text:
Talk:Jeremiah

Untitled
I have replaced the previous version of this article. I have written this article for a course. It was researched, includes a bibliography, and includes material from the previous article. MinMike 11:17, 20 Jul 2006 -

 * A Jeremiah (disambiguation) page has been created to redirect to Book of Jeremiah and various secondary meanings. All but a handful of Wikipedia users who enter "Jeremiah" are looking for the prophet. The standard "For other uses..." should appear at the top of Jeremiah. Doesn't this seem like obvious common sense? Or are there issues? --Wetman 14:34, 28 Mar 2005 (UTC)

-

 * support Tobias Conradi 07:43, 31 Mar 2005 (UTC)

Is it not relevant here that "Jeremiah" has become a byword for a pessimist? --DominicSayers 07:47, 18 Feb 2005 (UTC)

This article has been renamed as the result of a move request. Primary disambiguation. violet/riga (t) 17:33, 2 Apr 2005 (UTC)

word count summary
Added word count and summary of the book of Jeremiah. --dmonty 05:08, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

It seems strange to write a summary based on a word count. Is this part of some exegetical tradition/technique? If so, that tradition should be referenced. If not, the section shold be removed as original research. --Macrakis 03:05, 19 January 2006 (UTC)This is ridiculous, anyone can at anytime add their own comments or version to the breakdown of the word. Anyone including: a Mormon beleiver, a Satanist, a Muslim follower, or just a false doctrinated person. I hope people will be careful to read what is written.

Neutral text, please!
I don't find the quotation marks neutral in this sentence: one of the Hebrew scribes "found" a copy of the Old Testament Scriptures. There is no proof for the hypothetical idea that some scribe planted the book there just before "finding" it. I suggest the following replacement: one of the Hebrew scribes (according to the book of Kings) found a copy of the Law of Moses. Apus 12:36, 27 April 2006 (UTC)

Everything under 'attitude toward Jerusalem Priesthood' seems like a personal interpretation, particularly the line where our editor states "Jeremiah is thinking here..." and also "Jeremiah probably expected..."LFA 02:20, 26 July 2006 (UTC)

Attitude Toward Jerusalem Priesthood
Please identify whose point of view these opinions represent, attribute them, and identify sources for them. Unattributed, unsourced opinions will need to be removed per WP:NPOV and WP:RS --Shirahadasha 06:31, 1 October 2006 (UTC)

Per above, removing text to Talk page. We can move it back if sources are found and attributed. --Shirahadasha 05:13, 15 November 2006 (UTC)

In addition to needing reliable sourcing, this text also needs work to to comply with NPOV. It currently does things like call its POV "fact", "plain", etc. claim that the opposing POV is "little-justifiable", etc., parenthetical claims like a claim Jeremiah is referring to "the Holy Spirit" as an entity, etc. This language would all need to be toned down to meet WP:NPOV. --Shirahadasha 01:09, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

Removed Text

 * The opposition in which Jeremiah seems to have stood to the priesthood of the central sanctuary at Jerusalem may have been a continuation of the opposition which had existed from former times between that priesthood and his family; this would be traceable to Zadok, the successful opponent of Abiathar.

 * Jeremiah's attitude may also have been influenced by the fact that he considered Josiah's measures too superficial for the moral reformation which he declared to be necessary if the same fate were not to befall the Temple of Zion, as had in days gone by, befallen the Temple of Shiloh (I Sam. iv.), which had by then become "desolate". "the words of this covenant" (ib. v. 3), which God had given to their fathers "when He brought them up out of Egypt". In this passage, there is a plain reference to the newly-rediscovered torah (law) or "teaching"

 * Just as little-justifiable is the theory, which has recently been suggested, that Jeremiah in his later years departed from the Deuteronomic law. "The false [lying] pen of the scribe," which, as Jeremiah says, "makes the Torah of God into falsehood" (Jer. viii. 8, Hebr.), could not have referred to the Deuteronomic law, nor to its falsification by copyists. Rather, Jeremiah is thinking here of another compilation of laws which was then in progress under the direction of his opponents; the priests of the central sanctuary at Jerusalem. Jeremiah probably expected from them no other conception of law than the Levitical one, which may be seen in the legal portions of the so-called "Priestly" writings, and results from the Priestly point of view. Another possible interpretation is that Jeremiah's prophecies, which included many, repeated dire warnings against "false prophets", is that the hearts of the priests and prophets were wrong. This was followed by Jeremiah's prophecies by way of reminder about "the good things" that God has in store for "his people", Israel, including the "New Covenant"; in which God would "remove the heart of stone of His people, and would give them a new heart: one of flesh, and a new spirit (the Holy Spirit)".

 * (End removed text)

Use fitting analogies
The text of Deut. xviii:18 does not refer to the subject. Do not, therefore align this reference to the subject; the allusion of this article is that the biblical reference refers to the subject and not some other personality, where in fact, in chronological, logical and historical terms, the opposite is evidently the case: it is only appropriate to use references which bear direct connection with the subject matter. Please resolve this issue.

 * The source here is not Deut 18:18, but a Rabbinic Midrash. It is this Midrash that is making an analogy between Jeremiah and Moses and uses Deut. 18:18 to do so. You may disagree with this aource. You may not like its comparison of Jeremiah to Moses in Deut. 18:18. But the Midrash is reliably sourced. It is also on topic. The Midrash helps show how the Rabbis of the Talmud saw Jeremiah. They liked him a lot, and this Midrash shows this. Among other issues, it helps explain why the Talmud sometimes relied on things Jeremiah said, as opposed to things other prophets said, as a source for rulings on Jewish law.Best, --Shirahadasha 11:17, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

Wrong Prophet, I think
The article's comment to the effect that in Jeremiah's confrontation with Jehoiakim Jeremiah warned the king that "God would roll him up into a little ball and would throw him out of Judah" is, I believe, referring to Isaiah 22:18 "He will roll you up tightly lie a ball and throw you into a large country." I'm not aware of such a prophesy by Jeremiah, though I'm willing to be educated. Terwilligerjones (talk) 19:13, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

"Yirməyāhū frequently misspelled as Yirmiyahu. . . "
The first pronunciation (Yirməyāhū) is very common, and is the one presribed by the classic textbooks, which follow the grammar of David Kimhi. But not only is "Yirmiyahu" a legitimate pronunciation; it is one that satisfies the early Tiberian authors, according to whom shva before yodh has the phonetic quality of [i] (as if it were a [short] hiriq). Yet a third distinct pronunciation is given here as, which well represents the situation in Israeli Hebrew.

The way this is all layed out now in the introduction is thus inaccurate (and confusing). Perhaps the editor who added that "Yirməyāhū [is] frequently misspelled as Yirmiyahu" might not mean to disparage that pronunciation per se, but rather objects to the pointing of ירמיהו as יִרְמִיָהוּ (hiriq under mem) instead of the usual יִרְמְיָהוּ (shva under mem).

This could be clarified in the article without much disturbance. Hanina (talk) 05:47, 29 January 2009 (UTC)

 * "Yirməyahu" is much better transliterated then "Yirmiyahu", but what happend with the shva under Resh ?!

יִרְמְיָהוּ Yirəməyāhū

 * Regards, --Stefan Bach7777 (talk) 12:55, 4 June 2014 (UTC)

only half a story?
I have been reading a book "From chaos to covenant: Uses of prophecy in the Book of Jeremiah" by Robert Carroll in which a very different view of Jeremiah is to be gleaned than one would get from this wikipedia article. Carroll's view (if I understand him correctly) is that we can get to know very little about an actual historical person by the name of Jeremiah through reading the book bearing his name. Perhaps we can read a little of his poetry but even that has been heavily worked over by editors with purposes of their own. Yet nothing of this view appears, even as a remark by the way, here on this page. Is Carroll's view discredited or very much in a minority? I hope someone with knowledge of the debate can enlighten me. Coxparra (talk) 19:07, 27 March 2009 (UTC)
 * Prophetic books in the Tanakh are not written from the 1st person point of view, almost ever...if ever at all. There is some descriptions in Ezekiel and perhaps others (I haven't studied as much) but in that case Ezekiel wasn't specifically written by Ezekiel.  Since Jeremiah was written by Jeremiah there's very little reference to who he was, where he lived etc etc.  Rather the focus of the prophecy is on...well...the prophecy.  It's named Book of Jeremiah because had Ben Chanina been the true prophet and Jeremiah false...we'd have Book of Ben Chanina.  The article here is really no more than a conjecture of who he was the Book of Jeremiah is more akin to the topic you're discussing.  Even then much can't be written since very few understand the book, including myself. --CheskiChips (talk) 01:16, 6 April 2009 (UTC)
 * Thank you for those comments. Yes, I see that it is perhaps unfortunate that "The Book of ..." implies to a modern reader that an authorial voice should be identified. Maybe I should remember that a prophet is a servant with someone else's message to bring.Coxparra (talk) 18:14, 15 April 2009 (UTC)

ref?
"and then sneaks in a few extra pleas between the lines" References to these 'sneaks' may be helpful. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Zerothis (talk • contribs) 22:41, 5 July 2009 (UTC)

can we get the name in Hebrew characters?
I'm not sure how to place this on the article's main page, but it'd be nice to have the name presented in its Hebrew characters. Anyone? Aristophanes68 (talk) 02:22, 28 September 2009 (UTC)

 * See the "Etymology and pronunciation" section:Jeremiah. When explanation of the name gets too busy for the lede, the Wikipedia Manual of Style suggests creating a stand-alone section.Math.geek3.1415926 (talk) 13:51, 29 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Hebrew Wikipedia's corresponding article is called "ירמיהו". Could that be put at the top, with a note to look at the Etymology section? Loves  Macs  (talk) 14:15, 29 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Consistent with the manual of style, I'd rather not see the parentheses following the article name in the lede get cluttered up with too much stuff that properly belongs to an etymology type section. The first line already has an English a vocalization of the Hebrew, the meaning, and the pronounciation, all of which make more sense to typical English readership than the Hebrew characters.  Adding more would contradict the manual of style which suggests once naming alternatives are moved to an etymology section, they should not be placed back into the lede, "Once such a section or paragraph is created, the alternative English or foreign names should not be moved back to the first line."  The desire for greater visibility is satisfied by the recent edit moving the etymology section.Math.geek3.1415926 (talk) 20:49, 29 September 2009 (UTC)

Yoda?
"Attack you they will, overcome you they can’t"

What translation is this? I can't find a match. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Ccunni (talk • contribs) 04:06, 2 October 2009 (UTC)

Thank you, I reworded it and added source, will now add link to different versions. -John in Cinci —Preceding unsigned comment added by 74.83.23.189 (talk) 17:35, 6 November 2010 (UTC)

Irish?
from Ten Tribes page on wikipedia: There is a theory that the Irish, or that Insular Celts as a whole, are descended from the Ten Lost Tribes. Proponents of this theory state that there is evidence that the prophet Jeremiah came to Ireland with Princess Tea Tephi, a member of the Israelite royal family. Proponents of this theory point to various parallels between Irish and ancient Hebrew culture. For example, they note that the harp, the symbol of Ireland, also plays a role in Jewish history, as the musical instrument of King David. Some maintain that the Tribe of Dan conducted sea voyages to Ireland and colonized it as early as the period of the Judges under the name Tuatha Dé Danann.

