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Etoy

Etoy is a European digital art group formed in 1994. It has won several international awards including the Prix Ars Electronica in 1996. Their main slogan is: "leaving reality behind."

Etoy has routinely experimented with the boundaries of art, such as selling shares of "stock" in the etoy.corporation, a registered company in Switzerland and travelling the world as well as living in "etoy.tanks" (cargo containers).

History
The group first used the name "etoy" in 1994, for performances at raves and techno music events. The group's members, based in various European countries, were referred to as "agents".

In 2007, German and Swiss director Andrea Reiter realised a documentary (produced by Hugofilm) about etoy's "Mission Eternity" project, a "digital cult of the dead".

As of 2015, a history overview on the group's website describes it as entering "hibernation mode" in 2013.

Toywar
The toywar was a legal battle around 1999/2000 between the Internet toy retailer eToys.com and etoy about the domain name etoy.com. Fearing brand dilution and customer confusion about the similar domain names, eToys sued etoy for trademark infringement, and asked etoy to remove graphic images and profane language from their website that were bringing customer complaints. The artists refused to comply, and eToys eventually obtained a preliminary injunction against etoy which shut down their website. etoy fought back with a coordinated public relations campaign and Internet-based denial of service attacks on eToys.com. After several weeks eToys dropped the lawsuit and the etoy website returned to operation.

etoy activists have called it "the most expensive performance in art history". The story is one of the subjects of the documentary film, info wars.

An email campaign was led by Internet activists including etoy agents developing the toywar website.

A book about the story of the etoy corporation, Leaving reality behind, by Regula Bochsler and Adam Wishart was released in 2002.

title: Etoy


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.45 GAP

The .45 GAP (Glock Auto Pistol) or .45 Glock (11.43×19mmRB) is a pistol cartridge designed by Ernest Durham, an engineer with CCI/Speer, at the request of firearms manufacturer Glock to provide a cartridge that would equal the power of the .45 ACP, have a stronger case head to reduce the possibility of case neck blowouts, and be shorter to fit in a more compact handgun. The .45 GAP is the first commercially introduced cartridge that has been identified with Glock.

Development
The .45 GAP has the same diameter as the .45 ACP pistol cartridge but is slightly shorter, and uses a small-pistol primer instead of the large-pistol primer most commonly used in .45 ACP ammunition. Originally, the maximum bullet weight of the .45 GAP was 200 gr. In order to provide terminal ballistics that matched the standard 230 gr .45 ACP loads, the .45 GAP was designed to operate at a higher standard pressure—roughly equivalent to the higher pressures found in .45 ACP "+P" rounds. Since the .45 GAP has a much smaller cartridge volume than the .45 ACP, the desired pressure and resulting velocity needed to be achieved through powder selection alone. Later development concluded that the .45 GAP can also fire 230 gr projectiles, as does the .45 ACP; though this pushes the .45 GAP cartridge to its limits.

Glock .45 GAP pistols
The full-size Glock 37 pistol was introduced by Glock to use the .45 GAP cartridge and was followed by the compact Glock 38 and the subcompact Glock 39. Glock's .45 GAP–sized pistols use the same frame as their 9×19mm/.40 S&W/.357 SIG line of pistols. The slide is slightly wider to accommodate the larger diameter .45 round and is flush with the frame. Magazines for the .45 GAP are of the same dimensions as those of the 9×19mm/.40 S&W/.357 SIG line of pistols.

Other .45 GAP firearms
Initially, due to its acceptance by law enforcement and the popularity of subcompact handguns for concealed carry, a small number of manufacturers decided to produce pistols that were chambered in .45 GAP, but they no longer produce any pistols in that caliber. Only Glock continues to manufacture pistols in the .45 GAP cartridge. Springfield Armory, Inc. did make the XD series in .45 GAP, and indeed it was the first commercially available pistol for it, but discontinued that chambering soon thereafter.

Law enforcement applications
Modern law enforcement as a whole has moved away from .45 caliber weapons in favor of firearms chambered in .40 S&W and 9×19mm. Despite this change, the .45 GAP has had a following amongst many law enforcement departments. Three state law enforcement agencies have adopted the .45 GAP as a replacement for their current issue 9×19mm Parabellum (New York) or .40 S&W service handguns (South Carolina and Florida). The New York State Police (New York Police have recently completed the transition to .45 ACP for their duty round), South Carolina Highway Patrol, and Florida Highway Patrol have all adopted the Glock 37 and .45 GAP.

The Pennsylvania State Police also carried the Glock 37 from 2007, but, due to ammunition supply problems, replaced them in 2013 with the fourth generation Glock 21 in .45 ACP. After recall issues with the new fourth generation Glocks, the Pennsylvania State Police switched to the SIG Sauer P227 in .45 ACP.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: .45 GAP


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Talk:Occupation of the Baltic states

Occupation and annexation
Why the name of this article starts with "Occupation of ..." but for Crimea the name of the article is "Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation"? In both cases there were occupation and annexation and in both cases it is internationally not recognized. In both cases many countries condemned the occupation and the annexation and consider them to be a violation of international law. We should develop single approach either "Annexation of ..." either "Occupation of ..." and then rename one of this articles. I open the same discussion on another talk page too: Talk:Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation. --Somerby (talk) 11:48, 22 October 2021 (UTC)
 * WP:OTHERSTUFF won't work, and the naming is dependent upon a) article topic and b) WP:COMMONNAME. The annexation of Crimea article is, foremost, about 2014 takeover, which was and is commonly known in English as annexation of Crimea. This article (Occupation of the Baltic states), on the other hand, is intended to encompass entire 1940-1991 period (and well, Russian interwiki for that article wasn't correct either, ru:присоединение Прибалтики к СССР's topic is limited to 1940, hence it is more workable with Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940); that particular article's renaming to annexation could be discussed, but only with strong evidence that "Soviet annexation of the Baltic states" is commonname for the 1940 events, otherwise the page title will stay), and that period's commonname is, apparently, "Occupation of the Baltic states". Hence, again, move won't be forthcoming. Bests, --Seryo93 (talk) 11:57, 22 October 2021 (UTC)
 * As I already explained several years ago, the problem is that most people believe that "occupation" is something obviously bad and illegal, whereas "annexation" is something more neutral and legal. That is not true: they just describe two different things. "Occupation" is an intrinsically temporary phenomenon, and occupied territories have a different legal status according to domestic laws of the occupying state. Thus, an occupied territory always has a different legal status, and the population of the occupied territory do not fall completely under the occupying state's jurisdiction (some special IDs are usually issued to them). These as well as many other aspects are stipulated by Geneva conventions. Thus, after the fall of the Third Reich, the Allies had to invent the occupatio sui generis and debellatio concepts to make Nuremberg Trials possible. Indeed the actions of Nazi leaders were in full accordance with Nazi Germany's laws, and, since, per Geneva conventions, the citizens of the occupied state do not fall under the occupying state's jurisdiction, the Nuremberg trials would be impossible if Germany had a status of an occupied state.
 * In contrast, "annexation" is a complete and permanent incorporation of some territory into another state. Clearly, that is what happened in Baltic states (and Crimea) falls under the definition of "annexation", and, therefore, that should be described as such.
 * However, there is one big problem here. According to Geneva conventions, occupied territories cannot be annexed. Therefore, both Crimean and Baltic cases should be described as "illegal annexation as a result of military occupation". The problem is that most writers do not understand those nuances, and apply the term "occupation" to the Baltic case (as if some military administration existed in the Baltic states during the whole period of 1940-91, and the Baltic citizens has some specific IDs, different from Soviet passports, and they had different political and civil rights etc). However, if that is the case, that automatically means that, e.g. Vilnius must be returned to Poland (for obvious reasons), and so on. To avoid that problem, an Estonian scholar Malksoo applied the term occupatio sui generis to the Baltic states, but as he concluded, only 1940 naval blockade was the reason to conclude so. Paul Siebert (talk) 15:45, 22 October 2021 (UTC)
 * Creation of a civilian administration in an occupied territory does not necessarily end the occupation. Contrary to some claims, there existed a mighty Soviet military administration in Estonia (resp. Latvia, Lithuania) not just during active armed guerilla resistance, but during the whole period of 1944-91; the Soviet military administration was not reporting to any Estonian civilian authorities, although the Soviet military had exclusive control over large areas of Estonian land and sea; and over hundreds of thousands of military personnel and family members (who all had specific ID documents, different from Estonian civilians'). Moreover, even though Soviet military forcibly conscripted men from occupied Estonia (in violation of another Geneva convention) the Estonian conscripts specifically did not have a right to do the military service in Estonia.   If it looks like a duck, and quacks like a duck... It certainly looked like a foreign military occupation, and the Soviets military acted like occupiers with no Estonian participation nor any civilian oversight, so not surprisingly most Estonians (resp. Latvians and Lithuanians) as well as many political leaders in the free world also considered it an occupation from 1944 until 1991.3 Löwi (talk) 17:34, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Do you mean a Baltic military district? If that is what you mean, then I will disappoint you: the whole USSR territory was divided among military districts (Central military district, Volga-Ural military district, Trans-Caucasus military district etc) . That does not put those territories under military occupation. Paul Siebert (talk) 17:50, 9 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Similarly, the administration of other military districts was not reporting to local civilian administration in Central Russia, Georgia, Ukraine, etc. Soviet military conscripted men in e.g. Moscow in the same way as in, e.g. Tallinn: it was compulsory conscription, and the status of Estonian conscripts was identical to the status of Russian ones. Of course, by saying "identical" I meant "identical from the point of view of domestic Soviet laws". That creates a problem: from one hand, the Baltic states were fully incorporated into the Soviet Union and their status was identical to that of other Soviet territories, which does not allow us to claim the Baltic states were the territories under military occupation. From another hand, the annexation was preceded by military occupation in 1940, which makes the former illegal. As I already explained that is a very complicated and controversial issue, which had no precedents in history, and which should be treated as some unique event. Therefore, your "duck" arguments are superficial and hardly productive. Paul Siebert (talk) 17:59, 9 November 2021 (UTC)

