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Cinema of Mexico

Mexican cinema dates to the late nineteenth century during the rule of President Porfirio Díaz. Seeing a demonstration of short films in 1896, Díaz immediately saw the importance of documenting his presidency in order to present an ideal image of it. With the outbreak of the Mexican Revolution in 1910, Mexican and foreign makers of silent films seized the opportunity to document its leaders and events. From 1915 onward, Mexican cinema focused on narrative film.

During the Golden Age of Mexican cinema from 1936 to 1956, Mexico all but dominated the Latin American film industry.

In 2019, Roma became the first Mexican film and fourth Latin American film to win the Oscar for best foreign language film. Roma also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film at the 72nd British Academy Film Awards.

Emilio "El Indio" Fernández was rumored to be the model for the Academy Award of Merit, more popularly known as the Oscar statuette. According to the legend, in 1928 MGM's art director Cedric Gibbons, one of the original Motion Picture Academy members, was tasked with creating the Academy Award trophy. In need of a model for his statuette, Gibbons was introduced by his future wife, actress Dolores del Río, to Fernández. Reportedly, Fernández had to be persuaded to pose nude for what is today known as the "Oscar".

1896–1911: Silent films; the Porfiriato
Shortly after the first moving picture was viewed in 1895 using Thomas Edison's kinetoscope and the invention of the cinematographe projector by Auguste Lumière, Mexicans began queuing in cinemas in the capital to see international one-minute films such as The Card Players, Arrival of a Train, and The Magic Hat. The cinematograph arrived to Mexico seven months after its first projection in France, brought in by Claude Ferdinand Bon Bernard and Gabriel Veyre (the latter had been contracted by the Lumierè brothers to spread the cinematograph across México, Venezuela, the Guaianas and the Antilles). Mexico entered production in the silent film industry with several movies, but many of the films up to the 1920s have been lost and were not well documented.

Film in México continued to expand quickly after its arrival in Mexico. On 6 August 1896, President Porfirio Díaz invited Bon Bernard and Veyre to his residence at Chapultepec Castle, and eight days later, the first projection for the press was made in what is now Madero Street. This projection included films by the Lumierè brothers such as L'Arrivée d'un train en gare de La Ciotat, and on 15 August, a projection was made for the general public.

President Díaz recognized the importance of cinema and appeared in many films placing him at the center of action with his cabinet ministers; in a parade; and in the zócalo. In 1906, he is seen in La entrevista de los presidentes Díaz-Taft, the first-ever meeting of a U.S. president with Mexico's, one of the first filmed reportages produced in Mexico. It was filmed by the Alva brothers. The first fiction film to be created in Mexico was based on a recreation of the duel between two deputies, called Duelo a pistola en el bosque de Chapultepec (Gun duel in the Chapultepec forest).

Mexican cinema continued to become more available across the country, thanks in part to businessmen such as Guillermo Becerril, Carlos Mongrand and Salvador Toscano. The origin of early Mexican film-making is generally associated with Salvador Toscano Barragán, who introduced the filmed reportage. In 1898 Toscano made the country's first film with a plot, titled Don Juan Tenorio. During the Mexican Revolution, Toscano recorded several clips of the battles, which would become a full-length documentary in 1950 under the title Memories of a Mexican, assembled by his daughter. Other short films were either created or influenced from French film-makers.

By 1906, 16 movie theaters opened their doors to accommodate the popularity of cinema in Mexico City. Carpas, or tent shows, were popular beginning in 1911 where lower-class citizens would perform picaresque humor and theatrical plays, a place for training for aspiring actors. Politically affiliated films appeared in 1908; these would be deemed propagandistic by today's standards. Significant battles were filmed and broadcast during the Revolution, which fueled Mexicans' excitement in cinema. In addition, the first intents to formalize the Mexican cinematic industry were made between 1905 and 1906, with the creation of the first Mexican distributing companies. Some of the most important companies were Empresa Cinematográfica Mexicana, American Amusement Company, Compañía Explotadora de Cinematógrafos and Unión Cinematográfica.

1911–1917: The Mexican Revolution

The popularity that cinema had experienced in the early 20th century continued to grow, and by 1911 fourteen new movie houses were built. During this period documentary techniques were mastered, as is evident in the Alva brothers' production entitled Revolución orozquista (1912). The film was shot in the camps of the rebel and federal forces during the battle between General Victoriano Huerta and the rebel leader Pascual Orozco.

The rise of cinema plateaued due to the lack of distributors and the difficulty to make new material. This in addition to the dangers that the inflammability of film resulted in the closing of many of the Carpas. The cinematic industry was reduced to small companies, with Carlos Mongrand standing out because of films such as Desfiles de tropas en San Luis Potosí, Carnaval de Mérida and Aventuras del sexteto Uranga.

Despite the relative advancement of cinema during this period, the moralistic and paternalist ideology of President Madero led to his campaign to save the lower classes from immorality through censorship. In late September and early October 1911, city council members appointed additional movie house inspectors, whose wages would be paid by the exhibitioners. Furthermore, the head of the Entertainment Commission, proposed the implementation of censorship; however, Victoriano Huerta's coup d'état in the Ten Tragic Days of February 1913 prevented the move to legislate censorship.

Although Huerta's rule was brief, from February 1913 to July 1914, Mexican cinema experienced significant changes within this period such as the further establishment of censorship and a shift away from documentary films to entertainment films. The Alva brothers' production of Aniversario del fallecimineto de la suegra de Enhart ("Anniversary of the Death of Enhart's Mother-in-Law") is indicative of the change in the aim of Mexican cinematographers. The Alva brothers produced films such as La entrada de Madero a la capital ("Entry of Madero in the Capital) with the use of Indalecio Noriega Colombres's inventions, which allowed for a phonograph to be synchronized with the images projected.

In regards to censorship, the Huerta government imposed a moral and political decree of censorship in approximately June 1913. This decree was imposed a few days after convencionista soldiers shot at the screen during a viewing of El aguila y la serpiente. The decree stated that films that showed the following were prohibited: "views representing crimes, if they do not include punishment of the guilty parties, views which directly or indirectly insult an authority or person, morality or good manners, provoke a crime or offence, or in any way disturb the public order (Mora 70)."

As a result of the limitations placed on film content as well as the radicalization of the parties involved in the armed conflicts, cameramen and producers began to display their opinion through the films they produced. For instance, favoritism towards the Zapatistas was illustrated in the film Sangre Hermana (Sister Blood, 1914). Due to the sensational content of this film, it is evident that the producers had no interest in displaying the events in such a way that the audience could come to their own conclusions.

1917–1936: Post-revolutionary film making and first sound film
The cinematic productions of this period were reflective of the Italians style film d'art, which were fiction-based melodramas. The film La Luz (The Light, Ezequiel Carrasco, 1917, starring Emma Padilla) was the first film that attempted to adopt this style, even though it was viewed as a plagiarism of Piero Fosco's Il Fuoco. Paranaguá attributes the influence that the Italian had on the Mexican cinema with the similarities between the situations of both countries. Both countries were in a state of chaos and disorder – there was a war in Italy and a revolution in Mexico (Paranaguá 70). Once again censorship was re-established on October 1, 1919. Films which illustrated acts of immortality or induced sympathy for the criminal were prohibited.

In 1917, the former vaudeville star Mimí Derba, founded the Azteca Studios, which produced notable films between 1917 and 1923. The most successful of these was En defensa Propia (1921).

Government budget had to be trimmed as a result of the rebellion and cinematographic departments of the Ministry of Education and Agriculture were cut. By 1924, narrative films were at an all-time low since 1917.

During the 1920s very few movies were produced, given the political climate that was still very unsettled and the resurgence of the American film industry after World War I. Notable Mexican movie stars moved to the United States. Stars such as Ramón Novarro, Dolores del Río and Lupe Vélez, became principal stars of notable Hollywood films in the 1920s and 30s. Other Mexican stars appeared in numerous movies which were merely Spanish-language versions of Hollywood movies.

In 1994, the Mexican magazine Somos published a list of "The 100 best movies of the cinema of Mexico" in its 100th edition. The oldest film selected was "El automóvil gris" (lit. 'The Grey Car'). To make the selection, the magazine invited 25 specialists in Mexican cinematography, among which critics stand out Jorge Ayala Blanco, Nelson Carro and Tomás Pérez Turrent, the historians Eduardo de la Vega Alfaro and Gustavo García Gutiérrez. The top twelve films in order chosen from the best and on are Let's Go with Pancho Villa, Los Olvidados, Godfather Mendoza, Aventurera, A Family Like Many Others, Nazarín, El, The Woman of the Port, The Place Without Limits, Here's the Point, Champion Without a Crown, and Enamorada.

In the 1930s, once peace and a degree of political stability were achieved, the film industry took off in Mexico and several movies still experimenting with the new medium were made. Hollywood's attempt at creating Spanish language films for Latin America failed mainly due to the combination of Hispanic actors from different ethnicities exhibiting various accents unfamiliar to the Mexican people. Early Mexican cinematographers were influenced and encouraged by Soviet director Sergei Eisenstein's visit to the country in 1930.

In 1931 the first Mexican talkie movie, an adaptation of the Federico Gamboa's novel Santa, directed by Antonio Moreno and starred by the Mexican-Hollywood star Lupita Tovar, was realized. Until Sergei Eisenstein's ¡Que viva México! (1931), Mexican audiences were exposed to popular melodramas, crude comedies, as well as Spanish-language versions of Hollywood movies.

Eisenstein's visit to Mexico inspired directors like Emilio Fernández and cameraman Gabriel Figueroa, and the number of Mexican-made films increased and improved. During the 1930s the Mexican film industry achieved considerable success with movies like La Mujer del Puerto (1934), Fred Zinnemann's Redes (1934), Janitzio (1934), and Dos Monjes (1934).

1936–1956: The Golden Age

The Golden Age of Mexican cinema began in 1936 with the premiere of Allá en el Rancho Grande, and ended in 1956.

During the 1940s the full potential of the industry developed. Actors and directors became popular icons and even figures with political influence on diverse spheres of Mexican life. The industry received a boost as a consequence of Hollywood redirecting its efforts towards propagandistic films and European countries focusing on World War II, which left an open field for other industries.

Mexico dominated the film market in Latin America for most of the 1940s without competition from the United States film industry. During World War II, movie production in Mexico tripled. The fact that Argentina and Spain had fascist governments made the Mexican movie industry the world's largest producer of Spanish-language films in the 1940. Although the Mexican government was reactionary, it encouraged the production of films that would help articulate a true Mexican identity, in contrast to the view often seen in Hollywood movies. In the late 1940s and 50s, the government become more involved in promoting distribution of films.

