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Aga Khan IV

Shah Karim al-Husayni (شاه كريم الحسيني; born 13 December 1936), known as Aga Khan IV, is the 49th and current imam of Nizari Isma'ilis. He has held the position of Imam and the title of Aga Khan since 11 July 1957 when, at the age of 20, he succeeded his grandfather, Aga Khan III. The Aga Khan claims direct lineal descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, Ali, who is considered an Imam by Nizari Isma'ilis, and Ali's wife Fatima, Muhammad's daughter from his first marriage. Aga Khan IV is also known by the religious title Mawlānā Hazar Imam by his Isma'ili followers.

Ismailis gave Ali and their Imams a near-divine status. His grandfather, Aga Khan III, states in his memoirs that the Shias had a "need (for) Divine guidance" after the Prophet of Islam's death, this need being fulfilled by the Imamate. According to the Aga Khan III as mentioned in his memoirs, he has actual "Divine power, guidance, and leadership (authority)." The Institution of Imamate has continued to present day with the Aga Khan IV as the 49th Imam of the Ismaili Community. The Aga Khan is a business magnate with British and Portuguese citizenship,  as well as a racehorse owner and breeder.

Aga Khan's net worth has been estimated over $13.3 billion. Forbes describes the Aga Khan as one of the world's fifteen richest royals. He is the founder and chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network, one of the largest private development networks in the world.

Since his ascension to the Imamate of the Nizari Ismailis in 1957, the Aga Khan has been involved in complex political and economic changes which have affected his followers, including the independence of African countries from colonial rule, the expulsion of Asians from Uganda, the independence of Central Asian countries such as Tajikistan from the former Soviet Union and the continuous turmoil in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Aga Khan IV became the first faith leader to address the Joint Session of the Parliament of Canada on 27 February 2014.

Early life and education
The Aga Khan IV is the eldest son of Prince Aly Khan (1911–1960), and his first wife, Princess Taj-ud-dawlah Aga Khan, formerly Joan Yarde-Buller (1908–1997), the eldest daughter of the British peer John Yarde-Buller, 3rd Baron Churston.

Born in Geneva, Switzerland, on 13 December 1936, Prince Karim was declared healthy despite being born prematurely. His brother, Amyn Aga Khan, was born less than a year later. In 1949, his parents divorced in part due to Prince Aly Khan's extramarital affairs, and shortly after, Prince Aly Khan married American actress Rita Hayworth – with whom he had a daughter, Princess Yasmin Aga Khan, the half-sister of Aga Khan IV.

The Aga Khan IV also had a half-brother, Patrick Benjamin Guinness (1931–1965), from his mother's first marriage, as Joan Yarde-Buller was previously married to Loel Guinness of the banking Guinnesses.

Prince Karim spent his childhood in Nairobi, Kenya, where his early education was by private tutoring. Prince Karim later attended the Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland, the most expensive boarding school in the world, for nine years where he ended up with, in his words, "fair grades". Prince Karim was admitted to MIT and wanted to study science, but his grandfather, Aga Khan III, vetoed the decision and Prince Karim attended Harvard University, where he was elected a member of The Delphic Club and majored in Islamic history.

When his grandfather died, the young Prince was thrust into the position of the Aga Khan (IV). A university student who was known to be humble by peers became the new Nizari Imam. He said about it: "Overnight, my whole life changed completely. I woke up with serious responsibilities toward millions of other human beings. I knew I would have to abandon my hopes of studying for a doctorate in History". He graduated from Harvard University in 1959, two years after becoming the Imam of the Nizari Ismailis, with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History (with Cum Laude honours) and his varsity H for the Harvard Crimson men's soccer team.

The young Aga Khan was a competitive downhill skier, and skied for Iran in the 1964 Winter Olympics.

Ismaili Constitution
Aga Khan IV enacted the Ismaili Constitution in Lisbon on 13 July 1998. Aga Khan IV commonly refers to himself as the Spiritual Father of the Ismailis.

Although Aga Khan IV encourages his spiritual children to question in order to learn and understand their beliefs, values, and principles, as a formal policy he retains "the sole authority to determine all questions that arise regarding the meaning of their religion" - Ismaili Constitution Article One.

Ascension to Nizari Ismaili Imamat
Following the death of his grandfather the Aga Khan III, Prince Karim, at the age of 20, became the 49th Imam of the Nizari Ismailis and Aga Khan IV, bypassing his father, Prince Aly Khan, and his uncle, Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan, who were in direct line to succession. In his will, the Aga Khan III explained the rationale for choosing his eldest grandson as his successor (which marked the second time in the history of the Nizari Ismaili chain of Imamat that a grandson of the preceding Imam – instead of one of the sons of the preceding Imam – was made the next Imam):

"In view of the fundamentally altered conditions in the world has provoked many changes, including the discoveries of atomic science, I am convinced that it is in the best interests of the Nizari Ismaili community that I should be succeeded by a young man who has been brought up and developed during recent years and in the midst of the new age, and who brings a new outlook on life to his office."

In light of his grandfather's will, the Aga Khan IV has sometimes been referred to by Nizari Ismailis as the "Imam of the Atomic Age". The will of the Aga Khan III added that the next Aga Khan, in the first several years of his Imamat, should look to the Aga Khan III's widow for guidance on general matters pertaining to the Imamat:

"I DESIRE that my successor shall, during the first seven years of his Imamat, be guided on questions of general Imamat Policy, by my said wife, Yvette called Yve Blanche Labrousse Om Habibeh, the BEGUM AGA KHAN, who has been familiar for many years with the problems facing my followers, and in whose wise judgment, I place the greatest confidence."

Nizari Ismaili Imamat
Upon taking the position of Imam, the Aga Khan IV stated that he intended to continue the work his grandfather had pursued in building modern institutions to improve the quality of life of the Nizari Ismailis. Takht nashini (installation of the new Imam) ceremonies occurred at several locations over the course of 1957 and 1958. During this time, the Aga Khan emphasized to his followers the importance of fostering positive relations with different ethnicities – a message highly appropriate considering the racially tense atmosphere in East Africa at the time between blacks and South Asians. During the Aga Khan's installation ceremonies in the Indian subcontinent, the Aga Khan stressed his commitment to improving the standard of living of Nizari Ismailis and encouraged co-operation with individuals of other religions.

In 1972, under the regime of President Idi Amin of Uganda, people of South Asian origin, including Nizari Ismailis, were expelled. The South Asians, some of whose families had lived in Uganda for over 100 years, were given 90 days to leave the country. The Aga Khan phoned his long-time friend Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau. Trudeau's government agreed to allow thousands of Nizari Ismailis to immigrate to Canada. The Aga Khan also undertook urgent steps to facilitate the resettlement of Nizari Ismailis displaced from Uganda, Tanzania, Kenya, and Burma, to other countries. Most of these Nizari Ismailis found new homes in Asia, Europe and North America. Most of the initial resettlement problems were overcome rapidly by Nizari Ismailis due to their educational backgrounds and high rates of literacy, as well as the efforts of the Aga Khan and the host countries, and with support from Nizari Ismaili community programs.

The Aga Khan has encouraged Nizari Ismailis settled in the industrialised world to contribute towards the progress of communities in the developing world through various development programs. He has described his role as Imam as being partly to uplift the material and spiritual wellbeing of Nizari Ismailis – a duty which requires an understanding of Nizari Ismailis in the context of their geographic location and their time. He elaborated on this concept in a 2006 speech in Germany, saying "The role and responsibility of an Imam, therefore, is both to interpret the faith to the community, and also to do all within his means to improve the quality, and security, of their daily lives and the people with whom Ismailis share their lives." This engagement of the Aga Khan with Nizari Ismailis is said to extend to the people with whom the Nizari Ismailis share their lives, locally and internationally.

The Aga Khan is one of several Shia signatories of the Amman Message which gives a broad foundation for defining those denominations of Islam that should be considered as part of the wider Muslim Ummah.

During the Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy, he said:

"I have two reactions to the pope's lecture: There is my concern about the degradation of relations and, at the same time, I see an opportunity. A chance to talk about a serious, important issue: the relationship between religion and logic."

When the Aga Khan IV was asked about his view on the consumption of alcohol in a 1965 interview with The Sunday Times, he said, in line with Muslim teaching:

"Our belief is that the thing which separates man from the animals is his power of thought. Anything that impedes this process is wrong. Therefore, alcohol is forbidden. I have never touched alcohol. But this, to me, is not a puritan prohibition. I don't want to drink. I've never wanted to drink. There's no pressure being placed on me by my religion."

The Status of the Imam in Nizari Ismailism
The Ismailis are a community of Shi'ism, and their theology is derived from the teachings of the Shi'i Imams – 'Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad al-Baqir and Ja'far al-Sadiq. According to early Shi'i Ismaili theology, God or Allah is absolutely transcendent and unique. Unlike Sunni theology where God's Essence is conjoined to eternal attributes, the early Shi'i Imams emphasized a theology according to which God's Essence is beyond all names and attributes. The first creation of God is a spiritual entity (Ruhani) or light (nur) called the Intellect ('Aql), the Light of Muhammad (nur Muhammad) or the Light of Ali. This cosmic Intellect or Light exists prior to the creation of the physical world and is the highest of created beings is identified with the Eternal Imam or the spiritual essence of the Prophet Muhammad and the Shi'i Imams. The historical Imams on earth are the locus of manifestation (mazhar) of the Light (nur) or Intellect (aql). Ismaili philosophers developed these ideas further using Neoplatonic frameworks and identified the Intellect ('Aql) or Light of the Imam with the Universal Intellect (Nous) of Plotinus. Similarly, the Imam's human soul – revered as pure based on Qur'an 33:33 – is regarded as the reflective mirror of the Universal Intellect.

