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Mexican literature

Mexican literature stands as one of the most prolific and influential within Spanish-language literary traditions, alongside those of Spain and Argentina. This rich and diverse tradition spans centuries, encompassing a wide array of genres, themes, and voices that reflect the complexities of Mexican society and culture. From ancient indigenous myths to contemporary urban narratives, Mexican literature serves as a poignant reflection of the nation's essence, inviting readers to explore its rich history, diverse culture, and collective aspirations.

Propelled by visionary writers, Mexican literature has made an indelible mark on global literary discourse. From the Baroque elegance of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz's poetry to the modernist prose of Carlos Fuentes, Mexican authors adeptly explore themes of identity, history, social justice, and the human experience. Notable literary works such as Juan Rulfo's haunting "Pedro Páramo," Octavio Paz's introspective "The Labyrinth of Solitude," and Laura Esquivel's enchanting "Like Water for Chocolate" showcase the depth and diversity of Mexican literary expression, garnering international acclaim for their profound insights into Mexican culture and society.

The Mexican Revolution of the early 20th century inspired a new generation of writers like José Vasconcelos and Mariano Azuela, capturing the spirit of the times in their works. During the mid-20th century Latin American literary boom, Mexican authors such as Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, and Juan Rulfo gained global recognition for their contributions to world literature. The Death of Artemio Cruz (Spanish: "La muerte de Artemio Cruz") by Carlos Fuentes acclaimed novel, first published in 1962, explores themes of power, corruption, and identity in post-revolutionary Mexico. It has been translated into multiple languages and has garnered widespread critical acclaim. Other notable writers include: Rosario Castellanos, Sergio Pitol, Alfonso Reyes, José Emilio Pacheco, and Elena Garro.

A movement of great relevance to the literary history of the country was the group known as "Los Contemporáneos," (The Contemporaries) who emerged during the 1930s. This group was formed by the journalist Salvador Novo and the poets Xavier Villaurrutia and José Gorostiza. By the second half of the 20th century, Mexican literature had diversified in themes, styles, and genres. New groups emerged, such as "La Onda" in the 1960s, which advocated for urban, satirical, and defiant literature. Among the notable authors were Parménides García Saldaña and José Agustín, as well as the group known as "La Mafia," which included Carlos Fuentes, Salvador Elizondo, José Emilio Pacheco, Carlos Monsiváis, Inés Arredondo, Fernando Benítez, and others. The "Infrarrealistas" (Infrarealists) of the 1970s aimed to "blow the lid off official culture." In 1990, Octavio Paz became the only Mexican to date to win the Nobel Prize in Literature.

In present-day, Mexican literature continues to thrive, with writers like Elena Poniatowska, Yuri Herrera, and Valeria Luiselli exploring themes of migration, urban life, and social justice with depth and nuance. Their works, alongside those of emerging voices, ensure that the tradition remains vibrant and relevant in the 21st century. Hurricane Season by Fernanda Melchor is a fiction novel that has made a significant impact on contemporary Mexican literature. Through its compelling narrative and exploration of societal issues, the book has garnered critical acclaim and contributed to ongoing literary discussions.

Introduction

Mexico's literature has its antecedents in the literatures of the indigenous peoples of Mesoamerica and the literary traditions of Spain. With the arrival of the Spanish, a new literature was produced through mestizaje, which made way for a period of creolization of literature in the newly established Viceroyalty of New Spain. The literature of New Spain was highly influenced by the Spanish Renaissance, which was represented in all the Spanish literature of the time, and local productions also incorporated numerous terms commonly used in the vernacular of the viceroyalty and some of the topics discussed in the works of the period shaped a distinctive variant of the Spanish literature produced in Mexico.

During the colonial era, New Spain was home to Baroque writers such as Bernardo de Balbuena, Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Francisco de Castro, Luis Sandoval Zapata, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz, Diego de Ribera and Rafael Landivar. Towards the independence a new wave of writers gave the initial struggle for the emancipation of national literature from the literature of the Spanish peninsula: Diego José Abad, Francisco Javier Alegre and Friar Servando Teresa de Mier.

Towards the end of colonial rule in New Spain arose figures like José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, El Periquillo Sarniento is considered as an emblem of the Mexican literature and the first modern novel written in the Americas. By the second half of that century, works like Los mexicanos pintados por sí mismos, a manners book that gives a rough idea of how intellectuals of the time saw the rest of his countrymen. Towards the end of the century, during the Porfirio Diaz government, Mexican writers inclined towards the dominant European trends of the time.

To celebrate the centenary of the Independence of Mexico, there was a literary project surged Antología del Centenario which aimed to collect authors of the first hundred years of Mexico. This was truncated and only the first volume was published in two volumes primarily consisting of collected poetry. The poets of the time that were included were Friar Manuel de Navarrete, Fernando Calderón, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván. Notable modernists of the time included Amado Nervo and Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera. Other notable authors of that time were Luis G. Urbina, Efren Rebolledo, José Juan Tablada, Enrique González Martínez and Ramón López Velarde.

The emergence of the Mexican Revolution favored the development of journalistic genre. After the civil conflict finished, the Revolution theme appeared as a theme in many novels, short stories and plays like those of Mariano Azuela or Rodolfo Usigli. This trend would be an antecedent for the flowering of 'revolutionary literature', which was embodied in the work of writers like Rosario Castellanos or Juan Rulfo. A literature of indigenous themes, which aimed to portray the thoughts and life of the indigenous peoples of Mexico surged along with this revolutionary literature, although ironically, none of the writers were indigenous. The most notable indigenist authors of the time included Miguel Angel Menendez Reyes, Ricardo Pozas and Francisco Rojas González.

In alternative to these mainstream literature, also other literary styles were developed in the country, less known movements being outside the main focus. Among them, the estridentistas (1920s) that included authors such as Arqueles Vela and Manuel Maples Arce. Another relevant movement to the literary history of the country was a group of intellectuals known as Los Contemporáneos (1930s), which unified figures such as journalist Salvador Novo and poets like Xavier Villaurrutia and José Gorostiza.

During the second half of 20th century, Mexican literature had diversified into themes, styles and genres. There were new groups such as Literatura de la Onda (1960s), which sought for an urban, satirical and rebellious literature; among the featured authors were Parmenides García Saldaña and José Agustín; another literary style surged called Infrarrealismo (1970s), which sought to "blow his brains out the official culture"; La mafia cultural (1960s), was composed of Carlos Fuentes, Salvador Elizondo, José Emilio Pacheco, Carlos Monsivais, Inés Arredondo, Fernando Benítez among others. In 1990, Octavio Paz became the only Mexican to date to have won the Nobel Prize for Literature.

Pre-Columbian literature

While the peoples of Mesoamerica developed systems of writing, these were not often used to preserve their literature. Most of the myths and literary works of the indigenous peoples of Mexico were transmitted by oral tradition. The peoples of Mesoamerica, despite having developed writing systems, primarily employed pictographic and logosyllabic forms rather than a phonetic writing system. Among these expressions, the Borgia Group codices are regarded by some scholars as exceptional artistic and literary works. While there is scholarly disagreement, it is commonly accepted that the central section of the Codex Borgia contains a narrative related to the creation of the universe, although an alternate hypothesis suggests that it may depict a series of rituals with an unclear purpose.

In addition to the Codex Borgia, the Mixtec codices Becker 1, Nutall, and Colombino depict the life of the hero-ruler 8-Venado and his efforts towards the unification of the Mixtec people. Another significant manuscript, the Boturini Codex or "Pilgrimage Strip," recounts chapters of the Mexicas' migration from northern Mexico to their eventual settlement in Texcoco Lake. However, it is worth noting that some scholars argue that the Boturini Codex is a copy of an older, unidentified document created during the early stages of the Conquest.

Within the rich cultural tapestry of ancient Mexico, a multitude of ceramic artifacts, stone carvings, stelae, and monoliths bear witness to historical, mythical-genealogical, cosmogonic, and legendary narratives. Notably, the Olmecs, Toltecs, Mayas, Nahua, and Mixtec peoples have produced remarkable pieces that capture the imagination.

The Olmecs, often credited as the originators of complex civilizations in Mesoamerica, are associated with the oldest known stone writing. Among their relics, a gravel block named 'Bloque de Cascajal' in Spanish is adorned with glyphs and has been carbon-dated to approximately 3,000 years ago, making it a significant archaeological find. This discovery sheds light on the early development of written communication in the region, highlighting the Olmecs' sophisticated cultural achievements.

We know that one of the activities that were to dominate the novices of priests among the Mexica was the memorization of lyrical works or mythology of their people.

Some of these productions were permanently fixed by writing them down using the Latin alphabet that the missionaries of the 16th century used to transcribe the information they received from the native inhabitants. Modern scholars such as Angel Maria Garibay K. and Miguel Leon-Portilla, have translated these works which were once dispersed in several texts and have reunited or reviewed these works in publications such as in "Visión de los vencidos. Relaciones indígenas de la Conquista" or "Historia de la literatura Náhuatl."

