text:
Aryanism

Aryanism is an ideology of racial supremacy which views the supposed Aryan race as a distinct and superior racial group which is entitled to rule the rest of humanity. Initially promoted by racist theorists such as Arthur de Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain, Aryanism reached its peak of influence in Nazi Germany. In the 1930s and 40s, the regime applied the ideology with full force, sparking World War II with the 1939 invasion of Poland in pursuit of Lebensraum, or living space, for the Aryan people. The racial policies which were implemented by the Nazis during the 1930s came to a head during their conquest of Europe and the Soviet Union, culminating in the industrial mass murder of six million Jews and eleven million other victims in what is now known as the Holocaust.

Background
By the late 19th century, a number of later writers, such as the French anthropologist Vacher de Lapouge in his book L'Aryen, argued that this superior branch could be identified biologically by using the cephalic index (a measure of head shape) and other indicators. He argued that the long-headed "dolichocephalic-blond" Europeans, characteristically found in Northern Europe, were natural leaders, destined to rule over more "brachycephalic" (short-headed) peoples. Similar theories were promoted by Arthur de Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

Nazi Aryanism
The ideology of Nazism was based upon the conception of the ancient Aryan race being a superior race, holding the highest position in the racial hierarchy and that the Germanic peoples were the most racially pure existing peoples of Aryan stock. The Nazi conception of the Aryan race arose from earlier proponents of a supremacist conception of the race as described by racial theorist figures such as Arthur de Gobineau and Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther identified the European race as having five subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic. Günther applied a Nordicist conception that Nordics were the highest in the racial hierarchy amongst these five European subtype races. In his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) (Racial Science of the German People), Günther recognized Germans as being composed of all five European subtypes, but emphasized the strong Nordic heritage amongst Germans. Günther believed Slavic people to be of Eastern race, one that was separate from Germans and Nordics, and warned about mixing German blood with Slavic one. He defined each racial subtype according to general physical appearance and their psychological qualities including their racial soul – referring to their emotional traits and religious beliefs, and provided detailed information on their hair, eye, and skin colours, facial structure. He provided photographs of Germans identified as Nordic in places like Baden, Stuttgart, Salzburg, and Schwaben; and provided photographs of Germans he identified as Alpine and Mediterranean types, especially in Vorarlberg, Bavaria, and the Black Forest region of Baden. Adolf Hitler read Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes, which influenced his racial policy and resulted in Günther's Nazi-backed attainment of a position in the anthropology department at the University of Jena in 1932 where Hitler attended Günther's inaugural lecture.

Günther distinguished Aryans from Jews, and identified Jews as descending from non-European races, particularly from what he classified as the Near Asian race (Vorderasiatische Rasse), more commonly known as the Armenoid race, and said that such origins rendered Jews fundamentally different from and incompatible with Germans and most Europeans. This association of Jews with the Armenoid type had been utilized by Zionist Jews who claimed that Jews were a group within that type. He claimed that the Near Eastern race descended from the Caucasus in the fifth and fourth millennia BC, and that it had expanded into Asia Minor and Mesopotamia and eventually to the west coast of the Eastern Mediterranean Sea. Aside from ascribing Armenians and Jews as having Near Eastern characteristics, he ascribed them to several other contemporary peoples; he included some Greeks, Turks, Syrians, and Iranians as having these characteristics as well. In his work Racial Characteristics of the Jewish People, he defined the racial soul of the Near Eastern race as emphasizing a commercial spirit (Handelgeist), and described them as artful traders – a term that Günther ascribed as being used by Jewish racial theorist Samuel Weissenberg to describe contemporary Armenians, Greeks, and Jews. Günther added to that description of the Near Eastern type as being composed primarily of commercially spirited and artful traders, by claiming that the type held strong psychological manipulation skills that aided them in trade. He claimed that the Near Eastern race had been bred not so much for the conquest and exploitation of nature as it was for the conquest and exploitation of people.

Hitler's conception of the Aryan Herrenvolk (master race) explicitly excluded the vast majority of Slavs, regarding the Slavs as having dangerous Jewish and Asiatic influences. Because of this, the Nazis declared Slavs to be Untermenschen (subhumans). Exceptions were made for a small percentage of Slavs who were seen by the Nazis to be descended from German settlers and therefore fit to be Germanised to be considered part of the Aryan folk or nation. Hitler described Slavs as a mass of born slaves who feel the need of a master. Hitler declared that because Slavs were subhumans that the Geneva Conventions were not applicable to them, and German soldiers in World War II were thus permitted to ignore the Geneva Conventions in regards to Slavs. Hitler called Slavs a rabbit family meaning they were intrinsically idle and disorganized. Nazi Germany's propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels had media speak of Slavs as primitive animals who were from the Siberian tundra who were like a dark wave of filth. The Nazi notion of Slavs being inferior non-Aryans was part of the agenda for creating Lebensraum (living space) for Germans and other Germanic people in eastern Europe that was initiated during World War II under Generalplan Ost: millions of Germans and other Germanic settlers would be moved into conquered territories of Eastern Europe, while the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed, or enslaved. Nazi Germany's ally the Independent State of Croatia rejected the common conception that Croats were primarily a Slavic people and claimed that Croats were primarily the descendants of the Germanic Goths. However the Nazi regime continued to classify Croats as a subhuman in spite of the alliance. Nazi Germany's policy changed towards Slavs in response to military manpower shortages, in which it accepted Slavs to serve in its armed forces within occupied territories, in spite of them being considered subhuman, as a pragmatic means to resolve such manpower shortages.

Shortly after the Nazis came to power in 1933 they passed the Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service law which required all civil servants to provide proof of their Aryan ancestry and defined non-Aryan as a person with one Jewish grandparent. In 1933, the German Interior Ministry official Albert Gorter drafted an official definition of the Aryan race for the new law which included all non-Jewish Europeans, this definition was unacceptable by the Nazis. However, Achim Gerke revised Gorter's draft of the Civil Service Law classifying Aryans as people tribally related to German blood. The Nuremberg race laws of 1935 classified as racially acceptable people with German or related blood.

Hitler often doubted whether Czechs were Aryan or not, he said in his table talk, "It is enough for a Czech to grow a moustache for anyone to see, from the way the thing droops, that his origin is Mongolian." The question of whether Italians were Aryan enough was questioned by the Nazi racial theorists. Hitler viewed northern Italians as strongly Aryan, but not southern Italians. The Nazis viewed the downfall of the Roman Empire as being the result of the pollution of blood from racial intermixing, claiming that Italians were a hybrid of races, including black African races. Hitler even mentioned his view of the presence of Negroid blood in the Mediterranean peoples during his first meeting with Mussolini in 1934. The definition of Aryan remained in constant flux to such an extent that the Nazis questioned whether European ethnic groups such as Finns or Hungarians were to be classified as Aryans. Hungarians were classified as tribally alien but not necessarily blood alien, in 1934 the Nazis published a pamphlet which declared Magyars (which it did not define) as Aryans. The following year, an article published by the Nazis admitted that there were disputes over the racial status of Hungarians. As late as 1943, there were disputes over whether Hungarians were to be classified as Aryan. In 1942, Hitler declared that the Finns were racially related Germanic neighboring peoples, although there is no evidence to suggest that this was based on anything racial.

The idea of the Northern origins of the Aryans was particularly influential in Germany. It was widely believed that the Vedic Aryans were ethnically identical to the Goths, Vandals and other ancient Germanic peoples of the Völkerwanderung. This idea was often intertwined with antisemitic ideas. The distinctions between the Aryan and Semitic peoples were based on the aforementioned linguistic and ethnic history. A complete, highly speculative theory of Aryan and anti-Semitic history can be found in Alfred Rosenberg's major work, The Myth of the Twentieth Century. Semitic peoples came to be seen as a foreign presence within Aryan societies, and the Semitic peoples were often pointed to as the cause of conversion and destruction of social order and values leading to culture and civilization's downfall by proto-Nazi theorists such as Houston Stewart Chamberlain.

These and other ideas evolved into the Nazi use of the term Aryan race to refer to what they saw as being a superior race, which was narrowly defined by the Nazis as being identical with the Nordic race, followed by other sub-races of the Aryan race and excluding Slavs as non-Aryan. They worked to maintain the purity of this race through eugenics programs (including anti-miscegenation legislation, compulsory sterilization of the mentally ill and the mentally deficient, the execution of the institutionalized mentally ill as part of a euthanasia program).

Heinrich Himmler (the Reichsführer of the SS), the person ordered by Adolf Hitler to implement the Final Solution, or the Holocaust, told his personal masseur Felix Kersten that he always carried with him a copy of the ancient Aryan scripture, the Bhagavad Gita because it relieved him of guilt about what he was doing – he felt that like the warrior Arjuna, he was simply doing his duty without attachment to his actions.

Italian Fascism and Aryanism
In a 1921 speech in Bologna, Mussolini stated that fascism was born out of a profound, perennial need of this our Aryan and Mediterranean race. In this speech Mussolini was referring to Italians as being the Mediterranean branch of the Aryan race, Aryan in the meaning of people of an Indo-European language and culture. Italian Fascism emphasized that race was bound by spiritual and cultural foundations, and identified a racial hierarchy based on spiritual and cultural factors. While Italian Fascism based its conception of race on spiritual and cultural factors, Mussolini explicitly rejected notions that biologically pure races existed though biology was still considered a relevant factor in race.

Italian Fascism strongly rejected the common Nordicist conception of the Aryan race that idealized pure Aryans as having certain physical traits that were defined as Nordic such as blond hair and blue eyes. The antipathy by Mussolini and other Italian Fascists to Nordicism was over the existence of what they viewed as the Mediterranean inferiority complex that they claimed had been instilled into Mediterraneans by the propagation of such theories by German and Anglo-Saxon Nordicists who viewed Mediterranean peoples as racially degenerate and thus in their view inferior. Mussolini refused to allow Italy to return again to this inferiority complex, initially rejecting Nordicism. However traditional Nordicist claims of Mediterraneans being degenerate due to having a darker colour of skin than Nordics had long been rebuked in anthropology through the depigmentation theory that claimed that lighter-skinned peoples had been depigmented from a darker skin, this theory has since become a widely accepted view in anthropology. Anthropologist Carleton S. Coon in his work The Races of Europe (1939) subscribed to depigmentation theory that claimed that the Nordic race's light-coloured skin was the result of depigmentation from their ancestors of the Mediterranean race.

