text:
President of Somaliland

The president of Somaliland (Madaxweynaha Soomaaliland; رئيس جمهورية أرض الصومال) is the head of state and head of government of Somaliland. The president is also commander-in-chief of the Somaliland Armed Forces. The president represents the Government of Somaliland.

The first president of Somaliland was Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur. The current office-holder is the 5th president Muse Bihi Abdi, who took office on 13 December 2017. The President can serve a maximum of two five-year terms. The Republic of Somaliland regards itself as the successor state to the former British Somaliland Protectorate, which was an independent country for a few days in 1960 as the State of Somaliland.

History

The first president of Somaliland was Abdirahman Ahmed Ali Tuur, one of the leaders of the Somali National Movement (SNM), who took office on 7 June 1991, weeks after Somaliland was declared a republic. Since then the office has been held by four further people: Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal, Dahir Riyale Kahin, Ahmed Mohamed Mohamoud, and Muse Bihi Abdi.

Eligibility
By Article 82 of the Constitution of Somaliland, a person shall be eligible for the office of President or Vice President if (a) he is a citizen of Somaliland by birth, and, notwithstanding residence as a refugee in another country, must not hold any other citizenship; (b) he must be a Muslim, and must behave in accordance with Islamic religion; (c) he must be at least 40 years of age; and (d) he fulfills other criteria set out in this Article.

Death in office
One Somaliland president has died in office:
 * Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal, who died on 3 May 2002 aged 73.

title: President of Somaliland


text:
President of Syria

The president of Syria (رئيس سوريا), officially the president of the Syrian Arab Republic (رئيس الجمهورية العربية السورية), is the head of state of the Syrian Arab Republic. They are vested with sweeping powers that may be delegated, at their sole discretion to their vice presidents. They appoint and dismiss the prime minister and other members of the Council of Ministers (the cabinet) and military officers. Bashar al-Assad is the 19th and current president of Syria. He entered the post on 17 July 2000. Bashar Al-Assad is the son of former president, Hafez al-Assad, who was the longest-serving president serving 29 years.

Term of office
Article 88 of the 2012 constitution states that the president serves a seven year term and "can be elected for only one more successive term." Article 155 states that Article 88 applies to the president "as of the next presidential elections."

Eligibility criteria
On 31 January 1973, Hafez al-Assad implemented a new constitution, which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in Hama, Homs and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the ulama. They labeled Assad as the "enemy of God" and called for a jihad against his rule. Robert D. Kaplan has compared Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries." The main objection to the constitution from demonstrators was that Islam was not specified as the state religion. In response to riots, the Syrian Constitution of 1973 was amended to stipulate that Islam was the religion of the president.

A new constitution was approved in February 2012. Article 84 of Syria's 2012 constitution requires that candidates for the presidency must:
 * 1) Be at least 40 years old
 * 2) Be Syrian by birth, of parents who are Syrians by birth
 * 3) Enjoy civil  and  political  rights  and  not  convicted  of  a  dishonorable  felony, even if he was reinstated
 * 4) Not be married to a non-Syrian wife
 * 5) Have lived in Syria for 10 years continuously upon nomination

Further eligibility requirements in the 2012 constitution include:
 * The religion of the President of the Republic is Islam; Islamic jurisprudence shall be a major source of legislation; The State shall respect all religions, and ensure the freedom to perform all the rituals that do not prejudice public order; The personal status of religious communities shall be protected and respected (Article 3)

 * A candidate must be supported by at least 35 members of the People's Assembly (Article 85)
 * The President cannot carry another nationality (Article 152)

Powers and removal
Powers:

Removal
 * Commander in Chief of the army and armed forces
 * Representing Syria in international relations
 * Developing and implementing national policy
 * Appointing and dismissing the Prime Minister and Ministers
 * Creating and overseeing the implementation of general state policy
 * Vetoing or accepting laws
 * Declaring a state of emergency
 * Concluding international treaties
 * Granting amnesty
 * Granting honors and medals
 * Dissolving the People’s Assembly
 * Passing laws when the legislature is not in session or in emergency situations
 * Submitting matters to binding national referendum
 * Drafting laws
 * Upon submission of resignation to the People’s Assembly
 * At the end of 7-year term if not nominated for re-election, or second 7-year term if re-elected
 * In the case of permanent incapacity or death
 * Upon conviction for high treason by the Constitutional Court after proposal by one-third of Assembly and approval by two-thirds

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: President of Syria


text:
President of Tanzania

The president of the United Republic of Tanzania (Rais wa Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania) is the head of state and head of government of Tanzania.

Samia Suluhu Hassan, sworn in on 19 March 2021, is the first female president of the United Republic of Tanzania. She succeeded John Magufuli following his death on 17 March 2021.

Presidential term
The president serves a term of five years. As of 2021, there is a two-term limit for the president in the Constitution of Tanzania. The first president for whom the term limits applied was Mwinyi in 1995.

Executive powers
The president of Tanzania is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces and is "accountable to a legislature composed of elected members and representative of the people."

