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Essence

Essence (essentia) has various meanings and uses for different thinkers and in different contexts. It is used in philosophy and theology as a designation for the property or set of properties or attributes that make an entity the entity it is or, expressed negatively, without which it would lose its identity. Essence is contrasted with accident, which is a property or attribute the entity has accidentally or contingently, but upon which its identity does not depend.

Etymology
The English word essence comes from Latin essentia, via French essence. The original Latin word was created purposefully, by Ancient Roman philosophers, in order to provide an adequate Latin translation for the Greek term ousia.

The concept originates as a precise technical term with Aristotle (although it can also be found in Plato), who used the Greek expression to ti ên einai literally meaning "the what it was to be". This also corresponds to the scholastic term quiddity or sometimes the shorter phrase to ti esti literally meaning "the what it is" and corresponding to the scholastic term haecceity (thisness) for the same idea. This phrase presented such difficulties for its Latin translators that they coined the word essentia to represent the whole expression. For Aristotle and his scholastic followers, the notion of essence is closely linked to that of definition (horismos).

Stoic philosopher Seneca (d. 65 AD) attributed creation of the word to Cicero (d. 43 BC), while rhetor Quintilian (d. 100 AD) claimed that the word was created much earlier, by the stoic philosopher Sergius Plautus (sec. I AD).

Early use of the term is also attested in works of Apuleius (d. 170 AD) and Tertullian (d. 240 AD). During Late Antiquity, the term was often used in Christian theology, and through the works of Augustine (d. 430), Boethius (d. 524) and later theologians, who wrote in Medieval Latin, it became the basis for consequent creation of derived terms in many languages.

Thomas Aquinas, in his commentary on De hebdomadibus (Book II) by Boethius, states that in this work the distinction between essence (id quod est, what the thing is) and Being (esse) was introduced for the first time. Whereas the Being participated in entities is infinite and infinitely perfect, the essence — and not the matter — delimits the perfection of the Being in entities and makes them finite.

Ontological status
In his dialogues Plato suggests that concrete beings acquire their essence through their relations to "forms"—abstract universals logically or ontologically separate from the objects of sense perception. These forms are often put forth as the models or paradigms of which sensible things are "copies". Sensible bodies are in constant flux and imperfect and hence, by Plato's reckoning, less real than the forms which are eternal, unchanging, and complete. Typical examples of forms given by Plato are largeness, smallness, equality, unity, goodness, beauty, and justice.

According to nominalists such as William of Ockham, universals aren't concrete entities, just voice's sounds; there are only individuals. Universals are words that can call to several individuals; for example, the word "homo". Therefore, a universal is reduced to a sound's emission.

John Locke distinguished between "real essences" and "nominal essences". Real essences are the thing(s) that makes a thing a thing, whereas nominal essences are our conception of what makes a thing a thing.

According to Edmund Husserl essence is ideal. However, ideal means that essence is an intentional object of consciousness. Essence is interpreted as sense.

Existentialism
Existentialism is often summed up by Jean-Paul Sartre's statement that for human beings "existence precedes essence", which he understood as a repudiation of the philosophical system that had come before him. Instead of "is-ness" generating "actuality," he argued that existence and actuality come first, and the essence is derived afterward.

In this respect he breaks with Søren Kierkegaard, who, although often described as a proto-existentialist, identified essence as "nature." For him, there is no such thing as "human nature" that determines how a human will behave or what a human will be. First, he or she exists, and then comes property. Jean-Paul Sartre's more materialist and skeptical existentialism furthered this existentialist tenet by flatly refuting any metaphysical essence, any soul, and arguing instead that there is merely existence, with attributes as essence.

Thus, in existentialist discourse, essence can refer to:
 * a physical aspect or property;
 * the ongoing being of a person (the character or internally determined goals); or
 * the infinite inbound within the human (which can be lost, can atrophy, or can be developed into an equal part with the finite), depending upon the type of existentialist discourse.

Buddhism
Within the Madhyamaka school of Mahayana Buddhism, Candrakirti identifies the self as "an essence of things that does not depend on others; it is an intrinsic nature. The non-existence of that is selflessness". Buddhapālita adds, while commenting on Nagārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, "What is the reality of things just as it is? It is the absence of essence. Unskilled persons whose eye of intelligence is obscured by the darkness of delusion conceive of an essence of things and then generate attachment and hostility with regard to them".

For the Madhyamaka Buddhists, 'Emptiness' (also known as Anatta or Anatman) is the strong assertion that: However, the Madhyamaka also rejects the tenets of idealism, materialism or nihilism; instead, the ideas of truth or existence, along with any assertions that depend upon them, are limited to their function within the contexts and conventions that assert them, possibly somewhat akin to relativism or pragmatism. For the Madhyamaka, replacement paradoxes such as Ship of Theseus are answered by stating that the Ship of Theseus remains so (within the conventions that assert it) until it ceases to function as the Ship of Theseus.
 * all phenomena are empty of any essence;
 * anti-essentialism lies at the root of Buddhist praxis; and
 * it is the innate belief in essence that is considered to be an afflictive obscuration which serves as the root of all suffering.

In Nagarjuna's Mulamadhyamakakarika Chapter XV examines essence itself.

Hinduism
In understanding any individual personality, a distinction is made between one's Swadharma (essence) and Swabhava (mental habits and conditionings of ego personality). Svabhava is the nature of a person, which is a result of his or her samskaras (impressions created in the mind due to one's interaction with the external world). These samskaras create habits and mental models and those become our nature. While there is another kind of svabhava that is a pure internal quality – smarana – we are here focusing only on the svabhava that was created due to samskaras (because to discover the pure, internal svabhava and smarana, one should become aware of one's samskaras and take control over them). Dharma is derived from the root dhr "to hold." It is that which holds an entity together. That is, Dharma is that which gives integrity to an entity and holds the core quality and identity (essence), form and function of that entity. Dharma is also defined as righteousness and duty. To do one's dharma is to be righteous, to do one's dharma is to do one's duty (express one's essence).

title: Essence


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The Broons

The Broons (English: The Browns) is a comic strip in Scots published in the weekly Scottish newspaper The Sunday Post. It features a Brown family, which lives in a tenement flat at 10 Glebe Street (since the late 1990s) in the fictional Scottish town of Auchentogle or Auchenshoogle.

Created by writer/editor R. D. Low and artist Dudley D. Watkins, the strip made its first appearance in the issue dated 8 March 1936.

Since its inception, The Broons have had their own biennial, alternating each year with Oor Wullie. No annuals were published during 1943 and 1944 due to paper rationing in World War II, but jigsaws were created instead. Following the 80th anniversary in 2016, an additional annual of The Broons was issued for 2017, breaking from the biennial pattern.

Characters
The family members include:
 * Paw Broon – the patriarch, a working man who occasionally tries to keep enough back for a bit of "baccy" (tobacco) and a bet on the horses. In a flashback to his youth, Paw was seen with his immediate family before he and Maw were married. His mother, Granmaw, was seen as well as his sister Daphne and brother Joseph. As Granpaw is a widower, and Aunt Daphne and Uncle Joseph are never seen, Paw has named two of his children after his siblings – his oldest daughter, Daphne, and his second son, Joe. With his comb-over hairstyle and walrus moustache, his appearance was supposedly based on A.C. "Archie" Brown, the chief editor of publisher D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd at the time The Broons originated. Paw disapproves of most young behaviour. Paw is a main character: there are very few strips where he is not featured. It is usually him who ends up being made the idiot of, after he has made a smart-alec comment. Paw is generally said to be still working at the shipyards. However, in a few strips, he is depicted as being retired.
 * Maw Broon – the formidable mother of eight. She has to run every aspect of the household and keep her husband, Paw, in line. Her first name was once used when her brother came to visit. He burst into No. 10 addressing her as "Maggie" and looking for money for his taxi fare. The name Maggie was confirmed in Maw Broon's Cookbook, published in 2007. Another book was The But an' Ben Cookbook, Waverley Books, 2008 ISBN 978-1-902407-61-6 (the book from the family's holiday home, "the wee hoose among the heather"). In a 1980s strip, the opening rhyme featured her name as Maigret (Margaret) Broon as well but this never continued. Maw comes from a more upper-class background, as seen in "Maw Broon's Remedies & Suchlike" where her mother has given her the book as a present and writes about how Maw should stop seeing Paw. In earlier strips, she can be seen to make the family act rather posh and her daughters take after her by doing the same.
 * Granpaw Broon – Paw's widowed, 80-year-old father, lives in his own house and spends most of his time sitting on a park bench with his "cronies" (friends), or tending his allotment. He shares Paw's preoccupation with having an ample supply of tobacco. Granpaw was a slightly later addition, not appearing in the earliest strips. In some of these, the family had a picture of Granpaw on their wall; it could do certain actions, such as wagging its finger at the children. Initially, Granpaw was portrayed in a bad light, as a miser and a scheming moocher but was later written as a loveable rogue often who gets into more mischief than his young grandchildren. It was revealed in Maw Broon's Cookbook (2007) that his late wife was named Jeannie, a Scottish variation of "Jean" or "Jenny" that was once very popular. Granmaw was only seen twice, once in 1937, during a flashback of Maw and Paw's courting days, and again in 1959, when comparing life to the old days.
 * Hen (Henry) Broon – The lanky, awkward eldest son and firstborn child of Maw and Paw. About 31 years old, average and a guy who rarely gets the girl. He is often taken advantage of for his height; for example, being made to act as a clothes pole to keep the washing line up. Early Broons cartoons featured Hen wearing a zoot suit. Hen is aspirational. For example, every couple of years or so he buys a car. Such purchases, however, always end in failure.
 * Daphne Broon – The plump, somewhat dowdy daughter who is always playing second fiddle to her beautiful sister Maggie on double dates. Every few years she has a stroke of luck when the double dates get mixed up and she gets Maggie's man. At least once a year, Daphne tries to go on a diet but fails to lose any weight. She is often mocked by Hen and Joe about her diets, although their taunts are intentionally harmless. Daphne is a skilled dressmaker but has a penchant for flamboyant hats.
 * Joe (Joseph) Broon – the epitome of the ordinary working man, usually noted for his good looks, strength and love of sports and boxing. Joe is something of a ladies' man, and can sometimes be seen sharing a bitter rivalry with Hen over a beautiful woman, with Joe winning. Hen envies Joe's luck with the girls, and the twins see him as a role model.
 * Maggie (Margaret) Broon – The beautiful, glamorous daughter with blonde hair and fashionable clothing. She has a steady stream of beaux and is bitterly envied by the drab Daphne. In the later editions, Maggie became a model, and a weather girl. Despite their rivalry over men, Daphne and Maggie share a close bond and Maggie even stands up for Daphne when she is taunted; notably in one strip, she flirted with a man in a bar and threw the drink he had bought her over him as revenge for his hurtful comments toward Daphne.
 * Horace Broon – A bookish and bespectacled teenage schoolboy forever trying to learn French or poetry by rote amidst the chaos of a do-it-yourself chimney-sweeping mishap or other domestic turmoil. He is quite pompous and likes to think of himself as an example to the twins, but recently seems to aspire to be like Joe (for example, purchasing muscle-building equipment). However, he is nowhere near as popular with girls as Joe. Horace is seen as a young teenager in the early years of secondary school. However, during the 1990s, his appearance was that of someone slightly older.
 * The Twins – Identical twin boys, who are in primary school. Although one is called Eck (short for Alexander), they are always referred to collectively, with few exceptions (such as Granpaw calling them "ae twin" and "the ither twin"). They are rambunctious youngsters and usually add to the chaos with a fistfight or a good game of cowboys and Indians.
 * The Bairn – The youngest of the family at about four years of age. She is basically a smaller version of Maw, getting in her share of indignant moral pronouncements and pointing out the foolishness of the male Broons. She and Granpaw are deeply close. Her first name is never revealed; she is simply addressed as "my wee lamb", "dear", "pet" etc.

