text:
Talk:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

San HuangWuDi
I just moved "Sanhuangwudi" to "The Three August Ones and the Five Emperors". Google shows beside us, only 1 webpage uses Sanhuangwudi; whereas the translated name is used, excluding us, well...4 hits, that is ...more often. I saw this translated name from the Cambridge History of Ancient China. ---Menchi 09:54, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * It would appear to be Anglecized since San means Saint (holy), as the San Huang-Wu-Di. For those interested in Genesis, they should note that 2852bc is 100 years after the Chinese Flood of Creation by NuWa in the year 2953-2952bc. Another factor to note is that Huang Di is the Yellow Emperor (GongSun or XuanYuan), one of Three Sovereign to some, but not to others since he is one of the 5 emperors. Further, if Huang Di is the Yellow Emperor, then there is contradiction because Yellow Emperor ruled 112 years (2852-2737bc; =100 years after Flood 2953bc to 100 year before calendar 2637bc) and the 60 years of Huang Di (2697-2637bc). Though I would like to point out that anytime ancient history uses the number 52 (112 = 52+60 or 60+52), it could be, probably is, the practive of regarding 52 as the planet Mars via the name Marduk. So if 360-day calendar preceded Chinese 60-year, the 52+60 could be origin of the 112 years.98.144.71.174 (talk) 12:49, 4 November 2013 (UTC)
 * You're funny. To any humans reading this autogenerated botspam at a later date, no, Chinese "three" (san) has nothing whatsoever to do with the Spanish title for saints ("San..."). It doesn't even sound the same. — Llywelyn II   08:49, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

They are all koreans
It is wrote by famous chinese historian. -- WonYong (talk) 09:53, 12 January 2006 (UTC)
 * Korean nationalists always please me with their funny jokes... lol -- G.S.K.Lee 07:49, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * All Koreans are Chinese. It is wrote by king Sejong in Chinese. -- WonYong (talk) 10:24, 18 October 2006 (UTC)
 * Korean created the whole word.KJ (talk) 06:48, 21 March 2009 (UTC)
 * as if, korea was just a tributary state of China —Preceding unsigned comment added by 124.187.134.178 (talk) 05:43, 10 December 2009 (UTC)

What does "August One" mean?
Would someone please add a reference to the article about this transliteration "August One"? This transliteration appears puzzling to me, a native Chinese. --Pkchan 11:34, 14 May 2006 (UTC)
 * It would seem to be a customary translation in English. I don't speak Chinese very well myself, do you think some other translation would be preferable? —Veyklevar 13:13, 14 May 2006 (UTC)
 * I agree that "August One" is not a good enough translation to 皇. 皇 as well as 帝 refers to a ruling state; modern studies indicates these eight people were most likely some reverend tribunal heads in ancient times, yet "August One" is not a clear enough translation to hint on this fact. Though I too have no idea on a better translation. -- G.S.K.Lee 07:49, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Well then i would like to know if it diifers from August which I regard to mean Reverend and Most honorable One, a Holy One. The use of the name San implies this.98.144.71.174 (talk) 12:48, 4 November 2013 (UTC)
 * August one is pretty much exactly the English equivalent to the divine Roman Augusti, which is the closest equivalent if we don't just want to start saying huang all the time.

 * The problem isn't a literary synonym for "emperor". The problem is that to the extent that these guys are makebelieve gods, "emperor" doesn't quite cut it. Similarly, if they were historical figures, it's far too misleading and grandiose for what were glorified tribal chieftains and/or personifications of the tribes themselves. — Llywelyn II   08:14, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

length of Ruling
The article says "The Heavenly Sovereign (天皇), who ruled for 18,000 years... The Earthly Sovereign (地皇), who ruled for 11,000 years... The Human Sovereign (泰皇 or 人皇), who ruled for 45,600 years..." I can not find these in the Record of Grand Historian, where is this source? According to the Bamboo Annals, two ruled 100 years, others ruled 50-70 years. Dongwenliang 02:39, 30 January 2007 (UTC)
 * The Bamboo Annals are not the Traditional layout. These figures here are traditional figures and i would like to know if 45,600 is a typo because another source online says 456,000 years for SuiRen. The importance of this is that it is the only Sumerian preFlood number not divisible by 360-day. The 97 sar is 97x 3600 day decades or 970x 360 days. The 67 sar of 8 kings is likewise 67x 3600 and 670x 360. This 456,000 (debate if you wish days or years) is 1266.6 years of 360 day but this article's 45,600 is only 126.6 years; the difference raising question to whether ten preFlood kings (456,000) are or were ever confused with Gilgamesh who ruled 126 years (45,600 days). An interesting connection is that as a Sovereign from heaven or the gods, it connects to the time before the Flood or of the Flood. However, as Gilgamesh it connects to being Human (a sovereign in fear of dying). 98.144.71.174 (talk) 12:59, 4 November 2013 (UTC)
 * It is not in the original Shiji, written by Sima Qian, but in a chapter on the three sovereigns added by Sima Zhen in his commentary on the Shiji, Shiji suoyinxu 史記索隱序). See here for the Chinese text of this chapter, here for a translation in English and here for a French translation. Guss2 (talk) 12:40, 28 June 2008 (UTC)
 * We need to distinguish history and myth. Those recorded in Records of the Grand Historian, Classic of History, etc. is of serious history. -Daohuo (talk) 05:19, 23 December 2008 (UTC)
 * Great idea. Completely impossible with these guys. Sima managed by just completely ignoring them. We can't. This is what you get. — Llywelyn II   08:15, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

Adding Validity
I would be interested in assisting with a coordinated effort of verifying this information. Please let me know how I can be of assistance. Caddcreativity 03:00, 08 November 2007 (UTC)

Youchou
Youchou (有巢氏) has been mentioned in some sources before. It has been left off the article until someone can get a better academic source. Benjwong (talk) 01:54, 24 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Thanks for putting effort in cleaning up this article. It makes it much better as it was before, Guss2 (talk) 07:17, 24 July 2010 (UTC)
 * Youchao was added back but to a different section. Benjwong (talk) 21:26, 25 July 2010 (UTC)
 * I would like to know info on YouChou, and Yao, and Yu, etc. Is YouChou any connection to Yao (or Yu) of the 100 years 2333-2233bc. From what I have been reading Yao gave his throne to Shun (without dying) who then ruled 50 years to 2183bc; and this puts the end of that rule as 22 years after the Xia Dynasty starts in 2205bc. Because Chinese Flood of Creation is 2953bc, I choose to see Yu (as Reu the son of Peleg); born in year 531, he dies at 239 in that same Year 770 as Yu does when Shun's rule ends. I also note that Yellow Emperor is named Gong-Shun. But not all sources say Yao and Yu are the same person. Some internet writers (one sounding like Hislop in his conclusions) says Yu is the brother of Yao. I don't beleive this one source because he also says Shulgi & Dungi are brothers, and Bur-Sin and Amar-Sin are brothers, both as sons of Shulgi. Of one thing I am certain, there are two Xia and two Yu, pre-Xia is in Sumer as 3 sovereign 5 kings, Xia is the city Ur, and then a trek to China creates a Xia there east of Tibet in 1437bc. Obviously the Yu of 1437bc cannot be the Yu of Ur in Sumer dated by Chinese as 2233bc. (My conclusion for this 1437bc is based on Chinese honoring of 1200-year calendar 2637-1437bc as the Hindu who also honor 1900-700bc /1902-702. But it seems to me that Ur's suicide dated by C-14 as 2030bc was peceded by an exodus flight before it, and after it, and that as typical the Chinese choose to believe their flight was 2037bc before it, while Monkey Year 2029bc was everyone else taking flight in horror and shock. Denial of Chinese involvment. Mayans say world was destroyed turning into escape as Monkey; but strong implications that Chinese and Maya left together. Both before? or both after? I choose after, and since they couldnt join Hindu who were not yet in India, it seems to me that Chinese-Mayans are the city of Mari Syria taken to Babylon from 1762-1625bc. This places dynasty Xia first in Ur, before it was located in China. ANOTHER QUESTION: How does sources say Xia is 439 years and then provide figures of only 429 years? The 429 reminds me of Abram's leaving Ur until Jewish Exodus of Egypt, and the 439 reminds me of the 1200 years of 1437bc ending at the division of Israel by a July 10 Tamuz that matches both 1770bc and 997bc. I find splitting divisions are as common as mergings; like claiming JFK and John Kennedy are two different people; but Theodore Franklin Roosevelt as one.)98.144.71.174 (talk) 13:53, 4 November 2013 (UTC)
 * Yes, there's a long tradition of nonsense exactly like this in European sinology—the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1st ed., specifically glosses these guys in order to lay out their relationship with Noah—and you're right the article should mention it to nuke it from great height. Here's a loooong example of some Freemasons doing it... with great erudition but to a similarly wheel-spinning effect. — Llywelyn II   08:17, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

