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Peder Griffenfeld

Count Peder Griffenfeld (before ennoblement Peder Schumacher) (24 August 1635 – 12 March 1699) was a Danish statesman and royal favourite. He became the principal adviser to King Christian V of Denmark from 1670 and the de facto ruler of the dual kingdom of Denmark-Norway in the first half of the 1670s. In 1673 he was appointed as Chancellor of Denmark, elevated to count, the highest aristocratic rank in Denmark-Norway, and received the Order of the Elephant, the country's highest order. At the behest of his enemies at court, Griffenfeld was arrested in early 1676 and convicted of treason, a charge that historians agree was false. He was imprisoned for 22 years, mainly at Munkholmen in Norway.

Early years
Born at Copenhagen into a wealthy trading family connected with the leading civic, clerical and learned circles in the Danish capital, he was prepared for university (at the age of ten) by Jens Vorde. Vorde praises his extraordinary gifts, his mastery of the classical languages and his unnerving diligence. The brilliance he showed in his preliminary examination won him the friendship of the examiner, Bishop Jesper Brochmand, at whose palace he first met King Frederick III of Denmark. The king was struck with Schumacher; and Brokman, proud of his pupil, made him translate a chapter from a Hebrew Bible first into Latin and then into Danish, for the entertainment of the scholarly monarch.

In 1654 young Schumacher went abroad for eight years, to complete his education. From Germany he proceeded to the Netherlands, staying at Leiden, Utrecht and Amsterdam, and passing in 1657 to Queen's College, Oxford, where he spent three years. The epoch-making events that occurred in England while he was at Oxford profoundly interested him. Coinciding with the Revolution in Denmark, which threw open a career to the middle classes, it convinced him that his future was in politics. In the autumn of 1660 Schumacher visited Paris, shortly after Mazarin's death, when the young Louis XIV of France first seized the reins of power. Schumacher seems to have been profoundly impressed by the administrative superiority of a strong centralised monarchy in the hands of an energetic monarch who knew his own mind; and, in politics, as in manners, France ever afterwards was his model. The last year of his travels was spent in Spain, where he obtained a thorough knowledge of the Castilian language and literature. He is said to have brought home easy morals as well as exquisite manners.

Career
On his return to Copenhagen, in 1662, Schumacher found the monarchy established on the ruins of the aristocracy, and eager to buy the services of every man of the middle classes who had superior talents to offer. The young adventurer contrived to secure the protection of Kristoffer Gabel, the king's confidant, and in 1663 was appointed the royal librarian. A romantic friendship with the king's natural son, Count Ulric Frederick Gyldenløve, consolidated his position. In 1665 Schumacher obtained his first political post as the king's secretary, and the same year composed the memorable King's Law (Lex Regia). He was now a personage at court, where he won many over by his amiability and gaiety; and in political matters also his influence was beginning to be felt. During these years, he had a notorious love affair with Mette Trolle

On the death of Frederick III (9 February 1670) Schumacher was the most trusted of all the royal counsellors. He alone was aware of the existence of the new throne of walrus ivory embellished with three silver life-size lions, and of the new regalia, both of which treasures he had, by the king's command, concealed in a vault beneath the royal castle. Frederick III had also confided to him a sealed packet containing the King's Law, which was to be delivered to his successor alone. Schumacher had been recommended to his son by Frederick III on his death-bed. "Make him a great man, but do it slowly," said Frederick, who thoroughly understood the characters of his son and of his minister. Christian V was, moreover, deeply impressed by the confidence which his father had ever shown to Schumacher. When, on 9 February 1670, Schumacher delivered the King's Law to Christian V, the king bade all those about him withdraw, and after being closeted a good hour with Schumacher appointed him his Obergeheimesekreter (principal private secretary).

His promotion was rapid. In May 1670 he received the titles of excellency and privy councillor; in July of the same year he was ennobled under the name of Griffenfeld, deriving his title from the gold griffin with outspread wings which surmounted his escutcheon; in November 1673 the title of count was bestowed upon him and he also became a knight of the Order of the Elephant and, finally, imperial chancellor. In the course of the next few months he gathered into his hands every branch of the government: he had reached the apogee of his short-lived greatness.

He had captivated the accomplished Frederick III by his literary graces and ingenious speculations; he won over fun-loving Christian V by saving him trouble and by acting and thinking for him, and whilst making him believe that he was thinking and acting for himself. Moreover, his commanding qualities were coupled with an organizing talent which made itself felt in every department of the state, and with a marvellous adaptability which made him a great diplomat.

On 25 May 1671 the dignities of count and baron were introduced into Denmark-Norway; a few months later the Order of the Dannebrog was instituted as a fresh means of winning adherents by marks of favour. Griffenfeld was the originator of these new institutions. To him monarchy was the ideal form of government. But he had also a political object. The aristocracy of birth, despite its reverses, still remained the elite of society; and Griffenfeld, the son of a burgess, was its most determined enemy. The new baronies and countships, owing their existence entirely to the crown, introduced a strong solvent into aristocratic circles. Griffenfeld saw that, in future, the first at court would be the first everywhere. Much was also done to promote trade and industry, notably by the revival of the Kammer Kollegium, or board of trade, and the abolition of some of the most harmful monopolies. Both the higher and the provincial administrations were thoroughly reformed with the view of making them more centralized and efficient; and the positions and duties of the various magistrates, who now also received fixed salaries, were for the first time exactly defined. But what Griffenfeld could create, Griffenfeld could dispense with, and it was not long before he began to encroach upon the jurisdiction of the new departments of state by private conferences with their chiefs. Nevertheless, it is indisputable that, under the single direction of this mastermind, the Danish state was now able, for a time, to utilize all its resources as it had never done before.

In the last three years of his administration, Griffenfeld gave himself entirely to the conduct of the foreign policy of Denmark-Norway. It is difficult to form a clear idea of this, first, because his influence was perpetually traversed by opposite tendencies; in the second place, because the force of circumstances compelled him, again and again, to shift his standpoint; and finally because personal considerations largely intermingled with his foreign policy, and made it more elusive and ambiguous than it need have been. Briefly, Griffenfeld aimed at restoring Denmark to the rank of a great power. He proposed to accomplish this by carefully nursing its resources, and in the meantime securing and enriching the country through alliances, which would bring in large subsidies while imposing a minimum of obligations. Such a conditional and tentative policy, in a period of universal tension and turmoil, was most difficult; but Griffenfeld did not regard it as impossible.

