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Amdahl Corporation

Amdahl Corporation was an information technology company which specialized in IBM mainframe-compatible computer products, some of which were regarded as supercomputers competing with those from Cray Research. Founded in 1970 by Gene Amdahl, a former IBM computer engineer best known as chief architect of System/360, it has been a wholly owned subsidiary of Fujitsu since 1997. The company was located in Sunnyvale, California.

From its first machine in 1975, Amdahl's business was to provide mainframe computers that were plug-compatible with contemporary IBM mainframes, but offering higher reliability, running somewhat faster, and costing somewhat less. They often had additional practical advantages as well, in terms of size, power requirements, of being air-cooled instead of requiring a chilled water supply. This offered a price/performance ratio superior to the IBM lineup, and made Amdahl one of the few real competitors to "Big Blue" in the very high-margin computer market segment. The company won about 8% of the mainframe business worldwide, but was a market leader in some regions, most notably in the Carolinas. Proverbially, savvy IBM customers liked to have Amdahl coffee mugs visible in their offices when IBM salespeople came to visit.

As the mainframe market began to change in the later 1980s, Amdahl was increasingly diversified, becoming a major supplier of UNIX and open systems software and servers, data storage subsystems, data communications products, application development software, and a variety of educational and consulting services.

ASC
From 1965, Gene Amdahl had been working at IBM on the IBM Advanced Computer Systems project (ASC), which intended to introduce what would be the world's fastest computer. During a shake-up of the project in early 1968, Amdahl suggested the company to abandon the ASC-1 concept and instead use the techniques and circuit designs to build a System/360 compatible design. In a "shoot out" between the two concepts that spring, Amdahl's concept won. Many of the managers of the ASC left, and Amdahl was placed in charge of developing the new concept.

That July, IBM sent out a memo stating that their older software was going to be released into the public domain and that new software would be sold as separate line items, not part of the purchase of a system. This seemingly small change alerted Amdahl to the possibility of IBM-compatible machines; if the software was sold separately, then IBM could not refuse to sell it to other computers or they would violate anti-trust rules.

In May 1969, Amdahl outlined a series of three machines developed from the ASC concept. This followed IBM's pricing model of offering a series of designs that were separated by about three times in performance and two times in cost, offering customers a reason to upgrade to a larger system. To make the top-end system affordable, it would have to be priced in a way that would push the prices of the smaller systems below what their current machines sold for. Management decided against the plans, and as this essentially ended the ASC effort, Amdahl suggested they shut down the lab. They did so, and Amdahl left the company shortly thereafter in early 1970, telling them of his plans to introduce compatible machines.

Forming Amdahl
Meeting with several other former ASC engineers, a new concept emerged. Instead of attempting to make the fastest computer using the most tightly packed circuit boards possible with current technology, they would instead design a much looser arrangement of five by five components on a standardized card. Although a machine using these cards would not be able to run as fast as ASC, they would be much easier to design and cheaper to build. A key concept in the system was the automated layout of the circuit board interconnections using software running on IBM 1130 computers. Looking for partners to produce the circuits, they found Motorola was interested in doing so as long as Amdahl would provide the routing software to them first. Amdahl concluded they would take the software and not deliver the chips. After talking to National Semiconductor and Texas Instruments with no result, they finally signed with Advanced Memory Systems.

The company found it extremely difficult to arrange funding for development. Much of this was due to the venture capital industry's feeling that attempting to compete with IBM was doomed; RCA had spent billions developing and marketing their Spectra 70 series and had yet to come close to a profit, while Xerox had attempted a different attack by buying Scientific Data Systems and was suffering as a result. The effort was saved by Amdahl's relationship with Fujitsu, which allowed him to arrange a meeting with their high-ranking engineers. After three days of intensive meetings, their lead engineer had enough and said they were going to invest $5 million. This news prompted a surprise investment of the same amount from Nixdorf. Worried this would dilute their influence, Fujitsu then invested another 5 million. The company was officially launched in 1971.

470 series

During this period, IBM announced their new System/370 series. These were, initially at least, System/360's with new electronics that allowed them to run faster and be less expensive in comparison to the 360's they replaced. Amdahl's new target was to offer a lower-cost version of the high-end member of the 370 family. Amdahl felt that this would trap IBM in their own pricing structure; if they lowered the cost of their high-end machine, they would be forced to lower the cost of their lower-end offerings where they made much of their profit. The new machines were given the name 470/6. Amdahl engineers, working with Fujitsu circuit designers, developed unique, air-cooled chips which were based on high-speed emitter-coupled logic (ECL) circuit macros. These chips were packaged in a chip package with a heat-dissipating cooling attachment consisting of a cylindrical arrangement of fins, similar to the heat-dissipating fins on a motorcycle engine, mounted directly on the top of the chip. This patented technology allowed the Amdahl mainframes of this era to be completely air-cooled, unlike IBM systems that required chilled water and its supporting infrastructure.

Originally designed for a 5 by 5 arrangement of components on a card, during development this evolved into a 6 by 7 array on multi-layer cards (up to 14 layers), which were then mounted in vertical columns in the computer chassis. The cards had eight connectors attached to micro-coaxial cables that interconnected the system components. A conventional backplane was not used in the central processing units. The card columns held at least three cards per side (two per column in rare exceptions, such as the processor's "C-Unit"). Each column had two large "Tarzan" fans (a "pusher" and a "puller") to move the considerable amount of air needed to cool the chips. Each system included a Data General Nova 1200 programmed to support the CRT console and to accept the same channel command operations as the IBM 3066 on the 370/165 and 370/168.

At the time, the 370 lacked virtual memory, which was criticized in the computer press. In 1972, IBM announced a new series of 370 systems that would include this feature, which they referred to as "dynamic address translation". Amdahl modified their design to match, becoming the 470V/6, for "virtual". The machine began to take form in 1974 after several manufacturing issues were resolved. The machine was about twice as fast as the contemporary 370/168 at about the same price. It also occupied one-third as much floor space, and as it lacked the water cooling system, it was much easier to install and maintain.

The first 470V/6 machine, serial number 00001, was delivered to NASA Goddard Space Flight Center in June 1975. It was installed and commissioned in five days, compared to the two or three weeks required for similar IBM machines. The second was delivered to the University of Michigan. Texas A&M received theirs in October and Computer Usage Corporation in November. By August 1977, 55 systems had been installed and the production line had to be expanded from four to six machines a month.

For the next quarter-century, Amdahl and IBM competed aggressively against one another in the high-end mainframe market. At its peak, Amdahl had a 24% market share. Amdahl owed some of its success to antitrust settlements between IBM and the U.S. Department of Justice, which ensured that Amdahl's customers could license IBM's mainframe software under reasonable terms. The machines could also use any 360 or 360 peripheral, and while IBM initially refused to maintain these machines when connected to Amdahl systems, they were eventually forced to when Amdahl began making a profit maintaining IBM hardware.

Later 470s
In February 1977, Amdahl announced the 470V/6-II, which offered 5 to 15 percent greater performance but at a slightly higher cost. The next month they announced the 470V/5, a smaller system based on the same circuitry that offered about 60 to 70 percent of the performance of the 6-II. Customers could upgrade from the /5 to the /6-II at any time for $780,000. Deliveries began in September 1977. At the same March announcement, they also introduced the 470V/7 as competition to the recently announced IBM 3033 system, a re-implementation of the 370 series using newer circuitry and incorporating some ideas from the ASC project. The first /7's shipped in August 1978.

The 470V/8, first shipped in 1980, incorporated high-speed 64 KB cache memories to improve performance, and the first real hardware-based virtualization (known as the "Multiple Domain Facility").

Amdahl also pioneered a variable-speed feature - the '470 accelerator' - on the /5 and /7 systems that allowed the customer to run the CPUs at the higher level of performance of the /6 and /8 systems, respectively, when desired. The customer was charged by the number of hours used. Some at Amdahl thought this feature would anger customers, but it became quite popular as customer management could now control expenses while still having greater performance available when necessary.

580 series

In the late 1970s, Amdahl began an effort to develop a next-generation systems architecture under the 580 project. Both the Amdahl engineering teams and Fujitsu strongly suggested developing a multi-processor architecture. Gene Amdahl was against this and wanted to develop a faster single processor. Things came to a head in 1979, and Amdahl left the company in August to start Trilogy Systems. With Gene Amdahl's departure, and increasing influence from Fujitsu, Amdahl entered the large-scale multiprocessor market in the mid-1980s with the 5860, 5870 (attached processor) and 5880 (full multiprocessor) models.

In the 580 systems, the chips were mounted in an 11-by-11 array on multi-layer boards called Multi-Chip Carriers (MCCs) that were positioned in high-airflow for cooling. The MCCs were mounted horizontally in a large rectangular frame. The MCCs slid into a complex physical connection system. The processor "side panels" interconnected the system, providing clock propagation delays that maintained race-free synchronous operation at relatively high clock frequencies (15–18 ns base clock cycles). This processor box was cooled by high-speed fans generating horizontal airflow across the MCCs.

Along the way, Amdahl came to believe that its best bet at competing with IBM head-to-head was to "bulk up", in particular, executing a merger with a well-known vendor in the enterprise storage space. Most Amdahl mainframe customers would purchase storage devices (hard disk and tape drives) from IBM or its plug-compatible competitors. Amdahl first attempted a merger with one of the largest of these vendors, Memorex, in 1979. After this deal fell through, Amdahl went much further on a deal to merge with Colorado-based Storage Technology Corporation (STC). The deal was approved by the boards of both companies, and detailed plans were in place to implement the merger, when Fujitsu, an important partner and major shareholder of Amdahl at the time, objected to the deal which forced it to collapse. STC later tried to develop its own mainframe computer, the failure of which contributed to it filing for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1984. Around that same time, Amdahl agreed to allow Fujitsu to acquire just under half of Amdahl, leading to its ultimate acquisition of all of Amdahl's shares some years later.

