text:
Talk:British brass band

Which sort of band?
Erm what sort of BB is this article meant to be about? Sounds like a British [style] BB but the trumpets are confusing. I think the article needs a good birthday. Nevilley 23:33, 24 Feb 2004 (UTC)

I agree, this should read better. What do you think? 212.159.106.41 10:08, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

Whoops, forgot to log in! NigelHorne 10:09, Jun 10, 2004 (UTC)

Colliers?
some of this discussion moved from User talk:Finlay McWalter

Hi again. I must take you to task about this statement: "The majority of competition brass bands extant are colliery bands". This is not true and to the best of my knowledge (I have no figures to prove this - I'd bet a pint that you don't have any either!) has never been so. Let's consider 6 top bands alone:

 * Black Dyke Mills (cotton mill)
 * Grimethorpe Colliery (OK - I'll give you that one)
 * Yorkshire Building Society (once Hammond Sauce Works - not a colliery)
 * Fairey (once Fairey aviation)
 * Fodens (the truck manufacturer).
 * Brighouse & Rastrick (unsponsored town band)

Of these top bands only one is or has ever been a colliery band. Look at www.bandsman.co.uk/bb-links.htm. There is no evidcence that the *majority* of *competition* bands are colliery bands.

All the best,

-Nigel (getting in to the swing of things now :-) NigelHorne 13:03, Jun 10, 2004 (UTC)

 * You're quite right (I think the association may be stronger in Scotland than elsewhere), and I confess I added it knowing folks would gasp with horror and fix it :) I do think the article should cover more than just the bare details of the bands themselves - they're heavily integrated with the societies from which they spring (by contrast there's really no such thing as "string quartet culture").  So we should mention brass bands in Britain are largely a working-class phenomenon, are frequently (?) related to specific works (heh, I didn't know about the sauce works).  The list above would make for a fascinating addition - please feel free to integrate it and to tone down my colliery fixation as needed. -- Finlay McWalter |  Talk 16:53, 10 Jun 2004 (UTC)

The "United States" Section
The "United States" section of this article is getting muddled. In particular, the second paragraph is mixing up discussion of "British style" brass bands in the U.S. with more generic-style brass bands. If it would help, I can take a shot at editing the second paragraph to clarify. However, as a non-American, it might be better if someone in the U.S. did it. :) Also, note that NABBA is mentioned in both the first and second paragraphs. I suggest the reference in the second paragraph can be safely removed. --BCRCornet 21:20, 2004 October 18 (UTC)

 * Yes, certainly, if you think you can improve the article, please do. As the title of the article is "Brass band" rather than something like "British style brass bands", I think it would be assumed that discussion is about brass bands in general except where some subset is specifically mentioned. Cheers, -- Infrogmation 21:37, 18 October 2004 (UTC)

I guess I must have caused that redundancy (NABBA). Sorry about that -- I'm new at this. How I missed it in the first place is beyond me! Anyway, I agree. Who cares if you're not American? If you feel comfortable making adjustments, go for it. I do believe that at some point, there needs to be a distinction made between "generic" brass bands and British-style bands, perhaps in the introductory section -- or perhaps as an entire sub-definition. One is like saying "I'm wearing tennis shoes;" the other is like saying "I wear the Nike X-99 Skywalkers, size 12W." As a brass bandsman, I believe that distinction is an important one. Do you agree? Altermoor 01:53, 23 October 2004 (UTC)

Where did the United States section go? It seems to have been deleted. Why? — Preceding unsigned comment added by Altermoor (talk • contribs) 14:05, 22 November 2004 (UTC)

 * An anon editor removed it. As they have offered no explanation, I'll assume it was just a new user mistake, and I put it back. -- Infrogmation — Preceding undated comment added 20:57, 22 November 2004 (UTC)

There is a book entitled 'The Music Men - an illustrated history of brass bands in America 1800 - 1920', M & R Hazen, Smithsonian Institution, 1987. Many of the numerous illustrations in it, to be sure, show woodwind instruments included in the ensembles. But it struck me that 'the brass band' (however vaguely defined), existed all over the U.S. well before the time suggested by the wording 'Brass bands were very popular throughout the United States in the late 19th century and the early decades of the 20th century.', which is what appears in the article. In spite of the vagueness of the book's title, might it not be a good thing to quote from the book some of the earlier purely brass ensembles in the U.S., which would surely extend the existence of 'brass bands' per se, back by several decades? For example, on page 8 of the book quoted is an engraving of The Boston Brass Band, 'better known in 1851 as Flagg's Brass Band after its leader'. This band consists entirely of brass instruments, with three percussionists. The above is purely a tentative suggestion, as I am a newcomer to Wikipedia. Bixanorak (talk) 23:31, 28 December 2009 (UTC)

Comment moved from brackets in main page
Regarding the text " The United States boasts a number of professional brass bands, including the River City Brass Band."

User:Infrogmation said:
 * text said "one of two"; as I know of well over a dozen professional brass bands in New Orleans alone, this seems wrong or is some very specific and narrow definition that needs explanation

User:Altermoor replied:
 * fair enough... A brass band is a very specific music ensemble, comprised of the instrumentation shown above (under United Kingdom), so by those rules, RCBB is one of two full-time professional brass bands in the world -- the other is in Japan, (Osaka, I believe); still your phrase is simpler, and more to- the-point, so no argument here. But calling "just any" group with brass instruments might be over-simplifying. (I hope I've formatted this response correctly -- I'm new to this

Types of Brass Band
There seems to be some conflict here between people who want to use a broad and a specific narrow definition of "Brass band" on this page. I would tend to want the article to discuss the broader definition; if there is a desire to have discussion limited to a narrower definition, I'd suggest that be either a separate article or a clearly marked subsection of this article.

Living in New Orleans, Louisiana, what is commonly called a "brass band" is certainly rather idiosyncratic compared to other places (although I have heard good New Orleans style brass bands from such places as Ohio, Denmark, Japan, etc... perhaps an article on "New Orleans brass bands" could be a future topic). However I know many people from various places who use "brass band" in a broad context to include the British type, John Philip Sousa and U.S. Marine Corps types, the Canadian Brass, New Orleans style, etc. I think the narrow definition is not close enough to universal in usage that the article should be restricted to that.

Other thoughts? Cheers, -- Infrogmation 20:20, 21 Oct 2004 (UTC) - To Infrogmation: I tend to agree with you. A broad definition should have been used here, given that Wikipedia is an "encyclopedia". I was taken aback when I saw that someone had deleted the entire "United States" section, and I was looking to see if someone else would restore it. I would qualify my comment by adding that throughout the article, in the various sections and subsections, it always be made clear which "flavor" of brass band was being described.

However, upon reflecting on how the introductory section reads (clearly, it describes the British-style brass band), it may be better to rename the existing article to something like "Brass band - British-style", leaving it the way it is now, and starting a separate article for "Brass band" to describe the broader generic brass bands you mentioned. The two articles would cross-reference each other. --BCRCornet 18:28, 2004 Nov 22 (UTC) from Canada

 * The wholesale removal of the United States section was IMO inappropriate, and I've put it back. If we go with two separate articles, what are thoughts about how to divide up (and expand on) the info? -- Infrogmation 20:51, 22 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * To Infrogmation: to expand on what I wrote above - rename the existing article to something narrower, e.g., "Brass band (British tradition)", edit the "United States" section to make it relevant only to how British brass bands are implemented in the U.S., start a new article for "Brass band", move most of the current "United States" paragraph to it, cross-refer the two "Brass band" articles, and move on from there. --BCRCornet 21:15, 2004 Nov 22 (UTC) from Canada

 * Okay. Two questions for consideration by people interested in the subject:
 * 1) Is it agreed we should split into two artices, one on the more general and the other on the more narrow UK definition of "brass band"? Does anyone object?
 * 2) What should the title of the new article be? "Brass band (British tradition)" as suggested above? Other suggestions? -- Infrogmation 05:11, 23 Nov 2004 (UTC)

As to point #1, I agree that it should be split into two seperate categories. However, some care should be taken to avoid what a layman might call a "brass band." A lot of people call any group seen marching down the street a brass band, when in fact, in the United States, it is far more often a wind band (with the inclusion of woodwinds). Additionally, I believe I remember a reference to the Canadian Brass as a brass band; and while, strictly speaking, Canadian Brass is a "band of brass musicians," they are not really a brass band -- they are more specifically, a brass quintet -- a chamber music ensemble.

About point #2, I suggest "British Brass Band." Or, perhaps, it is better to put the qualifying word after? I've always refered to these bands as such, and I don't think you'll find much disagreement on that point. - Altermoor — Preceding undated comment added 00:30, 25 November 2004 (UTC)

Yeah, this article seems to imply that there is something unique about British brass bands as opposed to brass bands elsewhere throughout Europe. In Belgium and the Netherlands 'fanfare' brass bands have existed a decade earlier than what is mentioned here, and it is not clear to me what is different between the two, or why this article mentions that brass bands (in the British style) only arrived in the Netherlands in the 1850s, or Belgium in the 1980s. Also, it was always my understanding that brass bands evolved from Turkish janissary military brass bands (mehter), whereas this article seems to imply that this musical phenomenon was originated from something uniquely British, i.e. it mentions amateur British villager musicians meeting up in industrial (coal-mining) settings. Considering that in the decades previous other brass bands where already popping up in the rest of Europe, it seems more likely early brass bands in Britain where simply copying a popular French or Dutch (who were themselves copying the Italians) pastime/fad.

