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User:Itai/Tribes

What is this page? Who knows? The moment you figure out, however, you are welcome to contribute (although, alas, I cannot guarentee that your contribution will be kept).

That about sums it up.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_families_and_languages

Germanic
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peoples)
 * Alamanni
 * Ambrones
 * Ampsivarii
 * Angles
 * Angrivarii
 * Batavii
 * Bavarii
 * Bructeri
 * Burgundians
 * Canninefates
 * Chamavi
 * Chasuarii
 * Chauci
 * Cherusci
 * Chatti
 * Cimbri
 * Dulgubnii
 * Fosi
 * Franks
 * Frisians
 * Geats
 * Gepidae
 * Goths
 * Harii
 * Helisii
 * Helvetii
 * Heruli
 * Hermunduri
 * Jutes
 * Langobardes
 * Lemovii
 * Lombards
 * Lugii
 * Manimi
 * Marcomanni
 * Marobudui
 * Mattiaci
 * Naharvali
 * Nemetes
 * Nervii
 * Njars
 * Quadi
 * Saxons
 * Semoni
 * Sitones
 * Suebi
 * Suiones
 * Sugambri
 * Tencteri
 * Teutons
 * Trevi
 * Triboci
 * Tudri
 * Ubii
 * Usipetes
 * Vandals
 * Vangiones

Turkic
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkic_people)
 * Azeris
 * Avars
 * Balkars
 * Gagauzs
 * Gokturks
 * Huns
 * Hephthalites
 * Karachays
 * Karakalpaks
 * Karapapaks
 * Kazakhs
 * Khazars
 * Kirghiz
 * Kumyks
 * Kypchaks
 * Oghuz
 * Tatars
 * Turkmens
 * Turks
 * Tuvans
 * Uighurs
 * Uzbeks
 * Yakuts

Chinese
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Chinese_ethnic_groups)
 * 1)  Han (汉族)
 * 2) Zhuang (壮族)
 * 3) Manchu (满族)
 * 4) Hui (回族)
 * 5) Miao (苗族) (Hmong)
 * 6) Uighur (维吾尔族)
 * 7) Yi (彝族)
 * 8) Tujia (土家族)
 * 9) Mongol (蒙古族)
 * 10) Tibetan (藏族)
 * 11) Buyi (布依族)
 * 12) Dong (侗族)
 * 13) Yao (瑶族)
 * 14) Korean (朝鲜族)
 * 15) Bai (白族)
 * 16) Hani (哈尼族)
 * 17) Li (黎族)
 * 18) Kazakh (哈萨克族)
 * 19) Dai (傣族, also called Dai Lue, one of the Thai ethnic groups)
 * 20) She (畲族)
 * 21) Lisu (傈僳族)
 * 22) Gelao (仡佬族)
 * 23) Lahu (拉祜族)
 * 24) Dongxiang (东乡族)
 * 25) Wa (佤族) (Va)
 * 26) Shui (水族)
 * 27) Naxi (纳西族) (includes the Mosuo (摩梭))
 * 28) Qiang (羌族)
 * 29) Du (土族)
 * 30) Xibe (锡伯族)
 * 31) Mulam (仫佬族)
 * 32) Kirghiz (柯尔克孜族)
 * 33) Daur (达斡尔族)
 * 34) Jingpo (景颇族)
 * 35) Salar (撒拉族)
 * 36) Blang (布朗族 Bulang)
 * 37) Maonan (毛南族)
 * 38) Tajik (塔吉克族)
 * 39) Pumi (普米族)
 * 40) Achang (阿昌族)
 * 41) Nu (怒族)
 * 42) Evenki (鄂温克族)
 * 43) Gin (京族 Jing1)
 * 44) Jino (基诺族)
 * 45) De'ang (德昂族)
 * 46) Uzbek (乌孜别克族)
 * 47) Russian (俄罗斯族)
 * 48) Yugur (裕固族)
 * 49) Bonan (保安族)
 * 50) Menba (门巴族)
 * 51) Oroqin (鄂伦春族)
 * 52) Drung (独龙族)
 * 53) Tatar (塔塔尔族)
 * 54) Hezhen (赫哲族)
 * 55) Lhoba (珞巴族)
 * 56) Gaoshan (高山族) (Taiwanese aborigine)

also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xiongnu

Thai
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thai_ethnic_groups)
 * the Lao of Laos and Northeast Thailand
 * the Northern Thai (Thai Yuan) of Thailand
 * the Central Thai of Thailand
 * the Shan (Thai Yai) of Burma
 * the Thai Lue of Laos and China(also called "Dai")
 * the Black Thai of Laos and Vietnam
 * the Red Thai
 * White Thai

title: User:Itai/Tribes


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Anisothermal plasma

An Anisothermal plasma is a plasma which thermal state can be approximated by more than one temperature for the different degrees of freedom of the plasma. The degrees of freedom refer to translation (kinetic energy), rotation, vibration of each particle type.

Examples of anisothermal plasmas can be found among low-pressure plasmas that are excited by high frequency electric fields, see frequency classification of plasmas. They generally exhibit hot electrons that are powered by the alternating electric field, and a neutral and ion component, which is significantly colder due to the low efficiency of the energy transfer between light electrons and heavy neutrals and ions.

The term nonthermal plasma includes anisothermal plasmas and means that the different degrees of freedom of the plasma are not in thermal equilibrium.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Anisothermal plasma


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George Augustus Robinson

George Augustus Robinson (22 March 1791 – 18 October 1866) was a British-born colonial official and self-trained preacher in colonial Australia. In 1824, Robinson travelled to Hobart, Van Diemen’s Land, where he attempted to negotiate a peace between European settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians prior to the outbreak of the Black War. He was appointed Chief Protector of Aborigines by the Aboriginal Protection Board in Port Phillip District, New South Wales in 1839, a position he held until 1849. He is also remembered today for his role in the supply of Aboriginal remains to English 'collectors'.

Early life
Robinson was born on 22 March 1791, probably in London, England, to William Robinson, a construction worker, and Susannah Robinson (née Perry). He followed his father into the building trade, married Maria Amelia Evans on 28 February 1814, and had five children over the next ten years. He was connected with the engineering department at the Chatham Dockyard and had some involvement with the construction of martello towers along England's coast, possibly as a superintendent.

Van Diemen's Land
Robinson arrived in Hobart in January 1824, having apparently nearly been a victim of Gregor MacGregor's fraudulent Poyais scheme. He established himself as a builder and was soon employing several men. He was secretary of the Bethel Union and was a committee member of the Auxiliary Bible Society, also helping to found the Van Diemen's Land Mechanics' Institution. He was joined by his wife and children in April 1826.

Aboriginal Tasmanians
Conflicts between settlers and Aboriginal Tasmanians had vastly increased during the 1820s, which became known as the Black War. In 1830 Robinson investigated the Cape Grim massacre that had occurred in 1828 and reported that 30 Aborigines had been massacred. Robinson was to be brought in as a "conciliator" between settlers and Aboriginal people. His mission was to round up the Aboriginal people to resettle them at the camp of Wybalenna on Flinders Island.

Robinson befriended Truganini, to whom he promised food, housing and security on Flinders Island until the situation on the mainland had calmed down. With Truganini, Robinson succeeded in forging an agreement with the Big River and Oyster Bay peoples, and by the end of 1835, nearly all the Aboriginal people had been relocated to the new settlement.

Robinson's involvement with the Aboriginal Tasmanians ended soon after this, though, and the Wybalenna settlement became more akin to a prison as the camp conditions deteriorated and many of the residents died of ill health and homesickness. Because of this, Robinson's place in history is generally viewed as negative, especially within the current Aboriginal community. Some historians agree that his initial intentions were genuine, but his abandonment of the community is viewed as a turning point for the worse for the Tasmanian Aboriginals. Moreover, his promises of providing a place where Aboriginal people could practise their cultural traditions and ceremonies never came to fruition.

Chief Protector of Aborigines in Port Phillip District
Robinson became Chief Protector of Aborigines in March 1839, managing the Protectorate of Port Phillip with the help of four Assistant Protectors, William Thomas, James Dredge, Edward Stone Parker and Charles Sievwright. Maria, Robinson's wife died in 1848.

During his decade of service as Chief Protector he made more than 20 expeditions into the four districts of the Aboriginal Protectorate.

Robinson was paid a total of £8000 in his role as protector of Aborigines. He built a small community that included a church and coined the area 'Point Civilisation'. Many of the Aborigines who lived at the port had been removed under false pretenses from their true home in Tasmania.

In 1841 and 1842, Robinson traveled to western Victoria with Tunnerminnerwait where he investigated and reported on the Convincing Ground massacre that had occurred in 1833 or 1834. In 1841 he investigated a gunshot incident, and whilst travelling came across the aboriginal aquaculture site of Lake Condah, recording its dimensions.

His journals are regarded as amongst the most important documents on the early years of European settlement in Victoria. They offer significant observations on Koorie culture, early Melbourne personalities, the landscape and settler society.

Later life
The Port Phillip Protectorate was abolished on 31 December 1849, with Robinson receiving a pension. He returned to England in 1852 and the following year married Rose Pyne, with whom he had another five children. The couple spent five years living in Europe, mostly in Paris and Rome. In 1859 they settled in Bath, England, where Robinson died on 18 October 1866 at the age of 75.

Robinson in contemporary culture
Semi-fictional accounts of Robinson's travels are included in Matthew Kneale's book English Passengers and in T. C. Boyle's short story "The Extinction Tales", and Robinson is a major character in Richard Flanagan's 2008 novel Wanting. There is a reference to Robinson in the book The Lost Diamonds of Killiecrankie by Gary Crew and Peter Gouldthorpe, and in Following the Equator, by Mark Twain. Robert Drewes' 'Savage Crows' also incorporates the work of Robinson into the plot. See also Mudrooroo's critical portrayal of Robinson in Doctor Wooreddy's Prescription for Enduring the Ending of the World, Master of the Ghost Dreaming and his Vampire Trilogy: The Undying, Underground and The Promised Land. Additionally, Cassandra Pybus' 2020 biography of Truganini, entitled Truganini: Journey Through the Apocalypse provides a detailed account of Robinson's personal relationship with Truganini and the traumatic psychological and cultural shifts experienced by Aboriginal Tasmanians.