In the early 1930s, with the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany and with dictator Adolf Hitler's emphasis on a Nordicist conception of the Aryan race, strong tensions arose between the Fascists and the Nazis over racial issues. In 1934, in the aftermath of Austrian Nazis killing Austrian Chancellor Engelbert Dollfuss, an ally of Italy, Mussolini became enraged and responded by angrily denouncing Nazism. Mussolini rebuked Nazism's Nordicism, claiming that the Nazis' emphasizing of a common Nordic Germanic race was absurd, saying, "A Germanic race does not exist. We repeat. Does not exist. Scientists say so. Hitler says so." The fact that Germans were not purely Nordic was indeed acknowledged by prominent Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther in his book Rassenkunde des deutschen Volkes (1922) (Racial Science of the German People), where Günther recognized Germans as being composed of five Aryan subtype races: Nordic, Mediterranean, Dinaric, Alpine, and East Baltic while asserting that the Nordics were the highest in a racial hierarchy of the five subtypes.

By 1936, the tensions between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany reduced and relations became more amicable. In 1936, Mussolini decided to launch a racial programme in Italy, and was interested in the racial studies being conducted by Giulio Cogni. Cogni was a Nordicist but did not equate Nordic identity with Germanic identity as was commonly done by German Nordicists. Cogni had travelled to Germany where he had become impressed by Nazi racial theory and sought to create his own version of racial theory. On 11 September 1936, Cogni sent Mussolini a copy of his newly published book Il Razzismo (1936). Cogni declared the racial affinity of the Mediterranean and Nordic racial subtypes of the Aryan race and claimed that the intermixing of Nordic Aryans and Mediterranean Aryans in Italy produced a superior synthesis of Aryan Italians. Cogni addressed the issue of racial differences between northern and southern Italians, declaring southern Italians were mixed between Aryan and non-Aryan races, that he claimed was most likely due to infiltration by Asiatic peoples in Roman times and later Arab invasions. As such, Cogni viewed Southern Italian Mediterraneans as being polluted with orientalizing tendencies. He would later change his idea and claim that Nordics and Southern Italians were closely related groups both racially and spiritually. His opinion was that they were generally responsible for what is the best in European civilization. Initially Mussolini was not impressed with Cogni's work, however Cogni's ideas entered into the official Fascist racial policy several years later.

In 1938 Mussolini was concerned that if Italian Fascism did not recognize Nordic heritage within Italians, that the Mediterranean inferiority complex would return to Italian society. Therefore, in summer 1938, the Fascist government officially recognized Italians as having Nordic heritage and being of Nordic-Mediterranean descent. In a meeting with PNF members in June 1938, Mussolini identified himself as Nordic and declared that previous policy of focus on Mediterraneanism was to be replaced by a focus on Aryanism.

The Fascist regime began publication of the racialist magazine La Difesa della Razza in 1938. The Nordicist racial theorist Guido Landra took a major role in the early work of La Difesa, and published the Manifesto of Racial Scientists in the magazine in 1938. The Manifesto received substantial criticism, including its assertion of Italians being a pure race, as it was viewed as absurd. La Difesa published other theories that described long-term Nordic Aryan amongst Italians, such as the theory that in the Eneolithic age Nordic Aryans arrived to Italy. Many of the writers took up the traditional Nordicist claim that the decline and fall of the Roman Empire was due to the arrival of Semitic immigrants. La Difesa's writers were divided on their claims that described how Italians extricated themselves from Semitic influence.

The Nordicist direction of Fascist racial policy was challenged in 1938 by a resurgence of the Mediterraneanist faction in the PNF. By 1939, the Mediterraneanists' advocacy of a nativist racial theory that rejected ascribing the achievements of the Italian people to Nordic peoples. This nativist racial policy was prominently promoted by Ugo Rellini. Rellini rejected the notion of large-scale invasions of Italy by Nordic Aryans in the Eneolithic age, and claimed that Italians were an indigenous people descended from the Cro-Magnons. Rellini claimed that Mediterranean and Nordic peoples arrived later and peacefully intermixed in small numbers with the indigenous Italian population.

In 1941 the PNF's Mediterraneanists through the influence of Giacomo Acerbo put forward a comprehensive definition of the Italian race. However these efforts were challenged by Mussolini's endorsement of Nordicist figures with the appointment of staunch spiritual Nordicist Alberto Luchini as head of Italy's Racial Office in May 1941, as well as with Mussolini becoming interested in Julius Evola's spiritual Nordicism in late 1941. Acerbo and the Mediterraneanists in his High Council on Demography and Race sought to bring the regime back to supporting Mediterraneanism by thoroughly denouncing the pro-Nordicist Manifesto of the Racial Scientists. The Council recognized Aryans as being a linguistic-based group, and condemned the Manifesto for denying the influence of pre-Aryan civilization on modern Italy, saying that the Manifesto constitutes an unjustifiable and undemonstrable negation of the anthropological, ethnological, and archaeological discoveries that have occurred and are occurring in our country. Furthermore, the Council denounced the Manifesto for implicitly crediting Germanic invaders of Italy in the guise of the Lombards for having a formative influence on the Italian race in a disproportional degree to the number of invaders and to their biological predominance. The Council claimed that the obvious superiority of the ancient Greeks and Romans in comparison with the ancient Germanic tribes made it inconceivable that Italian culture owed a debt to ancient Aryan Germans. The Council denounced the Manifesto's Nordicist attitude towards Mediterraneans that it claimed was considering them as slaves and was a repudiation of the entire Italian civilization.

Neo-Nazism and Aryanism

Since the military defeat of Nazi Germany by the Allies in 1945, some neo-Nazis have developed a more inclusive definition of "Aryan", claiming that the peoples of Western Europe are the closest descendants of the ancient Aryans, with Nordic and Germanic peoples being the most "racially pure."

According to Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke, many neo-Nazis want to establish an autocratic state modeled after Nazi Germany to be called the Western Imperium. It is believed that this proposed state would be able to attain world domination by combining the nuclear arsenals of the four major Aryan world powers, the United States, the United Kingdom, France, and Russia under a single military command.

This proposed state would be led by a Führer-like figure called the Vindex, and would include all areas inhabited by the "Aryan race", as conceived by Neo-Nazis. Only those of the Aryan race would be full citizens of the state. The "Western Imperium" would embark on a vigorous and dynamic program of space exploration, followed by the creation by genetic engineering of a super race called Homo Galactica. The concept of the "Western Imperium" as outlined in the previous three sentences is based on the original concept of the Imperium as outlined in the 1947 book Imperium: The Philosophy of History and Politics by Francis Parker Yockey as further updated, extended and refined in the early 1990s in pamphlets published by David Myatt.

title: Aryanism


text:
Jesuit High School (New Orleans)

Jesuit High School is a private, non-profit, Catholic college-preparatory high school (grades 8–12) for boys run by the USA Central and Southern Province of the Society of Jesus in Mid-City New Orleans, Louisiana. The school was founded in 1847 by the Jesuits as the College of the Immaculate Conception before taking on its current name in 1911, and it serves students of all religious faiths.

Mission and philosophy
The mission of Jesuit High School as a Catholic, college preparatory school is to develop in its students the competence, conscience, and compassion that will enable them to be men of faith and men for others.

The Jesuit approach to education is based on nearly five hundred years of tradition beginning with St. Ignatius Loyola, who founded the Society of Jesus (“the Jesuits”) in 1540. It begins with a focus on students and their potential, a principle the Jesuits call cura personalis. The school encourages personal excellence in all aspects of life—intellectual, emotional, moral, and physical. This principle is often called magis, meaning "more" or "greater," referring to the rigor of intellectual exchange and the varied challenges the school poses to its students through its curriculum.

Founding and early history
The College of the Immaculate Conception was founded in 1847 and opened in 1849. It was both a secondary school and college, and both were located in the Faubourg Ste. Marie of New Orleans (now the New Orleans Central Business District), a block upriver from the French Quarter, at the corner of Baronne and Common Streets. The delayed start of the school's first year came as a result of the spread of Yellow Fever, and the school's founder, Jean Baptiste Maisonabe, S.J., himself fell victim to the disease. Maisonabe was succeeded by John Cambiaso, S.J., who largely responsible for the design of the Church of the Immaculate Conception.

The Church of the Immaculate Conception remains on the original campus and plays an active role in the Jesuit High School community today.

Move to Carrollton & Banks
In 1911, the high school and college divisions were split, and the college division relocated to St. Charles Avenue, eventually becoming Loyola University New Orleans. The high school remained on Baronne Street until 1926, when it was moved to its current location at 4133 Banks Street in Mid-City.

Since 1926, several additions have been made to the campus. In 1953 a wing was added along Palmyra Street; the addition included an auditorium, the Chapel of the North American Martyrs, a cafeteria, a library, several classrooms, and a band room. A recreation center and gym was constructed on Banks Street across from the school in 1957 and provided facilities for the athletic teams and the physical education program.

A resource center, featuring the school's library, additional classrooms, and science facilities was built in 1974. The area was upgraded again in 2001, when the Student Commons was constructed under the resource center with further renovations to the school following after Hurricane Katrina.

In 2012, John Ryan Stadium, a baseball and multi-purpose sports stadium, was constructed at 100 Blue Jay Way in Metairie, LA, marking the school's expansion into Jefferson Parish.

Recent leadership
In recent times, Fr. Raymond Fitzgerald, S.J., (Class of 1976) served as school president and was succeeded by 1966 graduate Fr. Anthony McGinn, S.J. In May 2015 it was announced that Fr. Chris Fronk, S.J., on active duty as a U.S. Navy chaplain, would serve as the school's 30th president, and he assumed office in November 2016. In January 2020, Fr. Chris Fronk, S.J., stepped down from school president. Fr. John Brown, S.J., who is currently the school's president, took over the role in 2020, becoming the school's 31st president.