List
After its independence in 1961 as Tanganyika, the country was first led by Richard Turnbull as governor-general until Julius Nyerere became the first and only president under the 1962 constitution. The 1964 constitution after the merger of Tanganyika and Zanzibar has had 6 presidents with each serving multiple terms except Samia Suluhu Hassan. Julius Nyerere served 5 terms total from 1962–1985, having served 4 terms under the 1964 constitution. All presidents of Tanzania have been from the Tanganyika African National Union party which later merged to become the Chama Cha Mapinduzi party.

title: President of Tanzania


text:
User:GreyGriffin

I'm GreyGriffin, and I'm primarily a gamer. I play tabletop games of many varieties (from RPGs to Warhammer), and am at least a casual computer gamer.

Current Page Credits:

Zerging (created) Tzeench (created)

title: User:GreyGriffin


text:
President of Trinidad and Tobago

The president of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is the head of state of Trinidad and Tobago and the commander-in-chief of the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force. The office was established when the country became a republic in 1976, before which the head of state was the Queen of Trinidad and Tobago, Elizabeth II. The last governor-general, Sir Ellis Clarke, was sworn in as the first president on 1 August 1976 under a transitional arrangement. He was formally chosen as president by an electoral college consisting of members of both houses of Parliament on 24 September 1976, which is now celebrated as Republic Day.

The president's post was one of many temporarily suspended during the Jamaat al Muslimeen coup attempt lasting from 27 July 1990 - 1 August 1990 when it resumed. The current president of Trinidad and Tobago is Christine Kangaloo.

History
On 12 December 1969, at a sitting of the House of Representatives, the prime minister moved a motion on constitutional reform. He suggested that the House approve the appointment of a joint select committee of Parliament which would include representatives of all parties to consider whether it was desirable for Trinidad and Tobago to become a republic.

On 9 October 1970, the commission was appointed. They met once on 19 October 1970. However, in its report to Parliament, the committee stated that it wasn't able to complete consideration of the subject matter entrusted to it and recommended that in the following session a committee be appointed to complete action on this matter.

Hochoy announced the Government's decision to appoint a constitutional commission, which was mandated to make recommendations for the revision of the constitution and also to produce a draft constitution based on its enquiry. Two years and six months later, in 1974, the complete report with recommendations, and the draft constitution were presented to the Governor-General on 22 January.

On 13 June 1975, Prime Minister Dr. Eric Williams laid the draft constitution of the republic in Parliament. Both houses of Parliament passed the Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago Act on 26 March 1976. Just before the voting, most of the opposition leaders left the chamber in protest. There was also an attempt to stop the Governor-General's assent to the bill, through a motion filed by a private citizen in the San Fernando Supreme Court, but it failed. The bill was assented to on 29 March by the Governor-General.

The new constitution was adopted on 1 August 1976, when Trinidad and Tobago became a republic within the Commonwealth with a president as its head of state.

Upon proclamation of the republic, the monarchy and the post of governor-general were abolished. Ellis Clarke, the last governor-general, was sworn in as the country's first president.

Electoral method
The President of Trinidad and Tobago is indirectly elected for a 5-year term by an electoral college comprising all 41 members of the House of Representatives and all 31 members of the Senate, plus the speakers of both chambers.

The president must be at least 35 years old (although no president has been younger than 59), a citizen of Trinidad and Tobago, and at the time of nomination must have been resident in the country for an unbroken period of ten years.

To win the election a candidate must gain a plurality of votes cast, whereby a quorum comprising the Speaker of the House of Representatives, 10 Senators and 12 other member of the House of Representatives must be met for the election to be considered valid. If only one candidate should be nominated to run in the election, he or she shall be considered to have been elected president without the need for a vote to take place.

The oath for the due execution of the office of president is:

"'I, (name), do swear by Almighty God that I will bear true faith and allegiance to Trinidad and Tobago and to the best of my ability preserve and defend the Constitution and the law, that I will conscientiously and impartially discharge the functions of President and will devote myself to the service and well–being of the people of Trinidad and Tobago'."

Constitutional role
The 1976 Constitution gives the country a Westminster parliamentary system of government based on that of the United Kingdom, wherein the role of the head of state is both legal and practical. Similarly to other parliamentary republics in the Commonwealth of Nations such as India and Barbados, but unlike continental European parliamentary states such as Germany and Italy, the president of Trinidad and Tobago is formally vested with great constitutional power extending to all three branches of government. Like the British sovereign (and heads of state in other Westminster systems), the president "reigns but does not rule". In practice, executive authority is exercised by the prime minister and his or her cabinet, on behalf of the president as per the as per the amended constitution, which states the president "shall act in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet or a Minister acting under the general authority of the Cabinet" except in certain circumstances, usually described as the reserve powers.

Executive powers
Under the amended constitution, the president is the nominal source of executive power. One of the main duties of the president is to appoint a prime minister, who thereafter heads the cabinet and advises the president on how to execute their executive powers over all aspects of government operations and foreign affairs. The president's role is almost entirely symbolic and cultural, acting as a symbol of the legal authority under which all governments and agencies operate, while the Cabinet directs the use of the president's executive power, which includes the privilege to declare war, as well as to summon and prorogue parliament and call elections.

