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Løgting

The Løgting (pronounced ; Lagtinget) is the unicameral parliament of the Faroe Islands, an autonomous territory within the Danish Realm.

The name literally means "Law Thing"—that is, a law assembly—and derives from Old Norse lǫgþing, which was a name given to ancient assemblies. A ting or þing has existed on the Faroe Islands for over a millennium and the Løgting was the highest authority on the islands in the Viking era. From 1274 to 1816 it functioned primarily as a judicial body, whereas the modern Løgting established in 1852 is a parliamentary assembly, which gained legislative power when home rule was introduced in 1948. Together with the Manx Tynwald and the Icelandic Alþing, the Løgting is one of the oldest surviving parliaments in the world, all three holding lineages to the old Norse assemblies of mainland Europe.

Today, the Faroe Islands comprise one constituency, and the number of MPs is fixed at 33. The first election with this new system was held on 19 January 2008, after the Election law was changed in late 2007, prior to which the membership of the Løgting varied from 27 to 32. The 7 constituencies had 27 seats and up to 5 supplementary seats. That Election Act came into force in 1978, and the eight general elections between 1978 and 2004 all resulted in 32 members.

The Løgting is elected for a period of four years. Election of the Løgting can take place before the end of an election period if the Løgting agrees on dissolving itself. The Løgmaður (Prime Minister) issues a proclamation of the forthcoming election and appoints the day of election, which must take place, at the earliest, six weeks after the proclamation.

The Viking Age
The Faroese ting or assembly was originally a so-called alþing, with both legislative and judicial authority. During this time, there was no executive authority in the country. The Faroese society was a family society (eitt ættarsamfelag), where the families saw to it that the judgments and resolutions of the Løgting were put into practice.

There is some evidence that the Faroes were already colonised as early as 650. The first inhabitants, who were of Celtic descent, were driven out by Norse landnamsmen in about 825. Faroese society in the Viking Age and the Middle Ages resembled the other Nordic populations in many ways. This was particularly true when it came to legislation. The most important body of law was the Gulatingslógin, an ancient Norwegian agricultural law which originated in the Gulating legislative area in Vestlandet in Norway. Originally, this law was preserved through oral tradition, but it was written down about the year 1100.

The earliest historical sources locate the Løgting on the Tinganes a peninsula, today known as the oldest neighbourhood in Tórshavn. In the Viking age, it was a tradition to hold the ting at a neutral and uninhabited place, in order to prevent anyone from having an advantage. There were no settlements on Tinganes at the time, and its central location in relation to the rest of the islands may have made it the most ideal location.

Unlike the Icelandic Althing, the Løgting's foundation is not historically documented; however, it is implied to be a well-established institution when it is mentioned for the first time in the Færeyinga saga as the Straumseyarþing ("Streymoy thing"), in which a mid-10th century legal dispute at the thing between chieftains Havgrímur and Einar Suðuroyingur, resulting in the exile of Eldjarn Kambhøttur, is recounted in detail.

This early Faroese ting was also described as the assembly of the "Faroes' best men" who were a free assembly of the wealthier farmers, and the Faroes constituted a kind of republic with a population of about 4,000 people and 60,000 sheep. The president of the ting was the Løgsøgumaður, who had no voting rights.

The Viking Age in the Faroes ended in 1035 when Tróndur í Gøtu died and Leivur Øssursson (the son-in-law of Sigmundur Brestisson) became liege lord under king Magnus I of Norway. Yet, the Faroes remained a kind of self-governing society for the next 150 years.

Norwegian rule
The status of the Faroes changed under king Magnus VI of Norway, who introduced the Norwegian Landslog (Land's Law) in 1274. By this time, The Faroese ting had become an assembly of representatives of the 6 local vártings, with only judicial authority. This was called lǫgþing in Old Norse, according to the High Courts of Norway. Its president, the Løgmaður, was the presiding judge, and was, from then on, appointed by the king. Its members were called Løgrættumenn (approximately translating to "jurymen"), appointed by the King's Provost on the Faroes.

On 24 June 1298 the Faroes gained its first form of constitution, the Seyðabrævið ("Sheep Letter", concerning sheep breeding): the earliest such document the islands know today.

Around 1380, the Faroes, together with Norway, came under the Danish throne, but the islands preserved their special status as former Norwegian territory. Regardless of these developments, the Løgting preserved a certain influence on the legislature and the administration of the islands until the introduction of the absolute monarchy in 1660 under Frederick III. From that date the influence and authority of the Løgting had become again reduced, and the institution was finally abolished in 1816. At the same time, the judicial authority of the Løgting was transferred to other courts, such as the newly inaugurated Court of the Faroes.

Danish rule
When Denmark received a free and, for that period, democratic constitution in 1849, this signalled the end of the special status the Faroes had held within the kingdom of Denmark. This was enacted without consulting the Faroese population. At that time many of them wished to see the Løgting reinstated, one reason being that they were not satisfied with the situation that the highest Danish government official, called the Amtmaður, was the sole advisory authority on the Faroes on matters of Faroese legislation. Among those who campaigned for political rights of the Faroes was Niels Winther (1822–1892). When the Act of 23 March 1852 was passed it meant that the Faroese Løgting was to be reconstituted, although not as a legislative assembly, but as an advisory body, an amtsráð. The reconstituted Løgting held its first assembly on Ólavsøka in 1852, and thus revived the traditions of the former institution which had been abolished in 1816.

Even though at that time the Løgting had only limited political authority and influence, the institution gradually gained in significance as the representative of the Faroes to the Danish government and parliament (the rigsdag) and as a political forum where politically conscious Faroese islanders could gain experience of politics. The Løgting became the political platform for the Faroese nationalist movement. One of the chief objectives behind the demand for political home rule which its supporters put forward was that the Løgting should have legislative powers.

In the assembly established in 1852, the Amtmaður, the highest Danish government official, was ex officio the president of the Løgting. However, this rule was amended in 1923, so that the president was, from then on, elected by the members of the Løgting. Since 1927, the Løgting protocols are written in Faroese, and in 1935 the Løgting was authorised to levy taxes.

World War II
During World War II, when the Faroes were occupied by the United Kingdom on 12 April 1940 and relations with Denmark were interrupted, the Løgting actually functioned as a legislative assembly, and the Faroes had their own government consisting of the Amtmaður Carl Aage Hilbert and ministers appointed by the Løgting.

In this period, the Faroese proved able to govern themselves. At the end of the war, the independence movement (mainly under influence of the new Fólkaflokkurin) was so powerful that none of the political parties were willing to return to the pre-war situation where the status of the Faroes had practically been that of a Danish county (Færøernes amt).

Self-government
Long and laborious negotiations followed between the Danish government and the representatives of the Løgting. Finally a public vote was held on 14 September 1946 where the electorate was to choose between a Danish proposition of Home rule and full secession from Denmark. This election is not considered a referendum, as the parliament was not bound to follow the decision of the vote. The result was a marginal majority of 161 votes for secession from Denmark (48.7% in favour, 47.2% against, 4.1% blank or spoilt).

The republican coalition majority in parliament interpreted the results as a resolve by the Faroese people for full Faroese independence from Denmark and started the process of secession as well as establishing proper governing bodies for an independent Faroese nation. The Government of Denmark contested the legality of this process, and on 25 September the King of Denmark signed a document dissolving the Faroese parliament and a new election was held a few months later. This election resulted in a significant majority of 2,000 votes for the parties favoring a union with Denmark, and a new unionist coalition was formed. Based on their growth in votes they chose not to pass the secession, but as a compromise, the Home Rule Act was constituted and came into force on 1 April 1948.

As it was then, this election is still shrouded in controversy today, and there exist two popular stances in this discussion. On one hand, some people argue that there was a resolve in favor of independence, as there actually was a factual majority for secession, even if it was a small one. On the other hand, other people argue that the majority was far too small, as there were in fact only 161 more votes for independence, and this side specifically argues that only a qualified majority can be large enough grounds to pass a vote of such social and political consequence.

Under the Home Rule Act, the Faroese Løgting is the legislative authority in special Faroese matters, defined as særanliggender, while other areas are administered by the Danish national authorities as common matters, fællesanliggender. With the passing of a new statute in 1995, parliamentarism was legally adopted and at the same time the structure and functions of the Løgting were modernised. A proper Faroese Constitution is planned and underway.

Authority
After Home Rule had come into force the parliamentary work of the Løgting changed fundamentally. Before Home Rule the Faroese Parliament had only been a consultative body, whereas now the Faroese Parliament has legislative power within all the branches taken over from the Danish Parliament (Det danske Folketing). According to the Home Rule Act the various branches of legislative power are divided into an A-sector and a B-sector.
 * The several branches within the A-sector can be taken over by the Løgting, if either the Løgting or the Danish Government so wish.
 * The branches within the B-sector can only be transferred to the Løgting if the Faroese Government (Føroya Landsstýri) and the Danish Government agree on the terms.

Matters regarding defence and foreign policy are outside the scope of Home Rule. The Danish Folketing has legislative power in all areas except those which have been taken over by the Løgting. The Faroese have two seats in the Danish Folketing. Within the framework of Home Rule the Løgting provides for constitutional affairs and for the order of business.

According to the Faroese Home Rule Act the organization of internal affairs is solely within the province of the Faroese Parliament. An act concerning this matter was passed on 26 July 1994. According to section No. 1. of this act the division of legal power concerning matters taken over by the Home Rule is now shared jointly between the Faroese Parliament and the Prime Minister, executive power rests with the Government whereas judicial power in such matters rests with the Danish courts. The Parliament is elected for a period of four years, and the maximum membership is 32 members who are elected in public, secret, and direct elections. The government consists of the Prime Minister (løgmaður) and not fewer than two ministers (landsstýrismenn).

