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Talk:Apostasy

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Apostasy from secret societies
It would be a good idea if relevant material could somehow be included about what happens to individuals who leave secret societies, such as the Freemasons, the Rosicrucians or the Propaganda Due. Because information on this is generally rare, few people have written about it in a detailed way except certain conspiracy theorists. For example, it was alleged that the death of celebrities like Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, John F. Kennedy and William Morgan was actually caused by their sudden departure from the secret societies. There is even an organization called the Order of Former Freemasons that discusses the phenomenon openly and without fear of repercussions. ADM (talk) 02:12, 10 September 2009 (UTC)
 * You may or may not be willing to accept my word for it, but as an active and fairly "advanced" Freemason (Past Master, 32nd Degree KCCH, York Rite, etc.) I can state categorically that there is absolutely no policy regarding Freemasons who choose to leave the Fraternity, nor any recriminations against them. While it is true that any Freemason who leaves the Fraternity and then goes on to violate his Obligations (by divulging Masonic secrets) will be ex-communicado vis-a-vis Masons in good standing, so long as he does not go to that extreme and simply leaves the Craft, Masons will just loose respect for him and will no longer honor any of the fraternal duties that they once owed him.  Anyone who claims that former Masons are persecuted or in any other way harmed by Masons, is spouting nonsense.  It would, in fact, be considered un-Masonic for a Mason to do so. Bricology (talk) 05:29, 16 February 2013 (UTC)

Jehovah's Witness apostates
Jehovah's Witnesses have a large number of apostates who have written books airing their grievances. They are rather notable and significant to the discussion. Two of the notable apostates are on Wikipedia, that is Ray Franz and James Penton. James Penton is notable because he is a Ph.D and Professor emeritus in Canada, and Ray Franz is also notable because he has written two books which are referred to extensively on the Jehovah's Witness page. There is another notable apostate of Jehovah's Witness Tony Wills who wrote a sharp history of Jehovah's Witnesses in 1967 which was republished in a 2nd edition in 2006. Jehovah's Witnesses have had a lot of problems with apostates in the psat few decades, so either a section under Christianity, a few of the names under notable apostates would be of importance. Ray Franz formerly was listed under notable apostates, but I didn't see any discussion about his name being taken off, it might have been taken off just by a passerby, as it were. In any case, this comment is open for discussion. Both Ray Franz and James Penton have pages here on Wikipedia.Natural (talk) 23:56, 1 January 2010 (UTC)Naturalpsychology

 * The use of the word "apostate" in reference to an individual is usually pejorative. Your previous edits have used the term in an attempt to denigrate individuals whose views differ from yours. I deleted Franz's name from this article because it was unsupported by any reliable published source. Please read WP:BLP before adding any information here. LTSally (talk) 00:06, 2 January 2010 (UTC)

pronunciation?
Thanks for including the pronunciation of "apostasy". What about "apostate"? How am I to pronounce that? Can that go in the article? Thx--24.85.68.231 (talk) 09:31, 27 March 2010 (UTC)

Ulster - dubious
I'm suspicious of the mention that apostasy is unlawful in Ulster (ie Northern Ireland) and have been unable to trace the citation given (or references thereto). Such a provision is also likely to be contrary to the UDHR and ECHR. Any thoughts? Sidefall (talk) 17:17, 27 January 2011 (UTC) ---

I have found additional information about apostasy that may be useful here. I would like more insight on where this portion might belong. I got this from Bryan Wilson's book, called "The Social Dimensions of Sectarianism".

Bryan R. Wilson, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus at Oxford University and former President of the International Society for the Sociology of Religion, did a study about apostasy and found that apostates are in particular informants whose evidence has to be used with circumspection. The apostate is generally in need of self-justification. He seeks to reconstruct his own past, to excuse his former affiliations and his own transgressions while part of the religion and to blame those who were formerly his closest associates. Not uncommonly the apostate learns to rehearse an 'atrocity story' to explain how he remained within an organization that he now forswears and condemns. Apostates, sensationalized by the press, have sometimes sought to make a profit from accounts of their experiences in stories sold to newspapers or tabloid media.

Any insights?KWcrew1983 (talk) 20:16, 14 April 2011 (UTC)

Baha'i apostates from Islam
I have flagged this claim as dubious: "Muslims often regard adherents of the Bahá'í faith as apostates from Islam". There are converts to Bahá'í from all faiths. Would Muslims really consider an American Christian or a Thai Buddhist who converted to Bahá'í to be an apostate from Islam? -- Q Chris (talk) 07:53, 27 July 2011 (UTC)
 * Yes, they would. The belief is that the Baha'i religion as a _whole_ is an Apostate belief system, so therefore anyone who belongs to it is an Apostate, regardless of whether they converted from orthodox Islam or not. 76.255.29.99 (talk) 15:43, 18 August 2011 (UTC)

It is not Illegal in Jordan
The percentage of atheism is higher than any of the regional countries. Apostasy is not illegal and is not punishable by law. The citations used are either biased and unreliable sources or no longer exist. (It should be noted that a woman/man can file for divorce based on changes of ideology) Please fix this.

This is a quote from the sources: “In Jordan apostasy is not a criminal [offence] and the Islamic courts only have jurisdiction in matters of so-called Personal Status issues (mainly family and inheritance law).”

46.185.147.33 (talk) 17:47, 1 October 2013 (UTC)

 * The Library of Congress has this to say about the situation in Jordan:

 * —Coconutporkpie (talk) 03:45, 11 May 2015 (UTC)

Jehovah's Witnesses and article weight
User:Q Chris and User:Jeffro77, I think that Jeffro77's reduction of the entry on Jehovah's witnesses, with a link to a larger article, is an appropriate compromise here. I'm happy to participate in discussion here before further reverts if that is helpful? -Darouet (talk) 18:07, 5 December 2013 (UTC)
 * Thanks. Though I would note that my reduction of the section wasn't actually a compromise. It was exactly the same as my initial edit, which was apparantely mistaken for deleting the section. It is certainly not necessary for a minor Christian denomination to be presented as if it is a major religion (and certainly not at the top of the list). It is also not necessary (or appropriate) for this article to enter into whether JW doctrines are right or wrong, so that content was removed.-- Jeffro 77 (talk) 22:16, 5 December 2013 (UTC)
 * A more extensive treatment of the JW belief on apostasy is at Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs. That would be the more informative article to use for the "Main article" link. BlackCab (talk) 23:22, 5 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I didn't actually pay any attention to what had been linked as the main article in my previous edit, but I've changed it now.-- Jeffro 77 (talk) 06:54, 6 December 2013 (UTC)

I just wanted to say that on reflection I am happy with the edit. -- Q Chris (talk) 08:29, 6 December 2013 (UTC)

Nonsense
"A person is an apostate even if he or she believes in most of Islam, but verbally or in writing denies of one or more principles or precepts of Islam. For example, if a Muslim (...) enters a church or temple, (...) celebrates festivals of non-Muslim religion, helps build a church or temple, (...)." Nonsense. I've seen Muslism all over the Europe entering churches as per tourism, I myself have entered Holy See. In Iran or Iraq I've seen Muslims helping Christians build their churches. This paragraph is some nonsense. Maybe those are rules for wahabis from Saudi Arabia but not for Muslims. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.90.57.129 (talk) 02:35, 17 December 2013 (UTC)

Egypt
Egypt is marked on the map as one of the countries, which have the death penalty for apostatsy, yet in the list it says the punishment is 3 years imprisonment. This needs to be corrected. Which is true? --Feuerrabe (talk) 16:10, 29 May 2014 (UTC)

Countries that are illegal
Question: in the list of countries where apostasy is illegal, is it illegal for abandoning just one specific religion (Islam in most cases) or is it illegal to renounce other faith as well? What about if you already are an unbeliever when you enter the country (so just be an unbeliever is illegal, instead of giving up the religion)? I believe we should clarify this. Thieh (talk) 23:12, 31 May 2014 (UTC)

Meriam Yehya Ibrahim Ishag
I'm removing Meriam Yehya Ibrahim Ishag as she does not fit the definition: she was raised as a Christian and has never professed Islam (contrary to, e.g., Youcef Nadarkhani). She might fit under "people labeled as apostates", but that would be a different list. e.g. CNN Irmgard (talk) 14:17, 8 July 2014 (UTC)
 * I disagree, this is an article about apostacy, not a list. It is a good of how Muslims interpret apostasy. -- Q Chris (talk) 07:34, 9 July 2014 (UTC)

 * The Meriam case belongs in this article, because in Islam, a female child does not have to profess being a Muslim to be a Muslim. If her father is Muslim, she is automatically a Muslim. If she changes her religion, or marries a non-Muslim, any time, she is an apostate. The cited source confirms this. RLoutfy (talk) 10:01, 2 August 2014 (UTC)
 * I agree that this case deserves a mention, but because there is a link to a separate article, much of the text is redundant. There is even repetition within the current paragraph that is unnecessary. I inserted a trimmed down version previously and believe that contains the sufficient information. When compared to the other entries in the list, the current form appears to suffer from recentism. AtHomeIn神戸 (talk) 00:54, 5 August 2014 (UTC)

