text:
Image schema

An image schema (both schemas and schemata are used as plural forms) is a recurring structure within our cognitive processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. As an understudy to embodied cognition, image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context. The term is introduced in Mark Johnson's book The Body in the Mind; in case study 2 of George Lakoff's Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: and further explained by Todd Oakley in The Oxford handbook of cognitive linguistics; by Rudolf Arnheim in Visual Thinking; by the collection From Perception to Meaning: Image Schemas in Cognitive Linguistics edited by Beate Hampe and Joseph E. Grady.

In contemporary cognitive linguistics, an image schema is considered an embodied prelinguistic structure of experience that motivates conceptual metaphor mappings. Learned in early infancy they are often described as spatiotemporal relationships that enable actions and describe characteristics of the environment. They exist both as static and dynamic version, describing both states and processes, compare Containment vs. Going_In/Out, and they are learned from all sensorimodalities.

Evidence for image schemas is drawn from a number of related disciplines, including work on cross-modal cognition in psychology, from spatial cognition in both linguistics and psychology, cognitive linguistics, and from neuroscience. The influences of image schemas is not only seen in cognitive linguistics and developmental psychology, but also in interface design and more recently, the theory has become of increased interest in artificial intelligence and cognitive robotics to help ground meaning.

Johnson: From image schemas to abstract reasoning via metaphor

Image schemas are dynamic embodied patterns—they take place in and through time. Moreover, they are multi-modal patterns of experience, not simply visual. For instance, consider how the dynamic nature of the containment schema is reflected in the various spatial senses of the English word out. Out may be used in cases where a clearly defined trajector (TR) leaves a spatially bounded landmark (LM), as in:
 * (1a) John went out of the room.
 * (1b) Mary got out of the car.
 * (1c) Spot jumped out of the pen.

In the most prototypical of such cases the landmark is a clearly defined container. However, out may also be used to indicate those cases where the trajector is a mass that spreads out, effectively expanding the area of the containing landmark:
 * (2a) She poured out the beans.
 * (2b) Roll out the carpet.
 * (2c) Send out the troops.

Finally, out is also often used to describe motion along a linear path where the containing landmark is implied and not defined at all:
 * (3) The train started out for Chicago.

Experientially basic and primarily spatial image schemas such as the Containment schema and its derivatives the Out schemas lend their logic to non-spatial situations. For example, one may metaphorically use the term out to describe non-spatial experiences:
 * (4) Leave out that big log when you stack the firewood. (Schema used directly and non-metaphorically.)
 * (4a) I don't want to leave any relevant data out of my argument. (Schema metaphorically projected onto argumentation.)
 * (4b) Tell me your story again, and don't leave out any details. (Schema metaphorically projected onto story-telling.)
 * (4c) She finally came out of her depression. (Schema metaphorically projected onto emotional life.)

Johnson argues that more abstract reasoning is shaped by such underlying spatial patterns. For example, he notes that the logic of containment is not just a matter of being in or out of the container. For example, if someone is in a deep depression, we know it is likely to be a long time before they are well. The deeper the trajector is in the container, the longer it will take for the trajector to get out of it. Similarly, Johnson argues that transitivity and the law of the excluded middle in logic are underlaid by preconceptual embodied experiences of the Containment schema.

Lakoff: Image schemas in Brugman's The story of Over
In case study two of his book Women, Fire and Dangerous Things, Lakoff re-presented the analysis of the English word over done by Claudia Brugman in her (1981) master's thesis. Similar to the analysis of out given by Johnson, Lakoff argued that there were six basic spatial schemas for the English word over. Moreover, Lakoff gave a detailed accounting of how these schemas were interrelated in terms of what he called a radial category structure. For example, these six schemas could be both further specified by other spatial schemas such as whether the trajector was in contact with the landmark or not (as in the plane flew over the mountain vs. he climbed over the mountain). Furthermore, Lakoff identified a group of "transformational" image schemata such as rotational schemas and path to object mass, as in Spider-Man climbed all over the wall. This analysis raised profound questions about how image schemas could be grouped, transformed, and how sequences of image schemas could be chained together in language, mind, and brain.

Relationships to similar theories
Johnson indicates that his analysis of out drew upon a 1981 doctoral dissertation by Susan Lindner in linguistics at UCSD under Ronald Langacker, and more generally by the theory of cognitive grammar put forth by him. For the force group of image schemas Johnson also drew on an early version of the force dynamic schemas put forth by Len Talmy, as used by linguists such as Eve Sweetser. Other influences include Max Wertheimer's gestalt structure theory and Kant's account of schemas in categorization, as well as studies in experimental psychology on the mental rotation of images.

In addition to the dissertation on over by Brugman, Lakoff's use of image schema theory also drew extensively on Talmy and Langacker's theories of spatial relations terms. Other theories making use of similar conceptual primitives to capture meaning include Jean M. Mandler's spatial primitives, Anna Wierzbicka's semantic primes , Leonard Talmy's conceptual primitives, Roger Schank conceptual dependency theory and Andrea A. diSessa's phenomenological primitives (p-prims).

Image schemas have also been proposed to be descriptors of Gibsonian affordances. An object like a cup affords the image schema Containment to liquids and an abstract concept like transportation offer the affordance of moving something from one point to another as an image-schematic combination of Source-Path-Goal and Containment (alternatively Support).

Formal specification of image schemas and role in artificial intelligence
While originally a theory for cognitive linguistics, the theory of image schemas and the underlying ideas behind embodied cognition have become of increased interest in artificial intelligence and cognitive robotics to help solve issues with natural language comprehension and the application of affordances. The research on formal accounts (e.g. ) of these abstract patterns date back several decades and has been proposed as a way to deal with geographical information science, natural language comprehension, automatic ontology generation and computational conceptual blending.

As a direct relation to embodied cognition, and more specifically embodied construction grammar, formal approaches to image schemas often limit the research area by looking at image schemas exclusively as spatiotemporal relationships. This provides a feasible foundation for knowledge representation to represent each individual image schema as well as their interconnection as relationships in a 3D space. One formal language to describe them is the ISL (Image Schema Language), a logic language combined by different formal calculi and first-order logic that builds on creating hierarchical families of logical micro-theories that is able to represent different degrees of specification of the image schemas.

In artificial intelligence, image schemas are also used as an inspiration to advance natural language comprehension of metaphors, conceptual blending and creative language use. This is extended to also include non-linguistic reasoning such as commonsense reasoning (e.g. see Davis' Egg cracking problem and the approach made to describe it image-schematically ) and the formal structure of events prototypical as some of the biggest challenges in AI.

Lists of image schemas
While Johnson provided an initial list of image schemas in The Body in the Mind (p. 126), his diagrams for them are scattered throughout his book and he only diagrammed a portion of those image schemas he listed. In his work, Lakoff also used several additional schemas.

Schemas discussed by Johnson

 * Spatial motion group
 * Containment
 * Path
 * Source-Path-Goal
 * Blockage
 * Center-Periphery
 * Cycle
 * Cyclic Climax
 * Force Group
 * Compulsion
 * Counterforce
 * Diversion
 * Removal of Restraint
 * Enablement
 * Attraction
 * Link
 * Scale
 * Balance Group
 * Axis Balance
 * Point Balance
 * Twin-Pan Balance
 * Equilibrium

Schemas listed, but not discussed, by Johnson

 * Contact
 * Surface
 * Full-Empty
 * Merging
 * Matching
 * Near-Far
 * Mass-Count
 * Iteration
 * Object
 * Splitting
 * Part-Whole
 * Superimposition
 * Process
 * Collection

Additional schemas discussed by Lakoff

 * Transformational group
 * Linear path from moving object (one-dimensional trajector)
 * Path to endpoint (endpoint focus)
 * Path to object mass (path covering)
 * Multiplex to mass (possibly the same as Johnson's undefined Mass-Count)
 * Reflexive (both part-whole and temporally different reflexives)
 * Rotation
 * Spatial group
 * Above
 * Across
 * Covering
 * Contact
 * Vertical Orientation
 * Length (extended trajector)

Schemas proposed and discussed by others

 * Rough-smooth/Bumpy-smooth (Rohrer; Johnson and Rohrer)
 * Straight (Cienki)

Mandler and Canovas' image schema hierarchy
Source:

 * 1) Spatial primitives. The first building blocks that allow us to understand what we perceive: PATH, CONTAINER, THING, CONTACT, etc.
 * 2) Image schemas. Representations of simple spatial events using the primitives: PATH TO THING, THING INTO CONTAINER, etc.
 * 3) Schematic integrations. The first conceptual representations to include non-spatial elements, by projecting feelings or non-spatial perceptions to blends structured by image schema

title: Image schema


text:
Hunter Region

The Hunter Region, also commonly known as the Hunter Valley, Newcastle Region, or simply Hunter, is a region in northern New South Wales, Australia, extending from approximately 162 km to 310 km north of Sydney. It contains the Hunter River and its tributaries with highland areas to the north and south. Situated at the northern end of the Sydney Basin bioregion, the Hunter Valley is one of the largest river valleys on the NSW coast, and is most commonly known for its wineries and coal industry.