禮記 as source for Five Emperors
Youchao isn't mentioned in 禮記, so Liji can't be used as a source for the Five Emperors. However the Youchao myth is mentioned in 韓非子 Hanfeizi, chapter 五蠹 (which is chapter 49), Guss2 (talk) 20:22, 14 August 2010 (UTC).
 * One missing guy doesn't mean it's completely irrelevant. It might be, but your issue is entirely beside the point. — Llywelyn II   08:18, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

Semi-mythical`?
I just read this article and don't think it gives any hint what about these figures is "semi"-mythical. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 111.173.132.118 (talk) 04:28, 13 February 2012 (UTC)

Significance of the five emperors
1. Jerezembel (talk) 22:46, 17 November 2012 (UTC)
 * That's never helpful. Don't do that. — Llywelyn II   08:18, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

Tai Sovereign (泰皇), Human Sovereign (人皇) - difference?
What's the difference between Tai Sovereign (泰皇) and Human Sovereign (人皇)? Tai is linked to human?? Thanx! --HilmarHansWerner (talk) 08:53, 9 August 2017 (UTC)

Longevity and the Bible
Why is the longevity of these historical figures the main argument why these people did not exist, while any criticism to the historical accuracy of the Bible for the same reasons is shut down? Wikipedia should be neutral.--2001:16B8:31E8:1300:4885:61B:FD38:A2A4 (talk) 13:48, 19 February 2019 (UTC)
 * By whom, and where, is "any criticism of the historical accuracy of the Bible" for the reason of the implausible longevities of the biblical patriarchs shut down? For that matter, where in English wikipedia is any portion of the book of Genesis treated as anything other than myth, much less as accurate history? (Unless you mean, as an argument against the historical accuracy of anything anywhere in the entire bible, from beginning to end: in which case, the answer would be that the bible is a hodgepodge collection of dozens of different writings of various genres written by dozens of different people over the course of centuries; and that, therefore, any arguments against the historical accuracy of any one of those writings individually - in this case Genesis - is only relevant in regard to Genesis and not to any other section (though the historical accuracy of many other sections is also disregarded, but for other reasons)). Firejuggler86 (talk) 08:37, 26 March 2021 (UTC)
 * See here. Yes, (a) of course the lifespan of the Biblical patriarchs is utter nonsense that precludes their historical existance. It's still worth mentioning the important nonsensical/overly-hopeful tradition. Same thing applies here. Of course, as written these are legends with no more historical basis than the Greek trade war with the Hittites turning into an epic saga full of divine interventions and beneficial human sacrifice. Doesn't mean those stories haven't been meaningful and influential. Yes, (b) these guys have absolutely nothing to do with the Hebrews' campfire stories but there is a long tradition of pretending they mesh in some interesting ways. It's worth discussing specifically to debunk it. — Llywelyn II   08:25, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

Family tree of ancient Five Emperors
Fuxi and Youxiong aren't shown on Chinese language version. Fuxi is folkloric creator of humanity, it seems, while Youxiong is apparently not a person, but the family tribe founded by Shaodian. I am not capable of determining whether they belong on the family tree, but I did add their Chinese names as every other entry has Chinese. The numbers in parenthesis are explained nowhere. I've deduced that they're all candidates for being one of the "Five Emperors" referred to in the page and section titles, and that there are eight because the lists don't agree as to which five the five are. The numbers in parenthesis are present in the Chinese version of this page, but numbered starting with the Yellow Emperor (where that page's family tree in fact starts), giving us exactly five emperors, which implies a consensus that the English page doesn't see to recognize. Swiss Frank (talk) 17:26, 10 November 2021 (UTC)

Cleanup badly needed

 * The dates of these mythological figures may be fictitious...

You don't say! To the extent that there's any underlying history, they are legendary, not "mythological". To the extent they're solely mythological, there's no possible basis for them in history.

 * ...but according to some accounts and reconstructions, they supposedly preceded the Xia Dynasty.[2]

No, according to any account or reconstruction where these people exist at all, they definitely preceded the Xia dynasty. The current form of the rest of the page is similarly written by people who obviously don't understand what they're talking about and/or are unable to clearly focus and organize their thoughts. Luckily it's a pretty old page: just at random this version from 2010 shouldn't use the word ubermensch but otherwise presents the lead far more clearly and helpfully than the current mess. Someone with the time and interest, please restore any earlier version of the page and then just restore the helpful newer sources and content as necessary to bring it back up to snuff so we don't lose out on any actually improvements that are hidden in the current chaff field.

In that regard, it's worth noting that specifically discourages the current useless hanzi clutter. If people want to know the exact variants on Fuxi's name, they're available on clickthrough. At most, we should provide it once with a linktext to the Wiktionary entry, not every time the name appears in the running text. Better still, only have the hanzi for the actual subject of this page and leave all the other characters on their separate pages, like the style guide already calls for.

Just to show how much I support any able editor in this task, I'll even run the request through OpenAI for you:
 * write a new introduction section in two paragraphs for the Wikipedia article on the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors

 * The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors were ancient Chinese rulers who were revered as the founders of Chinese civilization. According to legend, the Three Sovereigns were god-kings who ruled in the time before history, and the Five Emperors were mortal rulers who followed them. The names of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors vary depending on the source, but they are generally considered to be Fuxi, Shennong, and Yellow Emperor for the Three Sovereigns, and Huangdi, Zhuanxu, Emperor Ku, Yao, and Shun for the Five Emperors.

 * The Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors are important figures in Chinese mythology and are often depicted in Chinese art and literature. They are revered as cultural heroes and are believed to have introduced many important inventions and cultural practices to China, such as the concept of the family and the use of fire and agriculture. Despite the mythological nature of their stories, the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors continue to be an important part of Chinese culture and are often invoked as symbols of the country's ancient past.