German rule "less harsh" than Soviet rule.
Under the topic of "German occupation (1941–1944)" and "Ostland province and the Holocaust". The article states that "However, for the majority of Baltic people, German rule was less harsh than Soviet rule had been, and it was less brutal than German occupations elsewhere in eastern Europe"

This is only the opinion of John Hiden and Patrick Salmon which is said in their book "The Baltic Nations And Europe", and it does not belong in the article as it is subjective and without backing. It contrasts particularly with the earlier reporting of the deaths caused by the Holocaust in the Baltic countries under German occupation. BlueRobot116 (talk) 14:06, 29 January 2023 (UTC)

 * The authors are credible and it's a valid WP:RS. Given that the repressive Soviet occupation lasted more than four decades, it is not unusual that the Baltic people would feel it had greater consequences. Feel free to find other WP:RS, but your mere disagreement is not a legitimate reason to remove this WP:RS. -- Mindaur (talk) 14:56, 29 January 2023 (UTC)
 * There doesn't appear to be a reason for its inclusion. An author being accredited doesn't mean that all their opinions should be referred to in this article.
 * This isn't specifically a representation of what Baltic people think as the author is from another country, and again, it's their opinion. It is not hard data. BlueRobot116 (talk) 15:28, 29 January 2023 (UTC)
 * There doesn't appear to be a reason for its exclusion either. It's an WP:RS and it's an academic source. Both regimes are condemned in the Baltic States, but the negative consequences of the Soviet regime were vast and that does reflect. -- Mindaur (talk) 18:01, 29 January 2023 (UTC)
 * Again, that is subjective opinion. It doesn 't make sense to favourably compare the German occupation in the Baltics to that of the Soviets and to say that the latter was harsher after admitting that the majority of the large Jewish population in Latvia and Lithuania did not survive the 3 year German occupation. BlueRobot116 (talk) 18:43, 29 January 2023 (UTC)
 * All opinions are subjective, that's by definition. Wikipedia represents points of view based on WP:RS, it's just how it works. If you think this subject lacks WP:BALANCE, then you are free to find WP:RS and provide a more balanced view. However, your personal view doesn't disqualify the current WP:RS (also, I don't think the authors are trying to diminish the horrors of the Nazi regime). -- Mindaur (talk) 11:36, 30 January 2023 (UTC)
 * It is shocking to outsiders given the Holocaust and of course only true if you weren't Jewish. However it was quite a prevalent opinion in Lithuania at least. Elinruby (talk) 06:02, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * PS - I don't know about "less brutal than elsewhere" mind you. Perhaps less so than Poland, but I don't think that's true if you include places like Holland and Denmark. But the jaw-dropping mortality rate in Lithuania was Jewish and the ethnicities in Lithuania were very segregated. If you were not Polish or Jewish or Roma or Communist it was probably possible to delude yourself that the Nazis would let you live. But in Eastern Europe it was always about Lebensraum. I have not seen that quote in context mind you and may disagree with it when I do, but I have found Yitzhak Arad very balanced. (see if this helps) Elinruby (talk) 06:27, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I see my link is broken. I'll unbreak it later, as I am about to leave the house, but it was just intended as a random sample of his work. If anyone is burningly curious he should come up in google. Israeli historian who survived the Holocaust as a Soviet partisan, associated with Yad Vashem and the local Holocaust commission. Elinruby (talk) 00:45, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Agreeing with Mindaur on this. The content is based on a reliable source, and the objection is based on WP:IDL. Material with other points of view from other reliable sources is welcome. Doremo (talk) 06:15, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

Repudiating Molotov-Ribbentropp?
I removed In its reassessment of Soviet history that began during perestroika in 1989, the Soviet Union condemned the 1939 secret protocol between Germany and itself.

seems to say that that is exactly wrong Elinruby (talk) 06:08, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

 * (on re-reading) ok, they did denounce it in 1989 but they were normalizing it in 2019. Leaving it out as a distracting excursion into the weeds for a top-level article. Open to discussion of course Elinruby (talk) 06:48, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Since we're discussing the Molotov-Ribbentrop act and what the USSR did and didn't recognise in some detail, I think this is a relevant fact. What happened in Russia in 2019 is hardly relevant. Alaexis¿question? 12:09, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * why would what they did in 1989 be any more relevant? Elinruby (talk) 12:55, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * probably I should have mentioned that this was in the lede, which is already cluttered: The Baltic states' governments themselves, the United States and its courts of law, the European Parliament, the European Court of Human Rights and the United Nations Human Rights Council have all stated that these three countries were invaded, occupied and illegally incorporated into the Soviet Union under provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentropp Pact. Along with a reference after every item on that list. I don't mind discussing 1989 further down the page; maybe we already do and if so great, but also if so, 2019 becomes relevant as well. 13:06, 15 February 2024 (UTC) Elinruby (talk) 13:06, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * I see you already restored the sentence, but just for the record: it is relevant because it shows the inconsistency (in justification and/or moral judgement of the act). Thanks for adding the reference. -- Mindaur (talk) 22:52, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Nod, I understood after the fact that their position changed over time. I got sucked into some dramah but I do intend to further reference this article. FWIW based on what I know right now, it's pretty accurate fwiw. About the Soviet historical narrative. Elinruby (talk) 23:25, 29 February 2024 (UTC)
 * It should be none or both, just one is cherrypicky—blindlynx 16:17, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Kind of thinking that in the lede we should just say that there was the pact, and all the reactions should go further down. Because now we don't have the Russian/Soviet reaction but we do have everyone else's. I am going to let that sit a day or so as I go through the article again then come back to it. (I've done that a couple times already but I wasn't looking at structure or readability, more like facts and overt bias) Elinruby (talk) Elinruby (talk) 21:25, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * works for me —blindlynx 21:30, 15 February 2024 (UTC)
 * Sounds good! Alaexis¿question? 23:29, 16 February 2024 (UTC)
 * so repudiation is already mentioned in the subsection titled "Soviet point of view", along with a cn tag. I am going to replace that with the above citation then update from that same source to include the un-repudiation in 2019. Everyone ok with that?
 * Elinruby (talk) 08:00, 19 February 2024 (UTC)

Overcite triage
The History of the Baltic States by Kevin O'Connor ISBN 0313323550 Afaik there's nothing wrong with this reference but the citation is incomplete, the title is generic, and there are six others behind that sentence. No objections to it being fleshed out and returned to the article somewhere. Elinruby (talk) 10:27, 15 February 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Occupation of the Baltic states


text: User talk:137.222.10.57

title: User talk:137.222.10.57


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Buddhist texts

Buddhist texts are religious texts that belong to, or are associated with, Buddhism and its traditions. There is no single textual collection for all of Buddhism. Instead, there are three main Buddhist Canons: the Pāli Canon of the Theravāda tradition, the Chinese Buddhist Canon used in East Asian Buddhist tradition, and the Tibetan Buddhist Canon used in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism.

The earliest Buddhist texts were not committed to writing until some centuries after the death of Gautama Buddha. The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the Gandhāran Buddhist texts, found in Afghanistan and written in Gāndhārī, they date from the first century BCE to the third century CE. The first Buddhist texts were initially passed on orally by Buddhist monastics, but were later written down and composed as manuscripts in various Indo-Aryan languages (such as Pāli, Gāndhārī, and Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit). These texts were collected into various collections and translated into other languages such as Buddhist Chinese (fójiào hànyǔ 佛教漢語) and Classical Tibetan as Buddhism spread outside of India.

Buddhist texts can be categorized in a number of ways. The Western terms "scripture" and "canonical" are applied to Buddhism in inconsistent ways by Western scholars: for example, one authority refers to "scriptures and other canonical texts", while another says that scriptures can be categorized into canonical, commentarial, and pseudo-canonical. Buddhist traditions have generally divided these texts with their own categories and divisions, such as that between buddhavacana "word of the Buddha," many of which are known as "sutras", and other texts, such as "shastras" (treatises) or "Abhidharma".

