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Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff

Joseph Freiherr von Eichendorff (10 March 1788 –26 November 1857) was a German poet, novelist, playwright, literary critic, translator, and anthologist. Eichendorff was one of the major writers and critics of Romanticism. Ever since their publication and up to the present day, some of his works have been very popular in German-speaking Europe.

Eichendorff first became famous for his 1826 novella Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (freely translated: Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing) and his poems. The Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing is a typical Romantic novella whose main themes are wanderlust and love. The protagonist, the son of a miller, rejects his father's trade and becomes a gardener at a Viennese palace where he subsequently falls in love with the local duke's daughter. As, with his lowly status, she is unattainable for him, he escapes to Italy – only to return and learn that she is the duke's adopted daughter, and thus within his social reach. With its combination of dream world and realism, Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing is considered to be a high point of Romantic fiction. One critic stated that Eichendorff's Good-for-Nothing is the "personification of love of nature and an obsession with hiking." Thomas Mann called Eichendorff's Good-for-Nothing a combination of "the purity of the folk song and the fairy tale."

Many of Eichendorff's poems were first published as integral parts of his novellas and stories, where they are often performed in song by one of the protagonists. The novella Good-for-Nothing alone contains 54 poems.

Origin and early youth
Eichendorff, a descendant of an old noble family, was born in 1788 at Schloß Lubowitz near Ratibor (now Racibórz, Poland) in Upper Silesia, at that time part of the Kingdom of Prussia. His parents were the Prussian officer Adolf Freiherr von Eichendorff (1756–1818) and his wife, Karoline née Freiin von Kloche (1766–1822), who came from an aristocratic Roman Catholic family. Eichendorff sold the family estates in Deutsch-Krawarn, Kauthen, and Wrbkau and acquired Lubowitz Castle from his mother-in-law. The castle's Rococo reconstruction, which was begun by her, was very expensive and almost bankrupted the family. Young Joseph was close to his older brother Wilhelm (1786–1849). From 1793 to 1801, they were home-schooled by tutor Bernhard Heinke. Joseph began writing diaries as early as 1798, witnesses to his budding literary career. The diaries present many insights into the development of the young writer, ranging from simple statements about the weather to notes about finances to early poems. At a young age, Eichendorff was already well aware of his parents' financial straits. On 19 June 1801, the thirteen-year old noted in his diary: "Father travelled to Breslau, on the run from his creditors," adding on 24 June, "mom become terribly faint." With his brother Wilhelm, Joseph attended the Catholic Matthias Gymnasium in Breslau (1801–1804). While previously preferring chapbooks, he was now introduced to the poetry of Matthias Claudius and Voltaire's La Henriade, an epic poem about the last part of the wars of religion and Henry IV of France in ten songs. In 1804 his sister Luise Antonie Nepomucene Johanna was born (died 1883), who was to become a friend of Austrian writer Adalbert Stifter. After their final exams, both brothers attended lectures at the University of Breslau and the Protestant Maria-Magdalena-Gymnasium. Eichendorff's diary from this time shows that he valued formal education much less than the theatre, recording 126 plays and concerts visited. His love for Mozart also goes back to these days. Joseph himself seems to have been a talented actor and his brother Wilhelm a good singer and guitar player.

College days
Together with his brother Wilhelm, Joseph studied law and the humanities in Halle an der Saale (1805–1806), a city near Jena, which was a focal point of the Frühromantik (Early Romantics). The brothers frequently attended the theatre of Lauchstädt, 13 km where the Weimar court theatrical company performed plays by Goethe. In October 1806 Napoleon's troops took Halle and teaching at the university ceased. To complete their studies, Wilhelm and Joseph went to the University of Heidelberg in 1807, another important centre of Romanticism. Here Eichendorff befriended romantic poet Otto Heinrich von Loeben (1786–1825), met Achim von Arnim (1781–1831) and possibly Clemens Brentano (1778–1842). In Heidelberg, Eichendorff heard lectures by Joseph Görres, a leading member of the Heidelberg Romantic group, a "hermitic magician" and "formative impression", as Eichendorff later explained. In 1808 the brothers finished their degrees, after which they undertook an educational journey to Paris, Vienna, and Berlin. In Berlin they came into closer contact with Romantic writers such as Clemens Brentano, Adam Müller, and Heinrich von Kleist. To further their professional prospects, they travelled to Vienna in 1810, where they concluded their studies with a state examination diploma. Wilhelm procured employment in the Austrian civil service, while Joseph went back home to help his father with managing the estate.

Love affairs
From Eichendorff's diaries we know about his love for a girl, Amalie Schaffner, and another love affair in 1807–08 during his student days in Heidelberg with one Käthchen Förster. His deep sorrow about the unrequitted love for the nineteen-year-old daughter of a cellarman inspired Eichendorff to one of his most famous poems, Das zerbrochene Ringlein (The Broken Ring).

Military service
In his deep desperation over this unhappy infatuation, Eichendorff craved death in military exploits as mentioned in his poem Das zerbrochene Ringlein:

Although Chase's translation weakens the second line from blut’ge Schlacht (bloody battle) to "in fight" this, actually, happens to be much closer to the historical truth, since Eichendorff's participation in the Lützow Free Corps seems to be a myth – in spite of some authorities asserting the contrary. In 1813, when conflict flared up again, Eichendorff tried to join the struggle against Napoleon, however he lacked the funds to purchase a uniform, gun, or horse, and, when he finally managed to get the money necessary, the war was all but over.

Betrothal, marriage and family life

His parents, to save the indebted family estate, hoped that Eichendorff would marry a wealthy heiress, however he fell in love with Aloysia von Larisch (1792–1855), called 'Luise', the seventeen-year-old daughter of a prominent, yet impoverished Catholic family of nobles. The betrothal took place in 1809, the same year Eichendorff went to Berlin to take up a profession there. In 1815, the couple was married in Breslau's St. Vinzenz church and that same year Eichendorff's son Hermann was born, followed in 1819 by their daughter Therese. In 1818, Eichendorff's father died and in 1822 his mother. The death of his mother resulted in the final loss of all the family's estates in Silesia.

Child mortality
During the period, infant mortality was very high. Both Eichendorff's brother Gustav (born 1800) and his sister Louise Antonie (born 1799) died in 1803 at a very young age, as did two of Eichendorff's daughters between 1822 and 1832. The poet expressed the parental sorrow after this loss in the famous cycle "Auf meines Kindes Tod". One of the poems in this series conveys an especially powerful sense of loss in this era:

Travels of a transferee
With his literary figure of the Good-for-Nothing Eichendorff created the paradigm of the wanderer. The motif itself had been central to romanticism since Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder and Ludwig Tieck undertook their famous Pfingstwanderung (Whitsun excursion) in the Fichtel Mountains in 1793, an event that began the Romantic movement. Travels through Germany, Austria, and France rounded off Eichendorff's education, however, he himself was not much of a hiker. Apart from some extensive marches on foot during his school and college days (for example from Halle to Leipzig, to see popular actor Iffland), he only undertook one lengthy tour, traversing for seventeen days the Harz mountains with his brother in 1805, a trip partly undertaken using the stagecoach, as witnessed by his diary. Eichendorff was less of a romantic wanderer, but rather displaced again and again by changes of location necessitated by his official activities. The following trips, mainly undertaken by coach or boat, are documented:

• 1794 Prague.

• 1799 Karlsbad and Prague

• 1805/1806 Harz, Hamburg, Lübeck

• 1807 Linz, Regensburg, Nürnberg

• 1808/1809 via Strasbourg, Burgundy, Lothringen, and the Champagne to Paris, a month later from Heidelberg to Frankfurt, and from there on a mailboat via Aschaffenburg, Würzburg, Nürnberg, Regensburg to Vienna,

• 1809/1810 Berlin,

• 1813 Neustadt O.S. (Prudnik),

• 1814 Berlin,

• 1816 Breslau,

• 1819 Berlin,

• 1820 Vienna,

• 1821 Danzig,

• 1823 Berlin,

• 1824 Königsberg,

• 1831 Berlin,

• 1838 Munich and Vienna,

• 1843 Danzig,

• 1846/1847 Vienna,

• 1847 Danzig and Berlin,

• 1848 Köthen and Dresden,

• 1849 Berlin,

• 1855 Neiße (Nysa).

Eichendorff as civil servant
Eichendorff worked in various capacities as Prussian government administrator. His career began in 1816 as unpaid clerk in Breslau. In November 1819, he was appointed assessor and in 1820 consistorial councilor for West and East Prussia in Danzig, with an initial annual salary of 1200 thalers. In April 1824, Eichendorff was relocated to Königsberg as "Oberpräsidialrat" (chief administrator) with an annual salary of 1600 thalers. In 1821, Eichendorff was appointed school inspector and, in 1824, "Oberpräsidialrat" in Königsberg. In 1831, he moved his family to Berlin, where he worked as Privy Councilor for the Foreign Ministry until his retirement in 1844.

Death and burial
Eichendorff's brother Wilhelm died in 1849 in Innsbruck. That same year, there was a Republican uprising and the Eichendorffs fled to Meißen and Köthen, where a little house was purchased for his daughter Therese (now a von Besserer-Dahlfingen) in 1854. In 1855, he was much affected by the death of his wife. In September he traveled to Sedlnitz for the christening of his grandchild. Shortly after he made his very last trip, dying of pneumonia on 26 November 1857 in Neiße. He was buried the next day with his wife.

Artistic influences
The two writers who had the greatest early influence on Eichendorff's artistic development were Friedrich Schlegel, who established the term romantisch (romantic) in German literature, and Joseph Görres. While the writers who gathered around Schlegel inclined more to philosophy and aesthetic theory, the adherents of Görres became mainly known as writers of poetry and stories. Both movements, however, greatly influenced intellectual life in Germany by emphasising the individual, the subjective, the irrational, the imaginative, the personal, the spontaneous, the emotional, the visionary, and the transcendental over classical precepts. One of their fundamental ideas was the "unity of poetry and life".