It would be less jingoistic to mention:

1) How British brass bands differ from other forms (as I understand it, a main difference is that modern brass music Dutch bands use saxophones, whereas British don't, but the earlier brass music from the low countries (the oldest occurring around 1806) couldn't have used this instrument as it wasn't invented at the time (1840)). Possibly it is the amount of players and the specific instruments, but in that case it is questionable if most of the brass bands in Britain mentioned in this article can accurately called 'British brass bands'. Furthermore, logically, 'British brass bands' as defined by the instrumentation could only have started much later than the colliery bands, as the now typical 'British' instruments mentioned in this article hadn't been invented yet (in Belgium, the tenor horn, in the 1840s). Also, that would mean the brass bands introduced in the Netherlands around 1850 were probably not 'British brass bands' either. I assume that there are musical competitions which have defined for themselves who can compete, and this would be the most accurate definition of what constitutes a traditional 'British brass band'.

2) How the brass band phenomenon truly originated/developed in the UK in respect to France, the Low Countries, Germany, Italy (Venice had something like this much earlier than the rest of Europe, if I recall), and Turkey. What is written here just doesn't seem accurate.

3) Remove all mention of other countries unless it is certain that there are bands in the exact configuration/instrumentation as defined in the article. If a British brass band is defined as a certain traditional configuration of instruments and players, most of the information on the USA could best be deleted/moved. Furthermore, if it is this configuration which defines the concept 'British brass band', one questions at what date this configuration was adopted (it must have around the 1850s at the earliest), and if the brass bands in Britain prior to this can be properly defined as 'British brass bands'. Considering again the saxophone, by definition none of the British military brass bands are 'British brass bands' (or even 'brass bands' per sé).

4) Have more links at the 'see also' and introduction to other more general 'brass band' articles; i.e. 'brass band', 'military band', 'Ottoman military band', 'fanfare band'.

Either that, or make the definition ethnocentric or nationalistic: a British brass band would than be defined as a brass band like any other; but distinguished by the fact that the players are ethnically British or that they were formed in the UK... but then you could have 193 useless articles or more...

Leo86.83.56.115 (talk) 13:21, 14 July 2017 (UTC)

The "Canada" Section
The reference to Hannaford Street Silver Band is reasonable, as a professional exception to the "recreational, amateur, community bands" statement. What purpose is served by naming the Mill Creek Colliary [sic] Band and Mission Hill Brass Band? If we do that, are we going to list every British brass band in Canada? -- BCRCornet 13:12, 4 November 2005 (UTC)

Instrumentation
Ok, I might have been a bit too bold with that last edit, sorry - feel free to revert it. The first thing I noticed about this article was that the instrumentation was put into the UK section and it seemed a bit messy. I moved this to the top and added the specifics about band from different countries underneath. I also added a sub-section of 'Competitions' to the UK section as to me, at least, it seemed to need a division in there. Sorry if I'm stepping on toes here, & as I said, feel free to revert. Dave 23:46, 14 May 2006 (UTC)

 * Think this is related: I added the bit about a principal cornet and three solo cornets, all playing the same part and the principal taking solos, rather than just having four solo cornets listed. I also added the differentiation between the front and back row cornets. If anyone feels this is wrong do please change it back. Mickthefish 13:38, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

Hello, I think the Bass Trombone (C) is incorrect. The Bass Trombone is pitched in Bb today, and a few decades ago, it was in G. To be consistent with the other instruments, I think someone should change that to Bass Trombone (Bb or G), as those are the pitches of that instrument. I think it is understood that everything playing bass clef uses concert pitch, so the pitch of the instruments is sort of not as important in that case. Comments? ..... — Preceding unsigned comment added by Jonv16 (talk • contribs) 15:40, 3 September 2015 (UTC)

Switzerland Section
Considering the article is on the English version of Wiki, should this sentence not be in English? Dave 22:04, 17 May 2006 (UTC)
 * Done. I'm still not happy with the content though. It's not really an encyclopaedic entry about brass bands in Switzerland, just a link to one band in that country. Also, the statement "the most successful brass band in Switzerland" is uncited. I've added the "complete rewrite" cleanup tag, which I deemed the most appropriate. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Adzz (talk • contribs) 07:59, 12 June 2006 (UTC)

Famous bands
I've started a section on famous bands...feel free you add/edit your own! Put them in a good order too (e.g. the current rankings on http://www.4barsrest.com would be good! It might take a while to update each time though. 82.19.23.152 15:26, 18 May 2006 (UTC)

 * I just made an account That's the ticket 18:33, 19 May 2006 (UTC)

There are quite a few questionable additions given that the section is titled "famous bands". Lanner and District, Tullis Russell, Carharrack & St Day? None of these are even the top, or most famous, band from their region. Also, describing Battle Creek as having "some of the best players worldwide" may in fact be true, but it is not encyclopedic. Any objections before I change some of this? Mandrakeroot (talk) 15:04, 14 December 2008 (UTC)

More accurate title of article?
Hi guys.

Great article about the British tradition of Brass Banding, but shouldn't the title reflect that?

I see there's been discussion on this "back in the days", but let's finally do it if we're going to do it.

Can we split this into two articles - one on brass bands generally and one on British brass bands?

Thanks AaronRichard 20:30, 7 July 2006 (AEST)

Types of Brass band
(I noticed that "what is a brass ensemble" was being offered to be merged with this article) as a brass player, I am rather strongly opinionated about brass divisions. I would consider a 'brass band' to be a british-style colliers' band. Things such as the Canadian Brass should be referred to by what they are (e.g. quintet, like them; octet; etc.). Once you get above 10-12 pieces, and still have only brass and necessary percussion, I believe it should be referred to as a Brass Ensemble or a large Brass Ensemble, because it does not fit the category of a colliers' band due to the concert repertoire. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 65.219.211.133 (talk) 01:56, 2 March 2007 (UTC).

 * I would agree wholeheartedly with this opinion. Mickthefish 11:33, 30 April 2007 (UTC)

Appropriateness of Australian paragraph
This paragraph seems to be rather inappropriate:

"The Australian Brass band movement strives to move forward and thus be competitive with their English counter parts, but are constantly undermined by people and companies trying to make an easy dollar out of the participants. Also, we need a new and improved form of magazine that, like the current one, is not biased."

Comments? --125.254.30.100 08:33, 12 October 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject Marching band
I'm not sure whether this should be raised on this page or in the WikiProject's pages (so I'll put it in both); but I don't think this article should be in this WikiProject.

A British-style brass band is not a "marching band", by the definition of that term in the Marching Band article. Brass bands do sometimes march ... but that doesn't make every (or indeed any) brass band a "marching band".

I mean no disrespect to marching bands or to the WikiProject - I just think this is an inappropriate categorisation, and likely to be confusing.

132.244.246.25 (talk) 16:06, 23 November 2009 (UTC)

Recording
The recording of the Hunter's Chorus is played by a concert band, not a brass band. There are quite audible flutes and clarinets on the top line. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 78.34.33.75 (talk) 21:56, 10 November 2010 (UTC)

Yes, it's still a concert band. I'm removing this recording. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 110.174.235.99 (talk) 03:09, 11 December 2013 (UTC)

Featured?
I would recommend this article for Featured status. It's excellent. 81.109.151.21 (talk) 04:36, 14 February 2011 (UTC)

Stalybridge Old Band
To the best of my knowledge as a former member of the band, Stalybridge Old Band does not claim to be the first brass band, but the oldest surviving. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 50.130.176.141 (talk) 21:20, 16 November 2014 (UTC)

Oldest surviving amateur band in the UK still playing? The town of Izegem in Belgium has a band which is 3 years older (1806). This is however a 'fanfare' band (slightly larger, more bugles, and a sax). On the other hand, the Izegem band during it's initial formation didn't have saxophones, and during the formation of the Stalybridge band, the typical tenor horns hadn't been invented yet, thus it was not a 'British brass band' either. leo  86.83.56.115 (talk) 13:47, 14 July 2017 (UTC)

title: Talk:British brass band


text:
Thomas Hodgkin

Thomas Hodgkin RMS  (17 August 1798 – 5 April 1866) was a British physician, considered one of the most prominent pathologists of his time and a pioneer in preventive medicine. He is now best known for the first account of Hodgkin's disease, a form of lymphoma and blood disease, in 1832. Hodgkin's work marked the beginning of times when a pathologist was actively involved in the clinical process. He was a contemporary of Thomas Addison and Richard Bright at Guy's Hospital in London.

Early life
Thomas Hodgkin was born to a Quaker family in Pentonville, St. James Parish, Middlesex, the son of John Hodgkin. He received private education with his brother John Hodgkin, and in 1816 took a position as private secretary to William Allen. His aim was to learn the trade of apothecary, one of the routes into medicine, and Allen, despite prominence in that business, did not make it possible. They parted, and Hodgkin went to an apothecary cousin, John Glaisyer, in Brighton instead. He inherited property from his great-uncle of the same name, meaning that from age 21 he had a degree of financial independence.

Medical training and travel
In September 1819 Hodgkin was admitted to St. Thomas' and Guy's Medical School. He "walked the wards" for a year on the rounds of physicians and surgeons, and attended lectures, in particular those by Astley Cooper. He then studied at the University of Edinburgh, where the lecturers who impressed him included Andrew Duncan, the younger, and Robert Jameson in natural history. His first published paper, on the spleen, came from Duncan's course, and drew on the veterinary writings of his friend Bracy Clark. During his time as a student, he became a member of the Royal Medical Society.

In 1821, Hodgkin went to France, where he learned to work with the stethoscope, a recent invention of René Laennec. He also took account of the exacting statistical and clinical approach of Pierre Charles Alexandre Louis. He associated there with British expatriates including Robert Knox and Helen Maria Williams. In 1823, he qualified for his M.D. at the University of Edinburgh Medical School with a thesis on the physiological mechanisms of absorption in animals.

In Paris Hodgkin met Benjamin Thorpe, a banker for Rothschild's at the time, who was suffering from tuberculosis. Hodgkin became his physician for a while, and Thorpe was cured. This contact led to another appointment as physician to Abraham Montefiore, married to Henriette, daughter of Mayer Amschel Rothschild. Once graduated at Edinburgh, Hodgkin joined the couple for travel in Italy. Abraham was seriously ill with tuberculosis (he died in 1824) and the position proved unsatisfactory for both sides, with Hodgkin dismissed. But the relationship he built up with Moses Montefiore, Abraham's brother, proved a lifelong friendship.

