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Suzhou dialect

Suzhounese (Suzhounese: 蘇州閒話; ; ), also known as the Suzhou dialect, is the variety of Chinese traditionally spoken in the city of Suzhou in Jiangsu, China. Suzhounese is a variety of Wu Chinese, and was traditionally considered the Wu Chinese prestige dialect. Suzhounese has a large vowel inventory and it is relatively conservative in initials by preserving voiced consonants from Middle Chinese.

Distribution
Suzhou dialect is spoken within the city itself and the surrounding area, including migrants living in nearby Shanghai.

The Suzhou dialect is mutually intelligible with dialects spoken in its satellite cities such as Kunshan, Changshu, and Zhangjiagang, as well as those spoken in its former satellites Wuxi and Shanghai. It is also partially intelligible with dialects spoken in other areas of the Wu cultural sphere such as Hangzhou and Ningbo. However, it is not mutually intelligible with Cantonese or Standard Chinese; but, as all public schools and most broadcast communication in Suzhou use Mandarin exclusively, nearly all speakers of the dialect are at least bilingual. Owing to migration within China, many residents of the city cannot speak the local dialect but can usually understand it after a few months or years in the area.

Grammar
===Personal pronouns ===

Second and third-person pronouns are suffixed with 笃 for the plural. The first-person plural is a separate root, 伲.

Demonstrative
哀 with 该 and 弯 with 归 means the exact same thing and only differ in pronunciation. The use of neutral demonstrative pronoun became clear once proximal and neutral demonstrative pronouns are used.

 * 哀杯茶是吾葛，掰杯茶是僚葛，弯杯茶是俚葛.

When "搿" refers to time, there is no need to use the proximal and distal in opposition. The role of the neutral demonstrative is very obvious.

 * 抗战是民国二十六年到民国三十四年，掰歇(弯歇)辰光日脚勿好过.

In this sentence, "掰歇(弯歇)" cannot be replaced by "哀歇" because the Anti-Japanese War happened more than fifty years ago, so only the neutral or distal demonstrative can be used, not proximal.

When not referring to time, the proximal "哀" and the neutral demonstrative "掰" can be interchanged. For example, the "掰" in "掰个人勿认得" can be replaced by "哀".

"哀", "该", "掰", "弯" and "归" cannot be used as subjects or objects alone, but must be combined with the following quantifiers, locative words, etc.

Example phrases: 现在什么时候了？ What time is it now? 现阵子你身体好吗？ How are you now?
 * 哀歇啥辰光则？
 * 哀呛倷身体好啘？

Varieties
Some non-native speakers of Suzhou speak the Suzhou dialect in a "stylized variety" to tell tales.

Initials
The Suzhou dialect has series of voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops, and voiceless and voiced fricatives. Moreover, palatalized initials also occur.

Finals

 * Syllabic continuants:

Notes:
 * The Suzhou dialect has a rare contrast between "fricative vowels" and ordinary vowels.
 * is pronounced before rounded vowels.

The Middle Chinese rimes are retained, while  and  are either retained or have disappeared in the Suzhou dialect. Middle Chinese rimes have become glottal stops,.

In the Suzhou dialect, [gə] is a very special demonstrative that is used alongside a separate set of proximal and distal demonstratives. [gə] can indicate referents appearing in a speech situation, which may be close to or far away from the deictic center, and under these conditions, [gə] is always used in combination with gestures. Hence [gə] can serve both proximal and distal functions.

Tones
Suzhou is considered to have seven tones. However, since the tone split dating from Middle Chinese still depends on the voicing of the initial consonant. Yang tones are only found with voiced initials, namely [b d ɡ z v dʑ ʑ m n nʲ ŋ l ɦ], while the yin tones are only found with voiceless initials. These constitute just three phonemic tones: ping, shang, and qu. (Ru syllables are phonemically toneless.)

In Suzhou, the Middle Chinese 阴上 tone has partially merged with the modern 阴去 tone. Meanwhile, the 阳上 tone has fully merged with 阳去 tone. Therefore, 买 and 卖 has the exact same pronunciation in literary and colloquial readings.

Tone Sandhi
The tone sandhi present in Suzhou dialect introduces 4 completely new tones. (33), (21),  (212), and  (2)

A. Stop final + stop final

The both two-character in this combination do not change tone.

 * 脚色 tɕiɑʔ˦ səʔ˦
 * 吃力 tɕʰiəʔ˨˧ liəʔ˨˧
 * 白虱 bɑʔ˨˧ səʔ˦
 * 特别 dəʔ˨˧ biəʔ˨˧

B. Stop final + clear final

The first character do not change tones. The second character do not change tone if it has a yin (阴) tone.

 * 作兴 tsoʔ˦ ɕin˦
 * 铁饼 tʰiəʔ˦ pin˥˨
 * 国庆 kuəʔ˦ tɕʰin˦˩˨

If the second character is yangping (阳平), it becomes (44), the same as yinping (阴平).

 * 失眠 səʔ˦ miɪ˦
 * 黑魚 həʔ˦ ŋ˦

If the second character is yangqu (阳去), it becomes (21) or  (212).

 * 赤佬 tsʰəʔ˦ læ˨˩
 * 吃饭 tɕʰiəʔ˦ ve˨˩˨

C. Clear final + stop final

The second character's tone becomes (2). The first character does not change tone if it has a ping (平) or yinshang (阴上) tone.

 * 书桌 sʮ˦ tsoʔ˨
 * 牛角 nʲiʏ˨˨˦ koʔ˨
 * 海蛰 he˥˨ zəʔ˨

If the first character is yinqu (阴去) it becomes (44) similar to yinping or  (52) similar to yinshang.

 * 信壳 sin˦ kʰoʔ˨
 * 半日 pø˥˨ zəʔ˨

前字阳去多数变 (224) 调, 即与阳平同调; 少数不变.

 * 料作 liæ˨˨˦ tsoʔ˨
 * 满月 mø˨˨˦ ŋəʔ˨
 * 技术 dʑi˦˩˨ zəʔ˨

D. Clear final + clear final

The first character does not change tone if it has a ping (平) or yinshang (阴上) tone.

If the first character is yinqu (阴去) it becomes (44) similar to yinping or  (52) similar to yinshang.

If the first character is yangqu (阳去) it becomes (224) similar to yangping.

The second character becomes (21) after yinping tones.

The second character becomes (33),  (21) after yinshang, yinqu, yangping, yangqu tones.

Suzhou dialect in literature
Ballad-narratives

A "ballad–narrative" (說唱詞話) known as "The story of Xue Rengui crossing the sea and Pacifying Liao" (薛仁貴跨海征遼故事), which is about the Tang dynasty hero Xue Rengui is believed to have been written in the Suzhou dialect.

Novels

Han Bangqing wrote Lives of Shanghai Flowers, one of the earliest novels in Wu dialect, in Suzhou dialect. Suzhou serves as an important drive for Han to write the novel. Suzhou dialect is used in innovative methods to demonstrate urban space and time, as well as the interrupted narrative aesthetics, making it an integral part of an effort, which is presented as a fundamental and self-conscious new thing. Han's novel also inspired other authors to write in Wu dialect.

title: Suzhou dialect


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Epididymitis

Epididymitis is a medical condition characterized by inflammation of the epididymis, a curved structure at the back of the testicle. Onset of pain is typically over a day or two. The pain may improve with raising the testicle. Other symptoms may include swelling of the testicle, burning with urination, or frequent urination. Inflammation of the testicle is commonly also present.

In those who are young and sexually active, gonorrhea and chlamydia are frequently the underlying cause. In older males and men who practice insertive anal sex, enteric bacteria are a common cause. Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Conditions that may result in similar symptoms include testicular torsion, inguinal hernia, and testicular cancer. Ultrasound can be useful if the diagnosis is unclear.

Treatment may include pain medications, NSAIDs, and elevation. Recommended antibiotics in those who are young and sexually active are ceftriaxone and doxycycline. Among those who are older, ofloxacin may be used. Complications include infertility and chronic pain. People aged 15 to 35 are most commonly affected, with about 600,000 people within this age group affected per year in the United States.

Signs and symptoms
Those aged 15 to 35 are most commonly affected. The acute form usually develops over the course of several days, with pain and swelling frequently in only one testis, which will hang low in the scrotum. There will often be a recent history of dysuria or urethral discharge. Fever is also a common symptom. In the chronic version, the patient may have painful point tenderness but may or may not have an irregular epididymis upon palpation, though palpation may reveal an indurated epididymis. A scrotal ultrasound may reveal problems with the epididymis, but such an ultrasound may also show nothing unusual. The majority of patients who present with chronic epididymitis have had symptoms for over five years.

Complications
Untreated, acute epididymitis's major complications are abscess formation and testicular infarction. Chronic epididymitis can lead to permanent damage or even destruction of the epididymis and testicle (resulting in infertility and/or hypogonadism), and infection may spread to any other organ or system of the body. Chronic pain is also an associated complication for untreated chronic epididymitis.

Causes
Though urinary tract infections in men are rare, bacterial infection is the most common cause of acute epididymitis. The bacteria in the urethra back-track through the urinary and reproductive structures to the epididymis. In rare circumstances, the infection reaches the epididymis via the bloodstream.

In sexually active men, Chlamydia trachomatis is responsible for two-thirds of acute cases, followed by Neisseria gonorrhoeae and E. coli (or other bacteria that cause urinary tract infection). Particularly among men over age 35 in whom the cause is E. coli, epididymitis is commonly due to urinary tract obstruction. Less common microbes include Ureaplasma, Mycobacterium, and cytomegalovirus, or Cryptococcus in patients with HIV infection. E. coli is more common in boys before puberty, the elderly, and men who have sex with men. In the majority of cases in which bacteria are the cause, only one side of the scrotum or the other is the locus of pain.

Non-infectious causes are also possible. Reflux of sterile urine (urine without bacteria) through the ejaculatory ducts may cause inflammation with obstruction. In children, it may be a response following an infection with enterovirus, adenovirus or Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Rare non-infectious causes of chronic epididymitis include sarcoidosis (more prevalent in black men) and Behçet's disease.

