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University of Cambridge Computing Service

The University of Cambridge Computing Service provided computing facilities across the University of Cambridge between 1970 and 2014. It was located primarily on the New Museums Site, Free School Lane, in the centre of Cambridge, England but, in September 2013 moved to the Roger Needham Building on the West Cambridge site.

The Computing Service shares a common ancestry with the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory. Founded on 14 May 1937 to provide a computing service for general use, and to be a centre for the development of computational techniques in the University as the Mathematical Laboratory (under the leadership of John Lennard-Jones), it was not until 2001 that the provision of computing services across the University and Colleges was fully separated from computing research and teaching.

On 30 March 2014, the Computing Service merged with the Management Information Services Division (MISD) of the Unified Administrative Service (UAS) to create the University Information Services department.

Landmark projects and services

 * EDSAC computer, 1949 - a pioneering stored-program computer
 * EDSAC 2 computer, 1965 - first computer to have a microprogrammed CPU
 * Titan computer, 1966 - timeshared computer developed jointly with Ferranti subsequently marketed as the commercial Atlas 2
 * Phoenix computer, 1973 - an IBM 370/165 running an IBM OS modified for improved interactive timesharing
 * Exim mail transfer agent, 1995 - in continued open-source development and in very widespread use
 * Raven authentication service, 2004 - a web-based authentication framework particularly suited to the widespread adoption across many federated institutions as at Cambridge. Extended subsequently to integrate with inter-organisational Shibboleth authentication and provide lifetime credentials known as Raven-for-life.
 * Lapwing Federated Wireless platform, 2006 - provides local management via web console/APIs to 200 institutions while retaining a single network appearance with common authentication and reporting.
 * my.phone user/telephony federated administration system, 2010 - providing a usable federated administrative interface to the VoIP platform to 17,000 users and 200 institutions.
 * IBIS master reference data / identity management service, 2011 - provides a central common data repository with LDAP and Web service API's for 300,000 members of 250 institutions, with a sophisticated federated access control model.

Directors of the University of Cambridge Computing Service

 * Maurice Wilkes 1945–1980 (as head of the University of Cambridge Computer Laboratory)
 * David Hartley 1970–1994 (first head of the dedicated University Computing Service)
 * Mike Sayers 1994–2004
 * Ian Lewis 2005–2014 (final Director before the merger with MISD to create the UIS)


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Craft unionism

Craft unionism refers to a model of trade unionism in which workers are organised based on the particular craft or trade in which they work. It contrasts with industrial unionism, in which all workers in the same industry are organized into the same union, regardless of differences in skill.

Under this approach, each union is organized according to the craft, or specific work function, of its members. For example, in the building trades, all carpenters belong to the carpenters' union, the plasterers join the plasterers' union, and the painters belong to the painters' union. Each craft union has its own administration, its own policies, its own collective bargaining agreements and its own union halls. The primary goal of craft unionism is the betterment of the members of the particular group and the reservation of job opportunities to members of the union and those workers allowed to seek work through the union's hiring hall.

Origins
The first unions established in Russia in the early nineteenth century tended, by nature of the industries in which their members worked, to be craft unions: shoemakers, cordwainers (shoemakers who work with cordovan leather) and typesetters all worked, as a rule, in small shops in which they had little contact with workers in other fields. Some of these early unions also came out of a guild tradition in which skilled workmen often owned their own shops or, if they worked for another, had a good deal of control over how the work was done, which they policed by maintaining standards for admission into the trade; requiring entrants to go through an apprenticeship program controlled by the union, rather than the employer; and dictating the processes, tools, standards, and pace of work. These traditions persisted into the 20th century in fields such as printing (in which the International Typographical Union would enforce its own rules determining how work was done in union shops) and the construction industry.

History
Workers carried these patterns of organizing into new industries as well. The railroad brotherhoods, the unions formed in the latter half of the nineteenth century, made minute distinctions between groups that worked alongside each other; as an example, more than twenty years passed between the original chartering of the International Brotherhood of Stationary Firemen and the amendment of its charter to permit the union to represent the oilers and helpers who worked with them. Those who saw themselves at the top of the ladder took their elevated status very seriously; as an example, locomotive engineers on many railroads made a point of wearing top hats and a good suit of clothes while at work to demonstrate that they did not get their hands dirty or perform manual labor.

These craft distinctions in the railroad industry were remarkably long-lived; the Railway Labor Act, passed in 1925, recognized the prevailing pattern of division of the workforce into "crafts" and "classes" and the separate craft patterns persisted into the late twentieth century. While both the Knights of Labor and Eugene V. Debs' American Railway Union attempted to organize railroad workers on an industrial basis, those efforts were defeated, in some cases by government intervention, injunctions, and force of arms.

The attempt to impose craft distinctions in other industries was not so successful. In the steel industry, for example, after the routing of the Amalgamated Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Workers in its titanic strike against Andrew Carnegie's steel operations at Homestead, Pennsylvania, in 1892, and the defeat, a generation later, of the 1919 steel strike, the craft unions within the AFL claimed that any attempt to organize steel workers must recognize their separate craft jurisdictions: workers who used bricks to build kilns or similar structures would have to belong to the brick masons union, workers who sawed wood to build structures within the plant should be carpenters, and so forth. Those demands effectively ruled out any possibility of organizing the industry.

In other cases unions within the AFL organized on an industrial basis: the United Mine Workers, the United Brewery Workers and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union admitted to membership all workers in the industry, or attached to it. Even in those unions, however, craft distinctions sometimes surfaced. In the ILGWU, for example, the cutters, who were often primarily of English, Irish, and German stock, were almost exclusively males, were better paid, and were typically more skilled, often looked down on the immigrant, largely female, unskilled "operators" who ran sewing machines in their shops or elsewhere. The ILGWU also tended to group its workers based on seemingly trivial distinctions between the type of garment they produced: among the locals created by the ILGWU in the first decade of its existence was one titled the Wrapper, Kimono and House Dress Makers' Union. Decades later, as the industry changed, it created sportwear locals.

Challenges
As long as the craft unions were the dominant power in the AFL, they took every step possible to block the organizing of mass production industries. This led to challenges from both inside and outside the Federation.

One early challenge came from outside: the Western Federation of Miners, a union that had fought a series of violent battles with mine owners over the right to represent mill workers as well as hard rock miners, joined with activists from other unions and from the Socialist Labor Party of America to form the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), which aimed to organize all workers, regardless of craft, nationality, gender or race, into one big union. In practical terms the IWW pursued organizing on an industrial basis.

In at least one sense the IWW practiced (and practices) the most egalitarian form of industrial unionism, organizing and accepting membership of workers in any given industry whether they are currently employed or not. The IWW also welcomed immigrant workers, minorities and women as equals.

The IWW was successful in some cases, leading a strike of immigrant workers employed in the woolens industry in Lawrence, Massachusetts, and many smaller strikes in longshore, agriculture and the lumber industry. In its first three years it was greatly hampered by deep political divisions, such as the question of unions engaging in electoral politics (resolved in favor of ruling out alliances with political parties). The IWW was seriously damaged by government prosecution and vigilantism in the post-war red scare that reached its peak in 1919, and in the Palmer Raids of the same period.

The next challenge to the dominance of craft unions within the AFL came from inside, as John L. Lewis of the Mine Workers, David Dubinsky of the ILGWU, Sidney Hillman of the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America, Charles Howard of the International Typographical Union, Thomas McMahon, head of the United Textile Workers, John Sheridan of the Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers Union (the descendant of the WFM), Harvey Fremming from the Oil Workers Union and Max Zaritsky of the Hatters, Cap and Millinery Workers joined to form a Committee for Industrial Organizing within the AFL. The craft unions demanded that Lewis and his committee stop; Lewis persisted.

This dispute came to a head at the AFL’s convention in Atlantic City in 1935, when William Hutcheson, the President of the Carpenters, made a slighting comment about a member of the fledgling union of tire factory workers who was delivering an organizing report. Lewis responded that Hutcheson’s comment was "small potatoes", to which Hutcheson replied "I was raised on small potatoes, that is why I am so small." After some more words Lewis punched Hutcheson, knocking him to the ground, then relit his cigar and returned to the rostrum. The incident personified the conflict between craft and industrial organizing. The CIO proceeded to organize mass production workers on an industrial basis.

The AFL's response to the challenge from the CIO was twofold: both fighting a rearguard action before the National Labor Relations Board to preserve its right to represent the skilled trades in many of the plants that the CIO was organizing and attempting to emulate it. Thus, within a decade of the founding of the CIO, unions that had been primarily craft unions, such as the International Association of Machinists, originally a railroad union with much of its membership in the construction industry, began to make serious efforts to organize on an industrial basis as well. Even the Carpenters took in sawmill workers who had organized on an industrial basis, although the union continued to treat them as second-class members until they seceded to form the International Woodworkers of America in 1937.