In the 1980s, Amdahl entered the IBM-compatible peripherals business in front-end processors and storage products, shipping its first 4705 communications controller in August 1980 and its first 6000 DASD in August 1982. These products were very successful for a number of years with the support of Jack Lewis, the former CEO of Amdahl. The reliance upon a limited product line, restricted to containment within the complex business of mainframes and their highly valuable peripherals, constrained the company's hardware business when market forces shifted to x86-based processors. This had been foreseen, leading to an increasing emphasis on software and consulting services.

Market exit
By the early 1990s, Amdahl was suffering losses of several hundred million dollars per quarter as a result of declining mainframe sales. Management decided to lay off 900 employees in 1992, 1,100 in early 1993, and another 1,800 (out of the 7,400 remaining) later in that year, as well as canceling hardware development projects in favor of reselling computers from Sun Microsystems.

Amdahl perhaps enjoyed its best success during IBM's transition from bipolar to CMOS technology in the early to mid-1990s. The first generations of IBM's CMOS mainframe processors, the IBM 9672 G3 and G4, could not perform as well as those from the Enterprise System/9000 family, which were based on bipolar technology, giving Amdahl a temporary advantage. However, IBM's CMOS strategy paid off in the long run, allowing IBM's Poughkeepsie factory to produce even faster mainframes at a lower cost as the technology matured. By the time IBM introduced its 64-bit zSeries 900 in 2000, Amdahl's hardware business could no longer compete with IBM with its Millennium and OmniFlex servers that only had 31-bit-addressing. In late 2000, Fujitsu/Amdahl announced that the company had no plans to invest the estimated US$1 billion (or more) to create an IBM-compatible 64-bit system.

Amdahl also failed in its effort to introduce its ObjectStar software (initially known as Huron) during this period and the product later became the object of a successful management buyout. ObjectStar was subsequently acquired by the integration software vendor TIBCO in 2005.

Amdahl customer options
z/OS 1.5 is the last release of IBM's flagship operating system still able to run on 31-bit mainframes, including Amdahl and older IBM systems. IBM effectively ended support for z/OS 1.5 on March 29, 2007. In May 2006, IBM announced that the next version of z/VSE, Version 4, would require a 64-bit system, signaling the end to 31-bit support for that operating system. z/TPF, which became available in December 2005, also requires a 64-bit system. The 31-bit Linux distributions will survive as long as the open source community and distributors have an interest. So while there is still some potential life for Amdahl's hardware, the transition to 64-bit systems is essentially complete. Some companies and governments still had Amdahl systems performing useful work into mid-2006, and Fujitsu/Amdahl promised support to those customers with replacement parts and other services through March 31, 2009.

Arguably IBM did not have a suitable replacement model for many Amdahl customers until the May 2004 introduction of the zSeries 890. The previous zSeries 800 also became an attractive replacement for Amdahl machines by late 2005 as that model's typical used price fell below $100,000 and continued to fall. The System z9 BC model, introduced in May 2006, increased IBM's attractiveness yet again, and the BC drove z800 and z890 prices down even more. The late 2008 introduction of the IBM System z10 BC yet again made IBM's equipment more enticing. In fact, Fujitsu/Amdahl now sells used IBM mainframes and offers services to migrate customers to the IBM machines (This migration is straightforward and comparable to upgrading from one IBM model to a newer IBM model). The IBM z13 is the last z Systems server to support running an operating system in ESA/390 architecture mode; z14, and future machines will support only 64-bit operating systems. Other, generally less attractive options include running without support, rewriting applications, or possibly running applications under FLEX-ES. FLEX-ES is a mainframe instruction set emulator that supports ESA/390 and, in some cases, z/Architecture operating systems and software.

The vestiges of Amdahl's ESA/390 emulation project were resurrected under a new name: Platform Solutions Inc. Using capital from Intel, Hewlett-Packard, Microsoft, and other major investors they designed a line of Itanium-based computers and software to emulate z/Architecture machines so that they could run zSeries operating systems, with zSeries channels for attaching real IBM equipment as well as virtual simulators for most hardware to minimize the need for IBM's peripheral equipment. Its LPARs hosted not only IBM operating systems but 64-bit Intel Itanium Linux, HP-UX, Solaris, and potentially other operating systems.

Platform Solutions started shipping its machines in the first quarter of 2007. This action precipitated a lawsuit from IBM, citing patent infringement and PSI's failure to negotiate a z/Architecture license, and IBM refused to license its operating systems and software on PSI's machines. Platform Solutions countered that by "tying" the sale of its software to the sale of its hardware, IBM was in violation of its prior anti-trust agreement with the U.S. Justice Dept. In July 2008, IBM acquired PSI, and both companies dropped their lawsuits against each other. PSI's machines are no longer available.

Fujitsu GS21
Fujitsu continues to sell its "GlobalServer" (GS21) mainframe models in the Japanese domestic market. The GS21 machines are essentially ESA/390 (31-bit) instruction set processors largely based on Amdahl-designed technologies but are only compatible with Fujitsu's domestic market operating systems: OSIV/MSP-EX and OSIV/XSP. MSP is most similar to classic IBM MVS/ESA, and XSP is most similar to classic IBM VSE/ESA. Fujitsu GS21 mainframe hardware would most closely correspond to the late 1990s IBM G5 or G6 mainframes in terms of their instruction set support. Fujitsu has stated the company has no intention to license or implement z/Architecture (64-bit).

Fujitsu will discontinue their GS21 mainframe with end-of-sale in 2030, and end-of-support in 2035 "to promote customer modernization".

title: Amdahl Corporation


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Freedoms of the air

The freedoms of the air, also called five freedoms of air transport, are a set of commercial aviation rights granting a country's airlines the privilege to enter and land in another country's airspace. They were formulated as a result of disagreements over the extent of aviation liberalisation in the Convention on International Civil Aviation of 1944, known as the Chicago Convention. The United States had called for a standardized set of separate air rights to be negotiated between states, but most other countries were concerned that the size of the U.S. airlines would dominate air travel if there were not strict rules. The freedoms of the air are the fundamental building blocks of the international commercial aviation route network. The use of the terms "freedom" and "right" confers entitlement to operate international air services only within the scope of the multilateral and bilateral treaties (air services agreements) that allow them.

The first two freedoms concern the passage of commercial aircraft through foreign airspace and airports, while the other freedoms are about carrying people, mail and cargo internationally. The first through fifth freedoms are officially enumerated by international treaties, especially the Chicago Convention. Several other freedoms have been added, and although most are not officially recognised under broadly applicable international treaties, they have been agreed to by a number of countries. The lower-numbered freedoms are relatively universal while the higher-numbered ones are rarer and more controversial. Liberal open skies agreements often represent the least restrictive form of air services agreements and may include many if not all freedoms. They are relatively rare, but examples include the recent single aviation markets established in the European Union (European Common Aviation Area), and between Australia and New Zealand.

Overview
Freedoms of the air apply to commercial aviation. The terms 'freedom' and 'right' are a shorthand way of referring to the type of international services permitted between two or more countries. Even when such services are allowed by countries, airlines may still face restrictions to accessing them by the terms of treaties or for other reasons.

Transit rights
The first and second freedoms grant rights to pass through a country without carrying traffic that originates or terminates there and are known as 'transit rights'. The Chicago Convention drew up a multilateral agreement in which the first two freedoms, known as the International Air Services Transit Agreement (IASTA) or "Two Freedoms Agreement", were open to all signatories. At the end of 2017, the treaty was accepted by 133 countries.

A country granting transit rights may impose fees for the privilege. The reasonableness of such fees has caused controversy at times.

First freedom

The first freedom is the right to fly over a foreign country without landing. It grants the privilege to fly over the territory of a treaty country without landing. Member states of the International Air Services Transit Agreement grant this freedom (as well as the second freedom) to other member states, subject to the transiting aircraft using designated air routes. As of the summer of 2007, 129 countries were parties to this treaty, including such large ones as the United States, India, and Australia. However, Brazil, Russia, Indonesia, and China never joined, with Canada leaving the treaty in 1988. These large and strategically located non-IASTA-member states prefer to maintain tighter control over foreign airlines' overflight of their airspace and negotiate transit agreements with other countries on a case-by-case basis. During the Cold War, the Soviet Union and China did not allow airlines to enter their airspace. There were flights from Europe to Japan that refueled in Alaska. Since the end of the Cold War, first freedom rights are almost completely universal. Most countries require prior notification before an overflight and charge fees, which can sometimes be substantial.

IASTA allows each member country to charge foreign airlines "reasonable" fees for using its airports (which is applicable, presumably, only to the second freedom) and "facilities"; according to IATA, such fees should not be higher than those charged to domestic airlines engaged in similar international services. Such fees indeed are commonly charged merely for the privilege of the overflight of a country's national territory, when no airport usage is involved. (Overflights might still be using services of a country's air traffic control centers). For example, the Federal Aviation Administration of the U.S., an IASTA signatory, charges overflight fees based on the great circle distance between an aircraft's points of entry into and exit from U.S.-controlled airspace. This transit is then divided into overland (referred to as en route) and oceanic components; the latter include flights over international waters where air traffic is controlled by the U.S., including sections of Atlantic and Arctic Oceans and much of the northern Pacific Ocean. Since 2019 these have been charged at 0.6175 $/nmi for en route components, and 0.2651 $/nmi for the oceanic components.

Countries that are not signatories of the IASTA charge overflight fees as well; among them, Russia is known for charging high fees, especially on the transarctic routes (between North America and Asia) that cross Siberia. In 2008, Russia temporarily denied Lufthansa Cargo permission to overfly its airspace with cargo ostensibly due to "delayed payments for its flyover rights". European airlines pay Russia €300 million a year for flyover permissions.

Due to the Russo-Ukrainian War, in 2022 the US, EU and other countries cancelled the third and fourth freedoms for Russian airlines, preventing them flying to these countries. In response Russia blocked all freedoms for western airlines, including the first freedom. Flights from the EU to Japan now fly over central Asia and China instead. Chinese and other airlines continue to fly over Russia.

