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Indian rupee

The Indian rupee (symbol: ₹; code: INR) is the official currency in India. The rupee is subdivided into 100 paise (Hindi plural; singular: paisa). The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. The Reserve Bank manages currency in India and derives its role in currency management based on the Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934.

Etymology
Pāṇini (6th to 4th century BCE) mentions (रूप्य). While Shankar Goyal mentions it is unclear whether Panini was referring to coinage, other scholars conclude that Panini uses the term rūpa to mean a piece of precious metal (typically silver) used as a coin, and a rūpya to mean a stamped piece of metal, a coin in the modern sense. The Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as. Other types of coins, including gold coins, copper coins , and lead coins , are also mentioned. The immediate precursor of the rupee is the rūpiya—the silver coin weighing 178 grains minted in northern India, first by Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545, and later adopted and standardized by the Mughal Empire. The weight remained unchanged well beyond the end of the Mughals until the 20th century.

History

The history of the Indian rupee traces back to ancient India around the 6th century BCE: ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters.

Arthashastra, written by Chanakya, Prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as rūpyarūpa, other types including gold coins (suvarṇarūpa), copper coins (tamrarūpa) and lead coins (sīsarūpa) are mentioned. means 'form' or 'shape'; for example, in the word : 'wrought silver' and  'form'.

The Gupta Empire produced large numbers of silver coins clearly influenced by those of the earlier Western Satraps by Chandragupta II. The silver Rūpaka (रूपक) coins were weighed approximately 20 rattis (2.2678g).

In the intermediate times there was no fixed monetary system as reported by the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji.

During his five-year rule from 1540 to 1545, Sultan Sher Shah Suri issued a coin of silver, weighing 178 grains (or 11.53 grams), which was also termed the rupiya. During Babur's time, the brass to silver exchange ratio was roughly 50:2. The silver coin remained in use during the Mughal period, Maratha era as well as in British India. Among the earliest issues of paper rupees include; the Bank of Hindustan (1770–1832), the General Bank of Bengal and Bihar (1773–1775, established by Warren Hastings), and the Bengal Bank (1784–91).

1800s
Historically, the rupee was a silver coin. This had severe consequences in the nineteenth century when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard (that is, paper linked to gold). The discovery of large quantities of silver in the United States and several European colonies caused the panic of 1873 which resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold, devaluing India's standard currency. This event was known as "the fall of the rupee". In Britain War, the Long Depression resulted in bankruptcies, escalating unemployment, a halt in public works, and a major trade slump that lasted until 1897.

India was unaffected by the imperial order-in-council of 1825, which attempted to introduce British sterling coinage to the British colonies. India, at that time, was controlled by the British East India Company. The silver rupee coin continued as the currency of India through the British Raj and beyond. In 1835, British India adopted a mono-metallic silver standard based on the rupee coin; this decision was influenced by a letter written by Lord Liverpool in 1805 extolling the virtues of mono-metallism.

Following the First War of Independence in 1857, the British government took direct control of India. From 1851, gold sovereigns were produced en masse at the Royal Mint in Sydney. In an 1864 attempt to make the British gold sovereign the "imperial coin", the treasuries in Bombay and Calcutta were instructed to receive (but not to issue) gold sovereigns; therefore, these gold sovereigns never left the vaults. As the British government gave up hope of replacing the rupee in India with the pound sterling, it realised for the same reason it could not replace the silver dollar in the Straits Settlements with the Indian rupee (as the British East India Company had desired). Since the silver crisis of 1873, several nations switched over to a gold exchange standard (wherein silver or banknotes circulate locally but with a fixed gold value for export purposes), including India in the 1890s.

India Council Bill
In 1870, India was connected to Britain by a submarine telegraph cable. Around 1875, Britain started paying India for exported goods in India Council (paper) Bills (instead of silver). "If, therefore, the India Council in London should not step in to sell bills on India, the merchants and bankers would have to send silver to make good the (trade) balances. Thus a channel for the outflow of silver was stopped, in 1875, by the India Council in London."

"The great importance of these (Council) Bills, however, is the effect they have on the Market Price of Silver: and they have in fact been one of the most potent factors in recent years in causing the diminution in the Value of Silver as compared to Gold."

"The Indian and Chinese products for which silver is paid were and are, since 1873–74, very low in price, and it therefore takes less silver to purchase a larger quantity of Eastern commodities. Now, on taking the several agents into united consideration, it will certainly not seem very mysterious why silver should not only have fallen in price"

"The great nations had recourse to two expedients for replenishing their exchequers, – first, loans, and, second, the more convenient forced loans of paper money۔"

Fowler Committee (1898)
The Indian Currency Committee or Fowler Committee was a government committee appointed by the British-run Government of India on 29 April 1898 to examine the currency situation in India. They collected a wide range of testimony, examined as many as forty-nine witnesses, and only reported their conclusions in July 1899, after more than a year's deliberation. "The prophecy made before the Committee of 1898 by Mr. A. M. Lindsay, in proposing a scheme closely similar in principle to that which was eventually adopted, has been largely fulfilled. 'This change,' he said, 'will pass unnoticed, except by the intelligent few, and it is satisfactory to find that by this almost imperceptible process the Indian currency will be placed on a footing which Ricardo and other great authorities have advocated as the best of all currency systems, viz., one in which the currency media used in the internal circulation are confined to notes and cheap token coins, which are made to act precisely as if they were bits of gold by being made convertible into gold for foreign payment purposes. The committee concurred in the opinion of the Indian government that the mints should remain closed to the unrestricted coinage of silver and that a gold standard should be adopted without delay...they recommended (1) that the British sovereign be given full legal tender power in India, and (2) that the Indian mints be thrown open to its unrestricted coinage (for gold coins only)." These recommendations were acceptable to both governments, and were shortly afterwards translated into laws. The act making gold a legal tender was promulgated on 15 September 1899; and preparations were soon thereafter undertaken for the coinage of gold sovereigns in the mint at Bombay.

"Silver, therefore, has ceased to serve as, andstandard; and the Indian currency system of to-day (that is 1901) may be described as that of a 'limping' gold standard similar to the systems of France, Germany, and Holland, and the United States."

"The Committee of 1898 explicitly declared themselves to be in favour of the eventual establishment of a gold currency. This goal, if it was their goal, the Government of India have never attained."

1900s

In 1913, John Maynard Keynes writes in his book Indian Currency and Finance that during financial year 1900–1901, gold coins (sovereigns) worth £6,750,000 were given to the Indian people in the hope that they would circulate as currency. But against the expectation of the Government, not even half of that was returned to accounts. However the Government, and this experiment failed spectacularly, so Government abandoned this practice (but did not abandon the narrative of the gold standard). Subsequently, much of the gold held by the Government of India was shipped to the Bank of England in 1901 and held there.

During World War II, Colonial British control over parts of Nagaland was lost to Japanese forces, the British Indian rupee was banned and the Japanese rupee (1942-44) was introduced.

Problems caused by the gold standard
At the onset of the First World War, the cost of gold was very low and therefore the pound sterling had high value. But during the war, the value of the pound fell alarmingly due to rising war expenses. At the end of the war, the value of the pound was only a fraction of what it had been before the war. It remained low until 1925, when the then Chancellor of the Exchequer (finance minister) of the United Kingdom, Winston Churchill, restored it to pre-war levels. As a result, the price of gold fell rapidly. While the rest of Europe purchased large quantities of gold from the United Kingdom, there was little increase in her gold reserves. This dealt a blow to an already deteriorating British economy. The United Kingdom began to look to its possessions as India to compensate for the gold that was sold.

However, the price of gold in India, on the basis of the official exchange rate of the rupee around 1s. 6d., was lower than the price prevailing abroad practically throughout; the disparity in prices made the export of the metal profitable; and this continued for almost a decade. Thus, in 1931–32, there were net exports of 7.7 million ounces, valued at INR 57.98crore. In the following year, both the quantity and the price rose further: net exports totalled 8.4 million ounces, valued at INR 65.52 crore. In the ten years ended March 1941, total net exports were of the order of 43 million ounces (1337.3 tons) valued at about INR 375 crore, or an average price of INR 32-12-4 per tola.

In the autumn of 1917 (when the silver price rose to 55 pence), there was danger of uprisings in India (against paper currency) which would handicap seriously British participation in the war. Inconvertibility (of paper currency into coin) would lead to a run on Post Office Savings Banks. It would prevent the further expansion of (paper currency) note issues and cause a rise of prices, in paper currency, that would greatly increase the cost of obtaining war supplies for export; to have reduced the silver content of this historic [rupee] coin might well have caused such popular distrust of the Government as to have precipitated an internal crisis, which would have been fatal to British success in the war.

From 1931 to 1941, the United Kingdom purchased large amounts of gold from India and its many other colonies just by increasing price of gold, as Britain was able to pay in printable paper currency. Similarly, on 19 June 1934, Roosevelt made Silver Purchase Act (which increased the price of silver) and purchased about 44,000 tons of silver, paying with paper silver certificates.

