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St Mary's (Whitechapel Road) tube station

St. Mary's (Whitechapel Road) was a station on the District and Metropolitan lines of the London Underground. It was located between Whitechapel and Aldgate East stations, in the East End of London.

It was opened in 1884 on the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Joint Railway, and served initially, albeit briefly, by the South Eastern Railway, then and for much of its existence jointly by the Metropolitan Railway and the District Railway; the route is now served by the District and Hammersmith & City lines. The station was closed in 1938 in advance of the relocation of Aldgate East to within minimal distance, rendering St. Mary's inessential. The station building was severely damaged during the Blitz of the Second World War and subsequently was demolished.

History
Opened on 3 March 1884 as St. Mary's (Whitechapel), the station was on the Metropolitan and Metropolitan District Joint Railway, and initially used by the South Eastern Railway; this service was withdrawn on 1 October 1884 and one week later the services were taken over jointly by the Metropolitan Railway and the District Railway. The station was small and cramped, and was located very close to both Whitechapel and Aldgate East stations, just before the junction to the East London Line.

In 1938, Aldgate East was relocated further eastwards and given a new entrance only a few hundred yards from St. Mary's (Whitechapel Road) rendering the latter surplus to requirements. It was permanently closed after the last train on 30 April 1938 in advance of the resiting of Aldgate East.

During the Second World War, the station site was leased from London Transport by the Metropolitan Borough of Stepney for use as an air-raid shelter. The edges of the platforms were bricked up to separate the shelter areas from the still-used tracks. On 22 October 1940, during the early months of the Blitz, the street-level station building was hit by a bomb and severely damaged. Its temporary replacement was also hit a few months later. The structure was subsequently demolished, hence little evidence of the station's existence now remains above ground, and its site is occupied by a car dealership.

The bricked-up platforms are still accessible to London Underground staff via an anonymous door off Whitechapel Road. Below ground, it is still possible to make out where the station was, as the barrel-vaulted roof and bricked-off platforms are still just visible from passing trains. Sometimes, trains travelling from Whitechapel to Aldgate East are held at signals, resulting in the train stopping abreast of the old St. Mary's platform.

St. Mary's Curve
The connection line leading to the old East London Line is still called the St. Mary's Curve. For many years the line was only used to transfer rolling stock between the East London and Metropolitan lines. Loading gauge restrictions for the stock meant that, although the curve was double tracked, trains could only pass in one direction at any one time. When illuminated, it can easily be seen from the left-hand side of East London Line trains entering Whitechapel from the south and can still be seen from the right-hand side of District line trains entering the station from the west. Since re-opening as part of the London Overground in 2010, the former East London Line no longer shares rolling stock with the Metropolitan line. As a result, St. Mary's Curve is no longer used, but the tunnel still exists. The points at St. Mary's Curve were removed in 2009.


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Cessna T-41 Mescalero

The Cessna T-41 Mescalero is a military version of the popular Cessna 172, operated by the United States Air Force and Army, as well as the armed forces of various other countries as a pilot-training aircraft.

Design and development
In 1964, the US Air Force (USAF) decided to use the commercial off-the-shelf Cessna 172F as a lead-in aircraft for student pilots rather than starting them out in the T-37 jet aircraft. The USAF ordered 237 T-41As from Cessna. The first USAF class (67-A) of students began training on the T-41 from the civilian airport in Big Spring, Texas, in August 1965.

The T-41B was the US Army version, with a 210 hp Continental IO-360 engine and constant-speed propeller in place of the 145 hp Continental O-300 and 7654 fixed-pitch propeller used in the 172 and the T-41A.

In 1968, the USAF acquired 52 of the more powerful T-41Cs, which used 210 hp Continental IO-360 and a fixed-pitch climb propeller, for use at the Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs.

In 1996, the aircraft were further upgraded to the T-41D, which included an upgrade in avionics and to a constant-speed propeller.

Beginning in 1993, the USAF replaced many of the T-41 fleet with the Slingsby T-3A Firefly for the flight-screening role, and for aerobatic training, which was outside the design capabilities of the T-41. The T-3A fleet was indefinitely grounded in 1997 and scrapped in 2006 following a series of fatal accidents at the US Air Force Academy.

The USAF now trains all its prospective pilots and combat systems officers through a civilian contract with DOSS Aviation known as initial military flight screening, which makes use of the Diamond DA20. This program is conducted for USAF line officer accession programs (e.g., USAFA, AFROTC, and OTS), with said training taking place after these officers have been commissioned as second lieutenants. It is also conducted for USAF officers at the first lieutenant and captain level selected for flight training after an assignment as a non-aeronautically rated officer.

Four T-41s remain at the Air Force Academy for the USAFA Flying Team, as well as to support certain academic classes.

A number of air forces, including Saudi Arabia and Singapore, purchased various civilian models of the Cessna 172 for use in military training, transport, and liaison roles. While similar to the T-41, these aircraft were not T-41s and were powered by the standard 172 powerplants available in the model year purchased. These included the 145 hp Continental O-300 in pre-1968 aircraft and the 150 and 160 hp Lycoming O-320 in later 172s.

Variants
With the exception of the T-41A, most variants of the T-41 were certified under the Cessna 175 Skylark type certification.
 * T-41A
 * United States Air Force version of the Cessna 172F, 172G, and 172H for undergraduate pilot training, powered by 145 hp Continental O-300. 230 built; 170 (172F), 26 (172G), and 34 (172H).

 * T-41B
 * United States Army version powered by a fuel-injected 210 hp Continental IO-360-D or -DE driving a constant-speed propeller and featuring a 28V electrical system, jettisonable doors, an openable right front window, a 6.00x6 nose wheel tire, and military avionics. The baggage door was removed.  255 built (all Model R172E).

 * T-41C
 * USAF Academy version with a 14V electrical system, fixed-pitch propeller, civilian avionics, and only the two front seats. 52 total built; 45 as the R172E and 7 as the R172F.

 * T-41D
 * Military Aid Program version with 28V electrical system, four seats, corrosion-proofing, reinforced flaps and ailerons, a baggage door, and provisions for wing-mounted pylons. 299 total built; 34 as the R172E, 74 as the R172F, 28 as the R172G, and 163 as the R172H (with extended tail fillet).    First T-41D delivered to the Philippine Air Force in 1968

Operators

 * Angolan Air Force (5× Cessna 172 in service)
 * Argentine Army Aviation (10× T-41D in service)
 * Bolivian Air Force
 * Chilean Air Force (10× T-41D, already retired)
 * Colombian Air Force (30× T-41D) - retired
 * Dominican Air Force (10× T-41D / R172),
 * Ecuadorian Air Force (8× T-41A, 12× T-41D)
 * Salvadoran Air Force
 * Hellenic Air Force (T-41A, 21× T-41D, retired )
 * Honduran Air Force (3× T-41B and 6× T-41D, retired)
 * Indonesian Air Force (55× T-41D)
 * Imperial Iranian Air Force (T-41D)
 * Khmer Republic
 * Khmer Air Force (22× T-41D).
 * Kingdom of Laos
 * Royal Lao Air Force (T-41B, T-41D)
 * Armed Forces of Liberia (T-41D)
 * Pakistani Air Force (T-41D)
 * Paraguayan Air Force (5× T-41B, retired)
 * Peruvian Air Force (25× T-41A
 * $\phi$
 * Philippine Air Force (20× T-41D)
 * Republic of Korea Air Force (15× T-41D)
 * South Vietnam
 * Republic of Vietnam Air Force (22× T-41D, no longer in service)
 * Royal Thai Air Force (6× T-41D)
 * Royal Thai Army (6× T-41B)
 * Turkish Air Force (30× T-41D)
 * Turkish Land Forces (25× T-41D)
 * United States Army (255× T-41B)
 * United States Air Force (211× T-41A and 52× T-41C)
 * Jacksonville Navy Flying Club/NAS Jacksonville, Florida - 2 x T-41A, 1 x T-41B (two currently airworthy)
 * Kirtland AFB Aeroclub/Kirtland AFB, New Mexico - 5 x T-41C (all 5 currently airworthy)
 * Patuxent River Navy Flying Club/NAS Patuxent River, Maryland - 3 x T-41C (1 currently airworthy)
 * Eglin AFB Aeroclub/Eglin AFB, FL - 2 x T-41A, 1 x T-41B (1 T-41A and 1 T-41B currently airworthy)
 * Travis AFB Aero Club/Travis AFB, CA - 1 x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Dover AFB Aero Club/Dover AFB, DE - 2 x T-41A, 1x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Uruguayan Air Force (7× T-41D)
 * Republic of Korea Air Force (15× T-41D)
 * South Vietnam
 * Republic of Vietnam Air Force (22× T-41D, no longer in service)
 * Royal Thai Air Force (6× T-41D)
 * Royal Thai Army (6× T-41B)
 * Turkish Air Force (30× T-41D)
 * Turkish Land Forces (25× T-41D)
 * United States Army (255× T-41B)
 * United States Air Force (211× T-41A and 52× T-41C)
 * Jacksonville Navy Flying Club/NAS Jacksonville, Florida - 2 x T-41A, 1 x T-41B (two currently airworthy)
 * Kirtland AFB Aeroclub/Kirtland AFB, New Mexico - 5 x T-41C (all 5 currently airworthy)
 * Patuxent River Navy Flying Club/NAS Patuxent River, Maryland - 3 x T-41C (1 currently airworthy)
 * Eglin AFB Aeroclub/Eglin AFB, FL - 2 x T-41A, 1 x T-41B (1 T-41A and 1 T-41B currently airworthy)
 * Travis AFB Aero Club/Travis AFB, CA - 1 x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Dover AFB Aero Club/Dover AFB, DE - 2 x T-41A, 1x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Uruguayan Air Force (7× T-41D)
 * Eglin AFB Aeroclub/Eglin AFB, FL - 2 x T-41A, 1 x T-41B (1 T-41A and 1 T-41B currently airworthy)
 * Travis AFB Aero Club/Travis AFB, CA - 1 x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Dover AFB Aero Club/Dover AFB, DE - 2 x T-41A, 1x T-41C (currently airworthy)
 * Uruguayan Air Force (7× T-41D)
 * Uruguayan Air Force (7× T-41D)

Aircraft on display

 * United States
 * 65-5168 – T-41A on static display in the airpark at Vance Air Force Base in Enid, Oklahoma.
 * 65-5226 – T-41 on static display at Randolph Air Force Base, Universal City, Texas. It is on display in park area adjacent to Randolph Inn Visiting Officers Quarters (VOQ) / Distinguished Visiting Officers Quarters (DVOQ) along with other historical ATC and AETC aircraft.
 * 65-5251 – T-41A on static display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force in Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft was previously assigned to the United States Air Force Academy inventory.
 * 67-14977 – T-41A on static display as part of the Officer Training School complex at Maxwell Air Force Base in Montgomery, Alabama.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Cessna T-41 Mescalero


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New York, Tyne and Wear

New York is a suburban village in the metropolitan county of Tyne and Wear, North East England. Approximately 4 miles from Whitley Bay, and 5 miles from the town of Tynemouth, it locally governed as part of the metropolitan borough of North Tyneside. It was named after New York, following the British capture of the city in 1777.