The 1975 Ismailia Association Conference – a meeting of the Aga Khan with senior Nizari Ismaili council leaders from several countries – addressed the question of the status of the Imam. It mentioned:

"The Imam to be explained as the 'mazhar' ["locus of manifestation"] of God, and the relationship between God and the Imam to be related to varying levels of inspiration and communication from God to man." Paris Conference Report

The term mazhar is also used in Sufi literature by Ibn 'Arabi ("Bezels of Wisdom"), Nasir al-Din al-Tusi ("Contemplation and Action", "The Paradise of Submission") and many others. The meaning of the word mazhar denotes the idea of a mirror in which an object is reflected as an image but not incarnate. Similarly, the Imam as mazhar (locus of manifestation, mirror) 'differs greatly' from the idea of incarnation or indwelling (hulul) in which the Divine dwells inside a material body. The Imam is not seen as an incarnation of divinity. The Imam is also the Pir (Sufism) within Nizari Ismailism denoting a title from the Sufi heritage of Nizari Ismaili history.

Silver Jubilee Year of Imamat
From 11 July 1982 to 11 July 1983 – to celebrate the present Aga Khan's Silver Jubilee, marking the 25th anniversary of his accession to the Imamat – many new social and economic development projects were launched. These range from the establishment of the US$450 million international Aga Khan University with its Faculty of Health Sciences and teaching hospital based in Karachi, the expansion of schools for girls and medical centres in the Hunza region (one of the remote parts of Northern Pakistan bordering on China and Afghanistan that is densely populated with Nizari Ismailis), to the establishment of the Aga Khan Rural Support Program in Gujarat, India – and the extension of existing urban hospitals and primary health care centres in Tanzania and Kenya.

Golden Jubilee Year of Imamat
11 July 2007 to 13 December 2008 marked the 50th Anniversary of the Prince karim Aga Khan reign of Imamat (Golden Jubilee). On this occasion, leaders representing Nizari Ismailis from different areas of the world gathered at the Aga Khan's residence to pay homage to the Imam. As part of the Golden Jubilee, the Aga Khan made official visits to various countries – using the visits to recognize the friendship and longstanding support of certain leaders of state, government, and others, to the Aga Khan and his Nizari Ismaili community, as well as to lay the foundations for certain future initiatives and programmes. Areas of the world visited included the Americas, Europe, Asia, and Africa. During his visit to Houston, US, he announced the establishment of the Ismaili Center Houston. The Aga Khan also organized a Nizari Ismaili sports meet in Kenya, and teams of Nizari Ismailis from different areas of the world came to play in this event.

One of the initiatives of the Golden Jubilee was the Jubilee Games, firstly named as the Golden Jubilee Games but continued as the Jubilee Games. The first event was held in Kenya in 2008. The second Jubilee Games were held in Dubai, UAE in July 2016.

Diamond Jubilee Year of Imamat
11 July 2017 to 11 July 2018 was designated the Diamond Jubilee Year of the Aga Khan's 60th year of reign. The Aga Khan travelled throughout the Diamond Jubilee year to countries where his humanitarian institutions operate to launch new programs that help alleviate poverty and increase access to education, housing and childhood development. The Aga Khan's Diamond Jubilee opening ceremony was held in his Aiglemont estate. On 8 March 2018, Queen Elizabeth II hosted the Aga Khan at Windsor Castle at a dinner to mark his Diamond Jubilee. He has visited a number of countries including the United States, UAE, India, Pakistan, Canada, France, UK, Kenya, and others. The Diamond Jubilee ended with grand celebrations in Lisbon, Portugal on and around 11 July 2018. People from around the world came to celebrate with their worldwide community. There were many concerts, a Jubilee Arts festival, and other events planned for tens of thousands of people. Following a historic agreement with the Portuguese Republic in 2015, His Highness the Aga Khan officially designated the premises located at Rua Marquês de Fronteira in Lisbon – the Henrique de Mendonça Palace – as the Seat of the Ismaili Imamat on 11 July 2018, and declared that it be known as the "Diwan of the Ismaili Imamat".

Thoroughbred horse racing
The Aga Khan's racing horse businesses bring in considerable income. He owns and operates the largest horse racing and breeding operation in France, the French horse auction house, Arqana, Gilltown Stud near Kilcullen in Ireland, and other breeding/stud farms in Europe.

The Aga Khan operates a large horse racing and breeding operation at his estate Aiglemont, in the town of Gouvieux in the Picardy region of France – about 4 kilometres ($2 1/2$ miles) west of the Chantilly Racecourse. In 1977, he paid £1.3 million for the bloodstock owned by Anna Dupré and in 1978, £4.7 million for the bloodstock of Marcel Boussac.

The Aga Khan is said to be France's most influential owner-breeder and record winner of The Prix de Diane, sometimes referred to as the French Oaks.

The Aga Khan owns Gilltown Stud near Kilcullen, Ireland, and the Haras de Bonneval breeding farm at Le Mesnil-Mauger in France. In March 2005, he purchased the Calvados stud farms, the Haras d'Ouilly in Pont-d'Ouilly and the Haras de Val-Henry in Livarot. Haras d'Ouilly had been owned by such horsemen as the Duc Decazes, François Dupré and Jean-Luc Lagardère.

In 2006 the Aga Khan became the majority shareholder of French horse auction house Arqana.

On 27 October 2009 it was announced that Sea the Stars, regarded by many as one of the greatest racehorses of all time, would stand stud at the Aga Khan's Gilltown Stud in Ireland.

His unbeaten homebred filly, Zarkava, won the 2008 Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe. His homebred colt, Harzand, won the 2016 Epsom Derby and the 2016 Irish Derby.

The Aga Khan was the lead owner of Shergar, the Irish racehorse that was kidnapped from Ballymany stud farm in County Kildare, Ireland by masked men in 1983 and held for ransom. The Aga Khan and the other co-owners refused to pay a ransom, and the horse was not recovered. The Aga Khan, the police and the public suspected the Provisional Irish Republican Army of the abduction, though the IRA denied all involvement. In 1999, former IRA member Sean O'Callaghan published an autobiography in which he implicates the IRA as being responsible for the abduction. Shergar had become a national symbol in Ireland, and the IRA had underestimated the public outpouring of support for the horse and the backlash for the IRA even among Irish republicans who had historically supported the IRA, leading the IRA to deny involvement.

Other business ventures
The Aga Khan is and has been involved in multiple business ventures, in such areas as communications media and luxury hotels. In 1959 he founded the Kenyan media company Nation Media Group, which among others owns Daily Nation and Sunday Nation.

In the 1990s, the Aga Khan had a group of US$400 a night Italian luxury hotels, called Ciga. Currently the Aga Khan, through his for-profit AKFED, is the largest shareholder in the Serena Hotels chain.

Aga Khan Development Network
The Aga Khan is the founder and chairman of the Aga Khan Development Network, which coordinates the activities of over 200 agencies and institutions, employing approximately 80,000 paid staff, the majority of whom are based in developing countries. AKDN is partly funded by his followers and donor partners that include numerous governments and several international organisations. AKDN agencies operate in the fields of health, education, culture, rural development, institution-building and the promotion of economic development, with a special focus on countries of the Developing Nations. It is dedicated to improving living conditions and opportunities for the poor, without regard to their faith, origin or sex.

AKDN includes the Aga Khan University, the University of Central Asia, the for-profit Aga Khan Fund for Economic Development, the Aga Khan Trust for Culture, the Aga Khan Foundation, the Aga Khan Health Services, the Aga Khan Education Services, the Aga Khan Planning and Building Services, and the Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance. One of the companies that the AKFED is the main shareholder of is the Serena Hotels Group – a chain of luxury hotels and resorts primarily located in Africa and Asia. The Aga Khan Award for Architecture is the largest architectural award in the world. The Aga Khan is also the chairman of the Board of Governors of the Institute of Ismaili Studies, which he founded in 1977. He is also a Vice-President of the Royal Commonwealth Society.

Focus Humanitarian Assistance, an affiliate of the AKDN, is responsible for emergency response in the face of disaster. Recent disasters that FOCUS was involved in helping address include the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan (AKDN earthquake response) and the South Asian tsunami.

Significant recent or current projects that are related to the development and that are being led by the Aga Khan include the Delegation of the Ismaili Imamat and the Global Centre for Pluralism in Ottawa, the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto, the Al-Azhar Park in Cairo, the Bagh-e Babur restoration in Kabul, and a network of full IB residential schools known as the Aga Khan Academies.

The Aga Khan has expressed concern about the work of the AKDN being described as philanthropy. In his address to the Evangelische Akademie Tutzing, when he was awarded their Tolerance Prize in 2006, he described this concern: "Reflecting a certain historical tendency of the West to separate the secular from the religious, they often describe [the work of the AKDN] either as philanthropy or entrepreneurship. What is not understood is that this work is for us a part of our institutional responsibility – it flows from the mandate of the office of Imam to improve the quality of worldly life for the concerned communities."

