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Belarusian State University

Belarusian State University (BSU) (Белару́скі дзяржа́ўны ўніверсітэ́т, ; Белору́сский госуда́рственный университе́т/Bělorusskij gosudarstvěnný univěrsitět) is a university in Minsk, Belarus. It was founded on October 30, 1921. In 2023 the university was ranked the number 387 university in the world in the QS World University Rankings.

1919-49; early years
On February 25, 1919, the Central Executive Committee of the Belorussian SSR resolved to establish the first national university in Belarus. However, the occupation of Minsk by the Polish army delayed these plans, and the university's opening was set back to October 30, 1921.

Initially, the university comprised three faculties (Workers, Medicine, and Humanities) that enrolled a total of 1,390 students. The faculty included 14 professors, 49 lecturers and 10 teaching assistants, most of whom were transferred from the universities of Moscow, Kazan and Kiev. In 1922, the Pedagogical Faculty was established. The first class that counted 34 economists and 26 lawyers graduated in 1925. By 1930, the university consisted of six faculties: Workers, Medicine, Pedagogical, National Economy, Law and Soviet Development, Chemical Technology.

In 1941 the university consisted of six Faculties: Chemistry, Physics and Mathematics, Biology, History, Geography, and Languages. There was also a Workers Faculty that provided part-time education to full-time employees of factories and plants, as well as special part-time Polish- and Yiddish-language sections. After Minsk was occupied by Nazi Germany in June 1941, some students and academic staff were evacuated to the east. In May 1943, Belarusian State University was re-opened in the town of Skhodnya, 12 km northwest of Moscow. The university relocated back to Minsk in the summer of 1944 and classes resumed. In 1949, the university was named after Vladimir Lenin to commemorate the 30th anniversary of the Byelorussian SSR.

1950-2007
In 1975 the Faculty of Radiophysics and Electronics was split off from the Faculty of Physics, and in 1989 the Faculty of Philosophy and Economics was established. The research institutes for physico-chemical problems and nuclear problems were opened in 1978 and 1986, respectively.

After Belarus gained independence from the USSR in 1991, new faculties and institutes were created: the Faculty of International Relations (1995), the State Institute of Management and Social Technologies (2003), the Military Faculty (2003), the St. Methodius and Cyril Theological Institute (2004), the Humanities Faculty (2004); the Institute of Business and Technology Management (2006), the Confucius Institute for Sinology (2007).

Rector Alyaksandr Kazulin was fired in 2003 on accusations of corruption.

2008-present; criticism and political controversies
In 2008, the activist Franak Viačorka, a member of Partyja BPF, was expelled from the Journalism Faculty of the Belarusian State University and forced into military service. In the same year, Michaił Paškievič, a member of the United Civic Party and leader of the party's youth wing, was expelled from the BSU History Faculty for political activity.

In 2009, the BSU Law Faculty expelled the student Tatsiana Shaputska, a member of the Malady Front, after her participation in the Civil Society Forum of the Eastern Partnership in Brussels.

As part of the international sanctions against the regime in Belarus following a crackdown of the opposition following the 2010 Belarusian presidential election, Siarhiej Abłamiejka, at that time rector of the Belarusian State University, was banned from entering the European Union. In its decision, the EU Council accused him of being "responsible for the expulsion of several students from the University because they participated in the demonstrations on 19 December 2010 and in other peaceful demonstrations in 2011." It was reported that students were expelled from the Belarusian State University for participating in the protests in 2010 and 2011.

According to reports by human rights organizations, politically motivated expulsions from the Belarusian State University continued also after the EU lifted most of its sanctions against Belarus in 2014.

According to reports by media and human rights organizations, many students of the Belarusian State University are being forced to vote early at elections and referendums, which is considered an essential part of centralized electoral fraud in Belarus. No election or referendum in Belarus has been recognized by the United States, the European Union, or the OSCE as free and fair since the mid-1990s.

In 2020–21, several university teachers were fired for political reasons. A number of students who participated in the protests or openly expressed their civil position were expelled. Professor Svetlana Volchek was arrested for writing to the university leadership expressing concern about police violence during the protests, and found guilty of spreading information about a planned protest.

In 2021, four previously expelled BSU students were sentenced to 2.5 years in prison for protesting in the university and "disruption of the educational process". All of them were recognized as political prisoners. Several BSU employees were witnesses.

Aliaksandr Danilevich, a university professor and a member of the Court of Arbitration for Sport, was arrested by Belarusian police on May 20, 2022. In February 2022 he had signed a petition calling for an end to the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. After he signed the petition the university told him they would not extend his contract; the day before his arrest he had asked for a written explanation to why his contract was ended.

Ranking
In 2023 the university was ranked the number 387 university in the world in the QS World University Rankings.

Campus
Belarusian State University owns buildings at various locations within the city of Minsk. The main campus is located in the city center. The second campus of Belarusian State University is located on the Southwestern outskirts of Minsk. Each of the university study buildings are equipped with classrooms, seminar rooms and reading lounges. There are 70 computer laboratories and 4 media classrooms.

The BSU is a complex of academic, research, production, social and cultural, administrative, auxiliary and other units. There are 16 Faculties within the university structure. BSU has 4 Educational Institutes that provide training on undergraduate and post-graduate levels of education. There are a number of Institutes that conduct retraining and advanced training of both youths and adults.

The BSU has 11 student dormitories. About 65% of housing provided by the university consists of rooms shared by 3-4 persons with a common kitchen and sanitary arrangements.

The BSU has created sports and recreation facilities for its students and staff. Training and health-improving complexes are available.

Military faculty
Military Faculty of the Belarusian State University was established on 4 November 1926, by order of the Soviet Revolutionary Military Council. In 1941, at the outset of the Second World War, military training classes were interrupted only to be resumed in 1943. In the post-war years, the military department continued to train reserve officers in accounting specialties. In 2003, the military department was reorganized into the modern military faculty of BSU.

Scientific research institutes

 * Research Institute of Nuclear Problems
 * Research Institute of physics-chemistry problems
 * Research Institute of applied physics problems
 * Research Institute of applied problems of Mathematics and informatics

National research centres

 * National Research Centre of Ozonosphere monitoring
 * National Scientific and Educational Centre of Particles and High-Energy Physics Republican Research Centres
 * Republican Centre for Human Studies

Inter-departmental centres

 * Inter-departmental Centre of national parks and preserves
 * Inter-departmental Centre research center «Life safety»

Centers of sharing use of unique research equipment

 * Belarusian inter-university center of research facilities
 * Centre of sharing use of devices and equipment of faculty of biology
 * Laboratory of physical-and-chemical methods of research RI PCP
 * Centre of nanotechnologies and physical electronics

BSU research centers

 * Centre of Applied Problems of Mathematics and Informatics
 * Education Development Centre
 * Centre for youth studies
 * Centre of Sociological and Political studies
 * Centre for international studies
 * Centre for international technologies
 * Centre of informational resources and communications
 * Centre of IT security
 * Childhood development Centre
 * Centre for Olympic training

The research activity is conducted on the basis of 25 Research Centres and 115 Scientific Laboratories. University has 4 Research Institutes:
 * Research Institute of Applied Physical Problems named after A.N. Sieŭčanka
 * Research Institute for Nuclear Problems of Belarusian State University
 * Research Institute Of Physical And Chemical Problems
 * Research Institute of Applied Mathematics and Informatics

The BSU complex also includes 12 unitary scientific-productional enterprises, among them are the following:
 * Unitehprom BSU (Small-scale chemical and equipment production of various purpose);
 * Unihimprom BSU (Development of the technology of diesel biofuel production from vegetable oils and other accompanying products);
 * Unidragmet BSU (treatment of man-caused waste containing precious and non-ferrous metals treatment);
 * Adamas BSU (Production of diamond monocrystals and instruments made of them);
 * Engineering department of BSU (Production of computers, traffic controllers and systems of traffic control, software&hardware for medical experts);
 * Active BSU (production of training devices for physical experiment, vacuum engineering and forage additives;
 * Sand BSU (production of tests systems for drug detection).

Academic community
The core of the BSU is made of the academic community of teachers, researches, students and postgraduate students. In 2009 approximately 60% of the secondary school graduates from the country's regions were accepted for the full-time budget form of education. On the selection tours of the World Programming Championship BSU team always reaches the finals and gets into the top-20 teams of world.

Programs
The BSU offers a variety of educational programs. The Higher Education Program is organised at the BSU major Faculties and Educational Institutes through 56 specialities and more than 250 specialisations. Training along the Magister's Degree Program is conducted through 48 specialities.

International cooperation

In late 1950s BSU became an international university with hundreds of international students. More than 4,000 students from over 102 countries of the world have studied at the BSU during Soviet times until the late 1990s. The Belarusian State University takes active part in international university networks and associations. It is an individual full member of the European University Association.

Library
The BSU Fundamental Library's (BSU FL) has 820 readers’ places, 140 workers, 9 home loan departments, 17 departmental and specialised reading rooms. The following digital recourses are available for students and faculty:
 * The Open Public Access Catalog (OPAC) of the Belarusian State University Fundamental Library.
 * Electronic Document Delivery Service - Gives opportunity to search, order and delivery of electronic copies of documents that are contained in the funds of BSU FL and its partners-libraries.
 * Databases. Access to the network (local and utter by licenses) databases.
 * Digitized collections. Educational and research information materials, publications and BSU conferences’ proceedings. Documents are put on the network in accordance with the copyright law acting on the territory of the Republic of Belarus.
 * Virtual exhibitions.