In 1939, Dickson H. Leavens wrote in his book Silver Money: "In recent years the increased price of gold, measured in depreciated paper currencies, has attracted to the market (of London) large quantities (of gold) formerly hoarded or held in the form of ornaments in India and China".

In their respective former colonies, the Indian rupee replaced the Danish Indian rupee in 1845, the French Indian rupee in 1954 and the Portuguese Indian escudo in 1961. Following the independence of India in 1947 and the accession of the princely states to the new Union, the Indian rupee replaced all the currencies of the previously autonomous states (although the Hyderabadi rupee was not demonetised until 1959). Some of the states had issued rupees equal to those issued by the British (such as the Travancore rupee). Other currencies (including the Hyderabadi rupee and the Kutch kori) had different values.

The values of the subdivisions of the rupee during British rule (and in the first decade of independence) were:
 * In 1957, the rupee was decimalised and divided into 100 naye paise (Hindi for "new paise"); in 1964, the initial naye was dropped.
 * Many still refer to 25-, 50- and 75-paise coins as 4, 8, and 12 annas, respectively; compare the expression "two bits" in colloquial American English for a quarter-dollar coin.

New currency sign for the Indian rupee
In 2010, a new rupee sign (₹) was officially adopted. As its designer explained, it was derived from the combination of the Devanagari consonant "र" (ra) and the Latin capital letter "R" without its vertical bar. The parallel lines at the top (with white space between them) are said to make an allusion to the flag of India, and also depict an equality sign that symbolises the nation's desire to reduce economic disparity. The first series of coins with the new rupee sign started in circulation on 8 July 2011. Before this, India used "₨" and "Re" as the symbols for multiple rupees and one rupee, respectively.

Legal framework
British East India Company (EIC) was given the right in 1717 to mint coins in the name of the Mughal emperor Farrukhsiyar on the island of Bombay. By 1792 the EIC demonetised all other coins till they were reduced to only 3 types of coins, i.e. EIC, Mughal & Maratha coins. After EIC expanded its control over India, it brought the "Coinage Act of 1835" and started to mint coins in the name of the British king. EIC rule was replaced by British Crown raj which brought the "Paper Currency Act of 1861" and the "Uniform Coinage Act of 1906".

After 2021, the government of independent India amended "The Coinage Act, 2011", the "Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), 1999," the "Information Technology Act, 2000" and the "Crypto-currency and Regulation of Official Digital Currency Bill, 2021".

Independent pre-decimal issues, 1950–1957
India's first coins after independence were issued in 1950 in denominations of 1 pice, $1/undefined$, one and two annas, $1/2$, $1/4$ and one-rupee. The sizes and composition were the same as the final regal issues, except for the one-piece (which was bronze, but not holed).

Independent decimal issues, 1957–present
The first decimal-coin issues in India consisted of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 naye paise, and 1 rupee. The 1 naya paisa was bronze; the 2, 5, and 10 naye paise were cupro-nickel, and the 25 naye paise (nicknamed chawanni; 25 naye paise equals 4 annas), 50 naye paise (also called athanni; 50 naye paise equalled 8 old annas) and 1-rupee were nickel. In 1964, the words naya/naye were removed from all coins. Between 1957 and 1967, aluminium one-, two-, three-, five- and ten-paise coins were introduced. In 1968 nickel-brass 20-paise coins were introduced, and replaced by aluminium coins in 1982. Between 1972 and 1975, cupro-nickel replaced nickel in the 25- and 50-paise and the 1-rupee coins; in 1982, cupro-nickel two-rupee coins were introduced. In 1988 stainless steel 10-, 25- and 50-paise coins were introduced, followed by 1- and 5-rupee coins in 1992. Five-rupee coins, made from brass, are being minted by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).

In 1997 the 20 paise coin was discontinued, followed by the 10 paise coin in 1998, and the 25 paise in 2002.

Between 2005 and 2008 new, lighter fifty-paise, one-, two-, and five-rupee coins were introduced, made from ferritic stainless steel. The move was prompted by the melting-down of older coins, whose face value was less than their scrap value. The demonetisation of the 25-paise coin and all paise coins below it took place, and a new series of coins (50 paise – nicknamed athanni – one, two, five, and ten rupees with the new rupee sign) were put into circulation in 2011. In 2016 the 50 paise coin was last minted. Coins commonly in circulation are one, two, five, ten, and twenty rupees. Although it is still legal tender, the 50-paise (athanni) coin is rarely seen in circulation.

The coins are minted at the four locations of the India Government Mint. The ₹1, ₹2, and ₹5 coins have been minted since independence. The Government of India is set to introduce a new ₹20 coin with a dodecagonal shape, and like the ₹10 coin, also bi-metallic, along with new designs for the new versions of the ₹1, ₹2, ₹5 and ₹10 coins, which was announced on 6 March 2019.

Minting

The Government of India has the only right to mint the coins and one rupee note. The responsibility for coinage comes under the Coinage Act, 1906 which is amended from time to time. The designing and minting of coins in various denominations is also the responsibility of the Government of India. Coins are minted at the four India Government Mints at Mumbai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, and Noida. The coins are issued for circulation only through the Reserve Bank in terms of the RBI Act.

Commemorative coins
After independence, the Government of India Mint, minted numismatics coins imprinted with Indian statesmen, historical and religious figures. In the years 2010 and 2011, for the first time ever, ₹75, ₹150 and ₹1000 coins were minted in India to commemorate the Platinum Jubilee of the Reserve Bank of India, the 150th birth anniversary of the birth of Rabindranath Tagore and 1000 years of the Brihadeeswarar Temple, respectively. In 2012, a ₹60 piececoins was also issued to commemorate 60 years of the Government of India Mint, Kolkata. ₹100 coin was also released commemorating the 100th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhi's return to India. Commemorative coins of ₹125 were released on 4 September 2015 and 6 December 2015 to honour the 125th anniversary of the births of Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and B. R. Ambedkar, respectively.

Pre-independence issues

East India Company, 1835
The three Presidencies established by the British East India Company (Bengal, Bombay and Madras) each issued their own coinages until 1835. All three issued rupees and fractions thereof down to $1/2$- and $1/8$-rupee in silver. Madras also issued two-rupee coins.

Copper denominations were more varied. Bengal issued one-pie, $3/4$-, one- and two-paise coins. Bombay issued 1-pie, $1/12$-, $1/2$-, 1-, 1$1/2$-, 2- and 4-paise coins. In Madras there were copper coins for two and four pies and one, two and four paisa, with the first two denominated as $1/4$ and one dub (or $1/2$ and $1/8$) rupee. Madras also issued the Madras fanam until 1815.

All three Presidencies issued gold mohurs and fractions of mohurs including $1/16$, $1/2$, $1/4$ in Bengal, $1/2$ (a gold rupee) and $1/2$ (pancia) in Bombay and $1/2$, $1/96$ and $1/48$ in Madras.

In 1835, a single coinage for the EIC was introduced. It consisted of copper $1/16$, $1/2$ and $1/4$ anna, silver $1/15$, $1/3$ and 1 rupee and gold 1 and 2 mohurs. In 1841, silver 2 annas were added, followed by copper $1/4$ pice in 1853. The coinage of the EIC continued to be issued until 1862, even after the company had been taken over by the Crown.

Regal issues, 1862–1947
In 1862, coins were introduced (known as "regal issues") which bore the profile of Queen Victoria and the designation "India". Their denominations were $1/3$ anna, $1/2$ pice, $1/12$ and $1/4$ anna (all in copper), 2 annas, $1/2$, $1/4$ and one rupee (silver), and five and ten rupees and one mohur (gold). The gold denominations ceased production in 1891, and no $1/3$-anna coins were issued after 1877.

In 1906, bronze replaced copper for the lowest three denominations; in 1907, a cupro-nickel one-anna coin was introduced. In 1918–1919 cupro-nickel two-, four- and eight-annas were introduced, although the four- and eight-annas coins were only issued until 1921 and did not replace their silver equivalents. In 1918, the Bombay mint also struck gold sovereigns and 15-rupee coins identical in size to the sovereigns as an emergency measure during the First World War.

In the early 1940s, several changes were implemented. The $1/2$ anna and $1/12$ pice ceased production, the $1/2$ anna was changed to a bronze, holed coin, cupro-nickel and nickel-brass $1/4$-anna coins were introduced, nickel-brass was used to produce Mintsomeone- and two-annas coins, and the silver composition was reduced from 91.7 to 50 percent. The last of the regal issues were cupro-nickel $1/2$-, $1/4$- and one-rupee pieces minted in 1946 and 1947, bearing the image of George VI, King and Emperor on the obverse and an Indian lion on the reverse.

Post-independence issues
After independence, new designs were introduced to replace the portrait of George VI. The government continued issuing the ₹1 note, while the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued other denominations (including the ₹5,000 and ₹10,000 notes introduced in 1949). All pre-independence banknotes were officially demonetised with effect from 28 April 1957.