Persistence
Craft unionism has receded in many industries as a result of changes in technology, the concentration of ownership and jurisdictional conflicts between craft unions. Craft unionism has not, however, disappeared: it is still the norm in the airline industry, survives despite much upheaval in the construction industry, and even appears, in very muted form, in some mass production industries, such as automobile manufacturing, where skilled trades employees have pressed their own agendas within the union.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Craft unionism


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Erhard

Erhard is a male German given name and surname, and may refer to:

People

 * Erhard of Regensburg, bishop of Regensburg in the 7th century
 * Erhard Altdorfer (c. 1480–1561), German Early Renaissance printmaker, painter and architect
 * Erhard Arnold Julius Dehio (1855–1940), Baltic German merchant and politician, former mayor of Tallinn (1918)
 * Erhard Etzlaub (c. 1455 or 1465 – 1532), astronomer, geodesist, cartographer, instrument maker and physician
 * Erhard Hegenwald, 16th century writer of the Reformation
 * Erhard Wunderlich (1956–2012), German handball player
 * Guido Erhard (1969–2002), German footballer
 * Ludwig Erhard (1897–1977), Chancellor of West Germany
 * Werner Erhard (born 1935), American author and founder of est
 * Erhard Seminars Training, or est

Fictional characters

 * Erhard Muller, the real name of CR-SO1 in Trauma Team

title: Erhard


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Talk:USS Jimmy Carter

Pictures
When there is enough room can someone add this photo back in:

It gives a good overview of the entire boat out of the water, not something you see very often, IMO. Right now it would just be overload since there is so little content. PPGMD 22:38, 17 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Dates
It seems odd to me that the "Ordered" date is six months *after* the "Laid down" date. - UtherSRG 13:29, Feb 17, 2005 (UTC)

 * I can't find the keel laid date; even NVR doesn't have it. Maybe it'll get added when they update the page after Saturday.

 * Also, the launch date is listed as 13 May, while the christening date is elsewhere listed as 5 June, which seems a long delay.

 * (Also, "The Jimmy Carter (SSN-23) was moved outdoors for the first time, May 8, 2004 at the General Dynamics Electric Boat shipyard." vs. "...moves the third and final  Seawolf-class nuclear attack submarine,  Jimmy Carter (SSN-23), outdoors for the first time on June 4, 2004.")
 * —wwoods 17:15, 17 Feb 2005 (UTC)

Irony
Perhaps it should be noted that the sub is (widely) said to be able to tap undersea cables to intercept communication, it's ironic that it wasn't named the USS Richard Nixon. One that many people have made note of.

 * It was named during the time when the Navy announced that the names of the USS Reagan and USS Bush, it was felt that nothing was named from Democrats, so the Carter was named. Carter was a nuc on the USS Seawolf, a ship that the Navy later used for tapping cables, though Carter wasn't on board for any of those missions. PPGMD 18:51, 19 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * Carter was in the Navy, and I do believe he was a nuclear tech of some sort. Simplest, most rational explanation. Jersey John (talk) 02:27, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

 * It's been 18 years since this Talk section was started, and there's still no mention of the sub's interception potential in this article, despite media coverage of it in the context of Edward Snowden's NSA affair. Like: https://www.spiegel.de/politik/ausland/die-uss-jimmy-carter-soll-fuer-die-nsa-glasfaserkabel-anzapfen-a-908815.html and https://m.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/debatten/internationale-datenaffaere-die-aussenwelt-der-innenwelt-12243822.html Nakonana (talk) 20:29, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

She? It?
It seems this article uses she and it interchangeably to refer to the submarine. Could someone decide which it should be and go change all of the pronouns to match? I'm not an expert so don't know how it should be.

--Jacobolus 12:03, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

 * I have changed the it's to her, just to standardize it. PPGMD 16:34, 20 Feb 2005 (UTC)

I was in the Navy stationed a submarine base pearl harbor. Subs are refured to as IT. Herogamer (talk) 18:17, 28 July 2009 (UTC)

 * For hundreds of years by tradition the feminine pronouns have been used in reference to ships; that now applies to submarines too. I've been a submariner since 1961. DocRushing (talk) 05:31, 17 December 2012 (UTC)
 * Nuc eng on an SSBN for years - the sub was always "the boat" or "it" - never once did I ever hear the sub referred to as 'she.'50.111.51.247 (talk) 04:27, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

Typo?
Hi: I'm not good with Wikis, and I don't want to break any links, but the images entitled *sea_trails* should probably be renamed to *sea_trials*. A trail is a path from here to there, while a trial is an excersize to test capabilities. The Jimmy Carter is undergoing her trials in these photos, not trails.

 * Meh, don't really see a need to, it was my error, but the names are mostly to make them unique so they aren't overwritten, since it's unlikely that there will be another photo with that name I see no reason to. PPGMD 20:02, 22 August 2005 (UTC)

Backup of Documents
Does anyone have a backup of the PDF hosted? It seems to be missing now.. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 159.251.88.50 (talk) 17:05, 6 February 2008 (UTC)

Depth capability classified
The "official" depth capability of the Carter, like all current USN subs, is >800 feet. I have to agree that all the talk of tapping communication cables had to have originated with someone who had just read "Blind Man's Bluff" and is not accurate. A far more central role of fast attack boats was and to some extent still remains identifying the patrol areas of enemy ballistic missile subs. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 164.223.72.5 (talk) 17:31, 3 April 2009 (UTC)

 * You seem to miss the very considerable history of subs employed specifically for SIGINT-missions. See USS Parche for that. I do not content that SSBN-tracking remains a SSN-role, but that does not mean that there are other areas of considerable importance. SSN-23 is a boat with rather unique capabilities and assigning it to SSBN-tracking would seem a terrific waste of time and ressources. While I would not put it in this article due to lack of sources, I do not have the slightest doubt that SSN-23 has some very fine capabilities for cable-tapping and the like (and I dont read or like techno thrillers). Para-OZ (talk) 06:28, 12 October 2009 (UTC)

 * Given that no adversary of the United States maintains regular FBM patrols, how could the central role of the USN SSN be to hunt boomers? Your information is out of date. Furthermore, the Jimmy Carter is a special operations platform, not a traditional SSN, and even in wartime would be tasked as such. Just because the submarine itself cannot submerge to the depth of an undersea cable does not mean that it couldn't deploy vehicles which could. The US has tapped undersea cables in the past, and it does not follow that this capability has not been further developed, given the incredible leaps in signals intelligence capabilities since the cable tapping incident described in BMB.216.96.229.206 (talk) 13:36, 23 August 2013 (UTC)
 * Incorrect. The Russian Federation has a whole new class of SSBN's, very modern, very dangerous. Same as it ever was.50.111.6.129 (talk) 02:47, 15 May 2020 (UTC)
 * There are several sources that place the depth capability at 1600 ft or even 2000 ft.
 * https://www.navsource.org/archives/08/080023.htm
 * California Center for Military History: http://www.submarinehistory.com/JimmyCarter.html archived: https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.submarinehistory.com%2FJimmyCarter.html#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url
 * https://nvo.ng.ru/notes/2020-08-07/16_1103_simbol.html Nakonana (talk) 20:44, 13 November 2023 (UTC)

Tapping into underwater cables using subs. inc. USS Jimmy Carter http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/07/the-creepy-long-standing-practice-of-undersea-cable-tapping/277855/ — Preceding unsigned comment added by 86.190.30.164 (talk) 20:02, 8 April 2016 (UTC)

"First to be named for living president." - not.
This claim is also made here: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Ronald_Reagan_(CVN-76) USS Ronald Reagan (CVN-76) is a Nimitz-class nuclear-powered supercarrier in the service of the United States Navy. The ninth ship of her class,[1] she is named in honor of former President Ronald Reagan, President of the United States from 1981 to 1989. Upon her christening in 2001, she was the first ship to be named for a living former president.

CVN-76 was named first. I can not claim that CVN-76 was the first USN ship so named but it is clear that SSN-23 can not be. ```` —Preceding unsigned comment added by Righteous9000 (talk • contribs) 10:25, 12 March 2010 (UTC)

I think this has since been corrected to read 1st "Submarine", but "the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for former President Jimmy Carter" - what is the 2nd ship??? Seems to be an unintentional meaning due to an edit? A casual NPOV observer of US presidential history, and "JC" himself (Matt 20:16) may conclude that - the first will be the last. 144.183.224.2 (talk) 01:26, 17 August 2010 (UTC)

 * It's amazing how ignorant Americans can be of their own country's history, myself included. However, USS George Washington (1798) was the first ship to be named for any U.S. president, and one who was still alive at the time. USS John Adams (1799) was the first USN ship to be named for a president while he was serving in office, and remained in commission for several years afterwards. They beat Ronald Reagan by about 200 years. - BilCat (talk) 04:53, 25 March 2020 (UTC)

Boat or ship?
I believe that all US Navy Submarines are boats and not ships as stated int his article — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.234.66.68 (talk) 02:58, 20 November 2012 (UTC)

 * Officially a submarine is a ship; however, by long-standing tradition a submarine is also informally and often called a boat. I write as a submariner and a former Naval officer (since 1961). DocRushing (talk) 05:24, 17 December 2012 (UTC)

 * 'USS' Jimmy Carter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Ship. The bluejacket's manual says something to the effect that the naval term 'ship' describes any vessel capable of making repeated unassisted trans-oceanic voyages.216.96.229.206 (talk) 13:40, 23 August 2013 (UTC)

 * Yes, that correctly describes the difference between a ship and what's ordinarily called a boat.