Staying in Paris for an extended period from September 1824 to June 1825, Hodgkin made significant medical contacts. The Edwards brothers, William-Frédéric Edwards and Henri Milne Edwards, were both physiologists with distinctive theories, and Hodgkin looked over their work in the next few years. Achille-Louis Foville was a neurologist, around whom Hodgkin tried unsuccessfully, from 1838, to set up a southern version of the York Retreat.

Career at Guy's
Hodgkin found a position at Guy's, first as a volunteer clerk in 1825, and then in 1826 as the curator of the museum there, also carrying out autopsies. He built up his reputation on the work his posts brought him in morbid anatomy (anatomical pathology as it is now called).

Hodgkin's hospital career came to an end, however, in 1837, when he clashed with the autocratic Benjamin Harrison. Harrison disliked Hodgkin's progressive views, and support for the new University College, London, and had been personally offended by them in one instance (see below). There were two confrontational interviews in which Harrison went over pretexts for not giving Hodgkin a promotion (to Assistant Physician); Hodgkin had also been ill not long before. His friends pushed the issue to an acrimonious vote of the governors, which was in fact hopeless. The position went to the rival candidate Benjamin Guy Babington, and Hodgkin moved reluctantly into private practice, after a period of convalescence. In 1840 he attended the World Anti-Slavery Convention in London representing the Aborigines Protection Society.

Lecturer at St. Thomas'
Hodgkin had a further period of involvement with hospital medicine, when in 1842 he was asked to take charge of teaching at St. Thomas' Hospital. After joint management of Guy's and St. Thomas' had ended in 1825, St. Thomas' had found itself eclipsed as a medical school by its former partner. Hodgkin was brought in, and found new lecturers in Marshall Hall and George Gregory; he lectured himself, and with Charles Barker the four embarked on a lecture series. He also drew on his experience at Guy's to improve the museum and start a Clinical Society for reporting of cases. The outcome, however, was unsatisfactory for him. Hall was much preferred as lecturer, and Gregory, lecturing on skin diseases, gained a reputation for clarity, and wrote a textbook. But Hodgkin was not asked to continue lecturing for another year, ending the relationship.

Last years
In around 1847, Hodgkin became guardian to an Aboriginal Australian youth, Warrulan, who had been brought to England in 1845 by Edward John Eyre, arranging for him to be educated at the Quaker Sibford School.

Hodgkin married in 1850 Sarah Frances Scaife, a widow; they had no children. When Lady Montefiore died in 1862, Hodgkin promised her to travel with her husband on future journeys. He accompanied Moses Montefiore to Palestine in 1866. There he contracted dysentery and died on 4 April 1866. He was buried in Jaffa.

Interests
Hodgkin like many other Quakers was concerned both with the abolition of slavery and the reduction of the impact of western colonization on indigenous peoples around the world. He stood aside from the Anti-Slavery Society of the 1820s and 1830s, however; the society took a different line on emancipation and colonization in Africa. It refused in the early 1830s to publish his views. Hodgkin began to take multiple initiatives of his own.

Ethnology
Hodgkin had an interest in both the physical anthropology and the cultural aspects of what would now be ethnology, before the academic disciplines existed. In his role as keeper of the Museum at Guy's, he collected specimens from peoples from around the world. In 1827, in a letter supporting the missionary Hannah Kilham who was working with West African languages, he published for the first time long-held ideas on "civilisation"; a Civilization Society in London had been a Hodgkin family initiative some years earlier. In helping to found the Aborigines Protection Society, he argued that languages constituted philological evidence of man's origins, and should therefore be preserved where threatened; he had written a paper on the topic, and proposed a questionnaire, for the Philological Society in 1835.

For Hodgkin, language was a racial trait. In Paris around the end of 1838, he prevailed upon W. F. Edwards to form a French society with the same aims as the Aborigines Protection Society; and in 1839 the Société Ethnologique de Paris was set up in accordance with Edwards's own ideas. This development was reflected in 1843 when the Ethnological Society of London was set up, diverging from the Aborigines Protection Society by its scientific and linguistic interests, and disconnecting from missionary work.

Colonization in Africa
Hodgkin was a supporter of Liberia in the early days of its foundation; and he compared it favourably to Sierra Leone. In supporting Elliott Cresson and the American Colonization Society, he put himself outside the mainstream of Quaker and abolitionist thinking. When the American abolitionist, William Lloyd Garrison, toured in England in 1833, Hodgkin tried at first to mediate between Garrison and Cresson. The formation, however, of the British African Colonization Society by Cresson had Hodgkin's support, and he found himself isolated from natural allies who were Quakers or physicians. There were personal attacks on Hodgkin from the Garrison camp.

Hudson's Bay Company
Hodgkin became involved in campaigning concerning the Boothia Peninsula and the Hudson's Bay Company around 1836–37, through his friend Richard King. King had been on the expedition of Captain George Back in the north of Canada of 1833–35, and had written an 1836 book, his Narrative, on it; he advocated a further expedition in the same area in 1836–37, a cause Hodgkin took up. Sensitive commercial interests were involved, as the Hudson's Bay Company's license was due for renewal in 1841. The Narrative contained a piece Hodgkin had written on the indifference of the company to the indigenous peoples of western Canada. Hodgkin then took up the behaviour of the company with Benjamin Harrison, Treasurer of Guy's, disastrously mixing his professional life with his activism: Harrison was concerned in the management of the company as deputy chairman, and was related by marriage to John Henry Pelly, the chairman, who had crossed swords with King at parliamentary hearings.

Hodgkin's concerns over the indigenous peoples in the Hudson's Bay Company territory in western Canada continued. They were pursued both by correspondence with Sir George Simpson, and in the pages of the Intelligencer of the Aborigines Protection Society.

Work in medicine
Hodgkin collaborated with Joseph Jackson Lister, who in 1830 enunciated design principles for the achromatic microscope. By that time Hodgkin and Lister had already published research on tissue samples, based on observations made with Lister's innovative microscope, in particular on the "globule hypothesis" of the time which was held in particular by Henri Milne Edwards. They denied the existence of globules in tissue; Ernst Heinrich Weber in 1830 contradicted them, and the debate continued for a decade. For a while microscopy suffered in its reputation, but by 1840 histology was a recognised discipline, and in time the view of Hodgkin and Lister that "globules" were optical artefacts became accepted. The 1827 paper they published has been called "the foundation of modern histology".

Hodgkin described the disease that bears his name (Hodgkin lymphoma) in 1832, in a paper titled On Some Morbid Appearances of the Absorbent Glands and Spleen. He received 33 years later the eponym through the recognition of British physician Samuel Wilks, who rediscovered the disease. It is a malignancy that produces enlargement of lymphoid tissue, spleen, and liver, with invasion of other tissues. A more benign form is called Hodgkin's paragranuloma, while a more invasive form is called Hodgkin's sarcoma.

Hodgkin published as a book his Lectures on Morbid Anatomy in 1836 and 1840. His major contribution to the teaching of pathology, however, was made in 1829, with his two volumed work entitled The Morbid Anatomy of Serous and Mucous Membranes, which became a classic in modern pathology.

Hodgkin was one of the earliest defenders of preventive medicine, having published On the Means of Promoting and Preserving Health in book form in 1841. Among other early observations were the first description of acute appendicitis, of the biconcave format of red blood cells and the striation of muscle fibers.

Hodgkin also translated with Thomas Fisher, from the French of William-Frédéric Edwards, On the Influence of Physical Agents on Life (London, 1832; Philadelphia 1838). Edwards was a vitalist in physiology, who studied the effect of physical forces on processes in living organisms. The work as it appeared in English was much more than a translation, since it contained an appendix of over 200 pages containing two dozen papers, a compendium of medicine and science tangentially related to themes in Edwards, but related to his general approach. It included early work by Hodgkin and collaboration with Lister, as well as something on electricity and meteorology. He also published The Means of Promoting and Preserving Health (London, 1840), of which a second edition appeared in 1841, and an Address on Medical Reform (1847).

Other works
Other works by Hodgkin were Biographical Sketches: of James Cowles Prichard (1849); and of William Stroud (1789–1858), a medical collaborator. He also wrote abolitionist pamphlets and on the British African Colonization Societies (1833–1834).

Legacy
There is a blue plaque on his house in Bedford Square, London. The Friends' School, Hobart named one of the four school houses after him.

The King's College London School of Medicine's Hodgkin Building is named in honour of Hodgkin.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Thomas Hodgkin


text:
China–Cornell–Oxford Project

The China–Cornell–Oxford Project, short for the "China-Oxford-Cornell Study on Dietary, Lifestyle and Disease Mortality Characteristics in 65 Rural Chinese Counties," was a large observational study conducted throughout the 1980s in rural China, a partnership between Cornell University, the University of Oxford, and the government of China. The study compared the health consequences of diets rich in animal-based foods to diets rich in plant-based foods among people who were genetically similar. In May 1990, The New York Times termed the study "the Grand Prix of epidemiology".

Background
The idea for the study began in 1980–81 during discussions between T. Colin Campbell at Cornell University and Chen Junshi, Deputy Director of Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene at the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine. They were later joined by Richard Peto of the University of Oxford—Professor of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology as of 2012—and Li Junyao of the China Cancer Institute.

Studies
In 1983 two villages were chosen at random in each of 65 rural counties in China, and 50 families were chosen at random in each village for a total of 6,500 people. The dietary habits of one adult member of each family were examined—half male, half female—and the results compared to the death rates in those counties from around 48 forms of cancers and other diseases during 1973–1975.

