text:
Knowledge by acquaintance

Bertrand Russell makes a distinction between two different kinds of knowledge: knowledge by acquaintance and knowledge by description. Whereas knowledge by description is something like ordinary propositional knowledge (e.g. "I know that snow is white"), knowledge by acquaintance is familiarity with a person, place, or thing, typically obtained through perceptual experience (e.g. "I know Sam", "I know the city of Bogotá", or "I know Russell's Problems of Philosophy"). According to Bertrand Russell's classic account of acquaintance knowledge, acquaintance is a direct causal interaction between a person and some object that the person is perceiving.

Grote
In 1865, philosopher John Grote distinguished between what he described as "knowledge of acquaintance" and "knowledge-about". Grote noted that these distinctions were made in many languages. He cited Greek (γνωναι and ειδεναι), Latin (noscere and scire), German (kennen and wissen), and French (connaître and savoir) as examples.

Grote's "knowledge of acquaintance" is far better known today as "knowledge by acquaintance", following Russell's decision to change the preposition in a paper that he read to the Aristotelian Society on 6 March 1911.

Helmholtz
In a similar fashion, in 1868 Hermann von Helmholtz clearly distinguished between das Kennen, the knowledge that consisted of "mere familiarity with phenomena", and das Wissen, "the knowledge of [phenomena] which can be communicated by speech". Stressing that the Kennen sort of knowledge could not "compete with" the Wissen sort of knowledge, Helmholtz argued that, despite the fact that it might be of "the highest possible degree of precision and certainty", the Kennen kind of knowledge can not be expressed in words, "even to ourselves".

James
In 1890, William James, agreeing there were two fundamental kinds of knowledge, and adopting Grote's terminology, further developed the distinctions made by Grote and Helmholtz:

 * I am acquainted with many people and things, which I know very little about, except their presence in the places where I have met them. I know the color blue when I see it, and the flavour of a pear when I taste it; I know an inch when I move my finger through it; a second of time, when I feel it pass; an effort of attention when I make it; a difference between two things when I notice it; but about the inner nature of these facts or what makes them what they are, I can say nothing at all. I cannot impart acquaintance with them to any one who has not already made it himself I cannot describe them, make a blind man guess what blue is like, define to a child a syllogism, or tell a philosopher in just what respect distance is just what it is, and differs from other forms of relation. At most, I can say to my friends, Go to certain places and act in certain ways, and these objects will probably come. (1890, p.221)

"On Denoting"
The distinction in its present form was first proposed by British philosopher Bertrand Russell in his famous 1905 paper, "On Denoting". According to Russell, knowledge by acquaintance is obtained exclusively through experience, and results from a direct causal interaction between a person and an object that the person is perceiving. In accordance with Russell's views on perception, sense-data from that object are the only things that people can ever become acquainted with; they can never truly be acquainted with the physical object itself. A person can also be acquainted with his own sense of self (cogito ergo sum) and his thoughts and ideas. However, other people could not become acquainted with another person's mind, for example. They have no way of directly interacting with it, since a mind is an internal object. They can only perceive that a mind could exist by observing that person's behaviour.

To be fully justified in believing a proposition to be true one must be acquainted, not only with the fact that supposedly makes the proposition true, but with the relation of correspondence that holds between the proposition and the fact. In other words, justified true belief can only occur if I know that a proposition (e.g. "Snow is white") is true in virtue of a fact (e.g. that the frequency of the light reflected off the snow causes the human eye, and by extension, the human mind, to perceive snow to be white). By way of example, John is justified in believing that he is in pain if he is directly and immediately acquainted with his pain. John is fully justified in his belief not if he merely makes an inference regarding his pain ("I must be in pain because my arm is bleeding"), but only if he feels it as an immediate sensation ("My arm hurts!"). This direct contact with the fact and the knowledge that this fact makes a proposition true is what is meant by knowledge by acquaintance.

On the contrary, when one is not directly and immediately acquainted with a fact, such as Julius Caesar's assassination, we speak of knowledge by description. When one is not directly in contact with the fact, but knows it only indirectly by means of a description, one arguably is not entirely justified in holding a proposition true (such as e.g. "Caesar was killed by Brutus").

The acquaintance theorist can argue that one has a noninferentially justified belief "that P" only when one has the thought "that P" and one is acquainted with both the fact that P is the case, the thought "that P", and the relation of correspondence holding between the thought "that P" and the fact that P is the case. So I must not only know the proposition P, and the fact that P is the case, but also know that the fact that P is the case is what makes proposition P true.

The Problems of Philosophy
The distinction between knowledge by description and knowledge by acquaintance is developed much further in Russell's 1912 book, The Problems of Philosophy.

Russell referred to acquaintance as "the given". He theorized that certain familiarities develop from an individual's experience with various primary impressions (sensory or abstract) that are so much a part of awareness itself that the individual possesses knowledge of these familiar features without accessing memories by the cognitive process of remembering. Russell believes that acquaintance is necessary in order for us to form any proposition—that any belief we form must be composed entirely of experiential components with which we have acquaintance. Per Russell, all foundational knowledge is by acquaintance, and all non-foundational (inferential) knowledge is developed from acquaintance relations. Russell's famous description of acquaintance is as follows:

 * We shall say that we have acquaintance with anything of which we are directly aware, without the intermediary of any process of inference or any knowledge of truths. Thus in the presence of my table I am acquainted with the sense-data that make up the appearance of my table—its colour, shape, hardness, smoothness, etc.; all these are things of which I am immediately conscious when I am seeing and touching my table. The particular shade of colour that I am seeing may have many things said about it—I may say that it is brown, that it is rather dark, and so on. But such statements, though they make me know truths about the colour, do not make me know the colour itself any better than I did before so far as concerns knowledge of the colour itself, as opposed to knowledge of truths about it, I know the colour perfectly and completely when I see it, and no further knowledge of it itself is even theoretically possible. Thus the sense-data which make up the appearance of my table are things with which I have acquaintance, things immediately known to me just as they are.

Russell adds that we have acquaintance with sense data, desires, feelings, (probably) the self, and universals like color, brotherhood, diversity, etc. Other acquaintance theorists would later suggest that we can have acquaintance with basics such as “yellow or not yellow”; ourselves; states, properties, things, or facts (Sellars, see below); feeling, sensations, ticklings, afterimages, itches, etc. (Chalmers, see below); necessary truths (such as “the tallest thing is the only thing that is as tall as it is”, “all violinists are musicians", "3 + 2 = 5", etc.); phenomenal experiences “seemings”; and sensory inputs, or “particulars that are directly present to the mind”.

Direct acquaintance only refers to the individual's direct access to some aspect of her/his experience, whereas knowledge by acquaintance requires that the individual have a belief about it. Russell and other acquaintance theorists assert that not only does acquaintance make knowledge possible; it makes thinking itself possible. This assertion is based on the epistemic principle that empirical experience is the source of properly simple concepts.

In The Problems of Philosophy, Russell clarifies that knowledge we can have of a specific “so-and-so”, which is a thing identifiable as the thing that it uniquely is, is knowledge by description.

Per Russell, acquaintance knowledge is an awareness that occurs below the level of specific identifications of things. Knowledge by acquaintance is knowledge of a general quality of a thing, such as its shape, color, or smell. According to Russell, acquaintance does not involve reasoning that leads the individual to form an inference that the thing possessing the quality is any specific “so-and-so”. He also includes self-consciousness of one's having an experience. For example, "When I see the sun, I am often aware of my seeing the sun; thus 'my seeing the sun' is an object with which I have acquaintance." It is only possible to have acquaintance with things that exist, actual relata, according to Russell, and acquaintance does not involve thought, intention, or judgment, or application of concepts.

Russell allows for fallibility of acquaintance due to false impressions acquired in some acquaintance relations, and he argues that these do not negate the much greater number of accurate impressions that result in acquaintance based on truths. To support this position, Fumerton offers examples of error such as misidentifying a particular shade of color as another, and he suggests that acquaintance relations should not be viewed as guarantees of, but only as representations of probabilities of, truth relations.

Sellars
Wilfrid Sellars, in Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind (1956), rejects acquaintance theory, arguing that acquaintance is not necessary to provide a solid foundation for knowledge and thinking, as acquaintance theorists claim. In his Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind, he dissects the internalists' case for acquaintance. He calls the proposal that we have direct acquaintance with sensory data "The Myth of the Given". Sellars argues, "there is no reason to suppose that having the sensation of a red triangle is a cognitive or epistemic fact." He reasons that if sensations, impressions, desires, images, or feelings are to be considered as veridical experiences, then it must be likewise possible for them to be unveridical. He believes that if "immediate experience" like sensations, is susceptible to being misperceived, thus resulting in erroneous inferences for epistemic agent (as is very common in everyday life) then it doesn't make sense to think of acquaintance as a necessity for knowledge.