The works of Spanish missionaries in central Mexico contributed to the preservation of the oral tradition of the Nahuatl speaking peoples by writing them down on paper using the Latin alphabet. In this regard the lyrical works of Acolmiztli Nezahualcoyotl (1402–1472), tlatoani of Texcoco, were preserved and passed down to posterity giving the author the title of Poet King. His works, along with other nobles of the nahuatlaca peoples of the Altiplano such as Ayocuan of Chalco-Atenco, and Tecayehuatzin of Huexotzinco, constitute the largest sample of pre-Columbian works and philosophical lyrics preserved into the modern era.

There are also smaller stocks of Postclassic Era literature recovered among other peoples such as the Purépecha, the Zapotec and Mixtec. The Case of the Mixtec is special as four codices have been preserved which have led to an approach to the study of the history of these people under the imprint of Eight Deer, Lord of Tututepec and Tilantongo. In the Mayan world there are preserved fragments called Books of Chilam Balam.

Another well known pre-Columbian literature is that of the Quiché people who did not inhabit the current Mexican territory, but rather, lived in what is now Guatemala. The Popol Vuh (Book of Counsel) was written in the Quiché language and incorporates two Mayan cosmogonical myths: the creation of the world and falling of Hunahpu and Xbalanque into Xibalba which is the underworld of the Maya.

Outside of Mesoamerica, Arturo Warman forwarded the hypothesis that the verses sung by the Yaquis and Mayo musicians during the performance of the Danza del Venado have their origin in pre-Columbian times and have survived to this day with very little change since then.

Among the prehispanic literature which flourished are:

 * Epic Poetry which chronicles the life of famous people such as Topiltzin Quetzalcoatl, the founding of cities and pilgrimages of tribes.
 * Lyric poetry of religious, military or philosophical context.
 * Dramatic poetry, which mixed elements of music and dance, as the feast of Tezcatlipoca.
 * Historical Prose and didactic genealogies, also proverbs called Huehuetlatolli ("The sayings of the old").

Spanish colonial period

In the colonial literature of Mexico we can distinguish several periods. The first period is linked with the historical moment of conquest, it chronicles and letters abound.

16th century
The influence of indigenous themes in the literature of New Spain is evident in the incorporation of many terms commonly used in the common local tongue of the people in colonial Mexico as well as some of the topics touched in the works of the period which reflected local views and cultures. During this period, New Spain housed writers such as Bernardo de Balbuena.

In the colonial literature of Mexico we can distinguish several periods. The first examples of literature are linked with the historical moment of conquest, colonization chronicles and letters. Works and writers:

 * Itinerario de la armada del rey católico a la isla de Yucatán[...], probably by Juan Díaz (1480–1549)
 * Relación de algunas cosas de las que acaescieron a Hernan Cortés[...]  by Andrés de Tapia (1498? -1561)
 * Cartas de relación de Hernán Cortés (1485–1547)
 * Historia verdadera de la conquista de la Nueva España by Bernal Diaz del Castillo (1492–1584)
 * Historia general de las cosas de Nueva España Friar Bernardino de Sahagún (1499–1590)
 * Historia de las Indias, Brevísima relación de la destrucción de las Indias, Apologética historia [...], etc. Friar Bartolomé de las Casas (1484–1566)
 * Historia general de las Indias, La Conquista de México by Francisco Lopez de Gomara (1511–1566)
 * Antigüedades de la Nueva España by Francisco Hernández (1517–1578)
 * Relación de las cosas de Yucatán Friar Diego de Landa (1524–1579)
 * Crónica mexicana y Crónica mexicáyotl by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc (c. 1525 – c. 1610)
 * Historia de Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo (c. 1530 – c. 1600)
 * Historia Chichimeca by Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxóchitl (1568? -1648)
 * Historia general de las Indias occidentales y particular de la gobernación de Chiapa y Guatemala by Friar Antonio de Remesal
 * Francisco Cervantes de Salazar (1514? -1575). Born in Spain, was professor of rhetoric and then rector at the University of Mexico, author of Crónica de la Nueva España and poems such as Túmulo Imperial" y Diálogos latinos (following the example of Juan Luis Vives) of Mexican themes for the teaching of Latin.
 * Gutierre de Cetina (1520 – c. 1567). Born in Spain, lived and died in Mexico. His poetry predates his stay in Mexico, but is very likely the existence of many plays of his authorship.
 * Bernardo de Balbuena (1562–1627). Born in Spain, graduated from the University of Mexico, author of Grandeza mexicana (Mexican Greatness).
 * Friar Luis de Fonsalida, author of "Diálogos o coloquios en lengua mexicana entre la Virgen María y el Arcángel San Gabriel".
 * Friar Luis Cancer, author of "Varias canciones en verso zapoteco".
 * Plácido Francisco, tepaneca prince, author of "Cánticos de las apariciones de la Virgen María".
 * Andrés de Olmos, playwright author, "Representación de fin del mundo".
 * Gaspar Perez de Villagra (1555–1620). Born in Puebla, participated in the conquest of New Mexico. Author of the poem Historia de la nueva México (1610) and several printed memorials.
 * Francisco de Terrazas. First known poet born in New Spain.

17th century
In this period flourished particularly the Mexican variant of the Baroque literature. Many of the most famous authors of the century reached varying success in the area of literary games, with works like anagrams, emblems and mazes. There were notable authors in poetry, lyric, narrative and drama. The Baroque literature in New Spain followed the rivers of Spanish writers Góngora and Quevedo. Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora, Juan Ruiz de Alarcón, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz and Diego de Ribera were major exponents of the Mexican literature of this period.

The most notable authors:

 * Arias Villalobos. He wrote "Historia de México en verso castellano", a narrative poetry.
 * Bernardino de Llanos. Born in Spain, was known for his plays and literary whims.
 * Diego de Ribera. A descriptive poetry writer of nature and art.
 * Juan Ortiz de Torres and Jerome Becerra. Playwrights.
 * José López Avilés. He wrote "Payo Enríquez", a biography in verse.
 * Matías Bocanegra, author of "Canción la vista de un desengaño".
 * María Estrada Medinilla and Sister Teresa de Cristo, verse reciters in civil and religious ceremonies.
 * Fernando de Córdoba y Bocanegra (1565–1589). He was born in Mexico city and died in Puebla. He wrote Canción al amor divino and Canción al santísimo nombre de Jesús.
 * Juan de Guevara, was born in Mexico, was an acclaimed lyric poet.
 * Juan Ruiz de Alarcón (1581–1639).
 * Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz (1651–1695).
 * Miguel de Guevara (c. 1586 – after 1646). Augustinian friar from Michoacan, with knowledge of 'Indigenous language'. A manuscript of him dating back 1638 includes, among other poems, sonnets such as No me mueve mi Dios para quererte....
 * Antonio de Saavedra Guzman (? -¿? Published in 1599). Author of the poem El peregrino indiano, a praise of Hernán Cortés.
 * Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700).
 * Francisco de Terrazas (? - ?, he was alive between 1525 and 1600). Born Mexico, close to Cortés, his works were praised by Miguel de Cervantes, as in La Galatea. Fragments of his poem Conquista y Mundo Nuevo are preserved.

18th century
Towards the end of the colonial period emerged important figures such as José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi, whose El Periquillo Sarniento, is considered emblematic of Mexican picaresque alongside other of his novels such as La Quijotita y su Prima and Don Catrín dela Fachenda represented the first novels written in the Americas.

Illustrated writers and classicists included:

 * Diego José Abad (1727–1779)
 * Francisco Javier Alegre (1729–1788)
 * Francisco Javier Clavijero (1731–1787)
 * Rafael Landivar (1731–1793)
 * José Mariano Beristain (1756–1817)
 * José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi (1776–1827) also known as "The Mexican thinker"
 * Friar Servando Teresa de Mier (1765–1827)

Writers of independent Mexico (19th century)
Due to the political instability of the 19th century, Mexico—already an independent nation—saw a decline not only in its literature but in the other arts as well. During the second half of the 19th century, Mexican literature became revitalized with works such as Los Mexicanos Pintados Por Si Mismos, a book that gives us an approximate idea of how intellectuals of the period saw their contemporaries. Towards the end of the century Mexican writers adopted the common tendencies of the period. Two modernist poets that stand out are Amado Nervo and Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera.

During the 19th century there were three major literary trends: romanticism, realism-naturalism and modernism.

Romantic writers gathered around hundreds of associations; among the most important the Academy Lateran, founded in 1836 (José María Lacunza, Guillermo Prieto, Manuel Carpio, Andrés Quintana Roo, José Joaquín Pesado, Ignacio Rodríguez Galván (Ignacio Ramirez). Liceo Hidalgo, was another prominent literary association founded in 1850, (Ignacio Manuel Altamirano, Manuel Acuña, Manuel M. Flores). Unto whom it was labeled as neo-classical or academic, as opposed to the category of "romantic" that was given to the former authors. Other authors belong to this group such as José Manuel Martínez de Navarrete, Vicente Riva Palacio, Joaquin Arcadio Caspian, Justo Sierra and Manuel Jose Othon.