Any form of epididymitis can be caused by genito-urinary surgery, including prostatectomy and urinary catheterization. Congestive epididymitis is a long-term complication of vasectomy. Chemical epididymitis may also result from drugs such as amiodarone.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is typically based on symptoms. Conditions that may result in similar symptoms include testicular torsion, inguinal hernia, and testicular cancer. Ultrasound can be useful if the diagnosis is unclear.

Epididymitis usually has a gradual onset. Typical findings are redness, warmth and swelling of the scrotum, with tenderness behind the testicle, away from the middle (this is the normal position of the epididymis relative to the testicle). The cremasteric reflex (elevation of the testicle in response to stroking the upper inner thigh) remains normal. This is a useful sign to distinguish it from testicular torsion. If there is pain relieved by elevation of the testicle, this is called Prehn's sign, which is, however, non-specific and is not useful for diagnosis. Before the advent of sophisticated medical imaging techniques, surgical exploration was the standard of care. Today, Doppler ultrasound is a common test: it can demonstrate areas of blood flow and can distinguish clearly between epididymitis and torsion. However, as torsion and other sources of testicular pain can often be determined by palpation alone, some studies have suggested that the only real benefit of an ultrasound is to assure the person that they do not have testicular cancer. Nuclear testicular blood flow testing is rarely used.

Additional tests may be necessary to identify underlying causes. In younger children, a urinary tract anomaly is frequently found. In sexually active men, tests for sexually transmitted infections may be done. These may include microscopy and culture of a first void urine sample, Gram stain and culture of fluid or a swab from the urethra, nucleic acid amplification tests (to amplify and detect microbial DNA or other nucleic acids) or tests for syphilis and HIV.

Classification
Epididymitis can be classified as acute, subacute, and chronic, depending on the duration of symptoms.

Chronic epididymitis
Chronic epididymitis is epididymitis that is present for more than 3 months. Chronic epididymitis is characterized by inflammation even when there is no infection present. Tests are needed to distinguish chronic epididymitis from a range of other disorders that can cause constant scrotal pain including testicular cancer (though this is often painless), enlarged scrotal veins (varicocele), calcifications, and a possible cyst within the epididymis. Some research has found that as much as 80% of visits to a urologist for scrotal pain are for chronic epididymitis. As a further complication, the nerves in the scrotal area are closely connected to those of the abdomen, sometimes causing abdominal pain similar to a hernia (see referred pain).

Chronic epididymitis is most commonly associated with lower back pain, and the onset of pain often co-occurs with activity that stresses the low back (i.e., heavy lifting, long periods of car driving, poor posture while sitting, or any other activity that interferes with the normal curve of the lumbar lordosis region).

Treatment
In both the acute and chronic forms, antibiotics are used if an infection is suspected. The treatment of choice is often azithromycin and cefixime to cover both gonorrhoeae and chlamydia. Fluoroquinolones are no longer recommended due to widespread resistance of gonorrhoeae to this class. Doxycycline may be used as an alternative to azithromycin. In chronic epididymitis, a four- to six-week course of antibiotics may be prescribed to ensure the complete eradication of any possible bacterial cause, especially the various chlamydiae.

For cases caused by enteric organisms (such as E. coli), ofloxacin or levofloxacin are recommended.

In children, fluoroquinolones and doxycycline are best avoided. Since bacteria that cause urinary tract infections are often the cause of epididymitis in children, co-trimoxazole or suited penicillins (for example, cephalexin) can be used.

Household remedies such as elevation of the scrotum and cold compresses applied regularly to the scrotum may relieve the pain in acute cases. Painkillers or anti-inflammatory drugs are often used for treatment of both chronic and acute forms. Hospitalisation is indicated for severe cases, and check-ups can ensure the infection has cleared up. Surgical removal of the epididymis is rarely necessary, causes sterility, and only gives relief from pain in approximately 50% of cases. However, in acute suppurating epididymitis (acute epididymitis with a discharge of pus), an epididymotomy may be recommended; in refractory cases, a full epididymectomy may be required. In cases with unrelenting testicular pain, removal of the entire testicle—orchiectomy—may also be warranted.

It is generally believed that most cases of chronic epididymitis will eventually "burn out" of patient's system if left untreated, though this might take years or even decades. However, some prostate-related medications have proven effective in treating chronic epididymitis, including doxazosin.

Epidemiology
Epididymitis makes up 1 in 144 visits for medical care (0.69 percent) in men 18 to 50 years old or 600,000 cases in males between 18 and 35 in the United States.

It occurs primarily in those 16 to 30 years of age and 51 to 70 years. As of 2008, there appears to be an increase in incidence in the United States that parallels an increase in reported cases of chlamydia and gonorrhea.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Epididymitis


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Strait of Baltiysk

The Strait of Baltiysk (Балтийский пролив, Cieśnina Piławska, Pillauer Tief) is a strait enabling passage from the Baltic Sea into the brackish Vistula Lagoon, located in Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia. The constructed strait separates the Vistula Spit from the peninsula (called Pillau Peninsula in Russia: Пиллауский полуостров, after the ) which was part of the Vistula Spit in the 15th century and now is part of Sambian Peninsula.

Shipping
The strait is the shipping connection from the high sea to the important Russian ports of Baltiysk and Kaliningrad in the northeastern lagoon, as well as to the Polish ports of Elbląg, Braniewo, Tolkmicko, Frombork, Sztutowo, Krynica Morska, and Nowa Pasłęka in the southeastern lagoon. On 17 September 2022, Poland opened a new canal through the Vistula Spit, which will allow ships to enter the Polish port of Elbląg without passing through the Strait of Baltiysk in Russia's Kaliningrad region.

Russian blockade
The Strait of Baltiysk is a strait where international navigation is governed by a non-suspendable innocent passage regime under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (dead-end strait). Despite the law since the 1990s Russia periodically blocks navigation via the strait to Polish ports.

Since 2006, Poland has considered digging another canal across the Vistula Spit in order to circumvent this restriction. The Vistula Spit canal started construction in 2019 and opened in 2022.

History
In 1497 a storm surge dug a new gat, then called the Neues [Pillauer] Tief or Pillauer Seetief (New [Pillau] Deep, Pillau Sea Deep), through the Vistula Spit. In 1510 another storm surge widened and deepened that gat to navigability. It measured 550 m in length and 360 m in width. In 1626 King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden landed with 37 ships next to the gat, at a spot already slightly fortified, transforming it into the, and holding it for ten years (till the Treaty of Stuhmsdorf), also in order to pressure his brother-in-law George William, Duke of Prussia and Elector of Brandenburg, to support him in the Polish–Swedish War and the Thirty Years' War. The Swedes extended the adjacent Pillau village and built its first place of worship, a Lutheran church. In 1638 the Duke moved his residence to the close-by ducal capital Königsberg in Prussia.

In the 1960s the gat was expanded and now it measures 400 m in width and 12 m in depth.

title: Strait of Baltiysk


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Wilfred Backhouse Alexander

Wilfrid Backhouse Alexander (4 February 1885 – 18 December 1965) was an English ornithologist and entomologist. He was a brother of Horace Alexander and Christopher James Alexander.

Alexander was born at Croydon in Surrey, England in 1885, and was introduced to natural history by his two uncles, James and Albert Crosfield. He was educated at Bootham School in York and Tonbridge School in Kent, and went on to study Natural Science at Cambridge University. During this time his main interest was botany, graduating in 1909 with first class honours.

Career
After graduation he stayed in Cambridge for a short time working as assistant superintendent of the Cambridge University Museum of Zoology and assistant demonstrator in Zoology and Comparative Anatomy for Cambridge University. In 1911, he took a job with the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries as an assistant naturalist on an international exploration of the North Sea, but in August that year, he obtained the appointment of Assistant at the Western Australian Museum. He moved to Australia in early 1912 to take up the position, which he held for three years before being made Keeper of Biology at the museum.

Australia
He made a number of expeditions to collect material for the museum including the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands in 1913. He became Honorary Secretary of and co-editor of the journal of the Royal Society of Western Australia in 1914. In 1916, the museum was under severe financial pressure and Alexander was granted leave without pay to take up a position as science abstractor to the Advisory Council of Science and Industry in Melbourne. He held this position until 1919, when he returned to the Western Australian Museum for a short time. During this period he also acted as librarian to the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union, which he became vice-president of from 1923 to 1925. He was also editor of the union's journal, Emu, from 1924 to 1925.

In 1920 the Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board was formed with the purpose of finding a way to control the several species of Opuntia that were taking over vast areas of subtropical eastern Australia and W. B. Alexander was appointed biologist to the board. The project took him on visits to North and South America in search of a suitable insect agent and in 1924 he was promoted to Officer-in-charge. The result of these overseas investigations was the highly successful use of Cactoblastis moths in controlling the Opuntia species in Australia and also arousing his interest in oceanic birds. So when he left Australia in 1926 he spent most of the year at the American Museum of Natural History preparing the book Birds of the Ocean (1928), a forerunner of later field guides, before returning to England.

Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology
He had no regular employment from 1926 until he was appointed superintendent of the Marine Biological Association’s Tees Estuary survey in 1929. Then in 1930 he was appointed Director of the Oxford Bird Census which developed into the Oxford University Research in Economic Ornithology in 1931, then an Institute of Field Ornithology, funded by the newly formed British Trust for Ornithology in 1933. In 1938, it was officially recognized by Oxford University as the Edward Grey Institute of Field Ornithology. In 1945 he retired as director and became the institute's librarian, remaining so until 1955. The donation of his personal collection of bird books had provided the original nucleus of the library, and it was named after him in 1947.

He was awarded the Tucker Medal of the British Trust for Ornithology in 1955 and the Union Medal of the British Ornithologists' Union in 1959.

