text:
Talk:Belligerent

Untitled
a Wiktionary definition

Cecropia, I guess this page be more appropriate for discussions? :-)

moved discussion from User Talk:Ruhrjung: // Cecropia agrees! :=D

Belligerent / Nonbelligerent
Ruhrjung, how are you considering Nonbelligerent as different from Neutral Country? If you're referring to civilians, the Geneva/Hague term is "protected person." - Cecropia 04:30, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Oh - I MIGHT take wrong with the terminology, although I hope not. What do you call a country that declare not to be involved in a conflict, but also not a neutral, for instance in order to retain the right of support for a belligerent? Given my Finnish example, there are two relevant points: Maybe the correct English term is non-participants instead?
 * at the outbreak of the Winter War, Sweden had a cabinet crisis which among other things hinged on the question whether Sweden were to give a declaration of neutrality or of non-belligerence. The outcome was "non-belligerence" and a rather substantial support for the Finnish side in the war (which however wasn't sufficient for the Finnish and Swedish opinions that demanded a declaration of war and engagement of regulary troops)
 * at the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War (yeah, I know, that term has a Communist taint for you, but in lack of better terms... it gets so awkward if one has to refer to the German Code "Operation Barbarossa" or the relative "War in the East" which equally well could have ment the Pacific War) ...anyway, in June 1941, Finland considered a declaration of neutrality, but held this for impossible given the large German forces massed in Northern Finland (and maybe also the leased Soviet Naval base on Finnish territory, to which the Soviet Union was granted unrestricted transit) [in addition, it must be added that the Finnish Navy unofficially cooperated closely with the Kriegsmarine, why also of that reason a neutrality declaration hadn't been reliable, although it's not entirely clear how much the leading politicians really knew about that cooperation] ...so, the Finns opted for the declaration of "non-participants" in the war between the Third Reich and the Soviet Union.

regards! --Ruhrjung 04:44, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah, I see the distinction you are making! You see, in Geneva and Hague the meaning of "neutral" and "non-belligerent" is rather different than the plain-language meaning. That is, for purposes of the laws of war the two terms are identical.

 * The term "non-belligerent" is only used four or five times in all the treaties, and then only in conjuctnion with the term "neutral nation" or power. In other words, there is no distinction between the terms. Even if a country is sympathetic to a belligerent or has a treaty with a belligerent they can still declare themselves "neutral" or "non-belligerent." But a non-belligerent is legally neutral, so they have the same responsibilities as a truly neutral power--if they give aid to one of the belligerents, they risk becoming belligerents themselves, and subject to attack.

 * A couple of aspects of that point include (of course) the Graf Spee, which had to be scuttled because Uruguay couldn't allow it to stay in port without risking attack by the British, and then you have Roosevelt's open aid to Britain before Pearl Harbor, which many feared risked America's neutrality.

 * I'm going to flip the words "neutral" and "non-belligerent" and take the dead link off the latter, so the meaning is conveyed but we don't have to write a separate article. OK? Maybe we could have "non-belligerent" as a redirect. Best, Cecropia 05:37, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Reading above, I wonder if you take a US point of view (i.e. in this case a US interpretation) for more granted/authoritative than is usual in my surroundings. I think I remember references to British diplomatic activities aiming at getting this or that neutralist country to refrain from the neutrality declaration and stay at a non-belligerence declaration in connection with the opening of WWII, and I'm pretty sure that non-belligerence (but naturally not neutrality) was discussed by observers who seemed pretty initiated in connection with the diplomatic crisis surrounding NATO, the Iraq Invasion and the German constitutional hinderness against "wars of aggression" - but in neither case do I remember exactly when or where I should have read this.

 * Your remark do also throw light on possible reasons behind some common communication failures in international debate.

 * Oh, and let me add that your information about the equivical position such as Sweden found itself in is very interesting--could you include that in an article or articles? - Cecropia 05:41, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Sure ...sooner or (maybe rather) later. This noted as a realistic and self-critical prognosis. The place for that will probably be Swedish neutrality during World War II, and possibly also at an article on Sweden and the Winter War or something in that direction. However, reading in one foreign language (Swedish) and writing in another (English) doesn't precisely increase my effectivity. Besides, ...at the moment I have a huge problem with internal (psychological) resistence against the probable troubles with the article prepared at User:Ruhrjung/Germans. My edits this night have basically been nothing but evasive manoevres to avoid that challenge.
 * --Ruhrjung 06:19, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * With regard to USA, I note in a Danish source that the US government is held to have converted its neutrality for non-belligerent status in june 1940. I guess you might evaluate that easier than I can.
 * Googling (after occurences of neutrals "and" non-belligerent, instead of "or"):
 * http://books.cambridge.org/0521643589.htm
 * http://www.ndu.edu/inss/McNair/mcnair33/m33c8con.html
 * http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/documents/preface.htm
 * http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.cgi?path=246851048702246
 * http://www.nottingham.ac.uk/politics/staff/wylie.html

 * --Ruhrjung 07:06, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Ah, now I understand the distinction you are drawing. Our diverse view isn't based on U.S.-centric vs. Eurocentric, as far as I can see, but usage by nations as opposed to the requirements of Hague and Geneva, which are international law. At any rate, I have updated the article to try to make the rhetorical distinction--I hope you approve. If I may suggest, it may be a jumping-off point for you to add some of the material you've been citing here, is you are so inclined. Best, Cecropia 01:44, 28 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * I approve, of course. --Ruhrjung 12:12, 2 May 2004 (UTC)

Consider a state A. (i.e. country) that has foreign military bases on its territory, and that foreign power (B.) wages a war against a third party (C.). Is it really so, that this state A. is automatically a belligerent?

If not (automatically), then one must wonder if the distinction between non-belligerents and neutrals maybe could be of relevance. It seems, after all, as if governments now and then make that distinction, and one must guess that they don't interpret the relevant international treaties arbitrarily.

Anyhow, I must stress that I write this as a curious layman, and have had no time recently to look into the subject. --Ruhrjung 12:35, 2 May 2004 (UTC)

removed un-noteworthy statement
The Belligerents are also a highly respected gang from the popular MMORPG Hobowars.

Achoo5000 02:36, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

formal declaration of war
I am asking for a citation for this sentence:
 * ''International law and practices require that belligerency between sovereign states should be preceded by a formal declaration of war prior to such warring states being treated as belligerent states under International law.[citation needed]

Because since the UN charter was signed a formal deceleration of war is not legal (article 2, paragraph 4). there are other considerations and treaties involved see crimes against peace for more details. This is why such wars as the Falklands war was at the time it was taking place described as an "armed conflict". So if this sentence is to remain in the article it needs an attribution from an expert. --Philip Baird Shearer 09:29, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

Latin Etymology
The definition at the very beginning of the page says the term stems from "bellum gerere". I have only had a few years of Latin in High School, but I was wondering if it shouldn't be "bellum genere", if the literal translation is to "create" war. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.149.112.121 (talk) 10:23, 19 May 2013 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Belligerent


text:
Kocaeli Province

Kocaeli Province (Kocaeli ili, ) is a province and metropolitan municipality of Turkey and one of only three not to have the same official name as its capital, İzmit, which is thus also sometimes called Kocaeli. Its area is 3,397 km2, and its population is 2,079,072 (2022). The province is the successor of the Ottoman-era Sanjak of Kocaeli. The largest towns in the province are İzmit and Gebze. The traffic code is 41. The province is located at the easternmost end of the Sea of Marmara around the Gulf of İzmit. Kocaeli is bordered by the province of Istanbul and the Marmara Sea to the west, the Black Sea to the north, the province of Sakarya to the east, the province of Bursa to the south and the province of Yalova to the southwest. The metropolitan area of Istanbul extends to the Kocaeli-Istanbul provincial border. The size and natural conditions of the Bay of İzmit allow for extensive port facilities, including the Gölcük Naval Base. The province is called the industrial capital of Turkey. Kocaeli has an airport named Cengiz Topel Naval Air Station which is used for military and civilian transport. Kocaeli has two universities: Kocaeli University and Gebze Technical University.

Demographics
Data taken from Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality and Central Dissemination System. The information is for (xxxx-12-31).

Districts
Kocaeli province is divided into 12 districts:
 * Başiskele
 * Çayırova
 * Darıca
 * Derince
 * Dilovası
 * Gebze
 * Gölcük
 * İzmit
 * Kandıra
 * Karamürsel
 * Kartepe
 * Körfez

Mayors of Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality

 * 1977-1980 Erol Köse CHP
 * 1984-1989 Necati Gençoğlu ANAP
 * 1989-2002 Sefa Sirmen SHP, CHP
 * 2002-2004 Hikmet Erenkaya CHP
 * 2004-2019 İbrahim Karaosmanoğlu AK Party
 * 2019-present Tahir Büyükakın AK Party

Twin cities

 * 🇩🇪 Kassel, Germany
 * 🇷🇸 Novi Pazar, Serbia

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Kocaeli Province


text:
Admiralty Inlet

Admiralty Inlet is a strait in the U.S. state of Washington connecting the eastern end of the Strait of Juan de Fuca to Puget Sound. It lies between Whidbey Island and the northeastern part of the Olympic Peninsula.

Boundaries
It is generally considered to be the northern part of Puget Sound's Main Basin. Its northern boundary is defined as a line running between Point Wilson and Point Partridge, and it extends south to the southern end of Whidbey Island and Point No Point on the Kitsap Peninsula, where it joins the Central Basin of Puget Sound's Main Basin. Admiralty Inlet's area is 437 km2, with a volume of 15200 m3. Its shoreline is 171 km in length. Its mean depth is 35 m. Though only 6 km wide at the narrowest point (between the Point Wilson and Admiralty Head lighthouses), it is through this passage that nearly all the seawater flows into and from Puget Sound during daily tidal variations. Tidal currents can reach six knots in the area northeast of Point Wilson.