The first two major studies were led by T. Colin Campbell, professor of nutritional biochemistry at Cornell, who summarized the results in his book, The China Study (2005). Other lead researchers were Chen Junshi, Deputy Director of Institute of Nutrition and Food Hygiene at the Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine in Beijing, Richard Peto of the University of Oxford, and Li Junyao of the China Cancer Institute.

title: China–Cornell–Oxford Project


text:
Synchronous motor

A synchronous electric motor is an AC electric motor in which, at steady state, the rotation of the shaft is synchronized with the frequency of the supply current; the rotation period is exactly equal to an integer number of AC cycles. Synchronous motors use electromagnets as the stator of the motor which create a magnetic field that rotates in time with the oscillations of the current. The rotor with permanent magnets or electromagnets turns in step with the stator field at the same rate and as a result, provides the second synchronized rotating magnet field. A synchronous motor is termed doubly fed if it is supplied with independently excited multiphase AC electromagnets on both the rotor and stator.

Synchronous and induction motors are the most widely used AC motors. Synchronous motors rotate at a rate locked to the line frequency since they do not rely on induction to produce the rotor's magnetic field. Induction motors require slip: the rotor must rotate at a frequency slightly slower than the AC alternations in order to induce current in the rotor.

Small synchronous motors are used in timing applications such as in synchronous clocks, timers in appliances, tape recorders and precision servomechanisms in which the motor must operate at a precise speed; accuracy depends on the power line frequency, which is carefully controlled in large interconnected grid systems.

Synchronous motors are available in self-excited, fractional to industrial sizes. In the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are used to provide precise constant speed. These machines are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and related devices.

In typical industrial sizes, the synchronous motor provides an efficient means of converting AC energy to work (electrical efficiency above 95% is normal for larger sizes) and it can operate at leading or unity power factor and thereby provide power-factor correction.

Types
Synchronous motors fall under the category of synchronous machines that also includes synchronous generators. Generator action occurs if the field poles are "driven ahead of the resultant air-gap flux by the forward motion of the prime mover". Motor action occurs if the field poles are "dragged behind the resultant air-gap flux by the retarding torque of a shaft load".

The two major types of synchronous motors are distinguished by how the rotor is magnetized: non-excited and direct-current excited.

Non-excited

In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of steel. It rotates in step with the stator's rotating magnetic field, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it. The rotor is made of a high-retentivity steel such as cobalt steel. These are manufactured in permanent magnet, reluctance and hysteresis designs:

Permanent-magnet
A permanent-magnet synchronous motor (PMSM) uses permanent magnets embedded in the rotor to create a constant magnetic field. The stator carries windings connected to an AC electricity supply to produce a rotating magnetic field (as in an asynchronous motor). At synchronous speed the rotor poles lock to the rotating magnetic field. PMSMs are similar to brushless DC motors. Neodymium magnets are the most common, although rapid fluctuation of neodymium magnet prices triggered research in ferrite magnets. Due to inherent characteristics of ferrite magnets, the magnetic circuit of these machines needs to be able to concentrate the magnetic flux, typically leading to the use of spoke type rotors. Machines that use ferrite magnets have lower power density and torque density when compared with neodymium machines.

PMSMs have been used as gearless elevator motors since 2000.

Most PMSMs require a variable-frequency drive to start them. However, some incorporate a squirrel cage in the rotor for starting—these are known as line-start or self-starting. These are typically used as higher-efficiency replacements for induction motors (owing to the lack of slip), but must ensure that synchronous speed is reached and that the system can withstand torque ripple during starting.

PMSMs are typically controlled using direct torque control and field oriented control.

Reluctance
Reluctance motors have a solid steel cast rotor with projecting (salient) toothed poles. Typically there are fewer rotor than stator poles to minimize torque ripple and to prevent the poles from all aligning simultaneously—a position that cannot generate torque. The size of the air gap in the magnetic circuit and thus the reluctance is minimum when the poles align with the stator's (rotating) magnetic field, and increases with the angle between them. This creates torque that pulls the rotor into alignment with the nearest pole of the stator field. At synchronous speed the rotor is thus "locked" to the rotating stator field. This cannot start the motor, so the rotor poles usually have squirrel-cage windings embedded in them, to provide torque below synchronous speed. The machine thus starts as an induction motor until it approaches synchronous speed, when the rotor "pulls in" and locks to the stator field.

Reluctance motor designs have ratings that range from fractional horsepower (a few watts) to about 22 kW. Small reluctance motors have low torque, and are generally used for instrumentation applications. Moderate torque, multi-horsepower motors use squirrel cage construction with toothed rotors. When used with an adjustable frequency power supply, all motors in a drive system can operate at exactly the same speed. The power supply frequency determines motor operating speed.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis motors have a solid, smooth, cylindrical rotor, cast of a high coercivity magnetically "hard" cobalt steel. This material has a wide hysteresis loop (high coercivity), meaning once it is magnetized in a given direction, it requires a high magnetic field to reverse the magnetization. The rotating stator field causes each small volume of the rotor to experience a reversing magnetic field. Because of hysteresis the phase of the magnetization lags behind the phase of the applied field. Thus the axis of the magnetic field induced in the rotor lags behind the axis of the stator field by a constant angle δ, producing torque as the rotor tries to "catch up" with the stator field. As long as the rotor is below synchronous speed, each particle of the rotor experiences a reversing magnetic field at the "slip" frequency that drives it around its hysteresis loop, causing the rotor field to lag and create torque. The rotor has a 2-pole low reluctance bar structure. As the rotor approaches synchronous speed and slip goes to zero, this magnetizes and aligns with the stator field, causing the rotor to "lock" to the rotating stator field.

A major advantage of the hysteresis motor is that since the lag angle δ is independent of speed, it develops constant torque from startup to synchronous speed. Therefore, it is self-starting and doesn't need an induction winding to start it, although many designs embed a squirrel-cage conductive winding structure in the rotor to provide extra torque at start-up. Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings, primarily as servomotors and timing motors. More expensive than the reluctance type, hysteresis motors are used where precise constant speed is required.

Externally excited motors
Usually made in larger sizes (larger than about 1 horsepower or 1 kilowatt) these motors require direct current (DC) to excite (magnetize) the rotor. This is most straightforwardly supplied through slip rings.

A brushless AC induction and rectifier arrangement can also be used.

The power may be supplied from a separate source or from a generator directly connected to the motor shaft.

Control techniques
A permanent magnet synchronous motor and reluctance motor requires a control system for operating (VFD or servo drive).

There is a large number of control methods for synchronous machines, selected depending on the construction of the electric motor and the scope.

Control methods can be divided into:
 * Scalar control
 * V/f control
 * Vector control
 * Field oriented control
 * Direct torque control, a variant of VC
 * Feedback linearization
 * Passivity based control

The PMSMs can also operate on open-loop control, which is sometimes used for start-up thus enabling the position sensing operation.

Synchronous speed
The synchronous speed of a synchronous motor is given: in RPM, by:
 * $$N_s = 60\frac f P = 120\frac f p$$

and in rad·s−1, by:
 * $$\omega_s = 2\pi\frac f P = 4\pi\frac f p$$

where:
 * $$f$$ is the frequency of the AC supply current in Hz,
 * $$p$$ is the number of magnetic poles,
 * $$P$$ is the number of pole pairs (rarely, planes of commutation), $$P = p/2$$.

Examples
A single-phase, 4-pole (2-pole-pair) synchronous motor is operating at an AC supply frequency of 50 Hz. The number of pole-pairs is 2, so the synchronous speed is:
 * $$N_s = 60\;\frac\text{rpm}\text{Hz} \times \frac{50\text{ Hz}}{2} = 1500\,\,\text{rpm} $$

A three-phase, 12-pole (6-pole-pair) synchronous motor is operating at an AC supply frequency of 60 Hz. The number of pole-pairs is 6, so the synchronous speed is:
 * $$N_s = 60\;\frac\text{rpm}\text{Hz} \times \frac{60\text{ Hz}}{6} = 600\,\,\text{rpm} $$

The number of magnetic poles, $$p$$, is equal to the number of coil groups per phase. To determine the number of coil groups per phase in a 3-phase motor, count the number of coils, divide by the number of phases, which is 3. The coils may span several slots in the stator core, making it tedious to count them. For a 3-phase motor, if you count a total of 12 coil groups, it has 4 magnetic poles. For a 12-pole 3-phase machine, there will be 36 coils. The number of magnetic poles in the rotor is equal to the number of magnetic poles in the stator.

Construction
The principal components of electric motors are the stator and the rotor. Synchronous motor and induction motor stators are similar in construction. The construction of synchronous motor is similar to that of a synchronous alternator. The stator frame contains wrapper plate (except for wound-rotor synchronous doubly fed electric machines). Circumferential ribs and keybars are attached to the wrapper plate. To carry the weight of the machine, frame mounts and footings are required. The synchronous stator winding consists of a 3 phase winding. It is provided with a 3 phase supply, and the rotor is provided with a DC supply.

DC excited motors require brushes and slip rings to connect to the excitation supply. The field winding can be excited by a brushless exciter. Cylindrical, round rotors, (also known as non-salient pole rotor) are used for up to six poles.

In some machines or when a large number of poles are needed, a salient pole rotor is used.

Most synchronous motor construction uses a stationary armature and rotating field winding. This type of construction has an advantage over DC motor type where the armature used is of rotating type.

Operation
Electric motors generate power due to the interaction of the magnetic fields of the stator and the rotor. In synchronous motors, the stator carries 3 phase currents and produces 3 phase rotating magnetic flux (and therefore a rotating magnetic field). The rotor eventually locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. Once the rotor field locks in with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be synched. A single-phase (or two-phase derived from single phase) stator is possible, but in this case the direction of rotation is not defined and the machine may start in either direction unless prevented from doing so by startup arrangements.

Amortisseur winding
Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the motor falls out of synchronization and the rotor no longer follows the rotating magnetic field.

Since the motor cannot produce torque if it falls out of synchronization, practical synchronous motors have a partial or complete squirrel-cage damper called an amortisseur winding to stabilize operation and facilitate starting.

