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1963 in India

Events in the year 1963 in the Republic of India.

Incumbents

 * President of India – Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
 * Prime Minister of India – Jawaharlal Nehru
 * Vice President of India – Zakir Husain
 * Chief Justice of India – Bhuvaneshwar Prasad Sinha

Governors

 * Andhra Pradesh – Satyawant Mallannah Shrinagesh
 * Assam – Saiyid Fazal Ali
 * Bihar – Vishnu Sahay
 * Gujarat – Mehdi Nawaz Jung
 * Karnataka – Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar (until 4 May), S. M. Shrinagesh (starting 4 May)
 * Kerala – V. V. Giri
 * Madhya Pradesh – Hari Vinayak Pataskar
 * Maharashtra – Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit
 * Nagaland – Vishnu Sahay (starting 1 December)
 * Odisha – Ajudhia Nath Khosla
 * Punjab – Pattom A. Thanu Pillai
 * Rajasthan – Sampurnanand
 * Uttar Pradesh – Bishwanath Das
 * West Bengal – Padmaja Naidu

Events

 * National income - ₹230,580 million
 * November 21 - India's first ever rocket launch was carried out at Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station Thiruvananthapuram. The launch was successful and it sent NASA-made Nike-Apache rocket to space.
 * December 15 - Kendriya Vidyalaya Sangathan established following recommendations of Second Pay Commission.
 * December 27 - Theft of the Holy Relic from the Hazratbal Shrine
 * Indo Swizz project started at Kerala for developing new cattle breed.

Law

 * Supreme Court of India mandates that reservation should not exceed 50% for any institution.

Births

 * 23 March - George Maryan, actor and comedian
 * 29 April – Deepika Chikhalia, actress.
 * 10 May – A. Raja, politician
 * 25 May – Gajendra Pal Singh Raghava, scientist.
 * 2 June – Anand Abhyankar, Marathi Actor. (d.2012)
 * 16 June – Irai Anbu, Indian Administrative Service.
 * 27 July – K. S. Chithra, playback singer.
 * 30 July – Abhijith, actor.
 * 10 August – Phoolan Devi, bandit turned politician, assassinated (d.2001).
 * 13 August – Sridevi, Actress. (d.2018)
 * 17 August – S. Shankar, film director.
 * 21 August – Radhika Sarathkumar, actress and producer.
 * 27 August – Sumalatha, actress.
 * 19 September – Bonda Mani, actor (d. 2023)
 * 20 October – Navjot Singh Sidhu, Indian opening batsman.
 * 4 December – Jaaved Jaaferi, actor.
 * 25 December – Raju Srivastav, comedian, actor and politician. (d.2022)

Full date unknown

 * Keshava Malagi, writer.

Deaths

 * 13 April – Babu Gulabrai, writer and historian (b. 1888).
 * 30 30 October - U. Muthuramalingam Thevar, Indian Freedom Fighter, Orator, Politician (b. 1908).
 * 24 November – Marotrao Kannamvar, Politician, 2nd Chief Minister of Maharashtra.
 * 2 December – Sabu Dastagir, actor (b. 1924).

Full date unknown

 * Amar Nath Kak, lawyer and author (b. 1889).

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 1963 in India


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Richard C. Hoagland

Richard Charles Hoagland (born April 25, 1945) is an American author and a proponent of various conspiracy theories about NASA, lost alien civilizations on the Moon, and on Mars and other related topics. Hoagland has been documented to misappropriate others' professional achievements and is widely described as a conspiracy theorist and pseudoscientist.

Background
Hoagland has no education beyond the high school level. According to Hoagland's curriculum vitae, he has no advanced training, schooling, or degrees in any scientific field. Hoagland asserts he was a Curator of Astronomy and Space Science at the Springfield Science Museum, 1964–1967, and assistant director at the Gengras Science Center in West Hartford, Connecticut, 1967–1968, and a Science Advisor to CBS News during the Apollo program, 1968–1971. In July 1968, Hoagland filed a copyright registration for a planetarium presentation and show script called The Grand Tour.

A popular planetarium lecturer at the Springfield Science Museum, Hoagland produced a program called "Mars: Infinity to 1965" to coincide with the Mariners 3 and 4 missions. He designed a room with special equipment to display the relative positions of the Earth, Mars, and the Mariners during their trip and thereafter contracted with NASA to relay the pictures of the Martian surface, on a near-live-feed, to the general audience. Hoagland co-hosted a radio program for WTIC (AM) in Hartford, Connecticut, The Night of the Encounter, along with Dick Bertel, covering the July 14, 1965 Mariner 4 flyby of the planet Mars. Local newspapers had noted the radio broadcast to be history's first laser audio transmission.

In 1976, Hoagland, an avid Star Trek fan, initiated a letter-writing campaign that successfully persuaded President Gerald Ford to name the first Space Shuttle the Enterprise, replacing the previously slated name for the prototype vehicle, Constitution.

Hoagland authored the book The Monuments of Mars: A City on the Edge of Forever (published in 1987) and co-authored the book Dark Mission: The Secret History of NASA, which was ranked 21st on November 18, 2007, on The New York Times Best Seller list for paperback nonfiction. Richard Grossinger, the founder of North Atlantic Books, writes that Monuments became the most successful title published by North Atlantic, and that at its peak the book sold over 2000 copies per month. Grossinger also reports that Hoagland wrote much of the book while in Los Angeles County jail.

Hoagland ran the now-defunct The Enterprise Mission website, which he described as "an independent NASA watchdog and research group, the Enterprise Mission, attempting to figure out how much of what NASA has found in the solar system over the past 50 years has actually been silently filed out of sight as classified material, and therefore totally unknown to the American people."

Hoagland appeared regularly as the "Science Advisor" for Coast to Coast AM, a late-night radio talk show, until being replaced by Robert Zimmerman in July 2015.

While Hoagland makes frequent reference to his receipt of the "International Angstrom Medal for Excellence in Science" in August 1993, the organization that awarded the medal, The Angstrom Foundation Aktiebolag, founded by Lars-Jonas Ångström, was not authorized by Uppsala University or the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to make use of the academy's Anders Jonas Ångström memorial medal. The academy has long authorized only Uppsala University to use its medal for the Ångström's Prize (Ångströms premium), awarded yearly by Uppsala professors to physics students. Mr. Ångström stated in May 2000 that although his award to Hoagland was a mistake, he acted with good faith and with good intentions.

Claims by Hoagland
Hoagland claims the source of a so-called NASA "coverup", with relation to the "Face on Mars" and other related structures, is the result of a report commissioned by NASA authored by the Brookings Institution, the so-called Brookings Report. Hoagland claimed that page 216 of the 1960 report, "Proposed Studies on the Implications of Peaceful Space Activities for Human Affairs", instructed NASA to deliberately withhold from the public any evidence it may find of extraterrestrial activity, specifically on the Moon, [Mars]], or Venus.

Hoagland has also proposed a form of physics he calls "hyperdimensional physics", which he claims represents a more complete implementation of James Clerk Maxwell's original 20 quaternion equations, instead of the original Maxwell's equations as amended by Oliver Heaviside commonly taught today. The mainstream physics community rejects these ideas as unfounded.

Hoagland claims the "Face on Mars" is part of a city built on Cydonia Planitia consisting of colossal pyramids and mounds arranged in a geometric pattern. To Hoagland, this is evidence that an advanced civilization might once have existed on Mars. In the years since its discovery, the "face" has been near-universally accepted as an optical illusion, an example of the psychological phenomenon of pareidolia. Similar optical illusions can be found in the geology of Earth; examples include the Old Man of the Mountain, the Pedra da Gávea, and Stac Levenish.

Although the Pioneer 10 plaque was designed entirely by Carl Sagan, Linda Salzman Sagan, and Frank Drake, Hoagland has inaccurately claimed to have co-created the plaque with Eric Burgess, as in 1990 when asserting that "Carl for many years has been taking public credit for the Pioneer plaque which, of course, Eric Burgess and I conceived." Later that year, Hoagland went so far as to claim he designed the plaque when he said, "Carl... was involved with Eric Burgess and me in the design of [the] message." Burgess' account is at odds with Hoagland's design claims, stating that "The design itself was created by Carl Sagan and Frank Drake, with the artistic help of Sagan’s then-wife Linda Salzman Sagan", without mentioning Hoagland at all. Sagan's correspondence regarding the matter also contradicts Hoagland's claims, specifically saying "he did not contribute one bit of data towards the message design." Burgess recalls similarly, adding that all Hoagland did concerning the plaque "was support me and say it's a good idea." Yet Hoagland's now-defunct website continued to credit him as "co-creator of the 'Pioneer Plaque.'"

Responses by scientists
Many scientists have responded to Hoagland's claims and assertions. Professional astronomer Phil Plait described Hoagland as a pseudoscientist and his claims as ridiculous. Plait has also criticized Hoagland for having no university degree. Prof. Ralph Greenberg asserted that the logic of Hoagland's deductions from the geometry of Cydonia Mensae is flawed and says that he is not a trained scientist in any sense. The claim that the crashing of the Galileo orbiter into Jupiter caused a "mysterious black spot" on the planet has since been disputed by both NASA and Plait. There is photographic evidence that a similar "black spot" was present in imagery of Jupiter taken in 1998. A second image referenced by Plait shows a dark ring that looks similar to the spot Hoagland cited. In 1995, Malin Space Science Systems, NASA prime contractor for planetary imaging, published a paper critiquing claims that the "city" at Cydonia is artificial, the claimed mathematical relationships, and – very specifically – denying any claims about concealing questionable data from the public.