During the 1970s, ₹20 and ₹50 notes were introduced; denominations higher than ₹100 were demonetised in 1978. In 1987, the ₹500 note was introduced, followed by the ₹1,000 note in 2000 while ₹1 and ₹2 notes were discontinued in 1995.

The design of banknotes is approved by the central government, on the recommendation of the central board of the Reserve Bank of India. Currency notes are printed at the Currency Note Press in Nashik, the Bank Note Press in Dewas, the Bharatiya Reserve Bank Note Mudran (P) Ltd at Salboni and Mysore and at the Watermark Paper Manufacturing Mill in Narmadapuram. The Mahatma Gandhi Series of banknotes are issued by the Reserve Bank of India as legal tender. The series is so named because the obverse of each note features a portrait of Mahatma Gandhi. Since its introduction in 1996, this series has replaced all issued banknotes of the Lion Capital Series. The RBI introduced the series in 1996 with ₹10 and ₹500 banknotes. The printing of ₹5 notes (which had stopped earlier) resumed in 2009.

As of January 2012, the new '₹' sign has been incorporated into banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹500 and ₹1,000. In January 2014 RBI announced that it would be withdrawing from circulation all currency notes printed prior to 2005 by 31 March 2014. The deadline was later extended to 1 January 2015. The dead line was further extended to 30 June 2016.

On 8 November 2016, the RBI announced the issuance of new ₹500 banknotes in a new series after demonetisation of the older ₹500 and ₹1000 notes.The new ₹500 banknote has a stone grey base colour with an image of the Red Fort along with the Indian flag printed on the back. Both the banknotes also have the Swachh Bharat Abhiyan logo printed on the back. The banknote denominations of ₹200, ₹100 and ₹50 have also been introduced in the new Mahatma Gandhi New Series intended to replace all banknotes of the previous Mahatma Gandhi Series. On 13 June 2017, RBI introduced new ₹50 notes, but the old ones continue being legal tender. The design is similar to the current notes in the Mahatma Gandhi (New) Series, except they will come with an inset 'A'.

On 8 November 2016, the Government of India announced the demonetisation of ₹500 and ₹1,000 banknotes with effect from midnight of the same day, making these notes invalid. A newly redesigned series of ₹500 banknote, in addition to a new denomination of ₹2,000 banknote is in circulation since 10 November 2016.

From 2017 to 2019, the remaining banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series were released in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100 and ₹200. The ₹1,000 note has been suspended.

Current circulating banknotes
As of 20 May 2023, current circulating banknotes are in denominations of ₹5, ₹10, ₹20, ₹50 and ₹100 from the Mahatma Gandhi Series and in denominations of ₹10, ₹20, ₹50, ₹100, ₹200, ₹500 from the Mahatma Gandhi New Series.

Micro printing
The new Indian banknote series features a few micro printed texts on various locations. The first one lies on the inner surface of the left temple of Gandhi's spectacles that reads "भारत" (Bhārata), the Hindi word for India. The next one (which are printed only in 10 and 50 denominations) is placed on the outer surface of the right temple of Gandhi's spectacles near his ear and reads "RBI" (Reserve Bank of India) and the face value in numerals "10" or "50". The last one is written on both sides of Gandhi's collar and reads "भारत" and "INDIA" respectively. Currency notes have 17 languages on the panel which appear on the reverse of the notes.

Pre-independence issues

In 1861, the Government of India introduced its first paper money: ₹10 note in 1864, ₹5 note in 1872, ₹10,000 note in 1899, ₹100 note in 1900, ₹50 note in 1905, ₹500 note in 1907 and ₹1,000 note in 1909. In 1917, ₹1 and ₹2$1/2$ notes were introduced. The Reserve Bank of India began banknote production in 1938, issuing ₹2, ₹5, ₹10, ₹50, ₹100, ₹1,000 and ₹10,000 notes while the government continued issuing ₹1 note but demonetized the ₹500 and ₹2 $1/2$ notes.

Convertibility
Officially, the Indian rupee has a market-determined exchange rate. However, the Reserve Bank of India trades actively in the USD/INR currency market to impact effective exchange rates. Thus, the currency regime in place for the Indian rupee with respect to the US dollar is a de facto controlled exchange rate. This is sometimes called a "managed float". On 9 May 2022, Indian Rupee traded at ₹77.41 against the US dollar, hitting an all-time low. Other rates (such as the EUR/INR and INR/JPY) have the volatility typical of floating exchange rates, and often create persistent arbitrage opportunities against the RBI. Unlike China, successive administrations (through RBI, the central bank) have not followed a policy of pegging the INR to a specific foreign currency at a particular exchange rate. RBI intervention in currency markets is solely to ensure low volatility in exchange rates, and not to influence the rate (or direction) of the Indian rupee in relation tois other currencies.

Also affecting convertibility is a series of customs regulations restricting the import and export of rupees. Legally, only up to ₹25000 can be imported or exported in cash at a time, and the possession of ₹200 and higher notes in Nepal is prohibited. The conversion of currencies for and from rupees is also regulated.

RBI also exercises a system of capital controls in addition to (through active trading) in currency markets. On the current account, there are no currency-conversion restrictions hindering buying or selling foreign exchange (although trade barriers exist). On the capital account, foreign institutional investors have concerning convertibility to bring money into and out of the country and buy securities (subject to quantitative restrictions). Local firms are able to take capital out of the country to expand globally. However, local households are restricted in their ability to diversify globally. Because of the expansion of the current and capital accounts, India is increasingly moving towards full de facto convertibility.

There is some confusion regarding the interchange of the currency with gold, but the system that India follows is that money cannot be exchanged for gold under any circumstances due to gold's lack of liquidity; therefore, money cannot be changed into gold by the RBI. India follows the same principle as Great Britain and the US.

Reserve Bank of India clarifies its position regarding the promissory clause printed on each banknote:

"As per Section 26 of Reserve Bank of India Act, 1934, the Bank is liable to pay the value of banknote. This is payable on demand by RBI, being the issuer. The Bank's obligation to pay the value of banknote does not arise out of a contract but out of statutory provisions. The promissory clause printed on the banknotes i.e., "I promise to pay the bearer an amount of X" is a statement which means that the banknote is a legal tender for X amount. The obligation on the part of the Bank is to exchange a banknote for coins of an equivalent amount."

Chronology

 * 1991 – India began to lift restrictions on its currency. A number of reforms removed restrictions on current account transactions (including trade, interest payments and remittances and some capital asset-based transactions). Liberalised Exchange Rate Management System (LERMS) (a dual-exchange-rate system) introduced partial convertibility of the rupee in March 1992.
 * 1997 – A panel (set up to explore capital account convertibility) recommended that India move towards full convertibility by 2000, but the timetable was abandoned in the wake of the 1997–1998 East Asian financial crisis.
 * 2006 – Prime Minister Manmohan Singh asked the Finance Minister and the Reserve Bank of India to prepare a road map for moving towards capital account convertibility.
 * 2016 – the Government of India announced the demonetisation of all ₹500/- and ₹1,000/- banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series. The government claimed that the action would curtail the shadow economy and crack down on the use of illicit "black money" and counterfeit cash to fund illegal activity and terrorism.
 * 2023 – Reserve Bank of India issued a circular on 19 May stating currency notes of ₹ 2000 denomination will be withdrawn from circulation The reason given for this withdrawal is the decline in the number of currency notes in circulation. According to the circular there were only 10.8% of Notes in Circulation on March 31, 2023.

Pre-Independence
For almost a century following the Great Recoinage of 1816, and adoption of the Gold Standard, until the outbreak of World War I, the silver-backed Indian rupee lost its value against a basket of gold pegged currencies and was periodically devalued to reflect the then current gold to silver reserve ratios. In 1850, the official conversion rate between the pound sterling and the rupee was £0 / 2s / 0d (or £1:₹10), while between 1899 and 1914, the official conversion rate was set at £0 to 1s to 4d (or £1:₹15). However, this was just half of market exchange rates between 1893 and 1917.

The gold-to-silver ratio expanded between 1870 and 1910. Unlike India, Britain was on the gold standard. To meet the Home Charges (i.e., expenditure in the United Kingdom), the colonial government had to remit a larger number of rupees, and this necessitated increased taxation, unrest and nationalism.

Between both world wars, the rate improved to 1s to 6d (or £1:₹13.33), and remained pegged at this rate for the duration of the Breton Woods agreement, to its devaluation and pegging to the US dollar, at $1:₹7.50, in 1966.

Post-Independence
Following the country's independence, India implemented a Par value exchange rate regime until 1971. The country switched to a fixed exchange rate regime in 1971 and graduated to a basket peg against five major currencies from 1975. Since 1991, the rupee is under a floating exchange rate regime.

