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Paul Brown

Paul Eugene Brown (September 7, 1908 – August 5, 1991) was an American football coach and executive in the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) and National Football League (NFL). Brown was both the co-founder and first coach of the Cleveland Browns, a team named after him, and later co-founded the Cincinnati Bengals. His teams won seven league championships in a professional coaching career spanning 25 seasons.

Brown began his coaching career at Severn School in 1931 before becoming the head football coach at Massillon Washington High School in Massillon, Ohio, where he grew up. His high school teams lost only 10 games in 11 seasons. He was then hired at Ohio State University and coached the school to its first national football championship in 1942. After World War II, he became head coach of the Browns, who won all four AAFC championships before joining the NFL in 1950. Brown coached the Browns to three NFL championships — in 1950, 1954 and 1955 — but was fired in January 1963 amid a power struggle with team owner Art Modell. In 1968, Brown co-founded and was the first coach of the Bengals. He retired from coaching in 1975 but remained the Bengals' team president until his death in 1991. The Bengals named their home stadium Paul Brown Stadium in his honor. He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1967.

Brown is credited with a number of American football innovations. He was the first coach to use game film to scout opponents, hire a full-time staff of assistants, and test players on their knowledge of a playbook. He invented the modern face mask, the practice squad and the draw play. He also played a role in breaking professional football's color barrier, bringing the first African-Americans to play pro football in the modern era onto his teams. Despite these accomplishments, Brown was not universally liked. He was strict and controlling, which often brought him into conflict with players who wanted a greater say in play-calling. These disputes, combined with Brown's failure to consult Modell on major personnel decisions, led to his firing as the Browns' coach in 1963.

Early life
Brown grew up in Massillon, Ohio, where he moved with his family from Norwalk when he was nine years of age. His father, Lester, was a dispatcher for the Wheeling and Lake Erie Railroad. Massillon was a shipping and steel town obsessed with its high school and professional football teams, both called the Tigers. Massillon's main rival at both levels was nearby Canton, a bigger and richer city. When the professional teams folded in the 1920s, the rivalry between the high school teams took center stage.

Brown entered Massillon Washington High School in 1922. Although he played football as a child, Brown was undersized for the game at less than 150 pounds and at first focused his athletic energies on the pole vault. Harry Stuhldreher, who went on to be one of Notre Dame's legendary Four Horsemen, was then the high school quarterback. But Massillon coach Dave Stewart saw Brown's determination to be a good vaulter despite his small size and brought him onto the football team; as a junior in 1924, he took over as the starting quarterback. Massillon posted a win–loss record of 15–3 in Brown's junior and senior years as the starter.

Brown graduated in 1925 and enrolled at Ohio State University the following year, hoping to make the Buckeyes team. He never got past the tryout phase. After his freshman year, he transferred to Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, where he followed Weeb Ewbank as the school's starting quarterback. Under Coach Chester Pittser, Brown was named to the All-Ohio small-college second team by the Associated Press at the end of 1928. In two seasons at Miami, Brown guided the team to a 14–3 record. He was a member of the Kappa chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon. He married his high school sweetheart Katie Kester the following year. Brown had taken pre-law at Miami and considered studying history on a Rhodes Scholarship, but after college he instead took his first job as a coach. On Stewart's recommendation, Severn School, a private prep school in Maryland, hired him in 1930.

Severn School
Brown spent two very successful years at Severn. The team was undefeated in his first season and won the Maryland state championship. In 1931, the team's win-loss-tie record was 5–2–1. Brown's overall record was 12–2–1. After his second year, Massillon's head coaching job became available, and Brown took the position.

Massillon Tigers
Brown returned to Massillon in 1932, when he was 24 years old and barely two years out of college. His assignment was to turn around a Tigers team that had fallen into mediocrity over the six seasons since the departure of Stewart, Brown's old coach. In 1931, the year before Brown arrived, the Tigers finished with a 2–6–2 record. Brown's strategy was to build up a disciplined, hard-working team. He fired an assistant early on for arriving at a practice late because he had to work on his farm. No Tigers player was allowed to sit on the bench during a game; Brown made them stand. At Massillon, Brown put in an offense and blocking scheme he learned from Duke's Jimmy DeHart and Purdue's Noble Kizer. He emphasized quickness over strength.

In his first season at Massillon, Brown's team posted a 5–4–1 record, better than the previous year but far from Brown's exacting standards. The Tigers improved again in 1933, ending with an 8–2 record but losing to their chief rivals, the Canton McKinley High School Bulldogs. In 1934, Massillon won all of its games until a 21–6 defeat to Canton in the final game of the season. As the pressure on Brown grew to turn the tables on Canton, Massillon finally accomplished the feat the following year in an undefeated season, the first of several with Brown at the helm.

By then, Brown had put his system into place: a strict, systematic approach to coaching combined with a well-organized recruitment network that drew promising young players from Massillon's junior high school football program. He paid no attention to race, and brought several African-American players onto the team at a time when many northern schools excluded them.

In the ensuing five seasons, Massillon lost only one game, a 7–0 defeat at New Castle, Pennsylvania, in 1937 after several players came down with the flu. As the Tigers' prestige grew, Brown in 1936 convinced the school to build a new stadium almost triple the size of the existing 7,000-seat facility. The stadium was finished in 1939, and is now named after Brown. The pinnacle of Brown's career at Massillon was a victory in the 1940 season against Toledo's Waite High School. The Tigers and Waite both went undefeated in the 1939 season, and both claimed the state championship. The teams decided to settle the score the following year, and Brown's team won 28–0. The Massillon 1940 squad is still regarded by historians as one of the best in the history of state high school football. In a pre-season scrimmage, the Massillon Tigers played the Kent State University Golden Flashes, and defeated the older college team 47–0.

During his nine years at Massillon, Brown invented the playbook, a detailed listing of formations and set plays, and tested his players on their knowledge of it. He also originated the practice of sending in plays to his quarterback from the sideline using hand signals. His overall record at the school was 80–8–2, including a 35-game winning streak. Between 1935 and 1940, the team won the state football championship five times and won the High School Football National Championship four times, outscoring opponents by 2,393 points to 168 over that span. After the early losses to Canton, the Tigers beat the Bulldogs six straight times.

Brown's legacy in Massillon is still honored to this day: the Tiger teams wear his initials on the front shoulder of their uniforms, and a portrait of Brown is permanently displayed on the scoreboard of Paul Brown Tiger Stadium.

Ohio State Buckeyes
Brown's success at Massillon raised his profile in Ohio considerably; people started calling him the "Miracle Man of Massillon." When Ohio State was looking for a new coach in 1940 – Francis Schmidt left after losing to the rival Michigan Wolverines three times in a row – Brown was a candidate for the job. Ohio State officials were skeptical about the 33-year-old making the transition to college football but were worried that they might lose talented high school recruits loyal to Brown if they did not sign him.

Ohio State offered Brown a $6,500 salary ($0 in dollars), about $1,500 above his Massillon pay. He accepted in January 1941 and immediately began to institute his rigorous system. Players were drilled and quizzed, and Brown focused on preparing the freshmen to take starting roles as graduating seniors left. He conditioned his players to emphasize quickness, adopting the 40-yard dash as a measure of speed because that was the distance players needed to run to cover a punt.

Brown's first year at Ohio State was a success. The Buckeyes won six of eight games in 1941; the only loss was to Northwestern University and its star quarterback, Otto Graham. The final game of the season was a 20–20 tie with Michigan, which the school's supporters saw as a good outcome given that Ohio State was a heavy underdog. The Buckeyes tied for second place in the Western Conference, a grouping of college teams from the Midwestern United States (now known as the Big Ten), and finished 13th in the AP Poll. Brown was fourth in balloting for national Coach of the Year.

Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, threatened to derail the 1942 season, but most college teams played on, adjusting schedules to include military teams composed of players serving in the military. The Buckeyes opened the season by beating a Fort Knox team 59–0, followed by two more wins against Southern California and Indiana University. In the first AP Poll of the season, Ohio State was ranked best in the nation, the first time the school had achieved that mark. The 1942 team was the first composed mainly of players hand-picked by Brown, including Bill Willis, Dante Lavelli and star halfback Les Horvath. In the middle of the season, the Buckeyes lost to the University of Wisconsin after numerous players drank bad water and got sick. That was the team's only loss of the season, which culminated with a 21–7 victory over Michigan. The Buckeyes won the Western Conference and claimed their first-ever national title after finishing the season at the top of the AP Poll.

The 1943 season was a disaster for Brown and the Buckeyes. Depleted by the military draft and facing tough competition from teams on Army and Navy bases, Brown was forced to play 17-year-old recruits who had not yet enlisted. Ohio State had affiliated itself with the Army Specialized Training Program, which did not allow its trainees to participate in varsity sports, while schools such as Michigan and Purdue became part of the Navy's V-12 training program, which did. The Buckeyes ended with a 3–6 record. In three seasons at Ohio State, Brown amassed an 18–8–1 record.

Great Lakes Bluejackets
Brown was classified 1-A in 1944 and commissioned as a lieutenant in the U.S. Navy. He served at the Great Lakes Naval Training Station outside Chicago as head coach of its Bluejacket football team, which competed against other service teams and college programs. The station was a waypoint for Navy recruits between training and active service in World War II, but its commanders took athletics seriously and saw winning as a morale-booster and a point of personal pride. Brown could have been called up for active duty – Tony Hinkle, his predecessor, was already serving in the Pacific – but the war began to wind down as Brown arrived. Brown had little time to institute his system, and instead adopted Hinkle's offensive scheme, borrowed from the Chicago Bears. He had a smattering of talented players, including defensive end George Young and halfback Ara Parseghian. In 1944, the team lost to Ohio State and Notre Dame, but finished with a 9–2–1 record and was among the top 20 teams in the AP Poll.