Promotion of Islamic architecture
In 1977, the Aga Khan established the Aga Khan Award for Architecture, an award recognising excellence in architecture that encompasses contemporary design and social, historical, and environmental considerations. It is the largest architectural award in the world (prize money for which is a million US dollars) and is granted triennially. The award grew out of the Aga Khan's desire to revitalise creativity in Islamic societies and acknowledge creative solutions for buildings facilities and public spaces. The prize winner is selected by an independent master jury convened for each cycle.

In 1979, Harvard University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) established the Aga Khan Program for Islamic Architecture (AKPIA), which is supported by an endowment from Aga Khan. These programs provide degree courses, public lectures, and conferences for the study of Islamic architecture and urbanism. Understanding contemporary conditions and developmental issues are key components of the academic program. The program engages in research at both institutions and students can graduate with a Master of Science of Architectural Studies specialising in the Aga Khan program from MIT's Department of Architecture.

Personal life
In 1964 Sports Illustrated wrote that despite the Aga Khan's reputation as "a gallivanting jet-setter who wants his horses, cars and women to be fast", he avoided most parties, never appeared in gossip columns, and had been associated with only one woman for the previous five years ("an exquisite, publicity-avoiding blonde named Annouchka von Mehks"). In 1969, the Aga Khan married former British model Sarah Frances Croker Poole, who assumed the name Begum Salimah Aga Khan upon marrying him. Sarah Frances was a divorcee, having previously been married to Lord James Charles Crichton-Stuart, son of John Crichton-Stuart, 5th Marquess of Bute. The wedding ceremonies were held on 22 October 1969 (civil) and 28 October 1969 (religious) at Karim Aga Khan's home in Paris. By 1984, the Aga Khan and Begum Salimah had taken to living separate lives. The Aga Khan and Begum Salimah had one daughter and two sons together, Zahra Aga Khan (born 18 September 1970), Rahim Aga Khan (born 12 October 1971) and Hussain Aga Khan (born 10 April 1974). Eleven years later, in 1995 they divorced.

On 30 May 1998, The Aga Khan married for the second time at his walled compound and chateau, Aiglemont, in Gouvieux, France. The bride was Gabriele Renate Thyssen, who assumed the name Begum Inaara Aga Khan at her wedding. Born to Roman Catholic German entrepreneur parents in 1963, Gabriele was twenty-seven years younger than the Aga Khan. She was also a divorcee, having previously been married to Prince Karl Emich of Leiningen, by whom she had a daughter, Teresa. On 7 March 2000, two years after the wedding, he had a son, Aly Muhammad Aga Khan. On 8 October 2004, after six years of marriage the couple announced they would be getting divorced. In September 2011, seven years later, a divorce settlement was reached between them in the French courts, and the divorce settlement amount was agreed upon in March 2014.

The Aga Khan is an ardent yachtsman. He co-founded the Yacht Club Costa Smeralda in Porto Cervo, Sardinia, in 1967. He also commissioned a 164-foot yacht, Alamshar, named after a prized racehorse of his, with a price tag of £200 million. The cost and maintenance are partly covered by chartering. The yacht was advertised as having a top speed of 60 knots, capable of setting a new transatlantic speed record. It reached a speed in excess of 55 knots in its initial trials but despite the claims, it was never intended for transatlantic speed records as it does not have the range.

In 2021 Aga Khan took delivery of a new Bombardier Global 7500 registered LX-PAK, operated by Global Jet Luxembourg. His previous aircraft, a Bombardier Global 6000, registered LX-ZAK, was sold in 2020.

Personal finances
In 2009, Forbes reported that the Aga Khan's net worth was US$1 billion. In 2013, Vanity Fair estimated his fortune to be well over US$1 billion. Forbes describes the Aga Khan as one of the world's fifteen richest royals, and the most recent estimate of his net worth is $13.3 billion. He is unique among the richest royals in that he does not preside over a geographic territory. He owns hundreds of racehorses, valuable stud farms, an exclusive yacht club on Sardinia, Bell Island in the Bahamas, two Bombardier jets, a £100 million high speed yacht Alamshar, and several estates around the world, with his primary residence at Aiglemont estate in the town of Gouvieux, France, north of Paris. The Aga Khan's philanthropic non-profit institutions spend about US$600 million per year – mainly in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East.

Titles, styles and honours

The titles Prince and Princess are used by the Aga Khans and their children by virtue of their descent from Shah Fath Ali Shah of the Persian Qajar dynasty. The title was officially recognised by the British government in 1938.

Author Farhad Daftary wrote of how the honorific title Aga Khan (from Agha and Khan) was first given to Aga Khan I at the age of thirteen after the murder of his father: "At the same time, the Qajar monarch bestowed on him the honorific title (laqab) of Agha Khan (also transcribed as Aqa Khan), meaning lord and master." Daftary additionally commented, "The title of Agha Khan remained hereditary amongst his successors." On the other hand, in a legal proceeding, the Aga Khan III noted that 'Aga Khan' is not a title, but, instead a sort of alias or "pet name" that was given to Aga Khan I when he was a young man.

The style of His Highness was formally granted to the Aga Khan IV by Queen Elizabeth II in 1957 upon the death of his grandfather Aga Khan III. The granting of the title to the Aga Khan IV was preceded by a strong expressed desire of the Aga Khan III to see the British monarchy award the non-hereditary title to his successor. The style of His Royal Highness was granted in 1959 to the Aga Khan IV by Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the Shah of Iran, later overthrown in the Iranian Revolution of 1979, but he uses instead His Highness. Over the years, the Aga Khan has received numerous honours, honorary degrees, and awards.

Honours

 * 🇧🇭 Bahrain:
 * Order_of_Bahrain,_1st_class.png Member 1st Class of the Order of Bahrain (2003)
 * 🇨🇦 Canada:
 * CAN Order of Canada Companion ribbon.svg Honorary Companion of the Order of Canada (CC, 2005)
 * 🇰🇲 Comoros:
 * Ordire du Croissant Vert GC ribbon.jpg Grand Cross of the Order of the Green Crescent (1966)
 * 🇫🇷 France:
 * Legion Honneur GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (2018)
 * Ordre des Arts et des Lettres Commandeur ribbon.svg Commander of the Order of Arts and Letters (2010)
 * 🇮🇳 India:
 * Padma Vibhushan Ribbon.svg Padma Vibhushan (2015)
 * 🇮🇷 Iran:
 * Order of Crown Ribbon Bar - Imperial Iran.svg Grand Cordon of the Order of the Crown (1967)
 * 25th_Centennial_Anniversary_Medal_Ribbon_Bar_-_Imperial_Iran.svg Commemorative Medal of the 2500th Anniversary of the founding of the Persian Empire (14 October 1971)
 * 🇮🇹 Italy:
 * Cordone di gran Croce OMRI BAR.svg Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic (1977)
 * 1020px ribbon bar of the Order of Merit for Labour.svg Knight of the Order of Merit for Labour (1988)
 * Ivory Coast:
 * Cote d'Ivoire Ordre national GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the National Order of the Ivory Coast (1965)
 * 🇰🇪 Kenya:
 * Order of the Golden Heart of Kenya.svg Chief of the Order of the Golden Heart of Kenya (CGH, 2007)
 * 🇲🇬 Madagascar:
 * MDG National Order - Grand Cross 2nd Class BAR.png Grand Cross 2nd Class of the National Order of Madagascar (1966)
 * 🇲🇱 Mali:
 * Mali Ordre national du Mali GC ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the National Order of Mali (2008)
 * 🇲🇷 Mauritania:
 * MRT Commander Order of National Merit.png Commander of the National Order of Merit (1960)
 * 🇲🇦 Morocco:
 * MAR Order of the Throne - Special Class BAR.png Grand Cordon of the Order of the Throne (1986)
 * 🇵🇰 Pakistan:
 * Order of Pakistan.png Nishan-e-Pakistan (NPk, 1983)
 * Nishan-i-Imtiaz Pakistan.svg Nishan-i-Imtiaz (NI, 1970)
 * 🇵🇹 Portugal:
 * PRT Order of Liberty - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Liberty (GCL, 2017)
 * PRT Order of Christ - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Christ (GCC, 2005)
 * POR Ordem do Merito Gra-Cruz BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (GCM, 1998)
 * PRT Order of Prince Henry - Grand Cross BAR.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Henry (GCIH, 1960)
 * 🇸🇳 Senegal:
 * SEN Order of the Lion - Grand Officer BAR.svg Grand Officer of the National Order of the Lion (1982)
 * 🇪🇸 Spain:
 * Order of Civil Merit (Spain) GC.svg Grand Cross of the Order of Civil Merit (1991)
 * 🇹🇯 Tajikistan:
 * TJ Zarrintoch rib.png Recipient of the Order of Friendship (1998)
 * 🇺🇬 Uganda:
 * Order of the Pearl of Africa (Uganda) - ribbon bar.gif Collar of the Order of the Pearl of Africa (2017)
 * 🇬🇧 United Kingdom:
 * Order of the British Empire (Civil) Ribbon.svg Ordinary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (KBE, 2003)
 * Upper Volta:
 * Haute-Volta Ordre national voltaique Chevalier ribbon.svg Grand Cross of the National Order of Upper Volta (1965)
 * Zanzibar:
 * Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar - ribbon bar.gif Grand Cross of the Order of the Brilliant Star of Zanzibar (1957)