Aspects of this theory are also sometimes cited by adherents of British Israelism, as one possible explanation of how the Ten Lost Tribes might have reached the British Isles. However, British Israelism takes many forms, and does not always use this hypothesis as its main narrative. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 92.4.141.205 (talk) 19:20, 2 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Does anyone believe this except for the few left of Herbert W. Armstrong's followers? --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 04:01, 31 August 2014 (UTC)

Alternate etymologies?
I ran across this discussion of other meanings for Jeremiah's name. I wonder: (a) if any of these explanations are more widely accepted than the one given in the article (which I believe has an evangelical Christian bias) and (b) whether it would be worthwhile to post any of the discussion over the etymology into the article. Thanks, Aristophanes68 (talk) 02:57, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

 * (a) No clue and (b) I think so. carl bunderson (talk) (contributions) 16:42, 12 July 2010 (UTC)

 * The direct link cited above does not meet WP:RS standards: it is self-published by someone who did not even complete his theology degree and is no more reliable as a source on the Bible than it is as a source on Chaos Theory or Quantum Mechanics. The validity of the analysis presented depends on whether the analysis accurately represents the reliable sources (Bible dictionaries, lexicons, etc.) on which it is based.  Jeremiah is a tough name to assign a meaning with any certainty, which is why there is such disagreement.  There is certainly room for further discussion of suggested meanings (in the article body, not the lede), but such discussion should cite reliable sources (and include page numbers for verifiability) rather than a self-published web site.Math.geek3.1415926 (talk) 14:30, 9 September 2010 (UTC)

Wrong Reference
Sorry for my ignorance, but I do not know how to edit notes. Note #6 should be Jeremiah 5:19, not what is listed. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Russmichaels (talk • contribs) 18:47, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

Revamping
omg... I had to revamp this article quite a bit. There is too much dawg gone original content cluttered up so bad... that I couldn't see the point if it were pointed right at my iris.

I hope my revisions will be a little more acceptable... there is still a lot more work to be done...

Jasonasosa (talk) 08:52, 25 December 2010 (UTC)

"Facing Persecution"
I have two suggestions for the "Background" section entitled "Facing Persecution." Firstly, it may be helpful to include a verse number in the second sentence (Jer 11:21). Secondly, it may be useful to note somewhere that all of the passages described in this section are examples of Jeremiah's confessions or laments (Jer 11:18-12:6; 15:10-21; 17:14-18; 18:18-23; 20:7-18). HakeberB (talk) 13:27, 20 September 2011 (UTC)

Cultural Influence I'm new to Wikipedia and I dont know how to edit but there should be some mention to his influence on Chagall and all the paintings with Jeremiah. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.181.194.58 (talk) 13:17, 2 October 2011 (UTC)

Claims for Jeremiah's Tomb
The following web page, and others, claim that Jeremiah traveled to Ireland following a period in Egypt, with the daughters of the King. There is some limited evidence of this, but it is far from substantiated. http://jahtruth.net/jere.htm

Two facts raise the possibility that there may be some truth in the claims. The first is the purported blood line of the British Royal family, which claims a direct descent from King David based on the truth of the above claim.

The second is the case of the British Israelists who attempted to dig up the Hill of Tara in Ireland a hundred years ago in search of the Ark of the Covenant, until prevented by mass meetings.

There is a mention of that fact on this page, near the end: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_of_Tara

None of the above provides real proof that Jeremiah went to Ireland. But I do think it appropriate that these theories at least be acknowledged. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.97.168.223 (talk) 13:22, 8 October 2011 (UTC)

---

Even Queen Victoria acknowledged her ancestry though Teia Tephi. in the Otago Witness, Issue 2532, 24 September 1902, Page 69: http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OW19020924.2.253

Teia Tephi was king Hezehiah's daughter, who arrived in Ireland accompanied by the scribe Barach (Baruch), an old prophet (Jeremiah), and the Stone of Destiny (Jacob's Pillow, Lia Fail). The Hill of Tara in Ireland is believed by many to be Jeremiah's tomb, and to contain the Arc of the Covenant (Tara = Torah) and David's harp, which later became the symbol of Ireland.

Even if this is not completely substantiated, there is sufficient evidence that it is worthy of mention as Jeremiah's possible final destination in the main page of this article.

Death date?
Nebuchadnezzar seized Jerusalem in 586 BC. The article currently states that he died in 586 BC. According to the book, and the article itself further down, Jeremiah traveled to Egypt after the war, and there is no record of his death. Someone make a mistake? LWG talk 03:49, 4 November 2011 (UTC)

“Attack you they will, overcome you they can’t"
Really? God talks like Yoda? I know this is a quote, but this is bad English, and sounds silly. 24.21.175.70 (talk) 07:06, 11 January 2012 (UTC)

The King James Version is better: "And they shall fight against thee; but they shall not prevail against thee; for I am with thee, saith the Lord, to deliver thee." 99.0.37.134 (talk) 03:04, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

God doesn't speak like Yoda nor does He speak (anymore) in early 17th century English. Try a good modern version for Jeremiah 1:19, "They will fight against you, but they shall not prevail against you, for I am with you, declares the Lord, to deliver you.” (ESV).Yeoberry (talk) 16:30, 23 January 2013 (UTC) I don't think anyone can decide how God talks. I'm pretty sure He can talk any way he wants. Chryslerfan (talk) 20:12, 31 March 2013 (UTC)

G-d of Israel does not necessarily equal Yahweh
There was a recent change in the "God" descriptor of Jeremiah's name to "Yahweh Exults" in the article referring to that prophet of the Hebrew Bible. The use of that descriptor "Yahweh" is not faithful to the original text. The last part of his name refers to the God of Israel, or God, in general, it does not refer to Yahweh. Yahweh is a modern scholarly approach to how to pronounce the tetragrammaton. The tetragrammaton is not referenced here, therefore, the use of Yahweh is not appropriate.

--Daniel E Romero (talk) 06:16, 26 April 2012 (UTC)

 * In modern English, we also call the son of god, worshipped by Christians, Jesus, but Jesus is neither a Hebrew nor Aramaic name (the original name would have been Yeshua), but that is the modern rendering of his name that is most widely used in English, so articles about him use that name. While 'God' is the usually appellation of Yahweh in English, the term can mean many things and refer to many god concepts, so that would be inappropriate for an encyclopaedia entry. Yahweh specifically refers to the god of Israel, and, like Jesus, is the way his name is rendered in modern English.--Jcvamp (talk) 07:12, 19 April 2017 (UTC)

Baha'i Views
Christians regard Jeremiah as one of the greater prophets both because of the length of his book and the importance of his life and prophecies. Baha'is agree with this. However, Baha'is have another classification in which Prophets (with a capital 'P') are considered to be Divine Beings - Manifestations of God. In that classification, all prophets who are not founders of one of the dispensations of the Religion of God (Judaism, Christianity, Islam, the Baha'i Faith, etc.) are considered to be lesser prophets. Because someone reading the previous text might erroneously think that Baha'i Faith regards Jeremiah to be a lesser prophet in the Judeo-Christian lexicon, I have removed that statement. -- Servant of Baha (talk) 15:11, 14 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Biblical scholars use "greater" and "lesser" in references to the prophetic books to note the length of the texts (less text or more text). This is in no way a reference to the importance of the prophets the texts reference. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.111.82.50 (talk) 01:22, 5 September 2014 (UTC)

"Jeremiah's sole purpose"
"Jeremiah's sole purpose was to reveal the sins of the people and explain the reason for the impending disaster" "sole purpose" is way to exclusive a way to describe Jeremiah, even if you consider nothing but the Book of Jeremiah. For instance, in chapter 30, God told him to write a book that was not for his contemporaries (the people sinning then and there). It was a message of hope for future generations. It was very important when Daniel read it generations later at the intended time, as the book of Daniel recounts. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.111.82.50 (talk) 01:12, 5 September 2014 (UTC)

historicity?
There is no discussion in the article about the historicity of the guy. It seems the only source is a collection of books known to contain historical inaccuracies to support a certain political discourse. Without something about this point, this article is more a 8th grader's answer to a reading test than an encyclopedic article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 94.36.75.60 (talk) 10:17, 5 February 2015 (UTC)

 * Can you provide any sources to attest to his historicity? You're always free to add to the article or list things you think should be included on the talk page for others to add.--Jcvamp (talk) 07:15, 19 April 2017 (UTC)

I don’t see how the Book of Mormon has any relation to the historicity of Jeremiah, considering its extremely recent date of composition. ZacharyFoj (talk) 00:42, 20 February 2020 (UTC)

