the 2011 general election Fine Gael became the largest party in Dáil Éireann and the Labour Party for the first time became the second largest. However, since Labour and Fine Gael entered a coalition government, the third largest party, Fianna Fáil, led the opposition in the 31st Dáil.

To date there have been 18 Opposition Leaders, 10 of whom have served terms as Taoiseach. The current Leader of the Opposition is Mary Lou McDonald of the Sinn Féin party, following the opening of the 33rd Dáil on 27 June 2020. She is the first female Irish Opposition Leader and the first to come from a party other than Fianna Fáil or Fine Gael since the Labour Party's Thomas Johnson in 1927.

Leaders of the Opposition

 * Leaders who later became Taoiseach are indicated in bold.

Leaders of the second largest party in opposition

 * Leaders who later became Tánaiste are indicated in italics.

title: Leader of the Opposition (Ireland)


text:
Museveni (surname)

Yoweri Museveni (born 1944), ninth president of Uganda since 1986

Museveni may also refer to:
 * Janet Museveni (born 1948), Ugandan politician
 * Muhoozi Kainerugaba Museveni (born 1974), Ugandan general

title: Museveni (surname)


text:
Talk:Illegitimacy

Opus Dei, grammar issues and Jesus
I deleted the statements about Opus Dei not allowing individuals who are born "Illegitimately" to become members. I found nothing in the 1982 Statutes of Opus Dei that indicate that this is anything more than misguided rumor (and that is being charitable).

Since there are usages of bastard other than those with connotations of Illegitimacy, and bastard redirects to Illegitimacy, I have added one of those those usages here, but hope that someone else can think through what might need to be renamed, disambiguated, etc. Stan 12:58, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

i have a problem with this page: it is the destination of bastard but bastard is also a term used in biology to describe the progeny of 2 different species. this definition is nowhere written and you are directly forwarded to this site about Illegitimacy, that has nothing to do with the biological term bastard. Damir Perisa 14:08, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

OK I am having grammar/syntax issues with the following paragraph:

Due to the common use of the word as a mildly profane generic insult for a man, many students are surprised to find that the use of the word to refer to a child of unmarried parents, for example Shakespeare's John the Bastard, is seen as appropriate by their teachers.

I had to read it several times to figure out what it meant. Needs rewrite but I'm still not quire sure what it SHOULD say, anyone willing to chip in? The problem is with the part that begins "for example..." Anyone? Some User Without An Account 25 Mar 2005

 * Worked on it a bit. What do you think? Tim Rhymeless (Er...let's shimmy)  04:32, 27 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I am going to create a separate page for Bastardy that covers the law in England and Wales, which seems to be more naturally separate.

I took out the section that called Jesus a famous bastard, because He was not a bastard. If anyone opposes to my decision please let me know. -Tyler

In the united states one doesn't
I live in the united states and I've never heard anyone think it offensive to say "illegitamate child". Also, Born out of wedlock is often supplanted with the even more negative "love child."

 * Oh, I certainly have heard people find "illegitimate child" offensive, and I don't particularly like the term myself. There are those who say "there are no illegitimate children, only illegitimate parents" ... and I don't even entirely like that expression either.  The PC term for "illegitimate children" is "nonmarital children" (sometimes with a hyphen: "non-marital"), which is descriptive without being offensive.

Also, I don't see american morals as holding children innocent of their family status. I'm sure I could find plenty of examples of ordinary, not fanatical people accusing someone of coming from a single parent family. And how often do we hear about statistics of how children born outside married families are suicidal and criminals?
 * I deleted the part about 'Illigitimate children' because the article was innapropriate and in the 21st century, one does not refer to a child as illigitimate.
 * Yeah...."does not".We don't find the term "illegitamate child" offensive here in the U.K. either.Just the word "bastard" is considered offensive.And a couple of small minded people only think it can refer to males...interesting.
 * I disagree, I have heard many people in the Northeast US use the term illegitimate with a negative connotation. I do :-) think the term itself is offensive -- it isjust a statement of fact and proper word usage.

