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Rib vault

A rib vault or ribbed vault is an architectural feature for covering a wide space, such as a church nave, composed of a framework of crossed or diagonal arched ribs. Variations were used in Roman architecture, Byzantine architecture, Islamic architecture, Romanesque architecture, and especially Gothic architecture. Thin stone panels fill the space between the ribs. This greatly reduced the weight and thus the outward thrust of the vault. The ribs transmit the load downward and outward to specific points, usually rows of columns or piers. This feature allowed architects of Gothic cathedrals to make higher and thinner walls and much larger windows.

It is a type of arcuated, or arched, vault in which the severies, or panels in the bays of the vault's underside are separated from one another by ribs which conceal the groins, or the intersections of the panels. Rib vaults are, like groin vaults, formed from two or three intersecting barrel vaults; the ribs conceal the junction of the vaults.

The earliest surviving example in Islamic architecture is at the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba in al-Andalus, which predates the earliest Romanesque examples by a century. An alternative to barrel vaults in the naves of churches, rib vaults in 12th century early Gothic architecture began to be used in vaults made with pointed arches, already known in the Romanesque style. In these vaults, as in groin vaults, the weight was directed it to the corners, where piers, columns, or walls could support it. Walls in Gothic buildings were often abutted by flying buttresses. These elements made it possible to construct buildings with much higher and thinner walls than before, with immense bays, and larger stained glass windows filling the structure with light.

Cross vaults are constructed of narrow, arched ribs that diagonally cross the area to be covered. The severies can be filled with small pieces of masonry, eliminating much of the massive weight of barrel vaults. These rib vaults could also more efficiently cover large rectangular areas. Thanks to the pointed arch employed in Gothic architecture, builders could raise or lower the arches so they would have the same height for a short span or a long span, something not possible with round arches. Pointed arches also made two intersecting vaults of the same height but different widths easier to construct.

Early history
The Romans used an early version of the rib vault to strengthen groin vaults. In these Roman vaults, the brick ribs were embedded into the concrete of the vault. This was different from the later Gothic vaults, where the ribs were separate from the infilling of the panels, which gave the Gothic vaults flexibility and thus greater strength. The Romans also used these embedded ribs concealed within the structure to strengthen the concrete surface of domes, such as the Pantheon.

Rib vaults were not common in masonry buildings in Byzantine architecture, but four ribbed vaults were built by the Hosios Loukas monastery in Byzantine Greece after 1000 AD, and at the now ruined town Çanlı Kilise in Byzantine Cappadocia several groin vaults in medieval churches are equipped with ribs. A number of other rib vaults were built in Greece under the Frankokratia after the Fourth Crusade. Rib vaults were also known in Lombard, Armenian, Persian, and Islamic architecture.

Roman architecture
The first known example of ladder ribs used on cross vaults is the one documented in the Villa of the Sette Bassi in Rome, dating from the mid-second century AD.

Islamic architecture
In the Moorish architecture of Spain, Islamic architects used these ribbed vaults more visibly. One notable example is found in the Great Mosque of Córdoba, which was begun in the 9th century and extended between 922 and 965 by Al-Hakam II. The Chapel of Villaviciosa, as this part of the mosque became known when it was converted to a Roman Catholic church in the 13th century, has a dome which rests upon ribs and pendentives. At each vertex of the square is the intersection with another arch, such that each intersection is the junction of three arches. At each corner is a further miniature cross-vault dome. In the other domes of the 10th century reconstruction of the Great Mosque, the ribs intersect one another off-centre, forming an eight-pointed star in the centre which is topped by a pendentive dome.

The crossed-arch vaults of the mosque-cathedral of Córdoba served as models for later mosque buildings in the Islamic West, including al-Andalus and the Maghreb. At around 1000 AD, the Mezquita de Bab al Mardum (Mosque of Cristo de la Luz) in Toledo was constructed with a similar, eight-ribbed vault. The dome is supported both by the ribs and by pendentives that transmit its weight to the walls below. Similar vaults are also seen in the mosque building of the Aljafería of Zaragoza. The architectural form of the ribbed vault was further developed in the Maghreb: the central dome of the Great Mosque of Tlemcen, a work of the Almoravids built in 1082, has twelve slender ribs, the shell between the ribs is filled with filigree stucco work. The Almohads also expanded its use to military structures, as exemplified in the Atalaya Castle in Villena.

Romanesque architecture
The rib vault was developed further in northern Europe in the 11th century, as builders sought a way to construct larger and larger stone vaults to replace the wooden roofs of Romanesque churches, which were frequently destroyed by fire. Romanesque cathedrals and churches usually used the barrel vault, with rounded arches, and the groin vault, used when two vaults met at a right angle to cover the nave. The weight of the vaults pressed down directly onto the walls below, requiring thicker walls and smaller windows.

Saint-Philibert de Tournus has exceptional Romanesque vaults, built between 1008 and 1050. The nave and chapel have parallel traverse tunnel vaults, while the aisles of both interiors are groin-vaulted.

Speyer Cathedral in Germany is the largest of all existing Romanesque churches in Europe, and has good examples of Romanesque barrel vaults and groin vaults in the nave. The groin vaults were built in 1060, and but had to be reinforced in 1090–1103 with a traverse arch between each arch.

The Kingdom of England and the Duchy of Normandy became centres of architectural innovation in the late 11th century. Even before the Norman Conquest in 1066, King Edward the Confessor of England had introduced Romanesque features to Westminster Abbey (1055–65). William the Conqueror constructed the domes of the Abbey of Saint-Étienne, Caen with a kind of crossed rib vault, a star vault, in its central lantern. The Abbaye-aux-Dames also in Caen, was roofed with two large bays of stone groin vaults in the 1080s, one of the earliest uses in Europe of a groin vault to cover such a wide span.

Transition to Gothic architecture
Construction of the new church at Durham Cathedral began in 1093 under the direction of its Norman bishop, William de St-Calais. It was originally intended to build the cathedral entirely with rounded-arch groin vaults, but as work continued on the nave the Norman builders experimented with pointed arches, which directed the weight outward and downwards. The space between the ribs was filled with severies made of small pieces of stone. At its corners the weight was supported by colonettes which transferred it downwards to alternating columns and piers below rather than to the walls. Since the panels are relatively thin, these rib vaults are lighter than the earlier barrel and groin vaults so the walls could be higher and could have larger windows.

The work began at the east end of Durham Cathedral; the vaults over the aisles were complete in 1096, and over the choir by 1107. The nave vaults, with pointed arches, were begun in about 1130. Thanks to the pointed arches, the upper level of the clerestory seemed to merge into the roof in a unified whole. The Durham experiment, however, quickly ran into problems. The vault panels in the chancel were made of plastered rubble, and were heavier than expected, and began to crack, and had to be replaced in 1235. In the meanwhile, experimentation in pointed rib vaults moved to France, where thinner and lighter panels were made of small cut pieces of stone, rather than rubble.

The Romanesque Lessay Abbey in Normandy added early Gothic rib vaults in the choir in about 1098. which covered portions of the choir and nave. It was destroyed in World War II but rebuilt. The dome of the Romanesque Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Cambridge in England, begun in 1130, has ribs in the dome, though the dome rests upon pendentives, and the ribs were largely decorative. The Romanesque Cefalù Cathedral in the Norman Kingdom of Sicily, begun in 1131, has a Gothic rib vault.

The transition from Romanesque to Gothic can also be seen in the nave of Fontenay Abbey church (1147), where the round arches of the barrel vaults have been replaced by vaults with slightly pointed arches.

Sexpartite vaulting
In sexpartite vaulting, each bay was divided by thin stone ribs into six compartments. The intermediate ribs diagonally crossing the vault formed a pointed arch, and there was an additional intermediate pointed arch, which crossed from side to side. Since the ribs carried the weight, the panels of the vaults were made of small pieces of stone, and were much lighter than traditional barrel vaults. The ribs transmitted the weight outwards and downwards through slender columns to the piers on the lower level. The weight was not distributed equally; the additional weight of the diagonal traverse arches was supported by massive piers, while the intermediate crossing arch was supported by simple columns. Since the weight of the vaults was carried by the columns and piers, not the walls, the walls could be thinner and higher, and they could be filled with larger stained glass windows.

The sexpartite vault appeared almost simultaneously in England and France. The first cathedral to use sexpartite vaults was Durham Cathedral, begun in 1093. Durham was originally intended to be built with more traditional groin vaults. The vaults over the aisles were completed in 1096, those over the choir in 1107, these over the north transept and 1110. The traverse vaults of the nave, however, the arches over the south transept and nave, begun 1130, were given pointed arches. Early examples of sexpartite rib vaults are found at the Abbaye-aux-Hommes (begun 1066) and Abbaye-aux-Dames at Caen. It then appeared in Noyon Cathedral (begun 1131); the square Gothic porch of the Romanesque church of Vézelay Abbey in France (1132); Sens Cathedral (begun 1135); the choir of the Abbey of Saint-Denis (begun 1140); Notre-Dame de Paris (begun 1163); Bourges Cathedral; and Laon Cathedral. Ribbed vaults were built by William the Englishman at Canterbury Cathedral and in St Faith's Chapel in Westminster Abbey (1180).

Quadripartite vaulting
A new variation of rib vault appeared during the High Gothic: the four-part rib vault, which was used in Chartres Cathedral, Amiens Cathedral and Reims Cathedral. The ribs of this vault distributed the weight more equally to the four supporting piers below, and established a closer connection between the nave and the lower portions of the church walls, and between the arcades below and the windows above. This allowed for greater height and thinner walls, and contributed to the strong impression of verticality given by the newer Cathedrals. The 11th century Durham Cathedral (1093–1135), with the earlier six-part rib vaults, is 73 ft high. The 12th-century nave of Notre-Dame de Paris, also with six-part rib vaults, is 115 feet, or 35 meters high. The later Amiens Cathedral (built 1220–1266), with the new four-part rib vaults, has a nave that is 138.8 ft high. The tallest nave of all the Gothic Cathedrals is Beauvais Cathedral, though only a single bay was completed. It is 47.5 m in height, slightly taller than the nave of St Peter's Basilica in Rome.

