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Camerata de' Bardi (orchestra)

The Camerata de' Bardi is the academic orchestra of the University of Pavia in Italy. It was founded in 1989 by Luca Bardi (violinist) and Franco Gerevini (pianist, oboist, and conductor). Its present conductor is Nicola Bisson.

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title: Camerata de' Bardi (orchestra)


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Demagogue

A demagogue (from Greek δημαγωγός, a popular leader, a leader of a mob, from δῆμος, people, populace, the commons + ἀγωγός leading, leader), or rabble-rouser, is a political leader in a democracy who gains popularity by arousing the common people against elites, especially through oratory that whips up the passions of crowds, appealing to emotion by scapegoating out-groups, exaggerating dangers to stoke fears, lying for emotional effect, or other rhetoric that tends to drown out reasoned deliberation and encourage fanatical popularity. Demagogues overturn established norms of political conduct, or promise or threaten to do so.

Historian Reinhard Luthin defined demagogue as "a politician skilled in oratory, flattery and invective; evasive in discussing vital issues; promising everything to everybody; appealing to the passions rather than the reason of the public; and arousing racial, religious, and class prejudices—a man whose lust for power without recourse to principle leads him to seek to become a master of the masses. He has for centuries practiced his profession of 'man of the people'. He is a product of a political tradition nearly as old as western civilization itself."

Demagogues have appeared in democracies since ancient Athens. Demagogues exploit a fundamental weakness in democracy: because ultimate power is held by the people, it is possible for the people to give that power to someone who appeals to the lowest common denominator of a large segment of the population. Demagogues have usually advocated immediate, forceful action to address a crisis while accusing moderate and thoughtful opponents of weakness or disloyalty. Many demagogues elected to high executive office have unraveled constitutional limits on executive power and tried to convert their democracy into a dictatorship, sometimes successfully.

History and definition of the word
Demagogue, a term originally referring to a leader of the common people, was first coined in ancient Greece with no negative connotation, but eventually came to mean a troublesome kind of leader who occasionally arose in Athenian democracy. Even though democracy gave power to the common people, elections still tended to favor the aristocratic class, which favored deliberation and decorum. Demagogues were a new kind of leader who emerged from the lower classes. Demagogues relentlessly advocated action, usually violent—immediately and without deliberation.

The term "demagogue" has been used to disparage leaders perceived as manipulative, pernicious, or bigoted.However, what distinguishes a demagogue can be defined independently of whether the speaker favors or opposes a certain political leader. What distinguishes a demagogue is how a person gains or holds democratic power: by exciting the passions of the lower classes and less-educated people in a democracy toward rash or violent action, breaking established democratic institutions such as the rule of law. James Fenimore Cooper in 1838 identified four fundamental characteristics of demagogues:
 * They present themselves as a man or woman of the common people, opposed to the elites.
 * Their politics depends on a visceral connection with the people, which greatly exceeds ordinary political popularity.
 * They manipulate this connection, and the raging popularity it affords, for their own benefit and ambition.
 * They threaten or outright break established rules of conduct, institutions, and even the law.

The central feature of demagoguery is persuasion by means of passion, shutting down reasoned deliberation and consideration of alternatives. While many politicians in a democracy make occasional small sacrifices of truth, subtlety, or long-term concerns to maintain popular support, demagogues do these things relentlessly and without self-restraint. Demagogues "pander to passion, prejudice, bigotry, and ignorance, rather than reason."

History and characteristics of demagogues
Demagogues have risen to power in democracies from Athens to the present day. While many demagogues have unique, colorful personalities, the psychological tactics they use have been similar throughout history (see below).

Often considered the first demagogue, Cleon of Athens is remembered mainly for the brutality of his rule and his near destruction of Athenian democracy, resulting from his "common-man" appeal to disregard the moderate customs of the aristocratic elite. Modern demagogues include Adolf Hitler, Benito Mussolini, Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and Joseph McCarthy, all of whom built mass followings the same way that Cleon did: by exciting the passions of the masses against customs and norms of the aristocratic elites of their times. All, ancient and modern, meet Cooper's four criteria above: claiming to represent the common people, inciting intense passions among them, exploiting those reactions to take power, and breaking or at least threatening established rules of political conduct, though each in different ways.

Demagogues have often exploited the lower classes and less-educated people in society. While democracies are designed to ensure freedom for all and popular control over government authority, demagogues gain power by using popular support to undermine those same freedoms and laws. The Greek historian Polybius thought that democracies are inevitably undone by demagogues. He said that every democracy eventually decays into "a government of violence and the strong hand," leading to "tumultuous assemblies, massacres, banishments."

While conventional wisdom positions democracy and fascism as opposites, ancient political theorists understood that democracy had an innate tendency to lead to an extreme populist government and provide demagogues with an ideal opportunity to gain power. Ivo Mosley argued that totalitarian regimes may be the logical outcome of unfettered mass democracy.

Methods
There are a number of common tactics demagogues have employed throughout history to manipulate public sentiment and incite crowds. Not all demagogues use all of these methods, and no two demagogues use exactly the same methods to gain popularity and loyalty. Even ordinary politicians use some of these techniques from time to time; a politician who failed to stir emotions at all would have little hope of being elected. What these techniques have in common, and what distinguishes demagogues' use of them, is their consistent intent to prevent reasoned deliberation by stirring up overwhelming passion.

In contrast to a demagogue, a politician's ordinary rhetoric seeks "to calm rather than excite, to conciliate rather than divide, and to instruct rather than flatter."

Scapegoating
The most fundamental demagogic technique is scapegoating: blaming the in-group's troubles on an out-group, usually of a different ethnicity, religion, or social class. For example, McCarthy claimed that all of the problems of the U.S. resulted from "communist subversion." Denis Kearney blamed all the problems of laborers in California on Chinese immigrants. Hitler blamed Jews for Germany's defeat in World War I as well as the economic troubles that came afterward. This was central to his appeal: many people said that the only reason they liked Hitler was because he was against the Jews. Fixing blame on the Jews gave Hitler a way to intensify nationalism and unity.

The claims made about the scapegoated class are mostly the same regardless of the demagogue and regardless of the scapegoated class or the nature of the crisis that the demagogue is exploiting. "We" are the "true" Americans/ Germans/ Christians/etc., and "they", the Jews/ bankers/ communists/ capitalists/ unions/ foreigners/ elites/ etc., have cheated "us" plain folk and are living in decadent luxury off riches that rightfully belong to "us". "They" are plotting to take over, are now rapidly taking power, or are already secretly running the country. "They" are subhuman, sexual perverts who will seduce or rape "our" daughters, and if "we" don't expel or exterminate "them" right away, doom is just around the corner.

Fearmongering
Many demagogues have risen to power by evoking fear in their audiences, to stir them to action and prevent deliberation. Fear of rape, for example, is easily evoked. "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman's rhetoric was most vivid when he was describing imaginary scenes in which white women were raped by black men lurking by the side of the road. He depicted black men as having an innate "character weakness" consisting of a fondness for raping white women. Tillman was elected governor of South Carolina in 1890, and elected senator repeatedly from 1895 to 1918.

Lying
Demagogues typically choose their words for their emotional effect on the audience, often without regard for factual truth or for potential danger. Demagogues are opportunistic, saying whatever will generate controversy and spur public energy. Other demagogues may believe falsehoods they tell.

If one lie doesn't work, a demagogue often adds more lies. Joseph McCarthy claimed to have a list of 205 members of the Communist Party working in the State Department. Then, he announced there were 57 "card-carrying Communists". When pressed for names, McCarthy said that records were not available to him, but he knew "absolutely" that "approximately" 300 Communists were certified to the Secretary of State for discharge but "approximately" 80 were actually discharged. McCarthy never found a Communist in the State Department.

Emotional oratory and personal charisma
Many demagogues have demonstrated remarkable skill at moving audiences to great emotional depths and heights during a speech. Sometimes this is due to exceptional verbal eloquence, sometimes personal charisma, and sometimes both.

Hitler often began his speeches by speaking slowly, in a low, resonant voice, telling of his life in poverty after serving in World War I, suffering in the chaos and humiliation of postwar Germany, and resolving to reawaken the Fatherland. Gradually, he would escalate the tone and tempo of his speech, ending in a climax in which he shrieked his hatred of Bolsheviks, Jews, Czechs, Poles, or whatever group he currently perceived as standing in his way—mocking them, ridiculing them, insulting them, and threatening them with destruction. Normally reasonable people became caught up in the peculiar rapport that Hitler established with his audience, believing even the most obvious lies and nonsense while under his spell. Hitler was not born with these vocal and oratorical skills; he acquired them through long and deliberate practice.

A more ordinary silver-tongued demagogue was the Negro-baiter James Kimble Vardaman (Governor of Mississippi 1904–1908, Senator 1913–1919), admired even by his opponents for his oratorical gifts and colorful language. An example, responding to Theodore Roosevelt's having invited black people to a reception at the White House: "Let Teddy take coons to the White House. I should not care if the walls of the ancient edifice should become so saturated with the effluvia from the rancid carcasses that a Chinch bug would have to crawl upon the dome to avoid asphyxiation." Vardaman's speeches tended to have little content; he spoke in a ceremonial style even in deliberative settings. His speeches served mostly as a vehicle for his personal magnetism, charming voice, and graceful delivery.

The demagogues' charisma and emotional oratory many times enabled them to win elections despite opposition from the press. The news media informs voters, and often the information is damaging to demagogues. Demagogic oratory distracts, entertains, and enthralls, steering followers' attention away from the demagogue's usual history of lies, abuses of power, and broken promises. The advent of radio enabled many 20th-century demagogues' skill with the spoken word to drown out the written word of newspapers.