The Prime Minister is appointed indirectly by the Parliament. The Chairman of the Parliament after having had talks with the party leaders submits a proposal for a new Prime Minister, a vote is taken, and if a majority of the members reject the candidate then the proposal is rejected, otherwise the candidate is accepted. The Prime Minister appoints the ministers. Neither the Prime Minister nor a minister may hold their seats if a vote no confidence is put forward and 17 MPs are opposed. The Prime Minister has at any time the power to call an election. The Prime Minister and the ministers are not permitted to hold seats in the Parliament.

Committees
The Løgting has 7 standing committees which in accordance with the order of business of the Faroese Parliament are elected for the duration of the election period unless the members of the Parliament agree on electing the committees anew.

Standing Committees:
 * The Finance Committee. As provided by section 44, subsection 2 of the Home Rule Act, the committee grants supplementary approval and in addition it makes recommendations to the Faroese Parliament on matters of finances, economy, taxes, and duties.
 * Committee on Foreign Affairs. As provided by section 54 of the Home Rule Act the committee makes recommendations to the Faroese Government on foreign affairs, trade matters, and defence matters, and in addition recommendations on relations with Denmark.
 * Committee on Fisheries and Industry. Its tasks are to make recommendations to the Parliament on fisheries matters, shipping matters, matters concerning the fishing industry, industrial matters, matters concerning fish farming, agricultural matters, matters concerning the environment, matters concerning communication and transport, matters concerning energy and oil industry, trade matters and furthermore matters concerning commercial companies and registration matters etc.
 * The Welfare Committee. Its tasks are to make recommendations to the Parliament on social matters, matters concerning the labour market, and matters concerning housing.
 * Committee on Judicial Affairs. Its tasks are to make recommendations to the Parliament on judicial and municipal matters.
 * Committee on Governmental Affairs. As provided by section 38 of the Home Rule Act the committee's task is to have judicial supervision with the Prime Minister and the ministers and to see to it that they observe the rules of law. The committee has authority to summon the Prime Minister or ministers to explain in detail items concerning any political question.

Election results since 1906
The parliament is typically split into four main parties, each of which typically get around 20% in elections: the conservative Union Party, the Social Democratic Party, the liberal-independentist People's Party, and the democratic socialist Republic, who each take a unique position on left/right and independence/unionism axis. In addition, there are three smaller parties with representation: the classical liberal Progress, the liberal New Self-Government, and the Christian conservative Centre party.

At the elections each party has a certain letter, which is also used on posters for the campaigns.

Latest results
The last general elections were held in the Faroe Islands on 8 December 2022.

The Session of the Løgting
The first meeting of the Løgting is on Saint Olaf's Day (ólavsøka). On 29 July the members of the Løgting, the ministers (landsstýrismenn), the High Commissioner of Denmark (ríkisumboðsmaður), and high officials walk in procession (skrúðgonga) from the Parliament building to the cathedral (Havnar kirkja). After the service the procession returns to Parliament House, and the Løgting is opened.

At the first meeting the Prime Minister (Løgmaður) delivers his Saint Olaf's Day address, in which he gives a general description of the state of the nation. The Løgting has one major parliamentary debate concerning the state of the nation. The debate is about Løgmaður's Saint Olaf's Address, and the budget.

As a rule the Løgting debates between 100 and 150 various items in one session.

This Ólavsøka tradition is very old and dates back to the time of the Norwegian rule. In these former times was the Løgting only held one time the year starting with Ólavsøka and sitting 8 days from 6 in the morning to 3 in the afternoon, with church service each day, and all priests of the Faroes attendant. In the 17th century this was a bit modified - now only meeting with all priests at Ólavsøka day.

Historical documentation over the centuries
The protocols of the Løgting assemblies and its other archives from 1852 up to the present are kept at the Faroese National Archive in Tórshavn. The Løgting's protocols from 1615 to 1816 are also preserved at the National Archive. The total archives of the Løgting contain the most important sources of Faroese history. Thus the Faroese Løgting is a parliament with an exceptionally well-documented history, where the archives in fact cover the period right from 1298 to the present. There are only a very few parliaments in Europe with archives preserved to the same extent where the records are continuous both through time and in their contents.

Together with the other texts in the Kongsbókin, the Statute concerning sheep breeding on the Faroes (Seyðabrævið) contains information on conditions in society, the economy, the language, culture and cultural history. The Løgting's archives from 1615 to 1816 contain similar rich sources of material on all aspects of the history of the Faroes in that period. The Løgting's archives for the period from 1852 to the present also provide the most important source of information on the more recent and latest political history of the Faroes. The Faroese cultural heritage is founded on this abundance of source material, which is thus at the very heart of the Faroese identity and sense of history right from the landnam period to the present time.

Members

 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 1998–2002
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2002–2004
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2004–2008
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2008–2011
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2011–2015
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2015–2019
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2019–2022
 * List of members of the parliament of the Faroe Islands, 2022–current

Literature

 * The Faroese Parliament. Løgtingið 2004 (PDF, 4 pages) - official folder in English and in many parts base of this article.
 * Løgtingið 150. Hátíðarrit. 150 ár liðin, síðani Løgtingið varð endurstovnað. Tórshavn: Løgtingið, 2002. ISBN 99918-966-3-5 (3 volumes, written in Faroese)
 * Hátíðarrit 1. Ritgerð: Hans Andrias Sølvará: ISBN 99918-966-4-3 (PDF, 18 MB) - history from the Vikings to the present
 * Hátíðarrit 2. Sergreinar og ævisøgur: ISBN 99918-966-5-1 (PDF, 36 MB) - articles about special topics and with biographies of all Løgting members since 1852
 * Hátíðarrit 3. Val og valtøl, leitorð og yvirlit: ISBN 99918-966-6-X - elections and results

title: Løgting


text:
Treaty of Breda (1667)

The Peace of Breda, or Treaty of Breda was signed in the Dutch city of Breda, on 31 July 1667. It consisted of three separate treaties between England and each of its opponents in the Second Anglo-Dutch War: the Dutch Republic, France, and Denmark–Norway. It also included a separate Anglo-Dutch commercial agreement.

Negotiations had been in progress since late 1666 but were slow, as both sides tried to improve their positions. This changed after the French invasion of the Spanish Netherlands in late May, which the Dutch viewed as a more serious threat. War-weariness in England was increased by the June Raid on the Medway. Both factors led to a rapid agreement of terms.

Prior to 1667, the Anglo-Dutch relationship had been dominated by commercial conflict, which the treaty did not end entirely. However, tensions decreased markedly and cleared the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Dutch Republic, England and Sweden. With the brief anomaly of the 1672 to 1674 Third Anglo-Dutch War, the treaty marked the beginning of an alliance between the English and the Dutch that would last for a century.

Background

The Second Anglo-Dutch War was caused by commercial tensions, heightened by Charles II, who saw trade as a way to reduce his financial dependence on Parliament. In 1660, he and his brother James founded the Royal African Company (RAC), challenging the Dutch in West Africa. Investors included senior politicians such as George Carteret, Shaftesbury and Arlington, creating a strong link between the RAC and government policy.

Huge profits from Asian spices led to conflict even in times of peace, as the Dutch East India Company, or VOC, first created, then enforced, their monopoly over production and trade. By 1663, indigenous and European competitors like the Portuguese had been eliminated, leaving only nutmeg plantations on Run. These had been established by the British East India Company in 1616, before being evicted by the VOC in 1620; when the English re-occupied Run in late 1664, the Dutch expelled them again, this time destroying the plantations.

There was a similar struggle over the Atlantic trade between the Dutch West-Indische Compagnie, or WIC, and competitors from Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Portugal and England. Sugar plantations in the Americas were cultivated by slaves from Africa, fed by colonies in North America, leading to conflict in all three regions. In August 1664, the English occupied New Netherland, later renamed New York; when another attack captured WIC slave trade posts in modern Ghana, the Dutch sent a fleet to recapture them. The result was to bankrupt the RAC, whose investors saw war as the best way to recoup their losses.

Despite the Franco-Dutch treaty of April 1662, Louis XIV initially remained neutral, as French and Dutch economic interests increasingly diverged over the Spanish Netherlands. The 1648 Peace of Münster permanently closed the Scheldt estuary and the port of Antwerp, which did not recover economically until the 19th century. The combination gave Amsterdam effective control of trade in North-West Europe. Louis considered the Spanish Netherlands his by right of marriage to Maria Theresa of Spain but hoped to acquire them peacefully. Negotiations with the Dutch continually broke down over his desire to re-open Antwerp as an export route for French goods. By 1663, he concluded they would never make concessions voluntarily and began planning a military intervention.

In early 1665, England signed an alliance with Sweden against the Dutch, who suffered a serious defeat at Lowestoft in June, followed by an invasion from Münster. Louis responded by activating the 1662 treaty, calculating this would make it harder for the Dutch to oppose his occupation of the Spanish Netherlands. He also paid Sweden to remain neutral, while influencing Denmark–Norway to join the war. Danish assistance saved the Dutch merchant fleet at the Battle of Vågen in August, although this turned out to have been the result of miscommunication. Frederick III of Denmark had secretly agreed to help the English capture the fleet in return for a share of the profits, but his instructions arrived too late.

By late 1666, Charles was short of money, largely due to his refusal to recall Parliament, while English trade had been badly affected by the war and domestic disasters. In contrast, the Dutch economy had largely recovered from its post-1665 contraction, while public debt was lower in 1667 than 1652; however, naval warfare was enormously expensive and financing it a challenge even for the Amsterdam markets. Both sides wanted peace, since the Dutch had little to gain from continuing the war and faced external challenges from competitors. Denmark resented concessions imposed at Christianopel in 1647, while the WIC's confiscation of Danish ships was an ongoing source of dispute; in early 1667, they joined Sweden and France in imposing tariffs on Dutch goods, impacting the Baltic grain trade.

In October 1666, Charles opened discussions with the States-General of the Netherlands, under the pretext of arrangements to return the body of Vice-Admiral William Berkeley, killed in the Four Days' Battle. He invited the Dutch to negotiations in London and withdrew previous demands for the appointment of his nephew William of Orange as stadtholder, payment of damages, the return of Run and a trade deal on India. The States-General refused to attend peace talks without France; on territorial claims, they offered to continue the present situation, or revert to the position before the war, an option clearly unacceptable to the English.