Ifenwick 22:33, 19 March 2007 (UTC)== Was Jesus a bastard? ==

Or was Joseph, "God in disguise"? Because if Jesus was a bastard shouldn't we mention that the Christian condemnation of illegitimacy is in itself illegitimate?--Greasysteve13 06:37, 21 May 2006 (UTC)

I'm just wondering if anyone could show me the source of the comment about Opus Dei. I just haven't seen it mentioned anywhere else and I'm curious about it. 23 May 2006 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.70.43.254 (talk • contribs)

 * Hah?...Funnily enough, I don't read the bible that much... —Preceding unsigned comment added by Centurion Ry (talk • contribs)
 * Thank for your help.--Greasysteve13 06:10, 17 July 2006 (UTC)

Do you even understand the condemnation of illegitimacy? Do you know why? You do not sound as if you do.

No, that's totally true (in reference to the editor who edited out the definition that "Jesus was a bastard") that Jesus wasn't a bastard. How could He be? He had (has) a father - God, and on earth legal parents - Joseph and Mary, and I don't know if anyone, at the time of Christ's birth, knew that Jesus was the son of God, and not of Joseph, but Jesus made this known at many instances. However, I think there is some association of abandonment, and/or loss of connection, by the parents from a bastard child, in its precise definition. If you'll remember in the Bible God is always with Jesus. His parents never abandon Him. If the Father and Mother are with the son, then how is the son illegitimate? "But when the Comforter comes, whom I will send to you from the Father, the Spirit of reality, who proceeds from the Father, He will testify concerning Me" (John 15:26, Recovery Version of the Bible). These are the words of Jesus before He was crucified, which shows that the Father's Spirit proceeds from Him, thus connecting the Son with the Father at all times. As Jesus grew up, He "became strong, being filled with wisdom, and the grace of God was upon Him" (Luke 2:40), and a footnote of the Recovery version Bible, to Luke 2:40, describes that "the wisdom of the Saviour's deity (Col. 2:2-3) was revealed in proportion to the measure of His bodily growth. So in v.52." Therefore, unlike contemporary accounts of bastard children, Jesus grows in all the wisdom of God, Who is His Father, and Who has never abandoned Him. So the statement, "Jesus was a bastard child," is untrue. Please comment. Ifenwick 22:33, 19 March 2007 (UTC)

 * You're absolutely right to all people that believe in the basic Christian (Catholic? - I doubt all Christians believe this) dogma. From a strictly historical and secular perspective, however, one could make the argument that Jesus was an illegitimate child.  If Mary was a virgin, her marriage to Joseph (they were married, right?) was never consummated, and thus not valid at the time.  If Joseph was Jesus' father, Jesus was illegitimate (assuming, again, that they didn't marry while Mary was pregnant.  Funny thing about studying ancient history is that we'll probably never know).  If, on the other hand, Jesus was indeed the son of God, from a strictly legal perspective, Mary had no formal marriage to God (unless she was some sort of Jewish nun?), and thus Jesus was their illegitimate child.
 * Either way, I'm pretty sure that whoever added the original comment did so more as an act of vandalism, in an effort to shock, than as an attempt to spark some sort of theological or historical debate. It's mostly irrelevant anyways. Baribeau 19:22, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Child of a packsaddle?
In Norwegian dictionaries the origin of the word bastard is said to be an old Norse word, bastarðr, meaning son of a mistress (frille) (See dictionary entry here). I find that a bit more plausible than child of a packsaddle, but I don't really know enough about the subject to edit the article here. Any thoughts? --84.49.162.245 14:09, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

I always understood the term to be of Scandinavian origin.

Please check my edit.
I undid this edit, but am wondering if I acted too hastily. Can someone check the changes? My reasoning was that if the original interwiki pages still exist, this is less likely a correct change, but I could be wrong. Thanks. Xiner (talk, email) 14:29, 13 February 2007 (UTC)
 * I changed the interwiki links because the articles were more relevant. The articles Bastard on nn and no deals with the term bastard itself, whereas the articles nn:Fødd utanfor ekteskap og no:Utenekteskapelige barn (both translates into children born outside of marriage) deals with the subject of illegitimate children. --84.49.162.245 15:00, 13 February 2007 (UTC) (Helt)
 * Next time, I'll talk on the talk page before reverting. Now that there's undo, edits can be reversed anytime. Sorry about that. Xiner (talk, email) 15:13, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

"Illegitimacy" broader than bastardy
The concepts of legitimacy ("lawfullness") and ill- apply to a wide range of inherited statuses, and today are often used in politics (e.g. questions about the "legitimate government" of a country). Dawud
 * Also note the disambiguation page Legitimacy. I have suggested a merge with Legitimacy (law). – gpvos (talk) 13:29, 4 March 2007 (UTC)

