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SEAT León

The SEAT León, also spelled Leon in some other languages (named after the city of León, which also means "Lion" in Spanish), is a small family car built by the Spanish car manufacturer SEAT since October 1999.

The first two León generations used two differing variants of the Volkswagen Group A platform, and shared many components with other Volkswagen Group cars. The third and fourth (current) generation use the Volkswagen Group MQB platform, also used by the Audi A3 Mk3 and Mk4, Volkswagen Golf Mk7 and Mk8 and Škoda Octavia Mk3 and Mk4.

First generation (1M; 1999)
The initial SEAT León (Volkswagen Group Typ 1M), launched in 1999, available only as hatchback, and the related saloon version was known as the SEAT Toledo. It was based on the Volkswagen Group A4 (PQ34) platform and, as such, shared many components in common with other VW Group models such as the Volkswagen Golf Mk4, Bora and Audi A3. It was mainly produced at SEAT's Martorell plant with a small number of 13,401 cars assembled in 2000 at VW group's plant in Belgium. As SEAT's first C-segment model as part of the VW Group, the León Mk1 was marketed as a sportier and cheaper variant of the Golf. To reinforce the sporty image, the vehicle had slightly more aggressive looks. The more expensive versions were equipped with relatively more powerful internal combustion engines, along with firmer suspension to improve handling. In the interior, the dashboard was derived from that of the first-generation Audi A3.

Available engines were the 1.4-litre 16 valve petrol engine which produced a 55 kW, a 1.6-litre 8 valve petrol engine 74 kW (replaced later with a 16 valve 77 kW unit), and included two variants of the Volkswagen Group's 20 valve turbocharged 1.8-litre powerplant, (with some countries also getting the 2.8-litre VR6 engine delivering 150 kW.

The original "León 20VT" (which later became known as the "Cupra" and then the "FR") had a 1.8-litre Turbo with 132 kW, and the "León Cupra R" 154 kW, later becoming 165 kW. It became first available in only three body paints (red, yellow, black), picked as an homage to the colors of both Spain's and Germany's national flags referring back to the roots of the joint project the model originally was.

In some countries, there was also a "Cupra 4"; equipped with a 2.8-litre VR6 delivering 150 kW and equipped with four-wheel drive (4WD), based on the same Haldex Traction multi-plate clutch as the Volkswagen Golf 4motion.

A range of turbocharged direct injection (TDI) diesel engines was available, including a 110 kW version of Volkswagen Group's 1.9 TDI engine, originally sold as a "Cupra 4 TDI", with 4WD, that was sold for one year only, and only in certain countries, then passed to "Evolution" series, then "Top Sport", and later rebranded as the "FR" ('Formula Racing'). In other countries the model was badged "Cupra" and then "FR" before a limited number of cars were fitted with the bodykit from the petrol powered "Cupra R" and named the "FR+". Lesser diesel versions were available with 66 kW, 81 kW and 96 kW outputs.

All engines over 96 kW have a standard six-speed manual transmission. Rear suspension was by semi-independent torsion beam for most variants, whilst high-end and 4WD models were fitted with a multi-link independent rear suspension. All versions came with disc brakes on all four wheels (the front ventilated, and in some cars the rear too).

In Mexico, the León became a very popular car with upper class young people. The only problem the León has suffered in Mexico is the fact that the sport tuned suspension of the León is not designed to withstand the constant road imperfections such as potholes and speed bumps that abound in Mexican roads.

In Switzerland, there was another official version tuned by Abt Sportsline of the León called "SEAT León Cupra 4 Kompressor". This version had the same 4WD and 2.8-litre VR6 but with 206 kW and 323 Nm of torque.

Factory production of the Typ 1M ended in May 2006. However, the appreciation for the SEAT León Cupra R Mk1's appeal remained clear, still up to the 'best hot hatchback of all time' poll, conducted in 2010 by Autocar, in which its readers honoured the Cupra R #7, in the top ten list of hatchbacks of all time in their preferences.

Awards

 * 'Carro do Ano' (Car of the Year) award in 2001, in Portugal
 * 'Most Satisfactory Car of the Year 2007' in Poland, by the Polish magazine Auto Swiat

Engine choices
The Typ 1M SEAT León was available with the following internal combustion engines, with most being shared from other marques of the Volkswagen Group:

Second generation (1P; 2005)
The second generation León, Typ 1P, was released in 2005, with factory production commencing May 2005. It was based on the Volkswagen Group A5 (PQ35) platform, most notably used by the Volkswagen Golf Mk5. It was built in Spain, and had a sharper exterior look with vertically parked windscreen wipers, and the external rear door handles more integrated, in a similar style to that seen on recent Alfa Romeo models. Design was handled by Walter de'Silva, and the car used the same design style that started with the SEAT Altea. Volkswagen's Driver Steering Recommendation (DSR) was available on the León.

The base model offered was the new 16 valve 1.2-litre TSI petrol engine with 77 kW. In some markets (e.g. Greece, Romania and Italy), the Leon was available with a 1.4-litre MPI engine producing 85 PS. The sportier variants began with the 110 kW 2.0-litre Fuel Stratified Injection (FSI) and the popular 103 kW 2.0-litre Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) diesel engine. Both were fitted with a standard six-speed manual transmission, with the six-speed or seven-speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) available as an option. A 136 kW variant of the 2.0 TFSI unique to the León was later introduced, but despite a low list price and rapid performance attracted only minimal attention and average reviews, so this was later discontinued to make way for the sportier FR variants.

The first real sporty León within the new range was the León FR with twin-exhaust pipes to left rear, sport seats and gear stick with FR logo to distinguish it from lesser models, was introduced in June 2006, when it finally received the 147 kW 2.0 TFSI engine from the Volkswagen Golf Mk5 GTI, as well as a 125 kW variant of the 2.0 TDI unit featured in the Golf and Audi A3. Further standard equipment included climate control air conditioning.

Next in the range was the 2.0 TFSI Cupra model. It features a 240 PS engine, and a 0-100 km/h time of 6.4 seconds. The Cupra came with standard 18" 5 twin-spoke alloys, red brake calipers, and the standard Cupra oval exhaust, as well as new, unique paint finishes and bolstered sport seats complete with the Cupra logo. Also standard were drilled-aluminium sports pedals.

At the top of the range was the 2.0 TFSI Cupra R. This used the same 265 PS engine found in the Audi S3, Golf R and Scirocco R. Capable of 0–100 km/h in 6.2 seconds and a top speed limited to 250 km/h.

From 2008, the K1 variant of the León Cupra was introduced in the UK, featuring extensively reworked front and rear bumpers, side skirts, a more pronounced tailgate spoiler. It also gained a unique chrome-tipped, centrally-mounted, oval exhaust. The K1 was considered to be a limited edition model, only available in the UK market for the year 2008–2009.

In 2009, the SEAT León Cupra was turned into a race car in the SEAT Cupra race mobile game for Apple iPhone/iPod Touch available through the iTunes' App store. In the same year, the Leon range received a facelift.

Awards

 * 'Red dot' award in 2006
 * 'Best Car of the Year 2009' for the import compact car segment in Germany, by the German magazine Auto-motor-und-sport
 * 'Firmenauto des Jahres 2006', by the German magazine Firmenauto
 * 'Car of the Year 2006' in Denmark
 * 'Diesel Car of the Year 2006' in Scotland (for the 170 hp 2.0 TDI León FR)
 * 'Auto 1' of the Year 2006 in Spain, by the magazine Auto Bild
 * 'University Car of the Year 2007' in Spain, by Spanish university students
 * 'Hellenic Car of the Year 2007'
 * 'GTI of the Year 2006–2007' in Greece for the SEAT León Cupra, by the Greek magazine 4-Trohoi

Copa Edition
In 2008, SEAT Deutschland announced the production of 55 units of the SEAT León Copa Edition. This limited edition was powered with 2.0 TFSI engine improved to 285 PS of maximum power, and 360 Nm. Maximum speed is 254 km/h and 0-100 km/h time is 5.9 seconds. The suspension was from Eibach derived from the León Supercopa, and the brakes had been improved to cope with the enhanced performance from the uprated engine. In addition, the car included xenon HID headlights, 18 inch wheels and a spoiler with larger air intakes. The car colour was white with black stripes.

SEAT México announced the production of 100 units of the Copa Edition in orange colour with black stripes in September 2008. The Mexican version had a sunroof, whilst the European León Copa did not.

Streetcopa and World Champion Edition
At the 2008 Geneva Auto Show, the León Streetcopa limited edition was released. It was a similar edition of León Copa Edition with some changes, designed for the Swiss market and limited to 200 units. Lately, after SEAT won World Touring Car Championship, SEAT Schweiz released a facelifted version called Leon World Champion Edition, also limited to 200 units.

Cupra 310 Limited Edition
SEAT Nederland announced the production of León Cupra 310 Limited Edition, with 2.0 TFSI engine upgraded to 310 PS of maximum power and 425 Nm. The production was limited to 100 units.

It came only in Candy white or Infiri black. The Cupra 310 Limited Edition featured beside the OEM Cupra equipment an engine management remapping by Abt Sportsline, black Orion-alloy wheels, an alarm system, Bluetooth connectivity and special 310 Limited Edition badges on the sides and the rear hatch. There were also stainless decals inside the front door frames displaying the 310 Ltd logo. A badge on the dashboard displayed the serial number, and the car was delivered with a key ring to match. Full factory warranty was retained with the power increase that increased the top speed to 259 km/h.

Cupra Pies Descalzos
In 2007, SEAT prepared a sole car customized by Shakira. This car was auctioned, and the benefits went to the charity through Pies Descalzos Foundation. Mechanically, it is the same car as the León Cupra.

León Twin Drive concepts
SEAT produced two versions of the Twin Drive prototype. Initially announced in May 2009 as a diesel/battery hybrid, the León Twin Drive Ecomotive was a series plug-in hybrid, powered by an electric motor, through lithium-ion batteries chargeable at a regular electrical socket, in combination with a diesel-powered internal combustion engine. The Twin Drive Ecomotive project was a first step towards a 100% electric car and was planned to go into production in 2014.

The Twin Drive Ecomotive as a plug-in hybrid vehicle powered through the combination of both a diesel engine and an electric motor. The vehicle's electric motor had an output of 35 KW and a self-imposed top speed of 100 km/h, and resumed power from Li-ion batteries placed at the rear of the vehicle, giving it a range of about 50 km for short urban circuits, while for longer trips the environmentally friendly tuned combustion engine was used. Quick battery recharging process from the mains through regular power sockets features.

In 2011, a revised version of the Twin Drive was shown to the press, with a 1.4TSI petrol engine producing 113 bhp in addition to a 40 bhp generator and an electric motor of 113 bhp, producing a combined limited output of 161 bhp and emitting a low 39g/km of, with production now estimated in 2015.

Engine specifications
The Typ 1P SEAT León is available with the following internal combustion engines, and like the previous generation, many are shared from other marques of the Volkswagen Group:

A flexible-fuel vehicle model is also on offer under the label "MultiFuel", featuring the 1.6 MPI E85 102 bhp engine.

