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Köppen climate classification

The  Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by German-Russian climatologist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940) in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen, notably in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger (1894–1981) introduced some changes to the classification system in 1954 and 1961, which is thus sometimes called the Köppen–Geiger climate classification.

The Köppen climate classification divides climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). Each group and subgroup is represented by a letter. All climates are assigned a main group (the first letter). All climates except for those in the E group are assigned a seasonal precipitation subgroup (the second letter). For example, Af indicates a tropical rainforest climate. The system assigns a temperature subgroup for all groups other than those in the A group, indicated by the third letter for climates in B, C, D, and the second letter for climates in E. For example, Cfb indicates an oceanic climate with warm summers as indicated by the ending b. Climates are classified based on specific criteria unique to each climate type.

As Köppen designed the system based on his experience as a botanist, his main climate groups are based on the types of vegetation occurring in a given climate classification region. In addition to identifying climates, the system can be used to analyze ecosystem conditions and identify the main types of vegetation within climates. Due to its association with the plant life of a given region, the system is useful in predicting future changes of plant life within that region.

The Köppen climate classification system was modified further within the Trewartha climate classification system in 1966 (revised in 1980). The Trewartha system sought to create a more refined middle latitude climate zone, which was one of the criticisms of the Köppen system (the climate group C was too general).

Overview
The Köppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate groups: A (tropical), B (arid), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). The second letter indicates the seasonal precipitation type, while the third letter indicates the level of heat. Summers are defined as the six-month period that is warmer either from April to September and/or October to March, while winter is the six-month period that is cooler.

Group A: Tropical climates
Tropical climates have an average temperature of 18 °C or higher every month of the year, with significant precipitation.
 * Af = Tropical rainforest climate; average precipitation of at least 60 mm in every month.
 * Am = Tropical monsoon climate; driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with precipitation less than 60 mm, but at least $100-\left ( \frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right )$.
 * Aw or As = Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate; with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and less than $100-\left ( \frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right )$.

Group B: Desert and semi-arid climates
Desert and semi-arid climates are defined by low precipitation in a region that does not fit the polar (EF or ET) criteria of no month with an average temperature greater than 10 °C.

The precipitation threshold in millimeters is determined by multiplying the average annual temperature in Celsius by 20, then adding:1. 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the spring and summer months (April–September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October–March in the Southern), or

2. 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer, or

3. 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is received during the spring and summer.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe climate).

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climates (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while k signifies middle-latitude climates (average annual temperature less than 18 °C). In addition, n is used to denote a climate characterized by frequent fog and H for high altitudes.
 * BWh = Hot desert climate
 * BWk = Cold desert climate
 * BSh = Hot semi-arid climate
 * BSk = Cold semi-arid climate

Group C: Temperate climates
Temperate climates have the coldest month averaging between 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 18 °C and at least one month averaging above 10 °C. For the distribution of precipitation in locations that both satisfy a dry summer (Cs) and a dry winter (Cw), a location is considered to have a wet summer (Cw) when more precipitation falls within the summer months than the winter months while a location is considered to have a dry summer (Cs) when more precipitation falls within the winter months. This additional criterion applies to locations that satisfies both Ds and Dw as well.
 * Cfa = Humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Cfb = Temperate oceanic climate or subtropical highland climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Cfc = Subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Cwa = Monsoon-influenced humid subtropical climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Cwb = Subtropical highland climate or Monsoon-influenced temperate oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Cwc = Cold subtropical highland climate or Monsoon-influenced subpolar oceanic climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Csa = Hot-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm.
 * Csb = Warm-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm.
 * Csc = Cold-summer Mediterranean climate; coldest month averaging above 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 40 mm.

Group D: Continental climates
Continental climates have at least one month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C) and at least one month averaging above 10 °C.
 * Dfa = Hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Dfb = Warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Dfc = Subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Dfd = Extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. No significant precipitation difference between seasons (neither the abovementioned set of conditions fulfilled).
 * Dwa = Monsoon-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), at least one month's average temperature above 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Dwb = Monsoon-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), all months with average temperatures below 22 °C, and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Dwc = Monsoon-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Dwd = Monsoon-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least ten times as much rain in the wettest month of summer as in the driest month of winter.
 * Dsa = Mediterranean-influenced hot-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), average temperature of the warmest month above 22 °C and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm.
 * Dsb = Mediterranean-influenced warm-summer humid continental climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C), average temperature of the warmest month below 22 °C and at least four months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm.
 * Dsc = Mediterranean-influenced subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below 0 °C (or -3 °C) and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm.
 * Dsd = Mediterranean-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate; coldest month averaging below −38 °C and 1–3 months averaging above 10 °C. At least three times as much precipitation in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer, and the driest month of summer receives less than 30 mm.

Group E: Polar and alpine climates
Polar and alpine climates has every month of the year with an average temperature below 10 °C.
 * ET = Tundra climate; average temperature of warmest month between 0 °C and 10 °C.
 * EF = Ice cap climate; eternal winter, with all 12 months of the year with average temperatures below 0 °C.

Group A: Tropical/megathermal climates
Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperatures (at sea level and low elevations); all 12 months of the year have average temperatures of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher; and generally high annual precipitation. They are subdivided as follows:

Af: Tropical rainforest climate
All 12 months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm. These climates usually occur within 10° latitude of the equator. This climate has no natural seasons in terms of thermal and moisture changes. When it is dominated most of the year by the doldrums low-pressure system due to the presence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and when there are no cyclones then the climate is qualified as equatorial. When the trade winds dominate most of the year, the climate is a tropical trade-wind rainforest climate.

Examples

 * Apia, Samoa (Af)
 * Balikpapan, Indonesia (Af)
 * Davao, Philippines (Af)
 * Easter Island, Chile (Af)
 * Fort Lauderdale, Florida, United States (Af, bordering on Am)
 * Georgetown, Guyana (Af)
 * Hilo, Hawaii, United States (Af)
 * Honiara, Solomon Islands (Af)
 * Innisfail, Queensland, Australia (Af)
 * Iquitos, Peru (Af)
 * Ishigaki, Japan (Af)
 * Kampala, Uganda (Af)
 * Kisumu, Kenya (Af)
 * Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Af)
 * Kuching, Malaysia (Af)
 * La Ceiba, Honduras (Af)
 * Lae, Papua New Guinea (Af)
 * Manaus, Brazil (Af)
 * Medan, Indonesia (Af)
 * Medellín, Colombia (Af)
 * Moroni, Comoros (Af)
 * Pago Pago, American Samoa (Af)
 * Paramaribo, Suriname (Af)
 * Pontianak, Indonesia (Af)
 * Port Vila, Vanuatu (Af)
 * Quibdó, Colombia (Af)
 * Ratnapura, Sri Lanka (Af)
 * Salvador da Bahia, Brazil (Af)
 * Santos, Brazil (Af)
 * Singapore (Af)
 * Suva, Fiji (Af)
 * Toamasina, Madagascar (Af)
 * Victoria, Seychelles (Af)
 * Villa Tunari, Bolivia (Af)

Some of the places with this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica; see, for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases, the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia). Among these places, some have a pure equatorial climate (Balikpapan, Kuala Lumpur, Kuching, Lae, Medan, Paramaribo, Pontianak, and Singapore) with the dominant ITCZ aerological mechanism and no cyclones or a subequatorial climate with occasional hurricanes (Davao, Ratnapura, Victoria).

(Note. The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in daylight hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. Annual cyclic changes occur in the tropics, but not as predictably as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature, but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or groundwater. Plant response (e.g., phenology), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, etc.), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, etc.) are tuned to this 'seasonality'. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the 'rainy season' (and the 'high water season') is called invierno (Spanish) or inverno (Portuguese), though it could occur in the Northern Hemisphere summer; likewise, the 'dry season (and 'low water season') is called verano or verão, and can occur in the Northern Hemisphere winter).

Am: Tropical monsoon climate
This type of climate results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm, but at least $100-\left (\frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right)$ of average monthly precipitation.

Examples

 * Baguio, Philippines (Am, bordering on Cwb)
 * Cali, Colombia (Am)
 * Cairns, Queensland, Australia (Am)
 * Chittagong, Bangladesh (Am)
 * Coatzacoalcos, Veracruz, Mexico (Am)
 * Conakry, Guinea (Am)
 * Douala, Cameroon (Am)
 * Freetown, Sierra Leone (Am)
 * Guanare, Venezuela (Am)
 * Huế, Thừa Thiên–Huế, Vietnam (Am)
 * Jakarta, Indonesia (Am)
 * Kochi, Kerala, India (Am)
 * Ko Samui, Thailand (Am, bordering on Af)
 * Libreville, Gabon (Am)
 * Malabo, Equatorial Guinea (Am)
 * Malé, Maldives (Am)
 * Mangalore, Karnataka, India (Am)
 * Mérida, Venezuela (Am)
 * Miami, Florida, United States (Am)
 * Monrovia, Liberia (Am)
 * Phuntsholing, Bhutan (Am, bordering on Cwa)
 * Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria (Am)
 * Pucallpa, Peru (Am)
 * Puerto Ayacucho, Venezuela (Am)
 * Puerto Maldonado, Peru (Am)
 * Qionghai City, China (Am)
 * Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil (Am)
 * San Juan, Puerto Rico (Am)
 * Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (Am)
 * Taitung, Taiwan (Am)
 * Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India (Am)
 * Wenchang City, China (Am)
 * Yangon, Myanmar (Am)
 * Zanzibar City, Tanzania (Am)

Aw: Tropical savanna climate with dry winters
Aw climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and less than $100-\left (\frac{\mathrm{total\,annual\,precipitation\,(mm)}}{25} \right)$ of average monthly precipitation.