The principal is Peter Kernion (Class of 1990).

Mascot, colors, and logo
The mascot is a blue jay posed with his fists raised, designed by cartoonist Walt Kelly of Pogo fame. A contest among students was held to name the mascot in 1954, and the name "Jayson" won.

The school's colors are blue and white to honor the Virgin Mary. Student athletes wore a white sweater with a blue letter "J" on it and were referred to as the "Blue Js"—hence the eventual selection of the mascot. As with many Jesuit schools, the school's motto is Ad Majorem Dei Gloriam ("For the Greater Glory of God").

Athletics
Jesuit athletics competes in the LHSAA.

Athletic history
Since 1933, Jesuit has won numerous state championships in football, basketball, baseball, wrestling, and soccer. The 1946 athletic year yielded undefeated state champions in baseball, basketball, track and field, and football—all coached by G. Gernon Brown. It has been said that Jesuit had "All the Tricks in '46."

In the 2004–2005 school year, Jesuit won state championships in baseball, cross country, soccer, tennis, wrestling, rugby, and swimming, and went to the state playoffs in football with an undefeated regular season. In 2012 Jesuit built Ryan stadium, a state of the art facility accommodating football, baseball, and soccer on a field covered entirely with artificial turf. In 2015, Jesuit was the first prep school in the States to get a germ-zapping robot, gift of an alumnus.

Cross Country
In 2005, Jesuit became the first 5A school in Louisiana history to win three state championships in a row in the sport of cross country. In 2006 they continued with an unprecedented 4th cross country state championship.

Swimming
Jesuit swimming holds the LHSAA record for most consecutive state championships in any sport, with 18 straight. As of November 20, 2010, Jesuit Swimming has captured 36 state championships. The streak was broken in 2005 when the team, still feeling the effects of Hurricane Katrina, was only able to field 12 swimmers, yet managed to take second place, only a few points out of first. In 2006, however, the team was able to recapture the state championship.

Wrestling
In wrestling within the state of Louisiana, Jesuit's rival Holy Cross was the perennial state champs under Br. Melchior Polowy in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. Then in 1969 Jesuit hired Surachai "Sam" Harnsongkram as its new wrestling coach. In 1972 the Jesuit High School Blue Jays won the first of 18 State Championships under Coach Sam, including 11 in a row from 1988–1998. Prior to that 1972 win, Jesuit's only state championship was in 1951. And since that string-of-11 (ending in 1998) Jesuit has won 4 more state wrestling championships, with the last being in 2009. High School wrestling in Louisiana has become much more visible starting in the 1990s, resulting in other schools developing programs to challenge the "leaders". From 1999-til-2015, Jesuit has won 4 more state championships, and has been runner-up in the other years. Jesuit won the Louisiana Division I wrestling championship in 2024.

Baseball
From 2007–09 Jesuit made it to the state tournament three times, and twice to the American Legion playoffs winning one championship. In August 2012, Jesuit's baseball team won the American Legion World Series. Jesuit's American Legion teams also won the national championship in 1946 and 1960. Jesuit won the Louisiana State High School Athletic Association Division I state championship in 2021 and again in 2023.

Football
In football, Jesuit High School vs. Holy Cross High School is the oldest continuous high school rivalry in Louisiana and one of the oldest continuous high school football rivalries in the United States. The first game was played in 1922 (Jesuit won by 52–0) and the two teams have played every year since (twice in 1963 and 2023: in 1963 once in regular season and another time for the state crown which Holy Cross won and in 2023 once in regular season and another time in the state playoffs which Holy Cross won) Blue Jays vs. Tigers.

Jesuit has won eight football state championships in 1933, 1940, 1941, 1943, 1946, 1953, 1960, and 2014. The Jesuit football team played for a state championship during the 2014 season against the John Curtis Patriots. It was the Blue Jays' first championship game appearance since 1978 against St. Augustine. Jesuit defeated John Curtis 17–14 to win the Division 1 state championship. Running back Charles Jackson was voted the game's most valuable player.

Basketball
In February 1965, Jesuit's all-white basketball team played a secret game against St. Augustine, the city's all-male, all-black high school. The Purple Knights won the game, which was the basis for the 1999 motion picture Passing Glory. That same year, Jesuit won the 1965 Louisiana High School Athletic Association state championship in Class AAA (at the time the state's highest classification) while St. Augustine won the championship of the Louisiana Interscholastic and Literary Organization, the sanctioning body for the state's black schools. In the fall of 1967, St. Augustine joined the LHSAA and became a rival for the Blue Jays in the New Orleans Catholic League through the 2010–11 school year, when the Purple Knights were reclassified Class 4A by the LHSAA. In the 2013-14 school year, the Purple Knights were reclassified back up to Class 5A by the LHSAA.

Soccer
In the 1998–1999 season, 2006–2007 season, 2008–2009 season, and also the 2009–2010 season, Jesuit fielded one of the best soccer teams in the nation, winning the Louisiana state title and in all four cases ending the season undefeated. This record gave the Jesuit team a #3 (1998–99), a #2 (2006–2007), a #1 (2008–2009), and a #3 (2009–2010) rank in the nation. The 2008–2009 team is considered the best high school soccer team in LHSAA history. In the three seasons from 2009–2011, the soccer team had a 94-game unbeaten streak, which is the fourth longest unbeaten streak in the country. Jesuit won additional soccer state championships in 2018 and 2024.

Rugby
In the 2007–2008 season, the rugby team won the State Championship for the sixth consecutive year with an undefeated season, only allowing 12 points while scoring over 300. Because of a conflict with the senior prom, the team was forced to play in the more difficult multi-school division at the Southern Regionals in Murfreesboro, Tennessee. The team swept regionals and moved on to become 8th in the country in the multi-school division at the USA Rugby Boys High School National Championship. In 2017, the Blue Jays reclaimed the State Championship, winning the title for the first time since 2011, with an overtime victory over the Bayou Hurricanes, 25–22. In 2018, the Blue Jays remained the State Champions with a victory over the Brother Martin Crusaders, 22–12.

Lacrosse
In 2014, Jesuit New Orleans won the 2014 Allstate Sugar Bowl Lacrosse Classic, with 14 schools competing from Louisiana, Texas, Mississippi, and Alabama. In 2021, the Lacrosse team won the Louisiana High School Lacrosse state championship after completing an undefeated season.

Golf
Jesuit won the state championship twice in the late 1990s.

Hurricane Katrina
When the flooding following Hurricane Katrina devastated New Orleans, Jesuit High School was inundated, five feet (1.5 m) of water ruining the ground floor. When the school announced that it was closed indefinitely, many students enrolled in schools in cities where they had evacuated. The largest concentration of students attended a satellite school at Strake Jesuit College Preparatory in Houston; at one point, approximately 420 displaced students attended classes at night with their own teachers and classmates. In mid-October, Jesuit opened another satellite school at St. Martin's Episcopal School in Metairie in unincorporated Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, where about 500 students attended until Thanksgiving. After Thanksgiving, Jesuit's students and faculty returned to their own campus, becoming the first flooded school in New Orleans to reopen – albeit with an unusable first floor. The school held its annual Thanksgiving Drive for the poor living in the surrounding neighborhoods. On 23 January 2006, 1285 of the 1450 students returned to attend Jesuit for the second semester. After the Hurricane Maria in Puerto Rico in 2017, Jesuit hosted students from Colegio San Ignacio in Puerto Rico.

History of sexual abuse
There have been several instances of child sexual abuse at the school. The Jesuit order confirmed that at least fourteen clergy assigned to Jesuit High at some point in their careers were credibly accused of sexual abuse. The accused clergy were active from the 1950s through the 1990s, and almost all are currently deceased. Several other priests and employees at the school have also been confirmed by the administration as abusers, and the school has allegedly paid large settlements to the families.

Notable alumni
In 1978, James K. Glassman in The Atlantic wrote that "Practically every white Orleanian of note went to" Jesuit.

In chronological order:

 * Larry Gilbert (Class of 1910), MLB player (Boston Braves)
 * F. Edward Hebert (Class of 1920), U.S. Congressman (1940–1976)
 * Robert B. Landry (Class of 1927), United States military officer
 * Hap Glaudi
 * Charlie Gilbert (Class of 1937), MLB player (Brooklyn Dodgers, Chicago Cubs, Philadelphia Phillies)
 * Fats Dantonio (Class of 1938), MLB player (Brooklyn Dodgers)
 * Connie Ryan (Class of 1938), MLB player and MLB manager
 * Jimmy Fitzmorris (Class of 1939), Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana (1972–1980)
 * Ray Coates (Class of 1944), MVP 1947 Cotton Bowl, member of LSU’s 1946 Southeastern Conference championship baseball team
 * Adrian G. Duplantier (Class of 1945), United States federal judge
 * Putsy Caballero (Class of 1946), MLB player (Philadelphia Phillies)
 * Warren Leruth (Class of 1946), chef and restaurateur; credited with naming and developing Green Goddess salad dressing
 * Tookie Gilbert (Class of 1947), MLB player (New York Giants)
 * John Petitbon (Class of 1947), Notre Dame and National Football League player
 * Donald Wetzel (Class of 1947), inventor of the modern, networked Automated Teller Machine (ATM)
 * Moon Landrieu (Class of 1948), Mayor of New Orleans (1970–1978) and Secretary of Housing and Urban Development
 * John Grenier (Class of 1948), Alabama attorney and Republican Party figure
 * Clyde F. Bel, Jr. (Class of 1951), businessman and state representative for Orleans Parish, 1964–1972 and 1975–1980
 * Marv Breeding (Class of 1952), MLB player (Baltimore Orioles, Washington Senators, Los Angeles Dodgers)
 * John R. Bourgeois (Class of 1951), served as the 25th director of The President’s Own Marine Band for 17 years.
 * John Favalora (Class of 1954), Archbishop of Miami, Florida (1994–2010)
 * John Volz (Class of 1954), attorney for United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana
 * A. J. McNamara (Class of 1954), member of Louisiana House of Representatives, 1976–1980; judge for U.S. District Court, 1982–2001
 * Richie Petitbon (Class of 1955), Tulane University and National Football League player, Washington Redskins head coach
 * Rusty Staub (Class of 1961), Major League Baseball player, 6-time All-Star, New York Mets Hall of Fame
 * Pat Screen (Class of 1961), state champion 1960, LSU quarterback, Mayor-President of East Baton Rouge Parish (1981–1988)
 * Jim Donelon (Class of 1962), Louisiana insurance commissioner
 * Jay Thomas (Class of 1966), actor (Eddie LeBec of Cheers, Murphy Brown) and radio personality (Sirius Satellite Radio, Channel 104 M-TH, Channel 101 F)
 * Jason Berry (Class of 1967), investigative journalist, book author, and historian
 * Edgar "Dooky" Chase (Class of 1967), community leader and proprietor of Dooky Chase's Restaurant
 * Jay Zainey (Class of 1969), Federal District Court judge, appointed by President George W. Bush
 * Paul Schott Stevens (Class of 1970), attorney, serving on the National Security Council under President Ronald Reagan
 * Steve Foley (Class of 1971), NFL player (Denver Broncos)
 * Jim Gaudet (Class of 1973), MLB player (Kansas City Royals)
 * Christopher Drew (Class of 1974), journalist and book author
 * Michael T. Dugan (Class of 1975), educator and accounting scholar
 * Ellis Henican (Class of 1976), journalist and voice actor
 * Christian LeBlanc (Class of 1976), actor (Michael Baldwin of The Young and the Restless)
 * Marc Morial (Class of 1976), Mayor of New Orleans (1994–2002)
 * Michael McGarry (Class of 1976), former Chairman and CEO of PPG
 * Brett Giroir (Class of 1978), Physician Scientist, Assistant Secretary for Health (2018-2021), former four-star admiral in the U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Corps
 * Mitch Landrieu (Class of 1978), Mayor of New Orleans and Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana
 * Dan Clancy (Class of 1981), technologist and computer scientist for NASA & Google, CEO of Twitch
 * Fred LeBlanc (Class of 1981), drummer and singer in rock band Cowboy Mouth
 * Will Clark (Class of 1982), Major League Baseball player, 6-time All-Star, Gold Glove winner
 * Fred Weller (Class of 1984), Broadway and television actor
 * Harry Connick, Jr. (Class of 1985), musician, recording artist, actor and television personality
 * Paul Siefken (Class of 1988), President and CEO of Fred Rogers Productions
 * Jay Duplass (Class of 1991), filmmaker
 * Cameron Henry (Class of 1992), business analyst and Louisiana state legislator
 * David Guas (Class of 1993), celebrity chef, TV personality, restaurateur and cookbook author
 * Mark Duplass (Class of 1995), filmmaker, actor (
 * Michael White (Class of 1995), men's head basketball coach at the University of Georgia
 * Brandon Long (Class of 1995), federal judge for the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Louisiana, former FBI deputy chief of staff
 * Walt Leger III (Class of 1996), attorney and state legislator, former Speaker Pro Tempore, Louisiana House of Representatives
 * Christian N. Weiler (Class of 1997), tax lawyer
 * Corey Hilliard (Class of 2003), football player
 * Johnny Giavotella (Class of 2005), second baseman for Kansas City Royals
 * Ryan Adams (Class of 2006), MLB player (Baltimore Orioles)
 * Patrick Mullins (Class of 2010), professional soccer player
 * Kyle Keller, (Class of 2011), MLB player, currently (Miami Marlins)
 * Deion Jones (Class of 2012), linebacker for LSU,
 * Tanner Lee (Class of 2013), quarterback for Jacksonville Jaguars
 * Foster Moreau (Class of 2015), tight end for LSU, selected in the fourth round (137th pick overall) in the 2019 NFL draft by the Oakland Raiders

Notable students (attended but did not graduate)

 * Edward Douglass White (Class of 1865), Chief Justice of the United States
 * Malcolm John Rebennack, Jr., known by his stage name Dr. John
 * Louis Prima (transferred to Warren Easton High School in 1926)
 * Alois "Al" Hirt ‘39, trumpeter and entertainer

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Jesuit High School (New Orleans)


text:
Agostino Todaro

Agostino Todaro (14 January 1818 – 18 April 1892) was an Italian botanist.

He was born and died in Palermo, Italy. He was a professor of botany and became the director of the botanical gardens in Palermo. He published the Hortus Botanicus Panormitanus in 1876–1878.

In 1843, botanist Filippo Parlatore published Todaroa, which is a genus of flowering plants from the Canary Islands, belonging to the family Apiaceae. It just contains one known species, Todaroa aurea (Aiton) Parl., and it is named after Agostino Todaro.

The standard botanical author abbreviation Tod. is applied to species he described.

Main works

 * Orchideae siculae sive enumeratio orchidearum in Sicilia hucusque detectarum, Ex Empedoclea Officina, Panormi 1842
 * Rapporto della Commissione per l'imboschimento e censuazione di Monte Pellegrino, con G. Schiro, Lima, Palermo 1851.
 * Nuovi generi e nuove specie di piante coltivate nel Real Orto Botanico di Palermo, Pagando e Piola, Palermo 1858
 * Relazione sui cotoni coltivati al r. Orto botanico nell'anno 1864, Lorsnaider, Palermo 1864.
 * Synopsis plantarum acotyledonearum vascularium sponte provenientium in Sicilia insulisque adjacentibus, Lao, Palermo 1866.
 * Relazione sui cotoni coltivati nel r. Orto botanico di Palermo nell'anno 1876, Lao, Palermo 1877.
 * Relazione sulla cultura dei cotoni in Italia, seguita da una monografia del genere Gossypium, Stamp. Reale, Palermo 1878.
 * Sopra una nuova specie di Fourcroya, Lao, Palermo 1879.

title: Agostino Todaro


text:
John Middleton (colonial administrator)

Sir John Middleton, (1870 – 5 November 1954) was a British colonial administrator.

Middleton joined the Colonial Office in 1901, serving in south Nigeria for six years as a junior official before moving on to Mauritius until 1920 when he was promoted to governor of the Falkland Islands from 1920 to 1927, Gambia from 1927 to 1928 and Newfoundland from 1928 to 1932.

He was Governor of Newfoundland during a period of acute political crisis that was exacerbated by the Great Depression. In 1932, he was asked to investigate allegations that the Prime Minister of Newfoundland, Sir Richard Squires had falsified cabinet minutes in an attempt to coverup evidence of corruption involving his government. Middleton's conclusions that there was no sign of tampering resulted in a riot outside his office on 5 April 1932 that helped bring down the Squires government. Middleton retired from public life following his term in Newfoundland and returned to England.

title: John Middleton (colonial administrator)


text:
User talk:Aerothorn

Hi Aerothorn. :) I've just put a copy of your nomination of Deus Ex in the correct place: Featured article candidates.  I see you're new, so welcome to wikipedia - I'm glad you've found an article you thought was that good so quickly.  :)  You might want to say a little bit about your interests on the New user log. Here are some links for you:

Welcome to Wikipedia!

You might find these links helpful in creating new pages or editing existing articles: How to edit a page, How to write a great article, Naming conventions, Manual of Style. You should read our policies at some point too.

If you want to see what other users are doing at the moment, have a look at recent changes. This is a good way to find random articles you might be interested on working on, or you can simply enjoy reading what other wikipedians have to say. Every article has a Talk page (like this one) where you can raise questions or suggest a direction for an article to take. When you make edits to a page, it's a very good idea to add a few words to the summary field to let other users know what you just did (anything from typo to rewrote article)!

If you have any questions, see the help pages, add a question to the village pump or ask me on my talk page. I hope you enjoy editing here and being a Wikipedian!

 * If you made any edits before you got an account, you might be interested in assigning those to your username.

 * You can sign your name using three tildes, like this: . If you use four, you can add a datestamp too.

 * If you ever think a page or image should be deleted, please list it at the votes for deletion page. There is also a votes for undeletion page if you want to retrieve something that you think should not have been deleted.

Again, welcome! :) fabiform | talk 03:55, 16 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Talkback
Alpha_Quadrant  (talk)  02:53, 14 March 2012 (UTC)
 * Replied. Alpha_Quadrant   (talk)  20:41, 14 March 2012 (UTC)

title: User talk:Aerothorn


text:
Colonial Office (disambiguation)

Colonial Office was a former UK government ministry.

Colonial Office, a government agency which serves to oversee and supervise colonies, may also refer to:

 * Office of Insular Affairs, the American government agency
 * Imperial Colonial Office (Reichskolonialamt), the German Colonial Office

title: Colonial Office (disambiguation)


text:
Ventilation (architecture)

Ventilation is the intentional introduction of outdoor air into a space. Ventilation is mainly used to control indoor air quality by diluting and displacing indoor pollutants; it can also be used to control indoor temperature, humidity, and air motion to benefit thermal comfort, satisfaction with other aspects of the indoor environment, or other objectives.

The intentional introduction of outdoor air is usually categorized as either mechanical ventilation, natural ventilation, or mixed-mode ventilation.
 * Mechanical ventilation is the intentional fan-driven flow of outdoor air into and/or out from a building. Mechanical ventilation systems may include supply fans (which push outdoor air into a building), exhaust fans (which draw air out of a building and thereby cause equal ventilation flow into a building), or a combination of both (called balanced ventilation if it neither pressurizes nor depressurizes the inside air, or only slightly depressurizes it). Mechanical ventilation is often provided by equipment that is also used to heat and cool a space.
 * Natural ventilation is the intentional passive flow of outdoor air into a building through planned openings (such as louvers, doors, and windows). Natural ventilation does not require mechanical systems to move outdoor air. Instead, it relies entirely on passive physical phenomena, such as wind pressure, or the stack effect. Natural ventilation openings may be fixed, or adjustable. Adjustable openings may be controlled automatically (automated), owned by occupants (operable), or a combination of both. Cross ventilation is a phenomenon of natural ventilation.
 * Mixed-mode ventilation systems use both mechanical and natural processes. The mechanical and natural components may be used at the same time, at different times of day, or in different seasons of the year. Since natural ventilation flow depends on environmental conditions, it may not always provide an appropriate amount of ventilation. In this case, mechanical systems may be used to supplement or regulate the naturally driven flow.