Merge with Legitimacy (law)
The pages overlap significantly. Also, I think it's better if Illegitimacy became a redirect to the disambiguation page Legitimacy after the merge (see previous comment by Dawud). – gpvos (talk) 13:29, 4 March 2007 (UTC)
 * I agree with the merge. However i think it should undergo a rewrite, with SOME verifiability at the same time.  I suggest that you put the merge request through to an admin.  Perhaps we can get more people to contribute to this discussion as well. businessman332211 14:53, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

Tone/Style of Article
The article seems to have some POV problems, citation problems, and weasel words. Examples:
 * Even now, law in many societies has denied "illegitimate" persons the same rights of inheritance as "legitimate" ones, and in some, even the same civil rights.
 * Nevertheless, the late-20th-century demise, in Western culture, of the concept of "illegitimacy" came too late to relieve the contemporaneous stigma once suffered by such creative individuals, born before the 20th century, as Leone Battista Alberti, Leonardo da Vinci, Erasmus of Rotterdam, d'Alembert, Alexander Hamilton, Sarah Bernhardt, T.E. Lawrence or Stefan Banach.
 * Recently, some people in the United States have taken to stigmatizing the parents, rather than the child, by labeling the parents as "Bastard Parents," because it is the parents who are ultimately responsible for the actions that caused an out-of-wedlock pregnancy.
 * History shows striking examples of prominent persons of "illegitimate" birth. Often they seem to have been driven to excel in their fields of endeavor in part by a desire to overcome the social disadvantage that, in their time, attached to illegitimacy.
 * Gront 03:30, 5 March 2007 (UTC)

Yes, there is a POV problem.

Deleted Bastard Section
I deleted the 'bastard' section, since I felt it read too much like a dictionary. If I was wrong, feel free to revert my edit and leave a message on my talk page. --Umalee 20:31, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

"Re-emergence of bigotry" section
I note that this section has been deleted with the suggestion that it was soapboxing. The deleted section can be seen in the page history here and here.

I support the removal of these edits in their current form but I don't think they are soapboxing and I do think they raise issues that could appropriately be included in this article. A discussion of modern attitudes towards illegitimacy and any potential re-emergence of societal (if not legal) discrimination in the US would be an interesting topic.

In considering the above, there are issues with reliable sources and with giving undue weight to fringe views. For example, I doubt that the comments by Judge Miller will have any impact on either societal attitudes or illegitimacy laws. The same with the blog comments, which were not widespread or coherent enough to make an impact. By themselves, these references are not sufficient to claim that there is a re-emergence of a negative societal attitude. Let's see if we can dig up some more mainstream coverage.

There is also a synthesis issue with claiming that because lawyers seeking clemency say their client is from a 'good family', this automatically creates a stigma for those 'born out of wedlock'. 'Good family' in this context might mean law-abiding, church-going, charitable etc. A more relevant point might be attempts by plaintiffs to itnroduce illegitimacy as a grounds for turning jury sympathies away from a defendant, if any such sources could be found.

Any other views? I think there's something here we can work together on if there's any interest. Euryalus (talk) 22:44, 13 December 2007 (UTC)

Here is the proposed Section: I was tipped off to this undercurrent when a Judge appeared on an NPR affiliate in the Bible Belt to castigate the character of an entire swath of humanity which I suspected was a fairly bible-thumping position. Turns out it was. I've included some links - turns out Google is particularly blog-bloated on this, but these ideas are being promoted by "national" organizations, with references to CDC, DOJ, DHHS. The problem in my view is not that certain cherry-picked stats are false, but that they are cited in isolation. For example, divorce is rising in this country while crime is falling, if the principle indicator of crime where birth situation, these two stats should follow each other. for another example, divorce is extremely rare in the mid-east - where they seem to have an abundance of poverty and chaos, and finally, there are anecdotal examples of people - in this articles for example - who excelled from this group - but these cases are left out of the discussion in these Bastarphobic conversations. Sadly, it must still be pointed out to some that Bigotry is self-justifying - excluded individuals rarely contribute.Benjamin Gatti (talk) 12:47, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

All-Pro Dads participated in the radio show, I believe they wave this canard as part of their service. I should point out that neo-bastarphobia is part of an social trend toward parental-equality in divorce cases. Many find gathering and reciting cherry-picked data in support of paternal involvment is helpful in overcoming a traditional preference for mothers in custody cases - not that it's justified of course. Benjamin Gatti (talk) 13:02, 14 December 2007 (UTC)