Complex rib vaults
Beginning in England with the Decorated Gothic style of the late 13th century, a variety of complex vaults emerged which incorporated purely decorative ribs in addition to structural ones. Vaults would continue to increase in complexity in the Perpendicular period, and similarly extravagant rib vaulting would appear in other late Gothic styles such as the Flamboyant in France and Sondergotik in Central Europe.

Tierceron vaults make use of tertiary ribs (tiercerons) in addition to the main structural ribs of the regular quadripartite vault. This can be seen in the Decorated Gothic nave of Exeter Cathedral, begun in 1310; the massive vault has a profusion of tierceron ribs like palm leaves, with as many as eleven tiercerons curving upward from a single springer. An octagonal tierceron vault completed in 1306 roofs the chapter house of Wells Cathedral, where 32 ribs spring from a single central pillar. At Ely Cathedral (1322–1342), tiercerons decorate the (wooden) vault of the octagonal lantern over the crossing.

Lierne vaults also feature prominently in the Decorated and Perpendicular Gothic architecture of England. Liernes are very short decorative ribs that connect one rib to another. Most lierne vaults incorporate both liernes and tiercerons, resulting in intricate designs resembling stars, webs, nets, or other patterns. The Perpendicular Gothic choir of Gloucester Cathedral features an extremely complex net-like vault covered completely in liernes, while the Lady Chapel of Ely Cathedral has a vault of liernes concentrated mainly around the centreline of the ceiling.

The Perpendicular Gothic fan vault is a unique type of rib vault particular to England. The ribs are all of the same curve and spaced equidistantly, in a manner resembling a fan. Thus, unlike gothic vaults derived from pointed arches, the fan vault is composed of semicircular conoids. The earliest example of fan vaulting is in the cloisters of Gloucester Cathedral. The King's College Chapel, Cambridge, has the world's largest fan-vaulted ceiling.

Function
The development of the rib vault was the result of the search for greater height and more light in the naves of cathedrals. In Romanesque cathedrals, the nave was typically covered by a series of groin vaults, which were formed by the intersection of two barrel vaults. The vaults pressed down directly onto the walls. The groin vaults were bombée, or roughly dome-shaped. To support the weight of the vaults, the walls had to be particularly thick, and windows were absent or very small. This problem was resolved in the early 11th century by the introduction of the Gothic rib vault.

Rib vaults are reinforced by a network of thin stone ribs (ogives). In the first six-part vaults, the vault was supported by two diagonal crossing ribs, plus an intermediate rib, which together divided the vault into six sections. The diagonal ribs were in the form of semicircular arches, which raised the centre of the vault above the level of the transverse arches and wall ribs, and gave it the appearance of a small dome. (This kind of vault can be seen in the nave of Sant' Ambrogio, Milan). In some new churches, the architects dealt with the problem by raising the upper part of their arches was raised. This was tried in some of the earliest Gothic churches, notably the Abbaye-aux-Hommes and the Abbey of Lessay in Normandy. The problem was ultimately solved by the introduction of the pointed arch for the transverse and dividing ribs of the vault. The pointed arch had long been known and employed, on account of its much greater strength and of the lessened thrust it exerted on the walls. When employed for the ribs of a vault, however narrow or wide the span might be, by adopting a pointed arch, its summit could be made to match the height of the diagonal ribs. The ribs carried the weight of the vault outwards and downwards. The ribs were bundled into columns, each combining four ribs, which descended the walls to the arcades on piers on the ground floor. Outside, the walls were given greater strength by the addition of heavy stone buttresses. The strength of rib vaults made it possible to have thinner walls, which in turn made it possible to have larger windows on the upper levels, filling the nave with light. They eventually made possible the enormous rose windows of Gothic cathedrals.

This six-part vault was successfully introduced in Noyon Cathedral, Laon Cathedral, and Notre-Dame de Paris. A single six-part vault could cover two traverse sections of the nave of Notre-Dame. However, the six-rib vault had its problems. The weight was not distributed evenly to the columns on the ground floor. When a vault covered two traverses, more massive piers were needed to bear the weight from the doubleaux, the diagonal ribs, than for the intermediate ribs. This problem was solved by simplifying the vault and eliminating the intermediate rib, making a four-part or quadripartite rib vault. Under this system, which was promptly used at Amiens Cathedral, Reims Cathedral and many others, each traverse section had just one four-part vault. This innovation, along with the use of the flying buttress, saw Gothic cathedral walls go higher and higher, with larger and larger windows.

The simplification of the rib vault was soon followed, particularly in England, by another tendency – to make them more complicated. One of the earliest examples of the introduction of the intermediate ridge rib is found in the nave of Lincoln Cathedral; This element, called a ridge rib, was not connected to the walls. Architects in England began adding new ribs, largely for decoration. In the nave of Exeter Cathedral three intermediate ribs were provided between the wall rib and the diagonal rib. In order to mask the junction of the various ribs, their intersections were ornamented with richly carved bosses, and this practice increased with the introduction of another short rib, known as lierne vaulting. The lierne, a term in France given to the ridge rib, in English refers to short ribs that cross between the main ones; these were employed chiefly as decorative features, for example in stellar vaults, one of the best examples of which is in the vault of the oriel window of Crosby Hall, London. Ribs came more and more numerous and more and more decorative leading to the extraordinarily elaborate and decorative fan vault, first used in the choir of Gloucester Cathedral.

Construction
The first step in the construction of a vault was a wooden scaffold up to the level of the top of the supporting columns. Next, a precise wooden frame was constructed on top of the scaffold in the exact shape of the ribs (nervures). The stone segments of the ribs were then carefully laid into the frame and joined with mortar. When the ribs were all in place, the keystone was placed at the apex where they converged. Once the keystone was in place, the ribs could stand alone, supported by their weight pressing downwards and outwards. Workers then filled in the compartments between the ribs with small fitted pieces of brick or stone. The framework was removed. The masonry of the compartments was about 15 cm thick. Once the compartments were finished, their interior surface was plastered and then painted.

The construction of a medieval rib vault was a complex operation involving a team of specialized workers. The masons included hewers (taileurs), who cut the stone; poseurs, who set the stones in place; and layers (morteliers), who joined the pieces together with mortar. These craftsmen worked alongside carpenters who built the complex scaffolds and models.

title: Rib vault


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Raynham

Raynham is the name of multiple places

United States:
 * Raynham, Massachusetts
 * Raynham Center, Massachusetts
 * Raynham (New Haven, Connecticut), historic house
 * Raynham, North Carolina

United Kingdom:
 * Raynham, Norfolk
 * site of Raynham Hall

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Raynham


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Bob Smith (New Hampshire politician)

Robert Clinton Smith (born March 30, 1941) is an American politician who served as a member of the United States House of Representatives for New Hampshire's 1st congressional district from 1985 to 1990 and the state of New Hampshire in the United States Senate from 1990 to 2003.

First elected to the House of Representatives as a Republican in 1984, he was re-elected twice before running for the Senate in 1990, winning the open seat and assuming it early when incumbent Gordon J. Humphrey resigned. He was re-elected in 1996 and then entered the Republican primary for the 2000 presidential election. After failing to gain traction, he withdrew before the primaries began and joined the Taxpayers' Party, seeking their nomination instead. He then changed parties again, becoming an Independent before dropping out of the presidential race altogether. He then re-joined the Republican Party after the Chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works became open, which he then assumed.

Smith ran for re-election in 2002 but lost the Republican primary to Congressman John E. Sununu, who won the general election. After his defeat he moved to Florida and briefly ran for the Senate from there in 2004 and in 2010, but dropped out early on in both cases after faring poorly in polls of the Republican primary. He subsequently returned to New Hampshire, where he declared his candidacy for the Republican nomination in the 2014 Senate election, but was defeated in the Republican primary by former U.S. Senator from Massachusetts Scott Brown.

Early life
Smith was born in Trenton, New Jersey, the son of Margaret (née Eldridge) and Donald Smith. He obtained a bachelor's degree from Lafayette College in 1965 and did graduate work at California State University, Long Beach. He served in the United States Navy Reserve from 1962 to 1965 as an ensign, and was on active duty from 1965 to 1967, including a year in Vietnam. He remained in the Navy Reserve until 1969. Smith settled in Wolfeboro, New Hampshire, where he taught history and English. He also served on his local school board and got into the real estate business as owner and operator of the Yankee Pedlar brokerage.

U.S. House of Representatives
Smith ran for New Hampshire's 1st congressional district in the 1982 elections. With the recession and President Reagan's unpopularity aiding Democratic candidates, Smith lost to incumbent Norman D'Amours by 55% to 45%. D'Amours did not seek re-election in 1984, unsuccessfully running for the U.S. Senate instead and Smith was elected in his place, riding Reagan's coattails to beat Democrat Dudley Dudley by 59% to 40%. A member of NH's Executive Council, her campaign slogan was "Dudley Dudley, Worth Repeating". Smith responded "Dudley Dudley, Liberal Liberal". Smith was re-elected in 1986 and 1988 by wide margins, first beating Democrat James M. Demers 56% to 44%, then beating Democrat Joseph F. Keefe by 60% to 40%.

U.S. Senate
Smith did not run for re-election in 1990, instead running for the U.S. Senate seat that was being vacated by retiring Republican Gordon J. Humphrey, who was retiring after pledging not to serve more than two terms. His opponent was Democrat John A. Durkin, who had previously served in the Senate from 1975 to 1980. Smith beat him in a landslide, taking 65% of the vote to Durkin's 31%. Humphrey resigned in December after being elected to the New Hampshire Senate and Smith was appointed to replace him for the final two months of his term.