The first major impact on the rupee's exchange rate after independence was the devaluation of the pound sterling against the US dollar in 1949, which impacted currencies that maintained a peg to the sterling, which included the Indian rupee. In 1966, the Indian rupee was devaluated by 57% against United States dollar, which also led to the depreciation of the sterling. Five years later, when the Bretton Woods system was suspended, India initially announced that it will maintain a fixed rate of $1 to INR 7.50 and leave the sterling under a floating regime. However, by the end of 1971, following the Smithsonian Agreement and the subsequent devaluation of the US dollar, India pegged the rupee with the pound sterling once again at a rate of £1 to INR 18.9677. During this period, India had a non-commercial exchange rate with the Soviet Union. The ruble to rupee exchange rates were announced by the Soviet Union, as the ruble was not a freely traded currency and the commercial trade between both nations use to take place in rupees following a treaty between India and the Soviet Union in 1953.

In September 1975, the exchange rate of Indian rupee started to be determined on the basis of the basket peg. The details of currencies which forms the basket, and its weightage were kept confidentially by Reserve Bank of India and the exchange rate of the rupee on the basis of market fluctuation of these currencies were periodically announced by the RBI.

The next major change that occurred was the devaluation of the rupee by about 18% in July 1991 following the balance of payments crisis. Thereafter, in March 1992, the Liberalized Exchange Rate Management System was introduced, enabling the transition to a floating exchange rate regime.

Worldwide rupee usage
As the Straits Settlements were originally an outpost of the British East India Company, the Indian rupee was made the sole official currency of the Straits Settlements in 1837, as it was administered as part of British India. This attempt was resisted by the locals. However, Spanish dollars continued to circulate and 1845 saw the introduction of coinage for the Straits Settlements using a system of 100 cents = 1 dollar, with the dollar equal to the Spanish dollar or Mexican peso. In 1867, administration of the Straits Settlements was separated from India and the Straits dollar was made the standard currency, and attempts to reintroduce the rupee were finally abandoned.

After the Partition of India, the Pakistani rupee came into existence, initially using Indian coins and Indian currency notes simply over stamped with "Pakistan". Previously the Indian rupee was an official currency of other countries, including Aden, Oman, Dubai, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the Trucial States, Kenya, Tanganyika, Uganda, the Seychelles and Mauritius.

The Indian government introduced the Gulf rupee as a replacement for the Indian rupee for circulation outside the country with the Reserve Bank of India (Amendment) Act of 1 May 1959. The creation of a separate currency was an attempt to reduce the strain on India's foreign reserves from gold smuggling. After India devalued the rupee on 6 June 1966, those countries still using it – Oman, Qatar, and the Trucial States (which became the United Arab Emirates in 1971) – replaced the Gulf rupee with their own currencies. Kuwait and Bahrain had already done so in 1961 with Kuwaiti dinar and in 1965 with Bahraini dinar, respectively.

The Bhutanese ngultrum is pegged at par with the Indian rupee; both currencies are accepted in Bhutan. The Nepalese rupee is pegged at ₹0.625; the Indian rupee is accepted in Bhutan and Nepal, except ₹500 and ₹1000 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi Series and the ₹200, ₹500 banknotes of the Mahatma Gandhi New Series, which are not legal tender in Bhutan and Nepal and are banned by their respective governments, though accepted by many retailers. On 29 January 2014, Zimbabwe added the Indian rupee as a legal tender to be used.

title: Indian rupee


text:
George Anthony Dondero

George Anthony Dondero (December 16, 1883 – January 29, 1968) was a Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Michigan.

Background
Dondero was born on a farm in Greenfield Township, Michigan, which has since become part of Detroit. His father was an immigrant from Italy and his mother was an immigrant from Germany.

Career
Dondero served as the village clerk of Royal Oak, Michigan, in 1905 and 1906; as town treasurer in 1907 and 1908; and as village assessor in 1909. He graduated from the Detroit College of Law in 1910, was admitted to the bar, and started a practice in Royal Oak the same year. He was village attorney in 1911 to 1921 and assistant prosecuting attorney for Oakland County in 1918 and 1919. He was mayor of Royal Oak in 1921 and 1922 and a member of the board of education in 1910 to 1928.

In 1932, Dondero was elected as a Republican to the 73rd United States Congress and the eleven succeeding Congresses, serving from March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1957. He represented Michigan's 17th congressional district, which had been newly created by redistricting after the 1930 census. After the 1950 census, most of Dondero's territory became the 18th district. Dondero was elected two more times from that district. Both districts are now obsolete.

From 1937, to 1947 Dondero served as ranking member of the House Committee on Education. He was chairman of the Committee on Public Works in the 80th and 81st Congresses. In 1954, he sponsored the bill creating the Saint Lawrence Seaway, which allowed large ocean-going vessels access to the Great Lakes.

Sympathetic to McCarthyism, Dondero claimed that American liberals had been responsible for a "whitewash" over the Amerasia affair.

In 1947, Dondero tried to block the trial of IG Farben executives for war crimes at Nuremberg by withholding funding for the prosecution team before indictments could be handed down.

On July 9, 1947, Dondero included Rosenberg when he publicly questioned the "fitness" of US Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson for failing to ferret out communist infiltrators in his department. His cause for concern arose from what Dondero called Patterson's lack of ability to "fathom the wiles of the international Communist conspiracy" and to counteract them with "competent personnel." Dondero cited ten government personnel in the War Department who had communist backgrounds or leanings:
 * Colonel Bernard Bernstein
 * Russel A. Nixon
 * Abraham L. Pomerantz
 * Josiah E. DuBois Jr.
 * Richard Sasuly
 * George Shaw Wheeler
 * Heinz Norden
 * Max Lowenthal
 * Allan Rosenberg (member of Lowenthal's staff)

Dondero stated, "It is with considerable regret that I am forced to the conclusion the Secretary Patterson falls short of these standards."

Attack on modern art
Dondero was most notable for mounting an attack on modern art, which he claimed to be inspired by communism. He asserted that "Cubism aims to destroy by designed disorder.... Dadaism aims to destroy by ridicule.... Abstractionism aims to destroy by the creation of brainstorms." In 1952, Dondero went on to tell Congress that modern art was a conspiracy by Moscow to spread communism to the United States. The speech won him the International Fine Arts Council's Gold Medal of Honor for "dedicated service to American Art." When the art critic Emily Genauer, who later won the Pulitzer Prize for Criticism, interviewed Dondero in the mid-1950s, he stated that "modern art is Communistic because it is distorted and ugly, because it does not glorify our beautiful country, our cheerful and smiling people, our material progress. Art which does not glorify our beautiful country in plain simple terms that everyone can understand breeds dissatisfaction. It is therefore opposed to our government and those who promote it are our enemies." When Genauer pointed out the resemblance between his views and those of the Stalinist communists that he despised, Dondero was so enraged that he arranged to have her fired from her job at the New York Herald Tribune.

Death
Dondero died at the age of 84 in Royal Oak, Michigan, and is interred there at Oakview Cemetery.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: George Anthony Dondero


text:
Talk:Cancellation property

I wouldn't worry about slight overlap between articles, provided it's only slight. -- The Anome 02:36, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Simpler explanation of 'cancel'?
This article may be a bit difficult for a non-mathematician to understand. Perhaps it would be good to either I added a link here from derivative, and there is a risk that non-mathematicians will follow that link. --Erik 18:53, 23 January 2006 (UTC)
 * add a short introduction (what does 'cancel' mean in mathematics, plus easy example like $$\frac{ab}{ac}=\frac{b}{c}$$ a,b,c real and nonzero), or
 * use this information to create a separate 'easy' article about canellation?

:)
It was the "1, 2, 5" bit that muddled me. I'm sorry. --VKokielov 13:39, 8 June 2007 (UTC)

Possibly a syntax error in "Interpretation" section
I suspect this to be a syntax error:

* so a set monomorphism but as it is a set endomorphism it is a set section,

so is a set monomorphism but as it is a set endomorphism it is a set section,

Otherwise I can't make sense of this sentence. In any case, it would be desirable to split this sentence in few shorter ones. It's hard to follow the thought of the author otherwise. 109.64.130.179 (talk) 18:08, 27 October 2014 (UTC)
 * None of the claims about this injective function from x to a*x being different sorts of homomorphisms are correct, which could be part of why they didn't make any sense. I removed the references to different types of homomorphisms, since although it is possible, there is no guarantee some arbitrary permutation of a magma will preserve its algebraic structure. I added the citation for a book that gives these interpretations. DonaldLflr (talk) 22:26, 6 December 2019 (UTC)

title: Talk:Cancellation property


text:
Talk:Winged Victory of Samothrace

This sentence stops in the middle:
The difficulty lies in the fact that in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE Chrimas1 (talk) 13:59, 3 September 2022 (UTC)
 * Good catch. Fixed. Twospoonfuls (εἰπέ) 14:19, 3 September 2022 (UTC)

The correct name is Nike not Victory.
Victory is not the correct name 45.58.95.248 (talk) 14:35, 1 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Winged Victory of Samothrace


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User talk:Greyarea

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or helping with the above tasks: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! - UtherSRG 02:38, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Greyarea


text:
Memories (1995 film)

Memories is a 1995 Japanese animated science fiction anthology film with Katsuhiro Otomo as executive producer, and based on three of his manga short stories. The film is composed of three shorts: Magnetic Rose (彼女の想いで), directed by Studio 4°C co-founder Kōji Morimoto and written by Satoshi Kon; Stink Bomb (最臭兵器), directed by Tensai Okamura and written by Otomo, and Cannon Fodder (大砲の街), written and directed by Otomo himself.