Storylines
The family surname Broon is the Scots for Standard English "Brown", as indicated by the nameplate that occasionally appears on the front door of their flat. Also, when a family member is addressed by a non-Scot (i.e. an Englishman or an American), he or she is addressed as "Mister (or Mrs or Miss) Brown".

Early strips written in the 1930s featured less dialogue and the pictures told the story. This was more common in Oor Wullie strips. However, occasional Broons strips did this too.

During the 1970s, stories drawn by Tom Lavery, another character named Dave MacKay was regularly featured. Dave was Maggie's long-term boyfriend and later her fiancé, although the latter aspect only featured in the original Sunday Post strips, with all mentions of the engagement removed for the annual reprints. Although his father was an old school friend of Paw, his mother was upper–middle-class, much to the chagrin of Paw and Maw. Despite the Broons' perpetual deference to their social 'betters', many comical premises were built on the family's attempts to impress members of the landed gentry, or the clergy. Many storylines featured Paw bringing shame on the family by being seen wearing torn trousers or working clothes by the 'Meenister' (Church of Scotland minister). Maggie's character also changed during this time, becoming more posh. Unlike the rest of the Broons, she spoke Standard English rather than Modern Scots. When Peter Davidson took over from Lavery, the character was dropped without explanation. The 2012 special annual The Broons and Oor Wullie: Classic Strips from the 70's reveals the fate of the character which was created specially for this book.

Most of the humour derives from the timeless themes of the "generation gap", stretching the money as far as possible, and the constant struggle for each family member to live in a very small flat with the other nine Broons. In the end, the family always support one another, getting through life with a gentle good humour as they argue amongst themselves.

Another staple of the series is misunderstanding: inevitably the bairn or the twins mishear something Granpaw or another family member says, and the whole family acts on it until the truth is revealed in the final panel. An example is where the twins are told by Daphne that she is bringing her boyfriend up to dinner and that he is half Polish and half French. While Maggie makes a French salad and Paw finds a flag from each country, Hen asks if they know the man's name – Angus MacKay. Hen and Paw go with the twins to see his shop. It turns out he is a French-polisher – "polish" being pronounced the same as "Polish" in Scots.

Locations
As with Oor Wullie, Watkins left the location of the strips unnamed, although the Broons' tenement is located on Glebe Street, a commonly used name in many Scottish towns. However, as originally written, Watkins' use of words and phrases more commonly associated with the east coast of Scotland, such as bairn for child, as opposed to the west-central wean, suggests he was using his own immediate environment. (He lived in Broughty Ferry.) He worked in Dundee and the Broons' dialect is mainly Dundonian. Since the 1990s, however, The Broons has been set in the fictional town of Auchenshoogle.

The Broons own a small cottage, called the but and ben, somewhere in the Highlands but within a relatively short distance of their home. They enjoy weekends away there, although the younger Broons show some reluctance to go there. In a 1940s strip, the house is shown to be on a hillside on the east side of the River Ness and an arrow also points to Auchentoogle being located on the northern bank of Loch Ness near Dores. The house was referred to as being in a secret location in "The Broons Days Oot" travel guide published in 2009. In Still Game 's 2007 Hogmanay special, "Hootenanny," Jack compares Joe's Highland cottage to "the but 'n ben out of the bloody Broons", as a comical way to comment upon how shabby it appears.

Annuals
Although the Broons and Oor Wullie started in 1936, annuals were not published until 1939, starting with "The Broons". since then the annuals alternate years with Oor Wullie, another D. C. Thomson product. Books pre-1965 were not dated. After that they had a copyright date with annuals normally published in Autumn. The early editions of The Broons annual are highly sought-after collectors' items, fetching in excess of four-figure sums at auction. A facsimile of the very first Broons annual was released on 25 November 2006.

Watkins drew the strip from his Broughty Ferry home until his death in 1969. For five years after Watkins' death, D. C. Thomson recycled old strips in the newspaper and annuals, fearing no adequate replacement could be found to match Watkins' unique style. In these repeated strips, some particularly Scots words were replaced (e.g., 'ahint' became 'behind') and the pre-decimal coinage was updated. Mike Donaldson is the current artist, succeeding Peter Davidson. BBC Radio Scotland presenter Tom Morton was the scriptwriter until 2006 when Dave Donaldson took over. Morris Heggie, former editor of The Dandy is one of the current writers, however credits are now attributed when published in The Sunday Post.

Television
The Broons were portrayed in a sketch on the BBC Scotland comedy show Naked Video. Tony Roper was cast as Paw, Gregor Fisher played Maw, Elaine C. Smith portrayed the Bairn, Jonathan Watson appeared as Joe, and Louise Beattie appeared as Horace, with the other family members (and Oor Wullie) mentioned in passing. The sketch revolved around Paw's naivety in the modern world and his inability to move with the times, not even realising that his entire offspring are the product of an affair Maw was having with a farmer.

In December 2005, the BBC Scotland documentary Happy Birthday Broons celebrated the family's 70th anniversary with celebrity guests including Muriel Gray, Ford Kiernan, Sanjeev Kohli, Eddi Reader, Elaine C. Smith, Ricky Ross, Tony Roper, Tam Cowan, Grant Morrison, Frank Quitely and was narrated by Ewan McGregor. The programme was made by Angel Eye Media and was nominated for a Best Documentary BAFTA. It was followed by Happy Birthday Oor Wullie.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Broons


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History of time in the United States

The history of standard time in the United States began November 18, 1883, when United States and Canadian railroads instituted standard time in time zones. Before then, time of day was a local matter, and most cities and towns used some form of local solar time, maintained by some well-known clock (for example, on a church steeple or in a jeweler's window). The standard time system was not immediately embraced by all. Standard time in time zones was established in U.S. law in the Standard Time Act on March 19, 1918, at which time daylight saving time was also instituted.

Use of standard time gradually increased because of its obvious practical advantages for communication and travel. Standard time in time zones was established in U.S. law in the Standard Time Act on March 19, 1918. The act established daylight saving time, which was and is a contentious idea. Daylight saving time was repealed in 1919, but standard time in time zones remained in law, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) having the authority over time zone boundaries. Daylight time became a local matter; ultimately, it was reinstated nationally early in World War II and was continuously observed until the end of the war. After the war its use varied among states and localities. The Uniform Time Act of 1966 provided standardization in the dates of beginning and end of daylight time in the U.S. but allowed for local exemptions from its observance.

Time zone boundaries have changed greatly since their original introduction, and changes still occasionally occur. DOT issues press releases when these changes are made. Generally, time zone boundaries have tended to shift westward. Places on the eastern edge of a time zone can effectively move sunset an hour later (by the clock) by shifting to the time zone immediately to their east. If they do so, the boundary of that zone is locally shifted to the west; the accumulation of such changes results in the long distance term westward trend. The process is not inexorable, however, since the late sunrises experienced by such places during the winter may be regarded as too undesirable. Furthermore, under the law, the principal standard for deciding on a time zone change is the "convenience of commerce". Proposed time zone changes have been both approved and rejected based on this criterion, although most such proposals have been accepted.

Railway time
One of the first reported incidents which brought about a change in how time was organized on railways in the United States occurred in New England in August 1853. Two trains heading towards each other on the same track collided in the Valley Falls train collision because the train conductors had different times set on their watches, resulting in the death of 14 passengers. Railway schedules were coordinated in New England shortly after this incident Numerous other collisions led to the setting up of the General Time Convention, a committee of railway companies to agree on scheduling.

In 1870 Charles F. Dowd, who was unconnected with the railway movement or civil authorities, proposed A System of National Times for Railroads, which involved a single time for railways but the keeping of local times for towns. Although this did not find favor with railway managers, in 1881 they agreed for the idea to be investigated by William Frederick Allen, who was the secretary of the General Time Convention and managing editor of the Travellers' Official Guide to the Railways. He proposed replacing the 50 different railway times with five time zones. He eventually persuaded the railway managers and the politicians running the cities that had several railway stations that it was in their interests to speedily adopt his simpler proposals, which aligned the zones with cities' railroad stations. In doing so, they would pre-empt the imposition of more costly and cumbersome arrangements by different state legislators and the naval authorities, both of whom favored retention of local times.

