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BTS Skytrain

The Bangkok Mass Transit System, commonly known as the BTS Skytrain (รถไฟฟ้าบีทีเอส [BTS]), is an elevated rapid transit system in Bangkok, Thailand. It is operated by Bangkok Mass Transit System PCL (BTSC), a subsidiary of BTS Group Holdings, under a concession granted by the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) which owns the lines. The system consists of 62 stations along three lines with a combined route length of 70.05 km. The BTS Sukhumvit Line runs northwards and south-eastwards, terminating at Khu Khot and Kheha respectively. The BTS Silom Line which serves Silom and Sathon Roads, the central business district of Bangkok, terminates at National Stadium and Bang Wa. The Gold Line people mover runs from Krung Thon Buri to Klong San and serves Iconsiam. The lines interchange at Siam station and Krung Thon Buri. The system is formally known as "The Elevated Train in Commemoration of HM the King's 6th Cycle Birthday" (รถไฟฟ้าเฉลิมพระเกียรติ 6 รอบ พระชนมพรรษา).

Besides the three BTS lines, Bangkok's rapid transit system includes the underground and elevated Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) lines, the Bus Rapid Transit System (BRT), and the elevated Airport Rail Link (ARL), serving several stations before reaching Suvarnabhumi Airport, and the SRT Red Lines of the State Railway of Thailand.

History
Plans for mass transit in Bangkok began in the early 1980s. An early version of the Skytrain project was known as the Lavalin Skytrain because it was designed using the Vancouver SkyTrain as a model, adopting technology developed by SNC-Lavalin. Due to political interference, the concession with Lavalin was cancelled in June 1992, despite Bangkok's chronic traffic congestion. The Thai government focused on increasing road and expressway infrastructure in an attempt to reduce congestion. This had little impact, as the number of cars on the road continued to increase dramatically. The routes considered as part of the Skytrain project would become the basis for the MRT system and are mainly underground. In the early 1990s, foundations and a viaduct for the Lavalin Skytrain were constructed in the middle of the Phra Pok Klao Bridge across the Chao Phraya River. The viaduct was redeveloped into a sky park in June 2020.

Another abortive attempt at building an elevated rail network was the Bangkok Elevated Road and Train System (BERTS), which was terminated in 1998 after only 13.77 percent had been completed.

Shortly after it became clear that the Lavalin Skytrain had stalled, then-Governor Major General Chamlong Srimuang asked his deputy, Captain Kritsada Arunwong na Ayutthaya, to create a new feeder system with a route along Sukhumvit and Silom Roads. Krisda and his team from the Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) succeeded in finding a private investor. Krisda also convinced everyone concerned to allow the city supervise the project. Keeree Kanjanapas founded the Bangkok Transit System Corporation (BTSC) and it successfully financed the system and grew it from a feeder system to a full mass transit project. Thanayong Public Company Limited บริษัท ธนายง จำกัด (มหาชน)) had a 28 percent stake in BTSC when the Skytrain began, and therefore in its early days the system was sometimes referred to as the "Thanayong Skytrain".

Siemens, the supplier of the railway technology, and the Thai contractor, Italian Thai Development, built the system for BTSC. The "Skytrain" name was bestowed later by the press following the Vancouver example where the elevated metro had been named "Skytrain". Originally, the Skytrain depot was to be built underneath Lumphini Park, but due to widespread objections from Bangkok residents it was constructed on a parcel of land on Phahonyothin Road, replacing the old northern/northeastern bus terminal (Mo Chit). The current depot at Mo Chit is part of the proposed "Bangkok Terminal" project, where a large complex composed of a new regional bus terminal, park and ride facility, and other commercial development can be built directly above it.

The Skytrain system was opened on 5 December 1999 by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn. It initially had lower-than-predicted ridership, with 200,000 passenger trips per day. Ticket revenue was only enough to meet the trains' operating cost, and not sufficient to service construction loans. The Skytrain's daily passenger numbers have steadily increased since then. On 9 December 2005, more than 500,000 single trips were made on the Skytrain on a single day for the first time. By September 2012, the Skytrain served around 600,000 passengers on an average day, increasing to 650,000 on an average weekday in 2013. A record 760,000 passengers traveled on Sunday, 22 December 2013, a day of mass political protest in Bangkok. The normal Sunday average is 400,000 passengers. The BTS had a fleet of 52 four-car trains (208 carriages) by 2017. 46 new four-car trains (184 carriages) were ordered to address growing capacity requirements of the existing lines to cater for the Sukhumvit Line extensions south to Kheha and north to Khu Khot. They were delivered from 2018 to 2020.

On March 5, 2020, the BTS made a song about the COVID-19 pandemic, as an antidote to the grim warnings about the coronavirus, showing the staff dancing and keeping hygiene.

Station layout
The system's stations are all elevated and designed with three distinct levels. At street level, passengers can access the stations via stairs, escalators, and lifts. This level also typically houses supporting utility equipment like generators and water tanks, often situated on traffic islands.

The first elevated level houses the ticket booths, small kiosk-style shops, and fare gates. Passengers can reach the second level (or the third level in the case of Siam station) using stairs, lifts, and escalators. This level is dedicated to the platforms and rails. Most stations adopt a side platform layout, with the notable exceptions of Siam Station, Ha Yaek Lat Phrao Station, and Samrong, which utilize island platforms. Siam Station features island platforms to enable easy cross-platform interchange between the two lines of the system.

The platform design accommodates the precise positioning of train doors, with equal distances between doors in all cars. Markings on the platform indicate where the doors will align once the train stops. Although the platforms are constructed to support six-car trains, currently, only four-car trains are operational. For added safety and assistance, security personnel are stationed at every platform and in the ticketing halls.

The Skytrain system in Thailand features five key stations – Sala Daeng, Asok, Ha Yaek Lat Phrao, Bang Wa, and Mo Chit – that serve as interchanges with the Metropolitan Rapid Transit (MRT) system. Additionally, the Saphan Taksin station is conveniently connected to the adjacent Sathon Pier, which is a stop for the Chao Phraya Express Boat services. Many of these stations are also connected to nearby buildings and public amenities through skybridges, providing easy and convenient access for pedestrians.

Since 2014, platform screen doors (half size) have been installed in several stations including On Nut, Phrom Phong, Asok, Chit Lom, Siam, Thong Lor, Phaya Thai, Victory Monument, Sala Daeng, Chong Nonsi and Surasak. However, it's noteworthy that the installation process has not been without issues. For instance, the installation at Phrom Phong station in December 2013 led to a software problem, resulting in a six-hour shutdown of all BTS services. This shutdown caused significant traffic congestion in the city.

Ticketing
Fares for the Skytrain in Bangkok are determined based on the distance traveled. Initially, in 2007, a stored-value card known as the BTS Smartpass was introduced. However, in May 2012, it was replaced by the Rabbit Card, a more advanced electronic payment system. The Rabbit Card not only covers fares for the BTS and the Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) but also functions as a payment method for various services and restaurants associated with the BTS.

For single journeys, passengers can purchase tickets from machines at the stations. These tickets are tapped upon entering the paid area and inserted at the exit gates, where they are retained.

The Mangmoom Card, designed for use across multiple transport systems including the Skytrain, the MRT, and the Airport Rail Link, has experienced several delays. Originally planned for a 2015 launch, it is not yet valid for use on the BTS as of the current date.

Currently, passengers need to purchase separate tickets for travel on different Bangkok train systems, namely the Skytrain and the Airport Rail Link. The MRT and the SRT Red Line, in contrast, accept EMV (Europay, Mastercard, and Visa) contactless payment, allowing passengers to use their credit or debit cards directly at the entry gates.

BTS Network
At its opening, the BTS had 23 stations on its two lines: 17 on the Sukhumvit Line and 7 on the Silom Line, with both lines interchanging at Siam. Since then, 30 additional stations have opened on the Sukhumvit Line and 6 on the Silom Line, with the latest new three stations at Gold Line.

BTS route extensions
In 2002, the cabinet of then Prime Minister Thaksin Shinawatra amended laws in order to allow private firms to finance the cost of operating the train system, while the government would undertake civil engineering works to build new extensions.

Timeline of BTS openings
 * 5 December 1999 Sukhumvit Line: Mo Chit – On Nut; Silom Line: National Stadium – Saphan Taksin
 * 15 May 2009 Silom Line: Saphan Taksin (S06) – Wong Wian Yai (S08)
 * 12 August 2011 Sukhumvit Line: On Nut (E09) – Bearing (E14)
 * 12 January 2013 Silom Line: Wong Wian Yai (S08) – Pho Nimit (S09)
 * 14 February 2013 Silom Line: Pho Nimit (S09) – Talat Phlu (S10)
 * 5 December 2013 Silom Line: Talat Phlu (S10) – Bang Wa (S12)
 * 3 April 2017 Sukhumvit Line: Bearing (E14) – Samrong (E15)
 * 6 December 2018 Sukhumvit Line: Samrong (E15) – Kheha Samut Prakan (E23)
 * 9 August 2019 Sukhumvit Line: Mo Chit (N8) – Ha Yaek Lat Phrao (N9)
 * 4 December 2019 Sukhumvit Line: Ha Yaek Lat Phrao (N9) – Kasetsart University (N13)
 * 5 June 2020 Sukhumvit Line: Kasetsart University (N13) – Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (N17)
 * 16 December 2020 Sukhumvit Line: Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (N17) – Khu Khot (N24)
 * 8 February 2021 Silom Line: Saint Louis (S4, infill station)

1st extension – Silom Line south to Wong Wian Yai (2009)
On 18 October 2005, with no approval from the central government forthcoming, Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) decided to fund and complete the 2.2 km Silom Line route extension to Krung Thonburi Station (S07) and Wongwian Yai Station (S08). Construction began on 13 December 2005 with completion originally expected within two years. However, problems with the tendering and installation of a new Bombardier open signalling system repeatedly pushed back the schedule. The extension finally opening on 15 May 2009. However, the single platform Saphan Taksin station which has only one track, has caused repeated delays during rush hour. In 2012, the BMA announced plans to demolish Saphan Taksin station in the future. There are now plans to construct new platforms and remove the bottleneck and keep the station which provides an important link between river boats. The plan includes redesigning the road bridges either side of the viaduct to fit the new station.

2nd extension – Sukhumvit Line east to Bearing (2011)
A second extension, the 5.25 km On Nut station (E09) to Bearing station (E14) started construction in August 2006. The 4 billion baht extension was again funded by the BMA. The original scheduled opening date was mid-2009. However, an unusual, prolonged delay in the tendering of the contract for the electrical and signals resulted in a two-year delay. "The senior City Hall official responsible for making the purchase has apparently stalled the scheme over fears of being investigated if something went wrong with the purchase."