Ventilation is typically described as separate from infiltration.

 * Infiltration is the circumstantial flow of air from outdoors to indoors through leaks (unplanned openings) in a building envelope. When a building design relies on infiltration to maintain indoor air quality, this flow has been referred to as adventitious ventilation.

The design of buildings that promote occupant health and well-being requires a clear understanding of the ways that ventilation airflow interacts with, dilutes, displaces, or introduces pollutants within the occupied space. Although ventilation is an integral component of maintaining good indoor air quality, it may not be satisfactory alone. In scenarios where outdoor pollution would deteriorate indoor air quality, other treatment devices such as filtration may also be necessary. In kitchen ventilation systems, or for laboratory fume hoods, the design of effective effluent capture can be more important than the bulk amount of ventilation in a space. More generally, the way that an air distribution system causes ventilation to flow into and out of a space impacts the ability of a particular ventilation rate to remove internally generated pollutants. The ability of a system to reduce pollution in space is described as its "ventilation effectiveness". However, the overall impacts of ventilation on indoor air quality can depend on more complex factors such as the sources of pollution, and the ways that activities and airflow interact to affect occupant exposure.

An array of factors related to the design and operation of ventilation systems are regulated by various codes and standards. Standards dealing with the design and operation of ventilation systems to achieve acceptable indoor air quality include the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standards 62.1 and 62.2, the International Residential Code, the International Mechanical Code, and the United Kingdom Building Regulations Part F. Other standards that focus on energy conservation also impact the design and operation of ventilation systems, including ASHRAE Standard 90.1, and the International Energy Conservation Code.

In many instances, ventilation for indoor air quality is simultaneously beneficial for the control of thermal comfort. Increasing ventilation is essential to enhance the physical health of people. At these times, it can be useful to increase the rate of ventilation beyond the minimum required for indoor air quality. Two examples include air-side economizer cooling and ventilative pre-cooling. In other instances, ventilation for indoor air quality contributes to the need for – and energy use by – mechanical heating and cooling equipment. In hot and humid climates, dehumidification of ventilation air can be a particularly energy-intensive process.

Ventilation should be considered for its relationship to "venting" for appliances and combustion equipment such as water heaters, furnaces, boilers, and wood stoves. Most importantly, building ventilation design must be careful to avoid the backdraft of combustion products from "naturally vented" appliances into the occupied space. This issue is of greater importance for buildings with more air-tight envelopes. To avoid the hazard, many modern combustion appliances utilize "direct venting" which draws combustion air directly from outdoors, instead of from the indoor environment.

Design of air flow in rooms
The air in a room can be supplied and removed in several ways, for example via ceiling ventilation, cross ventilation, floor ventilation or displacement ventilation.

Ventilation rates for indoor air quality
The ventilation rate, for commercial, industrial, and institutional (CII) buildings, is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outdoor air, introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) in the imperial system, or liters per second (L/s) in the metric system (even though cubic meter per second is the preferred unit for volumetric flow rate in the SI system of units). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a per person or per unit floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour (ACH).

Standards for residential buildings
For residential buildings, which mostly rely on infiltration for meeting their ventilation needs, a common ventilation rate measure is the air change rate (or air changes per hour): the hourly ventilation rate divided by the volume of the space (I or ACH; units of 1/h). During the winter, ACH may range from 0.50 to 0.41 in a tightly air-sealed house to 1.11 to 1.47 in a loosely air-sealed house.

ASHRAE now recommends ventilation rates dependent upon floor area, as a revision to the 62-2001 standard, in which the minimum ACH was 0.35, but no less than 15 CFM/person (7.1 L/s/person). As of 2003, the standard has been changed to 3 CFM/100 sq. ft. (15 L/s/100 sq. m.) plus 7.5 CFM/person (3.5 L/s/person).

Ventilation rate procedure
Ventilation Rate Procedure is rate based on standard and prescribes the rate at which ventilation air must be delivered to space and various means to the condition that air. Air quality is assessed (through CO2 measurement) and ventilation rates are mathematically derived using constants. Indoor Air Quality Procedure uses one or more guidelines for the specification of acceptable concentrations of certain contaminants in indoor air but does not prescribe ventilation rates or air treatment methods. This addresses both quantitative and subjective evaluations and is based on the Ventilation Rate Procedure. It also accounts for potential contaminants that may have no measured limits, or for which no limits are not set (such as formaldehyde off-gassing from carpet and furniture).

Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation harnesses naturally available forces to supply and remove air in an enclosed space. Poor ventilation in rooms is identified to significantly increase the localized moldy smell in specific places of the room including room corners. There are three types of natural ventilation occurring in buildings: wind-driven ventilation, pressure-driven flows, and stack ventilation. The pressures generated by 'the stack effect' rely upon the buoyancy of heated or rising air. Wind-driven ventilation relies upon the force of the prevailing wind to pull and push air through the enclosed space as well as through breaches in the building's envelope.

Almost all historic buildings were ventilated naturally. The technique was generally abandoned in larger US buildings during the late 20th century as the use of air conditioning became more widespread. However, with the advent of advanced Building Performance Simulation (BPS) software, improved Building Automation Systems (BAS), Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) design requirements, and improved window manufacturing techniques; natural ventilation has made a resurgence in commercial buildings both globally and throughout the US.

The benefits of natural ventilation include:

 * Improved indoor air quality (IAQ)
 * Energy savings
 * Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
 * Occupant control
 * Reduction in occupant illness associated with sick building syndrome
 * Increased worker productivity

Techniques and architectural features used to ventilate buildings and structures naturally include, but are not limited to:

 * Operable windows
 * Clerestory windows and vented skylights
 * Lev/convection doors
 * Night purge ventilation
 * Building orientation
 * Wind capture façades

Airborne diseases
Natural ventilation is a key factor in reducing the spread of airborne illnesses such as tuberculosis, the common cold, influenza, meningitis or COVID-19. Opening doors and windows are good ways to maximize natural ventilation, which would make the risk of airborne contagion much lower than with costly and maintenance-requiring mechanical systems. Old-fashioned clinical areas with high ceilings and large windows provide the greatest protection. Natural ventilation costs little and is maintenance-free, and is particularly suited to limited-resource settings and tropical climates, where the burden of TB and institutional TB transmission is highest. In settings where respiratory isolation is difficult and climate permits, windows and doors should be opened to reduce the risk of airborne contagion. Natural ventilation requires little maintenance and is inexpensive.

Natural ventilation is not practical in much of the infrastructure because of climate. This means that the facilities need to have effective mechanical ventilation systems and or use Ceiling Level UV or FAR UV ventilation systems.

Ventilation is measured in terms of air changes per hour (ACH). , the CDC recommends that all spaces have a minimum of 5 ACH. For hospital rooms with airborne contagions the CDC recommends a minimum of 12 ACH. Challenges in facility ventilation are public unawareness, ineffective government oversight, poor building codes that are based on comfort levels, poor system operations, poor maintenance, and lack of transparency.

Pressure, both political and economic, to improve energy conservation has led to decreased ventilation rates. Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning rates have dropped since the energy crisis in the 1970s and the banning of cigarette smoke in the 1980s and 1990s.

Mechanical ventilation

Mechanical ventilation of buildings and structures can be achieved by the use of the following techniques:

 * Whole-house ventilation
 * Mixing ventilation
 * Displacement ventilation
 * Dedicated subaerial air supply

Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV)
Demand-controlled ventilation (DCV, also known as Demand Control Ventilation) makes it possible to maintain air quality while conserving energy. ASHRAE has determined that "It is consistent with the ventilation rate procedure that demand control be permitted for use to reduce the total outdoor air supply during periods of less occupancy." In a DCV system, CO2 sensors control the amount of ventilation. During peak occupancy, CO2 levels rise, and the system adjusts to deliver the same amount of outdoor air as would be used by the ventilation-rate procedure. However, when spaces are less occupied, CO2 levels reduce, and the system reduces ventilation to conserves energy. DCV is a well-established practice, and is required in high occupancy spaces by building energy standards such as ASHRAE 90.1.

Personalized ventilation
Personalized ventilation is an air distribution strategy that allows individuals to control the amount of ventilation received. The approach delivers fresh air more directly to the breathing zone and aims to improve the air quality of inhaled air. Personalized ventilation provides much higher ventilation effectiveness than conventional mixing ventilation systems by displacing pollution from the breathing zone with far less air volume. Beyond improved air quality benefits, the strategy can also improve occupants' thermal comfort, perceived air quality, and overall satisfaction with the indoor environment. Individuals' preferences for temperature and air movement are not equal, and so traditional approaches to homogeneous environmental control have failed to achieve high occupant satisfaction. Techniques such as personalized ventilation facilitate control of a more diverse thermal environment that can improve thermal satisfaction for most occupants.

Local exhaust ventilation
Local exhaust ventilation addresses the issue of avoiding the contamination of indoor air by specific high-emission sources by capturing airborne contaminants before they are spread into the environment. This can include water vapor control, lavatory effluent control, solvent vapors from industrial processes, and dust from wood- and metal-working machinery. Air can be exhausted through pressurized hoods or the use of fans and pressurizing a specific area. A local exhaust system is composed of five basic parts:

 * 1) A hood that captures the contaminant at its source
 * 2) Ducts for transporting the air
 * 3) An air-cleaning device that removes/minimizes the contaminant
 * 4) A fan that moves the air through the system
 * 5) An exhaust stack through which the contaminated air is discharged

In the UK, the use of LEV systems has regulations set out by the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) which are referred to as the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (CoSHH). Under CoSHH, legislation is set to protect users of LEV systems by ensuring that all equipment is tested at least every fourteen months to ensure the LEV systems are performing adequately. All parts of the system must be visually inspected and thoroughly tested and where any parts are found to be defective, the inspector must issue a red label to identify the defective part and the issue.

