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User:PaulFord

I should spend more time editing Wikipedia.

title: User:PaulFord


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Talk:Tariff of Abominations

Proper title of Act
In accordance with other articles on tariffs and bills, this article should be titled under the formal name of the act, Tariff of 1828, rather than under a perjorative nickname, Tariff of Abominations. And so I moved it for that reason. Cheers, -Willmcw 10:18, 14 Feb 2005 (UTC)

How much was the tarrif?
Added... --Palundrium 04:26, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

James Campbell, "Tariff, or Rates of Duties, Payable after the 30th of June, 1828" (New York: Edward B. Gould, 1828), by the customs collector at New York, has a very detailed list of the duties, including those on good competing with Southern industry.

It's online at https://books.google.com/books?id=CkkOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3&lpg=PA3&dq=tariff+rates+1828&source=bl&ots=po-tENCLjV&sig=-jKlkZs4Im_fIxhmNY8I--iNthk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiK7Nna6eXJAhWK1CYKHal1DW0Q6AEIQjAG#v=snippet&q=cotton&f=false

--Al-Nofi (talk) 16:54, 18 December 2015 (UTC)

Not The Highest in US History...
The American Pagent 12th Edition writes "[The tariff] It turned out to be the highest protective tariff in the nation's peactime history." in regards to the Hartley-Smoot tariff. It would be a more accurate and still equally meaninful statement to say that the tariff was the highest so far; instead of the highest in history. --Frozenport 00:53, 9 May 2007 (UTC)

In reading/scanning through Taussig's text on tariffs I see some major problems with the present article. The following I'm stiking because it appears both inaccurate and the citation given is not from an authoritative source on the matter: "It came to be known as the 'Tariff of Abominations' because it was the highest tariff in U.S. history, enacting a 62% tax on 92% of all imported goods" First, I don't believe it is accurate. Second, the Buchanan quote is not what I would call a credible reference. Buchanan is a political figure and as such has a strong POV, writing to persuade rather than document/inform. He is not an historian. Third, in reading how complex the tariff structure was, particularly the minimum valuations and what was/was not covered I realize that such a precise statement requires an equally precise peer reviewed or at least widely accepted source. Red Harvest (talk) 23:22, 1 March 2008 (UTC)

Change it for neutralities sake
This happens to be way to neutral and messes up the bias of most of the articles on the civil war. People might find there way to this page and end up looking for a neutral source of the history that pertains to the civil war. We really don't want that truth to get out so rewrite this in a way that makes the south look like greedy and immoral slave holdersSerialjoepsycho (talk) 09:33, 28 February 2010 (UTC)

Requested move: → Tariff of Abominations

 * The following discussion is an archived discussion of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

The result of the proposal was moved. Evidence confirms this falls under WP:POVTITLE, especially since this is a historical subject. --BDD (talk) 22:53, 17 June 2013 (UTC)

Tariff of 1828 → Tariff of Abominations – This ngram shows that in modern times "Tariff of Abominations" is about three times more common than "Tariff of 1828". (If you expand the time period, you can see that in the 19th century this subject was usually called "Tariff of 1828".) See also Skrabec's The 100 Most Significant Events in American Business (2012), which uses "Tariff of Abominations" as a chapter heading. Kauffner (talk) 08:35, 6 June 2013 (UTC)

Survey

 * Oppose according to our article, the proposed title is a POV-title. -- 65.94.79.6 (talk) 04:23, 7 June 2013 (UTC)
 * The proposed form was certainly POV in the 19th century. But modern historians treat it simply as the name of the tariff. Kauffner (talk) 07:40, 7 June 2013 (UTC)

 * Support, per analysis of preponderance of sources, above. — Cirt (talk) 18:13, 11 June 2013 (UTC)
 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the proposal. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on this talk page. No further edits should be made to this section.

Effects of the Tariff
The following claim is made in the first paragraph under "Effects of the Tarriff": Despite the sufferings of the South, the US experienced net economic growth with US GDP increasing from $888 million in 1828 to $1.118 billion by 1832 largely due to growth of the Northern manufacturing base.[8]  The claim is not verifiable for it's accuracy and relevance on various grounds.

The reference link is to a site about tax revenues. I was unable to find any GDP numbers on the site or even from other sources using a cursory google search. Can these numbers be verified at all? Furthermore, it is normal for the economy to experience growth. When growth stops for a relatively short period of time, this is called a recession which is considered unusual and bad. Stating the economy grew does not begin to tell whether the tariff retarded economic growth from the growth rate that prevailed during that period of economic development. Thus even if the statistics could be verified, they prove absolutely nothing without proper context. Finally, are these inflation adjusted numbers or constant dollar? Which dollars - 1828, 2009, or when? If not constant dollar, the entire amount of "growth" could be due to inflation caused by the increasing price of imports and the increased price of US goods facing less foreign competition, or even unrelated monetary effects. 165.156.39.19 (talk) 23:08, 3 May 2017 (UTC)

The totally unsupportable claim that there are export and interstate tariffs is repeatedly being made in the opening paragraph and also that the 1828 tariff taxed southern cotton sold to the Northern states. Rundstedt (talk) 02:49, 2 October 2019 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by Rundstedt (talk • contribs) 02:32, 2 October 2019 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Tariff of Abominations


text:
Timeline of the telephone

This timeline of the telephone covers landline, radio, and cellular telephony technologies and provides many important dates in the history of the telephone.

1667 to 1875

 * 1667: Robert Hooke creates an acoustic string telephone that conveys sounds over a taut extended wire by mechanical vibrations.
 * 1844: Innocenzo Manzetti first suggests the idea of an electric "speaking telegraph", or telephone.
 * 1849: Antonio Meucci demonstrates a communicating device to individuals in Havana. It is disputed that this is an electromagnetic telephone, but it is said to involve direct transmission of electricity into the user's body.
 * 1854: Charles Bourseul publishes a description of a make-and-break telephone transmitter and receiver in L'Illustration, (Paris) but does not construct a working instrument.
 * 1854: Meucci demonstrates an electric voice-operated device in New York, but it is not clear what kind of device he demonstrated.
 * 1860: Johann Philipp Reis of Germany demonstrates a make-and-break transmitter after the design of Bourseul and a knitting-needle receiver. Witnesses said they heard human voices being transmitted.
 * 1861: Johann Philipp Reis transfers voice electrically over a distance of 340 feet with his Reis telephone. To prove that speech can be recognized successfully at the receiving end, he uses the phrase "The horse does not eat cucumber salad" as an example because this phrase is hard to understand acoustically in German.
 * 1864: In an attempt to give his musical automaton a voice, Innocenzo Manzetti invents the 'speaking telegraph'. He shows no interest in patenting his device, but it is reported in newspapers.
 * 1865: Meucci reads of Manzetti's invention and writes to the editors of two newspapers claiming priority and quoting his first experiment in 1849. He writes "I do not wish to deny Mr. Manzetti his invention, I only wish to observe that two thoughts could be found to contain the same discovery, and that by uniting the two ideas one can more easily reach the certainty about a thing this important."
 * 1871: Meucci files a patent caveat (a statement of intention to file a patent application) for a Sound Telegraph, but it does not describe an electromagnetic telephone.
 * 1872: Elisha Gray founds the Western Electric Manufacturing Company.
 * 1872: Professor Vanderwyde demonstrates Reis's telephone in New York.
 * July 1873: Thomas Edison notes varying resistance in carbon grains due to pressure, and builds a rheostat based on the principle but abandons it because of its sensitivity to vibration.
 * May 1874: Gray invents an electromagnet device for transmitting musical tones. Some of his receivers use a metallic diaphragm.
 * July 1874: Alexander Graham Bell conceives the theoretical concept for the telephone while vacationing at his parents' farm near Brantford, Canada. Alexander Melville Bell records notes of his son's conversation in his personal journal.
 * 29 December 1874: Gray demonstrates his musical tones device and transmits "familiar melodies through telegraph wire" at the Presbyterian Church in Highland Park, Illinois.
 * 4 May 1875: Bell conceives of using varying resistance in a wire conducting electric current to create a varying current amplitude.
 * 2 June 1875: Bell transmits the sound of a plucked steel reed using electromagnet instruments.
 * 1 July 1875: Bell uses a bi-directional "gallows" telephone that was able to transmit "indistinct but voice-like sounds" rather than clear speech. Both the transmitter and the receiver were identical membrane electromagnet instruments.
 * 1875: Thomas Edison experiments with acoustic telegraphy and, in November, builds an electro-dynamic receiver but does not exploit it.

