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James Garfield Gardiner

James Garfield Gardiner (30 November 1883 – 12 January 1962) was a Canadian farmer, educator, and politician. He served as the fourth premier of Saskatchewan, and as a minister in the Canadian Cabinet.

Political career
Gardiner was first elected to the Legislative Assembly of Saskatchewan in 1914, served as Minister of Highways (1922–1926) in the government of Premier Charles A. Dunning from 1922, and succeeded Dunning as premier in 1926. A highly-partisan Liberal, his government lost its majority in the legislature in the 1929 election both from patronage scandals and partly through an anti-French, anti-Catholic and anti-immigrant campaign waged by the Ku Klux Klan. Although the Conservative Party had won fewer seats, it was able to defeat the Gardiner government through a motion of no confidence and then formed a "co-operative government" with the support of some Progressive Party and independent Members of the Legislative Assembly.

As Leader of the Opposition, Gardiner accused James Anderson's Conservative government of bigotry and alleged that it was linked with the Klan. Gardiner defeated Anderson in the 1934 election and became premier a second time. In 1935, he was involved in negotiations to end the On-to-Ottawa Trek in Regina.

Gardiner left provincial politics later in 1935 to join the federal cabinet of Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King as Minister of Agriculture. He was elected to the House of Commons a few months later. Gardiner held the agriculture portfolio for 22 years until the 1957 federal election resulted the Liberal government bring defeated. Gardiner also served as the first Minister of National War Services, during July 12, 1940 – June 10, 1941. Gardiner was a powerful figure in both the King and St. Laurent governments.

In 1947, he was sworn of the Imperial Privy Council, which allowed him use of the prenominal honorific The Right Honourable.

Gardiner ran for the leadership of the Liberal Party of Canada at the 1948 Liberal leadership convention but lost to Louis St. Laurent. He remained in the House of Commons of Canada until he lost his seat in the 1958 Diefenbaker sweep.

Personal life
Gardiner was married three times: first to Rosetta Jane Gardiner in 1912, then to Violet McEwen in 1917 and finally to Isabella (Scott) Christie in 1944. His son James Wilfrid Gardiner served in the Saskatchewan Legislative Assembly. His other son, Pilot Officer John Edwin (1919–1942), serving with Number 403 Squadron, RCAF, was killed in action while providing air cover and support during the Dieppe Raid on August 19, 1942. The Gardiner family farm was near Lemberg, Saskatchewan.

Legacy
As premier of Saskatchewan in 1928, Gardiner championed the Saskatchewan Sanitoria and Hospitals Act, the first legislation to provide free hospitalization and treatment for victims of tuberculosis anywhere in North America. It was passed unanimously by the provincial legislature on January 1, 1929, and is probably one of his least-known legacies to Saskatchewan public policy.

As Minister of National War Services during World War II, Gardiner made a way for conscientious objectors in Canada to perform alternate, non-military service. After a delegation from Canada's Anabaptist peace churches was stymied by deputy ministers, they approached Gardiner directly, where they got a much warmer reception; as Gardiner was a member of the United Church of Canada, which is also theologically committed to global peace. The National War Services Regulations were amended by Parliament on December 24, 1940, to allow for alternate service.

Saskatchewan's Gardiner Dam, declared open on June 21, 1967, is named after him.

In 2006, the CBC agreed to pull the movie Prairie Giant: The Tommy Douglas Story from all broadcasts in response to criticism about its portrayals of Gardiner.

Saskatchewan general elections, 1929 and 1934
Gardiner led the Liberal Party in two general elections, in 1929 and 1934. The 1929 election resulted in a Conservative minority government, but Gardiner won the 1934 election with a majority government.

1929 General election
Gardiner had succeeded Dunning as premier in 1926, and led the Liberals into the general election in 1929. Although Gardiner and the Liberals won pluralities in the popular vote and seats in the Assembly, they did not hold a majority. Gardiner chose to face the Assembly in hopes of obtaining sufficient support from some of the opposition members to maintain his government, but he lost a vote on a confidence matter and resigned. He was replaced as premier by James Anderson, whose Conservative Party held the second-greatest number of seats.

1 Premier when election was called; lost confidence motion in the Assembly after the election;  resigned as Premier and became Leader of the Opposition. 2 Co-Leader of the Opposition when the election was called; became Premier after successful non-confidence vote.

1934 General election
Gardiner remained leader of the Liberals and led them into the 1934 election, at the depths of the Great Depression. The Liberals won a substantial majority government, taking fifty of the fifty-five seats in the Legislative Assembly. The election was a crushing defeat for the Conservatives under Anderson, who failed to win a single seat. The Farmer-Labour Party won five seats and formed the Opposition.

1 Leader of the Opposition when election was called; Premier after the election. 2 Party leader during the election, but failed to win seat; role as Leader of the Opposition taken by George Hara Williams 3 Premier when election was called; lost seat in the election and retired.

Saskatchewan constituency elections
Gardiner stood for election to the Legislative Assembly seven times, once in a by-election and in six general elections. He was elected six times in the constituency of North Qu'Appelle, and the seventh and last election in the constituency of Melville. He was elected twice by acclamation, and five times in contested elections.

1914 By-election: North Qu'Appelle
The by-election was called on the resignation of the sitting Conservative member, John Archibald McDonald, who admitted to "corrupt practices" by his agent in the 1912 general election.

E Elected.

1917 General election: North Qu'Appelle
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1921 General election: North Qu'Appelle
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1922 By-election: North Qu'Appelle
The by-election was called on Gardiner accepting the position of Minister of Highways in the Cabinet of Premier Dunning, an office of profit under the Crown, on April 5, 1922. E Elected. X Incumbent.

1925 General election: North Qu'Appelle
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1929 General election: North Qu'Appelle
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1934 General election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent.

Federal constituency elections, 1936 to 1958
Gardiner stood for election to the House of Commons seven times from 1936 to 1958, in two different Saskatchewan ridings (Assiniboia originally, and then Melville for the next six elections). He was elected six times. After his defeat in the 1958 election, he retired from politics.

1936 By-election: Assiniboia
By-election called after the sitting Liberal MP, Robert McKenzie, accepted an office of profit under the Crown on December 9, 1935.

E Elected.

1940 General Election: Melville
E Elected.

1945 General Election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1949 General Election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1953 General Election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent. 1 Rounding error.

1957 General Election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent.

1958 General Election: Melville
E Elected. X Incumbent.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: James Garfield Gardiner


text:
TKK (disambiguation)

TKK can stand for:

 * My Life with the Thrill Kill Kult band's nickname
 * Teknillinen korkeakoulu (Helsinki University of Technology) - a former Finnish university
 * IATA Airport Code for Chuuk International Airport
 * Tanda Kecakapan Khusus, Indonesian Scout merit badges
 * Tokyu Corporation (Tokyo KyuKo Railway)

title: TKK (disambiguation)


text:
A. Mitchell Palmer

Alexander Mitchell Palmer (May 4, 1872 – May 11, 1936) was an American attorney and politician who served as the 50th United States attorney general from 1919 to 1921. He is best known for overseeing the Palmer Raids during the Red Scare of 1919–20.

He became a member of the Democratic Party and won election to the United States House of Representatives, serving from 1909 to 1915. During World War I, he served as Alien Property Custodian, taking charge of the seizure of enemy property.

Palmer became attorney general under President Woodrow Wilson in 1919. In reaction to domestic unrest, Palmer created the General Intelligence Unit and recruited J. Edgar Hoover to head the new organization. Beginning in November 1919, Palmer launched a series of raids that rounded up and deported numerous suspected radicals. Though the American public initially supported the raids, Palmer's raids earned backlash from civil rights activists and legal scholars. He received further backlash when a series of attacks on May Day 1920 that he had raised grave concerns about did not materialize.

Palmer sought the presidential nomination at the 1920 Democratic National Convention, but he faced strong opposition from labor groups and the nomination went to James M. Cox. He resumed the private practice of law and remained active in Democratic politics until his death in 1936.

Early life and education
Palmer was born into a Quaker family near White Haven, Pennsylvania, in the small town of Moosehead, on May 4, 1872. He was educated in the public schools and Bethlehem, Pennsylvania's Moravian Parochial School. Palmer graduated from Swarthmore College in 1891. At Swarthmore, he was a member of the Pennsylvania Kappa chapter of the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity. After graduation, he was appointed court stenographer of Pennsylvania's 43rd judicial district. He studied law at Lafayette College and George Washington University, and continued his studies with attorney John Brutzman Storm.

Career
He was admitted to the Pennsylvania Bar Association in 1893, and began to practice in Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, in partnership with Storm. Palmer also had various business interests, including serving on the board of directors of the Scranton Trust Company, Stroudsburg National Bank, International Boiler Company, Citizens' Gas Company, and Stroudsburg Water Company. He also became active in politics as a Democrat, to include membership on the executive committee of the Pennsylvania State Democratic Committee.

U.S. House of Representatives
Palmer was elected as a Democrat to the 61st, 62nd, and 63rd Congresses and served from March 4, 1909, to March 3, 1915. From the start he won important party assignments, serving as vice-chairman of the Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee in his first term and managing the assignment of office space in his second term.

As a congressman, Palmer aligned himself with the progressive wing of the Democratic Party, advocating lower tariffs despite the popularity of tariffs in his home district and state. In his second term, he won a seat on the Ways and Means Committee chaired by Oscar Underwood. There he was the principal author of the detailed tariff schedules that a Republican Senator denounced as "the most radical departure in the direction of free trade that has been proposed by any party during the last 70 years." He argued that tariffs profited business and had no benefit for workers. Pennsylvania industry, notably the large mining and manufacturing firms, bellicosely opposed his tariff scheme. As Palmer stated: "I have received my notice from the Bethlehem Steel Company. ... I am marked again for slaughter at their hands."