The BTSC was contracted by the BMA to run the extension. Subsequently, the extension did not open until over two years later on 12 August 2011. The delay in opening prompted the BMA to offer free travel for this extension until the end of 2011 as compensation. A flat fare separate from the distance based fare normal in the BTS network was then charged for this section. However, distance based fares are now used for this extension.

3rd extension – Silom Line south to Bang Wa (2013)
The third extension to the network, a 5.3 km, four station extension from Wongwian Yai (S8) to Bang Wa (S12) in Phasi Charoen District began construction in the 2nd quarter of 2011 with a deadline of the end of 2012. Only the stations had to be constructed as the viaduct had been completed some years prior. However, construction was delayed for many months by the Bangkok floods of late 2011. It eventually opened in stages. Pho Nimit opened on 12 January 2013, Talat Phlu opened on 14 February 2013, with the last two stations opening on 5 December 2013. For most of 2013, passengers changed platforms and trains at Wongwian Yai for a shuttle service to S09 and S10 as there was no turnout at S10 for through trains. Since the opening of the final section of the extension to Bang Wa station on 5 December 2013, this is no longer the case.

4th extension – Sukhumvit Line east to Kheha (2017-2018)
Construction started in April 2012 for a 12.6 km, seven station extension from Bearing station (E14) to Samut Prakan Station (E23). The extension is being built by Ch. Karnchang. Two stations (E18 & E22) will be built at a later date. The extension was funded by the MRTA as it is outside BMA city limits. The extension was planned to open in 2017. In April 2013, the MRTA awarded Ch Karnchang the contract for track laying and electrical systems. Construction was completed in 2017, but arguments over who should operate the line delayed the opening. One station, Samrong opened earlier, on 3 April 2017. The full extension opened on 6 December 2018 and the BTSC has announced that the free travel concession on this section will continue until the new train sets arrive to allow for the new section to be fully functional.

5th extension – Sukhumvit Line north to Khu Khot (2019-2020)
An 11.4 km, 12 station northern extension from Mo Chit station to Saphan Mai in Don Mueang District has been planned since the Sukhumvit Line opened. Originally, this extension was scheduled to be completed by 2008. However, due to a combination of changes in government, a prolonged environmental study, and problems with locating a suitable train depot, the extension has been continually delayed.
 * 1) Mo Chit station to Saphan Mai: 11.4 km, 12 stations (N9–N20).
 * 2) Saphan Mai to Khu Khot: 7.5 km, four stations (N21-N24).

A further 16.5 km, nine station extension from Saphan Mai to Lam Lukka was also planned once the extension to Saphan Mai had been completed. This was subsequently split into two extensions. A 7.5 km, four station extension to Khu Khot and a 9 km, five station extension along Lam Lukka Road to Lam Lukka.

Due to the significant delay in the northern extension plans, in mid-2013 it was decided by the MRTA to tender extensions (1) & (2) at the same time by the end of 2013. However, the dissolution of parliament in November 2013 delayed this yet again. A tender was finally released in January 2014 with an April deadline before being delayed until late May 2014 due to concerns from bidders.

A military coup in late-May suspended the bidding process while the military administration reviewed all major projects. In late-June, the military administration affirmed the tender which will proceed before the end of 2014. In mid-August, the MRTA announced that the new tender deadline would be 30 September 2014. Five bidders qualified with successful bids to be announced by December. The contract to construct the line for both extensions (1) & (2) was finally signed in April 2015 and the full extension was scheduled to open in 2020.

Testing of the final 9.8 km, 7 station section from Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (N17) to Khu Khot (N24) began on 5 October and continued until the full extension opens. It was officially inaugurated on 16 December 2020 by the Prime Minister.

Opening dates
 * 1) The first section to Ha Yaek Lat Phrao station (N9) opened on 9 August 2019;
 * 2) the next 4 stations from Ha Yaek Lat Phrao station (N9) to Kasetsart University (N13) opened on 4 December 2019;
 * 3) further 4 stations from Kasetsart University (N13) to Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (N17) opened on 5 June 2020;
 * 4) the remaining section of 9.8 km and 7 stations from Wat Phra Sri Mahathat (N17) to Khu Khot (N24) opened on 16 December 2020.

Saint Louis (S4) infill station – Silom Line (2021)
In 2018, it was decided to finally build the missing Saint Louis BTS Station (S4) station (originally named Sueksa Wittaya), the EIA was finalised in March 2019. Construction of the station began in August 2019 and by the end of 2019 had reached 25% progress. By August 2020, construction had reached 50% but was 30% behind schedule due to COVID related delays.

The station opened on 8 February 2021.

Future extension plans
BTS Group Holdings will tender to operate more BTS and MRT lines in the future through financing from its BTS Rail Mass Transit Growth Infrastructure Fund after it received approval from the Thai Securities and Exchange Commission in March 2013. The IPO raised US$2.1 billion, the largest in Thailand's history.

Sukhumvit Line, north
A further 9 km, five station extension from Khu Khot station to Wongwaen-Lam Luk Ka station is planned to be constructed by 2029.

Sukhumvit Line, east

 * A further 7 km, five-station extension from Kheha station to Bang Pu station is planned to be constructed by 2029.
 * A spur line from Bang Na to Suvarnabhumi Airport (terminating at future South Passenger Terminal of Suvarnabhumi Airport). However, this may also be built as a light rail.

Silom Line, south
After the opening of Wutthakat (S11) and Bang Wa (S12) stations 5 December 2013, the BMA announced a new proposal to further extended the Silom Line by 7 km from Bang Wa (S12) station, by six stations to Taling Chan. At Taling Chan it would connect with the SRT Light Red line.

A public hearing was held in 2015. Three route options were considered, with construction intended to start in 2017. Part of the basis for this further extension by the BMA is that it would provide proximate access to the Southern Bus Terminal. The BMA Transport and Traffic Office completed an economic evaluation of the extension in October 2018 which found a cost benefit ratio of 2.37. The study recommended that an EIA be completed in 2019 but this was delayed.

In 2022, Department of Rail Transport ("DRT") was announced that the Silom Line will be part of the new M-Map 2 action plan. This plan will be extended the Silom Line from Bang Wa (S12) to Bang Rak Noi Tha It (S23) on the Ratchaphruek road by 18 kilometers and 11 stations. The first part of the extension will be end at Taling Chan (S16) to connect with the SRT Light Red line. The second part of the extension will be end at Bang Rak Noi Tha It (S23) in Nonthaburi province to connect with the MRT Purple Line at current MRT station. In this extension, DRT proposed the new main depot to separate the system depot from the Sukhumvit Line. Which make the Silom Line will be completely standalone system. However, the extension will be start until the Saphan Taksin station (S6) was renovated into double track.

Silom Line, west
The Silom Line is planned to be extended by one or two stations west along Rama 1 from National Stadium (W1) to link with the SRT Dark Red Line at Yot Se station. However, no time frame for this extension has been announced and this section of the SRT Dark Red Line will not be built until after 2022.

Originally, the plan was to extend the Silom Line west from National Stadium into Chinatown, then north to Democracy Monument where it would then run west to Rattanakosin Island and Sanum Luang, tunnel under the river to the Thonburi side before terminating at Phran Nok. However, this plan was shelved in 2009 and much of this route has been replaced by routing changes to the planned MRT Orange Line.

Terminal stations
Terminal stations and physical ends of their lines are Khu Khot, Kheha, National Stadium, Bang Wa.

Some trains terminate early and resume travel in the opposite direction at Kasetsart University, Mo Chit, and Samrong. This allows more frequent trains on the central sections of the lines without added investment in carriages.

Rolling stock
The BTS Skytrain uses two variations of electric multiple unit rolling stock. All operate on. All trains have four doors on each side per car, an air-conditioning unit, and LCD monitors for public announcement and advertising. Public announcements are spoken by actress Ratklao Amaradit. The power supply for all trains is at 750 V DC from the third rail.

First order (EMU-A1)
The rolling stock of BTS Skytrain, in use when the line opened in 1999, consisted of 35 Siemens Modular Metro trains from Siemens. These initial trains had three cars, two motor cars and one trailer in the center. The Sukhumvit Line used 20 trains, and the Silom Line had 15.

After the 12 new car CNR trains were delivered for the Silom Line in December 2010, the 15 Siemens trains on the Silom Line were transferred to the Sukhumvit Line.

Second order: extra cars to expand to four-car train operations (EMU-A1)
To increase capacity, in October 2010, BTSC ordered an extra 35 single cars from Siemens to make each train a four car set.

These extra cars were progressively introduced into operation from November 2012 to March 2013, when all 35 sets of Siemens rolling stock finally became four car sets.

The Silom Line cars have been modified to support a signaling system from Bombardier Transportation since the extension from Saphan Taksin to Wong Wian Yai.

EMU-A1 Formation • Car 3 was added later

Third order: new four-car sets for extension operations (EMU-A2)
To serve the Sukhumvit Line Extension (East) BTSC ordered 22 new Siemens-Bozankaya EMU four-car trains from a consortium of Siemens and Bozankaya in May 2016.

These trains were manufactured in the Bozankaya factory in Ankara, Turkey. Siemens supplied bogies, traction, braking and auxiliary systems and was responsible for project management, development, construction and commissioning of the trains. Siemens will also take on service and maintenance for 16 years.

The first set of the new batch of rolling stock arrived in early August 2018 for testing and approval by the BTSC. These new trains increase capacity from 1,490 passengers per train to 1,572. As of the opening of the new Sukhumvit Line extension to Kheha Samut Prakan on 6 December 2018, only 3 sets of the 22 sets had been delivered. This resulted in a limited 10-minute frequency, shuttle service for the new extension as an interim measure until more rolling stock is delivered.

The train features: Perch Seats, LCD Dynamic Route Map (AKA. Passengers Information Display)

First order (EMU-B1)

In early 2008, the BTSC ordered 12 new trains (12 sets of four cars) from Changchun Railway Vehicles (EMU B class) to cater for the then soon to open Wong Wian Yai extension of the Silom Line. Their design was modified to the existing BTS's Siemens Modular Metro. The new trains were delivered late and only began service the Silom Line in December 2010. This was some 18 months after the Wong Wian Yai and Krung Thonburi stations were opened in May 2009 during which time there was severe overcrowding on the Silom Line.

These trains consist of two-motor cars and two-trailer cars (i.e., four-car trainsets) and feature LCD TVs for public announcements and advertising. An advanced digital voice announcement (DVA) and passenger information systems was installed.