Accusing opponents of weakness and disloyalty
Cleon of Athens, like many demagogues who came after him, constantly advocated brutality in order to demonstrate strength, and argued that compassion was a sign of weakness that would only be exploited by enemies. "It is a general rule of human nature that people despise those who treat them well and look up to those who make no concessions." At the Mytilenian Debate over whether to recall the ships he had sent the previous day to slaughter and enslave the entire population of Mytilene, he opposed the very idea of debate, characterizing it as an idle, weak, intellectual pleasure: "To feel pity, to be carried away by the pleasure of hearing a clever argument, to listen to the claims of decency are three things that are entirely against the interests of an imperial power."

Distracting from his lack of evidence for his claims, Joe McCarthy persistently insinuated that anyone who opposed him was a communist sympathizer. G.M. Gilbert summarized this rhetoric as "I'm agin' Communism; you're agin' me; therefore you must be a communist."

Promising the impossible
Another fundamental demagogic technique is making promises only for their emotional effect on audiences, without regard for how they might be accomplished or without intending to honor them once in office. Demagogues express these empty promises simply and theatrically, but remain extremely hazy about how they will achieve them because usually they are impossible. For example, Huey Long promised that if he were elected president, every family would have a home, an automobile, a radio, and $2,000 yearly. He was vague about how he would make that happen, but people still joined his Share-the-Wealth clubs. Another kind of empty demagogic promise is to make everyone wealthy or "solve all the problems". The Polish demagogue Stanisław Tymiński, running as an unknown "maverick" on the basis of his prior success as a businessman in Canada, promised "immediate prosperity"—exploiting the economic difficulties of laborers, especially miners and steelworkers. Tymiński forced a runoff in the 1990 presidential election, nearly defeating Lech Wałęsa.

Violence and physical intimidation
Demagogues have often encouraged their supporters to violently intimidate opponents, both to solidify loyalty among their supporters and to discourage or physically prevent people from speaking out or voting against them. "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman was repeatedly re-elected to the U.S. Senate largely through violence and intimidation. He spoke in support of lynch mobs, and he disenfranchised most black voters with the South Carolina constitution of 1895. Hitler wrote in Mein Kampf that physical intimidation was an effective way to move the masses. Hitler intentionally provoked hecklers at his rallies so that his supporters would become enraged by their remarks and assault them.

Personal insults and ridicule
Many demagogues have found that ridiculing or insulting opponents is a simple way to shut down reasoned deliberation of competing ideas, especially with an unsophisticated audience. "Pitchfork Ben" Tillman, for example, was a master of the personal insult. He got his nickname from a speech in which he called President Grover Cleveland "an old bag of beef" and resolved to bring a pitchfork to Washington to "poke him in his old fat ribs." James Kimble Vardaman consistently referred to President Theodore Roosevelt as a "coon-flavored miscegenationist" and once posted an ad in a newspaper for "sixteen big, fat, mellow, rancid coons" to sleep with Roosevelt during a trip to Mississippi.

A common demagogic technique is to pin an insulting epithet on an opponent, by saying it repeatedly, in speech after speech, when saying the opponent's name or in place of it. For example, James Curley referred to Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., his Republican opponent for Senator, as "Little Boy Blue". William Hale Thompson called Anton Cermak, his opponent for mayor of Chicago, "Tony Baloney". Huey Long called Joseph E. Ransdell, his elderly opponent for Senator, "Old Feather Duster". Joe McCarthy liked to call Secretary of State Dean Acheson "The Red Dean of Fashion". The use of epithets and other humorous invective diverts followers' attention from soberly considering how to address the important public issues of the time, scoring easy laughs instead.

Vulgarity and outrageous behavior
Legislative bodies usually have sober standards of decorum that are intended to quiet passions and favor reasoned deliberation. Many demagogues violate standards of decorum outrageously, to show clearly that they are thumbing their noses at the established order and the genteel ways of the upper class, or simply because they enjoy the attention that it brings. The common people might find the demagogue disgusting, but the demagogue can use the upper class's contempt for him to show that he won't be shamed or intimidated by the powerful.

For example, Huey Long famously wore pajamas to highly dignified occasions where others were dressed at the height of formality. He once stood "bukk nekkid" at his hotel suite when laying down the law to a meeting of political fuglemen. Long was "intensely and solely interested in himself. He had to dominate every scene he was in and every person around him. He craved attention and would go to almost any length to get it. He knew that an audacious action, although it was harsh and even barbarous, could shock people into a state where they could be manipulated." He was "...so shameless in his pursuit of publicity, and so adept at getting press coverage, that he was soon attracting more attention from the press and the galleries than most of the rest of his colleagues combined."

In ancient Greece, Aristotle pointed out the bad manners of Cleon more than 2,000 years ago: "[Cleon] was the first who shouted on the public platform, who used abusive language and who spoke with his cloak girt about him, while all the others used to speak in proper dress and manner."

Folksy posturing
Demagogues often make a show of appearing to be down-to-earth, ordinary citizens just like the people whose votes they seek. In the United States, many took folksy nicknames: William H. Murray (1869–1956) was "Alfalfa Bill"; James M. Curley (1874–1958) of Boston was "Our Jim"; Ellison D. Smith (1864–1944) was "Cotton Ed"; the husband-and-wife demagogue team of Miriam and James E. Ferguson went by "Ma and Pa"; Texas governor W. Lee O'Daniel (1890–1969) was "Pappy-Pass-the-Biscuits".

Georgia governor Eugene Talmadge (1884–1946) put a barn and a henhouse on the executive mansion grounds, loudly explaining that he couldn't sleep nights unless he heard the bellowing of livestock and the cackling of poultry. When in the presence of farmers, he chewed tobacco and faked a rural accent—though he himself was college-educated—railing against "frills" and "nigger-lovin' furriners". Talamadge defined "furriner" as "Anyone who attempts to impose ideas that are contrary to the established traditions of Georgia." His grammar and vocabulary became more refined when speaking before an urban audience. Talmadge was famous for wearing gaudy red galluses, which he snapped for emphasis during his speeches. On his desk, he kept three books that he loudly told visitors were all that a governor needed: a bible, the state financial report, and a Sears–Roebuck catalog.

Huey Long emphasized his humble roots by calling himself "The Kingfish" and gulping down pot likker when visiting northern Louisiana. He once issued a press release demanding that his name be removed from the Washington Social Register. "Alfalfa Bill" made sure to remind people of his rural background by talking in the terminology of farming: "I will plow straight furrows and blast all the stumps. The common people and I can lick the whole lousy gang."

Gross oversimplification
Demagogues commonly treat complex problems, which require patient reasoning and analysis, as if they result from one simple cause or can be solved by one simple cure. For example, Huey Long claimed that all of the U.S.'s economic problems could be solved just by "sharing the wealth". Hitler claimed that Germany had lost World War I only because of a "Stab in the Back". Scapegoating (above) is one form of gross oversimplification.

Attacking the news media
Because factual information reported by the press can undermine a demagogue's claims and standing among followers, modern demagogues have attacked the press intemperately. At times, demagogues have called for violence against newspapers who opposed them. Some have claimed that the press was acting secretly in the service of moneyed interests or foreign powers or that newspapers had a personal vendetta against them. Huey Long accused the New Orleans Times–Picayune and Item of being "bought", and had his bodyguards rough up their reporters. Oklahoma governor "Alfalfa Bill" Murray (1869–1956) once called for a bomb to be dropped on the offices of the Daily Oklahoman. Joe McCarthy accused The Christian Science Monitor, the New York Post, The New York Times, the New York Herald Tribune, The Washington Post, the St. Louis Post-Dispatch, and other leading American newspapers of being "Communist smear sheets" under the control of the Kremlin.

Establishing one-man rule, subverting the rule of law
In executive office, demagogues have often moved quickly to expand their power, both de jure and de facto: by getting legislation passed to officially expand their authority, and by building up networks of corruption and informal pressure to ensure that their dictates are followed regardless of constitutional authority.

For example, within two months of being appointed chancellor, Hitler unraveled all constitutional limitations on his power. He achieved this through near-daily acts of chaos, destabilizing the state and providing ever stronger reasons to justify taking more power. Hitler was appointed on January 30, 1933; on February 1, the Reichstag was dissolved; on February 27, the Reichstag building burned; on February 28, the Reichstag Fire Decree gave Hitler emergency powers and suspended civil liberties; on March 5, new general elections were held; on March 22, the first concentration camp opened, taking political prisoners. On March 24, the Enabling Act was passed, giving Hitler full legislative powers, thus ending all constitutional restraint and making Hitler absolute dictator. Consolidation of power continued even after that; see Early timeline of Nazism.

Even local demagogues have established one-man rule, or a near approximation of it, over their constituencies. "Alfalfa Bill" Murray, a demagogue who was elected governor of Oklahoma by appealing to poor rural animosity toward "craven wolves of plutocracy", promised to "make an open season on millionaires." Despite having presided over Oklahoma's constitutional convention, Murray routinely violated the constitution, ruling by executive order whenever the legislature or the courts got in his way. When federal courts ruled against him, he prevailed by relying on the National Guard, even donning a military hat and pistol and personally commanding the troops—and seeing to it that the confrontation was filmed by movie cameras. Murray attempted to expand gubernatorial powers with a set of four initiatives, replacing existing income-tax law with his own, giving him power to appoint all members of the board of education, acquiring corporation-owned land, and giving him extraordinary power over the budget, but these were defeated.