The Vietnam War POW/MIA issue, concerning the fate of possible missing or captured Americans in Vietnam, became Smith's major issue in Congress in 1985, partly spurred on by his growing up without knowing how his own father died in World War II. Smith helped create, and served as vice-chairman of, the 1991–1993 Senate Select Committee on POW/MIA Affairs. Smith ran for re-election in 1996 and only narrowly defeated Democratic former U.S. Representative Richard Swett, taking 49% of the vote to Swett's 46%. Smith had established himself as the most conservative Senator from the Northeast, and Bill Clinton's coattails nearly caused his defeat. On the night of the election many American media networks incorrectly projected that Swett had won.

During his tenure in the Senate, Smith was a strident opponent of gay rights. In 1994, Smith and fellow Republican senator Jesse Helms of North Carolina introduced an amendment denying federal funding to schools which promoted homosexuality in their curricula. The amendment passed by a vote of 63–36. In October 1997, President Bill Clinton nominated openly gay diplomat James Hormel to be United States Ambassador to Luxembourg, the first time an openly LGBT person had been nominated for an ambassadorship. Smith, with fellow Republican Senators James Inhofe and Tim Hutchinson, campaigned vigorously against Hormel's nomination. Along with Helms, he was also one of three Senators to vote against the confirmation of Ruth Bader Ginsburg to the Supreme Court in the same term.

In February 1999, at Kingswood Regional High School in Wolfeboro, Smith announced that he was a candidate for the Republican nomination for President of the United States (at the time the front-runner was Texas Governor George W. Bush). In July, after failing to gain any ground in the presidential race and before any primaries or caucuses had taken place, Smith announced he was leaving the Republican Party and would seek the nomination of the Taxpayers' Party. One month later, Smith left the Taxpayers Party after claiming that ideologues within the party resisted his candidacy due to his Roman Catholicism and announced as an Independent. He withdrew completely from the race in October and endorsed Bush. In the meantime, Republican senator John Chafee of Rhode Island had died and thus the chairmanship of the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works had re-opened. Smith recanted his repudiation of the Republican party, claiming it had been "a mistake" and claiming that since he had never officially changed his voting registration that he had never left the party. Smith was then elected as Chafee's successor to the chairmanship.

Some New Hampshire voters were uncomfortable with Smith's passionate way of expressing his views on certain issues. In one case, he used a pair of scissors to stab a plastic doll on the Senate floor to illustrate his anti-abortion stance.

In 2000, Smith attempted to assist the Miami-based family of Elián González after Elián was returned to his father's custody by accompanying them to the entrance of Andrews Air Force Base, where Elián was being held; they were turned away.

Smith ran for re-election to a third term in 2002, but was defeated in the Republican primary by Congressman John E. Sununu, winning 45% of the vote to Sununu's 53%. After his defeat, The New York Times reported that many Republicans were "relieved" that he had lost, having never forgiven him for leaving the party in 1999. He subsequently moved to Sarasota, Florida to sell real estate.

Post-congressional career
In 2003, Smith founded the American Patriot Foundation, to support "the families of soldiers lost in war." , its website describes the group as "a non-partisan, non-profit national foundation with the primary function of educating the American public as to the importance and relevance in today's society of the United States Constitution, the Declaration of Independence, The Federalist Papers, and other founding documents." In 2003, Smith turned the running of the group over to a friend and it became essentially dormant. The group was re-activated in 2010 during the court-martial of Terry Lakin, a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army, who refused to deploy to Afghanistan because of his concerns over President Obama's alleged constitutional ineligibility to be president. The APF supported Lakin and released a video where he explained his intent to disobey what he believed to be "illegal orders". Asked whether he supported the group's work for Lakin, Smith said: "...my personal belief is that when an officer has a constitutional question I don't have a problem with that being answered, that's his legal right to have that answered, but I'm not involved in it."

Smith ran in the 2004 primary for Florida's U.S. Senate seat against Mel Martinez, but dropped out after raising little money and receiving less than 1% support in Republican polls. Martinez would go on to win the general election, 49.5% to 48.4% against Democratic candidate Betty Castor.

Less than a month before the November 2004 U.S. Senate election in New Hampshire, Smith wrote an op-ed for the Concord Monitor in which he denounced the lack of Republican outrage over that party's phone jamming on Election Day 2002, when Republican operatives had flooded phone banks with incoming calls to hamper them from being used by Democratic party workers to contact Shaheen supporters to get them to the polls. Smith implied that this action may have made the difference in then-Governor Jeanne Shaheen's narrow loss to Sununu.

In January 2008, Smith began writing editorials on the web page of the Constitution Party (formerly called the U.S. Taxpayers' Party), which fueled speculation that Smith intended to seek that party's presidential nomination. Its nomination went to Chuck Baldwin, a Baptist pastor.

In February 2009, with Martinez having announced that he would retire from the Senate in January 2011, Smith was again considering running for the seat, although it was also reported that he was considering a return to New Hampshire to run for the Senate seat there, especially if his old nemesis John E. Sununu (who was defeated for re-election in 2008) sought the seat.

On April 9, 2009, Politico reported that Smith would seek the Republican nomination for Florida's 2010 Senate election. He dropped out of the race in March 2010, after faring poorly in the polls against Governor Charlie Crist and Marco Rubio.

In mid-2013 Smith expressed interest in facing Democratic incumbent Jeanne Shaheen in the 2014 Senate election. In October he ruled out a run, but in December announced that he had reconsidered. He officially declared his candidacy for the Republican nomination in March 2014. However, he lost the primary to former U.S. Senator Scott Brown, who from 2010 to 2012 had served the remainder of Senator Ted Kennedy's term in Massachusetts.

Political positions
Smith was described as a "staunch conservative" by media when he launched his presidential campaign. During his time in the senate and congress, Smith introduced and sponsored several anti abortion bills, notably the Partial-Birth Abortion Ban Act of 2000. Smith was reported as comparing abortion to slavery when discussing the bill on the senate floor. Smith opposed the nomination of Ruth Bader Ginsburg. Smith was pro-firearm,  sponsoring legislation like the Secure Access to Firearms Enhancement (S.A.F.E.) Act of 2001. The bill would have forced concealed carry reciprocity between states by anyone with a valid license. He also attempted to constrain the Exclusionary rule.

Personal life
He and his wife Mary Jo have three children, Jennifer, Robert, and Jason. He is a Roman Catholic.

title: Bob Smith (New Hampshire politician)


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Hawaiʻi Kai, Hawaii

Hawaiʻi Kai, also known as Maunalua or Koko Marina, is a largely residential area located in the City & County of Honolulu, in the East Honolulu CDP, on the island of Oʻahu. Hawaiʻi Kai is the largest of several communities at the eastern end of the island. The area was largely developed by Henry J. Kaiser around the ancient Maunalua fishpond and wetlands area known as Kuapā (meaning "fishpond wall"). Hawaiʻi Kai or Koko Marina was dredged from Kuapā Pond starting around 1959. Dredging not only transformed the shallow coastal inlet and wetlands into a marine embayment, but was accompanied by considerable filling and clearing of the pond margins. In 1961, Kaiser-Aetna entered into a lease agreement with the land owner, the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate, to develop the 521 acre (2.11 km2) fishpond into residential tracts with a marina and channels separated by fingers of land and islands upon which house lots and commercial properties would be laid out and developed. Nearly all of the low-lying lands surrounding the marina have since been developed, and neighborhoods now extend back into the several valleys and up the separating ridges.

Geography
Immediately west of Hawaiʻi Kai along Kalanianaʻole Highway (State Rte. 72) is the East Honolulu neighborhood of Kuliʻouʻou. Eastward from Hawaiʻi Kai (Maunalua) on the same highway is the Koko Head area, an area now mostly included within Koko Head Park. South of Hawaiʻi Kai is Maunalua Bay, and north are the Koʻolau mountains. Eventually the road crosses over to the windward side near Makapuʻu Point.

Hawaiʻi Kai is located approximately 12 miles east of the Central Business District (CBD) of Honolulu.

In the 2000 U.S. Census the U.S. Census Bureau defined Hawaiʻi Kai as being in the urban Honolulu census-designated place. For the 2010 U.S. Census the bureau created a new census-designated place, East Honolulu.

Native Hawaiian fishpond
Maunalua Bay was formerly renown for having the largest Native Hawaiian fishpond on Oʻahu. The 523 acre fishpond known as Keahupua-O-Maunalua had a wall or kuapā which originally spanned from Kuliʻouʻou headland and to what is now Portlock. The pond was used primarily to raise mullet (ʻawaʻawa) and was also home to many endemic or indigenous waterbirds. The area remained important for fishing and agriculture until the 1950s when the fishpond was filled for housing development.

Communities
Kalama Valley is a community within the town of Maunalua, more commonly known as Hawaiʻi Kai located on the eastern coast of the island of Oʻahu. It features a shopping center, a public park and basketball facilities, and predominantly single-family, relatively high-priced housing, due to its location in Hawaiʻi Kai. There are a variety of attractions in the vicinity of Kalama Valley, including Hawaiʻi Kai Golf Course, Awawamalu (Sandy Beach), Makapuʻu Lighthouse and beach, Koko Crater Botanical Garden, the "From Here to Eternity" cove, and Hanauma Bay.

"Kamehame Ridge" is a ridge located in the middle of Kalama and Kamilo Iki Valley. Kamehame Ridge was developed during the 1990s. Now there are multi-million dollars homes and real estate stretching from the bottom to the top of the Ridge. It is most famous for its popular hike, known locally as “Dead Man’s Catwalk”.

Demographics
Hawaiʻi Kai was home to 30,079 residents residing in 10,702 households during the period between 2009–2013. The percentage of residents 25 and older with a bachelor's degree or higher was 51.8 percent.

