text:
Talk:Clave (rhythm)

Mento
This instrument and pattern also seem to be extremely common in Jamaican mento. Somebody find a source! 75.49.251.170 (talk) 10:04, 17 August 2008 (UTC)

Image name
Why don't you just save a correct rumba cleve image under a slightly different name and link from there? Mikkalai 19:43, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * After much faffing about, I think it's fixed now. --Camembert

Son Clave Midi File
The rhythm in the midi file associated with the "Son clave" does not match up with the rhythm represented in the image associated with the "Son clave." Someone who knows more about the topic should fix one or the other. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Danreitz (talk • contribs) 05:30, 17 January 2008 (UTC)

 * Not sure where the MIDI went : found Mark Wessels Publications Presents with helpful MIDI for those of us that don't read '[tadpoles]' ! Could be a good external ref ?
 * --195.137.93.171 (talk) 07:21, 1 March 2011 (UTC)

Images
I think the current images used to describe the various clave rhythms are a bit confusing for two reasons:

1) As the clave is a rhythmic pattern it's not really interesting which tone is being played and for how long it's being held. Because of this I think standard musical notation is an unnecessarily complex way of describing it for the unknowing.

2) Sticking to standard musical notation the current note and rest durations seem a bit out of place to me. The external article An Introduction to Clave Theory has a version that I feel is the most correct way of describing the clave with standard notation.

The same article also has a good example of an alternate way of graphically representing the clave which I believe is much easier to understand for those who have not studied standard musical notation.

Could someone make an image like that, or maybe construct one using HTML tables?

It's also possible to explain the clave in basic text as done in the current version of salsa (music), using "pre"-tags like this: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

...but images are always nice :)

- Wintran 17:19, 19 Nov 2004 (UTC)

You make an important point here and it comes from the fact that the Cubans stubbornly hold that the full clave is played over just one bar, not two (as portrayed on the page with only four beats). Whereas the rest of the world sees it differently as you portray it in your diagram, as being over two bars. Your portrayal is how a dancer to Salsa music might count out a 3-2 clave. Another way to see it is: 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4. As a Latin percussionist, I feel it is a moot point because rhythm is hierarchical in nature. The way it is heard is very much as two bars held together by the phrasing pattern (any of the claves). This is why dancers and even musicians tend dance in a back-and-forth motion to Latin music. Maybe a comment to this effect might enrich the article. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.166.228.159 (talk) 09:50, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

Edits moved to talk page
Edit by User:66.248.34.52 at 08:19, 19 October 2005.
 * (Possible exceptions would be all those of Yoruba-Congo descent outside of Cuba. Most slaves brought to English controlled colonies such as Jamaica or the future USA were from what is now Nigeria. The music of these Calabali is noticeably different from the music of Cuba, suggesting that Nigerian origin is not the key difference between Cuban music and other types of black music.) Because the those of slave descent from NIgeria are newer they ar

Reasons for moving: Feels a bit out of place, and end sentence is not finished.

- Wintran 12:36, 19 October 2005 (UTC)

Sample
I knocked this up in a few minutes. I don't claim it's good, but if you agree it's better than nothing I'll move it on the body of the article.

James barton 13:40, 13 January 2006 (UTC)

Recent update
I Removed part about Brazilian music being largely clave-less, and added examples of clave patterns in traditional Brazilian music. Even though clave is played on claves, it doesn't mean that if it is played on another intrument it is not a clave.

In the section about cross cultural pollination between Louisianan musicians and Cuban musicians, the author makes an implication that clave is a direct result of this communication between the US and Cuba. In reality, African Americans retained many musical structures from their african descendents, including clave. It was not necessarily a result of contact with Cuba.

Also edited "This is a fundamental difference between the Cuban conception of clave and other rhythmic timelines found in African and African-Diaspora music, which often simply mark recurring cycles of time." in regards to "Depending on the style and musicians involved, the clave may play a role from a simple rhythmic decoration to an elaborate structural framework upon which the rest of the music must relate." While the latter is true, the former is not. Hint: Bembé, Candomblé, music of the Fon, etc... —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 72.48.91.222 (talk) 07:22, 30 January 2007 (UTC).

Rubbish!!
The rhythm came from the eastern Meditteranean, not any "West Africans." The only reason music from there has clave is because the Moors brought it with them when they invaded a section of NorthWest SSAfrica. As for Louisiana/Cuba, there was a large amount of contact and that is where the commonality of clave came from. There were no "African-Americans," and the slaves merely imitated what they heard from others, adding a few flourishes here and there. Don't forget that the slaves were not pure SSAfrican either! More feel-good lies are not needed.JBDay 21:00, 5 August 2007 (UTC)

I agree that there has always been cross fertilisation and sharing of musical ideas, and indeed is a must. This has been demonstrated in the 20th Century. Respectfully, some of your other assertions need references to strengthen your argument. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 82.45.135.163 (talk) 07:49, 14 June 2010 (UTC)

Rebuttal of the above comment: Your comment is based on cultural jingoism and is completely uninformed by the facts or any musical knowledge. These rhythms, like harmony, are based the human response to ratios of the first prime numbers. They are not linked to any culture. If they have any original source then I would say that it is from the Ancient World (Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome) - not the middle east of the seventh century. The Ancient World had a strong connection to the African continent. Arab cultures that swept across the Mediterranean region were "anti-music" (which can be seen today by all the dumbek rhythm names which are derived from pejorative Arab names for local cultures and peoples). I play both Latin percussion and the dumbek so I know what I am talking about. Although dubeck rhythms have phrasing pattern within them, I have never found either the Son or Rumba clave in any rhythm, and I know over 70 rhythms. The only resemblance I can find is with Chiftetelli or Tiftetelli (which is not middle eastern in origin but from Ancient Greece) which resembles the Yambu clave. Your comment that Latin rhythms don't come from Africa is so wrong it is laughable. These rhythms only exist in the New World where slaves were brought. The evidence of pagan African culture is EVERYWHERE in Latin music! The Cascara that I play on the timbales comes from the Cata that is played in Rumba. And the Cata is directly from pagan Africa. So you're the one who is full of rubbish! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.166.228.159 (talk) 09:40, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

Fact tag to West African statement
I've added the fact tag after the word "West" in this sentence: "Clave (pronounced clah-vay) is a rhythmic pattern or timeline which has its roots in West African music and was developed in Cuba."

This is because the clave rhythm is also found in Central Africa. I think it would be more accurate state that clave has its roots in Sub-Saharan African music.

I was also tempted to add a fact tag after "developed in Cuba." If you listen to traditional African music, you'll probably agree that the clave rhythm is quite well-developed. Perhaps "populararized by Cuban music" would be more accurate. DBlomgren 18:15, 10 February 2007 (UTC)

Don't want to start a fight here, but
The image of sheet music displayed on the page is rumba clave, not son clave. The clave for rumba Guaguanco is always played in a 3-2 pattern, and the clave for son is played in 2-3. The accents are different between popular and folkloric music (for instance, in a folkloric pattern you might here, it can go: 12-1-12 Listen to Tito Puente's Pa' Los Rumberos, even though it is pop music he is using a folkloric clave, and you will see what I am talking about). It is true that the clave is different for rumba columbia, but this is also different for yambu clave. So, in truth, the rumba clave is primarily meant for Guaguanco. You might here a folkloric recording (Los Munequitos de Matanzas is a good place to start) and someone might be playing a Guaguanco clave to a yambu, but essentially, they are all different. Cancionista78 01:07, 8 August 2007 (UTC)Cancionista78

Nope. In Cuban rumba (the music dance and drum art form) is ALWAYS considered to be played in 3-2 form, never in 2-3. An error in the article says that Guaguanco is played with the Son. Nope again. It is the Rumba clave that is played with Guaguanco. Both the Son, Rumba and Yambu claves are played with the Yambu form of Cuban Rumba. Always in the 3-2 form and there is no change in the accents (what does that mean anyway?) The only time that the 2-3 form is played is in Latin music that has an actual chord progression forcing the music to start on the two side. It should be noted that the only difference between the Son and the Rumba clave is the placement of the "Ponche" note (third tap on the 3-2 form). Check Penalosa is you doubt it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 199.166.228.159 (talk) 10:06, 4 February 2018 (UTC)

Some suggestions for cleaning up
First of all, this passage is erroneous and off topic, so I am going to delete it:

"It should be noted, however, that whether or not there was any continuous exchange between musicians in Louisiana and Cuba, African musical traditions in the United States are very much a part of the musical heritage of the African American culture since the first slaves landed in the US."

The first slave were brought by the Portuguese and Spaniards to Brazil and Cuba, respectively, not to the US. The first American slaves landed in Virginia in 1619. Also, I think it is unnecessary for a discussion of Clave to mention anything about the vitality of African American culture—that should be in a discussion of African American music.

Also, I would suggest that someone redo all the clave diagrams so that they are consistent. Give all variations, not just those that are "correct". We can write descriptions of how each is used and if it is authentic. The fact that someone believes it to exist in a certain way makes it worth discussing on the page.

I think it is also a good idea to use standard notation and some form of grid notation for each example, since this seems to be contentious with some people.

