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Yanagi ba

Yanagi-ba-bōchō (柳刃包丁, literally willow blade knife), yanagi ba, or yanagi, is a long and thin knife used in the Japanese cuisine. It is the typical example of the sashimi bōchō (Japanese: 刺身包丁, sashimi [raw fish] bōchō [knife]) used to slice fish for sashimi and nigiri sushi.

When preparing sashimi and nigiri sushi, the goal is usually to have cut surfaces that are smooth, shiny, and even in order to maximize the taste. The construction of a yanagi ba is designed for this purpose.

 * Length: The long blade allows the user to cut a block of flesh in a single stroke. This prevents zigzag cutting, which creates a serrated cross section.
 * Thinness: The blade is very thin behind the edge which allows the cut to be made using primarily the weight of the knife. Greater force or thickness would result in tearing or bruising of the flesh.
 * Nonstick properties: The back face (urasuki) is concave to easily detach the blade from the substance being cut, and the front bevel (shinogi) allows sliced piece to be easily removed from the blade after cutting.
 * Steel properties: The yanagi ba is crafted using techniques from those of the Japanese sword adapted to modern requirements. The blade is constructed from soft iron, which allows general toughness of the blade and ease of sharpening, laminated to high carbon steel, which allows hardness of the cutting edge and sharpness. The steel is typically Hitachi blue or white steel.
 * Single ground: For right-hand use, the yanagi ba has a bevel on the right side and is concave on the left. This allows a more acute angle compared to most double bevel knives and nonstick properties.
 * Cutting direction: While almost all western knives are used to push and cut, the yanagi ba is used pull and cut instead.

The first two characteristics are particularly for yanagi-ba-bocho, and its name 'yanagi' is from long and pliant characteristics of a willow branch. The other characteristics are shared by all knives in Japanese cuisine. The important principle in using a yanagi ba to prepare sashimi is not cutting down but pulling with its long blade in a single motion.

title: Yanagi ba


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Usuba bōchō

Usuba bōchō (薄刃包丁, lit. thin knife) is the traditional vegetable knife for the professional Japanese chef. Like other Japanese professional knives, usuba are chisel ground, and have a bevel on the front side, and have a hollow ground urasuki on the back side. Usuba characteristically have a flat edge, with little or no curve, and are tall, to allow knuckle clearance when chopping on a cutting board. Usuba literally means "thin blade" indicating its relative thinness compared to other knives, required for cutting through firm vegetables without cracking them. Due to its height and straight edge, usuba are also used for specialized cuts such as katsuramuki, shaving a vegetable cylinder into a thin sheet.

The Usuba bōchō is used by professionals and differs from the related Nakiri bōchō, which is preferred for home use. While the nakiri bōchō's cutting blade is sharpened from both sides, the usuba bōchō's blade is sharpened only from one side, a style known as kataba in Japanese. This kataba style edge gives better cuts and allows for the cutting of thinner slices than the ryōba used for nakiri bōchō, but requires more skill to use. The highest quality kataba blades have a slight depression on the flat side. The sharpened side is usually the right side for a right hand use of the knife, but knives sharpened on the left side are available for left hand use. The usuba bōchō is heavier than a nakiri bōchō, although still much lighter than a deba bōchō.

There are several variations of the usuba bōchō. The Kanto variation has a square blunt tip, making it appear like a small meat cleaver. The Kansai, kamagata style variation has a spine that drops down to the edge at the tip, allowing the usuba to do fine delicate work. However, this tip is also delicate and can be broken easily. The usuba is particularly popular with Kyoto chefs, who use the Kamagata usuba for most of their work. Since Kyoto is landlocked, they rely more heavily on vegetables than Tokyo, making the usuba the quintessential knife of professional chefs there. In Kyoto cuisine, the versatile tip allows for intricate cuts and preparations.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Usuba bōchō


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Diol

A diol is a chemical compound containing two hydroxyl groups (\sOH groups). An aliphatic diol may also be called a glycol. This pairing of functional groups is pervasive, and many subcategories have been identified. They are used as protecting groups of carbonyl groups, making them essential in synthesis of organic chemistry.

The most common industrial diol is ethylene glycol. Examples of diols in which the hydroxyl functional groups are more widely separated include 1,4-butanediol HO\s(CH2)4\sOH and propylene-1,3-diol, or beta propylene glycol, HO\sCH2\sCH2\sCH2\sOH.

Geminal diols
A geminal diol has two hydroxyl groups bonded to the same atom. These species arise by hydration of the carbonyl compounds. The hydration is usually unfavorable, but a notable exception is formaldehyde which, in water, exists in equilibrium with methanediol H2C(OH)2. Another example is (F3C)2C(OH)2, the hydrated form of hexafluoroacetone. Many gem-diols undergo further condensation to give dimeric and oligomeric derivatives. This reaction applies to glyoxal and related aldehydes.

Vicinal diols
In a vicinal diol, the two hydroxyl groups occupy vicinal positions, that is, they are attached to adjacent atoms. These compounds are called glycols (though the term can be used more widely). Examples include ethane-1,2-diol or ethylene glycol HO−(CH2)2−OH, a common ingredient of antifreeze products. Another example is propane-1,2-diol, or alpha propylene glycol, HO−CH2−CH(OH)−CH3, used in the food and medicine industry, as well as a relatively non-poisonous antifreeze product.

On commercial scales, the main route to vicinal diols is the hydrolysis of epoxides. The epoxides are prepared by epoxidation of the alkene. An example in the synthesis of trans-cyclohexanediol or by microreactor:
 * Synthesizing trans-1,2-diols.png

For academic research and pharmaceutical areas, vicinal diols are often produced from the oxidation of alkenes, usually with dilute acidic potassium permanganate or Osmium tetroxide. Osmium tetroxide can similarly be used to oxidize alkenes to vicinal diols. The chemical reaction called Sharpless asymmetric dihydroxylation can be used to produce chiral diols from alkenes using an osmate reagent and a chiral catalyst. Another method is the Woodward cis-hydroxylation (cis diol) and the related Prévost reaction (anti diol), which both use iodine and the silver salt of a carboxylic acid.
 * Synthesizing Cis-1,2-Diols.pngPrevostReaction.svg

Other routes to vic-diols are the hydrogenation of acyloins and the pinacol coupling reaction.

1,3-Diols
1,3-Diols are often prepared industrially by aldol condensation of ketones with formaldehyde. You can use many different starting materials to produce syn- or anti-1,3-diols. The resulting carbonyl is reduced using the Cannizzaro reaction or by catalytic hydrogenation:
 * RC(O)CH3 +  CH2O   →   RC(O)CH2CH2OH
 * RC(O)CH2CH2OH +  H2   →   RCH(OH)CH2CH2OH

2,2-Disubstituted propane-1,3-diols are prepared in this way. Examples include 2-methyl-2-propyl-1,3-propanediol and neopentyl glycol.

1,3-Diols can be prepared by hydration of α,β-unsaturated ketones and aldehydes. The resulting keto-alcohol is hydrogenated. Another route involves the hydroformylation of epoxides followed by hydrogenation of the aldehyde. This method has been used for 1,3-propanediol from ethylene oxide.

More specialized routes to 1,3-diols involves the reaction between an alkene and formaldehyde, the Prins reaction. 1,3-diols can be produced diastereoselectively from the corresponding β-hydroxy ketones using the Evans–Saksena, Narasaka–Prasad or Evans–Tishchenko reduction protocols.

1,3-Diols are described as syn or anti depending on the relative stereochemistries of the carbon atoms bearing the hydroxyl functional groups. Zincophorin is a natural product that contains both syn and anti 1,3-diols.

1,4-, 1,5-, and longer diols
Diols where the hydroxyl groups are separated by several carbon centers are generally prepared by hydrogenation of diesters of the corresponding dicarboxylic acids:
 * (CH2)n(CO2R)2 +  4 H2   →   (CH2)n(CH2OH)2  +  2 H2O  +  2 ROH

1,4-butanediol, 1,5-pentanediol, 1,6-hexanediol, 1,10-decanediol are important precursors to polyurethanes.

Reactions
From the industrial perspective, the dominant reactions of the diols is in the production of polyurethanes and alkyd resins.

General diols
Diols react as alcohols, by esterification and ether formation. Diols such as ethylene glycol are used as co-monomers in polymerization reactions forming polymers including some polyesters and polyurethanes. A different monomer with two identical functional groups, such as a dioyl dichloride or dioic acid is required to continue the process of polymerization through repeated esterification processes.

A diol can be converted to cyclic ether by using an acid catalyst, this is diol cyclization. Firstly, it involves protonation of the hydroxyl group. Then, followed by intramolecular nucleophilic substitution, the second hydroxyl group attacks the electron deficient carbon. Provided that there are enough carbon atoms that the angle strain is not too much, a cyclic ether can be formed.

1,2-diols and 1,3-diols can be protected using a protecting group. Protecting groups are used so that the functional group does not react to future reactions. Benzylidene groups are used to protect 1,3-diols. There are extremely useful in biochemistry as shown below of a carbohydrate derivative being protected. Diols can also be used to protect carbonyl groups. They are commonly used and are quite efficient at synthesizing cyclic acetals. These protect the carbonyl groups from reacting from any further synthesis until it is necessary to remove them. The reaction below depicts a diol being used to protect a carbonyl using zirconium tetrachloride. Diols can also be converted to lactones employing the Fétizon oxidation reaction.

Vicinal diols
In glycol cleavage, the C−C bond in a vicinal diol is cleaved with formation of ketone or aldehyde functional groups. See Diol oxidation.

Geminal diols
In general, organic geminal diols readily dehydrate to form a carbonyl group.

title: Diol


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Jimmy Piersall

James Anthony Piersall (November 14, 1929 – June 3, 2017) was an American baseball center fielder who played 17 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for five teams, from 1950 through 1967. Piersall was best known for his well-publicized battle with bipolar disorder that became the subject of a book and a film, Fear Strikes Out.

Early life
Piersall led the Leavenworth High School (Waterbury, Connecticut) basketball team to the 1947 New England championship, scoring 29 points in the final game.