Honorary degrees

 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, Simon Fraser University (2018)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of British Columbia (2018)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Calgary (2018)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, McGill University (1983)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, McMaster University (1987)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Toronto (2004)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Alberta (2009)
 * : Honorary DUniv degree, University of Ottawa (2012)
 * : Honorary D.S.Litt. degree, University of Toronto (2013)
 * : Honorary D.Litt. degree in medieval studies, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies (2016)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Sindh (1970)
 * : Honorary PhD degree, NOVA University of Lisbon (2017)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, University of Wales (1993)
 * : Honorary D.D. degree, University of Cambridge (2009)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, Brown University (1996)
 * : Honorary LL.D. degree, Harvard University (2008)

Awards

 * : Key to the City of Ottawa (2005)
 * : Honorary Canadian citizenship (2010)
 * : Key to the City of Toronto (2022)
 * : Silver Medal of the Académie d'Architecture (1991)
 * : Insignia of Honour, International Union of Architects (2001)
 * : Associate Foreign Member, Académie des Beaux-Arts (2008)
 * : Philanthropic Entrepreneur of the Year, by Le Nouvel Economiste, Paris (2009)
 * : Die Quadriga Award, the United We Care Award (2005)
 * : Tolerance Prize of the Evangelical Academy of Tutzing (2006)
 * : Honorary Citizen of the Town of Arzachena (Sardinia) (1962)
 * : Gold Mercury Ad Personam Award, Non-State Organization (1982)
 * Ivory Coast: Freeman of Abidjan, and presented with a Key to the City of Abidjan (1960)
 * 🇯🇴 Jordan: One of The 500 Most Influential Muslims in the world, by Royal Islamic Strategic Studies Centre (2009–13)
 * : State Award for Peace and Progress (2002)
 * : Honoured Educator of the Republic of Kazakhstan (2008)
 * : Honorary Citizen of the Town of Kisumu (1981)
 * : Key to the city of Majunga (1966)
 * : Honorary Citizen of the Islamic Ummah of Timbuktu (2003)
 * : Citizen of Honour of the Municipality of Timbuktu (2008)
 * : Honorary Colonel of the 6th Lancers by the Pakistani Army (1970)
 * : Honorary Citizen of Lahore, and presented with a key to the city of Lahore (1980)
 * : Honorary Membership, Pakistan Medical Association, Sindh (1981)
 * : Key to the city of Karachi (1981)
 * : Honorary Fellowship of the College of Physicians and Surgeons Pakistan (CPSP) (1985)
 * : Key to the City of Lisbon (1996)
 * : Foreign Member, Class of Humanities, by Lisbon Academy of Sciences (2009)
 * : 2013 North–South Prize of the Council of Europe (2014)
 * : Key to the City of Porto (2019)
 * : Carnegie Medal for Philanthropy (2005)
 * : Guest of Honour of Granada (1991)
 * : Honorary Citizen of Granada (1991)
 * : Gold Medal of the City of Granada (1998)
 * : Royal Toledo Foundation (Real Fundación de Toledo) Award (2006)
 * : Archon Award, International Nursing Honour Society, Sigma Theta Tau International (2001)
 * : Honorary Citizen of Dar es Salaam (2005)
 * : The Gold Mercury International "AD PERSONAM" Award (1982)
 * : Honorary Fellowship, Royal Institute of British Architects (1991)
 * : Andrew Carnegie Medal of Philanthropy (2005)
 * : Winner of the 10th annual Peter O'Sullevan Award at the Savoy in London (2006)
 * : Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation Medal in Architecture, University of Virginia (1984)
 * : Institute Honor of the American Institute of Architects (1984)
 * : Honorary Member of the American Institute of Architects (1992)
 * : Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1996)
 * : Hadrian Award, World Monuments Fund (1996)
 * : Vincent Scully Prize, National Building Museum (2005)
 * : Key to the City of Austin (2008)
 * : UCSF medal (2011)
 * : Key to the City of Sugar Land, Texas (2018)
 * : ULI J.C. Nichols Prize for Visionaries in Urban Development, Los Angeles (2011)
 * : Honorary Citizen of the City of Samarkand and presented with a key to the city of Samarkand (1992)

Patrilineal descent
Shah Karim al-Hussaini Aga Khan's patriline is the line from which he is descended father to son.

 * Nizari Imams of the Fatimid Dynasty
 * 1) Adnan
 * 2) Ma'ad ibn Adnan
 * 3) Nizar ibn Ma'ad
 * 4) Mudar ibn Nizar
 * 5) Ilyas ibn Mudar
 * 6) Mudrikah ibn Ilyas
 * 7) Khuzayma ibn Mudrika
 * 8) Kinanah ibn Khuzayma
 * 9) An-Nadr ibn Kinanah
 * 10) Malik ibn Al-Nadr
 * 11) Fihr ibn Malik
 * 12) Ghalib ibn Fihr
 * 13) Lu'ayy ibn Ghalib
 * 14) Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy
 * 15) Murrah ibn Ka'b
 * 16) Kilab ibn Murrah b. ca. 372
 * 17) Qusay ibn Kilab ca. 400-ca. 480
 * 18) Abd Manaf ibn Qusai
 * 19) Hashim ibn Abd Manaf, ca. 464-ca. 497
 * 20) Abd al-Muttalib, ca. 497–578
 * 21) Abu Talib ibn Abd al-Muttalib, 535–619
 * 22) 4th Caliph and 1st Imam Ali ibn Abu Talib, 601–661, cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Muhammad
 * 23) 2nd Imam Husayn ibn Ali, 626–680
 * 24) 3rd Imam Ali ibn Husayn Zayn al-Abidin, 659–713
 * 25) 4th Imam Muhammad al-Baqir, 677–733
 * 26) 5th Imam Jafar al-Sadiq, ca. 702–765
 * 27) 6th Imam Ismail ibn Jafar, ca. 722-ca. 762
 * 28) 7th Imam Muhammad ibn Ismail, 740–813
 * 29) 8th Imam Ahmad al-Wafi, 795/746-827/828
 * 30) 9th Imam Muhammad at-Taqi (Isma'ili), 813/814-839/840
 * 31) 10th Imam Radi Abdullah, 832–881
 * 32) 11th Imam Caliph Abdullah al-Mahdi Billah, 873–934
 * 33) 12th Imam Caliph Al-Qa'im, 893–946
 * 34) 13th Imam Caliph Al-Mansur Billah, 914–953
 * 35) 14th Imam Caliph Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah, 932–975
 * 36) 15th Imam Caliph Al-Aziz Billah, 955–996
 * 37) 16th Imam Caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, 985–1021
 * 38) 17th Imam Caliph Ali az-Zahir, 1005–1036
 * 39) 18th Imam Caliph Al-Mustansir Billah, 1029–1094
 * 40) 19th Imam Nizar al-Mustafa, 1045–1095
 * 41) 20th Imam Ali Al-Husayn Al-Hadi, 1076–1132
 * 42) 21st Imam Al-Muhtadi, Muhammad I, 1106–1157
 * 43) 22nd Imam Al-Qahir, Hasan I, 1126–1162
 * 44) 23rd Imam Hassan II of Alamut (also referred to as 'Alā Zikrihi-s-Salām), 1142/1145-1166
 * 45) 24th Imam Muhammad II of Alamut, 1148–1210
 * 46) 25th Imam Hassan III of Alamut, 1187–1221
 * 47) 26th Imam Muhammad III of Alamut, 1211–1255
 * 48) 27th Imam Rukn al-Din Khurshah, ca. 1230-1256/1257
 * 49) 28th Imam Shams al-Din (Nizari), 1257–1310
 * 50) 29th Imam Qasim Shah, 1310–1368
 * 51) 30th Imam Islam Shah, d. 1424
 * 52) 31st Imam Muhammad ibn Islam Shah, d. 1464
 * 53) 32nd Imam Ali Shah Qalandar, al-Mustansir Billah II, d. 1480
 * 54) 33rd Imam Abd-us-Salam Shah, d. 1494
 * 55) 34th Imam Abbas Shah Gharib, al-Mustansir Billah III, d. 1498
 * 56) 35th Imam Abuzar Ali Nur Shah, d. ca. 1509
 * 57) 36th Imam Murād Mīrzā, d. 1574
 * 58) 37th Imam Zulfiqar Ali, Khalilullah I, d. 1634
 * 59) 38th Imam Nur al-Din Ali, d. 1671
 * 60) 39th Imam Ali, Khalilullah II, d. 1680
 * 61) 40th Imam Shah Nizar II, d. 1722
 * 62) 41st Imam Sayed Ali, d. ca. 1736
 * 63) 42nd Imam Al-Hassan Ali Beg, d. ca. 1747
 * 64) 43rd Imam Sayed Jafar, Al-Qasim Ali, d. ca. 1756
 * 65) 44th Imam Abū-l-Hasan ʻAlī, d. 1792
 * 66) 45th Imam Shah Khalilullah III, 1740–1817
 * 67) 46th Imam Hasan Ali Shah, Aga Khan I, 1804–1881
 * 68) 47th Imam Aqa Ali Shah, Aga Khan II, 1830–1885
 * 69) 48th Imam Sultan Muhammad Shah, Aga Khan III, 1877–1957
 * 70) Prince Sayyid Aly Khan, 1911– 1960
 * 71) 49th Imam Shah Karim Al-Hussaini, Aga Khan IV, b. 1936

title: Aga Khan IV


text:
Richard Greenblatt (programmer)

Richard D. Greenblatt (born December 25, 1944) is an American computer programmer. Along with Bill Gosper, he may be considered to have founded the hacker community, and holds a place of distinction in the communities of the programming language Lisp and of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) Artificial Intelligence Laboratory.