Third generation (5F; 2012)
The third generation of the León is based on the Volkswagen Group's latest MQB platform, which is shared with the seventh generation Volkswagen Golf.

Compared to the previous generation, the León Mk3 is shorter by 5 cm and lighter by up to 90 kg; however, because its wheelbase has been extended by 5.8 cm, it has a roomier cabin with greater shoulder room for the front and rear passengers, more rear legroom and 380 L of boot space. The first official information and pictures of the car were released on 16 July 2012, with its public debut at the 2012 Paris Motor Show in September. It is the second car to be based on the MQB platform.

It features new safety equipment, such as driver knee airbag, and a number of new safety systems, including (often as standard) a multi-collision braking system to automatically brake the car after an accident in order to avoid a second collision, a lane-keeping assistant, and driver fatigue detection. The braking system includes a hill-start assistant.

In the interior, there is a driver-oriented centre console hosting a 5.8-inch touch-screen infotainment display with some models featuring a proximity sensor, also used in the Volkswagen Golf, as well as ambient lighting.

A new feature available for the first time in its class are the optional full-LED headlamps combined with a full beam assistant. The full-LED headlamps offer numerous advantages over standard halogen bulbs such as improved illumination, a close to daylight colour temperature, lower energy consumption and an extended service life. The front fog lights can include a cornering feature.

The higher specification also have a new "SEAT Drive Profile" system which allows the driver to choose between four different driving settings: eco, normal, sport, and an individual setting. This system controls the behaviour of the engine, steering, and DSG gearbox. Additionally, the 1.8 TSI 180PS and 2.0 TDI 184PS engine-equipped models will vary their engine sound via a sound actuator, as well as their interior ambient lighting between white (normal, eco and individual) and red (sport).

SEAT announced in early 2012 that the range would include for the first time three-door and estate models in addition to a five-door.

In September 2013, SEAT officially unveiled the León ST (estate model) at the Frankfurt Motor Show. The León ST extends the León's maximum load capacity to 1470 litres and is available in Europe in three different versions and eleven different engine options. On 23 June 2014, SEAT revealed an off-road version of the León ST called the X-PERIENCE.

In August 2018, SEAT discontinued the Léon SC due to lower demands for three-door hatchbacks.

Facelift
In January 2017, the León received a subtle facelift which included a reshaped front bumper with a grille that has been stretched by 40mm and features restyled LED headlights. New engine options available included a 115 bhp 1.0-litre three-cylinder turbo petrol and 115 bhp 1.6-litre diesel. Interior changes included an electric parking brake with Hill Hold Control (HHC) as standard, a larger eight-inch touchscreen infotainment system with Apple CarPlay, Android Auto and MirrorLink.

New safety systems included Traffic Sign Recognition, Pedestrian Protection System, and blind-spot warning systems. Also available was Traffic Jam Assist - which allows the León to accelerate and brake automatically in traffic jams up to 37 mph. "Kessy" - SEAT's keyless automatic locking and starting system was another upgrade available. A new flagship XCELLENCE trim level was also introduced.

León Cupra
SEAT León Cupra 265, was produced from 2014 to 2016, fitted with a turbocharged 265 PS, 2-litre 16-valve, inline-four petrol engine, capable of 0-62 mph in 6.2 seconds and with a maximum speed of 250 km/h. Available with a 6-speed manual gearbox or 6-speed DSG automatic gearbox.

SEAT León Cupra 280, was manufactured between 2014 and 2015, powered by a 280 PS version of the Cupra 265's engine, capable of 0-62 mph in 5.8 seconds and limited to 250 km/h. Available with either a 6-speed manual gearbox or 6-speed DSG automatic gearbox. The 280 was fitted with 19-inch alloy wheels and Brembo brakes as standard.

The Sub8 Performance pack was launched in August 2014 for the Cupra 280, it featured side skirts, lightweight 19-inch alloy wheels and 30 mm larger ventilated brake discs with Brembo calipers. Michelin Pilot Sport Cup 2 tyres could be ordered at extra cost. Also included is a VAQ electronically controlled limited-slip differential that aids traction. Power remained unchanged at 280 hp (metric) and a 0-60 mph time of 5.7 seconds.

The Ultimate Sub8 pack was launched in February 2015 for the Cupra 280, which included several weight-saving measures including: removing the León's centre armrest, standard climate control system is replaced with a smaller heater, reducing the number of speakers from eight to four, removing the centre console armrest, front storage units, and rear air vents.

SEAT León Cupra 290, was manufactured between 2015 and 2016, as a replacement for Cupra 280 - powered by the same 2-litre engine from the Cupra 280, but with an extra 10 bhp. The Cupra 290 can accelerate 0-62 mph in 5.8 seconds and onto a top speed of 155 mph. Available with either a 6-speed manual gearbox or 6-speed DSG automatic gearbox. The 290 came in three body styles - three-door hatchback (León SC), five-door hatchback (León) and five-door estate (León ST) – and in a higher-specification Black version; which included sports seats, special 19in multi-spoke alloy wheels, and black detailing.

SEAT León Cupra 300, was manufactured between 2017–2018 to replace the Cupra 290, it used the same 2 Litre turbocharged engine from León Cupra 290 but boosted to 296 bhp and capable of 0-62 mph in 5.8 seconds. Available with either a 6-speed manual gearbox or 6-speed DSG automatic gearbox. ST estate version was fitted with a DSG gearbox and all-wheel drive as standard.

In response to new WLTP testing regimes, SEAT announced in 2018 that the León Cupra 300 would be replaced with a new León Cupra 290. Changes to the revised model included the addition of a gasoline particulate filter (GPF), and as the name suggests, gave the 2WD hatchback a 290 PS power output. The ST Estate retained its 300 PS power output, but was also fitted with a GPF system.

The León Cupra R is limited to 799 units based on the standard Cupra 300 but with an uprated 310 PS 2 Litre turbocharged engine; with a 0-62 mph time of 5.8 seconds and a top speed of 155 mph. Cupra Rs were available only with a six-speed manual gearbox in the UK and only 24 Right Hand Drive units have been built. External changes include exclusive 19-inch alloy wheels, reprofiled bumpers with larger front intakes, flared side skirts, and carbon fibre front splitter, side skirts, rear diffuser and roof-mounted spoiler and matt bronzer accent over the externals.

Safety
In 2012, the SEAT León Mk3 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 5-star overall rating:

In 2013, the Spanish-made SEAT León Mk3 in its most basic Latin American market configuration was tested for its safety performance under the Latin NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved 5 stars for adult occupants and 4 stars for toddlers:

In 2015, the Spanish-made SEAT León ST in its most basic Latin American market configuration was tested for its safety performance under the Latin NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved 5 stars for adult occupants and 5 stars for toddlers:

Awards

 * Euro NCAP advanced reward for SEAT's Multi Collision Brake system
 * Euro NCAP advanced reward for SEAT's Lane Assist system

León CONNECT
The SEAT León CONNECT is a special edition model that was released in 2015. It is equipped with SEAT's Full Link Technology and a Samsung Galaxy A3 smartphone. This technology allows the user's phone to be connected to the car's infotainment system and gives the user access to all the features of the SEAT ConnectApp. The SEAT León CONNECT has a range of exterior body colours that allow the mirrors and wheels to be customised. Interior details, including stitching are in Blue.

Limited Editions
799 units of the SEAT León Cupra R were built in a limited production run. Among these units only 24 of them are Right Hand Drive models solely distributed to the United Kingdom Market only. All RHD models are only available in six-speed manual and the LHD models are also available in the six-speed DSG Gearbox.

SEAT León Cupra ST 300 Carbon Edition went on sale in 2018 with only 50 allocated for sale in the United Kingdom. Based on the León ST Cupra 300, the Carbon Edition is fitted with the same 296 bhp 2.0-litre four-cylinder petrol engine mated to a six-speed DSG gearbox and Haldex all-wheel-drive system. Capable of 0-62 mph in 4.9 seconds and a top speed that is limited to 155 mph. Only available in Monsoon Grey paintwork, while other new exterior touches include carbon front and rear diffusers, fibre side blades, and Cupra R 19-inch black and bright silver alloy wheels.

Seat León Cupra R Abt 4Drive ST was produced in 2019 and its 2lt engine power increased from 296 bhp to 345 bhp and 0-62 mph in 4.5 seconds; top speed is limited to 155 mph. The ABT upgrade includes a copper body kit, 19-inch alloy wheels, Brembo brakes, and quad exhausts; the front splitter and rear diffuser, side skirts, and roof-mounted spoiler are all finished in carbon fibre. A seven-speed dual-clutch automatic gearbox and four-wheel drive are fitted as standard. To improve cornering speed and handling performance, new uprights have been added that modifies the negative camber to 2 degrees, at the front and back. Only 150 were allocated for sale in the United Kingdom.

Engine specifications
The Typ 5F SEAT León is available with the following internal combustion engines all featuring direct injection and turbocharging, and like the previous generations they are shared with other marques of the Volkswagen Group:

Fourth generation (KL1/KL8; 2020)

A fourth generation of León was presented on 28 January 2020. It shares the MQB platform with the Volkswagen Golf Mk8, Skoda Octavia Mk4 and Audi A3 Mk4. It has an all digital cluster, is full LED-Light equipped and will have a wide range of gasoline, diesel, plug-in hybrid and electric engines.

The fourth-generation León is 16mm narrower and 90mm longer than the previous generation of León. The five-door León boot capacity of 380 litres has remained unchanged, and the Estate's storage is increased by 30 litres to 617 litres compared to the previous generation.

Engine options are two petrol TSI engines – a 1-litre three-cylinder producing 108 bhp and a 1.5-litre four-cylinder with either 128 bhp or 148 bhp. The TDI diesel option is a 2-litre producing either 113 bhp or 148 bhp.

Also available is a (CNG) compressed natural gas 1.5 litre TGI unit that produces 96 kW/130PS of power giving the CNG-powered SEAT León a CNG range of 440 km (273 miles). When CNG tanks are depleted, the engine switches automatically to run on petrol until the next CNG refuelling.

The eTSI mild hybrid has a 48V electric motor and is available with either the 109 bhp 1-litre or 148 bhp 1.5 litre petrol engine. The system allows the León to coast with the engine switched off during some driving scenarios and recover energy under braking which is then stored in a 48V lithium-ion battery.

The Plug-in Hybrid (eHybrid) 1.4-litre TSI petrol engine electric motor with a 13kWh lithium-ion battery to produce 150 kW/204PS of power, switching to petrol only when its battery needs recharging to produce an electric-only 60 km (38 miles) range. Charging is quoted at just 3.5 hours via a 3.6 kW AC socket; it takes 6 hours to charge it from a 230V socket. To date, this is the most powerful SEAT ever produced that does not wear a Cupra badge. It is the only Leon in the range to have rear multilink suspension and, when ordered in FR trim, it forgoes the 15mm lower suspension. As of 2022, the PHEV model production has been suspended due to a worldwide shortage of components, leaving the model to be much sought after on the second hand market.