Sellars bypasses the usual objections to acquaintance theory, which largely focus on absence of explanation for how acquaintance is connected to the knowledge that is said to result from it. Instead, Sellars emphasizes the need to dispel the myth by closely examining the “form of the givenness”, dissecting the proposed operations of acquaintance in terms of “such facts as that physical object X looks red to person S at time t, or that there looks to person S at time t to be a red physical object over there.” (Sellars)

Sellars asserts that acquaintance theory has not been sufficiently evaluated, and that in order for the theory to be validated, the range of sense impressions it claims can be "given" to the epistemic agent must be fully accounted for by an "exhaustive list", and each type of impression must be meticulously scrutinized as a prospect for such givenness. He also argues that it is necessary to presuppose that the epistemic agent possesses empirical knowledge of particular truths in order to make assumptions about the epistemic state of cognitive states that are independent of inference. However, Sellars reasons, because presupposition is inferential, empirical knowledge, regardless of being non-inferentially acquired, is nevertheless epistemically dependent if based on the presupposition that the epistemic agent possesses other pertinent empirical knowledge. Therefore, he concludes that cognitions that are organized propositionally do not qualify as “the given”. Sellars does determine that there are beliefs that are non-inferential but that are intermixed with other beliefs that are connected in chains of inferences. (These arguments are later pursued by DeVries.)

Conee
Earl Conee invoked the idea of acquaintance knowledge in response to Frank Jackson's knowledge argument. Conee argued that when Mary the neuroscientist first sees a red object, she doesn't gain new information but rather "a maximally direct cognitive relation to the experience."[2]

Michael Tye makes similar use of the distinction between acquaintance and factual knowledge in his analysis of the Mary thought experiment.[3]

In some versions of acquaintance theory, the “given” is actually acquired by the mind's work to register, maintain, and recall a particular sensation or other object of acquaintance until it ultimately becomes established as an acquaintance relation for the epistemic agent., but theorists emphasis that this is not to be confused with the same processes by which memories are developed.

Fumerton
Richard Fumerton views direct acquaintance (the theory of which he often refers to as “classical foundationalism”) as simple, hence indefinable. He asserts that it is the central concept around which philosophy of mind and epistemology must be developed. He acknowledges that although he takes direct acquaintance to be basic, it is viewed by other philosophers as a mystery. Fumerton (1995) suggests that the following are the necessary conditions to constitute knowledge by acquaintance.

 * i. S is directly acquainted with the fact that p;
 * ii. S is directly acquainted with the thought that p; and
 * iii. S is directly acquainted with the correspondence that holds between the fact that P and the thought that P (Fumerton 1995, pp. 73–79).

According to Fumerton, acquaintance awareness is not non-relational or intentional thinking. There is a sui generis relation between the individual epistemic agent and “a thing, property, or fact”. He concurs with Russell that the acquaintance relation between the individual's awareness and a state, object, fact, or property obtains in a way that cannot be reduced to more basic operations. He suggests that one potential benefit of acquaintance, or “the given”, is that it solves the problem of infinite regress of justification for beliefs by serving as the basis on which all inferences can be grounded. Skeptics reject this proposal, arguing that in “the given” would need to be propositional in order to ground inferences, or, at minimum have its own truth value.

Fumerton asserts that because acquaintance requires that its relata actually exist, having acquaintance with something both justifies belief in the thing and makes the belief true. Fumerton offers this response to skeptics of acquaintance.

 * If I am asked what reason I have for thinking that there is such a relation as acquaintance, I will, of course, give the unhelpful answer that I am acquainted with such a relation. The answer is question-begging if it is designed to convince someone that there is such a relation, but if the view is true it would be unreasonable to expect its proponent to give any other answer. (Fumerton)

Skeptics who find Fumerton's response unsatisfactory persist that having a truth value requires employment of concepts, i.e., comparing, classifying, and making judgments. That process involves at least the simplest of beliefs associated with memories of previous experienced, making acquaintance a form of inference.

But, Fumerton further asserts that an individual can have direct acquaintance not just possible with the non-propositional experiences but also with the “relation of correspondence that holds between the non-propositional experience and the propositional thought." He finds that these three acquaintance relationships are required in order for a proposition to be true (correspondence theory of truth).

 * a. the truth-maker (S is directly acquainted with the fact that p);
 * b. the truth-bearer (S is directly acquainted with the thought that p); and
 * c. the correspondence relation (S is directly acquainted with the correspondence between the fact that P and the thought that p). (Fumerton)

Fumerton proposes that while acquaintance does not depend on proposition, one can have thoughts and propositions established in acquaintance, and that justification for belief is effected by the individual's acquaintance with the correspondence relation between a thought and the fact associated with it. BonJour also mentions this relation, but he views this recognition as requiring proposition or judgment.

BonJour
Laurence BonJour (2003) asserts that acquaintance is a "built-in" awareness, that does not involve cognitive processes, and that it justifies belief. He argues that an adequate defense of acquaintance must explain the process by which acquaintance builds and maintains its cache of impressions into which new inputs of matching impressions can be added and caused to engage with cognitive processes. He also posits that for an epistemic agent to establish acquaintance unavoidably engages a proposition, or at least requires categorizing of inputs.

In response to Sellars, BonJour asserts that an individual can have experiences that are not connected to inferences but that there is a suitable relation of those experiences and her/his beliefs. BonJour asserts that awareness is “built-in” and that it provides full justification for essential empirical beliefs.

Fallibility: BonJour asserts that the cognitive content that constitutes the basis for typically accurate interpretation of sensory inputs makes it possible to acquire many true acquaintances, and the efficacy of this arrangement is not undermined by occurrences of inaccurate interpretations.

Chisholm
In his “Object and Person” (2002), Roderick Chisholm examines the conflicting perspectives between philosophers on whether or not we can actually be directly aware of the contents of our experiences. The unique property of an object of acquaintance permits the epistemic agent to develop acquaintance with that particular property by which the agent can identify it. In his Acquaintance and the Mind-Body Problem, Chisolm asserts that all epistemic agents have direct acquaintance with the self. He notes that both Rene DesCartes and Gottlob Frege held this view as well.

Chalmers
David Chalmers (2002) argues that for acquaintance to depend on propositions as Bonjour suggests, then instances of acquaintance require their own justification. He further contends that acquaintance with an object of acquaintance cannot serve as justification for any beliefs without the acquaintance itself being justified. Chalmers contends that as acquaintances is understood as separate from cognition, it does not seem feasible as justification for beliefs or as a basis for knowledge.

The speckled hen case
The famous speckled hen case has been invoked by acquaintance skeptics who insist that the theory cannot explain acquaintance with very simple mental states, like viewing a few dots against a solid background color can be said to justify belief in knowledge by acquaintance, while it is believed that viewing a significantly larger number of dots cannot justify belief in it. They believe that defenders of acquaintance theory should answer as to why the capacity of direct acquaintance should be so limited. Sellars resolved the problem simply by asserting that naturally the speckled hen experiment fails to support an acquaintance relation because the individual cannot reasonably be expected to build up such an association where the total number of objects in an array cannot be known without methodically accounting for them all. He points out that the “character of the experience” is not distinguishable to the individual's subconscious in such cases of instant presentations of complex arrays of data.

Knowledge of other people
Some recent work in epistemology deploys ideas concerning knowledge by acquaintance in developing an epistemology of knowing other people. For some examples, see Bonnie Talbert's "Knowing Other People" and Matthew Benton's "Epistemology Personalized" and "The Epistemology of Interpersonal Relations".

title: Knowledge by acquaintance


text:
User talk:Mohanr

Hi! welcome! Optim 11:35, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: User talk:Mohanr


text:
Hard link

In computing, a hard link is a directory entry (in a directory-based file system) that associates a name with a file. Thus, each file must have at least one hard link. Creating additional hard links for a file makes the contents of that file accessible via additional paths (i.e., via different names or in different directories). This causes an alias effect: a process can open the file by any one of its paths and change its content. By contrast, a soft link or “shortcut” to a file is not a direct link to the data itself, but rather a reference to a hard link or another soft link.

Every directory is itself a special file on many systems, containing a list of file names instead of other data. Hence, multiple hard links to directories are possible, which could create a circular directory structure, rather than a branching structure like a tree. For that reason, some file systems forbid the creation of hard links to directories.

POSIX-compliant operating systems, such as Linux, Android, macOS, and the Windows NT family, support multiple hard links to the same file, depending on the file system. For instance, NTFS and ReFS support hard links, while FAT does not.

Operation

Let two hard links, named "LINK A.TXT" and "LINK B.TXT", point to the same physical data. A text editor opens "LINK A.TXT", modifies it and saves it. When the editor (or any other app) opens "LINK B.TXT", it can see those changes made to "LINK A.TXT", since both file names point to the same data. So from a user's point of view this is one file with several filenames. Editing any filename modifies "all" files, however deleting "any" filename except the last one keeps the file around.

However, some editors, such as GNU Emacs, break the hard link concept. When opening a file for editing, e.g., "LINK B.TXT", emacs renames "LINK B.TXT" to "LINK B.TXT~", loads "LINK B.TXT~" into the editor, and saves the modified contents to a newly created "LINK B.TXT". Now, "LINK A.TXT" and "LINK B.TXT" no longer shares the same data. (This behavior can be changed using the emacs variable .)