Lastly, the debate about which directions are more correct for certain styles should be incorporated into the text. I personally have heard every combination. Son clave in folkloric music and both directions of rumba clave in pop music (Isaac Delgado does this a lot). 96.52.9.182 (talk) 01:24, 6 July 2008 (UTC)

Clave instrument
I don't think a discussion of the instrument should be on this page. There is a separate page for claves as an instrument. Why not just provide a disambiguation link to that and let this page be about the rhythm? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.37.167.20 (talk) 16:15, 16 July 2008 (UTC)

Don't Gripe on the Discussion Page
Some people below have posted comments that they disagree with the content of the Clave page. Don't post that stuff here—if you have conflicting information, incorporate it into a section of the article, making sure to cite your sources in proper academic style. There's no point in griping. This article should reflect as many points of view about clave as possible, as long as they are presented fairly and with proper citations. 12:36 UTC, 21 Jul 2009 —Preceding unsigned comment added by 75.42.163.133 (talk) 00:37, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Where should one gripe? Hyacinth (talk) 01:39, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

 * Silliest idea of the day. People don't use discussion pages enough.  You seem to think that anonymous edit wars in the article are better than "gripes", as you call them, on the discussion page.  I don't see any gripes above, but I wonder if all the article improvements suggested here have been made.  Ortolan88 (talk) 21:50, 22 July 2009 (UTC)

Incorrect 6/8 clave pattern
The 6/8 pattern shown in the article is not the correct one used for Abakua, Columbia etc. styles. The third note should appear on beat 6 of the first bar not beat 5. The pattern shown is very rarely found in Afro-Cuban music. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 203.171.95.146 (talk) 21:12, 17 September 2009

rhythmic positions that fit neatly
"rhythmic positions that do not fit neatly into Western music notation" - is there another form of music notation into which they do fit neatly? If not, the word Western is superfluous. (If there is another kind of notation that they fit neatly into, we need to know about it.) 213.122.19.38 (talk) 02:13, 17 February 2010 (UTC)

 * I'll take out the reference to "western"--Dr clave (talk) 21:55, 1 April 2010 (UTC)

Lead missing
The article does not have a lead section. "The lead section (also known as the introduction or the lead) of a Wikipedia article is the section before the table of contents and first heading. The lead serves both as an introduction to the article and as a summary of the important aspects of the subject of the article. The lead should be able to stand alone as a concise overview of the article. It should define the topic, establish context, explain why the subject is interesting or notable, and summarize the most important points..."

There is currently no section before the table of contents, only a pronunciation and literal definition of "clave" as "code", "key", or "keystone". There is no context for the pronunciation or the definition and the definition is not of "clave rhythm", the terms use in this article. Hyacinth (talk) 22:31, 1 April 2010 (UTC)

 * I hope I have remedied that problem now.--Dr clave (talk) 01:33, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Much better now. Hyacinth (talk) 10:28, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * But it doesn't say what clave is. To say something is "used as"  or "used in"  does not tell us what it is.  (Consider an analogy:  "A steering wheel / transmission / engine is used in driving a car."  Any of those is correct but not informative. 137.159.184.234 (talk) 02:28, 7 July 2016 (UTC)

The symmetry of clave
I think this section should be removed. I think the original writer may have read some related academic papers online (by Toussaint for example), but the entry here is weak and undeveloped. It probably belongs on the Polyrhythm or Music of Africa page.--Dr clave (talk) 19:08, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * It should be deleted. For example it claims that 3:2 approximates the Golden ratio. However, 1.5 ≠ 1.618 closely or in any significant manner. Though 2 & 3 are found consecutively in the Fibonacci sequence they are so low as to make this relationship meaningless without continuing the sequence. Worse, the section as a whole doesn't describe any symmetry in the clave rhythm or anything else. Hyacinth (talk) 10:24, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

Issue of notation and counting
Hi [Hyacinth], I disagree with your counting scheme in the depiction of tresillo in divisive structure. The proper representation in standard notation would be using the 2/4 time signature. I think you changed my counting scheme because all clave examples on the page are written as two measures of 4/4. Next week I'll generate some examples showing clave in a single measure. Notice that the standard pattern example you put up on the "bell pattern' page shows the figure in a single measure. In contrast, the "campana" part you put up on the bell pattern page is in two measures. This issue of whether to depict clave and related patterns in a single measure or two measures should probably be addressed. I'll be gone this weekend, but hope to address this issue early next week.--Dr clave (talk) 21:16, 2 April 2010 (UTC)

 * No, I changed your counting scheme because you can't count abstract symbols. You can say syllables such as "an" or "and", but not symbols such as "+". Hyacinth (talk) 10:09, 3 April 2010 (UTC)
 * The tresillo is shown in one measure, so not only are these separate issues, but I don't know what the problem with either is. Hyacinth (talk) 10:10, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

The problem is that the correct count: is "1 e and a 2 e and a"

you changed it to: "1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and."

If you notice where you put the main beats in your 6/8 count (two main beats), the same main beats apply to the duple-pulse forms.

There are only two main beats, not four main beats under tresillo. I need to change the musical examples in standard notation though, so that they conform with the "X" and count system we are discussing. There needs to be some mention of the two ways clave is written in standard notation (4/4 and cut-time) and the confusion amongst musicians. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Dr clave (talk • contribs) 13:41, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * See meter (music). There are only two main beats in any duple meter, including 4/4. Hyacinth (talk) 13:52, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Going only slightly into the rhythmic structure of our music we find that all its melodic design is constructed on a rhythmic pattern of two measures, as though both were only one, the first is antecedent, strong, and the second is consequent, weak.—Grenet (1939)

 * [With] clave. . .the two measures are not at odds, but rather, they are balanced opposites like positive and negative, expansive and contractive or the poles of a magnet.—Amira and Cornelius (1992: 23, 24)

 * Current quotes in the article, slightly trimmed, emphasis mine. Hyacinth (talk) 14:04, 3 April 2010 (UTC)

Yes, I take your point about the text and written examples referring to two measures. I was hoping to avoid addressing the issue of notation on the clave page, but I now think it's inevitable.

Concerning the count, that ought to be evident when tresillo and clave are written within the correct time signature.--Dr clave (talk) 19:27, 5 April 2010 (UTC)

Wikipedia doesn't even allow one to upload images in .TIFF file format, Creation and usage of media files: "As of March 2010[update], the following file types may be uploaded: png, gif, jpg/jpeg, xcf, pdf, mid, ogg/ogv/oga, svg, djvu." See also IUP. Hyacinth (talk) 09:13, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Considering the sources show and describe two measures, do you have a source that shows or describes one measure, and does that source say why they it matters? Hyacinth (talk) 09:19, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

ISSUES OF NOTATION

Hi Hyacinth, I’ve included some citations to back up what I say here. The issue of notation matters a great deal in regards to clave and other rhythms of sub-Saharan origin because these rhythms exist within a specific metric structure. That structure should be conveyed by the time signature and by the choice of the notehead value used for the regular subdivisions. For example, if the regular subdivisions are sixteenth-notes, clave should be written in a single measure of 4/4, or two measures of 2/4. If on the other hand, the regular subdivisions are written as eighth-notes, then the clave may be written in two measures, but it should be two measures of 2/2, not two measures of 4/4 as shown on the Wikipedia clave page. Either way, the clave pattern spans four main beats. In 4/4 the four main beats are quarter-notes and in 2/2 they are half-notes.

There are two main branches of clave theory. The first branch originated with the practical necessities of working Cuban musicians. In the early 1800s the habanera (Cuban contradanza) was developed. The habanera is based on the single-celled tresillo and its variants. Therefore, the music was written in 2/4 (regular subdivisions written as sixteenth-notes). In the 1880s the danzon emerged, which is based on the two-celled clave pattern. Clave was written in two measures of 2/4 in the early 20th century (Mauleon Salsa Guidebook 1993 :51). Today, Cuban popular music is written mostly in a single measure of 4/4, with the regular subdivisions written as sixteenth-notes (Moore Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution v. 1 2010: 57).

When Afro-Cuban jazz (Latin jazz) was created in NYC during the 1940s clave was represented in cut-time, with the regular subdivisions written as eighth-notes. However, the 4/4 time signature was used instead of 2/2. This error has led to the widespread misunderstanding in North Americas and later Europe that there are eight main beats under clave rather than four.

Some contemporary books on Cuban popular music use the correct time signature when representing clave in two measures, for example: Congas and Tumbadoras (Sulbruck 1999) and Conversations in Clave (Hernandez 2000) use eighth-notes as the regular subdivisions in cut-time. The three-volume Tomas Cruz Conga Method series (2004) and the eight-volume series Beyond Salsa Piano; The Cuban Timba Revolution (2010) by Kevin Moore use sixteenth-notes and 4/4.

The other main branch of clave theory comes from the field of ethnomusicology, beginning in 1920. The area of study was the music of Central and West Africa. Focus on Afro-Cuban music came later. Initially the accents in African rhythm were misunderstood as indicators of meter, rather than the counter-metric events they actually are. This led to much confusion about how to write the music. This relates to the three different written versions of the "6/8 clave" shown on the Wikipedia clave page.

In the 1970s Ghanaian master drummer/scholar C.K. Ladzekpo explained the correct structure of "clave" and other African-based rhythms. The first published work explaining the correct metric structure of African rhythm was David Locke’s 1982 article "Principles of Off-Beat Timing and Cross-Rhythm in Southern Ewe Dance Drumming," in the Society for Ethnomusicology Journal. Locke’s article settled the issue. Subsequently, even African music scholar Simha Arom abandoned his central theory that sub-Saharan music was poly-metric. The books and articles of Kofi Agawu have delved further into the issue of African music’s metric structure by building upon the works of Ladzekpo and Locke. In 1998 Eugene Novotney explained the generating principle of "clave" and its variants in The Three Against Two Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics.

In these works of ethnomusicology "clave" and its variants are depicted in a single measure of 4/4 (duple-pulse structure) or 12/8 (triple-pulse structure). That’s because "clave" and other two-celled timelines are considered to be the musical period, the basic musical phrase. If one wishes to explain the structure of clave, it is best to depict the pattern in a single measure so that the four underlying main beats are obvious. In other words, it should be shown as 1, 2, 3, 4 not 1, 2, 1, 2. As mentioned earlier, writing clave in a single measure is a contemporary practice in Cuban popular music. There is also a growing trend of writing clave in one measure in Ethnomusicological writings on Afro-Cuban folkloric music. For example, in the first edition of Bata Rhythms from Matanzas, Cuba (Summers 2007) clave was shown in two measures. In the second edition (2008) clave is shown in a single measure. Nolan Warden’s Afro-Cuban Traditional Music and Transculturation (2007) shows clave in a single measure.