Morocco?
Map says Morocco has the death penalty for apostasy, the body of the article gives no specifics, only that apostasy is covered by the law "indirectly", and other sources indicate that Morocco has the death penalty only for terrorism.--158.222.143.13 (talk) 05:19, 11 October 2014 (UTC)
 * I believe that this article explians it. As far as I understand it the Moroccan law allows the Supreme Council of Religious Scholars to impose fatwas on religious matters, and recognises these as law. The Supreme Council of Religious Scholars issued a fatwa that Muslims who leave Islam must be sentenced to death. -- Q Chris (talk) 12:38, 11 October 2014 (UTC)
 * I don't see how you understand that from the source you provided. No where is it stated that fatwas by the Supreme Council of Religious Scholars are recognized as law or are even binding in any way. In fact, if you follow up on the references in that source you will see that a Moroccan government official dismisses the fatwa and denying that the government has asked for their advice, which implies that they are just an advisory body. If this is the source on which the claim about the death penalty for apostasy is based, then it is clearly false -- the source itself includes an official denial that the fatwa is legally binding. The map should be changed.--158.222.143.13 (talk) 06:25, 12 November 2014 (UTC)
 * You could be right, it needs someone who understands what "recognising" a religious law means in Morocco. If it means that religious organisatons are free to impose the penalty, or the state would impose it on their behalf then the map should stay as it is. If it is just some sort of formality then it should be changed. -- Q Chris (talk) 13:00, 12 November 2014 (UTC)
 * Well, with an explicit governmental denial that the fatwa is binding and in the absence of any source claiming otherwise it is clear that the map should be changed until someone can provide evidence that Morocco has the death penalty for apostasy. Many countries have religious authorities that are recognized by the states but there's no reason to assume that these authorities have legislative powers.--158.222.143.13 (talk) 13:59, 14 November 2014 (UTC)
 * I agree with the original comment; the source does not imply that religious decrees are equivalent to laws or that carrying out a fatwa is necessarily legal. See new section (Map: criminal penalties) below for map. -Coconutporkpie (talk) 19:57, 7 April 2015 (UTC)

Judaism/opening statement
It claims in the opening statement that Apostates are put to death under Sharia in Islam and in Judaism, and it uses Deuteronomy as the reference. I believe this should say old testament or historical/ancient Judaism, as that is not a practice of Judaism today. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 170.142.177.63 (talk) 19:07, 4 February 2015 (UTC)

 * I believe that the reference to "Judaism" here should be deleted unless there are other sources to confirm the accepted legitimacy of a death sentence for apostate Jews, and I have seen none, let alone verified instances of such a sentence being carried out. As I understand it, the Bible is not generally considered a "reliable source" for this kind of statement, not least because Jewish law has been continually re-interpreted for many centuries. -Coconutporkpie (talk) 17:11, 5 April 2015 (UTC)

Legal status of apostasy unclear in Somalia
The article cited when referring to the legal status of apostasy in Somalia is outdated as the political climate in Somalia has changed greatly since the article was published in 2009. The Federal Government of Somalia hasn't addressed the issue apostasy. So far executions for apostasy are carried out extrajudicially by Islamist groups like Al-Shabaab. In Somaliland and Puntland, apostasy from islam is made illegal in their constitutions. Although, a punishment for apostasy hasn't been specified. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Mari0-k6862 (talk • contribs) 17:25, 17 March 2015 (UTC)
 * A 2013 report by the IHEU on countries with the death penalty for apostates included Somalia. —Coconutporkpie (talk) 22:40, 11 May 2015 (UTC)

Map: death penalty

This map incorrectly marks Egypt as a country punishing apostates with execution, which is not in the source cited. -Coconutporkpie (talk) 22:14, 6 April 2015 (UTC)

Map: criminal penalties (Morocco)

Morocco is marked here as a country imposing a death sentence for apostasy, yet the source cited (Library of Congress) is unclear about whether the religious decree in question has the status of law or not. Middle East Online reported a senior Moroccan government official denying that the fatwa was in any way legally binding. -Coconutporkpie (talk) 20:07, 7 April 2015 (UTC)

 * The LOC source states, on page 11, "in April 2013, the Supreme Council of Religious Scholars issued a religious decree (fatwa) that Moroccan Muslims who leave Islam must be sentenced to death. Religious decrees are significant because Islam is the official state religion under article 3 of the Moroccan Constitution of 2011. Additionally, under article 41 of the Constitution, the Supreme Council of Religious Scholars “is the sole instance enabled [habilitée] to comment [prononcer] on religious consultations (Fatwas)."

 * The map presents "Countries criminalizing apostasy as of 2014", not whether the sentence is actually imposed or postponed. The map looks fine to me. If isn't, what is your concern? Do you have a suggestion for a different color coding? RLoutfy (talk) 23:03, 7 May 2015 (UTC)

 * Article 41 of the Moroccan Constitution goes on to specify that "The Council is the sole instance enabled [habilitée] to comment [prononcer] on the religious consultations (Fatwas) before being officially agreed to, on the questions to which it has been referred [saisi]". Yet the quoted member of the government denied that any such question had been referred to the council.  It's still unclear based on the sources whether Morocco as a nation-state has instituted any law criminalizing officially sanctioned a legal death penalty for apostasy. —Coconutporkpie (talk) 03:01, 11 May 2015 (UTC)

 * You are misinterpreting the Middle East Online article. It quotes Mahjoub El Hiba as, ""I am not authorised to request advice or fatwas from the CSO. I do not have to comment on what a constitutional body like this does," he added. He is speaking for himself, not Morocco. The other issue is: does Middle East Online meet wikipedia WP:RS requirements? Unless you provide a reliable source, one that explicitly reaches or implies a conclusion conflicting with other three sources, we should stick with the red color. Meanwhile I am changing the color code for Morocco because at least "converting a Muslim is a crime in Morocco", and adding the map back in. RLoutfy (talk) 14:34, 11 May 2015 (UTC)
 * I think that the article in question is clear on these points:"Government denies having requested any such fatwa from council of Islamic scholars as Ministry of Islamic Affairs declines to comment"; "'What was published in the document attributed to the CSO does not concern our government and commits us to nothing,' Hiba said". Is Middle East Online a reliable source?  The Library of Congress seems to think so, at least.  The article in question is used as a the source for the LOC statement on the fatwa.  If Middle East Online does not meet WP:RS requirements, then the LOC source would be out as well becomes questionable.  I don't know what "other three sources" means; The Pew Research article deals with calendar year 2012, but the Moroccan fatwa was not issued till 2013. —Coconutporkpie (talk) 20:33, 11 May 2015 (UTC)

A report issued several months after the Middle East Online article by the International Humanist and Ethical Union (IHEU) named 13 countries in which apostasy was punishable by death, and Morocco was not among them. To quote: According to Reuters:

—Coconutporkpie (talk) 21:06, 11 May 2015 (UTC) The IHEU report for 2014 can be found at freethoughtreport.com. I haven't downloaded it and it may have information that conflicts with the previous report. —Coconutporkpie (talk) 21:33, 11 May 2015 (UTC)

According to the newer report: —Coconutporkpie (talk) 00:54, 15 May 2015 (UTC)

On the one hand there is the official Islamic Council demanding a death sentence for apostates, while on the other, a criminal sentence of 3 to 6 months' imprisonment is given to apostates "in practice". —Coconutporkpie (talk) 08:31, 16 May 2015 (UTC)

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Map at the beginning of the article
The map at the beginning of the article (Map of countries with death penalty for atheists.svg) might not be appropriate here.

Its captions in the article says it shows: "Countries in which, as of 2013, apostasy or blasphemy against the local or state religion was punishable by execution under the law. " However, according to the sources cited in the caption, the map shows countries where being an atheist is punishable by death. The name of the image and its own description page indicate the same.

Some of the countries shown here may punish apostasy or blasphemy against Islam by execution as well, but not all atheists are apostates from Islam, and vice versa.

Also, although the sources cited put Malaysia in the list, this inclusion is dubious. The Syariah Courts of Malaysia do not use execution (death penalty).--27.38.2.0 (talk) 00:35, 4 June 2018 (UTC)

Fix the map or remove it
As previously mentioned, there is no basis for claiming that some of the countries e.g. Morocco punish apostasy with the death penalty. The map is, at best, grossly misleading, and at worst blatant disinformation. This very same discussion was had 4 years ago, with the same conclusion that the legal statuses of certain countries are outdated. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 85.229.245.121 (talk) 19:20, 23 April 2019 (UTC)

 * To start with, you can provide reliable sources to support your criticism of the map. With that, we can put a list of errata on the page of the map and into the legends. Then someone can use that to fix the map. Thanks. Eperoton (talk) 00:06, 26 April 2019 (UTC)

Hinduism
Some people constantly remove anything that doesn't say Hinduism completely tolerates apostasy. These are User:Snowcream and User:Wikiforhistory. Their reasons for removal seem various - unverifiable (When I gave links), synthesis (when I didn't really deviate from the sources), cherry-picked (I didn't pick out what would be added or not). The source Hinduism Today they restore is not reliable and is not based on any primary source. Hinduism has no central authority so views will differ. Their interest doesn't seem to be in letting any various views of Hindu scriptures remain. 59.96.134.44 (talk) 12:56, 7 May 2019 (UTC)
 * One of the issues when dealing with Hinduism is that it is very diverse, and something believed by one branch can contradict the teachings of another. I have added a sentence indicating that there are differences, ans with this I am happy with your text. Incidentally Hinduism Today can be a good source at times, it has scholarly articles explaining various texts from Upanishads, Agamas, etc. It also has opinion pieces, so each has to be taken individually. Also it should be recognised that it represents Shaiva Siddhanta, so opinion pieces will slant towards that particular interpretation. -- Q Chris (talk) 16:27, 7 May 2019 (UTC)

I see that, but the one who wrote in that Hinduism does not even know apostasy and tolerates apostasy without any question is certainly not basing his statement on any study of ancient Hinduism. The author of the "Introduction" of the issue of Hinduism Today isn't stated, so I don't know who wrote it,

Nor of course it makes the magazine necessary reliable if they included other scholars. What needs to be recognised that often these things might be slanted towards feelings of people rather than any study of scriptures, or other sects for that matter.