Tabari?
The article says, "Muslim literature narrates a detailed account of the destruction of Jerusalem, which parallels the account given in the Book of Jeremiah." The source is given as, "Tabari, i, 646f." What is this? — Preceding unsigned comment added by OneGyT (talk • contribs) 20:11, 19 March 2015 (UTC)
 * A bunch of made up crap.142.105.159.60 (talk) 22:28, 5 January 2016 (UTC)

File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn - Jeremia treurend over de verwoesting van Jeruzalem - Google Art Project.jpg to appear as POTD soon
Hello! This is a note to let the editors of this article know that File:Rembrandt Harmensz. van Rijn - Jeremia treurend over de verwoesting van Jeruzalem - Google Art Project.jpg will be appearing as picture of the day on January 5, 2016. You can view and edit the POTD blurb at Template:POTD/2016-01-05. If this article needs any attention or maintenance, it would be preferable if that could be done before its appearance on the Main Page. — Chris Woodrich (talk) 23:40, 16 December 2015 (UTC)

"it"
from the Christianity section. "Jeremiah plays a foundational role in Christian thought as it presages the inauguration of a new covenant" What is the antecedent of "it"? Should "it" be "he"? Or should "Jeremiah" be "The book of Jeremiah"? or "the preaching of Jeremiah"? --Richardson mcphillips (talk) 15:52, 3 February 2019 (UTC)

Jeremiah c. 644 - c. 570 BC
After visiting several sites including Britannica, I added Jeremiah (c. 644 - c. 570 BC). 73.85.201.14 (talk) 22:31, 7 November 2019 (UTC)

Birth or Call?
"I suggest, then, that 627 B.C.E., the thirteenth year of Josiah, is the date of Jeremiah’s birth." - William L. Holladay, Jeremiah: A Fresh Reading, p. 14, The Pilgrim Press, New York (1990) - Eroica (talk) 14:39, 18 January 2021 (UTC)

DH collapsed
A tad too late, but the Documentary Hypothesis has not collapsed. In large chunks of the academia it has been replaced by even more radical views (which are its intellectual offspring). So, if anything, the outcome for evangelical orthodoxy is even worse than when DH ruled the academic world. Tgeorgescu (talk) 08:22, 13 March 2021 (UTC)

Now the real competition is between neo-DH (which is in fact not so new, but a back to basics approach) and the Supplementary hypothesis. tgeorgescu (talk) 15:57, 15 August 2022 (UTC)

Bunkum
Following a reading of this article which was seemed to be based on one sided biblical and Old Testament studies I was left wondering (as does the contributor raising similar concerns in "Historicity") where was the primary tangible evidence for the assertions about this "individual" and the amazing detail laid out by his life. Call me Mr Picky but there doesn't seem to be much in the way of historical fact to be back up this article, the section on Archaeology being remarkably thin. I would like to have seen a much more realistic appraisal of the historical figure separated from the layers of myth, attribution and story telling which make up 90% of this article. 94.2.199.166 (talk) 20:25, 28 July 2022 (UTC)
 * I have to agree with the previous anonymous user who started this thread. The article is not written in an encyclopedic tone. The tone is devotional. There are reverential capitals, and dates given to the nearest year, which is not believable historically.--2603:8000:7A01:6E67:971:F489:7294:F785 (talk) 14:11, 14 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Jeremiah


text:
FAL

Fal or FAL may refer to:

Places

 * Fal, Fars, a village in Iran
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 * Fal Rural District, Fars Province, Iran
 * Fál or Inis Fáil, an ancient name for Ireland
 * River Fal, Cornwall, England
 * FAL, station code for Falmouth Docks railway station, in England

Military

 * Lebanese Armed Forces (French: Forces Armées Libanaises)
 * HMS Fal, original name of UBS Mayu, the first flagship of the Burmese Navy
 * FN FAL, a Belgian battle rifle

Other uses

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 * fal, ISO 639-3 code for the South Fali branch of the Fali languages (Cameroon)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: FAL


text:
Absalom and Achitophel

Absalom and Achitophel is a celebrated satirical poem by John Dryden, written in heroic couplets and first published in 1681. The poem tells the Biblical tale of the rebellion of Absalom against King David; in this context it is an allegory used to represent a story contemporary to Dryden, concerning King Charles II and the Exclusion Crisis (1679–1681). The poem also references the Popish Plot (1678).

Satire
Absalom and Achitophel is "generally acknowledged as the finest political satire in the English language". It is also described as an allegory regarding contemporary political events, and a mock heroic narrative. On the title page, Dryden himself describes it simply as "a poem".

In the prologue, "To the Reader", Dryden states that "the true end of satire is the amendment of vices by correction". He also suggests that in Absalom and Achitophel he did not let the satire be too sharp to those who were least corrupt: "I confess I have laid in for those, by rebating the satire, where justice would allow it, from carrying too sharp an edge."

Absalom and Achitophel has inspired a great deal of discussion regarding satire: how satire was defined when Dryden wrote, and how this poem contrasts with the ancient models of Horace, Virgil, and Juvenal. Dryden himself is considered a father of the modern essay, and one of literature's most important critics of the literary form, particularly in his essay "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire", where he writes a history of satire "from its first rudiments of barbarity, to its last polishing and perfection". He also offers a definition of satire:

"Heinsius, in his dissertations on Horace, makes it for me, in these words; 'Satire is a kind of poetry, without a series of action, invented for the purging of our minds; in which human vices, ignorance, and errors, and all things besides, which are produced from them, in every man, are severely reprehended; partly dramatically, partly simply, and sometimes in both kinds of speaking; but for the most part figuratively, and occultly; consisting in a low familiar way, chiefly in a sharp and pungent manner of speech; but partly, also, in a facetious and civil way of jesting; by which, either hatred, or laughter, or indignation is moved.'"

At one point in the essay, "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire", Dryden mentions Absalom and Achitophel:

"The nicest and most delicate touches of satire consist in fine raillery … How easy it is to call rogue and villain, and that wittily? But how hard to make a man appear a fool, a blockhead, or a knave, without using any of those opprobrious terms? … The character of Zimri in my Absalom, is, in my opinion, worth the whole poem: 'Tis not bloody, but 'tis ridiculous enough. And he for whom it was intended, was too witty to resent it as an injury … And thus, my lord, you see I have preferred the manner of Horace, and of your Lordship, in this kind of satire, to that of Juvenal."

Biblical background
The story of Absalom's rebellion against his father, King David, is told in the Old Testament of the Bible, in the Second Book of Samuel (chapters 14 to 18). The beautiful Absalom is distinguished by his extraordinarily abundant hair, which is thought to symbolise his pride (2 Sam. 14:26). When David's renowned advisor, Achitophel, joins Absalom's rebellion, another advisor, Hushai, plots with David to pretend to defect and give Absalom advice that plays into David's hands. The result is that Absalom takes the advice of the double agent Hushai over the good advice of Achitophel. Achitophel, realising that the rebellion is doomed to failure, goes home and hangs himself. Absalom is killed (against David's explicit commands) after getting caught by his hair in the thick branches of a great oak tree: "His head caught fast in the oak, and he was left hanging between heaven and earth, while the mule that was under him went on" (NRSV 2 Sam. 18:9). The death of his son, Absalom, causes David enormous personal grief.

A second allegory in the poem, beginning on line 425, is the Parable of the Prodigal Son, which can be found in the New Testament in the Gospel of Luke, chapter 15, verse 11–32. It is the tale of a son who asks for his birthright early, loses it, and returns to his father, who then takes pity on him and shares with him his remaining fortune. The father's forgiveness contrasts with the response of David towards Achitophel, but still the story works well for a theme that deals with problems of ascension, and Dryden uses similarities and differences in the two stories to express the poem's themes. Ideas from this second allegory occur throughout the poem.

Historical background
In 1681 in England, Charles II was aged 51. He had a number of mistresses and had produced a number of illegitimate children. One of these was James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth, who was very popular, both for his personal charisma and for his fervor for the Protestant cause. Charles had no legitimate child to be his heir, and his brother, the future King James II, was openly a Roman Catholic. When Charles's health suffered, there was a panic in the House of Commons over the potential for the nation being ruled by a Roman Catholic king. The Earl of Shaftesbury had sponsored and advocated the Exclusion Bill, which would prevent James from succeeding to the throne, but this bill was blocked by the House of Lords on two occasions. In the spring of 1681, at the Oxford Parliament, Shaftesbury appealed to Charles to legitimise Monmouth. Monmouth was caught preparing to rebel and seek the throne, and Shaftesbury was suspected of fostering this rebellion. The poem was written, possibly at Charles's behest, and published in early November 1681. On 24 November 1681, Shaftesbury was seized and charged with high treason. A trial before a jury picked by Whig sheriffs acquitted him.

Later, after the death of his father, the Duke of Monmouth—unwilling to see his uncle James become King—executed his plans and went into full revolt. The Monmouth Rebellion was put down, and in 1685 the Duke was executed.

Synopsis
Dryden's poem tells the story of the first foment by making Monmouth into Absalom, the beloved boy, Charles into David (who also had done some philandering), and Shaftesbury into Achitophel. It paints Buckingham, an old enemy of Dryden's (see The Rehearsal for one example), into Zimri, the unfaithful servant. The poem places most of the blame for the rebellion on Shaftesbury, and makes Charles a very reluctant and loving man who has to be king before father. The poem also refers to some of the Popish Plot furore.

Plot analysis
There are many different ways of understanding Dryden's poem Absalom and Achitophel. The most common reading compares "the connections between fatherhood and kingship". Through biblical allusions Dryden connects ancient fatherhood with current events not only to show a precedent, but also to show how it connects with a royal's responsibilities. Dryden uses the fatherly indulgence of David (lines 31-33) to explore the legitimacy of Absalom's succession. Dryden uses an old story, The Prodigal Son, to create a clear picture of how self-indulgent love creates unfair conflict. Throughout the poem the relationship of fatherhood and kingship is united.

Another way of reading Dryden's poem is through a "mother plot." Susan Greenfield proposes that the mentions of maternity and women are an important part of the poem's royalist resolution. In this reading the blame is transferred to the females, saying that only the female power of life threatens the political order and should be hindered. It is due to female desires and a female's ability to create life that the whole mess is created.