On the Wikipedia clave page, the clave pattern should be introduced in a single measure without mention of 3-2/2-3. 3-2/2-3 is primarily a North American concept and does not apply to the pattern’s folkloric origins or its use in contemporary Cuban popular music (see quotes on Wikipedia’s clave page). Clave should be shown in two measures of cut-time when the 3-2/2-3 concept is introduced later in the article. Some explanation should be given as to why clave is written in these two ways.

I’ve tried to avoid some of these issues, attempting to integrate my text with what was already there. However, my thinking now is that all misleading information should be removed. Here are some other issues I think need attending to.

BOSSA NOVA "CLAVE"

Basically North American musicians misinterpreted the bossa nova snare rim pattern as a clave (guide-pattern). It is not. There are no published works on Brazilian music that make that claim. Putting the pattern into the 3-2/2-3 context (Wikipedia’s clave page), further confuses the matter.

THE STANDARD PATTERN

The standard pattern is shown in a single measure, but it is written in an additive form on Wikipedia’s clave page. It’s best to show it as eighth-notes, with eighth-note rests, so that all twelve pulses (subdivisions) are represented. The eighth-notes should be grouped in sets of three.

.PNG

I finally figured out how to generate png graphics. However, they are way larger than the written examples shown on the clave page. Can you suggest how I can make the image smaller? I have not been able to find out how to do that. Thanks--Dr clave (talk) 18:39, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

 * If you're using Sibelius see: User:Hyacinth/Sibelius how to. Hyacinth (talk) 19:15, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Alas, I use Finale, I notice that you have placed one of my examples (son and rumba clave) and the size is fine. Did you have to format the size or did it appear in that size automatically?--Dr clave (talk) 21:49, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

TYPES OF CLAVE PATTERNS

Another issue I forgot to mention is the different types of claves. "There are just two claves—son clave and rumba clave"—Ignacio Berroa Mastering the Art Afro-Cuban Drumming (1996: VHS). You can see this in my example above which you placed in this discussion page. I think it would be helpful to mention that the triple-pulse form of rumba clave is referred to by many North Americans as "6/8 clave", but it's misleading to say that there are three types of clave patterns, as this Wikipedia article does.--Dr clave (talk) 22:02, 6 April 2010 (UTC)

Issue of notation and counting THE SHORT ANSWER
>> Hyacinth: ". . . do you have a source that shows or describes one measure, and does that source say why they it matters?"

Hyacinth, Sorry about the long-winded answer, which may have not been the easiest to follow. Here are some quotes that address your question:

“In a complex interaction of beat schemes of varying rhythmic motions, the human mind normally seeks a focal point. [. . .] This dominant beat scheme is considered the main beat because of its strong accents in regular recurrence that pervade and regulate the entire fabric. . . in practice, the beat scheme of four units is the most commonly used. At any given tempo, the rhythmic motion of this beat scheme is the most moderate (not too slow or fast) and the most convenient as a focal point”—Ladzekpo (1995: webpage).

"Most examples of African musics, especially musics associated with dance can be transcribed into metric schemes in Western notation in 4/4 meter (for music with binary subdivisions) or 12/8 meter (for music with ternary subdivisions). [. . .] In standard terminology, each . . . metric scheme . . . consists of four beats per measure—Novotney (1996: 72). [There is a written example shown with this text of a measure of 4/4 (16 subdivisions) and a measure of 12/8 (12 subdivisions). Each measure has four main beats.--Dr clave (talk) 06:13, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

 * The answer to "why" was, I guess, mostly to satisfy my curiosity. Hyacinth (talk) 16:29, 7 April 2010 (UTC)
 * None of that gives a reason for why one would notate clave one way or another. Nor does it appear to even discuss Afro-Cuban music. The above reads like the standard introductions to European music notation for those unfamiliar. Hyacinth (talk) 16:33, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

The above quotes state that African rhythm is set in a scheme of four beats, and Novotney states that in Western notation it is a measure of four main beats (expressed in either 4/4 or 12/8). You asked for a source that "shows or describes one measure." There is a lot more text, I just quoted where they mention four beat in a single measure.

Referring to the clave pattern, David Locke (1982: 220-221) says: "The recurring bell pattern establishes the basic musical period or time span and the beats divide that span into equal divisions…four beats to each cycle of the bell pattern."

The underlying assumption is that a measure represents the "beat scheme" (Ladzekpo), "metric scheme" (Novotney), or "the basic musical period or time span" (Locke). Beat counts are limited to a single measure, so each measure contains clave over 1, 2, 3, 4.

As to "why" this is, it has to do with the accents of the dancer's steps in relation to the music. There are four steps per clave cycle. From the musician's perspective, you tap your foot four times per clave.

Or, from the perspective of music theory, all of the clave-based rhythms are generated from proportional interaction, specific cross-rhythmic ratios, the most important being 3:2, 4:3 and 3:4. All of those cross-rhythmic ratios are understood within the context of four main beats. Novotney's The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics covers this.

Since a lot of North Americans who play Cuban music write clave in two measures of cut-time, they refer to the half-note "pulses" underlying the pattern. From Rebeca Mauleon's 101 Montunos (1999: 6): "As with all of the clave patterns, it is recommended that the reader sing or clap the pattern while tapping a half-note pulse pattern." There are four half-note pulses (beats) per clave when it is written in cut-time.

A thorough explanation of clave ought to briefly address the different ways in which the pattern is notated and counted. As soon as I am able to link music examples at the correct size, I'll be up for taking that on.--Dr clave (talk) 06:05, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

 * At the end you wrap up by describing how conventional practice is not to notate in one measure, and at the beginning you fail to give one clear reason. For example, because there are four beats could be a reason to notate it using four measures. How about a simple quote from a source. Something like, "The clave pattern should be notated using one measure in 4/4." (then the source can be full of it, but see WP:V) Hyacinth (talk) 06:19, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

I hear what you are saying. I don't think I can find a statement as concise as "The clave pattern should be notated using one measure in 4/4." I will search for the best quotes I can though.

I think I can at least in part, explain this issue by citing the notation practices of the prominent ethnomusicologists (both African and Afro-Cuban music scholars) and the prominent Cuban musicians and music educators. It would be best probably if I limit the use of words like "should," and be as neutral as possible in explaining the two main ways in which clave is notated and the thinking behind each method. The thing I would definitely say is correct is the underlying four main beats. Giving legitimacy to an idea of eight or six main beats would be a disservice to Wikipedia readers.--Dr clave (talk) 07:31, 9 April 2010 (UTC)

 * So pretend I asked you to find a quote something like, "The clave pattern is generally notated using one measure in 4/4." Hyacinth (talk) 21:34, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

Examples
Examples of various notation variations with the patterns of strong and weak beats implied by the time signatures indicated above the notated rhythm. > = strong, u = weak, (>) = secondary strong beat. X marks aspects of notation which are unsatisfactory according to Dr clave.

Hyacinth (talk)

By the way, the dynamic of strong and weak beats found in Western music does not apply to sub-Saharan rhythm. The strong beats are 4 and 1, where the clave pattern coincides with main beats. --Dr clave (talk) 17:00, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

 * The number of [tangential] claims you are making is beginning to be quite large. Hyacinth (talk) 21:10, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

Yes, and I hope that I am not becoming too tiresome, or irritating. That is not my intention. Please correct me if I’m wrong, but while I have not always been able to find concise quotes, I have backed up all my assertions by citing the most respected authorities on the subject.

This is the most concise quote I could find concerning the application of "strong" and "weak" beats to clave as you did above:

"It must be noted that, when speaking in terms of all musics, this [strong beat and weak beat], substructure of hierarchical strengths does not always exist. [ . . . ] Although, as stated earlier, most African musics can be transcribed into metric schemes that would normally be represented in Western notation as 4/4 or 12/8 meter, the beats carry with them no implication of hierarchical value"—Dr. Eugene Novotney The 3:2 Relationship as the Foundation of Timelines in West African Musics (1998: 87).

In African-based music the strength or weakness of a particular beat depends upon the particular pattern the beats are in relation to. You are probably familiar with the concept of tension/resolution in terms of the clave pattern. The clave pattern resolves on the last stroke, which coincides with beat four. Beat four is a strong beat because that is where the rhythmic tension of resolves, where clave is grounded or anchored. You show the fourth main beat of the clave pattern to be a weak beat.

"Each stroke of the clave has a physical attribute . . . the first and last strokes are played with the first and last beats. This gives them the feeling of being bookends or anchors"—Conor Guilfoyle Odd Meter Clave (2006: 11).