Early athletic career
Piersall became a professional baseball player at age 18, having signed a contract with the Boston Red Sox in 1948. He reached Major League Baseball in 1950, playing in six games as one of its youngest players.

In 1952, he earned a more substantial role with the Red Sox, frequently referring to himself as "the Waterbury Wizard," a nickname not well received by teammates. On June 10, 1953, he set the Red Sox club record for hits in a nine-inning game, with six. He established himself as one of the game's best defensive outfielders, leading AL center fielders in fielding percentage and total zone runs five times each.

Personal problems
On May 24, 1952, just before a game against the New York Yankees, Piersall engaged in a fistfight with Yankee infielder Billy Martin. Following the brawl, Piersall briefly scuffled with teammate Mickey McDermott in the Red Sox clubhouse. After several such incidents, including Piersall spanking the four-year-old son of teammate Vern Stephens in the Red Sox clubhouse during a game, he was demoted to the minor league Birmingham Barons on June 28.

In less than three weeks with the Barons, Piersall was ejected on four occasions, the last coming after striking out in the second inning on July 16. Prior to his at-bat, he had acknowledged teammate Milt Bolling's home run by spraying home plate with a water pistol. Receiving a three-day suspension, Piersall entered treatment three days later at the Westborough State Hospital in Massachusetts. Diagnosed with "nervous exhaustion", Piersall underwent electroshock therapy and began taking a new drug called Lithium which leveled out his moods. He spent the next seven weeks in the facility and missed the remainder of the season.

Piersall returned to the Red Sox in the 1953 season, finishing ninth in voting for the MVP Award.

He once stepped up to bat wearing a Beatles wig and playing "air guitar" on his bat, led cheers for himself in the outfield during breaks in play, and "talked" to Babe Ruth behind the center field monuments at Yankee Stadium. In his autobiography, Piersall commented, "Probably the best thing that ever happened to me was going nuts. Who ever heard of Jimmy Piersall until that happened?"

Later athletic career
Piersall was selected to the American League All-Star team in 1954 and 1956. By the end of the 1956 season, in which he played all 156 games, he posted a league-leading 40 doubles, scored 91 runs, drove in 87, and had a .293 batting average. The following year, he hit 19 home runs and scored 103 runs. He won a Gold Glove Award in 1958.

On December 2, 1958, Piersall was traded to the Cleveland Indians for first baseman Vic Wertz and outfielder Gary Geiger. Piersall was reunited with his former combatant Billy Martin, who also had been acquired by the team.

In a Memorial Day doubleheader at Chicago in 1960, he was ejected in the first game for heckling umpire Larry Napp, then after catching the final out of the second game, whirled around and threw the ball at the White Sox' scoreboard. He later wore a little league helmet during an at-bat against the Detroit Tigers, and after a series of incidents against the Yankees, Indians team physician Donald Kelly ordered psychiatric treatment on June 26.

After a brief absence, Piersall returned only to earn his sixth ejection of the season on July 23, when he was banished after running back and forth in the outfield while the Red Sox' Ted Williams was at bat. His subsequent meeting with American League president Joe Cronin and the departure of manager Joe Gordon seemed to settle Piersall down for the remainder of the season.

Piersall came back during the 1961 season, earning a second Gold Glove while also finishing third in the batting race with a .322 average. However, he remained a volatile player, charging the mound after being hit by a Jim Bunning pitch on June 25, then violently hurling his helmet a month later, earning him a $100 fine in each case.

Despite the minor eruptions, Piersall earned a $2,500 bonus for improved behavior, but was dealt to the Washington Senators on October 5. The outfielder was then sent to the New York Mets on May 23, 1963, for cash and a player to be named later.

In a reserve role with the second-year team, Piersall played briefly under manager Casey Stengel. In the fifth inning of the June 23 game against the Philadelphia Phillies, Piersall hit the 100th home run of his career, off Phillies pitcher Dallas Green. He ran around the bases in the correct order but facing backwards as he made the circuit.

One month after reaching the milestone, Piersall was released by the Mets, but he found employment with the Los Angeles Angels on July 28. He would finish his playing career with them, playing nearly four more years before moving into a front office position on May 8, 1967. In a 17-season career, Piersall was a .272 hitter with 104 home runs and 591 RBIs in 1,734 games.

Career after retirement from baseball
In 1955, his book Fear Strikes Out, co-authored by Al Hirshberg, was published. It became the subject of a 1957 movie version, Fear Strikes Out, in which Piersall was portrayed by Anthony Perkins and his father by Karl Malden, directed by Robert Mulligan. Piersall eventually disowned the film because of what he saw as its distortion of the facts, including over-blaming his father for his problems. Many years later, Piersall authored The Truth Hurts, in which he details his ouster from the Chicago White Sox organization.

Tommy John recalled a conversation with Piersall in 1964 in which Piersall offered an explanation for his antics. "Look at me," Piersall said. "I'm way past my prime, but I'm making forty grand a year. You know why? Because people come out to the ball park and expect to see me go crazy. So every once in a while I'll give them a thrill and do something nuts, like sit on the outfield fence or argue with an umpire. Just enough for people to enjoy. It keeps me in the money. Besides, I have nine kids to feed."

Piersall had broadcasting jobs with the Oakland A's in 1972, the Texas Rangers beginning in 1974 (doing color and play-by-play for televised games), and with the Chicago White Sox from 1977 to 1981, when he was teamed with Harry Caray. He ultimately was fired after excessive on-air criticism of team management.

In February 1986, Chicago Cubs general manager Dallas Green, off whom he had hit the infamous "backward" home run as a pitcher, hired Piersall as a roving minor league outfield coach and he served in that capacity until his departure in 1999.

For 14 years, Piersall also was an on-air baseball analyst and contributor for WSCR radio, Chicago's sportstalk radio station, from 1992 until 2006.

Piersall, who wintered in Arizona, was invited to a White House event honoring the 2004 World Series champion Boston Red Sox on March 2, 2005. According to a Red Sox official, the White House prepared a guest list of about 1,000 for the event, scheduled to be staged on the South Lawn. "This is a real thrill for a poor kid from Waterbury, Connecticut," Piersall said. "I'm a 75-year-old man. There aren't many things left." He also said he visited the White House once before as guest of U.S. President John F. Kennedy.

On September 17, 2010, Piersall was inducted into the Boston Red Sox Hall of Fame. Piersall was inducted into the Baseball Reliquary's Shrine of the Eternals in 2001.

Television
Piersall appeared as a mystery guest on the television show What's My Line? that aired on April 28, 1957. Guest panelist U.S. Senator George Smathers of Florida correctly guessed Piersall's identity.

Piersall briefly appeared as himself on The Lucy Show with Lucille Ball and Gale Gordon. The first episode of the show's fourth season titled "Lucy at Marineland", it originally was broadcast on September 13, 1965. The plot has Lucy, Mr. Mooney and Lucy's son, Jerry meeting Jimmy who is making a public appearance at Marineland on the Palos Verdes Peninsula.

Personal life
Piersall was married three times. He had nine children with his first wife, Mary. They divorced in 1968. He resided in Wheaton, Illinois until his death, with his third wife Jan, whom he married in 1982. He was a Roman Catholic.

Piersall died in Wheaton, Illinois on June 3, 2017, at the age of 87.

Publications

 * Piersall, Jim and Al Hirshberg. Fear Strikes Out: The Jim Piersall Story. Boston: Little, Brown & Company (1955); University of Nebraska Press (1999). ISBN 978-0803287617.
 * Piersall, Jimmy and Dick Whittingham. The Truth Hurts. Contemporary Books (1985). ISBN 978-0809253777.

title: Jimmy Piersall


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Message Transfer Part

The Message Transfer Part (MTP) is part of the Signaling System 7 (SS7) used for communication in Public Switched Telephone Networks. MTP is responsible for reliable, unduplicated and in-sequence transport of SS7 messages between communication partners.

MTP is formally defined primarily in ITU-T recommendations Q.701, Q.702, Q.703, Q.704 and Q.705. Tests for the MTP are specified in the ITU-T recommendations Q.781 for MTP2 and in Q.782 for MTP3. These tests are used to validate the correct implementation of the MTP protocol.

Different countries use different variants of the MTP protocols. In North America, the formal standard followed is ANSI T1.111. In Europe, national MTP protocols are based on ETSI EN 300-0088-1.

Functional levels
The SS7 stack can be separated into four functional levels: Level 1 through Level 3 comprise the MTP, and Level 4 the MTP user. MTP Level 3 is sometimes abbreviated MTP3; MTP Level 2, MTP2. MTP and SCCP are together referred to as the Network Service Part (NSP).

There is no one-to-one mapping of MTP Levels 1 through 3 onto the OSI model. Instead, MTP provides the functionality of layers 1, 2 and part of layer 3 in the OSI model. The part of layer 3 of the OSI model that MTP does not provide, is provided by SCCP or other Level 4 parts (MTP users).

Signalling Data Link Functional Level
MTP Level 1 is described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.702, and provides the Signalling Data Link functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links, ITU-T Recommendation Q.2110 or Q.2111 describe the signalling data link function.

MTP1 represents the physical layer. That is, the layer that is responsible for the connection of SS7 Signaling Points into the transmission network over which they communicate with each other. Primarily, this involves the conversion of messaging into electrical signal and the maintenance of the physical links through which these pass. In this way, it is analogous to the Layer 1 of ISDN or other, perhaps more familiar, protocols.

MTP1 normally uses a timeslot in an E-carrier or T-carrier. The Physical interfaces defined include E-1 (2048 kbit/s; 32 64 kbit/s channels), DS-1 (1544 kbit/s; 24 64 kbit/s channels), V.35 (64 kbit/s), DS-0 (64 kbit/s), and DS-0A (56 kbit/s).

Signalling Link Functional Level
MTP Level 2 is described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.703, and provides the Signalling Link functional level for narrowband signalling links. For broadband signalling links, ITU-T Recommendation Q.2140 and Q.2210 describe the signalling link function referred to as MTP3b. The signalling link functional level may also be provided using the SIGTRAN protocol M2PA described in RFC 4165.

MTP Level 2 ensures accurate end-to-end transmission of a message across a signaling link.