He spent his retirement in Parkstone, Dorset, southern England, where he died on 8 December 1965.

title: Wilfred Backhouse Alexander


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Collin Peterson

Collin Clark Peterson (born June 29, 1944) is an American accountant, politician, and lobbyist who served as the U.S. representative for MN's 7th congressional district from 1991 to 2021. A member of the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), he was chairman of the House Committee on Agriculture from 2019 to 2021 having previously held the office from 2007 to 2011; he had been ranking member from 2011 to 2019 and 2005 to 2007. Peterson was the most senior U.S. Representative from Minnesota and the dean of Minnesota's congressional delegation. In 2020, Peterson was defeated by Michelle Fischbach, ending his 30-year tenure in the United States House of Representatives. In 2022, Peterson registered as a federal lobbyist after opening an eponymous consulting firm.

Early life, education, and early political career
Collin Peterson was born in Fargo, North Dakota, grew up on a farm in Baker, Minnesota, and received his B.A. at Minnesota State University Moorhead.

Peterson was a member of the Minnesota Senate for the Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (the Minnesota branch of the Democratic Party) from 1977 to 1986, representing a district in northwestern Minnesota. In 1976, he defeated Republican nominee Frank DeGroat 55%-45%. In 1982, he won re-election against state representative Cal Larson by just 200 votes, or 0.8% difference.

1980s
In 1984, he ran for Minnesota's 7th congressional district in Northwestern Minnesota, held by Republican Arlan Stangeland. Peterson lost 57%–43%. In 1986, he ran in a rematch and narrowly lost by just 121 votes. In 1988, he ran again but lost in the DFL primary to State Senator Marv Hanson 55%–45%. Hanson went on to lose to Stangeland 55%–45%.

1990s
In 1990, he ran for a fourth time and won the primary. In the general election, he finally defeated seven-term incumbent Stangeland by 54%–46%. Stangeland's stock had dropped sharply after he admitted to making a number of personal calls on his House credit card.

In 1992, Peterson narrowly won re-election by a 50%–49% margin against former State Representative Bernie Omann. In a 1994 rematch, Peterson won again by a 51%–49% margin, despite the Republican Revolution. In 1996, he won re-election with 68% of the vote, and won every county in the district. In 1998, he won re-election with 72% of the vote.

2000s
In the 2000s, Peterson never faced a serious re-election challenge and only once did he win re-election with less than two-thirds of the vote. In 2000, he was mentioned as a possible candidate for the U.S. Senate against Republican Rod Grams, but he chose to run for re-election, winning with 69% of the vote. In 2002, he won with 65% of the vote. In 2004, he won with 66% of the vote. In 2006, he won with 70% of the vote. In 2008, he won with 72% of the vote.

2010s
In 2010, Peterson survived another Republican wave election. This time, he defeated Lee Byberg 55%–38%, his worst election performance since 1994. In 2012, Peterson won re-election with 60.38% to Republican Lee Byberg's 34.85% and Independent Adam Steele's 4.67%.

In 2013, Republicans began pressuring Peterson, in hopes of convincing him to retire. His seat was one of only a handful represented by a Democrat which had been carried by Mitt Romney in the 2012 election. Republican opposition tactics included airing television advertisements, hiring a press staffer to give opposition research to reporters, hiring a tracker to follow him around his district and record him, and sending mobile billboards with critical statements on them to drive around his hometown. Peterson responded by saying, "They don't have anybody else to go after. It's kind of ridiculous, but whatever." After Republicans spread rumors that Peterson was planning to buy a house in Florida and retire there, he said: "I went from neutral on running again to 90 percent just because of this stupid stuff they're doing. You can't let these people be in charge of anything, in my opinion." On March 17, 2014, Peterson officially announced that he was running for re-election, saying, "I still have a lot of work to do". Despite being heavily targeted by national Republican groups, Peterson defeated Republican State Senator Torrey Westrom in the general election by 54% to 46%.

In October 2014, Peterson said that he may keep running until 2020 because the Republicans "made me mad" with their efforts to defeat him or persuade him to retire. In January 2015, he stated that he was "running at this point" for re-election in 2016, saying that the efforts by Republicans to unseat him had "energized me" and "got me fired up". He was challenged by Republican retired Air Force Major Dave Hughes and beat him in close races in 2016 and 2018.

Peterson held onto his seat despite a growing Republican trend in the region. From 2000 to 2016, the Republican presidential candidate carried it by double digits three out of five times. This culminated in 2016, when Donald Trump carried the district with 62 percent of the vote, his best showing in the state. Peterson thus sat in one of the most Republican districts in the country to be represented by a Democrat.

In the November 2020 general election, Peterson was defeated for reelection by Republican former state senator and former lieutenant governor Michelle Fischbach. In that same election, Trump again carried the 7th with his best margin in the state, this time with 64 percent and a 29-point margin. Peterson lost to Fischbach by a 14-point margin, the largest margin of defeat for any House incumbent that year. Despite his loss, he was the top-performing Democratic representative compared to presidential nominee Joe Biden, outperforming him by 16 points in the district. Peterson was the only non-freshman member of the House of Representatives to lose re-election in 2020, and Minnesota's 7th district was one of only two congressional districts that Republicans flipped in 2020 that they did not hold prior to 2018, the other being Iowa's 2nd congressional district.

Committee assignments

 * 116th Congress
 * Committee on Agriculture (chairman)
 * As chairman of the whole committee, he served as an ex officio member on all subcommittees
 * Committee on Veterans' Affairs

 * Past membership
 * Committee on Agriculture (beginning with the 102nd Congress to present day; see: )
 * Chairman & former Ranking Member. As ranking member of the full committee, Peterson may sit as an ex officio member of all subcommittees.
 * Oversight and Government Reform
 * This was one of the first committees Peterson served on (102nd 103rd 104th & 105th Congresses).
 * Committee on Veterans' Affairs
 * Began membership in the 106th and 107th Congress, and resumed membership in the 116th Congress.

Caucus membership

 * Military Veterans Caucus, Co-chairman
 * Congressional Arts Caucus

Political positions
Peterson is one of the founders of the Blue Dog Coalition, the caucus of House Democrats who identify as moderates and conservatives. He was one of the most conservative Democrats in recent American history and frequently crossed the party line. Peterson had split from his party on issues such as gay marriage, healthcare, the estate tax, tort reform, gun control, the environment, DC statehood, and abortion. In 2008, a report by Congressional Quarterly found he had the lowest party loyalty score over the previous five years of any member of the Minnesota congressional delegation. In the 109th Congress, he was rated 50% conservative by a conservative group and 57% progressive by a liberal group.

During the first session of the 115th United States Congress, Peterson was ranked the most bipartisan member of the House of Representatives by the Bipartisan Index, a metric created by the Lugar Center and Georgetown's McCourt School of Public Policy to assess congressional bipartisanship.

Social issues
Peterson is generally conservative on social issues; he strongly opposes legal abortion and has been one of the few Democrats to vote against embryonic stem cell research. He has voted to ban physician-assisted suicide and also to approve the proposed Flag Desecration Amendment to the United States Constitution. He also voted for the Defense of Marriage Act and supports the death penalty.

In January 2019, in reference to President Trump's proposed wall across the southern border, Peterson said, "I'd give him the whole thing ... and put strings on it so you make sure he puts the wall where it needs to be. Why are we fighting over this? We're going to build that wall anyway, at some time." Peterson furthered that there could be stipulations requiring some funding go toward Border Patrol and security measures at ports of entry being improved.

On April 4, 2019, Peterson was the only Democrat to vote against the reauthorization of the Violence Against Women Act, citing his disappointment with the law being "made partisan with the inclusion of language that would strip individuals' right to due process with respect to their 2nd Amendment rights."

Hunting and conservationism
His district contains some of the most conservative counties in the state and also the state's most rural district; many DFLers outside the Twin Cities are hunters and trappers who oppose gun control. Peterson is a conservationist, but opposes "excessive environmental regulation" because he argues they harm farmers. He is an avid hunter and supports animal trapping, but in 2000 he joined with the Humane Society of the United States to pass legislation that stopped the interstate shipping of birds for cockfighting. He has supported legislation that would end protection for wolves in the Endangered Species Act.

In 2004, he joined with Minnesota attorney general Mike Hatch in suing the state of North Dakota over what they argued were discriminatory laws that forbade non–North Dakota residents from hunting during the first week of the waterfowl hunting season. Their case was rejected by the United States District Court for the District of North Dakota, a decision which was upheld by the United States Court of Appeals for the Eighth Circuit.

Guns
He has an "A" rating from the National Rifle Association (NRA) and is a "staunch" supporter of gun rights. The NRA endorsed him in 2010.

Economic issues
Although he's been called a strong fiscal conservative, he is somewhat closer to the liberal wing of his party on economic issues: he has voted against most free trade agreements, the North American Free Trade Agreement, the Freedom to Farm Act, and the Telecommunications Act of 1996. He also voted against both versions of the Patriot Act and he has been sharply critical of the No Child Left Behind Act, which he contends is unfair to rural students. He supports the FairTax, a national sales tax, estate-tax repeal and tort reform. He voted for the Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Consumer Protection Act.

Peterson joined the House Republicans in voting against the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1993.

Along with John Conyers, in April 2006 Peterson brought an action against George W. Bush and others alleging violations of the Constitution in the passing of the Deficit Reduction Act of 2005. The case (Conyers v. Bush) was ultimately dismissed.

On January 28, 2009, Peterson was amongst the seven Democrats who voted in the House together with the unanimous Republican opposition against President Obama's stimulus package (American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009).

International trade
In 1998, as part of an effort to change what were considered unequal fishing regulations between the U.S. and Canada, Peterson gained attention by proposing a constitutional amendment that would allow the residents of Minnesota's Northwest Angle to vote on whether they wanted to secede from the United States and join the Canadian province of Manitoba. Peterson said that the amendment, which was part of a mock secession movement, was successful in bringing the issue to the attention of the White House: "In just the day after I introduced (the amendment), people from the vice president's office have been asking questions, people in the White House (too). I've got meetings scheduled with the U.S. trade representative... we've educated people on both sides of the border, and I think we've brought it closer to the point where we'll get this thing resolved."

Healthcare
In 2003, he was one of just 16 Democrats to vote for President Bush's Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act.

