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Talk:Bowler hat

Untitled
Several websites say the hat was designed in 1850 for William Coke II, later Earl of Leicester, however. No man called William Coke II became Earl of Leicester, furthermore - Thomas William Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester, became Earl of Leicester in 1842, so he is too early his sone Thomas William Coke, 3rd Earl of Leicester was only born in 1848 so he is too late. I presume that these sites are incorrect and that the man in question was either related to the Earls or was infact completely unrelated. Mintguy (T)

Thomas William Coke, 2nd Earl of Leicester, was William Coke II. He was born in 1822 and took over his father's position when he died in 1842. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Coke,_2nd_Earl_of_Leicester_of_Holkham

References to Lock's hatters, which still calls them "Cokes", seem simply to call the gentleman they are named for "Sir William Coke". I think you're right that he's not one of the Earls. Possibly even the "Sir" is an exaggeration! -- Nunh-huh 23:34, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)
 * Should we place a banner asking for sources or further research? This sounds like an important thing to correct! Canonblack 22:11, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

Current fashion at Preston North End football club (England) is to wear bowler hats at matches. See PNE Online for more information and pictures. WiW ;)

Was there iron in the "iron hat"?
The nickname "iron hat" and the original use to protect gamekeepers' heads implies that it was originally designed as a sort of helmet. Was it ever constructed of something other than hard felt? I think this should be made clearer. I read "iron hat" and "protect gamekeepers' heads" and I immediately think of John Steed's steel-crowned bowler! Canonblack 22:11, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

The iron hat was introduced in 1851 at the Great Exibition. It was designed to protect the head in the city from falling objects, as well as to protect the head from falling objects in factories. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.1.41.104 (talk • contribs)

Well, it's the shape of the crown that gives it its 'iron strength.' The ovoid/spherical shape is also why an (unbroken) eggshell is so strong too. Further, the gap between the top of the crown and the wearer's actual head means that if a falling object does dent the hat, it may well stop before it actually injures the wearer. Really it's a pretty decent idea - the precursor to the hard hat! ^_^ 142.162.56.157 12:25, 22 July 2007 (UTC)

Does anyone else feel that this is no longer a stub?

I'm looking into the possibility this counts as an early hard hat. The "iron" part may be a kind of secrete_(helmet). Looking at how much evidence and acceptance there is of this interpretation, and how to incorporate it into Wikipedia. Patron Vectras (talk) 15:24, 28 November 2018 (UTC)

Plagiarism
Most of that article directly plagiarises. This should be addressed as copy pasting of other websites is rather frowned upon..

Mussolini?
I've never seen a photo of Mussolini wearing a bowler. Even if he did I think he's more famous for this hat.
 * Alas, that image is now 404 compliant. JDZeff (talk) 23:43, 13 August 2015 (UTC)

Modern popularity
The bowler has seemed to return....billabong has a bowler design and one of the members of Panic! At the Disco wears one. Perhaps a section on this?

Bizznot 03:38, 26 May 2007 (UTC)

Marilyn Manson also wears them, Perhaps he should be added to the list of famous people. 4.244.42.68 (talk) 00:27, 5 March 2008 (UTC)

Lou Costello
Someone should add him to the list of famous people in bowlers. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.195.209.55 (talk) 00:13, 14 October 2007 (UTC)

Sir Winston Churchill
Sir Winston Churchill wore a Homburg (with a flatter squarer crown) not a bowler. Barney Bruchstein (talk) 21:31, 21 April 2011 (UTC)

Indeed - I am amazed at the number of sites that claim he wore a bowler and in doing so, show a picture of him in a Homburg! — Preceding unsigned comment added by 194.66.200.1 (talk) 08:44, 21 September 2012 (UTC)

Actually, Churchill wore a Bowker (as well as an occasional Homburg). It was known also as a Cambridge bowler and was also worn by Odd Job. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Tatimmins (talk • contribs) 16:36, 18 May 2016 (UTC)

Bowler =/= Derby
The Bowler and the Derby are not recognized to be the same hat. I suppose someone could argue that the Bowler is a type of Derby hat, but the Bowler has a distinctly higher crown, almost distended compared to the classic Derby.. I doubt that there really needs to be 2 entries, but it should be cleaned up a little bit instead of implying they are the same thing.

Utopienne 03:55, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

 * Can you find a source saying so? If that's the case I'll be more than happy to include that when I rewrite the article-- KelvinHO Wiknerd ( talk ) 00:38, 31 July 2008 (UTC)

Cricket?
This particular little piece of information has a vague whiff of urban myth. I would very much like to know where the information came from.

Tag Happy
Whatever deficiencies this article may have, I doubt we need as many tags as it has. --Nricardo (talk) 16:05, 18 October 2008 (UTC)

Deleting the entire Bowler Wearer's List

 * There is nothing wrong with making lists on Wikipedia, and in fact there are whole articles which are nothing more than lists: See WP:LISTS. It may be that if people are offended that the list of famous Bowler wearers here is now longer than the rest of the article (which it is, by 10 kb vs. 7 kb, then the thing to do is make a separate Famous wearers of the Bowler hat areticle and use it as the main article for this section. That's fine with me, so long as the information is not lost.

 * There are questions about the WP:RS policy. First, it does not say that any editor is free to delete anything they see on WP which doesn't have a citation. Since most of what's on WP doesn't have a cite, and much of what does, at one didn't (it was added later) this would be a disater for the content of WP. We have a policy WP:IAR which covers harming of the content of WP, while citing some policy section which really doesn't say what you think it does. This is called Wikilawyering.

 * In case, many of the cites of people who wore Bowler hats are self-referencing, since clicking on them shows a photograph of the person in question in a Bowler hat. For example Doug North, Bat Masterson, Butch Cassidy, and many others. This is primary evidence, and is adquate citation if no original research or difficult interpretation is required. Since it's perfectly obvious that most Bowler hats are hats on sight.

 * Finally, I have warned new user user:NajiimP from coming out of nowhere to back up user:JBsupreme in an edit war. If NajiimP is an alternate account of JBsupreme, that's enough to get them both blocked from WP, right there. So don't play that game unless you're prepared to show your hand, and it's an honest one. Double dealing here on WP is fatal.

Meanwhile, I'm going to revert this one more time, and then I'm going to leave it up to the many editors of this article, what they want done. S B Harris 01:51, 16 November 2008 (UTC)

List of wearers is gone
It had been partly organized, and actually was mostly internally referenced. But after a very WP:LAME discussion, it was decided that it needed to be deleted, in order to make room in the limited space we have here, for the box scores of your local hockey team, or something. So sorry.

I liked the "famous wearers" list. Not enough room on Wiki? Plenty of room for porno star bios! —Preceding unsigned comment added by 121.219.149.93 (talk) 02:31, 24 December 2009 (UTC)

For the history and the arguments on both sides, which is actually somewhat educational outside of this particular topic:

Articles for deletion/List of notable people who wore the bowler hat

But don't come here asking "why"? The above, is "why." S B Harris 01:20, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * That discussion is why a non-GFDL-compliant copy of the list, in another article, is gone. The edit history here in this article remains intact, and everyone can discuss here what items on the list are actually verifiable from reliable sources, and can be put back into this article, with accompanying source citations, after they were challenged for being unverifiable, per our normal process of challenging and demonstrating verifiability.  Uncle G (talk) 21:50, 24 November 2008 (UTC)
 * A non-GFDL-compliant copy?? What are you talking about?? S  B Harris 01:20, 25 November 2008 (UTC)

Bowler hats on South American women
The section on why the Bowler hat is worn by Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia needs some more research. It does have specific source cited but there are various other assertions about the origin of this fashion on the web right now. Yahoo Answers for one. I will do some research. —Preceding unsigned comment added by Bryankennedy (talk • contribs) 17:51, 7 December 2008 (UTC)

In the City of London?
Until the 80s the bowler hat was seen as the trademark apparel of a city gent, particularly one working in finance, perhaps topping off a pinstripe suit. This was part of the image of John Steed, but also the backstory for the bowlerhatted Bradford and Bingley characters (they apparently trademarked the hat in association with financial services!)

This ought to be mentioned in the article.

I won't mention the Homepride men...

The Yowser (talk) 12:57, 17 August 2009 (UTC)

In Victorian times right up to the mid-to-late twentieth century a Bowler hat was what one wore to work in the City, whereas a top hat was worn to special occasions, e.g., weddings and funerals, or state occasions, i.e., one hat was for work, the other for dress. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 80.7.147.13 (talk) 16:45, 23 June 2012 (UTC)

RUN DMC
black bowler hat or fedora is a signature item that the band was rarely seen without, so it would be ok to mention them in the article. (trivia section maybe, and/or with a picture) — Preceding unsigned comment added by RedeemerZG (talk • contribs) 13:31, 4 July 2011 (UTC)

Trivialities lacking any semblance of noteworthiness...
The wikipedia entry for "hamster" does not include a list of hamster owners.

Twenty years ago, Dwight Yoakum (per a TV interview) and I both thought the Radiohead song "Creep" displayed genius. I found that song so "very special" that I bought the "f'ing special" album. I can recall a Radiohead song titled "Paranoid Android", on a later album, that was also popular. I had forgotten the name of their singer, and I don't recollect ever hearing their song "Lotus Flower". A few years after the release of this music video, Radiohead released a 30-track, 2-CD, "best of" album. Much more recently a 21-track "best of" DVD box set was marketed. Neither of these compilations included a song entitled "Lotus Flower".

My point is, why would any competent editor here give a rat's ass whether some average band's little-known singer once wore a bowler hat in the music video for some insignificant song? It's worthless minutiae that only clutters an article and helps to clog the web with wasted electrons.