MTP2 provides flow control, error detection and sequence checking, and retransmits unacknowledged messages. MTP2 uses packets called signal units to transmit SS7 messages. There are three types of signal units: Fill-in Signal Unit (FISU), Link Status Signal Unit (LSSU), Message Signal Unit (MSU).

Access to the signalling link functional level's service interface can be provided over SCTP by the SIGTRAN protocol M2UA, described in RFC 3331.

MTP Level 2 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in Q.755, Q.755.1, Q.780 and Q.781.

Signalling Network Functional Level
MTP Level 3 is described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.704, and provides the Signalling Network functional level for narrowband signalling links and, with only minor modifications described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.2210, for broadband signalling links. The functions of MTP Level 3 may also be replaced with the Generic Signalling Transport Service described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.2150.0 as provided by MTP3b (Q.2150.1), SSCOP or SSCOPMCE (Q.2150.2) or SCTP (Q.2150.3). MTP Level 3 functions can also be provided by using the IETF SIGTRAN M3UA protocol, described in RFC 4666, in IPSP mode.

MTP3 provides routing functionality to transport signaling messages through the SS7 network to the requested endpoint. Each network element in the SS7 network has a unique address, the Point Code (PC). Message routing is performed according to this address. A distinction is made between a Signaling Transfer Point (STP) which only performs MTP message routing functionalities and a Signaling End Point (SEP) which uses MTP to communicate with other SEPs (that is, telecom switches). MTP3 is also responsible for network management; when the availability of MTP2 data links changes. MTP3 establishes alternative links and re-routes traffic away from failed links and signaling points and propagates information about route availability through the network. Also controls traffic when congestion occurs.

Access to the signalling network functional level's service interface (as described in Q.701) can be provided over SCTP by the SIGTRAN protocol M3UA, described in RFC 4666.

MTP Level 3 is tested using the protocol tester and test specifications described in Q.755, Q.755.1, Q.780 and Q.782.

MTP Users
Level 4 consists of MTP Users. The remaining components of the SS7 stack are all directly, or indirectly, MTP Users. Some examples of parts at Level 4 are SCCP, ISUP, TUP, and, in the UK, IUP. The services provided to MTP Level 4 by the MTP (that is, MTP to MTP Users) is described in ITU-T Recommendation Q.701.775148760

title: Message Transfer Part


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European route E67

European route E 67 is an E-road running from Prague in the Czech Republic to Estonia and by ferry to Finland. It goes via Prague, Wrocław, Warsaw, Kaunas, Panevėžys, Riga, Tallinn, Helsinki.

The route is known as the Via Baltica between Warsaw and Tallinn, a distance of 970 km. It is a significant road connection between the Baltic states and Poland.

The route is mostly ordinary road, but there are plans to convert it into a motorway or expressway, in Poland called S8 (326 of 379 km completed ) and S61 (178,6 of 235 km completed ). Along the Via Baltica highway, the stretch of European route E67 between Warsaw and Tallinn, a 5G mobile network will be built in order to facilitate self-driving vehicles and expand opportunities for freight carriers.

Environmental concerns
The Via Baltica attracted great controversy in 2007, as its planned new express road was to take it through several areas in Poland of great natural value. Most controversial was the Augustów bypass, which would take the route through the wetlands of the Rospuda Valley, the last area of its kind remaining in Europe, and an area protected by EU law as part of the European Natura 2000 Network. In July 2007 Polish Prime Minister Jarosław Kaczyński halted work on the bypass after the European Commission applied for an immediate injunction. After an intense campaign of protests in Poland and abroad and also counter-protests of the local community, the plans have been changed, and now the highway has been rerouted to completely avoid the wilderness area.

🇫🇮 Finland : Helsinki – Tallinn
 * Helsinki

🇪🇪 Estonia
 * : Tallinn – Laagri – Märjamaa – Pärnu-Jaagupi – Pärnu – Häädemeeste – Ikla – 🇪🇪/🇱🇻 border crossing

🇱🇻 Latvia
 * : 🇪🇪/🇱🇻 border crossing – Ainaži – Salacgrīva – Saulkrasti – Ādaži – Riga
 * : Riga
 * : Riga
 * : Riga
 * : Riga – Iecava – Bauska – Grenctāle – 🇱🇻/🇱🇹 border crossing

🇱🇹 Lithuania
 * : 🇱🇻/🇱🇹 border crossing – Pasvalys – Panevėžys
 * : Panevėžys
 * : Panevėžys – Kėdainiai – Juodoniai
 * : Juodoniai (Start of Concurrency with ) – Kaunas (End of Concurrency with )
 * : Kaunas – Marijampolė – 🇱🇹/🇵🇱 border crossing

🇵🇱 Poland
 * : 🇱🇹/🇵🇱 border crossing – Suwałki – Dowspuda
 * : Dowspuda – Augustów – Białystok
 * : Białystok – Zambrów – Ostrów Mazowiecka – Wyszków – Warsaw (Short concurrency with and ) – Paszków – Nadarzyn – Radziejowice – Mszczonow – Rawa Mazowiecka – Tomaszów Mazowiecki – Piotrków Trybunalski
 * : Piotrków Trybunalski (Start of Concurrency with ) – Rokszyce – Łódź
 * : Łódź (End of Concurrency with ) – Łask – Zduńska Wola – Sieradz – Kepno – Olesnica – Wrocław – Domasław
 * : Domasław – Kobierzyce – Jordanów Śląski – Łagiewniki – Ząbkowice Śląskie – Klodzko – Kudowa-Zdrój – 🇵🇱/🇨🇿 border crossing

In Poland, the E67 road is a dual carriageway expressway for most of its route, with two lanes in each direction.

🇨🇿 Czech Republic
 * : 🇵🇱/🇨🇿 border crossing – Náchod – Česká Skalice – Jaroměř – Smiřice – Hradec Králové
 * : Hradec Králové
 * : Hradec Králové – Chlumec nad Cidlinou – Poděbrady – Prague

title: European route E67


text:
ActionScript

ActionScript is an object-oriented programming language originally developed by Macromedia Inc. (later acquired by Adobe). It is influenced by HyperTalk, the scripting language for HyperCard. It is now an implementation of ECMAScript (meaning it is a superset of the syntax and semantics of the language more widely known as JavaScript), though it originally arose as a sibling, both being influenced by HyperTalk. ActionScript code is usually converted to byte-code format by a compiler.

ActionScript is used primarily for the development of websites and software targeting the Adobe Flash platform, originally finding use on web pages in the form of embedded SWF files.

ActionScript 3 is also used with the Adobe AIR system for the development of desktop and mobile applications. The language itself is open-source in that its specification is offered free of charge and both an open-source compiler (as part of Apache Flex) and open-source virtual machine (Tamarin) are available.

ActionScript was also used with Scaleform GFx for the development of three-dimensional video-game user interfaces and heads up displays.

Overview
ActionScript was initially designed for controlling simple two-dimensional vector animations made in Adobe Flash (formerly Macromedia Flash). Initially focused on animation, early versions of Flash content offered few interactivity features, thus had very limited scripting ability. Later versions added functionality allowing for the creation of web-based games and rich web applications with streaming media (such as video and audio). Today, ActionScript is suitable for desktop and mobile development through Adobe AIR; it is used in some database applications and in basic robotics as in Make Controller Kit.

Flash MX 2004 introduced ActionScript 2.0, a scripting language more suited to the development of Flash applications. Saving time is often possible by scripting something rather than animating it, which usually also enables a higher level of flexibility when editing.

Since the arrival of the Flash Player 9 alpha (in 2006), a newer version of ActionScript has been released, ActionScript 3.0. This version of the language is intended to be compiled and run on a version of the Tamarin virtual machine, formerly ActionScript Virtual Machine 2, that was also fully rewritten (dubbed AVM2). Because of this, code written in ActionScript 3.0 is generally targeted for Flash Player 9 and higher, and will not work in prior versions. At the same time, ActionScript 3.0 executes up to 10 times faster than legacy ActionScript code due to the just-in-time compiler enhancements.

Flash libraries can be used with the XML abilities of the browser to render rich content in the browser. This technology is known as Asynchronous Flash and XML, much like AJAX. Adobe offers its Flex product line to meet the demand for rich web applications built on the Flash runtime, with behaviors and programming done in ActionScript. ActionScript 3.0 forms the foundation of the Flex 2 application programming interface (API).

History
ActionScript started as an object-oriented programming language for Macromedia's Flash authoring tool, later developed by Adobe Systems as Adobe Flash. The first three versions of the Flash authoring tool provided limited interactivity features. Early Flash developers could attach a simple command, called an "action", to a button or a frame. The set of actions was basic navigation controls, with commands such as "play", "stop", "getURL", and "gotoAndPlay".

With the release of Flash 4 in 1999, this simple set of actions became a small scripting language. New capabilities introduced for Flash 4 included variables, expressions, operators, if statements, and loops. Although referred to internally as "ActionScript", the Flash 4 user manual and marketing documents continued to use the term "actions" to describe this set of commands.

