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Miami International Mall

Miami International Mall is an enclosed shopping mall in Doral, Florida in southwestern Metropolitan Miami, only half a mile away from the larger Dolphin Mall. The Miami International Airport is nearby, thus giving the mall its name. It was built by the Edward J. DeBartolo Corp. in 1982, and is currently managed by Simon Property Group, who owns 47.8% of it. The mall features retailers JCPenney, Macy's, and Macy's Men's Store.

History
Built in 1982 and similar to Broward Mall four years earlier and Town Center at Boca Raton two years afterwards, the mall's original anchors were Burdines, Jordan Marsh, and Sears (the latter opened in July 1983 followed by Aventura Mall the next month). Lord & Taylor was added in 1985 (likewise done at Boynton Beach Mall).

Mervyn's, which replaced Lord & Taylor in 1991, was sold to Dillard's in 1997. Jordan Marsh was also husbanded and refashioned as a Burdines men's, home, and furniture location. J. C. Penney built a store in 1992 (as with Pembroke Lakes Mall).

In 2000, Miami International Mall underwent an extensive renovation and celebrated its "Grand re-opening" in 2001 when the nearby Dolphin Mall opened with an international theme. Just like the Boynton Beach Mall, the renovation included removing its old features (the trees, fountains, etc.), and making it a more modern looking mall. Burdines also added a second floor to their original store, now used for their women’s and children’s departments. Both Burdines stores became Macy's in 2005 as part of a nationwide transaction, and the Lord & Taylor/Mervyn’s/Dillard's building became Kohl’s, September 28, 2011 (just like at Coral Square).

On August 23, 2018, it was announced that Sears would shutter as part of an ongoing decision to eliminate its brick-and-mortar format. Several perspective tenants are in the midst of early on discussions.

On January 10, 2024, it was announced that Kohl's would close on January 13, 2024. The building will become an Elev8 indoor adventure park.

title: Miami International Mall


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Flex dollar

Flex dollars are a form of payment used at large institutions, especially universities. Georgetown University, James Madison University, University of Toronto, Saint Mary's University, Queen's University, University of Waterloo, McMaster University, University of Western Ontario, University of Ottawa, University of Utah, and Messiah College are all schools that use this system. Flex dollars are not common tender, but rather scrip or local currency that can be used to purchase items such as food, snacks, and school supplies.

In insurance, flex dollars are used to assign values to an employee's benefits. The employee instead of having a deductible or a certain percentage of coverage is assigned a pool of flex dollars to assign as they are required. The obvious advantage to this is the ability to assign a much larger amount of coverage to one area while not being covered in another world.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Flex dollar


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Flavian dynasty

The Flavian dynasty, lasting from AD 69 to 96, was the second dynastic line of emperors to rule the Roman Empire following the Julio-Claudians, encompassing the reigns of Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian. The Flavians rose to power during the civil war of AD 69, known as the Year of the Four Emperors; after Galba and Otho died in quick succession, Vitellius became emperor in mid 69. His claim to the throne was quickly challenged by legions stationed in the eastern provinces, who declared their commander Vespasian emperor in his place. The Second Battle of Bedriacum tilted the balance decisively in favor of the Flavian forces, who entered Rome on 20 December, and the following day, the Roman Senate officially declared Vespasian emperor, thus commencing the Flavian dynasty. Although the dynasty proved to be short-lived, several significant historic, economic and military events took place during their reign.

The reign of Titus was struck by multiple natural disasters, the most severe of which was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, which saw the surrounding cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum be completely buried under ash and lava. One year later, Rome was struck by fire and a plague. On the military front, the Flavian dynasty witnessed the siege and destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in AD 70, following the failed Jewish rebellion of 66. Substantial conquests were made in Great Britain under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola between AD 77 and 83, while Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory against King Decebalus in the war against the Dacians. In addition, the Empire strengthened its border defenses by expanding the fortifications along the Limes Germanicus.

The Flavians also initiated economic and cultural reforms. Under Vespasian, new taxes were devised to restore the Empire's finances, while Domitian revalued the Roman coinage by increasing its silver content. A massive building programme was enacted by Titus, to celebrate the ascent of the Flavian dynasty, leaving multiple enduring landmarks in the city of Rome, the most spectacular of which was the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum.

Flavian rule came to an end on 18 September 96, when Domitian was assassinated. He was succeeded by the longtime Flavian supporter and advisor Marcus Cocceius Nerva, who founded the long-lived Nerva–Antonine dynasty.

The Flavian dynasty was unique among the four dynasties of the Principate Era, in that it was only one man and his two sons, without any extended or adopted family.

Family history

Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which was gradually replaced in prominence by a new Italian nobility during the early part of the 1st century AD. One such family were the Flavians, or gens Flavia, which rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian's grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's Civil War. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied himself to the more prestigious patrician gens Vespasia, ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to the senatorial rank.

Around 38 AD, Vespasian married Domitilla the Elder, the daughter of an equestrian from Ferentium. They had two sons, Titus Flavius Vespasianus (born in 39) and Titus Flavius Domitianus (born in 51), and a daughter, Domitilla (born in 45). Domitilla the Elder died before Vespasian became emperor. Thereafter his mistress Caenis was his wife in all but name until she died in 74. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile and praetor, and culminated with a consulship in 51, the year Domitian was born. As a military commander, he gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories were later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, and maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, imperial favour for the Flavians was high throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa province in 63, and accompanying the emperor during an official tour of Greece in 66.

From c. 57 to 59, Titus was a military tribune in Germania, and later served in Britannia. His first wife, Arrecina Tertulla, died two years after their marriage, in 65. Titus then took a new wife of a more distinguished family, Marcia Furnilla. However, Marcia's family was closely linked to the opposition to Emperor Nero. Her uncle Barea Soranus and his daughter Servilia were among those who were killed after the failed Pisonian conspiracy of 65. Some modern historians theorize that Titus divorced his wife because of her family's connection to the conspiracy. He never remarried. Titus appears to have had multiple daughters, at least one of them by Marcia Furnilla. The only one known to have survived to adulthood was Julia Flavia, perhaps Titus's child by Arrecina, whose mother was also named Julia. During this period Titus also practiced law and attained the rank of quaestor.

In 66, the Jews of the Judaea Province revolted against the Roman Empire. Cestius Gallus, the legate of Syria, was forced to retreat from Jerusalem and defeated at the battle of Beth-Horon. The pro-Roman king Agrippa II and his sister Berenice fled the city to Galilee where they later gave themselves up to the Romans. Nero appointed Vespasian to put down the rebellion, and dispatched him to the region at once with the fifth and tenth legions. He was later joined by Titus at Ptolemais, bringing with him the fifteenth legion. With a strength of 60,000 professional soldiers, the Romans quickly swept across Galilee, and by 68 marched on Jerusalem.

Rise to power
On 9 June 68, amidst the growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide, and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for the imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further orders and send Titus to greet the new Emperor. Before reaching Italy, however, Titus learnt that Galba had been murdered and replaced by Otho, the governor of Lusitania (modern Portugal). At the same time, Vitellius and his armies in Germania had risen in revolt, and prepared to march on Rome, intent on overthrowing Otho. Not wanting to risk being taken hostage by one side or the other, Titus abandoned the journey to Rome and rejoined his father in Judaea.

Otho and Vitellius realised the potential threat posed by the Flavian faction. With four legions at his disposal, Vespasian commanded a strength of nearly 80,000 soldiers. His position in Judaea further granted him the advantage of being nearest to the vital province of Egypt, which controlled the grain supply to Rome. His brother, Titus Flavius Sabinus II, as city prefect, commanded the entire city garrison of Rome. Tensions among the Flavian troops ran high, but as long as Galba and Otho remained in power, Vespasian refused to take action. When Otho was defeated by Vitellius at the First Battle of Bedriacum, however, the armies in Judaea and Egypt took matters into their own hands and declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July 69. Vespasian accepted, and entered an alliance with Gaius Licinius Mucianus, the governor of Syria, against Vitellius. A strong force drawn from the Judaean and Syrian legions marched on Rome under the command of Mucianus, while Vespasian himself traveled to Alexandria, leaving Titus in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion.

In Rome, meanwhile, Domitian was placed under house arrest by Vitellius, as a safeguard against future Flavian aggression. Support for the old emperor was waning, however, as more legions throughout the empire pledged their allegiance to Vespasian. On 24 October 69 the forces of Vitellius and Vespasian clashed at the Second Battle of Bedriacum, which ended in a crushing defeat for the armies of Vitellius. In despair, he attempted to negotiate a surrender. Terms of peace, including a voluntary abdication, were agreed upon with Titus Flavius Sabinus II, but the soldiers of the Praetorian Guard—the imperial bodyguard—considered such a resignation disgraceful, and prevented Vitellius from carrying out the treaty. On the morning of 18 December, the emperor appeared to deposit the imperial insignia at the Temple of Concord, but at the last minute retraced his steps to the imperial palace. In the confusion, the leading men of the state gathered at Sabinus' house, proclaiming Vespasian Emperor, but the multitude dispersed when Vitellian cohorts clashed with the armed escort of Sabinus, who was forced to retreat to the Capitoline Hill. During the night, he was joined by his relatives, including Domitian. The armies of Mucianus were nearing Rome, but the besieged Flavian party did not hold out for longer than a day. On 19 December, Vitellianists burst onto the Capitol, and in the resulting skirmish, Sabinus was captured and executed. Domitian himself managed to escape by disguising himself as a worshipper of Isis, and spent the night in safety with one of his father's supporters. By the afternoon of 20 December, Vitellius was dead, his armies having been defeated by the Flavian legions. With nothing more to be feared from the enemy, Domitian came forward to meet the invading forces; he was universally saluted by the title of Caesar, and the mass of troops conducted him to his father's house. The following day, 21 December, the Senate proclaimed Vespasian emperor of the Roman Empire.

Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70, who headed an interim government with Domitian as the representative of the Flavian family in the Senate. Upon receiving the tidings of his rival's defeat and death at Alexandria, the new Emperor at once forwarded supplies of urgently needed grain to Rome, along with an edict or a declaration of policy, in which he gave assurance of an entire reversal of the laws of Nero, especially those relating to treason. In early 70, Vespasian was still in Egypt, however, continuing to consolidate support from the Egyptians before departing. By the end of 70, he finally returned to Rome, and was properly installed as Emperor.

Vespasian (69–79)
Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was Emperor. Vespasian spent his first year as a ruler in Egypt, during which the administration of the empire was given to Mucianus, aided by Vespasian's son Domitian. Modern historians believe that Vespasian remained there in order to consolidate support from the Egyptians. In mid-70, Vespasian first came to Rome and immediately embarked on a widespread propaganda campaign to consolidate his power and promote the new dynasty. His reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, such as the institution of the tax on urinals, and the numerous military campaigns fought during the 70s. The most significant of these was the First Jewish-Roman War, which ended in the destruction of the city of Jerusalem by Titus. In addition, Vespasian faced several uprisings in Egypt, Gaul and Germania, and reportedly survived several conspiracies against him. Vespasian helped rebuild Rome after the civil war, adding a temple to peace and beginning construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, better known as the Colosseum. Vespasian died of natural causes on 23 June 79, and was immediately succeeded by his eldest son Titus. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him.

Titus (79–81)
Despite initial concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian on 23 June 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. In this role he is best known for his public building program in Rome, and completing the construction of the Colosseum in 80, but also for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79, and the fire of Rome of 80. Titus continued his father's efforts to promote the Flavian dynasty. He revived practice of the imperial cult, deified his father, and laid foundations for what would later become the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, which was finished by Domitian. After barely two years in office, Titus unexpectedly died of a fever on 13 September 81, and was deified by the Roman Senate.

Domitian (81–96)
Domitian was declared emperor by the Praetorian Guard the day after Titus' death, commencing a reign which lasted more than fifteen years—longer than any man who had governed Rome since Tiberius. Domitian strengthened the economy by revaluing the Roman coinage, expanded the border defenses of the Empire, and initiated a massive building programme to restore the damaged city of Rome. In Britain, Gnaeus Julius Agricola expanded the Roman Empire as far as modern day Scotland, but in Dacia, Domitian was unable to procure a decisive victory in the war against the Dacians. On 18 September 96, Domitian was assassinated by court officials, and with him the Flavian dynasty came to an end. The same day, he was succeeded by his friend and advisor Nerva, who founded the long-lasting Nervan-Antonian dynasty. Domitian's memory was condemned to oblivion by the Roman Senate, with which he had a notoriously difficult relationship throughout his reign. Senatorial authors such as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger and Suetonius published histories after his death, propagating the view of Domitian as a cruel and paranoid tyrant. Modern history has rejected these views, instead characterising Domitian as a ruthless but efficient autocrat, whose cultural, economic and political programme provided the foundation for the Principate of the peaceful 2nd century. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but in reality their policies differed little from Domitian's.

Government
Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a de facto dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a de facto monarch. The civil war of 69 had made it abundantly clear that real power in the Empire lay with control over the army. By the time Vespasian was proclaimed emperor in Rome, any hope of restoring the Republic had long dissipated.

The Flavian approach to government was one of both implicit and explicit exclusion. When Vespasian returned to Rome in mid-70, he immediately embarked on a series of efforts to consolidate his power and prevent future revolts. He offered gifts to the military and dismissed or punished those soldiers loyal to Vitellius. He also restructured the Senatorial and Equestrian orders, removing his enemies and adding his allies. Executive control was largely distributed among members of his family. Non-Flavians were virtually excluded from important public offices, even those who had been among Vespasian's earliest supporters during the civil war. Mucianus slowly disappears from the historical records during this time, and it is believed he died sometime between 75 and 77. That it was Vespasian's intention to found a long-lasting dynasty to govern the Roman Empire was most evident in the powers he conferred upon his eldest son Titus. Titus shared tribunician power with his father, received seven consulships, the censorship, and perhaps most remarkably, was given command of the Praetorian Guard. Because Titus effectively acted as co-emperor with his father, no abrupt change in Flavian policy occurred during his brief reign from 79 until 81.

Domitian's approach to government was less subtle than his father and brother. Once Emperor, he quickly dispensed with the Republican facade and transformed his government more or less formally into the divine monarchy he believed it to be. By moving the centre of power to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were rigidly enforced. Nevertheless, Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother had virtually excluded non-Flavians from public office, Domitian rarely favoured his own family members in the distribution of strategic posts, admitting a surprisingly large number of provincials and potential opponents to the consulship, and assigning men of the equestrian order to run the imperial bureaucracy.

Financial reforms
One of Vespasian's first acts as Emperor was to enforce a tax reform to restore the Empire's depleted treasury. After Vespasian arrived in Rome in mid-70, Mucianus continued to press Vespasian to collect as many taxes as possible, renewing old ones and instituting new ones. Mucianus and Vespasian increased the tribute of the provinces, and kept a watchful eye upon the treasury officials. The Latin proverb "Pecunia non olet" ("Money does not smell") may have been created when he had introduced a urine tax on public toilets.

Upon his accession, Domitian revalued the Roman coinage to the standard of Augustus, increasing the silver content of the denarius by 12%. An imminent crisis in 85, however, forced a devaluation to the Neronian standard of 65, but this was still higher than the level which Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reign, and Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coin types from this era display a highly consistent degree of quality, including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature, and exceptionally refined artwork on the reverse portraits.

Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1,200 million sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent on maintaining the Roman army. The other major area of expenditure encompassed the vast reconstruction programme carried out on the city of Rome itself.

Military activity
The most significant military campaign undertaken during the Flavian period was the siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 by Titus. The destruction of the city was the culmination of the Roman campaign in Judaea following the Jewish uprising of 66. The Second Temple was completely demolished, after which Titus's soldiers proclaimed him imperator in honor of the victory. Jerusalem was sacked and much of the population killed or dispersed. Josephus claims that 1,100,000 people were killed during the siege, of which a majority were Jewish. 97,000 were captured and enslaved, including Simon Bar Giora and John of Giscala. Many fled to areas around the Mediterranean. Titus reportedly refused to accept a wreath of victory, and instead "disclaimed any such honor to himself, saying that it was not himself that had accomplished this exploit, but that he had merely lent his arms to God." Upon his return to Rome in 71, Titus was awarded a triumph. Accompanied by Vespasian and Domitian, he rode into the city, enthusiastically saluted by the Roman populace and preceded by a lavish parade containing treasures and captives from the war. Josephus describes a procession with large amounts of gold and silver carried along the route, followed by elaborate re-enactments of the war, Jewish prisoners, and finally the treasures taken from the Temple of Jerusalem, including the Menorah and the Torah. Leaders of the resistance were executed in the Forum, after which the procession closed with religious sacrifices at the Temple of Jupiter. The triumphal Arch of Titus, which stands at one entrance to the Forum, memorializes the victory of Titus.

The conquest of Britain continued under command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland, between 77 and 84. In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. The following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, an expansive legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In the summer of 84, Agricola faced the armies of the Caledonians, led by Calgacus, at the Battle of Mons Graupius. Although the Romans inflicted heavy losses on the Caledonians, two-thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish marshes and Highlands, ultimately preventing Agricola from bringing the entire British island under his control.

The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were usually defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. Led by King Decebalus, the Dacians invaded the province of Moesia around 84 or 85, wreaking considerable havoc and killing the Moesian governor, Oppius Sabinus. Domitian immediately launched a counteroffensive, which resulted in the destruction of a legion during an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Their commander, Cornelius Fuscus, was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard lost. In 87, the Romans invaded Dacia once more, this time under command of Tettius Julianus, and finally managed to defeat Decebalus late in 88, at the same site where Fuscus had previously been killed. An attack on Dacia's capital was abandoned, however, when a crisis arose on the German frontier, forcing Domitian to sign a peace treaty with Decebalus which was severely criticized by contemporary authors. For the remainder of Domitian's reign Dacia remained a relatively peaceful client kingdom, but Decebalus used the Roman money to fortify his defenses, and continued to defy Rome. It was not until the reign of Trajan, in 106, that a decisive victory against Decebalus was procured. Again, the Roman army sustained heavy losses, but Trajan succeeded in capturing Sarmizegetusa and, importantly, annexed the gold and silver mines of Dacia.

Natural disasters
Although his administration was marked by a relative absence of major military or political conflicts, Titus faced a number of major disasters during his brief reign. On 24 August 79, barely two months after his accession, Mount Vesuvius erupted, resulting in the almost complete destruction of life and property in the cities and resort communities around the Bay of Naples. The cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried under metres of stone and lava, killing thousands of citizens. Titus appointed two ex-consuls to organise and coordinate the relief effort, while personally donating large amounts of money from the imperial treasury to aid the victims of the volcano. Additionally, he visited Pompeii once after the eruption and again the following year. The city was lost for nearly 1700 years before its accidental rediscovery in 1748. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily detailed insight into the life of a city at the height of the Roman Empire, frozen at the moment it was buried. The Forum, the baths, many houses, and some out-of-town villas like the Villa of the Mysteries remain surprisingly well preserved. Today, it is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. On-going excavations reveal new insights into Roman history and culture.

During Titus' second visit to the disaster area, a fire struck Rome which lasted for three days. Although the extent of the damage was not as disastrous as during the Great Fire of 64, crucially sparing the many districts of insulae, Cassius Dio records a long list of important public buildings that were destroyed, including Agrippa's Pantheon, the Temple of Jupiter, the Diribitorium, parts of Pompey's Theatre and the Saepta Julia among others. Once again, Titus personally compensated for the damaged regions. According to Suetonius, a plague similarly struck during the fire. The nature of the disease, however, as well as the death toll, are unknown.