The first demand of such a policy was peace, especially peace with Denmark-Norway's most dangerous neighbour, Sweden. The second postulate was a sound financial basis, which he expected the wealth of France to supply in the shape of subsidies to be spent on armaments. Above all things Denmark-Norway was to beware of making enemies of France and Sweden at the same time. An alliance, on fairly equal terms, between the three powers, would, in these circumstances, be the consummation of Griffenfeld's system; an alliance with France to the exclusion of Sweden would be the next best policy; but an alliance between France and Sweden, without the admission of Denmark, was to be avoided at all hazards. Had Griffenfeld's policy succeeded, Denmark might have recovered her ancient possessions to the south and east comparatively cheaply. But again and again he was overruled. Despite his open protests and subterraneous counter-mining, war was actually declared against Sweden in 1675, and his subsequent policy seemed so obscure and hazardous to those who did not possess the clue to the perhaps purposely tangled skein, that the numerous enemies whom his arrogance and superciliousness had raised up against him, resolved to destroy him.

Trial
On 11 March 1676, while on his way to the royal apartments, Griffenfeld was arrested in the king's name and taken to the citadel, a prisoner of state. A minute scrutiny of his papers, lasting nearly six weeks, revealed nothing treasonable; but it provided the enemies of the fallen statesman with a deadly weapon against him in the shape of an entry in his private diary, in which he had imprudently noted that on one occasion Christian V in a conversation with a foreign ambassador had spoken like a child. On 3 May, Griffenfeld was tried not by the customary tribunal, in such cases the Højesteret, or supreme court, but by an extraordinary tribunal of 10 dignitaries, none of whom was particularly well disposed towards the accused. Griffenfeld, who was charged with simony, bribery, oath-breaking, malversation and lèse-majesté, conducted his own defence under every imaginable difficulty.

For forty-six days before his trial he had been closely confined in a dungeon, without lights, books or writing materials. Every legal assistance was illegally denied him. Nevertheless, he proved more than a match for the prosecution. Finally, he was condemned to degradation and decapitation; though one of the ten judges not only refused to sign the sentence, but remonstrated in private with the king against its injustice. The primary offence of the ex-chancellor was the taking of bribes, which no twisting of the law could convert into a capital offence, while the charge of treason had not been substantiated.

Griffenfeld was pardoned on the scaffold, at the very moment when the axe was about to descend. On hearing that the sentence was commuted to lifelong imprisonment, he declared that the pardon was harder than the punishment, and vainly petitioned for leave to serve his king for the rest of his life as a common soldier. For the next twenty-two years Denmark-Norways's greatest statesman was a lonely prisoner, first in the fortress of Copenhagen, in Denmark and finally at Munkholmen in Trondheim Fjord, in Norway, where he died. Griffenfeld had married Kitty Nansen, the granddaughter of the great Burgomaster Hans Nansen, who brought him half a million rixdollars. She died in 1672, after bearing him a daughter. Griffenfeld and his wife are both buried at Vær Kirke in Århus Diocese

Griffenfeldsgade, a street in Nørrebro, Copenhagen, as well as Griffenfeld Island in Southeast Greenland, were named after him.

title: Peder Griffenfeld


text: Template:Mackerel class submarine

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Mackerel class submarine


text:
User:Wolfram Gothe~enwiki

Found the German version of Wikipedia through the German magazine DER SPIEGEL and was immediatly excited!!

When I wrote an article about etching techniques someone linked it to the English version, so I had a look and found no pictures there, so I added them...

Joy!! Wolfram Gothe 16:52, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User:Wolfram Gothe~enwiki


text:
Strouds Run State Park

Strouds Run State Park is a public recreation area abutting the city of Athens in Athens County, Ohio, in the United States. The state park is located primarily in Canaan Township, with a small part in Ames Township. Park boundaries coincide with Athens city limits in several places. The park comprises 2,606 acre, and includes Dow Lake, a 161 acre artificial lake. The park is named after William Stroud who was a share-holder in the Ohio Company of Associates.

History
The original land for the park was purchased for the Athens State Forest in the 1940s and 1950s. In the late 1950s, construction was started on the Dow Lake Dam, which was completed in 1960, at which point the land became Strouds Run State Park in its entirety.

A large area on the west side of the park was formerly land of the Gillett family (Samuel and Charlotte Beach Gillett and their descendants). The family owned well over a thousand acres at one time. The old farmstead seen on the Trace Trail and the "Pioneer Cemetery" are both remnant from the Gillett occupancy of the land. Two of the adjacent nature preserves, both owned by the Athens Conservancy (Blair Preserve and Tucker Run Preserve) are also both on former Gillett family land.

One of the most recently purchased areas of the park was acquired in 1953 from the Crumley family, heirs to Dr. John Jackson Crumley, who purchased the land almost a century ago as an experimental tree farm. Dr. Crumley was a classical scholar who also was one of Ohio's early state foresters, who managed the purchase of the original land for Zaleski State Forest and Hocking State Forest, and who wrote one of the earliest practical handbooks on forestry.

A large part of the upper east side of the part was owned by the Cone family, last owned by Charles Cone and Lucille Gillett Cone (a descendant of Samuel Gillett above.) Adjacent to the Cone farm was a large, one-room school house that was dismantled when the lake was built. Some of the materials from the school house were then used to construct the Strouds Run Community Church just up the road from the park, as well as a new barn for Charles Cone who lost his previous one to the park's construction. The church was eventually converted into a private residence, and was subsequently completely destroyed in a fire a few years later.

The area from the old school house, up past where the church was constructed and beyond was briefly known as Marchmont. From 1893 to 1901, there was an inn and post office for the Marchmont area that was located at the base of what was then known as Tucker Hill. This was on the same portion of land that remained in the Cone family after the park's construction, and currently remains with descendants of Charles Cone.

In addition to Gillett and Cone, some other notable family names affected by the park's construction were Cain, Finsterwald, Weiss, and Stalder. Many of those families came to this country with Baron deSteiguer. The Baron purchased the lands from the heirs of John Paul Jones as most of the area land was once owned by the Revolutionary War admiral.