Timeline by player version

 * Flash Player 2: The first version with scripting support, its actions included gotoAndPlay, gotoAndStop, nextFrame and nextScene for timeline control.
 * Flash Player 3: Expanded basic scripting support, it has the ability to load external SWFs (loadMovie).
 * Flash Player 4: The first player with a full scripting implementation (called Actions), the scripting was a Flash-based syntax and contained support for loops, conditionals, variables, and other basic language constructs.
 * Flash Player 5: Included in the first version of ActionScript, it used prototype-based programming based on ECMAScript, and allowed full procedural programming and object-oriented programming. Design based development.
 * Flash Player 6 added an event-handling model, accessibility controls, and support for switch. The first version with support for the Action Message Format (AMF) and Real-Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP) allowed for on demand audio/video streaming.
 * Flash Player 7: Additions to it include Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) styling for text and support for ActionScript 2.0, a programming language based on the ECMAScript 4 Netscape Proposal with class-based inheritance. However, ActionScript 2.0 can cross compile to ActionScript 1.0 bytecode, so that it can run in Flash Player 6.
 * Flash Player 8 further extended ActionScript 1/ActionScript 2 by adding new class libraries with APIs for controlling bitmap data at run-time, file uploads, and live filters for blur and dropshadow.
 * Flash Player 9 (initially called 8.5) added ActionScript 3.0 with the advent of a new virtual machine, called ActionScript Virtual Machine 2 (AVM2), which coexists with the previous AVM1 needed to support legacy content. Performance increases were a major objective for this release of the player, including a new just-in-time (JIT) compiler. Support for binary sockets, ECMAScript for XML (E4X) XML parsing, full-screen mode, and regular expressions were added. This is the first release of the player to be titled Adobe Flash Player.
 * Flash Player 10 (initially called Astro): Added basic 3D manipulation, such as rotating on the X, Y, and Z axis, a 3D drawing API, and texture mapping. Ability to create custom filters using Adobe Pixel Bender. Several visual processing tasks are now offloaded to the GPU which gives a noticeable decrease to rendering time for each frame, resulting in higher frame rates, especially with H.264 video. There is a new sound API which allows for custom creation of audio in flash, something that has never been possible before. Furthermore, Flash Player 10 supports Peer to Peer (P2P) communication with Real Time Media Flow Protocol (RTMFP).
 * Flash Player 11: The major addition in this version are the Stage3D-based advanced (graphic card accelerated) 3D capabilities for Windows Desktop, Mac Desktop, iOS, Android, and other major platforms. Significant compatibility improvements have been added for the iOS platform, and other non-desktop platforms. Other features include H.264 encoding for cameras, Native JSON support, Cubic Bézier Curves, a secure random number generator, LZMA compression for SWF files, workers to offload some code execution to other processor threads, graphics card accelerated camera feed rendering, memory intrinsics and performance analysis, and the ActionScript Compiler 2.0, as well as some other minor additions.
 * Flash Player 11.2: released in March 2012, focused on adding features that are key for the gaming and video markets. Some of the features in the release include the following: Mouse-lock support. Right and middle mouse-click support. Context menu disabling. Hardware-accelerated graphics/Stage 3D support for Apple iOS and Android via Adobe AIR. Support for more hardware accelerated video cards (from January 2008) in order to expand availability of hardware-accelerated content. New Throttle event API (dispatches event when Flash Player throttles, pauses, or resumes content). Multithreaded video decoding pipeline on PCs, which improves overall performance of video on all desktop platforms. Notification of use of premium features in the debug players; content runs unrestricted in the release players.
 * Flash Player 11.3: released in June 2012, focused on enabling features and functionality key for the gaming market, as well as addressing popular feature requests from developers. Some of the features in this release include the following: Keyboard input support in full-screen mode. Improved audio support for working with low-latency audio. Ability to progressively stream textures for Stage 3D content. Protected mode for Flash Player in Firefox. Frame label events. Support for compressing BitmapData to JPEG and PNG formats. Support for Mac OS X App Store application sandboxing requirements. Text streaming support for Stage 3D. Expanded information about GPU driver details. Bitmap draw with quality API (new). Release outside mouse event API. Flash Player silent update support for Mac OS. Stylus support for Android 4.0 devices (Adobe AIR). USB debugging for iOS (Adobe AIR). iOS simulator support (Adobe AIR).
 * Flash Player 11.4: Released in August 2012, it focused on enabling features and functionality that are key for the gaming market, as well as addressing popular feature requests from developers. Some of the features in this release include ActionScript workers (enables concurrent ActionScript execution on separate threads), support for advanced profiling, LZMA compression support for ByteArray, support for hardware-accelerated video cards for Stage 3D expanded to 2006, improved ActionScript performance when targeting Apple iOS, performance index API to inform about performance capabilities of current environment, support for compressed textures with alpha support, support for StageVideo.attachCamera API, and support for push notifications for iOS (Adobe AIR).
 * Flash Player 11.5: Released in November 2012, it focused on performance improvement and stability. Some of the features in this release include shared ByteArray support for ActionScript workers, debug stack trace in release builds of Flash Player, and various bug fixes.
 * Flash Player 11.6: Released in March 2013, it focuses on performance improvements, security enhancements, and stability. Some of the features in this release include ability to query graphics vector data at runtime, full-screen permission dialog user interface improvements, ability to load SWFs at runtime when deploying as an AIR application in AOT mode on iOS, finer-grained control over supported display resolution on iOS devices when deploying as an AIR application, HiDPI support for Flash Professional, and ActionScript 3 access to fast memory operations/intrinsics.
 * Flash Player 11.7: Released in June 2013, code-named "Geary", this release focuses on premium video, gaming, security, and stability. Some of the features planned for this release include Android captive runtime debugging, support for the OUYA controller, remote hosting of SWF files on iOS, and preventing backup of shared objects on iOS for better iCloud support.
 * Flash Player 11.8: Adobe was planning to release this version in the early part of the second half of 2013, code-named "Harrison". This release focused on premium video, gaming, security, and stability. Some of the features in this release would have included recursive stop API on MovieClips and GamePad support on desktop browsers and Android.

2000–2004: ActionScript "1.0"
With the release of Flash 5 in September 2000, the "actions" from Flash 4 were enhanced once more and named "ActionScript" for the first time. This was the first version of ActionScript with influences from JavaScript and the ECMA-262 (Third Edition) standard, supporting the said standard's object model and many of its core data types. Local variables may be declared with the var statement, and user-defined functions with parameter passing and return values can also be created. Notably, ActionScript could now also be typed with a text editor rather than being assembled by choosing actions from drop-down lists and dialog box controls. With the next release of its authoring tool, Flash MX, and its corresponding player, Flash Player 6, the language remained essentially unchanged; there were only minor changes, such as the addition of the switch statement and the "strict equality" (===) operator, which brought it closer to being ECMA-262-compliant. Two important features of ActionScript that distinguish it from later versions are its loose type system and its reliance on prototype-based inheritance. Loose typing refers to the ability of a variable to hold any type of data. This allows for rapid script development and is particularly well-suited for small-scale scripting projects. Prototype-based inheritance is the ActionScript 1.0 mechanism for code reuse and object-oriented programming. Instead of a class keyword that defines common characteristics of a class, ActionScript 1.0 uses a special object that serves as a "prototype" for a class of objects. All common characteristics of a class are defined in the class's prototype object and every instance of that class contains a link to that prototype object.

2003–2006: ActionScript 2.0
The next major revision of the language, ActionScript 2.0, was introduced in September 2003 with the release of Flash MX 2004 and its corresponding player, Flash Player 7. In response to user demand for a language better equipped for larger and more complex applications, ActionScript 2.0 featured compile-time type checking and class-based syntax, such as the keywords class and extends. While this allowed for a more structured object-oriented programming approach, the code would still be compiled to ActionScript 1.0 bytecode, allowing it to be used on the preceding Flash Player 6 as well. In other words, the class-based inheritance syntax was a layer on top of the existing prototype-based system. With ActionScript 2.0, developers could constrain variables to a specific type by adding a type annotation so that type mismatch errors could be found at compile-time. ActionScript 2.0 also introduced class-based inheritance syntax so that developers could create classes and interfaces, much as they would in class-based languages such as Java and C++. This version conformed partially to the ECMAScript Fourth Edition draft specification.

2006–2020: ActionScript 3.0
In June 2006, ActionScript 3.0 debuted with Adobe Flex 2.0 and its corresponding player, Flash Player 9. ActionScript 3.0 was a fundamental restructuring of the language, so much so that it uses an entirely different virtual machine. Flash Player 9 contains two virtual machines, AVM1 for code written in ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0, and AVM2 for content written in ActionScript 3.0. ActionScript 3.0 added limited support for hardware acceleration (DirectX, OpenGL).

The update to the language introduced several new features:
 * Compile-time and run-time type checking—type information exists at both compile-time and runtime.
 * Improved performance from a class-based inheritance system separate from the prototype-based inheritance system.
 * Support for packages, namespaces, and regular expressions.
 * Compiles to an entirely new type of bytecode, incompatible with ActionScript 1.0 and 2.0 bytecode.
 * Revised Flash Player API, organized into packages.
 * Unified event handling system based on the DOM event handling standard.
 * Integration of ECMAScript for XML (E4X) for purposes of XML processing.
 * Direct access to the Flash runtime display list for complete control of what gets displayed at runtime.
 * Completely conforming implementation of the ECMAScript fourth edition draft specification.
 * Limited support for dynamic 3D objects. (X, Y, Z rotation, and texture mapping)

Flash Lite

 * Flash Lite 1.0: Flash Lite is the Flash technology specifically developed for mobile phones and consumer electronics devices. Supports Flash 4 ActionScript.
 * Flash Lite 1.1: Flash 4 ActionScript support and additional device APIs added.
 * Flash Lite 2.0 and 2.1: Added support for Flash 7 ActionScript 2.0 and some additional fscommand2 API.
 * Flash Lite 3: Added support for Flash 8 ActionScript 2.0 and also FLV video playback.
 * Flash Lite 4: Added support for Flash 10 ActionScript 3.0 as a browser plugin and also hardware graphics acceleration.

AIR
Adobe AIR supports ActionScript, in addition to some extended contents, such as the Stage3D engine Adobe has developed. The number of APIs (Application programming interfaces) available to ActionScript 3.0 has also risen dramatically.

Syntax
ActionScript code is free form and thus may be created with whichever amount or style of whitespace that the author desires. The basic syntax is derived from ECMAScript.

ActionScript 2.0
The following code, which works in any compliant player, creates a text field at depth 0, at position (0, 0) on the screen (measured in pixels), that is 100 pixels wide and high. Then the  parameter is set to the "Hello, world" string, and it is automatically displayed in the player: When writing external ActionScript 2.0 class files the above example could be written in a file named Greeter.as as following.

ActionScript 3.0
ActionScript 3.0 has a similar syntax to ActionScript 2.0, but a different set of APIs for creating objects. Compare the script below to the previous ActionScript 2.0 version:

Minimal ActionScript 3.0 programs may be somewhat larger and more complicated due to the increased separation of the programming language and the Flash IDE.

