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Constitutional debate in Canada

The Constitutional debate of Canada is an ongoing debate covering various political issues regarding the fundamental law of the country. The debate can be traced back to the Royal Proclamation, issued on October 7, 1763, following the signing of the Treaty of Paris (1763) wherein France ceded most of New France to Great Britain in favour of keeping Guadeloupe.

Since the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1867, which brought the Province of Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia together as Canada, the debate has focused on these issues:

 * The interpretation of the Constitution
 * The division of powers between the federal and provincial governments
 * The type of federalism to be applied within the federation
 * The way the constitution should be amended
 * The inclusion of specific civil rights in the constitution

Historical overview
The initial policy of Great Britain with regards to its newly acquired colony of Quebec was revealed in a Royal Proclamation on October 7, 1763. The proclamation renamed Canada "The Province of Quebec", redefined its borders, and established a British appointed colonial government. The new governor of the colony was given the power and direction to summon and call general assemblies of the people's representatives.

The status quo
The current Constitution of Canada consists of the 1867 British North America Act (BNA) and subsequent amendments.

Distribution of legislative powers
The BNA Act defined the areas of jurisdiction for the provinces and the federal government. There are 29 exclusive federal jurisdictions and 16 provincial jurisdictions. The provincial jurisdictions are listed under sections 92, 93 and 95 of the constitution.

The BNA Act granted the federal parliament all "residuary" powers not already defined as provincial. It also gave the federal government a veto power over provincial legislation. The members of the Senate of Canada, the Supreme Court of Canada, judges and the judges of all of the provinces' highest courts are appointed by the federal executive.

The Constitution Act, 1982, did not change the divisions of responsibilities between the provincial and the federal legislatures, except for the provincial jurisdiction over natural resources and energy, which was clarified and slightly expanded.

Charter of rights and freedoms
The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms was enshrined into the constitution of Canada in 1982. The charter covers fundamental liberties, democratic rights, mobility rights, legal rights, equality rights, language rights and minority language education rights.

Amendment process
The 1982 constitutional reform introduced an amendment process that no longer involved the approval of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. The amendment formula is described in section 37 to 49 of the constitution. In general, amendments can be passed by the House of Commons, the Senate, and a two-thirds majority of the provincial legislatures (7 of the 10) representing at least 50% of the Canadian population (the 7/50 formula). Certain types of amendments use other amending formulas.

Foundation of the nation
In Canada West (Ontario), the confederation process was promoted as the act of foundation of a new British nation. The project generally received wide support in the press and in the political class. It is primarily the politicians of Canada West that, with the Great Coalition, orchestrated the process which led to the legislative union of the British North American colonies.

The anti-Confederation movement was however quite strong in one of the two Maritime provinces that were initially federated by the BNAA. The Liberal politicians of the Maritime provinces did not support the movement of the Great Coalition before or after the fact.

In Nova Scotia, 36 out of 38 seats of the provincial legislature and 18 out of 19 seats of the new federal legislature went to anti-Confederation candidates at the first election. Premier William Annand and federal MP Joseph Howe pushed for the removal of Nova Scotia from the new Dominion. Howe eventually accepted a position in the federal government of McDonald, while Annand kept fighting Confederation up until 1869.

The movement died shortly after when the idea of reversing the process of confederation was abandoned. The point of view that the confederation is the act of foundation of the Canadian nation was and still is today the policy of the federal government.

Pact between two founding peoples
In Canada East (Quebec), the confederation project was promoted by the and opposed by the. George-Étienne Cartier supported and promoted the project as a way to regain the political autonomy that Lower Canada had lost with the forced Union of 1840. Reluctant at first, the Catholic clergy eventually supported confederation when it became known that education and "health" were going to be exclusive provincial jurisdictions.