Natural history
Strouds Run is located within the unglaciated Allegheny Plateau. The park consists of mostly narrow valleys, narrow ridges, and steep hillsides. Bluffs and rock shelters are common throughout the park, formed by the Connellsville sandstone. There are a few springs in the park out of the Ames limestone, including Linscott Spring (which has an historic springhouse). Normal pool elevation of Dow Lake is about 665 feet above sea level, while the highest point in the park is about 1022 feet above sea level. The park is almost entirely within the Strouds Run watershed, although it does not include the entire watershed.

The forest in some areas of the park is over a century old without significant disturbance. The Riddle State Nature Preserve is nearby, including Hawk Woods, which is one of Ohio's very few genuine old-growth forests.

Common birds in the park include both black and turkey vultures, Canada geese, red-winged blackbirds, red-tailed hawks, red-shouldered hawks, and barn swallows.

Beavers and white-tailed deer are common in the park. Bobcats are known to be in the area, but none are known within the park itself.

Facilities and usage
Facilities include a campground (pit toilets, no shower), swimming beach, boat dock, boat and canoe rentals, pistol, picnic grounds and shelters, and hiking trails. Hunting is permitted in season. Shooting ranges are no longer available for the public.

Significant areas of the park are pine plantations (white and red) from the mid-twentieth century, when the land was purchased, originally as the Athens State Forest. There is also one small baldcypress plantation within the park. However, most of the area is mature hardwood forest. The park features many bluffs and rock outcrops of sandstone. Several beaver ponds are within the park boundaries.

Many of the trails are open to mountain bikes.

The lake is used by Ohio University for aquatic sports such as crew. The lake is also a very common destination of Ohio University students to enjoy the weather on sunny spring or summer days.

The lake is stocked on an annual basis with several kinds of fish, including rainbow trout, which cannot survive the winters.

Adjacent public lands
The park borders on the city's 325 acre Strouds Ridge Preserve Project, which includes the Riddle State Nature Preserve, and with the Athens Conservancy's 75 acre (0.3 km2) Blair Preserve.

In addition, the 264 acre Baker Tract, managed by the Athens Conservancy, is a short drive away, with a public access trailhead on Ohio State Route 690.

title: Strouds Run State Park


text:
Rose Bay, New South Wales

Rose Bay is an affluent, harbourside, eastern suburb of Sydney, in the state of New South Wales, Australia. Rose Bay is located seven kilometres east of the Sydney central business district, in the local government areas of Municipality of Woollahra (on its western side towards the bay) and Waverley Council (east of Old South Head Road).

Geography
Rose Bay has views of both the Sydney Opera House and the Sydney Harbour Bridge together. Lyne Park abuts Sydney Harbour on its west. Shark Island is located in Sydney Harbour, just north of Rose Bay.

History

The original name of the land now known as Rose Bay is Banarung, Dharag Language. Rose Bay was named after the Right Honourable George Rose, who was joint Secretary to the British Treasury with Thomas Steele, after whom Steel(e) Point at Nielsen Park was named. The name Rose Bay was used as early as 1788 by Captain John Hunter. HMAS Tingira, named after an Aboriginal word for 'open sea' was moored in Rose Bay from 1912 to 1927. It was used to train over 3,000 Australian sailors, many for service in World War I. There is a small park on the Rose Bay waterfront which commemorates Tingira.

From 1938, seaplane flights to and from London began and terminated in Sydney Harbour on Rose Bay, making it Sydney's first international airport, and what is now Rose Bay Water Airport. On 14 September 1945, nine Catalina flying boats landed and moored at the Rose Bay wharf, repatriating Australian prisoners of war who were survivors of Japanese camps. Sydneysiders looked on in silence, aghast at the emaciated state of the returning soldiers.

The Wintergarden Cinema was a landmark building which housed the Sydney Film Festival from 1968 to 1973, but which was demolished to make way for exclusive apartments in the late 1980s.

Heritage listings
Rose Bay has a number of heritage-listed sites, including:
 * 3-4 Fernleigh Gardens: Site of Ficus superba var. henneana tree
 * New South Head Road: Rose Bay Sea Wall
 * 1-7 Salisbury Road: Salisbury Court (Rose Bay)

Rose Bay Cottage

Rose Bay Cottage and also known as Salisbury Court, located in Salisbury Road, was built in 1834 by the important colonial architect, John Verge, for James Holt who, at the time, managed the 'Cooper Estate'. When built, it was the only house on the 'Estate', with the possible exception of Henrietta Villa, Captain Piper's previous home on Point Piper. The house was built as a single-storey residence of about 225 m2 with a verandah, over a similar sized stone cellar. Adjacent to it was an earlier structure (c. 1820s) which was apparently adopted as a kitchen. The house was significantly enlarged by sympathetic additions between 1837 and 1850 and the kitchen wing was joined to the main house forming a courtyard. By the end of this period the house had more than doubled in size. From 1861 until 1911, the house was usually known as Rose Bay Lodge; it has also been known as Salisbury Court. It was surrounded by extensive gardens embellished by five working fountains fed from a water source above on the slopes of Bellevue Hill which later fed Woollahra House, built in 1883 on Point Piper. One of the fountains still remains. Prominent occupiers of the house included Sir Daniel Cooper, Walter Lamb and John Hay – they were all noted businessmen and parliamentarians. In 1911, the property, then of 4 acre, was sub-divided and surrounded by other houses. During the next fifty years the old house suffered extensive unsympathetic additions including a second storey over the original Verge cottage which converted the house to twelve flats. It has subsequently been restored according to strict conservation standards and the unsympathetic additions removed. The house is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register.

Fernleigh Castle
Fernleigh Castle was built in 1892, incorporating part of a sandstone cottage that dated back to 1874. Aptly named, it resembles a castle with its turrets, castellated towers and square Norman tower. Its sandstone structure contains thirty rooms and a number of stained-glass windows. Fernleigh Castle is on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate.

A fig tree, Ficus superba var. henneana, planted in c. 1827, located in the former castle grounds is listed on the New South Wales State Heritage Register.