On March 21, 2010, Peterson voted against the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (also known as Obamacare). In January 2016, he voted to repeal the Affordable Care Act (he was the sole Democrat in the House to vote for the repeal). In 2017, he voted against Republican efforts to repeal the Affordable Care Act.

Agriculture
In January 2005, he was selected by the House Democratic Caucus to succeed former Texas congressman Charlie Stenholm as the ranking member on the Committee on Agriculture. He became the committee's chairman after the Democrats won control of the House two years later.

Peterson was a cosponsor of the Agricultural Job Opportunities, Benefits, and Security Act of 2005 which would provide job protection for three million illegal immigrant agricultural workers and their families, and extend the visas of legal immigrant agricultural workers.

In addition to this, Peterson was the chair of the House committee on Agriculture in the 116th Congress.

Military
Peterson was one of the few Democrats to vote in favor of the Military Commissions Act of 2006.

Price gouging
In May 2007, Peterson was the lone Democrat to vote against the Federal Price Gouging Prevention Act.

Hate crimes
In April 2009, Peterson voted against the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act.

Environmental issues
On May 6, 2009, Peterson voiced his opposition to climate change legislation proposed by the Obama administration saying, "I will not support any kind of climate change bill – even if you fix this – because I don't trust anybody anymore. I've had it." Peterson predicted that an Environmental Protection Agency proposal to assess indirect effects of ethanol production on greenhouse gas emissions, combined with the climate change legislation, could "kill off corn ethanol."

Town meetings
On July 27, 2009, a controversy erupted after Peterson was quoted in a Politico.com article saying, "25 percent of my people believe the Pentagon and Rumsfeld were responsible for taking the twin towers down. That's why I don't do town meetings." The state Republican Party denounced the remark as "outrageous and offensive". Peterson apologized for the comment, which he described as "off-hand".

Abortion
Peterson is an anti-abortion Democrat. In 2010, he was endorsed by the National Right to Life Committee.

In 2011, he co-sponsored HR 3, the No Taxpayer Funding for Abortion Act. The bill contained an exception for "forcible rape," which opponents criticized as potentially excluding drug-facilitated rape, date rape, and other forms of rape. The bill also allowed an exception for minors who are victims of incest.

LGBT rights
Peterson supported a Constitutional Amendment that would ban legal recognition of same-sex marriages in the United States.

Yemeni civil war
Peterson was one of five House Democrats who voted for the US to continue selling arms to Saudi Arabia and to support the Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen. Asked why he voted against the resolution and what he knew about the Yemeni civil war, Peterson said, "I don't know a damn thing about it". Peterson also said that the resolution on US involvement in the Yemeni civil war would have jeopardized a farm bill that was under consideration at the same time; according to New York magazine's Eric Levitz, "by all accounts, voting against the Yemen resolution would not have doomed the farm bill."

Impeachment of Donald Trump
On October 31, 2019, he was one of two Democrats to vote against Article I of the impeachment inquiries against President Donald Trump, and one of the three Democrats to vote against Article II. He again was one of two Democrats, alongside Jeff Van Drew, to vote against impeachment on December 18, 2019.

Peterson indicated that he would have voted in favor of the second impeachment if he was in the House.

D.C. statehood
On June 26, 2020, Peterson was the only Democratic representative to break with his party when he voted against H.R. 51, a bill that would allow for Washington, D.C. to be admitted as the country's 51st state.

Marijuana
Peterson was one of six House Democrats to vote against the Marijuana Opportunity Reinvestment and Expungement (MORE) Act to legalize cannabis at the federal level in 2020.

Electoral history

 * 2020

 * 2018

 * 2016

 * 2014

 * 2012

 * 2010

 * 2008

 * 2006

 * 2004

 * 2002

 * 1990

Personal life
Peterson lives in Detroit Lakes, just east of Moorhead. He is divorced and previously dated former congresswoman Katherine Harris, the former Republican secretary of state of Florida. He is a licensed private pilot and would frequently travel by private plane across his district.

In December 2005, Peterson joined four Republicans to form the Second Amendments, a rock and country band.

title: Collin Peterson


text:
ISO/IEC 2022

ISO/IEC 2022 Information technology—Character code structure and extension techniques, is an ISO/IEC standard in the field of character encoding. It is equivalent to the ECMA standard ECMA-35, the ANSI standard ANSI X3.41 and the Japanese Industrial Standard JIS X 0202. Originating in 1971, it was most recently revised in 1994.

ISO 2022 specifies a general structure which character encodings can conform to, dedicating particular ranges of bytes (0x00–1F and 0x7F–9F) to be used for non-printing control codes for formatting and in-band instructions (such as line breaks or formatting instructions for text terminals), rather than graphical characters. It also specifies a syntax for escape sequences, multiple-byte sequences beginning with the control code, which can likewise be used for in-band instructions. Specific sets of control codes and escape sequences designed to be used with ISO 2022 include ISO/IEC 6429, portions of which are implemented by ANSI.SYS and terminal emulators.

ISO 2022 itself also defines particular control codes and escape sequences which can be used for switching between different coded character sets (for example, between ASCII and the Japanese JIS X 0208) so as to use multiple in a single document, effectively combining them into a single stateful encoding (a feature less important since the advent of Unicode). It is designed to be usable in both 8-bit environments and 7-bit environments (those where only seven bits are usable in a byte, such as e-mail without 8BITMIME).

Encodings and conformance
The ASCII character set supports the ISO Basic Latin alphabet (equivalent to the English alphabet), and does not provide good support for languages which use additional letters, or which use a different writing system altogether. Other writing systems with relatively few characters, such as Greek, Cyrillic, Arabic or Hebrew, as well as forms of the Latin script using diacritics or letters absent from the ISO Basic Latin alphabet, have historically been represented on personal computers with different 8-bit, single byte, extended ASCII encodings, which follow ASCII when the most significant bit is 0 (i.e. bytes 0x00–7F, when represented in hexadecimal), and include additional characters for a most significant bit of 1 (i.e. bytes 0x80–FF). Some of these, such as the ISO 8859 series, conform to ISO 2022, while others such as DOS code page 437 do not, usually due to not reserving the bytes 0x80–9F for control codes.

Certain East Asian languages, specifically Chinese, Japanese, and Korean (collectively "CJK"), are written using far more characters than the maximum of 256 which can be represented in a single byte, and were first represented on computers with language-specific double-byte encodings or variable-width encodings; some of these (such as the Simplified Chinese encoding GB 2312) conform to ISO 2022, while others (such as the Traditional Chinese encoding Big5) do not. Control codes in ISO 2022 are always represented with a single byte, regardless of the number of bytes used for graphical characters. CJK encodings used in 7-bit environments which use ISO 2022 mechanisms to switch between character sets are often given names starting with "ISO-2022-", most notably ISO-2022-JP, although some other CJK encodings such as EUC-JP also make use of ISO 2022 mechanisms.

Since the first 256 code points of Unicode were taken from ISO 8859-1, Unicode inherits the concept of C0 and C1 control codes from ISO 2022, although it adds other non-printing characters besides the ISO 2022 control codes. However, Unicode transformation formats such as UTF-8 generally deviate from the ISO 2022 structure in various ways, including:
 * Using 8-bit bytes, but not representing the C1 codes in their single-byte forms specified in ISO 2022 (most UTFs, one exception being the obsolete UTF-1)
 * Representing all characters, including control codes, with multiple bytes (e.g. UTF-16, UTF-32)
 * Mixing bytes with the most significant bit set and unset within the coded representation for a single code point (e.g. UTF-1, GB 18030)

ISO 2022 escape sequences do, however, exist for switching to and from UTF-8 as a "coding system different from that of ISO 2022", which are supported by certain terminal emulators such as xterm.

Elements
ISO/IEC 2022 specifies the following:

 * An infrastructure of multiple character sets with particular structures which may be included in a single character encoding system, including multiple graphical character sets and multiple sets of both primary (C0) and secondary (C1) control codes,
 * A format for encoding these sets, assuming that 8 bits are available per byte,
 * A format for encoding these sets in the same encoding system when only 7 bits are available per byte, and a method for transforming any conformant character data to pass through such a 7-bit environment,
 * The general structure of ANSI escape codes, and
 * Specific escape code formats for identifying individual character sets, for announcing the use of particular encoding features or subsets, and for interacting with or switching to other encoding systems.

Code versions
A specific implementation does not have to implement all of the standard; the conformance level and the supported character sets are defined by the implementation. Although many of the mechanisms defined by the ISO/IEC 2022 standard are infrequently used, several established encodings are based on a subset of the ISO/IEC 2022 system. In particular, 7-bit encoding systems using ISO/IEC 2022 mechanisms include ISO-2022-JP (or JIS encoding), which has primarily been used in Japanese-language e-mail. 8-bit encoding systems conforming to ISO/IEC 2022 include ISO/IEC 4873 (ECMA-43), which is in turn conformed to by ISO/IEC 8859, and Extended Unix Code, which is used for East Asian languages. More specialised applications of ISO 2022 include the MARC-8 encoding system used in MARC 21 library records.

Designation escape sequences
The escape sequences for switching to particular character sets or encodings are registered with the ISO-IR registry (except for those set apart for private use, the meanings of which are defined by vendors, or by protocol specifications such as ARIB STD-B24) and follow the patterns defined within the standard. Character encodings making use of these escape sequences require data to be processed sequentially in a forward direction, since the correct interpretation of the data depends on previously encountered escape sequences.

Specific profiles such as ISO-2022-JP may impose extra conditions, such as that the current character set is reset to US-ASCII before the end of a line. Furthermore, the escape sequences declaring the national character sets may be absent if a specific ISO-2022-based encoding permits or requires this, and dictates that particular national character sets are to be used. For example, ISO-8859-1 states that no defining escape sequence is needed.