Education
Maunalua is located within the Hawaiʻi Department of Education Kaiser Complex and is home to Henry J. Kaiser High, Hahaʻione Elementary, Kamiloiki Elementary, and Koko Head Elementary Schools. The three elementary schools feed into Niu Valley Middle School, which in turn feeds into Kaiser High, although Niu Valley Middle is not located in Hawaiʻi Kai.

title: Hawaiʻi Kai, Hawaii


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Spam in blogs

Spam in blogs (also known as blog spam, comment spam, or social spam) is a form of spamdexing which utilizes internet sites that allow content to be publicly posted, in order to artificially inflate their website ranking by linking back (also referred to as backlinking) to their web pages. Backlinking helps search algorithms determine the popularity of a web page, which plays a major role for search engines like Google and Microsoft Bing to decide a web page ranking on a certain search query. This helps the spammer's website to list ahead of other sites for certain searches, which helps them to increase the number of visitors to their website.

It may be done by posting random comments on other blog websites (usually by an automated process), or by copying other websites' content and using it on free-to-use publishing services like Blogger and WordPress or publicly accessible wikis, digital guest books, and internet forums.

Note that blog spam also has another meaning, specifically when a blog author creates posts without adding any informational or educational value solely for publishing them on other websites

History
This type of spam originally appeared in internet guestbooks, where spammers repeatedly filled a guestbook with links to their sites and irrelevant comments, to increase their search engine rankings. If an actual comment is given, it is often just "cool page", "nice website", or keywords of the spammed link.

In 2003, spammers began to take advantage of the open nature of comments in the blogging software like Movable Type by repeatedly placing comments on various blog posts that provided nothing more than a link to the spammer's commercial web site. Jay Allen created a free plugin, called MT-BlackList, for the Movable Type weblog tool (versions prior to 3.2) that attempted to alleviate this problem. Many blogging packages now have methods of preventing or reducing the effect of blog spam built in due to its prevalence, although spammers too have developed tools to circumvent them. Many spammers use special blog spamming tools like trackback submitter to bypass comment spam protection on popular blogging systems like Movable Type, WordPress, and others.

Application-specific implementations
Particularly popular software products such as Movable Type and MediaWiki have developed or included anti-spam measures, as spammers focus more on targeting those platforms due to their prevalence on the Internet. Whitelists and blacklists that prevent certain IPs from posting, or that prevent people from posting content that matches certain filters, are common defences although most software tends to use a combination of the variety of different techniques documented below.

The goal in every potential solution is to allow legitimate users to continue posting their comments (and often even add links to their comments, as that is considered by some to be a valuable aspect of any comments section, when the links are relevant or related to the article or content) whilst preventing all spam links or irrelevant comments from being viewable to the site's owner and visitors.

title: Spam in blogs


text:
James Jones (author)

James Ramon Jones (November 6, 1921 – May 9, 1977) was an American novelist renowned for his explorations of World War II and its aftermath. He won the 1952 National Book Award for his debut novel, From Here to Eternity, which was adapted for film a year later (and went on to win the Academy Award for Best Picture) and made into a television series a generation later.

Life
James Ramon Jones was born and raised in Robinson, Illinois, the son of Ramon and Ada M. (née Blessing) Jones. He enlisted in the United States Army in 1939 at the age of 17 and served in the 25th Infantry Division, 27th Infantry Regiment before and during World War II, first in Hawaii at Schofield Barracks on Oahu, then in combat on Guadalcanal at the Battle of Mount Austen, the Galloping Horse, and the Sea Horse, where he was wounded in his head. He returned to the US after an operation on his ankle, and was discharged in July 1944. He also worked as a journalist covering the Vietnam War.

It was in the Army that Jones decided he would be a writer, or as he put it, "I realized I had been a writer all my life without knowing it or without having written."

His wartime experiences inspired some of his most famous works, the so-called war trilogy. He witnessed the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which led to his first published novel, From Here to Eternity (1951). The Thin Red Line (1962) reflected his combat experiences on Guadalcanal and Whistle (posthumous, 1978) was based on his hospital stay in Memphis, Tennessee, recovering from surgery on an ankle he had reinjured on the island.

Jones was the father of two children including Kaylie Jones, an author best known for A Soldier's Daughter Never Cries, a thinly veiled memoir of the Joneses' life in Paris during the 1960s. (The son Jamie Jones was adopted in France.) Kaylie Jones's novel was made into a film starring Kris Kristofferson, Barbara Hershey and Leelee Sobieski in 1998. The release of this film, along with the 1998 release of a new film version of The Thin Red Line, directed by Terrence Malick and produced by Robert Michael Geisler and John Roberdeau, sparked a revival of interest in James Jones's life and works. In 2011, Ms. Jones was instrumental in publishing an uncensored edition of James Jones's From Here to Eternity.

Jones was open about his same-sex experiences, and would base the sexually ambiguous character of Corporal Fife in The Thin Red Line on himself.

In May 1951, LIFE magazine devoted several pages to Jones and Lowney Handy (b. 1904), beginning with their first meeting in November 1943 when the veteran returned to Robinson, and her support for his writing prior to formation of what is described as the "Handy Artists Group"—From Here to Eternity is given considerable mention, but there is none of any Jones-Handy romantic relationship.

Jones assisted in the 1950 formation of the Handy Writers' Colony in Marshall, Illinois, by his then-lover Lowney Handy and her husband Harry Handy. It was funded partly by Harry and, after the financial success of From Here to Eternity, partly by Jones. Originally conceived as a Utopian commune where budding artists could focus exclusively on their writing projects, the colony dissolved after only a few years, because Jones relocated to France following his marriage to actress Gloria Mosolino after a jealous Lowney attacked her, leaving the colony back in a financially compromised situation in 1957. However, the colony's decline was largely due to Lowney's continued erratic, possessive, and controlling behavior, particularly toward Jones. Poet David Ray commented to George Garrett, "I cannot possibly convey to you the intensity of Lowney's power. It was charismatic and demonic. Since she used some of the same brainwashing methods to assure the loyalty of her young disciples and was from the same part of the country, I've often wondered if the James Jones of Jonestown knew of her, or perhaps visited her. . . She was a very violent woman, and unyielding in her jealous possessiveness of her charges, of whom Jones was the chief one. Her control of the community was legend: I saw her tell the Chief of Police what to do, and she boasted of being 'above good and evil.' She may well have been. Anyway, to understand Jones you have to understand Lowney and the intensity of their relationship."

Jones died in Southampton, New York, of congestive heart failure and is buried in Poxabogue-Evergreen Cemetery, Bridgehampton, New York. His papers are now held at the Harry Ransom Center at the University of Texas at Austin. His widow, Gloria, died on June 9, 2006. Many of James Jones's books are still available in digital format, including excerpts from They Shall Inherit the Laughter, published as To the End of the War.

Work
Jones called his first novel They Shall Inherit the Laughter. It was a thinly disguised autobiographical novel of his experiences in Robinson immediately after World War II. After several rejections—with various complaints and claims about the work being too shrill and lacking perspective—he abandoned it and began writing From Here to Eternity.

Charles Scribner's Sons published Eternity in 1951, and it won the annual U.S. National Book Award for Fiction. The Modern Library Board later named it one of the 100 best novels of the 20th century.

His second published novel, Some Came Running (1957), had its roots in the abandoned first effort. In contrast to Eternity, it was savaged by critics. They were especially harsh about the frequently misspelled words and punctuation errors; they did not recognize that such elements were a conscious style choice by Jones to evoke the provinciality of the novel's characters and setting. Jones apparently played around with this style in several short stories written at about the same time as Some Came Running (later collected in The Ice-Cream Headache and Other Stories), only to abandon it by the time he finished The Thin Red Line in 1962, in favor of the blunt but more grammatically sound style most associated with him today. Some Came Running was immediately adapted as a film starring Frank Sinatra, Dean Martin, and Shirley MacLaine, which was critically acclaimed and nominated for five Oscars.

His novella The Pistol (1959) was drawn from his military experience, not unlike From Here to Eternity and The Thin Red Line. Jones did not live long enough to finish his last novel, Whistle; he knew he was dying of congestive heart failure while writing it. However, he left behind copious notes for Willie Morris to complete the final section after his death, and Whistle was published a year later, in 1978. That completed Jones's war trilogy (the first parts being From Here to Eternity and The Thin Red Line), of which he wrote: "It will say just about everything I have ever had to say, or will ever have to say, on the human condition of war and what it means to us, as against what we claim it means to us."

Novels

 * Some Came Running (1957)
 * Go to the Widow-Maker (1967)
 * The Merry Month of May (1971)
 * A Touch of Danger (1973)

 * From Here to Eternity trilogy
 * 1) From Here to Eternity (1951)
 * 2) The Thin Red Line (1962)
 * 3) Whistle (1978) (completed by Willie Morris)

Short fiction

 * Collections
 * The Ice-Cream Headache and Other Stories (1968)
 * To the End of the War (2011)
 * Stories

Non-fiction

 * Viet Journal (1974)
 * WW II (1975)

Adaptations
From Here to Eternity has had several adaptations, all of the same name as Jones's novel: an Academy Award–winning 1953 film adaptation and a 1979 television miniseries, which latter spawned a weekly soap opera that ran briefly in 1980, as well as a musical adaption, opened in London in 2013.

Some Came Running was adapted as a 1958 film of the same name.

The Thin Red Line was adapted as 1964 and 1998 films of the same name. (Elements of The Pistol were included in the 1964 film adaptation of The Thin Red Line.)

title: James Jones (author)


text:
Talk:Popular sovereignty

Worldwide coverage
Hello everyone. This article focuses too heavily on the American context. I'll add some international coverage when I get the chance (and please consider doing so yourself) but, in the meantime, the section on the United States also needs to be shortened. It might be a good idea to create a new article titled "Popular sovereignty (United States)", and move most of the section's current content to there. – SJL 01:08, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

 * An example of what you propose was done with the article Secession which led to the creation of Secession in the United States. In the case of popular sovereignty in the United States, there is a general political and philosophical use of the term, and I believe that should stay in this article, combining it with other views on the subject from philosophers, political scientists etc. from other nations.

