text:
Morlocks (comics)

Morlocks are a group of mutant characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The characters are usually depicted as being associated with the X-Men in the Marvel Universe. Created by writer Chris Claremont and artist Paul Smith, they were named after the subterranean race of the same name in H. G. Wells' novel The Time Machine, but unlike in the Wells book, they are not a faceless, threatening mass of villains. They first appeared as a group in The Uncanny X-Men #169 (May 1983). Caliban appeared prior to that, but he was not yet a member of the Morlocks.

The Morlocks were depicted as an underground society (both literally and figuratively) of outcast mutants living as tunnel dwellers in the sewers, abandoned tunnels, and abandoned subway lines beneath New York City. The Morlocks were composed of mutant misfits, especially those mutants who, because of physical mutations or other conspicuous manifestations of their mutant genetics, were unable to pass as human in normal society. Subjected to hate, fear, and disgust from human society due to their "deformed" appearances, dangerous mutations, or otherwise outcast or misfit statuses, most of the Morlocks viewed humans (and even more mainstream mutants such as the X-Men) with distrust and anger, and they occasionally committed criminal or antisocial acts upon the above-ground human society.

Due to a series of tragedies, the original Morlocks no longer reside in subterranean New York City (except Marrow, who was one of the original Morlocks as a child), although a violent splinter cell Gene Nation and a comparable group called Those Who Live in Darkness have emerged. Similar groups, called Morlocks by readers and/or the X-Men themselves, have appeared under Chicago and London.

Fictional group history
According to Callisto, she formed the Morlocks by first recruiting Caliban, and then using his power to track down other mutants who were unable to integrate into normal society. The Morlocks initially squatted in a network of abandoned, interconnected tunnels beneath Manhattan, which had originally been built as Cold War bomb shelters and then forgotten. The Morlocks occasionally emerged to rob humans in Manhattan and would sometimes kidnap certain mutant children.

The X-Men were alerted to the existence of the Morlocks when their leader Callisto kidnapped Angel and intended to make him her mate. This brought Storm to challenge Callisto to a duel for leadership of the Morlocks. Victorious, Storm orders an end to their attacks on normal humans, but she does not assume leadership of the Morlocks full-time. Against her wishes, several Morlocks later kidnap the child superheroes Power Pack so that they could be raised by the Morlock Annalee, who had lost her own children. When Callisto discovers what was going on, she forces Annalee to let them go. They promise to return in the future to keep her company.

A majority of the Morlocks are slaughtered by Mister Sinister's Marauders in the "Mutant Massacre". Most of the survivors move on to join Gene Nation, having lived in a pocket dimension led by Mikhail Rasputin. Leech instead becomes a ward of Generation X. Other survivors include Erg and Beautiful Dreamer (whose whereabouts were unknown until "Decimation"), Thornn, (who would join X-Corporation), and Caliban.

It is later revealed that many of the Morlocks were actually failed experiments of the Dark Beast, although he made certain that they did not remember being tampered with, however Mister Sinister recognized that the Morlocks were based on his own genetic studies (which the Dark Beast learned from the Sinister of his reality), and that's why he ordered the Marauders to kill the entire underground society.

A new group called the Tunnel Rats which also calls itself "Those Who Live in Darkness" have inhabited the sewer tunnels just below the surface of Mutant Town/District X. District X writer David Hine claims to never have intended this group to have any ties to the original Morlocks.

During the "Decimation" storyline, some of the remaining powered Morlocks sought out asylum at the X-Mansion. There were some Morlocks that remained underground under Marrow's protection.

During the "Endangered Species" storyline, Masque and the Morlocks with him began their search for Magneto where they had some future-telling diaries with them where one of them states that Magneto is still a mutant in light of M-Day.

At the time when the Terrigen Cloud was loose on Earth infecting mutants with M-Pox since the "Infinity" storyline, the number of mutants that are living underground had increased. In addition to these mutants, Callisto showed sympathy towards the humans who sought out refuge from the global landscape. As a way to live out the dream of Professor X, this unified society of humans and mutants lived together as the New Morlocks. The Morlock are further decimated by the Mauraders, but Cyclops helps the Chechnyan government expel rebels in exchange for a Morlock sanctuary.

When Krakoa was established as a mutant paradise, the known Morlocks that reside there are Callisto, Caliban, Cybelle, Erg, a revived Healer, Leech, Masque, Marrow, Mole a revived Piper, Skids, and a revived Tommy.

Founding members
Debuting along with the rest of the Morlocks (with the exception of Caliban) it was revealed that Masque, Caliban, Callisto and Sunder founded the Morlocks under the streets of Manhattan.

 * Caliban - Caliban became Death, and later Pestilence - Served on X-Force for a time. Joined the X-Men after "Decimation". He was killed by the Purifiers saving James Proudstar.
 * Callisto - Former leader of the Morlocks. Arms were turned into tentacles by Masque. Aided Magneto and Professor X in Genosha. Depowered. Former member Of X-Cell. Currently working in the Hellfire Club on Krakoa.
 * Dark Beast - Creator of the Morlocks. From the Age of Apocalypse and the Brotherhood. Infiltrated the X-Men for a time posing as the original Beast. Although not classed as a Morlock, he sees himself as their creator and has been called the "first one" by members of Gene Nation. He was recruited by Norman Osborn as scientist and member of Dark X-Men. Recently he gained control over Clan Akkaba and rebuilt the portal to his own dimension. There he is a member of that reality's Clan Akkaba as well.
 * Masque - Former leader after the "Mutant Massacre". Led a splinter group for a time called The Tunnelers. Impaled by Shatterstar's sword but was revealed alive.
 * Sunder - Joined the impromptu Muir Island "X-Men" team. Shot by Pretty Boy of the Reavers.

Pre-Mutant Massacre

 * Annalee - Emotion projector. Adopts Leech. Shot by Scalphunter in the "Mutant Massacre".
 * Ape - Shapeshifter. Captured by the Weapon X program and sent to its Neverland concentration camp and killed.
 * Beautiful Dreamer - Altered memories of those "recruited" as Morlocks. Believed killed in the "Mutant Massacre", but listed as alive and powered after "M-Day". Was later infused with the Legacy Virus by the Purifiers and died from the virus's effects.
 * Healer - A mutant whose healing powers only work on mutants. He burned himself out to heal and restore Callisto. Healer was later revived when Krakoa was established as a mutant nation.
 * Erg - Electrical blaster. Erg was a painter before becoming a Morlock. He was one of the 198. Joined Masque's recent incarnation. Later resurfaced as part of the mutant community on the living island Krakoa.
 * Jo - Only appearance as a Morlock was her debut issue as Kitty Pryde's bridesmaid. Current whereabouts unknown.
 * Leech - Has been in the first few incarnations of the Morlocks. Adopted son of Annalee. Formerly of X-Terminators and Generation X. Captured by the Weapon X program and used as the Neverland power damper. He was one of The 198 who retained their mutant powers after "House of M". Used by Masque because of the prophecies of Qwerty. Currently a member of Future Foundation.
 * Piper - Controlled animals using music. Killed by the Marauders. Resurfaced later, resurrected, as part of the mutant community on Krakoa.
 * Plague - Became Pestilence, one of the Horsemen of Apocalypse. Died after falling off her flying horse.
 * Skids - Resented because she was seen as the prettiest of the Morlocks (her force field protected her from scars and Masque's powers). She left them and became a ward of X-Factor. After "M-Day", she became a follower of Apocalypse and is friends with Scalphunter. Was part of Masque's new group of Morlock Extremists, as a spy for S.H.I.E.L.D.
 * Storm - X-Man who defeated Callisto in a duel to become the Morlocks' leader, although not classified as a Morlock. Former Fantastic Four member and former Queen of Wakanda. Currently a member of the X-Men.
 * Tar Baby - Secretes adhesive. Captured by the Weapon X program, sent to the Neverland concentration camp and killed.
 * Annalee's four children - Shot by Scalphunter. Only later revealed that Scalphunter was the one who killed the four children.

Mutant Massacre
The "Mutant Massacre" was one of Marvel's annual crossovers events, centering on the Morlocks. The event resulted in the Marauders killing many of the Morlocks under orders of Mr. Sinister. Only a few survived, with the protection of the X-Men, X-Factor, Power Pack and Thor. The event spanned The Uncanny X-Men #210–212, X-Factor #9–11, The New Mutants #46, Thor #373–374 and Power Pack #27. Many new Morlocks debuted, although many were killed in their first appearance.

 * Berzerker - An electric mutant who was formerly part of Masque's splinter group, The Tunnelers. Killed by electrocuting himself with his own powers.
 * Blowhard - A wind-exhaling mutant who was formerly part of Masque's splinter group The Tunnelers. Shot by the Savage Wolf Gang leader.
 * Cybelle - Acid-secreting Tunneler. Killed by Harpoon. Resurfaced later as one of the many resurrected mutants on Krakoa.
 * Scaleface - A female mutant who was formerly part of Masque's splinter group The Tunnelers who can transform into a large reptilian creature. Shot by the police in her reptile form. Subsequently revived several times as a zombie.
 * Tommy - A young girl capable of adopting a two-dimensional form. Shot by Scalphunter after she accidentally led the Marauders to the entrance to the Morlocks' home. It was later revealed that this was Gambit's doing. She resurfaced years later as one of the many resurrected mutants on Krakoa.
 * Zeek - Killed by Harpoon.

Post-Mutant Massacre
Most of the surviving Morlocks relocated themselves throughout New York City after the massacre. Few, however, returned to the Alley, their original home. There, Masque assumed leadership. Many new surviving Morlocks were introduced when Sabretooth decided to finish his original task. He is stopped by a newly "upgraded" Caliban. Later, a splinter group of the Morlocks is introduced. This group, led by Pixie, attempts to escape Masque.

 * Alex - Alex is an amorphous, blob-like creature, able to engulf and smother others. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Bertram - Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Bliss - Has the power of a poisonous bite. Was a part of Masque's new group of Morlock Extremists.
 * Bouncer - Mass teleporter. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Brute - Shot by Cable.
 * Chickenwings - Killed by Sabretooth.
 * Ent - Superhuman strength. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Feral - Left the Morlocks. She was depowered as a result of "Decimation" but she regained her physical mutation, only to be killed by Sabretooth. She does return again but as a ghost to serve as a tracker for deities and demons.
 * Hump - Brute's brother. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Lightning Bug - Killed in the "Mutant Massacre". Astral essence survived and searches out a new form to inhabit. Its essence later perished.
 * Mole - Could tunnel through solid matter. It is strongly implied that Mole was killed by Sabretooth. However, he actually survived by digging to safety and laid low until Krakoa was established as a mutant nation.
 * Mother Inferior - Could communicate with rats, cockroaches, and other vermin. Crushed by falling debris.
 * Pester - Daughter-in-law of Mother Inferior. Possesses superhuman speed and fangs. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Pixie - Led a splinter group of Morlocks on the run from Masque. Murdered by Blackout.
 * Samson - Killed by Sabretooth
 * Thornn - Left the Morlocks after the Great Flood. Depowered as a result of "Decimation", but she regained her physical mutation.