History
There had been a settlement in existence on the location of New York since Anglo-Saxon England where it occupied a crossroads between Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Abbey and docks for Lindisfarne Monastery. It did not have an official name until during the American War of Independence when it was named "New York" after New York City following the British capture of the city. It was also due to the village being formally founded then and being located near a now-vanished village that similarly shared a name from the Thirteen Colonies, "Philadelphia".

New York had its own blacksmiths' forge from the 1760s until 2016, when the landowner sold the land that it was leased on for redevelopment. New York was located near Algernon Colliery, until the coal pits closed in 1966. The road to the pits crossed a disused London and North Eastern Railway line. The North Tyneside Steam Railway and Stephenson Railway Museum are located in New York. In 1969, it was considered by the government to be a part of a redevelopment project aimed at North Shields.

War memorial
In 1921, New York constructed a war memorial to victims of the First World War. It was designed by local architect W.H. Endean and was constructed out of sandstone in the shape of a celtic cross. In 2012, it received grade II listed status for having a "...strong cultural and historical significance within both a local and national context". In 2014, North Tyneside Council announced a £100,000 fund to repair local war memorials, including the New York War Memorial, in time for the centenary of the First World War.

title: New York, Tyne and Wear


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Ice sheet

In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier, is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50000 km2. The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.

Although the surface is cold, the base of an ice sheet is generally warmer due to geothermal heat. In places, melting occurs and the melt-water lubricates the ice sheet so that it flows more rapidly. This process produces fast-flowing channels in the ice sheet — these are ice streams.

Even stable ice sheets are continually in motion as the ice gradually flows outward from the central plateau, which is the tallest point of the ice sheet, and towards the margins. The ice sheet slope is low around the plateau but increases steeply at the margins.

Increasing global air temperatures due to climate change take around 10,000 years to directly propagate through the ice before they influence bed temperatures, but may have an effect through increased surface melting, producing more supraglacial lakes. These lakes may feed warm water to glacial bases and facilitate glacial motion.

In previous geologic time spans (glacial periods) there were other ice sheets. During the Last Glacial Period at Last Glacial Maximum, the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered much of North America. In the same period, the Weichselian ice sheet covered Northern Europe and the Patagonian Ice Sheet covered southern South America.

Overview
An ice sheet is a body of ice which covers a land area of continental size - meaning that it exceeds 50,000 km2. The currently existing two ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica have a much greater area than this minimum definition, measuring at 1.7 million km2 and 14 million km2, respectively. Both ice sheets are also very thick, as they consist of a continuous ice layer with an average thickness of 2 km. This ice layer forms because most of the snow which falls onto the ice sheet never melts, and is instead compressed by the mass of newer snow layers.

This process of ice sheet growth is still occurring nowadays, as can be clearly seen in an example that occurred in World War II. A Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighter plane crashed in Greenland in 1942. It was only recovered 50 years later. By then, it had been buried under 81 m (268 feet) of ice which had formed over that time period.

Glacial flows

Even stable ice sheets are continually in motion as the ice gradually flows outward from the central plateau, which is the tallest point of the ice sheet, and towards the margins. The ice sheet slope is low around the plateau but increases steeply at the margins. This difference in slope occurs due to an imbalance between high ice accumulation in the central plateau and lower accumulation, as well as higher ablation, at the margins. This imbalance increases the shear stress on a glacier until it begins to flow. The flow velocity and deformation will increase as the equilibrium line between these two processes is approached. This motion is driven by gravity but is controlled by temperature and the strength of individual glacier bases. A number of processes alter these two factors, resulting in cyclic surges of activity interspersed with longer periods of inactivity, on time scales ranging from hourly (i.e. tidal flows) to the centennial (Milankovich cycles).

On an unrelated hour-to-hour basis, surges of ice motion can be modulated by tidal activity. The influence of a 1 m tidal oscillation can be felt as much as 100 km from the sea. During larger spring tides, an ice stream will remain almost stationary for hours at a time, before a surge of around a foot in under an hour, just after the peak high tide; a stationary period then takes hold until another surge towards the middle or end of the falling tide. At neap tides, this interaction is less pronounced, and surges instead occur approximately every 12 hours.

Increasing global air temperatures due to climate change take around 10,000 years to directly propagate through the ice before they influence bed temperatures, but may have an effect through increased surface melting, producing more supraglacial lakes. These lakes may feed warm water to glacial bases and facilitate glacial motion. Lakes of a diameter greater than ~300 m are capable of creating a fluid-filled crevasse to the glacier/bed interface. When these crevasses form, the entirety of the lake's (relatively warm) contents can reach the base of the glacier in as little as 2–18 hours – lubricating the bed and causing the glacier to surge. Water that reaches the bed of a glacier may freeze there, increasing the thickness of the glacier by pushing it up from below.

Boundary conditions

As the margins end at the marine boundary, excess ice is discharged through ice streams or outlet glaciers. Then, it either falls directly into the sea or is accumulated atop the floating ice shelves. Those ice shelves then calve icebergs at their periphery if they experience excess of ice. Ice shelves would also experience accelerated calving due to basal melting. In Antarctica, this is driven by heat fed to the shelf by the circumpolar deep water current, which is 3 °C above the ice's melting point.

The presence of ice shelves has a stabilizing influence on the glacier behind them, while an absence of an ice shelf becomes destabilizing. For instance, when Larsen B ice shelf in the Antarctic Peninsula had collapsed over three weeks in February 2002, the four glaciers behind it - Crane Glacier, Green Glacier, Hektoria Glacier and Jorum Glacier - all started to flow at a much faster rate, while the two glaciers (Flask and Leppard) stabilized by the remnants of the ice shelf did not accelerate.

The collapse of the Larsen B shelf was preceded by thinning of just 1 metre per year, while some other Antarctic ice shelves have displayed thinning of tens of metres per year. Further, increased ocean temperatures of 1 °C may lead to up to 10 metres per year of basal melting. Ice shelves are always stable under mean annual temperatures of −9 °C, but never stable above −5 °C; this places regional warming of 1.5 °C, as preceded the collapse of Larsen B, in context.

Marine ice sheet instability
In the 1970s, Johannes Weertman proposed that because seawater is denser than ice, then any ice sheets grounded below sea level inherently become less stable as they melt due to Archimedes' principle. Effectively, these marine ice sheets must have enough mass to exceed the mass of the seawater displaced by the ice, which requires excess thickness. As the ice sheet melts and becomes thinner, the weight of the overlying ice decreases. At a certain point, sea water could force itself into the gaps which form at the base of the ice sheet, and marine ice sheet instability (MISI) would occur.

Even if the ice sheet is grounded below the sea level, MISI cannot occur as long as there is a stable ice shelf in front of it. The boundary between the ice sheet and the ice shelf, known as the grounding line, is particularly stable if it is constrained in an embayment. In that case, the ice sheet may not be thinning at all, as the amount of ice flowing over the grounding line would be likely to match the annual accumulation of ice from snow upstream. Otherwise, ocean warming at the base of an ice shelf tends to thin it through basal melting. As the ice shelf becomes thinner, it exerts less of a buttressing effect on the ice sheet, the so-called back stress increases and the grounding line is pushed backwards. The ice sheet is likely to start losing more ice from the new location of the grounding line and so become lighter and less capable of displacing seawater. This eventually pushes the grounding line back even further, creating a self-reinforcing mechanism.

Vulnerable locations

Because the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet is grounded below the sea level, it would be vulnerable to geologically rapid ice loss in this scenario. In particular, the Thwaites and Pine Island glaciers are most likely to be prone to MISI, and both glaciers have been rapidly thinning and accelerating in recent decades. As the result, sea level rise from the ice sheet could be accelerated by tens of centimeters within the 21st century alone.

The majority of the East Antarctic Ice Sheet would not be affected. Totten Glacier is the largest glacier there which is known to be subject to MISI - yet, its potential contribution to sea level rise is comparable to that of the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Totten Glacier has been losing mass nearly monotonically in recent decades, suggesting rapid retreat is possible in the near future, although the dynamic behavior of Totten Ice Shelf is known to vary on seasonal to interannual timescales. The Wilkes Basin is the only major submarine basin in Antarctica that is not thought to be sensitive to warming. Ultimately, even geologically rapid sea level rise would still most likely require several millennia for the entirety of these ice masses (WAIS and the subglacial basins) to be lost.

Marine Ice Cliff Instability

A related process known as Marine Ice Cliff Instability (MICI) posits that ice cliffs which exceed ~90 m in above-ground height and are ~800 m in basal (underground) height are likely to collapse under their own weight once the peripheral ice stabilizing them is gone. Their collapse then exposes the ice masses following them to the same instability, potentially resulting in a self-sustaining cycle of cliff collapse and rapid ice sheet retreat - i.e. sea level rise of a meter or more by 2100 from Antarctica alone. This theory had been highly influential - in a 2020 survey of 106 experts, the paper which had advanced this theory was considered more important than even the year 2014 IPCC Fifth Assessment Report. Sea level rise projections which involve MICI are much larger than the others, particularly under high warming rate.

At the same time, this theory has also been highly controversial. It was originally proposed in order to describe how the large sea level rise during the Pliocene and the Last Interglacial could have occurred - yet more recent research found that these sea level rise episodes can be explained without any ice cliff instability taking place. Research in Pine Island Bay in West Antarctica (the location of Thwaites and Pine Island Glacier) had found seabed gouging by ice from the Younger Dryas period which appears consistent with MICI. However, it indicates "relatively rapid" yet still prolonged ice sheet retreat, with a movement of >200 km inland taking place over an estimated 900 years (from ~12,300 years Before Present to ~11,200 B.P.)

In recent years, 2002-2004 fast retreat of Crane Glacier immediately after the collapse of the Larsen B ice shelf (before it reached a shallow fjord and stabilized) could have involved MICI, but there weren't enough observations to confirm or refute this theory. The retreat of Greenland ice sheet's three largest glaciers - Jakobshavn, Helheim, and Kangerdlugssuaq Glacier - did not resemble predictions from ice cliff collapse at least up until the end of 2013, but an event observed at Helheim Glacier in August 2014 may fit the definition. Further, modelling done after the initial hypothesis indicates that ice-cliff instability would require implausibly fast ice shelf collapse (i.e. within an hour for ~90 m-tall cliffs), unless the ice had already been substantially damaged beforehand. Further, ice cliff breakdown would produce a large number of debris in the coastal waters - known as ice mélange - and multiple studies indicate their build-up would slow or even outright stop the instability soon after it started.

Some scientists - including the originators of the hypothesis, Robert DeConto and David Pollard - have suggested that the best way to resolve the question would be to precisely determine sea level rise during the Last Interglacial. MICI can be effectively ruled out if SLR at the time was lower than 4 m, while it is very likely if the SLR was greater than 6 m. As of 2023, the most recent analysis indicates that the Last Interglacial SLR is unlikely to have been higher than 2.7 m, as higher values in other research, such as 5.7 m, appear inconsistent with the new paleoclimate data from The Bahamas and the known history of the Greenland Ice Sheet.