Second order (EMU-B2)
In September 2011, the BTSC ordered five more four-car trainsets of CNR rolling stock for 1.5 billion baht to prepare for the Silom Line extension to Bang Wa which was then due to open in December 2012. These five new train sets of rolling stock entered service on 29 November 2013 after the first two stations of the Silom Line extension to Bang Wa opened in January and February 2013, respectively. This second batch of CNR EMUs (B Class) differ slightly from the first batch in exterior fitting out such as with the LCDs screens, LED route displays, signage, and passenger communication units.

EMU-B1/B2 Formation

CRRC Changchun trains (EMU-B3)
In May 2016, BTSC has signed a contract to order 24 more four-car trains of CRRC Changchun Railway Vehicles rolling stock to prepare for the Sukhumvit Line extension (North) and to cater for increasing demand, with expected delivery in 2018.

It has delivered 24 of its cars to Mo Chit Depot. 24 cars are now operating its service on the Silom Line and Sukhumvit Line (Car 75–98)

This train features: Perch Seats, LCD Dynamic Route Map (AKA. Passengers Information Display)

Ridership
The first years of operations saw limited ridership. The line had few direct ramps into malls and lacked escalators. Little by little, while escalators were installed and side bridges added, patronage increased. The opening of Siam Paragon Mall in 2004, at the time Thailand's most luxurious mall, boosted crowds at the system's central Siam station. The redevelopment of the Ratchaprasong and Siam districts as well as new "skywalks" fostered growing accessibility.

Ridership grew steadily with incremental expansion of the lines, and at peak hour, the trains sometimes depart without being able to take all waiting passengers. Average daily ridership first surpassed 200,000 in June 2001, 300,000 in November 2003, 400,000 in March 2006, 500,000 in August 2011, 600,000 in August 2013 and 700,000 in November 2017. Ridership decreased significantly during the COVID-19 pandemic in Thailand.

title: BTS Skytrain


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Up2date

up2date, also known as the Red Hat Update Agent, is a tool used by older versions of Red Hat Enterprise Linux, CentOS and Fedora Core that downloads and installs new software and upgrades the operating system. It functions as a front-end to the RPM Package Manager and adds advanced features such as automatic dependency resolution. The file /etc/sysconfig/rhn/sources specifies where up2date will search for packages.

Tool
By default, Red Hat Enterprise Linux's up2date retrieves packages from a Red Hat Network (RHN) server, though users can add directories full of packages or even Debian and yum repositories if they wish.

up2date on Fedora Core defaults to retrieving packages from yum repositories. Again, other sources can be added (apart from RHN, which is Red Hat Enterprise Linux Specific). As of Fedora Core 5 and Red Hat Enterprise Linux 5, up2date is no longer shipped with the distribution; yum is used instead.

CentOS's up2date downloads packages from yum repositories on the CentOS Mirror Network.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Up2date


text:
Talk:Newport Coast, Newport Beach

Hahaha...men have a median income of $0?!

If you inherit, you have no income, duh.

The lower the income, the lower the taxes. Get it? (wink wink)

Newport Coast is the nicest part of orange county hands down but everyone's way too rich. ---

Of course you have income if you inherit money. Investment income is still income, and someone who inherits a large amount of money will live on the interest, dividends and business income produced by their investments. For now, I think that that statistic should be removed. Men having a median income of $0? Doubtful, in one of the richest communities in the US.

It's because whatever program was used to go through the census data to create the demographic articles for all the places in the US didn't recognise the value "$100,000+" and instead put it as $0. The same thing happens when the median household or family income is $200,000+; that will show up as $0 too.

title: Talk:Newport Coast, Newport Beach


text:
Salient (military)

A salient, also known as a bulge, is a battlefield feature that projects into enemy territory. The salient is surrounded by the enemy on multiple sides, making the troops occupying the salient vulnerable. The opponent's front line that borders a salient is referred to as a re-entrant – that is, an angle pointing inwards. A deep salient is vulnerable to being "pinched off" through the base, and this will result in a pocket in which the forces in the salient become isolated and without a supply line. On the other hand, a breakout of the forces within the salient through its tip can threaten the rear areas of the opposing forces outside it, leaving them open to an attack from behind.

Implementation
Salients can be formed in a number of ways. An attacker can produce a salient in the defender's line by either intentionally making a pincer movement around the military flanks of a strongpoint, which becomes the tip of the salient, or by making a broad, frontal attack which is held up in the centre but advances on the flanks. An attacker would usually produce a salient in his own line by making a broad, frontal attack that is successful only in the center, which becomes the tip of the salient. A salient can also be formed if the attacking army feigns retreat, tricking the defending forces to chase them down, leading to the main army being on all sides in a pre-arranged ambush.

In trench warfare, salients are distinctly defined by the opposing lines of trenches, and they were commonly formed by the failure of a broad frontal attack. The static nature of the trenches meant that forming a pocket was difficult, but the vulnerable nature of salients meant that they were often the focus of attrition battles.

Wacht am Rhein map (Opaque).svg, December 16–25, 1944.

]]

Examples

 * American Civil War
 * On the second day of the Battle of Gettysburg, Union General Daniel Sickles moved his III Corps ahead of the main line of the Union Army without orders, causing him to be nearly cut off from the main army when the Confederate Army attacked. Sickles had held a similar position at Catherine's Furnace in the Battle of Chancellorsville two months earlier, and in both cases his corps was badly mauled and had to be rescued by other units.
 * At the Battle of Spotsylvania, the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia arrived first at a strategic crossroads, and constructed a timber-reinforced line of trenches to stand against the numerically superior Union Army of the Potomac. The trench line bulged forward to protect a piece of high ground, in a curve that became known as the Mule Shoe Salient. Union troops concentrated their attack on this point, broke through, and 22 hours of brutal, hand-to-hand fighting ensued before the Confederates pulled back to a new position.
 * World War I
 * The British occupied a large salient at Ypres for most of the war. Formed as a result of the First Battle of Ypres, it became one of the most bloody sectors of the Western Front. So enduring was the feature and so dreadful its reputation that when British infantry spoke of "The Salient", it was understood that they were referring to Ypres.
 * A similar salient existed around the French city of Verdun; the Battle of Verdun around it cost both sides heavy casualties.
 * The Germans occupied a small salient in front of Fromelles called the Sugarloaf due to its distinctive shape. Being small, it provided advantage to the occupiers by allowing them to enfilade the stretches of no man's land on either flank.
 * World War II
 * The Soviet Union occupied a massive, 150 km deep salient at Kursk that became the site of the largest tank battle in history and a decisive battle on the Eastern Front.
 * The German Army launched a surprise attack against advancing Allied forces in the Ardennes (a region of extensive forests primarily in Belgium and Luxembourg) in December 1944. This battle created a large salient for several weeks, and is commonly known as the Battle of the Bulge (also known as the Ardennes Offensive and the Von Rundstedt Offensive).
 * Turkish invasion of Cyprus
 * Turkish forces reached as far south as the Turkish Cypriot village of Louroujina. The cease-fire line dividing Cyprus into Greek and Turkish-controlled sectors put Louroujina in a salient — accessible from the rest of Turkish Cypriot-controlled Cyprus by a single road.
 * Bangladesh Liberation War
 * The Battle of Boyra was fought by the Indian Army and the Mukti Bahini against the Pakistan Army, over the Boyra salient, overlooking an important supply route, the Jessore Road.

Pocket
In mobile warfare, such as the German Blitzkrieg, salients were more likely to be made into pockets which became the focus of annihilation battles.

A pocket carries connotations that the encircled forces have not allowed themselves to be encircled intentionally, as they may when defending a fortified position, which is usually called a siege. This is a similar distinction to that made between a skirmish and pitched battle.

title: Salient (military)


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Boris Bukreev

Boris Yakovlevich Bukreev (Russian: Борис Яковлевич Букреев; 6 September 1859 – 2 October 1962) was a Russian and Soviet mathematician who worked in the areas of complex functions and differential equations. He studied Fuchsian functions of rank zero. He was interested in projective and non-Euclidean geometry. He worked on differential invariants and parameters in the theory of surfaces, and also wrote many papers on the history of mathematics.

Biography
Boris Bukreev was born in Lgov, Kursk Governorate of Russian Empire in the family of a school teacher. His grandfather was also a school teacher. His early education was at home and later he attended a classical Gymnasium at Kursk. In 1878, Bukreev entered St. Vladimir University that at the time was called the University of Saint Vladimir in Kyiv. The university was founded in 1834 and had a very strong school of mathematics. In 1880, Bukreev was awarded a gold medal by the Faculty of Physics and Mathematics as the best student. In 1882, he got his first degree and remained at the university to continue his training. At that time he worked on Karl Weierstrass's theory of elliptic functions. This became a topic of his Master's thesis titled "On the expansion of transcendental function in partial fractions. After publishing his thesis Bukreev went abroad and took lectures of Karl Weierstrass, Lazarus Fuchs, and Leopold Kronecker in Berlin. Bukreev undertook research on Fuchsian functions under Fuchs' guidance, which he completed in 1888 and which became the basis of his doctoral thesis "On the Fuchsian functions of rank zero" defended in 1889.

In 1889, Bukreev became a professor of mathematics at the St. Vladimir University of Kyiv, Russian Empire (now Kyiv, Ukraine). During the 1890s, Bukreev published a series of high quality papers including: "On the theory of gamma functions," "On some formulas in the theory of elliptic functions of Weierstrass," "On the distribution of the roots of a class of entire transcendental functions," and "Theorems for elliptic functions of Weierstrass". By the end of the 1890s, Bukreev began to undertake research into differential geometry. In 1900, he published "A Course on Applications of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry". Although at this time his main position was in the University of Kyiv, he also taught at the Women's College from 1896 and at the Kyiv Polytechnic Institute of Emperor Alexander II from 1898. He continued to teach at the Polytechnic Institute until 1926. He continued working at the University of Kiev until 1959 and retired at the age of 100. He received a number of scientific and state honors during his life, including the Order of Lenin and the Order of the Red Banner of Labour.

Bukreev published a number of books which proved influential. For example, "Introduction to the theory of series," "Elements of the theory of determinants," "Course on definite integrals" (1903), and "Elements of algebraic analysis" (1912). In 1934, he published "An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations." His most important book on non-Euclidean geometry was "Non-Euclidean Planimetry in Analytic Terms", which he published in 1951. Bukreev continued actively working in mathematics up to the very end of his life; his last paper was published when he was 98.

Family life
Bukreev married a daughter of Aleksei Aleksandrovich Kozlov (Russian philosopher, a notable representative of Russian school of panpsychism, and professor of philosophy at Kyiv University from 1884). They had three children, Tatiana, Nikolai and Yevgeny. His grandson, Kirill Tolpygo (son of Tatiana and Boris Nikolaevich Tolpygo), became a prominent Ukrainian physicist, corresponding member of the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine.