The Hill
With Masque presumed killed, an insane Mikhail Rasputin takes over as leader of the Morlocks in The Uncanny X-Men #293. He floods the tunnels, attempting to destroy the remaining Morlocks. It is revealed later that he actually transported the Morlocks to another dimension dubbed the Hill, whose timeline moved faster than the main Marvel Universe. There, he set himself up as their king and forced them to fight for the right to live.

 * Brain Cell - Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Marilou - Killed by Mikhail Rasputin.
 * Marrow - One of the Morlocks that were transported to the Hill dimension by Mikhail Rasputin. Returned to lead a terrorist faction known as Gene Nation. Seemingly killed by Storm. Revealed to have survived with the help of a second heart. Formerly of the X-Men, S.H.I.E.L.D., X-Cell and the Weapon X program. Only Gene Nation member who was a real Morlock (not being born in The Hill). Depowered.
 * MeMe - Mind shut down by Jean Grey to rescue humans he absorbed.
 * Monte - Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Mikhail Rasputin - Former leader of the Morlocks. Transported them to the Hill dimension. Banished himself to Kapalan.
 * Sack - A mutant with possession ability.

Africa/Gene Nation
With the Morlocks presumed dead from the floods caused by Mikhail Rasputin, some of the remaining Morlocks were relocated to Selima Oasis in North Africa. When attacked by Humanity's Last Stand, an emotional backlash caused D'Gard to assume control over Storm, who relinquished her leadership role. In X-Men: Prime many of the Hill Morlocks returned to found Gene Nation. As the new group, they attacked the human oppressors of the past Morlocks under the leadership of Marrow. It is unknown whether the remaining Morlocks of Africa stayed there or relocated to New York. A few have been seen there since, as well as a few Morlocks who chose to remain in New York City despite previous attempts on their lives.

 * Boost - One of the surviving Morlocks. Helped the Brotherhood of Mutants escape in exchange for being relocated to North Africa. Depowered.
 * Carver - Leader of a splinter group of five Morlocks who survived the Massacre and the Flood and who still followed the old Morlock rules.
 * D'Gard - Became leader of the Morlocks while in North Africa when he made Storm relinquish her leadership. Killed by Marrow as a sign of loyalty to the new Weapon X program
 * Fever Pitch - A mutant whose body is composed of organic flames.
 * Fugue - Member of the splinter group of five who still follow the old Morlocks rule.
 * Revelation - Revealed to have been in suspended animation around the time of Storm's becoming the Morlock leader as a result of her death-powers. Died in the Punisher's arms.
 * Soteira - Revealed to be around at the time Storm became Morlock leader. Was the scientist that put Revelation in suspended animation. Appeared as a hologram telling Wolverine and the Punisher she will die as a result of prolonged exposure to Revelation's powers.
 * Tether - One of the surviving Morlocks. Helped the Brotherhood of Mutants escape in exchange for being relocated to North Africa. Depowered.
 * Ever - Member of Gene Nation and later member of Havok's Brotherhood. His body was composed of brain matter, granting him telepathic abilities.
 * Reverb - Member of Gene Nation. Can focus his mental powers psychometrically, conducting clairvoyance and psychic bursts through the walls and floor of his surroundings. Killed by Storm.
 * Membrain - Member of Gene Nation. Composed of mucous membrane, allowing him to liquify himself and flow at will, mucous has psychic properties that allow him to view distant places and stun his opponents.
 * Vessel - Member of Gene Nation. Can drain the physical and psychic residue released from the recently deceased, increasing his physical size, strength, endurance, and resistance to injury. Killed by Agent Zero.
 * Integer - Member of Dark Beast's Gene Nation. Exists in a conceptual mathematical state, making him intangible and capable of scrambling the thought patterns of others.
 * Opsidian - Member of Dark Beast's Gene Nation. Exists in a state of pure darkforce, which makes him intangible, invisible while in shadow, able to stretch in light, and allows him to cast a negative empathic effect over others

After M-Day
After M-Day, some former Morlocks who lost their powers were Angel Dust, Boost, Callisto, Delphi, Irving, Marrow, Postman, Qwerty, Shatter, Tether and the probability of Feral and Thornn. However, Feral and Thornn were later seen re-powered; but this was later to be revealed in Wolverine vol. 3 #54-55 that only their physical mutations were restored, not their mutant powers, which led to Feral being killed by Sabretooth.

In one of Generation M's "Ex-Mutants' Diaries", Sally interviews Marrow about the Morlocks. Marrow reports that 80% of the remaining Morlocks (which was most likely already very small) are depowered now and look like humans. She states that most of them are still afraid about going out of the tunnels.

Currently, Marrow works as a watchman of the Morlocks, as she is called by the remaining ones when problems occur. She explained this status in the aftermath of thirteen depowered Morlocks murdered by Ghoul.

One character commented that, post-M-Day, the chance of meeting a Morlock in the tunnels under New York is now harder than meeting an alligator in the Floridian sewers.

Some former Morlocks who actually kept their powers sought refuge at Xavier's Institute and became known as the 198. They are Beautiful Dreamer, Caliban, Erg, Leech, and Skids.

Dark Beast and Mikhail Rasputin are also still powered, though Mikhail is in Kapalan.

The Extremists
During Ed Brubaker's "The Extremists" arc, the Morlocks reappear under the leadership of Masque and now consisting of Bliss, Erg, Litterbug, Skids and a recently captured Leech. Later in this story, it was revealed Skids only joined the Morlocks to spy on them on behalf of S.H.I.E.L.D.

Morlocks Appearing During the Decimation Era
Powered:
 * Beautiful Dreamer - Killed by the Purifiers using a new form of the Legacy Virus
 * Bliss - A resident of Utopia
 * Joe Bugs - An insect-like mutant who was shown only in flashback. Killed by a clone of Kraven the Hunter called Xraven.
 * Caliban - Killed by the Reavers during the events of Messiah Complex
 * Erg - A resident of Utopia
 * Feral - Originally depowered on M-Day; her physical mutations were restored by Romulus for unknown reasons before she was killed by Sabretooth
 * Fever Pitch - Killed by the Purifiers using a new form of the Legacy Virus
 * Leech - A member of the Future Foundation
 * Litterbug - A resident of Utopia
 * Masque - Whereabouts are unknown
 * Sack - Formerly a resident of Utopia; killed by a Nimrod Sentinel during the events of "Second Coming"
 * Skids - An agent of S.H.I.E.L.D.

Depowered:
 * Callisto - In the tunnels
 * Marrow - A member of X-Force. She has had a simulacrum of her powers reactivated through technological means
 * Thornn - Her physical mutations were restored by Romulus for unknown reasons; whereabouts are unknown

Former leaders not involved with group:
 * Dark Beast - The leader of Clan Akkaba
 * Mikhail Rasputin - Banished himself to Kapalan
 * Storm - Affiliated with the X-Men and the Jean Grey School of Higher Learning and Uncanny X-Force

Other groups
There are other groups that are related to the main Morlocks group:

Chicago Morlocks
In June 2002, Marvel released a four-part limited series, Morlocks. In it, a small group of mutants living in the sewers of Chicago help each other to fulfill their one last wish on the surface while trying to escape the mutant-hunting Sentinels.
 * Angel Dust - She ran away from home upon discovering she was a mutant, to protect her family from possible Sentinel attacks. Adrenaline gives her bursts of super-strength. Confirmed to be depowered by S.H.I.E.L.D.
 * Cell - Robber and gang member whose body transformed into a giant, single-celled body capable of extending pseudopods and engulfing objects which then are digested. Executed by the Sentinels.
 * Electric Eve - Former heroin addict and prostitute whose body produces massive amounts of electrical energy that can be extended outward in bolts of electricity. As a side-effect of her powers, the synapses in her brain short-out from time to time, incapacitating her for several minutes. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Litterbug - Former soldier who went AWOL upon his transformation into a giant, cockroach-like creature with massive strength, invulnerability, and a keen burrowing ability. He has difficulty speaking in this form. Member of the recent incarnation of New York Morlocks.
 * Postman - Leader of the Chicago Morlocks. Can telepathically erase specific memories from targets (such as an event) or complex and deeply rooted facts or knowledge. Depowered.
 * Shatter - His body is composed of a hard crystalline material that can regenerate lost body parts over time, and also can crystallize liquids upon contact. Depowered.
 * Trader - Former stockbroker who has a chameleon-like ability to camouflage into his surroundings. Killed taking a bullet meant for Electric Eve.

London Tunnel Dwellers
In The Uncanny X-Men #397–398, parts 3 and 4 of the Poptopia story, a group of Morlocks living in the tunnels of London are introduced. They were being pursued by an agent of the Church of Humanity named Mr. Clean, a genetically engineered human who was stalking and killing mutants. This was their only appearance. It is unknown whether or not they survived the persecution of the Church of Humanity.

 * Burning Puddle - Son of Miss Saccharine. Sweats acid. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Carla - A mole-like woman. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Cyclops - A one-eyed mutant with super-strength who is not to be confused with the X-Men member of the same name. He died buying his fellow London Tunnel Dwellers some time to get away from Mr. Clean.
 * Double Helix - A two-headed man. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Harmony - Mother of Hope who has gills. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Hope - Harmony's newborn baby. Current whereabouts and status unknown.
 * Miss Saccharine - Elderly woman and mother of Burning Puddle whose sweat is a sugar-like substance. Current whereabouts and status unknown.

Age of Apocalypse
In the 10th anniversary of the Age of Apocalypse event, which takes place after the nuclear attack in X-Men: Omega, several characters who were not in the original storyline are introduced, among them are the Morlocks which includes Feral, Leech, Marrow, Skids and Thornn among many other unnamed mutants.

The Morlocks were largely a peaceful group that refused to follow Apocalypse's regime and for that decision they were all captured and imprisoned in the Breeding Pens for gruesome experiments by Sinister and the Beast. One known Morlock member was Artemis.

After the fall of Apocalypse, a trail of escaped mutants from the Breeding Pens lead the X-Men underground, they encountered a group of scared, orphaned children called the Morlocks. The X-Men offered to help bring them out of hiding in the sewers, but the Morlocks lashed out at them for fear of being locked up and thrown back into cages by the X-Men, now mutant-hunting officers of the newly restored human government. The X-Men emerged victorious and the Morlocks were brought back to the Xavier Institute where they were detained.

Ultimate Marvel
The Morlocks in the Ultimate Marvel universe have a more sophisticated underground living situation than the mainstream Morlocks, including at least one mutant with energy-generating powers to provide electricity, hydroponic gardens to provide or supplement their food supply, and external air-exchange vents.

In Ultimate X-Men #80 Nightcrawler saves the Morlock named Pyro, who was outnumbered while fighting the Friends of Humanity and the police. Other members shown as of issue #82 are Caliban, Callisto, Sparks and Sunder (who was the leader). After a fight with the X-Men (who were trying to rescue Toad), the Morlocks elected Nightcrawler as their new leader. In #90 Mister Sinister finishes his 10 mutant kills at the Morlock base. His kills include Leech and Angel.