It is questionable how sincere this offer from Charles actually was, since his envoy in Paris, the Earl of St Albans, was simultaneously holding secret talks on an Anglo-French alliance. Louis agreed to ensure the Dutch complied with English demands, in exchange for a free hand in the Spanish Netherlands; by April 1667, diplomats in The Hague were predicting a deal was imminent. When talks eventually began, the English delegation felt their position was extremely strong.

Negotiations

Grand Pensionary Johan de Witt and the States of Holland rejected English proposals to negotiate in The Hague, a town dominated by the Orangist opposition. They were supported by Louis, who viewed the Orangists as English agents. Angered by the delay, the States of Zeeland, Gelderland, Groningen, Overijssel and Friesland threatened to stop paying for a war 'continued only by Holland's obstinacy.'

The parties eventually settled on Breda, but French military preparations led the Orangists to accuse De Witt of deliberately stalling to allow Louis a free hand in the Spanish Netherlands. This put De Witt under pressure to reach agreement, which increased after France and Portugal agreed an anti-Spanish alliance in March.

The role of mediator in peace talks provided prestige and the opportunity to build relationships; since Louis and Leopold both wanted the position, they compromised by using Swedish diplomats. Key players in the vital Baltic trade in grain, iron and shipping supplies, the Swedes hoped to remove commercial concessions imposed by the Republic in the 1656 Treaty of Elbing and end its alliance with Denmark. Göran Fleming was based at Breda, with Peter Coyet in The Hague; after Coyet died on 8 June, he was replaced by Count Dohna, who was instructed to negotiate a Swedish-English-French alliance if talks at Breda failed.

The States General appointed eight delegates but only those from Holland, Zeeland and Friesland were actually present. Two of the three were Orangists, Zeelandic Pensionary Pieter de Huybert and Friesland's van Jongestall; the delegate from Holland, Van Beverningh, was a member of De Witt's States Party. The English lead negotiators were Denzil Holles, Ambassador to France, and Henry Coventry, Ambassador to Sweden. On 24 May, Louis launched the War of Devolution, French troops quickly occupying much of the Spanish Netherlands and Franche-Comté. To focus on this, Spain needed to end the long-running Portuguese Restoration War. On 27 May, the Anglo-Spanish Treaty of Madrid formally concluded the 1654 to 1660 war and in return for commercial concessions, England agreed to mediate with Portugal.

The threat to the Dutch economy presented by French expansion made ending the Anglo-Dutch War a matter of urgency. Backed by assurances from Louis that he would force the Dutch to agree concessions, the English increased their demands and Van Beverningh told De Witt a major military victory was needed to improve their bargaining position. An opportunity was provided by Charles, who decommissioned most of the Royal Navy in late 1666 as a cost-saving measure. The Dutch took full advantage in the June 1667 Medway Raid; although the action itself had limited strategic impact, it was a humiliation Charles never forgot.

Holles and Coventry initially assumed this would extend negotiations, but the need to create an alliance against France meant Spain threatened to withhold implementation of the Madrid treaty, supported by Leopold. Combined with economic losses caused by the war and the Great Fire of London, Clarendon instructed Holles to agree terms "to calm people's minds" and "free the king from a burden...he is finding hard to bear".

Terms

Article 1 of the treaty stipulated a limited military alliance, obliging fleets or single ships sailing on the same course to defend each other against a third party. Article 3 established the principle of uti possidetis, or "what you have, you hold", with an effective date of 20 May. The Dutch kept Surinam, now part of modern Suriname, Fort Cormantin and Run while the English kept New Netherland, which was subsequently divided into the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Delaware.

Articles 4 to 8 applied the same principle to losses of goods or ships, including those that occurred before the war. No indemnities could be levied or punishments imposed, but all existing Letters of Marque were declared void. To allow time to communicate these instructions, Article 7 varied the date on which they would be enforced: 5 September for the English Channel and the North Sea, 5 October for the other European seas, 2 November for the African coast north of the Equator and 24 April 1668 for the rest of the world.

Article 10 required all prisoners to be exchanged without ransom although the Dutch later demanded reimbursement of their living expenses, which the English viewed as the same thing. After their failed 1666 coup, many Orangists sought refuge in England, with English and Scots dissidents going the other way. In Articles 13 and 17, both sides undertook not to protect each other's rebels; in a secret annex, the Dutch undertook to extradite regicides who voted for the Execution of Charles I in 1649, although in practice these provisions were ignored.

A separate treaty amended the Navigation Acts; goods transported along the Rhine or Scheldt to Amsterdam could be carried by Dutch ships to England without being subject to tariffs. England also accepted the principle of "free ships make free goods", which prevented the Royal Navy from intercepting Dutch ships during wars in which the Dutch were neutral. These terms were preliminary, with a definitive text signed on 17 February 1668.

The Danish and French treaties followed the Anglo-Dutch version in waiving claims for restitution of losses. In addition, England returned the French possessions of Cayenne and Acadia, captured in 1667 and 1654 respectively, but the exact boundaries were not specified, and the handover was delayed until 1670. England regained Montserrat and Antigua, and the Anglo-French division of the Caribbean island of Saint Kitts was restored. After the treaties were signed on 31 July, they were sent to each country for ratification, a process which was completed by 24 August and followed by public celebrations in Breda.

Aftermath

By exchanging New Netherland and Run, Breda removed two major areas of dispute, reducing Anglo-Dutch tensions overall and clearing the way for the 1668 Triple Alliance between the Republic, Sweden and England. The Alliance is often credited with forcing France to return most of their gains at Aix-la-Chapelle, whereas the terms had already been agreed by Louis and Leopold in January 1668. In the longer term, Breda was the point when the English and Dutch came to view France as a greater threat than each other; whilst Charles' preference for a French alliance led to the 1670 Secret Treaty of Dover, the long-term trend was against him. Support for re-asserting English naval power provided limited backing in the Third Anglo-Dutch War but ended once that had been achieved.

The treaty disappointed Orangists by failing to restore the House of Orange or allow exiles home, as promised by Charles. When Zeeland and Friesland, in response to the French advance, proposed William be made Captain-General of the Dutch States Army, the States of Holland responded on 5 August with the Perpetual Edict. This abolished the position of Stadholder of Holland, while a second resolution agreed to oppose that any confederate Captain-General or Admiral-General would become stadtholder of another province. Since the army was viewed as an Orangist power base, spending on it was deliberately minimised; this had catastrophic effects in 1672.

Breda was also a success for Sweden, who used their position as mediators to improve the Elbing provisions, break the Dutch-Danish agreement and join the Triple Alliance. The Spanish regained Franche-Comté and most of the Spanish Netherlands; more significantly, the Dutch now viewed them as a better neighbour than an ambitious France. Overall, the Dutch considered Breda and the creation of the Alliance a diplomatic triumph; the period immediately following is often considered the high point of the Dutch Golden Age.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Treaty of Breda (1667)


text:
Inatsisartut

The Inatsisartut (Inatsisartut; Landstinget), also known as the Parliament of Greenland in English, is the unicameral parliament (legislative branch) of Greenland, an autonomous territory in the Danish Realm. Established in 1979, it meets in Inatsisartut, on the islet of Nuuk Center in central Nuuk.

There are 31 members, who are elected for four-year periods by proportional representation.

History of the parliament
The Parliament of Greenland succeeded the provincial council (Grønlands Landsråd) on 1 May 1979. The parliament is led by a presidency comprising four members of the parliament, and the chairman. There are 31 members in the assembly.

Speaker
The speaker is the presiding officer of the Inatsisartut. The speaker determines which members may speak, and is responsible for maintaining order. On October 3, 2018, Siumut had Vivian Motzfeldt, the outgoing Foreign Minister, elected. On the 16th of April 2021, Hans Enoksen was elected again.

The speaker is nominated by the prime minister immediately following a general election and is confirmed by members; the speaker appoints four deputies.

Recent results
The most recent elections were held on 8 April 2021.

Composition since 1979
Source

title: Inatsisartut


text:
Pearlite

Pearlite is a two-phased, lamellar (or layered) structure composed of alternating layers of ferrite (87.5 wt%) and cementite (12.5 wt%) that occurs in some steels and cast irons. During slow cooling of an iron-carbon alloy, pearlite forms by a eutectoid reaction as austenite cools below 723 C (the eutectoid temperature). Pearlite is a microstructure occurring in many common grades of steels.

Composition
The eutectoid composition of austenite is approximately 0.8% carbon; steel with less carbon content (hypoeutectoid steel) will contain a corresponding proportion of relatively pure ferrite crystallites that do not participate in the eutectoid reaction and cannot transform into pearlite. Likewise steels with higher carbon content (hypereutectoid steels) will form cementite before reaching the eutectoid point. The proportion of ferrite and cementite forming above the eutectoid point can be calculated from the iron/iron—carbide equilibrium phase diagram using the lever rule.

Steels with pearlitic (eutectoid composition) or near-pearlitic microstructure (near-eutectoid composition) can be drawn into thin wires. Such wires, often bundled into ropes, are commercially used as piano wires, ropes for suspension bridges, and as steel cord for tire reinforcement. High degrees of wire drawing (logarithmic strain above 3) leads to pearlitic wires with yield strengths of several gigapascals. It makes pearlite one of the strongest structural bulk materials on earth. Some hypereutectoid pearlitic steel wires, when cold wire drawn to true (logarithmic) strains above 5, can even show a maximal tensile strength above 6 GPa. Although pearlite is used in many engineering applications, the origin of its extreme strength is not well understood. It has been recently shown that cold wire drawing not only strengthens pearlite by refining the lamellae structure, but also simultaneously causes partial chemical decomposition of cementite, associated with an increased carbon content of the ferrite phase, deformation induced lattice defects in ferrite lamellae, and even a structural transition from crystalline to amorphous cementite. The deformation-induced decomposition and microstructural change of cementite is closely related to several other phenomena such as a strong redistribution of carbon and other alloy elements like silicon and manganese in both the cementite and the ferrite phase; a variation of the deformation accommodation at the phase interfaces due to a change in the carbon concentration gradient at the interfaces; and mechanical alloying.