Most of the population of the Hunter Region lives within 25 km of the coast, with 55% of the entire population living in the cities of Newcastle and Lake Macquarie. There are numerous other towns and villages scattered across the region in the eleven local government areas (LGAs) that make up the region. At the the combined population of the region was 682,465, and is expected to reach over 1,000,000 people by 2031. Under Australia's wine appellation system, the Hunter Valley wine zone Australian Geographical Indication (GI) covers the entire catchment of the Hunter River and its tributaries. Within that, the Hunter region is almost as large, and includes most of the wine-producing areas, excluding the metropolitan area of Newcastle and nearby coastal areas, some national parks, and any land that was in the Mudgee Shire (at the western heights of the catchment).

The Hunter wine region is one of Australia's best known wine regions, playing a pivotal role in the history of Australian wine as one of the first wine regions planted in the early 19th century. The success of the Hunter Valley wine industry has been dominated by its proximity to Sydney with its settlement and plantings in the 19th century fuelled by the trade network that linked the Hunter Valley to Sydney. The steady demand of consumers from Sydney continues to drive much of the Hunter Valley wine industry, including a factor in the economy by the tourism industry. While the Hunter Valley has been supplanted by the massive Riverina wine region as the largest producer of New South Wales wine, it still accounts for around 3% of Australia's total wine production and is one of the country's most recognisable regions.

History
For over 30,000 years the Wonnarua people of Aboriginal Australians inhabited the land that is now known as the Hunter Valley wine region. Along with the Worimi to the north and the Awabakal to the south, the Wonnarua developed a trading route connecting the Coquun (Hunter) Valley to the harbour now known as Sydney harbour. The wine-making history of Hunter Valley begins with the European settlement of the Sydney and the New South Wales region of Australia in the late 18th century as a penal colony of the British Empire. The Hunter River itself was discovered, by accident, in 1797 by British Lieutenant John Shortland as he searched for escaped convicts. The region soon became a valuable source for timber and coal that fuelled the steamship trade coming out of Sydney.

Land prospector John Howe cut a path through the Australian wilderness from Sydney up to the overland area in what is now known as the (Lower) Hunter Valley proper in 1820. Today, the modern Putty Road between the cities of Windsor and Singleton follows Howe's exact path and is a major thoroughfare for wine tourists coming into the Hunter Valley from Sydney. As previous plantings in the coastal areas around Sydney succumbed to the humidity and wetness, and plantings to the west were limited by spring frost damage, northern reaches leading to the Hunter became, almost by default, the wine region of the new colony.

The expansive growth of the Hunter Valley in the mid to late 19th century came directly from its monopoly position of the lucrative Sydney market. The provincial government of New South Wales had enacted regulations that placed prohibitive duties on wines from other areas such as Victoria and South Australia. Following World War I, many returning Australian veterans were given land grants in the Hunter Valley. This temporarily produced an up-tick in plantings but the global Great Depression as well as a series of devastating hail storms between 1929 and 1930 caused many growers to abandon their vineyards.

Geology

The Hunter Region is considered a transitional area between the Paleozoic rock foundation of the New England Fold Belt located to the south and the Early Permian and Middle Triassic period rock formations of the Sydney Basin to the south. Between these two geological areas is the Hunter-Mooki Thrust fault. At one time this fault was very geologically active and gave rise to the Brokenback range that feature prominently in the Hunter region. Strips of basalt found throughout the region also bear witness to the volcanic activity that has occurred in the history of this fault.

The Permian rocks in the central and southeastern expanse of the Lower Hunter Valley were formed when the area was underneath a shallow marine estuary. The remnants of this period has left an extensive network of coal seams that fuelled the early population boom of the Hunter Valley in the 19th century as well a high degree of salinity in the water table of much of the area. The further north and west, towards the Brokenback Range and the Upper Hunter, the more Triassic sandstone that can be found leading eventually to the carboniferous rocks that form the northern boundary of the Hunter with the New England Fold Belt and the foothills of the Barrington Tops.

Overall, the Hunter Valley has more soils (mostly hard, acidic patches of poorly draining heavy clay) that are unsuitable for viticulture than they have areas that are ideal for growing grapes. The soils of the Lower Hunter vary widely from sandy alluvial flats (often planted to Semillon), to deep friable loam (often planted with Shiraz) and friable red duplex soils. In the Upper Hunter, the rivers and creeks of the region contribute to the areas black, silty loam soils that are often overlaid on top of alkaline clay loam. Among the hills of the Brokenback range are strips of volcanic basalt that are prized by growers for their tendencies to restrict vigor and concentrate mineral flavours in the grapes. The Warkworth Sands Woodland of the Hunter Valley are situated on these soils.

Rivers
The main river in the region is the Hunter River, after which the region is named. Other rivers in the region include the Allyn, Avon, Barrington, Bow, Bowman, Chichester, Gloucester, Goulburn, Isis, Karuah, Krui, Mammy Johnsons, Merriwa, Munmurra, Pages, Paterson, Wangat and Williams rivers.

Despite being the area's namesake, the Hunter River itself is not the dominant feature of the region—falling behind the Brokenback Range for that distinction. The greater river system of the Hunter, which includes the Goulburn and important tributaries such as Giants Creek, do provide needed irrigation for areas such as the Upper Hunter than can be prone to drought condition. The origins of the river begin the Liverpool Range of the volcanic Barrington Tops and flows south and then east down to the Pacific Ocean at the seaport city of Newcastle.

Water supply
Fresh water supply for the region is provided from a number of sources, which are managed by the Hunter Water and State Water Corporations. State Water Corporation's dams supply water for irrigation, industrial use at coal mines and the region's coal-fired power stations, and town water to upper Hunter Region towns. Hunter Water Corporation's dams supply the large urban population of more than 500,000 living near the coast and centred on the cities of Newcastle and Lake Macquarie.

State Water Corporation's Glenbawn, the largest dam in the region, Chichester and Lostock are dams on the Hunter, Chichester and Paterson rivers respectively. Hunter Water Corporation's Grahamstown Dam, the largest dam supplying the urban areas of the lower Hunter Region, is supplied with water diverted from the Williams River just north of the Seaham Weir, through a large pump station at Balickera. The dam itself has only a small natural catchment and relies mainly on the pumped water from the Williams River. A proposal to build Tillegra Dam on the Williams River existed since the 1950s, but was scrapped in 2010. In addition to the dams, fresh water for the lower Hunter Region is supplied from the Tomago Sandbeds, via a series of bores.

Towns and cities
The Hunter Region includes four cities. In order of population these are Lake Macquarie, Newcastle, Maitland and Cessnock. Other major centres of the Hunter Region are Dungog, Gloucester, Kurri Kurri, Muswellbrook, Raymond Terrace, Scone and Singleton.

Climate

The climate of Hunter Valley is humid subtropical, similar to the Greater Western Sydney region, with distinctive maritime influences from the Pacific Ocean. With its northerly latitude and close oceanic influences, the Hunter Valley is one of Australia's hottest and wettest wine regions. Flanked by mountains to the west and north the Hunter Valley acts as a funnel, pulling cool ocean breezes into the area. With those cooling breezes also comes heavy rainfall and periodic cyclonic storms in the summer and autumn months.

In the summer, the average daily temperature regularly exceeds 21.1 °C while during the winter the temperature averages around 14 °C. Temperatures during January average between 22.7 - 23.3 °C, with the temperature becoming progressively hotter the further inland you move away from the cooling influence of the sea. During the spring the Hunter Valley receives an average of 7.3–7.5 hours of sunshine a day.

Mid-latitude westerly winds bring high pressure weather front that alternate with cold fronts on the winter. This leads to generally drier conditions in the winter months of July and August. In the summer, southeasterly winds bring weather fronts harbouring extensive amounts of moisture. Between October and April more than two thirds of the region's annual rainfall will fall with January and February being the wettest months. Between the months of October–April, the 3pm average for relative humidity in the Lower Hunter is 49%, while it is 43% in the Upper Hunter.

Industries
The main industries in the Hunter Region are coal mining, manufacturing, agriculture, viticulture and wine making, tourism, horse breeding, electricity production, dairy farming and beef cattle farming, and associated service industries. The Hunter Region is one of Australia's most famous wine-growing regions, known for both its red and white wine varieties.

Coal mining

The most important economic activity in the valley is coal mining (through businesses such as Rio Tinto and BHP), mostly for export. The Port of Newcastle is the world's largest export facility for coal, most of which is brought to the port by rail. Coal ships are often seen off the coast of Newcastle.

Electricity generation
Electricity generation at the Eraring, Bayswater, Liddell, Munmorah, Redbank and Vales Point coal-fired power stations is a major industry of the region.

Horse breeding
The Hunter Valley is Australia's main region for the breeding and rearing of Thoroughbred horses and most of the country's best racehorses. The Upper Hunter area around Scone is one of the largest horse breeding areas in the world.