Television

 * The Morlocks appear in X-Men: The Animated Series, initially led by Callisto and consisting of Annalee, Ape, Caliban, Erg, Glowworm, Leech, Masque, Mole, Marianna, Plague, Scaleface, Sunder, Tar Baby, and Tommy. In their most notable appearance in "Captive Hearts", the Morlocks capture Jean Grey and Cyclops before Storm rescues the pair and defeats Callisto while doing so, gaining leadership of the Morlocks.
 * The Morlocks appear in X-Men 97, in which Callisto regained leadership off-screen as of "Mutant Liberation" and they relocated to Genosha in "Remember It".
 * The Morlocks appear in X-Men: Evolution, led by Callisto and consisting of Caliban, Cybelle, and Scaleface as well as series original characters Façade, a mutant boy with camouflage-based powers; Lucid, who possesses X-ray vision and is voiced by Lee Tockar; Torpid, a mute girl with a paralyzing touch; and Spyke, a former member of the X-Men who mutated further due to a soda that was harmful to mutants and joined the Morlocks to protect them.
 * The Morlocks appear in The Gifted, led by Erg. This version of the group is a neutral faction who wish to live in peace.

Film
The Morlocks serve as loose inspiration for a group called the Omegas, who appear in X-Men: The Last Stand. Similarly to the Morlocks, the Omegas are led by Callisto. Additionally, Leech appears as an unaffiliated mutant.

Video games

 * The Morlocks and the Gene Nation appear in X-Men Legends, with the latter led by Marrow and Healer as a prominent member of the former.
 * The Morlocks appear in X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse, with the majority appearing as Apocalypse and Mister Sinister's brainwashed thralls and Marrow appearing as an ally of Moira MacTaggert.
 * The Morlock Tunnels appear in Marvel Heroes.
 * The Morlocks appear as non-playable characters (NPCs) in Marvel's Midnight Suns via the "Blood Storm" DLC.

Reception
The Morlocks were ranked #14 on a listing of Marvel Comics' monster characters in 2015.

title: Morlocks (comics)


text:
Henk Badings

Henk Badings (hĕngk bä'dĭngz) (17 January 1907 – 26 June 1987) was an Indonesian-Dutch composer.

Early life
Born in Bandung, Java, Dutch East Indies, as the son of Herman Louis Johan Badings, an officer in the Dutch East Indies army, Hendrik Herman Badings became an orphan at 7 years old. Having returned to the Netherlands in 1915, Badings took up violin and piano, however was dissuaded by his guardians from creating a career in music. Badings enrolled at the Delft Polytechnical Institute (later the Technical University), graduating in 1931. He worked as a mining engineer and palaeontologist at Delft until 1937, after which he dedicated his life entirely to music. Though largely self-taught, he became a pupil of Willem Pijper, the doyen of Dutch composers at the time, but their musical views differed widely and after Pijper had attempted to discourage Badings from continuing as a composer, Badings broke off contact.

Music career
In 1930 Badings had his initial big musical success when his first cello concerto (he eventually wrote a second) was performed at the Concertgebouw in Amsterdam. Champions of his work included such eminent conductors as Eduard van Beinum and Willem Mengelberg. He held numerous teaching positions; e.g., at the Musikhochschule Stuttgart and the University of Utrecht. Accused after the Second World War of collaboration with the Nazi occupation forces, in April 5, 1942 he was briefly cancelled from professional musical activity, but by June 3, 1947 he had been reinstated.

Badings used unusual musical scales and harmonies (e.g., the octatonic scale); he also used the harmonic series scale from the eighth to the fifteenth overtone. An exceptionally prolific artist, he had produced over a thousand pieces at the time of his death in Maarheeze in 1987.

Compositions by Badings include fifteen numbered symphonies, at least four string quartets, several concertos, other orchestral works including a "Symphonietta : speelmuziek voor klein symphonie-orkest", other chamber music works, piano works, and incidental music.

In the 21st century, interest in Badings' music has grown. The German label CPO has committed itself to recording Badings' entire orchestral œuvre, and a Badings Festival was held in Rotterdam during October 2007.

Orchestral

 * Symphony No. 1 (for 16 solo instruments) (1932)
 * Symphony No. 2 (1932)
 * Symphony No. 3 (1934) (dedicated to Willem Mengelberg)
 * Symphony No. 4 (1943)
 * Symphony No. 5 (1949) (dedicated to the Concertgebouw)
 * Symphony No. 6 Psalmensymphonie (1953)
 * Symphonic Scherzo, for orchestra (1953)
 * Symphony No. 7 Louisville (1954)
 * Symphony No. 8 (1956)
 * Symphonic Variations on a South African Theme (1960)
 * Symphony No. 9 for string orchestra (1960)
 * Symphony No. 10 (1961)
 * Symphony No. 11 Sinfonia Giocosa (1964)
 * Symphony No. 12 Symphonische Klangfiguren (1964)
 * Pittsburgh Concerto for wind and brass (1965)
 * Symphony No. 13 for wind instruments (1966)
 * Symphony No. 14 Symphonic Triptych (1968)
 * Symphonietta for small orchestra (1971)
 * Concerto for Orchestra (1982)
 * Symphony No. 15 Conflicts and Confluences for symphonic band (1983)

Concertante

 * Piano Concerto (1940)
 * Double Piano Concerto (1964)
 * Violin Concerto No. 2 (1935)
 * Violin Concerto No. 3 (1944)
 * Violin Concerto No. 4 (1947)
 * Double Violin Concerto No. 1 (1954)
 * Double Violin Concerto No. 2 (1969)
 * Concerto for Violin, Viola and orchestra (1965)
 * Concerto for Viola and string orchestra (1965)
 * Cello Concerto No. 1 (1930)
 * Cello Concerto No. 2 (1939)
 * Flute Concerto No. 1 (1956)
 * Flute Concerto No. 2 for flute and wind instruments (1963)
 * Concerto for Flute, Oboe, Clarinet and orchestra (1981)
 * Concerto for Bassoon, Contrabassoon and wind orchestra (1964)
 * Saxophone Concerto (1951)
 * Concerto for Four Saxophones and Orchestra (1984)
 * Concerto for Harp and small orchestra or wind orchestra (1967)
 * Organ Concerto No. 1 (1952)
 * Organ Concerto No. 2 (1966)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Henk Badings


text:
Talk:Surd

I'm curious. Is this information we really don't have somewhere else already? There aren't really any meaningful links to here. -- Walt Pohl 20:36, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Have not found information on Surds anywhere else. There's more information to be added which I do not know well enough. See the British GCSE webpages about surds (google for it), there's lots of info on how to manipulate them, etc. I don't remember much from my Maths classes about the "proper" methods to work with them, though I can calculate and work with them well myself. (at a pinch I can perhaps add made-up methods and contrived situations to work out expressions with surds).

Is "Surds" a term used outside Britain and Ireland?

Should this page be "surds and indices", indices IS written about elsewhere.

Zoney 20:52, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

This article is a mess as it now stands. Some of the sentences are clumsily written and vague. The word surd appears largely or entirely obsolete. Michael Hardy 23:12, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I agree with Michael, but the question becomes: do we cover this information adequately elsewhere? If not, where do we put it? We do basically cover it on exponentiation, but I it might make sense to have a page just on the rules. (Don't we do that for some other topics? I have a vague memory of it, but I can't find any examples.)  -- Walt Pohl 23:22, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

I think this page should be made simply into 'Surds', explaining the term and showing how to work with them. (this is reasonably started already) This ISN'T exactly covered in exponentiation, plus there is further information which can be added to Surds.

Meaningful links can be added from exponentiation, square root, cube root, etc.

Zoney 16:05, 21 Mar 2004 (UTC) the surds are nine"th sq root — Preceding unsigned comment added by 117.193.142.19 (talk) 17:11, 19 August 2011 (UTC)

Mathematic
Surds Olakunle Abraham (talk) 19:49, 27 December 2020 (UTC)

title: Talk:Surd


text:
Operation Herkules

Operation Herkules (Unternehmen Herkules; Operazione C3) was the German code-name given to an abortive plan for the invasion of Malta during the Second World War. Through air and sea landings, the Italians and Germans hoped to eliminate Malta as a British air and naval base and secure an uninterrupted flow of supplies across the Mediterranean Sea to Axis forces in Libya and Egypt.

Extensive preparations were made for the invasion but the success of other Axis operations – including the Battle of Gazala (26 May to 21 June 1942), the Axis capture of Tobruk on 21 June and Operation Aïda, the pursuit of the Allies into Egypt – led to Herkules being postponed and then cancelled in November 1942.

Origins
The Axis plan to invade Malta had its origin in Italian military studies conducted during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War in the mid-1930s. By 1938, Comando Supremo, the Italian army general staff, had estimated the amount of sea transport it would require to move military forces into North Africa, and identified the seizure of Malta as a prerequisite. An outline plan for a seaborne assault was drawn up and periodically revised; the Regia Marina initially showed little interest in it. The concept of an invasion was approved at a meeting between Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini from 29 to 30 April 1942.

Airborne forces
Command of the airborne component of Herkules was given to Generalmajor Kurt Student and Fliegerkorps XI. Student had commanded the German airborne assault in the Battle of Crete in May 1941. This time, Student had months to prepare and learn from the mistakes made on Crete. Knowledge of British defensive positions on Malta was extensive, thanks to meticulous aerial mapping by the Italians. Every fortification, artillery emplacement and AA battery was carefully scrutinised. Student claimed later that "We even knew the calibre of the coastal guns, and how many degrees they could be turned inland". Ten Gruppen of Junkers Ju 52 transports, with 500 aircraft, were allocated for the air landings, along with 300 DFS 230 gliders (carrying ten men each) and 200 larger Go 242 gliders (each carrying twenty-three men or a light vehicle/gun). Also to be included were two dozen Messerschmitt Me 321 Gigant gliders capable of carrying up to 200 fully equipped paratroopers or a 25 LT tank. These were to be towed by new He 111Z (Zwilling) five-engined versions of the He 111 medium bomber.

The Regia Aeronautica would contribute 180 to 220 transport aircraft, mostly three-engined SM.75s (carrying 24–28 men each), SM.81s (12–14 men each) and SM.82s (30–34 men each). Given the 90 mi distance between Axis airfields on Sicily and the dropping zones over Malta, it was possible for the transport aircraft to make four round trips per day. The aircraft were to drop an Italian and a German airborne division onto the southern side of the island. The paratroopers had to secure the high ground behind the invasion beaches and seize a nearby airfield for Axis transport aircraft to land another division and supplies. Airborne units for the invasion comprised the German Fliegerdivision 7 (11,000 men), the Italian 185th Paratroopers Division "Folgore" (7,500 men) and the airlanding 80th Infantry Division "La Spezia" (10,500 men), about 29,000 airborne troops. Preparations for the airborne assault included construction of three glider strips 25 mi south of Mount Etna on Sicily.