Appointing unqualified lackeys to high office; corruption
Demagogues often appoint people to high office based on personal loyalty without regard to competence for the office—opening up extraordinary avenues for graft and corruption. During "Alfalfa Bill" Murray's campaign for governor, he promised to crack down on corruption and favoritism for the rich, to abolish half the clerk jobs at the State House, to appoint no family members, to reduce the number of state-owned cars from 800 to 200, never to use convict labor to compete with commercial labor, and not to abuse the power of pardon. Once in office, he appointed wealthy patrons and 20 of his relatives to high office, purchased more cars, used prisoners to make ice for sale and clean the capitol building, and violated all the other promises. When the State Auditor pointed out that 1,050 new employees had been added to the state payroll, Murray simply said, "Just damned lies." For each abuse of power, Murray claimed a mandate from "the sovereign will of the people".

Cleon
The Athenian leader Cleon is often cited as a demagogue because of three events described in the writings of Thucydides and Aristophanes.

First, after a failed revolt by the city of Mytilene, Cleon persuaded the Athenians to slaughter not just the Mytilenean prisoners, but every man in the city, and to sell their wives and children as slaves. The Athenians rescinded the resolution the following day when they came to their senses.

Second, after Athens had completely defeated the Peloponnesian fleet in the Battle of Sphacteria and Sparta could only beg for peace on almost any terms, Cleon persuaded the Athenians to reject the peace offer.

Third, he taunted the Athenian generals over their failure to bring the war in Sphacteria to a rapid close, accusing them of cowardice, and declared that he could finish the job himself in twenty days, despite having no military knowledge. They gave him the job, expecting him to fail. Cleon shrank at being called to make good on his boast, and tried to get out of it, but he was forced to take the command. In fact, he succeeded—by getting the general Demosthenes to do it, now treating him with respect after previously slandering him behind his back. Three years later, Cleon and his Spartan counterpart Brasidas were killed at the Battle of Amphipolis, enabling a restoration of peace that lasted until the outbreak of the Second Peloponnesian War.

Modern commentators suspect that Thucydides and Aristophanes exaggerated the vileness of Cleon's real character. Both had personal conflicts with Cleon, and The Knights is a satirical, allegorical comedy that doesn't even mention Cleon by name. Cleon was a tradesman—a leather-tanner. Thucydides and Aristophanes came from the upper classes, predisposed to look down on the commercial classes. Nevertheless, their portrayals define the archetypal example of the "demagogue" or "rabble-rouser."

Alcibiades
Alcibiades convinced the people of Athens to attempt to conquer Sicily during the Peloponnesian War, with disastrous results. He led the Athenian assembly to support making him commander by claiming victory would come easily, appealing to Athenian vanity, and appealing to action and courage over deliberation. Alcibiades's expedition might have succeeded if he had not been denied command by the political maneuvers of his rivals.

Gaius Flaminius
Gaius Flaminius was a Roman consul most known for being defeated by Hannibal at the Battle of Lake Trasimene during the second Punic war. Hannibal was able to make pivotal decisions during this battle because he understood his opponent. Flaminius was described as a demagogue by Polybius, in his book The Histories "...Flaminius possessed a rare talent for the arts of demagogy..." Because Flaminius was thus ill-suited, he lost 15,000 Roman lives, his own included, in the battle.

Adolf Hitler

The most famous demagogue of modern history, Adolf Hitler, first attempted to overthrow the Bavarian government not with popular support but by force in a failed putsch in 1923. While in prison, Hitler chose a new strategy: to overthrow the government democratically, by cultivating a mass movement. Even before the putsch, Hitler had rewritten the Nazi party's platform to consciously target the lower classes of Germany, appealing to their resentment of wealthier classes and calling for German unity and increased central power. Hitler was delighted by the instant increase in popularity.

While Hitler was in prison, the Nazi party vote had fallen to one million, and it continued to fall after Hitler was released in 1924 and began rejuvenating the party. For the next several years, Hitler and the Nazi party were generally regarded as a laughingstock in Germany, no longer taken seriously as a threat to the country. The prime minister of Bavaria lifted the region's ban on the party, saying, "The wild beast is checked. We can afford to loosen the chain."

In 1929, with the start of the Great Depression, Hitler's populism started to become effective. Hitler updated the Nazi party's platform to exploit the economic distress of ordinary Germans: repudiating the Versailles Treaty, promising to eliminate corruption, and pledging to provide every German with a job. In 1930, the Nazi party went from 200,000 votes to 6.4 million, making it the second-largest party in Parliament. By 1932, the Nazi party had become the largest in Parliament. In early 1933, Hitler was appointed Chancellor. He then exploited the Reichstag fire to arrest his political opponents and consolidate his control of the army. Within a few years, exploiting democratic support of the masses, Hitler took Germany from a democracy to a total dictatorship.

Huey Long
Huey Long, nicknamed "The Kingfish", was an American politician who served as the 40th governor of Louisiana from 1928 to 1932 and as a member of the United States Senate from 1932 until his assassination in 1935. He was a populist member of the Democratic Party and rose to national prominence during the Great Depression for his vocal criticism from the left of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal. As the political leader of Louisiana, he commanded wide networks of supporters and often took forceful action. A controversial figure, Long is celebrated as a populist benefactor or conversely denounced as a fascist demagogue.

In 1928, before Long was sworn in as governor of Louisiana, he was already supervising political appointments to ensure a loyal majority for all his initiatives. As governor, he ousted public officers not personally loyal to him and took control away from state commissions to ensure that all contracts would be awarded to people in his political machine. In a confrontation over natural gas with managers of the Public Service Corporation, he told them, truthfully, "A deck has 52 cards and in Baton Rouge I hold all 52 of them and I can shuffle and deal as I please. I can have bills passed or I can kill them. I'll give you until Saturday to decide." They yielded to Long—and became part of his ever-expanding machine.

When Long became a senator in 1932, his enemy, the lieutenant governor Paul N. Cyr, was sworn in as governor. Long, without authority, ordered state troopers to surround the executive mansion and arrest Cyr as an imposter. Long installed his ally Alvin O. King as governor, later replaced by O.K. Allen, serving as stooges for Long. Thus even in Washington, with no official authority, Long retained dictatorial control over Louisiana. When the Mayor of New Orleans, T. Semmes Walmsley, began to oppose Long's extraordinary power over the state, Long exploited a subservient judge to justify making an armed attack on the basis of cracking down on racketeering. At Long's order, Governor Allen declared martial law and dispatched National Guardsmen to seize the Registrar of Voters, allegedly "to prevent election frauds." Then, by stuffing ballot boxes, Long ensured victory for his candidates to Congress. Long's own racketeering operation then grew. With his "trained seal" legislature, armed militias, taxation used as a political weapon, control over elections, and weakened court authority to limit his power, Huey Long maintained control in Louisiana in a manner arguably comparable to that of a dictator.

Joseph McCarthy
Joseph McCarthy was a U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957. Though a poor orator, McCarthy rose to national prominence during the early 1950s by proclaiming that high places in the United States federal government and military were "infested" with communists, contributing to the second "Red Scare". Ultimately his inability to provide proof for his claims, as well as his public attacks on the United States Army, led to the Army–McCarthy hearings in 1954, which in turn led to his censure by the Senate and fall from popularity.

Tactical demagoguery
Some scholars have challenged the consensus that demagoguery is necessarily a bad form of leadership and rhetoric. In Demagogues in American Politics, for example, Charles U. Zug argues that demagoguery can be legitimate and even good if integrated into a broader strategy for political reform and if coupled with a robust rationale for political change. Zug contrasts classical or traditional approaches to demagoguery, which assume that demagogues are motivated by vicious intentions (such as an unrestrained desire for power), with a modern approach that focuses on the external words and deeds that demagogues use to advance political goals. Relatedly, as Princeton Classicist Melissa Lane has argued, in pre-Socratic antiquity demagogues were originally viewed as neither inherently good nor inherently bad, but rather as advocates for the common people (as opposed to the oligarchs). Zug has argued that conceiving of demagoguery as an inherently negative practice incentivizes political actors to weaponize the label "demagogue"; as a consequence, otherwise innocent victims—such as the supposed leader of Shays' Rebellion, Daniel Shays —can be inaccurately branded as vicious, unscrupulous leaders.

Demagoguery in constitutional office
Zug also argues that demagoguery takes on different meanings when deployed by public officials in different institutions; for example, American federal judges should be scrutinized more carefully for using demagoguery than should legislators, since the act of judging well—i.e., adjudicating legal disputes—does not require direct appeals to the public. In contrast, being an effective member of Congress requires advocating for a constituency and getting (re)elected; and these responsibilities in turn require direct public appeals, and sometimes, demagoguery.

title: Demagogue


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Cherenkov

Cherenkov (sometimes spelled Čerenkov or Cerenkov) is a common Russian surname, which may refer to:

 * Andrei Cherenkov (born 1976), Russian professional football manager and former player
 * Andrew Cherenkov, a fictional character in the video game Xenosaga Episode I
 * Fyodor Cherenkov (1959-2014), Soviet and Russian footballer
 * Pavel Alekseyevich Cherenkov (1904–1990), Soviet physicist and a recipient of the Nobel Prize in physics in 1958

title: Cherenkov


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Tweeddale

Tweeddale (Scottish Gaelic: Srath Thuaidh/Tuaidhdail) is a committee area and lieutenancy area in the Scottish Borders council area in south-eastern Scotland. It had also been a province in the Middle Ages. From 1975 to 1996 it was a local government district. Its boundaries correspond to the historic county of Peeblesshire.