Rose Bay Police Station
This police station originally started life as the gatekeeper's lodge in the estate of Woollahra House, a nineteenth-century mansion that has long gone. The surviving building was designed in a Victorian Classical Revival style which is attributed to 'Hilly and Mansfield' and which probably tells us what Woollahra House looked like. It was built in 1871 and features rendered walls punctuated with pilasters. Sympathetically restored, it is now on the (now defunct) Register of the National Estate.

Educational facilities and history
Rose Bay is home to two independent schools: Kambala (1887), an Anglican, day and boarding school for girls from Pre-school to Year 12; and Kincoppal – Rose Bay (1882), a Catholic, day and boarding school with a co-educational primary school and girls-only high school. Kincoppal – Rose Bay was originally Rose Bay Convent but amalgamated with Kincoppal Elizabeth Bay in the late 1970s to become "Kincoppal – Rose Bay School of the Sacred Heart". The prep school campus of Cranbrook School (1918) is also located in the suburb. McAuley Primary School is a Catholic school for Kindergarten to Year 6. It was opened in 1967 on the site that had been a Christian Brothers High School from 1935 to 1966.

Public schools in the suburb are Rose Bay Secondary College (2004) and Rose Bay Public School (1891). Rose Bay Secondary College was formed by the amalgamation of Vaucluse High School and Dover Heights High School. Originally these schools were known as Vaucluse Boys High, Dover Heights Boys High and Dover Heights Girls High. The cost of improving the public school facilities at Rose Bay was linked to the sale of the campus at Vaucluse. Despite a surge in enrolments and an unmet demand for public high school places in the area, the Vaucluse campus was sold in February 2007 by the Government of New South Wales for $30M to become a seniors community development site.

The Convent of the Sacred Heart overlooks the bay and can be seen from many vantage points around Sydney Harbour. The site was originally occupied by a house called Claremont, which was built in 1852. The convent incorporated this house when it was built in 1888. Designed by John Horbury Hunt, the new building was of five storeys in height and made of sandstone that was quarried at the site. It included a Gothic Revival Chapel and is regarded as one of Hunt's most successful creations. It now houses the Kincoppal-Rose Bay school for girls. The building has a Federal heritage listing.

Transport
The Rose Bay ferry wharf provides access to the Watsons Bay ferry services. There are frequent Transdev John Holland buses to and from the centre of Sydney via Kings Cross as well as other points and out to Watsons Bay and the coast. Seaplane operators offer scenic flights over Sydney itself as well as a number of excursions along the coast as well as some scheduled services to Newcastle with aircraft operating out of the seaplane terminal near Rose Bay ferry terminal.

Sport and recreation
In 1902 a reserve named in honour of Sir William Lyne was reclaimed from tidal sand flats at Rose Bay. In 1904 harbour baths were built in a design by the architect Thomas Tidswell. The baths have since been removed.

Since 1908, Rose Bay has been represented in one of Australia's most popular sporting competitions, the National Rugby League, by the Sydney Roosters, officially known as the Eastern Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club.

There are two golf courses located in Rose Bay. Woollahra Golf Club is a public 9-hole course and Royal Sydney Golf Club is a private 27-hole championship course, not open to the public.

The 3rd Rose Bay Rovers group is an active Rovers group based in the Scouts Hall located in Vickery Avenue, opposite Woollahra Sailing Club.

Rose Bay is home to the Waverley Amateur Radio Society, Australia's longest continuously licensed amateur radio club. The club meets on a regular basis at the Scouts Hall located in Vickery Avenue.

Rose Bay beach (also known locally as Dog Beach) is at the far eastern end of the bay and as the name suggests is a popular beach for dog owners. Despite its popularity, Rose Bay beach is not always safe to swim at due to the pollution issues surrounding the beach.

Demographics
At the 2021 census, there were 9,911 people living in Rose Bay.

According to the, the population of Rose Bay (including Vaucluse) was 10,053. 54.0% of people in Rose Bay are Australian-born, compared to 59.9% for the wider Sydney area. Of the immigrants, most are from South Africa (8.7%), then England (5.3%), New Zealand (2.4%), Israel (1.7%) and China (1.3%). Of Rose Bay's population, 27.3% stated they were Jewish, 24.0% said they had no religion, 17.2% said they were Catholic, 11.6% did not state a religion and 9.7% said they were Anglican. The median weekly household income was $2,272, compared to the Australian median of $1,438.

Data released by Sensis showed that in 2015 the Hebrew surname Cohen (i.e. Priest) was Rose Bay's top-ranked surname, followed second by the Anglo surname Smith, and third the European (mostly Ashkenazi Jewish) surname Kaplan (i.e. Priest). The first and third top-ranking surnames reflecting the Jewish population plurality of the suburb.

Religion
Rose Bay has been the centre of Sydney's Jewish community, including all over the Eastern Suburbs. It is still a strong centre for the Jewish population of Sydney, and has attracted a sizeable number of immigrants from Israel, South Africa and Russia.

Housing
According to the, there are 2,645 flats in Rose Bay, or 68.5% of all dwellings, compared to an Australian average of 13.1%. There are also 852 separate houses (22.1%) and 321 semi/terraces (8.3%). Of these, 43.2% are rented, 30.1% are fully owned and 22.7% are being purchased.

In popular culture
Elizabeth Harrower's debut novel, Down in the City, begins in Rose Bay. It depicts the character Esther Prescott, who is transported from a sheltered, genteel life in the harbourside suburb to a Kings Cross apartment with her moody, unpredictable husband Stan.

Notable residents

 * Timothy Conigrave, actor and writer
 * Russell Crowe, actor and film producer
 * Russell Drysdale, painter
 * Kym Johnson and Robert Herjavec, professional ballroom dancer and billionaire businessman and investor
 * Jodhi Meares, fashion designer and model
 * Maggie Moore, actress
 * Peter Overton, television journalist and news presenter
 * Jessica Rowe, television news presenter and media personality
 * Robert Towns, Member of the Legislative Council and founder of Townsville, Queensland

title: Rose Bay, New South Wales


text:
File:Giant Steps.ogg

John Coltrane - Giant Steps (sample), fair use

Fair use rationale for John Coltrane

 * The audio sample is of inferior quality of the original track. At approx. 28 seconds, it is significantly shorter than the main work. Due to its lower quality and size, the audio sample would not be a perferred substitute to the main track for either entertainment or commercial purposes. Other short samples of this and other songs on the album appear on Amazon.com and iTunes, among other sites, for promotional purposes.
 * No free or public domain audio samples have been located to represent this subject.
 * The audio sample does not limit the copyright owners' rights to reproduce the song, album, or video in any way.
 * The audio sample is being used for informational purposes only, as it reflects important aspects of John Coltrane's work.