Carbon cycle

Historically, ice sheets were viewed as inert components of the carbon cycle and were largely disregarded in global models. In 2010s, research had demonstrated the existence of uniquely adapted microbial communities, high rates of biogeochemical/physical weathering in ice sheets and storage and cycling of organic carbon in excess of 100 billion tonnes. There is a massive hemispheric contrast in carbon storage between the two ice sheets. While only about 0.5-27 billion tonnes of pure carbon are present underneath the Greenland ice sheet, 6000-21,000 billion tonnes are thought to be located underneath Antarctica.

For comparison, 1400–1650 billion tonnes are contained within the Arctic permafrost, while the annual anthropogenic emissions amount to around 40 billion tonnes of. ) This carbon can act as a climate change feedback if it is gradually released through meltwater, thus increasing overall carbon dioxide emissions.

In Greenland, there is one known area, at Russell Glacier, where meltwater carbon is released into the atmosphere as methane, which has a much larger global warming potential than carbon dioxide: however, it also harbours large numbers of methanotrophic bacteria, which limit those emissions.

In geologic timescales
Normally, the transitions between glacial and interglacial states are governed by Milankovitch cycles, which are patterns in insolation (the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth). These patterns are caused by the variations in shape of the Earth's orbit and its angle relative to the Sun, caused by the gravitational pull of other planets as they go through their own orbits.

For instance, during at least the last 100,000 years, portions of the ice sheet covering much of North America, the Laurentide Ice Sheet broke apart sending large flotillas of icebergs into the North Atlantic. When these icebergs melted they dropped the boulders and other continental rocks they carried, leaving layers known as ice rafted debris. These so-called Heinrich events, named after their discoverer Hartmut Heinrich, appear to have a 7,000–10,000-year periodicity, and occur during cold periods within the last interglacial.

Internal ice sheet "binge-purge" cycles may be responsible for the observed effects, where the ice builds to unstable levels, then a portion of the ice sheet collapses. External factors might also play a role in forcing ice sheets. Dansgaard–Oeschger events are abrupt warmings of the northern hemisphere occurring over the space of perhaps 40 years. While these D–O events occur directly after each Heinrich event, they also occur more frequently – around every 1500 years; from this evidence, paleoclimatologists surmise that the same forcings may drive both Heinrich and D–O events.

Hemispheric asynchrony in ice sheet behavior has been observed by linking short-term spikes of methane in Greenland ice cores and Antarctic ice cores. During Dansgaard–Oeschger events, the northern hemisphere warmed considerably, dramatically increasing the release of methane from wetlands, that were otherwise tundra during glacial times. This methane quickly distributes evenly across the globe, becoming incorporated in Antarctic and Greenland ice. With this tie, paleoclimatologists have been able to say that the ice sheets on Greenland only began to warm after the Antarctic ice sheet had been warming for several thousand years. Why this pattern occurs is still open for debate.

title: Ice sheet


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Baraka

Baraka or Barakah may refer to:

 * Berakhah or Baraka, in Judaism, a blessing usually recited during a ceremony
 * Barakah or Baraka, in Islam, the beneficent force from God that flows through the physical and spiritual spheres
 * Baraka, full ḥabbat al-barakah, a.k.a. Nigella sativa, a spice with purported health benefits

Places

 * Baraka, Democratic Republic of the Congo, a town in the eastern Congolese province of Sud-Kivu on Lake Tanganyika.
 * Baraka, Gabon, a site where American missionaries from New England established a mission in 1842 on what is now Libreville
 * Baraka School, an educational program in Kenya, featured in the film The Boys of Baraka
 * Baraka, the local nickname for Barakaldo, Spain
 * Baraka River, Eritrea and Sudan
 * Har Brakha, an Israeli settlement in the West Bank, Palestinian territories
 * Barakeh, Hama, Syria

People

 * Ajamu Baraka (born 1953), human rights activist and 2016 candidate for Vice President of the United States
 * Amiri Baraka (1934–2014), American writer
 * Ras J. Baraka (born 1970), American politician and current mayor of Newark, New Jersey
 * Al-Said Barakah (1260–1280), Mamluk Sultan
 * Barack Obama, Sr. (1934–1982), born Baraka Obama, Kenyan father of U.S. President Barack Obama
 * Baraka bint Thaʿlaba, known as Umm Ayman, female companion of Muhammad

Media

 * Baraka (film), a 1992 experimental documentary film by Ron Fricke
 * Baraka (novel), a 1983 novel by John Ralston Saul
 * Baraka (Mortal Kombat), a fictional character in the Mortal Kombat series
 * Baraka (album), a 1997 album by DKV Trio
 * Barakah (album), a 2016 album by Sami Yusuf

Other

 * Al-Barakah (ISIL administrative district), a self-proclaimed district and former province
 * Baraka (musical group), an ethno-jazz collective, from Riga, Latvia
 * Barakah nuclear power plant, in the United Arab Emirates
 * barakaši, a name the party founders of the Croatian Democratic Union gave to themselves

title: Baraka


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Marco Pirroni

Marco Francesco Andrea Pirroni (born 27 April 1959, London, England) frequently credited simply as Marco, is a British guitarist, songwriter and record producer. He has worked with Adam Ant, Sinéad O'Connor, Siouxsie and the Banshees and many others from the late 1970s to the present day.

Early years
Born to Italian parents, A mainstay of the UK punk scene, Pirroni made his first appearance on stage with Siouxsie and the Banshees in their début gig, at 100 Club Punk Festival in 1976. Sid Vicious, future bassist for the Sex Pistols, was on drums. Pirroni also formed a short-lived punk band called the Models with future fellow Ants member Terry Lee Miall and future Wolfgang Press member Mick Allen, plus singer Cliff Fox. They recorded a Peel Session and released the single (the first of Marco's career) "Freeze"/"Man of the Year" on the Step Forward label in 1977.

Adam and the Ants/Adam Ant
Pirroni was lead guitarist and co-songwriter in the second incarnation of Adam and the Ants, co-penning two UK number one singles and a further four Top Ten hits, with Ant. The two albums he co-wrote for Adam and the Ants, Kings of the Wild Frontier and Prince Charming, both made the Top 10 in the UK Albums Chart ("Kings" number 1; "Prince Charming" number 2).

When Adam and the Ants disbanded in 1982, Pirroni was retained as Adam Ant's co-writer and studio guitarist; they produced another number-one single ("Goody Two Shoes") and an album (Friend or Foe), followed by four more Top 20 hits. Ant and Pirroni won two shared Ivor Novello Awards for "Stand and Deliver".

The Wolfmen
Pirroni was a member of the Wolfmen with Chris Constantinou. They released one EP, several singles, wrote music for television advertisements and released a début album, entitled Modernity Killed Every Night. The Wolfmen released their second album, Married to the Eiffel Tower, in 2011.

Personal life
After living in London's Marylebone for several years, Pirroni relocated to north Derbyshire in 2013.

Discography
With Rema-Rema
 * Wheel in the Roses (1980)

With Adam and the Ants
 * Kings of the Wild Frontier (1980)
 * Prince Charming (1981)

With Adam Ant
 * Friend or Foe (1982)
 * Strip (1983)
 * Vive Le Rock (1985)
 * Manners & Physique (1990)
 * Persuasion (unreleased)
 * Wonderful (1995)
 * Adam Ant Is the Blueblack Hussar in Marrying the Gunner's Daughter (2013) - four tracks

With Sinéad O'Connor
 * The Lion and the Cobra (1987)
 * I Do Not Want What I Haven't Got (1990)
 * Universal Mother (1994)
 * How About I Be Me (And You Be You)? (2012)

With Spear of Destiny
 * Outland (1987)

With The Slits
 * Revenge of the Killer Slits (2006)

With The Wolfmen With Department S
 * Modernity Killed Every Night (2008)
 * Married to the Eiffel Tower (2011)
 * "Wonderful Day"
 * "Is Vic There (Slight return)"

title: Marco Pirroni


text:
1977 in LGBT rights

This is a list of notable events in the history of LGBT rights that took place in the year 1977.

Events

 * The city of Washington, D.C., adopts a human rights code banning sexual orientation discrimination in private employment. This code replaces previous legislation such as Title 34, enacted in 1973 which also granted sexual orientation protection.
 * Dade County, Florida, in the United States, enacts a Human Rights Ordinance providing that rights can not be abridged on the basis of sexuality.

February

 * 7 — The city council of Tucson, Arizona, passes an ordinance prohibiting discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment, housing and public accommodation.

March

 * 17 — Arkansas reinstates its sodomy law, two years after repealing it.

May

 * 21 — 750 gays and lesbians and supporters in Minneapolis protest the appearance of Anita Bryant who had arrived to perform at the opening of a fruit warehouse.

June

 * 7 — Save Our Children, a campaign founded by Anita Bryant, trading on fears of homosexual "recruitment" and child molestation, results in a repeal of Dade County, Florida's, Civil Rights Ordinance by an margin of 69% to 31%.
 * 16 — In Houston, Texas, a protest demonstration of 6,000 gays, lesbians and supporters marches through downtown when Anita Bryant arrives to entertain at a banquet.

July

 * 21 — In Ontario, a committee recommends that the Ontario Human Rights Code be amended to include sexual orientation.

August

 * 16 — In a New York Supreme Court case, Richards vs. US Tennis ASSN, Renee Richards, a transgender woman, is allowed to play in the tennis tournament.

September

 * 1 — The present-day Log Cabin Republicans organization is founded as the "Gay Republicans" club, a group of lesbians and gays within the United States' Republican Party.

October

 * 7 — The Advocate, an LGBT themed magazine, celebrates its 10th anniversary in Washington, D.C.
 * 14 — Minneapolis gay rights activist Thom Higgins throws a pie into the face of Anita Bryant during a news conference in Des Moines, Iowa.
 * 15 — The school board of Santa Barbara, California, votes to ban discrimination against students based on sexual orientation.

November

 * 2 — Senior Action in a Gay Environment, now known as Services & Advocacy for GLBT elders, is founded.
 * 8 — Harvey Milk becomes the first openly gay man to be elected in a major U.S. city when he is elected to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors. The man who would assassinate Milk and city mayor George Moscone less than eleven months later—Dan White—is also elected to the Board of Supervisors on this day.
 * 28 — Aspen, Colorado, passes a gay rights ordinance.

December

 * 15 — Quebec becomes the first jurisdiction (larger than a city or county) in the world to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation. The Quebec Charter of Rights and Freedoms prohibits discrimination in employment, housing, certain services and other activities in the public and private sectors.

title: 1977 in LGBT rights


text:
Chippawa, Ontario

Chippawa is a community located within the city of Niagara Falls, Ontario.

The village was founded in 1850, and became part of the City of Niagara Falls, Ontario by amalgamation in 1970. It is located on the Canadian shore of the Niagara River about 2 km upstream from Niagara Falls. It is bisected by the Welland River (also known locally as Chippawa Creek or The Crick). In historic documents, the name of the village and the river is sometimes spelled as Chippewa or Chippeway.

First Nations
While the area has undoubtedly been populated by First Nations people for many thousands of years, very few details from times before European contact are known.

The French encountered a group of people whom they called the "Neutral Indians", because they lived between the more powerful and combative Huron to the north and Iroquois to the south, but were not involved in their wars (at least in recorded time).

Eventually, however, the Neutral nation was wiped out by the Iroquois and almost nothing of their culture survives - the name by which they called themselves is unknown.