Pearlite was first identified by Henry Clifton Sorby and initially named sorbite, however the similarity of microstructure to nacre and especially the optical effect caused by the scale of the structure made the alternative name more popular.

Bainite is a similar structure with lamellae much smaller than the wavelength of visible light and thus lacks this pearlescent appearance. It is prepared by more rapid cooling. Unlike pearlite, whose formation involves the diffusion of all atoms, bainite grows by a displacive transformation mechanism.

The transformation of pearlite to austenite takes place at lower critical temperature of 723 C. At this temperature pearlite changes to austenite because of nucleation process.

Eutectoid steel
Eutectoid steel can in principle be transformed completely into pearlite; hypoeutectoid steels can also be completely pearlitic if transformed at a temperature below the normal eutectoid. Pearlite can be hard and strong but is not particularly tough. It can be wear-resistant because of a strong lamellar network of ferrite and cementite. Examples of applications include cutting tools, high strength wires, knives, chisels, and nails.

title: Pearlite


text:
List of census-designated places in New Mexico

New Mexico is a state located in the Western United States. New Mexico has several census-designated places (CDPs) which are unincorporated communities lacking elected municipal officers and boundaries with legal status.


text:
San Juan County

San Juan County is the name of four counties in the United States:

 * San Juan County, Colorado
 * San Juan County, New Mexico
 * San Juan County, Utah
 * San Juan County, Washington

title: San Juan County


text:
Gil McDougald

Gilbert James McDougald (May 19, 1928 – November 28, 2010) was an American Major League Baseball (MLB) infielder who played for the New York Yankees from 1951 through 1960.

McDougald was the 1951 American League (AL) Rookie of the Year. He was an All-Star for five seasons, and was a member of eight American League pennant-winning teams and five World Series champion teams. He was known for hitting a line drive that severely injured pitcher Herb Score's right eye during a game at Municipal Stadium in 1957.

Early life
McDougald was born in San Francisco, the younger of two sons born to William James McDougald and his wife, the former Ella McGuire. He attended Commerce High School, where he was an All-City basketball player. He did not make the varsity baseball team until his senior year.

After graduation in 1946, he attended City College of San Francisco and the University of San Francisco. During this time, he played with the local Boston Braves feeder team, the Bayside Braves, where he adopted his unorthodox but effective batting stance.

MLB career
The Yankees signed him to a contract in the spring of 1948. He played for various minor league teams before being promoted to the big leagues in 1951.

McDougald played his first major league game on April 20, 1951. On May 3 of that year, he tied a major league record, since broken, by batting in six runs in one inning. Later in the year, in the World Series, he became the first rookie to hit a grand slam home run in the Series. He narrowly beat out Minnie Miñoso in the voting for the 1951 American League Rookie of the Year. His entire major league career was spent on the New York Yankees. He was a versatile player, playing all the infield positions except first base: 599 games at second base, 508 games at third, and 284 at shortstop. He was an All-Star in 1952, 1956, 1957, 1958, and 1959, playing in four of the six games that were played (two All-Star games were held in 1959).

McDougald led all American League infielders in double plays at three different positions – at third base (1952), at second base (1955) and shortstop (1957). He was the double play leader at shortstop despite sharing time at the position with rookie Tony Kubek.

On May 7, 1957, McDougald, batting against Herb Score of the Cleveland Indians, hit a line drive that hit Score in the right eye. It caused Score to miss the rest of the 1957 and much of the 1958 season. While addressing reporters following the contest, McDougald said, "If Herb loses the sight in his eye, I'm going to quit the game." Score regained his vision and returned to pitching in the majors late in 1958. Only two years before, McDougald was struck in the left ear during batting practice by a ball hit by teammate Bob Cerv. Though initially believed to be a concussion (he missed only a few games), McDougald soon lost the hearing in his left ear and later also in his right. He retired in 1960 at only age 32, though not directly because of his hearing loss.

In 1958, McDougald was given the Lou Gehrig Memorial Award, which is awarded annually by the Phi Delta Theta fraternity (to which Gehrig belonged) at Columbia University.

His last appearance was in Game Seven of the 1960 World Series against the Pittsburgh Pirates; as a pinch runner in the top of the ninth, he scored on Yogi Berra's ground ball to tie the game at 9–9. The Pirates, however, won the Series on Bill Mazeroski's walk-off home run in the bottom of the ninth.

On December 9, 1960, McDougald announced his retirement. McDougald said he made up his mind to retire during the World Series and that his inclusion by the Yankees on a list of players eligible to be selected in the 1960 Expansion Draft had nothing to do with his decision.

While with the Yankees, McDougald was a resident of Tenafly, New Jersey.

In 1336 games over 10 seasons, McDougald posted a .276 batting average (1291-for-4676) with 697 runs, 187 doubles, 51 triples, 112 home runs, 576 RBI, 45 stolen bases, 559 bases on balls, .356 on-base percentage and .410 slugging percentage. Defensively, he recorded a .975 fielding percentage playing at second and third base and shortstop. In 53 World Series games, he batted .237 (45-for-190) with 23 runs, 4 doubles, 1 triple, 7 home runs, 24 RBI, 2 stolen bases and 20 walks.

Personal life
McDougald was the head baseball coach at Fordham University from 1970 to 1976. He resigned this position due to his worsening hearing loss, a result of being hit in the head by a line drive during batting practice in 1955.

His hearing was somewhat restored by a cochlear implant he received during surgery at the New York University Medical Center in 1994. McDougald later became a paid spokesperson for the implant manufacturer, Cochlear Americas. He also became a speaker at benefits for hearing organizations, and testified before Congress.

McDougald died of prostate cancer at his home in Wall Township, New Jersey, at the age of 82. He was survived by his wife of 62 years, the former Lucille Tochilin (1928–2014), seven children, and 14 grandchildren.

title: Gil McDougald


text:
Saline County

Saline County is the name of several counties in the United States:

 * Saline County, Arkansas
 * Saline County, Illinois
 * Saline County, Kansas
 * Saline County, Missouri
 * Saline County, Nebraska

title: Saline County


text:
Talk:Shem

[Untitled]
The Messiah is descended from Shem in an unbroken line. This is a very odd statement to be made baldly in an encyclopedia, without any cultural or historical context. Genealogy of the Messiah is a concept that developed somewhere, was expressed in some literature, was important to someone. Even a link to an entry like the Tree of Jesse or something would help. Qumran? I'm at a loss... Wetman 19:46, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

@ Mustafaa, I know they still talk about the North-East Afroasiatic languages as Semitic, but I suppose my colleagues must be talking about "The Semite" only after I leave the room then. :-) Zestauferov 11:43, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

 * Fair point! I'll change it to reflect that... Mustafaa 17:03, 22 Apr 2004 (UTC)

descended from Shem in straight line?
Jesus was born of a virgin,remember? Joseph was not Jesus's blood father, there is no bloodline from Adam to Jesus, unless Mary herself somehow was descended in a direct line from Shem - which doesn't seem to be mentioned in the bible. Just a thought.

- - I have removed the direct line reference, to avoid confusion. However, in a strict Jewish legal sense, there is indeed a direct line from Adam to Jesus, as Luke outlines (using the word 'supposed' with a nod and a wink), because Mosaic law allows that Joseph is the legal father of Jesus (to the fullest extent of the law), despite him not being the physical father. The rule was first invoked by the daughters of Zelophehad.

Cobblers 13:07, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

Mary decended from David through her father right. David decended from Abraham who decended from Shem. Whats the problem? Other than Jesus in accordance to the Bible was truly a decendent straight from God as He was part of God. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.34.227.166 (talk) 09:52, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

Proposed revert of this page to 15 July 2007 version
Many now claim that the Anglo-Saxons are the descendants of Shem. This is one of the new contributions to this page that was added to this page since 15 July. I went back through the history trying to find the last version that seemed mainstream, NPOV, and appropriately referenced, and I found this July 15 version. Since that date I have found a number of edits that appear to violate Wikipedia policies, including addition of numerous links to websites that don't satisfy our WP:RS requirements. Since I'm not a regular editor of this page, I don't know what the local standards might be, but the new sources are certainly not suitable. I came here due to this linksearch for www.dhushara.com, a web site that was complained about on the Conflict of Interest noticeboard.

Please comment if you disagree with reverting back to what I consider the last good version. Thanks, EdJohnston 03:52, 28 September 2007 (UTC)

Shem as main contributer to Caucasian family tree
In support to the above poster that many now claim (and have for many years) that Anglo-Saxons are decendents of Shem and also the article found saying that the Greeks, Persians also decend from Shem.

It is belief to many that the caucasian race decends from Shem, The Mongoloid race come from Japheth and the Afroid race decend from Ham.

The Armenians and the Aramaic language are from Aram. The Elamites of southwest Iran are from Elam and spoke Elamo-Dravidian. The Chaldeans, Syrians, Jews and Arabs from Peleg (Jews and Arabs are from Abraham who we know came from his fathers city of Ur of the Chaldeans but moved to Canaan and his decendents adopted the canaanite language). The Indo-Aryan / Indo-European races from central Asia are from Joktan. The Asyrians were perhaps from Asshur.

Nimrod building cities in Shinar and then in Assyria does not nessessarily mean that these people came from him as this is a reference when the whole world were one people and not split into tribes. The regions were probably given their names after the nations divided.