Amphibious forces
The seaborne assault force comprised 70,000 Italian troops who were to make amphibious landings at two points on the south-eastern side of the island, in Marsaxlokk bay, the main effort falling upon a site named "Famagosta beach" and a smaller secondary landing at "Larnaca beach". Also to be seized were the lesser islands of Gozo and Comino. Amphibious feints would be directed at St. Paul's Bay, Mellieħa Bay and north-west of Valletta near the old Victoria Lines, to draw British attention away from the real landing sites. The main assault convoy was scheduled to begin landing on Malta just before midnight on the first day, after the airborne forces had landed in the afternoon and secured the heights above the beaches. The bulk of the first-wave assault troops would come from the 20th Infantry Division "Friuli" (10,000 men) and the 4th Infantry Division "Livorno" (9,850 men) of the Italian XXX Corps. Also included were 1,200 men from the 1st Assault Battalion and Loreto Battalion (both drawn from the Regia Aeronautica) two battalions of San Marco Marines (2,000 men) three battalions of Blackshirts (1,900 men General Santi Quasimodo) and 300 Nuotatori (a commando unit of San Marco Marines specially trained in ocean swimming and beach assault).

A follow-up convoy would be mainly made up of troops from the Italian XVI Corps: the 26th Infantry Division "Assietta" (9,000 men), the 54th Infantry Division "Napoli" (8,900 men), artillery units (3,200 men) and the remainder of the 10th Armoured Regiment (3,800 men). The 1st Infantry Division "Superga" (9,200 men) plus a battalion of Blackshirts and 1,000 San Marco Marines were to be in position to land on the smaller island of Gozo in the early hours of the second day.

Armoured support for the invasion comprised sixty-four Italian Semovente 47/32 and eight heavier Semovente 75/18 self-propelled guns plus thirty L3 tankettes (comparable in size and armament to the British Bren Gun Carrier). Additional armour intended for Herkules included 2.Kompanie/Panzerabteilung z.b.V.66 (zur besonderen Verwendung [for special use]), a German unit commanded by Hans Bethke and partly equipped with captured Russian tanks. Ten assorted KV-1 [46 LT] and KV-2 [53 LT] heavy tanks were available. At least ten Italian motozattere (landing craft) were modified with reinforced flooring and internal ramps to carry these vehicles. Other tanks in the unit included captured Russian T-34 medium tanks, up-armoured German light tanks (five VK 1601s and five VK 1801s) plus twelve German Panzer IVGs armed with 75 mm guns. Twenty German Panzer III tanks were also offered for use in the invasion but it is not known what unit these were to be drawn from. Plans to use the captured Russian tanks were at some point abandoned and all armour transported to Malta was to be Italian only. Two days were allowed for the amphibious assault and landing of the follow-up convoy, though this was dependent on quickly securing Marsaxlokk Bay to land heavier artillery pieces and a much higher tonnage of supplies.

Landing craft
Lacking enough landing craft for an amphibious assault, the Regia Marina secured plans from the German Kriegsmarine to build copies of the Marinefährprahm Type A (MFP) in Italian shipyards. These 220 LT shallow-draught vessels, were capable of transporting up to 200 equipped infantry, 2–3 medium tanks or an equivalent weight in cargo and could unload onto an open beach via a drop-down bow ramp. Sixty-five of these motozattere (MZs) were completed by July 1942 and about fifty were available for the invasion. Twenty German MFPs were transferred to the Mediterranean via the river Rhone to make up for an expected shortfall of Italian-built landing craft.

German-operated landing craft were sent to Italy via rail for the invasion, including twelve Siebel ferries (catamaran rafts powered by automobile engines driving water screws and armed with 88 mm and 20 mm flak guns), six Type 39 Pionierlandungsboote (carrying 20 LT of cargo, two light vehicles or 45 infantry, unloaded via clamshell doors at the bow), six Type 40 Pionierlandungsboote (a larger version of the Type 39, carrying 40 LT of cargo, three or four light vehicles or 80–90 fully equipped infantry), a company of eighty-one Sturmboote (Type 39 Stormboats, small plywood boats carrying up to six infantrymen and powered by 30 outboard motors) plus an assortment of large inflatable rafts (carrying 25 troops each). Some rafts were powered by outboard motors and others had to be rowed.

The Italians assembled a collection of other naval craft to transport the amphibious forces. These included two former Strait of Messina railway ferries (converted to carry four to eight tanks each); ten passenger ships (800–1,400 men each), six former passenger ferries (400 men each), six cargo ships (3000 LT of supplies each), 30 ex-trawlers (300 men each); five converted minelayers (500 men each) and 74 assorted motorboats (30–75 men each). The Italians also requested the use of 200 additional German Sturmboote to quickly transfer men from ship to shore. The Italian landing flotilla and the supporting ships formed the Special Naval Force (Forza Navale Speciale Admiral Vittorio Tur).

Specialised landing equipment for Herkules included the Seeschlange (Sea Snake), a floating ship-to-shore bridge originally developed by the German Army for Operation Sea Lion. It was formed from a series of joined modules that could be towed into place and act as a temporary jetty. Moored ships could then unload their cargo either directly onto the "roadway" or lower it down onto the Seeschlange via their cranes. The Seeschlange had been tested by the Army Training Unit at Le Havre in the fall of 1941 and was easily transportable by rail.

Naval escort
The Regia Marina had to protect the invasion convoys from attacks by the British Mediterranean Fleet and provide gunfire support during the landings. The force assigned to accomplish this included four battleships (Littorio, Vittorio Veneto, Duilio, and Andrea Doria), four heavy cruisers, eight light cruisers and 21 destroyers. These ships would assemble and sortie from the ports of Messina, Reggio Calabria, Augusta and Cagliari. The two older Andrea Doria-class battleships would carry approximately 200 rounds each for shore bombardment. Italian and German submarines were to scout for and intercept British naval forces attempting to interfere with the seaborne landings. One submarine was to be stationed midway between Sicily and Malta, to act as a guide beacon for the transport aircraft on their way to and from the drop zones.

The Italians were confident they could defeat any daylight incursions by the Mediterranean Fleet, especially given the Luftwaffe's ability to dominate the daytime skies, but there were concerns the Italian fleet would face serious difficulties if the British attacked at night. Lacking ship-borne radar and having neglected night-fighting training and equipment, the Regia Marina had been defeated at the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941. A similar encounter off Malta might wreak havoc on the slow-moving Axis invasion convoys, leaving the airborne forces cut off and imperilling Axis chances of taking the island.

The Regia Marina had made some efforts to rectify this situation by equipping the battleship Littorio with an experimental E.C.-3/bis Gufo (Owl) radar apparatus in August 1941, but the unit was considered unreliable (not until September 1942 did Littorio receive a standardised production-version Gufo with better performance; this set could detect surface ships at a range of 17 nmi and aircraft out to a range of 45 nmi). In September 1941, while awaiting production of Italian-made radar units in quantity, the Regia Marina requested from the Kriegsmarine a FuMO 24/40 G DeTe unit for the new destroyer, Legionario (under construction). DeTe units could detect surface ships up to 14 nmi away. By March 1942, the set had been delivered and installed and a small group of Italian ratings had been trained in Germany on its use. Operational testing began that spring and by May, the fleet commander Vice-Admiral Angelo Iachino had submitted a report praising its performance.

Maltese defences
In 1942 the garrison of Malta consisted of 15 infantry battalions (11 Commonwealth, 4 Maltese) organised into four brigades totalling 26,000 men. Tank support was provided by the 1st Independent Troop of the Royal Tank Regiment, disembarked in November 1940, which was initially equipped with four Matilda II Infantry Tanks, armed with 2-pounder (40 mm) guns, and two Vickers Mk.VIC light tanks, armed with two machine guns (part of detachments from the 7th Royal Tank Regiment and the 3rd The King's Own Hussars). These were reinforced in January 1942 by four Cruiser Mk I and three Cruiser Mk IV tanks and a Vickers Mk.VIC light tank, with the cruisers armed with 2-pounder (40 mm) guns (part of a detachment from the 6th Royal Tank Regiment).

Artillery support came from the 12th Field Regiment, Royal Artillery with twenty-four 25-pounder [3.45 in] field guns, capable of providing fire support out to a range of 11 km and covering most of the island while remaining in protected static positions. Malta's fixed defences included nineteen heavy coastal guns (varying in size from 12-inch to 16-inch, although these Victorian era weapons were all decommissioned), 130 smaller coastal guns (6-pounder to 9.2-inch) and 112 heavy and 144 light anti-aircraft guns.

The smaller coastal guns comprised [Data in this section taken from Hogg (2002)]
 * 10 × BL 6 in Mk XXIV, on Mounting, 6 in Mk 5 or 6
 * 7 × BL 9.2 in gun Mk X, on Mounting Mk 7
 * QF 4.5 in gun Mk II, on Mounting Mk I
 * 18 × QF 6 pounder 10 cwt gun (9 × 2)
 * ~30 × Ordnance QF 18 pounder

Aftermath
A date near mid-July 1942 was set for the invasion, partly to allow time to bring troops from other front line positions. Field Marshal Erwin Rommel supported the Malta plan and asked Hitler for command of the invasion forces. His reasons for supporting an invasion were to hinder the Allied troops fighting in Africa, as well as to remove the threat to the convoys heading to Italian-German forces with supplies, oil and men, all of which they lacked. He prioritised the attack to such an extent that he was willing to move units from his front for the attack. The head of the Luftwaffe, Hermann Göring, opposed the invasion, fearing it would turn into another near-disaster for his paratroops, as had happened in the airborne assault on Crete. Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring tirelessly promoted Unternehmen Herkules but even he was eventually dissuaded when it became apparent that too many air and ground units had been siphoned off to support the Axis drive into Egypt, diminishing any chance of success. With Hitler lacking faith in the parachute divisions after Crete and in the ability of the Italian navy to protect the invasion fleet from British naval attacks, the plan was cancelled.

title: Operation Herkules


text:
Talk:Morlocks (comics)

Uh... I think someone needs to link this to X-Men somehow. I don't know the X-Men comics but I know the Morlocks are from the X-Men universe.

Also, this isn't an appropriate place to reference the Morlocks from The Time Machine, as this is about comics.

I've removed most of the real names given here by User:Sherryshriner. I can't find any source for any of these removed names except for a few that were only used in X-Men Evolution. If any of them are actually canonical, please provide a source. -Sean Curtin 23:37, 23 February 2006 (UTC)

You rock dude! I've been trying to tidy up her stuff as well. User:Sherryshriner made up a lot of the Acolytes real names. Lucky for her, the OHOTMU A-Z #1 came out and revealed their actual real names. Originalsinner 00:29, 24 February 2006 (UTC)

i think there is something wrong with atleast one of the links. i clicked on erg and it just brings me right to the same page i was just on.

Should we separate Erg and Beautiful Dreamer? They did just get rescued from limbo so we may get some more info on them during Decimation and Civil War. At any rate, they deserve more than 2 sentences.

I'm altering the comment about Piper being from the SLM's --they are two different characters, just with similar names and powers. Noclevername 07:35, 21 December 2006 (UTC)

I'm not sure the "Joined In" column is an appropriate label. Several members are identified as having thus joined the Morlocks in Uncanny X-Men #169. However, they didn't join in that issue. It's merely their first appearance (and the first appearance as a whole). So maybe the "joined in" column should be renamed "First Appearance" or something else. -JamesAM 04:51, 18 February 2007 (UTC)

Question
Who was that little girl Morlock in the X-Men Evolution episode? The one who could paralyse people by touching them? Bluecatcinema 09:09, 24 July 2007 (UTC)

Fair use rationale for Image:Morlocks1.jpg
Image:Morlocks1.jpg is being used on this article. I notice the image page specifies that the image is being used under fair use but there is no explanation or rationale as to why its use in this Wikipedia article constitutes fair use. In addition to the boilerplate fair use template, you must also write out on the image description page a specific explanation or rationale for why using this image in each article is consistent with fair use.