In October 1997, Hoagland received the Ig Nobel Prize for Astronomy "for identifying artificial features on the moon and on Mars, including a human face on Mars and ten-mile-high buildings on the far side of the moon." The prize is given for outlandish or "trivial" contributions to science.

title: Richard C. Hoagland


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Pedicle

Pedicle or pedicel may refer to:

Human anatomy

 * Pedicle of vertebral arch, the segment between the transverse process and the vertebral body, and is often used as a radiographic marker and entry point in vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty procedures
 * Pedicle of a skin flap (medicine)
 * Hilum of kidney, also called the renal pedicle
 * Pedicel, a foot process of a renal podocyte

Non-human anatomy

 * Pedicle in brachiopods, a fleshy line used to attach and anchor brachiopods and some bivalve mollusks to a substrate
 * Pedicle (cervidae), the attachment point for antlers in cervids
 * Pedicel (antenna), the second segment of the antenna in the class Insecta, where the Johnston's organ is found
 * Pedicel or petiole (insect), the stem formed by a restricted abdominal segment which connects the thorax with the gaster (the remaining abdominal segments) in the suborder Apocrita
 * Pedicel (spider), the narrow segment connecting the cephalothorax with the abdomen

Other

 * Pedicel (botany), the stalk of an individual flower
 * Congo Pedicle, an area of DR Congo jutting into Zambia
 * Zaire Pedicle, used for 'Congo Pedicle' during the time that DR Congo was called Zaire
 * Congo Pedicle road, serving Zambian provinces either side of the Congo Pedicle

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Talk:1270s

[Untitled]
This is the old text of the article, it seems country specific, but I didn't know what to do with it. fabiform | talk 10:57, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Traidenis (1270-1282)

After the death of Mindaugas in 1263 there was a period of civil unrest, in which there were three Grand Dukes until Traidenis took power in 1270. These three were:

-Trenoita (1263-1265) -Vaisvilkas (1265-1268) -Svarnas (1268-1269) Traidenis was one of the most prominent rulers between the time of Mindaugas and the accession of Grand Duke Gediminas in 1316. Though unclear as to how Traidenis came to power, his accession ended the seven year period of unrest.

Traidenis followed Mindaugas' two main policies -internal consolidation of the State, and expansion into Eastern Slavic lands. Unlike Mindaugas', who converted to Christianity in hopes of deflecting the Teutons, Traidenis remained Pagan.

Traidenis devoted much of his reign to unifying the various Lithuanian tribes against the incursion of the Teutonic Knights. As well, he actively encouraged other Baltic Peoples, such as the Semigallians, Jotvingians and Prussians to resist the Order..

Traidenis acquired the lands known as Black Rus' (part of present day Belarus) for the Grand Duchy. This fulfilled the second part of Mindaugas' policies. This policy would continue for several generations.

In his goal of resisting the Teutons, Traidenis sought Polish and Rus'ian allies to counter the threat posed by the Order, which was looking closer and closer to Lithuania as the other Balts fell to the sword.

title: Talk:1270s


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Vertebral augmentation

Vertebral augmentation, including vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, refers to similar percutaneous spinal procedures in which bone cement is injected through a small hole in the skin into a fractured vertebra in order to relieve back pain caused by a vertebral compression fracture. After decades of medical research into the efficacy and safety of vertebral augmentation, there is still a lack of consensus regarding certain aspects of vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty.

Procedure
Vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty are the two most common procedures for spinal augmentation. These medical terms are classical compounds of the suffix -plasty meaning "molding or shaping surgically" (from Ancient Greek plastós "molded, formed") and the prefixes vertebro- "vertebra" (from Latin vertebra "joint, joint of the spine") and kypho- "humped; stooping forward" (from Ancient Greek kyphos "crooked").

Vertebroplasty
Vertebroplasty is typically performed by a spine surgeon or interventional radiologist. It is a minimally invasive procedure and patients usually go home the same or next day as the procedure. Patients are given local anesthesia and light sedation for the procedure, though it can be performed using only local anesthetic for patients with medical problems who cannot tolerate sedatives well.

During the procedure, bone cement is injected with a biopsy needle into the collapsed or fractured vertebra. The needle is placed with fluoroscopic x-ray guidance. The cement (most commonly poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA), although more modern cements are used as well) quickly hardens and forms a support structure within the vertebra that provide stabilization and strength. The needle makes a small puncture in the patient's skin that is easily covered with a small bandage after the procedure.

Kyphoplasty
Kyphoplasty is a variation of a vertebroplasty which attempts to restore the height and angle of kyphosis of a fractured vertebra (of certain types), followed by its stabilization using injected bone cement. The procedure typically includes the use of a small balloon that is inflated in the vertebral body to create a void within the cancellous bone prior to cement delivery. Once the void is created, the procedure continues in a similar manner as a vertebroplasty, but the bone cement is typically delivered directly into the newly created void.

In a 2011 review Medicare contractor NAS determined that there is no difference between vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, stating, "No clear evidence demonstrates that one procedure is different from another in terms of short- or long-term efficacy, complications, mortality or any other parameter useful for differentiating coverage."

Effectiveness
As of 2019, the effectiveness of vertebroplasty is not supported. A 2018 Cochrane review found no role for vertebroplasty for the treatment of acute or sub-acute osteoporotic vertebral fractures. The subjects in these trials had primarily non-acute fractures and prior to the release of the results they were considered the most ideal people to receive the procedure. After trial results were released vertebroplasty advocates pointed out that people with acute vertebral fractures were not investigated. A number of non-blinded trials suggested effectiveness, but the lack of blinding limits what can be concluded from the results and some have been criticized because of being funded by the manufacturer. One analysis has attributed the difference to selection bias.

Some have suggested that this procedure only be done in those with fractures less than 8 weeks old; however, analysis of the two blinded trials appear not to support the procedure even in this acute subgroup. Others consider the procedure only appropriate for those with other health problems making rest possibly detrimental, those with metastatic cancer as the cause of the spine fracture, or those who do not improve with conservative management.

Evidence does not support a benefit of kyphoplasty over vertebroplasty with respect to pain, but the procedures may differ in restoring lost vertebral height, and in safety issues like cement extravasation (leakage). As with vertebroplasty, several unblinded studies have suggested a benefit from balloon kyphoplasty. , no blinded studies have been performed, and since the procedure is a derivative of vertebroplasty, the unsuccessful results of these blinded studies have cast doubt upon the benefit of kyphoplasty generally.

Some vertebroplasty practitioners and some health care professional organizations continue to advocate for the procedure. In 2010, the board of directors of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons released a statement recommending strongly against use of vertebroplasty for osteoporotic spinal compression fractures, while the Australian Medical Services Advisory Committee considers both vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty only to be appropriate in those who have failed to improve after a trial of conservative treatment, with conservative treatment (analgesics primarily) being effective in two-thirds of people. The National Institute for Health and Care Excellence similarly states that the procedure in those with osteoporotic fractures is only recommended as an option if there is severe ongoing pain from a recent fracture even with optimal pain management.

Vertebral body stenting, also known by the brand Kiva, is a similar procedure which also has poor evidence to support its use.

Adverse effects
Some of the associated risks are from the leak of acrylic cement to outside of the vertebral body. Although severe complications are extremely rare, infection, bleeding, numbness, tingling, headache, and paralysis may ensue because of misplacement of the needle or cement. This particular risk is decreased by the use of X-ray or other radiological imaging to ensure proper placement of the cement. In those who have fractures due to cancer, the risk of serious adverse events appears to be greater at 2%.

The risk of new fractures following these procedures does not appear to be changed; however, evidence is limited, and an increase risk as of 2012 is not ruled out. Pulmonary cement embolism is reported to occur in approximately 2-26% of procedures. It may occur with or without symptoms. Typically, if there are no symptoms, there are no long term issues. Symptoms do occur in about 1 in 2000 procedures. Other adverse effects include spinal cord injury in 0.6 per 1000.

Prevalence
In the United States in 2003 approximately 25,000 vertebroplasty procedures were paid for by Medicare. As of 2011/2012 this number may be as high as 70,000-100,000 per year.

History
Vertebroplasty had been performed as an open procedure for many decades to secure pedicle screws and fill tumorous voids. However, the results were not always worth the risk involved with an open procedure, which was the reason for the development of percutaneous vertebroplasty.

The first percutaneous vertebroplasty was performed in 1984 at the University Hospital of Amiens, France to fill a vertebral void left after the removal of a benign spinal tumor. A report of this and 6 other patients was published in 1987 and it was introduced in the United States in the early 1990s. Initially, the treatment was used primarily for tumors in Europe and vertebral compression fractures in the United States, although the distinction has largely gone away since then.

Cost
The cost of vertebroplasty in Europe as of 2010 was ~2,500 Euro. As of 2010 in the United States, when done as an outpatient, vertebroplasty costs around US$3300 while kyphoplasty costs around US$8100 and when done as an inpatient vertebroplasty cost ~US$11,000 and kyphoplasty US$16,000. The cost difference is due to kyphoplasty being an in-patient procedure while vertebroplasty is outpatient, and due to the balloons used in the kyphoplasty procedure. Medicare in 2011 spent about US$1 billion on the procedures. A 2013 study found that "the average adjusted costs for vertebroplasty patients within the first quarter and the first 2 years postsurgery were $14,585 and $44,496, respectively. The corresponding average adjusted costs for kyphoplasty patients were $15,117 and $41,339. There were no significant differences in adjusted costs in the first 9 months postsurgery, but kyphoplasty patients were associated with significantly lower adjusted treatment costs by 6.8–7.9% in the remaining periods through two years postsurgery."

Medicare response
In response to the NEJM articles and a medical record review showing misuse of vertebroplasty and kyphoplasty, US Medicare contractor Noridian Administrative Services (NAS) conducted a literature review and formed a policy regarding reimbursement of the procedures. NAS states that in order to be reimbursable, a procedure must meet certain criteria, including, 1) a detailed and extensively documented medical record showing pain caused by a fracture, 2) radiographic confirmation of a fracture, 3) that other treatment plans were attempted for a reasonable amount of time, 4) that the procedure is not performed in the emergency department, and 5) that at least one year of follow-up is planned for, among others. The policy, as referenced, applies only to the region covered by Noridian and not all of Medicare's coverage area. The reimbursement policy became effective on 20 June 2011. A 2015 comparative study of Medicare patients with vertebral compression fractures found that those who received balloon kyphoplasty and vertebroplasty therapies experienced lower mortality and overall morbidity than those who received conservative nonoperative management.