Books

 * A Course on Applications of Differential and Integral Calculus to Geometry
 * An Introduction to the Calculus of Variations
 * Non-Euclidean Planimetry in Analytic Terms

title: Boris Bukreev


text:
User talk:John Highway

Page is POV and should be revised. For example, "[m]any, many" lacks specificity, and there should not be emoticons in an encyclopedia article. --Daniel C. Boyer 13:01, 19 Feb 2004 (UTC)

(The comments above were for the original John Highway.)

Is this is any way a real user? I have sent him email to ask; without a reply, I'll guess no. If this is a real user, then we should redirect all pages (including the one in the wrong namespace, which is several months old) to the proper spot; if not, then I would suggest that the user page also be deleted (and will list it on VfD accordingly). -- Toby Bartels 22:20, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:John Highway


text:
Molson Prize

The Thomas Henry Pentland Molson Prize for the Arts is awarded by the Canada Council for the Arts. Two prizes are awarded annually to distinguished individuals. One prize is awarded in the arts, one in the social sciences and humanities. The prizes are $50,000 each, and intended to encourage continuing contribution to the cultural and intellectual heritage of Canada.

Endowment
Funded by an endowment from the Molson Foundation, the prizes are administered by the Canada Council for the Arts in cooperation with the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Laureates are chosen by a peer assessment committee appointed jointly by the Canada Council and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

Eligibility
Candidates must be Canadian citizens or permanent residents of Canada. To be nominated, candidates must have made a substantial and distinguished contribution over a significant period of time. In the words of the deed of gift, the prizes are intended "to encourage Canadians of outstanding achievement in the fields of the Arts, the Humanities or the Social Sciences to make further contribution to the cultural or intellectual heritage of Canada". The terms of reference are interpreted as follows:
 * outstanding achievement must have already been amply demonstrated
 * further contribution implies that the laureates should still be very active and productive.

In other words, the prize is not intended as an "end of service" reward or as recognition for one great accomplishment. Past assessment committees have been quite consistent in choosing laureates who are close to the top of an outstanding career. Corporations and other organizations are excluded from consideration, as are posthumous awards. No individual may be awarded the prize more than once. The prizes are accessible to qualified persons from Aboriginal Peoples and diverse cultural and regional communities. Members of the board of the Canada Council for the Arts and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council are not eligible to be considered for this prize during the course of their terms as members nor for six months following the end of their term.

Nomination process
Candidates may not apply for the Canada Council for the Arts Molson Prizes on their own behalf. They must be nominated by three individuals or three organizations, or a combination of individuals and organizations. Nominations are sought from persons and organizations that have the interest and capacity to nominate appropriate individuals. Nominators may submit one letter signed by the three nominating individuals or organizations, or submit three separate letters of nomination. Nominators are responsible for gathering and providing relevant documentation to the Canada Council.

Selection procedure
The two laureates are chosen by a single, multidisciplinary peer assessment committee co-chaired by the Chairman of the Canada Council for the Arts and the President of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Members are chosen to ensure fair representation of gender, the two official languages, the various regions and cultures of Canada, and the various types of artistic and scholarly disciplines. Committee members are among the most accomplished individuals in their respective fields and, ideally, have interests that extend beyond the confines of a single discipline.

title: Molson Prize


text:
Typhoon (disambiguation)

Typhoon most commonly denotes a specific form of tropical cyclone in the western Pacific Ocean.

Typhoon may also refer to:

Military

 * Typhoon-class submarine in the Soviet and Russian navies
 * Eurofighter Typhoon, a European-designed multirole combat aircraft
 * Hawker Typhoon, a British World War II aircraft
 * Messerschmitt Taifun, a German aircraft of the interwar period
 * Typhoon, the German codename for the military offensive directed against Moscow in 1941 (see Battle of Moscow)
 * Taifun (rocket), German World War II unguided anti-aircraft rocket system
 * RMAS Typhoon (A95), an ocean-going tug of the Royal Maritime Auxiliary Service
 * Typhoon missile launcher an American transporter erector launcher
 * Typhoon Weapon System an Israeli stabilizer for cannon
 * Typhoon (AFV family), a Russian family of Mine-Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) armored vehicles
 * Kamaz Typhoon
 * Ural Typhoon
 * USS Typhoon, a US Navy ship launched in 1993

Transportation

 * Armstrong Siddeley Typhoon, a two-door coupé car
 * FPV F6 Typhoon, a high-performance Australian sports sedan
 * GMC Typhoon, a high-performance sport-utility vehicle
 * Piaggio Typhoon, a motor scooter manufactured by Piaggio
 * Rambler Typhoon, a special version of the Rambler Classic two-door hardtop
 * Typhoon, a British steam locomotive operating on the Romney, Hythe and Dymchurch Railway
 * Typhoon 18, an American sailboat design
 * Typhoon Senior, an American sailboat design

Arts and media

 * Typhoon (novel), a 1902 novel by Joseph Conrad
 * Typhoon (play), a 1909 play by Melchior Lengyel
 * Typhoon, a 1992 novel by Mark Joseph
 * De Typhoon, a Dutch local newspaper (1944–92)
 * Typhoon (comics), a DC Comics villain
 * Typhoon (1933 film), a German film directed by Robert Wiene
 * Typhoon (1940 film), an American film
 * Typhoon (2005 film), a 2005 South Korean action film
 * The Typhoon, a 1914 American film
 * Typhoon (American band), a band based in Portland, Oregon
 * Typhoon (South Korean band)
 * Typhoon (Korean singer)
 * Typhoon (rapper), a Dutch rapper
 * Typhoons (album), a 2021 Royal Blood album
 * Typhoon, a water coaster ride at Six Flags New England amusement park
 * Typhoon, the name outside Japan for the video game Ajax
 * Typhoon (simulator), a motion simulator created by Triotech Amusement
 * Typhoon Studios, a defunct Canadian video game developer

Sports

 * Typhoon II, winner of the 1897 Kentucky Derby
 * Typhoon, a nickname of the English cricketer Frank Tyson
 * Typhoon, stage name of American professional wrestler Fred Ottman
 * Typhoon, the nickname of Japanese mixed martial artist and current Rizin FF bantamweight champion Kyoji Horiguchi
 * Typhoons (women's cricket), an Irish women's cricket team

Other uses

 * HTC Typhoon, a Windows Mobile Smartphone
 * Typhoon (Bobbejaanland), a Gerstlauer Euro-Fighter model roller coaster at Bobbejaanland amusement park
 * Typhoo, a brand of tea in the United Kingdom

title: Typhoon (disambiguation)


text:
Baron Gifford

Baron Gifford, of St Leonard's in the County of Devon, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 30 January 1824 for the lawyer Sir Robert Gifford, who later served as Master of the Rolls. His grandson, the third Baron, was a soldier and colonial administrator and was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1874. On his death the title passed to his younger brother, the fourth Baron, and then to their nephew, the fifth Baron. the title is held by the latter's son, the sixth Baron, who succeeded in 1961. He is a barrister.

The Hon. Maurice Gifford, fourth son of the second Baron, was a soldier.

The family surname and the title of the barony are pronounced "Jifford".

Barons Gifford (1824)

 * Robert Gifford, 1st Baron Gifford (1779–1826)
 * Robert Francis Gifford, 2nd Baron Gifford (1817–1872)
 * Edric Frederick Gifford, 3rd Baron Gifford (1849–1911)
 * Edgar Berkeley Gifford, 4th Baron Gifford (1857–1937)
 * Charles Maurice Elton Gifford, 5th Baron Gifford (1899–1961)
 * Anthony Maurice Gifford, 6th Baron Gifford (b. 1940)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, the Hon. Thomas Adam Gifford (b. 1967). There are no other heirs to the barony.

title: Baron Gifford


text:
Baron Gerard

There have been three baronies created for the Gerard family who lived historically at Bryn, Ashton-in-Makerfield, Lancashire and Kingsley, Cheshire, in the 13th century. The third and current barony was created in 1876.

History
The earliest traceable member of the family that gave rise to the Barons Gerard was a William Fitz Gerard, who lived during the reign of Henry III of England and obtained his lands in Kingsley, Cheshire, by marriage Emma, daughter of Richard de Kingsley. Traditional genealogical sources have shifted this man back in time and given the family a shared origin with the Hiberno-Norman FitzGeralds, Dukes of Leinster in the Peerage of Ireland, and they adopted the same arms as that famous family, argent, a saltire gules, before the 17th century in place of an earlier coat bearing a lion. They were noted as having exasperated heralds by long ignoring their entreaties to be allowed to record the family's pedigree, arms, and early land documents.

First creation (1603–1733)
The title Baron Gerard, of Gerard's Bromley, was created in the Peerage of England on 21 July 1603 for Sir Thomas Gerard (d. 1617), son of Sir Gilbert Gerard (d. 1593) Attorney General between 1559 and 1581 and Master of the Rolls in 1581, who acquired estates at Gerards Bromley and Hilderstone, Staffordshire. The first Baron was Lord President of Wales between 1616 and 1617. The barony passed in direct line of succession until the death of the fifth Baron in 1684 when it passed to his second cousin Charles, a great-grandson of the 1st Baron Gerard, and upon his death without a male heir, to his brother Philip Gerard, a Jesuit priest who died childless in 1733 when the barony became extinct.

Second creation (1645–1702)
A second peerage was awarded the family in 1645, when Charles Gerard, whose grandfather was the brother of the 1st Baron Gerard of Gerard's Bromley, was summoned to Parliament as Baron Gerard, of Brandon, Suffolk. The 1st Baron was subsequently made Earl of Macclesfield in 1679, and the two titles passed together to his son and grandson, Fitton Gerard, 3rd Earl of Macclesfield and 3rd Baron Gerard, on whose death in 1702 the 1645 Gerard barony became extinct.

Third creation (1876–present)
The title of Baron Gerard of Bryn in the County Palatine of Lancaster, was created in the Peerage of the United Kingdom in 1876 for Sir Robert Gerard, 13th Baronet Gerard of Bryn.

The title followed the line of the first Baron's eldest son until the death of the latter's grandson, the fourth Baron, in 1992. He was succeeded by his second cousin once removed, the fifth and present holder of the barony. He is the great-grandson of Captain the Hon. Robert Joseph Gerard-Dicconson, second son of the 1st Baron. The family seat was originally Bryn Hall, Ashton-in-Makerfield, but later Garswood Hall, followed by New Hall, a majestic, modernist, building of considerable size.

The current baron, Anthony Gerard, 5th Baron Gerard, was educated at Harvard University and lives in New York.