The Golden Age of Mexican cinema took place during the 1940s and beyond. The most prominent actor during this period was Mario Moreno, better known as Cantinflas. The film Ahí está el detalle in 1940 made Cantinflas a household name and he became known as the "Mexican Charlie Chaplin". His films were ubiquitous in Spain and Latin America and influenced many contemporary actors. Not until the appearance of "Tin-Tan" in the late 1940s did his popularity wane.

Mexican actresses also were a focus in Mexican cinema. Sara García was the "grandmother of Mexico". Her career began with silent films in 1910, moved to theatre, and ultimately the film that made her famous, No basta ser madre (It's Not Enough to be a Mother) in 1937. Dolores del Río, another dramatic actress, became well known after her Hollywood career in the 1930s and for her roles in a couple of films directed by Emilio Fernández.

Stock characters also began to form during the Golden Age. The charro, plead, and the poor peasant are common characters throughout many films.

María Félix (well known as "La Doña"), was a big star after her role in the movie Doña Bárbara in 1943. She gained a higher popularity in European countries.

In 1943, the Mexican industry produced seventy films, the most for a Spanish speaking country. Two notable films released in 1943 by director Emilio Fernández were Flor silvestre (1942) and María Candelaria (1944), both films starring prestigious Hollywood actress Dolores del Río. The movies were triumphs for the director and for internationally acclaimed cinematographer, Gabriel Figueroa especially with María Candelaria winning the top prize at the Cannes Festival. Other celebrated Fernández films were La perla (1945), Enamorada (1946), the American-Mexican production The Fugitive (1947), directed with John Ford, Río Escondido (1947), La Malquerida (1949) and Pueblerina (1949).

In 1948 there was another "first" for Mexican cinema: The trilogy of Nosotros los Pobres, Ustedes los ricos and Pepe el Toro, starring Mexican icons Pedro Infante and Evita Muñoz ("Chachita") and directed by Ismael Rodríguez.

The only other comedian with the same level of popularity as Cantinflas was German Valdez "Tin-Tan". Tin-Tan played a pachuco character appearing with a zoot suit in his films. Unlike Cantinflas, Tin-Tan never played as a pelado, but as a Mexican-American. He employed pachuco slang in many of his movies and frequently used Spanglish, a dialect that many Mexican residents disdained.

In the middle of the 1940s, the Spanish director Juan Orol started the production of films with Cuban and Mexican dancers. This cinematographic genre was named "Rumberas film", and was very popular with the Latin American audiences. The stars of this exotic genre were María Antonieta Pons, Meche Barba, Ninón Sevilla, Amalia Aguilar and Rosa Carmina.

Other relevant films during these years include Espaldas mojadas (Wetbacks) by Alejandro Galindo, Aventurera a melodrama starred by Ninón Sevilla, Dos tipos de cuidado (1951), El Rebozo de Soledad (1952) and Los Olvidados (The Young and the Damned) (1950), a story about impoverished children in Mexico City directed by the Mexican of Spanish ascendent director Luis Buñuel, a very important figure in the course of the Mexican Cinema of the 1940s and 1950s. Some of the most important Buñuel's films in his Mexican period are Subida al cielo (1952), Él (1953), and Ensayo de un crimen (1955).

The themes during those years, although mostly conventional comedies or dramas, touched all aspects of Mexican society, from the 19th century dictator Porfirio Díaz and his court, to love stories always tainted by drama.

1960s through 1980s
See: Luchador films, Ficheras films

During the 1960s and 1970s many cult horror and action movies were produced with professional wrestler El Santo among others. Luis Buñuel released his last Mexican films: El ángel exterminador (1962) and Simón del desierto (1965).

In the late 1960s and early 1970s the work of notable Mexican young directors flourished: Arturo Ripstein (El castillo de la pureza–1972; El lugar sin límites–1977), Luis Alcoriza (Tarahumara–1965; Fé, Esperanza y Caridad–1973), Felipe Cazals (Las poquianchis–1976–; El Apando–1976), Jorge Fons (los cachorros–1973–; Rojo Amanecer −1989), Paul Leduc (Reed, Mexico insurgente −1972-; Frida, Naturaleza Viva), Alejandro Jodorowski (El topo– 1970–; Santa Sangre–1989), the Chilean Miguel Littin (Letters from Marusia–1976), Jaime Humberto Hermosillo (La pasión según Berenice–1972–; Doña Herlinda y su hijo–1984) and many others. His films represented Mexico in notable international film festivals. American directors as John Huston realized some Mexican-set English language films (e.g., Under the Volcano–1984).

What is now Videocine was established in 1979 as Televicine by Emilio Azcarraga Milmo, whose family founded Televisa, with which Videocine is co-owned. The company became the largest producer and distributor of theatrical movies in Mexico and remains such today. By the time of Videocine's establishment, it had become the norm for a Mexican movie to reach its largest post-theatrical audience through television carriage rights with any of the Televisa networks.

The 1961 film The Important Man (original title Animas Trujano) was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film and a Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 1962. The 1965 film Always Further On won the FIPRESCI Prize at the 1965 Cannes Film Festival. The film was also selected as the Mexican entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 38th Academy Awards, but was not accepted as a nominee. Some films nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Films of the time are the 1960 Macario, 1962 The Pearl of Tlayucan (original title Tlayucan), 1975 Letters from Marusia (original title Actas de Marusia).

Nuevo Cine Mexicano (New Mexican Cinema)

Mexican cinema suffered through the 1960s and 70s, until government sponsorship of the industry and the creation of state supported film helped create Nuevo Cine Mexicano (New Mexican Cinema) in the 1990s. The period spanning the 1990s to the present has been considered as the prime era of the New Mexican Cinema.

It first took place with high quality films by Arturo Ripstein, Alfonso Arau, Alfonso Cuarón, and María Novaro. Among the films produced at this time were Solo con tu pareja (1991), Como agua para chocolate (Like Water for Chocolate) (1992), Cronos (1993), El callejón de los milagros (1995), Profundo carmesí (1996), Sexo, pudor y lágrimas (Sex, Shame, and Tears) (1999), The Other Conquest (2000), and others such as La Misma Luna (2007).

More recent are Amores perros by Alejandro González Iñárritu, Y tu mamá también by Alfonso Cuarón, El crimen del Padre Amaro by Carlos Carrera, Arráncame la vida by Roberto Sneider, Biutiful (2010) (also directed by Iñárritu), Hidalgo: La historia jamás contada (2010), Instructions Not Included (2013), Cantinflas (2014), and the remake of the 1975 Mexican horror film Más Negro que la Noche (Blacker Than Night) (2014) and also the first 3D film of Mexico.

In the latest years it was noticed the increasing success of a group of Mexicans in Hollywood cinema, specially with directors Alfonso Cuaron, Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu and Guillermo del Toro as well as cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki. All three directors had won both the Academy Award and the Golden Globe for Best Director and Lubezki won both prizes for Best Cinematography for three consecutive years. The 3 directors have frequently been cited as the "Three Amigos of Cinema", while Lubezki's innovative style of cinematography made critics often call him one of the greatest directors of photography of all time.

For the other side the success of the films Nosotros los Nobles and Instructions Not Included in 2013, gave way to the development of similar projects trying to focus on the use of known Mexican TV stars such as Omar Chaparro, Adal Ramones or Adrian Uribe. The majority of them are romantic comedies focused on telenovela-style stories.

This, however, should not prevent the success of other directors in the development of dramatic films, such as Carlos Reygadas and Alonso Ruizpalacios.

In 2017, Alfonso Cuaron travelled back to Mexico to film his most intimate film, Roma. The film, distributed by Netflix went on critical acclaim and was the second Mexican movie to win the Golden Globe as Best Foreign Language Film, while Cuaron got the Best Director award. Also it becomes the first Mexican movie to be nominated to both Best Film and Best Foreign Language Film in the Academy Awards, while getting a total of 10 nominations including Best Actress for mixtec actress Yalitza Aparicio and Best Supporting Actress for Marina de Tavira.

Mexploitation subgenre
A Mexican cinema subgenre is the Mexploitation subgenre, itself part of the Mexican action films genre. A second sub-genre within this sub-genre is the narco-filme, films about fictional drug cartels battling the police and each others. During 2019, Bancomext announced the financing of up to 50 percent of the film-making costs of many films, including Mexican action films. Mexican action film stars include the Almada brothers, Fernando and Mario Almada, Jorge Rivero, Rosa Gloria Chagoyán (Lola la Trailera), the Dominican Republic-born Andres Garcia, Bernabe Melendrez and Max Hernandez Jr.

Role of women
Women filmmakers in Latin America, specifically Mexico suffered from absolute neglect by the film industry and audience. Mimí Derba founded one of the first Mexican production companies, Azteca Films. She had a successful career in vaudeville before entering films. Derba was the first female director in Mexico. Then Matilde Landeta was a Mexican filmmaker and screenwriter, who was the first female to serve in those roles during the Golden Age of Mexican cinema. Her films focused on the portrayal of strong, realistic female protagonists in a patriarchal world. Landeta won an Ariel Award in 1957 for Best Original Story for the film El camino de la vida which she co-wrote with her brother Eduardo. The film also won the 1957 Golden Ariel, the Silver Ariel Film of Major National Interest and Best Direction and two other awards in 1956 in the Berlin International Film Festival under the name of Alfonso Corona Blake.

Movies in this period often featured strong maternal characters, while maintaining the idea of feminine inferiority to men. This perpetuated the belief that women could only reach the same level of agency as men in the process of aging and becoming a mother or grandmother. This is seen in movies such as Los tres Garcia (1947) and Lupe Balazos (1964). In much of the cinema of this time, women were depicted as being dependent on men for protection and fulfillment. This mirrored much of the cultural sentiment prior to the 1960s.

Many of the female characters in these films were powerless. Not only inferior to male characters, they were easily put down by communities as a whole and easily shunned. A prime example of this story is in María Candelaria (1944). In this specific film, María was an innocent character who was shamed for the reputation of another character. A miscommunication occurred that cost her her life. This is a common pattern in Cinema of Mexico at this time because of the belittlement of women.

In the 1980s and 90s, things started to take a turn. Women filmmakers in Mexico finally got the opportunity to create and produce professional feature films. The most popular two would be El secreto de Romeila (1988) directed by Busi Cortés and Los pasos de Ana (1990) by Marisa Sistach. These two feature films were considered the doors that opened opportunity for women filmmakers in Mexico as well as created a new genre that people were not familiar with, labeled as 'women's cinema'. The phenomenal growth of 'women's cinema', not only meant that there would be an infinite expansion in the list of female names as filmmakers or creators; in reality, it created a daunting cinematic genre by objectifying women as well as displacing them within the film industry.