Early life
Greenblatt was born in Portland, Oregon on December 25, 1944. His family moved to Philadelphia, Pennsylvania when he was a child. He later moved to Columbia, Missouri with his mother and sister when his parents divorced.

Becoming a hacker
Greenblatt enrolled in MIT in the fall of 1962, and around his second term as an undergraduate student, he found his way to MIT's famous Tech Model Railroad Club. At that time, Peter Samson had written a program in Fortran for the IBM 709 series machines, to automate the tedious business of writing the intricate timetables for the Railroad Club's vast model train layout. Greenblatt felt compelled to implement a Fortran compiler for the PDP-1, which then lacked one. There was no computer time available to debug the compiler, or even to type it into the computer. Years later, elements of this compiler (combined with some ideas from fellow TMRC member Steven Piner, the author of a very early PDP-4 Fortran compiler while working for Digital Equipment Corporation) were typed in and "showed signs of life". However, the perceived need for a Fortran compiler had evaporated by then, so the compiler was not pursued further. This and other experiences at TMRC, especially the influence of Alan Kotok, who worked at DEC and was the junior partner of the design team for the PDP-6 computer, led Greenblatt to the AI Lab, where he proceeded to become a "hacker's hacker" noted for his programming acumen as described in Steven Levy's Hackers: Heroes of the Computer Revolution, and as acknowledged by Gerald Jay Sussman and Harold Abelson when they said they were fortunate to have been apprentice programmers at the feet of Bill Gosper and Richard Greenblatt.

Indeed, he spent so much time programming the Programmed Data Processor (PDP) machines there that he failed out of MIT as a first-term junior and had to take a job at a firm, Charles Adams Associates, until the AI Lab hired him about 6 months later.

Lisp Machines, Inc.
In 1979, he and Tom Knight were the main designers of the MIT Lisp machine. He founded Lisp Machines, Inc. (later renamed Gigamos Systems), according to his vision of an ideal hacker-friendly computer company, as opposed to the more commercial ideals of Symbolics.

Significant software developed
He was the main implementor of Maclisp on the PDP-6. He wrote Mac Hack, the first computer program to play tournament-level chess and the first to compete in a human chess tournament. AI skeptic Hubert Dreyfus, who famously made the claim that computers would not be able to play high-quality chess, was beaten by the program, marking the start of "respectable" computer chess performances. In 1977, unbeaten chess champion Bobby Fischer played three games in Cambridge, Massachusetts against Greenblatt's computer program, and Fischer won all of them. Greenblatt, along with Tom Knight and Stewart Nelson, co-wrote the Incompatible Timesharing System (ITS), a highly influential time-sharing operating system for the PDP-6 and PDP-10 used at MIT.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Richard Greenblatt (programmer)


text:
Native North American

Native North American may refer to:

 * Indigenous peoples in Canada
 * Native Americans in the United States
 * Alaska Natives
 * Indigenous peoples of Mexico
 * Northern Native American (genetic lineage)

title: Native North American


text:
Martin P6M SeaMaster

The Martin P6M SeaMaster was an experimental strategic bomber flying boat built by the Glenn L. Martin Company for the United States Navy that almost entered service; production aircraft were built and Navy crews were undergoing operational training, with service entry expected in about six months, when the program was cancelled on 21 August 1959. Envisioned as a strategic nuclear weapon delivery system for the Navy, the SeaMaster was eclipsed by the Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM). Due to the political situation at the Pentagon, the Navy promoted the P6M primarily as a high speed minelayer.

Design and development
In the immediate postwar defense climate, the United States Air Force's Strategic Air Command was the linchpin of the United States' security as the sole means of delivery of the nation's nuclear arsenal. The Navy saw its strategic role being eclipsed by the Air Force and knew both its prestige and budgets were at stake.

Its first attempt to address this came in the form of the USS United States (CVA-58), a large supercarrier intended to launch Navy strategic bombers. This was cancelled in 1950 shortly after her keel was laid down, a victim of budget cuts and US Air Force interference. In response, the Navy chose to create a "Seaplane Striking Force", useful for both nuclear and conventional warfare, including reconnaissance and minelaying. Groups of these planes supported by seaplane tenders or special submarines could be located close to the enemy, and being mobile, they would be hard to neutralize.

The requirement issued in April 1951 was for a seaplane able to carry a 30000 lb warload over a range of 1500 mi from its aquatic base. The aircraft was to be capable of a low altitude dash at Mach 0.9 (1,100 km/h). Both Convair and Martin submitted proposals, and the Martin proposal was chosen as more promising. An order for two prototypes was issued which was projected to lead to six pre-production aircraft and a projected twenty-four production aircraft.

Originally the plane was to have a Curtiss-Wright turbo-ramjet engine, but this ran into problems and a more conventional Allison J71-A-4 turbojet was employed, fitted in pairs in overwing pods to keep the spray out of the intakes. Wings swept at 40° were used; they displayed a notable anhedral and were designed with tip tanks that doubled as floats on the water. Many features of Martin's XB-51 bomber prototype were used, including an all-flying "T" tail and a rotating bomb bay—pneumatically sealed against seawater in the P6M.

Operational history

The first flight of the XP6M-1 came on 14 July 1955, but early tests showed that the engines were mounted too close to the fuselage and scorched it when afterburners were used, leading to angling the engines slightly outward in subsequent aircraft. Flight testing was initially successful, but, on 7 December 1955, a control system fault destroyed the first prototype with the loss of all aboard. The first prototype, BuNo 138821, c/n XP-1, disintegrated in flight at 5000 ft due to the horizontal tail going to full up due to a control malfunction, subjecting the airframe to 9 g stress as it began an outside loop, crashing into the Potomac River near the junction of St. Mary's River, killing four crew members.

Eleven months later, on 9 November 1956, the second prototype, BuNo 138822, c/n XP-2, first flown on 18 May 1956, was also destroyed, due to a change made in the horizontal stabilizer control system without adequate evaluation before test flying the design. The crash occurred at 15:36 near Odessa, Delaware due to a faulty elevator jack. As the seaplane nosed up at ~21000 ft and failed to respond to control inputs, the crew of four ejected. The airframe broke up after falling to 6000 ft before impact.

The first pre-production YP6M-1 was completed about a year later, with testing resuming in January 1958.

Five more were built in 1958 when the Navy announced that Harvey Point Defense Testing Activity in Hertford, North Carolina, would serve as the testing grounds for the fleet of Martin P6M SeaMasters. These aircraft were fitted with test versions of the full combat equipment suite and were used for bombing, mine laying and reconnaissance evaluations. The J71 engines were unreliable and the aircraft had spray ingestion problems at higher gross weights, which limited takeoffs to ideal conditions. The P6M-1 also had a serious control deficiency due to porpoising under some trim settings. These deficiencies resulted in the P6M-1 program being cut as it was no longer considered possible for it to be successfully developed.

The Navy and Martin felt that a new version, the P6M-2, would provide a useful aircraft. The first was rolled out in early 1959. Changes included new, more powerful Pratt & Whitney J75 engines, an aerial refueling probe, improved avionics, and a canopy with better visibility. A buddy refueling drogue kit had also been developed to fit in the bomb bay. Three had been built by summer 1959 and Navy crews were moving them through operational conversion when the program was abruptly canceled in August of that year.

The P6M-2 was an impressive aircraft; its Mach 0.9 (1,100 km/h) performance "on the deck" could be equaled by few aircraft of the time. The aircraft were heavily built, with the skin at the wing roots over 1 in thick. The normally docile and pleasant handling characteristics of the P6M-1 were replaced by some severe compressibility effects above Mach 0.8. These included rapid changes in directional trim, severe buffeting, and wing drop requiring high control inputs to counter. Until those problems were fixed, the P6M-2 could not be considered for use by the fleet. The problems were identified as being caused by the larger engine nacelles required for the J75s. There were also problems on the water, including a tendency for the tip floats to dig in under certain situations, and engine surges. These problems were eventually solved, but time had run out just as the first crews were training for its operational debut. Eisenhower's administration was making major defense budget cuts that forced the Navy to make choices. In August 1959 Martin was told to halt operations and the program was about to be canceled. Seaplane operations were a small component of U.S. naval aviation, and the P6M was significantly over budget and behind schedule and competing with aircraft carriers for funding. The Navy had also developed a potentially superior system for the nuclear strike role, the ballistic missile submarine.

In the age of the ICBM and SLBM,

All examples were scrapped although some tail sections were retained for testing, and one of these is now in the Glenn L. Martin Maryland Aviation Museum.

Martin tried unsuccessfully to market the technology in the civilian market, with a version called the SeaMistress but there were no takers, and the company soon abandoned the aircraft business entirely to focus on missiles and electronics. The P6M was the final aircraft constructed by the Glenn L. Martin Company.