Renaissance element
Within the renaissance philosophers and writers were interested in the idea of superiority of bastards. It was a common idea at that time that bastards were better than their legitimate counterparts. Lines 19 and 20 explore this idea when they say "whether, inspired by some diviner lust,/his father got him with a greater gust". It was thought that the greater passion and desire that went into making bastards made them better. An inclusion of this idea in a satirical piece could have many implications. Heidi Kelchner proposes that "we should consider Dryden's reference to the heated manner in which Absalom was conceived-used ironically as part of a mock panegyric of Absalom".

A second part written by Nahum Tate
Absalom and Achitophel stands alone as a complete poem by John Dryden as it was published in 1681. Its success led others to encourage Dryden to continue the story, to keep up with current events of the time. Dryden declined the suggestion, but his friend Nahum Tate took it up and wrote a second part, publishing it the following year, 1682. According to the bookseller Jacob Tonson, Tate was aided by Dryden's advice and editorial direction. Dryden also anonymously contributed a few lines that satirized Thomas Shadwell and Elkanah Settle, who in Dryden's passage are named Og and Doeg. Tate's second part recycles a number of Dryden's ideas and lines, but has not impressed the critics, though Dryden's contribution stands out from what surrounds it.

title: Absalom and Achitophel


text:
Hototogisu

Hototogisu may refer to:

 * Lesser cuckoo (Cuculus poliocephalus), a bird native to Japan
 * The Cuckoo (novel) or Hototogisu, a novel by Roka Tokutomi
 * Hototogisu (magazine), a Japanese literary magazine
 * Hototogisu (film), a 1922 Japanese film
 * Hototogisu (video game), a video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System
 * Hototogisu (music), a drone/noise project with Matthew Bower and Marcia Bassett

title: Hototogisu


text:
Religion in Brazil

The predominant religion in Brazil is Christianity, with Catholicism being its largest denomination.

In 1891, when the first Brazilian Republican Constitution was set forth, Brazil ceased to have an official religion and has remained secular ever since, though the Catholic Church remained politically influential into the 1970s. The Constitution of Brazil guarantees freedom of religion and strongly prohibits the establishment of any religion by banning government support or hindrance of religion at all levels.

Overview
Brazil possesses a richly spiritual society formed from the meeting of the Catholic Church with the religious traditions of enslaved Africans and indigenous people. This confluence of faiths during the Portuguese colonization of Brazil led to the development of a diverse array of syncretistic practices within the overarching umbrella of Brazilian Catholicism, characterized by traditional Portuguese festivities. Until recently Catholicism was overwhelmingly dominant. Changes in the 21st century have led to a growth in secularism (no religious affiliation) and to Evangelical Protestantism, at 31% of the population. A 2020 poll indicates that around 50% of Brazilians consider themselves Catholic, down from 90% in 1970. Despite falling in most of the country, Catholicism remains strong in most of the Northeast. Some analysts have projected Protestants to possibly outnumber Catholics around 2030, with the Catholic Church membership dropping to 38.6%, the Protestant membership in hundreds of independent denominations rising to 39.8%, and the non-Christian population (including the non-affiliated) rising to over 20%. In the 2010 census, 64.63% of the population declared themselves as Catholic, 22.2% as Protestant, 8% as non-religious, and 5.2% as followers of other religions (mostly Spiritists or Kardecists who follow the doctrines of Allan Kardec, Umbandists, Candomblers, Jehovah's Witnesses, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and minorities of Buddhists, Jews, Muslims, and other groups).

Brazilian religions are very diversified and inclined to syncretism. In recent decades, there has been a great increase of Neo-Pentecostal churches and in Afro-Brazilian religions, which has decreased the number of members of the Roman Catholic Church. The number of Umbandists and Candomblers could be significantly higher than the official census figure since many of them continue to this day to disguise their religion under "Catholic" syncretism. About ninety percent of Brazilians declared some sort of religious affiliation in the most recent census.

Although the Federal Constitution guarantees religious tolerance to all its citizens (see article 5, item VI), it expressly prohibits all entities that make up the Federation to found and finance public cults and state churches controlled and coordinated by the Government - (see article 19, I), since until now the Brazilian State recognizes the "peculiar character" of the Catholic Church under the other religions in its legal system (see Article 16 of Decree 7107/2010), which is why the law recognizes the Virgin Mary, the mother of Jesus, as the "patroness of Brazil" (see Article 1 of Law 6,802 / 1980); the Constitution is sworn "under the protection of God" (see Preamble of the Federal Constitution); Catholic holidays (such as the day of Our Lady of Aparecida and the day of Our Lord's birth) are recognized as national holidays by law (see Law 10.607 / 2002, Law 6.802 / 1980); the Catholic religion has an exclusive Law regulating its relationship with the State (see Decree 7107/2010); cities and states bear the name of Catholic saints; Catholic statues are exposed in public offices; the expression "God be praised" is present in all real notes; and religious teaching exclusively Catholic in public schools is permitted in the country (see ADI 4439).

Religious intolerance is a crime in Brazil, and several laws ensure freedom of worship and protection for those who profess their faith. The Federal Constitution of 1988 (Arti.5, Clause IV) guarantees that "freedom of conscience and belief is inviolable, ensuring the free exercise of religious cults and guaranteeing, in accordance with the law, the protection of places of worship and their liturgies."

The Brazilian Penal Code (Decree-Law 2,848/1940), establishes as a crime the act of "publicly mock someone based on their beliefs or religious function, stop or disturb a religious ceremony or practice, or publicly disrespect acts or objects of religious worship." The penalty for these acts is imprisonment for one month to one year or a fine. Law n. 14.532/2023 added paragraph three to Article 140 of the Penal Code, which determines that, in the case of the crime of insult, if it consists of elements related to religion or the condition of an elderly or disabled person, the penalty for the crime will be imprisonment for one to three years and a fine.

Demographics
2010 Census:
 * Christianity: 169,329,176 - 88.77%
 * Roman Catholicism: 123,280,172 - 64.63%
 * Protestantism: 42,275,440 - 22.16%
 * Other Christians: 3,773,564 - 1.98%
 * No religion: 15,335,510 - 8.04%
 * Other religions: 6,091,113 - 3.19%

Catholicism

Brazil has the largest number of Catholics in the world. Catholicism has been Brazil's main religion since the beginning of the 16th century. It was introduced among the Native Brazilians by Jesuits missionaries and also observed by all the Portuguese first settlers.

During colonial times, there was no freedom of religion. All Portuguese settlers and Brazilians were compulsorily bound to the Catholic faith and were bound to pay tithes to the church. After Brazilian independence, the first constitution introduced freedom of religion in 1824, but Catholicism was kept as the official religion. The Imperial Government paid a salary to Catholic priests and influenced the appointment of bishops. The political-administrative division of the municipalities accompanied the hierarchical division of the bishoprics in "freguesias" (parishes). There was also some hindrances to the construction of temples and cemeteries that belonged to the Catholic Church. The first Republican Constitution in 1891 separated religion from state and made all religions equal in the Codes of Law, but the Catholic Church remained very influential until the 1970s. For example, due to the strong opposition of the Catholic Church, divorce was not allowed in Brazil until 1977 even if a separated couple observed a different religion.

The Catholic faith practiced in Brazil is full of popular festivities rooted in centuries-old Portuguese traditions, but also heavily influenced by African and Native Brazilian usage. Popular traditions include pilgrimages to the National Shrine of Our Lady of Aparecida (Nossa Senhora Aparecida), the patron saint of Brazil, and religious festivals like the "Círio de Nazaré" in Belém and the "Festa do Divino" in many cities of Central Brazil. Areas that received many European immigrants in the last century, especially Italian and German, have Catholic traditions closer to that practiced in Europe.

The largest proportion of Catholics is concentrated in the Northeast (59%) and South (53%) regions. The smallest proportion of Catholics is found in the Center-West region (49%). The State of Piauí has the largest proportion of Catholics (85%) and the State of Rio de Janeiro has the smallest one (45.19%). Among the state capitals, Teresina has the largest proportion of Catholics in the country (86.010%), followed by Aracaju, Fortaleza, Florianópolis and João Pessoa.

Alternatively, in the 20th century, former Catholic bishop Carlos Duarte Costa founded the Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church after disagreements with clerical celibacy and other doctrines.

Protestantism

Protestantism in Brazil largely originated with American missionaries in the second half of the 19th century, following up on efforts that began in the 1830s. Evangelical Protestantism and Pentecostalism has grown very rapidly in Brazil since the late 20th century. The 2010 Census reported that 22.2% of the Brazilian population is Protestant, about 44 million people. Brazil has many versions of Protestantism. These include neo-Pentecostals, old Pentecostals, and Traditional Protestants (most of them Baptists, Presbyterians and Methodists) predominantly from Minas Gerais to the South. The Anglican Episcopal Church of Brazil, part of the Anglican Communion, has some 120,000 members. Centers of neo-Pentecostalism are Londrina in Paraná state, as well the cities of São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Belo Horizonte (capital of Minas Gerais), especially the suburban and nearby areas of these cities. Lutherans are concentrated mostly in the states of Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and in countryside regions of the states of Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo.

As of the year 2000, the largest proportion of Protestants was found in North (19.8%), Central-West (18.9%) and Southeast (17.5%) regions. Among the state capitals, Rio de Janeiro has the largest proportion of non-Pentecostal Protestants in the country (10.07%), followed by Vitória, Porto Velho, Cuiabá and Manaus. But Goiânia is the state capital with the largest proportion of Pentecostal Protestants in the country (20.41%), followed by Boa Vista, Porto Velho, Belém and Belo Horizonte.

Orthodoxy

The Eastern Orthodox Church is also present in Brazil. The Orthodox Metropolitan Cathedral, located in São Paulo, is the See of the Archdiocese of the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch in São Paulo. It is an example of Byzantine architecture that can be appreciated in South America. Its construction, which began in the 1940s, was inspired by the Basilica of Hagia Sophia of Istanbul and was inaugurated in January 1954. According to IBGE, there were 131,571 Orthodox Christians in Brazil.