Most of the female filmmakers in Mexico identify as feminists. The primary reason for many of them to commit to being filmmakers was to depict stories of women in their original and true essence as well as to strive in readapting roles of females on the Mexican screen. According to Patricia Torres San Martín, an honorable film scholar, there is a new theme emerging within the film industry in Mexico which is known as the 'new female identity'. This new structural change in cinema created a geographical cultural change in Mexico due to its new emerged eye-opening concept in the film industry. One of Maria Novaro first short films (a school work: An Island Surrounded by Water, 1984) was acquired by the Museum of Modern Art in New York for its permanent film collection and was distributed in the United States by Women Make Movies. Maria's 1994 El Jardín del Edén (lit. 'The Garden of Eden') obtain her a second nomination for the Ariel Award for Best Picture the first for a woman in Mexico. In the Garden of Eden, three very different women find themselves in the Mexican-American border town of Tijuana, each with her own goal. The women: struggling artist Elizabeth (Rosario Sagrav), Jane (Renée Coleman), who's looking for her brother, and Serena (Gabriela Roel), a widow who just arrived in town with her family. Although the trio come from different cultural backgrounds—Serena is Mexican, Jane is American and Elizabeth is Mexican-American—all three are similarly in search of a new direction.

Mariana Chenillo became the first female director to win an Ariel Award for Best Picture back in 2010 for the film Nora's Will. The Ariel is the Mexican Academy of Film Award. In cinema, it is considered Mexico's equivalent to the Academy Awards ("Oscars") of the United States. The film gives a mysterious photograph left under the bed will lead to an unexpected outcome which will remind us that sometimes the greatest love stories are hidden in the smallest places. Issa López wrote the scripts for several film features, three of them produced in Mexico by the Major Hollywood Studios, and two of those directed by herself; Efectos Secundarios (Warner Bros., 2006) and Casi Divas Almost Divas (Sony Pictures, 2008). Casi Divas is the only Mexican movie to be scored by acclaimed Hollywood composer Hans Zimmer. Makes her a Mexican filmmaker, one to watch.

Actors

 * Elsa Aguirre
 * Amalia Aguilar
 * Alma Rosa Aguirre
 * Rosa Carmina
 * Rosita Quintana
 * "Tongolele"
 * Silvia Pinal
 * Anabelle Gutiérrez
 * María Victoria
 * Ana Luisa Peluffo
 * Lorena Velázquez
 * Elsa Cárdenas
 * Ignacio López Tarso
 * Angélica María
 * Aurora Clavel
 * Isela Vega
 * Hugo Stiglitz
 * Julissa
 * Lucha Villa
 * Enrique Guzmán
 * Jacqueline Andere
 * Alberto Vázquez
 * Eric del Castillo
 * César Costa
 * Ana Martín
 * Andres García
 * Enrique Rocha
 * Valentín Trujillo
 * Jorge Rivero
 * Elpidia Carrillo
 * María Rojo
 * Ofelia Medina
 * Carlos Bracho
 * Carmen Salinas
 * Verónica Castro
 * Delia Casanova
 * Diana Bracho
 * José Alonso
 * Lucía Méndez
 * Patricia Reyes Spíndola
 * Héctor Bonilla
 * Alma Delfina
 * Manuel Ojeda
 * Jose Carlos Ruíz
 * Gonzalo Vega
 * Tina Romero
 * Blanca Guerra
 * Sylvia Pasquel
 * Angélica Aragón
 * Lumi Cavazos
 * Arcelia Ramírez
 * Zaide Silvia Gutiérrez
 * Daniel Giménez Cacho
 * Bruno Bichir
 * Demián Bichir
 * Salma Hayek
 * Eugenio Derbez
 * Adriana Barraza
 * Jesús Ochoa
 * Cecilia Suárez
 * Damián Alcázar
 * Gael García Bernal
 * Ana de la Reguera
 * Bárbara Mori
 * Diego Luna
 * Martha Higareda
 * Diego Boneta
 * Alfonso Herrera
 * Ana Claudia Talancón
 * Sandra Echeverría
 * Karla Souza
 * Eduardo Verástegui
 * Kate del Castillo
 * Kuno Becker
 * Lupita Nyong'o
 * Jaime Camil
 * Marina de Tavira
 * Yalitza Aparicio
 * Eiza González
 * Tenoch Huerta Mejia

Directors

 * Antonio Chavez Trejo
 * César A. Amigó
 * Lila Avilés
 * Manolo Caro
 * Carlos Carrera
 * Felipe Cazals
 * Alfonso Cuarón
 * Carlos Cuarón
 * Jonás Cuarón
 * Guillermo del Toro
 * Gonzalo de la Torre
 * Fernando Eimbcke
 * Luis Estrada
 * Jorge Fons
 * Michel Franco
 * Alejandro Gómez Monteverde
 * Alejandro González Iñárritu
 * Julián Hernández
 * Carlos Hernández Vázquez
 * Antonino Isordia
 * Alejandro Jodorowsky
 * Leopoldo Laborde
 * Paul Leduc
 * Alejandra Márquez Abella
 * Fernando Méndez
 * Mauro Mueller
 * Maria Novaro
 * Miguel A. Reina
 * Gabriel Retes
 * Carlos Reygadas
 * Arturo Ripstein
 * Carolina Rivas
 * Alonso Ruizpalacios
 * Carlos Salces
 * Antonio Serrano
 * Alejandro Springall
 * José Antonio Torres
 * Alfredo Zacarías

Cinematographers

 * Gabriel Beristain
 * Henner Hofmann
 * Emmanuel Lubezki
 * Guillermo Navarro
 * Rodrigo Prieto

Composers

 * Victor Hernández Stumpfhauser
 * Leoncio "Bon" Lara
 * Mario Lavista

Actors

 * Elena Sánchez Valenzuela- First Mexican movie star   †
 * Mimí Derba  †
 * Lupita Tovar  †
 * Emma Roldán  †
 * Sofía Álvarez  †
 * Dolores Camarillo  †
 * Andrea Palma  †
 * Domingo Soler  †
 * Stella Inda  †
 * Juan Orol  †
 * María Luisa Zea  †
 * José Mojica  †
 * Amparo Arozamena  †
 * Esther Fernández  †
 * Anita Blanch  †
 * Pedro Armendáriz  †
 * Tito Guízar  †
 * Carlos López Moctezuma  †
 * René Cardona  †
 * Cantinflas  †
 * Arturo de Córdova  †
 * Joaquín Pardavé  †
 * Lupe Vélez  †
 * Jorge Negrete  †
 * Gloria Marín  †
 * Mapy Cortés  †
 * Ángel Garasa  †
 * Emilio Fernández  †
 * Isabela Corona  †
 * Sara García  †
 * Emilio Tuero  †
 * Ramón Novarro  †
 * María Elena Marqués  †
 * Fernando Soler  †
 * Leticia Palma  †
 * Julián Soler  †
 * Miguel Inclán  †
 * Antonio Badú  †
 * María Félix  †
 * María Elena Velasco  †
 * Beatriz Aguirre  †

 * María Antonieta Pons  †
 * Lupe Mayorga  †
 * Tito Junco  †
 * Andres Soler  †
 * Dolores del Río – First Mexican international star   †
 * Ricardo Montalbán  †
 * Delia Magaña  †
 * Gilbert Roland  †
 * Katy Jurado – First Mexican Academy Award nominee  †
 * Rita Macedo  †
 * Carmen Montejo  †
 * Pedro Infante  †
 * Anthony Quinn – First Mexican Academy Award winner  †
 * Eva "Chachita" Muñoz  †
 * Emilia Guiú  †
 * Roberto Cañedo  †
 * Víctor Junco  †
 * Luis Aguilar  †
 * Meche Barba  †
 * Ernesto Alonso  †
 * Rosario Granados  †
 * Tin Tan  †
 * Marga López  †
 * Prudencia Grifell  †
 * Columba Domínguez  †
 * Rafael Banquells  †
 * Fannie Kauffman "Vitola"   †
 * Fernando Fernández  †
 * Miroslava  †
 * Ninón Sevilla  †
 * Libertad Lamarque  †
 * Joaquín Cordero  †
 * Marcelo Chávez  †
 * Blanca Estela Pavón  †
 * Rita Montaner  †
 * Lilia Prado  †
 * Arturo Martínez  †
 * Martha Roth  †
 * Magda Guzmán  †

 * Rodolfo Acosta  †
 * Su Muy Key  †
 * Silvia Derbéz  †
 * Rebeca Iturbide  †
 * Roberto Cobo  †
 * Chula Prieto  †
 * Jorge Mistral  †
 * Ramón Gay  †
 * Adalberto Martínez  †
 * Arturo Soto Rangel  †
 * Rubén Rojo  †
 * Linda Christian  †
 * Ariadne Welter  †
 * Lilia del Valle  †
 * Antonio Espino "Clavillazo"   †
 * Enrique Rambal   †
 * Ana Bertha Lepe   †
 * Evangelina Elizondo   †
 * Sara Montiel   †
 * Eulalio González "Piporro"   †
 * Irasema Dilián   †
 * Antonio Aguilar   †
 * Maricruz Olivier   †
 * Lucy Gallardo   †
 * Germán Robles   †
 * Jaime Fernández   †
 * Francisco Rabal   †
 * Pina Pellicer   †
 * Teresa Velázquez   †
 * Julio Alemán   †
 * Rodolfo Guzmán Huerta "El Santo"   †
 * Alejandro Muñoz Moreno "Blue Demon"   †
 * Fanny Cano   †
 * Claudio Brook †
 * Mauricio Garcés   †
 * David Reynoso   †
 * Enrique Álvarez Félix   †
 * Barbara Angely    †
 * Pedro Armendáriz Jr.    †
 * Mario Almada     †
 * Rosita Fornés †

Directors

 * Luis Alcoriza  †
 * Luis Buñuel  †
 * Arcady Boytler  †
 * Julio Bracho  †
 * Juan Bustillo Oro  †
 * René Cardona  †
 * René Cardona Jr.  †
 * Miguel Contreras Torres  †
 * Rafael Corkidi  †
 * Miguel M. Delgado  †
 * José Díaz Morales  †
 * Emilio ("El Indio") Fernández  †
 * Fernando de Fuentes  †
 * Alejandro Galindo  †
 * Roberto Gavaldón  †

 * Rogelio A. González  †
 * Servando González  †
 * Alberto Gout  †
 * Jaime Humberto Hermosillo  †
 * Mario Hernández  †
 * Miguel Morayta  †
 * Juan Orol  †
 * Matilde Landeta  †
 * Ismael Rodriguez  †
 * Julio Bracho  †
 * Ninón Sevilla  †
 * Gilberto Martínez Solares  †
 * Carlos Enrique Taboada  †
 * Salvador Toscano  †
 * Miguel Zacarías  †

The Dictionary of Mexican Cinema Directors published by the Cineteca Nacional México provides an archive of Mexican filmmakers since silent movies to actuality, and provides data, investigations, information and news.