In September 1944, Arch Ward, the influential sports editor of the Chicago Tribune, proposed a new eight-team professional football league called the All-America Football Conference (AAFC) to compete against the more established National Football League (NFL) once the war was over. Ward lined up wealthy owners for the new league, which included teams in Los Angeles, New York City, San Francisco and Cleveland. Arthur B. "Mickey" McBride, a taxi-cab magnate who made a fortune in the newspaper business, was the owner of the Cleveland franchise. As Brown was preparing for the 1945 Bluejackets season, Ward came on McBride's behalf to ask Brown if he wanted to coach the new team. McBride offered $17,500 a year ($0 in today's dollars) – more than any coach at any level - and full authority over football matters. He also received a stake in the team and a stipend while he was still in the military.

On February 8, 1945, Brown accepted the job, saying he was sad to leave Ohio State, but he "couldn't turn down this deal in fairness to my family." Brown was still Ohio State's head coach in absentia, and the decision surprised and outraged school officials who expected him to return after the war. The AAFC did not start play until after the war, however, and Brown continued to get ready for the 1945 season at Great Lakes. That year, many of his best players were transferred to bases on the West Coast as the focus of the war shifted to the Pacific. The team started with a 0–4–1 record, but rattled off six straight wins after the war ended and players returned from service overseas. Within weeks of Brown's final Bluejackets game, a 39–7 victory over Notre Dame, he set off for his new job in Cleveland.

Cleveland Browns in the AAFC (1946–1949)
By the time Brown arrived in Cleveland, the team had signed a number of players to its roster, including quarterback Otto Graham, whose Northwestern squad had beaten the Buckeyes in 1941. Many of the players came from Ohio State, Great Lakes and Massillon teams that Brown coached. Lou Groza, a placekicker and tackle, played for Brown at Ohio State before the war intervened. Receiver Dante Lavelli was a sophomore on Ohio State's championship-winning team in 1942. Bill Willis, a defensive lineman whom Brown coached at Ohio State, and Marion Motley, a running back who grew up in Canton and played for Brown at Great Lakes, became two of the first black athletes to play professional football when they joined the team in 1946. Other signings included receiver Mac Speedie, center Frank Gatski and back Edgar "Special Delivery" Jones. Brown brought in assistants including Blanton Collier, who had been stationed at Great Lakes and met Brown at Bluejackets practices.

The name of the team was at first left up to Brown, who rejected calls for it to be christened the Browns in his honor. McBride then held a contest to name the team in May 1945, which yielded the name "Panthers," which had previously been used by an earlier team that had played in Cleveland in the 1920s. However, the nickname was scrapped soon afterward. Depending on the source, Brown rejected it after learning that the Panthers had failed (according to this version, Brown said, "That old Panthers team failed. I want no part of that name."), or McBride balked at paying the owner of the original Panthers for the rights to use the name. Whatever the case, in August, McBride gave in to popular demand and christened the team the Browns, despite Paul Brown's objections.

For years, however, Brown claimed that the second name-the-team contest yielded the name "Brown Bombers," after then-world heavyweight boxing champion Joe Louis, whose nickname was "The Brown Bomber." According to this version, when Brown rejected the nickname "Panthers," he decided that the team needed a nickname befitting a champion, and felt the nickname "Brown Bombers" was appropriate. The name was reportedly shortened to simply "Browns." This alternate history of the name was even supported by the team as being factual as recently as the mid-1990s, and it continues as an urban legend to this day. However, Paul Brown never held fast to the Joe Louis story, and later in his life admitted that it was false, invented to deflect unwanted attention arising from the team being named after him. The Browns and the NFL now both support the position that the team was indeed named after Paul Brown.

With the roster fixed and the team's name chosen, Brown set out to build a dynasty. "I want to be what the New York Yankees are in baseball or Ben Hogan is in golf", he said.

After a training camp at Bowling Green State University, the Browns played their first game in September 1946 at Cleveland Stadium. A crowd of 60,135 people showed up to see the Browns beat the Miami Seahawks 44–0, then a record attendance mark for professional football. That touched off a string of wins; the team ended the season with a 12–2 record and the top spot in the AAFC's western division. The Browns then beat the AAFC's New York Yankees in the championship.

Cleveland won the AAFC championship again in 1947 behind an offensive attack that employed the forward pass more frequently and effectively than was typical at the time. The Browns' offensive success was driven by Brown's version of the T formation, which was gradually replacing the single-wing formation as football's most popular and effective scheme.

The Browns won every game in the 1948 season, a feat that went unmatched until the Miami Dolphins (coached by Brown disciple Don Shula) did it in 1972. Cleveland then won the AAFC championship for the fourth time in a row in 1949. By then, however, the league was struggling for survival, due in part to the Browns' dominance. Attendance at games dwindled in 1948 and 1949 as fans lost interest in lopsided victories, and at the end of the 1949 season the AAFC dissolved. Three of its teams, the San Francisco 49ers, the Baltimore Colts and the Browns, merged into the NFL. The Browns picked up a few good former AAFC players from other teams, including offensive guard Abe Gibron and defensive end Len Ford, but some observers saw Brown's team as the lone standout in an otherwise minor league.

Cleveland Browns in the NFL (1950–1955)
The Browns' first game in the NFL in 1950 was against the two-time defending champion Philadelphia Eagles in Philadelphia. They won the game 35–10, the first of 10 victories that year. After beating the New York Giants in a playoff game, the Browns went on to win the championship game against the Los Angeles Rams on a last-minute field goal by Groza. "The flag of the late lamented AAFC flies high, and Paul Brown has the last laugh", the Plain Dealer's editorial page proclaimed. Brown said his was "the greatest football team a coach ever had, and there was never a game like this one." In 16 seasons, Brown had led his teams to 12 championships. He was the first head coach to win both a college and NFL championship, a feat not repeated until Jimmy Johnson and later Barry Switzer did it with the Dallas Cowboys in the 1990s, and Pete Carroll who accomplished the feat with USC in 2004 and the Seattle Seahawks in 2013.

As the Browns climbed to the top of the NFL, speculation began to mount that Brown might return to the Buckeyes. Wes Fesler had resigned as the team's coach, and Brown was seen as a possible replacement. But Brown had also alienated many Ohio State alumni by failing to return to the school after World War II and for signing away players including Groza before their college eligibility expired. He interviewed with the university's athletic board on January 27, 1951, but the board unanimously rejected Brown in favor of Woody Hayes, who was unanimously endorsed by the board of trustees.

The Browns reached the championship each of the next three years, but lost all of those games. In both 1952 and 1953, Cleveland lost championships to the Detroit Lions, who were then on the rise after decades of mediocrity. Before the 1953 season, McBride sold the team to a group of local businessmen led by David Jones for $600,000 ($0 million in dollars). While Brown was upset that McBride did not consult him about the deal, the new owners said they would stay out of the picture and let Brown run the team. Brown saw this as a crucial issue: he felt he needed full control over personnel decisions and coaching to make his system work.

Graham announced in 1953 that the following season would be his last. But the team won the championship in 1954 in a rematch against the Lions, and Brown convinced Graham to come back. Cleveland finished 1955 with a 9–2–1 record, reaching the championship game again. The Browns beat the Rams for their second straight championship, and Graham retired after the season.

Later years in Cleveland (1956–1963)
With Graham gone and the quarterback situation in flux, the Browns ended 1956 with a 5–7 record, Paul Brown's first losing season as a professional coach. In the next year's draft, the team selected Jim Brown out of Syracuse University. As television began to help football leapfrog baseball as America's most popular sport, Jim Brown became a larger-than-life personality. He was handsome and charismatic in private and dominant on the field. Paul Brown, however, was critical of some aspects of Jim Brown's game, including his disinclination to block. In Jim Brown's first season, the team reached the championship game, again against the Lions, but lost 59–14. The Browns did not contend for the championship in the following two years, when a Baltimore Colts team coached by Brown's former protégé Weeb Ewbank won a pair of titles.

As Jim Brown's star rose, players began to question Paul Brown's leadership and play-calling in the late 1950s. The skepticism came to a head in a game against the Giants at the end of the 1958 season in which a win or tie would have given the Browns a spot in the championship game against Ewbank's Colts. In the third quarter, the Browns drove to New York's 16-yard line with a 10–3 lead and lined up for a field goal. But Coach Brown called a timeout before Groza could make the try, which alerted the Giants to a possible fake kick. Brown indeed called a fake, and the holder stumbled as he got up to throw, ruining the play. The Giants came back to win the game by a field goal, defeated the Browns 10–0 in a playoff for the Eastern Conference title and reached the championship, while the Browns went home without a spot in the title game for the second year in a row.

Paul Brown blamed the struggles on quarterback Milt Plum, whom the team had drafted in 1957, saying the Browns had "lost faith in Plum's ability to play under stress." But the players were instead losing faith in Coach Brown and his autocratic style. Jim Brown started a weekly radio show, which Paul Brown did not like; it undercut his control over the team and its message. But the coach found it hard to question Jim Brown given his feats on the field, and the tension between the two men grew. The team finished second in its division in 1959 and 1960, even as Jim Brown racked up league-leading seasons in rushing.

Art Modell, a New York advertising executive, bought the team in 1961 for $4.1 million ($0 million today). Modell, who was 35 years old at the time, bought out Brown's 15% stake in the team for $500,000 and gave Brown a new eight-year contract. He said he and Brown would have a "working partnership", and began to play a more direct role than previous owners in the team's operation. This angered Brown, who was used to having a free hand in football matters. Modell, who was single and only a few years older than most players, started to listen to their concerns about the coach. He became particularly close to Jim Brown, calling him "my senior partner". Modell sat in the press box during games and could be overheard second-guessing Paul Brown's play-calling, which drove a deeper wedge between the two men. At that time, Brown was the only coach who insisted on calling every offensive play, making use of rotating guards to ferry coaching instructions. Quarterback audibles to change the play at the line of scrimmage in response to defensive positioning were not permitted. When Plum openly questioned Paul Brown's absolute control over play-calling, he was traded to Detroit.

