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List of universities in Greece

Universities in Greece form one part of constitutionally-recognized institutions with degree awarding powers. According to Greece's Constitution, higher education institutions (HEIs) include universities, polytechnics, some specialist HEIs, and formerly technological educational institutes (TEIs). In Greece, all universities are publicly owned and funded having state-accredited university title and authorization of university degree awarding powers at level 6 (first cycle qualification, bachelor's level) under the Bologna Process and the National Qualification Framework of Greece which is officially named Hellenic Qualification Framework (HQF; Greek: Ελληνικό Πλαίσιο Προσόντων).

The power to award Greek university degrees is regulated by law and it is an offence for an institution to award a Greece university degree if it is not public and state-owned. The State University System of Greece operates on the term system of two semesters per academic year,   has the national curriculum (national education system) set forth by the Ministry of Education of Greece (Υ.ΠΑΙ.Θ.).

Higher education institutions
Higher education institutions' (HEIs; Greek: Ανώτατα Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα) undergraduate programmes in Greece are government funded and have free education without any payment of tuition fee. About one-fourth of postgraduate programmes are offered without tuition and 30% of students can be entitled to attend tuition-free postgraduate programmes after they are assessed on individual criteria. The Hellenic Qualification Framework (HQF) sets out the different levels of education qualifications and the requirements for each of these and is linked to the European Qualifications Framework (EQF), and thus to other qualifications frameworks across the European Union. The regulated framework for Greece higher education qualifications, which is tied to the HQF, covers degree-levels qualifications of Greece degree-awarding bodies and is linked to the Qualifications Framework in the European Higher Education Area (QF-EHEA) established by the Bologna process where Greece is a full member since 1999. Joining to the Bologna process Greece began education reforms in order to get higher education meeting the common European Union standards. Now the process is implemented in all higher education institutions. The programmes of EHEA are set at three levels of study which are usually referred to as the three cycle system.

First (entry level), a four-year cycle of study at EQF level 6 to attain a bachelor's degree or its equivalent (Greek: Πτυχίο; transliterated to Ptychio in dhimotiki from 1976–present; or defunct Πτυχίον; Ptychion in polytonic, katharevousa up until 1976). A second cycle of study follows at EQF level 7 lasting one or two years to attain a master's degree (μεταπτυχιακό δίπλωμα ειδίκευσης (Μ.Δ.Ε.), also known as: δίπλωμα μεταπτυχιακών σπουδών (Δ.Μ.Σ.), 'diploma of postgraduate studies') or equivalent, which is distinguished from a postgraduate diploma, typically having 120 ECTS, as opposed to a full master's degree which usually has 180. The third cycle of study at EQF level 8, lasting three years, awards a doctoral degree (διδακτορικό δίπλωμα) or equivalent.

With the law 5094/2024, Government Gazette 39/A/13-3-2024,  it permits in Greece the establishment and operation of private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). A fully-recognized private Higher Education Institution must obtain a Higher Education Accreditation by the National (Hellenic) Authority for Higher Education (HAHE) and an official establishment and operating license by the Greek Ministry of Education.

The Open Courses  are undergraduate and graduate courses taught in Greek Public Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) that are free of cost, freely accessible and freely available to any person over the Internet (online). It operated by the Greek Academic Network (GUnet), also known as Greek Universities Network (GUnet), a member of the Open Education Global (OE Global).

With the paragraph 10 of article 34 of the Law 2725/15-6-1999, Government Gazette 121/A/17-6-1999, high school graduate athletes from 17 to 30-year-old who hold specific sport achievements are admitted without entrance Panhellenic Examinations to anyone of their choice undergraduate department of the public Higher Education Institutions of Greece.

Universities and technical universities
Universities (Πανεπιστήμια) can grant one or more of bachelor's, master's, integrated master's and doctorate degrees. The undergraduate programme of study for most disciplines is four years with awarded qualification in line with the Bologna process legal equivalent to a bachelor's degree, 240 ECTS, at level 6 of Greece's National Qualification Framework (NQF), European Qualifications Framework (EQF), or International Standard Classification of Education (ISCED).

Technical universities, also known as polytechnics (Greek: Πολυτεχνεία), grant degrees at the integrated master's level (which is divided into a 3-year undergraduate degree qualification and a 2-year postgraduate one), master's, and doctorate level. In specific disciplines, only the undergraduate programme is five years with awarded qualification (Greek: Δίπλωμα, Latinised version: Diploma) that is legally equivalent to an integrated master's degree, which is often the standard route to chartered status for a regulated profession in Greece. The integrated master's degree is a specialized degree corresponding to a master-level degree which has integrated part of an undergraduate degree. It is also called an undergraduate master's degree, where instead of studying for two separate degrees, a student will study for a single, longer programme. A student can also be awarded the 3-year undergraduate qualification (180 ECTS), instead of pursuing the masters should he wishes to. The most common integrated master's is in engineering, for example a Dipl.-Eng or Dip.Arch.Eng/M.Arch, and also others along with some programmes in the fine arts.

In medical schools, six years of studying are required to earn a bachelor's degree.

In addition to earning an academic degree in specific disciplines only, state license is required to practice independently within the country of Greece, and some disciplines have further licensing requirements to bestow a recognized appellation (chartered accountant, attorney at law, doctor of medicine, etc.). Diploma is a prerequisite for registration as a chartered professional, so it is also known as professional degree. The use of specific professional titles for some professions is legally regulated. For a regulated profession, access to professional practice requires holding a particular specific degree (e.g. professional degree), taken special exams that are required to earn state practice credential such as it must pass the National Council Licensure Examination, a period of practical training under supervision similar to internship, and/or registration with a professional body.

International programmes
With the law 4692/2020, Part II, Chapter III, from Article 82 to Article 95, the Greek Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) can provide first cycle programmes of studies in a language other than Greek. Among the Greek universities offer English-taught full-time programmes with tuition are:
 * National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, 4-year undergraduate programme in Archaeology, History, and Literature of Ancient Greece.
 * National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, School of Medicine 6-year undergraduate programme.
 * Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, School of Medicine 6-year undergraduate programme for foreign citizens.
 * International Hellenic University, University Center of International Programmes of Studies (UCIPS), offers English-taught postgraduate programmes.
 * University of Patras, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Department of Philosophy 2-year postgraduate programme, master's degree, titled Greek and Chinese Civilizations: A Comparative Approach.
 * University of Piraeus, School of Economics, Business and International Studies, Department of International and European Studies, postgraduate programme titled Μaster of Science (MSc) American Studies: Politics, Strategy and Economics.

University rankings in Greece
An external evaluation of all Greek universities was conducted by the Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency (HQA).

The following universities rank in at least one of the four major global rankings:

Technological educational institutes
Technological educational institutes (TEIs; Greek: Τεχνολογικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα) was a classification of Greek public HEIs (government subsidised) from 1983 to 2019, also called Technological Educational Institutes (TEIs) of Higher Education, Technological Institutes, Institutes of Technology, Technological Universities, and rarely Technical Colleges.

The undergraduate degree programmes, which by default included a one-time, 960 hours-long internship term known as practical training semester, consisted of four years and 240 ECTS-credits, previously a $3 1/2$-year (law 1404/24-11-1983, 1983–1995) and 210 ECTS, in line with the Bologna Process equivalent to a Level 6 ISCED bachelor's degree; the postgraduate degree programmes were $1 1/2$ years full-time or three years part-time with 90 credits and awarded qualification equivalent to a master's degree, ISCED 7. All TEIs in Greece were reformed between 2013 and 2019 and their departments have been incorporated into existing Higher Education Institutions.

Former HEIs
HEIs are defunct due to either closure or merger. Such events include:

The progressive education reforms of the "ATHENA" reform plan restructured higher education from 2013 to 2019.

 * University of Central Greece, abolished in June 2013 and absorbed into the University of Thessaly (UTH) and Panteion University
 * University of Western Greece, abolished in June 2013 and absorbed into the University of Patras

Mergers of TEIs in 2018–2019:

 * TEI of Thessaloniki, TEI of Eastern Macedonia and Thrace (TEI of Kavala), and TEI of Central Macedonia (TEI of Serres), merged with the International Hellenic University in 2019
 * TEI of Athens and TEI of Piraeus, merged in 2018 to form the University of West Attica    with three campuses in Aigaleo municipality in Athens
 * TEI of Crete, abolished in May 2019, founding the new Hellenic Mediterranean University
 * TEI of Central Greece, a merger of TEI of Chalkida and TEI of Lamia, abolished in 2019 and absorbed by the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, the Agricultural University of Athens, and the University of Thessaly
 * TEI of Ionian Islands, merged with Ionian University in 2018
 * TEI of Thessaly, abolished in 2019 and absorbed by the University of Thessaly
 * TEI of Epirus, merged with the University of Ioannina in 2018
 * TEI of Western Macedonia (TEI of Kozani), merged with the University of Western Macedonia in 2019
 * TEI of Western Greece, a merger of two TEIs in Patras and Mesolonghi, merged with the University of Patras and the University of Peloponnese in 2019
 * TEI of Peloponnese (TEI of Kalamata), merged with University of Peloponnese in 2019

Specialist HEIs

 * Hellenic Coast Guard Officers School
 * Hellenic Police Officers School
 * Hellenic Fire Service Officers School

Military HEIs offer 3 and 4-year undergraduate programs which lead to a bachelor's degree-level in military studies. The latter have been called Higher Military Education Institutions (ASEI; Greek: Ανώτατα Στρατιωτικά Εκπαιδευτικά Ιδρύματα): since 2010, they have offered studies for master's degree-level specialized diplomas and doctoral degrees. They conduct officer training for the Hellenic Armed Forces and have been considered national defense universities since 1961. Students at all Military Forces Academies are referred to as cadets and receive a monthly stipend during education. All cadets reside on campus and receive meals in dining halls. Cadets are not referred to as freshmen, sophomores, juniors, or seniors but instead fourth class, third class, second class, and first class cadets, respectively. All foreign cadets are commissioned into the military forces of their home countries. Upon graduation, all cadets become commissioned as second lieutenants, entry-level rank, and are employed in the Hellenic Armed Forces for a compulsory minimum term of duty service. Their graduates are eligible to reach flag officer ranks, albeit from Major onwards promotions are given on a personal merit basis for the completion of limited positions.