Second freedom
The second freedom allows technical stops without the embarking or disembarking of passengers or cargo. It is the right to stop in one country solely for refueling or other maintenance on the way to another country. Because of longer range of modern airliners, second freedom rights are comparatively rarely exercised by passenger carriers today, and then often as fifth freedom, allowing new passengers to embark at the stop. But second freedom rights are widely used by air cargo carriers, and are more or less universal between countries.

The most famous example of the second freedom is Shannon Airport (Ireland), which was used as a stopping point for most transatlantic flights until the 1960s, since Shannon Airport was the closest European airport to the United States. Anchorage was similarly used for flights between Western Europe and East Asia, bypassing Soviet airspace, prohibited until the end of the Cold War. Anchorage was still used by some Chinese airlines for flights to the U.S. and Toronto until the 2000s. Flights between Europe and South Africa often stopped at Ilha do Sal (Sal Island) in Cabo Verde, off the coast of Senegal, due to many African nations refusing to allow South African flights to overfly their territory during the Apartheid regime. Gander, Newfoundland was also a frequent stopping point for airlines from the USSR and the Eastern Bloc on the way to the Caribbean, Central America, Mexico, and South America.

Traffic rights
In contrast to transit rights, 'traffic rights' allow commercial international services between, through and in some cases within the countries that are parties to air services agreements or other treaties. While it was agreed that the third to fifth freedoms would be negotiated between states, the International Air Transport Agreement (or "Five Freedoms Agreement") was also opened for signatures, encompassing the first five freedoms. The remaining four freedoms are made possible by some air services agreements but are not 'officially' recognized because they are not mentioned by the Chicago Convention.

Third and fourth freedoms
The third and fourth freedoms allow basic international service between two countries. Even when reciprocal third and fourth freedom rights are granted, air services agreements (e.g. the Bermuda Agreements) may still restrict many aspects of the traffic, such as the capacity of aircraft, the frequency of flights, the airlines permitted to fly and the airports permitted to be served. The third freedom is the right to carry passengers or cargo from one's own country to another. The right to carry passengers or cargo from another country to one's own is the fourth freedom. Third and fourth freedom rights are almost always granted simultaneously in bilateral agreements between countries.

Beyond rights
Beyond rights allow the carriage of traffic between (and sometimes within) countries that are foreign to the airlines that operate them. Today, the most controversial of these are fifth freedom rights. Less controversial but still restricted at times, though relatively more common are sixth freedom rights.

Beyond rights also encompass international flights with a foreign intermediate stop where passengers may only embark and disembark at the intermediate point on the leg of the flight that serves the origin of an airline operating it. It also includes 'stopover' traffic where passengers may embark or disembark at an intermediate stop as part of an itinerary between the endpoints of a multi-leg flight or connecting flights. Some international flights stop at multiple points in a foreign country and passengers may sometimes make stopovers in a similar manner, but because the traffic being carried does not originate in the country where the flight takes place it is not cabotage but another form of beyond rights.

Fifth freedom
The fifth freedom allows an airline to carry revenue traffic between foreign countries as a part of services connecting the airline's own country. It is the right to carry passengers from one's own country to a second country, and from that country onward to a third country (and so on). An example of a fifth freedom traffic right is an Emirates flight in 2004 from Dubai to Brisbane, Australia and onward to Auckland, New Zealand, where tickets can be sold on any sector.

Fifth freedom traffic rights are intended to enhance the economic viability of an airline's long haul routes, but tend to be viewed by local airlines and governments as potentially unfair competition. The negotiations for fifth freedom traffic rights can be lengthy, because in practice the approval of at least three different nations is required.

Fifth freedom traffic rights were instrumental to the economic viability of long-haul flight until the early 1980s, when advances in technology and increased passenger volume enabled the operation of more non-stop flights. The excess capacity on multi-sector routes could be filled by picking up and dropping off passengers along the way. It was not uncommon for carriers to schedule stops in one or more foreign countries on the way to a flight's final destination. Fifth freedom flights were common between Europe and Africa, South America and the Far East. An example of a multi-sector flight in the mid-1980s was an Alitalia service from Rome to Tokyo via Athens, Delhi, Bangkok and Hong Kong. Fifth freedom flights remained highly common in East Asia during the 2000s, particularly on routes serving Tokyo, Hong Kong and Bangkok. Between the latter two destinations, in 2004, service was provided by at least four airlines whose home base was not in either Hong Kong or Bangkok. The Singapore-Bangkok route has also constituted an important fifth freedom market. In the late 1990s, half of the seats available between the two cities were offered by airlines holding fifth freedom traffic rights. Other major markets served by fifth freedom flights can be found in Europe, South America, the Caribbean and the Tasman Sea.

Fifth freedom traffic rights are sought by airlines wishing to take up unserved or underserved routes, or by airlines whose flights already make technical stops at a location as allowed by the second freedom. Governments (e.g. Thailand) may sometimes encourage fifth freedom traffic as a way of promoting tourism, by increasing the number of seats available. In turn, though, there may be reactionary pressure to avoid liberalizing traffic rights too much in order to protect a flag carrier's commercial interests. By the 1990s, fifth freedom traffic rights stirred controversy in Asia because of loss-making services by airlines in the countries hosting them. Particularly in protest over US air carriers' service patterns in Asia, some nations have become less generous in granting fifth freedom traffic rights, while sixth freedom traffic has grown in importance for Asian airlines.

The Japan-United States bilateral air transport agreement of 1952 has been viewed as being particularly contentious because unlimited fifth freedom traffic rights have been granted to designated US air carriers serving destinations in the Asia Pacific region west of Japan. For example, in the early 1990s, the Japanese government's refusal to permit flights on the New York City—Osaka—Sydney route led to protests by the US government and the airlines that applied to serve that route. The Japanese government countered that only about 10% of the traffic on the Japan—Australia sector was third and fourth freedom traffic to and from the US, while the bilateral agreement specified that primary justification for unlimited fifth freedom traffic was to fill up aircraft carrying a majority of US-originated or US-destined traffic under those rights. Japan had held many unused fifth freedom traffic rights beyond the USA. However, these were seen as being less valuable than the fifth freedom traffic rights enjoyed by US air carriers via Japan, because of the higher operating costs of Japanese airlines and also geographical circumstances. Japan serves as a useful gateway to Asia for North American travelers. The US contended that Japan's favourable geographical location and its flag airlines' carriage of a sizeable volume of sixth freedom traffic via gateway cities in Japan helped to level the playing field. In 1995, the air transport agreement was updated by way of liberalizing Japanese carriers' access to US destinations, while placing selected restrictions on US air carriers.

Up until the 1980s, Air India's flights to New York JFK from India were all operated under fifth freedom rights. From its 1962 initiation of Boeing 707 service to Idlewild (renamed JFK in 1964), flights had intermediate stops at one Middle East airport (Kuwait, Cairo, or Beirut), then two or three European airports, the last of which was always London's Heathrow, with trans-Atlantic service operating between Heathrow and JFK. This service continued well into the Boeing 747 era. Currently, Air India's North American flights are nonstop Boeing 777 service to India, with one exception, that being a revival of fifth freedom flights operating Boeing 787 service on the Newark—Heathrow—Ahmedabad route. However, Air India does not currently operate that route.

The fifth freedom has been discussed in 2017 in connection with the Saint Helena Airport. Flights (by a South African airline) serving it have to refuel at Windhoek Airport; but they are not allowed to board more passengers coming from connecting flights, which means that passengers from Cape Town must do a detour over Johannesburg with fairly little connecting time, with risk of missing the once-weekly flight.

Sixth freedom
The unofficial sixth freedom combines the third and fourth freedoms and is the right to carry passengers or cargo from a second country to a third country by stopping in one's own country. It can also be characterized as a form of the fifth freedom with an intermediate stop in the operating airline's home market. This characterization is often invoked as protectionist policy as the traffic, like fifth freedom traffic, is secondary in nature to third and fourth freedom traffic. Consequently, some nations seek to regulate sixth freedom traffic as though it were fifth freedom traffic.

Sixth-freedom traffic has historically been widespread in Asia, where Southeast Asian carriers such as Thai Airways and Singapore Airlines carried traffic on the Kangaroo Route between Europe and Australia, and Japanese carriers carried traffic between Southeast Asia and the Americas. More recently, carriers in the Persian Gulf region have developed intercontinental sixth-freedom hubs, and Copa Airlines has developed a sixth-freedom hub in Panama to connect many cities in North and South America. Another example is Air Canada, which has pursued a strategy of carrying passengers between the US and points in Europe and Asia through its Canadian hubs.

While sixth freedom operations are rarely legally-restricted, they may be controversial: for example, Qantas has complained that Emirates, Singapore Airlines and other sixth-freedom carriers have unfair advantages in the market between Europe and Australia.

Because the nature of air services agreements is essentially a mercantilist negotiation that strives for an equitable exchange of traffic rights, the outcome of a bilateral agreement may not be fully reciprocal but rather a reflection of the relative size and geographic position of two markets, especially in the case of a large country negotiating with a much smaller one. In exchange for a smaller state granting fifth freedom rights to a larger country, the smaller country may be able to gain sixth freedom traffic to onward destinations from the larger country.

On 2 October 2007, the United Kingdom and Singapore signed an agreement that allowed unlimited sixth freedom rights from 30 March 2018, along with a full exchange of other freedoms of the air.

Cabotage
Cabotage is the transport of goods or passengers between two points in the same country by a vessel or an aircraft registered in another country. Originally a shipping term, cabotage now covers aviation, railways and road transport. It is "trade or navigation in coastal waters, or, the exclusive right of a country to operate the air traffic within its territory".

Modified sixth freedom (indirect cabotage)
The unofficial modified sixth freedom is the right to carry passengers or cargo between two points in one foreign country, while making a stop in the home country.

For example, (the unofficial modified sixth freedom): a Canadian carrier departs from a US airport, stops in its Canadian hub and departs/continues onward to a different US airport.