The conflict between Brown and Modell reached a breaking point when Brown traded star halfback Bobby Mitchell for the rights to Ernie Davis, a Heisman Trophy-winning running back who broke all of Jim Brown's rushing records at Syracuse. Paul Brown did not inform Modell of the move, and Modell only heard about it after getting a call from Washington Redskins owner George Preston Marshall. Davis, however, was diagnosed with leukemia before the 1962 season. He came to Cleveland to train after the cancer went into remission, but Brown would not allow him to play. Modell, however, wanted to give Davis a chance to play before he succumbed to the disease. Ultimately, the relationship between coach and owner was never repaired, and Ernie Davis never played in a professional game, dying on May 18, 1963.

Departure from Cleveland
As the rift between the players and Brown and between Modell and Brown grew, Modell fired Brown on January 7, 1963. A controversy developed over the timing of the decision amid a local newspaper strike, which limited discussion of the move. A printing company executive, however, got together a group of sportswriters and published a 32-page magazine fielding players' views on the firing. Opinions were mixed; Modell came in for his share of criticism, but tackle and team captain Mike McCormack said he did not think the team could win under Brown. Blanton Collier, Brown's longtime assistant, was named the team's new head coach. Brown remained with the team as vice president and continued to receive an $82,500 salary under his eight-year contract, though the position had no true power in what he told The New York Times was a "vice president in charge of I-don't-know-what."

Brown reportedly wished to purchase the Eagles, who were put on sale by the Happy Hundred on April 19, and he led a group of investors that offered $4.5 million. Modell supported his effort regardless of their dispute, telling the Associated Press that he would "not stand in [Brown's] way if he wants to buy the Eagles." Despite his success in Cleveland, the news drew mixed reaction from Philadelphians as opponents saw little reason to replace the current front office or were hesitant to see an "outsider" owning their team. By May, however, Brown had lost interest in the bid, and an article from The Plain Dealer claimed it "remains doubtful whether Brown ever seriously considered purchasing the Eagles" and that "no attempt was made to put together a group and he hasn't visited Philadelphia since the Browns took a licking there last fall."

Out of football for the first time since 1930, Brown spent the next five years away from the sidelines, never once attending a Browns contest. As the team's vice president, he spoke little to Modell, only briefly doing so in 1963 to discuss scouting; Modell explained in 1964 that he did not order Brown to carry out any major responsibilities as it "would have been ludicrous to give a man of his stature piddling assignments." While he was secure financially, Brown's frustration grew with each passing year. "It was terrible", he later recalled. "I had everything a man could want: leisure, enough money, a wonderful family. Yet with all that, I was eating my heart out." Because Brown was still receiving his annual salary and liked to play golf, it was said that the only two people who made more money playing golf were Arnold Palmer and Jack Nicklaus.

Brown explored coaching possibilities, but he was mindful not to put himself in a position where his control might be challenged as it had been in Cleveland. In 1963, the New York Titans of the American Football League (AFL) offered him the head coach job for $50,000 but failed. Four years later, the AFL, which had formed to compete against the NFL, put a new franchise in Cincinnati. Brown had the third-largest stake in the team, and was the front man for the ownership group. He became general manager and head coach, and was also given the right to represent the team in all league matters, a key element of control for him.

Cincinnati Bengals
Brown called his new franchise the Bengals because Cincinnati had a team of that name in the 1930s and he thought it would provide a link to the past. Brown's son Mike joined the front office and became his father's top assistant and right-hand man. Brown brought in other assistants including Bill Johnson, Rick Forzano and Bill Walsh. In their first two seasons in 1968 and 1969, the Bengals fared poorly, but the team appeared to be on the upswing as Brown built up a core group of players through the draft, including quarterback Greg Cook.

The Bengals entered the NFL in 1970 as a result of the AFL–NFL merger and were placed in the newly formed American Football Conference alongside the Browns. A career-ending injury to Cook before the 1970 season forced the Bengals to rely on Virgil Carter, an emergency backup who could make accurate short passes but could not throw the ball deep like Cook once could. Brown and Walsh went to work designing an offense around Carter's limitations, a scheme that was the genesis of the West Coast offense Walsh later used to great effect when he became coach of the San Francisco 49ers.

The Bengals lost their first meeting with the Browns 30–27 in 1970, and Brown was booed when he did not come on the field to shake Collier's hand after the game. "I haven't shaken the other coach's hands after a game for years", Brown explained. "... I went up to him before the game, and we did our socializing then." The Bengals beat the Browns later in the season. Brown called it "my greatest victory."

As the Bengals' head coach, Brown took the team to the playoffs three times including 1970. Despite finding a franchise quarterback in Ken Anderson, Brown's team never got past the first round of the postseason tournament. Four days after the Bengals were eliminated from the playoffs in 1975, Brown announced he was retiring after 45 years of coaching. The game had changed dramatically during his time in the NFL, growing from America's second sport to the country's biggest and most lucrative pastime. Brown was 67 years old.

Later life and death

Bill Walsh was passed over in favor of Bill "Tiger" Johnson for the head coaching job when Brown retired. In a 2006 interview, Walsh said Brown worked against his candidacy to be a head coach anywhere in the league. "All the way through I had opportunities, and I never knew about them", Walsh said. "And then when I left him, he called whoever he thought was necessary to keep me out of the NFL." Brown stayed on as team president after stepping down as head coach, and the Bengals later made two trips to the Super Bowl, losing both games to Walsh and the 49ers. He rarely appeared in public, however. He died on August 5, 1991, at home from complications of pneumonia.

Brown and Katie had three sons: Robin, Mike and Pete. Following Katie's death of a heart attack in 1969, he married his former secretary Mary Rightsell in 1973. His son Robin died of cancer in 1978. Brown is buried at Rose Hill Cemetery in Massillon.

Brown was succeeded by his son Mike as Bengals' team president. Subsequently, in 2000, Cincinnati opened a new football facility on the Ohio River, naming it Paul Brown Stadium, a name it would keep until 2022. Brown was inducted in 1967 to the Pro Football Hall of Fame. "I feel he's as fine a coach as the game ever has had", Otto Graham said at the induction ceremony. "I used to cuss him out and complain but now I'm happy that I played under him." In 2009, Sporting News named Brown as the 12th greatest coach of all time; only two other NFL coaches were listed above him.

Legacy
Although Brown coached dozens of successful teams at the high school, college and professional levels, his controlling personality and sharp criticisms made him unpopular with many players. Brown was a methodical and disciplined coach who tolerated no deviation from his system. His professional teams' planes did not wait for players who were late; anyone who missed the flight was forced to find one on his own and pay a fine to Brown. When the Browns practiced twice in a day in training camp, each session was exactly 55 minutes. Regular practices during the season lasted an hour and 12 minutes. Players who made mistakes in games were held up for ridicule during film review sessions. "There got to be a saying", longtime Browns safety Ken Konz said years later. "'There's a right way, a wrong way and the Paul Brown way.' If you did it the Paul Brown way, you were right. He was a very strict coach, and he expected you to toe the line."

Brown was also a tough negotiator over salaries, often refusing to give players raises despite strong performance. He was called "cold and brutal" by sportswriters, and told players to be "ready to fight for your financial lives". "When I signed with Paul, he felt that $1,000 was $10 million", said Gene Hickerson, a guard who played for the Browns in the late 1950s and 1960s. Brown's stingy approach to salaries frustrated his players and was a motivating force behind the formation of the National Football League Players Association, which represents players' interests in dealings with the league. Browns players including Dante Lavelli and Abe Gibron helped found the union in 1956 along with lawyer and former Browns assistant coach Creighton Miller. Brown was so annoyed by the union that he had a 1946 team photo in his office touched up to remove Miller.

Brown's acrimonious departure from Cleveland was another source of criticism. His teams' winning ways had helped obscure his harsh methods and need for control, but Modell's active involvement in the team exposed them. Despite that Modell owned the team, Brown refused to cede any authority or be diplomatic in his relationship with Modell. Modell felt Brown was unwilling to adapt to the way football was played in the early 1960s. Many players from that time agreed. "Paul didn't adjust to the changes in the game", former Browns cornerback Bernie Parrish said in 1997. "By 1962, he was more worried about protecting his reputation as the Greatest Coach Who Ever Lived than he was about winning a title. ... By the end of the 1962 season, a lot of us wanted to be traded because we were convinced that we'd never win a title with Paul Brown – and we never believed Paul Brown was going anywhere." After his firing, Brown held a grudge against Modell for the rest of his life. He never forgave Collier for taking over as coach when he left, even though Collier had asked for and received his blessing.

Although he was criticized for his autocratic coaching style and strained relationships, Brown played a significant role in the evolution and modernization of football. The draw play he invented – a formation in which the quarterback drops back to pass but then hands off the ball to a running back – is still in wide use. In his autobiography, Brown said the play came about by accident in 1946 when Graham botched a play and improvised by making a late handoff to Marion Motley, who ran past the onrushing defenders for a large gain. He developed detailed passing patterns that were designed to exploit vulnerabilities in the defense. Brown is also credited with the creation of the passer's pocket, an offensive line protection scheme that is designed to buy a quarterback a few extra seconds to find the open receiver.

Brown's main contribution to the game, however, was not to the development of new plays but to the organization and administration of teams. Before Brown, football was seen as a chaotic affair where winning was a product mostly of physical prowess. Few coaches took strategy and preparation seriously. Brown, by contrast, hired a full-time staff of assistants, tested his players on their intelligence and their knowledge of plays, instituted strict organization of practices and analyzed game film to get an edge on opponents. Brown created a detailed system for scouting college talent as a means to improve the Browns' college draft.