Any number of hard links to the physical data may be created. To access the data, a user only needs to specify the name of any existing link; the operating system will resolve the location of the actual data. Even if the user deletes one of the hard links, the data is still accessible through any other link that remains. Once the user deletes all of the links, if no process has the file open, the operating system frees the disk space that the file once occupied.

Reference counting

Most file systems that support hard links use reference counting. The system stores an integer value with each logical data section that represents the total number of hard links that have been created to point to the data. When a new link is created, this value is increased by one. When a link is removed, the value is decreased by one. When the counter becomes zero, the operating system frees the logical data section. (The OS may not to do so immediately, e.g., when there are outstanding file handles open, for performance reasons, or to enable the undelete command.)

This is a simple method for the file system to track the use of a given area of storage, as zero values indicate free space and nonzero values indicate used space. The maintenance of this value guarantees that there will be no dangling hard links pointing nowhere. The data section and the associated inode are preserved as long as a single hard link (directory reference) points to it or any process keeps the associated file open.

On POSIX-compliant operating systems, the reference count for a file or directory is returned by the stat or fstat system calls in the  field of.

Limitations
To prevent loops in the filesystem, and to keep the interpretation of the ".." file (parent directory) consistent, operating systems do not generally allow hard links to directories. UNIX System V allowed them, but only the superuser had permission to make such links. Mac OS X v10.5 (Leopard) and newer use hard links on directories for the Time Machine backup mechanism only.

Hard links can be created to files only on the same volume, i.e., within the same file system. (Different volumes may have different file systems. There is no guarantee that the target volume's file system is compatible with hard linking.)

The maximum number of hard links to a single file is limited by the size of the reference counter. On Unix-like systems the counter is 4,294,967,295 (on 32-bit machines) or 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 (on 64-bit machines). In some file systems, the number of hard links is limited more strictly by their on-disk format. For example, as of Linux 3.11, the ext4 file system limits the number of hard links on a file to 65,000. Windows limits enforces a limit of 1024 hard links to a file on NTFS volumes.

On Linux Weekly News, Neil Brown criticized hard links as high-maintenance, since they complicate the design of programs that handle directory trees, including archivers and disk usage tools. These apps must take care to de-duplicate files that are linked multiple times in a hierarchy. Brown notes that Plan 9 from Bell Labs, the intended successor to Unix, does not include the concept of a hard link.

Platform support
Windows NT 3.1 and later support hard links on the NTFS file system. Windows 2000 introduces a  function to create hard links, but only for files, not directories. The  function can remove them.

To create a hard link on Windows, end-users can use:
 * The  utility (introduced in Windows 2000)
 * The  internal command of Windows Command Prompt (introduced in Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008)
 * The  cmdlet of PowerShell

To interrogate a file for its hard links, end-users can use:
 * The  utility
 * The  and   cmdlets of PowerShell. These cmdlets represent each file with an object; PowerShell adds a read-only LinkType property to each of them. This property contains the " " [sic] string if the associated file has multiple hard links.

The Windows Component Store uses hard links to keep track of different versions of components stored on the hard disk drive.

On Unix-like systems, the link system call can create additional hard links to existing files. To create hard links, end-users can use:
 * The ln utility
 * The link utility
 * The  cmdlet of PowerShell

To interrogate a file for its hard links, end-users can use:
 * The  command
 * The  command
 * The  and   cmdlets of PowerShell (see above)

Unix-like emulation or compatibility software running on Microsoft Windows, such as Cygwin and Subsystem for UNIX-based Applications, allow the use of POSIX interfaces.

OpenVMS supports hard links on the ODS-5 file system. Unlike Unix, VMS can create hard links to directories.

title: Hard link


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She people

The She people (She Chinese: ; Cantonese:, Fuzhou: ) are an ethnic group in China. They form one of the 56 ethnic groups officially recognized by the People's Republic of China.

The She are the largest ethnic minority in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi Provinces. They are also present in the provinces of Anhui and Guangdong. Some descendants of the She also exist amongst the Hakka minority in Taiwan.

Languages
Today, over 400,000 She people of Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi provinces speak She Chinese, an unclassified Chinese variety that has been heavily influenced by Hakka Chinese.

There are approximately 1,200 She people in Guangdong province who speak a Hmong–Mien language called She, also called Ho Ne meaning "mountain people". Some said they were descendants of Dongyi, Nanman or Yue peoples.

She Chinese should not be confused with , also known as Ho Ne, which is a Hmong-Mien language spoken in east-central Guangdong. She and Sheyu speakers have separate histories and identities, although both are officially classified by the Chinese government as She people. The Dongjia of Majiang County, Guizhou are also officially classified as She people, but speak a Western Hmongic language closely related to Chong'anjiang Miao.

History
The She people are some of the earliest known settlers of Guangdong; they are thought to have originally settled along the shallow shore for easier fishing access during the Neolithic era. Eventually, after an influx of Yuet people moved south during the Warring States period, serious competition between the two peoples for resources developed.

From the time of the Qin dynasty on, waves of migrants from northern China have had a serious impact on the She people. Because they possessed superior tools and technology, these migrants were able to displace the She and occupy the better land for farming. As a result of this, some of the She were forced to relocate into the hilly areas of the Jiangxi and Fujian provinces.

Following this relocation, the She people became hillside farmers. Their methods of farming included burning grasses on the slope, casting rice seeds on those embers and then harvesting the produce following the growth season. Some of the She people also participated in the production and trade of salt, obtained from the evaporation of local pools of salt water.

Many conflicts took place between the Han Chinese and She peoples. For example, in one incident, She salt producers on Lantau Island in Hong Kong attacked the city of Canton in a revolt during the Song dynasty.

During the Ming-Qing dynasties they moved into and settled Zhejiang's southern region and mountain districts in the Lower Yangtze region, after they left their homeland in Northern Fujian. It is theorized that the She were pushed out of their land by the Hakka, which caused them to move into Zhejiang.

Hangzhou

 * Eshan She Ethnic Township (莪山畲族乡) in Tonglu County

Quzhou

 * Muchen She Ethnic Township (沐尘畲族乡) in Longyou County

Jinhua

 * Shuiting She Ethnic Township (水亭畲族乡) in Lanxi City
 * Liucheng She Ethnic Town (柳城畲族镇) in Wuyi County

Wenzhou

 * Qingjie She Ethnic Township (青街畲族乡) in Pingyang County
 * Xikeng She Ethnic Town (西坑畲族镇) in Wencheng County
 * Zhoushan She Ethnic Township (周山畲族乡) in Wencheng County
 * Fengyang She Ethnic Township (凤阳畲族乡) in Cangnan County
 * Dailing She Ethnic Township (岱岭畲族乡) in Cangnan County
 * Siqian She Ethnic Town (司前畲族镇) in Taishun County
 * Zhuli She Ethnic Township (竹里畲族乡) in Taishun County

Lishui

 * Jingning She Autonomous County (景宁畲族自治县)
 * Laozhu She Ethnic Town (老竹畲族镇) in Liandu District
 * Lixin She Ethnic Township (丽新畲族乡) in Liandu District
 * Wuxi She Ethnic Township (雾溪畲族乡) in Yunhe County
 * Anxi She Ethnic Township (安溪畲族乡) in Yunhe County
 * Zhuyang She Ethnic Township (竹垟畲族乡) in Longquan City
 * Sanren She Ethnic Township (三仁畲族乡) in Suichang County
 * Banqiao She Ethnic Township (板桥畲族乡) in Songyang County

Xuancheng

 * Yunti She Ethnic Township (云梯畲族乡) in Ningguo City

Fuzhou

 * Xiaocang She Ethnic Township (小沧畲族乡) in Lianjiang County
 * Huoko She Ethnic Township (霍口畲族乡) in Luoyuan County

Ningde

 * Muyun She Ethnic Township (穆云畲族乡) in Fu'an City
 * Kangcuo She Ethnic Township (康厝畲族乡) in Fu'an City
 * Banzhong She Ethnic Township (坂中畲族乡) in Fu'an City
 * Xiamen She Ethnic Township (硖门畲族乡) in Fuding City
 * Yantian She Ethnic Township (盐田畲族乡) in Xiapu County
 * Shuimen She Ethnic Township (水门畲族乡) in Xiapu County
 * Chongru She Ethnic Township (崇儒畲族乡) in Xiapu County

Zhangzhou

 * Longjiao She Ethnic Township (隆教畲族乡) in Longhai City
 * Huxi She Ethnic Township (湖西畲族乡) in Zhangpu County
 * Chiling She Ethnic Township (赤岭畲族乡) in Zhangpu County

Nanping
ShunChang County

Quanzhou
Dehua County

Longyan

 * Gongzhuang She Ethnic Township (宫庄畲族乡) in Shanghang County
 * Lufeng She Ethnic Township (庐丰畲族乡) in Shanghang County

Shangrao

 * Taiyuan She Ethnic Township (太源畲族乡) in Yanshan County
 * Huangbi She Ethnic Township (篁碧畲族乡) in Yanshan County

Yingtan

 * Zhangping She Ethnic Township (樟坪畲族乡) in Guixi City

Fuzhou

 * Jinzhu She Ethnic Township (金竹畲族乡) in Le'an County

Ganzhou

 * Chitu She Ethnic Township (赤土畲族乡) in Nankang City

Ji'an

 * Donggu She Ethnic Township (东固畲族乡) in Qingyuan District
 * Longgang She Ethnic Township (龙冈畲族乡) in Yongfeng County
 * Jinping Ethnic Township (金坪民族乡) in Xiajiang County

Guangzhou

 * Zengcheng District

Heyuan

 * Zhangxi She Ethnic Township (漳溪畲族乡) in Dongyuan County

Distribution of She people in China
The roughly 45,000 She living in Guizhou Province form a separate subgroup, the Dongjia, who differ notably in culture from the She in other areas.