 * Hellenic Military Academy (Evelpidon Military Academy)
 * Hellenic Naval Academy (Hellenic Naval Cadets Academy)
 * Hellenic Air Force Academy (Icarus Air Force Academy)
 * Military School of Officers Corps (also referred to as Military School of Combat Support Officers), with programs in Economy, Dentistry, Legal Advisors, Medical, Pharmacy, Psychology, Veterinary Medicine.

Alongside officers' schools, 3-year undergraduate programs are also offered in the respective NCO schools for each branch of Greece's armed forces:

 * Military Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥ) - graduates are commissioned as Sergeants (OR-6)
 * Air Force Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥΑ) - graduates are commissioned as Airforce Sergeants (OR-6)
 * Naval Non-commissioned Officers' Academy (ΣΜΥΝ) - graduates are commissioned as Petty Officers (OR-6)

Despite their names (Σχολές Υπαξιωματικών), their alumni actually advance to the senior officer rank of Antisyntagmatarchis/Antipterachos/Antiploiarchos (OF-4), a rank at which most commissioned officers of both levels (Officer and NCO school graduates) usually retire. Unlike their officer school counterparts, however, they can not attain a flag officer rank, something possible before WWII; among others, General Nikolaos Plastiras was a ΣΜΥ graduate.

NCO schools for the Police, Fire Service and Coast Guard have a differentiated approach:

 * Hellenic Police Constable Academy (Σχολή Αστυφυλάκων) - highest attainable career rank: Second Lieutenant.
 * Hellenic Fire Service Firemen Academy (Σχολή Πυροσβεστών) - graduates (Firemen) are able to join the officer corps following exams later during their careers.
 * Hellenic Coastguard Seamen Academy (Σχολή Λιμενοφυλάκων) - highest attainable career rank: Second Lieutenant.

There are also specialised schools for officers, not accessible to civilians throughout the Panhellenic exams, such as the Hellenic National Defense College, the Hellenic National Security College and others.

Non-HEIs
After the law 5094/13-3-2024 published on Government Gazette 39/A/13-3-2024  permits in Greece the establishment and operation of private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs). Before the law 5094/13-3-2024 it was prohibited the operation of private Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).

In Greece, there are also the private colleges which are not considered universities and are not recognized as HEIs or degree-awarding bodies by the Greek government. The Post-secondary Education Centres (Greek: Κέντρα Μεταλυκειακής Εκπαίδευσης; ΚΕΜΕ) accredited by the Ministry of Education to which the Private Colleges belong, also they can be called Post-secondary Colleges (non-tertiary), they are bodies of non-typical education (φορείς μη τυπικής εκπαίδευσης) known as non-formal education bodies. According to the State Constitution of Greece, "education at university level must be provided exclusively by institutions which are fully self-governed public law legal bodies". This prohibits private companies from operating post-secondary education that provides studies at Level 6 and higher on the Greek Qualifications Framework. However, it does not prohibit colleges from collaborating in Greece with foreign universities to offer undergraduate and postgraduate programmes.

The Panhellenic Association of Recognised Colleges (Greek: Πανελλήνια Ένωση Αναγνωρισμένων Κολλεγίων) is the representative body for the Greece located recognised private colleges. All the private colleges located in Greece are for-profit. Generally, any individual who wants to found a college in Greece must obtain a Higher Education Accreditation by the National (Hellenic) Authority for Higher Education (HAHE) and a license by the Ministry of Education, but has no obligation to become a participatory member of HCA. The vast majority of colleges are offering programmes of study under franchise or validation agreements with universities established in other European Union countries, primarily in the UK, leading to degrees which are awarded directly by those universities. The monitoring of those agreements as well as of additional provisions for the operation of colleges is carried out by the Ministry of Education and confirmed by Parliament by a 2008 law. Amendments were passed in 2010, 2012, 2013, and 2014. They are also monitored by the respective educational authorities of the countries of the partnered universities, for example QAA and NARIC for a British university.

One example of a college which neither operating as a franchise nor was validated through arrangements in the UK was the University of Indianapolis – Athens Campus, which ceased operations in July 2014. By contrast, this college was wholly owned and operated by its home campus, and is therefore accredited by the same agency which accredits the home campus. Consequently, students of the University of Indianapolis could switch between campuses at any time.

Degrees, diplomas, certificates, and any other type of attestation awarded by universities in European Union and European Free Trade Association countries to students that have completed their studies in an accredited private college located in Greece, can be recognized as professionally equivalent "in terms of the professional (practice) rights only" (Greek: επαγγελματικής ισοδυναμίας) to higher education titles awarded in the formal Greek education system. Recognition of professional equivalence permits access to a specific economic activity that the title-holder can exercise on the same rules, rights, terms as holders of comparable titles of Greece HEIs education system.

Recognition of legally-recognized professional degree rights in Greece can only be granted by the Independent Department of Implementation of European Legislation (ATEEN; Αυτοτελές Τμήμα Εφαρμογής Ευρωπαϊκής Νομοθεσίας; Α.Τ.Ε.Ε.Ν.) of the Ministry of Education (Υ.ΠΑΙ.Θ.),  as of the 2005 Directive of the European Parliament and Council, implemented domestically by a presidential decree in 2010.

Higher Education qualifications obtained from abroad foreign countries are recognised by the Interdisciplinary Organisation of Recognition Academic Titles and Information (D.O.A.T.A.P.; Greek: Διεπιστημονικός Οργανισμός Αναγνώρισης Τίτλων Ακαδημαϊκών και Πληροφόρησης; Δ.Ο.Α.Τ.Α.Π.) supervised by the Ministry of Education (Υ.ΠΑΙ.Θ.). The Hellenic National Academic Recognition and Information Center (Hellenic NARIC) is the official international name of DOATAP. In most cases, it can obtain a "statement of comparability" of a qualification (certificate of qualification equivalency information), stating how it compares to the qualifications delivered in Greece.

HAHE authority
The Hellenic Quality Assurance and Accreditation Agency for Higher Education (ADIP; Greek: Αρχή Διασφάλισης και Πιστοποίησης της Ποιότητας στην Ανώτατη Εκπαίδευση; ΑΔΙΠ), established by law 3374/2005, keeps the competent bodies of the state and the HEIs informed on current international developments and relevant issues. The ADIP was reformed by law 4653/2020 to form the Hellenic (National) Authority for Higher Education (HAHE; Greek: Εθνική Αρχή Ανώτατης Εκπαίδευσης; ΕΘ.Α.Α.Ε.). At the end of each year, a Higher Education Quality Report is submitted to the Minister of Education. A "Quality Assurance Unit" (QAU) is established in every HEI in order to coordinate and support evaluation procedures. QAU meetings are chaired by the Vice-Rector or vice-president of Academic Affairs of the relevant HEI and representatives of the staff and students take part in the QAU.

The internal evaluation is carried out with the responsibility of each academic unit (faculty or department) in cooperation with the Quality Assurance Unit. The academic units appoint Internal Evaluation Groups or Special Evaluation Groups (if undergraduate or postgraduate programmes are separately evaluated) and these groups compile the Internal Evaluation Report and submit it to the Quality Assurance Unit of the institution. The external evaluation process is repeated at longest every four years with the cooperation of HEIs and the HAHE. The evaluation is carried out by the External Evaluation Committee, which consists of five members from an HAHE register of independent experts.

title: List of universities in Greece


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California chaparral and woodlands

The California chaparral and woodlands is a terrestrial ecoregion of southwestern Oregon, northern, central, and southern California (United States) and northwestern Baja California (Mexico), located on the west coast of North America. It is an ecoregion of the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome, and part of the Nearctic realm.

Three sub-ecoregions
The California chaparral and woodlands ecoregion is subdivided into three smaller ecoregions.
 * California coastal sage and chaparral ecoregion: In southern coastal California and northwestern coastal Baja California, as well as all the Channel Islands of California and Guadalupe Island.
 * California montane chaparral and woodlands: In southern and central coast adjacent and inland California, covering some of the mountains of: the Coast Ranges; the Transverse Ranges; and the western slopes of the northern Peninsular Ranges.
 * California interior chaparral and woodlands: In central interior California surrounding the California Central Valley cover the foothills and the Transverse Ranges and Sierra Nevada.

Locations
Most of the population of California and Baja California lives in these ecoregions, which includes the San Francisco Bay Area, Ventura County, the Greater Los Angeles Area, San Diego County, Tijuana, and Ensenada, Baja California.

The California Central Valley grasslands ecoregion, as well as the coniferous Sierra Nevada forests, Northern California coastal forests, and Klamath-Siskiyou forests of northern California and southwestern Oregon, share many plant and animal affinities with the California chaparral and woodlands. Many botanists consider the California chaparral and woodlands, Sierra Nevada forests, Klamath-Siskiyou forests, and Northern California coastal forests as a single California Floristic Province, excluding the deserts of eastern California, which belong to other floristic provinces. Many Bioregionalists, including poet Gary Snyder, identify the central and northern Coast Ranges, Klamath-Siskiyou, the Central Valley, and Sierra Nevada as the Shasta Bioregion or the Alta California Bioregion.

Flora
The ecoregion includes a great variety of plant communities, including grasslands, oak savannas and woodlands, chaparral, and coniferous forests, including southern stands of the tall coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens). The flora of this ecoregion also includes tree species such as gray or foothill pine (Pinus sabiniana), scrub oak (Quercus dumosa), California buckeye (Aesculus californica), the rare Gowen cypress (Cupressus goveniana), the rare Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa), and a wealth of endemic plant species, including the extremely rare San Gabriel Mountain liveforever (Dudleya densiflora), Catalina mahogany (Cercocarpus traskiae), and the threatened most beautiful jewel-flower (Streptanthus albidus ssp. Peramoenus). Hesperoyucca whipplei, colloquially known as Chaparral Yucca, is commonplace throughout the lower elevations of the climate zone.