All sea vessels must pass through Admiralty Inlet to enter or leave Puget Sound, except those small enough to use Deception Pass or Swinomish Channel. This fact led to the selection of Port Townsend on the Quimper Peninsula as the official port of entry for the Puget Sound region during the early days of commerce in the area. It also led to the federal decision in the late 1890s to construct Fort Worden, Fort Casey, and Fort Flagler around Admiralty Inlet as a "Triangle of Fire" for the protection of Puget Sound from a hostile fleet.

The first Europeans to find and map Admiralty Inlet were the Spanish of the 1790 expedition of Manuel Quimper. It was Quimper's pilot, Juan Carrasco, who sighted the inlet. Thinking it was a bay he named it Ensenada de Caamaño, after the Spanish naval officer Jacinto Caamaño. Two years later Admiralty Inlet was given its present name by George Vancouver, after his ultimate commanders, the Board of Admiralty. The Spanish name was later given to Camano Island.

Present day
Today a great deal of maritime freight traffic passes through Admiralty Inlet to the major shipping ports at Seattle and Tacoma, and of United States Navy vessels to the Naval facilities in Puget Sound. The Keystone-Port Townsend run of the Washington State Ferries crosses the inlet and serves as a link for State Route 20.

A tidal power project was canceled due to costs of monitoring wildlife.

title: Admiralty Inlet


text:
Talk:Narendra Modi

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 22 June 2024
My request is to change the dates for inauguration TheWikiUser210938 (talk) 02:16, 22 June 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. Charliehdb (talk) 12:19, 22 June 2024 (UTC)

Shortening the header of chief ministership.
The content is too long. It could be summarised and shortened since most of the related content is already at the Chief ministership of Narendra Modi. — Hemant Dabral (📞 • ✒) 17:08, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

 * It should be shortened, but throwing out whole sections isn't a reasonable way to do so. Also, the content being at a subsidiary article is not a reason to remove anything: by definition, anything in this article should be covered in its spinoffs. I'd say the development projects and debate sections could probably be brought down to about three paragraphs, and the specific statistics are the best targets for pruning. But we really need an affirmative consensus here before removing text that was written with extensive accompanying discussion, and has been through a GAN and a GAR. Vanamonde93 (talk) 17:50, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

PM Modi Received Russia's Highest Civilian Honour For "Outstanding Service"
Anyone plz add 210.212.189.98 (talk) 04:03, 10 July 2024 (UTC)

 * https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/vladimir-putin-awards-pm-modi-russias-highest-civilian-honour-for-outstanding-service-101720531209084.html
 * https://www.ndtv.com/india-news/pm-modi-to-receive-russias-highest-civilian-honour-for-outstanding-service-6065444 210.212.189.98 (talk) 05:52, 10 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format and provide a reliable source if appropriate. DMacks (talk) 03:27, 11 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Narendra Modi was awarded Russia’s highest civilian honour, the Order of St. Andrew the Apostle by Vladimir Putin during his visit to Russia.
 * I think the user that made this request was asking someone to add this information under awards and recognition section of the article. EliteFairy (talk) 04:57, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

 * ✅ Added to awards and recognition section. RegentsPark (comment) 15:19, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

Plz change "In 2024, during a visit to Russia, Modi was awarded the Order of St. Andrew, Russia's highest civilian award" to "In 2024, during a visit to Russia, Modi was awarded the Order of St. Andrew, Russia's highest civilian award for his effort in the development of the bilateral ties between India and Russia." Source

Extended-confirmed-protected edit request on 11 July 2024
Consider adding "Order of St. Andrew" honorific prefix in the info box. Also consider mentioning it somewhere in Awards and Nominations subpage. (refer to Order of St. Andrew's last induction for more info). Contributor2020 (talk) 15:06, 11 July 2024 (UTC)
 * Added to the awards section. We don't include these sorts of awards as a prefix. RegentsPark (comment) 15:22, 11 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Narendra Modi


text:
STS-43

STS-43, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle Atlantis, was a nine-day mission whose primary goal was launching the TDRS-E satellite (TDRS-5). The flight also tested an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station and conducted a variety of medical and materials science investigations.

Preparations and launch
The launch took place on August 2, 1991, 11:01:59 a.m. EDT. Launch was originally set for July 23, 1991, but was moved to July 24 to allow time to replace a faulty integrated electronics assembly that controls orbiter/external tank separation. The mission was postponed again about five hours before liftoff on July 24, 1991, due to a faulty main engine controller on the number three main engine. The controller was replaced and retested; launch was reset for August 1, 1991. Liftoff set for 11:01 a.m. delayed due to cabin pressure vent valve reading and postponed at 12:28 p.m. due to unacceptable return-to-launch site weather conditions. Launch finally occurred on August 2, 1991, without further delays.

Mission highlights

The primary payload, TDRS-E, attached to an Inertial Upper Stage (IUS), was deployed about six hours into flight, and the IUS propelled the satellite into geosynchronous orbit. TDRS-5 became the fourth member of the orbiting TDRS cluster. Secondary payloads were Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II); Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV) instrument; Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE) and Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW). Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.

TDRS-E, which became TDRS-5 on orbit, was successfully boosted to geosynchronous orbit at more than 22,000 miles (35400 km) above Earth by two firings of the Inertial Upper Stage (IUS) booster, the last of which occurred approximately 12½ hours into the mission. TDRS then deployed its antennas and solar panels, and separation from the IUS took place less than 45 minutes later.

The TDRS network of satellites provides the vital communication link between Earth and low-orbiting spacecraft such as the Space Shuttle. Until the STS-43 deployment, there were three TDRS spacecraft on orbit above the equator: two were in the west position over the Pacific Ocean, southwest of Hawaii. TDRS-4 was in the east position over the northeast corner of Brazil. TDRS-B was lost in the Challenger accident in 1986. After STS-43, the two satellites in the west became on-orbit spares; TDRS-5, after activation, checkout and calibration, officially became the primary provider of services in the west location on October 7, 1991. It was stationed at 175° west longitude.

Previously, orbiting spacecraft could communicate with Earth only when in sight of a ground tracking station – about 15 percent of each orbit. The TDRS network allows communication from 85% to 100% of an orbit, depending on the spacecraft's altitude.

The crew was kept busy with the operation of varied experiments during the nine-day flight. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE-II) experiment tested a natural cooling process for transferring thermal energy that could serve as a cooling system for Space Station Freedom. The Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE) provided some answers about how fire behaves in microgravity. The crew also activated other previously flown materials science experiments and participated in medical experiments in support of long-duration flights. One test showed that optical fibers could provide video and audio links between the flight deck and the payload bay.

Crew members in space and flight controllers on the ground demonstrated their ingenuity when they adapted a camera part to replace one that had not been packed for the mission.

The mission was also notable for being the first one to send an email from space. On August 9, 1991, astronauts Lucid and Adamson used AppleLink to write an email from a Macintosh Portable addressed to Marsha S. Ivins at Johnson Space Center. The message read:

"Hello Earth! Greetings from the STS-43 crew. This is the first AppleLink from space. Having a GREAT time, wish you were here, ... send cryo and RCS! Hasta la vista, baby, ... we'll be back!"

The crew experienced some minor problems, none of them critical to the safety or success of the mission. A cooling system for Auxiliary Power Unit (APU 2) failed to activate during an on-orbit test. APU 2 is one of three redundant systems which provide hydraulic pressurization to orbiter steering systems during entry and landing. APU 2 was still available for use in landing.

Atlantis landed on August 11, 1991, at 8:23:25 a.m. EDT, on Runway 15, at Kennedy Space Center.

Mission insignia
According to the mission's official Press Kit, the STS-43 insignia portrays the evolution and continuity of the U.S. space program by highlighting thirty years of American crewed spaceflight experience, from Project Mercury to the Space Shuttle. The emergence of the shuttle Atlantis from the outlined configuration of the Mercury space capsule commemorates this special relationship. The energy and momentum of launch are conveyed by the gradations of blue which mark the shuttle's ascent from Earth to space. Once in Earth orbit, Atlantis' cargo bay opens to reveal the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS) which appears in gold emphasis against the white wings of Atlantis and the stark blackness of space. As primary mission objective, the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) will enable almost continuous communication from Earth to space for future space shuttle missions. The stars on the insignia are arranged to suggest this mission's numerical designation, with four stars left of Atlantis and three to the right.

Wake-up calls
NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Project Gemini, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.

title: STS-43


text:
STS-48

STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on September 12, 1991, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was. The primary payload was the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS). The mission landed on September 18 at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22. The mission was completed in 81 revolutions of the Earth and traveled 3530369 km. The 5 astronauts carried out a number of experiments and deployed several satellites. The total launch mass was 108890 kg and the landing mass was 87440 kg.

Mission highlights

Space Shuttle Discovery was launched into a 57.00° inclination orbit from the Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex 39A at 7:11 p.m. EDT on September 12, 1991. Launch was delayed for 14 minutes at the T-5 minute mark due to a noise problem in the air-to-ground link. The noise cleared itself, and the countdown proceeded normally to launch.