Promotion
In 2015, it was reported by The Atlantic that a person associated with a medical device company that sells equipment related to the kyphoplasty procedure had edited the Wikipedia article on the subject to promote claims about its efficacy. Assertions about the positive effects of kyphoplasty have been found to be unsupported or disproven, according to independent researchers.

title: Vertebral augmentation


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User talk:82.166.92.75

"Vertebral" listed at Redirects for discussion
The redirect [//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vertebral&redirect=no Vertebral] has been listed at redirects for discussion to determine whether its use and function meets the redirect guidelines. Anyone, including you, is welcome to comment on this redirect at  until a consensus is reached. Steel1943 (talk) 23:06, 29 December 2023 (UTC)

title: User talk:82.166.92.75


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User:PoulStaugaard

A software engineer (born February 8, 1960) based in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Started contributing in January 2006 after about two years of enjoying wikipedia.

title: User:PoulStaugaard


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His Majesty's Coastguard

His Majesty's Coastguard (HMCG) is the section of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency responsible, through the Secretary of State for Transport to Parliament, for the initiation and co-ordination of all maritime search and rescue (SAR) within the UK Maritime Search and Rescue Region. This includes the mobilisation, organisation and tasking of adequate resources to respond to persons either in distress at sea, or to persons at risk of injury or death on the cliffs or shoreline of the United Kingdom. Since 2015 it has also been responsible for land-based search and rescue helicopter operations.

The chief executive of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency is Virginia McVea. Operational control of the service is the responsibility of the Chief Coastguard, Peter Mizen.

His Majesty's Coastguard is a uniformed service that fulfills six of the nine functions required by the International Maritime Organization (IMO):
 * Search and Rescue,
 * Pollution Response,
 * Vessel Traffic Management,
 * Maritime Safety,
 * Accident and Disaster Response,
 * Maritime Security.

The other three IMO functions; Customs/Border Control, Fisheries Control and Law Enforcement, are undertaken by the UK Border Force, Environment Agency and local police forces, respectively. The maintenance of seamarks is the responsibility of Trinity House (in England and Wales), the Northern Lighthouse Board (in Scotland) and the Commissioners of Irish Lights (in Northern Ireland). HM Coastguard is a civilian agency, unlike other coastguard services around the world, as the duties traditionally associated with a military coastguard service are spread around the UK Civil Service and British Armed Forces. It is a Category 1 emergency responder alongside the United Kingdom's regional police, fire, and ambulance services as defined by the Civil Contingencies Act 2004.

Lifeboat services are provided by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution, or other independent lifeboat stations not affiliated with the RNLI, all under the coordination of the Coastguard. The Maritime and Coastguard Agency wet leases commercial aircraft for HM Coastguard operations — Sikorsky S-92s and AgustaWestland AW189s — to provide aerial search and rescue cover around Great Britain and Northern Ireland, supported by fixed-wing aircraft such as the Beechcraft King Air and Diamond DA-62 in reconnaissance and counter-pollution roles. An ocean-going emergency towing vehicle is also operated in areas not served by tug brokers. On the coastline, HM Coastguard maintains a network of cliff and mud rescue teams, composed of around 4,000 volunteers, and can call upon the National Coastwatch Institution which staffs many former Coastguard lookout stations around the coast. It is part of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency, which in itself is an executive agency of the Department for Transport.

History
HM Coastguard was established in 1822. In 1809 the Preventive Water Guard was established, which may be regarded as the immediate ancestor of HM Coastguard. Its primary objective was to prevent smuggling, but it was also responsible for giving assistance to shipwrecks. For this reason, each Water Guard station was issued with Manby's Mortar (the mortar fired a shot with a line attached from the shore to the wrecked ship and was used for many years). In 1821 a committee of inquiry recommended that responsibility for the Preventive Water Guard should be transferred from HM Treasury to the Board of Customs. The Board of Custom and the Board of Excise each had their own long-established preventive forces: shore-based Riding Officers and sea-going Revenue Cruisers. The committee recommended the consolidation of these various related services. The Treasury agreed, and in a Minute dated 15 January 1822 directed that they be placed under the authority of the Board of Customs and named the Coast Guard.

The new Coast Guard inherited a number of shore stations and watch houses from its predecessor bodies as well as several coastal vessels, and these provided bases for its operations over the following years. In 1829 the first Coast Guard instructions were published, dealing mainly with discipline and the prevention of smuggling; they also stipulated that when a wreck took place the Coast Guard was responsible for taking all possible action to save lives, taking charge of the vessel and protecting property. In 1831, the Coast Guard took over duties from the Coast Blockade for the Suppression of Smuggling (which had been run by the Admiralty from a string of Martello Towers on the Kent and Sussex coast); this finally gave it authority over the whole of the UK coastline.

In the 1850s, with smuggling on the wane, oversight of the Coast Guard was transferred from the Board of Customs to the Admiralty. In the decades that followed, the Coast Guard (or Coastguard, as it came to be called) began to function more like an auxiliary Naval service, a recruitment ground for future naval personnel. Responsibilities for revenue protection were retained, but hands-on rescue services began to be undertaken more and more by Volunteer Life Brigades and by the lifeboats of the RNLI, with the Coast Guard acting in a support role.

By the start of the twentieth century, there was a growing sense of dissatisfaction with the service expressed both by the Board of Customs (concerned for revenue protection) and by the Board of Trade (responsible for safety at sea). In the wake of the First World War, moves were made to address these deficiencies. In 1923 the Coastguard was re-established as a coastal safety and rescue service, overseen by the Board of Trade. Its skills in maritime communication (acquired during the Admiralty years, when Coastguard officers often manned signal stations) were recognized, with provision being made for the use of new communication technologies for safety at sea. There was also a renewed determination to recruit, train and co-ordinate volunteer rescue personnel with the establishment in 1931 of a Coastal Life-saving Corps, later renamed the Coastguard Auxiliary Service (see Coastguard Rescue Service, below).

For the rest of the twentieth century, the Coastguard continued to operate primarily out of local shore stations (use of ships had declined after 1923). In 1931 in England there were 193 stations and 339 auxiliary stations; in 1974 there were still 127 stations (permanently manned) and 245 auxiliary stations. From the 1960s onwards, though, priorities were changing from maintaining coastal lookouts to provision of co-ordinated search and rescue services. Old watch houses, with their on-site accommodation and annexed boathouses, gave way to new technology-based Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centres, far fewer in number. Efficiency drives in the 1990s made Her Majesty's Coastguard a government executive agency, then in 1998 the Marine Safety Agency and the Coastguard Agency were joined to become the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA).

The Coastguard Rescue Service
The Coastguard Rescue Service is made up of 352 teams located near the coast in stations around the UK, with the most coastal rescue stations in the UK. The teams are made up of Coastguard Rescue Officers (CROs) who are volunteers trained to carry out rescues and provide assistance to those in distress on the UK's coastline. There are approximately 3500 CROs and they carry out rope rescue, mud rescue, water rescue and search duties in all weathers and at all times. The teams are paged by the Joint Rescue Coordination Centre (JRCC) or Maritime Rescue Coordination Centre (MRCC) and respond to emergencies. They also assist other authorities such as the Police, Fire and Ambulance with their specialist expertise. The Coastguard Rescue Teams (CRT) will also provide safety advice to those they rescue and members of the public.

After recovering any casualty the CRTs will provide the assistance needed then will transfer them to a place of safety. The teams will also provide support to the lifeboats and SAR helicopters per tasking by the Operations Centres.

Search and rescue
The Coastguard Rescue teams carry out searches of the shoreline which, depending on the team's location, could be urban or remote, beach, mud or cliff. The searches could be for vessels, wreckage, people who have abandoned ship, or missing persons. This is referred to as Lost and Missing Persons Search (L&MPS).

Water safety and rescue
Due to the nature of the work carried out by CROs they are trained to be safe when in or near the water. They are trained to be able to carry out rescues in extremely rough conditions and the team will work together to recover the casualty from danger while ensuring that each team member is safe.

The training the CRT have will depend on the location of the CRT. All teams are trained in land search methods, water rescue and casualty care.

Mud rescue
Mud rescue is described as the most physically demanding type of rescue there is. Mud rescue technicians walk on the mud using equipment to prevent them getting stuck, and recover casualties. In most cases these are people who have become too tired to continue walking on the mud while taking a shortcut. The CRTs also have rescue equipment to extract people deeply stuck in mud, including inflatable rescue walkways, mud lances, and specialist footwear inspired by ducks' feet.

Rope rescue
Rope rescue methods are to recover casualties who have fallen or are stuck on cliffs or difficult to reach areas, be they rural or urban. The teams work together to lower a rope rescue technician who will assess the casualty, provide first aid treatment if necessary and then recover the casualty to safety, before transferring the casualty to the next level of care as required.

Casualty Care (CERCC)
Each team member receives extensive casualty care training that goes much further than just basic first aid, the course known as CERCC (Coastguard Emergency Responder Casualty Care) is taught by a team of trainers locally around the coast with regular role play training and evaluation. Each CRO is required to have his/her CERCC qualification re-validated every three years.

The HMCG CERCC qualification is bench marked at Level D (Diploma) of the PHEM framework from the Faculty of Pre-Hospital Care, and is also equivalent in syllabus content to the First Response Emergency Care Level 3 Certificate (FREC 3) level.

In 2017 the CERCC course was updated to reflect and include latest research and guidance such as implementation of the 2015 European Council Resuscitation Guidelines, 2017 JRCALC Guidelines and the British Thoracic Society Oxygen Guidelines. Each frontline Coastguard Rescue Vehicle carries a fully stocked Coastguard Emergency Responder Bag which includes a first aid kit, pelvic splint, frac straps, airways set (OPA & NPA), trauma dressings, airway suction kit + bag, valve & mask set. In 2022 HM Coastguard provided each operational team with a Heartsine Samaritan 500p Automated External Defibrillator (AED).