These religious texts were written in different languages, methods and writing systems. Memorizing, reciting and copying the texts was seen as spiritually valuable. Even after the development and adoption of printing by Buddhist institutions, Buddhists continued to copy them by hand as a present authenticity exercise and spiritual practice

In an effort to preserve these scriptures, Asian Buddhist institutions were at the forefront of the adoption of Chinese technologies related to bookmaking, including paper, and block printing which were often deployed on a large scale. Because of this, the first surviving example of a printed text is a Buddhist charm, the first full printed book is the Buddhist Diamond Sutra (c. 868) and the first hand colored print is an illustration of Guanyin dated to 947.

Buddhavacana
The concept of buddhavacana (word of the Buddha) is important in understanding how Buddhists classify and see their texts. Buddhavacana texts have special status as sacred scripture and are generally seen as in accord with the teachings of the historical Buddha, which is termed "the Dharma". According to Donald Lopez, the criteria for determining what should be considered buddhavacana were developed at an early stage, and that the early formulations do not suggest that Dharma is limited to what was spoken by the historical Buddha.

The Mahāsāṃghika and the Mūlasarvāstivāda considered both the Buddha's discourses and those of his disciples to be buddhavacana. A number of different beings such as Buddhas, disciples of the Buddha, ṛṣis, and devas were considered capable to transmitting buddhavacana. The content of such a discourse was then to be collated with the sūtras, compared with the Vinaya, and evaluated against the nature of the Dharma. These texts may then be certified as true buddhavacana by a buddha, a sangha, a small group of elders, or one knowledgeable elder.

In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of buddhavacana is the Pāli Canon, also known as the Tripiṭaka ("three baskets"). Generally speaking, the Theravāda school rejects the Mahāyāna sūtras as buddhavacana (word of the Buddha), and do not study or see these texts as reliable sources. In East Asian Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Chinese Buddhist canon; the most common edition of this is the Taishō Tripiṭaka, itself based on the Tripiṭaka Koreana. This collection, unlike the Pāli Tripiṭaka, contains Mahāyāna sūtras, Śāstras (scholastic treatises), and Esoteric Buddhist literature.

According to Venerable Hsuan Hua from the tradition of Chinese Buddhism, there are five types of beings who may speak the sutras of Buddhism: a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva, a ṛṣi, or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a buddha that its contents are true Dharma. Then these sutras may be properly regarded as buddhavacana. Sometimes texts that are considered commentaries by some are regarded by others as buddhavacana.

In Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, what is considered buddhavacana is collected in the Kangyur ('The Translation of the Word'). The East Asian and Tibetan Buddhist Canons always combined buddhavacana with other literature in their standard collected editions. However, the general view of what is and is not buddhavacana is broadly similar between East Asian Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism. The Tibetan Kangyur, which belongs to the various schools of Tibetan Vajrayāna Buddhism, in addition to containing sutras and Vinaya, also contains Buddhist tantras and other related Tantric literature.

Early Buddhist texts

The earliest Buddhist texts were passed down orally in Middle Indo-Aryan languages called Prakrits, including Gāndhārī language, the early Magadhan language and Pāli through the use of repetition, communal recitation and mnemonic devices. These texts were later compiled into canons and written down in manuscripts. For example, the Pāli Canon was preserved in Sri Lanka where it was first written down in the first century BCE.

There are early texts from various Buddhist schools, the largest collections are from the Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda schools, but there are also full texts and fragments from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahāsāṅghika, Mahīśāsaka, Mūlasarvāstivāda, and others. The most widely studied early Buddhist material are the first four Pāli Nikayas, as well as the corresponding Chinese Āgamas. The modern study of early pre-sectarian Buddhism often relies on comparative scholarship using these various early Buddhist sources.

Various scholars of Buddhist studies such as Richard Gombrich, Akira Hirakawa, Alexander Wynne, and A. K. Warder hold that early Buddhist texts contain material that could possibly be traced to the historical Buddha himself or at least to the early years of pre-sectarian Buddhism. In Mahāyāna Buddhism, these texts are sometimes referred to as "Hinayana" or "Śrāvakayāna".

Although many versions of the texts of the early Buddhist schools exist, the only complete collection of texts to survive in a Middle Indo-Aryan language is the Tipiṭaka (triple basket) of the Theravāda school. The other (parts of) extant versions of the Tripitakas of early schools include the Chinese Āgamas, which includes collections by the Sarvāstivāda and the Dharmaguptaka. The Chinese Buddhist canon contains a complete collection of early sutras in Chinese translation, their content is very similar to the Pali, differing in detail but not in the core doctrinal content. The Tibetan canon contains some of these early texts as well, but not as complete collections. The earliest known Buddhist manuscripts containing early Buddhist texts are the Gandharan Buddhist Texts, dated to the 1st century BCE and constitute the Buddhist textual tradition of Gandharan Buddhism which was an important link between Indian and East Asian Buddhism. Parts of what is likely to be the canon of the Dharmaguptaka can be found among these Gandharan Buddhist Texts.

There are different genres of early Buddhist texts, including prose "suttas" (Sanskrit: sūtra, discourses), disciplinary works (Vinaya), various forms of verse compositions (such as gāthā and udāna), mixed prose and verse works (geya), and also lists (matika) of monastic rules or doctrinal topics. A large portion of Early Buddhist literature is part of the "sutta" or "sutra" genre. The Sūtras (Sanskrit; Pāli: Sutta) are mostly discourses attributed to the Buddha or one of his close disciples. They are considered to be buddhavacana by all schools. The Buddha's discourses were perhaps originally organised according to the style in which they were delivered. They were later organized into collections called Nikāyas ('volumes') or Āgamas ('scriptures'), which were further collected into the Sūtra Piṭaka ("Basket of Discourses") of the canons of the early Buddhist schools.

Most of the early sutras that have survived are from Sthavira nikaya schools, no complete collection has survived from the other early branch of Buddhism, the Mahāsāṃghika. However, some individual texts have survived, such as the Śālistamba Sūtra (rice stalk sūtra). This sūtra contains many parallel passages to the Pali suttas. As noted by N. Ross Reat, this text is in general agreement with the basic doctrines of the early sutras of the Sthavira schools such as dependent origination, the "middle way" between eternalism and annihilationism, the "five aggregates", the "three unwholesome roots", the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. Another important source for Mahāsāṃghika sutras is the Mahāvastu ("Great Event"), which is a collection of various texts compiled into a biography of the Buddha. Within it can be found quotations and whole sutras, such as the Mahāsāṃghika version of the Dharmacakrapravartana.

The other major type of text aside from the sutras are the Vinayas. Vinaya literature is primarily concerned with aspects of the monastic discipline and the rules and procedures that govern the Buddhist monastic community (sangha). However, Vinaya as a term is also contrasted with Dharma, where the pair (Dhamma-Vinaya) mean something like 'doctrine and discipline'. The Vinaya literature in fact contains a considerable range of texts. There are, of course, those that discuss the monastic rules, how they came about, how they developed, and how they were applied. But the vinaya also contains some doctrinal expositions, ritual and liturgical texts, biographical stories, and some elements of the "Jatakas", or birth stories. Various Vinaya collections survive in full, including those of the following schools: Theravāda (in Pali), Mula-Sarvāstivāda (in Tibetan translation) and the Mahāsānghika, Sarvāstivāda, Mahīshāsika, and Dharmaguptaka (in Chinese translations). In addition, portions survive of a number of Vinayas in various languages.

Aside from the Sutras and the Vinayas, some schools also had collections of "minor" or miscellaneous texts. The Theravāda Khuddaka Nikāya ('Minor Collection') is one example of such a collection, while there is evidence that the Dharmaguptaka school had a similar collection, known as the Kṣudraka Āgama. Fragments of the Dharmaguptaka minor collection have been found in Gandhari. The Sarvāstivāda school also seems to have had a Kṣudraka collection of texts, but they did not see it as an "Āgama". These "minor" collections seem to have been a category for miscellaneous texts, and was perhaps never definitively established among many early Buddhist schools.

Early Buddhist texts which appear in such "minor" collections include:

 * The Dharmapadas. These texts are collections of sayings and aphorisms, the most well known of which is the Pali Dhammapada, but there are various versions in different languages, such as the Patna Dharmapada and the Gāndhārī Dharmapada.
 * The Pali Udana and the Sarvāstivāda Udānavarga. These are other collections of "inspired sayings".
 * The Pali Itivuttaka ("as it was said") and the Chinese translation of the Itivṛttaka (本事經) by Xuanzang.
 * The Pali Sutta Nipata, including texts such as the Aṭṭhakavagga and Pārāyanavagga. There is also a parallel in the Chinese translation of the Arthavargīya.
 * Theragāthā and Therīgāthā two collections of verses related to the elder disciples of the Buddha. A Sanskrit Sthaviragāthā is also known to have existed.