Jehovah's Witnesses
In 2022, according to the denomination, Brazil had 909,879 Jehovah's Witnesses with 12,439 congregations and a ratio of 1 Witness to 238 residents. However, the 2010 census reported nearly 1.4 million people listed themselves as members.

The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
The Latter-day Saints arrived in Brazil in 1913 through German immigrants, but proselytizing efforts only began in 1929. It is the fastest-growing church in Brazil in terms of membership. According to the religious institution's records, it has about 1.5 million members, making Brazil the third country in the world with the most members, behind only the United States and Mexico. The Church has 36 missions, 2,172 congregations, 21 temples, and 524 Family History Centers.

According to the Church's doctrine, these temples perform sacred ordinances such as vicarious baptism, celestial marriage, and family sealing, in addition to being places of learning and spirituality. Only baptized and worthy members are allowed to enter the temples. The Church also holds worship meetings on Sundays in its chapels throughout Brazil, which are open to the public.

The Church is active in community assistance in Brazil, notably through the "Helping Hands" program. This initiative mobilizes members and volunteers in activities such as blood donation, food drives, support for natural disasters, health and education campaigns, and revitalization of public spaces. The church undertakes these actions to contribute to the well-being of its members and local communities.

Despite being Christians, they believe themselves to be the restored Church of Christ on Earth. Therefore, they are part of the Restorationist branch and not affiliated with any other traditional religious movements such as Catholicism, Protestantism, Spiritism, or other Christian denominations, although they respect all denominations.

Non-Christian religions
There are small populations of people professing Buddhism (215,000), Judaism (107,000), Islam (35,000), Shinto, Rastafari and many other religions. They comprise 21st century immigrants from East Asia, the Middle East, or of recent immigrant descent.

African and indigenous religions
Afro-Brazilian religions are syncretic religions, such as Candomblé, that have many followers, mainly Afro-Brazilians. They are concentrated mainly in large urban centers in the Northeast, such as Salvador, Recife, or Rio de Janeiro in the Southeast. The cities of São Paulo, Porto Alegre and Florianópolis have a great number of followers, but in the South of Brazil the most common African influenced Ritual is Almas e Angola, which is an Umbanda like a ritual. Nowadays, there are over 70 "terreiros" (temples) in Florianópolis, which are the places where the rituals run. In addition to Candomblé which arose through a process of syncretism between several of the traditional religions of West Africa, especially that of the Yoruba, and the Roman Catholic form of Christianity, there is also Umbanda, a syncretic Brazilian religion that blends African traditions with Roman Catholicism, Spiritism, and Indigenous American beliefs. There are also Catholics, Protestants, and other kinds of Christians who hold a dual belief system and go to both churches and terreiros.

Candomblé, Umbanda, Batuque, Xango, and Tambor de Mina are Afro-Brazilian religions influenced by the native cults brought by black slaves shipped from Africa to Brazil. These black slaves would summon their gods, called Orixas, Voduns, or Inkices with chants and dances they had brought from Africa. These cults were persecuted throughout most of Brazilian history, largely because they were believed to be pagan or even satanic. However, the Brazilian republic government legalized all of them on the grounds of the necessary separation between the State and the Church in 1889.

In current practice, Umbanda followers leave offerings of food, candles, and flowers in public places for the spirits. Candomblé terreiros have similar practices, and there are a number of festivals that occur yearly especially in the Northeast, with celebrations such as the famous Iyemanja Festival and the Waters of Oxala.

From Bahia northwards there are different practices such as Catimbo, and Jurema with heavy indigenous elements. All over the country, but mainly in the Amazon rainforest, there are many Indians still practicing their original traditions. Many of their beliefs and use of naturally occurring plant derivatives are incorporated into African, Spiritualists, and folk religions.

These religions have suffered increasing hostility from Protestant churches, with attacks on temples and the defacement of statues of the gods. In recent years measures have been taken to counter religious conflict.

Spiritism
Spiritism is a religion, founded in the 19th century by the French educator Allan Kardec, which proposes the study of "the nature, origin, and destiny of spirits, and their relation with the corporeal world". Spiritism follows Jesus's moral teachings, and therefore its status as a non-Christian religion is an object of debate between its followers and mainstream Christians. If considered non-Christian, Spiritism would be by far the largest non-Christian religion in Brazil; if considered as a Christian religion, it would be the third largest denomination after Roman Catholicism and the Protestant Assemblies of God. It studies topics such as life after death, reincarnation, spirits, moral teachings and much more.

Buddhism

Buddhism is probably the largest of all minority religions, with about 215,000 followers. Brazil is home to the third-largest Buddhist population in the Americas, after the United States and Canada. This is mostly because of the large Japanese Brazilian community. About a fifth of the Japanese Brazilian community are followers of Buddhism. Japanese Buddhist sects like Jodo Shinshu, Nichiren Buddhism (most notably the Soka Gakkai), and Zen are the most popular. Tibetan Buddhism (Vajrayana) is also present, since Chagdud Tulku Rinpoche founded the Khadro Ling center in Três Coroas, Rio Grande do Sul (where he lived until his death in 2002), and many other institutions across the country. However, in recent years both Chinese Mahayana and South East Asian Theravāda sects are gaining popularity. Buddhism was introduced to Brazil in the early twentieth century, by Japanese immigrants, although now, 60% of Japanese Brazilians are now Christian due to missionary activities and intermarriage. Nevertheless, Japanese Brazilian culture has a substantial Buddhist influence. A number of Buddhist organizations and groups are also active in Brazil, with nearly 150 temples spread across the states.

Judaism

The first Jews arrived in Brazil as cristãos-novos (New Christians) or conversos, names applied to Jews or Muslims who converted to Catholicism, most of them forcibly. According to the Inquisition reports, many New Christians living in Brazil during colonial times were condemned for secretly observing Jewish customs.

In 1630, the Dutch conquered portions of northeast Brazil and permitted the open practice of any religion. Many Jews came from the Netherlands to live in Brazil in an area dominated by the Dutch. Most of them were descendants of the Portuguese Jews who had been expelled from Portugal in 1497. In 1636, the Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, the first synagogue in the Americas was built in Recife, the capital of Dutch Brazil. The original building remains to this day, but the Jews were forced to leave Brazil when the Portuguese-Brazilians retook the land in 1654.

The first Jews that stayed in Brazil and openly practiced their religion came when the first Brazilian constitution granted freedom of religion in 1824, just after the independence. They were mainly Moroccan Jews.

The first wave of Sephardic Jews was exceeded by the larger wave of immigration by Ashkenazi Jews that came at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries, mainly from Russia, Poland, Belarus and Ukraine. A final significant group came, fleeing Nazism or the destruction that followed World War II.

Brazil has the second-largest Jewish population in Latin America of 120,000 people, making up a total of 0.06% of Brazil's population. As of 2017, Rio de Janeiro's Jewish population was 22,000, with 24 active synagogues and São Paulo has a Jewish population of 44,000.

Islam
By Pew in 2010, there are 204,000 Muslims in Brazil, representing 0.1% of the total population. The Federation of Muslim Associations of Brazil estimates there are about 1.5 million Muslims and others say about 400,000 to 500,000. There are over 150 mosques where Muslims perform their daily prayers.

Islam in Brazil may be presumed to have first been practiced by African slaves brought from West Africa. Scholars note that Brazil received more enslaved Muslims than anywhere else in the Americas. During Ramadan, in January 1835, a small group of black slaves and freedmen from Salvador da Bahia, inspired by Muslim teachers, rose up against the government in the Malê Revolt, the largest slave rebellion in Brazil. (Muslims were called malê in Bahia at this time, from Yoruba image that designated a Yoruba Muslim.) Fearing the example might be followed, the Brazilian authorities began to watch the malês very carefully and in subsequent years intensive efforts were made towards conversions to Catholic Christianity and erase the popular memory of and affection towards Islam. However, the African Muslim community was not erased overnight, and as late as 1910 it is estimated there were still some 100,000 African Muslims living in Brazil.

A recent trend has been the increase in conversions to Islam among non-Arab citizens.

Hinduism
Most of the Brazilian Hindus are ethnic East Indians. However, there are new converts due to the missionary effects of Hare Krishnas.

There are as many as 1500 PIOs in the Indian community in Brazil, and only 400 NRIs since foreign nationals can acquire local citizenship without any discrimination after 15 years of domicile in this country. Brazil has also no bar against dual citizenship. But in recent years, it has been granting immigration visas only in high technology fields. The only exceptions are the Sindhis in Manaus (who have formed an Indian Association with about a hundred members) and the Goans in São Paulo.

Besides the PIOs, there are Hindu organizations such as ISKCON as well as Brahma Kumaris which are very active in Brazil. The number of adherents of these organizations is not officially recorded but is estimated to be a few thousand. The Vedic Astrology, vedanga of Hinduism, is increasingly popular in Brazil, especially by the efforts of the Academia Brasileira de Astrologia Védica (ABAV) which promotes this branch of the Vedic culture in the country.

Positivist Church of Brazil
Many confuse Spiritism with Afro-Brazilian Religions like Umbanda, Candomblé, and others that have a following of almost 600,000 adherents. One of the most unusual features of the rich Brazilian spiritual landscape are the sects that use ayahuasca (an Amazonian entheogenic tea), including Santo Daime, União do Vegetal, and Centro de Cultura Cósmica. This syncretism, coupled with ideas prevalent during the military dictatorship, has resulted in a church for the secular, based on philosopher Auguste Comte's principles of positivism, based at the Positivist Church of Brazil in Rio de Janeiro.

Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith in Brazil started in 1919 with Baháʼís first visiting the country that year, and the first Baháʼí Local Spiritual Assembly in Brazil was established in 1928. There followed a period of growth with the arrival of coordinated pioneers from the United States finding national Brazilian converts and in 1961 an independent national Baháʼí community was formed. During the 1992 Earth Summit, which was held in Brazil, the international and local Baháʼí community were given the responsibility for organizing a series of different programs, and since then the involvement of the Baháʼí community in the country have continued to multiply. The Association of Religion Data Archives (relying on World Christian Encyclopedia) estimated some 42,100 Baháʼís in Brazil in 2010.

Japanese New Religions
There are, in Brazil, many followers of Japanese new Religions like Oomoto, PL Kyodan, Seicho-no-Ie and the Church of World Messianity. The total number of adherents, if merged, maybe in the hundreds of thousands.

Beliefs
A 2009 poll, made by Datafolha and published in newspaper Folha de S. Paulo, asked diverse questions about the beliefs of the Brazilian people. In this poll, 64% reported to be Catholics, 17% Pentecostal Protestants, 5% non-Pentecostal Protestants, 3% Kardecists or Spiritists, 3% followers of other religions, 7% non-religious or atheists. Less than 1% reported to follow Afro-Brazilian religions.

 * Belief in God and the Devil

 * 97% of Brazilians reported believing in God; 2% have doubts and 1% do not believe in God.
 * 75% reported believing in the Devil, 9% have doubts and 15% do not believe in the Devil.
 * 81% of those non-religious reported believing in God.

 * About Jesus Christ

 * 93% Reported they believe Jesus Christ rose after death; 92% that the Holy Spirit exists; 87% in the occurrence of miracles; 86% that Mary gave birth to Jesus as a virgin; 77% that Jesus will return to Earth at the end of time; 65% that the sacramental bread is the body of Jesus; 64% that after death some people go to Heaven; 58% that after death some people go to Hell and 60% that there is life after death.

 * Belief in saints

 * 57% Believe there are saints.
 * 49% Pray for the intercession of a saint (68% among self-declared Catholics).
 * 18% Pray for the intercession of Our Lady of Aparecida (26% among Catholics); Saint Anthony, Saint Expeditus (5% each), Saint George (3%), Saint Jude, Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Joseph (2% each).

 * About the Catholic priests

 * 51% Believe some priests respect chastity, 31% most, 8% none, and 4% they all do.
 * 66% That priests should be allowed to marry (59% among Catholics and 94% among followers of Candomblé).
 * About the sexual abuse scandals involving priests, 38% believe some of the complaints are true, 30% most are, 21% all are and 4% none of them.

 * About different religions

 * About the sentence "Catholics do not practice their religion", 19% reported agreeing completely and 41% agreed, but not completely.
 * About the sentence "the Protestants are misled by their priests", 61% agreed (77% among the Kardecists, 67% among Catholics and 45% among Protestants).
 * About the sentence "Umbanda is a Devil thing", 57% agreed (83% among Evangelical Protestants, 53% among Catholics and 12% among Umbandists).
 * About the sentence "Jews only think about money", 49% agreed. 51% disagreed.
 * About the sentence "Muslims advocate terrorism", 49% agreed. 51% disagreed.

Freedom of religion
In 2023, the country was scored 4 out of 4 for religious freedom; it was noted Afro-Brazilian religious groups face considerable discrimination and violence.

title: Religion in Brazil


text:
James Wilson

James Wilson may refer to:

Canada

 * James Wilson (Upper Canada politician) (1770–1847), English-born farmer and political figure in Upper Canada
 * James Crocket Wilson (1841–1899), Canadian MP from Quebec
 * James Robert Wilson (1866–1941), mayor of Saskatoon and member of the Parliament of Canada
 * James Wilson (Ontario MPP) (1810–1891), Canadian politician
 * James Frederick Wilson, Ontario MPP

Oceania

 * James Wilson (New South Wales politician, born 1862) (1862–1925), English-born Australian politician
 * James Wilson (New South Wales politician, born 1865) (1865–1927), New Zealand-born Australian politician
 * Sir James Wilson (New Zealand politician, born 1849) (1849–1929), New Zealand politician and farmer
 * James Wilson (New Zealand politician, born 1814) (1814–1898)
 * Sir James Milne Wilson (1812–1880), Australian politician in Tasmania
 * James Phillips Wilson (c. 1852–1925), South Australian Labor politician

United Kingdom

 * James Wilson (MP for York) between 1826 and 1830.
 * James Wilson (Labour politician) (1879–1943), British MP for Dudley and Oldham
 * James Harold Wilson (1916–1995), Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, 1964–1970 and 1974–1976
 * James Wilson (businessman) (1805–1860), UK member of parliament and founder of The Economist magazine
 * James Wilson (Orangeman) (fl. 1793–94), North Irish politician, founder of the Orange Institution

United States

 * James Wilson (Founding Father) (1742–1798), Founding Father of the United States
 * James Wilson (Colorado politician), former member of the Colorado House of Representatives
 * James Wilson (Indiana politician) (1825–1867), US representative
 * James Wilson I (New Hampshire politician) (1766–1839), US representative
 * James Wilson II (1797–1881), US representative, son of James Wilson I
 * James Wilson (Pennsylvania politician) (1779–1868), US representative
 * James Wilson (Secretary of Agriculture) (1835–1920), United States secretary of agriculture and US representative from Iowa
 * James Charles Wilson (1816–1861), American politician in Texas
 * James Clifton Wilson (1874–1951), US representative from Texas
 * James F. Wilson (1828–1895), US senator and representative from Iowa
 * James J. Wilson (1775–1824), US senator from New Jersey
 * James M. Wilson Jr. (1918–2009), assistant secretary of state
 * James Wilson (journalist) (1787–1850), Irish-American journalist, politician, and judge

Military and revolutionary figures

 * James Wilson (British Army officer) (1921–2004), British general
 * James Wilson (explorer) (1760–1814), brought the first British missionaries to Tahiti
 * James Wilson (Irish nationalist) (1836–1921), Irish republican convicted of desertion
 * James Wilson (revolutionary) (1760–1820), Scottish leader of the Radical War
 * James H. Wilson (1837–1925), general in the United States Army

Sportsmen

 * James Wilson (athlete) (1891–1973), British athlete
 * James Wilson (Australian rules footballer) (c. 1855–1935), Australian rules footballer for Geelong
 * James Wilson (basketball), American basketball player
 * James Wilson (cricketer) (born 1978), South African cricketer
 * James Wilson (darts player) (born 1972), English darts player
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1866) (c. 1866–1900), Scottish footballer
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1882), Scottish footballer (St Mirren, Preston NE)
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1884) (1884–1934), Australian rules footballer for Essendon
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1890) (1890–1917), Scottish footballer (Queen's Park)
 * James Wilson (1910s footballer), English footballer
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1989), Welsh professional footballer for Bristol Rovers
 * James Wilson (footballer, born 1995), English professional footballer for Port Vale
 * James Wilson (rugby union) (born 1983), New Zealand rugby player
 * James Wilson (trainer) (1828–1917), founder of St. Albans Stud, Victoria, Australia
 * James B. Wilson (1896–1986), American football player and coach
 * James H. Wilson (American football) (1940–2013), American football coach

Science and medicine

 * James Wilson (anatomist) (1765–1821), Scottish anatomist
 * James Wilson (scientist), American gene therapist
 * James Wilson (zoologist) (1795–1856), Scottish zoologist
 * James Wilson (mathematician) (1774?–1829), Irish mathematician
 * James A. Wilson (21st century), American mathematician
 * James Arthur Wilson (1795–1882), English physician
 * James G. Wilson (1915–1987), embryologist and anatomist
 * James George Wilson (1830–1881), Scottish surgeon and professor of midwifery
 * James Ricker Wilson (1922–2007), American theoretical physicist
 * James Thomas Wilson (1861–1945), British professor of anatomy

Arts and craftspersons

 * James Wilson (architect) (1816–1900), British architect in Bath
 * James Wilson (cinematographer) (active 1927–1963), British cinematographer
 * James Wilson (composer) (1922–2005), Irish composer
 * James Wilson (producer) (born 1965), British film producer
 * James Wilson (globe maker) (1763–1855), American globe maker
 * James Wilson (songwriter), 18th-century English songwriter
 * James Daniel Wilson (born 1977), English actor
 * James Keys Wilson (1828–1894), American architect in Ohio
 * Mark Wilson (magician) or James Wilson (1929–2021), American magician
 * James Perry Wilson (1889–1976), American painter, designer, and architect

Academics

 * James Kinnier Wilson (1921–2022), British Assyriologist
 * James Q. Wilson (1931–2012), American professor of public policy
 * James Southall Wilson (1880–1963), American author, professor, and founder of the Virginia Quarterly Review

Clergy

 * James Wilson (Archdeacon of Manchester) (1836–1931), British theologian and science teacher
 * James Wilson (bishop) (died 1857), Irish bishop of Cork
 * James Wilson (Dean of Elphin and Ardagh), Irish Anglican clergyman
 * James Wilson (Dean of Tuam), Irish Anglican clergyman
 * James Hood Wilson (1829–1903), moderator of the General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland in 1895

Other

 * James Wilson (civil servant) (1853–1926), British civil servant in British India
 * James Wilson (unionist) (1876–1945), American labor union leader
 * James Wilson (House), a character on House
 * James Grant Wilson (1832–1914), American soldier, editor, and author
 * James Wilson (motorcyclist) (c. 1901–1995), long-distance motorcyclist and author
 * James William Wilson, Jr. (born 1969), American murderer and perpetrator of the Oakland Elementary School shooting

title: James Wilson


text:
Rigid inflatable boat

A rigid inflatable boat (RIB), also rigid-hull inflatable boat or rigid-hulled inflatable boat (RHIB), is a lightweight but high-performance and high-capacity boat constructed with a rigid hull bottom joined to side-forming air tubes that are inflated with air to a high pressure so as to give the sides resilient rigidity along the boat's topsides. The design is stable, light, fast and seaworthy. The inflated collar acts as a life jacket, ensuring that the vessel retains its buoyancy, even if the boat is taking on water. The RIB is an evolutionary development of the inflatable boat with a rubberized fabric bottom that is stiffened with flat boards within the collar to form the deck or floor of the boat.