Role and responsibilities
The Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) is an executive agency responsible throughout Britain for implementing the Government's maritime safety policy. That includes initiating and co-ordinating search and rescue at sea or on the coast through His Majesty's Coastguard, ensuring that ships meet British and international safety rules, and preventing maritime pollution.

Typical incidents to which the Coastguard is summoned include:

 * Persons in difficulties in the water;
 * Persons in difficulties on cliffs and the shoreline;
 * Pleasure craft in difficulties;
 * Medical emergencies on vessels, offshore installations or islands;
 * Incidents involving offshore oil and gas installations;
 * Incidents involving offshore renewables installations, e.g. wind farms;
 * Persons threatening or attempting self-harm in the coastal environment;
 * Missing persons on the coast;
 * Merchant vessels in difficulties;
 * Medical evacuations of injured or ill persons at sea;
 * Vessel groundings;
 * Collisions at sea;
 * Reports of suspected ordnance below the high water mark.

Ships in distress or the public reporting an accident should make a Mayday call on MF radio, marine VHF radio channel 16, or by dialling 999 or 112 on a telephone. The Coastguard MRCCs continuously monitor all the maritime distress frequencies (including the international VHF distress signal frequency 156.8 MHz i.e. channel 16) and have access to satellite based monitoring systems. The MRCC then co-ordinates the emergency response. This normally involves requesting the launch of a local RNLI lifeboat (the RNLI being an independent organization), launching an independent lifeboat, deploying a local Coastguard Rescue Team, or a Search and Rescue helicopter, making broadcasts and requesting assistance from vessels in the area. Depending on the circumstances of each incident, the Coastguard MRCC may also request for other emergency services to be deployed to the incident or to meet other units returning from the incident, for example in the case of a medical emergency. Known as Declared Assets, the most commonly utilised are:

 * HM Coastguard's own Coastguard Rescue Teams
 * Inshore lifeboats, all-weather lifeboats and inshore rescue hovercraft operated by the Royal National Lifeboat Institution and other independent lifeboat stations.
 * Other nominated inshore rescue services
 * Search and rescue helicopters under contract to the MCA
 * Emergency towing vessels (ETV) – powerful tugs contracted to the MCA
 * Nominated Fire Service teams for cliff and mud rescue as well as firefighting and chemical incident response for vessels at sea
 * Nominated beach lifeguard units

Declared Assets are facilities that have given a declaration to the Coastguard of a certain level of availability or training. Other, additional assets that may be tasked to assist with any incident include; Mountain Rescue Teams, the Armed Forces, local police forces, fire and rescue services, regional ambulance services, and volunteer lifeguards. In addition, various "Memorandums of Understanding" exist between the Coastguard and other emergency services to establish primacy when working in each other's areas of expertise. For example, whilst the police maintain primacy for locating missing persons on land, an understanding exists for HM Coastguard to coordinate coastal searches that include the police, owing to the expertise and local knowledge of Coastguard Rescue Teams.

The Coastguard has ten rescue helicopters based around the United Kingdom (at Stornoway Airport, Sumburgh Airport, Prestwick, Inverness Airport, Caernarfon Airport, Humberside Airport, St Athan, Lydd, Newquay Airport, Lee-on-Solent).

Operations
When HM Coastguard receive a distress call by a 999 or 112 phone call, by radio or any other means at the MRCC, a Maritime or Senior Maritime Operations Officer will use their training to question the caller to determine the location. The Maritime Operations Officer will normally be able to confirm the location given by the caller if the call is on the 999 system as the equipment in the Operations room will display where it has come from. The use of the equipment is very important because when people are in a distress situation it is easy for them to make mistakes as they may be frightened, anxious and/or uncertain. Coastguard Rescue Teams are paged via an SMS based system detailing the emergency incident, or via a VHF pager, although these are being phased out.

The Maritime Operations Officer will use the correct chart or map for the area and they are trained to ask questions that will help the caller identify where they are. The coastguard SMC (SAR Mission Co-ordinator) in charge of the watch will then decide which rescue resources will be used to conduct the SAR operation. The Maritime Operations Officer who takes the call may keep talking to the caller, while another can be passing information to the chosen rescue resources. These assets will depend on the situation, but could be one of the 365 Coastguard Rescue Teams (CRT) around the UK coast made up of 3,500 Coastguard Rescue Officers, RNLI or independent lifeboats, Search and Rescue fixed wing aircraft or helicopters, or a civilian vessel or aircraft known to be in the vicinity or who responds to a broadcast on radio made by the MRCC.

The MRCC will call out and send the rescue units according to the nature and severity of the incident. The MRCC will then co-ordinate the SAR operation using the Coastguard Rescue Teams, lifeboats and helicopters or other vessels or aircraft, who carry out the physical rescue.

Coastguard Rescue Teams have an Officer in Charge who is responsible for the action of that team or unit, management of the scene and joint coordination of the rescue with the MRCC. If the caller is, for example, stuck in mud, the CRT Officer in Charge (OIC) will coordinate which of the team goes onto the mud to carry out the rescue. If it is someone stuck on a cliff the OIC will coordinate who is lowered over the cliff. All this is done while keeping the MRCC updated of their actions, and possibly being supported by lifeboats or a rescue helicopter. Each rescue resource is able to relay information about any casualty to each other and to the MRCC who retains overall coordination. The coxswain of a lifeboats and the SAR helicopter pilot would be in command of that rescue asset, whilst being coordinated by the MRCC or the OIC.

The rescue resources work together with the MRCC as the coordinating authority to carry out SAR response. Once the persons in danger are rescued the person is then given the assistance they need and then transferred to a place of safety.

Ceremonial
HM Coastguard also parade at local Remembrance Parades and selected officers parade at the annual Remembrance Sunday parade at the Cenotaph in London.

Locations
HM Coastguard co-ordinates activities from one Joint Rescue Coordination Centre (JRCC), nine Maritime Rescue Coordination Centres (MRCCs):

 * JRCC UK at the National Maritime Operations Centre at Fareham. Incorporating Solent Coastguard, the UK Aeronautical Rescue Coordination Centre (ARCC) and UK Cospas-Sarsat Mission Control Centre (UKMCC).
 * MRCC Dover, including the Channel Navigation Information Service for the Strait of Dover, and Sunk VTS covering the traffic separation schemes around the Sunk Light Vessel
 * MRCC Humber (Bridlington)
 * MRCC Aberdeen
 * MRCC Shetland
 * MRCC Stornoway
 * MRCC Belfast (Bangor)
 * MRCC Holyhead
 * MRCC Falmouth
 * MRCC Milford Haven

and one Maritime Rescue Sub-Centre (MRSC):

 * MRSC London

All centres operate 24 hours a day. In addition Coastguard Rescue Teams are based locally at over 300 locations around the UK.

Aircraft
HM Coastguard operate the following aircraft:

Fixed wing

Operated by 2Excel Aviation:
 * 3 Beechcraft King Air B200 - search and rescue, fisheries patrol, pollution patrol, maritime surveillance
 * 2 Piper PA-31 Navajo - search and rescue, fisheries patrol, maritime surveillance
 * 2 Diamond DA62

Operated by RVL Group:
 * 1 Beechcraft King Air B200 - pollution patrol, surveillance, search and rescue
 * 2 Boeing 737-400F - Oil Spill response
 * 1 Cessna F406 - Oil Spill response

Helicopters (operated by Bristow under contract)
 * 10 Sikorsky S-92 - search and rescue
 * 10 Leonardo AW189 - search and rescue

Uncrewed Aerial Systems (UAS)
 * 4 Schiebel Camcopter S-100

Under a 10-year £1.6 billion contract starting in 2015, Bristow Helicopters assumed responsibility for search and rescue operations within the United Kingdom on behalf of HM Coastguard. Under the contract, Sikorsky S-92 and Leonardo AW189 helicopters operate from 10 locations around the British Isles. Ten S-92s are based, two per site, at Stornoway, Sumburgh, Humberside, Newquay and Caernarfon. Ten AW189s operate, two per site, from Prestwick airport, Inverness, Lydd, Lee-on-the-Solent and St Athan. Two aircraft are kept in reserve. All bases are operational 24 hours a day. Half of the new fleet was built in Yeovil, Somerset.

The Maritime & Coastguard Agency are launching a tender for their second generation UK search and rescue aviation programme (UKSAR2G), which is one of several tenders for similar services. In July 2022 the contract was awarded to Bristow Helicopters, worth £1.6 billion over 10 years.

Communications
A variety of communication platforms are used depending on the individual asset and situation. Communication involving Coastguard Rescue Teams, inshore lifeboats (operated by the RNLI), other nominated inshore rescue teams and SAR air assets (both MOD and MCA) typically take place over VHF marine radio. Communication between normal vessels and HM Coastguard/Maritime Rescue Co-ordination Centres can take place over VHF radio, MF radio and telephone (Satellite, Landline and Mobile).

HMCG have their own VHF radio network spread across the entire British Coast, this includes sites located on the Isle of Man, Northern Ireland and Remote Scottish Islands. There are also sites inland to support Search & Rescue in the Lake District. The network is designed in such a way that any Operator can monitor & transmit from any radio site location. A recent upgrade to the radio network has introduced even better resilience and alternative connectivity to ensure continuity of service.

HMCG also have access to and use the Airwave service available to all Category 1 & 2 responders in the UK. This allows better communication between other Emergency Service partners.

List of utilised communications within HMCG:

 * VHF (Very High Frequency) (Primary radio communications method)
 * MF (Medium Frequency)
 * PSTN (Public Service Telephone Network) (Used for 999 & Routine telephone calls)
 * NAVTEX
 * Airwave

Technology
HMCG has invested heavily in introducing state of the art systems & services to aid Search & Rescue, started in 2014 after the organisational restructure a dedicated computer network was introduced specifically used for operational working. In more recent years a rolling refresh of technology continues to keep the service at the cutting edge of all available technology.

Coastguard Rescue Stations have recently benefited from the installation of new Wifi services & tablet devices (one per station), as well as new web services for volunteers for communications and training.