Following the extermination of the Neutrals, the area was abandoned by the Iroquois and settled by a branch of the Chippewa nation, originating the former name of the river and subsequently the name of the village. The Mississauga, a branch of the Ojibwa, were actually the tribe present when the British first colonized the area and were the very first to sign a treaty in what is now Canada with the British government, giving the British access to a one-mile strip of land on the western shore of the Niagara to replace the portage they had lost on the eastern shore after the New England colonies separated from British rule. The Ojibwe made the area one of the stopping area when migrating from the Atlantic region.

Once Niagara-On-The-Lake filled up with United Empire Loyalists the British began giving land grants to U.E.L and British veterans to settle in the late 18th century.

The name of the principal village of the Neutrals – Onghiara (located on the present-day site of Niagara on the Lake was mispronounced by the Chippewa as Nyahgeah, and again by Europeans as Niagara, making this word one of the few remnants of Neutral culture.

Earliest settlers
The first permanent settler of European descent in what is now Chippawa was Thomas Cummings. He was a United Empire Loyalist from Albany, New York who settled on the south side of the Welland River in 1783.

Later that same year, John Burch settled on the north side of the Welland River, and in 1786, he built saw- and gristmills along the Niagara River.

Fort Chippawa
A fort was built in 1791 (at the present day site of Kings Bridge park) to defend the south end of the Portage Road and the King's Bridge (discussed in the Transportation section). This was also known as Fort Welland and consisted of a log blockhouse surrounded by a stockade.

War of 1812
A plain at Usshers Creek (about 2 km south of Chippawa, and then called Streets Creek) was the site of the Battle of Chippawa on July 5, 1814, and also the site of the American camp to which they retired following the Battle of Lundy's Lane on July 25, 1814.

After the War of 1812, Chippawa also became the home of Laura Secord, remembered for carrying information to the British regarding American advances before the Battle of Beaverdams. She lived in the village until her death at the age of 93.

Navigation and the Portage road

Chippawa is the limit of navigation on the Upper Niagara River. Before the construction of the Welland Canal, all cargo and passengers had to be unloaded and carried overland to navigable waters below the falls in order to reach Lake Ontario.

Before the War of American Independence, all cargo was carried on the American side of the river. Following this, British interests required a route within their territory. A survey conducted in 1790 reserved a strip one chain wide between Chippawa and Queenston, Ontario as a public road, which would become the Portage Road.

Most of this road remains today, following its original winding route in contrast to the rectangular grid of other Niagara Falls streets.

King's Bridge, constructed about 1790, was the very first bridge over the Welland River. It was located at the mouth of the river, closer to the Niagara than today's bridge. Sketches by Lady Simcoe (wife of Lieutenant Governor John Graves Simcoe) and deputy postmaster George Heriot each show a bridge consisting of pilings driven into the river with a wooden deck.

The bridge was of great military importance as the only one crossing of the river. A survey available in the Brock University Special Collections indicates that this was a drawbridge. This survey also shows a new bridge constructed at the location of the current one.

During the first several years that the Welland Canal operated, it did not reach Lake Erie directly. All canal traffic was lowered in a lock at Port Robinson, Ontario to the Welland River, and subsequently sailed to Chippawa, reaching Lake Erie via the Niagara River. Ships entering and leaving the Niagara faced a difficult and dangerous turn into a swift current. The Welland River curved downstream into the Niagara and ships rounding this point were in danger of being swept over the falls.

The problem was resolved by construction of the Chippawa Cut in 1829. This short canal allowed ships to turn upstream into the Niagara River directly and avoid the most severe currents. This cut is depicted in the survey mentioned above.

By the mid-1830s, the Welland Canal had been extended to enter Lake Erie at Port Colborne, Ontario, but commercial navigation on the river continued for roughly another century. In 1843, over 100 steamers carried passengers and some freight on a route that followed the Niagara River from Buffalo, New York, then into the Welland River at Chippawa, joining the Welland Canal at Port Robinson, and subsequently via the Feeder Canal to Dunnville, Ontario and up the Grand River to Brantford, Ontario.

While commercial shipping no longer exists in Chippawa, pleasure boating continues and marina facilities can be found at Lyon's Creek just west of the village. Somewhat farther to the west is a relic of the days of commercial shipping – the Montrose Swing Bridge still carries a railway track over the river even though it has not opened for a ship in about 75 years.

Erie and Ontario Railway
Even with the Welland Canal providing access between the lakes in the 1830s, the portage road was still carrying a great deal of people and cargo. The canal took over 24 hours to pass through, and could not handle the largest ships of the day. It was inevitable that a railway would be built to streamline movement around Niagara Falls.

The Erie and Ontario railroad opened for traffic in 1839. It had wooden rails with iron straps laid on them and was pulled by horses. This was the first railway in the Niagara Peninsula. By 1854, steam power took over for the horses. A year later, the railway was extended to Niagara (the present day Niagara on the Lake), and in the 1860s, was extended to Fort Erie, Ontario at the source of the Niagara River. The line was now known as the Erie and Niagara. This route became the Canada Southern Railway's Niagara Division and operated into the 20th century. A short section remains in service today as an industrial spur, ending at north side of the Welland River. This is the only active railway in Chippawa today, and there is no passenger service.

The stone piers which once carried this railway over the Welland River on a swing bridge are still present.

Niagara Falls Park and River Railway
The Niagara Falls Park and River Railway was trolley line was constructed along the Niagara River between Chippawa and Queenston in 1893. This line crossed the Welland River on a bridge at Cummings Lane and proceeded about 1.5 km south to Slater's Dock (also known as Chippawa Landing), where it connected with steamboats from Buffalo. The railway carried passengers to Queenston, where connections were made with steamboats to Toronto, Ontario and other points on Lake Ontario. Moreover, it carried tourists to the falls and connected with the Niagara, St. Catharines and Toronto Railway, which provided interurban service to St. Catharines, Ontario. With the decline of boat service from Buffalo and establishment of through rail service, the line to Slater's Dock was abandoned in the early 20th century and service was cut back to the village of Chippawa.

Most of this line was combined with a parallel route on the American side and lasted until 1932 as the Niagara Gorge Railroad (also known as the Great Gorge Route, or the Niagara Belt Line). Although pamphlets and advertisements for the Great Gorge Route show service only as far as Niagara Falls, historic maps of the area show tracks leading to the north side of the Welland River until at least 1934.

Modern road access
Chippawa does not lie on any major highways. There are four main streets leading to the village, all converging at the bridge over the Welland River.

The Niagara Parkway provides access to the village from both the North and South. Main Street, which changes into Lyons Creek Road outside of the village, makes the most direct connection with a major highway - the Queen Elizabeth Way 6 km away. The last main route is the original Portage Road, linking to the business area of Niagara Falls.

Bicycle and pedestrian routes
The Niagara Heritage Trail passes along the eastern edge of Chippawa, crossing the Welland River via the control dam right at the junction with the Niagara River. This paved walking and cycling trail runs from Niagara on the Lake to Fort Erie. Furthermore, Lyon's Creek Road has paved shoulders for cyclists, and the Chippawa Parkway on the north side of the river is paved and highly suitable for cycling or walking.

Public transit
Niagara Falls Transit provides local bus service between the village and the main part of Niagara Falls. Routes 106, 112, and 206 serves the vicinity.

Business and industry
Many industries have been located either within the municipal boundaries of Chippawa, or just a short distance outside the village boundaries:

Historic industry
Shipbuilding industries were established on both banks of the river before 1840. A foundry which manufactured boilers and engines was constructed at approximately the same time. Chippawa was also home to one of the largest distilleries, along with gristmills, sawmills, tanneries, and iron, brass and tin manufacturing. Later, the Norton Company began manufacturing abrasives at Chippawa.

Present-day industry
The Norton Abrasives plant still exists, now part of the Saint-Gobain corporation. This is the largest manufacturing industry in the immediate area of Chippawa. Residents are also able to get their groceries from the local Foodland grocery store.

Hydroelectric power
Being above Niagara Falls, Chippawa is the location of water intakes to electric power plants located below the falls. The Welland River is used as an intake from the Niagara River to feed a power canal originating west of the village, leading to reservoirs on the Niagara Escarpment above Queenston. This diversion actually causes the Welland River to flow backwards from its natural direction, taking water out of the Niagara River. Reconfiguration of the mouth of the Welland River to accommodate this purpose has completely eliminated the Chippawa Cut, as well as the island it had created (known as Hog's or Hogg's Island). It also eliminated the original channel of the river, which is now part of King's Bridge park. A short distance north of the village along the Niagara Parkway can be seen two monolithic structures – gates to tunnels which also carry water to the generating stations.

Tourism
The Chippawa area is home to golf courses, parks, the historic field of the Battle of Chippawa, as well as attractive architecture and a quiet atmosphere located a very short distance from the extremely busy Niagara Falls. Marineland is also located just outside the village. While not home to the major hotels, Chippawa does have several smaller establishments, antiques shops, Chippawa House and Chippawa Town Hall

Notable people
In addition to Laura Secord, Chippawa was also home to film director James Cameron, director of Titanic and Avatar. The village commemorates this on both the street sign for Parkway Drive which is decorated to look like a film strip, and the village's welcome sign which is decorated with the words "Home of James Cameron".

title: Chippawa, Ontario


text:
Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album

The Grammy Award for Best Musical Theater Album has been awarded since 1959. The award is generally given to the album's producers, principal vocalist(s), and the composer and lyricist if they have written a new score which comprises 51% or more playing time of the album, though the number of recipients has varied over the category's tenure.

The inaugural award was presented at the 1st Grammy Awards to composer Meredith Willson for his work on his 1957 musical The Music Man. Ethel Merman and Gwen Verdon became the first female recipients the in 1960 when they tied for Gypsy and Redhead. Stephen Sondheim and Thomas Z. Shepard hold the record for most wins in the category, with six each, while Sondheim holds the record for most nominations, with eleven. Tommy Krasker holds the record for most nominations without a win, with eight. To date, two-time recipient Phillipa Soo is the only woman to win more than one award. Among shows, cast recordings from Gypsy, West Side Story, Into the Woods, and Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street have been nominated four times each respectively, with Gypsy, West Side Story, Into the Woods, and Les Misérables are the only shows to win twice. Anything Goes, Hello, Dolly!, The King and I, and My Fair Lady hold the record for most nominations without a win, with three. The current recipient of the award is Some Like It Hot, which won at the 66th Annual Grammy Awards in 2024.

Process
Over the years, the qualifications for the individual nominees has fluctuated with principal artists, composers, and producers at one point being the sole eligible nominee, to the current (as of the 66th Grammy Awards) standard which is as follows: "For albums containing greater than 51% playing time of new recordings. Award to the principal vocalist(s), and the album producer(s) of 50% or more playing time of the album. The lyricist(s) and composer(s) of 50 % or more of a score of a new recording are eligible for an Award if any previous recording of said score has not been nominated in this category."

Vocalists were first awarded in this category at the 54th Annual Grammy Awards in 2012. When an album does not feature any individual soloists and predominantly features an ensemble cast, no individual award is given to the members of the ensemble, with each member instead receiving a winners certificate. As of the 63rd Annual Grammy Awards, only a maximum of four principle vocalists can be awarded (previously unlimited), in addition to the producer/s and lyricists/composers.