There is no evidence to support that Flavius Josephus writings had any grounds of true knowledge behind them other than they were Flavius' own ideas and therefore the many theories based on his writings are far from factual. (unsigned)

 * Look, all Wikipedia really does (supposedly) is mirror what the actual sources say. Our own editorial points of view are supposed to be irrelevant. We already have Josephus as one source, now if you have any source beside yourself for the things you are saying, then we can look at it.  Various authors have disagreed about these things for centuries, but we aren't here to argue about which source we personally agree with or disagree with as being 'factual' - remember that there are also some schools of thought that would argue none of this is factual anyway - hence the concept of "neutrality". We can attribute any relevant POV that is reliably sourced to the author who holds it. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 13:33, 19 January 2008 (UTC)

There are numerous books by Christian theologists that mentions that Shem = Caucasians, Japheth = Mongloids (Turks etc) & Ham = Africans. Perhaps based on the 'Book of Jasher' thing. I'll have to look some up. I can also recall seeing a kids cartoon of Noah and his three children looks like this (forget the last bit as I have spent about an hour trying to find a site that features the cartoon).

Age at the time of the flood
His age at the time of the flood was not 98. I have corrected this to 99, after considering the six possible orderings in the calendar year of: * Noah's birthday * Shem's birthday * The flood date

As well as the following passages:

Genesis 5:32 - "Noah was 500 years old when he begot Shem..."

Genesis 7:11 - "In the year when Noah was 600 years old ... the rain fell on the earth for 40 days and 40 nights".

Genesis 11:10 - "Shem was 100 years old ... two years after the flood."

From the first two passages, Shem's age at the time of the flood was either 99 or 100 (after considering the six possible orderings of the three events described above). But if the last passage were stating an exact "two years", Shem would be 98 at the time of the flood. Hence, "two years" is an approximation, rounded up.

Mebden (talk) 11:06, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

 * Please read WP:OR, our policy against "Original Research", of which this is the very epitome. In order to use your calculations, they must be cited to some reliable, published source, not to a wikipedian. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 12:09, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

Origins in Egyptian Mythology
Gray Greenberg of the Biblical Archaeology Society of New York has written alleging to show that the origin of the word "Shem" can be found in the Hermopolitan creation myth. I would like to include, or see included, a section on this claim, which appears to me to be prima facie credible. "Shem" means "name" in Hebrew, and odd name to give a son, but also "shemoneh", or eight. This corresponds to the eight Hermopolitan deities which emerged out of the creation flood in Hermopolitan mythology, along with Ja-Ptah, or the God Ptah, and Cham, or Keme, the black soil of the Nile valley. Would there be any objections if I were to add a paragraph describing this claim? Evolvon —Preceding undated comment was added at 15:06, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

 * I am not as impressed with this hypothesis being "credible" as you, but according to policy, just about anything can be added, as long as it is properly attributed to a reliable published source, and is not given undue weight... Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 15:13, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

"Prima facie" credible! That means I see no reason to believe it logically inconsistent or othwerwise impossible. Greenberg seems to be a serious archaeologist and probably merits inclusion, but since I'm NOT an archaeologist, credible or otherwise, I thought I'd better see if anyone else thought it was complete pants. Evolvon —Preceding undated comment was added at 15:23, 5 August 2008 (UTC)

 * No, Gary Greenberg isn't an archaeologist, he's a lawyer, see his website . I don't think is a reliable source dougweller (talk) 06:17, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

Should be mentioned that Shem...
...is etymologically equivilant to the name element Sam in Samuel. It mentions that it is the origin of Semitic but not this, that he is the father of the Eberites too should maybe be mentioned next to the Semitic bit that Eberite is the root of the word Hebrew too as on the Eber page. 74.209.54.32 (talk) 03:58, 7 January 2010 (UTC)

Roots
This important map http://restorationlibrary.org/library_restoration/AOBH/AOBH_016_A.jpg can explain where the Shem came from and this map http://www.jesus-kashmir-tomb.com/sitebuilder/images/Map_to_Graves-691x418.jpg also support the future research. Bocah anon (talk) 11:13, 27 January 2011 (UTC)
 * Do you have any peer-reviewed material by modern, accredited scientists who actually have kept track of the past century of anthropological and genetic studies, and who have given up on nationalistic biases? Because the material you're presenting doesn't look like that. You have a map from a Sunday school in 1880 (before any real study of genetics had begun, and at a time when all anthropological study had nationalistic, even racist, biases), and a map from a tourist trap.  Those don't amount to any sort of evidence.  Ian.thomson (talk) 13:48, 27 January 2011 (UTC)

Deleted info
I did not put this section in the article, but saw it was just deleted as 'Original Research'. Having read many books, I can vouch that it is a very familiar and significant POV to the topic; I do not believe whoever added it was conducting 'Original Research', which means something never before published anywhere else but on wikipedia. Thus I have no doubt a source can easily be found, and the questioned text should appear here on the talk page for the time being. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 13:50, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

 * "In Genesis, while Sheba and Seba are listed among descendants of Cush son of Ham in 10:7, another Sheba is listed as a son of Joktan, son of Eber in 10:28. These names are associated with Semitic tribes on both sides of the Red Sea in Yemen, Eritrea, and Ethiopia (See Sabaeans). This situation may reflect combined Hamito-Semitic ancestry postulated for Ethiopian peoples. The Tigray-Tigrinya and Amhara of Eritrea and Ethiopia can also trace their ancestry to Shem."

 * Maybe for the first two sentences. Less likely for the third, and I hope we aren't going to claim that anyone can trace their ancestry to Shem (that was added today). Dougweller (talk) 13:53, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

 * They do traditionally trace their ancestry to Shem. To state it in terms of what they 'can' or 'can't' do seems like arbitrary whim, even imperialist. The word "can" should thus be removed and the word "traditionally" could be added, since that is a fact whether they are correct or not. Til Eulenspiegel (talk) 14:27, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

 * Traditionally is fine when sourced, the sentence added today that I removed stated it as fact (which I guess must be imperialist if 'can' is imperialist). Dougweller (talk) 15:15, 24 April 2012 (UTC)

scholarly contribution?
This article, interesting as its subject matter may be, doesn't meet academic standards. views from the Bible and other holy books are taken as absolute truths, which may suit certain religious groups but should not be part of an encyclopedia. I recommend adding phrases like `according to the bible'.

I assume that such genealogies were created in order to establish a) a hierarchy, and b) a common ancestry of the peoples of the world. this would show that all peoples descended of Adam and so 'prove' the claims of Genesis. In a similar vein, greek mythology traces the origins of the greeks back to the sons of Hellen, a name interpreted to mean `greek'. His sons and other descendants bore names like `Thessalos' who would have been the ancestor of the Thessalians etc. This is not FACT, but rather "closure" - a way to come to terms with the outside world.

referring to Javan, I would stress, as many scholars have done, the similarity of that name and that of the greek tribe of the Iaones, i.e. the Ionians, who lived around Athens and in present-day Western Turkey. These Ionians are well attested in non-fictional sources, and were in existence during the time of the Babylonian Exile, the setting that the book of Genesis is believed to have originated in. It is striking to read that according to some Sem's descendants have chased the Javans to northern Europe and have occupied their territories. Why not claim that the Javans then occupied the Indonesian island of Java?? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 77.161.54.234 (talk) 12:00, 22 June 2012 (UTC)

Alleged ambiguity at 10, 21
What is the basis for claiming that the Hebrew is ambiguous? It may be that the reading the verse by itself Hebrew is perfectly clear, but because this contrdicts the data for Shem's age at the Flood, some translators have not rendered the Hebrew literally. If it were really ambiguous surely all translators would seek to exploit this to avoid a seeming contradiction. We need a source here with Hebrew expertise. Sceptic1954 (talk) 14:23, 29 August 2014 (UTC)

The basis is given right after the claim. SentientParadox (talk) 22:28, 29 January 2015 (UTC)

Citation not needed
I'm removing the citation needed flag from the following passage since the sources are already cited directly in the article context right after the flag. Placing a citation at the bottom of the page would be unnecessarily redundant.

"Genesis 10:21 refers to relative ages of Shem and his brother Japheth, but with sufficient ambiguity to have yielded different English translations.[citation needed] The verse is translated in the KJV as "Unto Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder, even to him were children born.". However, the New American Standard Bible gives, "Also to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, and the older brother of Japheth, children were born." — Preceding unsigned comment added by SentientParadox (talk • contribs) 22:27, 29 January 2015 (UTC)

UNsourced racist material
I deleted a large amount of material that was unsourced (no reliable source, that is) and reflected 19th century racist ideologies. If any editor wants to revert, we'll take it to RfC and beyond, as I don't like seeing Wiki used for racism.PiCo (talk) 00:29, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

 * IMO, that was a good edit. Joseph2302 (talk) 00:33, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

 * I did not pay close attention when I reverted you; my apologies and I thank you for removing that material as it violated WP:NPOV and WP:RS. Ariel ✡ 00:48, 14 February 2015 (UTC)

Birth and death year of Shem
According to the book Genesis Genealogies by Rev. Abraham Park, Shem was born on 1558 AM, which is equivalent to 2556 BC, and passed away on 2158 AM, equivalent to 1956 BC, at the age of 600. I saw on the Shem page that the date is disputed. NHRHS2010  RIP M.H. (1994-2014)  17:25, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
 * Actually his existence is disputed, and we certainly don't know a date. Why should we care what Rev. Park thinks? To actually state that Shem was born violates WP:NPOV. Dougweller (talk) 18:00, 7 April 2015 (UTC)

Original research
This sentence seems to be OR but instead of removing it, I added a "which?" and an OR template (seen in brackets), "'According to some[which?] Rabbinic traditions, Shem was born without a foreskin (aposthia); which may indicate a basis for circumcision that predates the covenant of Abraham.[or]'" Can someone name which Rabbinic sources say Shem was born with aposthia, and the synthesis following that, as above? Thanks. RupJana (talk) 02:15, 7 June 2015 (UTC)