Abhidharma texts
Abhidharma (in Pāli, Abhidhamma) texts which contain "an abstract and highly technical systematization" of doctrinal material appearing in the Buddhist sutras. It is an attempt to best express the Buddhist view of "ultimate reality" (paramartha-satya) without using the conventional language and narrative stories found in the sutras. The prominent modern scholar of Abhidharma, Erich Frauwallner has said that these Buddhist systems are "among the major achievements of the classical period of Indian philosophy." Modern scholars generally believe that the canonical Abhidharma texts emerged after the time of the Buddha, in around the 3rd century BCE. Therefore, the canonical Abhidharma works are generally claimed by scholars not to represent the words of the Buddha himself, but those of later Buddhists.

There are different types and historical layers of Abhidharma literature. The early canonical Abhidharma works (like the Abhidhamma Pitaka) are not philosophical treatises, but mainly summaries and expositions of early doctrinal lists with their accompanying explanations. These texts developed out of early Buddhist lists or matrices (mātṛkās) of key teachings, such as the 37 factors leading to Awakening. Scholars like Erich Frauwallner have argued that there is an "ancient core" of early pre-sectarian material in the earliest Abhidharma works, such as in the Theravada Vibhanga, the Dharmaskandha of the Sarvastivada, and the Śāriputrābhidharma of the Dharmaguptaka school.

Only two full canonical Abhidharma collections have survived both containing seven texts, the Theravāda Abhidhamma and the Sarvastivada Abhidharma, which survives in Chinese translation. However, texts of other tradition have survived, such as the Śāriputrābhidharma of the Dharmaguptaka school, the Tattvasiddhi Śāstra (Chéngshílun), and various Abhidharma type works from the Pudgalavada school.

Later post-canonical Abhidharma works were written as either large treatises (śāstra), as commentaries (aṭṭhakathā) or as smaller introductory manuals. They are more developed philosophical works which include many innovations and doctrines not found in the canonical Abhidharma.

Other texts
The early Buddhist schools also preserved other types of texts which developed in later periods, which were variously seen as canonical or not, depending on the tradition.

One of the largest category of texts that were neither Sutra, Vinaya nor Abhidharma includes various collections of stories such as the Jātaka tales and the Avadānas (Pali: Apadāna). These are moral fables and legends dealing with the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. The different Buddhist schools had their own collections of these tales and often disagreed on which stories were canonical.

Another genre that developed over time in the various early schools were biographies of the Buddha. Buddha biographies include the Mahāvastu of the Lokottaravadin school, the northern tradition's Lalitavistara Sūtra, the Theravada Nidānakathā and the Dharmaguptaka Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra.

One of the most famous of biographies is the Buddhacarita, an epic poem in Classical Sanskrit by Aśvaghoṣa. Aśvaghoṣa also wrote other poems, as well as Sanskrit dramas. Another Sanskrit Buddhist poet was Mātṛceṭa, who composed various pious hymns in slokas. Buddhist poetry is a broad genre with numerous forms and has been composed in many languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, Chinese and Japanese. Aside from the work of Aśvaghoṣa, another important Sanskrit poet was Mātr̥ceṭa, known for his One Hundred and Fifty Verses. Buddhist poetry was also written in popular Indian languages, such as Tamil and Apabhramsa. One well known poem is the Tamil epic Manimekalai, which is one of the Five Great Epics of Tamil literature.

Other later hagiographical texts include the Buddhavaṃsa, the Cariyāpiṭaka and the Vimanavatthu (as well as its Chinese parallel, the Vimānāvadāna).

There are also some unique individual texts like the Milinda pañha (literally The Questions of Milinda) and its parallel in Chinese, the Nāgasena Bhikśu Sūtra (那先比丘經). These texts depict a dialogue between the monk Nagasena, and the Indo-Greek King Menander (Pali: Milinda). It is a compendium of doctrine, and covers a range of subjects.

Theravāda texts
The Theravāda tradition has an extensive commentarial literature, much of which is still untranslated. These are attributed to scholars working in Sri Lanka such as Buddhaghosa (5th century CE) and Dhammapala. There are also sub-commentaries (ṭīkā) or commentaries on the commentaries. Buddhaghosa was also the author of the Visuddhimagga, or Path of Purification, which is a manual of doctrine and practice according to the Mahavihara tradition of Sri Lanka. According to Nanamoli Bhikkhu, this text is regarded as "the principal non-canonical authority of the Theravada." A similar albeit shorter work is the Vimuttimagga. Another highly influential Pali Theravada work is the Abhidhammattha-sangaha (11th or 12th century), a short 50 page introductory summary to the Abhidhamma, which is widely used to teach Abhidhamma.

Buddhaghosa is known to have worked from Buddhist commentaries in the Sri Lankan Sinhala language, which are now lost. Sri Lankan literature in the vernacular contains many Buddhist works, including as classical Sinhala poems such as the Muvadevāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as King Mukhadeva, 12th century) and the Sasadāvata (The Story of the Bodhisattva's Birth as a Hare, 12th century) as well as prose works like the Dhampiyātuvā gätapadaya (Commentary on the Blessed Doctrine), a commentary on words and phrases in the Pāli Dhammapada.

The Theravāda textual tradition spread into Burma and Thailand where Pali scholarship continued to flourish with such works as the Aggavamsa of Saddaniti and the Jinakalamali of Ratanapañña. Pali literature continued to be composed into the modern era, especially in Burma, and writers such as Mahasi Sayadaw translated some of their texts into Pali.

There are also numerous Esoteric Theravada texts, mostly from Southeast Asia. This tradition flourished in Cambodia and Thailand before the 19th century reformist movement of Rama IV. One of these texts has been published in English by the Pali Text Society as "Manual of a Mystic".

Burmese Buddhist literature developed unique poetic forms from the 1450s onwards, a major type of poetry is the pyui' which are long and embellished translations of Pali Buddhist works, mainly jatakas. A famous example of pyui' poetry is the Kui khan pyui' (the pyui' in nine sections, 1523). There is also a genre of Burmese commentaries or nissayas which were used to teach Pali. The nineteenth century saw a flowering of Burmese Buddhist literature in various genres including religious biography, Abhidharma, legal literature and meditation literature.

An influential text of Thai literature is the "Three Worlds According to King Ruang" (1345) by Phya Lithai, which is an extensive Cosmological and visionary survey of the Thai Buddhist universe.

Mahāyāna sūtras
See Mahāyāna sūtras for historical background and a list of some sutras categorised by source.

Around the beginning of the common era, a new genre of sutra literature began to be written with a focus on the Bodhisattva ideal, commonly known as Mahāyāna ("Great Vehicle") or Bodhisattvayāna ("Bodhisattva Vehicle"). The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves 'Mahāyāna,' but use the terms Vaipulya (extensive, expansive) sutras, or Gambhira (deep, profound) sutras.

There are various theories of how Mahāyāna emerged. According to David Drewes, it seems to have been "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of Mahāyāna sutras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." Early dharmabhanakas (preachers, reciters of these sutras) were influential figures, and promoted these new texts throughout the Buddhist communities.

Many of these Mahāyāna sūtras were written in Sanskrit (in hybrid forms and in classical Sanskrit) and then later translated into the Tibetan and Chinese Buddhist canons (the Kangyur and the Taishō Tripiṭaka respectively) which then developed their own textual histories. Sanskrit had been adopted by Buddhists in north India during the Kushan era and Sanskrit Buddhist literature became the dominant tradition in Buddhist India until the decline of Buddhism there.

Mahāyāna sūtras are also generally regarded by the Mahāyāna tradition as being more profound than the śrāvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-Mahāyāna sutras. The Mahāyāna sūtras are traditionally considered by Mahāyāna Buddhists to be the word of the Buddha. Mahāyāna Buddhists explained the emergence of these new texts by arguing that they had been transmitted in secret, via lineages of supernatural beings (such as the nagas) until people were ready to hear them, or by stating that they had been revealed directly through visions and meditative experiences to a select few.

According to David McMahan, the literary style of the Mahāyāna sūtras reveals how these texts were mainly composed as written works and how they also needed to legitimate themselves to other Buddhists. They used different literary and narrative ways to defend the legitimacy of these texts as Buddha word. Mahāyāna sūtras such as the Gaṇḍavyūha also often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or śrāvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the Mahāyāna teachings, while more the advanced elite, the bodhisattvas, are depicted as those who can see the highest teachings.

These sūtras were not recognized as being Buddha word by various early Buddhist schools and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Various Mahāyāna sūtras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha, showing that they are aware of this claim. Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines into sub-schools which accepted or did not accept these texts. The Theravāda school of Sri Lanka also was split on the issue during the medieval period. The Mahavihara sub-sect rejected these texts and the (now extinct) Abhayagiri sect accepted them. Theravāda commentaries mention these texts (which they call Vedalla/Vetulla) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. Modern Theravāda generally does not accept these texts as buddhavacana (word of the Buddha).