Years reflect the year in which the Grammy Awards were handed out, for music released in the previous year.

Name changes
This award has had several minor name changes:

 * In 1959 the award was known as Best Original Cast Album (Broadway or TV)
 * In 1960 it was awarded as Best Broadway Show Album
 * In 1961 it was awarded as Best Show Album (Original Cast)
 * From 1962 to 1963 it was awarded as Best Original Cast Show Album
 * From 1964 to 1973 it was awarded as Best Score From an Original Cast Show Album
 * From 1974 to 1975 it was awarded as Best Score From the Original Cast Show Album
 * From 1976 to 1986 it was awarded as Best Cast Show Album
 * From 1987 to 1991 it was awarded as Best Musical Cast Show Album
 * From 1992 to 2011 it was awarded as Best Musical Show Album
 * From 2012 it has been known as Best Musical Theater Album.

Shows with multiple wins
2 wins:
 * Gypsy
 * Les Misérables
 * West Side Story
 * Into the Woods

Shows with multiple nominations
4 nominations
 * Gypsy
 * West Side Story
 * Into the Woods
 * Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street

3 nominations:

 * Anything Goes
 * Chicago
 * Follies
 * Guys and Dolls
 * Hair
 * Hello, Dolly!
 * The King and I
 * Les Misérables
 * A Little Night Music
 * The Music Man
 * My Fair Lady

2 nominations:

 * Ain't Misbehavin'
 * Assassins
 * Carousel
 * Cabaret
 * Cats
 * A Chorus Line
 * Company
 * Crazy for You
 * The Color Purple
 * Fiddler on the Roof
 * Flower Drum Song
 * A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum
 * Hedwig and the Angry Inch
 * How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying
 * Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat
 * Kiss of the Spider Woman
 * Kiss Me, Kate
 * Kinky Boots
 * Little Shop of Horrors
 * Man of La Mancha
 * Me and My Girl
 * Nine
 * Oklahoma!
 * Pacific Overtures
 * Promises, Promises
 * Ragtime
 * South Pacific
 * Sweet Charity
 * You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown
 * Zorba

Individuals with multiple wins
6 wins:
 * Thomas Z. Shepard
 * Stephen Sondheim

5 wins:
 * Frank Filipetti
 * Jay David Saks

3 wins:
 * Alex Lacamoire
 * Charles Strouse

2 wins:

 * David Caddick
 * Pete Ganbarg
 * Pete Karam
 * Goddard Lieberson
 * Lin-Manuel Miranda
 * Stephen Oremus
 * Phil Ramone
 * Tim Rice
 * Richard Rodgers
 * Stephen Schwartz
 * Marc Shaiman
 * Phillipa Soo
 * Bill Sherman
 * Andrew Lloyd Webber
 * Todd Whitelock
 * Scott Wittman

Individuals with multiple nominations
11 nominations
 * Stephen Sondheim

10 nominations
 * Jay David Saks

8 nominations
 * Frank Filipetti
 * Tommy Krasker

7 nominations
 * David Lai
 * Thomas Z. Shepard

6 nominations
 * Cy Coleman

5 nominations
 * Hugh Fordin
 * Jerry Bock
 * Richard Rodgers
 * Sheldon Harnick
 * Stephen Schwartz
 * Steven Epstein

4 nominations

 * Adolph Green
 * Alex Lacamoire
 * Betty Comden
 * Fred Ebb
 * Jeanine Tesori
 * John Kander
 * Jule Styne
 * Phil Ramone
 * Robert Sher
 * Ted Sperling
 * Van Dean

3 nominations

 * Alan Jay Lerner
 * Alan Menken
 * Andrew Lloyd Webber
 * Bob Merrill
 * Charles Strouse
 * Chris Montan
 * Danny Burstein
 * David Caddick
 * Jerry Herman
 * Jessie Mueller
 * Joel Moss
 * Kurt Deutsch
 * Michael Croiter
 * Micki Grant
 * Philip Chaffin
 * Sara Bareilles
 * Stephen Flaherty
 * Stephen Oremus

2 nominations

 * Alex Newell
 * Ben Platt
 * Bill Sherman
 * Billy Jay Stein
 * Brandon Victor Dixon
 * Brian d'Arcy James
 * Burt Bacharach
 * Carrie Hope Fletcher
 * Christian Borle
 * Conrad Ricamora
 * Cyndi Lauper
 * David Yazbek
 * Derik Lee
 * Dorothy Fields
 * Elliot Scheiner
 * Galt MacDermot
 * Gary Geld
 * Goddard Lieberson
 * Harvey Schmidt
 * Jason Robert Brown
 * Jeffrey Lesser
 * Jimmy Van Heusen
 * John Cariani
 * Jonathan Groff
 * Kelli O'Hara
 * Lawrence Manchester
 * Lee Adams
 * Lin-Manuel Miranda
 * Lynn Ahrens
 * Marc Shaiman
 * Martin Charnin
 * Meredith Willson
 * Michael Kosarin
 * Mike Berniker
 * Neal Avron
 * Norm Lewis
 * Pete Ganbarg
 * Pete Karam
 * Phillipa Soo
 * Peter Udell
 * Rob Fisher
 * Sammy Cahn
 * Sammy James, Jr
 * Scott Wittman
 * Stephen Trask
 * Steven Sater
 * Tim Rice
 * Todd Whitelock
 * Tom Jones
 * William Wittman


text:
User:Seth Ilys/Triangle-Area topics

Higher Education

 * Duke University
 * Durham County Community College
 * Meredith College
 * North Carolina Central University
 * North Carolina State Unviersity
 * Peace College
 * Shaw University
 * St. Augustine's College
 * St. Mary's College
 * Strayer University
 * University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
 * Wake County Community College

Primary/Secondary Education

 * see List of schools in North Carolina

 * Wake County Public School System

Physical

 * Jordan Lake
 * Falls Lake

Political

 * Chatham County, North Carolina
 * Bynum, North Carolina
 * Fearrington, North Carolina
 * Pittsboro, North Carolina
 * Durham County, North Carolina
 * Durham, North Carolina
 * Orange County, North Carolina
 * Carrboro, North Carolina
 * Chapel Hill, North Carolina
 * Hillsborough, North Carolina
 * Wake County, North Carolina
 * Apex, North Carolina
 * Cary, North Carolina
 * Garner, North Carolina
 * Green Level, North Carolina (community)
 * Knightdale, North Carolina
 * Holly Springs, North Carolina
 * Morrisville, North Carolina
 * Raleigh, North Carolina
 * Rolesville, North Carolina
 * Swift Creek, North Carolina
 * Wake Forest, North Carolina
 * Wendell, North Carolina
 * Zebulon, North Carolina

Television

 * WIWW-TV, channel 26, religious, Apex
 * WKFT-TV, channel 40, independent, Raleigh (renamed)
 * WLFL-TV, channel 22, WB affiliate, Raleigh
 * WNCN-TV, channel 17, NBC affiliate, Raleigh
 * WUNC-TV, channel 4, PBS affiliate, Pittsboro
 * WRAL-TV, channel 5, CBS affiliate, Raleigh
 * WRAZ-TV, channel 50, FOX affiliate, Durham
 * WRDC-TV, channel 28, UPN affiliate, Raleigh
 * WRPX-TV, channel 47, PAX affiliate, Raleigh
 * WTVD-TV, channel 11, ABC affiliate, Durham

Radio

 * WETC-AM, 540

 * WBBB-FM, Curtis Media Group
 * WCPE-FM, 89.7, independent
 * WDCG-FM, Clear Channel
 * WFXC-FM, Radio One
 * WKNC-FM, 88.1, independent
 * WKXU-FM, Curtis Media Group
 * WNCU-FM, 90.7, independent
 * WNNL-FM, Radio One
 * WQDR-FM, Curtis Media Group
 * WQOK-FM, Radio One
 * WRAL-FM, Capitol Broadcasting
 * WRBZ-FM, independent
 * WRDU-FM, Clear Channel
 * WRSM-FM, Clear Channel
 * WSHA-FM, 88.9, independent
 * WTRG-FM, Clear Channel
 * WUNC-FM, 91.6, NPR
 * WYMY-FM, Curtis Media Group
 * WWMY-FM, Curtis Media Group
 * WXDU-FM, 88.7, independent
 * WXYC-FM, 89.3, independent

Newspapers

 * Chapel Hill News
 * Durham Herald Sun
 * The Independent
 * Raleigh News and Observer

Trails/Footpaths

 * American Tobacco Trail
 * Mountains-to-Sea Trail

Highways

 * Interstate 40
 * Interstate 440
 * Interstate 540
 * Interstate 85

title: User:Seth Ilys/Triangle-Area topics


text:
Avro Lincoln

The Avro Type 694 Lincoln is a British four-engined heavy bomber, which first flew on 9 June 1944. Developed from the Avro Lancaster, the first Lincoln variants were initially known as the Lancaster IV and V; these were renamed Lincoln I and II. It was the 2nd last piston-engined bomber operated by the Royal Air Force (RAF).

The Lincoln attained operational status in August 1945. It had been initially assigned to units of the Tiger Force, a Commonwealth heavy bomber force which had been intended to play a role in the Japan campaign in the closing stages of the Second World War, but the war ended before the Lincoln could participate. Production of the type proceeded and the type was adopted in quantity, complementing and progressively replacing the Lancaster in RAF service during the late 1940s.

The Lincoln was deployed on operations during the 1950s. RAF squadrons equipped with the type fought against guerrilla fighters during the Mau Mau Uprising in Kenya; the RAF and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) also operated the Lincoln during the Malayan Emergency. The type also saw significant peacetime service with the RAF, RAAF and the Argentine Air Force. Lincolns were also operated in civil aviation, including use as aerial test beds for aero-engine research.

In RAF service, the Lincoln was replaced by a new generation of bombers using jet propulsion. In 1967, the last Lincoln bombers in Argentinian service were retired.

Origins
The Avro Lincoln originated from a design produced by Roy Chadwick as a development of the earlier Lancaster bomber which had been produced with the purpose of conforming with the requirements of the Specification B.14/43. Known initially as the Lancaster IV and Lancaster V, the envisioned aircraft, while bearing considerable similarity to the Lancaster, featured numerous improvements, such as the adoption of stronger, longer span, higher aspect ratio (10.30 compared with 8.02) wings along with two-stage supercharged Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 engines fitted within Universal Power Plant (UPP) installations. The new bomber also possessed an enlarged fuselage that accommodated increased fuel and bomb loads and allowed up to 11 tons of various armaments and equipment fittings including the Grand Slam bomb to be carried. It had a higher operational ceiling and longer range than its Lancaster predecessor, being capable of a maximum altitude of 35,000 ft and a maximum range of 4,450 mi.

The prototype Lancaster IV, later renamed the Lincoln I, was assembled by Avro's experimental flight department at Manchester's Ringway Airport. According to aviation author Kev Delve, development of the Lincoln had proceeded relatively smoothly. On 9 June 1944, the prototype conducted its maiden flight from Ringway Airport. Testing of the prototype quickly proved it to have favourable flight characteristics. In February 1945, the first production Lincoln was completed.