Problem with Family Tree
The Family Tree section does not identify its sources, and in fact does not agree in its treatment of "Cainan" with either the Hebrew Bible or New Testament. In the Hebrew Bible, there is no Cainan mentioned as the son of Arphaxad. In Luke, Cainan does appear, but she is not the brother of Arpachshad's son Shelah -- Cainan is the father of Shelah. The Family Tree, in disagreement with both the Hebrew Bible and Luke, makes him Shelah's brother. In order to fix this in the least intrusive way, I'm going to simply remove Cainan and add a note to the beginning of the section to reflect the sourcing of the remaining Family Tree (solely Hebrew Bible, without Luke's information). If anyone objects, and wants Cainan to be added back in, I have no problem with that. However, if you do add Caianan back in, he needs to be included as the father of Shelah, not as the brother of Shelah. I really don't care whether the family tree reflects the Hebrew Bible's point of view or the New Testament's point of view. It just shouldn't reflect a third point of view that agrees with neither.Alephb (talk) 04:10, 17 January 2017 (UTC)

Responding to "family tree" discussion
Ok so I can't respond under the thread, but, the issue with Cainan and other notable dating problems is because in old Hebrew, "son and daughter" also refers to general descendants. With this in mind, multiple descendants, such as miziram, cush and so forth can be roughly traced back as founders of such societies tens of thousands of years to a few thousand years. 2A01:598:D831:F70E:F496:44C9:4AF4:5744 (talk) 13:09, 11 March 2022 (UTC)

Picture
I reverted to the old pictures here, on Ham (son of Noah), and on Japheth for three reasons: (1) We have to be very careful not to convey the idea to our readers that Biblical characters from patriarchal times were real people. The current pic in its archaic simplicity might - in my view - serve that purpose. (2) We already have the Tissot painting just below the infobox. We don't need the same picture twice. (3) According to MOS:IRELEV pictures should not be only decorative, but should have an educational value. Rsk6400 (talk) 18:28, 19 May 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Shem


text:
List of municipalities in New York

This is a list of municipalities in New York other than towns, which includes all 533 villages and 62 cities of New York. Of the 533 villages and 62 cities, there are 590 non-town municipalities in New York, plus five coterminous town-villages, villages that are coterminous with their town.

At the time of the 2010 United States Census, the state of New York had 555 villages. Since then, 21 villages were dissolved (four in Cattaraugus County, three in Oneida County, two each in Chautauqua County, St. Lawrence County and Wayne County, one each in Essex County, Jefferson County, Seneca County, Washington County and Oswego County as well as Keeseville in Clinton and Essex counties), while one new village was created in Suffolk County (Mastic Beach). After only seven years of being incorporated, the Village of Mastic Beach dissolved on December 31, 2017. The village of Van Etten in Chemung County and the village of Harrisville in Lewis County were both dissolved on December 31, 2018, while the village of Morristown in St. Lawrence County was dissolved on December 31, 2019. Although still listed in the 2022 population estimates from the US Census, the village of South Nyack, New York was dissolved on April 1, 2022, and the village of Fort Johnson was dissolved on December 31, 2023.

Most municipalities in New York are located within a single town and county, but some municipalities are located in more than one town. Of those, there are two cities and eight villages located in more than one county:
 * Geneva, in Ontario & Seneca Counties, although the portion in Seneca County has no population and is entirely water
 * New York, in Bronx, Kings, New York, Queens & Richmond Counties
 * Almond, in Allegany & Steuben Counties
 * Attica, in Genesee & Wyoming Counties
 * Deposit, in Broome & Delaware Counties
 * Dolgeville, in Fulton & Herkimer Counties
 * Earlville, in Chenago & Madison Counties
 * Gowanda, in Cattaraugus & Erie Counties
 * Rushville, in Ontario & Yates Counties
 * Saranac Lake, in Essex & Franklin Counties

Former villages
Listed below are former villages in the State of New York which either dissolved, consolidated or were acquired by another municipality between 1900 and 2023. To date during this period, there are a total of 66 villages that have chosen dissolution. A former village does have the option to re-incorporate in the future if the community chooses to do so. Unless otherwise specified, these communities are currently (or will be) considered census-designated places by the U.S. Census Bureau.

Extremes in size and population
The most populous and largest city by area in the state is by far New York City, home to 8,804,190 people and comprising just over 300 sqmi of land (468.87 sqmi including water). The least populous city is Sherrill, with just 3,071 inhabitants. The smallest city by area is Mechanicville, which covers 0.91 sqmi (of which 0.08 sqmi is water).

 * Smallest village, by area: South Floral Park – 0.096 sqmi
 * Largest village, by area: Speculator – 44.571 sqmi
 * Smallest village, by population: Dering Harbor – 50 (2020)
 * Largest village, by population: Hempstead – 59,169 (2020)

title: List of municipalities in New York


text:
Cotswold (disambiguation)

The Cotswolds is a region of central South West England.

Cotswold or Cotswolds may also refer to:

England

 * Cotswold District, a local government district in Gloucestershire
 * The Cotswolds (UK Parliament constituency), Gloucestershire

Elsewhere

 * Cotswold, Ontario, a small community in Wellington County, Ontario, Canada
 * Cotswold (Charlotte neighborhood), a neighborhood in Charlotte, North Carolina, US

Arts, entertainment and events

 * Cotswold Morris, a type of Morris dance
 * The Cotswolds, a symphony by Gustav Holst
 * Cotswold Chase, an annual horse race run at Cheltenham, England
 * Cotswold Games, annual games held in Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, England

Other uses

 * Cotswold cheese, a variation of Double Gloucester cheese with chives and onions
 * Cotswold Line, a railway line between Oxford and Hereford, England
 * Cotswold Outdoor, a chain of adventure recreation shops
 * Cotswold Rail, a locomotive hire company
 * Cotswold sheep, a breed noted for its wool
 * Cotswold stone, a yellow oolitic Jurassic limestone found in the Cotswolds, England

title: Cotswold (disambiguation)


text:
Caribbean (novel)

Caribbean (1989) is a historical novel written by James A. Michener, which describes and explores the history of the Caribbean region from the pre-Columbian period of the native Arawak tribes until about 1990.

The author mixes fact and fiction, as he notes in the foreword. For example, the story about the island of All Saints is purely fictional, though the book's map shows it as an island in the location of Saint Lucia.

In researching the book, Michener traveled the Caribbean for three years and consulted over 400 books.

Chapter Summary

 * 1) A Hedge of Croton: the invasion of the Caribs in the Arawak homelands.
 * 2) Death of Greatness: the classic Mayan Period.
 * 3) Christopher Columbus in Hispaniola: the trial of Christopher Columbus after his ruthless rule of Hispaniola.
 * 4) The Spanish Lake: the adventures of Sir Francis Drake.
 * 5) Big Storms in Little England: history of Barbados.
 * 6) The Buccaneer: stories of Henry Morgan and English privateers.
 * 7) The Sugar Interest: a fictional story that revolves around the island St. John's and the Caribbean sugar monopoly.
 * 8) A Wedding on Nevis: the accounts of Horatio Nelson.
 * 9) The Creoles: a history of Guadeloupe, a French colony.
 * 10) The Tortured Land: Haiti and the Haitian Revolution.
 * 11) Marshal Law: the Morant Bay rebellion and following legal battle between John Stuart Mill and Alfred Tennyson.
 * 12) Letters of Introduction: a fictional account of "All Saints Island" and a Caribbean perspective of the pre-World War II relationship between United Kingdom and Germany.
 * 13) The Scholar: a fictional story of a young Trinidadian scholar who leaves the University of West Indies to stay in Miami shortly after the Cuban exile wave of immigration.
 * 14) The Rasta Man: a fictional story of a young Rastafarian whose travels to All Saint's Island revolve around the Caribbean obsession over the sport of cricket.
 * 15) Twins: a fictional story of a two Cuban refugees returning to Cuba, which culminates in their meeting with Fidel Castro.
 * 16) The Golden Sea: a character meets descendants and other characters from previous chapters.

title: Caribbean (novel)


text:
1999 National Assembly for Wales election

The 1999 National Assembly for Wales election was held on Thursday 6 May 1999 to elect 60 members to the Senedd, at the time called the National Assembly for Wales (Welsh Parliament; Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru). It was the first devolved general election held in Wales after the successful 1997 Welsh devolution referendum. The election was held alongside the Scottish Parliament election (also the first of its kind) and English local elections.

Although Welsh Labour were the biggest party, they did not gain enough seats to form a majority government and instead entered into coalition with the Liberal Democrats. The election was marked by the historically high level of support for Plaid Cymru, who won their highest share of the vote in any Wales-wide election and remains their highest number of seats in a Senedd election to date. The party won considerable support in traditionally safe Labour areas such as the South Wales Valleys, winning Rhondda and Islwyn and narrowly failing to win a number of other seats.

The overall turnout of voters was 46.3%. This would remain the highest ever turnout for a devolved election in Wales until the 2021 Senedd election, which saw 46.6 of voters cast their ballot.