Tasmanian artist Julie Gough referenced Robinson and his work in her recent exhibition Tense Past at Tasmania Museum & Art Gallery.

Robinson and museum collections
During Robinson's time in Tasmania and Victoria, he collected a large number of objects and artworks from the Aboriginal communities there. He also collected human skulls and other Aboriginal remains. After his death, his widow Rose sold the items to many museums. The British Museum has 138 items relating to Robinson's time in Australia, including Aboriginal artefacts, prints and drawings. Joseph Barnard Davis acquired many from Robinson's widow in the 1860s, and it may be through his activities that objects subsequently found their way into other collections, for example at the British Museum. Leeds Discovery Centre has two spears he collected. The Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford holds nineteen objects relating to Robinson's time abroad. The collection at Pitt Rivers includes several paintings and prints describing individual people from Aboriginal communities, including: Truggernana, Jenny, and Fanny, amongst others.

title: George Augustus Robinson


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Charge carrier

In solid state physics, a charge carrier is a particle or quasiparticle that is free to move, carrying an electric charge, especially the particles that carry electric charges in electrical conductors. Examples are electrons, ions and holes. In a conducting medium, an electric field can exert force on these free particles, causing a net motion of the particles through the medium; this is what constitutes an electric current. The electron and the proton are the elementary charge carriers, each carrying one elementary charge (e), of the same magnitude and opposite sign.

In conductors
In conducting media, particles serve to carry charge:
 * In many metals, the charge carriers are electrons. One or two of the valence electrons from each atom are able to move about freely within the crystal structure of the metal. The free electrons are referred to as conduction electrons, and the cloud of free electrons is called a Fermi gas. Many metals have electron and hole bands. In some, the majority carriers are holes.
 * In electrolytes, such as salt water, the charge carriers are ions, which are atoms or molecules that have gained or lost electrons so they are electrically charged. Atoms that have gained electrons so they are negatively charged are called anions, atoms that have lost electrons so they are positively charged are called cations. Cations and anions of the dissociated liquid also serve as charge carriers in melted ionic solids (see e.g. the Hall–Héroult process for an example of electrolysis of a melted ionic solid). Proton conductors are electrolytic conductors employing positive hydrogen ions as carriers.
 * In a plasma, an electrically charged gas which is found in electric arcs through air, neon signs, and the sun and stars, the electrons and cations of ionized gas act as charge carriers.
 * In a vacuum, free electrons can act as charge carriers. In the electronic component known as the vacuum tube (also called valve), the mobile electron cloud is generated by a heated metal cathode, by a process called thermionic emission. When an electric field is applied strongly enough to draw the electrons into a beam, this may be referred to as a cathode ray, and is the basis of the cathode ray tube display widely used in televisions and computer monitors until the 2000s.
 * In semiconductors, which are the materials used to make electronic components like transistors and integrated circuits, two types of charge carrier are possible. In p-type semiconductors, "effective particles" known as electron holes with positive charge move through the crystal lattice, producing an electric current. The "holes" are, in effect, electron vacancies in the valence-band electron population of the semiconductor and are treated as charge carriers because they are mobile, moving from atom site to atom site. In n-type semiconductors, electrons in the conduction band move through the crystal, resulting in an electric current.

In some conductors, such as ionic solutions and plasmas, positive and negative charge carriers coexist, so in these cases an electric current consists of the two types of carrier moving in opposite directions. In other conductors, such as metals, there are only charge carriers of one polarity, so an electric current in them simply consists of charge carriers moving in one direction.

In semiconductors
There are two recognized types of charge carriers in semiconductors. One is electrons, which carry a negative electric charge. In addition, it is convenient to treat the traveling vacancies in the valence band electron population (holes) as a second type of charge carrier, which carry a positive charge equal in magnitude to that of an electron.

Carrier generation and recombination
When an electron meets with a hole, they recombine and these free carriers effectively vanish. The energy released can be either thermal, heating up the semiconductor (thermal recombination, one of the sources of waste heat in semiconductors), or released as photons (optical recombination, used in LEDs and semiconductor lasers). The recombination means an electron which has been excited from the valence band to the conduction band falls back to the empty state in the valence band, known as the holes. The holes are the empty states created in the valence band when an electron gets excited after getting some energy to pass the energy gap.

Majority and minority carriers
The more abundant charge carriers are called majority carriers, which are primarily responsible for current transport in a piece of semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors they are electrons, while in p-type semiconductors they are holes. The less abundant charge carriers are called minority carriers; in n-type semiconductors they are holes, while in p-type semiconductors they are electrons.

In an intrinsic semiconductor, which does not contain any impurity, the concentrations of both types of carriers are ideally equal. If an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with a donor impurity then the majority carriers are electrons. If the semiconductor is doped with an acceptor impurity then the majority carriers are holes.

Minority carriers play an important role in bipolar transistors and solar cells. Their role in field-effect transistors (FETs) is a bit more complex: for example, a MOSFET has p-type and n-type regions. The transistor action involves the majority carriers of the source and drain regions, but these carriers traverse the body of the opposite type, where they are minority carriers. However, the traversing carriers hugely outnumber their opposite type in the transfer region (in fact, the opposite type carriers are removed by an applied electric field that creates an inversion layer), so conventionally the source and drain designation for the carriers is adopted, and FETs are called "majority carrier" devices.

Free carrier concentration
Free carrier concentration is the concentration of free carriers in a doped semiconductor. It is similar to the carrier concentration in a metal and for the purposes of calculating currents or drift velocities can be used in the same way. Free carriers are electrons (holes) that have been introduced into the conduction band (valence band) by doping. Therefore, they will not act as double carriers by leaving behind holes (electrons) in the other band. In other words, charge carriers are particles that are free to move, carrying the charge. The free carrier concentration of doped semiconductors shows a characteristic temperature dependence.

In superconductors
Superconductors have zero electrical resistance and are therefore able to carry current indefinitely. This type of conduction is possible by the formation of Cooper pairs. At present, superconductors can only be achieved at very low temperatures, for instance by using cryogenic chilling. As yet, achieving superconductivity at room temperature remains challenging; it is still a field of ongoing research and experimentation. Creating a superconductor that functions at ambient temperature would constitute an important technological break-through, which could potentially contribute to much higher energy efficiency in grid distribution of electricity.

In quantum situations
Under exceptional circumstances, positrons, muons, anti-muons, taus and anti-taus may potentially also carry electric charge. This is theoretically possible, yet the very short life-time of these charged particles would render such a current very challenging to maintain at the current state of technology. It might be possible to artificially create this type of current, or it might occur in nature during very short lapses of time.

In plasmas
Plasmas consists of ionized gas. Electric charge can cause the formation of electromagnetic fields in plasmas, which can lead to the formation of currents or even multiple currents. This phenomenon is used in nuclear fusion reactors. It also occurs naturally in the cosmos, in the form of jets, nebula winds or cosmic filaments that carry charged particles. This cosmic phenomenon is called Birkeland current. Considered in general, the electric conductivity of plasmas is a subject of plasma physics.

title: Charge carrier


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Mor lam sing

Mor lam sing (Thai/Isan หมอลำซิ่ง) is a fast-paced, racy and modernized version of the traditional Lao/Isan song form mor lam (for ex:in 1986) . Sing comes from the English word "racing" (a reference to the music's speed and its origins among Isan's biker fraternity). In this style, the lead singer is accompanied by the khaen, Western drums, electric guitar, electric keyboards and bass guitar. The style was invented in Chaiyaphum province around 1985 and was popularised over the next few years after it was taken up by Ratdri Sivilai in Khon Kaen. It is based on the Khon Kaen style of lam tang san but incorporates string instrumentation and luk thung singing styles and extensive use of the Central Thai language rather than Isan.

The songs are often about disappointment in love and hardships during life away from Northeast Thailand. The songs are full of sexual innuendo, and feature "hang khreuang" - young female dancers in fanciful dress.

Among the most popular mor lam sing artists are the groups Rock Salaeng and Rock Sadert.

title: Mor lam sing


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George Peabody

George Peabody (February 18, 1795 – November 4, 1869) was an American financier and philanthropist. He is often considered the father of modern philanthropy.

Born into a poor family in Massachusetts, Peabody went into business in dry goods and later into banking. In 1837 he moved to London (which was then the capital of world finance) where he became the most noted American banker and helped to establish the young country's international credit. Having no son of his own to whom he could pass on his business, Peabody took on Junius Spencer Morgan as a partner in 1854 and their joint business would go on to become the global financial services firm J.P. Morgan & Co. after Peabody's 1864 retirement.

In his old age, Peabody won worldwide acclaim for his philanthropy. He founded the Peabody Trust in Britain and the Peabody Institute and George Peabody Library in Baltimore, and was responsible for many other charitable initiatives. For his generosity, he was awarded the Congressional Gold Medal and made a Freeman of the City of London, among many other honors.

Biography
Peabody was born in 1795 in what was then South Danvers (now Peabody), Massachusetts. His family had Puritan ancestors in the state. As one of seven children in a poor family, George suffered some deprivations during his childhood, and was able to attend school for only a few years. When he was a teenager, his father died, and he worked in his brother's shop to support his widowed mother and six siblings. He later expressed "I have never forgotten and never can forget the great privations of my early years". These factors influenced his later devotion to both thrift and philanthropy.

In 1816, he moved to Baltimore, where he made his career and would live for the next 20 years. He established his residence and office in the old Henry Fite House, and became a businessman and financier.