Barons Gerard, of Gerards Bromley, first creation (1603)

 * Thomas Gerard, 1st Baron Gerard (d. 1617)
 * Gilbert Gerard, 2nd Baron Gerard (d. 1622)
 * Dutton Gerard, 3rd Baron Gerard (1613–1640)
 * Charles Gerard, 4th Baron Gerard (1634–1667)
 * Digby Gerard, 5th Baron Gerard (1662–1684)
 * Charles Gerard, 6th Baron Gerard (1659–1707)
 * Philip Gerard, 7th Baron Gerard (1665–1733) (extinct)

Barons Gerard, of Brandon, second creation (1645)

 * Charles Gerard, 1st Earl of Macclesfield, 1st Baron Gerard, (1618–1694)
 * Charles Gerard, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield, 2nd Baron Gerard, (1659–1701)
 * Fitton Gerard, 3rd Earl of Macclesfield, 2nd Baron Gerard, (1665–1702) (extinct)

Barons Gerard, of Bryn, third creation (1876)

 * Robert Tolver Gerard, 1st Baron Gerard (12 May 1808 – 15 March 1887)
 * William Cansfield Gerard, 2nd Baron Gerard (1851–1902)
 * Frederic John Gerard, 3rd Baron Gerard (1883–1953)
 * Robert William Frederick Alwyn Gerard, 4th Baron Gerard (1918–1992)
 * Anthony Robert Hugo Gerard, 5th Baron Gerard (b. 1949)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Hon. Rupert Bernard Charles Gerard (b. 1981).

In France
For the French Baron Gérard, created by Napoleon, see François Gérard.

title: Baron Gerard


text:
Ekrem Spahiu

Ekrem Spahiu (born 18 April 1960) was a Member of the Albanian Parliament in XVIth legislature (from 2001). Eqerem Spahia was arrested for "organising armed uprising, participating in it and violating institutions" after an armed protest near the parliament building that aimed to topple the Nano government and bring to power Crown Prince Leka, son of Zog of Albania, in September 1998.

Ekrem Spahiu made the most disputed case of homophobia and hate speech in Albania as he stated in 2012 to a local newspaper: “What remains to be done is to beat them up with a stick. If you don't understand this, I can explain it: to beat them with a rubber stick”. The EU Delegation in Tirana, Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International and ILGA Europe, the local and international media covered and condemned this statement, even Prime Minister Sali Berisha condemned it publicly, but the Commissioner failed to follow up the case.

title: Ekrem Spahiu


text:
Baron Grimthorpe

Baron Grimthorpe, of Grimthorpe in the East Riding of the County of York, is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. It was created on 17 February 1886 for the lawyer and architect Edmund Beckett, 5th Baronet, with remainder to the heirs male of his father. He was succeeded according to the special remainder by his nephew, the second Baron. He had earlier represented Grimsby in Parliament. the titles are held by the latter's great-grandson, the fifth Baron, who succeeded his father in 2003.

The Beckett baronetcy, of Leeds in the County of York, was created in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom in 1813 for John Beckett, Permanent Under-Secretary of State at the Home Office. His eldest son, the second Baronet, was a Tory politician. On his death the title passed to his younger brother, the third Baronet, and then to another brother, the fourth Baronet. The latter represented the West Riding of Yorkshire in Parliament. He was succeeded by his eldest son, the fifth Baronet, who was raised to the peerage as Baron Grimthorpe in 1886.

Another member of the Beckett family was the Conservative politician Gervase Beckett. He was the younger brother of the second Baron Grimthorpe.

Beckett baronets, of Leeds (1813)

 * Sir John Beckett, 1st Baronet (1743–1826)
 * Sir John Beckett, 2nd Baronet (1775–1847)
 * Sir Thomas Beckett, 3rd Baronet (1779–1872)
 * Sir Edmund Beckett, 4th Baronet (1787–1874)
 * Sir Edmund Beckett, 5th Baronet (1816–1905) (created Baron Grimthorpe in 1886)

Barons Grimthorpe (1886)

 * Edmund Beckett, 1st Baron Grimthorpe (1816–1905)
 * Ernest William Beckett, 2nd Baron Grimthorpe (1856–1917)
 * Ralph William Ernest Beckett, 3rd Baron Grimthorpe (1891–1963)
 * Christopher John Beckett, 4th Baron Grimthorpe (1915–2003)
 * Edward John Beckett, 5th Baron Grimthorpe (born 1954)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Hon. Harry Maximilian Beckett (born 1993).

title: Baron Grimthorpe


text:
Minister for Foreign Affairs (Ireland)

The Minister for Foreign Affairs (An tAire Gnóthaí Eachtracha) is a senior minister in the Government of Ireland and leads the Department of Foreign Affairs.

The Minister's office is located at Iveagh House, on St Stephen's Green in Dublin; "Iveagh House" is often used as a metonym for the department as a whole. From 1922 until 1971 the title of the office was "Minister for External Affairs".

The current office holder is Micheál Martin, TD. He is also Minister for Defence.

He is assisted by:
 * Jennifer Carroll MacNeill, TD – Minister of State for European Affairs
 * Seán Fleming, TD – Minister of State for International Development and Diaspora

Overview

The department has the following divisions:
 * Finance Unit – oversees the financial control of the department.
 * Anglo-Irish Division – deals with Anglo-Irish relations and Northern Ireland.
 * Cultural Division – administers the state's Cultural Relations Programme.
 * European Union Division – coordinates the state's approach within the European Union (EU).
 * Development Cooperation Division – responsible for the Irish Aid programme and for Irish international development policy.
 * Passport and Consular Division – is responsible for the issuing of passports to Irish citizens.
 * Political Division – is responsible for international political issues and manages the state's participation in the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy.
 * Protocol Division – is responsible for the organisation and management of visits of VIPs to the state and of visits abroad by the President of Ireland.

The minister has responsibility for the relations between Ireland and foreign states. The department defines its role as: "The Department of Foreign Affairs advises the Minister for Foreign Affairs, the Ministers of State and the Government on all aspects of foreign policy and coordinates Ireland's response to international developments.

It also provides advice and support on all issues relevant to the pursuit of peace, partnership and reconciliation in Northern Ireland, and between North and South of the island, and to deepening Ireland's relationship with Britain."

List of office-holders
{{legend|#E6E6AA|Denotes acting Minister|border=black}} {| class ="wikitable"
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|

Minister for Foreign Affairs 1919–1922
!Name !colspan="2"|Term of office !colspan="2"|Party !Government(s) (1st time) (2nd time)
 * George Noble Plunkett
 * 22 January 1919
 * 26 August 1921
 * 1st DM • 2nd DM
 * Arthur Griffith
 * 1st DM • 2nd DM
 * Arthur Griffith
 * Arthur Griffith
 * 26 August 1921
 * 9 January 1922
 * 3rd DM
 * George Gavan Duffy
 * 10 January 1922
 * 25 July 1922
 * 4th DM • 1st PG
 * Arthur Griffith
 * 4th DM • 1st PG
 * Arthur Griffith
 * Arthur Griffith
 * Arthur Griffith
 * 26 July 1922
 * 12 August 1922
 * 4th DM • 1st PG
 * -bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * Michael Hayes (acting)
 * 21 August 1922
 * 9 September 1922
 * 4th DM • 1st PG
 * colspan="8"|
 * 4th DM • 1st PG
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|

Minister for External Affairs 1922–1971
!Name !colspan="2"|Term of office !colspan="2"|Party !Government(s) (1st time) (2nd time)
 * Desmond FitzGerald
 * 30 August 1922
 * 23 June 1927
 * 2nd PG • 5th DM • 1st EC • 2nd EC
 * Kevin O'Higgins
 * 23 June 1927
 * 10 July 1927
 * 3rd EC
 * - bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * W. T. Cosgrave (acting)
 * 10 July 1927
 * 11 October 1927
 * 3rd EC
 * Patrick McGilligan
 * 11 October 1927
 * 9 March 1932
 * 4th EC • 5th EC
 * Éamon de Valera
 * 9 March 1932
 * 18 February 1948
 * 6th EC • 7th EC • 8th EC • 1st • 2nd • 3rd • 4th
 * Seán MacBride
 * 18 February 1948
 * 13 June 1951
 * 5th
 * Frank Aiken
 * 9 March 1932
 * 18 February 1948
 * 6th EC • 7th EC • 8th EC • 1st • 2nd • 3rd • 4th
 * Seán MacBride
 * 18 February 1948
 * 13 June 1951
 * 5th
 * Frank Aiken
 * 5th
 * Frank Aiken
 * Frank Aiken
 * Frank Aiken
 * 13 June 1951
 * 2 June 1954
 * 6th
 * Liam Cosgrave
 * 2 June 1954
 * 20 March 1957
 * 7th
 * Frank Aiken
 * 7th
 * Frank Aiken
 * Frank Aiken
 * Frank Aiken
 * 20 March 1957
 * 2 July 1969
 * 8th • 9th • 10th • 11th • 12th
 * Patrick Hillery
 * 2 July 1969
 * 3 March 1971
 * 13th
 * colspan="8"|
 * 13th
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|

Minister for Foreign Affairs 1971–2011
!Name !colspan="2"|Term of office !colspan="2"|Party !Government(s) (1st time) (2nd time) (1st time) (3rd time) (2nd time) (1st time) (1st time) (2nd time) (2nd time) (2nd time)
 * Patrick Hillery
 * 3 March 1971
 * 3 January 1973
 * 13th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 13th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 3 January 1973
 * 14 March 1973
 * 13th
 * Garret FitzGerald
 * 14 March 1973
 * 5 July 1977
 * 14th
 * Michael O'Kennedy
 * 5 July 1977
 * 11 December 1979
 * 15th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 5 July 1977
 * 11 December 1979
 * 15th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 12 December 1979
 * 30 June 1981
 * 16th
 * - bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * John Kelly (acting)
 * 30 June 1981
 * 21 October 1981
 * 17th
 * James Dooge
 * 21 October 1981
 * 9 March 1982
 * 17th
 * Gerry Collins
 * 9 March 1982
 * 17th
 * Gerry Collins
 * Gerry Collins
 * Gerry Collins
 * 9 March 1982
 * 14 December 1982
 * 18th
 * Peter Barry
 * 14 December 1982
 * 10 March 1987
 * 19th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 19th
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Brian Lenihan
 * Brian Lenihan
 * 10 March 1987
 * 12 July 1989
 * 20th
 * Gerry Collins
 * Gerry Collins
 * Gerry Collins
 * 12 July 1989
 * 11 February 1992
 * 21st
 * David Andrews
 * David Andrews
 * David Andrews
 * 11 February 1992
 * 12 January 1993
 * 22nd
 * Dick Spring
 * Dick Spring
 * Dick Spring
 * 12 January 1993
 * 17 November 1994
 * 23rd
 * - bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * Albert Reynolds (acting)
 * 18 November 1994
 * 15 December 1994
 * 23rd
 * Dick Spring
 * 23rd
 * Dick Spring
 * Dick Spring
 * 15 December 1994
 * 26 June 1997
 * 24th
 * Ray Burke
 * 26 June 1997
 * 7 October 1997
 * 25th
 * David Andrews
 * 25th
 * David Andrews
 * David Andrews
 * David Andrews
 * 8 October 1997
 * 27 January 2000
 * 25th
 * Brian Cowen
 * 27 January 2000
 * 29 September 2004
 * 25th • 26th
 * Dermot Ahern
 * 29 September 2004
 * 7 May 2008
 * 26th • 27th
 * Micheál Martin
 * 7 May 2008
 * 19 January 2011
 * 28th
 * - bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * Brian Cowen
 * Micheál Martin
 * 7 May 2008
 * 19 January 2011
 * 28th
 * - bgcolor=#E6E6AA
 * Brian Cowen
 * Brian Cowen
 * 19 January 2011
 * 9 March 2011
 * 28th
 * Eamon Gilmore
 * 9 March 2011
 * 2 June 2011
 * 29th
 * colspan="8"|
 * 29th
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|