On 11 October 1883, a convention of railroad executives met in Chicago at the General Time Convention (latter renamed the American Railway Association) and agreed to the implementation of five time zones in North America, using Greenwich Mean Time as a basis. Right to the end there was opposition expressed by many smaller towns and cities to the imposition of railway time. For example, in Indianapolis the report in the daily Sentinel for November 17, 1883, protested that people would have to "eat sleep work ... and marry by railroad time". However, with the support of nearly all railway companies, most cities and influential observatories such as Yale and Harvard, this collaborative approach led to standard railway time being introduced at noon on November 18, 1883. This consensus held and was incorporated into federal law in 1918.

Standard time and war time
Daylight saving time (DST) was established by the Standard Time Act of 1918. The act was intended to save electricity for seven months of the year, during World War I. DST was repealed in 1919 over a presidential veto, but standard time in time zones remained in law, with the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) having the authority over time zone boundaries. Daylight time became a local matter. During World War II, Congress enacted the War Time Act (56 Stat. 9) on January 20, 1942. Year-round DST was reinstated in the United States on February 9, 1942, again as a wartime measure to conserve energy resources. This remained in effect until after the end of the war. After V-J Day, the word 'war' and the middle letter 'W' were changed to 'prevailing' and 'P', but the advance in the clock was not reverted. The Amendment to the War Time Act (59 Stat. 537) ended DST as of September 30, 1945. During this period, the official designation War Time was used for year-round DST. For example, Eastern War Time (EWT) would be the equivalent of Eastern Daylight Time during this period.

Local-option daylight saving time
From 1945 to 1966 U.S. federal law did not address DST. States and cities were free to observe DST or not, and most places that did observe DST did so from the last Sunday in April to the last Sunday in September. In the mid-1950s many areas in the northeastern United States began extending DST to the last Sunday in October. The lack of standardization led to a patchwork where some areas observed DST while adjacent areas did not, and it was not unheard of to have to reset a clock several times during a short trip (e.g., bus drivers operating on West Virginia Route 2 between Moundsville, West Virginia, and Steubenville, Ohio, had to reset their watches seven times over 35 miles).

In summer 1960 April–October Daylight Time was nearly universal in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware and states east and north of there. In Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kentucky and Virginia and states north and east of there, some areas used DST and some did not. Except for California and Nevada, which had April–September Daylight Time, 99% of the rest of the country used Standard Time year-round. (The Official Guide says "State law prohibits the observance of "Daylight Saving" time in Kentucky but Anchorage, Louisville and Shelbyville will advance their clocks one hour from Central Standard time for the period April 24 to October 29, inclusive.")

Uniform Time Act
In the mid-1960s the airline and other transportation industries lobbied for uniformity of DST dates in the United States. The federal Uniform Time Act became law on April 13, 1966, and it mandated that DST begin nationwide on the last Sunday in April and end on the last Sunday in October, effective in 1967. The act explicitly preempted all previously enacted state laws related to the beginning and ending of DST effective in 1966. Any state that wanted to be exempt from DST could do so by passing a state law, provided that it exempted the entire state, and Alaska, Arizona, Hawaii, Indiana, and Michigan chose to do so. However, Alaska, Indiana, and Michigan subsequently chose to observe DST.

The act also continued the authority of the ICC over time zone boundaries. In subsequent years, the United States Congress transferred the authority over time zones to the U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT).

The law was amended in 1972 to permit states that straddle a time zone boundary to exempt the entire area of the state lying in one time zone. Indiana chose to exempt the portion of the state lying in the Eastern Time Zone; however, that exemption was eliminated in 2006, and the entire state of Indiana now observes DST, leaving Arizona (with the exception of the Navajo Nation) and Hawaii as the only two states not to observe DST.

In response to the 1973 energy crisis, DST began earlier in both 1974 and 1975, commencing on the first Sunday in January (January 6) in the former year and the last Sunday in February (February 23) in the latter. The extension was not continued due to public opposition to late sunrise times during the winter months. In 1976, the United States reverted to the schedule set in the Uniform Time Act.

Daylight saving time extensions
On July 8, 1986, President Ronald Reagan signed the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1986 into law that contained a daylight saving rider authored by Senator Slade Gorton. The starting date of DST was amended from the last Sunday of April to the first Sunday in April effective in 1987, extending DST three weeks; DST continued to end on the last Sunday in October. While the states retain the capability to exempt themselves from DST, they are forbidden by the 1966 federal law (15 USC 260a(b)) from increasing a state's time spent on DST, unless the United States Congress does this for the entire nation.

Starting March 11, 2007, DST was extended another four to five weeks, by moving both its start date to the second Sunday of March and its end date to the first Sunday of November. This time the change was introduced by Representatives Fred Upton and Ed Markey and added to the Energy Policy Act of 2005; the House of Representatives had originally approved a motion that would have extended DST even farther from the first Sunday in March to the last Sunday in November, but Senators Jeff Bingaman and Pete Domenici agreed to scale back the proposal in conference committee due to complaints from farmers and the airline industry. Proponents claimed that the extension would save "the equivalent of" 10000 oilbbl of oil per day, but this figure was based on outdated U.S. Department of Energy information from the 1970s; later studies by the U.S. Department of Energy and the California Energy Commission have predicted much smaller energy benefits. There is very little recent research on what the actual positive effects, if any, might be.

Controversy
Since DST moves sunrise one hour later by the clock, late sunrise times become a problem when DST is observed either too far before the vernal equinox or too far after the autumnal equinox. Because of this, the extension was greeted with criticism by those concerned for the safety of children who would have been forced to travel to school before sunrise, especially in the month of March. In addition, the airline industry was especially concerned if DST were to be extended through to the last Sunday in November, as this is very often the Sunday after Thanksgiving (except for 2013, 2019, 2024, and 2030), as this is always the Sunday after the fourth Friday in November, and Thanksgiving is on the fourth Thursday in November. This is one of the busiest travel days at American airports, and could have resulted in much havoc among travelers who forgot that the clocks were changing that day.

If the original proposal to extend DST through the last Sunday in November had been adopted, the entire United States, with the exception of the states that exempted themselves, would have experienced the latest sunrises of the year during the month of November, which would have approached the extremely late sunrise times when DST went into effect on January 6, 1974, due to the 1973 energy crisis creeping after 9 am in places like New Salem, North Dakota at the northwestern edges of time zones.

Under the current rules, the latest sunrise occurs on the day before DST ends, everywhere in the United States that observes DST. This sunrise time is later than any during the winter months.

title: History of time in the United States


text:
Talk:Serotonin transporter

Untitled
This article is adapted from the public domain NIMH press release at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/events/prmutationa.cfm

For possible inclusion:

 * Oceanflynn (talk) 17:41, 17 May 2019 (UTC)

is this general or just a seperate seratonin transporter then 5ht2a for example?
is this general or just a seperate seratonin transporter then 5ht2a for example? 85.24.186.196 (talk) 15:18, 22 April 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Serotonin transporter


text:
Grammy Award for Best Gospel Choir or Chorus Album

The Grammy Award for Best Gospel Choir or Chorus Album was awarded from 1991 to 2006. From 1991 to 1997 it was awarded as Best Gospel Album by a Choir or Chorus. The Brooklyn Tabernacle Choir and their director, Carol Cymbala, were the most decorated artist in this category with six wins.

Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year.

Recipients
Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were presented, for works released in the previous year. undefined Each year is linked to the article about the Grammy Awards held that year.


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Paillier cryptosystem

The Paillier cryptosystem, invented by and named after Pascal Paillier in 1999, is a probabilistic asymmetric algorithm for public key cryptography. The problem of computing n-th residue classes is believed to be computationally difficult. The decisional composite residuosity assumption is the intractability hypothesis upon which this cryptosystem is based.

The scheme is an additive homomorphic cryptosystem; this means that, given only the public key and the encryption of $$m_1$$ and $$m_2$$, one can compute the encryption of $$m_1+m_2$$.

Algorithm
The scheme works as follows:

Key generation

 * 1) Choose two large prime numbers $$p$$ and $$q$$ randomly and independently of each other such that $$\gcd(pq, (p-1)(q-1))=1$$. This property is assured if both primes are of equal length.
 * 2) Compute $$n=pq$$ and $$\lambda=\operatorname{lcm}(p-1,q-1)$$. lcm means Least Common Multiple.
 * 3) Select random integer $$g$$ where $$g\in \mathbb Z^{*}_{n^{2}}$$
 * 4) Ensure $$n$$ divides the order of $$g$$ by checking the existence of the following modular multiplicative inverse: $$\mu = (L(g^\lambda \bmod n^2))^{-1} \bmod n$$,
 * where function $$L$$ is defined as $$L(x) = \frac{x-1}{n}$$.
 * Note that the notation $$\frac{a}{b}$$ does not denote the modular multiplication of $$a$$ times the modular multiplicative inverse of $$b$$ but rather the quotient of $$a$$ divided by $$b$$, i.e., the largest integer value $$v \ge 0$$ to satisfy the relation $$a \ge vb$$.

If using p,q of equivalent length, a simpler variant of the above key generation steps would be to set $$g = n+1, \lambda = \varphi(n),$$ and $$\mu = \varphi(n)^{-1} \bmod n$$, where $$\varphi(n) = (p-1)(q-1)$$. The simpler variant is recommended for implementational purposes, because in the general form the calculation time of $$\mu$$ can be very high with sufficiently large primes p,q.
 * The public (encryption) key is $$(n, g)$$.
 * The private (decryption) key is $$(\lambda, \mu).$$

Encryption

 * 1) Let $$m$$ be a message to be encrypted where $$0 \leq m < n$$
 * 2) Select random $$r$$ where $$0 < r < n$$ and $$\gcd(r,n)=1$$. (Note: if you find a value that has $$\gcd(r,n) \ne 1$$, you can use this to calculate the private key: this is unlikely enough to ignore.)
 * 3) Compute ciphertext as: $$ c=g^m \cdot r^n \bmod n^2 $$

Decryption

 * 1) Let $$c$$ be the ciphertext to decrypt, where $$c\in \mathbb Z^{*}_{n^{2}} $$
 * 2) Compute the plaintext message as: $$m = L(c^\lambda \bmod n^2) \cdot \mu \bmod n$$

As the original paper points out, decryption is "essentially one exponentiation modulo $$n^2$$."