The Mahāyāna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from Bamiyan). However, according to Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in the production of these texts. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian, Yijing, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings do describe monasteries which they label 'Mahāyāna' as well as monasteries where both Mahāyāna monks and non-Mahāyāna monks lived together.

Mahāyāna sūtras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives." These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras. These texts also promoted new religious practices that were supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve, such as "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras." Some Mahāyāna sūtras claim that these practices lead to rebirth in Pure lands such as Abhirati and Sukhavati, where becoming a Buddha is much easier to achieve.

Several Mahāyāna sūtras also depict important Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha, Akshobhya and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas Maitreya, Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of Mahāyāna is the way that it understands the nature of Buddhahood. Mahāyāna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.

According to Paul Williams, in Mahāyāna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood as a "mere appearance", his death is an unreal show, in reality he continues to live in a transcendent reality. Thus the Buddha in the Lotus sutra says that he is "the father of the world", "the self existent (svayambhu)...protector of all creatures", who has "never ceased to exist" and only "pretends to have passed away."

Hundreds of Mahāyāna sūtras have survived in Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan translation. There many different genres or classes of Mahāyāna sutras, such as the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras and the Pure Land sūtras. The different Mahāyāna schools have many varied classification schemas for organizing them and they see different texts as having higher authority than others.

Some Mahāyāna sūtras are also thought to display a distinctly tantric character, like some of the shorter Perfection of Wisdom sutras and the Mahavairocana Sutra. At least some editions of the Kangyur include the Heart Sutra in the tantra division. Such overlap is not confined to "neighbouring" yanas: at least nine "Sravakayana" texts can be found in the tantra divisions of some editions of the Kangyur. One of them, the Atanatiya Sutra, is also included in the Mikkyo (esoteric) division of the standard modern collected edition of Sino-Japanese Buddhist literature. Some Mahāyāna texts also contain dhāraṇī, which are chants that are believed to have magical and spiritual power.

Major Mahāyāna sūtras
The following is a list of some well known Mahāyāna sutras which have been studied by modern scholarship:

 * Ajitasena Sutra – A "proto-Mahāyāna" text, possibly one of the earliest texts with Mahāyāna elements.
 * Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra – An early Mahāyāna text focused on bodhisattva monasticism.
 * Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra – Possibly the earliest Prajñāpāramitā text.
 * Vajracchedikā Prajñāpāramitā (Diamond Sutra) – Another possibly early Prajñāpāramitā text, very popular.
 *  Prajñāpāramitāhṛdaya (Heart Sutra) – Another very popular Prajñāpāramitā text.
 * Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Infinite Life Sutra) – An influential text in Pure Land Buddhism.
 * Amitabha Sutra – Another Pure land text.
 * Contemplation Sutra – Another Pure land text.
 * Pratyutpanna Sutra.
 * Shurangama Samadhi Sutra.
 * Saddharmapundarīka-sūtra (Lotus Sutra) – One of the most influential texts in East Asian Buddhism.
 * Mahāratnakūta Sūtra – Actually a collection of various sūtras.
 * Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra (or Golden Light Sutra).
 * Avataṃsaka Sūtra – A compilation of numerous texts, such as the Gaṇḍavyūha Sutra and the Daśabhūmika Sūtra.
 * Sandhinirmocana Sutra (c. 2nd century CE), the main sutra of Yogacara Buddhism, introduces the doctrine of the "three turnings".
 * Tathāgatagarbha Sūtra – One of the key "Buddha nature" (Tathāgatagarbha) sūtras.
 * Shrīmālādevi-simhanāda Sūtra – A "Buddha nature" text.
 * Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra – A "Buddha nature" text, very influential in East Asian Buddhism.
 * Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra – Includes Yogacara and Tathāgatagarbha elements, influential in Zen Buddhism.
 * Samādhirāja Sūtra (or Candrapradīpa Sūtra), influential in the Madhyamaka scholasticism of Tibet.
 * Vimalakīrti Sūtra – A sutra which depicts the teachings of a layman on non-dualism.
 * Brahmajāla Sūtra – A text which contains an influential listing of bodhisattva precepts.
 * Kāraṇḍavyūhasūtra, which introduces the Om Mani Padme Hum mantra.
 * Uṣṇīṣa Vijaya Dhāraṇī Sūtra.

Indian treatises
The Mahāyāna commentarial and exegetical literature is vast. Many of these exegetical and scholastic works are called Śāstras, which can refer to a scholastic treatise, exposition or commentary.

Central to much of Mahāyāna philosophy are the works of the Indian scholar Nagarjuna. Especially important is his magnum opus, the Mūlamadhyamika-karikā, or Root Verses on the Middle Way, a seminal text on the Madhyamika philosophy. Various other authors of the Madhyamaka school followed him and wrote commentaries to his texts or their own treatises.

Another very influential work which traditionally attributed to Nagarjuna In East Asia is the Dà zhìdù lùn (*Mahāprajñāpāramitopadeśa, The Great Discourse on Prajñāpāramitā). This is a massive Mahayana Buddhist treatise and commentary on the Prajñāpāramitā sutra in Twenty-five Thousand Lines, and it has been extremely important in the development of the major Chinese Buddhist traditions. Its authorship to Nagarjuna however has been questioned by modern scholars and it only survives in the Chinese translation by Kumārajīva (344–413 CE).

The Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra (fourth century CE) is another very large treatise which focuses on yogic praxis and the doctrines of the Indian Yogacara school. Unlike the Dà zhìdù lùn, it was studied and transmitted in both the East Asian Buddhist and the Tibetan Buddhist traditions.

The works of Asanga, a great scholar and systematizer of the Yogacara, are also very influential in both traditions, including his magnum opus, the Mahāyāna-samgraha, and the Abhidharma-samuccaya (a compendium of Abhidharma thought that became the standard text for many Mahayana schools especially in Tibet). Various texts are also said to have received by Asanga from the Bodhisattva Maitreya in the Tushita god realm, including works such as Madhyāntavibhāga, the Mahāyāna-sūtrālamkāra, and the Abhisamayālamkara. Their authorship remains disputed by modern scholars however. Asanga's brother Vasubandhu wrote a large number of texts associated with the Yogacara including: Trisvabhāva-nirdesa, Vimsatika, Trimsika, and the Abhidharmakośa-bhāsya. Numerous commentaries were written by later Yogacara exegetes on the works of these two brothers.

The 9th Century Indian Buddhist Shantideva produced two texts: the Bodhicaryāvatāra has been a strong influence in many schools of the Mahayana. It is notably a favorite text of the 14th Dalai Lama.

Dignāga is associated with a school of Buddhist logic that tried to establish which texts were valid sources of knowledge (see also Epistemology). He produced the Pramāna-samuccaya, and later Dharmakirti wrote the Pramāna-vārttikā, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.

East Asian works
The Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana (Dàshéng Qǐxìn Lùn) is an influential text in East Asian Buddhism, especially in the Hua-yen school of China, and its Japanese equivalent, Kegon. While it is traditionally attributed to Ashvaghosha, most scholars now hold it is a Chinese composition.

The Dhyāna sutras (Chan-jing) are a group of early Buddhist meditation texts which contain meditation teachings from the Sarvastivada school along with some early proto-Mahayana meditations. They were mostly the work of Buddhist Yoga teachers from Kashmir and were translated into Chinese early on. The early period of the development of Chinese Buddhism was concerned with the collection and translation of texts into Chinese and the creation of the Chinese Buddhist canon. This was often done by traveling overland to India, as recorded in the Great Tang Records on the Western Regions, by the monk Xuanzang (c. 602–664), who also wrote a commentary on Yogacara which remained influential, the Discourse on the Perfection of Consciousness-only.

East Asian Buddhism began to develop its own unique doctrinal literature with the rise of the Tiantai School and its major representative, Zhiyi (538–597 CE) who wrote important commentaries on the Lotus sutra as well as the first major comprehensive work on meditation composed in China, the Mohe Zhiguan (摩訶止観). Another important school of Chinese Buddhism is Huayan, which focused on developing their philosophical texts from the Avatamsaka. An important patriarch of this school is Fazang who wrote many commentaries and treatises.

The Tripitaka Koreana, which was crafted in two versions (the first one was destroyed by fire during the Mongol invasions of Korea), is a Korean collection of the Tripitaka carved onto 81,258 wooden printing blocks during the 13th century. Still intact in good condition after some 750 years, it has been described by the UNESCO committee as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world".

Zen Buddhism developed a large literary tradition based on the teachings and sayings of Chinese Zen masters. One of the key texts in this genre is the Platform Sutra attributed to Zen patriarch Huineng, it gives an autobiographical account of his succession as Ch'an Patriarch, as well as teachings about Ch'an theory and practice. Other texts are Koan collections, which are compilations of the sayings of Chinese masters such as the Blue Cliff Record and The Gateless Gate. Another key genre is that of compilations of Zen master biographies, such as the Transmission of the Lamp. Buddhist poetry was also an important contribution to the literature of the tradition.