Add on links to (eg) Chinese kinship and Chinese mythology and that's a vast improvement over what we've got now. It could benefit from 1 the 2010 article's discussion about how misleading the word "emperor" is here (although that could go into a badly needed #Names section); 2 some discussion—linked to Chinese ancestral veneration—about these guys' centrality to Chinese genealogy and genealogy's centrality to Chinese culture; and 3 maybe you'd want to emend were revered in the first sentence to are revered for the 12 true-believing die-hard Taoists (heh) left... but still much better. — Llywelyn II   09:00, 25 December 2022 (UTC)

 * I am going to say, however, that the huge amount of dubious tags (especially in the infobox) is simply unnecessary and makes the article even harder to read. It should be understood based on the template on the top that the article needs cleanup, and it should be left at that. —MEisSCAMMER (scam) 18:21, 2 January 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors


text:
Trilby (novel)

Trilby is a novel by George du Maurier and one of the most popular novels of its time. Published serially in Harper's New Monthly Magazine from January to August 1894, it was published in book form on 8 September 1894 and sold 200,000 copies in the United States alone. Trilby is set in the 1850s in an idyllic bohemian Paris. Though Trilby features the stories of two English artists and a Scottish artist, one of the most memorable characters is Svengali, a rogue, masterful musician and hypnotist.

Trilby O'Ferrall, the novel's heroine, is a half-Irish girl working in Paris as an artist's model and laundress; all the men in the novel are in love with her. The relationship between Trilby and Svengali forms only a small, though crucial, portion of the novel, which is mainly an evocation of a milieu.

Lucy Sante wrote that the novel had a "decisive influence on the stereotypical notion of bohemia" and that it "affected the habits of American youth, particularly young women, who derived from it the courage to call themselves artists and 'bachelor girls,' to smoke cigarettes and drink Chianti."

The novel has been adapted to the stage several times; one of these featured the lead actress wearing a distinctive short-brimmed hat with a sharp snap to the back of the brim. The hat became known as the trilby and went on to become a popular men's clothing item in the United Kingdom throughout various parts of the 20th century, subsequently gaining popularity elsewhere and seeing a resurgence in popularity in the early 1980s, when it was marketed to both men and women to capitalise on a retro fashion trend.

Eight instalments
The work was published in eight instalments, in Harper's New Monthly Magazine from January 1894 to August 1894:
 * Part First: in Vol.88, No.524 (January 1894), pp. 168-189.
 * Part Second: in Vol.88, No.525 (February 1894), pp. 329-350.
 * Part Third: in Vol.88, No.526 (March 1894), pp. 567-587.
 * Part Fourth: in Vol.88, No.527 (April 1894), pp. 721-741.
 * Part Fifth: in Vol.88, No.528 (May 1894), pp. 825-847.
 * Part Sixth: in Vol.89, No.529 (June 1894), pp. 67-87.
 * Part Seventh: in Vol.89, No.530 (July 1894), pp. 261-284.
 * Part Eighth: in Vol.89, No.531 (August 1894), pp. 351-374.

The novel
The eight separate instalments were published as an entire work in a volume that was released on 8 September 1894:
 * du Maurier, G. (1894). Trilby: A Novel. New York: Harper & Brothers.

Whistler's lawsuit
The extraordinary initial sales of the book almost 100,000 copies were sold in the first two months were, no doubt, greatly enhanced by the pre-publication controversy created when the eminent artist, James McNeill Whistler, initiated legal action against du Maurier and Harper Brothers, demanding that all textual and visual references to "Joe Sibley", the pompous and eccentric "idle apprentice", (obviously based upon Whistler) be removed from the proposed book.

As a consequence of Whistler's action, Harper Brothers removed all of the references in question from the book prior to its publication and, also, removed them from its reprints of the March 1894 issue. On 2 December 1894, the Chicago Sunday Tribune gave details of Whistler's protests, and published a side-by-side comparison of the original text and illustrations (from pp.577, 578, and 579 of the March 1894 magazine), and those of the altered published volume (pp.142, 143, 144, 145, and 146).

Plot summary
Three English art students in Paris (Talbot Wynne, called 'Taffy', a distant heir to a baronetcy; Sandy McAlister, the Laird of Cockpen and William Bagot, alias 'Little Billee') meet musicians Svengali and Gecko and the artist's model and laundress Trilby O'Ferrall. Trilby is cheerful, kind-hearted, bohemian, and tone-deaf, "Svengali would test her ear, as he called it, and strike the C in the middle and then the F just above, and ask which was higher; and she would declare they were both the same". To the bemusement of the other characters, Trilby is unable to sing "Ben Bolt" in tune. Yet despite being off-key, her singing voice nonetheless has an impressive quality.

The Englishmen and Trilby become friends. Svengali tries to persuade Trilby to let him train her voice but she finds him repulsive and even frightening. She and Little Billee fall in love but his scandalized relatives get her to promise to leave him. She leaves Paris with her little brother, who later dies of scarlet fever. Trilby then falls under Svengali's influence. He hypnotises her and transforms her into a diva, La Svengali. Under his spell, Trilby becomes a talented singer, performing always in an amnesiac trance. Five years later, Little Billee is a famous painter. He, the Laird and Taffy recognise Trilby as she performs at a concert. Trilby sings beautifully but does not appear to be in good health.

Shortly before another performance, Gecko suddenly turns on Svengali and slashes him with a penknife. At the concert, Svengali is stricken by a heart attack and is unable to induce the trance. Trilby is unable to sing in tune and is subjected to "laughter, hoots, hisses, cat-calls, cock-crows". Not having been hypnotised, she is baffled and, though she can remember living and travelling with Svengali, cannot remember anything of her singing career. Suddenly an audience member yells:

"'Oh, ye're Henglish, har yer? Why don't yer sing as yer ought to sing—yer've got voice enough, any'ow! Why don't yer sing in tune?' she cries 'I didn't want to sing at all—I only sang because I was asked to sing—that gentleman asked—that French gentleman with the white waistcoat! I won't sing another note!'"

As she leaves the stage, Svengali dies. Trilby is stricken with a nervous affliction. Despite the efforts of her friends, she dies some weeks later—staring at a picture of Svengali. Little Billee is devastated and dies shortly afterwards. Some years later, Taffy, who has married Little Billee's sister, meets Gecko again and learns how Svengali had hypnotised Trilby and damaged her health in the process. Gecko reveals that he had tried to kill Svengali because he could not bear to see Trilby hurt during their awful rehearsals.

Inspiration
It was popularly believed that the hypnotic control Svengali has over Trilby was modelled after the relationship between the French harpist and composer Nicolas-Charles Bochsa and the English operatic soprano Anna Bishop. Anna Bishop had left her husband Henry Bishop (later Sir Henry), the composer of "Home! Sweet Home!", for Bochsa. Bishop was 23 years her senior and Bochsa was 20 years older than Anna. Bochsa became her manager as well as her lover. She sang in many opera houses on their extensive travels throughout Europe (particularly in Naples, Italy), North America and Sydney, where Bochsa died suddenly in 1856 and is buried. Sir Henry Bishop had died the previous year. Anna Bishop later remarried, continued travelling and singing professionally into her seventies, and died in New York City. The character of Little Billee is a reference to an eponymous ballad by William Makepeace Thackeray.