On the third day of the mission, the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was deployed from Discovery's payload bay 650 km above Earth to study human effects on the planet's atmosphere and its shielding ozone layer. The UARS mission objectives were to provide an increased understanding of the energy input into the upper atmosphere, global photochemistry of the upper atmosphere, dynamics of the upper atmosphere, the coupling among these processes, and the coupling between the upper and lower atmosphere. This provided data for a coordinated study of the structure, chemistry, energy balance, and physical action of the Earth's middle atmosphere – that slice of air between 16 km and 97 km above the Earth. The UARS was the first major flight element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth, a multi-year global research program that would use ground-based, airborne, and space-based instruments to study the Earth as a complete environmental system. UARS had ten sensing and measuring devices: Cryogenic Limb Array Etalon Spectrometer (CLAES); Improved Stratospheric and Mesospheric Sounder (ISAMS); Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS); Halogen Occultation Experiment (HALOE); High Resolution Doppler Imager (HRDI); Wind Imaging Interferometer (WlNDII); Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); Solar/Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE); Particle Environment Monitor (PEM) and Active Cavity Radiometer Irradiance Monitor (ACRIM II). UARS's initial 18-month mission was extended several times – it was finally retired after 14 years of service.

Secondary payloads were: Ascent Particle Monitor (APM); Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM); Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM); Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE); Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.

The flight was the first to test an electronic still camera in space, a modified Nikon NASA F4. Images obtained during the flight were monochrome with 8 bits of digital information per pixel (256 gray levels) and stored on a removable hard disk. The images could be viewed and enhanced on board using a modified lap-top computer before being transmitted to the ground via the orbiter digital downlinks.

STS-48 was the second post-Challenger mission to have Kennedy Space Center as the planned End-Of-Mission landing site, and the first mission to have a planned night landing at KSC. However, due to weather conditions at KSC in Florida, Discovery flew one extra orbit and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 3:38 a.m. EDT on September 18, 1991. The orbiter returned to KSC on September 26, 1991.

Ice particles
Video while in orbit on September 15, 1991, shows a flash of light and several objects that appear to be flying in an artificial or controlled fashion. NASA explained the objects as ice particles reacting to engine jets. Philip C. Plait discussed the issue in his book Bad Astronomy, agreeing with NASA. This topic was also discussed in an episode of UFO Hunters.

Wake-up calls
NASA began a tradition of playing music to astronauts during the Project Gemini, and first used music to wake up a flight crew during Apollo 15. Each track is specially chosen, often by the astronauts' families, and usually has a special meaning to an individual member of the crew, or is applicable to their daily activities.

title: STS-48


text:
Talk:Ostrava

old comments from 2004
taken from the User:Matt Borak's talk page:

Ostrava Are you sure that there are some Czechoslovaks?? 217.185.196.74 15:32, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * You are probably right that using "Czechoslovakians" is not the best thing to do, as it might lead to a confusion. There indeed was NO official Czechoslovakian nation (and thus no Czechoslovakians either). On the other hand, the term Czechoslovakians was used commonly before, refering to the people living inside the borders of the former Czechoslovakia or originating from it.

 * The article mentions Czechoslovakians while talking about WWII so the term in the sentence Historically, among the most influencing ethnic groups besides Czechoslovakians in Ostrava were Polish people, Germans and Jews.  IMHO should be OK. The sence (in terms of time) of the second sentence in the same paragraph (Thus, the population of the city, has become a mixture of Czechoslovakians and Poles.) continues to present time, which is invalid, though. I changed the second occurence of the word to "Czechs and Slovaks" (the Slovak minority in the town is still important, which is reasonable considering that Ostrava being so close to the Slovak border).

 * If you or anybody else have any more objections, please feel free to incorporate them in the text. -- Matt Borak 17:27, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Mayor name
It was discussed someplace (sorry, but I don't remember where) over the creation of a former template which was used for many Czech towns which I created (Infobox settlement) and which, in its original version, contained a field for the mayor's name but after many objections that it's not very important for an international reader I removed it. And I concur with that opinion now. It might be used with large towns such as London, Paris etc. where the mayor's known internationally, but if you look for some basic data for say a Spanish town of the same size as Ostrava, would their name be of any importance to you? I'm not going to do any reverts or remove it again in this article, I removed it when I was applying the new infobox, from the above mentioned reason. --Caroig 08:22, 28 December 2006 (UTC)

Average temperatures
The link in references (weather.com listed as source) redirects to data for Vienna, Austria and figures match those - information on average temperatures in the article is likely inaccurate. However, it seems there are no reliable data for Ostrava in weather.com

Pronunciation
Both speakers (female and male) in the sound file say [o'strava], but in the article the pronunciation is given as ['ostrava]
 * The "[o'strava]" pronunciation is the local dialectal one. Speakers of Lach dialects, Cieszyn Silesian or Polish would say it that way. Any other Czech speaker would say ['ostrava]. filelakeshoe (talk) 20:49, 11 February 2013 (UTC)

It ISN'T Upper Silesia! It's Opavian Silesia!--89.200.229.191 (talk) 21:56, 23 February 2013 (UTC)

Orign ignored, shameful again
Like many places in Tchechia, Slowakia and Poland, the nice houses, architecture and culture comes from the kicked out (and not in few cases massacered) German population. It is a shame, that the non German successors of these people who live in their houses, still try to shut their mouth about who made this culture and whose spirit brought all this to florish. A disgust. And it shows a certain fear of inferiority for if I live in someone elses house, I can admit it? Whats the big thing about it? And - b.t.w. - with this attiutde, there will never be peace in Europe, no matter how much the Germans pay. So in this special case: mind you adding, that the region came to economical and cultural bloom during hte "German period"? Thanks for being neutral and informing iin depth... — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.108.98.124 (talk) 23:48, 27 September 2016 (UTC)
 * It's a shame that some editors forget about crimes committed by the German population during WWII, eg. the Holocaust.Xx236 (talk) 08:14, 28 November 2016 (UTC)
 * The history section of this incomplete article currently (2021) does not include information on the Jews of Ostrava, nor of the [[The Holocaust in Bohemia and Moravia|

Holocaust]].Yohananw (talk) 16:35, 3 June 2021 (UTC)
 * OMG you are such a stupid Nazi. Ostrava is the most slavic city in Czech republic. It comes from the slavic word for island. The Germans were just colonialists in the czech lands and left the land 1945 the same way, they came in in the 17 century. The economical and cultural boom was due to the mining, which was mostly executed by Czechs because the germans were to coward to go into the mines. The Germans expelled many Czechs from the west part of the city and robbed them everything. So be quiet. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.1.63.220 (talk) 18:54, 24 July 2018 (UTC)

Administratibe vs. municipal district?
Pages describing districts say administrative, here is municipal. Please unify.Xx236 (talk) 08:18, 28 November 2016 (UTC)

Odd climate section
The climate section is really odd. It tells the cities dimensions and even the length of the road network. What do these characteristics have to do with the climate of the city? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 143.176.94.161 (talk) 23:37, 15 December 2018 (UTC)
 * Quite. I have moved that sentence into the "geography" section. Feel free to make such changes yourself in the future. – filelakeshoe (t / c) 🐱 13:15, 26 June 2019 (UTC)

Edited by the City Hall
For everyone's information, this article was overwritten and replaced with an entirely new article in 2015 by the City Hall of Ostrava. The new article has since been cleaned up a lot by other editors and as a result of the combined effort the article is certainly looking in a much better shape overall than it used to. However this rewrite by the úřad also removed a lot of useful information, like pronunciation of the city name and climate data (I've restored these two things). The last version before the úřední rewrite is this one. It would be good to see if anything else was removed which is worth restoring. – filelakeshoe (t / c) 🐱 13:14, 26 June 2019 (UTC)

 * Should there be a note with link to the prior version on top of the article?

 * In article history: > cur prev 13:32, 31 August 2015 Webmasterostrava talk contribs  49,070 bytes +16,820  Edited by City Hall of Ostrava undo <

 * Sourced edits, referenced historical information, were lost in total replacement of big prior version! Since 31 August 2015, many edits to new version, both sourced and non-sourced. In current article there are POV edits to weed. As a total replacement of  sourced version is a radical edit, maybe add a note and link on top? -Yohananw (talk) 20:25, 3 June 2021 (UTC)

Miniuni World of Miniatures
Apparently, this attraction doesn't exist anymore, so it shouldn't be advertised. --193.165.237.9 (talk) 07:25, 20 August 2020 (UTC)

Holocaust lacuna
Deserves mention in the history section. So as not to get lost, here is current, restored, revised paragraph on Ostrava's Jewish community destroyed in WW2 Nazi genocide.

In 1931 the Jewish community in Ostrava numbered 6,865 (5.4% of the population). About 8,000 Jews from the Ostrava district were murdered in the Holocaust. The Nisko Plan included the first deportation train transports of 1301 Jews from Ostrava on 17 and 26 October 1939. In 1994, a Holocaust memorial to the Jewish victims of Ostrava was built in Milada Horáková Park. -Yohananw (talk) 00:22, 7 June 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ostrava


text:
Legal aid

Legal aid is the provision of assistance to people who are unable to afford legal representation and access to the court system. Legal aid is regarded as central in providing access to justice by ensuring equality before the law, the right to counsel and the right to a fair trial. This article describes the development of legal aid and its principles, primarily as known in Europe, the Commonwealth of Nations and in the United States.

Legal aid is essential to guaranteeing equal access to justice for all, as provided for by Article 6.3 of the European Convention on Human Rights regarding criminal law cases and Article 6.1 of the same Convention both for civil and criminal cases. Especially for citizens who do not have sufficient financial means, the provision of legal aid to clients by governments increases the likelihood, within court proceedings, of being assisted by legal professionals for free or at a lower cost, or of receiving financial aid.