After 1867 and up until the 1960s, the idea that the BNAA was a legal document containing guarantees to the equality of the two founding peoples was taken for granted by most members of the intellectual elite of French Canada. Nationalist politicians from Quebec (sometimes Liberal, sometimes Conservative) were elected on programs which stated how they were to defend the constitutional guarantees granted by Great Britain to French Canadians in order to protect their nationality. Federal politicians, such as Henri Bourassa, advocated more autonomy for Canada within the British Empire, while provincial politicians such as Honoré Mercier defended the autonomy of the province of Quebec within the Canadian Dominion.

Just another British Act
The of Canada East opposed the confederation process, just as its ancestor party, the Parti patriote, had opposed the Union process. Some rouges such as Antoine-Aimé Dorion, demanded that the project be submitted to a direct vote by the people, convinced it would be rejected. The process which led to the confederation was considered illegitimate because in their opinion it was undemocratic.

Other liberals suggested a highly decentralized confederation that would have given only certain limited powers to the union government. The party lead the anti-confederation campaign and at the first provincial elections, 13 out of 65 anti-confederation candidates were elected, obtaining 45% of the recorded votes.

Much later, in the late 1950s, the opinions of the would be supported by the first advocates of the independence of Quebec.

Confederation / federation
Since the creation of the federal state, the role of this new level of government has been the object of debate. As of 1867, some politicians have seen the federal government as the central, national government of Canada whereas others have seen it as a confederal government, the creation of the provinces, responsible for administering things the latter had in common.

Symmetrical and asymmetrical federalism
Symmetrical federalism refers to a political organization where all federated states have equal status and autonomy within the greater ensemble.

Asymmetrical federalism refers to a political organization where the federated states have variable levels of autonomy within the greater ensemble.

Binationalism, bilingualism and biculturalism
Mostly supported by French Canadians, the binational confederation was seen as a way for French Canadians and British Canadians to coexist within the same country and share common institutions. Since French Canadians viewed themselves as a distinct nation and wished for this nation to keep existing, many political leaders from Quebec promoted the official recognition of the French language by the federal government and all provincial governments. This view is today associated with the pre-Quiet Revolution era.

Multicultural nation state
Promoted by the Liberals during Pierre E. Trudeau's prime ministership, this view of Canada is at once readily embraced by a great number of Canadians and is enshrined in Section Twenty-seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. It is, however, seen as unacceptable because it is insufficient by essentially all Quebec provincial politicians. To them, the multicultural nation state model alone fails at recognizing the national character of Quebec society and the consequences of this for the Quebec state as a member state of the Canadian federation.

The concept of a pluralistic society is generally perceived positively in Quebec, which is also a land open to immigration. However, Quebec policies speak of civic "interculturalism" rather than multiculturalism, which is associated with ghettoization. The Canadian multiculturalism policy is often perceived negatively, for it depicts the French-speaking majority of Quebec as one of the many ethnic groups of Canada, therefore denying the national character of Quebec, and undermining the efforts of the Quebec state to integrate immigrants into its mainstream French-speaking society. Debates over issues of cultural pluralism such as reasonable accommodations for religious observance in public spaces have been prominent in Quebec politics and society in the 21st century, as in the Bouchard-Taylor Commission of 2007-08, the Quebec Charter of Values proposed in 2013 but abandoned in 2014, and the Act respecting the laicity of the State which became law in 2019.

Multinational state
Many politicians and public figures think that Canada would move forward in the recognition of its own diversity by declaring itself a de jure multinational state. With regards to Quebec, this view would be more in line with the "nation within the nation" of former Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson in the pre-Trudeau era.

One nation, one country
Many Canadians outside Quebec think of Canada as a monolithic nation with 10 equal provinces. Since they see only one nation in the country, they are opposed to any kind of asymmetrical relation with Quebec or any other province. Believing that Canada needs a strong federal government to defend and promote national unity, some are by principle reluctant to decentralization of powers to the provinces. Others accept broad provincial powers so long as those given to Quebec are no different from those given to the other provinces (essentially the position of the Reform Party during the Meech Lake debate, as described in Preston Manning's 1992 book The New Canada.