The type was mainly produced at Avro's Woodford, Cheshire and Chadderton Lancashire factories; additional aircraft were also constructed by Armstrong Whitworth at their Coventry facilities. Separate production lines were also established in Canada and Australia, although, as a consequence of the end of the war, production in Canada was halted after only a single aircraft had been constructed. Production in Australia went ahead: the Lincolns that were manufactured there were operated by the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF).

During early 1945, the British Government immediately set about restoring the country to a peacetime stance, which involved the demobilisation of the military and, more specifically, the disbanding of many squadrons of the Royal Air Force (RAF) as a part of cost-saving measures. A new emphasis was soon placed on 'quality over quantity' during the rationalisation process, seeking to employ fewer but more capable aircraft to perform their envisioned roles; while there was no longer any urgency in bringing new types of aircraft into service, limited procurement of equipment that fell within this ethos did proceed. In accordance with this aim, the British Air Ministry proceeded to formulate and release Specification B.14/43, which sought an improved piston-engined heavy bomber to replace the wartime four-engine bombers, the Short Stirling, the Handley Page Halifax, and the Avro Lancaster.

Further development
One Lincoln B Mk XV pattern aircraft was completed in Canada by Victory Aircraft; a follow-up order for a total of six RCAF variants was cancelled shortly following the end of hostilities. Along with two additional Lincoln (Mk I and Mk II) aircraft on loan from the RAF, the type was briefly evaluated postwar by the RCAF. The Lancaster V/Lincoln II differed mainly in that it was fitted with Merlin 68A engines.

Prior to the Lincoln being developed, the Australian government had already formulated plans for its Department of Aircraft Production (DAP), later known as the Government Aircraft Factory (GAF), to construct the earlier Lancaster Mk III. In its place, it was decided to proceed with manufacturing a variant of the Lincoln I to replace the Consolidated Liberators, which was re-designated the Lincoln Mk 30. This model was manufactured between 1946 and 1949; it has the distinction of being the largest aircraft ever constructed in Australia. Orders for a total of 85 Mk 30 Lincolns were placed by the RAAF, although only 73 were ever produced.

The first five Australian examples (A73–1 to A73–5), were assembled at Fishermans Bend using a large proportion of imported British-made components. On 17 March 1946, A73-1 conducted its début flight; the first entirely Australian-built Lincoln, A73-6, was formally delivered in November 1946. The Mk 30 initially featured four Merlin 85 engines, this arrangement was later changed to a combination of two outboard Merlin 66s and two inboard Merlin 85s. A further improved later version, designated Lincoln Mk 30A, featured a total of four Merlin 102s.

During the 1950s, the RAAF heavily modified some of their Mk 30 aircraft to perform anti-submarine warfare (ASW) missions, re-designating them Lincoln GR.Mk 31. These examples had a 6 ft longer nose to house acoustic submarine detection gear and its operators, larger fuel tanks to provide the aircraft with a 13-hour flight endurance and a modified bomb bay to accommodate torpedoes. According to pilot feedback, the Lincoln Mk 31 was particularly difficult to land at night, as the bomber had a tailwheel undercarriage and the long nose obstructed the pilot's view of the runway. In 1952, 18 aircraft were rebuilt to this standard, and were reallocated new serial numbers accordingly. Ten were subsequently upgraded to the MR.Mk 31 standard, which included the adoption of an updated radar.

Further aircraft were also derived from the Lincoln. A dedicated maritime patrol aircraft, designated the Avro Shackleton, was developed for the RAF and the South African Air Force (SAAF). Additionally, Avro decided to develop a commercial airliner, known as the Tudor, which harnessed elements of the Lincoln, such as its wings, in combination with various new elements, such as the adoption of a pressurised fuselage, to perform passenger operations.

Royal Air Force
During 1945, the RAF received its first Lincoln, which was delivered to No. 57 Squadron based at RAF East Kirkby, Lincolnshire. In August 1945, No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron began to re-equip with the Lincoln at RAF Spilsby, Lincolnshire. However, No. 75 (NZ) Sqn had received just three aircraft prior to VJ Day, and was disbanded quickly thereafter.

During the postwar climate, the Lincoln quickly equipped the bomber squadrons of the RAF. Nearly 600 Lincolns were constructed to equip a total of 29 RAF squadrons, the majority of which were based in the United Kingdom. They were supplemented and partially replaced by 88 Boeing Washingtons, on loan from the USAF, which had longer range and could reach targets inside the Iron Curtain. Small numbers remained in use with Nos 7, 83 and 97 Squadrons until the end of 1955, at which point the type was phased out, having been replaced by the first of the V bombers.

During the 1950s, RAF Lincolns participated in operations in Kenya against Mau-Mau insurgents. During this action, they were operated from Eastleigh. The Lincoln was also deployed to Malaya during the Malayan Emergency, where it was used against insurgents aligned to the Malayan Communist Party. In Malayan theatre, RAF Lincolns were operated from Changi Air Base and Tengah Air Base. In excess of 3,000 sorties were flown during their $7 1/2$-year deployment, during which half a million pounds of bombs dropped, 85 per cent of the total bomb tonnage dropped during the Malayan emergency.

On 12 March 1953, an RAF Lincoln (RF531 "C") of Central Gunnery School was shot down 20 mi (32 km) NE of Lüneburg, Germany by several Soviet MiG-15s as it flew to Berlin on a radar reconnaissance flight, killing the seven crew members.

In November 1955, four Lincolns of No. 7 Squadron RAF were detached for duties in British territories in the Middle East. In Bahrain, they carried out border patrols of the then Trucial States. When 7 Sqn was disbanded in December 1955, the four detached crews and aircraft became No. 1426 Flight RAF, officially a photographic reconnaissance unit. It was later sent to Aden, carrying out patrols in the lead-up to the Aden Emergency.

As the RAF Lincolns became unserviceable, primarily due to progressive wear and tear, they were replaced by a variety of jet-powered aircraft. The Lincolns of Bomber Command were phased out from the mid-1950s and had been completely replaced by jet bombers by 1963. The last Lincolns in RAF service were five operated by No. 151 Squadron, Signals Command, at RAF Watton, Norfolk, which were retired on 12 March 1963.

Royal Australian Air Force
From late 1946, Australian-built Lincolns were phased into No. 82 Wing, based at RAAF Base Amberley, Ipswich, Queensland. The type quickly replaced the Liberator bombers that had been operated by 12, 21 and 23 Squadrons. In February 1948, these units were renumbered 1, 2 and 6 Squadrons respectively; a fourth RAAF Lincoln squadron, No. 10 was formed on 17 March 1949 at RAAF Townsville as a reconnaissance unit.

During the 1950s, RAAF Lincolns participated in combat operations in Malaya, operating alongside RAF examples. The RAAF based the B.Mk 30s of No.1 Squadron at Tengah, for the duration of operations in Malaya.

These Lincolns served with 10 Squadron RAAF at RAAF Base Townsville, Garbutt, Queensland; the discovery of corrosion in the wing spars led to the type's premature retirement in 1961. The Lincoln MR.Mk 31 was the final variant to see service in Australia.

Argentine Air Force
From 1947, the Lincoln bomber served with the Fuerza Aerea Argentina; Argentina had procured a total of 30 aircraft, together with a batch of 15 secondhand Lancasters. The adoption of the Lincoln effectively gave Argentina the most powerful bombing force in South America. Eighteen of these Lincolns were newly built, along with twelve ex-RAF aircraft. In 1947, the type entered service with I Grupo de Bombardeo of V Brigada Aérea. By the beginning of 1965, eleven of these remained in operational use, the majority of these were retired during the next year. In 1967, the final examples of the Lincoln were retired.

The Argentine aircraft were used in bombing missions against domestic rebels. Lincolns were deployed during an attempted military coup conducted in September 1951, the type was also used by both the government and rebel forces during the 1955 Revolución Libertadora coup which resulted in Argentinian President Juan Perón being deposed.

Argentine Lincolns were also used to conduct supply airdrops in support of Argentine operations in the Antarctic region. In 1948, one of the bombers was returned to Avro for modification at RAF Langar in Nottinghamshire to allow it to operate these Antarctic support flights; the changes included the addition of Lancastrian nose and tail cones, additional fuel tanks, and removal of armament; this led to the aircraft becoming the first Avro Lincolnian. Modified as such, the aircraft received a civilian registration and was named Cruz del Sur; it undertook its first aerial supply flight to the Antarctic San Martín Base in December 1951.

Use in aero-engine research

Lincolns were frequently employed as testbeds in new jet engine development. RF403, RE339/G and SX972 flew with a pair of Armstrong Siddeley Python turboprops outboard in place of the Merlins, and was used for the ballistic casing drop-test programme for the Blue Danube atomic weapon. SX972 was further modified to fly with a pair of Bristol Proteus turboprops. RA716/G had a similarly placed pair of Bristol Theseus turboprops and later also flew with Rolls-Royce Avon turbojets replacing the pair of turboprops. Lincoln Test Bed RF530 kept its Merlins but had a Napier Naiad turboprop in the nose. It later flew, bearing the civilian "Class B" test registration G-37-1, with a similarly placed Rolls-Royce Tyne which it displayed at the 1956 Society of British Aircraft Constructors (SBAC) show, making a low level flypast on just the nose Tyne, the four Merlins being shut down and propellers feathered. SX973 had a Napier Nomad diesel turbo-compound installed in a similar nose-mounted installation. RA643 flew with a Bristol Phoebus turbojet in the bomb bay, and SX971 had an afterburning Rolls-Royce Derwent mounted ventrally.

Commercial service
A pair of Lincoln IIs were operated by D. Napier & Son Ltd. for icing research from 1948 to 1962. A transport conversion of the Lincoln II, using the streamlined nose and tail cones of the Lancastrian and a ventral cargo pannier, was known as the Avro 695 Lincolnian.

One Lincoln Freighter Mk.2 G-ALPF, former RAF RE290, converted by Airflight Ltd. was used on the Berlin Air Lift by Surrey Flying Services Ltd.

Four Lincolnian conversions by Field Aircraft Services for use as meat haulers in Paraguay were not delivered and subsequently scrapped.

Variants

 * Avro Type 694
 * Prototypes to Air Ministry Specification 14/43, three-built

 * Lincoln I
 * Long-range bomber version for the RAF. Powered by four 1,750 hp (1,305 kW) Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 inline piston engines.

 * Lincoln II
 * Long-range bomber version for the RAF. Powered by four Rolls-Royce Merlin 66, 68A and 300 inline piston engines. Built by Avro, Armstrong-Whitworth and Vickers-Metropolitan.

 * Lincoln III
 * The Lincoln III was intended to be a maritime reconnaissance, anti-submarine warfare aircraft. The aircraft later became the Avro Shackleton.

 * Lincoln IV
 * Lincoln II converted to Merlin 85 power.

 * Lincoln U.5
 * Lincoln II converted to drone aircraft, only two aircraft modified.

 * Lincoln Mk 15 (B Mk XV)
 * This designation was given to one aircraft, built by Victory Aircraft in Canada.

 * Lincoln Mk 30
 * Long-range bomber version for the RAAF.

 * Lincoln Mk 30A
 * Long-range bomber version for the RAAF, fitted with a longer nose and Australian manufactured Merlin 102s.