A number of delivery models for legal aid have emerged, including duty lawyers, community legal clinics, and the payment of lawyers to deal with cases for individuals who are entitled to legal aid. More informal or general legal advice and assistance may also be provided for free or at low cost through such means as law centres (UK), community legal centres (Australia) or a variety of other organisations which provide various forms of legal aid in and outside of court.

History
Legal aid has a close relationship with the welfare state, and the provision of legal aid by a state is influenced by attitudes towards welfare. Legal aid is a welfare provision by the state to people who could otherwise not afford counsel from the legal system. Legal aid also helps to ensure that welfare provisions are enforced by providing people entitled to welfare provisions, such as social housing, with access to legal advice and the courts.

Historically, legal aid has played a strong role in ensuring respect for economic, social and cultural rights which are engaged in relation to social security, housing, social care, health, and education service provision, which may be provided publicly or privately, as well as employment law and anti-discrimination legislation. Jurists such as Mauro Cappelletti argue that legal aid is essential in providing individuals with access to justice, by allowing the individual legal enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights. His views developed in the second half of the 20th century, when democracies with capitalist economies established liberal welfare states that focused on the individual. States acted as contractors and service providers within a market-based philosophy that emphasised the citizen as consumer. This led to an emphasis on individual enforcement to achieve the realisation of rights for all.

Prior to the mid-20th century, literature on legal aid emphasised collective enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights. As classic welfare states were built in the 1940s and following World War II, an underlying principle was that citizens had collective responsibility for economic, social and cultural rights; and the state assumed responsibility for those unable to provide for themselves through illness and unemployment. The enforcement of economic, social and cultural rights was to be collective, through policies rather than individual legal action. Laws were enacted to support welfare provisions, though these were regarded as laws for planners, not lawyers. Legal aid schemes were established, as it was assumed that the state had a responsibility to assist those engaged in legal disputes, but they initially focused primarily on family law and divorce.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the role of the welfare state changed, and social goals were no longer assumed to be common goals. Individuals were free to pursue their own goals. The welfare state in this time expanded, along with legal aid provisions, as concerns emerged over the power of welfare providers and professionals. In the 1960s and 1970s, demand rose for the right of individuals to legally enforce economic, social and cultural rights and the welfare provisions they as individuals were entitled to. Mechanisms emerged through which citizens could legally enforce their economic, social, and cultural rights, and welfare lawyers used legal aid to advise those on low income when dealing with state officials. Legal aid was extended from family law to a wide range of economic, social, and cultural rights.

In the 1980s, the role of the classic welfare state was no longer regarded as necessarily positive, and welfare was increasingly provided by private entities. Legal aid was increasingly provided through private providers, but they remained focused on providing assistance in court cases. Citizens were increasingly regarded as consumers, who should be able to choose among services. Where it was not possible to provide such a choice, citizens were given the right to voice their dissatisfaction through administrative complaints processes. This resulted in tension, as legal aid was not designed to offer advice to those seeking redress through administrative complaints processes. Tensions also began to emerge as states which emphasised individual enforcement of economic, social, and cultural rights, rather than collective enforcement through policies, reduced funding for legal aid as a welfare state provision. Individual enforcement of welfare entitlement requires the kind of legal aid funding states emphasising collective enforcement were more likely to provide.

Legal aid movements
Historically legal aid has its roots in the right to counsel and right to a fair trial movement of the 19th-century continental European countries. "Poor man's laws" waived court fees for the poor and provided for the appointment of duty solicitors for those who could not afford to pay for a solicitor. Initially the expectation was that duty solicitors would act on a pro bono basis. In the early 20th century, many European countries had no formal approach to legal aid, and the poor relied on the charity of lawyers. Most countries went on to establish laws that provided for the payment of a moderate fee to duty solicitors. To curb demand, legal aid was restricted to lawyer costs in judicial proceedings requiring a lawyer. Countries with a civil law legal system and common law legal systems take different approaches to the right to counsel in civil and criminal proceedings. Civil law countries are more likely to emphasise the right to counsel in civil proceedings, and therefore provide legal aid where a lawyer is required. Common law countries emphasise the right to counsel and provide legal aid primarily in relation to criminal proceedings.

In response to rapid industrialisation in the late 19th-century Europe, trade union and workers' parties emerged that challenged the social policies of governments. They gained passage of laws to provide workers with legal rights in the event of illness or accidents, in an attempt to prevent industrial action by industrial workers. Workers unions in turn started to provide workers with legal advice on their new economic, social and cultural rights. Demand for these services was high and in an attempt to provide workers with non-partisan advice, many governments started to provide legal aid by the early 20th century.

Recent times
In the 20th century, legal aid developed together with progressive principles; it has often been supported by those members of the legal profession who felt that it was their responsibility to care for those on low income. Legal aid became driven by what lawyers could offer to meet the "legal needs" of those they have identified as poor, marginalised or discriminated against. According to Francis Regan in 1999, legal aid provision is supply driven, not demand driven, leading to wide gaps between provisions that meet perceived needs and actual demand. Legal service initiatives, such as neighbourhood mediation and legal services, frequently have to close due to lack of demand, while others are overwhelmed with clients.

Though legal aid aims to create more equity in the sphere of legal practices, according to an 1985 article, aid offered is often limited in its quality or its social impact by economic constraints that dictate who can access these services and where the aforementioned services are geographically located.

Asia
Most developmental legal aid services are provided by grassroots organizations, human rights-based non-governmental organizations (NGOs), or are stipulated by constitutional laws by some Asian governments.

Hong Kong
A unitary jurisdiction, Hong Kong provides legal aid solely provided through the Legal Aid Department, which is in turn overseen by the Legal Aid Services Council.

Administratively the Legal Aid Department was under the Administration Wing of the Chief Secretary's Office. In 2007, it was moved to the Home Affairs Bureau, which chiefly oversees cultural matters and local administration. This was heavily criticized by the opposition pro-democracy camp for jeopardising neutrality of the provision of legal aid. They voted en bloc against the whole package of reorganisation of policy bureaus, of which the transfer of the Legal Aid Department was part.

India
Article 39A of the Constitution of India, provides for equal justice and free legal aid: "The State shall secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice, on a basis of equal opportunity, and shall, in particular, provide free legal aid, by suitable legislation or schemes or in any other way, to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities." This Article emphasises that free legal service is an inalienable element of 'reasonable, fair and just' procedure, for without it a person suffering from economic or other disabilities would be deprived of the opportunity for securing justice.

In the civil side, Order XXXIII. R.18 of the Code of Civil Procedure 1908 provided that the state and central governments may make supplementary provisions as it thinks fit for providing free legal services to those who have been permitted to sue as an indigent person. The Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987 made drastic changes in the field of legal services. It is an Act to constitute legal services authorities to provide free and competent legal services to the weaker sections of the society to ensure that opportunities for securing justice are not denied to any citizen by reason of economic or other disabilities, and to organize Lok Adalats to secure that the operation of the legal system promotes justice on a basis of equal opportunity.

Philippines
Developmental legal assistance or developmental legal aid, as it is often called in the Philippines, has come a long way since the Marcos dictatorship. During martial law, the father of human rights Sen. Jose W. Diokno was sent to prison when Ferdinand Marcos arrested all political dissidents. Once Diokno was released 718 days later, the attorney and former senator founded the Free Legal Assistance Group, the oldest and largest human rights firm since 1974. It was through FLAG's innovative use of developmental legal aid, which included pro-bono legal service as well as free allowances to clients who were financially incapacitated, that free legal service became standard practice in the country. Later on, laws were introduced that would require newly licensed barristers to give free legal service to the poor for a stipulated and fixed duration of time. The most famous law on developmental legal aid is called the Community Legal Aid Service (CLAS) Rule. The CLAS Rule applies to lawyers who are in their first year of practice. Many developmental legal services are provided by most law firms and NGOs in the Philippines.

In 2019 FLAG freely represented Time Person of the Year Maria Ressa during her libel case against the 16th president, Rodrigo Duterte, as it was her exposés on Duterte's War on Drugs that have sparked worldwide debates on the potential legal repercussions of Duterte's actions.

In 2020, Duterte created a new law called the Anti-Terror Law, which would arrest any dissident due to loose definitions in the law on who might be marked as "terrorists". This has incited protests from the masses as well as from FLAG chairman Atty. Jose Manuel "Chel" Diokno. FLAG, alongside fellow columnists, statesmen, and political detainees responded with issuing the legal challenge G.R. No. 252741 against Duterte's Executive Secretary Salvador Medialdea on the grounds and rationality of the law. Among the provisions that is being questioned is Section 29 on detention without judicial warrant of arrest in which a suspect can be arrested even without a warrant of arrest and detained for up to 24 days, which echoed back to the days of martial law under Marcos that allowed the proliferation of developmental legal aid in the first place.

Europe
Article 47 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union provides that legal aid will be made available to those who lack sufficient resources, in so far as such aid is necessary to ensure effective access to justice.

Central and Eastern Europe, and Russia
According to PILnet: the Global Network for Public Interest Law, "for over a decade, the countries of Central and Eastern Europe and Russia have been in the process of reforming and restructuring their legal systems. While many critical justice sector reforms have been undertaken throughout the region, the mechanisms to ensure individuals' access to legal information and assistance often remain inadequate and ineffective. Consequently, many people—especially those who are poor or otherwise disadvantaged—are left without any real access to legal counsel in both criminal and non-criminal matters."