Two nations, two countries
With secession, many Quebec nationalists think they have the answer to Canada's continual constitutional debate. Marginalized after the Patriotes rebellion of 1837–38, the secessionist option was resurrected as a credible solution in the wake of the 1960s Quiet Revolution of Quebec. Some politicians see independence as the normal conclusion of the Quebec struggle for the conservation of its autonomy within the Canadian federal framework. Some see it in a broader perspective of every people's right to self-determination and what they see as the normal evolution of a 400-year-old former French colony that fell victim to the colonial wars between Great Britain and France.

Treaty federalism
The doctrine of treaty federalism states that Canada consists of two unions, one of ten provinces and the federal government, and the other of the Crown with the Aboriginal peoples of Canada. Under this doctrine, The First Nations, Inuit, and Métis are thought of as sovereign nations who are in a compact with Canada, rather than minority groups within the Canadian nation-state.

The report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1996) stated that "the terms of Canadian federation are found not only in formal constitutional documents governing relations between federal and provincial governments but also in treaties and other instruments establishing the basic links between Aboriginal peoples and the Crown"

Maintain status quo
The official position of the federal government of Canada, an overwhelming majority of Canadians outside Quebec and a minority of people (20%) inside Quebec. The Liberal Party of Canada is the main actor behind the efforts to maintain the constitutional status quo.

Constitutional reforms
Position of many federalists from English-speaking Canada and Quebec. Seen as the only way to avoid the secession of Quebec. Since the rise of the sovereignty movement, this option seems to gather a solid 40% of support among Quebec voters. Efforts to reform the Canadian constitution in order to recognize Quebec's specificity (or distinct society) and provide a means to accommodate its need for greater autonomy have resulted in the Meech Lake Accord which collapsed before it came into effect and the Charlottetown Accord which was rejected by a majority of Canadians and also a majority of Quebecers in referendum in 1995. The option is still supported, with more or less energy, by the Liberal Party of Quebec.

Independence of Quebec
This is the position of the Quebec sovereigntists. Seen as the best or only way to ensure the normal development of the Quebec society from a cultural, economic and social point of view. Since the 1980s, this option seems to gather, from one survey to the next a solid 40% of support among Quebec voters. In 1980, the Quebec government held a referendum on sovereignty-association, which was rejected by 60% of the Quebec electorate, and a second one on sovereignty with an optional partnership, which was rejected by 50.6% of the same electorate. The option is presently supported by the and, both provincial parties in Quebec. Secession is not considered an option by federal-level parties other than the and essentially all the population of the English-speaking provinces.

title: Constitutional debate in Canada


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Dugommier station

Dugommier is a station of the Paris Métro on Line 6 in the 12th arrondissement.

History
The station opened on 1 March 1909 with the opening of the original section of Line 6 from Place d'Italie to Nation (although part of Line 5—some dating back to 2 October 1900—was incorporated into Line 6 on 12 October 1942). Its initial name of Charenton was due to its proximity to the same named street, which originally led to the commune of Charenton-le-Pont. On 12 July 1939, which was renamed after Jacques François Dugommier (1738–1794), a general and member of the Convention, which governed France, 1792–1795. It was the location of the Barrière de Charenton, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished during the 19th century.

As part of RATP's Renouveau du Métro programme, the station corridors and platform lighting were renovated by 29 November 2002. In 2021, attendance is gradually rising, with 1,725,412 passengers entering this station, placing it in the 204th position of metro stations for its usage.

Access
The station has a single access called Boulevard de Reuilly, consisting of a fixed staircase decorated with a mast with a yellow M inscribed in a circle and a Dervaux-type balustrade, leading to the right of no.1 of this boulevard.