Conspiracies
Suetonius claims that Vespasian was continuously met with conspiracies against him. Only one conspiracy is known specifically. In 78 or 79, Eprius Marcellus and Aulus Caecina Alienus attempted to incite the Praetorian Guard to mutiny against Vespasian, but the conspiracy was thwarted by Titus. According to the historian John Crook, however, the alleged conspiracy was in fact a calculated plot by the Flavian faction to remove members of the opposition tied to Mucianus, with the mutinous address found on Caecina's body a forgery by Titus. When faced with real conspiracies however, Vespasian and Titus treated their enemies with lenience. "I will not kill a dog that barks at me," were words expressing the temper of Vespasian, while Titus once demonstrated his generosity as Emperor by inviting men who were suspected of aspiring to the throne to dinner, rewarding them with gifts and allowing them to be seated next to him at the games.

Domitian appears to have met with several conspiracies during his reign, one of which led to his eventual assassination in 96. The first significant revolt arose on 1 January 89, when the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, rebelled against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Chatti. The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, whilst Domitian himself came from Rome with the Praetorian Guard. By a stroke of luck, a thaw prevented the Chatti from crossing the Rhine and coming to Saturninus' aid. Within twenty-four days the rebellion was crushed, and its leaders at Mainz savagely punished. The mutinous legions were sent to the front in Illyricum, while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded.

Both Tacitus and Suetonius speak of escalating persecutions toward the end of Domitian's reign, identifying a point of sharp increase around 93, or sometime after the failed revolt of Saturninus in 89. At least twenty senatorial opponents were executed, including Domitia Longina's former husband Lucius Aelius Lamia Plautius Aelianus and three of Domitian's own family members, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV, Titus Flavius Clemens and Marcus Arrecinus Clemens. Some of these men were executed as early as 83 or 85, however, lending little credit to Tacitus' notion of a "reign of terror" late in Domitian's reign. According to Suetonius, some were convicted for corruption or treason, others on trivial charges, which Domitian justified through his suspicion.

Propaganda
Since the reign of Tiberius, the rulers of the Julio-Claudian dynasty had legitimized their power through adopted-line descent from Augustus and Julius Caesar. Vespasian could no longer claim such a relation, however. Therefore, a massive propaganda campaign was initiated to justify Flavian rule as having been predetermined through divine providence. At the same time, Flavian propaganda emphasised Vespasian's role as a bringer of peace following the crisis of 69. Nearly one-third of all coins minted in Rome under Vespasian celebrated military victory or peace, while the word vindex was removed from coins as to not remind the public of rebellious Vindex. Construction projects bore inscriptions praising Vespasian and condemning previous emperors, and a Temple of Peace was constructed in the forum.

The Flavians also controlled public opinion through literature. Vespasian approved histories written under his reign, assuring biases against him were removed, while also giving financial rewards to contemporary writers. The ancient historians that lived through the period such as Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Pliny the Elder speak suspiciously well of Vespasian while condemning the emperors that came before him. Tacitus admits that his status was elevated by Vespasian, Josephus identifies Vespasian as a patron and savior, and Pliny dedicated his Natural History to Vespasian's son, Titus. Those that spoke against Vespasian were punished. A number of Stoic philosophers were accused of corrupting students with inappropriate teachings and were expelled from Rome. Helvidius Priscus, a pro-Republic philosopher, was executed for his teachings.

Titus and Domitian also revived the practice of the imperial cult, which had fallen somewhat out of use under Vespasian. Significantly, Domitian's first act as Emperor was the deification of his brother Titus. Upon their deaths, his infant son, and niece Julia Flavia, were likewise enrolled among the gods. To foster the worship of the imperial family, Domitian erected a dynastic mausoleum on the site of Vespasian's former house on the Quirinal, and completed the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, a shrine dedicated to the worship of his deified father and brother. To memorialize the military triumphs of the Flavian family, he ordered the construction of the Templum Divorum and the Temple of Fortuna Redux, and completed the Arch of Titus. In order to further justify the divine nature of Flavian rule, Domitian also emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, most significantly through the restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill.

Construction

The Flavian dynasty is perhaps best known for its vast construction programme in the city of Rome, intended to restore the capital from the damage it had suffered during the Great Fire of 64, and the civil war of 69. Vespasian added the Temple of Peace and the Temple to the Deified Claudius. In 75 a colossal statue of Apollo, begun under Nero as a statue of himself, was finished on Vespasian's orders, and he also dedicated a stage of the theater of Marcellus. Construction of the Flavian Amphitheatre, presently better known as the Colosseum (probably after the nearby statue), was begun in 70 under Vespasian and finally completed in 80 under Titus. In addition to providing spectacular entertainments to the Roman populace, the building was conceived as a gigantic triumphal monument to commemorate the military achievements of the Flavians during the Jewish wars. Adjacent to the amphitheatre, within the precinct of Nero's Golden House, Titus also ordered the construction of a new public bath-house, which was to bear his name. Construction of this building was hastily finished to coincide with the completion of the Flavian Amphitheatre.

The bulk of the Flavian construction projects were carried out during the reign of Domitian, who spent lavishly to restore and embellish the city of Rome. Much more than a renovation project, however, Domitian's building programme was intended to be the crowning achievement of an Empire-wide cultural renaissance. Around fifty structures were erected, restored or completed, a number second only to the amount erected under Augustus. Among the most important new structures were an Odeum, a Stadium, and an expansive palace on the Palatine Hill, known as the Flavian Palace, which was designed by Domitian's master architect Rabirius. The most important building Domitian restored was the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill, which was said to have been covered with a gilded roof. Among those he completed were the Temple of Vespasian and Titus, the Arch of Titus, and the Colosseum, to which he added a fourth level and finished the interior seating area.

Entertainment
Both Titus and Domitian were fond of gladiatorial games, and realised its importance to appease the citizens of Rome. In the newly constructed Colosseum, the Flavians provided for spectacular entertainments. The Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre lasted for a hundred days and were said to be extremely elaborate, including gladiatorial combat, fights between wild animals (elephants and cranes), mock naval battles for which the theatre was flooded, horse races and chariot races. During the games, wooden balls were dropped into the audience, inscribed with various prizes (clothing, gold, or even slaves), which could then be traded for the designated item.

An estimated 135 million sestertii was spent on donativa, or congiaria, throughout Domitian's reign. He also revived the practice of public banquets, which had been reduced to a simple distribution of food under Nero, while he invested large sums on entertainment and games. In 86, he founded the Capitoline Games, a quadrennial contest comprising athletic displays, chariot races, and competitions for oratory, music and acting. Domitian himself supported the travels of competitors from the whole empire and attributed the prizes. Innovations were also introduced into the regular gladiatorial games, such as naval contests, night-time battles, and female and dwarf gladiator fights. Finally, he added two new factions, Gold and Purple, to chariot races, besides the regular White, Red, Green and Blue teams.

Legacy
The Flavians, although a relatively short-lived dynasty, helped restore stability to an empire on its knees. Although all three have been criticised, especially based on their more centralised style of rule, they issued reforms that created a stable enough empire to last well into the 3rd century. However, their background as a military dynasty led to further marginalisation of the Senate, and a conclusive move away from princeps, or first citizen, and toward imperator, or emperor.

Little factual information survives about Vespasian's government during the ten years he was emperor; his reign is best known for financial reforms following the demise of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Vespasian was noted for his mildness and for loyalty to the people. For example, much money was spent on public works and the restoration and beautification of Rome: a new forum, the Temple of Peace, the public baths and the Colosseum.

Titus's record among ancient historians stands as one of the most exemplary of any emperor. All the surviving accounts from this period, many of them written by his own contemporaries such as Suetonius Tranquillus, Cassius Dio, and Pliny the Elder, present a highly favourable view towards Titus. His character has especially prospered in comparison with that of his brother Domitian. In contrast to the ideal portrayal of Titus in Roman histories, in Jewish memory "Titus the Wicked" is remembered as an evil oppressor and destroyer of the Temple. For example, one legend in the Babylonian Talmud describes Titus as having had sex with a whore on a Torah scroll inside the Temple during its destruction.

Although contemporary historians vilified Domitian after his death, his administration provided the foundation for the peaceful empire of the 2nd century, and the culmination of the Pax Romana. His successors Nerva and Trajan were less restrictive, but, in reality, their policies differed little from Domitian's. Much more than a gloomy coda to the 1st century, the Roman Empire prospered between 81 and 96, in a reign which Theodor Mommsen described as the sombre but intelligent despotism of Domitian.

title: Flavian dynasty


text:
Nassau Community College

Nassau Community College (NCC) is a public community college on Long Island, New York. It was founded in 1959 and is part of the State University of New York.

20th century
Nassau Community College was created as part of the State University of New York (SUNY) in 1959. When the college opened on February 1, 1960, it had 632 students, and classes were held in an old courthouse. When Mitchel Air Force Base closed, the college obtained substantial property, including buildings to develop its new campus; the area is still referred to as Mitchel Field, and the government still retains some housing and other facilities in the vicinity of the school's campus.

21st century
On April 16, 2024, the school's food services vendor permanently closed its services, which included the cafeteria, snack bar, and on-campus Starbucks due to the school not entering a new contractual agreement.

Academics
NCC offers Associate of Arts degrees in liberal arts, focused on humanities and social sciences, specialized Associate of Arts and Associate of Science transfer degrees, and Associate of Arts and Science degrees and certificate programs designed to serve immediate employment goals of students.

The college operates an astronomical observatory for its students.