Multi-byte characters
To represent large character sets, ISO/IEC 2022 builds on ISO/IEC 646's property that a seven-bit character representation will normally be able to represent 94 graphic (printable) characters (in addition to space and 33 control characters); if only the C0 control codes (narrowly defined) are excluded, this can be expanded to 96 characters. Using two bytes, it is thus possible to represent up to 8,836 (94×94) characters; and, using three bytes, up to 830,584 (94×94×94) characters. Though the standard defines it, no registered character set uses three bytes (although EUC-TW's unregistered G2 does, as does the similarly unregistered CCCII).

For the two-byte character sets, the code point of each character is normally specified in so-called row-cell or kuten form, which comprises two numbers between 1 and 94 inclusive, specifying a row and cell of that character within the zone. For a three-byte set, an additional plane number is included at the beginning. The escape sequences do not only declare which character set is being used, but also whether the set is single-byte or multi-byte (although not how many bytes it uses if it is multi-byte), and also whether each byte has 94 or 96 permitted values.

Notation and nomenclature
ISO/IEC 2022 coding specifies a two-layer mapping between character codes and displayed characters. Escape sequences allow any of a large registry of graphic character sets to be "designated" into one of four working sets, named G0 through G3, and shorter control sequences specify the working set that is "invoked" to interpret bytes in the stream.

Encoding byte values ("bit combinations") are often given in column-line notation, where two decimal numbers in the range 00–15 (each corresponding to a single hexadecimal digit) are separated by a slash. Hence, for instance, codes 2/0 (0x20) through 2/15 (0x2F) inclusive may be referred to as "column 02". This is the notation used in the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard itself. They may be described elsewhere using hexadecimal, as is often used in this article, or using the corresponding ASCII characters, although the escape sequences are actually defined in terms of byte values, and the graphic assigned to that byte value may be altered without affecting the control sequence.

Byte values from the 7-bit ASCII graphic range (hexadecimal 0x20–0x7F), being on the left side of a character code table, are referred to as "GL" codes (with "GL" standing for "graphics left") while bytes from the "high ASCII" range (0xA0–0xFF), if available (i.e. in an 8-bit environment), are referred to as the "GR" codes ("graphics right"). The terms "CL" (0x00–0x1F) and "CR" (0x80–0x9F) are defined for the control ranges, but the CL range always invokes the primary (C0) controls, whereas the CR range always either invokes the secondary (C1) controls or is unused.

Fixed coded characters
The delete character DEL (0x7F), the escape character ESC (0x1B) and the space character SP (0x20) are designated "fixed" coded characters and are always available when G0 is invoked over GL, irrespective of what character sets are designated. They may not be included in graphical character sets, although other sizes or types of whitespace character may be.

General syntax of escape sequences
Sequences using the ESC (escape) character take the form, where the ESC character is followed by zero or more intermediate bytes  from the range 0x20–0x2F, and one final byte (F) from the range 0x30–0x7E.

The first byte, or absence thereof, determines the type of escape sequence; it might, for instance, designate a working set, or denote a single control function. In all types of escape sequences, F bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F are reserved for unregistered private uses defined by prior agreement between parties.

Control functions from some sets may make use of further bytes following the escape sequence proper. For example, the ISO 6429 control function "", which can be represented using an escape sequence, is followed by zero or more bytes in the range 0x30–0x3F, then zero or more bytes in the range 0x20–0x2F, then by a single byte in the range 0x40–0x7E, the entire sequence being called a "control sequence".

Graphical character sets
Each of the four working sets G0 through G3 may be a 94-character set or a 94n-character multi-byte set. Additionally, G1 through G3 may be a 96- or 96n-character set.

In a 96- or 96n-character set, the bytes 0x20 through 0x7F when GL-invoked, or 0xA0 through 0xFF when GR-invoked, are allocated to and may be used by the set. In a 94- or 94n-character set, the bytes 0x20 and 0x7F are not used. When a 96- or 96n-character set is invoked in the GL region, the space and delete characters (codes 0x20 and 0x7F) are not available until a 94- or 94n-character set (such as the G0 set) is invoked in GL. 96-character sets cannot be designated to G0.

Registration of a set as a 96-character set does not necessarily mean that the 0x20/A0 and 0x7F/FF bytes are actually assigned by the set; some examples of graphical character sets which are registered as 96-sets but do not use those bytes include the G1 set of I.S. 434, the box drawing set from ISO/IEC 10367, and ISO-IR-164 (a subset of the G1 set of ISO-8859-8 with only the letters, used by CCITT).

Combining characters
Characters are expected to be spacing characters, not combining characters, unless specified otherwise by the graphical set in question. ISO 2022 / ECMA-35 also recognizes the use of the backspace and carriage return control characters as means of combining otherwise spacing characters, as well as the CSI sequence "Graphic Character Combination" (GCC).

Use of the backspace and carriage return in this manner is permitted by ISO/IEC 646 but prohibited by ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 and by ISO/IEC 8859, on the basis that it leaves the graphical character repertoire undefined. ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 does, however, permit the use of the GCC function provided that the sequence of characters is kept the same and merely displayed in one space, rather than being over-stamped to form a character with a different meaning.

Control character sets
Control character sets are classified as "primary" or "secondary" control code sets, respectively also called "C0" and "C1" control code sets.

A C0 control set must contain the ESC (escape) control character at 0x1B (a C0 set containing only ESC is registered as ISO-IR-104), whereas a C1 control set may not contain the escape control whatsoever. Hence, they are entirely separate registrations, with a C0 set being only a C0 set and a C1 set being only a C1 set.

If codes from the C0 set of ISO 6429 / ECMA-48, i.e. the ASCII control codes, appear in the C0 set, they are required to appear at their ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 locations. Inclusion of transmission control characters in the C0 set, besides the ten included by ISO 6429 / ECMA-48 (namely SOH, STX, ETX, EOT, ENQ, ACK, DLE, NAK, SYN and ETB), or inclusion of any of those ten in the C1 set, is also prohibited by the ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard.

A C0 control set is invoked over the CL range 0x00 through 0x1F, whereas a C1 control function may be invoked over the CR range 0x80 through 0x9F (in an 8-bit environment) or by using escape sequences (in a 7-bit or 8-bit environment), but not both. Which style of C1 invocation is used must be specified in the definition of the code version. For example, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies CR bytes for the C1 controls which it uses (SS2 and SS3). If necessary, which invocation is used may be communicated using announcer sequences.

In the latter case, single control functions from the C1 control code set are invoked using "type Fe" escape sequences, meaning those where the ESC control character is followed by a byte from columns 04 or 05 (that is to say,  through  ).

Other control functions
Additional control functions are assigned to "type Fs" escape sequences (in the range  through  ); these have permanently assigned meanings rather than depending on the C0 or C1 designations. Registration of control functions to type "Fs" sequences must be approved by ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 2. Other single control functions may be registered to type "3Ft" escape sequences (in the range  through  ), although no "3Ft" sequences are currently assigned (as of 2019). Some of these are specified in ECMA-35 (ISO 2022 / ANSI X3.41), others in ECMA-48 (ISO 6429 / ANSI X3.64). ECMA-48 refers to these as "independent control functions".

Escape sequences of type "Fp" ( through  ) or of type "3Fp" (  through  ) are reserved for single private use control codes, by prior agreement between parties. Several such sequences of both types are used by DEC terminals such as the VT100, and are thus supported by terminal emulators.

Shift functions
By default, GL codes specify G0 characters and GR codes (where available) specify G1 characters; this may be otherwise specified by prior agreement. The set invoked over each area may also be modified with control codes referred to as shifts, as shown in the table below.

An 8-bit code may have GR codes specifying G1 characters, i.e. with its corresponding 7-bit code using Shift In and Shift Out to switch between the sets (e.g. JIS X 0201), although some instead have GR codes specifying G2 characters, with the corresponding 7-bit code using a single-shift code to access the second set (e.g. T.51).

The codes shown in the table below are the most common encodings of these control codes, conforming to ISO/IEC 6429. The LS2, LS3, LS1R, LS2R and LS3R shifts are registered as single control functions and are always encoded as the escape sequences listed below, whereas the others are part of a C0 or C1 control code set (as shown below, SI (LS0) and SO (LS1) are C0 controls and SS2 and SS3 are C1 controls), meaning that their coding and availability may vary depending on which control sets are designated: they must be present in the designated control sets if their functionality is used. The C1 controls themselves, as mentioned above, may be represented using escape sequences or 8-bit bytes, but not both.

Alternative encodings of the single-shifts as C0 control codes are available in certain control code sets. For example, SS2 and SS3 are usually available at 0x19 and 0x1D respectively in T.51 and T.61. This coding is currently recommended by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 for applications requiring 7-bit single-byte representations of SS2 and SS3, and may also be used for SS2 only, although older code sets with SS2 at 0x1C also exist,  and were mentioned as such in an earlier edition of the standard. The 0x8E and 0x8F coding of the single shifts as shown below is mandatory for ISO/IEC 4873 levels 2 and 3. Although officially considered shift codes and named accordingly, single-shift codes are not always viewed as shifts, and they may simply be viewed as prefix bytes (i.e. the first bytes in a multi-byte sequence), since they do not require the encoder to keep the currently active set as state, unlike locking shift codes. In 8-bit environments, either GL or GR, but not both, may be used as the single-shift area. This must be specified in the definition of the code version. For instance, ISO/IEC 4873 specifies GL, whereas packed EUC specifies GR. In 7-bit environments, only GL is used as the single-shift area. If necessary, which single-shift area is used may be communicated using announcer sequences.

The names "locking shift zero" (LS0) and "locking shift one" (LS1) refer to the same pair of C0 control characters (0x0F and 0x0E) as the names "shift in" (SI) and "shift out" (SO). However, the standard refers to them as LS0 and LS1 when they are used in 8-bit environments and as SI and SO when they are used in 7-bit environments.

The ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 standard permits, but discourages, invoking G1, G2 or G3 in both GL and GR simultaneously.

Registration of graphical and control code sets
The ISO International register of coded character sets to be used with escape sequences (ISO-IR) lists graphical character sets, control code sets, single control codes and so forth which have been registered for use with ISO/IEC 2022. The procedure for registering codes and sets with the ISO-IR registry is specified by ISO/IEC 2375. Each registration receives a unique escape sequence, and a unique registry entry number to identify it. For example, the CCITT character set for Simplified Chinese is known as ISO-IR-165.