Examples

 * Abidjan, Ivory Coast (Aw)
 * Abuja, Nigeria (Aw)
 * Bamako, Mali (Aw)
 * Bangkok, Thailand (Aw)
 * Bangui, Central African Republic (Aw)
 * Banjul, The Gambia (Aw)
 * Barranquilla, Colombia (Aw)
 * Brasília, Brazil (Aw)
 * Brazzaville, Republic of the Congo (Aw)
 * Bujumbura, Burundi (Aw)
 * Cancún, Quintana Roo, Mexico (Aw, bordering on Am)
 * Caracas, Venezuela (Aw)
 * Cartagena, Colombia (Aw)
 * Cotonou, Benin (Aw)
 * Cuernavaca, Mexico (Aw, bordering on Cwa)
 * Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (Aw)
 * Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia (Aw)
 * Dhaka, Bangladesh (Aw)
 * Dili, East Timor (Aw)
 * Dongfang, Hainan, China (Aw)
 * Guatemala City, Guatemala (Aw, bordering on Cwb)
 * Guayaquil, Ecuador (Aw)
 * Haikou, Hainan, China (Aw, bordering on Cwa)
 * Havana, Cuba (Aw, bordering on Af)
 * Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam (Aw)
 * Juba, South Sudan (Aw)
 * Kano, Nigeria (Aw)
 * Kaohsiung, Taiwan (Aw)
 * Key West, Florida, United States (Aw)
 * Kigali, Rwanda (Aw)
 * Kingston, Jamaica (Aw)
 * Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo (Aw)
 * Kolkata, West Bengal, India (Aw)
 * Kumasi, Ghana (Aw)
 * Kupang, Indonesia (Aw)
 * Lagos, Nigeria (Aw)
 * Lomé, Togo (Aw)
 * Maputo, Mozambique (Aw, bordering on BSh)
 * Mengla, Yunnan, China (Aw)
 * Mumbai, Maharashtra, India (Aw, bordering on Am)
 * Naples, Florida, United States (Aw)
 * Panamá City, Panamá (Aw)
 * Phnom Penh, Cambodia (Aw)
 * Port-au-Prince, Haiti (Aw)
 * Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea (Aw)
 * Port of Spain, Trinidad and Tobago (Aw)
 * Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Aw, bordering on Am)
 * San Pedro Sula, Honduras (Aw, bordering on Am)
 * San Salvador, El Salvador (Aw)
 * Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia (Aw)
 * Sanya, Hainan, China (Aw)
 * Surabaya, Indonesia (Aw)
 * Tegucigalpa, Honduras (Aw)
 * Townsville, Queensland, Australia (Aw)
 * Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico (Aw)
 * Vientiane, Laos (Aw)
 * Yaoundé, Cameroon (Aw)
 * Ziguinchor, Senegal (Aw)

Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone from the low teens to the mid-20s latitudes, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia, Colombia) also qualifies. The Caribbean coast, eastward from the Gulf of Urabá on the Colombia–Panamá border to the Orinoco River delta, on the Atlantic Ocean (about 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme is the BSh climate (see below), characterized by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the Guajira, and Coro, western Venezuela, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive <300  mm total annual precipitation, practically all in two or three months).

This condition extends to the Lesser Antilles and Greater Antilles forming the circum-Caribbean dry belt. The length and severity of the dry season diminish inland (southward); at the latitude of the Amazon River—which flows eastward, just south of the equatorial line—the climate is Af. East from the Andes, between the dry, arid Caribbean and the ever-wet Amazon are the Orinoco River's Llanos or savannas, from where this climate takes its name.

As: Tropical savanna climate with dry-summers
Sometimes As is used in place of Aw if the dry season occurs during the time of higher sun and longer days (during summer). This is the case in parts of Hawaii, northwestern Dominican Republic, East Africa, southeast India and northeast Sri Lanka, and the Brazilian Northeastern Coast. In places that have this climate type, the dry season occurs during the time of lower sun and shorter days generally because of rain shadow effects during the 'high-sun' part of the year.

Examples

 * Cape Coast, Ghana (As)
 * Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India (As)
 * Fortaleza, Brazil (As)
 * Jaffna, Sri Lanka (As)
 * Kapalua, Hawaii, United States (As)
 * Lanai City, Hawaii, United States (As)
 * Mombasa, Kenya (As)
 * Monte Cristi, Dominican Republic (As-like BSh)
 * Natal, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil (As)
 * Nha Trang, Vietnam (As)
 * São Tomé, São Tomé and Principe (As)
 * Trincomalee, Sri Lanka (As)

Group B: Arid (desert and semi-arid) climates

These climates are characterized by the amount of annual precipitation less than a threshold value that approximates the potential evapotranspiration. The threshold value (in millimeters) is calculated as follows:

Multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add1. 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or

2. 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or

3. 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received.

According to the modified Köppen classification system used by modern climatologists, total precipitation in the warmest six months of the year is taken as a reference instead of the total precipitation in the high-sun half of the year.

If the annual precipitation is less than 50% of this threshold, the classification is BW (arid: desert climate); if it is in the range of 50%–100% of the threshold, the classification is BS (semi-arid: steppe climate).

A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Here, h signifies low-latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while k signified middle-latitude climate (average annual temperature below 18 °C).

Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations characterized by frequent fog and low clouds, although these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received, can be labeled BWn with the n denoting a climate characterized by frequent fog. An equivalent BSn category can be found in foggy coastal steppes.

BWh: Hot deserts

 * ʽAziziya, Jafara, Libya (BWh)
 * Ahvaz, Khuzestan, Iran (BWh)
 * Alexandria, Egypt (BWh)
 * Alice Springs, Australia (BWh)
 * Almería, Andalusia, Spain (BWh, bordering on BSh)
 * Arica, Chile (BWh)
 * Baghdad, Iraq (BWh)
 * Biskra, Algeria (BWh)
 * Cairo, Egypt (BWh)
 * Coober Pedy, Australia (BWh)
 * Death Valley, California, United States (BWh), location of the hottest air temperature ever reliably recorded on Earth
 * Djibouti City, Djibouti (BWh)
 * Doha, Qatar (BWh)
 * Dubai, United Arab Emirates (BWh)
 * Eilat, Southern District, Israel (BWh)
 * Fuerteventura, Canary Islands, Spain (BWh)
 * Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico (BWh)
 * Jodhpur, Rajasthan, India (BWh)
 * Karachi, Pakistan (BWh)
 * Khartoum, Sudan (BWh)
 * Kuwait City, Kuwait (BWh)
 * Lanzarote, Canary Islands, Spain (BWh)
 * Las Vegas, Nevada, United States (BWh)
 * Lima, Peru (BWh)
 * Mecca, Makkah Region, Saudi Arabia (BWh)
 * Muscat, Oman (BWh)
 * Nouakchott, Mauritania (BWh)
 * Phoenix, Arizona, United States (BWh)
 * Punto Fijo, Venezuela (BWh)
 * Qom, Iran (BWh)
 * Riyadh, Saudi Arabia (BWh)
 * Timbuktu, Mali (BWh)
 * Upington, Northern Cape, South Africa (BWh)
 * Yazd, Iran (BWh)

BWk: Cold deserts

 * Albuquerque, New Mexico, United States (BWk, bordering on BSk)
 * Antofagasta, Chile (BWk)
 * Aral, Kazakhstan (BWk)
 * Ashgabat, Turkmenistan (BWk)
 * Baku, Azerbaijan (BWk, bordering on BSk)
 * Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, Mexico (BWk, bordering on BWh)
 * Damascus, Syria (BWk)
 * Isfahan, Iran (BWk)
 * Kerman, Iran (BWk)
 * Leh, India (BWk)
 * Lorca, Spain (BWk)
 * Neuquén, Argentina (BWk)
 * Nukus, Karakalpakstan, Uzbekistan (BWk)
 * Ölgii, Mongolia (BWk)
 * Saint George, Utah, United States (BWk, bordering on BWh)
 * San Juan, Argentina (BWk/BWh)
 * Sanaa, Yemen (BWk, bordering on BSk)
 * Tabernas, Spain (BWk, bordering on BWh)
 * Turpan, Xinjiang, China (BWk)
 * Walvis Bay, Erongo Region, Namibia (BWk)
 * Yakima, Washington, United States (BWk, bordering on BSk)

BSh: Hot semi-arid

 * Accra, Ghana (BSh, bordering on Aw)
 * Alicante, Spain (BSh)
 * Barquisimeto, Venezuela (BSh)
 * Bushehr, Iran (BSh)
 * Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India (BSh)
 * Dakar, Senegal (BSh)
 * Dezful, Iran (BSh)
 * Gaborone, Botswana (BSh)
 * Honolulu, Hawaii, United States (BSh)
 * Kimberley, Northern Cape, South Africa (BSh)
 * Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh, India (BSh)
 * Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan (BSh, bordering on Cwa)
 * Lampedusa, Sicily, Italy (BSh)
 * Los Angeles, California, United States (BSh, bordering on Csa)
 * Luanda, Angola (BSh)
 * Malakal, South Sudan (BSh)
 * Mandalay, Myanmar (BSh, bordering on Aw)
 * Maracaibo, Venezuela (BSh)
 * Marrakesh, Morocco (BSh)
 * Mogadishu, Somalia (BSh)
 * Monterrey, Mexico (BSh, bordering on Cfa)
 * Mosul, Nineveh, Iraq (BSh, bordering on Csa)
 * Mount Isa, Queensland, Australia (BSh)
 * Murcia, Spain (BSh)
 * N'Djamena, Chad (BSh)
 * Nicosia, Cyprus (BSh)
 * Odessa, Texas, United States (BSh)
 * Oranjestad, Aruba (BSh)
 * Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (BSh)
 * Patos, Paraíba, Brazil (BSh)
 * Petrolina, Pernambuco, Brazil (BSh)
 * Piraeus, Greece (BSh)
 * Port Louis, Mauritius (BSh)
 * Querétaro City, Querétaro, Mexico (BSh)
 * Santiago del Estero, Argentina (BSh)
 * Saveh, Iran (BSh)
 * Toliara, Madagascar (BSh)
 * Tripoli, Libya (BSh)
 * Valencia, Spain (BSh)
 * Windhoek, Namibia (BSh)