 * What should be spun off would be a separate article on Popular Sovereignty, as a political issue in the United States from roughly 1846 to 1860. Unless someone objects, I will go ahead and create the new article and transfer the relevant material, which would be the last six paragraphs of the section "History and use of the term". Tom (North Shoreman) (talk) 14:36, 28 July 2008 (UTC)

 * Sounds good to me. I have some concerns about the content of that section – it reads, especially in the footnotes, like a term paper – but I'll take that up with the person who made the contribution. – SJL 16:56, 28 July 2008 (UTC)
 * NO 74.87.124.2 (talk) 16:34, 6 February 2023 (UTC)

 * Developing a broader article and spinning-off some of the U.S. coverage, as suggested here, would be a vast improvement. At the time I revised this article in the Spring, it seemed a potpourri of unverified notes on the development or use of the idea of popular sovereignty.  My concern at the time was that its coverage of the American context seemed to shift between 1) the content of the American doctrine, 2) the efforts to implement a scheme of popular sovereignty and 3) the political rhetoric of popular sovereignty.  The revision was designed to address the confusion about the various uses of the doctrine in the American context.

 * The gap in the international coverage was one that pre-existed the U.S. revisions. In the process of making those revisions, the few international references (excepting those in the introductory paragraph) were finally deleted as not verified or a simple statement of a point of view.  The intro paragraph, which was similar to what is the current introduction, seemed fine as far as it went.  It really did not take the reader far except to link them to other articles on some of the thinkers who addressed the idea. The article provided little on the content or context of the development of the idea of popular sovereignty.  Of course the problem is finding someone with the background and interest to address generally accepted interpretations of the development and use of the doctrine of popular sovereignty in a world-wide context.  I hope JSL is not having second thoughts about taking that project on.

 * Creating a separate article on "Popular sovereignty (United States)" as proposed by Tom (North Shoreman) is a promising idea. It seems he proposes that this section would focus on the use of popular sovereignty as political rhetoric in the U.S.  I look forward to reading what he develops.  It seems a solid solution to resolving confusing references to popular sovereignty as a doctrine versus its application or misapplication as a political tool.

 * As for where the article stands at present, I offer several observations:First, in the second paragraph there are statements by Americans describing ideas of popular sovereignty. Should this paragraph be moved so that it appears under the United States section?  These American expressions of the idea are not equivalent to those set forth in the first paragraph.  The cited American expressions are taken from efforts to apply the doctrine of popular sovereignty to a specific political problem in the U.S.  Unless there is an objection, I would propose moving them under American sub-section, unless some other editor finds that American politicians James Wilson or John Jay are within the ranks of Hobbes, Locke or Rousseau in the development of the idea of popular sovereignty.Second, until Tom (North Shoreman) or another editor spins off some of the American material into a separate article, would it be useful in the section designated by JSL as "United States" to restore the sub-headings?  I think this will be easier on the reader, until such time as the changes are made to the article as a whole.  At that time we could address the sub-headings in terms of how the article has been re-organized.Third, JSL notes some concerns about the notes to the 1846-60 section on the United States.  Should this be addressed now or should we wait until the separate entry on "Popular sovereignty (United States)" is created (and to the extent those concerns still exist at that time)?

Rushlite (talk) 19:26, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

Update
I have made some changes:

I will expand the general base of this article when I get a chance, but I have some other projects on Wikipedia that I am giving priority. If someone else is able to get started now, though, please do! By the way, it's SJL, not "JSL". ;) – SJL 04:59, 3 August 2008 (UTC)
 * I changed the name of the section on the United States to 'Popular sovereignty in the United States', and moved most of the information that was provided there to a new article by the same name.
 * I removed the second paragraph from the lead and pasted in on the talk page of the new article so that it can be incorporated into the main text there.

==== UPDATE BY CYNICAL PATRIOT (USA)

I came here to participate in the discussion of merging "Consent of the Governed" with "Popular Sovereignty" My opinion is no. Next, There seems to be some movement to rewrite US and world history here on Wikiedia and elsewhere. And finally, there seems to be some effort to minimalize the contribution of the USA to the body of political and government theory.

On the first point: The American Founding Fathers created a constitution and government that became known as "The Great American Experiment" for a reason. It was a constitutional republic that prevented the "democratic" majority from removing from individuals certain inalienable rights. George Washington was offered the opportunity to be king and rejected. The Founding fathers feared corruption and the eventual return to a rule of tyranny. To avoid this they gave individual citizens the title Sovereign Citizen and called elected officials public servants. They gave sovereignty to the individual rather than collectively to the entire Citizenry to establish that democratic majority could not take away from the individual the god given, natural irrevocable rights.

On the second point: The Political and Government theory embodied in the US Constitution led to the existance of the most vibrant and powerful Country in the world for the past 200 years. The US Constitutional Republic inspired the French during the French Revolution. It charted a model for throwing off colonialism and implementing new governments to replace colonialism.

On on the third point: Incorporating the arguments of the 2nd point, it is absolutely unfathomable that the US Theory and models of politics and government would be minimalized. I don't know where the proponent of minimalizing the USA Founding Fathers contribution to political and governmental theory lives, but I wonder if they would even be free to express this sentiment if the USA had not entered WWI and prevailed in liberating Europe from Tyranny. And then liberating the world from tyranny in WWII. Only the US form of government allowed the vibrance and productivity to alter what otherwise would have been the course of world history. And you want to dismiss it as a foot note or a subsection of some larger "World Document" I think not. You keep your world history and we will keep our US history. The US version of events is more consistent with reality.(CynicalPatriot (talk) 21:13, 1 August 2009 (UTC))

= End Cynical Patriot discussion =
This article certainly muddies up the concepts of consentof the governed and popular sovereignty. Even more unbelievably, Locke is mentioned, who never wrote of Popular Sovereignty, yet Abraham Lincoln, who wrote\spoke extensively on the subject, is omitted. I find it highly unlikely that this oversight is accidental. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.15.167.185 (talk) 02:47, 3 July 2011 (UTC)

--Brad Anderson-- — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.43.84.200 (talk) 16:24, 15 November 2011 (UTC)

I also made one change: the original article read, "popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the political principle that the legitimacy of the state is created by the will or consent of its people,"

To this, I added the term "created and sustained," since otherwise this term "created," implies a SURRENDER of popular sovereignty to the state, once this "legitimate state" is thus "created." Naturally, this destroys popular sovereignty-- but unfortunately, it is the current state of affairs in America, where the People have no such "right of negative veto" over federal legislation or other national policy. So if the majority was dead-against a particular act by the federal government, they have no sovereign authority to stop it other than the limited choice of elections. This is not popular sovereignty, but only elective oligarchy, since the legitimacy of the state is no longer sustained by the consent of the People. This is an "elephant in the room" which is the undoing of popular sovereignty, but which no one wants to talk about.
 * ) love satan — Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.96.164.190 (talk) 16:42, 10 April 2015 (UTC)

Neutrality
I added the NPOV tag because of this sentence: "Popular sovereignty expresses a concept and does not necessarily reflect or describe a political reality."

There was a reference cited, but the sentence is an opinion, and a reference does not help to legitimize it, since it is not a fact. For the person who added that sentence or any person who wishes to defend it, *in what way* does it not reflect or describe a political reality? That seems nonsensical to me. Please explain. It won't make sense to most people, and it doesn't seem coherent enough to be included in the opening paragraph of the article. 66.69.194.16 (talk) 22:39, 27 November 2008 (UTC)

 * Yes it does. That is EXACTLY how citations work. Now maybe it wasn't a good citation because you're right it should expand on why the writer holds that opinion and the source should be reliable and hopefully the writer notable in st least this topic. But "opinion" is not the problem here 47.44.49.171 (talk) 05:36, 26 February 2024 (UTC)

Seems like some countries which are decidedly NOT democratic are using the concept to legitimize the rule. A notable example is China, where a prominent member of the central committee of the Chinese Communist Party has written a book titled Democracy which argues that since the chinese people had and continue to consent to be ruled by the Communist Party, therefore China has a true democracy. Ridiculous but true. So I think some such disclaimer about the use of this concept is warranted. Kotika98 (talk) 09:11, 5 February 2009 (UTC)

Proposed merge from consent of the governed
I don't agree with the merge from consent of the governed. Consent of the governed, if unanimity is required, can refer to individual sovereignty. The U.S. Declaration of Independence was somewhat ambiguous on that point. Tisane (talk) 00:58, 24 February 2010 (UTC)

history and social contract
I`ve made a few changes on that section, but I think other changes are needed. First, there`s no sense in calling the section "history" if the subsequent sections are also about history. I would propose changing the title to "Origins". Secondly, i don`t think the mention of Robert the Bruce is relevant at all. The power of noblemen over a king is not exceptional during the middle ages. The holy roman emperors and the polish-lithuanian commonwealth come to mind, but this is all really just derivatives from the traditional germanic relation between a war leader/king and his war officials/noblemen. Popular sovereignty is not about aristocracy vs. monarchy disputes. In fact, the magna carta would be a better introduction to the transition between nobles` rights and peoples` rights. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Marco.natalino (talk • contribs) 08:58, 6 May 2012 (UTC)

Yup, I took down the part about Scotland. If anyone disagrees, please read, for example, the last paragraph on page 10 of the article cited instead of going just with the first paragraph!

just a small part:

The account of Scottish origins in the Declaration of Arbroath, as the pedigree of Scottish self-determination, was not a statement of biological descent or ethnic affiliation. It was the pedigree of an allegiance, a pattern of obedience intended to demonstrate the kingdom’s credentials as a thoroughbred institution with generations of history behind it. Marco.natalino (talk) 23:05, 19 May 2012 (UTC)

English Commonwealth
Currently the article states "The American Revolution marked a departure in the concept of popular sovereignty as it had been discussed and employed in the European historical context".