Platforms
Dugommier is a station of standard configuration. It has two platforms separated by the metro tracks and the vault is elliptical. The decoration is of the style used for most metro stations. The lighting strips are white and rounded in the Gaudin style of the metro revival of the 2000s, and the bevelled white ceramic tiles cover the walls and tunnel exits. The vault is coated and painted white. The advertising frames are metallic, and the name of the station is inscribed in Parisine font on enamelled plates. The seats are Motte style and green. The stairs leading to the platforms are tiled, as well as the perimeter of the platforms and the floor under the seats.

Bus connections
The station is served by lines 71, 77, 87 and 215 of the RATP Bus Network.

Nearby
Nearby are the Promenade Plantée—a 4.5 km long elevated garden along the abandoned railway which led to the former Gare de la Bastille railway station and the town hall of the 12th arrondissement.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Dugommier station


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Bonneville-sur-Touques

Bonneville-sur-Touques (, Bonneville on Touques) is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France, located four kilometres from the urban agglomeration Deauville-Trouville. The commune is principally famous for its 11th century castle, which protected the nearby supply port of Touques. The population is 325 (2019).

Etymology
The name Bonneville is attested as far back as 1014, when it appeared in the form Bonnavilla. Old French bonne, or good, already had its current meaning at that time, and ville, or town, which in placenames often has its original meaning of rural area (from the Latin villa rustica), might here have the later sense of "village".

Government
The municipal council has 11 members, including the mayor and two deputies.

List of Mayors

Demographics
Bonneville-sur-Touques's peak population was 476 in 1876.

Significant sites

 * Château de Bonneville-sur-Touques, nicknamed "William the Conqueror's ruins" (11th century), classified as a historic monument since 16 November 1964
 * Église Saint-Germain-et-Saint-Loup (18th century)
 * Manoir de la Croix de fer (Iron Cross Manor), bought in 2006 by Tatiana Beck, for 1 million euros.

Notable residents

 * William the Conqueror frequently stayed at the castle when he went hunting in Saint-Gatien forest.
 * John of England also lived at the castle.
 * Tony O'Reilly, Irish businessman and international rugby player

title: Bonneville-sur-Touques


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Daumesnil station

Daumesnil is a station on Line 6 and Line 8 of the Paris Métro in the 12th arrondissement.

History
The station opened on 1 March 1909 with the opening of the original section of Line 6 from Place d'Italie to Nation (although part of Line 5—some dating back to 2 October 1900—was incorporated into Line 6 on 12 October 1942). The Line 8 platforms opened on 5 May 1931 with the extension of the line from Richelieu–Drouot to Porte de Charenton.

It is named after Avenue Daumesnil, which honours General Pierre Yrieix Daumesnil (1776–1832) who lost a leg at the Battle of Wagram. This station is near Place Félix Éboué and its name plates refer to Félix Éboué (1884–1944), who brought Chad over to the Free French Forces in 1940 and as a result was made Governor General of French Equatorial Africa. It was the location of the Barrière de Reuilly, a gate built for the collection of taxation as part of the Wall of the Farmers-General; the gate was built between 1784 and 1788 and demolished in the 19th century.

Nearby is the Promenade Plantée—a 4.5 km long elevated garden along the abandoned railway which led to the former Gare de la Bastille railway station.

Like a third of the stations on the network between 1974 and 1984, the platforms of both lines were modernized in the Andreu-Motte style, in this case red on line 6 and blue for line 8, with the retention of the original bevelled white tiles in both cases.

As part of the RATP Un metro + beau program, the corridors of the station were renovated in turn and opened on 29 June 2014.

According to RATP estimates, the station saw 4,954,004 passengers enter in 2019, which places it in 86th position among metro stations for its attendance. In 2020, with the Covid-19 crisis, its annual traffic fell to 2,723,508 passengers, which ranked it 63rd.

In January 2021, the characteristic Motte masonry benches were removed from the platforms of Line 6, as well as the seats they had been surmounted until then, replaced by Akiko models of the same shade.

The station's traffic gradually recovered in 2021 with 3,634,023 entrants recorded, relegating it to the 70th position of the stations of the network for its attendance that year.