 * Nonetheless, as I explained above, by long-standing tradition – from the beginning of the Submarine Service of the US Navy – a submarine is also informally and often called a boat.

 * DocRushing (talk) 19:03, 23 August 2013 (UTC)
 * ALWAYS referred to as a 'boat' - period! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.111.51.247 (talk) 04:30, 1 March 2021 (UTC)

Presidential Unit Citation
According to the wiki page for the Presidential Unit Citation it states under the "Other Actions" section the USS Jimmy Carter (SSN-23) was awarded the PUC sometime in 2012. The source is the US Navy which lists the award of the PUC but gives no details.

https://awards.navy.mil/awards/webapp01.nsf/(frmQUnitName)?OpenForm&Search=%3CUName%3EJimmy%3C/UName%3E%3CType%3EKeyword%3C/Type%3E%3CAType%3E%3C/AType%3E — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:280:4600:6585:35FB:D050:920E:F138 (talk) 02:11, 24 December 2017 (UTC)

Template
- First, we don't debate edits via edit summaries using reverts or dummy edits. This is what the article talk page is for. With that said, the   template is a supplemental infobox used on BLP related articles, it is not used on ship articles. You can see this for yourself on the other articles about ships named for US Presidents. Furthermore, this article already has the   template, which is a navbox added to the bottom of the page, same as the on the page you noted in your edit summary; "because? see USS George H.W. Bush". Even then, the inclusion of that template is not the norm for these articles, and that issue has been raised at WT:SHIPS. - wolf  12:04, 30 September 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:USS Jimmy Carter


text:
Talk:Lists of radio stations in North America

Untitled
This article categorizes radio stations by the state or province they are in. There are some other ways, of course, including:

 * By format (e.g. top 40)
 * By frequency (e.g. stations with a frequency whose nearest whole number is 95 or stations with a frequency equal to 98.5.)
 * By identification (e.g. Stations with "rock" in their name)

Any others to think of?? You don't have to create pages like these right now, but when Wikipedia has many articles for radio stations, I recommend you start making pages like these.

Can somebody create a bot to convert all the FCC data to wikipedia data?

What is the opinion of subcategorization like List of radio stations in South Dakota?

What format do we do for station lists? CallLetters frequency city (network, format) as in List of radio stations in North Carolina

Mydotnet

Radio station article titles (callsign vs. moniker)
All Wikipedia articles on radio stations in the United States in the lists of radio stations in specified U.S. states that this page links to are at the station's callsign. However, at Omaha, Nebraska there are several ghost links to radio station monikers. Does anyone have any suggestions?? 66.245.81.205 20:15, 7 Nov 2004 (UTC)

I think we should convert them to call letters, but thats just me Mydotnet 20:52, Nov 8, 2004 (UTC)

Homogenization of State Pages
I have been looking through the state pages, and they are all differently organized. CT's page, for example, has the town the station is based in. AK's page, on the other hand, has only what company owns the station. What is the accepted format for these pages?

Personally I support them sorted by market, then frequency (such as the List of radio stations in Manitoba). Leave the ownership info to the individual station pages when completed. Kirjtc2 04:43, 13 July 2005 (UTC) Let's use the template like List of radio stations in South Dakota. -Mydotnet 00:26, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

'K' and 'W' ?
Hi there, I see that the name of most of the radio stations in the US either starts with 'W'or 'K'. What does this stand for?

Thanks in advance for the info! Myriam 195.212.29.75 12:38, 5 August 2005 (UTC)

K is a station west of the Mississippi, and W is a station east of the Mississippi. -Mydotnet 00:27, 19 September 2005 (UTC)

This rule must be specific to the antenna, but here in the Minneapolis-St. Paul area, we have both WCCO and KARE, KSTP and many others. Obviously, we are right on the Mississippi. Uosdwis (talk) 22:39, 17 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Right because nowadays the stations disregard that.. But as Mydotnet said in the United States it was standard practice that stations east of the Mississippi River started with W.  And stations west of the Mississippi River started with K.  Nobody would really be in the middle of the Mississippi River would they?  :-p

 * About.com -- Why Some Radio Station Call Letters Begin With "W" And Others "K" - By Corey Deitz, About.com

 * Also to add to that... Quote -- (Canadian Station begin with 'C', Mexican Stations begin with 'X') and--- END Quote--- also, Caribbean Radio/TV stations begin with "Z".... CaribDigita (talk) 03:28, 19 July 2008 (UTC)

Only slightly off-topic
Those interested in this subject might want to go give input at the new Broadcasting notability, which is a suggested guideline. --Jacquelyn Marie 15:33, 17 October 2005 (UTC)

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Milk float

A milk float is a vehicle specifically designed for the delivery of fresh milk. Today, milk floats are usually battery electric vehicles (BEV), but they were formerly horse-drawn floats. They were once common in many European countries, particularly the United Kingdom, and were operated by local dairies. However, in recent years, as the number of supermarkets, small independent grocers and petrol stations, and convenience stores stocking fresh milk has increased, many people have switched from regular home delivery to obtaining fresh milk from these other sources.

Characteristics
Because of the relatively small power output from its electric motor, a milk float travels fairly slowly, usually around 10 to 16 mph although some have been modified to attain speeds of up to 80 mph. Operators often exit their vehicle before they have completely stopped to speed up deliveries; milk floats generally have sliding doors that can be left open when moving, or may have no doors at all. Electric milk floats come in three wheel and four wheel versions, the latter normally larger. They are very quiet, suiting operations in residential areas during the early hours of the morning or during the night.

Most electric milk floats do not have seat belts, and the law in the United Kingdom only requires wearing seat belts where these are fitted in the vehicle. While there was previously an exemption in the law meaning those making local deliveries were not required to wear a seat belt, which would in theory have included drivers and passengers in milk floats with seat belts fitted, the law was changed in 2005 to deliveries less than 50 m apart.

Statistics
In August 1967, the UK Electric Vehicle Association put out a press release stating that Britain had more battery-electric vehicles on its roads than the rest of the world combined. It is not clear what research the association had undertaken into the number of electric vehicles of other countries, but closer inspection disclosed that almost all of the battery-driven vehicles licensed for UK road use were milk floats.

Glasgow has one of the largest working milk float fleets in the UK. Most of the vehicles operate from the Grandtully Depot in Kelvindale. Some dairies in the UK, including Dairy Crest, have had to modernise and have replaced their electric milk floats with petrol or diesel fuel-powered vehicles to speed up deliveries and thus increase profit.

Manufacturers
There were many manufacturers of milk floats in Britain during the 20th century.

Brush Electrical Engineering Company had been established in 1889, and had manufactured electric cars between 1901 and 1905. In 1940, Brush required some small electric tractor units, but as none were commercially available, they asked AE Morrison and Sons to produce a design for one. Morrisons produced a 3-wheeled design, which Brush then used to manufacture a number of units for internal use. They then began selling them to customers, shipping a large order to Russia in 1941. They expanded to producing battery electric road vehicles in 1945, when they bought designs and manufacturing rights from Metrovick. The Metrovick designs were for 4-wheeled vehicles, but they also produced 3-wheeled vehicles, which were marketed as the Brush Pony. In early 1949, they reduced the prices of their electric vehicles by around 25 per cent, in an attempt to make them more competitive with petrol vehicles. All of their road vehicles were sold through the motor trade, in order to achieve a good standard of after-sales service. Production of 4-wheeled battery electrics ceased in 1950, although the company continued to manufacture the 3-wheeled Brush Pony, and their range of industrial trucks. By 1969, Brush were owned by the Hawker Siddeley group, which also owned half of Morrison-Electricars, and manufacture of Brush electric vehicles moved to the newly established Morrison factory at Tredegar. Most were industrial trucks, but the transfer also included the Brush Pony, and a number were manufactured at Tredegar subsequently.

Electricars began trading in Birmingham in 1919, and although they initially made heavy duty electric vehicles, suitable for payloads up to 6 tons, they soon diversified into smaller vehicles suitable for doorstep delivery. In 1936, they became part of the business group Associated Electric Vehicle Manufacturers Limited (AEVM), but during the Second World War, few electric vehicles were built, due to a shortage of materials, and they ceased producing them in 1944.

Graiseley Electric Vehicles were produced in Wolverhampton by Diamond Motors Ltd, a company which previously had made motorcycles, and which bought the sidecar business from AJS when that company was liquidated in 1931. Included in the sale was the Graiseley marque, and this was used for a range of three-wheeled battery-electric pedestrian controlled milk trucks. They soon found that they could sell into other industries as well. In 1937 they produced a ride-on four wheeled vehicle, suitable for a payload of 8 - 10 Lcwt. Nevertheless, it was for their pedestrian controlled vehicles that they were best known, and their range included the Model 60, the Model 75, and the Model 90. Because the primary focus was on the dairy industry, the model numbers represented the number of imperial gallons of milk that could be carried. Between 1948 and 1952, the company sold a large number of Graiseley PCVs to United Dairies, and gradually diversified into stillage trucks and pallet trucks for use in factories. The company was liquidated in 1960, but the Graiseley marque was used by Lister Graiseley in 1969 and by Gough Industrial Trucks Ltd of Hanley, Stoke-on-Trent in 1971.