OK, as I prepared to paste my reply in here, I saw that you added "tangential" to qualify your comment. I take your point. I’ll try to do a better job of staying on task and limit my digressions.--Dr clave (talk) 23:15, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

Embedding Graphics
I created the graphic above of son clave and rumba clave. It is the correct size in relation to the page. When I embed it into the article just now though it is extremely large. Any file I embed is way too large. Why?--Dr clave (talk) 03:13, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Extended image syntax (and the less informative Picture tutorial)
 * Specifically: "the syntax for displaying an image is... [[Image:Name|Type|Border|Location|Alignment|Size|Link|alt=Alt|Caption]]
 * Size[:] 'Widthpx'.... Scale the image to be no greater than the given width [550px used to be the maximum allowed to accommodate archaic screen sizes (WP:ImageSize)]...."
 * However, the quickest way to use links, tables, or images is to simply copy how you see others being displayed. The drawback is that without actually learning the syntax one is copying and pasting blind, so to speak. The best way to test out various options is the "show preview" button. Hyacinth (talk) 16:06, 7 April 2010 (UTC)

Thanks. I will continue my attempts to learn how to do it.--Dr clave (talk) 06:09, 8 April 2010 (UTC)

I was unable to get the size correct using the syntax. I was probably doing something wrong, but I spent hours attempting it. However, I able to copy the "son and rumba clave" example from the talk page to the clave page. After that, I was able to link to examples with an OK size. They are a bit larger than the examples in the rest of the article, but they are not too large. Thanks for your help.--Dr clave (talk) 16:58, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

 * The least you need is [[Image:NAME|###px]] with NAME and ### being the options for the image file name and the displayed size. Hyacinth (talk) 21:13, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

the three clave patterns at the top of the page
I see that you put them back up there after I removed them. I think that it's fine to have those patterns there, especially with the option of hearing them. However, as currently written, they do not correspond to the main body of the text. The two duple-pulse claves should be written in cut-time if you want to show them in two measures. Otherwise, you are implying that there are eight main beats per clave instead of four. Secondly, the clave on the bottom is merely the triple-pulse form of rumba clave; it is a clave pattern used in rumba. You show three of the four variants shown directly below the example of the three patterns. Finally, reconsider referring to the three patterns as 3-2. The 3-2/2-3 concept has limited application. While the "6/8" form of rumba clave can be used in the context of popular music, it is most commonly found in folkloric forms--Dr clave (talk) 23:33, 11 April 2010 (UTC)

 * In the rumba clave section we've got the top pattern while in the 6/8 section we've got the lower pattern:

X X X X X   X X X  X X   ............
 * Even if we split the pattern in half and put the second half first, we don't end up with the same patterns:

X X X X X  X X  X X X  ............
 * Hyacinth (talk) 01:00, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

I'm sorry, you are absolutely correct. I didn't look closely at the pattern. That's son clave in 6/8 form, not rumba clave. That's not what North American drummers refer to as "6/8 clave." This is the least common clave pattern in Cuban music. I can cite examples of its use in Cuba, but I know from over 30 years of research that it is very rare in comparison to the other three variants. The entire "6/8 clave" section should be deleted and the pattern should only appear when the two claves in their 4/4 and 12/8 forms are initially shown. The issue of the 12/8 patterns' metric structure is interesting, but it's probably not necessary for the clave page. It really belongs on the polyrhythm page and I would do it differently.--Dr clave (talk) 02:54, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

edit conflict
Why did you divide the "4/4" and "12/8" measures with a line in the pulse notation section? If

1 & a 2 & a |3 & a 4 & a ||

X. X. . X |. X. X. .

is supposed to correspond to the standard Western notation above it, those vertical lines in the middle should not be there.--Dr clave (talk) 03:01, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Who are you talking to? See Help:Page history. Hyacinth (talk) 06:19, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

Whoever made that change. I assume that you are the only one working on this with me at the moment. I took out the vertical lines.--Dr clave (talk) 06:26, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

 * What if I hadn't figured it out? And, since you are no longer referring to my work but to others' ... Hyacinth (talk) 06:48, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

Additive vs. divisive
We currently have two images named File:Tresillo additive.png & File:Tresillo divisive.png showing onset patterns, yet the surrounding text discusses how they are different, for example: "Those who wish to convey a sense of the rhythm’s background [main beats], and who understand the surface morphology in relation to a regular subsurface articulation, will prefer the divisive format." Is the quote referring to a difference in notation, or should the images be different? Hyacinth (talk) 08:33, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

 * Hi Hyacinth,
 * The quote refers to the two different metric contexts in which tresillo is used. The two ways of notating the pattern reflect these different contexts. I modified the count on the "pulse notation" version of the additive form so that it corresponds to the "pulse notation" version of the divisive form above it. I also added the preceding sentence to the quote. Have these changes I made clarified the issue for you?--Dr clave (talk) 19:31, 12 April 2010 (UTC)

Rhythms of Morocco
I just wanted to add you'll find many rhythmic patterns including the clave in Morocco. But by no means do we "feel" these patterns as "additive". The underlying beat is always present, maybe that's not too obvious for a western outsider.

And while slaves from the Guinea regions definitely contributed to Moroccan culture (not only through music, but some Moroccan dishes originated from there too) there has been a centuries lasting diverse cultural/economical relationship between the Imazighen people in the borders of today's Morocco and the imazighen people of the Sahel region. Many Moroccan rhythms are very similar to rhythms found in northern parts of Mali/Niger for instance. And we all know that borders count little in the Sahel, that's more a European idea.

But even if one want to classify African rhythms as "devisive" there's still no one who'll ever play a rhythm with a rigid "1-e-and-e" structure in his mind. Rhythms are fluent much like melodies. You don't count you play. You'll find the beat already engrained in the melodic structure. And that's also how you choose a specific rhythm over another, or create a new one. Not by counting (or theorizing over 3-2 vs. 2-3) but by listening to the context of a given melody.

You may want to search for "lhaj belaid (otbib)" (moroccan souassa) on youtube as an example to better understand what I mean. And you may also want to see "onamer 4", which is another fine example demonstrating how rhythm, melody and language are pretty much interchangeable. Now, do you thing these musicians are counting 1-2-3-4? Are these "additive" or "devisive" patterns? The answer to this must be: No one really cares. Rhythm hast to be deeply organic, like anything you take for granted e.g. your heart beat, your steps, etc. After all its music not math.

Yet I have the impression that only Europeans and North Americans make such a fuss about notations and "6/8 feel" and stuff like that. The rest of the world seems to enjoy music whether it is "additive" or "devisive". End Of Ranting :-)

92.72.176.220 (talk) 01:47, 6 March 2011 (UTC)

I imagine if one feels the rhythm organically, they probably have no need to read about it on Wikipedia. -Dr. Clave

too many photos deleted
I restored the photo of claves. I don't know why so many photos were deleted. seems quite excessive to me.Dr clave (talk) 16:12, 4 June 2012 (UTC)

Period
Clave is the basic period, composed of two rhythmically opposed cells, one antecedent and the other consequent.. > So far I understand a period is considerable larger than the length of one clave. This also correlates with the article period. Thus I wonder whether a clave can be called a period. Alternatively the article period may need work to include a broader definition. LazyStarryNights (talk) 21:18, 22 July 2013 (UTC)

According to the 2nd definition in the New Harvard Dictionary of Music (1986: 625), a period is: "A musical element that is in some way repeated . . . it may be applied to the units any parameter of music that embody repetitions at any level."

That sounds flexible enough to include clave, the key repetitive pattern, does it not? Dr clave (talk) 06:10, 4 November 2013 (UTC)
 * But without a reliable source this reasoning amounts to WP:SYNTHESIS, working backwards from a dictionary. Do any other authors refer to it in this way?--User:Salix alba (talk): 07:45, 4 November 2013 (UTC)

Yes, two of the most important authorities on African rhythm—C.K. Ladzekpo and Dr. David Locke, use the term in this way:

"The recurrent grouping of the main beats normally creates a fixed musical period or measure"—Ladzekpo [1]. Ladzekpo is clear; the period is a single measure (four main beats) in length. In the same article, he addresses the two main ways in which the period is subdivided: "a musical period of 12 pulsations," or "a musical period of 16 pulsations," both of which he represents within a single measure.

Locke defines the "basic musical period" of the rhythm Agbadza as having "four beats" [2]. He also represents the bell pattern Cubans call clave, within a single measure: "The time span of one bell cycle establishes the temporal period of the music" [3]. In another article, Locke states: "The time span of the bell rhythm and its division into beats establish meter, a concept that implies a musical period" [4].

In his 1939 book Popular Cuban Music, Cuban musicologist Emilio Grenet describes the structure of the clave pattern, using a definition of period, without actually using the term: "We find that all its melodic design is constructed on a rhythmic pattern of two measures, as though both were only one, the first is antecedent, strong, and the second is consequent, weak" [5]. Grenet, like most literate Cuban musicians of his time, represented clave in two measures, with each measure having two main beats. As the New Harvard Dictionary of Music states: "A period usually consists of two phrases (an antecedent and a consequent)" (1986: 625).

1. ^ C.K. Ladzekpo (1995: Web) "Main Beat Schemes." Foundation Course in African Music. C.K. Ladzekpo "Main Beat Schemes"

2. ^ Locke, David "Agbadza: The Critical Edition" Tufts University. "Agbadza: The Critical Edition" By David Locke

3. ^ Locke, David "Yewevu in the Metric Matrix." MTO, a journal of the Society for Music Theory. v. 16, n. 4. Dec. [http://www.mtosmt.org/issues/mto.10.16.4/mto.10.16.4.locke.html Locke, David (2010: web). "Yewevu in the Metric Matrix." ]

4. ^ Locke, David "Improvisation in West African Musics" Music Educators Journal, Vol. 66, No. 5, (Jan., 1980), p. 125-133. Published by: MENC: The National Association for Music Education. "Improvisation in West African Musics" by David Locke

5. ^ Grenet, Emilio, translated by R. Phillips (1939). Popular Cuban Music New York: Bourne Inc. Dr clave (talk) 06:50, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

 * Very good. I guess some of those references should go in.--User:Salix alba (talk): 10:13, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

Done. Dr clave (talk) 15:12, 5 November 2013 (UTC)

As suggested, I added a Sub-Saharan music and music of the African diaspora section in the Period article.Dr clave (talk) 07:05, 20 November 2013 (UTC)

Images in Soukous section
The Clave pattern in both images is wrong; the first measure is a 16th note too long.

Example: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seben_guitar_and_clave.tif

The dotted 8th note is the culprit here.

84.179.41.171 (talk) 08:34, 27 March 2014 (UTC)

Thank you for spotting that mistake.Dr clave (talk) 06:42, 28 June 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
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3–2 piano guajeo
Is there a particular reason why the notation for the 3-2 piano guajeo is stretched out on the third bar? Phen9264 (talk) 15:47, 22 December 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Clave (rhythm)


text:
Talk:Omomyidae

Taxobox
I was going to add a taxo-box here, but I decided I wasn't qualified to wade into the mess that is primate taxonomy :)--Mishac 19:45, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Tried to break down some of this jargon by linking- please explain terms or linkAndycjp (talk) 11:19, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Omomyidae


text:
Welshpool

Welshpool (Y Trallwng ) is a market town and community in Powys, Wales, historically in the county of Montgomeryshire. The town is 4 mi from the Wales–England border and low-lying on the River Severn. The community, which also includes Cloddiau and Pool Quay, has a population of 6,664 (as of the 2011 United Kingdom census), with the town having 5,948. There are many examples of Georgian architecture within the town. Powis Castle is located to the north.