A couple years ago the Kennedy Center for the Arts held their 35th annual "Honors" celebration. The prestigious position of being the evening's final honoree was given to Led Zeppelin (perhaps a band of greater renown than Radiohead?). The finale performance that night was a rendition of "Stairway to Heaven" sung by Ann Wilson with Jason Bonham on drums (it was an *awesome* cover, youtube the "full" 8-minute version!). Jason is the son of John Bonham. John was the original Led Zeppelin drummer whose death in 1980 resulted in the breakup of the group. John often wore a bowler hat. In tribute, his son Jason wore a bowler during the entire Kennedy Center performance. Midway through the song a curtain is raised as a large choir joins in. Thirty-three years after his death the eighty choir members all sport bowler hats in tribute to John Bonham. This is an association to the article topic that could be considered noteworthy. Entries that boil down to "I once saw so-and-so wearing a bowler..." offer nothing of value to this articles content. 76.84.4.68 (talk) 09:47, 15 November 2015 (UTC) Paul

 * Great to see you haven't "wasted electrons" with your charming amble down millinery memory lane here. But please be careful what you say about musical rats. --- Fundamentally yours, Martinevans123 (talk) 12:12, 15 November 2015 (UTC)

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Trilby
Please correct me if I am wrong, but was the bowler hat at one time also known as a trilby? If so, this name could be added to the list of names the bowler hat is also known as. Vorbee (talk) 16:47, 12 September 2018 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the. —Community Tech bot (talk) 17:07, 3 September 2019 (UTC)
 * Malcolm McDowell Clockwork Orange.png

Any differences from billycock
This page offers "billycock" as an alternate name but the Wiktionary suggests it is only "similar to a bowler." Dictionary.com suggests, "a derby or a hat resembling it." Baring-Gould says that the billycock was typically, but not always, soft felt, whereas the bowler is stiff. Does anyone know if the two are literally the same or if, perhaps, the derby is a type of billycock? Czrisher (talk) 14:38, 16 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Also known as a "Billy Coke" it seems, where it originated at Holkham, in Norfolk: . Martinevans123 (talk) 16:37, 16 February 2021 (UTC)

Lucius Beebe
Beebe gets quoted here (and elsewhere around the internet) as some kind of "proof" that Derby/bowler hats were the favored hats worn in the 19th century American West. Follow the link in the article, and you will get to a 1957 article by Beebe that ran in the Deseret News. Beebe bases his opinion that derbies were the "preferred" hats in the West by citing period photos of various 19th century Western figures. He does not attempt to compare that number against period photos of Westerners wearing non-derbies. No doubt there were plenty of people in the 19th century American West wearing derby hats (especially in places like San Francisco and Seattle), but I think Beebe's brief survey falls short of proving that the derby/bowler was the "preferred style of hat in the West at that time. And I would bet that whatever popularity it had there declined in the early 20th century. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2603:300A:D9F:1000:A433:A7FD:DABB:AECE (talk) 19:26, 6 October 2021 (UTC)

Are citations really needed, though?
I'm not sure what the policy is, but it seems to me that this article has a few too many of those annoying "citation needed" tags. For example:

"Many paintings by the Belgian surrealist artist René Magritte feature bowler hats. The Son of Man consists of a man in a bowler hat standing in front of a wall. The man's face is largely obscured by a hovering green apple. Golconda depicts "raining men" all wearing bowler hats.[citation needed]"

(Just hovering the cursor over the wikilinks to those paintings will show the bowler hats. No further citation needed.)

"Cornelius Fudge in the Harry Potter series is frequently mentioned as wearing a bowler hat.[citation needed]"

(The passage cites the Harry Potter series. No further citation needed. FWIW, the infobox on the Wikipedia page for Robert Hardy shows the actor playing Cornelius Fudge in a bowler hat.)

"Dr. Peacock, Dutch DJ, music producer, label owner, event organizer and businessman.[citation needed]"

(Hover over the wikilink for Dr. Peacock, see Stefan Petrus Dekker in a bowler hat.)

J. Wellington Wimpy wears a bowler hat.[citation needed]

(Guess what?) 81.105.46.48 (talk) 21:14, 17 January 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Bowler hat


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Public Stunts Private Stories

Public Stunts, Private Stories is the authorized biography of the Canadian alternative rock group Barenaked Ladies. The book was written by friend of the band and fellow Scarborough, Ontario native Paul Myers (brother of actor Mike Myers). The biography was originally published in 2001 in Canada by Madrigal Press and was published in the US in a revised 2003 edition by Simon & Schuster with a different cover, certain corrections, and added details concerning the band's greatest hits compilation, Disc One: All Their Greatest Hits (1991–2001). , it is the band's only authorized biography.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Public Stunts Private Stories


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Alexander Teixeira de Mattos

Alexander Louis Teixeira de Mattos  (9 April 1865 – 5 December 1921), known as Alexander Teixeira de Mattos, was a Dutch-English journalist, literary critic and publisher, who gained his greatest fame as a translator.

Early life
The Teixeira de Mattos Sampaio e Mendes family was of Portuguese Jewish origin, having been driven out of Portugal to the Netherlands by Holy Office persecution. Alexander Teixeira de Mattos was born as a Dutch Protestant to an English mother and a Dutch father. In 1874, when he was nine years old, he and his family moved from Amsterdam to England. There, he studied under Monsignor Thomas John Capel and converted to Roman Catholicism. He then studied at the Kensington Catholic Public School and at the Jesuit school Beaumont College.

Career
After his studies, Teixeira came into contact with J. T. Grein, a London impresario of Dutch origin, and was made secretary of Grein's Independent Theatre Society. He worked as a freelance translator, as the London correspondent of a Dutch newspaper, and as the editor of the papers Dramatic Opinions and The Candid Friend, and, in collaboration with Leonard Smithers, in publishing. He became the official translator of the works of Maurice Maeterlinck, beginning with Maeterlinck's The Double Garden.

Teixera was fluent in English, French, German, Flemish, Dutch, and Danish. In addition to the later works of Maeterlinck, his translations include works by Émile Zola, Alexis de Tocqueville, Maurice Leblanc, Gaston Leroux, François René de Chateaubriand, Paul Kruger, Carl Ewald, Georgette Leblanc, Stijn Streuvels, and Louis Couperus. He considered his greatest achievement to be his complete translation of Jean-Henri Fabre's natural history.

In the 1890s, Teixeira was the leading translator for the Lutetian Society, a group whose mission was "to issue to its members, translations of such representative master-pieces of fiction by Continental authors as are unprocurable in English in an unmutilated rendering." He oversaw the Society's publication of unexpurgated translations of six banned novels by Émile Zola in 1894–5, contributing his own translation of the third volume in the series, La curée.

During World War I, Teixera was head of the Intelligence Section, as well as a member of the Advisory Board, of the War Trade Intelligence Department. Midway through the war, Teixeira became a British subject. In June 1920, he was made a Chevalier of the Order of Leopold II.

Personal life
On 20 October 1900, he married Lily Wilde, née Sophie Lily Lees (1859-1922), the widow of Oscar Wilde's older brother Willie Wilde and thus became the stepfather of Dolly Wilde, then age 5. Alexander and Lily Teixeira de Mattos had one son, who died a few hours after birth.

Teixeira was known to his acquaintances as a dandy and a fastidious worker, keeping strictly to set hours, and was linked to the Symbolist movement thanks to his friendship and travels with Arthur Symons. He was also personal friends with Maurice Maeterlinck and Louis Couperus, both of whom wrote works he translated. He was politically liberal and a devout Catholic.

Due to ill health, Teixeira traveled on a rest cure in 1920 at Crowborough and the Isle of Wight, returning to his home in Chelsea, London in spring 1921. He worked as usual through the autumn and traveled to Cornwall for the winter. On 5 December 1921, in St Ives, Cornwall he collapsed and died from angina pectoris. The New York Times, in its obituary notice, called him "one of the best translators of foreign languages of the present generation." The high quality and readability of Teixera's work was such that many of his translations are still in print today. For example, though his translation of La curée is over a century old, its accuracy and style have given it a status still unrivaled by more modern versions.

List of translations
The dates given in the list below are the publication dates for Teixeira's translations. Unless otherwise referenced, all information in the list is derived from catalog entries in WorldCat.

title: Alexander Teixeira de Mattos


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Kuiper Airborne Observatory

The Gerard P. Kuiper Airborne Observatory (KAO) was a national facility operated by NASA to support research in infrared astronomy. The observation platform was a highly modified Lockheed C-141A Starlifter jet transport aircraft (s/n: 6110, registration: N714NA, callsign: NASA 714 ) with a range of 6,000 nautical miles (11,000 km), capable of conducting research operations at altitudes of up to 48,000 feet (14 km).

Aircraft
The KAO was based at the Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, near Sunnyvale, California. Prior to its conversion to the airborne observatory, it had served as Lockheed's demonstrator for a potential civilian version of the C-141.

Though it began operation in 1974 as a replacement for an earlier aircraft, the Galileo Observatory (itself a converted Convair 990 (N711NA) that was destroyed in a collision with a U.S. Navy Lockheed P-3C Orion patrol aircraft in 1973 ), the KAO wasn't dedicated until May 21, 1975. The KAO flew at altitudes of 41,000 to 45,000 feet, and flew a total of 1,417 times.

The KAO has a 160-foot wingspan, measures 145 feet long, and stands 39 feet high. A typical crew consisted of two pilots, a flight engineer, the mission staff, and the flight team, and the aircraft provided a stable platform for missions lasting up to seven and a half hours. The KAO flew mostly out of Moffett Field, but also flew out of New Zealand, Australia, American Samoa, Panama, Japan, Guam, Brazil, Ecuador, Chile, Houston (Texas), and Hawaii.

During a flight in 1978 that took off from American Samoa, two of the observatory's four engines failed soon after takeoff, and after the aircraft staggered and instrument power was shut down, the flight engineer had to crank down the landing gear manually.