 * Lincoln Mk 31 (GR 31)
 * General reconnaissance version of Mk.30 for the RAAF, fitted with a longer nose. Four Rolls-Royce Merlin 85 or 1,650 h.p. Merlin 102 powerplants.

 * Lincoln MR 31
 * Anti-submarine warfare/maritime reconnaissance version of Mk 31 for the RAAF.

 * Avro 695 Lincolnian
 * Transport derivative similar to the Avro Lancastrian

 * Lincoln ASR.3
 * Initial designation of the Avro Shackleton, which was based on the Lincoln.

Operators

 * Argentine Air Force
 * I Grupo de Bombardeo of V Brigada Aerea.
 * Fuerza Aerea de Tareas Antarticas (FATA)
 * Royal Australian Air Force – 54 Avro Lincolns were in service with the RAAF from 1946 to 1961.
 * No. 1 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 2 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 6 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 10 Squadron RAAF
 * No. 12 Squadron RAAF (redesignated No. 1 Squadron in 1948)
 * Heavy Bomber Crew Conversion Unit RAAF
 * Lincoln Conversion Flight RAAF
 * Heavy Bomber Crew Conversion Unit RAAF
 * Lincoln Conversion Flight RAAF

 * 🇨🇦 Canada
 * Royal Canadian Air Force
 * Three Avro Lincolns were in service with the RCAF from 1946 to 1948.

 * Royal Air Force
 * No. 7 Squadron RAF 1949–55 at RAF Upwood.
 * No. 9 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Binbrook, then converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 12 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Binbrook and RAF Hemswell, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 15 Squadron RAF 1947–50 at RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 * No. 35 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 * No. 44 Squadron RAF 1945–51 at RAF Mildenhall and RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 * No. 49 Squadron RAF 1949–55 at RAF Upwood, RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering.
 * No. 50 Squadron RAF 1949–51 at RAF Waddington.
 * No. 57 Squadron RAF 1945–51 at RAF West Kirby, RAF Elsham Wolds, RAF Scampton, RAF Lindholme and RAF Waddington, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 * No. 58 Squadron RAF 1951 at RAF Benson and RAF Wyton
 * No. 61 Squadron RAF 1946–54 at RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 75 (New Zealand) Squadron RAF 1945 at RAF Spilsby.
 * No. 83 Squadron RAF 1945–55 at RAF Coningsby and RAF Hemswell.
 * No. 90 Squadron RAF 1947–50 at RAF Wyton, converted to the Boeing Washington.
 * No. 97 Squadron RAF 1946–55 at RAF Coningsby and RAF Hemswell.
 * No. 100 Squadron RAF 1946–54 at RAF Lindholme, RAF Hemswell, RAF Waddington and RAF Wittering, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 101 Squadron RAF 1946–51 at RAF Binbrook, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 115 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 * No. 116 Squadron RAF 1952–54 at RAF Watton
 * No. 138 Squadron RAF 1947–60 at RAF Wyton and RAF Scampton.
 * No. 148 Squadron RAF 1950–55 at RAF Upwood.
 * No. 149 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 * No. 151 Squadron RAF 1962–63 at RAF Watton
 * No. 192 Squadron RAF 1951–53 at RAF Watton
 * No. 199 Squadron RAF 1951–57 at RAF Watton and RAF Hemswell, converted to the Vickers Valiant
 * No. 207 Squadron RAF 1949–50 at RAF Mildenhall.
 * No. 214 Squadron RAF 1950–54 at RAF Upwood.
 * No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF 1949–1953 at RAF Lindholme and RAF Upwood, became the Bomber Command Bombing School
 * No. 527 Squadron RAF 1952–57 at RAF Watton
 * No. 617 Squadron RAF 1946–52 at RAF Watton, converted to the English Electric Canberra.
 * No. 1321 Flight RAF 1954–58 at RAF Hemswell
 * No. 1426 Flight RAF 1956–57 at RAF Khormaksar, Pakistan
 * No. 1689 Flight RAF 1951–52 at RAF Aston Down
 * Bomb Ballistic Unit 1947–48 at RAF Woodbridge
 * Bomber Command Bombing School (BCBS) 1952–1960 at RAF Scampton and RAF Lindholme, converted to the Handley Page Hastings
 * Central Navigation and Control School 1951–55 at RAF Shawbury
 * Coastal Command Gunnery School 1955 at RAF Leconfield
 * Empire Air Navigation School 1947–48 at RAF Shawbury
 * Empire Air Navigation School 1946–50 at RAF Manby
 * Empire Central Flying School 1945–46 at RAF Hullavington
 * Empire Radio School 1947–50 at RAF Debden
 * Radar Research Flight 1951–57 at RAF Wyton
 * Flight Refuelling Ltd (FRL) – used some converted as tankers for flight refuelling
 * Empire Test Pilots School
 * Empire Test Pilots School

Aircraft on display

 * Argentina
 * Lincoln II B-004 – on display as B-010 at the National Museum of Aeronautics, Buenos Aires.
 * Lincoln II B-016 – a gate guardian at the Villa Reynolds airbase, San Luis Province.
 * Australia
 * Lincoln II RF342 is in storage for future restoration at the Australian National Aviation Museum, Melbourne.
 * The nose section of Australian-made Lincoln B.30 A73-27 is at the Camden Museum of Aviation at Narellan, New South Wales.
 * United Kingdom
 * Lincoln II RF398 On display at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford.

title: Avro Lincoln


text:
Vale Tudo

Vale Tudo or vale-tudo (Everything Goes/Everything Allowed), also known as No Holds Barred (NHB) in the United States, is an unarmed, full-contact combat sport with relatively few rules. It became popular in Brazil during the 20th century and would eventually evolve into modern mixed martial arts (MMA). For years, "Vale Tudo" was used as a synonym for MMA in Brazil, but the term fell into disuse due to the emergence of stricter rules and the influence of the media to have a more "civilized" name. It is now used to refer to an early, more rules-free stage of the modern sport.

Vale Tudo initially started as an informal ruleset for fighters from different martial arts to fight each other. The Gracie family was known to organize their famous "Gracie Challenge", where they would fight other martial artists in Vale Tudo bouts to prove the efficiency and superiority of their own Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. Many fighters eventually started to train specifically for Vale Tudo events, mixing striking and grappling, eventually advertising "Vale Tudo" as its own standalone style. For example, Marco Ruas referred to his hybrid style of Luta Livre and Muay Thai striking simply as "Vale Tudo".

1920s–1980s
Fighting sideshows called vale tudo became popular in Brazilian circuses during the 1920s. Examples of such bouts were described in the Japanese-American Courier on October 4, 1928:

"One report from Brasil declares that Jiu Jitsu is truly an art and that in an interesting exhibition in the side tent to the big circus a Bahian of monstrous dimensions met his waterloo at the hands of a diminutive Japanese wrestler. The man was an expert at Capoeira, an old South American style of fighting, but after putting the Japanese on his back and trying to kick his head ... the little oriental by the use of a Jiu Jitsu hold threw the Bahian and after a short struggle he was found sitting on the silent frame of the massive opponent."

However, this circus term did not enter popular use until 1959–1960, when it was used to describe the style-versus-style bouts featured in a Rio television show called Heróis do Ringue ("Heroes of the Ring"). The matchmakers and hosts of the show included members of the Gracie family, including Carlson Gracie and Carley Gracie. The participants were all legitimate practitioners of their styles. The Gracie family, which had origins in the circus business, devised the "Gracie Challenge", where they would invite or be challenged by opponents from other martial arts to a Vale Tudo match to prove the effectiveness of their Gracie Jiu-Jitsu. The Gracies would hold their challenges behind closed doors at their gyms, but in some cases they realised public events too.

One night during the show, João Alberto Barreto (later a referee for UFC 1) was competing against a man trained in Luta Livre. Barreto caught his opponent in an armbar and the man refused to submit. Barreto broke the man's arm. Consequently, the show was canceled and soon replaced by a professional wrestling show called Telecatch.

From 1960 onwards, Vale Tudo remained mostly an underground subculture, with most fights taking place in martial arts dojos or small gymnasiums. The Vale Tudo subculture was based in Rio de Janeiro, but many fights took place in the northern region, the southern region and the Bahia state, where Capoeira is prevalent. The scene in Rio de Janeiro focused mainly on the intense rivalry between Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and Luta Livre. Fights in the other regions featured more diverse martial arts competing in the events. In 1980 and 1984 Rickson Gracie fought two events against Casimiro de Nascimento Martins ("Rei Zulu"), father of Zuluzinho. Both events were proceeded with public interest and they filled the Maracanãzinho stadium in Rio de Janeiro. They brought public mediatic attention back to Vale Tudo, which had been dormant since the 1960s. This was made possible by Robson Gracie's ascension into the Presidency of the Sports Superintendence of the State of Rio de Janeiro in 1980, appointed by Leonel Brizola, whom Robson had a friendship as a bodyguard. In 1984 at the Maracanãzinho it was held the Noite das Artes Marciais ("Night of the Martial Arts") also known as Jiu-jitsu vs Artes Marciais ("Jiu-Jitsu vs Martial Arts"), fought by representatives of BJJ against representatives of Muay Thai, Kung Fu, Kickboxing and Luta Livre. Future UFC 7 champion Marco Ruas participated, with a draw against BJJ representative Fernando Pinduka. There was also a match between Rei Zulu versus Kickboxing world champion, and future promoter of the International Vale Tudo Championship and manager of multiple Brazilians in MMA and K-1, Sérgio Batarelli. And in 1991 the most famous event happened: Desafio - Jiu Jitsu vs Luta Livre between representatives of both martial arts. The event was organized after BJJ practitioners almost got into a brawl with Luta Livre fighters, after they invaded a BJJ tournament in order to fight Wallid Ismail, as he had issued an insult and a challenge at a local newspaper against Luta Livre. The Luta Livre fighters were convinced to stand down and instead fight in a public challenge. Robson Gracie, organizer of the event, convinced TV Globo, Brazil's largest network, to broadcast the event live under the assumption it was a pure grappling event, the rules were later changed to Vale Tudo but Globo kept the program. The actual event would see 3 matches, all with victories by Jiu-Jitsu representatives. August 29, 1993—a few months before the first UFC event—also saw the event Capoeira vs Chute Boxe in Curitiba, fought between capoeiristas against Thai boxers from the Chute Boxe Academy. It was the introduction of several future MMA fighters such as Rafael Cordeiro, Jose 'Pelé' Landi-Jons and Nilson de Castro, and was the first Vale Tudo/MMA event in Curitiba, a future MMA center.

1993–2000s
In the 1970s, Rorion Gracie of the famous Gracie family emigrated to the United States and introduced Vale Tudo to a new market when he, together with American entrepreneur Art Davie, helped found the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC) in 1993. The event was advertised as a competition where fighters would each represent different martial arts in a single-elimination tournament without weight classes and no rules—although there were three rules: no biting, eye-gouging or fish-hooking. To pitch the event for TV executives, Gracie and Davie used the footage of the Gracie Challenges and Vale Tudo events in Brazil where the family had participated. The first event was named The Ultimate Fighting Championship (later retroactively renamed to UFC 1). Rorion's younger brother, Royce Gracie represented Gracie Jiu-Jitsu and won the event after submitting three opponents in succession. The event was a success and attracted some attention from the public and the media, and more editions were realized. The UFC also pioneered the "promotion" model for Vale Tudo/Mixed Martial arts, instead of promoters arranging one-off events like before.