Eichendorff shared Schlegel's view that the world was a naturally and eternally "self-forming artwork", Eichendorff himself used the metaphor that "nature [was] a great picture book, which the good Lord has pitched for us outside." Arnim's and Brentano's studies and interpretations of the Volkslied (folk song) deeply influenced Eichendorff's own poetry and poetology. Arnim's and Brentano's anthology Des Knaben Wunderhorn: Alte deutsche Lieder, a collection of songs about love, soldiers, wandering, as well as children's songs, was an important source for the Romantic movement. Similar to other early 19th-century anthologists such as Thomas Percy, Arnim and Brentano edited and rewrote the poems in they collected. "Everything in the world happens because of poetry, to live life with an increased sense and history is the expression of this general poetry of the human race, the fate performs this great spectacle," is what Arnim said in a letter to Brentano (9 July 1802).

Range
Although Eichendorffs poetry includes many metric forms ranging from very simple elegiac couplets and stanzas to sonnets, his main artistic focus was on poems imitating folk songs. A comparison of forms shows that Eichendorff's lyricism is "directly influenced by Brentano and Arnim".

Naturalness and artificiality
Following the model of Des Knaben Wunderhorn, Eichendorff uses simple words ('naturalness'), adding more meaning ('artificiality') than dictionary definitions would indicate. In this sense, "His words are rich in connotative power, in imaginative appeal and in sound."

Emblematic imagery
Certain expressions and formulas used by Eichendorff, which are sometimes characterised by critics as pure cliché, actually represent a conscious reduction in favour of emblematics. In Görres' poetology "nature is speaking" us. But before it can happen, the wonderful song sleeping in each thing must be woken up by the poet's word: One notable example used by Eichendorff is the Zauberwort (magic word) – and one of Eichendorff's most celebrated poems, the four-line stanza Wünschelrute (divining rod), is about finding such a Zauberwort: —Translated by Natias Neutert

Main motifs
The titles of Eichendorff's poems show that, besides the motif of wandering, the two other main motifs of his poetry were the passing of time (transience) and nostalgia. Time, for Eichendorff, is not just a natural phenomenon but, as Marcin Worbs elaborated: "Each day and each of our nights has a metaphysical dimension." The morning, on the other hand, evokes the impression that "all nature had been created just in this very moment," while the evening often acts as a mysterium mortis with the persona pondering transience and death. Eichendorff's other main motif, nostalgia, is described by some critic as a phenomenon of infinity. However, there is a number of different interpretations. According to Helmut Illbruck: The "simple-minded Taugenichts (...) feels continually homesick and can never come to rest." Katja Löhr distinguishes between nostalgia as an emotion consisting of two components — longing and melancholy: "The inner emotion of longing is to long for, the inner emotion of melancholy is to mourn. As an expression of deep reflection, longing corresponds with intuition (Ahnen), grieving with memory." Theodor W. Adorno, who set out to rescue Eichendorff from his misled conservative admirers, attested: "He was not a poet of the homeland, but rather a poet of homesickness". In sharp contrast, Natias Neutert saw in Eichendorff's nostalgia a dialectical unity of an "unstable equilibrium of homesickness and wanderlust at once".

Religiosity
For a long time it had been argued that Eichendorff's view of Romanticism had been subordinate to religious beliefs. More recently, however, Christoph Hollender has pointed that Eichendorff's late religious and political writings were commissioned works, while his poetry represents a highly personal perspective.

Eichendorff's own résumé
Eichendorff summed up the Romantic epoch stating that it "soared like a magnificent rocket sparkling up into the sky, and after shortly and wonderfully lighting up the night, it exploded overhead into a thousand colorful stars."

Legacy
"While other authors (such as Ludwig Tieck, Caroline de la Motte Fouqué, Clemens Brentano and Bettina von Arnim) adapted the themes and styles of their writing to the emerging realism, Eichendorff "stayed true to the emblematic universe of his literary Romanticism right through to the 1850s," Adorno stated: "Unconsciously Eichendorff's unleashed romanticism leads right up to the threshold of modernism".

Volumes of poetry

 * First publication of some Poems in Ast's Zeitschrift für Wissenschaft und Kunst, under the pseudonym «Florens»; Heidelberg, (1808),
 * Gedichte von Joseph Freiherrn von Eichendorff, Verlag Duncker & Humblot, Berlin, (1837)
 * Julian, story in verses, (1853)
 * Robert und Guiscard, epic poem, (1855)
 * Lucius, epic poem, (1855)

Novels

 * Ahnung und Gegenwart. Mit einem Vorwort von de la Motte Fouqué, novel, Nürnberg, bei Johann Leonhard Schrag (1815)
 * Dichter und ihre Gesellen, novel, Verlag Duncker & Humblot, Berlin (1834)

Novellas

 * Die Zauberei im Herbste, (1808/09), published posthumously in 1906,
 * Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), ed. by De la Motte-Fouqué, published in «Frauentaschenbuch für das Jahr 1819» (1819),
 * Aus dem Leben eines Taugenichts (Memoirs of a Good-for-Nothing) together with Das Marmorbild (The Marble Statue), (1826),
 * Viel Lärmen um Nichts (1833)
 * Eine Meerfahrt, (1836); published posthumously (1864)
 * Das Schloß Dürande, (1837)
 * Die Entführung, in: Urania. Taschenbuch für das Jahr 1839 (1839)
 * Die Glücksritter, in: Rheinisches Jahrbuch (1841)
 * Libertas und ihre Freier (1848), published posthumously (1858)

Play texts

 * Krieg den Philistern! Dramatisches Märchen in Fünf Abenteuern, (1823)
 * Meierbeth's Glück und Ende, (1827)
 * Ezelin von Romano, (1828)
 * Der letzte Held von Marienburg, (1830)
 * Die Freier, (1833)

Translations

 * Pedro Calderón de la Barca: Der Graf Lucanor, (1845)
 * Die geistlichen Schauspiele Calderons (2 vol.), (1846–53)

Literary critic

 * Über die ethische und religiöse Bedeutung der neuen romantischen Poesie in Deutschland (On the ethical and religious significance of the new romantic poetry in Germany), (1847)
 * Der deutsche Roman des 18. Jahrhunderts in seinem Verhältniss zum Christenthum (The German novel of the 18th century in its relationship to Christianity), (1851)
 * Geschichte der poetischen Literatur Deutschlands, (1857)

Anthologist

 * Oberschlesische Märchen und Sagen (Upper Silesian fairytales and sagas) (1808–1810), including five fairy tales (with their respective classification in the Aarne-Thompson-Uther Index):
 * Die schöne Craßna und das Ungeheuer, variant of Beauty and the Beast (tale type ATU 425C);
 * Die Prinzessin als Küchenmagd, variant of Allerleirauh (mostly tale type ATU 510B);
 * Der Faulpelz und der Fisch, variant of Peruonto and Emelian the Fool (tale type ATU 675);
 * Die schöne Sophie, variant of Snow White (tale type ATU 709);
 * Der Vogel Venus, variant of The Golden Bird (mostly tale type ATU 550, combined with ATU 551 and ATU 506).

Editor

 * Lebrecht Blücher Dreves: Gedichte. Ed. and with a foreword by Joseph v. Eichendorff. Verlag Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1849.

Set to music
With approximately 5000 musical settings, Eichendorff is the most popular German poet set into music. "The magical, enchanting lyricism of his poetry almost seems to be music itself," as it is praised. His poems have been set to music by many composers, including Schumann, Mendelssohn, Max Bruch, Johannes Brahms, Hugo Wolf, Didia Saint Georges, Richard Strauss, Hans Pfitzner, Pauline Volkstein, Hermann Zilcher, Alexander Zemlinsky, Max Reger, and even Friedrich Nietzsche.

His poems also inspired orchestral music, such as Reger's Eine romantische Suite as well as electronic arrangements by Qntal.