BSk: Cold semi-arid

 * Albacete, Spain (BSk)
 * Aleppo, Syria (BSk)
 * Alexandra, New Zealand (BSk, bordering on Cfb)
 * Asmara, Eritrea (BSk)
 * Astrakhan, Russia (BSk)
 * Batna, Algeria (BSk)
 * Bloemfontein, South Africa (BSk)
 * Boise, Idaho, United States (BSk)
 * Cochabamba, Bolivia (BSk)
 * Comodoro Rivadavia, Argentina (BSk)
 * Daraa, Syria (BSk, bordering on BSh)
 * Denver, Colorado, United States (BSk)
 * Kabul, Afghanistan (BSk)
 * Kalgoorlie, Western Australia, Australia (BSk)
 * Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada (BSk)
 * Karaj, Iran (BSk)
 * Konya, Turkey (BSk)
 * L'Agulhas, Western Cape, South Africa (BSk)
 * La Quiaca, Jujuy, Argentina (BSk)
 * Madrid, Spain (BSk)
 * Mashhad, Iran (BSk)
 * Mildura, Victoria, Australia (BSk, bordering on BSh)
 * Polokwane, Limpopo, South Africa (BSk, bordering on BSh)
 * Quetta, Pakistan (BSk)
 * Reno, Nevada, United States (BSk)
 * Santiago, Chile (BSk)
 * Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada (BSk, bordering on Dfb)
 * Sevastopol, Crimea (BSk, bordering on Cfa and Cfb)
 * Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China (BSk)
 * Sulina, Romania (BSk)
 * Tehran, Iran (BSk)
 * Tianjin, China (BSk, bordering on Dwa)
 * Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia (BSk, bordering on Dwb and Dwc)
 * Ulan-Ude, Russia (BSk)
 * Yerevan, Armenia (BSk, bordering on Dfa)
 * Zacatecas City, Zacatecas, Mexico (BSk)
 * Zaragoza, Spain (BSk)

Group C: Temperate/mesothermal climates

In the Köppen climate system, temperate climates are defined as having an average temperature above 0 °C (or -3 °C, as noted previously) in their coldest month but below 18 °C. The average temperature of -3 °C roughly coincides with the equatorward limit of frozen ground and snow cover lasting for a month or more.

The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern—w indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation). s indicates at least three times as much rain in the wettest month of winter as in the driest month of summer. f means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above-mentioned set of conditions fulfilled).

The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat—a indicates warmest month average temperature above 22 °C while b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C but with at least four months averaging above 10 °C, and c indicates one to three months averaging above 10 °C.

Csa: Hot-summer Mediterranean climates
These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°. These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high-pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain.

Examples

 * Adelaide, Australia (Csa)
 * Algiers, Algeria (Csa)
 * Amman, Jordan (Csa, bordering on BSh and BSk)
 * Antalya, Turkey (Csa)
 * Athens, Greece (Csa, bordering on BSh)
 * Barcelona, Spain (Csa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Beirut, Lebanon (Csa)
 * Casablanca, Morocco (Csa)
 * Córdoba, Spain (Csa)
 * Dushanbe, Tajikistan (Csa)
 * Faro, Portugal (Csa)
 * Heraklion, Greece (Csa)
 * Homs, Syria (Csa)
 * Ilam, Iran (Csa)
 * Irbid, Jordan (Csa)
 * İzmir, Turkey (Csa)
 * Jerusalem, Israel (Csa)
 * Kardzhali, Bulgaria (Csa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Kermanshah, Iran (Csa)
 * Latakia, Syria (Csa)
 * Lisbon, Portugal (Csa)
 * Marseille, France (Csa)
 * Menorca, Balearic Islands, Spain (Csa)
 * Mersin, Turkey (Csa)
 * Monaco (Csa)
 * Naples, Italy (Csa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Nice, France (Csa)
 * Palermo, Italy (Csa)
 * Patras, Greece (Csa)
 * Perth, Australia (Csa)
 * Podgorica, Montenegro (Csa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Rome, Italy (Csa)
 * Sacramento, California, United States (Csa)
 * Seville, Spain (Csa)
 * Shkodër, Albania (Csa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Split, Croatia (Csa)
 * Tangier, Morocco (Csa)
 * Tashkent, Uzbekistan (Csa, bordering on BSk)
 * Tecate, Baja California, Mexico (Csa)
 * Tel Aviv, Israel (Csa)
 * Tlemcen, Algeria (Csa)
 * Tunis, Tunisia (Csa)
 * Valletta, Malta (Csa)
 * Vatican City (Csa)

Csb: Warm-summer Mediterranean climates
Dry-summer climates sometimes extend to additional areas where the warmest month average temperatures do not reach 22 C. These climates are classified as Csb.

Examples

 * Albany, Western Australia, Australia (Csb)
 * Aluminé, Neuquén Province, Argentina (Csb)
 * Bayda, Libya (Csb)
 * Cape Town, South Africa (Csb, bordering on Csa)
 * Concepción, Chile (Csb)
 * Guarda, Portugal (Csb)
 * Korçë, Albania (Csb, bordering on Dsb)
 * León, Spain (Csb)
 * Linares, Chile (Csb)
 * Mount Gambier, South Australia, Australia (Csb)
 * Nakuru, Kenya (Csb)
 * Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada (Csb)
 * Ohrid, North Macedonia (Csb)
 * Portland, Oregon, United States (Csb)
 * Porto, Portugal (Csb)
 * Rieti, Italy (Csb)
 * Salamanca, Spain (Csb)
 * San Carlos de Bariloche, Argentina (Csb)
 * San Cristóbal de la Laguna, Spain (Csb)
 * San Francisco, California, United States (Csb)
 * Seattle, United States (Csb)
 * Sintra, Portugal (Csb)
 * Valladolid, Spain (Csb)
 * Victoria, British Columbia, Canada (Csb)

Csc: Cold-summer Mediterranean climates
Cold summer Mediterranean climates (Csc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to coastal Csb climate areas, where the strong maritime influence prevents the average winter monthly temperature from dropping below 0 °C. This climate is rare and is predominantly found in climate fringes and isolated areas of the Cascades and Andes Mountains, as the dry-summer climate extends further poleward in the Americas than elsewhere. Rare instances of this climate can be found in some coastal locations in the North Atlantic and at high altitudes in Hawaii.

Examples

 * Akureyri, Iceland (Csc, bordering on Dsc)
 * Balmaceda, Chile (Csc, bordering on Csb)
 * Haleakalā Summit, Hawaii, United States (Csc)
 * Harstad, Norway (Csc, bordering on Dsc)
 * Liawenee, Australia (Csc, bordering on Cfc and Cfb)
 * Røst, Norway (Csc, bordering on Cfc)
 * Spirit Lake, Washington, United States (Csc, bordering on Dsc)

Cfa: Humid subtropical climates
These climates usually occur on the eastern coasts and eastern sides of continents, usually in the high 20s and 30s latitudes. Unlike the dry summer Mediterranean climates, humid subtropical climates have a warm and wet flow from the tropics that creates warm and moist conditions in the summer months. As such, summer (not winter as is the case in Mediterranean climates) is often the wettest season.

The flow out of the subtropical highs and the summer monsoon creates a southerly flow from the tropics that brings warm and moist air to the lower east sides of continents. This flow is often what brings the frequent and strong but short-lived summer thundershowers so typical of the more southerly subtropical climates like the southeast United States, southern China, and Japan.

