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Hypotension

Hypotension, also known as low blood pressure, is a cardiovascular condition characterized by abnormally reduced blood pressure. Blood pressure is the force of blood pushing against the walls of the arteries as the heart pumps out blood and is indicated by two numbers, the systolic blood pressure (the top number) and the diastolic blood pressure (the bottom number), which are the maximum and minimum blood pressures within the cardiac cycle, respectively. A systolic blood pressure of less than 90 millimeters of mercury (mmHg) or diastolic of less than 60 mmHg is generally considered to be hypotension. Different numbers apply to children. However, in practice, blood pressure is considered too low only if noticeable symptoms are present.

Symptoms may include dizziness, lightheadedness, confusion, feeling tired, weakness, headache, blurred vision, nausea, neck or back pain, an irregular heartbeat or feeling that the heart is skipping beats or fluttering, and fainting. Hypotension is the opposite of hypertension, which is high blood pressure. It is best understood as a physiological state rather than a disease. Severely low blood pressure can deprive the brain and other vital organs of oxygen and nutrients, leading to a life-threatening condition called shock. Shock is classified based on the underlying cause, including hypovolemic shock, cardiogenic shock, distributive shock, and obstructive shock.

Hypotension can be caused by strenuous exercise, excessive heat, low blood volume (hypovolemia), hormonal changes, widening of blood vessels, anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, anaphylaxis, heart problems, or endocrine problems. Some medications can also lead to hypotension. There are also syndromes that can cause hypotension in patients including orthostatic hypotension, vasovagal syncope, and other rarer conditions.

For many people, excessively low blood pressure can cause dizziness and fainting or indicate serious heart, endocrine or neurological disorders.

For some people who exercise and are in top physical condition, low blood pressure could be normal. A single session of exercise can induce hypotension and water-based exercise can induce a hypotensive response.

Treatment depends on what causes low blood pressure. Treatment of hypotension may include the use of intravenous fluids or vasopressors. When using vasopressors, trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mmHg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve an MAP of greater than 65 mmHg in adults.

Signs and symptoms
For many people, low blood pressure goes unnoticed. For some people, low blood pressure may be a sign of an underlying health condition, especially when it drops suddenly or occurs with symptoms. Older adults also have a higher risk of symptoms of low blood pressure, such as falls, fainting, or dizziness when standing or after a meal. If the blood pressure is sufficiently low, fainting (syncope) may occur.

Low blood pressure is sometimes associated with certain symptoms, many of which are related to causes rather than effects of hypotension:

 * confusion
 * dizziness or lightheadedness
 * feeling tired or weak
 * shortness of breath
 * irregular heartbeat, feeling that the heart is skipping beats, or fluttering
 * chest pain
 * fever
 * headache
 * stiff neck
 * severe back or neck pain
 * cough with sputum
 * prolonged diarrhea or vomiting
 * chills
 * loss of appetite
 * nausea
 * dyspepsia (indigestion)
 * dysuria (painful urination)
 * acute, life-threatening allergic reaction
 * seizures
 * loss of consciousness
 * temporary blurring or loss of vision
 * black tarry stools

Causes
Low blood pressure can be caused by low blood volume, hormonal changes, pregnancy, widening of blood vessels, medicine side effects, severe dehydration, anemia, vitamin B12 deficiency, anaphylaxis, heart problems or endocrine problems.

Reduced blood volume, hypovolemia, is the most common cause of hypotension. This can result from hemorrhage; insufficient fluid intake, as in starvation; or excessive fluid losses from diarrhea or vomiting. Hypovolemia can be induced by excessive use of diuretics. Low blood pressure may also be attributed to heat stroke which can be indicated by absence of perspiration, light headedness and dark colored urine.

Other medications can produce hypotension by different mechanisms. Chronic use of alpha blockers or beta blockers can lead to hypotension. Beta blockers can cause hypotension both by slowing the heart rate and by decreasing the pumping ability of the heart muscle.

Decreased cardiac output despite normal blood volume, due to severe congestive heart failure, large myocardial infarction, heart valve problems, or extremely low heart rate (bradycardia), often produces hypotension and can rapidly progress to cardiogenic shock. Arrhythmias often result in hypotension by this mechanism.

Excessive vasodilation, or insufficient constriction of the blood vessels (mostly arterioles), causes hypotension. This can be due to decreased sympathetic nervous system output or to increased parasympathetic activity occurring as a consequence of injury to the brain or spinal cord. Dysautonomia, an intrinsic abnormality in autonomic system functioning, can also lead to hypotension. Excessive vasodilation can also result from sepsis, acidosis, or medications, such as nitrate preparations, calcium channel blockers, or AT1 receptor antagonists (Angiotensin II acts on AT1 receptors). Many anesthetic agents and techniques, including spinal anesthesia and most inhalational agents, produce significant vasodilation.

Lower blood pressure is a side effect of certain herbal medicines, which can also interact with several medications. An example is the theobromine in Theobroma cacao, which lowers blood pressure through its actions as both a vasodilator and a diuretic, and has been used to treat high blood pressure.

Orthostatic hypotension
Orthostatic hypotension, also called postural hypotension, is a common form of low blood pressure. It occurs after a change in body position, typically when a person stands up from either a seated or lying position. It is usually transient and represents a delay in the normal compensatory ability of the autonomic nervous system. It is commonly seen in hypovolemia and as a result of various medications. In addition to blood pressure-lowering medications, many psychiatric medications, in particular antidepressants, can have this side effect. Simple blood pressure and heart rate measurements while lying, seated, and standing (with a two-minute delay in between each position change) can confirm the presence of orthostatic hypotension. Taking these measurements is known as orthostatic vitals. Orthostatic hypotension is indicated if there is a drop of 20 mmHg in systolic pressure (and a 10 mmHg drop in diastolic pressure in some facilities) and a 20 beats per minute increase in heart rate.

Vasovagal syncope
Vasovagal syncope is a form of dysautonomia characterized by an inappropriate drop in blood pressure while in the upright position. Vasovagal syncope occurs as a result of increased activity of the vagus nerve, the mainstay of the parasympathetic nervous system. Patients will feel sudden, unprovoked lightheadedness, sweating, changes in vision, and finally a loss of consciousness. Consciousness will often return rapidly once patient is lying down and the blood pressure returns to normal.

Other
Another, but rarer form, is postprandial hypotension, a drastic decline in blood pressure that occurs 30 to 75 minutes after eating substantial meals. When a great deal of blood is diverted to the intestines (a kind of "splanchnic blood pooling") to facilitate digestion and absorption, the body must increase cardiac output and peripheral vasoconstriction to maintain enough blood pressure to perfuse vital organs, such as the brain. Postprandial hypotension is believed to be caused by the autonomic nervous system not compensating appropriately, because of aging or a specific disorder.

Hypotension is a feature of Flammer syndrome, which is characterized by cold hands and feet and predisposes to normal tension glaucoma.

Hypotension can be a symptom of relative energy deficiency in sport, sometimes known as the female athlete triad, although it can also affect men.

Pathophysiology
Blood pressure is continuously regulated by the autonomic nervous system, using an elaborate network of receptors, nerves, and hormones to balance the effects of the sympathetic nervous system, which tends to raise blood pressure, and the parasympathetic nervous system, which lowers it. The vast and rapid compensation abilities of the autonomic nervous system allow normal individuals to maintain an acceptable blood pressure over a wide range of activities and in many disease states. Even small alterations in these networks can lead to hypotension.

Diagnosis
For most adults, the optimal blood pressure is at or below 120/80 mmHg. If the systolic blood pressure is <90 mmHg or the diastolic blood pressure is <60 mmHg, it would be classified as hypotension. However, occasional blood pressure readings below 90/60 mmHg are not infrequent in the general population, and, in the absence of some pathological cause, hypotension appears to be a relatively benign condition in most people. The diagnosis of hypotension is usually made by measuring blood pressure, either non-invasively with a sphygmomanometer or invasively with an arterial catheter (mostly in an intensive care setting). Another way to diagnose low blood pressure is by using the mean arterial pressure (MAP) measured using an arterial catheter or by continuous, non-invasive hemodynamic monitoring which measures intra-operative blood pressure beat-by-beat throughout surgery. A MAP <65 mmHg is considered hypotension. Intra-operative hypotension <65 mmHg can lead to an increased risk of acute kidney injury, myocardial injury or post-operative stroke. While an incidental finding of hypotension during a routine blood pressure measurement may not be particularly worrying, a substantial drop in blood pressure following standing, exercise or eating can be associated with symptoms and may have implications for future health. A drop in blood pressure after standing, termed postural or orthostatic hypotension, is defined as a decrease in supine-to-standing BP >20 mm Hg systolic or >10 mm Hg diastolic within 3 minutes of standing. Orthostatic hypotension is associated with increased risk of future cardiovascular events and mortality. Orthostatic vitals are frequently measured to assist with the diagnosis of orthostatic hypotension, and may involve the use of a tilt table test to evaluate vasovagal syncope.

Treatment
Treatment depends on what causes low blood pressure. Treatment may not be needed for asymptomatic low blood pressure. Depending on symptoms, treatment may include drinking more fluids to prevent dehydration, taking medicines to raise blood pressure, or adjusting medicines that cause low blood pressure. Adding electrolytes to a diet can relieve symptoms of mild hypotension, and a morning dose of caffeine can also be effective. Chronic hypotension rarely exists as more than a symptom. In mild cases, where the patient is still responsive, laying the person on their back and lifting the legs increases venous return, thus making more blood available to critical organs in the chest and head. The Trendelenburg position, though used historically, is no longer recommended.

Hypotensive shock treatment always follows the first four following steps. Outcomes, in terms of mortality, are directly linked to the speed that hypotension is corrected. Still-debated methods are in parentheses, as are benchmarks for evaluating progress in correcting hypotension. A study on septic shock provided the delineation of these general principles. However, since it focuses on hypotension due to infection, it is not applicable to all forms of severe hypotension.

