text:
Iraqi Airways Flight 163

Iraqi Airways Flight 163 was a Boeing 737-270C, registered YI-AGJ, that was hijacked in 1986. On 25 December 1986, en route from Baghdad's Saddam International Airport to Amman, Jordan, Flight 163 was hijacked by four men. Iraqi Airways security personnel tried to stop the hijackers, but a hand grenade was detonated in the passenger cabin, forcing the crew to initiate an emergency descent. Another hand grenade exploded in the cockpit, causing the aircraft to crash near Arar, Saudi Arabia where it broke in two and caught fire.

There were 106 people on board, and 60 passengers and 3 crew members died. The pilots who survived, and the surviving passengers were able to tell authorities what transpired on the aircraft. The hijacking was one of the deadliest ever, and was one of many in 1985 and 1986.

Shortly after the hijacking, the pro-Iranian group Islamic Jihad Organization (a widely used name for Hezbollah) claimed responsibility. One of the dead hijackers was later identified by the Central Intelligence Agency as a Lebanese national named Ribal Khalil Jallul, whose passport photo was matched to a Hezbollah martyr poster found near a mosque in Beirut. Iraq accused Iran of being behind the attack. Iraqi Airways has not retired flight number 163 as of 37 years later; in 2023. The number is still used on the same route (Baghdad to Amman).

title: Iraqi Airways Flight 163


text:
Fox River (Green Bay tributary)

The Fox River is a river in eastern Wisconsin in the Great Lakes region of the United States. It is the principal tributary of Green Bay, and via the Bay, the largest tributary of Lake Michigan. The city of Green Bay, one of the first European settlements in the interior of North America, is on the river at its mouth on lower Green Bay.

Hydrographers divide the Fox into two distinct sections, the Upper Fox River, flowing from its headwaters in south-central Wisconsin northeasterly into Lake Winnebago, and the Lower Fox River, flowing from Lake Winnebago northeasterly to lower Green Bay. Together, the two sections give the Fox River a length of 182 mi. Counting the distance through Lake Winnebago gives a total of 200 mi.

The Fox River (Green Bay tributary) should not be confused with the Fox River (Illinois River tributary) which also flows through Wisconsin having its origin starting at a point approximately 10 miles northwest of Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin, and flowing through the cities of Waukesha, Mukwonago and Burlington, before flowing out of Wisconsin into Illinois. The Fox River (Illinois tributary) is the longer of the two rivers flowing from southeast Wisconsin and terminating in Ottawa, Illinois where it joins the Illinois River, for an estimated journey of 202 miles (325 km).

The river's name is the English translation of the French name for the Meskwaki people in the 17th century. The river was part of the famous 1673–74 expedition of Jolliet and Marquette, in which they went on to become the first Europeans to traverse the upper Mississippi River. A particular set of cities on the lower Fox River identify themselves as the "Fox Cities".

Course
The Upper Fox River begins as a small stream northeast of Pardeeville. It flows west by southwest towards Portage and comes within 2 mi of the Wisconsin River before turning north. However, the Fox River and the Wisconsin River are connected via the Portage Canal, which was the first waterway between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River. After flowing past Montello, the river goes northeast until reaching Lake Butte des Morts. Here it is joined by the tributary Wolf River before entering the west side of Lake Winnebago at Oshkosh. The Upper Fox flows for a total of 142 mi.

The Lower Fox begins at the north end of Lake Winnebago, where it flows north past Neenah, Menasha, and Appleton as it begins its 40 mi course northeast towards Lake Michigan. The river drops around 164 ft over this short stretch. Prior to the construction of European-style dams after 1850, the river had many sizable rapids. The Lower Fox ends after flowing through the city of Green Bay and into Lake Michigan through Green Bay. The Fox River complex is one of only a few north-flowing river systems in North America east of the Mississippi River; the only other one is the Genesee River of Upstate New York and Pennsylvania.

Hydrology
Altogether, the Fox-Wolf watershed drains an area of about 6429 sqmi. The Fox had an average annual discharge of 5,200 ft3/s (150 m3/s) into Green Bay. The highest recorded flow on the Fox near its mouth was 33,800 ft3/s (957 m3/s) on June 3, 1990.

Tributaries of the Fox River include East River, Fond du Lac River, Wolf River, White River, Mecan River, Grand River, and Montello River.

Name
The name is the translation of Rivière aux Renards (French for River of the Foxes), given by explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette because it went through the territory of the Meskwaki people, called Renards in French. In the Menominee language, the river is known as Meskwahkīw-Sīpiah, which means "Red Earth River". In the Ho-Chunk language (Winnebago, Hoocąk, Hocąk), Fox River is known as Nionigera. According to a member of the party of La Salle, it was also called the Kakaling River.

Demographics
Along the banks is a chain of cities and villages, including Oshkosh, Neenah, Menasha, Appleton, Little Chute, Kimberly, Combined Locks, and Kaukauna. Except for Oshkosh, located on the Upper Fox River near Lake Winnebago, these cities and villages identify as the Fox Cities. Farther north along the Lower Fox River, from its outlet from Lake Winnebago and before its mouth at Lake Michigan, are the cities of De Pere and Green Bay (located at the lake), and the villages of Ashwaubenon and Allouez; although they are in the Fox River Valley, this grouping of cities and villages does not refer to themselves as Fox Cities.

History
Since the recession of the glaciers that once covered much of Wisconsin, the Fox River has supported several Native American cultures, and has been important for its fisheries, waterfowl, wild rice, forests, and water. Archaeologists have claimed that indigenous peoples lived in the Fox River area as early as 7000 BC.

Prior to European settlement in the late 17th century, the shores of the Fox River and Green Bay were home to roughly half the estimated 25,000 Native Americans who lived in what is today Wisconsin. The first Europeans to reach the Fox were French, beginning with explorer Jean Nicolet in 1634. In 1673 explorers Jacques Marquette and Louis Joliet canoed up the river as far as Portage. Here they made the short portage from the Fox to the Wisconsin River and then canoed on toward the Mississippi River. They established an important water route between the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River known as the Fox–Wisconsin Waterway. It was likely long used by Native Americans prior to European encounter, as they had extensive cross-country trading routes related to the Mississippi River.

During the French colonization of the Americas, this route was used frequently by fur traders. French-Canadian men who established homes on the Fox River married First Nation women, producing mixed-race descendants who were generally raised within the matrilineal cultures of their mothers and identified with the tribes. In Canada, the Metis of the Red River of the North are classified as a distinct ethnicity because of their shared culture.

Industrial Revolution
The Fox-Wisconsin Waterway's importance continued into the 1850s, when the Fox and Wisconsin Improvement Company built locks and dams on the Fox and the Portage Canal to connect it to the Wisconsin River at Portage. The company was hoping to establish Green Bay as a port city to rival Chicago by making the Fox-Wisconsin Waterway into the principal shipping route between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi River. This goal was never achieved, as the Upper Fox remained too shallow for significant shipping even after damming and dredging. In addition, the lakes that the narrow, winding stream flows through were frozen solid for five months every year.

The Lower Fox was developed instead as a center of riverfront industry. During the mid-19th century, when Wisconsin was a leading producer of wheat, several flour mills were built along the river to harness its abundant water power. During the 1860s, as Wisconsin's wheat production declined, these flour mills were replaced by a growing number of paper mills, which processed the great amount of timber being harvested from the forests. The Lower Fox proved an ideal location for paper production, owing to its proximity to lumbering areas that could supply wood pulp to make paper. Several well-known paper companies were founded in cities along the river, including Kimberly-Clark, Northern Paper Mills (makers of Quilted Northern), and the Hoberg Paper Company (manufacturer of Charmin).

The Volcan Street Plant on the Fox river in Appleton was the first Edison hydroelectric station and one of the first in the world. It was put into service in 1882 within the building of the Appleton Paper and Pulp Company.

Paper industry
The Lower Fox remains a major area for paper production. There are 24 paper and pulp mills along the Lower Fox River that produce more than five million tons of paper per year and employ around 50,000 people. The principal cities located in this valley are Green Bay, Appleton, Neenah, Menasha, De Pere, and Kaukauna. Although Oshkosh is a major city in the chain, active production of paper products is no longer located there.

Environmental issues
In the section between Lake Winnebago and Green Bay at Lake Michigan, the Fox River flows roughly south to north and descends through a height equal to that of Niagara Falls. As such, the Fox River was an ideal location for constructing powerful sawmills that made the Fox River area famous for its paper industry. A negative side effect of this industrialization was the dumping of hazardous material byproducts of the paper mills. To repair the ecological damage from this toxic waste, there has been a widespread effort to clean the Fox River. Dredging of the chemicals in the river began on April 28, 2009 and capping started soon after during the summer of 2009. The cleaning project concluded in 2020 and cost an estimated $1 billion. The Fox River will continue to be monitored by the Environmental Protection Agency and Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources for many years following the cleaning project's completion.

The high concentration of paper mills and other industry along the Lower Fox has historically been the source of much pollution of the river. Public debate about this contamination began as early as 1923, but little was done to improve the river until the federal Clean Water Act was passed in 1972. Much effort has since been put into cleaning the Fox, but problems still exist. According to some measures of pollution (e.g. dissolved oxygen, pollution-tolerant worm counts), the Lower Fox River is much cleaner than it was before 1972. However, according to other measures of pollution (e.g., phosphorus, estrogenic compounds, discarded pharmaceuticals), the river waters are slightly more contaminated than before 1972. As a result, debate over the river's contamination continues between environmentalists, the paper industry, Indian tribes, and elected officials at the federal, state, and local levels.

While not officially designated as a U.S. Superfund site, the Lower Fox River bottom has some sections contaminated with toxic chemicals. These contaminated sediments are the river's current environmental problem. One contaminant of special concern is a group of chemicals called Polychlorinated biphenyls or PCBs. The largest deposits of contaminated sediments are traceable to the local paper recycling mills. Beginning in the 1950s, many mills along to Fox River began producing and recycling carbonless copy paper. The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources explains that carbonless copy paper caused PCB pollution in the Fox River and Lake Michigan. The federal government banned PCBs in 1979 due to their environmental threat to humans and other wildlife.