Palmer defeated Pennsylvania's incumbent Democratic National Committeeman, Colonel James Guffey, by a resounding margin of 110 to 71 at the State Party's annual convention in 1912. Guffey had been a dominant force in state Democratic politics for a half-century; his defeat at the hands of Palmer was seen as a major victory for the Progressive-wing of the State Party, though Guffey's nephew, Joe, would go on to succeed Palmer as the state's National Committeeman in 1920. Palmer served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention in both 1912 and 1916. At the 1912 Convention, he played a key role in holding the Pennsylvania delegation together in voting for Woodrow Wilson. Following the election of 1912, Palmer hoped to join Wilson's Cabinet as Attorney General. When he was offered Secretary of War instead, he declined citing his Quaker beliefs and heritage. He wrote to the President:

"As a Quaker War Secretary, I should consider myself a living illustration of a horrible incongruity....In case our country should come into armed conflict with any other, I would go as far as any man in her defense; but I cannot, without violating every tradition of my people and going against every instinct of my nature, planted there by heredity, environment and training, sit down in cold blood in an executive position and use such talents as I possess to the work of preparing for such a conflict."

In his third congressional term Palmer chaired his party's caucus in the House of Representatives and served on the five-man executive committee that directed the Democratic Party's national affairs. Continuing to champion tariff reduction, he even accepted lower tariffs on the one economic sector he had tried to protect, the wool industry. He proposed to pay for any lost revenue with a graduated income tax targeted only at the rich. The New York Times said he gave "the ablest speech of the day" when the House debated the measure in April 1913. He said:

"Business now may take notice that, as to such enterprises as cannot meet the new conditions, by reason of neglect, refusal or inability to employ that efficiency and economy which will permit industry to stand upon its own feet with less support from the government the people refuse to be longer taxed to accomplish the survival of the unfit."

Palmer's work became part of the Underwood Tariff Act of 1913, signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson.

Other progressive legislation Palmer proposed included a bill outlawing the employment of workers below a certain age in quarries and requiring quarries to be inspected. He noted that recent Welsh victims of quarry accidents were "a high class of workman –not cheap foreign labor." Late in his congressional career, he sponsored a bill to promote women's suffrage. On behalf of the National Child Labor Committee he offered another to end child labor in most American mines and factories. Wilson found it constitutionally unsound and after the House voted 232 to 44 in favor on February 15, 1915, he allowed it to die in the Senate. Nevertheless, Arthur Link has called it "a turning point in American constitutional history" because it attempted to establish for the first time "the use of the commerce power to justify almost any form of federal control over working conditions and wages."

In 1914, President Wilson persuaded him to give up his House seat and run instead for the United States Senate. The depression of that year highlighted his controversial tariff position. He came in last in the three-man race, behind second-place finisher Gifford Pinchot, who was later a Republican Governor and ran on the Progressive Party line, and incumbent Republican Boies Penrose.

Alien Property Custodian
Leaving Congress in March 1915, Palmer decided to leave public office. When Wilson offered him a lifetime position on the Court of Claims, he at first accepted, but then arranged for a postponement so he could continue serving on the Democratic National Committee. His attachment to party affairs eventually forced him to withdraw from consideration for a judicial post. He sought other positions without success while continuing to fight for control of patronage positions in Pennsylvania. He worked for the Wilson campaign in the 1916 elections, but Pennsylvania voted Republican as usual.

Palmer proved out of step with the public mood when, after the sinking of the Lusitania in May 1915, he offered reporters his opinion that "the entire nation should not be asked to suffer" to avenge the deaths of passengers who had ignored warnings not to travel on ships that carried munitions.

Following the United States' entry into World War I in April 1917, Palmer volunteered, despite his Quaker background, to "carry a gun as a private" if necessary, or to "work in any capacity without compensation." He chaired his local draft board for a time, while Herbert Hoover, head of the new Food Administration refused to appoint him to a post in his agency. In October, he accepted an appointment from Wilson as Alien Property Custodian an office he held from October 22, 1917, until March 4, 1919. A wartime agency, the Custodian had responsibility for the seizure, administration, and sometimes the sale of enemy property in the United States. Palmer's background in law and banking qualified him for the position, along with his party loyalty and intimate knowledge of political patronage.

The size of the assets the Custodian controlled only became clear over the next year. Late in 1918, Palmer reported he was managing almost 30,000 trusts with assets worth $500 million. He estimated that another 9,000 trusts worth $300 million awaited evaluation. Many of the enterprises in question produced materials significant to the war effort, such as medicines, glycerin for explosives, charcoal for gas masks. Others ranged from mines to brewing to newspaper publishing. Palmer built a team of professionals with banking expertise as well as an investigative bureau to track down well-hidden assets. Below the top-level positions, he distributed jobs as patronage. For example, he appointed one of his fellow members of the Democratic National Committee to serve as counsel for a textile company and another the vice-president of a shipping line. Always thinking like a politician, he made sure his group's efforts were well publicized.

In September 1918, Palmer testified at hearings held by the U.S. Senate's Overman Committee that the United States Brewers Association (USBA) and the rest of the overwhelmingly German liquor industry harbored pro-German sentiments. He stated that "German brewers of America, in association with the United States Brewers' Association" had attempted "to buy a great newspaper" and "control the government of State and Nation", had generally been "unpatriotic", and had "pro-German sympathies".

As Alien Property Custodian, Palmer campaigned successfully to have his powers to dispose of assets by sale increased to counter Germany's long-term plan to conquer the world by industrial expansion even after the war. Even after Germany's surrender, Palmer continued the campaign to make American industry independent of German ownership, with major sales in the metals industry in the spring of 1919, for example. He offered his rationale in a speech to an audience of lawyers: "The war power is of necessity an inherent power in every sovereign nation. It is the power of self-preservation and that power has no limits other than the extent of the emergency."

Attorney general
When President Wilson needed to fill the position of Attorney General at the start of 1919, party officials, including Palmer's colleagues on the Democratic National Committee and many recipients of his patronage during his tenure as Alien Property Custodian, backed him against Sherman L. Whipple and other candidates with stronger legal credentials. They argued that the South was over-represented in the Cabinet and that Palmer's political intelligence was critical. Joseph Tumulty, the President's private secretary, advised the President that the office had "great power politically. We should not trust it to anyone who is not heart and soul with us." He pressed the President several times. He cabled Wilson in Paris: "Recognition of Palmer ...would be most helpful and cheering to young men of the party....You will make no mistake if appointment is made. It will give us all heart and new courage. Party know of need in tonic like this." He called Palmer "young, militant, progressive and fearless." The President sent Palmer's nomination to the Senate on February 27, 1919, and Palmer took office as a recess appointment on March 5.

Palmer served as Attorney General from March 5, 1919, until March 4, 1921. Before assuming office, he had opposed the American Protective League (APL), an organization of private citizens that conducted numerous raids and surveillance activities aimed at those who failed to register for the draft and immigrants of German ancestry who were suspected of sympathies for Germany. One of Palmer's first acts was to release 10,000 aliens of German ancestry who had been taken into government custody during World War I. He stopped accepting intelligence information gathered by the APL. Conversely, he refused to share information in his APL-provided files when Ohio Governor James M. Cox requested it. He called the APL materials "gossip, hearsay information, conclusions, and inferences" and added that "information of this character could not be used without danger of doing serious wrong to individuals who were probably innocent." In March 1919, when some in Congress and the press were urging him to reinstate the Justice Department's wartime relationship with the APL, he told reporters that "its operation in any community constitutes a grave menace."

Assassination attempt and bombings
The Palmer Raids occurred in the larger context of the Red Scare, the term given to fear of and reaction against communist radicals in the U.S. in the years immediately following World War I. Strikes garnered national attention, race riots occurred in over 30 US cities, and two sets of bombings took place in April and June 1919, including attacks on Palmer's home.

A first booby-trap bomb directed at assassinating Palmer was mailed by anarchists linked to Luigi Galleani. This first bomb was intercepted and defused, but two months later, Palmer and his family narrowly escaped death when an anarchist exploded a bomb on their porch at 2132 R Street, N.W., Washington D.C. The home of a Department of Justice Bureau of Investigation (BOI) field agent Rayme Weston Finch was also attacked. Finch had previously arrested two prominent Galleanists while leading a police raid on the offices of their publication Cronaca Sovversiva.

In total, April 1919 saw 36 dynamite-filled bombs mailed to other leading figures including justice officials, newspaper editors and businessmen, including John D. Rockefeller.

Response and raids
Palmer initially moved slowly to find a way to attack the source of the violence. An initial raid in July 1919 against a very small anarchist group in Buffalo failed when a federal judge tossed out his case. In August, he organized the General Intelligence Unit within the Department of Justice and recruited J. Edgar Hoover, a 24-year-old law school graduate who spent the war working in and then leading the Justice Department's Enemy Alien Bureau, to head it. On October 17, 1919, just a year after the Immigration Act of 1918 had expanded the definition of aliens that could be deported, the U.S. Senate demanded Palmer explain his failure to move against radicals. Palmer's reply on November 17 described the threat anarchists and Bolsheviks posed to the government. More than half the report documented radicalism in the black community and the "open defiance" black leaders advocated in response to racial violence and rioting of the past summer.

Palmer launched his campaign against radicalism in November 1919 and January 1920 with a series of police actions known as the Palmer Raids. Federal agents supported by local police rounded up large groups of suspected radicals, often based on membership in a political group rather than any action taken. Only the dismissal of most of the cases by Assistant Secretary of Labor Louis Freeland Post limited the number of deportations to 556. At a Cabinet meeting in April 1920, Palmer called on Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson to fire Post, but Wilson defended him. The President listened to his feuding department heads and offered no comment about Post, but he ended the meeting by telling Palmer that he should "not let this country see red." Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, who made notes of the conversation, thought the Attorney General had merited the President's "admonition," because Palmer "was seeing red behind every bush and every demand for an increase in wages."

Fearful of extremist violence and revolution, the American public initially supported the raids. Civil rights activists, the radical left, and legal scholars raised protests. Officials at the Department of Labor, especially Louis Freeland Post, asserted the rule of law in opposition to Palmer's campaign, and congressional attempts to impeach or censure Louis Post were short-lived, though Palmer was allowed to defend himself in two days of testimony before the House Rules Committee in June 1919. Much of the press applauded Louis Post's work at Labor as well, and Palmer, rather than President Wilson, was largely blamed for the negative results of the raids.