At that time London, Amsterdam, Paris and Frankfurt were at the center of international banking and finance. As all international transactions were settled in gold or gold certificates, a developing nation like the United States had to rely upon agents and merchant banks to raise capital through relationships with merchant banking houses in Europe. Only they held the quantity of reserves of capital necessary to extend long-term credit to a developing economy like that of the US.

Peabody first visited England in 1827, seeking to use his firm and his agency to sell American states' bond issues, to raise capital for those states' various programs of "internal improvements" (principally the transportation infrastructure, such as roads, railroads, docks and canals). Over the next decade Peabody made four more trans-Atlantic trips, starting in 1835 and establishing a branch office in Liverpool. Later he established the banking firm of "George Peabody & Company" (later stylised as J.S. Morgan & Co. ) in London. In 1837, he took up permanent residence in London, where he lived for the rest of his life.

In the 1840s, the state of Maryland defaulted on its debt and Peabody, having marketed about half of Maryland's securities to individual investors in Europe, became persona non grata around London. The Times of London noted that while Peabody was an "American gentleman of the most unblemished character", the Reform Club had blackballed him for being a citizen of a country that reneged on its debts. At first, Peabody sent letters to scold Baltimore friends about the need for the state to resume interest payment and rewarded reporters with small gratuities for favourable articles about the state.

At last, in 1845 he conspired with Barings to push Maryland into resuming payment by setting up a political slush fund to spread propaganda for debt resumption and elect legislators who would placate their investors. By means of a secret account, the two firms transferred a thousand sterling to Baltimore and even bribed Daniel Webster, the orator and statesman, to make speeches for debt repayment. Their attempts were successful: pro-resumption Whigs were elected and London bankers started to receive payments. Barings duplicated the same tactics in Pennsylvania. Florida and Mississippi were the most persistent debtors and as such were excluded from Peabody's later philanthropies.

Although Peabody was briefly engaged in 1838 (and later allegedly had a mistress in Brighton, England, who bore him a daughter), he never married. Ron Chernow describes him as "homely", with "a rumpled face ... knobby chin, bulbous nose, side whiskers, and heavy-lidded eyes."

Peabody frequently entertained and provided letters of introduction for American businessmen visiting London, and became known for the Anglo-American dinners he hosted in honor of American diplomats and other worthies, and in celebration of the Fourth of July. In 1851, when the US Congress refused to support the American section at the Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace, Peabody advanced £3000 (then worth $15,000; worth about $550,000 in 2022 dollars) to improve the exhibit and uphold the reputation of the United States. In 1854, he offended many of his American guests at a Fourth of July dinner when he chose to toast Queen Victoria before US President Franklin Pierce; Pierce's future successor, James Buchanan, then Ambassador to London, left in a huff. At around this time, Peabody began to suffer from rheumatoid arthritis and gout.

In February 1867, on one of several return visits to the United States, and at the height of his financial success, Peabody was suggested by Francis Preston Blair, an old crony of President Andrew Jackson and an active power in the smoldering Democratic Party as a possible Secretary of the Treasury in the cabinet of President Andrew Johnson. At about the same time, Peabody was also mentioned in newspapers as a future presidential candidate. Peabody described the presidential suggestion as a "kind and complimentary reference", but considered that, at age 72, he was too old for either office.

Business
While serving as a volunteer in the War of 1812, Peabody met Elisha Riggs, who, in 1814, provided financial backing for what became the wholesale dry goods firm of Riggs, Peabody & Co. The firm specialized in importing dry goods from Britain. Branches were opened in New York and Philadelphia in 1822. Riggs retired in 1829, and the firm became Peabody, Riggs & Co., with the names reversed as Peabody became the senior partner.

Peabody first visited England in 1827 to purchase wares, and to negotiate the sale of American cotton in Lancashire. He subsequently opened a branch office in Liverpool, and British business began to play an increasingly important role in his affairs. He appears to have had some help in establishing himself from Sir William Brown, 1st Baronet, of Richmond Hill and James Brown, sons of another highly-successful Baltimore businessman, the Irishman Alexander Brown (founder of the venerable investment and banking firm of "Alex. Brown & Sons" in 1801), who managed their father's Liverpool office, opened in 1810.

In 1837, Peabody took up residence in London, and the following year, he started a banking business trading on his own account. The banking firm of "George Peabody and Company" was not, however, established until 1851. It was founded to meet the increasing demand for securities issued by the American railroads, and – although Peabody continued to deal in dry goods and other commodities – he increasingly focused his attentions on merchant banking, specializing in financing governments and large companies. The bank rose to become the premier American house in London.

In Peabody's early years in London, American state governments were notorious for defaulting on their debts to British lenders, and as a prominent American financier in London, Peabody often faced scorn for America's poor credit. (On one occasion, he was even blackballed from membership in a gentlemen's club.) Peabody joined forces with Barings Bank to lobby American states for debt repayment, particularly his home state of Maryland. The campaign included printing propaganda and bribing clergy and politicians, most notably Senator Daniel Webster. Peabody made a significant profit when Maryland, Pennsylvania, and other states resumed payments, having previously bought up state bonds at a low cost. Encyclopædia Britannica cites him as having "helped establish U.S. credit abroad."

Peabody took Junius Spencer Morgan (father of J. P. Morgan) into partnership in 1854 to form Peabody, Morgan & Co., and the two financiers worked together until Peabody's retirement in 1864; Morgan had effective control of the business from 1859 on. During the run on the banks of 1857, Peabody had to ask the Bank of England for a loan of £800,000: although rivals tried to force the bank out of business, it managed to emerge with its credit intact.

Following this crisis, Peabody began to retire from active business, and in 1864, retired fully (taking with him much of his capital, amounting to over $10,000,000, or £2,000,000). Peabody, Morgan & Co. then took the name J.S. Morgan & Co. The former UK merchant bank Morgan Grenfell (now part of Deutsche Bank), international universal bank JPMorgan Chase and investment bank Morgan Stanley can all trace their roots to Peabody's bank.

Philanthropy
Though thrifty, even miserly with his employees and relatives, Peabody gave generously to public causes. He became the acknowledged father of modern philanthropy,   having established the practice later followed by Johns Hopkins, Andrew Carnegie, John D. Rockefeller and Bill Gates. In the United States, his philanthropy largely took the form of educational initiatives. In Britain, it took the form of providing housing for the poor.

In America, Peabody founded and supported numerous institutions in New England, the South, and elsewhere. In 1867–68, he established the Peabody Education Fund with $3.5 million to "encourage the intellectual, moral, and industrial education of the destitute children of the Southern States." His grandest beneficence, however, was to Baltimore, the city in which he achieved his earliest success.

In April 1862, Peabody established the Peabody Donation Fund, which continues to this day as the Peabody Trust, to provide housing of decent quality for the "artisans and labouring poor of London". The trust's first dwellings, designed by H. A. Darbishire in a Jacobethan style, were opened in Commercial Street, Spitalfields in February 1864.

George Peabody provided benefactions of well over $8 million ($158,000,000 in 2017 dollars ), most of them in his lifetime.

Among the list are:

 * 1852 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute Library), Peabody, Mass: $217,000
 * 1856 The Peabody Institute, Danvers, Mass (now the Peabody Institute Library of Danvers): $100,000
 * 1857 The Peabody Institute (now the Peabody Institute of the Johns Hopkins University), Baltimore: $1,400,000. By including a complex involving a library, an academy of music, and an art gallery, his goal was to promote the moral, intellectual and artistic opportunities for the People of Baltimore.
 * 1862 The Peabody Donation Fund, London: $2,500,000
 * 1866 The Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Harvard University: $150,000
 * 1866 The Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University: $150,000 (at the suggestion of his nephew Othniel Charles Marsh, son of his younger sister Mary Peabody, and America's first professor of paleontology)
 * 1867 The Peabody Academy of Science, Salem, Mass: $140,000 (now the Peabody Essex Museum)
 * 1867 The Peabody Institute, Georgetown, District of Columbia: $15,000 (today the Peabody Room, Georgetown Branch, DC Public Library).
 * 1867 Peabody Education Fund: $2,000,000
 * 1875 George Peabody College for Teachers, now the Peabody College of Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee. The funding came from the Peabody Education Fund
 * 1877 Peabody High School, Trenton, Tennessee, established with funds provided by Peabody
 * 1866 The Georgetown Peabody Library, the public library of Georgetown, Massachusetts
 * 1866 The Thetford Public Library, the public library of Thetford, Vermont: $5,000
 * 1901 The Peabody Memorial Library, Sam Houston State University, Texas
 * 1913 George Peabody Building, University of Mississippi
 * 1913 Peabody Hall, housing the Department of Curriculum and Instruction, University of Arkansas: $40,000
 * 1913 Peabody Hall, housing the School of Education (now Philosophy and Religion), University of Georgia: $40,000
 * 1913 Peabody Hall, housing the College for Teachers (now part of Criser Student Services Center), University of Florida: $40,000
 * Peabody Hall, housing the college of Human Science and Education, Louisiana State University.
 * 1914 Peabody Hall, housing the Curry Memorial School of Education (now Office of the Dean of Students and the Office of Admission), University of Virginia

Death
Peabody died in London on November 4, 1869, aged 74, at the house of his friend Sir Curtis Lampson. At the request of the Dean of Westminster, and with the approval of Queen Victoria, he was given a funeral and temporary grave in Westminster Abbey.

His will provided that he be buried in the town of his birth, South Danvers, Massachusetts (now Peabody). Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone arranged for Peabody's remains to be returned to America on HMS Monarch, the newest and largest ship in the Royal Navy, arriving at Portland, Maine, where they were received by US Admiral David Farragut. He was laid to rest in Harmony Grove Cemetery, in Salem, Massachusetts, on February 8, 1870. Peabody's death and the pair of funerals were international news, through the newly completed trans-Atlantic underwater telegraph cable. Hundreds of people participated in the ceremonies and thousands more attended or observed.