The audio sample is a copyrighted work. U.S. copyright laws apply to this work. Should a free or public domain sample be located, it should be used in place of this audio sample.

Fair use rationale for Giant Steps (composition)

 * The audio sample is of inferior quality of the original track. At approx. 28 seconds, it is significantly shorter than the main work. Due to its lower quality and size, the audio sample would not be a perferred substitute to the main track for either entertainment or commercial purposes. Other short samples of this and other songs on the album appear on Amazon.com and iTunes, among other sites, for promotional purposes.
 * No free or public domain audio samples have been located to represent this subject.
 * The audio sample does not limit the copyright owners' rights to reproduce the song, album, or video in any way.
 * The audio sample is being used for informational purposes only, as it reflects important aspects of John Coltrane's work.

The audio sample is a copyrighted work. U.S. copyright laws apply to this work. Should a free or public domain sample be located, it should be used in place of this audio sample.

title: File:Giant Steps.ogg


text:
List of female top executives

The world average of female top executives is 8 percent. Thailand has the highest proportion of female CEOs in the world, with 30 percent of companies employing female CEOs, followed by the People's Republic of China, with 19 percent. In the European Union the figure is 9 percent and in the United States it is 5 percent. 14.2% of the top five leadership positions at the companies in the S&P 500 are held by women, according to a recent CNNMoney analysis, out of those 500 companies, there are 24 female CEOs.

Female CEOs
A number of women have risen to become top executives of major corporations. Below is an incomplete list of such women.
 * Ida Liu CEO of Citi Private Bank
 * Brenda C. Barnes, former CEO of Sara Lee
 * Jhane Barnes, owner fashion design company
 * Mary Barra, chairman and CEO of General Motors
 * Corie Barry, CEO of Best Buy
 * Amanda Blanc, CEO of Aviva
 * Ana Botín, President of Banco Santander, Spain
 * Gail Koziara Boudreaux, CEO of Anthem
 * Angela Braly, former President and CEO of WellPoint (now Anthem)
 * Heather Bresch, Mylan Inc
 * Roz Brewer, CEO of Walgreens
 * Michele Buck, CEO and President of The Hershey Company
 * Ursula Burns, CEO and Chairman of Xerox
 * Liz Claiborne, Chairperson and CEO of Liz Claiborne, Inc.
 * Zoe Cruz, Co-President of Morgan Stanley
 * Alison Cooper, formerly CEO of Imperial Brands
 * Debra Crew, CEO of Diageo
 * Margherita Della Valle, chief executive of Vodafone
 * Mary Dillon, CEO of Ulta Beauty
 * Patricia Dunn, former Chairman of Hewlett-Packard
 * Annika Falkengren, CEO of SEB, Sweden
 * Kathryn Farmer, President and CEO of BNSF Railway
 * Carly Fiorina, former Chairman and CEO of Hewlett-Packard
 * Janet Foutty, former CEO and chairperson of Deloitte Consulting
 * Clara Furse, former CEO of London Stock Exchange
 * Jody Gerson, CEO of Universal Music Publishing
 * Jacqueline Gold, former CEO of Ann Summers
 * Julie Greenwald, CEO of Atlantic Music Group
 * Linda Hasenfratz, CEO of Linamar
 * Annie Hurlbut, CEO and co-founder of Peruvian Connection
 * Kathy Ireland, Chairman, CEO and Chief Designer for Kathy Ireland Worldwide and Chairman Emeritus for Level Brands
 * Lisa S. Jones CEO of EyeMail Inc.
 * Andrea Jung, Chairman and CEO of Avon Products
 * Joyce Mackenzie Liu, CEO of Pegafund
 * Indra Krishnamurthy Nooyi, President and CEO of PepsiCo
 * Marianne Nivert, former CEO of Telia (now TeliaSonera), Sweden
 * Karen S. Lynch, President and CEO of CVS Health
 * Sylvia Rhone, CEO of Epic Records
 * Ginni Rometty, former CEO of IBM
 * Irene Rosenfeld, CEO of Kraft Foods
 * Rasha Al Roumi, former CEO of Kuwait Airways
 * Patricia Russo, CEO of Lucent
 * Güler Sabancı, CEO of Sabancı Holding, Turkey
 * Mary Sammons, President and CEO of Rite Aid
 * Nicola Steele, CEO of Krispy Kreme ANZ
 * Martha Stewart, former CEO of Martha Stewart Living Omnimedia
 * Belinda Stronach, former President and CEO of Magna International
 * Lisa Su, President, CEO and Chair of AMD
 * Cydni Tetro, CEO of Brandless
 * Therese Tucker, founder and CEO of BlackLine
 * Laura Wade-Gery, CEO of Multi-channel at Marks & Spencer, former CEO of Tesco.com
 * Meg Whitman, former CEO of eBay, former CEO of Hewlett-Packard and Hewlett Packard Enterprise
 * Geisha Williams, CEO and President of President of PG&E Corporation
 * Shelley Zalis, CEO of The Female Quotient, former CEO of Ipsos Open Thinking Exchange
 * Karla Lewis, CEO of Reliance Steel & Aluminum
 * Sin Yin Tan - Ping An Insurance
 * Stephanie Linnartz, CEO Under Armour

title: List of female top executives


text: User:Ruinia

title: User:Ruinia


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Hong Kong Museum of Art

The Hong Kong Museum of Art (HKMoA) is the first and main art museum of Hong Kong, located in Salisbury Road, Tsim Sha Tsui. It is a public museum managed by the Leisure and Cultural Services Department of the Hong Kong Government. HKMoA has an art collection of over 17,000 items. Admission is free for permanent exhibitions. Its rival is the non-government-managed Hong Kong Arts Centre. These two museums are considered to be the top two art museums in Hong Kong that dictate the discourse of art in Hong Kong.

It has an extended branch, the Flagstaff House Museum of Tea Ware, at the Hong Kong Park in Central.