Tourism
Commonly known as "Wine Country", the Hunter Valley is a major tourist destination in New South Wales and is the 6th most visited place in Australia attracting more than 2.5 million people annually. There are regular events held in the Hunter for visitors, including the Hunter Valley Steam Trains running the first three Sundays of each month and regular scenic cruises on the Hunter River and Lake Macquarie.

Wine production

The Hunter Valley Wine Zone Australian Geographical Indication was registered on 1 May 1996 and is approximately the entire Hunter River catchment. It contains only one named wine region, Hunter. The Hunter Wine Region Australian Geographical Indication was declared on 18 March 1997. It is not as large as the Hunter Valley zone, but includes most of the significant vineyards. It does not extend east of the Pacific Highway.

Some of the oldest vines in the Hunter Valley were planted in 1924 around the village of Fordwich. Pokolbin, located in the "Lower Hunter Valley", is the centre of the Hunter Valley wine country, which claims to be Australia's oldest wine region. It is located between the towns of Cessnock and Branxton, about 50 km west of Newcastle. The wine country is primarily located within the Cessnock and Singleton LGAs. Its proximity to Sydney has been an influence on the area's investments in wine production and its emergence as a tourist destination. The Broke Fordwich area is located along the Hunter River tributary of the Wollombi Brook near the suburb of Pokolbin and was founded in 1830 by Major Thomas Mitchell who named the region after his fellow Napoleonic War veteran Sir Charles Broke-Vere.

Much of the rolling countryside around Pokolbin is under vine and has a large number of vineyards, restaurants, shops, golf courses and country guesthouses. Other parts of the valley including the Wollombi Valley and Broke Fordwich subregion are also well known for wine, along with the Upper Hunter Valley. The main town in the Upper Hunter Valley subregion is Muswellbrook.

Political representation
For the purposes of Australian federal elections for the House of Representatives, the Hunter Region is contained within the divisions of Hunter, Lyne, Newcastle, Paterson, and Shortland.

For the purposes of New South Wales elections for the Legislative Assembly, the Hunter Region is contained within the electoral districts of Cessnock, Charlestown, Lake Macquarie, Maitland, Myall Lakes, Newcastle, Port Stephens, Swansea, Upper Hunter, Wallsend, and Wyong.

Demography and area
The following local government areas are contained within the region:

Environmental protection
The Hunter Region contains the Goulburn River National Park, Myall Lakes National Park, Barrington Tops National Park, Werakata National Park, Watagans National Park, Mount Royal National Park, Polkolbin State Forest, Putty State Forest, Chichester State Forest, Running Creek Nature Reserve, The Glen Nature Reserve, Black Bulga State Conservation Area, Myall River State Forest, and Karuah Nature Reserve.

Within the Hunter, many endangered ecological communities (EECs) have been declared under the TSC Act. These communities are found on both public and private land, and prior to development of land, the landowner is required to undertake an environmental assessment to ascertain whether it will impact endangered species or endangered communities. Examples of endangered ecological communities found within the Hunter Region are:
 * 1) Grey Box–Grey Gum Wet Sclerophyll Forest
 * 2) Hunter Floodplain Red Gum Woodland
 * 3) Hunter Lowland Redgum Forest
 * 4) Hunter Valley Vine Thicket
 * 5) Hunter Valley Weeping Myall Woodland
 * 6) Lower Hunter Valley Dry Rainforest
 * 7) Warkworth Sands Woodland. This EEC occurs on aeolian sands, south east of Singleton (but may occur elsewhere in the Bioregion.)

Statehood movement
There is an active movement campaigning for the Hunter Region to secede from New South Wales to form its own state. The sale of the Port of Newcastle and the refusal of the NSW state government to build a container terminal in Newcastle has been cited as the motivation behind the campaign. The movement's demands include a Royal commission into the feasibility of Hunter Valley Statehood as soon as possible, and a referendum on Hunter Valley statehood by 2030.

Chapter VI of the Constitution of Australia allows new states to be formed, but only with the consent of the Parliament of the state in question.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Hunter Region


text:
Royal Yachting Association

The Royal Yachting Association (RYA) is a United Kingdom national governing body for sailing, dinghy sailing, yacht and motor cruising, sail racing, RIBs and sportsboats, windsurfing and personal watercraft and a leading representative for inland waterways cruising.

History
The Yacht Racing Association was founded in November 1875. Its initial purpose was to standardize the rules of measurement to different racing yachts so that boats of different classes could compete fairly against each other. Membership at the time cost two guineas and was available to "former and present owners of racing yachts of and above 10 tons Thames measurement and such other gentlemen as the committee may elect".

In 1921 the YRA incorporated the independent Sailing Boat Association and the Boat Racing Association into its body. In 1952 the YRA became the Royal Yachting Association (RYA).

The RYA remains constituted as a membership association, with a Council of elected volunteers as its supreme policy-making body. It publishes over 110 maritime titles that are regarded internationally and is translated into more than 20 foreign languages. RYA Magazine is the organisation's membership magazine.

British Sailing Team
The RYA manages the British Sailing Team (BST), from which Team GB's Olympic sailing team is selected. Training and infrastructure is provided by the RYA, while central funding is through bodies such as The National Lottery. The British Sailing team is the most successful Olympic sailing team in the world, and sailing is the only sport in which Great Britain leads the on the Olympic medal table.

Committees
While the RYA Council is the RYA's senior policy-making body in boating matters, responsibility for the Association's different activities and areas of interest is delegated to a number of policy committees.

The main function of the policy committees and sub-committees is to agree and oversee the implementation of RYA policy in their respective areas. Responsibility for day-to-day management of each area rests with the RYA's professional staff, with the relevant departmental manager acting as secretary to his or her committee.

Powerboat Racing
The RYA announced in August 2018 that they would no longer act as the national authority for powerboat racing in the United Kingdom.

‘Financial, safety, and reputational challenge's were the reasons given for the decision alongside the fact that the Powerboat Racing office had only issued 92 adult and 18 junior licences in 2018.

title: Royal Yachting Association


text:
Small arms trade

The small arms trade (also called small arms proliferation and the small arms market) is the markets of both authorized and illicit small arms and light weapons (SALW), as well as their parts, accessories, and ammunition.

Definition
The arms trade, or small arms market, includes both authorized transfers of small arms and light weapons (and their parts, accessories, and bullets) and illicit transfers of such weapons. Small arms and light arms are those that can be transported by one or two people, or carried by pack animal or vehicles, ranging from firearms like pistols and light machine guns to man-portable air-defense systems (MPADS), mortars, and rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs). The trade occurs globally, but is concentrated in areas of armed conflict, violence, and organized crime. In terms of actions that are illicit, this trade involves the illegal trafficking of small arms and the exchange of money and drugs for small arms, which are all commodities that cross borders around the globe. These weapons are not only the choice for a majority of regional conflicts today, but also for many terrorist groups operating around the world. Legal transfers are generally defined as those approved by the involved governments and in accordance with national and international law. Black market (illegal) transfers violate either national or international law and take place without official government authorization. Gray market transfers are those of unclear legality that do not belong in either of the other categories.

In 2003, various international organizations (including Amnesty International, Oxfam International, IANSA), and domestic groups (e.g. the Small Arms Working Group in the U.S.) committed themselves to limiting the trade in and proliferation of small arms around the world. They said that roughly 500,000 people are killed each year by the use of small arms.

Main small arms exporters
The Small Arms Survey, an independent research project based in Switzerland, said in its 2003 report that at least 1,134 companies in 98 countries worldwide are involved in some aspect of the production of small arms and ammunition. The largest exporters of small arms by value are the European Union and the United States.

In 2010, the number of countries exporting at least $100 million of small arms annually rose from 12 to 14. The exporters' list was led by the U.S., followed by Italy, Germany, Brazil, Austria, Switzerland, Israel, Russia, South Korea, Belgium, China, Turkey, Spain and the Czech Republic. Sweden dropped off the list because its exports fell from $132 million in 2010 to $44 million in 2011.

In addition, massive exports of small arms by the U.S. (M16), the former Soviet Union (AKM), People's Republic of China (Type 56), Germany (H&K G3), Belgium (FN FAL), and Brazil (FN FAL) during the Cold War took place commercially and to support ideological movements. These small arms have survived many conflicts and many are now in the hands of arms dealers or smaller governments who move them between conflict areas as needed.

Main small arms importers
The eight countries that imported at least $100 million of small arms in 2011 were the United States, Canada, Germany, Australia, Thailand, United Kingdom, France and Italy. South Korea dropped from the list because its imports fell from $130 million in 2010 to $40 million in 2011.

United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms
The United Nations Conference on the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects was held in New York City from 9–20 July 2001 as decided in United Nations General Assembly Resolution 54/54 V. Preceded by three preparatory committee sessions, the two-week Conference resulted in the adoption of the 'Programme of Action to Prevent, Combat and Eradicate the Illicit Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons in All Its Aspects.' States are required to report to the United Nations on the progress of their implementation of the UN Programme of Action, commonly known as the PoA.