I did try to look for scriptures that talk on toleration of apostasy, but it's difficult to find any scholar analysis of Hindu scriptures on apostasy. Let's keep trying. 59.96.134.44 (talk) 20:31, 7 May 2019 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 18:21, 23 June 2019 (UTC)
 * Apostate.png

Should the Islamic State in Syria's Laws Regarding Apostasy be considered Syrian Laws Regarding Apostasy?
Although the Islamic State isn't the Syrian government they still have judicial power over a portion of the country. The Islamic State does punish apostasy ,within its jurisdiction, with death while Syrian government does not. Although it is relevant to the topic of apostasy does the Islamic State deserves its own subsection or should it be classified under the section regarding Syria's laws?

Wherrman (talk) 02:41, 19 November 2019 (UTC)Wherrman

 * I'd say no, if we don't recognise their authority then we shouldn't recognise their law. At most there should be a separate section for "Islamic state" -- Q Chris (talk) 10:54, 19 November 2019 (UTC).

Nigeria?
Nigeria is on the map but not the list...? 0m9Ep (talk) 14:10, 2 April 2020 (UTC) - The following countries have criminal statutes that forbid apostasy or blasphemy:

 * Afghanistan – illegal (death penalty, though the U.S. and other coalition members have exerted pressure which has prevented recent executions).
 * Brunei – per recently enacted Sharia law, Section 112(1) of the Brunei Penal Code states that a Muslim who declares himself non-Muslim commits a crime that is punishable with death, or with up to 30 year imprisonment, depending on the type of evidence. However, if the accused has recanted his conversion, he may be acquitted of the crime of apostasy.
 * Comoros – illegal (death penalty)
 * Iran – not in the Penal Code, but the use of the death penalty for cases of apostasy was approved by the Iranian Parliament in 2008.
 * Jordan – possibly illegal (fine, child custody loss, marriage annulment) although officials claim otherwise, convictions are recorded for apostasy
 * Kuwait – Apostasy is not illegal in Kuwait, although apostasy is penalized in family courts for Muslims.  For Muslims, apostasy in family court can result in loss of child custody, inheritance rights, annulment if married to a Muslim.
 * Malaysia – illegal in five of thirteen states (fines) if they do not get conversion permission from Sharia court. Additionally, a number of states have voted bills into law that allow for apostates from Islam to be detained and reeducated.
 * Maldives - illegal for Muslim nationals (loss of citizenship). Illegal to proselytize for religions other than Islam.
 * Mauritania – illegal (death penalty if still apostate after 3 days)
 * Morocco – not illegal, but official Islamic council decreed apostates should be put to death.  Illegal to proselytize for religions other than Islam (six months to three years imprisonment)
 * Oman – illegal (prison) according to Article 209 of Oman penal code, and denies child custody rights under Article 32 of Personal Status Law
 * Qatar – illegal (death penalty)
 * Saudi Arabia – illegal (flogging, imprisonment and death penalty, although there have been no recently reported executions)
 * Somalia – illegal (death penalty)
 * Sudan – illegal (death penalty)
 * Syria – defamation of religious proceedings punishable with 2 year jail sentence.
 * United Arab Emirates – illegal (3 years' imprisonment, death penalty)
 * Yemen – illegal (death penalty)

Article Superstition in Judaism has been nominated for deletion
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Since some editors are contesting existence of articles associating religions and religious communities to superstitions, One of the article which concerns this project/topic has been nominated for deletion. You can support or contest the deletion at Articles for deletion/Superstition in Judaism by putting forward your opinion.

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Outdated information for Sudan?
Sudan's new government abolished the apostasy law in 2020, the article and map should be updated to reflect this change.

Incorrect map
The map that has been added is incorrect (for the reasons which I will state below). That is why I initially removed it and why I will have reverted its readdition.

In contrast with this map, the Freedom of Thought Report, on which this map appears to be based, does not list Brunei, Pakistan, Somalia, Somaliland and Sudan among ten countries in which apostasy is punishable by death, at least in the latest publication as of March 2021. Malaysia, however, is listed among these countries (despite unenforceability), in contrast with this map. - Krmody (talk) 07:17, 16 March 2021 (UTC)

Hypostasy
I added a paragraph under "Buddhism", referring to "hypostasy", used as if it were the opposite of "apostasy", if apostasy is taken to be falling away from belief. Hypostatsy is taken to be "falling into belief", where both terms are taken as negative; nobody would call themselves either an apostate nor a hypostate, because both terms denote error.

I don't know if this word is attested anywhere other than the book I cited. For what it's worth, the prefix "hypo-" means "under". "Apo-" means "apart", so they are not etymologically opposites.

The word "hypostasy" doesn't occur in Wiktionary.

MrDemeanour (talk) 19:22, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Apostasy


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Another important classification is based on the time required to regenerate an energy resource. "Renewable" resources are those that recover their capacity in a time significant by human needs. Examples are hydroelectric power or wind power, when the natural phenomena that are the primary source of energy are ongoing and not depleted by human demands. Non-renewable resources are those that are significantly depleted by human usage and that will not recover their potential significantly during human lifetimes. An example of a non-renewable energy source is coal, which does not form naturally at a rate that would support human use.

Fossil fuels

Fossil fuel (primary non-renewable fossil) sources burn coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation. These fossil fuels are part of the carbon cycle and allow solar energy stored in the fuel to be released.

The use of fossil fuels in the 18th and 19th century set the stage for the Industrial Revolution.

Fossil fuels make up the bulk of the world's current primary energy sources. In 2005, 81% of the world's energy needs was met from fossil sources. The technology and infrastructure for the use of fossil fuels already exist. Liquid fuels derived from petroleum deliver much usable energy per unit of weight or volume, which is advantageous when compared with lower energy density sources such as batteries. Fossil fuels are currently economical for decentralized energy use.

Energy dependence on imported fossil fuels creates energy security risks for dependent countries. Oil dependence in particular has led to war, funding of radicals, monopolization, and socio-political instability.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources, which will eventually decline in production and become exhausted. While the processes that created fossil fuels are ongoing, fuels are consumed far more quickly than the natural rate of replenishment. Extracting fuels becomes increasingly costly as society consumes the most accessible fuel deposits. Extraction of fossil fuels results in environmental degradation, such as the strip mining and mountaintop removal for coal.

Fuel efficiency is a form of thermal efficiency, meaning the efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier fuel into kinetic energy or work. The fuel economy is the energy efficiency of a particular vehicle, is given as a ratio of distance travelled per unit of fuel consumed. Weight-specific efficiency (efficiency per unit weight) may be stated for freight, and passenger-specific efficiency (vehicle efficiency) per passenger. The inefficient atmospheric combustion (burning) of fossil fuels in vehicles, buildings, and power plants contributes to urban heat islands.

Conventional production of oil peaked, conservatively, between 2007 and 2010. In 2010, it was estimated that an investment of $8 trillion in non-renewable resources would be required to maintain current levels of production for 25 years. In 2010, governments subsidized fossil fuels by an estimated $500 billion a year. Fossil fuels are also a source of greenhouse gas emissions, leading to concerns about global warming if consumption is not reduced.

The combustion of fossil fuels leads to the release of pollution into the atmosphere. The fossil fuels are mainly carbon compounds. During combustion, carbon dioxide is released, and also nitrogen oxides, soot and other fine particulates. The carbon dioxide is the main contributor to recent climate change. Other emissions from fossil fuel power station include sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOC), mercury, arsenic, lead, cadmium, and other heavy metals including traces of uranium.

A typical coal plant generates billions of kilowatt hours of electrical power per year.

Fission
Nuclear power is the use of nuclear fission to generate useful heat and electricity. Fission of uranium produces nearly all economically significant nuclear power. Radioisotope thermoelectric generators form a very small component of energy generation, mostly in specialized applications such as deep space vehicles.

Nuclear power plants, excluding naval reactors, provided about 5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the world's electricity in 2012.

In 2013, the IAEA report that there are 437 operational nuclear power reactors, in 31 countries, although not every reactor is producing electricity. In addition, there are approximately 140 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion in operation, powered by some 180 reactors. As of 2013, attaining a net energy gain from sustained nuclear fusion reactions, excluding natural fusion power sources such as the Sun, remains an ongoing area of international physics and engineering research. More than 60 years after the first attempts, commercial fusion power production remains unlikely before 2050.

