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Tench Tilghman

Tench Tilghman (, December 25, 1744 – April 18, 1786) was an officer in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. He served as an aide-de-camp to General George Washington, achieving the rank of lieutenant colonel.

Tilghman rose to become a trusted member of Washington's staff. The historic events of the time sparked his transformation from a privileged family member of Loyalists to a dedicated Patriot. He paid a high price, facing tragedies including a split with Loyalist members of his family, and illness and an early death from disease contracted during the American Revolutionary War.

Early life, education, and career
Tilghman was born on December 25, 1744, at Fausley, a plantation owned by his father, James Tilghman, located on Fausley Creek, a branch of the Miles River, in Talbot County, Maryland, a few miles from the town of Easton. His mother was Anne Francis Tilghman; his father was a lawyer and noted Loyalist. Like many prominent planter families of the Eastern Shore of Maryland, the Tilghman family had social and business ties with business elites in Philadelphia, and has intermarried with some prominent Philadelphia families. Tilghman was the eldest of six brothers and four sisters.

Tilghman likely attended a plantation school, and subsequently was schooled by John Gordon, rector of St. Michael's Parish. He was sent by his grandfather, Tench Francis, to Philadelphia in 1758, at the age of 14, to the Academy and College of Philadelphia (which later evolved into the University of Pennsylvania), from which he was graduated in May 1761. Tilghman then became a partner in Francis-Tilghman Company, a mercantile business formed with Tench Francis, Jr., an uncle on his mother's side. The enterprise was initially successful but dissolved in 1775.

Revolutionary service

In July 1775, the Second Continental Congress appointed him to one of the commissioners directed to make treaties with Indians along the frontier, seeking to ensure that they would remain neutral in the American Revolutionary War. Tench was named to the commission to the Six Nations (Iroquois Confederacy) and tribes towards the north.

In the summer of 1775, Tilghman became a lieutenant in the 3rd Battalion of the Philadelphia volunteer light infantry company commanded by Sharpe Dulaney. The company was integrated into the Continental Army in New Jersey in the Flying Camp military formation in June or July 1776. On August 8, 1776, he became one of the aides-de-camp to George Washington, the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army. How Tilghman came to join Washington's staff are unknown, but the Washington family and Tilghman family had familial connections.

Tilghman served Washington as secretary until the end of the war, mostly without pay. Before Colonel Alexander Hamilton (then a young artillery officer) joined Washington's staff, Tilghman was the only aide-de-camp to Washington who was conversant in the French language, a critical skill given the many French military men who had joined the revolutionary cause. During the Battle of Monmouth in 1778 and afterwards, Tilghman interpreted written and verbal communications between Washington, Lafayette, Von Steuben, and commanders of the Continental Army's French allies.

Tilghman's Patriot loyalties split his family. He became the first among his eleven siblings to join the Revolutionary cause. Most of the Tilghman family served the King, as did many other rich families at that time. His brothers Richard and Philemon served in the British military. Another brother, William Tilghman, wanted to follow in their father's path and study law in England, which created a professional conflict for Tench Tilghman, who refused him passage to England on June 12, 1781.

"I am placed in as delicate a situation as it is possible for a man to be. I am, from my station, a master of the most valuable secrets of the Cabinet, and the master of the field and it might give cause of umbrage and suspicion at this critical moment to interest myself in procuring the passage of a brother to England."

The Siege of Yorktown in October 1781 culminated in a Patriot victory and an honor for Tilghman, whom Washington picked to carry the surrender papers to the Continental Congress in Philadelphia. On October 29, 1781, the Continental Congress voted Tilghman "a horse properly caparisoned and an elegant sword in testimony of their high opinion of his merit and ability." Tilghman's ride from Yorktown to Philadelphia was commemorated in poems by Clinton Scollard and Howard Pyle. Tilghman's own journal entry was terse: "In the morning Lord Cornwallis put out a letter requesting 24 hours must be granted to the commissioners to settle terms of capitulation of the posts of York and Gloster. The General answered that only two hours would be allowed for him to send out his terms. He accordingly sent them out generally as follows, that the Garrisons should be prisoners of war, the German and British soldiers to be sent to England and Germany. The General answered on the 18th that the terms of sending the troops to England and Germany were inadmissible. Lord Cornwallis closed with all the terms except the same honors granted at Charlestown."

In a letter to Tilghman the following year, Washington's humor and admiration is apparent:

"Till your letter of the 28th arrived which is the first from you and the only direct account of you since we departed at Philadelphia, we have various conjectures about you. Some thought you were dead—others that you were married—and all that you have forgot us. Your letter is not a more evident contradiction of the first and last of these suppositions than it is a tacit conformation of the second and as none can wish you greater success in the prosecution of the plan you are upon than I do...you have no friend who wishes more to see you than I do."

As the war formally ended with peace negotiations, Washington discussed the surrender of King George III with his trusted aide:

"The obstinacy of the King and his unwillingness to acknowledge the independency of this country, I have ever considered as the greatest obstacles in the way of a peace."

Later life and death
The National Park Service writes that Tilghman was even sick during his ride from Yorktown to Philadelphia "with chills and fever" and that he left the army in 1783 with failing health. Nonetheless, he restarted his business after the war, shipping wheat, tobacco, and other American products to Spain, in exchange for which Valentin Riera [head of a Spanish company] shipped wine and manufactured products to Baltimore.

On June 9, 1783, in St. Michael's Parish, Tilghman married Anna Maria Tilghman, his first cousin and daughter of Matthew Tilghman. Together they had two children: Anna Margaretta, born May 24, 1784, and Elizabeth Tench, born October 11, 1786.

Tilghman was admitted as an original member of The Society of the Cincinnati of Maryland when it was established in November 1783. He died in Chestertown, Maryland, on April 18, 1786, at the age of 41.

Washington's regard for Tilghman can be inferred from their joint portrait with Lafayette by Charles Wilson Peale. After Tilghman's death, Washington wrote to his brother Thomas Ringgold Tilghman and to his father James Tilghman:

"As there were few men for whom I had a warmer friendship, or greater regard than for your Brother—Colonel Tilghman—when living; so, with much truth I can assure you, that, there are none whose death I could more sincerely have regretted. and I pray you, & his numerous friends to permit me to mingle my sorrows with theirs on this unexpected & melancholy occasion."

"Of all the numerous acquaintances of your lately deceased son, & amidst all the sorrowings that are mingled on that melancholy occasion, I may venture to assert that (excepting those of his nearest relatives) none could have felt his death with more regret than I did—No one entertained a higher opinion of his worth, or had imbibed sentiments of greater friendship for him than I had done."

Posthumous honors
Tilghman is buried in a historic cemetery in Oxford, Maryland. The horizontal lid on his grave vault references his achievements under Washington. A brass plaque on the stone lid notes that his remains were reinterred from Old St. Paul's, Baltimore on November 30, 1971. Adjacent to his grave, the Tench Tilghman Monument is a spire.

The Maryland State Archives has a painting of Tilghman and two swords which he once owned, which his descendant Mrs. Judith Goldsborough Oates donated to the State of Maryland on December 26, 1997.

The Tench Tilghman Elementary/Middle School, part of the Baltimore City Public Schools, is named in his honor. He is also the namesake of a Baltimore City recreation center and a Daughters of the American Revolution chapter in Bethesda, Maryland.

title: Tench Tilghman


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Baron Monteagle of Brandon

Baron Monteagle of Brandon, in the County of Kerry, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Before his final exile, James II had intended the title to be conferred upon one of his supporters, Stephen Rice in the Jacobite peerage. Instead, it was created in 1839 in the reign of Queen Victoria for the Whig politician Thomas Spring Rice, a descendant of Stephen Rice. He served as Chancellor of the Exchequer between 1835 and 1839. He was succeeded by his grandson, the second Baron, his eldest son the Hon. Stephen Edmund Spring Rice having predeceased him. The second Lord Monteagle was a unionist politician and was made a Knight of the Order of St Patrick in 1885. On his death, the title passed to his son, the third Baron. He held minor diplomatic office. He was succeeded by his uncle, the fourth Baron. He was the younger son of the aforementioned the Hon. Stephen Edmund Spring Rice, eldest son of the first Baron. the title is held by the fourth Baron's great-grandson, the seventh Baron, who succeeded his father in 2013.

The diplomat Sir Cecil Spring Rice, British Ambassador to the United States from 1912 to 1918, was the son of Hon. Charles William Thomas Spring Rice, second son of the first Baron Monteagle of Brandon.

The family seat was Mount Trenchard House, near Foynes, County Limerick.