However it is called the American Revolution because it was thought to be a revolution (in the old English sense as used before the French revolution), and little is new under the sun. The English Commonwealth vested its sovereignty in the people and then proceeded to ignore them! (see Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth May 19, 1649)

So perhaps the sentence in this article needs to be rewritten as it is misleading to ignore the Interregnum. -- PBS (talk) 15:40, 9 August 2013 (UTC)
 * "and then proceeded to ignore them!" --yes, that is exactly what did NOT happen in the USA. all the American states held regular popular elections. Rjensen (talk) 05:15, 10 August 2013 (UTC)

Parental fundamental liberties
Fundamental Liberties Interests 2604:2D80:D10B:BD00:1964:7201:D8A9:B8FC (talk) 01:52, 8 August 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Popular sovereignty


text:
P-Phenylenediamine

p-Phenylenediamine (PPD) is an organic compound with the formula C6H4(NH2)2. This derivative of aniline is a white solid, but samples can darken due to air oxidation. It is mainly used as a component of engineering polymers and composites like kevlar. It is also an ingredient in hair dyes and is occasionally used as a substitute for henna.

Production
PPD is produced via three routes. Most commonly, 4-nitrochlorobenzene is treated with ammonia and the resulting 4-nitroaniline is then hydrogenated:

In the DuPont route, aniline is converted to diphenyltriazine, which is then converted by acid-catalysis to 4-aminoazobenzene. Hydrogenation of the latter affords PPD.

Precursor to polymers
PPD is a precursor to aramid plastics and fibers such as kevlar and twaron. These applications exploit PPD's difunctionality, i.e. the presence of two amines which allow the molecules to be strung together. This polymer arises from the reaction of PPD and terephthaloyl chloride. The reaction of PPD with phosgene gives the diisocyanate, a precursor to urethane polymers.

Dyeing
This compound is a common hair dye. Its use is being supplanted by other aniline analogues and derivatives such as 2,5-diamino(hydroxyethylbenzene and 2,5-diaminotoluene). Other popular derivatives include tetraaminopyrimidine and indoanilines and indophenols. Derivatives of diaminopyrazole give both red and violet colours. In these applications, the nearly colourless dye precursor oxidizes to the dye.

Rubber antioxidant
PPD is easily oxidized, and for this reason, derivatives of PPD are used as antiozonants in the production of rubber products (e.g., IPPD). The substituents (naphthyl, isopropyl, etc.) affect the effectiveness of their antioxidant roles as well as their properties as skin irritants.

Other uses
A substituted form of PPD sold under the name CD-4 is also used as a developing agent in the C-41 color photographic film development process, reacting with the silver grains in the film and creating the colored dyes that form the image.

PPD is also used as a henna surrogate for temporary tattoos. Its usage can lead to severe contact dermatitis.

PPD is also used as a histological stain for lipids such as myelin.

PPD is used by lichenologists in the PD test to aid identification of lichens. PPD is used extensively as a cross-linking agent in the formation of COFs (covalent organic frameworks), which have a number of applications in dyes and aromatic compounds adsorption.

Safety
The aquatic of PPD is 0.028 mg/L. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reported that in rats and mice chronically exposed to PPD in their diet, it simply depressed body weights, and no other clinical signs of toxicity were observed in several studies. One review of 31 English-language articles published between January 1992 and February 2005 that investigated the association between personal hair dye use and cancer as identified through the PubMed search engine found "at least one well-designed study with detailed exposure assessment" that observed associations between personal hair dye use and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, acute leukemia, and bladder cancer, but those associations were not consistently observed across studies. A formal meta-analysis was not possible due to the heterogeneity of the exposure assessment across the studies.

In 2005–06, it was the tenth-most-prevalent allergen in patch tests (5.0%).

The CDC lists PPD as being a contact allergen. Exposure routes are through inhalation, skin absorption, ingestion, and skin and/or eye contact. Symptoms of exposure to PPD include throat irritation (pharynx and larynx), bronchial asthma, and sensitization dermatitis. Sensitization is a lifelong issue, which may lead to active sensitization to products, including but not limited to black clothing, various inks, hair dye, dyed fur, dyed leather, and certain photographic products. It was voted Allergen of the Year in 2006 by the American Contact Dermatitis Society.

Poisoning by PPD is rare in Western countries. In contrast, poisoning by PPD has occurred in Eastern countries, such as Pakistan, where people have committed suicide by consuming it.

title: P-Phenylenediamine


text: User talk:80.58.50.44

title: User talk:80.58.50.44


text:
Shine

Shine may refer to:

Film and television

 * Shine (film), a 1996 Australian film based on the life of David Helfgott, a pianist
 * Shine, a fictional character in the American animated TV series Shimmer and Shine

Literature

 * Shine (Myracle novel), a 2011 novel by Lauren Myracle
 * Shine, a 2013 novel by Candy Gourlay
 * Shine (2020 novel), by Jessica Jung

Music

 * Shine!, a musical based on the works of Horatio Alger

Bands

 * Shine (Hong Kong group), a Hong Kong Cantopop duo
 * Shine (Scottish band), folk trio of Alyth McCormack, Corinna Hewat and Mary Macmaster

Albums

 * Shine (Trey Anastasio album), 2005
 * Shine, by Average White Band, 1980
 * Shine, by Sarah Bettens, 2007
 * Shine (Mary Black album), 1997
 * Shine (Bond album), 2002
 * Shine (Meredith Brooks album), 2004
 * Shine (compilation series), released by Polygram from 1995 to 1998
 * Shine (Crime & the City Solution album), 1988
 * Shine (Edenbridge album), 2004
 * Shine (Elan album), 2008
 * Shine (Estelle album), 2008
 * Shine (Five Star album), 1991
 * Shine (Frida album), 1984
 * Shine, by Illinois, 2015
 * Shine (Indica album), 2014
 * Shine (J-Min EP), 2014
 * Shine (Boney James album), 2006
 * Shine (Kids in the Kitchen album), 1985
 * Shine!, by Kyuss, 1996
 * Shine (Cyndi Lauper album), 2004
 * Shine (Daniel Lanois album), 2003
 * Shine (Mary-Jess Leaverland album), 2011
 * Shine (Luna Sea album), 1998
 * Shine (Martina McBride album), 2009
 * Shine (Pat McGee Band album), 2000
 * Shine (Joni Mitchell album), 2007
 * Shine (Kevin Moore album), 2010
 * Shine (Mother Love Bone EP), 1989
 * Shine (Anna Nalick EP), 2008
 * Shine: The Hits, by Newsboys, 2000
 * Shine (Anette Olzon album), 2014
 * Shine (Daniel Peixoto EP), 2011
 * Shine (Shaman's Harvest album), 2009
 * Shine, by Helen Slater, 2010
 * Shine (Wale album), 2017
 * Shine, by The Wilkinsons, 2001
 * Shine, by Pentagon, 2018

Songs

 * "Shine" (1910 song), a popular song with lyrics by Cecil Mack and Lew Brown and music by Ford Dabney
 * "Shine" (Vanessa Amorosi song), 2000
 * "Shine" (Trey Anastasio song), 2005
 * "Shine" (Aswad song), 1994
 * "Shine" (Camouflage song), 2015
 * "Shine" (Ima Castro song), 1996
 * "Shine" (Pentagon song), 2018
 * "Shine" (Collective Soul song), 1993
 * "Shine" (De Toppers song), 2009
 * "Shine" (Five Star song), 1991
 * "Shine" (Waylon Jennings song), 1981
 * "Shine" (Natália Kelly song), 2013
 * "Shine" (Kids in the Kitchen song), 1985
 * "Shine" (Cyndi Lauper song), 2002
 * "Nexus 4/Shine", by L'Arc-en-Ciel, 2008
 * "Shine" (Luna Sea song), 1998
 * "Shine" (Krystal Meyers song)
 * "Shine" (Motörhead song), 1983
 * "Shine" (Sopho Nizharadze song), 2010
 * "Shine" (Shannon Noll song), 2005
 * "Shine" (Mike Oldfield song), 1986
 * "Shine" (Rosemary's Sons song), 2002
 * "Shine" (Gwen Stefani song), 2015
 * "Shine" (Take That song), 2007
 * "Shine" (Tolmachevy Sisters song), 2014
 * "Shine" / "Ride On", by TVXQ, 2008
 * "Shine" (Luther Vandross song), 2007
 * "Shine" (Years & Years song), 2015
 * "Shine", by 3 Doors Down from the various artists compilation album AT&T Team USA Soundtrack
 * "Shine", by Aly & AJ from Into the Rush
 * "Shine", by Aminé from OnePointFive
 * "Shine", by B'z from Brotherhood
 * "Shine", by Babymetal from Metal Galaxy
 * "Shine", by Bond from Shine
 * "Shine", by Meredith Brooks from Bad Bad One
 * "Shine", by Jeremy Camp from Reckless
 * "Shine", by Dog's Eye View from Happy Nowhere
 * "Shine", by Doja Cat from Hot Pink
 * "Shine", by Hilary Duff from the self-titled album
 * "Shine", by Edenbridge from Shine
 * "Shine", by Estelle from Shine
 * "Shine", by Everclear from Welcome to the Drama Club
 * "Shine", by Fear, and Loathing in Las Vegas from New Sunrise
 * "Shine", by Frida from Shine, 1984
 * "Shine", by Gabrielle from Under My Skin
 * "Shine", by Gotthard from Firebirth
 * "Shine", by David Gray from A Century Ends
 * "Shine", by Ben Harper from Call It What It Is
 * "Shine", by Imogen Heap from iMegaphone
 * "Shine", by James from The Night Before
 * "Shine", by Junkhouse from Fuzz
 * "Shine", by Lil Wayne from Lights Out
 * "Shine", by Ira Losco from Butterfly
 * "Shine", by Lovefreekz, 2004
 * "Shine", by Madrugada from Industrial Silence, 1999
 * "Shine", by Ricky Martin from Música + Alma + Sexo
 * "Shine", by Romeo Miller, as Romeo, from Lottery
 * "Shine", by the Mighty Lemon Drops, from World Without End
 * "Shine", by Mr. Big from Actual Size, used as the ending theme for the anime Hellsing
 * "Shine", by Newsboys from Going Public
 * "Shine", by Anna Nalick from Shine EP
 * "Shine", by Josh Ostrander, as Mondo Cozmo, from Plastic Soul
 * "Shine", by Paradise Lost from Paradise Lost
 * "Shine", by Quavo from Quavo Huncho
 * "Shine", by Riot from Army of One
 * "Shine", by Rollins Band from Weight
 * "Shine", by Royce da 5'9" from Layers
 * "Shine", by The Smith Street Band from More Scared of You Than You Are of Me
 * "Shine", by Soulsavers from Angels & Ghosts
 * "Shine", by the Stoneman Douglas Drama Club of Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School, 2018
 * "Shine", by Strapping Young Lad from Alien
 * "Shine (In Your Mind)", by The Apples in Stereo from Fun Trick Noisemaker
 * "Shine", by Todrick Hall from Forbidden
 * "Shine", by Sevendust from Animosity