The U.S. government and State of Wisconsin filed suit on October 14, 2010, against nine paper companies and two municipalities for their failure to pay for PCB cleanup actions. The companies named in the suit were NCR Corporation, Appleton Papers, CBC Coating, Kimberly-Clark, Menasha Corporation, NewPage Corporation, Glatfelter, U.S. Paper Mills (Sonoco) and WTM (Wisconsin Tissue Mills). The local agencies sued were the City of Appleton and Neenah-Menasha Sewerage Commission. Several settlements ensured that the responsible parties paid for a large sum of the cleaning project costs and other restoration efforts. A settlement, reached in 2019, required that NCR Corporation, P.H. Glatfelter Company, and Georgia-Pacific Consumer Products LP cover the cost of all future cleaning efforts.

Since the late 19th century, dredging of river bottom sediments has been done to allow large ships to enter the Fox River. The contaminated sediment has been used since the 1960s to fill local wetlands, causing adverse effects on wildlife and plants. After 1978 it was used to develop an off-shore engineered holding area called Renard Isle, also known as Kidney Island. Renard Isle was capped in 2015 and its ownership was transferred to Brown County in 2017. There have been several proposed plans for the land, including turning it into a National Estuarine Research Reserve.

Among the wildlife in the Fox River Valley are birds such as mallard ducks and Canada geese, and fish such as walleye.

Before the 1950s parts of the Fox River were used for recreational purposes. This only lasted for a short period of time as the water quality deteriorated, and the water was considered unhealthy.

The Fox River region has been dominated by dairy farms that benefited from the rich soil and plentiful water supply.

Recreation
The 25 mi Fox River State Recreational Trail is part of the Brown County Park System. The trailhead is in the city of Green Bay where 7 mi of paved trail follow the Fox River south through the city of De Pere. Biking, walking, jogging, and rollerblading are among the most popular activities on the trail. The trail also has a section of unpaved terrain that permits horseback riding.

The Wiouwash State Trail runs concurrent with the Fox River from downtown Oshkosh to Lake Butte des Morts for about 4 mi.

Fishing
Fishing was a huge aspect of life on the water as many fisheries were set up along the river. This remained large for a short period of time but also was soon limited by water pollution and the depleted amount of fish. Restrictions were placed on how many and what kind of fish could be caught.

The Fox River has produced multiple state records in fishing. Currently the records for Striped bass, Shortnose gar and Northern hogsucker have all been caught in the river.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fox River (Green Bay tributary)


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Angie Martinez

Angela Martinez (born January 9, 1971) is an American-Puerto Rican radio personality, podcaster, former rapper, and actress. Nicknamed "The Voice of New York", she was prominently known for her 28-year run at New York City station Hot 97 (WQHT). She left the station in 2014 to join crosstown competitor Power 105.1 (WWPR).

As a rapper, she received attention for her appearance on the remix for Lil' Kim's "Not Tonight". She later released two albums, Up Close and Personal (2001) and Animal House (2002), before retiring in 2003 to pursue her radio and entrepreneurial careers.

Early life
Martinez was born on January 9, 1971, in Brooklyn, a borough of New York City. Her father is Puerto Rican and her mother is of Puerto Rican, Cuban and Dominican descent. She was raised by her single mother in Brooklyn as well as Washington Heights. As a teenager, she would often drink with her friends, smoke marijuana, and listen to music. She was often absent from school. As such, her mother decided to move her to Miami to live with her aunt. Her mother later moved as well where she became the programming manager for radio station WPOW. Martinez later gained an internship at the station.

Radio career
Martinez got her first break in FM broadcasting in 1986, at the age of 15, answering hotlines at the urban radio station WQHT, known publicly as Hot 97. While there, she met popular DJ Funkmaster Flex, and began working as his protégé. Martinez quickly picked up on the craft of running a successful radio program. She hosted the Afternoon Drive weekdays, alongside fellow comrade DJ Enuff, where she interviewed the biggest names in music such as Jay-Z, DMX, and Mariah Carey. During her tenure, she worked alongside Wendy Williams, with whom she reportedly clashed with. She resigned from Hot 97 on June 18, 2014, but confirmed that she was on good terms with former comrades Ebro Darden, Funkmaster Flex and Cipha Sounds. Shortly thereafter, it was announced that she had signed on with Hot 97's main New York radio competitor, Power 105.1 (WWPR-FM) on June 19, 2014.

In November 2014, Martinez was signed to a management deal with Jay-Z's Roc Nation.

Martinez won the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB) Marconi Radio Award for "Major Market Personality of the Year" in 2018, and was inducted into the Radio Hall of Fame in 2020.

Music career
In 1996, Martinez was encouraged to give rapping a shot by friend KRS-One. She appeared on his track, "Heartbeat", from his 1997 album I Got Next. After the song gained a strong fan following, another friend, Lil' Kim, offered her a spot on the "Ladies Night" remix of her song, "Not Tonight" for the soundtrack to the action buddy comedy-drama film, Nothing to Lose. Along with Missy Elliott, Lisa "Left Eye" Lopes and Da Brat, the performers enjoyed one of the most successful singles of 1997. It peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number six, reached number three on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs and number two on the Hot Rap Songs charts respectively. The single sold over one million copies and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America that November. All four artists were invited to perform the song live at the MTV Video Music Awards. The song was also nominated for a 40th Annual Grammy Award for Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group in 1998.

A major label battle began to sign Martinez to a recording contract. Her appearance on other rapper's material was in high demand. She recorded songs with yet another close friend, singer Mary J. Blige ("Christmas in the City"), as well as Cuban Link ("Freak Out"), N.O.R.E. ("Oh No" remix), Beenie Man ("Tell Me" remix) and Funkmaster Flex & Big Kap's compilation album The Tunnel ("Wow"). She also recorded interludes for mixtapes by Kid Capri, DJ Clue and DJ Kayslay. In 2001, she appeared in the music video for Jay-Z and R. Kelly's single, "Guilty Until Proven Innocent".

On April 17, 2001, she released her debut studio album, Up Close and Personal. The album included production by Salaam Remi, Knobody, Rockwilder and the Neptunes, as well as featured guest appearances by Jay-Z, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige, Wyclef Jean, Busta Rhymes, The Lox, Fat Joe, Prodigy and Kool G. Rap among others. The first single, "Dem Thangz" was produced by the Neptunes, and featured background vocals by Neptunes member Pharrell Williams and former Tribe Called Quest rapper Q-Tip. The album debuted at number thirty-two on the Billboard 200, and number seven on the Billboard Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart, selling 69,000 its first week. The second single, "Coast 2 Coast (Suavamente)" featuring rapper Wyclef Jean, re-sparked interest in the album. She promoted the album with magazine posters, in-store signings, club appearances and television appearances with MTV and BET.

Following her first album's release, Martinez began work on a second record, 2002's Animal House. In order to build anticipation for the record, she appeared on BET's Rap City and began a nationwide radio tour. She recorded a verse for the remix to her artist Sacario record "Live Big". It became the number one record in the tri-state area and coincidentally coincided with the release of Martinez's first single from her second album, "If I Could Go" which also featured Sacario and singer Lil' Mo. "If I Could Go" became a huge crossover hit on pop radio, climbing into the top twenty of the Billboard Hot 100 at number fifteen. It became the most-played song on urban radio in the summer of 2002. Martinez's sophomore studio album, Animal House (named after Martinez's own production company and recording posse), was released on August 21, 2002. It entered the Billboard 200 at number eleven, and the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart at number six, selling 92,000 units in its first week. The follow-up single, "Take You Home" featuring R&B singer Kelis, became a minor hit reaching the bottom end of the Billboard Hot 100. Despite its moderate commercial performance, the album was more strongly received by critics and fans. Following the release of the album, she was featured on a remix for former Elektra Records labelmate Lil' Mo's track, "Gangsta ", and Nina Sky's single "Time to Go". Following this, in 2003, she announced she was retiring from the recording industry to concentrate on her time as a radio personality and other ventures.

She appeared in the music video for Ja Rule's single, "New York", which became controversial due to the guest appearances of Fat Joe and Lox member Jadakiss, in the midst of Ja Rule's feud with rapper 50 Cent, who responded to the track with "Piggy Bank". Luckily, Martinez was not named negatively throughout the track. She also appeared in an album intro with La La Anthony for R&B musician Babyface's album, Girls Night Out, which was released in October 2022.

Other ventures
In 2002, Martinez was hired to be a judge on the second season of American Idol, but quit after a few days of auditions, citing discomfort with crushing the dreams of auditioners.

In 2008, she became the opening speaker for then-president of the United States, Barack Obama. In 2022, she attended a summit with former first lady, Michelle Obama, whom she later invited to appear on her radio show.

In June 2016, she released an autobiographical novel titled My Voice: A Memoir.

In May 2018, to further promote and support rapper J. Cole's album, KOD, Martinez conducted an in-house interview with him in producer Salaam Remi's house in Miami. It had received over four million views on YouTube, as of September 2023.

Then, in 2019, she hosted a We TV interview series called the Untold Stories of Hip-Hop, but in 2020, the show was cancelled.

On March 4, 2020, Martinez received a degree for honorary doctor of fine arts at Rutgers University–Newark.

In June 2023, in celebration of the fifieth anniversary of the foundation of hip hop music, she hosted an ABC special titled Soul of a Nation: Hip Hop at 50; she is also the executive producer of the project.

Acting
As an actress, Martinez received a small role in the independent hip hop film, Blood Is Thicker Than Water. In 2002, Martinez appeared in a cameo on the Damon Dash-directed comedy, Paper Soldiers, which starred Kevin Hart. That October, she appeared in Brown Sugar, starring Taye Diggs, Queen Latifah and Sanaa Lathan. Martinez was also noticed in an uncredited appearance as a drug dealer's car girl in the film, Paid in Full. The film itself was based on the 1980s crack epidemic in New York City and its war on drugs, as well as the partnership between Azie Faison, Rich Porter and Alpo Martinez. In 2005, Martinez reunited with Dash for State Property 2, the sequel to the 2002 film, which starred rapper Beanie Sigel.