Registration of coded character sets with the ISO-IR registry identifies the documents specifying the character set or control function associated with an ISO/IEC 2022 non‑private-use escape sequence. This may be a standard document; however, registration does not create a new ISO standard, does not commit the ISO or IEC to adopt it as an international standard, and does not commit the ISO or IEC to add any of its characters to the Universal Coded Character Set.

ISO-IR registered escape sequences are also used encapsulated in a Formal Public Identifier to identify character sets used for numeric character references in SGML (ISO 8879). For example, the string ISO 646-1983//CHARSET International Reference Version (IRV)//ESC 2/5 4/0 can be used to identify the International Reference Version of ISO 646-1983, and the HTML 4.01 specification uses ISO Registration Number 177//CHARSET ISO/IEC 10646-1:1993 UCS-4 with implementation level 3//ESC 2/5 2/15 4/6 to identify Unicode. The textual representation of the escape sequence, included in the third element of the FPI, will be recognised by SGML implementations for supported character sets.

Character set designations
Escape sequences to designate character sets take the form. As mentioned above, the intermediate bytes are from the range 0x20–0x2F, and the final (F) byte is from the range 0x30–0x7E. The first byte (or, for a multi-byte set, the first two) identifies the type of character set and the working set it is to be designated to, whereas the F byte (and any additional  bytes) identify the character set itself, as assigned in the ISO-IR register (or, for the private-use escape sequences, by prior agreement).

Additional bytes may be added before the F byte to extend the F byte range. This is currently only used with 94-character sets, where codes of the form  have been assigned. At the other extreme, no multibyte 96-sets have been registered, so the sequences below are strictly theoretical.

As with other escape sequence types, the range 0x30–0x3F is reserved for private-use F bytes, in this case for private-use character set definitions (which might include unregistered sets defined by protocols such as ARIB STD-B24 or MARC-8, or vendor-specific sets such as DEC Special Graphics). However, in a graphical set designation sequence, if the second byte (for a single-byte set) or the third  byte (for a double-byte set) is 0x20 (space), the set denoted is a "dynamically redefinable character set" (DRCS) defined by prior agreement, which is also considered private use. A graphical set being considered a DRCS implies that it represents a font of exact glyphs, rather than a set of abstract characters. The manner in which DRCS sets and associated fonts are transmitted, allocated and managed is not stipulated by ISO/IEC 2022 / ECMA-35 itself, although it recommends allocating them sequentially starting with F byte 0x40 ; however, a manner for transmitting DRCS fonts is defined within some telecommunication protocols such as World System Teletext.

There are also three special cases for multi-byte codes. The code sequences,  , and   were all registered when the contemporary version of the standard allowed multi-byte sets only in G0, so must be accepted in place of the sequences   through   to designate to the G0 character set.

There are additional (rarely used) features for switching control character sets, but this is a single-level lookup, in that (as noted above) the C0 set is always invoked over CL, and the C1 set is always invoked over CR or by using escape codes. As noted above, it is required that any C0 character set include the ESC character at position 0x1B, so that further changes are possible. The control set designation sequences (as opposed to the graphical set ones) may also be used from within ISO/IEC 10646 (UCS/Unicode), in contexts where processing ANSI escape codes is appropriate, provided that each byte in the sequence is padded to the code unit size of the encoding.

A table of escape sequence bytes and the designation or other function which they perform is below.

Note that the registry of F bytes is independent for the different types. The 94-character graphic set designated by  through   is not related in any way to the 96-character set designated by   through. And neither of those is related to the 94n-character set designated by  through , and so on; the final bytes must be interpreted in context. (Indeed, without any intermediate bytes,  is a way of specifying the C1 control code 0x81.)

Also note that C0 and C1 control character sets are independent; the C0 control character set designated by  (which happens to be the NATS control set for newspaper text transmission) is not the same as the C1 control character set designated by   (the CCITT attribute control set for Videotex).

Interaction with other coding systems
The standard also defines a way to specify coding systems that do not follow its own structure.

A sequence is also defined for returning to ISO/IEC 2022; the registrations which support this sequence as encoded in ISO/IEC 2022 comprise (as of 2019) various Videotex formats, UTF-8, and UTF-1. A second byte of 0x2F  is included in the designation sequences of codes which do not use that byte sequence to return to ISO 2022; they may have their own means to return to ISO 2022 (such as a different or padded sequence) or none at all. All existing registrations of the latter type (as of 2019) are either transparent raw data, Unicode/UCS formats, or subsets thereof.

Of particular interest are the sequences which switch to ISO/IEC 10646 (Unicode) formats which do not follow the ISO/IEC 2022 structure. These include UTF-8 (which does not reserve the range 0x80–0x9F for control characters), its predecessor UTF-1 (which mixes GR and GL bytes in multi-byte codes), and UTF-16 and UTF-32 (which use wider coding units).

Several codes were also registered for subsets (levels 1 and 2) of UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32, as well as for three levels of UCS-2. However, the only codes currently specified by ISO/IEC 10646 are the level-3 codes for UTF-8, UTF-16 and UTF-32 and the unspecified-level code for UTF-8, with the rest being listed as deprecated. ISO/IEC 10646 stipulates that the big-endian formats of UTF-16 and UTF-32 are designated by their escape sequences.

Of the sequences switching to UTF-8,  is the one supported by, for example, xterm.

Although use of a variant of the standard return sequence from UTF-16 and UTF-32 is permitted, the bytes of the escape sequence must be padded to the size of the code unit of the encoding (i.e.  for UTF-16), i.e. the coding of the standard return sequence does not conform exactly to ISO/IEC 2022. For this reason, the designations for UTF-16 and UTF-32 use a without-standard-return syntax.

For specifying encodings by labels, the X Consortium's Compound Text format defines five private-use DOCS sequences.

Code structure announcements
The sequence "announce code structure" is used to announce a specific code structure, or a specific group of ISO 2022 facilities which are used in a particular code version. Although announcements can be combined, certain contradictory combinations (specifically, using locking shift announcements 16–23 with announcements 1, 3 and 4) are prohibited by the standard, as is using additional announcements on top of ISO/IEC 4873 level announcements 12–14 (which fully specify the permissible structural features). Announcement sequences are as follows:

ISO/IEC 2022 code versions

Six 7-bit ISO 2022 code versions (ISO-2022-CN, ISO-2022-CN-EXT, ISO-2022-JP, ISO-2022-JP-1, ISO-2022-JP-2 and ISO-2022-KR) are defined by IETF RFCs, of which ISO-2022-JP and ISO-2022-KR have been extensively used in the past. A number of other variants are defined by vendors, including IBM. Although UTF-8 is the preferred encoding in HTML5, legacy content in ISO-2022-JP remains sufficiently widespread that the WHATWG encoding standard retains support for it, in contrast to mapping ISO-2022-KR, ISO-2022-CN and ISO-2022-CN-EXT entirely to the replacement character, due to concerns about code injection attacks such as cross-site scripting.

8-bit code versions include Extended Unix Code. The ISO/IEC 8859 encodings also follow ISO 2022, in a subset stipulated in ISO/IEC 4873.

ISO-2022-JP
 is a widely used encoding for Japanese, in particular in e-mail. It was introduced for use on the JUNET network and later codified in IETF RFC 1468, dated 1993. It has an advantage over other encodings for Japanese in that it does not require 8-bit clean transmission. Microsoft calls it Code page 50220. It starts in ASCII and includes the following escape sequences:
 * to switch to ASCII (1 byte per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0201-1976 (ISO/IEC 646:JP) Roman set (1 byte per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0208-1978 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0208-1983 (2 bytes per character)

Use of the two characters added in JIS X 0208-1990 is permitted, but without including the IRR sequence, i.e. using the same escape sequence as JIS X 0208-1983. Also, due to being registered before designating multi-byte sets except to G0 was possible, the escapes for JIS X 0208 do not include the second I-byte (.

The RFC notes that some existing systems did not distinguish  from , or did not distinguish   from  , but stipulates that the escape sequences should not be changed by systems simply relaying messages such as e-mails. The WHATWG Encoding Standard referenced by HTML5 handles  and   distinctly, but treats   the same as   when decoding, and uses only   for JIS X 0208 when encoding. The RFC also notes that some past systems had made erroneous use of the sequence  to switch away from JIS X 0208, which is actually registered for ISO-IR-11 (a Swedish variant of ISO 646 and World System Teletext).

Versions with halfwidth katakana
Use of  to switch to the JIS X 0201-1976 Kana set (1 byte per character) is not part of the ISO-2022-JP profile, but is also sometimes used. Python allows it in a variant which it labels ISO-2022-JP-EXT (which also incorporates JIS X 0212 as described below, completing coverage of EUC-JP); this is close in both name and structure to an encoding denoted ISO-2022-JPext by DEC, which furthermore adds a two-byte user-defined region accessed with   to complete the coverage of Super DEC Kanji. The WHATWG/HTML5 variant permits decoding JIS X 0201 katakana in ISO-2022-JP input, but converts the characters to their JIS X 0208 equivalents upon encoding. Microsoft's code page for ISO-2022-JP with JIS X 0201 kana additionally permitted is Code page 50221.

Other, older variants known as JIS7 and JIS8 build directly on the 7-bit and 8-bit encodings defined by JIS X 0201 and allow use of JIS X 0201 kana from G1 without escape sequences, using Shift Out and Shift In or setting the eighth bit (GR-invoked), respectively. They are not widely used; JIS X 0208 support in extended 8-bit JIS X 0201 is more commonly achieved via Shift JIS. Microsoft's code page for JIS X 0201-based ISO 2022 with single-byte katakana via Shift Out and Shift In is Code page 50222.