Notable alumni

 * Bruce Arena, professional soccer manager, New England Revolution
 * Arjun Atwal, professional golfer and PGA Tour winner
 * Brian Baldinger, sports broadcaster and former professional football player, Dallas Cowboys, Indianapolis Colts, and Philadelphia Eagles
 * Phil Baroni, professional mixed martial artist
 * Rich Borresen, former professional football player, Dallas Cowboys
 * Steve Buscemi, actor
 * Matt Cardona, professional wrestler
 * Billy Crystal, comedian
 * Luke Cummo, professional mixed martial artist
 * Patrick Day, professional boxer
 * Tim Dillon, comedian
 * Rasul Douglas, professional football player, Green Bay Packers
 * Jay Hieron, professional wrestler and mixed martial artist
 * Al Iaquinta, professional wrestler and mixed martial artist
 * Steve Israel, former U.S. congressman
 * Jesse Lacey, musician
 * Josh Lafazan, former Nassau County legislator
 * Ryan LaFlare, former mixed martial artist
 * Shep Messing, former Olympic soccer player and broadcaster
 * Rod Morgenstein, drummer, Winger and Dixie Dregs
 * John Moschitta Jr., speed talker
 * Eddie Murphy, actor and comedian
 * Elliott Murphy, singer, songwriter, and writer
 * Bob Nelson, stand-up comedian
 * Michael Anthony Pegues, visual artist
 * Michael Robinson, former professional football player
 * Chris Weidman, professional mixed martial artist

title: Nassau Community College


text:
Wietse Venema

Wietse Zweitze Venema (born 1951) is a Dutch programmer and physicist best known for writing the Postfix email system. He also wrote TCP Wrapper and collaborated with Dan Farmer to produce the computer security tools SATAN and The Coroner's Toolkit.

Biography
He studied physics at the University of Groningen, continuing there to get a PhD in 1984 with the dissertation Left-right symmetry in nuclear beta decay. He spent 12 years at Eindhoven University as a systems architect in the Mathematics and Computer Science department, and spent part of this time writing tools for Electronic Data Interchange. Since emigrating to the U.S. in 1996 and until 2015, he has been working for the IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center in New York State. On March 24, 2015, he announced he was leaving IBM for Google.

Awards
Awards Venema has received for his work:

 * Security Summit Hall of Fame Award (July 1998)
 * SAGE Outstanding Achievement Award (November 1999)
 * NLUUG Award (November 2000)
 * Sendmail Milter Innovation Award (November 2006)
 * The 2008 Free Software Foundation Award for the Advancement of Free Software (March 2009)
 * ISSA Hall of Fame Award (October 2012)

title: Wietse Venema


text:
Hudud Ordinances

The Hudud Ordinances are laws in Pakistan enacted in 1979 as part of the Islamization of Pakistan by Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq, the sixth president of Pakistan. It replaced parts of the British-era Pakistan Penal Code, adding new criminal offences of adultery and fornication, and new punishments of whipping, amputation, and stoning to death. After much controversy and criticism parts of the law were extensively revised in 2006 by the Women's Protection Bill.

The Hudood Law was intended to implement Shari'a law or bring Pakistani law into "conformity with the injunctions of Islam", by enforcing punishments mentioned in the Quran and sunnah for zina (extramarital sex), qazf (false accusation of zina), theft, and consumption of alcohol. The system provided for two kinds of offences — hadd and tazir — with different punishments to go with them. Hadd offences (fixed punishment) require a higher standard of proof than tazir (discretionary punishment) and their punishments are more severe.

The zina provisions of the law were particularly controversial and critics alleged that there were "hundreds of incidents where a woman subjected to rape, or even gang rape, was eventually accused of zina" and incarcerated. In 2006 the laws were updated, excusing such women who failed to prove the rape.

Ordinances
The ordinances follow the classical mainly Hanafi jurisprudence doctrine. One non-classical feature is that Hadd punishments can only be carried out after an appeal to the Federal Shariat Court has failed. The Federal Shariat Court, which has "exclusive jurisdiction" to examine whether or not a law is in accordance with the injunctions of Islam, was created along with the Ordinances.

Under the ordinances, tazir punishments often involve flogging.

Offences Against Property (theft) ordinance
Officially known as "The Offences Against Property (Enforcement Of Hudood) Ordinance (VI of 1979)."

 * Offences Against Property liable to hadd must be
 * theft of something nisab level of value, i.e. property worth more than 4.457 grams of gold (about USD $258 )
 * from a place where the property was protected.
 * evidence must be from a confession by the accused, or at least two Muslim adult male witnesses who are `tazkiyah-al-shuhood`, (truthful and non-sinners).
 * Punishment for "theft liable to hadd";
 * first offence: "amputation of his right hand from the joint of the wrist";
 * second offence: "amputation of his left foot up to the ankle";
 * third offence: imprisonment for life;
 * Theft liable to tazir: Whoever commits theft, which, is not liable to 'hadd' or
 * for which there is no confession or evidence provided by two qualifying Muslim adult male witnesses, or
 * for which 'hadd' may not be imposed or enforced under this Ordinance;
 * Punishment for theft liable to tazir: is stipulated in the Pakistan Penal Code (Act XLV of 1860).

For robbery liable to hadd, the right hand of the offender and his left foot should be amputated by a surgeon.

Zina (extramarital) Ordinance
Officially known as "The Offence of Zina (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance (VII of 1979)" refers to fornication, adultery and zina bil jabbar (rape). The most controversial of the four ordinances, it has several distinct categories of sexual offences and assigned punishments for each:
 * zina liable to hadd; punishable by
 * stoning to death for the adulterer
 * public whipping of 100 lashes for a fornicator
 * zina liable to tazir; punishable by
 * imprisonment for up to ten years
 * zina-bil-jabr liable to hadd;
 * zina-bil-jabr liable to tazir;

Further Zina offenses are (or as of 1991 were)
 * kidnapping
 * sodomy
 * enticement
 * attempted rape
 * abetment of zina crime
 * deceitful marriage
 * conspiracy to engage in prostitution

Under hadd, eyewitnesses evidence of the act of penetration by "at least four Muslim adult male witnesses", about whom "the court is satisfied", that "they are truthful persons and abstain from major sins (kabair)" (tazkiyah al-shuhood). Because of this stringent standard, no accused has ever been found guilty and stoned to death in Pakistan, and punishments have been awarded only under the Tazir provision of the Hudood Ordinance which uses circumstantial evidence.

The ordinance also abolished Pakistan's statutory rape law.

The 2006 Act has now removed zina bil jabbar from the Zina Hudood Ordinance and inserted sections 375 and 376 for Rape and Punishment respectively in the Pakistan Penal Code to replace it.

Qazf (false accusation of fornication or adultery) Ordinance
Officially known as: "The Offence of Qazf (Enforcement of Hudood) Ordinance of 1979". It described the offence of false accusation of Zina (fornication and adultery) either written, verbal or "by visible representations", with intent to cause harm, and without producing four witnesses in support of the accusation before the Court, or who "according to the finding of the Court", a witness has given false evidence of the commission of zina or rape, or when a complainant has made a false accusation of rape;
 * Proof of "qazf liable to hadd" includes the accused confessing to it in court, the accused committing qazf in court, or if two Muslim adult male witnesses (other than the victim of the qazf) testify that the defendant committed qazf. (If the accused is a non-Muslim, the witnesses may be non-Muslims.)
 * Punishment of "qazf liable to hadd" will be a whipping numbering 80 stripes.
 * "Qazf liable to Tazir" applies whenever
 * proof in any of the forms mentioned above is not available,
 * or when the perpetrator has committed 'qazf' against any of his descendants,
 * or when the victim of qazf has died during the "pendency of the proceedings";
 * punishment of "qazf liable to tazir" shall be imprisonment for up to two years, a whipping of up to 40 stripes, and may also include a fine.

Prohibition (alcohol) Order
Officially known as: "The Prohibition (Enforcement of Hadd) Order of 1979", described the offence of producing, importing, selling, owning, possessing or consuming alcohol.

 * Producing, bottling, selling alcohol is punishable by imprisonment of up to five years, or flogging of up to 30 stripes, and may also be fined.
 * Owning or possessing is punishable by imprisonment of up to two years, or flogging of up to 30 stripes, and may also be fined.
 * Drinkers liable to hadd are adult Muslims who "takes intoxicating liquor by mouth" if they confess to drinking or evidence is given by "two Muslim adult male witness" of good character.
 * They "shall be punished" with flogging of "eighty stripes".
 * Drinkers liable to tazir include
 * non-Muslim citizens of Pakistan who have been drinking (unless it is "part of a ceremony prescribed by his religion"):
 * non-Muslim, non-citizens of Pakistan, who have been drinking in a public place;
 * Muslims for whom "the offence stands proved by the evidence on the record" but not by hadd evidence of two Muslim witnesses, etc.
 * these drinkers shall be punished by imprisonment of up to three years, flogging of up to 30 stripes, or both.
 * Owning or possessing heroin, cocaine, opium or coca leaf is also punishable with imprisonment, flogging and fines.

Whipping Ordinance
"The Execution of the Punishment of Whipping Ordinance of 1979" was developed to regulate the punishment of whipping/flogging.

It specifies that whips shall be made of leather, or a cane or a branch of a tree, be no longer than 1.22 meters and no thicker than 1.25 cm. Convict shall be medically examined before flogging to determine if the flogging should be "applied in such manner and with such intervals" that it does not kill the offender being flogged. Flogging may be postponed if the offender is ill, pregnant, or if the weather is too cold, etc. Stripes shall not be applied to "the head, face, stomach or chest or the delicate parts of the body of the convict," and should not lacerate the skin of the convict.

Whipping
In 1996 the Abolition of Whipping Act (passed by Benazir Bhutto's Pakistan People's Party), forbade sentences/punishments of whipping offenders except when imposed as a hadd punishment. It has "greatly reduced" the instances of corporal punishment.