Telescope
The KAO's telescope was a conventional Cassegrain reflector with a 36-inch (91.5 cm) aperture, designed primarily for observations in the 1 to 500 μm spectral range. Its flight capability allowed it to rise above almost all of the water vapor in the Earth's atmosphere (allowing observations of infrared radiation, which is blocked before reaching ground-based facilities), as well as travel to almost any point on the Earth's surface for an observation.

History
The observatory was named in honor of planetary scientist Gerard P. Kuiper, who participated in expeditions on NASA's Galileo Airborne Observatory.

The KAO made several major discoveries, including the first sightings of the rings of Uranus in 1977 and a definitive identification of an atmosphere on Pluto in 1988. The KAO was used to study the origin and distribution of water and organic molecules in regions of star formation, and in the vast spaces between the stars. Kuiper astronomers also studied the disks surrounding certain stars that may be related to the formation of planetary systems around these stars. It took infrared spectrum measurements of the planet Mercury in 1995. No quartz or olivine in Mercury's surface rocks was detected.

Peering still deeper into space, KAO astronomers studied powerful far-infrared emissions from the center of our galaxy and other galaxies. Scientists on board the KAO tracked the formation of heavy elements like iron, nickel, and cobalt from the massive fusion reactions of supernova SN 1987A.

The KAO was retired in 1995 and is viewable at Moffett Field, although it is no longer airworthy. It has been succeeded by a Boeing 747-based airborne observatory equipped with a larger aperture telescope, the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA). SOFIA completed its first test flight on April 26, 2007 and its telescope saw first light on May 26, 2010. Initial "routine" science observation flights began in December 2010 and the observatory was at full capability with about 100 flights per year. SOFIA was recently retired, with its last flight on September 30, 2022.

title: Kuiper Airborne Observatory


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Herbert Chapman

Herbert Chapman (19 January 1878 – 6 January 1934) was an English football player and manager. Though he had an undistinguished playing career, he went on to become one of the most influential and successful managers in the early 20th century, before his sudden death in 1934. He is regarded as one of the game's greatest innovators.

As a player, Chapman played for a variety of clubs, at Football League and non-League levels. His record was generally unremarkable as a player; he made fewer than 40 League appearances over the course of a decade and did not win any major honours. Instead, he found success as a manager, first at Northampton Town between 1908 and 1912, which he led to a Southern League title. This attracted the attention of larger clubs and he moved to Leeds City, where he started to improve the team's fortunes before the First World War intervened. After the war ended, City were implicated in an illegal payments scandal and were eventually disbanded. Chapman was initially banned from football but successfully appealed. He took over at Huddersfield Town, winning an FA Cup and two First Division titles in the period of four years.

In 1925, Arsenal successfully tempted Chapman to join them, and he led the club to its first ever silverware by winning one FA Cup and two First Division titles. His work at Arsenal resulted in their becoming the dominant team of the 1930s – they won five League titles and two FA Cups in the decade before the suspension of football due to the outbreak of the Second World War – but he did not live to see the entirety of his team's success, dying suddenly from pneumonia in 1934, at the age of 55.

He is credited with improving Arsenal. He introduced new tactics (the WM formation, which forms the core of most modern-day formations) and training techniques to the game and the use of physiotherapists. He led the team, rather than letting board members lead. He also used floodlighting and numbered shirts, entered European club competitions, and has received many posthumous honours in recognition.

Early life
Chapman was born in Kiveton Park, near Rotherham on 19 January 1878. His father, John, was a coal miner, but rather than spend his own life working down the pit, the young Herbert was bright enough to win a place at Sheffield Technical College (later to become part of the University of Sheffield), where he studied mining engineering.

Chapman was one of eleven children and was born into a keen sporting family, with two of his brothers also playing professional football. The most successful of these was his younger brother Harry, who played for The Wednesday during the 1900s, winning two League Championships and an FA Cup. His elder brother Thomas played for Grimsby Town, while another brother, Matthew, later became a director of the same club.

Playing career
Chapman's playing career was that of a typical journeyman, owing mostly to the fact he often played as an amateur; this meant that whether he could play for a particular club was dictated by whether he could find an appropriate job nearby. He first played as a youth for his local side, Kiveton Park Colliery, winning the Hatchard Cup in 1894 alongside team-mate William Ross. He left the village that summer to join Ashton North End, before moving on to Stalybridge Rovers and then Rochdale (not to be confused with the modern-day Rochdale) – all three clubs being members of the Lancashire League. Chapman played at inside right, and although he lacked the skill of his brother Harry Chapman, he compensated for it with his strength and robustness.

In 1898, he moved to Second Division Grimsby Town. Though now playing in the professional Football League, Chapman was still an amateur at this stage and obtained a job with a firm of local solicitors to earn his way. Grimsby started the season poorly – they were near the bottom of the division by Christmas and were beaten 7–0 by Preston North End in the FA Cup, but rallied to finish tenth at the end of the 1898–99 season. By this time Chapman had been dropped from the team, having been unsuccessfully moved to centre forward, an unfamiliar position for him. He was released by Grimsby and drifted down into non-league football with a brief spell at Swindon Town, playing three games and scoring twice, but had to leave the club as he was unable to find a job in the area. He moved on to see out the season with Sheppey United, who finished bottom of the Southern League in 1899–1900. Chapman finished as United's top scorer but was injured at the end of this season, and still unable to find a job. Disheartened, he returned to his home town and turned out for Worksop Town of the Midland League in 1900–01, while resuming his studies, this time at Old Firth College in Sheffield.

Because of his studies, he mainly played for Worksop's reserves, but in a first-team match against Northampton Town he caught the opposition's eye and they offered him a contract, leading him to turn professional for the first time in 1901. He played for Northampton for the whole 1901–02 season, finishing as top scorer with 14 goals in 22 games for the club. During that season he had impressed in an FA Cup match against Sheffield United, leading them to offer Chapman a contract at the end of the season; Chapman accepted but dropped down to amateur status, wishing to make use of his engineering qualifications in the local area. He played 22 matches and scored twice for United, but struggled to keep his place in a team full of internationals, and was sold to Notts County for £300 at the end of 1902–03. Chapman turned professional again, but only made seven appearances in two years for County, scoring once.

In 1904, Chapman moved back to his old club Northampton Town, playing a season effectively on loan from Notts County (as they kept his registration), before being transferred permanently in 1905 to Tottenham Hotspur for £70. He scored eleven goals for Spurs in their 1905–06 Southern League campaign. He spent 1906–07 in and out of the side, scoring just three goals. With the season drawing to a close, he decided that he had had "a good innings" and decided to leave Tottenham and professional football for good, in favour of pursuing his career in engineering.

Northampton Town
In 1907, as he was about to leave Tottenham Hotspur, Chapman had recommended Spurs team-mate Walter Bull to his old club Northampton Town, as their new manager. However, Bull changed his mind, and in turn recommended that Chapman take the job instead. Chapman changed his mind about retiring from the game, and instead agreed to become player-manager of Northampton Town. Northampton had finished bottom of the Southern League two seasons running immediately before Chapman's appointment, but Chapman turned the club around within a short period of time.

At the time, teams rarely employed tactics of any sort – Chapman would later remark: "No attempt was made to organise victory. The most that I remember was the occasional chat between, say two men playing on the same wing." As a manager, he sought to change that; after seeing Northampton lose to Norwich City despite dominating, Chapman opined that "a team can attack for too long". He thus set about creating a tactical framework for all his players; he dropped the half backs (midfield) back to give his forwards more space and draw the opposition defenders out of the penalty area, while encouraging his own back line to pass their way out of trouble. Gradually, he created a style of highly organised, counter-attacking football, which was at odds with the prevailing orthodoxy but nevertheless highly effective; Swindon Town's England international Harold Fleming, after losing 4–1 at home to Northampton, remarked to Chapman: "You have something more than a team: you have a machine."

To allow his system to reach its full potential, Chapman encouraged his chairman to spend money on new players. The club's first ever transfer fee, £400, was paid for Welsh international Lloyd Davies who remains Northampton's most capped player, winger Fred McDiarmid and playmaking centre half David McCartney. With this new talent, in his first season in charge, Chapman led Northampton to eighth place; with additional new signings, such as inside forward Albert Lewis from Coventry City, he used this as a springboard to take the Southern League title in 1908–09, with Lewis finishing as top scorer.

By now, Chapman had retired as a player in first-class football, having played his last match against Watford in January 1909, but filled the gap he left, as well as showing his eye for spotting talent, by signing players such as future England international Fanny Walden. As Southern League champions, Northampton contested and lost the 1909 FA Charity Shield, 2–0 to Newcastle United, and although they did not win the Southern League title again during Chapman's time as manager, they finished in the top four in each of the following three seasons. Additionally, they proved their mettle in the FA Cup against First Division sides, knocking out The Wednesday and taking Nottingham Forest and Newcastle United to replays, losing 1–0 both times.

Chapman was keen to get Northampton Town into the Football League, but with no automatic promotion or relegation rules at the time this proved very difficult. Chapman proposed a new two-division Football Alliance underneath the two divisions of the Football League, with automatic promotion and relegation (a similar system to the four-division League setup introduced in 1921), but this was rejected at the time (and would not come about until 1920). In the 1912 close season, he was offered the chance to manage Second Division Leeds City, and with Northampton's blessing moved north again to join the League club.

Leeds City
Leeds City had finished 19th in the Second Division in the season preceding Chapman's arrival, and were facing re-election. Chapman played an essential part in lobbying for the side's readmission and Leeds City were duly re-elected. That done, Chapman signed new talent such as Jimmy Speirs from Bradford City and despite some erratic performances – losing 6–0 in between two 5–1 wins, for example – City finished sixth in 1912–13, Chapman's first season. Attendances rose at Elland Road from 8,500 to 13,000 in his first year, as Chapman's attacking side scored 70 goals, the second-highest total in the entire division.