There are two types of chaparral: soft and hard chaparral. Hard chaparral is usually evergreen, located at higher elevation and is harder to walk through. Soft chaparral tends to be drought deciduous, live at lower elevations and tends to be easier to walk through.

Fauna
Species include the California gnatcatcher (Polioptila californica), Costa's hummingbird (Calypte costae), coast horned lizard (Phrynosoma coronatum), and rosy boa (Lichanura trivirgata). Other animals found here are the Heermann kangaroo rat (Dipodomys heermanni), Santa Cruz kangaroo rat (Dipodomys venustus), and the endangered white-eared pocket mouse (Perognathus alticolus).

Another notable insect resident of this ecoregion is the rain beetle (Pleocoma sp.) It spends up to several years living underground in a larval stage and emerges only during wet-season rains to mate.

Fire
Chaparral, like most Mediterranean shrublands, is highly fire resilient and historically burned with high-severity, stand replacing events every 30 to 100 years. Historically, Native Americans burned chaparral to promote grasslands for textiles and food. Though adapted to infrequent fires, chaparral plant communities can be exterminated by frequent fires especially with climate change induced drought. Today, frequent accidental ignitions can convert chaparral from a native shrubland to nonnative annual grassland and drastically reduce species diversity, especially under global-change-type drought. The historical fire return interval for chaparral communities used to be 30–50 years, but has now decreased to 5–10 years due to human interference.

Human influence
The region has been heavily affected by grazing, logging, dams and water diversions, and intensive agriculture and urbanization, as well as competition by numerous introduced or exotic plant and animal species. Some unique plant communities, like southern California's Coastal Sage Scrub, have been nearly eradicated by agriculture and urbanization. As a result, the region now has many rare and endangered species, including the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: California chaparral and woodlands


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Balanced scorecard

A balanced scorecard is a strategy performance management tool – a well-structured report used to keep track of the execution of activities by staff and to monitor the consequences arising from these actions.

The term 'balanced scorecard' primarily refers to a performance management report used by a management team, and typically focused on managing the implementation of a strategy or operational activities. In a 2020 survey 88% of respondents reported using the balanced scorecard for strategy implementation management, and 63% for operational management. Although less common, the balanced scorecard is also used by individuals to track personal performance; only 17% of respondents in the survey reported using balanced scorecards in this way. However it is clear from the same survey that a larger proportion (about 30%) use corporate balanced scorecard elements to inform personal goal setting and incentive calculations.

The critical characteristics that define a balanced scorecard are:
 * its focus on the strategic agenda of the organization/coalition concerned;
 * a focused set of measurements to monitor performance against objectives;
 * a mix of financial and non-financial data items (originally divided into four "perspectives" - Financial, Customer, Internal Process, and Learning & Growth); and,
 * a portfolio of initiatives designed to impact performance of the measures/objectives.

Use
The balanced scorecard was initially proposed as a general purpose performance management system. Subsequently, it was promoted specifically as an approach to strategic performance management. The balanced scorecard has more recently become a key component of structured approaches to corporate strategic management.

Two of the ideas that underpin modern balanced scorecard designs concern making it easier to select which data to observe, and ensuring that the choice of data is consistent with the ability of the observer to intervene.

History
Organizations have used systems consisting of a mix of financial and non-financial measures to track progress for quite some time. One such system, the Analog Devices Balanced Scorecard, was created by Art Schneiderman in 1987 at Analog Devices, a mid-sized semi-conductor company. Schneiderman's design was similar to what is now recognised as a "First Generation" balanced scorecard design.

In 1990 Schneiderman participated in an unrelated research study led by Robert S. Kaplan in conjunction with US management consultancy Nolan-Norton, and during this study described his work on performance measurement. Subsequently, Kaplan and David P. Norton included anonymous details of this balanced scorecard design in a 1992 article. Although Kaplan and Norton's article was not the only paper on the topic published in early 1992, it was a popular success, and was quickly followed by a second in 1993. In 1996, the two authors published The Balanced Scorecard. These articles and the first book spread knowledge of the concept of balanced scorecards, leading to Kaplan and Norton being seen as the creators of the concept.

While the "corporate scorecard" terminology was coined by Schneiderman, the roots of performance management as an activity run deep in management literature and practice. Management historians such as Alfred Chandler suggest the origins of performance management can be seen in the emergence of the complex organization – most notably during the 19th Century in the USA. Other influences may include the pioneering work of General Electric on performance measurement reporting in the 1950s and the work of French process engineers (who created the tableau de bord – literally, a "dashboard" of performance measures) in the early part of the 20th century. The tool also draws strongly on the ideas of the 'resource based view of the firm' proposed by Edith Penrose. None of these influences is explicitly linked to in the original descriptions of balanced scorecard by Schneiderman, Maisel, or Kaplan & Norton.

Kaplan and Norton's first book remains their most popular. The book reflects the earliest incarnations of balanced scorecards – effectively restating the concept as described in the second Harvard Business Review article. Their second book, The Strategy Focused Organization, echoed work by others (particularly a book published the year before by Olve et al. in Scandinavia ) on the value of visually documenting the links between measures by proposing the "Strategic Linkage Model" or strategy map.

As the title of Kaplan and Norton's second book highlights, even by 2000 the focus of attention among thought-leaders was moving from the design of balanced scorecards themselves, towards the use of the balanced scorecard as a focal point within a more comprehensive strategic management system. Subsequent writing on the balanced scorecard by Kaplan & Norton has focused on its uses, rather than its design (e.g. The Execution Premium in 2008, "Intelligent Design of Inclusive Growth Strategies" in 2019 ); many others also continue to refine the device itself (e.g. Abernethy et al. ).

Characteristics
The characteristic feature of the balanced scorecard and its derivatives is the presentation of a mixture of financial and non-financial measures each compared to a 'target' value within a single concise report. The report is not meant to be a replacement for traditional financial or operational reports but a succinct summary that captures the information most relevant to those reading it. It is the method by which this 'most relevant' information is determined (i.e., the design processes used to select the content) that most differentiates the various versions of the tool in circulation. The balanced scorecard indirectly also provides a useful insight into an organization's strategy – by requiring general strategic statements (e.g. mission, vision) to be precipitated into more specific/tangible forms.

The first versions of Kaplan and Norton's interpretation of the balanced scorecard asserted that relevance should derive from the corporate strategy, and proposed design methods that focused on choosing measures and targets associated with the main activities required to implement the strategy. As the initial audience for this were the readers of the Harvard Business Review, the proposal was translated into a form that made sense to a typical reader of that journal – managers of US commercial businesses. Accordingly, initial designs were encouraged to measure three categories of non-financial measure in addition to financial outputs – those of "customer," "internal business processes" and "learning and growth." These categories were not so relevant to public sector or non-profit organizations, or units within complex organizations (which might have high degrees of internal specialization), and much of the early literature on balanced scorecard focused on suggestions of alternative 'perspectives' that might have more relevance to these groups (e.g. Butler et al. (1997), Ahn (2001), Elefalke (2001), Brignall (2002), Irwin (2002), Radnor et al. (2003) ).

Modern balanced scorecards have evolved since the initial ideas proposed in the late 1980s and early 1990s and are significantly improved – being both more flexible (to suit a wider range of organizational types) and more effective (as design methods have evolved to make them easier to design, and use).

Variants
Since the balanced scorecard was popularized in the early 1990s, a large number of alternatives to the original 'four box' balanced scorecard promoted by Kaplan and Norton in their various articles and books have emerged. Most have very limited application, and are typically proposed either by academics as vehicles for expanding the dialogue beyond the financial bottom line – e.g. Brignall (2002) or consultants as an attempt at differentiation to promote sales of books and / or consultancy (e.g. Neely et al. (2002), Bourne (2002), Niven (2002) ).

Many of the structural variations proposed are broadly similar, and a research paper published in 2004 attempted to identify a pattern in these alternatives – noting three distinct types of variation. The variations appeared to be part of an evolution of the balanced scorecard concept, and so the paper refers to these distinct types as "generations". Broadly, the original 'measures in four boxes' type design (as initially proposed by Kaplan & Norton ) constitutes the 1st generation balanced scorecard design; balanced scorecard designs that include a 'strategy map' or 'strategic linkage model' (e.g. the Performance Prism, later Kaplan & Norton designs, and the Performance Driver model of Olve, Roy & Wetter (first published in Swedish, 1997; English translation, 1999, ) constitute the 2nd Generation of Balanced Scorecard designs; and designs that augment the strategy map / strategic linkage model with a separate document describing the long-term outcomes sought from the strategy (the "destination statement" idea) comprise the 3rd generation balanced scorecard design.

Variants that feature adaptations of the structure of the balanced scorecard to suit better a particular viewpoint or agenda are numerous. Examples of the focus of such adaptations include the triple bottom line, decision support, public sector management, and health care management. The performance management elements of the UN's Results Based Management system have strong design and structural similarities to those used in the 3rd Generation Balanced Scorecard design approach.

The balanced scorecard is also linked to quality management tools and activities. Although there are clear areas of cross-over and association, the two sets of tools are complementary rather than duplicative.

The balanced scorecard is also used to support the payments of incentives, even though it was not designed for this purpose and is not particularly suited to it.

Design
Design of a balanced scorecard is about the identification of a small number of financial and non-financial measures and attaching targets to them, so that when they are reviewed it is possible to determine whether current performance 'meets expectations'. By alerting managers to areas where performance deviates from expectations, they can be encouraged to focus their attention on these areas, and hopefully as a result trigger improved performance within the part of the organization they lead.

The original thinking behind a balanced scorecard was for it to be focused on information relating to the implementation of a strategy, and over time there has been a blurring of the boundaries between conventional strategic planning and control activities and those required to design a balanced scorecard. This is illustrated by the four steps required to design a balanced scorecard included in Kaplan & Norton's writing on the subject in the late 1990s:

 * 1) Translating the vision into operational goals;
 * 2) Communicating the vision and link it to individual performance;
 * 3) Business planning; index setting
 * 4) Feedback and learning, and adjusting the strategy accordingly.