 * 1) Volume resuscitation (usually with crystalloid or blood products)
 * 2) Blood pressure support with a vasopressor (all seem equivalent with respect to risk of death, with norepinephrine possibly better than dopamine). Trying to achieve a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of greater than 70 mmHg does not appear to result in better outcomes than trying to achieve a MAP of greater than 65 mmHg in adults.
 * 3) Ensure adequate tissue perfusion (maintain SvO2 >70 with use of blood or dobutamine)
 * 4) Address the underlying problem (i.e., antibiotic for infection, stent or CABG (coronary artery bypass graft surgery) for infarction, steroids for adrenal insufficiency, etc...)

The best way to determine if a person will benefit from fluids is by doing a passive leg raise followed by measuring the output from the heart.

Medication
Chronic hypotension sometimes requires the use of medications. Some medications that are commonly used include Fludrocortisone, Erythropoietin, and Sympathomimetics such as Midodrine and Noradrenaline and precursor (L-DOPS).
 * Fludrocortisone is the first-line therapy (in the absence of heart failure) for patients with chronic hypotension or resistant orthostatic hypotension. It works by increasing the intravascular volume.
 * Midodrine is a therapy used for severe orthostatic hypotension, and works by increasing peripheral vascular resistance.
 * Noradrenaline and its precursor L-DOPS are used for primary autonomic dysfunction by increasing vascular tone.
 * Erythropoietin is given to patients with neurogenic orthostatic hypotension and it works through increasing vascular volume and viscosity.

Pediatrics
The definition of hypotension changes in the pediatric population depending on the child's age as seen in the table below. The clinical history provided by the caretaker is the most important part in determining the cause of hypotension in pediatric patients. Symptoms for children with hypotension include increased sleepiness, not using the restroom as much (or at all), having difficulty breathing or breathing rapidly, or syncope. The treatment for hypotension in pediatric patients is similar to the treatment in adults by following the four first steps listed above (see Treatment). Children are more likely to undergo intubation during the treatment of hypotension because their oxygen levels drop more rapidly than adults. The closing of fetal shunts following birth can create instability in the "transitional circulation" of the fetus, and often creates a state of hypotension following birth; while many infants can overcome this hypotension through the closing of shunts, a mean blood pressure (MBP) of lower than 30 mmHg is correlated with severe cerebral injury and can be experienced by premature infants who have poor shunt closure.

Etymology
Hypotension, from Ancient Greek hypo-, meaning "under" or "less" + English tension, meaning "'strain" or "tightness". This refers to the under-constriction of the blood vessels and arteries which leads to low blood pressure.

title: Hypotension


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Inez and Charlie Foxx

Inez Foxx (September 9, 1937 – August 25, 2022) and her elder brother Charlie Foxx (October 23, 1933 – September 18, 1998) were an American rhythm and blues and soul duo from Greensboro, North Carolina. Inez sang lead vocal, while Charlie sang back-up and played guitar. Casey Kasem, and doubtless many others, mistakenly thought that the two were husband and wife.

Biography
Both children were born in Greensboro to John and Peggy Fox. According to published information in the North Carolina Birth Index, and the U.S. census, Charlie James Fox was born in 1933 and Inez Rebecca Fox in 1937, though subsequent publicity indicated later birth years for both siblings. They changed their professional names to Foxx with a double 'x'.

Charlie Foxx began singing with a gospel choir as a child in the early 1950s, and was later joined by his sister Inez. In 1960, Inez traveled to New York City and recorded for Brunswick Records using her then-married name Inez Johnston, but with little success. In early 1963, the pair introduced themselves to Henry 'Juggy' Murray, the owner of Sue Records, and sang him their arrangement of the traditional lullaby "Hush, Little Baby". The song, re-titled "Mockingbird," was released on Sue's subsidiary label Symbol Records in June 1963. The single reached the top 10 on both the US rhythm and blues and pop charts. It was their most successful record, selling over one million copies, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. It was later covered by artists including Aretha Franklin, James Taylor and Carly Simon, Dusty Springfield, Etta James with Taj Mahal and Toby Keith.

The record company, keen to promote Inez Foxx as a solo singer, issued later recordings under her name alone, despite the presence of two voices on the records. Perhaps because "Mockingbird" was seen as a novelty record, the pair had difficulty following it up, although "Ask Me" and "Hurt by Love" made the lower reaches of the US charts, and "Hurt by Love" also reached the UK singles chart. In 1966, the pair joined Musicor Records and recorded for its subsidiary label, Dynamo. They returned to the pop charts in 1967 with "(1-2-3-4-5-6-7) Count the Days", and became known for their exciting live performances. They toured extensively in Europe and their music played a key role in the development of the Northern soul movement, in which scene they had the very popular "Tightrope" single.

Inez Foxx married songwriter and producer Luther Dixon in the late 1960s. Together they wrote, and he produced, the Platters' mid-1960s return to hit-making with the single "I Love You 1000 Times". Luther Dixon produced Inez and Charlie's 1967 Dynamo album Come By Here, but the couple later divorced.

Inez also had some success recording on her own, beginning in 1969, but her popularity faded in the 1970s. Charlie was already working as a songwriter and record producer when they finally disbanded their act. Inez continued to record as a solo singer for Volt Records in the 1970s.

Charlie Foxx died from leukemia in 1998, at the age of 64, and was buried in Mobile, Alabama. Inez Foxx died in Los Angeles on August 25, 2022, at the age of 84 (though some sources incorrectly stated her age as 79).

Albums

 * Mockingbird (1964)
 * Come By Here (1967)
 * Greatest Hits (1968)
 * Inez & Charlie Foxx's Swinging Mockin' Band (1968) (instrumental album featuring Inez & Charlie Foxx's backing band)
 * Inez Foxx At Memphis (1973) (Inez Foxx solo album)
 * Inez & Charlie Foxx (1983)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Inez and Charlie Foxx


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Çorum

Çorum (Medieval Greek: Ευχάνεια, romanized: Euchaneia) is a northern Anatolian city in Turkey. Çorum is located inland in the central Black Sea Region of Turkey and is approximately 244 km from Ankara and 608 km from Istanbul. It is the seat of Çorum Province and of Çorum District. Its population is 269,595 (2022). The city has an elevation of 801 m above sea level.

Çorum is primarily known for its Phrygian and Hittite archaeological sites, its thermal springs, and its native roasted chickpea snacks known nationally as leblebi.

History
There is ample archaeological evidence for human presence in the area since the Paleolithic Age. The area prospered during the Bronze Age, with the emergence of the Hittite Empire between 1650 and 1200 BCE. Hattusa, the Hittite capital, was located in the region owing to its inherent geographic protection and the well-established local economy as supported by the regional Karum system.

There is a hypothesis that the Byzantine town of Euchaneia was at or near the site of the modern city, but others place Euchaneia further east, at Euchaita. In Ancient Greek sources, Çorum was known as Niconia (Nikonya), and in the Byzantine period known as Evkaite.

The settlement of Çorum proper can be traced only to the 16th century. The name is of unknown origin and is first attested in Ottoman records about a Seljuk fortress, Çorum Kalesi, described by Evliya Çelebi. In the mid-16th century, the fortress was divided into four mahalle, or quarters. From 1867 until 1922, Çorum was part of the Angora vilayet.

Çorum today
The town today is generally tidy and pleasant, with a locally popular countryside. As with most Central Anatolian and inland Black Sea towns, the population is largely conservative, leading to a generally more restricted nightlife that favors dry establishments, although there are some bars, pubs, and cafés that offer a mix of contemporary and traditional Turkish folk music. Within the city, there is a good range of shops, cafés, and restaurants, with a cuisine that includes a variety of pastries including the nationally known Çorum Mantısı - a popular dish similar to ravioli that is slowly baked in a brick oven or steamed in a beef broth. As well as the archeological and other historic sites, the countryside surrounding Çorum offers many places for picnics, particularly near the Çomar reservoir or in the mountains around the province.

The old Ottoman houses, the 19th-century clock tower, and the Çorum Museum, which displays a range of artefacts from excavations in the region, are popular tourist attractions. An International Hittite Congress of archaeologists is held in Çorum every three years.

Economy
Although the economic output of the city has historically been relatively small, with a focus on traditional crafts such as coppersmithing, tanning, hand weaving, agriculture, and animal husbandry, over the past two decades, the city has shown a significant growth in industrial production and light engineering, making it one of the most industrially advanced cities relative to its population size.

Originally home to about 20 tile and brick manufacturing facilities and 10 flour and feed mills, the city today produces a wide variety of products ranging from cement to automobile parts, refined sugar to dairy products, textiles to computer parts, and, more recently, poultry through chicken farming.

Geography
Çorum is on the northern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau. The city is on a plain surrounded by mountains. The Merzifon branch of the North Anatolian Fault passes about 25 km north of Çorum, with the main fault line passing about 60 km north.

Climate
Çorum has a warm summer continental climate (Köppen climate classification: Dfb or Trewartha climate classification: Dcb) with dry summers and cold, snowy winters. It also has mild to cool wet springs and autumns with light rain.

Highest recorded temperature: 42.6 C on 30 July 2000. Lowest recorded temperature:-27.2 C on 23 February 1985.

Twin towns – sister cities

 * Gimhae, South Gyeongsang, South Korea

Notable People's Of Çorum

 * İskilipli Atıf Hoca
 * Süleyman Özmen
 * Elif Çakır
 * Nihat Nikerel
 * Aşık Gülabi
 * Gülşen Kutlu
 * Emel Taşçıoğlu

Mayors of Çorum Province

 * 1973-1984 and 1989-1994 Turhan Kılıççıoğlu CHP, SHP
 * 1984-1989 Necdet Diken ANAP
 * 1994-2002 Arif Ersoy Refah Party, Fazilet Partisi, AK Party
 * 2002-2003 Ömer Abuhanoğlu AK Party
 * 2003-2009 Turan Atlamaz AK Party
 * 2009-2018 Muzaffer Külcü AK Party
 * 2018-2019 Zeki Gül AK Party
 * 2019-present Halil İbrahim Aşgın AK Party

title: Çorum


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American Institute of Architects

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) is a professional organization for architects in the United States. It is headquartered in Washington, D.C. AIA offers education, government advocacy, community redevelopment, and public outreach programs, and collaborates with other stakeholders in the design and construction industries.