Reception

The late nineteenth-century novelist George Gissing read the "notorious" novel in May 1896 with "scant satisfaction". Trilby inspired Gaston Leroux's novel The Phantom of the Opera (1910) in part. It was also known for introducing the phrase "in the altogether" (meaning "completely unclothed") and the term "Svengali" for a man with dominating powers over a (generally female) protégée, as well as indirectly inspiring the name of the trilby hat, originally worn on stage by the lead actress in the play based on the novel.

Criticism
Trilby has been criticized for its depiction of its Jewish antagonist, Svengali. Most notably, George Orwell wrote that the novel is overtly antisemitic. Orwell believed that du Maurier attributes all of Svengali's villainous and rapacious qualities to his Jewishness.

Adaptations and references to the novel
The novel was adapted into a long-running play, Trilby, starring Sir Herbert Beerbohm Tree as Svengali, first presented in 1895 in London. In New York Wilton Lackaye originated the role of Svengali and Virginia Harned played the title role. The play was revived many times, including at the Apollo Theatre in the 1920s. The play was so popular that it was travestied, including as A Model Trilby; or, A Day or Two After Du Maurier by Charles H. E. Brookfield and William Yardley, with music by Meyer Lutz, at the Opera Comique, produced by the retired Nellie Farren.

The novel has also been adapted to film numerous times:
 * Trilby, (1912) an Austrian silent film starring Paul Askonas and Elsa Galafrés, directed by Anton Kolm, Luise Kolm, Jacob Fleck, and Claudius Veltée.
 * Trilby (1914), a British silent film starring Viva Birkett and Herbert Beerbohm Tree, directed by Harold M. Shaw
 * Trilby (1915), an American silent film starring Clara Kimball Young and Wilton Lackaye, directed by Maurice Tourneur
 * Trilby (1923), an American silent film starring Andree Lafayette, Arthur Edmund Carewe, and Creighton Hale
 * Svengali (1927), a German silent film starring Paul Wegener and Anita Dorris
 * Svengali (1931), a Warner Brothers release with John Barrymore and Marian Marsh
 * Svengali (1954), a British film starring Donald Wolfit and Hildegard Knef
 * Svengali (1983), a TV movie starring Peter O'Toole and Jodie Foster

A musical adaptation by Frank Wildhorn, entitled Svengali, was staged twice in 1991.

The Trilby story was parodied in Mighty Mouse cartoons in the 1940s that featured Pearl Pureheart and Oil Can Harry. Included was a performance of "Ben Bolt".

A fandom developed around the Trilby character, which was criticised in Belsham's Essays. Trilby is referenced several times in William Gaddis' novel JR, wherein Edward Bast the protagonist becomes a mirror of Little Billee, a prominent artist in Trilby.

An inside look at Trilby and Henry James's friendship with du Maurier (Kiki) can be found in David Lodge's novel Author, Author (2004).

Australian composer Thomas Bulch writing under the pen name Charles Le Thierre published a Trilby waltz dedication, featuring Trilby posing for an artist on the cover in the same year as Sydney productions of the stage play.

The celebrated Polish World War II Special Operations Executive agent Krystyna Skarbek, a.k.a. Christine Granville, used Svengali as a metaphor when saying of her second husband, Jerzy Giżycki, "He was my Svengali for so many years that he would never believe that I could ever leave him for good".

In 2011 and 2012, the British illusionist Derren Brown performed a stage show called Svengali in which he makes reference to the character throughout the show.

General and cited references

 * Brown, Thomas Allston. A History of the New York Stage from the First Performance in 1732 to 1901, New York: Dodd, Mead and Company, 1902.
 * Davison, Neil R. "'The Jew' as Homme/Femme-Fatale: Jewish (Art)ifice, "Trilby," and Dreyfus." Jewish Social Studies 8 (Winter–Spring 2002): 73–111. Accessed through JStor on 4 September 2009.
 * Masson, Madeleine, Christine: A Search for Christine Granville, G.M., O.B.E., Croix de Guerre, with a Foreword by Francis Cammaerts, D.S.O., Légion d'Honneur, Croix de Guerre, US Medal of Freedom, London, Hamish Hamilton, 1975; republished by Virago, 2005.
 * McNaught, W. "George du Maurier and Trilby." The Musical Times 81 (November 1940): 435–438. Accessed through JStor on 4 September 2009.
 * Parry, Albert. Garrets and Pretenders: Bohemian Life in America from Poe to Kerouac.  New York: Covici-Friede, 1933.
 * Taylor, Jonathan. "The Music Master and 'the Jew' in Victorian Writing: Thomas Carlyle, Richard Wagner, George Eliot and George Du Maurier." In The Idea of Music in Victorian Fiction. Edited by Sophie Fuller and Nicky Losseff. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2004.
 * Weliver, Phyllis. "Music, crowd control and the female performer in Trilby." In The Idea of Music in Victorian Fiction. Edited by Sophie Fuller and Nicky Losseff. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2004.
 * Weliver, Phyllis. Women Musicians in Victorian Fiction, 1860–1900. Aldershot, Hants, England: Ashgate, 2000.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Trilby (novel)


text:
Ashburton, New Zealand

Ashburton (Hakatere) is a large town in the Canterbury Region, on the east coast of the South Island of New Zealand. The town is the seat of the Ashburton District. It is 85 km south west of Christchurch and is sometimes regarded as a satellite town of Christchurch.

The town has a population of. It is the 29th-largest urban area in New Zealand and the fourth-largest urban area in the Canterbury Region, after Christchurch, Timaru and Rolleston.

Toponymy
Ashburton was named by the surveyor Captain Joseph Thomas of the New Zealand Land Association, after Francis Baring, 3rd Baron Ashburton, who was a member of the Canterbury Association. Ashburton is sometimes nicknamed "Ashvegas", an ironic allusion to Las Vegas.

Hakatere is the traditional Māori name for the Ashburton River. The name translates as "to make swift or to flow smoothly".

History
In 1858 William Turton, ran a ferry across the Ashburton river close to where the Ashburton bridge now lies. He also built an accommodation house which along with some stables were the only buildings in Ashburton in 1863.

By 1864 the horse-drawn coaches of the Cobb and Co. business travelled through Ashburton between Christchurch and Timaru. This continued until the railway line was built.

The town was surveyed by Robert Park in 1864. It is laid out around two central squares either side of the railway line and main highway, Baring Square East and Baring Square West. The Ashburton Domain was included in the plans for the purposes of gardens and recreation. The 100 acres of land that was identified for the Domain was a "miserable wildness" of spear grass, broom, and tussock.

The Canterbury provincial government granted 20,000 pounds to develop roads in the district in 1873 and in 1874 the railway reached Ashburton.

The Presbyterian church was completed in 1876, The Wesleyan church in 1878 and the Catholic church in 1882.

Ashburton was designated as a borough in 1878. At this stage, there were about 500 buildings within the borough. A cricket pitch was established in the Ashburton Domain in 1878 and the Ashburton Hospital was established in 1879.

Electricity first arrived in Ashburton in 1908. This was supplied by a 30 kilowatt generator powered by a steam traction engine. In 1921 the Ashburton Electric Power Board was established and by 1927 it had 2804 customers.

Netherby was added to the borough of Ashburton in 1917, Hampstead in 1921, and Allenton in 1939 to the borough of Ashburton. In 1955, Tinwald was added to the borough.