After the arrival of Chinese Buddhism in Japan, Korea and Vietnam; they developed their own traditions and literature in the local language.

Buddhist tantras
The late Seventh century saw the rise of another new class of Buddhist texts, the Tantras, which focused on ritual practices and yogic techniques such as the use of Mantras, Dharanis, Mandalas, Mudras and Fire offerings.

Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed "action Tantras" (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras.

Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yogini Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood. Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals.

Some scholars such as Alexis Sanderson have argued that these later tantras, mainly the Yogini tantras, can be shown to have been influenced by non-Buddhist religious texts, mainly Tantric Śaivism and the Śaiva tantras.

In East Asian Esoteric Buddhism and its Japanese offshoot, the Shingon school, the most influential tantras are those which focus on Vairocana Buddha, mainly, the Mahavairocana Tantra and the Vajrasekhara Sutra.

Buddhist Tantras are key texts in Vajrayana Buddhism, which is the dominant form of Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. They can be found in the Chinese canon, but even more so in the Tibetan Kangyur which contains translations of almost 500 tantras. In the Tibetan tradition, there are various categories of tantra. The Sarma or New Translation schools of Tibetan Buddhism divide the Tantras into four main categories:

 * Kriyayogatantra
 * Charyayogatantra
 * Yogatantra
 * Anuttarayogatantra

Anuttarayogatantra (Higher Yoga Tantra) is known in the Nyingma school as Mahayoga. Some of the most influential Higher Tantras in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism are the Guhyasamāja Tantra, the Hevajra Tantra, the Cakrasamvara Tantra, and the Kalacakra Tantra. The Nyingma school also has unique tantras of its own, not found in the other Tibetan schools, the most important of these are the Dzogchen tantras.

Other products of the Vajrayana literature
Tibetan Buddhism has a unique and special class of texts called terma (Tibetan: gTer-ma). These are texts (or ritual objects, etc.) believed either composed or hidden by tantric masters and/or elementally secreted or encoded in the elements and retrieved, accessed or rediscovered by other tantric masters when appropriate. Termas are discovered by tertöns (Tibetan: gTer-stons), whose special function is to reveal these texts. Some termas are hidden in caves or similar places, but a few are said to be 'mind termas,' which are 'discovered' in the mind of the tertön. The Nyingma school (and Bön tradition) has a large terma literature. Many of the terma texts are said to have been written by Padmasambhava, who is particularly important to the Nyingmas. Probably the best known terma text is the so-called Tibetan book of the dead, the Bardo Thodol.

A sadhana is a tantric spiritual practice text used by practitioners, primarily to practice the mandala or a particular yidam, or meditation deity. The Sādhanamālā is a collection of sadhanas.

Vajrayana adepts, known as mahasiddha, often expounded their teachings in the form of songs of realization. Collections of these songs such as the Caryāgīti, or the Charyapada are still in existence. The Dohakosha is a collection of doha songs by the yogi Saraha from the 9th century. A collection known in English as The Hundred Thousand Songs of Milarepa was composed by Tibetan Buddhist yogi Milarepa and is especially popular amongst members of the Kagyu school.

The Blue Annals (deb ther sngon po) completed in 1476 CE, authored by Gölo Zhönnupel (Tibetan: gos lo gzhon nu dpal, 1392–1481), is a historical survey of Tibetan Buddhism with a marked ecumenical view, focusing upon the dissemination of various sectarian traditions throughout Tibet.

Namtar, or spiritual biographies, are another popular form of Tibetan Buddhist texts, whereby the teachings and spiritual path of a practitioner are explained through a review of their life story.

Kūkai wrote a number of treatises on Vajrayana Buddhism, and these are influential in Japanese Shingon Buddhism.

title: Buddhist texts


text:
Talk:Feynman diagram

Feynman won a nobel prize for this. Seems relevant. I will add if no one objects. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Ftrotter (talk • contribs) 17:36, 25 January 2024 (UTC)

short story wrong
there is no vertical line in the diagram as cited in the 'short story'

The description is the most clear part of the article.
The description is very clear.

It would be really helpful to an interested lay reader to work the formulation with the electron-positron annihilation example. The article has a nice clear example. Now, build on that clarity.

Thanks for including more Feynman diagrams in the article. It does help.

MiddleSchoolTeacher (talk) 03:44, 29 June 2014 (UTC)

First Feynman diagram caption
The only direction of time consistent with the labelling of this Feynman diagram is from left to right, if you have time from bottom to top as you seem to want to the electron and quark are miss-labelled and should be a positron and an anti-quark. The interaction in your description is not what is depicted, a positron does not turn into an electron when it interacts with a quark through a virtual photon. Quogle (talk) 12:31, 9 March 2015 (UTC)

 * Fair enough. Give me a minute, I'll fix the diagram so that it's consistent.--OCCullens (talk) 07:03, 22 March 2015 (UTC)

 * That is unnecessary, it is accurate as it stands, the description is entirely consistent with the diagram. Just to check you do know that the arrows for antiparticles point against the direction of time/propagation? It is possible that this is the source of confusion. Quogle (talk) 22:22, 22 March 2015 (UTC)

monolectics

 * φαϋνόγραμμα
 * φαϋνογράφημα
 * φαϋνοδιάγραμμα

periphrastic, polylectic

 * διάγραμμα Φάυνμαν

Motivation and History kaon diagram
No arrows to indicate time direction Len loker (talk) 08:44, 7 July 2016 (UTC)

 * This makes it one of only two diagrams on the page that are correct. Feynman diagrams don't have space/time axes. Dukwon (talk) 14:20, 22 November 2016 (UTC)

 * By convention time is usually read left to right, or bottom to top. 'M'∧Ŝc2ħεИτlk 17:04, 22 November 2016 (UTC)

Dyson quote
I removed this: "However, in 2006 Dyson himself confirmed that the diagrams should be called Feynman diagrams because "he taught us how to use them".". It was added in 2011 but has never been sourced and I cannot verify it. Fences &  Windows  09:09, 14 February 2017 (UTC)

 * I adduced the solid precise quote from Schwebber's book (op.cit), in the Alternative Names section. Feynman's heavy computational use of his eponymous spacetime diagrams as graphs of particle QED was firmed up, pedagogically, by Dyson's re-exression into QFT, and the purely symbolic abstract book-keeping device of today. Nevertheless, I personally know that Gell-Mann's jocular usage cited was not really a focussed historiographical statement. Cuzkatzimhut (talk) 19:16, 10 April 2017 (UTC)

Basic vertex explanation missing
There are six basic vertexes. Based on one vertex with an arrow pointing to the vertex, an arrow pointing out, and a wavy line from the vertex. This one vertex can be oriented in six ways giving the six basic vertexes. The vertexes are joined with others to describe interactions. It should be at the top of the article. Without this basic representation of the graphical context of Feynman Diagrams the other graphical diagrams are meaningless. The whole article becomes technobabble. By the way the usual representation is time is the vertical axis, and space is the horizontal. The article should use this convention because most source articles use it. Other phrases in source material are also based on this convention. For instance "an arrow pointing down the time axis is an anti particle" is meaningless if the time axis isn't vertical. 98.164.66.166 (talk) 04:00, 23 April 2020 (UTC)

Critique of the article
there is a old critique of this article by Arnold Neumaier

Reference: https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/misconceptions-virtual-particles/

”In this Feynman diagram, an electron and a positron annihilate, producing a photon (represented by the blue sine wave) that becomes a quark-antiquark pair, after which the antiquark radiates a gluon (represented by the green helix).”

Physical electron-positron annihilation never produces a single virtual photon as drawn in the diagram and explained in the caption – but always two real photons (or more, with much lower probability).

(The latter is described later on that page as a correct scattering process – except that they forget to say there that the intermediate particles and processes are virtual, not something that actually happens, and that they also add spurious, misleading space and time axes. In the center of mass frame, the in-particles would come in from opposite directions, and the out-particles would leave in another opposite direction, using a semiclassical picture of the scattering process appropriate for tree diagrams.)

The correct description of the diagram is that it gives one of the two possible terms in the tree approximation of a scattering process in which an electron and positron collide and decay into a quark-antiquark pair and a gluon. One cannot talk meaningfully about the claimed intermediate events in the temporal ordering suggested by the time coordinate underneath the diagram itself.

Similarly, a single photon cannot decay into a quark-antiquark pair.

Later in that entry, the section ”Particle-path interpretation” contains in the first and fourth paragraph pure nonsense – not at all justified by all the preceding information given.

”A Feynman diagram is a representation of quantum field theory processes in terms of particle paths. The particle trajectories are represented by the lines of the diagram, which can be squiggly or straight, with an arrow or without, depending on the type of particle. A point where lines connect to other lines is an interaction vertex, and this is where the particles meet and interact: by emitting or absorbing new particles, deflecting one another, or changing type.”