There is an ongoing debate about nuclear power. Proponents, such as the World Nuclear Association, the IAEA and Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy contend that nuclear power is a safe, sustainable energy source that reduces carbon emissions. Opponents contend that nuclear power poses many threats to people and the environment.

Nuclear power plant accidents include the Chernobyl disaster (1986), Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster (2011), and the Three Mile Island accident (1979). There have also been some nuclear submarine accidents. In terms of lives lost per unit of energy generated, analysis has determined that nuclear power has caused less fatalities per unit of energy generated than the other major sources of energy generation. Energy production from coal, petroleum, natural gas and hydropower has caused a greater number of fatalities per unit of energy generated due to air pollution and energy accident effects. However, the economic costs of nuclear power accidents is high, and meltdowns can take decades to clean up. The human costs of evacuations of affected populations and lost livelihoods is also significant.

Comparing Nuclear's latent cancer deaths, such as cancer with other energy sources immediate deaths per unit of energy generated(GWeyr). This study does not include fossil fuel related cancer and other indirect deaths created by the use of fossil fuel consumption in its "severe accident" classification, which would be an accident with more than 5 fatalities.

As of 2012, according to the IAEA, worldwide there were 68 civil nuclear power reactors under construction in 15 countries, approximately 28 of which in the People's Republic of China (PRC), with the most recent nuclear power reactor, as of May 2013, to be connected to the electrical grid, occurring on February 17, 2013, in Hongyanhe Nuclear Power Plant in the PRC. In the United States, two new Generation III reactors are under construction at Vogtle. U.S. nuclear industry officials expect five new reactors to enter service by 2020, all at existing plants. In 2013, four aging, uncompetitive, reactors were permanently closed.

Recent experiments in extraction of uranium use polymer ropes that are coated with a substance that selectively absorbs uranium from seawater. This process could make the considerable volume of uranium dissolved in seawater exploitable for energy production. Since ongoing geologic processes carry uranium to the sea in amounts comparable to the amount that would be extracted by this process, in a sense the sea-borne uranium becomes a sustainable resource.

Nuclear power is a low carbon power generation method of producing electricity, with an analysis of the literature on its total life cycle emission intensity finding that it is similar to renewable sources in a comparison of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per unit of energy generated. Since the 1970s, nuclear fuel has displaced about 64 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2-eq) greenhouse gases, that would have otherwise resulted from the burning of oil, coal or natural gas in fossil-fuel power stations.

Nuclear power phase-out and pull-backs
Japan's 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident, which occurred in a reactor design from the 1960s, prompted a rethink of nuclear safety and nuclear energy policy in many countries. Germany decided to close all its reactors by 2022, and Italy has banned nuclear power. Following Fukushima, in 2011 the International Energy Agency halved its estimate of additional nuclear generating capacity to be built by 2035.

Fukushima
Following the 2011 Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster – the second worst nuclear incident, that displaced 50,000 households after radioactive material leaked into the air, soil and sea, and with subsequent radiation checks leading to bans on some shipments of vegetables and fish – a global public support survey by Ipsos (2011) for energy sources was published and nuclear fission was found to be the least popular

Fission economics

The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject, since there are diverging views on this topic, and multibillion-dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy source. Nuclear power plants typically have high capital costs for building the plant, but low direct fuel costs. In recent years there has been a slowdown of electricity demand growth and financing has become more difficult, which affects large projects such as nuclear reactors, with very large upfront costs and long project cycles which carry a large variety of risks. In Eastern Europe, a number of long-established projects are struggling to find finance, notably Belene in Bulgaria and the additional reactors at Cernavoda in Romania, and some potential backers have pulled out. Where cheap gas is available and its future supply relatively secure, this also poses a major problem for nuclear projects.

Analysis of the economics of nuclear power must take into account who bears the risks of future uncertainties. To date all operating nuclear power plants were developed by state-owned or regulated utility monopolies where many of the risks associated with construction costs, operating performance, fuel price, and other factors were borne by consumers rather than suppliers. Many countries have now liberalized the electricity market where these risks, and the risk of cheaper competitors emerging before capital costs are recovered, are borne by plant suppliers and operators rather than consumers, which leads to a significantly different evaluation of the economics of new nuclear power plants.

Costs
Costs are likely to go up for currently operating and new nuclear power plants, due to increased requirements for on-site spent fuel management and elevated design basis threats. While first of their kind designs, such as the EPRs under construction are behind schedule and over-budget, of the seven South Korean APR-1400s presently under construction worldwide, two are in S.Korea at the Hanul Nuclear Power Plant and four are at the largest nuclear station construction project in the world as of 2016, in the United Arab Emirates at the planned Barakah nuclear power plant. The first reactor, Barakah-1 is 85% completed and on schedule for grid-connection during 2017. Two of the four EPRs under construction (in Finland and France) are significantly behind schedule and substantially over cost.

Renewable sources

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat. Renewable energy replaces conventional fuels in four distinct areas: electricity generation, hot water/space heating, motor fuels, and rural (off-grid) energy services.

Including traditional biomass usage, about 19% of global energy consumption is accounted for by renewable resources. Wind powered energy production is being turned to as a prominent renewable energy source, increasing global wind power capacity by 12% in 2021. While not the case for all countries, 58% of sample countries linked renewable energy consumption to have a positive impact on economic growth. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. National renewable energy markets are projected to continue to grow strongly in the coming decade and beyond.[76]

Unlike other energy sources, renewable energy sources are not as restricted by geography. Additionally deployment of renewable energy is resulting in economic benefits as well as combating climate change. Rural electrification has been researched on multiple sites and positive effects on commercial spending, appliance use, and general activities requiring electricity as energy. Renewable energy growth in at least 38 countries has been driven by the high electricity usage rates. International support for promoting renewable sources like solar and wind have continued grow.

While many renewable energy projects are large-scale, renewable technologies are also suited to rural and remote areas and developing countries, where energy is often crucial in human development. To ensure human development continues sustainably, governments around the world are beginning to research potential ways to implement renewable sources into their countries and economies. For example, the UK Government’s Department for Energy and Climate Change 2050 Pathways created a mapping technique to educate the public on land competition between energy supply technologies. This tool provides users the ability to understand what the limitations and potential their surrounding land and country has in terms of energy production.

Hydroelectricity

Hydroelectricity is electric power generated by hydropower; the force of falling or flowing water. In 2015 hydropower generated 16.6% of the world's total electricity and 70% of all renewable electricity and was expected to increase about 3.1% each year for the following 25 years.

Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. China is the largest hydroelectricity producer, with 721 terawatt-hours of production in 2010, representing around 17 percent of domestic electricity use. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW: the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam across the Brazil/Paraguay border, and Guri Dam in Venezuela.

The cost of hydroelectricity is relatively low, making it a competitive source of renewable electricity. The average cost of electricity from a hydro plant larger than 10 megawatts is 3 to 5 U.S. cents per kilowatt-hour. Hydro is also a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. However, damming interrupts the flow of rivers and can harm local ecosystems, and building large dams and reservoirs often involves displacing people and wildlife. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide than fossil fuel powered energy plants.

Wind
Wind power harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. There are offshore and onshore wind farms. Global wind power capacity has expanded rapidly to 336 GW in June 2014, and wind energy production was around 4% of total worldwide electricity usage, and growing rapidly.

Wind power is widely used in Europe, Asia, and the United States. Several countries have achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, 14% in Ireland, and 9% in Germany in 2010. By 2011, at times over 50% of electricity in Germany and Spain came from wind and solar power. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis.

Many of the world's largest onshore wind farms are located in the United States, China, and India. Most of the world's largest offshore wind farms are located in Denmark, Germany and the United Kingdom. The two largest offshore wind farm are currently the 630 MW London Array and Gwynt y Môr.

Biofuels
A biofuel is a fuel that contains energy from geologically recent carbon fixation. These fuels are produced from living organisms. Examples of this carbon fixation occur in plants and microalgae. These fuels are made by a biomass conversion (biomass refers to recently living organisms, most often referring to plants or plant-derived materials). This biomass can be converted to convenient energy containing substances in three different ways: thermal conversion, chemical conversion, and biochemical conversion. This biomass conversion can result in fuel in solid, liquid, or gas form. This new biomass can be used for biofuels. Biofuels have increased in popularity because of rising oil prices and the need for energy security.

Bioethanol is an alcohol made by fermentation, mostly from carbohydrates produced in sugar or starch crops such as corn or sugarcane. Cellulosic biomass, derived from non-food sources, such as trees and grasses, is also being developed as a feedstock for ethanol production. Ethanol can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a gasoline additive to increase octane and improve vehicle emissions. Bioethanol is widely used in the USA and in Brazil. Current plant design does not provide for converting the lignin portion of plant raw materials to fuel components by fermentation.