Impact on American philanthropy
Historian Roderick Nash argues that Peabody made his millions quietly in groceries and real estate, while contemporary millionaires were building more visible empires in oil, iron, land and especially railroads. As a disciple of Benjamin Franklin, Peabody combined hard work with frugality, punctuality, and a strong public spirit. Peabody was a pioneer, whose success in philanthropy set a new standard for American millionaires. By contrast, philanthropy in Europe was more typically dispensed by aristocratic families with inherited landed wealth, which built palaces and museums that were eventually opened to the public. The American way was for the self-made millionaires to become self-made philanthropists, a model perfected in the next generation by Andrew Carnegie (1835–1919) and John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937). They agreed with Peabody that riches produced a duty to give most of it back to the community through specialized permanent foundations.

Peabody was especially imaginative, and relied on his own memories of poverty and self-education to introduce new ways to educate and culturally enrich the next generation of poor youth, and thereby promote greater equality in American society. Jacksonian Democracy promoted equality in politics; he promoted equality and culture through libraries, schools, museums and colleges. He rejected doling out cash to the poor as a waste of money in comparison to building permanent institutions that produced a steady stream of benefits. His last great benefaction was the Peabody Education Fund, which had a dramatic impact in improving southern public schools. It was the first major philanthropic institution that gave large sums to poor blacks on the same terms as whites, albeit within the limits of racial segregation. Even more important was the institutional framework that Peabody devised, of a permanent professional foundation run by experts in philanthropy, who were guided by and indeed invented the best practices of the day.

Recognition and commemoration
Peabody's philanthropy won him many admirers in his old age. He was praised by European contemporaries such as Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone and author Victor Hugo, and Queen Victoria offered him a baronetcy, which he refused.

In 1854, the Arctic explorer Elisha Kane named the waterway off the north-west coast of Greenland "Peabody Bay", in honor of Peabody, who had funded his expedition. The waterway was later renamed the Kane Basin, but Peabody Bay survives as the name of a smaller bay at the eastern side of the basin.

On July 10, 1862, he was made a Freeman of the City of London, the motion being proposed by Charles Reed in recognition of his financial contribution to London's poor. He became the first of only two Americans (the other being 34th President and General Dwight D. Eisenhower) to receive the award. On March 16, 1867, he was awarded the United States Congressional Gold Medal, an honorary doctorate of laws by Harvard University, and an honorary doctorate in civil law by Oxford University. On March 24, 1867, Peabody was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society

Peabody's birthplace, South Danvers, Massachusetts, changed its name in 1868 to the town (now city) of Peabody, in honor of its favorite son. In 1869, the Peabody Hotel in Memphis, Tennessee, was named in his memory. A number of Elementary and High Schools in the United States are named after Peabody.

A statue sculpted by William Wetmore Story stands next to the Royal Exchange in the City of London, unveiled by the Prince of Wales in July 1869: Peabody himself was too unwell to attend the ceremony, and died less than four months later. A replica of the same statue, erected in 1890, stands next to the Peabody Institute, in Mount Vernon Park, part of the Mount Vernon neighborhood of Baltimore, Maryland.

In 1900, Peabody was one of the first 29 honorees to be elected to the Hall of Fame for Great Americans, located on what was then the campus of New York University (and is now that of Bronx Community College), at University Heights, New York.

His birthplace at 205 Washington Street in the City of Peabody is now operated and preserved as the George Peabody House Museum, a museum dedicated to interpreting his life and legacy. There is a blue plaque on the house where he died in London, No. 80 Eaton Square, Belgravia, erected in 1976.

On March 16, 2018, Google honored Peabody with a Google Doodle on the 151st anniversary of Peabody being awarded the Congressional Gold Medal. The mural reproduced in the Google Doodle is physically located within the lunchroom of the George Peabody Elementary School in San Francisco.

The Georgetown Neighborhood Library in Washington, D.C., houses the Peabody Room, named after the original neighborhood Peabody Library founded by Peabody. The Peabody Room contains historical information about the Georgetown neighborhood.

title: George Peabody


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Immanuel Nobel

Immanuel Nobel the Younger (, ; 24 March 1801 – 3 September 1872) was a Swedish engineer, architect, inventor and industrialist. He was the inventor of the rotary lathe used in plywood manufacturing. He was a member of the Nobel family and the father of Robert Nobel, Ludvig Nobel, Alfred Nobel and  Emil Oskar Nobel. In 1827 he married the children's mother, Andriette Ahlsell. He also often experimented with nitroglycerin with his sons, which led to his son Emil Oskar's death because of an explosion at his father's factory Heleneborg in Stockholm in 1864.

Nobel moved to Russia from Sweden in 1838, to sell his inventions in Saint Petersburg, where he lived for two decades with his family. In Saint Petersburg he was attached to the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Saint Katarina along with other Swedes such as Johan Patrik Ljungström, with whom he may have collaborated. Among his successful creations was an improved version of an underwater exploding mine that personally interested Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. Immanuel founded a war supplies factory, Fonderies et Ateliers Mécaniques Nobel Fils, which turned out to be a very profitable business. However, the death of Nicholas I in 1855 and the end of the Crimean War in 1856 brought about a shift in Russian policies and the new Tsar Alexander II ordered a severe cut in the military budget that eventually placed Immanuel's company in serious economic difficulties. In 1859, the technical management of Nobel Fils was passed to Immanuel's son Ludvig and the former returned to Sweden. In 1862, Immanuel's firm was finally sold by his creditors.

title: Immanuel Nobel


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Talk:Venus

Presence of Phosphine on Venus
The statement "By late October 2020, re-analysis of data with a proper subtraction of background did not result in the detection of phosphine" seems to have now itself been rendered outdated by the original team who has now found a smaller amount of phosphine but still seems to have found phosphine none the less. Maybe amending this section to say the status of phosphine is still uncertain considering the multiple contradictory analyses of the atmosphere are now available. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Dmesco17 (talk • contribs)

title: Talk:Venus


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User talk:Jonnyx

Welcome to Wikipedia! I hope you like the place and decide to stay!

The additions to the articles are very appreciated, but please do not insert links to pages you are affiliated with. If they are relevant to the subject, others will insert them.

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Good luck, Rasmus (talk) 12:46, 25 Feb 2004 (UTC)

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title: User talk:Jonnyx


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Secondary emission

In particle physics, secondary emission is a phenomenon where primary incident particles of sufficient energy, when hitting a surface or passing through some material, induce the emission of secondary particles. The term often refers to the emission of electrons when charged particles like electrons or ions in a vacuum tube strike a metal surface; these are called secondary electrons. In this case, the number of secondary electrons emitted per incident particle is called secondary emission yield. If the secondary particles are ions, the effect is termed secondary ion emission. Secondary electron emission is used in photomultiplier tubes and image intensifier tubes to amplify the small number of photoelectrons produced by photoemission, making the tube more sensitive. It also occurs as an undesirable side effect in electronic vacuum tubes when electrons from the cathode strike the anode, and can cause parasitic oscillation.

Secondary emissive materials
Commonly used secondary emissive materials include
 * alkali antimonide
 * Beryllium oxide (BeO)
 * Magnesium oxide (MgO)
 * Gallium phosphide (GaP)
 * Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
 * Lead oxide (PbO)

Photo multipliers and similar devices
In a photomultiplier tube, one or more electrons are emitted from a photocathode and accelerated towards a polished metal electrode (called a dynode). They hit the electrode surface with sufficient energy to release a number of electrons through secondary emission. These new electrons are then accelerated towards another dynode, and the process is repeated several times, resulting in an overall gain ('electron multiplication') in the order of typically one million and thus generating an electronically detectable current pulse at the last dynodes.

Similar electron multipliers can be used for detection of fast particles like electrons or ions.

Special amplifying tubes
In the 1930s special amplifying tubes were developed which deliberately "folded" the electron beam, by having it strike a dynode to be reflected into the anode. This had the effect of increasing the plate-grid distance for a given tube size, increasing the transconductance of the tube and reducing its noise figure. A typical such "orbital beam hexode" was the RCA 1630, introduced in 1939. Because the heavy electron current in such tubes damaged the dynode surface rapidly, their lifetime tended to be very short compared to conventional tubes.

Early computer memory tubes
The first random access computer memory used a type of cathode ray tube called the Williams tube that used secondary emission to store bits on the tube face. Another random access computer memory tube based on secondary emission was the Selectron tube. Both were made obsolete by the invention of magnetic-core memory.

Undesirable effects - the tetrode
Secondary emission can be undesirable such as in the tetrode thermionic valve (tube). In this instance the positively charged screen grid can accelerate the electron stream sufficiently to cause secondary emission at the anode (plate). This can give rise to excessive screen grid current. It is also partly responsible for this type of valve (tube), particularly early types with anodes not treated to reduce secondary emission, exhibiting a 'negative resistance' characteristic, which could cause the tube to become unstable. This side effect could be put to use by using some older valves (e.g., type 77 pentode) as dynatron oscillators. This effect was prevented by adding a third grid to the tetrode, called the suppressor grid, to repel the electrons back toward the plate. This tube was called the pentode.

title: Secondary emission


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Matthew Tilghman

Matthew Tilghman (February 17, 1718 – May 4, 1790) was an American planter, and Revolutionary leader from Maryland. He served as a delegate to the Continental Congress from 1774 to 1776, where he signed the 1774 Continental Association.

Early life
Tilghman was born on the family plantation, The Hermitage, near Centreville in Queen Anne's County, Maryland. Tilghman was the grandson of one of the early settlers in Maryland. His grandfather, Richard Tilghman (1626–1675) had been a surgeon in the British navy and established the family plantation at the Hermitage. His father, also named Richard Tilghman (1672–1738), was a planter.