As part of the recent UKSAR2G tender, unmanned aircraft (drones) technology has been provisioned, with feeds potentially being provided to Maritime Rescue Coordination Centres (MRCC) for better incident working.

Current rank structure
King Charles III is the Honorary Commodore of HMCG, and wears a uniform with the ranks insignia of Chief Coastguard plus an extra bar.

Uniform
As a uniformed service with coastal responsibilities and maritime traditions, the appearance of HM Coastguard's uniform is similar to those of the Royal Navy and the former HM Customs and Excise. There are three types of uniform:

 * 1) Ceremonial
 * 2) Maritime & Aeronautical
 * 3) Coastal, including Personal Protective Uniform (PPE)

Ceremonial Uniform
Akin to the RN No. 1 dress, the ceremonial uniform is reserved for use solely on special occasions, e.g. when officers are representing HM Coastguard at state occasions, or on request for significant personal occasions:

Males
 * white-topped peaked cap with HM Coastguard cap badge
 * white shirt and black tie
 * black reefer jacket with two rows of buttons and rank insignia
 * black trousers
 * dark polished shoes
 * black or white gloves

Females
 * white-topped bowler cap with HM Coastguard cap badge
 * white shirt and black tie
 * black reefer jacket with two rows of buttons and rank insignia
 * black trousers
 * dark polished shoes
 * black or white gloves

Medal ribbons are worn on the left breast. Rank is worn on both cuffs. "HM Coastguard" shoulder titles are worn on each shoulder of the tunic. For public duties (e.g. the annual Remembrance Parade at the Cenotaph in London), a greatcoat is worn. Black (everyday/formal) or white (formal only) gloves may be worn, depending on the nature of the occasion.

Some officers may also choose to carry a naval style sword for formal occasions, at their own expense.

Maritime & Aeronautical Uniform
Akin to the RN No. 3 dress, this is the everyday uniform worn by Maritime and Aeronautical staff:

Males
 * white-topped peaked cap with HM Coastguard cap badge
 * white long-sleeve shirt and black tie, or white short-sleeve shirt with open collar
 * dark blue NATO-style wool jumper
 * dark blue waterproof coat or dark blue Kintyre coat
 * black trousers
 * black shoes

Females
 * white-topped peaked cap with HM Coastguard cap badge, or white-topped bowler cap with HM Coastguard cap badge
 * white long-sleeve shirt and black tie, or white short-sleeve shirt with open collar
 * dark blue NATO-style wool jumper
 * dark blue waterproof coat or dark blue Kintyre coat
 * black trousers
 * black shoes

Rank slides are worn on epaulettes, along with HM Coastguard identifiers.

Coastal Uniform
Akin to elements of the RN No. 4 dress, the coastal uniform is worn by staff of the Coastguard Rescue Service:

 * white-topped peaked cap with HM Coastguard cap badge
 * blue long-sleeved or short-sleeved shirt; dark blue t-shirt for outdoor duties
 * dark blue half-zip or full-zip fleece
 * black trousers for indoor duties; dark blue cargo trousers for outdoor duties
 * black shoes for indoor duties; black boots for outdoor duties

As additional kit for staff of the Coastguard Rescue Service, officers wear and equip the following items when attending an incident, on top of the standard coastal uniform:

 * blue HM Coastguard overalls
 * safety boots
 * blue safety helmet with headtorch
 * safety glasses and/or safety goggles, where appropriate
 * safety gloves
 * high-visibility wet weather gear
 * high-visibility buff (a neck-worn protector)
 * handheld VHF radio

Exterior items are appropriately marked to identify them as Search and Rescue workers.

title: His Majesty's Coastguard


text:
Juneau Empire

The Juneau Empire is a newspaper in Juneau, Alaska, United States. It publishes Wednesdays and Saturdays.

History
The newspaper was founded on November 2, 1912, as the Alaska Daily Empire. It was founded by John Franklin Alexander Strong, who would later be the second territorial governor of Alaska.

In 1969, Morris Communications bought the newspaper.

The paper laid off five employees, three people in the business office and two graphic designers, in September 2015. Several newspaper offices were also consolidated into one location in Anchorage.

In 2017, Morris Communications sold its newspapers to GateHouse Media. In 2018, GateHouse sold its Alaska papers to Sound Publications.

A staff photographer and a sports reporter were laid off in January 2020.

On May 3, 2023, the Juneau Empire reduced its print frequency from five days a week to two. The paper has also shifted print production to a facility in Lakewood, Washington and decreasing subscription prices 15-25%. The press, a Goss Community Offset originally installed in 1986, has since been dismantled and shipped to Seattle for storage.

title: Juneau Empire


text:
Swansea, Tasmania

Swansea is a town in the heart of Tasmania's east coast, on the north-west shore of Great Oyster Bay and overlooking Freycinet National Park. It was the first municipality in Australia to be established after Hobart and Sydney. At the, Swansea had a population of 997.

The town was formed in 1821 and celebrated its 200th birthday in 2021.

History
The first European to explore the Swansea area was Captain John Henry Cox sailing from England to Sydney. He took his ship, the Mercury, up the eastern coast of Tasmania. On 3 July 1789, having heard of vast colonies of seals in the area, he sailed along the western shore of Maria Island and into a stretch of water he named Oyster Bay. Swansea was not settled until 1821 when George Meredith, his family and workers arrived from Pembrokeshire, Wales. Meredith obtained a grant from Lieutenant Governor William Sorell to farm in the area around Oyster Bay. The land was developed and made suitable for seasonal crops and grazing stock and a tannery and flour mill were established by the Meredith River. Whaling stations were also set up on nearby islands to enable the export of whale oil. Swansea was originally called Great Swanport and Meredith built the family home, Cambria, which is now in private hands. There are other important buildings in the town including Morris’ General Store which has been owned and run by the Morris family for over 100 years. The Swansea Bark Mill which processed black wattle bark was used in colonial times in the tanning industry and is now a combined museum, tavern and bakery. Schouten House is a fine early Victorian colonial house built in 1844 and is now a hotel.

Waterloo Point Post Office opened on 6 September 1832 and was renamed Swansea around 1863.

Notable residents

 * William Lyne, politician who served as Premier of New South Wales from 1899 to 1901, and later as a federal cabinet minister under Edmund Barton and Alfred Deakin.
 * Violet Mace, potter known for the 'proclamation cup', based on Governor Davey's Proclamation.

Wildlife
Swansea is home to colonies of short-tailed shearwaters (muttonbirds) and little penguins. The nearby Freycinet National Park has quolls, wallabies, native microbats, possums and Tasmanian devils. Offshore, there are dolphins, whales and seals.

Demographics
According to the 1996 census, the town's population was 495. Of the population, 25.1% were above the age of 65 – making it the Tasmanian town with the largest percentage of over-65-year-olds.

title: Swansea, Tasmania


text:
Hesy-Ra

Hesy-Ra (also read Hesy-Re and Hesire) was an ancient Egyptian high official during the early Third Dynasty of Egypt. His most notable title was Wer-ibeḥsenjw, meaning either "Great one of the ivory cutters" or "Great one of the dentists", which makes him the earliest named dentist. His tomb is noted for its paintings and cedar wood panels.

Identity
Thanks to several clay seal impressions found in Hesy-Ra's tomb, it is today known that this high official lived and worked during the reign of king (pharaoh) Djoser and maybe also under king Sekhemkhet.

Hesy-Ra's name is of some interest to Egyptologists and historians alike, because it is linked to the sun god Ra. Hesy-Ra, alongside a few high officials at this time, belongs to the first high officials who were allowed to link their names to Ra. However, they were not allowed to use the sun disk hieroglyph to write Ra's name. This was permitted to the king only.

Titles
As a high-ranking official and priest, Hesy-Ra bore several elite and pious titularies:
 * Confidant of the king (Egyptian: Rekh-neswt).
 * Great one of the "ten of Upper Egypt" (Egyptian: Wer-medi-shemaw).
 * Great one of Peh (Egyptian: Wer-Peh).
 * Great one of the dentists (Egyptian: Wer-ibeḥ-senjw).
 * Elder of the "Qed-hetep" (Egyptian: Semsw-qed-hetep).
 * Chief of the scribes (Egyptian: Medjeh-seschjw).
 * Brother of Min (Egyptian: Sen-Min).
 * Magician of Mehit (Egyptian: Hem-ḥeka-Meḥit).

The most debated title amongst Hesy-Ra's many rather unique titles is Wer-ibeḥ-senjw, which can be translated in many ways: ibeh can be translated as either "dentition" or "ivory", and Senjw as "arrows", "cutters" and/or "physicians"; thus, the full title Wer-ibeḥ-senjw can either be translated as "Great one of the ivory cutters" or as "Great one of the dentists". If the former translation is correct, Hesy-Ra was a professional ivory-cutter and artist - a profession that was fairly common and already attested in early dynastic inscriptions. If the latter translation is correct, Hesy-Ra would be the very first person in Egyptian history to be officially entitled as an occupational dentist.

Hesy-Ra also draws interest because of the richly decorated cedar wood panels and the colorful wall paintings discovered inside and outside his tomb.

On the richly decorated cedar wood panels, Hesy-Ra is depicted in different stages of his life: close to the entrance he is shown as a young man at the start of his career; going deeper inside the tomb, as a middle-aged man at the heyday of his career; and finally, in the remembrance chapel itself, as an old man, sitting on an offering table and being stuffed in a tight gown. The artist of the panels even accentuated the visible aspects of age: Hesy-Ra's face changes from pretty smooth to wrinkled and saggy.

The wall paintings discovered inside and outside his tomb are in black, white, yellow, green and red. The figures include rhomboids, stripes and a green-yellowish reed mat imitation. The paintings were in such a good state when found, that the excavators decided to fill the painted corridors with high quality rubble in attempt to preserve the colors. Close-by reliefs reportedly depict daily utensils and even game accessories, such as Mehen game boards and a Senet play set.