Because this winding is smaller than that of an equivalent induction motor and can overheat on long operation, and because large slip-frequency voltages are induced in the rotor excitation winding, synchronous motor protection devices sense this condition and interrupt the power supply (out of step protection).

Starting methods
Above a certain size, synchronous motors cannot self-start. This property is due to rotor inertia; it cannot instantly follow the rotation of the stator's magnetic field. Since a synchronous motor produces no inherent average torque at standstill, it cannot accelerate to synchronous speed without a supplemental mechanism.

Large motors operating on commercial power include a squirrel-cage induction winding that provides sufficient torque for acceleration and also serves to damp motor speed oscillations. Once the rotor nears the synchronous speed, the field winding becomes excited and the motor pulls into synchronization. Very large motor systems may include a "pony" motor that accelerates the unloaded synchronous machine before load is applied. Electronically controlled motors can be accelerated from zero speed by changing the frequency of the stator current.

Small synchronous motors are commonly used in line-powered electric mechanical clocks or timers that use the power line frequency to run the gear mechanism at the correct speed. Such small synchronous motors are able to start without assistance if the moment of inertia of the rotor and its mechanical load are sufficiently small. The motor accelerates from slip speed to synchronous speed during an accelerating half cycle of the reluctance torque. Single-phase synchronous motors such as in electric wall clocks can freely rotate in either direction, unlike a shaded-pole type.

Costs are an important parameter for starters. Rotor excitation is a possible way to resolve the issue. In addition, starting methods for large synchronous machines include repetitive polarity inversion of the rotor poles during startup.

Use as synchronous condenser

By varying the excitation of a synchronous motor, it can be made to operate at lagging, leading and unity power factor. Excitation at which the power factor is unity is termed normal excitation voltage. The magnitude of current at this excitation is minimum. Excitation voltage more than normal excitation is called over excitation voltage, excitation voltage less than normal excitation is called under excitation. When the motor is over excited, the back emf will be greater than the motor terminal voltage. This causes a demagnetizing effect due to armature reaction.

The V curve of a synchronous machine shows armature current as a function of field current. With increasing field current armature current at first decreases, then reaches a minimum, then increases. The minimum point is also the point at which power factor is unity.

This ability to selectively control power factor can be exploited for power factor correction of the power system to which the motor is connected. Since most power systems of any significant size have a net lagging power factor, the presence of overexcited synchronous motors moves the system's net power factor closer to unity, improving efficiency. Such power-factor correction is usually a side effect of motors already present in the system to provide mechanical work, although motors can be run without mechanical load simply to provide power-factor correction. In large industrial plants such as factories the interaction between synchronous motors and other, lagging, loads may be an explicit consideration in the plant's electrical design.

Steady-state stability limit

 * $$\mathbf{T} = \mathbf{T}_\text{max}\sin(\delta)$$

where,
 * $$\mathbf{T}$$ is the torque
 * $$\delta$$ is the torque angle
 * $$\mathbf{T}_\text{max}$$ is the maximum torque

here,
 * $$\mathbf{T}_\text{max} = \frac $$

When load is applied, torque angle $$\delta$$ increases. When $$\delta$$ = 90° the torque will be maximum. If load is applied further then the motor will lose its synchronism, since motor torque will be less than load torque. The maximum load torque that can be applied to a motor without losing its synchronism is called steady state stability limit of a synchronous motor.

Other
Synchronous motors are especially useful in applications requiring precise speed or position control:
 * Speed is independent of the load over the operating range of the motor.
 * Speed and position may be accurately controlled using open loop controls (e.g. stepper motors).
 * Low-power applications include positioning machines, where high precision is required, and robot actuators.
 * They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor windings.
 * A clock driven by a synchronous motor is in principle as accurate as the line frequency of its power source. (Although small frequency drifts will occur over any given several hours, grid operators actively adjust line frequency in later periods to compensate, thereby keeping motor-driven clocks accurate; see .)
 * Record player turntables
 * Increased efficiency in low-speed applications (e.g. ball mills).

Subtypes

 * Stepper motor (may be synchronous or not)
 * Synchronous brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine
 * Synchronous brushless wound-rotor doubly-fed electric machine

title: Synchronous motor


text:
Talk:Finding Nemo

Untitled
please keep the list of characters article on the wiki its needed thank you — Preceding unsigned comment added by Spareproud (talk • contribs) 22:38, 7 December 2019 (UTC)

Information in the cast
Coral being killed by the Barracuda would be included in the cast among other information about the characters. Is this possible? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:18D:4980:90:B19D:744E:2BCC:D341 (talk) 21:23, 21 January 2023 (UTC)

Protagonist Mistake
I believe there is one small mistake in the plot's current revision: Marlin should be mentioned first, because he is actually the film's main protagonist, not Nemo (although the latter's name is in the title) and he appears first as well.--Sstanford2 (talk) 18:42, 16 May 2020 (UTC)
 * No, the order should be how the credits list them. Usually that is based on how powerful and established the actor is, not on anything to do with the story. Geraldo Perez (talk) 18:51, 16 May 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 13 June 2020
In Navajo section

Grammar/spelling:

mean to means

Majority....(is should be changed to are) Al Sundby (talk) 22:13, 13 June 2020 (UTC)
 * Yes check.svg Done  Darth  Flappy   '«Talk»'  22:23, 13 June 2020 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 3 August 2020
2604:6000:110D:898C:C1BF:F64C:AF72:94AE (talk) 23:28, 3 August 2020 (UTC)
 * Jim Ward (additional voice) (recedited)
 * Couldn't find that in independent sources. – Thjarkur (talk) 23:53, 3 August 2020 (UTC)

Correcting Sydney "Harbor" to "Harbour"
The place name noted as "Sydney Harbor" should be corrected to "Sydney Harbour" given it is an Australian place name (proper noun) and not an American place name. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Blurbmaust (talk • contribs) 14:32, 20 December 2020 (UTC)
 * ✅ per WP:ENGVAR proper name exception to WP:ARTCON. Geraldo Perez (talk) 16:26, 20 December 2020 (UTC)

Lawsuit
Wasn’t there a lawsuit about the film allegedly ripping off a French children’s book?

“In 2003, French author Franck Le Calvez filed suit against Pixar and its distribution company Walt Disney Pictures, claiming that the story and the characters from his book, “Pierrot the Clownfish”, were plagiarized in the film Finding Nemo. The author and his lawyer, Pascal Kamina, demanded from Disney a share of the profits from merchandising articles sold in France. Le Calvez and Kamina lost the lawsuit on March 12, 2004 and intended to file an appeal on October 5, 2004;[2] however, to date there has been no further action taken against Pixar on the matter. On April 15th 2021, The Film Theorists made a YouTube video believing that it was actually Le Calvez who had copied Disney.”

--121.221.160.101 (talk) 06:00, 25 April 2021 (UTC)

Where's the lawsuit about the film allegedly ripping off a French children’s book?

“In 2003, French author Franck Le Calvez filed suit against Pixar and its distribution company Walt Disney Pictures, claiming that the story and the characters from his book, “Pierrot the Clownfish”, were plagiarized in the film Finding Nemo. The author and his lawyer, Pascal Kamina, demanded from Disney a share of the profits from merchandising articles sold in France. Le Calvez and Kamina lost the lawsuit on March 12, 2004 and intended to file an appeal on October 5, 2004; however, to date there has been no further action taken against Pixar on the matter.”

--101.173.71.14 (talk) 00:18, 23 February 2022 (UTC)
 * Considering that both texts were copypasted from Pierrot the Clownfish, there and at Finding Nemo. (CC) Tb hotch ™ 03:55, 23 February 2022 (UTC)

english
what is the setting and theme 136.158.83.176 (talk) 00:15, 16 September 2022 (UTC)

Premiere
I’ve found online on this article https://www.yahoo.com/lifestyle/red-carpet-flashback-finding-nemo-133017734.html that finding Nemo seemed to premiere at the El Capitan Theatre on May 17, 2003. So can I edit the article to show that on the top of the page and release part of the page below please? DrkWebber (talk) 20:55, 26 November 2022 (UTC)

 * Oh sorry, I made a mistake, may 18th not 17th. DrkWebber (talk) 20:55, 26 November 2022 (UTC)
 * By "top of the page" do you mean the lead? If so, we don't typically mention where a movie premiered, in terms of the specific theater, in the lead. I don't have any opposition to mentioning it in Release section though. DonIago (talk) 21:52, 28 November 2022 (UTC)
 * I mean at the top of the page where it says "release date". DrkWebber (talk) 16:28, 29 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Ah, I'm guessing you mean the infobox then. Based on Template:Infobox film, I think you could add the month without any significant concerns. DonIago (talk) 16:32, 29 November 2022 (UTC)
 * Alright, I'll add it soon. DrkWebber (talk) 16:40, 29 November 2022 (UTC)

Semi-protected edit request on 20 May 2023
To include Finding Nemo (soundtrack) in the music section 223.178.83.187 (talk) 13:28, 20 May 2023 (UTC)
 * ✅  — Paper9oll  (🔔 • 📝)  13:42, 20 May 2023 (UTC)

Environmental consequences section
I've been looking into the environmental consequences of Finding Nemo and haven't found any hard evidence that there was actually an increase in the amount of wild fish taken for aquariums after the film's release. Meanwhile, there is at least one peer-reviewed scientific article which questions the supposed environmental damage. The references supporting the idea that the film was harmful to ocean life are all very old and anecdotal, quoting organizations that are obscure and some no longer exist.

I have already added the reference to the peer-reviewed journal for balance, but I'd argue that the section needs a complete clean up to reflect that this was more likely a moral panic than anything based on reality, unless someone can find better evidence to the contrary, in which case posting that evidence as references would make the section much more credible. Newfoundlandguy (talk) 17:15, 6 June 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Finding Nemo


text:
IRC services

IRC services is a set of features implemented on many Internet Relay Chat networks. Services are automated bots with special status which are generally used to provide users with access with certain privileges and protection. They usually implement some sort of login system so that only people on the access control list can obtain these services.