He was educated through private tutoring before moving to Talbot County on the Eastern Shore (of Chesapeake Bay). Tilghman married Anne Lloyd (1723–1794) on April 6, 1741. The couple took up residence on a large plantation in Claiborne, Maryland, known as Rich Neck Manor.

Tilghman's first public service was as a justice of the peace for Talbot County. In 1751 he was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates. He served there through the remainder of its service to the colony, although in 1760 and 1761 he represented Queen Anne's County. (Maryland, like several other colonies, permitted a representative to be elected by any district in which he owned property.) He was elected the speaker of the House from 1773 to its end in 1775.

Revolutionary period
In the early days of the American Revolution, Tilghman was in the forefront of the political revolution in Maryland. He was an early member of the colony's committee of correspondence. For three years (1774–1776) he effectively headed the revolution in Maryland. He was the chairman of the Committee of Safety, president of the revolutionary assembly known as the Annapolis Convention, and the head of the Maryland delegation to the Continental Congress.

While in the Congress, Tilghman debated and supported the Declaration of Independence. He voted for its final approval but was replaced in the Congress by Charles Carroll of Carrollton before a copy was signed. Tilghman had to return home to preside over a longer session of the Annapolis Convention that established a new government for Maryland. Besides being president of the Convention, he headed the committee that drafted the Charter of Rights and Plan of Government that became Maryland's constitution. When the state government went into effect later in 1776, Tilghman was elected to the state Senate. He served there until 1783, and from 1780 to 1783 he was president of the Senate.

Later life and family
In 1771 Tilghman acquired property near his Rich Neck Manor on Sherwood's Neck. In 1783 he retired from public life and attended to his properties. Tilghman died at his home Rich Neck Manor on May 4, 1790, and was buried in a family cemetery there.

Matthew and his wife Anna Lloyd Tilghman (1723–1794) had five children: Margaret (1742–1817), Matthew Ward (1743–1753), Richard (1747–1806), Lloyd (1749–1811), and Anna Maria (1755–1843). Margaret married Charles Carroll, Barrister. Richard served as a major in militia of Queen Anne's County during the Revolutionary War. Anna Maria married her cousin Tench Tilghman on June 9, 1783.

Tilghman's son Lloyd built his own home on Sherwood's Neck, known as Sherwood Manor. Sherwood Manor was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977. Both Rich Neck Manor and Sherwood Manor are private property.

title: Matthew Tilghman


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Buckley's

W. K. Buckley Limited is a Canadian company which produces the Buckley's brand of cold medicines. It is known for its marketing that takes deprecating pride in the syrup's unpleasant taste. It also offers children's medicine, which is sold under the brand name Jack & Jill. The company is located in Mississauga, Ontario. It is a subsidiary of Novartis.

The company was founded in 1919 by William Knapp Buckley (18901978), In 1978, after W. K. Buckley's death, his adopted son Frank Buckley became the president of the company. In the mid-1980s, Frank became spokesperson and the brand began using the slogan "It Tastes Horrible, But It Really Works."

Novartis purchased W. K. Buckley Ltd. in 2002.

Buckley's Mixture
Buckley's Original Mixture is a cough syrup invented in 1919 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada, and still produced. Noted for the strongly unpleasant taste referenced by the brand's slogan, its ingredients include ammonium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, camphor, menthol, Canada balsam (Abies balsamea), sodium cyclamate, pine needle oil, and a tincture of capsicum. It is promoted for relief of coughs and congestion.

In March 2017, Health Canada issued a recall of Buckley's products due to a choking hazard from a faulty plastic seal.

The company stopped selling Buckley's DM, which contained dextromethorphan, in Canada in 2016.

title: Buckley's


text:
Photocathode

A photocathode is a surface engineered to convert light (photons) into electrons using the photoelectric effect. Photocathodes are important in accelerator physics where they are utilised in a photoinjector to generate high brightness electron beams. Electron beams generated with photocathodes are commonly used for free electron lasers and for ultrafast electron diffraction. Photocathodes are also commonly used as the negatively charged electrode in a light detection device such as a photomultiplier, phototube and image intensifier.

Quantum Efficiency (QE)
Quantum efficiency is a unitless number that measures the sensitivity of the photocathode to light. It is the ratio of the number of electrons emitted to the number of incident photons. This property depends on the wavelength of light being used to illuminate the photocathode. For many applications, QE is the most important property as the photocathodes are used solely for converting photons into an electrical signal.

Quantum efficiency may be calculated from photocurrent ($$I$$), laser power ($$P_{\text{laser}}$$), and either the photon energy ($$E_{\text{photon}}$$) or laser wavelength ($$\lambda_{\text{laser}}$$) using the following equation.

$$\text{QE} = \frac{N_{\text{electron}}}{N_{\text{photon}}} = \frac{I\cdot E_{\text{photon}}}{P_{\text{laser}}\cdot e} \approx \frac{I[\text{A}]\cdot 1240}{P_{\text{laser}}[\text{W}]\lambda_{\text{laser}}[\text{nm}] }$$

Mean Transverse Energy (MTE) and Thermal Emittance
For some applications, the initial momentum distribution of emitted electrons is important and the mean transverse energy (MTE) and thermal emittance are popular metrics for this. The MTE is the variance of the transverse momentum in a direction along the photocathode's surface and is most commonly reported in units of milli-electron volts.

$$\text{MTE} = \frac{}{2m_e}$$

In high brightness photoinjectors, the MTE helps to determine the initial emittance of the beam which is the area in phase space occupied by the electrons. The emittance ($$\varepsilon$$) can be calculated from MTE and the laser spot size on the photocathode ($$\sigma_x$$) using the following equation.

$$\varepsilon = \sigma_x\sqrt{\frac{\text{MTE}}{m_ec^2}} $$

where $$m_ec^2$$ is the rest mass of an electron. In commonly used units, this is as follows.

$$\varepsilon[\text{um}]\approx\sigma_x [\text{um}]\sqrt{\frac{\text{MTE } [\text{meV}]}{511\times 10^6}}$$

Because of the scaling of transverse emittance with MTE, it is sometimes useful to write the equation in terms of a new quantity called the thermal emittance. The thermal emittance is derived from MTE using the following equation.

$$\varepsilon_{\text{th}} = \sqrt{\frac{\text{MTE}}{m_ec^2}}$$

It is most often expressed in the ratio um/mm to express the growth of emittance in units of um as the laser spot grows (measured in units of mm).

An equivalent definition of MTE is the temperature of electrons emitted in vacuum. The MTE of electrons emitted from commonly used photocathodes, such as polycrystalline metals, is limited by the excess energy (the difference between the energy of the incident photons and the photocathode's work function) provided to the electrons. To limit MTE, photocathodes are often operated near the photoemission threshold, where the excess energy tends to zero. In this limit, the majority of photoemission comes from the tail of the Fermi distribution. Therefore, MTE is thermally limited to $$k_BT$$, where $$k_B$$ is the Boltzmann constant and $$T$$ is the temperature of electrons in the solid.

Due to conservation of transverse momentum and energy in the photoemission process, the MTE of a clean, atomically-ordered, single crystalline photocathode is determined by the material's band structure. An ideal band structure for low MTEs is one that does not allow photoemission from large transverse momentum states.

Outside of accelerator physics, MTE and thermal emittance play a role in the resolution of proximity-focused imaging devices that use photocathodes. This is important for applications such as image intensifiers, wavelength converters, and the now obsolete image tubes.

Lifetime
Many photocathodes require excellent vacuum conditions to function and will become "poisoned" when exposed to contaminates. Additionally, using the photocathodes in high current applications will slowly damage the compounds as they are exposed to ion back-bombardment. These effects are quantified by the lifetime of the photocathode. Cathode death is modeled as a decaying exponential as a function of either time or emitted charge. Lifetime is then the time constant of the exponential.

Uses
For many years the photocathode was the only practical method for converting light to an electron current. As such it tends to function as a form of 'electric film' and shared many characteristics of photography. It was therefore the key element in opto-electronic devices, such as TV camera tubes like the orthicon and vidicon, and in image tubes such as intensifiers, converters, and dissectors. Simple phototubes were used for motion detectors and counters.

Phototubes have been used for years in movie projectors to read the sound tracks on the edge of movie film.

The more recent development of solid state optical devices such as photodiodes has reduced the use of photocathodes to cases where they still remain superior to semiconductor devices.

Construction
Photocathodes operate in a vacuum, so their design parallels vacuum tube technology. Since most cathodes are sensitive to air the construction of photocathodes typically occurs after the enclosure has been evacuated. In operation the photocathode requires an electric field with a nearby positive anode to assure electron emission. Molecular beam epitaxy is broadly applied in today's manufacturing of photocathode. By using a substrate with matched lattice parameters, crystalline photocathodes can be made and electron beams can come out from the same position in lattice's Brillouin zone to get high brightness electron beams.

Photocathodes divide into two broad groups; transmission and reflective. A transmission type is typically a coating upon a glass window in which the light strikes one surface and electrons exit from the opposite surface. A reflective type is typically formed on an opaque metal electrode base, where the light enters and the electrons exit from the same side. A variation is the double reflection type, where the metal base is mirror-like, causing light that passed through the photocathode without causing emission to be bounced back for a second try. This mimics the retina on many mammals.

The effectiveness of a photocathode is commonly expressed as quantum efficiency, that being the ratio of emitted electrons vs. impinging quanta (of light). The efficiency varies with construction as well, as it can be improved with a stronger electric field.

Characterization
The surface of photocathodes can be characterized by various surface sensitive techniques like scanning tunneling microscopy (STM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.

Coatings
Although a plain metallic cathode will exhibit photoelectric properties, the specialized coating greatly increases the effect. A photocathode usually consists of alkali metals with very low work functions.