The success of this systematic approach forced other teams to follow. Most of Brown's organizational innovations are still in use today. "No one, I mean no one, has ever had total command and respect like Paul Brown", Paul Wiggin, a former Browns defensive end, said in 1997. "I believe that Paul Brown could have been a general in the Army ... you put Paul Brown in charge of anything and he would have been one of those special people who could organize and lead."

Brown's approach influenced future generations of coaches down to the present day. Men he worked directly with, including Don Shula, Weeb Ewbank, Chuck Noll and Bill Walsh, all adopted his system to some degree.

"Brown was more than just a coach. He was a student of the game who had much to do with making professional football the attraction it is today. He made coaching a full-time job for himself and all his assistants. Others had to follow suit or fall behind. So they did the logical thing—they copied his methods, both as a coach and innovator. ...'Paul Brown didn't invent the game of football. He was just the first to take it seriously', declared Sport Magazine in a December 1986 story ... Sid Gillman, Brown's coaching contemporary for many years in the NFL, told the magazine he always felt that 'before Paul Brown pro football was a 'daisy chain.' He brought a system into pro football. He brought a practice routine. He broke down practice into individual areas. He had position coaches. He was an organizational genius. Before Paul Brown, coaches just rolled the ball out on the practice field.'"

While Brown's tenure in Cleveland ended in bitterness, the coach was a prolific innovator with the team. One factor in Brown's success was his decision to hire a full-time staff of dedicated position coaches, a break from the norm in an era when most assistants took second jobs in the offseason to make ends meet. Brown also invented the practice squad, known in that era as the taxi squad, a group of promising players who did not make the roster but were kept on reserve. Team owner Mickey McBride put them on the payroll of his taxi company, although they did not drive cabs.

Brown sat his players down in classrooms and relentlessly tested them on their knowledge of the playbook, requiring them to copy down every play in a separate notebook for better retention. He was a terse man, and his criticisms of players were often withering and ruthless. He prohibited players from drinking, told them not to smoke in public, and made coats and ties mandatory on road trips. They were not to have sex after Tuesday night during the season. According to Pat Summerall, Brown once traded a player, future Hall-of-Famer Doug Atkins, for burping out loud during a team meeting.

He was the first coach to use intelligence tests to evaluate players, scout opponents using game films and call plays for his quarterback using guards as messengers. He invented the draw play and helped develop the modern face mask after Len Ford and Otto Graham suffered facial injuries. Although critical of Brown's coaching, Jim Brown said he integrated football in the right way:

"Paul Brown integrated pro football without uttering a single word about integration. He just went out, signed a bunch of great black athletes, and started kicking butt. That's how you do it. You don't talk about it. Paul never said one word about race. But this was a time in sports when you'd play in some cities and the white players could stay at the nice hotel, but the blacks had to stay in the homes of some black families in town. But not with Paul. We always stayed in hotels that took the entire team. Again, he never said a word. But in his own way, the man integrated football the right way – and no one was going to stop him."

The Bengals stadium was named in his honor until 2022. He was a member of the Bengals' inaugural Ring of Honor class in 2021.

Coaching tree
Assistants under Paul Brown who became college or professional head coaches:
 * Blanton Collier: Kentucky (1954–1961), Cleveland Browns (1963–1970)
 * Weeb Ewbank: Washington University (1947–1948), Baltimore Colts (1954–1962), New York Jets (1963–1973)
 * Bill Johnson: Cincinnati Bengals (1976–1978)
 * Chuck Studley: Houston Oilers (1983)
 * Bill Walsh: Stanford Cardinal football (1977–1978), (1992–1994), San Francisco 49ers (1979–1988)

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Cypress Hills (Canada)

The Cypress Hills are a geographical region of hills in southwestern Saskatchewan and southeastern Alberta, Canada. The hills are part of the Missouri Coteau upland. The hills cover an area of approximately 2500 km2. About 400 km2 or 16% of this area is an interprovincial park.

The highest point in the Cypress Hills is at Head of the Mountain in Alberta at 1466 m. The highest point in Saskatchewan is 1392 m, in a farmer's field in the Cypress Hills, at 49.55°N, -109.98333°W.

Name
The Cypress Hills have been known by a wide number of Indigenous and European names throughout their history. An 1882 Blackfoot–English dictionary written by C. M. Lanning provided the Blackfoot language name I-kim-e-kooy, which translates as "striped earth" or "earth over earth". The Cree language name, in use at the same time, is manâtakâw, (spelled in a variety of anglicized forms including "Mun-a-tuh-gow"), sometimes said to mean "beautiful upland" but more accurately referring to "an area to be respected, protected, taken care of and/or taken care with". The Assiniboine language name is wazíȟe. The Gros Ventre language name is θáaciih "pine trees". Early Métis hunters, who spoke Métis French, called the hills les montagnes des Cyprès, in reference to the abundance of Lodgepole Pine trees. In the Canadian French spoken by the Métis, the pine is called cyprès, although it is not a true cypress tree. The English translation is Cypress Hills.

Geology and geomorphology
The Cypress Hills reach a maximum elevation of 1466 m, rising about 600 m above the surrounding plains. They are the remnant of a more widespread plateau, most of which has been removed by erosion. The plateau is capped by the resistant conglomerate and sandstone beds of the Cypress Hills Formation. That formation was deposited by rivers that flowed from the mountains of southwestern Alberta and northwestern Montana during late Eocene to middle Miocene time, and is known for its wealth of vertebrate fossils.

During the Pleistocene, the top of the Cypress Hills was not overridden by the Laurentide Ice Sheet and remained unglaciated. As the ice sheet paused periodically during its final retreat, a series of morainal ridges of glacial till built up around the hills. Rivers of meltwater cut large channels through the area as the retreat continued, and smaller streams carved coulees and areas of badlands.

Today the Cypress Hills are part of a major drainage divide that separates rivers that drain south to the Gulf of Mexico via the Missouri River system from those that drain to northeast to Hudson Bay via the Nelson River system. At the Dividing Springs Ranch northwest of Eastend, Saskatchewan, the water from a spring goes both south to Gulf of Mexico and northeast to Hudson Bay.

Ecology
Due to their higher elevation, the upper slopes and summit of the Cypress Hills experience cooler temperatures and greater rainfall than the surrounding semi-arid plains, and they support a flora and fauna that is much like that of the mountains south of the Canada–United States border in Montana and Wyoming.

Flora
The north-facing slopes and some of the valleys host forests of aspen, lodgepole pine, and white spruce. The remainder of the area is covered by mixed grass prairie, with fescue prairie in higher areas. Wildflowers include prairie crocus, three-flowered avens, lupine, blue bells, and prairie rose. There are fourteen species of orchids, including the Venus's slipper orchid and the striped coralroot orchid, which are found primarily in wooded areas and along the banks of springs and streams.

Fauna
Small mammals of the area include a wide variety of rodents, as well as shrews, bats, jackrabbits, skunks, mink, weasels, foxes, bobcats, Canada lynx, and others. Large mammals include moose, elk, mule deer, white-tailed deer, pronghorn, coyotes, cougars, and more. There are several species of snakes, including the prairie rattlesnake, as well as lizards and turtles. The many species of birds range from mountain bluebird and greater sage-grouse to the great horned owl and other birds of prey. Fish in Elkwater Lake and other lakes and streams in the area include walleye, yellow perch, northern pike, several species of trout, and others.

History
Historically the Cypress Hills were a meeting and conflict area for various Native Americans and Indigenous Canadians (First Nations) including the Cree, Assiniboine, Atsina, Blackfoot Confederacy, Saulteaux, Sioux, Crow, and others. During the 19th century Métis settled in the hills, hunting and often wintering there. The Cypress Hills Massacre, a key event in Canadian history leading to the creation of the North-West Mounted Police, occurred in the hills when a group of American wolf hunters, known as wolfers, from Montana massacred an Assiniboine encampment. Fort Walsh was established to bring law and order to the Canada–United States border region.

Interprovincial park
Cypress Hills Provincial Park – one of the six original provincial parks of Saskatchewan – was established in 1931. In 1951, it was extended into neighbouring Alberta. Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park was created in 1989, which joined the two parks on either side of the provincial border.

The Saskatchewan side of the park is divided into two blocks: Centre Block, which has fully developed year round tourist facilities, and West Block Wilderness area, with rustic camping and the location of Fort Walsh National Historic Site. Centre Block is located 30 km south of Maple Creek on Highway 21. West Block is located 45 km southwest of Maple Creek on Highway 271.

The Alberta portion of the Cypress Hills contains the tourist destination of Elkwater, a community with campground facilities located on the southern shore of Elkwater Lake. The townsite is mainly made up of summer cabins. Elkwater is located about 70 km southeast of Medicine Hat.

Climate
Cypress Hills has a subarctic climate (Dfc) bordering on a humid continental climate (Dfb) due to its elevation above the surrounding area. Summer days are mild to warm coupled with cool nights, while winters are cold and snowy with annual snowfall averaging 255.2 cm. It is also considerably more moist than the surrounding prairies. Precipitation peaks during the month of June, where thunderstorms are common. Chinook winds can raise the temperature 5 C-change in an hour, with it not being uncommon for the temperature to go from -10 to 20 C in a 12-hour period. The highest single day snowfall is 60 cm which occurred on 28 May 1982. The highest snow depth recorded is 80 cm on 28 February 1994. The highest temperature recorded is 40.5 C and occurred on 29 May 1988. The lowest temperature recorded is -42.5 C and occurred on 13 January 2005.

In popular culture
The Cypress Hills region is featured in Saskatchewan-based country singer Colter Wall's 2022 single "Cypress Hills and the Big Country".

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Fairfield University

Fairfield University is a private Jesuit university in Fairfield, Connecticut. It was founded by the Jesuits in 1942. In 2023, the university had about 5,000 full-time undergraduate students and 1,200 graduate students, including full-time and part-time students. It offers bachelor's degrees, master's degrees, and doctoral degrees through its five schools and colleges.