Origins in Wales
The combination of rigid hull and large inflatable buoyancy tubes had been conceived by a Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) team working under Inspector of Lifeboats Dag Pike in 1964 as a means of reducing the wear and tear of the fabric bottoms of the existing inflatable inshore lifeboats. Although working versions were built, the plywood rigid hulls were not strong enough and broke up in waves.

Development of the RIB was originally undertaken by students and staff at Atlantic College in South Wales, under the direction of retired Navy Admiral Desmond Hoare, who headed the school, which opened in 1962. A series of experimental and prototype solutions for effectively combining a hard hull form with an inflated fabric sponson lasted for over a decade. The RIB craft developed at Atlantic College served as an effective seafront activities safety and rescue boat for the college's fleet of sailing dinghies on the often challenging Bristol Channel, and the college went on to become an Inshore Lifeboat Station for the RNLI in 1963, carrying out countless rescues over the next 50 years.

The RNLI's "B-Class Atlantic Inshore Lifeboat" (including the Atlantic 21, the Atlantic 75, and Atlantic 85) was named in honor of the college's role in its development. The Atlantic College Lifeboat Station was decommissioned by the RNLI in 2013. The video RIB History at UWC Atlantic College provides a visual historical summary.

In 1964, Rear-Admiral Hoare and his students at Atlantic College replaced the torn bottom of their 12 ft sailing activity rescue inflatable boat with a plywood sheet glued to the inflatable tubes. This proved a successful modification but was rather uncomfortable at speed offshore, and so the hull was rebuilt with a shallow-vee bow entry transitioning to a nearly flat section stern. This boat was named Atlanta and later that year an Atlantic College RIB was displayed at the London Boat Show.

By 1966 the students had built a further five rigid inflatable boats – the 15 ft Aphrodite and 16 ft Triton for the college's own use, and the 16 ft X1 and 22 ft X2 which were made under a development agreement with the Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) and were launched in 1965 by Queen Elizabeth II. They were taken by the RNLI for trials at Gorleston (X1) and Great Yarmouth (X2) from which they returned to Atlantic College in Spring 1967. X3 was an experimental vortex-lift hull funded by a private developer and was not greatly successful.

By that time Hoare had concluded that for the conditions under which they operated a boat of around 18 ft long was optimum which led to X4 (launched 1966), X5 and X6 (launched 1967), and X7 to X8 (launched 1968). These boats were used to support the college's sailing activities and also to fulfil the college's responsibility as an inshore lifeboat station for the RNLI – a responsibility it discharged up until 2013. At the same time, work started on a smaller series of beach-launchable boats, 10 ft–12 ft ft long, designated MX1–MX6) to support lifeguards on local beaches.

All the above boats’ hulls were built from plywood. In summer 1968, student Paul Jefferies designed and constructed a hull (X10) from fiberglass, which was not a success due to lack of strength. However, that development led to the building of Psychedelic Surfer, a twin-engined 21 ft RIB, for John Caulcutt, Graeme Dillon and Simon de’Ath to race in the 1969 Round Britain Powerboat Race, in which it was one of the few boats to finish.

From that time, the RNLI transferred development to its research centre in Cowes, who took the Atlantic College designs and developed from them the 21 ft Atlantic 21 class of inshore lifeboats which entered service from 1970 through 2007. Atlantic 21-class lifeboat provides a class history of this vessel.

The first commercially saleable RIB was introduced in 1967 by Tony and Edward Lee-Elliott of Flatacraft, and patented by Admiral Desmond Hoare in 1969 after research and development at Atlantic College.

The first commercial RIB is believed to be the Avon Rubber Searider which was launched at the January 1969 London Boat Show.

The 108th Engineering Heritage Award by the Institution of Mechanical Engineers was presented to UWC Atlantic College on 30 July 2017 by Carolyn Griffiths, President of the IMeche, for its development of the X Alpha Rigid Inflatable Boat.

Introduction to North America
In the mid-1970s Avon tubes for two 21-foot RHIBs were ordered by the recently opened sister school of Atlantic College that had been established on the west coast of Canada, the Lester B. Pearson United World College of the Pacific, at Pedder Bay near Race Rocks, British Columbia in the Strait of Juan de Fuca. Three former Atlantic College students built the first hull during the summer of 1974. Three more graduates who likewise were trained as RNLI inshore lifeboat coxswains worked at the school during its inaugural year and coached some Pacific College students to build and operate the two boats, which were referred to as X-27, propelled by twin outboard engines and X-28, propelled by inboard-outboard stern drive.

During summer, the college loaned their fast rescue craft to the Canadian Coast Guard (CCG) on the west coast, which was introducing rigid inflatables into its then new summer seasonal inshore rescue boat service operation. Meanwhile, CCG inshore rescue stations on the Great Lakes were started up utilizing 5.4 metre (18 ft) Avon Seariders in the late 1970s. The CCG's inshore rescue boat crews included university students during the summer, in part due to the success of the student crews operating these ever-buoyant rescue craft at the Atlantic and Pearson Colleges.

Introduction to the southern hemisphere
The first inflatable boat manufacturer in the Southern Hemisphere is Lancer Industries Ltd, of Auckland, New Zealand in 1971. The founder Chris Marks had visited Europe and brought the concept to NZ. He pioneered many of the initial inflatable boat construction and material methods. Lancers innovate designs and engineering approach to inflatable design still applies and the company holds many patents. Lancer is noted for manufacturing large RIBs, in 1987 it provided tubes for a 17m RIB and then 19 the late 1990s Protector (Rayglass) of New Zealand built two 20m RIB support boats for the Americas Cup which were tubes by Lancer.

In 1976 Steve Schmidt introduced the RHIB concept to New Zealand under the brand Naiad. While it was slow to be accepted for the first few years, it gained momentum with police, Rescue, marine farmers and Government agencies.

The Naiad RHIB developed by Steve Schmidt differed from the existing RHIB designs in two ways. It had a twin skin, incorporating an air retaining inner and a robust replaceable outer. These were held in place by tracks. This system allowed for easy removal of the outer or inner for repair or replacement. The other feature was the unusually deep variable V hull with extreme turned down chines aft.

In 1978 the demand grew for more protection in the form of an integral cabin and outboard well to protect the crew in adverse conditions. Though basic to start with cabins soon became more sophisticated. Naiad were one of the early pioneers in designing RHIBs and models range from 2.5m to 23m.

In the 2010s, the traditional RHIB was reimagined using High-Density Polyethylene (HDPE) as the hull material. HDPE, an engineered polymer, possesses a number of properties which make it a superior marine construction material for RHIB's. Of note, it absorbs vibration leading to a quieter, more comfortable ride, with less slamming load transferred to operators. HDPE does not corrode, or suffer from electrolysis, reducing maintenance costs and increasing operational availability. It was the PFG Group, of Hobart, Tasmania, who recognised and applied the advantages into RHIB construction. In partnership with One2Three Naval Architects, Stuart Downham of PFG developed a range of RHIB designs and builds which have such significantly favourable characteristics in the water that the future of RHIB's and high performance small watercraft will shift towards HDPE as the preferred hull material.

In 1979, Gemini Marine based in Cape Town started building RIBs for the local market. Early on they joined forces with the NSRI and started to design and build rescue craft for the South African Sea Rescue Institution.

General characteristics

RIBs are commonly four to nine metres (13 to 28 ft) long, although they can range in length between 2.5 and 18 metres (7.5 and 55 ft). A RIB is often propelled by one or more outboard motors or an inboard motor turning a water jet or stern drive. Generally, the power of the motors is in the range of 5 to 300 hp.

RIBs are used as rescue craft, safety boats for sailing, dive boats or tenders for larger boats and ships. Their shallow draught, high maneuverability, speed and relative immunity to damage in low-speed collisions are advantages in these applications.

RIBs up to about seven metres in length can be towed on trailers on the road; this, coupled with their other properties, is making them increasingly attractive as leisure craft.

Performance

RIBs are designed with planing hulls. Due to their low weight, RIBs often outperform some types of similarly sized and powered boats.

RIBs can also generally cope better with rougher seas, although this may be partially due to an increased level of confidence in knowing that a RIB is hard to sink, and better absorption of heavy loads by the flexible tubes, which therefore make heavy seas less unpleasant.

The maximum speed of the RIB depends on its gross weight, power, length and profile of hull, and sea conditions. A typical seaborne 6 m RIB, with six passengers, 110 hp engines, in Beaufort force 2 is very likely to have a top speed of around 30 kn. High-Performance RIBs may operate with a speed between 40 and 70 kn, depending on the size and weight.

Uses
Uses include work boats (supporting shore facilities or larger ships) in trades that operate on the water, military craft, where they are used in patrol roles and to transport troops between vessels or ashore, and lifeboats.

RIBs and ordinary inflatable boats are often used by scuba divers to reach dive sites.

Hull
The hull is made of steel, wood, aluminium, or more commonly, a combination of wood for the structure and glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) composite for the shaped and smooth surface. Some manufacturers also weave Kevlar into the GRP sheets for extra strength. The hull of a RIB is shaped to increase the performance of the boat in the water by optimising its hydroplaning characteristics. "Deep-V" hulls cut through waves easily but require greater engine power to start planing than "shallow-V" hulls, which plane at lower speed but with a more uncomfortable ride. As with the design of most boat hulls they represent a compromise of different design characteristics. Modern "all round" RIB hulls combine a deep v hull at the bow which flattens out to present a broad planing pad. This is a flat area on the rear of the hull designed to allow the boat to have a stable surface to plane on.

Tubes
The tubes are usually constructed and then partitioned with separate chambers to reduce the effect of a puncture, each with a valve to add or remove air and more recently pressure release valves. Larger boats (7m+) have six or more chambers with a valve and pressure release for each chamber. If only one of these chambers is punctured, the rest of the chambers will still provide buoyancy, providing redundancy. In recent years, tubes tend to be fitted with both valves and pressure relief valves. As temperature increases, the air inside the tube expands, opening the pressure release valves. This prevents the tubes bursting from overpressure. Common materials for the tubes are Hypalon and PVC (Polyvinyl chloride), though some manufacturers use PU (Polyurethane).