Examples

 * Asunción, Paraguay (Cfa, bordering on Aw)
 * Atlanta, Georgia, United States (Cfa)
 * Bandar-e Anzali, Gilan, Iran (Cfa)
 * Belgrade, Serbia (Cfa)
 * Bologna, Italy (Cfa)
 * Bratislava, Slovakia (Cfa, bordering on Cfb/Dfa/Dfb)
 * Brisbane, Australia (Cfa)
 * Budapest, Hungary (Cfa, bordering on Dfa)
 * Buenos Aires, Argentina (Cfa)
 * Chongqing, China (Cfa, bordering on Cwa)
 * Constanța, Romania (Cfa, bordering on BSk)
 * Dallas, Texas, United States (Cfa)
 * Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Cfa)
 * Edirne, Turkey (Cfa, bordering on Csa)
 * Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil (Cfa)
 * Girona, Spain (Cfa, bordering on Csa)
 * Huesca, Spain (Cfa)
 * Ijevan, Tavush, Armenia (Cfa, bordering on Dfa)
 * Jeju, South Korea (Cfa)
 * Juan Fernández Islands, Chile (Cfa, bordering on Cfb/Csa/Csb)
 * Kozani, Greece (Cfa)
 * Krasnodar, Russia (Cfa, bordering on Dfa)
 * La Plata, Argentina (Cfa)
 * Lugano, Ticino, Switzerland (Cfa, bordering on Cfb)
 * Lyon, France (Cfa, bordering on Cfb)
 * Matamoros, Tamaulipas, Mexico (Cfa, bordering on Aw)
 * Milan, Italy (Cfa)
 * Montevideo, Uruguay (Cfa)
 * New York City, New York, United States (Cfa, bordering on Dfa)
 * Odesa, Ukraine (Cfa, bordering on Dfa and BSk)
 * Osaka, Japan (Cfa)
 * Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil (Cfa)
 * Prizren, Kosovo (Cfa, bordering on Dfa and Cfb)
 * Qabala, Azerbaijan (Cfa, bordering on Dfa and Dfb)
 * Rasht, Gilan, Iran (Cfa)
 * Rosario, Argentina (Cfa, bordering on Cwa)
 * Samsun, Turkey (Cfa)
 * San Marino (Cfa)
 * São Paulo, Brazil (Cfa, bordering on Cwa)
 * Sari, Mazandaran, Iran (Cfa, bordering on Csa)
 * Shanghai, China (Cfa)
 * Skopje, North Macedonia (Cfa, bordering on Dfa and BSk)
 * Sochi, Russia (Cfa)
 * Srinagar, India (Cfa)
 * Sydney, Australia (Cfa)
 * Taipei, Taiwan (Cfa)
 * Tbilisi, Georgia (Cfa, bordering on BSk)
 * Tirana, Albania (Cfa, bordering on Csa)
 * Tokyo, Japan (Cfa)
 * Toulouse, France (Cfa)
 * Ulsan, South Korea (Cfa)
 * Varna, Bulgaria (Cfa)
 * Venice, Italy (Cfa)
 * Wuhan, China (Cfa)
 * Yokohama, Japan (Cfa)
 * Zaqatala, Azerbaijan (Cfa)
 * Zonguldak, Turkey (Cfa, bordering on Cfb)

Marine west coast climate
Cfb climates usually occur in the higher middle latitudes on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 40° and 60°; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates. However, in southeast Australia, southeast South America, and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of temperate climates, on places near the coast and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 68°N in Norway.

These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are mild due to cool ocean currents. Winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes, but usually very cloudy, and frequently wet. Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rainforest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "highlands".

Examples

 * Amsterdam, North Holland, Netherlands (Cfb)
 * Artvin, Turkey (Cfb, bordering on Cfa/Csa/Csb)
 * Auckland, New Zealand (Cfb)
 * Belfast, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom (Cfb)
 * Bergen, Vestland, Norway (Cfb)
 * Berlin, Germany (Cfb)
 * Bern, Switzerland (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Bilbao, Spain (Cfb)
 * Block Island, Rhode Island, United States (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Bordeaux, France (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)
 * Brussels, Belgium (Cfb)
 * Caransebeş, Romania (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Cetinje, Montenegro (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Christchurch, New Zealand (Cfb)
 * Copenhagen, Denmark (Cfb)
 * Corvo Island, Azores, Portugal (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)
 * Dublin, Ireland (Cfb)
 * Forks, Washington, United States (Cfb)
 * Frankfurt, Hesse, Germany (Cfb)
 * Geneva, Switzerland (Cfb)
 * George, Western Cape, South Africa (Cfb)
 * Gdynia, Poland (Cfb)
 * Glasgow, Scotland, United Kingdom (Cfb)
 * Hobart, Tasmania, Australia (Cfb)
 * Ketchikan, Alaska, United States (Cfb)
 * Ljubljana, Slovenia (Cfb)
 * London, England, United Kingdom (Cfb)
 * Luxembourg City, Luxembourg (Cfb)
 * Malmö, Sweden (Cfb)
 * Mar del Plata, Argentina (Cfb)
 * Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)
 * Munich, Bavaria, Germany (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Ørland, Trøndelag, Norway (Cfb)
 * Osorno, Los Lagos Region, Chile (Cfb)
 * Paris, France (Cfb)
 * Port Elizabeth, South Africa (Cfb)
 * Prague, Czech Republic (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada (Cfb)
 * Puerto Montt, Los Lagos Region, Chile (Cfb)
 * Punta del Este, Uruguay (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)
 * Santander, Spain (Cfb)
 * Santiago de Compostela, Spain (Cfb)
 * Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Skagen, Denmark (Cfb)
 * Szombathely, Hungary (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Vaduz, Liechtenstein (Cfb)
 * Valdivia, Los Ríos Region, Chile (Cfb)
 * Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Cfb, bordering on Csb)
 * Vienna, Austria (Cfb)
 * Villa La Angostura, Neuquén Province, Argentina (Cfb)
 * Wellington, New Zealand (Cfb)
 * Wollongong, New South Wales, Australia (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)
 * Zagreb, Croatia (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Zürich, Switzerland (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)

Subtropical highland climate with uniform rainfall
Subtropical highland climates with uniform rainfall (Cfb) are a type of oceanic climate mainly found in the highlands of Australia, such as in or around the Great Dividing Range in the north of the state of New South Wales, and also sparsely in other continents, such as in South America, among others. Unlike a typical Cwb climate, they tend to have rainfall spread evenly throughout the year. They have characteristics of both the Cfb and Cfa climates, but unlike these climates, they have a high diurnal temperature variation and low humidity, owing to their inland location and relatively high elevation.

Examples

 * Aetomilitsa, Greece (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Andorra la Vella, Andorra (Cfb)
 * Bogotá, Colombia (Cfb)
 * Boone, North Carolina, United States (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Briançon, France (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Cameron Highlands, Malaysia (Cfb)
 * Chachapoyas, Peru (Cfb)
 * Cuenca, Ecuador (Cfb)
 * Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (Cfb)
 * La Esperanza, Honduras (Cfb)
 * Eldoret, Kenya (Cfb)
 * Goris, Syunik, Armenia (Cfb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Hengshan, China (Cfb, bordering on Cfa/Dfa/Dfb)
 * Kabale, Uganda (Cfb)
 * Kodaikanal, India (Cfb)
 * Le Tampon, Réunion, France (Cfb)
 * Lithgow, New South Wales, Australia (Cfb)
 * Manizales, Colombia (Cfb)
 * Maseru, Lesotho (Cfb, bordering on Cwb)
 * Mthatha, South Africa (Cfb)
 * Mucuchíes, Venezuela (Cfb, bordering on Cwb)
 * Nuwara Eliya, Sri Lanka (Cfb)
 * Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador (Cfb)
 * Sa Pa, Vietnam (Cfb)
 * Soria, Spain (Cfb)
 * Teresópolis, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Cfb)
 * Trevico, Italy (Cfb)
 * Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico (Cfb, bordering on Cfa)

Cfc: Subpolar oceanic climate
Subpolar oceanic climates (Cfc) occur poleward of or at higher elevations than the maritime temperate climates and are mostly confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. They occur in both hemispheres, most often at latitudes from 60° north and south to 70° north and south.

Examples

 * Auckland Islands, New Zealand (Cfc)
 * Karlsøy, Norway (Cfc, bordering on Dfc)
 * Miena, Tasmania, Australia (Cfc)
 * Perisher Valley, New South Wales, Australia (Cfc, bordering on Dfc and Cfb)
 * Punta Arenas, Chile (Cfc, bordering on ET)
 * Reykjavík, Iceland (Cfc)
 * Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina (Cfc)
 * Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Cfc)
 * Unalaska, Alaska, United States (Cfc)
 * Ushuaia, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina (Cfc, bordering on ET)

Cwa: Dry-winter humid subtropical climate
Main entry : Subtropical monsoon climate

Cwa is a monsoonal influenced version of the humid subtropical climate, having the classic dry winter–wet summer pattern associated with tropical monsoonal climates. They are found at similar latitudes as the Cfa climates, except in regions where monsoons are more prevalent. These regions are in the Southern Cone of South America, the Gangetic Plain of South Asia, southeastern Africa, and parts of East Asia and Mexico.

Examples

 * Antananarivo, Madagascar (Cwa, bordering on Cwb)
 * Busan, South Korea (Cwa)
 * Chengdu, Sichuan, China (Cwa)
 * Cobán, Guatemala (Cwa, bordering on Cfb)
 * Constanza, Dominican Republic (Cwa)
 * Córdoba, Argentina (Cwa)
 * Delhi, India (Cwa, bordering on BSh)
 * Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico (Cwa)
 * Guangzhou, Guangdong, China (Cwa)
 * Guwahati, India (Cwa)
 * Hanoi, Vietnam (Cwa)
 * Hong Kong (Cwa)
 * Islamabad, Pakistan (Cwa)
 * Kathmandu, Nepal (Cwa)
 * Lilongwe, Malawi (Cwa)
 * Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of Congo (Cwa)
 * Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India (Cwa)
 * Lusaka, Zambia (Cwa)
 * Macau (Cwa)
 * Mackay, Queensland, Australia (Cwa)
 * Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa (Cwa)
 * Rangpur, Bangladesh (Cwa)
 * Sialkot, Pakistan (Cwa)
 * Siguatepeque, Honduras (Cwa)
 * Taunggyi, Myanmar (Cwa)
 * Tucumán, Argentina (Cwa)
 * Yeosu, South Korea (Cwa)
 * Zapopan, Mexico (Cwa)
 * Zhengzhou, Henan, China (Cwa)

Cwb: Dry-winter subtropical highland climate
Dry-winter subtropical highland climate (Cwb) is a type of climate mainly found in highlands inside the tropics of Central America, South America, Africa, and South and Southeast Asia or areas in the subtropics. Winters are noticeable and dry, and summers can be very rainy. In the tropics, the monsoon is provoked by the tropical air masses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure.