History
The museum was established as the City Museum and Art Gallery in the City Hall in Central by the Urban Council on 2 March 1962. This was split into the Hong Kong Museum of History and the Hong Kong Museum of Art in July 1975.

The Museum of History moved to Kowloon Park in 1983. Before leaving City Hall in 1991, the art museum occupied the 8th (rear portion), 9th, 10th, and 11th storeys of the High Block. These floors now house a public library. In 1991, it was moved to the present premises at 10 Salisbury Road, near the Hong Kong Cultural Centre and the Hong Kong Space Museum, in Tsim Sha Tsui.

The new museum was formally inaugurated by Governor Chris Patten on 11 September 1992.

The museum closed on 3 August 2015 for a $400 million expansion and renovation. It reopened on 30 November 2019.

Exhibitions
The museum changes its displays regularly. The exhibitions in the museum are mainly of paintings, calligraphy and sculpture from Hong Kong, China and other parts of the world. It has cooperated with other museums as well.

From 25 May to 4 July 1962, the museum (then still named the Hong Kong City Hall Museum and Art Gallery) held the major exhibition, Hong Kong Art Today. It was significant as the first exhibition with Hong Kong art as its theme. The exhibition also reflected how naturalism in art had become passé and that abstract art was favoured at that moment in time.

Since 1975, the museum has hosted the Hong Kong Art Biennial Exhibition featuring the work of contemporary Hong Kong artists. It was renamed the Hong Kong Contemporary Art Biennial Awards in 2009.

Transportation
The museum is within walking distance of both East Tsim Sha Tsui station and Tsim Sha Tsui station of the Mass Transit Railway (MTR). It is even nearer the Tsim Sha Tsui Ferry Pier, which offers services to Wan Chai and Central.

title: Hong Kong Museum of Art


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Hans Nansen

Hans Nansen (28 November 1598 – 12 November 1667) was a Danish statesman.

Biography
The son of a burgher, Evert Nansen, he was born at Flensburg. He made several voyages to the White Sea and to places in northern Russia, and in 1621 entered the service of the thriving Danish Icelandic Company. For many years the whole trade of Iceland, which he frequently visited, passed through his hands, and he soon became equally well known at Glückstadt, the centre of the Iceland trade, and at Copenhagen.

In February 1644, at the express desire of King Christian IV, the Copenhagen burgesses elected him burgomaster. During his northern voyages he had learned Russian, and was employed as interpreter at court whenever Muscovite embassies visited Copenhagen. His travels had begotten in him a love of geography, and he published in 1633 a Kosmografi, previously revised by the astronomer Longomontanus.

During the siege of Copenhagen by the Swedes in 1658 Nansen became prominent. At the meeting between the king and the citizens to arrange for the defence of the capital, he urged the necessity of an obstinate defence. It was he who obtained privileges for the burgesses of Copenhagen which placed them on a footing of equality with the nobility; and he was the life and soul of the garrison till the arrival of the Dutch fleet practically saved the city. These eighteen months of crisis established his influence in the capital once for all and at the same time knitted him closely to Frederick III, who recognized in Nansen a man after his own heart, and made the great burgomaster his chief instrument in carrying through the anti-aristocratic Revolution of 1660. Nansen used all the arts of the agitator with extraordinary energy and success.

His greatest feat was the impassioned speech by which, on 8 October, he induced the burgesses to accede to the proposal of the magistracy of Copenhagen to offer Frederick III the realm of Denmark-Norway as a purely hereditary state. How far Nansen was content with the result of the Revolution—absolute monarchy—it is impossible to say. It appears certain that, at the beginning he did not want absolutism. Whether he subsequently regarded the victory of the monarchy and its corollary, the admittance of the middle classes to all offices and dignities, as a satisfactory equivalent for his original demands; or whether he was so overcome by royal favour as to sacrifice cheerfully the political liberties of his country, is a matter for conjecture.

After the Revolution Nansen continued in high honour, but he chiefly occupied himself with commerce, and less with politics.

title: Hans Nansen


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Apportionment paradox

An apportionment paradox is a situation where an apportionment—a rule for dividing discrete objects according to some proportional relationship—produces results that violate notions of common sense or fairness.

Certain quantities, like milk, can be divided in any proportion whatsoever; others, such as horses, cannot—only whole numbers will do. In the latter case, there is an inherent tension between the desire to obey the rule of proportion as closely as possible and the constraint restricting the size of each portion to discrete values.

Several paradoxes related to apportionment, also called fair division, have been identified. In some cases, simple post facto adjustments, if allowed, to an apportionment methodology can resolve observed paradoxes. However, as shown by examples relating to the United States House of Representatives, and subsequently proven by the Balinski–Young theorem, mathematics alone cannot always provide a single, fair resolution to the apportionment of remaining fractions into discrete equal whole-number parts, while complying fully with all the competing fairness elements.

History
An example of the apportionment paradox known as "the Alabama paradox" was discovered in the context of United States congressional apportionment in 1880, when census calculations found that if the total number of seats in the House of Representatives were hypothetically increased, this would decrease Alabama's seats from 8 to 7. An actual impact was observed in 1900, when Virginia lost a seat to Maine, even though Virginia's population was growing more rapidly: this is an example of the population paradox. In 1907, when Oklahoma became a state, New York lost a seat to Maine, thus the name "the new state paradox".

The method for apportionment used during this period, originally put forth by Alexander Hamilton, but vetoed by George Washington and not adopted until 1852, was as follows:

 * First, the fair share of each state is computed, i.e. the proportional share of seats that each state would get if fractional values were allowed.
 * Second, each state receives as many seats as the whole number portion of its fair share.
 * Third, any state whose fair share is less than one receives one seat, regardless of population, as required by the United States Constitution.
 * Fourth, any remaining seats are distributed, one each, to the states whose fair shares have the highest fractional parts.

The Hamilton method replaced a rounding method proposed by Thomas Jefferson, and was itself replaced by the Huntington–Hill method in 1941.

Alabama paradox
The Alabama paradox was the first of the apportionment paradoxes to be discovered. The US House of Representatives is constitutionally required to allocate seats based on population counts, which are required every 10 years. The size of the House is set by statute.