History
In 1941, James H. Dolan, Provincial for the New England Province of the Society of Jesus, received written permission from Bishop Maurice F. McAuliffe of the Hartford Archdiocese to establish a Jesuit high school and college in the southwestern area of Connecticut. Fairfield University was officially founded in 1942 when the Jesuits acquired the two contiguous estates of the Brewster Jennings and Walter Lashar families. Upon its founding, it became the 26th Jesuit college/university in the United States.

In the same year, Dolan appointed John J. McEleney as the first president of the Fairfield University of St. Robert Bellarmine and Vicar of the Fairfield College Preparatory School. In 1944, Dolan became the second president. During his tenure, the State of Connecticut chartered Fairfield University to grant degrees in 1945. In 1947, the College of Arts and Sciences admitted its first class of 303 male students. The State of Connecticut accredited the College of Arts and Sciences and the university held its first summer session of undergraduate courses in 1949.

In 1970, Fairfield became co-educational, admitting its first undergraduate class of women. In the same year, the School of Nursing, which is now part of the Marion Peckham Egan School of Nursing and Health Studies was formed, offering four year undergraduate programs.

The 1971 Supreme Court case Tilton vs. Richardson established an important legal precedent concerning the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment and government financial assistance to religious-based colleges and universities. This landmark court case questioned the legality of Fairfield and three other Connecticut religious-based institutions securing federal construction grants under the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963. An appeal by the plaintiffs was denied by the Supreme Court on June 28, 1971, ensuring Fairfield a significant amount of federal money which contributed to the construction of the Nyselius Library (1968) and Bannow Science Center (1971).

In 1978, the School of Business, now known as the Dolan School of Business, was established, as a separate and standalone school. Prior to this the Department of Business was part of the College of Arts and Sciences. At the same time, the school began offering its first graduate business degree program, a Master of Science in Financial Management.

Aloysius P. Kelley, S.J., was installed as the school's seventh president in 1979. He has been Fairfield's longest serving leader, presiding over the school for 25 years. During his tenure, the relatively young school enjoyed a period of expansive growth. This period saw the construction of dozens of new campus buildings, the addition of multiple new undergraduate and graduate degree programs, and an increase the institution's endowment from under $2 million in 1979 to $131 million by 2003.

Under Kelley, the School of Engineering was formed after the acquisition of Bridgeport Engineering Institute in August 1994, offering both undergraduate and graduate degree programs. The university was accepted as a member institution into Phi Beta Kappa in 1995.

In 2004, Jeffrey P. von Arx, S.J. became the eighth president of the university, having served as an administrator at fellow Jesuit institutions in Georgetown University and Fordham University prior. That year von Arx launched the capital campaign, "Our Promise: The Campaign for Fairfield University," which raised a then record of $137.9 million. The capital raised resulted in the construction and renovation of seven buildings, the creation of four new academic chairs, and the significant increase in the university's endowment. In October 2006, the school opened the Aloysius P. Kelley. S.J. Center, named in honor of its longtime president. The building in the center of campus is an environmentally friendly welcoming center and administrative center.

After a twelve-year tenure, von Arx announced he would be leaving his position in 2016. A national search for his replacement followed, and on July 1, 2017, the school announced the appointment of Mark R. Nemec, who became the first lay president in the history of the university. Prior to Fairfield, Nemec was the Dean of the Graham School of Continuing Liberal and Professional Studies at the University of Chicago.

Academics
Fairfield University is composed of five schools and colleges: the Fairfield University College of Arts and Sciences, the Charles F. Dolan School of Business, the School of Engineering, the Marion Peckham Egan School of Nursing and Health Studies, and the School of Education and Human Development (formerly the Graduate School of Education and Allied Professions).

The university offers 43 majors and 19 minors for undergraduate students, as well as 41 different graduate programs. In 2016–17, the university awarded 930 bachelor's degrees, 367 master's degrees, and 36 doctoral degrees. Since 1993, 65 Fairfield students have been awarded Fulbright Scholarships.

Academic and spiritual centers at the university include the Center for Faith and Public Life, the Center for Catholic Studies, the Center for Ignatian Spirituality, and the Carl and Dorothy Bennett Center for Judaic Studies.

Among undergraduates, the most popular majors ranked in order of popularity are Nursing, Finance, Marketing, Accounting, Communication, Psychology, Biology, and English. The current freshman retention rate is 90%, and the four year graduation rate among the most recent graduating class was 83%.

In the fall of 2017, the faculty to student ratio was 12:1. The average class size was 22 students and 80% of classes had under 30 students in them. There were 270 full-time and 319 part-time faculty members. Of the full-time faculty, 90% had a doctorate, 3% had a terminal master's, and 7% had a master's.

Rankings

 * Ranked 115 overall for 2023 among "National Universities" by U.S. News & World Report, 29 for "Best Undergraduate Teaching", second for "Most Innovative", and 147 for "Best Value" in the National category.
 * For 2021, Washington Monthly ranked Fairfield University 122nd among 614 Master's universities in the U.S. based on its contribution to the public good, as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.
 * Kiplinger's Personal Finance places Fairfield 41st in its 2019 ranking of the 177 best value private universities in the United States.

Undergraduate admissions
According to U.S. News & World Report, Fairfield is deemed a "More Selective" university. The school accepts the Common Application for admission. In the Fall of 2010, the school moved to a "test optional" admissions policy but recommended scheduling an interview for students who do not submit standardized test scores. Approximately 90% of students receive some type of financial assistance. Fairfield has the lowest percentage of Pell Grant recipients of any college in the United States.

For fall 2019, Fairfield received 12,315 freshmen applications; 7,035 were admitted (57.1%), and 1,176 enrolled. The average GPA of the enrolled freshmen was 3.64, while the middle 50% range of composite SAT scores were 1220–1340, 610-670 for evidence-based reading and writing, and 600-680 for math. The middle 50% range of the ACT composite score was 26–30.

Region and campus
The Fairfield University campus area is a census-designated place (CDP); it first appeared as a CDP in the 2020 Census with a population of 2,884.

Town of Fairfield
Fairfield University is located in Fairfield, Connecticut, a coastal town along Long Island Sound. It is less than 60 miles from New York City and approximately 1 hour 20 minutes away by Metro-North Railroad. As of the 2010 census, the town had a population of 59,404. Fairfield is known for its historic downtown, and its beaches - Jennings and Penfield Beach - which are only a few miles from the university campus.

Main campus
Fairfield's 200 acre campus consists of 35 buildings anchored by the three manor homes of the original estates: Bellarmine Hall (1921), formerly the Lashar's 'Hearthstone Hall', renamed to honor Saint Robert Bellarmine, S.J; McAuliffe Hall (1896), originally O.G. Jennings' 'Mailands', renamed for Bishop Maurice F. McAuliffe, who sanctioned the creation of Fairfield University; and David J. Dolan House, Lawrence Jenning's 'Larribee', dedicated to honor the uncle of Charles F. Dolan who made the 1989 acquisition of Dolan Campus possible.

Bellarmine Hall, the main administration building on campus, is named in honor of Saint Robert Bellarmine, S.J. Many of the classrooms and residence halls on the campus are named in honor of Jesuit priests. Behind each building name is a story of a Jesuit priest who was an exemplar of the Jesuit mission and their pursuit of educational and intellectual contributions, human rights, and social justice.

The Barone Campus Center (named in honor of university Provost and Chemistry Professor Dr. John Barone), is the home for student life including the Tully Dining Commons, the Oak Room, the Main Dining Hall, offices for FUSA, StagCard, WVOF, Residence Life, and Student Affairs.

Built in 1968, the DiMenna-Nyselius Library originally was named the Nyselius Library in honor of benefactors Gustav and Dagmar Nyselius. They were Swedish immigrants who had settled in Stamford and wanted to make a donation to Fairfield University. In 2001, the Library underwent a major renovation and expansion and was renamed the DiMenna-Nyselius Library in recognition of a donation from alumnus Joseph A. DiMenna, Jr. '80.

The campus is home to Fairfield College Preparatory School (Fairfield Prep), which is a 900-student all-male preparatory high school that has been aligned with the college since its founding in 1942. It is located at the southeastern corner of the campus, near the entrance on North Benson Road.

Environmental sustainability
In 2007, the university opened a $9.5 million combustion turbine-based combined heat and power plant on its campus with a capacity of 4.6 MW; the university was honored by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) with a 2010 Energy Star CHP Award for the project. In 2008, university president von Arx signed the American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment, a high-visibility effort to address global warming by garnering institutional commitments to neutralize greenhouse gas emissions, and to accelerate the climate change mitigation efforts in research and education.

In 2011, a $12.5 million, 22,000-square-foot contemporary-style home for the Jesuit priests of Fairfield University (then numbering 22) was completed; the building is located near the center of campus and contains sustainable elements. In August 2009, Fairfield University became the first university in the United States to install Tomra UNO reverse vending machines (RVM), an all-in-one recycling machine for bottle deposits.

Community service
The goal of Jesuit education is homines pro aliis, "men and women for others". As a result, Fairfield students are involved in many community service opportunities. Fairfield was among 119 colleges in the United States named to the Carnegie Classification for Community Engagement in 2008. The university was named to the 2009 and 2010 President's Higher Education Community Service Honor Roll by the Learn and Serve America Program of the Corporation for National and Community Service.

The Annual Hunger Clean Up is a one-day service-a-thon where the university community works at 40-plus local agency sites throughout Fairfield County and to raise money for local and national hunger and homelessness causes. The Fairfield chapter of Colleges Against Cancer hosts an annual American Cancer Society Relay for Life, an overnight event designed to spread awareness of cancer prevention, treatments and cures, celebrate cancer survivors and raise money for cancer research. The Adrienne Kirby Family Literacy Project, recognized as a model program by the Corporation for National and Community Service, involves about 175 Fairfield student-volunteers a year in providing individual tutoring to preschool children at the Action for Bridgeport Community Development's Early Learning/Head Start Program.