The engines can be chosen with a six-speed manual, a six-speed DSG (direct-shift gearbox) automatic transmission or 7-speed DSG automatic transmission on smaller engines that have a torque output of up to 250Nm/184 lb ft. The 7-speed dual-clutch automatic transmission's dry clutch technology results in weight savings, reduced fuel consumption and emissions.

Standard equipment include: "KESSY" automatic locking and starting system, electronic parking brake, an eight-inch infotainment system, two USB ports, LED headlights with automatic high beam, electric and heated side mirrors, cloth upholstery, leather steering wheel and gear stick, and SEAT Connect.

The León is available in seven trim levels, starting with: SE with 16" alloy wheels, 8.25" touchscreen media system and rear parking sensors; SE Dynamic adds 17" alloys wheels, digital Cockpit, 10" touchscreen media system and Park assist (including front and rear parking sensor); FR adds  FR Styling, sports suspension, automatic headlights, and Rain sensing wipers; FR First Edition adds 18" alloy wheels, predictive & adaptive Cruise Control, rear view camera and wireless phone charger; FR Sport adds heated front seats, Lane Assist and rear tinted windows; XCELLENCE adds microsuede upholstery and KESSY Advanced (keyless entry and start); and XCELLENCE Lux adds 18" Aerodynamic Performance alloy wheels, leather upholstery and interior wraparound lighting.

Safety
Standard equipment include: Blind Spot Detection, Exit Assist (alerts driver to any approaching vehicles visually and acoustically; stopping the car if necessary), Collision Assist (if an imminent collision is detected, sensors prepare the vehicle and its occupants by pre-tensioning seat belts and closing windows), Emergency Assist (if the driver seems inactive behind the wheel, it will activate the hazard lights, keep the car in its lane and then will apply the brakes until the car is brought to a gentle stop) and Predictive Adaptive Cruise Control.

Seven airbags, including a new standard front-central airbag that prevents possible head injuries between the driver and front passenger in the event of a side collision, are now standard.

In 2020, the SEAT León Mk4 was tested for its safety performance under the Euro NCAP assessment scheme and it achieved a 5-star overall rating:

Technology
The León features digital cockpit on all but the basic model; Full Link technology with MirrorLink, Android Auto and Apple CarPlay - compatible with most smartphones on the market. The standard Infotainment system boasts an 8.25" screen, whilst higher spec models have the larger 10" screen Navi system that offers 3D connected navigation and voice control as well as gesture recognition. The optional Connectivity Box allows wireless phone charging. Two USB type C ports are fitted as standard in the front cabin, with higher trim models having an additional two ports in the rear cabin. eSIM which features eCall service as standard will contact the emergency services directly in case of a serious accident.

Optional equipment
Optional features (some of which are standard on higher models) include Rear View Camera, BeatsAudio 9-speaker sound system, Park Assist, leather sport seats, and LED exterior lighting with automatic headlight adjustment.

Optional equipment could be ordered individually or combined into packages were also available at extra cost.

The 'Winter Pack' includes Heated front seats, wash water and steering wheel.

The 'Convenience Pack' includes Rain and auto-dimming light sensor with Coming and Leaving Home, windshield wiper intermittent control and breakaway interior rearview mirror.

The 'Safe Pack' includes Forward collision warning with braking reaction to vehicles, cyclists and pedestrians. It includes multi-functional camera, speed limiter, lane keeping system and driver alert system.

Cupra León
The León is also produced under SEAT's sister brand, Cupra and is available in 242 bhp or 296 bhp 2.0-litre turbocharged petrol engines. For a lower centre of gravity, the Cupra León sits 25mm lower at the front and 20mm lower at the rear compared to the regular Seat León.

Top of the range is the estate-only 306 bhp Cupra ST 4Drive, with four-wheel-drive system and a DSG 'box. Performance figures for this Cupra ST 4Drive are rated at 4.8sec to 62mph, while top speed is limited to 155mph.

The Cupra León (PHEV) e-Hybrid's powertrain comprises a 242bhp turbocharged 1.4-litre four-cylinder petrol engine, an 113 horsepower electric motor, and a 13kWh lithium battery pack. The system produces 400Nm of torque, reaching 0–62mph in 6.7 seconds. Seat claim it has a pure electric range of 32 miles, 217.3mpg and a 30g/km of emissions figure.

Both 242bhp versions are fitted with 18-inch alloy wheels as standard, while the higher-output models are fitted with 19-inch alloy wheels and 370mm front discs with Brembo calipers.

The Cupra León 300TSI went on sale in early 2021 and features a turbocharged 2.0-litre four-cylinder petrol engine which produces 296bhp and 400Nm of torque; 0-62mph time of 5.7 seconds and a top speed of 155mph. Available in two versions: The entry-level VZ2 variant features 19-inch alloy wheels, black brake calipers, a quad exhaust system, and copper-coloured exterior detailing. VZ3 model gets a different set of 19-inch alloys, a wireless phone charger, heated leather seats, and a heated steering wheel.

Facelift
A facelift for the Cupra Leon that adopts the new Tavascan design language is under development.

Awards
The fourth generation León has won several awards including: Golden Steering Wheel Award for the SEAT León 1.5 eTSI model in the "Best price/product ratio up to 35,000 euros" category. In December 2020, The new SEAT León was voted "AUTOBEST 2021", the European accolade for the "Best Buy Car of Europe 2021". In January 2021, the Seat Leon 1.5 TSI 130 Evo FR was named Family Car of the Year by What Car? magazine. What Car? awarded the León five stars out of five in its review of the car.

SEAT León in motorsport
The first generation SEAT León Cupra R was the basis of a one-make trophy, the SEAT Leon Supercopa. It operated in Spain, UK, Germany and Turkey from 2003. The car was developed by SEAT Sport and power was raised to 184 kW. An "International Masters" final, featuring the best four drivers from each national series, was introduced in October 2005, as a support race for the Spanish GT Championship's final round at Montmeló. A TDI-powered version has raced in the ECTS, an Italian-based endurance series for touring cars.

In 2006, the Supercopa León was replaced by the new shape León. The car is potentially faster than the WTCC version, as it features a turbocharged 2.0-litre engine, with over 221 kW, increased torque, the DSG gearbox, better aerodynamics (it includes the WTCC car's front and rear spoilers, plus a venturi tunnel under the car, instead of a flat bottom), and 18 inch wheels, instead of the mandatory 17 inch wheels from the WTCC.

For 2007, the SEAT Cupra Championship in the UK (part of the TOCA Package) will run both 'New León' Cupra Race cars with 221 kW, as well as the Mk1 León Cupra R race car with 184 kW.

The SEAT Leon Eurocup began in 2008 as a support series for the World Touring Car Championship.

The car came top in Class D in the 2014 Liqui Moly Bathurst 12 Hour.

SEAT León Super 2000 car
During 2005, SEAT introduced the second generation León into the World Touring Car Championship (WTCC) to replace the Toledo Cupra which it had raced in the early rounds of the title. The car featured several modifications, including a racing engine that developed over 191 kW, a Hewland sequential-shift gearbox (unrelated to the DSG), and an aerodynamic package for increased downforce (with its hatchback shape, the León was disadvantaged against conventional three-box saloons). Minimum weight is 1140 kg with driver. SEAT Sport, in partnership with Oreca, ran six cars in the WTCC. Two other cars were run by SEAT Sport UK (Northern South) based in Northampton, UK in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC). A further two cars were run by SEAT Sport Italia in the Italia Superturismo Championship.

In mid-2007 SEAT introduced the León TDI to combat BMW's dominance by utilizing 2.0-liter Volkswagen EA189 TDI inline-4 turbodiesel engine. The car did show promise with Yvan Muller behind the wheel and the team was set to score championship win in Macau, but reliability issues caused Muller an retirement in Race 1 and the engine problems weren't solved in time thus not starting in Race 2 and handing the title to Andy Priaulx with BMW 320si.

In 2008, Muller won the FIA World Touring Car Championship for Drivers at the wheel of a León TDI, and SEAT won the Manufacturers' title. León TDI was also fielded by SEAT UK in the British Touring Car Championship with Jason Plato being the lead driver. Plato finished second behind Fabrizio Giovanardi with Vauxhall in the drivers' championship. At the end of the season SEAT UK withdrew from the series and subsequently this was the only season where León TDI competed in the BTCC.

In 2009, Gabriele Tarquini became the Drivers' Champion with the León TDI, and SEAT won the Manufacturers' title for a second consecutive year. At the end of the season SEAT Sport officially ended their manufacturer support. León TDI cars were entered by Sunred Engineering for the following season and despite not having official manufacturer support from SEAT, in the manufacturers' championship the entity was named SEAT Customers Technology. Tarquini finished second in the drivers' standings behind Yvan Muller with Chevrolet.

For 2011, new rules were introduced in WTCC, incorporating a new engine formula - 1.6 turbocharged engines, similar to those used in the World Rally Championship. In line with the changes Sunred created the SUNRED SR León 1.6T, using the then León TDI as base. The cars, however, were not ready for the start of the season, and Sunred drivers used the older León TDI, which was still eligible to enter thanks to the Jay Ten Trophy, introduced by the series promoter Eurosport for 2010-spec cars.

In 2012, SEAT Sport unofficially returned to the series introducing the SEAT León WTCC, effectively replacing the SR León from Sunred, to privateer entries. Some drivers like Tom Boardman and Tiago Monteiro started the season using the old León TDI. The TDI version was still eligible in the European Touring Car Cup where Fernando Monje won the 2012 championship. For the following season León TDI was banned from ETC Cup and with everyone now upgraded to the León WTCC 2012 marked the last time diesel car was entered in WTCC and ETCC. The Léon WTCC continued to be eligible until the introduction of TC1 in 2014 (although León WTCC was able to be entered in the TC2 class in the same year as TC1's introduction).

León Cup Racer and León TCR
In 2013 SEAT Sport introduced a concept car, based on the third generation of León. Initially it was thought that this would be the car in which SEAT Sport would return to the series with full manufacturer team under the new TC1 regulations. However SEAT Sport announced that the car would be part of the revived León Eurocup for 2014.

The León Cup Racer then formed the base for the newly formed TCR International Series. The TCR regulations use this car as a template for the aerodynamic portions of the cars. In 2016 SEAT Sport introduced a TCR-spec version of the León with the original Cup Racer still being eligible in the International Series as well as national and regional championship utilising the TCR regulations.

León (NGTC)
Team HARD Racing built and ran four new Cupra León cars for the 2021 season. The drivers were announced to be Glynn Geddie, Jack Goff, Nicolas Hamilton and Árón Taylor-Smith. As of Brands Hatch race 3, the car has scored points in every race as well as a podium, courtesy of Goff.

León e-Racer (ETCR)
The Cupra e-Racer is an electric car touring car. It competed in the e-TCR electric touring car racing series, against competitors from Hyundai and Alfa Romeo, securing the manufacturer's championship following the inaugural season in 2021 and the second season in 2022.

Sales and production figures
Since its launch in 1999, more than 2 million SEAT León cars have been produced and sold in its three generations up to the present, made in SEAT's Martorell plant and other Volkswagen Group's factories.