Provincial level
In a 2000 census, 709,592 She have been counted in China.
 * Distribution of She people in China

District level

 * Distribution of She people by district (as of 2000)

Only values of 0.5% and greater have been considered.

Notes and references

 * www.zgshezu.com/ {畲族网工作室}

title: She people


text:
User:Mohanr

Mohan Ravichandran

Age : 22

Occupation: Mathematician

Hobbies : Literature, The Medieval world(mainly the near east) and armchair anthorpology and social philosophy.

Worked On:

Chennai

Mutazilite

Quarantine

Chicle

Antonio López de Santa Anna

The Moon Is a Harsh Mistress

title: User:Mohanr


text:
Plestiodon gilberti

Plestiodon gilberti, commonly known as Gilbert's skink, is a species of heavy-bodied medium-sized lizard in the family Scincidae. The species is endemic to the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, and grows to about 7 to 12 cm in total length (including tail).

Taxonomy and etymology
Plestiodon gilberti was first described by Van Denburgh in 1896. It was named in honor of Van Denburgh's teacher, American ichthyologist Dr. Charles H. Gilbert (1859–1928), who at the time was a professor of zoology at Stanford University.

Together with the western skink (P. skiltonianus), the San Lucan skink (P. lagunensis), and the four-lined Asiatic skink (P. quadrilineatus), Gilbert's skink belongs to the so-called "skiltonianus group". The exact taxonomy within this group is being questioned and may need revision following DNA analysis research.

Subspecies
There are five subspecies of Plestiodon gilberti, including the nominotypical subspecies.
 * Plestiodon gilberti arizonensis (Lowe & Shannon, 1954) – Arizona skink
 * Plestiodon gilberti gilberti (Van Denburgh, 1896) – greater brown skink
 * Plestiodon gilberti placerensis (Rodgers, 1944) – northern brown skink
 * Plestiodon gilberti cancellosus (Rodgers & Fitch, 1947) – variegated skink
 * Plestiodon gilberti rubricaudatus (Taylor, 1935) – western red-tailed skink

Nota bene: A trinomial authority in parentheses indicates that the subspecies was originally described in a genus other than Plestiodon.

The subspecies P. g. placerensis is named after Placer County, California, where it occurs.

Geographic range
Gilbert's skink occurs mainly in California. It is found in the northern San Joaquin Valley, in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada from Butte County southward, and along the inner flanks of the Coast Ranges from San Francisco Bay to the Mexican border and into northern Baja California. It is also found in the mountains of southern California, and at scattered mountain localities in the eastern desert from Mono County to San Bernardino County. Isolated populations also occur in western Arizona as well as in southern Nevada.

Habitat
Gilbert's skink occurs in habitats ranging from sea level to elevations of about 2200 m. Found in a wide variety of habitats, this lizard is commonest in early successional stages or open areas within habitats in which it occurs, which range from grassland to open chaparral or open pine forests. Heavy brush and densely forested areas are generally avoided.

Description

Gilbert's skink is a heavy-bodied lizard with small legs. Adults are uniformly colored in green, grey, olive or brown. Juveniles have light stripes on the sides and the back enclosing a broad black or brown stripe. This dark stripe stops near base of a waxy-pink tail. The striping fades with growth and maturation.

Behavior
A robust skink, P. gilberti is seldom seen in the open. It forages through leaf litter and dense vegetation, occasionally digging through loose soil. It is a good burrower and often constructs its own shelter by burrowing under surface objects such as rocks or rotting logs.

Reproduction
The reproductive season for P. gilberti varies geographically and from year to year depending on local conditions. Little is known about the timing of reproduction, but it is probably similar to the Western Skink. Adult females construct nest chambers in loose moist soil several centimeters deep, especially under flat stones. Clutch size varies from 3 to 9 eggs.

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Talk:Plestiodon gilberti

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This article uses text from the two public domain web pages given as external links. Lupo 11:46, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

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Beerenburg

Beerenburg (West Frisian: Bearenburch) is a Dutch drink, made by adding herbs to jenever, with about 30% alcohol.

The original Beerenburg was made in the early 18th century by the Amsterdam spice merchant Hendrik Beerenburg, to whom it owes its name. Beerenburg opened his own shop at the Stromarkt 6 in Amsterdam in 1724, a location which to date shows on its roof a bear ('beer') crawling out of a fortress ('burcht'). Beerenburg kept his recipe secret but soon local varieties emerged, each with its own recipe. These were, however, not allowed to use the name "Beerenburg", which is why there are variations on the spelling, such as Berenburg and Berenburger.

Despite the Amsterdam (North Holland) origin of Beerenburg, the drink became most popular in the northern provinces Friesland, Groningen and Drenthe. It is related to the Italian amaro, another type of digestive bitters.

In the European Union, Beerenburg is classified as a spirit drink.

Brands
Some famous brands of Beerenburg are: Boomsma (Leeuwarden), Bokma, Sonnema (Dokkum), Weduwe Joustra (Sneek), Plantinga (Bolsward), all from Friesland, and Hooghoudt Kalmoes, from Groningen.

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User talk:DMaclKnapp

Hello there David, welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay. If you ever need editing help visit How does one edit a page or how to format them visit our manual of style. Experiment at Sandbox. If you need pointers on how we title pages visit Naming conventions. If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump.

OK, so much for the standard new user greeting. I am looking forward to the contributions of Thailand you promised - quite a lot of the Thailand stuff we now have was written by me, but they need someone to check it, to enlarge it, or to add new topics I haven't found the time or mood or knowledge to add yet. One page which might be of special interest for you is the List of Thailand-related topics - with that one we can avoid to recreate pages several times with different romanized spellings, as well as keep track of what is changing. It'd be nice if you would add new pages you create or find to that list. If you have any questions you can always ask me of course. andy 11:52, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)^^^

^^^ Hi David,

I just came across Wikipedia and have found it on the whole balanced in presentation. Unfortunately, I found the entry on anti-semitism http://www.fact-index.com/a/an/anti_semitism_1.html misleading and more harm than help. I have checked the procedure for criticizing articles, and found the talk page and your discussion, and as yours was the only email I could find, I'm turning to you for assistance.

I've written up a few criticisms (use of 19th c term for the age-old problem of anti-Jewish sentiment, no mention of the REAL sources of anti-Jewish sentiment, i.e., the racist and anti-Christian elements of the Talmud and the role of Jews in their host countries) if you are interested.

This unbalanced presentation of a very delicate issue feeds a dangerous misunderstanding of the role of Jews in their host societies at a time when the world is descending rapidly into world war prompted in the view of many authorities (including the likes of Finkelstein and Chomsky) by the actions of Israel.

It is telling that in other articles dealing with Jewish matters (Schneerson, anti-Zionism) the entries are qualified with "The neutrality of this article is disputed." Curiously the entry on anti-semitism is BOTH protected and free of this qualification, though I see there is at least some discussion going on the talk page. I'm not interested in engaging in online polemics, and I understand this issue is perhaps the most explosive in Wikipedia, but I see no reason why 'the other side' should not be fairly presented, even if the pro-Jewish POV gets the final word. Can you suggest how I could proceed? Thanks.

Eric Walberg eric@albatros.uz

A bowl of strawberries for you!
{| style="background-color: #fdffe7; border: 1px solid #fceb92;"
 * style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 5px;" | Erdbeerteller01.jpg
 * style="vertical-align: middle; padding: 3px;" | Thank you for your great contributions in many topics. Do you mind helping us on this page as well? Thanks in advance :) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_cuisine Chutinonp

title: User talk:DMaclKnapp


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Jaguar E-Type

The Jaguar E-Type, or the Jaguar XK-E for the North American market, is a British front mid-engined sports car that was manufactured by Jaguar Cars Ltd from 1961 to 1974. Its combination of exceptional aesthetics, advanced technologies, high performance, and competitive pricing established the model as an icon of the motoring world. The E-Type's claimed 150 mph top speed, sub-7-second 0 to 60 mph (97 km/h) acceleration, largely unitary body construction, front and rear independent suspension with disc brakes, mounted inboard at the rear, and rack-and-pinion steering, distinguished the car and spurred industry-wide changes.