Businesses and organizations

 * Shine (charity), a British charity which supports people affected by spina bifida and hydrocephalus
 * Shine Distillery and Grill, in Portland, Oregon, U.S.
 * Shine FM (disambiguation), the name of several radio stations
 * Shine Global, an American non-profit media company
 * Shine Group, television production company
 * Shine Group of Institutions, a college in Irba, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
 * Shine TV, a British media production company
 * Shine TV (New Zealand), a Christian TV channel
 * Shine Lawyers, an Australian law firm
 * SHINE Medical Technologies, an American company
 * Shine Wrestling, an American women's wrestling promotion
 * Shine, a website for women created in 2008 by Yahoo!
 * SHINE, the online brand of the Chinese English-language newspaper Shanghai Daily
 * Endemol Shine Group, formerly Sine Group, a Dutch-British TV production and distribution company

People

 * Shine (surname), list of people with the surname
 * Shine Begho (born 1985), Nigerian media personality
 * Shine Louise Houston, an American pornographic filmmaker
 * Shine Kuk (Son Yong Kuk, born 1993), a South Korean actress in the Philippines
 * Shine (musician), a Burmese musician
 * Shine Thura (born 1996), a Burmese footballer
 * Shine Tom Chacko (born 1983), an Indian film actor
 * Shines, a surname

Places

 * Shine, Washington, U.S.

Other uses

 * Shine (fundraising event), a British cancer charity event
 * Shine (Singapore festival), a youth festival
 * Shine (nightclub), in Belfast, Northern Ireland
 * SHINE Awards ("Sexual Health in Entertainment"), annual media awards
 * SHINE Expert System, a NASA/JPL software-development tool
 * LG Shine, a mobile phone by LG Electronics
 * NA61/SHINE, a particle physics experiment
 * Dance shines, moves in Salsa

title: Shine


text:
Hairpin turn

A hairpin turn (also hairpin bend or hairpin corner) is a bend in a road with a very acute inner angle, making it necessary for an oncoming vehicle to turn about 180° to continue on the road. It is named for its resemblance to a bent metal hairpin. Such turns in ramps and trails may be called switchbacks in American English, by analogy with switchback railways.

Description
Hairpin turns are often built when a route climbs up or down a steep slope, so that it can travel mostly across the slope with only moderate steepness, and are often arrayed in a zigzag pattern. Highways with repeating hairpin turns allow easier, safer ascents and descents of mountainous terrain than a direct, steep climb and descent, at the price of greater distances of travel and usually lower speed limits, due to the sharpness of the turn. Highways of this style are also generally less costly to build and maintain than highways with tunnels.

On occasion, the road may loop completely, using a tunnel or bridge to cross itself at a different elevation (example on Reunion Island: -21.18111°N, 55.45472°W; example near Ashland, Oregon 42.09194°N, -122.58917°W). When this routing geometry is used for a rail line, it is called a spiral, or spiral loop.

In trail building, an alternative to switchbacks is the stairway.

Railways
If a railway curves back on itself like a hairpin turn, it is called a horseshoe curve. The Pennsylvania Railroad built one in Blair County, Pennsylvania, which ascends the Eastern Continental Divide from the east. However, the radius of curvature is much larger than that of a typical road hairpin. See this example at Zlatoust or Hillclimbing for other railway ascent methods.

Skiing
Sections known as hairpins are also found in the slalom discipline of alpine skiing. A hairpin consists of two consecutive vertical or "closed gates", which must be negotiated very quickly. Three or more consecutive closed gates are known as a flush.

title: Hairpin turn


text:
David van Dantzig

David van Dantzig (September 23, 1900 – July 22, 1959) was a Dutch mathematician, well known for the construction in topology of the solenoid. He was a member of the Significs Group.

Biography
Born to a Jewish family in Amsterdam in 1900, van Dantzig started to study Chemistry at the University of Amsterdam in 1917, where Gerrit Mannoury lectured. He received his PhD at the University of Groningen in 1931 with a thesis entitled "Studien over topologische algebra" under supervision of Bartel Leendert van der Waerden.

"Topological algebra made its first appearance in the paper of Kürschak ..., where the definition of an abstract field with a valuation is clearly set forth. The foundation was completed in the thesis of van Dantzig ...; topological groups, rings, fields, and linear spaces are there defined, and their basic properties are established."

Van Dantzig, in collaboration with Professors J.G. Van der Corput and J.F. Koksma, played a pivotal role in establishing the 'Mathematical Centre' in Amsterdam. This institution, funded by both government and industry, was designed to amalgamate all facets of pure and applied mathematics under a single entity. As the head of the Department of Mathematical Statistics, van Dantzig was instrumental in enhancing research and fostering consultancy, gaining widespread recognition both nationally and internationally.

He was appointed professor at the Delft University of Technology in 1938, and at the University of Amsterdam in 1946. Among his doctoral students were Jan Hemelrijk (1950), Johan Kemperman (1950), David Johannes Stoker (1955), and Constance van Eeden (1958). In Amsterdam he was one of the founders of the Mathematisch Centrum. At the University of Amsterdam he was succeeded by Jan Hemelrijk.

Originally working on topics in differential geometry and topology, after World War II he focused on probability, emphasizing the applicability to statistical hypothesis testing.

Van Dantzig's contributions to mathematics and statistics were acknowledged through numerous appointments and memberships. In 1949 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen). He was a Fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics, the American Statistical Association, and the Royal Statistical Society. His memberships extended to the International Statistical Institute, and he was a prominent figure in the Dutch Statistical Association (Vereniging voor Statistiek). Additionally, van Dantzig held the position of Visiting Professor at the University of California, Berkeley in 1951 and spent time working at the National Bureau of Standards in Washington, D.C.

In response to the North Sea flood of 1953, the Dutch Government established the Delta Committee, and asked Van Dantzig to develop a mathematical approach to formulate and solve the economic cost-benefit decision model concerning optimal dike height problems in connection with the Delta Works. The work of the Delta Committee, including the work by van Dantzig, finally resulted in statutory minimal safety standards. A comprehensive report on this work, spanning several hundred pages, was found on his desk on the day of his death.

Publications
Books, a selection:
 * 1931. Studien over topologische algebra. Doctoral thesis University of Groningen.
 * 1932. Over de elementen van het wiskundig denken : voordracht. Rede Delft. Groningen : Noordhoff.
 * 1938. Vragen en schijnvragen over ruimte en tijd : een toepassing van den wiskundigen denkvorm. Inaugurale rede Technische Hogeschool te Delft
 * 1948. De functie der wetenschap : drie voordrachten, met discussie. With E.W. Beth and C.F.P. Stutterheim. 's-Gravenhage : Leopold

Articles, a selection:
 * D. van Dantzig, C. Scheffer "On hereditary time discrete stochastic processes, considered as stationary Markov chains, and the corresponding general form of Wald’s fundamental identity," Indag. Math. (16), No.4, (1954), p. 377–388
 * Dantzig, D. van. 1956. Economic decision problems for flood prevention. Econometrica 24(3) 276–287.

title: David van Dantzig


text:
Apocalyptic literature

Apocalyptic literature is a genre of prophetical writing that developed in post-Exilic Jewish culture and was popular among millennialist early Christians. Apocalypse is a Greek word meaning "revelation", "an unveiling or unfolding of things not previously known and which could not be known apart from the unveiling".

As a genre, apocalyptic literature details the authors' visions of the end times/end of the age as revealed by an angel or other heavenly messenger. The apocalyptic literature of Judaism and Christianity embraces a considerable period, from the centuries following the Babylonian exile down to the close of the Middle Ages.

Origins
Apocalyptic elements can be detected in the prophetic books of Joel and Zechariah, while Isaiah chapters 24–27 and 33 present well-developed apocalypses. The second half of the Book of Daniel (chs. 7–12) offers a fully matured and classic example of this genre of literature.

Unfulfilled prophecy
The non-fulfillment of prophecies served to popularize the methods of apocalyptic in comparison with the non-fulfillment of the advent of the Messianic kingdom. Thus, though Jeremiah had promised that after seventy years Israelites should be restored to their own land, and then enjoy the blessings of the Messianic kingdom under the Messianic king, this period passed by and things remained as of old. Some believe that the Messianic kingdom was not necessarily predicted to occur at the end of the seventy years of the Babylonian exile, but at some unspecified time in the future. The only thing for certain that was predicted was the return of the Jews to their land, which occurred when Cyrus the Persian conquered Babylon in circa 539 BC. Thus, the fulfillment of the Messianic kingdom remained in the future for the Jews.