Feynman diagrams don’t describe particle paths – but integration processes.

Real collisions never happen at a well-defined point – but always in a region of significant extension.

"Feynman diagrams are often confused with spacetime diagrams and bubble chamber images because they all describe particle scattering. Feynman diagrams are graphs that represent the trajectories of particles in intermediate stages of a scattering process. Unlike a bubble chamber picture, only the sum of all the Feynman diagrams represent any given particle interaction; particles do not choose a particular diagram each time they interact. The law of summation is in accord with the principle of superposition—every diagram contributes to the total amplitude for the process."

Feynman diagrams don’t describe particle scattering – but partial contributions to S-matrix elements.

Feynman diagrams don’t represent the trajectories of particles in intermediate stages of a scattering process – but integrals arising in their perturbative computation.

The sum of all the Feynman diagrams represents not a given particle interaction but (if the in-and out-momenta are fixed) a particular S-matrix element.

Superposition of states is not related to the summation of the diagrams – but to taking linear combinations of S-matrix elements with variable in-and out-momenta.

The remainder of the entry is technical and reasonably accurate (I didn’t check all details since they are irrelevant to the present thread), with a few notable exceptions – though these mistakes have nothing to do with virtual particles, they show the amount of care given to the content of the page:

In the section ”Path integral formulation”, the concept of Wick rotation is misapplied; it doesn’t mean ”a little bit rotated into imaginary time”.

In the section ”Scattering”, it is erroneously claimed that Wigner’s definition of a single-particle state through an irreducible representation of the Poincaré group doesn’t apply to quarks. (The claimed reason – confinement – has nothing to do with their claim.) Instead, they promote an erroneous ”modern point of view” that a particle is anything whose interaction can be described in terms of Feynman diagrams, which have an interpretation as a sum over particle trajectories. Given the content of reference [3] of the page (that perturbation theory for classical field theory produces Feynman diagrams), this would turn classical field theories into theories of particles

Reference: https://www.physicsforums.com/insights/misconceptions-virtual-particles/#Critique-of-some-Wikipedia-pages-on-virtual-particles

Despite the article being almost 10 years old, much of what the article criticized is still present in the page. 2603:7000:A400:BEA:1003:FD0:7F88:1C1C (talk) 01:09, 7 June 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Feynman diagram


text: User talk:66.88.74.254

title: User talk:66.88.74.254


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User:ALargeElk

Hopefully, I will only be here very intermittently from now on.

Some of the format of this page borrowed from BookgirlST. Most of this page not very up to date.

My interests at the moment

 * Doctor Who
 * Suicide (intellectually, not actively)
 * Charity
 * London Underground
 * Whatever happens to grab me at any point

I started these pages (and probably some others I've forgotten about)

 * A'Tong language
 * Aari language
 * Abau language
 * ChildLine
 * Cricket in India
 * The Daleks
 * George McDuffie
 * Inside the Spaceship
 * James Van Der Zee
 * The Keys of Marinus
 * Lympstone Commando
 * NCH
 * Richard Dimbleby
 * Scott Reiniger
 * Tachograph
 * Taillefer

I have significantly contributed to these pages (and probably some others)

 * 100,000 BC
 * Alternative medicine
 * BBCi
 * Bishops Cleeve
 * Brfxxccxxmnpcccclllmmnprxvclmnckssqlbb11116
 * Central Line
 * Characterization
 * Cryptozoology/Cryptid
 * Electoral alliance
 * Gilwell Park (well, I am getting married there!)
 * Holy Prepuce
 * International Rice Research Institute
 * Mills' mess
 * North London Line
 * Pornocracy
 * Saltaire
 * Samaritans
 * The Seeds of Death
 * Theater
 * Zlatko Zahovic

Things to do

 * Welcome new users.
 * Create a Doctor Who wikiproject
 * Monitor potential spam

Pages I plan to create (unless I get distracted by something else first)

 * More of the individual stories from List of Doctor Who serials
 * All significant languages from Ethnologue, including all with >1000 speakers and any with entries in the Rosetta Project
 * Some more of the missing articles from the List of encyclopedia topics

I would describe myself as

 * An eventualist, with inclusionist tendencies
 * Highly eclectic (just look at the lists above)
 * Aiming for compromise (though sometimes failing)
 * Ruthless with spam and other unnecessary external links
 * Less interested in Wikipedia politics than I probably ought to be. I know intellectually that it's important - vital, in fact - to work out issues like how we deal with disruptive users, dispute resolution policies, and so on. But that doesn't mean I can get up any enthusiasm for most of that stuff.

title: User:ALargeElk


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Greatest Hits (2002 Kylie Minogue album)

Greatest Hits (titled on the back cover as Greatest Hits 87–92 and re-titled as Vintage Kylie: The Hits 88–92) is a 2002 greatest hits album by Australian singer Kylie Minogue. Released on 18 November 2002 by PWL, the album collects work from Minogue's PWL period, including the albums Kylie (1988), Enjoy Yourself (1989), Rhythm of Love (1990), Let's Get to It (1991) and Greatest Hits (1992).

An updated version of the compilation called Greatest Hits 87–97 was later released on 24 November 2003 by BMG and PWL, distributed by Jive, due to her release of Body Language in early 2004. The cover sleeve for the version was shot by British photographer Simon Fowler in 1990. This version of the album includes songs and remixes from Kylie Minogue (1994) and Impossible Princess (1997), and also received positive reception from music critics.

Background
After the massive success of Minogue's eighth studio album Fever, BMG decided to release a greatest hits album.

The 2002 album cover used a stock photo photographed by Jasper James, which depicts a supposed look-alike dressed in her underwear. AllMusic's Johnny Loftus called it "shoddy." The updated version of the compilation later used a picture from Minogue's photoshoot with Simon Fowler in 1990.

The release ruffled some feathers in the Kylie camp, in particular the cover artwork. An 'official' cover, designed by Kylie and her team was made available to download from her website and was also given away free inside copies of Heat magazine. Titled Vintage Kylie, the card insert bore the cheeky message "Like Kylie? Why not have the real thing!" A version of the compilation titled Best of was also released in France, but withdrawn from sale on day of release.

Due to Minogue's release of her then-new album, Body Language, in February 2004, BMG re-released the compilation.

Critical response
Greatest Hits

Johnny Loftus from AllMusic gave the compilation two stars out of five, he felt that there's nothing in the album feels "very exclusive," with the remixes "are readily available to aficionados in other, less after-market places." He also suggested readers to the 2003 version, calling it "a much better option for the casual listener." Writing for Amazon.co.uk, John Galilee compared her music to "fine wine", which "has aged gracefully over the years", questioned the replacement of "It's No Secret" with the B-side track "Say the Word - I'll Be There" but concluded: "The collection adds weight to Kylie's early mentor Pete Waterman's assertion that Stock, Aitken and Waterman would one day be viewed as the 1980s equivalent of Motown. Who would have thought back in 1988 that "I Should Be So Lucky" and "Je Ne Sais Pas Pourquoi" would become such gems?"

Greatest Hits 87–97

Chris True from AllMusic gave the compilation four stars out of five, praised it as a "valid and well-represented (yet oddly out of chronological order) anthology of what Americans were missing" between the 15-year she first received success in the United States with "Locomotion" and then with "Can't Get You Out of My Head." "For those who were surprised by her sudden reappearance, this will fill in the picture quite nicely, and for those who just couldn't get enough of Minogue upon hearing her for the first time in 2002, Greatest Hits 87-97 will surely satisfy," he stated.

Commercial performance
In the United Kingdom, Greatest Hits debuted at number 20. It has spent a total of 13 weeks overall on the chart.

Track listing
All songs written and produced by Mike Stock, Matt Aitken and Pete Waterman except where noted.

Greatest Hits 87–97
The Japan edition replaces "Je ne sais pas pourquoi" and "Made in Heaven" with "Turn It Into Love" and “It’s No Secret”, and adds an previously unreleased instrumental version of “Turn It Into Love” at the end of disc 2.

Weekly charts
Greatest Hits

Greatest Hits 87–97

Greatest Hits (DVD version)

Greatest Hits 87–97 (DVD version)

Year-end charts
Greatest Hits

Certifications
Greatest Hits

Greatest Hits (DVD version)


text: User talk:151.204.177.226

title: User talk:151.204.177.226


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Abbe prism

In optics, an Abbe prism, named for its inventor, the German physicist Ernst Abbe, is a type of constant deviation dispersive prism similar to a Pellin–Broca prism.

Structure
The prism consists of a block of glass forming a right prism with 30°–60°–90° triangular faces. When in use, a beam of light enters face AB, is refracted and undergoes total internal reflection from face BC, and is refracted again on exiting face AC. The prism is designed such that one particular wavelength of the light exits the prism at a deviation angle (relative to the light's original path) of exactly 60°. This is the minimum possible deviation of the prism, all other wavelengths being deviated by greater angles. By rotating the prism (in the plane of the diagram) around any point O on the face AB, the wavelength which is deviated by 60° can be selected.