The E-Type was based on Jaguar's D-Type racing car, which had won the 24 Hours of Le Mans for three consecutive years beginning in 1955.

The E-Type employed what was, for the early 1960s, a novel design principle, with a front subframe carrying the engine, front suspension and front bodywork bolted directly to the body tub. No ladder frame chassis, as was common at the time, was needed and as such the first cars weighed only 1315 kg.

It is rumored that, on its debut on 15 March 1961, Enzo Ferrari called it "the most beautiful car ever made", but this statement is not fully confirmed. In 2004, Sports Car International magazine placed the E-Type at number one on their list of Top Sports Cars of the 1960s. In March 2008, the Jaguar E-Type ranked first in The Daily Telegraph's online list of the world's "100 most beautiful cars" of all time.

Overview

The E-Type was introduced as a rear-wheel drive grand tourer in two-seater coupé form (FHC or Fixed Head Coupé) and as a two-seater convertible (OTS or Open Two Seater). A "2+2" four-seater version of the coupé, with a lengthened wheelbase, was released in 1966.

Later model updates of the E-Type were officially designated "Series 2" and "Series 3", and over time the earlier cars have come to be referred to as "Series 1." As with other partly hand made cars of the time, changes were incremental and ongoing, which has led to confusion over exactly what a Series 1 car is. This is of more than academic interest, as Series 1 E-Types—and particularly Series 1 roadsters—often have values in excess of Series 2 and 3 models.

The Series 1 cars essentially fall into two categories: Those made between 1961 and 1964, which had 3.8-litre engines and (on all but the very last cars) partial synchromesh transmissions; and those made between 1965 and 1967, which increased engine size and torque by around 10% to 4.2 litres, and also provided new reclining seats, an alternator in place of the dynamo, an electrical system switched to negative earth, a more reliable brake servo, and other modern amenities. Styling was unchanged. As a result, the 4.2-litre Type 1 generally became the most valuable form of the car. However, as of the end of 2014, the most expensive regular production Jaguar E-Types sold at auction included a 4.2-litre Series 1 roadster, with matching numbers, original paint and interior, under 80000 mi since new, and a history of being in the original buyer's family for 45 years, for $467,000 in 2013, and a 3.8-litre 1961 "flat floor" Series 1, for $528,000 in 2014. Special run racing lightweights go for far more still. For example, a 1963 E-type Lightweight Competition advertised as very original and with much patina (wearing the "factory installed interior and bodywork showing the patina of decades of use," although it was re-painted and has a non-matching numbers - albeit factory provided - engine), one of just twelve that were built, sold for $7,370,000 at the 2017 Scottsdale, Arizona auctions.

Being a British-made car of the 1960s, there are some rather rare sub-types of Series 1 E-Types, particularly at the beginning and end of the Series 1 production. For example, the first 500 Series 1 cars had flat floors and external bonnet latches. At the close of the Series 1 production run, there were a small number of cars produced that are identical in every respect to other Series 1 units (including triple SU carbs, button actuated starter, toggle switches, etc.), except that the headlight covers were removed for better illumination. It is not known exactly how many of these Series 1 cars (sometimes referred to as for convenience sake as "Series 1.25," but per Jaguar, Series 1) were produced, but given that 1,508 Series 1 convertibles were produced worldwide for 1967, combined with the fact that these examples were made in just the last several months of Series 1 production, means that these, like the flat floor examples that began the Series 1 production run, are the lowest volume Series 1 variant, save of course for the special lightweights.

Including both left and right hand drive examples, a total of 7,828 3.8-litre Series 1 open two seaters (OTS) were built, with 6,749 of the later 4.2-litre Series 1 OTS's having been manufactured.

While the 1968 Series 1.5 cars maintained the essential design of the Series 1 models, US emission regulations saw its triple SU carburettors replaced there with twin Zenith-Stromberg units, resulting in a drop in claimed power from 265 to 246 hp and torque from 283 to 263 lbft.

Of the "Series 1" cars, Jaguar manufactured some limited-edition variants, inspired by motor racing:

 * The "'Lightweight' E-Type" initiated and designed for competition was intended as a racing follow-up to the D-Type. Jaguar planned to produce 18 units but ultimately only a dozen were reportedly built. Of those, two have been converted to low drag form and two others are known to have been crashed and deemed to be beyond repair, although one has now been rebuilt. These are exceedingly rare and sought after by collectors. *The "Low Drag Coupé" was a one-off technical exercise which was ultimately sold to a Jaguar racing driver. It is presently believed to be part of the private collection of the current Viscount Cowdray. In 2014, Jaguar announced its intention to build the remaining six lightweights, at a cost of approximately £1 million each.

Safety and emissions regulations in the North American market resulted in Series 2 and 3 E-Types being fitted with a larger grille, wider wheel arches, and bigger bumpers. And they were also fitted with a bigger radiator and cooling system because the Series 1 were notorious for overheating

The New York City Museum of Modern Art recognised the significance of the E-Type's design in 1996 by adding a blue roadster to its permanent design collection, one of only six automobiles to receive the distinction. The MoMA XKE is a Series 1 OTS.

E1A (1957)
After the company's success at the Le Mans 24 hr through the 1950s, Jaguar's racing department was given the brief to use D-Type style construction to build a road-going sports car, replacing the XK150.

The first prototype (E1A), featured a monocoque design designed in 1957 by William Heynes Technical Director and Chief Engineer, Jaguar's fully independent rear suspension and the "XK" engine. The car was used solely for factory testing and was never formally released to the public. The car was eventually scrapped by the factory.

E2A (1960)
Jaguar's second E-Type concept was E2A which, unlike the E1A, was constructed from a steel chassis with an aluminium body. This car was completed as a racing car as it was thought by Jaguar at the time it would provide a better testing ground. E2A used a 3-litre version of the XK engine with a Lucas fuel injection system.

After retiring from the Le Mans 24 hr the car was shipped to America to be used for racing by Jaguar privateer Briggs Cunningham. In 1961, the car returned to Jaguar in England to be used as a test vehicle. Ownership of E2A passed in 1970 to Roger Woodley (Jaguar's customer competition car manager) who took possession on the basis the car not be used for racing. E2A had been possibly scheduled to be scrapped. Roger's wife owned E2A until 2008 when it was offered for sale at Bonham's Quail Auction, where it sold for US$4,957,000.

E-Type Concept Zero (2017)
Jaguar unveiled a modern revival of the 1968 E-Type series 1.5 roadster with an all-electric, zero-emission powertrain in September 2017. The vehicle has a 40kWh battery-powered electric motor and can accelerate to 60mph in 5.5 seconds. On a full charge, the vehicle has a range of 168 mi. The battery pack is designed to fit in the space occupied by the original six-cylinder motor without any modifications, and will fit in any model Jaguar using the same motor. The electric motor replaces the original transmission.

In August 2018, Jaguar confirmed it will offer all-electric E-Types for sale starting in summer 2020.. However, this plan was halted in 2019.

Series 1 (1961–1968)
The Series 1 was introduced, initially for export only, in March 1961. The domestic market launch came four months later in July 1961. The cars at this time used the triple SU carburetted 3.8-litre six-cylinder Jaguar XK engine from the XK150S. Earlier built cars utilised external bonnet latches which required a tool to open and had a flat floor design. These cars are rare and more valuable. After that, the floors were dished to provide more leg room and the twin bonnet latches moved to inside the car. The 3.8-litre engine was increased to 4235 cc in October 1964.

The 4.2-litre engine produced the same power as the 3.8-litre (265 bhp) and same top speed (150 mph), but increased torque 18% from 240 to 283 lbft. Acceleration remained pretty much the same and 0 to 60 mph times were around 6.4 seconds for both engines, but maximum power was now reached at 5,400 rpm instead of 5,500 rpm on the 3.8-litre. That all meant better throttle response for drivers that did not want to shift down gears. The 4.2-litre's block was completely redesigned, made longer to accommodate 5 mm larger bores, and the crankshaft modified to use newer bearings. Other engine upgrades included a new alternator/generator and an electric cooling fan for the radiator.

Autocar road tested a UK spec E-Type 4.2 fixed head coupé in May 1965. The maximum speed was 153 mph, the 0 - 60 mph time was 7.6 seconds and the 1/4 mi from a standing start took 15.1 seconds. They summarised it as "In its 4.2 guise the E-Type is a fast car (the fastest we have ever tested) and offers just about the easiest way to travel quickly by road.".

Motor magazine road tested a UK spec E-Type 4.2 fixed head coupé in Oct 1964. The maximum speed was 150 mph, the 0-60 mph time was 7 seconds and the 1/4 mi time was 14.9 seconds. They summarised it as "The new 4.2 supersedes the early 3.8 as the fastest car Motor has tested. The absurd ease which 100 mph can be exceeded in a 1/4 mi never failed to astonish. 3000 mi of testing confirms that this is still one of the world's outstanding cars".