The coating releases electrons much more readily than the underlying metal, allowing it to detect the low-energy photons in infrared radiation. The lens transmits the radiation from the object being viewed to a layer of coated glass. The photons strike the metal surface and transfer electrons to its rear side. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.

Photocathode materials

 * Ag-O-Cs, also called S-1. This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. Sensitivity from 300 nm to 1200 nm. Since Ag-O-Cs has a higher dark current than more modern materials, photomultiplier tubes with this photocathode material are nowadays used only in the infrared region with cooling.
 * Sb-Cs (antimony-caesium) has a spectral response from UV to visible and is mainly used in reflection-mode photocathodes.
 * Bialkali (antimony-rubidium-caesium Sb-Rb-Cs, antimony-potassium-caesium Sb-K-Cs). Spectral response range similar to the Sb-Cs photocathode, but with higher sensitivity and lower dark current than Sb-Cs. They have sensitivity well matched to the most common scintillator materials and so are frequently used for ionizing radiation measurement in scintillation counters.
 * High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in oil well logging since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in photon counting applications.
 * Multialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony-caesium, Na-K-Sb-Cs), also called S-20. The multialkali photocathode has a wide spectral response from the ultraviolet to near infrared region. It is widely used for broad-band spectrophotometers and photon counting applications. The long wavelength response can be extended to 930 nm by a special photocathode activation processing. With the broadened response, this is sometimes referred to as S-25.
 * GaAs (gallium(II) arsenide). This photocathode material covers a wider spectral response range than multialkali, from ultraviolet to 930 nm. GaAs photocathodes are also used in accelerator facilities where polarized electrons are required. One of the important property of GaAs photocathode is, it can achieve Negative Electron Affinity due to Cs deposition on the surface. However GaAs is very delicate and loses Quantum Efficiency(QE) due to couple of damage mechanism. Ion Back Bombardment is one of the main cause of GaAs cathode QE decay.
 * InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide). Extended sensitivity in the infrared range compared to GaAs. Moreover, in the range between 900 nm and 1000 nm, InGaAs has a much better signal-to-noise ratio than Ag-O-Cs. With special manufacturing techniques this photocathode can operate up to 1700 nm.
 * Cs-Te, Cs-I (caesium-telluride, caesium iodide). These materials are sensitive to vacuum UV and UV rays but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm.

title: Photocathode


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Francis Buckley (businessman)

Francis "Frank" C. Buckley, (April 8, 1921 – February 1, 2016) was president and spokesperson for the Buckley's company, founded by his adoptive father W.K. Buckley, in 1920. In 2005, the company was sold to Novartis.

In 2003, he was made a Member of the Order of Canada for being "an inspiring example of how one can positively influence the lives of many".

Life
Buckley was born in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in 1921 and adopted by William Buckley, who had founded Buckley's Company in 1920; one year prior to Francis' adoption. He attended St. Michael's College School and graduated from the University of Toronto in 1942 with a bachelor's degree in commerce and finance. Shortly after graduating Buckley enlisted in the Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm as a carrier-based fighter pilot and served in World War II during his time with the Royal Navy Fleet. He started his career in the family business as a traveling door to door salesman for three years.

After Buckley had served his family business as a salesman, he took a position in the Management department. Frank Buckley was more interested in broadcast media, finance, and administration type of business while William was first and foremost a salesman; this dynamic element between the father-son combo proved to be an extremely and immensely effective tandem. William K. Buckley died in 1978. Frank Buckley assumed his adoptive father's position in the family business as the president.

In the mid-1980s Buckley became the spokesman for Buckley's. He first came on the scene as the spokesman when the company implemented the satirically honest ad campaign that owned up to Buckley's "awful taste". This campaign was featured on many television and radio commercials. Because of Buckley's time and success as the company's spokesman on the many featured commercials, he became a recognizable public figure.

Since Buckley was a small boy, he always sustained an interest in the pharmaceutical industry. Buckley served as the Proprietary Association of Canada's president—which as since been changed to the Non-Prescription Drug Manufacturers Association of Canada—and remained a member until his death. Buckley was always very active throughout his life and involved with many community service organizations. He died on February 1, 2016, in Toronto at the age of 94.

title: Francis Buckley (businessman)


text:
Talk:Mircea the Elder

Mircea
How about Mircea the Elder instead of Mircea the Ancient? Ancient would rather translate to din båtrâni... Just a suggestion...

The script on Mircea's image seems to be written in Cyrillic (probably Bulgarian). Did he have Bulgarian or Polish or Russian anscestry or something?
 * It's probably Romanian, just written in Cyrillic. I'm not sure when the alphabet changed to the Latin one. I can't say for sure, because I can't read Cyrillic.(the first two letters are Mi though :)

the ancient documents were writen in Cyrillic, due to the slavic influence the romanians beeing sorrounded by cyrillic writing they borrowed it into their documents, but if you know cyrillic and you read carefully, you will see that you're actually speaking romanian , the pronunciation is the same as modern day romanian , only using an older version of letters.

remarckable isn'it ?

It's strange. There is no mention in the article about Ungrovlahia. In fact he calls his country Ungrovlahia: "Eu, Io Mircea mare voievod şi domn singur stăpânitor a toată ţara Ungrovlahiei şi al părţilor de peste munţi, încă şi spre părţile tătăreşti şi herţeg al Amlaşului şi Făgăraşului şi domn al Banatului Severinului şi de amândouă părţile peste toată Podunavia, încă până la Marea cea Mare şi singur stăpânitor al cetăţii Dârstor.", we read in his command to Tismana at 23 november 1406. An other thing I quote from the article: "He maintained close relations with Sigismund of Luxembourg, the king of Hungary, relying on their common interest in the struggle against Ottoman expansion." In fact, Mircea the Elder was a vassal of Sigimund of Luxembourg, the king of Hungary. The word "Ungro" in the name of the country is a clear and undeniable evidence for that.Zmiklos 22:57, 25 February 2006 (UTC)

13:24, 8 December 2006 (UTC) The word "Ungro" has nothing to do with Mircea being a vassal for Sigismund ,which he was not by the way, it is used to differentiate Wallachia from the other "Wallachies" from South-Eastern Europe like Moldova (called Bogdan Iflak in turkish which means Bogdan's Wallachia) and the former (in the 12th,13th century) autonomous principalities and Byzantine provinces of the Balkans (situated in parts of Greece, Bulgaria and Albania)>>>search "Vlachs" or "Aromanians" That being said... the UNGRO in Ungrovlahia means the Wallachia NEXT TO HUNGARY. Hungary being used as a point of refference, it being the dominant state in the region at the time. Take your propaganda elsewhere... leave wiki alone.User:Makidonu|Makidonu]] 13:26, 8 December 2006 (UTC)

The script is definately written in Bulgarian. Think of the name too - Mircha - as Slavic as it goes (Mircha or Mircho). Same goes for Radu. Radu is a way of saying Rado, which is short for Radomir or Radoslav or Radostin or even Radoi if you prefer. There is no wonder why this all is. The trans-danubian territories were inseparable part of the First Bulgarian Empire and to a large extent the Second Bulgarian Empire where the Wlachs played a prominent role. Wallachians and maybe even Bessarabians wrote in Cyrillic until the 17/18th century. I also wonder what these territories actually spoke given that using Bulgarian nobility titles (kniaz, voevoda, boyar) was the norm, not to mention plentiful of other words such as palinka, ulitsa, zakuska ... :) (Kaloyan)

Move?
Why was this moved? What other Mircea cel Batran could he be confused with? Adam Bishop 04:07, 17 April 2006 (UTC)

I do not know about that move but it was not fully proper. Ordinal and country are elements instucted by naming convntions, and I moved this now accordingly. Marrtel 11:59, 22 June 2006 (UTC)

"Reigned"
According to WP:MOS, "reigned" should probably be changed to "fl." Thoughts? — † Webdinger BLAH 20:30, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Maps
I can't understand why a map made in 2005 on a PC has to be added to a historical article. Under the map you can read "Wallachia (highlighted in green) towards the end of the 16th century". What are the sources for this map? Based on what has been drawn? Do you think that a fake map proves something? The map is made nowadays, but text on the map seems from the past. What is this map, a reproduction of something or just an attempt to replace the facts with fiction and imagination? Please provide an original map from the 16th century. The lack of information is better than fake information. Encyclopedic content must be attributable to a reliable source. Zmiklos 22:05, 18 March 2007 (UTC)
 * Please try the following: click on the map, and read the legend to see what the red line stands for. Then read "highlighted in green" again. Dahn 22:20, 18 March 2007 (UTC)