Later, during the rise of positivism aesthetic taste changed. Between realists and naturalists Mexican writers were Luis G. Inclán, Rafael Delgado, Emilio Rabasa, José Tomás de Cuéllar, Federico Gamboa and Ángel de Campo.

Within the modernist superman, original literary revolution in Latin America, there were numerous metrics and rhyming innovations, revival of obsolete forms and mainly symbolic findings. Between 1895 and 1910 Mexico became a core of modernist activity; among famous writers there were Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera, Enrique González Martínez, Salvador Díaz Mirón and Amado Nervo.

Essayists

 * Lucas Alamán (1792–1853)
 * Serapio Baqueiro Barrera (1865–1940)
 * Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera (1859–1895).
 * Antonio Menendez de la Peña (1844–1912).
 * Rodolfo Menéndez de la Peña (1850–1928).
 * Justo Sierra Méndez (1848–1912).
 * José Vasconcelos (1882–1959).

Novelists and short story writers

 * Ignacio Manuel Altamirano (1834–1893).
 * Angel del Campo (1868–1908).
 * Florencio María del Castillo (1828–1863).
 * José Tomás de Cuellar (1830–1894).
 * Rafael Delgado (1853–1914).
 * Federico Gamboa (1864–1939).
 * Gregorio López (1897–1966).
 * Manuel Payno (1810–1894).
 * Guillermo Prieto (1818–1897).
 * Vicente Riva Palacio (1832–1896)
 * José Rubén Romero (1890–1952).
 * Victoriano Salado Alvarez (1867–1931).
 * Justo Sierra O'Reilly (1814–1861).
 * Francisco Javier Moreno (1895–1961).

Poets

 * Manuel Acuña (1849–1873).
 * Manuel Carpio (1791–1860).
 * Salvador Díaz Mirón (1853–1928).
 * Enrique González Martínez (1871–1952).
 * Enrique González Red (1899–1939).
 * Manuel Gutiérrez Nájera (1858–1895).
 * Renato Leduc (1898–1986).
 * Rafael Lopez (1873–1943).
 * Ramón López Velarde (1888–1921).
 * Amado Nervo (1870–1919).
 * Manuel Jose Othon (1858–1906).
 * Juan de Dios Peza (1852–1910).
 * Efren Rebolledo (1877–1929).
 * Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959).
 * José Juan Tablada (1871–1945).
 * Luis G. Urbina (1864–1934).
 * Granade Miriam (1995)
 * Arianna Alvarez (2001)

Contemporary Writers (20th and 21st centuries)
The inception of the Mexican Revolution favored the growth of the journalistic genre. Once the civil conflict ended, the theme of the Revolution appeared as a theme in novels, stories and plays by Mariano Azuela and Rodolfo Usigli. This tendency would anticipate the flowering of a nationalist literature, which took shape in the works of writers such as Rosario Castellanos and Juan Rulfo. There also appeared on the scene an "indigenous literature," which purported to depict the life and thought of the indigenous peoples of Mexico, although, ironically, none of the authors of this movement were indigenous. Among them Ricardo Pozas and Francisco Rojas Gonzalez stand out.

There also developed less mainstream movements such as that of the "Estridentistas", with figures that include Arqueles Vela and Manuel Maples Arce (1920s). Other literary movements include that of Los Contemporáneos, which was represented by writers like Salvador Novo, Xavier Villaurrutia and José Gorostiza. Towards the end of the 20th century Mexican literature had become diversified in themes, styles and genres. In 1990 Octavio Paz became the first Mexican—and up until this point the only one—to win the Nobel Prize for Literature.

In the years between 1900 and 1914 it continued to dominate modernism in poetry and prose realism and naturalism. During this period lived representatives 19th-century literature with members of the Ateneo´s youth.

From 1915 to 1930 there were three streams: a stylistic renewal incorporating influences from the European vanguard (the estridentismo (Manuel Maples Arce, German List Arzubide, Arqueles Vela) and Contemporaries), a group of writers resumed colonial subjects (Xavier Villaurrutia, Jaime Torres Bodet, Jorge Cuesta, José Gorostiza, Salvador Novo), and others who began publishing calls "novels of the Revolution "(the best known is  the Underdogs  of Mariano Azuela): Martin Luis Guzman, Rafael Muñoz, Heriberto Frías, Jorge Ferretis, Nellie Campobello.

Until the mid-1940s there were authors who continued realistic narrative, but also reached their peak the indigenista novel and reflections involved around on self and national culture. Emerged two new poetic generations, grouped around the magazines Taller y Tierra Nueva.

With the publication of Agustín Yáñez's Al filo del agua in 1947 began what we call "contemporary Mexican novel" incorporating innovative techniques, influences of American writers such as (William Faulkner and John Dos Passos), and European influences from (James Joyce and Franz Kafka), and in 1963, the hitherto known for his articles in newspapers and magazines and its beautiful theater Elena Garro, published which became the initiator of the  boom  Latin American and founder of the genre known as "magical realism": the novel  Recollections of Things to Come , which inspired the Colombian Gabriel García Márquez to write his most celebrated One Hundred Years of Solitude. While during the period from 1947 to 1961 predominated the narrators (Arreola, Rulfo, Fuentes), then emerged poets worth as Rubén Bonifaz Nuño and Rosario Castellanos (also narrator).

In 1960 an anthology was edited La espiga amotinada, which brought together the major group of poets: Juan Banuelos, Oscar Oliva, Jaime Augusto Shelley, Eraclius Zepeda and Jaime Labastida. Literary magazines were one of the main vehicles for disseminating the writers, so they tend to group many of them under the name of the journals in which they were active. The Prodigal Son was directed by Xavier Villaurrutia, the group Los Contemporaneos who had Octavio Paz as a coolaborador. Octavio Paz, after leaving founded the newspaper Excelsior, a magazine called Vuelta, which led for many years the national culture, mainly after the death of Martin Luis Guzman in 1976.

After the death of Octavio Paz, a group of his contributors tried to start a magazine, but the fledgling magazine, Letras libres, failed to have the acceptance of Vuelta. In 1979, Gabriel Zaid made a census of poets published in his anthology Assembly of young poets of Mexico; among those who were included, there were poets as Eduardo Hurtado, Alberto Blanco, Coral Bracho, Eduardo Casar, Eduardo Langagne, Manuel Ulacia, Vicente Quirarte, Victor Manuel Mendiola, Dante Medina, Veronica Volkow, Pearl Schwartz, Jaime Moreno Villarreal and Francisco Segovia. These and the other authors included are those who currently make up the group of authors at the peak of his literary career. Most worked in Vuelta. Present-day notable Mexican poets include Elsa Cross and Efraín Bartolomé.

Influenced by the mass media, social networks, and the Internet, the generation born in the 80s and 90s exhibits a strong inclination towards literature, which finds expression in various digital and print media platforms, such as blogs, internet pages, digital and printed magazines, and electronic books. The impact of this generation on the literary landscape is still challenging to trace. Nonetheless, their presence is evident through the emergence of literary creation schools established in recent decades, including Universidad del Claustro de Sor Juana (UCSJ), Casa Lamm, Centro Morelense de las Artes (CMA), Sociedad General de Escritores de México (Sogem), and Escuela Mexicana de Escritores (EME).