The owner of the LEV system must then have the defective parts repaired or replaced before the system can be used.

Smart ventilation
Smart ventilation is a process of continually adjusting the ventilation system in time, and optionally by location, to provide the desired IAQ benefits while minimizing energy consumption, utility bills, and other non-IAQ costs (such as thermal discomfort or noise). A smart ventilation system adjusts ventilation rates in time or by location in a building to be responsive to one or more of the following: occupancy, outdoor thermal and air quality conditions, electricity grid needs, direct sensing of contaminants, operation of other air moving and air cleaning systems. In addition, smart ventilation systems can provide information to building owners, occupants, and managers on operational energy consumption and indoor air quality as well as a signal when systems need maintenance or repair. Being responsive to occupancy means that a smart ventilation system can adjust ventilation depending on demand such as reducing ventilation if the building is unoccupied. Smart ventilation can time-shift ventilation to periods when a) indoor-outdoor temperature differences are smaller (and away from peak outdoor temperatures and humidity), b) when indoor-outdoor temperatures are appropriate for ventilative cooling, or c) when outdoor air quality is acceptable. Being responsive to electricity grid needs means providing flexibility to electricity demand (including direct signals from utilities) and integration with electric grid control strategies. Smart ventilation systems can have sensors to detect airflow, systems pressures, or fan energy use in such a way that systems failures can be detected and repaired, as well as when system components need maintenance, such as filter replacement.

Ventilation and combustion
Combustion (in a fireplace, gas heater, candle, oil lamp, etc.) consumes oxygen while producing carbon dioxide and other unhealthy gases and smoke, requiring ventilation air. An open chimney promotes infiltration (i.e. natural ventilation) because of the negative pressure change induced by the buoyant, warmer air leaving through the chimney. The warm air is typically replaced by heavier, cold air.

Ventilation in a structure is also needed for removing water vapor produced by respiration, burning, and cooking, and for removing odors. If water vapor is permitted to accumulate, it may damage the structure, insulation, or finishes. When operating, an air conditioner usually removes excess moisture from the air. A dehumidifier may also be appropriate for removing airborne moisture.

Calculation for acceptable ventilation rate
Ventilation guidelines are based on the minimum ventilation rate required to maintain acceptable levels of effluents. Carbon dioxide is used as a reference point, as it is the gas of highest emission at a relatively constant value of 0.005 L/s. The mass balance equation is:

Q = G/(Ci − Ca)

 * Q = ventilation rate (L/s)
 * G = CO2 generation rate
 * Ci = acceptable indoor CO2 concentration
 * Ca = ambient CO2 concentration

Smoking and ventilation
ASHRAE standard 62 states that air removed from an area with environmental tobacco smoke shall not be recirculated into ETS-free air. A space with ETS requires more ventilation to achieve similar perceived air quality to that of a non-smoking environment.

The amount of ventilation in an ETS area is equal to the amount of an ETS-free area plus the amount V, where:

V = DSD × VA × A/60E

 * V = recommended extra flow rate in CFM (L/s)
 * DSD = design smoking density (estimated number of cigarettes smoked per hour per unit area)
 * VA = volume of ventilation air per cigarette for the room being designed (ft3/cig)
 * E = contaminant removal effectiveness

History

Primitive ventilation systems were found at the Pločnik archeological site (belonging to the Vinča culture) in Serbia and were built into early copper smelting furnaces. The furnace, built on the outside of the workshop, featured earthen pipe-like air vents with hundreds of tiny holes in them and a prototype chimney to ensure air goes into the furnace to feed the fire and smoke comes out safely.

Passive ventilation and passive cooling systems were widely written about around the Mediterranean by Classical times. Both sources of heat and sources of cooling (such as fountains and subterranean heat reservoirs) were used to drive air circulation, and buildings were designed to encourage or exclude drafts, according to climate and function. Public bathhouses were often particularly sophisticated in their heating and cooling. Icehouses are some millennia old, and were part of a well-developed ice industry by classical times.

The development of forced ventilation was spurred by the common belief in the late 18th and early 19th century in the miasma theory of disease, where stagnant 'airs' were thought to spread illness. An early method of ventilation was the use of a ventilating fire near an air vent which would forcibly cause the air in the building to circulate. English engineer John Theophilus Desaguliers provided an early example of this when he installed ventilating fires in the air tubes on the roof of the House of Commons. Starting with the Covent Garden Theatre, gas burning chandeliers on the ceiling were often specially designed to perform a ventilating role.

Mechanical systems

A more sophisticated system involving the use of mechanical equipment to circulate the air was developed in the mid-19th century. A basic system of bellows was put in place to ventilate Newgate Prison and outlying buildings, by the engineer Stephen Hales in the mid-1700s. The problem with these early devices was that they required constant human labor to operate. David Boswell Reid was called to testify before a Parliamentary committee on proposed architectural designs for the new House of Commons, after the old one burned down in a fire in 1834. In January 1840 Reid was appointed by the committee for the House of Lords dealing with the construction of the replacement for the Houses of Parliament. The post was in the capacity of ventilation engineer, in effect; and with its creation there began a long series of quarrels between Reid and Charles Barry, the architect.

Reid advocated the installation of a very advanced ventilation system in the new House. His design had air being drawn into an underground chamber, where it would undergo either heating or cooling. It would then ascend into the chamber through thousands of small holes drilled into the floor, and would be extracted through the ceiling by a special ventilation fire within a great stack.

Reid's reputation was made by his work in Westminster. He was commissioned for an air quality survey in 1837 by the Leeds and Selby Railway in their tunnel. The steam vessels built for the Niger expedition of 1841 were fitted with ventilation systems based on Reid's Westminster model. Air was dried, filtered and passed over charcoal. Reid's ventilation method was also applied more fully to St. George's Hall, Liverpool, where the architect, Harvey Lonsdale Elmes, requested that Reid should be involved in ventilation design. Reid considered this the only building in which his system was completely carried out.

Fans
With the advent of practical steam power, ceiling fans could finally be used for ventilation. Reid installed four steam-powered fans in the ceiling of St George's Hospital in Liverpool, so that the pressure produced by the fans would force the incoming air upward and through vents in the ceiling. Reid's pioneering work provides the basis for ventilation systems to this day. He was remembered as "Dr. Reid the ventilator" in the twenty-first century in discussions of energy efficiency, by Lord Wade of Chorlton.

History and development of ventilation rate standards
Ventilating a space with fresh air aims to avoid "bad air". The study of what constitutes bad air dates back to the 1600s when the scientist Mayow studied asphyxia of animals in confined bottles. The poisonous component of air was later identified as carbon dioxide, by Lavoisier in the very late 1700s, starting a debate as to the nature of "bad air" which humans perceive to be stuffy or unpleasant. Early hypotheses included excess concentrations of and oxygen depletion. However, by the late 1800s, scientists thought biological contamination, not oxygen or, was the primary component of unacceptable indoor air. However, it was noted as early as 1872 that concentration closely correlates to perceived air quality.

The first estimate of minimum ventilation rates was developed by Tredgold in 1836. This was followed by subsequent studies on the topic by Billings in 1886 and Flugge in 1905. The recommendations of Billings and Flugge were incorporated into numerous building codes from 1900–the 1920s and published as an industry standard by ASHVE (the predecessor to ASHRAE) in 1914.

The study continued into the varied effects of thermal comfort, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and biological contaminants. The research was conducted with human subjects in controlled test chambers. Two studies, published between 1909 and 1911, showed that carbon dioxide was not the offending component. Subjects remained satisfied in chambers with high levels of, so long as the chamber remained cool. (Subsequently, it has been determined that is, in fact, harmful at concentrations over 50,000ppm )

ASHVE began a robust research effort in 1919. By 1935, ASHVE-funded research conducted by Lemberg, Brandt, and Morse – again using human subjects in test chambers – suggested the primary component of "bad air" was an odor, perceived by the human olfactory nerves. Human response to odor was found to be logarithmic to contaminant concentrations, and related to temperature. At lower, more comfortable temperatures, lower ventilation rates were satisfactory. A 1936 human test chamber study by Yaglou, Riley, and Coggins culminated much of this effort, considering odor, room volume, occupant age, cooling equipment effects, and recirculated air implications, which guided ventilation rates. The Yaglou research has been validated, and adopted into industry standards, beginning with the ASA code in 1946. From this research base, ASHRAE (having replaced ASHVE) developed space-by-space recommendations, and published them as ASHRAE Standard 62-1975: Ventilation for acceptable indoor air quality.

As more architecture incorporated mechanical ventilation, the cost of outdoor air ventilation came under some scrutiny. In 1973, in response to the 1973 oil crisis and conservation concerns, ASHRAE Standards 62-73 and 62–81) reduced required ventilation from 10 CFM (4.76 L/s) per person to 5 CFM (2.37 L/s) per person. In cold, warm, humid, or dusty climates, it is preferable to minimize ventilation with outdoor air to conserve energy, cost, or filtration. This critique (e.g. Tiller ) led ASHRAE to reduce outdoor ventilation rates in 1981, particularly in non-smoking areas. However subsequent research by Fanger, W. Cain, and Janssen validated the Yaglou model. The reduced ventilation rates were found to be a contributing factor to sick building syndrome.

The 1989 ASHRAE standard (Standard 62–89) states that appropriate ventilation guidelines are 20 CFM (9.2 L/s) per person in an office building, and 15 CFM (7.1 L/s) per person for schools, while 2004 Standard 62.1-2004 has lower recommendations again (see tables below). ANSI/ASHRAE (Standard 62–89) speculated that "comfort (odor) criteria are likely to be satisfied if the ventilation rate is set so that 1,000 ppm CO2 is not exceeded" while OSHA has set a limit of 5000 ppm over 8 hours.

ASHRAE continues to publish space-by-space ventilation rate recommendations, which are decided by a consensus committee of industry experts. The modern descendants of ASHRAE standard 62-1975 are ASHRAE Standard 62.1, for non-residential spaces, and ASHRAE 62.2 for residences.