History
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) was founded in 1857 in New York City by a group of thirteen architects. The founding members include Charles Babcock, Henry W. Cleaveland, Henry Dudley, Leopold Eidlitz, Edward Gardiner, Richard Morris Hunt, Detlef Lienau, Fred A. Petersen, Jacob Wrey Mould, John Welch, Richard M. Upjohn, and Joseph C. Wells, with Richard Upjohn serving as the first president. They held their inaugural meeting on February 23, 1857, and invited 16 additional architects to join, including Alexander Jackson Davis, Thomas U. Walter, Frederick Clarke Withers, and Calvert Vaux. There were no architectural schools or licensing laws in the United States at the time, allowing anyone to claim to be an architect.

By March 10, 1857, they had drafted a constitution and bylaws under the name New York Society of Architects. The name was later changed to the American Institute of Architects at the suggestion of Thomas U. Walter. On April 15, 1857, the members signed the new constitution, having previously filed a certificate of incorporation two days earlier. The following year, the constitution was amended to include the mission of promoting the artistic, scientific, and practical aspects of architecture, facilitating professional interaction and camaraderie, raising the profession's standing, and uniting architects for the advancement of the field.

In the 1860s, architects from other cities began joining the AIA. By the 1880s, chapters had been established in Albany, Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Philadelphia, Rhode Island, San Francisco, St. Louis, and Washington, D.C. As of 2008, the AIA boasted over 300 chapters.

In the mid-1960s, a design competition was held to select an architect for a new AIA headquarters located at 1735 New York Avenue, NW, in Washington, D.C. Mitchell Giurgola Architects won the competition but failed to gain approval from the United States Commission of Fine Arts for the design concept. Subsequently, the firm resigned from the commission, and The Architects Collaborative (TAC) was chosen to redesign the building. Led by TAC principals Norman Fletcher and Howard Elkus, the design was ultimately approved in 1970 and completed in 1973.

In 2007, on the organization's 150th anniversary, the building was officially renamed the "American Center for Architecture." It also serves as the home of the American Institute of Architecture Students, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture, and the National Architectural Accrediting Board.

Membership
The American Institute of Architects (AIA) has a membership of over 98,000 licensed architects and associated professionals. AIA members adhere to a code of ethics and professional conduct designed to demonstrate commitment to upholding the highest standards in professional practice and dedication.

AIA offers membership at five different levels:
 * 1) Architect members (AIA): These individuals are licensed to practice architecture by a recognized licensing authority in the United States.
 * 2) Associate members (Assoc. AIA): While they do not hold a license to practice architecture, associate members work under the supervision of an architect in a professional or technical capacity. They may have earned professional degrees in architecture, work as faculty members in architecture programs, or be interns earning credit toward licensure.
 * 3) International associate members: This category is for individuals who hold an architecture license or its equivalent from a licensing authority outside the United States.
 * 4) Emeritus members: These members have maintained AIA membership for 15 consecutive years and are either at least 70 years old or incapacitated and unable to work in the architecture profession.
 * 5) Allied members: Allied members are professionals whose work is related to the building and design communities. This includes engineers, landscape architects, planners, and senior executive staff from building and design-related companies, such as publishers, product manufacturers, and research firms. Allied membership represents a partnership between the AIA and the American Architectural Foundation.

Many local and state AIA chapters offer student membership categories. While there is no national AIA membership category specifically for students, they can join the American Institute of Architecture Students.

The AIA's most esteemed recognition is the Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (FAIA) designation. This honor is awarded to members who have made nationally significant contributions to the profession. Approximately 2% of all members, or slightly more than 2,600 individuals, have been elevated to the AIA College of Fellows. Prominent foreign architects may also be elected as Honorary Fellows of the AIA, gaining recognition within the college.

Structure
The AIA operates under the governance of a board of directors and maintains a staff of over 200 employees. While the AIA serves as a national organization, its reach is extended through its 217 local and state chapters. Chapters span the United States and its territories. AIA components also operate in several international locations, including the United Kingdom, Continental Europe, the Middle East, Japan, Hong Kong, Shanghai, and Canada. These chapters offer programming and direct services to support AIA members at various stages of their professional careers.

Service
AIA monitors legislative and regulatory activities and encourages its members to actively participate in decision-making processes at the federal, state, and local levels. By engaging in community-based programs, the AIA works in collaboration with federal legislators and local governments to improve the design of public spaces, protect infrastructure, and facilitate the development of affordable housing that is accessible to all Americans while ensuring high-quality design standards.

In June 2013, the American Institute of Architects unveiled the "Designing Recovery" initiative during CGI America, an annual event of the Clinton Global Initiative. This initiative involved a design contest conducted in partnership with charitable organizations such as Make It Right, SBP, and Architecture for Humanity. The contest focused on single-family housing designs aimed at enhancing the quality, diversity, and resilience of housing in each community. The portfolio of designs, including those from non-winning entries, was made available to communities recovering from natural disasters. Dow Building Solutions sponsored the contest, providing a total prize money of $30,000. The prize was equally distributed among three winning designs from New Orleans, Louisiana; Joplin, Missouri; and New York City.

Professionalism
AIA members actively contribute to their profession and communities by participating in various professional interest areas, ranging from design to regional and urban development. They also engage with professional academies that foster the generation of new ideas and responses. Local components provide support to younger professionals through programs such as the Intern Development Program, Architect Registration Exam preparation courses, and employment referral services.

The AIA organizes an annual conference held in late spring or early summer, which attracts the largest gathering of architects worldwide.

Public education
The AIA attempts to meet the needs and interests of the nation's architects and the public by raising public awareness of the value of architecture and the importance of good design. To mark the AIA's 150th anniversary and to showcase how members have helped shape the built environment, the AIA and Harris Interactive released findings from a public poll that asked Americans to name their favorite 150 works of architecture.

At the 2007 Associations Advance America Awards, two of the AIA's public outreach efforts earned the Award of Excellence: The Blueprint for America nationwide community service initiative, and the Sustainability 2030 Toolkit, a resource created to encourage mayors and community leaders to advocate environmentally friendly building design. The national competition was sponsored by the American Society of Association Executives and the Center for Association Leadership.

Honors and awards
The AIA recognizes individuals and organizations for outstanding achievements in support of the architecture profession and the AIA.

Honors Program

 * AIA Gold Medal
 * Architecture Firm Award
 * AIA/ACSA Topaz Medallion for Excellence in Architectural Education
 * AIA Whitney M Young Jr Award - given to an architect or architectural organization that embodies social responsibility and actively addresses a pressing social issue

Institute Honors
For new and restoration projects anywhere in the world:
 * Institute Honor Awards for Architecture
 * Institute Honor Awards for Interior Architecture
 * Institute Honor Awards for Regional and Urban Design
 * Twenty-five Year Award

"This award, recognizing architectural design of enduring significance, is conferred on a project that has stood the test of time for 25 to 35 years. The project must have been designed by an architect licensed in the United States at the time of the project's completion."For Professional Achievement:
 * Associates Award
 * Collaborative Achievement Award
 * Edward C. Kemper Award
 * Thomas Jefferson Awards for Public Architecture
 * Whitney M. Young Jr. Award
 * Young Architects Award
 * College of Fellows honor – Benjamin Latrobe Prize for Architectural Research
 * AIA Committee on the Environment AIA/COTE Top Ten Green Projects

Cosponsored programs

 * AIA/ALA Library Building Awards
 * AIA Housing Awards
 * AIA/HUD Secretary's Housing and Community Design Awards

Membership Honors

 * Honorary Membership (Hon. AIA)
 * Fellow of the American Institute of Architects (FAIA)
 * Honorary Fellowship (Hon. FAIA)

Presidents
The following people served as presidents, all of whom were elevated to Fellows of the American Institute of Architects:

 * Richard Upjohn 1857–1876
 * Thomas Ustick Walter 1877–1887
 * Richard Morris Hunt 1888–1891
 * Edward Hale Kendall 1892–1893
 * Daniel H. Burnham 1894–1895
 * George Browne Post 1896–1898
 * Henry Van Brunt 1899–1900
 * Robert Swain Peabody 1900–1901
 * Charles Follen McKim 1902–1903
 * William S. Eames 1904–1905
 * Frank Miles Day 1906–1907
 * Cass Gilbert 1908–1909
 * Irving Kane Pond 1910–1911
 * Walter Cook 1912–1913
 * Richard Clipston Sturgis 1913–1915
 * John Lawrence Mauran 1915–1918
 * Thomas Rogers Kimball 1918–1920
 * Henry H. Kendall 1920–1922
 * William B. Faville 1922–1924
 * Dan Everett Waid 1924–1926
 * Milton Bennett Medary 1926–1928
 * Charles Herrick Hammond 1928–1930
 * Robert D. Kohn 1930–1932
 * Ernest John Russell 1932–1935
 * Stephen F. Voorhees 1935–1937
 * Charles Donagh Maginnis 1937–1939
 * George Edwin Bergstrom 1939–1941
 * Richmond Harold Shreve 1941–1943
 * Raymond J. Ashton 1943–1945
 * James Richard Edmunds Jr. 1945–1947
 * Douglas William Orr 1947–1949
 * Ralph Thomas Walker 1949–1951
 * Glenn Stanton 1951–1953