Zina (extramarital) Ordinance
In the two and a half decades the law was unchanged, several Pakistani government appointed commissions recommended the Zina Ordinance's repeal (such as the National Commission for the Status of Women in 2003, the Special Committee to Review the Hudood Ordinances, 1979, Commission of Inquiry for Women). Critics of the law alleged that while no one had actually been executed by stoning or had their hand or foot amputated in punishment as a result of the law, the ordinance made it dangerous to file rape charges as the women could be punished under tazir if they failed to prove an allegation of rape. In 1979, before the ordinances went into effect there were 70 women held in Pakistani prisons. By 1988, there were 6000. A 2003 report by the National Commission on Status of Women (NCSW) estimated "80% of women" were incarcerated because "they had failed to prove rape charges and were consequently convicted of adultery under tazir." According to legal scholar Martin Lau "While it was easy to file a case against a woman accusing her of adultery, the Zina Ordinance made it very difficult for a woman to obtain bail pending trial. Worse, in actual practice, the vast majority of accused women were found guilty by the trial court only to be acquitted on appeal to the Federal Shariat Court. By then they had spent many years in jail, were ostracized by their families, and had become social outcasts."

A woman alleging rape was Initially required to provide eyewitnesses of good standing and moral character (Tazkiyah-al-shuhood) and the witnesses would have to witness "the act of penetration" for the death penalty to apply to the rapist or if there was no witnesses then Ta'zir would apply. In principle, the failure to find such proof of the rape does not place the woman herself at risk of prosecution. According to Mufti Taqi Usmani, who was instrumental in the creation of the ordinances:

If anyone says that she was punished because of Qazaf (false accusation of rape) then Qazaf Ordinance, Clause no. 3, Exemption no. 2 clearly states that if someone approaches the legal authorities with a rape complaint, she cannot be punished in case she is unable to present four witnesses. No court of law can be in its right mind to award such a punishment.

However, in practice, these safeguards have not always worked. In addition, because the ordinance abolished Pakistan's statutory rape law, girls as young as twelve were prosecuted for having extra-marital intercourse "under circumstances that would previously have mandated statutory rape charges against their assailant," according to Human Rights Watch.

Stories of suffering by women who claimed to have been raped appeared in the press in the years following the passing of the Hudood Ordinance stirring protests by Pakistani activists and lawyers and international human rights organizations. One case was that of Safia Bibi, an unmarried blind woman from the northwest frontier who was prosecuted for zina because of her illegitimate pregnancy. She was given a jail sentence of 3 years with 15 stripes of lashings and a fine of 100 rupees under tazir. Her rapist was acquitted. The judge ruled that there insufficient evidence to link him with rape.

The evidence of guilt was there for all to see: a newborn baby in the arms of its mother, a village woman named Zafran Bibi. Her crime: she had been raped. Her sentence: death by stoning. Now Ms. Zafran Bibi, who is about 26, is in solitary confinement in a death-row cell.

Thumping a fat red statute book, the white-bearded judge who convicted her, Anwar Ali Khan, said he had simply followed the letter of the Qur'an-based law, known as hudood, that mandates punishments.

"The illegitimate child is not disowned by her and therefore is proof of zina," he said, referring to laws that forbid any sexual contact outside marriage. Furthermore, he said, in accusing her brother-in-law of raping her, Ms. Zafran had confessed to her crime.

The appeal judgment of the Federal Shariah Court cleared the girl of the accusation of zina.

Another scenario for some of the accusations of adultery leading to imprisonment was following divorce by the husband and remarriage by the ex-wife. A triple talaq is pronounced. The woman returns to her parental home. She goes through her period of iddat. After a while the family arranges another match and she gets married. The husband then claims that sans the confirmation of divorce by the local authorities the marriage is not over and launches a zina prosecution. It is necessary to delete this definition [of a valid marriage] to shut this door.

A number of international and Pakistani human rights organizations argue that Hudood Ordinance goes beyond what is required by sharia. They are opposed by right wing religious parties (Muttahida Majlis-e-Amal (MMA)), who accuse them of departing from Islamic values.

Case study
A study by Charles Kennedy of the Hudood Ordinances based on random stratified sample of cases tried by the Federal Shariat Court (FSC) from 1980–84, found 88% of cases heard by the FSC were Zina Ordinance-related, that the court acquitted over half (52%) of the appellates (an "extraordinarily high" number), and "fully upheld" less than one in five (19%) of the convictions. Around 90% of the cases were overturned based on misappreciation of the facts, not misappreciation of the law. The average time that defendants had to wait for disposition of their cases (in jail unless they were granted bail) after the "First Information Report" in district and sessions courts was around eighteen months. However the acquitted defendants still had to contend with high legal fees, social consequences facing even acquitted defendants, and time in jail until their appeal was heard unless they were granted bail.

The study that found the ordinance was used to file "nuisance or harassment suits against disobedient daughters or estranged wives." Three common patterns in the cases were:
 * 1) a man and a woman are accused of zina by the father or older brother of the accused woman, the complainant(s) not consenting to the marriage or relationship;
 * 2) a complainant accuses his "former" spouse of zina when she remarries;
 * 3) a girl bring charges of rape against her 'boyfriend' after she is confronted by her relatives with alleged evidence of possible wrongdoing or dishonor.

Kennedy states that "clearly the perception that Zia's program significantly discriminated against women's rights is fundamentally flawed". 84% of those convicted in district and sessions courts under Hudood law were men, and 90% of those whose convictions were upheld by the FSC were men, the law cannot be accused of gender bias. He does not argue with statements such as "eight out of every ten women in jail today are those charged with the offence of Zina". He also states "it is undoubtedly the case" that the Hudood Ordinances, or at least their implementation, "discriminated against Pakistan's lower socioeconomic classes". Only 2% of those convicted were middle-class (and none upper-class).

Human rights attorney Sadakat Kadri replies that "Kennedy reached that mistaken view" because he compared male and female "conviction statistics as though they were alike, ignoring the fact that most men would have been rapists, whereas the women would all have been rape victims or alleged consenting adulterers."

Reforming the Hudood Ordinance
Attention to the Ordinance and suggestions for revising it were given by a number of government appointed commissions, a several-weeks-long televised debate on the subject of "No debate on Hudood Allah (Allah's laws as prescribed in Quran and Sunnah)-is the Hudood Ordinance (Man's interpretation of Allah's law) Islamic?" on Geo television channel, and a 2005 University of Karachi Department of Public Administration workshop.

In 2006, then President Pervez Musharraf again proposed reform of the ordinance. On November 15, 2006, the "Protection of Women (Criminal Laws Amendment) Act" was passed in the National Assembly, allowing rape to be prosecutable under civil law. The bill was ratified by the Senate on 23 November 2006, and became law after President Musharraf signed it on 1 December 2006.

The bill
 * returns a number of offenses from the Zina Ordinance to the Pakistan Penal Code, where they had been before 1979;
 * since rape, unlike zina and qazf, is not mentioned in the Quran, rape is now excluded from Islamic criminal law.
 * reformulates and redefines the offenses of zina and qazf (the wrongful accusation of zina);
 * no complaint of adultery or rape can be converted into one of fornication;
 * creates an entirely new set of procedures governing the prosecution of the offenses of adultery and fornication.
 * adds to the Pakistan Penal Code a new offense of false accusation of fornication, so that an accusation of fornication runs the risk of a lengthy prison sentence if his complaint does not result in a conviction;
 * adultery is the only offense retained in the Zina Ordinance. A complaint of adultery must be made to a judge with at least four witnesses testifying under oath that they witnessed the act of penetration.

Legal experts have claimed that the original law was not so unbalanced as its opponents claimed or that the reforms will be impossible to enforce.

Human rights groups and activists in Pakistan have also criticized the bill, with one group complaining: "The so-called Women's Protection Bill is a farcical attempt at making the Hudood Ordinance palatable". The concern is that thousands of rapes go unreported as victims fear that they would be treated as criminals. In contrast Martin Lau has said that the Act "cannot be dismissed as a mere window dressing undertaken to satisfy a Western audience."

Criminal Law (Amendment) (Offense of Rape) Act 2016
On 7 October 2016, Pakistan's parliament unanimously passed new anti-rape and anti-honour killing bills. The new laws introduced harsher punishments for the perpetrators of such crimes. According to the new anti-rape bill, DNA testing was made mandatory in rape cases. Sabotaging or disrupting the work of a police officer or Government official could result in imprisonment of 1 year under the new law. Government officials who are found taking advantage of their official position to commit act of rape (e.g. custodial rape) are liable to imprisonment for life and a fine. According to the new law, anyone who rapes a minor or a mentally or physically disabled person will be liable for the death penalty or life imprisonment. The recording of the statement of the female survivor of rape or sexual harassment shall be done by an Investigating Officer, in the presence of a female police officer, or a female family member of the survivor. Survivors of rape shall be provided legal aid (if needed) by the Provincial Bar Council. The new law also declares that trials for offences such as rape and related crimes shall be conducted in-camera and also allows for the use of technology such as video links to record statements of the victim and witnesses, to spare them the humiliation or risk entailed by court appearances. The media will also be restricted from publishing or publicising the names or any information that would reveal the identity of a victim, except when publishing court judgements. The trial for rape shall conclude within three months. However, if the trial is not completed within three months then the case shall be brought to the notice of the Chief Justice of the High Court for appropriate directions. The new bill also ensures that sex workers are also included in the law's protection. UN Women Executive Director, Phumzile Mlambo-Ngcuka, hailed the Government of Pakistan's decision to pass the anti-rape and anti-honour killing bills.

title: Hudud Ordinances


text:
Empire State University

Empire State University (SUNY Empire) is a public university headquartered in Saratoga Springs, New York. It is part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system. Empire State University is a multi-site institution offering associate, bachelor's, master's, doctoral degrees, and distance degrees worldwide through the Center for Distance Learning. The university has approximately 12,000 undergraduate students and has an acceptance rate of 51%. The university is accredited by the Middle States Commission on Higher Education.