These steps go beyond the simple task of identifying a small number of financial and non-financial measures, but illustrate the requirement for whatever design process is used to fit within broader thinking about how the resulting balanced scorecard will integrate with the wider business management process.

Although it helps focus managers' attention on strategic issues and the management of the implementation of strategy, it is important to remember that the balanced scorecard itself has no role in the formation of strategy. In fact, balanced scorecards can co-exist with strategic planning systems and other tools.

First generation
The first generation of balanced scorecard designs used a "four perspective" approach to identify what measures to use to track the implementation of strategy. The original four "perspectives" proposed were:
 * Financial: encourages the identification of a few relevant high-level financial measures. In particular, designers were encouraged to choose measures that helped inform the answer to the question "How do we look to shareholders?". Examples: cash flow, sales growth, operating income, return on equity.
 * Customer: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "What is important to our customers and stakeholders?". Examples: percent of sales from new products, on time delivery, share of important customers’ purchases, ranking by important customers.
 * Internal business processes: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "What must we excel at?". Examples: cycle time, unit cost, yield, new product introductions.
 * Learning and growth: encourages the identification of measures that answer the question "How can we continue to improve, create value and innovate?". Examples: time to develop new generation of products, life cycle to product maturity, time to market versus competition.

The idea was that managers used these perspective headings to prompt the selection of a small number of measures that informed on that aspect of the organization's strategic performance. The perspective headings show that Kaplan and Norton were thinking about the needs of non-divisional commercial organizations in their initial design. These categories were not so relevant to public sector or non-profit organizations, or units within complex organizations (which might have high degrees of internal specialization), and much of the early literature on balanced scorecard focused on suggestions of alternative 'perspectives' that might have more relevance to these groups(e.g. Butler et al. (1997), Ahn (2001), Elefalke (2001), Brignall (2002), Irwin (2002), Flamholtz (2003), Radnor et al. (2003) ).

These suggestions were notably triggered by a recognition that different but equivalent headings would yield alternative sets of measures, and this represents the major design challenge faced with this type of balanced scorecard design: justifying the choice of measures made. "Of all the measures you could have chosen, why did you choose these?" These issues contribute to dis-satisfaction with early balanced scorecard designs, since if users are not confident that the measures within the balanced scorecard are well chosen, they will have less confidence in the information it provides.

Although less common, these early-style balanced scorecards are still designed and used today.

In short, first generation balanced scorecards are hard to design in a way that builds confidence that they are well designed. Because of this, many are abandoned soon after completion.

Second generation
In the mid-1990s, an improved design method emerged. In the new method, measures are selected based on a set of "strategic objectives" plotted on a "strategic linkage model" or "strategy map". With this modified approach, the strategic objectives are distributed across the four measurement perspectives, so as to "connect the dots" to form a visual presentation of strategy and measures.

In this modified version of balanced scorecard design, managers select a few strategic objectives within each of the perspectives, and then define the cause-effect chain among these objectives by drawing links between them to create a "strategic linkage model". A balanced scorecard of strategic performance measures is then derived directly by selecting one or two measures for each strategic objective. This type of approach provides greater contextual justification for the measures chosen, and is generally easier for managers to work through. This style of balanced scorecard has been commonly used since 1996 or so: it is significantly different in approach to the methods originally proposed, and so can be thought of as representing the "2nd generation" of design approach adopted for the balanced scorecard since its introduction.

Third generation
In the late 1990s, the design approach had evolved yet again. One problem with the "second generation" design approach described above was that the plotting of causal links amongst twenty or so medium-term strategic goals was still a relatively abstract activity. In practice it ignored the fact that opportunities to intervene to influence strategic goals are (and need to be) anchored in current and real management activity. Secondly, the need to "roll forward" and test the impact of these goals necessitated the reference to an additional design instrument: a statement of what "strategic success", or the "strategic end-state", looked like (which in turn would be related to the organization's Mission or Vision Statement). This reference point was called a Destination Statement. It was quickly realized that if a Destination Statement was created at the beginning of the design process then it became easier to select the appropriate strategic activity and outcome objectives which if achieved would deliver it. Measures and targets could then be selected to track the achievement of these objectives. Design methods that incorporate a Destination Statement or equivalent (e.g. the results-based management method proposed by the UN in 2002) represent a tangibly different design approach to those that went before and so have been proposed as representing a "third generation" design method for balanced scorecards.

Design methods for balanced scorecards continue to evolve and adapt to reflect the deficiencies in the currently used methods, and the particular needs of communities of interest (e.g. NGOs and government departments have found the third generation methods embedded in results-based management more useful than first or second generation design methods).

Third generation balanced scorecards improved the utility of second generation of balanced scorecards, giving more relevance and functionality to strategic objectives. The major difference is the incorporation of Destination Statements. Other key components are strategic objectives, strategic linkage model and perspectives, measures and initiatives.

Popularity
In 1997, Kurtzman found that 64 percent of the companies questioned were measuring performance from a number of perspectives in a similar way to the balanced scorecard. Balanced scorecards have been implemented by government agencies, military units, business units and corporations as a whole, non-profit organizations, and schools.

The balanced scorecard has been widely adopted, and consistently has been found to be the most popular performance management framework in a widely respected annual survey (e.g. see results from 2003 and 2013 ).

Theorists have argued from the earliest days of discussion of balanced scorecard usage that much of the benefit of it comes from the design process itself. Indeed, it is argued that many failures in the early days of the balanced scorecard could be attributed to this problem, in that early balanced scorecards were often designed remotely by consultants – it is suggested that because they were not being involved in the design the managers who were intended to use the device did not trust its design (e.g. it measured the wrong things and used inappropriate targets) and so failed to engage with and use the devices.

Criticism
Academic criticism of the balanced scorecard can be broken into three distinct (but overlapping) areas of concern.

 * 1) Lack of rigour: The first kind of criticism focuses on the empirical nature of the framework and the lack of any formal validation of the ideas it is based on in the early articles that introduced the concept. Kaplan and Norton notoriously failed to include any citations of earlier articles in their initial papers on the topic,  an absence noted, for example, by Norreklit. Others identified technical flaws in the methods and design of the original balanced scorecard  or concerning the lack of validation for the approach – for example Flamholtz observed that no validation was provided for the choice of the "four perspectives" of the 1st Generation design:
 * 2) Lack of an overall score: The second kind of criticism is that the balanced scorecard does not provide an overall score or a unified view of performance with clear recommendations: it is simply a list of metrics that managers have to interpret before deciding upon appropriate interventions (e.g. Jensen 2001 ). These critics usually include in their criticism suggestions about how an 'unanswered' question they identify in their commentary could be answered, but typically the unanswered question relate to things outside the scope of balanced scorecard itself (such as developing strategies) (e.g. Brignall )
 * 3) Not reflective of all stakeholder needs: The third kind of criticism is that the model fails to fully reflect the needs of stakeholders – putting bias on financial stakeholders over others. Early forms of Balanced Scorecard proposed by Kaplan & Norton  were orientated towards the needs of commercial organizations in the USA – where a focus on investment return was appropriate. This focus was maintained through subsequent revisions. Even now over 20 years after they were first proposed, the four most common perspectives in Balanced Scorecard designs mirror the four proposed in the original Kaplan & Norton paper. There have been many studies that suggest other perspectives might better reflect the priorities of organizations – particularly but not exclusively relating to the needs of organizations in the public and non-governmental sectors. For instance, the balanced scorecard does not address important aspects of nonprofit strategy such as social dimensions, human resource elements, political issues and the distinctive nature of competition and collaboration in nonprofit settings. More modern design approaches such as 3rd Generation Balanced Scorecard, the Public Sector Scorecard and the UN's Results Based Management methods explicitly consider the interests of wider stakeholder groups and perhaps address this issue in its entirety.

In response to these concerns there have been many studies seeking to provide (retrospective) academic underpinnings for the Balanced Scorecard concept,  and to provide case study and validation information for the various design generations.

There are relatively few reliable assessments of the effectiveness of the approaches embodied in the balanced scorecard, but some studies demonstrate a link between the use of balanced scorecards and better decision making or improved financial performance of companies. Broadcast surveys of usage have difficulties in this respect, due to the wide variations in definition of 'what a balanced scorecard is' (making it hard to work out in a survey if you are comparing like with like). Single organization case studies suffer from the 'lack of a control' issue common to any study of organizational change – what the organization would have achieved if the change had not been made isn't known, so it is difficult to attribute changes observed over time to a single intervention (such as introducing a balanced scorecard). However, such studies as have been done have typically found Balanced Scorecard to be useful.

Consideration has been given to the effect of organization size on balanced scorecard effectiveness:
 * For large organizations this work has focused on how to translate aggregate corporate strategies into performance management tools relevant to individual teams / units within the organization.
 * In small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), the balanced scorecard has been found to be effective, but that focus is required on balancing design complexity and relevance with the availability of resource to do the design work. Others have argued that the balanced scorecard is unsuitable for SMEs for a variety of reasons, including the belief that SMEs lack a long-term strategic focus (Hvolby and Thorstenson (2000), McAdam (2000)) and that SMEs have limited knowledge about performance measurement in general (Rantanen and Holtari 2000) and therefore do not recognise the benefits that might accrue from use of the tool (McAdam 2000; Bourne 2001), but it is also important to note that none of these studies attempts to theorise the reasons behind their negative findings.

Software tools
The balanced scorecard by definition is not a complex thing – typically no more than about 20 measures spread across a mix of financial and non-financial topics, and easily reported manually (on paper, or using simple office software).

The processes of collecting, reporting, and distributing balanced scorecard information can be labor-intensive and prone to procedural problems (for example, getting all relevant people to return the information required by the required date). The simplest mechanism to use is to delegate these activities to an individual, and many balanced scorecards are reported via ad hoc methods based around email, phone calls and office software.