1876 to 1878

 * 11 February 1876: Elisha Gray invents a liquid transmitter for use with a telephone, but he did not make one.
 * 14 February 1876
 * about 9:30am: Gray or his lawyer brings Gray's patent caveat for the telephone to the Washington, D.C. Patent Office (a caveat was a notice of intention to file a patent application. It was like a patent application, but without a request for examination, for the purpose of notifying the patent office of a possible invention in process).
 * about 11:30am: Bell's lawyer brings to the same patent office Bell's patent application for the telephone. Bell's lawyer requests that it be registered immediately in the cash receipts blotter.
 * about 1:30pm: Approximately two hours later Elisha Gray's patent caveat is registered in the cash blotter. Although his caveat was not a full application, Gray could have converted it into a patent application and contested Bell's priority, but did not do so because of advice from his lawyer and his involvement with acoustic telegraphy. The result was that the patent was awarded to Bell.
 * 7 March 1876: Bell's U.S. Patent, No. 174,465 for the telephone is granted.
 * 10 March 1876: Bell first successfully transmits speech, saying "Mr. Watson, come here! I want to see you!" using a liquid transmitter as described in Gray's caveat, and Bell's own electromagnetic receiver.
 * 16 May 1876: Thomas Edison files first patent application for acoustic telegraphy for which U.S. patent 182,996 was granted 10 October 1876.
 * 25 June 1876: Bell exhibits his telephone at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, where it draws enthusiastic reactions from Emperor Dom Pedro II of Brazil and Lord Kelvin, attracting the attention of the press and resulting in the first announcements of the invention to the general public. Lord Kelvin describes the telephone as "the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph".
 * 10 August 1876: Alexander Graham Bell makes the world's first long-distance telephone call, one-way, not reciprocal, over a distance of about 6 miles, between Brantford and Paris, Ontario, Canada.
 * 1876: Hungarian Tivadar Puskás invents the telephone switchboard exchange (later working with Edison).
 * 9 October 1876: Bell makes the first two-way long-distance telephone call between Cambridge and Boston, Massachusetts.
 * October 1876: Edison tests his first carbon microphone.
 * 1877: The first experimental Telephone Exchange in Boston.
 * 20 January 1877: Edison "first [succeeds] in transmitting over wires many articulated sentences" using carbon granules as a pressure-sensitive varying resistance under the pressure of a diaphragm.
 * 30 January 1877: Bell's U.S. Patent No. 186,787 is granted for an electromagnetic telephone using permanent magnets, iron diaphragms, and a call bell.
 * 4 March 1877: Emile Berliner invents a microphone based on "loose contact" between two metal electrodes, an improvement on Reis' Telephone, and in April 1877 files a caveat of an invention in process.
 * April 1877: A telephone line connects the workshop of Charles Williams, Jr., located in Boston, to his house in Somerville, Massachusetts, at 109 Court Street in Boston, where Alexander Graham Bell and Thomas Watson had previously experimented with their telephone. The telephones became No. 1 and 2 in the Bell Telephone Company.
 * 27 April 1877: Edison files telephone patent applications. U.S. patents (Nos. 474,230, 474,231 and 474,232) were awarded to Edison in 1892 over the competing claims of Alexander Graham Bell, Emile Berliner, Elisha Gray, Amos Dolbear, J.W. McDonagh, G.B. Richmond, W.L.W. Voeker, J.H. Irwin and Francis Blake Jr. Edison's carbon granules transmitter and Bell's electromagnetic receiver are used, with improvements, by the Bell system for many decades thereafter.
 * 4 June 1877: Emile Berliner files telephone patent application that includes a carbon microphone transmitter.
 * 9 July 1877: The Bell Telephone Company, a common law joint-stock company, is organized by Alexander Graham Bell's future father-in-law Gardiner Greene Hubbard, a lawyer who becomes its first president.
 * 6 October 1877: the Scientific American publishes the invention from Bell – at that time still without a ringer.
 * 25 October 1877: the article in the Scientific American is discussed at the Telegraphenamt in Berlin
 * November 1877: First permanent telephone connection in UK between two business in Manchester using imported Bell instruments.
 * 12 November 1877: The first commercial telephone company enters telephone business in Friedrichsberg close to Berlin using the Siemens pipe as ringer and telephone devices built by Siemens.
 * 1 December 1877: Western Union enters the telephone business using Edison's superior carbon microphone transmitter.
 * 14 January 1878: Bell demonstrates the device to Queen Victoria and gives her an opportunity to try it. Calls are made to Cowes, Southampton and London, the first long-distance calls in the UK. The queen asks to buy the equipment that was used, but Bell offers to make a model specifically for her.
 * 28 January 1878: The first commercial North American telephone exchange is opened in New Haven, Connecticut.
 * 4 February 1878: Edison demonstrates the telephone between Menlo Park, New Jersey and Philadelphia.
 * 14 June 1878: The Telephone Company (Bell's Patents) Ltd. is registered in London. Opened in London on 21 August 1879, it is Europe's first telephone exchange, followed a couple of weeks later by one in Manchester.
 * 12 September 1878: the Bell Telephone Company sues Western Union for infringing Bell's patents.
 * 1878: The first Australian telephone trials were made between Semaphore and Kapunda (and later Adelaide and Port Adelaide) in South Australia.

1879 to 1919

 * Early months of 1879: The Bell Telephone Company is near bankruptcy and desperate to get a transmitter to equal Edison's carbon transmitter.
 * 17 February 1879: Bell Telephone merges with the New England Telephone Company to form the National Bell Telephone Company. Theodore Vail takes over operations.
 * 1879: Francis Blake invents a carbon transmitter similar to Edison's that saves the Bell company from extinction.
 * 2 August 1879: The Edison Telephone Company London Ltd, registered. Opened in London 6 September 1879.
 * 10 September 1879: Connolly and McTighe patent a "dial" telephone exchange (limited in the number of lines to the number of positions on the dial.).
 * 1879: The International Bell Telephone Company (IBTC) of Brussels, Belgium was founded by Bell Telephone Company president Gardiner Greene Hubbard, initially to sell imported telephones and switchboards in Continental Europe.  International Bell rapidly evolved into an important European telephone service provider and manufacturer, with major operations in several countries.
 * 19 February 1880: The photophone, also called a radiophone, is invented jointly by Alexander Graham Bell and Charles Sumner Tainter at Bell's Volta Laboratory. The device allowed for the transmission of sound on a beam of light.
 * 20 March 1880: National Bell Telephone merges with others to form the American Bell Telephone Company.
 * 1 April 1880: world's first wireless telephone call on Bell and Tainter's photophone (distant precursor to fiber-optic communications) from the Franklin School in Washington, D.C. to the window of Bell's laboratory, 213 meters away.
 * 1 July 1881: The world's first international telephone call is made between St. Stephen, New Brunswick, Canada, and Calais, Maine, United States.
 * 11 October 1881: The Sydney telephone exchange opened with 12 subscribers.
 * 1882: A telephone company—an American Bell Telephone Company affiliate—is set up in Mexico City.
 * 14 May 1883: The Adelaide exchange was opened, with 48 subscribers.
 * 7 September 1883: The Port Adelaide exchange was opened, with 21 subscribers.
 * 4 September 1884: Opening of telephone service between New York and Boston (235 miles).
 * 3 March 1885: The American Telephone & Telegraph Company (AT&T) is incorporated as the long-distance division of American Bell Telephone Company. It will become the head of the Bell System on the last day of 1899.
 * 1886: Gilliland's Automatic circuit changer is put into service between Worcester and Leicester featuring the first operator dialing allowing one operator to run two exchanges.
 * 1887: Tivadar Puskás introduced the multiplex switchboard, that had an epochal significance in the further development of telephone exchange.
 * 13 January 1887: the Government of the United States moves to annul the master patent issued to Alexander Graham Bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation. The case, known as the 'Government Case', is later dropped after it was revealed that the U.S. Attorney General, Augustus Hill Garland had been given millions of dollars of stock in the company trying to unseat Bell's telephone patent.
 * 1888: Telephone patent court cases are confirmed by the Supreme Court, see The Telephone Cases
 * 1889: AT&T becomes the overall holding company for all the Bell companies.
 * 2 November 1889: A.G. Smith patents a telegraph switch which provides for trunks between groups of selectors allowing for the first time, fewer trunks than there are lines, and automatic selection of an idle trunk.
 * 10 March 1891: Almon Strowger patents the Strowger switch the first Automatic telephone exchange.
 * 30 October 1891: The independent Strowger Automatic Telephone Exchange Company is formed.
 * 3 May 1892: Thomas Edison awarded patents for the carbon microphone based on applications lodged in 1877.
 * 18 October 1892: Opening of telephone service between New York and Chicago (950 miles).
 * 3 November 1892: The first Strowger switch goes into operation in LaPorte, Indiana, with 75 subscribers and capacity for 99.
 * 30 January 1894: The second fundamental Bell patent for the telephone expires; Independent telephone companies established, and independent manufacturing companies (Stromberg-Carlson in 1894 and Kellogg Switchboard & Supply Company in 1897).
 * 30 December 1899: American Bell Telephone Company is purchased by its own long-distance subsidiary, American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) to bypass state regulations limiting capitalization. AT&T assumes leadership role of the Bell System.
 * 25 December 1900: John W. Atkins, the manager at International Ocean Telegraph Company (IOTC), a subsidiary of Western Union Telegraph Company made the first international telephone call over telegraph cable at 09:55 from his office in Key West to Havana, Cuba. Atkins was reported in the Florida Times Union and Citizen as saying, "For a long time there was no sound, except the roar heard at night sometimes, caused by electric light current." He continued calling Cuba and finally came back the words, clear and distinct: "I don't understand you."
 * 27 February 1901: United States Court of Appeal declares void Emile Berliner's patent for a telephone transmitter used by the Bell telephone system
 * 1902: The first Australian interstate calls between Mount Gambier and Nelson.
 * 26 February 1914: Boston-Washington underground cable commenced commercial service.
 * 16 January 1915: The first automatic Panel exchange was installed at the Mulberry Central Office in Newark, New Jersey; but was a semi-automatic system using non-dial telephones.
 * 25 January 1915: First transcontinental telephone call (3600 miles), with Thomas Augustus Watson at 333 Grant Avenue in San Francisco receiving a call from Alexander Graham Bell at 15 Dey Street in New York City, facilitated by a newly invented vacuum tube amplifier.
 * 21 October 1915: First transmission of speech across the Atlantic Ocean by radiotelephone from Arlington, Virginia to Paris, France.
 * 1919: The first rotary dial telephones in the Bell System installed in Norfolk, Virginia. Telephones that lacked dials and touch-tone pads were no longer made by the Bell System after 1978.
 * 1919: AT&T conducts more than 4,000 measurements of people's heads to gauge the best dimensions of standard headsets so that callers' lips would be near the microphone when holding handsets up to their ears.