Ashburton was used as a training base for the Royal New Zealand Air Force during World War 2 with 50 tiger moth aircraft based there.

On 1 September 2014, there was a violent incident in Ashburton that received nationwide publicity. A man who had previously been trespassed from the Ashburton Work and Income office arrived at the premises with a shotgun and murdered two front counter workers. At the subsequent trial, the offender was given the third longest sentence on record. In the aftermath of the attack, the security at WINZ offices was reviewed nationwide. In December 2016, the Ministry for Social Development was convicted of breaching workplace safety legislation in relation to the incident.

In 2021, the Ashburton slogan: "Whatever it takes" was scrapped by the Ashburton District Council. Having been in use for approximately 10 years, it has drawn criticism. In 2012, it made a list of Top 10 worst NZ city slogans. The Ashburton welcome sign had been changed surreptitiously at times from ‘Ashburton: Whatever it Takes’ to ‘Ashburton: ‘Whatever’.

In April 2021, a contract was signed to start a $42 million build of a new library and civic centre for Ashburton. A $20 million contribution came from the New Zealand government. The three-story building will include council chambers, office space, a recording studio, areas to study in, a library and a performance area. It will also incorporate the Pioneer Hall into the facility. The library is to be named Te Pātaka o kā Tuhituhi and the civic centre is to be named Te Waharoa a Hine Paaka.

A new retail centre called "River Crossing" is planned to open in 2022. Local property developers hope that this will mean the local people will have more opportunities to spend their money in Ashburton rather than Christchurch or Timaru. A March 2020 report found that 32% of retail spending by locals, was spent out of town. Between 150 and 180 jobs are expected to be created as a result of the development.

Setting
Ashburton is situated 17 kilometres inland on the Canterbury Plains approximately 86 km south of Christchurch and 75 kilometres north of Timaru. Methven is 33kilometres inland from Ashburton. Rakaia and the Rakaia river are 28kilometres to the north of Ashburton.

The town is the centre of an agricultural and pastoral farming district on the Canterbury Plains. It has one large suburb, Tinwald, south of the Ashburton River / Hakatere. The town has three other suburbs: Allenton, Hampstead and Netherby.

Climate
On the whole, Ashburton shares a similar climate to Christchurch i.e. a dry temperate climate (Cfb). However, since it lies further inland at a higher altitude to Christchurch, Ashburton experiences a greater range of temperatures. During summer Ashburton can exceed 30 C, whilst winter can drop daily low temperatures below 1°C in the coldest month. Winter can also see regular frosts and rarely any snowfall. Ashburton's heaviest snowfall was 38 cm on 12 June 2006, conversely it is tied with Timaru for New Zealand's fourth-highest temperature on record, reaching 41.3 C on 7 February 1973.

Rivers and lakes
The Ashburton River / Hakatere flows across Mid Canterbury from the Southern Alps to the Pacific Ocean. The official name of the river was amended to become a dual name by the Ngāi Tahu Claims Settlement Act 1998. The river passes through the town of Ashburton, separating the south-east suburb of Tinwald from the rest of the town.

The nearest beach to Ashburton is Wakanui beach, but is not safe for swimming due to a strong undertow. In part to rectify the limitations imposed by the lack of recreational waterways, Lake Hood was constructed just south-east of Tinwald. The Ashburton lakes Lake Heron, Lake Camp and Lake Clearwater are inland. On the road to these lakes are Mount Somers and the Mount Somers walkway.

Governance
Ashburton District Council is the territorial authority for the Ashburton District of New Zealand. The council is led by the mayor of Ashburton, who is currently. There are also nine ward councillors.

Demographics
Ashburton is described by Statistics New Zealand as a medium urban area, and covers 39.99 km2. It had an estimated population of as of  with a population density of  people per km2.

The population of Ashburton was recorded as 2,322 in the 1901 census, 8,287 in the 1951 census, 10,176 in the 1956 census and 11,604 in the 1961 census.

Before the 2023 census, Ashburton had a smaller boundary, covering 37.93 km2. Using that boundary, it had a population of 19,284 at the 2018 New Zealand census, an increase of 1,401 people (7.8%) since the 2013 census, and an increase of 3,096 people (19.1%) since the 2006 census. There were 7,644 households, comprising 9,531 males and 9,747 females, giving a sex ratio of 0.98 males per female, with 3,642 people (18.9%) aged under 15 years, 3,330 (17.3%) aged 15 to 29, 7,977 (41.4%) aged 30 to 64, and 4,338 (22.5%) aged 65 or older.

Ethnicities were 82.9% European/Pākehā, 9.1% Māori, 7.7% Pasifika, 5.8% Asian, and 1.6% other ethnicities. People may identify with more than one ethnicity.

The percentage of people born overseas was 17.0, compared with 27.1% nationally.

Although some people chose not to answer the census's question about religious affiliation, 43.0% had no religion, 46.8% were Christian, 0.7% had Māori religious beliefs, 0.8% were Hindu, 0.3% were Muslim, 0.4% were Buddhist and 1.3% had other religions.

Of those at least 15 years old, 1,626 (10.4%) people had a bachelor's or higher degree, and 4,239 (27.1%) people had no formal qualifications. 2,058 people (13.2%) earned over $70,000 compared to 17.2% nationally. The employment status of those at least 15 was that 7,638 (48.8%) people were employed full-time, 2,328 (14.9%) were part-time, and 429 (2.7%) were unemployed.

Economy
The economy of Ashburton is influenced by the economy of the Ashburton District as a whole. In the year to March 2020, the gross domestic product (GDP) of Ashburton District was $2,506M, representing 0.8% of New Zealand's total GDP. The largest proportion of the Ashburton District GDP is derived from primary industries, at 27.0%. This is substantially higher than the 6.2% contribution of primary industries to the national GDP. The next highest contribution to the district GDP was from 'Other services' representing 26.7% in the district GDP, versus 34.7% in the national economy. Goods-producing industries were 21.3%, versus 18.7% in the national economy. High-value services (such as knowledge-based service industries) represented the smallest proportion in Ashburton District GDP, at 10.2%, versus 25.6% in the national economy.

The town has businesses providing a wide range of services to farming in the district, including seed merchants, livestock companies, farm machinery dealers, banks, lawyers and accountants.

Agriculture
Ashburton lies in the middle of the fertile alluvial Canterbury Plains which permits agricultural activity such as dairying, provided irrigation is used. More than 100 local farmers grow potatoes, corn and peas which are processed locally.

The Ashburton District Council has a 40% holding in the company that manages the Rangitata Diversion Race. This scheme diverts water from the Rangitata and South Ashburton rivers into a canal that provides irrigation to large parts of the district.

Vegetable processing
A vegetable processing factory owned by Talley's is located on the northern outskirts of Ashburton. The factory was built in 1996 to take advantage of the good soils and irrigation of the Ashburton district. The factory processes peas, corn and potatoes. The potatoes are made into French fries, hash browns and wedges. Much of what is processed is exported to overseas customers. The factory employs 360 staff.

Meat processing
Ashburton was home to a lamb processing works from the early 1900s until 2017, when it was closed with the loss of 370 staff due to declining lamb numbers in Canterbury. The pelt house closed in 2019 with the loss of a further 44 staff. Talley's purchased the site in 2020 and had plans to use it to support vegetable production and use the cool stores for their frozen produce.