Cinematographers

 * Gabriel Figueroa  †
 * Alex Phillips  †

Composers

 * Gonzalo Curiel †
 * Manuel Esperón  †
 * Agustín Lara  †
 * Raúl Lavista  †

title: Cinema of Mexico


text:
Communes of the Creuse department

The following is a list of the 256 communes of the Creuse department of France.

The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
 * Communauté d'agglomération du Grand Guéret
 * Communauté de communes de Bénévent-Grand-Bourg
 * Communauté de communes Creuse Confluence
 * Communauté de communes Creuse Grand Sud
 * Communauté de communes Creuse Sud Ouest
 * Haute-Corrèze Communauté (partly)
 * Communauté de communes Marche et Combraille en Aquitaine
 * Communauté de communes du Pays Dunois
 * Communauté de communes du Pays Sostranien
 * Communauté de communes Portes de la Creuse en Marche

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Communes of the Creuse department


text:
User:Aratuk

Hello.

title: User:Aratuk


text: Template:Troms

title: Template:Troms


text:
Incidental effect

Incidental effect is a concept in European Union law that allows the use of indirect effect of EU directives in private legal actions. While an individual cannot be sued for failure to comply with an EU directive, the state's failure to comply can be an incidental factor in a suit against an individual, where it will not impose legal obligations upon them.

The concept was defined by the European Court of Justice in Case C-194/94 CIA Security International SA v. Signalson SA and Securitel Sprl. CIA had attempted to market a burglar alarm in Belgium that was not compatible with Belgian technical specifications. However, the Belgian government had failed to report these specifications to the EU, as required by a directive in 1983. The court ruled that this constituted a substantial degradation of the effectiveness of the directive, which was intended to lower barriers to trade, and that the Belgian government's breach of the directive made the Belgian law inapplicable to individuals.

This concept was especially important in the field of contracts. The Court of Justice stated that a substantial procedural defect in implementing a directive could nullify a national law in the context of a contract, and gave national courts the power to interpret such legal problems based on their own contract law.

title: Incidental effect


text:
Sea mark

A sea mark, also seamark and navigation mark, is a form of aid to navigation and pilotage that identifies the approximate position of a maritime channel, hazard, or administrative area to allow boats, ships, and seaplanes to navigate safely.

There are three types of sea mark: beacons fixed to the seabed or on shore, towers (sometimes rock cairns) built on the shore or on a submerged rock/object (especially in calmer waters), and buoys (consisting of a floating object that is usually anchored to a specific location on the bottom of the sea or to a submerged object).

Sea marks are used to indicate channels, dangerous rocks or shoals, mooring positions, areas of speed limits, traffic separation schemes, submerged shipwrecks, and for a variety of other navigational purposes. Some are only intended to be visible in daylight (daymarks), others have some combination of lights, reflectors, fog bells, foghorns, whistles and radar reflectors to make them usable at night and in conditions of reduced visibility.

Marks are shown on nautical charts, using symbols that indicate their colour, shape and light characteristic, and are usually identified by name or number.

In a wider sense the phrase "sea mark" is often understood to include all types of landmarks, structures and devices that can be used to provide warning and guiding signs to mariners. Thus a sea mark can be and often is located on dry land. Examples of land-based sea marks are various signal lights and leading marks. The latter are mainly used to indicate the centerline of a fairway in narrow passages. Sea marks may also on occasion be used to help mark the boundaries of defensive sea minefields, or the safe lanes through same, especially during wartime.

Definitions
The International Association of Lighthouse Authorities defines one system of marks specifying the shapes, colours and characteristic lights of buoys depending on their purpose, the IALA Maritime Buoyage System. For historical reasons, there are two regions of lateral marks in use:

 * IALA Region B in the Americas, the Philippines, South Korea and Japan
 * IALA Region A everywhere else.

The two regions differ principally in the colours used to denote the two sides of a channel. When approaching a harbour from seaward, Region A places conical green marks to starboard and cylindrical red ones to port. In Region B these are replaced with conical red marks to starboard and cylindrical green ones to port. This can be remembered (for Region B) with the mnemonic "Red, right, return". Another Region B mnemonic, which also helps with buoy numbering is "Even Red Left Port" (as in Eric the Red) - Even Numbered buoys are red, on your left (port) side leaving port. In any case, since in many harbours it is not always apparent which direction is seaward, buoys should be used in connection with the appropriate nautical chart. Additionally, since marks may be off station due to collision with ships, storms or other factors, they should be used with caution and not relied on solely for navigation. The two regions are often referred to as two systems, which was the original intent. In 1980 it was decided however to combine these systems and distinguish between regions.

Mark types

 * Cardinal mark
 * Emergency wreck buoy
 * Isolated danger mark
 * Lateral mark
 * Leading lights
 * Safe water mark
 * Special mark

Other

 * ATON
 * Buoy
 * Daymark
 * Landmark
 * Lighthouse
 * Lightvessel
 * Racon

title: Sea mark


text:
Ransom E. Olds

Ransom Eli Olds (June 3, 1864 – August 26, 1950) was a pioneer of the American automotive industry, after whom the Oldsmobile and REO brands were named. He claimed to have built his first steam car as early as 1887 and his first gasoline-powered car in 1896. The modern assembly line and its basic concept is credited to Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash, beginning in 1901.

Early life
Olds was born in Geneva, Ohio, the youngest son of blacksmith and pattern-maker Pliny Fiske Olds and his wife, Sarah Whipple Olds. He was of English descent, with origins in Dorset, England. His parents moved the family to Cleveland, Ohio, when Olds was still a boy. He eventually settled in Lansing, Michigan, where he attended high-school before dropping out so that he could work full-time at the family company, P.F. Olds & Son. The company built and sold some steam engines but made most of its money doing repair work. While in Lansing he also married Metta Ursula Woodward on June 5, 1889.

Oldsmobile
He founded the Olds Motor Vehicle Company in Lansing, Michigan, on August 21, 1897. The company was bought by a copper and lumber magnate named Samuel L. Smith in 1899 and renamed Olds Motor Works. The new company was relocated from Lansing to Detroit. Smith became president while Olds became vice president and general manager.

By 1901 Olds had built 11 prototype vehicles, including at least one of each power mode: steam, electricity and gasoline. In 1934, he received a patent for a diesel engine. He was the only American automotive pioneer to produce and sell at least one of each mode of automobile.

On March 9, 1901, the Olds Motor Works factory burned to the ground. Only one model, the little Curved Dash runabout, was saved from the flames. Ransom Olds claimed it was the fire that made him select the runabout, from among his many other models, to put into production. His biographer questions the veracity of this story. He points to an Olds advertising blitz that had already led to more than 300 Curved Dash orders even before the fire took place. "Olds did not need the one rescued car from which to reconstruct the plans and patterns for the runabout."

Later that year, Olds had his company's test driver, Roy Chapin, drive a Curved Dash runabout to the second annual New York Automobile Show. Along the way, Chapin opted to drive up onto the Erie Canal tow path to escape the mire of New York state roads. After eight days of driving, he reached the Waldorf Astoria hotel but was turned away at the door. His mud-spattered attire was so disreputable that he was sent to the servants' entrance in back.

During the auto show Olds pushed hard to make sales. When one dealer offered to purchase 500, Olds retorted, "I would like to see you make this order for a thousand cars. Then the public would drop its jaw and take notice." The deal was signed, and though the dealer ended up selling only 750 to the public, it was the original number that everyone remembered.

The Curved Dash Oldsmobile sold for $650, equal to $0 today. About 600 were sold in 1901, about 3,000 in 1902 and at least 4,000 in 1904. It was this car, rather than Henry Ford's Model T, that was the first mass-produced, low-priced American motor vehicle.

As Smith's son, Frederic L. Smith, came into the business, he and Olds clashed frequently until Fred Smith removed Olds from the position of vice president and general manager in 1904, and Olds left his company. He went on to form the R.E. Olds Motor Car Company. Its name was quickly changed to REO Motor Car Company to avoid a lawsuit from the Olds Motor Works. The name REO came from the initials of his name, but was intended to be an acronym, and thus pronounced as a word. Sometimes it was spelled as "Reo" to emphasize this pronunciation. Olds served as president (until 1925) and later chairman of REO. The band REO Speedwagon took its name from the REO Speed Wagon light delivery truck, an ancestor of pickup trucks, though the band pronounces each letter in REO individually rather than pronouncing REO as a word.

The Olds Motor Works was bought by General Motors in 1908. General Motors discontinued the Oldsmobile brand in 2004, after 107 years in business.

In 1946, Ransom Olds started building lawnmowers as the Lawn Mower Division of REO motors.

Assembly line
Olds was the first person to use a stationary assembly line in the automotive industry. Henry Ford came after him, and was the first to use a moving assembly line to manufacture cars. The new assembly approach enabled Olds to more than quintuple his factory's output, from 425 cars in 1901 to 2,500 in 1902.

Oldsmar
In 1916, Olds purchased 37,547 acres (152 km2) of land by the northern part of Tampa Bay in Florida and developed the area into what is now the city of Oldsmar. He traded his land for the Fort Harrison Hotel in Clearwater, Florida in 1926.

Other Lansing businesses
In 1906, Olds organized the Capital National Bank, later called Lansing National Bank, and Michigan National Bank. Olds was also involved in the organization of the Michigan Screw Company and Atlas Drop Forge Company, all in Lansing, Michigan.

Olds was the primary financier of the Olds Tower. When completed in 1931 it was the tallest office building in Lansing and retains that distinction today. Located at 124 West Allegan Street, the building is now called the Boji Tower.

Olds was also involved in the Hotel Olds at 111 South Capitol Avenue in Lansing. Today this is known as the George W. Romney Building, where the office of the governor of Michigan is located.

Racing
Olds was also famous for his auto racing on the beaches of Florida at Ormond and Daytona. He had the first timed run on the beach in a solo run sometime between 1894 and 1897. In 1896 or 1897, rich automobile pioneers Olds and Alexander Winton (Winton Motor Carriage Company) staged an unofficial event; Winton beat Olds by 0.20 second.

Politics
Olds was a Republican and served as a delegate from Michigan's 6th District to the 1908 Republican National Convention, which nominated William Howard Taft for president.

Residence
In the early 1900s, Olds built an elaborate Queen Anne-style mansion on South Washington Avenue in Lansing. Among the home's many technological innovations was a turntable in the garage which allowed Olds to pull in at night and leave again the next morning without driving in reverse. The mansion was demolished in 1966 to make way for Interstate 496, which was then named for Olds himself. The architectural drawings of that house are in the archives of the State of Michigan.