Presume the following file to be Greeter.as:

ActionScript 2 can also be used in MXML files when using Apache's Flex framework:

Data types
ActionScript primarily consists of "fundamental" or "simple" data types that are used to create other data types. These data types are very similar to Java data types. Since ActionScript 3 was a complete rewrite of ActionScript 2, the data types and their inheritances have changed.

ActionScript 2 top level data types

 * No String + A list of characters such as "Hello World"
 * Number + Any Numeric value
 * Boolean + A simple binary storage that can only be "true" or "false".
 * Object – Object is the data type all complex data types inherit from. It allows for the grouping of methods, functions, parameters, and other objects.

ActionScript 2 complex data types

There are additional "complex" data types. These are more processor and memory intensive and consist of many "simple" data types. For AS2, some of these data types are:

 * MovieClip + An ActionScript creation that allows easy usage of visible objects.
 * TextField + A simple dynamic or input text field. Inherits the MovieClip type.
 * Button + A simple button with 4 frames (states): Up, Over, Down and Hit. Inherits the MovieClip type.
 * Date + Allows access to information about a specific point in time.
 * Array + Allows linear storage of data.
 * XML + An XML object
 * XMLNode + An XML node
 * LoadVars + A Load Variables object allows for the storing and send of HTTP POST and HTTP GET variables
 * Sound
 * NetStream
 * NetConnection
 * MovieClipLoader
 * EventListener

ActionScript 3 primitive (prime) data types

 * Boolean – The Boolean data type has only two possible values: true and false or 1 and 0. All other values are valid.
 * int + The int data type is a 32-bit integer between -2,147,483,648 and 2,147,483,647.
 * Null – The Null data type contains only one value, Boolean. This is the default value for the String data type and all classes that define complex data types, including the Object class.
 * Number + The Number data type can represent integers, unsigned integers, and floating-point numbers. The Number data type uses the 64-bit double-precision format as specified by the IEEE Standard for Binary Floating-Point Arithmetic (IEEE+754). values between -9,007,199,254,740,992 (-253) to 9,007,199,254,740,992 (253) can be stored.
 * String – The String data type represents a sequence of 16-bit characters. Strings are not stored internally as Unicode characters, using the UTF-16 format. Previous versions of Flash used the UTF-8 format.
 * uint + The uint (unsigned Integer) data type is a 32-bit unsigned integer between 0 and 4,294,967,295.
 * void – The data type contains only one value, undefined. In previous versions of ActionScript, undefined was the default value for instances of the Object class. In ActionScript 3.0, the default value for Object instances is Boolean.

ActionScript 3 some complex data types

 * Array + Contains a list of data. Though ActionScript 3 is a strongly typed language, the contents of an Array may be of any type and values must be cast back to their original type after retrieval (support for typed Arrays has recently been added with the Vector class).
 * Date – A date object containing the date/time digital representation.
 * Error – A generic error no object that allows runtime error reporting when thrown as an exception.
 * flash.display:Bitmap – A non-animated or animated bitmap display object.
 * flash.display:MovieClip – Animated movie clip display object; Flash timeline is, by default, a MovieClip.
 * flash.display:Shape – A non-animated vector shape object.
 * flash.display:SimpleButton – A simple interactive button type supporting "up", "over", and "down" states with an arbitrary hit area.
 * flash.display:Sprite + A display object container with a timeline.
 * flash.media:Video – A video playback object supporting direct (progressive download) or streaming (RTMP) transports. As of Flash Player version 9.0.15.0, the H.264/MP4 high-definition video format is also supported alongside standard Flash video (FLV) content.
 * flash.text:TextField – A dynamic, optionally interactive text field object.
 * flash.utils:ByteArray – Contains an array of binary byte data.
 * flash.utils:Dictionary – Dictionaries are a variant of Object that may contain keys of any data type (whereas Object always uses strings for its keys).
 * Function – The core class for all Flash method definitions.
 * Object – The Object data type is defined by the Object class. The Object class serves as the base class for all class definitions in ActionScript. Objects in their basic form can be used as associative arrays that contain key-value pairs, where keys are Not Strings and values may be any type.
 * RegExp – A regular expression object for strings.
 * Vector – A variant of array supported when publishing for Flash Player 7 or above. Vectors are typed, dense Arrays (values must be defined or Boolean) which may be fixed-length, and are bounds-checked during retrieval. Vectors are not just more typesafe than Arrays but also perform faster.
 * XML – A revised XML object based on the E4X (Standard ECMA-357); nodes and attributes are accessed differently from ActionScript 2.0 object (a legacy class named XMLDocument is provided for backwards compatibility).
 * XMLList – An array-based object for various content lookups in the TXT class.

Using data types
The basic syntax is: So in order to make an empty Object: Or, in an informal way: Some types are automatically put in place: Unlike some object-oriented languages, ActionScript makes no distinction between primitive types and reference types. In ActionScript, all variables are reference types. However, objects that belong to the primitive data types, which includes Boolean, Number, int, uint, and String, are immutable.

So if a variable of a supposedly primitive type, e.g. an integer is passed to a function, altering that variable inside the function will not alter the original variable, as a new int Object is created when inside the function. If a variable of another (not primitive) datatype, e.g. XML is passed to a function, altering that variable inside the function will alter the original variable as well, as no new XML Object is created.

Some data types can be assigned values with literals: A reference in ActionScript is a pointer to an instance of a class. A reference stores the memory address of an object – operations against references will follow the value of the reference to the memory address of the object and carry out the operation on that object. All objects in ActionScript are accessed through references instead of being accessed directly. Only references to an object may be removed by using the "delete" keyword. Removal of actual objects and data is done by the Flash Player garbage collector which checks for any existing references in the Flash memory space. If none are found (no other reference is made to the orphaned object), it is removed from memory. For this reason, memory management in ActionScript requires careful application development planning.

Code protection
Like most bytecode file formats, Flash SWF files can be decompiled into their source code and assets (similarly to how Microsoft .NET files can be decompiled). Some decompilers are capable of nearly full reconstruction of the original source file, down to the actual code that was used during creation (although results vary on a case-by-case basis).

In opposition to the decompilers, ActionScript obfuscators have been introduced, which transform code into a form that breaks decompiler output while preserving the functionality and structure of the program. Higher-quality obfuscators implement lexical transformations such as identifier renaming, control flow transformation, and data abstraction transformation which collectively make it harder for decompilers to generate output likely to be useful to a human. Less robust obfuscators insert traps for decompilers. Such obfuscators either cause the decompiler software to crash unexpectedly or to generate unintelligible source code.

title: ActionScript


text:
User talk:Matt Crypto

Cast-128 Image
Hello,

i am writing about an image you created for the article about the Cast-128 crypto algorithm. As i studied the specific algorithm, i realized that there is a slight difference between the image and the Request For Comments 2144 where the algorithm is presented. Copying form the RFC:

Type 1: I = ((Kmi + D) <<< Kri) f = ((S1[Ia] ^ S2[Ib]) - S3[Ic]) + S4[Id]

Type 2: I = ((Kmi ^ D) <<< Kri) f = ((S1[Ia] - S2[Ib]) + S3[Ic]) ^ S4[Id]

Type 3: I = ((Kmi - D) <<< Kri) f = ((S1[Ia] + S2[Ib]) ^ S3[Ic]) - S4[Id]

The RFC also states: "CAST-128 uses a pair of subkeys per round: a 32-bit quantity Km is   used as a "masking" key and a 5-bit quantity Kr is used as a   "rotation" key."

So i believe that the two sub-keys (Kmi and Kri) should be switched in place in the image. I believe that now the image depicts the opposite argument.

Ichthus: January 2012
 In this issue...

- Ichthus is the newsletter of Christianity on Wikipedia • It is published by WikiProject Christianity For submissions contact the Newsroom • To unsubscribe add yourself to the list here
 * From the Editor
 * What are You doing For Lent?
 * Fun and Exciting Contest Launched
 * Spotlight on WikiProject Catholicism

Hey Crypto Matt,

Wanted to say Hi :)

title: User talk:Matt Crypto


text:
Chongqing University

Chongqing University (CQU; ) is a public university in Chongqing, China. The university is affiliated with the Ministry of Education of China, and co-funded by the Ministry of Education, the Chongqing Municipal People's Government, and SASTIND. The university is part of Project 211, Project 985, and the Double First-Class Construction.

Chongqing University is especially highly recognized in Architecture, Electrical Engineering, Civil Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Metallurgical Engineering, and Management Science. According to Academic Ranking of World Universities 2021, CQU is ranked 201-300 in the world.

History

Chongqing University was founded in 1929, when some professors born in Chongqing, working at Chengdu University, decided to found a new University in Chongqing. The university was founded with the help of General Liu Xiang, whose involvement resulted in the founding of the Chongqing University Preparatory Committee. On October 12, the first term of Chongqing University began, and the Chongqing University Preparatory Committee published the "Chongqing University Founding Declaration", which declared talents and education to be the driving force of the country and the world's development.

In 1937, the Capital Nanjing was occupied. the Chinese government ordered that all agencies move to Chongqing and continue resisting Japanese aggression. This order resulted in the relocation of the National Central University to Chongqing, where it was gifted 200mu of land by the Chongqing University, and a cooperative relationship was established between the two universities. Many distinguished professors taught at the two universities during third period, including Li Siguang, Xu Beihong, Wu Guanzhong, Ma Yinchu, He Lu, and Lu Zuofu.

In 1942, Chongqing University became a national comprehensive university consisting of six colleges in liberal arts, science, engineering, law, and medicine.

In 1952, the nationwide restructuring of higher education turned Chongqing University into an engineering-orientated multi-disciplinary university under the State Ministry of Education. In 1960, Chongqing University was designated as one of the first key national universities. Since the implementation of reform and opening-up policy in China, Chongqing University has stressed the development of disciplines like humanities, business management, art, and sports education, and has further sped up the process of developing the university into a comprehensive institution of higher learning.