After the 1880 census, C. W. Seaton, chief clerk of the United States Census Bureau, computed apportionments for all House sizes between 275 and 350, and discovered that Alabama would get eight seats with a House size of 299 but only seven with a House size of 300. In general the term Alabama paradox refers to any apportionment scenario where increasing the total number of items would decrease one of the shares. A similar exercise by the Census Bureau after the 1900 census computed apportionments for all House sizes between 350 and 400: Colorado would have received three seats in all cases, except with a House size of 357 in which case it would have received two.

The following is a simplified example (following the largest remainder method) with three states and 10 seats and 11 seats.

Observe that state C's share decreases from 2 to 1 with the added seat.

In this example of a 10% increase in the number of seats, each state's share increases by 10%. However, increasing the number of seats by a fixed % increases the fair share more for larger numbers (i.e., large states more than small states). In particular, large A and B had their fair share increase faster than small C. Therefore, the fractional parts for A and B increased faster than those for C. In fact, they overtook C's fraction, causing C to lose its seat, since the Hamilton method allocates according to which states have the largest fractional remainder.

The Alabama paradox gave rise to the axiom known as house monotonicity, which says that, when the house size increases, the allocations of all states should weakly increase.

Population paradox
The population paradox is a counterintuitive result of some procedures for apportionment. When two states have populations increasing at different rates, a small state with rapid growth can lose a legislative seat to a big state with slower growth.

Some of the earlier Congressional apportionment methods, such as Hamilton, could exhibit the population paradox. In 1900, Virginia lost a seat to Maine, even though Virginia's population was growing more rapidly. However, divisor methods such as the current method do not.

New states paradox
Given a fixed number of total representatives (as determined by the United States House of Representatives), adding a new state would in theory reduce the number of representatives for existing states, as under the United States Constitution each state is entitled to at least one representative regardless of its population. Also, even if the number of members in the House of Representatives is increased by the number of Representatives in the new state, a pre-existing state could lose a seat because of how the particular apportionment rules deal with rounding methods. In 1907, when Oklahoma became a state, it was given a fair share of seats and the total number of seats increased by that number. The House increased from 386 to 391 members. A recomputation of apportionment affected the number of seats because of other states: New York lost a seat while Maine gained one.

The Alabama paradox gave rise to the axiom known as coherence, which says that, whenever an apportionment rule is activated on a subset of the states, with the subset of seats allocated to them, the outcome should be the same as in the grand solution.

Balinski–Young theorem
In 1983, two mathematicians, Michel Balinski and Peyton Young, proved that any method of apportionment that does not violate the quota rule will result in paradoxes whenever there are four or more parties (or states, regions, etc.). More precisely, their theorem states that there is no apportionment system that has the following properties for more than four states  (as the example we take the division of seats between parties in a system of proportional representation):
 * It avoids violations of the quota rule: Each of the parties gets one of the two numbers closest to its fair share of seats. For example, if a party's fair share is 7.34 seats, it must get either 7 or 8 seats to avoid a violation; any other number will violate the rule.
 * It does not have the Alabama paradox: If the total number of seats is increased, no party's number of seats decreases.
 * It does not have the population paradox: If party A gets more votes and party B gets fewer votes, no seat will be transferred from A to B.

It is of note that any method of apportionment free of the Population Paradox will always be free of Alabama Paradox. The converse is not true, however.

Interestingly, Webster's method can be free of the Population Paradox and the Alabama Paradox and not violate quota when there are three states. All sensible methods satisfy quota in the trivial two-state case.

They show a proof of impossibility: apportionment methods may have a subset of these properties, but cannot have all of them:
 * A method may follow quota and be free of the Alabama paradox. Balinski and Young constructed a method that does so, although it is not in common political use.
 * A method may be free of both the Alabama paradox and the population paradox. These methods are divisor methods, and Huntington-Hill, the method currently used to apportion House of Representatives seats, is one of them. However, these methods will necessarily fail to always follow quota in other circumstances.
 * No method may always follow quota and be free of the population paradox.

The division of seats in an election is a prominent cultural concern. In 1876, the United States presidential election turned on the method by which the remaining fraction was calculated. Rutherford Hayes received 185 electoral college votes, and Samuel Tilden received 184. Tilden won the popular vote. With a different rounding method the final electoral college tally would have reversed. However, many mathematically analogous situations arise in which quantities are to be divided into discrete equal chunks. The Balinski–Young theorem applies in these situations: it indicates that although very reasonable approximations can be made, there is no mathematically rigorous way to reconcile the small remaining fraction while complying with all the competing fairness elements.

title: Apportionment paradox


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USS Marlin (SS-205)

USS Marlin (SS-205), a Mackerel-class submarine, was the first ship of the United States Navy to be named for the marlin, a large game fish. Marlin and her near-sister Mackerel (designed and built by the Electric Boat Company) were prototype small submarines, which the Navy was exploring to replace the aging S-class submarines. References differ as to whether Marlin had a direct drive propulsion system or diesel-electric drive.

Her keel was laid down by Portsmouth Navy Yard in Kittery, Maine, on 23 May 1940. She was launched on 29 January 1941 sponsored by Mrs. John D. Wainwright, and commissioned on 1 August 1941.

After service in the Atlantic Fleet out of Submarine Base New London, Connecticut, for half a year, Marlin departed New London 21 March 1942 for Casco Bay, Maine. She arrived the next day for duty with TG 27.1, training new escort vessels in antisubmarine warfare. She returned to New London 18 April, and operated in Long Island Sound through 1942.

On 7 January 1943 the submarine arrived in Casco Bay for further duty with TG 27.1 until 16 January. She then spent the next 2½ years patrolling and training ships off New London and Portsmouth, New Hampshire.

On 26 July 1945, while making a submerged practice approach on USS Chaffee (DE-230), she collided with SC-642 with slight damage to both ships. In September Marlin kept company with USS Chetco (AT-99) on one of her trips from Portsmouth, reaching New London 10 September.

On 20 October 1945 Marlin departed New London with USS Skipjack (SS-184) for Bridgeport, Connecticut, arriving that day. Five days later she continued on to Boston, Mass, arriving 31 October. She was decommissioned at the Boston Navy Yard on 9 November 1945. Marlin was sold 29 March 1946 to the Boston Metals Company of Baltimore, Maryland, for scrapping.