Geography
The area had an estimated population of 20,848 in 2015. It is one of the five committee areas in the Scottish Borders. Major settlements in the area include Peebles, Innerleithen and West Linton.

It is the traditional name for the dale (the area drained) by the upper reaches of the River Tweed. This area was considered to end before the Yarrow Water flowed into the Tweed, so the area was bounded to the south and east by the Yarrow/Tweed watershed, and to the north and east by the Gala Water/Tweed watershed.

12,770 ha of upper Tweeddale between Broughton and Peebles is designated as the Upper Tweeddale National Scenic Area, one of 40 such areas in Scotland which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection from inappropriate development.

History
Tweeddale was a historic district or province in the Middle Ages, bordering Teviotdale and the Marches to the east, Liddesdale and Annandale to the south, Clydesdale to the west and Lothian to the north. From the twelfth century the area was divided into sheriffdoms. The southern part of Tweeddale became the sheriffdom of Selkirkshire, also known as Ettrick Forest, whilst the northern part of Tweeddale was initially divided into two sheriffdoms, based at Peebles and Traquair, before those two were united as the single shire of Peebles, or Peeblesshire, around 1304. From then on the shires gradually became the more important areas for administration; the old provinces were not abolished as such, but their importance diminished.

Tweeddale District
Local government reorganisation in 1975 under the Local Government (Scotland) Act 1973 introduced a two-tier structure of local government across Scotland comprising upper-tier regions and lower-tier districts. Peeblesshire County Council was abolished and the area became part of the Borders region. The region was divided into four districts, one of which was called Tweeddale, covering the same area as pre-1975 Peeblesshire. The new Tweeddale district took over the functions of the six former districts of Peeblesshire, which were all abolished at the same time:
 * Broughton District
 * Innerleithen Burgh
 * Innerleithen District
 * Linton District
 * Peebles Royal Burgh
 * Peebles District

For lieutenancy purposes, the last lord-lieutenant of the county of Peeblesshire was made the first Lord Lieutenant of Tweeddale when the reforms came into effect in 1975.

The Borders region and its four districts, including Tweeddale, were abolished in 1996, merging to form the present Scottish Borders council area. The area of the pre-1996 Tweeddale district continues to be used as a lieutenancy area.

Political control
The first election to Tweeddale District Council was held in 1974, initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities until it came into its powers on 16 May 1975. Throughout the council's existence a majority of the seats were held by independents:

Premises
The council was based at the Council Offices on Rosetta Road in Peebles. The building had originally been built in 1856 as a workhouse, but had been extensively rebuilt and extended in 1935 to become the headquarters of Peeblesshire County Council. After the 1996 reforms the building became an area office for Scottish Borders Council and a police station.

title: Tweeddale


text:
Talk:Hippocampus

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Peer reviewers: Tadair4.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 23:28, 16 January 2022 (UTC)

Role in memory
I would like to add the following after reference 31 in the section Role in Memory because I believe it contributes our understanding of the involvement of the hippocampus in memory:

Experiments using intrahippocampal transplantation of hippocampal cells in primates with neurotoxic lesions of the hippocampus have shown that the hippocampus is required for the formation and recall, but not the storage, of memories.  Mountain9 (talk) 19:42, 3 December 2016 (UTC)

Issues in recent peer review
This article has been peer reviewed by a neuroscientist recently, discovering several issues: Wikiversity:The Hippocampus#Peer review comments These issues need to be amended, and I appreciate any help with these matters. After such an amendment, the article can be published in WikiJournal of Medicine, which is an open-access journal with no publication charges of any kind. The article will then be given standard citation formats and DOI codes so that it can be cited by external works. If you help out, you can be displayed among the main authors of the publication in WikiJournal of Medicine if you want, but you then need to agree and sign the "Submission letter", and you should also write your real name. In any case, contributors will be attributed by a link to the article history of Hippocampus. Feel free to leave me a message if you have any questions.

Cheers,

Mikael Häggström (talk) 13:02, 8 December 2016 (UTC) Editor-in-chief, WikiJournal of Medicine

 * I have responded to the review. Looie496 (talk) 14:26, 8 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Thanks for your replies. So, the main issue that needs to be addressed before inclusion of the article in the journal is the disconnect between hippocampal involvement in declarative memory versus spatial navigation, preferably by mentioning functional imaging studies. The peer reviewer has referred to the following works:
 * Mikael Häggström (talk) 19:58, 12 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Just to note that the Nature Neuroscience article is paywalled.--Iztwoz (talk) 17:47, 13 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Mikael Häggström (talk) 19:58, 12 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Just to note that the Nature Neuroscience article is paywalled.--Iztwoz (talk) 17:47, 13 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Think it needs a section on the neural layers --Iztwoz (talk) 22:31, 14 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Hi Mikael Häggström, have finished my input hope it wasn't too much. best --Iztwoz (talk) 10:46, 21 December 2016 (UTC)

The para on avoidance conflict is also useful to address the disconnect between the other two functions; also it has MRI evidence and is also a growing area of research. There could be additions made from reviews of the topic. ? --Iztwoz (talk) 14:19, 23 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Have just added to this - if its still not wanted it can be removed. If it is to stay a mention needs to be made in the lead.--Iztwoz (talk) 14:54, 23 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Thanks! I'm now notifying the peer reviewer about these additions too. Mikael Häggström (talk) 19:52, 23 December 2016 (UTC)
 * The peer reviewer gave some (perhaps final) comments in the box below. Iztwoz, please let me know if you will make further edits to the article shortly, or have me bring it to the editorial board for publication decision as it is. Mikael Häggström (talk) 14:47, 24 December 2016 (UTC)

 * Hi Mikael Häggström I think the first points raised are covered in the 'Later research' para in the Functions section. Also the comments in the review of 2016 in Approach-avoidance conflict also covers this view. And I see this newer research as very relevant to the page. The section on navigation does have the heading Spatial memory and navigation. ?  Shall not be making any more edits now.  Happy holidays --Iztwoz (talk) 16:28, 24 December 2016 (UTC)
 * Very well, I'll bring it to the editorial board shortly. Happy holidays to you too! Christbaumkugel.png Mikael Häggström (talk) 18:08, 24 December 2016 (UTC)

Subcortical vs. Allocortical
While the page refers to the Hippocampus as sub-cortical (and indeed the hippocampal formation is technically located below the cortex), I believe there is wide consensus in the field that due to 1) the laminar structure of this brain region and 2) its tight coupling to the parahippocampal cortex, the hippocampus is considered allocortical (or possibly even cortical). In any case it is certainly not subcortical as a recent revision suggests There are any number of references to support this claim:

Wills, T. J.; Cacucci, F.; Burgess, N.; O'Keefe, J. (2010). "Development of the Hippocampal Cognitive Map in Preweanling Rats". Science. 328 (5985): 1573–1576

This is the source cited in the appropriate section of the Wikipedia Allocortex article.

Swenson RS. (2006). Review of clinical and functional neuroscience.

This source repeatedly points this difference out in the chapters on the limbic system and the cortex.

Perhaps this discussion is best summarized by the classic text "The Hippocampus Book" in the chapter "Hippocampal Neuroanatomy" by David Amaral and Lavenex Pierre:

"The reader who ventures from the relative safety of this book into the primary hippocampal literature should be aware that our usage of the term “hippocampal formation” is widely, though not universally, accepted. Some authors include only the allocortical (a term applied to cortical regions having fewer than six layers) regions as parts of the hippocampal formation. Three-layered cortical regions typically have a single neuronal cell layer with fiber-rich plexiform layers above and below the cell layer. In articles employing this usage, the hippocampal formation comprises the dentate gyrus, hippocampus, and subiculum. The remaining fields—presubiculum, parasubiculum, and entorhinal cortex—are then typically grouped together on the basis of their multilaminate structure under the term retrohippocampal (retro = behind) or parahippocampal (para = alongside or near) cortex."

A previous revision to this effect was reverted, so I hope moving this question to the talk page helps clarify this issue.