Inspired by the format of the UFC, many new promotions of Vale Tudo were created. Some of the noteworthy promotions of this time in Brazil include Universal Vale Tudo Fighting, Brazilian Vale Tudo Fighting, Brazil Open, Super Challenge and Mo Team League. Besides the UFC, the United States also saw the introduction of Vale Tudo promotions similar to the UFC, such as the Battlecade Extreme Fighting and World Combat Championship in 1995. Vale Tudo would receive the name No Holds Barred (NHB) in the United States.

In Japan, former professional wrestler Satoru Sayama had created in 1985 a hybrid martial arts organization named Shooto, which featured striking with all limbs, takedowns, groundfighting and submissions. Impressed by the UFC, in 1994 he introduced Vale Tudo to Japan by organizing the Vale Tudo Japan tournament, which was more rules-free compared to previous Shooto rules. Rickson Gracie won the 1994 and 1995 editions of the tournament, making him famous in Japan. In 1997 PRIDE Fighting Championships was founded in order to match Rickson Gracie with popular Japanese shoot-style professional wrestler Nobuhiko Takada. The rules of PRIDE were modelled after the ones from Vale Tudo Japan with some modifications. The first event of the organization had an attendance of 47,000 fans and attracted the attention of Japanese mass media and soon PRIDE became one of the largest and most popular combat sports organization in the world, and it helped to popularize MMA.

However, in the United States there was a backlash against the violent nature of the nascent sport. In 1996, Senator John McCain saw a tape of the first UFC events and immediately found it abhorrent. McCain himself led a campaign to ban the UFC, calling it "human cockfighting", thirty-six states followed his campaign, and the event was blacklisted from television. In response, the UFC started to implement more restrictive rules, weight categories and judges, eventually evolving into the Unified Rules of Mixed Martial Arts. The name "Mixed Martial Arts" was also devised at this time as they felt the term NHB was detrimental to the public image of the sport and better represented the new evolution of the sport after the introduction of the new rules. In Brazil, Vale Tudo eventually met similar obstacles to those faced in the US. In 1997 there was the creation of a major event named "Pentagon Combat", with a pentagonal cage similar to the UFC's Octagon, counted with veterans Oleg Taktarov and Murilo Bustamante, and sponsored by Prince Tahnoun bin Zayed Al Nahyan, later known for his creation of the ADCC and investment in BJJ. The main event continued the Luta Livre-Jiu-Jitsu rivalry by matching LL representative Eugenio Tadeu and BJJ representative Renzo Gracie, both who also had a very personal rivalry. The fight went a back-and-forth between both contestants until members of the audience approached the cage and started to shout insults and interfere in the bout by attacking the contestants, Gracie fought back one of his attackers and soon the confusion soon escalated into a full riot, as people threw chairs into the ring, supporters of both fighters brawled, warning shots were allegedly fired by security and the lights were turned off by the promoters to control the fight. The event was broadcast live on national television by Rede Globo's SporTV. The confusion resulted in the state of Rio de Janeiro banning Vale Tudo events for almost 10 years. Footage of the brawl was used by CNN in a special report order to condemn the sport in the United States. As the UFC and similar promotions started to receive more rules. The premier organizations of the late 1990s became the World Vale Tudo Championship (WVC) and the International Vale Tudo Championship (IVC). The WVC was organized in 1996 by Frederico Lapenda and Sérgio Batarelli, the due promoted together four events, including Brazil's first Vale Tudo/MMA pay-per-view, but soon a dispute between the two led to Batarelli to leave and create the IVC. The two promotions featured prominently throughout the 1990s as they were also televised on Brazilian TV and pay-per-view. The WVC and IVC were based in the Brazilian financial capital of São Paulo and launched the careers of many of today's MMA stars. While based in Brazil, they also did international events: WVC did events in Japan, Aruba and Jamaica, while the IVC had events in Venezuela, Portugal and F.R of Yugoslavia. However, after the state of São Paulo prohibited Vale Tudo from being a sanctioned sport, both promotions went into decline and have not staged an event since 2002.

2000s-present
Beginning in the early 2000s, newer promotions such as Jungle Fight and Bitetti Combat abandoned traditional Vale Tudo rules in favor of the safer mixed martial arts "Unified" rules. However, some promotions continued the use of traditional rules for a time, most notably Meca World Vale Tudo and Rio Heroes.

"Vale Tudo" was still used as a synonym for MMA in Brazil throughout the 2000s, the term started to be dropped as the sport grew and Brazilian media started to cover MMA events, first with RedeTV! covering UFC events in 2009, and in 2011 it was picked by Brazil's largest network Rede Globo.

Today, all major events use MMA rules, according to former IVC and WVC promoter Sérgio Batarelli in an interview to Brazilian online news G1 he affirmed: "But fighting with the rules from before is impossible. It's over. [...] It's the beginnings. There's no way back. Even because there are very few fighters who would venture into something like this."

Vale Tudo events are still taking place in small numbers around Brazil. Due to the violent and bloody nature of the sport, these underground events sometimes cause controversy in the media. Critics of the sport argue that Vale Tudo shows should all adopt the MMA "Unified" ruleset created in the United States by Athletic Commissions, and used by various other countries such as Canada and England. On the other hand, supporters of Vale Tudo criticize the Unified Rules, pointing out that there is no medical proof that the Unified Rules are safer, no contestant has ever been killed or permanently disabled while fighting under traditional rules, the Unified Rules were created not for safety, but to ban techniques that commissioners saw as "uncivilised" (such as the soccer kick and headbutt), that the Unified Rules set is not used in Japanese, Russian, Singaporean and Thai promotions, and so on. Proponents also counter that the style of mixed martial arts fighting created by the Unified Rules is now so different from traditional Vale Tudo that it should be treated as an entirely different sport, just as kickboxing is considered different from Muay Thai.

As a fighting style
As Vale Tudo became more popular and common, some fighters started training specifically for Vale Tudo contests rather than fighting with purely one style, taking the most effective techniques from both striking and grappling martial arts and synthesized them for the ruleset of Vale Tudo, eventually billing "Vale Tudo" as its own standalone fighting style.

Marco Ruas is recognized to be one of the first to do so. He was a Muay Thai striker and equally skilled in Luta Livre submission grappling; even before the first UFC event, he was a public proponent of cross-training in multiple martial arts and training specifically for Vale Tudo. Eventually he developed "Ruas Vale Tudo", which he advertised as a martial art. He and other fighters he coached—such as Pedro Rizzo and Renato Sobral—were billed as "Ruas Vale Tudo" fighters.

The Chute Boxe Academy in Curitiba started as a Muay Thai gym expanded their program with BJJ and grappling training in 1991, and eventually branded themselves as a "Vale Tudo" gym.

title: Vale Tudo


text:
File:Terry Nichols (mug shot).jpg

Summary
Law enforcement photograph of Oklahoma City bombing conspirator Terry Nichols.

Source
Image found at www.terry-nichols-news.newslib.com/

Fair use rationale for Terry Nichols
The image depicts Nichols in a police mug shot related to the investigation of the Oklahoma City bombing and is a non-reproducible image. The use is for educational purposes is essential to showing readers what Nichols looked like after he was arrested. The image was reprinted worldwide and the possible commercial value of the photograph is not significantly reduced by its use on the article. The mug shot is in use on various websites, and its use on Wikipedia does not make it significantly more accessible than it already is.

title: File:Terry Nichols (mug shot).jpg


text:
Safe water mark

A safe water mark, as defined by the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities, is a sea mark used in maritime pilotage to indicate the end of a channel. They usually imply that open, deep and safe water lies ahead. They are also used to indicate the start and end of a buoyed section of a continuous narrow channel; and a series of them may mark a safe route through shallow areas. It is therefore important to consult appropriate charts to determine their meaning in each location. They are also known as fairway buoys and clear water buoys.

They are recognisable by their red-and-white vertical stripes and commonly bear a top sign in shape of a red ball. They either flash Morse code "A" (di-dah), or one long flash, occulting (more light than dark) or isophase (equal light and dark) every 10 seconds (L Fl 10s).

In the United States, safe water marks are printed with the initials of their associated waterways or localities.

title: Safe water mark


text:
Talk:Veljekset Keskinen

Untitled
So what makes this store so special really? "its size despite its very remote location": What size is that? How remote is Tuuri? -- Kimiko 21:20, 28 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * It is literally a very small place indeed (not in the top 50 anyway; conceivably not in the top 100 biggest towns). The department store is on the order of the biggest in the whole country. This article definitely needs work, but a worthy subject, nevertheless. -- Cimon Avaro on a pogostick 21:46, Feb 28, 2004 (UTC)

Where is this "over 5m customers" from? www.tuuri.fi isn't an accurate source for this. that's like using Apple Co. as a source for a statement saying "98% of the world's computers are Macs". Please find another source for the figure, as I personally doubt that there are 5 million customers per year (there's only 5,3m people in Finland, plus maybe some 0,5m tourists per year; not every finn goes to that shop every year). 5 million visits to the shop is a completely different thing to having 5 million customers. In 5 millions visits, 100 000 people living nearby can do 80%+ of them), meaning there might only be around 200 000 or so different customers.--85.49.227.162 04:09, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

 * Here is the source: http://www.mek.fi/web/stats/Publish.nsf/(pages)/Kavijamaarat?OpenDocument from the Finnish Tourist Board. Veljekset Keskinen is the most popular tourist attraction in Finland. -- Jniemenmaa 07:57, 5 January 2006 (UTC)

title: Talk:Veljekset Keskinen


text:
Special mark

A Special Mark, as defined by the International Association of Lighthouse Authorities, is a sea mark used in maritime pilotage. It is recognisable by its yellow colour and X, (also referred to as a St. Andrews Cross or saltire) top-mark. It has a distinctive sequence of various flashes that does not match any other navigational mark flashes in its vicinity.

Purpose
Special marks can indicate:
 * Administrative areas
 * Water skiing areas
 * Anchorage areas
 * Mooring areas
 * Waiting areas
 * Marine farms
 * Oil wells
 * Dead ends
 * Pipelines
 * Spoil ground (an area where dredged material is deposited)
 * Historic wrecks
 * Protected areas
 * Outfall pipes (such as Stormwater, and Cooling water)
 * Sewerage pipes
 * Intake pipes
 * Submarine cables

Other uses

 * Buoys, such as a Weather buoy or Mooring buoy are coloured yellow or have a yellow light to indicate it is not an aid to navigation.

title: Special mark


text:
User:Backtrieb~enwiki

Ok here are some words about me: Maybe you have noticed that english is not my mother tongue. Actually I come from Germany. Mostly I write for the german version of the Wikipedia, but sometimes I load here a picture up, which I have used in the german version too. Most of the time I am studiing chemistry. When I am not working, I am sleeping, reading books or comics, cooking, playing volleyball, hanging arround with my friends...

What I really love is: - Nirvana, - cats and candy

What I realy hate are: - hairdresser (short followed by dentists) - going shopping and mostly dogs

Oh there is something else. Everybody who reads this, has undertaken himself to say "hello" on my talk page.

title: User:Backtrieb~enwiki