Within this vast and dynamic generation of young and prolific writers, certain individuals have garnered attention for their literary contributions. Among them are Fernanda Melchor, Mercedes Alvarado, Martín Rangel, Aldo Vicencio, Davo Valdez, Iván Cruz, Juan Andrés Herrera, Víctor Ibarra (known by their pseudonyms Genkidama Ñu and Vraiux Dorós), Tania Carrera, Joana Medellín Herrero, Tania Langarica, Itzel Nayelli Palacios, Andrea Chaves, Rojo Córdova, Yaxkin Melchy, Karlos Atl, and many others. While the full extent of their impact is yet to be determined, these individuals represent the active and visible facet of this vast generation of aspiring writers

Essayists

 * Jorge Cuesta (1903–1942)
 * Germán Dehesa (1944–2010)
 * Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 * Margo Glantz (1930–)
 * Manuel Hernández Gómez (1950–)
 * Hugo Hiriart (1942–)
 * Carlos Monsivais (1938–2010)
 * Octavio Paz (1914–1998)
 * Óscar René Cruz Oliva (1933–)
 * Sergio Pitol (1933–2018)
 * Elena Poniatowska (1932–)
 * Vicente Quirarte (1954–)
 * Alfonso Reyes (1889–1959)
 * Guillermo Samperio (1948–)
 * Sara Sefchovich (1949–)
 * Carlos J. Sierra (1933–)
 * Gabriel Zaid (1934–)

Novelists and short story writers

 * Abraham Nissan (1969–)
 * Andres Acosta (1964–)
 * José Agustín (1944–)
 * Homer Aridjis (1940–)
 * Inés Arredondo (1928–1989)
 * Juan José Arreola (1918–2001)
 * René Avilés Fabila (1940–)
 * René Avilés Rojas (1911–1979)
 * Mariano Azuela (1873–1952)
 * Mario Bellatín (1960–)
 * Carmen Boulton (1954–)
 * Juan de la Cabada Vera (1901–1986)
 * Nellie Campobello (1900–1986)
 * Rosario Castellanos (1925–1974)
 * José de la Colina (1934)
 * Alberto Chimal (1970)
 * Leonardo Da Jandra (1951–)
 * Amparo Dávila (1928)
 * Guadalupe Dueñas (1920–2002)
 * Salvador Elizondo (1932–2006)
 * Beatriz Mirror
 * Laura Esquivel (1950–)
 * William Fadanelli (1963–)
 * J. M. Servin (1962)
 * Bernardo Fernández
 * Jorge Ferretis (1902–1962)
 * Heriberto Frías (1870–1925)
 * Carlos Fuentes (1928–2012)
 * Sergio Galindo (1926-1993)
 * Juan García Ponce (1932–2003)
 * Parmenides García Saldaña (1944–1982)
 * Jesus Gardea (1939–2000)
 * Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 * Elena Garro (1916–1998)
 * José Luis González (1926)
 * Martin Luis Guzman (1887–1977)
 * Andrés Henestrosa (1906–2008)
 * Yuri Herrera (1970–)
 * Jorge Ibargüengoitia (1928–1983)
 * Xavier Icaza (1892–1969)
 * Patricia Laurent Kullick (1962–)
 * Monica Lavin (1955–)
 * Alfredo Lèal (1985)
 * Vicente Leñero (1933–2014)
 * Valeria Luiselli (1983–)
 * Mauricio Magdaleno (1906–1986)
 * Ángeles Mastretta (1949–)
 * Elmer Mendoza (1949–)
 * Miguel Angel Menendez Reyes (1904–1982)
 * Thomas Mojarro (1932)
 * Rafael Muñoz
 * Gilberto Owen (1904–1952)
 * José Emilio Pacheco (1939–2014)
 * Fernando del Paso (1935–2018)
 * Sergio Pitol (1933)
 * Gerardo Horacio Porcayo (1966–)
 * Maria Luisa Puga (1944–2004)
 * Rafael Ramírez Heredia (1942–2006)
 * Cristina Rivera Garza (1964–)
 * Sergio-Jesús Rodríguez (1967)
 * Octavio Rodriguez Araujo (1941)
 * José Revueltas (1914–1976)
 * Martha Robles (1949–)
 * Bernardo Ruiz (1953–)
 * Juan Rulfo (1918–1986)
 * Rafael Saavedra (1967–2013)
 * Daniel Sada (1953–2011)
 * Alberto Ruy Sanchez (1951)
 * Gustavo Sainz (1940)
 * Guillermo Samperio (1948–)
 * Federico Schaffler
 * Mauricio-José Schwarz (1955–)
 * Enrique Serna (1959–)
 * Jordi Soler (1963–)
 * Gerardo de la Torre (1938)
 * David Toscana (1961–)
 * Juan Tovar (1941)
 * Elman Trevizo (1981)
 * Gabriel Trujillo
 * Edmundo Valadés (1915–1994)
 * Arqueles Vela (1899–1977)
 * Xavier Velasco (1964–)
 * Juan Pablo Villalobos (1973–)
 * Juan Villoro (1956–)
 * Josefina Vicens (1911–1988)
 * Janitzio Villamar (1969–)
 * Jorge Volpi (1968)
 * Agustín Yáñez (1904–1980)
 * José Luis Zárate (1966–)
 * Eraclius Zepeda (1937)
 * Gerardo Arana (1987–2012)

Poets

 * Griselda Álvarez (1913–2009)
 * Guadalupe Amor (1918–2000)
 * Homero Aridjis (1940–)
 * List Germán Arzubide (1898–1998)
 * Juan Banuelos (1932–)
 * Efraín Bartolomé (1950–)
 * José Carlos Becerra (1936–1970)
 * Abigael Bohórquez (1936–1995)
 * Rubén Bonifaz Nuño (1923–2013)
 * Andrés Castuera-Micher (1976)
 * Alí Chumacero (1918– 2010)
 * Óscar Cortés Tapia (1960–)
 * Jorge Cuesta (1903–1942)
 * Gerardo Deniz (1934–2014)
 * José Gorostiza (1901–1973)
 * Daniel Gutiérrez Pedreiro (1964–)
 * Francisco Hernández (1946–)
 * Efraín Huerta (1914–1982)
 * David Huerta (1949–)
 * Martín Jiménez Serrano (1967)
 * Jaime Labastida (1939–)
 * Ricardo López Méndez (1903–1989)
 * Tedi López Mills (1959–)
 * Manuel Maples Arce (1898–1981)
 * Yaxkin Melchy Ramos (1985–)
 * Carmen Mondragón "Nahui Olin" (1893–1978)
 * Marco Antonio Montes de Oca (1932–2008)
 * Oscar Oliva (1938–)
 * José Emilio Pacheco (1939–2014)
 * , (1939–2014)
 * Octavio Paz (1914–1998)
 * Carlos Pellicer (1899–1977)
 * Jaime Sabines (1926–1999)
 * Jaime Augusto Shelley (1937)
 * Javier Sicilia (1956–)
 * Concha Urquiza (1910–1945)
 * Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1950)
 * Eraclio Zepeda (1937–2015)
 * Arianna Alvarez (2001)

Playwrights

 * (1932–2003)
 * Homer Aridjis (1940–)
 * Luis G. Basurto (1920–1990)
 * Sabina Berman (1955–)
 * Emilio Carballido (1925–2008)
 * Andrés Castuera-Micher (1976)
 * Elena Garro (1916–1998)
 * Ricardo Garibay (1923–1999)
 * Miguel Ángel Tenorio (1954–1)
 * Luisa Josefina Hernandez (1928–)
 * Vicente Leñero (1933–)
 * Oscar Liera (1946–1990)
 * Carlos Olmos (1947–2003)
 * José Lorenzo Canchola (1962–)
 * Victor Hugo Rascon Banda (1948–2008)
 * Guillermo Schmidhuber (1943–)
 * Juan Tovar (1941–)
 * Luis Mario Moncada (1963–)
 * Rodolfo Usigli (1905–1980)
 * Xavier Villaurrutia (1903–1951)

Historians

 * Alfonso Junco
 * Carlos Antonio Aguirre Rojas (1954–)
 * Carlos Pereyra
 * Carlos Alvear Acevedo
 * Eduardo Blanquel
 * Guillermo Bonfil Batalla (1935–1991)
 * Victor Manuel Castillo Farreras (1932–)
 * Daniel Cosio Villegas (1898–1976)
 * Martha Fernandez
 * Mariano Cuevas
 * José Fuentes Mares (1918–1986)
 * Adolfo Gilly
 * Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru
 * Lucas Alamán
 * Luis González y González (1925–2003)
 * Luis González Obregón
 * Enrique Krauze (1947–)
 * Miguel León-Portilla (1926–)
 * Alfredo López Austin (1936–)
 * Leonardo López Luján (1964–)
 * Jorge Alberto Manrique
 * Francisco Martin Moreno (1946–)
 * Álvaro Matute Aguirre
 * Margarita Menegus
 * Alfonso Mendiola
 * Jean Meyer (1942–)
 * Lorenzo Meyer (1942–)
 * Juan Miralles (1930–2011)
 * Moguel Josefina Flores (1952–)
 * Edmundo O'Gorman (1906–1995)
 * Héctor Pérez Martínez (1906–1948)
 * Constantino Reyes-Valerio (1922–2006)
 * Antonio Rubial
 * Rafael Tovar y de Teresa
 * Guillermo Tovar y de Teresa
 * Paco Ignacio Taibo II
 * Cristina Pacheco Torales
 * Elisa Vargas Lugo
 * Bolívar Zapata
 * José David Gamboa
 * Vito Alessio Robles