Labor and business
Palmer had a pro-labor record in Congress though he was never very successful at winning labor's votes in elections. Through most of 1919 he did not join the growing chorus of anti-union sentiment and anti-Red rhetoric that greeted the Seattle General Strike and the Boston Police Strike. His potential rivals for the presidency in 1920 were not inactive. In September and October 1919, General Leonard Wood led U.S. military forces against striking steel workers in Gary, Indiana. Employers claimed the strikers had revolutionary objectives and military intelligence seconded those charges, so Wood added acclaim as an anti-labor and anti-radical champion to his reputation as a military hero, critic of Wilson, and leading candidate for the Republican nomination for President in 1920.

Coal strike
The railroad and coal strike scheduled for November 1, 1919, roused Palmer. The Senate, on October 17, had already challenged him to demonstrate what action he was taking against foreign radicals. Now these two industries faced disruption as prices continued to rise and shortages threatened, even as the presidential election year of 1920 approached. The railroad brotherhoods postponed their strike in the face of political and public opposition, but the United Mine Workers under John L. Lewis went forward. Palmer invoked the Lever Act, a wartime measure that made it a crime to interfere with the production or transportation of necessities. The law, meant to punish hoarding and profiteering, had never been used against a union. Certain of united political backing and almost universal public support, Palmer obtained an injunction on October 31 and 400,000 coal workers struck the next day.

Samuel Gompers of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) at first attempted to mediate between Palmer and Lewis, but after several days called the injunction "so autocratic as to stagger the human mind." The coal operators smeared the strikers with charges that Lenin and Trotsky had ordered the strike and were financing it, and some of the press echoed that language. Palmer's public rhetoric was restrained throughout. He eschewed characterizing labor's action as some others did –"insurrection" and "Bolshevik revolution", for example –and made straightforward statements about what the government of necessity had to do. Responding to an AFL attack he wrote:

"Nothing that the Government has done is intended or designed to have any effect upon the recognized right of labor to organize, to bargain collectively through its unions, or, under ordinary industrial conditions, to walk out by concerted action....The Government faced the alternative of submitting to the demands of a single group, to the irreparable injury of the whole people, or of challenging the assertion by that group of power greater than that of the Government itself."

Lewis, facing criminal charges, withdrew his strike call, though many strikers ignored his action. As the strike dragged on into its third week, coal supplies were running low and public sentiment was calling for ever stronger government action. Final agreement came on December 10. Palmer's tough stand won him considerable praise from business and professional groups. He received one letter that said: "A lion-hearted man, with a great nation behind him, has brought order out of chaos. You have shown...that the United States is not a myth, but a virile, mighty power which shows itself when a man who measures up to the duties of the hour is at the helm." Such support stiffened his resolve in the next labor crisis.

The coal strike also had political consequences. At one point Palmer asserted that the entire Cabinet had backed his request for an injunction. That infuriated Secretary of Labor William B. Wilson who had opposed Palmer's plan. The rift between the Attorney General and the Secretary of Labor was never healed, which had consequences the next year when Palmer's attempt to deport radicals was largely frustrated by the Department of Labor.

May Day warnings
Within Palmer's Justice Department, the General Intelligence Division (GID), headed by J. Edgar Hoover, had become a storehouse of information about radicals in America. It had infiltrated many organizations and, following the raids of November 1919 and January 1920, it had interrogated thousands of those arrested and read through boxes of publications and records seized. Though agents in the GID knew there was a gap between what the radicals promised in their rhetoric and what they were capable of accomplishing, they nevertheless told Palmer they had evidence of plans for an attempted overthrow of the U.S. government on May Day 1920.

With Palmer's backing, Hoover warned the nation to expect the worst: assassinations, bombings, and general strikes. Palmer issued his own warning on April 29, 1920, claiming to have a "list of marked men" and said domestic radicals were "in direct connection and unison" with European counterparts with disruptions planned for the same day there. Newspapers headlined his words: "Terror Reign by Radicals, says Palmer" and "Nation-wide Uprising on Saturday." Localities prepared their police forces and some states mobilized their militias. New York City's 11,000-man police force worked for 32 hours straight. Boston police mounted machine guns on automobiles and positioned them around the city.

The date came and went without incident. Newspaper reaction was almost uniform in its mockery of Palmer and his "hallucinations." Clarence Darrow called it the "May Day scare." The Rocky Mountain News asked the Attorney General to cease his alerts: "We can never get to work if we keep jumping sideways in fear of the bewiskered Bolshevik." Palmer's embarrassment buttressed Louis Freeland's position in opposition to the Palmer raids when he testified before a Congressional Committee on May 7–8.

Later career
Palmer sought the Democratic Party's nomination for President in 1920. Campaigning during the Georgia primary, he said: "I am myself an American and I love to preach my doctrine before undiluted one hundred percent Americans, because my platform is, in a word, undiluted Americanism and undying loyalty to the republic." Journalist Heywood Broun pretended to investigate: "We assumed, of course, from the tone of Mr. Palmer's manifesto that his opponents for the nomination were Rumanians, Greeks and Icelanders, and weak-kneed ones at that....We happened into Cox's headquarters wholly by accident and were astounded to discover that he, too, is an American. ... Thus encouraged we went to all camps and found that the candidates are all Americans." Palmer had considerable support among party professionals, but no track record as a campaigner or a vote winner. He won delegates in the Michigan and Georgia primaries but did so without demonstrating voter appeal. He also faced strong opposition from labor for his use of an injunction against striking coal miners in the fall of 1919. Though he probably never had a chance of winning the nomination, he ran a respectable third until his support collapsed on the convention's 39th ballot and the nomination shortly thereafter went to Ohio Governor James Cox.

In 1921, in the closing weeks of the Wilson administration, Palmer asked the President to pardon imprisoned Socialist leader Eugene V. Debs, whose health was said to be failing. He suggested the birthday of President Lincoln as an appropriate day for the announcement, noting Lincoln's willingness to forgive the Confederate South. Wilson's response was "Never!", and he wrote "Denied" across the clemency petition.

After retiring from government service in March 1921, Palmer went into the private practice of law and continued to act the role of a senior statesman of the Democratic Party. Widowed when his wife Roberta Dixon died on January 4, 1922, he married Margaret Fallon Burrall in 1923.

After the Republicans won the national election of 1924 in a landslide, he was quick to congratulate Governor Al Smith of New York on his re-election and declare him the party's new leader, and he backed Smith for the Democratic nomination in 1928.

As a Roosevelt supporter and a delegate from the District of Columbia, Palmer served as one of nine members on the Platform Committee of the 1932 Democratic National Convention and authored the original draft of the platform. Time magazine later credited him with the platform's opposition to forgiving the debts of America's allies in World War I and its promise to reduce government expenditures by 25%. Palmer said that the savings could be devoted to programs to relieve unemployment. With the repeal of prohibition a major campaign issue, Palmer used his expertise as the Attorney General who first enforced Prohibition to promote a plan to expedite its repeal through state conventions rather than the state legislatures.

Death
On May 11, 1936, at Emergency Hospital in Washington, D.C., Palmer died from cardiac complications following an appendectomy two weeks earlier. Upon his death, Attorney General Cummings said "He was a great lawyer, a distinguished public servant and an outstanding citizen. He was my friend of many years' standing and his death brings to me a deep sense of personal loss and sorrow." He was buried at Laurelwood Cemetery (originally a cemetery of the Society of Friends) in Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania.

title: A. Mitchell Palmer


text:
Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex

The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex (GDSCC), commonly called the Goldstone Observatory, is a satellite ground station located in Fort Irwin in the U.S. state of California. Operated by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), its main purpose is to track and communicate with interplanetary space missions. It is named after Goldstone, California, a nearby gold-mining ghost town.

The station is one of three satellite communication stations in the NASA Space Communications and Navigation (SCaN) program’s Deep Space Network (DSN), whose mission is to provide the vital two-way communications link that tracks and controls interplanetary spacecraft and receives the images and scientific information they collect. The others are the Madrid Deep Space Communications Complex in Spain and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex in Australia. These three stations are located at separations of approximately 120° longitude so that as the Earth rotates a spacecraft will always be in sight of at least one station.

The complex includes the Pioneer Deep Space Station (aka DSS 11), which is a U.S. National Historic Landmark.

Antennas
Five large parabolic (dish) antennas are located at the Goldstone site to handle the workload, since at any given time the DSN is responsible for maintaining communication with up to 30 spacecraft. The antennas function similarly to a home satellite dish. However, since the spacecraft they communicate with are much farther away than the communication satellites which home satellite dishes use, the signals received are much weaker, requiring a larger aperture antenna to gather enough radio energy to make them intelligible. The largest, a 70-meter (230 ft) Cassegrain antenna, is used for communication with space missions to the outer planets, such as the Voyager spacecraft, which, at 21.5 billion kilometers, is the most distant manmade object from Earth. The radio frequencies used for spacecraft communication are in the microwave part of the radio spectrum; S band (2.29–2.30 GHz), X band (8.40–8.50 GHz) and Ka band (31.8–32.3 GHz). In addition to receiving radio signals from the spacecraft (downlink signals), the antennas also transmit commands to the spacecraft (uplink signals) with high power radio transmitters (80 kW) powered by klystron tubes.

A major goal in the design of the station is to reduce interference with the weak incoming downlink radio signals by natural and manmade radio noise. The remote Mojave Desert location was chosen because it is far from manmade sources of radio noise such as motor vehicles. The RF front ends of the radio receivers at the dishes use ruby masers, consisting of a bar of synthetic ruby cooled by liquid helium to 4.5 K to minimize the noise introduced by the electronics.

When not needed for spacecraft communication, the Goldstone antennas are used as sensitive radio telescopes for astronomical research, such as mapping quasars and other celestial radio sources; radar mapping planets, the Moon, comets and asteroids; spotting comets and asteroids with the potential to strike Earth; and the search for ultra-high energy neutrino interactions in the Moon by using large-aperture radio antennas.