1920 to 1969

 * 16 July 1920: World's first radiotelephone service commences public service between Los Angeles and Santa Catalina Island.
 * 11 April 1921: Opening of deep sea cable from Key West, Florida, to Havana, Cuba (115 miles).
 * 22 December 1923: Opening of second transcontinental telephone line via a southern route.
 * 7 March 1926: First transatlantic telephone call, from London to New York.
 * 7 January 1927: Transatlantic telephone service inaugurated for commercial service (3500 miles).
 * 17 January 1927: Opening of third transcontinental telephone line via a northern route.
 * 7 April 1927: world's first videophone call via an electro-mechanical AT&T unit, from Washington, D.C. to New York City, by then-Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover.
 * 8 December 1929: Opening of commercial ship-to-shore telephone service.
 * 3 April 1930: Opening of transoceanic telephone service to Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay and subsequently to all other South American countries.
 * 1931: The Ericsson DBH 1001 telephone was the first telephone without a separate ringer box.
 * 25 April 1935: First telephone call around the world by wire and radio.
 * 1937: The Western Electric type 302 telephone becomes available for service in the United States.
 * 8 December 1937: Opening of fourth transcontinental telephone line.
 * 1941: Multi-frequency dialing introduced for operators in Baltimore, Maryland
 * 1942: Telephone production is halted at Western Electric until 1945 for civilian distribution due to the retooling of factories for military equipment during World War II.
 * 1946: National Numbering Plan (area codes)
 * 1946: first commercial mobile phone call
 * 1946: Bell Labs develops the germanium point-contact transistor
 * 1947: December, W. Rae Young and Douglas H. Ring, Bell Labs engineers, proposed hexagonal cells for provisioning of mobile telephone service.
 * 1948: Phil Porter, a Bell Labs engineer, proposed that cell towers be at the corners of the hexagons rather than the centers and have directional antennas pointing in 3 directions.
 * 1950: The Western Electric Type 500 telephone becomes available in the United States after announcement in 1949.
 * 30 June 1948: First public demonstration of the transistor by Bell Telephone Laboratories.
 * 10 November 1951: direct distance dialing (DDD) first offered on trial basis at Englewood, New Jersey, to 11 selected major cities across the United States; this service grew rapidly across major cities during the 1950s
 * 1955: the laying of trans-Atlantic cable TAT-1 began – 36 circuits, later increased to 48 by reducing the bandwidth from 4 kHz to 3 kHz
 * 1958: Modems used for direct connection via voice phone lines
 * 1959: The Princess telephone is introduced in the Bell System in the United States.
 * 1959: UKs first public car radio-telephone service opens in Liverpool and Manchester
 * 1959: Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Telephone Laboratories invent the metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor (MOSFET, or MOS transistor), which later enables the rapid development and wide adoption of pulse-code modulation (PCM) digital telephony.
 * 1960: Bell Labs conducts extensive field trial of an electronic central office in Morris, Illinois, known at the Morris System.
 * 1960s: Bell Labs developed the electronics for cellular phones
 * 1961: Initiation of Touch-Tone service trials
 * 1962: T-1 service in Skokie, Illinois
 * 18 November 1963: AT&T commences the first subscriber Touch-Tone service in the towns of Carnegie and Greensburg, Pennsylvania, using push-button telephones that replaced rotary dial instruments.
 * 31 May 1965: The world's first electronic switching system commences commercial service in Succasunna, New Jersey, in form of the 1ESS.
 * 1965: first geosynchronous communications satellite – 240 circuits or one TV signal
 * 1965: The Trimline telephone is introduced by Western Electric for use in the Bell System.

1970 to 1999

 * 1970: ESS-2 electronic switch.
 * 1970: modular telephone cords and jacks introduced.
 * 1970: Amos E. Joel, Jr. of Bell Labs invented the "call handoff" system for "cellular mobile communication system" (patent granted 1972).
 * 1970: British companies Pye TMC, Marconi-Elliott and GEC develop the digital push-button telephone, based on metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuit (IC) technology. It uses MOS memory chips to store phone numbers, which could then be used for speed dialing.
 * 1971: AT&T submitted a proposal for cellular phone service to the U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC).
 * 3 April 1973: Motorola employee Martin Cooper placed the first hand-held cell phone call to Joel Engel, head of research at AT&T's Bell Labs, while talking on the first Motorola DynaTAC prototype.
 * 1973: packet switched voice connections over ARPANET with Network Voice Protocol (NVP).
 * 1973: Bell Labs combined MOS technology with touch-tone technology to develop a push-button MOS touch-tone phone called the "Touch-O-Matic" telephone, which uses MOS integrated circuit chips and could store up to 32 phone numbers.
 * 1974: David A. Hodges, Paul R. Gray and R.E. Suarez at UC Berkeley develop MOS mixed-signal integrated circuit technology, in the form of the MOS switched capacitor (SC) circuit, which they use to develop the digital-to-analog converter (DAC) chip used in digital telephony.
 * 1975: Paul R. Gray and J. McCreary develop the analog-to-digital converter (ADC) MOS chip, used in digital telephony.
 * 1976: Kazuo Hashimoto invented Caller ID
 * 1978: Bell Labs launched a trial of the first commercial cellular network in Chicago using Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS).
 * 1978: World's first NMT phone call in Tampere, Finland.
 * 1979: VoIP – NVP running on top of early versions of IP
 * 1980: W.C. Black and David A. Hodges develop the silicon-gate CMOS (complementary MOS) pulse-code modulation (PCM) codec-filter chip, which has since been the industry standard for digital telephony, widely used in the public switched telephone network (PSTN) as well as cordless telephones and cell phones.
 * 1981: The world's first fully automatic mobile phone system NMT is started in Sweden and Norway.
 * 1981: BT introduces the British Telephone Sockets system.
 * 1982: FCC approved AT&T proposal for AMPS and allocated frequencies in the 824-894 MHz band.
 * 1982: Caller ID patented by Carolyn Doughty, Bell Labs
 * 1983: last manual telephone switchboard in Maine is retired
 * 1984: AT&T completes the divestiture of its local operating companies. This forms a new AT&T (long-distance service and equipment sales) and the Baby Bells.
 * 1987: ADSL introduced
 * 1988: First transatlantic fiber optic cable TAT-8, carrying 40,000 circuits
 * 1990: analog AMPS was superseded by Digital AMPS.
 * 1991: the GSM mobile phone network is started in Finland, with the first phone call in Tampere.
 * 1993: Telecom Relay Service available for the disabled
 * 1994: The IBM Simon becomes the first smartphone on the market.
 * 1995: Caller ID implemented nationally in USA
 * 1999: creation of the Asterisk Private branch exchange

2000 to present

 * 11 June 2002: Antonio Meucci is recognized for "...his work in the invention of the telephone" (but not "...for inventing the telephone") by the United States House of Representatives, in United States HRes. 269.
 * 21 June 2002: The Parliament of Canada responds by passing a motion unanimously 10 days later recognizing Alexander Graham Bell as the inventor of the telephone.
 * 2005: Mink, Louisiana, finally receives traditional landline telephone service (one of the last in the United States).

title: Timeline of the telephone


text:
Quanzhou

Quanzhou is a prefecture-level port city on the north bank of the Jin River, beside the Taiwan Strait in southern Fujian, People's Republic of China. It is Fujian's largest most populous metropolitan region, with an area of 11,245 km2 and a population of 8,782,285 as of the 2020 census. Its built-up area is home to 6,669,711 inhabitants, encompassing the Licheng, Fengze, and Luojiang urban districts; Jinjiang, Nan'an, and Shishi cities; Hui'an County; and the Quanzhou District for Taiwanese Investment. Quanzhou was China's 12th-largest extended metropolitan area in 2010.

Quanzhou was China's major port for foreign traders, who knew it as Zaiton, during the 11th through 14th centuries. It was visited by both Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta; both travelers praised it as one of the most prosperous and glorious cities in the world. It was the naval base from which the Mongol attacks on Japan and Java were primarily launched and a cosmopolitan center with Buddhist and Hindu temples, Islamic mosques, and Christian churches, including a Catholic cathedral and Franciscan friaries. A failed revolt prompted a massacre of the city's foreign communities in 1357. Economic dislocations—including piracy and an imperial overreaction to it during the Ming and Qing—reduced its prosperity, with Japanese trade shifting to Ningbo and Zhapu and other foreign trade restricted to Guangzhou. Quanzhou became an opium-smuggling center in the 19th century but the siltation of its harbor hindered trade by larger ships.

Because of its importance for medieval maritime commerce, unique mix of religious buildings, and extensive archeological remains, "Quanzhou: Emporium of the World in Song-Yuan China" was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2021.

Names
Quanzhou (also known as Zayton or Zaiton in British and American historical sources) is the atonal pinyin romanization of the city's Chinese name, using its pronunciation in the Mandarin dialect. The name derives from the city's former status as the seat of the imperial Chinese Quan ("Spring") Prefecture. Ch'üan-chou was the Wade-Giles romanization of the same name; other forms include Chwanchow-foo, Chwan-chau fu, Chwanchew, Ts'üan-chou, Tswanchow-foo, Tswanchau, T'swan-chau fu, Ts'wan-chiu, Ts'wan-chow-fu, Thsiouan-tchéou-fou, and Thsíouan-chéou-fou. The romanizations Chuan-chiu, Choan-Chiu, and Shanju reflect the local Hokkien pronunciation.

The Postal Map name of the city was "Chinchew", an English variant of Chincheo, which is also the historical Spanish, Portuguese (and later also Dutch and French) name for the city. The exact etymon of the term is uncertain with multiple explanations on the matter. Historically, "Chincheo" or also "Chengchio" or "Chenchiu" was likely a name that originally referred to neighboring Zhangzhou, due to the name generally being used by European sailors to denote the Bay of Amoy and its hinterland, or even the whole Fujian province. The confusion is also discussed by Charles R. Boxer (1953) and the 1902 Encyclopedia in that it is apparently the transcription of the local Quanzhou Hokkien pronunciation of the name of Zhangzhou, Quanzhou Hokkien  (IPA: /t͡ɕiɪŋ³³ t͡ɕiu³³/), the major Fujianese port in the 16th and 17th centuries, specifically the old port of Yuegang in Haicheng, Zhangzhou, trading with Spanish Manila and Portuguese Macao. It is uncertain when exactly and why Spanish, Portuguese, Dutch, and later also British and French sailors first applied the name to Quanzhou, but perhaps there were initially some confusion due to miscommunication on first language contact by European sailors with Hokkien speakers around the Bay of Amoy, which the term later stuck and continued due to the language barrier among Hokkien speakers and those who do not speak the language. Another by Duncan (1902) claims that it comes from a supposed previous "Tsuien-chow" Mandarin romanization (Mandarin ; IPA: /t͡ɕʰy̯ɛn³⁵ ʈ͡ʂoʊ̯⁵⁵/). In the Chineesch-Hollandsch Woordenboek van het Emoi dialekt (1882), a Hokkien-Dutch Dictionary from Dutch Batavia (modern-day Jakarta) of the Dutch East Indies, the name of the Quanzhou dialect of Hokkien is transcribed as the "Tsin-tsiu dialekt". It is uncertain which term they transcribed "Tsin-tsiu" from, specifically the first syllable, unless it was simply their attempt at giving a Hokkien term to explain the origins of "Chincheo". On that regard though, as part of Quanzhou prefecture and directly adjacent from the historic city of Quanzhou over the Jin River lies Jinjiang, called in Hokkien ; Tâi-lô: Tsìn-kang, which is now also a county-level city. The now county-level city of Jinjiang (Hokkien: ) has the exact same name in Hokkien as the Jin River (Hokkien: ; IPA: /t͡sin⁵⁵⁴ kaŋ³³/), directly in between the historic city of Quanzhou to its west and to the north of Jinjiang, which both the river and the county-level city got their name from the Jin dynasty (晉朝) from when the earliest Min-speaking Chinese settlers coming from the Min River area settled the banks of the Jin River around 284 AD. Zhou or at least Hokkien  originally referred to alluvial islands in the middle of rivers or at the mouth of rivers, which can somewhat geographically describe the historic city of Quanzhou's geographic position in between the Jin River and the Luoyang River. Similarly, Zhangzhou is also named with Hokkien  with Hokkien  referring to Hokkien, which is the old name of the Jiulong River (Hokkien: ) that surrounds the historic city of Zhangzhou.