Notable alumni

 * Alena Aladava (1907-1986) - Director of the Belarusian National Arts Museum
 * Lev Artsimovich (1909–1973) - physicist, academician of the Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union, member of the Presidium of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, and Hero of Socialist Labour
 * Fiodar Fiodaraŭ (1911-1994) - physicist, predicted Imbert–Fiodaraŭ effect
 * Ivan Mielež (1921-1976) - writer of fiction and drama
 * Aleś Adamovič (1927-1994) - writer and critic
 * Efraim Sevela ("Efim Drabkin," 1928–2010) - Soviet-Israeli writer, screenwriter, director, and producer
 * Anatol Hryckievič (1929-2015) - historian
 * Maria Itkina (1932–2020) - runner, set multiple world records in various sprint events, competed at the 1956, 1960, and 1964 Olympics and finished four times in fourth place.
 * Zinaida Mozheiko (1933–2014) - ethnomusicologist of Belarusian folk music
 * Stanisłaŭ Šuškievič (1934–2022) - politician and scientist, the first leader and head of state of independent Belarus after the dissolution of the Soviet Union
 * Ivan Chigrinov (1934-1996) - writer
 * Hienadź Buraŭkin (1936-2016) - diplomat and poet
 * Miečysłaŭ Hryb (born 1938) - politician, Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus
 * Svetlana Alexievich (born 1948) - journalist and author, winner of Nobel Prize in Literature 2015
 * Boris Mordukhovich (born 1948) - mathematician, professor at Wayne State University
 * Uładzimier Arłoŭ (born 1953) - historian, writer, politician, and poet
 * Barys Tasman (born 1954) - journalist, sports writer
 * Elena Korosteleva (born 1972) - political scientist and Director of the Institute for Global Sustainable Development at the University of Warwick
 * Iryna Chalip (born 1967) - journalist
 * Sunday Adelaja (born 1967) - Nigerian journalist, pastor
 * Volha Čuprys (born 1969) - academic, first female vice rector of this university
 * Natalla Piatkievič (born 1972) - politician and stateswoman
 * Yury Ambrazevich (born 1975) - politician and diplomat
 * Ilya Nemenman (born 1975) - Belarusian-American theoretical physicist at Emory University, where he is a Winship Distinguished Research Professor of Physics and Biology
 * Pavał Sieviaryniec (born 1976) - politician
 * Dzianis Liseichykau (born 1979) - historian and archivist
 * Filip Anadyrov (born 1963) - politician and notable ally of Alexander Lukashenko

Rectors

 * Uładzimier Pičeta (1921–1929)
 * Jazep Karanieŭski (1929–1931)
 * Ivan Jermakoŭ (1931–1934)
 * Anani Dziakaŭ (1934–1935)
 * Alaksiej Kučynski (1936–1937)
 * Ničypar Bładyka (1937)
 * Uładzimier Babraŭnicki (1938)
 * Parfion Savicki (1938–1944)
 * Uładzimier Tamaševič (1946–1949)
 * Ivan Čymburh (1949–1952)
 * Kanstancin Łukašoŭ (1952–1957)
 * Anton Sieŭčanka (1957–1972)
 * Usievaład Sikorski (1972–1978)
 * Uładzimier Bieły (1978–1983)
 * Leanid Kisialeŭski (1983–1989)
 * Fiodar Kapucki (1990–1995)
 * Alaksandar Kazulin (1996–2003)
 * Vasil Stražaŭ (2003–2008)
 * Siarhiej Abłamiejka (2008-2017)
 * Andrei Karol (from 2017)

title: Belarusian State University


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Bingham plastic

In materials science, a Bingham plastic is a viscoplastic material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stress. It is named after Eugene C. Bingham who proposed its mathematical form.

It is used as a common mathematical model of mud flow in drilling engineering, and in the handling of slurries. A common example is toothpaste, which will not be extruded until a certain pressure is applied to the tube. It is then pushed out as a relatively coherent plug.

Explanation

Figure 1 shows a graph of the behaviour of an ordinary viscous (or Newtonian) fluid in red, for example in a pipe. If the pressure at one end of a pipe is increased this produces a stress on the fluid tending to make it move (called the shear stress) and the volumetric flow rate increases proportionally. However, for a Bingham Plastic fluid (in blue), stress can be applied but it will not flow until a certain value, the yield stress, is reached. Beyond this point the flow rate increases steadily with increasing shear stress. This is roughly the way in which Bingham presented his observation, in an experimental study of paints. These properties allow a Bingham plastic to have a textured surface with peaks and ridges instead of a featureless surface like a Newtonian fluid.

Figure 2 shows the way in which it is normally presented currently. The graph shows shear stress on the vertical axis and shear rate on the horizontal one. (Volumetric flow rate depends on the size of the pipe, shear rate is a measure of how the velocity changes with distance. It is proportional to flow rate, but does not depend on pipe size.) As before, the Newtonian fluid flows and gives a shear rate for any finite value of shear stress. However, the Bingham plastic again does not exhibit any shear rate (no flow and thus no velocity) until a certain stress is achieved. For the Newtonian fluid the slope of this line is the viscosity, which is the only parameter needed to describe its flow. By contrast, the Bingham plastic requires two parameters, the yield stress and the slope of the line, known as the plastic viscosity.

The physical reason for this behaviour is that the liquid contains particles (such as clay) or large molecules (such as polymers) which have some kind of interaction, creating a weak solid structure, formerly known as a false body, and a certain amount of stress is required to break this structure. Once the structure has been broken, the particles move with the liquid under viscous forces. If the stress is removed, the particles associate again.

Definition
The material is an elastic solid for shear stress $$\tau$$, less than a critical value $$\tau_0$$. Once the critical shear stress (or "yield stress") is exceeded, the material flows in such a way that the shear rate, ∂u/∂y (as defined in the article on viscosity), is directly proportional to the amount by which the applied shear stress exceeds the yield stress:

 * $$\frac {\partial u} {\partial y} = \begin{cases} 0, & \tau < \tau_0 \\ \frac{\tau - \tau_0}{\mu_\infty}, & \tau \ge \tau_0 \end{cases}$$

Friction factor formulae
In fluid flow, it is a common problem to calculate the pressure drop in an established piping network. Once the friction factor, f, is known, it becomes easier to handle different pipe-flow problems, viz. calculating the pressure drop for evaluating pumping costs or to find the flow-rate in a piping network for a given pressure drop. It is usually extremely difficult to arrive at exact analytical solution to calculate the friction factor associated with flow of non-Newtonian fluids and therefore explicit approximations are used to calculate it. Once the friction factor has been calculated the pressure drop can be easily determined for a given flow by the Darcy–Weisbach equation:

 * $$f = {2h_\text{f} gD \over LV^2}$$

where:
 * $$f$$ is the Darcy friction factor (SI units: dimensionless)
 * $$h_\text{f}$$ is the frictional head loss (SI units: m)
 * $$g$$ is the gravitational acceleration (SI units: m/s²)
 * $$D$$ is the pipe diameter (SI units: m)
 * $$L$$ is the pipe length (SI units: m)
 * $$V$$ is the mean fluid velocity (SI units: m/s)

Laminar flow
An exact description of friction loss for Bingham plastics in fully developed laminar pipe flow was first published by Buckingham. His expression, the Buckingham–Reiner equation, can be written in a dimensionless form as follows:

 * $$f_\text{L} = {64 \over \operatorname{Re}}\left[1 + {\operatorname{He} \over 6\operatorname{Re}} - {64 \over 3} \left({\operatorname{He}^4 \over f^3\operatorname{Re}^7}\right)\right]$$

where:
 * $$f_\text{L}$$ is the laminar flow Darcy friction factor (SI units: dimensionless)
 * $$\operatorname{Re}$$ is the Reynolds number (SI units: dimensionless)
 * $$\operatorname{He}$$ is the Hedstrom number (SI units: dimensionless)

The Reynolds number and the Hedstrom number are respectively defined as:
 * $$\operatorname{Re} = {\rho VD \over \mu},$$ and
 * $$\operatorname{He} = {\rho D^2\tau_o \over \mu^2}$$

where:
 * $$\rho$$ is the mass density of fluid (SI units: kg/m3)
 * $$\mu$$ is the dynamic viscosity of fluid (SI units: kg/m s)
 * $$\tau_o$$ is the yield point (yield strength) of fluid (SI units: Pa)

Turbulent flow
Darby and Melson developed an empirical expression that was then refined, and is given by:

 * $$f_\text{T} = 4 \times 10^a \operatorname{Re}^{-0.193}$$

where:

Note: Darby and Melson's expression is for a Fanning friction factor, and needs to be multiplied by 4 to be used in the friction loss equations located elsewhere on this page.
 * $$f_\text{T}$$ is the turbulent flow friction factor (SI units: dimensionless)
 * $$a = -1.47\left[1 + 0.146 e^{-2.9\times {10^{-5}}\operatorname{He}}\right]$$

Approximations of the Buckingham–Reiner equation
Although an exact analytical solution of the Buckingham–Reiner equation can be obtained because it is a fourth order polynomial equation in f, due to complexity of the solution it is rarely employed. Therefore, researchers have tried to develop explicit approximations for the Buckingham–Reiner equation.