Harbilt electric vehicles were initially produced by the Market Harborough Construction Company, which was formed in 1935 as a manufacturer of aircraft components. After the end of the Second World War, they diversified, and electric vehicles were a part of their new product range. The first vehicle produced was the 551 pedestrian controlled vehicle, which they supplied with a charger made by Partridge Wilson of Leicester, who were making their own range of Wilson battery vehicles. As well as milk delivery, the chassis was popular in Switzerland, with some 2000 vehicles supplied to the Swiss Post Office and to Swiss hotels. From 1956, they introduced ride-on vehicles, beginning with the model 735, and expanded the range considerably over the next few years. At some point in the early 1970s, prior to 1974, Harbilt and Morrison-Electricars reached an agreement for a product exchange and rationalisation. All milk floats would be built by Morrisons at their Tredegar works, while Morrison trucks would be handed over to Harbilt. The electric vehicle facility was taken over by a management buyout in 1975, and registered as Harbilt Electric Trucks. It continued to make trucks for a variety of industries, until it was bought for almost twice its share value by Fred W Davies, a Canadian who owned the Davies Magnet Group and York Trailers, in 1987. Production moved to Corby, but the venture was short-lived, and it was sold again to M&M Electric Vehicles of Atherstone in 1989.

Lewis Electruks were built by TH Lewis Ltd of Watford, a company closely associated with London's Express Dairy Company. Lewis began building milk floats, milk carts and horse-drawn vehicles for Express Dairies in 1873, and the business became a limited company in 1899. It was taken over by Express in 1931, as part of a reorganisation of their business. TH Lewis designed two types of electric vehicle for Express, the first of which entered service in 1934. This was a 3-wheeled pedestrian controlled vehicle with a 3+1/2 -Lcwt payload. They were one of the first companies to provide storage for dry goods on their vehicles, and demonstrated a type AER 4-wheeled float with a grocery box behind the cab at the 1955 Dairy Show. Their exhibits at the 1958 Dairy Show included a standard 25 -Lcwt milk float with a walk-through cab and a vertical steering wheel. The company was acquired by Austin Crompton Parkinson, makers of Morrison Electricar floats, in 1961, and Morrisons continued to make two of their models, the Electruk Rider, which became the model E15, and a pedestrian controlled vehicle, which became the model DPC3. Both Express Dairies and the London Co-operative Society had large fleets of the Electruk Rider, and continued to add to them with purchases of the E15.

Metrovick electric vehicles were made by the Metropolitan-Vickers Electrical Company between the 1930s and 1945. In 1939, the Metrovick range consisted of a 7-9 -Lcwt model, a 10-14 -Lcwt model and a 18-22 -Lcwt model. By 1943, a 25-30 -Lcwt model had been added to the range. A more modern design of cab had been introduced in 1939, and as the Second World War ended, Metrovick ceased to make battery electric road vehicles, selling its designs and manufacturing rights to Brush. Consequently, early Brush designs are virtually indistinguishable from later Metrovick designs.

Midland Electric milk floats were produced by Midland Vehicles Ltd of Leamington Spa. Their first design was a 10-15 -Lcwt chassis, which was launched in January 1937. It was designed by J Parker Garner, who at the time was a well-known designer, having been involved in the manufacturing of vehicles for a number of years. In early 1938, Midland added a model B20 to their range, which was designed for a 20 -Lcwt payload, but was otherwise very similar to the earlier model. It was showcased at the British Industries Fair, held at Castle Bromwich in February. By 1943, Midland Electric were producing five models, which could be fitted with various types of bodywork, including a flat-bed truck for coal deliveries. They produced a new 10 -Lcwt lightweight design in 1949, which featured an all-welded chassis with an integral body frame. The company was listed in a 1956 directory of electric vehicle manufacturers published in Commercial Motor, but the company closed in 1957.

Morrison-Electricars had their origins in the 1890s in Leicester, when AE Morrison began producing bicycles, motorcycles and stationary engines. The company became AE Morrison and Sons in 1929, and produced their first battery electric vehicle in 1933. They moved to larger premises in 1935, and all other products were phased out. They were another major player in AEVM, and Electricars and Morrisons rationalised their product range, with Morrisons concentrating on the smaller vehicles suitable for milk delivery. The vehicles were marketed as Morrison-Electricars from mid-1942, and were so known despite a series of takeovers. The Austin Motor Company bought a 50 percent share in AEVM in 1948, and the company became Austin Crompton Parkinson Electric Vehicles Ltd. Austin merged into the British Motor Corporation in 1952, which in turn merged with Leyland Motors in 1969, to become British Leyland. The electric vehicle business became Crompton Leyland Electricars Ltd. In 1972, British Leyland sold their share of the business to Hawker Siddeley, better known for aircraft manufacture, and the company became Crompton Electricars Ltd. The Board of Trade refused to allow Morrisons to move to new premises in Leicester, because of a lack of skilled labour in the area, and instead offered to build them a new factory in a development area, so the manufacturing base moved to Tredegar, south Wales, in 1968. Morrison-Electricars ceased to be made in 1983, when Hawker Siddeley sold the business to M & M Electric Vehicles of Atherstone, Warwickshire, who subsequently adopted the Electricars name for their own vehicles.

Victor Electrics was formed in 1923 when Outram's Bakery in Southport, Merseyside, wanted to buy some electric vehicles to replace horses and carts on local deliveries, but found that both home-produced and imported vehicles were considerably more expensive than they were prepared to pay. They started manufacturing their own electric bread vans, which looked like conventional vans, with the batteries mounted under a bonnet at the front. They were soon making three models of bonneted van, but in 1931, produced a forward control vehicle with a walk-through cab for the dairy industry. By 1935, they had a range of forward control vehicles in production, and ceased to make bonneted vans. In 1967, the company was acquired by Brook Motors, and became part of Brook Victor Electric Vehicles. This company was itself acquired by Hawker Siddeley in 1970, and in 1973 it became Brook Crompton Parkinson Motors.

Wales & Edwards was the name of a garage and car salesroom for Morris and Wolseley cars, based in Shrewsbury. Mervyn Morris designed an electric vehicle, and the first milk float was sold to Roddington Dairy in early 1951. A request from United Dairies saw the production of a 3-wheeled chain driven vehicle, which was an immediate success. An order for 1,500 vehicles followed, and a new manufacturing base was set up in Harlescott, a suburb to the north of Shrewsbury. Larger models followed, although the 3-wheeled design was retained for most of their subsequent output. Four-wheeled vehicles were introduced in 1966 for payloads which exceeded 1+1/2 LT, although they made eighteen 5-wheeled articulated milk floats from 1961, which could carry 2 LT. The company was acquired by Smith Electric Vehicles in 1989.

Wilson Electrics were made by Partridge Wilson Engineering, who were manufacturers of charging equipment for accumulators, and were based in Leicester. In 1934 they produced their first electric van, suitable for a payload of 5-6 -Lcwt, and went on to produce several larger models, including a 20-25 -Lcwt version. In 1939 they were offering special deals for fleets of six vehicles, which were charged using a Davenset 3-phase group charger. Wilson Electric vehicles ceased to be produced in 1954, although the company continued to trade in Leicester until 1986. Other manufacturers included Smith's, Osborne, and Bedford. In 1941, Morrison-Electricar standardised three types of body which would become the basis for thousands of milk floats built after the war to deliver goods to the recovering population. By 2003, there were still a number of companies offering doorstep deliveries, but no companies supplying new vehicles. Bluebird Automotive attempted to fill the gap, but only succeeded in supplying two vehicles to Golden Vale Dairies in Bridgend and one to Express Dairies, which was trialled in Northampton, before becoming insolvent in 2007.

Alternatives
Before BEVs, dairy supplies were delivered using horse-drawn milk floats. This lasted from the late 19th century until the 1950s. Today, with rounds expanding in coverage to ensure profitability in the face of falling levels of patronage, the limited range and speed of electric milk floats have resulted in many being replaced by diesel-powered converted vans.

Preservation
A collection of 29 milk floats and other BEVs dating from 1935 to 1982 and representing 14 different manufacturers is kept by The Transport Museum, Wythall at their museum, and an early Brush Pony, dating from 1947 and operated by United Dairies, can be seen at the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu. There are five battery-electric road vehicles in the collection at the Ipswich Transport Museum, including a Smiths milk float dating from 1948, which was operated by Ipswich Co-operative Society, a Smiths vegetable cart dating from 1965 and a Brush Pony van dating from 1967. In addition several milk floats are still in service today, albeit repurposed after their milk delivery days. Many are used for work in factories, or as pleasure vehicles in rural areas, and some are hired out.

title: Milk float


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User:CRUCIFYKEVIN

www.kevinscott.tk www.melodramatic.com/users/xrexdominex

title: User:CRUCIFYKEVIN


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Joseph E. Brown

Joseph Emerson Brown (April 15, 1821 – November 30, 1894), often referred to as Joe Brown, was an American attorney and politician, serving as the 42nd Governor of Georgia from 1857 to 1865, the only governor to serve four terms. He also served as a United States Senator from that state from 1880 to 1891.