However, it is important to note that the president's executive powers belongs to the president and not to any of the ministers, though it might have sometimes appeared that way, and the constitution allows the president to unilaterally use these powers in relation to the dismissal of a prime minister, dissolution of parliament, and removal of a judge in exceptional, constitutional crisis situations.

The president, to maintain the stability of the government of Trinidad and Tobago, appoints as prime minister the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Representatives. The president additionally appoints other ministers, on the advice of the prime minister. The president is remains fully briefed through regular communications from the cabinet.

Foreign affairs
The president's executive power also extends to foreign affairs: the president may negotiate and ratify treaties, alliances, and international agreements. However, in practice, such negotiations are usually carried out by the prime minister along with their Cabinet. The president also accredits Trinidad and Tobago High Commissioners and ambassadors, and receives diplomats from foreign states.

Parliament
The president, along with the Senate and the House of Representatives, is one of the three components of parliament. Since the president is almost always required to act on the advice of the cabinet, the president's role in the legislative process is limited to assenting to bills and signing them into law. However, the president has the absolute power to withhold assent to Bills passed by Parliament (i.e. to veto without parliamentary override).

Further, the Constitution outlines that the president is responsible for appointing senators — 16 Government Senators appointed on the advice of the Prime Minister, 6 Opposition Senators appointed on the advice of the Leader of the Opposition and 9 Independent Senators appointed on the discretion of the President from outstanding persons who represent other sectors of civil society.

The president additionally summons, prorogues, and dissolves parliament; after the latter, the writs for a general election are usually issued by the president at President's House. In practice, these powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the cabinet.

Judicial powers
The president has the right to appoint judges on the joint recommendation of the prime minister and leader of the opposition, and pardon offenders.

Cultural role
In addition to the formal constitutional role and with most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the president has a representative and ceremonial role, though the extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community. Presidents generally become patrons of various charitable institutions, present honours and awards, host functions for various groups of people including ambassadors to and from other countries, and travel widely throughout Trinidad and Tobago. Also as part of international relations, the president issues the credentials (called letter of credence) of Trinidad and Tobago ambassadors and consuls, when they visit foreign nations.

Presence and duties
Official duties involve the president representing the state at home or abroad and participating in a government-organised ceremony either in Trinidad and Tobago or elsewhere. The president and/or his or her spouse have participated in events such as important milestones, anniversaries, or celebrations of Trinidad and Tobago culture; Independence Day; the openings of public events like sport games; award ceremonies; Remembrance Day commemorations; and the like.The president provides non-partisan leadership in the community, acting as patron of many charitable, service, sporting and cultural organisations, and attending functions throughout the country.The president also encourages, articulates and represents those things that unite Trinbagonians together. In this role, the president:

 * frequently receives citizens on special occasions or celebrations, students of various schools, and visitors from other countries at President's House.
 * attends church services, religious observances, and charitable, social, and civic events across the country.
 * accepts patronage of many national, charitable, cultural, educational, sporting and professional organizations.
 * issues congratulatory messages to organizations for special anniversaries and events, such as major national or international conferences, cultural festivals and sporting championships.

Military duties
Under section 22 of the constitution, the president "...shall be the Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces", consisting of the Trinidad and Tobago Regiment, the Trinidad and Tobago Coast Guard, the Trinidad and Tobago Air Guard and the Defence Force Reserves. The position technically involves issuing commands for Trinidad and Tobago troops, airmen, and sailors, though in practice the president does not play any part in the Trinidad and Tobago Defence Force command structure other than following the advice of the Minister for Defence in the normal form of executive government. In practice the commander-in-chief is a ceremonial role in which the president will take part in military ceremonies, including, independence parades, inspections of the troops, and state arrival ceremonies for foreign heads of state.

Salary
The president receives a monthly salary of $64,270TT, as of 2022.

Symbols
The presidential flag may be flown from a vehicle in which the president is travelling, or from a building in which the president is present or is residing. The flag in its present form was adopted in 1976 and is a blue field with the Trinidad and Tobago coat of arms surrounded by 11 petos on each side. It takes precedence over the national flag. The national flag is generally employed when the president undertakes a state visit abroad or on a national celebration. The national flag is also flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former president.

Precedence and title
In the Trinidad and Tobago order of precedence, the president outranks all other individuals. The president and their spouse are styled "His/Her Excellency" during the term in office, the president and their spouse are entitled to the style "His/Her Excellency" for life upon assuming the office. On presentation to the president, the correct form of address is “Your Excellency”.

Residence
The official residence of the president is President's House, previously known as Government House when it was used by the governors-general and governors of the islands. Today, as well as being the President's private residence, the mansion is used for national awards and swearing-in ceremonies, as well as diplomatic receptions.