ISO-2022-JP-2
 is a multilingual extension of ISO-2022-JP, defined in RFC 1554 (dated 1993), which permits the following escape sequences in addition to the ISO-2022-JP ones. The ISO/IEC 8859 parts are 96-character sets which cannot be designated to G0, and are accessed from G2 using the 7-bit escape sequence form of the single-shift code SS2:
 * to switch to GB 2312-1980 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to KS X 1001-1992 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0212-1990 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to ISO/IEC 8859-1 high part, Extended Latin 1 set (1 byte per character) [designated to G2]
 * to switch to ISO/IEC 8859-7 high part, Basic Greek set (1 byte per character) [designated to G2]

ISO-2022-JP with the ISO-2022-JP-2 representation of JIS X 0212, but not the other extensions, was subsequently dubbed ISO-2022-JP-1 by RFC 2237, dated 1997.

IBM Japanese TCP
IBM implements nine 7-bit ISO 2022 based encodings for Japanese, each using a different set of escape sequences: IBM-956, IBM-957, IBM-958, IBM-959, IBM-5052, IBM-5053, IBM-5054, IBM-5055 and ISO-2022-JP, which are collectively termed "TCP/IP Japanese coded character sets". CCSID 9148 is the standard (RFC 1468) ISO-2022-JP.

JIS X 0213
The JIS X 0213 standard, first published in 2000, defines an updated version of ISO-2022-JP, without the ISO-2022-JP-2 extensions, named ISO-2022-JP-3. The additions made by JIS X 0213 compared to the base JIS X 0208 standard resulted in a new registration being made for the extended JIS plane 1, while the new plane 2 received its own registration. The further additions to plane 1 in the 2004 edition of the standard resulted in an additional registration being added to a further revision of the profile, dubbed ISO-2022-JP-2004. In addition to the basic ISO-2022-JP designation codes, the following designations are recognized:
 * to switch to JIS X 0201-1976 Kana set (1 byte per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0213-2000 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0213-2000 Plane 2 (2 bytes per character)
 * to switch to JIS X 0213-2004 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character, ISO-2022-JP-2004 only)

Other 7-bit versions
 is defined in RFC 1557, dated 1993. It encodes ASCII and the Korean double-byte KS X 1001-1992, previously named KS C 5601-1987. Unlike ISO-2022-JP-2, it makes use of the Shift Out and Shift In characters to switch between them, after including  once at the start of a line to designate KS X 1001 to G1.

' and ' are defined in RFC 1922, dated 1996. They are 7-bit encodings making use both of the Shift Out and Shift In functions (to shift between G0 and G1), and of the 7-bit escape code forms of the single-shift functions SS2 and SS3 (to access G2 and G3). They support the character sets GB 2312 (for simplified Chinese) and CNS 11643 (for traditional Chinese).

The basic ISO-2022-CN profile uses ASCII as its G0 (shift in) set, and also includes GB 2312 and the first two planes of CNS 11643 (due to these two planes being sufficient to represent all traditional Chinese characters from common Big5, to which the RFC provides a correspondence in an appendix):
 * to switch to GB 2312-1980 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 1 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 2 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G2]

The ISO-2022-CN-EXT profile permits the following additional sets and planes.
 * to switch to ISO-IR-165 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G1]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 3 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 4 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 5 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 6 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]
 * to switch to CNS 11643-1992 Plane 7 (2 bytes per character) [designated to G3]

The ISO-2022-CN-EXT profile further lists additional Guobiao standard graphical sets as being permitted, but conditional on their being assigned registered ISO 2022 escape sequences:
 * GB 12345 in G1
 * GB 7589 or GB 13131 in G2
 * GB 7590 or GB 13132 in G3

The character after the  (for single-byte character sets) or   (for multi-byte character sets) specifies the type of character set and working set that is designated to. In the above examples, the character  (0x28) designates a 94-character set to the G0 character set, whereas ,   or   (0x29–0x2B) designates to the G1–G3 character sets.

ISO-2022-KR and ISO-2022-CN are used less frequently than ISO-2022-JP, and are sometimes deliberately not supported due to security concerns. Notably, the WHATWG Encoding Standard used by HTML5 maps ISO-2022-KR, ISO-2022-CN and ISO-2022-CN-EXT (as well as HZ-GB-2312) to the "replacement" decoder, which maps all input to the replacement character (�), in order to prevent certain cross-site scripting and related attacks, which utilize a difference in encoding support between the client and server. Although the same security concern (allowing sequences of ASCII bytes to be interpreted differently) also applies to ISO-2022-JP and UTF-16, they could not be given this treatment due to being much more frequently used in deployed content.

In April 2024, a security flaw was found in the implementation of ISO-2022-CN-EXT in glibc, which lead to recommendations to disable the encoding entirely on Linux systems.

ISO/IEC 4873
A subset of ISO 2022 applied to 8-bit single-byte encodings is defined by ISO/IEC 4873, also published by Ecma International as ECMA-43. ISO/IEC 8859 defines 8-bit codes for ISO/IEC 4873 (or ECMA-43) level 1.

ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 defines three levels of encoding:

 * Level 1, which includes a C0 set, the ASCII G0 set, an optional C1 set and an optional single-byte (94-character or 96-character) G1 set. G0 is invoked over GL, and G1 is invoked over GR. Use of shift functions is not permitted.
 * Level 2, which includes a (94-character or 96-character) single-byte G2 and/or G3 set in addition to a mandatory G1 set. Only the single-shift functions SS2 and SS3 are permitted (i.e. locking shifts are forbidden), and they invoke over the GL region (including 0x20 and 0x7F in the case of a 96-set). SS2 and SS3 must be available in C1 at 0x8E and 0x8F respectively. This minimal required C1 set for ISO 4873 is registered as ISO-IR-105.
 * Level 3, which permits the GR locking-shift functions LS1R, LS2R and LS3R in addition to the single shifts, but otherwise has the same restrictions as level 2.

Earlier editions of the standard permitted non-ASCII assignments in the G0 set, provided that the ISO/IEC 646 invariant positions were preserved, that the other positions were assigned to spacing (not combining) characters, that 0x23 was assigned to either £ or #, and that 0x24 was assigned to either $ or ¤. For instance, the 8-bit encoding of JIS X 0201 is compliant with earlier editions. This was subsequently changed to fully specify the ISO/IEC 646:1991 IRV / ISO-IR No. 6 set (ASCII).

The use of the ISO/IEC 646 IRV (synchronised with ASCII since 1991) at ISO/IEC 4873 Level 1 with no C1 or G1 set, i.e. using the IRV in an 8-bit environment in which shift codes are not used and the high bit is always zero, is known as ISO 4873 DV, in which DV stands for "Default Version".

In cases where duplicate characters are available in different sets, the current edition of ISO/IEC 4873 / ECMA-43 only permits using these characters in the lowest numbered working set which they appear in. For instance, if a character appears in both the G1 set and the G3 set, it must be used from the G1 set. However, use from other sets is noted as having been permitted in earlier editions.

ISO/IEC 8859 defines complete encodings at level 1 of ISO/IEC 4873, and does not allow for use of multiple ISO/IEC 8859 parts together. It stipulates that ISO/IEC 10367 should be used instead for levels 2 and 3 of ISO/IEC 4873. ISO/IEC 10367:1991 includes G0 and G1 sets matching those used by the first 9 parts of ISO/IEC 8859 (i.e. those which existed as of 1991, when it was published), and some supplementary sets.

Character set designation escape sequences are used for identifying or switching between versions during information interchange only if required by a further protocol, in which case the standard requires an ISO/IEC 2022 announcer sequence specifying the ISO/IEC 4873 level, followed by a complete set of escapes specifying the character set designations for C0, C1, G0, G1, G2 and G3 respectively (but omitting G2 and G3 designations for level 1), with an F-byte of 0x7E denoting an empty set. Each ISO/IEC 4873 level has its own single ISO/IEC 2022 announcer sequence, which are as follows:

Extended Unix Code
Extended Unix Code (EUC) is an 8-bit variable-width character encoding system used primarily for Japanese, Korean, and simplified Chinese. It is based on ISO 2022, and only character sets which conform to the ISO 2022 structure can have EUC forms. Up to four coded character sets can be represented (in G0, G1, G2 and G3). The G0 set is invoked over GL, the G1 set is invoked over GR, and the G2 and G3 sets are (if present) invoked using the single shifts SS2 and SS3, which are used as CR bytes (i.e. 0x8E and 0x8F respectively) and invoke over GR (not GL). Locking shift codes are not used.

The code assigned to the G0 set is ASCII, or the country's national ISO 646 character set such as KS-Roman (KS X 1003) or JIS-Roman (the lower half of JIS X 0201). Hence, 0x5C (backslash in US-ASCII) is used to represent a Yen sign in some versions of EUC-JP and a Won sign in some versions of EUC-KR.

G1 is used for a 94x94 coded character set represented in two bytes. The EUC-CN form of GB 2312 and EUC-KR are examples of such two-byte EUC codes. EUC-JP includes characters represented by up to three bytes (i.e. SS3 plus two bytes) whereas a single character in EUC-TW can take up to four bytes (i.e. SS2 plus three bytes).

The EUC code itself does not make use of the announcer or designation sequences from ISO 2022; however, it corresponds to the following sequence of four announcer sequences, with meanings breaking down as follows.

Compound Text (X11)
The X Consortium defined an ISO 2022 profile named Compound Text as an interchange format in 1989. This uses only four control codes: (0x09), NL (newline, coded as, 0x0A), (0x1B) and  (in its 8-bit representation 0x9B), with the SDS (CSI … ]) CSI sequence being used for bidirectional text control. It is an 8-bit code using G0 and G1 for GL and GR, and follows ISO-8859-1 in its initial state. The following F-bytes are used:

For specifying encodings by labels, X11 Compound Text defines five private-use DOCS sequences: ESC % / 0 (1B 25 2F 30) for variable-length encodings, and ESC % / 1 through ESC % / 4 for fixed-length encodings using one through four bytes respectively. Rather than using another escape sequence to return to ISO 2022, the two bytes following the initial escape sequence specify the remaining length in bytes, coded in base-128 using bytes 0x80–FF. The encoding label is included in ISO 8859-1 before the encoded text, and terminated with (0x02).