 * Alos: it is general practice to create historical maps, on wikipedia and in academia alike. A 16th century map tends to be highly inaccurate from a geographical point of view, and usually does not record political hierarchies (or does so in the vaguest of terms). You will find that the map, for all things it illustrates, is in agreement with all sources, either texts or renditions - in fact, I'm puzzled as to why you would even be objecting to it (I'm not so sure about the map showing Wallachia in ca. 1390, but that's another matter). Dahn 22:24, 18 March 2007 (UTC)
 * The 1390 one was made - I suppose - after Mircea the Elder's titles. A similar map can be found at Dinu C Giurescu, Istoria ilustrată a românilor, so it's ok. --Alex:Dan 10:42, 27 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Well, yes, but our map (as opposed to the one you added) fails to note that many territories were Mircea's possessions in other realms, and not actually parts of Wallachia. I am also very unsure that Dobrotich's realm had clearly-drawn borders (or that they corresponded with the entire Dobruja, or that they were themselves part of Wallachia). Dahn 17:15, 27 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I believe that Chilia was tooken from the Genovese a little bit later (there were 2 campaigns if I remember corectly), but most of Dobrudja was under Mircea's control since 1388. He got it by sword so it was part of Wallachia (as a state) then. I have to read some more to clarify that. I agree completely about Fagaras, Amlas and Severin Banat because if I remember corectly, these were taken back not conquered from Wallachian princes by Iancu de Hunedoara.--Alex:Dan 09:22, 28 May 2007 (UTC)
 * My actual point: in his title, Mircea used separate particles to define his separate rules, all having him as sovereign, but thus not really part of Wallachia. We have him being, if I translated this correctly, "ruler of all Hungro-Wallachia and the parts over the mountains, and additionally over to the Tatar parts and of Amlaş and Făgăraş hetzeg [i.e.: duke] and ruler of the Banat of Severin, and ruler on both sides of the entire Danube over to the Great Sea and of the Dârstor citadel". Now, we can be sure he was ruler of those places, but this title, as well as Hungarian sovereignty over some of the realms mentioned, point that the realms were separated from one another. In addition, you have numerous parallels to draw: the Plantagenets were indeed kings of England, they claimed and almost had rule over France, but France (or Guyenne, etc.) were never part of England-proper (or meant to be). There was nothing preventing a ruler of a country from accumulating countless titles and domains, and, just as well, there was no necessity or requirement to tie them all to the same administration (in fact, the feudal system made tying domains especially difficult).
 * About the borders: I would still like to see a scholar citing evidence that Mircea extended his rule over the entire area covered by the two maps, and some sort of evidence that Dobruja was ever made part of Wallachia (when the title seems to indicate that it was not). I'm not going to challenge the maps, since they clearly have more uses than flaws, but it would be nice if we would find something more detailed on this issue, and preferably something with a little more appeal and less of an agenda than the Romanian discourse. In case contrasting data will become available, I would suggest converting the Dobrujan section of the map to hachures instead of solid color. Dahn 13:16, 28 May 2007 (UTC)
 * In original, in the title was not Danube, but Podunavia. I don't know what it means. In Romanian it was: de amândouă părţile şi peste toată Dunărea până la Marea cea Mare şi cetăţii Durustorului stăpânitor (1387). I don't want to draw a conclusion until I read more. Until now I've found this at Dinu C. Giurescu. --Alex:Dan 11:20, 30 May 2007 (UTC)
 * I've found it: The treaty of Lublin between Wallachia and Poland (1390) Mircea is entitled despot al ţărilor lui Dobrotă şi domn al Silistrei.--Alex:Dan 11:26, 30 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, well, while the mention of Silistra does seem to confirm Mircea's rule to the south, the notion that Dobruja was made part of Wallachia-proper still seems to be wishful thinking. I suppose "Podunavia" literary means "on the Danube". Dahn 14:25, 30 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Who reads, learns more! The second edition of P.P. Panaitescu's study Mircea cel Bătrân (2000) has useful additional notes concerning the discoveries, studies and confirmation/infirmation of Panaitescu's conclusions which were done after the first edition (1944). In this book, I've found exactly which were the teritories under Mircea's rule. Podunavia is considered by most of the historians a teritory on both sides of the lower Danube. But Mircea is entitled in 1390 Despot of Terra Dobrotici (and domn of Silistra). I will detail these matters as soon as I'll have some spare time. And also about the Severin banat and Amlas and Fagaras. The map is wrong about the last two teritories, because precise borders could be drawn by historians acording to documents. I will also add some info about his titles (voievod, domn, herzog, despot) and years of ruling over specific teritories to clarify this matter. Should I move the discution from now on on Mircea's talk page?--Alex:Dan 18:10, 30 May 2007 (UTC)
 * IMO, the detailed information on titles is best directed in the article on Mircea, as well as specific articles (on the Amlas, on the Banat etc.) instead of here - I am not sure if you yourself were suggesting that. I don't know where this discussion should go, but perhaps you could copy it there or link to it (instead of moving it).
 * In respect to Amlas, Fagaras etc.: the two maps differ in that yours shows Amlas etc. as distinct territories (note the borders between them and Wallachia). I have no idea why it does not do the same for Dobruja, especially since Mircea is making use of separate titles for that region was well, but, if I had to guess, it may be the Romanian tendency to revise history in respect to Dobruja (a historical Romanian presence in that region before 1878 is mostly untenable, and we do our best to milk the Mircea episode dry of symbolics). Dahn 18:24, 30 May 2007 (UTC)
 * Yes, Amlas and Fagaras are separated in my map but, as I said, they are wrongly depicted. The coloured map is a little more accurate from this point of view. I think it's best to continue this discussion on Mircea's talk page. So...

Mircea's posessions
This is the situation of Mircea cel Bătrân's possesions over the years : References
 * Banatul de Severin (Banat of Severin):
 * Amlaş and Făgăraş Duchies: Mircea was herţeg of Amlaş and Făgăraş. These feuds were donated by the Hungarian king to Wallachian voivodes in exchage of senior - vassal relations between the two countries. First time, these duchies were donated in 1366, by Louie the Great to Vladislav Vlaicu. However, in 1374 he was not ruling over them any more . Only around 1389 will Mircea regain them back.
 * Amlaş: Its borders were established in 1366, as a royal domain. In a document from 1383, Amlaş was including the following "Romanian villages": Grassdorf (Sălişte), Galusdorf (Galeş), Graplundorf (Valea), Budinbach (Sibiel), Kripzbach (Cacova) and the Amlaş Castle all over to the mountains (tendit usque ad Alpes). Moreover, in the same document, the borders of Amlaş are established once more: Berch mountain, Aplodul de Sus, Hepisch river, Amlaş river, Firtysdorf (nowadays disappeard), Wecherd river, Saporcha (Topârcea), Nykusberg mountain, Chirna voda, Feketeviz village (Săcele), Chirvod Olachorul river, Kisyrval river, "semita Olachorum", Tysgrad, Budenbach river and Varalya village (Orlat). Thus, the Amlaş Duchy is surrounded by Transylvania, with no direct link to Wallachia.
 * Făgăraş: The borders of Făgăraş Duchy were established considering 12 romanian documents concerning this land, from Mircea's time. The northen border was on the Olt river (Mircea: Domn of Făgăraş Land, up to Olt river) and the southern one was the same with Wallachia's, thus Făgăraş being directly linked with the Romanian principality. The westernmost village mentioned in any of these documents is Scoreci, but Panaitescu does not exclude the posibility that Porumbacu was also part of this feud (according to the old borders of Terra Blacorum - Ţara Românească/Ţara Oltului). As for the eastern border, only three villages are mentioned: Cuciulata, Dopca and Fântâna. Panaitescu supposed that the border followed the mountains peak. Although one near another, the roads (merely some paths) between Wallachia and Făgăraş Land were suitable only for mountain horses, not carriages or comercial caravans. Panaitescu supposed that couriers, merchandisers and soldiers were allowed to pass trough Transylvania on their way to the duchy.
 * Bran Castle: Sigismund de Luxemburg donated the Bran Castle to Mircea in 1395 (some say 1406 or 1412-1413) and took it back on June 7, 1419, following many protests of Braşov's inhabitants against Wallachian guards of the castle.
 * Border with Moldavia:
 * Părţile Tătărăşti:
 * Terra Dobroticii:
 * So what's the problem exactly?Anonimu 17:30, 1 June 2007 (UTC)
 * Borders from Moldova they are wrong, according to P.P. Panaitescu, Dinu C. Giurescu etc. I want to detail about the years of reign over these provences. Just give me time--Alex:Dan 18:21, 1 June 2007 (UTC)

Original research notes
I'm the original author of the article, back in 2003. I wrote the final paragraph, which has survived and now contains two "original research" notes. What do I have to do to clarify things and remove them? --Gutza T T+ 20:44, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

Ok, me again. I read the text accompanying the template, and it seems I'm "within [my] rights to remove the tag", given that there's no associated explanation in the talk page -- so I'll do just that.

However, as a gesture of good faith, I'll explain why "Keeping the country free from becoming an Ottoman province ("pashalik") also meant keeping the Ottomans away from Western Europe, a feat which retrospectively might not sound impressive, but was a very important accomplishment at the time".

I think there are two aspects to this: whether there was any actual concern regarding the Ottomans within Western Europe, and whether Wallachia's relative independence made any difference:

 * Western Europe's concern with the Ottomans should be obvious for anyone with a grasp of Central/Eastern Europe's history: several alliances involving prominent figures of the time -- including the Pope as a catalyst -- were forged with the sole purpose of keeping the "heathens" at bay (religion was a huge thing back then, at least as a pretext -- remember the Crusades). Trivia: in the 1400's, Europe was still remembering the relatively recent Mongol invasion which had ended in the 1240's.
 * The only part in that phrase in the article that I can conceivably find dubious for a contemporary reader is how such a small principality's resistance against being controlled by the Ottomans could have made any difference for Western Europe as a whole. The reason is related to military tactics: with Wallachia acting as a buffer, the Ottomans were unable to deploy their armies properly in order to attack the Transylvanian border effectively -- and remember that Transylvania was part of Catholic Hungary at the time. Specifically, note Mircea's alliance with Hungary's Sigismund, and the failed Crusade of 1396 which included Mircea (speaking of which, Romanian historians uniformly seem to enjoy pointing out how Sigismund was too arrogant to listen to Mircea's wise and knowledgeable advice during the Crusade, which ultimately led to said Crusade's failure -- I chose to leave that out when I wrote the article, because even if it's true, I find it's just a small, mean thing to say; I wanted to mention my choice in this regard in order to show that I'm not some nationalistic fanatic, willing to sacrifice historical truth in order to make my "forefathers" look good).