I would also point out that the reference cited for subcortical does not make any claims about the structural identity of the hippocampus. The word "subcortical" only pops up once when the chapter states the limbic system is at the border of the neocortex and subcortical structures. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Syntaxapse (talk • contribs) 19:25, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Hello Syntaxapse - I cannot find any reference on the page that states that the hippoacampus is subcortical - 'subcortical' is only mentioned three times, referring to input to the hippocampus and output and not staying that the hippocampus is subcortical. --Iztwoz (talk) 20:09, 12 January 2017 (UTC)   Have just seen your page edit. I would also say that when I looked at different refs some did describe it as subcortical. --Iztwoz (talk) 20:13, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

 * Hey Iztwoz - yeah sorry for any confusion, I have since gone ahead and changed subcortical to allocortical, it seemed more specific and correct. I agree that in some literature there is some confusion regarding the nomenclature (the hippocampus is after all below the cortex), but I think most primary respected texts in the field that take great care with their language would not refer to it as subcortical. Happy to talk about this more if you feel this is important or debatable - otherwise thanks for your other work cleaning up this page! Syntaxapse (talk) 20:54, 12 January 2017 (UTC) I would also add that I'm new to editing here, so apologies if I went about this in the wrong way! Syntaxapse (talk) 20:55, 12 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the comments. i agree with your edit. As for editing generally - anybody can make edits to any page, and if they are helpful they are very welcome. Best-- Iztwoz (talk) 21:04, 12 January 2017 (UTC)

Quotation asked for
VeniVidiVicipedia is asking for a quotation re sentence on elaboration of cortex - refs are provided - is it just the word elaboration that is the concern? --Iztwoz (talk) 17:59, 17 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Not really a concern, I just don't understand what it means. Seeing it in the original text hopefully makes it more clear. VeniVidiVicipedia (talk) 20:40, 17 January 2017 (UTC)

Hello VeniVidiVicipedia - here is a quotation from Dorland's medical dictionary p 860 ...the hippocampus is a convoluted elevation of grey matter extending the entire length of the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle; it is part of the limbic system..... I hope this is enough ..... the sentence as is, has been on the page for over three years and has passed GA and FA criteria so as it seems just a personal request from you for a quotation I have provided it here and shall remove the inline tag. Best --Iztwoz (talk) 18:19, 19 January 2017 (UTC)
 * Thank you very much! I think I sort of understand it now. Is it correct that the two first sentences of that section say almost the same thing? Something like this?: The hippocampus is the relatively thin edge of the cortex folded up into the temporal lobe.
 * The information about it being the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle is not mentioned in the anatomy section. It is mentioned in the name section but people with a short attention span (me for example) might miss it. Thanks again! VeniVidiVicipedia (talk) 20:38, 19 January 2017 (UTC)
 * To clarify, there is no quotation. I used the word "elaboration" to describe the way the anatomy looks to me.  If you think a different wording would be better, please feel free to edit the article. Looie496 (talk) 14:19, 20 January 2017 (UTC)

 * I tried to improve the wording. Comments? VeniVidiVicipedia (talk) 20:05, 30 January 2017 (UTC)

Theta Rhythm
I found the first sentence not well-phrased and attempted to recast it. This then lead to questions as to what was actually being claimed, so I checked Buzsaki and was unable to find the specific claim that the hippocampus generates some of the largest EEG singals (as theta waves?) I did find something like it here, though https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16149083 Vertes, RP, 2005. I come at this from the perspective of trying to make the article more readable, not any great knowledge of the subject matter. — Preceding unsigned comment added by OmneBonum (talk • contribs) 08:25, 25 March 2017 (UTC) OmneBonum (talk) 19:13, 25 March 2017 (UTC)

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Addition of stress effects on hippocampus in relation to seizures
I propose editing the epilepsy and effects of cortisol sections to reflect findings in how stress changes the hippocampus such that it can induce seizures, or somehow integrating this information into the page:

Corticosteroid Effects on the Hippocampus

Exposure to stress results in the release of corticosteroids in the brain. Cortisol is the most common stress hormone in humans, and corticosterone the most common in mice and rats. They virtually act on every organ in the body, but in seizures the most important region is the hippocampus. The hippocampus contains mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs) that have different affinities for corticosteroids. Rapid effects of stress are mediated through membrane associated MRs. This results in an array of effects within minutes of binding including increased frequency of small excitatory postsynaptic potentials and decreased frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic potentials. Together these could cause hyper-excitability of the hippocampus and induce a seizure. Slow effects of stress take place on a level involving DNA or genomic level. When nuclear MRs and GRs are bound by corticosteroids they alter gene expression, the process that converts DNA to RNA to proteins. Changes induced include increased amplitude of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic potentials, and slowing the increase in number of calcium channels. By preventing the increase in number of calcium channels, it results in increased length of hyperpolarization which works to reduce the rate at which neurons can fire, which somewhat minimizes the effects of stress. These changes alter the responsiveness of the body to stress in order to maintain homeostasis. Chronic exposure to stress, however, results in disruption of these compensating mechanisms and drastic structural changes in the brain.

Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Effects on the Hippocampus

Corticotropin-Releasing hormone (CRH) is released following stress. Immediate effects include shortening of the hyperpolarization time which increases the frequency at which neurons can fire leading to an increased risk for seizures. Chronic exposure to CRH causes more complicated and less understood changes, but studies show it can cause decreased dendritic spines on neurons in the hippocampus.

Neurosteroid Effects on the Hippocampus

Neurosteroids have been shown to reduce excitability in the hippocampus and reduce seizure occurrence. With stress, endogenous neurosteroid concentrations increase such that a product of deoxycorticosterone breakdown binds to GABA-A receptors which then raises the threshold for seizures making them harder to generate. Seizures themselves have also been shown in studies to promote neurosteroid production in the brain, creating protective effects against subsequent seizures immediately following a seizure for a few hours. Exposure to chronic stress is associated with decreased concentrations of neurosteroids in the brain, suggesting higher susceptibility to seizures during periods of chronic stress. Gnada14 (talk) 02:07, 13 December 2017 (UTC)

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Hippocampal theory of consciousness
I have removed a very long section on this topic. Given the breadth of this article, the sources may justify a brief mention of this topic, but certainly not more than that -- and I have doubts that even a paragraph would constitute appropriate weighting. The basic principle is that Wikipedia must not be used to publicize ideas that have not achieved widespread attention on their own. Looie496 (talk) 15:49, 29 January 2018 (UTC)

The material (which had been replicated on the consciousness page) has been re-inserted. This user was warned there about being blocked if they persisted in inserting the material without discussion. I think the same warning obviously should apply here about this material. TonyClarke (talk)

 * I already placed a final warning on the IP address talk page. Looie496 (talk) 14:54, 31 January 2018 (UTC)

I am not familiar with this 'talk' process, but i would like to object to you speaking of my persistent inserting of the same material; i made significant cuts and improvements along the way and included further references; and would have hoped that the material is looked at by someone competent in hippocampal theory and that a specific reason for the cutting out of the material is given; as it stands, the process seems arbitrary — Preceding unsigned comment added by 195.226.152.202 (talk) 16:55, 31 January 2018 (UTC)
 * Thanks for joining the discussion. I am totally competent in hippocampal theory -- you can find my real name on my user page and look up my publication record. The problem is not that the material you are adding is illegitimate, it is that you are misunderstanding the purpose of a Wikipedia article. Wikipedia's goal is to create an encyclopedia of the quality of Britannica, but freely accessible and broader in coverage. If you read Britannica's "hippocampus" article, would you expect to find the material you added? I doubt it -- the ideas may be legitimate, but they haven't yet drawn broad enough attention to get into an article like that. The same applies here. If you wanted to create a new article entitled Hippocampal theory of consciousness it would be much more reasonable -- although even then it would be necessary to alter the tone of the writing somewhat, as Wikipedia articles are intended to inform rather than persuade. Best regards, Looie496 (talk) 17:52, 31 January 2018 (UTC)

Edit revert
Have just restored page to previous good version. The following removed para is posted here - Previously the page referred to three main ideas over the years - this was changed to two main ideas and the para inserted in the middle.

 * A recent theory by Legéndy argues that the hippocampus only creates a unique “pointer” to each new piece of episodic memory, in the form of a large cell group in CA3. The stored information itself mostly ends up in the neocortex rather than the hippocampus; and the pointer group only has the role of retrieving it.  The peculiar distribution of the mossy cell associational projection is consistent with a biological effort to randomize (“stir”) the newly created pointer groups over a series of theta cycles, distributing their members thoughout CA3 and achieving that they, directly or indirectly, reach all cortical neurons in the areas address.  The “memory theory” of the hippocampus is in this way reconciled with the seemingly contradictory fact that essentially all hippocampal pyramidal cells are “place cells,” through the observation that there are far more place cells having suitable parameters than are needed to make up any one pointer group; and the combinatorial diversity of group selection is more than enough to supply a lifetime’s worth of episode IDs.  However, even in non-spatial memory retrieval, the place cell properties of the pointer group cells are often utilized indirectly, as when we retrace our steps to “jog our memory” of an event.

This content is variously found in Circuitry, Place cells and other sections. What is referred to as a recent theory is a review. The title of the review concerns the dentate gyrus which is not mentioned in the edit and which has material in dentate gyrus section. The ref given is not entered up properly. The last half of the paragraph is uncited and some OR. The prose is not up to the featured article status. Another major change was to upset the formatting of the three main ideas and to change this to two ? Then to enter a sentence claiming a heavy criticism and giving a completely inapt ref. As it states at top of editing page any changes to content needs to be addressed on talk page.--Iztwoz (talk) 23:43, 19 November 2018 (UTC)

Citations needed
I have seen multiple paragraphs and sentences in this article that are unsourced. Could someone knowledgable about this subject please fix this issue? This is an important featured article that was even peer-reviewed in a WikiJournal. For it to lose featured status in an FA-review would be a shame. Wretchskull (talk) 20:11, 11 February 2021 (UTC)

"Ammon's Horn"
This is by no means a common term in modern neuroscience. A PubMed search for "Ammon's Horn" indicates that the term saw peak use in publication in 1993 and has reduced consistently and significantly since, with 6 results containing "Ammon's Horn" published in 2021. So while true, including the term in the first paragraph may confuse or misdirect readers rather than inform them.

I propose moving mention of the term and associated reference below to the "name" section.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/?term=%22Ammon%27s+horn%22

CoreyinProgress (talk) 19:19, 9 December 2021 (UTC)
 * CoreyinProgress Disagree with your proposal - the term is well-known and a recognised aka as shown in updated ref used. It is not so likely to be well-mentioned in PubMed as it is an aka.--Iztwoz (talk) 20:13, 9 December 2021 (UTC)

respectfully, I recognize that the term is an AKA, but I disagree that the term is well-known, and I maintain that it does not add to the introduction.