Cooperative companies
In 2012, Ashburton was noted for having more cooperative companies operating in its district than in any other area of New Zealand, and was subsequently named by the New Zealand Cooperatives Association the "Cooperative Capital of New Zealand". Several of the 40-plus companies are national companies based outside the district, such as Fonterra, Foodstuffs and Silver Fern Farms (meat processing), but many were local cooperatives, such as the Ashburton Trading Society (farm supplies) and Electricity Ashburton (electricity distribution).

Museum and Art Gallery
The Ashburton Museum and Art Gallery share one building, which sits on State Highway 1, just outside the centre of town. As well as temporary exhibitions, the museum has a permanent exhibition tracing the history of the Ashburton district.

When the art gallery opened in 2015, it was unable to display any art works on the walls as the new air-conditioning unit, being delivered from Italy had not arrived. The 2700 art works in the collection had to remain in storage.

Marae
The Hakatere marae is located on the northern edge of Ashburton. Although Ashburton is within the rohe or region where the Ngāi Tahu iwi are traditionally based, the Hakatere marae is not a Ngāi Tahu marae. It was built as a marae for people from all iwi. The marae is located on land that was originally the Fairton Primary School. This land was acquired in 1970 and the Hakatere marae was gazetted as a Māori reserve in 1976. The wharenui was destroyed by an arson attack in 2003. The wharekai was completed in 2007 at a cost of around $300,000.

Ashburton Domain
The Ashburton Domain sits in the centre of Ashburton next to state highway 1. At 37 hectares in size, it includes public gardens, cricket pitches, football fields, tennis courts, bowls club and a croquet club. A playground and paddling pool also have been built in the domain.

Railway museum
The Plains Vintage Railway and Historical Museum is located in the Tinwald Domain. The railway runs on approximately three kilometres of rural railway line that was once part of the Mount Somers Branch. There are a variety of historical buildings and trains on display.

Ashburton Aviation Museum
The Ashburton Aviation Museum is located at the Ashburton Airport. The museum has two buildings which display almost thirty aircraft. These include a Skyhawk formerly used by the New Zealand Air Force, a Vampire FB5 and a Canberra B2 Bomber. The collection also includes the only British Aerospace HS Harrier "Jump-jet" GR3 in the southern hemisphere.

Ashburton civic center and library
The $56 million Ashburton civic center including the new library was built in the center of the town adjacent to the clock tower and was opened in 2023.

Ashburton clock tower
The Ashburton clock tower was built in 1976 by Bradford Construction Ltd and was designed by Warren and Mahoney Architects. The clock, first used in 1904 was installed by Horrell Engineering. The clock tower has won awards including for “Enduring Architecture” in 2004 from the New Zealand Institute of Architects.

Ashburton courthouse
The Ashburton courthouse is located on Baring Square. The Ashburton Legal Practitioners Society said in 2018 that it was “absolutely crucial” that the Ashburton courthouse is retained, noting that if it were to be closed, the nearest courthouse is either in Christchurch or Timaru. The courthouse was upgraded in the 1990s but needs further upgrades and more space.

Saint Andrews
Saint Andrews Presbyterian Church was designed by Robert and Edward England and built in 1906. It is a Heritage New Zealand category 2 listed historic place.

Saint Augustine of Canterbury
Saint Augustine of Canterbury Catholic Church was built between 1930 and 1931. It is a Heritage New Zealand category 1 historic place.

War memorial
The Ashburton war memorial is a square obelisk and was unveiled on 4 June 1928.

Aquatic centre
A new aquatic centre was opened in Ashburton in May 2015. There are four indoor swimming pools within an 8000 square metre building. There are also four indoor courts and two outdoor courts and a gym. The facility is operated by the Ashburton District Council. The facility cost $30 million to develop and was designed by architects Warren & Mahoney.

Clubs
The Ashburton Club and Mutual School of Arts (MSA) was founded in 1885. The MSA is a member of the NZ Chartered Clubs Association and is located in the central town. The club itself currently has around 4,000 members on its records.

Golf courses
Ashburton is home to two golf courses. The Ashburton Golf Course is an 18-hole golf course which was established in 1895. The Tinwald Golf Club has an 18-hole course in the suburb of Tinwald. It was built in 1967.

Horse racing
The Ashburton Raceway is a horse racing venue that includes both a 1500 metre long trotting track and an 1800 metre long galloping track. There is also a Harness Racing Museum located at the racecourse. The racecourse is located off State Highway 1 at the northern end of Ashburton.

Mountain bike trails
A mountain bike trail was built by Mountain Bike Ashburton alongside the Ashburton River. The loop track is 11.5 km long.

Rugby
Ashburton is home to the Mid Canterbury Rugby Union. Mid Canterbury play in the Heartland Championship.

Skiing
Mount Hutt is the nearest ski field, located inland just past Methven.

Cricket
Cricket has been played in Ashburton since at least 1877. The Ashburton County Cricket Association was established in 1896 with the name being changed on its centenary to the Mid Canterbury Cricket Association in 1996. Ashburton Domain is venue for Mid Canterbury's home games. The senior men's team won national honours when they won the Hawke Cup in the 2003/04 season.

Speedway
The Ashburton Speedway provides a race track for a number of categories of cars including stockcars, production saloon cars and street stocks. They also run a demolition derby once a year. The Ashburton Speedway is located next to Ashburton Airport on Seafield road.

Ashburton Hospital
Ashburton Hospital is a 74-bed hospital based at 28 Elizabeth Street, Ashburton. The hospital provides medical, surgical, radiology and maternity care. It admits about 5,000 inpatients each year as well as seeing 2,600 day patients and 15,000 outpatients. It is run by Canterbury District Health Board and the rural health service employed approximately 550 staff in 2021.

Rail
The Main South Line railway line runs through the centre of town. The station opened on 24 August 1874 and the refreshment room was converted from table- to counter-service to save staff and increase the speed of service in 1944. The rooms closed in 1970, when the Southerner service was established. The service ceased on 10 February 2002, but the station is still used for freight, as some barley continues to be sent by train to maltings at Marton. The station's container terminal is in use on weekdays. The station building was demolished in 2013 after several resource consent hearings.

Tinwald was the junction for the now-closed Mount Somers Branch railway line. The station opened as Ashburton South on 31 May 1875. It was renamed Tinwald from 18 March 1878, and closed on 11 October 1981 to all but private siding traffic. Part of the branch still operates as the Plains Vintage Railway.

Funding from the New Zealand government and the Ashburton District Council for a new rail freight hub was provided in October 2021. The project will move the rail container terminal from the centre of Ashburton to Fairton. The project is expected to be complete by the end of 2022, and has an estimated cost of $14M. It should help ease congestion on the roads in the centre of Ashburton.

Road
State Highway 1 runs through the centre of Ashburton and provides the main road connection between Christchurch and Dunedin. The highway crosses the Ashburton river via a bridge that is the only direct route across the river for local traffic and State Highway 1 traffic.

SH1 Ashburton river bridge
The bridge on State Highway 1 crossing the Ashburton river was opened in 1931, and was the first 22 ft wide bridge in New Zealand. On 1 June 2021, a severe flood in the Ashburton river caused scouring damage to piers supporting the bridge, and the bridge deck subsided, leading to a temporary closure. At the time of closure, there were no other routes for SH1 traffic wanting to go north or south across the Ashburton river, because all inland routes were also closed. On 3 June 2021, the bridge was re-opened for heavy traffic during daylight hours only, and all restrictions were lifted on 10 June.