Re-Emergence of Bigotry towards Bastards
There is a dubious trend toward identifying Bastards as the principle cause of a broad range of societal maladies ranging from serial killers to poverty and war (a rare distinction briefly held by jews shortly before 1944) even by elected stat officials. For example,on December 10, 2007 Judge Regan, using his official title, appeared on WFAE where he agreed that "No good comes from [Bastards]." and affirmed the relevance of the Omaha gunman as a good example of what was meant by "No Good thing." [](5:55,6:20). A number of websites claiming to promote legitimacy appear dedicated to reciting cherry-picked statistics and lists of sensational sociopaths as a kind of canonical description of the sub-species varietal Bastard hominus[] [] [].

Continuing Discrimination in the US Justice System
Every day in the US, defense attorneys will parade young defendants in front of a judge and ask for some kind of clemency noting "this is a kid from a good family..." That such pejorative corollaries are an everyday part of a modern "justice" system suggests that non-Bastardy continues to be weighed by the courts as a mitigating factor at least.
 * Interesting theory. The inverse could also be hypothesized however, that young people who come from negative backgrounds are granted clemency based on their lack of opportunities. This is all interesting theorizing, however Wikipedia is not a place for original research.  If you want to discuss this further please move it to a blog or forum.  Also, in the future, please sign your comments with four tildes. [] CelticLabyrinth (talk) 10:28, 8 March 2008 (UTC)

title: Talk:Illegitimacy


text:
Foramen

In anatomy and osteology, a foramen ( : foramina,  or foramens ) is an opening or enclosed gap within the dense connective tissue (bones and deep fasciae) of extant and extinct amniote animals, typically to allow passage of nerves, arteries, veins or other soft tissue structures (e.g. muscle tendon) from one body compartment to another.

Skull
The skulls of vertebrates have foramina through which nerves, arteries, veins, and other structures pass. The human skull has many foramina, collectively referred to as the cranial foramina.

Spine
Within the vertebral column (spine) of vertebrates, including the human spine, each bone has an opening at both its top and bottom to allow nerves, arteries, veins, etc. to pass through.

Other

 * Apical foramen, the hole at the tip of the root of a tooth
 * Foramen ovale (heart), a hole between the venous and arterial sides of the fetal heart
 * Transverse foramen, one of a pair of openings in each cervical vertebra, in which the vertebral artery travels
 * Greater sciatic foramen, a major foramen of the pelvis
 * Interventricular foramina, channels connecting ventricles in the brain
 * Lesser sciatic foramen, an opening between the pelvis and the posterior thigh
 * Obturator foramen, the hole created by the ischium and pubis bones of the pelvis
 * Omental foramen, the connecting opening between the greater sac and the lesser sac in the abdominal cavity.
 * Sacral foramina, which perforate the vertebral canal from the Sacrum (sacral bone), and through which the sacral nerves pass.
 * Vertebral foramen, the foramen formed by the anterior segment (the body), and the posterior part, the vertebral arch.
 * Foramen of Panizza, a hole connecting two aortas just after they leave the heart in crocodiles.

title: Foramen


text:
Trichromacy

Trichromacy or trichromatism is the possession of three independent channels for conveying color information, derived from the three different types of cone cells in the eye. Organisms with trichromacy are called trichromats.

The normal explanation of trichromacy is that the organism's retina contains three types of color receptors (called cone cells in vertebrates) with different absorption spectra. In actuality, the number of such receptor types may be greater than three, since different types may be active at different light intensities. In vertebrates with three types of cone cells, at low light intensities the rod cells may contribute to color vision.

Humans and other animals that are trichromats
Humans and some other mammals have evolved trichromacy based partly on pigments inherited from early vertebrates. In fish and birds, for example, four pigments are used for vision. These extra cone receptor visual pigments detect energy of other wavelengths, sometimes including ultraviolet. Eventually two of these pigments were lost (in placental mammals) and another was gained, resulting in trichromacy among some primates. Humans and closely related primates are usually trichromats, as are some of the females of most species of New World monkeys, and both male and female howler monkeys.

Recent research suggests that trichromacy may also be quite general among marsupials. A study conducted regarding trichromacy in Australian marsupials suggests the medium wavelength sensitivity (MWS), cones of the honey possum (Tarsipes rostratus) and the fat-tailed dunnart (Sminthopsis crassicaudata) are features coming from the inherited reptilian retinal arrangement. The possibility of trichromacy in marsupials potentially has another evolutionary basis than that of primates. Further biological and behavioural tests may verify if trichromacy is a common characteristic of marsupials.