 * Clair W. Ditchy 1953–1955
 * George Bain Cummings 1955–1956
 * Leon Chatelain Jr. 1956–1958
 * John N. Richards 1958–1960
 * Philip Will Jr. 1960–1962
 * Henry L. Wright 1962–1963
 * J. Roy Carroll Jr. 1963–1964
 * Arthur G. Odell Jr. 1964–1965
 * Morris Ketchum Jr. 1965–1966
 * Charles M. Nes Jr. 1966–1967
 * Robert L. Durham 1967–1968
 * George E. Kassabaum 1968–1969
 * Rex Whitaker Allen 1969–1970
 * Robert F. Hastings 1971
 * Max O. Urbahn 1972
 * S. Scott Ferebee Jr. 1973
 * Archibald C. Rogers 1974
 * William Marshall Jr.	 1975
 * Louis de Moll 1976
 * John McGinty 1977
 * Elmer E. Botsai 1978
 * Ehrman B. Mitchell 1979
 * Charles E. Schwing 1980
 * Robert Randall Vosbeck 1981
 * Robert M. Lawrence 1982
 * Robert C. Broshar 1983
 * George M. Notter 1984
 * R. Bruce Patty	1985
 * John A. Busby Jr. 1986
 * Donald J. Hackl 1987
 * Ted P. Pappas 1988
 * Benjamin E. Brewer Jr. 1989
 * Sylvester Damianos 1990

 * Jim Lawler 1991
 * W. Cecil Steward 1992
 * Susan A. Maxman 1993
 * L. William Chapin II	1994
 * Chester A. Widom 1995
 * Raymond Post Jr. 1996
 * Raj Barr-Kumar 1997
 * Ronald Arthur Altoon 1998
 * Michael J. Stanton 1999
 * Ronald L. Skaggs 2000
 * John D. Anderson	2001
 * Gordon H. Chong	2002
 * Thompson E. Penney 2003
 * Eugene C. Hopkins 2004
 * Douglas L. Steidl 2005
 * Katherine Lee Schwennsen	2006
 * R. K. Stewart 2007
 * Marshall Emmiett Purnell	2008
 * Marvin J. Malecha 2009
 * George H. Miller	2010
 * Clark Manus 2011
 * Jeff Potter 2012
 * Mickey Jacob 2013
 * Helene Combs Dreiling 2014
 * Elizabeth Chu Richter 2015
 * Russell A. Davidson 2016
 * Thomas Vonier 2017
 * Carl Elefante 2018
 * William J. Bates 2019
 * L. Jane Frederick 2020
 * Peter J. Exley 2021
 * Daniel S. Hart 2022
 * Emily Grandstaff-Rice 2023
 * Kimberly Dowdell 2024

title: American Institute of Architects


text:
User:Engerim~enwiki

Not much here right now.

I'm a stub, help me ;)

title: User:Engerim~enwiki


text:
Unterallgäu

Unterallgäu is a Landkreis (district) in Swabia, Bavaria, Germany. Neighboring districts are (from the north clockwise) Neu-Ulm, Günzburg, Augsburg, Ostallgäu, Oberallgäu, and the districts Ravensburg und Biberach in Baden-Württemberg. The district-free city Memmingen in the west of the district is nearly surrounded by the district. The capital of the district is Mindelheim.

Geography
The district is located in the Allgäu, the northern foothills of the Alps. The river Iller forms part of the western boundary of the district.

History
The district was created July 1, 1972 by merging the previous districts Mindelheim and Memmingen. Mindelheim is the administrative seat of the new district.

Partnerships
The district started a partnership with the Polish Gostyn County in 2001.

Coat of arms
The rose in the left of the coat of arms is the symbol of the abbey of Ottobeuren, which ruled the southern part of the district. The fleur-de-lis in the right stands for the Fugger family, who owned several estates in the district. To the bottom are the Bavarian lozenges, to symbolize that the area became part of Bavaria in 1814.

Towns and municipalities
Towns Märkte
 * 1) Bad Wörishofen
 * 2) Mindelheim
 * 1) Babenhausen
 * 2) Bad Grönenbach
 * 3) Dirlewang
 * 4) Erkheim
 * 5) Kirchheim in Schwaben
 * 6) Legau
 * 7) Markt Rettenbach
 * 8) Markt Wald
 * 9) Ottobeuren
 * 10) Pfaffenhausen
 * 11) Türkheim
 * 12) Tussenhausen

Verwaltungsgemeinschaften
 * 1) Babenhausen
 * 2) Boos
 * 3) Dirlewang
 * 4) Erkheim
 * 5) Bad Grönenbach
 * 6) Kirchheim (Schwaben)
 * 7) Memmingerberg
 * 8) Ottobeuren
 * 9) Pfaffenhausen
 * 10) Türkheim

Municipalities • # Amberg

• # Apfeltrach

• # Benningen

• # Böhen

• # Boos

• # Breitenbrunn

• # Buxheim

• # Egg an der Günz

• # Eppishausen

• # Ettringen

• # Fellheim

• # Hawangen

• # Heimertingen

• # Holzgünz

• # Kammlach

• # Kettershausen

• # Kirchhaslach

• # Kronburg

• # Lachen

• # Lauben

• # Lautrach

• # Memmingerberg

• # Niederrieden

• # Oberrieden

• # Oberschönegg

• # Pleß

• # Rammingen

• # Salgen

• # Sontheim

• # Stetten

• # Trunkelsberg

• # Ungerhausen

• # Unteregg

• # Westerheim

• # Wiedergeltingen

• # Winterrieden

• # Wolfertschwenden

• # Woringen

title: Unterallgäu


text:
Talk:List of Hindi authors

Untitled
Moved from article:

This list is now sorted, so please take care of that while adding any name to it.Also, in summary box below while editing the page, do add your name and email(if you want to), so that any questions about your entry could be redirected to you.

We endeavor to start an online encyclopedia of Hindi\Urdu authors and books. The first step to this direction will be making a list of authors.

 * Hindi_Literature_Info - Partly in English, descriptions in Hindi, formatting wonky. jengod 19:04, Mar 2, 2004 (UTC)
 * It only has names of books in Hindi.Otherwise, it is in English.I don't think it needs translation.
 * I would agree, this is "legal" as it stands, although it would be more useful with some titles translated. Also could stand some formatting (titles into italics for novels, double quotes for short stories). -- Jmabel 23:59, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * I made an errort to clean the lengthy HTML that was used instead of simpler Wiki. This needs translation to be of any use to an English speaker.  Without that translation it should find another home. - Texture 00:16, 3 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * It doesn't need translation if it's just a list of names. I've moved it from Pages needing translation into English to cleanup Angela. 07:16, Mar 29, 2004 (UTC)

Nagarjun

 * The current article on Nagarjuna and the one listed here are different personalities. The list is about Nagarjun, a Hindi writer of 20th century. I shall update the information someday.

Photographs of Hindi writers
Found a site dedicated to photographs of Hindi writer, (Ekabhishek (talk) 06:57, 24 September 2008 (UTC))

Yagyadutt Sharma,Authors
List of Hindi language authors yagyadutt Sharma:when you click on the name then you are transferred to another page with same name but different profile. it is an error. main page:Yagya Dutt Sharma born on 18 Jan 1916, received Soviet Land Nehru Award for his novel "SHILANYAS" from Mrs. Indira Gandhi in 1967. He was also awarded with UNESCO award for his well famous novel named, "Hamari Dunia". Mr. Sharma wrote almost 58 novels, 12 criticism, 2 poetry and 79 books on literature.

Transferred page:Yagya Dutt Sharma (October 21, 1922, Takhatgarh village, Ropar district, Punjab, India - July 4, 1996, New Delhi) was an Indian politician, a governor of Orissa from 1990 to 1993, and a member of fourth and sixth Lok Sabha representing Amritsar and Gurdaspur parliamentary constituencies in Punjab during 1967-70 and 1977-79. He was also a leader of Bharatiya Janata Party.An ayurvedic physician by profession, he worked to improve indigenous system of medicine and to promote the ayurvedic system of medicine. During the famines of 1943 in Bengal and Kangra-Kula valley in 1945-46, he along with a team of doctors from Punjab provided relief to the famine-stricken people.He also worked for the relief and rehabilitation of refugees in 1947 and rendered medical assistance to the sick.

These 2 Yagyadutt sharma are different people,the former was a writer and belongs to correct topic/headline- List of Hindi language authors whereas latter was a politician.please help change this error. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Itityagi (talk • contribs) 12:38, 28 July 2010 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 10 September 2015
103.229.247.117 (talk) 10:27, 10 September 2015 (UTC)
 * Red question icon with gradient background.svg Not done: it's not clear what changes you want to be made. Please mention the specific changes in a "change X to Y" format. Cannolis (talk) 10:44, 10 September 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:List of Hindi authors


text:
Alcántara

Alcántara is a municipality in the province of Cáceres, Extremadura, Spain, on the Tagus, near Portugal. The toponym is from the Arabic word al-Qanṭarah (القنطرة) meaning "the bridge".

History
Archaeological findings have attested human presence in the area from the Bronze Age; the first historical inhabitants were the Lusitanians, followed by the Celts, who came from an area between central Iberia and the Pyrenees. To this period, and to the following Roman domination, belong the remains of several castra (military camps), villas and the bridge which gives its name to the city. Roman rule lasted from the 2nd century BC to the 5th century, when they were replaced by the Visigoths.

In the 8th century, the Moors conquered the Iberian Peninsula and called it Al-Andalus, ending four centuries of Visigothic presence in what is now Spain, France, Portugal and Gibraltar. In the 12th century, the Muslim geographer al-Idrisi described the bridge as one of the wonders of the world. Alcántara was a frontier city in the 12th and 13th centuries, devoted to military activities and animal husbandry. After the collapse of the Caliphate of Córdoba, it belonged to several Islamic taifas (petty kingdoms).