Its Arabic name Zaiton or "Zayton" (زيتون), once popular in English, means "[City] of Olives" and is a calque of Quanzhou's former Chinese epithet, Hokkien or Mandarin, which is derived from the avenues of tung oil-bearing tung trees ordered to be planted around the city by the city's 10th-century ruler Liu Congxiao. Variant transcriptions from the Arabic name include Caiton, Çaiton, Çayton, Zaytún, Zaitûn, Zaitún, and Zaitūn. The etymology of satin derives from "Zaitun".

Geography
Quanzhou proper lies on a split of land between the estuaries of the Jin River and Luoyang River as they flow into Quanzhou Bay on the Taiwan Strait. Its surrounding prefecture extends west halfway across the province and is hilly and mountainous. Along with Xiamen and Zhangzhou to its south and Putian to its north, it makes up Fujian Province's Southern Coast region. In its mountainous interior, it borders Longyan to the southwest and Sanming to the northwest.

Climate
The city features a humid subtropical climate. Quanzhou has four distinct seasons. Its moderate temperature ranges from 0 to 38 degrees Celsius. In summer, there are typhoons that bring rain and some damage to the city.

Earthquakes
Major earthquakes have been experienced in 1394 and on 29 December 1604.

Early history
Wang Guoqing (王國慶) used the area as a base of operations for the Chen State before he was subdued by the Sui general Yang Su in the AD590s. Quanzhou proper was established under the Tang in 718 on a spit of land between two branches of the Jin River. Muslim traders reached the city early on in its existence, along with their existing trade at Guangzhou and Yangzhou.

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period
In the early period of the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period, Quanzhou was a part of Min state. After Min was destroyed by the Southern Tang, the Qingyuan Circuit rose up in the original southern territory of Min. The Qingyuan Circuit was a de facto independent entity that lasted 29 years (949-978) with 4 rulers. Its territory included present-day southern Fujian and Putian, with Quanzhou as its capital. Its founder, Liu Congxiao, the Prince of Jinjiang and Jiedushi (military governor) of Qingyuan Circuit, vigorously expanded overseas trade and city development. Erythrina trees were planted throughout Quanzhou city, so Quanzhou was called Erythrina City. In 964, the circuit was renamed the Pinghai Circuit. In 978, Chen Hongjin, the Jiedushi of Pinghai Circuit, was forced to surrender to the Northern Song to avoid war and ravage.

Song dynasty
Already connected to inland Fujian by roads and canals, Quanzhou grew to international importance in the first century of the Northern Song. It received an office of the maritime trade bureau (shibosi, 市舶司) in 1079 or 1087 and functioned as the starting point of the Maritime Silk Road into the Yuan, eclipsing both the overland trade routes and Guangzhou. A 1095 inscription records two convoys, each of twenty ships, arriving from the Southern Seas each year. Quanzhou's maritime trade developed the area's ceramics, sugar, alcohol, and salt industries. Ninety per cent of Fujian's ceramic production at the time was jade-colored celadon, produced for export. Frankincense was such a coveted import that promotions for the trade superintendents at Guangzhou and Quanzhou were tied to the amount they were able to bring in during their terms in office. During this period it was one of the world's largest and most cosmopolitan seaports. By 1120, its prefecture claimed a population of around 500,000. Its Luoyang Bridge was formerly the most celebrated bridge in China and the 12th century Anping Bridge is also well known.Quanzhou initially continued to thrive under the Southern Song. A 1206 report listed merchants from Arabia, Iran, the Indian subcontinent, Sumatra, Cambodia, Brunei, Java, Champa, Burma, Anatolia, Korea, Japan and the city-states of the Philippines. One of its customs inspectors, Zhao Rugua, completed his compendious Description of Barbarian Nations c. 1225, recording the people, places, and items involved in China's foreign trade in his age. Other imperial records from the time use it as the zero mile for distances between China and foreign countries. Tamil merchants carved idols of Vishnu and Shiva and constructed Hindu temples in Quanzhou. Over the course of the 13th century, however, Quanzhou's prosperity declined due to instability among its trading partners and increasing restrictions introduced by the Southern Song in an attempt to restrict the outflow of copper and bronze currency from areas forced to use hyperinflating paper money. The increasing importance of Japan to China's foreign trade also benefited Ningbonese merchants at Quanzhou's expense, given their extensive contacts with Japan's major ports on Hakata Bay on Kyushu.

Yuan dynasty
In 1277 under the Mongolian Yuan dynasty a superintendent of foreign trade was established in the city. The superintendent Pu Shougeng was Muslim and used his contacts to restore the city's trade under its new rulers. He was broadly successful, restoring much of the port's former greatness. His office became hereditary to his descendants.

Into the 1280s Quanzhou sometimes served as the provincial capital for Fujian. Its population was around 455,000 in 1283, the major items of trade being pepper and other spices, gemstones, pearls, and porcelain.

Marco Polo recorded that the Yuan emperors derived "a vast revenue" from their 10 percent duty on the port's commerce; he called Quanzhou's port "one of the two greatest havens in the world for commerce" and "the Alexandria of the East". Ibn Battuta simply called it the greatest port in the world. Polo noted its tattoo artists were famed throughout Southeast Asia. It was the point of departure for Marco Polo's 1292 return expedition, escorting the 17-year-old Mongolian princess Kököchin to her fiancé in the Persian Ilkhanate; a few decades later, it was the point of arrival and departure for Ibn Battuta. Kublai Khan's invasions of Japan and Java sailed primarily from its port. The Islamic geographer Abulfeda noted, in c. 1321, that its city walls remained ruined from its conquest by the Mongols. In the mid-1320s Friar Odoric noted the town's two Franciscan friaries, but admitted the Buddhist monasteries were much larger, with over 3000 monks in one.

Between 1357 and 1367 the Yisibaxi Muslim Persian garrison started the Ispah rebellion against the Yuan dynasty in Quanzhou and southern Fujian due to increasingly anti-Muslim laws. Persian militia leaders Sayf ad-Din (Yuan) (賽甫丁) and Amir ad-Din (阿迷里丁) led the revolt. Arabic official Yawuna (那兀纳) assassinated Amir ad-Din in 1362 and took control of the Muslim rebel forces. The Muslim rebels tried to strike north and took over some parts of Xinghua but were defeated at Fuzhou. Yuan provincial loyalist forces from Fuzhou defeated the Muslim rebels in 1367. Sayf ad-Din and Amir ad-Din fought for Fuzhou and Xinghua for five years. They both were murdered by another Muslim called Nawuna in 1362 so he then took control of Quanzhou and the Ispah garrison for five more years until his defeat by the Yuan authorities.

Nawuna was killed in turn by Chen Youding. Chen began a campaign of persecution against the city's Sunni community—including massacres and grave desecration—that eventually became a three-days anti-foreign massacre. Emigrants fleeing the persecution rose to prominent positions throughout Southeast Asia, spurring the development of Islam on Java and elsewhere. The Yuan were expelled in 1368, and they turned against Pu Shougeng's family and the Muslims and slaughtered Pu Shougeng's descendants in the Ispah rebellion. Mosques and other buildings with foreign architecture were almost all destroyed and the Yuan imperial soldiers killed most of the descendants of Pu Shougeng and mutilated their corpses.

Ming and early Qing dynasties
The Ming discouraged foreign commerce other than formal tributary missions. By 1473 trade had declined to the point that Quanzhou was no longer the headquarters of the imperial customs service for Fujian. The Wokou, who came from many different ethnicities, including Japanese, Korean, and Chinese, forced Quanzhou's Superintendency of Trade to close completely in 1522.

During the Qing dynasty the Sea Ban did not help the city's traders or fishermen. They were forced to abandon their access to the sea for years at a time and coastal farmers forced to relocate miles inland to inner counties like Yongchun and Anxi. Violent large scale clan fights with the thousands of non-native families from Guangdong who were deported to Quanzhou city by the Qing immediately occurred.

19th century to present day

In the 19th century, the city walls still protected a circuit of 7 - 8 mi but embraced much vacant ground. The bay began to attract Jardines' and Dents' opium ships from 1832. Following the First Opium War, Governor Henry Pottinger proposed using Quanzhou as an official opium depot to keep the trade out of Hong Kong and the other treaty ports but the rents sought by the imperial commissioner Qiying were too high.

When Chinese pirates overran the receiving ships in Shenhu Bay to capture their stockpiles of silver bullion in 1847, however, the traders moved to Quanzhou Bay regardless. Around 1862, a Protestant mission was set up in Quanzhou. As late as the middle of the century, large Chinese junks could still access the town easily, trading in tea, sugar, tobacco, porcelain, and nankeens, but sand bars created by the rivers around the town had generally incapacitated its harbor by the First World War. It remained a large and prosperous city, but conducted its maritime trade through Anhai.

After the Chinese Civil War, Kinmen became disconnected from Quanzhou with the Nationalists successfully defended Kinmen in battle from a Communist takeover attempt.

Administrative divisions
The prefecture-level city of Quanzhou administers four districts, three county-level cities, four counties, and two special economic districts. The People's Republic of China claims Kinmen Islands (Quemoy) (administered and also claimed by the Republic of China) as Kinmen County under the administration of Quanzhou.

 * * Since its founding in 1949, the People's Republic of China ("Mainland China") has claimed the Kinmen Islands (Quemoy) as part of Quanzhou but has never controlled them; they are administered by and also claimed by the Republic of China (Taiwan).

Demographics
As of the 2010 census, Quanzhou has a population of 8,128,530. Its built-up area is home to 6,107,475 inhabitants, encompassing the Licheng, Fengze, and Luojiang urban districts; Jinjiang, Nan'an, and Shishi cities; Hui'an County; and the Quanzhou District for Taiwanese Investment.

Religion

Medieval Quanzhou was long one of the most cosmopolitan Chinese cities, with Chinese folk religious temples, Buddhist temples, Taoist temples and Hindu temples; Islamic mosques; and Christian churches, including Nestorian and a cathedral (financed by a rich Armenian lady) and two Franciscan friaries. Andrew of Perugia served as the Roman Catholic bishop of the city from 1322. Odoric of Pordenone was responsible for relocating the relics of the four Franciscans martyred at Thane in India in 1321 to the mission in Quanzhou. English Presbyterian missionaries raised a chapel around 1862. The Qingjing Mosque dates to 1009 but is now preserved as a museum. The Buddhist Kaiyuan Temple has been repeatedly rebuilt but includes two 5-story 13th-century pagodas. Among the most popular folk or Taoist temples is Guan Yue Temple (通淮關岳廟) that is dedicated to Lord Yue and famous Lord Guan, the God of Martial who is honored for his righteousness and the spirit of brotherhood. Jinjiang also preserves the Cao'an Temple (草庵寺), originally constructed by Manicheans under the Yuan but now used by New Age spiritualists, and a Confucian Temple (文庙, Wenmiao).