She also appeared in Video Girl, with actress Meagan Good in 2011 and Generation Um... in 2012, respectively. Martinez was one of the few Hot 97 personnel to appear on the VH1 reality docu-comedy television series, This Is Hot 97, which premiered in 2014, but was later cancelled after one season. The show was produced by Mona Scott-Young, co-founder of Violator Management, founder of Monami Productions and creator of Love & Hip Hop.

Podcasting
In 2022, it was announced that Martinez would launch a podcast on iHeartRadio, Apple Music and YouTube called IRL. It has been conductive in interviews with Lauren London, Kim Kardashian, Taraji P. Henson, Kelly Rowland, Mary J. Blige and Janelle Monáe, among others.

Charity work
In 2014, Martinez ran the 2014 New York City Marathon in support of CC Sabathia's charity, the PitCCh In Foundation.

Personal life
She has a son, Niko Ruffin, born in a New York City hospital in June 2003. Her son's biological father is Tamir Ruffin, better known as Nokio the N-Tity, the founder and bandleader of R&B boy band Dru Hill.

Martinez's close friend is singer Mary J. Blige, who coincidentally was born two days after her, and is also the godmother of Martinez's son, Niko.

In late 2019, it was revealed that she had sustained major injuries, including a fractured lumbar and shattered vertebrae, in a serious car accident.

Awards and nominations

 * 1998
 * "Not Tonight" (Ladies Night Mix)
 * Grammy Award for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group
 * Nominated
 * 2002
 * N/A
 * BET Award for Best Female Hip-Hop Artist
 * Nominated
 * 2018
 * Major Market
 * NAB Marconi Radio Award for Personality of the Year
 * Won
 * Radio Hall of Fame
 * 2020 Inductee
 * N/A
 * Won
 * }
 * 2020 Inductee
 * N/A
 * Won
 * }

title: Angie Martinez


text:
List of D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd publications

This is a list of DC Thomson publications; formerly D. C. Thomson & Co., of Dundee, Scotland.

Newspapers, comics and magazines
These newspapers, comics and magazines are or were published by D.C. Thomson & Co.

Current

 * 110% Gaming (2014–present)
 * The Beano (1938–present)
 * Commando Comics (1961–present)
 * The Courier (1801–present)
 * Evening Telegraph (1905–present)
 * The People's Friend (1869–present)
 * The Scots Magazine (1739–1826, 1888–1893, 1924–present)
 * The Sunday Post (1936–present)
 * WWE Kids Magazine (2008–present)

Former

 * Adventure (1921–1961)
 * Annabel (1965–1981)
 * Animal Planet (2011–2023)
 * Animals & You (1998–2023)
 * The Beezer (1956–1990)
 * Beezer and Topper (1990–1993)
 * The Best of Beezer (1988–1996)
 * The Best of Topper (1988–1996)
 * Blue Jeans (1980–1991)
 * Bucky O'Hare (1992)
 * Buddy (1981–1983)
 * Bullet (1976–1978)
 * Bunty (1958–2001)
 * Buzz (1973–1975)
 * Champ (1984–1985)
 * Classic Stitches
 * Classics from the Comics (1996–2010)
 * Cracker (1975–1976)
 * The Crunch (1979–1980)
 * The Dandy (1937–2012) (renamed Dandy Xtreme between 2007–2010)
 * Danger Mouse (2015)
 * Debbie (1976–78), a girls' comic
 * Diana (1963–76) – a girls' comic
 * The Dixon Hawke Library (1919–41)
 * Emma (1978–79), a girls' comic, combined with Judy in 1979)
 * EPIC Magazine (2007–2019)
 * Evergreen (1985–2023)
 * Football Picture Story Monthly (1986–2003)
 * The Fun Size Beano (1996–2010)
 * The Fun Size Dandy (1996–2010)
 * Goodie Bag Mag (2003–2011)
 * Hoot (1985–1986)
 * The Hotspur (1933–59)
 * New Hotspur (1959–63)
 * Nickelodeon Magazine (2011–2016)
 * The Hotspur (1963–81)
 * Jackie (1964–1993), a girls' comic
 * Judy (1960–2001)
 * Living Magazine (2020–2023)
 * The Magic Comic (1939–1941)
 * Mandy (1967–1991)
 * My Weekly
 * No.1 Magazine (2015–2020)
 * Nutty (1980–1985)
 * Platinum Magazine (2019–2023)
 * Plug (1977–1979)
 * The Rover (1922–1973)
 * Shout (1993–2023)
 * Shout Secrets (2008)
 * Shout Social (2015)
 * Shout Summer (2008–2010)
 * The Skipper (1930 to 1941)
 * Sparky (1965–1977)
 * Spike (1983–1984)
 * Starblazer (1979–1991)
 * Suzy (1982–1987)
 * The Topper (1953–1990)
 * Tracy (1979–1985), a girls' comic, combined with Judy in 1985
 * TV Tops (1981–1984) (originally titled Tops)
 * Twinkle (1968–1999)
 * The Vanguard (1923–1926)
 * The Victor (1961–1994)
 * Vlogmas (2017)
 * The Wizard (1922–1963, 1970–1978)
 * Warlord (1974–1986)
 * The Weekly News

Annuals
The annuals are normally published in time for Christmas, which is the major gift selling time of the year, usually appearing on shelves in early September. The annuals that DC Thomson have published, or still publish, over the years, include:

Current

 * 70 Years of The Beano and The Dandy (1988–present)
 * Animals and You (2008–present)
 * The Beano Annual (1940–present)
 * The Broons (1940–present)
 * Classic Broons and Oor Wullie annuals (1996–present)
 * The Dandy Annual (1939–present)
 * Oor Wullie (1941–present)
 * Storytime with Grandma (2008–present)

Former

 * Bananaman (1984–1987)
 * The Bash Street Kids (1980–2010)
 * The Beezer Book (1958–2003)
 * Beryl the Peril (1959–1977, 1981, 1987–1988)
 * Black Bob (1950–1965)
 * Blue Jeans Annual (1970–90s)
 * Bunty Annual (1960–2009)
 * Cowboy Book For Boys (1938)
 * Dennis the Menace Annual (1956–2011)
 * Desperate Dan Annual (1955, 1979, 1991–1993)
 * Dixon Hawke's Case Book (1938–1953)
 * Mandy Annual (1969–2007)
 * The Sparky Book (1967–1981)
 * The Topper Book (1955–1994)
 * Willie Waddle Book (1930–50s)


text:
Subdivisions of the Democratic Republic of the Congo

The Third Republic of the Democratic Republic of the Congo is a unitary state with a five-level hierarchy of types of administrative division. There are nine different types of country subdivision in a new hierarchy with no new types but with two from the previous one abolished.

Under the Third Republic, established in 2006, the number of provinces has gone from ten to twenty-five. By fits and starts the number of towns that have been, or are in the process of being, upgraded to cities has also increased greatly.

Reforms to devolve powers to the provinces were completed in 2006, but devolution to more local levels have again been delayed when elections scheduled for 2019 were not held. Traditional authority continues to play a significant role in governance with traditional leaders leading many of the subdivisions at the lower levels.

Territorial organization
The Constitution divides the country into the capital city of Kinshasa and 25 provinces. It also gives the capital the status of a province. The hierarchy of types of administrative division in the province, as set down in other organic law, is as follows:

(French names in italics.)

 * Province
 * Territory (territoire)
 * Sector or Chiefdom (secteur or chefferie)
 * Grouping (groupement)
 * Village
 * Commune
 * Quarter (quartier)
 * Embedded Grouping (groupement incorporé)
 * Village
 * City (ville)
 * Commune
 * Quarter (quartier)
 * Embedded Grouping (groupement incorporé)
 * Village
 * Embedded Grouping (groupement incorporé)
 * Village

So a province is divided into territories and cities; a territory into sectors, chiefdoms, and communes; a sector or chiefdom into groupings; and so on.

Remarks

 * Kinshasa has the status of a province, but the subdivisions of a city. It is often referred to as a city-province and in many contexts is counted as the 26'th province.
 * The district and the cité, previously a division of a province and territory respectively, have been abolished. The cité has been replaced by the commune.
 * In the Congo a commune can now be an urban subdivision of a city, a country town, or in some cases a mostly rural area attached to a city.
 * An older term, collectivity (fr. collectivité), is sometimes used for convenience to refer to both a sector and a chiefdom.
 * Some collectivities are not a contiguous area of land but are made up instead of more than one unconnected area.
 * The grouping (of villages) and, at a higher level, the chiefdom are subdivisions led by customary leaders of traditional polities.
 * An embedded grouping is a grouping that has been absorbed into a commune.
 * A quarter has divisions but these are not set down by organic law.
 * There are uninhabited areas that are not part of any subdivision below a territory.

New provinces
The Constitution, as before, divides the country into the city of Kinshasa and the provinces; however, it increased the number of provinces from ten to twenty-five. This was put into effect in 2015, when the six largest provinces were split into twenty-one new provinces. Together with the four unsplit provinces—Bas-Congo (renamed Kongo Central), Maniema, Nord-Kivu, and Sud-Kivu—they make up the twenty-five provinces listed in Article 2 of the Constitution.

Under the old organization the six former provinces were divided into districts and cities. The districts were further divided into territories. Each new province was created from the territories of one or two districts, adding any enclosed cities and—if necessary—making the new capital a city. The following table gives the complete details. So for instance, Lommami province resulted from the split of the former Kasaï-Oriental province; created from the territories of the former Kabinda district, the city of Mwene-Ditu, and by making the town of Kabinda the capital city.

New cities and communes
In June 2013 a batch of prime ministerial decrees was issued giving city and commune status to, and setting the boundaries for, a large number of former cités and other populated places. According to the government's 2014 statistical yearbook the Congo would go from 21 cities and 227 cités in 2008 to 99 cities and 289 territorial communes in the reorganization. However, in July 2015 the implementation of many of the decrees' articles were suspended following the failure in the National Assembly of an electoral bill based on the boundaries in the decrees.

In order to pass a modified bill allocating seats for upcoming local elections, it was decided to suspend those articles that were contentious and to revert the affected communities to their 2006 administrative configurations. The articles granting city status to new provincial capitals—Boende, Bunia, Buta, Gemena, Inongo, Isiro, Kabinda, Kalemie, Kamina, Kenge, Lisala, and Lusambo—were not suspended and neither were those granting commune status to the administrative centers of the territories.