The extent to which illicit trade in small arms is a primary cause of armed conflict and other serious humanitarian and socioeconomic issues has drawn controversy. The extremely high incidence of small arms violence and the presence of illicitly obtained weapons, especially in areas of turmoil and armed conflict, is undisputed. Because other societal factors play a strong role in creating armed conflict, however, the role of such weapons as a driver of continued violence and disruption has been called into question. Recent scholarship has focused on the root societal causes for violence in addition to the enabling tools. Another target of criticism is the ability to regulate illicit trafficking through international means, since it is unclear exactly what proportion of the weapons are trafficked across borders. The nature of the trafficking enterprise makes exact statistics difficult to determine. Recently, however, researchers have had some success establishing hard numbers within limited parameters.

According to a 2012 Routledge Studies in Peace and Conflict Resolution publication, "the relative importance of diversion or misuse of officially authorised transfers, compared to international entirely illegal black market trafficking has been thoroughly confirmed." The authors go on to elaborate that..."For most developing or fragile states, a combination of weak domestic regulation of authorised firearms possession with theft, loss or corrupt sale from official holdings tends to be a bigger source of weapons concern than illicit trafficking across borders."

The United Nations General Assembly scheduled a review conference in New York which was held from 26 June to 7 July 2006. The Review Conference was plagued by disagreements and states were unable to agree on a substantive outcome document. There have also been four Biennial Meetings of States to consider the implementation of the Programme of Action, in 2003, 2005, 2008 and 2010. The 2008 Biennial Meeting of States resulted in the adoption, by vote, of an Outcome Document focusing on three main issues: international assistance, cooperation and capacity-building; stockpile management and surplus disposal; and illicit brokering in small arms and light weapons. The Fourth Biennial Meeting in 2010 was able to adopt, for the first time by consensus, a substantive Outcome Document which addresses the issue of illicit trade across borders.

A second conference convened from 27 August to 7 September 2012 in New York.

Data issues
Perhaps the greatest barrier to resolving debates over gun policy is the lack of comprehensive data. Although the UN Arms Register tries to keep track of major weapons holdings, there is no global reporting system for small arms. Gathering data for Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) can be difficult, considering the transparency of some countries and lack of an organized system within countries. However, as pointed out by the Small Arms Survey, in the past ten years twenty-nine countries have made available a national arms export report. Twenty-five of these countries being European, while only four countries being non-European which include Australia, Canada, South Africa and the United States. While some countries make information available about the small arms of their armed forces and law enforcement agencies; others release estimated data on public ownership. Most refuse to release anything, release rough estimates or simply do not know. Fortunately, to address these issues, the Small Arms Survey's contributors have devised a transparency barometer allowing them to consider each country's cooperation and credibility on shared information.

According to the 2007 edition of the Small Arms Survey, there are at least 639 million firearms in the world, although the actual total is almost certainly considerably higher. This number increases by approximately 8 million every year, for a total economic impact of about US$7 billion annually.

The Small Arms Survey figures are estimates, based on available national figures and field research in particular countries. They give a general sense of trends and the scale of the number of small arms.

Gun rights issues
There is tremendous variability in the adoption of gun control with respect to individual civilian ownership, and international arms control, in different regions across the globe. The right to bear arms is a right guaranteed under the Constitution of the United States and gun ownership for purposes other than hunting is prevalent and socially acceptable. Non-governmental organisations such as IANSA argue that the prevalence of small arms contributes to the cycle of violence between governments and individuals. The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled (most notably in Antonin Scalia's majority opinion in District of Columbia v. Heller  ) that due to the Second Amendment to the United States Constitution, the legislative and executive branches of both the federal and state governments are limited in their abilities to regulate gun ownership.

U.S. gun rights lobby groups, most notably the National Rifle Association of America and Jews for the Preservation of Firearms Ownership, assert that access to gun ownership is often necessary for self-defence, including defence against government intrusion into private citizen's lives. The JPFO asserts that confiscation of private firearms is a necessary but not sufficient condition for tyranny, and draws parallels between contemporary efforts to register and confiscate guns and the actions of the National Socialist German Workers Party during the lead up to the Second World War (see: Nazi gun control argument). Similarly, gun ownership is widely held by many in Pakistan to be a necessary protection against crime as well as a way through which citizens can participate in law enforcement.

Stephen Halbrook, a Senior Fellow at the Independent Institute and an author and lawyer known for his litigation on behalf of the National Rifle Association, proposed that disarming citizens leaves them defenseless against totalitarian governments (such as Jews in Nazi Germany).

Impact on Africa
The persistence and the complication of wars in Africa is sometimes blamed on small arms proliferation. A comparison between the murder rates in pre- and post-colonial would help determine the impact of small arms proliferation. Africa Researchers for the Small Arms Survey estimate that approximately 30 million firearms are being circulated throughout Africa. This number is much less than the total number of small arms in Europe, estimated to be 84 million. However, the number of small arms isn't as important in comparison to how they are being used. The Small Arms Survey reports that at least 38 different companies are producing small arms in Sub-Saharan Africa, yet indigenous companies are not fulfilling the demands. South Africa is the largest exporter of small arms in the region, but only $6 million in small arms were exported out of the country, while $25 million in small arms were imported into the continent in 2005. Beyond legal trade, the illicit trade of small arms and light weapons also has a great effect on Africa. Many of the illicit trade among small arms in Africa can be attributed to post-conflict removal and movement of weapons. This illegal transfer of weapons from country-to-country has been seen to incite conflict in bordering regions by the same armed groups. An example of this can be seen in the conflicts ranging from Liberia, moving towards Sierra-Leone, the Ivory Coast, and finally to Guinea. Another illicit trade of small arms is seen in craft production. Reports from arms analysts Matt Schroeder and Guy Lamb suggest that the country Ghana has the potential to yield 200,000 new weapons every year.

The consequences of small arms on African people due to international conflicts within Africa, rebel group activities, mercenary groups, and armed gang activities have yet to be fully measured, although Stockholm Peace Research Institute means transparency and information-sharing regarding arms transfers in the region will build trust and confidence. The International Action Network on Small Arms, Saferworld, and Oxfam International put it in perspective when they reported that armed conflict cost Africa $18 billion each year and about US$300 billion between 1990 and 2005. During this period, 23 African nations experienced war: Algeria, Angola, Burundi, Central Africa Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Republic of Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Sudan, and Uganda.

title: Small arms trade


text:
James Zappalorti

James Patrick Zappalorti (September 29, 1945 – January 22, 1990), a disabled veteran of the Vietnam War, was the victim of a highly publicized, fatal gay-bashing attack on Staten Island, New York. The murder led to increased efforts to pass a statewide hate crime law, which was ultimately enacted in 2000.

Biography
Born in Brooklyn, Zappalorti moved to Staten Island in 1950, his family settling in the Charleston neighborhood. The family ran a stained-glass business whose clients included approximately 30 churches on the island and others as far away as the West Coast and Canada.

After attending Our Lady Help of Christians School in Tottenville, Zappalorti attended Tottenville High School, but dropped out before graduating in order to enlist in the United States Navy on November 27, 1962. His mother signed the parental consent form (necessary because he was not yet 18 years old), after his father refused to do so.

Zappalorti served as a seaman aboard the USS Henrico, which saw action in the Vietnam War. He was placed on disabled status and honorably discharged on April 5, 1965, after a nervous breakdown from a traumatic incident in which he was assaulted by some shipmates and his partner was killed.

Murder
Upon his return to Staten Island, Zappalorti did not hold down a formal job but was frequently seen in the neighborhood planting trees and clearing away debris. His life came to an abrupt end on the evening of January 22, 1990, after Zappalorti bought beer and invited a neighborhood resident and his companion to a small hut he had built on the beach beyond the woods across the street from his family's home. Once there, the duo demanded Zappalorti's wallet. After he tossed it away, the neighbor, Michael Taylor, 20 years old, pulled out a hunting knife and stabbed him three times in the chest and abdomen, causing his death. The duo then attempted to rob Zappalorti's house using his keys, but were discovered by his mother. Zappalorti's brother, Michael Zappalorti Jr., discovered the body the following day. A subsequent autopsy showed four stab wounds, and authorities speculate that the fourth wound was inflicted by Taylor's accomplice, identified as 26-year-old Phillip Sarlo.

Taylor was taken into custody at 2:30 A.M. on January 24 as he stepped outside a bar in the South Beach section of Staten Island, but Sarlo fled the area and was not apprehended until February 18, after he was found in Ocala, Florida. Gay rights activists asked New York State Governor Mario Cuomo to appoint a special prosecutor to the case, citing the fact that Staten Island District Attorney William L. Murphy had been the only one of the city's five district attorneys to oppose the city's anti-gay-discrimination law when it was passed in 1986. Also, in that same year, Murphy had prosecuted a carjacking case that resulted in Taylor, then 16 years old, being adjudicated a juvenile offender when he could have been tried as an adult, and Sarlo receiving a sentence of 1½ to 4½ years, the minimum then possible on the charges for which he had been indicted.

In both the 1986 carjacking case and the Zappalorti murder, Taylor, in statements he made to the police, cited animosity toward homosexuals as a motive for the crime. (The victim in the 1986 case was attacked near a boardwalk in the South Beach area reportedly frequented by homosexuals, and Zappalorti's sexual orientation was common knowledge in the neighborhood where both he and Taylor resided.) Sarlo, however, denied harboring such sentiments.