Examples

 * Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Cwb)
 * Arusha, Tanzania (Cwb)
 * Atok, Philippines (Cwb)
 * Cajamarca, Peru (Cwb)
 * Cherrapunji, India (Cwb)
 * Cusco, Peru (Cwb)
 * Da Lat, Vietnam (Cwb)
 * Dali City, China (Cwb)
 * Diamantina, Brazil (Cwb)
 * Gangtok, India (Cwb)
 * Hakha, Myanmar (Cwb)
 * Harare, Zimbabwe (Cwb)
 * Huaraz, Peru (Cwb)
 * Johannesburg, South Africa (Cwb)
 * Kunming, China (Cwb)
 * Lhasa, Tibet Autonomous Region, China (Cwb, bordering on Dwb and BSk)
 * Lukla, Nepal (Cwb)
 * Mbabane, Eswatini (Cwb)
 * Mexico City, Mexico (Cwb)
 * Mokhotlong, Lesotho (Cwb)
 * Nairobi, Kenya (Cwb)
 * Ooty, India (Cwb)
 * Phongsali, Laos (Cwb)
 * Quetzaltenango, Guatemala (Cwb)
 * Salta, Argentina (Cwb)
 * Shimla, India (Cwb)
 * Thimphu, Bhutan (Cwb, bordering on Cwa)

Cwc: Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climate
Dry-winter cold subtropical highland climates (Cwc) exist in high-elevation areas adjacent to Cwb climates. This climate is rare and is found mainly in isolated locations mostly in the Andes in Bolivia and Peru, as well as in sparse mountain locations in Southeast Asia.

 * El Alto, Bolivia (Cwc, bordering on ET)
 * Juliaca, Peru (Cwc, bordering on ET)
 * La Paz, Bolivia (Cwc, bordering on ET)
 * Mount Pulag, Philippines (Cwc, bordering on ET and Cwb)
 * Potosí, Bolivia (Cwc, bordering on ET)

Group D: Continental/microthermal climates

These climates have an average temperature above 10 °C (50 °F) in their warmest months, and the coldest month average below 0 °C (or -3 °C, as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents and on their upper east coasts, normally north of 40°N. In the Southern Hemisphere, group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land at 40–60°S, existing only in some highland locations.

Dfa/Dwa/Dsa: Hot summer humid continental climates
Dfa climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of greater than 22 C. In Europe, these climates tend to be much drier than in North America. Dsa exists at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.

These climates exist only in the northern hemisphere because the southern hemisphere has no large landmasses isolated from the moderating effects of the sea within the middle latitudes.

Examples

 * Almaty, Kazakhstan (Dfa)
 * Aomori, Japan (Dfa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Boston, Massachusetts, United States (Dfa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Bucharest, Romania (Dfa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Cheonan, South Korea (Dfa, bordering on Dwa)
 * Chicago, Illinois, United States (Dfa)
 * Chișinău, Moldova (Dfa)
 * Dnipro, Ukraine (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
 * Donetsk, Ukraine (occupied by Russia) (Dfa)
 * Hakodate, Japan (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
 * Hamilton, Ontario, Canada (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
 * Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States (Dfa)
 * Rostov-on-Don, Russia (Dfa)
 * Ruse, Bulgaria (Dfa, bordering on Cfa)
 * Sapporo, Japan (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
 * Saratov, Russia (Dfa)
 * Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Dfa, bordering on Dfb)
 * Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China (Dfa, bordering on BSk)
 * Volgograd, Russia (Dfa)
 * Windsor, Ontario, Canada (Dfa)

In eastern Asia, Dwa climates extend further south into the mid-30s latitudes due to the influence of the Siberian high-pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of monsoon circulation.

Examples

 * Beijing, China (Dwa, bordering on BSk)
 * Blagoveshchensk, Amur Oblast, Russia (Dwa, bordering on Dwb)
 * Chongjin, North Korea (Dwa)
 * Chuncheon, Gangwon Province, South Korea (Dwa)
 * Harbin, China (Dwa)
 * Incheon, South Korea (Dwa)
 * North Platte, Nebraska, United States (Dwa, bordering on Dfa and BSk)
 * Pyongyang, North Korea (Dwa)
 * Rapid City, South Dakota, United States (Dwa, bordering on BSk)
 * Seoul, South Korea (Dwa)
 * Shenyang, China (Dwa)

Dsa exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates.

Examples

 * Arak, Iran (Dsa)
 * Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan (Dsa)
 * Cambridge, Idaho, United States (Dsa)
 * Chirchiq, Uzbekistan (Dsa, bordering on Csa)
 * Fayzabad, Badakhshan, Afghanistan (Dsa, bordering on Csa)
 * Hakkâri, Turkey (Dsa)
 * Hamedan, Iran (Dsa)
 * Muş, Turkey (Dsa)
 * Salt Lake City, Utah, United States (Dsa, bordering on Csa)
 * Saqqez, Iran (Dsa)
 * Shymkent, Kazakhstan (Dsa, bordering on Csa)

Dfb/Dwb/Dsb: Warm summer humid continental/hemiboreal climates
Dfb climates are immediately poleward of hot summer continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s latitudes in North America and Asia, and also extending to higher latitudes in central and eastern Europe and Russia, between the maritime temperate and continental subarctic climates, where it extends up to 65 degrees latitude in places.

Examples

 * Akhaltsikhe, Georgia (Dfb)
 * Ardahan, Turkey (Dfb)
 * Augsburg, Bavaria, Germany (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Briceni, Moldova (Dfb)
 * Brno, Czech Republic (Dfb)
 * Chamonix, France (Dfb)
 * Cluj-Napoca, Romania (Dfb)
 * Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy (Dfb)
 * Debrecen, Hungary (Dfb, bordering on Cfa/Cfb/Dfa)
 * Edmonton, Alberta, Canada (Dfb)
 * Erzurum, Turkey (Dfb)
 * Fairbanks, Alaska, United States (Dfb, bordering on Dfc)
 * Falls Creek, Victoria, Australia (Dfb, bordering on Dfc and Cfb)
 * Gospić, Croatia (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Gyumri, Shirak, Armenia (Dfb)
 * Helsinki, Finland (Dfb)
 * Imilchil, Morocco (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Karaganda, Kazakhstan (Dfb)
 * Klagenfurt, Austria (Dfb)
 * Košice, Slovakia (Dfb)
 * Kraków, Poland (Dfb)
 * Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan (Dfb)
 * Kyiv, Ukraine (Dfb)
 * La Chaux-de-Fonds, Switzerland (Dfb)
 * Lendava, Slovenia (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Lillehammer, Norway (Dfb)
 * Lviv, Ukraine (Dfb)
 * Marquette, Michigan, United States (Dfb)
 * Miercurea Ciuc, Romania (Dfb)
 * Minsk, Belarus (Dfb)
 * Montreal, Quebec, Canada (Dfb)
 * Moscow, Russia (Dfb)
 * Mouthe, France (Dfb)
 * Mutsu, Aomori, Japan (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Novosibirsk, Russia (Dfb)
 * Oslo, Norway (Dfb)
 * Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Dfb)
 * Portland, Maine, United States (Dfb)
 * Poznań, Poland (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Pristina, Kosovo (Dfb, bordering on Cfb and Cfa)
 * Riga, Latvia (Dfb)
 * Saint Petersburg, Russia (Dfb)
 * Stockholm, Sweden (Dfb)
 * Sofia, Bulgaria (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Subotica, Serbia (Dfb, bordering on BSk)
 * Tallinn, Estonia (Dfb)
 * Tampere, Finland (Dfb, bordering on Dfc)
 * Trondheim, Norway (Dfb)
 * Toblach, Italy (Dfb)
 * Uppsala, Sweden (Dfb)
 * Vilnius, Lithuania (Dfb)
 * Warsaw, Poland (Dfb, bordering on Cfb)
 * Žabljak, Montenegro (Dfb)

Like with all Group D climates, Dwb climates mostly only occur in the northern hemisphere.

Examples

 * Baruunturuun, Mongolia (Dwb, bordering on Dwc)
 * Calgary, Alberta, Canada (Dwb, bordering on Dfb and BSk)
 * Hailin, Heilongjiang, China (Dwb, bordering on Dwa)
 * Heihe, Heilongjiang, China (Dwb)
 * Irkutsk, Russia (Dwb, bordering on Dwc)
 * Khabarovsk, Russia (Dwb, bordering on Dwa)
 * Pembina, North Dakota, United States (Dwb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Pyeongchang, South Korea (Dwb)
 * Vladivostok, Primorsky krai, Russia (Dwb)
 * Yanji, Jilin, China (Dwb)

Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa, but at even higher altitudes or latitudes, and chiefly in North America, since the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia.

Examples

 * Abali, Iran (Dsb)
 * Castlegar, British Columbia, Canada (Dsb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Chaghcharan, Ghor, Afghanistan (Dsb)
 * Dras, India (Dsb)
 * Flagstaff, Arizona, United States (Dsb, bordering on Csb)
 * Jermuk, Vyots Dzor, Armenia (Dsb, bordering on Dfb)
 * Puente del Inca, Argentina (Dsb, bordering on Csb)
 * Puerto de Navacerrada, Spain (Dsb, bordering on Csb)
 * Rocca di Mezzo, Italy (Dsb, bordering on Csb and Cfb)
 * Roghun, Tajikistan (Dsb)
 * Sewell, O'Higgins Region, Chile (Dsb, bordering on Dsc)
 * Sivas, Turkey (Dsb)
 * South Lake Tahoe, California, United States (Dsb, bordering on Csb)
 * Spokane, Washington, United States (Dsb, bordering on Dsa and Csb)

Dfc/Dwc/Dsc: Subarctic/boreal climates
Dfc, Dsc and Dwc climates occur poleward of the other group D climates, or at higher altitudes, generally in the 50s and 60s latitudes.