Minister for Foreign Affairs and Trade 2011–2020
!Name !colspan="2"|Term of office !colspan="2"|Party !Government(s)
 * Eamon Gilmore
 * 2 June 2011
 * 11 July 2014
 * 29th
 * Charles Flanagan
 * 11 July 2014
 * 14 June 2017
 * 29th • 30th
 * Simon Coveney
 * 14 June 2017
 * 24 September 2020
 * 31st • 32nd
 * colspan="8"|
 * Simon Coveney
 * 14 June 2017
 * 24 September 2020
 * 31st • 32nd
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|
 * colspan="8"|

Minister for Foreign Affairs 2020–present
!Name !colspan="2"|Term of office !colspan="2"|Party !Government(s) (2nd time)
 * Simon Coveney
 * 24 September 2020
 * 17 December 2022
 * 32nd
 * Micheál Martin
 * 32nd
 * Micheál Martin
 * Micheál Martin
 * 17 December 2022
 * Incumbent
 * 33rd • 34th
 * }
 * Notes
 * Notes

title: Minister for Foreign Affairs (Ireland)


text:
Analytics

Analytics is the systematic computational analysis of data or statistics. It is used for the discovery, interpretation, and communication of meaningful patterns in data. It also entails applying data patterns toward effective decision-making. It can be valuable in areas rich with recorded information; analytics relies on the simultaneous application of statistics, computer programming, and operations research to quantify performance.

Organizations may apply analytics to business data to describe, predict, and improve business performance. Specifically, areas within analytics include descriptive analytics, diagnostic analytics, predictive analytics, prescriptive analytics, and cognitive analytics. Analytics may apply to a variety of fields such as marketing, management, finance, online systems, information security, and software services. Since analytics can require extensive computation (see big data), the algorithms and software used for analytics harness the most current methods in computer science, statistics, and mathematics. According to International Data Corporation, global spending on big data and business analytics (BDA) solutions is estimated to reach $215.7 billion in 2021. As per Gartner, the overall analytic platforms software market grew by $25.5 billion in 2020.

Analytics vs analysis
Data analysis focuses on the process of examining past data through business understanding, data understanding, data preparation, modeling and evaluation, and deployment. It is a subset of data analytics, which takes multiple data analysis processes to focus on why an event happened and what may happen in the future based on the previous data. Data analytics is used to formulate larger organizational decisions.

Data analytics is a multidisciplinary field. There is extensive use of computer skills, mathematics, statistics, the use of descriptive techniques and predictive models to gain valuable knowledge from data through analytics. There is increasing use of the term advanced analytics, typically used to describe the technical aspects of analytics, especially in the emerging fields such as the use of machine learning techniques like neural networks, decision trees, logistic regression, linear to multiple regression analysis, and classification to do predictive modeling. It also includes unsupervised machine learning techniques like cluster analysis, Principal Component Analysis, segmentation profile analysis and association analysis.

Marketing optimization
Marketing organizations use analytics to determine the outcomes of campaigns or efforts, and to guide decisions for investment and consumer targeting. Demographic studies, customer segmentation, conjoint analysis and other techniques allow marketers to use large amounts of consumer purchase, survey and panel data to understand and communicate marketing strategy.

Marketing analytics consists of both qualitative and quantitative, structured and unstructured data used to drive strategic decisions about brand and revenue outcomes. The process involves predictive modelling, marketing experimentation, automation and real-time sales communications. The data enables companies to make predictions and alter strategic execution to maximize performance results.

Web analytics allows marketers to collect session-level information about interactions on a website using an operation called sessionization. Google Analytics is an example of a popular free analytics tool that marketers use for this purpose. Those interactions provide web analytics information systems with the information necessary to track the referrer, search keywords, identify the IP address, and track the activities of the visitor. With this information, a marketer can improve marketing campaigns, website creative content, and information architecture.

Analysis techniques frequently used in marketing include marketing mix modeling, pricing and promotion analyses, sales force optimization and customer analytics e.g.: segmentation. Web analytics and optimization of websites and online campaigns now frequently work hand in hand with the more traditional marketing analysis techniques. A focus on digital media has slightly changed the vocabulary so that marketing mix modeling is commonly referred to as attribution modeling in the digital or marketing mix modeling context.

These tools and techniques support both strategic marketing decisions (such as how much overall to spend on marketing, how to allocate budgets across a portfolio of brands and the marketing mix) and more tactical campaign support, in terms of targeting the best potential customer with the optimal message in the most cost-effective medium at the ideal time.

People analytics
People analytics uses behavioral data to understand how people work and change how companies are managed.

People analytics is also known as workforce analytics, HR analytics, talent analytics, people insights, talent insights, colleague insights, human capital analytics, and HRIS analytics. HR analytics is the application of analytics to help companies manage human resources. Additionally, HR analytics has become a strategic tool in analyzing and forecasting Human related trends in the changing labor markets, using Career Analytics tools. The aim is to discern which employees to hire, which to reward or promote, what responsibilities to assign, and similar human resource problems. For example, inspection of the strategic phenomenon of employee turnover utilizing People Analytics Tools may serve as an important analysis at times of disruption. It has been suggested that People Analytics is a separate discipline to HR analytics, representing a greater focus on business issues rather than administrative processes, and that People Analytics may not really belong within Human Resources in organizations. However, experts disagree on this, with many arguing that Human Resources will need to develop People Analytics as a key part of a more capable and strategic business function in the changing world of work brought on by automation. Instead of moving People Analytics outside HR, some experts argue that it belongs in HR, albeit enabled by a new breed of HR professional who is more data-driven and business savvy.

Portfolio analytics
A common application of business analytics is portfolio analysis. In this, a bank or lending agency has a collection of accounts of varying value and risk. The accounts may differ by the social status (wealthy, middle-class, poor, etc.) of the holder, the geographical location, its net value, and many other factors. The lender must balance the return on the loan with the risk of default for each loan. The question is then how to evaluate the portfolio as a whole.

The least risk loan may be to the very wealthy, but there are a very limited number of wealthy people. On the other hand, there are many poor that can be lent to, but at greater risk. Some balance must be struck that maximizes return and minimizes risk. The analytics solution may combine time series analysis with many other issues in order to make decisions on when to lend money to these different borrower segments, or decisions on the interest rate charged to members of a portfolio segment to cover any losses among members in that segment.

Risk analytics
Predictive models in the banking industry are developed to bring certainty across the risk scores for individual customers. Credit scores are built to predict an individual's delinquency behavior and are widely used to evaluate the credit worthiness of each applicant. Furthermore, risk analyses are carried out in the scientific world and the insurance industry. It is also extensively used in financial institutions like online payment gateway companies to analyse if a transaction was genuine or fraud. For this purpose, they use the transaction history of the customer. This is more commonly used in Credit Card purchases, when there is a sudden spike in the customer transaction volume the customer gets a call of confirmation if the transaction was initiated by him/her. This helps in reducing loss due to such circumstances.

Digital analytics
Digital analytics is a set of business and technical activities that define, create, collect, verify or transform digital data into reporting, research, analyses, recommendations, optimizations, predictions, and automation. This also includes the SEO (search engine optimization) where the keyword search is tracked and that data is used for marketing purposes. Even banner ads and clicks come under digital analytics. A growing number of brands and marketing firms rely on digital analytics for their digital marketing assignments, where MROI (Marketing Return on Investment) is an important key performance indicator (KPI).

Security analytics
Security analytics refers to information technology (IT) to gather security events to understand and analyze events that pose the greatest security risks. Products in this area include security information and event management and user behavior analytics.

Software analytics
Software analytics is the process of collecting information about the way a piece of software is used and produced.

Challenges
In the industry of commercial analytics software, an emphasis has emerged on solving the challenges of analyzing massive, complex data sets, often when such data is in a constant state of change. Such data sets are commonly referred to as big data. Whereas once the problems posed by big data were only found in the scientific community, today big data is a problem for many businesses that operate transactional systems online and, as a result, amass large volumes of data quickly.

The analysis of unstructured data types is another challenge getting attention in the industry. Unstructured data differs from structured data in that its format varies widely and cannot be stored in traditional relational databases without significant effort at data transformation. Sources of unstructured data, such as email, the contents of word processor documents, PDFs, geospatial data, etc., are rapidly becoming a relevant source of business intelligence for businesses, governments and universities. For example, in Britain the discovery that one company was illegally selling fraudulent doctor's notes in order to assist people in defrauding employers and insurance companies is an opportunity for insurance firms to increase the vigilance of their unstructured data analysis.

These challenges are the current inspiration for much of the innovation in modern analytics information systems, giving birth to relatively new machine analysis concepts such as complex event processing, full text search and analysis, and even new ideas in presentation. One such innovation is the introduction of grid-like architecture in machine analysis, allowing increases in the speed of massively parallel processing by distributing the workload to many computers all with equal access to the complete data set.

Analytics is increasingly used in education, particularly at the district and government office levels. However, the complexity of student performance measures presents challenges when educators try to understand and use analytics to discern patterns in student performance, predict graduation likelihood, improve chances of student success, etc. For example, in a study involving districts known for strong data use, 48% of teachers had difficulty posing questions prompted by data, 36% did not comprehend given data, and 52% incorrectly interpreted data. To combat this, some analytics tools for educators adhere to an over-the-counter data format (embedding labels, supplemental documentation, and a help system, and making key package/display and content decisions) to improve educators' understanding and use of the analytics being displayed.