With a strengthening of the defence, City's form improved further the next season, in 1913–14, coming fourth, two points outside the promotion places. Despite having failed on his promise to get the team promoted within two years, City's rising attendances and resulting better profits for the club kept the directors happy, and the club were confident of promotion in 1914–15. However, the declaration of the First World War disrupted Leeds City's season, with attendances down as men signed up to fight. Chapman by now had amassed a very large squad and was unable to pick a consistent side, continually changing his first-choice lineup. Leeds City lost six of their last eight games of the season, finishing just fifteenth.

League football was suspended for the rest of the war, with Leeds City playing in regional competitions. With many players away fighting or having left the game due to a drop in wages, Leeds relied heavily on guest players during these matches. Chapman, meanwhile, had decided to help the war effort by taking up a position as manager of a munitions factory at Barnbow, near Cross Gates in 1916. For the next two years, City's assistant manager, George Cripps stood in for Chapman on the administrative side, while chairman Joe Connor and another director took charge of the team.

Chapman returned to Leeds City from Barnbow after hostilities had ended, but resigned suddenly in December 1918, eventually moving to Selby to take up a position as a superintendent at an oil and coke works. No reason was given for his resignation, but as football resumed in 1919–20, Leeds City were accused by a former player of financial irregularities, involving illegal payments to guest players during wartime matches. No documentary evidence was produced, but Leeds' refusal to allow the authorities access to their financial records was deemed a sign of guilt, and they were expelled from the Football League in October 1919 and five club officials, including Chapman, were banned from football for life. The club was dissolved, with the players auctioned off and their Elland Road ground taken over by the newly formed Leeds United.

Huddersfield Town
Chapman was still working at the coke works in Selby when his ban was imposed, but by Christmas 1920 the company was sold up and he was laid off. Soon after, however, he was approached by Huddersfield Town to become assistant to Ambrose Langley, who had been a former team-mate of Herbert Chapman's brother Harry at The Wednesday. Huddersfield Town backed Chapman in an appeal against his ban, arguing that as he had been working at the factory in Barnbow during the war, he had not been in charge of Leeds City during the time illegal payments were supposed to have been paid. The ban was overturned, and Chapman was formally installed as Langley's assistant on 1 February 1921.

Chapman was promoted to full secretary-manager, replacing Langley, the following month, and soon made an impact, signing players such as England international Clem Stephenson from Aston Villa (who became captain under Chapman) and 18-year-old unknown George Brown (who went on to become Huddersfield's all-time top scorer). In Chapman's first full season in charge (1921–22), Huddersfield Town won the FA Cup, beating Preston North End 1–0 in the final at Stamford Bridge, the club's first major trophy. In the league, however, his side had spent most of the season fighting relegation and had finished 14th, so Chapman looked to strengthen his squad.

As at Northampton, Chapman's tactics were based upon the principles of a strong defence and a fast, counter-attacking response, with the focus on quick, short passing and mazy runs from his wingers, who would pass low inside the defence instead of crossing from the byline. He had been granted control of all footballing affairs at the club and made this responsibility work to his advantage, encouraging the club's reserve and third teams to play the same style of football so that their players would function effectively in the first team if selected. He employed a wide-ranging scouting network to find the right players for his tactical system. Bolstered by the money from the cup run, Chapman was able to make further signings such as goalkeeper Ted Taylor and forward Charlie Wilson (later to be joined by George Cook).

With new players and using Chapman's system, Huddersfield were transformed. They finished third in 1922–23 and went on to win their first League title in 1923–24. This success was by the narrowest of margins – equal on points with Cardiff City, Huddersfield won by a difference of 0.024 (1.818 to 1.794) in goal average. The final goal by Brown in a 3–0 win over Nottingham Forest on the final day of the season proved crucial, although ultimately it was Huddersfield's superior defensive record which had given them the advantage.

Following the title win, Chapman kept faith with his squad, making only one new signing – outside right Joey Williams – as they successfully defended their League title in 1924–25. Huddersfield started brightly but a poor run of form in October and November (in part caused by an injury to goalkeeper Ted Taylor) saw them drop to ninth at one point. Taylor was replaced by new signing Billy Mercer and a resurgence in form saw Huddersfield climb the table, regaining top spot with a 5–0 win over Arsenal in February, and eventually finishing two points clear of runners-up West Bromwich Albion. As a testament to Chapman's philosophy of relying on a strong defence, it was the first time a title-winning side had gone through a season without conceding more than two goals in any match.

Arsenal
In the 1925 close season, Chapman had already set about improving his squad for Huddersfield to seek a third successive title (something which had never been achieved before). At the same time, Arsenal was looking to replace Leslie Knighton, who had been sacked. Arsenal chairman Sir Henry Norris placed an advertisement in the Athletic News: "Arsenal Football Club is open to receive applications for the position of TEAM MANAGER. He must be experienced and possess the highest qualifications for the post, both as to ability and personal character. Gentlemen whose sole ability to build up a good side depends on the payment of heavy and exhorbitant [sic] transfer fees need not apply." Although Arsenal had been fighting relegation in both the two previous seasons, and despite the chairman's restriction on spending, Chapman nevertheless moved to Arsenal soon afterwards, attracted both by the London club's larger crowds and a salary of £2,000, double what he earned at Huddersfield Town. At Arsenal, Chapman immediately made an impact by signing 34-year-old Charlie Buchan, an England international and Sunderland's all-time record goalscorer, whom he made Arsenal captain.

Chapman came to Arsenal promising to make them the "Newcastle of the South". Chapman and Buchan's arrival at the club also coincided with a change in the laws of the game in June 1925, that modified the offside law. The change had reduced the number of opposition players that an attacker needed between himself and the goal-line from three to two (including the goalkeeper). Buchan's idea, implemented by Chapman, was to move the centre half from a roaming position in midfield to a "stopper" position in defence. With the inside forwards brought back to help the midfield, this changed the usual formation from 2–3–5 to 3–4–3, or a "WM", so called after the shape it formed spelled out the letters. This meant the offside trap was now the responsibility of the single centre half, while the full backs were pushed wider to cover the wings.

Arsenal were by no means the only team to have come up with the idea of dropping the centre half into defence – Newcastle United beat Arsenal 7–0 that season employing such a system with Charlie Spencer at centre-half; Queen's Park and Tottenham Hotspur had also adopted similar systems. Chapman, however, was able to refine and improve on the idea better than his rivals, melding the tactical change with his own ideas on counter-attacking football, pacy wingers and a strong defence. Chapman himself summed it up by saying: "the most opportune time for scoring is immediately after repelling an attack, because opponents are then strung out in the wrong half of the field."

Arsenal went on to finish second in 1925–26, five points behind Chapman's old side Huddersfield Town, as they became the first club in England to win three titles in succession. It proved to be an early dawn for Arsenal, who spent most of the rest of the 1920s in mid-table, as Chapman took his time finding the right players to fit his new system, outlining a five-year plan for success. He retained relatively few players of his predecessor Knighton's era – Bob John, Alf Baker and Jimmy Brain being the exceptions – and instead looked to bring in talent from elsewhere.

In February 1926, he signed the pacy winger Joe Hulme, followed that summer by forward Jack Lambert and full-back Tom Parker, who would later succeed Buchan as captain. Although Arsenal's league form was indifferent, in 1927 they reached the FA Cup Final, their first, but lost 1–0 to Cardiff City after an error by goalkeeper Dan Lewis.

In the same year, Arsenal became embroiled in a scandal; footballers' pay at the time was limited by a maximum wage, but an FA inquiry found that Charlie Buchan had secretly received illegal payments from Arsenal as an incentive to sign for the club. Sir Henry Norris was indicted for his part and banned from football, but Chapman escaped punishment, and with the autocratic Norris replaced by the more benign Samuel Hill-Wood, Chapman's power and influence within the club increased, allowing him control over all aspects of the club's business. He persevered in building the team, strengthening his attacking lineup with the signings of David Jack in 1928, and Alex James and Cliff Bastin in 1929. As at his previous clubs, Chapman worked on improving the defence, notably through the signings of Herbie Roberts and Eddie Hapgood at centre half and left back respectively.

It was the signing of David Jack in particular that highlighted Chapman's cunning when it came to transfer negotiations. Bolton Wanderers had originally asked for a fee of £13,000, almost double the existing record. Bob Wall, Chapman's personal assistant at the time, later recounted the negotiations he made with Bolton's directors as follows:

We arrived at the hotel half-an-hour early. Chapman immediately went into the lounge bar. He called the waiter, placed two pound notes in his hand and said: "George, this is Mr Wall, my assistant. He will drink whisky and dry ginger. I will drink gin and tonic. We shall be joined by guests. They will drink whatever they like. See that our guests are given double of everything, but Mr Wall's whisky and dry ginger will contain no whisky, and my gin and tonic will contain no gin.

Chapman's subterfuge succeeded, as he managed to bargain the inebriated Bolton directors down to £10,890. He was less successful in his attempt to sign Jimmy McGrory from Celtic. He had set up a meeting with Celtic manager Willie Maley and young McGrory in summer 1928 when Maley and McGrory were on their way to a pilgrimage in Lourdes. A huge sum was offered (a blank cheque, some say) for the prolific McGrory, and Maley was more than ready to accept, for Celtic needed money to pay for its new stand. The deal fell through when McGrory, a homesick young Scotsman with an intense love for Celtic, refused to sign. He later (in 1935) broke the all-time goalscoring record.