Swamee–Aggarwal equation
The Swamee–Aggarwal equation is used to solve directly for the Darcy–Weisbach friction factor f for laminar flow of Bingham plastic fluids. It is an approximation of the implicit Buckingham–Reiner equation, but the discrepancy from experimental data is well within the accuracy of the data. The Swamee–Aggarwal equation is given by:

 * $$ f_L = {64 \over \mathrm{Re}} + {64 \over \mathrm{Re}} \left( {\mathrm{He}\over 6.2218 \mathrm{Re}}\right)^{0.958}$$

Danish–Kumar solution
Danish et al. have provided an explicit procedure to calculate the friction factor f by using the Adomian decomposition method. The friction factor containing two terms through this method is given as:

 * $$ f_L = \frac{K_1 + \dfrac{4 K_2}{\left( K_1 + \frac{K_1 K_2}{K_1^4 + 3 K_2}\right)^3}}{1+ \dfrac{3 K_2}{\left(K_1 + \frac{K_1 K_2}{K_1^4 + 3 K_2}\right)^4}}$$

where

 * $$ K_1 = {16 \over \mathrm{Re}} + {16 \mathrm{He} \over 6\mathrm{Re}^2},$$

and

 * $$ K_2 = - {16 \mathrm{He}^4 \over 3\mathrm{Re}^8}.$$

Darby–Melson equation
In 1981, Darby and Melson, using the approach of Churchill and of Churchill and Usagi, developed an expression to get a single friction factor equation valid for all flow regimes:

 * $$f = \left[{f_\text{L}}^m + {f_\text{T}}^m \right]^\frac{1}{m}$$

where:
 * $$m = 1.7 + {40000 \over \operatorname{Re}}$$

Both Swamee–Aggarwal equation and the Darby–Melson equation can be combined to give an explicit equation for determining the friction factor of Bingham plastic fluids in any regime. Relative roughness is not a parameter in any of the equations because the friction factor of Bingham plastic fluids is not sensitive to pipe roughness.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Bingham plastic


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T. K. Whitaker

Thomas Kenneth Whitaker (8 December 1916 – 9 January 2017) was an Irish economist, politician, diplomat and civil servant who served as Secretary (administrative head) of Ireland's Department of Finance from 1956 to 1969, as Governor of the Central Bank of Ireland from 1969 to 1976 and as a Senator from 1977 to 1982, after being nominated by the Taoiseach. He is considered one of the most influential civil servants in the history of the Irish State, with his economic policies greatly influencing the development of modern Ireland.

Early life and education
Whitaker was born in Rostrevor, a small town in the south of County Down, to Roman Catholic parents on 8 December 1916, and was reared in Drogheda, County Louth, in modest circumstances. Neither of his parents were from Ulster. His mother, Jane O'Connor, came from Ballyguirey East, Labasheeda, County Clare. His father, Edward Whitaker, hailed from County Westmeath and was assistant manager of a linen mill. He received his primary and secondary education at the local CBS in Drogheda. He studied mathematics, Celtic studies and Latin by correspondence course at University of London, and was awarded external degrees in economics: a bachelor's degree in 1941 and a master's degree in 1952.

Career
In 1956, Whitaker was appointed Secretary of the Department of Finance, at the age of thirty-nine. His appointment took place at a time when Ireland's economy was in deep depression. Economic growth was non-existent, inflation apparently insoluble, unemployment rife, living standards low and emigration at a figure not far below the birth rate. Whitaker believed that free trade, with increased competition and the end of protectionism, would become inevitable and that jobs would have to be created by a shift from agriculture to industry and services. He formed a team of officials within the department which produced a detailed study of the economy, culminating in a plan recommending policies for improvement. The plan was accepted by the government and was transformed into a White Paper which became known as the First Programme for Economic Expansion, and quite unusually this was published with his name attached in November 1958. The programme which became known as the "Grey Book" who many argue brought the stimulus of foreign investment into the Irish economy. However other reforms such as the Department of Industry and Commerce's export profits tax relief introduced in 1956, were opposed by Whitaker.

Before devoting himself to poetry, Thomas Kinsella was Whitaker's private secretary. TK Whitaker opposed the low tax strategy.

In 1977, Taoiseach Jack Lynch nominated Whitaker as a member of the 14th Seanad. He served as a Senator from 1977 to 1981, where he sat as an independent member.

In 1981, he was nominated to the 15th Seanad by Taoiseach Garret FitzGerald, where he served until 1982. FitzGerald also appointed him to chair a Committee of Inquiry into the Irish penal system, and he chaired a Parole Board or Sentence Review Group for several years.

Whitaker also served as Chancellor of the National University of Ireland from 1976 to 1996. He was also President of the Royal Irish Academy and as such, a member of the Board of Governors and Guardians of the National Gallery of Ireland, from 1985 to 1987. He had had a very strong love for the Irish language throughout his career and the collection of Irish poetry, An Duanaire: Poems of the Dispossessed 1600–1900, edited by Seán Ó Tuama and Thomas Kinsella was dedicated to Whitaker. From 1995 to 1996 he chaired the Constitution Review Group, an independent expert group established by the government, which published its report in July 1996.

Awards and recognition
Whitaker received many national and international honours and tributes for his achievements during his lifetime, most notably the conferral of "Irishman of the 20th Century" in 2001 and Greatest Living Irish Person in 2002. In November 2014, the Institute of Banking conferred an Honorary Fellowship on Whitaker and created an annual T.K. Whitaker Scholarship in his name. In April 2015, he was presented with a lifetime achievement award by University College Dublin's Economics Society for his outstanding contribution to Ireland's economic policy.

In November 2016, to mark his centenary year, Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown County Council acknowledged Whitaker's "outstanding and progressive contribution to Irish public service and to society". The Cathaoirleach of Dún Laoghaire–Rathdown, Cormac Devlin, presented a special award to Whitaker which was accepted by Ken Whitaker on behalf of his father.

Whitaker Square
Whitaker Square in the Grand Canal Dock area of Dublin 2 is named in his honour. The offices of the Economic and Social Research Institute are located on the square.

Personal life
Whitaker married Nora Fogarty in 1941; they had six children. After his wife's death in 1994, he remarried, to Mary Moore in 2005. The couple were invited to Áras an Uachtaráin in 2006 for his 90th birthday by the President of Ireland. Mary Moore Whitaker died in 2008. T.K. Whitaker turned 100 in December 2016 and died a month later on 9 January 2017, having survived both of his wives.

Whitaker and his family spoke Irish at home. The family spent a good deal of time in the North Mayo Gaeltacht after buying and renovating a former schoolhouse in Glencullen Lower, near Bangor Erris, in 1972. Whitaker was also a keen salmon angler in the nearby Carrowmore Lake and Owenmore.

title: T. K. Whitaker


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Alberta New Democratic Party

The Alberta New Democratic Party (Nouveau Parti démocratique de l'Alberta), commonly shortened to Alberta NDP, is a social democratic political party in Alberta, Canada. It is the provincial Alberta affiliate of the federal New Democratic Party, and the successor to the Alberta section of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation and the even earlier Alberta wing of the Canadian Labour Party and the United Farmers of Alberta. From the mid-1980s to 2004, the party abbreviated its name as the "New Democrats" (ND).

The party served as Official Opposition in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta from 1982 to 1993. It was shut out of the legislature following the 1993 election, returning in the 1997 election with two seats. The party won no more than four seats in subsequent elections until the 2015 election, in which it won 54 of the 87 seats in the legislature and formed a majority government. Until 2015, Alberta had been the only province in western Canada—the party's birthplace—where the NDP had never governed at the provincial level. The Alberta NDP was defeated after a single term in the 2019 election by the United Conservative Party—the first time that a governing party in Alberta had been unseated after a single term.

Origins and early years (1932–1962)
The Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) was founded in Calgary on 1 August 1932. However, it faced challenges in Alberta due to lack of support from the governing United Farmers of Alberta party and the Labour Party. While some UFA Members of Parliament supported the CCF and ran unsuccessfully as CCF candidates in the 1935 federal election, most UFA leaders and members were ambivalent. The CCF did not run candidates in the 1935 provincial election due to its ties with the UFA and Labour Party. The UFA lost all its seats in the election, and CCF candidates associated with the UFA were defeated due to the unpopularity of the UFA government and the rising popularity of William Aberhart's Social Credit movement..

In 1936, William Irvine, a CCF founder and defeated UFA Member of Parliament, was elected the Alberta CCF's first president. In 1937, the UFA decided to leave electoral politics entirely and, in 1938, the CCF committed itself to run candidates in the next provincial and elections setting up local riding clubs for that purpose. In 1939, former UFA/CCF MLA Chester Ronning became the Alberta CCF's first leader in the 1940 provincial election but despite winning 11% of the vote the party did not win any seats in the Alberta Legislature - the CCF had not garnered the support of the UFA's conservative supporters or put a dent in support for the agrarian populism of the Social Credit Party of Alberta.

The Alberta wing of the Labour Party federated with the CCF in 1935, but ran its own candidates in the 1935 and 1940 provincial elections. In 1942, the Alberta CCF clubs formally merged with the Labour Party and Elmer Roper became the new leader after achieving an unexpected victory in a 1942 by-election, becoming the party's first Alberta MLA (excepting Chester Ronning, who had been elected in 1932 as a joint UFA/CCF candidate). In the next two years party membership soared from 2,500 to over 12,000.

In the 1944 election, the CCF received 24% of the vote but won only 2 seats, both of them in Edmonton and Calgary where the use of single transferable vote ensured fair representation. (The disproportionality was due to the way boundaries of the constituencies outside the cities were drawn and the use of Instant-runoff voting outside the cities, which did not help a lesser party like the CCF.) The Social Credit government received more than half of ballots cast. Roper was joined in the legislature by Aylmer Liesemer, a Calgary schoolteacher. The rise of support for the CCF after 1942 mobilized the business community to pull out of efforts to build an anti-Social Credit party and instead back the Social Credit government, now led by Ernest Manning, after William Aberhart's death in 1943, as a bulwark against socialists. Unlike the Saskatchewan CCF, which won office in the 1944 Saskatchewan election on a platform calling for social programs, the Alberta CCF was more radical and campaigned on provincial ownership of the province's resources and utilities. Irvine also advocated an alliance with the communist Labor-Progressive Party which would have been beneficial in the cities where the single transferable vote electoral system was used.