Access
The station has four entrances:
 * Access 1 - Place Félix-Éboué, consisting of a fixed staircase lined with an escalator going up, decorated with a candelabra and a Dervaux-type balustrade, leading to the south of this square to the right of No. 6;
 * Access 2 - Rue Claude-Decaen, consisting of a fixed staircase also decorated with a mast and a Dervaux surround, located south-east of the square facing no. 100 Rue Claude-Decaen;
 * Access 3 - Avenue Daumesnil, consisting of a fixed staircase lined with an escalator going up, decorated with a Guimard entrance classified as a historic monument (decree of 12 February 2016) and a Dervaux totem, located at the corner formed by Boulevard de Reuilly and Avenue Daumesnil opposite no. 199 of the latter;
 * Access 4 - Rue de Reuilly, consisting of a fixed staircase with a Dervaux balustrade, leading to the right of no. 118 of this street.

Platforms
The platforms of the two lines are of standard configuration. Two per stopping point, they are separated by the metro tracks located in the centre and the vault is elliptical.

They are furnished in the Andreu-Motte style in both cases. Those of line 6 have two red illuminated canopies, benches, and corridor outlets in flat tiles of the same shade and burgundy Akiko seats (flat red tile benches surmounted by red Motte seats), while those of line 8 have the same components in blue as well as blue Motte seats, flat coloured tiles covering the tunnel exits. This decoration is married with the bevelled white tiles for both lines. On the one hand, it is applied to the wall and tunnel exits on line 6, the vault being coated and painted white, while it covers the walls and the vault on line 8. In addition, the name of the station, inscribed on enamelled plaques, is in Parisine font for line 6 and in capital letters for line 8. The advertising frames are respectively metallic and honey-coloured ceramic with plant motifs in the interwar style of the original CMP.

Bus services
The station is served by lines 29, 46, 64 and 71 of the RATP Bus Network.

title: Daumesnil station


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Bel-Air station (Paris Métro)

Bel-Air is a station on Line 6 of the Paris Métro in the 12th arrondissement. The station is located in the middle of the Boulevard de Picpus, between the districts of Picpus and Bel-Air.

History
The station was opened on 1 March 1909 with the extension of the line from Place d'Italie to Nation. The station was closed during World War II and remained closed for a prolonged period, not reopening until 7 January 1963. It is named after the Bel-Air quarter. This station, along with the other elevated stations on the 1909 extension to Nation, were the last new above ground stations on the Paris Métro until Créteil–L'Échat station opened on Line 8 in 1973.

Access
The station has three accesses located in front of nos. 15, 32 and 34 of Boulevard de Picpus.

Platforms
The station is in the open air at ground level, but the lines are underground to the north and to the south: the trains ascend to the surface before the station to descend when leaving it. This layout was required to clear the railway that connected the former Gare de la Bastille railway station (near the current Bastille metro station) to the valley of the Marne, via the former station of Reuilly near Bel-Air. This line was diverted to become part of RER A in 1969.

The station's single entrance to the station leads to the back of trains from Nation and to the front of trains from Charles de Gaulle–Étoile.

Bus connections
The station has no connection with the RATP bus network.

Places of interest
The old railway to Paris-Bastille was converted in the 1990s into the Promenade Plantée — a 4.5 km long elevated garden connecting to the Bastille to the Porte de Saint-Mandé. Cycling and rollerskating is allowed on this section.

The Rothschild Hospital is in the immediate vicinity and the Armand Trousseau Hospital for children is further off.

title: Bel-Air station (Paris Métro)


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Bonnœil

Bonnœil is a commune in the Calvados department in the Normandy region in northwestern France.

Geography
The commune is part of the area known as Suisse Normande.

The commune is made up of the following collection of villages and hamlets, Le Bas de Bonnœil, La Girardière, La Boulaye, La Mare, La Bosquie and Bonnœil.

The Grand Etang stream and The Langot are the main watercourses running through the commune.

title: Bonnœil