Homomorphic properties
A notable feature of the Paillier cryptosystem is its homomorphic properties along with its non-deterministic encryption (see Electronic voting in Applications for usage). As the encryption function is additively homomorphic, the following identities can be described:

 * Homomorphic addition of plaintexts

 * The product of two ciphertexts will decrypt to the sum of their corresponding plaintexts,

 * $$D(E(m_1, r_1)\cdot E(m_2, r_2)\bmod n^2) = m_1 + m_2 \bmod n. \, $$

 * The product of a ciphertext with a plaintext raising $$g$$ will decrypt to the sum of the corresponding plaintexts,

 * $$D(E(m_1, r_1)\cdot g^{m_2} \bmod n^2) = m_1 + m_2 \bmod n. \, $$

 * Homomorphic multiplication of plaintexts

 * A ciphertext raised to the power of a plaintext will decrypt to the product of the two plaintexts,

 * $$D(E(m_1, r_1)^{m_2}\bmod n^2) = m_1 m_2 \bmod n, \, $$
 * $$D(E(m_2, r_2)^{m_1}\bmod n^2) = m_1 m_2 \bmod n. \, $$

 * More generally, a ciphertext raised to a constant k will decrypt to the product of the plaintext and the constant,

 * $$D(E(m_1, r_1)^k\bmod n^2) = k m_1 \bmod n. \, $$

However, given the Paillier encryptions of two messages there is no known way to compute an encryption of the product of these messages without knowing the private key.

Background
Paillier cryptosystem exploits the fact that certain discrete logarithms can be computed easily.

For example, by binomial theorem,
 * $$(1+n)^x=\sum_{k=0}^x {x \choose k}n^k = 1+nx+{x \choose 2}n^2 + \text{higher powers of }n$$

This indicates that:
 * $$(1+n)^x \equiv 1+nx\pmod{n^2}$$

Therefore, if:
 * $$y = (1+n)^x \bmod n^2$$

then
 * $$x \equiv \frac{y-1}{n} \pmod{n}$$.

Thus:
 * $$L((1+n)^x \bmod n^2) \equiv x \pmod{n}$$,
 * where function $$L$$ is defined as $$L(u) = \frac{u-1}{n}$$ (quotient of integer division) and $$x \in \mathbb Z_{n}$$.

Semantic security
The original cryptosystem as shown above does provide semantic security against chosen-plaintext attacks (IND-CPA). The ability to successfully distinguish the challenge ciphertext essentially amounts to the ability to decide composite residuosity. The so-called decisional composite residuosity assumption (DCRA) is believed to be intractable.

Because of the aforementioned homomorphic properties however, the system is malleable, and therefore does not enjoy the highest level of semantic security, protection against adaptive chosen-ciphertext attacks (IND-CCA2). Usually in cryptography the notion of malleability is not seen as an "advantage," but under certain applications such as secure electronic voting and threshold cryptosystems, this property may indeed be necessary.

Paillier and Pointcheval however went on to propose an improved cryptosystem that incorporates the combined hashing of message m with random r. Similar in intent to the Cramer–Shoup cryptosystem, the hashing prevents an attacker, given only c, from being able to change m in a meaningful way. Through this adaptation the improved scheme can be shown to be IND-CCA2 secure in the random oracle model.

Electronic voting
Semantic security is not the only consideration. There are situations under which malleability may be desirable. Secure electronic voting systems can utilize the above homomorphic properties. Consider a simple binary ("for" or "against") vote. Let m voters cast a vote of either 1 (for) or 0 (against). Each voter encrypts their choice before casting their vote. The election official takes the product of the m encrypted votes and then decrypts the result and obtains the value n, which is the sum of all the votes. The election official then knows that n people voted for and m-n people voted against. The role of the random r ensures that two equivalent votes will encrypt to the same value only with negligible likelihood, hence ensuring voter privacy.

Electronic cash
Another feature named in paper is the notion of self-blinding. This is the ability to change one ciphertext into another without changing the content of its decryption. This has application to the development of ecash, an effort originally spearheaded by David Chaum. Imagine paying for an item online without the vendor needing to know your credit card number, and hence your identity. The goal in both electronic cash and electronic voting, is to ensure the e-coin (likewise e-vote) is valid, while at the same time not disclosing the identity of the person with whom it is currently associated.

Electronic auction
The Paillier cryptosystem plays a crucial role in enhancing the security of electronic auctions. It prevents fraudulent activities such as dishonest auctioneers and collusion between bidders and auctioneers who manipulate bids. By ensuring the confidentiality of actual bidding values while revealing auction results, the Pailler cryptosystem successfully promotes fair practices.

Threshold cryptosystem
The homomorphic property of Paillier cryptosystem is sometimes used to build Threshold ECDSA signature.

title: Paillier cryptosystem


text:
The Sunday Post

The Sunday Post is a weekly newspaper published in Dundee, Scotland, by DC Thomson, and characterised by a mix of news, human interest stories and short features. The paper was founded in 1914 and has a wide circulation across Scotland, Northern Ireland, and parts of Northern England.

The current editor is Richard Prest.

Sales of the Sunday Post in Scotland were once so high that it was recorded in The Guinness Book of Records as the newspaper with the highest per capita readership penetration of anywhere in the world; in 1969, its total estimated readership of 2,931,000 represented more than 80 per cent of the entire population of Scotland aged 16 and over. The Sunday Post has seen a decline in circulation in common with other print titles; in 1999 circulation was around 700,000, dropping to just under 143,000 in December 2016, with a year-on-year fall of 13.5% recorded for 2016.

2007 saw DC Thomson launch an advertising drive for The Sunday Post, primarily used on buses, in which the exclamation "Strip Sensation!" is seen by a picture of the folded paper displaying its masthead; next to this is the tagline punning on the exclamation: "A thoroughly decent read".

The newspaper backed a "No" vote in the referendum on Scottish independence.

In 2014 a weekly magazine supplement was reintroduced. Called IN10, it features entertainment, food, homes, gardens, travel and books as well as The Sunday Post's man in Hollywood, Ross King.

Regular features
Regular columns include:
 * My Week by Francis Gay (a generic character), featuring sentimental stories and a weekly short poem
 * The Honest Truth – question and answer celebrity interview feature
 * Raw Deal – consumer problems
 * The Doc Replies – medical advice
 * Can You Do Me a Favour? – readers asking if fellow readers can help them in their quest to find an item (discontinued)
 * The Queries Man – readers send in questions on a range of topics, which an unnamed person answers
 * Your Money – Personal finance feature.
 * On The Box – TV review column.

Former long-running columns included:
 * The HON Man – (a generic character), an unidentifiable peripatetic man (represented by a cartoon in all his photographs, and reputedly a team of reporters), who travelled Britain, meeting people and exploring local tourist attractions (HON being short for "Holiday on Nothing").

Comics
There is a Fun Section featuring comic strips such as:
 * Oor Wullie
 * The Broons
 * Wee Harry
 * Wor Nicky

Comic strips that no longer appear include:
 * Nosey Parker Our Muddling Meddler
 * Nero and Zero The Rollicking Romans
 * Silias Snatcher The Truant Catcher
 * Wishbone Wuzzy
 * Austen and his Auto
 * Barnacle Bill
 * Funny Corner
 * Peter Pumpkin The Country Bumpkin
 * Natty Ned
 * Wee Jock Sparra
 * The Broons' Bairn

Editors

 * 2001: David Pollington
 * 2010: Donald Martin
 * 2015: Richard Prest
 * 2023-present: Dave Lord

title: The Sunday Post


text:
Biosensor

A biosensor is an analytical device, used for the detection of a chemical substance, that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector. The sensitive biological element, e.g. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc., is a biologically derived material or biomimetic component that interacts with, binds with, or recognizes the analyte under study. The biologically sensitive elements can also be created by biological engineering. The transducer or the detector element, which transforms one signal into another one, works in a physicochemical way: optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, electrochemiluminescence etc., resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element, to easily measure and quantify. The biosensor reader device connects with the associated electronics or signal processors that are primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. This sometimes accounts for the most expensive part of the sensor device, however it is possible to generate a user friendly display that includes transducer and sensitive element (holographic sensor). The readers are usually custom-designed and manufactured to suit the different working principles of biosensors.

Biosensor system
A biosensor typically consists of a bio-receptor (enzyme/antibody/cell/nucleic acid/aptamer), transducer component (semi-conducting material/nanomaterial), and electronic system which includes a signal amplifier, processor & display. Transducers and electronics can be combined, e.g., in CMOS-based microsensor systems. The recognition component, often called a bioreceptor, uses biomolecules from organisms or receptors modeled after biological systems to interact with the analyte of interest. This interaction is measured by the biotransducer which outputs a measurable signal proportional to the presence of the target analyte in the sample. The general aim of the design of a biosensor is to enable quick, convenient testing at the point of concern or care where the sample was procured.

Bioreceptors

In a biosensor, the bioreceptor is designed to interact with the specific analyte of interest to produce an effect measurable by the transducer. High selectivity for the analyte among a matrix of other chemical or biological components is a key requirement of the bioreceptor. While the type of biomolecule used can vary widely, biosensors can be classified according to common types of bioreceptor interactions involving: antibody/antigen, enzymes/ligands, nucleic acids/DNA, cellular structures/cells, or biomimetic materials.

Antibody/antigen interactions
An immunosensor utilizes the very specific binding affinity of antibodies for a specific compound or antigen. The specific nature of the antibody-antigen interaction is analogous to a lock and key fit in that the antigen will only bind to the antibody if it has the correct conformation. Binding events result in a physicochemical change that in combination with a tracer, such as fluorescent molecules, enzymes, or radioisotopes, can generate a signal. There are limitations with using antibodies in sensors: 1. The antibody binding capacity is strongly dependent on assay conditions (e.g. pH and temperature), and 2. the antibody-antigen interaction is generally robust, however, binding can be disrupted by chaotropic reagents, organic solvents, or even ultrasonic radiation.