List of presidents
Under the 1976 Constitution of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, the president replaced the monarch as head of state. The president was elected by Parliament for a five-year term. In the event of a vacancy the President of the Senate served as acting president.

title: President of Trinidad and Tobago


text:
Hans Hermann Groër

Hans Hermann Wilhelm Groër OSB (13 October 1919 – 24 March 2003) was an Austrian Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Vienna from 1986 to 1995, and became a cardinal in 1988. Pope John Paul II replaced him as archbishop after multiple allegations of sexual abuse of children, and at John Paul's request Groër relinquished all ecclesiastical duties and privileges as an archbishop and cardinal on 14 April 1998.

Biography
Groër was born in Vienna to German parents, with whom he moved in 1929 to Czechoslovakia, where they remained for the next decade. He attended seminaries in Hollabrunn and Vienna (where he received his doctorate in theology) before being ordained to the priesthood on 12 April 1942 by Cardinal Theodor Innitzer. Groër then served as a chaplain in Petronell and Bad Vöslau until 1946, when he became Prefect of Studies at the minor seminary of Hollabrunn. He entered the Order of Saint Benedict in 1974 and took the name Hermann upon his solemn profession of vows on 8 September 1980. That same year Groër was named the spiritual director of the Legion of Mary for Austria.

On 15 July 1986, he was appointed the fifteenth Archbishop of Vienna, succeeding Cardinal Franz König. Groër received his episcopal consecration on the following 14 September from König, with Archbishop Karl Berg and Bishop Stefan László serving as co-consecrators. He was created Cardinal Priest of Santi Gioacchino ed Anna al Tuscolano by Pope John Paul II in the consistory of 28 June 1988.

Sexual abuse of school boys, monks
In 1995, one of Groër's former school students accused him of sexual molestation. A number of others made similar charges shortly thereafter, as did some monks. Pope John Paul II promoted Christoph Schönborn from auxiliary bishop to Coadjutor Archbishop of Vienna on 13 April 1995 and later in the year accepted the resignation Groër had submitted as required on his 75th birthday in October 1994. Groër moved to the Roggendorf monastery, where he served as prior. When new allegations surfaced, Austrian Church officials appealed to the pope, who initiated an investigation in February 1998. In April, at the pope's request, Groër resigned as prior and withdrew from public life. He released a statement that said: "In the past three years there have been many often incorrect statements concerning me. I ask God and the people for forgiveness if I have brought guilt upon myself." After surrendering his Church duties and duties as a Cardinal, Groër left Austria as part of a "self imposed exile" for several months and moved into a convent near Dresden, Germany. He continued to work as a confessor in women's monasteries, received visitors and said Mass. Suffering from cancer, his health declined rapidly.

Austria's statute of limitations prevented civil authorities from prosecuting Groër. In 2010, Cardinal Schönborn (elevated to that rank in 1998) said that Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger had attempted to convince Pope John Paul II to initiate the investigation and—in a conversation with journalists that Schönborn thought was private—said that Cardinal Angelo Sodano had blocked his attempt to investigate Groër's activities. Church officials are also alleged to have offered some of Groër's former pupils compensation in return for agreeing not to repeat their charges against him. Hubertus Czernin, author of a book about the case, believes that Groër abused more than 2,000 young men. Groër continued to deny the allegations until his death.

Death and eulogies
Groër died on 24 March 2003 of pneumonia at a hospital in Sankt Pölten, where he had been treated for cancer. Cardinal Schönborn presided at the requiem Mass in St. Stephen's Cathedral and in his homily honoured his predecessor's accomplishments in strengthening Marian devotions in the Archdiocese as well as fostering priestly and monastic vocations. The next day, Cardinal Joachim Meisner, Archbishop of Cologne, referenced the charges against Groër in his eulogy only to describe how Groër had suffered, noting how Groër was "deeply wounded, even stigmatized by the incidents during his last years as Archbishop of Vienna", that "when the dark cloud gathered over his life ... he sank into loneliness and contempt".

Groër was buried in the cemetery of Marienfeld Abbey, the Cistercian women's monastery he was instrumental in founding in 1974.

title: Hans Hermann Groër


text:
President of Tunisia

The president of Tunisia, officially the president of the Republic of Tunisia (رئيس الجمهورية التونسية Reīs ej-Jumhūrīye et-Tūnsīye), is the head of state since the creation of the position on 25 July 1957. In this capacity, he exercises executive power with the assistance of a government headed by the Prime Minister in a presidential system. According to Article 87 of the 2022 Constitution, he is the commander-in-chief of the Tunisian Armed Forces. Under the Constitution, the president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a term of five years, renewable once.

The first president of the Tunisian Republic was Habib Bourguiba, who remained in power for 30 years until he was removed through the white coup of 7 November 1987, by his Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, who appointed himself President of the Republic, and in turn remained in power for 23 years, until his fall in The Tunisian revolution on 14 January 2011. He then appointed Fouad Mebazaa as interim president, until he handed over power on 13 December 2011 to the politician Moncef Marzouki, the first democratic president in the country’s history, who was elected by the Constituent Assembly.