Verdict
The Zappalorti case never went to trial, because on December 5, 1990, after extensive "plea-bargaining" negotiations, both Taylor and Sarlo plead guilty to charges of second-degree murder. (In New York State at the time, first-degree murder applied only if the victim was a law-enforcement officer or the killer was already serving a life sentence for a previous murder.) It is reported that the district attorney's office was reluctant to go to trial because of fears the defendants might have attempted to use the gay panic defense, and may have garnered considerable sympathy from a potential jury in culturally conservative, heavily Roman Catholic Staten Island.

Pursuant to the plea agreement, Taylor received a prison sentence of 23 years to life while Sarlo was sentenced to 18 years to life. On May 30, 1997, Sarlo killed himself at the maximum-security Wende Correctional Facility outside Buffalo. Taylor was also incarcerated at a maximum-security institution, and was denied parole in 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2020.

Aftermath
The 1990 killing of James Zappalorti was recognized as the first anti-gay hate crime in New York City since police began categorizing such crimes in 1980. One of Zappalorti's nephews was hospitalized for his own gay-bashing in 1993 at age 22, in nearby Rossville, Staten Island. The murder and subsequent attacks led to increased efforts to pass a statewide hate crime law, which was supported by Mayor David Dinkins and John Cardinal O'Connor and ultimately enacted in 2000. On May 29, 2015, a street in Charleston, Staten Island, was renamed in honor of Zappalorti.

title: James Zappalorti


text:
Bhaktapur

Bhaktapur (Nepali and Sanskrit: भक्तपुर, ; lit. "City of Devotees"), known locally as Khwopa (Nepal Bhasa:, ) and historically called Bhadgaon, is a city in the east corner of the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal located about 13 km from the capital city, Kathmandu. Bhaktapur is the smallest city of Nepal as well as the most densely populated. Along with Kathmandu and Lalitpur, Bhaktapur is one of the three main cities of the Kathmandu Valley and is a major Newar settlement of the country. The city is also known for its Newar tradition, cuisine and artisans. Bhaktapur suffered heavy damage in the April 2015 earthquake.

As part of the Kathmandu Valley, it shares its history, culture and language with the other cities of the valley. Although chronicles like the Gopal Raj Vamshavali put the foundation of Bhaktapur in the 12th century, it has been the site of numerous settlements since at least the Licchavi dynasty. The capital place of Kasthamandu was Bhaktapur Nepal during the first half of Malla dynasty from the 12th century to 1482 when Nepal split into three independent kingdoms. The Malla dynasty is considered a golden period for Bhaktapur and even after its division in 1428, Bhaktapur managed to stay as a wealthy and a powerful Newar kingdom, mostly due to its position in the ancient India-Tibet trade route. In 1769, Bhaktapur was attacked and annexed into the expanding Gorkha Kingdom (which later became the Kingdom of Nepal). After its annexation, Bhaktapur remained largely isolated from other parts of Nepal which led to stagnation in the development of its economy and arts and to allowed it to remain as a homogeneous Newar city. Due to being isolated and overlooked by the central government in Kathmandu, its infrastructure and economy deteriorated and the 1934 earthquake further exacerbated the situation. Bhaktapur's economy and infrastructure would only improve from the 1980s, largely due to tourism and aid provided by West Germany as part of the Bhaktapur Development Project.

Compared to other Newar settlements, Bhaktapur is predominantly Hindu and speaks a distinct dialect of Nepal Bhasa. Bhaktapur is one of the most visited tourist destination of Nepal with the city attracting 301,012 tourists in 2014. The Nyatapola, a five roofed pagoda completed in 1702 is the most famous structure of Bhaktapur and along with the former royal palace, it forms the tourism center of Bhaktapur. The city is also famous for its numerous festivals and carnivals like the spring festival of Biskā jātrā and the carnival of Sāpāru (or Gai jatra) both of which are significant part of the local culture and contribute well to tourism. Bhaktapur is also called the "Capital of Music and Dance" (नाचगानको राजधानी) in Nepal due to presence of over 200 types of traditional dances, most of which are masked dances and expect for a few, are a part of the annual carnival of Sāpāru (or Gai jatra). It is also famous for its cuisine with the jūjū dhau, a type of yogurt made from buffalo milk being the most popular. Bhaktapur's potters and handicraft industries are also known nationwide. Due to its well preserved medieval nature, UNESCO inscribed Bhaktapur as a World Heritage Site since 1979.

Etymology
The present day name of the city in Newar, the indigenous language of Bhaktapur is Khwopa. This name is derived from Khōpring, a term that can be traced to an early form of the Newar language The oldest instance of the name Khōpring is from a Licchavi dynasty inscription from 594. The term Khopring is a combination of two words from an early form of the Newar language, "kho" and "pring" which translate to "cooked rice" and "village," respectively. Situated in the Kathmandu Valley, Bhaktapur boasted fertile soil conducive to rice cultivation, making it a significant rice-producing area. Consequently, the city was aptly named after its primary agricultural output. The term Bhaktapur is a Sanskrit translation of the native term Khōpring. It appeared for the first time in an inscription from 928. The city was also sometimes referred as Bhaktagrāma instead of Bhaktapura where grāma denoted a village as opposed to pura which denoted a town in Sanskrit.

By the 11th century, Khopring had evolved to Khwopa as the term appeared for the first time in a manuscript from 1004. Similarly, the Gopal Raj Vamshavali written in the 14th century refers to the city as Khwopa and in some pages of the manuscript as Khwopu and Swopa. The term Khwopa was used to describe the city in almost all of the inscriptions, manuscripts and documents from the Malla dynasty.

After the conquest of Bhaktapur by the Gorkhali armies of Prithivi Narayan Shah in 1769, Bhaktapur was started to be referred as "Bhatgaon", the Khas translation of "Bhaktagrama". The name Bhatgaon was used until the 1930s when Juddha Shumsher Rana, after witnessing the numerous temples in the city and the devotion of the locals towards it, decreed that the city should be referred as Bhaktapur as in "City of devotees" instead of Bhatgaon. However, a lot of scholars and people from outside Bhaktapur used the name Bhatgaon till the late 20th century.

Antiquity
The folklore of the Kathmandu Valley states that the entire valley and as such Bhaktapur itself was once an enormous lake. Geological surveys conducted by Swiss geologist Toni Hagen proved that the Kathmandu Valley was in fact a lake which formed when the Lower Himalayan Range was being created due to the collision between the Indian and Eurasian plate. The lake water started eroding the limestone hills of Chobhar and starting from around thirty thousand years ago, the lake started to drain. Plain lands appeared in the valley and between 30,000 and 15,000 years, most of the valley was drained. In folklore, the credit of draining the valley is given to the Bodhisattva Manjushri. Believed to be a saint from Greater China, Manjushri is said to have cut a gorge from his sword in order to drain the valley so that he could worship and gain wisdom from Swayambhunath Buddha who resided in the lake. Manjushri is believed to have entered the Katmandu Valley from the east and his resting place has been made into a shrine where the people of Bhaktapur make a pilgrimage to every year during late winter and before the festival of Shree Panchami.

Apart from above, much of the early history of Bhaktapur is largely unknown. It is clear that people started to settle in the Kathmandu Valley after it was drained due to its fertile soil owing to it being a lakebed. The Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a 14th-century Newar language manuscript states that a clan known as Gopāla first settled the Kathmandu Valley. The manuscript further says that Gopāla, who were cow herders, were overthrown by the Mahispāla, who were buffalo herders. Soon, the Kirata King Yalambar conquered the valley and established his own Kirānta dynasty. Although no direct proof of the existence of the first three ruling dynasties as mentioned in the Gopal Raj Vamshavali has been found, indirect proof such as place names and mentions in the inscriptions of the Licchavi period has been used to support the existence of at least the Kirānta dynasty. For Bhaktapur as well, the existence of a non-Sanskrit name, Khopring, in the Sanskrit language stone inscriptions of the Licchavi dynasty supports the existence of a settlement before the arrival of the Licchavi clan from Vaishali. The modern day Jyāpu community of the Newars is believed to be the descendants of the Kirānta clan and the modern day Newar language is believed to derived from the language that he Kirānta clan spoke.

Licchavi dynasty
Three stone inscriptions from the Licchavi dynasty has been recovered so far in Bhaktapur. One of them dated to 594 was recovered in Gomārhi district in the eastern part of Bhaktapur was made during the reign of Amshuverma. Another similar inscription from 594, recovered from Tulāche district in the central part of Bhaktapur was also made during the reign of Amshuverma. The Gomārhi inscription contains a decree from Amshuverma that "people from Mākhopring draṅga should be given more rights for a self rule." Similarly, the Tulāche inscription contains a similar message but the settlement has been referred as "khōpring grāma". During the Licchavi dynasty, settlements with a minimum of 100 houses and a maximum of 500 houses were classified as "grāma" and wealthy settlements were classified as "draṅga". So, the settlements around the present day Gomārhi district were wealthier than the settlements around the present day Tulāche district. In Nepal Bhasa, Mā is a prefix meaning "main or principal", meaning Mākhopring was a sub-division of Khopring, most likely the main part of Khopring. Finally, a third inscription recovered at Tālako district in the southwestern part of Bhaktapur mention the place name as "mākhoduluṃ" which was probably a separate village from Khōpring.''