In the Czech Republic, qualifying persons (usually those who evidence inadequacy of funds) can apply to the courts or the Czech Bar Association to have an attorney appointed to them.

Denmark
In Denmark, applicants must satisfy the following criteria to receive legal aid for civil cases: The applicant must not earn more than kr. 289,000 ($50,000) a year and the claims of the party must seem reasonable. In respect to criminal cases, the convicted will only have to cover the costs if he or she has a considerable fixed income – this is to prevent recidivism.

Germany
In civil cases including employment, administrative, constitutional, and social cases, assistance under the Legal Advice Scheme Act (in the form of advice and, where necessary, representation) is given. In criminal cases, the defendant has a right to counsel, and in certain cases when the penalty is at least one year of confinement, the defendant can be given counsel even against his or her wishes.

Italy
Known as Patrocinio a spese dello Stato, legal aid is provided by the Italian Law DPR n. 115/2002 – Articles. 74–141. It is intended to implement Article 24 of the Italian Constitution and ensure access to the right of defense (in civil, administrative and criminal cases) to persons not able to independently obtain the services of a lawyer due to the inability to pay for them from their income (less than €10,776.33 per capita).

The Constitution of the Italian Republic, Clause 24 states: "Everyone is allowed to take legal action for the protection of her/his rights and legitimate interests. Defence is an inviolable right at any grade of the proceedings. The means of action and defence before all Courts are guaranteed to the indigent by public institutions. The law determines the conditions and legal means to remedy miscarriages of justice."

Legal aid in Italy is a service to allow everyone to be assisted by a lawyer or by an expert witness free of any legal fees or costs in all criminal, civil, administrative, accounting or fiscal proceeding and "voluntary jurisdiction" and whenever the presence of a lawyer or expert witness is required by law. Legal aid is granted for all grades or stages of the trial, including all further connected incidental and contingent proceedings. It is granted before Tribunals, Courts of Appeal, the Supreme Court, surveillance courts and judges, Regional Administrative Tribunals, Judicial Review Committees, Provincial and Regional Fiscal Commissions and the State Auditors' Court.

Introduction
Legal aid was originally established by the Legal Aid and Advice Act 1949. In 2009, legal aid in England and Wales cost the taxpayer £2bn a year – a higher per capita spend than anywhere else in the world – and was available to around 29% of adults. However, availability and level of provision of legal aid have greatly decreased since 2012 as a result of austerity measures in the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012.

Legal aid in England and Wales is administered by the Legal Aid Agency (until 31 March 2013 by the Legal Services Commission), and is available for most criminal cases, and many types of civil cases. Exceptions include libel, most personal injury cases (which are now dealt with under Conditional Fee Agreements, a species of contingent fee), and corporate cases. Family cases are also sometimes covered. Depending on the type of case, legal aid may or may not be means tested and in some cases legal aid can be free to those on benefits, out of work and have no savings or assets.

Criminal legal aid is generally provided through private firms of solicitors and barristers in private practice. A limited number of public defenders are directly employed by the Legal Aid Agency in Public Defender Service offices; they provide advice in police stations and advocacy in magistrates and crown courts. Civil legal aid is provided through solicitors and barristers in private practice but also by lawyers working in Law Centres and not-for-profit advice agencies.

LASPO
The provision of legal aid is governed by the Access to Justice Act 1999 and supplementary legislation, most recently the Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO), which came into force in 2013. LASPO triggered an immediate 46% plunge in the number of cases in which legal aid was granted, from 925,000 in 2012 to just 497,000 cases in the following year. The Legal Aid, Sentencing and Punishment of Offenders Act 2012 (LASPO) stopped aid for areas of law that include family, welfare, housing, and debt. There are complaints that cuts to legal aid from LASPO have prevented the poorest people getting justice.

Disabled people disputing benefit claims are usually denied legal aid forcing them to deal with complex and distressing cases without help. The numbers disputing when benefits are denied have fallen drastically and it is feared the most vulnerable are losing out.

The government's rationale for introducing LASPO was because people who could clearly afford their own legal fees were abusing the system, and cases which could clearly be settled with alternative dispute resolution were unnecessarily being taken to court. This can be seen in the government's response to legal aid reforms in 2011, where Kenneth Clarke, Lord Chancellor and Secretary of State for Justice, said funding was being provided for "unnecessary litigation", something which he viewed as "unaffordable" and "spiralling legal costs". He also noted that before the introduction of LASPO, England and Wales were spending £39 per head of the population on legal aid compared with only £8 per head in New Zealand. Experts maintain the burden of cost has just been transferred to the courts, NHS and social care, which in the end costs the state more.

The effects of LASPO on legal aid in England and Wales
Supreme Court justice Lord Wilson of Culworth fears the effectiveness of legal aid is being reduced. Wilson said cuts to legal aid prevent the disadvantaged from exercising their human rights. He also says that even in areas were legal aid is allowed, the payment to lawyers is so low that many of them stop providing legal aid. The Law Society maintains restrictions to legal aid are preventing defendants getting a fair trial.

BBC analysis found up to a million people are in areas without legal aid for housing, and 15 million are in areas with one provider. Liberty maintained ability to get justice had been "significantly undermined". There were roughly 1,000 fewer civil legal aid providers in 2018 since 2011–12, with most of the providers being based in London. Richard Miller of the Law society said it can be very difficult to find legal aid providers willing to take on a case. Lord Dyson said this has led to vulnerable people representing themselves in court, with many defendants paying towards their defence (sometimes nearly as expensive as paying for a private lawyer).

Furthermore, Ben Tovey says he has to turn away people from legal aid every day.

Law centres have also closed due to funding cuts adding to the problems of people needing legal aid. Nimrod Ben-Cnaan of the Law Centres Network, maintained the legal aid market was, "failing" since cuts, "shattered local ecologies of advice," and that it is vital law centres are rebuilt. Malcolm Richardson, retired magistrate said legal advisers must increasingly guide litigant in person through court proceedings. He said, "It puts all the judiciary in a difficult position but also burdens the whole court system."

Tom McNally said, "If we really wanted to make substantial reforms to the criminal justice system, it was almost impossible with the continuation of austerity." Litigants in person do not know what evidence to bring or what questions to ask. During divorce and separation cases far fewer couples take up mediation. Without lawyers no one is around to point out less confrontational ways of settling matters. Philip Alston said that legal aid had become considerably less available in England and Wales from 2012, which had, "overwhelmingly affected the poor and people with disabilities, many of whom cannot otherwise afford to challenge benefit denials or reductions and are thus effectively deprived of their human rights to a remedy".

LASPO has also had an impact on legal aid providers, who say they are "dismay[ed] at...such deep and arbitrary cuts" to legal aid. There have been 37 legal aid providers which have collapsed since April 2020, which is more than 70 offices. This has caused barristers who offer legal aid to feel their role has been "driven to extinction" due to job losses. For example, in Exeter there are now no legal aid providers for immigration or asylum, with the closest provider being 37.6 mi away (Plymouth) from the city centre. It has been revealed that these providers receive a median net annual income of £27,000, which is less than the starting salary for a graduate manager at Aldi. The Law Society believe that this level of pay should be made fairer. Whilst legal aid lawyers are funded by the legal aid agency, it can sometimes take years for payments to come through to them. This is due to cashflow problems with the legal aid agency, something the Law Society is pushing for guidance and clarification from.

Scotland
Legal aid is in principle available for all civil actions in the Court of Session and Sheriff Court in Scotland, with the significant exception of actions of defamation. It is also available for some statutory tribunals, such as the Immigration Appeal Adjudicator and the Social Security Commissioners. There is a separate system of criminal legal aid, and legal aid is also available for legal advice.

Legal aid is means-tested. In practice it is available only to less than one-quarter of the population. It is administered by the Scottish Legal Aid Board. Legal Aid in Scotland is also available in Criminal Cases, where more than 90% of Summary applications are granted. An Interests of Justice test is applied, as well as a means test. In Solemn case (Jury Trials) the Court assesses Legal Aid.

South Africa
South Africa is a country that has reconstructed its legal systems in an attempt to mimic Western democratic countries, creating an arguably more just and fair justice system.

South Africa has a national judiciary as well as, in some areas, a tribal form of administration of justice. This is described as "legal pluralism". The informal "indigenous laws" are substantially different from the rest of the nation's laws and customs, hindering the provision of legal advice. However, the indigenous justice system in South Africa does not require representation, thus essentially eliminating the need for accessible legal aid.

Mimicking the British legal system, South Africa has barristers, which work in the senior courts, and solicitors, which provide out-of-court advice and work in the lower courts.

In 1969 the government of South Africa recognized a need for legal aid, and responded by creating the South African Legal Aid Board which began its work in 1971 and now provides the majority of legal aid throughout the country. The Board has autonomy and is independent from government in its decision-making, and has sole jurisdiction over determining the provision of legal aid. The Board provides legal aid to all "qualifying indigent individuals" with an income of R600.00 or less. If individuals do not meet this qualification they are provided other methods of obtaining a lawyer, such as hiring one or, if this is not within their means, finding one who will work pro bono.

In a reflection of the history of apartheid in South Africa, nearly 85% of all lawyers in South Africa are white. The government has determined greater racial diversity in the field of law is a priority and there are travelling "clinics" to help provide education on South African law throughout the country, with the aim of spreading knowledge as wide as possible, though especially in poorer areas.