Internationally, 'Ignatian Solidarity Corps volunteers annually participate in two-week international service trips during their spring and winter breaks traveling to Ecuador, Mexico, Jamaica, Belize and Haiti. In 2004, Mikaela Conley '06 and Aamina Awan '07 founded The Afghan Children's Project to raise awareness and funds for children who have suffered the effects of war, violence, and poverty in Afghanistan. Both were interviewed on CNN Daybreak in August 2005 for their work in funding the building of a water well for Aloudine, a small village outside Kabul. And in 2008, nine Fairfield students, inspired by 2006 Nobel Peace Prize recipient Muhammad Yunus and the Grameen Bank, started Sustainable Equity for Women, a micro-lending project designed to raise and invest money in small businesses run by women in developing countries in conjunction with Kiva Microfunds.

Fairfield University Student Association
The Fairfield University Student Association (FUSA) is the official student association for full-time undergraduate students and is the largest student organization on campus. The association exists to represent student issues and concerns to the faculty and administration and to sponsor a multitude of student programs and activities. All full-time undergraduate students are members. The association is organized into three branches – legislative, executive, and the judiciary (FUSA Court). The legislative branch consists of the Student Senate, comprising 20 elected representatives (5 from each undergraduate class year). The executive branch is headed by the popularly elected President of FUSA, who serves as the official spokesperson for undergraduate students in addition to administering the student association on a daily basis. In 2002, Karen Donoghue '03 became the first woman elected President of FUSA. The FUSA President is assisted by a popularly elected vice president, elected class officers, and a number of other appointed officers, including the Director of Programming, the Director of the Club Operations and Student Organisations(COSO), the Director of Marketing & Public Relations, the Director of the Treasury, and the Director of Diversity and Inclusion. The judicial branch, known as the FUSA Court, facilitates elections, serves as a hearing body in appeals, as well as performing the judicial functions required for the student association.

Student activism
A central tenet of a Jesuit education is the promotion of the values of peace and social justice. In 1988, 1989 and 1990, the Coalition for a Better World constructed "Cardboard City" and held a 36-hour vigil, and again in 2008, the Students for Social Justice constructed "Homeless Village" and hosted the "Oxfam Hunger Banquet" to raise awareness of the plight of the homeless in the United States. In 1999, students staged an 11-hour sit-in at the home of the university president and later a hunger strike to protest a contracting company used by the university that the students said was anti-union and paid janitors poorly. Each year, the Students for Social Justice travel to Columbus, Georgia for the annual School of the Americas Watch protest at a combat training school for Latin American soldiers now known as the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation. The date of the protest marks the anniversary of the murder of six Jesuit priests, their maid, and her daughter in El Salvador at the hands of soldiers trained at the School of the Americas. And in 2008, Fairfield for Peace NOW created "Hope Trail", a pathway of flags around campus symbolizing the cost in life and casualties from the Iraq War, and A Cry For Peace, a play written and performed with Theatre Fairfield demonstrating the toll of the Iraq War on the families of soldiers back in the United States.

Student media

 * StagsTV – The Student Television Station of Fairfield University
 * The Mirror – The Independent Student Newspaper of Fairfield University
 * WVOF – The Voice of Fairfield University

Athletics
Fairfield University is a member of the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference (MAAC) and is classified as NCAA Division I for a majority of its athletic programs. It sponsors 20 varsity sports – baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's crew, men's and women's cross country, field hockey, men's and women's golf, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming and diving, men's and women's tennis, and women's volleyball. Men's lacrosse is a member of the Colonial Athletic Association and field hockey is an associate member of the Northeast Conference.

Basketball
The men's basketball team is currently coached by Chris Casey. The Stags have participated in National Invitational Tournament in 1973, 1974, 1978, 1996, 2003 and 2011, and the NCAA Division I men's basketball tournament in 1986, 1987 and 1997.

In the first round of the 1997 NCAA Tournament, the Stags nearly achieved a historic upset over top ranked and Final Four bound North Carolina, leading the Tar Heels by seven points at halftime, before ultimately losing 82–74. UNC's win was Coach Dean Smith's 876th win as a Division I college coach, tying him for first all-time. That record has since been broken.

In 2010, during the first round of the CIT, the team set the national record for the largest comeback in Division I college basketball postseason history by overcoming a 27-point deficit with under 16 minutes to play to defeat George Mason in overtime, 101–96.

Head coach Ed Cooley was named the Ben Jobe National Coach of the Year in 2010. Thirteen Stags have been either drafted or signed to play in the NBA.

The women's basketball team has won the MAAC title in 1988, 1991, 1998, and 2022 and regular season titles in 1990, 1991, 2000, and 2022. They are currently coached by Carly Thibault-DuDonis.

Lacrosse
The men's lacrosse team currently competes in the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA). The team has previously competed in the MAAC, GWLL, and ECAC. Since 1996, the team has won 8 Conference Regular Season Titles and 2 Conference Tournament Titles. The team has been ranked nationally over the years, and earned berths to the 2003 and 2005 NCAA Men's Lacrosse Championship tournaments. 14 players have received All-American honors over the years, and 12 players have gone on to play professionally in Major League Lacrosse (MLL).

The team plays their home games at the lacrosse-only Rafferty Stadium and are currently coached by Andrew Baxter, who succeeded Andrew Copelan in 2019.

On April 21, 2013, men's lacrosse set the school record for the defeat of the highest ranked opponent in any sport, when the Stags upset the Denver Pioneers 9–8, who were then ranked no. 1 in the United States. The previous record was set on March 13, 2010, when the Stags upset the then no. 3 nationally ranked (and eventual 2010 NCAA tournament runner-up) Notre Dame Fighting Irish 10–8 while competing in the inaugural 'Beating Cancer With A Stick Classic' at The Kinkaid School in Houston, Texas.

The women's lacrosse team has won 12 MAAC Regular Season Titles in the last decade and earned a berth to the 2009, 2015, 2018, 2021, and 2022 NCAA Women's Lacrosse Championship.

Soccer
The Fairfield Stags men's soccer team won the 2005, 2006 and 2011 MAAC Regular Season Championship as well as the 1999, 2006, 2008 and 2011 MAAC Tournament Championship. In 2012 Fairfield goalkeeper, Michael O'Keeffe, was called up to play with the New Zealand National Team's Olympic squad. In summer 2021 Matt Turner (soccer) was called up to the US Men's National Team and won the Gold Cup Golden Glove award for best Goalkeeper of the tournament.

The women's soccer team has advanced to the NCAA Women's Soccer Championship five times and has won the MAAC Championship seven times since 1993.

Club sports
Sport clubs offer baseball, equestrian, men's and women's ice hockey, martial arts, men's and women's rugby, sailing, men's and women's skiing and snowboarding, men's and women's soccer, men's and women's track and men's and women's volleyball.

The Men's Rugby Football Club or Red Ruggers, established in 1963, is the longest continuously running sport club at Fairfield University. The Red Ruggers won the 2008 MET NY Rugby Football Union Division II Title and have produced two USA Rugby Collegiate All-Americans. Former Red Ruggers Paul Sheehy '81 competed for the USA Eagles at the 1991 Rugby World Cup and Will Brazier '05 competed for the United States national rugby league team at the 2004 Liberty Bell Cup.

The Equestrian Club was Regional Champions in 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2002, & 2003 and in 2007 seven Fairfield riders were invited to the elite Tournament of Champions, a horse show for the nation's top collegiate equestrian teams.

The Men's Hockey Club (formerly an NCAA level Division I program of the now-defunct MAAC) competed in the 2007 MCHC Championship game and the 2008, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018 ACHA National Tournaments.

The Men's Volleyball Club won the 2006 and 2007 New England Collegiate Volleyball League Division II Championship and competed in the 2001, 2002, 2005, 2006 and 2008 National Intramural-Recreational Sports Association (NIRSA) Volleyball Championships.

Quick Center for the Arts
The Regina A. Quick Center for the Arts is the major center of theatre and the arts at Fairfield. The center opened in 1990 and hosts events such as popular and classical music, dance, theatre, and programs for young audiences. It houses the 740-seat Kelley Theatre, the 150-seat Lawrence A. Wien Experimental (Black Box) Theatre, and the Thomas J. Walsh Jr. Art Gallery.

The center is home to the Open VISIONS Forum, which under the direction of Dr. Philip Eliasoph brings speakers to campus to participate in dialogue about topical issues.

Fairfield University Art Museum
The Fairfield University Art Museum, opened in October 2010, is located in a 1920s Tudor mansion. The Museum features four galleries with about 2700 sqft of space. Its main gallery, The Frank and Clara Meditz Gallery, is named in honor of the parents of the lead donor to the project, University Trustee John Meditz '70. It was previously known as the Bellarmine Museum.

Theatre Fairfield
Theatre Fairfield is the resident production company of the Theatre Program of the Department of Visual & Performing Arts at the university. Theatre Fairfield's season includes professionally directed and designed productions, a Festival of student-written, directed, and designed plays, performances by On the Spot, an improv company, Director's Cut or A Class Act, which features the work of advanced directing and acting students, and independent projects created by junior and senior theatre majors. The PepsiCo Theatre, a renovated 1922 carriage house, is the home to Theatre Fairfield. This theatrical facility includes a 70-seat flexible black box theatre, coffeehouse, dance studio, design studio and costume shop/dressing room. Veterans of Theatre Fairfield include Paul Marcarelli '92 and January LaVoy '97.