Components
The most popular style of services uses a number of fake clients whose names end in "Serv". The four below are nearly always seen in services of this style.

 * ChanServ, a channel service bot, is used to protect channel operators and help run the channel. This is convenient for the operators because they do not need to have an operator on the channel all of the time to keep their status.
 * NickServ, a nickname service bot, is used to register and protect user nicknames.
 * MemoServ, a memo service bot, is used to record and deliver messages to users who are currently offline.
 * OperServ is used by IRC operators to perform administrative functions. Also known as AdminServ, RootServ, or OpServ (srvx).

Some others are also seen following this naming convention in some services packages including:

 * BotServ, a bot which allows channel operators to assign bots to their channels. These bots are mostly a ChanServ representative in the channel.
 * HelpServ, the help service bot, is used to provide help on a variety of IRC topics.
 * HostServ, a host service bot, is used to allow general users to register a vhost so that their real IP address on IRC is hidden.
 * RootServ, used on specific networks, is utilized by Services Root Administrators to perform Root Administrative functions for the IRC Network and Services Program.
 * SpamServ, used to protect channels against spam.
 * StatServ, a statistic services bot, is used to perform various statistical analysis on the IRC Network.

Other commonly used services bots:

 * Global, a message agent, is a specific service that is used to send global messages via services. This agent is usually given a global IRC Operator status as to be able to perform the function. This service must be on a U-lined server so it has the ability to spoof nicknames. This service is often renamed to the name of the network (e.g. DalNet or Xevium.).

History
The original NickServ was written by Armin Gruner at the Technical University of Munich in 1990. The original intention was to give out friendly warnings that somebody else already likes to use a specific nickname, since the IRC protocol has no built-in provision to protect electronic identities.

NoteServ and MsgServ followed up soon after the introduction of NickServ, and had a similar job to today's MemoServ.

It was considered acceptable behavior simply to /ignore NickServ's notices, but an operator decided to /kill NickServ and use the nickname NickServ himself, subsequently collecting all identify passwords from users and being amused by that. This led to a public debate over the usefulness and safety of services and the discontinuation of NickServ on EFnet, and EFnet's current Nicknames are not owned policy arose.

In 1995 DALnet invented ChanServ, then re-implemented NickServ and MemoServ. Today, EFnet and IRCnet are the last large IRC networks which stick to their policy of living without identity protection. Some debate still remains over the value and benefits of Services on IRC, although they are generally considered essential to providing a pleasant chatting experience. This is proven in the fact that most service-less networks have died out.

Many variants of services have been implemented over time, so each IRC network speaks a different service dialect, making it close to impossible for client developers to implement unified graphical interfaces to the various registration procedures. Still, most of them are inspired by DALnet's and Armin's original works, only Undernet and QuakeNet stick out with a completely different approach.

ChanServ
ChanServ, on many IRC networks, is an IRC service which maintains channel registration and access information. If a channel is registered with ChanServ, its owners (and those they have designated) can use ChanServ to obtain control over the channel, gaining channel operator privileges. Most channel service bots also allow other sorts of channel management options, such as topic locks (in addition to +t), mode locks, and providing users automatically with operator status, half-operator status, voice, or other access, as designated by the channel owners. They may also provide some form of automated ban-list management.

There are several implementations of IRC services which have a ChanServ bot; some other services use other names, such as CS. The exact commands and features available depend on the service implementation and the network in question.

Access levels

 * Founder
 * Super operator (often written as SOP or SOp)
 * Auto operator (often written as AOP or AOp)

OperServ
OperServ is a component of most IRC services packages used to help administer an Internet Relay Chat network. It provides IRC operators with functions to help monitor and maintain the network, manage the other services, and deal with problematic users.

Some of the more infamous functions of OperServ are the "lines", such as the K-line and G-line. These are used to discipline troublesome network users, however, other network lines are available for use. The exact features available depend upon a particular operator's permissions, and the specific implementation in use.

On DALnet a similar concept known as an "AKill" was used instead of a G-line. The term AKill comes from an earlier implementation in which the IRC services would automatically "kill" (disconnect) the user remotely upon login, rather than the individual servers simply denying the connection.

On OpenNap networks, OperServ is a pseudo-user which allows users above a specific permission level to execute server administration commands. Although primarily intended to supplement clients without built-in support for such actions, there are no restrictions on its use.

IRC services software packages
There are several software packages that implement services. Some of the popular ones include srvx, Atheme, DalekIRC Services, ChatServices, Hybserv (developed for use with the Hybrid IRCd software), Epona, Anope, and IRC Services 5 (supporting a wide range of IRC daemons, considered the "original" IRC Services). While some of these packages provide excellent features in the eyes of many users, some network operators decide to write their own services, with the most important reasons being flexibility, customization, and often, mostly on smaller networks, fun also plays an important role. Not all packages implement the above service bots. Also, sometimes the bots have different names, and may or may not implement these functions in the form listed above. Even so, the above form is the most common.

title: IRC services


text:
Christian Vander (musician)

Christian Vander (born 21 February 1948) is a French drummer, composer, singer and founder of the progressive rock band Magma.

Career
Vander is known for his extended compositions, drumming, and shrill falsetto improvisational/scat singing. His music fuses jazz, rock, classical and operatic influences, and draws on the work of musicians as diverse as John Coltrane and Carl Orff.

Family
Christian Vander is the adopted child of famous French jazz piano player Maurice Vander (who was a long time sideman of singer Claude Nougaro). Most of Vander and Magma's recorded work is still available through Vander's own record label, Seventh Records.

He was married to singer Stella Vander who released many EPs herself in the 1960s and has performed vocal duties for Magma since 1972. They divorced in the 1980s, with speculations that this occurred in the hiatus years. Christian and Stella have a daughter, Julie, who has appeared on several Magma and Offering releases. Vander often apears on Magma albums under his Kobaïan name: Zebëhn Straïn dë Ğeuštaah.

title: Christian Vander (musician)


text:
Downtown music

Downtown music is a subdivision of American music, closely related to experimental music, which developed in downtown Manhattan in the 1960s.

History
The scene the term describes began in 1960, when Yoko Ono, one of the early Fluxus artists, opened her loft at 112 Chambers Street, in a part of Lower Manhattan later named Tribeca, to be used as a performance space for a series curated by La Monte Young and Richard Maxfield. Prior to this, most classical music performances in New York City occurred "uptown" around the areas that the Juilliard School at Lincoln Center and Columbia University would soon occupy. Ono's gesture led to a new performance tradition of informal performances in nontraditional venues such as lofts and converted industrial spaces, involving music much more experimental than that of the more conventional modern classical series Uptown. Spaces in Manhattan that supported Downtown music from the 1960s on included the Judson Memorial Church, The Kitchen, Experimental Intermedia, Roulette, the Knitting Factory, Dance Theater Workshop, Tonic, the Gas Station, the Paula Cooper Gallery, and others. Brooklyn Academy of Music has also shown a predilection for composers from the Downtown scene.

Character
Downtown music is not distinguished by any particular principle, but rather by what it does not do: it does not confine itself to the ensembles, performance tradition, and musical rhetoric of European classical music, nor to the commercially defined conventions of pop music. The only thing that all Downtown music might be said to have in common is that, at least at the time of its original appearance, it was too bizarre – by dint of excessive length, stasis, simplicity, extemporaneity, consonance, noisiness, pop influence, vernacular reference, or other purported infraction – to have been considered "serious" modern music by proponents of "uptown" music. Another generalization one could point to is an embrace of the creative attitudes of John Cage, though this is not universal; Zorn in particular has downplayed his influence. Some Downtown music, particularly that of Philip Glass, Steve Reich, John Zorn, and Morton Feldman, has subsequently become widely acknowledged within the more mainstream history of music.

Varieties
More than a continuous scene, Downtown music has resembled a battlefield on which, from time to time, various groups have reigned ascendant. In chronological order of dominance, the following movements have been prominent Downtown:
 * Conceptualism – starting with the Fluxus artists, who made pieces from brief instructions ("the short form") or concepts. For instance, La Monte Young's "Draw a straight line and follow it"; Robert Watts' Trace, in which the musicians set fire to the music on their music stands; Yoko Ono's Wall Piece, in which performers bang their heads against the wall; or Nam June Paik's classic "Creep into the vagina of a living whale".
 * Minimalism – a style of music that began with the repetition of short motifs, sometimes going out of phase due to slight differences of speed, and crescendoed into a movement of simple diatonic music of clearly defined linear processes. Steve Reich and Philip Glass became the public face of the movement, but the original minimalists (La Monte Young, Tony Conrad, John Cale, Charlemagne Palestine, Phill Niblock) were less characterized by their music's prettiness and accessibility than by its tremendous length, volume, and attention-challenging stasis.
 * Performance art – starting with the enigmatic solo text/music pieces of Laurie Anderson, which often made innovative (even subversive) use of electronic technology, many Downtown artists developed an often humorous or thought-provoking style of solo performance with conceptualist overtones. This scene coexisted with minimalism, and due to the dearth of funding opportunities for Downtown composers, many of them still pursue genres of solo performance.
 * Art rock or experimental rock – this is a term with several different meanings, depending on one's milieu, but two are most relevant to Downtown music: 1. originally, music made by visual artists, presumably musical amateurs, often tending toward surreal theater, as in the early performances of Glenn Branca and Jeffrey Lohn; and 2. subsequent to Rhys Chatham's influence, a transferral of minimalism to "rock" instruments, resulting in static pieces played on electric guitars, generally with a backbeat. Groups like DNA, Sonic Youth, Live Skull and the Swans arose from this (and the no wave) movement.
 * Free improvisation – originating with Terry Riley and Pauline Oliveros, this scene took over Downtown in the early 1980s, under the leadership of John Zorn and Elliott Sharp. This music, celebrating extemporaneity, flourished in a city in which rehearsal space was expensive and difficult to come by, and provided an outlet for many jazz-trained/-centered musicians tired of jazz performance conventions.
 * Postminimalism – a style of music based on a steady beat and diatonic harmony, less linear or obvious than minimalism but taking over its ensemble concept of amplified chamber groups. Postminimalism was more a far-flung national movement than anything specific to Manhattan, but William Duckworth and Elodie Lauten are examples of New York-based postminimalists.
 * Totalism – another style emerging from minimalism but taking it in the direction of rhythmic complexity and rock-inspired beat momentum. Postminimalism and totalism were both bolstered by the emergence, starting in 1987, of the Bang on a Can festival, curated by Julia Wolfe, David Lang, and Michael Gordon.