Originally released on home video in North America by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, Discotek Media acquired the rights in 2020 along with Mill Creek Entertainment. Their 2021 Blu-ray release includes English subtitles and a new English dub produced by NYAV Post (for Magnetic Rose) and Sound Cadence Studios (for Stink Bomb and Cannon Fodder).

Magnetic Rose
The Corona, a deep space salvage freighter, is out on a mission when it encounters a distress signal and responds to it. They come upon a spaceship graveyard orbiting a giant space station. The crew's two engineers, Heintz and Miguel, enter it to get a closer look. Once inside, they discover an opulent European interior and several furnished rooms in varying states of decay, but find no signs of life.

The men learn that the station belongs to a once-famous opera diva named Eva Friedel who disappeared after the murder of her fiancé, Carlo Rambaldi, a fellow singer. Continuing to search for the distress signal's source, the engineers split up, with each experiencing paranormal encounters, including strange noises and visions of Eva. Miguel enters the dilapidated underbelly of the station, and in a cavernous chamber, he finds a broken piano playing the distress signal. He begins to hallucinate and Eva suddenly runs up to kiss him. Heintz finds a theater stage and sees Eva, who stabs him when he approaches. Suddenly paralyzed, Heintz relives a memory of his wife and his daughter Emily. The illusion disappears when Eva takes his wife's form and tells him that he "will never leave".

Heintz rushes to save Miguel, but Miguel disappears deeper into the cavern, having been seduced by Eva into thinking he is Carlo. Eva reveals to Heintz that she murdered the real Carlo for refusing to marry her and has since forced others to relive his likeness. She makes Heintz relive Emily's death, and entices Heintz to stay with his daughter's doppelganger. Heintz resists and shoots the massive computer embedded in the ceiling of the cavern, causing the AI hologram of Eva to malfunction.

Meanwhile, the Corona has been struggling against a powerful magnetic field coming from the station, pulling the ship towards it. In desperation, the crewmen Aoshima and Ivanov fire a powerful energy cannon; gouging the structure deep enough to reach the cavern before leaving on the escape pod. Heintz is ejected into space along with the skeletons of Eva's past victims, as Eva hauntingly sings to a conjured audience. The Corona is crushed and becomes part of the rose-shaped structure around the station. The whereabouts of the real (and long-deceased) Eva is shown, and a representation of Eva is seen talking romantically with Miguel (now fully embracing his new identity as Carlo). Heintz is last seen drifting in space, still alive.

Stink Bomb
Lab technician Nobuo Tanaka, battling the flu, mistakes some experimental pills for medicine and swallows one. The pills were intended to help soldiers counter biological weapons, but it reacts to a flu shot already in his body. Tanaka soon develops a deadly body odor and becomes a walking weapon of mass destruction. While taking a nap, the odor he emits kills everyone in the laboratory. Horrified, he reports the incident to headquarters, who instruct him to deliver the experimental drug to Tokyo.

Meanwhile, the odor he emits grows stronger to where it affects several miles of the surrounding area, killing every living thing that smells his odor, except flowers and plants (which are seemingly strengthened by the odor). The odor is so potent that neither gas masks nor NBC suits offer any protection against its effects. His odor kills everything in the Yamanashi Prefecture, including all 200,000 inhabitants of Kōfu city. Nobuo continues on to Tokyo unaware of the death his smell is causing, but the rest of the country is in a complete panic. The head of the research company and the Japanese military deduce that Tanaka is causing the poisonous gas and order him to be killed. The Japan Self Defense Forces try in vain to stop Nobuo, causing immense collateral damage to the Japanese countryside, but to no avail, as the chemicals in Nobuo's smell interfere with the targeting systems of their weapons.

The U.S. military, who have been observing the situation to that point, utilizes Japanese policy to take over the operation, and calls in a NASA unit with space suits to try and capture Nobuo alive. After Nobuo enters a tunnel, the Japanese army collapses part of the bridge and the tunnel behind him, trapping him with only one way out. They turn on wind generators in an attempt to stop the odor's advance. As the soldiers in space suits approach Nobuo, he becomes scared and more of his odor bursts out of him, disabling the lights and wind generators.

After the cloud settles, the soldiers appear to have subdued Nobuo. One of the suit-wearing soldiers is escorted to the military headquarters in Tokyo and delivers the drug. Then the visor opens, revealing that it is actually Nobuo inside the suit, still unaware of his deadly odor. He then opens his suit, killing everyone.

Cannon Fodder
In a walled city perpetually at war, everyone's livelihood depends upon maintaining and firing the enormous cannons that make up most of the city. Nearly every building in the city is equipped with cannons of varying size, able to fire huge artillery shells over the city walls. The story is animated into one long take, conveying the daily life of a young schoolboy; his father, who works as a lowly cannon-loader; and his mother, a munitions factory worker.

The city is surrounded by a crater-filled wasteland that is covered in clouds of smoke and dust provoked by the cannon fire. Despite propaganda emphasizing the threat of the enemy, there is no visual confirmation that this is true, or even if there is an enemy at all. The boy's father is assigned to one of the city's largest cannons: an enormous red railway gun that is personally fired by a lavishly-dressed officer. The father is blamed for a safety mishap, and made to stand next to the cannon without safety gear while it is fired again.

That night, the family is at home and hears a news report proclaiming the devastation unleashed on the enemy city. The boy then asks his father why they are fighting in the first place, only for his father to tell him that he will understand when he is older. As the boy gets into his bed, he fantasizes becoming the lavish officer who fires the cannons. As he sleeps, a civil defense siren sounds and a blue light sweeps across the window.

Magnetic Rose
Directed by Kōji Morimoto and animated by Studio 4°C. Script by noted anime director Satoshi Kon, based on a story by Katsuhiro Otomo. This episode featured music from Puccini's Madama Butterfly and Tosca. Specifically sampled in the episode was Un Bel Di Vedremo and ''Con Onor Muore... Tu, tu? Piccolo iddio from Madama Butterfly and Non la Sospiri, la Nostra Casetta from Act I of Tosca''.

Music was composed by Yoko Kanno and largely influenced by Giacomo Puccini's Madama Butterfly. It is primarily operatic and highly involved, reflecting the serious, intense nature the film takes on as it progresses.

Stink Bomb
Directed by Tensai Okamura and animated by Madhouse. Script by Katsuhiro Otomo. Music is by Jun Miyake and uses jazz and funk as its main influence, adding to the film's chaotic, comedic nature.

It is mentioned in the interview featurette that the story for Stink Bomb is based on an actual event.

Otomo initially asked Yoshiaki Kawajiri to direct the film, but Kawajiri did not accept because the script was different from his own style. Kawajiri was involved in storyboard revisions as a supervisor, and also worked on the tunnel scene as a key animator.

Cannon Fodder
Written and directed by Katsuhiro Otomo and animated by Studio 4 °C. Music by Hiroyuki Nagashima. The score of Cannon Fodder is difficult to categorize; blending brass band, orchestral and avant-garde compositional techniques.

Through unusual animation techniques, the illusion is created that the film consists of one continuous shot or long take.

Reception
In 2001, Animage magazine ranked Memories 68th in their list of the 100 greatest anime productions. The film was met with positive reviews, although reception for each of the three stories varied. Magnetic Rose has generally been deemed the best episode,  with critics at Anime Meta-Review and T.H.E.M Anime saying it alone made the film worth watching. Anime Academy thought it was "a pure symphonic treat from start to finish” and “running only forty-five minutes, it can still be compared with the greatest anime productions in every single aspect from animation to storyline." John Wallis of DVD Talk called it "a great opener, a strong, moving story of love, loss, haunting heartbreak, and horror chills." Magnetic Rose was also regarded as "a science fiction marvel" by Homemademech’s Mark McPherson, who praised its dialogue and realistic presentation of outer space physics. Chris Beveridge from Mania.com, however, felt that the story had "some feel of being done before to some degree."