Possible contemporary office partners included Netjeraperef, Akhetaa, Khabawsokar, Pehernefer and Metjen, who were also holding office under Huni and Sneferu. All their tomb inscriptions reveal that the time of both kings must have been a very prosperous one, as both economy and office administration flourished.

Tomb

Hesy-Ra's tomb, mastaba S-2405, is situated in Saqqara; it was discovered in 1861 by French archaeologists Auguste Mariette and Jacques de Morgan. Excavations started in 1910 and ended in 1912, organized and performed by British archaeologist James Edward Quibell. Hesy-Ra's tomb is squeezed in between dozens of others, approximately 260 m north-east of king Djoser's pyramid complex. In its original state, the mastaba was 43 m long, 22 m wide and 5 m high. It was made of hardened mud bricks. Inner and outer walls were once completely and smoothly covered with white limestone. The inner room structure consisted of a long, niched corridor and several rooms and chapels.

title: Hesy-Ra


text:
Hybridisation

Hybridization (or hybridisation) may refer to:

 * Hybridization (biology), the process of combining different varieties of organisms to create a hybrid
 * Orbital hybridization, in chemistry, the mixing of atomic orbitals into new hybrid orbitals
 * Nucleic acid hybridization, the process of joining two complementary strands of nucleic acids - RNA, DNA or oligonucleotides
 * In evolutionary algorithms, the merging two or more optimization techniques into a single algorithm
 * Memetic algorithm, a common template for hybridization
 * In linguistics, the process of one variety blending with another variety
 * The alteration of a vehicle into a hybrid electric vehicle
 * In globalization theory, the ongoing blending of cultures
 * Hybridization in political election campaign communication, the combining of campaign techniques developed in different countries
 * In paleoanthropology, the hypothesis of Neanderthal and human hybridization

title: Hybridisation


text:
Oracle Internet Directory

Oracle Internet Directory (OID) is a directory service produced by Oracle Corporation, which functions compatible with LDAP version 3.

Functionality
OID makes the following features available from within an Oracle database environment:

 * integration with Oracle 8i and subsequent databases for ease of use and administration
 * a scalable, multi-platform listing structure for reliable and safe intranet integration
 * synchronization of OID-based listings (also with distributed applications)
 * integration of existing public key certificates, digital wallets (e-wallets) and entrance privileges
 * co-existence with other LDAP implementations via Oracle's Directory Integration Platform (DIP)
 * administration tools, including:
 * routing policies
 * system management objects such as Oracle Directory Manager (also known as "oidadmin" or "ODM")
 * technical support regarding the quality of the services
 * delegated administrative service

Implementation
OID uses standard Oracle database structures to store its internal tables.

In Oracle version 9 databases, by default, many Oracle LDAP Table Stores use tablespaces with names beginning with the  (and occasionally  ) prefixes. Relevant default schemas used may include  (for "Oracle directory server") and.

Operation
The OID Control Utility (OIDCTL) serves as a command-line tool for starting and stopping the OID server. The OID Monitor process interprets and executes the OIDCTL commands.

Marketing
In comparing Oracle Internet Directory with its competitors, Oracle Corporation stresses that it uses as its foundation an Oracle database; whereas many competing products (such as Oracle Directory Server Enterprise Edition and Novell eDirectory) do not rely on an enterprise-strength relational database, but instead on embedded database engines similar to Berkeley DB. Integration with the Oracle database makes many of the technologies available for Oracle database available for Oracle Internet Directory, and improvements that Oracle makes in the database space can instantly flow through to its LDAP implementation.

For marketing purposes, OID forms part of the Oracle Identity Management suite of Oracle Application Server.

Distribution
Oracle database version 9 included OID bundled as an extra facility. OID shipped with the Oracle Application Server version 10.

Oracle Corporation makes the most recent version of OID available only as part of the Identity Management-suite bundling of Oracle Application Server (10.1.4.0.1).

Oracle Internet Directory 11g forms part of Oracle directory services (ODS).

Benchmarks

 * 50 Million Users on Sparc T5
 * 10 Million Users on Exalogic
 * 500 Million Users on Exadata
 * 2 Billion Users

title: Oracle Internet Directory


text:
Linksys

Linksys Holdings, Inc., is an American brand of data networking hardware products mainly sold to home users and small businesses. It was founded in 1988 by the couple Victor and Janie Tsao, both Taiwanese immigrants to the United States. Linksys products include Wi-Fi routers, mesh Wi-Fi systems, Wifi extenders, access points, network switches, and Wi-Fi networking. It is headquartered in Irvine, California.

Linksys products are sold direct-to-consumer from its website, through online retailers and marketplaces, as well as off-the-shelf in consumer electronics and big-box retail stores. As of 2020, Linksys products are sold in retail locations and value-added resellers in 64 countries and was the first router company to ship 100 million products.

History
In 1988, spouses Janie and Victor Tsao founded DEW International, later renamed Linksys, in the garage of their Irvine, California home. The Tsaos were immigrants from Taiwan who held second jobs as consultants specializing in pairing American technology vendors with manufacturers in Taiwan. The founders used Taiwanese manufacturing to achieve its early success. The company's first products were printer sharers that connected multiple PCs to printers. The company expanded into Ethernet hubs, network cards, and cords. In 1992, the Tsaos began running Linksys full time and moved the company and its growing staff to a formal office. By 1994, it had grown to 55 employees with annual revenues of $6.5 million.

Linksys received a major boost in 1995, when Microsoft released Windows 95 with built-in networking functions that expanded the market for its products. Linksys established its first U.S. retail channels with Fry's Electronics (1995) and Best Buy (1996). In the late 1990s, Linksys released the first affordable multiport router, popularizing Linksys as a home networking brand. By 2003, when the company was acquired by Cisco, it had 305 employees and revenues of more than $500 million.

Cisco expanded the company's product line, acquiring VoIP maker Sipura Technology in 2005 and selling its products under Linksys Voice System or later Linksys Business Series brands. In July 2008, Cisco acquired Seattle-based Pure Networks, a vendor of home networking-management software.

Cisco announced in January 2013 that it would sell its home networking division and Linksys to Belkin, giving Belkin 30% of the home router market.

In 2018, Belkin and its subsidiaries, including Linksys, were acquired by Foxconn, a Taiwanese multinational electronics firm and the largest provider of electronics manufacturing services, for $866 million.

On June 4, 2021, Harry Dewhirst was appointed as CEO. In September, cybersecurity firm Fortinet made a $75 million investment in Linksys. Their focus is on the security of home networks for remote workplaces. On September 24, 2021, Fortinet invested an additional $85 million in cash for shares of Series A Preferred Stock of Linksys. Mark Sanders became CFO in October.

In 2023, the company starts its global expansion with a development centre in Taipei (Taiwan) and a new sales and marketing centre in Amstelveen (The Netherlands). The new facilities are close to leading technology centres and universities.

Products
Linksys initially sold connectors for PCs and printers before newer forms of connecting home and business networks through wired Ethernet and wireless technologies. Its networking products include Gigabit switches, Wi-Fi routers, Intelligent Mesh Wi-Fi systems, Wi-Fi extenders, Wi-Fi access points, and networking components.

Linksys Aware was introduced in 2019 as a first-to-market home monitoring system that alerts users to movement in their home through the Velop Triband system. In 2020, Linksys released Linksys Shield, a parental control subscription service for the Velop AC2200 Triband that allows users to manage or block online content.

The company also announced its Linksys Cloud Manager 2.0, which included a configurable captive portal.

Routers
Linksys released its first Wi-Fi router in 2001 and has maintained early router releases for newer generations of Wi-Fi.

The WRT54G was notable for having firmware based on the Linux operating system. Since version 5, flash memory was reduced from 4 MB to 2 MB, and VxWorks was used instead of Linux. The original Linux model with 4 MB was later available as the WRT54GL.

In 2017, Linksys launched the Velop line, a multi-unit tri-band mesh router system that uses three Wi-Fi radios.

First announced in 2020, Linksys began marketing home-based Linksys smart routers and Velop Mesh Wi-Fi.

In April 2021, launched its first Wi-Fi 6E-certified systems, including Hydra Pro 6E router and the Atlas Max 6E mesh system. In January 2022, Linksys launched Hydra Pro 6, a scaled-back version of the 6E model.

Wi-Fi systems
The Linksys Intelligent Mesh line, Velop, combines Linksys software and hardware to provide higher connection speeds throughout a location by using nodes with dynamic networking capabilities. Linksys in 2019, with the Linksys Aware line, was first to release mesh nodes as motion sensors, utilizing Wi-Fi signals without having to rely on other sensor devices.

Linksys markets Wi-Fi extenders that work with most Wi-Fi and ISP routers, including dual or tri-band units, and plug-in devices that eliminate Wi-Fi dead zones by wirelessly communicating with a router.

In 2018, Linksys released its cloud-based Wi-Fi management for business-class access points, the Linksys Cloud Manager.

Linksys markets mesh Wi-Fi routers built for Wi-Fi 6 capacity, offering four times the speed and capacity of Wi-Fi 5. The mesh Velop Wi-Fi 6, announced in October 2019.

In 2020, Linksys debuted 5G mobile hotspots, modems, mesh gateways, and outdoor routers.

At CES 2021, Linksys announced a line of Velop mesh systems and routers that support Wi-Fi 6E.