Primary Literature

 * Sämtliche Werke des Freiherrn Joseph von Eichendorff. Historisch-kritische Ausgabe (shortened form: HKA). Begründet von Wilhelm Kosch und August Sauer, fortgeführt und herausgegeben von Hermann Kunisch (†) und Helmut Koopmann, Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tübingen.
 * HKA I/1: Gedichte. Erster Teil. Text. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich/Ursula Regener (1993).
 * HKA I/2: Gedichte. Erster Teil. Kommentar. Aufgrund von Vorarbeiten von Wolfgang Kron. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich (1994).
 * HKA I/3: Gedichte. Zweiter Teil. Verstreute und nachgelassene Gedichte. Text. Ed. by Ursula Regener (1997).
 * HKA I/4: Gedichte. Zweiter Teil. Verstreute und nachgelassene Gedichte. Kommentar. Ed. by Ursula Regener (1997).
 * HKA III: Ahnung und Gegenwart. Ed. by Christiane Briegleb/Clemens Rauschenberg (1984).
 * HKA IV: Dichter und ihre Gesellen. Ed. by Volkmar Stein (2001).
 * HKA V/1: Erzählungen. Erster Teil. Text. Ed. by Karl Konrad Polheim (1998).
 * HKA V/2: Erzählungen. Erster Teil. Kommentar. Ed. by Karl Konrad Polheim (2000).
 * HKA V/3: Erzählungen. Zweiter Teil. Fragmente und Nachgelassenes. Ed. by Heinz-Peter Niewerth (2006).
 * HKA V/4: Erzählungen. Dritter Teil. Autobiographische Fragmente. Ed. by Dietmar Kunisch (1998).
 * HKA VI/1: Historische Dramen und Dramenfragmente. Text und Varianten. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich (1996).
 * HKA VI/2: Historische Dramen und Dramenfragmente. Kommentar. Ed. by Klaus Köhnke (1997).
 * HKA VIII/1: Literarhistorische Schriften I. Aufsätze zur Literatur. Aufgrund der Vorarbeiten von Franz Ranegger. Ed. by Wolfram Mauser (1962).
 * HKA VIII/2: Literarhistorische Schriften II. Abhandlungen zur Literatur. Aufgrund der Vorarbeiten von Franz Ranegger. Ed. by Wolfram Mauser (1965).
 * HKA IX: Literarhistorische Schriften III. Geschichte der poetischen Literatur Deutschlands. Ed. by Wolfram Mauser (1970).
 * HKA XI: Tagebücher. Ed. by Franz Heiduk/Ursula Regener (2006)
 * HKA XII: Briefe 1794–1857. Text. Ed. by Sibylle von Steinsdorff (1993).
 * HKA XV/1: Übersetzungen I. Erster Teil. Graf Lucanor von Don Juan Manuel. Geistliche Schauspiele von Don Pedro Calderón la Barca I. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich (2003).
 * HKA XV/2: Übersetzungen I. Zweiter Teil. Geistliche Schauspiele von Don Pedro Calderón la Barca II. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich (2002).
 * HKA XVI: Übersetzungen II. Unvollendete Übersetzungen aus dem Spanischen. Ed. by Klaus Dahme (1966).
 * HKA XVIII/1: Eichendorff im Urteil seiner Zeit I. Dokumente 1788–1843. Günter and Irmgard Niggl (1975).
 * HKA XVIII/2: Eichendorff im Urteil seiner Zeit II. Dokumente 1843–1860. Ed. by Günter and Irmgard Niggl (1976).
 * HKA XVIII/3: Eichendorff im Urteil seiner Zeit III. Kommentar und Register. Ed. by Günter and Irmgard Niggl (1986).
 * HKA II: Epische Gedichte.
 * HKA VII: Dramen II. Satirische Dramen und Dramenfragmente. Ed. by Harry Fröhlich.
 * HKA X: Historische und politische Schriften. Ed. by Antonie Magen
 * HKA XIII: Briefe an Eichendorff. Ed. by Sibylle von Steinsdorff.
 * HKA XIV: Kommentar zu den Briefen (Bd. XII und Bd. XIII). Ed. by Sibylle von Steinsdorff.
 * HKA XVII: Amtliche Schriften. Ed. by Hans Pörnbacher.
 * Joseph von Eichendorff, Werke, 6 Bde. (Bibliothek deutscher Klassiker) Hrsg. von Wolfgang Frühwald. Deutscher Klassiker-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 1985–93
 * Joseph von Eichendorff: Ausgewählte Werke. Ed. by Hans A. Neunzig. Nymphenburger, Berlin 1987. ISBN 3-485-00554-1
 * Wolfdietrich Rasch (Ed.): Joseph von Eichendorff. Sämtliche Gedichte. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich, 1975. ISBN 3-446-11427-0

Secondary literature

 * Theodor W. Adorno: "Zum Gedächtnis Eichendorffs". In: Noten zur Literatur I. Bibliothek Suhrkamp 47, Frankfurt am Main 1963. pp. 105–143.
 * Hans Brandenburg: Joseph von Eichendorff. Sein Leben und sein Werk. Beck, Munich 1922.
 * Dirk Göttsche / Nicholas Saul (eds.): Realism and Romanticism in German Literature / Realismus und Romantik in der deutschsprachigen Literatur. Aisthesis, Bielefeld 2013. ISBN 978-3-89528-995-8
 * Klaus Günzel: Die deutschen Romantiker. 125 Lebensläufe. Ein Personenlexikon. Artemis & Winkler, Düsseldorf / Zürich 1995. ISBN 3-7608-1229-5
 * Rufus Hallmark: German Lieder in the Nineteenth Century. Schirmer, New York 1996. ISBN 0-02-870845-8.
 * Helmut Illbruck: Nostalgia. Origins and Ends of an Unenlightened Disease. Northwestern University Press, Evanston Illinois, 2012. ISBN 9780810128378.
 * Hans Jürg Lüthi: Dichtung und Dichter bei Joseph von Eichendorff. Francke Verlag, Bern 1966.
 * Sybille Anneliese Margot Reichert: Unendliche Sehnsucht. The Concept of Longing in German Romantic Narrative and Song. Dissertation, Yale University 1995.
 * Günther Schiwy: Eichendorff. Der Dichter in seiner Zeit. Eine Biographie.  C.H. Beck, Munich 2000. ISBN 3-406-46673-7
 * Oskar Seidlin: Versuche über Eichendorff. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 1965.
 * Paul Stöcklein: Joseph von Eichendorff in Selbstzeugnissen und Bilddokumenten. Rowohlts Monographien 84, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1963. ISBN B0094MO2DQ
 * Jürgen Thym: 100 Years Of Eichendorff Songs. Recent Researches in the Music of the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries, vol. 5. A-R Editions, Madison 1983. ISBN 0-89579-173-0

Museum, archives and organisations
Institut für Germanistik, D-93040 Regensburg
 * Deutsches Eichendorff-Museum, Eselsberg 1, D-7988 Wangen im Allgäu, Germany, c/o Sybille Heimann, 07522 / 3840 or 3704.
 * Frankfurter Goethe-Haus. Freies Deutsches Hochstift. Großer Hirschgraben 23–25, 60311 Frankfurt am Main.
 * Eichendorff-Forum. Prof. Dr. Ursula Regener Universität Regensburg

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Verhulst

Verhulst is a Dutch toponymic surname. It is a contraction of "van der Hulst", meaning "from the (place where) holly (grows)". It may refer to:

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 * Mayken Verhulst (1518–1599), Flemish painter
 * Pierre François Verhulst (1804–1849), Belgian mathematician
 * Verhulst equation and Verhulst diagram, named after him
 * (1866–1941), Flemish poet and writer
 * Rombout Verhulst (1624–1698), Flemish sculptor
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USS Whipple

The name USS Whipple has been borne by three ships in the United States Navy. All were named for Commodore Abraham Whipple, a naval commander in the American Revolutionary War.

 * USS Whipple (DD-15), a torpedo boat destroyer commissioned 1903, decommissioned 1919.
 * USS Whipple (DD-217), a destroyer commissioned in 1920 and decommissioned in 1945.
 * USS Whipple (FF-1062), a destroyer escort commissioned in 1970, redesignated a frigate in 1975 and decommissioned in 1992.

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George Arthur (disambiguation)

Sir George Arthur, 1st Baronet (1784–1854) was a colonial governor.

George Arthur may also refer to:
 * George K. Arthur (1899–1985), Scottish-American film producer and actor
 * George Kofi Arthur (born 1969), Ghanaian politician
 * George Arthur (Australian soccer) (1925–1990), Australian football (soccer) player
 * George Arthur (Ghanaian footballer) (1968–2015), Ghanaian football (soccer) player and coach
 * George Arthur (cricketer) (1849–1932), Australian cricketer
 * George Arthur, a fictional character in Tom Brown's School Days, a novel by Thomas Hughes
 * Sir George Arthur, 3rd Baronet (1860–1946) of the Arthur baronets
 * Sir George Arthur, 4th Baronet (1908–1949) of the Arthur baronets

title: George Arthur (disambiguation)


text:
Thomas Muir (mathematician)

Sir Thomas Muir (25 August 1844 – 21 March 1934) was a Scottish mathematician, remembered as an authority on determinants.

Life
He was born in Stonebyres in South Lanarkshire, and brought up in the small town of Biggar. He was educated at Wishaw Public School.

At the University of Glasgow he changed his studies from classics to mathematics after advice from the future Lord Kelvin. After graduating he held positions at the University of St Andrews and the University of Glasgow. From 1874 to 1892 he taught at Glasgow High School. In 1882 he published Treatise on the theory of determinants; then in 1890 he published a History of determinants. In his 1882 work, Muir rediscovered an important lemma that was first proved by Cayley 35 years earlier: In Glasgow he lived at Beechcroft in the Bothwell district.

In 1874 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, His proposers were William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, Hugh Blackburn, Philip Kelland and Peter Guthrie Tait. He won the Society's Keith Prize for 1881-1883 and a second time in 1895–1897. He served as the Society's Vice President 1888 to 1891. He won the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize for 1912 to 1916.

From 1892 to 1915 he was in South Africa as Superintendent General of Education, and also working at the University of the Cape. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and in 1900 a Fellow of the Royal Society. He was installed Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George (CMG) in 1901 and knighted by King George V in the 1915 Birthday Honours.

Shortly after his arrival at the Cape, the Uitenhage Public School in the Eastern Cape, originally established in 1822 by Scots educator James Rose Innes, was renamed the Muir Academy, later becoming Muir College, which is nowadays believed to be the oldest secondary school in South Africa. The progressive development of this and other schools during Muir's tenure as Superintendent-General of Education was strongly influenced by Muir's belief in the importance of subjects requiring manual dexterity (woodwork and needlework) and the teaching of mathematics, science and nature study. He also improved the training of teachers - when he arrived in the Cape there was only one training college, but when he retired 23 years later there were twelve.

From 1906 onwards he published a five-volume expansion of his history of determinants, the final part (1929) taking the theory to 1920. A further book followed in 1930.

He died on 21 March 1934 in Rondebosch in South Africa.

His name now attaches to a duality theorem on relations between minors. In more abstract language, it is a general result on the equations defining Grassmannians as algebraic varieties.

Family
In 1876 he married Margaret Bell. The distinguished geophysicist Athelstan Spilhaus was their grandson.