In 2004, the calculation method was revised to include both an occupant-based contamination component and an area–based contamination component. These two components are additive, to arrive at an overall ventilation rate. The change was made to recognize that densely populated areas were sometimes overventilated (leading to higher energy and cost) using a per-person methodology.

Occupant Based Ventilation Rates, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004

Area-based ventilation rates, ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 The addition of occupant- and area-based ventilation rates found in the tables above often results in significantly reduced rates compared to the former standard. This is compensated in other sections of the standard which require that this minimum amount of air is delivered to the breathing zone of the individual occupant at all times. The total outdoor air intake of the ventilation system (in multiple-zone variable air volume (VAV) systems) might therefore be similar to the airflow required by the 1989 standard.

From 1999 to 2010, there was considerable development of the application protocol for ventilation rates. These advancements address occupant- and process-based ventilation rates, room ventilation effectiveness, and system ventilation effectiveness

Problems

 * In hot, humid climates, unconditioned ventilation air can daily deliver approximately 260 milliliters of water for each cubic meters per hour (m3/h) of outdoor air (or one pound of water each day for each cubic feet per minute of outdoor air per day), annual average. This is a great deal of moisture and can create serious indoor moisture and mold problems. For example, given a 150 m2 building with an airflow of 180 m3/h this could result in about 47 liters of water accumulated per day.
 * Ventilation efficiency is determined by design and layout, and is dependent upon the placement and proximity of diffusers and return air outlets. If they are located closely together, supply air may mix with stale air, decreasing the efficiency of the HVAC system, and creating air quality problems.
 * System imbalances occur when components of the HVAC system are improperly adjusted or installed and can create pressure differences (too much-circulating air creating a draft or too little circulating air creating stagnancy).
 * Cross-contamination occurs when pressure differences arise, forcing potentially contaminated air from one zone to an uncontaminated zone. This often involves undesired odors or VOCs.
 * Re-entry of exhaust air occurs when exhaust outlets and fresh air intakes are either too close, prevailing winds change exhaust patterns or infiltration between intake and exhaust air flows.
 * Entrainment of contaminated outdoor air through intake flows will result in indoor air contamination. There are a variety of contaminated air sources, ranging from industrial effluent to VOCs put off by nearby construction work.

Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

 * Publications from the Air Infiltration & Ventilation Centre (AIVC)

International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC)

 * Publications from the International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy in Buildings and Communities Programme (EBC) ventilation-related research projects-annexes:
 * EBC Annex 9 Minimum Ventilation Rates
 * EBC Annex 18 Demand Controlled Ventilation Systems
 * EBC Annex 26 Energy Efficient Ventilation of Large Enclosures
 * EBC Annex 27 Evaluation and Demonstration of Domestic Ventilation Systems
 * EBC Annex 35 Control Strategies for Hybrid Ventilation in New and Retrofitted Office Buildings (HYBVENT)
 * EBC Annex 62 Ventilative Cooling

International Society of Indoor Air Quality and Climate

 * Indoor Air Journal
 * Indoor Air Conference Proceedings

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

 * ASHRAE Standard 62.1 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality
 * ASHRAE Standard 62.2 – Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality in Residential Buildings

title: Ventilation (architecture)


text:
Messali Hadj

Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj (May 16, 1898 – June 3, 1974; commonly known as Messali Hadj, مصالي الحاج) was an Algerian nationalist politician dedicated to the independence of his homeland from French colonial rule. He is often called the "father" of Algerian nationalism.

He co-founded the Étoile nord-africaine, and founded the Parti du peuple algérien and the Mouvement pour le triomphe des libertés démocratiques before dissociating himself from the armed struggle for Independence in 1954. He also founded the Mouvement national algérien to counteract the ongoing efforts of the Front de libération nationale.

Early life
Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj was born in Tlemcen in 1898. His father Hadj Ahmed Messali was of Turkish origin  and his mother Ftéma Sari Ali Hadj-Eddine belonged to a family of seven daughters, raised in Muslim traditions by their father, a qadi, a member of the Darqawiyya brotherhood. He was educated in a local French primary school and also received a religious education influenced by the Darqawiyya Sufi order.

Messali Hadj served in the French army from 1918 to 1921; having trained in Bordeaux and then promoted as sergeant in 1919. By October 1923, at the age of 25, Messali Hadj went to Paris to find work; upon his arrival, he sold bonnets and Tlemceni handicrafts, and he also enrolled in Arabic-language university courses. During his time in Paris, Messali Hadj met his French wife, Émilie Busquant, a worker revolutionary’s daughter. His time in Paris also corresponded with the first meetings of Maghribi workers in France which called for the independence of all colonies. Abdelkader Hadj Ali recruited Messali Hadj to the French Communist Party (PCF) colonial commission in 1925.

Founding of nationalist organisations
In 1926 Messali Hadj founded the "Étoile Nord-Africaine" (ENA). Consequently, he became one of the most prominent Algerian nationalists seeking to remove all French forces and to end French colonial rule in Algeria. Messali Hadj went to Brussels in 1927 to outline the ENA’s demands for the abolition of the Indigénat and amnesty for all those convicted under it; moreover, he listed several other demands including: the right to form trade unions, education for all, and social welfare and representational legislation. By 1929 the ENA was banned in France once its links with the French Communist Party were severed. Thereafter, Messali Hadj rebranded the ENA several times in the 1930s and 1940s; hence, he would find himself frequently jailed or exiled.

By 1935 Messali Hadj reorganised the "Étoile Nord-Africaine" (ENA) party and distanced it from the French communists by presenting it as an Algerian nationalist organisation called the "Union Nationale des Musulmans Nord-Africains". However, whilst he was in temporary exile in Geneva, Switzerland, Messali Hadj met Shakib Arslan and reoriented from Marxism to Pan-Arabism and Islamism. Consequently, Messali Hadj reorganised his nationalist movement as the "Parti du Peuple Algérien" (PPA) in March 1937.

However, in March 1941 Messali Hadj was tried by a Vichy court and sentenced to 16 years of hard labour. He was confined first to southern Algeria and then in Brazzaville in French Equatorial Africa. Nonetheless, he continued to be active in the Algerian nationalist movement. Once World War II came to an end, he was amnestied and returned to Algeria. However, straining relations between the "Parti du Peuple Algérien" and the "Amis du Manifeste et de la Liberté" (AML), as well as the decision to arrest and deport Messali Hadj, contributed to the outbreak of riots in Sétif and Constantinois on May 8, 1945. It was the first day of peace after the Nazi surrender in World War II and despite the celebrations in France, the mood of the French remained somber. France was low on resources, fuel, and raw materials, its railway infrastructure and industry in ruins. Politically, unrest was mounting, and even the accusation of collaboration was enough to paint a target on someone's back. Meanwhile the Muslims of Algeria were mobilizing to march for their own self-determination under slogans like "Muslims Awaken!" and "It's the Muslim flag that will float over North Africa" appearing on graffitied walls overnight. Messali Hadj had been exiled to Brazzaville as soon as French authorities received word of plans by Parti du Peuple Algérien to escalate the deepening unrest between the French settler colons and the Muslims. The death of some one hundred Europeans during the riots saw the French authorities ruthlessly suppress the Algerian nationalists and the army and police killed approximately 10,000 Muslims.

By 1946 Messali Hadj founded the "Mouvement pour le triomphe des libertés démocratiques" (MTLD) to replace the PPA, which had been outlawed by the French authorities. However, the MTLF was often referred to as the "MTLD-PPA" because, whilst the MTLD pursued public political strategies, the PPA continued to press for independence. By the end of 1947 the PPA-MTLD approved the creation of the Organisation spéciale to accelerate the independence movement. The party achieved considerable success in the elections for the Algerian Assembly. However, Messali Hadj's assertion of Arabism alienated the Kabyles and contributed to the Berberist crisis in 1949.

Once the Algerian War of Liberation began, Messali Hadj sought to compete with the Front de Libération Nationale by mobilising the Mouvement National Algérien (MNA) in December 1954.

Leader of the MNA
After the outbreak of the Algerian War of Independence in 1954 which was started against his wishes, Messali created the Mouvement National Algérien, or MNA (Algerian National Movement). Messali's followers clashed with the FLN; it was the only socialist faction not absorbed into the Front's fight for independence. The FLN's armed wing, the Armée de Libération Nationale (ALN) wiped out the MNA's guerrilla apparatus in Algeria early on in the war; the infighting then continued in France, during the so-called "café wars" over control of the expatriate community. According to author Remy Mauduit the FLN’s fight with the Messalists “did not stop until the Messalists were exterminated or forced to rally to the French.” According to this author, 10,000 were killed and another 25,000 wounded in the conflict. In 1958, Messali supported the proposals of President Charles de Gaulle, and France probably attempted to capitalize on the internal rivalries of the nationalist movement. During negotiation talks in 1961 the FLN did not accept the participation of the MNA, and this led to new outbursts of fighting.

After Algerian independence
In 1962, as Algeria gained independence from France, Messali tried to transform his group into a legitimate political party, but it was not successful, and the FLN seized control over Algeria as a one-party state.

Personal life
He was married to Émilie Busquant, a French feminist, anarcho-syndicalist and anti-colonial activist.

His daughter, Djanina Messali-Benkelfat, published a book about her father called "Une vie partagée avec Messali Hadj, mon père" ("A Life Shared with Messali Hadj, my Father").

Messali Hadj was in exile in France when he died in 1974. His body was buried in his native Tlemcen.

title: Messali Hadj


text:
Carotid body

The carotid body is a small cluster of chemoreceptor cells and supporting sustentacular cells situated at bifurcation of each common carotid artery in its tunica externa.

The carotid body detects changes in the composition of arterial blood flowing through it, mainly the partial pressure of arterial oxygen, but also of carbon dioxide. It is also sensitive to changes in blood pH, and temperature.

Structure
The carotid body is situated on the posterior aspect of the bifurcation of the common carotid artery.

The carotid body is made up of two types of cells, called glomus cells: glomus type I cells are peripheral chemoreceptors, and glomus type II cells are sustentacular supportive cells.