In the year 2011, the total annual retail sales number of SEAT León cars was 77,075 vehicles, while the annual production of vehicles came up to 80,736 units.

The total production per year of SEAT León cars, manufactured in SEAT and other Volkswagen Group's plants, is shown below :

title: SEAT León


text:
Force de dissuasion

The Force de dissuasion ('Deterrence Force'), known as the Force de frappe ('Strike Force') prior to 1961, is the French nuclear deterrence force. The Force de dissuasion used to be a triad of air-, sea- and land-based nuclear weapons intended for dissuasion, the French term for deterrence. Following the end of the Cold War, France decommissioned all its land-based nuclear missiles, thus the Force de dissuasion today only incorporates an air- and sea-based arsenal.

The French Nuclear Force, part of the French military, is the fourth largest nuclear-weapons force in the world, after the nuclear triads of the United States, the Russian Federation and the People's Republic of China.

On 27 January 1996, France conducted its last nuclear test in the South Pacific and then signed the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in September 1996. In March 2008, French President Nicolas Sarkozy confirmed reports giving the actual size of France's nuclear arsenal and he announced that France would reduce its French Air Force-carried nuclear arsenal by 30%, leaving the Force de Frappe with 290 warheads.

In addition to its nuclear military programme, France has a large peaceful nuclear programme and ranks as one of the world's largest generators of nuclear power.

History
The decision to arm France with nuclear weapons was made in 1954 by the administration of Pierre Mendès-France under the Fourth Republic. President Charles de Gaulle, upon his return to power in 1958, solidified the initial vision into the well-defined concept of a fully independent Force de Frappe that would be capable of protecting France from a Soviet or other foreign attack and independent of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, which de Gaulle considered to be too dominated by the United States. In particular, France was concerned that in the event of a Soviet invasion of Western Europe, the US, already bogged down in the Vietnam War and afraid of Soviet retaliation against the United States, would not come to the aid of its allies in Western Europe. De Gaulle felt that France should never entrust its defense and therefore its very existence to a foreign and thus unreliable protector.

The strategic concept behind the Force de Frappe is one of countervalue, the capacity to inflict so much damage on a potential (and more powerful) adversary's population that the potential adversary will be deterred from attacking, no matter how much destruction it can inflict (mutual assured destruction). This principle is usually referred to in French political debate as dissuasion du faible au fort ("deterrence from the weak to the strong") and was summarized in a statement attributed to de Gaulle himself:

"Within ten years, we shall have the means to kill 80 million Russians. I truly believe that one does not light-heartedly attack people who are able to kill 80 million Russians, even if one can kill 800 million French, that is if there were 800 million French."

General Pierre Marie Gallois said, "Making the most pessimistic assumptions, the French nuclear bombers could destroy ten Russian cities; and France is not a prize worthy of ten Russian cities".

In his book La paix nucléaire (1975), French Navy Admiral Marc de Joybert explained deterrence:

"Sir, I have no quarrel with you, but I warn you in advance and with all possible clarity that if you invade me, I shall answer at the only credible level for my scale, which is the nuclear level. Whatever your defenses, you shan't prevent at least some of my missiles from reaching your home and causing the devastation that you are familiar with. So, renounce your endeavour and let us remain good friends."

While not referred to as such, the French nuclear posture of the time bears some significant similarities to other common policies of the era such as mutually assured destruction and massive retaliation. It remains unknown whether the French government ever seriously considered its policy different from other NATO member strategies or if their public statements were more aimed to improve morale and confidence in the French population.

It may seem that on the surface, an avowed policy of attacking civilians was a significant departure from the typical nuclear policies of the time, but it was common for states to refer to their nuclear abilities in terms of numbers of cities destroyed. Moreover, hydrogen bombs are so powerful that if used to their full potential high civilian casualties and related collateral damage would be inevitable, thus making it unclear as to whether targeting military forces would produce a meaningfully different result compared to targeting population centers. Perhaps the most significant difference in French strategy is that it includes the option of a first strike attack, even in response to non-nuclear provocation.

France carried out its first test of an atomic bomb in Algeria in 1960 and some operational French nuclear weapons became available in 1964. Then, France executed its first test of the much more powerful hydrogen bomb over its South Pacific Ocean test range in 1968.

De Gaulle's vision of the Force de Frappe featured the same triad of air-based, land-based and sea-based weapons that were deployed by both the United States and the Soviet Union. Work on the components had started in the late 1950s and was accelerated as soon as de Gaulle became the president.

Air
Initially, the Force de Frappe had an airbase component of the Strategic Air Forces Command (Commandement des Forces Aeriennes Strategique (CFAS)) of the French Air Force, established in 1955 and operating 40 Sud Aviation Vautour IIB bombers. They were considered marginal for a strategic bomber role, and work began almost immediately on a replacement resulting in the Mirage III.

In May 1956, a requirement for what became the Dassault Mirage IV bomber was drawn up; the bomber was designed to carry AN-11 nuclear gravity bombs over targets in the Eastern bloc at supersonic speeds and was declared operational in October 1964. It was later modernized and converted to carry its successor, the AN-22 bomb. The Mirage IV-P version was armed with the ASMP missile and entered service in 1986. All bomber versions of the Mirage IV retired in 1996.

From 1973 to 2003, the CFAS also operated SEPECAT Jaguars, limited nuclear capable of using the tactical AN-52 nuclear bomb, which were certified for supersonic flight. A total of 100 were built from 1972 to 1982. They were compatible with modified Mirage III fighters and later with the standard Jaguar. The Mirage 2000 was theoretically capable of carrying it but never did so. The AN-52's were deactivated and placed into storage in 1991.

The Mirage 2000N entered service in 1988 and can carry gravity bombs, the ASMP and the new longer-ranged ASMP-A missile, which entered service 2009. The Mirage 2000N was being replaced by the Dassault Rafale F3 as of 2011.

Land
The land-based component of the French nuclear triad was added in August 1971, when 18 silo-based S2 medium-range ballistic missiles, which achieved operational readiness at French Air Force Aerial Base 200 Saint Christol Albion, in Vaucluse, southern France. Later, the land-based component was augmented with the mobile shortrange Pluton missile and Hadès missile, which were designed to be launched from the front lines at any approaching foreign army. To defend against a Soviet-Warsaw Pact invasion of West Germany, they could be deployed with the French Army in the French Zone of Germany, in Western Germany.

Since the French military judged a full-scale invasion of Western Europe by the Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact Allies to be unlikely to be stopped by conventional armaments, the short-range nuclear missiles were meant as a "final warning" (ultime avertissement in French), which would tell the aggressor that any further advances would trigger a nuclear armageddon upon its major cities and other important targets.

The Pluton missile, introduced in 1974, was retired from service and scrapped beginning in 1993, and its successor, the Hadès missile, was produced in limited numbers during the early 1990s and then withdrawn from the army and placed in arsenal storage in 1995. Next, the French government decided to eliminate all of those missiles, and the last Hadès was dismantled on 23 June 1997. That was the end of the French mobile land-based nuclear missiles.

The French fixed S3 IRBMs at the Plateau d'Albion were considered to be approaching obsolescence and also deemed to be no longer necessary following the fall of the Soviet Union and so also were disposed of. The silos have been imploded and the missile base closed in 1999, eliminating the landbased missile leg of the French nuclear triad.

Sea
The ocean-based, mobile component of the French nuclear triad entered service in December 1971, with the commissioning of its first ballistic missile submarine, the nuclear submarine Le Redoutable, which initially carried 16 M1 intermediate-range ballistic missiles, similar to the US Polaris missiles.

Since then, the ocean-based French nuclear weapons arsenal has been expanded to a squadron of four submarines, one of which is always on patrol. Since 1985, some of the French ballistic missile subs have become obsolete. The subs have been retired and replaced by newer subs that also have 16 missile tubes apiece and carry the more advanced French M45 missile. A new submarine, the Le Terrible, was put into service on 20 September 2010, armed with the M51 missile, which is similar to the US Trident II.

The Aeronavale or French Naval Aviation has operated a fleet of nuclear-armed aircraft since 1962, with the Dassault Etendard IV on its Clemenceau-class aircraft carriers. The Etendard could be armed with AN-52 nuclear gravity bombs. In 1978, the Dassault Super Etendard entered service, giving the Aeronavale a stand-off nuclear strike ability via its Air-Sol Moyenne Portée (ASMP) nuclear missiles. As the Clemenceau class retired from 1997 to 2000, the Super Etendard remained in service on the succeeding R91 Charles-de-Gaulle. Since 2010 it carries Rafale F3 fighters armed with the upgraded ASMP-A nuclear missiles.

Land-based component
France no longer possesses land-based nuclear missiles. The IRBM base aérienne 200 Apt-Saint-Christol at the Plateau d'Albion (Vaucluse) was deactivated in 1996 and its missiles scrapped. All French Army units equipped with short-range missiles such as the Pluton and the Hadès were disbanded, their missiles scrapped and their fissile nuclear materials recycled.

Sea-based component
The French Navy includes a nuclear strategic branch, the Force Océanique Stratégique, which has contained as many as 6 nuclear-powered ballistic missile submarines in service at one time. Up to 2022, the ten SSBNs built for the French Navy are:
 * 6 Redoutable class submarines, armed with 16 M4 IRBMs entered service between 1971 and 1985. The last of these, L'Inflexible (S 615), was retired from service in 2008.
 * 4 Triomphant-class SSBNs: Le Triomphant (S 616), Le Téméraire (S 617), Le Vigilant (S 618), Le Terrible (S 619). Commissioned between 1997 and 2010, each armed with 16 M51 SLBMs.

Air-based component
The Armée de l'air et de l'espace has 54 ASMP-A medium-range air-to-ground missiles with the TNA (Airborne nuclear warhead) at its disposal. These are deployed on the Dassault Rafale B, which fully replaced the Dassault Mirage 2000N in 2018.

The Aviation navale can operate the ASMP-A missile from the Dassault Rafale M (CATOBAR carrier variant). These aircraft are landbased at Landivisiau Naval Air Base and on the aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle when at sea. Thus they can be operated flexibly. The Rafale M is also certified to operate from United States Navy aircraft carriers.

The locations of the nuclear missiles are secret (although many storage facilities are already known to the public, the number of warheads inside is classified and changes frequently). The range of strike aircraft is extended currently by the KC-135 and in the future by the forthcoming Airbus A330 MRTT aerial refueling fleet.

Nuclear ordnance security Gendarmerie
Source:

The Nuclear ordnance security Gendarmerie (French: Gendarmerie de la sécurité des armements nucléaires GSAN) was created in 1964 and is one of the five specialized branches of the French Gendarmerie. It is placed under the supervision the Ministry of Armed Forces and plays a major role in the security chain of the nuclear devices.

The main mission of this specific branch is to secure the government's control over all the nuclear forces and weapons.

More specifically, the gendarmes of this unit are responsible for ensuring the protection and the readiness of the different kinds of missiles used by the French Navy and Air Force.