All E-Types featured independent coil spring rear suspension designed and developed by R J Knight with torsion bar front ends, and four wheel disc brakes, in-board at the rear, all were power-assisted. The Coventry engineers spared nothing with regards to high automotive technology in braking. Like several British car builders of the middle and late 1950s, the four-wheel disc brakes were also used in that era by Austin-Healey and MG, putting the British far ahead of Ferrari, Maserati, Alfa Romeo, Porsche, and Mercedes-Benz. Even Lanchester tried an abortive attempt to use copper disc brakes in 1902. Jaguar was one of the first vehicle manufacturers to equip production cars with 4 wheel disc brakes as standard from the XK150 in 1958. The Series 1 (except for late 1967 models) can be recognised by glass-covered headlights (up to 1967), small "mouth" opening at the front, signal lights and tail-lights above bumpers and exhaust tips under the number plate in the rear.

3.8-litre cars have leather-upholstered bucket seats, an aluminium-trimmed centre instrument panel and console (changed to vinyl and leather in 1963), and a Moss four-speed gearbox that lacks synchromesh for first gear ("Moss box") on all except very last cars. 4.2-litre cars have more comfortable seats, improved brakes and electrical systems, and, obviously, an all-synchromesh Jaguar designed four-speed gearbox. 4.2-litre cars also have a badge on the boot proclaiming "Jaguar 4.2 Litre E-Type" (3.8 cars have a simple "Jaguar" badge). Optional extras included chrome spoked wheels and a detachable hard top for the OTS. When leaving the factory the car was originally fitted with Dunlop 6.40 × 15-inch RS5 tyres on 15 × 5K wire wheels (with the rear fitting 15 × 5K½ wheels supplied with 6.50 X15 Dunlop Racing R5 tyres in mind of competition). Later Series One cars were fitted with Dunlop 185 - 15 SP41 or 185 VR 15 Pirelli Cinturato as radial ply tyres.

A 2+2 version of the fastback coupé was added in 1966. The 2+2 offered the option of an automatic transmission. The body is 9 in longer and the roof angles are different. The roadster and the non 2+2 FHC (Fixed Head Coupé) remained as two-seaters.

Less widely known, right at the end of Series 1 production, but prior to the transitional "Series 1½" referred to below, a small number of Series 1 cars were produced with open headlights. These Series 1 cars had their headlights modified by removing the covers and altering the scoops they sit in, but these Series 1 headlights differ in several respects from those later used in the Series 1½ (or 1.5), the main being they are shorter at 143 mm from the Series 1½ at 160 mm. Production dates on these machines vary but in right-hand drive form production has been verified as late as July 1968. They are not "rare" in the sense of the build of the twelve lightweights, but they are certainly uncommon; they were not produced until January 1967 and given the foregoing information that they were produced as late as July 1968, it appears that there must have been an overlap with the Series 1.5 production, which began in August 1967 as model year 1968 models. These calendar year/model year Series 1 E-Types are identical to other 4.2-litre Series 1 examples in every respect except for the open headlights; all other component areas, including the exterior, the interior, and the engine compartment are the same, with the same three SU carburettors, polished aluminium cam covers, centre dash toggle switches, etc.

Following the Series 1 there was a transitional series of cars built in 1967–68 as model year 1968 cars, unofficially called "Series 1½." Due to American pressure the new features were not just open headlights, but also different switches (black rocker switches as opposed to the Series 1 toggle switches), de-tuning for emissions (using two Zenith-Stromberg carburettors instead of the original three SUs) for US models, ribbed cam covers painted black except for the top brushed aluminium ribbing, bonnet frames on the OTS that have two bows, and other changes. Series 1½ cars also have twin cooling fans and adjustable seat backs. The biggest change between 1961 and 1967 Series 1 E-Types and the 1968 Series 1.5 was the reduction in the number of carburettors from 3 to just 2 (North America), resulting in a loss in horsepower.

Series 2 features were gradually introduced into the Series 1, creating the unofficial Series 1½ cars, but always with the Series 1 body style. A United States federal safety law affecting 1968 model year cars sold in the US was the reason for the lack of headlight covers and change in dash switch design in the "Series 1.5" of 1968. An often overlooked change, one that is often "modified back" to the older style, is the wheel knock-off "nut." US safety law for 1968 models also forbade the winged-spinner knockoff, and any 1968 model year sold in the US (or earlier German delivery cars) should have a hexagonal knockoff nut, to be hammered on and off with the assistance of a special "socket" included with the car from the factory. This hexagonal nut carried on into the later Series 2 and 3. The engine configuration of the US Series 1.5s was the same as is found in the Series 2.

An open 3.8-litre car, actually the first such production car to be completed, was tested by the British magazine  Motor in 1961 and had a top speed of 149.1 mph and could accelerate from 0 to 60 mph in 7.1 seconds. A fuel consumption of 21.3 mpgimp was recorded. The test car cost £2,097 including taxes.

The cars submitted for road test by the motoring journals of the time (1961) such as Motor, Autocar and Autosport magazines were prepared by the Jaguar works. This work entailed engine balancing and subtle tuning work such as gas-flowing checking the cylinder heads but otherwise production built engines.

Both of the well-known 1961 road test cars: the E-Type coupé Reg. No. 9600 HP and E-Type Convertible Reg. No. 77 RW, were fitted with Dunlop Racing Tyres on test, which had a larger rolling diameter and lower drag coefficient. This goes some way to explaining the 150 mi/h maximum speeds that were obtained under ideal test conditions. The maximum safe rev limit for standard 6-cylinder 3.8-litre E-Type engines is 5,500 rpm. The later 4.2-Litre units had a red marking on the rev counter from just 5,000 rpm. Both 3.8 test cars may have approached 6,000 rpm in top gear when on road test, depending on final drive ratio.

Production numbers from Robson:
 * 15,490 3.8s
 * 17,320 4.2s
 * 10,930 2+2s

Production numbers:

Series 2 (1968–1971)
The Series 2 introduced a number of design changes, largely due to U.S. National Highway Traffic and Safety Administration mandates. The most distinctive exterior feature is the absence of the glass headlight covers, which affected several other imported cars, such as the Citroën DS, as well. Unlike other cars, this step was applied worldwide for the E-Type.

Other hallmarks of Series 2 cars are a wrap-around rear bumper, larger front indicators and tail lights re-positioned below the bumpers, and an enlarged grille and twin electric fans to aid cooling.

Additional U.S.-inspired changes included a steering lock which moved the ignition switch to the steering column, replacing the dashboard mounted ignition and push button starter, the symmetrical array of metal toggle switches replaced with plastic rockers, and a collapsible steering column to absorb impact in the event of an accident. New seats allowed the fitment of head restraints, as required by U.S. law beginning in 1969.

The engine is easily identified visually by the change from smooth polished cam covers to a more industrial "ribbed" appearance. It was de-tuned in the US with twin two-barrel Strombergs replacing three SUs. Combined with larger valve clearances horsepower was reduced from 265 to 246 and torque from 283 to 263.

Air conditioning and power steering were available as factory options.

Production according to Robson is 13,490 of all types.

Series 2 production numbers:

Official delivery numbers by market and year are listed in Porter but no summary totals are given.

Series 3 (1971–1974)
The E-Type Series 3 was introduced in 1971, with a new 5.3 L Jaguar V12 engine, uprated brakes and standard power steering. An automatic transmission, wire wheels and air conditioning were available options. The V12 was equipped with four Zenith carburettors, and as introduced produced a claimed 203 kW, more torque, and a 0–60 mph acceleration of less than seven seconds. The short wheelbase FHC body style was discontinued, with the Series 3 available only as a convertible and 2+2 coupé. Fifty Series 3 E-Types were constructed as end of model commemorative cars. They featured black exteriors, cinnamon upholstery and commemorative plaques on the glove box (apart from a single green car that Jaguar painted for a long-standing customer). The final production E-Type OTS Roadster was built in June 1974.

The new longer wheelbase offered significantly more room in all directions. The Series 3 is easily identifiable by the large cross-slatted front grille, flared wheel arches, wider tyres, four exhaust tips and a badge on the rear that proclaims it to be a V12. The first published road test of the series 3 was in Jaguar Driver, the club magazine of the Jaguar Drivers' Club, the only owners club to be officially sanctioned by Sir William Lyons and Jaguar themselves. The road test of a car provided by Jaguar was published ahead of all the national and international magazines.

Cars for the US market were fitted with large projecting rubber bumper over-riders (in 1973 these were on front, in 1974 both front and rear) to meet local 5 mph impact regulations, but those on European models were considerably smaller. US models also have side indicator repeats on the front wings. There were also a very limited number of six-cylinder Series 3 E-Types built. These were featured in the initial sales procedure but the lack of demand stopped their production. The V12 Open Two Seater and V12 2+2 were factory fitted with Dunlop E70VR − 15-inch tyres on 15 × 6K wire or solid wheels.