Marzouki handed over power on 31 December 2014 to his successor, Beji Caid Essebsi, who won the 2014 presidential elections, thus becoming the second directly democratically elected president in the history of Tunisia, until his death on 25 July 2019, with Parliament Speaker Mohamed Ennaceur assuming the presidency temporarily until presidential elections are held. Bourguiba and Ben Ali also headed the ruling party, called the Neo Destour, Socialist Destourian Party then the Democratic Constitutional Rally, from independence in 1956 until the Tunisian revolution in 2011, when the President of the Republic must abandon his party status if he wins the presidency. The 2022 Tunisian constitutional referendum transformed Tunisia into a presidential republic, giving the president sweeping powers while largely limiting the role of the parliament. The current President of the Republic of Tunisia is Kais Saied, since 23 October 2019.

History
Since the promulgation of a republican constitution in June 1959, three years after gaining independence from France, Tunisia has had just four directly elected presidents. The first president was Habib Bourguiba, who became the country's first president after the proclamation of a republic in 1957; he had been the country's de facto leader as prime minister since independence in 1956. He was formally elected to the post in 1959, and was proclaimed president for life in 1975. He was removed from office in a coup d'état in 1987 by Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali after being declared medically unfit to continue in office. Ben Ali ascended as acting president, was elected in his own right in 1989 and served until 2011, when he was forced from office during an uprising against his rule. In the country's first free presidential election, held in December 2014, Beji Caid Essebsi was elected in the second round.

For most of its history as an independent state, Tunisia lacked political democracy in the Western sense, and saw widespread violations of human rights. Because of this, presidential elections in Tunisia, such as that of 2009, lacked international credibility. Elections resulted in implausibly high margins for the ruling party, the Constitutional Democratic Rally and its previous incarnations as the Neo Destour party and the Socialist Destourian Party. Prior to 1999, presidential candidates had to be endorsed by at least 30 political figures—a realistic possibility only for a candidate from a well-organized party like the RCD. Given the RCD's near-total domination of Tunisian politics, opposition candidates found it impossible to get their nomination papers signed. Even when this requirement was lifted, incumbent Ben Ali was reelected three more times by implausibly high margins; his lowest margin was 89 percent in 2009.

Tunisia's original republican constitution vested the president with sweeping executive and legislative powers. Indeed, within the context of the system, he was a virtual dictator. He was elected for a term of five years, with no term limits. In 1975, five months after winning his third full term, Bourguiba was named president for life. From 1987 to 2002, a president was limited to three five-year terms, with no more than two in a row. However, this provision was removed in June 2002. The 2014 Constitution retained the presidency as the key institution, but hedged it about with numerous checks and balances to prevent a repeat of past authoritarian excesses. Most notably, a president is limited to two five-year terms, even if they are non-successive. The Constitution explicitly forbids any amendment to increase the length of a president's term or allow him to run for more than two terms.

Under the current constitution, the president is primarily responsible for foreign policy, defense and national security, while the Head of Government (prime minister) is responsible for domestic policy. Following Zine El Abidine Ben Ali's ousting in January 2011, prime minister Mohamed Ghannouchi invoked article 56 of the Constitution regarding temporary absence of the president to assume the role of acting president. This move was deemed unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court hours later and President of the Chamber of Deputies Fouad Mebazaa was appointed as acting president based on article 57 of the Constitution regarding permanent absence of the president. On 12 December 2011, Moncef Marzouki was elected by the newly formed Constituent Assembly as interim president of the Republic.

Elections
The president is elected by universal suffrage by majority during elections held in the last sixty days of the previous presidential term. Article 74 of the Constitution establishes that the right to presidential candidacy is open to every Tunisian national of at least 35 years of age and of Muslim faith. Candidates must renounce any prior nationality upon election.

Voting takes place in the form of a two round winner-take-all election. Article 75 indicates that if no candidate receives an absolute majority of the votes cast during the first round, a second round shall be held within two weeks of the announcement of the final results of the first round. The two candidates having received the most votes in the first round are both presented in the second round, with the candidate receiving the most votes between the two being declared president-elect. If one of the candidates on the ballot dies, a new call for candidates is made, with new election dates set within no more than 45 days; this provision does not apply to the potential withdrawal of candidates. The Constitution also specifies that one may not occupy the position of president for more than two full terms, consecutive or non-consecutive, and that in the event of resignation, the term is considered to have been completed in full.

title: President of Tunisia


text:
Świecino

Świecino is a village in the administrative district of Gmina Krokowa, within Puck County, Pomeranian Voivodeship, in northern Poland. It lies approximately 6 km south of Krokowa, 16 km west of Puck, and 51 km north-west of the regional capital Gdańsk.

Świecino is famous for a battle fought in 1462 between the Polish forces and the Teutonic Knights. See Battle of Świecino. An event reconstructing the battle proceedings was last held on the village grounds on 2 August 2014. The event is annual and runs for a couple of years.

For more details of the history of the region, see History of Pomerania.

title: Świecino


text:
Digital light processing

Digital light processing (DLP) is a set of chipsets based on optical micro-electro-mechanical technology that uses a digital micromirror device. It was originally developed in 1987 by Larry Hornbeck of Texas Instruments. While the DLP imaging device was invented by Texas Instruments, the first DLP-based projector was introduced by Digital Projection Ltd in 1997. Digital Projection and Texas Instruments were both awarded Emmy Awards in 1998 for the DLP projector technology. DLP is used in a variety of display applications from traditional static displays to interactive displays and also non-traditional embedded applications including medical, security, and industrial uses.