Risks
Risks for the general population include discrimination on the basis of characteristics such as gender, skin colour, ethnic origin or political opinions, through mechanisms such as price discrimination or statistical discrimination.

title: Analytics


text:
Hegemony or Survival

Hegemony or Survival: America's Quest for Global Dominance is a book about the United States and its foreign policy written by American political activist and linguist Noam Chomsky. It was first published in the United States in November 2003 by Metropolitan Books and then in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books. It was republished by Haymarket Books in January 2024.

Chomsky's main argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the socio-economic elite who control the United States have pursued an "Imperial Grand Strategy" since the end of World War II to maintain global hegemony through military, political, and economic means. He argues that in doing so they have repeatedly shown a total disregard for democracy and human rights, in stark contrast to the US government's professed support for those values. He further argues that this continual pursuit of global hegemony threatens the existence of humanity itself because of the increasing proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

Drawing historical examples from 1945 through to 2003, Chomsky looks at the US government's support for regimes responsible for mass human rights abuses—including ethnic cleansing and genocide—namely El Salvador, Colombia, Turkey, Israel, Egypt, South Africa, and Indonesia. He also discusses US support for militant dissident groups widely considered "terrorists", particularly in Nicaragua and Cuba, as well as direct military interventions, such as the Vietnam War, NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, Afghan War and Iraq War, to further its power and grasp of resources. He argues that US foreign policy—whether controlled by Republican or Democratic administrations—pursues the same agenda of gaining access to lucrative resources and maintaining US world dominance.

Mainstream press reviews in the US were mixed and were largely negative in the UK, although a review in Asia was more positive. In a speech before the UN General Assembly in September 2006, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez openly praised the work. Sales of the book surged after the recommendation, its rank on Amazon.com rising to No. 1 in paperback and No. 6 in hardcover in only a few days.

Background
Noam Chomsky (born 1928) was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe. Becoming academically involved in the field of linguistics, Chomsky gained a PhD and secured a teaching job at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. In the field of linguistics, he is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy and the universal grammar theory, achieving international recognition for his work.

Politically, Chomsky had held radical leftist views since childhood, identifying himself with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism. A staunch critic of U.S. foreign policy, he arose to public attention for these views in 1967, when The New York Times published his article, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals", a criticism of the Vietnam War. His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.

Chomsky is the author of over 100 books, and has been described as a prominent cultural figure. According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall.

The book was published as the first in The American Empire Series, edited for Metropolitan Books by Steve Fraser and Tom Engelhardt. The series had been devised as a vehicle for works of anti-imperialism that were critical of U.S. foreign policy. Engelhardt informed an interviewer that the series reflected their "counterinterventionary impulse" and represented an attempt to reclaim "the word" from the political right in the U.S. They agreed to publish with Metropolitan because it was co-run by Engelhardt and Sara Bershtel. In conjunction with the publication of the book, Chomsky answered a series of public questions on the website of The Washington Post.

Synopsis
Chomsky's first chapter, "Priorities and Prospects", provides an introduction to U.S. global dominance at the start of 2003. He looks at the role of propaganda – employed by government and mass media – in shaping public opinion in both the U.S. and United Kingdom, arguing that it allows a wealthy elite to thrive at the expense of the majority. As evidence for the manner in which the media shapes public opinion on foreign policy, he discusses the role of the U.S. government in protecting its economic interests in Nicaragua, first by supporting the military junta of General Somoza and then by supporting the Contra militias, in both instances leading to mass human rights abuses which were ignored by the mainstream U.S. media.

Chapter two, "Imperial Grand Strategy", looks at the U.S. government's belief that it should take part in "preventative war" against states who threaten its global hegemony, despite the illegality of these actions under international law. Chomsky argues that the targets of U.S. preventative war must be weak, yet important and easy to depict as a threat to the U.S. populace. Using the 2003 invasion of Iraq as an example, he discusses how the U.S. government and media portrayed the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein as a threat to the U.S. and other Middle Eastern states, something which Chomsky argues it was not.

Chapter three, "The New Era of Enlightenment", explores further examples of U.S. interventionism in world affairs. Criticising the standard U.S. government claim that such interventionism is for humanitarian purposes, Chomsky maintains that it is an attempt to further the power of U.S. capitalism, with little interest in the welfare of the people involved. Using the 1999 NATO intervention in Kosovo as an example, he argues that western forces intervened not to protect Albanian Kosovans from Serbian aggression (as they claimed), but to humiliate and weaken Serbian President Slobodan Milošević, who had remained resistant to western demands for years. He asserts that western criticism of foreign human rights abuses is politically motivated, highlighting that while the U.S. were intervening in Kosovo, they were simultaneously supporting the governments of Turkey, Colombia and Indonesia, all of whom were involved in widespread human rights abuses and ethnic cleansing (see Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present), Plan Colombia, 1999 East Timorese crisis, respectively).

In the fourth chapter, "Dangerous Times", Chomsky focuses primarily on U.S. interventionism throughout Latin America, which the government has defended through its Monroe Doctrine. He discusses the U.S. campaign to topple the socialist government of Fidel Castro in Cuba, highlighting both its economic embargo of the island and its financial backing for militant groups that attack Cuban targets, including the perpetrators of the Bay of Pigs invasion and the bombing of Cubana Flight 455. He furthermore discusses the U.S. government's role in training Latin American right wing paramilitary squads, who have perpetrated widespread human rights abuses across the region.

Chapter five, "The Iraq Connection", looks at the background to the 2003 Iraq War, beginning with an analysis of the activities of the Reagan administration in the 1980s, who focused their military efforts in Central America and the Middle East. Chomsky argues that Reagan's administration utilized fear and nationalist rhetoric to distract the public from the poor economic situation that the U.S. was facing, finding scapegoats in the form of the leftist governments of Libya, Grenada and Nicaragua, as well as the international drug trade. He examines the long relationship that the U.S. had with the Hussein's Iraqi government, noting that they actively supported Hussein throughout the Iran–Iraq War, Al-Anfal Campaign and the Halabja poison gas attack, only turning against their former ally after his Invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Proceeding to critique the idea that the Bush II administration was genuinely concerned about threats to U.S. security, he criticises their attempts to undermine international efforts to prevent the militarization of space, the abolition of biological warfare, and the fight against global pollution, as well as the fact that they ignored all warnings that the Iraq invasion would cause a worldwide anti-American backlash. Exploring the dismissive attitude that the U.S. took towards European governments who opposed the war, namely France and Germany, he critiques the idea that the U.S. wanted to install a democratic government in Iraq, arguing that they wanted to install a puppet regime that would be obedient to U.S. corporate interests.

In the sixth chapter, "Dilemmas of Dominance", Chomsky explores the relationship that the U.S. has had with Eastern Europe since the collapse of the Soviet Union and with East Asia since the Second World War. In the former, Chomsky argues, the U.S. has allied itself with the capitalist reformers who have advocated privatization and neoliberalism at the expense of the welfare state, leading to increased poverty and demographic decline across the region. In the latter, he has explored the role that the U.S. has played – through the likes of the San Francisco Peace Treaty of 1951 – in supporting capitalist development, but trying to ensure its own economic hegemony at the same time.

Chapter seven, "Cauldron of Animosities", opens with a discussion of U.S. support for the increasing militarization of Israel and its illegal development of nuclear weapons, something Chomsky believes threatens peace in the Middle East by encouraging nations like Iran and Iraq to do the same. He explores the longstanding western exploitation of the Middle East for its oil resources, first by the British Empire and subsequently by the U.S. post-World War II, and then looks at the U.S.' role in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, continually supporting Israel both militarily and politically, furthering human right abuses against the Palestinian people and repeatedly sabotaging the peace process.

The eighth chapter, "Terrorism and Justice: Some Useful Truisms", looks at what Chomsky calls "a few simple truths" regarding the criteria that is accepted for a conflict to be internationally recognized as a "just war". He argues that these truisms are continually ignored when it comes to the actions of the U.S. and her allies. Exploring the concepts of "terror" and "terrorism", he argues that the U.S. only use the term to refer to the actions of their enemies, and never to their own actions, no matter how similar they may be. As an example of such double standards, he highlights the public outcry at the killing of Leon Klinghoffer, a disabled American murdered by Palestinian militants in 1985, contrasting it with the complete U.S. ignorance of the Israeli military's killing of a disabled Palestinian, Kemal Zughayer, in 2002. Focusing in on the Afghan War – widely described as a "just war" in the U.S. press – he criticizes such a description, arguing that the conflict was opposed by the majority of the world's population, including the Afghan people.

In the final chapter, "A Passing Nightmare", Chomsky turns his attention to weapons of mass destruction. He argues that rather than helping to eradicate nuclear, chemical and biological weaponry, the U.S. has continually increased its number of nuclear warheads, thereby encouraging other nations to do the same, putting the world in jeopardy of nuclear holocaust. Discussing the role of the U.S. in creating ballistic missile defense systems and encouraging the militarization of outer space, he notes that the U.S. government have continually undermined international treaties to decrease the number of weapons of mass destruction, because the American socio-economic elite believe that "hegemony is more important than survival." However, he argues that there is still hope for humanity if the citizens of the world – the "Second Superpower" – continue to criticize and oppose the actions of the U.S. government.

U.S. Imperial Grand Strategy
Chomsky's primary argument in Hegemony or Survival is that the United States government has pursued an "Imperial Grand Strategy" in order to maintain its status as the world's foremost superpower since at least the end of the Second World War. Adopting the term "Imperial Grand Strategy" from international affairs specialist John Ikenberry of Princeton University, he quotes Ikenberry on the nature of this doctrine and the manner in which it considers the "rule of force" to be more important than the "rule of law", thereby ignoring international law. Quoting liberal statesman Dean Acheson, Chomsky asserts that the purpose of this strategy is to prevent any challenge to the "power, position, and prestige of the United States".

Noting that economic decision making in the United States is highly centralized among a select socio-economic elite who control big business, he argues that this elite play a dominant role in this Imperial Grand Strategy because they consistently maintain a strong influence over successive U.S. governments. As a result, he argues that U.S. foreign policy has focused on gaining and maintaining unrestricted access to markets, energy supplies, and strategic resources across the world. Chomsky goes on to categorize the specific purposes of the doctrine as:

 * containing other centers of global power within the "overall framework of order" managed by the United States; maintaining control of the world's energy supplies; barring unacceptable forms of independent nationalism; and overcoming "crisis of democracy" within domestic enemy territory.