 * Glomus type I cells are derived from the neural crest. They release a variety of neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, ATP, and dopamine that trigger EPSPs in synapsed neurons leading to the respiratory center. They are innervated by axons of the glossopharyngeal nerve which collectively are called the carotid sinus nerve.
 * Glomus type II cells resemble glial cells, express the glial marker S100 and act as supporting cells.

Function
The carotid body functions as a sensor: it responds to a stimulus, primarily O2 partial pressure, which is detected by the type I (glomus) cells, and triggers an action potential through the afferent fibers of the glossopharyngeal nerve, which relays the information to the central nervous system.

Stimulus
The carotid body peripheral chemoreceptors are primarily sensitive to decreases in the partial pressure of oxygen (P O2 ). This is in contrast to the central chemoreceptors in the medulla oblongata that are primarily sensitive to changes in pH and P CO2 (a decrease in pH and an increase in P CO2 ). The carotid body chemoreceptors are also sensitive to pH and P CO2, but only secondarily. More specifically, the sensitivity of carotid body chemoreceptors to decreased P O2 is greater when pH is decreased and P CO2 is increased.

Impulse rate for carotid bodies is particularly sensitive to changes in arterial PO2 in the range of 60 down to 30 mm Hg, a range in which hemoglobin saturation with oxygen decreases rapidly.

The output of the carotid bodies is low at an oxygen partial pressure above about 100mmHg (13,3 kPa) (at normal physiological pH), but below 60mmHg the activity of the type I (glomus) cells increases rapidly due to a decrease in hemoglobin-oxygen saturation below 90%.

Detection
The mechanism for detecting reductions in P O2 has yet to be identified, there may be multiple mechanisms and could vary between species. Hypoxia detection has been shown to depend upon increased hydrogen sulfide generation produced by cystathionine gamma-lyase as hypoxia detection is reduced in mice in which this enzyme is knocked out or pharmacologically inhibited. The process of detection involves the interaction of cystathionine gamma-lyase with hemeoxygenase-2 and the production of carbon monoxide. Yet, some studies show that physiologic concentration of hydrogen sulfide may not be strong enough to trigger such responses.

Other theories suggest it may involve mitochondrial oxygen sensors and the haem-containing cytochromes that undergo reversible one-electron reduction during oxidative-phosphorylation. Haem reversibly binds O2 with an affinity similar to that of the carotid body, suggesting that haem containing proteins may have a role in O2, potentially this could be one of the complexes involved in oxidative-phosphorylation. This leads to increases in reactive oxygen species and rises in intracellular Ca2+. However, whether hypoxia leads to an increase or decrease in reactive oxygen species is unknown. The role of reactive oxygen species in hypoxia sensing is also under question.

The oxygen dependent enzyme haem-oxidase has also been put forward as a hypoxia sensor. In normoxia, haem-oxygenase generates carbon monoxide (CO), CO activates the large conductance calcium-activated potassium channel, BK. Falls in CO that occur as a consequence of hypoxia would lead to closure of this potassium channel and this would lead to membrane depolarisation and consequence activation of the carotid body. A role for the "energy sensor" AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) has also been proposed in hypoxia sensing. This enzyme is activated during times of net energy usage and metabolic stress, including hypoxia. AMPK has a number of targets and it appears that, in the carotid body, when AMPK is activated by hypoxia, it leads to downstream potassium channel closure of both O2-sentive TASK-like and BK channels

An increased P CO2 is detected because the CO2 diffuses into the cell, where it increases the concentration of carbonic acid and thus protons. The precise mechanism of CO2 sensing is unknown, however it has been demonstrated that CO2 and low pH inhibit a TASK-like potassium conductance, reducing potassium current. This leads to depolarisation of the cell membrane which leads to Ca2+ entry, excitation of glomus cells and consequent neurotransmitter release.

Arterial acidosis (either metabolic or from altered P CO2 ) inhibits acid-base transporters (e.g. Na+-H+) which raise intracellular pH, and activates transporters (e.g. Cl−-HCO3−) which decrease it. Changes in proton concentration caused by acidosis (or the opposite from alkalosis) inside the cell stimulates the same pathways involved in P CO2 sensing.

Another mechanism is through oxygen sensitive potassium channels. A drop in dissolved oxygen lead to closing of these channels which results in depolarization. This leads to release of the neurotransmitter dopamine in the glossopharyngeal and vagus afferente to the vasomotor area.

Action potential
The type I (glomus) cells in the carotid (and aortic bodies) are derived from neuroectoderm and are thus electrically excitable. A decrease in oxygen partial pressure, an increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure, and a decrease in arterial pH can all cause depolarization of the cell membrane, and they affect this by blocking potassium currents. This reduction in the membrane potential opens voltage-gated calcium channels, which causes a rise in intracellular calcium concentration. This causes exocytosis of vesicles containing a variety of neurotransmitters, including acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine, adenosine, ATP, substance P, and met-enkephalin. These act on receptors on the afferent nerve fibres which lie in apposition to the glomus cell to cause an action potential.

Relay
The feedback from the carotid body is sent to the cardiorespiratory centers in the medulla oblongata via the afferent branches of the glossopharyngeal nerve. (The efferent fibers of the aortic body chemoreceptors are relayed by the vagus nerve.) These centers, in turn, regulate breathing and blood pressure, with hypoxia causing an increase in ventilation.

Paraganglioma
A paraganglioma is a tumor that may involve the carotid body and is usually benign. Rarely, a malignant neuroblastoma may originate from the carotid body.

title: Carotid body


text:
Western fence lizard

The western fence lizard (Sceloporus occidentalis) is a common lizard of Arizona, New Mexico, California, Idaho, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington, Northern Mexico, and the surrounding area. As the ventral abdomen of an adult is characteristically blue, it is also known as the blue-belly. Two western fence lizards have been reported with duplicated or forked tails, presumably following an autotomy.

Taxonomy
Taxonomy for the western fence lizard has been under much debate. S. occidentalis belongs in the order Squamata (snakes and lizards) and the suborder Iguania. The family in which it belongs is still under scrutiny. The family Phrynosomatidae, along with seven other families, used to be included in the single family Iguanidae, until Frost and Etheridge's (1989) analysis of iguanian systematics suggested the family be divided. Most literature, however, still place the phrynosomatids in Iguanidae.

Five subspecies are recognized, as follows:
 * San Joaquin fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis biseriatus
 * Coast Range fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis bocourtii
 * Great Basin fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis longipes
 * Northwestern fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis occidentalis
 * Sierra fence lizard, Sceloporus occidentalis taylori

Some authors have raised the island fence lizard to specific rank, Sceloporus becki. However, recent work in molecular systematics has suggested there are four clades and 11 genetically separable populations, and the subspecies will probably have to be redefined.

Identification
Western fence lizards measure 5.7 – (snout-vent length) and a total length of about 21 cm. They are brown to black in color (the brown may be sandy or greenish) and have black stripes on their backs, but their most distinguishing characteristic is their bright blue bellies. The ventral sides of the limbs are yellow. Male blue belly lizards also have blue patches on their throats. This bright coloration is faint or absent in both females and juveniles. In some populations the males also display iridescent, bright turquoise blue spots on the dorsal surface. The scales of S. occidentalis are sharply keeled, and between the interparietal and rear of thighs, there are 35–57 scales.

Many other lizards have similar bright-blue coloring. The eastern fence lizard, S. undulatus, instead of having one large patch on its throat, has two small patches. The sagebrush lizard, S. graciosus, lacks yellow limbs and has smaller dorsal scales. S. occidentalis also resembles the side-blotched lizard, Uta stansburiana. However, the axilla of U. stansburiana usually has a black spot behind it and it has a complete gular fold.

Distribution and habitat
Although California is the heart of the range of this lizard, it is also found in eastern and southwestern Oregon (some populations are found even north of Seattle, Washington), as well as in the Columbia River Gorge, southwestern Idaho, Nevada, western Utah, northwestern Baja California, Arizona, and some of the islands off the coast of both California and Baja California. There is also an isolated population in the Northwestern Tualatin Valley, around Henry Hagg Lake.

The western fence lizard occupies a variety of habitats. It is found in grassland, broken chaparral, sagebrush, woodland, coniferous forest, and farmland, and occupies elevations from sea level to 10,800 ft. They generally avoid the harsh desert and are often found near water.

As of now, the western fence lizard is listed as unprotected, and no conservation restrictions apply.

Urbanization
Habitat loss caused by urbanization has many effects on the western fence lizard. Lizards in an urbanized environment have evolved to have shorter limbs and toes. This is because of the change in surfaces that the lizards use. While before urbanization western fence lizards used mostly woody substances, after urbanization they used more man-made substances, a greater breadth of habitats and developed shorter limbs and toes.

The habitat loss also causes a decrease in the number of scales. This is because of the urban heat island effect, increasing the temperature year round. The increase in temperature causes an increase in scale size and a decrease in scale number as it decreases the number of living cells in-between the scales and lowers evaporative water loss and heat load.

Behavior
These lizards are diurnal, and are commonly seen basking on paths, rocks, and fence posts, and other suitable sunny locations. They can change color from light grey or tan to nearly jet black for the purpose of thermoregulation while basking. S. occidentalis goes through a period of brumation during the winter. The length of time and when they emerge varies depending on climate. During the mating season, adult males will defend a home range.

The western fence lizard primarily eats small invertebrates, but may consume any appropriately sized prey item.

Reproduction
Western fence lizards mate in the spring, and do not breed until the spring of their second year. Females lay eggs under a flat surface by digging a nest at night. She lays one to three clutches of three to 17 eggs (usually eight) between April and July. The eggs hatch in August.

Lyme disease
Studies have shown that cases of Lyme disease are rarer in areas where the lizards are found. When ticks carrying Lyme disease feed on these lizards' blood (which they commonly do, especially around their ears), a protein in the lizard's blood kills the bacterium in the tick that causes Lyme disease. The infection inside the ticks' gut is therefore cleared and the tick no longer carries Lyme disease.

title: Western fence lizard