Honors
He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1946.

Posthumous
In 1992, the family's mausoleum was vandalized and remains were taken.

title: Ransom E. Olds


text:
Griqua people

The Griquas are a subgroup of mixed-race heterogeneous formerly Xiri -speaking nations in South Africa with a unique origin in the early history of the Dutch Cape Colony. Like the Boers they migrated inland from the Cape and in the 19th century established several states in what is now South Africa and Namibia. The Griqua consider themselves as being South Africa’s first multiracial nation with people descended directly from Dutch settlers in the Cape, and local peoples.

History
Griqua was the name given to a mixed-race culture in the Cape Colony of South Africa, around the 17th and 18th centuries (Taylor, 2020). They were also known as Hottentots before Europeans arrived in their lands where they lived as close-knit families. Griqua people s multiple historical backgrounds have interwoven with rigid apartheid classification, academic attempts to fix the parameters of Griqua identity and the diversity of Griqua ethnic experience to produce a situation of paradoxical status. They are a racially and culturally mixed people who are primarily descendants from European colonist men, and primarily Khoikhoi slaves. The Griquas could trace their forefathers to two clans, the Koks and Barendse, the first was made up mainly of Khoikhoi and the second of mixed European descent. Genetic studies of the 21st century have shown these people also had Tswana, San, and Xhosa ancestry. Later, the Europeans chose mixed-race women of the Khoikhoi, who were living in the Cape during the 17th and 18th centuries. As time went on, mixed-race people began to marry among themselves, establishing a distinct ethnic group that tended to be more assimilated to Dutch and European ways than tribal peoples in separated villages. During Apartheid, the Griqua were racially classified under the broader category of "Coloured" (Taylor, 2020).

Throughout the 18th century, new communities characterized by race, culture, religion, and unequal access to property and power started to form; they came to be connected by spoken word. The term "Bastaards" was used to describe one of these groups of people; it referred to the descendants of marriages between Europeans, slaves, and Khoisan. The word was also applied to subordinate blacks who were proficient in Dutch, could ride horses, and could shoot. Bastaards': or Basters': worked on farms owned by White people in more specialized roles as craftsmen and transport riders. Later, they traveled into the interior bearing these abilities. Originally, the term "Bastaards" referred to people who were more "civilized" and religiously devoted than the Khoikhoi or slaves.

Slavery was practiced in the Dutch East India Company-controlled Cape Colony, and the mixed-race groups that developed in the early Cape Colony as a result of white settler interaction with captured Khoi people who began to work around the farms, eventually opted different names for themselves, including Bastards, Basters, Korana, Oorlam or Oorlam Afrikaners, and Griqua. Like the Afrikaners, or "Boers" as they were known in that time, many of these groups migrated inland when the British took over the colonial administration. The Khoisan and the Mozambiquans were the one group of people that was often looked down onto as the jobs given to them and the way they lived was not up to standards. The word "Afrikaner" itself was originally (for over 350 years) used as a description for not white Boers but a mixed-race bastard child. The name 'Baster' and 'Bastards' were not derived from the English word "bastard", but rather the Dutch word meaning "hybrid".

It was only around 1876 that a group of Boer intellectuals, who named themselves "The fellowship of real Afrikaners", decided to use the term as a new means to describe the Boer people, as part of the project to create a new national identity for pioneer Boer people during the First and Second Boer Wars and for more powerful political legitimacy. This is why today many Afrikaans-speaking white people are still known as Afrikaners, as this message was powerfully conveyed as a national identity during the times of the South African Union (1910–1961) and the apartheid years of the Republic of South Africa.

According to the 18th-century Dutch historian Isaak Tirion, the Khoi name Griqua (or Grigriqua) is first recorded in 1730 about a group of people living in the northeastern section of the Cape Colony. In 1813, Reverend John Campbell of the London Missionary Society (LMS) used the term Griqua to describe a mixed-race group of Chariguriqua (a Cape Khoikhoi group), Bastaards, Korana, and Tswana living at the site of present-day Griekwastad (then known as Klaarwater). Klaarwater was the first Griqua settlement which emerged in the early 19th century in what is now the Northern Cape province of South Africa. Established by the Griqua leader Adam Kok I, Klaarwater served as a refuge and trading hub for Griqua communities, as well as for other indigenous groups and European settlers. The settlement grew rapidly, attracting people from various backgrounds seeking economic opportunities and protection from conflicts in the region. Klaarwater's strategic location facilitated trade routes between the interior of Southern Africa and the Cape Colony, contributing to its significance as a cultural and economic center. Despite facing challenges such as colonial expansion and land dispossession, Klaarwater played a pivotal role in the history of the Griqua people and remains an important symbol of their resilience and cultural heritage. The British found their "proud name", Bastaards, offensive, so the LMS called them Griqua. The term Bastaards refers to a group of people of mixed origin. The Bastaards were not given legal status because of them being "Mixed". The Griquas were not happy about this and built a force of their own. The Bastaards joined the Khoi and San and the Bastaards made sure that they were skilled men in combat tactics. When it came to war the Griquas decided to flee the Dutch and live the way they wanted to, the way their foremothers had lived.

An insignificant amount of Bastaards groups were formed in the Northwestern and eastern border suburbs of Colesberg, Roggerfeld, Namaqualand, and Hantam. They had European names and were able to speak Afrikaans, and their children were baptized in churches. They have their own church, which is Protestant in South Africa, and that is where their children most likely got baptised. They were informed of commando services.

The actual name was derived from the Chariaguriqua people whose princess became the wife of the first Griqua leader, Adam Kok I (Taylor, 2020). Adam Kok was a liberated slave, who figured out how to acquire burgher rights and a ranch close to the present Piketberg, established the most incredible blended local area. Because of a common ancestor named Griqua and shared links to the Chariguriqua (Grigriqua), the people officially changed their name to the Griqua. Legend has it that in the 1750s, Adam Kok married the daughter of the Chariguriqua, chief of the Khoikhoi clan. Kok was a former slave who managed to rule the Griqua nation and he led his people across the country, South Africa to settle next to the Orange River. He was referred to as the chief of the colored people.

Adam Kok I's father was Cornelius Jacobz who worked for the VOC and his mother was a slave. His father believed that the Cape was The Garden of Eden and this is how Adam got his name. His surname 'Kok' comes from the Dutch word kok which means cook, or chef, an occupation Adam once fulfilled. Kokstad was named after the Griqua chief Adam Kok the Third who settled there in 1863.

Cornelius was the son of Adam Kok III and got baptised by the missionary John Phillip in 1800. This was the beginning of Christianity amongst the Basters. The missionaries did not agree with the degrading name, basters. The Griquas accepted their new name and this is how the mission town Klaarwater's name changed to Griquatown.

The Boers arrived in the area of Griquatown after Natal was taken over by the British. They acquired land from the Griqua, buying it in exchange for horses, liquor, firearms and ammunition. Trouble started when the Kok arrested a Boer accused of ill-treating his people, and the trekker community tried to take over his entire territory. A British force stationed at Colesberg quickly crossed the Orange River and defeated the Boers at Zwartkoppies.

The chief's land was divided in two, one side was to keep the chief and his people busy and the other side was for the Boers who paid rent to the chief and the Cape government.

The arrival of the Boers and the colonial masters to the area known as Griqualand West denied the Griquas the opportunity to follow their own development paths. They lost their land and traditional resources and were tossed into a sea of rapid social change which saw them lose the independence they had searched for in the Orange Free State area. They were disheartened and had to relocate. The Dutch East India Company (VOC) did not intend for its Cape Colony possessions at the southern tip of Africa to develop into a political entity. As the colony expanded and became more successful, its leadership did not worry about its frontiers. As a result, the frontier of the colony was indeterminate and ebbed and flowed at the whim of individuals. While the VOC undoubtedly benefited from the trading and pastoral endeavours of the Trekboers, it did little to control or support them in their quest for land. The high proportion of single Dutch men led to many taking indigenous women as wives and companions, producing mixed-race children. These multiracial offspring gradually developed as a sizable population who spoke Dutch and were instrumental in developing the colony.

These children did not attain the social or legal status accorded their fathers, mostly because colonial laws recognised only Christian forms of marriage. This group became known as Basters, derived from bastaard, the Dutch word for "bastard" (or "crossbreed"). As part of the European colonists' paramilitary response to insurgent resistance from Khoi and San peoples, they conscripted Basters men into commando units. This allowed the men to become skilled in lightly armed and mounted skirmish tactics. In the winter of 1831, a Ndebele commando attacked a Griqua commando led by Gert Hooyman who intruded the Ndebele territory and stole many of their cattle. Hooyman warned the Griqua troops to be vigilant because the Ndebele might come for revenge at any time. They ignored him and on this night the Ndebele attacked the Griquas while they were still feasting on their stolen cattle. Around 1000 Griqua men were killed on the now famous hill called Moordkop. But many recruited to war chose to abandon Dutch society and strike out to pursue a way of life more in keeping with their maternal culture. The resulting stream of disgruntled Dutch-speaking marksmen leaving the Cape hobbled the primarily Dutch colonists' ability to crew commando units. It also created belligerent, skilled groups of opportunists who harassed indigenous populations along the Orange River. Once free of colonial rule, these groups referred to themselves as Oorlam. In particular, the group led by Klaas Afrikaner became notorious for its exploits. They attracted enough attention from the Dutch authorities that Afrikaner was eventually rendered to the colony and banished to Robben Island in 1761.

Griqua migrations
The Griquas settled on the outskirts of the Cape Colony since they were neither European nor African. They formed their own communities and spoke Afrikaans. The Griqua surnames were predominantly Afrikaans and are still common in the coloured community today. Many of the Griqua men enlisted to do commando service. However, the Griquas were constantly being removed from their land as the Europeans took preference over them. This caused the Griquas to move away from the Cape colony in search of their own land. This migration was in two main groups the Kok and Barends families.

One of the most influential of these Griqua groups was the Oorlam. In the 19th century, the Griqua controlled several political entities that were governed by Kapteins (Dutch for "Captain") and their councils, with their own written constitutions. The first Griqua Kaptein was Adam Kok I, a former slave who had bought his own freedom. Kok led his people north from the interior of the Cape Colony, likely to escape discrimination, before moving north again. As Voortrekker moved North to Natal and found out the Natal was under British control, they remembered the good lands they had passed through so they moved back over the Drankensberg [O'Connel, 2013].