Ultimately the planned for local elections never occurred, but the suspensions were not lifted until mid-2018 just months before the general election. The National Alliance of Traditional Authorities of the Congo protested this reinstatement as diminishing traditional authority and as a threat to national security. In addition to reinstating the articles the government decided that disputes over boundaries would be resolved by an ad hoc committee and that the setting up of cities and communes would be prioritized with 18 cities in the initial phase.

In 2019 mayors for the new cities of Uvira, Baraka, Kamituga, and Kasumbalesa were appointed. The setting up of a city administration and those of its subdivisions can take years given the lack of local resources. For instance the town of Buta gained city status when it became a provincial capital in 2015, had its first mayor appointed in 2018, and by June 2019 its four communes were still not operational.

Number of subdivisions
Table 2 is based on data compiled by the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI) as part of organizing the election cycle of 2018. The count of cities only includes those currently represented in the national and provincial assemblies and not those that became cities after the organization of the elections. Thus, for example, the new city of Uvira is not counted as a city but as a commune in the table. This of course also effects the counts of city subdivisions such as communes and quarters.

Governance
The Constitution of 2006 and ensuing organic laws brought reforms to the governance of the subdivisions which are not yet complete. Table 3 sketches the envisioned governance by subdivision type and its current status.

Uncompleted devolution
These reforms devolved powers to the provinces and, more modestly, to the cities and the subdivisions at the third administrative level. They all were to have both an executive body with a leader and a deliberative body which was to elect the leader. The other subdivisions remained purely administrative in nature.

The Congolese voter would have a direct say in the affairs of the province by voting in a deputy to the provincial assembly which would then go on to elect the governor. The voter was also to have a say in more local affairs by voting in a councilperson to the local council which was then, except in a chiefdom, to go on to elect the local leader. If the voter lived in a provincial city they were also to have a more indirect say, again through the local council, in the composition of the city government.

Devolution to the provinces was launched with the 2006 Democratic Republic of the Congo provincial elections which elected the provincial assemblies of the eleven provinces. Similar elections for local councils have yet to occur. Thus, the effected subdivisions have no deliberative body and their leaders, as provided by law, are unelected and appointed from above. In this way a city mayor is much like a territory administrator. For now the Congolese voter does not have a say in local affairs.

Local council elections were scheduled to occur on 22 September 2019. In April of that year the League of Women Voters for the Elections met with the electoral commission and condemned the delay in starting candidate registration for the local elections. In June, the League of Voters stressed the importance of these elections and asked President Tshisekedi to intervene to get the process going. In August, a petition with two million signatures demanding that the elections be held was filed at the presidential palace. The signatures were collected within two months by the Catholic and Protestant Churches. At the end of October the outgoing electoral commission presented their final report to the National Assembly. At this time their rapporteur said that organizing the local elections required a workforce of 650,000 and the allocation of considerable funds by the government. Finally, in December President Tshisekedi declared that the elections would be held sometime in 2020. This did not happen.

However, in February 2022 the new electoral commission published a roadmap for the next election cycle that would have the local council elections occur in December 2023 along with the elections for the president, the National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies. But, when the electoral calendar was published in November 2022, the elections for sector and chiefdom council were pushed back to 11 July 2024 leaving only the commune elections to be run on 20 December 2023.

Traditional authority
Traditional leaders have a significant role in governing the subdivisions. At the first administrative level, 8% of all provincial deputies are co-opted traditional leaders. At the third and forth levels they are the leaders of 25% and 70% of the subdivisions respectively. In 2018, 64% of the electorate lived in a grouping without counting those in embedded groupings.

Traditional authority is recognized by Article 207 of the Constitution and a law defining the legal status of traditional leaders was passed in 2015. In addition to being official leaders of their administrative divisions, these leaders exercise customary authority – which can involve traditional advisory councils – in a way that is not contrary to the Constitution, the law, public order and decency. The leaders are also obligated to be apolitical.

Although selected by local structures according to custom, traditional leaders can only exercise their authority if they are officially recognized and invested by the government. Failure of the government to do so can cause great resentment. In 2013 such a dispute over the leadership of a grouping eventually led, through an escalation of conflicts in 2016, to the Kamwina Nsapu rebellion.

Electoral districts
Except for the four National Assembly districts in Kinshasa, all electoral districts in Table 4 are administrative divisions. The Carter Center expert mission report for the 2018 elections criticizes the use of these divisions for national and provincial elections as not meeting international standards for uniform allocation of voters per constituency. As example they contrast 27,228 voters per National Assembly seat in the city of Inongo vs. 128,699 in the territory of Lomela.

Cited Works


text:
Coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo

The coat of arms of the Republic of the Congo has a shield with a rampant red lion holding a torch. The background color of the shield is gold with a green, wavy, horizontal stripe along the middle. A golden crown sits above the shield. Two large African war elephants support the shield. A banner with the national motto "Unité Travail Progrès" ("Unity, Work, Progress" translated from "La Congolaise") is draped from a bar supporting the war elephants. The arms were adopted in 1960 and readopted in 1991 after having been replaced with a simpler, unheraldic symbol during the People's Republic of the Congo era from 1970–1991.

Official description
The coat of arms is described as follows:

 * Or, a fess wavy vert, a lion gules, armed and langued vert, overall, maintaining a torch sable flamed gules.
 * A special forest crown.
 * The shield is supported by two war elephants sable tusked or, issuing from the flanks of the shield and sustained on a tree trunk gules.
 * On the circle or of the forest crown: "République du Congo" in letters gules upon a scroll or.
 * Motto "Unité-Travail-Progrès" in letters gules upon a scroll or.


text:
Jordan River (disambiguation)

The Jordan River is a river in the Middle East draining into the Dead Sea.

Jordan River or River Jordan or River of Jordan may also refer to:

Australia

 * Jordan River (Tasmania)
 * Jordan River (Victoria)

Canada

 * Jordan River, British Columbia, or River Jordan, a settlement on Vancouver Island
 * Jordan River system of the Tobeatic Game Reserve, Nova Scotia

New Zealand

 * Jordan River (New Zealand), the name of two rivers

United Kingdom

 * River Jordan, a tributary of the River Valency in Cornwall
 * River Jordan, Dorset
 * River Jordan, Liverpool
 * River Jordan, Northamptonshire

United States

 * River Jordan, the original name of the East Bay River, Navarre, Florida
 * Jordan River, a section of Clear Creek (Salt Creek), Indiana
 * Jordan River (Maine)
 * Jordan River (Beaver Island), Michigan
 * Jordan River (Michigan)
 * River Jordan, a name given to the Ohio River by escaping slaves
 * Jordan River (Utah)
 * Jordan River (Virginia)

Songs

 * "River Jordan", by Clancy Eccles, 1960
 * "River Jordan", by Sugar Minott from Black Roots, 1979
 * "River Jordan", by Vusi Mahlasela from Guiding Star (2007 album)
 * "River Jordan", from The Civil War (musical)
 * "River Jordan", by Janis Joplin, from Janis (1975 album)
 * "River Jordan", by The Felice Brothers from Celebration, Florida (album), 2011
 * "River Jordan", by Prince Far I from Livity, 1981
 * "River of Jordan", by Lecrae from the soundtrack of The Shack (2017 film)
 * "River of Jordan", by Reno and Smiley, 1967
 * "River of Jordan", from Sunshine (Jeff & Sheri Easter album), 2004
 * "River of Jordan", a single by Carter Family
 * "River of Jordan", from Satan Is Real by The Louvin Brothers, 1959

title: Jordan River (disambiguation)


text:
Jordan River (Utah)

The Jordan River is a 51.4 mi river in the U.S. state of Utah. Regulated by pumps at its headwaters at Utah Lake, it flows northward through the Salt Lake Valley and empties into the Great Salt Lake. Four of Utah's six largest cities border the river: Salt Lake City, West Valley City, West Jordan, and Sandy. More than a million people live in the Jordan Subbasin, part of the Jordan River watershed that lies within Salt Lake and Utah counties. During the Pleistocene, the area was part of Lake Bonneville.

Members of the Desert Archaic Culture were the earliest known inhabitants of the region; an archaeological site found along the river dates back 3,000 years. Mormon pioneers led by Brigham Young were the first European American settlers, arriving in July 1847 and establishing farms and settlements along the river and its tributaries. The growing population, needing water for drinking, irrigation, and industrial use in an arid climate, dug ditches and canals, built dams, and installed pumps to create a highly regulated river.

Although the Jordan was originally a cold-water fishery with 13 native species, including Bonneville cutthroat trout, it has become a warm-water fishery where the common carp is most abundant. It was heavily polluted for many years by raw sewage, agricultural runoff, and mining wastes. In the 1960s, sewage treatment removed many pollutants. In the 21st century, pollution is further limited by the Clean Water Act, and, in some cases, the Superfund program. Once the home of bighorn sheep and beaver, the contemporary river is frequented by raccoons, red foxes, and domestic pets. It is an important avian resource, as are the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake, visited by more than 200 bird species.

Big Cottonwood, Little Cottonwood, Red Butte, Mill, Parley's, and City creeks, as well as smaller streams like Willow Creek at Draper, Utah, flow through the sub-basin. The Jordan River Parkway along the river includes natural areas, botanical gardens, golf courses, and a 40 mi bicycle and pedestrian trail, completed in 2017.

Course
The Jordan River is Utah Lake's only outflow. It originates at the northern end of the lake between the cities of Lehi and Saratoga Springs. It then meanders north through the north end of Utah Valley for approximately 8 mi until it passes through a gorge in the Traverse Mountains, known as the Jordan Narrows. The Utah National Guard base at Camp Williams lies on the western side of the river through much of the Jordan Narrows. The Turner Dam, located 41.8 mi from the river's mouth (or at river mile 41.8) and within the boundaries of the Jordan Narrows, is the first of two dams of the Jordan River. Turner Dam diverts the water to the right or easterly into the East Jordan Canal and to the left or westerly toward the Utah and Salt Lake Canal. Two pumping stations situated next to Turner Dam divert water to the west into the Provo Reservoir Canal, Utah Lake Distribution Canal, and Jacob-Welby Canal. The Provo Reservoir Canal runs north through Salt Lake County, Jacob-Welby runs south through Utah County. The Utah Lake Distribution Canal runs both north and south, eventually leading back into Utah Lake. Outside the narrows, the river reaches the second dam, known as Joint Dam, which is 39.9 mi from the river's mouth. Joint Dam diverts water to the east for the Jordan and Salt Lake City Canal and to the west for the South Jordan Canal.