Antibody-antigen interactions can also be used for serological testing, or the detection of circulating antibodies in response to a specific disease. Importantly, serology tests have become an important part of the global response to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Artificial binding proteins
The use of antibodies as the bio-recognition component of biosensors has several drawbacks. They have high molecular weights and limited stability, contain essential disulfide bonds and are expensive to produce. In one approach to overcome these limitations, recombinant binding fragments (Fab, Fv or scFv) or domains (VH, VHH) of antibodies have been engineered. In another approach, small protein scaffolds with favorable biophysical properties have been engineered to generate artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP), capable of specific binding to different target proteins while retaining the favorable properties of the parent molecule. The elements of the family that specifically bind to a given target antigen, are often selected in vitro by display techniques: phage display, ribosome display, yeast display or mRNA display. The artificial binding proteins are much smaller than antibodies (usually less than 100 amino-acid residues), have a strong stability, lack disulfide bonds and can be expressed in high yield in reducing cellular environments like the bacterial cytoplasm, contrary to antibodies and their derivatives. They are thus especially suitable to create biosensors.

Enzymatic interactions
The specific binding capabilities and catalytic activity of enzymes make them popular bioreceptors. Analyte recognition is enabled through several possible mechanisms: 1) the enzyme converting the analyte into a product that is sensor-detectable, 2) detecting enzyme inhibition or activation by the analyte, or 3) monitoring modification of enzyme properties resulting from interaction with the analyte. The main reasons for the common use of enzymes in biosensors are: 1) ability to catalyze a large number of reactions; 2) potential to detect a group of analytes (substrates, products, inhibitors, and modulators of the catalytic activity); and 3) suitability with several different transduction methods for detecting the analyte. Notably, since enzymes are not consumed in reactions, the biosensor can easily be used continuously. The catalytic activity of enzymes also allows lower limits of detection compared to common binding techniques. However, the sensor's lifetime is limited by the stability of the enzyme.

Affinity binding receptors
Antibodies have a high binding constant in excess of 10^8 L/mol, which stands for a nearly irreversible association once the antigen-antibody couple has formed. For certain analyte molecules like glucose affinity binding proteins exist that bind their ligand with a high specificity like an antibody, but with a much smaller binding constant on the order of 10^2 to 10^4 L/mol. The association between analyte and receptor then is of reversible nature and next to the couple between both also their free molecules occur in a measurable concentration. In case of glucose, for instance, concanavalin A may function as affinity receptor exhibiting a binding constant of 4x10^2 L/mol. The use of affinity binding receptors for purposes of biosensing has been proposed by Schultz and Sims in 1979 and was subsequently configured into a fluorescent assay for measuring glucose in the relevant physiological range between 4.4 and 6.1 mmol/L. The sensor principle has the advantage that it does not consume the analyte in a chemical reaction as occurs in enzymatic assays.

Nucleic acid interactions
Biosensors employing nucleic acid based receptors can be either based on complementary base pairing interactions referred to as genosensors or specific nucleic acid based antibody mimics (aptamers) as aptasensors. In the former, the recognition process is based on the principle of complementary base pairing, adenine:thymine and cytosine:guanine in DNA. If the target nucleic acid sequence is known, complementary sequences can be synthesized, labeled, and then immobilized on the sensor. The hybridization event can be optically detected and presence of target DNA/RNA ascertained. In the latter, aptamers generated against the target recognise it via interplay of specific non-covalent interactions and induced fitting. These aptamers can be labelled with a fluorophore/metal nanoparticles easily for optical detection or may be employed for label-free electrochemical or cantilever based detection platforms for a wide range of target molecules or complex targets like cells and viruses. Additionally, aptamers can be combined with nucleic acid enzymes, such as RNA-cleaving DNAzymes, providing both target recognition and signal generation in a single molecule, which shows potential applications in the development of multiplex biosensors.

Epigenetics
It has been proposed that properly optimized integrated optical resonators can be exploited for detecting epigenetic modifications (e.g. DNA methylation, histone post-translational modifications) in body fluids from patients affected by cancer or other diseases. Photonic biosensors with ultra-sensitivity are nowadays being developed at a research level to easily detect cancerous cells within the patient's urine. Different research projects aim to develop new portable devices that use cheap, environmentally friendly, disposable cartridges that require only simple handling with no need of further processing, washing, or manipulation by expert technicians.

Organelles
Organelles form separate compartments inside cells and usually perform functions independently. Different kinds of organelles have various metabolic pathways and contain enzymes to fulfill its function. Commonly used organelles include lysosome, chloroplast and mitochondria. The spatial-temporal distribution pattern of calcium is closely related to ubiquitous signaling pathway. Mitochondria actively participate in the metabolism of calcium ions to control the function and also modulate the calcium related signaling pathways. Experiments have proved that mitochondria have the ability to respond to high calcium concentrations generated in their proximity by opening the calcium channels. In this way, mitochondria can be used to detect the calcium concentration in medium and the detection is very sensitive due to high spatial resolution. Another application of mitochondria is used for detection of water pollution. Detergent compounds' toxicity will damage the cell and subcellular structure including mitochondria. The detergents will cause a swelling effect which could be measured by an absorbance change. Experiment data shows the change rate is proportional to the detergent concentration, providing a high standard for detection accuracy.

Cells
Cells are often used in bioreceptors because they are sensitive to surrounding environment and they can respond to all kinds of stimulants. Cells tend to attach to the surface so they can be easily immobilized. Compared to organelles they remain active for longer period and the reproducibility makes them reusable. They are commonly used to detect global parameter like stress condition, toxicity and organic derivatives. They can also be used to monitor the treatment effect of drugs. One application is to use cells to determine herbicides which are main aquatic contaminant. Microalgae are entrapped on a quartz microfiber and the chlorophyll fluorescence modified by herbicides is collected at the tip of an optical fiber bundle and transmitted to a fluorimeter. The algae are continuously cultured to get optimized measurement. Results show that detection limit of certain herbicide can reach sub-ppb concentration level. Some cells can also be used to monitor the microbial corrosion. Pseudomonas sp. is isolated from corroded material surface and immobilized on acetylcellulose membrane. The respiration activity is determined by measuring oxygen consumption. There is linear relationship between the current generated and the concentration of sulfuric acid. The response time is related to the loading of cells and surrounding environments and can be controlled to no more than 5min.

Tissue
Tissues are used for biosensor for the abundance of enzymes existing. Advantages of tissues as biosensors include the following:

 * easier to immobilize compared to cells and organelles
 * the higher activity and stability from maintaining enzymes in the natural environment
 * the availability and low price
 * the avoidance of tedious work of extraction, centrifuge, and purification of enzymes
 * necessary cofactors for an enzyme to function exists
 * the diversity providing a wide range of choices concerning different objectives.

There also exist some disadvantages of tissues, like the lack of specificity due to the interference of other enzymes and longer response time due to the transport barrier.

Microbial biosensors
Microbial biosensors exploit the response of bacteria to a given substance. For example, arsenic can be detected using the ars operon found in several bacterial taxon.

Surface attachment of the biological elements

An important part of a biosensor is to attach the biological elements (small molecules/protein/cells) to the surface of the sensor (be it metal, polymer, or glass). The simplest way is to functionalize the surface in order to coat it with the biological elements. This can be done by polylysine, aminosilane, epoxysilane, or nitrocellulose in the case of silicon chips/silica glass. Subsequently, the bound biological agent may also be fixed—for example, by layer by layer deposition of alternatively charged polymer coatings.

Alternatively, three-dimensional lattices (hydrogel/xerogel) can be used to chemically or physically entrap these (whereby chemically entrapped it is meant that the biological element is kept in place by a strong bond, while physically they are kept in place being unable to pass through the pores of the gel matrix). The most commonly used hydrogel is sol-gel, glassy silica generated by polymerization of silicate monomers (added as tetra alkyl orthosilicates, such as TMOS or TEOS) in the presence of the biological elements (along with other stabilizing polymers, such as PEG) in the case of physical entrapment.

Another group of hydrogels, which set under conditions suitable for cells or protein, are acrylate hydrogel, which polymerizes upon radical initiation. One type of radical initiator is a peroxide radical, typically generated by combining a persulfate with TEMED (Polyacrylamide gel are also commonly used for protein electrophoresis), alternatively light can be used in combination with a photoinitiator, such as DMPA (2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone). Smart materials that mimic the biological components of a sensor can also be classified as biosensors using only the active or catalytic site or analogous configurations of a biomolecule.

Biotransducer
Biosensors can be classified by their biotransducer type. The most common types of biotransducers used in biosensors are:

 * electrochemical biosensors
 * optical biosensors
 * electronic biosensors
 * piezoelectric biosensors
 * gravimetric biosensors
 * pyroelectric biosensors
 * magnetic biosensors

Electrochemical
Electrochemical biosensors are normally based on enzymatic catalysis of a reaction that produces or consumes electrons (such enzymes are rightly called redox enzymes). The sensor substrate usually contains three electrodes; a reference electrode, a working electrode and a counter electrode. The target analyte is involved in the reaction that takes place on the active electrode surface, and the reaction may cause either electron transfer across the double layer (producing a current) or can contribute to the double layer potential (producing a voltage). We can either measure the current (rate of flow of electrons is now proportional to the analyte concentration) at a fixed potential or the potential can be measured at zero current (this gives a logarithmic response). Note that potential of the working or active electrode is space charge sensitive and this is often used. Further, the label-free and direct electrical detection of small peptides and proteins is possible by their intrinsic charges using biofunctionalized ion-sensitive field-effect transistors.

Another example, the potentiometric biosensor, (potential produced at zero current) gives a logarithmic response with a high dynamic range. Such biosensors are often made by screen printing the electrode patterns on a plastic substrate, coated with a conducting polymer and then some protein (enzyme or antibody) is attached. They have only two electrodes and are extremely sensitive and robust. They enable the detection of analytes at levels previously only achievable by HPLC and LC/MS and without rigorous sample preparation. All biosensors usually involve minimal sample preparation as the biological sensing component is highly selective for the analyte concerned. The signal is produced by electrochemical and physical changes in the conducting polymer layer due to changes occurring at the surface of the sensor. Such changes can be attributed to ionic strength, pH, hydration and redox reactions, the latter due to the enzyme label turning over a substrate. Field effect transistors, in which the gate region has been modified with an enzyme or antibody, can also detect very low concentrations of various analytes as the binding of the analyte to the gate region of the FET cause a change in the drain-source current.