Ferdinand II of León liberated Alcántara in 1167 during his wars against Portugal, but the town was later recaptured by the Almohads. The Christians conquered it permanently in 1213 with Alfonso IX of León. In 1217 it was given to the military order of Calatrava. They, however, considered it too difficult to defend, and thus the following year they were replaced by the Order of San Julian de Pereiro, a military order created in 1156 which had its headquarters on the Rio Cora and which later took its name from Alcántara, where it was established. The city maintained its strategic importance until 1655. In 1807, during the Peninsular War, it was occupied by French troops.

Alcántara lost all its importance in the 19th century when the order's properties were secularized. Its depopulation was halted only in the 1960s, when the electric company Hidroelectrica Espaňola built several plants here. However, its economy was not boosted, and the town is still part of one of the less developed areas of Spain.

The Order of Alcántara, a religious and military order, was established in the town in 1176 for defence against the Moors, and was suppressed in 1835.

In 1499, Peter of Alcántara, teacher of Theresa of Ávila, saint and Franciscan reformer, was born here.

Main sights

 * Alcántara Bridge, of six symmetrical arches, 194 m long and 71 m high, built in honour of Trajan in 103-106. An inscription gives the name of the architect of the viaduct, C. Iulius Lacer.
 * Convent of San Benito de Alcántara (16th century)
 * Church of Holy Mother of Almocobar (13th century)
 * Remains of the Moorish walls, modified and restored in the Middle Ages
 * Convent of St. Francis (15th-17th centuries)
 * Convent of the Nuns of Los Remedios, of which only the Baroque Chapel remains

title: Alcántara


text:
User talk:Ottestad

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

If you need editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. You can use the Show preview button before you save, to make sure your edits do what you intended.

You can sign your name on talk pages by using " " for your username and " ~ " for your username and a timestamp.

Some time when you're bored, you can read through our policies and guidelines. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. You can also drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 22:32, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Women in Red World Contest
Hi. We're into the last five days of the Women in Red World Contest. There's a new bonus prize of $200 worth of books of your choice to win for creating the most new women biographies between 0:00 on the 26th and 23:59 on 30th November. If you've been contributing to the contest, thank you for your support, we've produced over 2000 articles. If you haven't contributed yet, we would appreciate you taking the time to add entries to our articles achievements list by the end of the month. Thank you, and if participating, good luck with the finale!

title: User talk:Ottestad


text:
User talk:Engerim~enwiki

Hi there. Welcome to Wikipedia! Drop us a note at New user log to introduce yourself.

If you need editing help, visit How does one edit a page. For format questions, visit our manual of style. You can use the Show preview button before you save, to make sure your edits do what you intended.

You can sign your name on talk pages by using " " for your username and " ~ " for your username and a timestamp.

Some time when you're bored, you can read through our policies and guidelines. If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

If you have any other questions about the project then check out Help or add a question to the Village pump. You can also feel free to drop me a question on my talk page.

Happy editing, Isomorphic 22:33, 2 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Image replaced
Hi, I've replaced the image Image:Ce-logo.jpg, uploaded by you, with Image:CE-logo.png. The original has been listed for deletion. Hope this is OK. –Mysid 10:53, 7 December 2005 (UTC)

Possibly unfree Image:Touzot-fondateur.jpg
An image that you uploaded or altered, Image:Touzot-fondateur.jpg, has been listed at Possibly unfree images because its copyright status is disputed. If the image's copyright status cannot be verified, it may be deleted. You may find more information on the image description page. You are welcome to add comments to its entry at if you are interested in it not being deleted. Thank you. Jusjih (talk) 22:12, 23 December 2007 (UTC)

Yassin
Maybe I'm just not seeing it, but where in that source does it talk about the brand of wheelchair that Yassin used and how he said it makes him feel like a cobra? -- Avi (talk) 16:47, 2 September 2008 (UTC)

File:Tone mark comparative chart.png missing description details
Dear uploader: The media file you uploaded as File:Tone mark comparative chart.png is missing a description and/or other details on its image description page. If possible, please add this information. This will help other editors to make better use of the image, and it will be more informative for readers.

If you have any questions please see Help:Image page. Thank you. Sfan00 IMG (talk) 20:55, 5 May 2009 (UTC)

Your account will be renamed
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See the announcement for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called Engerim. To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name Engerim~enwiki that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can pick out a different name. If you think you might own all of the accounts with this name and this message is in error, please visit Special:MergeAccount to check and attach all of your accounts to prevent them from being renamed.

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours, Keegan Peterzell Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation 23:43, 19 March 2015 (UTC)

Renamed
 This account has been renamed as part of single-user login finalisation. If you own this account you can |log in using your previous username and password for more information. If you do not like this account's new name, you can choose your own using this form after logging in: . -- Keegan (WMF) (talk) 12:36, 22 April 2015 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of Touzot

The article Touzot has been proposed for deletion  because of the following concern:
 * Fails WP:V, unable to verify such a company existed

While all constructive contributions to Wikipedia are appreciated, content or articles may be deleted for any of several reasons.

You may prevent the proposed deletion by removing the notice, but please explain why in your edit summary or on |the article's talk page.

Please consider improving the article to address the issues raised. Removing will stop the proposed deletion process, but other deletion processes exist. In particular, the speedy deletion process can result in deletion without discussion, and articles for deletion allows discussion to reach consensus for deletion. Vrac (talk) 19:02, 22 August 2015 (UTC)

title: User talk:Engerim~enwiki


text:
Abraham Whipple

Commander Abraham Whipple (September 26, 1733 – May 27, 1819) was an American naval officer best known for his service in the Continental Navy during the Revolutionary War and being one of the founders of Marietta, Ohio. Born near Providence, Colony of Rhode Island, Whipple chose to be a seafarer early in his life and embarked on a career in the lucrative trade with the West Indies, working for Moses and John Brown. In the French and Indian War period, he became a privateersman and commanded privateer Game Cock from 1759 to 1760. In one six-month cruise, he captured 23 French ships.

In 1772, Whipple burnt the first British naval casualty of the American Revolution, the revenue cutter Gaspee, in the Gaspée Affair. The first to unfurl the Star Spangled Banner in London, Whipple was also the first to sail an ocean-going ship 2000 miles downriver from Ohio to the Caribbean, which opened trade with the Northwest Territory. Abraham Whipple was a member of the Society of the Cincinnati of the State of Rhode Island.

Early life
Whipple was born on September 26, 1733, to Noah Whipple Jr. Abraham Whipple and Sarah Hopkins were married on August 2, 1761. They had three children: John, Catherine, and Mary. Catherine later married Colonel Ebenezer Sproat of the Continental Army. Whipple sold enslaved people as part of his mercantile career; in November 1763, Whipple sold an enslaved woman named Deuse to Nicholas Brown & Co.

Rhode Island
As American colonists began to express their opposition to the policies of the Crown, acts of defiance became increasingly prevalent. An early incident occurred on June 9, 1772, when Whipple led 50 Rhode Islanders in the capture and burning of the British revenue cutter Gaspee. The ship had run aground off Pawtuxet while chasing the packet Hannah. The burning initiated an exchange of notes between Whipple and Captain James Wallace of HMS Rose. Wallace wrote, "You Abraham Whipple on June 10, 1772, burned his majesty's vessel the Gaspee and I will hang you at the yard arm!" Whipple responded, "Sir, always catch a man before you hang him."

Three years later, the Rhode Island General Assembly appointed Whipple commodore of two ships fitted for the defense of the colony's trade. On June 15, 1775, (the day the sea captain received his commission), Whipple led his men to capture the tender to frigate HMS Rose. After cruising in the vicinity of Narragansett Bay, he headed south to Bermuda to procure gunpowder for use by the colony. On the return voyage, Whipple transported naval recruits to Philadelphia. Upon her arrival there, his ship, Katy, was taken over by agents of the Continental Congress and was fitted out as sloop-of-war Providence.

Naval command
Whipple was commissioned a captain in the Continental Navy on December 22 and was given command of 24-gun ship Columbus. From February 17 to April 8, 1776, he commanded the ship during the first Continental Navy-Marine Corps amphibious expedition—the cruise to New Providence, in the Bahamas, to seize essential military supplies from the British garrison at Nassau.

After returning north to New England, Whipple captured five British prizes before March 27, 1778, when his ship ran aground off Point Judith, Rhode Island. After stripping the ship, the captain and his crew abandoned her and escaped capture ashore. Assigned next to command 28-gun frigate Providence, Whipple ran the British blockade on the night of April 30, 1778, damaging HMS Lark and outrunning another British ship during the escape. Tacking for France, the Providence crossed the Atlantic Ocean unmolested, bearing important dispatches relating to agreements between France and the American colonies, and reached Paimboeuf. After acquiring guns and supplies for the Continental Army, the Providence and the Boston sailed home to the colonies, taking three prizes en route.

Upon his return, Whipple received command of a small squadron—Providence, Ranger, and Queen of France. On one occasion in mid-July 1779, this group of ships encountered a large British convoy in dense fog off the Newfoundland Banks. Whipple concealed his guns and ran up the British flag. Thus disguised, Whipple cut 11 prizes out of the convoy, eight of which contained spoils of war valued together at over one million dollars (roughly 25.7 million in 2024 dollars), making the venture easily one of the richest captures of the entire war.

Whipple then cruised off Bermuda before arriving at Charleston, South Carolina. On December 23, 1779. British forces threatened Charleston, which was at the time a key Continental port. The threat led Whipple to move the guns and crews from the Continental Navy ships in port on shore to reinforce the land batteries and repulse the expected British assault.

However, after a rugged four-month siege, the overwhelming pressure of British arms forced the Continental forces to surrender on May 12, 1780. Whipple remained a prisoner of war of the British until he was paroled to Chester, Pennsylvania, at which point he took no further part in the war. Upon the conclusion of hostilities, Whipple took up farming near Cranston, Rhode Island.