Language
Locals speak the Quanzhou dialect of Hokkien (Min Nan) partly the same as the Amoy dialect spoken in Xiamen, and similar to Singaporean Hokkien, Philippine Hokkien, and Quanzhou-descended Taiwanese dialects. It is unintelligible with Mandarin. Many overseas Chinese whose ancestors came from the Quanzhou area, especially those in Southeast Asia, often speak mainly Hokkien at home. Around the "Southern Min triangle area," which includes Quanzhou, Xiamen and Zhangzhou, locals all speak the Hokkien language. The dialects of Hokkien itself that they speak are similar but have different tones and sometimes different pronunciation and vocabulary.

Emigration
Quanzhou has been a source for Chinese emigration to Southeast Asia and Taiwan. Some of these communities date to Quanzhou's heyday a millennium ago under the Song and Yuan dynasties. About 6 million overseas Chinese trace their ancestry to Quanzhou and Tong'an county. Most of them live in Southeast Asia, including Singapore, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Myanmar, and Thailand.

Economy

Historically Quanzhou exported black tea, camphor, sugar, indigo, tobacco, ceramics, cloth made of grass, and minerals. As of 1832 Quanzhou imported, primarily from Guangzhou, wool cloth, wine, and watches. The East India Company was exporting an estimated £150,000 a year in black tea from Quanzhou.

Today Quanzhou is a major exporter of agricultural products such as tea, banana, lychee, and rice. It is also a major producer of quarry granite and ceramics. Other industries include textiles, footwear, fashion and apparel, packaging, machinery, paper and petrochemicals.

Its GDP ranked first in Fujian Province for 20 years from 1991 to 2010. In 2008 Quanzhou's textile and apparel production accounted for 10 percent of China's overall apparel production, stone exports account for 50 percent of Chinese stone exports, resin handicraft exports account for 70 percent of the country's total, ceramic exports account for 67 percent of the country's total, candy production accounts for 20 percent, and the production of sport and tourism shoes accounts for 80% of Chinese, and 20 percent of world production.

Quanzhou is known today as China's shoe city. Quanzhou's 3,000 shoe factories produce 500 million pairs a year, making nearly one in every four pairs of sneakers made in China.

Cars
Quanzhou is the biggest automotive market in Fujian. It has the highest rate of private automobile possession. Quanzhou is connected by major roads from Fuzhou to the north and Xiamen to the south.

Transport
Quanzhou is an important transport hub within southeastern Fujian province. Many export industries in the Fujian interior cities will transport goods to Quanzhou ports. Quanzhou Port was one of the most prosperous port in Tang dynasty and is now still an important Chinese port for exporting.

There is a passenger ferry terminal in Shijing, Nan'an, Fujian, with regular service to the Shuitou Port in the ROC-controlled Kinmen Island.

Airport
Quanzhou Jinjiang International Airport is Quanzhou's sole airport, served by passenger flights within mainland China and other regional/international destinations throughout southeast Asia, including Hong Kong, Macau, Manila, Kuala Lumpur, Bangkok etc. Major airlines operated in JJN are Xiamen Air, Shenzhen Airlines and West Air.

Railway
The Zhangping–Quanzhou–Xiaocuo railway connects several cargo stations within Quanzhou Prefecture with the interior of Fujian and the rest of the country. Until 2014 this line also had passenger service, with fairly slow passenger trains from Beijing.

Passenger trains from China terminated at the Quanzhou East Railway Station, a few kilometers northeast of the center of the city. Passenger service on this line was terminated, and Quanzhou East railway station closed 9 December 2014.

Since 2010 Quanzhou is served by the high-speed Fuzhou–Xiamen railway, part of the Hangzhou–Fuzhou–Shenzhen high-speed railway, which runs along China's southeastern sea coast. High-speed trains on this line stop at Quanzhou railway station (in Beifeng Subdistrict of Fengze District, some 10 miles north of Quanzhou city center) and Jinjiang railway station. Trains to Xiamen take under 45 minutes, making it a convenient weekend or day trip. By 2015 direct high-speed service has become available to a number of cities in the country's interior, from Beijing to Chongqing and Guiyang.

Long-distance bus
Long-distance bus services also run daily/nightly to Shenzhen and other major cities. Quanzhou bus station operated from 1990 to 2020.

Colleges and universities
Colleges and universities with Undergraduate education:
 * Huaqiao University (national)
 * Quanzhou Normal University (public)
 * Jinjiang Campus of Fuzhou University of Fuzhou University (public)
 * Quangang Campus of College of Chemical Engineering, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou University (public)
 * Anxi College of Tea Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (College of Digital Economy), Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (public)
 * Second School of Clinical Medicine, Fujian Medical University (public)
 * Yang-en University (private)
 * Minnan University of Science and Technology (private)
 * Minnan Science and Technology College (private)
 * Quanzhou University of Information Engineering (private)
 * Jinjiang Campus of Fuzhou University Zhicheng College (private)
 * Quangang Campus of Fuzhou University Zhicheng College (private)
 * Jinshan College of Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University (Anxi) (private)
 * Quanzhou Vocational and Technical University (vocational, private)

Vocational school:
 * Liming Vocational University (public)
 * Quanzhou Medical College (public)
 * Quanzhou Preschool Education College (public)
 * Fujian Electric Power Technical College (public)
 * Quanzhou Vocational College of Economics and Business (public)
 * Quanzhou Arts And Crafts Vocational College (public)
 * Quanzhou Engineering Vocational and Technical College (private)
 * Quanzhou College of Technology (private)
 * Quanzhou Textile Garment Institute (private)
 * Quanzhou Ocean Institute (private)
 * Quanzhou Huaguang Vocational College (private)

Culture
Quanzhou is listed as one of the 24 famous historic cultural cities first approved by the Chinese government. Notable cultural practices include:

 * Liyuan Opera (梨园戏)
 * Puppet Show (提线木偶戏)
 * Gaojia Opera (高甲戏)
 * Dacheng Opera (打城戏)
 * Nanyin (南音), a musical style dating to the Han but performed in the local dialect
 * Quanzhou Shaolin Five Ancestors Fist (泉州五祖拳)
 * Yongchun martial arts

The city hosted the Sixth National Peasants' Games in 2008. Signature local dishes include rice dumplings and oyster omelettes.

Notable Historical and cultural sites (the 18 views of Quanzhou as recommended by the Fujian tourism board) include the Ashab Mosque and Kaiyuan Temple mentioned above, as well as:

 * Qing Yuan mountain (清源山) - The tallest hill within the city limits, which hosts a great view of West lake.
 * East Lake Park (东湖) - Located in the city center. It is home to a small zoo.
 * West Lake Park (西湖公园) - The largest body of fresh water within the city limits.
 * Scholar Street (状元街) - Champion street about 500 meters long, elegant environment, mainly engaged in tourism and cultural crafts.

Notable Modern cultural sites include:

 * Fengze Square - Located in the city center and acts as a venue for shows and events.
 * Dapingshan - The second tallest hill within the city limits, crowned with an enormous equestrian statue of Zheng Chenggong.
 * The Embassy Lounge - Situated in the "1916 Cultural Ideas Zone" which acts as a platform for mixing traditional Chinese art with modern building techniques and designs

Relics from Quanzhou's past are preserved at the Maritime or Overseas-Relations History Museum. It includes large exhibits on Song-era ships and Yuan-era tombstones. A particularly important exhibit is the so-called Quanzhou ship, a seagoing junk that sunk some time after 1272 and was recovered in 1973–74.

The old city center preserves "balcony buildings", a style of southern Chinese architecture from the Republican Era.

Notable residents

 * Li Nu, merchant and scholar

 * Zhang Wenyu, nuclear physicist born in Hui'an. He was also a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences.

 * Lin Junde, explosion mechanics scientist born in Yongchun in Quanzhou.

 * Xie Xide, physicist born in Shishi, president of Fudan University

 * Guo Guangcan, quantum physicist born in Hui'an.

 * Yao Chen, actress born in Shishi in Quanzhou.

Villages

 * Xunpu

General and cited references

 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.
 * , annotated by Henri Cordier in 1920, London: John Murray.

title: Quanzhou


text:
Oromia

Oromia (Oromiyaa) is a regional state in Ethiopia and the homeland of the Oromo people. Under Article 49 of Ethiopian Constitution, the capital of Oromia is Addis Ababa, also called Finfinne. The provision of the article maintains special interest of Oromia by utilizing social services and natural resources of Addis Ababa.

It is bordered by the Somali Region to the east; the Amhara Region, the Afar Region and the Benishangul-Gumuz Region to the north; Dire Dawa to the northeast; the South Sudanese state of Upper Nile, Gambela Region, South West Ethiopia Region, Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region and Sidama Region to the west; the Eastern Province of Kenya to the south; as well as Addis Ababa as an enclave surrounded by a Special Zone in its centre and the Harari Region as an enclave surrounded by East Hararghe in its east.

In August 2013, the Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency projected the 2017 population of Oromia as 35,467,001; making it the largest regional state by population. It is also the largest regional state covering 353,690 km2

History
The Oromo people are one of the oldest Cushitic peoples inhabiting the Horn of Africa. There is still no reliable estimate of the history of their settlement in the region, however, many indications suggest that they have been living in the north of Kenya and south-east Ethiopia for more than 7,000 years, until the great expansion in 1520 when they expanded to the south-west and some areas in the north.

The Oromo remained independent until the last quarter of the 19th century, when they lost their sovereignty. From 1881 to 1886, Emperor Menelik II conducted several unsuccessful invasion campaigns against their territory. The Arsi Oromo demonstrated fierce resistance against this Abyssinian conquest, putting up stiff opposition against an enemy equipped with modern European firearms. They were ultimately defeated in 1886.

In the 1940s some Arsi Oromo together with people from Bale province joined the Harari Kulub movement, an affiliate of the Somali Youth League that opposed Amhara Christian domination of Hararghe. The Ethiopian government violently suppressed these ethno-religious movements. During the 1970s the Arsi formed alliances with Somalia.