A former Whig, and a firm believer in slavery and Southern states' rights, Brown was a leading secessionist in 1861, and led his state into the Confederacy. Yet he also defied the Confederate government's wartime policies: he resisted the military draft, believing that local troops should be used only for the defense of Georgia; and denounced Confederate President Jefferson Davis as an incipient tyrant, challenging Confederate impressment of animals and goods to supply the troops, and slaves to work in military encampments and on the lines. Several other governors followed his lead.

After the American Civil War, Brown joined the Republican Party for a time, and was appointed as chief justice of the Supreme Court of Georgia from 1865 to 1870. Later he rejoined the Democrats, became president of the Western and Atlantic Railroad and began to amass great wealth; he was estimated to be a millionaire by 1880. He benefited from using convicts leased from state, county and local governments in his coal mining operations in Dade County. His Dade Coal Company bought other coal and iron companies, and by 1889 was known as the Georgia Mining, Manufacturing and Investment Company. Finally, he was twice elected by the state legislature as a U.S. Senator, serving from 1880 to 1891. During this time he was part of the Bourbon Triumvirate, alongside fellow prominent Georgia politicians John Brown Gordon and Alfred H. Colquitt.

Brown saved the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary financially in the 1870s. An endowed chair in his honor, the Joseph Emerson Brown Chair of Christian Theology, was established at the institution. In 2020, the endowed chair was vacated because of Brown's position on slavery and use of the convict leasing system.

Early life and education
Joseph Emerson Brown was born on April 15, 1821, in Pickens County, South Carolina, to Mackey Brown and Sally (Rice) Brown. At a young age he moved with his family to Union County, Georgia. In 1840, he decided to leave the farm and seek an education. With the help of his younger brother James and their father's plow horse, Brown drove a yoke of oxen on a 125-mile trek to an academy near Anderson, South Carolina. There Brown traded the oxen for eight months' board and lodging.

In 1844, Brown moved to Canton, Georgia, where he served as headmaster of the town's academy. During this time, Brown boarded in the home of local businessman and Baptist minister John W. Lewis. Brown paid for his room and board by tutoring the Lewis children. A friendship developed between the men, and Lewis loaned Brown money to continue his legal education.

Brown went to Yale University to study law, then returned to Canton to practice. In 1847 he opened a law office in the county seat, and began to make the connections on which he built his fortune. He married Elizabeth Grisham, daughter of a major land developer. They had several children together.

Brown joined the Democratic Party and was soon elected to the Georgia state senate in 1849 from the developing Etowah River valley. He rapidly rose as a leader in the party. He was elected as state circuit court judge in 1855. He was a presidential elector in 1856.

First term
In 1857, at the young age of 36, Brown was elected governor of the state. He supported free public education for poor white children, believing that it was key to development of the state. He asked the state legislature to divert a portion of profits from the state-owned railroad, the Western & Atlantic, to help fund the schools. Most planters did not support public education and paid for private tutors and academies for their children. The Western and Atlantic Railroad was mismanaged, and unable to produce the income Brown required to fund his public education proposal. In 1858, Governor Brown appointed John W. Lewis, his landlord and benefactor from Brown's early days in Canton, to the position of Superintendent of the state-owned railroad. Lewis was a successful businessman, and immediately undertook reforms to turn around the failing enterprise. The railroad, said to be in "dire financial straits", required the same strict economic controls Lewis had practiced in his private businesses. In the three years that Lewis ran the railroad, he was able to turn the business into a money-making enterprise, paying $400,000 per year into the state treasury.

Second term
Brown easily won re-election in 1859 when he defeated a young Warren Akin Sr. (who was just beginning his political career) by a margin of 60%-40%.

Brown was a slave owner; in 1850, he owned five slaves. By 1860 when he was governor, he owned a total of 19 slaves and several farms in Cherokee County, Georgia.

Brown became a strong supporter of secession from the United States after Abraham Lincoln's election and South Carolina's secession in 1860. He feared that Lincoln would abolish slavery. Considering it the basis of the South's lucrative plantation economy, he called upon Georgians to oppose the efforts to end slavery:

"What will be the result to the institution of slavery, which will follow submission to the inauguration and administration of Mr. Lincoln as the President ... it will be the total abolition of slavery ... I do not doubt, therefore, that submission to the administration of Mr. Lincoln will result in the final abolition of slavery. If we fail to resist now, we will never again have the strength to resist."

Once the Confederacy was established, Brown, a states' rights advocate, spoke out against expansion of the Confederate central government's powers. He denounced President Jefferson Davis in particular. Brown tried to stop Colonel Francis Bartow from taking Georgia troops "out of the state" to the First Battle of Bull Run. He objected most strenuously to military conscription by the Confederate government in Richmond, protested the army's impressment of goods and slave labor, and was critical of Confederate tax and blockade-running policies. In time, other Confederate governors followed Brown's example, undermining the war effort and sapping the Confederacy of vital resources.

Third term
In 1861, Brown was up for re-election to a third term. It was at this time, during the re-election campaign, that Western & Atlantic Railroad Superintendent John Wood Lewis, an old friend of the governor, decided to resign from the railroad. The timing could not have been worse. Fearing that Lewis' resignation would be interpreted negatively, the governor requested that Lewis keep the resignation a secret; but the resignation letter was leaked to the press, causing a rift between the two old friends. Brown wrote to Lewis, saying: "I did not deserve this at your hands, and I confess I felt it keenly...I do not attribute improper motives, but only say the coincidence was an unfortunate one for me". The two friends eventually smoothed over the incident, and Governor Brown was subsequently re-elected. On April 7, 1862, months after Lewis left the railroad, Governor Brown appointed Lewis to a vacant seat in the Confederate Senate in the 1st Confederate States Congress, 1862–1863. Robert Toombs, former Confederate States Secretary of State, had created the vacancy when he declined his election at the Congress's opening session on February 18.

Capture of Milledgeville - the state capital
In 1864, after the fall of Atlanta, Union General William Tecumseh Sherman began his March to the Sea. On the route from Atlanta to Savannah the left wing of Sherman's army entered the city of Milledgeville, then Georgia's state capital. As U.S. troops closed in on the city, and with the fall of the capital imminent, Governor Brown ordered Quartermaster General Ira Roe Foster to remove the state records. The task proved to be difficult, as it was undertaken in the midst of chaos.

After the loss of Atlanta, Brown withdrew the state's militia from the Confederate forces to harvest crops for the state and the army. When Union troops under Sherman overran much of Georgia in 1864, Brown called for an end to the war.

Post-war imprisonment to Republican judgeship
After the war, Brown was briefly held as a prisoner in Washington, D.C. He supported President Andrew Johnson's Reconstruction policies, joining the Republican Party for a time.

Brown was a delegate to the 1868 Republican National Convention. As a Republican, Brown was appointed as chief justice of the Supreme Court of Georgia, serving from 1868 to 1870.

Rejoining the Democratic Party
Brown resigned as judge when offered the presidency of the Western and Atlantic Railroad. In this role, Brown opposed efforts by a committee to revise the state constitution to establish uniform rates for freight over the multiple railroad lines in the state.

After Reconstruction ended, Brown rejoined the Democratic Party. He was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1880 by the state legislature, as was custom by the US constitution and state laws of the time. Soon after his election to the Senate, Brown became the first Democratic Party official in Georgia to support public education for all white children. The Republican Reconstruction-era legislature was the first to establish public education in the state but the succeeding post-Reconstruction, white-dominated legislature abandoned it. Brown recommended that railroad fees be used to support it financially. Prior to this, only the elite who could afford tutors or private academies had their children formally educated.

Later political service and business career
Brown was first elected to the United States Senate by the state legislature in 1880, taking office on May 26, 1880. He was re-elected in 1885, and retired in 1891 due to poor health.

While Brown's political supporters claimed that he "came to Atlanta on foot with less than a dollar in his pocket after the war and ... made himself all that he is by honest and laborious methods", most of his enterprises stemmed from his political connections. He amassed a fortune, in part through the use of convicts leased from state, county and local government in his coal mining operations in Dade County. His use of leased convict labor began in 1874 and continued until his death in 1894, a period that coincided with "the high tide of the convict lease system in Georgia".

The convict lease system was first authorized during the period of Reconstruction, under military governor and Union general Thomas H. Ruger, who issued the first convict lease in April 1868. It was expanded during the post-Reconstruction era, when the Democratic-dominated state legislature passed new laws criminalizing a range of behavior. State prisoners who were unable to pay fines, levied as part of their conviction, faced the possibility of being leased out by the state, as convict labor.

In 1880 Brown, whose fortune was estimated conservatively at one million dollars, netted $98,000 (~$ in ) from the Dade Coal Company. By 1886, Dade Coal was a parent company, owning Walker Iron and Coal, Rising Fawn Iron, Chattanooga Iron, and Rogers Railroad and Ore Banks, and leasing Castle Rock Coal Company. An 1889 reorganization resulted in the formation of the Georgia Mining, Manufacturing and Investment Company. This rested largely on a foundation of convict labor. The system has been likened by journalist Douglas A. Blackmon to "slavery by another name," in his book by that title.