He eventually led them beyond the Cape Colony, near the Orange River just west and south of what would eventually become the Boer Republics of the Orange Free State and Transvaal, respectively. This area is where most of the tribe settled, although some remained nomadic. Prior to beginning their migrations, the Griqua had largely adopted what would be known as the Afrikaans language. Adam Kok I, the first Kaptein of the Griqua and recognised by the British, was originally a slave who had bought his own freedom. He led his people north from the interior of the Cape Colony. Probably because of discrimination against his people, they again moved north—this time outside the Cape, taking over areas previously controlled by San and Tswana people.

Adam Kok, head of the Griquas at Nomansland, on the demand of the teacher John Campbell, concocted the name Griqua. They set up a fundamental arrangement of government dependent on pioneers known as kaptyns and officers drawn from the main families. However, Kok had a rival known as Nicholas Waterboer, he ruled the farthest west of Kimberley. He was no threat to Kok until diamonds were discovered there. Kok's successor, Andries Waterboer, founded Griqualand West, and controlled it until the influx of Europeans after the discovery of diamonds. In 1834, the Cape Colony recognised Waterboer's rights to his land and people. It signed a treaty with him to ensure payment by Europeans for the use of the land for mining. In 1876, Chief Waterboer was caught and jailed when he tried to free some of his followers from a prison work gang. The diamond fields were named after him. It wasn't until October 18, 1880, that the Cape Parliament's Bill of Annexation became law (SESA 1972). It was passed on August 5, 1879. In 1877, a census of Griqualand West showed that the province had 44,877 people living in it, with 12,374 of them being of European descent. (Griqua | South African History Online)

In the first 15 years of Griqua Philippolis, Adam Kok II, and the most important of his successors, Adam Kok III, constructed a system of private ownership in land. This was a rather novel land regime at the time for all polities in this part of sub-Saharan Africa, and for it to persevere in the face of increasing white interest in the region, the Griqua state — or ‘captaincy’ — needed to be extensive, bureaucratic, and respected: resilient in the face of serious challenge, coherent to both the Cape Colony administration and Boer communities.1 The organisation of this captaincy was key to its success. The Captain sat at the head of his volksraad, a nominated council of varying size and influence. The raad would come to decisions collectively, but the Captain always retained a right of veto. Together, the Captain and raad codified laws and pencilled out their own land titles. The enforcement of these laws was mostly left up to other executive roles, including the veldkornets, who performed a similar magisterial and policing role as the Boer officials of the same title did, and the kommandants, who also acted as police but were mostly in charge of organising military campaigns and commandos. Another important founding father of the Griquas was Barend Barends. He led a group of Griquas to fight against Mzilikazi at Moordkop in the North West Province. The battle led to the deaths of many Griquas. Barends was no match for Milikazi and many of the Griqua soldiers died during this battle. Trudie (Barends Granddaughter) was captured by Milikazi and forced to join Milikazi as his harem. It is rumoured that she was later rescued by a missionary, Robert Moffet. It is believed that Griqua blood runs through the Ndebele people from the children that Trudie bore during her years with Milikazi.

Current situation
Despite similarly mixed-race origins, those Coloured peoples identifying as Basters are considered to be a separate ethnic group and live primarily in south-central Namibia, while those who consider themselves Griqua are mostly located around Campbell and Griquatown in the historic territory of Griqualand West in the Northern Cape; around the small Le Fleur Griqua settlement at Kranshoek in the Western Cape; and at Kokstad in KwaZulu-Natal. It is important to note that the Griqua nation, largely founded on the Khoikhoi, were pastoral people who lived a laid-back life at one with nature and their surroundings.

Due primarily to the racial policies of South Africa during the apartheid era, many Griqua people accepted classification in the larger "Coloured" group for fear that their Griqua roots might place them at a lower level than other groups. As a result, estimates of the size of the Griqua population are difficult to determine and remain largely unknown. During apartheid, the Griqua were further marginalized when they were not given "Griquastans" or special territorial reserves.

Genetic evidence indicates that the majority of the present-day Griqua population is descended from a combination of European, Khoikhoi and Tswana ancestors, with a small percentage of San, or Bushmen, ancestry. Griqua historians in South Africa and Namibia are digging into their past and telling their stories. Building work started on the Griqualand West Supreme Court, on the Market Square in 1882 and took two years to complete, opening in February 1884. This was short-lived as the building was declared unsafe in 1886, partially demolished and rebuilt. The clock tower (with clock) was added on in 1889. The building remained the Supreme Court of Griqualand West until 1968 when it moved to its present position in the Civic Centre (Malay Camp), but was retained as the Magistrate’s Court until May 1990 when the staff moved into their new premises on Knight Street – opened officially by Kobie Coetsee on 22 February 1991.

In 1999, the National Khoi-San Council (NKC) was established and facilitated discussions between these indigenous people and the South African Government. They discussed and collaborated on many issues concerning the Khoisan people. Griqua people are represented by the National Khoisan Consultative Conference (Afrikaans: Nasionale Khoe-San Oorlegplegende Konferensie), which was established in Oudtshoorn in 2001 to represent the interests of South Africa's Khoisanid peoples. The conference participates in cooperative research and development projects with the provincial government of the Western Cape and the University of the Free State in Bloemfontein. Members of the influential Le Fleur clan of Griqua are especially represented in this body.

The Griqua established their own church, known as the Griqua Church, which is Protestant. The Church has a strong focus on maintaining Griqua cultural and ethnic identity. They are represented mostly in South Central Namibia. The church was the first church to be established in South Africa in 1920.

One of several disputed theories as to the origin of Bloemfontein's name connects it to the Griqua leader Jan Bloem (1775–1858). However, this may be a coincidence as Bloemfontein is Dutch for "fountain of flowers", or "blooming fountain", and the area could have been named for its local vegetation.

The Griquas started a campaign in 1994 to bring back the remains of Saartjie Baartman from France. The GNC (Griqua National Conference) wanted to see the original identity of the Griqua nation restored. Saartjie was a member of the Khoikhoi people. She was a slave who was taken to Europe to be viewed as a 'freak show attraction' by people who paid to do so. The Griquas wanted to honor their Khoi forefathers by at least being able to bury her body in her homeland.

Griqualand
Several areas of South Africa became known as 'Griqualand' when the group migrated inland from the Cape and established separate communities. The Griqua were the first from the Cape to make their way to and remain in the Transorangia area, beyond the Orange River. Some Griqua raided the Tlhaping, a Tswana speaking community, while others obtained cattle from them which was used to trade with the Cape farmers for firearms, horses, and wagons. Griqualand East, officially known as New Griqualand was one of four short-lived Griqua states in Southern Africa from the early 1860s until the late 1870s and was located between the Umzimkulu and Kinira Rivers, south of the Sotho Kingdom. Is the area around Kokstad on KwaZulu-Natal's frontier with the Eastern Cape. It was a historical division in the Eastern Cape province approximately 19000 km2. This area was named after Adam Kok III. In 1861–1862, Kok III led more than 2,000 Griqua through Basutoland over the Drakensberg mountains. They settled on a piece of unclaimed territory between Pondoland and Natal which subsequently became known as Griqualand East. The region remained independent for a few years before the territory was annexed by Britain. Griqua descendants are now largely concentrated in Kokstad, where the Griqua Church (Protestant) is the center of the community.

Griqualand West is the area around Kimberley, which became an important mining town in the decades following the first local discovery of diamonds in 1866. Ownership of the diamond fields was contested by the Boer republics of the Orange Free State and the Transvaal, as well as various other groups like the KhoiKhoi, Koranas under Andries Waterboer, and the Batlhaping under Chief Mankuroane.In 1870, Transvaal President Andries Pretorius declared the diamond fields as Boer property. "Griquatown Gold" known as Tiger's Eye is the only feasible mining that can be traced back to Adam Kok and his ancestors. Kimberley is also known for its sports teams, including the Griquas rugby team, which competes in South Africa's annual Currie Cup tournament and contests its home matches at Griqua Park. With the arrival of the Boers to Griqualand West, the Griqua lost their land and traditional cultures and were tossed into a rapidly changing Orange Free State area.

Griqua people

 * Adam Kok III
 * Adam Kok I
 * Barend Barends
 * Andries Waterboer
 * Petrus Marais
 * Andries Le Fleur

Afrikaans Literature
die vergete kaptein van Danielskuil
 * Barend Barends (2019)

The Griqua Captaincy of Philippolis 1826-1861
 * Karl Schoeman

The Griquas of Griqualand -The origins and history of the Griqua people of South Africa. The Griqua Conundrum: Political and Socio-Cultural Identity in the Northern Cape, South Africa
 * S.J. Halford
 * Linda Waldmann

title: Griqua people


text:
Talk:List of towns in France

What is the difference between cities and towns in France??? olivier 11:01, Feb 26, 2004 (UTC)
 * I really wonder what the author of this page meant by distinguishing cities or towns ? It's totally meaningless... Phido

I propose to replace this list with Category:Cities, towns and villages of France, unless anyone has any objections. -- ChrisO 15:53, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Wouldn't it be more appropriate to make "Cities, towns and villages" a subcategory of the category "France?" Like so: Category:France:Cities, towns and villages Kevyn 21:09, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

 * Possibly, but it's a bit late in the day for that... however, it's possible to achieve the same thing by adding Category:France to Category:Cities, towns and villages of France. A bit unorthodox perhaps, but the programmers seem to have anticipated it, fortunately. :-) -- ChrisO 21:40, 11 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Are cities and towns outside of Metropolitan France included on this list? Thank you. — Instantnood 09:12 Mar 1 2005 (UTC)

I actually do not find this list to be very helpful for several reasons. There seems to be no overriding criterion for inclusion on this list; many very small towns are included, whereas many much larger cities are excluded. Furthermore, someone searching for the name of a city gets no approximate location since its department or region are not given. It would probably be more efficient to delete this page altogether and replace it with the List of cities in France over 20,000 population (1999 census), which is a comprehensive listing of all French communes over 20,000 population (and excludes all those smaller), and gives their location both by department and region (including overseas departments as well). Backspace 01:52, 12 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I agree that the current page is useless. olivier 12:42, 12 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree too. What would be most helpful would be a list of cities by decreasing order of population. That would also serve to focus our efforts slightly when choosing which articles to work on. Much better to work on a page of a city with 100,000 inhabitants than one with 100! Do we have such a list anywhere?
 * If we do that, then for the "exhaustive" list of communes, the existing lists of communes in each département should suffice. Stevage 12:58, 26 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Ah, perfect: fr:Grandes villes de France. Stevage 13:00, 26 May 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of towns in France


text:
Adenoma

An adenoma is a benign tumor of epithelial tissue with glandular origin, glandular characteristics, or both. Adenomas can grow from many glandular organs, including the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, thyroid, prostate, and others. Some adenomas grow from epithelial tissue in nonglandular areas but express glandular tissue structure (as can happen in familial polyposis coli). Although adenomas are benign, they should be treated as pre-cancerous. Over time adenomas may transform to become malignant, at which point they are called adenocarcinomas. Most adenomas do not transform. However, even though benign, they have the potential to cause serious health complications by compressing other structures (mass effect) and by producing large amounts of hormones in an unregulated, non-feedback-dependent manner (causing paraneoplastic syndromes). Some adenomas are too small to be seen macroscopically but can still cause clinical symptoms.