Publications by Sir Thomas Muir

 * The Theory of the Determinant in the Historical Order of Development. 4 vols. New York: Dover Publications 1960
 * A Treatise on the Theory of Determinants. Revised and Enlarged by William H. Metzler. New York: Dover Publications 1960
 * "A Second Budget of Exercises on Determinants", American Mathematical Monthly, Vol. 31, No. 6. (June, 1924), pp. 264–274
 * "Note on the Transformation of a Determinant into any Other Equivalent Determinant", The Analyst, Vol. 10, No. 1. (Jan 1883), pp. 8–9
 * A History of Determinants (1929)

title: Thomas Muir (mathematician)


text:
Talk:OLED

fundamental
The article suggest that OLED is fundamentally different from inorganic LED. Seems to me not so fundamental. Both are based on radiative recombination of electron-hole pairs. LEDs using GaP, and other indirect gap materials, also use exciton recombination. Two layer materials can be described as pn junctions. In addition, non-radiative recombination due to defects is the usual cause for reduced emission with age. Gah4 (talk) 20:31, 2 January 2022 (UTC)

White OLED
After searching around for a bit the J Kido, M Kimura and K Nagai white light emitting organic electroluminescent device seems to have way less citations than what I expected, is it because the invention is kinda obvious or what? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mirad1000 (talk • contribs) 22:42, 24 May 2022 (UTC)

Confusing Section in intro, perhaps could do with slight rewording for clarification?

 * OLED is fundamentally different from LED which is based on a p-n diode structure. In LEDs doping is used to create p- and n- regions by changing the conductivity of the host semiconductor. OLEDs do not employ a p-n structure. Doping of OLEDs is used to increase radiative efficiency by direct modification of the quantum-mechanical optical recombination rate.  Doping is additionally used to determine the wavelength of photon emission.

This section seems to contradict the rest of the intro, where OLED is described as a type LED technology (as it is in the article's infobox). The link simply points to the LED article. I'm not an expert at all on this topic, but perhaps it's meant to mean that OLED displays are "fundamentally different" from "LED" in the sense meant at LED display? Or, alternatively, perhaps it means that LEDs as found in OLEDs are different from conventional/regular LEDs as used in lighting (if that's a meaningful distinction to make here; again, I'm no expert). In any case, at present, the article starts by saying that an OLED is a type of LED (“An organic light-emitting diode (OLED or organic LED), also known as organic electroluminescent (organic EL) diode, is a light-emitting diode (LED) in which[...]”), and then proceeds to say that OLED is fundamentally different from LED. Both cannot be true; I think this could do with some re-wording/clarification. Perhaps I'm missing/misunderstanding something and there is no contradiction, but if that's the case then I believe the wording should be updated so that the more specific meaning (whatever it be) is more readily apparent. --Tomatoswoop (talk) 16:06, 30 July 2022 (UTC)

Banding
There's no mention of banding at low brightness values. I don't have any reliable source, for now 66.98.85.105 (talk) 16:30, 27 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:OLED


text:
Vištytis

Vištytis (Wisztyniec, Wystiten, Yiddish: ווישטינעץ Vishtinets) is a small town in Marijampolė County, Vilkaviškis District Municipality in southwestern Lithuania on the border with Russia and close to the border with Poland. It is the administrative center of Vištytis eldership (seniūnija).

Geography
The town is situated on the northeastern shore of Lake Vištytis, close to the Russian border (Kaliningrad Oblast).

The town has preserved its street structure and market square since the 18th century. Vištytis Regional Park is near the town. Southwest is Vištytis hill fort, and in a nearby village, Nebūtkiemis is a big Vištytis stone, preserved geological artifact.

History
Vištytis was established in the first half of the 16th century, on the border with the Duchy of Prussia. The first mention of the Višytis manor dates from 1538. Around it a settlement of Lithuanian, Polish and German inhabitants started to grow rapidly. On September 8, 1570, Sigismund II Augustus, in his capacity as Grand Duke of Lithuania, granted Vištytis town rights and coat of arms. It was a royal town of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. It was the first town in the region. In 1589, local starost Krzysztof Jeśman granted land to Jews to build a synagogue.

In 1776 Vištytis lost its town rights, although some administration remained in the town, as it is known from the records in 1785 and 1790. Town representatives participated in the Great Sejm and succeeded in regaining town rights, although it did not get a royal privilege. That caused conflict with local elders, and the case was taken to the court. The outcome of the court is not clear, but the town preserved some of autonomy in the 19th century.

Following the Third Partition of Poland, it was annexed by Prussia in 1795. In 1807, it became part of the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw, and after its dissolution in 1815, it became part of newly established Russian-controlled Congress Poland. In the 19th century, a major industry in Vištytis was the manufacture of brushes. After the railroad line from Königsberg to Russia was constructed in 1861 through Kybartai, some kilometers to the north, the town declined rapidly. Beginning in the 1850s, a significant number of the town's Jews emigrated to Germany, the United States, and South Africa. As of 1890, 31% of the city's registered residents were in emigration in the US and Germany.

20th century
During World War I, in 1915, the town was devastated by Imperial Russian troops retreating after the Winter Battle of the Masurian Lakes, and afterwards it was occupied by Germany.

With the end of World War I, Poland and Lithuania regained independence as separate countries, and the town was disputed. Local Poles formed a Polish municipal committee headed by wójt Józef Kałwajć and gathered over 1,000 signatures on a petition to incorporate the town to Poland, wanting to belong administratively to Suwałki County, while local Lithuanians formed a Lithuanian municipal committee, recognizing the sovereignty of Vilkaviškis County within Lithuania. The rival Polish-Lithuanian dual authority lasted until May 1919, when a Lithuanian militia entered the town and forced the Polish committee to disband and recognize the local Lithuanian authorities. Local Poles continued passive resistance to Lithuanian authority.

After the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, the Lithuanian territory up to the border at Vištytis was occupied by Soviet forces. Immediately after the launch of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941, the town was conquered by Wehrmacht forces. During the Holocaust, all of Vištytis' Jews were murdered, mainly by local collaborators in the town. The exact number murdered is unclear; estimates range from 200 - 400 Jews (out of the town's general population of around 1000). First the men were shot, then the women - but, to save bullets, the Jewish children were killed by having their heads bashed against the trees in the town park. A memorial to the victims was later erected by the Soviets near a windmill called Grist Mill, but the plaque made no mention that those buried in the nearby fields were Jews. Later, a 'Jewish' tombstone was erected that noted what happened.

Renewed city coat of arms was granted by the President of Lithuania on May 3, 1999.

Notable people

 * Algimantas Kezys - Lithuanian priest and photographer
 * Bronius Leonavičius - Lithuanian artist
 * Irena Ylienė - Lithuanian singer
 * Juozas Kalvaitis - Lithuanian composer
 * Jonas Bendorius - Lithuanian composer
 * Jurgis Tiškevičius - Lithuanian auxiliary bishop of Vilnius (1627–1633), bishop of Samogitia (1633–1649), and bishop of Vilnius (1649–1656).
 * Julian Gruner - born in Vištytis on 13 October 1898, medical doctor practicing in Kalisz, sportsman (three-time national champion in the high jump and javelin throw), officer of the Polish Army murdered at the age of 42 along with about 3900 other Polish P.O.W.s in the Soviet death camp in Kharkiv between April and May 1940, part of the Katyn massacre.
 * Liudvikas Butkevičius - Lithuanian Army officer

title: Vištytis


text:
Talk:Poltergeist

Neutrality

 * Since the article is still problematic, I've gone ahead and also added the Weasel-tag to the Hypothesis section. For the contributors that often edit this article, please heck the guidelines on WP:PSCI, WP:FRINGE, WP:VERIFY and WP:NPOV to see why this article, but especially the current Hypothesis section isn't conform Wikipedia standards. Typehigh (talk) 23:48, 1 February 2010 (UTC)
 * I've removed most of what I think is uncited, unsourced, original etc... Guyonthesubway (talk) 19:08, 3 February 2010 (UTC)
 * I think the removal of those paragraphs was valid. There are still some weasel-words remaining (skeptics, some people say, etc.) but at least the biased texts are gone. Typehigh (talk) 21:33, 7 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I suggest the article be rewritten in more "paranormal" point of view than the current, which only consists of folklore tales. There should be a clear distinction between the phenomenon that was named "poltergeist" in today's scientific research methods vs what was historically denoted as "poltergeists". Shadiac (talk) 06:07, 12 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Disagree.  The "paranormal" sources are not generally usable on wikipedia, generally because they're pure crap.  A poltergeist -is- a folklore tale, despite what some random uncredentialed para-whatever says.  Guyonthesubway (talk) 11:55, 12 February 2010 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is an encyclopedia and not a myth almanac. Every phenomenon listed here should be explained in a maximally scientific p.o.v., if such is possible.
 * I don't entirely agree with your conclusion there. It's like including articles on fictitious characters such as Queen Dido or Captain Ahab. If a writer expects me to understand an allusion to Dido or Ahab or poltergeists, and I'm not very familiar with the Aeneid or Moby Dick or folklore, I turn to the encyclopaedia for a brief but informative explanation. Even though the subjects are fictitious, people may want information about them. To understand an allusion to Ahab, for instance, a reader may need to know that within the fiction in which he appears he had a peg leg and was obsessively hunting a white whale, and that in the end he was killed by it, and what his ship was called. The fact that Ahab is fictional doesn't mean that no general reader without access to specialised references may want to find out about him. Treating folklore as true would expose an encyclopaedia to ridicule, but brief explanations of what is meant by "pixie", "redcap", and "poltergeist" in general writing is, I think, just the sort of thing than an encyclopaedia is for. Agemegos (talk) 08:54, 24 May 2012 (UTC)
 * Also, please watch your language.Shadiac (talk) 20:14, 24 February 2010 (UTC)
 * According to the scientific view, they dont exist. There, we're done.   Please dont try to introduce your view of what a poltergiest is or isnt. Please feel free to introduce good on-topic reliable sources.   If you think I'm removing good on-topic reliable sources, the reliable sources noticeboard is here|... (btw, "watch my language" about 'crap'? really? )   Guyonthesubway (talk) 20:33, 24 February 2010 (UTC)