Barons Monteagle of Brandon (1839)

 * Thomas Spring Rice, 1st Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1790–1866)
 * Thomas Spring Rice, 2nd Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1849–1926)
 * Thomas Aubrey Spring Rice, 3rd Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1883–1934)
 * Francis Spring Rice, 4th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1852–1937)
 * Charles Spring Rice, 5th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1887–1946)
 * Gerald Spring Rice, 6th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (1926–2013)
 * Charles James Spring Rice, 7th Baron Monteagle of Brandon (b. 1953)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's uncle Hon. Michael Spring Rice (b. 1935). The heir presumptive's heir apparent is his son Jonathan Spring Rice (b. 1964) The heir presumptive's heir apparent's heir apparent is his son Jamie Alexander Spring Rice (b. 2003).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baron Monteagle of Brandon


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Gerhard Ludwig

Gerhard Ludwig (1909–1994) was a German bookseller.

Born into a very poor working-class family in Berlin, his mother worked in an ammunitions factory, and his father was a beer deliverer and an alcoholic. During the Third Reich he worked for the Frankfurter Zeitung, a newspaper which sheltered non-conformist writers. He was imprisoned in Sachsenhausen between 1941 and 1945, for writing a cheeky post-card about pompous Nazi references to Frederick the Great. He was liberated by the Red Army on April 22, 1945, by which time he had developed severe tuberculosis. In 1946, he received a credit and took over the bookshop in Cologne main station. Between 1950 and 1956, he illegally used the third-class waiting hall in Cologne main station for political and cultural discussion events ("Mittwochgespräche"), which were important for German education in democracy. Well known public figures had to face a crowd and answer questions they would not know beforehand - something completely unknown in Germany before. The events stopped when Cologne main station was re-designed after 1956.

Among the invited guests were and all members of Chancellor Konrad Adenauer's cabinet, with the sole exception of Adenauer himself.
 * Heinrich Böll
 * Ernst von Salomon
 * Gustaf Gründgens
 * Werner Finck

He created the first shop for paperbacks. His shops were leased from the German Railway Authority (Deutsche Bundesbahn), and while he succeeded in cheating on the lease rates for many years, he was eventually found out and - under pressure from creditors - had to sell his shops in 1988.

title: Gerhard Ludwig


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Chevrolet Corsica

The Chevrolet Corsica (named after Corsica, France) is a front-wheel drive compact car that was produced by Chevrolet from 1987 until 1996. The Corsica was built upon the L-body platform. It shared the L-body with the 2-door Beretta, and the rebadged revival of the Pontiac Tempest which was essentially the same car, but was only sold in Canada. The Corsica came in two styles and four trims. Sold initially only as a 4-door sedan, it was also available as a 5-door hatchback from model years 1989 until 1991. Corsicas were built alongside the Beretta by both the Wilmington Assembly in Delaware and Linden Assembly in New Jersey.

1987–1989
The Corsica was first sold as a fleet car to rental agencies and large companies in 1987, prior to mainstream release. The Corsica and Beretta were the second best-selling passenger cars in America in calendar year 1988, right behind the Ford Escort. Much of the suspension components were borrowed from the J-body Chevrolet Cavalier, and the chassis was an extension of that of the J-body, but modeled with similar proportions to the N-body. The L-body platform however, was engineered by Chevrolet rather than Oldsmobile. The car was equipped with either the 2.0 L TBI OHV I4 from the Cavalier, or the 2.8 L MPFI OHV V6 from the Chevrolet Celebrity. The base Corsica's door handles were colored silver, while the Corsica LT/LTZ had black-colored handles. Some earlier models had a column shifter with a handbrake between the front seats, an uncommon configuration for most compact cars of the time. A 5-door hatchback model was introduced for 1989, as was an LTZ performance package that included many suspension parts from the Beretta. A rare XT trim included all the performance parts from the LTZ trim as well as a leather interior, special body kit and spoiler package designed for GM by a third party supplier.

1990
The base model Corsica was dropped, leaving the LT and LTZ. Both engines offered were increased in displacement. The Corsica now either used the same 2.2 L 4-cylinder engine and 3-speed automatic transmission as the Cavalier, or the 3.1 L V6 and 3-speed automatic from the Lumina. Minor changes were made to the interior, mostly around the driver controls.

1991
For 1991 the Corsica received an extensively updated interior with a standard driver's side airbag and cup holders. The front seatbelts were moved from the doors to the B-pillars. The taillights also received a redesign, going from smooth to ridged. This would also be the last year for the five-door hatchback.

1992
The only trim level was the LT. The manual transmission was dropped for the V6; it remained available for the four-cylinder engine, although it was only available through special order (few of which ever took place). The 2.2 L OHV engine was now upgraded with sequential fuel-injection (SFI) in the Corsica, unlike the version in the Cavalier which used multi-point fuel injection (MPFI).

1993
On automatic transmission vehicles, a shift interlock, which required the brake pedal to be applied before the transmission could be taken out of the park position, as well as a low oil level light was added. The 3.1 L V6 equipped cars also lost the "3.1L Multi-Port V6" fender badge.

1994
The LT model took the place of the base model once again. The 2.2 L engine's power output was increased to 120 hp. The 3.1 L V6 was replaced with the updated Gen III "3100-series" engine (Option code L82) with SFI and an output of 160 hp along with an OBD-1.5 System. This new OBD system was not compatible with either OBD-I or OBD-II but included some features from both systems.

The air conditioning system was upgraded to use R-134a refrigerant, replacing the environmentally-harmful R-12.

The 3-speed automatic transmission on V6 models was replaced with a 4-speed electronically-controlled automatic transmission with overdrive, and lubricated with 100,000 mile long-life fluid. The 2.2 L engine retained the same 3-speed automatic, but the 4-speed automatic could be special ordered. The front seat belts were moved from the B-pillars to the doors. The manual transmission was also dropped for all US Corsicas this model year, due to lack of consumer demand, although many export models and the Beretta still retained this option.

1995
The Corsica became the first American car to be equipped with daytime running lights as a standard feature. A new Corsica logo was introduced along with other minor cosmetic exterior changes, such as the introduction of body-colored mirrors, side moldings, and grille. The car also received a revised rear suspension, similar to that of the then-newly redesigned Cavalier. This slightly reduced the "floatiness" of the ride which occurred with earlier models. All Corsicas now came with Dex-Cool engine coolant. The car also received a new tire size, 195/70R14 for longer tire life and better handling.

1996
The Corsica was converted fully to OBD-II. GM discontinued the Corsica and the Chevrolet Beretta after the 1996 model year, due to safety standards in 1997 that would have required a total redesign of these cars, and competition from the similarly sized redesigned Chevrolet Cavalier for compact car sales. The Corsica was replaced by the larger Chevrolet Malibu for the 1997 model year.

Engines
Notes:
 * Both the 2.8 L V6 and 2.0 L I4 received a longer stroke crankshaft in the 1990 model year, respectively increasing their displacements to 3.1 L and 2.2 L.
 * In the 1992 model year, sequential fuel injection replaced throttle-body injection on the I4 and in 1994 it replaced MPFI on the V6 models. The updated OBD system is sometimes referred to as OBD 1.5.

title: Chevrolet Corsica


text: Template:Policy

title: Template:Policy


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Baron Moncreiff

Baron Moncreiff, of Tulliebole in the County of Kinross, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 9 January 1874 for the lawyer and Liberal politician Sir James Moncreiff, 1st Baronet. He had already been created a Baronet, of Kilduff in the County of Kinross, in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom on 23 May 1871. In 1883 Lord Moncreiff also succeeded his elder brother as 11th Baronet, of Moncreiff in the County of Perth. On his death the titles passed to his eldest son, the second Baron. He was a Judge of the Court of Session from 1888 to 1905 under the title of Lord Wellwood and served as Lord Lieutenant of Kinross-shire between 1901 and 1909. He was succeeded by his younger brother, the third Baron. He was a clergyman. the titles are held by the latter's great-grandson, the sixth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2002.

The Moncreiff Baronetcy, of Moncreiff in the County of Perth, was created in the Baronetage of Nova Scotia in 1626 for John Moncreiff. The title was created with remainder to Moncreiff's heirs male whatsoever, which allowed it to be inherited by male relatives who were not his direct descendants. On the death of his younger son James, the fourth Baronet, there were no more male descendants of the first Baronet. The title instead passed to James's cousin John Moncreiff, who was the son of Hugh Moncreiff, youngest brother of the first Baronet. When his son Hugh, the sixth Baronet, died, this line of the family also failed. The title was inherited by his kinsman Reverend William Moncreiff, the seventh Baronet, a descendant of Archibald Moncreiff, uncle of the first Baronet. His son, the eighth Baronet, assumed the additional surname of Wellwood. He was succeeded by his son, the ninth Baronet. He was a Lord of Session. His younger son was the aforementioned eleventh Baronet, who was elevated to the peerage in 1874.