Histopathology
Adenoma is a benign tumor of glandular tissue, such as the mucosa of stomach, small intestine, and colon, in which tumor cells form glands or gland-like structures. In hollow organs (digestive tract), the adenoma grows into the lumen - adenomatous polyp or polypoid adenoma. Adenomatous polyps may be classified based on morphology in order to identify lesions at increased risk of malignant transformation. For example, adenomatous polyps in the colon may be pedunculated (lobular head with a long slender stalk) or sessile (broad base).

The adenomatous proliferation is characterized by different degrees of cell dysplasia (atypia or loss of normal differentiation of epithelium) irregular cells with hyperchromatic nuclei, stratified or pseudostratified nuclei, nucleolus, decreased mucosecretion, and mitosis. The architecture may be tubular, villous, or tubulo-villous. Basement membrane and muscularis mucosae are intact.

Colon
Adenomas of the colon, also called adenomatous polyps, are quite prevalent. They are found commonly at colonoscopy. They are removed because of their tendency to become malignant and to lead to colon cancer.

Ashkenazi Jews have a 6% higher risk rate of getting adenomas, and then colon cancer, than do the general population, so it is important that they have regular actual colonoscopies, and specifically none of the less invasive diagnostic methods.

Renal
This is a tumor that is most often small and asymptomatic, and is derived from renal tubules. It may be a precursor lesion to renal carcinoma.

Adrenal
Adrenal adenomas are common, and are often found on the abdomen, usually not as the focus of investigation; they are usually incidental findings. About one in 10,000 is malignant. Thus, a biopsy is rarely called for, especially if the lesion is homogeneous and smaller than 3 centimeters. Follow-up images in three to six months can confirm the stability of the growth.

While some adrenal adenomas do not secrete hormones at all, often some secrete cortisol, causing Cushing's syndrome, aldosterone causing Conn's syndrome, or androgens causing hyperandrogenism.

Thyroid
About one in 10 people is found to have solitary thyroid nodules. Investigation is required because a small percentage of these is malignant. Biopsy usually confirms the growth to be an adenoma, but, sometimes, excision at surgery is required, especially when the cells found at biopsy are of the follicular type.

Pituitary
Pituitary adenomas are seen in 10% of neurological patients. A lot of them remain undiagnosed. Treatment is usually surgical, to which patients generally respond well. The most common subtype, prolactinoma, is seen more often in women, and is frequently diagnosed during pregnancy as the hormone progesterone increases its growth. Medical therapy with cabergoline or bromocriptine generally suppresses prolactinomas; progesterone antagonist therapy has not proven to be successful.

Parathyroid
An adenoma of a parathyroid gland may secrete inappropriately high amounts of parathyroid hormone and thereby cause primary hyperparathyroidism.

Liver
Hepatic adenomas are a rare benign tumour of the liver, which may present with hepatomegaly or other symptoms.

Breast
Breast adenomas are called fibroadenomas. They are often very small and difficult to detect. Often there are no symptoms. Treatments can include a needle biopsy, and/or removal.

Appendix
Adenomas can also appear in the appendix. The condition is extremely rare. The most common version is called cystadenoma. They are usually discovered in the course of examination of the tissue following an appendectomy. If the appendix has ruptured and a tumor is present, this presents challenges, especially if malignant cells have formed and thus spread to the abdomen.

Bronchial
Bronchial adenomas are adenomas in the bronchi. They may cause carcinoid syndrome, a type of paraneoplastic syndrome.

Sebaceous
A sebaceous adenoma is a cutaneous condition characterized by a slow-growing tumour usually presenting as a pink, flesh-coloured, or yellow papule or nodule.

Salivary glands
Most salivary gland tumors are benign – that is, they are not cancer and will not spread to other parts of the body. These tumors are almost never life-threatening. There are many types of benign salivary gland tumors, with names such as adenomas, oncocytomas, Warthin tumors, and benign mixed tumors (also known as pleomorphic adenomas). Benign tumors are almost always cured by surgery. Very rarely, they may become cancer if left untreated for a long time or if they are not completely removed and grow back. It's not clear exactly how benign tumors become cancers. There are many types of salivary gland cancers. Normal salivary glands are made up of several different types of cells, and tumors can start in any of these cell types. Salivary gland cancers are named according to which of these cell types they most look like when seen under a microscope. The main types of cancers are described below. Doctors usually give salivary cancers a grade (from 1 to 3, or from low to high), based on how abnormal the cancers look under a microscope. The grade gives a rough idea of how quickly it is likely to grow and spread.

 * Grade 1 cancers (also called low grade or well differentiated) look very much like normal salivary gland cells. They tend to grow slowly and have a good outcome (prognosis).
 * Grade 2 cancers (also called intermediate grade or moderately differentiated) have an appearance and outlook that is between grade 1 and grade 3 cancers.
 * Grade 3 cancers (also called high grade or poorly differentiated) look very different from normal cells and often grow and/or spread quickly. The outlook for these cancers is usually not as good as for lower grade cancers.

Prostate
Prostate adenoma develops from the periurethral glands at the site of the median or lateral lobes.

Treatment
A physician's response to detecting an adenoma in a patient will vary according to the type and location of the adenoma among other factors. Different adenomas will grow at different rates, but typically physicians can anticipate the rates of growth because some types of common adenomas progress similarly in most patients. Two common responses are removing the adenoma with surgery and then monitoring the patient according to established guidelines.

One common example of treatment is the response recommended by specialty professional organizations upon removing adenomatous polyps from a patient. In the common case of removing one or two of these polyps from the colon from a patient with no particular risk factors for cancer, thereafter the best practice is to resume surveillance colonoscopy after 5–10 years rather than repeating it more frequently than the standard recommendation.

title: Adenoma


text:
Evolution (Twins album)

Evolution (進化論), is the eighth album of Twins and was released September 2003. The disc contains 10 songs.

CD content

 * 1) "Luan Shi Jia Ren" (亂世佳人)
 * 2) "Ni Jiang Ni Ai Wo" (你講你愛我)
 * 3) "Huang Xin Jia Qi" (慌心假期)
 * 4) "You Know What I Mean"
 * 5) "Peng YOu De Ai" (朋友的愛)
 * 6) "Xia Ru Kuang Hua" (夏日狂嘩)
 * 7) "Gao Wen Yu Jia" (高溫瑜伽)
 * 8) "Xiang Gang Niu Yue" (香港紐約)
 * 9) "Beautiful Day"
 * 10) "San Jiao Yuan Wu" (三角圓舞)

title: Evolution (Twins album)


text:
Communes of the Doubs department

The following is a list of the 569 communes of the Doubs department of France.

The communes cooperate in the following intercommunalities (as of 2020):
 * Grand Besançon Métropole
 * Pays de Montbéliard Agglomération
 * Communauté de communes Altitude 800
 * Communauté de communes des Deux Vallées Vertes
 * Communauté de communes du Doubs Baumois
 * Communauté de communes du Grand Pontarlier
 * Communauté de communes des Lacs et Montagnes du Haut-Doubs
 * Communauté de communes Loue-Lison
 * Communauté de communes de Montbenoît
 * Communauté de communes du Pays de Maîche
 * Communauté de communes du Pays de Sancey-Belleherbe
 * Communauté de communes du Pays de Villersexel (partly)
 * Communauté de communes du pays d'Héricourt (partly)
 * Communauté de communes du Plateau de Frasne et du Val de Drugeon
 * Communauté de communes du Plateau de Russey
 * Communauté de communes des Portes du Haut-Doubs
 * Communauté de communes du Val de Morteau
 * Communauté de communes du Val Marnaysien (partly)

title: Communes of the Doubs department


text:
Talk:Melakarta

Paddu: about the spelling issue, instead of trying to list all possible romanizations of a Devanagari word, it might be better to give the most common (as defined by google) anglicization and parenthetically include the accented form, for example:

 * Prithvi (pṛthvī)

hehe What do you say?

-- Arvindn 11:13, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Is there any need for all the links to ragas to have "(raga)" in their title, such as Kanakangi (raga)? If these names are only used for ragas (as I suspect they are), then simply Kanakangi will do. --Camembert

 * You're right, the disamb is redundant. I generated that list with a script, so I put a "(raga)" suffix just to be sure. -- Arvindn 07:29, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Fair enough. I'll take them all out then. --Camembert

History
I've added a bit more information on History section such as the name of Venkatamakhi's work etc.hehe The criticisms of 72 melakarta ragams are not elaborated but just mentioned some arbitrariness and the controversial character of the 72 melakarta system. --Aadal 04:56, 4 August 2006 (UTC)

External links modified
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title: Talk:Melakarta


text:
Rush Hour (1998 film)

Rush Hour is a 1998 American buddy cop action comedy film directed by Brett Ratner and written by Jim Kouf and Ross LaManna from a story by LaManna. It stars Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker as mismatched police officers who are assigned to rescue a Chinese diplomat's abducted daughter. Tom Wilkinson, Chris Penn and Elizabeth Peña play supporting roles. Released on September 18, 1998, the film grossed over $244 million worldwide. Its box office commercial success led to two sequels: Rush Hour 2 (2001) and Rush Hour 3 (2007).

Plot
On the last day of British rule of Hong Kong on June 30, 1997, Detective Inspector Lee of the Royal Hong Kong Police Force leads a raid at the wharf, hoping to arrest the unidentified, anonymous crime lord Juntao. He finds only Sang, Juntao's right-hand man, who escapes in a boat. Lee recovers numerous Chinese cultural treasures stolen by Juntao, which he presents as a farewell victory gift to his departing superiors, Chinese consul Solon Han and British police commander Thomas Griffin.

Two months later after Han takes up his new diplomatic post in Los Angeles, Han's daughter Soo Yung is kidnapped by Sang while on her way to school. Han calls Lee to assist in the case, but the FBI, afraid Lee's involvement could cause an international incident, pawns him off on the LAPD. Detective James Carter is tricked into "babysitting" Lee as punishment for botching a sting operation; when he finds out, he decides to solve the case. Carter takes Lee on a sightseeing tour, keeping him away from the embassy while contacting informants about the kidnapping. Lee makes his own way to the Chinese Consulate, where Han and the FBI await news about his daughter. While arguing with Special Agent in Charge Warren Russ, Carter unwittingly negotiates with Sang, arranging a $50 million ransom drop.