The School for Graduate Studies offers master's degrees. Empire State University's Center for International Programs also has special programs for students in Lebanon through the American University of Science and Technology, Czech Republic, and Greece. From 2005 to 2010, Empire State University and Anadolu University in Turkey offered a joint MBA program. It also has arranged learning opportunities with UAW-Ford University, United Steelworkers of America, Corporate Noncredit Training, eArmyU, Navy College Program and the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (Local Union #3). Empire State University administrative offices are located in Saratoga Springs, New York.

History
Empire State College was designed by then SUNY Chancellor Ernest Boyer in a document titled "Prospectus for a New University College." In 1971, Ernest L. Boyer, chancellor of the State University of New York, conceived a new college for the state's public university: a college dedicated to adult, student-centered education. Empire State College was designed removing impediments to access such as time, location, institutional processes, and curricular customs. In this design, students would individually define their academic needs, purposes, and efforts. The college would be flexible in supporting them through its faculty, policies, and procedures, to achieve college-level learning.

Mascot
In 2020, Empire State University named its first-ever mascot, Blue the Bluebird. A campus-wide vote took place and Blue the Bluebird beat out other finalists, Cam the Chameleon and Van the Vanguard. Students, faculty, staff, and alumni cast 9,922 total votes in the finals. The bluebird is New York's state bird.

Academics
The university offers distance education, extensive transfers of credits from other universities, prior-learning assessment for knowledge gained through independent studies, standardized evaluations, and the opportunity to design one's own degree with an academic advisor or mentor.

Notable alumni

 * Amy Arbus (2003), photographer
 * Ita Aber, artist and curator
 * Kenny Barron (1978), jazz pianist
 * Ginny Brown-Waite (1976), former US Congresswoman
 * Herman Benson (1975), Union Reformer
 * Dawoud Bey (1990), photographer
 * Frank Enea (1993), musician and composer
 * Alice Fulton (1978), English professor, winner of the 1991 John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation fellowship for poetry
 * Deborah Gregory (1986), author of Cheetah Girls
 * Karl Grossman (1976), professor of journalism SUNY Old Westbury, author, TV program host
 * Bob Herbert (1988), New York Times columnist
 * Rich Hickey (1992), creator of Clojure programming language
 * Erick Johnson, American contemporary artist
 * Bernard Kerik (2002), former Commissioner of the New York Police Department
 * James J. LeCleir (1974), U.S. Air Force Major General
 * Steven McLaughlin, member of the New York State Assembly, County Executive of Rensselaer County, New York
 * Kathy Muehlemann (1978), abstract painter & professor
 * Elliott Murphy (1988), singer-songwriter & author
 * Mae Ngai (1992) historian, Columbia University
 * Alan Rachins (1974), television actor
 * Mark J.F. Schroeder (1982), New York Commissioner of Motor Vehicles
 * Norman Seabrook, former president Of New York City Correction Officers' Benevolent Association (1995-2016), convicted on corruption charges
 * James M. Sheppard (1999), chief of the Rochester Police Department and member of the Monroe County Legislature
 * Melba Tolliver (1998), journalist, reporter, and news anchor
 * Herb Trimpe (1997), artist on "The Incredible Hulk" comic series
 * Bob Watson (1999), major league baseball player and executive
 * Reggie Witherspoon (1995), college basketball coach

title: Empire State University


text: User talk:192.251.125.85

title: User talk:192.251.125.85


text:
Miyuki Tanobe

Miyuki Tanobe (born 1937 in Morioka, Japan) is a Japanese-born Canadian painter, based in Montreal, Quebec. She is known for her paintings of the everyday life of Montreal residents. Her work is in the collections of the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, the Musée du Québec, Lavalin, Pratt & Whitney, and Shell Canada, and Selection du Reader’s Digest. She is a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

Early life and education
Tanobe was born in 1937 in Morioka, Japan. Because there was a violent snowstorm raging on the day she was born, her parents named her Miyuki, which means "deep snow". Tanobe attended Japanese primary and secondary schools.

In 1963, possessing incipient artistic gifts, she painted at the studio of La Grande Chaumière in Paris before registering at the École nationale supérieure des Beaux-Arts, France's leading school of fine arts. Miyuki Tanobe’s arrival in Canada in 1971 came as a result of a chance meeting in Paris with Maurice Savignac, her future husband, a French Canadian from Montreal.

Work
Miyuki Tanobe’s work reflects a freedom of action. She paints principally on rigid supports such as wood or masonite sheets. Her panels are filled with scenes that she has observed like children playing ice hockey.

Her modern primitive works depict everyday life in the working-class neighborhoods of Montreal with humour and great sensitivity. She transforms "humble and unavoidable reality" by reformulating it, adding or deleting elements depending on her assessment of their contribution to the scene. A painting by Miyuki Tanobe goes to the heart of the matter: the artist is interested in opening the viewers' eyes so that they may better see the familiar and adjust their perceptions of what they think they know.

In 1980 Tanobe illustrates the song "Gens de mon pays" by Gilles Vigneault and in 1983 she creates pictures for The Tin Flute by Gabrielle Roy. The colours in Miyuki’s paintings are rich and full of contrast. Working with superimposed layers and applying pigments with her pliable, flexible Japanese brush, Miyuki Tanobe succeeds in revealing unexpected aspects of the objects and people she depicts without making them difficult to read. She paints in Nihonga.

She is a member of the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts.

In 2012 a mural was painted for Tanobe in Verdun.

Collections
Her work is found in the Montreal Museum of Fine Arts, Musée national des beaux-arts du Québec, Musée de Joliette, Musée Saidye Bronfman, Montréal.

Recognition
In 1979, she was the subject of a National Film Board of Canada documentary short My Floating World: Miyuki Tanobe, directed by Ian Rankin, Stephan Steinhouse and Marc F. Voizard.
 * 2012 : Radio-Canada, Miyuki Tanobe and the mural of Verdun
 * 1987 : Radio-Québec, Le Magazine
 * 1985 : Radio-Québec, Arrimage
 * 1982 : CBC, Seeing It Our Way

Published Work / Illustrations

 * Roch Carrier, Miyuki Tanobe, Canada je t'aime = Canada I love you, Montréal: livres Toundra, 1991, 72 p
 * Miyuki Tanobe, Québec je t’aime, Montréal: Éditions Toundra, 1976, 48 p
 * Miyuki Tanobe, Gilles Vigneault, Les gens de mon pays, Montréal: Les éditions La courte échelle, 1980
 * Yves Beauchemin, Cybèle, Coffret de luxe de sérigraphies, Montréal: Art global, 1982

title: Miyuki Tanobe


text:
The Mall of New Hampshire

The Mall of New Hampshire is a shopping mall located in the Lower South Willow neighborhood of Manchester, New Hampshire. Its major anchoring stores are Macy's, Old Navy, JCPenney, Dick's Sporting Goods, Best Buy, and Dave & Buster's. The mall has 125 stores as well as a large food court and is 798,881 sqft, making it the third largest mall in New Hampshire after the Mall at Rockingham Park in Salem, and the Pheasant Lane Mall in Nashua, which opened in 1991 and 1986, respectively. This was the first large-scale shopping mall in New Hampshire; initial construction of the mall was completed in August 1977, though it has since been dramatically expanded.

The Mall of New Hampshire is managed by Simon Property Group, which owns 56.4 percent of it. The mall is also 44 percent owned by the CPP Investment Board, which manages the Canada Pension Plan national pension system.

The mall is located just off the South Willow Street exit (Exit 1) of Interstate 293, and has convenient access from the entire Golden Triangle of New Hampshire and portions of northeastern Massachusetts. Because of its location in south-central New Hampshire, the mall, along with other area malls draw a significant portion of its customer base from Massachusetts citizens, as well as residents of neighboring Maine and Vermont, wishing to take advantage of New Hampshire's lack of sales tax.

History
The Mall of New Hampshire opened in August 1977 with Sears, Filene's, and Lechmere as anchors.

The mall underwent a huge expansion and remodeling from late 1996 to early 1998. Sears was expanded in 1997 and remodeled. The original 60000 sqft Filene's was relocated to a newly built 160000 sqft store in a newer wing of the mall in early 1997. The original Filene's was demolished and rebuilt into a 2-level JCPenney in early 1998. The Lechmere closed in 1997 and became in 1998 a Best Buy and a Kitchen ETC. The food court was renovated in early 1998 and changed to a 550-seat food court. In 2006, as a result of the Federated/May merger, all Filene's locations, including the one at the mall, were closed, followed by most of them, including the Mall of New Hampshire location changing over to Macy's.

In April 2013, JCPenney went under another big renovation on both the top and bottom levels of their store, adding in a Sephora to help ease customers from going to the locations down at the Mall at Rockingham Park and the Pheasant Lane Mall.

In 2015, Sears Holdings spun off 235 of its properties, including the Sears at Mall of New Hampshire, into Seritage Growth Properties.

On August 22, 2018, it was announced that Sears would be closing as part of a plan to 46 stores nationwide. The store closed in November 2018. On December 8, 2018, it was announced that Dick's Sporting Goods would be opening in half of the former Sears. The other half of the former Sears will become Dave & Buster's. Dick's Sporting Goods opened on October 30, 2019, and Dave & Buster's was originally scheduled to open on March 30, 2020, however it was delayed to August 24, 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The former Sears Auto Center will be demolished for more parking spaces.

title: The Mall of New Hampshire


text:
Anodyne

An anodyne is a drug used to lessen pain through reducing the sensitivity of the brain or nervous system. The term was common in medicine before the 20th century, but such drugs are now more often known as analgesics or painkillers.