DLP technology is used in DLP front projectors (standalone projection units for classrooms and business primarily), DLP rear projection television sets, and digital signs. It is also used in about 85% of digital cinema projection, and in additive manufacturing as a light source in some printers to cure resins into solid 3D objects.

Smaller ″pico″ chipsets are used in mobile devices including cell phone accessories and projection display functions embedded directly into phones.

Digital micromirror device
In DLP projectors, the image is created by microscopically small mirrors laid out in a matrix on a semiconductor chip, known as a digital micromirror device (DMD). These mirrors are so small that DMD pixel pitch may be 5.4 μm or less. Each mirror represents one or more pixels in the projected image. The number of mirrors corresponds to the resolution of the projected image (often half as many mirrors as the advertised resolution due to wobulation). 800×600, 1024×768, 1280×720, and 1920×1080 (HDTV) matrices are some common DMD sizes. These mirrors can be repositioned rapidly to reflect light either through the lens or onto a heat sink (called a light dump in Barco terminology).

Rapidly toggling the mirror between these two orientations (essentially on and off) produces grayscales, controlled by the ratio of on-time to off-time.

Color in DLP projection
There are two primary methods by which DLP projection systems create a color image: those used by single-chip DLP projectors, and those used by three-chip projectors. A third method, sequential illumination by three colored light emitting diodes, is being developed, and is currently used in televisions manufactured by Samsung.

Single-chip projectors
In a projector with a single DLP chip, colors are produced either by placing a color wheel between a white lamp and the DLP chip or by using individual light sources to produce the primary colors, LEDs or lasers for example. The color wheel is divided into multiple sectors: the primary additive colors: red, green, and blue, and in many cases white (clear). Newer systems substitute the primary subtractive colors cyan, magenta, and yellow for white. The use of the subtractive colors is part of the newer color performance system called BrilliantColor which processes the additive colors along with the subtractive colors to create a broader spectrum of possible color combinations on the screen.

The DLP chip is synchronized with the rotating motion of the color wheel so that the green component is displayed on the DMD when the green section of the color wheel is in front of the lamp. The same is true for the red, blue and other sections. The colors are thus displayed sequentially at a sufficiently high rate that the observer sees a composite "full color" image. In early models, this was one rotation per frame. Now, most systems operate at up to 10× the frame rate.

The black level of a single-chip DLP depends on how unused light is being disposed. If the unused light is scattered to reflect and dissipate on the rough interior walls of the DMD / lens chamber, this scattered light will be visible as a dim gray on the projection screen, when the image is fully dark. Deeper blacks and higher contrast ratios are possible by directing unused HID light away from the DMD / lens chamber into a separate area for dissipation, and shielding the light path from unwanted internal secondary reflections.

Color wheel "rainbow effect"
Single-chip DLP projectors utilizing a mechanical spinning color wheel may exhibit an anomaly known as the "rainbow effect". This is best described as brief flashes of perceived red, blue, and green "shadows" observed most often when the projected content features high contrast areas of moving bright or white objects on a mostly dark or black background. Common examples are the scrolling end credits of many movies, and also animations with moving objects surrounded by a thick black outline. Brief visible separation of the colors can also be apparent when the viewer's gaze is moved quickly across the projected image. Some people perceive these rainbow artifacts frequently, while others may never see them at all.

This effect is caused by the way the eye follows a moving object on the projection. When an object on the screen moves, the eye follows the object with a constant motion, but the projector displays each alternating color of the frame at the same location for the duration of the whole frame. So, while the eye is moving, it sees a frame of a specific color (red, for example). Then, when the next color is displayed (green, for example), although it gets displayed at the same location overlapping the previous color, the eye has moved toward the object's next frame target. Thus, the eye sees that specific frame color slightly shifted. Then, the third color gets displayed (blue, for example), and the eye sees that frame's color slightly shifted again. This effect is not perceived only for the moving object, but the whole picture. Multi-color LED-based and laser-based single-chip projectors are able to eliminate the spinning wheel and minimize the rainbow effect, since the pulse rates of LEDs and lasers are not limited by physical motion. Three-chip DLP projectors function without color wheels, and therefore do not manifest this rainbow artifact."

Three-chip projectors
A three-chip DLP projector uses a prism to split light from the lamp, and each primary color of light is then routed to its own DMD chip, then recombined and routed out through the lens. Three chip systems are found in higher-end home theater projectors, large venue projectors and DLP Cinema projection systems found in digital movie theaters.

According to DLP.com, the three-chip projectors used in movie theaters can produce 35 trillion colors. The human eye is suggested to be able to detect around 16 million colors, which is theoretically possible with the single chip solution. However, this high color precision does not mean that three-chip DLP projectors are capable of displaying the entire gamut of colors we can distinguish (this is fundamentally impossible with any system composing colors by adding three constant base colors). In contrast, it is the one-chip DLP projectors that have the advantage of allowing any number of primary colors in a sufficiently fast color filter wheel, and so the possibility of improved color gamuts is available.