Toponym
Y Trallwng is the Welsh language name of the town. It means "the marshy or sinking land". In English it was initially known as Pool but its name was changed to Welshpool in 1835 to distinguish it from the English town of Poole in Dorset.

History
St Cynfelin is reputed to be the founder of two churches in the town, St Mary's and St Cynfelin's, during "the age of the saints in Wales" in the 5th and 6th centuries.

The parish of Welshpool roughly coincides with the medieval commote of Ystrad Marchell in the cantref of Ystlyg in the Kingdom of Powys.

The Long Mountain, which plays as a backdrop to most of Welshpool, once served as the ultimate grounds for defence for fortresses in the times when the town was just a swampy marsh.

Welshpool served briefly as the capital of Powys Wenwynwyn or South Powys after its prince was forced to flee the traditional Welsh royal site at Mathrafal in 1212, by the prince of Gwynedd; assistance from the English crown (enemies of the Gwynedd prince) restored the Wenwynwyn dynasty to their lands. Further disputes with Gwynedd again brought in the English; in 1284, the family strengthened their hold on Powys Wenwynwyn by converting it into a marcher lordship (via surrender and re-grant) - the Lordship of Powys. Owain, the heir to the former principality, called himself Owen de la Pole, after the town.

The town was devastated by the forces of Owain Glyndŵr (heir to Powys Fadog - North Powys) in 1400 at the start of his rebellion against the English king Henry IV. Today, the waymarked, 135-mile long-distance footpath and National Trail, Glyndŵr's Way, ends in Pont Howell Park, alongside the Montgomery Canal.

In 1411 the priest at the church St Mary's was Adam of Usk.

Population
The population of Welshpool has risen since 2001.

Villages

 * Gungrog

Historic buildings
St Mary's Church is a Grade I listed building. The original church dated from about 1250, there are remains of this church in the lower courses of the church tower. The nave was rebuilt in the 16th century, and the whole building was substantially restored in 1871. The 15th century chancel ceiling may have come from Strata Marcella Abbey, about 5 mi away, and a stone in the churchyard is said to have been part of the abbot's throne. A memorial in the church commemorates Bishop William Morgan, translator of the Bible into Welsh, who was the vicar from 1575 to 1579.

The Mermaid Inn, 28 High Street, was very probably an early 16th-century merchant's house, placed on a burgage plot between the High Street and Alfred Jones Court. The timber-framed building has long storehouse or wing to the rear. The frontage was remodelled c. 1890, by Frank H. Shayler, architect, of Shrewsbury. Early illustrations of the building show that prior to this it had a thatched roof and that the timbering was not exposed. There is a passage to side with heavy box-framing in square panels, with brick infill exposed in side elevation and in rear wing. The frontage was exposed by Shayler to show decorative timber work on the upper storey. An Inn by the 19th century when it was owned by a family named Sparrow.

There is an octagonal brick cockpit in New Street, which was built in the early 18th century and was in continual use for cockfighting until the practice was outlawed by the Cruelty to Animals Act 1849. , it is the home of the town's Women's Institute. Welshpool Town Hall, which was completed in 1874, is a Grade II listed building.

Transport
Welshpool railway station is on the Cambrian Line and is served by Transport for Wales. The town is also the starting point of the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway, a narrow-gauge heritage railway popular with tourists, with its terminus station at Raven Square. The light railway once ran through the town to the Cambrian Line railway station, but today Raven Square, located on the western edge of the town, is the eastern terminus of the line.

A small network of bus services link surrounding towns and villages, mainly operated by Tanat Valley Coaches. Notable is service No X75, serving Shrewsbury to the east and Newtown and Llanidloes to the south west, also service No D71 to Oswestry via Guilsfield and Llanymynech. In addition there is a local town service operated by Owen's Coaches. The semi-disused Montgomery Canal also runs through Welshpool. To the south of the town is Welshpool Airport which is also known as the Mid Wales Airport. Three major trunk roads pass through Welshpool: the A458, A483 and the A490.

Economy
The local economy is primarily based upon agriculture and local industry. The Smithfield Livestock Market is the largest one-day sheep market in Europe. Market days are on Mondays.

The town's industrial estates are home to numerous different types of small industry, ranging from metal to food production. Due to the town's small size and population the attraction of high street stores and stores that cut keys is limited, meaning that many of the residents prefer to shop in neighbouring towns like Shrewsbury. However Welshpool remains an important hub serving its agricultural hinterland. The town is home to the headquarters of the Montgomeryshire Wildlife Trust and the Clwyd-Powys Archaeological Trust.

Education
The town is the home of Ardwyn Nursery and Infants School, Oldford Nursery and Infants School, Gungrog Nursery and Infants School, Maes-y-dre Primary School. Welshpool High School is a secondary school which teaches a range of pupils from ages 11–18 and has a good standard of education throughout Key Stage 3 and 4 and GCSE studies.

Sport
Welshpool has a football club (Welshpool Town F.C.) and a rugby union club (Welshpool Rugby Football Club). The football club was jointly managed for a period in the late 2010s by Chris Roberts and Neil Pryce but with little success. The town also has hockey and cricket clubs. The Montgomeryshire Marauders Rugby League Club are also nominally based in Welshpool, as this is where the majority of their home fixtures take place.

Notable people

 * William Morgan (1545-1604), Bible translator, Vicar of Welshpool 1575–79, became Bishop of St Asaph in 1601
 * Sampson Lloyd (1664–1724), iron manufacturer in early Birmingham, founder of the Lloyd family of Birmingham
 * Lieutenant-General Sir Percy Egerton Herbert (1822 in Powis Castle – 1876), Army officer and politician.
 * Sir William Boyd Dawkins (1837 in Buttington – 1929), geologist and archaeologist.
 * William Rupert Davies (1879-1967), Canadian Senator, politician, newspaper publisher, born at Welshpool, later returned to Wales and lived latterly at Leighton Hall.
 * William Herbert Waring (1885-1918), Victoria Cross recipient in World War I.
 * Roderick Urwick Sayce (1890–1970), social anthropologist and geographer
 * Ann Mercy Hunt (1938–2014), medical researcher and campaigner; co-founded the Tuberous Sclerosis Association
 * Glyn Davies (born 1944), a former politician and MP for Montgomeryshire from 2010 to 2019.
 * Craig Williams (born 1985), politician, MP for Cardiff North, 2015 to 2017 and for Montgomeryshire from 2019. PPS to PM.

Sport

 * Jack Roscamp (1901-1939). footballer notably for Blackburn Rovers, was a publican in his latter years when he kept The Boot Inn in the town.
 * George Bennett (1913 in Forden – 1970), a rugby union and professional rugby league footballer with 383 caps
 * Ian Hutchinson (born 1964), county cricketer for Middlesex and Shropshire. 27 first class caps

title: Welshpool


text:
Cheviot, New Zealand

Cheviot is a town in the Hurunui District of north Canterbury, on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. It is located on State Highway 1, approximately 112 km north of Christchurch and 68 km south of Kaikōura.

History and naming
The government under Minister of Lands John McKenzie bought the Cheviot Hills estate between 1892 and 1893 from the descendants of William Robinson. The Cheviot Hills estate was broken into 54 farms and a township, which was originally called McKenzie. This name was "in widespread use for a decade or two" but gradually fell into disuse. The Cheviot county council was formed 1895. In 1901 the township had a population of 113.

A large earthquake measuring 6.9 hit near Cheviot on 16 November 1901. A number of buildings were badly damaged and one death was reported.

The post office was always known as Cheviot and by at least 1913 the township too was generally known as Cheviot. Cheviot Hills estate had been named by its original lease holder, John Scott Caverhill, after his home country, the Cheviot Hills straddling the Anglo-Scottish border.

The Robinson homestead burned down in 1936. Its foundations and grounds became part of the Cheviot Hills Domain, with the homestead's original front steps part of the cricket pavilion.

The Cheviot County rural water supply was opened in 1971. It cost $420,000 and supplies water to an area of 128,000 acres through 190 miles of pipes. A fountain, which sits outside the local school, was built to commemorate the event.

Demographics
Cheviot is defined by Statistics New Zealand as a rural settlement and covers 1.05 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2. Cheviot is part of the larger Parnassus statistical area.

Cheviot had a population of 372 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 6 people (1.6%) since the 2013 census, and a decrease of 18 people (−4.6%) since the 2006 census. There were 177 households, comprising 183 males and 186 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female, with 60 people (16.1%) aged under 15 years, 39 (10.5%) aged 15 to 29, 144 (38.7%) aged 30 to 64, and 129 (34.7%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 87.1% European/Pākehā, 21.8% Māori, 4.0% Pasifika, 2.4% Asian, and 0.8% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 45.2% had no religion, 40.3% were Christian, 1.6% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.8% were Muslim and 0.8% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 18 (5.8%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 93 (29.8%) people had no formal qualifications. 21 people (6.7%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 108 (34.6%) people were employed full-time, 63 (20.2%) were part-time, and 9 (2.9%) were unemployed.

The region
Cheviot is a service town for highway traffic and for a pastoral farming district that is currently predominant in sheep farming. Based in the township are a volunteer fire and ambulance services and one full-time police officer. Surrounding settlements include:

Domett
Originally a railway town, Domett is now only populated by farms and a petrol station. Next to the Old Main Road/Hurunui Mouth Road junction is the old Domett Railway Station, relocated and refurbished as a cafe. Domett Service Station provides after-hours sale of fuel (with surcharge): most service stations in the area close around 6pm.

Spotswood
Spotswood has an old hall that is still used regularly, and mainly consists of farms around Waiau East Road.