The dispersive Abbe prism should not be confused with the non-dispersive Porro–Abbe or Abbe–Koenig prisms.

title: Abbe prism


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Pulse pressure

Pulse pressure is the difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg). It represents the force that the heart generates each time it contracts. Healthy pulse pressure is around 40 mmHg. A pulse pressure that is consistently 60 mmHg or greater is likely to be associated with disease, and a pulse pressure of 50 mmHg or more increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. Pulse pressure is considered low if it is less than 25% of the systolic. (For example, if the systolic pressure is 120 mmHg, then the pulse pressure would be considered low if it is less than 30 mmHg, since 30 is 25% of 120.) A very low pulse pressure can be a symptom of disorders such as congestive heart failure.

Calculation
Pulse pressure is calculated as the difference between the systolic blood pressure and the diastolic blood pressure.

The systemic pulse pressure is approximately proportional to stroke volume, or the amount of blood ejected from the left ventricle during systole (pump action) and inversely proportional to the compliance (similar to elasticity) of the aorta.

 * Systemic pulse pressure (most commonly measured at the brachial artery in the upper arm using a Sphygmomanometer) = Psystolic − Pdiastolic
 * e.g. normal 120 mmHg - 80 mmHg = 40 mmHg
 * low: 100 mmHg − 80 mmHg = 20 mmHg
 * high: 160 mmHg − 80 mmHg = 80 mmHg

 * Pulmonary pulse pressure is normally much lower than systemic blood pressure due to the higher compliance of the pulmonary system compared to the arterial circulation. It is measured by right heart catheterization or may be estimated by transthoracic echocardiography. Normal pulmonary artery pressure is 8 mmHg–20 mmHg at rest.
 * e.g. normal 15mmHg - 8mmHg = 7mmHg
 * high 25mmHg - 10mmHg = 15mmHg

Low (narrow) pulse pressure
A pulse pressure is considered abnormally low if it is less than 25% of the systolic value. If the pulse pressure is extremely low, i.e. 25 mmHg or less, it may indicate low stroke volume, as in congestive heart failure.

The most common cause of a low (narrow) pulse pressure is a drop in left ventricular stroke volume. In trauma, a low or narrow pulse pressure suggests significant blood loss.

A narrow pulse pressure is also caused by aortic stenosis. This is due to the decreased stroke volume in aortic stenosis. Other conditions that can cause a narrow pulse pressure include blood loss (due to decreased blood volume), and cardiac tamponade (due to decreased filling time). In the majority of these conditions, systolic pressure decreases, while diastolic pressure remains normal, leading to a narrow pulse pressure.

Consistently high
A pulse pressures of 50 mmHg or more can increase the risk of heart disease, heart rhythm disorders, stroke and other cardiovascular diseases and events. Higher pulse pressures are also thought to play a role in eye and kidney damage from diseases such as diabetes. There are currently no drugs approved to lower pulse pressure, but some antihypertensive drugs have been shown to modestly lower pulse pressure, while other drugs used for hypertension can actually have the counterproductive side effect of increasing resting pulse pressure.

The aorta has the highest compliance in the arterial system due in part to a relatively greater proportion of elastin fibers versus smooth muscle and collagen. This serves to dampen the pulsatile ejection fraction of the left ventricle, thereby reducing the initial systolic pulse pressure, but slightly raising the subsequent diastolic phase. If the aorta becomes rigid, stiff and inextensible because of disorders, such as arteriosclerosis, atherosclerosis or elastin defects (in connective tissue diseases), the pulse pressure would be higher due to less compliance of the aorta. See also: Central aortic blood pressure

In hypertensive patients, a high pulse pressure can often be an indicator of conduit artery stiffness (stiffness of the major arteries). When the arterial walls are stiffer (less compliant), the heart has to beat harder to overcome the resistance from the stiff arteries, resulting in an increased pulse pressure.

Other conditions that can lead to a high pulse pressure include aortic regurgitation, aortic sclerosis, severe iron-deficiency anemia (due to decreased blood viscosity), arteriosclerosis (due to loss of arterial compliance), and hyperthyroidism (due to increased systolic pressure), or arteriovenous malformation, among others. In aortic regurgitation, the aortic valve insufficiency results in the backward flow of blood (regurgitation) that is ejected during systole, and its return to the left ventricle during diastole. This increases the systolic blood pressure, and decreases the diastolic blood pressure, leading to a widened pulse pressure.

A high pulse pressure combined with bradycardia and an irregular breathing pattern is associated with increased intracranial pressure, a condition called Cushing's triad seen in people after head trauma with increased intracranial pressure.

Common causes of widening pulse pressure include:

 * Anemia
 * Aortic dissection
 * Atherosclerosis
 * Arteriovenous fistula
 * Chronic aortic regurgitation
 * Aortic root aneurysm
 * Aortic root dilation
 * Beri beri
 * Distributive shock
 * Endocarditis
 * Fever
 * Heart block
 * Increased intracranial pressure
 * Patent ductus arteriosus
 * Pregnancy
 * Thyrotoxicosis

From exercise
For most individuals, during aerobic exercise, the systolic pressure progressively increases while the diastolic pressure remains about the same, thereby widening the pulse pressure. These pressure changes facilitate an increase in stroke volume and cardiac output at a lower mean arterial pressure, enabling greater aerobic capacity and physical performance. The diastolic drop reflects a reduced systemic vascular resistance of the muscle arterioles in response to the exercise.

Clinical significance
Pulse pressure has implications for both cardiovascular disease as well as many non-cardiovascular diseases. Even in people without other risk factors for cardiovascular disease, a consistently wide pulse pressure remains a significant independent predictor of all-cause, cardiovascular, and, in particular, coronary mortality. There is a positive correlation between high pulse pressure and markers of inflammation, such as c-reactive protein.

Cardiovascular disease and pulse pressure
Awareness of the effects of pulse pressure on morbidity and mortality is lacking relative to the awareness of the effects of elevated systolic and diastolic blood pressure. However, pulse pressure has consistently been found to be a stronger independent predictor of cardiovascular events, especially in older populations, than has systolic, diastolic, or mean arterial pressure. This increased risk exists for regardless of gender and even when no other cardiovascular risk factors are present. The increased risk also exists even in cases in which high pulse pressure is caused by diastolic pressure decreasing over time while systolic remains steady or even slightly decreases.

A meta-analysis in 2000 showed that a 10 mmHg increase in pulse pressure was associated with a 20% increased risk of cardiovascular mortality, and a 13% increase in risk for all coronary end points. The study authors also noted that, while risks of cardiovascular end points do increase with higher systolic pressures, at any given systolic blood pressure the risk of major cardiovascular end points increases, rather than decreases, with lower diastolic levels. This suggests that interventions that lower diastolic pressure without also lowering systolic pressure (and thus lowering pulse pressure) could actually be counterproductive. Increased pulse pressure is also a risk factor for the development of atrial fibrillation.

Effects of medications on pulse pressure
There are no drugs currently approved to lower pulse pressure. Although some anti-hypertensive drugs currently on the market may have the effect of modestly lowering pulse pressure, others may actually have the counterproductive effect of increasing pulse pressure. Among classes of drugs currently on the market, a 2020 review stated that thiazide diuretics and long‐acting nitrates are the two most effective at lowering pulse pressure.

It has been hypothesized that vasopeptidase inhibitors and nitric oxide donors may be useful at lowering pulse pressure in patients with elevated pulse pressure by increasing the distensibility of the large arteries. There is evidence that glyceryl trinitrate, a nitric oxide donor, may be effective at lowering both pulse pressure and overall blood pressure in patients with acute and sub-acute stroke.

A 2001 randomized, placebo-controlled trial of 1,292 males, compared the effects of hydrochlorothiazide (a thiazide diuretic), atenolol (a beta-blocker), captopril (an ACE inhibitor), clonidine (a central α$2$-agonist), diltiazem (a calcium channel blocker), and prazosin (an α$1$-blocker) on pulse pressure and found that, after one year of treatment, hydrochlorothiazide was the most effective at lowering pulse pressure, with an average decrease of 8.6 mmHg. Captopril and atenolol were equal as least effective, with an average decrease of 4.1 mmHg. Clonidine (decrease of 6.3 mmHg), diltiazem (decrease of 5.5 mmHg), and prazosin (decrease of 5.0 mmHg) were intermediate.

Pulse pressure and sepsis
Diastolic blood pressure falls during the early stages of sepsis, causing a widening of pulse pressure. If sepsis becomes severe and hemodynamic compromise advances, the systolic pressure also decreases, causing a narrowing of pulse pressure. A pulse pressure of over 70 mmHg in patients with sepsis is correlated with an increased chance of survival. A widened pulse pressure is also correlated with an increased chance that someone with sepsis will benefit from and respond to IV fluids.

title: Pulse pressure