In order to do so, the GSAN is composed of its own units and of units from other branches of the gendarmerie, temporarily placed under its command like squadrons of the Mobile Gendarmerie to protect the convoys of nuclear weapons components.

Jupiter Command Post
The Jupiter Command Post is a structure in the bunker of the Élysée Palace. It is equipped with means of communication and protection to enable the French president and his advisers to manage crisis situations and to be in contact at all times with other government entities, military command posts and foreign governments. The bunker was built for President Albert Lebrun in 1940 during the Phoney War, and President Valéry Giscard d'Estaing installed its command post in 1978.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Force de dissuasion


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Grünkern

Grünkern (, 'green kernel') is spelt that has been harvested when half ripe and then artificially dried. Grünkern is traditionally produced in the Bauland region in the north-east of Baden-Württemberg (Germany). In response to periods of adverse weather, which destroyed crops, spelt was harvested before it was completely ripe, during the so-called 'dough-ripe phase', at about 50% moisture content. Because the dried kernels exhibited a pleasing flavor when cooked in water, it became traditional to harvest a portion of the spelt crop as grünkern.

As a winter crop, the spelt meant for Grünkern would be harvested at the end of July and subsequently dehydrated, traditionally over a beechwood fire, or in modern times, in heated-air ovens. This preserves the grünkern (by reducing moisture content to 13%) and endows it with its typical taste and aroma. Before further processing, Grünkern must be husked or milled. Grünkern husk has been used as a cattle feed, or as the filler for small pillows which are meant to promote healthy sleep.

The first attested use of grünkern was in southern Germany, (Amorbach), in 1660. Grünkern was added to soups, and was dried by using the residual heat of bakehouses.

The primary harvesting period at the end of July is also seen in old folk proverbs, such as: "Christine, Jagowi, Sankt Anne is Ern! / Schneid't mer kee Korn, / so schneid't mer doch Keern." "Christine, James, Saint Anne means harvest time! / If we don't reap wheat, / we reap grünkern."

title: Grünkern


text:
Bridgewater College

Bridgewater College is a private liberal-arts college in Bridgewater, Virginia. Established in 1880, Bridgewater College admitted both men and women from the time of its founding and was the first four-year liberal arts college in Virginia to do so. Approximately 1,800 students are enrolled.

History
Bridgewater College was established in 1880 as Spring Creek Normal and Collegiate Institute by Daniel Christian Flory. Nine years later, the school was named Bridgewater College and chartered by the Commonwealth of Virginia to grant undergraduate degrees. Bridgewater conferred its first Bachelor of Arts degree on June 1, 1891. In 1895, the Chairman of the Faculty, Walter B. Yount, a graduate of what would become Juniata College and the University of Virginia was named the college's first President. After his retirement in 1910, John S. Flory (an early Bridgewater graduate who also received degrees from other institution and had served on the faculty and as vice-president) succeeded him as the college's president.

Bridgewater College became the first senior co-educational liberal arts college in Virginia and one of the few accredited colleges of its type in the South.

The oldest portion of the Bridgewater College campus, consisting of five fine brick collegiate buildings constructed before 1911, is included in the Bridgewater Historic District. It was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1984.

2022 shooting
On February 1, 2022, 55-year-old campus police officer John Painter and 48-year-old campus safety officer J.J. Jefferson were shot and killed on campus after being called to investigate a suspicious person on campus. The shooter, a 27-year-old former student named Alexander Wyatt Campbell, was later apprehended after a manhunt and suffered a gunshot injury at some point during the incident. In February 2024, Campbell plead guilty to murdering both officers and was sentenced to life in prison.

Repatriation of Native American items
The college is returning sacred funerary belongings and remains that were donated to the college. These items are protected by the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA).

Academics
Bridgewater offers more than 60 majors and minors, awarding the Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science degrees. Bridgewater students have the opportunity to study abroad through the BCA Study Abroad program and May Term Travel Courses.

Bridgewater also offers the Flory Honors Program. Flory Fellows gain access to many opportunities and benefits, including honors sections of general education courses limited to 15 students each, housing within the honors community, and more.

Bridgewater began offering its first masters program in Athletic Training for the 2017–2018 school year, and now offers a Master of Arts in Digital Media Strategy for the 2018–2019 school year. Bridgewater College hopes to include more graduate programs in the future. Bridgewater was ranked #229 in National Liberal arts colleges based on U.S. News Report

Traditions
Annual events at Bridgewater College celebrate tradition, community, alumni, and culture. Founder's Day observance at Bridgewater commemorates the April 3, 1854, birth of Daniel Christian Flory, who began Bridgewater College in 1880, at the age of 26.

Homecoming weekend in October welcomes alumni back to the college with class reunions, outdoor festivities, a home football game and the annual Athletic Hall of Fame banquet.

Athletics
Bridgewater College is a Division III member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and follows guidelines and policies set forth by this governing body. The teams are members of the Old Dominion Athletic Conference (ODAC), which has 14 member institutions.

Alumni

 * G. Steven Agee, former Justice of the Supreme Court of Virginia and now a Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit
 * Pasco Middleton Bowman II, Senior federal judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit
 * David Branshaw, professional golfer.
 * Ray Bussard, former NCAA Championship (1978) winning Men's Swim Coach at University of Tennessee from 1968 to 1989
 * Moses H. W. Chan, Physicist elected to the National Academy of Sciences in 2000
 * Wolfgang Drechsler, German social scientist and government adviser
 * Phil Eyler, Canadian politician
 * Jacob A. Garber, U.S. Representative, 1929-1931
 * Nathan H. Miller, politician
 * Richard D. Obenshain, politician
 * Chris Obenshain, politician

Faculty

 * Carl Bowman, sociologist

title: Bridgewater College


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Palau National Congress

Palau has a bicameral legislature, the Palau National Congress (Olbiil era Kelulau), consisting of the House of Delegates and the Senate of Palau, which both sit at the capitol complex in Ngerulmud, Melekeok State. The House of Delegates has 16 members, each serving four-year terms in single-seat constituencies. The Senate has 13 members, also serving four-year terms in multi-seat constituencies. In the last elections, held in 2020, only non-partisans were elected; no political parties exist.

The congress is called Olbiil Era Kelulau (OEK) in Palauan or “House of Whispered Decisions". When it was founded, there were 18 senators. That number of them was changed in 1984 to 14. The number of senators changed again in 2000, when it was reduced drastically to 9. In 2008, it was raised once again, to 13.

In 2018, the Senate President was Hokkons Baules, and Speaker was Sabino Anastacio.

List of elections

 * 1980 Palauan general election
 * 1984 Palauan general election
 * 1988 Palauan general election
 * 1992 Palauan general election
 * 1996 Palauan general election
 * 2000 Palauan general election
 * 2004 Palauan general election
 * 2008 Palauan general election
 * 2012 Palauan general election
 * 2016 Palauan general election
 * 2020 Palauan general election

Palau Congressional Library
Housed at the Palau National Congress, the Palau Congressional Library was founded on August 18, 1981. Headed as of 1996 by Congressional Librarian Harry Besebes, it has a 3000 item collection, with annual accessions of 350. The library employs 2 staff members, both professional librarians.

title: Palau National Congress


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The Unfortunate Traveller

The Unfortunate Traveller: or, the Life of Jack Wilton (originally published as The Unfortunate Traueller: or, The Life of Jacke Wilton) is a picaresque novel by Thomas Nashe first published in 1594 but set during the reign of Henry VIII of England. In this adventurous and episodic work, Nashe's protagonist Jack Wilton navigates 16th-century Europe engaging with historical events. The story sees Jack swindle at a military camp, witness a massacre in Münster, and travels with Surrey. They meet literary figures, engage in deceit in Italy, and face various challenges. The narrative explores themes of religion, hypocrisy, and cultural differences. Jack's journey culminates in Italy, where he faces personal and moral dilemmas, ultimately leaving the "Sodom of Italy" with his wife Diamante.

Synopsis
In this rollicking and stylistically daring work of prose fiction, Nashe's protagonist Jack Wilton adventures through the European continent and finds himself swept up in the currents of sixteenth-century history. Episodic in nature, the narrative jumps from place to place and danger to danger. Jack begins his tale among fellow Englishmen at a military encampment, where he swindles his superiors out of alcohol and money, framing others as traitors. Commenting by the way on the grotesque sweating sickness, Jack arrives in Münster, Germany, to observe the massacre of John Leyden's Anabaptist faction by the Emperor and the Duke of Saxony; this brutal episode enables Nashe to reflect on religious hypocrisy, a theme to which he frequently returns.

Following the massacre of the Anabaptists at Munster, Jack Wilton has a number of personal encounters with historical figures of the sixteenth century, many of them important for their literary contributions. Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey functions as a sustained travel partner for Jack, and the two journey to Italy to fulfill the Earl's pledge to defend the honor of his beloved Geraldine in a tournament. Surrey's grandiloquent praise for Geraldine evinces clearly the author's ability to play with literary history, for although the poet was in truth married to Frances Howard, Nashe fashions her into the beloved object of the poet's courtly affections. Surrey and Jack pass through Rotterdam, where they meet both Erasmus and Sir Thomas More, who are at work on their important prose works The Praise of Folly and Utopia. Following this episode, the pair reaches the university city of Wittenberg, which enables Nashe to mock the customs of Renaissance academia, especially its convoluted orations and bizarre gestures and body language. Following the orations, the magician Cornelius Agrippa reveals in an enchanted mirror the image of Surrey's beloved, "weeping on her bed, and resolved all into devout religion for the absence of her love." The image causes Surrey to burst into poetry and spurs him forward with his new page Jack.

Passing into Italy, the land where the remainder of the narrative unfolds, Jack and Surrey exchange identities as a security measure and because the earl means "to take more liberty of behaviour." The two engage in acts of deceit and trickery with pimps, prostitutes, and counterfeiters. Forced to dig themselves out of a succession of plots, the disguised Jack and Surrey assume much of the duplicitous behaviour that Italians were stereotypically known for in Renaissance England. Commenting on the pander Petro de Campo Frego, Jack states that "he planted in us the first Italianate wit that we had." While imprisoned for fraud, Surrey and Jack meet Diamante, who had been falsely accused of adultery and cast out by her husband; Jack takes her up as his romantic companion and financier. All three characters are freed soon enough thanks to an English connection to the famous satirist Pietro Aretino. Nashe, who professed elsewhere his own desires to emulate Aretino's literary style, offers praise for the satirist as "one of the wittiest knaves that ever God made."

Departing from Venice, Surrey and Jack arrive in Florence, the city where Geraldine was born. Surrey is overcome with poetry and speaks a sonnet in honor of her fair room, a moment in which Nashe can slyly mock the overbearing, lovesick verse of contemporary imitators of Petrarch. The copia of Surrey's verse then gives way to a tournament in which the Earl competes for his beloved's fair name, and Nashe offers gratuitous descriptions of the competitors' armor and horses in a manner that recalls printed accounts of early modern masques and other festive spectacles. The most worthy competitor, Surrey emerges from the tournament victorious, but is suddenly called back into England for business matters.