Parnassus
Parnassus has a higher population than the other settlements, although the local Parnassus School was closed in 2008. The famous Waiau River road/rail bridge was here, before being abandoned and replaced with a new road bridge. Prior to the opening of the old bridge in the 1930s a ferry across the river carried goods north and south. The Waiau River ends not far away; however, access to the river mouth must be made over farm property with the owners' permission. On the State Highway north of Parnassus is Leader Road which leads to the townships of Waiau, Rotherham, Culverden and Hanmer Springs.

Gore Bay
Gore Bay is a surfing beach with summer beach houses and 14 permanent residents. There are two local camping grounds, each with beach access and business. It is a popular New Year's Eve venue.

Of note is Cathedral Gully, a spectacular weathered clay canyon.

Port Robinson
Once a prospering port, Port Robinson is now an abandoned wreck. The old wharf may still be seen, but it is in a dangerous state of disrepair.

Stonyhurst Station
Stonyhurst is a farming station in the Blythe Valley, southwest of Cheviot.

It was founded in 1851 by Frederick Weld and Charles Clifford. He had gained his impression when walking from Lyttelton to Flaxbourne, in Marlborough. Clifford landed sheep on the beach just south of the Blythe River which was later known as Stonyhurst Station, named after Stonyhurst College in England where they were both educated.

The farm originally occupied nearly 30000 ha, the whole of the Blythe Valley. About 12000 ha was sold in 1863, and a further 4000 ha a decade later. In about 1900, much of the rest of the land was subdivided. The current station is about one tenth of the original area.

The area is described by the local authority as "a potentially significant natural area", and the manager's cottage is a Category II protected building under the Historic Places Act.

Education

Schooling in Cheviot commenced in 1894. The first school was the McKenzie School, where the A&P Showgrounds are today. The name changed to Cheviot School in 1931. From its inception, the school provided primary education up to Form Two. In 1937, it became the Cheviot District High School.

Cheviot Area School is a composite, co-educational school for Year 1 to 13 students. It also has a wider role providing continuing education, facilities and support for community groups. The closest main contributing school, Parnassus, a year 1-6 school, closed in 2008. It had a roll of as of.

The large oak trees in the school grounds were planted to commemorate those former students who died in World War 2.

Cheviot Area School competes in the Canterbury Area Schools Association Festival sporting competition with schools in Akaroa, Amuri, Hawarden, Oxford, and Rangiora. It also takes part in international exchanges with schools in Japan and Canada.

The township has two preschools, Cheviot Learning Centre and The Tree Hut.

title: Cheviot, New Zealand


text:
User:DarkFantasy

Hello, and welcome to my user page. I'll post some tidbits about me. Look for me at the Cherokee Wikipedia as well, under the same user name.

About Me
I'm LDS (a member of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints), more commonly known as a Mormon. I'm 14 years old, and am very interested in religion, anthropology, and linguistics.

My Contributes
Here are some articles I've contributed a lot to.

 * Cherokee Language
 * Zarahemla
 * Nephites
 * FARMS
 * Constructed Language
 * Conworld

Other Articles
Here are some other articles I find cool.

 * Book of Mormon
 * Linguistics and the Book of Mormon
 * Lamanites

Links
Firstly, my website: Zarahemla. Nextly....

 * www.Cherokee.org
 * Cherokee-Online
 * FARMS
 * zompist.com
 * The ZBB
 * Cherokee Wikipedia Wigiyadiya
 * ONW Forum

title: User:DarkFantasy


text:
Talk:Oric Atmos

Article's origin
I added this page as I still have my 1984 'Oric Atmos', and wanted the information in, and it previously just had a couple of 'dead' links to it. It was my first try at editing in Wikipedia, and I know I messed it up a bit, as User:Secretlondon put the triple-quotes bit in.

I've just added the 'Oric 1' bit at the bottom, as it is really not much different, and doesn't really need a separate page. There are only two pages that link in here, both of which have 'dead' links for 'Oric 1' and 'Oric' (for whom I have NO information).

Is it better to amend the 'dead' links to point here, do a redirect or what? My guess would be to fix the 'Oric 1' links to here, and leave the 'Oric' ones dead.

--Anonymous

Category entry
I tried to include the Oric 1 in the Atmos' category entry by editing the category item as follows:

This didn't work, however, despite the many similar examples of such 'fixes' I've seen/made. Clues, anyone? --Wernher 21:51, 27 Jun 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Oric Atmos


text:
University Farm (Nottinghamshire)

University Farm is a 445 hectare (4.45 km2) commercial research farm attached to the Sutton Bonington Campus of the University of Nottingham, England. It lies across the parishes of Sutton Bonington and Kingston on Soar. There are two further blocks of land in Clifton on the north bank of the River Trent and at Bunny Park in the village of Bunny. Both these block are several miles from the main campus.

Facilities
The farm is managed as a high performance commercial arable/dairy unit. It provides first class resources in the form of; technologically advanced facilities (including individual cow feeders, robot milking parlours), diverse soil types and cropping, and high health livestock: all of which create significant opportunities for research. It also has a key educational role by providing an environment for the effective tuition of students in biosciences and veterinary science. This is enhanced by the unique proximity of the farm to the campus as it surrounds the Biosciences and Vet School on all sides.

Livestock
The dairy herd consists of 200 cows, which are milked using 4 Lely robot milking units. Heifers are reared on the farm. Current herd average is 10,700 litres placing it in the top 10% of dairy herds in the UK. Land used by the University Vet School and Bio-Resource unit is also managed by the farm. The dairy herd is managed by Nige Armstrong.

Arable land
325 hectares are devoted to arable crops including cereals and oilseed rape; a further 5 hectares is currently in an organic rotation. 80 hectares of land is used to grow grass and maize silage for the dairy unit. The arable area will be utilising a direct drill establishment method for cereal and grass crops from Autumn 2012. The remaining land support 20 hectares of mature woodland and 15 hectares in environmental schemes. Approx 18 hectares of the arable rotation is devoted to a range of crop trials. There are a range of soil types across the farm ranging from "blow-away" sands to Keuper Marl clays.

Jubilee Woodland
As of November 2012 approx 24ha (60 acres) of the farm at Sutton Bonington will be used to plant a Jubilee woodland. The woodland will be linked by a path along the River Soar allowing it to form a stunning educational and amenity area for the university and surrounding communities.

title: University Farm (Nottinghamshire)


text:
New York and New Jersey campaign

The New York and New Jersey campaign in 1776 and the winter months of 1777 was a series of American Revolutionary War battles for control of the Port of New York and the state of New Jersey, fought between British forces under General Sir William Howe and the Continental Army under General George Washington. Howe was successful in driving Washington out of New York, but overextended his reach into New Jersey, and ended the New York and New Jersey campaign in January 1777 with only a few outposts near New York City under British control. The British held New York Harbor for the rest of the Revolutionary War, using it as a base for expeditions against other targets.

Landing unopposed on Staten Island on July 3, 1776, Howe had assembled an army that included components that had withdrawn from Boston in March following the British failure to hold that city, combined with additional British troops, and Hessian troops hired from several German principalities. Washington's Continental Army included New England soldiers and regiments from the Thirteen Colonies as far south as the Colony of Virginia. Landing on Long Island in August, Howe defeated Washington in the largest battle of the war in North America, but the Continental Army was able to regroup and make an orderly and covert retreat to Manhattan that night under a cover of darkness and fog. Washington suffered a series of further defeats in Manhattan but prevailed in a skirmish at the Battle of Harlem Heights and eventually withdrew his troops successfully to White Plains, New York. Howe, meanwhile, returned to Manhattan and captured those forces Washington had left on the island.

Washington and much of his army crossed the Hudson River to Rockland County and then south into New Jersey, retreated across the state, and then crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. Along the way, his army shrunk due to the ending of enlistment periods, desertions, and poor morale. Howe ordered his troops into winter quarters in December, establishing a chain of outposts from New York City to Burlington, New Jersey. Washington, in a tremendous boost to American morale, launched a successful strike against the Trenton garrison on the morning of December 26, 1776, prompting Howe to withdraw his chain of outposts back to New Brunswick and the coast near New York. Washington, in turn, established his winter camp at Morristown. During the following winter months and through the rest of the war, both sides skirmished frequently around New York City and New Jersey as the British sought forage and provisions.

Britain maintained control of New York City and some of the surrounding territory until the war ended in 1783, using it as a base for operations elsewhere in North America. In 1777, General Howe launched a campaign to capture the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia, leaving General Sir Henry Clinton in command of the New York area, while General John Burgoyne led an attempt to gain control of the Hudson River valley, moving south from Quebec and being defeated at Saratoga.

Background
When the American Revolutionary War broke out in April 1775, British troops were under siege in Boston. They defeated Patriot forces in the Battle of Bunker Hill, suffering very high casualties. When news of this expensive British victory reached London, General William Howe and Lord George Germain, the British official responsible, determined that a "decisive action" should be taken against New York City using forces recruited from throughout the British Empire as well as troops hired from small German states.

Washington, who was named commander-in-chief of the Continental Army by the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia, echoed the sentiments of other in the Congress that New York was "a post of infinite importance", and began the task of organizing military companies in the New York area when he stopped there on his way from Philadelphia to take command of the siege of Boston. In January 1776, Washington ordered Charles Lee to raise troops and take command of New York's defenses. Lee made some progress on the city's defenses when word arrived in late March that the British army had left Boston after Washington threatened them from heights south of the city. Concerned that General Howe was sailing directly to New York, Washington hurried regiments from Boston, including General Israel Putnam, who commanded the troops until Washington himself arrived in mid-April. At the end of April, Washington dispatched General John Sullivan with six regiments to the north to bolster the faltering Quebec campaign.

General Howe, rather than moving against New York, withdrew his army to Halifax in Nova Scotia, and regrouped while transports full of British troops, shipped from bases around Europe and intended for New York, began gathering at Halifax. In June, Howe set sail for New York with the 9,000 men assembled there, before all of the transports arrived. German troops, primarily from Hesse-Kassel, and British troops from Henry Clinton's ultimately unsuccessful expedition to the Carolinas, were supposed to meet with Howe's fleet when it reached New York. General Howe's brother, Admiral Lord Howe, arrived at Halifax with further transports after the general sailed, and immediately followed.