Examples:

 * Alta, Norway (Dfc)
 * Anadyr, Chukotka, Russia (Dfc)
 * Anchorage, Alaska, United States (Dfc, bordering on Dfb)
 * Arkhangelsk, Russia (Dfc)
 * Bodie, California, United States (Dsc, bordering on Dsb)
 * Charlotte Pass, New South Wales, Australia (Dfc)
 * Delta Junction, Alaska, United States (Dwc, bordering on BSk)
 * Feldberg, Baden-Württemberg, Germany (Dfc)
 * Fraser, Colorado, United States (Dfc)
 * Inukjuak, Quebec, Canada (Dsc, bordering on ET)
 * Jyväskylä, Finland (Dfc)
 * Kangerlussuaq, Greenland, Denmark (Dfc, bordering on ET and BSk)
 * Livigno, Italy (Dfc)
 * Luleå, Sweden (Dfc)
 * Lysá hora, Czech Republic (Dfc)
 * Mohe, Heilongjiang, China (Dwc)
 * Nagqu, Tibet, China (Dwc, bordering on ET)
 * Narsarsuaq, Greenland, Denmark (Dfc, bordering on ET)
 * Norilsk, Russia (Dfc)
 * Nyurba, Russia (Dsc, bordering on Dfc)
 * Oulu, Finland (Dfc, bordering on Dfb)
 * Paganella, Italy (Dfc, bordering on Dwc and ET)
 * Røros, Norway (Dfc)
 * Saint Pierre and Miquelon, France (Dfc, bordering on Dfb)
 * Soldotna, Alaska, United States (Dsc)
 * St. Moritz, Grisons, Switzerland (Dfc)
 * Štrbské Pleso, Slovakia (Dfc)
 * Thompson, Manitoba, Canada (Dfc)
 * Tromsø, Norway (Dfc)
 * Tsetserleg, Arkhangai Province, Mongolia (Dwc)
 * Umeå, Sweden (Dfc, bordering on Dfb)
 * Vaasa, Finland (Dfc)
 * Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada (Dfc)
 * Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada (Dfc)
 * Yushu City, Qinghai, China (Dwc, bordering on Dwb)

Dfd/Dwd/Dsd: Subarctic/boreal climates with severe winters
Places with this climate have severe winters, with the temperature in their coldest month lower than −38 °C. These climates occur only in eastern Siberia. The names of some of the places with this climate have become veritable synonyms for the extreme, severe winter cold.

Examples

 * Allakh-Yun, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dwd)
 * Delyankir, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dwd)
 * Khonuu, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dfd)
 * Okhotsky-Perevoz, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dfd)
 * Oymyakon, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dfd)
 * Verkhoyansk, Sakha Republic, Russia (Dsd)

Group E: Polar climates
In the Köppen climate system, polar climates are defined as the warmest temperature of any month being below 10 °C (50 °F). Polar climates are further divided into two types, tundra climates and icecap climates:

ET: Tundra climate
Tundra climate (ET): warmest month has an average temperature between 0 and 10 °C. These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian land masses (generally north of 70 °N although they may be found farther south depending on local conditions), and on nearby islands. ET climates are also found on some islands near the Antarctic Convergence, and at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line.

Examples

 * Alert, Nunavut, Canada (ET, bordering on EF)
 * Ben Nevis, Scotland, United Kingdom (ET)
 * Cairn Gorm, Scotland, United Kingdom (ET)
 * Campbell Island, New Zealand (ET)
 * Cerro de Pasco, Peru (ET)
 * Crozet Islands (ET)
 * Dikson Island, Russia (ET)
 * Esperanza Base, Antarctica (ET)
 * Finse, Norway (ET)
 * Ilulissat, Greenland, Denmark (ET)
 * Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada (ET)
 * Ísafjörður, Iceland (ET, bordering on Csc)
 * Ittoqqortoormiit, Greenland, Denmark (ET)
 * Jade Dragon Snow Mountain, China (ET, bordering on EF)
 * Jungfraujoch, Switzerland (ET)
 * Kasprowy Wierch, Poland (ET)
 * Kerguelen Islands (ET)
 * Lomnický štít, Prešov Region, Slovakia (ET)
 * Macquarie Island, Australia (ET)
 * Mauna Loa (slopes), Hawaii, United States (ET, bordering on Csc and Cfc)
 * Mount Apo, Philippines (ET, bordering on Cfc)
 * Mount Fuji, Japan (ET)
 * Mount Rainier (slopes), Washington, United States (ET)
 * Mount Washington, New Hampshire, United States (ET, bordering on Dfc)
 * Mount Wellington, Tasmania, Australia (ET)
 * Murghab, Tajikistan (ET)
 * Musala, Bulgaria (ET)
 * Mykines, Faroe Islands (ET, bordering on Cfc)
 * Mys Shmidta, Russia (ET)
 * North Salang, Afghanistan (ET, bordering on Dsc)
 * Novaya Zemlya, Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia (ET)
 * Nuuk, Greenland, Denmark (ET)
 * Phari, China (ET)
 * Prince Edwards Islands (ET)
 * Puerto Williams, Chile (ET, bordering on Cfc)
 * Sachs Harbour, Northwest Territories, Canada (ET)
 * Sněžka, Czech Republic (ET, bordering on Dfc)
 * Sonnblick, Austria (ET)
 * Stanley, Falkland Islands (ET, bordering on Cfc)
 * Svalbard, Norway (ET)
 * Tiksi, Russia (ET)
 * Trepalle, Italy (ET)
 * Utqiagvik, Alaska, United States (ET)
 * Yu Shan, Taiwan (ET, bordering on Cfc)
 * Zugspitze, Bavaria, Germany (ET)

EF: Ice cap climate
Ice cap climate (EF): this climate is dominant in Antarctica, inner Greenland, and summits of many high mountains, even at lower latitudes. Monthly average temperatures never exceed 0 °C (32 °F).

Examples

 * Aconcagua, Chile/Argentina (EF)
 * Amundsen–Scott Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Byrd Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Chimborazo, Ecuador (EF)
 * Concordia Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Denali, Alaska, United States (EF)
 * Dome Fuji, Antarctica (EF)
 * Huascarán, Peru (EF)
 * Ismoil Somoni Peak, Tajikistan (EF)
 * Jengish Chokusu, China/Kyrgyzstan (EF)
 * K2, China/Pakistan (EF)
 * Kangchenjunga, India/Nepal (EF)
 * Kilimanjaro, Tanzania (EF)
 * Lhotse, Nepal (EF)
 * Makalu, Nepal/China (EF)
 * McMurdo Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Mount Ararat, Turkey (EF)
 * Mount Everest, China/Nepal (EF)
 * Mount Logan, Canada (EF)
 * Mount Rainier (summit), Washington, United States (EF)
 * Ojos del Salado, Chile (EF)
 * Pico de Orizaba, Mexico (EF)
 * Plateau Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Puncak Jaya, Indonesia (EF, bordering on ET)
 * Sajama, Bolivia (EF)
 * Scott Base, Antarctica (EF)
 * Showa Station, Antarctica (EF)
 * Summit Camp, Greenland, Denmark (EF)
 * Ushakov Island, Russia (EF)
 * Vostok Station, Antarctica (EF)

Biomass
The Köppen climate classification is based on the empirical relationship between climate and vegetation. This classification provides an efficient way to describe climatic conditions defined by temperature and precipitation and their seasonality with a single metric. Because climatic conditions identified by the Köppen classification are ecologically relevant, it has been widely used to map the geographic distribution of long-term climate and associated ecosystem conditions.

Climate change
Over recent years, there has been an increasing interest in using the classification to identify changes in climate and potential changes in vegetation over time. The most important ecological significance of the Köppen climate classification is that it helps to predict the dominant vegetation type based on the climatic data and vice versa.

In 2015, a Nanjing University paper published in Scientific Reports analyzing climate classifications found that between 1950 and 2010, approximately 5.7% of all land area worldwide had moved from wetter and colder classifications to drier and hotter classifications. The authors also found that the change "cannot be explained as natural variations but are driven by anthropogenic factors".

A 2018 study provides detailed maps for present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution.

Other Köppen climate maps
All maps use the ≥0 °C definition for the temperate-continental border.

Climate records

 * IPCC Data Distribution Center (archived 18 April 2016)

title: Köppen climate classification


text:
Baladas en Español

Baladas en Español is a Spanish language compilation album by Swedish pop duo Roxette, released on 21 October 1996 by EMI. The compilation was only issued in Spanish and Portuguese-speaking territories. It was a commercial success upon release, peaking in the top ten of several national record charts, and was certified gold or platinum in numerous territories, namely Argentina, Brazil, Mexico and Spain. As of 2001, the record sold in excess of 1.2 million copies worldwide.

"Un Día Sin Ti" and "No Sé Si Es Amor" were released as commercial singles, though most songs on the album would go on to receive substantial amounts of airplay on Latin American and Spanish radio. In 2022, a complete collection of the record was released, consisting of all the Spanish language songs recorded by Roxette.