Alumni

 * In academia and education, Fairfield alumni include: Rebecca Cunningham, President of the University of Minnesota, J. Kevin Dorsey, President of the Southern Illinois University; Katherine Lapp, Executive Vice President of Harvard University; David J. McCarthy Jr., Dean Emeritus of the Georgetown University Law Center; Mark Reed, President of Loyola University of Chicago; Charles E. Schaefer, psychology professor considered the "Father of Play Therapy."
 * In arts and entertainment, alumni include: Pat Jordan, author of A False Spring; Donald Preziosi, art historian and former Slade Professor of Fine Art at Oxford University; Bob Sullivan, two time New York Times Best Seller author and founding member of MSNBC.com; Peter McCann, country/pop-rock songwriter for Whitney Houston and more.
 * In business and finance, alumni include: Donatella Arpaia, New York's 50 Most Powerful Women; E. Gerald Corrigan, seventh President of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York; William P. Egan, venture capitalist; John L. Flannery, Chairman & CEO of General Electric (GE); Kathleen Murphy, Fortune Magazine's 50 Most Powerful Business Women; Joseph DiMenna, hedge fund manager; Christopher McCormick, president & CEO of L.L.Bean; Jennifer Piepszak, CFO of JPMorgan Chase; Ronan Ryan, central character in Michael Lewis' book Flash Boys: A Wall Street Revolt
 * In law and government, alumni include: John A. Danaher III, United States Attorney for the District of Connecticut; Raymond J. Dearie, Judge of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court; Joseph P. Flynn and William J. Lavery, Chief Judges of the Connecticut Appellate Court; Martin Looney, Connecticut Senate President Pro Tempore; Jorge E. Pérez-Díaz, Attorney General of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico.
 * In medicine and science, alumni include: James Lewis Abbruzzese, Chief of the Division of Medical Oncology at the Duke Cancer Institute; Tatiana Foroud, genetic researcher and Distinguish Professor at the Indiana University School of Medicine; John T. Lis, Guggenheim Fellow and Barbara McClintock Professor of Molecular Biology & Genetics at Cornell University; Brian Monahan, Attending Physician of the United States Congress; Peter Pronovost, 2008 Time 100 World's Most Influential People and MacArthur Fellow; Caitlin O'Connell-Rodwell, world-renowned elephant expert.
 * In social justice, alumni include: G. Simon Harak, Pax Christi National Peacemaker of the Year; Paula Donovan, the founding executive director of AIDS-Free World; Joseph Moylan, founder and president of Durham Nativity School.

title: Fairfield University


text:
Talk:Ratcliff

Untitled
What's going on with this page? Can someone who knows please give the apparent cleanup that previous edits required. SimonMayer 20:22 Sat 28th February 2004

Spelling of Ratcliff(e)
At the very least, we should make the spelling of the headword consistent throughout the article. I'm happy to do it for this article, the one on The Highway and the Ratcliff Highway murders but I'd like to canvass opinion on which spelling to use.

Ratcliff or Ratcliffe? Google is divided on the issue. Cast your vote and I'll do the edits in a week or two.

--Dominic Sayers (talk) 14:10, 27 January 2010 (UTC)
 * See my note at The Highway. Cheers Kbthompson (talk) 14:46, 27 January 2010 (UTC)

 * Based on a Google search of "site:towerhamlets.gov.uk ratcliffe" (97 results) and "site:towerhamlets.gov.uk ratcliff" (29 results) I guess the nearest thing we have to an official modern spelling is Ratcliffe. I have edited the articles to make the spelling consistent with this.

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title: Talk:Ratcliff


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Alb

The alb (from the Latin albus, meaning "white") is one of the liturgical vestments of Western Christianity. It is an ample white garment coming down to the ankles and is usually girdled with a cincture (a type of belt, sometimes of rope similar to the type used with a monastic habit, such as by Franciscans and Capuchins). It resembles the long, white linen tunic used by ancient Romans.

As a simple derivative of ordinary first-century clothing, the alb was adopted very early by Christians, and especially by the clergy for the Eucharistic liturgy. In early-medieval Europe secular clergy also normally wore the alb in non-liturgical contexts.

Nowadays, the alb is the common vestment for all ministers, both clerics and  laypersons (acolytes and lectors), at Mass. It is worn over the cassock, but underneath any other special vestments, such as the stole, dalmatic or chasuble. If the alb does not completely cover the collar, an amice is often worn underneath the alb. Shortening of the alb has given rise to the surplice, and to its cousin the rochet, worn by canons and bishops. Following the Council of Trent (1545-1563), post-Tridentine albs often featured liturgical lace. Since then, this detail has fallen out of style, except in parts of the Anglo-Catholic movement and in some very traditional Arab Catholic parishes.

The alb corresponds to the Eastern Orthodox sticharion.

Variants
A chasuble-alb is a contemporary Eucharistic vestment that combines features of the chasuble and alb. In the Roman Catholic Church, it was first adopted in France, though without official approval. In France it is no longer fashionable, but it has been officially approved in some tropical countries such as the Philippines, and in Hawaii in the United States. It is always white in colour. A stole of the colour appointed for the Mass of the day is worn outside it, in place of the normal white alb and coloured chasuble.

A cassock-alb is a vestment that combines features of the cassock and alb. It developed as a more convenient undergarment worn by clergy and as an alternative to the alb for deacons and acolytes.

title: Alb


text:
Jack Guthrie

Leon Jerry "Jack" Guthrie (November 13, 1915 – January 15, 1948) was an American songwriter and performer whose rewritten version of the Woody Guthrie song "Oklahoma Hills" was a hit in 1945. The two musicians were cousins.

Early life
Born in Olive, Oklahoma, Guthrie was a cousin of Woody Guthrie. He grew up around horses and musical instruments before the family moved to California in the mid-1930s, where he took on the nicknames "Jack", "Oklahoma", and "Oke". He competed in rodeo as a bucking-horse rider and in 1937 traveled with Woody to Los Angeles where they landed on The Oke & Woody Show on KFVD radio in Hollywood.

Career
Guthrie's song "Oklahoma Hills" (Capitol 201) reached No. 1 in 1945, staying on the charts for 19 weeks. The b side, "I'm A Brandin' My Darlin' With My Heart", reached No. 5 later that year. At the time the record became a hit Jack Guthrie was in the U.S. Army and stationed in the Pacific Theater. As soon as he got out of the service he wrote and recorded more songs, played live gigs up and down the West Coast. In July 1947 he was admitted to a hospital with tuberculosis. He died in 1948 in Livermore, California.

Guthrie's style was influenced by Jimmie Rodgers and adapted to fit his cowboy image. Although the labels listed 'Jack Guthrie & His Oklahomans' as the artist, in reality Guthrie had no working band. The studio brought in some of its better musicians to back Guthrie. Many of them, like Porky Freeman, Red Murrell, Cliffie Stone, and Billy Hughes were recording artists in their own right.

Discography
note: (*) also released as part of the 3-disc 78rpm album set Oklahoma Hills: Jack Guthrie Memorial Album (Capitol AC-76).

Compilations

 * Oklahoma Hills (Bear Family BCD-15580, 1991)

title: Jack Guthrie


text:
Cranial electrotherapy stimulation

Cranial electrotherapy stimulation (CES) is a form of neurostimulation that delivers a small, pulsed, alternating current via electrodes on the head. CES is used with the intention of treating a variety of conditions such as anxiety, depression and insomnia. CES has been suggested as a possible treatment for headaches, fibromyalgia, smoking cessation, and opiate withdrawal, but there is little evidence of effectiveness for many of these conditions and the evidence for use in acute depression is not sufficient to justify it.

Medical uses
A 2014 Cochrane review found insufficient evidence to determine whether or not CES with alternating current is safe and effective for treating depression. The FDA came to the same conclusion in December 2019.

A 2018 systematic review found that evidence is insufficient that CES has clinically important effects on fibromyalgia, headache, neuromusculoskeletal pain, degenerative joint pain, depression, or insomnia; low-strength evidence suggests modest benefit in patients with anxiety and depression.

Description
Electrodes are placed on the earlobes, maxilla-occipital junction, mastoid processes or temples.

Despite the long history of CES, its underlying principles and mechanisms are still not clear.

CES stimulation of 1 mA (milliampere) has shown to reach the thalamic area at a radius of 13.30 mm. CES has shown to induce changes in the electroencephalogram, increasing alpha relative power and decreasing relative power in delta and beta frequencies.

CES has also shown to reach cortical and subcortical areas of the brain, in electromagnetic tomography and functional MRI studies. CES treatments have been found to induce changes in neurohormones and neurotransmitters that have been implicated in psychiatric disorders: substantial increases in beta endorphins, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, and serotonin; moderate increases in melatonin and norepinephrine, modest or unquantified increases in cholinesterase, gamma-aminobutyric acid, and dehydroepiandrosterone, and moderate reductions in cortisol.

History
Low intensity electrical stimulation is believed to have originated in the studies of galvanic currents in humans and animals as conducted by Giovanni Aldini, Alessandro Volta and others in the 18th century. Aldini had experimented with galvanic head current as early as 1794 (upon himself) and reported the successful treatment of patients with melancholia using direct low-intensity currents in 1804.

CES was initially studied for insomnia and called electrosleep therapy; it is also known as cranial-electro stimulation and transcranial electrotherapy.

Due to the rise of pharmaceutical treatments for depression, anxiety and insomnia, such as Prozac in the 1980s and Ambien in the 1990s, CES was not a well-known treatment for doctors and patients. During the mid-2000s, the combination of pharmaceutical brands becoming generic and Internet advertising caused CES devices to gain popularity. In 2011, the devices received media attention from the Wall Street Journal.

Regulation
In the United States, CES technology is classified by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a Class III medical device and must be dispensed by or on the order of a licensed healthcare practitioner, i.e., a physician, psychiatrist, nurse practitioner, psychologist, physician assistant, or occupational therapist who has an appropriate electrotherapy license, dependent upon state regulations. The United States requires a prescription for CES devices from a licensed healthcare practitioner. The FDA says that there are 11 CES devices cleared for marketing in the United States.