A legislative committee visited Brown's mines during the same year that Brown sold them. They reported that the convict laborers were "in the very worst condition ... actually being starved and have not sufficient clothing ... treated with great cruelty." Of particular note to the visiting officials was that the mine claimed to have replaced whipping with the water cure torture—in which water was poured into the nostrils and lungs of the prisoners—because it allowed miners to "go to work right away" after punishment. However, it was not established if these practices were in place at the time that Brown sold the mine, or were instituted by the mine's new owner Joel Hurt.

Death and legacy
Joseph E. Brown died on November 30, 1894, in Atlanta, Georgia. He was honored by lying in state in the state capitol.

His tombstone is in Oakland Cemetery. In 1928, a memorial statue of Brown and his wife was installed on the grounds of the State Capitol.

His son, Joseph Mackey Brown, would also become governor of Georgia (twice).

Joseph E. Brown Hall on the campus of the University of Georgia in Athens is named in his honor. The building was completed in 1932.

Joseph Emerson Brown Park in Marietta, Georgia is named for him.

Emerson, Georgia, referencing the governor's middle name, is named in his honor.

In fiction
In her novel Gone with the Wind, Margaret Mitchell made reference to Governor Brown, and the reception that "Joe Brown's Pets" received during General Sherman's march through Georgia in 1864. Brown had tried to keep Georgia troops in the state for local defense. Mitchell wrote:

"Yes, Governor Brown's darlings are likely to smell powder at last, and I imagine most of them will be much surprised. Certainly they never expected to see action. The Governor as good as promised them they wouldn't. Well, that's a good joke on them. They thought they had bomb proofs because the Governor stood up to even Jeff Davis and refused to send them to Virginia. Said they were needed for the defense of their state. Who'd have ever thought the war would come to their own back yard and they'd really have to defend their state?"

title: Joseph E. Brown


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Talk:Afghan Army

Scud clarification
Did/do they operated the R-11 Zemlya (SS-1b Scud-A) or R-17 Elbrus (SS-1c Scud-B)? The current listing (shown below) is misleading as it could be interpreted as being either one and is not cited. Particularly if someone has a reference for this, it would be appreciated. Thanks! Josh (talk) 21:20, 11 May 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 06:09, 30 June 2021 (UTC)
 * Norinco type 56.jpg
 * ❌ per nom fyi -  wolf  19:02, 16 August 2021 (UTC)

Current situation
What is the current situation of the Afghan National Army after the fall of Kabul? Last thing I read is that the remaining soldiers abandoned their posts after the escape of President Ashraf Ghani and that therefore the ANA is no longer functional.-Karma1998 (talk) — Preceding undated comment added 11:28, 16 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Where did you read that? Link? -  wolf  18:55, 16 August 2021 (UTC)

Rename
I would like to move this article back to Afghan Army, as the Afghan *National* Army of the U.S. intervention no longer exists. Any comments? Any problems if I start a WP:RM? Buckshot06 (talk) 06:50, 17 August 2021 (UTC)
 * "Afghan National Army" is current/last name of "Afghan army" like "United States Army" is current/last name of "American army". Eurohunter (talk) 08:03, 17 August 2021 (UTC)

Clean up...?
, 2 of 90 edits you've made since joining WP resulted in the removal of 20Kb of sourced content from this article. I suggest you find a way to restore much it (in more organized manner). Cleaning up a page and gutting it of relevant, supported content are not the same thing. -  wolf  16:59, 21 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Thank you for your message. The content removal I made relates to the sections Training and International Partnerships and Conflicts. With regards to my removal from the section Training and International Partnerships, I restored much of the content in the section Ineffectiveness, given that the content did not relate to training and warranted its own section. With regards to Conflicts, that section is a work in progress and will need significant input. The previous content was a random mashup of ANA operations stemming from the most recent War in Afghanistan. An alert was placed to clean up this section, given that it was written in an incoherent manner with no emphasis on why these battles were of significance. I have added temporary content to demonstrate that it would be of better use of a future editor to write broad statements related to conflicts as a whole, rather than particular operations which caused issues in the past. I am happy to continue contributing to this article in due course. ElderZamzam (talk) 23:25, 21 August 2021 (UTC)
 * Well, certainly do keep contributing, if you feel you can help improve the article. My concern was with the content you removed. It may have had issues with writing and scope of topic, but there was still a significant amount of material, that was supported by sourcing, that should've probably remained in the article, in some section or another, with perhaps some copy/editing. So if you could look towards moving a majority of that 20kb of content back onto the page, somehow and somewhere, that would be good. -  wolf  02:46, 22 August 2021 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 19:47, 23 November 2021 (UTC)
 * Ministry of Defence.png

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 04:59, 31 December 2021 (UTC)
 * Emblem of the Ministry of Defence of Afghanistan.svg

Revert back to Afghan National Army
The purpose of this page is to show the army of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan which was the Afghan National Army. There is already a page for the current military of afghanistan, it makes no sense that there is going to be a second page.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Emirate_Army

PanjshirLions (talk) 04:20, 14 February 2022 (UTC)PanjshirLions
 * This is a page for the Army of Afghanistan, under the Durranis, the Royal Afghan Army, the Communists, the Mudjahidden, the Taliban, the American period 2002-2021, and into the future. Check what the article actually covers. In this it is consistent with all other national army articles. For the American period alone, suggest you look at and expand History of the Afghan Armed Forces 2002-2021. Buckshot06 (talk) 07:39, 14 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Agreed, and this is why I made the page move when Buckshot06 requested it at WP:RM/TR. Since this page covers the entire period of Afghanistan going back to 1700s, during which the army had numerous names and was ruled by multiple different entities, it makes no sense to arbitrarily end that narrative at 2021. It is a broad summary article of the entire concept, with more specific pages such as Islamic Emirate Army sitting below that. — Amakuru (talk) 07:47, 14 February 2022 (UTC)
 * the page was moved back today, after you moved it just a couple weeks ago, without any kind of process to support it. So as a contested move, can you move it back, and perhaps suggest to "Worldwar1989" that they seek consensus before moving it again? (and apparently removing/changing much of the work that  has put into this article) Cheers -  wolf  07:00, 2 March 2022 (UTC)
 * yes, I've moved it back thanks. As before, we have two choices here. Either make the article about the whole history (which is what most national army pages do) or reduce it to be specifically about the 2001 to 2021 period. But that would mean removing much of the pre-2001 material and having separate pages for each of the distinct periods. — Amakuru (talk) 09:09, 2 March 2022 (UTC)

Indian Army military report on Afghanistan, 1905
See at Google Books, https://books.google.com/books?id=LAg3AQAAMAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=tribal+divisions+army+afghanistan&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=1&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi_qu2smPP3AhUzSWwGHZVSAgYQ6AF6BAgEEAI

Buckshot06 (talk) 13:48, 22 May 2022 (UTC)
 * "The army is divided into regular troops - cavalry, artillery, and infantry; Khassadars or militia; and Khawanin sowars. Sardar Nasrulla Khan, brother of the Amir, is the present commander-in-chief. Nasrulla does not, as a rule, leave Kabul, so the garrison there is practically the only part of the army that he sees. Believed to be divided into four divisions, Kabul (Kabul, Jalalabad, Khost, Ghazni and the Hajazarat garrisons, each having sub-garrisons), Kandahar, Herat, and Turkestan (p.192)." Buckshot06 (talk) 08:44, 23 May 2022 (UTC)

Afghan National Army should be an article on its own
I believe there should be an article about the Afghan National Army that existed in 2001-2021, just like there is an article on the south vietnamese army (ARVN): Army of the Republic of Vietnam45.239.136.238 (talk) 03:42, 12 August 2022 (UTC)

 * ✅ Look right here→ Afghan national army - w o lf  05:45, 12 August 2022 (UTC)
 * Are you aware of History of the Afghan Armed Forces 2002-2021? Buckshot06 (talk) 07:55, 12 August 2022 (UTC)

Note transferred from main article
Mohammed Fahim Azimi became the commander of jalalabad in 2004 and completed his training of 2 years and was commander till 2011. Buckshot06 (talk) 11:27, 9 May 2023 (UTC)

Need for revisions
Majority of the Afghan national army sub section should be moved to History of the Afghan Armed Forces (2002–2021) Wide1r3 (talk) 10:55, 11 May 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Afghan Army


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New Democratic Party leadership elections

New Democratic Party leadership elections, more commonly known as leadership conventions, are the process by which the Canadian New Democratic Party elects its leader.

Before 2003, when a modified one member, one vote (OMOV) system was adopted, every biennial New Democratic Party convention, since 1961, was a leadership convention. However, in practice, contested elections were held only when there was a declared leadership race. The earliest example of an incumbent leader being challenged from the convention floor happened in 1973 when Douglas Campbell unsuccessfully opposed David Lewis' leadership. In 2001, Socialist Caucus member Marcel Hatch challenged Alexa McDonough from the floor of the convention; however, McDonough easily retained the leadership in the resulting vote.