Please go to the image description page and edit it to include a fair use rationale. Using one of the templates at Fair use rationale guideline is an easy way to ensure that your image is in compliance with Wikipedia policy, but remember that you must complete the template. Do not simply insert a blank template on an image page.

If there is other fair use media, consider checking that you have specified the fair use rationale on the other images used on this page. Note that any fair use images lacking such an explanation can be deleted one week after being tagged, as described on criteria for speedy deletion. If you have any questions please ask them at the Media copyright questions page. Thank you.

BetacommandBot (talk) 00:53, 14 February 2008 (UTC)

List of Morlocks
You may want to consider splitting off the member list into List of Morlocks members, similar to the articles in the "Lists of Marvel characters by organization" category. 207.229.140.148 (talk) 02:27, 8 April 2008 (UTC)

The Alley
Was the Alley really an abandoned Cold War bomb shelter? I thought it was an old subway tunnel. My evidence is that it has railroad tracks in it. The bomb shelter comment is uncited. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2602:30A:C08C:A6F0:21C:B3FF:FEC3:2572 (talk) 02:47, 2 January 2014 (UTC)
 * Nope, Callisto clearly states in X-Men #170 that it was a Cold War bomb shelter. As for railroad tracks, there are some in the tunnels accessible from the Alley, but I don't recall ever seeing any in the Alley.--NukeofEarl (talk) 18:43, 22 March 2014 (UTC)
 * When Callisto has Angel tied up on the cross, he's on an old flatbed railroad car in the Alley.

Disambiguation
Should there be a link at the top to clarify that is not about the other uses of the same term (HG Wells, Slav history)? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 132.161.215.202 (talk) 14:45, 22 August 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Morlocks (comics)


text:
HMS Superb (S109)

HMS Superb was a nuclear-powered fleet submarine of the Swiftsure-class submarine serving in the Royal Navy.

HMS Superb was built by Vickers Shipbuilding Group, now a division of BAE Systems Submarine Solutions. Superb was launched on 30 November 1974 at Barrow-in-Furness, Cumbria and commissioned into the Royal Navy on 13 November 1976. After being damaged in May 2008 in the Red Sea, she returned to HMNB Devonport where she was decommissioned slightly ahead of schedule on 26 September 2008.

Operations
She was the first British submarine to visit the Arctic Ocean and sail under the polar ice caps.

During the Falklands War, Superb was spotted sailing from Gibraltar, which prompted press speculation that she was sailing to the South Atlantic to enforce a maritime exclusion zone. In fact, only HMS Spartan (S105) was sailing south at that time but the speculation was useful to promote the apparent threat of the Royal Navy in the South Atlantic and was not corrected by the Navy or Ministry of Defence.

Superb operated in the Indian Ocean in 2001, in support of Operation Veritas, part of the War in Afghanistan.

In January 2008 a sentry was found sleeping while on watch; the reprimand to the crew was caught on video.

2008 underwater pinnacle collision
On 26 May 2008 Superb hit an underwater pinnacle in the Red Sea, 80 mi south of the Suez Canal. She remained watertight, and none of the 112 crew were injured; however, she was unable to re-submerge due to damage to her sonar. After undertaking initial repairs at the Souda Bay NATO base on Crete on 10 June 2008, she passed through the Mediterranean Sea, with a pause (at night) some miles off Gibraltar to disembark some less critical crew. Superb then continued back to the UK, arriving at Devonport Dockyard on 28 June 2008. After surveying the damage, the Royal Navy decided to decommission Superb slightly ahead of schedule on 26 September 2008.

Nearly two years after the grounding, Superb's commanding officer at the time of the accident and two other officers were reprimanded for their roles in the collision. All three pleaded guilty to the charges of neglecting to perform their duty in failing to notice that the submarine was travelling towards the pinnacle. Despite the incident, all three officers were still serving in the Royal Navy at the time of the court-martial.

title: HMS Superb (S109)


text:
Dearborn River

The Dearborn River is a tributary of the Missouri River, approximately 70 mi (113 km) long, in central Montana in the United States. It rises in the Lewis and Clark National Forest, near Scapegoat Mountain in the Lewis and Clark Range of the Rocky Mountains at the continental divide, in western Lewis and Clark County. It flows generally southeast through secluded canyons, and joins the Missouri near Craig.

It is crossed by the Dearborn River High Bridge, which was constructed in 1897.

It is a popular destination for whitewater rafting and fly fishing. Whirling disease has become a significant problem among trout in the river.

The Dearborn is a Class I river for stream access for recreational purposes from the highway 431 bridge to its confluence with the Missouri river.

title: Dearborn River


text:
User:Morwen/walk

This is a plan for a photo-gathering walk on the morning of March 27, 2004.

 * Earls Court tube station
 * Earls Court International
 * Brompton Cemetery
 * West Brompton tube station
 * Earls Court Exhibition Centre
 * Empress State Building
 * West Kensington tube station
 * Kensington Olympia
 * Kensington Olympia station
 * Charles House
 * Commonwealth Institute
 * Holland Park Theatre
 * Holland Park
 * King's College
 * Kensington Town Hall
 * Kensington High Street
 * Kensington High Street tube station
 * Heythrop College - Kensington Square
 * Kensington Palace
 * Kensington Gardens
 * Serpentine Gallery
 * Albert Memorial
 * Royal Albert Hall
 * Royal Geographic Society
 * Royal College of Music
 * Imperial College London
 * Goethe Institute
 * Natural History Museum
 * Science Museum
 * Victoria and Albert Museum
 * South Kensington tube station

title: User:Morwen/walk


text:
HMS Superb

Eleven ships of the Royal Navy have borne the name HMS Superb, or HMS Superbe:

 * HMS Superb (1710) was a 64-gun third rate, previously the FRENCH SHIP Superbe. She was captured by HMS Kent (1679) in 1710 and was broken up in 1732
 * HMS Superb (1736) was 60-gun fourth rate launched in 1736 and broken up in 1757
 * HMS Superb (1760) was a 74-gun third rate launched in 1760 and wrecked in 1783
 * HMS Superbe (1795) was a 22-gun sixth rate. She was previously a French ship, captured in 1795 by HMS Vanguard (1787) and used as a prison ship from 1796.  She was sold in 1798.
 * HMS Superb (1798) was a 74-gun third rate, launched in 1798 and broken up in 1826
 * HMS Superb (1842) was an 80-gun second rate, launched in 1842 and broken up in 1869
 * HMS Superb was to have been a broadside ironclad battleship, but she was renamed HMS Alexandra (1875) in 1874 before being launched in 1875. She was sold in 1908.
 * HMS Superb (1875) was a battleship launched in 1875. She was built for the Turkish Navy, and was to have been named Hamidiyeh. She was purchased by Britain in 1873 and was sold in 1906.
 * HMS Superb (1907) was Bellerophon-class battleship launched in 1907, involved in the Occupation of Constantinople and sold in 1923
 * HMS Superb (25) was a Minotaur-class cruiser (1943) light cruiser launched in 1943 and sold in 1960.
 * HMS Superb (S109) was a Swiftsure-class submarine nuclear-powered hunter killer submarine launched in 1974, and decommissioned on 26 September 2008 after sustaining damage in an underwater grounding in the Red Sea

Battle honours
Ships named Superb have earned the following battle honours:
 * Passero, 1718
 * Sadras, 1782
 * Providien, 1782
 * Negapatam, 1782
 * Trincomalee, 1782
 * Gut of Gibraltar, 1801
 * San Domingo, 1806
 * Algiers, 1816
 * Alexandria, 1882
 * Jutland, 1916

title: HMS Superb


text:
Willow Creek (Montana)

There are 45 streams named Willow Creek in the U.S. state of Montana.

 * Willow Creek (Beaverhead County, Montana), 44.65056°N, -112.65°W, el. 6188 ft
 * Willow Creek (Beaverhead County, Montana), 45.45778°N, -112.65917°W, el. 4944 ft
 * Willow Creek (Big Horn County, Montana), 45.00139°N, -108.05361°W, el. 4770 ft
 * Willow Creek (Big Horn County, Montana), 45.16944°N, -107.58222°W, el. 3996 ft
 * Willow Creek (Big Horn County, Montana), 45.42444°N, -108.57694°W, el. 4121 ft
 * Willow Creek (Big Horn County, Montana), 45.64444°N, -107.23417°W, el. 3304 ft
 * Willow Creek (Big Horn County, Montana), 45.00083°N, -108.05361°W, el. 4741 ft
 * Willow Creek (Blaine County, Montana), 48.2125°N, -109.28694°W, el. 3875 ft
 * Willow Creek (Blaine County, Montana), 48.26139°N, -109.16111°W, el. 3494 ft
 * Willow Creek (Carbon County, Montana), 45.43278°N, -109.22694°W, el. 4255 ft
 * Willow Creek (Carter County, Montana), 45.0925°N, -104.41167°W, el. 3373 ft
 * Willow Creek (Cascade County, Montana), 47.24833°N, -111.59833°W, el. 3442 ft
 * Willow Creek (Chouteau County, Montana), 47.49694°N, -110.36°W, el. 3852 ft
 * Willow Creek (Deer Lodge County, Montana), 46.1075°N, -112.80806°W, el. 4928 ft
 * Willow Creek (Fergus County, Montana), 47.39806°N, -109.65111°W, el. 2999 ft
 * Willow Creek (Flathead County, Montana), 47.81333°N, -113.45611°W, el. 3953 ft
 * Willow Creek (Gallatin County, Montana), 45.82556°N, -111.66472°W, el. 4144 ft
 * Willow Creek (Glacier County, Montana), 49.15°N, -113.18417°W, el. 3757 ft
 * Willow Creek (Glacier County, Montana), 48.65694°N, -112.7425°W, el. 3940 ft
 * Willow Creek (Judith Basin County, Montana), 47.15278°N, -109.99944°W, el. 3875 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 46.56917°N, -112.18861°W, el. 4331 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 47.27944°N, -112.06778°W, el. 3953 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 46.80389°N, -112.20722°W, el. 4183 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 46.89444°N, -111.92389°W, el. 3586 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 46.93472°N, -112.76111°W, el. 4436 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 47.00917°N, -112.46°W, el. 4954 ft
 * Willow Creek (Lewis and Clark County, Montana), 47.55278°N, -112.39806°W, el. 3989 ft
 * Willow Creek (Liberty County, Montana), 48.35028°N, -111.18639°W, el. 2986 ft
 * Willow Creek (Madison County, Montana), 45.07639°N, -112.05°W, el. 5787 ft
 * Willow Creek (Madison County, Montana), 45.70472°N, -112.52667°W, el. 6434 ft
 * Willow Creek (Meagher County, Montana), 46.45167°N, -110.39611°W, el. 4931 ft
 * Willow Creek (Meagher County, Montana), 46.56278°N, -110.87472°W, el. 5069 ft
 * Willow Creek (Musselshell County, Montana), 46.46611°N, -108.43389°W, el. 3136 ft
 * Willow Creek (Park County, Montana), 45.80111°N, -110.5175°W, el. 4577 ft
 * Willow Creek (Powder River County, Montana), 45.52694°N, -106.18917°W, el. 3008 ft
 * Willow Creek (Powder River County, Montana), 45.58472°N, -106.13389°W, el. 3143 ft
 * Willow Creek (Powell County, Montana), 46.53306°N, -112.825°W, el. 4304 ft
 * Willow Creek (Ravalli County, Montana), 46.34361°N, -114.13278°W, el. 3428 ft
 * Willow Creek (Sanders County, Montana), 47.87056°N, -115.31417°W, el. 3566 ft
 * Willow Creek (Sheridan County, Montana), 48.53°N, -104.04972°W, el. 2024 ft
 * Willow Creek (Teton County, Montana), 47.74083°N, -112.2775°W, el. 3947 ft
 * Willow Creek (Treasure County, Montana), 46.41667°N, -107.47806°W, el. 2864 ft
 * Willow Creek (Valley County, Montana), 48.15722°N, -106.59528°W, el. 2057 ft
 * Willow Creek (Valley County, Montana), 48.55833°N, -106.99583°W, el. 2188 ft
 * Willow Creek (Wheatland County, Montana), 46.26917°N, -110.1925°W, el. 5663 ft