Haggai and Zechariah explained the delay by the failure of Judah to rebuild the temple, and so hope of the kingdom persisted, until in the first half of the 2nd century the delay is explained in the Books of Daniel and Enoch as due not to man's shortcomings but to the counsels of God. Regarding the 70 years of exile predicted in Jeremiah 29:10, the Jews were first exiled in 605 BC in the reign of king Jehoiakim and were allowed to return to their land in c. 536 BC when King Cyrus conquered Babylon. This period was approximately 70 years, as prophesied by Jeremiah. Others connect the 70 years of Jeremiah with the 70 weeks of years mentioned by the angel in Daniel 9. Enoch 85 interprets the 70 years of Jeremiah as the 70 successive reigns of the 70 angelic patrons of the nations, which are to come to a close in his own generation. The Book of Enoch, however, was not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, so that any failed prophecy in it is of no consequence to the Jewish faith.

The Greek empire of the East was overthrown by Rome, and prompted a new interpretation of Daniel. The fourth and last empire was declared to be Roman by the Apocalypse of Baruch chapters 36–40 and 4 Ezra 10:60–12:35. Again, these two books were not considered inspired Scripture by the Jews, and thus were not authoritative on matters of prophecy. In addition, earlier in Daniel chapter 7 and also in chapter 2, the fourth world empire is considered to be Rome since Babylon, Medo-Persia (Achaemenid Empire), Greece, and Rome were world empires which all clearly arrived in succession.

Such ideas as those of "the day of Yahweh" and the "new heavens and a new earth" were re-interpreted by the Jewish people with fresh nuances in conformity with their new settings. Thus the inner development of Jewish apocalyptic was conditioned by the historical experiences of the nation.

Traditions
Another source of apocalyptic thought was primitive mythological and cosmological traditions, in which the eye of the seer could see the secrets of the future. Thus the six days of the world's creation, followed by a seventh of rest, were regarded as at once a history of the past and a forecasting of the future. As the world was made in six days its history would be accomplished in six thousand years, since each day with God was as a thousand years and a thousand years as one day; and as the six days of creation were followed by one of rest, so the six thousand years of the world's history would be followed by a rest of a thousand years.

Object and contents
The object of this literature in general was to reconcile the righteousness of God with the suffering condition of His righteous servants on earth. Early Old Testament prophecy taught the need of personal and national righteousness, and foretold the ultimate blessedness of the righteous nation on the present earth. Its views were not systematic and comprehensive in regard to the nations in general. Regarding the individual, it held that God's service here was its own and adequate reward, and saw no need of postulating another world to set right the evils of this one.

But later, with the growing claims of the individual and the acknowledgment of these in the religious and intellectual life, both problems, and especially the latter, pressed themselves irresistibly on the notice of religious thinkers, and made it impossible for any conception of the divine rule and righteousness to gain acceptance, which did not render adequate satisfaction to the claims of both problems. To render such satisfaction was the task undertaken by apocalyptic, as well as to vindicate the righteousness of God alike in respect of the individual and of the nation. Later prophecy incorporated an idea of future vindication of present evils, often including the idea of an afterlife.

Apocalyptic prophets sketched in outline the history of the world and mankind, the origin of evil and its course, and the final consummation of all things. The righteous as a nation should yet possess the earth, either via an eternal Messianic kingdom on earth, or else in temporary blessedness here and eternal blessedness hereafter. Though the individual might perish amid the disorders of this world, apocalyptic prophets taught that the righteous person would not fail to attain through resurrection the recompense that was due in the Messianic kingdom or, alternatively, in heaven itself.

Message
Some may distinguish between the messages of the prophets and the messages of proto-apocalyptic and apocalyptic literature by saying that the message of the prophets was primarily a preaching of repentance and righteousness needed for the nation to escape judgment; the message of the apocalyptic writers was of patience and trust for that deliverance and reward were sure to come. Neither the prophets nor the apocalyptic authors are without conflict between their messages, however, and there are significant similarities between prophecy and apocalyptic writings.

Apocalyptic literature shares with prophecy revelation through the use of visions and dreams, and these often combine reality and fantasy. In both cases, a heavenly interpreter is often provided to the receiver so that he may understand the many complexities of what he has seen. The oracles in Amos, Hosea, First Isaiah, and Jeremiah give a clear sense of how messages of imminent punishment develop into the later proto-apocalyptic literature, and eventually into the thoroughly apocalyptic literature of Daniel 7–12. The fully apocalyptic visions in Daniel 7–12, as well as those in the New Testament's Revelation, can trace their roots to the pre-exilic latter biblical prophets; the sixth century BCE prophets Ezekiel, Isaiah 40–55 and 56–66, Haggai 2, and Zechariah 1–8 show a transition phase between prophecy and apocalyptic literature.

Dualistic theology
Prophecy believes that this world is God's world and that in this world His goodness and truth will yet be vindicated. Hence the prophet prophesies of a definite future arising out of and organically connected with the present. The apocalyptic writer despairs of the present and directs his hopes to the future, to a new world standing in essential opposition to the present. This becomes a dualistic principle, which, though it can largely be accounted for by the interaction of certain inner tendencies and outward sorrowful experience on the part of Judaism, may ultimately be derived from Mazdean influences. This principle, which shows itself in the conception that the various nations are under angelic rulers, who are in a greater or less degree in rebellion against God, as in Daniel and Enoch, grows in strength with each succeeding age, till at last Satan is conceived as "the ruler of this world" or "the god of this age."

Conception of history
Apocalyptic writing took a wider view of the world's history than did prophecy. Whereas prophecy had to deal with governments of other nations, apocalyptic writings arose at a time when Israel had been subject for generations to the sway of one or other of the great world-powers. Hence to harmonize Israel's difficulties with belief in God's righteousness, apocalyptic writing had to encompass such events in the counsels of God, the rise, duration and the downfall of each empire in turn, until, finally the lordship of the world passed into the hands of Israel, or the final judgment arrived. These events belonged in the main to the past, but the writer represented them as still in the future, arranged under certain artificial categories of time definitely determined from the beginning in the counsels of God and revealed by Him to His servants, the prophets. Determinism thus became a leading characteristic of Jewish apocalyptic, and its conception of history became mechanical.

Characteristics
The revelations from heavenly messengers about the end times came in the form of angels or from people who were taken up to heaven and returned to earth with messages. The descriptions not only tell of the end times, but also describe both past and present events and their significance, often in heavily coded language. When speaking of the end times, apocalyptic literature generally includes chronologies of events that are to occur, and frequently places them in the near future, which gives a sense of urgency to the prophet's broader message. Though the understanding of the present is bleak, the visions of the future are far more positive, and include divinely delivered victory and a complete reformation of absolutely everything. Many visions of these end times mirror creation mythologies, invoke the triumph of God over the primordial forces of chaos, and provide clear distinctions between light and dark, good and evil. In such revelations, humankind is typically divided into a small group that experiences salvation, while the wicked majority is destroyed. Since the apocalyptic genre developed during the Persian period, this dualism may have developed under the influence of Persian thought. The imagery in apocalyptic literature is not realistic or reflective of the physical world as it was, but is rather surreal and fantastic, invoking a sense of wonder at the complete newness of the new order to come.

Proto-apocalyptic

 * Isaiah 24–27; 33; 34–35
 * Jeremiah 33:14–26
 * Ezekiel 38–39
 * Joel 3:9–17
 * Zechariah 12–14

Apocalyptic

 * Daniel 7–12

Some are possibly falsely attributed works (pseudepigraphic) except for the passages from Ezekiel and Joel. Of the remaining passages and books, some consider large sections of Daniel attributable to the Maccabean period, with the rest possibly to the same period. Some consider Isaiah 33 to be written about 163 BCE; Zechariah 12–14 about 160 BCE; Isaiah 24–27 about 128 BCE; and Isaiah 34–35 sometime in the reign of John Hyrcanus. Jeremiah 33:14–26 is assigned by Marti to Maccabean times, but this is disputed.

Non-canonical

 * 1 Enoch (although considered to be a deuterocanonical text within the Beta Israel Jewish community)
 * 2 Enoch
 * 3 Enoch
 * Apocalypse of Abraham
 * Apocalypse of Adam
 * Apocalypse of Moses
 * Apocalypse of Sedrach
 * Apocalypse of Zephaniah
 * Apocalypse of Zerubbabel
 * Aramaic Apocalypse
 * Gabriel's Revelation
 * Genesis Apocryphon
 * Greek Apocalypse of Baruch
 * Greek Apocalypse of Daniel
 * Greek Apocalypse of Ezra
 * Sefer Elijah
 * Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch

New Testament
In the transition from Jewish literature to that of early Christianity, there is a continuation of the tradition of apocalyptic prophecy. Christianity preserved the Jewish apocalyptic tradition (as Judaism developed into Rabbinism) and gave it a Christian character by a systematic process of interpolation. Christianity cultivated this form of literature and made it the vehicle of its own ideas. Christianity saw itself as the spiritual representative of what was true in prophecy and apocalyptic.

Canonical

 * Matthew 24
 * The Sheep and the Goats
 * Mark 13
 * 2 Thessalonians 2
 * 1 Timothy 4
 * 2 Peter 3
 * Jude 14-15
 * Book of Revelation

Non-canonical

 * Apocalypse of Golias
 * Apocalypse of Paul
 * Apocalypse of Peter
 * Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius
 * Apocalypse of Samuel of Kalamoun
 * Apocalypse of Stephen
 * Apocalypse of Thomas
 * Coptic Apocalypse of Elijah

Gnostic

 * Gnostic Apocalypse of Peter
 * First Apocalypse of James
 * Second Apocalypse of James
 * Coptic Apocalypse of Paul

title: Apocalyptic literature