Through the 1940s and 1950s, the CCF's vote percentage declined, eventually falling under 10 percent. At any one time, the party never won more than two seats. The party was kept to two MLAs throughout the 1950s. Roper lost his seat in the 1955 election. In the same election, Stanley Ruzycki and Nick Dushenski were elected. Roper was succeeded as party leader by Floyd Albin Johnson. The 1959 general election was a disaster for the CCF, losing both its existing seats. Party leader Johnson, running in the Dunvegan electoral district, failed to win his seat, leaving the party shut out of the legislature.

Alberta NDP in opposition (1962–2015)
The CCF merged with the Canadian Labour Congress in 1961, becoming the New Democratic Party of Canada. In Alberta, the NDP was founded in 1962 with a new leader, Neil Reimer, Canadian director of the Oil Workers International Union. The NDP did not, at first, build much on the CCF's popularity, and, with the exception of a 1966 by-election victory by Garth Turcott, did not win any seats until the 1971 election when Grant Notley, who had taken over the party in 1968, was elected to the legislature.

With the cancellation of single transferable voting in Edmonton in 1956, the NDP did not win a seat in Edmonton until 1982. (This is in strong contrast to the steady winning of one seat in Edmonton in each election, from the 1926 introduction of STV in Edmonton to 1952. The pattern in Calgary is similar. Although not successful in getting a seat in that city every election under STV, it was not until 1986 that a CCF or NDP MLA was elected in Calgary, following STV's cessation in 1956.)

Rise to Official Opposition
The election of the Progressive Conservatives in 1971 led to the gradual collapse of Social Credit. The Alberta Liberal Party suffered in the late 1970s and early 1980s due to its association with the unpopular federal Liberal Party government of Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau.

The decline of Social Credit and the unpopularity of the Liberals allowed the New Democrats to become the main opposition to the Lougheed-led Conservatives. Under Grant Notley’s leadership from 1968 to 1984, the NDP's popularity gradually increased. It grew from 10% in the 1971 election to 19% in the 1982 election. Despite winning only two seats, the party became the Official Opposition in 1982.

In the 1986 election, under Ray Martin's leadership, the party won 30% of the vote and 16 seats, marking a high point for New Democrat support. Party membership increased from around 5,000 in the 1970s to 20,000 after the 1986 provincial election. However, the New Democrats were unable to gain additional seats in the 1989 election. While they remained the Official Opposition in the legislature, their popular support fell behind the Liberals for the first time in decades, with the Liberals at 28% and the NDs at 26%.

Wipeout and recovery

In the 1993 election, their popular vote fell by more than half to 11%, and they were shut out of the legislature altogether. This was mainly due to the anti-PC vote consolidating around the Liberals. Both the Liberals and Tories were preaching the need for fiscal conservatism at the time. Ray Martin resigned as leader and was succeeded first by Ross Harvey and then by Pam Barrett. The party regained its presence in the legislature by winning two seats in the 1997 election. Barrett resigned her position as party leader in 2000 after claiming a near-death experience in a dentist's chair. She was succeeded by Raj Pannu. The party retained its two seats in the 2001 election.

In 2004, the party reverted to the traditional "NDP" abbreviation and the colour orange. That same year Raj Panu resigned as leader and was replaced by Brian Mason. In the 2004 Alberta general election the party doubled its seats from two to four—which re-elected then leader Brian Mason and Raj Pannu, returning former leader Ray Martin, and newcomer David Eggen. The party received 10% of the vote province-wide.

In the 2008 election the party was reduced to two seats. Brian Mason was re-elected as was newcomer Rachel Notley. Ray Martin and David Eggen were narrowly defeated. The party received 8.5% of the popular vote.

Attempts at political cooperation
At its 2008 provincial convention, the party overwhelmingly rejected a proposal by the Environment Caucus recommending a party task force be mandated to "investigate a variety of options for political cooperation with the Alberta Liberals and/or Greens." and "to prepare a motion to be considered" at the next Party Convention. The proposal was opposed by NDP leader Brian Mason.

Alberta Federation of Labour President Gil McGowan independently distributed a proposal for a cooperation pact with the Alberta Liberal Party and Alberta Greens to defeat Progressive Conservative candidates. The proposal, titled "The Way Forward: An AFL proposal for a united alternative to the Conservatives," suggested that the parties not compete against each other in certain ridings. Although McGowan was unable to speak on the issue before the resolution was defeated, he later addressed it during his report to the Convention as AFL President. He urged members to acknowledge the need for significant change in light of 40 years of Tory government and the recent election results.

Growing momentum
In the 2012 provincial election the NDP picked up two seats in Edmonton, regaining their previous 4 seat total. Both Rachel Notley and Brian Mason safely held onto their seats while David Eggen was re-elected as the member for Edmonton-Calder. Newcomer Deron Bilous was also elected in Edmonton-Beverly-Clareview, the seat formerly held by Martin. In many other ridings the party also won more votes than it had attained previously.

On April 29, 2014, Brian Mason announced that he would step down as leader as soon as a leadership election could be held to choose his successor. The leadership convention was held in Edmonton from October 18 to October 19, 2014. Rachel Notley was elected as the party's next leader, defeating fellow MLA David Eggen and union leader Rod Loyola in the first ballot with 70% of the vote.

First government (2015–2019)

The incumbent PC premier Jim Prentice called an election on April 7, 2015, following the reveal of a new budget to strengthen his party's mandate. On election night, the NDP won 54 seats, re-electing all four of their incumbents as well as 50 new members to the legislative assembly. The NDP had high expectations for Edmonton, given Notley's local ties and the city's historically favourable stance towards centre-left parties. Surpassing all projections, the party won every seat in the capital and also swept Red Deer and Lethbridge. They also secured 15 seats in Calgary, the long-standing stronghold of the Tories, and gained 16 more seats across the rest of Alberta, mostly in the northern and central regions.

The Notley Government was characterized by a small cabinet and an intense focus on the economy. At the time of the early election call Alberta was sinking into a deep recession caused by the collapse of world oil prices. As a result of the province's dependence on oil royalties over more traditional revenue sources, Alberta's deficit soared. After reversing prior budget cuts, Notley mostly shied away from major wealth redistribution and preferred to stimulate the economy through infrastructure spending and maintaining public services. Most new programs, such as school lunches, were introduced cautiously through pilot programs. Despite ostensibly being a party of labour, the NDP froze wages and generally took the side of management in labour disputes, and a higher minimum wage was phased in relatively slowly. Labour code changes were generally incremental, though an update to labour standards on farms was extremely divisive in rural Alberta. However, Notley moved forwards with a carbon pricing scheme and plans for sustainability and energy transitions early in her term. Controversially such plans were framed around creating a social license for pursuing oil sand expansion, and she championed the creation of pipelines and partnered heavily with the oil industry. As a result plans to raise oil royalties were scrapped, and tax increases on corporations and higher income brackets were modest. Eventually this led to a schism between the NDP governments of Alberta and British Columbia over the twinning of the Transmountain Pipeline, which remained a contentious project in the Canadian political arena and particularly within the federal New Democratic Party. While the Alberta economy recovered from the depths of the energy recession by 2019, the oil industry remained relatively stagnant and economic growth had been nowhere near what Alberta had enjoyed in the previous decade.

Return to Opposition (2019–present)
The NDP was dealt a severe blow when the PCs and Wildrose merged to form the United Conservative Party, which immediately ascended to a large lead in opinion polling.

In the 2019 election, the NDP suffered a significant defeat to the UCP. Despite receiving more votes compared to the previous election, the NDP lost a majority of their seats, ending with only 24 seats. The party performed well in Edmonton but struggled in the rest of the province, winning only a few seats in Calgary, the Edmonton suburbs, and Lethbridge. This was the first time in Alberta's history that an incumbent government has been defeated after one term. Rachel Notley remained popular within the NDP and continued as the Leader of the Opposition, leading the largest opposition caucus in Alberta since 1993.

In the 2023 election, the NDP received a record high popular vote for the party with 44%, dominating Edmonton and gaining a significant portion of the vote in Calgary. However, their success was largely limited to urban areas as they only won one rural seat Banff-Kananaskis. With 38 MLAs, the party elected the largest official opposition in Alberta history.

On January 16, 2024, Notley announced she would be resigning as party leader effective the next leadership election, scheduled for June 22, 2024. Former Calgary mayor Naheed Nenshi emerged victorious, winning with 86% of the vote, the largest for any winner of a provincial leadership election of any major political party in Canada.

Party leaders

 * denotes acting or interim leader

title: Alberta New Democratic Party


text:
Distinguished Service Cross (United States)

The Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) is the United States Army's second highest military decoration for soldiers who display extraordinary heroism in combat with an armed enemy force. Actions that merit the Distinguished Service Cross must be of such a high degree that they are above those required for all other U.S. combat decorations, but which do not meet the criteria for the Medal of Honor. The Army Distinguished Service Cross is equivalent to the Naval Services' Navy Cross, the Air and Space Forces' Air Force Cross, and the Coast Guard Cross. Prior to the creation of the Air Force Cross in 1960, airmen were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

The Distinguished Service Cross was first awarded during World War I. In addition, a number of awards were bestowed for actions which took place before World War I. In many cases, the medal was awarded to soldiers who had received a Certificate of Merit for gallantry; at the time, this certificate was the only other honor for gallantry the Army could present to combatants in lieu of a Medal of Honor. Others were furnished in belated recognition of actions which occurred in the Philippine–American War, during the Boxer Rebellion, and Pancho Villa Expedition.