More than 80% of the Legal Aid Board's funding is directed towards provision of defence advocates in criminal cases. This is generally explained in South Africa as being the result of two causes: the majority of crimes being committed by those who are poor, and the provision of defence in criminal cases being a priority compared to civil suits. Prior to the enactment of the 1994 Constitution, 80% of all people tried as criminals went unrepresented, as there was no right to a defence and no obligation on the government to provide that defence. Upon adoption of the 1994 Constitution the South African government was obliged to create organizations such as the Legal Aid Board to help facilitate access to legal aid.

For those who seek assistance and are aware of their own role in the justice system, legal aid in South Africa is available through:

 * Uncompensated private counsel (pro bono work)
 * Candidate attorneys in rural law firms funded by the state
 * Private counsel funded by the state (judiciary)
 * Independent university law clinics
 * State funded law clinics
 * State funded justice centers (one stop legal aid centers)
 * Private specialist law firms
 * Paralegal advice offices
 * Legal insurance schemes

All of these services exist and are protected by subsidies and incentives. However, these services have been open to criticism, with some saying that these extensive services that are unique to South Africa do not matter if there is no adequate education that these options are available to people. In response, the South African government has encouraged South African law schools to expand their reach and establish travelling "legal clinics" and encouraging schools to add a "legal literacy curriculum" to spread knowledge of this area.

Nigeria
Legal Aid Council, Nigeria was established to provide legal services and access to justice to poor and marginalized Nigerians whose rights have been breached and who cannot afford the services of legal practitioners or who do not have the financial means to seek redress through the judicial system. The council is a government agency under the supervision of the Nigerian Ministry of Justice. The council was set up through Decree 56 of 1976, and was adopted into the 1979 constitution as Section 42 (40)(b). It was amended to Legal Aid (Amendment) Decree No.10 of 1986, to add civil matters to the council's jurisdiction. This was further amended to Decree 22 of 1994 to include damages for breach of fundamental human rights as guaranteed under the 1979 Constitution; The Decree was later codified into the Legal Aid Council Act Cap L9 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004 and the Legal Aid Act Cap L9, 2004 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN), and all these amendments were consolidated in the 2011 Legal Aid Act.

The main objective of the constitutional amendments was to enhance access to justice for as many as seek redress by expanding the scope of free legal advice, assistance, representation and to provide Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) as a means of speedy pathway to getting justice. The mandate of the Council covers legal representation for indigent Nigerians in case of murder of any degree, manslaughter, malicious or grievous hurt, common assault or assault with bodily harm, affray, stealing, rape and armed robbery. The Council mostly assists persons whose earning is below the national minimum wage although exceptions can be made in rare instances. It also provides free legal services to those in custodial centres.

The council had initiated the Police Duty Solicitors Scheme (PDSS) in 2004 in partnership with the Open Society for Justice Initiative (OSJI) and the Nigeria Police Force to curtail long excessive pretrial detention and associated human rights abuses by providing free legal advice to suspects. The council has also led the charge in the certification of curriculum for Paralegal Studies in Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria.

The council has a governing board which is made up of 15 members who are appointed by the President and drawn from the office of the Attorney General of the Federation, the Federal Ministry of Finance, the Inspector General of Police, the National Youth Service Corp, Nigeria Correctional Service, Nigerian Union of Journalists (NUJ), Nigerian Labour Congress (NLC), International Federation of Women Lawyers (FIDA) and the Nigerian Bar Association.

The Council formulates policies while the management committee headed by the Director-General is in charge of the day-to-day operation of the organization. It works mainly through 7 departments headed by Directors namely; Criminal Justice, Civil Justice, Prison Decongestion, Human Resource Management, Finance and Accounts, International Operations and Corporate Affairs and Planning, Research and Statistics departments. The council has offices in all the 36 States of Nigeria and the Federal capital territory headed by State coordinators who report to the zonal officers in the 6 geopolitical of the country.

Canada
In Canada, the modern system of legal aid developed after the federal government instituted a system of cost-sharing between the federal and provincial governments in the early 1970s. The federal financial contribution was originally set at 50% of the cost of the legal aid system, but that level of funding has fluctuated over the years.

The actual delivery of legal aid is by the provincial level of government, as part of provincial jurisdiction over the administration of justice. For example, Legal Aid Ontario provides legal services for residents of Ontario, the Legal Services Society provides it to residents of British Columbia, and Commission des Services Juridiques does the same in the province of Quebec.

United States
Legal aid in criminal cases is a universal right guaranteed by the Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution. A number of delivery models for legal aid have emerged in the United States. The Legal Services Corporation was authorized at the federal level to oversee these programs. In a "staff attorney" model, lawyers are employed by levels of government on salary solely to provide legal assistance to qualifying low-income clients, similar to staff doctors in a public hospital. In a "judicare" model, private lawyers and law firms are paid to handle cases from eligible clients alongside cases from fee-paying clients, much like doctors are paid to handle Medicare patients in the U.S. The "community legal clinic" model comprises non-profit clinics serving a particular community through a broad range of legal services (e.g. representation, education, law reform) and provided by both lawyers and non-lawyers, similar to community health clinics.

Defendants under criminal prosecution who cannot afford to hire an attorney are not only guaranteed legal aid related to the charges, but they are guaranteed legal representation, either in the form of public defenders, or in absence of provisions for such or due to case overloads, a court-appointed attorney.

The discussion surrounding legal aid and who is privileged to such a service has been criticized by law academics who assert that those who dominate and write the narratives of people who seek legal aid are individuals who benefit from the client narrative being one of inescapable poverty and desperation of an individual. Critiques assert that these asymmetrical, schematically constructed client profiles are required of civic legal aid programs in the capitalist framework of the United States as a tool to appeal to donors and other sources of funding. These representations and assessments of who seeks and deserves legal aid are argued to contribute to a culture of blaming the victims of poverty, as the narratives exclude the role the state and other civic stakeholders play in the creation of these client circumstances. However, legal aid is not provided in civil suits, nor deportation procedures, as these are not criminal proceedings.

Australia
Australia has a federal system of government comprising federal, state and territory jurisdictions. The Australian (Commonwealth) and state and territory governments are each responsible for the provision of legal aid for matters arising under their laws. In addition there is a network of approximately 200 independent, not for profit, community legal centres.

Legal aid for both Commonwealth and state matters is primarily delivered through state and territory legal aid commissions (LACs), which are independent statutory agencies established under state and territory legislation. The Australian Government funds the provision of legal aid for Commonwealth family, civil and criminal law matters under agreements with state and territory governments and LACs. The majority of Commonwealth matters fall within the family law jurisdiction.

Legal aid commissions use a mixed model to deliver legal representation services. A grant of assistance legal representation may be assigned to either a salaried in-house lawyer or referred to a private legal practitioner. The mixed model is particularly advantageous for providing services to clients in regional areas and in cases where a conflict of interest means the same lawyer cannot represent both parties.

The Australian Government and most state and territory governments also fund community legal centres, which are independent, non-profit organisations which provide referral, advice and assistance to people with legal problems. Additionally, the Australian Government funds financial assistance for legal services under certain statutory schemes and legal services for Indigenous Australians.

By way of history, the Australian Government established the Legal Services Bureaux in 1942 to develop a national system. In 1973 the Attorney-General in the Whitlam Labor government, Lionel Murphy, established the Australian Legal Aid Office. Murphy recognised the urgent need for legal aid in order for justice to be equally available for all. Murphy recognised that: "one of the basic causes of the inequality of citizens before the laws is the absence of adequate and comprehensive legal aid arrangements throughout Australia ... The ultimate object of the Government is that legal aid be readily and equally available to citizens everywhere in Australia and that aid be extended for advice and assistance of litigation as well as for litigation in all legal categories and in all courts." (Senator the Hon Lionel Murphy AO QC, Attorney General) The establishment of the Australian Legal Aid Office in 1973 was followed by the establishment of state-based Legal Aid Commissions. These offices now provide the majority of free or lowcost legal assistance to those in need. In 1977, the Australian Government enacted the Commonwealth Legal Aid Commission Act 1977 (LAC Act), which established cooperative arrangements between the Australian Government and state and territory governments, under which legal aid would be provided by independent legal aid commissions to be established under state and territory legislation. The process of establishing the LACs took more than a decade. It commenced in 1976 with the establishment of the Legal Aid Commission of Western Australia, followed in 1978 the Legal Aid Commission of Victoria (LACV), and ended in 1990 with the establishment of the Legal Aid Commission of Tasmania. The cooperative arrangements that were established by the LAC Act provided for Commonwealth and state and territory legal aid funding agreements, which began in 1987.

In July 1997, the Australian Government changed its arrangements to directly fund legal aid services for Commonwealth law matters. Under this arrangement, the states and territories fund assistance in respect of their own laws. In 2013, a murder trial in the Supreme Court of Victoria was delayed because legal aid was unavailable. This has been cited as the effect of a reduction in government-funding for legal aid agencies in Australia and led to an increase in popularity for online legal aid resources such as the Law Handbook and LawAnswers.

Legal aid in Australia was discussed in the case of Dietrich v The Queen (1992). It was found that although there is no absolute right to have publicly funded counsel, in most circumstances a judge should grant any request for an adjournment or stay when an accused is unrepresented.

New Zealand
The legal aid system in New Zealand provides Government-funded legal assistance to those who are unable to afford a lawyer. Legal aid is available for almost all court actions across all levels of the court system. This includes criminal charges, civil issues, family disputes, appeals and Waitangi Tribunal claims.

title: Legal aid


text:
User:Trondaage

Born 1979, previously a student at Norwegian School of Management, where I studied business and economics, a siviløkonom title.

Born in Stavanger.