Robson lists production at 15,290.

Series 3 production numbers:

Motorsport
Two race version of E-Type were made as test beds, the low drag coupé and lightweight E-Type, both of which were raced:

Low Drag Coupé (1962)
Shortly after the introduction of the E-Type, Jaguar wanted to investigate the possibility of building a car more in the spirit of the D-Type racer from which elements of the E-Type's styling and design were derived. One car was built to test the concept designed as a coupé. Unlike the steel production E-Types, the LDC used lightweight aluminium. Malcolm Sayer retained the original tub with lighter outer panels riveted and glued to it. The front steel sub frame remained intact, the windshield was given a more pronounced slope, and the rear hatch was welded shut. Rear brake cooling ducts appeared next to the rear windows, and the interior trim was discarded, with only insulation around the transmission tunnel. With the exception of the windscreen, all cockpit glass was Perspex. A tuned version of Jaguar's 3.8-litre engine with a wide-angle cylinder head design tested on the D-Type racers was used.

The only test bed car was completed in summer of 1962 but was sold a year later to Jaguar racing driver Dick Protheroe. Since then it has passed through the hands of several collectors on both sides of the Atlantic and is now believed to reside in the private collection of the current Viscount Cowdray.

Peter Lindner, the Jaguar distributor in Germany, had his Lightweight modified by competition department to include the low drag roof and rear panels as part of an effort to win the GT class at Le Mans. Lindner's car was more than a match for the Ferrari 250 GTO but mechanical problems forced it out of the race. Lindner was later killed in a racing accident that demolished his car, which has recently been restored.

Jaguar waited too long before committing to a racing program in earnest and what could have been a world champion in 1962 was not competitive by 1965.

Lightweight E-Type (1963–1964, 2014–present)

Twelve lightweight cars plus two spare bodies were made by Jaguar. In some ways, this was an evolution of the low drag coupé. It made extensive use of aluminium alloy metal, in the body panels and other components. However, with at least one exception, it remained an open-top car in the spirit of the D-Type to which this car is a more direct successor than the production E-Type which is more of a GT than a sports car. The cars used an aluminium block tuned version of the production 3.8-litre Jaguar engine with 300 bhp output rather than the 265 bhp produced by the "ordinary" version. Factory-built lightweights were homologated by Jaguar with three 45DCOE Weber carburettors in addition to a Lucas mechanical fuel injection system. Early cars were fitted with a close-ratio version of the four speed E-Type gearbox, with some later cars being fitted with a ZF five speed gearbox. The cars were entered in various races but, unlike the C-Type and D-Type racing cars, they did not win at Le Mans or Sebring but were reasonably successful in private hands and in smaller races.

One lightweight was modified by Jaguar competition department into a low drag coupé (the Lindner/Nöcker car). Another lightweight was modified into a unique low drag design (the Lumsden/Sargent car), by Dr Samir Klat of Imperial College. Along with the factory low drag coupe, this lightweight resided in the early 2000s in the private collection of the current Viscount Cowdray. Many were fitted with more powerful engines as developments occurred. William Towns also produced 2 special bodied V12s badged as the Guyson E12

On 14 May 2014, Jaguar's Heritage Business announced it would be building the six 'remaining' lightweights. The original run of lightweights was meant to be 18 vehicles; however only 12 were built. The new cars, using the unused chassis codes, were hand built to exactly the same specification as the originals. Availability was prioritised for established collectors of Jaguars, with a focus on those who have an interest in historic race cars. The prototype "Car Zero" was shown at Pebble Beach in August 2014.

Bob Jane won the 1963 Australian GT Championship at the wheel of a "lightweight" E-Type.

The Jaguar E-Type was very successful in SCCA Production sports car racing with Group 44 and Bob Tullius taking the B-Production championship with a Series-3 V12 racer in 1975. A few years later, Gran-Turismo Jaguar from Cleveland Ohio campaigned a 4.2-litre six-cylinder FHC racer in SCCA production series, and in 1980 won the National Championship in the SCCA C-Production Class, defeating a fully funded factory Nissan Z-car team with Paul Newman.

Commemoration
In 2013, the Jaguar E-Type featured on a "British Auto Legends" postage stamp issued by the Royal Mail.

title: Jaguar E-Type


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Talk:Florida sand skink

Untitled
This article uses text from the public domain U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service web page. Lupo 12:00, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Other sand skinks
There is another kind of sand skink (scincus scincus, also known as "sandfish") that is native to northern Africa. Unfortunately it isn't mentioned in Wikipedia, and a Google search revealed few English-language references.

Click here for a picture and some info. More...

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title: Talk:Florida sand skink


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Gdańsk County

Gdańsk County (powiat gdański) is a unit of territorial administration and local government (powiat) in Pomeranian Voivodeship, northern Poland. It came into being on January 1, 1999, as a result of the Polish local government reforms passed in 1998. It includes areas to the east and south of the city of Gdańsk, from which the county takes its name, although the city is not part of its territory. The county seat and only town in Gdańsk County is Pruszcz Gdański, which lies 12 km south of central Gdańsk.

The county covers an area of 793.17 km2. As of 2019 its total population is 117,452, out of which the population of Pruszcz Gdański is 31,135and the rural population is 86,317.

Gdańsk County on a map of the counties of Pomeranian Voivodeship

Gdańsk County is bordered by the city of Gdańsk to the north, Nowy Dwór Gdański County to the east, Malbork County to the south-east, Tczew County and Starogard County to the south, and Kościerzyna County and Kartuzy County to the west.

Administrative division
The county is subdivided into eight gminas (one urban and seven rural). These are listed in the following table, in descending order of population.

title: Gdańsk County


text:
Isabella of Austria

Isabella of Austria (Isabel; 18 July 1501 – 19 January 1526), also known as Elizabeth, was born an Archduchess of Austria and Infanta of Castile from the House of Habsburg, and subsequently became Queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, under the Kalmar Union, as the wife of King Christian II. She was the daughter of King Philip I and Queen Joanna of Castile and the sister of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. She ruled Denmark as regent in 1520.

Her upbringing, overseen by her aunt Archduchess Margaret, was marked by a comprehensive education in Mechelen under the guidance of notable humanists like Juan Luis Vives and Adrian of Utrecht. In 1514, she entered into a strategic marriage with Christian II of Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. However, the marriage encountered early challenges with diplomatic tensions arising from Christian II's existing relationship with Dyveke Sigbritsdatter, his Dutch mistress. Following Dyveke's death in 1517 the relations between Isabella and her husband significantly improved, and Isabella was entrusted with the position of regent in 1520 and political advisor to the king.

In 1523, her husband, King Christian II, was deposed. The political upheaval prompted the Danish royal family, including Isabella and her children, to seek refuge in various European states, such as England, Saxony and the Habsburg Netherlands. During this exile, Isabella strongly advocated for her husband's cause. In 1524, she participated in the Imperial Diet in Nürnberg, where she campaigned on behalf of King Christian II, seeking support for his restoration to the Danish throne.

Her travels through Germany, England, and the Netherlands contributed to her evolving religious sympathies for the Protestant movement. Isabella's death in 1526 prompted widespread mourning. She received both Protestant and Catholic communion, but the Habsburgs declared that she had died a fervent Catholic.

Childhood and marriage
Isabella was born on 18 July 1501 in Brussels as the third child of Philip the Handsome, ruler of the Habsburg Netherlands and Joanna the Mad, heiress to the Spanish kingdoms of Castile and Aragon. Her father was the son of the reigning Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I and his deceased consort Mary, Duchess of Burgundy, while her mother was the daughter of the Catholic Monarchs Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile, after whom she is named. She was baptized in Brussels by the Bishop of Cambrai, Henri de Berghes.

She had two older siblings, Eleanor and Charles, as well as three younger siblings Ferdinand, Mary and Catherine. Isabella and her siblings were considered the "noblest children" of her time. Her brothers became the most powerful men in Europe as Holy Roman Emperors. Her sisters became queens in Portugal and France, Bohemia and Hungary, and Portugal, respectively.

Upbringing at Mechelen
Following the early death of Isabella's father in September 1506, her mother's mental health began to deteriorate. Isabella, along with her brother, Charles, and her sisters, Eleanor and Mary, was put into the care of her paternal aunt, Archduchess Margaret, governor of the Habsburg Netherlands, while the two other siblings, Ferdinand and Catherine, remained in Castile. Eleanor, Isabella, and Mary were educated together at their aunt's court in Mechelen.

Margaret, a wise, staunch Catholic, and politically experienced woman, played a significant role in shaping Isabella's upbringing. Under her aunt's care, Isabella received a comprehensive education from the learned renaissance humanists of the time. Her upbringing at the opulent court in Mechelen afforded Isabella the finest education of her time, and among her notable tutors were Juan Luis Vives and the later Pope Adrian VI, who was associated with the pre-Reformation movement known as the "Brethren of the Common Life." The Brethren were viewed favourably by Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon for their emphasis on Christian devotion and self-sacrifice. Many members of this movement later aligned with the Protestant cause in its divergence from the authority of the papal church.