History
The Goldstone complex was created in 1958 by the JPL to support the Pioneer program of deep space exploration probes. Its location was determined by two criteria: a bowl-shaped environment was needed, and it needed to be distant from terrestrial sources of radio interference. This site, on the grounds of Fort Irwin in the Mojave Desert, was found to meet the criteria. Construction of the first radio telescope, DSS 11 or the Pioneer Deep Space Station, was begun by the United States Army and taken over by NASA after its creation. It is a 26 m parabolic Cassegrain antenna capable of receiving signals in the 1 to 3 GHz range. It was taken out of service in 1981, having been technologically bypassed by later telescopes. It was recognized as a National Historic Landmark in 1985 for its pioneering role in deep space exploration.

"Goldstone has the bird"
It is commonly believed that the first American satellite, Explorer 1, was confirmed to be in orbit by the use of the phrase "Goldstone has the bird". However, Goldstone was not in operation at the time of Explorer 1, and like many oft-repeated quotations it is incorrect. Others claim that the actual phrase was "Gold has it!", incorrectly identifying "Gold" as a temporary tracking station at Earthquake Valley, east of Julian, California. In fact, Gold Station was located at the Air Force Missile Test Center (AFMTC) in Florida and the temporary tracking station at Earthquake Valley was Red Station. Probably this detection of the Explorer 1 signal was actually made at the Minitrack station at Brown Field, a US Navy airfield near San Diego. This station was later moved to Goldstone, accounting for the error.

Complex tours
The Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex has temporarily suspended tours for the public. However, there is a Visitor Center located in Harvey House, 681 North First Avenue, Barstow, CA 92311. Operating hours are Monday, Wednesday and Fridays from 9AM - 3PM. There is no entry fee and no need to make reservations to stop by the Visitor Center.

In popular culture
The 70m dish also known as Mars or DSS14 is featured in the opening sequences of the 1968 film Ice Station Zebra.

The Goldstone Facility was prominently featured in Part 1 of The Incredible Hulk (TV Series) episode, "Prometheus".

A Boy and His Dog (1975 film) used the facility for the industrial looking entrance sequence to the film's world of "Down Under" according to the director's commentary (not without difficulty - the filming crew had a hard time getting access).


text:
TKE

TKE may refer to:

 * Tau Kappa Epsilon, a college fraternity.
 * Tenakee Seaplane Base, Tenakee Springs, Alaska, IATA code TKE
 * TK Elevator
 * Turbulence kinetic energy, a property of turbulent flows.

title: TKE


text:
Geology of Great Britain

The geology of Great Britain is renowned for its diversity. As a result of its eventful geological history, Great Britain shows a rich variety of landscapes across the constituent countries of England, Wales and Scotland. Rocks of almost all geological ages are represented at outcrop, from the Archaean onwards.

Overview
Seismographic research shows that the crust of the Earth below Great Britain is from 27 to 35 km (17 to 22 miles) thick. The oldest surface rocks are found in northwest Scotland and are more than half as old as the planet. These rocks are thought to underlie much of Great Britain (although boreholes have only penetrated the first few kilometres), but next appear extensively at the surface in Brittany and the Channel Islands. The youngest rocks are found in southeast England.

Bedrock and past volcanism
The bedrock geology consists of a complex mix of generally older metamorphic rocks overlain by varying sequences of sedimentary rocks into both of which igneous rocks have been intruded at different times. The complexity of Great Britain's geology is due ultimately to its being subject to a variety of plate tectonic processes over a very extended period of time. Changing latitude and sea levels have been important factors in the nature of sedimentary sequences, while successive continental collisions have affected its geological structure with major faulting and folding being a legacy of each orogeny (mountain-building period), often associated with volcanic activity and the metamorphism of existing rock sequences.

Great Britain does not have any active volcanoes now, but has had an active volcanic past. The last active volcanoes stopped erupting about 60 million years ago and the islands are no longer located upon any tectonic boundary or active volcanic region, nor are there other geological phenomena in the island group able to give rise to active volcanism. However, on a geological timescale, a considerable degree of active and large-scale volcanism occurred in Great Britain, and many famous landmarks are formed of the eroded igneous rocks formed during these orogenies (mountain-building periods). The British Geological Survey lists Snowdonia and the Lake District as having extremely large volcanic eruptions around 450 Ma (million years ago), Edinburgh Castle lying upon the remains of a volcano dating back 350 Ma, and some islands of western Scotland as being remnants of volcanoes from around 60 Ma.

Superficial deposits
Overlain on this bedrock geology ("solid geology" in the terminology of maps) is a varied distribution of unconsolidated material of more recent origin. It includes material deposited by glaciers (boulder clay and other forms of glacial drift such as sand and gravel). "Drift" geology is often more important than "solid" geology when considering building works, drainage, siting water boreholes, sand and gravel resources and soil fertility. Although "drift" strictly refers to glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits, the term on geological maps has traditionally included other materials including alluvium, river terraces, etc. Recent maps use the terms "bedrock" and "superficial" in place of "solid" and "drift".

Geological history
This description of the geological history of Great Britain is based on that of P. Toghill.

Archaean eon
The Lewisian gneiss, the oldest rocks in Great Britain, date from at least 2.7 billion years ago in the Archaean eon, the Earth itself being about 4.6 billion years old. They are found in the far north west of Scotland and in the Hebrides, with a few small outcrops elsewhere. Formed from rock originally deposited at the surface of the planet, the rocks were later buried deep in the Earth's crust and metamorphosed into crystalline gneiss.

Proterozoic eon
South of the gneisses are a complex mixture of rocks forming the North West Highlands and Grampian Highlands in Scotland. These are essentially the remains of folded sedimentary rocks that were originally 25 km thick, deposited over the gneiss on what was then the floor of the Iapetus Ocean. The process started about 1,000 Ma, with a notable 7 km thick layer of Torridon Sandstone being deposited about 800 Ma, as well as the debris deposited by an ice sheet 670 Ma.

Palaeomagnetic evidence indicates that 520 Ma, what is now Great Britain was split between two continents, separated by 7000 km of ocean. The north of Scotland was located at about 20° south of the equator on the continent of Laurentia near the Tropic of Capricorn, while the rest of the country was at about 60° south on the continent of Gondwana near the Antarctic Circle.

In Gondwana, England and Wales were near a subduction zone. Both countries were largely submerged under a shallow sea studded with volcanic islands. The remains of these islands underlie much of central England with small outcrops visible in many places. Around 600 Ma, the Cadomian Orogeny (mountain building period) caused the English and Welsh landscape to be transformed into a mountainous region, along with much of north west Europe.

Cambrian period
In the early Cambrian period, the volcanoes and mountains of England and Wales were eroded as the land became flooded by a rise in sea level, and new layers of sediment were laid down. Much of central England formed a stable block of crust, which has remained largely undeformed ever since. Sandstones were deposited in the north of Scotland. The first animals with hard shells evolved at this time, consequently, fossils become much more common in rocks formed during this and later periods.

Ordovician period
Five hundred million years ago, in the Ordovician period, southern Great Britain, the east coast of North America and south-east Newfoundland broke away from Gondwana to form the continent of Avalonia, which by 440 Ma had drifted (by the mechanisms of plate tectonics) to about 30° south.

During this period, north Wales was subject to volcanic activity. The remains of these volcanoes are still visible, one example of which is Rhobell Fawr dating from 510 Ma. Large quantities of volcanic lava and ash known as the Borrowdale Volcanics covered the Lake District and this can still be seen in the form of mountains such as Helvellyn and Scafell Pike.

The Ordovician also saw the formation of the Skiddaw slate deposits around 500 Ma.

Silurian period
Deposition continued into the early part of the Silurian period, with mudstones and sandstones being laid down, notably in Wales.

Avalonia had now joined with the continent of Baltica, and the combined landmass collided with Laurentia at about 20° south between 425 and 400 Ma, joining the southern and northern halves of Great Britain together. The resulting Caledonian Orogeny produced an Alpine-style mountain range in much of north and west Great Britain. The continental collision was probably at an oblique angle rather than a head-on collision, and this probably led to movement along strike-slip faults trending north-east to south-west across Scotland, the Great Glen Fault being the best example (some of these fault zones may have been old lines of weakness from earlier earth movements).

Volcanic ashes and lavas deposited during the Silurian are still found in the Mendip Hills and in Pembrokeshire.

Devonian period
The collision between continents continued during the Devonian period, with continuing uplift, and more volcanic deposits such as those now forming Ben Nevis. Sea levels varied considerably, with the coastline advancing and retreating from north to south across England. The uplifted region was gradually eroded down, resulting in the deposition of numerous sedimentary rock layers in lowlands and seas. The rocks of marine origin in the county of Devon gave the period its name, though deposits of this age are found in many other places, such as the Brecon Beacons, the Midland Valley of Scotland, and the Orkney Islands. Most of these are of terrestrial origin and are informally known as the Old Red Sandstone.

The Caledonian mountains had largely been eroded away by the end of the period during which the country would have experienced an arid desert climate as it was located close to the equator at between 10° and 15° south.

Carboniferous period
Around 360 Ma, at the start of the Carboniferous period, Great Britain was lying at the equator, covered by the warm shallow waters of the Rheic Ocean, during which time the Carboniferous Limestone was deposited, as found in the Mendip Hills, north and south Wales, in the Peak District of Derbyshire, north Lancashire, the northern Pennines and southeast Scotland. Caves developed more recently in the limestone of some of these areas by the action of carbonic acid and other organic acids in rainwater and groundwater.

These were followed by dark marine shales, siltstones, and coarse sandstones of the Millstone Grit. Later, river deltas formed and the sediments deposited were colonised by swamps and rain forest. It was in this environment that the cyclic Coal Measures were formed, the source of the majority of Great Britain's extensive coal reserves that powered the Industrial Revolution. Coal can be found in many areas of Great Britain, as far north as the Midland Valley of Scotland, as far south as Kent, although coal mining has largely been concentrated in the Scottish Midlands, English Midlands, northern England and Wales.