Impedance spectroscopy based biosensor development has been gaining traction nowadays and many such devices / developments are found in the academia and industry. One such device, based on a 4-electrode electrochemical cell, using a nanoporous alumina membrane, has been shown to detect low concentrations of human alpha thrombin in presence of high background of serum albumin. Also interdigitated electrodes have been used for impedance biosensors.

Ion channel switch

The use of ion channels has been shown to offer highly sensitive detection of target biological molecules. By embedding the ion channels in supported or tethered bilayer membranes (t-BLM) attached to a gold electrode, an electrical circuit is created. Capture molecules such as antibodies can be bound to the ion channel so that the binding of the target molecule controls the ion flow through the channel. This results in a measurable change in the electrical conduction which is proportional to the concentration of the target.

An ion channel switch (ICS) biosensor can be created using gramicidin, a dimeric peptide channel, in a tethered bilayer membrane. One peptide of gramicidin, with attached antibody, is mobile and one is fixed. Breaking the dimer stops the ionic current through the membrane. The magnitude of the change in electrical signal is greatly increased by separating the membrane from the metal surface using a hydrophilic spacer.

Quantitative detection of an extensive class of target species, including proteins, bacteria, drug and toxins has been demonstrated using different membrane and capture configurations. The European research project Greensense develops a biosensor to perform quantitative screening of drug-of-abuse such as THC, morphine, and cocaine in saliva and urine.

Reagentless fluorescent biosensor
A reagentless biosensor can monitor a target analyte in a complex biological mixture without additional reagent. Therefore, it can function continuously if immobilized on a solid support. A fluorescent biosensor reacts to the interaction with its target analyte by a change of its fluorescence properties. A Reagentless Fluorescent biosensor (RF biosensor) can be obtained by integrating a biological receptor, which is directed against the target analyte, and a solvatochromic fluorophore, whose emission properties are sensitive to the nature of its local environment, in a single macromolecule. The fluorophore transduces the recognition event into a measurable optical signal. The use of extrinsic fluorophores, whose emission properties differ widely from those of the intrinsic fluorophores of proteins, tryptophan and tyrosine, enables one to immediately detect and quantify the analyte in complex biological mixtures. The integration of the fluorophore must be done in a site where it is sensitive to the binding of the analyte without perturbing the affinity of the receptor.

Antibodies and artificial families of Antigen Binding Proteins (AgBP) are well suited to provide the recognition module of RF biosensors since they can be directed against any antigen (see the paragraph on bioreceptors). A general approach to integrate a solvatochromic fluorophore in an AgBP when the atomic structure of the complex with its antigen is known, and thus transform it into a RF biosensor, has been described. A residue of the AgBP is identified in the neighborhood of the antigen in their complex. This residue is changed into a cysteine by site-directed mutagenesis. The fluorophore is chemically coupled to the mutant cysteine. When the design is successful, the coupled fluorophore does not prevent the binding of the antigen, this binding shields the fluorophore from the solvent, and it can be detected by a change of fluorescence. This strategy is also valid for antibody fragments.

However, in the absence of specific structural data, other strategies must be applied. Antibodies and artificial families of AgBPs are constituted by a set of hypervariable (or randomized) residue positions, located in a unique sub-region of the protein, and supported by a constant polypeptide scaffold. The residues that form the binding site for a given antigen, are selected among the hypervariable residues. It is possible to transform any AgBP of these families into a RF biosensor, specific of the target antigen, simply by coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore to one of the hypervariable residues that have little or no importance for the interaction with the antigen, after changing this residue into cysteine by mutagenesis. More specifically, the strategy consists in individually changing the residues of the hypervariable positions into cysteine at the genetic level, in chemically coupling a solvatochromic fluorophore with the mutant cysteine, and then in keeping the resulting conjugates that have the highest sensitivity (a parameter that involves both affinity and variation of fluorescence signal). This approach is also valid for families of antibody fragments.

A posteriori studies have shown that the best reagentless fluorescent biosensors are obtained when the fluorophore does not make non-covalent interactions with the surface of the bioreceptor, which would increase the background signal, and when it interacts with a binding pocket at the surface of the target antigen. The RF biosensors that are obtained by the above methods, can function and detect target analytes inside living cells.

Magnetic biosensors
Magnetic biosensors utilize paramagnetic or supra-paramagnetic particles, or crystals, to detect biological interactions. Examples could be coil-inductance, resistance, or other magnetic properties. It is common to use magnetic nano or microparticles. In the surface of such particles are the bioreceptors, that can be DNA (complementary to a sequence or aptamers) antibodies, or others. The binding of the bioreceptor will affect some of the magnetic particle properties that can be measured by AC susceptometry, a Hall Effect sensor, a giant magnetoresistance device, or others.

Others
Piezoelectric sensors utilise crystals which undergo an elastic deformation when an electrical potential is applied to them. An alternating potential (A.C.) produces a standing wave in the crystal at a characteristic frequency. This frequency is highly dependent on the elastic properties of the crystal, such that if a crystal is coated with a biological recognition element the binding of a (large) target analyte to a receptor will produce a change in the resonance frequency, which gives a binding signal. In a mode that uses surface acoustic waves (SAW), the sensitivity is greatly increased. This is a specialised application of the quartz crystal microbalance as a biosensor

Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) is nowadays a leading technique in biosensors. Since the excited species are produced with an electrochemical stimulus rather than with a light excitation source, ECL displays improved signal-to-noise ratio compared to photoluminescence, with minimized effects due to light scattering and luminescence background. In particular, coreactant ECL operating in buffered aqueous solution in the region of positive potentials (oxidative-reduction mechanism) definitively boosted ECL for immunoassay, as confirmed by many research applications and, even more, by the presence of important companies which developed commercial hardware for high throughput immunoassays analysis in a market worth billions of dollars each year.

Thermometric biosensors are rare.

Biosensor MOSFET (BioFET)
The MOSFET (metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistor, or MOS transistor) was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng in 1959, and demonstrated in 1960. Two years later, Leland C. Clark and Champ Lyons invented the first biosensor in 1962. Biosensor MOSFETs (BioFETs) were later developed, and they have since been widely used to measure physical, chemical, biological and environmental parameters.

The first BioFET was the ion-sensitive field-effect transistor (ISFET), invented by Piet Bergveld for electrochemical and biological applications in 1970. the adsorption FET (ADFET) was patented by P.F. Cox in 1974, and a hydrogen-sensitive MOSFET was demonstrated by I. Lundstrom, M.S. Shivaraman, C.S. Svenson and L. Lundkvist in 1975. The ISFET is a special type of MOSFET with a gate at a certain distance, and where the metal gate is replaced by an ion-sensitive membrane, electrolyte solution and reference electrode. The ISFET is widely used in biomedical applications, such as the detection of DNA hybridization, biomarker detection from blood, antibody detection, glucose measurement, pH sensing, and genetic technology.

By the mid-1980s, other BioFETs had been developed, including the gas sensor FET (GASFET), pressure sensor FET (PRESSFET), chemical field-effect transistor (ChemFET), reference ISFET (REFET), enzyme-modified FET (ENFET) and immunologically modified FET (IMFET). By the early 2000s, BioFETs such as the DNA field-effect transistor (DNAFET), gene-modified FET (GenFET) and cell-potential BioFET (CPFET) had been developed.

Placement of biosensors
The appropriate placement of biosensors depends on their field of application, which may roughly be divided into biotechnology, agriculture, food technology and biomedicine.

In biotechnology, analysis of the chemical composition of cultivation broth can be conducted in-line, on-line, at-line and off-line. As outlined by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the sample is not removed from the process stream for in-line sensors, while it is diverted from the manufacturing process for on-line measurements. For at-line sensors the sample may be removed and analyzed in close proximity to the process stream. An example of the latter is the monitoring of lactose in a dairy processing plant. Off-line biosensors compare to bioanalytical techniques that are not operating in the field, but in the laboratory. These techniques are mainly used in agriculture, food technology and biomedicine.

In medical applications biosensors are generally categorized as in vitro and in vivo systems. An in vitro, biosensor measurement takes place in a test tube, a culture dish, a microtiter plate or elsewhere outside a living organism. The sensor uses a bioreceptor and transducer as outlined above. An example of an in vitro biosensor is an enzyme-conductimetric biosensor for blood glucose monitoring. There is a challenge to create a biosensor that operates by the principle of point-of-care testing, i.e. at the location where the test is needed. Development of wearable biosensors is among such studies. The elimination of lab testing can save time and money. An application of a POCT biosensor can be for the testing of HIV in areas where it is difficult for patients to be tested. A biosensor can be sent directly to the location and a quick and easy test can be used.

An in vivo biosensor is an implantable device that operates inside the body. Of course, biosensor implants have to fulfill the strict regulations on sterilization in order to avoid an initial inflammatory response after implantation. The second concern relates to the long-term biocompatibility, i.e. the unharmful interaction with the body environment during the intended period of use. Another issue that arises is failure. If there is failure, the device must be removed and replaced, causing additional surgery. An example for application of an in vivo biosensor would be the insulin monitoring within the body, which is not available yet.

Most advanced biosensor implants have been developed for the continuous monitoring of glucose. The figure displays a device, for which a Ti casing and a battery as established for cardiovascular implants like pacemakers and defibrillators is used. Its size is determined by the battery as required for a lifetime of one year. Measured glucose data will be transmitted wirelessly out of the body within the MICS 402-405 MHz band as approved for medical implants.

Biosensors can also be integrated into mobile phone systems, making them user-friendly and accessible to a large number of users.