Variants

 * XP6M-1: prototypes, two built (BuNos 138821, 138822). Both crashed.
 * YP6M-1: pre-production model, six built (BuNos 143822-143827). All six examples were scrapped when the program was cancelled.
 * P6M-2: production model, eight built (BuNos 145876-145899). 145877-145879 were completed and flown, 145876 and 145880-145883 were completed but not flown. Contracts for 145884-145899 were cancelled.

title: Martin P6M SeaMaster


text:
Transnationality

Transnationality is the principle of acting at a geographical scale larger than that of states, so as to take into account the interests of a supranational entity.

Transnational policies or programmes are not simply aggregations of national policies or programmes, but seek to submerge these within a greater whole. According to Aihwa Ong, the term differs from that of transnationalism, as transnationalism refers "to the cultural specificities of global processes, tracing the multiplicity of the uses and conceptions of 'culture'" whereas transnationality is "the condition of cultural interconnectedness and mobility across space".

Transnationality is practised by organisations such as the United Nations and the European Union. The EU's principle of subsidiarity holds that actions should be carried out at the lowest feasible governmental level, and therefore much scope is left to individual Member States. The EU institutions thus concern themselves principally with transnational policies and actions.

title: Transnationality


text:
Transfusion

Transfusion may refer to:
 * Blood transfusion, the introduction of blood directly into an individual’s blood circulation through a vein
 * Platelet transfusion, the infusion of platelets into an individual's blood
 * Transfusion (journal), a research journal on blood transfusion and related topics published by the AABB
 * "Transfusion" (short story), a 1959 science fiction story by Chad Oliver
 * Transfusion, a port of the Blood video game to the Quake engine
 * Transfusion (band), a Canadian band active in 1968
 * Transfusion, a 2005 album by Cold Blood (band)
 * Transfusion (EP), a 1993 EP by Powderfinger
 * "Transfusion" (song), a 1956 novelty hit by Nervous Norvus
 * Transfusion (film), a 2023 thriller directed by Matt Nable

title: Transfusion


text:
Hibiscus syriacus

Hibiscus syriacus is a species of flowering plant in the mallow family, Malvaceae. It is native to areas of east Asia, but widely introduced elsewhere, including much of Europe and North America. It was given the epithet syriacus because it had been collected from gardens in Syria. Common names include the rose of Sharon, (especially in North America), Syrian ketmia, shrub althea (or simply althea ), and rose mallow (in the United Kingdom). It is the national flower of South Korea and is mentioned in the South Korean national anthem.

Description
Hibiscus syriacus is a hardy deciduous shrub. It is upright and vase-shaped, reaching 2 - 4 m in height, bearing large trumpet-shaped flowers with prominent yellow-tipped white stamens. The flowers are often pink in color, but can also be dark pink (almost purple), light pink or white. Individual flowers are short-lived, lasting only a day. However, numerous buds produced on the shrub's new growth provide prolific flowering over a long summer blooming period. The soil in which the Hibiscus thrives on is moist but well-drained, and organically rich. Hibiscus syriacus is highly tolerant of air pollution, heat, humidity, poor soil and drought. The species has naturalized very well in many suburban areas and might even be termed slightly invasive, so frequently does it seed.

Growth
The branches are thin and gray, white-lenticeled, with raised leaf scars and small buds. Stems and branches do not branch very much unless pruned, resulting in many long, straight stems that originate from about 0.5 - 1.5 in above the ground, giving rise to the shrub's overall vase shape. The leaves appear unusually late in the season, in May. They are usually green or yellowish green, alternate, broadly ovate, palmately veined, and 3 in long. They have three distinct lobes with coarsely-toothed margins.

Flowers
Hibiscus syriacus has 5-petaled flowers (to 3 in diameter) in solid colors of white, red, purple, mauve, violet, or blue, or bicolors with a different colored throat, depending upon the cultivar. Extending from the base of these five petals is the pistil at the center, with the stamen around it. These basic characteristics give the H. syriacus flower and its many variants their distinctive form. The plant can bloom continuously from July through September, usually at night. With maturity, flexible plant stems become weighted under the load of prolific summer flowers, and bend over halfway to the ground.

Fruits and seeds
Most modern cultivars are virtually fruitless. The fruits of those that have them are green or brown, unornamental 5-valved dehiscent capsules, which persist throughout much of the winter on older cultivars. They split over the course of the dormant season and spread their easily germinating seeds around the base of the parent plant, thus forming colonies with time.

Cultivation
Though it has no fall color and can be stiff and ungainly if badly pruned, H. syriacus remains a popular ornamental shrub today, with many cultivars. Full-grown plants can tolerate a wide range of conditions, including frost, drought and urban pollution. However, the best results are produced in a warm, sheltered position; a well-drained neutral soil; and full sun.

Propagation
Hibiscus syriacus is fairly easily propagated from either seeds, with variable results, or by layering or cuttings, cloning the original.

Pests and diseases
Old shrubs can develop trunk cankers that may eventually prove fatal to the plant. The plant has some susceptibility to leaf spots, blights, rusts and canker. Japanese beetles, whiteflies and aphids are occasional insect visitors. Japanese beetles can severely damage foliage if left unchecked.

Cultivars
The following cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:

 * 'Blue Chiffon' ('Notwood3') (blue, semi-double)
 * 'Diana' (single, white)
 * 'Hamabo' (pale pink, red centre)
 * 'Lavender Chiffon' ('Notwoodone') (pale lilac)
 * 'Meehanii' (pink, variegated leaves)
 * 'Oiseau Bleu' ('Blue Bird') (blue-violet, maroon centre)
 * 'Red Heart' (white, red centre)
 * 'White Chiffon' ('Notwoodtwo') (white, double)
 * 'William R. Smith' (white, single)
 * 'Woodbridge' (deep pink)

National flower
Hibiscus syriacus, also known as the Korean rose, is the national flower of South Korea. The flower appears in various national emblems, and Korea is compared poetically to the flower in the South Korean national anthem. The flower's name in Korean is mugunghwa or mokkeunhwa, which translates to “eternal blossom that never fades”. Professor emeritus at Ohio State University, Chan E. Park, notes that, to many Koreans, the flower was a symbol of resistance to Japanese colonial rule.

History and culture
Hibiscus syriacus was originally endemic to Korea. It is recorded that it was brought to Japan in the 8th century and cultivated for horticulture. According to records, it was prolific on the Korean Peninsula before the 1st century. Its leaves were brewed into a herbal infusion and its flowers eaten in Korea. Later on it was introduced and grown in the gardens of Europe as early as the 16th century, though as late as 1629 John Parkinson thought it was tender and took great precautions with it, thinking it "would not suffer to be uncovered in the Winter time, or yet abroad in the Garden, but kept in a large pot or tubbe in the house or in a warme cellar, if you would have them to thrive." (sic) By the end of the 17th century, some knew it to be hardy: Gibson, describing Lord Arlington's London house noted six large earthen pots coddling the "tree hollyhock", as he called it, "that grows well enough in the ground". By the 18th century the shrub was common in English gardens and in the North American colonies, known as Althea frutex and "Syrian ketmia".

title: Hibiscus syriacus


text:
Byron Nelson

John Byron Nelson Jr. (February 4, 1912 – September 26, 2006) was an American professional golfer between 1935 and 1946, widely considered one of the greatest golfers of all time.

Nelson and two other legendary champions of the time, Ben Hogan and Sam Snead, were born within seven months of each other in 1912. Although he won many tournaments in the course of his relatively brief career, he is mostly remembered today for having won 11 consecutive tournaments and 18 total tournaments in 1945. He retired officially at the age of 34 to be a rancher, later becoming a commentator and lending his name to the Byron Nelson Classic, the first PGA Tour event to be named for a professional golfer. As a former Masters champion he continued to play in that annual tournament, placing in the top-10 six times between 1947 and 1955 and as high as 15th in 1965.

In 1974, Nelson received the Bob Jones Award, the highest honor given by the United States Golf Association in recognition of distinguished sportsmanship in golf, and was inducted into the World Golf Hall of Fame. He became the second recipient of the PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997. He received the 1994 Old Tom Morris Award from the Golf Course Superintendents Association of America, that organization's highest honor. Nelson was posthumously awarded the Congressional Gold Medal in 2006.

Early life
Born near Waxahachie, Texas, Byron Nelson was the son of Madge Allen Nelson (1893–1992) and John Byron Nelson Sr. (1889–1965). His parents set a precedent for him not only in their long lives — Madge Nelson lived to age 98, and her husband to age 77 — but also in their religious commitment. Madge, who had grown up Baptist, was baptized in the Church of Christ at age 18, and John Byron Sr., raised Presbyterian, was baptized in the Church of Christ soon after meeting Madge. The senior Byron Nelson went on to serve as an elder in the Roanoke Church of Christ, and the younger Byron Nelson was a committed member of that congregation, even performing janitorial services there from time to time long after he became famous. He placed his membership at the Hilltop Church of Christ in Roanoke from 1989 until 2000, when he moved his membership to the Richland Hills Church of Christ in North Richland Hills, Texas.