Throughout the period, southwest England in particular was affected by the collision of continental plates. The mountain building period known as the Variscan orogeny, which occurred around 280 Ma, caused major deformation in south west England. Towards the end of this period granite was formed beneath the overlying rocks of Devon and Cornwall, now exposed at Dartmoor and Bodmin Moor, giving rise to mineralised deposits of copper and tin. The general region of Variscan folding was south of an east–west line roughly from south Pembrokeshire to Kent. The main tectonic pressure was from the south or south-east, and there developed dextral strike-slip faulting. The Devon-Cornwall massif may originally have been some distance further east, then to be moved westwards. Lesser Variscan folding took place as far north as Derbyshire and Berwick-upon-Tweed.

By the end of the Carboniferous period, the various continents of the Earth had fused to form the super-continent of Pangaea. Great Britain was located in the interior of Pangea, where it was again subject to a hot arid desert climate with frequent flash floods leaving deposits that formed beds of red sedimentary rock, somewhat similar to the later, Triassic New Red Sandstone.

Permian period
The Permian was characterised for 30 million years by arid desert conditions and the erosion of the land that had uplifted in the Variscan Orogeny, southwest England and adjacent areas of the present-day English Channel. Later, much of Great Britain was submerged in shallow waters as the polar ice sheets melted and the Tethys Ocean and Zechstein Sea formed, depositing shale, limestone, gravel, and marl, before finally receding to leave a flat desert with salt pans.

Triassic period
As Pangaea drifted during the Triassic, Great Britain moved away from the equator until it was between 20° and 30° north. Red beds, including sandstones and red mudstones form the main sediments of the New Red Sandstone. The remnants of the Variscan uplands in France to the south were eroded down, resulting in layers of the New Red Sandstone being deposited across central England, and in faulted basins in Cheshire and the Irish Sea. A basin developed in the Hampshire region around this time. Rifting occurred within and around Great Britain, prior to the breakup of the super-continent in the Jurassic period.

Rock fragments found near Bristol appear to indicate that, in 214 Ma, Great Britain was showered with a fine layer of debris from an asteroid impact at the Manicouagan Impact Crater in Canada, although this is still being debated.

Jurassic period
As the Jurassic period began, Pangaea began to break up, sea levels rose and Great Britain drifted on the Eurasian Plate to between 30° and 40° north. With much of Great Britain under water again, sedimentary rocks were deposited and can now be found outcropping across much of England from the Cleveland Hills of Yorkshire to the Jurassic Coast in Dorset. They also underlie younger strata to the east. In Southern England, the Jurassic rocks are subdivided upwards as the Lias, Inferior Oolite, Great Oolite, Ancholme (interfingering with Corallian) and Portland groups. These rock units include sandstones, greensands, oolitic limestone of the Cotswold Hills, corallian limestone of the Vale of White Horse and the Isle of Portland.

Cretaceous period
Sedimentation would retreat from most of England beginning in the Cretaceous, with the deposition of the lagoonal Purbeck and primarily freshwater Wealden groups being largely confined to the Wessex and Weald basins, with marine units, including the Speeton Clay, occurring in eastern England. The Aptian saw a marine transgression that flooded most areas of southern England, into shallow seas, with the successive deposition of the Lower Greensand and Gault and Upper Greensand occurring in the Aptian-Albian. At the beginning of the Late Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, deposition changed to that of chalk, with the deposition of the Chalk Group continuing until the end of the Cretaceous. Chalk was deposited over much of Great Britain, now notably exposed at the White Cliffs of Dover and the Seven Sisters, and also forming Salisbury Plain. The high sea levels left only small areas of land exposed, which accounts for the general lack of land-origin sand, mud or clay sediments found from around this time.

Palaeogene period
In the early Palaeogene period, between 63 and 52 Ma, the last volcanic rocks in Great Britain were formed. The major eruptions at this time produced the Antrim Plateau, the basaltic columns of the Giant's Causeway and the lavas and igneous intrusions of the Inner Hebrides of Scotland.

An early phase of the Alpine Orogeny, about 50 Ma, was responsible for the shaping of the London Basin syncline, the Weald-Artois Anticline to the south, the North Downs, South Downs and Chiltern Hills.

During the period, the North Sea formed and Great Britain was uplifted. Some of this uplift was along old lines of weakness left from the Caledonian and Variscan Orogenies long before. The uplifted areas were then eroded, and further sediments, such as the London Clay, were deposited over southern England, while the English Channel was characterised by mud flats and river-deposited sands. Much of the midlands and north of England may have been covered by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits at the start of the Palaeogene, but these were lost through erosion. By 35 Ma, the landscape was colonised by trees such as beech, oak, redwood and palm, along with grasses.

Miocene and Pliocene epochs
In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs of the Neogene, further uplift and erosion occurred, particularly in Wales, the Pennines, and the Scottish Highlands. The only significant Miocene deposit in Great Britain is the Brassington Formation in the Peak District. Evidence from the Brassington Formation suggests that, in the middle and late Miocene (12 to 7 million years ago) a diverse warm-temperate forest grew in the UK. The oldest Neogene sediments have been reported from Wales and include fossil pollen that shows a subtropical mixed forest once grew on Anglesey. The climate of the UK cooled and became drier throughout the Neogene

Pleistocene epoch
The major changes during the Pleistocene were brought about by several recent ice ages. The most severe was the Anglian Glaciation, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick that reached as far south as London and Bristol. This took place between about 478,000 to 424,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the River Thames onto its present course.

There is extensive evidence in the form of stone tools that southern England was colonised by human populations during the warm Hoxnian Stage that followed the Anglian Glaciation. It is possible that the English Channel repeatedly opened and closed during this period, causing Great Britain to become an island from time to time. The oldest human fossils found to date in the British Isles, which include the skull of Swanscombe Man from 400,000 years ago, and the earlier Clactonian Man, also date from this period.

The Wolstonian Glaciation, between about 352,000 to 130,000 years ago, which is thought to have peaked around 150,000 years ago, was named after the village of Wolston southeast of Coventry which is thought to mark the southern limit of the ice.

The Wolstonian Stage was followed by the Ipswichian Stage, during which hippopotamus are known to have lived as far north as Leeds.

During the most recent Devensian glaciation, which is thought to have started around 115,000 years ago, peaked around 20,000 years ago and ended a mere 10,000 years ago, the Usk valley and Wye valley were eroded by glaciers, with the icesheet itself reaching south to Wolverhampton and Cardiff. The oldest human remains in Great Britain, the Red Lady of Paviland (29,000 years old), date from this time. It is thought that the country was eventually abandoned as the ice sheet reached its peak, being recolonised as it retreated. By 5,000 years ago, it is thought that Great Britain was warmer than it is at present.

Among the features left behind by the ice are the fjords of the west coast of Scotland, the U-shaped valleys of the Lake District and erratics (blocks of rock) that have been transported from the Oslo region of Norway and deposited on the coast of Yorkshire.

Holocene epoch
The last twelve thousand years are known as the Holocene Epoch. Amongst the most significant geological features created during this period are the peat deposits of Scotland, and of coastal and upland areas of England and Wales. Many of the lowland deposits, such as the Somerset Levels, The Fens and Romney Marsh have recently been artificially drained.

Since humans began clearing the forest during the New Stone Age, most of the land has now been deforested, speeding the natural processes of erosion. Large quantities of stone, gravel and clay are extracted each year, and by 2000 11% of England was covered by roads or buildings.

At the present time, Scotland is continuing to rise as a result of the weight of Devensian ice being lifted. Southern and eastern England is sinking, generally estimated at 1 mm ($1/25$ inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing compaction of the recent clay deposits.

In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to global warming appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.

Great Britain continues to be subject to several very minor earthquakes each month, and more occasional light to moderate ones. During the 20th century, 25 earthquakes with a moment magnitude of 4.5 to 6.1 were felt, many of them originating within the Isles themselves.

Geological features

 * Cheddar Gorge – the largest gorge in Great Britain
 * Jurassic Coast – a UNESCO World Heritage Site
 * Great Glen Fault
 * Highland Boundary Fault
 * Southern Uplands Fault
 * Midland Valley of Scotland
 * Fingal's Cave – columnar Tertiary basaltic formation (similar to the Giant's Causeway in Northern Ireland)
 * Salisbury Plain
 * Tees–Exe line
 * Whin Sill
 * Siccar Point in Berwickshire provided early proof of the immense age of the Earth.
 * Moine Thrust - the first thrust belt to be recognised by geologists.
 * London Basin
 * Hampshire Basin
 * North Downs
 * Weald
 * South Downs
 * London-Brabant Massif
 * Cornubian batholith – Early Permian intrusion in the South West of England, forming moors where exposed at the surface, such as Dartmoor
 * Lizard Complex – a piece of obducted oceanic crust, (i.e. an Ophiolite).
 * Iapetus Suture – line of closure of the Iapetus suture.

Geological resources
Great Britain's complex geology has provided it with a wide range of geological resources including abundant supplies of coal, the initial extraction of which powered the Industrial Revolution. During the 20th century, the exploitation of North Sea oil and gas provided further energy supplies for the nation. Geothermal energy and onshore oil have also been exploited to a lesser extent.

A wide variety of stone has been worked for building and general construction needs (e.g. sand and gravel) while other minerals have been mined or quarried for the chemical industry (e.g. salt), the production of metals (e.g. copper and tin) or other uses (e.g. china clay).

Events

 * Storegga Slides, caused a tsunami c. 6100 BC
 * Garth tsunami 5,500 years ago
 * Bristol Channel floods, 1607 were caused by either a tsunami or a storm surge.
 * 1580 Dover Straits earthquake
 * 1755 Lisbon earthquake caused a tsunami that hit Cornwall
 * 1884 Colchester earthquake
 * 2008 Lincolnshire earthquake

Government agencies

 * British Geological Survey

Learned societies

 * Geological Society of London
 * Edinburgh Geological Society
 * Royal Geological Society of Cornwall

Pioneers of British geology

 * Mary Anning 1799–1847
 * Thomas George Bonney 1833–1923
 * William Buckland 1784–1856
 * William Conybeare 1787–1857
 * James Hutton 1726–1797 the "Father of modern geology"
 * Charles Lapworth 1842–1920
 * Sir Charles Lyell 1797–1875
 * Gideon Mantell 1790–1852
 * Sir Roderick Murchison 1792–1871
 * John Phillips 1800–1874
 * Adam Sedgwick 1785–1873
 * William Smith 1769–1839 the "Father of English geology"

Awards

 * Wollaston Medal

Geology of UK - Section from Snowdon to Harwich.jpg to Harwich showing underlying strata.