Composition and style
The album consists of twelve of Roxette's ballads and downtempo tracks, translated into Spanish by songwriter Luis Gomez Escolar, of whom very little is known. Escolar's translations have been criticised by both fans and media for being poorly representative of the original English lyrics, as well as for being overly-simplistic and juvenile.

Commercial performance
Baladas en Español was released on 21 October 1996, exclusively in Spanish and Portuguese-speaking territories. However, it was also released in the US by EMI Latin, making it the final Roxette album to be officially issued in the country. The record was preceded by the release of "Un Día Sin Ti" as its lead single, which reached the top ten of Billboard's Latin Pop Songs. The song also charted on the national airplay chart of Spain. Its music video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund. "No Sé Si Es Amor" was released as the album's second and final single in January 1997, peaking at number six in Spain. "Soy una Mujer" was released as a promotional single exclusively in Mexico in July 1997.

The album was a commercial success upon release, and has been certified double platinum in Spain (indicating shipments of over 200,000 units), platinum in Argentina and Brazil (for 60,000 and 250,000 copies, respectively), and gold (100,000 copies) in Mexico. As of 2001, Baladas en Español has sold over 1.2 million copies worldwide, and just over 13,000 copies in the US.

Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Baladas en Español. Musicians
 * Roxette are Per Gessle and Marie Fredriksson
 * Recorded at Tits & Ass Studio in Halmstad, Sweden; EMI Studios and Polar Studios in Stockholm, Sweden; Mayfair Studios in London, England and Capri Digital Studios in Capri, Italy between 1987 and 1996.
 * All songs published by Jimmy Fun Music, except: "Watercolours in the Rain" published by Shock the Music/Jimmy Fun Music
 * All songs produced by Clarence Öfwerman
 * Mastered by Alar Suurna at Polar Studios
 * Marie Fredriksson – lead and background vocals
 * Per Gessle – lead and background vocals, mixing
 * Pelle Alsing – drums
 * Bo Eriksson – oboe ("Queen of Rain")
 * Anders Herrlin – bass guitar, programming, engineering
 * Jonas Isacsson – acoustic and electric guitars
 * Christer Jansson – drums
 * Clarence Öfwerman – keyboards and production; string arrangements and conducting ("Perfect Day")
 * Kjell Öhman – accordion ("Perfect Day")
 * Mats "M.P." Persson – acoustic and electric guitars
 * Pelle Sirén – acoustic and electric guitars

Technical
 * Kjell Andersson – sleeve design
 * Kevin Davies – photography
 * Mats Holmquist – string arrangements and conducting ("I Don't Want to Get Hurt")
 * Michael Ilbert – engineering, mixing
 * Henrik Jansson – string arrangements and conducting ("Watercolours in the Rain")
 * Jonas Linell – photography
 * Lars Nordin – photography
 * Alar Suurna – engineering

Certifications
!scope="row"|Worldwide
 * 1,200,000
 * 1,200,000

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Baladas en Español


text:
Talk:Macedonian

Aromanians
I think that the term "Macedo-romanians" is not mentioned in the article Aromanians.There is not sufficient evidence that the term existed, and if it existed its use was limited. Aromanians (Vlachoi) lived in several places and not only in the extended region "Macedonia". I think that something must be mentioned in the article "Aromanians" with references. If the references are not sufficient, the term cannot be connected with "Macedonian".Jestmoon(talk) 17:42, 19 November 2015 (UTC)

Demonyms in the People section
Someone added the demonym used for everyone residing in the Republic of Macedonia into the "People" section even though this section is about the Macedonian people and not about every ethnic group that happens to be residing in the area (Turks, Serbians, etc). I have reverted the edits as this seemed quite problematic. If demonyms have to be included in the People section, then shouldnt also apply for the demonym Macedonian also used for the people residing in the Greek (and to an extend, in the Bulgarian) parts of the region of Macedonia?-- ❤ S ILENT R ESIDENT  ❤ 06:05, 15 November 2017 (UTC)

Macedo-Romanians
I have created a new article about the obsolete terminology related directly to this issue called Macedonians (obsolete terminology). Because it encompasses also the Macedo-Romanians which are singled out as another, separate disambiguation page, I suggest that they be dropped from this disambiguation page here. Moreover, the text here explicitly mentions that the term Macedo-Romanians is about an outdated terminology. Jingiby (talk) 10:00, 13 August 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Macedonian


text:
Irlam

Irlam is a suburb in the City of Salford, Greater Manchester, England. In 2011, it had a population of 19,933. It lies on flat ground on the south side of the M62 motorway and the north bank of the Manchester Ship Canal, 6.7 mi southwest of Salford, 7.6 mi southwest of Manchester and 8.3 mi northeast of Warrington. Irlam forms a continuous urban area with Cadishead to the southwest, and is divided from Flixton and the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford to the southeast by the Manchester Ship Canal. The main road through Irlam, linking it to Cadishead and Eccles, is the A57. Irlam railway station also serves the district.

Irlam was anciently known as Irwellham, an outlying area of Chat Moss, a large peat bog which straddled the River Irwell. Work was carried out in the 19th century to reclaim large areas to enable the completion of the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1829. In 1894, the Irwell was adjusted so that its waters were united with the Manchester Ship Canal, stimulating the growth of Irlam as an inland port. Irlam Urban District was established in the same year and was governed thereafter by its own district council until its abolition in 1974.

Irlam's geography is varied: the northern half is still moss land, with a large farming community; the southern half is predominantly residential.

History
Irlam is on the north bank of the River Irwell, from which it almost certainly takes its name, being known in the 13th century as Irwellham. Until the arrival of the Cheshire Lines Committee railway and the opening of Irlam railway station in 1873, Irlam remained a largely undeveloped village, on the southern edge of the peat bog known as Chat Moss.

From at least the beginning of the 13th century, Irlam was held by the Irlam family, whose seat was Irlam Hall. By 1688 Irlam Hall had become the home of Thomas Latham, who played an important part in bringing William of Orange to the throne of England in 1689.

Irlam Urban District was created in 1894, the same year that the Manchester Ship Canal opened. A pair of locks and a ship coaling berth were constructed here. The subsequent industrial development of Irlam owed much to the construction of the canal, which effectively rendered the River Irwell navigable to large ocean-going ships up to Manchester Docks. The Latham family's importance to the local area was acknowledged when their features were incorporated into the arms of Irlam's former urban district council.

Council-owned housing passed to the City West Housing Trust. It was while renovating some of these properties that there was a large gas explosion at 7:00 am on 2 November 2010. Four houses were destroyed, 15 people were injured and 80 families were subsequently evacuated. There were no fatalities.

Governance
The ward elect three councillors to Salford City Council via its Irlam ward. The current councillors are: Roger Jones (Labour Co-op), Peter Taylor (Labour), and Tracy Kelly (Labour). It is represented in Westminster by Barbara Keeley MP for Worsley and Eccles South.

Economy
Steel manufacture was a major source of employment in Irlam for a large part of the 20th century. The Partington Steel and Iron Company opened the first steelworks in Irlam in 1910. It subsequently became a part of the Lancashire Steel Corporation, and later British Steel Corporation. Rationalisation and the concentration of steel manufacture into fewer, larger sites, meant that by 1979, all steel production in Irlam had ceased. The former steelworks are now the site of Northbank Industrial Estate.

Kingsland Wine & Spirits, the UK's largest independent wine bottler, operates from a 35 acre site in Irlam, formerly a soapworks established in 1895. The company employs 300 people.

Sport
Irlam F.C. is a semi-professional football club that plays in the North West Counties League and has its ground at the Ambitek Stadium on Silver Street. There are two junior football teams in the area, one of them being Irlam JFC.

Irlam Cricket Club plays in the Greater Manchester Cricket League, and Irlam Leisure Centre is a facility with a swimming pool, sports hall, squash court and fitness gym.

Notable people

 * Neil McArthur
 * Matty Blythe
 * Bob Dale
 * Ian Goodwin
 * Michelle Keegan
 * Percy Le Clerc
 * Emma Lowndes
 * Adam Neal
 * Jason Talbot
 * Ernest Warburton
 * Russell Watson
 * Scott Hogan
 * Liam Hogan

title: Irlam


text:
Junco

A junco, genus Junco, is a small North American bird in the New World sparrow family Passerellidae. Junco systematics are still confusing after decades of research, with various authors accepting between three and twelve species. Despite having a name that appears to derive from the Spanish term for the plant genus Juncus (rushes), these birds are seldom found among rush plants, which prefer wet ground, while juncos prefer dry soil.

Their breeding habitat is coniferous or mixed forest areas throughout North America, ranging from subarctic taiga to high-altitude mountain forests in Mexico and Central America south to Panama. Northern birds usually migrate farther south; southern populations are permanent residents or altitudinal migrants, moving only a short distance downslope to avoid severe winter weather in the mountains.

These birds forage on the ground. In winter, they often forage in flocks. They eat mainly insects and seeds. They usually nest in a well-hidden location on the ground or low in a shrub or tree.

Taxonomy
The genus Junco was introduced in 1831 by the German naturalist Johann Georg Wagler for a single species, the yellow-eyed junco. The yellow-eyed junco is therefore now the type species. The genus name is from Latin iuncus meaning 'rush'.

The genus contains five species:

title: Junco


text:
User:Carlo.Ierna

I’m working as a postdoctoral researcher at Utrecht University (The Netherlands). My research project concerns the renewal of the ideal of "Philosophy as Science" in the School of Brentano.