The term anodyne derives from Greek anōdynos (ἀνώδυνος), from an- (αν-, "without") and odynē (ὀδύνη, "pain"). Etymologically, the word covers any substance that reduces pain, but doctors used it more narrowly. Some definitions restrict the term to topical medications, including herbal simples such as onion, lily, root of mallows, leaves of violet, and elderberry. Other definitions include ingested narcotics, hypnotics, and opioids. In the 19th century, the primary anodynes were opium, henbane, hemlock, tobacco, nightshade (stramonium), and chloroform.

Certain compound medicines were also called by this name, such as anodyne balsam, made of castile soap, camphor, saffron, and spirit of wine, and digested in a sand heat. It was recommended not only for easing extreme pain, but also for assisting in discharging the diseased tissue that caused or occurred with the pain.

In literary usage, the word has escaped its strictly medical meaning to convey anything "soothing or relaxing" (since the 18th century) or even anything "non-contentious", "blandly agreeable", or unlikely to cause offence or debate.

title: Anodyne


text:
User talk:Albert muesse

Hi, Albert Muesse here, motuary science student, lic. voc. nurse and appr. embalmer.

title: User talk:Albert muesse


text:
Ozy and Millie

Ozy and Millie was a daily webcomic that ran from 1998 to 2008, created by Dana Simpson (originally published under D.C. Simpson). It follows the adventures of assorted anthropomorphic animals, centering on Ozy and Millie, two young foxes attending North Harbordale Elementary School in Seattle, Washington, contending with everyday elementary school issues such as tests and bullies, as well as more surreal situations.

The strip mostly concentrates on character interaction, but sometimes veers into commentary based on author Simpson's own political views.

Publication history
Ozy and Millie originally started as a printed comic strip in a Washington college newspaper, the Copper Point Journal, in 1997, with Simpson using ink and brush as drawing implements. Simpson claims to have been influenced by various comics and cartoons such as Bloom County, Calvin and Hobbes, The Simpsons, and Pogo.

It became an irregular webcomic in early 1998. In June that same year, it was changed to a Monday-Friday daily strip. The comic led Simpson to win the Scripps-Howard Foundation Charles M. Schulz College Cartoonist award and a College Media Advisors: Best Strip Cartoon award.

It is important to note that the strip has gone on hiatus several times. In 2000, the strip went on hiatus and returned with a new, unique style. Between January 30, 2004, and January 12, 2009, Simpson also ran another strip, I Drew This, a webcomic specifically about her political views (which are also slightly expressed in Ozy and Millie).

The comic was part of Keenspot from 2001 to 2003, going independent for several years before returning to Keenspot in November 2006. New strips were released on most weekdays, though the strip's run ended in December of 2008. Since then, it has been re-run intermittently on GoComics.

Editorial cartoonist Ted Rall included six pages of interview illustrated with Ozy and Millie strips in Attitude 3: The New Subversive Online Cartoonists.

Collected editions
Most of the strips have been reprinted in book form. They are published as follows:

 * An incomplete five volume collection from Plan Nine Publishing, now out of print.
 * A complete seven volume collection from Lulu.com, in paperback, that replaces the discontinued Plan Nine collection. It covers the entire run of the strip from 1997 to 2008.
 * A complete two volume collection from Lulu.com, in paperback and hardcover: an alternative to the seven volume collection that also covers the entire run of the strip.
 * A two-book best-of collection from Andrews McMeel Publishing, in paperback and hardcover, with each strip in full color for the first time.

‡ Volume 5 of the original printing by Plan Nine Publishing shares an ISBN with Orange Alert by John Robey, a webcomic printed by the same publisher.

Ozy
Ozymandias Justin Llewellyn is a ten-year-old anthropomorphic fox of an unidentified species (also called an "Adolescent Gray Zen Fox") who attends North Harbordale Elementary School in Seattle with his friend, Millie. His full name, Ozymandias Justin Llewellyn, is a reference to the famous poem Ozymandias by Percy Bysshe Shelley.

Ozy is recognised by his large top hat, which he got from his adoptive father, Llewellyn. The only other clothing he wears is a vest, which makes him the target of some of Millie's practical jokes. He is adept at letting Millie's pranks pass by without effect, but he does suffer bullying at the hands of the school jock, Jeremy, who likes to stuff Ozy into trash cans. Ozy is also quiescent and serene, usually playing the "straight person". Under Llewellyn's guidance, Ozy also practices Zen (or rather, a humorous version of it).

Millie
Millicent Mehitabel Mudd, better known as Millie, is a ten-year-old red fox girl who is best friends with Ozy. Millie is usually seen wearing a set of blue denim overalls. Unlike Ozy, who is calm, Millie is chaotic and crafty, both in the destruction she leaves behind and the ways she devises of avoiding work (or attempting to). She is a rebel and is opposed to any form of authority, which regularly leads to confrontations with both her teacher, Ms. Sorkowitz, and her mother, Mililani Mudd. Although she is normally manic, she also has a strong sense of justice, facing the inexplicable wrongs of life and the world she sees. However, her rebellions are mostly limited to annoying her mother, playing jokes on Ozy and disrupting the peace at school; none of which matters any less to her, as long as she has fun doing it. She, like Ozy, often tries to answer the most important questions in life, but her method of finding the answers makes her unique.

Llewellyn
Ozy's adoptive father, known only as Llewellyn, is a red dragon. Llewellyn and other members of his dragon family have been responsible for running several secret conspiracies. He also lends both Ozy and Millie advice, although his advice can tend to be nonsense. The words in his speech balloons are always in the Blackletter font, unlike most of the characters. Llewellyn married Millie's Mother at the end of the Daily Strip. Of all the characters in Ozy and Millie, Simpson has claimed that Llewellyn is her favorite.

Ms. Mudd
Ms. Mililani Minerva Mudd, Millie's mother, is a lawyer, who is an older, wiser, more temperate version of Millie. She was like Millie in her childhood, and as a result knows how to deal with any trouble caused by her, much to Millie's annoyance. While Ms. Mudd knows how to deal with Millie, she is also the first to lend her support if there is anything amiss. She married Llewellyn at the end of the strip's run in a story arc from November–December 2008. Her full name was revealed on October 1, 2008.

Other characters
Other characters in Ozy and Millie include Avery, a raccoon friend who constantly tries to be "cool," even ditching his "uncool" friends on frequent occasions. Ironically, his friend, Stephan the aardvark, is rather the nerdiest character in the strip. Avery's curious younger brother, Timulty, constantly undermines his coolness, although he simply likes being with him and his friends. The two major antagonists are Felicia the sheep, a "popular girl" who teases Millie for being too individualistic, and Jeremy the jock rabbit who bullies Ozy for few reasons.

Other minor characters include Ms. Sorkowitz, Ozy and Millie's kangaroo teacher, and Principal Beau Vine, the bull principal of the school who allows bullying, believing that "Repeated exposure to unprovoked assault squelches unhealthy nonconformist tendencies." Dr. I. Wahnsinnig (the German word for insane or mad) is a ring-tailed lemur and psychiatrist of the school who fights with Vine over school issues and frequently interacts with Millie. Ozy's dragon cousin, Isolde, is known for her unusual methods in her job in journalism, and, like Llewellyn, is in charge of various conspiracies. Another character is Pirate Captain Locke, a child pirate from an alternate dimension on the other side of Llewellyn's couch, in which people age backwards. Locke, currently the same age as Millie, is also her biological father.

Reception
Critic Fred Patten is one of the main supporters of the strip. In 2001, he wrote that the strip was, "a gently humorous fantasy with a liberal political philosophy." In 2006, Patten still claimed that, "Ozy and Millie is one of the top anthropomorphic cartoon strips on the Internet," although he did also comment negatively about the loss of colour in between changes of printed editions of books. The comic is also popular because of its relatively inoffensive content, with one person writing that it was, "Suitable for readers of all ages, really." The strip (the books, specifically) has also received decent reviews from outside sources and other critics.

In 2002, the strip won the Web Cartoonist's Choice Awards for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic". Ozy and Millie also won the 2006 and 2007 Ursa Major Awards for "Best Anthropomorphic Comic Strip". In 2009 (the year after she ended the strip), she won that year's Comic Strip Superstar contest.

title: Ozy and Millie


text:
Progressive Conservative Party of Canada leadership elections

The first Progressive Conservative Party of Canada leadership election was held in 1927, when the party was called the Conservative Party. Prior to then the party's leader was chosen by the caucus or in several cases by the Governor General of Canada designating a Conservative MP or Senator to form a government after the retirement or death of an incumbent Conservative Prime Minister.

There have been two permanent leaders since 1927 who were not chosen by a leadership convention. Arthur Meighen agreed to serve a second term as leader in 1941 on condition that he would not have to contest the position. The party agreed since the party was desperate for a leader of Meighen's stature. Jean Charest was one of only two Progressive Conservative Members of Parliament returned in the 1993 election and was appointed leader by the party's executive with the decision later being affirmed at a regular party convention two years later. The Conservative Party became the Progressive Conservative Party in 1942.

All leadership conventions were delegated conventions, except in 1998 when a one member, one vote process was used in which each riding was allocated 100 points which were distributed among candidates by proportionally. For the 2003 leadership election, the party reverted to use of a delegated convention, ostensibly because of the cost of using a one member, one vote process (though it has been argued that the party feared that use of one member, one vote would make an outside takeover of the party easier due to a decline in membership). In 2003, the party merged with the Canadian Alliance to form a new Conservative Party of Canada. This party adopted the one member, one vote process the Tories had used in 1998.

Note on tables: Green box indicates winner. Pink box indicates candidate eliminated from ballot for receiving the fewest votes. Blue box indicates candidate withdrew from balloting.