This cross section shows what would be seen in a deep cutting nearly E. and W. across England and Wales. It shows also how, in consequence of the folding of the strata and the cutting off of the uplifted parts, old rocks which should be tens of thousands of feet down are found in borings in East Anglia only 1000 feet or so below the surface.]]

title: Geology of Great Britain


text:
Sergei Stepashin

Sergei Vadimovich Stepashin (Сергей Вадимович Степашин; born 2 March 1952) is a Russian politician who briefly served as Prime Minister of Russia in 1999. Prior to this he had been appointed as federal security minister for counterintelligence by President Boris Yeltsin in 1994, a position from which he resigned in 1995 as a consequence of the Budyonnovsk hospital hostage crisis. Subsequent to his tenure as Prime Minister he served as Chairman of the Accounts Chamber of Russia from 2000 until 2013.

Early life and education
Stepashin was born in Port-Arthur, Kvantun Oblast, USSR (now Lüshunkou, China) on 2 March 1952. He graduated from the Higher Political School of the USSR Ministry of the Interior (1973), in 1981 from the Lenin Military-Political Academy, and in 2002 from the Finance Academy. He is a Doctor of Law, Professor, and has a rank of the State Advisor on Justice of the Russian Federation. His military rank is colonel general.

Career
Stepashin served as the Head of the FSK (the predecessor of the FSB) from February 1994 until June 1995. He then became justice minister, serving from 1997 to March 1998, and interior minister, holding that office from March 1998 to May 1999, when he was appointed and confirmed by parliament as prime minister. Yeltsin made it fairly clear when he appointed him Prime Minister that Stepashin would only hold the position temporarily, and he was replaced in August 1999 by future president Vladimir Putin.

Stepashin's attitude towards the Chechen conflict was markedly different from that of Vladimir Putin. Stepashin had, for example, presented leaders of the separatist regime in Chechnya with monogrammed pistols, praised the activities of the religious extremists who had taken over several Dagestani villages, and had proclaimed publicly: "We can afford to lose Dagestan!".

After having been fired from the position of Prime Minister, Stepashin joined the political party Yabloko for the Russian parliamentary elections of 1999 and was elected to the State Duma, the lower house of the Russian parliament. Later on he resigned his parliamentary seat and became head of the Account Chamber of the Russian Federation, the federal audit agency. He held this job until 2013.

Since 2007, Stepashin is the head of the revived Imperial Orthodox Palestine Society.

On 27 March 2024, Stepashin met with the Vietnamese Ambassador to Russia.

Honours and awards

 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland;
 * 2nd class (2 March 2007) - for outstanding contribution to the strengthening and development of state financial control, and many years of honest work
 * 3rd class (2 March 2002) - for great contribution to strengthening Russian statehood and many years of conscientious service
 * 4th class (28 February 2012)
 * Order of Courage (28 December 1998) - for his great personal contribution to strengthening the rule of law and order, displaying courage and dedication
 * Medal "For Distinguished Service to the Public Order"
 * Medal "For Distinction in Military Service", 1st and 2nd classes
 * Commander of the Legion of Honour (France)
 * Commander 1st Class of the Order of the Polar Star (Sweden)
 * Order of Diplomatic Service Merit, 1st class (Republic of Korea, 2004)
 * Order of St. Seraphim of Sarov (Russian Orthodox Church);
 * 1st class (2009) - in consideration of his work for the restoration of Volsk cathedral
 * 2nd class (2006) - for his contribution to the restoration of Holy Transfiguration Monastery in Murom
 * Order of the Commonwealth (CIS Interparliamentary Assembly)
 * Diploma of the Government of the Russian Federation (2 October 2006) - for his great personal contribution to the development and strengthening of public financial control, more efficient use of the federal budget
 * Honour of the State Duma of the Russian Federation "For merits in development of parliamentarism" (2006)
 * Honorary Citizen of Murom (2006)
 * Order of Saint Nicholas the Wonderworker, 1st class (Russian Imperial House)
 * Honorary Doctor of the Diplomatic Academy of Russia (25 October 2011)
 * Order the "Community"

title: Sergei Stepashin


text:
Lydia (disambiguation)

Lydia was an Iron Age kingdom of western Asia Minor.

Lydia may also refer to:

Music

 * Lydia (band), an indie rock band
 * Lydia (singer), Spanish pop singer Lydia Rodríguez Fernández (born 1980)
 * Lydia, a 1974 album by Cold Blood
 * "Lydia" (Fur Patrol song), 2000
 * "Lydia" (Highly Suspect song), 2015
 * "Lydia", a 1978 song by Dean Friedman
 * "Lydia", a song from the 1979 album Back in Your Life by Jonathan Richman
 * "Lydia", a song from the 2004 album F.I.R. by F.I.R.
 * "Lydia", an 1871 composition by Gabriel Fauré
 * "Lydia the Tattooed Lady," a 1939 signature tune of Groucho Marx

Other arts and entertainment

 * Lydia (film), a 1941 drama starring Merle Oberon
 * Lydia (play), a 2008 play by Octavio Solis
 * HMS Lydia, a fictional ship commanded by Horatio Hornblower in The Happy Return, a novel by C.S. Forester

People and fictional characters

 * Lydia (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name
 * Giota Lydia (born 1934), Greek Laiko singer

United States

 * Lydia, Kansas, an unincorporated community
 * Lydia, Louisiana, an unincorporated community and census-designated place
 * Lydia, Minnesota, an unincorporated community
 * Lydia, South Carolina, an unincorporated community and census-designated place
 * Lydia, Virginia, an unincorporated community

Elsewhere

 * Lydia (satrapy), an administrative province of the ancient Achaemenid Empire
 * Lydia Mountain, British Columbia, Canada
 * 110 Lydia, an asteroid

Ships

 * Lydia (whaling bark), a wrecked ship beneath King Street in San Francisco, California, US
 * MV Moonta, an Australian coastal passenger ship renamed Lydia in 1955 and Le Lydia in 1967
 * USS Lydia (SP-62), a patrol vessel in commission from 1917 to 1919
 * USS Lydia (ID-3524), a cargo ship in commission from 1918 to 1919

title: Lydia (disambiguation)


text:
Gary Hamel

Gary P. Hamel (born 1954) is an American management consultant. He is a founder of Strategos, an international management consulting firm based in Chicago.

Biography
Hamel graduated from Andrews University in 1975, and from Ross School of Business at the University of Michigan in 1990.

Hamel has worked as a visiting professor of international business at the University of Michigan and at Harvard Business School; he currently teaches as a visiting professor of strategic management at the London Business School where he has been working for three decades.

Work
Gary Hamel is the originator (with C.K. Prahalad) of the concept of core competencies. He is also the director of the Woodside Institute, a nonprofit research foundation based in Woodside, California. He was a founder of the consulting firm Strategos, serving as chairman until 2003. The UTEK Corporation acquired Strategos in 2008 in an all-stock transaction as reported by the SEC. In 2012 Strategos became an independent strategy and innovation consultancy once again through a management buy-out. Harvard Business Review has available 20 articles by Gary Hamel and Hamel books are available in 25 languages.

The Wall Street Journal ranked Gary Hamel as one of the world's most influential business thinkers, and Fortune magazine has called him "the world's leading expert on business strategy" and Financial Times referred him as a  management innovator without peer". In 2013, his name was not present on an updated version of the Wall Street Journal list. He is also a member of the Reliance Innovation Council formed by Reliance Industries Limited, India. As stated by Forbes'' Hamel ranked number 5 in the 10 most influential business gurus for 2007.

Books

 * Humanocracy (2020)
 * What Matters Now (2012)
 * The Future of Management (2007)
 * Leading The Revolution (2000)
 * Competing For the Future (1994)

title: Gary Hamel


text:
Gagetown, New Brunswick

Gagetown is a former village in Queens County, New Brunswick, Canada. It held village status prior to 2023 and is now part of the village of Arcadia. It is on the west bank of the Saint John River and is the county's shire town.

History

Gagetown was originally named Grimross by the Acadians and Maliseet, who lived there prior to the Expulsion of the Acadians. The Raid on Grimross occurred during the St. John River Campaign (1758–59). During the Expulsion of the Acadians, many Acadians fled from various parts of the Maritimes to villages along the Saint John River. The St. John River Campaign occurred during the French and Indian War when Colonel Robert Monckton led a force of 1,150 British soldiers to destroy the Acadian settlements on the banks of the Saint John River until they reached the largest village of Ste Anne's Point (present day Fredericton, New Brunswick) in February 1759. There were 2000 Acadians on the Saint John River, many of whom were refugees trying to escape the Expulsion of the Acadians.

On November 4, 1758, Robert Monckton entered the nearly vacant village and New England Rangers under his command chased down and scalped Acadians. They burned 50 buildings, crops and killed the animals.

The name of the village is derived from British General Thomas Gage. Major General Thomas Gage was granted a large tract of land in central New Brunswick in appreciation of his service to the British Empire in the Seven Years' War; this land comprises modern day Gagetown.

During the 1800s and early 1900s, Gagetown was a historic Loyalist community that served as a stop for river boats. It is the birthplace of Sir Samuel Leonard Tilley, a Father of Confederation.

The nearby army training centre, CFB Gagetown, takes its name from the community, although its headquarters are in Oromocto. Despite sharing the name, Gagetown has no direct access to the base and its training area.