The river then flows through the middle of the Salt Lake Valley, initially moving through the city of Bluffdale and then forming the border between the cities of Riverton and Draper. The river then enters the city of South Jordan where it merges with Midas Creek from the west. Upon leaving South Jordan, the river forms the border between the cities of West Jordan on the west and Sandy and Midvale on the east. From the west, Bingham Creek enters West Jordan. Dry Creek, an eastern tributary, combines with the main river in Sandy. The river then forms the border between the cities of Taylorsville and West Valley City on the west and Murray and South Salt Lake on the east. The river flows underneath Interstate 215 in Murray. Little and Big Cottonwood Creeks enter from the east in Murray, 21.7 mi and 20.6 mi from the mouth respectively. Mill Creek enters on the east in South Salt Lake, 17.3 mi from the mouth. The river runs through the middle of Salt Lake City, where the river travels underneath Interstate 80 a mile west of downtown Salt Lake City and again underneath Interstate 215 in the northern portion of Salt Lake City. Interstate 15 parallels the river's eastern flank throughout Salt Lake County. At 16 mi from the mouth, the river enters the Surplus Canal channel. The Jordan River physically diverts from the Surplus Canal through four gates and heads north with the Surplus Canal heading northwest. Parley's, Emigration, and Red Butte Creeks converge from the east through an underground pipe, 14.2 mi from the mouth. City Creek also enters via an underground pipe, 11.5 mi from the river's mouth. The length of the river and the elevation of its mouth varies year to year depending on the fluctuations of the Great Salt Lake caused by weather conditions. The lake has an average elevation of 4200 ft which can deviate by 10 ft. The Jordan River then continues for 9 to 12 mi with Salt Lake County on the west and North Salt Lake and Davis County on the east until it empties into the Great Salt Lake.

Discharge
The United States Geological Survey maintains a stream gauge in Salt Lake City that shows annual runoff from the period 1980–2003 is just over 150,000 acre.ft per year or 100 percent of the total 800,000 acre.ft of water entering the Jordan River from all sources. The Surplus Canal carries almost 60 percent of the water into the Great Salt Lake, with various irrigation canals responsible for the rest. The amount of water entering the Jordan River from Utah Lake is just over 400,000 acre.ft per year. Inflow from the 11 largest streams feeding the Jordan River, sewage treatment plants, and groundwater each account for approximately 15 percent of water entering the river.

Watershed

The Jordan Subbasin, as defined by the United States Geological Survey, is located entirely within Salt Lake and Utah counties in a roughly rectangular area of 791 sqmi. The Subbasin is part of the larger 3830 sqmi Jordan River Basin that includes the upper Jordan River, Utah Lake, Provo and Spanish Fork Subbasins. Four of the six largest cities in Utah are in Salt Lake County. The Jordan River flows through Sandy, with a 2010 population of 87,461; West Jordan, population 103,712; West Valley City, population 129,480; and Salt Lake City, population 186,440. Flanked on either side by mountain ranges, the topography of the land varies greatly. The Wasatch Range rises on the east, with a high point of 11100 ft above sea level at Twin Peaks, near the town of Alta. The Oquirrh Mountains rise on the west, with a high point of over 9000 ft above sea level at Farnsworth Peak. The low point of 4200 ft is at the river's mouth, where the river enters the Great Salt Lake. Both the Oquirrh and Wasatch Mountains are fault-block mountains created from normal-slip faults where the mountains rise at the fault and the valley floor drops. The Wasatch Fault runs along the western edge of the Wasatch Mountains, and the Oquirrh Fault runs along the eastern edge of the Oquirrh Mountains.

From approximately 75,000 to 8,000 years ago, much of what is now northern Utah was covered by a Pleistocene lake called Lake Bonneville. At its greatest extent, Lake Bonneville reached an elevation of 5200 ft above sea level and had a surface area of 19800 sqmi. The lake left behind lacustrine sediments, which resulted in a relatively flat lake bed, and the valley floors have seen today. As the region experienced an increasingly warmer and drier climate over time, Lake Bonneville's water levels receded, leaving the Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake as remnants. The river's greatest slope, 27 ft/mi, is in the Jordan Narrows, while the rest of the river has a more gentle slope of 2 to 4 ft/mi.

Approximately 237,000 acre (46 percent of land area) of the Jordan Subbasin is in the Wasatch, Oquirrh and Traverse mountains. The United States Forest Service manages 91,000 acre of land in the Wasatch Range. The vast majority of the Oquirrh Range is privately held, with Kennecott Copper Mine owning most of the land. The State of Utah has scattered land holdings of 9,800 acre throughout the subbasin and owns the beds of all navigable streams and lakes.

The Jordan Subbasin has two distinct climate zones. The lower elevations are characterized as a cold, semi-arid climate, with four distinct seasons. Both summer and winter are long, with hot, dry summers and cold, snowy winters. Salt Lake City receives 61 in of snow annually, part of a total of 16.5 in of precipitation per year. The mean maximum temperature is 91 F in July and 37 F in January Areas of higher elevation have two distinct seasons, summer and winter. One of the areas of highest elevation, Alta, Utah, receives 458 in of snow annually, part of a total of 46 in of precipitation per year. The mean maximum temperature is 73 F in July and 31 F in January.

History
The first known inhabitants of the banks of the Jordan River were members of the Desert Archaic Culture, a group of nomadic hunter-gatherers. A 3,000-year-old archaeological site, called the Soo'nkahni Village, was uncovered next to the Jordan River. The next recorded inhabitants, between 400 A.D. to around 1350 A.D., were the Fremont people, composed of several scattered bands of hunters and farmers living in what is now southern Idaho, western Nevada and most of Utah. The disappearance of the Fremont people has been attributed to both changing climatic conditions, which put an end to favorable weather for farming, and to the arrival of ancestors to the present-day Ute, Paiute, and Northwestern Shoshone. Although there were no permanent Native American settlements when European settlers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley, the area bordered land occupied by several tribes, such as the Timpanogos band of the Utes in Utah Valley, the Goshutes on the western side of the Oquirrh Mountain Range and the Northwestern Shoshone north of the Salt Lake Valley.

In 1776, Franciscan missionary Silvestre Vélez de Escalante was trying to find a land route from Santa Fe, New Mexico, to Monterey, California. His party included twelve Spanish colonials and two Utes from the Utah Valley Timpanogots band who acted as guides. On 23 September 1776, the party entered Utah Valley at the present-day city of Spanish Fork. The local Timanogots villagers hosted them and told them of the lake to the north. In his journal, Escalante described Utah Lake as a "lake, which must be six leagues wide and fifteen leagues long, [and] extends as far as one of these valleys. It runs northwest through a narrow passage, and according to what they told us, it communicates with others much larger." The Great Salt Lake was described as the "other lake with which this one communicates, according to what they told us, [and] covers many leagues, and its waters are noxious and extremely salty."

The next group of Europeans to see the Jordan River was the party of Étienne Provost, a French Canadian trapper. In October 1824, Provost's party was lured into a Shoshone camp somewhere along the Jordan River, where they were attacked in retaliation for the murder of a local chief. In truth, the murder was committed by a member of Peter Skene Ogden's party. The men were caught off guard, and fifteen perished, but Provost and two others escaped. The river was historically named Proveau's Fork, as the Quebec-born fur trapper was known as Proveau and Provot, in addition to Provost (and the pronunciation was "Provo").

On 22 July 1847, the first party of Mormon pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley, and five days later another party led by Brigham Young crossed the Jordan River and bathed in the Great Salt Lake. The River Jordan (located in the Middle East) drains the Sea of Galilee into the Dead Sea in a way which the settlers found remarkably similar to the way the as-yet-unnamed local river drained Utah Lake into the saline Great Salt Lake. This similarity influenced the eventual name of the river, and on 22 August 1847, a conference was held and the name Western Jordan River was decided upon, although it was later shortened to the Jordan River. By 1850, settlements were established along the Jordan River, Big Cottonwood Creek, Little Cottonwood Creek, Mill Creek, Parley's Creek and Emigration Creek. In 1850, Captain Howard Stansbury of the United States Army Corps of Topographical Engineers traveled the entire length of the Jordan River, surveying and making observations of the wildlife. In 1869 the river was used to float logs and ties utilized in the construction of the Utah Central Railroad.

Around the year 1887 at Bingham Canyon in the Oquirrh Mountains, low-grade copper deposits were discovered and mining claims were filed. Bingham Canyon is a porphyry copper deposit where magma containing copper, molybdenum, gold and other minerals slowly moved its way to the surface and cooled into rock. By 1890, underground copper mining had started, and in 1907, Kennecott Copper Mine started open pit mining. In the early 20th century, mills were established near the Jordan River in Midvale and West Jordan to process ore. As of 2010, Kennecott Copper Mine's open pit is 2.8 mi wide and 0.8 mi deep.

Throughout the 19th century and up to the 1940s, water from the Jordan River watershed sustained the agrarian society of the Salt Lake Valley. In 1950, Salt Lake County had 489,000 acre devoted to farming. By 1992, however, the rapid urbanization of the Salt Lake Valley had reduced the amount of land devoted to farming to 108,000 acre, which was further reduced to 82,267 acre by 2002.

River modifications
Alterations of the Jordan River watershed began two days after the Mormon Pioneers arrived in the Salt Lake Valley when water was diverted from City Creek for irrigation. The earliest dam and ditch along the Jordan River was constructed in 1849 to irrigate land on the west side of the river near present-day Taylorsville. Other ditches include one built by Archibald Gardner, one of the founders of West Jordan in 1850, to provide water for his mill and one built by Alexander Beckstead, a founder of South Jordan, who built the Beckstead Ditch in 1859 to provide water for farmland. Many other small dams and ditches were also constructed in the first 25 years, several of which are still used as of 2010. All of these ditches irrigated only small amounts of land in the Jordan River floodplain; the largest, the Beckstead Ditch, irrigated 580 acre.