Later life

For the rest of his life, he remained a farmer, with the exception of two spells of seafaring as master of merchantmen, first of the General Washington and then of the St. Clair. With the formation of the Ohio Company of Associates in 1788 and the initial westward migration into that territory, Whipple and his family became pioneers on the American frontier and were among the founders of the town of Marietta, Ohio, and the first named proprietor of Charleston, Vermont.

Granted a pension by Congress in recognition of his distinguished service in helping to win American independence, Whipple died at Marietta, Ohio, on May 27, 1819, and was buried at Mound Cemetery in Marietta. His gravestone reads:

"Sacred to the memory of Commodore Abraham Whipple whose naval skill and courage will ever remain the pride and boast of his country. In the revolution he was the first on the seas to hurl defiance at proud Britain, gallantly leading the way to wrest from the mistress of the ocean her scepter, and there to wave the star spangled banner. He also conducted to the sea the first square rigged vessel built on the Ohio, opening to commerce resources beyond calculation. Born September 26th, A.D. 1733. Died May 27th, 1819. Aged 85 years."

Several ships of the United States Navy have been named USS Whipple in his honor. There is a Whipple Street, Avenue or Court in almost every one of the 39 municipalities in the State of Rhode Island.

Fictional references

 * In The Case of Charles Dexter Ward by H.P. Lovecraft, Capt. Abraham Whipple, one of the "eminent townsmen" of Providence, Rhode Island, led the raid on Joseph Curwen's farm. He is also mentioned in "The Shunned House" as a cousin of the narrator's great-grandfather. Whipple was an indirect ancestor of Lovecraft's, through his grandfather Whipple Van Buren Phillips.

title: Abraham Whipple


text:
Katahdin (disambiguation)

Mount Katahdin is a mountain in Piscataquis County, Maine. Katahdin may also refer to:

 * Katahdin sheep, a breed of domestic sheep developed in Maine
 * Katahdin Iron Works, a Maine state historic site
 * Katahdin Woods and Waters National Monument, a National Monument adjacent to Mount Katahdin
 * USS Katahdin, two United States Navy vessels

title: Katahdin (disambiguation)


text:
Cleopas

Cleopas (Greek: Κλεόπας, romanized: Kleopas), also spelled Cleophas, was a figure of early Christianity, one of the two disciples who encountered Jesus during the Road to Emmaus appearance in.

Etymology
Some writers claim that the name Clopas in John 19:25 ("Mary of Clopas", "Κλωπᾶς") is a Hellenized form of a claimed Aramaic name "Qlopha" (קלופא), and that Cleopas' name ("Κλεόπας") is an abbreviated form of "Cleopatros" (Κλεόπατρος), a Greek name meaning "glory of the father" (best known in the feminine form Cleopatra).

Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions hold that Clopas, believed to be the brother of Saint Joseph, is the same person as Cleopas. Others consider that Clophas, Cleophas and Alphaeus are all the same name.

Account in the Gospel of Luke
Cleopas appears in as one of two disciples walking from Jerusalem to Emmaus. Cleopas is named in verse 18, while his companion remains unnamed.

This occurs three days after the crucifixion, on the same day as the Resurrection of Jesus. The two travelers have heard the tomb of Jesus was found empty earlier that day, but have not yet believed the women's testimony. They are discussing the events of the past few days when a stranger asks them what they are discussing. "Their eyes were kept from recognizing him." He rebukes them for their unbelief and offers them an interpretation of scriptural prophecies concerning the Messiah. They ask the stranger to join them for the evening meal. When he breaks the bread "their eyes were opened" and they recognize him as the resurrected Jesus. Jesus immediately vanishes.

Cleopas and his friend hasten back to Jerusalem to carry the news to the other disciples, and learn Jesus has also appeared to [one of] them. The same event is recorded in.

Apocryphal books
The Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew, which was probably written in the seventh century, states that Mary of Clopas was daughter of Clopas and Anna:

"Jesus met them, with Mary His mother, along with her sister Mary of Clopas, whom the Lord God had given to her father Clopas and her mother Anna, because they had offered Mary the mother of Jesus to the Lord. And she was called by the same name, Mary, for the consolation of her parents."

The most common interpretation is that "of Clopas" indicates the husband of Mary of Clopas and subsequently the father of her children, but some see "of Clopas" as meaning this Mary's father. Medieval tradition saw Clopas as the second husband of Saint Anne and the father of "Mary of Clopas".

Catholic and Eastern Orthodox traditions believed that Clopas is a brother of Saint Joseph, and that he is the same person with Cleophas.

Traditions
Cleopas has no further occurrence in the New Testament, but in tradition he has often been identified with Clopas, another New Testament figure mentioned in John's Gospel.

The historian, Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea, quotes the earlier chronicler, Hegesippus, who wrote, c. AD 180, that he had years before interviewed the grandsons of Jude the Apostle and learned that Clopas was the brother of Joseph, husband of the Virgin Mary: "After the martyrdom of James, it was unanimously decided that Simeon, son of Clopas, was worthy to occupy the see of Jerusalem. He was, it is said, a cousin of the Saviour." Hegesippus noted that Clopas was a brother of Joseph. Epiphanius adds that Joseph and Cleopas were brothers, sons of "Jacob, surnamed Panther".

According to the surviving fragments of the work Exposition of the Sayings of the Lord of the Apostolic Father Papias of Hierapolis, who lived c. 70–163 AD, Cleophas and Alphaeus are the same person: "Mary the wife of Cleophas or Alphaeus, who was the mother of James the bishop and apostle, and of Simon and Thaddeus, and of one Joseph". The Anglican theologian J.B. Lightfoot regarded the fragment quoted above as spurious.

Cleopas is remembered on 30 October in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on 25 September in the latest official edition of the Roman Martyrology, and on 10 November in the Coptic Orthodox Church.

The entry in the Roman Martyrology now summarizes in substance Luke's account of the Emmaus encounter with Jesus.

title: Cleopas


text:
List of roads in Ottawa

This is a list of major roads in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada:

 * Airport Parkway [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Albert Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Albion Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Alta Vista Drive [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Anderson Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Aviation Parkway [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Bank Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Bankfield Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Baseline Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Beechwood Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Blair Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Booth Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Boundary Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Bridge Street
 * Bronson Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Brookfield Road [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Cambrian Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Cameron Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|20px]]
 * Campeau Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Carling Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Carp Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Carp View Road [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Castlefrank Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Catherine Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Cedarview Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Century Road
 * Chamberlain Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Charlotte Street [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Clyde Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Colonel By Drive [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Colonial Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Conroy Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Coventry Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Corkstown Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Craig Side Road
 * Dalmeny Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Devine Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Dilworth Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Donald B. Munro Drive [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Donnelly Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Dunning Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Dunrobin Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Dwyer Hill Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Eagleson Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Earl Armstrong Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Elgin Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Fallowfield Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Fernbank Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Ferry Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Fisher Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Flewellyn Road [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Fourth Line Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Frank Kenny Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Franktown Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Galetta Side Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Gladstone Avenue [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Greenbank Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Gregoire Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Harbour Street [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Hawthorne Avenue
 * Hawthorne Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Hazeldean Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Hemlock Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Heron Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Highway 7 [[Image:Ontario 7.png|13px]]
 * Highland Road
 * Highway 174 [[Image:Sweden_road_sign_E1.svg|15px]]
 * Highway 417 [[Image:Ontario 417.png|13px]]
 * Hog's Back Road [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Holly Acres Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Hope Side Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Hunt Club Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Huntley Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Huntmar Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Industrial Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Innes Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Island Park Drive [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Jeanne d'Arc Boulevard [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Jockvale Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Katimavik Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Kent Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Kichi Zibi Mikan [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Kinburn Side Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * King Edward Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Kirkwood Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Laurier Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Lees Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Leitrim Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Lester Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Limebank Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Lyon Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Mackenzie Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Madawaska Boulevard [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Main Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Maitland Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Manotick Main Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * March Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Marvelville Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * McArthur Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * McBean Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Meadowlands Drive [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Mer Bleue Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Merivale Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Metcalfe Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Milton Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Mitch Owens Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Montreal Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Moodie Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Munster Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Murray Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Navan Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * NCC Scenic Driveway [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Nicholas Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * O'Connor Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Ogilvie Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Old Montreal Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Old Prescott Road [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Orléans Boulevard [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Osgoode Main Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Ottawa Road 29 [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Ottawa Street (Richmond) [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Palladium Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Panmure Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Parkdale Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Perth Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Pinecrest Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Preston Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Prince of Wales Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Queen Elizabeth Driveway [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * Queensway [[Image:Ontario 417.png|13px]]
 * Ramsayville Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Richmond Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Rideau Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Rideau Valley Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * River Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Riverside Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Robertson Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Rockdale Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Roger Stevens Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Russland Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Russell Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Saumure Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Sir George-Étienne Cartier Parkway [[Image:Maple leaf transparent.png|15px]]
 * St. Joseph Boulevard [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * St. Laurent Boulevard [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * St. Patrick Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Scott Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Slater Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Smith Road [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Smyth Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Snake Island Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Somerset Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Sparks Street [[Image:Sweden road sign E9.svg|15px]]
 * Stagecoach Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Strandherd Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Sussex Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Tenth Line Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Terry Fox Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Timm Drive [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Thomas A. Dolan Parkway [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Thomas Argue Road [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]]
 * Trail Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Trim Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Vanier Parkway [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Veterans Memorial Highway (416) [[Image:Ontario 416.png|13px]]
 * Victoria Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Walkley Road [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Waller Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Wellington Street [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]
 * Woodroffe Avenue [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]]

Classification
The City of Ottawa classifies its roads in one of the following categories:

 * [[Image:Sweden_road_sign_E1.svg|15px]] City freeway
 * [[Image:Sweden road sign B4.svg|15px]] Arterial road
 * [[Image:2uparrow.png|15px]] Major collector road
 * [[Image:1uparrow.png|15px]] Collector road
 * [[Image:Sweden road sign E9.svg|15px]] Local road

signifies roads under federal government jurisdiction.

A King's Highway sign indicates a provincial road. (See Highways in Ontario for more information.)