The above list of movements and idioms is far from exhaustive – in particular, it omits the continuous history of electronics in Downtown music, which have tended toward process-oriented and interactive music rather than fixed compositions. The history of sound installations should be taken into account, along with the more recent advent of DJing as an art form. Likewise, despite its origin in New York musical politics, "Downtown" music is not solely specific to Manhattan; many major cities such as Chicago, San Francisco, even Birmingham, Alabama have alternative, Downtown music scenes.

Related terms
There is a considerable overlap between Downtown music and what is more generally called experimental music, especially as that term was defined at length by composer Michael Nyman in his influential book Experimental Music: Cage and Beyond. Nyman opposes the term to avant-garde, as generally being American/British versus Continental, experimental music being more open to process, surprises, and accidents and less focused on the artistic personality. In this respect, as a general descriptive, and without reference to any particular scene, experimental and Downtown have sometimes been used synonymously. Another, even more coextensive term is new music, which took on currency following the "New Music New York" festival presented by The Kitchen in 1979, which visibly showcased the music referred to as Downtown; the term remained in widespread use during the years of the New Music America festival (1979–1990). Due to its obvious and inconvenient applicability to many types of music, use of "new music" as describing a specific type of contemporary composition has fallen off in recent years.

title: Downtown music


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User talk:Astronautics~enwiki/lottery

Is the 5 wiki cut going to good causes? Or is it being slyly trousered by greedy capitalist Silsor. Enquiring minds want to know!
 * It's being slyly trousered by greedy capitalist silsor--but can you think of any bad causes I could spend it on? silsor 00:01, Feb 25, 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Astronautics~enwiki/lottery


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Hans Delbrück

Hans Gottlieb Leopold Delbrück (11 November 1848 – 14 July 1929) was a German historian. Delbrück was one of the first modern military historians, basing his method of research on the critical examination of ancient sources, using auxiliary disciplines, like demography and economics, to complete the analysis and the comparison between epochs, to trace the evolution of military institutions.

Delbrück's writings are chiefly concerned with the history of the art of war, his most ambitious work being Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte ("History of Warfare in the Framework of Political History" in four volumes, third edition published in 1920). Other works are Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege (The Persian and Burgundian Wars, 1887), Die Strategie des Perikles erläutert durch die Strategie Friedrichs des Grossen (The Strategy of Pericles Described Through the Strategy of Frederick the Great, 1890) and Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von Gneisenau (Life of Marshal Count Neithardt von Gneisenau, 1894).

Biography
Delbrück was born in Bergen on the island of Rügen; he studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a soldier, he fought in the Franco-Prussian War and in 1874, he became for some years tutor to Prince Waldemar of Prussia (1868–1879) of the German imperial family, a brother of Wilhelm II, heir to the imperial throne. He served in the Reichstag from 1882 to 1883 and in 1883, he became an editor of the Preussische Jahrbücher, a noted political magazine. He assumed charge of this publication in 1889 and kept working on it in that capacity until 1920.

In 1885, he became professor of modern history in the University of Berlin, where his lectures were very popular. He was a member of the German Reichstag from 1884 to 1890. Delbrück vigorously opposed the policy of the Prussian government in dealing with the Danes and the Poles, with the result that he was twice subjected to disciplinary penalties as a professor and a civil servant in Prussia. One of his American students Arthur L. Conger became a senior military historian at the United States Army Command and General Staff College, where he modelled American military historiography after Delbrück's approaches.

His role as editor of Preussen Jahrbücher provided a platform for a growing interest in Germany's diplomatic relationship with Russia. This took the form of a roving commission to Herr Paul Rohrbacher to enquire about German opinion. The findings from the 1890s tours formed a racial policy of dismemberment of Russia by seizing Slavic territory that belonged to them. The controversialist Fritz Fischer argued that they were socialists forcing extremists into the hands of revolutionaries. At an early stage of the First World War, he became pessimistic regarding the possibility of victory, except by a military and political strategy and tactics of a purely defensive character. He was, on tactical rather than on moral grounds, a strenuous opponent of intensified submarine warfare and did not conceal his conviction that it would bring America into the war. He was a member of the German Delegation during the Versailles Peace Conference that ended the war, where he mainly endeavoured to prove that Germany could not be made solely responsible for the outbreak of war. He died in Berlin. He was the father of Max Delbrück, who did pioneering work in physics and also won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969. His daughter Emmi was married to German resistance fighter Klaus Bonhoeffer and thus she was the sister-in-law of theologian Dietrich Bonhoeffer.

Hypotheses

Delbrück's works tried to place military history in the framework of general history. He regarded warfare as a cultural feature of societies, subject to evolution and influenced by the economy and the political system. His works were not translated into English for some time, hence his reputation among professional military theorists in English-speaking countries is not held in the same esteem or significance as Clausewitz.

Ancient warfare
Singular conclusions on ancient warfare challenged historiography in so far as he tried to show that the figures for armies in antiquity were inflated in the original sources, and that, contrary to what is stated in most writings, the winner in a battle usually had more troops than the loser. Consequently, he gave completely different interpretations to some of the most famous battles in history, like Marathon, Gaugamela, and Zama by concluding that Rome's vaunted advantage over "barbarians" rested, not so much in their discipline and refined tactics, but rather in their superior logistical support. The Romans were able to raise and maintain huge armies on the field, while the "barbarians" were unable to match their numbers.

Medieval warfare
Regarding medieval warfare, Delbrück's findings were more controversial. He made a distinction between knights, mounted warriors, and cavalry, an organized mass of mounted troops. He regarded the medieval warrior as an independent fighter, unable to join others and form units with any decisive tactical significance. His conclusions were tested by later scholars, in particular the Belgian historian J. F. Verbruggen.

Modern warfare
About modern warfare, Delbrück showed his intellectual origins in Clausewitz by making a distinction between two possible strategies respectively: exhausting the enemy and throwing down the enemy (German: Ermattungsstrategie and Niederwerfungsstrategie, often mistakenly translated as "attrition" and "annihilation"). They were derived from Clausewitz's distinctions between strategies seeking limited objectives and strategies aimed at rendering one's opponent militarily helpless, the latter being often confused with the concept of "total war" advocated by Ludendorff and rejected by Delbrück during wartime. The choice depended on the nature of the political objectives, the existing political and economic limitations and the correlation of force numbers. He applied the analytical tool to the wars of Frederick the Great and concluded that their numerical inferiority made the Prussians pursue a strategy of exhaustion.

His overall treatment of the era, however, partially overlooked the Spanish wars. He was very critical of his country's strategic thinking, and he averred it would have been preferable to seek victory in the East, gain minor objectives in the West and then sue for peace. That was one example of the general principle that he maintained: military and political manoeuvres should be integrated.

In fiction
In Mel Brooks's comedy Young Frankenstein, Doctor Frankenstein sends his assistant, Igor, to retrieve the brain of Hans Delbrück for transplant into Frankenstein's monster. The tag on the beaker containing the brain reads "scientist and saint," so it is debatable whether Brooks intended the actual historian or a fictional Delbrück.

In a clearer reference to the historical figure, in Mel Brooks's comedy The Producers: The Movie Musical, Hans Delbrück is the name of the man to whom Franz Liebkind sends a letter by carrier pigeon.

In Victor Serge’s novel Unforgiving Years (Les Années sans pardon) the character Herr Schiff—an old German professor loyal to the Nazi regime, demoralized and disoriented in war-ravaged Berlin in the closing days of the Second World War—rereads Hans Delbrück’s The History of Warfare: "Lately, it was true, the sense of most of what he read escaped him; but being incapable of inattention, the mechanical act of reading acted upon him like a sedative. His cheek cupped in his hand, he reread the works he admired out of duty." Hans Delbrück appears in the professor's thoughts again while contemplating the meaning of the war as American soldiers overtake Berlin: "The Second World War was already down as a great historical tragedy—a quasi-mythological one—which neither Mommsen, Hans Delbrück, Gobineau, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Oswald Spengler, or Mein Kampf could elucidate entirely..."

Works
Other works of Delbrück, besides those mentioned above, are the following:

Books

 * Historische und politische Aufsätze (1886)
 * Erinnerungen, Aufsätze und Reden (1902)
 * Die Polenfrage (1894)
 * Numbers in History (1913)
 * Regierung und Volkswille (1914)
 * Bismarcks Erbe (1915)
 * Krieg und Politik (1918)
 * Kautsky und Harden (1920)
 * Ludendorff, Tirpitz, Falkenhayn (1920)
 * History of the Art of War, (1920) University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. 4 Volumes.

In his book Regierung und Volkswille (1914), Delbrück attempted a defence of the old system of government in Germany and Prussia with particular reference to its "dualism," parliamentary representation and simultaneously a certain degree of autocracy on the part of the sovereign in Prussia and of the federated government in the empire. A succinct statement of Delbrück's views on Germany's responsibility for World War I and an English reply can be found in articles by Delbrück and J. W. Headlam-Morley in the Contemporary Review (March 1921).