By the late 1860s, it became apparent that new, larger canals needed to be built if more acreage was to be farmed. The first dam in the Jordan Narrows was constructed in 1872 and raised in 1880, sparking an outcry from residents living near Utah Lake who thought the dam was responsible for raising the level of the lake. After several years of dispute, a commission was established to determine an acceptable compromise for the elevation of Utah Lake. The commission's 1885 decision stated that if the lake level were to rise above the established compromise level, the Jordan River could not be impeded by either dams or flood gates. Additionally, the commission stated that after water pumps were installed at the source of the river, the pumps should all be working if the lake were to rise above the compromise level. However, if the lake level fell below the compromise level, pumps could be turned off so that water could be held for storage in Utah Lake.

In 1875, the first large canal, the South Jordan Canal, was completed and it brought water to the area above the bluffs of the Jordan River for the first time. All told, five large canals that originated from the dams in the Jordan Narrows were completed by 1883. A second dam was built in 1890 a few miles (~5 km) downstream from the first dam and was constructed to better regulate the flow of two canals. Both dams have been rebuilt in subsequent years and operate as diversion points for canals rather than impounding water by the use of sluice gates and head gates. The drought of 1901–1902 caused the Jordan River, on occasion, to stop flowing, and in response to the drought a pumping plant was installed at the outlet from Utah Lake. It was the largest pumping plant in the United States at the time, and contained seven pumps with a total capacity of 700 cuft per second. Twice, during the droughts of 1934 and 1992, Utah Lake levels dropped so low that the pumps were rendered useless and the Jordan River actually ran dry. In the 1950s, due to flood control measures to increase river velocity, large sections of the river were straightened in Salt Lake County. As part of the straightening process, meanders or curves in the river were cut off and the channel slope was increased. The river was also shifted to opposite sides of the flood plain in Midvale and Murray as part of local smelter operations.

Floods in 1983–1984 caused Utah Lake to overflow its banks, flooding homes and farmland in Provo, Lehi and present-day Saratoga Springs. Dikes had to be constructed around Interstate 15 in Provo to prevent Utah Lake flooding the freeway. Big Cottonwood, Parley's, Emigration and City creeks flowed down sand-bag lined streets in order to manage the overflowing streams. Additional dikes were built at the Great Salt Lake to protect railroad lines and Interstate 80. As a result of the flooding, the Utah Lake compromise level was amended to 4,489 ft.

Invertebrates and fish
In the Jordan River, invertebrates play an important role as a source of food for fish and other aquatic life, and they function as a parameter by which to measure water quality and the health of the river. There are 34 different groups of invertebrates found in the Jordan River, most commonly of the class Oligochaeta (which includes earthworms), mosquito larvae and caddisfly larvae. The state of Utah maintains a Sensitive Species List that includes "those species for which there is credible scientific evidence to substantiate a threat to continued population viability." The Lyrate mountainsnail and the western pearlshell mussel, both native to the Jordan River watershed, are found on this list. A 2007 survey of invertebrates and their response to pollution stated that the Jordan River was substantially to severely impaired with organic pollution and that it contained reduced levels of dissolved oxygen.

Historically, the Jordan River was a cold-water fishery that contained 13 native species, including the Bonneville cutthroat trout, Utah Lake sculpin, June sucker, Mottled sculpin, Utah chub and the Utah sucker. Today, the Jordan River is a warm-water fishery with the Utah sucker and the endangered June sucker present only in Utah Lake. The Utah chub, however, is still found in the Jordan River. The most common species of fish encountered today is the common carp, which was introduced into the Jordan River and Utah Lake as a source of food after overfishing caused the depletion of native species stocks. The Utah Division of Wildlife Resources regularly stocks the river with catfish and rainbow trout.

Wildlife
Before the area was urbanized, mammals such as bighorn sheep, mule deer, coyote, wolves, beaver, muskrat and jackrabbits would have been seen along the river. A "varmint hunt" was organized by John D. Lee around 1848, after the arrival of Mormon settlers. The final count of the hunt included "two bears, two wolverines, two wildcats, 783 wolves, 409 foxes, 31 minks, nine eagles, 530 magpies, hawks and owls, and 1,026 ravens." None of the original large mammals is found along the Jordan River today; they have, for the most part, been replaced by raccoons, red foxes and domestic pets. Animals from the Jordan River area found on the Utah Sensitive Species List include the smooth green snake, the western toad, kit fox, spotted bat, and Townsend's big-eared bat.

Combined with Utah Lake and the Great Salt Lake, the Jordan River offers one of the region's richest bird resources. Over 200 bird species use the river for breeding habitat or as a stop-over on their migratory routes. Once-common native species such as the willow flycatcher, gray catbird, warbling vireo, American redstart, black tern, and yellow-billed cuckoo are no longer found along the river. The common yellowthroat and yellow-breasted chat are still found in small isolated populations. The most common species now found are the black-billed magpie, mourning dove, western meadowlark, barn swallow, and the non-native ring-necked pheasant and starlings.

Vegetation

Vegetation in the watershed is closely tied to elevation and precipitation levels. About 30 percent of the basin, mostly at higher elevation levels, is populated with oak, aspen and coniferous trees. At the lower levels, 27 percent of the basin is rich in mountain-brush, sagebrush, juniper and grasses. About 34 percent of the Jordan River basin is classified as urban.

Russian olive and tamarisk or salt cedar trees now dominate the Jordan River floodplain where willow trees and cottonwood trees would once have been found. Plant species such as foxtail barley, saltgrass, rabbitbrush, cattails and other reeds are still found in small pockets along the river. Exotic pasture grasses such as orchard grass, bluegrass, redtop bentgrass, quackgrass, wheatgrass and fescue have become the common species of grass. The vulnerable flower, Ute's Ladies'-tresses, can also be found along the river.

Pollution
The Jordan River has been a repository for waste since the settling of the Salt Lake Valley. For 100 years, raw, untreated sewage was dumped into the river; farming and animal runoff occurred; and mining operations led to 40 smelters being built and contaminating the river with heavy metals, mostly arsenic and lead. In 1962, the river in Midvale recorded a total coliform level of about 3 million per 100 milliliters, even though the state of Utah criteria for the total number of coliform bacteria in water samples should not exceed 5,000 per 100 milliliters. In 1965, a new sewage treatment plant came on-line in Salt Lake City that prevented 32000000 USgal/d of raw sewage from being dumped into a canal.

The Utah Division of Water Quality and Utah Division of Drinking Water are responsible for the regulation and management of water quality in the State of Utah. Streams that exceed the standard contamination levels are placed on the 303d list in accordance with the Clean Water Act. The Act also requires states to identify impaired water bodies every two years and develop a total maximum daily load (TMDL) for pollutants that may cause impairments in the various water bodies. The Jordan River and Little Cottonwood Creek were included on the 2006 303d list; parameters that exceeded the standard level for at least part of the Jordan River include temperature, dissolved oxygen, total dissolved solids, E. Coli and salinity.

EPA Superfund sites
Superfund sites are designated as being among the nation's worst areas with respect to toxic and hazardous waste. The Environmental Protection Agency is the federal agency that determines if a particular site is hazardous, prepares a course of action to reduce the hazard, and finds the parties responsible for the pollution. If a site is listed with the Superfund program, federal dollars are available for cleanup.

The Kennecott South Zone/Bingham site contains contamination from Kennecott Copper Mine's operation in Copperton, at the base of the Oquirrh Mountains to Bingham Creek and Butterfield Creek. A 72 sqmi plume of lead, arsenic and sulfates (covering 9 percent of the watershed) currently contaminates the ground water from the mine site all the way to the Jordan River. The largest inland reverse osmosis plant in the country was built in 2006 to clean up the ground water and a second plant has been scheduled for construction; completion of the ground water cleanup, however, is not projected until 2040. In 1998, the site was removed from the Superfund list due to Kennecott's progress in the cleanup and a consent decree legally obligating Kennecott to continue the rest of the cleanup.

The Murray Smelter site was the location of a large lead smelter in operation from 1872 until 1949. The 142 acre site contained groundwater contamination from arsenic and lead, but the majority of the cleanup was completed in 2001.

In Midvale, there are two Superfund sites that sit along 4 percent of the Jordan River. The Midvale Slag site is a 446 acre site adjacent to 6800 ft of the Jordan River. From 1871 to 1958, the site contained five separate smelters that processed ores from Kennecott and other mines. The site was contaminated with lead, arsenic, chromium, and cadmium. Cleanup of the property is complete, although the Jordan River Riparian Project still underway as of 2010. Sharon Steel was a 460 acre site adjacent to 4500 ft of the Jordan River which was used, from 1902 to 1971, for smelting copper from Kennecott Copper Mine. The site was contaminated with lead, arsenic, iron, manganese, and zinc. Cleanup has been completed, and the site taken off the Superfund list in 2004.

Uranium mill tailings
Vitro Uranium Mill was a 128 acre site located in South Salt Lake, surrounded by the Jordan River, Mill Creek, a small wetland and traversed by the South Vitro Ditch. The site, operational from 1953 to 1964, contained a uranium mill and storage for uranium. In 1989, surface contamination cleanup was completed with tailings, radioactively contaminated soil material, and debris removed from the site. However, 700000000 USgal of contaminated shallow ground water still remain, and studies are underway to determine what action should be taken.

Jordan River Parkway

The Jordan River Parkway was originally proposed in 1971 as a flood control measure with two reservoirs, restoration of wetlands, shoreline roads for cars, walking trails, and parks. By 1986, $18 million had been used to purchase lands around the Jordan River and to construct the Murray Golf Course, several smaller parks and about 4 mi of canoe runs and trails. As of 2010, the majority of the 40 mi continuous mixed-use trail has been finished from Utah Lake to the Davis County border. A water trail for canoeing and kayaking is also being constructed, but dams, bridges, weirs and other obstacles hamper the use of the river.