As of 30 June 2006, the present holder of the barony has not successfully proven his succession to the baronetcies and is therefore not on the Official Roll of the Baronetage. However, the case is under review by the Registrar of the Baronetage (for more information follow this link).

The family seat is Tullibole Castle in Kinross-shire.

Baronets of Moncreiff (1626)

 * Sir John Moncreiff, 1st Baronet (d. c. 1651)
 * Sir John Moncreiff, 2nd Baronet (d. 1674)
 * Sir David Moncreiff, 3rd Baronet (d. c. 1690
 * Sir James Moncreiff, 4th Baronet (d. 1698)
 * Sir John Moncreiff, 5th Baronet (c. 1628–1714)
 * Sir Hugh Moncreiff, 6th Baronet (d. 1744)
 * Sir William Moncreiff, 7th Baronet (d. 1767)
 * Sir Henry Moncreiff-Wellwood, 8th Baronet (1750–1828)
 * Sir James Wellwood-Moncreiff, 9th Baronet (c. 1776–1851)
 * Sir Henry Wellwood-Moncreiff, 10th Baronet (1809–1883)
 * Sir James Moncreiff, 11th Baronet (1811–1895) (had been created Baron Moncreiff in 1874)

Barons Moncreiff (1874)
The heir apparent is the present the holder's son, Harry James Wellwood Moncreiff (b. 1986)
 * James Moncreiff, 1st Baron Moncreiff (1811–1895)
 * Henry James Moncreiff, 2nd Baron Moncreiff (1840–1909)
 * Robert Chichester Moncreiff, 3rd Baron Moncreiff (1843–1913)
 * James Arthur Fitzherbert Moncreiff, 4th Baron Moncreiff (1872–1942)
 * Harry Robert Wellwood Moncreiff, 5th Baron Moncreiff (1915–2002)
 * Rhoderick Harry Wellwood Moncreiff, 6th Baron Moncreiff (b. 1954)

title: Baron Moncreiff


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Angiostatin

Angiostatin is a naturally occurring protein found in several animal species, including humans. It is an endogenous angiogenesis inhibitor (i.e., it blocks the growth of new blood vessels). Clinical trials have been undertaken for its use in anticancer therapy.

Structure
Angiostatin is a 38 kDa fragment of a larger protein, plasmin (itself a fragment of plasminogen) enclosing three to five contiguous kringle modules. Each module contains two small beta sheets and three disulfide bonds.

There are four different structural variants to angiostatin differing in the combination of kringle domains: K1-3, K1-4, K1-5, K1-4 with a fragment of K-5. Each kringle domain contributes a different element of inhibition to the cytokine. Recent studies through recombinant angiostatin have shown however that K1-3 is pivotal is the inhibitory nature of angiostatin.

K1-3 form the “triangular bowl-like structure” of angiostatin. This structure is stabilized by interactions between inter-kringle peptides and kringles, although the kringle domains do not directly interact with each other. Angiostatin is effectively divided into two sides. The active site of K1 is found on one side, while the active sites of K2 and K3 are found on the other. This is hypothesized to result in the two different functions of angiostatin. The K1 side is believed to be primarily responsible for the inhibition of cellular proliferation, while the K2-K3 sides is believed to be primarily responsible for the inhibition of cell migration.

Generation
Angiostatin is produced, for example, by autoproteolytic cleavage of plasminogen, involving extracellular disulfide bond reduction by phosphoglycerate kinase. Furthermore, angiostatin can be cleaved from plasminogen by different metalloproteinases (MMPs), elastase, prostate-specific antigen (PSA), 13 KD serine protease, or 24KD endopeptidase.

Biological activity
Angiostatin is known to bind many proteins, especially to angiomotin and endothelial cell surface ATP synthase but also integrins, annexin II, C-met receptor, NG2 proteoglycan, tissue-type plasminogen activator, chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, and CD26. Additionally, smaller fragments of angiostatin may bind several other proteins. There is still considerable uncertainty on its mechanism of action, but it seems to involve inhibition of endothelial cell migration, proliferation and induction of apoptosis. It has been proposed that angiostatin activity is related, among other things, to the coupling of its mechanical and redox properties.

Although the exact mechanisms of action of angiostatin has not been completely understood yet, there are three proposed mechanism of action. The first proposed mechanism of action is that angiostatin binds to F1-FoATP synthase found both in the mitochondria and on the cellular membrane of epithelial cells which not only inhibits ATP production in tumor cells but also inhibits the cell's ability to maintain the acidic pH of tumor cells. This inability to regulate the intracellular pH can initiate apoptosis. Another proposed mechanism of action is that angiostatin is able to reduce epithelial cell migration by binding to avB3-integrins. However studies have shown that avB3-integrins are not critically essential for angiogenesis, so more investigation is require to ascertain how the inhibition of avB3-integrins inhibit epithelial cell migration. Another proposed mechanism of action is that angiostatin binds to Angiomotin (AMOT) and activating focal adhesion kinase (FAK). FAK has been shown to promote the inhibition of cell proliferation and cell migration, but lack of knowledge on how angiostatin and angiomotin function necessitate that addition research is required.

title: Angiostatin


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Baron Monk Bretton

Baron Monk Bretton, of Conyboro and Hurstpierpoint in the County of Sussex, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created by letters patent on 4 November 1884 for the Liberal politician John George Dodson. He was succeeded by his son, the second Baron. He was notably chairman of the London County Council from 1929 to 1930. the title is held by the latter's grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father in that year. The judge Sir John Dodson was the father of the first Baron.

Barons Monk Bretton (1884)

 * John George Dodson, 1st Baron Monk Bretton (1825–1897)
 * John William Dodson, 2nd Baron Monk Bretton (1869–1933)
 * John Charles Dodson, 3rd Baron Monk Bretton (1924–2022)
 * Christopher Mark Dodson, 4th Baron Monk Bretton (b. 1958)

The heir apparent is his elder son, Hon. Benjamin Charles Dodson (b. 1989)

title: Baron Monk Bretton


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Baron Monkswell

Baron Monkswell, of Monkswell in the County of Devon, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1885 for the lawyer and Liberal politician Sir Robert Collier. His eldest son, the second Baron, served as Under-Secretary of State for War in 1895 in the Liberal administration of Lord Rosebery. His grandson, the fourth Baron (who succeeded his uncle in the title), disclaimed the peerage on 7 April 1964. He had earlier been a member of the Essex County Council. the title is held by his grandson, the sixth Baron, who succeeded in that year.

The artist John Collier was the younger son of the first Baron. His son, Sir Laurence Collier, was British Ambassador to Norway from 1939 to 1950.

Barons Monkswell (1885)

 * Robert Porrett Collier, 1st Baron Monkswell (1817–1886)
 * Robert Collier, 2nd Baron Monkswell (1845–1909)
 * Robert Alfred Hardcastle Collier, 3rd Baron Monkswell (1875–1964)
 * William Adrian Larry Collier, 4th Baron Monkswell (1913–1984) (disclaimed 1964)
 * Gerard Collier, 5th Baron Monkswell (1947–2020)
 * James Adrian Collier, 6th Baron Monkswell (b. 1977)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's brother, the Hon. Robert William Gerard Collier (born 1979)

title: Baron Monkswell


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Baron Montagu of Beaulieu

Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (, Engl. pronunciation: "bewley", from French beau, "beautiful" and lieu, "place"), in the County of Hampshire, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1885 for the Conservative politician Lord Henry Montagu Douglas Scott, who had earlier represented Selkirkshire and South Hampshire in the House of Commons. He was the second son of Walter Montagu Douglas Scott, 5th Duke of Buccleuch (see the Duke of Buccleuch for earlier history of the family). His son, the second Baron, sat as a Conservative Member of Parliament for New Forest. The 3rd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu was one of the ninety elected hereditary peers that remain in the House of Lords after the passing of the House of Lords Act 1999, and sat on the Conservative benches. As descendants of the 5th Duke of Buccleuch, the Barons Montagu of Beaulieu are also in remainder to this peerage and its subsidiary titles.

History
The seat of the Barons Montagu of Beaulieu is Beaulieu Palace House in Beaulieu, Hampshire. The house, built around the gatehouse of the monastery of Beaulieu Abbey (the extensive ruins of which are a major feature of the estate), was purchased in 1538 by Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, when the abbey was dissolved by Henry VIII. The house came into the Montagu family through the marriage of Ralph Montagu, 3rd Baron Montagu, and Lady Elizabeth Wriothesley, daughter of Thomas Wriothesley, 4th Earl of Southampton.