Light source
DLP technology is independent of the light-source and as such can be used effectively with a variety of light sources. Historically, the main light source used on DLP display systems has been a replaceable high-pressure xenon arc lamp unit (containing a quartz arc tube, reflector, electrical connections, and sometimes a quartz/glass shield), whereas most pico category (ultra-small) DLP projectors use high-power LEDs or lasers as a source of illumination. Since 2021 a laser light source has become very common on many professional projectors, for example the Panasonic PT-RZ990.

Xenon arc lamps
For xenon arc lamps, a constant-current supply is used, which starts with a sufficiently high open-circuit voltage (between 5 and 20 kV, depending on lamp) to cause an arc to strike between the electrodes, and once the arc is established, the voltage across the lamp drops to a given value (typically 20 to 50 volts ) while the current increases to a level required to maintain the arc at optimal brightness. As the lamp ages, its efficiency declines, due to electrode wear, resulting in a reduction in visible light and an increase in the amount of waste heat. The lamp's end of life is typically indicated by an LED on the unit or an onscreen text warning, necessitating replacement of the lamp unit.

Continued operation of the lamp past its rated lifespan may result in a further decrease in efficiency, the lightcast may become uneven, and the lamp may eventually become hot enough to the point that the power wires can melt off the lamp terminals. Eventually, the required start-up voltage will also rise to the point where ignition can no longer occur. Secondary protections such as a temperature monitor may shut down the projector, but a thermally over-stressed quartz arc tube can also crack or explode. Practically all lamp housings contain heat-resistant barriers (in addition to those on the lamp unit itself) to prevent the red-hot quartz fragments from leaving the area.

LED-based DLPs
The first commercially available LED-based DLP HDTV was the Samsung HL-S5679W in 2006, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Besides long lifetime eliminating the need for lamp replacement and elimination of the color wheel, other advantages of LED illumination include instant-on operation and improved color, with increased color saturation and improved color gamut to over 140% of the NTSC color gamut. Samsung expanded the LED model line-up in 2007 with products available in 50-, 56- and 61-inch screen sizes. In 2008, the third generation of Samsung LED DLP products were available in 61- (HL61A750) and 67-inch (HL67A750) screen sizes.

Ordinary LED technology does not produce the intensity and high-lumen output characteristics required to replace arc lamps. The special patented LEDs used in all of the Samsung DLP TVs are PhlatLight LEDs, designed and manufactured by US-based Luminus Devices. A single RGB PhlatLight LED chipset illuminates these projection TVs. The PhlatLight LEDs are also used in a new class of ultra-compact DLP front projector commonly referred to as a "pocket projector" and have been introduced in new models from LG Electronics (HS101), Samsung electronics (SP-P400) and Casio (XJ-A series). Home Theater projectors will be the next category of DLP projectors that will use PhlatLight LED technology. At InfoComm, June 2008 Luminus and TI announced their collaboration on using their technology on home theater and business projectors and demonstrated a prototype PhlatLight LED-based DLP home theater front projector. They also announced products will be available in the marketplace later in 2008 from Optoma and other companies to be named later in the year.

Luminus Devices PhlatLight LEDs have also been used by Christie Digital in their DLP-based MicroTiles display system. It is a modular system built from small (20 inch diagonal) rear projection cubes, which can be stacked and tiled together to form large display canvasses with very small seams. The scale and shape of the display can have any size, only constrained by practical limits.

Laser-based DLPs
The first commercially available laser-based DLP HDTV was the Mitsubishi L65-A90 LaserVue in 2008, which also eliminated the use of a color wheel. Three separate color lasers illuminate the digital micromirror device (DMD) in these projection TVs, producing a richer, more vibrant color palette than other methods. See the laser video display article for more information.

Digital cinema

DLP Cinema systems have been deployed and tested commercially in theatres since 1999. In June 1999, Star Wars: Episode I – The Phantom Menace was the first movie to be entirely scanned and distributed to theaters. Four theaters installed digital projectors for the movie's release. The same was done for the animated film Tarzan that same year. Later that year, Toy Story 2 was the first movie to be entirely created, edited, and distributed digitally, with more theaters installing digital projectors for its release. DLP Cinema was the first commercial digital cinema technology and is the leading digital cinema technology with approximately 85% market share worldwide as of December 2011. Digital cinema has some advantages over film because film can be subject to color fading, jumping, scratching and dirt accumulation. Digital cinema allows the movie content to remain of consistent quality over time. Today, most movie content is also captured digitally. The first all-digital live action feature shot without film was the 2002 release, Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones.

DLP Cinema does not manufacture the end projectors, but rather provides the projection technology and works closely with Barco, Christie Digital and NEC who make the end projection units. DLP Cinema is available to theatre owners in multiple resolutions depending on the needs of the exhibitor. These include, 2K – for most theatre screens, 4K – for large theatre screens, and S2K, which was specifically designed for small theatres, particularly in emerging markets worldwide.