Evidence - 1) unfortunately, the updated reference added was not a properly formatted search, therefore most of the results were pertinent to the greek god "Ammun", the ammonites, or to sheep physiology. By the second page of results, there is no mention of the hippocampus or any subfield. Please see below link for search terms exclusive of non-relevant results searches for "ammon's horn" or "horn of ammon" result in 13 entries total, which tracks with my earlier point regarding pubmed. https://www.oxfordreference.com/search?btog=chap&o_1=OR&q0=%22ammon%27s+horn%22&q1=%22horn+of+ammon%22

2) More anecdotally, I asked a room of 5 neuroscience PhD candidates and post-docs if anyone recognized the term, and only one of us did. Many of us actively research and publish regarding the hippocampus. This is certainly anecdotal evidence, but if Wikipedia is written for lay-person comprehension, including AKAs that are no longer commonly used in the field does not add value.

Again, I am not debating the term is an AKA, but it would be better placed in the "name" section, as it is more of historical interest than modern usefulness.

CoreyinProgress (talk) 03:24, 10 December 2021 (UTC)

The misnomer CA4
I suggest removing the term CA4 from this article. This is a misnomer that was introduced by Lorente de Nó (1934) and was suggested abandoned already in 1978 by Amaral in his very thorough paper on the cell types of the dentate gyrus in rats. Lorente de No's CA4 was actually the polymorphic layer of the dentate gyrus (his second reflected blade) that he thought was a continuation of the CA-field populated by modified pyramids. It has later been established that this is not the case and that the CA4 of Lorente is not continuous with the CA but is the basal polymoprhic layer of the DG. It thus makes no sense to say that the CA4 inserts into the DG, as the CA4 is actually the polymorphic layer of the DG. Naming this layer CA4 also infers that it is part of the CA-field, which is not true. What inserts into the DG is the most proximal end of CA3 and this should also be updated in the text. This has been established amongst others by the same authors that are referred to (mistakenly) in the section where CA4 is presented at first.

For references on the misnomer CA4 see: Blackstad (1956), Amaral (1978), and more recent reviews on anatomy where the term is abandoned: van Strien et al. (2009), Cappaert et al. (2015).

The hippocampal field is full of strange nomenclature. Since Amaral conclusion has not been proven wrong over close to five decades it is well beyond time that we implement his observations and remove this misnomer.

Jsblacks (talk) 15:33, 7 January 2022 (UTC)

WP:URFA/2020
"Anatomy" is largely unsourced (Also mentioned one year ago). File:Place Cell Spiking Activity Example.png is unsourced. Also: why are some images numbered ("Image 8: Example of a one-second EEG theta wave", etc.) while others aren't ("Rats and cognitive maps", "Hippocampus (lowest pink bulb)", "Hippocampus highlighted in green on coronal T1 MRI images", etc.) A455bcd9 (talk) 11:18, 9 December 2022 (UTC)

AfD-merge from Between-systems memory interference model
There's a merge outcome at Articles for deletion/Between-systems memory interference model mandating the merge of Between-systems memory interference model to here. It seems highly impractical to merge 13k highly technical article into a 130k featured article. Suggestions welcome from those supporting the merge outcome:, ,. Perhaps redirect or delete (too technical to be helpful?). Klbrain (talk) 07:12, 1 July 2024 (UTC)

 * I agree; there's no need to merge the entire 1400-word article here. The 75-word lede, plus a brief paragraph linking to Multiple trace theory, should be sufficient for a general article about the hippocampus. Retrograde amnesia is already mentioned, so this would be a natural fit in the Function/Role in memory subsection. Owen× ☎  11:11, 1 July 2024 (UTC)
 * I have no particular opinion, I keep it up to you. Thank you for attracting me for the discussion, however! Maxim Masiutin (talk) 07:51, 2 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Hippocampus


text:
Coprolalia

Coprolalia is involuntary swearing or the involuntary utterance of obscene words or socially inappropriate and derogatory remarks. The word comes from the Greek κόπρος, meaning "dung, feces", and λαλιά "speech", from λαλεῖν  "to talk".

Coprolalia is an occasional characteristic of tic disorders, in particular Tourette syndrome, although it is not required for a diagnosis of Tourette's and only about 10% of Tourette's patients exhibit coprolalia. It is not unique to tic disorders; it is also a rare symptom of other neurological disorders.

Coprolalia is one type of coprophenomenon. Other coprophenomena include the related symptoms of copropraxia, involuntary actions such as performing obscene or forbidden gestures, and coprographia, making obscene writings or drawings.

Characteristics
Coprolalia encompasses the uncontrollable utterance of words and phrases that are culturally taboo or generally unsuitable for acceptable social use, when used out of context. The term is not used to describe contextual swearing. It is usually expressed out of social or emotional context, and may be spoken in a louder tone or different cadence or pitch than normal conversation. It can be a single word, or complex phrases. A person with coprolalia may repeat the word mentally rather than saying it out loud; these subvocalizations can be very distressing.

Coprolalia is an occasional characteristic of Tourette syndrome, although it is not required for a diagnosis of Tourette's. Typically, symptoms of coprolalia follow the development of phonic or motor tics by four to seven years. The severity of symptoms tends to peak during adolescence and subside during adulthood. In Tourette syndrome, compulsive swearing can be uncontrollable and undesired by the person uttering the phrases. Involuntary outbursts, such as racial or ethnic slurs in the company of those most offended by such remarks, can be particularly embarrassing. The phrases uttered by a person with coprolalia do not necessarily reflect the thoughts or opinions of the person as they are unconsciously produced.

Cases of deaf Tourette patients swearing in sign language have been described.

It may occur after injuries to the brain such as stroke and encephalitis; in other neurological conditions such as choreoacanthocytosis, seizures, and Lesch–Nyhan syndrome; and rarely in persons with dementia or obsessive-compulsive disorder in the absence of tics.

Brain regions implicated
The neural mechanisms underlying the presence of coprolalia alone are poorly understood. Current research is designed to locate the brain regions that are active during an involuntary tic. Individuals with Tourette Syndrome (TS) exhibit the symptoms of coprolalia, so researchers can study subjects with TS to deduce an etiology for phonic tics. Patterns of neural activity were tracked by using positron emission tomography (PET) technology. The activity of the frontal operculum and Broca’s area (Brodmann’s area 44 and 45), may be responsible for the initiation of these vocal tics. Both of these brain areas are responsible for planning and producing speech, so it's not surprising these regions are activated during coprolalic vocal tic episodes.

Limbic system structures such as the posterior cingulate gyrus are also activated during coprolalic vocal tics. This section of the brain is responsible for emotional processing, so its increase in activation could reveal insights as to how taboo words may be organized differently than neutral lexical items inside the brain.

Prevalence in Tourette syndrome
Only about 10% of people with Tourette's exhibit coprolalia, but it tends to attract more attention than any other symptom.

There is a paucity of epidemiological studies of Tourette syndrome; ascertainment bias affects clinical studies. Studies on people with Tourette's often "came from tertiary referral samples, the sickest of the sick". Further, the criteria for a diagnosis of Tourette's were changed in 2000, when the impairment criterion was removed from the DSM-IV-TR for all tic disorders, resulting in increased diagnoses of milder cases. Additionally, many clinical studies suffer from small sample size. These factors combine to render older estimates of coprolalia—biased towards clinical populations of the more severe cases—outdated.

An international, multi-site database of 3,500 individuals with Tourette syndrome drawn from clinical samples found 14% of patients with Tourette's accompanied by comorbid conditions had coprolalia, while only 6% of those with uncomplicated ("pure") Tourette's had coprolalia. The same study found that the chance of having coprolalia increased linearly with the number of comorbid conditions: patients with four or five other conditions—in addition to tics—were four to six times more likely to have coprolalia than persons with only Tourette's.

One study of a general pediatric practice found an 8% rate of coprolalia in children with Tourette syndrome, while another study found 60% in a tertiary referral center (where typically more severe cases are referred). A more recent Brazilian study of 44 patients with Tourette syndrome found a 14% rate of coprolalia; a Costa Rican study of 85 subjects found 20% had coprolalia; a Chilean study of 70 patients found an 8.5% rate of coprolalia; older studies in Japan reported a 4% incidence of coprolalia; and a still older clinical study in Brazil found 28% of 32 patients had coprolalia. Considering the methodological issues affecting all of these reports, the consensus of the Tourette Syndrome Association is that the actual number is below 15 percent. Specific treatment options for reliving motor and phonic tics (coprolalia) in Gilles de la Tourette syndrome include but are not limited to Botulinum toxin injections, antipsychotic drugs or behavioral therapy depending on the individual's severity of symptoms.

Botox Injections
Some patients have been treated by injecting botulinum toxin (botox) near the vocal cords. This does not prevent the vocalizations, but the partial paralysis that results helps to control the volume of any outbursts. Botox injections result in more generalized relief of tics than the vocal relief expected. Botulinum injections block neuromuscular transmission and decrease hyperactive muscle fibres thus reducing involuntary movement production.

Antipsychotic drugs
Aripiprazole is an FDA-approved antipsychotic drug that "acts as an antagonist at D2 receptors under hyperdopaminergic conditions and displays agonist properties under hypodopaminergic conditions." D2 receptors (striatal dopamine receptors) play an essential role in motor output and the initiation of movements. The overproduction of dopamine exacerbates the production of tics. Aripiprazole works as a selective dopamine regulator controlling the release of dopamine in the brain, reducing the production of tics. Recent studies provide support for aripiprazole for symptom management. Aripiprazole oral dosages were recently approved in 2012 for the management of tics in children and adults.