When the NDP was created by the merger of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) and the Canadian Labour Congress (CLC), trade unions were allowed to directly affiliate to the party, and a system was unofficially arranged so that up to one-third of all delegates to NDP conventions were selected by labour and the other two-thirds by NDP riding associations. This was also the case at leadership conventions, giving the labour movement a significant say in determining the party's leadership. Under the current system, each biennial federal convention includes a vote at which the delegates decide whether a leadership convention should be held. Then-leader Thomas Mulcair lost such a vote at the 2016 convention, resulting in the 2017 leadership election being called.

In practice, all three CCF leaders had been chosen by their parliamentary caucus and then elected unanimously at a subsequent national convention.

1961 leadership convention results
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on August 3, 1961.

1971 leadership convention results
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on April 24, 1971.

1973 leadership challenge results
Held in Vancouver, British Columbia on Friday, July 20, 1973.

1975 leadership convention results
Held in Winnipeg, Manitoba on July 7, 1975.

1989 leadership convention results
Held in Winnipeg, Manitoba on December 2, 1989.

1995 leadership convention results
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on October 14, 1995.

The NDP held a series of regional and labour "caucus votes" prior to the national convention. A fourth candidate, Herschel Hardin, participated in the regional caucuses but did not win sufficient delegate support to qualify for the convention. These "primaries" were OMOV.

As the last place finisher on the first ballot, Nystrom was dropped. However, Robinson determined that he could not win on the second ballot if Nystrom's supporters moved to McDonough, as they were expected to, thus he withdrew and McDonough was declared the winner.

2001 leadership challenge results
Held in Winnipeg, Manitoba on Sunday, November 25, 2001.

Marcel Hatch, a leader of the NDP's Socialist Caucus, stood for leader as a challenge to Alexa McDonough's leadership.

''There were 42 spoiled ballots. If these are factored in McDonough's level of support was 78% overall.''

2003 leadership election results
Held in Toronto, Ontario on January 25, 2003.

For this election, the NDP instituted a modified one member one vote system. Votes by labour delegates accounted for 25% of the total result, while votes cast by party members accounted for 75%. The carve out for labour was eliminated prior to the 2012 election.

2012 leadership election
The leadership convention was held at the Metro Toronto Convention Centre on March 24, 2012. There were 128,351 eligible voters, most voting from home and not delegates at the convention.

The party chose Thomas Mulcair as their new leader following the death of Jack Layton on August 22, 2011. A One member, one vote process was used.

 * = Eliminated from next round
 * = Withdrew nomination
 * = Winner

2017 leadership election
Voting was held between September 18 to October 1, 2017. The results were announced on October 1 in Toronto, Ontario at the Westin Harbour Castle.

 * Spoiled ballots: 101
 * Abstentions: 172
 * Turnout: 52.8% (1.9pp)


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Charles Wilson (Quebec politician)

Charles Wilson (April 1808 – May 4, 1877) was a Canadian businessman and politician.

Background
Wilson was born at Coteau-du-Lac, Quebec, in 1808. He was the son of Alexander Wilson (b.1758), a native of Huntly, Aberdeenshire, who came to Quebec City where he was a merchant, magistrate and later Seigneur of Granville. Wilson's mother, Catherine-Angélique d'Ailleboust de Manthet (1781-1845), was the daughter of Nicholas d'Ailleboust des Musseaux de Manthet (1747-1826), descended from Louis d'Ailleboust de Coulonge, 4th Governor of New France.

Wilson established a hardware business, and became a prosperous and respected merchant near the Montreal waterfront. In 1835, he married Ann Tracey, sister of Daniel Tracey.

Montreal city politics
He served as a City Councillor of Montreal from 1848 to 1849 and from 1850 to 1852 and Mayor of Montreal from 1851 to 1854.

Protestant journalists such as John Dougall of the Montreal Witness persisted in accusing the mayor for the Gavazzi Riots. When in September 1855, at Ignace Bourget's request, Wilson received the cross of commander of the Order of St. Gregory the Great from Pope Pius IX, the Protestant press resumed its accusations against the man responsible for the "St Bartholomew of Montreal."

Member of the upper house
In 1852, he became a member of the Legislative Council of the Province of Canada and, following the creation of the Canadian Confederation in 1867, he was appointed to the Senate of Canada in the new nation's capital Ottawa as a Conservative party representative for the riding of Rigaud.

Death
Charles Wilson is interred in the Notre-Dame-des-Neiges Cemetery in Montreal. He is commemorated by both Wilson Avenue in Notre-Dame-de-Grâce and by rue Charles-Wilson in Mercier-Hochelaga-Maisonneuve.

title: Charles Wilson (Quebec politician)


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AMSAT

AMSAT is a name for various amateur radio satellite organizations worldwide. In particular, it often refers to the Radio Amateur Satellite Corporation, headquartered in Washington, D.C. AMSAT organizations design, build, arrange launches for, and then operate (command) satellites carrying amateur radio payloads, including the OSCAR series of satellites. Other informally affiliated national organizations exist, such as AMSAT Germany (AMSAT-DL) and AMSAT Japan (JAMSAT).

History
AMSAT was founded in 1969 in Washington, D.C. to continue the efforts begun by Project OSCAR. Its first project was to coordinate the launch of OSCAR 5, constructed by students at the University of Melbourne. Some design modifications were needed and were made by AMSAT members, and the satellite was successfully launched on 30 January 1970, on a NASA Thor Delta launch vehicle.

AMSAT's next launch was AMSAT-OSCAR 6 (AO-6) on 15 October 1972. AO-6 was AMSAT's first long-life satellite, and was built with participants from Australia and West Germany. Command stations in Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, Hungary, Morocco, New Zealand, the United States and West Germany controlled the satellite, contributing greatly to its 4.5 years of service. Further launches continued to emphasize international cooperation, with AMSAT-OSCAR 7 (AO-7) launching with a new transponder developed and built by Karl Meinzer and AMSAT Germany (AMSAT-DL). AMSAT Japan (JAMSAT) contributed a transponder to AMSAT-OSCAR 8 (AO-8).

In order to launch its satellites, AMSAT has worked with space agencies and commercial launch contractors to develop new ways to take advantage of unused areas of launch vehicles. In return, AMSAT sometimes can negotiate a reduction or waiver of launch costs. One of the most significant is the Ariane Structure for Auxiliary Payloads (ASAP), developed and manufactured in partnership with the European Space Agency (ESA) in 1990 for use on its Ariane 4 launch vehicle. AMSAT was again able to take advantage of unused space with the launch of AMSAT-OSCAR 40 (AO-40), occupying unused space on an Ariane 5.

IPS
The IPS (Interpreter for Process Structures) programming language was specifically written for the RCA 1802 AMSAT Phase III satellite.

The IPS threaded code language, developed for AMSAT Phase III, is the first known use of a high-level language on board a spacecraft.

Another 16-bit IPS implementation was specifically developed to run on the ARM CPU in the IHU-2 on the AMSAT P3D.

A 32-bit IPS implementation has been developed for the AMSAT P3E satellite and the AMSAT P5A mission to Mars, which also have ARM CPUs. Emulators for both the classic 16-bit and the 32-bit IPS language and development environment are available for many other systems.

AMSAT organizations worldwide
From its first launch, AMSAT projects have had international scope. By 2006, 21 countries had launched an amateur satellite. Many of these countries have their own AMSAT affiliate, some of which are noted below:

 * AMSAT Germany (AMSAT-DL, AMSAT Deutschland) has built and managed projects of several amateur radio satellites, notably AO-40.
 * AMSAT Japan (JAMSAT) has contributed to many satellites, in addition to launching its own satellites in cooperation with JAXA: the Fuji-OSCAR series.
 * AMSAT India (AMSAT-IN) launched its first amateur satellite, VUSat-OSCAR 52 in 2005 aboard an Indian Space Research Organisation PSLV launch vehicle from Sriharikota, India.
 * AMSAT United Kingdom (AMSAT-UK) built FUNcube AO-73 with AMSAT-NL, an Amateur CubeSat that was launched as part of a Russian Dnepr payload in November 2013.
 * AMSAT Italia (AMSAT-I) has built the HAMVIDEO TV transmitter for International Space Station.
 * AMSAT-CT is NGO for Education and Development is Portuguese VIP member of AMSAT-DL, funded by Aerospace Observatory in 1998
 * AMSAT-CT develop the prototype of the satellite CAMOESat-1 at Oeiras Aerospace Observatory facilities
 * AMSAT-NL Netherlands
 * AMSAT Brazil
 * AMSAT Philippines (AMSAT-PH), club call sign DX1O, Diwata-2 satellite is designated Philippines-OSCAR 101 (PO-101) and has the amateur call sign DW4TA.
 * AMSAT Spain (AMSAT EA), designed and built the radio-amateur satellites GENESIS-L, GENESIS-N, EASAT-2 and HADES, all of them pocketQubes.
 * AMSAT New Zealand (AMSAT-ZL) developed kiwiSAT, intended to be New Zealand's first satellite. It designed and built by New Zealand radio amateurs supported by Massey University (Auckland) and various corporate sponsors. The project began in 2003, but encountered many delays and setbacks, and was eventually dissolved in 2023.

Phase system
The AMSAT Phase system describes an amateur satellite based upon its capabilities or mode of operation and roughly parallel the development of amateur satellites.