Linguistics and literature
Lingüística y Literatura

 * 2014: Dolores Castro
 * 2011: Daniel Sada
 * 2010: Maruxa Vilalta
 * 2005: Carlos Monsiváis
 * 2004: Margo Glantz
 * 2002: Elena Poniatowska
 * 2001: Vicente Leñero
 * 2000: Margit Frenk
 * 1995: Juan Miguel Lope Blanch
 * 1993: Sergio Pitol
 * 1988: Eduardo Lizalde
 * 1987: Alí Chumacero
 * 1986: Rafael Solana
 * 1985: Marco Antonio Montes de Oca
 * 1984: Carlos Fuentes Macías
 * 1983: Jaime Sabines
 * 1982: Elías Nandino
 * 1981: Mauricio Magdaleno
 * 1980: José Luis Martínez Rodríguez
 * 1979: Juan José Arreola
 * 1978: Fernando Benítez
 * 1977: Octavio Paz
 * 1976: (Tie)
 * Antonio Gómez Robledo
 * Efraín Huerta
 * 1975: Francisco Monterde
 * 1974: Rubén Bonifaz Nuño
 * 1973: Agustín Yáñez
 * 1972: Rodolfo Usigli
 * 1971: Daniel Cosío Villegas
 * 1970: Juan Rulfo
 * 1969: Silvio Zavala Vallado
 * 1968: José Gorostiza
 * 1967: Salvador Novo López
 * 1966: Jaime Torres Bodet
 * 1965: Ángel María Garibay
 * 1964: Carlos Pellicer Cámara
 * 1958: Martín Luis Guzmán
 * 1949: Mariano Azuela González
 * 1946: Alfonso Reyes
 * 1935: Gregorio López y Fuentes

History, Social Sciences, and Philosophy

Historia, Ciencias Sociales y Filosofía

 * 2007: Pilar Gonzalbo Aizpuru and Eduardo Matos Moctezuma
 * 1997: Rodolfo Stavenhagen
 * 1986: Luis Villoro Toranzo
 * 1985: Alfonso Noriega Cantú
 * 1984: Pablo González Casanova
 * 1983: Luis González y González
 * 1982: Héctor Fix Zamudio
 * 1981: Miguel León-Portilla
 * 1980: Leopoldo Zea Aguilar
 * 1979: Gonzalo Aguirre Beltrán
 * 1978: Mario de la Cueva
 * 1977: Víctor L. Urquidi Bingham
 * 1976: Eduardo García Máynez
 * 1962: Jesús Silva Herzog
 * 1960: Alfonso Caso

Awards

 * Nobel Prize for Literature: Octavio Paz
 * Miguel de Cervantes Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, Sergio Pitol, José Emilio Pacheco, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso.
 * Neustadt Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes (candidate), Homero Aridjis (candidate)
 * Jerusalem Prize: Octavio Paz
 * Alfonso Reyes Prize: Octavio Paz, Juan José Arreola, José Emilio Pacheco, Ali Chumacero, José Luis Martínez, Ramón Xirau, Rubén Bonifaz Nuño
 * National Prize for Literature: Octavio Paz, Sergio Pitol, Juan Rulfo, Carlos Monsivais, Juan José Arreola, Margo Glantz, Elena Poniatowska, Ali Chumacero, Vicente Leñero, Mariano Azuela, Alfonso Reyes, Jaime Sabines, Maruxa Vilalta
 * Menendez y Pelayo International Prize: Octavio Paz, Carlos Fuentes, José Luis Martínez
 * Prince of Asturias Award: Carlos Fuentes, Juan Rulfo
 * Guggenheim Fellowship: Sergio Pitol, Homero Aridjis, Juan García Ponce, Alfredo López Austin, Margo Glantz, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, Vicente Leñero, Ramón Xirau, Rubén Bonifaz Nuño, Leonardo López Luján
 * Romulo Gallegos Prize: Carlos Fuentes, Elena Poniatowska, Fernando del Paso, Ángeles Mastretta
 * Federico Garcia Lorca Prize: José Emilio Pacheco
 * Juan Rulfo Prize: Sergio Pitol, Carlos Monsiváis, Tomás Segovia, Juan José Arreola, Juan García Ponce
 * Octavio Paz Prize: Tomás Segovia, José Emilio Pacheco

title: Mexican literature


text:
Fred F. Steen II

Fred F. Steen II served as the chief lobbyist/legislative liaison for North Carolina Governor Pat McCrory until 2016 when McCrory appointed him to the Board of Review. From 2004 through 2012, Steen served as a Republican member of the North Carolina General Assembly representing the state's 76th House District, including constituents in Rowan County. A cost analyst from Landis, North Carolina, he served as the town's mayor for eight years until he was appointed on 16 February 2004 to fill the seat of W. Eugene McCombs, who died in office.

In 2011, Steen was ranked 4th in the North Carolina House for pro-business legislation by the North Carolina Free Enterprise Foundation.

On December 8, 2011, Steen announced he would not run for re-election to the NC House, but would instead run for the Republican nomination for North Carolina's 8th congressional district, then represented by Democrat Larry Kissell. He lost in the Republican primary.

While a legislator, he served on the board of directors of the American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), a national association of legislators.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Fred F. Steen II


text:
Afterglow (1997 film)

Afterglow is a 1997 American comedy-drama film directed and written by Alan Rudolph and starring Nick Nolte, Julie Christie, Lara Flynn Boyle and Jonny Lee Miller. It was produced by Robert Altman and filmed in Montreal.

Christie's performance earned her a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Actress. The film is about two married couples who end up attracted to each other's partners.

Plot
The lives of two unhappily married couples intertwine in Montreal, Canada. The marriage between Lucky Mann, a contractor and his beautiful British wife, former actress Phyllis Hart, has been in a poor state for years. Their relationship fell apart when Phyllis revealed to Lucky that their daughter Cassie was not his biological child. She had her with an actor while Lucky was in the Navy. Cassie ran away to Montreal, and they have not spoken in years. The Manns moved from California to Montreal to find Cassie, but without success. Phyllis is depressed after learning that her daughter's father, actor Jack Dana, recently died. She begins to question her own mortality and goes to see a doctor for a checkup. She also spends her time watching her old films that she starred in with Dana. Phyllis knows Lucky cheats on her with his construction clients, and therefore they have a silent agreement that they will not have sex. Lucky is shown cheating on her with Gloria Marino.

Meanwhile, corporate executive Jeffrey Byron and his wife Marianne are also unhappily married. Marianne desires children and is starved of affection by Jeffrey, who seems only to be in love with himself. Jeffrey is depressed and seems to be contemplating his sexuality and, perhaps, suicide. One day after work, Marianne tries to get Jeffrey to have sex with her because she is ovulating, but he denies her. She decides to start preparing a room for a baby in their condo anyway and hires a contractor, who happens to be Lucky Mann, referred to her by her friend Isabel's mother Gloria. She is instantly attracted to him, and they begin an affair. Jeffrey meets Phyllis in a bar where Phyllis had just witnessed Marianne and Lucky on a date. Jeffrey is instantly attracted to Phyllis and seems to have a need to be with an older woman after having shown a sudden attraction to his older secretary, Helene. Marianne is attracted to the older and rugged Lucky. Jeffrey invites Phyllis away for a weekend at a resort. She initially says no and goes home to Lucky. Phyllis tries to sleep with Lucky and he brushes her off, so she tells him that she knows about Marianne. She ends up meeting Jeffrey and going away with him. Once they are at the resort, they meet up with Jeffrey's big cheese client, Bernard Ornay and his mistress Monica Bloom. Ornay also becomes attracted to Phyllis which causes a rift with Jeffrey. Jeffrey and Phyllis look likely to sleep together in her room, but Jeffrey terminates contact after Phyllis responds flirtatiously when Ornay knocks on her door. They leave the resort the next morning.

The two couples end up in the same hotel bar, and Jeffrey and Lucky have a physical fight. Marianne and Phyllis leave together and go back to the Byrons' apartment, where Marianne reveals she is pregnant with Lucky's baby. Marianne does not know yet that Phyllis is his wife. Phyllis becomes upset and leaves. Jeffrey and Marianne have sex and reconcile. Lucky finds Cassie and they reconcile. At the end of the story, the same thing that had happened to Phyllis has happened to Marianne. They will both have raised a child with another man that is not the father. Marianne tells her friend Isabel the baby's father is Jeffrey, which reveals she does not plan on telling Lucky that it is his, just as Phyllis had done with Jack Dana. The final scene shows Phyllis in bed crying, knowing that Marianne will have Lucky's baby, and emotional over Cassie coming home.

Cast

 * Nick Nolte as Lucky Mann
 * Julie Christie as Phyllis Hart, a former actress, married to Lucky
 * Lara Flynn Boyle as Marianne Byron
 * Jonny Lee Miller as Jeffrey Byron
 * Jay Underwood as Donald Duncan, Jeffrey's friend
 * Domini Blythe as Helene Pelletier, Jeffrey's secretary
 * Alan Fawcett as Jack Dana, an actor
 * Michele Barbara-Pelletier as Isabel Marino, Marianne's friend
 * France Castel as Gloria Marino, Isabel's mother
 * Genevieve Bissonette, as Cassie, daughter of Phyllis and Jack Dana
 * Yves Corbeil as Bernard Ornay, a business associate of Jeffrey
 * Claudia Besso as Monica Bloom, Bernard's mistress
 * Ellen David as Judy, the waitress

Critical reception
The film received positive reviews from critics and holds a 77% approval rating on aggregate review site Rotten Tomatoes, with an average score of 6.8 out of 10, based on 31 collected reviews.