Biodiesel is made from vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel can be used as a fuel for vehicles in its pure form, but it is usually used as a diesel additive to reduce levels of particulates, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons from diesel-powered vehicles. Biodiesel is produced from oils or fats using transesterification and is the most common biofuel in Europe. However, research is underway on producing renewable fuels from decarboxylation

In 2010, worldwide biofuel production reached 105 billion liters (28 billion gallons US), up 17% from 2009, and biofuels provided 2.7% of the world's fuels for road transport, a contribution largely made up of ethanol and biodiesel. Global ethanol fuel production reached 86 billion liters (23 billion gallons US) in 2010, with the United States and Brazil as the world's top producers, accounting together for 90% of global production. The world's largest biodiesel producer is the European Union, accounting for 53% of all biodiesel production in 2010. As of 2011, mandates for blending biofuels exist in 31 countries at the national level and in 29 states or provinces. The International Energy Agency has a goal for biofuels to meet more than a quarter of world demand for transportation fuels by 2050 to reduce dependence on petroleum and coal.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy is thermal energy generated and stored in the Earth. Thermal energy is the energy that determines the temperature of matter. The geothermal energy of the Earth's crust originates from the original formation of the planet (20%) and from radioactive decay of minerals (80%). The geothermal gradient, which is the difference in temperature between the core of the planet and its surface, drives a continuous conduction of thermal energy in the form of heat from the core to the surface. The adjective geothermal originates from the Greek roots γη (ge), meaning earth, and θερμος (thermos), meaning hot.

Earth's internal heat is thermal energy generated from radioactive decay and continual heat loss from Earth's formation. Temperatures at the core-mantle boundary may reach over 4000 °C (7,200 °F). The high temperature and pressure in Earth's interior cause some rock to melt and solid mantle to behave plastically, resulting in portions of mantle convecting upward since it is lighter than the surrounding rock. Rock and water is heated in the crust, sometimes up to 370 °C (700 °F).

From hot springs, geothermal energy has been used for bathing since Paleolithic times and for space heating since ancient Roman times, but it is now better known for electricity generation. Worldwide, 11,400 megawatts (MW) of geothermal power is online in 24 countries in 2012. An additional 28 gigawatts of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating, space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications in 2010.

Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, sustainable, and environmentally friendly, but has historically been limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable resources, especially for applications such as home heating, opening a potential for widespread exploitation. Geothermal wells release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much lower per energy unit than those of fossil fuels. As a result, geothermal power has the potential to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed in place of fossil fuels.

The Earth's geothermal resources are theoretically more than adequate to supply humanity's energy needs, but only a very small fraction may be profitably exploited. Drilling and exploration for deep resources is very expensive. Forecasts for the future of geothermal power depend on assumptions about technology, energy prices, subsidies, and interest rates. Pilot programs like EWEB's customer opt in Green Power Program show that customers would be willing to pay a little more for a renewable energy source like geothermal. But as a result of government assisted research and industry experience, the cost of generating geothermal power has decreased by 25% over the past two decades. In 2001, geothermal energy cost between two and ten US cents per kWh.

Oceanic
Marine Renewable Energy (MRE) or marine power (also sometimes referred to as ocean energy, ocean power, or marine and hydrokinetic energy) refers to the energy carried by the mechanical energy of ocean waves, currents, and tides, shifts in salinity gradients, and ocean temperature differences. MRE has the potential to become a reliable and renewable energy source because of the cyclical nature of the oceans. The movement of water in the world's oceans creates a vast store of kinetic energy or energy in motion. This energy can be harnessed to generate electricity to power homes, transport, and industries.

The term marine energy encompasses both wave power, i.e. power from surface waves, and tidal power, i.e. obtained from the kinetic energy of large bodies of moving water. Offshore wind power is not a form of marine energy, as wind power is derived from the wind, even if the wind turbines are placed over water. The oceans have a tremendous amount of energy and are close to many if not most concentrated populations. Ocean energy has the potential to provide a substantial amount of new renewable energy around the world.

Marine energy technology is in its first stage of development. To be developed, MRE needs efficient methods of storing, transporting, and capturing ocean power, so it can be used where needed. Over the past year, countries around the world have started implementing market strategies for MRE to commercialize. Canada and China introduced incentives, such as feed-in tariffs (FiTs), which are above-market prices for MRE that allow investors and project developers a stable income. Other financial strategies consist of subsidies, grants, and funding from public-private partnerships (PPPs). China alone approved 100 ocean projects in 2019. Portugal and Spain recognize the potential of MRE in accelerating decarbonization, which is fundamental to meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement. Both countries are focusing on solar and offshore wind auctions to attract private investment, ensure cost-effectiveness, and accelerate MRE growth. Ireland sees MRE as a key component to reduce its carbon footprint. The Offshore Renewable Energy Development Plan (OREDP) supports the exploration and development of the country's significant offshore energy potential. Additionally, Ireland has implemented the Renewable Electricity Support Scheme (RESS) which includes auctions designed to provide financial support for communities, increase technology diversity, and guarantee energy security.

However, while research is increasing, there have been concerns associated with threats to marine mammals, habitats, and potential changes to ocean currents. MRE can be a renewable energy source for coastal communities helping their transition from fossil fuel, but researchers are calling for a better understanding of its environmental impacts. Because ocean-energy areas are often isolated from both fishing and sea traffic, these zones may provide shelter from humans and predators for some marine species. MRE devices can be an ideal home for many fish, crayfish, mollusks, and barnacles; and may also indirectly affect seabirds, and marine mammals because they feed on those species. Similarly, such areas may create an "artificial reef effect" by boosting biodiversity nearby. Noise pollution generated from the technology is limited, also causing fish and mammals living in the area of the installation to return. In the most recent State of Science Report about MRE, the authors claim that there is no evidence for fish, mammals, or seabirds to be injured by either collision, noise pollution, or the electromagnetic field. The uncertainty of its environmental impact comes from the low quantity of MRE devices in the ocean today where data is collected.

100% renewable energy
The incentive to use 100% renewable energy, for electricity, transport, or even total primary energy supply globally, has been motivated by global warming and other ecological as well as economic concerns. Renewable energy use has grown much faster than anyone anticipated. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change has said that there are few fundamental technological limits to integrating a portfolio of renewable energy technologies to meet most of total global energy demand. At the national level, at least 30 nations around the world already have renewable energy contributing more than 20% of energy supply. Also, Stephen W. Pacala and Robert H. Socolow have developed a series of "stabilization wedges" that can allow us to maintain our quality of life while avoiding catastrophic climate change, and "renewable energy sources," in aggregate, constitute the largest number of their "wedges."

Mark Z. Jacobson says producing all new energy with wind power, solar power, and hydropower by 2030 is feasible and existing energy supply arrangements could be replaced by 2050. Barriers to implementing the renewable energy plan are seen to be "primarily social and political, not technological or economic". Jacobson says that energy costs with a wind, solar, water system should be similar to today's energy costs.

Similarly, in the United States, the independent National Research Council has noted that "sufficient domestic renewable resources exist to allow renewable electricity to play a significant role in future electricity generation and thus help confront issues related to climate change, energy security, and the escalation of energy costs ... Renewable energy is an attractive option because renewable resources available in the United States, taken collectively, can supply significantly larger amounts of electricity than the total current or projected domestic demand." .

Critics of the "100% renewable energy" approach include Vaclav Smil and James E. Hansen. Smil and Hansen are concerned about the variable output of solar and wind power, but Amory Lovins argues that the electricity grid can cope, just as it routinely backs up nonworking coal-fired and nuclear plants with working ones.

Google spent $30 million on their "Renewable Energy Cheaper than Coal" project to develop renewable energy and stave off catastrophic climate change. The project was cancelled after concluding that a best-case scenario for rapid advances in renewable energy could only result in emissions 55 percent below the fossil fuel projections for 2050.

Increased energy efficiency

Although increasing the efficiency of energy use is not energy development per se, it may be considered under the topic of energy development since it makes existing energy sources available to do work.

Efficient energy use reduces the amount of energy required to provide products and services. For example, insulating a home allows a building to use less heating and cooling energy to maintain a comfortable temperature. Installing fluorescent lamps or natural skylights reduces the amount of energy required for illumination compared to incandescent light bulbs. Compact fluorescent lights use two-thirds less energy and may last 6 to 10 times longer than incandescent lights. Improvements in energy efficiency are most often achieved by adopting an efficient technology or production process.

Reducing energy use may save consumers money, if the energy savings offsets the cost of an energy efficient technology. Reducing energy use reduces emissions. According to the International Energy Agency, improved energy efficiency in buildings, industrial processes and transportation could reduce the global energy demand in 2050 to around 8% smaller than today, but serving an economy more than twice as big and a population of about 2  billion more people.

Energy efficiency and renewable energy are said to be the twin pillars of sustainable energy policy. In many countries energy efficiency is also seen to have a national security benefit because it can be used to reduce the level of energy imports from foreign countries and may slow down the rate at which domestic energy resources are depleted.

It's been discovered "that for OECD countries, wind, geothermal, hydro and nuclear have the lowest hazard rates among energy sources in production".

Transmission

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves. The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. This section presents the various delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.

Shipping and pipelines
Coal, petroleum and their derivatives are delivered by boat, rail, or road. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered by pipeline, and coal via a Slurry pipeline. Fuels such as gasoline and LPG may also be delivered via aircraft. Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive.

Wired energy transfer

Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute power from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power plant, etc. A combination of sub-stations and transmission lines are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity. Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions. Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or load that cannot safely be exceeded. When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.

Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia.

Wireless energy transfer
Wireless power transfer is a process whereby electrical energy is transmitted from a power source to an electrical load that does not have a built-in power source, without the use of interconnecting wires. Currently available technology is limited to short distances and relatively low power level.

Orbiting solar power collectors would require wireless transmission of power to Earth. The proposed method involves creating a large beam of microwave-frequency radio waves, which would be aimed at a collector antenna site on the Earth. Formidable technical challenges exist to ensure the safety and profitability of such a scheme.

Storage

Energy storage is accomplished by devices or physical media that store energy to perform useful operation at a later time. A device that stores energy is sometimes called an accumulator.

All forms of energy are either potential energy (e.g. Chemical, gravitational, electrical energy, temperature differential, latent heat, etc.) or kinetic energy (e.g. momentum). Some technologies provide only short-term energy storage, and others can be very long-term such as power to gas using hydrogen or methane and the storage of heat or cold between opposing seasons in deep aquifers or bedrock. A wind-up clock stores potential energy (in this case mechanical, in the spring tension), a battery stores readily convertible chemical energy to operate a mobile phone, and a hydroelectric dam stores energy in a reservoir as gravitational potential energy. Ice storage tanks store ice (thermal energy in the form of latent heat) at night to meet peak demand for cooling. Fossil fuels such as coal and gasoline store ancient energy derived from sunlight by organisms that later died, became buried and over time were then converted into these fuels. Even food (which is made by the same process as fossil fuels) is a form of energy stored in chemical form.

History

Since prehistory, when humanity discovered fire to warm up and roast food, through the Middle Ages in which populations built windmills to grind the wheat, until the modern era in which nations can get electricity splitting the atom. Man has sought endlessly for energy sources.

Except nuclear, geothermal and tidal, all other energy sources are from current solar isolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied upon sunlight. Ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion. Geothermal power from hot, hardened rock above the magma of the Earth's core is the result of the decay of radioactive materials present beneath the Earth's crust, and nuclear fission relies on man-made fission of heavy radioactive elements in the Earth's crust; in both cases these elements were produced in supernova explosions before the formation of the Solar System.

Since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the question of the future of energy supplies has been of interest. In 1865, William Stanley Jevons published The Coal Question in which he saw that the reserves of coal were being depleted and that oil was an ineffective replacement. In 1914, U.S. Bureau of Mines stated that the total production was 5.7 Goilbbl. In 1956, Geophysicist M. King Hubbert deduces that U.S. oil production would peak between 1965 and 1970 and that oil production will peak "within half a century" on the basis of 1956 data. In 1989, predicted peak by Colin Campbell In 2004, OPEC estimated, with substantial investments, it would nearly double oil output by 2025

Sustainability

The environmental movement has emphasized sustainability of energy use and development. Renewable energy is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially air pollution. Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are brought up on this point. With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt various energy sources is growing. Energy conservation is an alternative or complementary process to energy development. It reduces the demand for energy by using it efficiently.

Resilience
Some observers contend that idea of "energy independence" is an unrealistic and opaque concept. The alternative offer of "energy resilience" is a goal aligned with economic, security, and energy realities. The notion of resilience in energy was detailed in the 1982 book Brittle Power: Energy Strategy for National Security. The authors argued that simply switching to domestic energy would not be secure inherently because the true weakness is the often interdependent and vulnerable energy infrastructure of a country. Key aspects such as gas lines and the electrical power grid are often centralized and easily susceptible to disruption. They conclude that a "resilient energy supply" is necessary for both national security and the environment. They recommend a focus on energy efficiency and renewable energy that is decentralized.

In 2008, former Intel Corporation Chairman and CEO Andrew Grove looked to energy resilience, arguing that complete independence is unfeasible given the global market for energy. He describes energy resilience as the ability to adjust to interruptions in the supply of energy. To that end, he suggests the U.S. make greater use of electricity. Electricity can be produced from a variety of sources. A diverse energy supply will be less affected by the disruption in supply of any one source. He reasons that another feature of electrification is that electricity is "sticky" – meaning the electricity produced in the U.S. is to stay there because it cannot be transported overseas. According to Grove, a key aspect of advancing electrification and energy resilience will be converting the U.S. automotive fleet from gasoline-powered to electric-powered. This, in turn, will require the modernization and expansion of the electrical power grid. As organizations such as The Reform Institute have pointed out, advancements associated with the developing smart grid would facilitate the ability of the grid to absorb vehicles en masse connecting to it to charge their batteries.

Present and future
[[File:World energy consumption outlook.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Outlook—World Energy Consumption by Fuel (as of 2011)

Liquid fuels incl. Biofuels Coal Natural Gas

Renewable fuels Nuclear fuels ]]

[[File:World energy consumption by region 1970-2025.png|thumb|400px|right|Increasing share of energy consumption by developing nations

Industrialized nations

Developing nations

EE/Former Soviet Union ]]

Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures. Predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. Extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.

Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If investment is greater than the value of the energy produced by the resource, it is no longer an effective energy source. These resources are no longer an energy source but may be exploited for value as raw materials. New technology may lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.

Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation. The peaking of world hydrocarbon production (peak oil) may lead to significant changes, and require sustainable methods of production. One vision of a sustainable energy future involves all human structures on the earth's surface (i.e., buildings, vehicles and roads) doing artificial photosynthesis (using sunlight to split water as a source of hydrogen and absorbing carbon dioxide to make fertilizer) efficiently than plants.

With contemporary space industry's economic activity and the related private spaceflight, with the manufacturing industries, that go into Earth's orbit or beyond, delivering them to those regions will require further energy development. Researchers have contemplated space-based solar power for collecting solar power for use on Earth. Space-based solar power has been in research since the early 1970s. Space-based solar power would require construction of collector structures in space. The advantage over ground-based solar power is higher intensity of light, and no weather to interrupt power collection.

Energy technology
Energy technology is an interdisciplinary engineering science having to do with the efficient, safe, environmentally friendly, and economical extraction, conversion, transportation, storage, and use of energy, targeted towards yielding high efficiency whilst skirting side effects on humans, nature, and the environment.

For people, energy is an overwhelming need, and as a scarce resource, it has been an underlying cause of political conflicts and wars. The gathering and use of energy resources can be harmful to local ecosystems and may have global outcomes.

Energy is also the capacity to do work. We can get energy from food. Energy can be of different forms such as kinetic, potential, mechanical, heat, light etc. Energy is required for individuals and the whole society for lighting, heating, cooking, running, industries, operating transportation and so forth. Basically there are two types of energy depending on the source s they are; 1.Renewable Energy Sources 2.Non-Renewable Energy Sources

Interdisciplinary fields
As an interdisciplinary science Energy technology is linked with many interdisciplinary fields in sundry, overlapping ways.

 * Physics, for thermodynamics and nuclear physics
 * Chemistry for fuel, combustion, air pollution, flue gas, battery technology and fuel cells.
 * Electrical engineering
 * Engineering, often for fluid energy machines such as combustion engines, turbines, pumps and compressors.
 * Geography, for geothermal energy and exploration for resources.
 * Mining, for petrochemical and fossil fuels.
 * Agriculture and forestry, for sources of renewable energy.
 * Meteorology for wind and solar energy.
 * Water and Waterways, for hydropower.
 * Waste management, for environmental impact.
 * Transportation, for energy-saving transportation systems.
 * Environmental studies, for studying the effect of energy use and production on the environment, nature and climate change.
 * (Lighting Technology), for Interior and Exterior Natural as well as Artificial Lighting Design, Installations, and Energy Savings
 * (Energy Cost/Benefit Analysis), for Simple Payback and Life Cycle Costing of Energy Efficiency/Conservation Measures Recommended

Electrical engineering

Electric power engineering deals with the production and use of electrical energy, which can entail the study of machines such as generators, electric motors and transformers. Infrastructure involves substations and transformer stations, power lines and electrical cable. Load management and power management over networks have meaningful sway on overall energy efficiency. Electric heating is also widely used and researched.

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics deals with the fundamental laws of energy conversion and is drawn from theoretical Physics.

Thermal and chemical energy
Thermal and chemical energy are intertwined with chemistry and environmental studies. Combustion has to do with burners and chemical engines of all kinds, grates and incinerators along with their energy efficiency, pollution and operational safety.

Exhaust gas purification technology aims to lessen air pollution through sundry mechanical, thermal and chemical cleaning methods. Emission control technology is a field of process and chemical engineering. Boiler technology deals with the design, construction and operation of steam boilers and turbines (also used in nuclear power generation, see below), drawn from applied mechanics and materials engineering.

Energy conversion has to do with internal combustion engines, turbines, pumps, fans and so on, which are used for transportation, mechanical energy and power generation. High thermal and mechanical loads bring about operational safety worries which are dealt with through many branches of applied engineering science.

Nuclear energy
Nuclear technology deals with nuclear power production from nuclear reactors, along with the processing of nuclear fuel and disposal of radioactive waste, drawing from applied nuclear physics, nuclear chemistry and radiation science.

Nuclear power generation has been politically controversial in many countries for several decades but the electrical energy produced through nuclear fission is of worldwide importance. There are high hopes that fusion technologies will one day replace most fission reactors but this is still a research area of nuclear physics.