In more complex organizations, where there are multiple balanced scorecards to report and/or a need for co-ordination of results between balanced scorecards (for example, if one level of reports relies on information collected and reported at a lower level) the use of individual reporters is problematic. Where these conditions apply, organizations use balanced scorecard reporting software to automate the production and distribution of these reports.

title: Balanced scorecard


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Timeline of Ontario history

Ontario came into being as a province of Canada in 1867 but historians use the term to cover its entire history. This article also covers the history of the territory Ontario now occupies.

For a complete list of the premiers of Ontario, see List of Ontario premiers.

Prehistory

 * 10,000 BCE – Early Paleolithic peoples lived in the spruce woodlands of Southwestern Ontario with mastodons and mammoths. People living in this period, referred to by archaeologists as Early Paleo-Indians, created and used stone tools.
 * 8,500 BCE – Late Paleolithic peoples inhabited the now-boreal pine forests of Southwestern Ontario hunting caribou, Arctic fox and rabbit or hare with darts and spear-throwers made from materials obtained through trade or travel with others at great distances. People living at this time are referred to by archaeologists as Late Paleo-Indians.
 * 8,000–800 BCE – During the Archaic Period, the climate warmed further. People living in the deciduous forests of Southwestern Ontario hunted a wide variety of woodland animals. Deer and fish were important to their survival. The caribou had moved north. Larger trade networks were established, extending as far as the Gulf of Mexico, and the Atlantic seaboard. Tools now included: nets, weirs, bows, arrows, and implements made of copper. People also fashioned copper into beads and bracelets.
 * 900 BCE–1610 AD – During the Woodland Era, pottery was first created. In the middle years, two distinct cultural groups emerged: Princess Point, and Riviere au Vase.
 * 600–800 AD – Ontario Haudenosaunee (Iroquoian) Tradition Princess Point culture began focusing on horticulture—specifically the "Three Sisters" (corn, beans, and squash)—forming a complex matrilineal society. During this same period, the Western Riviere au Vase culture established a patrilineal Anishnaabe (Algonquin) society, continuing to follow a traditional seasonal migratory lifestyle.

1762 and earlier

 * Aboriginal people lived on the land for millennia before European settlers came for means of exploration and colonization.
 * Before Europeans traveled to North America, first nations people, mostly Algonquian and Iroquoian, shared the land where Ontario is now located.
 * 1610 – Samuel de Champlain begins dispatching truchements to live among the Huron and the western Algonquin. The truchements played a multi-faceted role as interpreters, trade promoters, and explorers, who sought to align indigenous groups with the French.
 * 1610–1612 – exploration of what is now southern Ontario by Étienne Brûlé, a truchement.
 * 1611 – Henry Hudson visits Hudson Bay and claims the region for Great Britain.
 * 1615 – Samuel de Champlain visits Lake Huron, after which French missionaries establish outposts in the region.
 * 1616 – Date of an early map of New France, entitled La Nouvelle France, which included much of what would become Southern Ontario. The map is attributed to Samuel de Champlain.
 * 1639
 * Summer – Construction begins on Sainte-Marie among the Hurons, intended as a central headquarters for the French mission in Huronia.
 * November 1 – The first French mission to the Petun is established.
 * 1640
 * The Iroquois raid the southernmost Petun settlement of Ehwae.
 * The Jesuits conduct a "winter mission" to the Neutrals during the winter of 1640–41.
 * 1642 – In June, the Huron Rock Clan frontier settlement of Contarea is destroyed in a "massive attack" by Iroquois forces.
 * 1646 – In October, the French reactivate their mission to the Petun, with missionaries taking up residence in Ekarenniondi and Etharita.
 * 1647 – The Iroquois raid the Petun settlement of Etharita.
 * 1648 – Iroquois revolt against trespassing French, destroying a Jesuit mission near the site of present-day Midland (see Canadian Martyrs).
 * c. 1649–54 – Iroquois drive the Hurons, Petun and Neutral Nation from their territories. Around the same time, another population movement of the Mississaugas from the north shores of Lake Huron and Manitoulin Island to the Kawartha Lakes and Credit River areas.
 * 1649
 * March 16 – The Iroquois capture the Huron settlements of St. Ignace and St. Louis.
 * March 19 – Inhabitants of the Huron town of Ossossané, along with its surrounding villages, flee the Iroquois advance overnight across an ice-covered Georgian Bay to take refuge among the Petun.
 * May 1 – Many Huron refugees living amongst the Petun depart with the Jesuit priest Pierre-Joseph-Marie Chaumonot to Christian Island.
 * December 7 – An Iroquois war party destroys the Petun settlement of Etharita (also known as St. Jean). This had become the southernmost Petun settlement after the abandonment of those to the south of it.
 * 1668 – Father Marquette founds Sault Ste. Marie, noteworthy as the oldest surviving permanent European settlement in both Ontario and neighbouring Michigan.
 * 1670 – The Hudson's Bay Company is granted a British royal charter to conduct the Indian Trade in the 3.9 million square kilometer territory named after Prince Rupert of the Rhine known as Rupert Land. This area includes much of what is now Northern Ontario and represents about 1/3 of the land size of Canada.
 * 1673–establishment of Cataraqui (modern day Kingston, Ontario).
 * 1673–establishment of Cataraqui (modern day Kingston, Ontario).

Part of Province of Quebec, 1763 to 1790

 * 1763 – Britain wins the Seven Years' War and takes full control of the future Ontario
 * 1768 – Guy Carleton commissioned "Captain General and Governor in Chief" on 12 April 1768. He remains in command at Quebec till 1778.
 * 1775–1783 American War of Independence
 * 1778 – Sir Frederick Haldimand takes command as “Captain General and Governor in Chief" 26 June 1778. He occupied Cataraqui (Kingston, Ont.), reinforced Niagara and Detroit, and strengthened other military outposts against the American threat
 * 1779—Haldimand sends Captain Dietrich Brehm to strengthen the line of communication between Montreal and Detroit; over 5,000 Indians forced out of New York come to Ft. Niagara for food and shelter; he increases the goods distributed as gifts through the Indian Department from about £10,000 in 1778 to £63,861 in 1782.
 * 1783 – The Treaty of Paris ends the war; U.S. boundary along the St.Lawrence and Great Lakes
 * 1784 – Haldimand purchases lands for exiled Loyalists from the Mississaugas for or £1,180
 * 1784 Haldimand sets up 8 new townships for settlement along the upper St Lawrence from the westernmost seigneury to modern Brockville, Ontario, and five more around Cataraqui.
 * 1784 – About 9,000 United Empire Loyalists are settled in what is now southern Ontario, chiefly in Niagara, around the Bay of Quinte, and along the St. Lawrence River between Lake Ontario and Montreal. They are soon followed by many more Americans, some of them not so much ardent loyalists but attracted nonetheless by the availability of cheap, arable land.

 * At the same time large numbers of Iroquois loyal to Britain arrive from the United States and are settled on reserves west of Lake Ontario.

 * Kingston and Hamilton became important settlements as a result of the influx of Loyalists.

 * 1786 – Haldimand replaced by Carleton, now Lord Dorchester.
 * 1788 – On July 24, 1788, Governor General Lord Dorchester proclaims the land area to be divided up into "Lower Canada" with a French legal system and "Upper Canada" with a British legal System, whereby the land districts had been named Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, Nassau and Hesse in honour of the Royal family and the present large Germanic population.
 * 1788 – The British purchase 250,000 acres (1,000 km2) on which they begin the settlement of York, now Toronto
 * Thousands of Pennsylvania Dutch (German) farmers move from Pennsylvania to Upper Canada between the 1780s and the 1830s; they claimed a share of the United Empire Loyalists' foundational myth, drawing on its themes of loyalty and sacrifice.

Upper Canada, 1791 to 1840

 * 1791 – The Constitutional Act of 1791 followed the Dorchester Proclamation of 1788 and thereby creates the first land registry for Quebec Upper Canada and the part of present-day Ontario south of Lake Nipissing plus the current Ontario shoreline of Georgian Bay and Lake Superior, and Lower Canada (the southern part of present-day Quebec). Upper Canada's first capital is Newark (present-day Niagara-on-the-Lake); in 1797 it is moved to York, now Toronto.

 * The population of Upper Canada grows from 6,000 in 1785 to 14,000 in 1790 to 46,000 in 1806. (Lower Canada's is about 165,000). The population is rural, and based on subsistence agriculture, with few exports; government spending is a major source of revenue.