Awards
Julie Christie was nominated for Best Actress in a Lead Role in the 1997 Academy Awards for her role. She won best actress at the San Sebastian Film Festival. The cast won the jury award for best ensemble performance at the Fort Lauderdale International Film Festival, and Nick Nolte won the best actor award at the same festival.

title: Afterglow (1997 film)


text:
Republican Left (Spain)

The Republican Left (Izquierda Republicana) was a Spanish republican party founded in 1934.

History
The party was founded in 1934 following the left's defeat in the 1933 election, by the merger of Manuel Azaña's Republican Action, part of Marcelino Domingo's Independent Radical Socialist Republican Party and Santiago Casares Quiroga's Autonomous Galician Republican Organization (ORGA). Its members included José Giral, Victoria Kent and Manuel Azaña who became the party's leader.

Integrated in the Popular Front ahead of the 1936 election, the party won 87 seats becoming the third largest party while Manuel Azaña obtained the office of President of the Council of Minister. Following the impeachment of Niceto Alcalá Zamora from the presidency in May 1936, Azaña was elected president, an office he held until his resignation in February 1939. He was succeeded as President of the Council first by Santiago Casares Quiroga and then by José Giral. Later, alongside the Republican Union, the party was the main component of the Largo Caballero government in September 1936, at the start of the Spanish Civil War. The IR participated in all republican governments till the end of the civil war.

In exile in Mexico, the IR was the main support of the Republican government-in-exile until it was dissolved in 1959 to found the Spanish Democratic Republican Action. A party taking the name Republican Left was founded in 1977 and has achieved no major electoral success yet.

Notable members

 * Ramón Bengaray Zabalza
 * Santiago Casares Quiroga
 * José Giral
 * Victoria Kent
 * Manuel Azaña

title: Republican Left (Spain)


text:
Republican National Convention

The Republican National Convention (RNC) is a series of presidential nominating conventions held every four years since 1856 by the Republican Party in the United States. They are administered by the Republican National Committee. The goal of the Republican National Convention is to officially nominate and confirm a candidate for president and vice president, adopt a comprehensive party platform and unify the party, as well as publicize and launch the fall campaign.

Delegates from all fifty U.S. states and from American dependencies and territories, including Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, attend the convention and cast their votes. Like the Democratic National Convention, the Republican National Convention marks the formal end of the primary election period and the start of the general election season. In 2020, all parties replaced the usual conventions with short online programs.

History
The Republican Party was formally organized on a national basis at a meeting in Lafayette Hall in Pittsburgh on February 22–23, 1856, during which the first Republican National Committee was elected.

First nominating convention
The first Republican National Convention was the 1856 Republican National Convention, held from June 17 to 19, 1856, at Musical Fund Hall at 808 Locust Street in Philadelphia. At the 1856 Republican National Convention, the party nominated John C. Frémont, a U.S. Senator from California for president and William L. Dayton, a former U.S. Senator from New Jersey for vice president.

1864 convention
The 1864 event, with the American Civil War raging, was branded as the "National Union Convention" since it included Democrats who remained loyal to the Union and nominated Andrew Johnson, who had been elected Governor of Tennessee as a Democrat, for vice president. By 1868 the usual Republican name was restored.

20th century
The 1912 Republican National Convention saw the business-oriented faction supporting William Howard Taft turn back a challenge from former President Theodore Roosevelt, who boasted broader popular support and even won a primary in Taft's home state of Ohio. Roosevelt would run on the Progressive Party ticket, splitting the Republicans and thereby handing the election to Democrat Woodrow Wilson. The 1924 Republican National Convention made history by being the first GOP convention to give women equal representation. This was the first time the Republican Convention was held in Cleveland, Ohio. It was also the first time any convention was broadcast over radio – to nine cities through a special link over long-distance telephone lines. The Republican National Committee approved a rule providing for a national committee-man and a national committee-woman from each state. Incumbent President Calvin Coolidge was formally nominated and went on to win the general election. The convention nominated Illinois Governor Frank Lowden for vice president on the second ballot, but he declined the nomination. This is the only time a nominee refused to accept a vice presidential nomination.

The Republicans returned to the city in 1936 in the cavernous Cleveland Public Auditorium. Former President Herbert Hoover addressed the delegates on the second day of the convention. On the third, Alf Landon of Kansas (who did not attend) was nominated for president; Colonel Frank Knox was nominated as the vice presidential candidate. Landon and Knox were defeated in a landslide by Franklin D. Roosevelt and John Nance Garner. Knox subsequently served as Secretary of the Navy in the administration of Roosevelt. The 1940 Republican National Convention was the first national convention of any party broadcast on live television. It was carried by an early version of the NBC Television Network and consisted of flagship W2XBS (now WNBC) in New York City, W3XE (now KYW-TV) in Philadelphia and W2XB (now WRGB) in Schenectady and Albany.

The growing importance of primaries became evident at the 1964 Republican National Convention in San Francisco, where U.S. Senator Barry Goldwater from Arizona won the nomination, easily turning away Pennsylvania governor William Scranton and others more favorable to the party establishment.

At the 1972 Republican National Convention, Pat Nixon became the first First Lady since Eleanor Roosevelt and the first Republican First Lady to deliver an address to the convention delegates. It is now common practice for the presidential candidate's spouse to deliver an address to the delegates. Also in 1972, the placing of "favorite son" candidates' names into nomination was banned, requiring at least five states' requests to do so. In recent years, only one candidate's name has been put into nomination, and challengers have been put under intense pressure to withdraw in order for the vote to be unanimous.

An exception was when former California Governor Ronald Reagan nearly toppled incumbent President Gerald Ford at the 1976 Republican National Convention in Kansas City. Ford was in office for only two years before he was challenged by Reagan, who was a fellow Republican. Reagan was on record saying that fellow Republicans should never talk badly about one another, but Reagan's view had since changed, but the power of incumbency was too much for Reagan to overcome. This was the last GOP convention where the outcome of the nomination was in doubt. After the Republican National Convention, the pressure was on Ford to cut away the factionalism in his Republican Party.

Pat Buchanan delivered a speech enthusiastically endorsing the conservative side of the culture war in American society at the 1992 Republican National Convention in Houston. It was widely criticized for supposedly alienating liberal and moderate voters who might otherwise have voted for the moderate nominee and then-incumbent President George H. W. Bush. Division in the party was evident too at the 1996 Republican National Convention, at which more moderate party members such as California governor Pete Wilson and Massachusetts governor William Weld unsuccessfully sought to remove the Human Life Amendment plank from the party platform. The event at the San Diego Convention Center remains the last Republican National Convention to be held in a convention center complex; all others since then have been held at sports stadiums or arenas.

21st century
The Republican Party chose Cleveland again as the site for the 2016 Republican National Convention. The convention was held in Quicken Loans Arena, home of the Cleveland Cavaliers. There may have been political considerations in the selection, since no Republican has won the presidency without winning Ohio since Abraham Lincoln in the 1860 election. Cuyahoga County has voted 19 times for Republicans and 21 times for the Democratic candidate since 1856. However, the Democrats had carried the county for the past 40 years.

The party chose Charlotte, North Carolina as the location for its 2020 Republican National Convention, but pulled out at the last minute. President Donald Trump announced the convention would be moved to Jacksonville, Florida, but subsequently cancelled the Jacksonville convention plans amidst COVID-19 pandemic concerns and complications on July 23. The convention proceedings were then held remotely from various locations, with the final day taking place on the South Lawn of the White House.

Delegations
The party's presidential nominee is chosen primarily by pledged delegates, which are in turn selected through a series of individual state caucuses and primary elections. The size of delegations to the Republican National Convention, for each state, territory, or other political subdivision, are described by Rule 14 of the party's national rules. The party does not use superdelegates as does the Democratic Party, and all delegates are pledged to a candidate in some fashion.

The Republican Party's rules leave discretion to the states in choosing how to award their respective pledged delegates to the candidates. Some states may use a statewide winner-take-all method, where the primary candidate who receives the most popular votes in a state gets all of its pledged delegates. Other states may use a proportional representation system, where the pledged delegates are instead distributed to the candidates in proportion to its votes.