 * Phase 1: No solar cells (battery-powered only), short-lived, technology test-bed. Must be able to orbit to be classified as a satellite.
 * Phase 2: Long life using solar cells, communications capabilities, Low Earth Orbit.
 * Phase 3: Long life, more powerful communications, telemetry and command systems. Highly elliptical orbit, usually a Molniya orbit; usually the initial orbit is a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO), onboard propulsion systems boosting it to its final orbit. Because of the highly elliptical orbit, the satellite remains over an area for long periods of time, allowing amateurs longer contacts through the satellite.
 * Phase 4: Amateur satellite in geostationary orbit (GEO). Currently, the only amateur radio transponders in orbit are a secondary mission aboard Es'hail 2, designated as QO-100 by AMSAT on 26 February 2019.
 * Phase 5: Spacecraft capable of lunar or planetary missions.

Satellite names
Most amateur satellites do not receive their sequential OSCAR designation until after they are successfully in orbit, and then only at the request of the launching organization. Regardless, amateur satellites will have been named by the organization that constructed it, and that name is frequently prepended to its OSCAR designation, resulting a name such as CubeSat-OSCAR 57. In conversation, names are usually abbreviated as CO-57 or similar.

A unique amateur satellite was SuitSat, an obsolete Russian space suit with a transmitter in it, which was launched in 2006 from the International Space Station. In a twist of fate, "Oscar" was the name given to an obsolete space suit by its young owner in the 1958 novel Have Space Suit, Will Travel, by Robert A Heinlein. This book was originally published a year after the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1.

Satellites previously launched by AMSAT
The names of the satellites below are sorted in chronological order by launch date, ascending. The status column denotes the current operational status of the satellite. Green signifies that the satellite is currently operational, orange indicates that the satellite is partially operational or failing. Red indicates that the satellite is non operational and black indicates that the satellite has re-entered the Earth's atmosphere. The country listing denotes the country that constructed the satellite and not the launching country.

Current projects
AMSAT built a series of five 1U CubeSats to carry university experiments, including a camera, and mode U/V FM repeaters. The first two of these satellites, Fox-1A, and Fox-1B, were launched on 8 October 2015 and 18 November 2017 respectively and are currently operational and available for use. Fox-1D (AO-92) was launched on 12 January 2018 on the PSLV-C40 mission from Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota, India. Fox-1Cliff was launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base aboard the SpaceX Falcon-9 SSO-A rocket on 3 December 2018. These four Fox satellites contain FM transponders with uplink on the 70 cm band and downlink on the 2 metre band.

RadFxSat-2/Fox-1E, a variation of the Fox-1 series, carrying a mode V/U linear transponder has been accepted for a launch by the NASA CubeSat Launch Initiative. Fox-1E was launched into orbit aboard a Virgin Orbit LauncherOne vehicle on 17 January 2021. Although the beacon has not been heard, the linear transponder is at least partially functioning with a low level downlink signal.

AMSAT is currently developing the GOLF series of CubeSats with the first satellite in the series, GOLF-TEE, expected to launch in 2022. The GOLF series is designed to test technologies for future high Earth orbit (HEO) missions.

AMSAT also offers a communications platform for university CubeSats. The AMSAT Linear Transponder Module (LTM) includes a VHF/UHF telemetry beacon, command receiver, and linear transponder. The first LTM flew on HuskySat-OSCAR 107 in 2020. In July 2020, AMSAT and the University of Maine announced that an LTM would be provided for the University of Maine's MESAT1 CubeSat, Maine's first small satellite.

Additionally, AMSAT supports amateur radio on human spaceflight missions as a supporting partner of Amateur Radio on the International Space Station (ARISS). This partnership includes support for future missions on the Lunar Gateway.

AMSAT also supports STEM education and has developed a CubeSat Simulator as part of these efforts.

Currently operating missions
AMSAT operates the AO-7, AO-91, and AO-92 satellites, which are open for general amateur use. The U.S. Air Force FalconSAT-3 was turned over to AMSAT for amateur radio use in late September 2017. AO-95 was launched aboard SpaceX's Falcon-9 SSO-A mission on 4 December 2018 and was later determined to have poor to no RF reception capability, thus preventing commissioning and putting its FM transponder mission into indefinite suspension.

title: AMSAT


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L. David Mech

Lucyan David Mech (born January 18, 1937), also known as Dave Mech, is an American biologist specializing in the study of wolves. He is a senior research scientist for the U.S. Geological Survey and an adjunct professor at the University of Minnesota. He has researched wolves since 1958 in locations including northern Minnesota, Isle Royale, Alaska, Yellowstone National Park, Ellesmere Island, and Italy.

Mech is the founder of the International Wolf Center and the vice-chair of its board of directors. The project to create the facility, which he started in 1985, was an outgrowth of his wolf research as well as his ambition to educate people about the nature of wolves, so that they may come to respect the creature through understanding.

He has published eleven books about wolves and other wildlife, including The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species (1970) and Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, which he co-edited with Luigi Boitani (2003). His 1997 book The Arctic Wolf: Ten Years with the Pack received an honorable mention by the National Outdoor Book Award (Nature and the Environment category). His latest book, with Doug Smith and Dan MacNulty, is Wolves on the Hunt: the Behavior of Wolves Hunting Wild Prey.

Early years
Mech was born in Auburn, New York, on January 18, 1937, and raised in Syracuse.

Career and research

Mech obtained a B.S. degree in conservation from Cornell University in 1958 and a Ph.D. in wildlife ecology from Purdue University in 1962. From 1958 to 1962, he was a graduate student at Purdue, studying the wolves of Isle Royale on Lake Superior. His first book was The Wolves of Isle Royale, published in 1966 by the Department of the Interior, having evolved from his doctoral thesis. In 1966, he studied wolves in the Superior National Forest in Minnesota.

"Beginning in 1986, the legendary biologist L. David Mech spent 25 summers observing wolves..." on Ellesmere Island. He said that his research on the wolves there was different, because it is one of the few places where they are not afraid of people, making that experience one of the best in his life. In addition, there were no trees or bushes to hide wolves from view in the tundra. In the summer, Mech found a den near the military and weather base at Eureka. He witnessed wolf interactions within a family unit and watched them hunting muskoxen; this type of research had not been done before. In an interview, Mech said, "The kind of stuff I got here was not just the objective behavioral stuff, but the kind of thing you get from living with a pet of some sort. You get an insight into the thing. You get to know the animal." Mech and photographer Jim Brandenburg together produced several articles and a film for National Geographic.

Positions on hunting, fishing, and trapping, and wolf management
An avid mushroom hunter and fur trapper, Mech has continued to support fishing, hunting, and trapping, which has led to criticism from animal protectionists. He believes that states can manage wolves sustainably and that states where wolves are no longer on the endangered list should determine how the animal should be managed. On his website, he lists mink trapping as one of his interests. He closed the abstract to "Is science in danger of sanctifying the wolf?", published in the January 2012 issue of Biological Conservation, with "The wolf is neither a saint nor a sinner except to those who want to make it so."

Publications

Mech has published approximately 380 scientific papers and 100 popular articles about wolves and other wildlife. He has written eleven books. These include The Wolf: The Ecology and Behavior of an Endangered Species (1970), Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, which he co-edited with Luigi Boitani (2003), and Wolves on the Hunt: The Behavior of Wolves Hunting Wild Prey (2015), with Doug Smith and Dan MacNulty. His 1997 book, The Arctic Wolf: Ten Years with the Pack, received an honorable mention by the National Outdoor Book Award (Nature and the Environment category). The International Wolf Center lists approximately 140 articles written by Mech, published from 1987 to the present, primarily in scientific journals.

title: L. David Mech


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Joe Brown

Joe Brown may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Joe Brown (actor) (1884–1965), American actor
 * Joe Brown (judge) (born 1947), television judge and former Tennessee state criminal court judge
 * Joe Brown (musician) (born 1941), English musician
 * Joe David Brown (1915–1976), American novelist
 * Joe E. Brown (1891–1973), American actor and comedian

Baseball

 * Joe Brown (pitcher) (1900–1950), American Major League baseball player
 * Joe Brown (third baseman) (1902–?), minor league baseball player
 * Joe Brown (utility player) (1859–1888), 19th century baseball player
 * Joe L. Brown (1918–2010), Major League Baseball front office executive

Football

 * Joe Brown (footballer, born 1920) (1920–2004), English footballer
 * Joe Brown (footballer, born 1929) (1929–2014), English footballer and manager
 * Joe Brown (footballer, born 1988), English footballer

Other sports

 * Joe Brown (climber) (1930–2020), English mountaineer
 * Joe Brown (boxer) (1926–1997), American boxer
 * Joe Brown (rugby league) (born 1999), English rugby league footballer for Bradford Bulls
 * Joe Brown (sculptor) (1909–1985), American boxer, coach (Princeton University), sculptor and sculpture instructor
 * Joe Brown (American football) (born 1977), American football defensive tackle

Other people

 * Joe Ellis Brown (1933–2018), member of the South Carolina House of Representatives, 1986–2006
 * Joseph E. Brown (1821–1894), governor of the U.S. state of Georgia, 1853–1865
 * Joe Brown (impresario), New Zealand entrepreneur and entertainment promoter

title: Joe Brown