Bhaktapur's oldest hiti is also dated from the Licchavi dynasty. It is said that the Rajkulo canals, which supplies water in hitis were built and managed by Tulā Rāni, a mythical queen who is believed to have lived in Bhaktapur during the Licchavi dynasty. In folklore, Tulā Rāni made and repaired the Rajkulo canals as she is said to only weigh a single tola or 11 grams and hence float on water.

Foundation
In legends and chronicles, Ananda Deva, who ruled Nepal Mandala from 1146 to 1167 is credited to have established the city of Bhaktapur. Since there were already settlements in Bhaktapur like Mākhopring and Mākhoduluṃ during the Licchavi dynasty, it was more likely that Ananda Deva unified these smaller settlements into a single unit. When Ananda Deva founded Bhaktapur, it was said to contain 12,000 houses. Because Bhaktapur lay on the trade route road took by merchants going to Tibet, its size and population continued to grow up to 12,000 houses by the 12th century. Ananda Deva also established a royal court named Tripura Rājkula in the central part of Bhaktapur and declared it as the new capital of Nepal. Bhaktapur was chosen as the new capital mostly because of its geography. It is situated on top of a small hill and the hill itself is surrounded by the Hauman river in the south and the Kasan river in the north, making it easier to defend during a foreign invasion. The royal court, Tripura Rājkula, according to the Gopal Raj Vamshavali was architecturally similar to Amsuverma's Kailashkut Bhawan. Ananda Deva is also credited with the establishment of shrines of the eight Matrikas (known as Ajimā in Nepal Bhasa) on the edges of the city proper. Because of these eight shrines surrounding the city, Bhaktapur is regarded as a sacred Mandala. Similar arrangement of mother goddesses can be found in other cities of the valley such as Kathmandu and Patan, both of which were established before Bhaktapur. However, in Bhaktapur, there are nine Matrikas instead of the traditional eight and the shrine of ninth goddess, Tripura Sundari, who is considered the leaders of the Matrikas of Bhaktapur, was established in the central part of the town with the goddess acting as the focal point of the mandala. The royal court of Ananda Deva, Tripura Rājkula was established next to and named after the Goddess Tripura Sundari. However, the famed Tripura Rājkula has been lost to time, most likely due to various earthquakes with its decline further accelerated due to the apathy shown by future rulers towards its maintenance. Some legends attribute that Ananda Deva was directed to establish Bhaktapur by the Goddess Annapurna. In the chronicles under the possession of Daniel Wright, it is written that Ananda Deva invoked the Goddess Annapurna while in Kashi and under her command established the city of Bhaktapur. The chronicle further states that Ananda Deva was addressed by the Matrikas in his dream and under their command established their shrines in a particular edge of the city proper. The mother goddesses are believed to protect the city and its people from evil spirits and bad omens as well as from physical dangers. Within the city itself, there are also ten minor shrines of the Mahavidya, a group of Tantric goddesses believed to protect the city, which were established by Ananda Deva as well.

Capital city of Nepal
As Bhaktapur became the seat of the government, it also became the target for numerous foreign invasions. The main reasons for these attacks was the internal division among the royal family of Nepal. Soon after Ananda Deva's death, a new royal house emerged from within. Believed to have been started by Ari Malla, they used Malla as their surname replacing their ancestral surname, Deva. When the conflictions between both houses worsened, the House of Tripura sought help from Tirhut while the House of Yuthunimam sought help from Khasa Kingdom. Thus, both of these kingdoms started interfering in the internal politics of Nepal. In the 1310s, the monarch Rudra Malla in order to improve Nepal Mandal's relation with Tirhut married off his sister Devaladevi to the Tirhut king, Harisimhadeva. After the marriage, the relation between the two kingdoms smoothed and Tirhut's attack on Nepal ceased.

In the month of January 1326, Devaladevi along with son, Jagatsimhadeva and her court departed from Tirhut after it was invaded and captured by Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, the Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate. Her husband Harisimhadeva died on the way while Devaladevi and her family arrived at her birth kingdom of Nepal Mandala where she was welcomed by her brother Rudra Malla. In July 1326, just six months after the arrival of Devaldevi, her brother Rudra Malla died. Nayakdevi, Rudra Malla's daughter became the new ruler of Nepal Mandala under the regency of her grandmother Padma Lakshmi. In 1326, Nayakdevi was married to Harishchandra, the prince of Kashi by her grandmother but the court rebelled against him after the death of Padma Lakshmi at the age of sixty seven in July 1332 and was eventually assassinated in May 1335. After Harischandra's death, Devaladevi in a bid to gain political power married her son Jagatsimhadeva to her niece Nayakdevi. In January 1347, Nayakdevi gave birth to a daughter who was named Rajya Laksmhi Devi (Rajaldevi in short). Nayakdevi died ten days after giving birth to Rajaldevi. Her death triggered a chain of unrests in the palace during which Jagatsimha was imprisoned and he died in custody. Devaldevi established her own rule in Nepal Mandala as regent for her granddaughter/grandniece, Rajaldevi. In 1349, Nepal suffered one of the most devastating attack in its history. Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, the Sultan of Bengal and his armies plundered the Nepal Valley for a week in the winter of 1349. Bhaktapur suffered the most from this attack as not only it was the capital at that time, the city was also in the eastern part of the valley, the same direction the 20,000 forces came from. According to the Gopal Raj Vamshavali, Bhaktapur was ransacked and set on fire by the invaders which lasted for seven days and the populace were either killed or escaped in the mountains. Some historians cite this invasion as the reason for the disappearance of monuments from the Licchavi and the early Malla dynasty. After the invasion, which destroyed much of the city, Bhaktapur was entirely rebuilt under Devaldevi, who like Ananda Deva, did so on the basis of Sanskrit treatises in architecture. The layout of the old part of the city has remained mostly the same since then. In September 1354, a nine year old Jayasthiti, a Danwar noble from Mithila was brought into Bhaktapur and was eventually married to Rajalladevi Malla in January 1355. After Devaladevi died in 1366, Rajalladevi and her king consort Jayasthiti Malla took control of Nepal Mandala and under their reign Nepal experienced a period of stability and cultural as well as economic growth. Jayasthiti Malla defeated warring nobles and unified Nepal Mandala under a singular monarch. It is said that Jayasthiti Malla brought Brahmins from Mithila and South India and under their recommendation, revived and improved the already present Hindu caste system based on occupation. Jayasthiti Malla is also credited for making the Newar language as the language of administration, literature and religion. The influential Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a Newar language manuscript about the history of Nepal, was commissioned by Jayasthiti Malla. Jayasthiti Malla was also the first monarch of Nepal to claim a divine heritage as the Gopal Raj Vamshavali states him as the one blessed by Swayambhunath and the incarnation of the Buddha, a claim inherited by all future monarchs.

His grandson, Yakshya Malla was the last king of a unified Nepal Mandala who ruled from Bhaktapur from 1428 to 1481. Yaksha Malla had nuemrous wives and concubines including Sarupādevī, Karpuradevī, Udayādevī, Jīvalakṣmī, Jayatanā, Kṛtilakṣmī, Sarasvatidevī (among which Sarupādevī and Karpuradevī were the most influential) and therefore numerous issue. He is also known to have fortified his capital, Bhaktapur with moats, defensive walls and eight city gates which correspond with the shrines of the Eight Matrikas. He also made it mandatory for all citizens of Bhaktapur regardless of caste or wealth, to repair and maintain the defensive walls and moats during the annual festival of Sithi Nakha. Yaksha Malla's numerous children caused a huge issue in the kingdom after his death in 1481. His eldest son was Raya Malla and because of his age, he was crowned as the new king of the country. But his two step-brothers Ratna and Ari Malla and his step-sister Ratnādevī, all three of whom shared the same biological mother protested against the coronation and as a result broke off from the capital and established a new one in Kathmandu where Ratna Malla declared himself the king. Similarly, Raṇa Malla shared a same biological mother Rana Malla broke off from the capital to Banepa where he declared himself as its new king. In this way, the kingdom of Yaksha Malla was divided among his sons among which Raya Malla, the eldest became the king of the former capital city, Bhaktapur.

Kingdom of Bhaktapur
Raya Malla is considered a weak figure in the History of Nepal. Many historians blame Raya Malla's reluctancy to give up the throne for the division of Nepal Mandala. The newly formed Kantipur kingdom and its king barred him from taking any oaths and Diksha from their tutelary goddess, Taleju whose shrine was located in the palace of Bhaktapur while at the same Ratna Malla would repeatedly take oaths from the Taleju shrine of the Bhaktapur palace. Yaksha Malla's large number of descendants meant that even during his great grandson – Praṇa Malla's reign there were several other members of the Malla family were still in Bhaktapur. Two such Mallas, Vira and Gosain Malla, both of whom were older than the monarch sought help from Kantipur and the king of Kantipur, Narendra Malla in a bid to weaken Bhaktapur, claimed Vira Malla to be the legitimate ruler. Likely fueled by Narendra Malla, both Vira and Gosain Malla divided the city of Bhaktapur between themselves and Prana Malla and established a border at Inācho, Bhaktapur.