Riverside parks include the International Peace Gardens, 8.5 acre of gardens with each garden representing a different country; Redwood Nature Area, about 50 acre of natural areas; South Jordan's Riverfront Park, 59 acre of trails, fishing ponds and natural areas;  Thanksgiving Point, including 15 themed gardens spread over 59 acres, and a 200 acre, 18-hole golf course; and Utah County's Willow Park,  50 acre of camping and wildlife areas.

title: Jordan River (Utah)


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Jordan River (Michigan)

The Jordan River is a 24.9 mi stream in the northwestern part of the lower peninsula in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is the largest tributary of Lake Charlevoix. The Jordan's headwaters rise from springs in the upper Jordan River Valley northeast of Mancelona in Antrim County. The Jordan River was the first river to be designated in Michigan's Natural Rivers Program.

The Jordan River is well known for its world-class brook trout fishing and for its scenic canoe trips. The headwaters are accessible by many foot and ATV trails.

Course
The Jordan River begins in central Warner Township in northeast Antrim County. It winds generally to the southwest, cutting across the northwest corner of Star Township before flowing west through northern Chestonia Township. It then turns to the north, flowing through Jordan Township, the northeast corner of Echo Township, then into South Arm Township in Charlevoix County and emptying into the south arm of Lake Charlevoix in East Jordan.

Tributaries

 * (right) Jones Creek
 * (left) Deer Creek
 * Patricia Lake
 * (left) Healeys Trout Pond
 * (right) Marvon Creek
 * (right) Eaton Creek
 * (right) Warner Creek
 * (left) Hog Creek
 * O'Brien Pond
 * (right) Collins Creek
 * Deer Lake
 * (right) Bennett Creek
 * Mud Lake
 * (left) Todd Creek
 * (right) Bartholemew Creek
 * (left) Severance Creek
 * (left) Webster Creek
 * (left) Gook Creek
 * (right) Lilak Creek
 * (right) Martin Creek
 * (left) Mill Creek
 * (left) Sutton Creek
 * (right) Cokirs Creek, also known as Kocher Creek
 * (left) Scott Creek
 * (left) Tutstone Creek
 * (right) Green River
 * (right) Stevens Creek
 * (right) Landslide Creek
 * (right) Cascade Creek
 * (right) Section Thirteen Creek
 * (right) Six Tile Creek

Drainage basin
The Jordan River system drains all or portions of the following cities, villages and townships:
 * Antrim County
 * Echo Township
 * Chestonia Township
 * Jordan Township
 * Star Township
 * Warner Township
 * Charlevoix County
 * Boyne Valley Township
 * East Jordan
 * South Arm Township
 * Wilson Township

title: Jordan River (Michigan)


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User:Morwen/maps

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title: User:Morwen/maps


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Spectrophotometry

Spectrophotometry is a branch of electromagnetic spectroscopy concerned with the quantitative measurement of the reflection or transmission properties of a material as a function of wavelength. Spectrophotometry uses photometers, known as spectrophotometers, that can measure the intensity of a light beam at different wavelengths. Although spectrophotometry is most commonly applied to ultraviolet, visible, and infrared radiation, modern spectrophotometers can interrogate wide swaths of the electromagnetic spectrum, including x-ray, ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and/or microwave wavelengths.

Overview
Spectrophotometry is a tool that hinges on the quantitative analysis of molecules depending on how much light is absorbed by colored compounds. Important features of spectrophotometers are spectral bandwidth (the range of colors it can transmit through the test sample), the percentage of sample transmission, the logarithmic range of sample absorption, and sometimes a percentage of reflectance measurement.

A spectrophotometer is commonly used for the measurement of transmittance or reflectance of solutions, transparent or opaque solids, such as polished glass, or gases. Although many biochemicals are colored, as in, they absorb visible light and therefore can be measured by colorimetric procedures, even colorless biochemicals can often be converted to colored compounds suitable for chromogenic color-forming reactions to yield compounds suitable for colorimetric analysis. However, they can also be designed to measure the diffusivity on any of the listed light ranges that usually cover around 200–2500 nm using different controls and calibrations. Within these ranges of light, calibrations are needed on the machine using standards that vary in type depending on the wavelength of the photometric determination.

An example of an experiment in which spectrophotometry is used is the determination of the equilibrium constant of a solution. A certain chemical reaction within a solution may occur in a forward and reverse direction, where reactants form products and products break down into reactants. At some point, this chemical reaction will reach a point of balance called an equilibrium point. To determine the respective concentrations of reactants and products at this point, the light transmittance of the solution can be tested using spectrophotometry. The amount of light that passes through the solution is indicative of the concentration of certain chemicals that do not allow light to pass through.

The absorption of light is due to the interaction of light with the electronic and vibrational modes of molecules. Each type of molecule has an individual set of energy levels associated with the makeup of its chemical bonds and nuclei and thus will absorb light of specific wavelengths, or energies, resulting in unique spectral properties. This is based upon its specific and distinct makeup.

The use of spectrophotometers spans various scientific fields, such as physics, materials science, chemistry, biochemistry, chemical engineering, and molecular biology. They are widely used in many industries including semiconductors, laser and optical manufacturing, printing and forensic examination, as well as in laboratories for the study of chemical substances. Spectrophotometry is often used in measurements of enzyme activities, determinations of protein concentrations, determinations of enzymatic kinetic constants, and measurements of ligand binding reactions. Ultimately, a spectrophotometer is able to determine, depending on the control or calibration, what substances are present in a target and exactly how much through calculations of observed wavelengths.

In astronomy, the term spectrophotometry refers to the measurement of the spectrum of a celestial object in which the flux scale of the spectrum is calibrated as a function of wavelength, usually by comparison with an observation of a spectrophotometric standard star, and corrected for the absorption of light by the Earth's atmosphere.

History
Invented by Arnold O. Beckman in 1940, the spectrophotometer was created with the aid of his colleagues at his company National Technical Laboratories founded in 1935 which would become Beckman Instrument Company and ultimately Beckman Coulter. This would come as a solution to the previously created spectrophotometers which were unable to absorb the ultraviolet correctly. He would start with the invention of Model A where a glass prism was used to absorb the UV light. It would be found that this did not give satisfactory results, therefore in Model B, there was a shift from a glass to a quartz prism which allowed for better absorbance results. From there, Model C was born with an adjustment to the wavelength resolution which ended up having three units of it produced. The last and most popular model became Model D which is better recognized now as the DU spectrophotometer which contained the instrument case, hydrogen lamp with ultraviolet continuum, and a better monochromator. It was produced from 1941 to 1976 where the price for it in 1941 was US$723 (far-UV accessories were an option at additional cost). In the words of Nobel chemistry laureate Bruce Merrifield, it was "probably the most important instrument ever developed towards the advancement of bioscience."

Once it became discontinued in 1976, Hewlett-Packard created the first commercially available diode-array spectrophotometer in 1979 known as the HP 8450A. Diode-array spectrophotometers differed from the original spectrophotometer created by Beckman because it was the first single-beam microprocessor-controlled spectrophotometer that scanned multiple wavelengths at a time in seconds. It irradiates the sample with polychromatic light which the sample absorbs depending on its properties. Then it is transmitted back by grating the photodiode array which detects the wavelength region of the spectrum. Since then, the creation and implementation of spectrophotometry devices has increased immensely and has become one of the most innovative instruments of our time.

Design
There are two major classes of devices: single-beam and double-beam. A double-beam spectrophotometer compares the light intensity between two light paths, one path containing a reference sample and the other the test sample. A single-beam spectrophotometer measures the relative light intensity of the beam before and after a test sample is inserted. Although comparison measurements from double-beam instruments are easier and more stable, single-beam instruments can have a larger dynamic range and are optically simpler and more compact. Additionally, some specialized instruments, such as spectrophotometers built onto microscopes or telescopes, are single-beam instruments due to practicality.

Historically, spectrophotometers use a monochromator containing a diffraction grating to produce the analytical spectrum. The grating can either be movable or fixed. If a single detector, such as a photomultiplier tube or photodiode is used, the grating can be scanned stepwise (scanning spectrophotometer) so that the detector can measure the light intensity at each wavelength (which will correspond to each "step"). Arrays of detectors (array spectrophotometer), such as charge coupled devices (CCD) or photodiode arrays (PDA) can also be used. In such systems, the grating is fixed and the intensity of each wavelength of light is measured by a different detector in the array. Additionally, most modern mid-infrared spectrophotometers use a Fourier transform technique to acquire the spectral information. This technique is called Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

When making transmission measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that passes through a reference solution and a test solution, then electronically compares the intensities of the two signals and computes the percentage of transmission of the sample compared to the reference standard. For reflectance measurements, the spectrophotometer quantitatively compares the fraction of light that reflects from the reference and test samples. Light from the source lamp is passed through a monochromator, which diffracts the light into a "rainbow" of wavelengths through a rotating prism and outputs narrow bandwidths of this diffracted spectrum through a mechanical slit on the output side of the monochromator. These bandwidths are transmitted through the test sample. Then the photon flux density (watts per meter squared usually) of the transmitted or reflected light is measured with a photodiode, charge coupled device or other light sensor. The transmittance or reflectance value for each wavelength of the test sample is then compared with the transmission or reflectance values from the reference sample. Most instruments will apply a logarithmic function to the linear transmittance ratio to calculate the 'absorbency' of the sample, a value which is proportional to the 'concentration' of the chemical being measured.

In short, the sequence of events in a scanning spectrophotometer is as follows:
 * 1) The light source is shone into a monochromator, diffracted into a rainbow, and split into two beams. It is then scanned through the sample and the reference solutions.
 * 2) Fractions of the incident wavelengths are transmitted through, or reflected from, the sample and the reference.
 * 3) The resultant light strikes the photodetector device, which compares the relative intensity of the two beams.
 * 4) Electronic circuits convert the relative currents into linear transmission percentages and/or absorbance/concentration values.