The first title to be created in the name of Beaulieu was for Edward Hussey. He was the husband of Lady Isabella Montagu, widow of William Montagu, 2nd Duke of Manchester, and daughter of John Montagu, 2nd Duke of Montagu, and adopted the surname of Hussey-Montagu in 1749. He was created Baron Beaulieu in 1762 and Earl of Beaulieu in 1784. Both titles were in the Peerage of Great Britain, and became extinct on his death in 1802.

The representation of the Montagu family (along with that of the Douglases, Dukes of Queensberry) later passed to the Scott family, headed by the Duke of Buccleuch, through the marriage of Henry Scott, 3rd Duke of Buccleuch, to Lady Elizabeth Montagu, daughter of George Montagu, 1st Duke of Montagu (of the 1766 creation). The Scotts then adopted the surname of Montagu Douglas Scott. As mentioned above, Lord Henry Montagu Douglas Scott, second son of the fifth Duke of Buccleuch, was created Baron Montagu of Beaulieu in 1885 and thereafter changed his surname to Douglas-Scott-Montagu.

The late owner of Beaulieu and his eldest son were both featured in Lord Montagu, a documentary by Luke Korem about Edward Montagu-Scott’s life and accomplishments. The film was screened twice at the Newport Beach Film Festival in Newport Beach, California, in 2013.

Barons Montagu of Beaulieu (1885)

 * 1) Henry John Montagu-Scott, 1st Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (1832–1905)
 * 2) John Walter Edward Montagu-Scott, 2nd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (1866–1929)
 * 3) Edward John Barrington Montagu-Scott, 3rd Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (1926–2015)
 * 4) Ralph Douglas Montagu-Scott, 4th Baron Montagu of Beaulieu (born 1961)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's half-brother, the Hon. Jonathan Deane Montagu-Scott (born 1975).

title: Baron Montagu of Beaulieu


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Dakota County

Dakota County may refer to:
 * Dakota County, Minnesota in the Twin Cities Metropolitan Area of east-central Minnesota
 * Dakota County, Nebraska in northeastern Nebraska

title: Dakota County


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Baron Merthyr

Baron Merthyr, of Senghenydd in the County of Glamorgan, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created in 1911 for the Welsh coal mining magnate Sir William Lewis, 1st Baronet. He had already been created a baronet, of Nantgwyne in the County of Glamorgan, in 1896. The barony is named after the town of Merthyr Tydfil, where Lewis was born. Lord Merthyr's grandson, the third Baron, was Chairman of Committees in the House of Lords from 1957 to 1965 and a Deputy Speaker from 1957 to 1974. The latter was succeeded by his son, the fourth Baron. He disclaimed the peerage for life on 26 April 1977, three weeks after succeeding his father. He did not use his title of baronet either. He died on 5 August 2015.

The Hon. Robin Lewis, fourth son of the third Baron, was appointed Lord Lieutenant of Dyfed in December 2006, although this was not officially reported in the London Gazette until September 2007.

Barons Merthyr (1911)

 * William Thomas Lewis, 1st Baron Merthyr (1837–1914)
 * Herbert Clark Lewis, 2nd Baron Merthyr (1866–1932)
 * William Brereton Couchman Lewis, 3rd Baron Merthyr (1901–1977)
 * Trevor Oswin Lewis, 4th Baron Merthyr (1935–2015) (disclaimed 1977)
 * David Trevor Lewis, 5th Baron Merthyr (born 1977)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's uncle, Peter Herbert Lewis (born 1937).

Line of Succession

 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg William Thomas Lewis, 1st Baron Merthyr (1837–1914)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Herbert Clark Lewis, 2nd Baron Merthyr (1866–1932)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg William Brereton Couchman Lewis, 3rd Baron Merthyr (1901–1977)
 * Trevor Oswin Lewis (1935–2015) (disclaimed 1977)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg David Tresor Lewis, 5th Baron Merthyr (born 1977)
 * (1) Lt-Col. Hon. Peter Herbert Lewis (b. 1937)
 * (2) Hon. John Frederick Lewis (b. 1938)
 * (3) Paul William Lewis (b. 1979)
 * (4) Hon. Robin William Lewis (b. 1941)
 * (5) Christopher William Lewis (b. 1970)
 * (6) Cosimo William Babo Lewis (b. 2001)
 * (7) Hon. Antony Thomas Lewis (b. 1947)

title: Baron Merthyr


text:
Real gross domestic product

Real gross domestic product (real GDP) is a macroeconomic measure of the value of economic output adjusted for price changes (i.e. inflation or deflation). This adjustment transforms the money-value measure, nominal GDP, into an index for quantity of total output. Although GDP is total output, it is primarily useful because it closely approximates the total spending: the sum of consumer spending, investment made by industry, excess of exports over imports, and government spending. Due to inflation, GDP increases and does not actually reflect the true growth in an economy. That is why the GDP must be divided by the inflation rate (raised to the power of units of time in which the rate is measured) to get the growth of the real GDP. Different organizations use different types of 'Real GDP' measures, for example, the UNCTAD uses 2015 Constant prices and exchange rates while the FRED uses 2009 constant prices and exchange rates, and recently the World Bank switched from 2005 to 2010 constant prices and exchange rates.

Relationship with nominal GDP
Real GDP is an example of the distinction between real and nominal values in economics. Nominal gross domestic product is defined as the market value of all final goods produced in a geographical region, usually a country; this depends on the quantities of goods and services produced, and their respective prices.

If a set of real GDPs from various years are calculated, each using the quantities from its own year, but all using the prices from the same base year, the differences in those real GDPs will reflect only differences in volume.

An index called the GDP deflator can be obtained by dividing, for each year, the nominal GDP by the real GDP, so that the GDP deflator for the base year will be 100. It gives an indication of the overall level of price change (inflation or deflation) in the economy.

 * GDP deflator for year $$t=\frac{Nominal\;GDP_t}{Real\;GDP_t}\times100$$

Real GDP growth on an annual basis is the nominal GDP growth rate adjusted for inflation. It is usually expressed as a percentage.

"GDP" may refer to "nominal" or "current" or "historical" GDP, to distinguish it from real GDP. Real GDP is sometimes called "constant" GDP because it is expressed in terms of constant prices. Depending on context, "GDP" may also refer to real GDP.

Notes and references
List of countries by real GDP growth rate

title: Real gross domestic product


text:
Mpande

Mpande kaSenzangakhona (c. 1798–18 October 1872) was monarch of the Zulu Kingdom from 1840 to 1872. He was a half-brother of Sigujana, Shaka and Dingane, who preceded him as Zulu kings. He came to power after he had overthrown Dingane in 1840.

His reign was relatively lengthy at 32 years, but for the latter part of his reign, he was king in name only. His son Cetshwayo became de facto ruler in 1856. Mpande himself claimed that he preferred a quiet life and that he had been forced to become king.

Early career
Mpande was born in Babanango, Zululand, the son of Senzangakhona kaJama (1762–1816) and his ninth wife Songiya kaNgotsha Hlabisa. He was considered a weak man in comparison to his contemporaries. While other half-brothers were eliminated when his brother Dingane assassinated Shaka to become king in 1828, he was allowed to live. Mpande apparently showed no interest in Zulu power politics.

Mpande came to prominence when Dingane suffered a catastrophic disaster at the Battle of Blood River in December 1838. His defeat at the hands of the Boers led to unrest, which Dingane attempted to control by eliminating potential successors such as Mpande. In September 1839 Mpande defied his brother, who demanded his support in a war against the Swazi people. Fearing he would be killed if he joined Dingane, Mpande instead led thousands of Zulus into the Boer republic of Natalia. The Boers led by Andries Pretorius and Gert Rudolph decided to support Mpande, hoping to gain concessions if he could oust Dingane. In January 1840 Mpande's army led by Nongalaza defeated Dingane at the Battle of Maqongqo. Mpande arrived shortly after with Pretorius' force of Boers, and was proclaimed king.

After executing his own general Ndlela kaSompisi, Dingane escaped, but was soon murdered in Hlatikhulu Forest. Mpande was now unopposed as king. Mpande later claimed that he had been forced to become king against his own wishes. The Boers immediately were granted claim to a large stretch of territory in exchange for their help.

Early reign
In October 1843 British commissioner Henry Cloete negotiated a treaty to define the borders of Natal and Zululand. Mpande also negotiated with the Boers, ceding land around the Klip River in 1847, which the British considered a violation of the treaty. Mpande had to reoccupy the land with his own troops. Mpande managed to avoid further disputes with the British but continued to grant favours to the Boers.

In 1843 Mpande ordered the death of his brother Gqugqu, who was said to be plotting to kill the king. Gqugqu's wives and children were also killed. The massacre produced a large influx of refugees into Natal led by his aunt Mawa kaJama; according to British colonial official Abraham Josias Cloëté, nearly all kraals as far north as Nseleni had been deserted.