In 1967, the imperial regime of Haile Selassie I outlawed the Mecha and Tulama Self-Help Association (MTSHA), an Oromo social movement, and conducted mass arrests and executions of its members. The group's leader, Colonel General Tadesse Birru, who was a prominent military officer, was among those arrested. The actions by the regime sparked outrage among the Oromo community, ultimately leading to the formation of the Oromo Liberation Front in 1973. The Oromos perceived the rule of Emperor Haile Selassie as oppressive, as the Oromo language was banned from education and use in administration,  and speakers were privately and publicly mocked. The Amhara culture dominated throughout the eras of military and monarchic rule.

Both the imperial and the Derg government relocated numerous Amharas into southern Ethiopia, including the present day Oromia region, in order to alleviate drought in the north of the country. They also served in government administration, courts, church and even in school, where Oromo texts were eliminated and replaced by Amharic. Further disruption under the Derg regime came through the forced concentration and resettlement of peasant communities in fewer villages. The Abyssinian elites perceived the Oromo identity and languages as opposing the expansion of an Ethiopian national identity.

In the early 1990s, the Ethiopian Democratic People's Republic began to lose its control over Ethiopia. The OLF failed to maintain strong alliances with the other two rebel groups at the time: the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF) and the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF). In 1990, the TPLF created an umbrella organization for several rebel groups in Ethiopia, the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF). The EPRDF's Oromo subordinate, the Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO) was seen as an attempted replacement for the OLF.

On 28 May 1991, the EPRDF seized power and established a transitional government. The EPRDF and the OLF pledged to work together in the new government; however, they were largely unable to cooperate, as the OLF saw the OPDO as an EPRDF ploy to limit their influence. In 1992, the OLF announced that it was withdrawing from the transitional government because of "harassment and [the]assassinations of its members". In response, the EPRDF sent soldiers to destroy OLA camps. Despite initial victories against the EPRDF, the OLF were eventually overwhelmed by the EPRDF's superior numbers and weaponry, forcing OLA soldiers to use guerrilla warfare instead of traditional tactics. In the late 1990s, most of the OLF's leaders had escaped Ethiopia, and the land originally administered by the OLF had been seized by the Ethiopian government, now led by the EPRDF.

Prior to the establishment of present-day Addis Ababa the location was called Finfinne in Oromo, a name which refers to the presence of hot springs. The area was previously inhabited by various Oromo clans.

In 2000, Oromia's capital was moved from Addis Ababa to Adama. Because this move sparked considerable controversy and protests among Oromo students, the Oromo Peoples' Democratic Organization (OPDO), part of the ruling EPRDF coalition, on 10 June 2005, officially announced plans to move the regional capital back to Addis Ababa.

Further protests sparked on 25 April 2014, against the Addis Ababa Master Plan, then resumed on 12 September 2015 and continued into 2016, when renewed protests broke out across Ethiopia, centering around the Oromia region. Dozens of protesters were killed in the first days of the protests and internet service was cut in many parts of the region. In 2019, the Irreecha festival was celebrated in Addis Ababa after 150 years of being banned.

Geography
Oromia includes the former Arsi Province along with portions of the former Bale, Illubabor, Kaffa, Shewa and Sidamo provinces. Oromia shares a boundary with almost every region of Ethiopia except for the Tigray Region. These boundaries have been disputed in a number of cases, most notably between Oromia and the Somali Region. One attempt to resolve the dispute between the two regions was the October 2004 referendum held in about 420 kebeles in 12 districts across five zones of the Somali Region. According to the official results of the referendum, about 80% of the disputed areas have fallen under Oromia administration, though there were allegations of voting irregularities in many of them. The results led over the following weeks to minorities in these kebeles being pressured to leave. In Oromiya, estimates based on figures given by local district and kebele authorities suggest that 21,520 people have become internally displaced persons (IDPs) in border districts, namely Mieso, Doba, and Erer in the West Hararghe Zone and East Hararghe Zones. Federal authorities believe that this number may be overstated by as much as 11,000. In Doba, the Ministry of Federal Affairs put the number of IDPs at 6,000. There are also more than 2,500 displaced persons in Mieso. In addition, there were reports of people being displaced in the border area of Moyale and Borena zones due to this conflict.

Towns in the region include Adama, Ambo, Asella, Badessa, Bale Robe, Bedele, Bishoftu, Begi, Bule Hora, Burayu, Chiro, Dembidolo, Fiche, Gimbi, Goba, Haramaya, Holeta, Jimma, Koye Feche, Metu, Negele Arsi, Nekemte, Sebeta, Shashamane and Waliso, among many others.

Demographics
At the time of the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Oromia region had a total population of 26,993,933, consisting of 13,595,006 men and 13,398,927 women; urban inhabitants numbered 3,317,460 or 11.3% of the population. With an estimated area of 353,006.81 km2, the region had an estimated population density of 76.93 PD/km2. For the entire region 5,590,530 households were counted, which resulted in an average for the region of 4.8 persons to a household, with urban households having on average 3.8 and rural households 5.0 people. The projected population for 2017 was 35,467,001.

In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the region's population was reported to be 17,088,136; urban inhabitants number 621,210 or 14% of the population.

According to the CSA,, 32% of the population had access to safe drinking water, of whom 23.7% were rural inhabitants and 91.03% were urban. Values for other reported common indicators of the standard of living for Oromia include the following: 19.9% of the inhabitants fall into the lowest wealth quintile; adult literacy for men is 61.5% and for women 29.5%; and the regional infant mortality rate is 76 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, which is about the same as the nationwide average of 77; at least half of these deaths occurred in the infants' first month of life.

Languages
Oromo is written with Latin characters known as Qubee, only formally adopted in 1991 after various other Latin-based orthographies had been used previously.

Oromo is one of the official working languages of Ethiopia and is also the working language of several of the states within the Ethiopian federal system including Oromia, Harari and Dire Dawa regional states and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is a language of primary education in Oromia, Harari and of the Oromia Zone in the Amhara Region. It is used as an internet language for federal websites along with Tigrinya.

There are more than 33.8% Oromo speakers in Ethiopia and it is considered the most widely spoken language in Ethiopia. It is also the most widely spoken Cushitic language and the fourth-most widely spoken language of Africa, after Arabic, Hausa and Swahili languages. Forms of Oromo are spoken as a first language by more than 35 million Oromo people in Ethiopia and by an additional half-million in parts of northern and eastern Kenya. It is also spoken by smaller numbers of emigrants in other African countries such as South Africa, Libya, Egypt and Sudan. Besides first language speakers, a number of members of other ethnicities who are in contact with the Oromo speak it as a second language. See, for example, Harari, Omotic-speaking Bambassi and the Nilo-Saharan-speaking Kwama in northwestern, eastern and south Oromia.

Economy
Oromia is a major contributor to Ethiopia's main exports - gold, coffee, khat and cattle. Lega Dembi in Guji Zone, owned by MIDROC has exported more than 5000 kilograms of gold, followed by Tulu Kapi gold deposit in West Welega Zone. Awoday in East Hararghe Zone is the biggest market of khat exporting to Djibouti and Somalia. Oromia also has more abundant livestock than any other region of Ethiopia, including camels. It is also the largest producer of cereals and coffee.

The CSA reported that, from 2004 to 2005, 115,083 tons of coffee were produced in Oromia, based on inspection records from the Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Authority. This represents 50.7% of the total production in Ethiopia. Farmers in the Region had an estimated total of 17,214,540 cattle (representing 44.4% of Ethiopia's total cattle), 6,905,370 sheep (39.6), 4,849,060 goats (37.4%), 959,710 horses (63.25%), 63,460 mules (43.1%), 278,440 asses (11.1%), 139,830 camels (30.6%), 11,637,070 poultry of all species (37.7%), and 2,513,790 beehives (57.73%).

According to a March 2003 World Bank publication, the average rural household has 1.14 hectares of land compared to the national average of 1.01 hectares. 24% of the population work in non-farm related jobs compared to the national average of 25%.

Educational institutions

 * Adama University
 * Ambo University
 * Arsi University
 * Dambi Dollo University
 * Dandii Boruu University College
 * Haramaya University
 * Jimma Teachers College
 * Jimma University
 * Madda Walabu University
 * Mattu University
 * New Generation University College
 * Oda Bultum University
 * Oromia State University
 * Rift Valley University College
 * Wollega University
 * Awash Valley University

Administrative zones
Oromia is subdivided into 21 administrative zones, in turn divided into districts (weredas).

Media

 * Oromia Culture and Tourism Bureau
 * Sheger Times
 * Oromia TV

title: Oromia


text:
Catherine McAuley

Catherine McAuley, RSM (29 September 1778 – 11 November 1841) was an Irish Catholic religious sister who founded the Sisters of Mercy in 1831. The women's congregation has always been associated with teaching, especially in Ireland, where the sisters taught Catholics (and at times Protestants) at a time when education was mainly reserved for members of the established Church of Ireland.

Life
Catherine Elizabeth McAuley was born at Stormestown House in Dublin, Ireland, to James and Elinor (née Conway) McAuley. Her father died in 1783 when she was five and her mother died in 1798. Catherine went first to live with a maternal uncle, Owen Conway, and later joined her brother James and sister Mary at the home of William Armstrong, a Protestant relative on her mother's side. In 1803, McAuley became the household manager and companion of William and Catherine Callaghan, an elderly, childless, and wealthy Protestant couple and friends of the Armstrongs, at their estate in Coolock, a village northeast of Dublin. For 20 years she gave catechetical instruction to the household servants and the poor village children. Catherine Callaghan, who was raised in the Quaker tradition, died in 1819. When William Callaghan died in 1822, Catherine McAuley became the sole residuary legatee of their estate.

The House of Mercy
Catherine McAuley inherited a considerable fortune and chose to use it to build a house where she and other compassionate women could take in homeless women and children to provide care and education for them. A location was selected at the junction of Lower Baggot Street and Herbert Street, Dublin, and in June 1824, the cornerstone was laid by the Rev. Dr. Blake. As it was being refurbished, she studied current educational methods in preparation for her new endeavour. On the feast of Our Lady of Mercy, 24 September 1827, the new institution for destitute women, orphans, and schools for the poor was opened and Catherine McAuley, with two companions, undertook its management.

Sisters of Mercy
For three years, Catherine McAuley and her companions continued their work. McAuley never intended to found a community of religious women; her initial intention was to assemble a corps of Catholic social workers. In 1828 the archbishop permitted the staff of the institute to assume a distinctive habit and to publicly visit the sick. The habit adopted was a black tunic and cape of the same material reaching to the belt, a white collar, and a lace cap and veil. In the same year, the archbishop desired a name for the community, and McAuley chose "Sisters of Mercy".