When General Howe arrived in the outer harbor of New York, the ships began sailing up the undefended Narrows between Staten Island and Long Island on July 2, and started landing troops on the undefended shores of Staten Island. Washington learned from prisoners taken that Howe had landed 10,000 men, but was awaiting the arrival of another 15,000. General Washington, with a smaller army of about 19,000 effective troops, lacked significant military intelligence on the British force and plans, and was uncertain exactly where in the New York area the Howes intended to strike. He consequently split the Continental Army between fortified positions on Long Island, Manhattan, and mainland locations, and also established a Flying Camp in northern New Jersey that was intended as a reserve force that could support operations anywhere along the New Jersey side of the Hudson River.

Capture of New York City
The Howe brothers had been granted authority as peace commissioners by the British Parliament with limited powers to pursue a peaceful resolution to the conflict. King George III was not optimistic about the possibility for peace, however, saying, "yet I think it right to be attempted, whilst every act of vigour is unremittingly carried on". Their powers were limited to granting of "general and special pardons" and to "confer with any of his Majesty's subjects". On July 14, pursuant to these powers, Admiral Howe sent a messenger with a letter addressed to "George Washington, Esq." across the harbor. Washington's adjutant, Joseph Reed, politely informed the messenger that no person with that title was in their army. Admiral Howe's aide wrote that "the Punctilio of an Address" should not have prevented the letter's delivery, and Howe was said to be visibly annoyed by the rejection. A second request, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc." was similarly rejected, although the messenger was told that Washington would receive one of Howe's adjutants. In that fruitless meeting, held July 20, Washington pointed out that the limited powers the Howe brothers had been given were not of much use, as the rebels had done no wrong requiring an amnesty.

In late August, the British transported about 22,000 men, including 9,000 Hessians, from Staten Island to Long Island. In the Battle of Long Island on August 27, the British outflanked the American positions, driving the Americans back to their Brooklyn Heights fortifications. General Howe then began to lay siege to the works, but Washington skillfully managed a nighttime retreat through his unguarded rear across the East River to the island of Manhattan. Howe then paused to consolidate his position and consider his next move.

During the Battle of Long Island, the British captured General John Sullivan. Admiral Howe convinced him to deliver a message to Congress in Philadelphia, and released him on parole. Washington also gave his permission, and on September 2 Sullivan told the Congress that the Howes wanted to negotiate, and had been given much broader powers to treat than those they actually held. This created a diplomatic problem for Congress, which did not want to be seen as aggressive, which is how some representatives felt a direct rejection of the appeal would appear. Consequently, Congress agreed to send a committee to meet with the Howes in a move they did not think would bear any fruit. On September 11, the Howe brothers met with John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and Edward Rutledge in the Staten Island Peace Conference. The positions expressed by the two groups in the three-hour meeting were irreconcilable.

Washington, who had previously been ordered by the Continental Congress to hold New York City, was concerned that he might have escaped one trap for another, since the army was still vulnerable to being surrounded on Manhattan. To keep his escape routes open to the north, he placed 5,000 troops in the city (which then only occupied the lower portion of Manhattan), and took the rest of the army to Harlem Heights. In the first recorded use of a submarine in warfare, he also attempted a novel attack on the Royal Navy, launching Turtle in a failed attempt to sink HMS Eagle (1774), Admiral Howe's flagship.

On September 15, General Howe landed about 12,000 men on Lower Manhattan, quickly taking control of New York City. The Americans withdrew to Harlem, where they skirmished the next day, but held their ground. Rather than attempting to dislodge Washington from his strong position a second time, Howe again opted for a flanking maneuver. Landing troops with some opposition in October in Westchester County across the Harlem River and north of Manhattan, he sought once again to encircle Washington. To defend against this move, Washington withdrew most of his army to White Plains, where after a short battle on October 28 he retreated further north. The retreat of Washington's forces was aided by a dense fog which concealed their movement to the British troops. This isolated the remaining Continental Army troops in upper Manhattan, so Howe returned to Manhattan and captured Fort Washington in mid-November, taking almost 3,000 prisoners.

Four days later, November 20, Fort Lee, across the Hudson River from Fort Washington, was also taken. Washington brought much of his army across the Hudson into New Jersey, but was immediately forced to retreat by the aggressive British advance.

General Howe, after consolidating British positions around New York harbor, detached 6,000 men under the command of two of his more difficult subordinates, Henry Clinton, and Hugh, Earl Percy to take Newport, Rhode Island and its strategic port east across Long Island Sound (which they did without opposition on December 8), while he sent General Lord Cornwallis to chase Washington's army through New Jersey. The Americans withdrew across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania in early December.

Reactions
The outlook of the Continental Army—and thus the revolution itself—was bleak. "These are the times that try men's souls", wrote Thomas Paine in The American Crisis. Washington's army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men fit for duty and would be significantly reduced further after enlistments expired at the end of the year. Spirits were low, popular support was wavering, and Congress had abandoned Philadelphia, fearing a British attack. Washington ordered some of the troops that returned from the failed invasion of Quebec to join him, and also ordered General Lee's troops, which he had left north of New York City, to join him. Lee, whose relationship with Washington was at times difficult, made excuses and only traveled as far as Morristown, New Jersey. When Lee strayed too far from his army on December 12, his exposed position was betrayed by Loyalists, and a British company led by Lieutenant Colonel Banastre Tarleton surrounded the inn where he was staying and took him prisoner. Lee's command was taken over by John Sullivan, who finished marching the army to Washington's camp across the river from Trenton.

The capture of Lee presented the Howes with a problematic prisoner. As with a number of other Continental Army leaders, he had previously served in the British Army. Because of this the Howes at first treated him as a deserter, with threats of military punishment. However, Washington intervened, tying the treatment of Lee to the treatment of prisoners held by the Americans. Lee was ultimately treated well, and apparently offered the British commanders advice on how to win the war. Because the Americans did not have a prisoner of comparable rank, Lee remained a prisoner in New York until 1778, when he was exchanged for Richard Prescott.

The failure of the Continental Army to hold New York also brought about a rise in Loyalist activity, as the city became a haven for refugee supporters of the Crown from elsewhere across the region. The British therefore actively recruited in New York and New Jersey to build regiments of provincial militia, with some success. Loyalists in these areas may have been motivated by seeing elements of the rebel army head home after their enlistments ended. One New York Patriot militia leader wrote that thirty of his men, rather than reenlisting with him, had instead signed up with the enemy. On November 30 Admiral Howe offered amnesty to anyone that had taken up arms against the Crown, provided they swore an oath to it. Washington responded with his own proclamation suggesting that those who did not renounce such oaths should immediately go behind British lines. As a result, New Jersey became a civil battlefield, with militia activity as well as spying and counterspying continuing for the rest of the war.

News of the capture of New York was favorably received in London, and General Howe was awarded the Order of the Bath for his work. Combined with news of the recovery of Quebec, circumstances suggested to British leaders that the war could be ended with one more year's campaigning. News of Admiral Howe's amnesty proclamation was met with some surprise, as its terms were more lenient than the hardliners in the government expected. Politicians opposed to the war pointed out that the proclamation failed to mention the primacy of the Parliament. Furthermore, the Howes were criticized for failing to keep Parliament informed of the various peace efforts they embarked on.

Howe's strategy
With the campaign at an apparent conclusion for the season, the British established a chain of outposts in New Jersey stretching from Perth Amboy to Bordentown, and entered winter quarters. They controlled New York harbor and much of New Jersey, and were in a good position to resume operations in the spring, with the rebel capital of Philadelphia in striking distance. Howe detached General Clinton with 6,000 additional men to occupy Newport as a base for future operations against Boston and Connecticut. Howe then sketched a campaign for the following year in a letter to Lord Germain: 10,000 men at Newport, 10,000 for an expedition to Albany (to meet an army descending from Quebec), 8,000 to cross New Jersey and threaten Philadelphia, and 5,000 to defend New York. If additional foreign forces were available, operations could also be considered against the southern states.

Counterattack in New Jersey
While worrying over how to hold his army together, Washington organized attacks on the relatively exposed British outposts, which were as a result continually on edge due to ongoing militia and army raids. German commanders Carl von Donop and Johann Rall, whose brigades were at the end of the chain of outposts, were frequent targets of these raids, but their repeated warnings and requests for support from General James Grant were dismissed.

Beginning in mid-December 1776, Washington planned a two-pronged attack on Rall's outpost in Trenton, with a third diversionary attack on Donop's outpost in Bordentown. The plan was aided by the fortuitous presence of a militia company that drew Donop's entire 2,000-man force away from Bordentown to the south that resulted in a skirmish at Mount Holly on December 23. The consequence of this action was that Donop was not in a position to assist Rall when Washington's attack on Trenton took place. Washington and 2,400 men stealthily crossed the Delaware River and surprised Rall's outpost on the morning of December 26 in a street-to-street battle, killing or capturing nearly 1,000 Hessians. This action not only significantly boosted the army's morale; it also brought Cornwallis out of New York. He reassembled an army of more than 6,000 men and marched most of them against a position Washington had taken south of Trenton. Leaving a garrison of 1,200 at Princeton, Cornwallis then attacked Washington's position on January 2, 1777, and was three times repulsed before darkness set in. During the night Washington once again stealthily moved his army, going around that of Cornwallis with the intention of attacking the Princeton garrison.

On January 3, Hugh Mercer, leading the American advance guard, encountered British soldiers from Princeton under the command of Charles Mawhood. The British troops engaged Mercer and in the ensuing battle, Mercer was mortally wounded. Washington sent reinforcements under General John Cadwalader, which were successful in driving Mawhood and the British from Princeton, with many of them fleeing to Cornwallis in Trenton. The British lost more than one quarter of their force in the battle, and American morale further rose with the victory. This period, from December 25, 1776, through January 3, 1777, has become known as the Ten Crucial Days.