Roads without an identifying icon are of unconfirmed classification.

title: List of roads in Ottawa


text:
Mount Pinatubo

Mount Pinatubo is an active stratovolcano in the Zambales Mountains, located on the tripoint boundary of the Philippine provinces of Zambales, Tarlac and Pampanga, all in Central Luzon on the northern island of Luzon. Most people were unaware of its eruptive history before the pre-eruption volcanic activity in early 1991. Dense forests, which supported a population of several thousand indigenous Aetas, heavily eroded and obscured Pinatubo.

Pinatubo is known for its VEI-6 eruption on June 15, 1991, the second-largest terrestrial eruption of the 20th century after the 1912 eruption of Novarupta in Alaska. The eruption coincided with Typhoon Yunya making landfall in the Philippines, which brought a dangerous mix of ash and rain to nearby towns and cities. Early predictions led to the evacuation of tens of thousands of people, saving many lives. The eruption severely damaged surrounding areas with pyroclastic surges, pyroclastic falls, and later, flooding lahars caused by rainwater re-mobilizing volcanic deposits. This destruction affected infrastructure and altered river systems for years. Minor dome-forming eruptions inside the caldera continued from 1992 to 1993.

The 1991 eruption had worldwide effects. It released roughly 10 e9t or 10 km3 of magma, and 20 e6t of, bringing large amounts of minerals and toxic metals to the surface. It ejected more particulate into the stratosphere than any eruption since Krakatoa in 1883. In the following months, aerosols formed a global layer of sulfuric acid haze. Global temperatures dropped by about 0.5 C-change in the years 1991–1993, and ozone depletion temporarily increased significantly.

Geography

The volcano is about 87 km northwest of Manila, the capital of the Philippines. Near Mount Pinatubo are former military bases that were maintained by the United States. The U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay was 37 km south of Pinatubo, and the extent of Clark Air Base was just 14 km east of the volcano's summit. The volcano is near to about 6 million people.

History
Mount Pinatubo's summit before the 1991 eruption was 1745 m above sea level, only about 600 m above nearby plains, and only about 200 m higher than surrounding peaks, which largely obscured it from view. It is part of a chain of volcanoes which lie along the western side of the island of Luzon called the Zambales Mountains.

Pinatubo belongs to the Cabusilan sub-range of the Zambales Mountains, which consists of Mount Cuadrado, Mount Negron, Mount Mataba and Mount Pinatubo. They are subduction volcanoes, formed by the Eurasian Plate sliding under the Philippine Mobile Belt along the Manila Trench to the west. Mount Pinatubo and the other volcanoes on this volcanic belt arise due to magmatic occlusion from this subduction plate boundary.

Pinatubo is flanked on the west by the Zambales Ophiolite Complex, which is an easterly-dipping section of Eocene oceanic crust uplifted during the late Oligocene. The Tarlac Formation north, east and southeast of Pinatubo consists of marine, nonmarine and volcanoclastic sediments formed in the late Miocene and Pliocene.

The most recent study of Mount Pinatubo before the activities of 1991 was the overall geological study in 1983 and 1984 made by F. G. Delfin for the Philippine National Oil Company as part of the surface investigations of the area before exploratory drilling and well testing for geothermal energy sources in 1988 to 1990. He recognized two life histories of the mountain, which he classified as "ancestral" and "modern" Pinatubo.

Ancestral Pinatubo

Activity of Ancestral Pinatubo seems to have begun about 1.1 million years ago and probably ended tens of thousands of years or more before the birth of "modern" Pinatubo. Much of the rugged land around the present volcano consists of remnants of "ancestral" Pinatubo. It was an andesite and dacite stratovolcano whose eruptive activity was much less explosive than modern Pinatubo. Its center was roughly where the current volcano is. The projected height of the mountain is up to 2300 m, or 1.43 miles above sea level if it were a lone peak, based on a profile fitting to the remaining lower slopes, or lower if it had more than one peak.

The old volcano is exposed in the walls of an old 3.5 x wide caldera, referred to as Tayawan Caldera by Delfin. Some of the nearby peaks are the remnants of ancestral Pinatubo, left behind when the softer parts of the old mountain slopes were eroded by weathering. Ancestral Pinatubo is a somma volcano with modern Pinatubo as the new cone. Mount Dorst, to the east, is part of the dip slope of the ancestral Pinatubo. Several mountains near modern Pinatubo are old satellite vents of ancestral Pinatubo, forming volcanic plugs and lava domes. These satellite vents were probably active around the same time as the ancestral volcano and include the domes of Mount Negron, Mount Cuadrado, Mount Mataba and the Bituin and Tapungho plugs.

Modern Pinatubo

 * c. 79,000 BC: After a long period of dormancy, Modern Pinatubo was born in Ancestral Pinatubo's cataclysmic and most explosive eruptions, estimated to be five times larger than the June 1991 eruption. It deposited all around the volcano up to 25 km3 of pyroclastic surge material up to 100 m thick. The total volume of volcanic material ejected during the eruptions is unknown. The removal of so much material from the underlying magma chamber resulted in the Tayawan caldera. The violent eruptive period started by the eruption is referred to by Delfin as the Inararo Eruptive Period, named after a village that was destroyed in the 1991 eruption.

Later eruptions of modern Pinatubo occurred episodically and lasted for periods much shorter than the repose intervals between them. Subsequent eruptions and eruptive period occurred about:
 * c. 15,000 BC (Sacobia Eruptive Period)
 * c. 7000 BC (Pasbul Eruptive Period). Its eruptions were as energetic, if not as voluminous as the Inararo eruptions.
 * c. 4000–3000 BC (Crow Valley Eruptive Period). This and the Mara-unot period's eruptions were smaller than the Inararo eruptions but about two to three times as big as that of 1991 based on the pyroclastic flow runout distances and depths of valley filling.
 * c. 1900–300 BC (Maraunot Eruptive Period)
 * c. AD 1500 (Buag Eruptive Period). Its eruptions were roughly the same size as those of 1991.

Each of these eruptions seems to have been very large, ejecting more than 10 km3 of material and covering large parts of the surrounding areas with pyroclastic flow deposits. Some eruptive periods have lasted decades and perhaps as much as several centuries and might appear to include multiple large explosive eruptions.

The maximum size of eruptions in each eruptive period though has been getting smaller through the more than 35,000-year history of modern Pinatubo, but this might be an artifact of erosion and burial of older deposits. The oldest eruption of modern Pinatubo, Inararo, was also its largest.

The 1991 eruption was among the smallest documented in its geologic record.

The volcano has never grown very large between eruptions, because it produces mostly unwelded, easily erodible deposits and periodically destroys the viscous domes that fill its vents. After the Buag eruption (c. 1500 AD), the volcano lay dormant, its slopes becoming completely covered in dense rainforest and eroded into gullies and ravines. The c. 500-year repose though between the Buag and present eruptive periods is among the shorter repose periods recognized in its geologic history.

1991 eruption
A small blast at 03:41 PST on June 12 marked the beginning of a new, more violent phase of the eruption. A few hours later the same day, massive blasts lasting about half an hour generated big eruption columns, which quickly reached heights of over 19 km and which generated large pyroclastic surges extending up to 4 km from the summit in some river valleys. Fourteen hours later, a 15-minute blast hurled volcanic matter to heights of 24 km. Friction in the up-rushing ash column generated abundant volcanic lightning.

In March and April 1991, magma rising toward the surface from more than 32 km beneath Pinatubo triggered small volcano tectonic earthquakes and caused powerful steam explosions that blasted three craters on the north flank of the volcano. Thousands of small earthquakes occurred beneath Pinatubo through April, May and early June and many thousand of tons of noxious sulfur dioxide gas were also emitted by the volcano.

From June 7 to 12, the first magma reached the surface of Mount Pinatubo. Because it had lost most of the gas contained in it on the way to the surface, the magma oozed out to form a lava dome but did not cause an explosive eruption. However, on June 12, millions of cubic yards of gas-charged magma reached the surface and exploded in the reawakening volcano's first spectacular eruption.

When even more highly gas-charged magma reached Pinatubo's surface on June 15, the volcano exploded in a cataclysmic eruption that ejected more than 5 km3 of material. The ash cloud from this climactic eruption rose 35 km into the atmosphere. At lower altitudes, the volcanic ash was blown in all directions by the intense cyclonic winds of a coincidentally occurring typhoon, and winds at higher altitudes blew the ash southwestward. A blanket of ash and larger pumice lapilli blanketed the countryside. Fine ash fell as far away as the Indian Ocean and satellites tracked the ash cloud several times around the globe.

Huge pyroclastic flows roared down the flanks of Mount Pinatubo, filling once-deep valleys with fresh volcanic deposits as much as 200 m thick. The eruption removed so much magma and rock from below the volcano that the summit collapsed to form a 2.5 km wide caldera.

Following the climactic eruption of June 15, 1991, activity at the volcano continued at a much lower level, with continuous ash eruptions lasting until August 1991 and episodic eruptions continuing for another month.

Later eruptions

Activity at the volcano remained low until July 1992 when a new lava dome started growing in the caldera. Volcanologists suspected that further violent eruptions could be possible, and some areas were evacuated. However, the eruption was only minor. The last eruption of Mount Pinatubo took place in 1993.

Lake Pinatubo
The 1991 caldera afterwards filled with water from annual monsoon rains and a crater lake, Lake Pinatubo, was formed. In 1992, a growing lava dome formed an island, which was eventually submerged by the lake. Initially, the lake was hot and highly acidic, with a minimum pH of 2 and a temperature of about 40 C. Subsequent rainfall cooled and diluted the lake, lowering the temperature to 26 C and raising the pH to 5.5 by 2003.