Mpande adopted an expansionist policy in the early 1850s, initially raiding the areas surrounding the Zulu kingdom. These moves culminated in the invasion of Swaziland in 1852. The Swazi were under Zulu suzerainty, but maintained effective independence under Mswati II. According to historian Philip Bonner, Mpande wanted Swaziland to be under his control because of fears of Boer expansion from Natal. He "was intent on turning Swaziland into a physical sanctuary should he become embroiled with Natal, and was not prepared to settle for anything less than effective control". The Zulu invasion was a success to the extent that the Swazi were faced with the prospect of "disintegration and collapse". During the invasion, Mpande's eldest son Cetshwayo proved his capacities as a leader. However, the British pressured him into withdrawing, which he did quickly.

Succession conflicts
Cetshwayo's success as a leader led to a conflict with Mpande's second, and favourite, son Mbuyazi. Though Cetshwayo was the oldest, he was not officially successor, as his mother had not been declared the king's Great Wife. Either brother could inherit if Mpande chose their mother as his Great Wife, which he did not. Cetshwayo felt that his father was favouring Mbuyazi, and both sides developed factions of followers. Mpande ceded territory to Mbuyazi on the Tugela River, where he and his followers settled. Mbuyazi also cultivated support from European settlers led by John Dunn. Cetshwayo, who was supported by most of the territorial sub-chiefs, decided to settle the matter militarily. He invaded Mbuyazi's lands and crushed his followers at the Battle of Ndondakusuka, massacring survivors, including five of his brothers. Dunn escaped and later became an adviser to Cetshwayo.

After this Cetshwayo became de facto ruler, though his father continued to carry out ceremonial functions. Cetshwayo continued his father's policy of maintaining links with both the British and the Boers and balancing out concessions. Cetshwayo also kept an eye on his father's new wives and children for potential rivals, ordering the death of his favourite wife Nomantshali and her children in 1861. Nomantshali and her daughters were hacked to death. Though two sons escaped, the youngest was murdered in front of the king.

According to Gibson, "in his later days he became so fat he was unable to walk". The exact date of his death in late 1872 is unclear, as it was kept secret to secure a smooth transition of power to Cetshwayo.

Assessment
Mpande's apparent passivity has been interpreted in different ways. He has often been identified as a "simpleton" or "the fool of the family", in the words of J Y Gibson. James O. Gump, however, describes him as a "savvy survivor in the Machiavellian world of Zulu politics". Gibson himself says that in his youth he was an imposing figure, quoting a French witness who said he had a regal bearing such that "a Parisian might believe that Umpande, in his youth, had frequented the palaces of kings". However, there is considerable evidence of his "lethargy and indifference" to ruling, even in his early years, when many of the decisions were made by his sons.

Mpande had a positive reputation among Christian missionaries. He allowed John Colenso to codify Zulu grammar and produce Zulu translations of the Bible. Colenso's associate, Zulu convert Magema Fuze, gave a Biblically inspired account of the history of the Zulus in his book The Black People and Whence they Came. In this account God punishes wicked rulers like Shaka and Dingane, but the Zulus flourish under "Mpande's peaceful, enlightened rule." Cetshwayo was cursed because of his impious murder of Nomantshali.

H. Rider Haggard's Allan Quatermain novel Child of Storm is set during the power struggle between Cetshwayo and Mbuyazi. Mpande (called "Panda") is depicted as an indulgent, passive figure.

title: Mpande


text:
Baron Morris

Baron Morris, of St John's in the Dominion of Newfoundland and of the City of Waterford, is a hereditary barony in the Peerage of the United Kingdom which was created on 15 January 1918 for the lawyer and politician Sir Edward Morris upon his retirement as Prime Minister of Newfoundland.

the title is held by his great-grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2011.

Barons Morris (1918)

 * Edward Patrick Morris, 1st Baron Morris (1858–1935)
 * Michael William Morris, 2nd Baron Morris (1903–1975)
 * Michael David Morris, 3rd Baron Morris (1937–2011)
 * Thomas Anthony Salmon Morris, 4th Baron Morris (b. 1982)

The heir presumptive is the present holder's brother, the Hon. James Morris (b. 1983)

Line of succession

 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Edward Patrick Morris, 1st Baron Morris (1858–1935)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Michael William Morris, 2nd Baron Morris (1903–1975)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Michael David Morris, 3rd Baron Morris (1937–2011)
 * Coronet of a British Baron.svg Thomas Anthony Salmon Morris, 4th Baron Morris (born 1982)
 * (1) Hon. James Morris (b. 1983)
 * (2) Hon. Edward Patrick Morris (b. 1937)
 * (3) Edward Patrick Morris (b. 1965)

title: Baron Morris


text:
Baron Meston

Baron Meston, of Agra in the Indian Empire and Dunnottar in the County of Kincardine, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 29 December 1919 for the Indian civil servant and former Lieutenant-Governor of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, Sir James Meston. the title is held by his grandson, the third Baron, who succeeded his father in 1984 and, having been excluded by the House of Lords Act 1999, was elected to return to the House in 2023. He is a barrister and judge.

Barons Meston (1919)

 * James Scorgie Meston, 1st Baron Meston (1865–1943)
 * Dougall Meston, 2nd Baron Meston (1894–1984)
 * James Meston, 3rd Baron Meston (b. 1950)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Thomas James Dougall Meston (b. 1977).

title: Baron Meston


text:
Spigot (disambiguation)

A spigot (or "tap" or "faucet") is a valve for controlling the release of a gas or liquid.

Spigot may also refer to:
 * AT-4 Spigot, NATO reporting name for 9K111 Fagot, a Russian anti-tank missile
 * Spigot, the male end of a pipe designed to be connected with a spigot and socket joint
 * Spigot, a keyed post in the center of some vacuum tube bases

 * Spigot, an individual projecting microscopic tube in a spider's spinneret
 * Spigot, the nickname of cartoonist Tristan A. Farnon
 * Spigot Peak, a mountain in Antarctica
 * "Spigot", a song by Marc Ribot from Shrek

title: Spigot (disambiguation)


text:
Baron Merrivale

Baron Merrivale, of Walkhampton in the County of Devon, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 19 January 1925 for the Conservative politician and judge of the High Court of Justice, Sir Henry Duke. the title is held by his great-grandson, the fourth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2007.

Barons Merrivale (1925)

 * Henry Edward Duke, 1st Baron Merrivale (1855–1939)
 * Edward Duke, 2nd Baron Merrivale (1883–1951)
 * Jack Henry Edmond Duke, 3rd Baron Merrivale (1917–2007)
 * Derek John Philip Duke, 4th Baron Merrivale (b. 1948)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Hon. Thomas Duke.

title: Baron Merrivale


text:
Talk:Ballard, Seattle

Total Implosion of Culture and Livability 2010-2012
Wow... Never before has a municipality self-destructed faster than the city of Ballard. So many iconic, cultural, musical, and artistic venues were annihilated in one fell swoop. I knew Ballard as a fun place with a bowling ally, an open mic comedy night, a local band venue, and a chai house where the community came to gather and a quote was painted upon the wall: "Nothing stirs thought like tea and controversy". Now, a void of emptiness. A sad pile of ludicrously priced small boxes serve as housing for the current residents, who might as well be prisoners locked within the tiny cubicles of a bee hive.

Are they happy in their cells?

Untitled
I notice that when I do a search for "ballard" I get the ''No page with this exact title exists; trying to find similar titles. No article title matches'' error, despite the existence of this page:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballard%2C_Seattle%2C_Washington

I can only get there if I do a search for "ballard, seattle, washington"

Is that how the search engine is supposed to work? Seems limiting....