There's too much emphasis on pseudoscientific aspects, not enough on folklore and tradition which is the primary aspect of the subject. We should adopt a historical, global, neutral point of view, and so not present a pseudoscientific viewpoint of folklore and tradition. The French article is quite good, I recommend working from it if possible. Cenarium (talk) 15:24, 20 March 2010 (UTC)

What about the theory that poltergeists are actually highly troubled teenagers with no knowledge of their abilities? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 66.108.129.197 (talk) 16:00, 13 July 2010 (UTC)

In danger of becoming a purveyor of folklore?
There seems to be much talk of "Skeptics", and "Believers" in this article and very little concern with science. Does this sort of folklore angle belong on Wikipedia? Perhaps we should remember that science is not interested in emotional investment or points of view but simply with what is true. If poltergeists are ever proved to exist then they will become part of science. Until that time arrives - which becomes ever less likely as the centuries roll on - they are myth and folklore. It seems to me to be a stain on any encylopedia which asserts otherwise. —Preceding unsigned comment added by PinThetford (talk • contribs) 23:53, 15 October 2010 (UTC)

Until something is proven by science it is myth and folklore? So then, every hypothesis is both myth and folklore? That's not to say that we ought to assume the truth of something before we know it, but we ought not dismiss it as you have.

Frankly, I don't believe or disbelieve anything about poltergeists. There are enough reports of them from credible people to remain open minded. In my opinion, the article, in its present state, doesn't reflect that. It presents a number of very dubious scientific explanations for the phenomenon. All those explanations presuppose that the phenomenon exists (but not that it has a supernatural cause), but they seem entirely implausible as explanations. It'd be better just to call those who've reported the phenomenon liars.

Does anyone seriously think that ostensibly sane people are imagining objects flying around their house? The illusion explanation seems weak. The trickster explanation would work in some cases, but it fails in many others. Until there are more convincing explanations, I think we ought to treat the positive possibility more favorably. At the very least, explicate some cases and both the elements that we can, and that we can't, appeal to ordinary events to explain.

 * "There are enough reports of them from credible people to remain open minded. In my opinion, the article, in its present state, doesn't reflect that."
 * "Reports from credible people" is the wrong category. The crux of the matter is: people hear things they cannot explain. That is a normal thing, not a para-normal one. The paranormal aspect comes in when somebody has delusions of grandeur and thinks he is so extremely smart and knowledgeable that he can explain every natural phenomenon. Parapsychologists tend to suffer from that affliction. The logical conclusion from the "extremely smart and knowledgeable" assumption is that the phenomenon must be supernatural. You seem to agree with those people, and the article not reflecting your opinion is a desirable thing. Instead, it should and does reflect the facts - without the additional "extremely smart and knowledgeable" assumption.

 * Also, the explanations named in the article are not required to convince you, or fail to seem weak or implausible to you. The are only required to be found in the high-quality literature. --Hob Gadling (talk) 11:22, 14 October 2015 (UTC)

ALL European nations?
you sure? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Bathsofnaftaline (talk • contribs) 22:55, 8 October 2011 (UTC)

I'm confused
In one place it says 'poltergeists have traditionally been described in folklore as troublesome spirits or ghosts which haunt a particular person, hence the name', yet elsewhere it says the word is derived from 'making noise' and 'ghost'. So how does haunting a particular person relate to the name?Ed Addis (talk) 15:24, 15 December 2011 (UTC)
 * The name and the association you mentioned have no relation to each other. Poltergeists are named as such simply because their primary behavior is creating disorder (like noise). Historically, they often do their business in the presence of a particular person, but it doesn't mean they should be called "stalkergeists" or something. --ThomasO1989 (talk) 11:46, 17 December 2011 (UTC)
 * I've pulled "hence the name", since it doesn't make sense. If someone feels that strongly about it they can revert me with an explanation. Betty Logan (talk) 15:15, 19 December 2011 (UTC)

Wrong plural
The term Poltergeists is wrong.The correct plural of Geist is Geister. --> Poltergeister — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.129.62.0 (talk) 19:46, 24 May 2014 (UTC)

What do you think science or paranormal?
I am not sure where to place works of Physicists Pierro Brovetto and Vera Maxia. While it is well sourced (on arxiv) and they are respectable scientists, their idea is maybe a little bit excentric since they suggest that "poltergeist have for origin a reduction in strength of molecular bonds due to an enhancement in polarization of vacuum which decreases the actual electron charge" and that the cause are trnasformation in the brain of young womans. So maybe if someone else suggest I will move it in the paranormal section because it is to far from more down to earth view of Persinger and Turner where the origin of poltergeist are seismic activity, geomagnetism and ball lightning. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Thundergodz (talk • contribs) 01:31, 14 June 2014 (UTC)

New section
What about a separate section from paranormal, for spiritualist view and religious view? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Thundergodz (talk • contribs) 01:33, 14 June 2014 (UTC)

Michael Persinger
Persinger's parapsychological research on poltergeists has never been replicated by the scientific community, his views are considered fringe if not pseudoscience by critics. Thundergodz keeps adding mention of Persinger but the sources are fringe i.e. Persinger, M. A.; Cameron, R. A. (1986). "Are earth faults at fault in some poltergeist-like episodes?". JASPR 80: 49–73. The JASPR is the Journal of the American Society for Psychical Research, this is not a science journal. Goblin Face (talk) 16:52, 16 June 2014 (UTC)

 * Re: the sources being used for insertion of this stuff: the JASPR is definitely not a reliable source of scientific views, the Tony Jinks book clearly argues a sympathetic view of parapsychology, and James Houran is a well known parapsychology advocate whose book, although academic in nature, presents parapsychology and mainstream science on an equal footing. While some of this may be suitable for the "paranormal" section of the article, it doesn't belong in the "science" section. - LuckyLouie (talk) 17:21, 16 June 2014 (UTC)

First of all Persinger talks about two hypothesis: seismic activity and geomagnetic field. I think we all agree that seismic activity can go to the scientific section? Only one team attempted to replicate Persinger's results but get negative results. No one else tried. Persinger's idea would not be pseudoscientific if even the skeptic Richard Wiseman use her but it can be fringe. I have many sources of correlation between geomagnetic field and paranormal, ghost and haunting experience: http://www.richardwiseman.com/research/ghosts.html http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg17924055.400-little-house-of-horrors.html http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22229671 http://www.zen118739.zen.co.uk/parasearch/research.html (it is skeptic source not paranormal) http://books.google.fr/books?id=0g9JAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110&lpg=PT110&dq=persinger+poltergeist&source=bl&ots=suNqNWwKjL&sig=exRqdjbIGLuXnhSKdG1Qx9L3NB0&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=LU6cU5XUPITXPKfdgcgC&ved=0CFwQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=persinger%20poltergeist&f=false (french) and other sources are of paranormal origin but the problem is that poltergeist aren't mentioned explicitly altough I think that they are considered the same as haunting experience. Persinger's idea in collaboration of Wiseman are present in many paranormal-related articles and in other languages (french, russian...), we could put them too but with a critical note that his experiment wasn't replicated. Until we get to a consensus I propose to put the article at the version of 14:35, 14 June 2014 by LuckyLouie.Thundergodz (talk) 04:13, 17 June 2014 (UTC)

 * Re: Here also "Discovery of Electromagnetic Anomalies at Two Reputedly Haunted Castles in Scandinavia" http://www.questia.com/library/journal/1G1-60054205/discovery-of-electromagnetic-anomalies-at-two-reputedly + they tried to build a haunted room but apparently negative results (but it shows us that Persinger's theory is taken seriously) http://www.wired.com/2009/10/scientifically-haunted-house — Preceding unsigned comment added by Thundergodz (talk • contribs) 03:03, 18 June 2014 (UTC)

"poltern" meaning
I am german and know the language VERY well. And I know, that "poltern" is not just "making noises", that would be "Geräusche machen". It actually is - as I tried to edit - making loud, maybe annoying sounds like rumbling, rocks that fall on the ground or woodplanks that are thrown around. Despite defining "poltern" more clear, it also fits to what ghosts usually enjoy to do. So it would be fitting, if you let me (or someone else) do that edit. Thank you

84.131.189.161 (talk) 19:39, 29 June 2014 (UTC)

This Article not properly researched and does not mention all the possibilities.
What is ignored in this article and what a even a cursory search revealed is that most cases of poltergeism involve young girls at puberty that have excess energy and unable to control it or properly channel it. The excessive energy and frustration is then used to create psychic and telekinetic havoc in their environment. See for example  http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2054842/Enfield-Poltergeist-The-amazing-story-11-year-old-North-London-girl-levitated-bed.html This would predict cessation of poltergeist activity by temporarily taking the girl away from the house during which time activity should cease. The suggested remedies would be to channel the girl into strong physical activities, soccer playing, dance classes, swimming competitions, learning piano with training exercises, whatever  her preferences are, and  getting home she would be too tired to spook. 76.171.150.240 (talk) 03:55, 20 October 2014 (UTC) R.A.