Hypalon
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene(csm) registered under the trade name hypalon.

Tubes made of hypalon (csm/cr) are easy to manufacture and can be repaired with simple puncture repair kits. Hypalon (csm) is not airtight and so must be combined with neoprene (cr) when used to build tubes. Tubes made with Hypalon and Neoprene layers can last up to twice as long as PVC tubes and have been known to last over 20 years. Hypalon is probably the most popular material used for the construction of RIBs manufactured in the UK.

Polyvinyl chloride
As a material for building tubes, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has the disadvantage of lacking flexibility. To make it supple, an additive is used with the polymer. This additive vaporizes as the material ages, making the PVC brittle and allowing it to crack. A PVC tube is the cheapest option and can last approximately 10–15 years.

PVC does have some advantages, it is cheap, it can be welded, and it is guaranteed for longer than hypalon. PVC RIBs are usually very well made and with welded seams they are less prone to blowouts and leaks.

A newer form of PVC has made its way into production. Known as valmex it is said to have a blackout layer on the inside to reduce UV damage to the adhesives usually used to fix tubes to the hulls and various other parts.

Polyurethane
Tubes made of polyurethane (PU) are difficult to manufacture and are consequently not often used for RHIB construction. PU has an advantage of being very tough, it can be made knife-proof or bulletproof. Earlier PU had a disadvantage of aging quickly, but newer types are much more resistant to degradation when exposed to ultraviolet-light. The issue with most of the older PU built RIBs is theUV rays and heat penetrate the fabric and, much like with PVC, destroy the adhesive bond. More recent fabrics are said to have a blackout layer to help combat UV rays.

While PU tubes have been thermal welded, fittings and attachments will still usually be bonded using adhesives. A high-quality PU-made tube lasts over 20 years. PU tubes are often to be found on commercial RIBs, in applications where strength and durability are needed. Replacing the tubes when they wear out usually costs one third as much as the complete RIB.

Wheelhouse/cabins
Larger RIBs can have hard-tops or wheelhouses made of GRP or aluminium. Wheelhouses offer protection from the elements to both the crew and passengers – and can also protect equipment such as suspension seats and navigation equipment. Some RIB manufacturers, particularly those popular in Ireland and the West Coast of Scotland provide optional canopies which form fabric and perspex wheelhouses but can be easily removed in good weather. Increasingly, RIBs are becoming available with small cabins (usually with accommodation for two people and in some cases sea toilets or chemical toilets), widening the application of RIBs as cruising craft.

Seafari setup
Seafari boats are set up to accommodate tourists for a typically smaller duration. Typical setups use jockey seating to accommodate passengers. Coding in the UK and the EU typically limits the number of passengers to 12 while in some countries, such as Poland, more seats are placed on the boat. Thrill rides are common with high speeds and turns adding to their lure.

Tube replacement
Often also known as tube replacement, retube, collar replacement, retubing, re-tube, this is where the old damaged or worn out tube is removed and new tubes are fitted, this is common practice and are known to be replaced with new hypalon, pvc and Polyurethane Tubes however most commonly hypalon unless the boat has a slide on tube rail, luff system implemented.

Foldable rigid inflatable boat (FRIB)
A foldable rigid inflatable boat has a 3-section articulated folding rigid hull. The hull sections have interlocking tabs and slots, held together by the pressure in the tubes. Once assembled it's difficult to tell they fold. Once inflated, they are fully rigid.

Flying inflatable boat (FIB)
A flying inflatable boat, or FIB, is a RIB with microlight-type wings and air propeller. "FIB" is used as a model name by Polaris Motor of Italy for their Polaris FIB.

Amphibious rigid inflatable boat (amphibious RIB)
The amphibious rigid inflatable boat is designed with a four wheels drive system consisting of motorized, retractable and steerable wheels.

title: Rigid inflatable boat


text:
United States Ship

United States Ship (abbreviated as USS or U.S.S.) is a ship prefix used to identify a commissioned ship of the United States Navy and applies to a ship only while it is in commission. Before commissioning, the vessel may be referred to as a "pre-commissioning unit" (PCU), but is officially referred to by name with no prefix. After decommissioning, it is referred to by name with no prefix, though people commonly refer to those ships with the prefix "ex-", as in ex-ship name. In-service but non-commissioned Navy ships go by the prefix USNS, which stands for United States Naval Ship.

From the early beginnings of the U.S. Navy there had been no standard method of referring to U.S. Navy ships until 1907 when President Theodore Roosevelt issued Executive Order 549 on 8 January stating that all U.S. Navy ships were to be referred to as "The name of such vessel, preceded by the words, United States Ship, or the letters U.S.S., and by no other words or letters".

Today's Navy Regulations define the classification and status of naval ships and craft:

 * 1) The Chief of Naval Operations shall be responsible for ... the assignment of classification for administrative purposes to water-borne craft and the designation of status for each ship and service craft.
 * 2) Commissioned vessels and craft shall be called "United States Ship" or "U.S.S."
 * 3) Civilian crewed ships, of the Military Sealift Command or other commands, designated "active status, in service" shall be called "United States Naval Ship" or "U.S.N.S."
 * 4) Ships and service craft designated "active status, in service," except those described by paragraph 3 of this article, shall be referred to by name, when assigned, classification, and hull number (e.g., "HIGH POINT PCH-1" or "YOGN-8").
 * — United States Navy Regulations, 1990, Article 0406.

title: United States Ship


text:
Christian Winther

Rasmus Villads Christian Ferdinand Winther (29 July 1796 – 30 December 1876) was a Danish lyric poet.

He was born at Fensmark near Næstved, where his father was the vicar. He went to the University of Copenhagen in 1815, and studied theology, taking his degree in 1824. He began to publish verse in 1819, but no collected volume appeared until 1828. Meanwhile, from 1824 to 1830, Winther was supporting himself as a tutor. A large inheritance from his uncle, Rasmus Winther, allowed him in 1830 to travel to Italy for a year. In 1835 a second volume of lyric poems appeared, and in 1838 a third. In 1841 King Christian VIII of Denmark appointed Winther to travel to Mecklenburg to instruct Princess Mariane, on the occasion of her betrothal to the Crown Prince of Denmark, in the Danish language. When he was over fifty, Winther married.

Further collections of lyrics appeared in 1842, 1848, 1850, 1853, 1865 and 1872. In 1851 he, who had for most of his life been pestered by heavy debts, received a pension from the state as a poet, and for the next quarter of a century he resided mainly in Paris.

Besides the nine or ten volumes of lyrical verse mentioned above, Winther published Hjortens Flugt ("The Stag's Flight"), an epical romance in verse (1855). Taking place in 15th century South Zealand, written in Nibelungenlied stanzas and probably inspired by Byron's Mazeppa, it tells about young love, demonic forces and witchcraft with a running stag as the reappearing motive of the untamed forces of Nature. However, in the lyric intervals it also praises the idylls and freedom of Nature. In generations it became a traditional confirmation present for Danish youths in that respect competing with Paludan-Müller's Adam Homo.

Many of Winther's shorter poems have won popularity and have been transformed into songs, for instance Flyv fugl, flyv – ("Fly, Bird, fly"), and some of the verses from his collection Til Een, 1842, ("For One"), a tribute to his wife. A classic is also the small humorous epic poem for children: Flugten til Amerika 1830, (Engl. Transl. The Flight to America, 1976). Besides must be mentioned In the Year of Grace, a novel (1874); and other works in prose.

As a lover of woman and Nature, Winther is perhaps one of the Danish authors who is most closely connected to the concept of a romantic poet. Many later Danish lyrics have been inspired by his verses. His special ability of making Nature accompanying the action and his elegant and, compared with his time, rather sensual tributes to women was something new. Through The Stag's Flight, his main work, he won the name of "The Singer of Zealand".

He died in Paris, but his body was brought to Denmark, and was buried in the heart of the woods.

title: Christian Winther


text:
Talk:Edvard Kardelj

Untitled
The poorly documented insinuations about Kardelj advocating the hiring of convicts into the Yugoslav military intelligence service surprise me somewhat, as does the story of Arkan being Kardelj's protége. Did somebody perhaps confuse Edvard Kardelj with Stane Dolanc? --Peterlin 15:57, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * The insinuation about Kardelj is non-documented and as far as I am concerned NPOV. --Besednjak 22:01, 29 Jan 2005 (UTC)

Kardelj deserves a longer entry in Wikipedia. He was person no.2 in Yugoslavia and creator of Yugoslav branch of socialism.

 * In the article, it says "was mourned by some of the media to an extent comparable to the orchestrated mourning that followed the death of Tito one year later." which is ridiculously biased and POV, both to Kardelj and Tito Hauser 12:35, 8 June 2006 (UTC).

Neutrality of this article is disputable
Neutrality of article about Edvard Kardelj is disputable. If necessary, will come citations too. --Stebunik (talk) 00:33, 28 July 2010 (UTC)
 * If you think so, please go ahead improving it. Please, explain why you dispute the article's neutrality, in order to have a fruitful discussion. Viator slovenicus (talk) 17:59, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

 * Please, let you see article of Edvard Kardelj, Slovenian Wikipedia. I can not enough English to translate it. Its translation could be enough for neutrality. --Stebunik (talk) 10:24, 29 July 2010 (UTC)

 * I'm going to pull down what seems to be a stale NEUTRALITY flag. I don't see any glaring issues with the piece, other than it needs to be expanded and sourced out better. Carrite (talk) 02:01, 9 December 2011 (UTC)

Request for Comments
There is an RfC on the question of using "Religion: None" vs. "Religion: None (atheist)" in the infobox on this and other similar pages.

The RfC is at Template talk:Infobox person.

Please help us determine consensus on this issue. --Guy Macon (talk) 05:29, 23 April 2015 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Edvard Kardelj