In October 1558 Ganga Devi, the queen consort of Vishva Malla seized control of the kingdom and started a joint rule with her two sons Trailokya and Tribhuvan Malla. Ganga Devi, who was also popularly called as "Ganga Maharani", was the only queen regnant who ruled the kingdom. During her reign, Bhaktapur would reach its territorial zenith. She is regarded as the first strong ruler of Bhaktapur and is widely known for her military conquest and construction works. She is also credited with unifying the city by appointing many of Yaksha Malla's descendants who were living in the palace as fort captains, chiefs of other cities and villages within the kingdom which effectively ended their claims to the throne. She was the first ruler of Bhaktapur to take Diksha from Taleju along with her two sons, the tutelary goddess of the Mallas in 9 April 1567 as previous rulers were barred to do so by Kantipur, which provoked Kantipur and launched an attack Bhaktapur in retaliation. Her reign saw numerous cultural changes in the form of festivals as she is credited to have improved the numerous festivals celebrated within the kingdom. The locals of Bhaktapur credit her as the builder of many of the hitis and public rest houses within Bhaktapur as well as numerous Narayana temples of the city but no any inscriptional evidence of it has been found.

Ganga Devi's death has not been properly studied yet. It is possible that she died in 1602 as after 1602, her eldest son Trailokya Malla is the only one addressed as the king in inscriptions and legal documents. Her youngest son, Tribhvana Malla who arguably was more powerful under her disappeared from historical records since 1602. Trailokya Malla ruled alone till his death in 1613 after which his son, Jagajjyoti Malla became the ruler. Jagajjyoti Malla is especially remembered for his contributions in Maithili literature. His work, Haragaurīvivāha, a play about the wedding of Shiva to Parvati, is considered one of the greatest works in the Maithili language. Jagajjyoti Malla died in 1642 Naresha Malla's short rule began. Naresha Malla proved to be a weak king and it was during his reign that Pratap Malla, the king of Kantipur, in his attempt to unify the Kathmandu Valley, attacked Bhaktapur. Naresha Malla died at an early age, leaving behind a four year old Jagat Prakasha Malla as the successor to the throne. His aunt, Annapurṇalaksmi served as regent for him till he turned 16. Meanwhile, Pratap Malla made an alliance with Srinivasa Malla, the king of Patan and both joined forces to start a siege of Bhaktapur. By 1660, the coalition conquered all the hamlets and villages, north of Bhaktapur and managed to reach the northern city gate. The coalition tried to break the gate open for months before being forced to retreat. During their siege, Pratap Malla installed a stone inscription on a  hiti  in the shrine of Mahakali near the northern gate. During April 1662, Pratap Malla had gathered a massive army in the eastern part of Bhaktapur, in the site outside the city proper where the annual Biska Jatra festival was held demanding the festival will only be held if the kingdom surrendered. Jagat Prakasha Malla released decree cancelling the festival that year, a first time where the festival was cancelled. Eventually, the sieges proved unsuccessful and the coalition were forced to retreat.

Jagat Prakasha Malla died on 8 December 1672 because of smallpox after which the reign of Jitamitra Malla began. He is fondly remembered for the construction of a canal which brought water to the city from the hills of Nagarkot. His son, Bhupatindra Malla, who succeeded him in 1696 is likely the most popular ruler from Bhaktapur because of the numerous construction works that took place during his reign. The Nyatapola, today a symbol of the city was commissioned by him. His son Ranajit Malla was the last ruler of the Kingdom of Bhaktapur and is remembered today for his musical contributions. The Newar language devotional songs he wrote are still sung in Bhaktapur today.

In November 1769, Bhaktapur was attacked by and after suffering a heavy loss eventually surrendered to the expanding Gorkha kingdom which became the Kingdom of Nepal.

Rana Regime
After its defeat in 1769, Bhaktapur lost most of its political and cultural importance to Kathmandu and Lalitpur, the capital of the newly formed Kingdom of Nepal. Bhaktapur was visited by Colonel Kirkpatrick of East India Company in 1792 and in his book described the city as being in a better state than Kathmandu or Lalitpur. Bhaktapur played a small role during the rise of Jung Bahadur Rana as its former palace was where King Rajendra Bikram Shah was imprisoned in 1847. After the establishment of the Rana dynasty in 1846, Rana's brother Dhir Shumsher Rana was appointed as the magistrate of the city. Dhir Shumsher oversaw the demolition of many of the old palaces of Bhaktapur and its replacement with British style inspired buildings. The great earthquake of 1833 and 1934 damaged most of the city including the palace and temples. In the earthquake of 1833, Bhaktapur suffered the most damage in the Kathmandu Valley. Out of 500 total casualties of the earthquake, at least 200 of them were in Bhaktapur. Around 25% to 70% of the town suffered major destruction, including at least 2,000 homes and six to eight temples.

When the 8.0 magnitude earthquake struck in 1934, Bhaktapur was one of the most affected towns of Nepal. Around 40-100% of residential buildings were directly affected while 6224 buildings were completely destroyed by the earthquake. Many of the old palaces and temples which were already weakened by the earthquake of 1833 were also completely destroyed. Almost all the buildings in Bhaktapur Durbar Square were heavily damaged. Around 177 heritages were completely destroyed during the earthquake.

Many of the Malla era temples and palaces of the city like the Basantapur Lyākū, Chaukot Lyākū and Thanthu Lyākū were completely destroyed in the earthquakes and many of them were never restored and the few that were, were reconstructed in a Mughal style stucco dome by the Ranas.

The economy of Bhaktapur which had already been struggling after losing the flow of Tibetan traders was greatly crippled by the earthquakes of 1833 and 1934. The 1934 earthquake also damaged the physical infrastructure of the town and most of the inhabitants were unable to rebuild their houses properly. The earthquake permanently damaged the Rajkulo canals that had been providing fresh water to the city since the time of the Mallas. An economically struggling Bhaktapur was unable to repair these canals and as a result fresh water became scarce in the city. The sanitation level of Bhaktapur became severely low and poverty and diseases became rampant.

20th century
In the 1950s, when the tyrannical Rana dynasty ended and Nepal was open up to the outside world, Kathmandu and the other cities around it like Patan saw a big rise in urbanization and population. However, Bhaktapur was farther away from the capital and was left out from the development that occurred in the other cities of the Kathmandu Valley. Bhaktapur was also greatly isolated and ignored by the central powers. When a new highway was built, it completely bypassed the city and instead ran through the outskirts. Bhaktapur was the poorest city of Nepal in the 20th century. The Rajkulo canals that provided fresh water was never repaired and sanitation level was very low. Due to extremely high population density and low sanitation, the city became extremely unhygienic as feces and litter filled the roads. Diseases were rampant and greatly affected the farmer majority population of Bhaktapur couldn't afford modern medicine. Just like the inhabitants, the heritages of Bhaktapur also suffered greatly during this period as many arts and artifacts were stolen.

Under the Bhaktapur Development Project which was funded by West Germany, the city's physical infrastructure and heritage sites were all revitalized. Tourism started to became a major source for Bhaktapur's economy. A political party named Nepal Workers Peasants Party was started in the city and it gained the support of majority farmer population of the city.

Demographics
A song composed by Ranajit Malla in 1769 mention Bhaktapur as a city with 12,000 households. Henry Ambrose Oldfield who visited Nepal during the 1850s wrote that there were fifty thousand inhabitants in Bhaktapur.

At the time of the 2001 Nepal census, it had a population of 72,543. The 2011 Nepal census reports the population of Bhaktapur as 81,748 with 41,081 men and 40,667 women. The results of the 2021 Nepal census put the population of Bhaktapur at 79,136 with the population of men at 39,755 and of women at 39,381 and the total number of households at 18,987. Around 90% of the population of Bhaktapur belong to the Newar ethnic group.

Art
Bhaktapur, being a former capital of a Newar kingdom, contains one of the most elaborate art pieces of Nepal. Only a few artworks from the Lichhavi dynasty survive in Bhaktapur and so most art pieces date from the Malla dynasty. Most of Bhaktapur's art were religious in nature and were made by anonymous artists coming from a caste of artisans. A few artisans however are known. For instance, the painter who made the murals on the walls of the palace of fifty windows has signed his name on one of the murals. However, many of the murals in the palace were damaged when it used as a post office and a police station in the 20th century and the painter's signature has unfortunately been rubbed off, with only his address remaining readable today. Woodcarving is a major artwork of the Kathmandu Valley. Most of the wooden work from the Lichhavi dynasty that survives today are wooden struts which mostly depicted Salabhanjikas, the forest fairies or deities in a similar pose. Four armed deities began appearing since the 16th century and by the end of the Malla dynasty, wooden struts depicted multi armed Hindu deities. This transformation was not viewed fondly by all scholars citing the loss of elegance in later wooden struts. Toraṇa or tympanums are in most cases wooden as well and can be found on most temples, monasteries or palaces. The wooden toraṇa on the entrance to the Taleju temple in Bhaktapur Durbar Square is considered one of the best examples of the kind. Similarly, Newar window are an important aspect of Nepalese architecture. The Mhekhājhya, or more popularly the Peacock window from 1750 is the most popular traditional window from Bhaktapur. The Malla dynasty was, for Bhaktapur a golden age for woodcarving, sculpture and the arts in general.