 * 1790s–1840s – Dueling is common among the elite, government officials, lawyers, and to military officers; they used dueling as a form of extralegal justice to assert their superior claims to honour. However, a new ethic was emerging that opposed dueling and rejected the hyper-masculinity embodied by the code of the duelist. This opposition was part of growing opposition to hierarchic dominance by the elite; opponents valued the bourgeois husband and father and separated male honour from physical violence.
 * 1793 – John Graves Simcoe is appointed as the first governor of Upper Canada. He encourages immigration from the United States, builds roads. Slavery was gradually abolished starting in 1793 by the Act Against Slavery.
 * 1795 – The Jay Treaty is ratified by which Britain agreed to vacate its Great Lakes forts on U.S. territory. Britain continues to supply the First Nations operating in the United States with arms and ammunition.
 * 1800 – First European settlement on the site of present-day Ottawa
 * 1801 – First ironworks in Upper Canada, located at Furnace Falls near Lyndhurst
 * 1803 – The North West Company moves its mid-continent headquarters from Grand Portage, Minnesota to Fort William, now part of Thunder Bay to be in Upper Canada.
 * 1803 – Thomas Talbot retires to his land grant in Western Ontario centred around present day St. Thomas and begins settling it. He eventually becomes responsible for settling 65,000 acres (260 km2). His insistence on the provision and maintenance of good roads, and on reserving land along main roads to productive uses rather than to clergy reserves leads to this region becoming the most prosperous in the province.
 * 1804 – First European settlement on the site of present-day Waterloo
 * 1807 – First settlement, Ebytown, on the site of present-day Kitchener
 * 1809 – The first documented appearance of steam navigation on the Great Lakes is at Prescott, when the steamship Dalhousie was launched for service on the Saint Lawrence River.
 * 1812–1814 – The War of 1812 with the United States. Upper Canada is the chief target of the Americans, since it is weakly defended and populated largely by American immigrants. However, division in the United States over the war, the incompetence of American military commanders, and swift and decisive action by the British commander, Sir Isaac Brock, keep Upper Canada part of British North America.
 * 1812–1813 – Detroit is captured by the British on August 6, 1812. The Michigan Territory is held under British control until it was abandoned in 1813.
 * 1813 – The Americans send an army of 10,000 men under General William Henry Harrison to recapture Detroit. British and Tecumseh's forces win the first battle at Frenchtown, January 22, 1813, killing 400 Americans and taking 500 prisoners, many of whom are then killed.
 * 1813 May – British and Indian forces fail in their siege of Fort Meigs, at the mouth of Maumee river; in August, they are repulsed at Fort Stephenson
 * 1813 September 10 – At the Battle of Lake Erie, the American Navy, decisively destroys British naval power on Lake Erie. British and Tecumseh forces, with their logistics destroyed, retreat back toward Niagara
 * 1813 October 5 – At the Battle of the Thames (also called "Battle of Moraviantown"), General Harrison, with 4500 infantry intercepts the retreating British and Indian forces and win a decisive victory. British power in western Ontario is ended, Tecumseh is killed, and his Indian coalition collapses.  Americans take control of western Ontario for the remainder of the war, and permanently end the threat of Indian raids into Ohio, Indiana, and Michigan.
 * 1814 – Population 95,000.
 * 1815 – War ends and prewar boundaries are reestablished. One of the legacies of the war in Upper Canada is strong feelings of anti-Americanism which persist to this day and form an important component of Canadian nationalism.
 * 1816 – Waterloo adopts its current name to honour the battle of Waterloo.
 * 1817 – By the Rush–Bagot Treaty, Britain and the United States agree to keep large war vessels out of the Great Lakes.
 * 1818 – The Treaty of 1818 reduces boundary and fishing disputes between British North America and the United States.
 * 1820s–1840 – The Family Compact is a closed oligarchy of landowners, royal officials, lawyers, and businessmen who virtually monopolized public office and controlled the economy of the province in the 1820s and 1830s.
 * 1820 – The Talbot Settlement is now completely settled, having resumed following interruption during the war years.
 * 1821 – The North West Company merges with the Hudson's Bay Company
 * 1823 – Peter Robinson settles the Bathurst District near Ottawa with immigrants from Cork County, Ireland.
 * 1824 – The Church of Scotland is granted a share of the revenues from clergy reserves. Presbyterians by the 1830s were a major force for social conservatism. Ministers sent from Scotland in the 1820s and 1830s were surprised by the ethnic diversity, and horrified at the frontier way of life, which they saw as a devil's compound of illiteracy, drunkenness, ignorance of religion, and lack of schools. They promoted conservatism as a means of implanting  Scottish moral values.
 * 1825 – Peter Robinson settles Scott's Plains (later renamed Peterborough in his honour).
 * 1825 – first settlement of Dresden
 * 1826 – first settlement of London
 * 1826 – With the creation of the Canada Company, free land is no longer available to immigrants willing to set up homesteads and farms.
 * 1829 – as a result of the Fugitive slave laws in the United States, the first colony of Black pioneers arrives from Ohio to uncleared land north of London, Ontario. The routes they travelled to Upper Canada become known as the Underground Railroad.
 * 1831 – Population 236,000.
 * 1832 – completion of the Rideau Canal from Kingston to Ottawa after six years of construction.
 * 1832 – a serious cholera outbreak spreads quickly from Lower Canada killing thousands.
 * 1833 – Building of the first Welland Canal by William Hamilton Merritt
 * 1837 – Rebellions of 1837 - Upper Canada Rebellion in favour of responsible government; a similar rebellion (the Lower Canada Rebellion) occurred in Quebec. In the world context of Atlantic revolutions, the Canadian reformers took their inspiration from the republicanism of the American Revolution. They demanded right to participate in the political process through the election of representatives; they sought to make the legislative council elective rather than appointed. The British military crushed both  rebellions, ending any possibility the two Canadas would become republics.
 * 1839 – Lord Durham publishes his report on the causes of the rebellions in 1837.
 * 1840 – The assembly passes a law providing for the sale of the clergy reserves, but it is disallowed by the British government.
 * 1840 – Upper Canada is now heavily in debt as a result of its heavy investments in canals.

The United Province of Canada (Canada West), 1841 to 1867

 * 1841 – Upper and Lower Canada are united by the Act of Union 1840 to form the Province of Canada, as recommended by Durham. Upper Canada becomes known as Canada West and Lower Canada as Canada East.
 * 1841 – Population 455,000.
 * 1841 – Sydenham dies in a riding accident and is replaced by Sir Charles Bagot. The movement for responsible government which had been growing under Sydenham is now so strong that Bagot realizes that to govern effectively he must admit French leaders to his executive council. Once admitted, Canada East Reformer Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine insists that Canada West Reformer Robert Baldwin also be admitted. Bagot admits Baldwin as well, creating a Reform bloc.
 * 1843 – Bagot retires because of illness and is replaced by Sir Charles Metcalfe, who is determined to make no further concessions to the colonists. Metcalfe refuses a demand by Baldwin and Francis Hincks that the assembly approve official appointments. The ministry in the assembly resigns, and in the ensuing election a slim majority supporting Metcalfe is returned.
 * 1846 – The Colonial Secretary, Lord Grey, rules that the British North American lieutenant governors must rule with the consent of the governed. Executive councils are to be selected from the majority in the assembly, and change when the confidence of the assembly changes. Britain is abandoning the mercantilist principles which have guided its imperial policy, and since colonial trade will no longer be restricted, local colonial politics need no longer be restricted.
 * 1846 – Britain begins the repeal of preferential tariffs to the colonies, starting with the Corn Laws. These actions essentially spur on the beginning of later negotiated trade agreements with the United States.
 * 1847 – Canada is overwhelmed with 104,000 immigrants, many suffering from typhus who arrive that year alone escaping the Great Famine of Ireland. 1700 typhus deaths, including doctors, nurses, priests and others who aide the sick. They land at Grosse Île, Canada East and Partridge Island, New Brunswick. Large numbers go on to settle in Canada West. Bytown (Ottawa), Kingston and Toronto receive more than other places, putting a strain on local resources while at the same drastically increasing and changing the composition of the population in the province.
 * 1848 – Lord Elgin, who had replaced Metcalfe in 1847, asks Baldwin and Lafontaine to form a government following their success in elections for the assembly. This is the Province of Canada's first responsible government.
 * 1849 – Elgin signs the Rebellion Losses Bill, which provided compensation for losses suffered during the Lower Canada Rebellion, over the opposition of English conservatives (Tories) in Canada East, who were accustomed to having the governor support them. In reaction, a Tory mob burns down the parliament building in Montreal but Elgin, supported by majorities in both Canada East and Canada West (which had already passed a similar bill), does not back down, and responsible government is established in fact.
 * 1849 – The Canada East Tories then sponsor an Annexation Manifesto calling for the province of Canada to join the United States. They were motivated by the loss of trade threatened by the repeal of the British Corn Laws. However, the rest of the Canadian population opposes the manifesto, including the Tories of Canada West, who favour provincial union. Union with the United States ceases to be an important political issue.
 * 1850 – The Robinson Treaties are negotiated by William Benjamin Robinson with the Ojibwe nation transferring to the Crown the eastern and northern shores of Lake Huron and the northern shore of Lake Superior.
 * 1851 – The population of Canada West is now 952,000 having more than doubled in 10 years, by then numerically superior to that of Canada East. Politicians of Canada West begin to argue for representation by population ('rep by pop').
 * 1854 – An agreement for reciprocal lowering of trade barriers is reached between British North America and the United States. The British North American provinces can now send their natural products (principally grain, timber, and fish) to the United States without tariff, while American fishermen are allowed into British North American fisheries. Lake Michigan and the St. Lawrence River are opened to ships of all signatories.
 * 1854 – A law secularizing the clergy reserves is passed; the Anglican and Presbyterian churches retain their endowments.
 * 1855 – The American canal at Sault Ste. Marie on the St. Marys River (Michigan–Ontario) opened in May which opened Lake Superior to American and Canadian navigation, and made access to the Red River colony in Manitoba easier.
 * 1855 – The Great Western Railway links Windsor with Hamilton and Toronto.
 * 1856 – The Grand Trunk Railway opens between Sarnia and Montreal greatly enhancing the flow of goods and people across Southern Ontario and trade links with the American Midwest. Towns along its route swell in importance and population.
 * 1858 – Canada has become increasingly sectional, with Canada West electing Clear Grit Liberals and Canada East electing Conservatives. A coalition government led by John A. Macdonald and Antoine-Aimé Dorion falls in two days. In the assembly Alexander Galt proposes a federal union of the British North American colonies as a solution to the problem.
 * 1858 – The temporary judicial districts of Algoma and Nipissing are created, the first in Northern Ontario.
 * 1859 – The Clear Grit Liberals under George Brown propose specific arrangements for a federal union of the two Canadas.
 * 1861 – Population is 1,396,000.
 * 1864 – A committee proposed by George Brown to inquire into solutions to the parliamentary deadlock between the Canadas recommends a federal union of the British North American colonies, a solution which is welcomed by all sides. A government of Liberals and Conservatives, the Great Coalition, is formed to pursue this goal. Representatives of the coalition attend the Charlottetown Conference called to discuss union of the maritime colonies and persuade the representatives to endorse the Canadian plan for a broader federal union. A conference in Quebec City draws up the Quebec Resolutions, a plan for this union.
 * 1866 – The Westminster Conference endorses the Quebec Resolutions with minor changes.
 * 1866 – After a minor skirmish on the Niagara Peninsulia at Ridgeway, the Fenians withdraw back the United States. This incident only hastens the publics desire for full-fledged nationhood (see Fenian raids).