Congrats on being the first student in! Espen 17:43, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)~

title: User:Trondaage


text:
Giacomo Antonio Perti

[[File:GiacomoAntonioPerti.jpg|thumb|right|Portrait of Giacomo Antonio Perti Autore: Unknown, 18th century

Collocazione: International museum and library of music - Bologna]]

Giacomo Antonio Perti (6 June 1661 – 10 April 1756) was an Italian composer of the Baroque era. He was mainly active at Bologna, where he was Maestro di Cappella for sixty years. He was the teacher of Giuseppe Torelli and Giovanni Battista Martini.

Life
He was born in Bologna, then part of the Papal States, and began studying music early, learning harpsichord and violin there; later he studied counterpoint. By the age of 17, he had already written a mass, a motet, and a setting of the Magnificat; and in 1678 he wrote his first opera and oratorio. During a stay in Parma, where he studied with Giuseppe Corsi da Celano, he formed his sacred music style; most of his psalm settings of the 1680s and 1690s show the influence of Corsi. Later he went to Venice, most likely for a production of one of his operas.

In 1690 he was appointed to the post of Maestro di Cappella at S Pietro, replacing his uncle Lorenzo Perti. In 1696 he became Maestro di Cappella in another Bolognese church, S. Petronio, after the death of Giovanni Paolo Colonna the year before. He remained in charge for exactly sixty years, until his death at age 95.

Perti was a prolific composer of operas and sacred music, and was recognized as a distinguished musician not only by other composers but also by aristocrats and emperors, including Ferdinando de' Medici (one of the last of the Medici) and Emperors Leopold I and Charles VI.

Works
Perti was highly regarded for his sacred music and his operas. Of the 26 operas he composed, few remain today. Perti maintained in his Op. 1 that he was influenced by the melodic style of Francesco Cavalli, Antonio Cesti, and Luigi Rossi; however, he shows considerable originality in instrumentation, use of dialogue and countermelody. His output of sacred music was even more remarkable: he wrote 120 psalm settings, for one voice, chorus, basso continuo, and various other instruments; 54 motets, for similar forces; 28 masses; 83 versetti and other liturgical works.

He also wrote secular music, including 142 solo cantatas (one of the commonest secular vocal forms in late 17th century Italy), and some instrumental music including sonatas and sinfonias for a variety of instruments.

Operas

 * Marzio Coriolano, 1683
 * Oreste in Argo, 1685
 * L'incoronazione di Dario, 1686
 * La Flavia, 1686
 * La Rosaura, 1689
 * Dionisio Siracusano, 1689
 * Brenno in Efeso, 1690
 * L'inganno scoperto per vendetta, 1691
 * Il Pompeo, 1691
 * Furio Camillo, 1692
 * Nerone fatto cesare, 1693
 * La forza della virtù, 1694
 * Laodicea e Berenice, 1695
 * Penelope la casta, 1696
 * Fausta restituita all'impero, 1697
 * Apollo geloso, 1698
 * Lucio Vero, 1700
 * Astianatte, 1701
 * Dionisio re di Portogallo, 1707
 * Il Venceslao, ossia Il fraticida innocente, 1708
 * Ginevra principessa di Scozia, 1708
 * Berenice regina d'Egitto, 1709
 * Demetrio, 1709
 * Rodelinda regina de' Longobardi, 1710
 * Un prologo per il cortegiano, 1739

Oratorios

 * Due gigli porporati nel martirio di santa Serafia e santa Sabina, Bologna, 1679
 * Abramo vincitor de' propri affetti, Bologna, 1683 (rev. Agar, 1689; spurious titles: Agar scacciata, Sara)
 * Il Mosè conduttor del popolo ebreo, Modena, 1685
 * Oratorio della Passione, Bologna, 1685 (rev. Gesù al sepolcro, 1703)
 * La beata Imelda Lambertini bolognese, (it:beata Imelda Lambertini child saint), Bologna, 1686
 * «Oratorio à 6 Voci, con concertino, e concerto grosso» (unknown subject), Modena (?), 1687 (lost)
 * San Galgano Guidotti, Bologna, 1694
 * La Passione di Cristo, Bologna, 1694 (= Oratorio sopra la passione del Redentore = Affetti di compassione alla morte del Redentor della Vita; composed in collaboration with pupils)
 * Christo al Limbo, Bologna, 1698
 * La morte del giusto, overo Il transito di san Giuseppe, Venice, 1700 (lost)
 * La Morte delusa, Milan, 1703 (collaboration to the pasticcio)
 * I trionfi di Giosuè, Florence, 1704 (collaboration to the pasticcio; lost)
 * La sepoltura di Cristo, Bologna, 1704
 * San Petronio, Bologna, 1720 (pasticcio)
 * La Passione del Redentore, Bologna, 1721
 * I conforti di Maria Vergine addolorata per la morte del suo divin Figliuolo, Bologna, 1723 (spurious title: L'Amor Divino)
 * Il figlio prodigo, undated
 * Oratorio della nascita del Signore, undated
 * San Francesco, undated
 * La sepoltura di Cristo, undated (attributed to Perti; spurious title: San Giovanni)

Selected recordings

 * Messa a 5, Silvia Vajente, Pamela Lucciarini, Gloria Banditelli, Orchestra Barocca di Bologna, Paolo Faldi
 * Messa a 8, New College Choir, Cappella Musicale, Sergio Vartolo
 * Messa a 12. Color Temporis Vocal Ensemble, Collegium usicum Almae Matris Chamber Choir, Choir & Orchestra of the Cappella Musicale Di San Petronio.
 * Lamentations. Capella Musicale di S. Petronio di Bologna, dir. Sergio Vartolo
 * Musiche sacre Arìon Choir & Consort, dir Giulio Prandi. Disc with Amadeus magazine, Italy 2010
 * Cantate morali e spirituali op.1, 2 CDs. Frisani, Calvi, Lepore, Cappella musicale San Petronio, Sergio Vartolo
 * Abramo Vincitor De' Proprii Affetti, Laura Antonaz, Elena Biscuola, Gastone Sarti, Ensemble "Il Continuo" Bongiovanni (record label)
 * Gesu al Sepolcro. Akerlund, Zanetti, Claudio Cavina, Schultze, Cechetti, Cappella Musicale di S. Petronio, Vartolo
 * San Petronio (Oratorio), Pace, Nirouet, Zennaro, Spagnoli, Ensemble Seicentonovecento, Flavio Colusso. Bongiovanni 1990
 * Il Mosè conduttor del popolo ebreo. Mosè: Gloria Banditelli; Faraone: Marco Bussi, Generale di Faraone: Laura Antonaz. Ensemble Les Nations. Maria Luisa Baldassari. Tactus (record label) TC 661603 (1 CD, January 2013).

title: Giacomo Antonio Perti


text:
List of municipalities in Vermont

The U.S. state of Vermont is divided into 247 municipalities, including 237 towns and 10 cities. Vermont also has 9 unincorporated areas, split between 5 unincorporated towns and 4 gores. As of 2024, Vermont has 30 incorporated villages, which are municipal governments operating within a town and providing additional services.

List
Cities in Vermont are municipalities with the city form of government. Vermont has ten cities with a combined area of 80.2 sqmi, or 0.8% of the state's total area.

According to the 2020 census, 119,299 people, or 18.54% of the state's population, resided in Vermont's cities (excluding Essex Junction, which incorporated in 2022). Six of Vermont's 14 counties have at least one city within their borders. Five cities serve as the county seats for their respective counties and are indicated below with an asterisk (*).

Towns in Vermont are municipalities that typically incorporate the town meeting format into their government

In some cases, a town and city have the same name, such as Barre City which is almost entirely surrounded by the separate municipality of Barre Town.

Unincorporated areas
Unincorporated towns in Vermont are towns that had their charters revoked by the Vermont legislature or never formally organized due to lack of residents. Towns in name only, their affairs are managed by a state-appointed supervisor and not by a local government.

Gores in Vermont are seen as an unincorporated area of a county that is not part of any town, has limited self-government, and may be unpopulated. Vermont has 4 current gores.

Villages
In the U.S. state of Vermont, villages are named communities located within the boundaries of a town. Villages may be incorporated or unincorporated.

An incorporated village is a defined area within a town that was either granted a village charter by a special act of the legislature, or organized under the general legislation. A village is a clearly defined municipality and provides a variety of municipal services, such as potable water, sewage, police and fire services, garbage collection, street lighting and maintenance, management of cemeteries, and building code enforcement. Other municipal services not provided by the village are provided by the parent town. Incorporated villages in Vermont are administratively similar to villages in New York. Vermont is the only state in New England that has incorporated villages.

As of 2024, there are 30 incorporated villages with active governments in Vermont. Historically, there were more but most have since disincorporated, while others were chartered as cities. Below is a list of incorporated villages that have existed, ordered by date of incorporation. Extant villages are bolded.

title: List of municipalities in Vermont


text:
D'Alembert's principle

D'Alembert's principle, also known as the Lagrange–d'Alembert principle, is a statement of the fundamental classical laws of motion. It is named after its discoverer, the French physicist and mathematician Jean le Rond d'Alembert, and Italian-French mathematician Joseph Louis Lagrange. D'Alembert's principle generalizes the principle of virtual work from static to dynamical systems by introducing forces of inertia which, when added to the applied forces in a system, result in dynamic equilibrium.

D'Alembert's principle can be applied in cases of kinematic constraints that depend on velocities. The principle does not apply for irreversible displacements, such as sliding friction, and more general specification of the irreversibility is required.