Applications

There are many potential applications of biosensors of various types. The main requirements for a biosensor approach to be valuable in terms of research and commercial applications are the identification of a target molecule, availability of a suitable biological recognition element, and the potential for disposable portable detection systems to be preferred to sensitive laboratory-based techniques in some situations. Some examples are:

 * glucose monitoring in diabetes patients, other medical health related targets,
 * environmental applications, e.g. the detection of pesticides, detection and determining of organophosphate, and river water contaminants, such as heavy metal ions,
 * remote sensing of airborne bacteria, e.g. in counter-bioterrorist activities,
 * remote sensing of water quality in coastal waters by describing online different aspects of clam ethology (biological rhythms, growth rates, spawning or death records) in groups of abandoned bivalves around the world,
 * detection of pathogens,
 * determining levels of toxic substances before and after bioremediation,
 * routine analytical measurement of folic acid, biotin, vitamin B12 and pantothenic acid as an alternative to microbiological assay,
 * determination of drug residues in food, such as antibiotics and growth promoters, particularly meat and honey,
 * drug discovery and evaluation of biological activity of new compounds,
 * protein engineering in biosensors, and
 * detection of toxic metabolites such as mycotoxins.

A common example of a commercial biosensor is the blood glucose biosensor, which uses the enzyme glucose oxidase to break blood glucose down. In doing so it first oxidizes glucose and uses two electrons to reduce the FAD (a component of the enzyme) to FADH2. This in turn is oxidized by the electrode in a number of steps. The resulting current is a measure of the concentration of glucose. In this case, the electrode is the transducer and the enzyme is the biologically active component.

A canary in a cage, as used by miners to warn of gas, could be considered a biosensor. Many of today's biosensor applications are similar, in that they use organisms which respond to toxic substances at a much lower concentrations than humans can detect to warn of their presence. Such devices can be used in environmental monitoring, trace gas detection and in water treatment facilities.

Glucose monitoring
Commercially available glucose monitors rely on amperometric sensing of glucose by means of glucose oxidase, which oxidises glucose producing hydrogen peroxide which is detected by the electrode. To overcome the limitation of amperometric sensors, a flurry of research is present into novel sensing methods, such as fluorescent glucose biosensors.

Interferometric reflectance imaging sensor
The interferometric reflectance imaging sensor (IRIS) is based on the principles of optical interference and consists of a silicon-silicon oxide substrate, standard optics, and low-powered coherent LEDs. When light is illuminated through a low magnification objective onto the layered silicon-silicon oxide substrate, an interferometric signature is produced. As biomass, which has a similar index of refraction as silicon oxide, accumulates on the substrate surface, a change in the interferometric signature occurs and the change can be correlated to a quantifiable mass. Daaboul et al. used IRIS to yield a label-free sensitivity of approximately 19 ng/mL. Ahn et al. improved the sensitivity of IRIS through a mass tagging technique.

Since initial publication, IRIS has been adapted to perform various functions. First, IRIS integrated a fluorescence imaging capability into the interferometric imaging instrument as a potential way to address fluorescence protein microarray variability. Briefly, the variation in fluorescence microarrays mainly derives from inconsistent protein immobilization on surfaces and may cause misdiagnoses in allergy microarrays. To correct for any variation in protein immobilization, data acquired in the fluorescence modality is then normalized by the data acquired in the label-free modality. IRIS has also been adapted to perform single nanoparticle counting by simply switching the low magnification objective used for label-free biomass quantification to a higher objective magnification. This modality enables size discrimination in complex human biological samples. Monroe et al. used IRIS to quantify protein levels spiked into human whole blood and serum and determined allergen sensitization in characterized human blood samples using zero sample processing. Other practical uses of this device include virus and pathogen detection.

Food analysis
There are several applications of biosensors in food analysis. In the food industry, optics coated with antibodies are commonly used to detect pathogens and food toxins. Commonly, the light system in these biosensors is fluorescence, since this type of optical measurement can greatly amplify the signal.

A range of immuno- and ligand-binding assays for the detection and measurement of small molecules such as water-soluble vitamins and chemical contaminants (drug residues) such as sulfonamides and Beta-agonists have been developed for use on SPR based sensor systems, often adapted from existing ELISA or other immunological assay. These are in widespread use across the food industry.

Detection/monitoring of pollutants
Biosensors could be used to monitor air, water, and soil pollutants such as pesticides, potentially carcinogenic, mutagenic, and/or toxic substances and endocrine disrupting chemicals.

For example, bionanotechnologists developed a viable biosensor, ROSALIND 2.0, that can detect levels of diverse water pollutants.

Ozone measurement
Because ozone filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, the discovery of holes in the ozone layer of the earth's atmosphere has raised concern about how much ultraviolet light reaches the earth's surface. Of particular concern are the questions of how deeply into sea water ultraviolet radiation penetrates and how it affects marine organisms, especially plankton (floating microorganisms) and viruses that attack plankton. Plankton form the base of the marine food chains and are believed to affect our planet's temperature and weather by uptake of CO2 for photosynthesis.

Deneb Karentz, a researcher at the Laboratory of Radio-biology and Environmental Health (University of California, San Francisco) has devised a simple method for measuring ultraviolet penetration and intensity. Working in the Antarctic Ocean, she submerged to various depths thin plastic bags containing special strains of E. coli that are almost totally unable to repair ultraviolet radiation damage to their DNA. Bacterial death rates in these bags were compared with rates in unexposed control bags of the same organism. The bacterial "biosensors" revealed constant significant ultraviolet damage at depths of 10 m and frequently at 20 and 30 m. Karentz plans additional studies of how ultraviolet may affect seasonal plankton blooms (growth spurts) in the oceans.

Metastatic cancer cell detection
Metastasis is the spread of cancer from one part of the body to another via either the circulatory system or lymphatic system. Unlike radiology imaging tests (mammograms), which send forms of energy (x-rays, magnetic fields, etc.) through the body to only take interior pictures, biosensors have the potential to directly test the malignant power of the tumor. The combination of a biological and detector element allows for a small sample requirement, a compact design, rapid signals, rapid detection, high selectivity and high sensitivity for the analyte being studied. Compared to the usual radiology imaging tests biosensors have the advantage of not only finding out how far cancer has spread and checking if treatment is effective but also are cheaper, more efficient (in time, cost and productivity) ways to assess metastaticity in early stages of cancer.

Biological engineering researchers have created oncological biosensors for breast cancer. Breast cancer is the leading common cancer among women worldwide. An example would be a transferrin- quartz crystal microbalance (QCM). As a biosensor, quartz crystal microbalances produce oscillations in the frequency of the crystal's standing wave from an alternating potential to detect nano-gram mass changes. These biosensors are specifically designed to interact and have high selectivity for receptors on cell (cancerous and normal) surfaces. Ideally, this provides a quantitative detection of cells with this receptor per surface area instead of a qualitative picture detection given by mammograms.

Seda Atay, a biotechnology researcher at Hacettepe University, experimentally observed this specificity and selectivity between a QCM and MDA-MB 231 breast cells, MCF 7 cells, and starved MDA-MB 231 cells in vitro. With other researchers she devised a method of washing these different metastatic leveled cells over the sensors to measure mass shifts due to different quantities of transferrin receptors. Particularly, the metastatic power of breast cancer cells can be determined by Quartz crystal microbalances with nanoparticles and transferrin that would potentially attach to transferrin receptors on cancer cell surfaces. There is very high selectivity for transferrin receptors because they are over-expressed in cancer cells. If cells have high expression of transferrin receptors, which shows their high metastatic power, they have higher affinity and bind more to the QCM that measures the increase in mass. Depending on the magnitude of the nano-gram mass change, the metastatic power can be determined.

Additionally, in the last years, significant attentions have been focused to detect the biomarkers of lung cancer without biopsy. In this regard, biosensors are very attractive and applicable tools for providing rapid, sensitive, specific, stable, cost-effective and non-invasive detections for early lung cancer diagnosis. Thus, cancer biosensors consisting of specific biorecognition molecules such as antibodies, complementary nucleic acid probes or other immobilized biomolecules on a transducer surface. The biorecognition molecules interact specifically with the biomarkers (targets) and the generated biological responses are converted by the transducer into a measurable analytical signal. Depending on the type of biological response, various transducers are utilized in the fabrication of cancer biosensors such as electrochemical, optical and mass-based transducers.

Pathogen detection
Biosensors could be used for the detection of pathogenic organisms.

Embedded biosensors for pathogenic signatures – such as of SARS-CoV-2 – that are wearable have been developed – such as face masks with built-in tests. See also: COVID-19 public transport R&D

New types of biosensor-chips could enable novel methods "such as drone-deployed pathogen sensors actively surveying air or wastewater". Protein-binding aptamers could be used for testing for infectious disease pathogens. Systems of electronic skins (or robot skins) with built-in biosensors (or chemical sensors) and human-machine interfaces may enable wearable as well as remote sensed device- or robotic-sensing of pathogens (as well as of several hazardous materials and tactile perceptions).

Optical biosensors
Many optical biosensors are based on the phenomenon of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) techniques. This utilises a property of gold and other materials (metals); specifically that a thin layer of gold on a high refractive index glass surface can absorb laser light, producing electron waves (surface plasmons) on the gold surface. This occurs only at a specific angle and wavelength of incident light and is highly dependent on the surface of the gold, such that binding of a target analyte to a receptor on the gold surface produces a measurable signal.

Surface plasmon resonance sensors operate using a sensor chip consisting of a plastic cassette supporting a glass plate, one side of which is coated with a microscopic layer of gold. This side contacts the optical detection apparatus of the instrument. The opposite side is then contacted with a microfluidic flow system. The contact with the flow system creates channels across which reagents can be passed in solution. This side of the glass sensor chip can be modified in a number of ways, to allow easy attachment of molecules of interest. Normally it is coated in carboxymethyl dextran or similar compound.

The refractive index at the flow side of the chip surface has a direct influence on the behavior of the light reflected off the gold side. Binding to the flow side of the chip has an effect on the refractive index and in this way biological interactions can be measured to a high degree of sensitivity with some sort of energy. The refractive index of the medium near the surface changes when biomolecules attach to the surface, and the SPR angle varies as a function of this change.