 * The article already refers to that hypothesis: "Parapsychologists such as Nandor Fodor and William Roll wrote that poltergeist activity can be explained by psychokinesis." It is not as detailed as you described it though. --Hob Gadling (talk) 10:51, 24 October 2014 (UTC)

Brovetto and Maxia
The "quantum poltergeist" theory by Brovetto and Maxia presently in the Poltergeist section may have been an April Fool's Day article by New Scientist -- or in the least, so deliberately offbeat as to be of dubious value. - LuckyLouie (talk) 23:52, 7 November 2014 (UTC)

 * I always wanted to remove it, in fact I did but I was reverted by another user who added it. I don't have a problem with the New Scientist as a source. It's just their explanation is just too fringe like and just sounds like a joke. There is no evidence of a follow-up piece etc. I am not sure what to make of it. I would recommend for it to be removed. Goblin Face (talk) 00:05, 8 November 2014 (UTC)

 * It's a circa 2008 paper that never got any traction except in parapsychology bibliographies (including this one). Obviously a tiny minority view, so it doesn't belong here. - LuckyLouie (talk) 00:25, 8 November 2014 (UTC)

Parapsychology journal link added to EL?
I have removed insertion of a link to an article in a fringe journal (the American Society for Psychical Research) which states that "rapping sounds" made in seances are both "unexplained" and attempts by spirits to "communicate". WP:ELNO requires us to omit links to factually misleading information. The biography of the author, Dr Barrie G. Colvin, is (for Wikipedia's purposes) irrelevant. What matters is the source he was published in, i.e. a journal that Wikipedia widely considers unreliable because it represents a tiny WP:FRINGE view that has no impact outside the fringe bubble. Compare for example the Impact factor of the American Society for Psychical Research and a mainstream journal such as the Journal of Immunology. - LuckyLouie (talk) 18:27, 23 December 2015 (UTC)

For what it is worth, the "fringe journal" to which you refer is published by the Society for Psychical Research (based in London), not the American Society for Psychical Research.

Anybody interested in learning more about this dispute may do so by clicking here and here.

Alderbourne (talk) 08:28, 27 December 2015 (UTC)

 * The Society for Psychical Research, is not considered an academic or science journal, is not a reliable source to be citing on Wikipedia. Unless there is notable coverage in reliable secondary sources that discuss the said article piece, then that journal is not usually cited on Wikipedia. JuliaHunter (talk) 12:15, 28 December 2015 (UTC)

Youtube

 * (I'm Macqdor) My links are from a case currently being looked at by well respected names in the Paranormal community. Individuals and organizations in both the US and UK. This Wiki page seems centered only on UK Poltergeist related cases. Majority of the links and references come from the UK. Why not global accounts? Do you want the names of the organizations investigating and vouching what I've posted?
 * has re-inserted unreliable links to YouTube videos on the article many times. I have warned him once for doing this. I ask this user to please make a case on the talk-page here why these YouTube videos to be included on the article. It is nothing more than advertising. JuliaHunter (talk)

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Added information to article
I modified the introductory paragraph by adding more details about what exactly a poltergeist is. I feel like originally there was quite a good bit of information being left out and it didn't accurately depict just how much a poltergeist can entail. I also added two subsections to the famous cases section by giving brief descriptions of two of the cases listed. This will make it easier for readers to quickly get information without having to be redirected to different articles and read a lot more informaiton. Another section I added was about Ed and Lorraine Warren, since they are two widely known experts in the field I thought it was vital to give information and background on them as well. Feel free to let me know your thoughts on my revisions and if you think they need to be edited again or not! — Preceding unsigned comment added by Baldvegan123 (talk • contribs) 00:23, 1 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Hi and thanks for your contributions. Regarding these edits:, , , , you may not have been familiar with part of Wikipedia's WP:NPOV policy, namely WP:FRINGE, which dictates that we give less, if any, weight to ideas and concepts at odds with mainstream/majority scientific thought. That is the reason this article (and all our other articles) lean heavily toward debunking and skepticism and away from superstition and the supernatural. (Regarding Ed and Lorraine Warren, they do not represent mainstream scientific thought, they are considered self-proclaimed "experts" and not independent reliable sources of fact) So claims that spirits of the dead and/or demonic entities exist, did something or can do something, etc. can only be treated as claims and not fact, and descriptions should not be written credulously. Depending on the source, we'd use WP:ATTRIBUTEPOV, for example, "According to John Smith, poltergeists are spirits...", or "In 2013, John Smith claimed a demon threw him down the stairs...", etc. - LuckyLouie (talk) 18:57, 1 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Poltergeist


text:
Baron Skelmersdale

Baron Skelmersdale, of Skelmersdale in the County Palatine of Lancaster, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1828 for the former Member of Parliament for Westbury, Newcastle-under-Lyme, Clitheroe and Dover, Edward Bootle-Wilbraham. His grandson, the second Baron (the son of the Hon. Richard Bootle-Wilbraham), was a Conservative politician and served in the Conservative administrations of Disraeli and Lord Salisbury. In 1880 he was created Earl of Lathom, in the County Palatine of Lancaster, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. However, the earldom became extinct on the death of his grandson, the third Earl, in 1930. The barony passed to the last Earl's second cousin once removed, the fifth Baron, who was the grandson of a younger son of the first Baron. On his death, the title was inherited by his cousin, the sixth Baron.

His son, the seventh Baron, served in junior ministerial positions in the Conservative administrations of Margaret Thatcher and was as one of the ninety-two elected hereditary peers allowed to remain after the passing of the House of Lords Act of 1999. , the title is held by his son, the eighth Baron, who succeeded him in that year.

Baron Skelmersdale (1828)

 * Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, 1st Baron Skelmersdale (1771–1853)
 * Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, 2nd Baron Skelmersdale (1837–1898, created Earl of Lathom in 1880)

Earl of Lathom (1880)

 * Edward Bootle-Wilbraham, 1st Earl of Lathom, 2nd Baron Skelmersdale (1837–1898)
 * Edward George Bootle-Wilbraham, 2nd Earl of Lathom, 3rd Baron Skelmersdale (1864–1910)
 * Edward William Bootle-Wilbraham, 3rd Earl of Lathom, 4th Baron Skelmersdale (1895–1930)

Baron Skelmersdale (1828; reverted)

 * Arthur George Bootle-Wilbraham, 5th Baron Skelmersdale (1876–1969)
 * Lionel Bootle-Wilbraham, 6th Baron Skelmersdale (1896–1973)
 * Roger Bootle-Wilbraham, 7th Baron Skelmersdale (1945–2018)
 * Andrew Bootle-Wilbraham, 8th Baron Skelmersdale (b. 1977)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Daniel Peter Bootle-Wilbraham (b. 2007).

title: Baron Skelmersdale


text:
Big Brother Brasil

Big Brother Brasil is the Brazilian version of the Big Brother reality franchised television show based on the original Dutch television series of the same name, that was created in 1997 by John de Mol. It is the second one with more finished seasons (only after the American version) and the only one with more than 20 years of uninterrupted annual transmission in the same channel.

The show is based on a group of strangers, known as housemates, living together twenty-four hours a day in the "Big Brother" house, isolated from the outside world (primarily from mass media, such as newspapers, telephones, television and the internet) while having all their steps followed by cameras around-the-clock, with no privacy for three months.

The housemates compete for the chance to win the grand prize by avoiding weekly eviction, until the last housemate remains at the end of the season that can claim the grand prize. The show's current host is journalist Tadeu Schmidt.

TV Globo's website and a Globo-owned pay-per-view channel offer round-the-clock coverage. Sabrina Sato (season 3) used to be one of the hosts of Panico na TV and now hosts her own TV program, Juliana Alves (season 3) and Grazi Massafera (season 5) are soap opera actresses at TV Globo, Íris Stefanelli and Flávia Vianna (season 7) were reporters for many years in a show called TV Fama. The five can be considered the most successful contestants of the show, although none of them have won the show. The only three winners who enjoyed success after the show are Jean Wyllys, who had been following a political career as a federal deputy since winning the fifth season until leaving Brazil in 2019. Thelma Assis, who became a TV presenter for the station, in addition to having contracts with several brands. And Juliette Freire who became an internet phenomenon by reaching 24 million Instagram followers during the show's 21st season. After the show, she devoted herself to building a successful music career.

The twentieth season of the show had the biggest participation in the world of votings in an eviction, reaching over 1.5 billion votes. The previous record, also achieved by Big Brother Brasil in the same season, was 416 million votes. Advertising quotas reached R$78 million, with a total collection of R$530 million.

The House
The Big Brother Brasil house is located inside Estúdios Globo, the Globo's production center in Rio de Janeiro. The house is considered by most Big Brother specialists as the biggest and most extravagant house of all Big Brothers.

The external area of the house is approximately 700 square meters (m2) while the internal areas is about 200 m2. The house has three bedrooms (two for the regular contestants and one for week's Head of Household), a living room, two bathrooms (one inside a bedroom), a big garden, two kitchens (one for the Haves and another for the Have-nots), a gym, a Jacuzzi, a pool, a laundry room, a Diary Room and a separate area, called "another dimension", which was once the white bedroom (ninth and tenth seasons) and the surprise bedroom (eleventh season).

Launch night
On the night of the Live Launch several members of the public, who have passed through several audition processes, enter the House to become Housemates of the Big Brother House. Once inside the house the Housemates will live together and have no contact with the outside world.

Head of Household (Líder)
Except in the first week, after each eviction (Portuguese: paredão, a term which literally means "big wall"), housemates compete to become the "Head of Household" (líder), by winning a weekly physical endurance challenge, based on a specific skill, a general knowledge quiz or, even sometimes through a luck event.

The Líder receives perks such as their own private bedroom, photos or gifts from home, and maid service. The Líder is awarded immunity from the week's nomination (except in the fifteenth and sixteenth seasons where instead the Líder won a cash prize) and also has the power to directly nominate one housemate for eviction, in addition, the Líder is the tiebreaker for the house's nomination vote. Although one housemate normally retains the Leader rewards and responsibilities for the week, exceptions have occurred.