title: Willow Creek (Montana)


text:
Decay theory

The Decay theory is a theory that proposes that memory fades due to the mere passage of time. Information is therefore less available for later retrieval as time passes and memory, as well as memory strength, wears away. When an individual learns something new, a neurochemical "memory trace" is created. However, over time this trace slowly disintegrates. Actively rehearsing information is believed to be a major factor counteracting this temporal decline. It is widely believed that neurons die off gradually as we age, yet some older memories can be stronger than most recent memories. Thus, decay theory mostly affects the short-term memory system, meaning that older memories (in long-term memory) are often more resistant to shocks or physical attacks on the brain. It is also thought that the passage of time alone cannot cause forgetting, and that decay theory must also take into account some processes that occur as more time passes.

History

The term "decay theory" was first coined by Edward Thorndike in his book The Psychology of Learning in 1914. This simply states that if a person does not access and use the memory representation they have formed the memory trace will fade or decay over time. This theory was based on the early memory work by Hermann Ebbinghaus in the late 19th century. The decay theory proposed by Thorndike was heavily criticized by McGeoch and his interference theory. This led to the abandoning of the decay theory, until the late 1950s when studies by John Brown and the Petersons showed evidence of time based decay by filling the retention period by counting backwards in threes from a given number. This led to what is known as the Brown–Peterson paradigm. The theory was again challenged, this time a paper by Keppel and Underwood who attributed the findings to proactive interference. Studies in the 1970s by Reitman tried reviving the decay theory by accounting for certain confounds criticized by Keppel and Underwood. Roediger quickly found problems with these studies and their methods. Harris made an attempt to make a case for decay theory by using tones instead of word lists and his results are congruent making a case for decay theory. In addition, McKone used implicit memory tasks as opposed to explicit tasks to address the confound problems. They provided evidence for decay theory, however, the results also interacted with interference effects. One of the biggest criticisms of decay theory is that it cannot be explained as a mechanism and that is the direction that the research is headed.

Inconsistencies
Researchers disagree about whether memories fade as a function of the mere passage of time (as in decay theory) or as a function of interfering succeeding events (as in interference theory). Evidence tends to favor interference-related decay over temporal decay, yet this varies depending on the specific memory system taken into account.

Short-term memory
Within the short-term memory system, evidence favours an interference theory of forgetting, based on various researchers' manipulation of the amount of time between a participant's retention and recall stages finding little to no effect on how many items they are able to remember. Looking solely at verbal short-term memory within studies that control against participants' use of rehearsal processes, a very small temporal decay effect coupled with a much larger interference decay effect can be found. No evidence for temporal decay in verbal short-term memory has been found in recent studies of serial recall tasks. Regarding the word-length effect in short-term memory, which states that lists of longer word are harder to recall than lists of short words, researchers argue that interference plays a larger role due to articulation duration being confounded with other word characteristics.

Working memory
Both theories are equally argued in working memory. One situation in which this shows considerable debate is within the complex-span task of working memory, where a complex task is alternated with the encoding of to-be-remembered items. It is either argued that the amount of time taken to perform this task or the amount of interference this task involves cause decay. A time-based resource-sharing model has also been proposed, stating that temporal decay occurs once attention is switched away from whatever information is to be remembered, and occupied by processing of the information. This theory gives more credit to the active rehearsal of information, as refreshing items to be remembered focuses attention back on the information to be remembered in order for it to be better processed and stored in memory. As processing and maintenance are both crucial components of working memory, both of these processes need to be taken into account when determining which theory of forgetting is most valid. Research also suggests that information or an event's salience, or importance, may play a key role. Working memory may decay in proportion to information or an event's salience. This means that if something is more meaningful to an individual, that individual may be less likely to forget it quickly.

System interaction
These inconsistencies may be found due to the difficulty with conducting experiments that focus solely on the passage of time as a cause of decay, ruling out alternative explanations. However, a close look at the literature regarding decay theory will reveal inconsistencies across several studies and researchers, making it difficult to pinpoint precisely which indeed plays the larger role within the various systems of memory. It could be argued that both temporal decay and interference play an equally important role in forgetting, along with motivated forgetting and retrieval failure theory.

Future directions
Revisions in decay theory are being made in research today. The theory is simple and intuitive, but also problematic. Decay theory has long been rejected as a mechanism of long term forgetting. Now, its place in short term forgetting is being questioned. The simplicity of the theory works against it in that supporting evidence always leaves room for alternative explanations. Researchers have had much difficulty creating experiments that can pinpoint decay as a definitive mechanism of forgetting. Current studies have always been limited in their abilities to establish decay due to confounding evidence such as attention effects or the operation of interference.

Hybrid theories
The future of decay theory, according to Nairne (2002), should be the development of hybrid theories that incorporate elements of the standard model while also assuming that retrieval cues play an important role in short term memory. By broadening the view of this theory, it will become possible to account for the inconsistencies and problems that have been found with decay to date.

Neuronal evidence
Another direction of future research is to tie decay theory to sound neurological evidence. As most current evidence for decay leaves room for alternate explanations, studies indicating a neural basis for the idea of decay will give the theory new solid support. Jonides et al. (2008) found neural evidence for decay in tests demonstrating a general decline in activation in posterior regions over a delay period. Though this decline was not found to be strongly related to performance, this evidence is a starting point in making these connections between decay and neural imaging. A model proposed to support decay with neurological evidence places importance on the firing patterns of neurons over time. The neuronal firing patterns that make up the target representation fall out of synchrony over time unless they are reset. The process of resetting the firing patterns can be looked at as rehearsal, and in absence of rehearsal, forgetting occurs. This proposed model needs to be tested further to gain support, and bring firm neurological evidence to the decay theory.

title: Decay theory


text:
Manuel Moschopoulos

Manuel Moschopoulos (Latinized as Manuel Moschopulus; Mανουὴλ Μοσχόπουλος), was a Byzantine commentator and grammarian, who lived during the end of the 13th and the beginning of the 14th century and was an important figure in the Palaiologan Renaissance. Moschopoulos means "little calf," and is probably a nickname.

Life
Moschopoulos was a student of Maximos Planudes and possibly his successor as a head of a school in Constantinople, where he taught throughout his life. A mysterious and ill-documented excursion into politics led to his imprisonment for a while.

Works
His chief work is Erotemata grammaticalia (Ἐρωτήματα Γραμματικά), in the form of question and answer, based upon an anonymous epitome of grammar, and supplemented by a lexicon of Attic nouns. He was also the author of scholia on the first and second books of the Iliad, on Hesiod, Theocritus, Pindar and other classical and later authors; of riddles, letters, and a treatise on the magic squares. His grammatical treatises formed the foundation of the labors of such promoters of classical studies as Manuel Chrysoloras, Theodorus Gaza, Guarini, and Constantine Lascaris. As an editor, while making many false conjectures, he was responsible for clearing many long-standing errors in the traditional texts. His comments when original, are mainly lexicographical.

Moschopoulos' treatise on magic squares is dedicated to Nicholas Rhabdas, his contemporary mathematician.

Other works include an anti-Latin theological pamphlet. A selection from his works under the title of Manuelis Moschopuli opuscula grammatica was published by F. N. Titze (Leipzig, 1822); see also Karl Krumbacher, Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (1897) and M. Treu, Maximi monachi Planudis epistulae (1890), p. 208.

title: Manuel Moschopoulos


text:
Lao script

Lao script or Akson Lao (ອັກສອນລາວ ) is the primary script used to write the Lao language and other minority languages in Laos. Its earlier form, the Tai Noi script, was also used to write the Isan language, but was replaced by the Thai script. It has 27 consonants (ພະຍັນຊະນະ ), 7 consonantal ligatures (ພະຍັນຊະນະປະສົມ ), 33 vowels (ສະຫລະ/ສະຫຼະ ), and 4 tone marks (ວັນນະຍຸດ ).

The Lao abugida was adapted from the Khmer script, which itself was derived from the Pallava script, a variant of the Grantha script descended from the Brāhmī script, which was used in southern India and South East Asia during the 5th and 6th centuries AD. Akson Lao is a sister system to the Thai script, with which it shares many similarities and roots. However, Lao has fewer characters and is formed in a more curvilinear fashion than Thai.

Lao is written from left to right. Vowels can be written above, below, in front of, or behind consonants, with some vowel combinations written before, over, and after. Spaces for separating words and punctuation were traditionally not used, but space is used and functions in place of a comma or period. The letters have no majuscule or minuscule (upper- and lowercase) differentiation.

History
The Lao script derived locally from the Khmer script of Angkor with additional influence from the Mon script. Both Khmer and Mon were ultimately derived from the Pallava script of South India. The Lao script was slowly standardized in the Mekong River valley after the various Tai principalities of the region were merged under Lan Xang in the 14th century. It has changed little since its inception and continued use in the Lao-speaking regions of modern-day Laos and Isan. Although the Thai script continued to evolve, both scripts still bear a resemblance. However, this is less apparent today because the Lao People's Revolutionary Party has simplified the spelling to be phonemic and omitted extra letters used to write words of Pali-Sanskrit origin.

In the 1930s, Maha Sila Viravong, a Buddhist scholar, backed by the Buddhist Institute in Vientiane and the Buddhist Academic Council, added an additional set of Lao characters to support Pali and Sanskrit, thereby filling the missing gaps in the existing script. While the Buddhist Institute published books that utilised these extended Indic characters, they did not see widespread usage, and fell out of usage by 1975. In 2019, the extended Indic characters were added to Unicode 12.