Renewable energy
Renewable energy has many branches.

Wind power

Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity by connecting a spinning rotor to a generator. Wind turbines draw energy from atmospheric currents and are designed using aerodynamics along with knowledge taken from mechanical and electrical engineering. The wind passes across the aerodynamic rotor blades, creating an area of higher pressure and an area of lower pressure on either side of the blade. The forces of lift and drag are formed due to the difference in air pressure. The lift force is stronger than the drag force; therefore the rotor, which is connected to a generator, spins. The energy is then created due to the change from the aerodynamic force to the rotation of the generator.

Being recognized as one of the most efficient renewable energy sources, wind power is becoming more and more relevant and used in the world. Wind power does not use any water in the production of energy making it a good source of energy for areas without much water. Wind energy could also be produced even if the climate changes in line with current predictions, as it relies solely on wind.

Geothermal
Deep within the  Earth, is an extreme heat producing layer of molten rock called magma. The very high temperatures from the magma heats nearby groundwater. There are various technologies that have been developed in order to benefit from such heat, such as using different types of power plants (dry, flash or binary), heat pumps, or wells. These processes of harnessing the heat incorporate an infrastructure which has in one form or another a turbine which is spun by either the hot water or the steam produced by it. The spinning turbine, being connected to a generator, produces energy. A more recent innovation involves the use of shallow closed-loop systems that pump heat to and from structures by taking advantage of the constant temperature of soil around 10 feet deep.

Hydropower

Hydropower draws mechanical energy from rivers, ocean waves and tides. Civil engineering is used to study and build dams, tunnels, waterways and manage coastal resources through hydrology and geology. A low speed water turbine spun by flowing water can power an electrical generator to produce electricity.

Bioenergy
Bioenergy deals with the gathering, processing and use of biomasses grown in biological manufacturing, agriculture and forestry from which power plants can draw burning fuel. Ethanol, methanol (both controversial) or hydrogen for fuel cells can be had from these technologies and used to generate electricity.

Enabling technologies
Heat pumps and Thermal energy storage are classes of technologies that can enable the utilization of renewable energy sources that would otherwise be inaccessible due to a temperature that is too low for utilization or a time lag between when the energy is available and when it is needed. While enhancing the temperature of available renewable thermal energy, heat pumps have the additional property of leveraging electrical power (or in some cases mechanical or thermal power) by using it to extract additional energy from a low quality source (such as seawater, lake water, the ground, the air, or waste heat from a process).

Thermal storage technologies allow heat or cold to be stored for periods of time ranging from hours or overnight to interseasonal, and can involve storage of sensible energy (i.e. by changing the temperature of a medium) or latent energy (i.e. through phase changes of a medium, such between water and slush or ice). Short-term thermal storages can be used for peak-shaving in district heating or electrical distribution systems. Kinds of renewable or alternative energy sources that can be enabled include natural energy (e.g. collected via solar-thermal collectors, or dry cooling towers used to collect winter's cold), waste energy (e.g. from HVAC equipment, industrial processes or power plants), or surplus energy (e.g. as seasonally from hydropower projects or intermittently from wind farms). The Drake Landing Solar Community (Alberta, Canada) is illustrative. borehole thermal energy storage allows the community to get 97% of its year-round heat from solar collectors on the garage roofs, which most of the heat collected in summer. Types of storages for sensible energy include insulated tanks, borehole clusters in substrates ranging from gravel to bedrock, deep aquifers, or shallow lined pits that are insulated on top. Some types of storage are capable of storing heat or cold between opposing seasons (particularly if very large), and some storage applications require inclusion of a heat pump. Latent heat is typically stored in ice tanks or what are called phase-change materials (PCMs).

Journals

 * Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects
 * Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy
 * International Journal of Green Energy

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Energy development


text:
Macho (disambiguation)

To be macho is to possess machismo or exaggerated masculinity.

Macho may also refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Macho (band), a short-lived Italian-American disco/R&B group in the late 1970s
 * Macho (album), a 1975 album by Hungarian guitarist Gábor Szabó
 * "El Macho", a song on the Sailing to Philadelphia album by Mark Knopfler
 * Macho, original title of the 1975 novel Cry Macho
 * El Macho, a 1977 Italian-Argentine Spaghetti Western film
 * Macho (film), a 2016 Mexican film
 * the title character of the 1970 Civil War film Macho Callahan, played by David Janssen

People

 * Macho (surname), a list of people
 * Macho (nickname), a list of people nicknamed "Macho" or "El Macho"

Science and technology

 * Massive compact halo object (MACHO), a hypothesised astronomical body to explain the dark matter in galaxy halos
 * MACHO Project, an observational search for MACHOs
 * Mach-O, binary file format on Mach-kernel systems
 * Marine Cable Hosted Observatory (MACHO), an underwater seismic monitoring network

Other uses

 * Toyota Land Cruiser (J40) (Toyota Macho in Venezuela), a four-wheel-drive vehicle
 * Bursera glabrifolia, a Mexican tree called macho in woodcarving
 * "El macho", a pair of percussive claves' striking clave
 * Río Macho, a river in Vázquez de Coronado, Costa Rica

title: Macho (disambiguation)


text:
User:Tipiac

Hi all, I'm Tipiac from french wikipedia, mainly there to make interwikis links.

Hi,

OK I'll leave it, I was just a but anoyed at it being deleted without comment. I'm fluent in Japlish myself.--Jirate 19:37, 2004 Oct 29 (UTC)

Hi Tipiac. It seems to be a tweaked version of Image:Bactrian camel.jpg, which Cordyph uploaded originally. Cheers, Tannin 00:40, 10 Nov 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Tipiac


text:
Nafarroa Bai

Nafarroa Bai (Navarre Yes) was a Navarrese coalition in Spain of Basque nationalist and regional left-wing parties created in 2004 for the Spanish General election.

History
The coalition comprised Aralar, the Basque Nationalist Party, Eusko Alkartasuna (Basque Solidarity), Batzarre, and local independents, but not the outlawed Basque nationalists of Batasuna or Accion Nacionalista Vasca (ANV), traditionally the Basque nationalist party in Navarre with strongest support, for its stance on ETA's violence.

All these parties usually ran by themselves competing with each other at elections held in the neighbouring autonomous community of the Basque country but agreed to run together in Navarre. Basque nationalism does not hold a majority there, and the move was aimed at optimizing the Basque nationalist electoral results in Navarre. The coalition came up third and won a seat in the Spanish Parliament in 2004, gaining 18.4% of the votes cast in Navarre.

In 2007 the coalition became the second largest political force in Navarre's autonomous parliament, virtually tied with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSN–PSOE) by obtaining 23.7% of the votes cast and 12 seats. Five of the seats belonged to Aralar, four to EA and one for each the PNV and Batzarre, another one is independent. Its most significant politicians were Patxi Zabaleta (Aralar), Maiorga Ramírez (Eusko Alkartasuna) and Uxue Barkos, a respected journalist who had worked for the Basque Television. She was the coalition's only MP in the Spanish Parliament.

In the 2008 Spanish General Election, Nafarroa Bai repeated the results of 2004 (18.5%), again coming up third in the autonomous community and repeating its only seat in the Spanish Parliament.

By 2011, new parties and coalitions jumped onto the political scene on the eve of the votation campaign after tribunals in Madrid decided on their legalization. The coalition then broke up when Eusko Alkartasuna and Aralar left it, and the leftovers of the coalition revamped as Geroa Bai, this time participated only by PNV and other minor groups, and led by Uxue Barkos.

title: Nafarroa Bai


text:
Chelsea College of Arts

The Chelsea College of Arts is a constituent college of the University of the Arts London, a public art university in London, England.

It offers further and higher education courses in fine art, graphic design, interior design, spatial design, and textile design up to PhD level.

Polytechnic
Chelsea College of Arts was originally an integral school of the South-Western Polytechnic, which opened at Manresa Road, Chelsea, in 1895 to provide scientific and technical education to Londoners. Day and evening classes for men and women were held in the domestic economy, mathematics, engineering, natural science, art, and music. Art was taught from the beginning of the Polytechnic and included design, weaving, embroidery, and electrodeposition. The South-Western Polytechnic became the Chelsea Polytechnic in 1922 and taught a growing number of registered students at the University of London.

At the beginning of the 1930s, the School of Art began to widen, including courses in craft training and commercial design from 1931. H.S Williamson, the school's appointed headmaster from 1930 to 1958, introduced sculpture shortly after World War II. Notable artists from this period were employed as teachers such as Henry Moore and Graham Sutherland. Alumni from this period included Elisabeth Frink, Edward Burra, Patrick Caulfield, Ethel Walker, Dirk Bogarde, Robert Clatworthy, John Latham, and John Berger.

The School of Science separated and became known as the Chelsea College of Science and Technology in 1957, and was later admitted as a constituent College of the University of London in 1966. The Chelsea College of Science and Technology was granted its royal charter in 1971 and merged with King's College London and Queen Elizabeth College in 1985.

Chelsea School of Art
The School of Art merged with the Hammersmith School of Art, founded by Francis Hawke, to form the Chelsea School of Art in 1908. The newly formed school was taken over by the London County Council and a new building was erected at Lime Grove, which opened with an extended curriculum. A trade school for girls was erected on the same site in 1914.