1867 to 1985
Canada 1867 and after. The Province of Ontario 1867 and after
 * 1867 – The parliament of the United Kingdom passes the British North America Act, by which the provinces of United Canada, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia join to form Canada. United Canada was split into Canada East/Est and Canada West/Ouest, the latter of which eventually changed its name to Ontario. The capital of Canada West was the city of York, which later changed its name to Toronto.
 * 1870 – There is large public support amongst Protestants for the trying of Louis Riel for treason for executing Thomas Scott during the so-called Red River Rebellion in Manitoba, while many Quebecers support Riel. Although Riel's government was finally recognized by Canada, its actions are destined to be described as a rebellion ever after. Tensions rise between Quebec and English Canada.
 * 1870 – the head of construction for the Dawson Road to Manitoba is named Prince Arthur's Landing by Colonel Garnet Wolseley during the Red River Rebellion.
 * 1870s – The growth of industry in Ontario and Quebec leads to a movement for protective tariffs.
 * 1871 – The first census following Confederation puts Ontario's population at 1,620,851.
 * 1871 – Thunder Bay District, Ontario, is created out of the western portion of Algoma District, Ontario.
 * 1872 – contracts are let by the federal government to survey the route through Northwestern Ontario of the Canadian Pacific Railway, to stimulate settlement of Western Canada, to bring Western agricultural and other products to Ontario and Quebec, and to link British Columbia to the rest of the country. The railway is part of Sir John A. Macdonald's National Policy.
 * 1872–1896 – The provincial government of Oliver Mowat vigorously defends provincial rights and expands the scope of provincial power.
 * 1874 – First issue of The Nation, founded by members of the Canada First movement to help in creating a Canadian nationality. Although the journal only lasted until 1876, other publications continued the effort after it stopped publishing.
 * 1875 – Construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway begins in June at Fort William, Ontario.
 * 1879 – The federal government of Sir John A. Macdonald, as part of its national Policy, institutes protective tariffs on manufactures and on farm products; the tariffs help Ontario industry but hurt farmers.
 * 1882 – The Canadian Pacific Railway Thunder Bay to Winnipeg is completed in June by the federal government.
 * 1883 – Important mineral deposits are found near Sudbury; this and similar discoveries, especially near Cobalt, triggered a mining boom in Northern Ontario. The region acquires a large French-speaking population as Quebeckers move there to work in the boom.
 * 1885 – The split between the Orange in Ontario and Roman Catholic Quebec is aggravated further by Protestant public support in Ontario for the hanging of Louis Riel, convicted of treason for his role in the North-West Rebellion that year.
 * 1885–Rainy River District, Ontario is created after Toronto its boundaries case before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.
 * 1889 – The Imperial Parliament confirms Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario west to Lake of the Woods and north of the Albany River by incorporation of sections of the District of Keewatin.
 * 1890–1896 – Tension between English and French is further aggravated by the disagreement between Ontario and Quebec over the Manitoba Schools Question. Ontario objects to a federal remedial bill to restore French schools in Manitoba in part because of its support for provincial rights, and in part because of the influence of a Protestant Equal rights movement begun in response to pro-Roman Catholic policies instituted in Quebec.
 * 1893 – A severe economic recession hits dropping the province's industrial output. Many in Ontario seek new opportunities further west following the recently completed transcontinental railroad.
 * 1896 – The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council rules that the federal government may exercise its reserve power only in time of war. This results in an increase in provincial power as areas of provincial responsibility are interpreted more broadly to accommodate new types of government initiative (social welfare, for example).
 * 1896 – Sir Oliver Mowat resigns after 24 years as premier.
 * 1906 – Establishment of the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario by the government of Sir James P. Whitney at the urging of Sir Adam Beck.
 * 1912 – Ontario acquires its current territory by incorporation of further sections of the North-West territories
 * 1912 – Regulation 17 bans teaching in French after the first year of school and the teaching of French after the fourth; this infuriates Francophones across Canada and further divides the country.
 * 1914–1918 – First World War
 * 1916 – The city of Berlin, under pressure to demonstrate the loyalty of its many citizens of German origin to the war effort changes its name to Kitchener
 * 1916–1927 – Ontario prohibits the domestic consumption of beer and spirits. Beer and spirits continue to be produced for export. Prohibition ends in 1927, however the ban of public bars selling alcohol is still in place until 1934.
 * 1937 – Premier Mitchell Hepburn uses the Ontario Provincial Police to suppress an CIO strike at General Motors in Oshawa after the federal government refuses to suppress it. Hepburn is unsuccessful in keeping the CIO out of Ontario.
 * 1943 – George Drew and the Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario are elected, beginning 42 years of Conservative government.
 * 1951 – In response to a civil rights movement which originated in opposition to racial discrimination in Dresden, Ontario, the government of Leslie Frost passes Canada's first Fair Employment Practices Act, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, colour, nationality, ancestry or place of origin. However, the act is enforced administratively, with prosecution only a last resort.
 * 1951 – The Frost government passes Ontario's first equal pay legislation, the Female Employees Fair Remuneration Act.
 * 1954 – The Frost government introduces Canada's first Fair Accommodation Practices Act. Like the Fair Employment Practices Act it is enforced administratively, with prosecution only a last resort.
 * 1955 – The first conviction under the Fair Accommodation Practices Act, of Kay's Cafe in Dresden, the site of the original complaint of racial discrimination in Dresden, is overturned on appeal.
 * 1956 – First successful prosecution under the Fair Accommodation Practices Act, again of Kay's Cafe in Dresden
 * 1962 – Passage of the Ontario Human Rights Code, which amalgamates and extends previous laws about civil rights.
 * 1966 – The government of John Robarts introduces universal health insurance within the province.
 * 1967 – The Ontario Pavilion is opened at Expo 67 in Montreal, and Ontario gets its unofficial theme song: "A Place to Stand, A Place to Grow".
 * 1967 – GO Transit commuter rail network begins operation in the Toronto region.
 * 1970 – The provincially funded TVOntario goes on the air.
 * 1971 – Ontario Place theme park opens in Toronto created by the Government of Ontario
 * 1976 – The CN Tower in Toronto is completed and opens to the public.
 * 1979 – A train derailment in Mississauga causes the largest evacuation of a city in North American history.

Since 1985

 * 1985 – The Progressive Conservative government of Frank Miller falls, ending 42 years of the "Big Blue Machine". David Peterson's Liberals gain power to be lost in 1989 to the NDP.
 * 1985 – Brewer's Retail strike cripples the hospitality industry throughout the summer
 * 1988 – Toronto hosts the 14th G7 conference
 * 1989 – Canada–U.S. Free Trade Agreement goes into effect
 * 1990–1992 – A major recession hits Ontario. Many companies began to massively downsize and threaten to leave Canada all together. New advancements in manufacturing such as automation and globalization further destabilize the Province, and lead to a decade of instability
 * 1993 – Due to major budget shortfalls, the government of Bob Rae introduces its so-called social contract (nicknamed Rae Days) which re-opens public-sector collective agreements with the intent of rolling back wages; his New Democratic Party's traditional labour support is greatly weakened.
 * 1994 – The North American Free Trade Agreement comes into effect.
 * 1994 – The Ontario budget deficit reaches $17 billion (CAD)
 * 1995 – The Progressive Conservative Party wins a large majority running on the concept of the Common Sense Revolution
 * 1995 – Native protester Dudley George killed by Ontario Provincial Police officers at Ipperwash.
 * 1997 – The province passes the Bill 103 (the 'Mega City' bill) that calls for the dissolution of Metro Toronto and merging of 6 cities within it to create the new City of Toronto.
 * 1998 – The government of Mike Harris begins privatizing the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario.
 * 1999 – Highway 407 is sold to a private company (built in 1997)
 * 2000 – Seven people die after contamination of Walkerton's water supply.
 * 2001 – The former City of Ottawa merges with the Regional Municipality of Ottawa–Carleton to form the new city Ottawa.
 * 2003 – Outbreak of SARS in Toronto; 44 die and tourist revenue drops by half. The World Health Organization advises against all but essential travel to the city.
 * 2003 – Two decisions of the Court of Appeal for Ontario legalize same-sex marriage in Ontario.
 * 2003 – Most of Ontario is plunged into darkness after a major electrical blackout hits Eastern North America
 * 2003 – The Liberal party returns to power under the leadership of Dalton McGuinty.
 * 2007 – The Liberal party remains in power and keeps control of its majority government.
 * 2010 – Dalton McGuinty's Liberals end Ontario's use of the GST and creates the HST
 * 2010 – Muskoka host the G8 summit, and Toronto Hosts the G20 summit.
 * 2010 – The Ontario debt surpasses $200 billion (CAD)
 * 2011 – The Ontario Liberals lose their majority, yet remain in power with a minority government in the Ontario general election.
 * 2012 – Premier Dalton McGuinty resigns amidst numerous scandals.
 * 2020 – Premier Doug Ford declared a state of emergency in the province, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario.
 * 2021 – Premier Doug Ford declared a second state of emergency in the province, amid the COVID-19 pandemic in Ontario.

General

 * The Dictionary of Canadian Biography(1966–2006), thousands of scholarly biographies of those who died before 1931
 * Gough, Barry M. Historical Dictionary of Canada (1999) excerpt and text search
 * Hallowell, Gerald, ed. The Oxford Companion to Canadian History (2004) 1650 short entries excerpt and text search
 * Marsh, James C. ed. The Canadian Encyclopedia 4 vol 1985; also cd-ROM and online editions
 * Pound, Richard W. Fitzhenry & Whiteside Book of Canadian Facts and Dates, Fitzhenry & Whiteside, 2004. ISBN 1-55041-171-3
 * Toye, William, ed. The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature. Oxford U. Press, 1983. 843 pp.