In June 2014, the FDA announced that it "has determined that there is sufficient information to establish special controls, and that these special controls, together with general controls, will provide a reasonable assurance of safety and effectiveness for CES devices. In this action, FDA is withdrawing the proposed rule and proposed order to call for PMAs [premarket approvals] for CES devices. FDA plans to issue a proposed order in the future for the reclassification of the CES device into class II."

In December 2019, the FDA announced that there is no valid evidence for CES as a treatment for depression, and request new trials to be made. "FDA concluded that the four studies published after January 1, 2016, through November 1, 2019, did not contribute sufficient information in the form of valid scientific evidence to demonstrate that the subjects met the criteria for any recognized depressive disorder, as defined in DSM-5"

title: Cranial electrotherapy stimulation


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Rugby League War of the Roses

The War of the Roses (also known in its later years as the County of Origin Series) was the inter-county rugby league matches between Lancashire and Yorkshire, the areas where rugby league has traditionally been most popular in England. The series started in 1895 and was last played in 2003. For most of its history the game was played as part of the County Championship.

History
The first War of the Roses was contested in 1895 as part of the County Championship. The majority of the clubs in rugby league came from Yorkshire and Lancashire and the fixtures was held almost annually, with exceptions for the two world wars (1914–1918 and 1939–1945) and 1977–1978, until 1983 when the County Championship was abandoned. Fixtures between Lancashire and Yorkshire briefly returned firstly between 1985 and 1991 and then again between 2001 and 2003. Eligibility to play was established either by county of birth or in which county players had originally played the sport professionally.

In 1985, an annual fixture between Lancashire and Yorkshire was proposed as a replacement for the County Championship. The fixture became known as the Rodstock War of the Roses and the first game was played in September 1985. The series lasted until 1991, when it was scrapped due to lack of interest.

The fixture was revived in 2001 under the name of the County of Origin series, inspired by the success of Australia's State of Origin series between New South Wales and Queensland. After three years, the Origin series games were discontinued due to falling attendances.

Roses matches have continued at amateur level as part of the BARLA Three Counties Championship but despite several calls for a return at professional level the fixture remains unplayed.

Results
The two teams have met in 91 competitive matches with each team having won 44 and three games ending in draws. In addition there have been a number of exhibition matches during the First and Second World Wars when the County Championship was suspended.

Women's Roses
In 2014, a pilot County Origin game between Lancashire Ladies and Yorkshire Ladies was held in Wigan. The trophy was won by Lancashire. The following year, the RFL announced that the 2015 County Origin Series would take place at Thatto Heath Crusaders, St. Helens. It saw the sides share the honours after a 22–22 draw, with an attendance of around 500.

The match, held on 18 October 2015, followed a Lancashire Girls vs Yorkshire Girls under 18s match, which finished 34–0 in favour of the Yorkshire side.

title: Rugby League War of the Roses


text: User talk:68.47.255.176

title: User talk:68.47.255.176


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Basilar membrane

The basilar membrane is a stiff structural element within the cochlea of the inner ear which separates two liquid-filled tubes that run along the coil of the cochlea, the scala media and the scala tympani. The basilar membrane moves up and down in response to incoming sound waves, which are converted to traveling waves on the basilar membrane.

Structure
The basilar membrane is a pseudo-resonant structure that, like the strings on an instrument, varies in width and stiffness. But unlike the parallel strings of a guitar, the basilar membrane is not a discrete set of resonant structures, but a single structure with varying width, stiffness, mass, damping, and duct dimensions along its length. The motion of the basilar membrane is generally described as a traveling wave. The properties of the membrane at a given point along its length determine its characteristic frequency (CF), the frequency at which it is most sensitive to sound vibrations. The basilar membrane is widest (0.42–0.65 mm) and least stiff at the apex of the cochlea, and narrowest (0.08–0.16 mm) and stiffest at the base (near the round and oval windows). High-frequency sounds localize near the base of the cochlea, while low-frequency sounds localize near the apex.

Endolymph/perilymph separation
Along with the vestibular membrane, several tissues held by the basilar membrane segregate the fluids of the endolymph and perilymph, such as the inner and outer sulcus cells (shown in yellow) and the reticular lamina of the organ of Corti (shown in magenta). For the organ of Corti, the basilar membrane is permeable to perilymph. Here the border between endolymph and perilymph occurs at the reticular lamina, the endolymph side of the organ of Corti.

A base for the sensory cells
The basilar membrane is also the base for the hair cells. This function is present in all land vertebrates. Due to its location, the basilar membrane places the hair cells adjacent to both the endolymph and the perilymph, which is a precondition of hair cell function.

Frequency dispersion
A third, evolutionarily younger, function of the basilar membrane is strongly developed in the cochlea of most mammalian species and weakly developed in some bird species: the dispersion of incoming sound waves to separate frequencies spatially. In brief, the membrane is tapered and it is stiffer at one end than at the other. Furthermore, sound waves travelling to the "floppier" end of the basilar membrane have to travel through a longer fluid column than sound waves travelling to the nearer, stiffer end. Each part of the basilar membrane, together with the surrounding fluid, can therefore be thought of as a "mass-spring" system with different resonant properties: high stiffness and low mass, hence high resonant frequencies at the near (base) end, and low stiffness and high mass, hence low resonant frequencies, at the far (apex) end. This causes sound input of a certain frequency to vibrate some locations of the membrane more than other locations. The distribution of frequencies to places is called the tonotopic organization of cochlea.

Sound-driven vibrations travel as waves along this membrane, along which, in humans, lie about 3,500 inner hair cells spaced in a single row. Each cell is attached to a tiny triangular frame. The 'hairs' are minute processes on the end of the cell, which are very sensitive to movement. When the vibration of the membrane rocks the triangular frames, the hairs on the cells are repeatedly displaced, and that produces streams of corresponding pulses in the nerve fibers, which are transmitted to the auditory pathway. The outer hair cells feed back energy to amplify the traveling wave, by up to 65 dB at some locations. In the membrane of the outer hair cells there are motor proteins associated with the membrane. Those proteins are activated by sound-induced receptor potentials as the basilar membrane moves up and down. These motor proteins can amplify the movement, causing the basilar membrane to move a little bit more, amplifying the traveling wave. Consequently, the inner hair cells get more displacement of their cilia and move a little bit more and get more information than they would in a passive cochlea.

Generating receptor potential
The movement of the basilar membrane causes hair cell stereocilia movement. The hair cells are attached to the basilar membrane, and with the moving of the basilar membrane, the tectorial membrane and the hair cells are also moving, with the stereocilia bending with the relative motion of the tectorial membrane. This can cause opening and closing of the mechanically gated potassium channels on the cilia of the hair cell. The cilia of the hair cell are in the endolymph. Unlike the normal cellular solution, low concentration of potassium and high of sodium, the endolymph is high concentration of potassium and low of sodium. And it is isolated, which means it does not have a resting potential of −70mV comparing with other normal cells, but rather maintains a potential about +80mV. However, the base of the hair cell is in the perilymph, with a 0 mV potential. This leads to the hair cell have a resting potential of -45 mV. As the basilar membrane moves upward, the cilia move in the direction causing opening of the mechanically gated potassium channel. The influx of potassium ions leads to depolarization. On the contrary, the cilia move the other way as the basilar membrane moves down, closing more mechanically gated potassium channels and leading to hyperpolarization. Depolarization will open the voltage gated calcium channel, releasing neurotransmitter (glutamate) at the nerve ending, acting on the spiral ganglion cell, the primary auditory neurons, making them more likely to spike. Hyperpolarization causes less calcium influx, thus less neurotransmitter release, and a reduced probability of spiral ganglion cell spiking.

title: Basilar membrane


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Humeral veil

The humeral veil is one of the liturgical vestments of the Roman Rite, also used in some Anglican and Lutheran churches. It consists of a piece of cloth about 2.75 m long and 90 cm wide draped over the shoulders and down the front, normally of silk or cloth of gold. At the ends there are sometimes pockets in the back for hands to go into so that the wearer can hold items without touching them with the hands.

There is no clarity on when the humeral veil first appeared, though it was certainly in use in the continental Tridentine Rite and in other pre-Reformation usages including the Sarum Rite.

The humeral veil is of the liturgical colour of the day on which it is used, or else is white or cloth of gold.

The humeral veil is most often seen during the liturgy of Exposition and Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament. When priests or deacons bless the people with the monstrance, they cover their hands with the ends of the veil so that their hands do not touch the monstrance as a mark of respect for the sacred vessel and as an indication that it is Jesus present in the Eucharistic species who blesses the people and not the minister.

The humeral veil is also seen at the Mass of the Lord's Supper of the Catholic Church. It is used when the Ciborium containing the Blessed Sacrament is taken in procession to the place of reposition, and again when it is brought back to the altar without solemnity during the Good Friday service. The ritual for Requiem masses does not require the use of a humeral veil. The exception to this is the Dominican Rite which has a number of distinctive liturgical customs.

In the High Mass form of Tridentine Mass, the subdeacon uses a humeral veil when carrying the chalice, paten, or other sacred vessels, which should be touched only by a deacon or another man in major orders.

There are several ways to fold the humeral veil; it can be folded so that each side is folded individually like an accordion (with the folds either on top of the center or underneath the center of the humeral veil), or it can be folded by folding both sides simultaneously in an accordion style (after offsetting one side).

The humeral veil should not be confused with the vimpa, which is of a similar but narrower design. The vimpa is sometimes used when a bishop celebrates Mass. In the Roman Rite, if the bishop uses a mitre and crosier, the altar servers assigned to the task of holding those items cover their hands with the vimpa when holding them, symbolizing that the items do not belong to them. The vimpa may be in the color of the day or alternatively of a simple material in white or green.

In Imperial Roman court ceremonial, a similar veil, or sudarium, was used by attendants approaching the Emperor to cover their hands, presumably in case he handed them something. In art, angels adjacent to Christ often have such a cloth in Late Antique and Early Medieval art.

title: Humeral veil