Chapman had laid out a five-year plan for success in 1925, and it came to fruition exactly on schedule, as his Arsenal won their first major trophy in the 1930 FA Cup Final, beating his old side, Huddersfield Town, 2–0. Despite having finished only 14th in the League the same season, the win spurred Arsenal on and laid the foundations for a decade in which Arsenal would become the dominant team in England and eventually win five league titles.

Chapman had by now perfected Arsenal's ruthless, counter-attacking strategy. He employed a robust front line of Lambert supported by David Jack and Alex James as deep-lying inside forwards, filling the gap vacated by the movement of the centre half into defence; Alex James in particular, with his passing supplying the front men, became celebrated as the engine of the team during the coming decade. Chapman employed Bastin and Hulme as pacy wingers who could cut inside instead of hugging the touchline; they could either shoot for goal themselves or pick each other out if the centre forward was marked out of the game. With the exception of James, keeping and dwelling on the ball and individuality were discouraged in favour of a quick passing game, although Chapman still conceded: "All the men are expected to play to plan, but not so as to stifle individuality."

Chapman's tactics of fast-moving play meant the wing half line of John and Jones were now pushed in to cover central midfield, pivoting around the halfway line so that they could drop back to defend when necessary. Chapman was equally committed to a strong defence, saying that maintenance of a back line was "the rock bottom of football". Arsenal's defence were told to play deep and, with the support of the wing halves, fall back into their own penalty area when the opposition had the ball; this allowed the opposition plenty of possession in Arsenal's half, until they reached the 18-yard line and faced a massed defence. Once Arsenal regained the ball – usually through the centre half Herbie Roberts – the ball would be quickly passed forward and the wing halves would push up to support the attackers, meaning Arsenal could quickly commit as many as seven men forward as a unit to rapidly attack and try to score.

Chapman's system demanded a high level of fitness from his players, something which he strongly emphasised. He balanced the need for players suited to each task – in which his skill in spotting the right players and his extensive scouting network proved vital – with adapting his system to account for their abilities. Though highly effective, Chapman's fast, counter-attacking passing approach to football contrasted with how the game was traditionally played in England at the time, with its emphasis on dribbling, possession and dwelling on the ball, and thus brought accusations of "Lucky Arsenal" or "Boring Arsenal" from commentators and opposition. Nevertheless, despite the stereotype, in Arsenal's first title-winning season of 1930–31, they scored 127 goals in the League, which still stands as a club record.

Having won both League and Cup in separate seasons with two clubs, Chapman was determined to go one better and win the Double – which had not yet been won in the 20th century – in 1931–32 but ended up missing out on both, finishing second in the League behind Everton and losing the 1932 FA Cup Final controversially to Newcastle United, with Newcastle's equaliser coming after the ball had gone behind for a goal kick. Undeterred, Chapman kept faith with his side and launched a bid for the 1932–33 title. However, it was during this season that Arsenal suffered one of the most infamous defeats in their history.

In the FA Cup third round, Arsenal had been drawn against Walsall of the Third Division North. Arsenal, as the previous season's losing finalists and league leaders, were clear favourites to win the match. On the day, five of the Arsenal first team were out with injury or flu and had their places taken by reserves. Arsenal lost 2–0 in one of the greatest FA Cup upsets. Chapman was enraged by the result, and showed his ruthlessness by selling one player, Tommy Black, who had conceded a penalty in the game, to Plymouth Argyle within a week of the result; another, striker Charlie Walsh, was sold to Brentford a week later.

Despite the FA Cup setback, Arsenal bounced back in the League, and with the same scoring form as in 1930–31, finished the season having scored 118 League goals in total, including a 5–0 win over rivals Aston Villa in that season's title-deciding match. In the following close season, Chapman became the first professional manager in charge of England, albeit in an ad hoc unofficial capacity, for a summer tour of Europe. He did not have any input into the selection process, the team being determined by the FA's International Selection Committee, but did advise on tactics and gave pre-match team talks. Chapman was in charge for a friendly against Italy in Rome on 13 May 1933, which finished 1–1, and England's 4–0 win over Switzerland a week later.

Wary of his ageing Arsenal team and the club's inadequate reserves (as proven by the Walsall match), it was around this time that Chapman noted to club director George Allison: "The team's played out, Mr Allison, we must rebuild". Chapman started the process, signing Ray Bowden, Pat Beasley and Jimmy Dunne, and had converted the young George Male from left half to right back. Chapman would not live to see the end of the season, let alone complete the task of rebuilding his side. Arsenal went into 1933–34 looking to retain the title, and started consistently; they worked their way to the top of the league and were a comfortable four points clear after a goalless draw with Birmingham on 30 December 1933. This proved to be Chapman's last match in charge.

Death
Chapman celebrated New Year in London before travelling north on a scouting trip to see Bury play Notts County on 1 January 1934. The following day, he travelled to his native Yorkshire to watch Sheffield Wednesday, Arsenal's next opponents, before spending a final night in his home town of Kiveton Park. He returned to London nursing a cold but was well enough to watch an Arsenal third-team match against Guildford City. Soon afterwards, his illness suddenly worsened; pneumonia set in, and Chapman quickly succumbed. He died in the early hours of 6 January 1934 at his home in Hendon. He was buried four days later in St Mary's Churchyard, Hendon.

Chapman was survived by a widow, Annie, two sons, Ken (born 1908) and Bruce (born 1911), and two daughters, Molly (born 1915) and Joyce (born 1919). Ken was a rugby union player for Harlequins, and later served as president of the Rugby Football Union.

Legacy
Chapman was one of the first football managers in the modern sense of the word, taking full charge of the team, rather than letting board members pick the side. As well as his tactical innovations, he was a strong believer in physical fitness in football – he instituted a strict training regime and the use of physiotherapists and masseurs. He encouraged his players to openly discuss tactics and the game, instituting weekly team meetings at his clubs, and encouraged them to socialise in extra-curricular activities such as golf. He wrote regularly on football for the Sunday Express newspaper, and a collection of his writings was published after his death in a book, entitled Herbert Chapman on Football.

Unlike many of his contemporaries in Britain, Chapman was a fan of the continental game and counted among his friends Hugo Meisl and Jimmy Hogan, coaches of the Austrian "Wunderteam" of the 1930s. As long ago as 1909, he had taken his Northampton side on a tour of Germany to play 1. FC Nürnberg, and at Arsenal he had instituted an ongoing series of home-and-away friendlies against the likes of Racing Club de Paris. Chapman had proposed a Europe-wide club competition more than twenty years before the European Cup was instituted, and regularly took his teams abroad to play foreign sides. He was one of the first managers to consider signing black and foreign players; as well as signing Walter Tull, one of the first black professionals in the game, for Northampton Town in 1911, he attempted to recruit Austrian international goalkeeper Rudy Hiden for Arsenal in 1930, but was blocked by the Ministry of Labour, after protests from the Players' Union and the Football League. However, in the same year he did succeed in signing Gerard Keyser, the first Dutchman to play English league football, as an amateur, and Hiden was signed by Jimmy Hogan for Racing Club de Paris.

After attending a night-time match in Belgium in 1930 with his friend Hugo Meisl, Chapman became an early advocate of floodlights. He had lights installed in Highbury's new West Stand when it was constructed in 1932; however, they were used only for training, and Arsenal would have to wait until the 1950s for their officially sanctioned use in matches. Chapman oversaw much of the development of Highbury in the early 1930s, including the building of the West Stand and the addition of a clock which was eventually placed by the south terrace, giving it the name of the "Clock End". He is also credited with being behind the renaming of London Underground's Gillespie Road station to Arsenal. He even designed the scoreboard and turnstiles at the stadium.

Chapman advocated the use of white footballs and numbered shirts, as well as adding hoops to Arsenal's socks to make it easier for players to pick each other out. He later made a further change to Arsenal's kit, adding white sleeves to the previously all-red shirt and brightening the colour, before a match against Liverpool on 4 March 1933; the same kit theme of red with white sleeves or trim survives to this day. The tradition of both teams walking out together at the FA Cup Final was started in 1930 due to Chapman's involvement with both clubs, and has continued since.

Honours
Although he did not win any major honours as a player, as a manager Chapman won a Southern League title in 1908–09 with Northampton Town, four Football League titles (1923–24 and 1924–25 with Huddersfield Town, 1930–31 and 1932–33 with Arsenal) and two FA Cups (1921–22 with Huddersfield Town, 1929–30 with Arsenal). After his death the team he had built at Arsenal, under his successors Joe Shaw and George Allison, went on to win the 1933–34 and 1934–35 titles, emulating his Huddersfield Town team by completing a hat-trick. No team was to repeat the feat until Liverpool between 1982 and 1984. Chapman was honorary president of Scottish amateur football club Chirnside United until his death in 1934.

In 2003, Chapman was inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in recognition of his impact as a manager. An English Heritage blue plaque commemorating Chapman was unveiled in March 2005, at the house in Hendon where Chapman lived from 1926 until his death. Chapman was the first footballer or football manager to be commemorated in this way by English Heritage. In 2004, on the seventieth anniversary of his death, The Sunday Times named him the greatest British manager of all time in a poll.

In tribute to his achievements at Arsenal, a bronze bust of Chapman, sculpted by Jacob Epstein resided inside the marble halls of the East Stand of Arsenal Stadium, Highbury until its closure in 2006 and will be reinstated there once redevelopment work in the stadium is completed. A replica sits in the Directors' Entrance at Emirates Stadium; he is one of only two Arsenal managers to be honoured this way, the other being Arsène Wenger. Furthermore, Arsenal's white away kit for the 2007–08 season was dedicated to Chapman and his achievements.

Huddersfield Town were presented with a replica of Chapman's bust by Arsenal, to celebrate their centenary in 2008. Additionally, as part of their centennial, Huddersfield contested the inaugural Herbert Chapman Trophy against Arsenal at the Galpharm Stadium on 6 August 2008, which Arsenal won 2–1.