1927 Conservative leadership convention
Held in Winnipeg, Manitoba on October 11, 1927.

George Halsey Perley, H. H. Stevens, John Allister Currie, John Baxter, Howard Ferguson, Edgar Nelson Rhodes, and outgoing leader Arthur Meighen were all nominated but declined to run.

1938 Conservative leadership convention
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on July 7, 1938.

Manion lost his seat in the 1940 federal election and R.B. Hanson became interim leader. In November 1941 a national conference of the party voted against having a leadership convention and instead appointed Arthur Meighen as the party's wartime leader. Meighen was defeated in a 1942 by-election and resigned.

1942 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
Held in Winnipeg, Manitoba on December 11, 1942.

1948 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on October 2, 1948.

Wilfrid Garfield Case announced his candidacy but withdrew before the convention to support Drew.

1956 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
Held in Ottawa, Ontario on December 14, 1956.

1967 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 1967 leadership convention was held in Toronto, Ontario on September 9, 1967.

1976 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 1976 leadership convention was held in Ottawa, Ontario on February 22, 1976.

Richard Quittenton withdrew from the race before the convention began.

1983 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 1983 leadership convention was held in Ottawa, Ontario on June 11, 1983.

1993 leadership convention results
The 1993 leadership convention was held in Ottawa, Ontario on June 13, 1993.

1995 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 1995 leadership convention was held at the Palais des congrès de Gatineau in Hull, Quebec on April 29, 1995, to ratify Jean Charest as leader. Charest had been named interim leader following the 1993 federal election (and Kim Campbell's resignation as party leader), which reduced the Progressive Conservatives to only two seats, with Charest being the only cabinet minister to win re-election.

1998 Progressive Conservative leadership election
First ballot was conducted October 24, 1998; second ballot was conducted November 14, 1998.

The 1998 election used a point system that allocated 100 points to each riding, regardless of the number of votes cast in the riding. The candidate who won a majority of points (not necessarily a majority of voters) would win the leadership. All party members were eligible to cast a vote. The 100-point-per-riding system was again used by the Conservative Party of Canada in its 2004 leadership race.

2003 Progressive Conservative leadership convention
The 2003 leadership convention was held in Toronto, Ontario on May 31, 2003.

Two other candidates had participated in the race. Quebec MP André Bachand withdrew his candidacy from the race due to financial concerns and backed Peter MacKay. Former Cabinet Minister and Quebec MP Heward Grafftey also withdrew his candidacy from the race due to health concerns.


text:
The Herald (Glasgow)

The Herald is a Scottish broadsheet newspaper founded in 1783. The Herald is the longest running national newspaper in the world and is the eighth oldest daily paper in the world. The title was simplified from The Glasgow Herald in 1992. Following the closure of the Sunday Herald, the Herald on Sunday was launched as a Sunday edition on 9 September 2018.

Founding
The newspaper was founded by an Edinburgh-born printer called John Mennons in January 1783 as a weekly publication called the Glasgow Advertiser. Mennons' first edition had a global scoop: news of the treaties of Versailles reached Mennons via the Lord Provost of Glasgow just as he was putting the paper together. War had ended with the American colonies, he revealed. The Herald, therefore, is as old as the United States of America, give or take an hour or two.

The story was, however, only carried on the back page. Mennons, using the larger of two fonts available to him, put it in the space reserved for late news.

First sale and renaming
In 1802, Mennons sold the newspaper to Benjamin Mathie and James McNayr, former owner of the Glasgow Courier, which along with the Mercury, was one of two papers Mennons had come to Glasgow to challenge. Mennons' son Thomas retained an interest in the company. The new owners changed the name to The Herald and Advertiser and Commercial Chronicle in 1803. In 1805 the name changed again, this time to The Glasgow Herald when Thomas Mennons severed his ties to the paper.

George Outram
From 1836 to 1964, The Glasgow Herald was owned by George Outram & Co. becoming one of the first daily newspapers in Scotland in 1858. The company took its name from the paper's editor of 19 years, George Outram, an Edinburgh advocate best known in Glasgow for composing light verse. Outram was an early Scottish nationalist, a member of the National Association for the Vindication of Scottish Rights. The Glasgow Herald, under Outram, argued that the promised privileges of the Treaty of Union had failed to materialise and demanded that, for example, that the heir to the British throne be called "Prince Royal of Scotland". "Any man calling himself a Scotsman should enrol in the National Association," said The Herald.

Later years
In 1895, the publication moved to a building in Mitchell Street designed by Charles Rennie Mackintosh, which now houses the architecture centre, The Lighthouse. In 1988, the publication moved to offices in Albion Street in Glasgow into the former Scottish Daily Express building. It is now based in a purpose-built building in Renfield Street, Glasgow.

One of the most traumatic episodes in the history of The Glasgow Herald was the battle for control and ownership of the paper in 1964. Two millionaires, Hugh Fraser, 1st Baron Fraser of Allander and Roy Thomson, 1st Baron Thomson of Fleet, whose newspaper empire included The Glasgow Herald's archrival, The Scotsman, fought for control of the title for 52 days. Hugh Fraser, 1st Baron Fraser of Allander was to win. The paper's then editor James Holburn was a "disapproving onlooker". The Labour Party condemned the battle as "big business at its worst".

The newspaper changed its name to The Herald on 3 February 1992, dropping Glasgow from its title, but not its masthead. That same year the title was bought by Caledonia Newspaper Publishing & Glasgow. In 1996, it was purchased by Scottish Television (later called the Scottish Media Group). the newspaper along with its related publications, the Evening Times and Sunday Herald, were owned by the Newsquest media group.

Editorship
Graeme Smith assumed editorship of The Herald in January 2017, replacing Magnus Llewellin, who had held the post since 2012. Notable past editors include: John Mennons, 1782; Samuel Hunter, 1803; George Outram, 1836; James Pagan, 1856; William Jack FRSE (1870–1876); James Holburn 1955–1965; George MacDonald Fraser, 1964; Alan Jenkins, 1978; Arnold Kemp 1981; Mark Douglas-Home, 2000; and Charles McGhee, 2006.

Columnists
Prominent columnists include Alison Rowat, who covers everything from television to international statecraft; novelist Rosemary Goring; Catriona Stewart; former Scottish justice secretary and SNP politician Kenny MacAskill Kevin McKenna and David Pratt and business editor Ian McConnell, both multi-award-winning journalists, provide analysis of their fields every Friday.

The Herald Diary
Currently edited by Lorne Jackson, the column has been spun off in to a popular series of books since the 1980s. The Herald Diary used to be edited by writer Tom Shields. Sean Connery once said: "First thing each morning I turn to The Herald on my computer – first for its witty Diary, which helps keep my Scots sense of humour in tune."

Publishing and circulation
It is currently printed at Carmyle, just south east of Glasgow. The paper is published Monday to Saturday in Glasgow and as of 2017 it had an audited circulation of 28,900. The Herald's website is protected by a paywall. It is part of the Newsquest Scotland stable of sites, which have 41m page views a month.

Political stance
The Herald declares in every edition that it does not endorse any political party. However, the newspaper backed a 'No' vote in the 2014 referendum on Scottish independence. The accompanying headline stated, "The Herald's view: we back staying within UK, but only if there's more far-reaching further devolution."

title: The Herald (Glasgow)


text:
C-type asteroid

C-type (carbonaceous ) asteroids are the most common variety, forming around 75% of known asteroids. They are volatile-rich and distinguished by a very low albedo because their composition includes a large amount of carbon, in addition to rocks and minerals. They have an average density of about $1.7 g/cm3$.

They lie most often at the outer edge of the asteroid belt, 3.5 au from the Sun, where 80% of the asteroids are of this type, whereas only 40% of asteroids at 2 au from the Sun are C-type. The proportion of C-types may actually be greater than this, since C-types are much darker (and hence less detectable) than most other asteroid types, except for D-types and others that lie mostly at the extreme outer edge of the asteroid belt.

Characteristics
Asteroids of this class have spectra very similar to those of carbonaceous chondrite meteorites (types CI and CM). The latter are very close in chemical composition to the Sun and the primitive solar nebula minus hydrogen, helium and other volatiles. Hydrated (water-containing) minerals are present.

C-type asteroids are extremely dark, with albedos typically in the 0.03 to 0.10 range. Consequently, whereas a number of S-type asteroids can normally be viewed with binoculars at opposition, even the largest C-type asteroids require a small telescope. The potentially brightest C-type asteroid is 324 Bamberga, but that object's very high eccentricity means it rarely reaches its maximum magnitude.

Their spectra contain moderately strong ultraviolet absorption at wavelengths below about 0.4 μm to 0.5 μm, while at longer wavelengths they are largely featureless but slightly reddish. The so-called "water" absorption feature of around 3 μm, which can be an indication of water content in minerals, is also present.

Due to their volatile-rich (icy) composition, C-type asteroids have relatively low density. A survey of 20 C-type asteroids found an average density of $1.7 g/cm3$.

The largest unequivocally C-type asteroid is 10 Hygiea, although the SMASS classification places the largest asteroid, 1 Ceres, here as well, because that scheme lacks a G-type.

C-group (Tholen)
In the Tholen classification, the C-type is grouped along with three less numerous types into a wider C-group of carbonaceous asteroids which contains:
 * B-type
 * C-type
 * F-type
 * G-type

C-group (SMASS)
In the SMASS classification, the wider C-group contains the types:
 * B-type corresponding to the Tholen B and F-types
 * a core C-type for asteroids having the most "typical" spectra in the group
 * Cg and Cgh types corresponding to the Tholen G-type
 * Ch type with an absorption feature around 0.7μm
 * Cb type corresponding to transition objects between the SMASS C and B types

title: C-type asteroid