The Distinguished Service Cross is distinct from the Distinguished Service Medal, which is awarded to Army soldiers in recognition of exceptionally meritorious service to the government of the United States in a duty of great responsibility. The Distinguished Service Cross is only awarded for actions in combat, while the Distinguished Service Medal has no such restriction.

Description
A cross of bronze, 2 in high and 1+13/16 in wide with an eagle on the center and a scroll below the eagle bearing the inscription " FOR VALOR ". On the reverse side, the center of the cross is circled by a wreath with a space for engraving the name of the recipient.

Service ribbon
The service ribbon is 1+3/8 in wide and consists of the following stripes:
 * 1/8 in Old Glory Red 67156;
 * 1/16 in White 67101;
 * 1 in Imperial Blue 67175;
 * 1/16 in White;
 * 1/8 in Old Glory Red.

Criteria
The Distinguished Service Cross is awarded to a person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army (or in the Air Force, before 1960), distinguishes themselves by extraordinary heroism not justifying the award of a Medal of Honor; while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States; while engaged in military operations involving conflict with an opposing/foreign force; or while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in an armed conflict against an opposing armed force in which the United States is not a belligerent party. The act or acts of heroism must have been so notable and have involved risk of life so extraordinary as to set the individual apart from their comrades.

Components
The following are authorized components of the Distinguished Service Cross:
 * 1) Decoration (regular size): MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-269-5745 for decoration set. NSN 8455-00-246-3827 for individual replacement medal.
 * 2) Decoration (miniature size): MIL-D-3943/4. NSN 8455-00-996-50007.
 * 3) Ribbon: MIL-R-11589/50. NSN 8455-00-252-9919.
 * 4) Lapel Button (a colored enameled replica of service ribbon): MIL-L-11484/1. NSN 8455-00-253-0808.

Additional awards of the Army Distinguished Service Cross are denoted with oak leaf clusters.

Background
The Distinguished Service Cross was established by President Woodrow Wilson on January 2, 1918. General John J. Pershing, Commander-in-Chief of the Expeditionary Forces in France, had recommended that recognition other than the Medal of Honor be authorized for the United States Army for valorous service rendered in like manner to that awarded by the European Armies. The request for the establishment of the medal was forwarded from the Secretary of War to the President in a letter dated December 28, 1917. The Act of Congress establishing this award (193-65th Congress), dated July 9, 1918, is contained in. The establishment of the Distinguished Service Cross was promulgated in War Department General Order No. 6, dated January 12, 1918.

The first style of the Distinguished Service Cross was designed by Captain Aymar E. Embury II, Engineers Officer Reserve Corps, and World War I artist Lieutenant J. Andre Smith. The first medals were struck by the United States Mint from a sculpture by Gaetano Cecere, who went on to design the Soldier's Medal. It was decided that minor changes were needed to make the medal more attractive. In light of the urgency in supplying the decorations to General Pershing, the first one hundred medals were struck from the original design. They were sent on the understanding that replacements in the second design (also numbered from 1 to 100) would be provided once they were available. Embury made the modifications with the plaster model for the second (and current) version made by John R. Sinnock, who also sculpted various other medals, including the Purple Heart.

Army Regulation (AR) 670–1, governing the wear and appearance of army uniforms and insignia, and its associated guide specify that the Distinguished Service Cross appears second in the order of precedence of U.S. military decorations, preceded only by the Medal of Honor. Policy for awards, approving authority, supply, and issue of decorations is contained in AR 600-8-22. provides for a 10% increase in retired pay for enlisted personnel who have been awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and retired with more than 20 years of service.

World War I

During World War I, 6,309 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross were made to 6,185 recipients. Several dozen Army soldiers, as well as eight marines and two French Army officers, received two Distinguished Service Crosses.

A handful, mostly United States Army Air Service aviators, were decorated three or more times. Captain Eddie Rickenbacker, the top U.S. ace of the war, was awarded a record eight Distinguished Service Crosses, one of which was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, while flying with the 94th Aero Squadron. Fellow aviators Captain Douglas Campbell, also of the 94th, and First Lieutenant Frank O'Driscoll "Monk" Hunter of the 103rd Aero Squadron each received five. Another 94th aviator, Major Reed McKinley Chambers, was awarded four Distinguished Service Crosses. Three aviators received three Distinguished Service Crosses – First Lieutenant Murray K. Guthrie of the 13th Aero Squadron, First Lieutenant Ralph A. O'Neill of the 147th Aero Squadron, and Glen A. Preston, an aerial observation pilot with the 99th Aero Squadron. Among other prominent aviators were Brigadier General Billy Mitchell, the Chief of Air Service of the American Expeditionary Force; Second Lieutenant Frank Luke of the 27th Aero Squadron, who was honored with the Medal of Honor and two Distinguished Service Crosses; and Sumner Sewall of the 95th Aero Squadron, recipient of two Distinguished Service Crosses, who served as Governor of Maine from 1941 to 1945. Edward Peck Curtis, also of the 95th Aero Squadron received the Distinguished Service Cross as a first lieutenant.

Colonel John H. Parker, the commander of the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division, was the only ground soldier in World War I to receive four Distinguished Service Crosses. First Lieutenant Oscar B. Nelson of the 168th Infantry Regiment, 42nd Division, was honored three times, the third award being posthumous.

Several men who had previously received the Medal of Honor received the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I. Most notable of these was Marine Corps legend, Sergeant Major Daniel Daly, who was twice decorated with the Medal of Honor, and who received the Distinguished Service Cross for heroism as First Sergeant of the 73rd Company, Sixth Marine Regiment, during the Battle of Belleau Wood in June 1918. Colonel Charles E. Kilbourne, who received the Medal of Honor in the Philippine Insurrection, was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross as chief of staff of the 89th Division. First Lieutenant James B. McConnell, also decorated with the Medal of Honor for actions in the Philippines as a private with the 33rd Infantry, received the Distinguished Service Cross posthumously as a first lieutenant with the 4th Infantry Regiment, 3rd Division.

Marine Corps Colonel Hiram I. Bearss, recipient of the Medal of Honor in the Philippines, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross while attached to the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division. Marine Gunner Henry L. Hulbert, also a recipient of the Navy Medal of Honor in the Philippines, received the Distinguished Service Cross for bravery while serving with the 5th Marine Regiment during the Battle of Belleau Wood. Spanish–American War Medal of Honor recipient John H. Quick also received the Distinguished Service Cross at Belleau Wood as Sergeant Major of the Sixth Marine Regiment.

Besides Rickenbacker, several men received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I. Navy recipients were John Henry Balch, a U.S. Navy Pharmacist's Mate, and Joel T. Boone, a U.S. Navy Lieutenant (Medical Corps), both attached to the Sixth Marine Regiment. Army recipients were Private Daniel R. Edwards of the 3rd Machine-Gun Battalion, 1st Division, Colonel William J. "Wild Bill" Donovan of the 165th Infantry Regiment, 42nd Division, and Second Lieutenant Samuel I. Parker of the 28th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division.

Two recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I went on to earn the Medal of Honor in World War II – Major (later Brigadier General) Theodore Roosevelt Jr. of the 26th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division, son of the former president, and Brigadier General (later General of the Army) Douglas MacArthur of the 42nd Division. Other recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I who went on to acclaim in World War II include George S. Patton Jr. and Carl Spaatz.

Among other prominent recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross during World War I were Brigadier General John L. Hines, decorated as commanding general of the 1st Brigade, 1st Division, and Major General Charles Pelot Summerall, decorated as commanding general of the 1st Division, who both went on to serve as Chief of Staff of the United States Army. Private Sam Ervin of the 28th Infantry Regiment, 1st Division, went on to serve as a United States Senator from the state of North Carolina. Major Dwight F. Davis, decorated as Assistant Chief of Staff of the 69th Infantry Brigade, 35th Division, founded the Davis Cup international tennis competition and served as United States Secretary of War in the Coolidge Administration. Father John B. DeValles, chaplain (first lieutenant), known as the Angel of the Trenches for administering to the needs of both Allied and German soldiers. He founded the first Portuguese parochial school at the Espirito Santo Church in Fall River, Massachusetts. B. Caroll Reece, decorated as a First Lieutenant with the 102nd Infantry Regiment, 26th Division, went on to represent the state of Tennessee in the United States House of Representatives for a total of 17 terms. Twenty one African American soldiers from the 370th Infantry Regiment received the Distinguished Service Cross (DSC) for action in both the Meuse–Argonne and Oise–Aisne campaigns.

Between the World Wars
In the immediate aftermath of World War I, 62 awards were made for actions in North Russia and Siberia during the Russian Civil War. Also, approximately 132 retroactive awards were made for actions in previous conflicts, including the Indian Wars, the Spanish–American War, the Philippine Insurrection, the Boxer Rebellion, and the Mexican border conflicts. Fifteen soldiers previously awarded Certificates of Merit for non-combat gallantry between 1899 and 1917 were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross.