On 9 December 2011, Arsenal unveiled a statue of Chapman outside Emirates Stadium in celebration of the club's 125th anniversary. The club also unveiled statues of former players Tony Adams and Thierry Henry.

Managerial
Northampton Town
 * Southern League: 1908–09

Huddersfield Town
 * First Division: 1923–24, 1924–25
 * FA Cup: 1921–22
 * FA Charity Shield: 1922

Arsenal
 * First Division: 1930–31, 1932–33, 1933–34
 * FA Cup: 1929–30 runner-up: 1931–32
 * FA Charity Shield: 1930, 1931, 1933

Individual
 * World Soccer 9th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2013
 * France Football 24th Greatest Manager of All Time: 2019

title: Herbert Chapman


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Karl Lashley

Karl Spencer Lashley (June 7, 1890 – August 7, 1958) was an American psychologist and behaviorist remembered for his contributions to the study of learning and memory. A Review of General Psychology survey, published in 2002, ranked Lashley as the 61st most cited psychologist of the 20th century.

Early life and education
Lashley was born on June 7, 1890, in the town of Davis, West Virginia. He was the only child of Charles and Maggie Lashley. He grew up in a middle-class family with a reasonably comfortable life. Lashley's father held various local political positions. His mother was a stay-at-home parent, and had a vast collection of books in the home. She brought in women from the community, whom she would teach various subjects. This is no doubt what gave Lashley his love of learning. Lashley has always held his family in high regard. He has said that his father was a kind man.

Lashley's mother was a strong advocate of schooling, and she encouraged Lashley intellectually from an early age. Lashley was a very active boy, both physically and mentally. He was able to read by the age of four. His favorite thing to do as a child was to wander through the woods and collect animals, like butterflies and mice. He spent most of his childhood alone. Lashley did not have many friends. The reasons for his lack of friendships is unclear. Lashley graduated high school at age 14.

Lashley enrolled at West Virginia University, where he had originally intended to become an English major. He took a course in zoology, however, and switched his major to zoology due to his interactions with the professor John Black Johnston. Lashley wrote, "Within a few weeks in his class I knew that I had found my life's work".

After obtaining his Bachelor of Arts at West Virginia University, Lashley was awarded a teaching fellowship at the University of Pittsburgh, where he taught biology along with biological laboratories. While there he also carried out research which he used for his master's thesis. Once Lashley completed his master's degree, he studied at Johns Hopkins University, where he received his PhD in genetics in June 1911. He became a professor at University of Minnesota, University of Chicago, and Harvard University.

At Hopkins, Lashley minored in psychology under John B. Watson, whom he continued to work closely with him after receiving his PhD. It was during this time that Lashley worked with Shepherd Ivory Franz and was introduced to his training/ablation method. Watson had a great deal of influence on Lashley. Together the two conducted field experiments and studied the effects of different drugs on maze learning of rats. Watson helped Lashley to focus on specific problems in learning and experimental investigation, followed by locating the area of the cerebrum involved in learning and discrimination.

Career
Lashley's career began with research concerning brain mechanisms and how they were related to sense receptors. He also conducted work on instinct as well as color vision. He studied many animals and primates, which had been an interest since his freshman year at college.

Lashley worked at the University of Minnesota from 1917 to 1926 and then at the Institute for Juvenile Research in Chicago before becoming a professor at the University of Chicago. After this he went to Harvard, but was dissatisfied and from there became the director of the Yerkes Laboratory of Primate Biology in Orange Park, Florida.

Lashley's most influential research centered around the cortical basis of learning and discrimination. He researched this by looking at the measurement of behavior before and after specific, carefully quantified, induced brain damage in rats. Lashley trained rats to perform specific tasks (seeking a food reward), then lesioned specific areas of the rats' cortex, either before or after the animals received the training. The cortical lesions had specific effects on acquisition and retention of knowledge, but the location of the removed cortex had no effect on the rats' performance in the maze. This led Lashley to conclude that memories are not localized, but that they are widely distributed across the cortex. Today we know that distribution of engrams does in fact exist, but that the distribution is not equal across all cortical areas, as Lashley assumed. His study of V1 (primary visual cortex) led him to believe that it was a site of learning and memory storage (i.e. an engram) in the brain. He reached this erroneous conclusion due to imperfect lesioning methods.

By the 1950s, two separate principles had grown out of Lashley's research: mass action and equipotentiality. "Mass action" refers to the idea that the rate, efficacy and accuracy of learning depend on the amount of cortex available. If cortical tissue is destroyed following the learning of a complex task, deterioration of performance on the task is determined more by the amount of tissue destroyed than by its location. "Equipotentiality" refers to the idea that one part of the cortex can take over the function of another part; within a functional area of the brain, any tissue within that area can perform its associated function. Therefore, to destroy a function, all the tissue within a functional area must be destroyed. If the area is not destroyed then the cortex can take over another part. These two principles grew out of Lashley's research on the cortical basis of learning and discrimination.

Later life
In February 1954, while doing his teaching at Harvard, Lashley unexpectedly collapsed and was hospitalized. He was diagnosed with hemolytic anemia and put on a cortisone treatment. This eventually began to soften his vertebrae, and as a result a splenectomy was performed. Lashley was on the road to a full recovery until his trip to France with his wife Clair, where he once again unexpectedly collapsed, but this time to his death on August 7, 1958.

Honors
Lashley was elected to many scientific and philosophical societies, including the American Psychological Association (Council member 1926–1928; President, 1929), Eastern Psychological Association (President, 1937), Society of Experimental Psychologists, British Psychological Association (Honorary Fellow), American Society of Zoologists, American Society of Naturalists (President, 1947), British Institute for the Study of Animal Behavior (Honorary Member), American Society of Human Genetics, American Physiological Society, Harvey Society (Honorary Member), National Academy of Sciences (elected in 1930). In 1938, Lashley was elected a Member of the American Philosophical Society, the oldest learned society in the United States, dating to 1743. Since 1957, the Society has awarded the annual Karl Spencer Lashley Award in recognition of work on the integrative neuroscience of behavior. In 1943, Lashley was awarded the Daniel Giraud Elliot Medal from the National Academy of Sciences.

Lashley was awarded honorary Doctor of Science degrees from the University of Pittsburgh (1936), the University of Chicago (1941), Western Reserve University (1951), the University of Pennsylvania; in 1953, Johns Hopkins University presented him with an honorary Doctor of Laws degree.

Criticisms
Lashley had a reputation as an objective scientist, but Nadine Weidman has tried to expose him as racist and a genetic determinist. But Donald Dewsbury and others, have disputed the claim that he was a genetic determinist, citing research of Lashley's in which he found evidence of both genetic and environmental influences on organisms. Dewsbury does admit however, that Lashley was quite racist. He cites a line from a letter that Lashley wrote to a German colleague which reads: "Too bad that the beautiful tropical countries are all populated by negros. Heil Hitler and Apartheit!" This line alone would leave little debate on this matter, but he cites others as well.

Notable publications

 * 1923 "The behavioristic interpretation of consciousness." Psychological Review
 * 1929 "Brain mechanisms and intelligence."
 * 1930 "Basic neural mechanisms in behavior." Psychological Review
 * 1932 "Studies in the dynamics of behavior." University of Chicago Press.
 * 1935 "The mechanism of vision", Part 12: Nervous structures concerned in the acquisition and retention of habits based on reactions to light. Comparative Psychology Monographs 11: 43–79.
 * 1943 "Studies of Cerebral Function in Learning", Journal of Comparative Neurology vol. 79.
 * 1950 "In search of the engram." Society of Experimental Biology Symposium 4: 454–482.
 * 1951 "The problem of serial order in behavior." Cerebral Mechanisms in Behavior.

title: Karl Lashley


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Szczecin Lagoon

Szczecin Lagoon (Zalew Szczeciński, Stettiner Haff), also known as Oder Lagoon (Oderhaff), and Pomeranian Lagoon (Pommersches Haff), is a lagoon in the Oder estuary, shared by Germany and Poland. It is separated from the Pomeranian Bay of the Baltic Sea by the islands of Usedom and Wolin. The lagoon is subdivided into the Kleines Haff (Mały Zalew, "small lagoon") in the West and the Wielki Zalew (Großes Haff, "great lagoon") in the East. An ambiguous historical German name was Frisches Haff, which later exclusively referred to the Vistula Lagoon.

Geography
From the South, the lagoon is fed by several arms of the Oder river and smaller rivers like Ziese, Peene, Zarow, Uecker, and Ina. In the North, the lagoon is connected to the Baltic Sea's Bay of Pomerania with the three straits Peenestrom, Świna and Dziwna, which divide the mainland and the islands of Usedom and Wolin.

The lagoon covers an area of 687 km2, its natural depth is an average 3.8 metres, and 8.5 metres at maximum. The depth of shipping channels however can exceed 10.5 metres. Thus, the lagoon holds about 2.58 km3 of water. The annual average water temperature is 11 °C.

94% of the water loads discharged into the lagoon are from the Oder river and its confluences, amounting to an average annual 17 km3 or 540 m3 per second. All other confluences contribute a combined annual 1 km3. Since no reliable data for an inflow from the Baltic Sea exist, the combined inflow is an estimated 18 km3 from a catchment area of 129,000 km2, residing in the lagoon for an average 55 days before being discharged into the Pomeranian Bay. The nutrients thereby transported into the lagoon have made it hyper(eu)trophic to eutrophic. The straits Peenestrom, Świna and Dziwna are responsible for 17%, 69%, and 14% of the discharge, respectively.