Comments on Stink Bomb and Cannon Fodder were less favorable. T.H.E.M. Anime reviewer Carlos Ross stated that "the other two entries don't quite equal the sheer excellence of ‘Magnetic Rose’. McPherson referred to Stink Bomb by saying "compared to the other episodes of Memories, it's the weakest and less creative of the bunch", while Anime Jump’s Chad Clayton thought Cannon Fodder did not "match the complexity of the preceding two films." Stink Bomb was nonetheless praised for its humor and high quality visuals.      Cannon Fodder was viewed as "the strongest work in terms of its allegorical message" by DVD Talk, and visually "inventive" by both Anime Jump and Anime Academy.  Tasha Robinson at SciFi.com described the animation of every episode as "stellar", claiming the film as a whole went "well beyond memorable".

title: Memories (1995 film)


text:
Talk:Compliance

Excellent disambiguation page! Bensaccount 02:51, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

A few examples of USING it would be useful to us foreigner :-) (Renebach 10:28, 12 April 2006 (UTC))

E.g. enhanced compliance with deadlines enhanced compliance to deadlines

Requested edit
Comply is a natural fit as a redirect to compliance. Please create article comply as redirect with text:
 * 1) REDIRECT Compliance

--Penbat (talk) 21:01, 31 August 2016 (UTC)

 * The page comply is not protected, nor is compliance so there is no need to request an edit, you can do it yourself. SpinningSpark 21:34, 31 August 2016 (UTC)
 * Wikipedia is not a dictionary would apply though. I don't think a redirect is needed. -- Dane 2007  talk  03:15, 1 September 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Compliance


text:
Maldivian rufiyaa

The Maldivian rufiyaa (ދިވެހި ރުފިޔާ; sign: Rf or ރ; code: MVR) is the currency of the Maldives. The issuance of the currency is controlled by the Maldives Monetary Authority (MMA). The most commonly used symbols for the rufiyaa are MVR and Rf. The ISO 4217 code for Maldivian rufiyaa is MVR. The rufiyaa is subdivided into 100 laari.

The name "rufiyaa" is derived from the Sanskrit रूप्य (rūpya, wrought silver). The midpoint of exchange rate is Rf. 12/ 85 per US dollar and the rate is permitted to fluctuate within a ±20% band, i.e. between Rf. 10/ 28 and Rf. 15/ 42 as of 10 April 2017.

History
The earliest form of currency used in the Maldives was cowrie shells (Cypraea moneta) and historical accounts of travellers indicate that they were traded in this manner even during the 13th century. As late as 1344, Ibn Battuta observed that more than 40 ships loaded with cowry shells were exported each year. A single gold dinar was worth 400,000 shells.

During the 17th and 18th centuries, lārin (parallel straps of silver wire folded in half with dyed Persian and Arabic inscriptions) were imported and traded as currency. This form of currency was used in the Persian Gulf, India, Ceylon and the Far East during this time. Historians agree that this new form of currency was most probably exchanged for cowry shells and indicates Maldives' lucrative trade with these countries. The first Sultan to imprint his own seal onto this currency was Ghaazee Muhammad Thakurufaanu al-Auzam. The seal was much broader than the wires hence it was barely legible.

The first known of coins were introduced by Sultan Ibrahim Iskandar (1648–1687). Compared to the previous forms of money, these coins were much neater and minted in pure silver. The coins were minted in the capital city of Malé, a fact which it acknowledged on the reverse. The legend "King of Land and Sea, Iskandhar the Great" (ކަނޑާއި އެއްގަމުގެ ރަސްގެފާނު، މަތިވެރި އިސްކަންދަރު) is found on the edge.

After this period, gold coins replaced the existing silver ones during the reign of Sultan Hassan Nooruddin in 1787. He used two different qualities of gold in his coins; one was called Mohoree and the other Baimohoree, of which the former is of higher value. How this gold was obtained is uncertain.

Throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, bronze coins were issued denominated in laari. Sultan Mohamed Imaadhudheen IV (1900–1904) introduced what historians believe to be the first machine struck coins, judging the superior quality of the engravements. His successor Sultan Mohamed Shamshudeen III (1904–1935) made the last of these coins, 1 and 4 laari denominations, which were struck in the United Kingdom by Heaton's Mint, Birmingham, England in 1913.

Following the end of coin production specifically for the Maldives, the Sultanate came to use the Ceylonese rupee. This was supplemented in 1947 by issues of banknotes denominated in rufiyaa, equal in value to the rupee. In 1960, coins denominated in laari, now worth one hundredth of the rufiyaa, were introduced.

In 1990, the formal ISO 4217 code was changed from (Maldive rupee) into  (rufiyaa).

Currency Sign
The currency symbol for Maldivian Rufiyaa was introduced to the public by MMA on 3 July 2022. The symbol represents letter “Ra” of Thaana script which also is the first letter in spelling “Rufiyaa” in Dhivehi. A parallel line is added to letter “Ra” to represent the arithmetic “equal” sign as used in various other currency symbols.

The symbol can be customised to match the ‘look and feel’ of the font with which the symbol is used to be together, whilst maintaining the proportions and ratios of the construction.

The symbol was designed by Mr. Hassan Shujau. It was chosen among 70 concept proposals received by MMA through a nationwide competition. The proposals were evaluated by an evaluation committee comprising members from MMA, Dhivehi Bahuge Academy and other areas of expertise.

Coins
In early 1960, Sultan Mohamed Fareed I ordered coins from the Royal Mint in England. The new issue consisted of denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50 laari. Unlike his predecessors, Sultan Fareed did not embellish his title on the coins; instead he used the National Emblem on the reverse side with the traditional title of the state (الدولة المحلديبية, State of Maldives) and the denomination value on the obverse side. The currency was put into circulation in February 1961 and all the previously traded coins, with the exception of Shamshudeen III's 1 and 4 laari, were withdrawn from circulation on 17 June 1966.

The newly established central bank, the Maldives Monetary Authority (MMA), introduced the Rf. 1/- coin on 22 January 1983. The coin was made from steel clad copper nickel and was minted in West Germany. In 1984, a new series of coins was introduced which did not include the 2 laari denomination. In 1995, Rf. 2/- coins were introduced. Coins currently in circulation are 1 laari, 2 laari, 5 laari, 10 laari, 25 laari, 50 laari, Rf. 1/-, Rf. 2/-. In 2017, a bimetallic Rf. 2/- coin was introduced into circulation to replace the previous RF. 2/- coin.

Banknotes

In 1945, the Majlis of the Maldives (Parliament) passed bill number 2/66 on the "Maldivian Bank Note". Under this law, banknotes for Rf. $1/undefined$, Rf. 1/-, Rf. 2/-, Rf. 5/- and Rf. 10/- were printed and put into circulation on 5 September 1948. In 1951, Rf. 50/- and Rf. 100/- banknotes were introduced.

The previous series of banknotes were issued in 1983 in denominations of Rf. 2/-, Rf. 5/-, Rf. 10/-, Rf. 20/-, Rf. 50/- and Rf. 100/-. Rf. 500/- banknotes were added in 1990, with the Rf. 2/- replaced by a coin in 1995.

In October 2015, the Maldives Monetary Authority issued a Rf. 5,000/- banknote in polymer to commemorate the 50th anniversary of independence, and issued a new family of banknotes in polymer that included a new denomination of Rf. 1,000/-. A Rf. 5/- banknote printed in polymer was revealed in May 2017 and was issued in July 2017. It was originally planned that this denomination was to be replaced by a coin of the same denomination, but public input convinced the Maldives Monetary Authority to go for the banknote.

Illustrations on the banknotes were done by Maizan Hassan Manik and Abbaas (Bamboo).

title: Maldivian rufiyaa


text:
Sri Lankan rupee

The Sri Lankan Rupee (රුපියල්, ரூபாய்; symbol: ₨ in English, රු in Sinhala, ௹ in Tamil; ISO code: LKR) is the currency of Sri Lanka. It is subdivided into 100 cents (සත, சதம்), but cents are rarely seen in circulation due to its low value. It is issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. The abbreviation ₨ is generally used, the World Bank suggests SL ₨ as a fully disambiguating abbreviation for distinction from other currencies named "rupee".

History
Sterling became Ceylon's official currency in 1825, replacing the Ceylonese rixdollar at a rate of £1 = $13 1/3$ rixdollars, and British silver coins were made legal tender. Treasury notes denominated in sterling were issued in 1827, replacing the earlier rixdollar notes. Rixdollar notes not presented for exchange were demonetized in June 1831.

The Indian rupee was made Ceylon's standard coin on 26 September 1836, and Ceylon reverted to the Indian currency area. Sterling-denominated treasury notes continued to circulate after 1836, along with the rupee. The legal currency remained British silver and accounts were kept in pounds, shillings and pence. However, payments were made in rupees and annas at the "fictitious par" (fixed accounting rate) of two shillings per rupee (i.e. £1 = Rs. 10/-).

The Bank of Ceylon was the first private bank to issue banknotes on the island (1844) and Treasury notes were withdrawn in 1856.

The Indian rupee was formally established as the unlimited legal tender 18 June 1869. The rupee was decimalized 23 August 1871. Thus, the rupee of 100 cents became Ceylon's money of account and sole legal tender effective 1 January 1872, replacing sterling at a rate of Re. 1/- equalling two shillings and three pence sterling.