Election results

 * Overall turnout: 46.3%

!rowspan=3 colspan=2 | Parties !colspan=10 | Additional member system !rowspan=2 colspan=5 | Total seats !colspan=5 |Constituency !colspan=5 |Region ! Votes !! % !! +/− !! Seats !! +/− ! Votes !! % !! +/− !! Seats !! +/− ! Total !! +/− !! %
 * style="background-color:white" colspan=15 | Welsh assembly election 1999.svg
 * style="background-color:white" colspan=15 | Welsh assembly election 1999.svg

 * || Total || 1,023,225 || ||  || 40 ||   || 1,019,987 ||  ||   || 20 ||  || 60 ||   ||
 * }
 * }

Mid and West Wales
! colspan=2 style="width: 200px"|Constituency ! style="width: 150px"|Elected member ! style="width: 300px"|Result

! colspan="2" style="width: 150px"|Party ! Elected candidates ! style="width: 40px"|Seats ! style="width: 40px"|+/− ! style="width: 50px"|Votes ! style="width: 40px"|% ! style="width: 40px"|+/−%

North Wales
! colspan=2 style="width: 200px"|Constituency ! style="width: 150px"|Elected member ! style="width: 300px"|Result

! colspan="2" style="width: 150px"|Party ! Elected candidates ! style="width: 40px"|Seats ! style="width: 40px"|+/− ! style="width: 50px"|Votes ! style="width: 40px"|% ! style="width: 40px"|+/−%

South Wales Central
! colspan=2 style="width: 200px"|Constituency ! style="width: 150px"|Elected member ! style="width: 300px"|Result

! colspan="2" style="width: 150px"|Party ! Elected candidates ! style="width: 40px"|Seats ! style="width: 40px"|+/− ! style="width: 50px"|Votes ! style="width: 40px"|% ! style="width: 40px"|+/−%

South Wales East
! colspan=2 style="width: 200px"|Constituency ! style="width: 150px"|Elected member ! style="width: 300px"|Result

! colspan="2" style="width: 150px"|Party ! Elected candidates ! style="width: 40px"|Seats ! style="width: 40px"|+/− ! style="width: 50px"|Votes ! style="width: 40px"|% ! style="width: 40px"|+/−%

South Wales West
! colspan=2 style="width: 200px"|Constituency ! style="width: 150px"|Elected member ! style="width: 300px"|Result

! colspan="2" style="width: 150px"|Party ! Elected candidates ! style="width: 40px"|Seats ! style="width: 40px"|+/− ! style="width: 50px"|Votes ! style="width: 40px"|% ! style="width: 40px"|+/−%

Manifestos

 * Welsh Labour
 * Welsh Liberal Democrats
 * Plaid Cymru


text:
Russell County

Russell County may refer to:

In Australia:
 * Russell Land District, formerly Russell County, Tasmania
 * County of Russell, South Australia

In Canada:
 * Russell County, Ontario

In the United States:

 * Russell County, Alabama
 * Russell County, Kansas
 * Russell County, Kentucky
 * Russell County, Virginia

title: Russell County


text:
Category of metric spaces

In category theory, Met is a category that has metric spaces as its objects and metric maps (continuous functions between metric spaces that do not increase any pairwise distance) as its morphisms. This is a category because the composition of two metric maps is again a metric map. It was first considered by.

Arrows
The monomorphisms in Met are the injective metric maps. The epimorphisms are the metric maps for which the domain of the map has a dense image in the range. The isomorphisms are the isometries, i.e. metric maps which are injective, surjective, and distance-preserving.

As an example, the inclusion of the rational numbers into the real numbers is a monomorphism and an epimorphism, but it is clearly not an isomorphism; this example shows that Met is not a balanced category.

Objects
The empty metric space is the initial object of Met; any singleton metric space is a terminal object. Because the initial object and the terminal objects differ, there are no zero objects in Met.

The injective objects in Met are called injective metric spaces. Injective metric spaces were introduced and studied first by, prior to the study of Met as a category; they may also be defined intrinsically in terms of a Helly property of their metric balls, and because of this alternative definition Aronszajn and Panitchpakdi named these spaces hyperconvex spaces. Any metric space has a smallest injective metric space into which it can be isometrically embedded, called its metric envelope or tight span.

Products and functors
The product of a finite set of metric spaces in Met is a metric space that has the cartesian product of the spaces as its points; the distance in the product space is given by the supremum of the distances in the base spaces. That is, it is the product metric with the sup norm. However, the product of an infinite set of metric spaces may not exist, because the distances in the base spaces may not have a supremum. That is, Met is not a complete category, but it is finitely complete. There is no coproduct in Met.

The forgetful functor Met → Set assigns to each metric space the underlying set of its points, and assigns to each metric map the underlying set-theoretic function. This functor is faithful, and therefore Met is a concrete category.

Related categories
Met is not the only category whose objects are metric spaces; others include the category of uniformly continuous functions, the category of Lipschitz functions and the category of quasi-Lipschitz mappings. The metric maps are both uniformly continuous and Lipschitz, with Lipschitz constant at most one.

title: Category of metric spaces


text:
Rusk County

Rusk County is or was the name of several counties in the United States:

 * Rusk County, South Dakota, a former county; see Armstrong County, South Dakota
 * Rusk County, Texas
 * Rusk County, Wisconsin

title: Rusk County


text:
Rush County

Rush County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Rush County, Indiana
 * Rush County, Kansas

title: Rush County


text:
Trap street

In cartography, a trap street is a fictitious entry in the form of a misrepresented street on a map, often outside the area the map nominally covers, for the purpose of "trapping" potential plagiarists of the map who, if caught, would be unable to explain the inclusion of the "trap street" on their map as innocent. On maps that are not of streets, other "trap" features (such as nonexistent towns, or mountains with the wrong elevations) may be inserted or altered for the same purpose.

Trap streets are often nonexistent streets; but sometimes, rather than actually depicting a street where none exists, a map will misrepresent the nature of a street in a fashion that can still be used to detect copyright violators but is less likely to interfere with navigation. For instance, a map might add nonexistent bends to a street, or depict a major street as a narrow lane, without changing its location or its connections to other streets, or the trap street might be placed in an obscure location of a map that is unlikely to be referenced.

Trap streets are rarely acknowledged by publishers. One exception is a popular driver's atlas for the city of Athens, Greece, which has a warning inside its front cover that potential copyright violators should beware of trap streets.

Legal issues
Trap streets are not copyrightable under the federal law of the United States. In Nester's Map & Guide Corp. v. Hagstrom Map Co. (1992), a United States federal court found that copyright traps are not themselves protectable by copyright. There, the court stated: "[t]o treat 'false' facts interspersed among actual facts and represented as actual facts as fiction would mean that no one could ever reproduce or copy actual facts without risk of reproducing a false fact and thereby violating a copyright ... If such were the law, information could never be reproduced or widely disseminated." (Id. at 733)

In a 2001 case, The Automobile Association in the United Kingdom agreed to settle a case for £20,000,000 when it was caught copying Ordnance Survey maps. In this case, the identifying "fingerprints" were not deliberate errors but rather stylistic features such as the width of roads.

In another case, the Singapore Land Authority sued Virtual Map, an online publisher of maps, for infringing on its copyright. The Singapore Land Authority stated in its case that there were deliberate errors in maps they had provided to Virtual Map years earlier. Virtual Map denied this and insisted that it had done its own cartography.

Cultural references
The 1979 science fiction novel The Ultimate Enemy by Fred Saberhagen includes the short story "The Annihilation of Angkor Apeiron" in which a salesman allows a draft of a new Encyclopedia Galactica to be captured by alien war machines. It leads them to believe there is a nearby planet ripe for attack, but the planet is actually a copyright trap and the aliens are led away from inhabited worlds, saving millions of lives.

The 2010 novel Kraken by China Miéville features the trap streets of the London A-Z being places where the magical denizens of the city can exist without risk of being disturbed by normal folk.

A 2013 film, Trap Street, inverts the usual meaning of a trap street, becoming a real street which is deliberately obscured or removed from a map—and anyone who attempts to identify it by placing it on public record is then "trapped".

The 2015 Doctor Who episode "Face the Raven" features a hidden street where alien asylum seekers have taken shelter. Due to a psychic field that subconsciously makes observers ignore it, outsiders consider it a trap street when they see it on maps. One scene involves the character Clara Oswald discussing the definition of "trap street". The episode's working title was also "Trap Street".

title: Trap street


text:
Rowan County

Rowan County is the name of two counties in the United States:

 * Rowan County, Kentucky
 * Rowan County, North Carolina

title: Rowan County


text:
User talk:K-links

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia. When you get a chance, drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself. You should also feel free to drop me a question on my talk page. If you've got spare time, you should considir working on some of Wikipedia's open tasks. Happy editing, Ludraman | Talk 20:00, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * You can sign your name on talk pages by using " " for your username and " ~ " for your username and a timestamp.
 * The Wikipedia Tutorial is a good easy-to-follow guide to editing Wikipedia.
 * Welcome is another good place to start.
 * How does one edit a page gives editing help.
 * Manual of Style gives formatting info.
 * Policies and guidelines tell about the principles we operate on. It's important, but don't try to read it all now.
 * Help covers a broad range of useful topics.
 * Village pump is a place to ask questions.
 * Show preview explains how to double-check your edits before saving.

Nope, I'm not a Waterloo student. Darkcore 01:07, 24 Mar 2004 (UTC)

authors: Template namespace initialisation script

title: User talk:K-links


text:
Talk:Donard Park

Untitled
Have removed the word 'child' from prostitution again, simply because I get the impression the user is just trying it on for a reaction. Initially it was male prostitution that was there, and that got reverted altogether. Check the page history. -- Graham :) | Talk 20:01, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

---

As a Newcastle resident for over 25 years, I can tell you there is no "Prostitution" in Donard Park. Underage drinking however can be a problem.

A Newcastle Resident. 21 March.