Seventh and ninth freedoms (standalone cabotage)
The unofficial seventh and ninth freedoms are variations of the fifth freedom. It is the right to carry passengers or cargo in foreign territories without any service to, from or via one's own country. The seventh freedom is to provide international services between two foreign countries, and the ninth between points within a single foreign country.

The right to carry passengers or cargo within a foreign country without continuing service to or from one's own country, is sometimes known as "stand-alone cabotage". It differs from the aviation definition of "true cabotage", in that it does not directly relate to one's own country.

Eighth freedom (consecutive cabotage)
The unofficial eighth freedom is the right to carry passengers or cargo between two or more points in one foreign country and is also known as cabotage. It is extremely rare outside Europe. The main example is the European Union, where such rights exist between all its member states. Other examples include the Single Aviation Market (SAM) established between Australia and New Zealand in 1996; the 2001 Protocol to the Multilateral Agreement on the Liberalization of International Air Transportation (MALIAT) between Brunei, Chile, New Zealand and Singapore; United Airlines' "Island Hopper" route, from Guam to Honolulu, able to transport passengers within the Federated States of Micronesia and the Marshall Islands, although the countries involved are closely associated with the United States. Such rights have usually been granted only where the domestic air network is very underdeveloped. One instance was Pan Am's authority to fly between Frankfurt and West Berlin from the 1950s to the 1980s, although political circumstances and not the state of the domestic air network dictated this – only airlines of the Allied Powers of France, the United Kingdom and the United States had the right to carry air traffic between West Germany and the legally separate and distinct territory of West Berlin until 1990. In 2005, the United Kingdom and New Zealand concluded an agreement granting unlimited cabotage rights. Given the distance between the two countries, the agreement can be seen as reflecting a political principle rather than an expectation that these rights will be taken up in the near future. Similarly, New Zealand had exchanged eighth-freedom rights with Ireland in 1999.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Freedoms of the air


text:
Apicius

Apicius, also known as De re culinaria or De re coquinaria (On the Subject of Cooking), is a collection of Roman cookery recipes, which may have been compiled in the fifth century CE, or earlier. Its language is in many ways closer to Vulgar than to Classical Latin, with later recipes using Vulgar Latin (such as ficatum, bullire) added to earlier recipes using Classical Latin (such as iecur, fervere).

The book has been attributed to an otherwise unknown Caelius Apicius, an invention based on the fact that one of the two manuscripts is headed with the words "API CAE" or rather because a few recipes are attributed to Apicius in the text: Patinam Apicianam sic facies (IV, 14) Ofellas Apicianas (VII, 2). It has also been attributed to Marcus Gavius Apicius, a Roman gourmet who lived sometime in the 1st century CE during the reign of Tiberius. The book also may have been authored by a number of different Roman cooks from the first century CE. Many of the recipes contain the ingredient silphium, which became extinct in the first century CE, so this supports the earlier date. However, based on textual analysis, the food scholar Bruno Laurioux believes that the surviving version only dates from the fifth century (that is, the end of the Roman Empire): "The history of De Re Coquinaria indeed belongs then to the Middle Ages".

Organization
The Latin text is organized in ten books with Greek titles, in an arrangement similar to that of a modern cookbook:
 * 1) Epimeles — The Diligent
 * 2) Sarcoptes — The Butcher
 * 3) Cepuros — The Gardener
 * 4) Pandectes — The Encyclopedia
 * 5) Ospreon — Pulses & Legumes
 * 6) Aeropetes — The Bird
 * 7) Polyteles — The Sumptuous
 * 8) Tetrapus — The Quadruped, Four-legged animals
 * 9) Thalassa — The Sea, Sea-food
 * 10) Halieus — The Fisherman

Foods
The foods described in the book are useful for reconstructing the dietary habits of the ancient world around the Mediterranean Basin. But the recipes are geared for the wealthiest classes, and a few contain what were exotic ingredients at that time (e.g., flamingo). A sample recipe from Apicius (8.6.2–3) follows:
 * Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam: mittes in caccabum copadia. cepam, coriandrum minutatim succides, teres piper, ligusticum, cuminum, liquamen, oleum, vinum. coques, exinanies in patina, amulo obligas. [Aliter haedinam sive agninam excaldatam] agnina a crudo trituram mortario accipere debet, caprina autem cum coquitur accipit trituram.
 * Hot kid or lamb stew. Put the pieces of meat into a pan. Finely chop an onion and coriander, pound pepper, lovage, cumin, garum, oil, and wine. Cook, turn out into a shallow pan, thicken with wheat starch. If you take lamb you should add the contents of the mortar while the meat is still raw, if kid, add it while it is cooking.

Alternative editions

In a completely different manuscript, there is also a very abbreviated epitome entitled Apici excerpta a Vinidario, a "pocket Apicius" by "an illustrious man" named Vinidarius, made as late as the Carolingian era. The Vinidarius of this book may have been a Goth, in which case his Gothic name may have been Vinithaharjis (𐍅𐌹𐌽𐌹𐌸𐌰𐌷𐌰𐍂𐌾𐌹𐍃), but this is only conjecture. Despite being called "illustrious", nothing about him is truly known.

Apici excerpta a Vinidario survives in a single 8th-century uncial manuscript. Despite the title, this booklet is not an excerpt purely from the Apicius text we have today, as it contains material not included in the longer Apicius manuscripts. Either some text was lost between the time the excerpt was made and the time the manuscripts were written, or there never was a "standard Apicius" text because the contents changed over time as it was adapted by readers.

Once manuscripts surfaced, there were two early printed editions of Apicius, in Milan (1498, under the title In re quoquinaria) and Venice (1500). Four more editions in the next four decades reflect the appeal of Apicius. In the long-standard edition of C. T. Schuch (Heidelberg, 1867), the editor added some recipes from the Vinidarius manuscript.

Between 1498 (the date of the first printed edition) and 1936 (the date of Joseph Dommers Vehling's translation into English and bibliography of Apicius), there were 14 editions of the Latin text (plus one possibly apocryphal edition). The work was not widely translated, however; the first translation was into Italian, in 1852, followed in the 20th century by two translations into German and French. The French translation by Bertrand Guégan was awarded the 1934 Prix Langlois by the Académie française.

Vehling made the first translation of the book into English under the title Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome. It was published in 1936 and is still in print, having been reprinted in 1977 by Dover Publications. It is now of historical interest only, since Vehling's knowledge of Latin was not always adequate for the difficult task of translation, and several later and more reliable translations now exist.

Texts and translations

 * Apicii decem libri qui dicuntur De re coquinaria ed. Mary Ella Milham. Leipzig: Teubner, 1969. [Latin]
 * The Roman Cookery Book: A Critical Translation of the Art of Cooking By Apicius for Use in the Study and the Kitchen. Trans. Barbara Flower and Elisabeth Rosenbaum. London: Harrap, 1958. [Latin and English]
 * Apicius: A Critical Edition with an Introduction and an English Translation. Ed. and trans. Christopher Grocock and Sally Grainger. Totnes:Prospect Books, 2006. ISBN 1-903018-13-7 [Latin and English]
 * Apicius. L'art culinaire. Ed. and trans. Jacques André. Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1974. [Latin and French]
 * Apicius. Cookery and Dining in Imperial Rome. Trans. Joseph Dommers Vehling. 1936. [English]
 * The Roman Cookery of Apicius. Trans. John Edwards. Vancouver: Hartley & Marks, 1984. [English]
 * Nicole van der Auwera & Ad Meskens, Apicius. De re coquinaria: De romeinse kookkunst. Trans. Nicole van der Auwera and Ad Meskens. Archief- en Bibliotheekwezen in België, Extranummer 63. Brussels, Koninklijke Bibliotheek, 2001. [Dutch]

Secondary material

 * Alföldi-Rosenbaum, Elisabeth (1972). "Apicius de re coquinaria and the Vita Heliogabali". In Straub, J., ed., Bonner Historia-Augusta-Colloquium 1970. Bonn, 1972. Pp. 5–18.
 * Bode, Matthias (1999). Apicius – Anmerkungen zum römischen Kochbuch. St. Katharinen: Scripta Mercaturae Verlag.
 * Déry, Carol. "The Art of Apicius". In Walker, Harlan, ed. Cooks and Other People: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery 1995. Totnes: Prospect Books. Pp. 111–17.
 * Grainger, Sally (2006). Cooking Apicius: Roman Recipes for Today. Totnes: Prospect Books.
 * Grainger, Sally (2007). "The Myth of Apicius". Gastronomica, 7(2): 71–77.
 * Lindsay, H. (1997). “Who was Apicius?”. Symbolae Osloenses, 72: 144-154.
 * Mayo, H. (2008). "New York Academy of Medicine MS1 and the textual tradition of Apicius". In Coulson, F. T., & Grotans, A., eds., Classica et Beneventana: Essays Presented to Virginia Brown on the Occasion of her 65th Birthday. Turnhout: Brepols. Pp. 111–135.
 * Milham, Mary Ella (1950). A Glossarial Index to De re coquinaria of Apicius. Ph.D. thesis, University of Wisconsin.

Latin text

 * Bibliotheca Augustana: De Re Coquinaria Libri Decem Mary Ella Milham's edition, nicely presented (Latin)
 * Text of the cookbook in Latin at The Latin Library
 * Another version of the Latin text (source not stated)
 * Vehling English translation
 * Diplomatic version of the Latin text, with parallel English translation and modern redaction of the recipes.
 * Digital facsimile of Apici excerpta a Vinidario, BnF, MS lat. 10318, fols. 196–203, on Gallica
 * Diplomatic version of the Latin text, with parallel English translation and modern redaction of the recipes.
 * Digital facsimile of Apici excerpta a Vinidario, BnF, MS lat. 10318, fols. 196–203, on Gallica

Secondary material

 * How to prepare a 5-dish ancient Roman meal by Apicius
 * An alternate 5-dish ancient Roman meal by Apicius
 * James Grout's Apicius, part of the Encyclopædia Romana
 * Partial re-translation from a German translation, adapted for modern cooking styles (the untranslated "Liebstoeckl" is lovage; Poleiminze is pennyroyal; Saturei is savory herb)
 * A 6 course banquet incorporating 12 Apician recipes and 9 from other Roman sources

title: Apicius


text:
Artificial human companion

Artificial human companions may be any kind of hardware or software creation designed to give companionship to a person. These can include digital pets, such as the popular Tamagotchi, or robots, such as the Sony AIBO. Virtual companions can be used as a form of entertainment, or they can be medical or functional, to assist the elderly in maintaining an acceptable standard of life.