Consonants
The twenty-seven consonants of the Lao alphabet are divided into three tone classes—high (ສູງ ), middle (ກາງ ), and low (ຕ່ຳ )—which determine the tonal pronunciation of the word in conjunction with the four tone marks and distinctions between short and long vowels. Aside from tone, there are twenty-one distinct consonant sounds that occur in the Lao language. Each letter has an acrophonical name that either begins with or features the letter prominently, and is used to teach the letter and serves to distinguish them from other, homophonous consonants. The letter ອ is a special null consonant used as a mandatory anchor for vowels, which cannot stand alone, and also to serve as a vowel in its own right.

The letter ຣ (r) is a relatively new re-addition to the Lao alphabet. It was dropped as part of a language reform because most speakers pronounced it as "l", and had an ambiguous status for several decades. A 1999 dictionary does not include it when listing the full alphabet but does use it to spell many country names. A comprehensive dictionary published by a high-ranking official in the Ministry of Information and Culture did not include it. However, as the Lao vocabulary began to incorporate more foreign names (such as Europe, Australia, and America) it filled a need and is now taught in schools. The letter ຣ can also be found in Unit 14 (ບົດທີ 14 ຮ ຫ ຣ) of a textbook published by the government. It is generally used as the first consonant of a syllable, or to follow a leading consonant, rarely as a final consonant.

Consonant chart
The table below shows the Lao consonant, its name, its pronunciation according to the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), as well as various romanization schemes, such as the French-based systems in use by both the US Board of Geographic Names and the British Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (BGN/PCGN), the English-based system in use by the US Library of Congress (LC), Royal Thai General System of Transcription (RTGS) used in Thailand, and finally its Unicode name. A slash indicates the pronunciation at the beginning juxtaposed with its pronunciation at the end of a syllable.

 * Notes

Consonantal digraphs and ligatures
Lao also uses digraphs based on combinations of the silent (unpronounced) ຫ ຫ່ານ with certain other consonants, some of which also have special ligature forms that are optionally used.

In the Thai script, certain consonants are preceded by tone modifiers. This is because high consonants or low consonants cannot produce the full 5 tones of Thai. For instance, tone modifier ห can turn low consonants into high ones. This also explains why the Lao script reserved consonants with the same sounds (e.g. ຂ and ຄ /kʰ/, ສ and ຊ /s/). Both high and low consonants are needed to produce full five (or six) tones of Lao.

Such design also exists in Lao. Sonorants ງ, ຍ, ນ, ມ, ລ, ວ are originally low consonants, but when they're preceded by ຫ, they become high consonants.

The older versions of the script also included special forms for combinations of ພ (pʰ) + ຍ (ɲ), ສ (s) + ນ (n), and ມ (m) + ລ (l). In addition, consonant clusters that had the second component of ຣ (r) or ລ (l) were written with a special form ◌ຼ underneath the consonant. Since these were not pronounced in Lao, they were removed during various spelling reforms, and this symbol only appears in the ligature ຫຼ.

Phonetic
Lao characters in initial position (several letters appearing in the same box have identical pronunciation).

 * * In Luang Prabang dialect.
 * ** Depends on the dialect.

Lao characters in final position. In the old documents, the letter ຽ could be found in place of ຍ.

Vowels
In its earlier form, Lao would be considered a full abugida, in which the inherent vowel is embedded in the consonant letters. The spelling reforms by the communist Lao People's Revolutionary Party shallows the orthography, the main vowels are now written explicitly, but the rest of vowel diacritics still apply. However, many Lao outside of Laos, and some inside Laos, continue to write according to former spelling standards. For example, the old spelling of ສເຫຼີມ 'to hold a ceremony, celebrate' contrasts with the new ສະເຫລີມ/ສະເຫຼີມ.

Vowels are constructed from only a handful of basic symbols, but they can be combined with other vowel forms and semi-vowels to represent the full repertoire of diphthongs and triphthongs used in the language. Vowels cannot stand alone or begin a syllable, so the silent consonant, ອ, which can function as a vowel in its own right, is used as a base when spelling a word that begins with a vowel sound.

The names of the vowels are just as easy as saying sala (ສະຫຼະ, ) before the vowel sign. Some vowels have unique names, and these are ໃ◌ (ໄມ້ມ້ວນ,, rolled stem), ໄ◌ (ໄມ້ມາຍ, , unwound stem), ◌ົ (ໄມ້ກົງ, . , straight stem), ◌ັ (ໄມ້ກັນ, . , ear stem), ◌ຽ (ວິລາມ, ), and ◌ໍ (ນິກຄະຫິດ, ).

Although a dotted circle ◌ is used on this page to represent the consonant, in standard Lao orthography a small x symbol is used for this purpose. Traditionally this was a simple, stylized, sans-serif x and it was included in Lao fonts before Unicode became widespread. Unicode does not make it available as part of the Lao alphabet set, and a lower-case sans-serif x is often used instead.

Some vowels change their forms depending on whether they appear in the final or medial position.

Special vowels

 * * In the Northern (Luang Prabang) dialect of Lao, ໃ◌ is pronounced as rather than ; similarly, in the Northeastern (Houaphanh) dialect,  ໃ◌ is pronounced as.

As in the neighboring Thai script, ◌ະ is used to represent a glottal stop after a vowel.

Punctuation
Lao is traditionally not written with spaces between words. Spaces are reserved for ends of clauses or sentences. Periods are not used, and questions can be determined by question words in a sentence. Traditional punctuation marks include ◌໌, an obsolete mark indicating silenced consonants; ໆ, used to indicate repetition of the preceding word; ຯ, the Lao ellipsis that is also used to indicate omission of words; ฯ, a more or less obsolete symbol indicating shortened form of a phrase (such as royal names); and ฯລฯ, used to indicate et cetera.

In more contemporary writing, punctuation marks are borrowed from French, such as exclamation point !, question mark ?, parentheses, and «» for quotation marks, although "" is also common. Hyphens (-) and the ellipsis (...) are also commonly found in modern writing.

Other languages in Lao script
According to Article 89 of the 2003 Amended Constitution of the Lao People's Democratic Republic, the Lao alphabet, though originally used solely for transcribing the Lao language, is also used to write several minority languages.

 * 1) Additional Lao characters used to write Pali/Sanskrit, the liturgical language of Theravāda Buddhism, are now available with the publication of Unicode 12.0. The font Lao Pali (Alpha) can be downloaded from Aksharamukha.
 * 2) Additional Lao characters used to write Khmu’ were also encoded.
 * 3) An older version of Lao, Tai Noi, was also used by the ethnic Lao of Thailand's Isan region before Isan was incorporated into Siam. Its use was banned by the Thai government and supplemented with the very similar Thai alphabet in 1871; however, the region remained culturally and politically distant until further government campaigns and integration into the Thai state (Thaification) were imposed in the 20th century. Attempts to encode Thai Noi in Unicode have been made.
 * 4) The applicability of Lao script for other minority languages requires further evaluations.

Some minority languages use other writing systems. For example, the Hmong adopted the Romanized Popular Alphabet to spell the Hmong languages.

Lao compatible software
Linux has been available in Lao since 2005.

Windows did not officially support Lao until Windows Vista. User-generated fonts are freely available online.

In December 2011, the Lao Ministry of Science and Technology, in cooperation with the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications, officially authorized the use of Phetsarath OT as the standard national font.

The Phetsarath OT font was already adopted by the government in 2009; however, Lao users were unable to use it, as international software manufacturers did not include the font in their software systems. Mobile devices were not able to use or show Lao language. Instead, mobile phone users had to rely on Thai or English as language.

The Laos Ministry of Post and Telecommunications asked local technicians to develop a software system of international standard that would enable the Phetsarath OT font to be like other font systems that local users could access.

In March 2011, the Lao company XY Mobile presented the Phetsarath OT on mobile phones as well as tablet PCs using the mobile device operating system Android.

iOS supports Lao script on iPhones and iPads.

Obsolete consonants
The consonant letters below are obsolete, due to spelling reforms. Characters for these obsolete letters are added in later versions of Unicode. For additional details, see the Thai script page's sections for the alphabetic table and usage for Sanskrit and Pali.

Unicode
The Unicode block for the Lao script is U+0E80–U+0EFF, added in Unicode version 1.0. The first ten characters of the row U+0EDx are the Lao numerals 0 through 9. Throughout the chart, grey (unassigned) code points are shown because the assigned Lao characters intentionally match the relative positions of the corresponding Thai characters. This has created the anomaly that the Lao letter ສ is not in alphabetical order, since it occupies the same code-point as the Thai letter ส.

title: Lao script


text:
Talk:Type species

A note
Type species is a bit in a large article that also and also and also discusses. I think it would be a better idea to split up that article to discuss the holotypes et al and seperatie the type species bit out of there. GerardM 20:58, 17 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Clarity
This article does a pretty poor job of explaining that a type species is just a species of name foo bar, where foo = bar, and that that's really all there is to it. (And if that's not the case, well then it does a *really* poor job of it, but that's what I was able to glean from the link to the article on the sunfish node.) --Belg4mit 04:59, 25 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Maybe it would help if you expressed yourself more clearly ? 10:40, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I agree that the definition is not sufficiently clear for someone not especially familiar with biological taxonomies. I came here from the article on smallmouth bass because I was curious about what a "type species" is, so I followed the link. If I am reading the quoted definition correctly, a type species is the species in a genus (or other category) that the genus name is attached to. This means if, for example, scientists discovered through genome analysis that smallmouth bass and largemouth bass are not genetically closely related, smallmouth bass would keep the genus name Micropterus whereas largemouth bass would be branched off into its own genus or moved into an existing one. Articles like this one are what they are referring to in the Slashdot article Does Wikipedia Suck on Science Stories?.--NeantHumain 16:56, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

 * I don't think it's the case that type species means foo=bar; eg Tyrannosaurus rex is a type species. ErikHaugen (talk) 23:02, 19 October 2009 (UTC)

Not being a biologist, I have no idea what anything in this article means. It was linked from this sentence in Passerine: "The names "passerines" and "Passeriformes" are derived from Passer domesticus, the scientific name of the type species – the House Sparrow..." --64.149.41.29 (talk) 13:53, 21 June 2008 (UTC)

Examples
This article could benefit from a few example of type species species. For example, Western Gorilla (Gorilla gorilla) and Spectral Tarsier (Tarsius tarsier). Surikell (talk) 06:31, 1 September 2009 (UTC)

I couldn't agree more, I think much of the confusion arises from the lack of examples. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 79.142.224.132 (talk) 18:09, 7 December 2009 (UTC)

And maybe pointing out for us non-specialists that it is talking about those species whose two-part names are made up of the same Latin word twice. (If I understand the article correctly.) --79.209.29.186 (talk) 15:53, 16 August 2010 (UTC)

 * Agreed, more examples would help a lot.
 * And maybe the first instance where this word/concept was developed would additionally provide more history.
 * —DIV (120.17.190.46 (talk) 11:20, 7 December 2016 (UTC))

 * By the way, the interpretation you came up with — which is probably what I would have arrived at from reading this article — is apparently wrong, based on the fact(?) mentioned in the Giraffe article that Giraffa camelopardalis is "the type species".
 * —DIV (120.17.190.46 (talk) 11:28, 7 December 2016 (UTC))