--c3k 15:44, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

 * You are probably clicking the Go button, which is supposed to take you to the article with the exact title as the string that is entered. The internal Wikipedia search is currently offline because it slows down the server too much, but there are two search forms for google and yahoo if you click the search button. hth, Dori | Talk 17:08, Mar 7, 2004 (UTC)

Sustainable Ballard
Is there really a need to have this in the external links, given that it is already in the notes? - Jmabel | Talk 20:33, 21 November 2006 (UTC)

The annexation of Ballard by Seattle/Free Ballard
Shouldn't there be some discussion about how ballard was annexed into seattle and the "free ballard" movement (Koogunmo 10:28, 11 December 2006 (UTC))
 * Here's a citable source on annexation: http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=983. But as far as I can tell, there really is no "Free Ballard" movement, just bumper stickers and patches made be Archie McPhee's, and a few people making jokes. You should definitely try to see if you can find anthing substantive before you get this into an encyclopedia article, or, alternatively, make it clear that it is basically a joke. - Jmabel | Talk 21:07, 14 December 2006 (UTC)

Boiled cod and komle in Ballard?
Partly asking this re article content on the Scandinavian community here, and also out of curiosity as I'd eaten there once; there used to be a "greasy spoon" type cafe somewhere in Ballard, though it wasn't greasy at all, where you could get Norwegian home-cookin', i.e. cod and komle with melted butter, the Vestkyst staple. I don't remember there being much else on the menu, in fact....place was as bland as the cod, arboroite and off-white walls, almost no decorations. Is it still there? Are there other cuisine/shopping manifestations of Scandinavian-ness left in Ballard's retail life....speaking of which is the Nordic Museum mentioned here?Skookum1 20:23, 29 March 2007 (UTC)

 * There is little Scandinavian-ness left in Ballard these days. About the only business left is the newish Scandinavian Specialties, unless you count the revamped Copper Gate with its "whimsical take on Ballard's Scandinavian heritage." You might be thinking of Scandie's on a corner on Market, or Olsen's Scandinavian Foods, across the street, also on Market. Both closed. There used to be a row of old bars with food just behind Market, on Ballard Ave, like the Vasa Grill, but they probably weren't "bland". I think they're all gone too. Cataobh (talk) 20:50, 5 October 2011 (UTC)
 * And the Norwegian Constitution Day parade. And Leif Erikson Lodge of the Sons of Norway. And the Annual Ballard SeafoodFest. And all the Lutheran churches. Lots of places to get Scandinavian food. And a library and a bank and a park in the middle of the neighborhood designed on Nordic themes. It's true that a lot of small businesses in Ballard have closed -- but small ::::have closed everywhere. There's a recession, isn't there? But to say there's little Scandinavian-ness left in Ballard is difficult to defend based on the evidence. Complaining that Ballard is going to pot is nothing new either -- if anything, all the grousing is proof of how Scandinavian the place still is. --Dennis Bratland (talk) 21:27, 5 October 2011 (UTC)
 * What I meant to say was that there is little Scandanavian-ness left in Ballard's *retail life*, specifically restaurants, which was the question, and which was the only thing I addressed. I don't see "lots of places to get Scandinavian food" right now - Scandinavian Specialties and the Copper Gate are the only ones I'm aware of, but then I'm not usually out looking for lutefisk, so maybe I'm missing something. Olsen's and the Scandinavian Bakery recently closed, but others closed long before the recession. I think the article is now outdated when it says: "Walking in downtown Ballard, much of the old flavor can still be seen as there are still many shops and bakeries with a Scandinavian theme." Scandinavian-ness is certainly still there, but you do have to look for it these days. Cataobh (talk) 23:42, 5 October 2011 (UTC)
 * Removed above statement about food, but added other ethnic activities. Something smaller about food might be added. Larsen's Bakery still there too, but not downtown. Cataobh (talk) 19:56, 9 October 2011 (UTC)

Objectivity
Is someone selling tour tickets or something?

"Ballard emerged as one of the most interesting neighborhoods in Seattle"

"...restaurant, boutique, and cafe scene exploded"

"...catalyzed the gentrification of the downtown district"

"...the flagship institution of the community..."

"...with little strong leadership from local politicians"

Not very objective, and arguable at best. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 75.160.97.186 (talk) 22:30, 2 May 2007 (UTC).

It seems that the entire "A neighborhood in transition" section should be removed. There's far too much "fluff" and subjective material and not enough actual information to keep this section. Objections? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.112.86.89 (talk) 22:14, 13 September 2007 (UTC)

Is there a Wikipedia example for what an "arts & entertainment" section of an article like this would look like? Currently it reads like an advertisement. If there isn't some standard to follow can the whole a&e section just be deleted? Dbratland (talk) 03:33, 15 February 2009 (UTC)
 * The previous edit to the A&E section said, "South Ballard, or SoBa as a growing number of hipsters call the neighborhood, is a great place for a pub crawl, all within a few city blocks." It was already in dispute and this made it worse, with no citation. The hipster slang remark is interesting, but only if a source can be found to attribute it to. For not I removed the NPOV template and just made it list the live music venues in Ballard. Hopefully that speaks for itself.Dbratland (talk) 23:33, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

Snoose Junction
I was looking for information on Snoose Junction, Washington, which is a location (not sure if inhabited) in eastern King County, basically due east of Hobart, accessed by a road called Snoose Junction Road. But apparently Wikipedia has, unlike Google Maps, no information on this, the real Snoose Junction. (I'm not denying that the term is probably more widely used in its capacity as a nickname for Ballard, but it still kind of irritates me to be sent here when I'm trying to go there.) --Haruo (talk) 16:15, 12 May 2018 (UTC)

Speaking of "Snoose Junction", the article asserts, "The railroad to Seattle ended at Salmon Bay because the railroad company was unwilling to build a trestle to cross the bay." What railroad is this speaking of? (please ping me if responding, I don't maintain a watchlist on en-wiki these days.) - Jmabel | Talk 04:27, 5 April 2022 (UTC)
 * Lacking any response, I will put citation needed. - Jmabel | Talk 00:33, 9 April 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Ballard, Seattle


text:
Cetshwayo

Cetshwayo kaMpande (c. 1826 – 8 February 1884) was the king of the Zulu Kingdom from 1873 to 1884 and its Commander in Chief during the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. His name has been transliterated as Cetawayo, Cetewayo, Cetywajo and Ketchwayo. Cetshwayo consistently opposed the war and sought fruitlessly to make peace with the British and was defeated and exiled following the Zulu defeat in the war. He was later allowed to return to Zululand, where he died in 1884.

Early life
Cetshwayo was a son of Zulu king Mpande and Queen Ngqumbazi, half-nephew of Zulu king Shaka and grandson of Senzangakhona. In 1856 he defeated and killed in battle his younger brother Mbuyazi, Mpande's favourite, at the Battle of Ndondakusuka. Almost all Mbuyazi's followers were massacred in the aftermath of the battle, including five of Cetshwayo's own brothers. Following this he became the ruler of the Zulu people in everything but name. He did not ascend to the throne, however, as his father was still alive. Stories from that time regarding his huge size vary, saying he stood at least between 6 ft and 6 ft in height and weighed close to 25 st.

His other brother, Umthonga, was still a potential rival. Cetshwayo also kept an eye on his father's new wives and children for potential rivals, ordering the death of his favourite wife Nomantshali and her children in 1861. Though two sons escaped, the youngest was murdered in front of the king. After these events Umthonga fled to the Boers' side of the border and Cetshwayo had to make deals with the Boers to get him back. In 1865, Umthonga again fled across the border, apparently making Cetshwayo believe that Umthonga would organize help from the Boers against him, the same way his father had overthrown his predecessor, Dingane.

Furthermore, he had a rival half-brother, named uHamu kaNzibe who betrayed the Zulu cause on numerous occasions.

Reign
Mpande died in 1872. His death was concealed at first, to ensure a smooth transition; Cetshwayo was installed as king on 1 September 1873. Sir Theophilus Shepstone, who annexed the Transvaal to the Cape Colony, crowned Cetshwayo in a shoddy, wet affair that was allegedly more of a farce than anything else. Shepstone eventually turned on the Zulus, as he felt he was undermined by Cetshwayo's skillful negotiations for land area and compromised by encroaching Boers, as well as the fact that the Boundary Commission established to examine the ownership of the land in question had dared to rule in favour of the Zulus. The report was subsequently buried.

After his coronation, as was customary, Cetshwayo established a new capital for the nation and called it Ulundi (the high place). He expanded his army and readopted many methods of Shaka. He also equipped his impis with muskets, though evidence of their use is limited. He banished European missionaries from his land and may have incited other native African peoples to rebel against Boers in the Transvaal.

Anglo-Zulu War

In 1878, Sir Henry Bartle Frere, British High Commissioner for the Cape Colony, sought to confederate the colony the same way Canada had been, and felt that this could not be done while there was a powerful Zulu state bordering it. Frere thus began to demand reparations for Zulu border infractions and ordered his subordinates to send messages complaining about Cetshwayo's policies, seeking to provoke the Zulu king. They carried out their orders, but Cetshwayo kept calm, considering the British to be his friends and being aware of the power of the British Army. He did, however, state that he and Frere were equals and since he did not complain about how Frere administered the Cape Colony, the same courtesy should be observed by Frere in regard to Zululand. Eventually, Frere issued an ultimatum that demanded that Cetshwayo de facto disband his army. His refusal led to war in 1879, though he continually sought to make peace after the Battle of Isandlwana, the first engagement of the war. After an initial decisive but costly Zulu victory over the British at Isandlwana, and the failure of the other two columns of the three pronged British attack to make headway – indeed, one was bogged down in the Siege of Eshowe – the British retreated, other columns suffering two further defeats to Zulu armies in the field at the Battle of Intombe and the Battle of Hlobane. However, the British follow-up victories at Rorke's Drift and Kambula prevented a total collapse of the British military positions. While this retreat presented an opportunity for a Zulu counterattack deep into Natal, Cetshwayo refused to mount such an attack, his intention being to repulse the British offensive and secure a peace treaty. However, Cetshwayo's translator, a Dutch trader he had imprisoned at the start of the war named Cornelius Vijn, gave warnings to Chelmsford of gathering Zulu forces during these negotiations.