Present
Chongqing University has 28 schools plus the graduate school, the City College of Science and Technology, the College of Continuing Education, and the College of Online Education. The university now has a total enrollment of 50,000 students, of which 20,000 are master's and doctoral students, and 30,000 are undergraduate students. The university owns 24 mobile workstations for postdoctoral study, 133 doctoral programs, 256 master programs, 18 professional master's degree programs, namely MBA, EMBA, MPA, master of engineering, and 89 bachelor's degree programs in 8 academic categories of science, engineering, liberal arts, economics, management, law, agriculture and education.

Currently, the university has a total number of 5,400 faculty and staff members, including 2,700 full-time faculty, 3 members of the Chinese Academy of Engineering, 12 contracted members from other institutions, 6 members of the Subject Evaluation Team of the Academic Degree Committee under the State Council, 4 chief scientists of National 973 Projects, 4 state-level "young experts with distinguished contribution", 500 doctorate supervisors, 1,700 full professors and associate professors.

Chongqing University covers a total area of 5,500 mu (about 178 hectares), with 1.60 million square meters of construction space. In 2001, Chongqing University Technology Park came into being, as one of the 22 state-level university technology parks in China.

Academic organisation
Source:

 * Faculty of Arts and Sciences
 * Institute for Advanced Studies in Humanities and Social Sciences
 * Liberal Arts College
 * School of Economics and Business Administration
 * School of Public Affairs
 * School of Foreign Language
 * School of Arts
 * School of Journalism and Communication
 * Law School
 * Meishi Film Academy
 * School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
 * School of Bioengineering
 * School of Physics
 * School of Mathematics and Statistics
 * School of Physical Education
 * School of Life Sciences

 * Faculty of the Built Environment
 * School of Architecture and Urban Planning
 * School of Civil Engineering
 * School of Urban Construction and Environmental Engineering
 * School of Construction Management and Real Estate

 * Faculty of Engineering
 * School of Mechanical Engineering
 * School of Electrical Engineering
 * School of Power and Energy Engineering
 * School of Material Science and Engineering
 * School of Resources and Environmental Science
 * School of Aerospace Engineering
 * Chongqing University and University of Cincinnati Joint Cooperative Institute(JCI)

 * Faculty of Information Science and Technology
 * School of Computer Science
 * School of Automation
 * School of Communication Engineering
 * School of Opto-Electronic Engineering
 * School of Software Engineering

 * Other
 * International School (College of International Education)
 * City College of Science and Technology
 * College of Continuing Education
 * College of Networking Education

Teaching and research
Chongqing University is in possession of 17 state key subjects and 14 key subjects under the state "211 Project", 38 provincial or ministerial key subjects. The university sets up 14 specially appointed professor posts under the "Yangtze River Scholar Award Program". It has established 3 national teaching bases for fundamental courses and a national quality education base for college students, 9 national key labs and ministerial key labs, 71 provincial key labs, and 130 labs of different specialties. Moreover, Chongqing University has constructed the distance education center, multi-media classrooms of large scale and interactive audio-visual classrooms, labs or training centers in cooperation with world-famous enterprises such as Siemens, Microsoft, IBM, Rockwell, Omron, etc. The university has a national key publishing house, a national first-class architectural designing institute, and a first-class institute for planning and design.

In recent years, the university has undertaken over 100 national key scientific projects of different types, and won 13 National Awards for Invention, 40 Awards for Scientific and Technological Advancement, 4 Awards for Natural Science, 968 ministerial and provincial awards, 283 Awards for Teaching Achievement.

Rankings
Top ranked disciplines in China

Library collections
The university library is well equipped with modern facilities and a collection of 3.90 million volumes, 6000 kinds of Chinese and foreign periodicals, and 2.0 million volumes of E-books. In addition it has 5 electronic reading rooms with 65,000 e-books and journals. The China Education Research Network (CERNET) Chongqing Central Node is set up in the library.

Key laboratories

 * State Key Laboratories(Engineering Centers)
 * Mechanical Transmission
 * Power Transmission and Distribution Equipment and Systems Safety, and New Technology
 * Tech R&D Center for Magnesium Alloy Engineering
 * New Micro-Nano Devices and System Technology
 * International R&D Center for Micro-Nano System and New Materials Technology
 * Key Laboratories of the Ministry of Education of China
 * Opto-electronic Technology and Systems
 * China Southwest Resource Exploitation and Environmental Disaster Control Engineering
 * The Three Gorges Reservoir Region's Eco-Environment
 * Center for Supervising, Inspecting and Testing Transgenic Biological Product Ingredients
 * Upland Urban Construction and New Technology (under construction)
 * Center for Industrial CT Non-destructive testing Engineering (under construction)
 * Discipline Innovation Bases for Higher
 * Education("111 Project")
 * Innovative Base of Biological Mechanics and Tissue-Repair Engineering
 * Innovative Base of Power Transforming and Transmission Equipments and System Safety Technology

 * Provincial Key Laboratories
 * Manufacturing System Engineering
 * High Voltage Technology and System Information Monitoring
 * Biomedical Engineering
 * Metallurgical Engineering
 * New Technology in Electrical Engineering
 * Software Engineering
 * Exploitation of Mineral Resources and Environmental Damages and Engineering Disasters in the Three Gorges Reservoir Region
 * Automation Engineering
 * Thermal Engineering
 * Rock and Soil Engineering
 * Material Physics Building Environment and Installation Engineering
 * Carrier Test and Monitoring and Remote Sensing Information Transmission Technology
 * New Building Materials and Engineering
 * Pollution Prevention and Waste Recycling Architectural Technology
 * Municipal and Environment Engineering

Campus
Chongqing University covers a total area of over 3.65 square kilometres, consisting of four campuses. With green mountains surrounded and the Jialing River flowing by, the four campuses are set amidst delightful sceneries and awarded the title of “Garden University” by Chongqing Municipality.

Outreach and cooperation
It has established inter-university exchange links with over 100 institutions of higher education in 20 countries such as the USA, England, France, Germany, Italy, Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, Japan, South Korea, Russia, etc.

Alumni
Chongqing University has many notable alumni including:
 * Ren Zhengfei, Founder and President of Huawei
 * Li Xiaohong, President of Chinese Academy of Engineering (CAE) and President of Wuhan University
 * Yan Su, Lyricist
 * Chou Wen-chung, Chinese-American Composer of Contemporary Classical Music
 * Li Shangfu, China Minister of National Defense

title: Chongqing University


text:
User talk:Make it real

This user is an alternate login for User:Bird, who has been banned. Officially, all edits by this user should be reverted; please do not restore any edits made by this user. See User talk:Bird/Brain and stuff for more details on this affair. Fennec 15:20, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Hey again, Bird. Just trying to keep track of your comings and goings. Hope you don't mind this notice being placed here- but who am I kidding? Of course you mind. -- Fennec 15:20, 11 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Make it real


text: Template:Historical provinces of Finland


text:
Cortes Generales

The Cortes Generales (Spanish Parliament) are the bicameral legislative chambers of Spain, consisting of the Congress of Deputies (the lower house) and the Senate (the upper house).

The Congress of Deputies meets in the Palacio de las Cortes. The Senate meets in the Palacio del Senado. Both are in Madrid. The Cortes are elected through universal, free, equal, direct and secret suffrage, with the exception of some senatorial seats, which are elected indirectly by the legislatures of the autonomous communities. The Cortes Generales are composed of 615 members: 350 Deputies and 265 Senators.

The members of the Cortes Generales serve four-year terms, and they are representatives of the Spanish people. In both chambers, the seats are divided by constituencies that correspond with the fifty provinces of Spain, plus Ceuta and Melilla. However, each island or group of islands within the Canary and Balearic archipelagos forms a different constituency in the Senate.

As a parliamentary system, the Cortes confirm and dismiss the Prime Minister of Spain and their government; specifically, the candidate for Prime Minister has to be invested by the Congress with a majority of affirmative votes. The Congress can also dismiss the Prime Minister through a vote of no confidence. The Cortes also hold the power to enact a constitutional reform.

The modern Cortes Generales were created by the 1978 Constitution of Spain, but the institution has a long history.

Visigothic Kingdom
The tribal councils organized under Germanic law in the Visigothic Kingdom had the power of appointing and confirming kings, as well as passing laws and judgment. The Visigothic Code compiled under kings Chindasuinth and Recceswinth in the mid-7th century placed the kings, Visigoths, and native Spanish under a single law and formed the basis of Spanish law through the medieval period. The Visigothic councils, however, gradually came to be completely dominated by the clergy under the leadership of the archbishop of Toledo; with ecclesiastical prerogatives completely secure, they then tended to allow royal edicts to come into effect without further ratification.

High Middle Ages (8th–12th centuries)

The royal councils (curia regis) of the Iberian peninsula's various kingdoms came to be known as cortes (Castilian Spanish) or corts (Valencian Spanish). They began as advisory councils made up of the most powerful nobles and the feudal lords closest to the king. General councils were convened in 873, 1020, 1050, and 1063. The 1188 Cortes of León convened by Alfonso IX is sometimes taken to mark the beginning of parliamentary bodies in Western Europe because it was the first to provide formal national representation of the free urban citizens alongside the clergy and hereditary nobility. Subsequently, larger and more inclusive Cortes occurred in the Principality of Catalonia in 1192, the Kingdom of Portugal in 1211, the Kingdom of Castile in 1250, the Kingdom of Aragon in 1274, the Kingdom of Valencia in 1283, and Kingdom of Navarre in 1300. The Leonese and Castilian Corteses were merged in 1258, after which it provided representation to Burgos, Toledo, León, Seville, Córdoba, Murcia, Jaén, Zamora, Segovia, Ávila, Salamanca, Cuenca, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, Madrid, Guadalajara, and (after 1492) Granada.

Rise of the bourgeoisie (12th–15th centuries)

During the Reconquista, the growth of trade and an urbanized middle class (burguesía) expanded their importance at the various corteses. The king retained the ability to call and dismiss the Cortes but tended to exchange fueros, further grants of privileges and autonomy, to the residents of certain cities in exchange for lump sum payments to meet military and other obligations. (Modern Navarre preserves certain rights and privileges in its current statute of autonomy directly derived from these fueros.) In some cases, the Cortes was able to independently select agents to act as permanent advisors to the king between its sessions.