McAuley was desirous that the members should combine the silence and prayer of the Carmelites, with the active labours of a Sister of Charity.

Catherine's clerical mentor urged her to form a religious institute. Catherine and two other women, Anna Maria Doyle and Elizabeth Harley, entered the novitiate of the Presentation Sisters to formally prepare for life as religious in September 1830. On 12 December 1831 they professed vows and returned to the House of Mercy. The Sisters of Mercy consider 12 December 1831 as the day of their founding. Archbishop Daniel Murray assisted Catherine McAuley in founding the Sisters of Mercy, and accepted the vows of the first three new sisters. He then appointed Catherine Mother Superior. The rule of the Sisters of Mercy was formally confirmed by Pope Gregory XVI on 6 June 1841.

A cholera epidemic hit Dublin in 1832, and McAuley agreed to staff a cholera hospital on Townsend Street. Between 1831 and 1841 she founded additional communities in Tullamore, Charleville, Cork, Carlow, Galway, Limerick, Birr, Bermondsey and Birmingham and branch houses in Kingstown and Booterstown.

At the time of McAuley's death, there were 100 Sisters of Mercy in ten foundations. Shortly thereafter, small groups of sisters left Ireland to establish new foundations on the east and west coasts of the United States, in Newfoundland, Australia, New Zealand, and Argentina.

At present, there are about 5,500 Sisters of Mercy worldwide, 5,000 associates, and close to half a million partners in ministry. The Mercy International Centre in Dublin, Ireland, is the international "home" of Mercy worldwide.

Veneration
Catherine McAuley died of tuberculosis on 11 November 1841 at Baggot Street, at the age of sixty-three.

In 1978, the beatification process of Catherine McAuley was opened by Pope Paul VI. In 1990, upon recognition of her heroic virtues, Pope John Paul II declared her venerable. The postulator for the cause is Brenda Dolphin RSM.

title: Catherine McAuley


text:
Blue Line (MBTA)

The Blue Line is a rapid transit line in the Greater Boston metropolitan area, one of four rapid transit lines operated by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA). It runs from Bowdoin station in downtown Boston under Boston Harbor to East Boston and Revere on the inner North Shore, where it terminates at Wonderland. The stop at Airport Station, by way of a free shuttle bus, is one of two rapid transit connections to Logan International Airport. In 1967, during a systemwide rebranding, the line was assigned the blue color because it passes under the Boston Harbor. With an end-to-end travel time of less than twenty minutes, the Blue Line is the shortest of Boston's heavy-rail lines and the only line to have both third rail and overhead catenary sections.

The East Boston Tunnel was built as a streetcar tunnel in 1904 with Howard A. Carson as chief engineer; after an extension to Bowdoin in 1916, it was converted to heavy rail metro rolling stock in 1924. In 1952 and 1954 the line was extended along the former route of the Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn Railroad, in a project intended to reach Lynn but ultimately cut short to Wonderland. Further extensions to Lynn and Charles/MGH downtown are long-planned but not yet funded. From approximately 1998–2011, the MBTA made most Blue Line stations fully accessible as part of a larger effort to accommodate 6-car trains on the line. , the only station in service on the Blue Line which is not fully accessible is the downtown Boston terminus Bowdoin.

East Boston Tunnel
The East Boston Tunnel under Boston Harbor was the first North American subway tunnel to run beneath a body of water when it opened in 1904, and the second underwater vehicular tunnel of significant length built in the United States. The tunnel was constructed using a modified version of the Greathead Shield; 2700 ft of the 1 mi tunnel is actually under water. The excavation took two-and-a-half years, and cost $3 million and the lives of four workmen.

Initially used as a streetcar tunnel, it ran from Maverick Square in East Boston to downtown Boston's Court Street station, with an intermediate stop at Devonshire (now State). Court Street had pedestrian access to Scollay Square station (now Government Center) but transfers to the East Boston Tunnel required an additional fare of 1 cent. In 1906, Atlantic Station (now Aquarium) was opened, with a connection to the Atlantic Avenue Elevated. Court Street proved to be a problematic terminus as its single-track design limited frequent service.

Bowdoin extension
The Boston Transit Commission (BTC) began construction of a 0.5 miles extension of the East Boston Tunnel on November 29, 1912. The extension ran from Scollay Square (where a new platform, Scollay Under, was constructed to replace Court Street station) to a new station and loop at Bowdoin Square. Tracks continued west under Cambridge Street to an incline at Joy Street, where streetcars could continue on surface tracks to Charles Street and the Longfellow Bridge to Cambridge.

Court Street station was abandoned on November 15, 1914, with service cut back to Devonshire. On March 13, 1916, service was extended to the new Scollay Under, with streetcars looping empty around the Bowdoin loop. Bowdoin station opened on March 18 along with the Joy Street Portal, which was used by a Central Square–Orient Heights through line as well as several Cambridge lines that terminated at Scollay Under. The total cost of the extension was $2.4 million.

Metro conversion
The East Boston Tunnel was originally planned to be operated with high-floor metro rolling stock and connected to the then-planned Cambridge Elevated line. When that plan was dropped in 1903 due to a disagreement between the Boston Transit Commission and the BERy, the stations were built with low platforms. Large bi-loading streetcars (with high floors but capable of loading from low platforms), which incorporated many attributes from metro cars used on the Main Line Elevated, began use in 1905. However, neither these nor the large center-entrance cars introduced in 1917 (which were designed for multiple unit operation) could fully handle the crowds.

In 1921, the Boston Transit Department (BTD)—the successor to the BTC—began work at Maverick Square to convert the East Boston Tunnel to high-floor metro trains. The next year, the BTD board approved the construction of high-level platforms at the four downtown stations. The Maverick Square incline was replaced with Maverick station, which provided cross-platform transfers between tunnel trains and surface streetcars.

Over the weekend of April 18–21, 1924, the East Boston Tunnel was converted to use the new high-floor trains. The tightly staged changeover required 1500 men to complete. Temporary wooden platform sections were put in place to allow service to begin on April 21, with the permanent concrete sections completed over the following months. The edges of the original low platforms can still be seen under the high platforms at State and Aquarium. Rather than modify the narrow tunnel, the BERy elected to replace the streetcars with brand-new smaller-than-usual high-platform rapid transit cars which could operate in tight clearances—particularly around the tight loop at Bowdoin. Blue Line cars are thus 48.5 feet long, substantially shorter than the 65 feet Orange Line cars and the 69.5 feet Red Line cars.

Revere extension
From 1952 to 1954, a surface-level extension was constructed along the recently-defunct Boston, Revere Beach and Lynn Railroad, from Maverick to the current terminus at Wonderland. The original trackage had been narrow gauge, but was converted to standard gauge for this Revere Extension of the subway. The first above-ground station on the new extension served Boston's Logan Airport, and was the first American urban transit connection to a commercial airfield. Beyond Maverick, the power feed was changed from third rail to overhead catenary (both at 600 V DC) to reduce the risk of winter ice buildup due to proximity to the ocean.

The line was officially renamed the East Boston Tunnel & Revere Extension by the MTA in 1952, and designated as "Route 3" on system maps. It was renamed as the Blue Line on August 26, 1965, as part of the new MBTA's color-based rebranding. The color blue represented water, as the line passes under Boston Harbor and travels near the coast for much of its length. Until the Silver Line was extended to Logan in 2004–05, the Blue Line was the only rapid transit connection to the airport.

On April 21, 2018, the SL3 Silver Line service to Chelsea opened with a connection to the Blue Line at Airport station, providing transfer service to Chelsea, the Seaport District and South Station.

Station renovations
Unlike the Red Line and Orange Line, which had substantial new sections and station renovations in the 1970s and 1980s, most of the Blue Line had not been substantially modified since 1954. By the 1990 passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act, only Suffolk Downs and the eastbound platform at State were accessible, with Wonderland then under construction. In 1988, the MBTA began planning for accessibility modifications as well as platform extensions to accommodate 6-car trains - similar to what had been done on the Orange and Red lines. The project was then expected to be complete in 1994. In 1989, the MBTA awarded design contracts for modernization and platform lengthening (to accommodate six-car trains) at nine Blue Line stations. Final design on a number of the modifications - the Blue Line Modernization Project - began in 1990–92.

The first main construction phase of the project began on June 25, 1994, the line was cut back to Orient Heights at all times to permit reconstruction of the outer stations. Beachmont and Wood Island were completely rebuilt, while Suffolk Downs, Revere Beach and Wonderland were renovated. A simultaneous $8 million noise reduction program added sound walls at Beachmont and Orient Heights, rubber mats under tracks, and soundproofing of nearby homes. The stations reopened on June 26, 1995. Unlike the other stations, Wood Island was not accessible after the 1994-95 renovation; elevators were not added until 2000.

Aquarium was closed from October 14, 2000, until October 29, 2001, for renovations, which were completed in 2003. A relocated Airport station opened on June 3, 2004. An extensive renovation of State, during which the station remained open, lasted from November 2004 to May 2011. Sequential closures of Wonderland, Wood Island, Revere Beach, and Beachmont stations took place in June through November 2008 for platform repairs.

Reconstruction of Maverick began on October 4, 2005. The project was sufficiently progressed for six-car trains to enter service on September 15, 2008, though the station was not completed until 2009. Orient Heights was closed from March 23 to November 26, 2013, for a complete reconstruction. Government Center closed from March 22, 2014, to March 21, 2016, for a complete renovation and accessibility modifications. This left all Blue Line stations accessible except for Bowdoin, which also has an eastbound platform that cannot be modified for six-car trains.

Service between Bowdoin and Airport was replaced by buses from May 18–31, 2020, and April 25 to May 17, 2022, for track replacement and waterproofing work in the East Boston Tunnel. During the 2022 closure, temporary ferry service between Long Wharf and East Boston was also offered. An additional closure of the outer portion of the line from May 22 to June 8, 2022, allowed for repairs to the Suffolk Downs footbridge. No fares were charged on the Blue Line from July 5 to August 31, 2023, during a closure of the Sumner Tunnel.

Extension to Lynn
There is a proposal to extend the Blue Line northward to Lynn, Massachusetts. The land to extend the line was purchased for the initial construction of the Revere Extension, but due to budgetary constraints Wonderland station was designated the northern terminus. Two potential extension routes have been identified. One proposed path would run through marshland alongside the existing Newburyport/Rockport commuter rail line, on rail lines formerly operated by the Boston and Maine Railroad. An alternative route would extend the line alongside Revere Beach Boulevard through Point of Pines and the Lynnway, along the remainder of the BRB&L right of way. Other alternatives include increased commuter rail or bus service, or connecting the Blue Line to a commuter rail stop near Wonderland via a short connector.