The British then returned to Zululand with a far larger and better armed force, finally capturing the Zulu capital at the Battle of Ulundi, in which the British, having learned their lesson from their defeat at Isandlwana, set up a hollow square on the open plain, armed with cannons and Gatling guns. The battle lasted approximately 45 minutes before the British ordered their cavalry to charge the Zulus, which routed them. After Ulundi was taken and burnt on 4 July, Cetshwayo was deposed and exiled, first to Cape Town, and then to London. He returned to Zululand in 1883.

From 1881, his cause had been taken up by, among others, Lady Florence Dixie, correspondent of The Morning Post, who wrote articles and books in his support. This, along with his gentle and dignified manner, gave rise to public sympathy and the sentiment that he had been ill-used and shoddily treated by Bartle Frere and Lord Chelmsford.

Later life
By 1882 differences between two Zulu factions—pro-Cetshwayo uSuthus and three rival chiefs led by Zibhebhu—had erupted into a blood feud and civil war. In 1883, the British government tried to restore Cetshwayo to rule at least part of his previous territory, but the attempt failed. With the aid of Boer mercenaries, Chief Zibhebhu started a war contesting the succession and on 22 July 1883 he attacked Cetshwayo's new kraal in Ulundi. Cetshwayo was wounded but escaped to the forest at Nkandla. After pleas from the Resident Commissioner, Sir Melmoth Osborne, Cetshwayo moved to Eshowe, where he died a few months later on 8 February 1884, aged 57–60, presumably from a heart attack, although there are some theories that he may have been poisoned. His body was buried in a field within sight of the forest, to the south near Nkunzane River. The remains of the wagon which carried his corpse to the site were placed on the grave, and may be seen at Ondini Museum, near Ulundi.

Cetshwayo's most prominent role in South African historiography is being the last king of the Zulu Kingdom, though it still exists. His son Dinuzulu, as heir to the throne, was proclaimed king on 20 May 1884, supported by (other) Boer mercenaries. A blue plaque commemorates Cetshwayo at 18 Melbury Road, Kensington, London.

In popular culture
Cetshwayo figures in three adventure novels by H. Rider Haggard: The Witch's Head (1885), Black Heart and White Heart (1900) and Finished (1917), and in his non-fiction book Cetywayo and His White Neighbours (1882). He is mentioned in John Buchan's novel Prester John. In the short story A Municipal Report in Strictly Business by O. Henry (1910) the face of a key character is compared to that of "King Cettiwayo".

A character in the opera Leo, the Royal Cadet by Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and George Frederick Cameron was named in his honour in 1889.

In the 1964 film Zulu, he was played by Mangosuthu Buthelezi, his own maternal great-grandson and the future leader of the Inkatha Freedom Party.

In the 1979 film Zulu Dawn, he was played by Simon Sabela.

In the 1986 miniseries Shaka Zulu, he was played by Sokesimbone Kubheka.

There is a brief allusion made to Cetshwayo in the novel Age of Iron by J.M. Coetzee in the line "The new Africans, pot-bellied, heavy-jowled men on their stools of office: Cetshwayo, Dingane in white skins."

Legacy
In 2016, the King Cetshwayo District Municipality was named after him.

title: Cetshwayo


text:
Baron Melchett

Baron Melchett, of Landford in the County of Southampton, was a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 5 June 1928 for Sir Alfred Mond, 1st Baronet, Chairman of Imperial Chemical Industries and a former First Commissioner of Works and Minister of Health. He had already been created a Baronet, of Hartford Hill in Great Budworth in the County of Chester, on 8 July 1910.

Mond was succeeded by his only son, the second Baron. He was also a politician and businessman. His second but only surviving son, the third Baron, was a businessman. The latter's son, the fourth Baron, succeeded in 1973. He held political office under James Callaghan in the late 1970s and was later Executive Director of Greenpeace UK.

Ludwig Mond, father of the first Baron, was an industrialist.

Barons Melchett (1928)

 * Alfred Moritz Mond, 1st Baron Melchett (1868–1930)
 * Henry Ludwig Mond, 2nd Baron Melchett (1898–1949)
 * Julian Edward Alfred Mond, 3rd Baron Melchett (1925–1973)
 * Peter Robert Henry Mond, 4th Baron Melchett (1948–2018)

The barony and baronetcy became extinct on the death of the 4th Baron in 2018 because his only son was illegitimate, and under peerage law could not succeed to his father's titles. According to Desert Island Discs broadcast on BBC Radio on 4 February 2000, Lord Melchett intentionally had his son out of wedlock because he was against the inheritance of privilege.

title: Baron Melchett


text:
Group scheme

In mathematics, a group scheme is a type of object from algebraic geometry equipped with a composition law. Group schemes arise naturally as symmetries of schemes, and they generalize algebraic groups, in the sense that all algebraic groups have group scheme structure, but group schemes are not necessarily connected, smooth, or defined over a field. This extra generality allows one to study richer infinitesimal structures, and this can help one to understand and answer questions of arithmetic significance. The category of group schemes is somewhat better behaved than that of group varieties, since all homomorphisms have kernels, and there is a well-behaved deformation theory. Group schemes that are not algebraic groups play a significant role in arithmetic geometry and algebraic topology, since they come up in contexts of Galois representations and moduli problems. The initial development of the theory of group schemes was due to Alexander Grothendieck, Michel Raynaud and Michel Demazure in the early 1960s.

Definition
A group scheme is a group object in a category of schemes that has fiber products and some final object S. That is, it is an S-scheme G equipped with one of the equivalent sets of data

 * a triple of morphisms μ: G ×S G → G, e: S → G, and ι: G → G, satisfying the usual compatibilities of groups (namely associativity of μ, identity, and inverse axioms)
 * a functor from schemes over S to the category of groups, such that composition with the forgetful functor to sets is equivalent to the presheaf corresponding to G under the Yoneda embedding. (See also: group functor.)

A homomorphism of group schemes is a map of schemes that respects multiplication. This can be precisely phrased either by saying that a map f satisfies the equation fμ = μ(f × f), or by saying that f is a natural transformation of functors from schemes to groups (rather than just sets).

A left action of a group scheme G on a scheme X is a morphism G ×S X→ X that induces a left action of the group G(T) on the set X(T) for any S-scheme T. Right actions are defined similarly. Any group scheme admits natural left and right actions on its underlying scheme by multiplication and conjugation. Conjugation is an action by automorphisms, i.e., it commutes with the group structure, and this induces linear actions on naturally derived objects, such as its Lie algebra, and the algebra of left-invariant differential operators.

An S-group scheme G is commutative if the group G(T) is an abelian group for all S-schemes T. There are several other equivalent conditions, such as conjugation inducing a trivial action, or inversion map ι being a group scheme automorphism.

Constructions

 * Given a group G, one can form the constant group scheme GS. As a scheme, it is a disjoint union of copies of S, and by choosing an identification of these copies with elements of G, one can define the multiplication, unit, and inverse maps by transport of structure.  As a functor, it takes any S-scheme T to a product of copies of the group G, where the number of copies is equal to the number of connected components of T.  GS is affine over S if and only if G is a finite group.  However, one can take a projective limit of finite constant group schemes to get profinite group schemes, which appear in the study of fundamental groups and Galois representations or in the theory of the fundamental group scheme, and these are affine of infinite type.  More generally, by taking a locally constant sheaf of groups on S, one obtains a locally constant group scheme, for which monodromy on the base can induce non-trivial automorphisms on the fibers.
 * The existence of fiber products of schemes allows one to make several constructions. Finite direct products of group schemes have a canonical group scheme structure.  Given an action of one group scheme on another by automorphisms, one can form semidirect products by following the usual set-theoretic construction.  Kernels of group scheme homomorphisms are group schemes, by taking a fiber product over the unit map from the base.  Base change sends group schemes to group schemes.
 * Group schemes can be formed from smaller group schemes by taking restriction of scalars with respect to some morphism of base schemes, although one needs finiteness conditions to be satisfied to ensure representability of the resulting functor. When this morphism is along a finite extension of fields, it is known as Weil restriction.
 * For any abelian group A, one can form the corresponding diagonalizable group D(A), defined as a functor by setting D(A)(T) to be the set of abelian group homomorphisms from A to invertible global sections of OT for each S-scheme T. If S is affine, D(A) can be formed as the spectrum of a group ring.  More generally, one can form groups of multiplicative type by letting A be a non-constant sheaf of abelian groups on S.
 * For a subgroup scheme H of a group scheme G, the functor that takes an S-scheme T to G(T)/H(T) is in general not a sheaf, and even its sheafification is in general not representable as a scheme. However, if H is finite, flat, and closed in G, then the quotient is representable, and admits a canonical left G-action by translation.  If the restriction of this action to H is trivial, then H is said to be normal, and the quotient scheme admits a natural group law.  Representability holds in many other cases, such as when H is closed in G and both are affine.