The Ashburton District Council has been trying to obtain funding from Waka Kotahi (New Zealand Transport Agency) for a second bridge for local traffic and to provide more resilience to the road network. In 2021, the additional bridge was planned to be built in 15 years time.

Other routes
State Highway 77 starts in Ashburton and heads towards Methven, and then through the Rakaia gorge and on to Darfield.

Air
The Ashburton Airport is located near the town centre and is an active light (GA and Microlight) aviation hub and home of the Mid Canterbury Aero Club (GA) and Ashburton Aviation Pioneers.

In October 2021, the future of how the airport was being operated was being debated as managing the challenge of increasing aviation activity with the desire to develop the land around the airport could cause conflict due to the potential of noise pollution from the airport.

Education

There are seven primary schools, an intermediate school, a secondary school and a composite school in Ashburton. All rolls are as of
 * Allenton School is a state contributing primary (Year 1–6) school. It has a roll of students.
 * Ashburton Borough School is a state full primary (Year 1–8) school. It has a roll of students.
 * Ashburton Christian School is a state-integrated evangelical Christian composite (Year 1–13) school. The school opened in February 2009 as a private school, and integrated into the state system in March 2011. It has a roll of students.
 * Ashburton College is a state secondary (Year 9–13) school. The school opened in 1965 following the merger of Ashburton High School and Hakatere College. It has a roll of students.
 * Ashburton Intermediate School is a state intermediate (Year 7–8) school. The school opened in 1974. It has a roll of students.
 * Ashburton Netherby School is a state contributing primary school. The school opened in 1959. It has a roll of students.
 * Fairton School is a state contributing primary school. It has a roll of students.
 * Hampstead School is a state contributing primary school. It has a roll of students.
 * St Joseph's School is a state-integrated Catholic full primary school. It has a roll of students.
 * Tinwald School is a state contributing primary school. It has a roll of students.

Media
Ashburton media includes the Ashburton Guardian daily newspaper, the Mid Canterbury Herald, a free weekly community newspaper owned by Fairfax Media which comes out every Wednesday, The Courier, another free weekly community newspaper owned by the Otago Daily Times, and the Mid Canterbury-focused AshburtonOnline website. Radio Port FM is based in Timaru; Newstalk ZB and Classic Hits ZEFM are re-broadcast from other out-of-town stations.

Notable people
Notable people from Ashburton have included the former Prime Minister of New Zealand, Jenny Shipley, international concert pianist Tessa Birnie, international operatic tenor Simon O'Neill, Olympic silver medal cyclist Hayden Roulston and New Zealand television and radio personalities Simon Barnett and Robyn Malcolm. Rugby union players Chris King and Fergie McCormick were born in Ashburton.

Hugo Friedlander was the second Mayor of Ashburton (1879–1881, 1890–1892 and 1898–1901), but left for Auckland in 1918 due to anti-German feelings caused by WWI.

John Grigg was a local landowner and Member of Parliament in the mid 19th century.

Dorothy Eden, a prolific novelist, grew up in Ashburton.

The kite maker Peter Lynn is based In Ashburton.

title: Ashburton, New Zealand


text:
Electrowetting

Electrowetting is the modification of the wetting properties of a surface (which is typically hydrophobic) with an applied electric field.

History
The electrowetting of mercury and other liquids on variably charged surfaces was probably first explained by Gabriel Lippmann in 1875 and was certainly observed much earlier. A. N. Frumkin used surface charge to change the shape of water drops in 1936. The term electrowetting was first introduced in 1981 by G. Beni and S. Hackwood to describe an effect proposed for designing a new type of display device for which they received a patent. The use of a "fluid transistor" in microfluidic circuits for manipulating chemical and biological fluids was first investigated by J. Brown in 1980 and later funded in 1984–1988 under NSF Grants 8760730 & 8822197, employing insulating dielectric and hydrophobic layer(s) (EWOD), immiscible fluids, DC or RF power; and mass arrays of miniature interleaved (saw tooth) electrodes with large or matching indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes to digitally relocate nano droplets in linear, circular, and directed paths, pump or mix fluids, fill reservoirs, and control fluid flow electronically or optically. Later, in collaboration with J. Silver at the NIH, EWOD-based electrowetting was disclosed for single and immiscible fluids to move, separate, hold, and seal arrays of digital PCR sub-samples.

Electrowetting using an insulating layer on top of a bare electrode was later studied by Bruno Berge in 1993. Electrowetting on this dielectric-coated surface is called electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) to distinguish it from the conventional electrowetting on the bare electrode. Electrowetting can be demonstrated by replacing the metal electrode in the EWOD system by a semiconductor. Electrowetting is also observed when a reverse bias is applied to a conducting droplet (e.g. mercury) which has been placed directly onto a semiconductor surface (e.g. silicon) to form a Schottky contact in a Schottky diode electrical circuit configuration – this effect has been termed ‘Schottky electrowetting’.

Microfluidic manipulation of liquids by electrowetting was demonstrated first with mercury droplets in water and later with water in air and water in oil. Manipulation of droplets on a two-dimensional path was demonstrated later. If the liquid is discretized and programmably manipulated, the approach is called "Digital Microfluidic Circuits" or "Digital Microfluidics". Discretization by electrowetting-on-dielectric (EWOD) was first demonstrated by Cho, Moon, and Kim.

Electrowetting theory
The electrowetting effect has been defined as "the change in solid-electrolyte contact angle due to an applied potential difference between the solid and the electrolyte". The phenomenon of electrowetting can be understood in terms of the forces that result from the applied electric field. The fringing field at the corners of the electrolyte droplet tends to pull the droplet down onto the electrode, lowering the macroscopic contact angle and increasing the droplet contact area. Alternatively, electrowetting can be viewed from a thermodynamic perspective. Since the surface tension of an interface is defined as the Helmholtz free energy required to create a certain area of that surface, it contains both chemical and electrical components, and charge becomes a significant term in that equation. The chemical component is just the natural surface tension of the solid/electrolyte interface with no electric field. The electrical component is the energy stored in the capacitor formed between the conductor and the electrolyte.

The simplest derivation of electrowetting behavior is given by considering its thermodynamic model. While it is possible to obtain a detailed numerical model of electrowetting by considering the precise shape of the electrical fringing field and how it affects the local droplet curvature, such solutions are mathematically and computationally complex. The thermodynamic derivation proceeds as follows. Defining the relevant surface tensions as:
 * $$ \gamma_{ws} \,$$ – The total, electrical and chemical, surface tension between the electrolyte and the conductor
 * $$ \gamma_{ws}^0 \,$$ – The surface tension between the electrolyte and the conductor at zero electric field
 * $$ \gamma_s \,$$ – The surface tension between the conductor and the external ambient
 * $$ \gamma_w \,$$ – The surface tension between the electrolyte and the external ambient
 * $$ \theta$$ – The macroscopic contact angle between the electrolyte and the dielectric
 * $$C $$ – The capacitance per area of the interface, єrє0/t, for a uniform dielectric of thickness t and permittivity єr
 * $$V $$ – The effective applied voltage, integral of the electric field from the electrolyte to the conductor

Relating the total surface tension to its chemical and electrical components gives:
 * $$ \gamma _{ws} = \gamma _{ws}^0 - \frac{CV^2}{2} \,$$

The contact angle is given by the Young-Dupre equation, with the only complication being that the total surface energy $$ \gamma_{ws}$$ is used:
 * $$ \gamma_{ws} = \gamma_s - \gamma_w \cos(\theta) \,$$

Combining the two equations gives the dependence of θ on the effective applied voltage as:
 * $$ \cos \theta = \left(\frac{\gamma_s - \gamma _{ws}^0 +\frac{CV^2}{2}}{\gamma_w}\right) \,$$

An additional complication is that liquids also exhibit a saturation phenomenon: after certain voltage, the saturation voltage, the further increase of voltage will not change the contact angle, and with extreme voltages the interface will only show instabilities.