Surveys

 * Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History: Proceedings of the Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History Symposium, April 14, 15, and 16, 2000. Ontario Historical Society, 2000. 343 pp.
 * Baskerville, Peter A. Sites of Power: A Concise History of Ontario. Oxford U. Press., 2005. 296 pp.  (first edition was Ontario: Image, Identity and Power, 2002). online review
 * Chambers, Lori, and Edgar-Andre Montigny, eds. Ontario Since Confederation: A Reader (2000), articles by scholars
 * Hall, Roger; Westfall, William; and MacDowell, Laurel Sefton, eds. Patterns of the Past: Interpreting Ontario's History. Dundurn Pr., 1988. 406 pp.
 * McGowan, Mark George and Clarke, Brian P., eds. Catholics at the "Gathering Place": Historical Essays on the Archdiocese of Toronto, 1841–1991. Canadian Catholic Historical Assoc.; Dundurn, 1993. 352 pp.
 * McKillop, A. B. Matters of Mind: The University in Ontario, 1791–1951. U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 716 pp.
 * Mays, John Bentley. Arrivals: Stories from the History of Ontario. Penguin Books Canada, 2002. 418 pp.
 * Noel, S. J. R. Patrons, Clients, Brokers: Ontario Society and Politics, 1791–1896. U. of Toronto Press, 1990.

Ontario to 1869

 * Careless, J. M. S. Brown of the Globe (2 vols, Toronto, 1959–63), vol 1: The Voice of Upper Canada 1818-1859; vol 2: The Statesman of Confederation 1860–1880.
 * Clarke, John. Land Power and Economics on the Frontier of Upper Canada (2001) 747pp.
 * Clarke, John. The Ordinary People of Essex: Environment, Culture, and Economy on the Frontier of Upper Canada (2010)
 * Cohen, Marjorie Griffin. Women's Work, Markets, and Economic Development in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. (1988). 258 pp.
 * Craig, Gerald M Upper Canada: the formative years 1784–1841 McClelland and Stewart, 1963, the standard history online edition
 * Dunham, Eileen Political unrest in Upper Canada 1815–1836 (1963).
 * Errington, Jane The Lion, the Eagle, and Upper Canada: A Developing Colonial Ideology (1987).
 * Gidney, R. D. and Millar, W. P. J. Professional Gentlemen: The Professions in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. (1994).
 * Grabb, Edward, James Curtis, Douglas Baer; "Defining Moments and Recurring Myths: Comparing Canadians and Americans after the American Revolution" The Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, Vol. 37, 2000
 * Johnson, J. K. and Wilson, Bruce G., eds. Historical Essays on Upper Canada: New Perspectives. (1975). . 604 pp.
 * Keane, David and Read, Colin, ed. Old Ontario: Essays in Honour of J. M. S. Careless. (1990).
 * Kilbourn, William.; The Firebrand: William Lyon Mackenzie and the Rebellion in Upper Canada (1956) online edition
 * Knowles, Norman. Inventing the Loyalists: The Ontario Loyalist Tradition and the Creation of Usable Pasts. (1997). 244 pp.
 * Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. Province of Ontario: A History (1927) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
 * Lewis, Frank and Urquhart, M.C. Growth and standard of living in a pioneer economy: Upper Canada 1826–1851 Institute for Economic Research, Queen's University, 1997.
 * McCalla, Douglas Planting the province: the economic history of Upper Canada 1784–1870 (1993).
 * McGowan, Mark G. Michael Power: The Struggle to Build the Catholic Church on the Canadian Frontier. (2005). 382 pp.  online review from H-CANADA
 * McNairn, Jeffrey L The capacity to judge: public opinion and deliberative democracy in Upper Canada 1791–1854 (2000). online review from H-CANADA
 * Oliver, Peter. "Terror to Evil-Doers": Prisons and Punishments in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. (1998). 575 pp.  post 1835
 * Rea, J. Edgar. "Rebellion in Upper Canada, 1837" Manitoba Historical Society Transactions Series 3, Number 22, 1965–66, historiography online edition
 * Reid, Richard M. The Upper Ottawa Valley to 1855. (1990). 354 pp.
 * Rogers, Edward S. and Smith, Donald B., eds. Aboriginal Ontario: Historical Perspectives on the First Nations. (1994). 448 pp.
 * Styran, Roberta M. and Taylor, Robert R., ed. The "Great Swivel Link": Canada's Welland Canal. Champlain Soc., 2001. 494 pp.
 * Westfall, William. Two Worlds: The Protestant Culture of Nineteenth-Century Ontario. (1989). 265 pp.
 * Wilton, Carol. Popular Politics and Political Culture in Upper Canada, 1800–1850. (2000). 311pp

Ontario since 1869

 * Azoulay, Dan. Keeping the Dream Alive: The Survival of the Ontario CCF/NDP, 1950–1963. (1997). 307 pp.
 * Baskerville, Peter A. Ontario: Image, Identity, and Power. (2002). 256pp
 * Cameron, David R. and White, Graham. Cycling into Saigon: The Conservative Transition in Ontario. (2000). 224 pp. Analysis of the 1995 transition from New Democratic Party (NDP) to Progressive Conservative (PC) rule in Ontario
 * Comacchio, Cynthia R. Nations Are Built of Babies: Saving Ontario's Mothers and Children, 1900–1940. (1993). 390 pp.
 * Cook, Sharon Anne. "Through Sunshine and Shadow": The Woman's Christian Temperance Union, Evangelicalism, and Reform in Ontario, 1874–1930. (1995). 281 pp.
 * Darroch, Gordon and Soltow, Lee. Property and Inequality in Victorian Ontario: Structural Patterns and Cultural Communities in the 1871 Census. U. of Toronto Press, 1994. 280 pp.
 * Devlin, John F. "A Catalytic State? Agricultural Policy in Ontario, 1791–2001."  PhD dissertation U. of Guelph 2004. 270 pp.   DAI 2005 65(10): 3972-A. DANQ94970  Fulltext: in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
 * Evans, A. Margaret. Sir Oliver Mowat. U. of Toronto Press, 1992. 438 pp.  Premier 1872–1896
 * Fleming, Keith R. Power at Cost: Ontario Hydro and Rural Electrification, 1911–1958. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1992. 326 pp.
 * Gidney, R. D. From Hope to Harris: The Reshaping of Ontario's Schools. U. of Toronto Press, 1999. 362 pp.  deals with debates and changes in education from 1950 to 2000
 * Gidney, R. D. and Millar, W. P. J. Inventing Secondary Education: The Rise of the High School in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 1990. 440 pp.
 * Halpern, Monda. And on that Farm He Had a Wife: Ontario Farm Women and Feminism, 1900–1970. (2001). 234 pp.  online review from H-CANADA
 * Hines, Henry G. East of Adelaide: Photographs of Commercial, Industrial and Working-Class Urban Ontario, 1905–1930. London Regional Art and History Museum, 1989.
 * Hodgetts, J. E. From Arm's Length to Hands-On: The Formative Years of Ontario's Public Service, 1867–1940. U. of Toronto Press, 1995. 296 pp.
 * Houston, Susan E. and Prentice, Alison. Schooling and Scholars in Nineteenth-Century Ontario. U. of Toronto Press, 1988. 418 pp.
 * Ibbitson, John. Promised Land: Inside the Mike Harris Revolution. Prentice-Hall, 1997. 294 pp. praise for Conservatives
 * Kechnie, Margaret C. Organizing Rural Women: the Federated Women's Institutes of Ontario, 1897–1910. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2003. 194 pp.
 * Landon, Fred, and J.E. Middleton. Province of Ontario: A History (1937) 4 vol. with 2 vol of biographies
 * Marks, Lynne. Revivals and Roller Rinks: Religion, Leisure and Identity in Late Nineteenth-Century Small-Town Ontario. U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 330 pp.
 * Montigny, Edgar-Andre, and Lori Chambers, eds. Ontario since Confederation: A Reader (2000).
 * Moss, Mark. Manliness and Militarism: Educating Young Boys in Ontario for War. (2001). 216 pp.
 * Neatby, H. Blair and McEown, Don. Creating Carleton: The Shaping of a University. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2002. 240 pp.
 * Ontario Bureau of Statistics and Research. A Conspectus of the Province of Ontario (1947) online edition
 * Parr, Joy, ed. A Diversity of Women: Ontario, 1945–1980. U. of Toronto Press, 1996. 335 pp.
 * Ralph, Diana; Régimbald, André; and St-Amand, Nérée, eds. Open for Business, Closed for People: Mike Harris's Ontario. Fernwood, 1997. 207 pp.  leftwing attack on Conservative party of 1990s
 * Roberts, David. In the Shadow of Detroit: Gordon M. McGregor, Ford of Canada, and Motoropolis. Wayne State U. Press, 2006. 320 pp.
 * Santink, Joy L. Timothy Eaton and the Rise of His Department Store. U. of Toronto Press, 1990. 319 pp.
 * Saywell, John T. "Just Call Me Mitch": The Life of Mitchell F. Hepburn. U. of Toronto Press, 1991. 637 pp.  Biography of Liberal premier 1934–1942
 * Schryer, Frans J. The Netherlandic Presence in Ontario: Pillars, Class and Dutch Ethnicity. Wilfrid Laurier U. Press, 1998. 458 pp. focus is post WW2
 * Schull, Joseph. Ontario since 1867 (1978), narrative history
 * Stagni, Pellegrino. The View from Rome: Archbishop Stagni's 1915 Reports on the Ontario Bilingual Schools Question. McGill-Queen's U. Press, 2002. 134 pp.
 * Warecki, George M. Protecting Ontario's Wilderness: A History of Changing Ideas and Preservation Politics, 1927–1973. Lang, 2000. 334 pp.
 * White, Graham, ed. The Government and Politics of Ontario. 5th ed. U. of Toronto Press, 1997. 458 pp.
 * White, Randall. Ontario since 1985. Eastendbooks, 1998. 320 pp.
 * Wilson, Barbara M. ed. Ontario and the First World War, 1914–1918: A Collection of Documents (Champlain Society, 1977)

title: Timeline of Ontario history