When Nelson was 11 years old, the family moved to Fort Worth, where he barely survived typhoid fever after losing nearly half his body weight to the disease, which also left him unable to sire children. Soon after his baptism at age 12, he started caddying at Glen Garden Country Club. On his caddying days, Nelson said, "I knew nothing about caddying at first, but it wasn't difficult to learn. The other caddies, though, didn't like to see any new ones, because that might mean they wouldn't get a job sometime." An article on Nelson in Sports Illustrated noted that initially caddies were not permitted to play at the club: "[H]e would often practice in the dark, putting his white handkerchief over the hole so he could find it in the darkness." The club later changed its policy and sponsored a caddie tournament, where a 14-year-old Nelson beat fellow caddie and future golf great Ben Hogan by a single stroke after a nine-hole playoff. Nelson and Hogan were rivals but close friends in their teen years, and for the first part of their professional careers as well, but Nelson's early success was difficult for the struggling Hogan to deal with, and they gradually grew apart, while retaining mutual respect.

In 1934, Nelson was working as a golf pro in Texarkana, Arkansas, when he met his future wife Louise Shofner, to whom he was married for 50 years before she died in 1985 after two severe strokes.

Championship heyday
After turning professional in 1932, Nelson served as a club professional in Texas and played as many significant tournaments as he could afford, to develop his game. Money was tight, as Texas was hit very hard by the Great Depression. A pair of top-three finishes in important Texas events encouraged him. He then took a club professional's job at the Ridgewood Country Club in New Jersey in 1935. He worked hard on his game, having earlier realized that with the technological change from hickory to steel shafts, which was gathering momentum in the early 1930s, that the golf swing would have to adapt as well. Nelson was among the first of a new generation of players who developed a full swing with increased leg drive leading the downswing; this is the forerunner of modern golf technique as practiced by top players, right to the present day. Nelson is sometimes credited as being the father of the modern golf swing. He refined the changes for a couple of years, and then took his game to the highest level of competition, the PGA Tour. Nelson's first significant victory was in 1935 at the New Jersey State Open. He followed this up with a win at the Metropolitan Open the following year. He reportedly won this tournament with "$5 in my pocket".

In 1937, Nelson was hired as the head professional at the Reading Country Club in Reading, Pennsylvania, and worked there until 1940, when he took a new job as head pro at the Inverness Club in Toledo, Ohio. While at Inverness, Nelson coached and mentored the promising young player Frank Stranahan, who would go on to stardom over the next two decades.

Wins major championships
Nelson won his first major title at The Masters in 1937, two shots ahead of runner-up Ralph Guldahl. During this tournament, he shot a first-round 66, which was the lowest first-round score at the Masters until 1976, when Raymond Floyd shot a 65 en route to his victory. Nelson won four more majors, the U.S. Open in 1939, the PGA Championship in 1940 and 1945, and a second Masters in 1942.

World War II years
Nelson had a blood disorder that caused his blood to clot four times slower than normal, which kept him out of military service during World War II. It has sometimes mistakenly been reported that he had hemophilia. During the war, Nelson gave hundreds of golf exhibitions across the country to raise money for charitable causes, often partnering with Harold "Jug" McSpaden, who was also exempt from military service.

Career highlights
In his career, Nelson won 52 professional events, and, along with McSpaden, was one of golf's "Gold Dust Twins".

Nelson won the Vardon Trophy in 1939. He played on two Ryder Cup teams, in 1937 and 1947, and was non-playing captain in 1965. After 1946, Nelson curtailed his schedule, although he continued to make regular appearances at The Masters as a competitor, played occasional Tour events, appeared in a few overseas tournaments, and later served as a ceremonial starter for many years.

Record-breaking year
In 1945, Nelson enjoyed a record-breaking year, winning 18 PGA tournaments out of the 30 he played, including 11 in a row that he played in. Both records are yet to be beaten. Nelson's run of 11 wins started in March with the Miami International Four-Ball, where he partnered Jug McSpaden. He then won 10 individual events ending with the Canadian Open in August, a run that finished when he finished tied for fourth place in the Memphis Invitational. During this run, he won the 1945 PGA Championship, the only major championship played that year. The week after the PGA Championship he missed the St. Paul Open with a back injury. There has been debate as to how impressive these results are, as it was believed to be a weakened tour due to the war. But in reality many of the leading golfers of that time, including Sam Snead and Ben Hogan still played a full or at least part schedule that year. Snead won 6 times in 1945 while Hogan won 5 times in the latter part of the year. During this year Nelson finished second another 7 times, set a record for the scoring average (68.33 for 18 holes) that was broken by Tiger Woods in 2000, a record 18 hole score (62), and a record 72-hole score (259, which beat the previous record set by Ben Hogan earlier that year). This year is now known as the greatest single year by a player on the PGA Tour, as Arnold Palmer said: "I don't think that anyone will ever exceed the things that Byron did by winning 11 tournaments in a row in one year." Even more recently, Tiger Woods referred to the year as "one of the great years in the history of the sport".

Cut streak
Nelson's record of 113 consecutive cuts made is second only to Tiger Woods' 142. The PGA Tour defines a "cut" as receiving a paycheck, even if an event has no cut per se. In Nelson's era, only the top 20 in a tournament received a check. In reality, Nelson's "113 consecutive cuts made" are representative of his unequaled 113 consecutive top 20 tournament finishes. Almost half of those top 20s were during the weakened tour war years of 1944 & 1945. In fact, 26 of Nelson's 52 tour wins were during those two weakened tour years of 1944 & 1945. Before 1944 he had never won more than 4 events in any year.

First to win 50 PGA Tour events
With his win at the 1946 Columbus Invitational, Nelson became the first player to reach 50 career PGA Tour wins. This feat has since been matched by Ben Hogan, Sam Snead, Arnold Palmer, Jack Nicklaus, Billy Casper, and Tiger Woods.

Notable performances
Nelson achieved several notable performances of scoring and accuracy at key moments in major championships:
 * 1937 Masters: Nelson scored a birdie and an eagle on holes 12 and 13 in the final round, making up six strokes on his main rival Ralph Guldahl, who played those same holes with a double bogey and a bogey; Nelson went on to win.
 * 1939 U.S. Open: Nelson hit the flagstick six times on approach shots during the regulation 72 holes and the 36 playoff holes, he won the championship.
 * 1945 PGA Championship: In the semi-final 36-hole match against Jim Turnesa, Nelson was down four holes with five holes remaining. He played those finishing holes with an eagle and four birdies to win the match; Turnesa scored a birdie and four pars over those holes; Nelson won the title the next day.

Retirement
Nelson retired officially at the relatively early age of 34 to become a rancher, buying a ranch in Roanoke, Texas.

Nelson later became a television golf commentator, during the 1960s and 1970s.

Byron Nelson Classic
From 1968, Nelson lent both his name and support to the Byron Nelson Golf Classic in Dallas; this was the first regularly-held PGA Tour event to be named for a professional golfer; the tournament had been previously staged as the Dallas Open.

Late-career competition, wins
As a former Masters champion, he continued to play in that annual tournament, placing in the top-10 six times between 1947 and 1955, and as high as 15th in 1965, at age 53. From 1947 to 1955 Nelson played in 12 majors and won none.

Nelson did win the 1951 Bing Crosby Pro-Am, a PGA Tour event that he had not won before. He also won the 1955 French Open. Nelson gave paid golf exhibitions for many years after he retired from the Tour, notably after his 1951 Crosby victory.

Writes memoirs
Nelson published his memoir "How I Played The Game" in 1993 (by Taylor Publishing, Dallas).

Over nearly 70 years in the sport, Nelson played with many celebrities and well-known personalities, including: Roone Arledge, Bing Crosby, James Garner, Bob Hope, Bobby Knight, Randolph Scott, Ed Sullivan, Johnny Weissmuller, Lawrence Welk, and Babe Zaharias.

Coach and mentor
Among the rising golf talents Nelson coached and mentored, from the 1950s to the 1970s, are World Golf Hall of Fame members Ken Venturi and Tom Watson, along with Marty Fleckman (who won the 1965 NCAA title and one PGA Tour event), and the dominant amateur Harvie Ward.

Death and legacy
Nelson died Tuesday, September 26, 2006. According to a family friend, Nelson died at his Roanoke, Texas home around noon. He was survived by Peggy, his wife of nearly 20 years, sister Margaret Ellen Sherman (1920–2007), and brother Charles (1926–2018), a professor emeritus at Abilene Christian University, where Byron Nelson had been a trustee and benefactor. Nelson met his second wife, the former Peggy (McDonald) Simmons of Toledo, Ohio, when she volunteered at the Bogie Busters celebrity golf tournament in Dayton, Ohio in 1985.

Nelson was often referred to as "Lord Byron", after the English poet by that name, in recognition of his reputation for gentlemanly conduct, a nickname given him by Atlanta sports journalist O. B. Keeler. Many of his obituaries referenced this reputation.

Nelson had several successful years as a television golf commentator. Among the memorable events he broadcast was the 1966 U.S. Open for ABC Sports. Nelson's comments as Arnold Palmer let slip a big lead to Billy Casper on the final nine holes: "A few holes ago, everybody thought this championship was over. Golf is the strangest game in the world." It was at the 1974 U.S. Open that Nelson met Watson for the first time, and the two connected after Watson let a big lead get away in the final round.

Nelson was ranked as the fifth greatest golfer of all time by Golf Digest magazine in 2000. On this list, Jack Nicklaus was first, Nelson's longtime rivals Ben Hogan and Sam Snead were second and third respectively, and Bobby Jones was fourth. A 2009 Sports Illustrated panel ranked him seventh on its list of all-time greatest golfers, behind Nicklaus, Tiger Woods, Jones, Hogan, Snead, and Arnold Palmer.