The lake deepened by about 1 m per month on average, eventually submerging the lava dome, until September 2001, when fears that the walls of the crater might be unstable prompted the Philippine government to order a controlled draining of the lake. An estimated 9,000 people were once again evacuated from surrounding areas in case a large flood was accidentally triggered. Workers cut a 5 m notch in the crater rim and drained about a quarter of the lake's volume.

Recent activity

On July 10, 2002, the west wall of the crater collapsed, slowly releasing approximately 160 e6m3 of water and sediment into the Maraunot River in Botolan, Zambales.

On July 26, 2011, a 5.9 magnitude earthquake struck close to Pinatubo; however, no major damages or casualties were reported.

On March 4, 2021, the PHIVOLCS raised alert level 1 over Mount Pinatubo after reporting an increase on its seismic activity. 1,722 volcanic earthquakes were also recorded within the vicinity of the volcano since January 2021.

On August 11, 2021, PHIVOLCS downgraded Mt. Pinatubo's Alert Level 1 to Level 0, due to "continued decrease in earthquake activity and a return to baseline seismic parameters".

PHIVOLCS said it noted a "significant decrease" in volcanic earthquakes, with a total of 104 quakes or an average 2 - 3 events per day recorded from July 1 - August 1, 2021.

On November 30, 2021, PHIVOLCS reported a weak explosion occurred on Mt. Pinatubo between 12:09 p.m. and 12:13 p.m., which produced a plume. The agency later confirmed it was a phreatic explosion produced by hydrothermal fluids near the surface, rather than a magmatic eruption.

Cultural history
The word pinatubo could mean "fertile place where one can make crops grow", or could mean "made to grow", in Sambal and Tagalog, which may suggest a knowledge of its previous eruption in about 1500 AD. There is a local oral tradition suggestive of a folk memory of earlier large eruptions. An ancient legend tells of Bacobaco, a terrible spirit of the sea, who could metamorphose into a huge turtle and throw fire from his mouth. In the legend, when being chased by the spirit hunters, Bacobaco flees to the mountain and digs a great hole in its summit showering the surrounding land with rock, mud, dust and fire for three days; howling so loudly that the earth shakes.

History among Aetas
Aeta elders tell many stories about the history of the mountain, the best known being that it was once a Batung Mabye (Kapampangan language for "living stone"). It was said to have been planted on a kingdom by a displeased sorcerer but relocated by a hero. The mountain was soon turned into the abode of Apo Namalyari ("The lord of happenings/events"), the pagan deity of the Sambal, Aetas and Kapampangans living on the Zambales range.

It was said to comprise the whole mountain range until Sinukuan of Mount Arayat (the god of the Kapampangans) became a strong rival of Namalyari. Their fight, which took place over the center plains, shattered the mountain into smaller bodies and Mount Arayat lost its center peak. Other versions have it that Pinatubo's peak shattered because of Namalyari's immense fury in an attempt to teach humans the meaning of fear and show how misdeeds will be punished.

According to the native elders, Apo Namalyari induced the June 1991 eruption because of displeasure toward illegal loggers and Philippine National Oil Company executives who performed deep exploratory drilling and well testing on the volcano looking for geothermal heat from 1988 to 1990. Discouraging results from the wells forced the abandonment of the prospect 13 months before the April 2, 1991 explosions.

Aetas granted ownership of Pinatubo
After being driven away by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo, in May 2009 some 454 Aeta families in Pampanga were given the first clean ancestral land ownership on Mount Pinatubo with the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) by the National Commission on Indigenous Peoples (NCIP), the government agency that deals with issues concerning indigenous people of the Philippines. The approved and declared net land area of 7,440.1 ha covers the barangays of Mawakat and Nabuklod in Floridablanca, Pampanga, plus a portion of San Marcelino, Zambales, and a portion of Barangay Batiawan in Subic, Zambales.

On January 14, 2010, some 7,000 Aeta families from Zambales were officially granted the Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title (CADT) covering the Zambales side of Pinatubo which includes the summit and Lake Pinatubo, officially becoming their lutan tua (ancestral land). The ancestral domain title covers 15984 ha and includes the villages of Burgos, Villar, Moraza and Belbel in Botolan and portions of the towns of Cabangan, San Felipe and San Marcelino.

Ancestral domain titles are awarded to a certain community or indigenous group who have occupied or possessed the land continuously in accordance with their customs and traditions since time immemorial. They have the legal right to collectively possess and to enjoy the land and its natural resources to the exclusion of others. Having the land title will protect them from others – including foreigners – exploiting their land without compensation to and consent from the indigenous tribes. In the past, the Aetas had to contend with mining companies, loggers, and recently, tourist companies who earn from Mount Pinatubo but do not compensate the local tribes.

In popular culture
Long before Mount Pinatubo became famous for its cataclysmic eruption, Philippine president Ramon Magsaysay, a native of Zambales, named his C-47 presidential plane Mt. Pinatubo. The plane crashed into Mount Manunggal in Cebu province in 1957, killing the president and twenty-four others on board.

The shape of Mount Pinatubo's caldera inspired New Clark City Athletics Stadium in Capas, Tarlac.

Hiking activity
The caldera formed and Lake Pinatubo has, since June 15, 1991, become a tourist attraction with the preferred route through Barangay Santa Juliana in Capas, Tarlac.

title: Mount Pinatubo


text:
Bona Drag

Bona Drag is a compilation album by Morrissey released on 15 October 1990. The album features an array of Morrissey's most popular songs from his early solo career, most of which had not been released on any previous album. The album name meaning nice outfits is an example of the subculture slang Polari explored further on the album's first track "Piccadilly Palare". The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on 6 December 2000. In 2010, the album was remastered and expanded to include six bonus tracks.

Background
After releasing Viva Hate in March 1988, Morrissey modified his method of releasing music. Instead of choosing to produce an immediate follow-up album, he decided to release a string of independent singles in the hopes of achieving success in that market. Morrissey initially planned to release a second album after releasing a few holdover singles.

As such, he released "The Last of the Famous International Playboys", "Interesting Drug", and "Ouija Board, Ouija Board" over the course of 1989. The first two of these became top ten hits. However, by the end of 1989 it became apparent that he would not be able to put out an album of new material soon enough.

Morrissey decided to scrap the idea of a full-length LP and release a compilation of singles and B-sides instead. Thus, the Bona Drag project was born. "November Spawned a Monster" was released in May 1990 to modest success; the album and the single "Piccadilly Palare" followed, both released on the same day that October. Morrissey explained, "People will view it suspiciously in England but not in the rest of the world where all those funny little singles were never released. It was initially for the rest of the world, but EMI were determined to release it here."

Composition
Bona Drag features all of Morrissey's solo singles up to that point, two of which ("Suedehead" and "Everyday Is Like Sunday") were taken from his first solo album Viva Hate, while the others were making their first ever appearance on an album. Four of these singles were Top Ten hits. The album also includes several B-sides, none of which had appeared on an album before.

The album is also significant for including the first tracks by Morrissey to chart in the United States. "Piccadilly Palare" and "Ouija Board, Ouija Board" both reached number 2 on the Modern Rock chart. "The Last of the Famous International Playboys" went to number 3, "November Spawned a Monster", number 6, and "Interesting Drug", number 11. Bona Drag launched Morrissey's career in the US, and in many ways it marked the turning point after which he became less popular in the UK but achieved increasing success in America.

The album sleeve is taken from Morrissey's "November Spawned a Monster" promotion video. Morrissey's jacket colour was altered from black to red.

20th anniversary reissue
In October 2010, the album was reissued on the resurrected Major Minor label, with six officially unreleased studio recordings. The artwork was edited and inner artwork updated with previously unseen photos chosen by Morrissey. It entered the UK charts at number 67. The reissue notably included several edits, including removing a verse from 'Ouija Board Ouija Board' and restoring a previously cut verse to 'Piccadilly Palare'.

Track listing
All songs by Morrissey and Street, except where noted.

2010 re-release
The 2010 re-release features the following additional tracks: The following changes have been made to the original album:
 * "Happy Lovers at Last United" (Outtake from "Everyday Is Like Sunday" sessions)
 * "Lifeguard on Duty" (Outtake from Viva Hate sessions)
 * "Please Help the Cause Against Loneliness" (demo) (Outtake from Viva Hate, previously covered by Sandie Shaw)
 * "Oh Phoney" (Outtake from Bona Drag sessions) (Morrissey, Armstrong)
 * "The Bed Took Fire" (early version of "At Amber")
 * "Let the Right One Slip In" (alternate long mix) (Morrissey, Alain Whyte)
 * "Ouija Board, Ouija Board" has a verse removed ("The glass is moving, no, I was not pushing that time")
 * "Piccadilly Palare" has an extra verse, as has circulated on bootlegs ("A cold-water room")
 * "Interesting Drug" fades into "November Spawned a Monster"
 * "Suedehead" edited to remove guitar fade on the intro.

Personnel

 * Morrissey – vocals
 * Kevin Armstrong (Tracks A1, A3, A7, B3-4), Craig Gannon (Track A2, A5-6, B5), Neil Taylor (A2, A5-6, B5), Vini Reilly (Tracks A4, B1-2, B6-7) – guitar
 * Andy Rourke (Tracks A1-3, A5-6, B3, B5), Stephen Street (Tracks A4, B1-2, B6-7) Matthew Seligman (Tracks A7, B4) – bass
 * Andrew Paresi (Tracks A1, A3-4, A7, B1-4, B6-7), Mike Joyce (A2, A5-6, B5) – drums
 * Stephen Street (Tracks A2, A5-6, B5) – keyboards
 * Vini Reilly (Tracks A4, B1-2, B6-7) – piano

Guest musicians

 * Graham "Suggs" McPherson – additional vocals on "Piccadilly Palare"
 * Kirsty MacColl – backing vocals on "Interesting Drug"
 * Mary Margaret O'Hara – additional voice on "November Spawned a Monster"

Production

 * Stephen Street – producer
 * Clive Langer – producer
 * Alan Winstanley – producer

title: Bona Drag