Introduction
Senior citizens make up an increasing percentage of the population in the Western nations, and, according to Judith Masthoff of the University of Brighton, they tend to live alone and have a limited social network. Studies also show that those elderly living in such circumstances have an increased risk of developing depression and dementia and have a shorter life span than more socially connected seniors.

It has been known to gerontologists for some time that pets -- particularly those such as cats and dogs that exhibit a range of behaviors and emotions -- help prevent depression in the elderly. Studies also show some beneficial results from electronic pets such as Sony's Aibo and Omron's NeCoRo; however, the therapeutic value of such artificial pets remains limited by the capabilities of technology. A recent solution to physical limitations of technology comes from GeriJoy, in the form of virtual pets for seniors. Seniors can interact with GeriJoy's pets by petting them through the multitouch interface of standard consumer-grade tablets, and can even have intelligent conversations with the pets.

Television viewing among the elderly represents a significant percentage of how their waking hours are spent, and the percentage increases directly with age. Seniors typically watch TV to avoid loneliness; yet TV limits social interaction, thus creating a vicious circle.

Masthoff purports that it is possible to develop an interactive, personalized form of television that would allow the viewer to engage in natural conversation and learn from these conversations, as well as becoming more physically active which can help in the management of Type 2 Diabetes.

Such applications have existed for decades. The earliest, such as the "psychologist" program ELIZA, did little more than identify key words and feed them back to the user, but Kenneth Colby's 1972 PARRY program at Stanford University -- far superior to ELIZA -- exhibited many of the features researchers now seek to put into a dialog system, above all some form of emotional response and having something "it wants to say", rather than being completely passive like ELIZA. The Internet now has a wide range of chatterbots but they are no more advanced, in terms of plausibility as conversationalists, than the systems of forty years ago and most users tire of them after a couple of exchanges. Meanwhile, two developments have advanced the field in different ways: first, the Loebner Prize, an annual competition for the best computer conversationalist, substantially advanced performance. Its winners could be considered the best chatterbots, but even they never approach a human level of capacity as can be seen from the site.

Secondly a great deal of industrial and academic research has gone into effective conversationalists, usually for specific tasks, such as selling rail or airline tickets. The core issue in all such systems is the dialog manager which is the element of system that determines what the system should say next and so appear intelligent or compliant with the task at hand. This research, along with work on computing emotion, speech research and Embodied Conversational Agents (ECAs) has led to the beginnings of more companionable systems, particularly for the elderly. The EU supported Companions Project is a 4-year, 15-site project to build such companions, based at the University of Sheffield.

Technology and artificial human companions in social work
Historically, the concept of artificial intelligence (AI) has rapidly changed numerous forms of society and different workforces. The field in it is focusing on, that being Social Work, demonstrates one of the numerous workforces that can and has utilized the benefits of AI. Social work is a field that can especially benefit from AI, because of the expansive number of fields that it has. As an example, Social Work can focus on the medical field, geriatrics, group work, and many more fields. In Narula's article, many forms and examples of AI are given, and a number of those examples are applicable to the field of Social Work, especially within the medical and geriatric fields. Within the realm of geriatric Social Work, in the last decades, it has been increasing dependent on AI's fraud prevention within banking systems. Because older adults are more vulnerable to financial manipulation and abuse, this system of AI is especially integral for the protection of the geriatric population.

However, there are other realms of social work that have seen beneficial change from AI over the past decades. One example, is the use of AI-assisted online social therapy groups. D'Alfonso wrote about the implications of AI within social support groups, stating that “integration of user experience with a sophisticated and cutting-edge technology to deliver content is necessary to redefine online interventions in youth mental health”. The form of AI is especially beneficial and necessary due to the cost-effective and engaging nature. Also, forms of surveillance, brought up by Quan-Haase, demonstrate AI and technology's growing prominence and beneficial nature within Social Work. The changes of surveillance highlight these changes, especially the nature of the functional view, in which surveillance and AI are essential in the protection and safety of society.

In addition, there are other forms of AI that could contribute to the future of social work. De Greeff and Belpaeme write that the social learning of social robots has increased and become more prominent in coming decades. It is written that “social robots often tend to be designed to portray a character, thus stimulating their anthropomorphisation by human interactants and inviting an interaction-style that is natural to people. Both a robot's appearance and behaviour can strengthen interactants' interpretation of dealing with a social agent, rather than with a piece of equipment”. This substantiates that robots and AI are in the process of being used for communication and support for humans, and AI is used in order to allow technology and robots to become adept at linguistics and social cues.

title: Artificial human companion


text:
Iranian

Iranian may refer to:

 * Iranian peoples, the speakers of the Iranian languages. The term Iranic peoples is also used for this term to distinguish the pan ethnic term from Iranian, used for the people of Iran
 * Iranian languages, a branch of the Indo-Iranian languages
 * Something of, from, or related to Iran
 * Iranians, a nation identified with Iran
 * Iranian diaspora, Iranians living outside Iran
 * Iranian architecture, architecture of Iran and parts of the rest of West Asia
 * Iranian foods, list of Iranian foods and dishes
 * Iranian.com, also known as The Iranian and The Iranian Times

title: Iranian


text:
1814 in Canada

Events from the year 1814 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 7th (until March 22)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 6th

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: George Prévost
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith

Events

 * March 3 – The Governor refuses to suspend Chief Justices Sewell and Monk, on suggestion of one branch of the Legislature. James Stuart moves, affirming the Assembly's right to inform the Governor of irregularities, without concurrence of the council; and that the Governor has violated the Constitution.
 * March 7 – The Assembly votes confidence in the Governor, apart from his advisors.
 * March 8 – The council sustain their Clerk's refusal to show their minutes to a Committee of the Assembly.
 * March 9 – The Assembly vote 2,000 pounds, for impeachment of Chief Justices Sewell and Monk. The council will not pass the item.
 * March 17 – The Assembly resolve that the council's disallowance of a money bill is contrary to English and Canadian usage.
 * May 6 – The British, under Henry Drummond, burn Fort Oswego, on Lake Ontario.
 * May 25 – Louis-Joseph Papineau is unanimously elected speaker.
 * July 5 – Battle of Chippewa.
 * July 25 – The United States lose about 1,000 of 3,000 at the Battle of Lundy's Lane.
 * August – 4,000 of Wellington's veterans have reached Canada.
 * August 1 to November 5 – The Siege of Fort Erie.
 * August 11 – Battle of Lake Champlain.
 * August 14 – At Fort Erie, the British lose many lives, by the explosion of a magazine.
 * August – General Ross takes Washington, D.C.
 * August 25 – The seaboard of the United States is blockaded by ships released from European service.
 * August – Envoys consider terms of peace, at Ghent.
 * September 12 – An expedition of 11,000 under Governor George Prevost, supplied to winter at Plattsburg, N.Y., seeing its fleet dispersed and the enemy gathering, retreats, abandoning stores. In 1813, Wellington desired that Prevost should not abandon his policy of defence for petty advantages, to be gained by invasion, which he could not possibly maintain.
 * October – Martin Chittenden, Governor of Vermont, regards the war "as unnecessary, unwise and hopeless, in all its offensive operations."
 * December 22 – Treaty of Commerce, between the U.S. and Great Britain, signed at Ghent.
 * December 24 – Treaty of Ghent ends the War of 1812.
 * December 27 – Then prince regent George IV ratifies both treaties. One relates to boundaries and the slave trade.
 * David Thompson delivers his map of western North America to partners of North West Company.
 * Canadian Army bills, 1,500,000 pounds.
 * Chief Justice Sewell, while in England, to defend himself, advises uniting the Canadas with one Parliament.
 * The Assembly re-proposes representation in London. The Council objects. The Home Government declares that the Governor is the constitutional medium of communication between the Colony and the Imperial Government.

Births

 * February 10 – David Anderson, Church of England priest and bishop of Rupert's Land (d.1885)
 * May 3
 * John Hamilton Gray, Premier of New Brunswick (d.1889)
 * Adams George Archibald, politician (d.1892)
 * May 20 – William Steeves, politician (d. 1873)
 * July 21 – Jacques Philippe Lantier, businessman, author and politician (d.1882)
 * September 6 – George-Étienne Cartier, politician and statesman (d.1873)

Full date unknown

 * Thomas-Louis Connolly, Archbishop of Halifax (d.1876)
 * William Kennedy April 1814

Deaths

 * September 4 – Joseph Willcocks, diarist, office holder, printer, publisher, journalist, politician, and army officer (b.1773)

title: 1814 in Canada


text:
W Network

W Network (often shortened to W) is a Canadian English language discretionary specialty channel owned by Corus Entertainment. The channel primarily broadcasts general entertainment programming oriented towards a female audience.

W Network was established in 1995 as the Women's Television Network (WTN), which had a focus on women's lifestyle programming. The channel was eventually acquired by Corus in 2001 and relaunched under its current branding in 2002. As part of the relaunch, W's programming shifted to a mix of both entertainment and lifestyle programming. By 2017, W had moved its lifestyle programming to its sister networks to focus exclusively on entertainment programming, and later became part of output deals with Hallmark Media, and NBCUniversal for Peacock and Sky Studios original programming.

The channel is available in two time shifted feeds, East (operating from the Eastern Time Zone) and West (operating from the Pacific Time Zone).