 * My research blog

Cat (talk) 18:18, 1 October 2012 (UTC)

nl:Gebruiker:Carlo.Ierna it:Utente:Carlo.Ierna de:Benutzer:Carlo.Ierna

title: User:Carlo.Ierna


text:
David Arnold

David Arnold (born 23 January 1962) is an English film composer whose credits include scoring five James Bond films, as well as Stargate (1994), Independence Day (1996), Godzilla (1998) and the television series Little Britain and Sherlock. For Independence Day, he received a Grammy Award for Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television, and for Sherlock, he and co-composer Michael Price won a Creative Arts Emmy for the score of "His Last Vow", the final episode in the third series. Arnold scored the BBC / Amazon Prime series Good Omens (2019) adapted by Neil Gaiman from his book Good Omens, written with Terry Pratchett. Arnold is a fellow of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors.

Career
While attending a Sixth Form College in Luton, Arnold became friends with director Danny Cannon. Cannon initially created short films for which Arnold was asked to write the music. The two made their respective major film debuts with The Young Americans. "Play Dead", a song from the film with singer Björk, charted No. 12 in the UK. The following year he scored Stargate and Last of the Dogmen, with excerpts from the former ranking third in the most commonly used soundtrack cues for film trailers.

Arnold then composed music for Stargate director Roland Emmerich's next two movies, Independence Day and Godzilla, as well as four movies for director John Singleton. In addition, he has scored various comedies, dramas, and nineteenth-century period pieces, as well as providing music for several British television shows including the 2000 remake of Randall and Hopkirk (Deceased) and Little Britain. During film production, his compositions are conducted by Nicholas Dodd. In 2010, he composed the music for Come Fly With Me, a British television series from the producers of Little Britain.

He is a member of the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA). On Thursday 29 November 2012, Arnold received an honorary degree from University of West London. Now a university honorary, he will work closely with the University in particular London College of Music, a faculty within the institute. In 2014, he appeared as himself in The Life of Rock with Brian Pern.

Film music concerts
Arnold performed his debut orchestral concert, showcasing his film and television music, on Sunday 6 July 2014 at London's Royal Festival Hall. The line-up featured Nicholas Dodd conducting, David McAlmont as surprise guest vocalist ("My secret weapon!" said Arnold) and the Urban Voices Collective choir, plus Mark Gatiss and Amanda Abbington introducing the suite of Sherlock music, for which Arnold's collaborator on the project, Michael Price, replaced Dodd.

He performed his music in a series of orchestral concerts in 2015: Dublin ) in January (with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra); Manchester (with the Manchester Camerata) in April; and London (with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra), Birmingham and Nottingham (with the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra (CBSO)) in June 2015. He was also the special guest at 'The music of David Arnold ', a concert in Lucerne in October 2015, with Ludwig Wicki conducting the 21st Century Symphony Orchestra and Chorus. On 5 June 2016 Film Music Prague performed a concert of his work, with Arnold in attendance (and performing) as special guest. In February 2016 the Royal Albert Hall announced the premiere of Independence Day Live on 22 September 2016. This celebrated the 20th anniversary of the film's release with a live orchestral performance. David Arnold gave a pre-show talk about his work and the Royal Philharmonic Concert Orchestra and Maida Vale Singers (conducted by Gavin Greenaway) performed the original music while the film screened. The Upcoming magazine gave the event a five star review noting that "with unrivalled acoustics and a ceiling filled with floating UFO-shaped objects, the Hall set the ideal scene for the audience and the musicians alike" and that the production "kept the audience on the edge of their seats as if the film had just been released for the first time."

Arnold hosted another two concerts of his music in Dublin, at the Bord Gáis Energy Theatre on 19 and 20 May 2017, with the RTÉ Concert Orchestra. The first concert showcased his career in writing music for film and television, the second was Independence Day Live with the film screened as the orchestra played the score alongside. The first James Bond film ever to be screened with a live orchestra was Casino Royale in Concert which took place at the Royal Albert Hall on Saturday 30 September 2017; David Arnold held a pre-concert question and answer session.

James Bond

Arnold was a Bond fan from an early age and also a fan of Bond composer John Barry. In 1997, Arnold produced Shaken and Stirred: The David Arnold James Bond Project, an album featuring new versions of the themes from various James Bond films. The album featured a variety of contemporary artists including Jarvis Cocker, Chrissie Hynde, David McAlmont, Propellerheads and Iggy Pop; a version of You Only Live Twice by Björk was recorded but not included on the album. John Barry, the composer of many of the themes on the album, was complimentary about Arnold's interpretation of his work; "He was very faithful to the melodic and harmonic content, but he's added a whole other rhythmic freshness and some interesting casting in terms of the artists chosen to do the songs. I think it's a terrific album. I'm very flattered." Barry contacted Barbara Broccoli, producer of the then-upcoming Tomorrow Never Dies, to recommend Arnold as the film's composer. Arnold was hired to score the instalment and, returning the compliment to the man he refers to as "The guvnor", included musical references to Barry's score for From Russia with Love, as well as, of course, the James Bond Theme composed by Monty Norman with Barry's arrangement.

Arnold scored the four subsequent Bond films: The World Is Not Enough, Die Another Day (in which he included references to John Barry's score for On Her Majesty's Secret Service), Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace. Arnold did not score the 23rd James Bond film, Skyfall, with Thomas Newman taking his place. Arnold commented that Newman had been selected by the film's director, Sam Mendes, because of their history of working together, rather than because of Arnold's commitment to working with director Danny Boyle as composer for the Opening Ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics. However, a part of Arnold's composition work on Casino Royale was reused, with a credit, in Skyfall and again in SPECTRE.

Arnold also co-wrote the main theme songs for The World Is Not Enough ("The World Is Not Enough" by Garbage) and Casino Royale ("You Know My Name" by Chris Cornell), as well as "Surrender" by k.d. lang which appears during the end credits of Tomorrow Never Dies having been originally proposed as the opening theme. Arnold also contributed the main themes to Kevin Kiner's score for Activision's GoldenEye 007, the remake of the 1997 game of the same name.

In 2017, a part of a track entitled "Vesper" from Arnold's composition work on the Casino Royale soundtrack was reused in a Sherlock episode entitled "The Final Problem", the third episode of the fourth series, in a track entitled "Pick Up" composed by Arnold himself and Michael Price.

Other work
Arnold has collaborated with such musical acts as Cast, Kaiser Chiefs, Massive Attack, and Pulp, and solo artists Natasha Bedingfield, Melanie C, Björk, Chris Cornell, Shirley Manson, Mark Morriss, Nina Persson and in 2009 produced Shirley Bassey's album The Performance.

In 2001, he provided a new arrangement of Ron Grainer's Doctor Who theme music for the Eighth Doctor audio dramas from Big Finish Productions. His version was used as the Eighth Doctor theme starting with 2001's Storm Warning until 2008, when it was replaced with a new version arranged by Nicholas Briggs starting with Dead London. Arnold's theme returned to the Eighth Doctor releases with the 2012 box set, Dark Eyes.

Arnold is the second cousin of Irish singer-songwriter Damien Rice, and is an ambassador for aid agency CARE International in the UK. He has made minor appearances in two different episodes of Little Britain as separate characters.

In February 2011, it was announced that he had been appointed Musical Director for the 2012 Olympic Games and the 2012 Paralympic Games in London.

In May 2011, he was part of the United Kingdom's jury for the Eurovision Song Contest 2011.

Arnold took part in a tribute to John Barry on 20 June 2011 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, singing a song that was composed by Barry and playing the guitar part of the James Bond theme.

In 2014, Arnold teamed up with Richard Thomas, to write the music and lyrics for the new West End musical Made in Dagenham.

In October 2015 he collaborated with Lethal Bizzle and Sinead Harnett to create a song combining orchestral, grime and soul elements. The song, 'Come This Far', was performed live at a special event at One Mayfair, as part of Bulmers Cider's LiveColourful LIVE promotion, and made available as a free download from Bulmers' website. He and Sherlock co-composer Michael Price also composed the music for ITV's Jekyll and Hyde television series which premiered in October 2015.

In September 2016 the Royal Albert Hall hosted an orchestral performance of Independence Day with the score performed live to picture, David Arnold gave a pre-show talk.

In 2019, David Arnold provided additional production for Sophie Ellis-Bextor's orchestral album, The Song Diaries. Later in 2020, he co-produced an orchestral cover of 'My Favourite Things' (from The Sound of Music) along with Richard Jones (of The Feeling) for Sophie's 2020 compilation album Songs From The Kitchen Disco.

In July 2023, it was announced that Arnold and Ellis-Bextor would collaborate with lyricist Don Black for the track to Channel 4 and Universal Pictures film, "Mog's Christmas", based upon the children's book series by Judith Kerr. The track, titled "As Long As I Belong", is about "the importance of belonging". The film is slated for a Q4 2023 release.

Awards

 * Won: Grammy Award – Best Instrumental Composition Written for a Motion Picture or for Television – Independence Day
 * Won: Ivor Novello Awards – Best International Film Score for The World Is Not Enough
 * Won: Ivor Novello Awards – BASCA Fellowship (2005)
 * Nominated: BAFTA Award – Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music – Casino Royale
 * Nominated: Grammy Award – Best Song Written for Motion Picture, Television or Other Visual Media – You Know My Name from Casino Royale (songwriter)
 * Won: BBC Radio Awards – Best music production – The Sound of Cinema with David Arnold
 * Won: Emmy Award - Outstanding Music Composition for a Miniseries, Movie, or a Special – Sherlock ("His Last Vow") (with Michael Price)

title: David Arnold