However, surface charge is but one component of surface energy, and other components are certainly perturbed by induced charge. So, a complete explanation of electrowetting is unquantified, but it should not be surprising that these limits exist.

It was recently shown by Klarman et al. that contact angle saturation can be explained as a universal effect- regardless of materials used – if electrowetting is observed as a global phenomenon affected by the detailed geometry of the system. Within this framework it is predicted that reversed electrowetting is also possible (contact angle grows with the voltage).

It has also been experimentally shown by Chevaloitt that contact angle saturation is invariant to all materials parameters, thus revealing that when good materials are utilized, most saturation theories are invalid. This same paper further suggests that electrohydrodynamic instability may be the source of saturation, a theory that is unproven but being suggested by several other groups as well.

Reverse electrowetting
Reverse electrowetting can be used to harvest energy via a mechanical-to-electrical engineering scheme.

Electrowetting on liquid-infused film (EWOLF)
Another electrowetting configuration is electrowetting on liquid-infused film. The liquid-infused film is achieved by locking a liquid lubricant in a porous membrane through the delicate control of wetting properties of the liquid and solid phases. Taking advantage of the negligible contact line pinning at the liquid-liquid interface, the droplet response in EWOLF can be electrically addressed with enhanced degree of switchability and reversibility compared to the conventional EWOD. Moreover, the infiltration of liquid lubricant phase in the porous membrane also efficiently enhances the viscous energy dissipation, suppressing the droplet oscillation and leading to fast response without sacrificing the desired electrowetting reversibility. Meanwhile, the damping effect associated with the EWOLF can be tailored by manipulating the viscosity and thickness of liquid lubricant.

Opto- and photoelectrowetting
Optoelectrowetting, and photoelectrowetting are both optically-induced electrowetting effects. Optoelectrowetting involves the use of a photoconductor whereas photoelectrowetting use a photocapacitance and can be observed if the conductor in the liquid/insulator/conductor stack used for electrowetting is replaced by a semiconductor. By optically modulating the number of carriers in the space-charge region of the semiconductor, the contact angle of a liquid droplet can be altered in a continuous way. This effect can be explained by a modification of the Young-Lippmann equation.

Materials
For reasons that are still under investigation, only a limited set of surfaces exhibit the theoretically predicted electrowetting behavior. Because of this, alternative materials that can be used to coat and functionalize the surface are used to create the expected wetting behavior. For example, amorphous fluoropolymers are widely used electrowetting coating materials, and it has been found that the behavior of these fluoropolymers can be enhanced by the appropriate surface patterning. These fluoropolymers coat the necessary conductive electrode, typically made of aluminum foil or indium tin oxide (ITO), to create the desired electrowetting properties. Three types of such polymers are commercially available: FluoroPel hydrophobic and superhydrophobic V-series polymers are sold by Cytonix, CYTOP is sold by Asahi Glass Co., and Teflon AF is sold by DuPont. Other surface materials such as SiO2 and gold on glass have been used. These materials allow the surfaces themselves to act as the ground electrodes for the electric current.

Applications
Electrowetting is now used in a wide range of applications, from modular to adjustable lenses, electronic displays (e-paper), electronic outdoor displays, and switches for optical fibers. Electrowetting has recently been evoked for manipulating soft matter particularly, suppressing coffee ring effect. Furthermore, filters with electrowetting functionality has been suggested for cleaning oil spills and separating oil-water mixtures.

International meeting
An international meeting for electrowetting is held every two years. The most recent meeting was held on June 18 to 20, 2018, at the University of Twente, the Netherlands.

The previous hosts of the electrowetting meeting are: Mons (1999), Eindhoven (2000), Grenoble (2002), Blaubeuren (2004), Rochester (2006), Los Angeles (2008), Pohang (2010), Athens (2012), Cincinnati (2014), Taipei (2016).

title: Electrowetting


text:
Alfréd Haar

Alfréd Haar (Haar Alfréd; 11 October 1885, Budapest – 16 March 1933, Szeged) was a Hungarian mathematician. In 1904 he began to study at the University of Göttingen. His doctorate was supervised by David Hilbert. The Haar measure, Haar wavelet, and Haar transform are named in his honor. Between 1912 and 1919 he taught at Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár. Together with Frigyes Riesz, he made the University of Szeged a centre of mathematics. He also founded the Acta Scientiarum Mathematicarum journal together with Riesz.

Biography
Haar was born to a Hungarian-Jewish family in Budapest on 11 October 1885 to parents Ignác Haar and Emma Fuchs. He graduated in 1903 from the secondary school Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium where he was a student of László Rátz. He started his university studies in Budapest, later moving on to Göttingen reading mathematics and sciences. Among the many famous professors he was taught by, he could count Loránd Eötvös, József Kürschák, Constantin Carathéodory, David Hilbert, Felix Christian Klein and Ernst Zermelo.

During years of the secondary school, he collaborated with the mathematical journal for secondary school students Középiskolai Matematikai Lapok, and won the national Eötvös Loránd Mathematical Competition. He enrolled to the Technical University of Budapest as a student of chemical engineering, but in the same year he moved on to the University of Budapest, and after a year to the University of Göttingen. His doctoral research was supervised by Hilbert graduating in June 1909. His 49-page thesis studies systems of Sturm–Liouville functions and spherical functions, introducing the now widely used Haar orthogonal systems. In the same year he habilitated to become a private professor of the university.

In 1912, the Franz Joseph University in Kolozsvár, Austria-Hungary (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) invited him along with Gyula Farkas and Frigyes Riesz to join as faculty, and he became the professor of 'Quatitics'. A number of his lecture notes from the time became established books later. After the Treaty of Trianon, which ceded Transylvania to Romania, the university had to move to Szeged, the closest city within the new boundaries, where he with Riesz established the Centre of Mathematics, and the first internationally recognised Hungarian mathematical journal, the Acta Scientiarum Mathematicarum.

One of his doctoral students at the University of Szeged was Béla Szőkefalvi-Nagy.

Haar died of stomach cancer on 16 March 1933.

Fields of research
His results are from the fields of mathematical analysis and topological groups, in particular he researched orthogonal systems of functions, singular integrals, analytic functions, differential equations, set theory, function approximation and calculus of variations.

Publications

 * Haar, A., Zur Theorie der orthogonalen Funktionensysteme, (Erste Mitteilung), Math. Ann. 69 (1910), 331–371 (at GDZ). (This is Haar's thesis, written under the supervision of David Hilbert.)
 * Haar, A., Die Minkowskische Geometrie und die Annäherung an stetige Funktionen, Math. Ann. 78 (1918), 294–311 (at GDZ).

title: Alfréd Haar