As Women's Television Network
In June 1994, Linda Rankin, on behalf of a corporation to be incorporated, (later incorporated as Lifestyle Television (1994) Limited, principally owned by Moffat Communications) was granted a television broadcasting licence by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC) to operate a channel called Lifestyle Television, described as offering "information and entertainment programming of particular interest to women." The channel subsequently launched on January 1, 1995 as Women's Television Network (WTN). Like Moffat's other cable television operations, WTN was headquartered in Winnipeg, Manitoba. Linda Rankin served as the president of the network from its launch.

Programming on the network was originally largely focused on lifestyle programming that many had suggested was "feminist" in nature. Such programming included female takes on traditionally male-dominated activities such as fishing and mechanics, with Natural Angler and Car Care, respectively. While other programs, such as Go Girl!, took a comedic approach at parodying typical female-targeted talk shows that discussed subjects such as beauty, fashion, etc. Other programs included films, current affairs, and occasionally sports.

The channel suffered from low ratings in the beginning. Of the slew of new channels launched on January 1, 1995, WTN was initially the lowest rated channel on average. Linda Rankin later resigned in August 1995 citing "differences in management philosophy".

As W Network
In December 2000, Shaw Communications announced it intended to purchase Moffat. The deal was later closed in early 2001. Shaw announced in March 2001 that it would sell WTN to Corus Entertainment, a company that it spun off in 1999, for CA$205 million (Shaw had primarily acquired Moffat for its cable television systems). Once Corus took ownership of the channel, it moved operations from Winnipeg to Toronto in mid-January 2002, laying off 50 employees in the process. Corus subsequently relaunched the network as W on April 15, 2002, with a more entertainment-oriented mix of recent dramas and movies. On the same date, Corus launched the west coast feed.

In 2009, Corus Entertainment acquired SexTV: The Channel from CTVglobemedia, and relaunched the channel as W Movies — a spin-off of W Network focusing on films aimed towards women, on March 1, 2010. On December 12, 2016, W Movies was relaunched as a Canadian version of the Cooking Channel.

On August 2, 2011, the channel launched its HD feed, a simulcast of W Network's standard-definition Eastern-time feed. The HD feed was added to Bell Satellite TV satellite and Bell Fibe TV channel lineups on March 23, 2012. It was also available on Eastlink, Optik TV, Shaw Direct, SaskTel, Rogers Cable, Cogeco, and Access Communications. On October 1, 2013, an HD feed for the Western-time channel was launched on Shaw Cable, then on Shaw Direct on September 18, 2019.

2017–present
Since the 2017–18 season, W Network has re-oriented its programming towards scripted television series and movies. The majority of its lifestyle programming, including the Property Brothers franchise, was moved to HGTV Canada, as well as Corus' other women and lifestyle networks.

On October 25, 2018, Corus announced a content deal with Crown Media Holdings, giving W Network exclusive Canadian rights to original movies and series produced for Hallmark Channel and Hallmark Movies & Mysteries. W Network will broadcast branded blocks of Hallmark Channel content, including local versions of Hallmark Channel's seasonal programming events. The partnership officially launched on November 1, 2018 with the Countdown to Christmas event.

Programming
W Network primarily broadcasts a mix of television dramas and films, including programming acquired from Hallmark Channel; most of which is filmed in Canada.

In 2020, Corus reached output agreements with NBCUniversal Media Group for rights to Peacock and Sky Studios original series across its networks, including Showcase and W Network. Devils served as one of the first to air on W as part of the agreements.

W previously produced and aired unscripted reality shows and lifestyle programming; it was well known for originating the Love It or List It and Property Brothers franchises seen on HGTV in the United States. These programs ultimately moved to HGTV Canada and Corus' other lifestyle networks following W's shift to scripted programming.

Original series
• All for Nothing?

• Anna & Kristina's Grocery Bag

• The Atwood Stories

• The Bachelorette Canada

• Brother vs. Brother

• Property Brothers: Buying + Selling

• Cameron's House Rules

• Cash and Cari

• Candice Tells All

• Colour Confidential

• Come Dine with Me Canada

• The Cupcake Girls

• Deal with It

• Divine Design

• Game of Homes

• Grin and Build It

• Hockey Wives

• Inside the Box with Ty Pennington

• Love It or List It

• Love It or List It Vancouver

• Masters of Flip

• Maxed Out

• Me, My House & I

• My House Your Money

• Property Brothers

• The Real Estate Adventures of Sandy & Maryse

• The Restaurant Adventures of Caroline & Dave

• The Shields Stories

• The Smart Woman Survival Guide

• Save Us from Our House

• Say Yes to the Dress Canada

• Shannon and Sophie

• Take This House and Sell It

• Tessa and Scott

• Undercover Boss Canada

• Who Lives Here?

Acquired Programming

 * A Million Little Things
 * Based on a True Story
 * Chesapeake Shores
 * Days of Our Lives
 * Days of Our Lives: A Very Salem Christmas
 * Days of Our Lives: Beyond Salem
 * Dreamland
 * The Equalizer
 * Frasier
 * Five Bedrooms
 * The Girl from Plainville
 * Ghosts
 * Girls5eva
 * The Good Doctor
 * The Good Fight
 * Good Witch
 * I Am...
 * Katy Keene
 * Law & Order: Special Victims Unit
 * Mom
 * Mystery 101
 * Nancy Drew
 * The Neighborhood
 * NCIS: Los Angeles
 * One of Us Is Lying
 * Outlander
 * Pitch Perfect: Bumper in Berlin
 * Sex with Sue
 * So Help Me Todd
 * Superstore
 * The Way Home
 * The Best Man: The Final Chapters
 * This Way Up
 * Vampire Academy
 * Walker: Independence
 * When Calls the Heart
 * We Are Lady Parts
 * Why Women Kill
 * Will & Grace

title: W Network


text:
1815 in Canada

Here are events and incumbents from 1815 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 8th (starting January 21)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 6th

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: George Prevost then Gordon Drummond
 * Governor of New Brunswick: Thomas Carleton
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith
 * Governor of Upper Canada: Francis Gore

Events

 * The Great Migration from Europe begins.
 * January – Unaware of the Treaty of Ghent, General Andrew Jackson (1767–1845) wins the Battle of New Orleans.
 * February 9 – A bill to give the speaker a salary of 1,000 pounds is read.
 * February 18 – The United States ratifies treaties signed in December 1814.
 * March 25 – Governor George Prevost informs Parliament that then-prince regent George IV has ordered him to England to answer charges of the naval commander.
 * March – Parliament allocates 25,000 pounds for a canal from Montreal to Lachine.

Births

 * January 10 – John A. Macdonald, politician and 1st Prime Minister of Canada, Born in Glasgow, Scotland. (died 1891)
 * March 7: Thomas Wood, Member of the Legislative Council of Quebec for Bedford, died in office, 1898
 * June 19 – Cornelius Krieghoff, painter (died 1872)
 * September 18 – Joseph Duquet, notary in Lower Canada, executed in 1838
 * October 15 – Pierre Antoine Deblois, Senator for La Salle, Quebec, died in office, 1898

title: 1815 in Canada


text:
Talk:Tribune

Term of office of tribunes of the plebs ?
Shouldn't the term of office of the tribunes of the plebs be mentioned (with reference to the sources) ? One assumes it's one year, as in other magistacies, but since it's actually not a magistracy per ce (not part of the cursus honorum), and it does not hold imperium, the one year's limit is not evident.

Ronbarak (talk) 17:39, 18 December 2010 (UTC)

discussion
Isn't it true that sacrosanct implied not only legal protections from harm, but religious as well?

Yep. At the time, in fact, there wasn't really a difference between the two. I'm not sure how to work this into the article as it stands, however.

There is a chronological error. It says the office of tribune was founded 15 years after the founding of the Roman Republic (494BC)it gives the date 509BC. However since it is BC years should be subtracted and it should 479BC instead.

There is a growing paragraph at the begining of this article pointing to alternative meanings, should this page now become a redirect to those other definitions? Giano | talk 10:52, 24 July 2005 (UTC)

Was the judicial branch of the Roman Republic made up of the Tribunes, or was there even a judicial branch of the Roman Republic?

There were more than merely 2 classes of Tribunes to my knowledge, but the 2 major ones were seemingly seperated into military and plebian (mostly civil matters). If memory serves, Tribunes also had the options to Veto any bills that went before the senate, when introduced, during voting or even when ratified by the senate iirc. In reply to Giano: I believe it should be vice-versa. The other meanings should actually point to "Tribune" due to the broad responsibilties carried out by the Tribunate (assuming I haven't mistakenly attributed another offices duty to the tribunate, it's 9am and I haven't slept).

some tribunes are not tribunes
The "tribuni aerarii" is not a military officer; the "Tribune of the soldiers" is not a tribune at all. The whole section should be erased. Ori Redler 11:21, 24 July 2006 (UTC)

 * I'm willing to look into this if you elaborate. On the face of it, your statement is hard to understand. What sense of "tribune" do "tribune of the soldiers" not satisfy? Is the whole section fiction? If not, what is a more appropriate place to put info on "tribune of the soldiers"? If "tribuna aerarii" aren't military officers, would they be more appropriate in the previous section somewhere? I don't know enough about them to say what they did. Did you mean get rid of the whole "Roman Military Officers" section? That would be fine if the info was put into a more appropriate place, such as one of the many articles on Roman army organization, and briefly referenced here. It does seem a little out of place in this article, which seems to concentrate more on the civilian office. Kiaparowits 16:34, 25 July 2006 (UTC)

Tribunes and tribuni militum share a similar name, but this is the only thing they share. The tribunus militum (tribune of the soldiers) was a military command position whose name is derived from tribus, because in ancient times one such tribune was sent as a representative of each of the original three tribes in Rome as commander of a legion. Since the tribuni militum were the top ranking officers in the Roman legion, there were many terms derived from their name in the sense of "command" or "related to the tribuni militum (e.g., tribunus cohortis). In my opinion, the whole section should be part or a new article: "tribune of the soldiers", although not every word starting with "trib..." should be there, in my opinion.