The average salinity is between 0.5 and 2 grams of salt per kilogram of water (approximately equivalent to 0.5 and 2 parts per thousand [ppt]). Occasionally northerly winds reverse the direction of the Świna, admitting sea water from the Baltic Sea into the lagoon, raising the local salinity to 6 ppt.

Towns around the Lagoon

 * Szczecin (Poland)
 * Świnoujście (Poland)
 * Police (Poland)
 * Ueckermünde (Germany)
 * Wolin (Poland)
 * Usedom (Germany)
 * Nowe Warpno (Poland)

History
In the 10th century, the emerging Polish state strove for the area, but likely did not succeed with establishing control. Following Poland's fragmentation, it formed part of the Duchy of Pomerania. In the 17th century, it passed to Sweden. Later on, it gradually passed to the Kingdom of Prussia in the 18th and 19th century, and from 1871 was part of unified Germany. In 1880, the Kaiserfahrt ("Emperor's passage") channel on Usedom was opened, a water route with a depth of 10 metres connecting the lagoon with the Baltic Sea by bypassing the eastern part of the Swine, allowing large ships to enter the lagoon and the seaport of Stettin quicker and safer.

The canal, approximately 12 km long and 10 metres deep, was dug by the German Empire between 1874 and 1880, during the reign of the first Kaiser Wilhelm (1797–1888) after whom it was named. Also, the work resulted in a new island named Kaseburg (Karsibór) being cut off from Usedom.

After the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II in 1945, the eastern part of the lagoon became part of Poland, while the western part became part of East Germany. The Kaiserfahrt was renamed Piast Canal, after the Polish Piast dynasty, which first included the region to Poland in the 10th century.

The German-Polish border also divides the bight called Neuwarper See near Rieth, Luckow, Luckow.

Economy

The lagoon has served as an important fishing grounds for centuries, as a major transportation pathway since the 18th century, and as a tourist destination since the 20th century.

Heringsdorf Airport on Usedom island is located on the shores of the lagoon.

Nature
The southern shore of the lagoon belongs to the Am Stettiner Haff Nature Park, its northern shore and the island of Usedom to the Usedom Island Nature Park. To the west is the Anklamer Stadtbruch Nature Reserve and, within it, the Anklamer Torfmoor, a protected wetland which is renaturalising after being used for peat extraction.

title: Szczecin Lagoon


text:
Talk:Exclave

Dubrovnik?
Is this really an enclave? Its own article never mentions that, and its map makes it look like an island.
 * O.K, I know it's been two years probably since this question was asked but it looks like nobody has answered it. I hope that the anon. editor is still with us, and alive and well! The city of Dubrovnik is the principle city in what we call the Dubrovnik-Neretva Općina (district/borough etc). Now because of the fact that the independent Bosnia & Hercegovina (also ex Yugoslavia) was given some 10km or so access to the Adriatic, based on the municipality of a coastal town called Neum, Croatia is seperated with Dubrovnik being isolated. I'm from Dubrovnik and it's probably more fair to say that people of Dubrovnik have stronger cultural ties with those from Trebinje (Bosnia) and Montenegro than with Croatians living in Osijek or Istra. Anyhow, Neum was part of an independent Bosnia even before the creation of Yugoslavia. It was returned to Bosnia when it became recognised as a constituent republic in Yugoslavia when it was recreated at the end of World War 2. Ragusan 11-feb-06

 * I can see where the earlier writer's confusion came from: the first map is much too small to show the separation, and the second map shows the position of Dubrovnik within the old Republic (before 1808) rather than within today's Croatia. The gap is quite obvious in my National Geographic Atlas.  —Tamfang 23:58, 11 February 2006 (UTC)

Alaska
Does Alaska count as an exclave of the United States? RickK | Talk 23:40, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, according to the list on Country. fabiform | talk 23:59, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Gibraltar
Gibralter is different from other enclaves and I don't think it should count as one. It belongs to the UK, but it isn't PART of the UK, it's a dependency. Compare with Alaska, which has the same status as any other US state, or Mellila, Ceuta which are considered to be integral parts of the Spanish state. Kappa 02:51, 19 Sep 2004 (UTC)

P.S. How about French Guiana, which is "an integral part of France"?

Southeast Asia
Is this serious? On Borneo, is East Malaysia an exclave of Malaysia because of Kalimantan (and Brunei), or is Kalimantan an exclave of Indonesia because of East Malaysia? Perhaps they surround each other? Is Brunei an enclave or two, or one or both parts an exclave? How can you judge when the sea is involved? --Henrygb 22:21, 2 Oct 2004 (UTC)

Subnational exclaves
Just a thought, but shouldn't the examples which are within the US be in the list of subnational exclaves, rather than in the main list? Vashti 18:05, 11 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * Yeah, the lists seem like kind of a mess. Not sure if true vs. practical, national vs. subnational are really that easy to work with for editors. Or so it would seem, given the fact that US states appear in 3 of the 4 categories. —rodii 03:30, 12 February 2006 (UTC)

Northern Ireland?
Northern Ireland is a territory that belongs to the United Kingdom but is not connected to the UK Mainland by land. Other than its coastline, it is surrounded by The Irish Republic, a seperate political entitiy. Shall we include it in the list?

As Northern Ireland is part of the island of Ireland and that islands are not normally considered exclaves (See the first paragraph of the article), it should not be listed. Shocktm (Talk * Contributions) 15:25, 29 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Northern Ireland is as much a part of the United Kingdom as Ceuta and Melilla are a part of Spain and I therefore believe if the latter are to be considered exclaves of Spain then the former should be considered an exclave of the UK. It is not a whole island that is off the coast from the mainland (as are the Shetlands, Anglesey and the Isle of White etc.), rather, it is part of an island which has borders with another country, and is therefore an exclave. 129.67.162.10 (talk) 01:43, 23 May 2009 (UTC)

Martín García
I take it from the above that the following, quoted from "Argentina" is also wrong?

'' There is one Argentine exclave: the island of Martín García (co-ordinates 34°11′ S 58°15′ W). It is situated near the confluence of the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, a mere kilometre inside Uruguayan waters, about 3.5 km from the Uruguayan coastline, near the small city of Martín Chico (itself about halfway between Nueva Palmira and Colonia).''

--Brian Z 03:04, 29 October 2005 (UTC)

According to User_talk:Argentino, the water surrounding Martín García is Urugayan. Maybe that would mean it is an exclave, even though its an island? --Brian Z 15:20, 30 October 2005 (UTC)

West Berlin?
I suppose West Berlin is not here because it was not technically a part of West Germany? Astrokey44 09:21, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

 * Correct West Berlin was not an encalve/exclave as it was not part of West Germany but it did have enclaves such as Steinstücken, which was part of West Perlin but surronded by East Germany. Shocktm | Talk | Contributions 16:44, 3 December 2005 (UTC)

Proposed merger
I suggest that the articles enclave and exclave be merged into one another. Having two separate articles for these two sides of the same story makes as much sense as having separate articles for immigration and emigration - it's the same phenomenon, just described from opposing angles. Much like "here" is actually "there" if described from "there" and vice versa. Actually, the content of the immigration and emigration articles differs, while these two don't. Hm… Any thoughts? =I //Big Adamsky 06:56, 10 January 2006 (UTC)
 * joining the earlier section on the same idea back in:

Merge with Enclave?
Is there really enough of a distinction between enclave and exclave to merit two separate articles? The enclave article discusses practical enclaves, coastal countries, coastal fragments, and subnational enclaves. Since there can also exist practical exclaves and subnational exclaves, and since coastal fragments are probably exclaves but not enclaves, it's all looking like an arbitrary division. I think a single article, defining both terms in the intro, and then enumerating and distinguishing subtypes, would be more natural than trying to fence the two terms off. All the external linked sites discuss both terms together. cf Acronym and initialism. Joestynes 09:41, 15 Mar 2005 (UTC)
 * Indeed, what's an enclave from one point of view has to be an exclave from another, and vice versa, and this still applies if an exclave happens to be an enclave in more then one entity, geographically that's no different from bordering a state and say the ocean. Fastifex 10:51, 15 January 2006 (UTC)
 * The article actually makes the point that not all exclaves are enclaves. I'm undecided about whether this is distinction with a difference, but at least one editor thinks so. —rodii 18:18, 31 January 2006 (UTC)

 * See main discussion at Talk:Enclave.

Delaware
I believe that Delaware has at least one bit of land on the New Jersey side of the estuary; can someone who knows details add it to the "practical subnational exclaves" section? —Tamfang 22:20, 29 January 2006 (UTC)

 * According to Google maps, that is correct--http://maps.google.com/maps?f=q&hl=en&q=dover,+delaware&ll=39.582407,-75.4953&spn=0.342924,0.894012

Stubblyhead 23:08, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

Interesting word, didn´t know of it´s existance until today, so what about Mbini, is that an exclave of Equatorial Guinea, when the capital Malabo is located on an island? RGDS Alexmcfire

Practical Exclaves
I don't understand why Point Roberts, WA and the Northwest Angle are listed here. They both meet all the characteristics of an exclave. Neither is any more connected to the rest of US than Cabinda is to Angola. The same could be said for the subnational pracital exclave. Can anyone shed some light on this distinction? Stubblyhead 23:20, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

 * They are connected to the rest of the US through US Territorial Water so they are not real exclaves. ((Shocktm | Talk | Contributions)) 23:55, 8 February 2006 (UTC)

 * Whereas Cabinda is separated by a corridor of Congo territorial water. —Tamfang 00:36, 9 February 2006 (UTC)

Pentreheyling
Just out of interest, Pentreheyling is a practical exclave - it is part of Shrophire in England, but can only reached by roads passing through Wales - see I'm no expert on these things though - I just noticed the unusual edit summary - feel free to include it or not at your discretion! Aquilina 20:12, 7 March 2006 (UTC)

ooh, good point! But is it really worth a mention? It looks to me like a hamlet - hence why i couldnt find much about it on t'interweb. Also, it's not technically an exclave, is it? It can still be reached by foot. Discuss?