Jack and Diamante then travel to Rome, which Jack admires for its classical ruins (he is less impressed by its religious relics). By this point in time, Jack clearly sticks out as a foreigner and a tourist, "imitat[ing] four or five sundry nations in my attire at once." After praising the marvelous wonders of artificially-engineered gardens and lamenting the gruesome, simultaneous realities of the plague, the protagonist stumbles into one of the most memorable episodes of the narrative. Esdras of Granado and his lackey Bartol the Italian break into the house where he and Diamante are lodging, and Esdras rapes the virtuous matron Heraclide, who commits suicide after an eloquent oration. Jack witnesses the episode "through a cranny of my upper chamber unsealed," and some critics believe this act of voyeurism makes Jack complicit in the act of rape.

Heraclide's husband accuses Jack of the rape, but another English character known as the "Banished Earl" stays Jack's execution. This comes at a slight cost, however; banned from his beloved home country, the Earl rattles off a catalogue of reasons to avoid travel at all costs. In Italy, one only learns "the art of atheism, the art of epicurizing, the art of whoring, the art of poisoning, the art of sodomitry." France gains one only a knowledge of wine and the "French disease," syphilis. In Spain, one only acquires strange clothing. The Dutch excel only in their drinking. Such an admonitory catalogue follows the precepts found in the writings of the Elizabethan education theorist Roger Ascham, who warned his fellow Englishmen about the dangers of Italy and its books.

In spite of the Banished English Earl's suggestions, Jack remains in Italy in search of his beloved Diamante. In so doing, he becomes entangled with and entrapped by Zadok the Jew and Zachary, the Papal Physician, who plan to use Jack as a specimen at the anatomical college. Freed from the brutal pair by the wiles of Juliana, the Pope's courtesan, Jack reunites with Diamante and robs Juliana of her goods, while Zachary flees and Zadok faces a grotesque combination of torture and execution.

The final episode of The Unfortunate Traveller returns to the character of Esdras, who figures now as a victim. At Bologna, Jack and Diamante observe the public execution of Cutwolf, the brother of Esdras's lackey Bartol. Standing before the crowd, Cutwolf delivers a speech recounting his vile actions. Seeking vengeance for his brother's murder, Cutwolf tracked down the villain Esdras, confronted him, and forced him to blaspheme against God and against salvation before discharging a pistol into his mouth, thereby damning his soul eternally in death. Self-righteously, he declares in his own defense before the crowd that "This is the fault that hath called me hither. No true Italian but will honour me for it. Revenge is the glory of arms and the highest performance of valour." In spite of such an oration, Cutwolf joins the ranks of the narrative's brutally-executed characters, and Jack and his newly-wed Diamante flee out of "the Sodom of Italy" back toward the English encampment in France, where the story first began.

Publication history
The Unfortunate Traveller was printed in quarto in 1594 by Thomas Scarlet for Cuthbert Burby. A "Newly corrected and augmented" edition of the text appeared later in the same year by the same publisher. No new editions appeared through the handpress era.

Modern references
In The League of Extraordinary Gentlemen, Sir Jack Wilton (standing in for real-life Elizabethan spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham) was the "M" of the late 16th century. He led a group of special operatives called Prospero's Men shortly after the reign of "Good Queen Gloriana" of England.

title: The Unfortunate Traveller


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Marousi

Marousi or Maroussi (Μαρούσι), also known as Amarousio (Αμαρούσιο), is a city and a suburb in the northeastern part of the Athens urban area, Greece. Marousi dates back to the era of the ancient Athenian Republic; its ancient name was Athmonon (Ἄθμονον) and it represented one of the 10 Athenian sub-cities. The area held a main ancient temple, where Amarysia Artemis, the goddess of hunting, was adored. Consequently the city's modern name derives from that of the goddess, Amarysia, which denotes the origin of the worship back in Amarynthos, Euboea. Its mayor is Theodoros Ampatzoglou, re-elected in 2023.

Geography
Marousi is situated 13 km northeast of Athens city centre. The municipality has an area of 12.938 km2. The built-up area of Marousi is continuous with those of the neighbouring suburbs Pefki, Kifisia, Vrilissia and Halandri. Within Marousi lies the biggest forest in urban Athens, "Dasos Syngrou" (also "Alsos Syggrou"). The Athens Olympic Sports Complex, the largest sports complex in Greece, built for the 2004 Summer Olympics, is located in the southwestern part of the municipality.

The main thoroughfare is Kifisias Avenue, which connects Marousi with central Athens and the northern beltway Motorway 6. Marousi has 3 stations on Athens Metro Line 1, Neratziotissa, Eirini and Marousi stations and two suburban (Proastiakos) commuter railway stations: Nerantziotissa station and Kifisias railway station.

Economy
Marousi's favourable infrastructure (Motorway 6, Athens Metro, and the Athens Suburban Railway) has led to strong economic growth. The main offices of the Greek subsidiaries of several multinational corporations, including Google, Kodak, Bayer, Kimberly-Clark, Siemens, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company, Microsoft and Nestlé, and the ANT1 television studios are located in Marousi. The managing office of Consolidated Contractors Company, a large Middle Eastern and International EPC Contractor, is located in Marousi. The Mall Athens, one of the largest shopping centres in southeastern Europe, is situated in the southwestern part of Marousi.

Education
The new building of Greek Ministry of Education is located in Marousi, in the district Neratziotissa. In the same district is located the School of Pedagogical and Technological Education, a Greek university. The German School of Athens is also located in Marousi.

Sports
Maroussi is the place of Greek Olympic Sport Center. It is located in the southwest of the suburb, in an area that is named Kalogreza. Maroussi has also some sport gymnasium such as Dais Indoor Hall and Maroussi Indoor Hall that are used by local teams. Local teams are Maroussi B.C. with long-time presence in A1 Ethniki Basketball and A.C. Doukas with many titles in Handball and Futsal. The Olympic Stadium was used as home stadium by famous clubs of Greek football, including by AEK as well as both Panathinaikos and Olympiacos.

Historical population
The village was historically Arvanitika speaking, however due to its proximity to Athens, it has undergone a language shift.

Twin cities
Marousi is twinned with the following cities:
 * 🇮🇹 Faenza, Italy
 * 🇷🇸 Niš, Serbia
 * 🇨🇾 Lakatamia, Cyprus
 * Mendavia, Spain

Notable people

 * Prince Michael of Greece (1938–), also known as Michel de Grece, son of Prince Christopher of Greece and grandson of King George I of the Hellenes. Prince Michael lived in Marousi from his marriage to Marina Karella in 1965, since late 1970s.
 * Stratos Iordanoglou (1997–), basketball player
 * Vicky Kaya (1978–), fashion model and actress
 * Christos Kollias (born 1986), Greek basketball player
 * Labis Livieratos, singer
 * Spiridon Louis (1873–1940), a Greek water-carrier who won the first modern-day Marathon at the 1896 Summer Olympics, thereby becoming a national hero
 * Aimilia Tsoulfa, Golden Medalist in Sailing, Athens Olympic Games 2004
 * Lydia Venieri, Artist
 * Aliki Vougiouklaki (1934–1996), movie star and singer who appeared in 42 movies, mostly musicals
 * Victor Vernicos (born 2006), Singer and Socialite

title: Marousi


text:
SEAT Alhambra

The SEAT Alhambra is a seven-seater minivan that was built from 1996 to 2020. It was manufactured under the SEAT brand from June 1996 onwards at the Volkswagen Group's AutoEuropa plant in Palmela, Portugal. It shares the same platform with the Volkswagen Sharan, and the first generation was also related to the Ford Galaxy. The vehicle is named after the Alhambra of Granada, a famous monument in Spain. It is considered in the motor industry to be a large multi-purpose vehicle (MPV).

First generation (Typ 7M; 1996)
A prototype of the first generation SEAT Alhambra was presented at the 1995 Geneva Salon International de l'Auto. The following year the production Alhambra was launched at the same motor show and went on sale in June. The Alhambra shares most of its components and design with the VW Sharan Mk1 and Ford Galaxy Mk1. However, the Alhambra has more options fitted for a given price range. The Alhambra has seven seats—the five rear seats can be folded down or unclipped and removed completely. When removed the seats leave a flat-floored load space, a unique feature for SEAT vehicles at that time. The load volume varies, from 256l with seven seats, to 852l with five seats, and 2610l with only the two front seats fitted.

The Alhambra was essentially unchanged from 1996 to 2010 but a major restyling in the year 2000 reflected the new SEAT image. Even so, the Alhambra remained faithful to the original design produced under the Volkswagen Group and Ford technology sharing agreement. When Volkswagen and Ford lost market share to other manufacture's MPVs, including the Toyota Previa and Mitsubishi Space Wagon, they changed the design of their versions.

The Alhambra, Sharan, and Galaxy were built on the same production line at the joint venture AutoEuropa plant in Palmela, Portugal, and were essentially the same but with different engine options and interiors. Ford has now withdrawn from the collaboration, and the Galaxy Mk III and the S-Max (a seven-seater based on the Mondeo Mk IV platform) are built in Genk, Belgium, alongside the Mondeo. The AutoEuropa plant did produce the VW Scirocco III from 2008 to 2017.

Introduced in 2009, the SEAT Alhambra Ecomotive is fitted with the 2.0 TDI 140 PS engine producing 159 g/km emissions.

Awards

 * 'Monovolume do Ano' award in 1997, in Portugal

Engines

 * Petrol
 * 1.8L I4 110 kW 20V Turbo
 * 2.0L I4 85 kW
 * 2.8L VR6 150 kW 24V
 * Diesel
 * 1.9L I4 66 kW TDI
 * 1.9L I4 81 kW TDI
 * 1.9L I4 85 kW TDI
 * 1.9L I4 96 kW TDI
 * 1.9L I4 110 kW TDI
 * 2.0L I4 103 kW TDI

Second generation (Typ 7N; 2010)
The second generation SEAT Alhambra went on sale in October 2010. At 4.85 m long, it is 22 cm longer than the first generation: it is also 9 cm wider. Like the new Sharan, access to the middle row of seats is via sliding doors.

In February 2013 SEAT presented the Alhambra four-wheel-drive version featuring a permanent all wheel drive combined with the 2.0 TDI 103 kW diesel engine and a manual six-speed gearbox.

In September 2015 the UK diesel models of the Alhambra were revised to meet the Euro 6 standards and the power outputs increased from 103 kW to 110 kW and from 130 kW to 135 kW.

In March 2020 SEAT announced production of the Alhambra would end that month.

2010
In 2010, the safety of the second generation SEAT Alhambra was assessed under the Euro NCAP scheme; it achieved a 5-star overall rating:

2019
The Alhambra in its standard European market configuration received 4 stars from Euro NCAP in 2019.

Awards

 * ‘Auto Trophy’ 2010 for the imported MPV category, by the German car magazine Autozeitung
 * ‘Best imported MPV’ in 2011, by the readers of the German car magazine Auto, Motor und Sport
 * ‘Best MPV on the market’ award in 2011, by the British magazine What Car?
 * ‘Best MPV’ in 2011, at the UK Fleet World Honours
 * ‘Best MPV’ in 2011, by the British motoring magazine Diesel Car
 * ‘MPV of the Year’ award in 2011, by panel members of the Portuguese ‘Car of the Year – Crystal Steering Wheel Trophy’
 * ‘Best MPV’ in 2011, at the second edition of the Ecomotor Awards, organised by the Spanish newspaper El Economista
 * ‘Best MPV on the market’ award in 2012, by the British magazine What Car?
 * ‘Best MPV on the market’ award in 2013, by the British magazine What Car?