The "Iron Byron" electro-mechanical machine or robot, developed by Battelle Memorial Institute and True Temper Sports and used by the United States Golf Association and golf manufacturers to compare and test clubs and balls for conformity to standards, was named for Nelson, honoring the consistency of his swing.

In Jack Nicklaus's 1978 book On and Off the Fairway, Nicklaus wrote that Nelson was the straightest golfer he ever saw. The two never played competitively (except at the Masters; Nicklaus won in 1965, Nelson finished tied for 15th), but a 14-year-old Nicklaus was in the crowd at the 1954 U.S. Junior Amateur, when Nelson gave an exhibition hitting golf shots.

Posthumous honors
State Highway 114 Business through Roanoke, Texas is named Byron Nelson Boulevard, in honor of Nelson's residence; the street he lived on was recently changed to Eleven Straight Lane in honor of his 1945 record. In Irving, Texas a street immediately adjacent to the Four Seasons Resort and Club, where the HP Byron Nelson Championship is played each year, is named Byron Nelson Lane. A street in Southlake, Texas, Byron Nelson Parkway, was named in his honor, as was a street in a residential neighborhood in McAllen, Texas.

On September 29, 2006, the United States Senate approved Senate Resolution 602 awarding Byron Nelson the Congressional Gold Medal, the highest award bestowed by the Legislative Branch of the United States government. The resolution cites Mr. Nelson's "significant contributions to the game of golf as a player, a teacher, and a commentator". Representative Michael C. Burgess (R-TX) sponsored the resolution, originally proposed on March 8, 2006, well before Nelson's death. On June 27, 2007, Peggy Nelson, Byron Nelson's surviving wife, was presented with the medal.

On April 23, 2007, the Northwest Independent School District named their second high school Byron Nelson High School. This is the first high school named in honor of Byron Nelson and opened in the fall of 2009. The school is located in Trophy Club, Texas, near Nelson's hometown of Roanoke.

Artist Chelle Adams painted two portraits of Byron Nelson in dedication which hang in the school's auditorium. Orange County Choppers built three choppers in dedication which were auctioned off.

PGA Tour wins (52)
PGA Tour playoff record (6–4) Source:

Other wins (12)
(This list may be incomplete)
 * 1937 Central Pennsylvania Open
 * 1939 Massachusetts Open
 * 1940 Ohio Open
 * 1941 Ohio Open, Seminole Pro-Am
 * 1942 Toledo Open, Ohio Open
 * 1943 Kentucky Open
 * 1944 New York Open, Beverly Hills Open
 * 1948 Texas PGA Championship
 * 1955 French Open

Wins (5)
Note: The PGA Championship was match play until 1958

1 Defeated Craig Wood and Denny Shute in a 36-hole playoff - Nelson (68-70=138), Wood (68-73=141), Shute (76) (eliminated after first 18)

2 Defeated Ben Hogan in an 18-hole playoff - Nelson 69 (−3), Hogan 70 (−2)

Results timeline
{{legend|lime|Win}} {{legend|yellow|Top 10}} {{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}} NT = no tournament

WD = withdrew

CUT = missed the half-way cut

R64, R32, R16, QF, SF = Round in which player lost in PGA Championship match play

"T" indicates a tie for a place

Summary

 * Most consecutive cuts made – 26 (1937 Masters – 1949 Masters)
 * Longest streak of top-10s – 12 (1937 Open Championship – 1941 Masters)

Awards

 * Vardon Trophy: 1939
 * PGA Tour leading money winner: 1944, 1945
 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year: 1944, 1945
 * Bob Jones Award: 1974
 * World Golf Hall of Fame: 1974
 * Old Tom Morris Award: 1994
 * PGA Tour Lifetime Achievement Award: 1997
 * Payne Stewart Award: 2000
 * Congressional Gold Medal: 2006

title: Byron Nelson


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Torres (board game)

Torres is a German-style board game designed by Wolfgang Kramer and Michael Kiesling and published in 1999 by FX Schmid in German and by Rio Grande Games in English. The game strongly influenced Kramer and Kiesling's Mask Trilogy of games, but is not considered to be a part of the trilogy. The game has since been reprinted (in 2005).

Game play
Game play revolves around constructing an abstract set of castles set on a grid. Each player is allotted several knight pieces, which are placed within the castles. The higher the knights' placement during a scoring round, the greater the payoff for the controlling player.

The number of points a player receives per phase is based on the height times the surface area of the highest point of the castle that the knight is standing upon. If the knight is on the 3rd level of a castle, and the castle occupies 5 squares on the board, the player receives 15 points. A King piece is also placed on the board and acts as a bonus modifier to any knights that occupy the same level and castle as the King at the end of a phase.

The game is composed of three different phases, with each phase having three to four rounds each depending on the number of players. Each player has five action points (AP) to spend during a round. The following moves may be performed during a round:
 * Place a new knight (2 AP) All new knights must be adjacent to existing knights, and may only occupy a level equal to or lower than the existing knight on the board.
 * Place a new castle piece (1 AP) Castle pieces must be placed next to or on top of existing castle pieces. A castle's level cannot exceed the surface area, i.e., a castle occupying two squares on the map may only reach two levels in height. New castle pieces may not join two existing castles.
 * Pick up an action card (1 AP) There are 40 different action cards which allow the player to perform special moves, such as moving the King piece, moving castle pieces, or moving knights diagonally. In the master version, each player begins with a full set of action cards in their hand. Purchasing an action card is no longer a possible action.
 * Move a knight (1 AP/square) Knights may move one square per AP point spent, but may only move up one level, and may not move diagonally. Knights can go down any number of levels without spending AP.
 * Gain one victory point (1 AP) Action points may be exchanged for victory points on a one-to-one basis.

Players receive three or four stacks of castle pieces per phase with two or three pieces per stack, depending on the current phase and number of players. A player may only use pieces from one stack per phase, but may transfer unused pieces to another stack for the next phase. After the last phase is reached all unused castle pieces are returned to the common supply and points are calculated. The king gives a bonus of five, ten, or fifteen points based on the scoring phase.

The number of victory points per player is kept by individual markers on the edge of the game board. Since no two markers can occupy the same victory point number, the last player to occupy the space will automatically be moved ahead by one victory point. The person in last place after each scoring phase may then move the King piece to another castle.

After the third phase, all victory points are calculated and the person with the highest number of points wins the game.

Reception
The game won the Spiel des Jahres.

title: Torres (board game)


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Phosphodiester bond

In chemistry, a phosphodiester bond occurs when exactly two of the hydroxyl groups (\sOH) in phosphoric acid react with hydroxyl groups on other molecules to form two ester bonds. The "bond" involves this linkage C\sO\sPO2-O\sC. Discussion of phosphodiesters is dominated by their prevalence in DNA and RNA, but phosphodiesters occur in other biomolecules, e.g. acyl carrier proteins, phospholipids and the cyclic forms of GMP and AMP (cGMP and cAMP).

Phosphodiester Backbone of DNA and RNA
Phosphodiester bonds make up the backbones of DNA and RNA. In the phosphodiester bonds of nucleic acids, a phosphate is attached to the 5' carbon of one nucleoside and to the 3' carbon of the adjacent nucleoside. Specifically, it is the phosphodiester bonds that link the 3' carbon atom of one sugar molecule and the 5' carbon atom of another (hence the name 3', 5' phosphodiester linkage used with reference to this kind of bond in DNA and RNA chains). The involved saccharide groups are deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA. In order for the phosphodiester bond to form, joining the nucleosides, the tri-phosphate or di-phosphate forms of the nucleotide building blocks are broken apart to give off energy required to drive the enzyme-catalyzed reaction. In DNA replication, for example, formation of the phosphodiester bonds is catalyzed by a DNA polymerase enzyme, using a pair of magnesium cations and other supporting structures. Formation of the bond occurs not only in DNA and RNA replication, but also in the repair and recombination of nucleic acids, and may require the involvement of various polymerases, primers, and/or ligases. During the replication of DNA, for example, the DNA polymerase I leaves behind a hole between the phosphates in the newly formed backbone. DNA ligase is able to form a phosphodiester bond between the nucleotides on each side of the gap.

Phosphodiesters are negatively charged at pH 7. The negative charge attracts histones, metal cations such as magnesium, and polyamines [needs citation]. Repulsion between these negative charges influences the conformation of the polynucleic acids.

Breaking the Phosphodiester Bond
Hydrolysis (breaking) of phosphodiester bonds can be promoted in several ways. Phosphodiesterases are enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bond. These enzymes are involved in repairing DNA and RNA sequences, nucleotide salvage, and in the conversion of cGMP and cAMP to GMP and AMP, respectively. Hydrolysis of the phosphodiester bond also occurs chemically and spontaneously, without the aid of enzymes. For example, simple ribose (in RNA) has one more hydroxyl group than deoxyribose (in DNA), making the former less stable and more susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis, wherein relatively high pH conditions induce the breaking of the phosphodiester linkage between two ribonucleotides. The relative instability of RNA under hydroxyl attack of its phosphodiester bonds makes it inadequate for the storage of genomic information, but contributes to its usefulness in transcription and translation.

title: Phosphodiester bond