Every Summer since 2009 a local music & art collective known as FEELS GOOD and the North Hampton Brewing Company (which produces a local microbrew known as Picaroons) has produced and hosted a 3-day music festival known as Folly Fest. Folly Fest generally falls on the weekend closest to the split of June & July.

The Gagetown Ferry, formerly a free cable ferry, crossed the Saint John River to Lower Jemseg on the east bank, but in 2015 the Liberal Government cut the ferry for provincial budget reasons. In 2020, the Gagetown ferry service was restored but only for the summer tourist season.

On 1 January 2023, Gagetown amalgamated with the village of Cambridge-Narrows and all or part of five local service districts to form the new village of Arcadia. The community's name remains in official use.

Climate
Gagetown has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm summers, cold winters and plenty of precipitation year-round. Snowfall is frequent in winter.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Gagetown had a population of $787$ living in $315$ of its $341$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $711$. With a land area of 49.32 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

Notable people

 * John Montgomery was born in Gagetown. He owned the tavern (Montgomery's Tavern in Toronto, Ontario) which served as a base for the rebels during the Upper Canada Rebellion. His parents were loyalists who fled from New York following the American revolution.
 * Annie Babbitt Bulyea (1863–1934) was born in Gagetown. She was a Canadian temperance leader.

title: Gagetown, New Brunswick


text:
Yevgeny Primakov

Yevgeny Maksimovich Primakov (29 October 1929 – 26 June 2015, ) was a Russian politician and diplomat who served as Prime Minister of Russia from 1998 to 1999. During his long career, he also served as Foreign Minister, Speaker of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union, and chief of the intelligence service. Primakov was an academician (Arabist) and a member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences.

Personal life
Primakov was born in Kyiv in the Ukrainian SSR, and grew up in Tbilisi in the Georgian SSR.

Primakov's father's surname was Nemchenko. He had been imprisoned in the Gulag during the Stalinist purges. Primakov's mother was Jewish, named Anna Yakovlevna Primakova. She worked as an obstetrician and was a cousin of the famous physiologist Yakov Kirshenblat.

Primakov was educated at the Moscow Institute of Oriental Studies, graduating in 1953, and carried out postgraduate work at Moscow State University. He graduated with a degree in Arabic.

His grandson is Yevgeny Primakov Jr. (Евгений Александрович Примаков), a journalist, TV host, politician and diplomat.

Early career
From 1956 to 1970, he worked as a journalist for Soviet radio and a Middle Eastern correspondent for Pravda newspaper. During this time, he was sent frequently on intelligence missions to the Middle East and the United States as a KGB co-optee under codename MAKSIM. Primakov reportedly may have been coerced into joining the intelligence services.

As a Senior Researcher at the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, Primakov entered into scientific society in 1962. From 30 December 1970 to 1977, he served as deputy director of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, part of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union. In this role he participated in the Dartmouth Conferences alongside, among others, Charles Yost. From 1977 to 1985 he was Director of the Institute of Oriental Studies of the USSR Academy of Sciences. During this time he was also First Deputy Chairman of the Soviet Peace Committee. In 1985 he returned to the Institute of World Economy and International Relations, serving as Director until 1989.

Primakov became involved in national politics in 1989, as the Chairman of the Soviet of the Union, one of two chambers of the Soviet parliament. From 1990 until 1991 he was a member of Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's Presidential Council of the Soviet Union. He served as Gorbachev's special envoy to Iraq in the run-up to the Persian Gulf War, in which capacity he held talks with President Saddam Hussein to try to convince him to withdraw Iraqi forces from Kuwait.

Foreign intelligence chief (1991–1996)

After the failed August 1991 putsch, Primakov was appointed First Deputy Chairman of the KGB and Director of the KGB First Chief Directorate responsible for foreign intelligence.

After the formation of the Russian Federation, Primakov shepherded the transition of the KGB First Chief Directorate to the control of the Russian Federation government, under the new name Foreign Intelligence Service (SVR). Primakov preserved the old KGB foreign intelligence apparatus under the new SVR label, and led no personnel purges or structural reforms. He served as SVR director from 1991 until 1996.

Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs (1996–1998)
Primakov served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from January 1996 until September 1998. As foreign minister, he gained respect at home and abroad, with a reputation as a tough but pragmatic supporter of Russia's interests and as an opponent of NATO's expansion into the former Eastern Bloc, though on 27 May 1997, after five months of negotiation with NATO Secretary General Javier Solana, Russia signed the Founding Act, which is seen as marking the end of Cold War hostilities. He supported Slobodan Milošević during the Yugoslav Wars.

He was also famously an advocate of multilateralism as an alternative to American global hegemony following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War. Primakov called for a Russian foreign policy based on low-cost mediation while expanding influence towards the Middle East and the former Soviet republics. Called the "Primakov doctrine", beginning in 1999, he promoted Russia, China, and India as a "strategic triangle" to counterbalance the United States. The move was interpreted by some observers as an agreement to fight together against 'colour revolutions' in Central Asia.

Prime Minister of Russia (1998–1999)
After Yeltsin's bid to reinstate Viktor Chernomyrdin as Prime Minister of Russia was blocked by the State Duma in September 1998, the President turned to Primakov as a compromise figure whom he rightly judged would be accepted by the parliament's majority. As Prime Minister, Primakov was given credit for forcing some very difficult reforms in Russia; most of them, such as the tax reform, became major successes. Following the 1998 harvest, which was the worst in 45 years, coupled with a plummeting ruble, one of Primakov's first actions as Prime Minister, in October 1998, was to appeal to the United States and Canada for food aid, while also appealing to the European Union for economic relief.

While Primakov's opposition to perceived US unilateralism was popular among some Russians, it also led to a breach with the West during the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, and isolated Russia during subsequent developments in the former Yugoslavia.

On 24 March 1999, Primakov was heading to Washington, D.C. for an official visit. Flying over the Atlantic Ocean, he learned that NATO had started to bomb Yugoslavia. Primakov decided to cancel the visit, ordered the plane to turn around over the ocean and returned to Moscow in a manoeuvre popularly dubbed "Primakov's Loop".

Yeltsin fired Primakov on 12 May 1999, ostensibly over the sluggish pace of the Russian economy. Many analysts believed the firing of Primakov reflected Yeltsin's fear of losing power to a more successful and popular person, although sources close to Yeltsin said at the time that the president viewed Primakov as being too close to the Communist Party. Primakov himself would have had good chances as a candidate for the presidency. Primakov had refused to dismiss Communist ministers while the Communist Party was leading the process of preparing unsuccessful impeachment proceedings against the president. Ultimately, Yeltsin resigned at the end of the year and was succeeded by his last prime minister, Vladimir Putin, whom Primakov had tried to fire from his role as head of the FSB when he tapped the phone of the Duma President. Primakov's dismissal was extremely unpopular with the Russian population: according to a poll, 81% of the population did not approve of the decision, and even among the liberal pro-Western party Yabloko supporters, 84% did not approve of the dismissal.

Post-PM career
After 1988, Primakov held several roles: Academic Secretary of the World Economy and International Relations Division, director of the Institute of World Economy and International Relations and member of the Presidium of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union.

Before Yeltsin's resignation, Primakov supported the Fatherland – All Russia electoral faction, which at that time was the major opponent of the pro-Putin Unity, and launched his presidential bid. Initially considered the man to beat, Primakov was rapidly overtaken by the factions loyal to Prime Minister Vladimir Putin in the December 1999 Duma elections. Primakov officially abandoned the presidential race in his TV address on 4 February 2000 less than two months before the 26 March presidential elections. Soon he became an adviser to Putin and a political ally. On 14 December 2001, Primakov became President of the Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry, a position he held until 2011. In February and March 2003, he visited Iraq and held talks with Iraqi President Saddam Hussein, as a special representative of President Putin. He passed on a message from Putin calling for Hussein to resign voluntarily. He tried to prevent the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, a move which received some support from several nations opposed to the war. Primakov suggested that Hussein must hand over all Iraq's weapons of mass destruction to the United Nations, among other things. However, Hussein told Primakov that he was confident that nothing would befall him personally —a belief that was later proven incorrect. Primakov later claimed Hussein's execution in 2006 was rushed to prevent him from revealing information on Iraq–United States relations that could embarrass the U.S. government. In a 2006 speech Primakov thundered that: "The collapse of the US policies pursued in Iraq delivered a fatal blow on the American doctrine of unilateralism."

On 26 May 2008, Primakov was elected as a member of the Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 2009, the University of Niš, Serbia awarded Primakov an honorary doctorate.

In November 2004, Primakov testified in defense of the former Yugoslav President Slobodan Milošević, on trial for war crimes. He had earlier led a Russian delegation that met with Milošević during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in March 1999.

Death
Primakov died in Moscow on June 26, 2015, at the age of 85, after prolonged illness (liver cancer). He was buried with military honours at Novodevichy Cemetery. He was lionized in Russia obituaries as "the Russian Kissinger", and President Vladimir Putin said Primakov had made a "colossal contribution to the formation of modern Russia... This is a sad, grievous loss for our society. … Yevgeny's authority was respected both in our country and abroad..." Indeed, "his death occurred at a time when his positions [were] very much the official line and the backbone for Putin's grand strategy."

In honor of Primakov, Primakov Readings was established in October 2015 - an annual international summit aimed at promoting dialogue on current global trends in the world economy, international politics and security among high-ranking experts, diplomats and decision-makers from around the Globe, organized by the Institute of World Economy and International Relations and held in Moscow.

One of his credos was: "Those who do good will be rewarded. Life gets even with those who do bad."