Engines

 * Petrol
 * 1.4 L 110 kW (150 hp) TSI
 * 2.0 L 147 kW (200 hp) TSI
 * Diesel
 * 2.0 L 103 kW (140 hp) TDI
 * 2.0 L 130 kW (177 hp) TDI
 * 2.0 L 85 kW (114 hp) TDI

Sales
Since 1996, almost 500,000 SEAT Alhambra have been sold. In the year 2009, the total annual retail sales number of SEAT Alhambra cars was 6,215 vehicles. The total production per year of Alhambras is shown below:

title: SEAT Alhambra


text:
University of Marburg

The Philipps University of Marburg (Philipps-Universität Marburg) is a public research university located in Marburg, Germany. It was founded in 1527 by Philip I, Landgrave of Hesse, which makes it one of Germany's oldest universities and the oldest still operating Protestant university in the world. It is now a public university of the state of Hesse, without religious affiliation.

The University of Marburg has about 23,500 students and 7,500 employees and is located in Marburg, a town of 76,000 inhabitants, with university buildings dotted in or around the town centre. About 14% of the students are international, the highest percentage in Hesse. It offers an International summer university programme and offers student exchanges through the Erasmus programme.

History
In 1609, the University of Marburg established the world's first professorship in chemistry. In 2012 it opened the first German interactive chemistry museum, called Chemicum. Its experimental course programme is aimed at encouraging young people to pursue careers in science. The university was among the first in Germany to offer courses in gender studies.

Nazi period
20 professors were expelled in 1933, among them economist Wilhelm Röpke, who emigrated, and linguist Hermann Jacobsohn, who committed suicide.

After 1945
Since the 1970s, the Department of Social Sciences has been regarded as a leftist stronghold, with Wolfgang Abendroth being a major influence within the field of political science in post-war Germany.

Research
The university is significant for its life-sciences research but is also home to one of the few centers that conduct research on the Middle East, the CNMS (Center for Near and Middle Eastern Studies). The departments of psychology and geography reached Excellence Group status in the Europe-wide CHE Excellence Ranking 2009.

Its research is illustrated by its participation in several SFBs (Sonderforschungsbereiche). These collaborative research centres are financed by the German Science Foundation DFG. They encourage researchers to cross the boundaries of disciplines, institutes, departments and faculties within the participating university. The current SFB at Philipps-University Marburg are:
 * SFB/TR17 – Ras-dependent Pathways in Human Cancer (started 2004; with Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg)
 * SFB/TR22 – Allergic response of the lung (started 2005, with Research Center Borstel and LMU Munich)
 * SFB/TR81 – Chromatin Changes in Differentiation and Malignancies (started 2010, with Justus-Liebig Universität Gießen)
 * SFB-TRR 84 – Innate Immunity of the Lung (started 2010, with Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, FU Berlin, Robert-Koch-Institut, Max-Planck-Institut für molekulare Genetik, Max-Planck-Institut für Kolloid- und Grenzflächenforschung, Justus-Liebig-University Gießen)
 * SFB-TRR 135 – Cardinal mechanisms of perception (started 2014, with Justus-Liebig Universität Gießen)
 * SFB 593 – Mechanisms of cellular compartmentalisation and the relevance for disease (started 2003)
 * SFB 987 – Microbial Diversity in Environmental Signal Response (started 2012, with Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg)
 * SFB 1083 – Structure and Dynamics of Internal Interfaces (started 2013, with Donostia International Physics Center San Sebastián, Spain)
 * SFB 1021 – RNA viruses: RNA metabolism, host response and pathogenesis (started 2013, with Justus-Liebig Universität Gießen)

Collections of the university

 * Alter Botanischer Garten Marburg, the university's old botanical garden
 * Botanischer Garten Marburg, the university's current botanical garden
 * Forschungsinstitut Lichtbildarchiv älterer Originalurkunden bis 1250 (Collection of photographs taken from medieval charters)
 * Bildarchiv Foto Marburg (German national picture archive of arts)
 * Religionskundliche Sammlung (Collection of religious objects)
 * Deutscher Sprachatlas (Linguistic Atlas of Germany)
 * Mineralogisches Museum (Museum of Mineralogy)
 * Museum für Kunst und Kulturgeschichte (Museum of Arts)
 * Museum Anatomicum(Museum of Anatomy and Medical History)

Rankings
As per the QS World University Rankings of 2024, the institution is situated within the 761–770 range globally, and it holds the 40–41 position nationally. According to the THE World University Rankings of 2024, it ranks within the 401–500 bracket globally, while its national standing falls between 37 and 41. In the ARWU World Rankings of 2023, the university is listed in the 401–500 range worldwide, and it takes a national position between 25 and 31.

Natural scientists

 * Ludwig Aschoff
 * Emil von Behring
 * Karl Ferdinand Braun
 * Klaus Bringmann
 * Robert Bunsen
 * Adolf Butenandt
 * Georg Ludwig Carius
 * Stefanie Dehnen
 * Franz Ludwig Fick
 * Hans Fischer
 * Edward Frankland
 * Frederick Augustus Genth
 * Johann Peter Griess
 * Juan Gundlach
 * Karl Eugen Guthe
 * Otto Hahn
 * Johannes Hartmann
 * Thomas Archer Hirst
 * Erich Hückel
 * Kathrin Jansen
 * Hermann Knoblauch
 * Hermann Kolbe
 * Albrecht Kossel
 * Ulrich Lemmer
 * Otto Loewi
 * Carl Ludwig
 * Hans Meerwein
 * Ludwig Mond
 * Denis Papin
 * Heinrich Petraeus
 * Otto Schindewolf
 * Thorsten M. Schlaeger
 * Sunao Tawara
 * John Tyndall
 * Wilhelm Walcher
 * Alfred Wegener
 * Georg Wittig
 * Alexandre Yersin
 * Karl Ziegler
 * Theodor Zincke
 * Adolf Fick

Theologians
Marburg was always known as a humanities-focused university. It retained that strength, especially in Philosophy and Theology for a long time after World War II.

 * Rudolf Bultmann
 * Karl Barth
 * Andreas Leonhard Creuzer
 * Friedrich Heiler
 * Wilhelm Herrmann
 * Aegidius Hunnius
 * Andreas Hyperius
 * Otto Kaiser
 * Helmut Koester
 * Jacob Lorhard
 * Rudolf Otto
 * Johann Jakob Pfeiffer
 * Kurt Rudolph
 * Annemarie Schimmel
 * Paul Tillich
 * August Friedrich Christian Vilmar
 * Gottlieb Olpp – on medical missionary

Philosophers

 * Wolfgang Abendroth
 * Hannah Arendt
 * Karl Theodor Bayrhoffer
 * Ernst Cassirer
 * Hermann Cohen
 * Hans-Georg Gadamer
 * Nicolai Hartmann
 * Martin Heidegger
 * Hans Heinz Holz
 * Hans Jonas
 * Friedrich Albert Lange
 * Karl Löwith
 * Paul Natorp
 * José Ortega y Gasset
 * Isaac Rülf
 * Leo Strauss
 * Christian Wolff
 * Eduard Zeller
 * Jochen Ropke

Other

 * Annette Henninger
 * Ingeborg Weber-Kellermann

Alumni

 * Kunigunde Bachl
 * Hermann Behrends (1907–1948), German Nazi SS officer executed for war crimes
 * Gottfried Benn
 * Gerold Bepler
 * Jessie Forbes Cameron (1883–1968)
 * Georg Friedrich Creuzer
 * T. S. Eliot (who had to quit a summer school in August 1914, at the start of World War I)
 * Johannes Goddaeus
 * Jacob Grimm
 * Wilhelm Grimm
 * Caspar Friedrich Hachenberg
 * Gustav Heinemann
 * de:Jost Hermand
 * Beatrice Heuser
 * Stefan Hofmann
 * Kim Hwang-sik
 * Wilhelm Liebknecht
 * Mikhail Lomonosov
 * Carlyle Ferren MacIntyre
 * Ulrike Meinhof
 * Friedrich Paulus
 * Boris Pasternak
 * Ernst Reuter
 * Ferdinand Sauerbruch
 * Friedrich Carl von Savigny
 * Heinrich Schütz
 * Moritz Schuppert
 * Manfred Siebald
 * Wilhelm Röpke
 * Costas Simitis
 * Jack Thiessen
 * Dmitry Ivanovich Vinogradov
 * Richard Wiese (linguist)

title: University of Marburg


text:
Talk:Knowledge base

untitled
Why does the page need cleanup? Is the referencing template done correctly? Dustintime (talk) 21:47, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

 * This article has potential, but it doesn't really explain to the idea to a new reader well; also needs more inline references that support the narrative and aren't adverts or propoganda for different institutions. Anyone will to make the first attempt? Harvey the rabbit (talk) 03:16, 12 November 2008 (UTC)

External link goes to the wrong site
Test One of the external links, to the Open Source Knowledge Base, oskb.org, actually goes to a site called Our Site Kicks Butt, which has nothing to do with knowledge bases. Perhaps this link should be removed? Mraj 14:54, 18 May 2006 (UTC)Mraj

I'm wondering what this passage means... What is meant by "processes that support the system" and "a robust process structure"? What might an example of such a process be?

"Determining what type of information is captured, and where that information resides in a knowledge base is something that is determined by the processes that support the system. A robust process structure is the backbone of any successful knowledge base." Dave.excira 22:40, 3 January 2006 (UTC)

But I think the more accurate definition will be the expert system’s database of knowledge about a particular subject. This includes relevant facts, information, beliefs, assumptions, and procedures for solving problems.

 * "A knowledge base... is the base for the collection of knowledge." I'm not sure that this article is saying anything worth saying. --pode 06:19, 12 Apr 2005 (UTC)

Does this page need disambiguation? It seems that there are 2 concepts of knowledge base in this article.

The first meaning seems to be something for corpororations to keep their documents in. At least that is what I understand from the list ...white papers, user manuals etc etc. See for example the link to this company: http://www.knowledgebase.net/

The other meaning is related to Artificial intelligence. A base for the computer to keep his knowledge organized. All links, both wiki and external seem to have this meaning in mind.

 * A system to keep documents in is more accurately termed a "Document Management System." A knowledgebase is more specific; it contains articles that define a body of knowledge, and is used to discover solutions to problems that have already been solved.  See The Microsoft Support Knowledgebase (sic) for an example. Robertwharvey 07:17, 20 December 2006 (UTC)

I don't understand two of the exterlinks (the one to the Java Community Page, and to Computational Logic). Can somebody explain to me why they are relevant?