HomeWRK
HomeWRK is a two-node, mesh-enabled Wi-Fi 6 router. The appliance provides separate wireless networks for personal and business traffic. Fortinet’s security stack runs on the device, blocking malware, ransomware, and filtering content.

title: Linksys


text:
Sling

Sling may refer to:

Places

 * Sling, Anglesey, Wales
 * Sling, Gloucestershire, England, a small village in the Forest of Dean

People with the name

 * Otto Šling (1912–1952), repressed Czech communist functionary

Arts, entertainment, and media

 * Sling (album), a 2021 studio album by Clairo
 * Sling (Transformers), a fictional character
 * Sling TV, an American streaming television service operated by Dish Network

Clothing

 * Baby sling, a piece of fabric tied to carry a child or infant
 * Sling swimsuit, a type of swimsuit, sometimes a bikini variant
 * Slingback, a type of woman's shoe

Devices and weapons

 * Sling (cannon), an early modern gunpowder weapon
 * Sling (climbing), a loop of webbing that can be wrapped around rock or tied to other equipment
 * Sling (firearms), a type of strap or harness that allows convenient carrying of a long gun and/or bracing of the weapon for better stability during aiming
 * Sling (furniture), a suspended, free-swinging chair, bed, or hammock
 * Sex swing, also known as a "sling"
 * Sling (rigging), a component used in a rigging system for lifting, frequently made of wire rope or synthetic fiber
 * Sling (weapon), a device used to hurl projectiles
 * Slingshot (esp in the United States), a small hand-powered projectile weapon
 * Hawaiian sling, a device used in spearfishing

Drinks

 * Sling (drink), a mixed drink, originally American, composed of spirit and water, sweetened and flavoured
 * Singapore Sling, a cocktail that was invented by Ngiam Tong Boon for the Raffles Hotel in Singapore

Medicine

 * Sling (implant), in surgery
 * Sling (medicine), a device to limit movement of the shoulder or elbow while it heals

Technology

 * Apache Sling, a Java web framework
 * Sling Media, an American technology company that provides placeshifting and Smart TV technology
 * Slingbox, a television streaming media device

title: Sling


text:
User:SteffenB~enwiki/Magnetic Ordering

magnetic ordering vs. magnetic order
Hi Wikipedians,

in the English Wikipedia I came across the term «magnetic ordering» in two different forms,

magnetic ordering: magnetic order:
 * molecular magnet
 * Neel temperature
 * superparamagnetism

Intuitively I would use the term magnetic ordering rather than magnetic order. The first one sounds more familiar to me. But as I'm no native speaker I wouldn't bet on it. So I would welcome your statement concerning the conventional English term! --SteffenB 11:25, 6 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Hi SteffenB,

Although I wrote the article on superparamagnetism, I am not really an expert in the field of magnetism and would defer to anyone with more knowledge than myself. I don't know that the web is any indication of what is correct, but a quick search of google indicates that both terms are used abundantly. Both terms appear in peer reviewed journals, such as Nature, and on websites run by the AIP (American Institute of Physics). I would guess that both terms are correct, but have slightly different meanings, the subtleties of which, I am not really qualified to describe. In my mind, "magnetic ordering" refers to the specific arrangement (ordering) of magnetic dipoles, whereas "magnetic order" refers more generally to the concept that some degree of correlation exists without necessarily implying the specific nature of that correlation. However, as I am not an expert I would welcome anyone else's comments clarifying the matter. --Matt Stoker 21 APR 2004

Background
It might be of some interest to add the type of magnetic ordering (PM/DM/FM/AFM/SDW/etc.) of elements in the solid state to the periodic table of elements. But in order to do soSee: WikiProject_Elements

title: User:SteffenB~enwiki/Magnetic Ordering


text:
Kyphosis

Kyphosis is an abnormally excessive convex curvature of the spine as it occurs in the thoracic and sacral regions. Abnormal inward concave lordotic curving of the cervical and lumbar regions of the spine is called lordosis. It can result from degenerative disc disease; developmental abnormalities, most commonly Scheuermann's disease; Copenhagen disease, osteoporosis with compression fractures of the vertebra; multiple myeloma; or trauma. A normal thoracic spine extends from the 1st thoracic to the 12th thoracic vertebra and should have a slight kyphotic angle, ranging from 20° to 45°. When the "roundness" of the upper spine increases past 45° it is called kyphosis or "hyperkyphosis". Scheuermann's kyphosis is the most classic form of hyperkyphosis and is the result of wedged vertebrae that develop during adolescence. The cause is not currently known and the condition appears to be multifactorial and is seen more frequently in males than females.

In the sense of a deformity, it is the pathological curving of the spine, where parts of the spinal column lose some or all of their lordotic profile. This causes a bowing of the back, seen as a slouching posture. Kyphosis is distinguished from scoliosis, a condition in which the spine has a sideways curve.

While most cases of kyphosis are mild and only require routine monitoring, serious cases can be debilitating. High degrees of kyphosis can cause severe pain and discomfort, breathing and digestion difficulties, cardiovascular irregularities, neurological compromise and, in the more severe cases, significantly shortened life spans. These types of high-end curves typically do not respond well to conservative treatment and almost always warrant spinal fusion surgery, which can restore the body's natural degree of curvature. The term is from Greek κυφός kyphos, a hump.

Complications
The risk of serious complications from spinal fusion surgery for kyphosis is estimated to be 5%, similar to the risks of surgery for scoliosis. Possible complications include inflammation of the soft tissue or deep inflammatory processes, breathing impairments, bleeding, and nerve injuries. According to the latest evidence, the actual rate of complications may be substantially higher. Even among those who do not develop serious complications, 5% of patients require reoperation within five years of the procedure, and in general it is not yet clear what one would expect from spine surgery during the long-term. Given that the signs and symptoms of spinal deformity cannot be changed by surgical intervention, surgery remains essentially a cosmetic choice. However, the cosmetic effects of surgery are not necessarily stable.

Classification
There are several kinds of kyphosis (ICD-10 codes are provided):
 * Postural kyphosis (M40.0), the most common type, normally attributed to slouching, can occur in both the old and the young. In the young, it can be called "slouching" and is reversible by correcting muscular imbalances. In the old, it may be a case of hyperkyphosis and called "dowager's hump". About one third of the most severe hyperkyphosis cases in older people have vertebral fractures. Otherwise, the aging body does tend towards a loss of musculoskeletal integrity, and hyperkyphosis can develop due to aging alone.
 * Scheuermann's kyphosis (M42.0) is significantly worse cosmetically and can cause varying degrees of pain, and can also affect different areas of the spine (the most common being the midthoracic area). Scheuermann's kyphosis is considered a form of juvenile osteochondrosis of the spine and is more commonly called Scheuermann's disease. It is found mostly in teenagers and presents a significantly worse deformity than postural kyphosis. A patient with Scheuermann's kyphosis cannot consciously correct posture. The apex of the curve, located in the thoracic vertebrae, is quite rigid. The patient may feel pain at this apex, which can be aggravated by physical activity and by long periods of standing or sitting. This can have a significantly detrimental effect on their lives, as their level of activity is curbed by their condition; they may feel isolated or uneasy amongst peers if they are children, depending on the level of deformity. Whereas in postural kyphosis, the vertebrae and discs appear normal, in Scheuermann's kyphosis, they are irregular, often herniated, and wedge-shaped over at least three adjacent levels. Fatigue is a very common symptom, most likely because of the intense muscle work that has to be put into standing or sitting properly. The condition appears to run in families. Most patients who undergo surgery to correct their kyphosis have Scheuermann's disease.
 * Congenital kyphosis (Q76.4) can result in infants whose spinal column has not developed correctly in the womb. Vertebrae may be malformed or fused together and can cause further progressive kyphosis as the child develops. Surgical treatment may be necessary at a very early stage and can help maintain a normal curve in coordination with consistent follow-ups to monitor changes. However, the decision to carry out the procedure can be very difficult due to the potential risks to the child. A congenital kyphosis can also suddenly appear in the teenage years, more commonly in children with cerebral palsy and other neurological disorders.
 * Nutritional kyphosis can result from nutritional deficiencies, especially during childhood, such as vitamin D deficiency (producing rickets), which softens bones and results in the curving of the spine and limbs under the child's body weight.
 * Gibbus deformity is a form of structural kyphosis, often a sequela to tuberculosis.
 * Post-traumatic kyphosis (M84.0) can arise from untreated or ineffectively treated vertebral fractures.

Grading
Kyphosis can be graded in severity by the Cobb angle. Also, sagittal balance can be measured. The sagittal balance is the horizontal distance between the center of C7 and the superior-posterior border of the endplate of S1 on a lateral radiograph.

Treatments
A diagnosis of kyphosis is generally made through observation and measurement. Idiopathic causes, such as vertebral wedging or other abnormalities, can be confirmed through X-ray. Osteoporosis, a potential cause of kyphosis, can be confirmed with a bone density scan. Postural thoracic kyphosis can often be treated with posture reeducation and focused strengthening exercises. Idiopathic thoracic kyphosis due to vertebral wedging, fractures, or vertebral abnormalities is more difficult to manage, since assuming a correct posture may not be possible with structural changes in the vertebrae. Children who have not completed their growth may show long-lasting improvements with bracing. Exercises may be prescribed to alleviate discomfort associated with overstretched back muscles. A variety of gravity-assisted positions or gentle traction can minimize pain associated with nerve root impingement. Surgery may be recommended for severe idiopathic kyphosis.

Brace
Body braces showed benefit in a randomised controlled trial.

The Milwaukee brace is one particular body brace that is often used to treat kyphosis in the US. Modern CAD/CAM braces are used in Europe to treat different types of kyphosis. These are much easier to wear and have better in-brace corrections than reported for the Milwaukee brace. Since there are different curve patterns (thoracic, thoracolumbar, and lumbar), different types of brace are in use, with different advantages and disadvantages.

Physical therapy
In Germany, a standard treatment for both Scheuermann's disease and lumbar kyphosis is the Schroth method, a system of physical therapy for scoliosis and related spinal deformities. It involves lying supine, placing a pillow under the scapular region and posteriorly stretching the cervical spine. In China, many people use spinal care mattresses to correct kyphosis while sleeping.

Surgery
Surgical treatment can be used in severe cases. In patients with progressive kyphotic deformity due to vertebral collapse, a procedure called a kyphoplasty may arrest the deformity and relieve the pain. Kyphoplasty is a minimally invasive procedure, requiring only a small opening in the skin. The main goal is to return the damaged vertebra as close as possible to its original height.