Comprehensive Behavioral Intervention (CBI)
Habit reversal training is one of the most common CBI strategies used for patients with Tourettes syndrome. Patients work with a therapist to develop strategies to better anticipate the occurrence of potential tics and establish a designated response preventing the tics from occurring. Additionally, these therapies also support TS patients in implementing coping mechanisms following stress-inducing tics.

Coprolalia in deaf individuals
Coprolalia has also been documented in deaf individuals. Non-verbal phonic tics are referred to as "signing phonic tics" in deaf individuals. Coprolalia in signing individuals is characterized by uncontrollable fingerspelling of obscene and inappropriate words and phrases, the production of intercourse related signs, flicking middle fingers, or compulsive repetition of signs. TS is extremely understudied in the deaf community, often being misdiagnosed as schizophrenia. Researchers are still studying the relationship between deafness and Tourette's syndrome to combat misdiagnosis.

Society and culture
The entertainment industry often depicts those with Tourette syndrome as being social misfits whose only tic is coprolalia, which has furthered stigmatization and the public's misunderstanding of those with Tourette's. The coprolalic symptoms of Tourette's are also fodder for radio and television talk shows.

title: Coprolalia


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Tic

A tic is a sudden and repetitive motor movement or vocalization that is not rhythmic and involves discrete muscle groups. It is typically brief and may resemble a normal behavioral characteristic or gesture.

Tics can be invisible to the observer, such as abdominal tensing or toe crunching. Common motor and phonic tics are, respectively, eye blinking and throat clearing.

Tics must be distinguished from movements of disorders such as chorea, dystonia and myoclonus; the compulsions of obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and seizure activity; and movements exhibited in stereotypic movement disorder or among autistic people (also known as stimming).

Classification
Tics are classified as either motor or phonic, and simple or complex.

Motor or phonic
Motor tics are movement-based tics affecting discrete muscle groups.

Phonic tics are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose, mouth, or throat. They may be alternately referred to as verbal tics or vocal tics, but most diagnosticians prefer the term phonic tics to reflect the notion that the vocal cords are not involved in all tics that produce sound.

Simple or complex
Simple motor tics are typically sudden, brief, meaningless movements that usually involve only one group of muscles, such as eye blinking, head jerking, or shoulder shrugging. Motor tics can be of an endless variety and may include such movements as hand clapping, neck stretching, mouth movements, head, arm or leg jerks, and facial grimacing.

A simple phonic tic can be almost any sound or noise, with common phonic tics being throat clearing, sniffing, or grunting.

Complex motor tics are typically more purposeful-appearing and of a longer nature. They may involve a cluster of movements and appear coordinated. Examples of complex motor tics are pulling at clothes, touching people, touching objects, echopraxia (repeating or imitating another person's actions) and copropraxia (involuntarily performing obscene or forbidden gestures).

Complex phonic tics include echolalia (repeating words just spoken by someone else), palilalia (repeating one's own previously spoken words), lexilalia (repeating words after reading them), and coprolalia (the spontaneous utterance of socially objectionable or taboo words or phrases). Coprolalia is a highly publicized symptom of Tourette syndrome; however, only about 10% of TS patients exhibit coprolalia.

Martino, et al have argued that tics may be considered physiological, or developmentally typical.

Characteristics
Tics are described as semi-voluntary or unvoluntary, because they are not strictly involuntary—they may be experienced as a voluntary response to a premonitory urge (a sensory phenomenon that is an inner sensation of mounting tension). A unique aspect of tics, relative to other movement disorders, is that they are suppressible yet irresistible; they are experienced as an irresistible urge that must eventually be expressed.

Tics may increase as a result of stress, fatigue, boredom, or high-energy emotions, which can include negative emotions, such as anxiety, as well as positive emotions, such as excitement or anticipation. Relaxation may result in a tic increase (for instance, watching television or using a computer), while concentration on an absorbing activity often leads to a decrease in tics. Neurologist and writer Oliver Sacks described a physician with severe Tourette syndrome (Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon in real life, although a pseudonym was used in the book), whose tics remitted almost completely while he was performing surgery.

Immediately preceding tic onset, most individuals are aware of an urge that is similar to the need to yawn, sneeze, blink, or scratch an itch. Individuals describe the need to tic as a buildup of tension that they consciously choose to release, as if they "had to do it". Examples of this premonitory urge are the feeling of having something in one's throat or a localized discomfort in the shoulders, leading to the need to clear one's throat or shrug the shoulders. The actual tic may be felt as relieving this tension or sensation, similar to scratching an itch. Another example is blinking to relieve an uncomfortable sensation in the eye. Some people with tics may not be aware of the premonitory urge. Children may be less aware of the premonitory urge associated with tics than are adults, but their awareness tends to increase with maturity.

Complex tics are rarely seen in the absence of simple tics. Tics "may be challenging to differentiate from compulsions", as in the case of klazomania (compulsive shouting).

Diagnosis
Tic disorders occur along a spectrum, ranging from mild (transient or chronic tics) to more severe; Tourette syndrome is the more severe expression of a spectrum of tic disorders, which are thought to be due to the same genetic vulnerability. Nevertheless, most cases of Tourette syndrome are not severe. Management for the spectrum of tic disorders is similar to the management of Tourette syndrome.

Tic disorders are defined based on symptoms and duration. The fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), published in May 2013, reclassified Tourette's and tic disorders as motor disorders listed in the neurodevelopmental disorder category, removed the word "stereotyped" from the definition of tic to better distinguish between stereotypies and tics, replaced transient tic disorder with provisional tic disorder, removed the criterion that tics must occur nearly every day, and removed the criterion that previously had excluded long tic-free periods (months) from counting towards the year needed to diagnose Tourette's or Persistent (Chronic) tic disorders.

Differential diagnosis
Dystonias, paroxysmal dyskinesias, chorea, other genetic conditions, and secondary causes of tics should be ruled out in the differential diagnosis. Conditions besides Tourette syndrome that may manifest tics or stereotyped movements include developmental disorders, autism spectrum disorders, and stereotypic movement disorder; Sydenham's chorea; idiopathic dystonia; and genetic conditions such as Huntington's disease, neuroacanthocytosis, pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Wilson's disease, and tuberous sclerosis. Other possibilities include chromosomal disorders such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, XYY syndrome, and fragile X syndrome. Acquired causes of tics include drug-induced tics, head trauma, encephalitis, stroke, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Most of these conditions are rarer than tic disorders, and a thorough history and examination may be enough to rule them out, without medical or screening tests.

Although tic disorders are commonly considered to be childhood syndromes, tics occasionally develop during adulthood; adult-onset tics often have a secondary cause. Tics that begin after the age of 18 are not diagnosed as Tourette's syndrome, but may be diagnosed as an "other specified" or "unspecified" tic disorder.

Tests may be ordered as necessary to rule out other conditions: For example, when diagnostic confusion between tics and seizure activity exists, an EEG may be ordered, or symptoms may indicate that an MRI is needed to rule out brain abnormalities. TSH levels can be measured to rule out hypothyroidism, which can be a cause of tics. Brain imaging studies are not usually warranted. In teenagers and adults presenting with a sudden onset of tics and other behavioral symptoms, a urine drug screen for cocaine and stimulants might be necessary. If a family history of liver disease is present, serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels can rule out Wilson's disease.

Individuals with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) may present with features typically associated with a tic disorder, such as compulsions that may resemble motor tics. "Tic-related OCD" is hypothesized to be a subgroup of OCD, distinguished from non-tic-related OCD by the content and type of obsessions and compulsions; individuals with tic-related OCD have more intrusive thoughts, and exhibit more hoarding and counting rituals than individuals with non-tic-related OCD.

Tics must also be distinguished from fasciculations. Small twitches of the upper or lower eyelid, for example, are not tics, because they do not involve a whole muscle, rather are twitches of a few muscle fibre bundles, that are not suppressible.

title: Tic


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User talk:Panamaoils

Don't make edits like that again, please. You deleted the entire content of an entry and added an advertisment. That goes against Wikipedia rules. Please read the rules and look around. Try that again and you might get banned. Thanks. Moncrief, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Please do not upload commercial brochures in closed formats. Wikipedia is not an advertising vehicle. Please see Welcome, newcomer for a guide to how to participate in editing Wikipedia. -- The Anome 10:32, 26 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Panamaoils


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Geneviève Bujold

Geneviève Bujold (born July 1, 1942) is a Canadian actress. For her portrayal of Anne Boleyn in the period drama film Anne of the Thousand Days (1969), Bujold received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. Her other film credits include The Trojan Women (1971), Earthquake (1974), Obsession (1976), Coma (1978), Murder by Decree (1979), Tightrope (1984), Choose Me (1984), Dead Ringers (1988), The House of Yes (1997), and Still Mine (2012).

Early life
She was born in Montreal, Quebec, the daughter of Laurette (née Cavanagh), a maid, and Joseph Firmin Bujold, a bus driver. She is of French Canadian descent, with distant Irish ancestry.

Bujold received a strict convent education for twelve years, which she disliked. She was expelled from the convent for reportedly reading Fanny by Marcel Pagnol. She entered the Montreal Conservatory of Dramatic Art, where she was trained in the classics of French theatre.