Light of a fixed wavelength is reflected off the gold side of the chip at the angle of total internal reflection, and detected inside the instrument. The angle of incident light is varied in order to match the evanescent wave propagation rate with the propagation rate of the surface plasmon polaritons. This induces the evanescent wave to penetrate through the glass plate and some distance into the liquid flowing over the surface.

Other optical biosensors are mainly based on changes in absorbance or fluorescence of an appropriate indicator compound and do not need a total internal reflection geometry. For example, a fully operational prototype device detecting casein in milk has been fabricated. The device is based on detecting changes in absorption of a gold layer. A widely used research tool, the micro-array, can also be considered a biosensor.

Biological biosensors
Biological biosensors, also known as optogenetic sensors, often incorporate a genetically modified form of a native protein or enzyme. The protein is configured to detect a specific analyte and the ensuing signal is read by a detection instrument such as a fluorometer or luminometer. An example of a recently developed biosensor is one for detecting cytosolic concentration of the analyte cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate), a second messenger involved in cellular signaling triggered by ligands interacting with receptors on the cell membrane. Similar systems have been created to study cellular responses to native ligands or xenobiotics (toxins or small molecule inhibitors). Such "assays" are commonly used in drug discovery development by pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies. Most cAMP assays in current use require lysis of the cells prior to measurement of cAMP. A live-cell biosensor for cAMP can be used in non-lysed cells with the additional advantage of multiple reads to study the kinetics of receptor response.

Nanobiosensors use an immobilized bioreceptor probe that is selective for target analyte molecules. Nanomaterials are exquisitely sensitive chemical and biological sensors. Nanoscale materials demonstrate unique properties. Their large surface area to volume ratio can achieve rapid and low cost reactions, using a variety of designs.

Other evanescent wave biosensors have been commercialised using waveguides where the propagation constant through the waveguide is changed by the absorption of molecules to the waveguide surface. One such example, dual polarisation interferometry uses a buried waveguide as a reference against which the change in propagation constant is measured. Other configurations such as the Mach–Zehnder have reference arms lithographically defined on a substrate. Higher levels of integration can be achieved using resonator geometries where the resonant frequency of a ring resonator changes when molecules are absorbed.

Electronic nose devices
Recently, arrays of many different detector molecules have been applied in so called electronic nose devices, where the pattern of response from the detectors is used to fingerprint a substance. In the Wasp Hound odor-detector, the mechanical element is a video camera and the biological element is five parasitic wasps who have been conditioned to swarm in response to the presence of a specific chemical. Current commercial electronic noses, however, do not use biological elements.

DNA biosensors
DNA can be the analyte of a biosensor, being detected through specific means, but it can also be used as part of a biosensor or, theoretically, even as a whole biosensor.

Many techniques exist to detect DNA, which is usually a means to detect organisms that have that particular DNA. DNA sequences can also be used as described above. But more forward-looking approaches exist, where DNA can be synthesized to hold enzymes in a biological, stable gel. Other applications are the design of aptamers, sequences of DNA that have a specific shape to bind a desired molecule. The most innovative processes use DNA origami for this, creating sequences that fold in a predictable structure that is useful for detection.

Scientists have built prototype sensors to detect DNA of animals from sucked in air, "airborne eDNA".

"Nanoantennas" made out of DNA – a novel type of nano-scale optical antenna – can be attached to proteins and produce a signal via fluorescence when these perform their biological functions, in particular for distinct conformational changes.

Graphene-based biosensor
Graphene is a two-dimensional carbon-based substance with superior optical, electrical, mechanical, thermal, and mechanical properties. The ability to absorb and immobilize a variety of proteins, particularly some with carbon ring structures, has proven graphene to be an excellent candidate as a biosensor transducer. As a result, various graphene-based biosensors have been explored and developed in recent times. Graphene has been employed as a biosensor in various formats especially electrochemical sensors and field effect transistors. Amongst them graphene field effect transistors (GFETs) especially have shown excellent performance as rapid point of care (PoC) diagnostics as observed through a surge in number of research articles reporting COVID-19 diagnostics using GFETs. They have been reported to have some of the lowest limit of detection whilst also having a rapid turn around time of a few seconds along with multiplexing abilities. These capabilities allow for immediate disease detection especially in cases with overlapping symptoms which are hard to distinguish at the outset, thus allowing for better patient outcomes especially in resource strained medical settings.

title: Biosensor


text:
Constantin Coandă

Constantin Coandă (4 March 1857 – 30 September 1932) was a Romanian soldier and politician who served as prime minister of Romania in 1918.

Biography
Constantin Coandă was born in Craiova. He reached the rank of general in the Romanian Army, and later became a mathematics professor at the National School of Bridges and Roads in Bucharest. Among his seven children was Henri Coandă, the discoverer of the Coandă effect.

During World War I, for a short time (24 October – 29 November 1918), he was the Prime Minister of Romania and the Foreign Affairs Minister. He participated in the signing of the Treaty of Neuilly between the Allies of World War I and Bulgaria.

On 8 December 1920, during his term as President of the Senate of Romania (representing Alexandru Averescu's People's Party), he was badly wounded by a bomb set up by the terrorist and anarchist Max Goldstein.

Military functions

 * Platoon commander in the 1st Artillery Regiment (1877 – 1883)
 * Positions in military education at the Bucharest School of Artillery, Engineering and Naval Officers and at the Superior School of War
 * Command and staff functions
 * Commander of the 2nd Artillery Regiment
 * Commander of the 5th Army Corps
 * Secretary General of the Ministry of War
 * Commander of the Bucharest Citadel
 * Military attaché in Berlin, Vienna and Paris
 * Director of the Artillery Department of the Ministry of War
 * Head of department in the General Staff
 * Inspector General of Artillery.

Other positions

 * Teacher at the Bucharest Bridge and Roads School
 * Delegate to the International Conference in The Hague
 * Military and diplomatic attaché near the Quarter of Tsar Nicholas II (1916 – 1918)
 * Minister of Industry (March 20 – July 14, 1926)
 * Minister Secretary of State (August 10, 1926 – June 4, 1927).

Writings

 * Artillery Course (1884 – 1885)
 * Projectiles and Missiles (1884).

Death
Constantin Coandă died on 30 September 1932, aged 75, in Bucharest.

title: Constantin Coandă


text:
List of rivers of Utah

This is a list of rivers in the U.S. state of Utah in the United States, sorted by watershed.

Colorado River
The Colorado River is a major river in the Western United States, emptying into the Gulf of California. Rivers are listed upstream by the point they empty into the Colorado.
 * Meadow Valley Wash (located entirely in Nevada, but its watershed has several extremely small portions in Utah)
 * Virgin River
 * Beaver Dam Wash
 * Santa Clara River
 * Ash Creek
 * Fort Pearce Wash
 * East Fork Virgin River
 * North Fork Virgin River
 * Kanab Creek
 * Paria River
 * Buckskin Gulch
 * San Juan River
 * Chinle Creek
 * Montezuma Creek
 * McElmo Creek
 * Escalante River
 * Coyote Gulch
 * Dirty Devil River
 * Fremont River
 * Sulphur Creek
 * Sand Creek
 * Muddy Creek
 * Green River
 * San Rafael River
 * Huntington Creek
 * Cottonwood Creek
 * Ferron Creek
 * Price River
 * White River
 * Range Creek
 * Willow Creek
 * White River
 * Duchesne River
 * Uinta River
 * Whiterocks River
 * Lake Fork River
 * Yellowstone River (Utah)
 * Yellowstone Creek
 * Swift Creek (Utah)
 * Strawberry River
 * Ashley Creek
 * Brush Creek
 * Jones Hole Creek (Diamond Gulch)
 * Crouse Creek
 * Cart Creek
 * Carter Creek
 * Sheep Creek
 * Henrys Fork
 * Blacks Fork
 * Muddy Creek
 * Kane Springs Creek
 * Dolores River
 * La Sal Creek

Great Salt Lake
The Great Salt Lake is the largest lake in the Great Basin. Rivers are listed in a clockwise direction.
 * Bear River
 * Malad River
 * Little Bear River
 * Logan River
 * Cub River
 * Bear Lake
 * Weber River
 * Mill Creek
 * Ogden River
 * Dalton Creek
 * East Canyon Creek
 * Cottonwood Creek
 * Jordan River
 * City Creek
 * Red Butte
 * Emigration Creek
 * Parley's Creek
 * Mill Creek
 * Big Cottonwood Creek
 * Little Cottonwood Creek
 * Bingham Creek
 * Willow Creek
 * Midas Creek
 * Dry Creek
 * Utah Lake
 * Dry Creek
 * American Fork
 * Provo River
 * Hobble Creek
 * Dry Creek
 * Spanish Fork
 * Peteetneet Creek (no longer reaches Utah Lake)
 * Current Creek
 * West Creek
 * Kimball Creek

Other Great Basin
A number of other drainage systems are located in the Great Basin.
 * Curlew Valley
 * Escalante Desert
 * Great Salt Lake Desert
 * Miry Wash
 * Grouse Creek
 * Thousand Springs Creek
 * Hamlin Valley
 * Pilot Creek Valley
 * Pine Valley
 * Rush Valley
 * Harker Creek
 * Sevier Lake
 * Sevier River
 * Beaver River
 * San Pitch River
 * Mammoth Creek
 * Clear Creek
 * East Fork Sevier River
 * Skull Valley
 * Snake Valley
 * Tooele Valley
 * Tule Valley
 * Wah Wah Valley

Snake River
The Snake River, which flows into the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia River, does not enter Utah, but some of its tributaries drain northwestern Utah.
 * Goose Creek
 * Raft River

title: List of rivers of Utah


text:
Cracker (comics)

Cracker was a British comic book magazine printed by D. C. Thomson & Co. Ltd that ran from the issues dated 18 January 1975 to 11 September 1976 (a total of 87 issues), when it merged with The Beezer. Some material from Cracker was reprinted in Classics from the Comics.

List of Cracker comic strips
These are in alphabetical order and all numbers refer to issues of Cracker.

title: Cracker (comics)