Three leaders of each state, territory, and Washington D.C.'s Republican Party (its national committeeman, its national committeewoman and its chairperson) are automatically nominated as pledged delegates to the national convention.
 * Pledged party leaders

Since 2012, the number of pledged delegates initially allocated to each of the 50 U.S. states is: Ten at-large delegates, plus three district delegates for each of the state's congressional districts. As each state has at least one congressional district, the minimum number of delegates from this allocation for any state is 13.
 * Base allocation formula for the 50 U.S. states

Jurisdictions with non-voting congressmembers are instead given a fixed amount of pledged at-large delegates. In 2020, American Samoa, Guam, Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands each get six at-large delegates; Puerto Rico receives 20; and Washington, D.C., gets 16.
 * Base allocations to other jurisdictions

The Republican Party awards bonus pledged delegates to each jurisdiction based on two main factors (where applicable): whether its electoral college votes went to the Republican candidate in the last presidential election, and on how well the state party has done in electing Republicans to state and congressional elections.
 * Bonus delegates

 * 1) For each state that cast at least a majority of its Electoral College votes for the Republican nominee in the 2016 election, that state earns an additional four and one-half delegates at-large for the 2020 convention, plus a number of the delegates at-large equal to 60 percent of the number of electoral votes of that state; all fractions are rounded upwards. If Washington DC had gone Republican instead of Democratic in 2016, it itself would have received an additional four and one-half delegates at-large, plus a number of delegates at-large equal to 30 percent of its base allocation of 16 at-large delegates (rounding up to 10 bonus delegates).
 * 2) States and territories get additional bonus at-large delegates in 2020 (where applicable) based on whether it has elected Republicans to the following state and federal offices in the 2016 elections or at any subsequent election (whether the 2018 midterms, or the 2017 or 2019 off-year elections) held prior to January 1, 2020:
 * 3) * Republican governor: 1 additional at-large delegate
 * 4) * Republican majorities in its state legislature: 1 for each chamber that has a Republican majority and has a Republican presiding officer (if the presiding officer is elected by the chamber); maximum 2 if Republicans control all chambers of the state legislature
 * 5) * At least one-half Republican membership in its delegation to the U.S. House of Representatives: 1
 * 6) * Republican membership in the U.S. Senate: 1 for each Republican senator; maximum 2 if both the state's senators are Republican

The bonus delegates thus reward states that vote for Republican candidates and punish those which do not. As examples, for the 2020 Convention using California and Texas (the two most populous states, California being a Democrat stronghold and Texas a Republican one):
 * Texas received 34 bonus delegates, winning the available bonus delegates in all five categories: Donald Trump won a majority of the state's electoral votes in the 2016 election (36 with two faithless electors, earning it 28 bonus delegates as the delegate formula does not take those into account), Greg Abbott was the Governor (one bonus delegate), the Republicans controlled both chambers of the Texas Legislature (two bonus delegates), the Republicans had over half of Texas' Congressional delegation (one bonus delegate), and both senators – John Cornyn and Ted Cruz – were Republicans (two bonus delegates).
 * Conversely, California received zero bonus delegates: Joe Biden won the state's electoral votes, Gavin Newsom was the Governor, Democrats controlled both chambers of the California General Assembly, and both senators – Dianne Feinstein and Kamala Harris – were Democrats

Candidate nomination
The candidate nomination process at the convention is governed by Rule 40 of the party's national rules. Under Rule 40(b), a candidate must have the support of a majority of the delegates of at least five delegations in order to get the 2020 nomination.

title: Republican National Convention


text:
Talk:Königsberg Cathedral

Untitled
This needs to be moved to another language. Ivan 22:38, Mar 6, 2004 (UTC)

a catholic cathedral was stolen by the government and 'given' to another religion. what if this were a synagogue taken by the government and given to a bishop to be turned into a catholic church? my point is this extraordinary historical fact is not as well expressed in this article as it should be. Peppermintschnapps (talk) 01:44, 14 April 2010 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 06:13, 9 May 2020 (UTC)
 * Chors des Domes.jpg

title: Talk:Königsberg Cathedral


text:
Formula for primes

In number theory, a formula for primes is a formula generating the prime numbers, exactly and without exception. Formulas for calculating primes do exist, however, they are computationally very slow. A number of constraints are known, showing what such a "formula" can and cannot be.

Formulas based on Wilson's theorem
A simple formula is
 * $$f(n) = \left\lfloor \frac{n! \bmod (n+1)}{n} \right\rfloor (n-1) + 2$$

for positive integer $$n$$, where $$\lfloor\ \rfloor$$ is the floor function, which rounds down to the nearest integer. By Wilson's theorem, $$n+1$$ is prime if and only if $$n! \equiv n \pmod{n+1}$$. Thus, when $$n+1$$ is prime, the first factor in the product becomes one, and the formula produces the prime number $$n+1$$. But when $$n+1$$ is not prime, the first factor becomes zero and the formula produces the prime number 2. This formula is not an efficient way to generate prime numbers because evaluating $$n! \bmod (n+1)$$ requires about $$n-1$$ multiplications and reductions modulo $$n+1$$.

In 1964, Willans gave the formula
 * $$p_n = 1 + \sum_{i=1}^{2^n} \left\lfloor \left(\frac{n}{\sum_{j=1}^i \left\lfloor\left(\cos \frac{(j-1)! + 1}{j} \pi\right)^2\right\rfloor }\right)^{1/n} \right\rfloor$$

for the $$n$$th prime number $$p_n$$. This formula reduces to $$p_n = 1 + \sum_{i=1}^{2^n}[\pi(i) < n]$$; that is, it tautologically defines $$p_n$$ as the smallest integer m for which the prime-counting function $$\pi(m)$$ is at least n. This formula is also not efficient. In addition to the appearance of $$(j-1)!$$, it computes $$p_n$$ by adding up $$p_n$$ copies of $$1$$; for example, $$p_5 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 0 + 0 + \dots + 0 = 11$$.

The articles What is an Answer? by Herbert Wilf (1982) and Formulas for Primes by Underwood Dudley (1983) have further discussion about the worthlessness of such formulas.

Formula based on a system of Diophantine equations
Because the set of primes is a computably enumerable set, by Matiyasevich's theorem, it can be obtained from a system of Diophantine equations. found an explicit set of 14 Diophantine equations in 26 variables, such that a given number k + 2 is prime if and only if that system has a solution in nonnegative integers:

 * $$\alpha_0= wz + h + j - q = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_1 = (gk + 2g + k + 1)(h + j) + h - z = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_2= 16(k + 1)^3(k + 2)(n + 1)^2 + 1 - f^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_3= 2n + p + q + z - e = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_4= e^3(e + 2)(a + 1)^2 + 1 - o^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_5=(a^2 - 1)y^2 + 1 - x^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_6= 16r^2y^4(a^2 - 1) + 1 - u^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_7= n + \ell + v - y = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_8= (a^2 - 1)\ell^2 + 1 - m^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_9= ai + k + 1 - \ell - i = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_{10}= ((a + u^2(u^2 - a))^2 - 1)(n + 4dy)^2 + 1 - (x + cu)^2 = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_{11}= p + \ell(a - n - 1) + b(2an + 2a - n^2 - 2n - 2) - m= 0 $$

 * $$\alpha_{12}= q + y(a - p - 1) + s(2ap + 2a - p^2 - 2p - 2) - x = 0$$

 * $$\alpha_{13}= z + p\ell(a - p) + t(2ap - p^2 - 1) - pm = 0$$

The 14 equations α0, …, α13 can be used to produce a prime-generating polynomial inequality in 26 variables:

 * $$ (k+2)(1-\alpha_0^2-\alpha_1^2-\cdots-\alpha_{13}^2) > 0.$$

That is,

\begin{align} & (k+2) (1 - {} \\[6pt] & [wz + h + j - q]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [(gk + 2g + k + 1)(h + j) + h - z]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [16(k + 1)^3(k + 2)(n + 1)^2 + 1 - f^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [2n + p + q + z - e]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [e^3(e + 2)(a + 1)^2 + 1 - o^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [(a^2 - 1)y^2 + 1 - x^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [16r^2y^4(a^2 - 1) + 1 - u^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [n + \ell + v - y]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [(a^2 - 1)\ell^2 + 1 - m^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [ai + k + 1 - \ell - i]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [((a + u^2(u^2 - a))^2 - 1)(n + 4dy)^2 + 1 - (x + cu)^2]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [p + \ell(a - n - 1) + b(2an + 2a - n^2 - 2n - 2) - m]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [q + y(a - p - 1) + s(2ap + 2a - p^2 - 2p - 2) - x]^2 - {} \\[6pt] & [z + p\ell(a - p) + t(2ap - p^2 - 1) - pm]^2) \\[6pt] & > 0 \end{align} $$

is a polynomial inequality in 26 variables, and the set of prime numbers is identical to the set of positive values taken on by the left-hand side as the variables a, b, …, z range over the nonnegative integers.

A general theorem of Matiyasevich says that if a set is defined by a system of Diophantine equations, it can also be defined by a system of Diophantine equations in only 9 variables. Hence, there is a prime-generating polynomial as above with only 10 variables. However, its degree is large (in the order of 1045). On the other hand, there also exists such a set of equations of degree only 4, but in 58 variables.