Prominent among post-World War I Distinguished Service Cross recipients for acts before that war was General J. Franklin Bell, Chief of Staff of the Army from 1906 to 1910. A recipient of the Medal of Honor during the Philippine Insurrection, in 1925 he was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in the Spanish–American War in 1898. In 1920, General Peyton C. March, then serving as Chief of Staff of the Army, was awarded a Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in the Philippines during the Spanish–American War when he was a 1st lieutenant. March's successor, General of the Armies John J. Pershing, received a Distinguished Service Cross in 1941 for bravery during the Philippine Insurrection. Second Lieutenant Gordon Johnston and Corporal Arthur M. Ferguson, both Medal of Honor recipients for the Philippine Insurrection, were also awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for other acts of bravery in the Philippines. Future Governor of American Samoa Otto Dowling received the cross for displaying bravery while responding to a fire at Lake Denmark Powder Depot, which he commanded at the time.

Among the recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross for Siberia and North Russia were Robert L. Eichelberger, who would earn a second medal in World War II, and Sidney C. Graves, who had previously received a Distinguished Service Cross in World War I.

World War II
During World War II, just over 5,000 awards were made. Army Air Forces Lieutenant Colonel John C. Meyer, Major General James A. Van Fleet, and Master Sergeant Llewellyn Chilson were three-time recipients. Jeannette Guyot and Virginia Hall were the only two women to receive the award.

A number of recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in earlier conflicts were again honored in World War II. Chester Hirschfelder, who as a captain with the 5th Machine Gun Battalion, 2nd Infantry Division, had received his first Distinguished Service Cross in 1918, received two more in 1944 as a colonel commanding the 9th Infantry Regiment of that same division. Three recipients of two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War I – Douglas MacArthur, Hanford MacNider and Harry H. Semmes – received their third in World War II. A handful of men who had received the Distinguished Service Cross in World War I received a second in World War II. Among these were George S. Patton Jr., whose second Distinguished Service Cross came as commanding general of the Seventh Army in Sicily, and Fred L. Walker, commander of the U.S. 36th Infantry Division in the breakout from Anzio and advance on Rome. Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was awarded for valor in Siberia in 1919, received a second for valor in New Guinea in the Buna campaign of 1942–43.

A little over fifty soldiers (and one sailor) received two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War II. The sailor was John D. Bulkeley, who also received the Medal of Honor and the Navy Cross and was one of the most highly decorated Americans of World War II. Among Army recipients of two Distinguished Service Crosses were Creighton W. Abrams Jr., later the Chief of Staff of the Army, William O. Darby, one of the fathers of the U.S. Army Rangers, and Robert T. Frederick, commander of the U.S-Canadian 1st Special Service Force. Six men of the 82nd Airborne Division received two Distinguished Service Crosses: Charles Billingslea, James M. Gavin, Arthur F. Gorham, Matthew B. Ridgway, Reuben Henry Tucker III and Benjamin H. Vandervoort. Several fighter pilots also received two Distinguished Service Crosses, including Donald Blakeslee, Paul P. Douglas Jr., William E. Dyess, Dominic "Don" Gentile, Gerald R. Johnson, Charles "Mac" MacDonald, James B. Morehead, Jay T. "Cock" Robbins, David C. Schilling, Jesús A. Villamor, William T. Whisner Jr. and Ray S. Wetmore. Bomber pilot Richard H. Carmichael also received two Distinguished Service Crosses.

The commander of Easy Company of the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment, U.S. 101st Airborne Division, Richard Winters, received a Distinguished Service Cross for his role in the assault on Brecourt Manor on D-Day; a member of the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment, U.S. 101st Airborne Division, Harrison C. Summers received a Distinguished Service Cross for his role on the assault to capture a building complex nearby designated "WXYZ" on the field order map.

During World War II, twelve soldiers, three airmen, and two sailors received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross: from the Army, Bernard P. Bell, Maurice L. "Footsie" Britt, Herbert H. Burr, Leonard A. Funk, Gerry H. Kisters, James M. Logan, George L. Mabry Jr., Douglas MacArthur, Audie L. Murphy, Junior J. Spurrier, Jack L. Treadwell and Jonathan M. Wainwright; from the Army Air Forces, Richard I. Bong, Horace S. Carswell Jr. and Thomas B. McGuire Jr.; and from the Navy, John D. Bulkeley and Samuel D. Dealey (who also received four Navy Crosses). One World War II Distinguished Service Cross recipient, Raymond Harvey, would earn the Medal of Honor in the Korean War.

General Paul W. Tibbets, commander of the 509th Composite Group (509 CG), was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross by General Spaatz for piloting the Enola Gay, the B-29 Superfortress plane which dropped the first nuclear bomb on Hiroshima.

Korean War
In the Korean War, there were just over 800 awards, of which over 300 were posthumous.

Robert R. Martin, colonel with the 24th Infantry Division was a first recipient in the Korean war.

Lloyd L. "Scooter" Burke, a lieutenant with the 1st Cavalry Division, Benjamin F. Wilson, a master sergeant with the 7th Infantry Division, Lewis Millett, a captain with the 27th Infantry Regiment and Air Force fighter ace George A. Davis Jr., each earned both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross in Korea.

Colonel Arthur Champeny, previously decorated for bravery at Saint-Mihiel in September 1918 and a second time at Santa Maria Infante, Italy in May 1944, received a third Distinguished Service Cross in September 1950. Fighter pilot William T. Whisner, recipient of two Distinguished Service Crosses in World War II, was awarded a third in Korea.

Ten World War II recipients received a second Distinguished Service Cross in Korea. Among these were John T. Corley, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in North Africa in March 1943 with the 1st Infantry Division and whose second was earned in August 1950 with the 25th Infantry Division, Hobart R. Gay, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in 1944 as Chief of Staff of George S. Patton's Third Army and whose second was earned in 1950 as commanding general of the 1st Cavalry Division, and Walton Walker, whose first Distinguished Service Cross was earned in 1944 as commanding general of XX Corps and whose second was earned in 1950 as commanding general of Eighth Army. Nine men received two Distinguished Service Crosses in Korea. Among these was Edward Almond, the commanding general of X Corps.

Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipient First Lieutenant Richard E. Cavazos would earn a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam and rise to full general, becoming the first Hispanic-American four-star general. Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipient Ralph Puckett Jr. would also receive a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam in command of a battalion of the 101st Airborne Division. Thomas Tackaberry would earn a Distinguished Service Cross in 1952 as a company commander and two more in Vietnam. U.S. Air Force ace Ralph Parr earned a Distinguished Service Cross in 1953 in Korea and an Air Force Cross in Vietnam.

Three marines earned both the Navy Cross and the Army Distinguished Service Cross in Korea: Homer Litzenberg, Raymond Murray, and Marine Corps legend Lewis B. "Chesty" Puller. "Chesty" Puller had previously earned four Navy Crosses in Nicaragua and World War II, while Murray was awarded the Army Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in the 1st Marine Division's historic breakout from the Chosin Reservoir area to the sea at Hamhung, and two days later took part in the action which earned him his second Navy Cross. Murray had earned his first Navy Cross on Saipan during World War II.

Other notable Korean War recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross include Harold K. Johnson, later Chief of Staff of the Army, and Herbert B. Powell, later Ambassador to New Zealand (1963–67). Along with Gen. Johnson, at least five other Korean War Distinguished Service Cross recipients later rose to four-star rank: Paul L. Freeman Jr., Clark L. Ruffner (decorated in 1951 as commander of the 2nd Infantry Division), John L. Throckmorton and John H. "Iron Mike" Michaelis (who had commanded the 502nd Parachute Infantry Regiment in Normandy). Welborn G. Dolvin, decorated as a lieutenant colonel with the 25th Infantry Division, rose to lieutenant general. MG Ned D. Moore, who earned a Distinguished Service Cross as a colonel in August 1950, had previously served as Chief of Staff of the 101st Airborne Division in the Battle of the Bulge and later rose to major general. Olinto M. Barsanti went on to command the 101st Airborne in Vietnam. Guy S. Meloy went on to command the 82nd Airborne. 1st Lt. Joseph G. Clemons Jr. for his actions during the Pork Chop Hill, he would later command the 198th Infantry Brigade in the Vietnam War and Master Sergeant Juan E. Negrón on 1951, from 65th Infantry Regiment (United States), upgraded to Medal of Honor on 2014 by President Barack Obama

Among the 14 foreign recipients of the Distinguished Service Cross in the Korean War was Sinasi Sukan (Şinasi Sükan), a captain with 3rd Brigade Turkish Army who has lost his leg during Vegas War, Kenneth Muir, a major with the 1st Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders, British Army, who also posthumously received the Victoria Cross. Other foreign recipients came from the Belgian, British, French, Greek, Philippine, South Korean and Turkish armies. Soldiers serving with the Greek Expeditionary Force received 6 Distinguished Service Crosses in total during the Korean War.

Vietnam War
There were just over 1,000 awards in the Vietnam War, almost 400 of which were posthumous.

Patrick Brady, a helicopter pilot with the 44th Medical Brigade, and Robert L. Howard, a Special Forces NCO, received both the Medal of Honor and the Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam. Major General Keith L. Ware, who had earned the Medal of Honor in World War II and who was killed in action in September 1968, received a posthumous Distinguished Service Cross.

James F. Hollingsworth, who received a Distinguished Service Cross in April 1945 as commander of 2nd Battalion, 67th Armored Regiment, received a second award in November 1966 as assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division, and a third in March 1967 as acting division commander of the 1st Infantry Division. He was the subject of the narrative "The General Goes Zapping Charlie Cong". Thomas H. Tackaberry, who received his first Distinguished Service Cross in Korea, received a second in September 1966 as a battalion commander with the 1st Cavalry Division and a third in September 1969 as commander of the 196th Infantry Brigade, Americal Division. Both later rose to lieutenant general.