In a "double eviction" week, the first Líder only reigns for a short period (between an hour and three days) while the second Líder reigns for the rest of the week. When this occurs, the first Líder is normally not provided the perks awarded in a normal eviction week. Another exception is when two housemates share the Líder position, such as in the third week of the sixth season and in the first week of the seventh season.

Power of Immunity
In the third season, a weekly "Power of Immunity" (anjo, a term which literally means "angel") is introduced and determined. This housemate may choose any other housemate to protect from facing the eviction. However, in the seventh season, another selected house mate was given the "Power of Veto" to nullify the saving power.

Since the eighth season, Power of Immunity winner was also given a bad side (called monstro, a term which literally means "monster"), where that housemate, besides protecting someone from elimination, must "punish" one or more contestants, obliging them to do an unpleasing task or forbidding them to go to the party.

Estaleca or food competition
On Sundays, a competition allow the housemates to win food (until the fourth season) or estalecas (from the fifth season onwards) for the week. Most competitions are games of skill, although the housemates may work individually, in teams, or as one group.

Introduced in the fifth season, the "Estaleca" (Z$) is the official currency of the house. Each contestant has their own credit card with a set amount of Estalecas. Contestants may use their currency to purchase food for the house.

The winners of the week's Estaleca competition earn the right to do all the shopping, choosing what the entire house will eat for the upcoming week. As in the real stock market, the Estalecas can suffer some speculative attacks and thus the value of the groceries may inflate or deflate.

Sunday live nominations
First the PoI winner and HoH nominate their choices for their respective abilities. Then, each one of the remaining contestants go into the Diary Room, and vote on the contestant they wish to face an elimination match. The highest voted contestant is sent to the elimination match to face the person nominated by the HoH and an audience poll starts (either by telephone, SMS or Internet) to pick which of the nominated contestants shall be eliminated.

Since the twenty season, the nominated housemates compete against each other for one last chance to save themselves from eviction. The housemates nominated by the HoH are not eligible to compete and are guaranteed to face Brazil's vote.

Tuesday live eviction
On Eviction Night, the poll result is shown and the highest voted housemate is eliminated and evicted from the house. The evicted housemate must to get ready to leave immediately. Once they leave the House they are greeted by the live crowd and the show host.

Live Final and the winner
In the Live Final, only two to three housemates remain in the house, after surviving numerous evictions. The public are then asked to vote for their favourite surviving Housemate to win the prize. The winner is announced and the final three surviving housemates leaving the house together, treated to a cheering crowd.

Brazilian ratings
All numbers are provided by IBOPE.

 * Each point represents 60,000 households in São Paulo.

Celebrities
Usually Big Brother contestants are already forgotten by the time of the next season, but there are a few exceptions of contestants who became national stars. Juliana Alves, Sabrina Sato, Grazi Massafera, Íris Stefanelli and Juliette Freire are probably the biggest celebrities coming out of the reality show.

Sabrina Sato became a personality on the country after appearing in the third season. She posed naked twice for Playboy magazine and is one of the hosts of Pânico na TV, a very popular TV show among teenagers and Rede TV!'s most-watched show. She now has one of Record Network's biggest contracts and is also the spokesperson for several companies.

After her participation in the fifth season, where she was billed as extremely charismatic and nice, Grazielli Massafera also became a huge celebrity appearing in over 130 magazine covers, posing naked for Playboy magazine, starring in over 13 commercials and winning an important role on TV Globo's 9 o'clock soap opera Páginas da Vida, where she received bad critics. Grazi is now a public and critically acclaimed actress and one of the most popular celebrities in the country and married Cauã Raymond, one of Brazil's most popular and eligible young actors. In 2016, she was nominated for the International Emmy Award for Best Actress.

Íris Stefanelli attracted huge attention during her time in the house and achieved extreme popularity, thanks to her charisma. She became a personality in the country after appearing in the seventh season, She received a big paycheck to pose naked for Playboy. Globo decided not to take into consideration "Siri" (as she was nicknamed in the house) huge popularity and decided not to give her a long-term contract. She was contracted by small RedeTV! to co-host celebrities show TV Fama. Her lucrative deal was highlighted by the media. Íris is still a host on the show after the huge buzz that ensued her participation on the house.

Another contestant Jean Wyllys started his career in politics after participating in the program and was elected federal deputy in 2010, 2014 and 2018. Thelma Assis became a tv presenter and model. Juliette Freire became a singer, scoring her first EP on pre-saves on Spotify on Brazil.

My Big Brother
A mobile version of Big Brother was released in 2005, called My Big Brother, and reproduced the entire show, in real-time, inside mobile phones. Big Brother Brasil is also on software and is manufactured by Continuum Entertainment and Brasoft Studios.

Big Game BBB
Big Game BBB appeared in the 22nd season of Big Brother Brasil and brought some news, but, in addition to the program itself, this edition also marked the launch of Big Game BBB, a free virtual game by Globo in which reality fans can guess about the dynamics of the week and see who does better in the bets.

Controversy and criticism
Big Brother Brasil 3 began on January 14, 2003, and was controversial. One of the contestants was the current Miss Brazil, Joseane Oliveira. Rules of the Miss Brazil contest forbid participation of married women but Joseane stated she was single. As a consequence of the exposure during the reality show, some magazines discovered she was married even before winning the beauty contest.

Once the marriage was proven, Joseane was stripped of her crown, and Thaisa Tomsem was crowned Miss Brazil 2002. Also, contestant Dilson Walkarez was not aware of Joseane relationship's status and tried to start a romantic relationship with her during the show. Due to her refusals, he felt unmotivated and left the show voluntarily. Housemate Harry Grossman replaced him at February 26 and became the first housemate not to enter the show on its first day.

During Big Brother Brasil 8, the contestant Juliana Goes fainted during an endurance task where the contestants had to remain perfectly still inside a glass chamber. Newspapers and websites accused the show of being inhumane. However, the show was unaffected by the negative press.

In Big Brother Brasil 10, Marcelo Dourado, a returning contestant from BBB4, was accused of being homophobic but that was ignored and he eventually won his second season.

But the biggest scandal of the show happened on Big Brother Brasil 12 when contestant Daniel Echaniz was accused of raping one of the contestants. He was expelled during the first week and denied the accusations, which were eventually dropped.

In Big Brother Brasil 19, only a few days after the beginning of the show, contestant Vanderson Brito faced rape accusations published online by his former girlfriend. He was expelled after police subpoenaed him for an interview, violating the house rule of having no contact with the outside world. Contestant Hariany Almeida was also expelled, after a party night where she was drunk lead to her pushing another contestant, violating the house rule of no violence. The show also faced considerable criticism as the house divided into two groups, separated by class and race, which lead to considerable racist comments and even police investigations regarding religious intolerance.

In Big Brother Brasil 21, the contestant Karol Conká behavior and actions towards other housemates garnered a very negative reception from the viewers and public personalities. This included Karol's encouragement of outcasting certain housemates, aggressive comments that sparked discussions regarding psychological abuse and prejudiced comments that ranged from gaslighting, xenophobia, religious intolerance and sexual harassment, resulting in her cancellation with loss of followers on social networks and being evicted with the highest rejection of all the seasons, with 99.17% of the votes.

In 2011, Brazilian sociologist Silvia Viana Rodrigues wrote a thesis at University of São Paulo analyzing reality shows as spectacles that proliferate rituals of suffering. She analyzes such rituals in various cultural products from Hollywood and Brazilian television, with special attention to Big Brother Brasil. When investigating the openly eliminatory and cruel face of the game, Silvia Viana points out that such characteristics are liable to be entertainment with great and crucial public engagement because such processes of elimination, competition, exclusion, the affirmation of the war of all against all, of self-management and personal self-control through socio-emotional skills, entrepreneurship, the banality of evil, the naturalization of torture, the "battle for survival" logic and the incorporation of Nazi language and elements are already part of contemporary social life, especially in the context of work under neoliberalism. The thesis was later published as a book.

title: Big Brother Brasil


text:
Baron Seaford

Baron Seaford, of Seaford in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 1 July 1826 for Charles Ellis, a Jamaican sugar planter and slave-owner who had earlier represented Heytesbury, Seaford and East Grinstead in the House of Commons. In 1798 he married the Hon. Elizabeth Catherine Caroline Hervey, daughter of John Hervey, Lord Hervey, eldest son of Frederick Augustus Hervey, 4th Earl of Bristol and 5th Baron Howard de Walden. In 1803 Lord Seaford's four-year-old son Charles Ellis inherited the barony of Howard de Walden from his great-grandfather and became the sixth Baron Howard de Walden (this title was created by writ in 1597; see the Baron Howard de Walden for earlier history of this peerage). In 1845 he also succeeded his father as second Baron Seaford.

Charles married in 1828 Lady Lucy Cavendish-Bentinck, daughter of William Bentinck, 4th Duke of Portland, and his wife Henrietta Scott. Through this marriage a substantial fortune came into the Ellis family, mainly based on property ownership in central London, and also their family Kilmarnock estate and Dean Castle, which was in use until 1975 and his since been run by East Ayrshire Council. His grandson, the eighth and fourth Baron, assumed in 1917 by Royal Licence his great-grandmother's surname of Scott in addition to that of Ellis. He was succeeded by his son, the ninth and fifth Baron respectively. On his death in 1999 the two baronies separated.

The barony of Howard de Walden fell into abeyance between the late Baron's four daughters, while the barony of Seaford, which could only be inherited through male lines, was passed on to his second cousin once removed, the sixth and present holder of the title. He is the great-grandson of the Hon. William Charles Ellis, second son of the second Baron Seaford. Lord Seaford is also high in line of succession to the barony of Howard de Walden.