I removed the reference to underage drinking, as it was introduced by a known vandal, 217.33.82.4_(contibs), and is merely a continuation of the child prostitution "joke". Whoever "A Newcastle Resident" is, this was their first edit. — Asbestos | Talk 10:32, 18 Jan 2005 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Donard Park


text:
Ross County

Ross County can refer to:

 * Ross County, Ohio, a region in the United States
 * Ross County F.C., a Scottish football club
 * Ross-shire, a county in Scotland

title: Ross County


text:
Socialist Unity

Socialist Unity may refer to:
 * Socialist Unity (Italy), a social-democratic alliance of parties which contested the 1948 Italian general election
 * Socialist Unity (Spain), a defunct electoral alliance which contested the 1977 Spanish general election
 * Socialist Unity (UK), a defunct electoral coalition formed by the International Marxist Group
 * Socialist Green Unity Coalition, an electoral alliance which stood candidates in the 2005 UK general election as Socialist Unity

title: Socialist Unity


text:
Mash

Mash, MASH, or M*A*S*H may refer to:

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * M*A*S*H, an American media franchise
 * MASH: A Novel About Three Army Doctors, 1968, by Richard Hooker
 * M*A*S*H (film), US, 1970
 * M*A*S*H (TV series) (1972–1983), US
 * List of M*A*S*H novels

Foods and beverages

 * Mashing and heating grains with water
 * Mash ingredients, to make alcoholic beverages
 * Mashed potato (English colloquialism: mash)

People

 * Deborah Mash, US professor of neurology
 * Lloyd Mash (born 1981), Australian cricketer

 * Matt Mervis ("Mash"; b. 1998), US baseball player
 * Mashrafe Mortaza ("Mash"), Bangladeshi cricketer and politician

Mathematics and technology

 * MASH (modulator) (Multi-stAge noise SHaping)
 * MASH-1 and MASH-2, a hash function
 * Yahoo! Mash, a social network service

Medicine

 * Metabolic dysfunction–associated steatohepatitis, formerly NASH

Other uses

 * Mobile Army Surgical Hospital, of US Army
 * Mash (biblical figure), in the book of Genesis
 * Mash (online newspaper), Russia
 * MASH (game), a paper-and-pencil game
 * Mash (restaurant chain), steakhouses
 * Mashramani ("Mash"), a Guyanese festival

title: Mash


text:
Talk:List of municipalities of Sweden by wealth

Untitled
1) I slutlig skatt ingår statlig och kommunal inkomstskatt på förvärvsinkomster, statlig inkomstskatt på kapitalinkomster, fastighetsskatt (mot dessa fyra skatter kan skattereduktion ha erhållits för fastighetsskatt, byggnadsarbete på bostadshus, och underskott av kapital), förmögenhetsskatt, allmänna egenavgifter samt egenavgifter och skatter för näringsverksamma. Eventuell mervärdesskatt som debiteras vid skatteberäkning debiteras ej. 2) De som någon gång under 2001 var folkbokförda i riket. Barn under 18 år som saknar summa förvärvs- och kapitalinkomst samt slutlig skatt ingår ej i populationen. Medelvärde beräknat för samtliga. 3) Enligt 2001 års priser.


text:
Drifting

Drifting may refer to:
 * Drifting (motorsport)
 * Pipe drift or drifting, measuring a pipe's inner roundness

Film

 * Drifting (1923 film), a film directed by Tod Browning
 * Drifting (1982 film), the first Israeli gay-themed film
 * Drifting (2021 film), a film directed by Jun Li

Music

 * "Drifting" (Plumb song), 2011
 * "Drifting" (G-Eazy song), 2016
 * "Driftin' Blues", a 1968 blues song recorded by Charles Brown & Johnny Moore's Three Blazers, Eric Clapton and others
 * "Drifting", a song by Jimi Hendrix on his album The Cry of Love
 * "Drifting", a song by 4 Non Blondes on their album Bigger, Better, Faster, More!
 * "Drifting", a song by Salmonella Dub on their album Killervision
 * "Drifting", a song by Pearl Jam on their album Lost Dogs
 * "Drifting", a song by Enya on her album Amarantine

title: Drifting


text:
Rock Islands

The Rock Islands of Palau, also called Chelbacheb, are a collection of several hundred small limestone or coral uprises in the Southern Lagoon of Palau between Koror and Peleliu, now an incorporated part of Koror State. There are between 250 and 300 islands in the group according to different sources, with an aggregate area of 42 km2 and a maximum height of 207 m. The islands were declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012.

Geography
The Rock Islands are sparsely populated and famous for their beaches, blue lagoons, and the peculiar umbrella-like shapes of many of the islands themselves. Many of the islands display a mushroom-like shape with a narrower base at the intertidal notch. The indentation comes from erosion and from the dense community of sponges, bivalves, chitons, snails, urchins, and others that graze mostly on algae. Also, the islands have been shaped over time by weather wind and vegetation. Notable islands in the group are:
 * Eil Malk (Mecherchar)
 * Ngeruktabel
 * Ulong
 * Bablomekang (Abappaomogan)
 * Bukrrairong (Kamori)
 * Oilouch
 * Ongael
 * Ngebedangel (Ngobasangel)
 * Ngerukewid (Orukuizu)
 * Ngeanges
 * Ngeteklou (Gologugeul)
 * Tlutkaraguis (Adorius)

Important Bird Area
A 4,912 ha site encompassing the Rock Islands has been designated an Important Bird Area (IBA) by BirdLife International because it supports populations of most of Palau’s endemic birds, including Micronesian megapodes, Palau ground doves, Micronesian imperial pigeons, Palau fruit doves, swiftlets and kingfishers, Micronesian myzomelas, morningbirds, Palau fantails, flycatchers and bush warblers, giant, dusky and citrine white-eyes, and Micronesian starlings.

Tourism
The islands and surrounding reefs include Palau's most popular tourist sites, such as the Blue Corner, Blue Holes, German Channel, Ngermeaus Island, and the famed Jellyfish Lake, one of many marine lakes in the Rock Islands that provides home and safety for several kinds of stingless jellyfish found only in Palau. It is the most popular diving destination in Palau, offering some of the most diverse dive sites on the planet, from wall diving and high current drift dives, to manta rays and sharkfeeds, to shallow lagoons, decorated caves, and overhangs. Tourist attractions also include Dolphin Bay, where a staff of veterinarians and trainers educate guests about dolphins.

Demographics
The only inhabited place on the islands is called Dolphin Bay (on Ngeruktabel, 5 km from Koror). It is the location of Palau's national aquatics park, and hosts headquarters of Palau's Park rangers.

title: Rock Islands


text:
Alexey Troitsky

Alexey Alexeyevich Troitsky (Алексе́й Алексе́евич Тро́ицкий; March 14, 1866 – August 1942; also Alexei, Troitzky, Troitzki) was a Russian chess theoretician. He is widely considered to have been one of the greatest composers of chess endgame studies. He is widely regarded as the founder of the modern art of composing chess studies. Troitsky died of starvation during World War II at the siege of Leningrad. During the war, many of his notes got destroyed or lost so some of the latest chess problems he composed were never published.

One of his most famous works involves analyzing the endgame with two knights versus a pawn, see Troitsky line. John Nunn analyzed this endgame with an endgame tablebase and stated that "the analysis of Troitsky ... is astonishingly accurate".

Compositions
Troitsky was a prolific composer of endgame studies. Irving Chernev included nine of them in his book 200 Brilliant Endgames. The diagram shows one of them. The main line goes:
 * 1. Nb6! Qe8
 * 2. Nd7! Kc4
 * 3. Qxc7+ Kb4
 * 4. Qc5+ Kb3
 * 5. Qc3+ Ka4
 * 6. Qd4+ Ka3
 * 7. Nc5 Qb8
 * 8. Qa1+ Kb4
 * 9. Na6+

and White wins.

Books

 * Troitzky, A. (1924), 500 Endspielstudien, Verlag Kagan Berlin
 * Troitzky, A. (1992), Collection of Studies, Tschaturanga Ed. Olms, ISBN 3-283-00114-6. Reprinted in 2006 by Ishi Press, ISBN 0-923891-10-2. The 360 studies above plus a supplement on the theory of the endgame of two knights against pawns.
 * Troitzky, A. (1992), Collection of Studies, Tschaturanga Ed. Olms, ISBN 3-283-00114-6. Reprinted in 2006 by Ishi Press, ISBN 0-923891-10-2. The 360 studies above plus a supplement on the theory of the endgame of two knights against pawns.

title: Alexey Troitsky


text:
Talk:Category of metric spaces

Warning: "weakness" (no coproduct, no left adjoint of forget and others: viz no sets inside or too many) are "cured" in bounded (by 1) metrics. I'll write that, but it's better to present first Ban the Banach unitary balls with short linear maps. (till now, Ban is linked only from here).

Of course, there is the excelent, but unusual, category using "extended real number line and allow the distance function d to attain the value ∞."

the following wasn't accepted (?!) in metric space. It will be explained here:

A logical analysis
is the same to say that f is a short map, without any reference to order in positive reals.
 * The fundamental metric concept is short map, the morphisms of the metric category (isomorphisms, i.e. bishort maps, are the isometries), but its usual expresion uses order and addition in positive reals so,
 * 1) It is obvious that : | x - |x - y | | = y is the same that x = 0  or  y ≤ x, so distance in positive reals gives weak order there, strong order (y ≤ x iff ... ) is difficult, but possible, if we accept a solution of |x - y | = y i.e. y = x / 2.
 * 2) | d(y, z) - |d(y, z) - d´(f(y), f(z)) | | = d´(f(y), f(z))
 * Really? Doesn't the absolute value function refer to order?? After all, it essentially detects whether a given real number is ≥ 0. Revolver 28 June 2005 04:15 (UTC)

 * 3) The following equivalence of triangle inequality
 * | d(x, y) - d(x, z) | ≤ d(y, z) says,

without any reference to an operation in positive reals (|x - y | is distance there), that d(x, -) is a short map. d: x - > d(x,-) is an isometry.
 * Joined together : | d(y, z) - |d(y, z) - | d(x, y) - d(x, z) | | | = | d(x, y) - d(x, z) | is triangle inequality.
 * slight change and : | d(y, z) - |d(z, y) - | d(x, y) - d(x, z) | | | = | d(x, y) - d(x, z) | is triangle inequality and simmetry (make z = x and use | x - d(y, y)| = x).

--- Exactly as an Auto magma object can be defined in Mag we wont to define an Auto metric object in Met

magma operation: XxX --> X

usual way metric: XxX --> R+ (wrong!)

But take a arbitrary but fixed form da: x |--> d(a,x) and add it to all bounded X --> R+ this will be R+X with the supreme metric. (The same that the bounded metric given by the supreme norm).

This gives metric as (isometric image) d: X --> R+X.

Now any dx is a short map : X --> R+ because this is exactly (equivalent to) triangle inequality, so visible in Met.

But R+ is metric so we have |.-.|: R+ --> R+R+ and
 * x-.|: R+ --> R+ as before (A logical analysis) but not medial: x - y is medial, x v y is medial but not (x-y) v (y-x)!

other morphisms
What if you want distance-preserving maps as morphisms? You need this category, e.g. when talking about metric completions, I believe.

title: Talk:Category of metric spaces