HawkerTyphoon 23:28, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

sure, it's not a true exclave - but it is a practical exclave (quote from the definition - ...because the only road available enters that foreign place before coming back to the mother country) so it could go in that corresponding section.

I'm not hugely fussed whether it goes in or not - I've never even had an interest in exclaves before, my interest was piqued by your edit summary and I started researching from there! However, seeing as the only examples in that section so far are from North America, I might lean gently towards a bit of British involvement in the article - with the correct spelling this time of course! I suppose we could use the link to the map given above too... Aquilina 23:41, 8 March 2006 (UTC)

Municipal exclaves?
Coincidentally, a few days ago, I found that the City of Waco, Texas has an exclave. The to get to the part of Waco that contains Texas State Technical College and the L-3 Communications facility (where President Bush lands when visiting his ranch), you have to leave the rest (larger part) of Waco (generally going through the city of Bellmead). Should this be mentioned? Or are municipal exclaves a dime a dozen, not warranting individual mention? MrVoluntarist 22:50, 18 March 2006 (UTC)

 * It may not actually be a true exclave, but a flagpole annexation, i.e. the portion of the city you describe may actually be connected to the rest of Waco by a long, narrow strip along a road or other right-of-way. I don't know what the law in Texas is, but I believe that some states do not allow exclaves - an annexation must be connected to the existing city. Even if municipal exclaves are a dime a dozen, I think they should be mentioned. If the list becomes too long, a separate article can be created. Denvoran 23:20, 18 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Okay, I think you may be right. According to this map, if you look in the top right, there is a thin strip along a railroad, then back along a road and into the annexed territory.  Since this involves a change in means of transportation (and getting off where the train doesn't stop), would it qualify for the "practical exclave" section? MrVoluntarist 23:42, 18 March 2006 (UTC)
 * A dime a dozen is too right, alas--in the US many municipalities are riddled with "township islands" and similar things--areas that for some reason were never included in the city or town proper, making them exclaves of the surrounding governmental units. There are literally dozens in my mid-sized town. How far do you want to take this?  · rodii ·  04:05, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Hey, I'm just asking, dude, that's what the talk page is for. I didn't make the "practical exclave" section.  Chill-ax.  What I was saying above that made Waco's flagpole annexation different was that it's not connected a set of roads you can drive through.  In fact, it is impractical to travel by any vehicle from the bigger part of Waco to the annex.  Is it common for a flagpole annex to be connected by strip that switches from a railroad to a road?  If so, yes, this is a dime a dozen. MrVoluntarist 04:37, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Huh? Are you hearing that as an attack on you? I think you raised an interesting question, and as I thought about it I started to realize that applying the whole "exclave" idea on a municipal level gets really, really complicated. My comment is directed more at Denvoran's comment than yours, in fact. I'm just talking, dude, that's what the talk page is for. ( · rodii · --forgot to sign earlier)
 * When you said "how far do you want to take this" (if that was you, your post is unsigned), it sounded like you were irritated somehow that I was suggesting municipal exclaves or practical municipal exclaves. I wasn't trying to push a view, but merely asking.  Your post sounded as if I was trying to insert inappropriate material, when I was doing exactly what one is supposed to to about questionable insertions: talk about it on the talk page! MrVoluntarist 19:53, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Oops, sorry I forgot to sign. My question was exactly that--a question. How do you (that is, the editors) want to take the idea of exclaves? Because once we start getting down to the municipal level, maybe it starts to look more like "quantum foam" than nice orderly boundaries. I wasn't "irritated" and in fact paid your comment very little attention; as I indicated, I was replying to a comment father up in the thread. If you can't handle a content question without worrying that it's personal, maybe you need to get some fresh air or something.  · rodii ·  21:29, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * You alleged I was "trying to take this far". You seemed irritated and incivil.  Of course questions don't bother me.  Implications that I'm "trying to take this" to places it doesn't belong are unwarranted. 22:48, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * This will be my last contribution to this insipid argument. I didn't "allege you were trying to take this too far." My exact words were "How far do you want to take this?" meaning what should be the limit of detail the article should try to accommodate. I did not use or imply the word "too," and, for the third time, my comment wasn't directed at you, but to the person above you. I apologize for the misformatting--I struggled with how best to mak it clear who I was tlking to without disrupting the exchange you were already having. The indentation syntax is a little clumsy in this regard. I'm sorry that I seemed to you to be irritated and uncivil--but that's your interpretation of my tone. I regret that you heard it that way, but I'm not responsible. I will admit I'm irritated now, though. Feel free to post any more whiny justifications for your insecurity on my talk page, but I promise you they will be ignored.  · rodii ·  23:35, 19 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Wow, you really need to read the section on Be civil. I've never seen someone get this worked up in a discussion of exclaves.  Two words: chill-ax.  Well, maybe two words merged into one non-word. MrVoluntarist 23:45, 19 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Vol, you misunderstood Rodii's question as a personal assault, and then refused to let it go after the clarification. If Rodii got a bit peevish after three rounds of that, it's hardly surprising.  —Tamfang 01:41, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * Rodii got belligerent after my first (eminently reasonable) response to him, not after "three rounds" -- not that that would justify it anyway. I "refused to let it go" only in the sense that I wanted to explain to him why he was misinterpreted.  Or would you prefer we not learn when the things we say could be taken the wrong way?  Well, that would make sense, because Rodii is never wrong. Nor you! I'm the idiot who's stupid enough to dicuss a topic before making changes. MrVoluntarist 01:46, 20 March 2006 (UTC)

 * My mistake, Rodii got peevish ("belligerent" is hyperbole) after the second time you said his question could be read as a personal attack on you, not the third. Since Rodii has already said more than once that the "offensive" question was meant for Denvoran, not you, it's absurd to moan that you're being attacked for "discuss[ing] a topic before making changes" (unless I misunderstand what changes you have in mind).  I don't know enough to say whether you or Rodii are consistently right or wrong in other matters.  (Your arguments on anarchocapitalism could be improved, imho, but that's my opinion of most people including me.)  —Tamfang 19:15, 21 March 2006 (UTC)
 * Constructive criticism is well and good but it would be more palatable if coupled with an acknowledgement of your own mistake. —Tamfang 19:19, 21 March 2006 (UTC)

fork, why?
In 2006, it was noted that Enclave and Exclave largely repeated each other, so I merged them to Enclave and exclave (with redirects), moving most of the examples into List of enclaves and exclaves. That move was uncontroversial at the time. Why has someone now re-forked Exclave? Have any of the recent editors compared new content to the existing content of the other pages? —Tamfang (talk) 16:25, 25 July 2009 (UTC)

 * I recognize some entries (Kentucky Bend and Sandoval County) as my own writing! —Tamfang (talk) 18:20, 25 July 2009 (UTC)

SFO
This forked article contains only one item that's not already in List of enclaves and exclaves, and that one is wrong:

 * San Francisco International Airport is also part of an exclave, located 6 miles (10 km) south of San Francisco proper in San Mateo County, but considered a part of the city.

The airport is San Francisco's property but not its territory. It lies in San Mateo County, with a couple of bits on its edges in the cities of South San Francisco and Millbrae, according to a Thomas Bros map. —Tamfang (talk) 00:15, 26 July 2009 (UTC)

with obsession all articles are possible
This has been classified as a "redirect with possibilities" of being expanded to a real article. The result would be a restoration of the repetitions that motivated me to merge Exclave and Enclave into Enclave and exclave all these years ago! —Tamfang (talk) 08:09, 29 November 2015 (UTC)

title: Talk:Exclave


text:
Eanfrith of Bernicia

Eanfrith (590–634 ) was briefly King of Bernicia from 633 to 634. His father was Æthelfrith, a Bernician king who had also ruled Deira to the south before being killed in battle around 616 against Raedwald of East Anglia, who had given refuge to Edwin, an exiled prince of Deira. His mother was Acha of Deira.

Edwin became king of Northumbria upon Æthelfrith's death, and Eanfrith, who was, according to Bede, the eldest of Æthelfrith's sons, went into exile to the north. In his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Bede writes that "For all the time that Edwin reigned, the sons of the aforesaid Etheifrid [Æthelfrith], who had reigned before him, with many of the nobility, lived in banishment among the Scots or Picts, and were there instructed according to the doctrine of the Scots, and received the grace of baptism."

Eanfrith married a Pictish princess and had a son, Talorcan, who later became a king of the Picts (653–657). Edwin was killed by the army of Cadwallon ap Cadfan of Gwynedd and Penda of Mercia at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in October 633, and Eanfrith, taking the opportunity to return home, became king of Bernicia. He did not, however, rule Deira, which was held by a relative of Edwin, Osric. Bede tells us that as soon as Eanfrith became king, he "renounced and lost" his faith and returned to the "abominations" of his "former idols".

It is possible that Eanfrith was initially cooperative with Cadwallon. The historian D. P. Kirby, pointing to Eanfrith's evident ability to quickly exploit Edwin's death, has speculated that "a wide-ranging set of alliances" that included both Cadwallon and Eanfrith may have existed. If there was a friendly relationship between Eanfrith and Cadwallon at first, however, it must not have lasted, since Bede reports that Eanfrith went to Cadwallon "with only twelve chosen soldiers" in an attempt to negotiate peace, but Cadwallon had him killed.

The year in which he and Osric ruled was subsequently deemed so abhorrent because of their paganism that it was decided to add that year to the length of the reign of the Christian Oswald of Bernicia (Eanfrith's brother), who defeated Cadwallon and came to rule both Bernicia and Deira, so as to ignore the brief reigns of Eanfrith and Osric.

title: Eanfrith of Bernicia