Chomsky argues that as a part of this strategy, the U.S. has regularly engaged in "preventative war", which he highlights is illegal under international law and could be categorised as a war crime. Preventative war refers to conflict waged to prevent a nation ever reaching the stage where it could become a potential threat, and according to Chomsky, under the regimes of Ronald Reagan, George H.W. Bush and his son George W. Bush it has actively involved attacking "an imagined or invented threat" such as Grenada and Iraq. He differentiates this "preventative war" from "preemptive war", which he argues can be justifiable under international law in cases of self-defence. Examining examples of preventative war waged by the United States, he notes that all of the nations that have been attacked have shared the same three characteristics: 1) they are "virtually defenseless", 2) they are "important enough to be worth the trouble" and 3) there has been a way to portray them as "the ultimate evil and an imminent threat to our survival."

The Bush administration and the invasion of Iraq
Chomsky argues that the Republican neoconservative administration of President George W. Bush, elected to the presidency in 2001, differed from earlier administrations in one key respect: it was open about adhering to the Imperial Grand Strategy, outright declaring that it would be willing to use force to ensure U.S. global hegemony despite international condemnation. Chomsky sees this as being in contrast to previous administrations, who had never explicitly informed the public that they adhered to such a doctrine. Instead, earlier administrations had discussed their intentions within elite circles which were known only to specialists or readers of dissident literature. Thus, where once only the socio-economic elite and their left-wing critics knew of the Imperial Grand Strategy, now the entire American populace are potentially aware of it. He considers this a "significant difference."

In Chomsky's view, the invasion of Iraq by a U.S. and U.K. coalition must be seen in the wider context of the U.S. government's Imperial Grand Strategy. He claims that the Iraq invasion fits the three criteria that he has highlighted for being classified as a U.S. target for preventative war. Considering the country "virtually defenseless" against the superior might of the western armed forces, he also notes that securing control of the country would be an important move for the U.S. socio-economic elite, gaining unlimited access to the country's lucrative oil resources and asserting their own military might to intimidate other nations into compliance. He also argued that government and media propaganda also set out to forge an erroneous link between Iraq President Saddam Hussein and Al-Qaeda, playing on the American people's horror of the 9/11 attacks. Furthermore, he stated that they also wrongly claimed that the Iraqi government was developing weapons of mass destruction to be used against the U.S. or its allies. Chomsky remarks that the 2003 invasion of Iraq is particularly significant because it signals the "new norm" in international relations, and that in future the U.S. might be willing to wage a preventative war against "Iran, Syria, the Andean region, and a number of others."

Academic reviews
Writing in the International Affairs journal, Michael T. Boyle of the Australian National University reviewed Hegemony or Survival alongside Immanuel Wallerstein's The Decline of American Power: The U.S. in a Chaotic World (2003), considering both to be "well-considered if imperfect arguments" that the Bush administration's foreign policy was in keeping with a long history of U.S. interference in global affairs. Praising its "prescient" appearance and its analysis of the historical evidence, Boyle did present some criticism of the book. In stressing the Bush administration's continuity with earlier presidencies, Boyle argued that Chomsky had neglected to highlight the differences between the Bush administration and its predecessors, in particular its willingness to break relationships with long-standing allies. Furthermore, Boyle opined that Chomsky had failed to offer a "compelling explanation" for why the U.S. government was willing to declare war on Iraq in 2003, a conflict that was far costlier and riskier than the 1980s military adventures in Nicaragua and Grenada.

Journalism lecturer David Blackall of the University of Wollongong reviewed Chomsky's book for the Asia Pacific Media Educator. He noted that it would polarize readers between those whose anti-imperialist beliefs would be reinforced and those who would denounce Chomsky's ideas as conspiracy theories. He thought the book was important in reminding readers that the War on Terror was keeping the US public in fear and was ensuring an ongoing international market for weaponry. However, he thought that there were "recurring attribution problems" in Chomsky's text, for instance by referring to the international press as if it were a homogeneous entity with a single point of view. Ultimately, he thought that the book had something to teach educators of journalism: that "[w]hen there is a desire of the power elite to move on an issue, and the population is generally opposed, then the issue is removed from the political arena and from the news media priorities – distraction being a primary method."

Eliza Mathews of the University of Queensland published a review of the book in the Journal of Australian Studies. She considered it similar to other books criticizing Bush's administration, such as those of Michael Moore, John Dean, and Bob Woodward, but thought it novel in acknowledging prior policy. She thought some of his research to be "inadequate" in supporting his arguments, relying too heavily on newspaper reports and not verifying secondary sources. In other instances, she thought it unsatisfactory that Chomsky used his own work as a reference. She thought that despite being aimed at a wide audience, the text was not "light reading", and expressed dislike at Chomsky's "sarcastic tone".

Press reviews
Views in the U.S. press were mixed. In a review for The New York Times, former U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, Harvard scholar, and Pulitzer Prize winner Samantha Power described the book as a "raging and often meandering assault" on U.S. foreign policy. Believing that Chomsky divides the world into two camps, the oppressor and the oppressed, she asserts that in Hegemony or Survival he portrays the U.S. as "the prime oppressor, [who] can do no right", meanwhile overlooking the crimes of the oppressed. Arguing that he completely ignores the concept that the U.S. might undertake any foreign interventions with good intentions, she asserts that his book is not easy to read, and that his "glib and caustic tone" are distracting. Furthermore, she highlights problems with his use of end notes, particularly when some of these notes simply reference his earlier publications. Although disagreeing with his arguments, she believed that reading his book was "sobering and instructive", having value in illustrating how many non-Americans viewed the U.S. and highlighting many of the "structural defects" in U.S. foreign policy. Furthermore, recognizing that Chomsky's "critiques have come to influence and reflect mainstream opinion elsewhere in the world," she concedes that Chomksy's analysis has a coherence that, for many, resolves much of the post-9/11 confusion and disillusionment stemming from the Bush administration's standard response to the question, "Why do they hate us?".

Carol Armbrust discussed Chomsky's book critically in The Antioch Review, claiming that his writing style was "a monumental turnoff" and that only those who already agreed with Chomsky's political views would read the book. Claiming that his opinions constituted "conspiracy theories", she compared his arguments to adding "two and two" together and getting "minus six". Conversely, Publishers Weekly considered it "highly readable" and thought it both "cogent and provocative", representing a significant addition to the debate on U.S. foreign policy.

Views in the British press were largely negative. Writing in The Observer, journalist Nick Cohen wrote disparagingly of Hegemony or Survival, describing Chomsky as a "master of looking-glass politics", exemplifying a trend in the western Left for being more interested in anti-Americanism than in opposing the "fascist" regime of Saddam Hussein. Focusing his critique primarily on Chomsky and his readership than the book itself, he refers to its "convoluted prose", and remarks that its argument is "dense and filled with non sequiturs". In a shorter review published in The Observer, Oliver Robinson described the work as an "unequivocally incensed, if meandering" study of U.S. foreign policy.

Piyush Mathur reviewed the work for Asia Times Online, a joint Thai-Hong Kongese publication. Praising the book, Mathur argued that by being a U.S. citizen who was willing to criticise his own government, Chomsky was showing "a way beyond parochialism" that avoided nationalistic or ethnocentric intentions. Highlighting Chomsky's "wry humor and sarcasm", he notes that the author "successfully shows that the American emperor, while preaching modesty to the rest, himself struts about rather ostentatiously." Mathur also turned his attention to the most prominent press reviews of the book that appeared in the U.S. and U.K., those of Power and Cohen. He argues that the former's review was "hardly charitable", and that she had narrowly framed Hegemony or Survival as a critique purely of the Bush administration, something Mathur stated it clearly was not. Turning to Cohen's "venomous" review, he highlights that it actually dealt very little with Chomsky's book, instead offering a diatribe against the Left, one which consisted of a "thoroughly convoluted vagueness". Ultimately, Mathur notes that the "strangely defensive and rather parochial posture" adopted by Power and Cohen was "entirely in line" with the reception that Chomsky had received from the Anglo-American world.

Hugo Chávez's endorsement
In September 2006, Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez held up a Spanish-language copy of Hegemony or Survival during his speech at the United Nations. Chávez praised the work as an "excellent book to help us understand what has been happening in the world throughout the 20th century". He urged everyone present to read it, including those in the U.S., remarking that "I think that the first people who should read this book are our brothers and sisters in the United States, because their threat is right in their own house." A vocal anti-imperialist and prominent critic of U.S. foreign policy, particularly in his native Latin America, Chávez went on to describe U.S. President Bush as the "devil" in his speech.

In the U.S., demand for the book dramatically increased. Within a week, sales had risen tenfold; it reached number 1 on amazon.com's best-seller list, and number 6 in the best-seller lists of the bookstore chains Borders Group and Barnes & Noble. A prominent critic of Chomsky's political views, Alan Dershowitz of Harvard Law School, told The New York Times that he believed most of those buying Hegemony or Survival would not read it, remarking that "I don't know anybody who's ever read a Chomsky book". Furthermore, he related that the MIT professor "does not write page turners, he writes page stoppers. There are a lot of bent pages in Noam Chomsky's books, and they are usually at about Page 16."

In response to Chávez's endorsement, Chomsky told The New York Times that he would be "happy to meet" the Venezuelan President, asserting that he was "quite interested" in what his administration had achieved and thought many of Chávez's views to be "quite constructive". This meeting came about in August 2009, when Chomsky visited the Latin American country. In a press conference to commence the meeting, Chávez made reference to the intellectual's work, remarking "Hegemony or survival; we opt for survival", before comparing Chomsky's thesis with the concept of "Socialism or Barbarism" advocated by German Marxist Rosa Luxemburg in the early 20th century. Speaking through an interpreter, Chomsky replied that "I write about peace and criticize the barriers to peace; that's easy. What's harder is to create a better world ... and what's so exciting about at last visiting Venezuela is that I can see how a better world is being created." He went on to Venezolana de Televisión, where he commented on the U.S. government's role in orchestrating the 2009 Honduran coup d'état to overthrow leftist President Manuel Zelaya. He also expressed cautious support for the leftist reforms being implemented by Chávez's administration, remarking his opinion that their moves "toward the creation of another socio-economic model could have a global impact if these projects are successfully carried out".

In summer 2011, Chomsky expressed criticism of Chávez's government over the controversial imprisonment of judge María Lourdes Afiuni, who had been detained since December 2009. He asserted that he was "convinced that she must be set free, not only due to her physical and psychological health conditions, but in conformance with the human dignity the Bolivarian revolution presents as a goal." In December 2011, Chomsky reiterated this position, sending a letter to Chávez asking him to include the judge in his "Christmas-time pardons". Afiuni was released on June 14, 2013.

title: Hegemony or Survival