In an array spectrophotometer, the sequence is as follows:

 * 1) The light source is shone into the sample and focused into a slit
 * 2) The transmitted light is refracted into a rainbow with the reflection grating
 * 3) The resulting light strikes the photodetector device which compares the intensity of the beam
 * 4) Electronic circuits convert the relative currents into linear transmission percentages and/or absorbance/concentration values

Many older spectrophotometers must be calibrated by a procedure known as "zeroing", to balance the null current output of the two beams at the detector. The transmission of a reference substance is set as a baseline (datum) value, so the transmission of all other substances is recorded relative to the initial "zeroed" substance. The spectrophotometer then converts the transmission ratio into 'absorbency', the concentration of specific components of the test sample relative to the initial substance.

Types Of Spectrophotometers
There are some common types of spectrophotometers include: UV-vis spectrophotometer: Measures light absorption in UV and visible ranges (200-800 nm). Used for quantification of many inorganic and organic compounds. 1. Infrared spectrophotometer: Measures infrared light absorption, allowing identification of chemical bonds and functional groups. 2. Atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS): Uses absorption of light by vaporized analyte atoms to determine concentrations of metals and metalloids. 3. Fluorescence spectrophotometer: Measures intensity of fluorescent light emitted from samples after excitation. Allows highly sensitive analysis of samples with native or induced fluorescence. 4. Colorimeter: Simple spectrophotometers used to measure light absorption for colorimetric assays and tests.

Applications in biochemistry
Spectrophotometry is an important technique used in many biochemical experiments that involve DNA, RNA, and protein isolation, enzyme kinetics and biochemical analyses. Since samples in these applications are not readily available in large quantities, they are especially suited to be analyzed in this non-destructive technique. In addition, precious sample can be saved by utilizing a micro-volume platform where as little as 1uL of sample is required for complete analyses. A brief explanation of the procedure of spectrophotometry includes comparing the absorbency of a blank sample that does not contain a colored compound to a sample that contains a colored compound. This coloring can be accomplished by either a dye such as Coomassie Brilliant Blue G-250 dye measured at 595 nm or by an enzymatic reaction as seen between β-galactosidase and ONPG (turns sample yellow) measured at 420 nm. The spectrophotometer is used to measure colored compounds in the visible region of light (between 350 nm and 800 nm), thus it can be used to find more information about the substance being studied. In biochemical experiments, a chemical and/or physical property is chosen and the procedure that is used is specific to that property to derive more information about the sample, such as the quantity, purity, enzyme activity, etc. Spectrophotometry can be used for a number of techniques such as determining optimal wavelength absorbance of samples, determining optimal pH for absorbance of samples, determining concentrations of unknown samples, and determining the pKa of various samples. Spectrophotometry is also a helpful process for protein purification and can also be used as a method to create optical assays of a compound. Spectrophotometric data can also be used in conjunction with the Beer–Lambert Equation, $A=-\log_{10}T=\epsilon cl=OD$, to determine various relationships between transmittance and concentration, and absorbance and concentration. Because a spectrophotometer measures the wavelength of a compound through its color, a dye-binding substance can be added so that it can undergo a color change and be measured. It is possible to know the concentrations of a two-component mixture using the absorption spectra of the standard solutions of each component. To do this, it is necessary to know the extinction coefficient of this mixture at two wavelengths and the extinction coefficients of solutions that contain the known weights of the two components. In addition to the traditional Beer-Lamberts law model, cuvette based label free spectroscopy can be used, which add an optical filter in the pathways of the light, enabling the spectrophotometer to quantify concentration, size and refractive index of samples following the hands law. Spectrophotometers have been developed and improved over decades and have been widely used among chemists. Additionally, Spectrophotometers are specialized to measure either UV or Visible light wavelength absorbance values. It is considered to be a highly accurate instrument that is also very sensitive and therefore extremely precise, especially in determining color change. This method is also convenient for use in laboratory experiments because it is an inexpensive and relatively simple process.

UV-visible spectrophotometry
Most spectrophotometers are used in the UV and visible regions of the spectrum, and some of these instruments also operate into the near-infrared region as well. The concentration of a protein can be estimated by measuring the OD at 280 nm due to the presence of tryptophan, tyrosine and phenylalanine. This method is not very accurate since the composition of proteins varies greatly and proteins with none of these amino acids do not have maximum absorption at 280 nm. Nucleic acid contamination can also interfere. This method requires a spectrophotometer capable of measuring in the UV region with quartz cuvettes.

Ultraviolet-visible (UV-vis) spectroscopy involves energy levels that excite electronic transitions. Absorption of UV-vis light excites molecules that are in ground-states to their excited-states.

Visible region 400–700 nm spectrophotometry is used extensively in colorimetry science. It is a known fact that it operates best at the range of 0.2–0.8 O.D. Ink manufacturers, printing companies, textiles vendors, and many more, need the data provided through colorimetry. They take readings in the region of every 5–20 nanometers along the visible region, and produce a spectral reflectance curve or a data stream for alternative presentations. These curves can be used to test a new batch of colorant to check if it makes a match to specifications, e.g., ISO printing standards.

Traditional visible region spectrophotometers cannot detect if a colorant or the base material has fluorescence. This can make it difficult to manage color issues if for example one or more of the printing inks is fluorescent. Where a colorant contains fluorescence, a bi-spectral fluorescent spectrophotometer is used. There are two major setups for visual spectrum spectrophotometers, d/8 (spherical) and 0/45. The names are due to the geometry of the light source, observer and interior of the measurement chamber. Scientists use this instrument to measure the amount of compounds in a sample. If the compound is more concentrated more light will be absorbed by the sample; within small ranges, the Beer–Lambert law holds and the absorbance between samples vary with concentration linearly. In the case of printing measurements two alternative settings are commonly used- without/with uv filter to control better the effect of uv brighteners within the paper stock. Samples are usually prepared in cuvettes; depending on the region of interest, they may be constructed of glass, plastic (visible spectrum region of interest), or quartz (Far UV spectrum region of interest). Some applications require small volume measurements which can be performed with micro-volume platforms.

Applications

 * Estimating dissolved organic carbon concentration
 * Specific ultraviolet absorbance for metric of aromaticity
 * Bial's test for concentration of pentoses

Experimental application
As described in the applications section, spectrophotometry can be used in both qualitative and quantitative analysis of DNA, RNA, and proteins. Qualitative analysis can be used and spectrophotometers are used to record spectra of compounds by scanning broad wavelength regions to determine the absorbance properties (the intensity of the color) of the compound at each wavelength. One experiment that can demonstrate the various uses that visible spectrophotometry can have is the separation of β-galactosidase from a mixture of various proteins. Largely, spectrophotometry is best used to help quantify the amount of purification your sample has undergone relative to total protein concentration. By running an affinity chromatography, B-Galactosidase can be isolated and tested by reacting collected samples with Ortho-Nitrophenyl-β-galactoside (ONPG) and determining if the sample turns yellow. Following this testing the sample at 420 nm for specific interaction with ONPG and at 595 for a Bradford Assay the amount of purification can be assessed quantitatively. In addition to this spectrophotometry can be used in tandem with other techniques such as SDS-Page electrophoresis in order to purify and isolate various protein samples.

IR spectrophotometry
Spectrophotometers designed for the infrared region are quite different because of the technical requirements of measurement in that region. One major factor is the type of photosensors that are available for different spectral regions, but infrared measurement is also challenging because virtually everything emits IR as thermal radiation, especially at wavelengths beyond about 5 μm.

Another complication is that quite a few materials such as glass and plastic absorb infrared, making it incompatible as an optical medium. Ideal optical materials are salts, which do not absorb strongly. Samples for IR spectrophotometry may be smeared between two discs of potassium bromide or ground with potassium bromide and pressed into a pellet. Where aqueous solutions are to be measured, insoluble silver chloride is used to construct the cell.

Spectroradiometers
Spectroradiometers, which operate almost like the visible region spectrophotometers, are designed to measure the spectral density of illuminants. Applications may include evaluation and categorization of lighting for sales by the manufacturer, or for the customers to confirm the lamp they decided to purchase is within their specifications. Components:

 * 1) The light source shines onto or through the sample.
 * 2) The sample transmits or reflects light.
 * 3) The detector detects how much light was reflected from or transmitted through the sample.
 * 4) The detector then converts how much light the sample transmitted or reflected into a number.

title: Spectrophotometry


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Flag of the Cook Islands

The flag of the Cook Islands, officially known as the Cook Islands Ensign, is based on the traditional design for former British colonies in the Pacific region. It is a blue ensign containing the Union Flag in the upper left, and on the right, fifteen stars in a ring. The Union Flag is symbolic of the nation's historic ties to the United Kingdom and to the Commonwealth of Nations. The stars stand for the fifteen islands that make up the Cook Islands (Tongareva, Rakahanga, Manihiki, Pukapuka, Nassau, Suwarrow, Palmerston, Aitutaki, Manuae, Takutea, Atiu, Mitiaro, Mauke, Rarotonga and Mangaia). The blue represents the ocean and the peaceful nature of the inhabitants.

History
A Federal Flag Bill was proposed in the Cook Islands Parliament in 1892, but was not assented to. The proposed flag had consisted of three horizontal stripes (red, white, red), with a Union Flag in the top left corner, overlaid by a black coconut palm tree on a white circle. When the islands were annexed by New Zealand in 1901, the New Zealand flag was used instead.

In 1973 a contest was held to design a new flag, with 120 entries. The winner was chosen at a meeting of the cabinet, judging panel and the flag design committee, a green ensign with 15 gold stars in a circle. The gold was to represent the "friendliness of Cook Islanders and their hope, faith, dedication, love and happiness"; the circle represented "unity and strength of purpose and the moulding of 15 islands into one united people"; the stars were "symbols of heaven, faith in god and the power that has guided Cook Islanders throughout their history"; and the green background was to represent the "nation, the vitality of the land and the people of the evergreen and lasting growth of the Cook Islands". The new flag was raised for the first time on 24 January 1974.

In 1979 it was replaced by the current flag.

In December 2023, Prime Minister Mark Brown suggested that the national flag should be changed back to the 1973–1979 version, claiming that it would be better reflective of the Cook Islands' national colours and sovereignty. In January 2024, Brown further suggested that the decision on the flag could be put to a referendum.

title: Flag of the Cook Islands