One World War II recipient, William E. DePuy, and two Korean War recipients, Richard E. Cavazos and Ralph Puckett Jr., received a second Distinguished Service Cross in Vietnam. Both DePuy and Cavazos would later rise to full general.

Besides Hollingsworth and Tackaberry, eleven other soldiers earned two Distinguished Service Crosses in Vietnam. Two, John R. Deane Jr. and Barry R. McCaffrey, later rose to full general, and a third, Henry E. Emerson, retired as a lieutenant general. McCaffrey also served as Director of the Office of National Drug Control Policy during the Clinton Administration. Colonel David H. Hackworth, who also received ten Silver Stars in Korea and Vietnam, later rose to prominence as a military affairs journalist. George S. Patton IV, son of a two-time Distinguished Service Cross recipient, received two Distinguished Service Crosses in 1968 as commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment. Sergeant Adelbert Waldron III, twice awarded the Distinguished Service Cross in 1969 as a sniper with the 9th Infantry Division, is credited with 109 confirmed kills, the most among U.S. snipers. Dennis Tomcik, a first lieutenant with the 47th Infantry Regiment, was twice awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for two separate actions in 1968 in the Kien Hoa Province.

Among other notable Vietnam War Distinguished Service Cross recipients were several who later rose to full general. Among these, besides DePuy and Cavazos, were Paul F. Gorman, who later commanded the U.S. Southern Command; Robert C. Kingston, the first commander-in-chief of U.S. Central Command; James J. Lindsay, who later commanded the U.S. Special Operations Command; Timothy J. Grogan, who later served as the deputy chief of staff for doctrine at the Army's Training and Doctrine Command at Fort Monroe; and Louis C. Menetrey, who wore three hats as Commander, United Nations Command, R.O.K./U.S. Combined Forces Command and U.S. Forces Korea. John W. Vessey Jr., decorated for valor during Operation Junction City in March 1967, rose to become Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, retiring in 1985. Frederick C. Weyand was decorated in 1967 as commanding general of the 25th Infantry Division. He would serve as Chief of Staff of the Army from 1974 to 1976. Bernard W. Rogers, decorated in March 1967 as assistant division commander of the 1st Infantry Division, succeeded General Weyand as Chief of Staff of the Army and subsequently became NATO's Supreme Allied Commander, Europe (SACEUR). Alexander M. Haig Jr., also decorated in March 1967 as a battalion commander in the 1st Infantry Division, preceded General Rogers as SACEUR, and became Secretary of State in the Reagan Administration. Former West Point football All-American, then Captain Bill Carpenter, "The Lonesome End", received the award in 1966, and would go on to retire as a major general.

First Lieutenant Norman A. Mordue received the Distinguished Service Cross for valor in May 1967 while serving with the 1st Cavalry Division. He was appointed to the U.S. federal bench in 1998 and in 2006 became the Chief Judge of the U.S. District Court for the Northern District of New York. Eldon Bargewell, decorated in 1971 as a staff sergeant with MACV-SOG, was later commissioned and as of early 2006 was a major general on the staff of Multi-National Force Iraq and the only Vietnam-era DSC recipient still on active duty. David Christian, described as the "Youngest Most Decorated Officer of the Vietnam War", received the Distinguished Service Cross recipient while leading a long range reconnaissance patrol of the 1st Infantry Division, and later became a prominent advocate for veterans.

Among Distinguished Service Cross recipients for valor in the early battles in Vietnam were four members of the 1st Cavalry Division decorated for valor in the Battle of Ia Drang Valley in November 1965 – Lt. Col. Hal Moore who later became a Lieutenant General, Major Bruce Crandall, and two other members of their unit. The actions of all four were later portrayed in the film "We Were Soldiers", based on Hal Moore's book on the battle. Crandall's Distinguished Service Cross was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him in February 2007.

Six Distinguished Service Crosses were awarded to Son Tay raiders, participants in the November 1970 attempt to rescue U.S. POWs in North Vietnam. Among the recipients were Special Forces soldiers Richard J. "Dick" Meadows and Arthur D. "Bull" Simons.

1975 to present
After the Vietnam War, the Distinguished Service Cross has been awarded multiple times. , it has been awarded 16 times for actions during Operation Enduring Freedom – Afghanistan. , the Distinguished Service Cross has been awarded 13 times for actions during Operation Iraqi Freedom. Master Sergeant David R. Halbruner was awarded the medal for his actions during the 2012 Benghazi attack; there has also been only one award for actions during the 2015 Bamako hotel attack.

Operation Enduring Freedom

Major Mark E. Mitchell, 3rd Battalion, 5th Special Forces Group, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his leading his team against a numerically superior enemy force to free an American held captive at Qala-i-Jang Fortress, Mazar-e Sharif, Afghanistan between 25 and 28 November 2001. MSgt Brendan W. O'Connor, 2nd Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross after he removed his body armor to reach to a pair of wounded teammates and render medical aid to them, while under fire, on 24 June 2006.

Operation Iraqi Freedom
Colonel James H. Coffman Jr., 1st Iraqi Special Police Commando Brigade, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for defending a police station in Mosul from an insurgent attack on 14 November 2004.

Notable recipients
Note that the inclusion of one, or more, Oak Leaf Clusters signifies each additional Distinguished Service Cross awarded to that recipient.

Revocation
In a number of cases, an award of the Distinguished Service Cross has later been revoked. In most cases, this has been for one of three reasons: the award was upgraded to the Medal of Honor, duplicate awards had been made to the same recipient for the same action by two different headquarters, or the award had been revoked to allow republication with a new and revised award citation. Such revocations have occurred over the history of the decoration.

One of the earliest such cases involves one of the most famous American soldiers of World War I, Alvin York, who initially received a Distinguished Service Cross which was upgraded to the Medal of Honor. And as noted above under "Notable Recipients", top American World War I ace pilot Eddie Rickenbacker originally received eight DSCs, but one was upgraded in 1930 to the Medal of Honor. In 1980, MSG Roy P. Benavidez, a U.S. Army Special Forces veteran, had his Vietnam-era DSC upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented to him by President Reagan at a Pentagon ceremony on February 24, 1981.

A number of DSC revocations and upgrades to the Medal of Honor were the result of reviews initiated by the Army or mandated by the United States Congress. In the early 1990s the Army began a review of discrimination against black soldiers in World War II, none of whom had received the Medal of Honor but several of whom had received lesser awards. Later, the Department of Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1996 provided for a "Review Regarding Upgrading of Distinguished-Service Crosses and Navy Crosses Awarded to Asian-Americans and Native American Pacific Islanders for World War II Service" and the National Defense Authorization Act for 2002 provided for a "Review Regarding Award of Medal of Honor to Certain Jewish American and Hispanic American War Veterans". There is currently a petition circulating to upgrade the Distinguished Service Cross of Major Richard Winters to a Medal of Honor.

In January 1997, as a result of its review, the Army revoked six awards of the Distinguished Service Cross to black soldiers and upgraded them to the Medal of Honor. These were to Vernon Baker, Edward A. Carter Jr., John R. Fox, Willy F. James Jr., Charles L. Thomas and George Watson. In 2001, the Army officially revoked 21 awards of the Distinguished Service Cross and one of the Silver Star to Asian-American soldiers, mostly Japanese-American, whose awards were upgraded to the Medal of Honor. Among those whose DSC was upgraded was U.S. Senator Daniel Inouye. Others include Francis B. Wai and Rudolph B. Davila.

Jon E. Swanson, posthumously awarded a DSC in 1972, had this revoked in November 2005 (Department of the Army General Order No. 9 of 2005), after his DSC was upgraded to the Medal of Honor in December 2002 (Department of the Army General Order No. 14 of 2002). Another Vietnam War helicopter pilot, Bruce P. Crandall, was awarded the DSC in June 2001 (General Order No. 25 of 2001). This award was rescinded in November 2005 when a new citation was issued (General Order No. 9 of 2005), but the DSC itself was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor, which was presented in February 2007 (the DSC was revoked in General Order No. 3 of 2007).


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Tomás Mac Giolla

Tomás Mac Giolla (born Thomas Gill; 25 January 1924 – 4 February 2010) was an Irish Workers' Party politician who served as Lord Mayor of Dublin from 1993 to 1994, Leader of the Workers' Party from 1962 to 1988 and President of Sinn Féin from 1962 to 1970. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) for the Dublin West constituency from 1982 to 1992.

Early life
He was born Thomas Gill in Nenagh, County Tipperary. His uncle T. P. Gill was a Member of Parliament (MP) and member of the Irish Parliamentary Party of Charles Stewart Parnell. Tomás's father Robert Paul Gill, an engineer and architect, also stood unsuccessfully for election on a number of occasions. His mother was Mary Hourigan.

Mac Giolla was educated at the local national school in Nenagh before completing his secondary education at St. Flannan's College, Ennis, County Clare. While at St. Flannan's, he changed to using the Irish language version of his name. He won a scholarship to University College Dublin where he qualified with a Bachelor of Arts degree, followed by a degree in Commerce.

A qualified Accountant, Mac Giolla was employed by the Irish Electricity Supply Board (ESB) from 1947 until he went into full-time politics in 1977.

In his early life Mac Giolla was an active republican. He joined Sinn Féin and the Irish Republican Army (IRA) around 1950. He was interned by the government of Ireland during the 1956–62 IRA border campaign. He also served a number of prison sentences in Mountjoy Prison, Dublin.

In 1961, he married May McLoughlin who was also an active member of Sinn Féin as well as of Cumann na mBan, the women's section of the IRA. She died on 24 March 2018.