Marlin is the submarine prominently featured as the fictional Corsair in the 1943 movie Crash Dive, filmed at Submarine Base New London. Her sail at the time of the movie resembled Mackerel's; the forward portion was later cut back for a 20 mm Oerlikon gun platform.

title: USS Marlin (SS-205)


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Capulin Volcano National Monument

Capulin Volcano National Monument is a U.S. National Monument located in northeastern New Mexico that protects and interprets an extinct cinder cone volcano and is part of the Raton-Clayton volcanic field. A paved road spirals gradually around the volcano and visitors can drive up to a parking lot at the rim of the extinct volcano. Hiking trails circle the rim and lead down into the mouth of the volcano. The monument was designated on August 9, 1916, and is administered by the National Park Service. The volcano is located 5 km north of the village of Capulin.

The visitor center features exhibits about the volcano and the area's geology, natural and cultural history, and offers educational programs about volcanoes. There is also a video presentation about the volcano. The name capulin comes from a type of choke cherry, Prunus virginiana, that is native to North America.

Apollo 16's John Young and Charlie Duke did some of their geologic training here in May 1971. William R. Muehlberger was one of the geology instructors.

Description
From the National Park Service:

"Capulin Volcano National Monument is a well-preserved, relatively young (55,000 to 62,000 years old), symmetrical cinder cone. It rises steeply from the surrounding grassland plains to an elevation of 8,182 feet above sea level. The irregular rim of the crater is about a mile in circumference and the crater about 400 feet deep.

Capulin Volcano is one of the outstanding landmarks located in the northeast corner of New Mexico, where the rolling grasslands meet the foothills of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains. Capulin Volcano's highest point provides unobstructed, panoramic views of the volcanic field, distant snow-capped mountains, and portions of five states (New Mexico, Oklahoma, Kansas, Texas and Colorado).

Capulin Volcano also offers visitors excellent opportunities for observing and understanding volcanic formation. The large volcanic field surrounding the monument contains at least 100 recognizable volcanoes, and aids visitors in gaining insights into 10 million years of the geological history of northern New Mexico."

Visitor activities

The two mile road that winds from the bottom of the volcano all the way to the top is popular with visitors. Once the top is reached, views of the surrounding volcano field, Sangre De Cristo mountains, the flora and fauna are visible. From late June to early August a phenomenon called hilltopping can be seen on the Crater Rim trail; thousands upon thousands of ladybugs cover trees and bushes at the top of the volcano. Capulin is also International Dark-Sky Association Gold Tier Certified, which means it has one of the darkest night skies in the entire country. Due to low levels of light pollution incredible views of the Milky Way and constellations are evident.

Visitors can hike a variety of different trails located throughout the park. The Lava Flow trail is a mile long loop that runs along the southern portion of the park. The Boca Trail is a 1.7 mile long loop that runs along the western base of the volcano, hikers can view the collapsed lava tubes that were created thousands of years ago at the foundation of the volcano. There are two different trails accessible from the top of the volcano: the Crater Rim trail which is a one-mile loop that goes around the entirety of the rim of the volcano and the Crater Vent trail which goes 200 yards into the crater itself.

History
According to the National Park Service, on January 16, 1891, Capulin Mountain was

"...withdrawn from settlement, entry or other disposition under any of the public land laws, until such time as Congress may see fit to take action touching the same or until otherwise ordered by competent authority..."

On August 9, 1916, President Woodrow Wilson set Capulin aside as a U.S. National Monument by Presidential Proclamation No. 1340, to preserve "...a striking example of recent extinct volcanoes ... which ...is of great scientific and especially geologic interest..."

Jessie Foote Jack and other local ranchers highly valued Capulin Volcano during this time period as it was considered prime grazing land. In order to ensure sole rights to graze cattle on the volcano, Jessie used her husband's political connections to secure the position of custodian for the monument. Serving from 1916 to 1921, Jessie Foote Jack was the first custodian for Capulin Volcano, as well as the first female custodian in the National Park Service.

In 1921, Homer Farr would unofficially become the custodian of the monument at the request of Mrs. Jack. Later, in 1923, Farr would officially take over the position serving the National Park Service until 1955. His enthusiasm for the volcano brought numerous changes to the monument. During his tenure, Farr was credited with building the monument's infrastructure which includes the road to the rim, procuring funding in economically difficult times, and garnering a Civil Works Project during the Great Depression to stabilize the road and build retaining walls.

Public Law 87-635, 87th Congress, S.2973, September 5, 1962, amended the proclamation to "...preserve the scenic and scientific integrity of Capulin Mountain National Monument..." because of the significance of Capulin Volcano.

On December 31, 1987, Congress changed the Monument's name from Capulin Mountain National Monument to Capulin Volcano National Monument by Public Law 100-225 (101 Stat. 1547).

Ecology

Although Capulin is primarily known for its volcanic geology, the park boasts a rich diversity of plant and animal life. The grasslands of the Great Plains and the forests of the Rocky Mountains combine at Capulin to form a unique ecotone which provides habitat for 73 species of birds in addition to numerous other animals. Songbirds such as the spotted towhee, Bullock's oriole, mountain bluebird, and Steller's jay all call Capulin Volcano home. Larger birds such as the wild turkey, osprey, red-tailed hawk, as well as New Mexico's state bird, the roadrunner, also live within the park. There are five different species of hummingbird that migrate through Capulin during the summer months.

Some of the larger mammals that frequent the park include the American black bear, cougar, pronghorn, elk, and the most numerous of larger mammals, the mule deer. Smaller mammals such as the American badger, Mexican free-tailed bat, ring-tailed cat, desert cottontail, and North American porcupine also inhabit Capulin Volcano National Monument. The unique landscape and flora create a habitat that allows a large and diverse group of animals to co-exist in a relatively small area. The abundance of diversity is not contained to just warm blooded animals however, Capulin also has a large group of cold blooded reptiles as well. The prairie rattlesnake and bullsnake are seen throughout the park. Western fence lizards and horned lizards can be seen on hiking trails. The tiger salamander is found in pools of water that sometimes collect around the park.

Solidago capulinensis, known as the Capulin goldenrod, is a rare plant endemic to Capulin Volcano National Monument. It is the only known rare vascular plant species in the monument.

title: Capulin Volcano National Monument