Statement of the principle
The principle states that the sum of the differences between the forces acting on a system of massive particles and the time derivatives of the momenta of the system itself projected onto any virtual displacement consistent with the constraints of the system is zero. Thus, in mathematical notation, d'Alembert's principle is written as follows, $$\sum_i ( \mathbf F_i - m_i \dot\mathbf{v}_i - \dot{m}_i\mathbf{v}_i)\cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0,$$

where:
 * $$i$$ is an integer used to indicate (via subscript) a variable corresponding to a particular particle in the system,
 * $$\mathbf {F}_i$$ is the total applied force (excluding constraint forces) on the $$i$$-th particle,
 * $$ m_i $$ is the mass of the $$i$$-th particle,
 * $$\mathbf v_i$$ is the velocity of the $$i$$-th particle,
 * $$\delta \mathbf r_i$$ is the virtual displacement of the $$i$$-th particle, consistent with the constraints.

Newton's dot notation is used to represent the derivative with respect to time. The above equation is often called d'Alembert's principle, but it was first written in this variational form by Joseph Louis Lagrange. D'Alembert's contribution was to demonstrate that in the totality of a dynamic system the forces of constraint vanish. That is to say that the generalized forces $$\mathbf Q_j$$ need not include constraint forces. It is equivalent to the somewhat more cumbersome Gauss's principle of least constraint.

General case with variable mass
The general statement of d'Alembert's principle mentions "the time derivatives of the momenta of the system." By Newton's second law, the first time derivative of momentum is the force. The momentum of the $$i$$-th mass is the product of its mass and velocity: $$\mathbf p_i = m_i \mathbf v_i$$ and its time derivative is $$\dot{\mathbf{p}}_i = \dot{m}_i \mathbf{v}_i + m_i \dot{\mathbf{v}}_i.$$

In many applications, the masses are constant and this equation reduces to $$\dot{\mathbf{p}}_i = m_i \dot{\mathbf{v}}_i = m_i \mathbf{a}_i.$$

However, some applications involve changing masses (for example, chains being rolled up or being unrolled) and in those cases both terms $$\dot{m}_i \mathbf{v}_i$$ and $$m_i \dot{\mathbf{v}}_i$$ have to remain present, giving $$\sum_{i} ( \mathbf {F}_{i} - m_i \mathbf{a}_i - \dot{m}_i \mathbf{v}_i)\cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0.$$

Special case with constant mass
Consider Newton's law for a system of particles of constant mass, $$i$$. The total force on each particle is $$\mathbf {F}_{i}^{(T)} = m_i \mathbf {a}_i,$$ where
 * $$\mathbf {F}_{i}^{(T)}$$ are the total forces acting on the system's particles,
 * $$m_i \mathbf {a}_i$$ are the inertial forces that result from the total forces.

Moving the inertial forces to the left gives an expression that can be considered to represent quasi-static equilibrium, but which is really just a small algebraic manipulation of Newton's law: $$\mathbf {F}_{i}^{(T)} - m_i \mathbf {a}_i = \mathbf 0.$$

Considering the virtual work, $$\delta W$$, done by the total and inertial forces together through an arbitrary virtual displacement, $$\delta \mathbf r_i$$, of the system leads to a zero identity, since the forces involved sum to zero for each particle.

$$\delta W = \sum_{i} \mathbf {F}_{i}^{(T)} \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i - \sum_{i} m_i \mathbf{a}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0$$

The original vector equation could be recovered by recognizing that the work expression must hold for arbitrary displacements. Separating the total forces into applied forces, $$\mathbf F_i$$, and constraint forces, $$\mathbf C_i$$, yields $$\delta W = \sum_{i} \mathbf {F}_{i} \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i + \sum_{i} \mathbf {C}_{i} \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i - \sum_{i} m_i \mathbf{a}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0.$$

If arbitrary virtual displacements are assumed to be in directions that are orthogonal to the constraint forces (which is not usually the case, so this derivation works only for special cases), the constraint forces don't do any work, $\sum_{i} \mathbf {C}_{i} \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0$. Such displacements are said to be consistent with the constraints. This leads to the formulation of d'Alembert's principle, which states that the difference of applied forces and inertial forces for a dynamic system does no virtual work: $$\delta W = \sum_{i} ( \mathbf {F}_{i} - m_i \mathbf{a}_i )\cdot \delta \mathbf r_i = 0.$$

There is also a corresponding principle for static systems called the principle of virtual work for applied forces.

D'Alembert's principle of inertial forces
D'Alembert showed that one can transform an accelerating rigid body into an equivalent static system by adding the so-called "inertial force" and "inertial torque" or moment. The inertial force must act through the center of mass and the inertial torque can act anywhere. The system can then be analyzed exactly as a static system subjected to this "inertial force and moment" and the external forces. The advantage is that in the equivalent static system one can take moments about any point (not just the center of mass). This often leads to simpler calculations because any force (in turn) can be eliminated from the moment equations by choosing the appropriate point about which to apply the moment equation (sum of moments = zero). Even in the course of Fundamentals of Dynamics and Kinematics of machines, this principle helps in analyzing the forces that act on a link of a mechanism when it is in motion. In textbooks of engineering dynamics, this is sometimes referred to as d'Alembert's principle.

Some educators caution that attempts to use d'Alembert inertial mechanics lead students to make frequent sign errors. A potential cause for these errors is the sign of the inertial forces. Inertial forces can be used to describe an apparent force in a non-inertial reference frame that has an acceleration $$\mathbf{a}$$ with respect to an inertial reference frame. In such a non-inertial reference frame, a mass that is at rest and has zero acceleration in an inertial reference system, because no forces are acting on it, will still have an acceleration $$-\mathbf{a}$$ and an apparent inertial, or pseudo or fictitious force $$-m\mathbf{a}$$ will seem to act on it: in this situation the inertial force has a minus sign.

Dynamic equilibrium
D'Alembert's form of the principle of virtual work states that a system of rigid bodies is in dynamic equilibrium when the virtual work of the sum of the applied forces and the inertial forces is zero for any virtual displacement of the system. Thus, dynamic equilibrium of a system of $$n$$ rigid bodies with $$m$$ generalized coordinates requires $$ \delta W = \left(Q_1 + Q_1^*\right) \delta q_1 + \dots + \left(Q_m + Q_m^*\right) \delta q_m = 0,$$ for any set of virtual displacements $$\delta q_j$$ with $$Q_j$$ being a generalized applied force and $$Q^*_j$$ being a generalized inertia force. This condition yields $$m$$ equations, $$ Q_j + Q^*_j = 0, \quad j=1, \ldots, m,$$ which can also be written as $$ \frac{d}{dt} \frac{\partial T}{\partial \dot{q}_j} -\frac{\partial T}{\partial q_j} = Q_j, \quad j=1,\ldots,m.$$ The result is a set of m equations of motion that define the dynamics of the rigid body system.

Formulation using the Lagrangian
D'Alembert's principle can be rewritten in terms of the Lagrangian L=T-V of the system as a generalized version of Hamilton's principle as follows, $$\delta \int_{t_1}^{t_2} L(\mathbf{r}, \dot{\mathbf{r}},t) dt + \sum_i\int_{t_1}^{t_2} \mathbf{F}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i dt= 0,$$ where:
 * $$ \mathbf{r}=(\mathbf{r}_1,..., \mathbf{r} _N)$$

 * $$ \mathbf{F}_i $$ are the applied forces

With the Lagrangian $$ L(\mathbf{r}, \dot{\mathbf{r}},t) = \sum_i \frac{1}{2} m_i \dot { \mathbf{r} }_i^2,$$ the previous statement of d'Alembert principle is recovered.
 * $$ \delta \mathbf{r}_i$$ is the virtual displacement of the $$i$$-th particle, consistent with the constraints $$\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf{r} _i=0$$
 * the critical curve satisfies the constraints $$\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \dot \mathbf{r} _i=0$$

Generalization for thermodynamics
An extension of d'Alembert's principle can be used in thermodynamics. For instance, for an adiabatically closed thermodynamic system described by a Lagrangian depending on a single entropy S and with constant masses $$m_i$$, such as $$ L(\mathbf{r}, \dot{\mathbf{r}},S,t) = \sum_i \frac{1}{2} m_i \dot { \mathbf{r} }_i^2 - V(\mathbf{r},S),$$ it is written as follows $$\delta \int_{t_1}^{t_2} L(\mathbf{r}, \dot{\mathbf{r}},S,t) dt + \sum_i\int_{t_1}^{t_2} \mathbf{F}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf r_i dt= 0,$$ where the previous constraints $\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf{r} _i=0$ and $\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \dot \mathbf{r} _i=0$  are generalized to involve the entropy as: Here $$T=\partial V/\partial S$$ is the temperature of the system, $$\mathbf{F}_i$$ are the external forces, $$\mathbf{C}_i$$ are the internal dissipative forces. It results in the mechanical and thermal balance equations: $$m_i\mathbf{a}_i=- \frac{\partial V}{\partial \mathbf{r}_i}+ \mathbf{C}_i+\mathbf{F}_i, \;\;i=1,...,N \qquad \qquad T \dot S = -\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \dot \mathbf{r} _i.$$ Typical applications of the principle include thermo-mechanical systems, membrane transport, and chemical reactions.
 * $$\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \delta \mathbf{r} _i+T \delta S=0$$
 * $$\sum_i\mathbf{C}_i \cdot \dot \mathbf{r} _i+T \dot S=0.$$

For $$\delta S=\dot S=0$$ the classical d'Alembert principle and equations are recovered.

title: D'Alembert's principle