However, by Royal Warrant dated 25 June 2004, the Queen called the Barony of Howard de Walden out of abeyance in favour of the eldest daughter, Mary Hazel Caridwen Czernin (born 1935). In 1957 she had married Joseph Czernin, son of Count Franz Josef Czernin, a member of one of the oldest and most prominent noble families of the former Kingdom of Bohemia, now Czech Republic. By her husband she has five daughters and a son, Peter Joseph Czernin (born 1966), who is heir to the title.

Barons Seaford (1826)

 * Charles Rose Ellis, 1st Baron Seaford (1771–1845)
 * Charles Augustus Ellis, 6th Baron Howard de Walden, 2nd Baron Seaford (1799–1868)
 * Frederick George Ellis, 7th Baron Howard de Walden, 3rd Baron Seaford (1830–1899)
 * Thomas Evelyn Scott-Ellis, 8th Baron Howard de Walden, 4th Baron Seaford (1880–1946)
 * John Osmael Scott-Ellis, 9th Baron Howard de Walden, 5th Baron Seaford (1912–1999)
 * Colin Humphrey Felton Ellis, 6th Baron Seaford (b. 1946)

The heir apparent is the present holder's eldest son, the Hon. Benjamin Felton Thomas Ellis (b. 1976)

title: Baron Seaford


text:
Society of the United Scotsmen

The Society of the United Scotsmen was an organisation formed in Scotland in the late 18th century and sought widespread political reform throughout Great Britain. It grew out of previous radical movements such as the Friends of the People Society, and was inspired by the events of the French and American revolutions. Their aims were largely the same as those of the Society of the United Irishmen.

Societies of United Scotsmen had existed from the early 1790s, but it was only upon a delegation of United Irishmen arriving in Scotland to muster support for their cause that the United Scotsmen became more organised and more overtly revolutionary. The United Scotsmen were particularly adept at gaining support from the working classes of Scotland who stood to gain by becoming politically enfranchised, as the Society sought.

The aim of the Society was universal suffrage and annually elected parliaments, with a strong streak of republicanism running through it as well. By the mid-1790s the society may have had around 3,000 members.

Owing to its aims and activities the United Scotsmen had to remain a secret society, and organised themselves into cells of no more than 16 people which would send delegates to larger bodies on occasion. This way it meant the organisation was more difficult to penetrate, but it also meant that many members did not know other members of the organisation.

The society was further boosted when the Parliament passed the Militia Act 1797 which allowed for the conscription of young men into the army. This proved vastly unpopular with many ordinary Scots, and in August 1797 there were large protests across the country which were brutally suppressed, with many protesters killed (e.g. Massacre of Tranent).

The United Scotsmen hoped to get support from the Dutch as well as the French, and there were plans for the Dutch to land in Scotland with some 50,000 troops and to take over the Scottish Central Belt. However the Royal Navy intercepted a Dutch fleet and defeated them at the Battle of Camperdown in October 1797. Further hopes for French assistance were ruined when a French fleet was dispatched to England in the hope of encouraging English radicals (there was also a Society of the United Englishmen) to rise against His Majesty's Government. However radical activity was not as entrenched there as in Scotland, or Ireland in particular. If they had dispatched the fleet to either of these countries then they may have met with more success.

Various leaders of the United Scotsmen were arrested and tried. For example, George Mealmaker was sentenced to 14 years transportation. Other leaders such as Robert Jaffrey, David Black, James Paterson and William Maxwell were all found guilty of seditious activity. The last record of a United Scotsmen member having been tried before the courts was the trial in 1802 of Thomas Wilson. The United Scotsmen were (along with the United Irishmen) pronounced an illegal organisation and legal measures tightened up control of the press as well to halt radical activity.

However, the radical activity continued in Scotland and in 1820 there was another radical rising (one of whose leaders, James Wilson, had been a member of the United Scotsmen).

title: Society of the United Scotsmen


text:
Prior Analytics

The Prior Analytics (Ἀναλυτικὰ Πρότερα; Analytica Priora) is a work by Aristotle on reasoning, known as syllogistic, composed around 350 BCE. Being one of the six extant Aristotelian writings on logic and scientific method, it is part of what later Peripatetics called the Organon.

The term analytics comes from the Greek words analytos (ἀναλυτός, 'solvable') and analyo (ἀναλύω, 'to solve', literally 'to loose'). However, in Aristotle's corpus, there are distinguishable differences in the meaning of ἀναλύω and its cognates. There is also the possibility that Aristotle may have borrowed his use of the word "analysis" from his teacher Plato. On the other hand, the meaning that best fits the Analytics is one derived from the study of Geometry and this meaning is very close to what Aristotle calls episteme (επιστήμη), knowing the reasoned facts. Therefore, Analysis is the process of finding the reasoned facts.

In the Analytics then, Prior Analytics is the first theoretical part dealing with the science of deduction and the Posterior Analytics is the second demonstratively practical part. Prior Analytics gives an account of deductions in general narrowed down to three basic syllogisms while Posterior Analytics deals with demonstration.

Legacy
Aristotle's Prior Analytics represents the first time in history when Logic is scientifically investigated. On those grounds alone, Aristotle could be considered the Father of Logic for as he himself says in Sophistical Refutations, "When it comes to this subject, it is not the case that part had been worked out before in advance and part had not; instead, nothing existed at all."

Ancient commentaries
In the third century AD, Alexander of Aphrodisias's commentary on the Prior Analytics is the oldest extant and one of the best of the ancient tradition and is available in the English language.

In the sixth century, Boethius composed the first known Latin translation of the Prior Analytics, however, this translation has not survived, and the Prior Analytics may have been unavailable in Western Europe until the eleventh century, when it was quoted from by Bernard of Utrecht.

The so-called Anonymus Aurelianensis III from the second half of the twelfth century is the first extant Latin commentary, or rather fragment of a commentary.

Modern reception
Modern work on Aristotle's logic builds on the tradition started in 1951 with the establishment by Jan Łukasiewicz of a revolutionary paradigm. His approach was replaced in the early 1970s in a series of papers by John Corcoran and Timothy Smiley —which inform modern translations of Prior Analytics by Robin Smith in 1989 and Gisela Striker in 2009.

A problem in meaning arises in the study of Prior Analytics for the word syllogism as used by Aristotle in general does not carry the same narrow connotation as it does at present; Aristotle defines this term in a way that would apply to a wide range of valid arguments. In the Prior Analytics, Aristotle defines syllogism as "a deduction in a discourse in which, certain things being supposed, something different from the things supposed results of necessity because these things are so." In modern times, this definition has led to a debate as to how the word "syllogism" should be interpreted. At present, syllogism is used exclusively as the method used to reach a conclusion closely resembling the "syllogisms" of traditional logic texts: two premises followed by a conclusion each of which is a categorical sentence containing all together three terms, two extremes which appear in the conclusion and one middle term which appears in both premises but not in the conclusion. Some scholars prefer to use the word "deduction" instead as the meaning given by Aristotle to the Greek word syllogismos (συλλογισμός). Scholars Jan Lukasiewicz, Józef Maria Bocheński and Günther Patzig have sided with the Protasis-Apodosis dichotomy while John Corcoran prefers to consider a syllogism as simply a deduction.

title: Prior Analytics


text:
Baron Stratheden

Baron Stratheden, of Cupar in the County of Fife, and Baron Campbell, of St Andrews in the County of Fife, are two titles in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. The titles were created in 1836 and 1841 respectively. The barony of Stratheden was created for the Hon. Mary, Lady Campbell, wife of the prominent lawyer and Whig politician Sir John Campbell, and daughter of James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger. Sir John Campbell, who in 1836 served as Attorney-General in the Whig administration of Lord Melbourne, had twice been overlooked for the office of Master of the Rolls, and was about to tender his resignation to Melbourne as a result of this. However, he was talked out of resigning when it was decided that, in recognition of the value of his services, his wife should be raised to the peerage. Five years later he was himself created Baron Campbell on his appointment as Lord Chancellor of Ireland. He later held office as Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain.

Both Lady Stratheden and Lord Campbell were succeeded by their eldest son, the second Baron. He had previously represented Cambridge and Harwich in the House of Commons as a Liberal. He never married and was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baron. On his death the titles passed to his grandson, the fourth Baron. He was a Brigadier in the army. He had no sons and was succeeded by his younger brother, the fifth Baron. the titles are held by the latter's grandson, the seventh Baron, who succeeded in 2011.

Barons Stratheden (1836)

 * Mary Elizabeth Campbell, 1st Baroness Stratheden (1796–1860)
 * William Frederick Campbell, 2nd Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1824–1893)
 * Hallyburton George Campbell, 3rd Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1829–1918)
 * Hon. John Beresford Campbell (1866–1915)
 * Donald Campbell (1896–1916)
 * Alistair Campbell, 4th Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1899–1981)
 * Gavin Campbell, 5th Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1901–1987)
 * Donald Campbell, 6th Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1934–2011)
 * David Anthony Campbell, 7th Baron Stratheden and Campbell (b. 1963)

There is no heir to the baronies.

Barons Campbell (1841)
see above for further holders
 * John Campbell, 1st Baron Campbell (1779–1861)
 * William Frederick Campbell, 2nd Baron Stratheden and Campbell (1824–1893)

title: Baron Stratheden


text:
Gabriele Lesser

Gabriele Alexandra Lesser (born 16 May 1960 in Frankfurt am Main) is a historian and journalist, who specializes in the history of World War II and the occupation of Poland, the Baltic countries, and Ukraine 1939–1945.

As Warsaw-based correspondent of newspapers published in Germany (Taz-Berlin), Austria (Standard-Vienna), and Switzerland (Tages-Anzeiger-Zurich) she publishes regularly news, reportages, analysis about Ukraine, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and the Kaliningrad oblast. She wrote and edited several books about the contemporary Poland, the history of the Underground University in Cracow in World War II and a guidebook about Masuria and the Masurian Lakeland.

title: Gabriele Lesser