Journals

 * Preuss Jahrbucher, vol.149, (Aug 1912)
 * Die Differenzen der uber die Kriegsziele huben und druben, in Krieg und Politik, vol.1 (Sep 1914)

title: Hans Delbrück


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Chain shift

In historical linguistics, a chain shift is a set of sound changes in which the change in pronunciation of one speech sound (typically, a phoneme) is linked to, and presumably causes, a change in pronunciation of other sounds. The sounds involved in a chain shift can be ordered into a "chain" in such a way that after the change is complete, each phoneme ends up sounding like what the phoneme before it in the chain sounded like before the change. The changes making up a chain shift, interpreted as rules of phonology, are in what is termed counterfeeding order.

A well-known example is the Great Vowel Shift, which was a chain shift that affected all of the long vowels in Middle English. The changes to the front vowels may be summarized as follows:

A drag chain or pull chain is a chain shift in which the phoneme at the "leading" edge of the chain changes first. In the example above, the chain shift would be a pull chain if changed to  first, opening up a space at the position of, which  then moved to fill. A push chain is a chain shift in which the phoneme at the "end" of the chain moves first: in this example, if moved toward, a "crowding" effect would be created and  would thus move toward , and so forth. It is not known which phonemes changed first during the Great Vowel Shift; many scholars believe the high vowels such as started the shift, but some suggest that the low vowels, such as, may have shifted first.

Examples
During the Great Vowel Shift in the 15th and 16th centuries, all of the long vowels of Middle English, which correspond to tense vowels in Modern English, shifted pronunciation. The changes can be summarized as follows:

Most vowels shifted to a higher place of articulation, so that the pronunciation of geese changed from to  and broken from  to. The high vowels and  became diphthongs (for example, mice changed from  to ), and the low back vowel  was fronted, causing name to change from  to.

The Great Vowel Shift occurred over centuries, and not all varieties of English were affected in the same ways. For example, some speakers in Scotland still pronounce house similarly to its sound in Middle English before the shift, as.

A chain shift may affect only one regional dialect of a language, or it may begin in a particular regional dialect and then expand beyond the region in which it originated. A number of recent regional chain shifts have occurred in English. Perhaps the most well-known is the Northern Cities Vowel Shift, which is largely confined to the "Inland North" region of the United States. Other examples in North America are the Pittsburgh vowel shift, Southern vowel shift (in the Southern United States), the California vowel shift and the Canadian Shift (though the last two may be the same). In England, the Cockney vowel shift among working-class Londoners is familiar from its prominence in plays such as George Bernard Shaw's Pygmalion (and the related musical My Fair Lady):

Many chain shifts are vowel shifts, because many sets of vowels are naturally arranged on a multi-value scale (e.g. vowel height or frontness). However, chain shifts can also occur in consonants. A famous example of such a shift is the well-known First Germanic Sound Shift or Grimm's Law, in which the Proto-Indo-European voiceless stop consonants became fricatives, the plain voiced stops became voiceless, and the breathy voiced stops became plain voiced:

Another is the High German consonant shift which separated Old High German from other West Germanic dialects such as Old English, Old Frisian, and Old Saxon:
 * {| class="wikitable"

 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }
 * }

The Romance languages to the north and west of central Italy (e.g. French, Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan and various northern Italian languages) are known for a set of chain shifts collectively termed lenition, which affected stop consonants between vowels:
 * → →  →  (or vanishes)
 * → →  →,  (or vanishes)
 * → →  →,  (or vanishes)

In this case, each sound became weaker (or more "lenited").

Synchronic shifts
It is also possible for chain shifts to occur synchronically, within the phonology of a language as it exists at a single point in time.

Nzebi (or Njebi), a Bantu language of Gabon, has the following chain shift, triggered morphophonologically by certain tense/aspect suffixes:

Examples follow:

! Underlying form !! Chain-shifted form
 * "to work" || →
 * "to give" || →
 * "to carry" || →
 * "to refuse" || →
 * "to go down" || →
 * "to arrive" || →
 * "to hide oneself" || →
 * }
 * "to go down" || →
 * "to arrive" || →
 * "to hide oneself" || →
 * }
 * "to hide oneself" || →
 * }
 * }

Another example of a chain from Bedouin Hijazi Arabic involves vowel raising and deletion:

In nonfinal open syllables, raises to  while  in the same position is deleted.

Synchronic chain shifts may be circular. An example of this is Xiamen tone or Taiwanese tone sandhi:

The contour tones are lowered to a lower tone, and the lowest tone (21) circles back to the highest tone (53).

Synchronic chain shifts are an example of the theoretical problem of phonological opacity. Although easily accounted for in a derivational rule-based phonology, its analysis in standard parallel Optimality Theory is problematic.

title: Chain shift


text:
Marcel Bloch

Marcel Bloch may refer to:

 * Marcel Dassault (né Bloch, 1892–1986), French aircraft industrialist
 * Marcel Bloch (aviator) (1890–1938), French World War I flying ace

title: Marcel Bloch


text:
Espeland Falls

Espeland Falls  (Espelandsfossen) is a 135 m tall waterfall located in the Espeland Valley (Espelandsdalen) in Voss Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. The falls are located just above large Lake Espeland (Espelandsvatnet), near the border of Voss and neighboring municipality of Ulvik.

Due to an urban legend, Espeland Falls is sometimes erroneously claimed to be 2307 ft tall. One theory is that the erroneous information may have originated from a misunderstanding of the concept meters of head in relation to the development of the Espeland River (Espelandselvi) for hydropower. Another theory is that there may have been a mixup with Skrikjofossen in Lofthus, Ullensvang, a 455 m tall waterfall located about 60 km south of Espeland Falls.

title: Espeland Falls


text:
Reuse of bottles

A reusable bottle is a bottle that can be reused, as in the case as by the original bottler or by end-use consumers. Reusable bottles have grown in popularity by consumers for both environmental and health safety reasons. Reusable bottles are one example of reusable packaging.

History
Early glass bottles were often reused, such as for milk, water, beer, soft drinks, yogurt, and other uses. Mason jars, for example, were developed and reused for home canning purposes.

With returnable bottles, a retailer would often collect empty bottles or would accept empty bottles returned by customers. Bottles would be stored and returned to the bottler in reusable cases or crates. Glass milk bottles were transported in milk crates and would be picked up by a milkman. At the bottler, the bottles would be inspected for damage, cleaned, sanitized, and refilled.

Beginning in the second half of the 20th century, many bottles were designed for single-use, eliminating the cost of collection. This often allows for thinner glass bottles and less expensive plastic bottles and aluminum beverage cans.

Though Sweden has had a standard glass bottle recycling system since 1884, in response to the increased litter from single-use containers, container deposit laws have been adopted in many developed countries (sometimes by provincial and municipal governments) starting in the 1970s. These laws mandate that retailers must charge a deposit on certain types of containers or for certain products; retailers are then required to accept empty bottles or cans for recycling and refund the deposit. A government fund mediates any imbalances caused by buying containers at one retailer and returning them to another, and also retains the profit from unreturned containers. Reverse vending machines are often used to automate this process. The machines scan the bar code on cans and bottles to verify that a deposit was paid, shred or crush the container for compact storage, and dispense cash or a voucher that can be redeemed at the store's checkout registers.

In Germany, reusable glass or plastic (PET) bottles are available for many drinks, especially beer and carbonated water as well as soft drinks (Mehrwegflaschen). The deposit per bottle (Pfand) is €0.08–0.15, compared to €0.25 for recyclable but not reusable plastic bottles. There is no deposit for glass bottles which do not get refilled, but there are many glass bottles that do get refilled – best known is the Normbrunnenflasche, a 0.7l bottle used for carbonated drinks with a deposit of €0.15. It was introduced after a 1969 decision by the German mineral water industry, and more than five billion bottles have been produced used for an estimated quarter of a trillion refillings since then.

Environmental consequences
The reuse of containers is often thought of as being a step toward more sustainable packaging. Reuse sits high on the waste hierarchy. When a container is used multiple times, the material required per use or per filling cycle is reduced.

Many potential factors are involved in environmental comparisons of returnable vs. non-returnable systems. Researchers have often used life cycle analysis methodologies to balance the many diverse considerations. Some comparisons show no clear winner but rather show a realistic view of a complex subject.

Arguments in favor of reusing bottles, or recycling them into other products, are compelling. It is estimated that in the U.S. alone, consumers use 1,500 plastic water bottles every single second. But only about 23% of PET plastic, which is the plastic used in disposable plastic water bottles, gets recycled. Thus, about 38 billion water bottles are thrown away annually, equating to roughly $1 billion worth of plastic. The average American spends $242 per year per person on disposable, single use plastic water bottles. The environmental and cost consequences associated with disposable plastic water bottles are a strong argument for reusing bottles.

Bottles intended for reuse by households
Reusable drinking bottles for water, coffee, salad dressing, soup, baby formula, and other beverages have gained in popularity by consumers in recent years, due to the costs and environmental problems associated with single use plastic bottles. Common materials used to make reusable drinking bottles include glass, aluminum, stainless steel, and plastic. Reusable bottles include both single and double wall insulated bottles. Some baby bottles have an inner bag or bladder that can be replaced after each use.

Books, general references

 * Yam, K. L., "Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology", John Wiley & Sons, 2009, ISBN 978-0-470-08704-6

title: Reuse of bottles


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Marguerite, bâtarde de France

Marguerite de Valois, la demoiselle de Belleville, also known as Marguerite, bâtarde de France (1407 – January 1458), was the illegitimate daughter of Charles VI of France and his mistress Odette de Champdivers.

Marguerite was legitimated in January 1428 by Charles VII of France, her half-brother. He gave her a very ample dowry and married her June/July 1443 in Poitou to Jean III de Harpedenne (also spelled Harpedanne, Harpedane, Harpedène, etc.), Seigneur of Belleville and Montaigu, son of Jean II de Harpedenne and his wife Jeanne de Mussidan. Some sources claim that she was married under the name of Marguerite de Falots.

title: Marguerite, bâtarde de France