Examples

 * The multiplicative group Gm has the punctured affine line as its underlying scheme, and as a functor, it sends an S-scheme T to the multiplicative group of invertible global sections of the structure sheaf. It can be described as the diagonalizable group D(Z) associated to the integers.  Over an affine base such as Spec A, it is the spectrum of the ring A[x,y]/(xy − 1), which is also written A[x, x−1].  The unit map is given by sending x to one, multiplication is given by sending x to x ⊗ x, and the inverse is given by sending x to x−1.  Algebraic tori form an important class of commutative group schemes, defined either by the property of being locally on S a product of copies of Gm, or as groups of multiplicative type associated to finitely generated free abelian groups.
 * The general linear group GLn is an affine algebraic variety that can be viewed as the multiplicative group of the n by n matrix ring variety. As a functor, it sends an S-scheme T to the group of invertible n by n matrices whose entries are global sections of T.  Over an affine base, one can construct it as a quotient of a polynomial ring in n2 + 1 variables by an ideal encoding the invertibility of the determinant.  Alternatively, it can be constructed using 2n2 variables, with relations describing an ordered pair of mutually inverse matrices.
 * For any positive integer n, the group μn is the kernel of the nth power map from Gm to itself. As a functor, it sends any S-scheme T to the group of global sections f of T such that fn = 1.  Over an affine base such as Spec A, it is the spectrum of A[x]/(xn−1).  If n is not invertible in the base, then this scheme is not smooth.  In particular, over a field of characteristic p, μp is not smooth.
 * The additive group Ga has the affine line A1 as its underlying scheme. As a functor, it sends any S-scheme T to the underlying additive group of global sections of the structure sheaf.  Over an affine base such as Spec A, it is the spectrum of the polynomial ring A[x].  The unit map is given by sending x to zero, the multiplication is given by sending x to 1 ⊗ x + x ⊗ 1, and the inverse is given by sending x to −x.
 * If p = 0 in S for some prime number p, then the taking of pth powers induces an endomorphism of Ga, and the kernel is the group scheme αp. Over an affine base such as Spec A, it is the spectrum of A[x]/(xp).
 * The automorphism group of the affine line is isomorphic to the semidirect product of Ga by Gm, where the additive group acts by translations, and the multiplicative group acts by dilations. The subgroup fixing a chosen basepoint is isomorphic to the multiplicative group, and taking the basepoint to be the identity of an additive group structure identifies Gm with the automorphism group of Ga.
 * A smooth genus one curve with a marked point (i.e., an elliptic curve) has a unique group scheme structure with that point as the identity. Unlike the previous positive-dimensional examples, elliptic curves are projective (in particular proper).

Basic properties
Suppose that G is a group scheme of finite type over a field k. Let G0 be the connected component of the identity, i.e., the maximal connected subgroup scheme. Then G is an extension of a finite étale group scheme by G0. G has a unique maximal reduced subscheme Gred, and if k is perfect, then Gred is a smooth group variety that is a subgroup scheme of G. The quotient scheme is the spectrum of a local ring of finite rank.

Any affine group scheme is the spectrum of a commutative Hopf algebra (over a base S, this is given by the relative spectrum of an OS-algebra). The multiplication, unit, and inverse maps of the group scheme are given by the comultiplication, counit, and antipode structures in the Hopf algebra. The unit and multiplication structures in the Hopf algebra are intrinsic to the underlying scheme. For an arbitrary group scheme G, the ring of global sections also has a commutative Hopf algebra structure, and by taking its spectrum, one obtains the maximal affine quotient group. Affine group varieties are known as linear algebraic groups, since they can be embedded as subgroups of general linear groups.

Complete connected group schemes are in some sense opposite to affine group schemes, since the completeness implies all global sections are exactly those pulled back from the base, and in particular, they have no nontrivial maps to affine schemes. Any complete group variety (variety here meaning reduced and geometrically irreducible separated scheme of finite type over a field) is automatically commutative, by an argument involving the action of conjugation on jet spaces of the identity. Complete group varieties are called abelian varieties. This generalizes to the notion of abelian scheme; a group scheme G over a base S is abelian if the structural morphism from G to S is proper and smooth with geometrically connected fibers. They are automatically projective, and they have many applications, e.g., in geometric class field theory and throughout algebraic geometry. A complete group scheme over a field need not be commutative, however; for example, any finite group scheme is complete.

Finite flat group schemes
A group scheme G over a noetherian scheme S is finite and flat if and only if OG is a locally free OS-module of finite rank. The rank is a locally constant function on S, and is called the order of G. The order of a constant group scheme is equal to the order of the corresponding group, and in general, order behaves well with respect to base change and finite flat restriction of scalars.

Among the finite flat group schemes, the constants (cf. example above) form a special class, and over an algebraically closed field of characteristic zero, the category of finite groups is equivalent to the category of constant finite group schemes. Over bases with positive characteristic or more arithmetic structure, additional isomorphism types exist. For example, if 2 is invertible over the base, all group schemes of order 2 are constant, but over the 2-adic integers, μ2 is non-constant, because the special fiber isn't smooth. There exist sequences of highly ramified 2-adic rings over which the number of isomorphism types of group schemes of order 2 grows arbitrarily large. More detailed analysis of commutative finite flat group schemes over p-adic rings can be found in Raynaud's work on prolongations.

Commutative finite flat group schemes often occur in nature as subgroup schemes of abelian and semi-abelian varieties, and in positive or mixed characteristic, they can capture a lot of information about the ambient variety. For example, the p-torsion of an elliptic curve in characteristic zero is locally isomorphic to the constant elementary abelian group scheme of order p2, but over Fp, it is a finite flat group scheme of order p2 that has either p connected components (if the curve is ordinary) or one connected component (if the curve is supersingular). If we consider a family of elliptic curves, the p-torsion forms a finite flat group scheme over the parametrizing space, and the supersingular locus is where the fibers are connected. This merging of connected components can be studied in fine detail by passing from a modular scheme to a rigid analytic space, where supersingular points are replaced by discs of positive radius.

Cartier duality
Cartier duality is a scheme-theoretic analogue of Pontryagin duality taking finite commutative group schemes to finite commutative group schemes.

Dieudonné modules
Finite flat commutative group schemes over a perfect field k of positive characteristic p can be studied by transferring their geometric structure to a (semi-)linear-algebraic setting. The basic object is the Dieudonné ring D = W(k){F,V}/(FV − p), which is a quotient of the ring of noncommutative polynomials, with coefficients in Witt vectors of k. F and V are the Frobenius and Verschiebung operators, and they may act nontrivially on the Witt vectors. Dieudonne and Cartier constructed an antiequivalence of categories between finite commutative group schemes over k of order a power of "p" and modules over D with finite W(k)-length. The Dieudonné module functor in one direction is given by homomorphisms into the abelian sheaf CW of Witt co-vectors. This sheaf is more or less dual to the sheaf of Witt vectors (which is in fact representable by a group scheme), since it is constructed by taking a direct limit of finite length Witt vectors under successive Verschiebung maps V: Wn → Wn+1, and then completing. Many properties of commutative group schemes can be seen by examining the corresponding Dieudonné modules, e.g., connected p-group schemes correspond to D-modules for which F is nilpotent, and étale group schemes correspond to modules for which F is an isomorphism.

Dieudonné theory exists in a somewhat more general setting than finite flat groups over a field. Oda's 1967 thesis gave a connection between Dieudonné modules and the first de Rham cohomology of abelian varieties, and at about the same time, Grothendieck suggested that there should be a crystalline version of the theory that could be used to analyze p-divisible groups. Galois actions on the group schemes transfer through the equivalences of categories, and the associated deformation theory of Galois representations was used in Wiles's work on the Shimura–Taniyama conjecture.

title: Group scheme