The FBI traces the call to a warehouse, where a team of agents are killed by plastic explosive. Spotting Sang nearby, Lee and Carter give chase but he escapes, dropping the detonator. Carter's colleague, LAPD bomb expert Tania Johnson, traces it to Clive Cobb, a man previously arrested by Carter. Lee presses Clive into revealing his business relationship with Juntao, whom he met at the Foo Chow restaurant in Chinatown, earning Carter's trust. Carter goes to the restaurant alone and sees a surveillance video of Juntao carrying Soo Yung into a van. Lee arrives and saves Carter from Juntao's syndicate, but they are taken off the case as the FBI blames them for the botched ransom drop, with Lee sent back to Hong Kong. However, Carter refuses to give up and appeals to Johnson for assistance to sneak on board Lee's plane, where he persuades the Hong Kong detective to help stop Juntao together.

Griffin later involves himself in the case, revealing more about the HKPF's past with Juntao's syndicate, and implores Han to pay the ransom to avoid further bloodshed. At the opening of a Chinese art exhibition at the Los Angeles Convention Center, overseen by Han and Griffin, the now $70 million ransom is delivered, and Carter, Lee, and Johnson enter disguised as guests. Carter orders the guests to evacuate for safety, angering the FBI, but Lee catches Griffin accepting a remote for the detonator from Sang. Lee and Johnson realize Griffin is Juntao when Carter recognizes him from the Chinatown surveillance tape. Griffin threatens to detonate a bomb vest attached to Soo Yung and demands that the ransom be paid in full, as compensation for the priceless Chinese artifacts which Lee recovered in his raid. Carter sneaks out, locates Soo Yung in the van, and drives it into the building within range of Griffin, preventing him from setting off the vest.

Johnson gets the vest off Soo Yung, while Griffin heads to the roof with the bag of money. Lee takes the vest and pursues Griffin, while Carter shoots Sang dead in a gunfight. Lee has a brief altercation with Griffin that culminates in both dangling from the rafters. Griffin, holding on to the vest, falls to his death when its straps are torn, but when Lee falls, Carter catches him with a large flag. Han and Soo Yung are reunited and Han sends Carter and Lee on vacation to Hong Kong as a reward. Before Carter leaves, agents Russ and Whitney offer him a position in the FBI, which he mockingly refuses. Carter boards the plane with Lee, who annoyingly starts singing Edwin Starr's "War" off-key. Carter yells for a stewardess, desperately demanding he be re-seated.

Cast

 * Jackie Chan as Chief Inspector Lee, a top Hong Kong cop skilled in martial arts who comes to Los Angeles to help his friend find his kidnapped daughter.
 * Chris Tucker as Detective James Carter, a fast-talking street-smart LAPD Detective originally assigned by the FBI to babysit Lee and keep him out of their investigation.
 * Tom Wilkinson as Thomas Griffin/Juntao, a British diplomat and colleague of Han's who is secretly the top crime lord in Hong Kong.
 * Tzi Ma as Consul Solon Han, Soo Yung's father and a Hong Kong diplomat who has just moved to Los Angeles.
 * Ken Leung as Sang, Juntao's second in command.
 * Elizabeth Peña as Detective Tania Johnson, an aspiring bomb squad technician in the LAPD who helps Carter rescue Soo-Yung.
 * Mark Rolston as Special Agent Warren Russ of the FBI.
 * Rex Linn as FBI agent Dan Whitney, Russ’s partner
 * Chris Penn as Clive Cod, a small time arms dealer who was arrested by Carter in a botched sting operation.
 * Philip Baker Hall as Captain Bill Diel, Carter's supervisor. He gives Carter the FBI assignment as punishment for a botched undercover sting operation.
 * Julia Hsu as Soo-Yung Han, Consul Han's daughter who is kidnapped by a criminal organization. She is also a martial arts student of Lee's.
 * John Hawkes as "Stucky", Carter's informant.
 * Clifton Powell as Luke, Carter's cousin and local crime lord.
 * Barry Shabaka Henley as Bobby, a security guard.
 * James Yeung as Mr Pong, a Chinese Cook

Production
Rush Hour began as a spec script written in 1995 by screenwriter Ross LaManna. The screenplay was sold by LaManna's William Morris agent Alan Gasmer to Hollywood Pictures, a division of the Walt Disney Company, with Arthur Sarkissian attached as producer. After attaching director Brett Ratner and developing the project for more than a year with producers including Sarkissian, Jonathan Glickman and Roger Birnbaum, Disney Studios chief Joe Roth put the project into turnaround, citing concerns about the $34 million budget, and Jackie Chan's appeal to American audiences. Several studios were interested in acquiring the project. New Line Cinema was confident in Ratner, having done Money Talks with him, so they made a hard commitment to a budget and start date for Rush Hour.

Martin Lawrence, Wesley Snipes, Chris Rock, Eddie Murphy and Dave Chappelle were considered for the role of Detective James Carter; Murphy turned down the role to do Holy Man instead while Snipes turned down the role in favor of Blade, which the latter was also for New Line Cinema. Chan wanted Lawrence for the role, but he turned it down due to a low offer.

After the success of Rumble in the Bronx, Ratner wanted to put Chan in a buddy-cop movie, not as a co-star or sidekick but on equal footing with an American star. Ratner flew to South Africa where Chan was filming and pitched the film. A few days later Chan agreed to star and not long after flew to Los Angeles and met Chris Tucker, the latter actor who ended up taking the role as Detective James Carter.

Ratner credited Tucker with getting his first feature film Money Talks and thought Tucker and Chan would make a great team. Filming began on November 30, 1997.

Box office
Rush Hour opened at No. 1 in September 1998 at the North American box office, with a weekend gross of $33 million. It surpassed The First Wives Club to have the highest September opening weekend and Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles to have the biggest opening weekend for a New Line Cinema film. The film would hold latter record until the following June when Austin Powers: The Spy Who Shagged Me took it. Rush Hour would continue to hold the September record for three more years until it was surpassed by Sweet Home Alabama in 2002. Overall, it would top the box office for two weeks before getting displaced by Antz. Rush Hour grossed over $140 million in the US and $103 million in the rest of the world, for a total worldwide gross over $244 million.

Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, the film holds an approval rating of 62% based on 77 reviews and an average score of 6.2/10. The website's critical consensus reads, "While it won't win any awards for originality, the combustible chemistry between its stars means Rush Hour hits just as hard on either side of the action-comedy divide." On Metacritic, the film received a weighted average score of 61 out of 100 based on 23 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.

Roger Ebert praised both Jackie Chan, for his entertaining action sequences without the use of stunt doubles, and Chris Tucker, for his comical acts in the film, and how they formed an effective comedic duo. Joe Leydon of Variety called it "a frankly formulaic but raucously entertaining action comedy". Leydon is critical of the editing, saying that it "works against Chan by breaking up the flow of his frenzied physicality." Charles Taylor of Salon.com is critical of Hollywood misusing Jackie Chan: "Chan is a one-of-a-kind performer: Bruce Lee crossed with Donald O'Connor in the "Make 'em Laugh" number from Singin' in the Rain. Hollywood needs to stop treating him as if he were one of those fondue sets given as wedding gifts in the '70s: a foreign novelty shoved in a closet due to absolute cluelessness about what to do with it."

Michael O'Sullivan of The Washington Post calls the film a "misbegotten marriage of sweet and sour" and says, "The problem is it can't make up its mind and, unlike Reese's Peanut Butter Cups, the sharply contrasting flavors of these ingredients only leave a bad taste in the customer's mouth." O'Sullivan says Tucker is miscast, the script "perfunctory and sloppy", and the direction "limp, lethargic". Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly gave the film a grade "C−" and was critical of the buddy comedy, saying, "The two characters barely even have a relationship; they're a union of demographics—the "urban" market meets the slapstick-action market."

Chan has expressed dissatisfaction with the film: "I didn’t like the movie. I still don’t like the movie." Chan continued: "I don’t like the way I speak English, and I don’t know what Chris Tucker is saying". Although he respects the box-office success of Rush Hour, Chan said he preferred the films he made in his native Hong Kong because they delivered more fight scenes: "If you see my Hong Kong movies, you know what happens: Bam bam bam, always Jackie Chan-style, me, 10 minutes of fighting."

Cultural influence
Rush Hour was the catalyst for the creation of the review-aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes. Senh Duong, the website's founder and a Jackie Chan fan, was inspired to create the website after collecting all the reviews of Chan's Hong Kong action films as they were being released in the United States. In anticipation of Rush Hour, Chan's first major Hollywood crossover, he coded the website in two weeks and the site went live shortly before the film's release.

Sequels
A sequel, Rush Hour 2, which was primarily set in Hong Kong, was released in 2001. A third film, Rush Hour 3, which was primarily set in Paris, was released on August 10, 2007. Tucker earned $25 million for his role in the third film and Chan received the film's distribution rights in Asia.

In 2007, before the release of Rush Hour 3, Ratner was optimistic about making a fourth film and potentially having it set in Moscow. In 2017, Chan agreed to a potential script for Rush Hour 4 after years of turning down scripts.

Music
Edwin Starr's "War" was used as the ending theme for the film.

The film's soundtrack features the hit single "Can I Get A..." by Jay-Z, Ja Rule and Amil, as well as tracks by Flesh-n-Bone, Wu-Tang Clan, Dru Hill, Charli Baltimore and Montell Jordan.

The official soundtrack album was certified platinum on January 21, 1999.

Awards

 * 1999 ALMA Awards
 * Winner: Outstanding Actress in a Feature Film (Elizabeth Peña)
 * 1999 BMI Film and TV Awards
 * Winner: BMI Film Music Award (Lalo Schifrin)
 * 1999 Blockbuster Entertainment Awards
 * Winner: Favorite Duo- Action/Adventure (Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker)
 * Nomination: Favorite Supporting Actress- Action/Adventure (Elizabeth Peña)
 * 1999 Bogey Awards (Germany)
 * Winner: Bogey Awards in Silver
 * 1999 Golden Screen (Germany)
 * Winner: Golden Screen
 * 1999 Grammy Awards
 * Nomination: Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television (Lalo Schifrin)
 * 1999 NAACP Image Awards
 * Nomination: Outstanding Lead Actor in a Motion Picture (Chris Tucker)
 * 1999 Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards (United States)
 * Nomination: Favorite Movie Actor (Blimp Award) (Chris Tucker)
 * 1999 MTV Movie Awards
 * Winner: Best On-Screen Duo (Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker)
 * Nomination: Best Comedic Performance (Chris Tucker)
 * Nomination: Best Fight (Jackie Chan and Chris Tucker) (For the fight against the Chinese gang)
 * Nomination: Best Movie Song (Jay-Z) (For Can I Get A...)

title: Rush Hour (1998 film)