The Blue Line extension has been proposed in various forms for over 80 years. The 1926 Report on Improved Transportation Facilities and 1945–47 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that the East Boston Tunnel line, which had been converted to rapid transit from streetcars in 1924, be extended to Lynn via the Boston, Revere Beach & Lynn right-of-way. Ever since the 1954 Revere extension was cut short to Wonderland, a further extension to Lynn has been planned. Following on the 1926 and 1945-47 studies, the 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended that the Blue Line be extended to Lynn, while the 1969 Recommended Highway and Transit Plan proposed that the extension run as far as Salem. An extension was not present in the 1972 Final Report of the Boston Transportation Planning Review, but the 1974 Transportation Plan revived the project with possible termini of Lynn, Salem, or even Route 128 in Peabody. The 1978 Program for Mass Transportation report and 1983 Transportation Plan both continued support for an extension to Lynn. Despite the continued recommendations, however, other projects like extensions of the Red and Orange lines were given funding instead of the Blue Line.

In 2005, Lieutenant Governor Kerry Healey estimated construction would begin in 2017. Authorization to bond for planning money for the project was included in an April 2008 state bond bill, and $25 million in federal earmarks have been obtained. A 2004 state bond bill authorized $246.5 million on the condition of finding 50% non-state matching funds (which presumably would come from the federal government). The Draft Environmental Impact Report was expected to be complete by the end of 2008, but was delayed as planners focused on meeting the legal deadline for the Green Line extension to Somerville and Medford.

Red Line–Blue Line connector
The Blue Line and Red Line are currently the only MBTA subway rail lines without a direct transfer to each other; passengers must ride one stop on the Green or Orange lines to transfer. The proposed Red–Blue connector would extend the Blue Line 0.4 miles west from Bowdoin to an underground platform at Charles/MGH station, allowing direct transfers to the Red Line. An extension of the East Boston Tunnel to Charles Street was considered in a 1924 study of Charles station. A 1926 proposal to convert the Tremont Street subway and connecting streetcar lines into a pair of rapid transit trunk lines called for the East Boston Tunnel to be extended south to Park Street station, with through service running between Maverick Square and Brighton using the Commonwealth Avenue line. (Three potential alignment were considered: one running south from Bowdoin, and two running southwest from a relocated Scollay Under.) Regional transportation plans from the 1940s to the early 1970s focused on suburban extensions, with no downtown extension past Bowdoin.

The rise of Kendall Square as a major employment center, the coming of the Red Line Northwest Extension, and increased traffic to Logan Airport created demand in the 1970s for a direct connection between the Red and Blue lines. A 1974 state plan again proposed an extension to Park Street, while the 1978 and 1983 Program for Mass Transportation updates called for an extension to Charles/MGH instead. A 1986 MBTA feasibility study for a Charles/MGH extension called for a cut-and-cover tunnel beginning west of Bowdoin Street with no changes to Bowdoin station. The project was then estimated to cost $79–95 million (equivalent to $– million in ). A 1987 cost-effectiveness study estimated 9,030 daily one-way trips over the extension.

In 1991, the state agreed to build a set of transit projects as part of the settlement of a lawsuit by the Conservation Law Foundation (CLF) over auto emissions from the Big Dig project. Among these projects was a Red Line–Blue Line connector, to be complete by the end of 2011. The 2003–07 reconstruction of Charles/MGH station was designed to accommodate a future Blue Line platform. In 2005, the state replaced the connector with other projects providing equivalent air quality improvements. After a second lawsuit from the CLF, the state agreed in 2006 to complete design of the connector. An Expanded Environmental Notification Form was released in September 2007 The 2010 Draft Environmental Impact Report (DEIR) instead called for a pair of deeper tunnels bored by a tunnel boring machine (TBM), starting east of Bowdoin station and passing underneath the existing platform. Keeping the existing station and loop was judged infeasible because evacuation from a disabled train would not be possible in the confined loop, and the eastbound platform is not long enough for six-car trains. Use of a TBM rather than cut-and-cover construction was intended to reduce construction cost and limit disruption on Cambridge Street. Alternatives with a replacement Bowdoin station west of Bowdoin Street, and without a replacement station, were considered; the latter was recommended due to lower cost and reduced travel time. The preferred alternative was estimated to cost $748 million and take six years to construct. Daily ridership was estimated to be 18,940 one-way trips in 2030.

Lacking available funding for construction, the MBTA did not complete design of the extension. The possibility of a public-private partnership (P3) to advance the project was studied in 2013. In 2015, the EPA removed the requirement for the MBTA to complete design. In 2018, the state commissioned a $50,000 study to reevaluate tunneling costs; it found that contrary to the 2010 DEIR, cut-and-cover tunneling could be considerably less costly than a TBM, albeit with more surface disruption. Cut-and-cover was estimated to cost $200–250 million for the tunnel costs alone, compared to $300–350 million for TBM and the $413 million estimated in the DEIR. In 2019 and 2023, the MBTA indicated plans to spend $15 million to design the connector in a five-year spending plan.

A conceptual design completed in 2020 called for cut-and-cover construction, with Bowdoin station still planned for closure. The new Blue Line level at Charles/MGH would have entrances from the existing lobby and a new headhouse in an MGH development on the north side of Charles Street. Total project cost was estimated as $850 million ($740 million for construction including 30% contingency, $50 million for design, $30 million in administration costs, and $30 million for additional rolling stock), with construction lasting from 2025 to 2030. A Notice of Project Change was issued on October 2, 2023. In November 2023, the Massachusetts Executive Office of Energy and Environmental Affairs required the MBTA to prepare a Supplemental Draft Environmental Impact Report.

A 2018 MBTA long-range planning document considered a pedestrian tunnel between the Orange Line platforms at State and Downtown Crossing, which would allow transfers between the Red and Blue lines similar to (though longer than) the Winter Street Concourse between the Green and Orange lines.

Previous connection
A physical rail connection between the Red and Blue Lines existed in the early part of the 20th century (prior to the MBTA assigning the color designations of the subway lines). Railcars from what is today the Blue Line could emerge from a ramp portal surfacing between Joy Street and Russell Street, just beyond Bowdoin station. The railcars would run on former streetcar track down Cambridge Street and then most of the distance to the western end of the Longfellow Bridge, connecting to what is now the Red Line just east of its Cambridge subway portal, near what is now Kendall/MIT station. Because the tracks were unpowered, individual cars had to be towed along the street at night. This connection was never used in passenger service, but was used to transport Blue Line cars to the Eliot Street Yard maintenance shops then located near Harvard Square station. When the Blue Line eventually got its own maintenance shops, the connection was removed and the ramp portal was permanently covered in 1952.

Current
Like the Orange Line and Red Line, the Blue Line tracks are standard-gauge heavy rail. The Blue Line fleet comprises 94 700-series cars (47 pairs) with stainless steel bodies from Siemens, with each car 48 ft long and 9 ft wide, with two pairs of doors per side. Uniquely among MBTA rolling stock, Blue Line cars use both third rail power and pantograph current pickup from overhead catenary wires. The overhead pantograph was implemented to avoid third rail icing that frequently occurs in winter. Third rail power is used in the original Blue Line tunnels, which are smaller than most modern subway tunnels. Trains switch between the two modes at Airport station, near where the line transitions between running in a tunnel and running above ground. Previously, the switchover was made underground at Maverick station.

The MBTA awarded the $174 million construction contract for the 94 cars in November 2001, with a total program cost of $200 million. The first deliveries were scheduled for January 2004, but ultimately delayed to 2007 due to manufacturing issues. The first set entered revenue service on February 20, 2008. The first three six-car trains began operating on September 15, 2008; by February 2009, eight of thirteen trainsets used at rush hour were six-car sets. By November 2009, all service was with six-car trains.

By February 2023, service was scheduled to operate at 5 to 5.5-minute headways at weekday peak hours and 9 to 11 minutes at other times. Peak service used 10–12 trains (60–72 cars), while other service used 5–6 trains (30–36 cars). The MBTA expects to replace the current fleet in the mid-2030s after a 25-year operating lifespan. A 130-car fleet is planned to replace the existing 94-car fleet.

Former
The first generation of high-floor rolling stock on the line were the No. 1 and No. 2 East Boston Rapid Transit cars, which were built by Pullman-Standard in 1923–1924 when the line was converted from streetcar operation to rapid transit. These were supplemented by the No. 3 fleet, built in 1951 by St. Louis Car Company, which was acquired for the Revere Extension. Cars in these earlier fleets were numbered in the 0500 series.

The Nos. 1–3 fleets were replaced by 70 cars in the 0600 series (No. 4 cars), built 1978-1980 by Hawker Siddeley Canada Car and Foundry of Thunder Bay, Ontario, Canada. They were 48 ft long and 9 ft wide, with two pairs of doors on each side. The design was based on the PA3 model used by PATH in New Jersey. They were narrower and shorter than otherwise similar ones running on the Orange Line, due to the stations and tunnels on the Blue Line having been originally designed to accommodate streetcars. In late 2009, the Seashore Trolley Museum received retired Hawker set 622-623 for their collection. By 2011, most of the 600-series cars were retired because of severe corrosion from the salty ocean air. Several 600-series cars were retained on MBTA property but no longer usable. Parts of scrapped cars are used to maintain Orange Line 1200 series rolling stock, which were built at the same time by Hawker Siddeley and used many of the same components. In 2012, set 616-617 was placed in the former Broadway streetcar tunnel for use in emergency training.

title: Blue Line (MBTA)


text:
HMAS Manoora

Two ships of the Royal Australian Navy have been named HMAS Manoora:

 * HMAS Manoora (F48), a passenger liner launched in 1934, requisitioned by the RAN in 1939 for use as an armed merchant cruiser and later a landing ship, and returned to her owners in 1949
 * HMAS Manoora (L 52), an amphibious transport ship acquired from the United States in 1994 and decommissioned in 2011

Battle honours
Ships named HMAS Manoora are entitled to carry seven battle honours:
 * Indian Ocean 1941–42
 * Pacific 1942–45
 * New Guinea 1944
 * Leyte Gulf 1944
 * Lingayen Gulf 1945
 * Borneo 1945
 * Persian Gulf 2002

title: HMAS Manoora