Awards

 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland 1st Class (2009)
 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland 2nd Class (1998)
 * Order of Merit for the Fatherland 3rd Class (1995)
 * Medal "In Commemoration of the 850th Anniversary of Moscow" (1997)
 * Order of Honor (2004)
 * Order of Lenin (1986)
 * Order of the Badge of Honor (1985)
 * Order of Friendship of Peoples (1979)
 * Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1975)
 * Medal "Veteran of Labour" (1974)
 * Order of Friendship (Tajikistan, 1999)
 * Order of Yaroslav I the Wise 5th Class (Ukraine, 2004)
 * Order of Danaker (Kyrgyzstan) (2005)
 * Order of Friendship of Peoples (Belarus, 2005)
 * Order of Dostyk 1st Class (Kazakhstan, 2007)
 * Order of the Republic 1st Class (Transnistria, 2009)
 * Medal of Independence (Kazakhstan, 2012)
 * Order of Jerusalem 1st Class (Palestinian National Authority, 2014)
 * Demidov Prize (2012)
 * Recipient of the USSR State Prize (1980)
 * Recipient of the Nasser Prize (1974)
 * Recipient of the Avicenna Prize (1983)
 * Recipient of the George F. Kennan Prize (1990)
 * Recipient of the Hugo Grotius Prize for the huge contribution to the development of international law and for the creation of a multipolar world doctrine (2000).

Publications

 * 1979: Anatomy of the Middle East Conflict
 * 2003: A World Challenged: Fighting Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century
 * 2004: Russian Crossroads: Toward the New Millennium
 * 2009: Russia and the Arabs: Behind the Scenes in the Middle East from the Cold War to the Present
 * 2014: Встречи на перекрестках (Meetings at the crossroads)

title: Yevgeny Primakov


text:
Tamar River

The Tamar River, officially kanamaluka / River Tamar, is a 70 km estuary located in northern Tasmania, Australia. Despite being called a river, the waterway is a brackish and tidal estuary over its entire length.

Location and features
Formed by the confluence of the North Esk and South Esk rivers at, kanamaluka / River Tamar flows generally north towards its mouth at Low Head, north of the settlement George Town and into the Bass Strait via Port Dalrymple. kanamaluka / River Tamar has several minor tributaries including the Supply River.

Low Head Lighthouse is located at the tip of a peninsula, on the east side of the mouth of the river. The only full crossing of the river is the Batman Bridge in the relatively remote area of Sidmouth, around halfway up the river.

The Tamar river is complicated in that it silts up frequently, a contributing factor to its slow decline in use. Over time dredging operations have been required. A scheme enacted between the 1920s and 1970s planned to partially dam the river and slow the flow around the western side of Tamar Island and speed up the flow around the eastern side (the main channel), by sinking 14 boats to disrupt water flow. The success or not of this scheme is debated.

Although the Port of Launceston is now used very little in comparison to the past and the SeaCat Tasmania ferry no longer docks at George Town, the river still is used for shipping, with light and heavy industries at George Town including aluminium smelters as well as commercial boat cruises.

Etymology
The Tamar River was named after the River Tamar in South West England by Colonel William Paterson in December 1804.

Fishing
The last 10 kilometres of the Tamar river estuary are smooth and sheltered waters ( Observe tides and weather). Clarence Point boat ramp has good picnic amenities, toilets, and a pontoon on the western side. The more wind exposed basic boat ramp at Kelso is a few km further North. George Town a significant port town is on the Eastern side and has lots of amenity close by. The Low head basic boat ramp is also on the eastern side just past pilot bay a few km further North.

A good starting point are the Australian Salmon, Flathead, King George Whiting and Squid. All that is really needed is light Trout or Bream gear 2 to 4 kg, running sinker or paternoster, size 6 long shank hook. Silver blade lures and soft plastics are worth using and a squid jig is great if you want to catch your own reliable bait.

title: Tamar River


text:
Interrogative word

An interrogative word or question word is a function word used to ask a question, such as what, which, when, where, who, whom, whose, why, whether and how. They are sometimes called wh-words, because in English most of them start with wh- (compare Five Ws). They may be used in both direct questions (Where is he going?) and in indirect questions (I wonder where he is going). In English and various other languages the same forms are also used as relative pronouns in certain relative clauses (The country where he was born) and certain adverb clauses (I go where he goes). It can also be used as a modal, since question words are more likely to appear in modal sentences, like (Why was he walking?)

A particular type of interrogative word is the interrogative particle, which serves to convert a statement into a yes–no question, without having any other meaning. Examples include est-ce que in French, ли li in Russian, czy in Polish, чи chy in Ukrainian, ĉu in Esperanto, āyā آیا in Persian, কি ki in Bengali, / ma in Mandarin Chinese, mı/mi/mu/mü in Turkish, pa in Ladin, か ka in Japanese, 까 kka in Korean, ko/kö in Finnish, (да) ли (da) li in Serbo-Croatian and al and ote in Basque. "Is it true that..." and "... right?" would be a similar construct in English. Such particles contrast with other interrogative words, which form what are called wh-questions rather than yes–no questions.

For more information about the grammatical rules for using formed questions in various languages, see Interrogative.

In English
Interrogative words in English can serve as interrogative determiners, interrogative pronouns, or interrogative adverbs. Certain pronominal adverbs may also be used as interrogative words, such as whereby or wherefore.

Interrogative determiner
The interrogative words which, what, and whose are interrogative determiners when used to prompt the specification of a presented noun or noun phrase such as in the question  Which farm is the largest? where the interrogative determiner which prompts specification of the noun farm. In the question  Whose gorgeous, pink painting is that?, whose is the interrogative, personal, possessive determiner prompting a specification for the possessor of the noun phrase gorgeous pink painting.

Interrogative pronoun
The interrogative words who, whom, whose, what, and which are interrogative pronouns when used in the place of a noun or noun phrase. In the question  Who is the leader?, the interrogative word who is a interrogative pronoun because it stands in the place of the noun or noun phrase the question prompts (e.g. the king or the woman with the crown). Similarly, in the question  Which leads to the city center? the interrogative word which is an interrogative pronoun because it stands in the place of a noun or noun phrase (e.g. the road to the north or the river to your east). Note, which is an interrogative pronoun, not an interrogative determiner, because there is no noun or noun phrase present to serve as a determiner for. Consequently, in the question Which leads to the city center? the word which is an interrogative pronoun; when in the question Which road leads to the city center? the word which is an interrogative determiner for the noun road.

Interrogative adverb
The interrogative words where, when, how, why, whether, whatsoever, and the more archaic whither and whence are interrogative adverbs when they modify a verb. In the question  How did you announce the deal? the interrogative word how is an interrogative adverb because it modifies the verb did (past tense of to do). In the question  Why should I read that book? the interrogative word why is an interrogative adverb because it describes the verb should.

Note, in direct questions, interrogative adverbs always describe auxiliary verbs such as did, do, should, will, must, or might.

Yes–no questions
Yes–no questions can begin with an interrogative particle, such as:
 * A conjugation of be (e.g. "Are you hungry?")
 * A conjugation of do (e.g. "Do you want fries?") - see
 * A conjugation of another auxiliary verb, including contractions (e.g. "Can't you move any faster?")

English questions can also be formed without an interrogative word as the first word, by changing the intonation or punctuation of a statement. For example: "You're done eating?"

Forms with -ever
Most English interrogative words can take the suffix -ever, to form words such as whatever and wherever. (Older forms of the suffix are -so and -soever, as in whoso and whomsoever.) These words have the following main meanings:
 * As more emphatic interrogative words, often expressing disbelief or puzzlement in mainly rhetorical questions: Whoever could have done such a thing? Wherever has he gone?
 * To form free relative clauses, as in I'll do whatever you do, Whoever challenges us shall be punished, Go to wherever they go. In this use, the nominal -ever words (who(m)ever, whatever, whichever) can be regarded as indefinite pronouns or as relative pronouns.
 * To form adverbial clauses with the meaning "no matter where/who/etc.": Wherever they hide, I will find them.

Some of these words have also developed independent meanings, such as however as an adverb meaning "nonetheless"; whatsoever as an emphatic adverb used with no, none, any, nothing, etc. (I did nothing wrong whatsoever); and whatever in its slang usage.

Other languages
A frequent class of interrogative words in several other languages is the interrogative verb:

 * Korean:

Chi yaa-vch jaahan huuhed bish gej bi bod-jii-ne
 * Mongolian:

You do.what-CONC small child not that I think-PROG-NPAST

"Whatever you do, I think you're not a small child." (Example taken from an Internet forum)

Australian Aboriginal languages
Interrogative pronouns in Australian Aboriginal languages are a diverse set of lexical items with functions extending far beyond simply the formation of questions (though this is one of their uses). These pronominal stems are sometimes called ignoratives or epistememes because their broader function is to convey differing degrees of perceptual or epistemic certainty. Often, a singular ignorative stem may serve a variety of interrogative functions that would be expressed by different lexical items in, say, English through contextual variation and interaction with other morphology such as case-marking. In Jingulu, for example, the single stem nyamba may come to mean 'what,' 'where,' 'why,' or 'how' through combination with locative, dative, ablative, and instrumental case suffixes:

nyamba nyamarni manjku

IGNOR 2SG.ERG skin.name

What skin are you? nyamba-mbili-kaji mankiyi-mindi-ju

IGNOR-LOC-through sit-1DU.INCL-do

Where are we sitting? Nyamba-rna arrkuja-nga-nku-ju

IGNOR-DAT scratch-1SG-REFL-do

Why are you scratching? Nyamba-arndi-kaji nya-rriyi-rni

IGNOR-INST-through 2SG-go.FUT-FOC

How will you go?

(Adapted from Pensalfini )

Other closely related languages, however, have less interrelated ways of forming wh-questions with separate lexemes for each of these wh-pronouns. This includes Wardaman, which has a collection of entirely unrelated interrogative stems: yinggiya 'who,' ngamanda 'what,' guda 'where,' nyangurlang 'when,' gun.garr-ma 'how many/what kind.'

Mushin (1995) and Verstraete (2018) provide detailed overviews of the broader functions of ignoratives in an array of languages. The latter focuses on the lexeme ngaani in many Paman Languages which can have a Wh-like interrogative function but can also have a sense of epistemic indefiniteness or uncertainty like 'some' or 'perhaps;' see the following examples from Umpithamu:

Wh-question Why are you all crying for me?

Adnominal / Determiner We left some gear behind

Adverbial Yupa miintha iluwa ngaani ngama-l

today good 3SG.NOM IGNOR see-IMPERF

Perhaps she is better today. (Verstraete 2018)

title: Interrogative word