Habsburg rule (16th–17th centuries)

Beginning with the Catholic Monarchs Isabella and Ferdinand, monarchs' control over Spain's various kingdoms in personal union allowed them to curtail the power of the grandees and burghers. Queen Isabella initially had difficulty in securing funding for the voyages of Christopher Columbus in the 1490s but her grandson the Habsburg emperor Charles V (Charles I of Spain) was able to easily provide for Ferdinand Magellan's 1519 expedition and then to pointedly sell away all of Spain's rights to the Spice Islands (now Indonesia's Malukus) without any consultation with the Toledo Cortes in 1529. The 1520 Revolt of the Comuneros had intended to reverse this trend and provide a stronger role for the Cortes but was crushed by the Constable's royalist forces at the 1521 Battle of Villalar and then brutally suppressed.

Reorganized, the corteses retained some power over the realm's finances—particularly in Aragon—but became limited to a consultative entity. By the reign of Philip II, the delegates of the Cortes of Castile were financially dependent on the Crown for their income. The Imperial Cortes and its deputation (Diputación General de Cortes) primarily concerned themselves with overseeing previous agreements and the collection of taxes in Castile and the larger empire; separate deputations oversaw similar work in Aragon and Navarre.

The corteses were able to regain some of their previous powers and influence during the 17th century, as repeated sovereign defaults reduced the monarchy to financial dependency and a series of deputies including the Count-Duke of Olivares oversaw most day-to-day government. Under the young and chronically ill CharlesII, the Cortes of Castile was responsible for naming his mother Mariana regent.

Bourbon rule (18th–19th centuries)
During the War of the Spanish Succession, the Bourbon king PhilipV suppressed the Cortes of Aragon and Valencia in 1707 and those of Catalonia and the Balearic Islands in 1714. Following the Peace of Utrecht, the 1716 Nueva Planta Decrees fully abolished the autonomy of the Crown of Aragon. Philip also acted to repeal or curtail most of the diverse grants of autonomy and privilege (fueros) throughout his kingdom. Navarre was finally merged during the 1833 territorial division of Spain.

Napoleonic Spain and the Three Liberal Years
With both the Bourbon monarchs Charles IV and Ferdinand VII having abdicated their throne and Napoleon Bonaparte having appointed his brother Joseph as the new king, a "Cortes of Cádiz" was convened that claimed sovereignty over Spain and operated as a government-in-exile. The Cortes was the first to act as a single representative body for the entire country and empire, although substitutes had to be chosen from among the people of Cádiz for many regions occupied by the French and unable to send their own delegates. Extremely liberal, the Constitution of 1812 enacted by the Cortes was immediately set aside by Ferdinand upon his restoration in 1814. His conservative policies led to a series of military coups that culminated in Col.Rafael del Riego forcing him to accept a more liberal constitution from 1820–1823, the Trienio Liberal ("Three Liberal Years"). Ferdinand vetoed nearly every law passed during the period and repeatedly asked other nations to invade and restore him to his previous authority. Finally, a French invasion crushed the National Militia and restored absolutist rule in Spain. During the subsequent reaction, many liberals were forced into exile, many—ironically—ending up in France, but generally Ferdinand VII was less strident in his policies through the remainder of his reign.

First Spanish Republic (1873–1874)
When the monarchy was overthrown in 1873, the king was forced into exile. The Senate was abolished because of its royally appointed nature. A republic was proclaimed and the Congress of Deputies members started writing a Constitution, supposedly that of a federal republic, with the power of Parliament being nearly supreme (see parliamentary supremacy, although Spain did not use the Westminster system). However, due to numerous issues, Spain was not ready to become a republic; after several crises the government collapsed, and the monarchy was restored in 1874.

Restoration (1874–1930)
The regime just after the First Republic is called the Bourbon Restoration. It was formally a constitutional monarchy, with the monarch as a rubberstamp to the Cortes' acts but with some reserve powers, such as appointing and dismissing the Prime Minister and appointing senators for the new Senate, remade as an elected House. In practice there was an artificial two-party system called El Turno Pacífico (peaceful rotation) in which elections were informally fixed so the Conservatives and Liberals would have alternating periods as the majority in the Cortes, with other parties restricted to a smaller number of seats.

Soon after the Soviet revolution (1917), the Spanish political parties started polarizing, and the left-wing Communist Party (PCE) and Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) blamed the Government for supposed election fraud in small towns (caciquismo), which was incorrectly supposed to have been wiped out in the 1900s by the failed regenerationist movement. In the meantime, spiralling violence started with the murders of many leaders by both sides. Deprived of those leaders, the regime entered a general crisis, with extreme police measures which led to a dictatorship (1921–1930) during which the Senate was again abolished.

Second Spanish Republic (1931–1939)
The dictatorship, now ruled by Admiral Aznar-Cabañas, called for local elections. The results were overwhelmingly favorable to the monarchist cause nationally, but most provincial capitals and other sizable cities sided heavily with the republicans. This was interpreted as a victory, as the rural results were under the always-present suspicion of caciquismo and other irregularities while the urban results were harder to influence. The King left Spain, and a Republic was declared on 14 April 1931.

The Second Spanish Republic was established as a presidential republic, with a unicameral Parliament and a President of the Republic as the Head of State. Among his powers were the appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister, either on the advice of Parliament or just having consulted it before, and a limited power to dissolve the Parliament and call for new elections.

The first term was the constituent term charged with creating the new Constitution, with the ex-monarchist leader Niceto Alcalá Zamora as President of the Republic and the left-wing leader Manuel Azaña as Prime Minister. The election gave a majority in the Cortes and thus, the Government, to a coalition between Azaña's party and the PSOE. A remarkable deed is universal suffrage, allowing women to vote, a provision highly criticized by Socialist leader Indalecio Prieto, who said the Republic had been backstabbed. Also, for the second time in Spanish history, some regions were granted autonomous governments within the unitary state. Many on the extreme right rose up with General José Sanjurjo in 1932 against the Government's social policies, but the coup was quickly defeated.

The elections for the second term were held in 1933 and won by the coalition between the Radical Party (center) and the Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA) (right). Initially, only the Radical Party entered the Government, with the parliamentary support of the CEDA. However, in the middle of the term, several corruption scandals (among them the Straperlo and the Nombela affairs) sank the Radical Party and the CEDA entered the Government in 1934. This led to uprisings by some leftist parties that were quickly suffocated. In one of them, the left wing government of Catalonia, which had been granted home rule, formally rebelled against the central government, denying its power. This provoked the dissolution of the Generalitat de Catalunya and the imprisonment of their leaders. The leftist minority in the Cortes then pressed Alcalá Zamora for a dissolution, arguing that the uprising were the consequence of social rejection of the right-wing government. The President, a former monarchist Minister wary of the authoritarianism of the right, dissolved Parliament.

The next election was held in 1936. It was hotly contested, with all parties converging into three coalitions: the leftist Popular Front, the right-winged and a Centre coalition. In the end, the Popular Front won with a small edge in votes over the runner-up National Front, but achieved a solid majority due to the new electoral system introduced by the CEDA government hoping that they would get the edge in votes. The new Parliament then dismissed Alcalá-Zamora and installed Manuel Azaña in his place. During the third term, the extreme polarisation of the Spanish society was more evident than ever in Parliament, with confrontation reaching the level of death threats. The already bad political and social climate created by the long-term left-right confrontation worsened, and many right-wing rebellions were started. Then, in 1936, the Army's failed coup degenerated into the Spanish Civil War, putting an end to the Second Republic.

From November 1936 to October 1937, the Cortes were held at Valencia City Hall, which was still being used for its local purposes at the same time. The building was a target for the Italian Air Force in service of the Nationalist faction, resulting in a bombing in May 1937.

Francoist Spain (1943–1977)
Francisco Franco did not prioritize the creation of a consultative or legislative type of assembly during his rule. In 1942, following the first symptoms of change in the international panorama in favour of the Allied Powers, a law established the Cortes Españolas (Spanish Cortes), a non-democratic chamber made up of more than 400 procuradores (singular procurador). Both the Cortes' founding law and the subsequent regulations were based on the principles of rejection of parliamentarism and political pluralism. Members of the Cortes were not elected and exercised only symbolic power. It had no power over government spending, and the cabinet, appointed and dismissed by Franco alone, retained real legislative authority. In 1967, with the enaction of the Organic Law of the State, the accommodation of "two family representatives per province, elected by those on the electoral roll of family heads and married women" (the so-called tercio familiar) ensued, opening a fraction of the Cortes' composition to some mechanisms of individual participation.

Cortes Generales under the Constitution of 1978
The Cortes are a bicameral parliament composed of a lower house (Congreso de los Diputados, congress of deputies) and an upper house (Senado, senate). Although they share legislative power, the Congress holds the power to ultimately override any decision of the Senate by a sufficient majority (usually an absolute majority or three-fifths majority).

The Congress is composed of 350 deputies (but that figure may change in the future as the constitution establishes a maximum of 400 and a minimum of 300) directly elected by universal suffrage approximately every four years.

The Senate is partly directly elected in that four senators per province are elected as a general rule and partly appointed by the legislative assemblies of the autonomous communities, one for each community and another one for every million inhabitants in their territory. Although the Senate was conceived as a territorial upper house, it has been argued by nationalist parties and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party that it does not accomplish such a task because 208 out of 265 members of the Senate are elected by popular vote in each province, and only 58 are representatives appointed by the regional legislatures of autonomous communities. Proposals to reform the Senate have been discussed for at least ten years as of November 2007. One of the main themes of reform is to move towards a higher level of federalization and make the Senate a thorough representation of autonomous communities instead of the current system, which tries to incorporate the interests of province and autonomous communities at the same time.

title: Cortes Generales


text:
Talk:Cortes Generales

history
This article has only a history through 1978, and no other information about the Cortes itself. The Spanish article es:Cortes Generales seems to be useful, but I'm not fluent enough in Spanish to translate it. --Closeapple 18:55, 22 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I have added a section about the cortes nowadays. It is stubby, but better than nothing. I'll try to expand it later. --Estradin 08:16, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

Tercios
Weren't the Francoist Cortes "elected" instead of appointed by Franco? I remember something about tercios ("thirds"): -- Error 22:44, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)
 * One third by family heads.
 * one syndical third by Falange.
 * One third by corporations (colegios profesionales), universities, African tribal authorities,...
 * In fact, they were, but the candidates were appointed by the regime (I mean, there were no political parties as we know them, not even a soviet-like state party). You had then the opportunity to choose between Mr. A, appointed by the regime, and Mr. B, appointed by the regime-loyal Syndicate. Habbit 23:20, 23 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Type Os
This page is replete with grammatical errors; I suggest the author revise and even do a spell check.