Mills' formula
The first such formula known was established by, who proved that there exists a real number A such that, if

 * $$d_n = A^{3^{n}}$$

then

 * $$\left \lfloor d_n \right \rfloor = \left \lfloor A^{3^{n}} \right \rfloor$$

is a prime number for all positive integers n. If the Riemann hypothesis is true, then the smallest such A has a value of around 1.3063778838630806904686144926... and is known as Mills' constant. This value gives rise to the primes $$\left \lfloor d_1 \right \rfloor = 2$$, $$\left \lfloor d_2 \right \rfloor = 11$$, $$\left \lfloor d_3 \right \rfloor = 1361$$, ... . Very little is known about the constant A (not even whether it is rational). This formula has no practical value, because there is no known way of calculating the constant without finding primes in the first place.

Note that there is nothing special about the floor function in the formula. Tóth proved that there also exists a constant $$B$$ such that

 * $$ \lceil B^{r^{n}} \rceil$$

is also prime-representing for $$r>2.106\ldots$$.

In the case $$r=3$$, the value of the constant $$B$$ begins with 1.24055470525201424067... The first few primes generated are:

 * $$2, 7, 337, 38272739, 56062005704198360319209, $$
 * $$ 176199995814327287356671209104585864397055039072110696028654438846269, \ldots$$

Without assuming the Riemann hypothesis, Elsholtz developed several prime-representing functions similar to those of Mills. For example, if $$A = 1.00536773279814724017 \ldots$$, then $$\left\lfloor A^{10^{10n}} \right\rfloor$$ is prime for all positive integers $$n$$. Similarly, if $$A = 3.8249998073439146171615551375 \ldots$$, then $$\left\lfloor A^{3^{13n}} \right\rfloor$$ is prime for all positive integers $$n$$.

Wright's formula
Another tetrationally growing prime-generating formula similar to Mills' comes from a theorem of E. M. Wright. He proved that there exists a real number α such that, if
 * $$g_0 = \alpha$$ and
 * $$g_{n+1} = 2^{g_n}$$ for $$n \ge 0$$,

then
 * $$\left \lfloor g_n \right \rfloor = \left \lfloor 2^{\dots^{2^{2^\alpha}}} \right \rfloor $$

is prime for all $$n \ge 1$$. Wright gives the first seven decimal places of such a constant: $$\alpha = 1.9287800$$. This value gives rise to the primes $$\left \lfloor g_1 \right \rfloor = \left \lfloor 2^{\alpha} \right \rfloor = 3 $$, $$\left \lfloor g_2 \right \rfloor = 13 $$, and $$\left \lfloor g_3 \right \rfloor = 16381 $$. $$\left \lfloor g_4 \right \rfloor$$ is even, and so is not prime. However, with $$\alpha = 1.9287800 + 8.2843 \cdot 10^{-4933}$$, $$\left \lfloor g_1 \right \rfloor$$, $$\left \lfloor g_2 \right \rfloor$$, and $$\left \lfloor g_3 \right \rfloor$$ are unchanged, while $$\left \lfloor g_4 \right \rfloor$$ is a prime with 4932 digits. This sequence of primes cannot be extended beyond $$\left \lfloor g_4 \right \rfloor$$ without knowing more digits of $$\alpha$$. Like Mills' formula, and for the same reasons, Wright's formula cannot be used to find primes.

A function that represents all primes
Given the constant $$f_1 = 2.920050977316\ldots$$, for $$n \ge 2$$, define the sequence

where $$\left\lfloor\ \right\rfloor$$ is the floor function. Then for $$n \ge 1$$, $$\left\lfloor f_{n} \right\rfloor$$ equals the $$n$$th prime: $$\left\lfloor f_1 \right\rfloor = 2$$, $$\left\lfloor f_2 \right\rfloor = 3$$, $$\left\lfloor f_3 \right\rfloor = 5$$, etc. The initial constant $$f_1 = 2.920050977316$$ given in the article is precise enough for equation ($$) to generate the primes through 37, the $$12$$th prime.

The exact value of $$f_1$$ that generates all primes is given by the rapidly-converging series

f_1 = \sum_{n=1}^\infty \frac{p_n - 1}{P_n} = \frac{2 - 1}{1} + \frac{3 - 1}{2} + \frac{5 - 1}{2 \cdot 3} + \frac{7 - 1}{2 \cdot 3 \cdot 5} + \cdots, $$ where $$p_n$$ is the $$n$$th prime, and $$P_n$$ is the product of all primes less than $$p_n$$. The more digits of $$f_1$$ that we know, the more primes equation ($$) will generate. For example, we can use 25 terms in the series, using the 25 primes less than 100, to calculate the following more precise approximation:
 * $$f_1 \simeq 2.920050977316134712092562917112019.$$

This has enough digits for equation ($$) to yield again the 25 primes less than 100.

As with Mills' formula and Wright's formula above, in order to generate a longer list of primes, we need to start by knowing more digits of the initial constant, $$f_1$$, which in this case requires a longer list of primes in its calculation.

Plouffe's formulas
In 2018 Simon Plouffe conjectured a set of formulas for primes. Similarly to the formula of Mills, they are of the form

 * $$\left\{a_0^{r^n}\right\}$$

where $$\{\ \}$$ is the function rounding to the nearest integer. For example, with $$a_0\approx 43.80468771580293481$$ and $$r=5/4$$, this gives 113, 367, 1607, 10177, 102217... . Using $$a_0=10^{500}+961+\varepsilon$$ and $$r=1.01$$ with $$\varepsilon$$ a certain number between 0 and one half, Plouffe found that he could generate a sequence of 50 probable primes (with high probability of being prime). Presumably there exists an ε such that this formula will give an infinite sequence of actual prime numbers. The number of digits starts at 501 and increases by about 1% each time.

Prime formulas and polynomial functions
It is known that no non-constant polynomial function P(n) with integer coefficients exists that evaluates to a prime number for all integers n. The proof is as follows: suppose that such a polynomial existed. Then P(1) would evaluate to a prime p, so $$P(1) \equiv 0 \pmod p$$. But for any integer k, $$P(1+kp) \equiv 0 \pmod p$$ also, so $$P(1+kp)$$ cannot also be prime (as it would be divisible by p) unless it were p itself. But the only way $$P(1+kp) = P(1) = p$$ for all k is if the polynomial function is constant. The same reasoning shows an even stronger result: no non-constant polynomial function P(n) exists that evaluates to a prime number for almost all integers n.

Euler first noticed (in 1772) that the quadratic polynomial

 * $$P(n) = n^2 + n + 41$$

is prime for the 40 integers n = 0, 1, 2, ..., 39, with corresponding primes 41, 43, 47, 53, 61, 71, ..., 1601. The differences between the terms are 2, 4, 6, 8, 10... For n = 40, it produces a square number, 1681, which is equal to 41 × 41, the smallest composite number for this formula for n ≥ 0. If 41 divides n, it divides P(n) too. Furthermore, since P(n) can be written as n(n + 1) + 41, if 41 divides n + 1 instead, it also divides P(n). The phenomenon is related to the Ulam spiral, which is also implicitly quadratic, and the class number; this polynomial is related to the Heegner number $$163=4\cdot 41-1$$. There are analogous polynomials for $$p=2, 3, 5, 11 \text{ and } 17$$ (the lucky numbers of Euler), corresponding to other Heegner numbers.

Given a positive integer S, there may be infinitely many c such that the expression n2 + n + c is always coprime to S. The integer c may be negative, in which case there is a delay before primes are produced.

It is known, based on Dirichlet's theorem on arithmetic progressions, that linear polynomial functions $$L(n) = an + b$$ produce infinitely many primes as long as a and b are relatively prime (though no such function will assume prime values for all values of n). Moreover, the Green–Tao theorem says that for any k there exists a pair of a and b, with the property that $$L(n) = an+b$$ is prime for any n from 0 through k − 1. However, the best known result of such type is for k = 27:

 * $$224584605939537911 + 18135696597948930n$$

is prime for all n from 0 through 26. It is not even known whether there exists a univariate polynomial of degree at least 2, that assumes an infinite number of values that are prime; see Bunyakovsky conjecture.

Possible formula using a recurrence relation
Another prime generator is defined by the recurrence relation
 * $$ a_n = a_{n-1} + \gcd(n,a_{n-1}), \quad a_1 = 7, $$

where gcd(x, y) denotes the greatest common divisor of x and y. The sequence of differences an+1 − an starts with 1, 1, 1, 5, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 11, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 23, 3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 47, 3, 1, 5, 3, ... . proved that this sequence contains only ones and prime numbers. However, it does not contain all the prime numbers, since the terms gcd(n + 1, an) are always odd and so never equal to 2. 587 is the smallest prime (other than 2) not appearing in the first 10,000 outcomes that are different from 1. Nevertheless, in the same paper it was conjectured to contain all odd primes, even though it is rather inefficient.

Note that there is a trivial program that enumerates all and only the prime numbers, as well as more efficient ones, so such recurrence relations are more a matter of curiosity than of any practical use.

title: Formula for primes


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