Early work
Two months before she was to graduate she made her stage debut as Rosine in Le Barbier de Séville in 1961 with Theâtre de Gesù. She quit the school and was rarely out of work, being in demand for radio, stage, TV and film. Bujold made her TV debut with Le square (1963), a 60-minute TV film based on a play by Marguerite Duras, co-starring Georges Groulx. She was in episodes of Jeudi-théâtre ("Atout... Meurtre") and Les belles histoires des pays d'en haut ("La terre de Bidou") and guest starred on Ti-Jean caribou. Her Canadian feature film debut was in Amanita Pestilens (1963). She was then in an international co production La fleur de l'âge, ou Les adolescentes (1964) and had a lead role in La terre à boire (1964), the first Quebec feature to be privately financed. Bujold starred in two 30 minute shorts, La fin des étés (1964) and Geneviève (1964). She toured Canada performing plays also worked steadily in radio and was voted actress of the year in Montreal.

French films
In 1965, she toured Russia and France with the company of the Théâtre du Rideau Vert. While in Paris, Bujold was in a play A House... and a Day when she was seen by renowned French director Alain Resnais. He selected her for a role in his film The War Is Over, opposite Yves Montand and Ingrid Thulin. She returned home briefly to appear in "Romeo and Jeannette" by Jean Anouilh alongside Michael Sarrazin, for a Canadian TV show Festival. Also for that show she did productions of The Murderer and A Doll's House. She contributed with vocals in The Devil's Toy, a documentary about skateboarding in Montreal, directed by Claude Jutra (1966).

She stayed in France to make two more films: Philippe de Broca's King of Hearts (1966), with Alan Bates, and Louis Malle's The Thief of Paris (1967), with Jean-Paul Belmondo. Bujold won the Prix Suzanne as the Discovery of the Year and Elle magazine called her The Girl of the Day. Despite having established herself in France, however, she returned to Canada.

Return to Canada
Then-husband Paul Almond directed her in "The Puppet Caravan" for Festival in 1967. She appeared in Michel Brault's film Between Salt and Sweet Water (1967), then went to New York to play the title role in a production of Saint Joan (1967) for Hallmark Hall of Fame on American TV. Although she said she preferred film most and television least out of all the mediums, she received great acclaim for this including an Emmy nomination.

In Canada she starred in Isabel (1968), written and directed by Almond. It was one of the first Canadian films to be picked up for distribution by a major Hollywood studio.

Anne of the Thousand Days and international stardom
International recognition came in 1969, when she starred as Anne Boleyn in Charles Jarrott's film Anne of the Thousand Days, with Richard Burton. Producer Hal B. Wallis cast her after seeing her in Isabel.

For her performance, she received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture – Drama, and received a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. It was released by Universal who signed her to a three-picture contract.

Back in Canada, she did a second feature with her husband, The Act of the Heart (1970), co starring Donald Sutherland, which earned her a Best Actress at the Canadian Film Awards. She wrote and starred in a short film, Marie-Christine (1970), directed by Claude Jutra. Wallis and Universal wanted Bujold to star in Mary, Queen of Scots (1971) but she refused so they sued her for $450,000.

Instead she played the role of Cassandra, a Greek prophet, in Michael Cacoyannis's film version of The Trojan Women (1971), opposite Katharine Hepburn, Vanessa Redgrave, and Irene Papas. It was shot in Spain. In Canada, she made Journey (1972) with Almond and co-starring John Vernon. Bujold won another Canadian Film Award for Best Actress.

She starred in Claude Jutra's Kamouraska (1973), based on a novel by Anne Hébert, for which she received her third Canadian Film Award for Best Actress. In the US, she appeared in an adaptation of Jean Anouilh's Antigone for PBS's Great Performances in 1974.

Hollywood
In 1973, after her marriage ended, she relocated to Los Angeles. Shortly thereafter, she settled the lawsuit with Universal, agreeing to a three-picture film contract starting with Earthquake (1974), with Charlton Heston.

Bujold went to France to make Incorrigible (1975) with de Broca and Belmondo. For Hallmark Hall of Fame and the BBC she appeared in Caesar and Cleopatra (1975) alongside Alec Guinness.

At Universal Studios, she was the lead in Swashbuckler (1976) alongside Robert Shaw. In an interview she said, "Robert Shaw is a man worth knowing."

In 1976, she appeared in Obsession (1976) directed by Brian De Palma co-starring Cliff Robertson (1976). Bujold made Alex & the Gypsy (1976) with Jack Lemmon and Another Man, Another Chance (1977), co-starring James Caan (1977) for Claude Lelouch.

She was lead with Michael Douglas in the medical thriller Coma (1978), directed by Michael Crichton, which was a box office hit.

Bujold returned to Canada to play a key role in the Sherlock Holmes film Murder by Decree (1979), which won her a Best Supporting Actress Award at the Canadian Film Awards.

For Walt Disney she appeared in the fantasy film The Last Flight of Noah's Ark (1980) with Elliott Gould and Charles Jarrott, director of Anne of the Thousand Days. She was directed by Almond once more in the Canadian Final Assignment (1980).

Bujold starred in a TV movie Mistress of Paradise (1981), then supported Christopher Reeve in Monsignor (1982), and Clint Eastwood in Tightrope (1984).

Alan Rudolph
Bujold starred in Choose Me (1984), directed and written by Alan Rudolph. She promptly made two more films for Rudolph: Trouble in Mind (1985) and The Moderns (1988), the latter set in Paris in the 1920s. She was part of his informal company of actors that he repeatedly used in his films, including Keith Carradine.

Bujold starred in David Cronenberg's Dead Ringers (1988) opposite Jeremy Irons, then made a TV movie Red Earth, White Earth (1989). She did False Identity (1990) with Stacy Keach.

Canada
After a long absence from Quebec, she returned to appear in two more films by Michel Brault: The Paper Wedding (1989), and My Friend Max (1994). In between she went to France to make Rue du Bac (1991), and did another film with Almond, The Dance Goes On (1991). She had support roles in Oh, What a Night (1993), and An Ambush of Ghosts (1993).

Star Trek
In 1994, Bujold was chosen to play Captain Nicole Janeway (subsequently renamed Kathryn Janeway), lead character in the ensemble cast of the American television series Star Trek: Voyager. However, she left the project after just two days of filming. Kate Mulgrew was subsequently cast in the role.

Later career
Bujold had supporting roles in The Adventures of Pinocchio (1995), The House of Yes (1997), Last Night (1998), You Can Thank Me Later (1998), Eye of the Beholder (1999), The Bookfair Murders (2000), Children of My Heart (2001) and Alex in Wonder (2001)

Bujold co-starred with Graham Greene in Dead Innocent (1997) and appeared in a short Matisse & Picasso: A Gentle Rivalry (2001).

Bujold was back in Quebec to star in Chaos and Desire (2002), directed by Manon Briand. That year she said "I like doing studio films, independent films. I want to step up to the plate and do it. The role doesn't have to be long, but it has to be essential to the film. And it's got to be truthful to me. I defend my characters. They're like my babies."

Bujold's later appearances include Jericho Mansions (2003), Finding Home (2004), Downtown: A Street Tale (2004), By the Pricking of My Thumbs (2005), Disappearances (2006), and Deliver Me (2006).

Bujold was also in The Trotsky (2009), For the Love of God (2011), and Northern Borders (2013). In 2012, Bujold played a woman battling dementia in the sleeper romantic drama Still Mine. Stephen Holden of The New York Times commented: "Ms. Bujold imbues Irene with a starchy tenacity and a sharp sense of humor", while The Washington Post called her performance "superb" and "remarkably detailed".

Bujold's later films include Chorus (2015).

Personal life
In 1967, Bujold married Canadian director Paul Almond. They had a son, Matthew, in 1968. After a separation of approximately two years, the couple divorced in 1974.

In 1980, she had a second son, Emmanuel, with Dennis Hastings, a Reno-born carpenter she met in 1977 when he was contracted to build her Malibu house. They separated quietly without publicity in 2017. Hastings died in 2020.

title: Geneviève Bujold


text:
Kansas Turnpike Authority

The Kansas Turnpike Authority (KTA) is the organization that owns and maintains the Kansas Turnpike.

Authority board
The KTA is headed by a board of five members, two of which are appointed by the governor of the state. In addition, the Chairman of the Kansas Senate Transportation Committee as well as a member of the Kansas House Transportation Committee also serve on the board. The current secretary of the Kansas Department of Transportation is the fifth member of the board and also serves as the director of operations.

One board member is elected as the chairman of the board by the other four members. The current chairman is David Lindstrom, a Kansas City-area businessman and former Johnson County Commissioner and Kansas City Chiefs defensive end.

The KTA board consults with the CEO in approving major contracts, policies and the annual budget. Board members, as listed on the KTA web site, are below:
 * David Lindstrom, Chairman
 * Sen. Mike Petersen
 * Rep. Richard J. Proehl
 * Sen. Ty Masterson
 * Richard Carlson, Secretary of Transportation

Organization
The KTA employs over 400 people who are charged with maintaining, preserving, and redesigning the 236 mi roadway and improving its function as a vital corridor to move people and goods in Kansas. These employees are led by the KTA's Chief Executive Officer, who reports to the KTA board, and a nine-member leadership team.

 * Authority Board
 * Chief Executive Officer
 * Director of Engineering
 * Director of Technology
 * Director of Finance
 * KTA General Counsel
 * Director of Roadway Operations
 * Director of Business Services and Customer Relations
 * Commander of Kansas Highway Patrol Troop G
 * Human Resources Manager
 * Executive Assistant

title: Kansas Turnpike Authority