People affected by condition

 * Şehzade Cihangir
 * Nicolas Ferry
 * Godfrey IV, Duke of Lower Lorraine
 * Topper Headon
 * Inge the Hunchback
 * Konrad II the Hunchback
 * Benjamin Lay
 * Georg Christoph Lichtenberg
 * Louis the Hunchback
 * Mahmud I
 * Margaret of Bavaria (1442–1479)
 * Pepin the Hunchback
 * Charles Proteus Steinmetz
 * Władysław the Hunchback

Popular culture

One of the most well-known and enduring depictions of kyphosis is Quasimodo, the eponymous hero of Victor Hugo's 1831 novel The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, which solidified the popular conception of the hunchback as a destitute and pitiable outcast from European society. The legendary Comprachicos of the sort popularized in Hugo's similar work The Man Who Laughs are instead described as being able to turn able-bodied young children into hunchbacks, alongside a variety of other deformities, using poisons and mutilation, before selling their results into bondage as court dwarfs or freak show performers.

Early horror films developed the hunchbacked Igor as a stock character assistant to a mad scientist.

title: Kyphosis


text:
Circle group

In mathematics, the circle group, denoted by $$\mathbb T$$ or $\mathbb S^1$, is the multiplicative group of all complex numbers with absolute value 1, that is, the unit circle in the complex plane or simply the unit complex numbers $$\mathbb T = \{ z \in \mathbb C : |z| = 1 \}.$$

The circle group forms a subgroup of $\mathbb C^\times$, the multiplicative group of all nonzero complex numbers. Since $$\mathbb C^\times$$ is abelian, it follows that $$\mathbb T$$ is as well.

A unit complex number in the circle group represents a rotation of the complex plane about the origin and can be parametrized by the angle measure $\theta$: $$\theta \mapsto z = e^{i\theta} = \cos\theta + i\sin\theta.$$

This is the exponential map for the circle group.

The circle group plays a central role in Pontryagin duality and in the theory of Lie groups.

The notation $$\mathbb T$$ for the circle group stems from the fact that, with the standard topology (see below), the circle group is a 1-torus. More generally, $$\mathbb T^n$$ (the direct product of $$\mathbb T$$ with itself $$n$$ times) is geometrically an $$n$$-torus.

The circle group is isomorphic to the special orthogonal group $\mathrm{SO}(2)$.

Elementary introduction
One way to think about the circle group is that it describes how to add angles, where only angles between 0° and 360° or $$\in[0, 2\pi)$$ or $$\in(-\pi,+\pi]$$ are permitted. For example, the diagram illustrates how to add 150° to 270°. The answer is 150° + 270° = 420°, but when thinking in terms of the circle group, we may "forget" the fact that we have wrapped once around the circle. Therefore, we adjust our answer by 360°, which gives 420° ≡ 60° (mod 360°).

Another description is in terms of ordinary (real) addition, where only numbers between 0 and 1 are allowed (with 1 corresponding to a full rotation: 360° or $2\pi$), i.e. the real numbers modulo the integers: $\mathbb T \cong \R/\Z$. This can be achieved by throwing away the digits occurring before the decimal point. For example, when we work out 0.4166... + 0.75, the answer is 1.1666..., but we may throw away the leading 1, so the answer (in the circle group) is just  $$0.1\bar{6} \equiv 1.1\bar{6} \equiv -0.8\bar{3}\;(\text{mod}\,\Z)$$   with some preference to 0.166..., because $0.1\bar{6} \in [0,1)$.

Topological and analytic structure
The circle group is more than just an abstract algebraic object. It has a natural topology when regarded as a subspace of the complex plane. Since multiplication and inversion are continuous functions on $\mathbb C^\times$, the circle group has the structure of a topological group. Moreover, since the unit circle is a closed subset of the complex plane, the circle group is a closed subgroup of $$\mathbb C^\times$$ (itself regarded as a topological group).

One can say even more. The circle is a 1-dimensional real manifold, and multiplication and inversion are real-analytic maps on the circle. This gives the circle group the structure of a one-parameter group, an instance of a Lie group. In fact, up to isomorphism, it is the unique 1-dimensional compact, connected Lie group. Moreover, every $$n$$-dimensional compact, connected, abelian Lie group is isomorphic to $\mathbb T^n$.

Isomorphisms
The circle group shows up in a variety of forms in mathematics. We list some of the more common forms here. Specifically, we show that $$\mathbb T \cong \mbox{U}(1) \cong \mathbb R/\mathbb Z \cong \mathrm{SO}(2).$$

Note that the slash (/) denotes here quotient group.

The set of all 1×1 unitary matrices clearly coincides with the circle group; the unitary condition is equivalent to the condition that its element have absolute value 1. Therefore, the circle group is canonically isomorphic to $\mathrm{U}(1)$, the first unitary group.

The exponential function gives rise to a group homomorphism $$\exp : \mathbb R \to \mathbb T$$ from the additive real numbers $$\mathbb R$$ to the circle group $$\mathbb T$$ via the map $$\theta \mapsto e^{i\theta} = \cos\theta + i \sin \theta.$$

The last equality is Euler's formula or the complex exponential. The real number θ corresponds to the angle (in radians) on the unit circle as measured counterclockwise from the positive x axis. That this map is a homomorphism follows from the fact that the multiplication of unit complex numbers corresponds to addition of angles: $$e^{i\theta_1} e^{i\theta_2} = e^{i(\theta_1+\theta_2)}.$$

This exponential map is clearly a surjective function from $$\mathbb R$$ to $\mathbb T$. However, it is not injective. The kernel of this map is the set of all integer multiples of $2\pi$. By the first isomorphism theorem we then have that $$\mathbb T \cong \mathbb R/2\pi\mathbb Z.$$

After rescaling we can also say that $$\mathbb T$$ is isomorphic to $\mathbb R / \mathbb Z$.

If complex numbers are realized as 2×2 real matrices (see complex number), the unit complex numbers correspond to 2×2 orthogonal matrices with unit determinant. Specifically, we have $$ e^{i\theta} \leftrightarrow \begin{bmatrix} \cos \theta & -\sin \theta \\ \sin \theta & \cos \theta \\ \end{bmatrix} = f\left(e^{i\theta}\right). $$

This function shows that the circle group is isomorphic to the special orthogonal group $$\mathrm{SO}(2)$$ since $$ f\left(e^{i\theta_1} e^{i\theta_2}\right) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos(\theta_1 + \theta_2) & -\sin(\theta_1 + \theta_2) \\ \sin(\theta_1 + \theta_2) & \cos(\theta_1 + \theta_2) \end{bmatrix} = f\left(e^{i\theta_1}\right) \times f\left(e^{i\theta_2}\right), $$ where $$\times$$ is matrix multiplication.

This isomorphism has the geometric interpretation that multiplication by a unit complex number is a proper rotation in the complex (and real) plane, and every such rotation is of this form.

Properties
Every compact Lie group $$\mathrm{G}$$ of dimension > 0 has a subgroup isomorphic to the circle group. This means that, thinking in terms of symmetry, a compact symmetry group acting continuously can be expected to have one-parameter circle subgroups acting; the consequences in physical systems are seen, for example, at rotational invariance and spontaneous symmetry breaking.

The circle group has many subgroups, but its only proper closed subgroups consist of roots of unity: For each integer $n > 0$, the $$n$$-th roots of unity form a cyclic group of order $n$, which is unique up to isomorphism.

In the same way that the real numbers are a completion of the b-adic rationals $$\Z[\tfrac1b]$$ for every natural number $b > 1$, the circle group is the completion of the Prüfer group $$\Z[\tfrac1b]/\Z$$ for $b$, given by the direct limit $\varinjlim \mathbb{Z}/ b^n \mathbb{Z}$.

Representations
The representations of the circle group are easy to describe. It follows from Schur's lemma that the irreducible complex representations of an abelian group are all 1-dimensional. Since the circle group is compact, any representation $$\rho: \mathbb T \to \mathrm{GL}(1, \mathbb C) \cong \mathbb C^\times$$ must take values in $\mbox{U}(1) \cong \mathbb T$. Therefore, the irreducible representations of the circle group are just the homomorphisms from the circle group to itself.

For each integer $$n$$ we can define a representation $$\phi_n$$ of the circle group by $\phi_n(z) = z^n$. These representations are all inequivalent. The representation $$\phi_{-n}$$ is conjugate to $\phi_{n}$: $$\phi_{-n} = \overline{\phi_n}.$$

These representations are just the characters of the circle group. The character group of $$\mathbb T$$ is clearly an infinite cyclic group generated by $\phi_1$: $$\operatorname{Hom}(\mathbb T, \mathbb T) \cong \mathbb Z.$$

The irreducible real representations of the circle group are the trivial representation (which is 1-dimensional) and the representations $$\rho_n(e^{i\theta}) = \begin{bmatrix} \cos n\theta & -\sin n\theta \\ \sin n\theta & \cos n\theta \end{bmatrix}, \quad n \in \mathbb Z^+,$$ taking values in $\mathrm{SO}(2)$. Here we only have positive integers $n$, since the representation $$\rho_{-n}$$ is equivalent to $\rho_n$.

Group structure
The circle group $$\mathbb T$$ is a divisible group. Its torsion subgroup is given by the set of all $$n$$-th roots of unity for all $$n$$ and is isomorphic to $\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z$. The structure theorem for divisible groups and the axiom of choice together tell us that $$\mathbb T$$ is isomorphic to the direct sum of $$\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z$$ with a number of copies of $\mathbb Q$.

The number of copies of $$\mathbb Q$$ must be $$\mathfrak c$$ (the cardinality of the continuum) in order for the cardinality of the direct sum to be correct. But the direct sum of $$\mathfrak c$$ copies of $$\mathbb Q$$ is isomorphic to $\mathbb R$, as $$\mathbb R$$ is a vector space of dimension $$\mathfrak c$$ over $\mathbb Q$. Thus $$\mathbb T \cong \mathbb R \oplus (\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z).$$

The isomorphism $$\mathbb C^\times \cong \mathbb R \oplus (\mathbb Q / \mathbb Z)$$ can be proved in the same way, since $$\mathbb C^\times$$ is also a divisible abelian group whose torsion subgroup is the same as the torsion subgroup of $\mathbb T$.

title: Circle group