The school acquired premises at Great Titchfield Street, and was jointly accommodated with Quintin Hogg's Polytechnic in Regent Street (a forerunner of the University of Westminster). The campus at Manresa Road introduced painting and graphic design in 1963, with both disciplines being particularly successful.

Lawrence Gowing, painter and art historian, was appointed as the first principal of the Chelsea School of Art. He was responsible for the integration of history and theory with practice, employing artists rather than art historians to teach art history and theory. This approach remains intrinsic to Chelsea's teaching philosophy today.

Under Gowing, an option program was introduced, which encompassed workshops in experimental music, poetry, psychoanalysis, philosophy, and anthropology. A basic design course, pioneered by Victor Pasmore and Richard Hamilton, was also developed during the same period, becoming the basis of the college's current foundation course in art and design.

Professor William Callaway (Head of the School from 1989 to 1992), Colin Cina (appointed Dean of School of Art), and Bridget Jackson (Dean of the School of Design) reformed the school and ensured the redevelopment of the entire academic program, introducing courses at multiple levels from HND to accredited honors and postgraduate degrees. Initially, these were validated by the UK Council for National Academic Awards; i.e. in the short period before the London Institute gained degree-awarding powers. Bridget Jackson was appointed Head of the College in 1993, retiring in 1997 to be succeeded by Professor Colin Cina who led the college until his retirement in 2003.

London Institute
The Chelsea School of Art became a constituent College of the London Institute in 1986, formed by the Inner London Education Authority to associate London's art, design, fashion, and media schools into a collegiate structure. The school was renamed Chelsea College of Art and Design in 1989. The London Institute was granted University status and was renamed University of the Arts London in 2004. In 2013, the college was renamed Chelsea College of Arts.

In 2002–2003, Professor Roger Wilson was appointed as the Head of College until his retirement in 2006. He led the relocation to the listed Royal Army Medical College, renovated as a purpose-built art college by the architects Allies and Morrison in 2005. With this move, the Chelsea College of Arts presently resides next to Tate Britain at Millbank, returning to one standalone campus.

Exhibition spaces

The college comprises three notable on-site exhibition spaces:

 * 1) Chelsea Space is an international and interdisciplinary platform for professional practitioners to exhibit experimental curatorial projects. The gallery also releases regular publications from participating authors, artists, and designers.
 * 2) The Parade Ground, situated within the college, has been transformed into London's largest open-air gallery hosting events from film screenings to large-scale installations in the spring of 2008. The exhibition ground had previously been used for students and professionals as an open area platform, notably for artist Chris Burden's 'A Flying Steamroller' in 2006. Recent exhibitions include Cildo Meireles's 'Occasion', held in association with his exhibition at Tate Modern in 2008.
 * 3) The Triangle Space, about its name, has been designed as a modern angular-shaped space for students to show their work throughout the year.

Research
The college organises its research activities in partnership with Camberwell College of Arts and Wimbledon College of Art hosts a variety of research centres, groups and clusters:
 * 1) International Centre for Fine Art Research (ICFAR)
 * 2) Transnational Art, Identity and Nation (TrAIN)
 * 3) Critical Practice Chelsea
 * 4) FADE (Fine Art Digital Environment)
 * 5) Textiles, Environment, Design (TED)

Affiliations
Chelsea is a constituent college of the University of the Arts London, with Camberwell College of Arts, Central Saint Martins, London College of Communication, London College of Fashion and Wimbledon College of Art. The college also has exchange links with the Fashion Institute of Technology in New York City, US.

CLIP CETL
Chelsea and the London College of Fashion share the 'Creative Learning in Practice Centre for Excellence in Teaching and Learning' (CLIP CETL). The centre is funded by the British government in recognition of the two colleges' excellent results in developing student learning.

Notable alumni

 * Valerie Adler (painter)
 * Anthea Alley (sculptor)
 * Rita Angus (painter)
 * Sophie Aston (painter)
 * Franko B (artist)
 * Gwen Barnard (painter, printmaker)
 * Celia Frances Bedford (painter, printmaker)
 * John Berger (art critic, novelist, painter and author)
 * Quentin Blake (children's illustrator)
 * Flavia Blois (painter)
 * Delphine Boël, (papier-mâché sculptor)
 * Dirk Bogarde (actor and author)
 * Frank Bowling (painter and sculptor)
 * Irene Mary Browne (sculptor, potter)
 * Kathleen Browne (painter)
 * Edward Burra (painter, draughtsman and printmaker)
 * Stephen J. Bury (author, art critic, curator and librarian)
 * Jane Campion (film director and 1993 Palme d'Or winner)
 * Seth Cardew (Studio potter)
 * Anthony Caro (abstract sculptor)
 * Leonora Carrington (painter)
 * Patrick Caulfield (painter and printmaker)
 * Helen Chadwick (1987 Turner Prize nominee)
 * Georgina Chapman (actress, model and designer)
 * Alex Chinneck (artist)
 * Alexa Chung (model, presenter)
 * Robert Clatworthy (sculptor)
 * Michal Cole (artist)
 * Andrew Collins (broadcaster and journalist)
 * Keith Coventry (painter, sculptor, curator)
 * John Craxton (Neo-Romantic artist)
 * Michael Cummings (cartoonist)
 * Richard Deacon (sculptor, 1987 Turner Prize winner)
 * Andy Denzler (painter)
 * Tom Dixon (industrial designer)
 * Mary Dobson (painter, illustrator)
 * Peter Doig (painter)
 * Mojeb al-Dousari (Kuwaiti artist)
 * Guy Hendrix Dyas (designer)
 * Cathie Felstead (illustrator)
 * Nicholas Ferguson (television director and artist)
 * Ralph Fiennes (actor)
 * Rose Finn-Kelcey (artist)
 * Jacky Fleming (cartoonist)
 * Emily Forbes (entrepreneur)
 * Laura Ford (sculptor)
 * Elisabeth Frink (sculptor and printmaker)
 * Nick Gammon (artist)
 * Grace Golden (painter)
 * Flavia Irwin (artist)
 * Nicky Hoberman (painter)
 * David Hockney (artist)
 * Bob Holmes (artist and designer)
 * Nancy Horrocks (painter)
 * Tom Jenkinson (musician)
 * Vivien John (painter)
 * Anish Kapoor (1991 Turner Prize winner)
 * Danica Karađorđević (graphic designer, Hereditary Princess of Serbia and Yugoslavia)
 * John Latham (conceptual artist)
 * Elizabeth Jane Lloyd (painter, teacher)
 * Maria Marshall (artist)
 * Ryuson Chuzo Matsuyama (painter)
 * Paul McDowell (vocalist with The Temperance Seven, actor)
 * Ian McKay (writer)
 * Steve McQueen (1999 Turner Prize winner, Academy Award-winning director, producer, screenwriter)
 * Haroon Mirza (artist)
 * Otonella Mocellin (artist)
 * Christopher Monger (writer, film director)
 * Nicholas Monro (pop art sculptor; also returned as a teacher at Chelsea)
 * Mariko Mori (artist)
 * Jill Mulleady (painter)
 * David Nash (sculptor)
 * Paul Nash (war artist)
 * Mike Nelson (2001 and 2007 Turner Prize nominee)
 * Karen Newman (sculptor)
 * Lucia Nogueira (artist)
 * Rupert Norfolk (sculptor)
 * Diarmuid Byron O'Connor (sculptor and art director)
 * Chris Ofili (1998 Turner Prize winner)
 * John O'Neill (video game designer)
 * Alex Randall (lighting designer)
 * Nick Raynsford (Member of Parliament)
 * James Richards (2014 Turner Prize nominee)
 * Alan Rickman (actor)
 * Robin Richmond (artist and author)
 * Barbara Robb (campaigner)
 * Trevor Robinson (creative director)
 * Anthony Rossiter (artist)
 * Andrew Sabin (artist, sculptor)
 * Alexei Sayle (comedian and actor)
 * Conrad Shawcross (artist)
 * Clare Shenstone (portrait painter)
 * Jake Tilson (artist)
 * Winston Tong (ceramics)
 * Suzanne Treister (artist)
 * Gavin Turk (artist)
 * Rosemary Vercoe (costume designer)
 * Ethel Walker (painter)
 * Mark Wallinger (2007 Turner Prize winner)
 * Rebecca Warren (2006 Turner Prize nominee)
 * Richard Wathen (painter)
 * Gillian Wearing (1997 Turner Prize winner)
 * Chris Welsby (experimental filmmaker)
 * Claudia Williams (painter)
 * Fred Williams (Australian painter)
 * Emily Young (stone sculptor)
 * Ossip Zadkine (artist, sculptor)

Notable staff

 * Robert Buhler (1916–1989)
 * Leon Vilaincour (1923-2016)

title: Chelsea College of Arts


text:
List of universities in Turkey

This is a list of universities in Turkey. There are 209 universities and academies in total: 129 state universities (eleven technical universities, one institutes of technology, and two fine arts university, one special national defense university, and one police academy), 76 private foundation universities, four two-year granting institutions.

International rankings
According to the THE–QS World University Rankings:

title: List of universities in Turkey