In her education, Isabella received instruction from Vives, covering Greek and Latin studies. The curriculum included a focus on the Gospels, St. Paul's Epistles, and select portions of the Old Testament.

Margaret acted as a maternal figure to her brother's children, and in October 1507, she informed her father, Emperor Maximilian I, who closely followed and actively participated in matters concerning his grandchildren, of Isabella and Maria contracting measles, with Eleonora showing symptoms. Due to the contagious nature of the disease and winter conditions, Margaret and Archduke Charles opted to stay in Brussels rather than returning to Mechelen as initially intended.

The household of the imperial children was headed by First Chamberlain, Charles de Croy-Chimay and Grand Mistress (stewardess) Anna de Beaumont, a Spanish-Navarrese noblewoman of French origin, who had been Juana’s former lady-in-waiting, arriving in the Low Countries with the duchess in 1498.

Matrimonial negotiations
Margaret heavily participated in the marriage negotiations of her nieces, including Isabella's. In 1509, Isabella's grandfather Emperor Maximilian proposed Henry of Navarre, son of John III, as a possible spouse, but the proposition was presumably dismissed by Margaret. By 1510, there were discussions about Isabel’s possible marriage to Charles II, Duke of Guelders, son of Adolf, Duke of Guelders. However, both Margaret and Maximilian harbored reservations about sending the young princess to Guelders, questioning the match's prestige. The Lord of Guelders held a lower rank as a duke, and their family's objective was to wed their daughters into royal houses.

Isabella's fortune, her succession rights, and her connections made her a valuable pawn in the royal marriage market. In 1513, Copenhagen hosted negotiations for the topic of the new King Christian II's marriage, leading to an agreement to pursue one of Philip the Beautiful's daughters. This alliance promised strategic advantages, creating kinship with the emperor and making King Christian the brother-in-law of Archduke Charles, a powerful figure in key Dutch cities. Furthermore, Habsburg-Austrian princesses were known for substantial dowries. King Christian enlisted the help of his uncle, Frederick III, Elector of Saxony, who, well-connected with the Emperor, inquired about suitable matches at the Imperial Court. In late October and early November, a national assembly in Viborg revisited the matrimonial issue, resolving to send an embassy to Emperor Maximilian for the formal proposal of Archduchess Isabella's hand. Bishop Gottschalk von Ahlefeldt, alongside Councilors Mogens Gjø and Albert Jepsen Ravensberg, was chosen to lead this envoy. The king of Denmark had first intended to marry Isabella's eldest sister Eleanor of Austria, but the Habsburgs considered Eleanor too valuable for the throne of Denmark, because as the eldest sister, there was a likelihood that her progeny may succeed. Therefore, Isabella was selected for the Danish king. The Emperor expressed approval for the potential alliance with Denmark, a sentiment that found favor in the Low Countries. This alliance was viewed as a strategic opportunity to enhance trade access to the Baltic for merchants from Bruges and Amsterdam. The envoyship reached the imperial court in Linz in early April, engaging in month-long negotiations culminating in the signing of a marriage contract on 29 April 1514. The substantial dowry amounted to 250,000 Rhenish gulden, approximately equal to 800 million DKK today (about 118 million USD), with contributions from Spain and the Burgundian territories. Princess Isabella was also assured an annual income of 25,000 Rhenish gulden.

On 11 July 1514, one week short of her 13th birthday, Isabella was married by proxy to King Christian II of Denmark with Emperor Maximilian I, her grandfather, standing in for the king. The Bishop of Cambrai, Jacob van Croÿ, presided over the wedding which was conducted at the Brussels Palace.

She remained in the Netherlands, but is said to have fallen in love with her spouse at the sight of his painting, and asked to be taken to Denmark. A year after the wedding, the Archbishop of Nidaros, Erik Valkendorf, was sent to escort her to Copenhagen. The Danish fleet arrived in Veere, Zeeland on 1 July 1515, and later than month, a tearful Isabella departed on 16 July 1515. The fleet encountered a violent tempest, that dispersed the Danish convoy along the shores of Jutland. The vessel carrying the Queen narrowly averted shipwreck, and upon safely reaching Helsingør in the start of August, she penned a poignant letter to the Margaret: "Madame, if I could choose for myself, I should be with you now; for to be parted from you is the most grievous thing in the world to me". Isabella and Christian had their initial encounter at Hvidøre, Christian II's summer residence, where he greeted her with an elaborate entourage of over 1000 individuals.

The marriage was ratified on 12 August 1515, when she was 14 years old.

Queen
Isabella was crowned Queen of Denmark and Norway, the same day of her matrimonial ratification, on 12 August 1515 at Copenhagen Castle by the Archbishop of Lund, Birger Gunnersen. She began using another version of her name, Elisabeth, but the relationship between her and her new family and Christian was quite cool during the first years of the marriage. The King's Dutch mistress, Dyveke Sigbritsdatter, had been with him since 1507, and he was not about to give her up for a teenager. Dyveke's mother, Sigbrit Willoms, was also influential at court, and Isabella was given less influence than both of them. This angered the Emperor, and caused some diplomatic strife between him and King Christian, but the matter was resolved when Dyveke died in 1517, and Isabella's relationship with her husband improved vastly over the next few years; her relationship with Sigbrit Willoms improved as well, and both women acted as political advisors to the king. From 1516, Anne Meinstrup was head lady-in-waiting of her court.

In 1520, Christian took the throne of Sweden, thereby making Isabella Queen of Sweden. After taking Stockholm, he asked the Swedish representatives to turn it and the regency of Sweden over to Isabella if he himself should die when his children were minors. She was to be the last Queen of Sweden who was also Queen of Denmark during the Kalmar union, but she in fact never visited Sweden; pregnant at the time of her spouse's accession to the throne of Sweden, she did not follow him there. Isabella served as the regent of Denmark during Christian's stay in Sweden. Her husband was deposed as king of Sweden the following year. King Christian imprisoned many Swedish noblewomen, related to rebellious Swedish nobles, at the infamous Blåtårn ("Blue Tower") of Copenhagen Castle, including Christina Gyllenstierna, Cecilia Månsdotter and Margareta Eriksdotter Vasa. Gustav I of Sweden used their purported harsh treatment in captivity in his propaganda against Christian II and claimed that the Danish monarch starved the women and children, who only survived by the mercy shown to them by the queen of Denmark, Isabella of Austria.

When King Christian was deposed in 1523 by disloyal noblemen supporting his uncle, Duke Frederick, the new king wanted to be on good terms with Isabella's family. He wrote her a personal letter in her native German, offering her a dowager queen's pension and permitting her to stay in Denmark under his protection while King Christian fled to the Low Countries. But Isabella replied in Latin "ubi rex meus, ibi regnum meum" ("where my king is, there is my kingdom").

Exile
Isabella left Denmark with her husband and their children after her husband was deposed in 1523 and travelled to the Netherlands. Isabella and Christian travelled around Germany in an attempt to gain help for Christian's restoration to the throne. Isabella made her own negotiations with her relatives, and also accompanied her husband on his travels.

The Danish royal family then journeyed to England. While in England, they had an audience with Henry VIII at the Royal Palace in Greenwich and were later accommodated at Hampton Court Palace. They visited Saxony in 1523 and Berlin in 1523–1524. In Berlin, Isabella became interested in the teachings of Luther, and felt sympathy for Protestantism, however she never converted officially. When she visited Nürnberg in 1524, she received communion in the Protestant way, which so enraged her birth family, the Habsburgs, that Christian decided that she should hide her Protestant views in the future, for political reasons.

In the spring of 1525, Isabella caught some kind of serious illness, which worsened after she travelled through a storm later that year, and lasted all summer. The former queen died at the castle of Zwijnaarde near Ghent aged twenty-four, on 19 January 1526. She received both Protestant and Catholic communion, but the Habsburgs declared that she had died a convinced Catholic. Her religious sympathies, and whether she was a Protestant or a Catholic after 1524, have been debated. At her deathbed, she gave the cause of her husband's restoration to her aunt, the regent of the Netherlands, Margaret of Austria. She was buried on 4 February 1526 at the Saint Peter's Abbey, Ghent.

Isabella's early death was mourned not only in the Low Countries but also in her husband's realms. Nationwide funeral services were held, and expressions of grief were widespread for the Princess known as "the mother of her people." Testimonies to her worth were abundant, including a letter from Henry VIII of England, who regarded her as a sister. Martin Luther also paid tribute to her in his treatise on Holy Women.

Her fifteenth generation great-granddaughter, Princess Isabella of Denmark, was named after her.

Literature

 * Bruden fra Gent (The Bride from Ghent) – a 2003 historic novel by Dorrit Willumsen about King Christian II, Dyveke and mother Sigbrit, and about the marriage in 1515 with the only 14-year-old Elisabeth.

title: Isabella of Austria