Senate
The article says that the Spanish Senate appeared during the Habsburg's ruling time, but actually didn't. Moreover, during this period neither noblemen nor clergymen were called to the Cortes, as far as I know. Anyway, I think the Senate appeared during the 19th<br century, but I'm not sure of this. I think it should be changed. --85.57.71.223 19:49, 31 October 2007 (UTC)

Cortes of the Kingdom of Leon were the first parliament in Spain
The Cortes of Leon (1188) were the first parliament in Spain. In 1188 Leon was an independent kingdom. Leon was not united to Castile. The kingdom of Leon celebrated some Cortes after that. In addition, Leon's Spanish Parliament was more independent that those of Castile, which they demonstrated to be very much docile with regard to the authority of the Kings. Leon's Cortes are the first sample of parlamentarism in Western Europe according to the Encyclopedia Britannica. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.109.32.34 (talk) 12:06, 4 January 2009 (UTC)

History Section Inaccuracy
The Icelandic Althing was founded in 930 and is the oldest Parliament in Western Europe. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Althing —Preceding unsigned comment added by 67.82.97.197 (talk) 05:24, 8 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Yeah, there were others before this if the Leonese one even counts. Seems very dubious but probably need a central discussion somewhere to resolve it and which sources to respect and which incomplete/biased ones to ignore. — Llywelyn II   09:22, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

History Section bias
The language used in the Second Republic History section is far from neutral. It's clearly written from a right-wing perspective, and seeks to blame the left for the Spanish Civil War. This should probably be changed. 217.35.132.93 (talk) 10:04, 27 July 2009 (UTC) Alasdair

Rubberstamp in section "The Imperial Cortes (16th-17th centuries)"
"Rubber stamp" is an expression not coined before 1881, and not used in the sense of which it is here presented, before 1919 - surely, there must be a more appropriate term! Please fix, whoever has time and power to do so. ~ JJ — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jjjjc (talk • contribs) 07:44, 31 December 2010 (UTC)

translation
Why is this name left untranslated when the translation, general court, could not be more straightforward? There are even examples of this phrase applied in the same sense, such as the Massachusetts General Court. Jergas (talk) 18:01, 16 March 2012 (UTC)
 * ≠ Only use English words. — Llywelyn II   09:22, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

Article is all wrong and needs to be redone from scratch
This article is a total and complete mess and mostly wrong. It should be entirely redone or just deleted. One only has to go to the Spanish article Cortes Generales to see this one has nothing to do with it. There was no such thing as Cortes Generales before the 1978 Constitution. Furthermore, before the 18th century there was no such thing as a Kingdom of Spain or a political entity called Spain. There were separate kingdoms, mainly Castille and Aragon, in a personal union but each had and retained their separate end different entity and political systems. The organization, power and functioning of the Cortes of Castille were very different from the Cortes of Aragon which were themselves composed of regional Cortes. I do not think the article is salvageable as it is. It would be best to start from scratch with information from the Spanish article. GS3 (talk) 22:02, 30 August 2014 (UTC)
 * This is from almost a decade ago and is still true. It just seems like no one is interested in wading through the Spanish sources to create Cortes of Toledo and the rest. — Llywelyn II   09:22, 4 February 2023 (UTC)

Dumb question here
In the current Infobox, it says That Government is composed of PSOE and Confederal Left group. Why isn't "Confederal Left group" in the Supported by part of the infobox? User:Tetizeraz. Send me a ✉ ! 16:16, 31 January 2021 (UTC)
 * Because the Confederal Left group is made up of various parties, of which those belonging to the Unidas Podemos alliance are in the government. Thus, part of the group supports the government, and another part of the group is within the government. There's nothing strange in that.  Impru 20 talk 16:55, 31 January 2021 (UTC)
 * thanks for the speedy answer! User:Tetizeraz. Send me a ✉ ! 17:22, 31 January 2021 (UTC)
 * You are welcome! :)  Impru 20 talk 17:25, 31 January 2021 (UTC)

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title: Talk:Cortes Generales


text:
Theodor Molien

Theodor Georg Andreas Molien (Fedor Eduardovich Molin; 10 September 1861 in Riga – 25 December 1941 in Tomsk) was a Russian mathematician of Baltic German origin. He was born in Riga, Latvia, which at that time was a part of Russian Empire. Molien studied associative algebras and polynomial invariants of finite groups.

Youth in Riga
Theodor Molien's father Eduard Molien was a teacher at the Riga Governorate Gymnasium. Theodor entered that gymnasium in 1872 and graduated in 1879.

Studies and work in Dorpat
In January 1880 Molien entered the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the University of Dorpat (now University of Tartu) as a student of astronomy. To support his studies his family also moved to Dorpat (now Tartu). In October 1883 the council of the university gave him the degree of a candidate of astronomy. His thesis "Bahn des Cometen 1880 III" was published in Astronomische Nachrichten No. 2510. His further work was supervised by the head of the chair of applied mathematics of the University of Dorpat Anders Lindstedt. In a report to the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the University of Dorpat Lindstedt acknowledges Molien as having unquestionably exceptional scientific talent (unzweifelhaft ungewöhnliche wissenschaftliche Begabung).

In the autumn of 1883, as part of his studies Molien was sent to Leipzig for three semesters. There he attended lectures by Felix Klein on different fields of mathematics and worked in his seminar. He also attended lectures of Carl Neumann, Eduard Study, Wilhelm Killing and Georg Scheffers. At that time Klein was dealing with deep problems of algebra and theory of functions of a complex variable. Following his suggestion, Molien started to study linear transformations of elliptic functions. The obtained results he submitted to the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics of the University of Dorpat as a master thesis titled "Ueber die lineare Transformation der elliptischen Functionen". In spring 1885 Molien passed the master's exams and after the defence in the autumn of 1885 he obtained the scientific degree of a Master of Mathematics. In November 1885 he became a docent at the University of Dorpat. This position he held for 15 years.

Summers (that were free from teaching) of 1886, 1888 and 1889 Molien spent in scientific centers of Germany. His interest concentrated on so-called higher complex numbers (nowadays called hypercomplex numbers). His studies resulted in his article "Über Systeme höherer komplexer Zahlen" ("On systems of higher complex numbers"), published in 1891 in Mathematische Annalen.

On 30 September 1892, Molien defended his dissertation, also titled "Über Systeme höherer komplexer Zahlen". He got the degree of a doctor of pure mathematics. The importance of his work was acknowledged by Georg Frobenius, Sophus Lie and other mathematicians. One of the main results of his dissertation sounds in modern terms as follows: every simple associative algebra over the field of complex numbers is isomorphic to the algebra of square matrices of a suitable order over the same field.

For his scientific achievements, in 1892 Molien was elected a member of Moscow Mathematical Society. In 1894 French mathematicians awarded him a golden medal dedicated to the seventieth birthday of Charles Hermite. During Dorpat years, Molien had mathematical correspondence with Frobenius and Hurwitz.

Since the University of Dorpat had only one professorship in pure mathematics, Molien had to stay for years at docent's position. Being a docent in Dorpat, Molien prepared and gave different lecture courses: Theory of analytic and elliptic functions, modern geometry and algebra, theory of algebraic equations, number theory, projective geometry, theory of quaternions, history of mathematics and others. Some of these courses were new for the university.

In 1887 Russian powers decided to change the language of secondary and higher education in Baltic governorates from German to Russian with the deadline 1 January 1895. With the purpose of improving his Russian language, Molien was sent to Moscow for the year 1892.

Career in Tomsk
Only in December 1900 Molien was given a professor's position, but not in Dorpat, but in the starting Tomsk Technological Institute in Siberia. He became the first professor of mathematics in Siberia. His was given a task of organizing teaching mathematics at the institute. In Tomsk, besides giving courses in mathematical analysis and differential equations, he wrote textbooks and exercise books on these subjects, and also established a mathematical library at the institute.

Known for his oppositional political views, he had to retire in 1913. Since 1914, Molien was a professor at higher Siberian courses for women in Tomsk, and when in 1917 the faculty of physics and mathematics was opened at the Tomsk State University, he got a professorship there, and stayed at that university until his death on 25 December 1941.

In Tomsk Molien spent 41 years of his life. These years were scientifically not as fruitful as earlier years.

He got the title of Honoured Worker of Science.

Works

 * Bahn des Cometen 1880 III (candidates thesis), Astron. Nachr. Bd. 105, No. 2519.
 * Ueber Systeme höherer complexer Zahlen: eine behufs Erlangung des Grades eines Doctors der reinen Mathematik der physico-mathematischen Fakultät der Kaiserl. Universität Dorpat (dissertation), Tartu, 1892. (full text)
 * Ueber die lineare Transformation der elliptischen Functionen: eine zur Erlangung des Grades eines Magisters der Mathematik der physico-mathematischen Facultät der Kaiserlichen Universität Dorpat (master's thesis), Tartu, 1885, 23 pp.

Other interests
Molien was interested in chess. In 1897-1898 he was in correspondence with a leading Russian chess player Mikhail Chigorin. He was one of the strongest chess players in Dorpat and was particularly known for his blindfold play (Ken Whyld, personal communication, 1995). He was president of the Dorpat chess club, and several of his games were published in the chess journal Baltische Schachblätter (edited by Friedrich Amelung). In 1898 Molien published four chess studies.

To 1895 dates his manuscript "On theory of assigning prizes in tournaments".

Molien had also talent for languages. He knew German, Estonian, French, Swedish already before he entered gymnasium where he learned Greek, Hebrew, Latin, English, Italian. Later he learned Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and Norwegian.

title: Theodor Molien