On February 2, 2000, Philippe Binant, technical manager of Digital Cinema Project at Gaumont, in France, realized the first digital cinema projection in Europe with the DLP Cinema technology developed by Texas Instruments. DLP is the current market-share leader in professional digital movie projection, largely because of its high contrast ratio and available resolution as compared to other digital front-projection technologies. As of December 2008, there are over 6,000 DLP-based digital cinema systems installed worldwide.

DLP projectors are also used in RealD Cinema and newer IMAX theatres for 3-D films.

Manufacturers and marketplace

Since being introduced commercially in 1996, DLP technology has quickly gained market share in the front projection market and now holds greater than 50% of the worldwide share in front projection in addition to 85% market share in digital cinema worldwide. Additionally, in the pico category (small, mobile display) DLP technology holds approximately 70% market share. Over 30 manufacturers use the DLP chipset to power their projection display systems.

Pros

 * Smooth (at 1080p resolution), jitter-free images.
 * Perfect geometry and excellent grayscale linearity achievable.
 * Usually excellent ANSI contrast.
 * The use of a replaceable light source means a potentially longer life than CRTs and plasma displays (this may also be a con as listed below).
 * The light source is more-easily replaceable than the backlights used with LCDs, and on DLPs is often user-replaceable.
 * The light from the projected image is not inherently polarized.
 * New LED and laser DLP display systems more or less eliminate the need for lamp replacement.
 * DLP offers affordable 3D projection display from a single unit and can be used with both active and passive 3D solutions.
 * Lighter weight than LCD and plasma televisions.
 * Unlike their LCD and plasma counterparts, DLP screens do not rely on fluids as their projection medium and are therefore not limited in size by their inherent mirror mechanisms, making them ideal for increasingly larger high-definition theater and venue screens.
 * DLP projectors can process up to seven separate colors, giving them a wider color gamut.

Cons

 * Some viewers are bothered by the "rainbow effect" present in colour-wheel models - particularly in older models (explained above). This can be observed easily by using a camera's digital viewfinder on projected content.
 * Rear projection DLP TVs are not as thin as LCD or plasma flat-panel displays (although approximately comparable in weight), although some models as of 2008 are becoming wall-mountable (while still being 10 to 14 in thick)
 * Replacement of the lamp / light bulb in lamp-based units. The life span of an arc lamp averages 2000–5000 hours and the replacement cost for these range from $99 – 350, depending on the brand and model.   Newer generations' units use LEDs or lasers which effectively eliminate this issue, although replacement LED chips could potentially be required over the extended lifespan of the television set.
 * Some viewers find the high pitch whine of the color wheel to be an annoyance.  However, the drive system can be engineered to be silent and some projectors don't produce any audible color wheel noise.
 * Dithering noise may be noticeable, especially in dark image areas. Newer (post ≈2004) chip generations have less noise than older ones.
 * Error-diffusion artifacts caused by averaging a shade over different pixels, since one pixel cannot render the shade exactly
 * Response time in video games may be affected by upscaling lag. While all HDTVs have some lag when upscaling lower resolution input to their native resolution, DLPs are commonly reported to have longer delays. Newer consoles that have HD output signals do not have this problem as long as they are connected with HD-capable cables.
 * Reduced viewing angle as compared to direct-view technologies such as CRT, plasma, and LCD
 * May use more electricity, and generate more heat, than competing technologies.

DLP, LCD, and LCoS rear projection
The most similar competing system to DLP is known as LCoS (liquid crystal on silicon), which creates images using a stationary mirror mounted on the surface of a chip, and uses a liquid crystal matrix (similar to a liquid crystal display) to control how much light is reflected. DLP-based television systems are also arguably considered to be smaller in depth than traditional projection television.

title: Digital light processing


text:
Database and Collections of Information Misappropriation Act

The Database and Collections of Information Misappropriation Act,, was a proposed bill in the United States House of Representatives during the 108th United States Congress. It would have altered copyright law to permit assertion of copyright ownership over factual data.

Proponents argued that the bill was based on the 1996 EU Database Directive, and was designed to encourage database creators by ensuring their revenue advantage. Opponents, who included Google and Verizon argued that it would restrict access to and use of facts.

In March 2004, the House Energy and Commerce Committee unfavorably reported H.R. 3261. The committee approved a competing, less comprehensive bill, the Consumer Access to Information Act, which dealt only with "time sensitive" information, and would have instructed the Federal Trade Commission to take action against unfair trade practices.


text:
Fraser River (disambiguation)

The Fraser River is the longest river within British Columbia, Canada

Fraser River may also refer to:

 * Fraser River (Colorado), a tributary of the Colorado River in Colorado in the United States
 * Fraser River (rivière du Sud tributary), Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec, Canada
 * Fraser River (Le Val-Saint-François), a tributary of the Ulverton River in Quebec, Canada
 * Fraser River (Newfoundland and Labrador), a river in Labrador, Canada
 * Fraser River (Western Australia), a river in the Kimberley region of Western Australia
 * Earnscleugh River, also known as Fraser River, in New Zealand

title: Fraser River (disambiguation)