Thanks, Sander123 07:54, 26 Apr 2004 (UTC)

One of the exterlinks ([|"Open Source Knowledge Base"]) leads to a site called "Our Site Kicks Butt", which, to the best of my knowledge, contains no information about Knowledge Bases of any kind. Is this an outdated link, or a mislink? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by Mraj (talk • contribs).

 * It doesn't seem relevant, so I've removed it. Good catch. Gw e rnol 15:14, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

Knowledge Base is 3 to 1 more popular than "knowledgebase" in google, and, infact, is marked as a suspected spelling error. We at Cycorp don't use it as a single word, and, I think, if it were standard practice to do so, we'd know and comply. It's unclear whether this will catch on - as a potential word "knowledgebase" if *far* uglier than "database".

In any case, the claim that it's becoming standard usage, like any claims, needs to be sourced.

-- Knowledge base makes no sense at all wat is "A knowledge base... is the base for the collection of knowledge." supposed to mean it dosen't make any sense someone needs to fix it!
 * The quote you give doesn't appear anywhere in the current article. — Saxifrage ✎ 00:44, 31 October 2006 (UTC)

-- Can DNA database and MANET database be considered as a KnowledgeBase Database? I think any informatics database, that some degree of artificial intelligence or analytical ability can be considered as a knowledgebase right? --Ramu50 (talk) 02:47, 16 October 2008 (UTC)

Two different things
A knowledge base may contain a collection of domain knowledge, but the two terms are used quite differently. In common English usage, "domain knowledge" is something that a person has, but a "knowledge base" is computerized; you would never say that a person "has a knowledge base on subject xyz" though you might say they have lots of domain knowledge in the area. Also a knowledge base (in the commercial sense) might span multiple "domains." For example, the Microsoft KB might contain information for users, developers, and administrators of MS software across multiple "domains," for example word processing, databases, operating systems, various programming APIs, and so on. Nevertheless they could be a part of the same KB.

Both articles could use some TLC, but I don't think merging them makes any sense.

Part of the problem may be that this page might benefit from disambiguation as an early comment suggests; perhaps splitting it into two topics such as: This may or may not be a good idea.... I'm just throwing it out there.
 * Knowledge base (information science) - with the discussion of machine-readable KBs.
 * Knowledge base (software) - with the discussion of human-readable KBs.

--Crandmck (talk) 06:25, 11 September 2012 (UTC)

Don't merge
A knowledge base need not contain domain knowledge; DBpedia can be considered a general-purpose (or open domain) knowledge base. Qwertyus (talk) 00:30, 21 March 2013 (UTC)

Bad idea
They are two very different things. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 98.158.206.100 (talk) 01:16, 2 May 2013 (UTC)

Don't merge
The are completely separate concepts, as you even state in your proposal. Merging them would be impossible. We should instead try to eliminate references from one to the other to more clearly delineate the separation in these 2 concepts. Shall we retrieve this grenade that was "just tossed out there" by deleting the tag? This would be the first step in insuring that the distinction between these two topics is maintained. Hobsonlane (talk) 01:13, 14 October 2013 (UTC)

Don't merge
I agree with the majority of other votes. I am usually in favor of merging things, in general I think people tend to create too many articles but in this case, no, absolutely not they are related topics but different. IMO I would say domain knowledge is something abstract a knowledge base is a technology to capture and utilize domain knowledge. In any case we don't need to agree what they both are but I definitely agree they are different concepts and deserve their own articles. RedDog (talk) 04:56, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

I'm Going to Remove Merge Proposal
There seems to be a consensus and I see no point in leaving the merge tag and will remove it. RedDog (talk) 15:32, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

Plan to Rewrite this Article
There are no really solid references here right now. I've been working on the Expert Systems and Knowledge Based Systems articles so it's natural I took a look at this one and I think this one needs lots of work as well. Informally, here is my idea for a revised article. A knowledge base was first used in expert systems. At that point the distinction between a KB and DB was clear and distinct. a DB had transactions. large data, flat data, data that was meant to be permanent. A KB had no transactions, structured and connected data (networks of objects rather than tables of data), relatively small transitory data compared to DB. As the technologies matured the various categories of storage merged in with each other. KB technology for expert systems scaled up with capabilities to access databases and database technology added capabilities for objects and rules. Also, both sides added features to store documents, hypertext, voice, and multimedia. A KB went from a specific technology for expert systems to a general purpose word indicating some extra intelligence beyond a database. Also, I would talk about knowledge management as one of the drivers and utilizers of the term later on. That's just my basic idea right now, I'm reading up on and getting some references and plan to give it some thought but in case anyone is monitoring and has ideas wanted to ask for input. RedDog (talk) 05:04, 1 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I've rewritten the article along the lines described in the above paragraph. It still needs a lot of work. The current article has no sections and could use some structure. But it's IMO a major improvement over what was there and I think at least a decent starting point. RedDog (talk) 21:37, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

Very new to the backside of wikipedia, so apologies in advance if I violate any norms. I happened to read the old entry on knowledge base and came back to the revision that you've created. While I understand the goal in your edits, I missed the content that you removed, specifically about what in the old entry was included in the "human readable knowledge base." My interest in this article was specifically in the use of the term "knowledge base" as used as a support to help desks and other knowledge sharing systems. It would seem to me that there would be a way to incorporate both ideas in the same entry or use disambiguation to create to distinct entries to cover both uses of the term. Bekadel (talk) 06:48, 12 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I agree there should be more on help desks. That is an example of the knowledge management (human readable text not machine readable) use of the term knowledge base. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 12:42, 18 January 2014 (UTC)

The article was much better before it turned into a rambling wall of text that conflates two different uses of the term "knowledge base" and contains such howlers as "At the time (the 1970's) virtually all computer programs stored their information in some type of hierarchical or relational database." 99.122.168.208 (talk) 03:47, 18 January 2014 (UTC)
 * On the computer programs comment I think it depends how you define "hierarchical database". If you include things like hash tables, arrays, trees, etc. I.e., saying "database" doesn't need to imply a DBMS. With the wider definition I think the statement is true and I've heard people use the term database that way. But perhaps a different word such as "datastore" might be better? --MadScientistX11 (talk) 10:01, 18 January 2014 (UTC)
 * I changed "computer software" to "large Management Information Systems" and added a link to MIS. I think that was what the text originally had in mind but I agree saying all software wasn't accurate if you include things like real time and embedded systems. BTW, I also agree with the "wall of text" comment that this article could certainly use more structure. I may take a shot at that. --MadScientistX11 (talk) 12:39, 18 January 2014 (UTC)

Common use broader than original meaning and current article definition
A very common (most widespread?) use of 'knowledge base' is about an information repository as part of Knowledge management, eg, a wiki. I would suggest that this article's title should be modified to 'Knowledge base (computer science)' and a new article about the more commonly understood meaning of a knowledge repository for use by people should be titled 'Knowledge base' AiwarikiaR (talk) 10:02, 22 February 2018 (UTC)

Removing Section on KB Analysis and Design
There is currently a small section that simply says "Knowledge base analysis and design (KBAD) is a process that enables people to conduct analysis and design of information in a way that results in a knowledge base. This approach was first implemented by Steven H. Dam.[3]" The reference is useless. There is no URL and nothing that provides any identifying information that would allow someone to find the reference. My guess is it's an internal publication of some company (at best) or someone's thesis (more likely) in any case it's not a valid reference and I've never heard of the approach that it refers to so I'm just deleting the entire section. RedDog (talk) 15:28, 1 December 2013 (UTC)

Why I'm Removing Transinsight from External Links
Someone recently added the following link to the External Links: http://transinsight.com/ I looked at the site and it looks like a Knowledge Management/Semantic Web vendor. I'm removing the link for a couple of reasons. First, we can't just randomly put every vendor who has some technology that is knowledge based. If we including this company we may as well have external links for hundreds of other companies as well. There is nothing notable or interesting about Transinsight compared to countless other such vendors. Also, if that vendor was to go anywhere it would make more sense on the articles for Knowledge Management or Semantic Web not Knowledge Base. I don't think this vendor would be appropriate there either, but I'm just saying they are more relevant to those topics than to the Knowledge Base article. RedDog (talk) 15:45, 2 December 2013 (UTC)
 * I thought I would add the reason I left the Protege link which was in the article before I started. Protege is one of the most important tools around right now related to knowledge base technology. The classificaiton technology they use is really the direct descendent of the work started by expert system shell vendors, then leading to Frame and OO Vendors such as Intellicorp. If you look at the Protege environment it feels a lot like the Knowledge Engineering Environment from Intellicorp. They are solving different problems, KEE was for programming Protege is for analysis but the environments and many of the ideas are the same and Protege builds on ideas (e.g., Subsumption, Ontologies, LOOM) that were very critical developments in the conception of an AI knowledge base. I hope to work some of what I said there into the article at some point but for now wanted to document why I think it makes sense to keep Protege and not the other link. One last point, Protege is Open Source and non-profit so there isn't the concern that someone is using the External Link as promotion for their product as there is with Transinsight and some other vendors. RedDog (talk) 15:52, 2 December 2013 (UTC)

Whats the difference between "Knowledge Base" and "Knowledge Graph" ?
see the discussion on Knowledge Graph. I had always thought 'knowledge-graph' was a generic term (indeed papers exist). However google seem to have claimed it as a product name. Do I have a misconception here? in the discussion people confirm that academic papers exist describing knowledge-graphs long before googles product. I had thought 'wolfram alpha' used that kind of tech internally.

Fmadd (talk) 03:49, 20 June 2016 (UTC)

Survey of knowledge graphs

 Bluerasberry  (talk)  16:41, 29 November 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Knowledge base


text:
CGC

CGC may stand for:

Companies

 * Computer generated character
 * Co-operative Grocer Chain Japan, known as CGC Japan
 * Cambridge Gliding Centre
 * Canada Games Centre
 * Canada Games Company
 * Canopy Growth Corporation, medical marijuana company in Smiths Falls, Ontario
 * Capital Group Companies, an investment management organization
 * Certified Guaranty Company, a grading service for the comic book collecting industry
 * CGCOC Group, a Chinese construction company
 * China Geo-Engineering Corporation

Science

 * Cerebellar granule cell
 * Constrained geometry complex, a kind of catalyst
 * Color-glass condensate, a type of matter theorized to exist in atomic nuclei traveling near the speed of light
 * DARPA's Cyber Grand Challenge, a competition among completely-automatic hacking systems
 * CGC, a codon for the amino acid arginine

Other

 * Chen Guangcheng, also known as the "Blind Lawyer", is a Chinese civil rights activist
 * Commonwealth Grants Commission
 * Consumer generated content, also known as Consumer generated media
 * Canine Good Citizen, certification
 * Conspicuous Gallantry Cross, a military decoration of the British Armed Forces
 * United States Coast Guard Cutter
 * Certified general contractor, a type of unlimited contractor in Florida as opposed to registered (limited)
 * Board-Certified Genetic Counselor
 * Camparini Gioielli Cup, a professional tennis tournament
 * CB Gran Canaria, professional basketball club based in Las Palmas, Spain

title: CGC