Advantages

 * As ISO/IEC 2022's entire range of graphical character encodings can be invoked over GL, the available glyphs are not significantly limited by an inability to represent GR and C1, such as in a system limited to 7-bit encodings. It accordingly enables the representation of large set of characters in such a system. Generally, this 7-bit compatibility is not really an advantage, except for backwards compatibility with older systems. The vast majority of modern computers use 8 bits for each byte.
 * As compared to Unicode, ISO/IEC 2022 sidesteps Han unification by using sequence codes to switch between discrete encodings for different East Asian languages. This avoids the issues associated with unification, such as difficulty supporting multiple CJK languages with their associated character variants in a single document and font.

Disadvantages

 * Since ISO/IEC 2022 is a stateful encoding, a program cannot jump in the middle of a block of text to search, insert or delete characters. This makes manipulation of the text very cumbersome and slow when compared to non-stateful encodings. Any jump in the middle of the text may require a backup to the previous escape sequence before the bytes following the escape sequence can be interpreted.
 * Due to the stateful nature of ISO/IEC 2022, an identical and equivalent character may be encoded in different character sets, which may be designated to any of G0 through G3, which may be invoked using single shifts or by using locking shifts to GL or GR. Consequently, characters can be represented in multiple ways, meaning that two visually identical and equivalent strings can not be reliably compared for equality.
 * Some systems, like DICOM and several e-mail clients, use a variant of ISO-2022 (e.g. "ISO 2022 IR 100" ) in addition to supporting several other encodings. This type of variation makes it difficult to portably transfer text between computer systems.
 * UTF-1, the multi-byte Unicode transformation format compatible with ISO/IEC 2022's representation of 8-bit control characters, has various disadvantages in comparison with UTF-8, and switching from or to other charsets, as supported by ISO/IEC 2022, is typically unnecessary in Unicode documents.
 * Because of its escape sequences, it is possible to construct attack byte sequences in which a malicious string (such as cross-site scripting) is masked until it is decoded to Unicode, which may allow it to bypass sanitisation. Use of this encoding is thus treated as suspicious by malware protection suites, and 7-bit ISO 2022 data (except for ISO-2022-JP) is mapped in its entirety to the replacement character in HTML5 to prevent attacks.  Restricted ISO 2022 8-bit code versions which do not use designation escapes or locking shift codes, such as Extended Unix Code, do not share this problem.
 * Concatenation can pose issues. Profiles such as ISO-2022-JP specify that the stream starts in the ASCII state and must end in the ASCII state. This is necessary to ensure that characters in concatenated ISO-2022-JP and/or ASCII streams will be interpreted in the correct set. This has the consequence that if a stream that ends in a multi-byte character is concatenated with one that starts with a multi-byte character, a pair of escape codes are generated switching to ASCII and immediately away from it. However, as stipulated in Unicode Technical Report #36 ("Unicode Security Considerations"), pairs of ISO 2022 escape sequences with no characters between them should generate a replacement character ("�") to prevent them from being used to mask malicious sequences such as cross-site scripting. Implementing this measure, e.g. in Mozilla Thunderbird, has led to interoperability issues, with unexpected "�" characters being generated where two ISO-2022-JP streams have been concatenated.

title: ISO/IEC 2022


text:
Europaturm

The Europaturm ("Tower of Europe") is a 337.5 metre high telecommunications tower in Frankfurt, Germany.

History
Designed by architect Erwin Heinle, the tower's construction began in 1974. At its completion five years later, it became the tallest free-standing structure in the Federal Republic of Germany. With its height of 331 metres, Europaturm became Germany's second tallest structure, after the Fernsehturm Berlin (368 metres). Even without the height of the antenna at its top, the building is over 295 metres high, which makes it Germany's tallest structure by roof level. Its base, at 59 metres thick, is the widest of any similar structure in the world.

The top of the tower can turn and provides a panoramic view of the Rhine Main area. For a number of years, the upper part of the structure housed a restaurant and discothèque, but since 1999, the Europaturm has been closed to the public.

In September, 2004, the antenna at the top of the tower was replaced, increasing its total height to 337.5 metres. The six-ton antenna was lifted to the top in two parts by helicopter.

Broadcast capability
With the new antenna, the tower became capable of broadcasting high-definition digital television signals using the DVB-T standard (which is the European counterpart to the ATSC digital standard used in the United States). It is capable of broadcasting four channels per transmitter, for a total of twenty-four channels, at 100 kilowatts per channel. It is capable of receiving satellite broadcasts and redistributing them via cable or terrestrial broadcasts.

The tower is owned and operated by T-Systems, a subsidiary of Deutsche Telekom. At night, it is illuminated with magenta lighting, the company's corporate colours.

Among Frankfurt's residents, the tower is colloquially known as the "Ginnemer Spaschel" (Frankfurt dialect for "The Ginnheimer Asparagus", or "Ginnheimer Spargel" in standard German), even though it is located in the Bockenheim district rather than close by Ginnheim. It is also simply called the "Fernsehturm" ("Television Tower").

Elevator test tower
Since around 2002 a small elevator company has used the tower for testing and demonstrations.

title: Europaturm


text:
Marmora

Marmora may refer to:

Places

 * Canada
 * Marmora, Ontario, a community in Hastings County
 * Marmora and Lake, Ontario, a township in Hastings County

 * Greece
 * Marmora, Greece, a village on the island of Paros, South Aegean

 * Italy
 * Marmora, Piedmont, a comune in the Province of Cuneo

 * United States
 * Marmora, New Jersey, a community in Cape May County

People

 * Alberto Ferrero La Marmora, an Italian naturalist
 * Alfonso Ferrero La Marmora, an Italian politician
 * Alessandro Ferrero La Marmora, an Italian general

Other uses

 * Marmora, a Latin word for marble
 * USS Marmora, the name of more than one United States Navy ship

title: Marmora


text:
Miss Black America (band)

Miss Black America (MBA) were a punk rock band formed in Bury St Edmunds, Suffolk, England in 1999 and active until 2006.

Following early patronage from BBC Radio One DJ John Peel, the band received press attention as part of NME magazine's short-lived 'No Name' scene. They released two albums: God Bless Miss Black America (2002) and Terminal (2005), and recorded four Peel Sessions before splitting in 2006.

The band's line-up changed frequently, with lead singer/guitarist Seymour Glass the only constant member.

List of former members

 * Seymour Glass – vocals & guitar (1999–2006)
 * Mat Anthony – guitar & vocals (2002–2006)
 * Mike Smith – bass & vocals (1999–2002, 2005)
 * Neil Baldwin – drums (1999–2002)
 * Gish – guitar (2000–2002)
 * Ryan Banwell – bass (2003–2005)
 * Simon Chapple – drums (2004–2005)
 * Simon Cooper – drums (2003–2004)
 * Laura Kidd – bass (2006)
 * Richard Phillips – guitar (2005)
 * Dan Smart – drums (2006)
 * Jonny Steele – bass (2003)

Post-Miss Black America
Baldwin, Smith and Gish played together as My Hi-Fi Sister from 2003 to 2006.

Glass, Baldwin and Smith played together as Ten City Nation from 2007 to 2012. They released three albums.

Seymour Glass released a solo album, Import/Export, under the moniker 'Open Mouth' in 2007. He has contributed guitars to the second album by former The Dawn Parade frontman Greg McDonald; bass guitar for country band The Blazing Zoos, alongside journalist Andrew Mueller and members of Jesus Jones; and guitar and piano for singer-songwriter Lewis Mokler. He currently plays guitar with three-piece indie-rock band Horse Party and in artist/musician Kate Jackson's touring band The Wrong Moves.

Gish has continued to record and release as a solo artist and producer, latterly under the moniker Hypermagic.

Mat Anthony has since been involved in drum & bass project Baron Greenback, fronted hard rock outfit Alita's Curse, and played lead guitar with singer songwriter Elena and hard rock solo artist Curran.

Laura Kidd is a music producer, solo artist and YouTuber working under the name Penfriend. She previously worked as a session musician (playing bass for Tricky, Alex Parks, Lil' Chris and Duncan James), filmmaker and photographer and released four-and-a-bit solo albums under the name She Makes War between 2010 and 2019. Performing solo on electric guitar, ukulele and loop pedal she has toured supporting Chris T-T, Juliana Hatfield, Midge Ure and Viv Albertine as well as performing with Viv Albertine and Carina Round.

Richard Phillips and Neil Baldwin played together briefly in The Khe Sanh Approach in 2005, before forming three-piece rock band The Vitamins in 2011.

Simon Chapple and Gish currently play together in Bury St Edmunds-based hip hop collective Scare The Normals.

Simon Cooper and Gish currently play together in Bury St Edmunds-based metal outfit Men of Munga.

Singles

 * "Miss Black America EP" (2000, CD only) (Self-release)
 * "Adrenaline Junkie Class-A Mentalist EP" (2001, CD only) (R*E*P*E*A*T Records)
 * "Don't Speak My Mind" (2001, 7" only) (Dental Records)
 * "Infinite Chinese Box" (2001, CD/7") (Integrity Records)
 * "Talk Hard" (2002, CD/7") (Integrity Records)
 * "Miss Black America" (2002, CD/7") (Integrity Records)
 * "Drowning By Numbers" (2003, 7" only) (R*E*P*E*A*T Records)
 * "Beautiful Velocity" / "All I Want Is Out" (2003, 7" only) (R*E*P*E*A*T Records)
 * "Dot Dot Dot" (2005, CD only) (R*E*P*E*A*T Records)
 * "Drowning By Numbers" (2005, CD only) (Ruby Slippers Records)
 * "Emotional Junkmail" (2006, 2-part CD only) (Ruby Slippers Records)

Albums

 * God Bless Miss Black America (2002, CD/vinyl) (Integrity Records (UK), Syft Records (Japan))
 * Terminal (2005, CD only) (R*E*P*E*A*T Records)
 * Terminal (2005, CD only) (Re-Issue, Ruby Slippers Records)

title: Miss Black America (band)