Anyway, if any aspects are still debatable, please drop me a line on my Romanian Wikipedia talk page (I check that way more often than my English talk page). --Gutza T T+ 21:54, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

The Great?
I had trouble finding this page because I've always known him as "Mircea the Great". Isn't that a more suitable name? --Tefalstar (talk) 12:46, 10 June 2008 (UTC)
 * Is anyone opposed to moving him to "the Great"? --Tefalstar (talk) 19:55, 13 June 2008 (UTC)

 * No.--Vojvodaen (talk) 09:12, 30 June 2008 (UTC)

 * I think that is better to call this article Mircea I the Great.--Vojvodaeist 17:35, 4 July 2008 (UTC)

Birth year
I removed the birthyear 1386 (the same as the start of his reign). He couldnt have been born 1486 if his son Vlad II Dracul was born 1490). Vints (talk) 22:00, 27 September 2008 (UTC)
 * Born 1355 according to Romanian wp. Vints (talk) 22:07, 27 September 2008 (UTC)

Battle of Kosovo
It seems that Mircea was not at all present at the Battle of Kosovo (1389), but his mention is a result of confusing or synthesization of Prince Marko and the Battle of Rovine (1395) in later chronicles.

As per this, the entry of his participation in the Battle of Kosovo should be removed until fully clarified.--Z oupan 10:32, 28 December 2015 (UTC)

Serb scholarship isn't serious for this topic.Asxetyoeir (talk) 10:36, 28 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Do you believe that Noel Malcolm, an Albanologist, is more "serious for this topic"?--Z oupan 10:39, 28 December 2015 (UTC)
 * ^Robert Elsie.--Z oupan 10:42, 28 December 2015 (UTC)
 * Elsie is not an Albanian. He says Balsha and Millosh Kopili were Serbs.Asxetyoeir (talk) 10:46, 28 December 2015 (UTC)
 * What does the Balšić noble family and Miloš Obilić have to do with this issue? The Turkish chronicles exaggerated the "Christian army" of Lazar. This is a fact.--Z oupan 11:56, 28 December 2015 (UTC)

The disruptive user,, was blocked as a sock of. I would ask for neutral users to have their input here.--Z oupan 14:27, 29 December 2015 (UTC)

Requested move 7 February 2021

 * The following is a closed discussion of a requested move. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made in a new section on the talk page. Editors desiring to contest the closing decision should consider a move review after discussing it on the closer's talk page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

The result of the move request was: moved. (closed by non-admin page mover) Jack Frost (talk) 10:57, 14 February 2021 (UTC)

Mircea I of Wallachia → Mircea the Elder – By far the most common name. "Mircea the Elder" gets 219 results in Google Scholar and 31,900 in Google while "Mircea I of Wallachia" only gets 19 results in Google Scholar and 11,700 in Google. Super  Ψ   Dro  10:51, 7 February 2021 (UTC)
 * Support per WP:COMMONNAME and WP:SOVEREIGN. The Google Ngrams also shows that the proposed title is much more common than "Mercea I". Rreagan007 (talk) 18:47, 7 February 2021 (UTC)

 * The discussion above is closed. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page. No further edits should be made to this discussion.

This name is wrong
It should be Mircea the Older, not the Elder. Elder is the spiritual office an old person in church. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.122.251.101 (talk) 19:21, 4 March 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Mircea the Elder


text:
Dynode

A dynode is an electrode in a vacuum tube that serves as an electron multiplier through secondary emission. The first tube to incorporate a dynode was the dynatron, an ancestor of the magnetron, which used a single dynode. Photomultiplier and video camera tubes generally include a series of dynodes, each at a more positive electrical potential than its predecessor. Secondary emission occurs at the surface of each dynode. Such an arrangement is able to amplify the tiny current emitted by the photocathode, typically by a factor of one million.

Operation
The electrons emitted from the cathode are accelerated toward the first dynode, which is maintained 90 to 100 V positive concerning the cathode. Each accelerated photoelectron that strikes the dynode surface produces several electrons. These electrons are then accelerated toward the second dynode, held 90 to 100 V more positive than the first dynode. Each electron that strikes the surface of the second dynode produces several more electrons, which are then accelerated toward the third dynode, and so on. By the time this process has been repeated at each of the dynodes, 105 to 107 electrons have been produced for each incident photon, dependent on the number of dynodes. For conventional dynode materials, such as BeO and MgO, a multiplication factor of 10 can normally be achieved by each dynode stage.

Naming
The dynode takes its name from the dynatron. Albert Hull did not use the term dynode in his 1918 paper on the dynatron, but used the term extensively in his 1922 paper. In the latter paper, he defined a dynode as a "plate that emits impact electrons ... when it is part of a dynatron."

title: Dynode


text:
Bernard Kettlewell

Henry Bernard Davis Kettlewell (24 February 1907 – 11 May 1979) was a British geneticist, lepidopterist and medical doctor, who performed research on the influence of industrial melanism on peppered moth (Biston betularia) coloration, showing why moths are darker in polluted areas. This experiment is cited as a classic demonstration of natural selection in action. After live video record of the experiment with Niko Tinbergen, Sewall Wright called the study as "the clearest case in which a conspicuous evolutionary process has actually been observed."

Early life
Kettlewell was born in Howden, Yorkshire, and educated at Charterhouse School. During 1926 he studied medicine and zoology at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. During 1929 he began clinical training at St Bartholomew's Hospital, London, then during 1935 joined a general medical practice in Cranleigh, Surrey. He also worked as an anaesthetist at St. Luke's Hospital, Guildford. During World War II, from 1939 to 1945, he worked for the Emergency Medical Service at Woking War Hospital.

He emigrated to South Africa during 1949, and from then until 1954 was a researcher at the International Locust Control Centre at Cape Town University, investigating methods of locust control and going on expeditions to the Kalahari Desert, the Knysna Forest, the Belgian Congo, and Mozambique.

During 1952 he was appointed to a Nuffield Research Fellowship in the Department of Genetics of the Department of Zoology at Oxford University. Until 1954 he divided his time between South Africa and Oxford, then he gained the position of Senior Research Officer of the Department of Genetics and spent the rest of his career in Oxford as a genetics researcher. He was assigned to investigate peppered moth evolution under the supervision of E. B. Ford.

Peppered moth experiments
His grant was to study industrial melanism in general and in particular the peppered moth Biston betularia which had been studied by William Bateson during the 1890s. Kettlewell's research from three surveys between 1952 and 1972 seemed to show a static pattern with a high frequency of the dark-coloured carbonaria phenotype in industrial regions, and the light coloured typica moths the most common in more rural areas. In the first of Kettlewell's experiments moths were released into an aviary to observe how insectivorous birds reacted. He showed that the birds ate the moths, and found that if the camouflage of the moths made them difficult for him to see against a matching background, the birds too had difficulty in finding the moths. Most famously he then performed experiments involving releasing and then recapturing marked moths in polluted woodlands in Birmingham, and in unpolluted rural woods at Deanend Wood, Dorset, England. He demonstrated experimentally the efficiency of natural selection as an evolutionary force: light-coloured moths are more conspicuous than dark-coloured ones in industrial areas, where the vegetation is darkened by pollution, and are therefore easier prey for birds, but are less conspicuous in unpolluted rural areas, where the vegetation is lighter in colour, and therefore survive predation better. His experiment resulted in better understanding of industrial melanism and its effects on the evolution of species, and can be seen as an important example of urban evolution.

Criticism
J. B. S. Haldane was of the opinion that Kettlewell had attempted to capitalise on Haldane's own observations, made as early as 1924, of the statistical probability of rate of change from light to melanic forms of the peppered moth. In 1961, Haldane and his graduate student (and later wife) Helen Spurway told Canadian lepidopterist Gary Botting that they questioned Kettlewell's data since it too "nicely" approximated Haldane's 1924 statistical calculations. Botting and Haldane at that time shared the opinion that some genetic mechanism other than bird predation was at work. However see also for a re-appraisal of Haldane's views.

The major argument was made by Theodore David Sargent, professor of zoology at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. He reported that during 1965–1969 he attempted to perform similar experiment, and found that birds did not have preference on moth on either black or white tree trunks. He suspected that Kettlewell trained the birds to pick moths on tree trunk, where they were not normally present.

Of Moths and Men
Further criticism of Kettlewell's peppered moth research came from Judith Hooper in her 2002 book Of Moths and Men, in which she claims that Kettlewell's field notes could never be found and his experiments were fraudulent, reiterating Sargent's allegations that the experimental photographs were faked by planting dead moths on a log. She accuses Ford of being a Darwinian zealot who exploited Kettlewell's servitude and criticises scientists in general for credulous and biased acceptance of evolution.

A review in EMBO Reports describes the book as "Hooper's exhilarating account of the public and private lives of an opinionated and powerful group of evolutionists, who contributed to this shameful episode in the study of evolution." The book has also been widely quoted by creationists. However, Hooper's various allegations have been refuted by the scientific community:  David W Rudge summarised that "none of Hooper's arguments is found to withstand careful scrutiny" and that all "these charges are baseless and stem from a fundamental misunderstanding of the nature of science as a process."

Further research vindicating Kettlewell's work
Kettlewell's experiments have been vindicated by elaborate research, and the genetic details of the evolutionary process established.

Michael Majerus carried out extensive experiments, examining moths in the wild, to re-examine the findings of Kettlewell's experiments in the light of subsequent questions. His work, published posthumously in 2012, provided new data which answered criticisms and validated Kettlewell's methodology. Their analysis reaffirmed Kettlewell's conclusion that differential selection by birds using their eyesight to find prey was sufficient to explain the changes in melanism, and that this demonstrated the effectiveness of natural selection as an evolutionary force.

Death
Because of vigorous field research, Kettlewell suffered from bronchitis, pneumonia, pleurisy and flu, along with heart problems. He fell off a birch tree in 1978 while conducting a field collection and fractured two vertebrae in his back. He never recovered from the injury. On 11 May 1979, he died, allegedly of an accidental overdose of a painkiller.

Awards and honours

 * Darwin Medal (USSR) in 1959
 * Mendel Medal (Czechoslovakia) in 1965
 * Official Fellow of Iffley College (later Wolfson College) in 1965
 * Elected Emeritus Fellow of Wolfson College 1974

title: Bernard Kettlewell