The defeats convinced General Howe to withdraw most of his army from New Jersey, only leaving outposts at New Brunswick and Perth Amboy. Washington entered winter quarters at Morristown, having retaken most of the state from the British. However, provisions for both armies were limited, and commanders on both sides sent out parties to forage for food and other supplies. For the next few months, they engaged in a forage war, in which each targeted the foraging parties of the other. This led to numerous skirmishes and minor confrontations including the Battle of Millstone. The British also sniped with each other over the subject of provisions. Lord Percy resigned his command after a series of disagreements with Howe came to a head over the ability of the Newport station to provide forage to the New York and New Jersey forces.

Aftermath
The British gained control of New York Harbor and the surrounding agricultural areas, and held New York City and Long Island until the war ended in 1783. The Americans suffered significant casualties and lost important supplies, but Washington managed to retain the core of his army and avoid a decisive confrontation that could have ended the war. With the bold strokes of Trenton and Princeton, he had regained initiative and boosted morale. The areas around New York City in New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut were an ongoing battleground for the rest of the war.

The early reports that General Howe sent to his superiors in London concerning the battles at Trenton and Princeton attempted to minimize their significance, blaming Rall for Trenton, and trying to recast Princeton as a nearly successful defense. Not everyone was fooled by his accounts, particularly not Lord Germain. In a letter to the Hessian General Leopold Philip von Heister Germain wrote that "the officer who commanded [the forces at Trenton] and to whom this misfortune is to be attributed has lost his life by his rashness." Heister in turn had to report the loss to his ruler, Frederick II, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel, with the news that not only had an entire brigade been lost, but sixteen regimental colors and six cannon as well. The news reportedly enraged Frederick, who broadly suggested that Heister return home (which he did, turning over command of the Hessian forces to Wilhelm von Knyphausen). Frederick also ordered extensive inquiries into the events of 1776, that took place in New York from 1778 to 1782. These inquiries created a unique archive of materials about the campaign.

The news of Washington's successes reached Paris at a critical time. Britain's ambassador to France, Lord Stormont, was preparing complaints to France's foreign minister, the Comte de Vergennes, concerning the semi-secret financial and logistical support France had been giving to the revolutionaries. Stormont had learned that supplies bound for America were to be shipped under French flags, where they had previously sent under American colors. He wrote that the French court was extremely happy with the news, and that the French diplomatic position noticeably hardened: "that M. de Vergennes is hostile in his heart and anxious for the success of the Rebels I have not a shadow of a doubt."

Next steps
The British planned two major operations for the 1777 campaign season. The first was an ambitious plan to gain control of the Hudson River valley, whose central thrust was a move along Lake Champlain by the army from Quebec under General John Burgoyne. Execution of this plan ultimately failed, ending with the surrender of Burgoyne's army at Saratoga, New York, in October. The second operation was General Howe's plan to take Philadelphia, which, after a difficult start, met with success in September.

Washington's strategy in 1777 continued to be a basically defensive one. He successfully fended off an attempt by Howe to draw him into a general engagement in northern New Jersey, but was unable to prevent Howe's later success taking Philadelphia. He did send material help to General Horatio Gates, who was tasked with defending against Burgoyne's movements. Major General Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan's riflemen all played a notable role in the defeat of Burgoyne, following which France entered the war.

Legacy

In the urban environments of Manhattan, Brooklyn, The Bronx, Westchester and Trenton there are plaques and other memorials placed to commemorate the actions that took place in and around those locations. The Princeton Battlefield and Washington's Crossing are National Historic Landmarks, with state parks also preserving all or part of the locations where events of this campaign occurred in those areas. Morristown National Historical Park preserves locations occupied by the Continental Army during the winter months at the end of the campaign.

"When the illustrious part that your Excellency has borne in this long and arduous contest becomes a matter of history, fame will gather your brightest laurels rather from the banks of the Delaware than from those of the Chesapeake."

title: New York and New Jersey campaign


text:
Junction City

Junction City may refer to:

Places in the United States

 * Junction City, Arkansas
 * Junction City, California
 * Junction City, Georgia
 * Junction City, Idaho, a nickname for McCammon, Idaho
 * Junction City, Illinois
 * Junction City, Kansas
 * Junction City, Kentucky
 * Junction City, Louisiana
 * Junction City, Missouri
 * Junction City, Ohio
 * Junction City, Oregon
 * Junction City, Washington
 * Junction City, Wisconsin

Other uses

 * Junction City (film), a 1952 American western film
 * Operation Junction City, a major engagement during the Vietnam War
 * Operation Junction City Jr., a major offensive of the Laotian Civil War
 * Camp Junction City, a U.S. forward operating base in Ramadi, Iraq

title: Junction City


text:
Institutes of technology in the Republic of Ireland

An Institute of Technology (IT) is a type of higher education college found in Ireland. In 2018, there were a total of fourteen colleges that use the title of Institute of Technology, which were created from the late 1960s and were formerly known as Regional Technical Colleges. The exception to this was Dublin Institute of Technology which emerged independently of the Regional College system. The Technological Universities Act of 2018 allowed the merger of two or more IoTs into Technological Universities, which saw the creation of the Technological University Dublin in 2019; Munster Technological University and Technological University Shannon: Midlands Midwest in 2021; and Atlantic Technological University and South East Technological University in 2022.

Creation
The idea of the institutions was first announced by Patrick Hillery in 1963. A year later, a site for an institution in Carlow was identified.

The Investment in Education (1962) and Training of Technicians in Ireland (1964) reports greatly accelerated the trend in Ireland for education reform and development particularly in technical education, similar to that in other Western countries at the time.

The Training of Technicians in Ireland (1964) report identified significant skills gaps, including:

 * a further serious difficulty in the task of raising the standards of technicians in Ireland is the lack of a nationally recognised technician diploma. The absence of such a diploma deters many parents from considering sub-professional technician careers for their children

The Steering Committee on Technical Education, also called The Mulcahy Report (1967), was an important milestone in framing the institutional structures and functions calling for:

 * we believe that the long-term function of the colleges will be to educate for trade and industry over a broad spectrum of occupations ranging from craft to professional, notably in engineering and science but also in commercial, linguistic and other specialities. They will, however, be more immediately concerned with providing courses aimed at filling gaps in the industrial manpower structure, particularly in the technician area

 * we do not foresee any final fixed pattern of courses in the colleges. If they are to make their most effective contribution to the needs of society and the economy, they must be capable of continuing adaptation to social, economic and technological changes. Initiative at local and national levels will largely determine how far this vital characteristic is developed. We are concerned that the progress of these colleges should not be deterred by any artificial limitation of either the scope or the level of their educational achievements

The building programme commenced in 1968, with the first institutions formally opened their doors in 1970, and other colleges were added during the following decade. Some colleges developed from earlier institutions and colleges, involving amalgamation, but most were completely new institutions. A Regional Technical College for Limerick was cancelled after a National Institute for Higher Education was announced for the city. Finally, in 1993, CoACT (College of Art, Commerce and Technology) became Limerick RTC. Two additional institutions were created since then, bringing the total to thirteen, before the amalgamation of three into Ireland's first Technological University, TU Dublin. As of June 2023, only Dundalk IT and Dún Laoghaire Institute of Art, Design and Technology remain independent Institutes of Technology.

''†With the constituent Colleges originally established in 1887, Dublin Institute of Technology was reestablished in 1992. It was the first third level college to be called an Institute of Technology and was created under separate legislation with different powers than the other thirteen colleges. This includes the awarding of its own degrees up to doctorate level.''

''*LIT traces its roots back to the 1852 foundation of the School of Ornamental Art on Leamy Street. For much of the history of the institute, it was constituted as the Municipal Technical Institute, before becoming the Limerick College of Art, Commerce and Technology (Limerick CoACT) in 1980, a Regional Technical College in 1993 and an Institute of Technology in 1997.''

Legislation
The institutions were run under Section 21 (2) of the Vocational Education Acts from 1970 until 1992 as special subcommittees of the Vocational Education Committees, and placed on an independent basis thereafter by the Regional Technical Colleges Acts in 1993. In the late 1990s, all of the institutions were upgraded to Institute of Technology status. This was in recognition of the high standards, including university level research, which takes place at them. The institutes are governed by the Institutes of Technology Acts 1992 to 2006. Having been given delegated authority to confer their own awards in some cases up to Doctoral level by HETAC from 2001 onwards, in 2019 the institutes were designated as awarding bodies up to masters level in their own right.

Management
The individual institutions are structured similar to other universities, particularly Irish ones. Each institution has a Director, who is the chief operational officer of the institution, usually assisted by an ad-hoc senior management team; a Registrar, who is the chief academic officer of the institution; a Governing Council, which oversees operational affairs; an Academic Council, which oversees academic affairs. Each academic school has a Head of School and each academic department of a school has a Head of Department.

Programmes
The institutions traditional courses were National Certificate and National Diploma type courses particularly in business, engineering and science, this was very much the founding principle. During the late 1970s degrees at Bachelor's level were introduced, later Master's and Doctoral levels were also allowed. In recent years there has been a rapid expansion in apprenticeship and nursing type courses.

Validation
Traditionally awards were conferred by the National Council for Educational Awards, this statutory authority became the Higher Education and Training Awards Council, and other awards are conferred by the Further Education and Training Awards Council. Some specialised courses, such as accountancy, are validated by professional bodies but these are nearly always the exception.

Technological Universities
Following the enactment of legislation in 2018, the various institutes of technology began a merger process to create five technological universities:
 * Technological University Dublin
 * Munster Technological University
 * Technological University of the Shannon: Midlands Midwest
 * Atlantic Technological University
 * South East Technological University

, Dundalk Institute of Technology announced plans to join an existing TU. It had previously investigated the possibility of becoming a TU in its own right.