Following the Ceylon banking and monetary crisis of 1884, in which the largest exchange bank in the island, The Orient Bank experienced an acute liquidity shortage, resulting in a run on the other two exchange banks, Chartered Mercantile Bank and the Bank of Madras. The Government of Ceylon, stepped in an enacted the Paper Currency Ordinance of 1884 which was based on a similar Ordinance in Mauritius in 1876. The Paper Currency Ordinance, established a currency board, the Board of Commissioners of Currency of Ceylon was established consisting of the Colonial Secretary of Ceylon, the Treasurer of Ceylon, and the Auditor-General of Ceylon. This Ordinance linked the Ceylon currency notes and the Indian silver rupees being mutually convertible at the office of the Currency Commissioners at a nominal par without any commission of one Ceylon rupee note to one Indian rupee coin.

By April 2022, political upheaval in Sri Lanka made the Sri Lankan rupee the world's "worst performing currency," according to the Financial Times. The currency's exchange rate had plummeted to over Rs. 350/- = US$1.

Coins
In 1872, copper $1/4$c, $1/2$c, 1c and 5c coins dated 1870 were introduced, followed in 1892 by silver 10c, 25c and 50c. Production of the $1/4$c ceased in 1904. The large, copper 5c coin was replaced in 1909 by a much smaller cupro-nickel coin which was square with rounded corners. In 1919, the fineness of silver used was reduced from .800 to .550.

Between 1940 and 1944, a wholesale change in the coinage was carried out. Production of the $1/2$c ceased in 1940, with bronze 1c introduced in 1942 with reduced weight and thickness. Nickel-brass replaced cupro-nickel in the 5c in the same year and replaced silver in the 25c and 50c in 1943. In 1944, nickel-brass, scalloped shaped 2c and 10c coins were introduced. The scalloped 10c coin replaced the silver 10c coin. Later 2c coins issued in 1957 were the only coins from this period to ever depict Queen Elizabeth II. Coins with the portrait of King George VI continued to be in circulation after his death in 1952. In 1957, cupro-nickel Re. 1/- coins and .925 silver Rs. 5/- coins commemorating 2,500 years of Buddhism were issued.

In 1963, a new coinage was introduced which omitted the monarch's portrait, depicting instead The Armorial ensign of Ceylon. Coins issued were aluminium 1c and 2c, nickel brass 5c and 10c and cupro-nickel 25c and 50c and Re. 1/-. These coins had the same shapes and sizes of the previous series but were composed of different materials. In 1976, commemorative seven-sided Rs. 2/- and ten-sided Rs. 5/- coins were introduced in limited numbers. In 1978, devaluation prompted aluminum to be the replacement of nickel-brass in the 5c and 10c, while shortly after 1c and 2c were discontinued. Cupro-nickel Rs. 2/- and aluminium-bronze Rs. 5/- coins were introduced in 1984 fully replacing the corresponding banknotes. In 1987, commemorative Rs. 10/- were released which like the 5c coin was square with round edges. In 1998 a bimetallic commemorative Rs. 10/- coin was released. Like earlier forerunner rupee denominations, these were again only issued in limited supply, not intended to replace the corresponding banknotes.

The obverse of the coins issued since 1972 carry the Armorial Ensign of the Republic of Sri Lanka. The reverse of the coin the value in numerals and in Sinhala, Tamil and English below and year of issue at the bottom with SRI LANKA in Sinhala on top. The lower denominations of 1c, 2c, 5c, 10c, 25c and 50c are not in circulation and the minting of these denominations had been discontinued.

The obverse and reverse designs of the new coins remained identical to the circulating coins of the new series based on similar denominations. However their weights and compositions have been changed to electroplated steel as opposed to a solid alloy for easier identification purposes and to save on production expense.

In the year 2017, a complete new series of stainless steel coins was introduced and is currently in circulation.

===2017 - New coin series ===

Commemorative coins
The Central Bank of Sri Lanka has issued commemorative coins since 1957.

On 15 December 2010, to mark the 60th Anniversary, the Central Bank of Sri Lanka issued a frosted proof crown size multi-colour silver commemorative coin in the denomination of Rs. 5,000/-. It was the first multi-colour coin issued by the Central Bank. CBSL has published a new limited edition of 1000 Rs commemorative coin on 9 March 2023, to commemorate Sri Lanka's 75th Independence Day Celebration. The 1000 Rs commemorative coins will be up for sale for Rs.6,000 per coin at listed CBSL sales outlets.

Commemorative coins issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka:

Banknotes

The Government of Ceylon introduced its first rupee banknote issue in 1885. A Rs. 5/- note (1885–1925) was followed by Rs. 10/- (1894–1926) and Rs. 1,000/- notes (1899 and 1915). A second issue included the Re. 1/- (1917–1939), Rs. 2/- (1917–1921), Rs. 50/- (1914) and Rs. 100/- (1919) notes. During the 1920s (and in some cases the 1930s) the Re. 1/- (mentioned above), Rs. 2/- (1925–39), two types of Rs. 5/- (1925–28 and 1929–39), two types of Rs. 10/- (1927–28 and 1929–39), Rs. 50/- (1922–39), Rs. 100/- (1926–39), Rs. 500/- (1926), and Rs. 1,000/- (1929) notes were all in circulation.

There were two issues in 1941. The first consisted of a Re. 1/-, Rs. 2/-, Rs. 5/-, Rs. 10/- banknote issued only in 1941. Though issued slightly earlier, a Rs. 1,000/- note (1938) has been grouped with this issue. The 1941 second issue consisted of Re. 1/- (1941–49), Rs. 2/- (1941–49), Rs. 5/- (1941–49), Rs. 10/- (1941–46), Rs. 50/- (1941–45), Rs. 100/- (1941–45), Rs. 1,000/- (1941), and Rs. 10,000/- (1947) notes. In 1942, fractional banknote issues were introduced. A 25c and 50c note (1942) were followed by a second issue of 5c (1942), 10c (1942–43), 25c (1942–49), and 50c notes (1942–49).

The Central Bank of Ceylon issued Re. 1/- and Rs. 10/- notes (1951), Rs. 1/-, Rs. 2/-, Rs. 5/-, Rs. 50/-, and Rs. 100/- notes (1952–54)

The Re. 1/- notes were replaced by coins in 1963.

From 1977, banknotes were issued by the Central Bank of Sri Lanka. Rs. 20/- notes were introduced in 1979, followed by Rs. 500/- and Rs. 1,000/- in 1981. The Rs. 200/- in 1998 and Rs. 2,000/- in 2006 (discontinued). Sri Lankan banknotes are unusual in that they are printed vertically on the reverse. In 1998, a Rs. 200/- note was issued to commemorate the 50th anniversary of independence (1948–1998). This is the first polymer banknote issued in Sri Lanka, and it was printed by Note Printing Australia. All other denominations are printed by the De la Rue Lanka Currency and Securities Print (Pvt) Ltd, a joint venture of the Government of Sri Lanka and De La Rue.

Portraits of former Sri Lankan prime ministers and former president Mahinda Rajapaksa have graced the fronts of Sri Lankan bank notes, while the backs have featured Sri Lankan fauna and flora, Sri Lankan landscapes and industries, and images depicting Sri Lankan culture, history, and achievements.

Exchange rate
The Sri Lankan rupee is a closed currency which means it is not available to buy or sell outside of Sri Lanka. One can buy LKR at the Sri Lankan airport or currency outlets available throughout the country.

On 7 March 2023, the rupee gained 0.5% to trade at 250.8 per dollar, registering a 14% increase after the announcement by the IMF that it will finalize a $2.9 billion bailout for Sri Lanka on 20 March and receiving assurances from China that it will assist in the country's debt restructuring efforts. However, Fitch Ratings has published a prediction article on 8 March 2023, that the rupee will depreciate by roughly 23%, reaching an all-time low of 290 per dollar by the end of the year.

title: Sri Lankan rupee


text:
Wikipedia:WikiProject Numismatics

{|block style="background:#fff;border-style:solid;border-width:2px;border-color:#88a;text-align:justify;width:100%;"
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Numismatics (ancient Greek: νομισματική) is the scientific study of money and its history in all its varied forms. While numismatists are often characterized as studying coins, the discipline also includes the study of banknotes (notaphily), stock certificates (scripophily), medals, medallions, and token coins (also referred to as exonumia).

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 * style="padding:2px 5px 5px;"|This WikiProject aims to create articles relating to all kinds of coins, tokens, bills and modern forms of money, and to standardize the content and format of data in those articles. In addition, this WikiProject aims to provide some degree of damage control for poorly written or extraneous numismatic articles.
 * style="padding:2px 5px 5px;"|This WikiProject aims to create articles relating to all kinds of coins, tokens, bills and modern forms of money, and to standardize the content and format of data in those articles. In addition, this WikiProject aims to provide some degree of damage control for poorly written or extraneous numismatic articles.

To create consensus on what should be included, provide factual information on all the world's past and present payment systems and create a consistent look and style for each type of page: Coins, paper money, tokens, medals and other forms of money.
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title: Wikipedia:WikiProject Numismatics


text:
Talk:Palace of the Dukes of Braganza

Untitled
There was a typo at the original title of the page. Also, since it's an English title, it seems better to use the English form, Braganza.

title: Talk:Palace of the Dukes of Braganza


text:
Wikipedia talk:WikiProject Tree of Life/Sample Taxoboxes

There are some Sample Taxoboxes taken from the Plant Kingdom. Taxoboxes from other Kingdoms should generally follow the same format (with Phylum replacing Division).