As to the tribuni aerarii -- this was not a military position and those tribuni were certainly not the "legions' paymasters" -- they were the tax collectors, probably private citizens, who were charged with the task to collect the tributum (which is probably how they gained their name) to pay the aes militare -- the fee for the foot soldiers at the earlier stages of the Roman republic. Also, later on the task was not delegated to the quaestors but to the state -- the magistrate here acted as its representative. You can create a new article for tribuni aerarii (the translation "tribunes of the treasury" is incorrect. "aerarii collectors" would be more accurate, perhaps).

So, yes, I think that section should be splintered out or simply go (as well as the "French revolutionary tribunat" which also seems out of place -- it is not the old institution revived). Ori Redler 01:07, 12 August 2006 (UTC)

I agree, the tribunes of the treasury were civilian tax collectors, and I will change the article and add a source. Trainik 23:21, 18 December 2006 (UTC)

I agree that French Tribunate is out of place and should be handled seperately.

Yet, "tribunus militium" altough was not an office ranked equally as "tribunus plebis", I should remark that first elected consular tribunes were military tribunes. Therefore I think it must be handled under the same topic as tribune of the plebs. cxxı 00:38, 24 February 2007 (UTC)

recent changes
The recent changes by another editor made many minor alterations, often unsupported by the references which he left in place, and included a blanking of a perfectly reasonable section on the French institution which was named for the Roman institution of tribunes. I've reverted them, as the edit tags did not support or describe most of the changes made. I would be happy to discuss the particular changes, provided especially they don't materially alter text while leaving references intact, which creates an inadvertently incorrect citation--a particularly pernicious problem. 06:49, 5 January 2010 (UTC)

number of tribunes
The number of tribunes is extremely unclear. In the intro it says the title was shared by 10 elected officials. Then later in the same paragraph "In about 450 BC the number of tribunes was raised to Nine." So how can ten be "raised to nine" ? Why is Nine capitalised ? Salsa man (talk) 15:04, 26 March 2010 (UTC)

 * The "Nine" was introduced by a vandal recently; it should be "ten" of course. Thanks for catching it. Tb (talk) 18:32, 26 March 2010 (UTC)
 * So it was raised from 10 to 10? Thanks for clearing that up! ~ Alcmaeonid (talk) 23:07, 14 May 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Tribune


text:
List of aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force and Royal New Zealand Navy

This is a list of aircraft of the Royal New Zealand Air Force and Royal New Zealand Navy.

Free-Fall Bombs

 * 5-lb Mark 106 practice bomb
 * 25-lb BDU 33 practice bomb
 * 500-lb (227-kg) Mark 82 bomb – Carried by the A-4G and A-4K Skyhawk
 * 1000-lb (454-kg) Mark 83 bomb – Carried by the A-4G and A-4K Skyhawk, P-3K Orion

Machine Guns

 * 7.62-mm FN MAG-58 machine-gun – Current
 * 7.62-mm M60 machine-gun – Fitted to the UH-1H Iroquois, SH-2F Seasprite and SH-2G Super Seasprite


text:
1816 in Canada

Events from the year 1816 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 8th (until February 29)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 6th (until April 1)

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: George Prévost
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith

Events

 * January 5 – Sir George Prevost dies before consideration of Commodore Yeo's charges; but the Duke of Wellington says: "He must have returned, after the fleet was beaten, I am inclined to think he was right. I have told ministers, repeatedly, that naval superiority, on the Lakes, is a sine qua non of success in war on the frontiers of Canada, even if our object should be wholly defensive."
 * June 19 – After several years of harassment, sabotage, and minor skirmishes between members of the Hudson's Bay and North West Companies, a full-scale battle (today known at Battle of Seven Oaks) breaks out between parties led by Cuthbert Grant and Robert Semple. The Hudson's Bay men, instigators of the confrontation though outnumbered nearly three to one, suffer 21 deaths, while Grant's party suffers two deaths, one Métis and one Native.  The battle is frequently cited as a seminal moment in the history of the Métis people.
 * A steamboat PS Frontenac is first placed on Lake Ontario.

Births

 * October 5 – George Kingston, meteorologist (d.1886)
 * December 30 – William Alexander Henry, politician (d.1888)
 * December 31 – Joseph-Édouard Cauchon, politician (d.1885)

Deaths

 * January 5 – Sir George Prevost (b.1767)

title: 1816 in Canada


text:
1817 in Canada

Events from the year 1817 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 9th (starting January 15)
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 7th (starting February 4)

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: George Stracey Smyth
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith

Events

 * February 4 – Francois Page petitions for monopoly of navigation of Lower Canadian Rivers, by an invention of which he produces a model.
 * February 18 – Mr. McCord reads a petition for the deepening of the St. Lawrence.
 * February 28 – One Goudie and others petition for a monopoly of navigation of Lake Champlain, in Canada, as like U.S. monopolists injure Canadian Commerce, by trading into Canada.

Full date unknown

 * Famine in Newfoundland due to poor postwar economy.
 * Nova Scotia population estimated at 78,345.
 * David Thompson takes post as chief surveyor for International Boundary Commission.
 * The Rush-Bagot Agreement limits the number of battleships on the Great Lakes to a total of eight.

Births

 * January 1 – Francis Godschall Johnson, politician (d.1894)
 * January 29 – John Palliser, explorer and geographer (d.1887)
 * February 17 – Donald Alexander Macdonald, politician (d.1896)
 * September 6 – Alexander Tilloch Galt, politician and a Father of Confederation (d.1893)
 * November 8 – Théophile Hamel, painter (d.1870)
 * November 23 – William Jack, astronomer (d.1886)

Full date unknown

 * John Chipman Wade, politician and lawyer (d.1892)

Deaths

 * November 23 – James Glenie, army officer, military engineer, businessman, office holder, and politician (b.1750)

title: 1817 in Canada


text:
User:Rweba

Computer science professor in Washington, DC. Originally from Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania.

title: User:Rweba


text:
1818 in Canada

Events from the year 1818 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 9th
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 7th

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: George Stracey Smyth
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith

Events

 * April 1 – An expedition sails for the North Pole.
 * August 28 – The Governor (Charles Lennox, 4th Duke of Richmond) dies of rabies.

Full date unknown

 * Halifax and St. John's are made free ports.
 * 49th parallel becomes British North America/U.S. border from Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains
 * Dalhousie University is established.

Births

 * January 17 – Antoine-Aimé Dorion, politician and jurist (d. 1891)
 * March 10 – John Ross, lawyer, politician, and businessman. Born in County Antrim, Ireland (d. 1871)
 * March 19 – Élisabeth Bruyère, nun (d. 1876)
 * March 25 – Edwin Randolph Oakes, politician (d.1889)
 * May 8 – Samuel Leonard Tilley, Premier of New Brunswick (d. 1896)
 * September – Hugh Cossart Baker, Sr., banker, businessman and mathematician (d.1859)
 * September 4 – Louis-François Richer Laflèche, diocese of Trois-Rivières (d.1898)
 * October 1 – David Christie, politician (d.1880)
 * November 29 – George Brown, journalist, politician and one of the Fathers of the Confederation (d.1880)

Full date unknown

 * Alexander Francis Macdonald, politician (d.1913)

title: 1818 in Canada


text:
1819 in Canada

Events from the year 1819 in Canada.

Incumbents

 * Monarch: George III

Federal government

 * Parliament of Lower Canada: 9th
 * Parliament of Upper Canada: 7th

Governors

 * Governor of the Canadas: Robert Milnes
 * Governor of New Brunswick: George Stracey Smyth
 * Governor of Nova Scotia: John Coape Sherbrooke
 * Commodore-Governor of Newfoundland: Richard Goodwin Keats
 * Governor of Prince Edward Island: Charles Douglass Smith

Events

 * Cape Breton Island is annexed to Nova Scotia.

Births

 * February 12
 * Frederick Carter, Premier of Newfoundland (d.1900)
 * Eden Colvile, Governor of Rupert's Land (d.1893)
 * February 13 — James Cockburn, politician (d.1883)
 * March 1 — Alexander Melville Bell, educator (d.1905)
 * April 18 — James Gibb Ross, merchant and politician (d.1888)
 * August 10 — Patrick Leonard MacDougall, General and author (d.1894)
 * October 3 — Charles-Joseph Coursol, lawyer, politician and 13th Mayor of Montreal (d.1888)
 * October 10 — Charles Stanley Monck, 4th Viscount Monck, Governor General (d.1894)

Full date unknown

 * Louis-Antoine Dessaulles, seigneur, journalist and politician (d.1895)

Deaths

 * March – Nonosabasut, Beothuk (indigenous Canadian) leader
 * November 15 – Joseph Borneuf, Roman Catholic priest

title: 1819 in Canada


text:
Land trust

Land trusts are nonprofit organizations which own and manage land, and sometimes waters. There are three common types of land trust, distinguished from one another by the ways in which they are legally structured and by the purposes for which they are organized and operated:

 * A real estate investment trust is a fiduciary arrangement whereby one party (the trustee) agrees to own and to manage real property for the benefit of a limited number of beneficiaries.
 * A community land trust (CLT) is a private, nonprofit corporation that acquires, manages, and develops land for a variety of purposes, primarily for the production and stewardship of affordable housing, although many CLTs are also engaged in non-residential buildings and uses.
 * A conservation land trust is a private, non-profit corporation in the US that acquires land or conservation easements for the purpose of limiting commercial development and preserving open space, natural areas, waterways, and/or productive farms and forests.

In the United States, the land owned by the United States government and held in trust for Native American tribes and individuals is sometimes referred to as a land trust.

In Australia, Aboriginal land trusts are a type of non-profit organisation that holds the freehold title to an area of land on behalf of a community of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people.

Ancient example
Possible earliest concept of equity in land held in trust is the depiction of this ancient king (trustor) which grants property back to its previous owner (beneficiary) during his absence, supported by witness testimony (trustee). In essence and in this case, the king, in place of the later state (trustor and holder of assets at highest position) issues ownership along with past proceeds (equity) back to the beneficiary:

"On the testimony of Gehazi the servant of Elisha that the woman was the owner of these lands, the king returns all her property to her. From the fact that the king orders his eunuch to return to the woman all her property and the produce of her land from the time that she left ..."