Most other mammals are currently thought to be dichromats, with only two types of cone (though limited trichromacy is possible at low light levels where the rods and cones are both active). Most studies of carnivores, as of other mammals, reveal dichromacy; examples include the domestic dog, the ferret, and the spotted hyena. Some species of insects (such as honeybees) are also trichromats, being sensitive to ultraviolet, blue and green instead of blue, green and red.

Research indicates that trichromacy allows animals to distinguish brightly colored fruit and young leaves from other vegetation that is not beneficial to their survival. Another theory is that detecting skin flushing and thereby mood may have influenced the development of primate trichromate vision. The color red also has other effects on primate and human behavior as discussed in the color psychology article.

Types of cones specifically found in primates
Primates are the only known placental mammalian trichromats.

Their eyes include three different kinds of cones, each containing a different photopigment (opsin). Their peak sensitivities lie in the blue (short-wavelength S cones), green (medium-wavelength M cones) and yellow-green (long-wavelength L cones) regions of the color spectrum. S cones make up 5–10% of the cones and form a regular mosaic. Special bipolar and ganglion cells pass those signals from S cones and there is evidence that they have a separate signal pathway through the thalamus to the visual cortex as well. On the other hand, the L and M cones are hard to distinguish by their shapes or other anatomical means – their opsins differ in only 15 out of 363 amino acids, so no one has yet succeeded in producing specific antibodies to them. But Mollon and Bowmaker did find that L cones and M cones are randomly distributed and are in equal numbers.

Mechanism of trichromatic color vision

Trichromatic color vision is the ability of humans and some other animals to see different colors, mediated by interactions among three types of color-sensing cone cells. The trichromatic color theory began in the 18th century, when Thomas Young proposed that color vision was a result of three different photoreceptor cells. From the middle of the 19th century, in his Treatise on Physiological Optics, Hermann von Helmholtz later expanded on Young's ideas using color-matching experiments which showed that people with normal vision needed three wavelengths to create the normal range of colors. Physiological evidence for trichromatic theory was later given by Gunnar Svaetichin (1956).

Each of the three types of cones in the retina of the eye contains a different type of photosensitive pigment, which is composed of a transmembrane protein called opsin and a light-sensitive molecule called 11-cis retinal. Each different pigment is especially sensitive to a certain wavelength of light (that is, the pigment is most likely to produce a cellular response when it is hit by a photon with the specific wavelength to which that pigment is most sensitive). The three types of cones are L, M, and S, which have pigments that respond best to light of long (especially 560 nm), medium (530 nm), and short (420 nm) wavelengths respectively.

Since the likelihood of response of a given cone varies not only with the wavelength of the light that hits it but also with its intensity, the brain would not be able to discriminate different colors if it had input from only one type of cone. Thus, interaction between at least two types of cone is necessary to produce the ability to perceive color. With at least two types of cones, the brain can compare the signals from each type and determine both the intensity and color of the light. For example, moderate stimulation of a medium-wavelength cone cell could mean that it is being stimulated by very bright red (long-wavelength) light, or by not very intense yellowish-green light. But very bright red light would produce a stronger response from L cones than from M cones, while not very intense yellowish light would produce a stronger response from M cones than from other cones. Thus trichromatic color vision is accomplished by using combinations of cell responses.

It is estimated that the average human can distinguish up to ten million different colors.

title: Trichromacy


text:
User talk:Paul Vogel/216.99.245.153

If you continue to revert articles you will be blocked from editing this site for vandalism.

Reverting articles is NOT VANDALISM if the reverting or editing is ONLY to maintain a Wiki NPOV. Maybe YOU should review that NPOV POLICY, yourself?

This is your second warning. -- BCorr ¤ Брайен 13:24, Mar 6, 2004 (UTC)

YOU are the same bigoted F-head that has been censoring Paul Vogel's NPOV reverts and edits aren't you? Warn all you like, BCorr, someone else will always take my place until you stop reverting and editing for ONLY for your own leftist and bigoted POV verses any objective and factual Wiki NPOV.

 * If you aren't Paul Vogel, you're doing an indistinguishable impression. See sock puppet. - David Gerard 13:34, Mar 6, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Paul Vogel/216.99.245.153