Level: Plantae
Divisions Nonvascular plants Bryophyta - mosses . . Vascular plants Seedless Psilophyta - whisk ferns . . Seeded Gymnosperms Coniferophyta - conifers . . Angiosperms Magnoliophyta - flowering plants ..

(example from Plant)

Page contents:

Synonyms and common names
Where found.

Text
Whatever you want to say.

Classification
This is pretty much covered in the taxobox; if you decide to include it, add comments to the entries. However, for intermediate ranks (down to Family) a staggered listing up and down one full rank can be a powerful way to show how this group of organisms is related to others.

Problems
Here we can note deviations from what the writer has accepted as a standard. In Solanales I show two families that my source did not show as belonging here. One it placed in another order; the other was not even in its data base. (from Talk:Solanales) rhsb

Level: Division
Classes Liliopsida (monocots) Magnoliopsida (dicots) ..

(example from Flowering_plant)

-

Level: Class
Orders Subclass Asteridae &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp Asterales (sunflowers) - 1 family &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp Callitrichales - 2 families . . Subclass Caryophyllidae &nbsp&nbsp&nbsp Caryophyllales - 12 families ..

(example from Magnoliopsida)

-

Level: Order
Families Acanthaceae . . Ref. Uni-Ham 52efam 2002-09-06

Note the Reference line. (example from Scrophulariales)

-

Level: Family
Genera Agalinis Raf. -- false foxglove . . and about 200 more.

(example from Scrophulariaceae)

-

Level: Genus
Species Tradescantia bracteata Small ex Britt. ..

(example from Spiderwort)

-

Level: Species
Binomial name Fraxinus americana L. * Some botanists include the Oleaceae in the order Lamiales.

(example from White_ash)

This box also shows a comment on the botany; on this level the info should not be included in the text, but the taxobox needs it.

Also note that both the genus name and species epithet are bolded. Since this taxobox if for the species, the genus is a link. If this species were monotypic, the genus would not be linked. For other boxes that cover multiple ranks, all relevant ranks should be bolded.


text:
Talk:The Sandman: The Doll's House

Untitled
The words "sleeping sickness" in this page link to a page about trypanosoma brucei, a tropical disease spread by the bite of a fly. However, AIUI the epidemic used in the plot of Sandman was a real event, and that was an outbreak of encephalitis lethargica. I think the link should go there instead. Marnanel 03:00, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I have corrected the link here and at The Sandman (DC Comics Modern Age) -- but is there any particular reason you couldn't have done it yourself? --Paul A 04:55, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I'm taking down the Analysis section
Its just a bunch of praise for the book, pretty much a POV section.

Zerath13

Reassessment Evaluation
I feel like some kind of moron to reassess the article I was working on, but I decided to put the matter of reassessment into my own hands. It isn't cited very well, but the other sections are okay. MwNNrules (talk) 17:03, 29 January 2008 (UTC)
 * I've adjusted it to start due to the length. I'm sorry that you've been made to feel a moron. Hiding T 17:08, 29 January 2008 (UTC)

Reorganize storylines
I've created a proposal to reorganize the Sandman articles by story arc instead of by trade paperback. My full proposal and discussion on the issue can be found at Talk:The Sandman (Vertigo).--Marcus Brute (talk) 00:11, 27 December 2008 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 08:23, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:The Sandman: The Doll's House


text:
File:Show preview.png

Summary
hint

title: File:Show preview.png


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Wildhaus

Wildhaus (High Alemannic: Wildhuus) is a village and former municipality in the Toggenburg region of the canton of St. Gallen in Switzerland, since 2010 by merger with Alt St. Johann part of the municipality of Wildhaus-Alt St. Johann.

The reformer Huldrych Zwingli was born in Wildhaus in 1484. His birth house can still be visited.

Geography
Wildhaus has an area,, of 34.4 km2. Of this area, 50.6% is used for agricultural purposes, while 22.8% is forested. Of the rest of the land, 4.1% is settled (buildings or roads) and the remainder (22.5%) is non-productive (rivers or lakes).

The village is located on Wildhaus Pass (1090 m) from Gams, in the Rhine valley, to Unterwasser in Toggenburg between the Churfirsten peaks and Säntis. The ski slopes above Wildhaus, Unterwasser and Alt St. Johann on the Churfirsten ranges reach 2262 m.

The municipalities of Alt St. Johann and Wildhaus merged into the municipality of Wildhaus-Alt St. Johann on 1 January 2010.

Coat of arms
The blazon of the municipal coat of arms is Argent an Ibex Sable on a Stone proper between two Pine Trees Vert issuant from a Base of the last.

Demographics
Wildhaus has a population of 1,209, of which about 11.1% are foreign nationals. Of the foreign population,, 20 are from Germany, 3 are from Italy, 77 are from ex-Yugoslavia, 7 are from Austria, 5 are from Turkey, and 55 are from another country. Over the last 10 years the population has decreased at a rate of -8.1%. Most of the population speaks German (91.8%), with Albanian being second most common ( 2.4%) and Serbo-Croatian being third ( 1.8%). Of the Swiss national languages, 1,157 speak German, 5 people speak French, 2 people speak Italian, and 3 people speak Romansh.

The age distribution,, in Wildhaus is; 140 children or 11.1% of the population are between 0 and 9 years old and 204 teenagers or 16.2% are between 10 and 19. Of the adult population, 139 people or 11.0% of the population are between 20 and 29 years old. 170 people or 13.5% are between 30 and 39, 179 people or 14.2% are between 40 and 49, and 150 people or 11.9% are between 50 and 59. The senior population distribution is 128 people or 10.2% of the population are between 60 and 69 years old, 102 people or 8.1% are between 70 and 79, there are 40 people or 3.2% who are between 80 and 89, and there are 8 people or 0.6% who are between 90 and 99.

there were 202 persons (or 16.0% of the population) who were living alone in a private dwelling. There were 255 (or 20.2%) persons who were part of a couple (married or otherwise committed) without children, and 646 (or 51.3%) who were part of a couple with children. There were 74 (or 5.9%) people who lived in single parent home, while there are 17 persons who were adult children living with one or both parents, 4 persons who lived in a household made up of relatives, and 62 who are either institutionalized or live in another type of collective housing.

In the 2007 federal election the most popular party was the SVP which received 39.5% of the vote. The next three most popular parties were the FDP (21.3%), the CVP (18.5%) and the SP (10.1%).

The entire Swiss population is generally well educated. In Wildhaus about 69% of the population (between age 25-64) have completed either non-mandatory upper secondary education or additional higher education (either University or a Fachhochschule). Out of the total population in Wildhaus,, the highest education level completed by 315 people (25.0% of the population) was Primary, while 448 (35.6%) have completed their secondary education, 136 (10.8%) have attended a Tertiary school, and 32 (2.5%) are not in school. The remainder did not answer this question.

Heritage sites of national significance
The Birthplace of the reformer Huldrych Zwingli at Lisighus 167 is listed as a Swiss heritage site of national significance.

The ruins of the Wildenburg (Wildhaus), a former castle that was originally built in 1200 by the barons of Sax and sold to the earl Friedrich IV von Toggenburg in 1313. The castle was hit by a lightning and burned down in 1660. In 2010 the restoration of the place was completed and it has become a worthy place to visit.

Economy
, Wildhaus had an unemployment rate of 1.25%. , there were 133 people employed in the primary economic sector and about 52 businesses involved in this sector. 60 people are employed in the secondary sector and there are 19 businesses in this sector. 403 people are employed in the tertiary sector, with 51 businesses in this sector.

the average unemployment rate was 2.2%. There were 122 businesses in the municipality of which 18 were involved in the secondary sector of the economy while 56 were involved in the third.

there were 466 residents who worked in the municipality, while 194 residents worked outside Wildhaus and 164 people commuted into the municipality for work.

Religion
From the, 468 or 37.1% are Roman Catholic, while 572 or 45.4% belonged to the Swiss Reformed Church. Of the rest of the population, there are 17 individuals (or about 1.35% of the population) who belong to the Orthodox Church, and there are 17 individuals (or about 1.35% of the population) who belong to another Christian church. There are 49 (or about 3.89% of the population) who are Islamic. There are 3 individuals (or about 0.24% of the population) who belong to another church (not listed on the census), 88 (or about 6.98% of the population) belong to no church, are agnostic or atheist, and 46 individuals (or about 3.65% of the population) did not answer the question.

Weather
Wildhaus has an average of 157 days of rain or snow per year and on average receives 1640 mm of precipitation. The wettest month is August during which time Wildhaus receives an average of 202 mm of rain or snow. During this month there is precipitation for an average of 14.7 days. The month with the most days of precipitation is June, with an average of 15.8, but with only 199 mm of rain or snow. The driest month of the year is October with an average of 100 mm of precipitation over 14.7 days.

title: Wildhaus