Political career
At the 1961 general election, Mac Giolla unsuccessfully contested the Tipperary North constituency for Sinn Féin.

In 1962, he became president of Sinn Féin, and was part of the leadership that moved the party to the left during the 1960s. In 1970, Sinn Féin split and Mac Giolla remained leader of Official Sinn Féin, with a faction led by Ruairí Ó Brádaigh initially known as Provisional Sinn Féin.

In 1969 he attended and spoke at a march in opposition to the Vietnam War in Dublin.

In 1977, the party changed its name to Sinn Féin the Workers Party and in 1982 it became simply the Workers' Party.

Mac Giolla was elected to Dublin City Council representing the Ballyfermot local electoral area in 1979 and at every subsequent local election until he retired from the council in 1997. In the November 1982 general election Mac Giolla was elected to Dáil Éireann for his party. In 1988, he stepped down as party leader and was succeeded by Proinsias De Rossa. He served as Lord Mayor of Dublin from 1993 to 1994, the first Workers' Party councillor to serve as Lord Mayor, and remained a member of Dublin Corporation until 1998.

While president he was regarded as a mediator between the Marxist–Leninist wing headed by Seán Garland and the social democratic wing of Proinsias De Rossa. At the 1992 special Ardfheis he voted for the motion to abandon democratic centralism and to re-constitute the party much as the Italian Communist Party became the Democratic Party of the Left. However the motion failed to reach the required two-thirds majority and after the departure of six Workers' Party TDs led by De Rossa to form the new Democratic Left party in 1992, Mac Giolla was the sole member of the Workers' Party in the Dáil. He lost his Dáil seat at the general election later that year by a margin of just 59 votes to Liam Lawlor of Fianna Fáil. In 1999, Mac Giolla wrote to the chairman of the Flood Tribunal calling for an investigation into revelations that former Dublin Assistant City and County Manager George Redmond had been the official supervisor at the election count in Dublin West and was a close associate of Liam Lawlor. In 2003, Redmond was convicted of corruption by a Dublin court but subsequently had his conviction quashed due to conflicting evidence.

In his eighties Mac Giolla continued to be active and was a member of the group which campaigned to prevent the demolition of No. 16 Moore Street in Dublin city centre, where the surrender after the Easter Rising was completed. He also served on the Dublin '98 committee to commemorate the 200th anniversary of the 1798 Rebellion.

He died in Beaumont Hospital in Dublin on 4 February 2010 after a long illness.

Publications

 * The Great Irish Oil & Gas Robbery  (1974). ISBN 0-8606-4006-X.

title: Tomás Mac Giolla


text:
Talk:Goeldi's marmoset

Wiki Education assignment: GEOG 479 Primate Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation
— Assignment last updated by Rosalie Castillo (talk) 22:29, 31 October 2022 (UTC)

Editing Article
Hello! I will be editing this article to add more information about Callimicos' habitat, diet, socialization, among others. -Rosalie Castillo (talk) 05:53, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

Adding a section
I will expand on an existing paragraph and I will provide a name to it (taxonomy). I would also like to ask for the reference of this paragraph that I'm planning to expand on: "Goeldi's marmoset was first described in 1904, making Callimico one of the more recent monkey genera to be described. In older classification schemes it was sometimes placed in its own family Callimiconidae and sometimes, along with the marmosets and tamarins, in the subfamily Callitrichinae in the family Cebidae. More recently, Callitrichinae has been (re-)elevated to family status as Callitrichidae." Rosalie Castillo (talk) 16:04, 28 November 2022 (UTC)

 * The MSW3 reference can be used for some of that. For Callitrichidae being the current family name (as opposed to being a subfamily) Rylands and IUCN references on that page will work (Rylands would be a primary or secondary source, IUCN would definitely be a secondary source), or you can look at the references on the Callitrichidae article. I'm not sure how far back one would have to go for the Callimiconidae reference, so you should check the references on the family page or do a Google Scholar search. - UtherSRG (talk) 16:58, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I've added ref marks to the paragraph in the article. - UtherSRG (talk) 17:02, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Thank you for adding the references. I found a source that could be used for the part it says citation needed, but it was given a reference number 6. I do not know how to change the numbers given to the citations for all of them to look in the right order. Could you please explain it to me or fix it. Thank you very much! Rosalie Castillo (talk) 21:58, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Tag numbers are automatic. First one in the article is 1, second one is 2, etc. - UtherSRG (talk) 22:24, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Thank you for letting me know and for responding so quickly. It is very appreciated. I would also like to communicate that I mostly will expand on the information already published and add some headings. Rosalie Castillo (talk) 02:25, 29 November 2022 (UTC)

Looking for references
Good morning! Could you please provide a reference for this data: "Females reach sexual maturity at 8.5 months, males at 16.5 months. The gestation period lasts from 140 to 180 days." I found a peer reviewed paper that gives 149 to 156 days for the gestation period (very close to the one given here) and 57 weeks, which is about 13 months for the sexual maturity (without distinction of male of female sexual maturity). I think making a gender difference for the sexual maturity is very interesting but I cannot found the reference for that information. Could you please provide the sources for it.

Similarly, where do I find the statement about "Females outnumber males by 2 to 1". The reference number 6 given for that statement has no page and I tried to look for that in the book referred and I cannot find it. From what I read their group composition is very varied in terms of sex and number. I am planning to add a social system section that talks about it.

Finally, where can I find that "The life expectancy in captivity is about 10 years." I found in a peer reviewed article that their life span in captivity is 5.5 years. I know life expectancy and lifespan are not necessarily the same but as I was trying to find the source for information about the 10 years I came across the life span. Rosalie Castillo (talk) 10:31, 30 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Did you check the existing references on this page to see if any of them fit what you are looking for? That's where I'd start my search if I had the time today. - UtherSRG (talk) 12:54, 30 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Good morning. Yes, I did check on the references on this page and I could not find them. That is why I wanted to know if I missed something because I cannot find this information. I might use the references I found for this information but I will try by all means to keep the original text with only minor edits but adding more information to it. Rosalie Castillo (talk) 16:07, 30 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Goeldi's marmoset


text:
Síle de Valera

Síle de Valera (born 17 December 1954) is an Irish former Fianna Fáil politician who served as a Minister of State from 2002 to 2006 and as Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands from 1997 to 2002. She served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1977 to 1981 and from 1987 to 2007. She was a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) for the Dublin constituency from 1979 to 1984.

Early and personal life
Síle de Valera was born in 1954, in Dublin, Ireland to Terence de Valera (1922–2007), the youngest child of Éamon de Valera, and his wife Phyllis Blake (1920–2002). She has a younger sister. She was educated at Loreto College, Foxrock and at University College Dublin, where she qualified as a career guidance teacher. De Valera's grandfather, Éamon de Valera, was the founder of Fianna Fáil, a Taoiseach and the third President of Ireland. She is a niece of Vivion de Valera, a former TD, and is a first cousin of Éamon Ó Cuív, a TD who succeeded her as a minister.

Political career
De Valera was first elected to Dáil Éireann in the Fianna Fáil landslide victory at the 1977 general election. She was elected for the Dublin County Mid constituency, which included the Tallaght area of County Dublin, being the youngest TD elected at that election. In June 1979, she was elected to the European Parliament for a five-year term. Later that year she was one of the Fianna Fáil TDs who criticised the policies of Taoiseach Jack Lynch in relation to Northern Ireland, and was a prominent supporter of Charles Haughey, who succeeded him as Taoiseach in December 1979. She was highly critical of Margaret Thatcher and the British Government, and became a noted supporter of the Anti H-Block movement. She called on nationalists to vote for Bobby Sands in the 1981 by-election, which he won. She also controversially called on Fianna Fáil voters to give preference votes for Anti H-Block candidates in the 1981 general election.

She held her Dáil seat until the 1981 general election, when the constituency boundaries were redrawn. She sought re-election in the new constituency of Dublin South. This caused tension within the local Fianna Fáil party, for one of the other candidates, Séamus Brennan, was a prominent opponent of Haughey. De Valera narrowly failed to be elected, losing to another Fianna Fáil candidate, Niall Andrews. She contested the constituency again at the February 1982 general election, but saw her vote drop, and once again failed to be elected.

At the November 1982 general election she sought election to the Clare constituency, where one of the sitting TDs, Bill Loughnane—a fellow supporter of Haughey—had died. Clare was the constituency her grandfather Éamon de Valera had represented from 1917 to 1959. Again, she narrowly failed to be elected, but remained living in the constituency, and at the 1987 general election she was elected a TD for Clare. She was re-elected there at every election until her retirement in 2007.

De Valera resigned briefly from Fianna Fáil in 1993, due to the removal of the 'stopover' at Shannon Airport. She was persuaded to rejoin the party in 1994 by its new leader, Bertie Ahern; he then appointed her to the opposition front bench. In 1997, she was appointed as Minister for Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands. She introduced broadcasting legislation in 1999 to ensure that the public could continue to watch the most important sporting events on ordinary television. A speech given by de Valera in Boston about her fear of closer EU integration stimulated a debate on whether Ireland's economic and social values were closer to those of the USA or the EU, "Boston or Berlin". She lost her place in the cabinet in 2002, but was appointed as Minister of State at the Department of Education and Science, with special responsibility for Adult Education, Youth Affairs and Educational Disadvantage.

On 11 November 2005, she announced her intention to retire at the following election. She resigned as Minister of State on 8 December 2006, and was succeeded by a member of another Irish political family, Seán Haughey.

title: Síle de Valera