Trying to make it clearer
I had a go at fixing it up a bit, including giving one example. Currently the section within the article Type (biology) gives a clearer explanation of Type species than this article does. Invertzoo (talk) 19:36, 8 September 2010 (UTC)

Taxonomy diagramme
The diagramme is 'explained' as "Diagrammatic representation of different nomenclatural interpretations for species. Each taxonomist has a different view for genus attribution, but the reference on type species is preserved, and ensures precise communication." So I'm told that, "the reference on type species is preserved", but how could I know this from the diagramme??? Better would be: "the reference on type species is preserved, as shown by .........". —DIV (120.17.190.46 (talk) 11:25, 7 December 2016 (UTC))
 * Agree that the diagram did not add to, but rather cluttered the page. I've removed it. Sminthopsis84 (talk) 14:38, 7 December 2016 (UTC)

Monacha example
For example, the type species for the land snail genus Monacha is Monacha cartusiana. It seems like this is a misleading example since M. cartusiana was described in Helix. This makes this make the type species Helix cartusiana, no? Umimmak (talk) 14:05, 12 April 2018 (UTC)

 * Well, it's still the species that contains the name-bearing type, but the ICZN is clear that type species should be cited under their original names, so this needs to be fixed, which I will. Peter coxhead (talk) 10:43, 13 April 2018 (UTC)

 * Thanks! I wasn't sure whether it was more accurate to say something along the lines of of "type species is [current combination], cited as [original combination]" or something like "the type species is [original combination], now known as [current combination]". Umimmak (talk) 18:38, 13 April 2018 (UTC)

title: Talk:Type species


text:
East Gallatin River

The East Gallatin River flows 42 mi in a northwesterly direction through the Gallatin valley, Gallatin County, Montana. Rising from the confluence of Rocky Creek and several other small streams, the East Gallatin begins about one mile (1.6 km) east of downtown Bozeman, Montana. The river joins the main stem of the Gallatin River 2.3 mi north of Manhattan, Montana. Throughout its course, the river traverses mostly valley floor ranch and farm land with typical summer flows of approximately 50 cuft/s.

Angling the East Gallatin
The East Gallatin river is a popular trout fishing stream and holds good populations of rainbow and brown trout as well as mountain whitefish. Access is limited to country road crossings and two public assess sites maintained by the Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks department. Numerous spring creeks, most notably Ben Hart and Thompson, feed the East Gallatin throughout its course and provide excellent trout fishing as well.

title: East Gallatin River


text:
Earl of Devonshire

The title of Earl of Devonshire has been created twice in the Peerage of England, firstly in 1603 for the Blount family and then recreated in 1618 for the Cavendish family, in whose possession the earldom remains.

It is not to be confused with, and is separate from, the more ancient title of Earl of Devon which belongs to the Courtenay family.

Earls of Devonshire, first creation (1603)

 * Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devonshire (1563–1606)

Earls of Devonshire, second creation (1618)

 * William Cavendish, 1st Earl of Devonshire (1552–1626)
 * William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of Devonshire (1591–1628)
 * William Cavendish, 3rd Earl of Devonshire (1617–1684)
 * William Cavendish, 1st Duke of Devonshire, 4th Earl of Devonshire (1640–1707)
 * William Cavendish, 2nd Duke of Devonshire, 5th Earl of Devonshire (1673–1729)
 * William Cavendish, 3rd Duke of Devonshire, 6th Earl of Devonshire (1698–1755)
 * William Cavendish, 4th Duke of Devonshire, 7th Earl of Devonshire (1720–1764)
 * William Cavendish, 5th Duke of Devonshire, 8th Earl of Devonshire (1748–1811)
 * William Cavendish, 6th Duke of Devonshire, 9th Earl of Devonshire (1790–1858)
 * William Cavendish, 7th Duke of Devonshire, 10th Earl of Devonshire (1808–1891)
 * Spencer Cavendish, 8th Duke of Devonshire, 11th Earl of Devonshire (1833–1908)
 * Victor Cavendish, 9th Duke of Devonshire, 12th Earl of Devonshire (1868–1938)
 * Edward Cavendish, 10th Duke of Devonshire, 13th Earl of Devonshire (1895–1950)
 * Andrew Cavendish, 11th Duke of Devonshire, 14th Earl of Devonshire (1920–2004)
 * Peregrine Cavendish, 12th Duke of Devonshire, 15th Earl of Devonshire (b. 1944)

The heir apparent is the oldest son of the current holder, William Cavendish, Earl of Burlington (b. 1969).

title: Earl of Devonshire


text:
1972 Fijian general election

General elections were held in Fiji between 15 and 29 April 1972, the first since independence from the United Kingdom in 1970. They were characterised by the lack of rancour between racial groups, typical of the 1966 general election and the 1968 by-elections.

The result was a landslide for the Alliance Party of the Prime Minister, Kamisese Mara, which won 33 of the 52 seats, and surprised many observers by capturing almost 25 percent of the Indo-Fijian vote. The Indo-Fijian-dominated National Federation Party led by Sidiq Koya won the remaining 19 seats. The election re-affirmed the political allegiances of the past, with the Alliance Party winning all the Fijian Communal seats with 82% of the vote, as well as all the General Communal seats. The National Federation Party (NFP) won all the Indian Communal sets with 73% of the vote. Voter turnout was 85.2% in the communal seats.

Electoral system
The 52-member House of Representatives consisted of 27 members elected from communal constituencies (12 Fijian, 12 Indo-Fijian and three general electors) and 25 members elected from national constituencies (10 Fijian, 10 Indo-Fijian and five general electors), all elected by first-past-the-post voting.

Voters could cast up to four votes; one in their own communal constituency, and three in their national constituency, in which they voted for a Fijian, Indo-Fijian and general elector candidate.

Aftermath
Following the elections, R. D. Patel of the National Federation Party became Speaker.

Prime Minister Mara carried out a cabinet reshuffle, appointing a new cabinet with 14 ministers, an increase from 12 in the previous government. He appointed two members to the Senate – John Falvey and Penaia Ganilau – to allow them to join the cabinet.

title: 1972 Fijian general election


text:
Ray Lyman Wilbur

Ray Lyman Wilbur (April 13, 1875 – June 26, 1949) was an American politician, physician, and eugenicist. He was a medical doctor who served as the third president of Stanford University and as the 31st United States Secretary of the Interior under President Herbert Hoover, also a Stanford alum.

Early and personal life
Wilbur was born in Boonesboro, Iowa, the son of attorney and businessman Dwight Locke Wilbur and the former Edna Maria Lyman. He was raised with a brother, Curtis D. Wilbur, who served as the U.S. Secretary of the Navy under President Calvin Coolidge, and was a judge of the Supreme Court of California. The Wilbur family moved to Riverside, California, when Ray Lyman was twelve.

Wilbur graduated from Riverside High School, then studied at Stanford University, receiving a B.A. degree in 1896 and an M.A. degree in 1897. He then studied at Cooper Medical College in San Francisco (then of the University of California, San Francisco, now the medical school of Stanford), receiving a Doctor of Medicine degree in 1899.

While a freshman at his Stanford home, Wilbur met future President Herbert Hoover, who was drumming up business on campus for a local laundry. The two men became lifelong friends.

On December 5, 1898, Wilbur married the former Marguerite May Blake, who was a college friend of Lou Hoover, Herbert Hoover's wife. The couple had five children (Jessica Wilbur Ely, Blake Colburn Wilbur, Dwight Locke Wilbur, Lois Wilbur Hopper, and Ray Lyman Wilbur, Jr.). Marguerite Wilbur died on December 24, 1946, at age 71.

Stanford University
Wilbur first became a member of Stanford's faculty in 1896, as an instructor in physiology. In 1900, Wilbur was made an assistant professor while simultaneously carrying on a busy medical practice. He was the only physician in the university community.

From 1903 to 1909, Wilbur practiced medicine full-time. In 1909, he became a professor of medicine and in 1911 was named dean of the new Stanford University School of Medicine, located at the former Cooper Medical College, where Wilbur had received his M.D. degree. He served as the dean until 1916.

In 1916, he was chosen to serve as president of Stanford and continued in that position until 1943, including during his tenure as Secretary of the Interior. Upon his inauguration as its president, he said that he intended to devote the rest of his life to Stanford, and he did. From his retirement as president in 1943 until his death in 1949, he served as the University's chancellor. During World War I, Wilbur served as a chief of the conservation division of the United States Food Administration. While at the USFA, he coined the slogan "Food Will Win the War."

Wilbur reorganized graduate education, established the Lower Division, introduced Independent Study, and regrouped academic departments within the Schools of the University. He launched the Stanford Graduate School of Business and the Food Research Institute. Among his most notable stances while at Stanford were his opposition to fraternities and to automobiles on campus.

Wilbur served as the President of the American Medical Association from 1923 to 1924. In 1923, he was one of the doctors called in to consult when President Warren G. Harding fell ill in San Francisco, and was present at his deathbed. His son, Dwight Locke Wilbur, later followed in his footsteps as President of the AMA from 1968 until 1969. Wilbur belonged to several private men's clubs, including the Bohemian Club, the Pacific-Union Club, the Commonwealth Club and the University Club in San Francisco.

When the California Legislature established the State Park Commission in 1927, Wilbur was named to the original commission, along with Major Frederick Russell Burnham, W. F. Chandler, William Edward Colby, and Henry W. O'Melveny.

Secretary of the Interior
On March 5, 1929, President Hoover nominated Wilbur as the U.S. Secretary of the Interior confirmed by the Senate, and assumed office the same day. His tenure ended on March 4, 1933, as Hoover left office.

As Interior Secretary, Wilbur addressed corruption in granting contracts for naval oil reserves, which had caused controversy during the Harding administration's Teapot Dome scandal. Wilbur promulgated a policy that no new oil leases would be granted to private individuals except when mandated by law.

Wilbur was criticized by political opponents for his allocation of power from Boulder Dam to private utilities. Opponents also criticized him for renaming the dam Hoover Dam.

Wilbur took a particular interest in Native Americans while in office and reorganized the department's Bureau of Indian Affairs. He assisted Native Americans in working to become more self-reliant.

New Deal critic
After leaving the Department of the Interior in 1933, Wilbur became a vocal critic of Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and was the leading champion of "rugged individualism".

He wrote: "It is common talk that every individual is entitled to economic security. The only animals and birds I know that have economic security are those that have been domesticated—and the economic security they have is controlled by the barbed-wire fence, the butcher's knife and the desire of others. They are milked, skinned, egged or eaten up by their protectors."

Death and legacy
Wilbur died of heart disease at his Stanford campus home on June 26, 1949, at age 74. He is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto, California. Hoover eulogized him as "my devoted friend and constant friend since boyhood." He said of Wilbur: "During all his years, including his later chancellorship of Stanford, he has given a multitude of services to the people. Public health and education have been enriched over all these years from his sane statesmanship and rugged intellectual honesty. America is a better place for his having lived in it."

A dormitory complex at Stanford University is named after Wilbur.

title: Ray Lyman Wilbur


text: User talk:Tommytentimes

title: User talk:Tommytentimes