Roman era
Land trusts have been around at least since Roman times but their clearest history is from the time of King Henry VIII in England. At that time, people used land trusts to hide their ownership of land so they would not have to serve in the military or fulfill other obligations of land ownership. For example, an elder uncle would hold his nephew's land so he would not have to join the king's army. To end this, King Henry in 1536 passed the Statute of Uses. The statute declared that if one party held land "for the use of" or in trust for another ("beneficiary"), then legal title was vested in the beneficiary. Obviously, if the statute had been given literal effect, there would be no trust law. Shortly after the statute was enacted, however, English courts declared that the statute only applied if the trust was passive, that is, the trustee didn't do anything but hold the land.

United States
In late 19th-century Chicago, some people figured out that land trusts would be good for buying property for investors to build skyscrapers on, and city aldermen figured they would be a good way to hide their ownership in land since they were forbidden to vote on city building projects when they owned land nearby. Because the law of England, including the Statute of Uses, was present in US law, the question arose whether a land trust would be valid. This question went to the Illinois Supreme Court. It ruled that if a land trust was set up with some minor duty on the trustee (such as to deed the property to the beneficiaries 20 years later), then the trust would not be considered passive and would be valid. Thus, the land trust in America today is often called an "Illinois-type" land trust or "Illinois Land Trust".

Land trusts have been actively used in Illinois for over a hundred years and in recent decades have begun to be used in other states. The declaration of a trust is through a "deed to trustee". If the trust is filed as a public document, it removes all of the asset protection provided by the formation of the land trust. Robert Pless pioneered the use of the land trust that has been used by many firms throughout the United States since the early 1990s.

Community land trusts
Community land trusts trace their conceptual history to England’s Garden Cities, India's Gramdan Movement, and Israel’s cooperative agricultural settlements, the moshavim. As Robert Swann and his co-authors noted in The Community Land Trust: A New Model for Land Tenure in America (1972): "The ideas behind the community land trust...have historic roots" in the indigenous Americas, in pre-colonial Africa, and in ancient Chinese economic systems. Thus, "the goal is to 'restore' the land trust concept rather than initiate it."

Real estate investment trusts
A real estate investment trust is a fiduciary arrangement whereby one party (the trustee) agrees to own and to manage real property for the benefit of a limited number of beneficiaries.

Conservation land trusts
Land trusts used primarily for the protection and stewardship of natural areas or for the preservation of productive lands for food or fiber are most commonly called conservation land trusts, but may also be called 'land conservancies. They have been in existence since 1891. However, conservation land trusts were not well known before the 1980s. Conservation communities are examples of such land trusts.

History
The first conservation land trust The Trustees of Reservations was founded in 1891. In 1976, Ben Emory, new director of the Maine Coast Heritage Trust, had begun to call on Boston lawyer Kingsbury Browne for advice on federal tax issues related to conservation easements. Emory recruited a handful of other land trusts as clients for Browne’s periodic tax letters, and a small communications network of land trusts evolved.

When Congress considered new legislation relating to tax deductibility of easements, the Brandywine Conservancy, led by Bill Sellers, convened land trusts using easements in December 1979. Browne invited the under-secretary of the Treasury for tax policy, who brought IRS staff Stephen Small. The land trusts agreed to hire lobbyists and coordinate efforts to influence the legislation, winning expansion of the conservation purposes for which easements would qualify for deductibility.

Meanwhile, on the other side of the country, the Trust for Public Land sponsored a small gathering in San Francisco of established and newly forming Western land trusts in February 1978.

By 1980, more than 400 local and regional land trusts existed, most still in the North-east, three-fourths with no paid staff, and half with annual budgets under $50,000. The majority of land was protected by fee ownership, but the use of conservation easements was growing.

Then influences converged: the geographic spread resulting in isolation of newer land trusts; recognition of the difficulty of influencing vital legislation; and the growing engagement of Kingsbury Browne in land conservation, leading to his desire to learn about land trusts across the country. A movement was about to be born.

The number of land trusts steadily increased in the United States, with most forming in the late twentieth century. There are also land trusts working in Canada (e.g. Nature Conservancy of Canada, Escarpment Biosphere Conservancy, Wildlife Preservation Canada, Edmonton & Area Land Trust, Ecotrust Canada, Georgian Bay Land Trust and Thames Talbot Land Trust), Mexico, and other countries worldwide, in addition to international land trusts like The Nature Conservancy and the World Land Trust.

Aims
The goal of conservation trusts is to preserve sensitive natural areas, farmland, ranchland, water sources, cultural resources or notable landmarks. These include enormous international organizations such as The Nature Conservancy or World Land Trust, as well as smaller organizations that operate on national, state/provincial, county, and community levels. Conservation trusts often, but not always, target lands adjacent to or within existing protected areas. However, land areas that are particularly valuable in terms of natural or cultural resources or are home to endangered plant or wildlife are good candidates for receiving protection efforts.

Land trusts conserve all different types of land. Some protect only farmland or ranchland, others forests, mountains, prairies, deserts, wildlife habitat, cultural resources such as archaeological sites or battlefields, urban parks, scenic corridors, coastlines, wetlands or waterways; it is up to each organization to decide what type of land to protect according to its mission. Some areas have extremely limited public access for the protection of sensitive wildlife, or to allow recovery of damaged ecosystems.

Many protected areas are under private ownership, which tends to limit access. However, in many cases, land trusts work to eventually open up the land in a limited way to the public for recreation in the form of hunting, hiking, camping, wildlife observation, watersports, or other responsible outdoor activities. This is often with the assistance of community groups or government programs. Some land is also used for sustainable agriculture or ranching, or for sustainable logging. While important, these goals can be seen as secondary to protection of the land from development.

Strategies
Many different strategies are used to provide this protection, including outright acquisition of the land by the trust. In other cases, the land will remain in private hands, but the trust will purchase a conservation easement on the property to prevent development, or purchase any mining, logging, drilling, or development rights on the land. Trusts also provide funding to assist like-minded private buyers or government organizations to purchase and protect the land forever.

As non-profit organizations, land trusts rely on donations, grants and public land acquisition programs for operating expenses and for acquiring land and easements. Donors often provide monetary support, but it is common for conservation-minded landowners to donate an easement on their land, or the land itself. Some land trusts also receive funds from government programs to acquire, protect, and manage land. Some trusts can afford to pay employees, but many others depend entirely on volunteers. According to the 2005 National Land Trust Census, 31% of land trusts reported having at least one full-time staff member, 54% are all volunteer, and 15% have only part-time staff.

When land is acquired, trusts will sometimes retain ownership of the land in perpetuity, or sell the land to a third party. This third party is often the government, which will usually add the land to an existing protected area, or create a new one entirely. Land trusts were instrumental in the 2004 creation of Great Sand Dunes National Park in Colorado, as well as the expansion of Hawaii Volcanoes National Park by 50% in 2003. Land trusts also sell land to private buyers, usually with a strict conservation easement attached.

Land trusts use many different tools in their protection efforts. Land trusts buy or accept donations of land in fee. This means that the landowner will sell fee simple interest to the land trust or will just give the land they own to an organization. Landowners may also sell or donate a conservation easement to a land trust.

A landowner that donates a conservation easement to a land trust gives up some of the rights associated with the land. For example, the landowner might give up the right to build additional structures, while retaining the right to grow crops. Future owners also will be bound by the conservation easement's terms. The land trust is responsible for making sure the easement's terms are followed. This is done through monitoring of the land.

Conservation easements offer great flexibility. An easement on property containing rare wildlife habitat might prohibit any development, for example, while an easement on a working farm might allow the addition of agricultural structures. An easement may apply to all or a portion of the property, and need not require public access. Each conservation easement is carefully crafted to meet the needs of the landowner while not jeopardizing the conservation values of the land.

In between selling land or an easement to a land trust is an option called a bargain sale. A bargain sale is where a landowner sells a property interest to an organization for less than the market price. The amount of value between the market price and the actual sale price is considered a donation to the organization. There are other strategies to conserve land as well.

In October 2002, Property and Environment Research Center published a report by Dominic P. Parker entitled Cost-Effective Strategies for Conserving Private Land. This paper identified numerous ways for operating land trusts more efficiently, pointing out that conservation easement and other tools for land preservation may be less costly than ownership. Sometimes the various rights associated with land ownership are separable. A preservationist organization may, for instance, buy only the extraction rights on a property with oil or minerals, and then rent those rights to extracters on the organization's terms. The terms might include requirements to protect the environment and pay the organization royalties on materials extracted. Many land trust organizations had already been using these strategies for years when this report was published.

Structure
The Land Trust Alliance, formed in 1981, provides technical support to land trusts in the United States. The Alliance performs a National Land Trust Census that keeps track of the land protected by local and regional land trusts. The last Census, conducted in 2003, reported that these trusts have protected almost 9.4 million acres (38,000 km2) of land in the United States, double the 4.7 million acres (19,000 km2) recorded in the 1998 survey. Over 5 million acres (20,000 km2) of that was protected by conservation easement in 2003. Although it does not include national or international land trusts in its Census, the LTA estimates another 25 million acres (100,000 km2) in the U.S. have been protected by those organizations. The largest amount of land protected by local and regional trusts is in the Northeast with 2.9 million acres (12,000 km2), while the fastest growing region between 1998 and 2003 was the Pacific (consisting of California, Nevada, and Hawaii), with protected land increasing 147% to 1.5 million acres (6,100 km2) in 2003.

Other types
In the United States; approximately 230,000 km2 (as of 2008) of land are owned by the United States government and held in trust for Native American tribes and individuals.

In Australia, Aboriginal land trusts are a type of non-profit organisation that holds the freehold title to an area of land on behalf of a community of Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander people.

title: Land trust