Similar to woodcarving, very few stone or metal sculptures from the Licchavi dynasty survive in Bhaktapur and so almost all surviving works are from the Malla dynasty. Most stone sculptures are of deities housed in various temples of the city and their leonine guardians. The most celebrated sculptors from Bhaktapur lived during the late 17th to early 18th centuries. These artisans, whose identity has no been properly known yet, carved some of the most popular stone works of the city including the Narasimha, Hanuman, Devi and Bhairava sculptures near the entrance to former palaces, numerous sculptures in the restricted courtyards of the palace and the relief of Devi inside the Nyatapola. The ledger work of the construction of the Nyatapola mention Tulasi Lohankami as the leader of thirty sculptors, so it is likely that his group may have been the one responsible for all aforementioned works.

The Luṁ dhvākā or the Golden gate which serves as an entrance to the inner courtyards of the former royal palace was constructed between 1751 and 1754 by Subhākara, Karuṇākara and Ratikara. It is considered one of the most important works of Nepalese art. Just as popular as the Golden Gate is the gold plated bronze statue of Bhupatindra Malla placed on a stone pillar front of the gate, crafted by a smith from Kathmandu.

Hiti
The entirety of Kathmandu Valley, including Bhaktapur is known for its hiti water supply system which once supplied water from the surroundings hills into the heart of the cities of the valley. These fountains are carved in the form of a Hindu and Buddhist mythical creature known as a hitimanga. The hiti water supply system was developed in the Licchavi dynasty and Bhaktapur's oldest hitis also date from the period. Today, there is at least one hiti in each of Bhaktapur's neighborhood totaling to about 104. The hitis were made not only by royals, but also by common people as well. There was a common belief that building hitis and rest houses grant the builder religious merit. Hitis whose spouts face eastwards, of which there are 18, hold religious significance to the locals as it is considered pious to bathe in these spouts during Sa Paru. This practice has gone extinct today as most of these spouts do not work any longer as the canals that supplied them has been lost to time. These aqueduct-like canal system were called Rajkulo, the earliest such canal in Bhaktapur was believed to be built by a mythical queen Tulā Rāni, who according to folklore floated on water owing to her light weight. In 1379, Jayasthiti Malla repaired a damaged Rajkulo of Bhaktapur and in the same year a new one named Yaṭapāṭa was built in the city. The most famous Rajkulo of Bhaktapur was commissioned by Jitamitra Malla in 1677 that brought water from the hills of Nagarkot to the city. All of these Rajkulos in Bhaktapur have gone extinct today. Jahru are a type of water tank made out of stone which can be found around wells and hitis of the city. These are usually carved with floral motifs and the image of Bhagiratha.

Ponds
There are 50 artificial ponds/lakes (, pukhu), constructed in the Licchavi and the Malla dynasty, in the city. Of them the largest four, SIddha Pokhari (Taḥ pukhu), Naḥ pukhu, Bhājyā pukhu and Rani Pokhari (nhu pukhu) are located in the western part of the city and among them the largest one, Siddha Pokhari (Taḥ pukhu) measures 574×249 ft. The two oldest known ponds of the city are Taḥ pukhu and Naḥ pukhu built in 1118 and 1168 respectively. Kamal Pokhari (bāhre pukhu), another large pond on the eastern part of town is believed to be from the Licchavi dynasty, however no definitive proof has been found of its antiquity.

A lot of the smaller ponds in the dense settlements of city were built in the Malla dynasty as a sort of water supply during a fire. These ponds also have cultural and religious significance, along with agricultural ones. For instance, Kamal Pokhari (bāhre pukhu), in the local folklore, is considered the abode of Tula Rani, a mythical queen weighing only one Tula. Bhājyā pukhu, located in the western part of the city and directly south of Siddha Pokhari, is similar to Rani Pokhari of Kathmandu as both of them have an island in their centre with a temple in it. It was commissioned by Bhāju Kasa, a late 17th century official of Bhaktapur and has many folklore associated with it. Similarly, Nhu pukhu built in 1629 by Jagajjyoti Malla was popularly called Rani Pukhu, meaning queen of ponds, because of its beauty. Naḥ pukhu was believed to have built in a single night by a wizard in 1168, hence it is also called Guhya pukhu, meaning secretive pond.

Phalcha
Phalchā is a Newar word for communal resting places which has been a part of Nepali culture since the Lichhavi dynasty. Usually, they are attached to an existing building or free standing with their front façade colonnaded with widely spaced wooden posts. These phalchā see extensive use by the locals as a communal gathering places.

It was considered religiously pious to consecrate phalcas and today there are 364 phalcas in Bhaktapur consecrated with most dating from the Malla dynasty. The two largest ones are located in Bhaktapur Durbar Square, the former royal palace square. Mandapa and Sattal are another type of rest houses found in Nepal. Mandapa, like a phalchā is a roofed platform but they are always free standing and have sixteen colonnade, four on each side. Many mandapa in Bhaktapur have a second storey like the Chyāsilim mandapa of Bhaktapur Durbar Square. Sattal are almost always multi storied public buildings which serves as a shrine for a deity and in the past was used as a habitation for pilgrims and travelers.

Language
Bhaktapur Newar (, khvapaḥ bhāy) is a distinct dialect of Newar language spoken in Bhaktapur and its environs. Generally, the vocabulary is similar to that of the standard dialect (standard refers to the Newar spoken in Kathmandu and Lalitpur) with some pronunciation changes but differences do exist. The most widely known difference is for the word laḥ (, "water") which becomes nā in the Bhaktapur dialect. This difference is often used humorously as nā in the standard dialect means "mud" and laḥ in the Bhaktapur dialect means "drool". Terminologies relating to traditional musical instruments are also different between the two dialects. In a lot of words, the "ā" sound in the standard dialect is replaced "a" sound and vice versa. Similarly, Bhaktpaur Newar has a voiced velar nasal sound '', that is not present in the standard dialect. For instance, the Nyatapola is called as "" (ṅātāpola) in Bhaktapur whereas in the standard dialect its name is ""(nyātāpau)''. ''

Literature
Jagat Sundar Malla, born in 1882 is considered one of the Four Pillars of Nepal Bhasa who headed a revival campaign of Nepal Bhasa after its supersession by the government. Similarly, Ram Sekhar Nakarmi who was a major modern day Nepal Bhasa writer was also from Bhaktapur. Narayan Man Bijukchhe is also a prominent author, mostly writing political books in the Nepali language.

Before Nepal Bhasa became the official language in the Malla dynasty, most literature was written in Sanskrit and even during the Malla dynasty, Sanskrit was an important literary language. Historical documents written in the Newar language first began appearing since the 14th century. Many literary pieces were written in the Newar language in Bhaktapur during the Malla dynasty. The influential Gopal Raj Vamshavali, a book about the history of Nepal was written in Bhaktapur by an anonymous writer from Panauti. Like other artworks, most literature of Bhaktapur before the 20th century were written by anonymous authors and are generally attributed to the ruling monarch because it was a common practice to mention a monarch's name. However, the names of a few non royal writers from Bhaktapur are known. For instance, two poems written by Keshav Udās is still preserved in the National Archives of Nepal. He was active from 1604 to 1611 and both of his remaining works are romantic narrative poems. Among royal writers, Ranajit Malla and his queen consort Briddhi Lakshmi who are among the most popular historical authors, the former mostly remembered for his plays and the later for her poems. Ranajit Malla's "hāya hāya rāma rāma" and Briddhi Lakshmi's "ka kha yā mye" are noted for their historical as well as literary importance.

Main sights
Bhaktapur is one of the most visited sites of Nepal popular among both foreign and domestic visitors. The most visited site of Bhaktapur are the city's four squares, which all except for one are concentrated on the middle part of Bhaktapur. The first of them is the Durbar Square (, Lyākū), the former royal palace complex of Bhaktapur and houses the former royal palace and various temples that were built in its vicinity. Although, the Durbar Square of Bhaktapur received heavy damage from both the 1934 and 2015 earthquake, many of the fallen monuments have been reconstructed. The Durbar square houses various monuments like the palace of fifty five windows, the Simhādhwākhā Lyākū palace which houses the National Art Gallery, one of the first museum of Nepal, the stone temple of Vatsala Devi and Siddhi Lakshmi. The temple of Silu Māhādeo (meaning "the Shiva of Silu") located on the eastern part of Bhaktapur Durbar Square is the tallest Shikhara style building in Nepal.

The Taumadhi Square (, Tamārhi) houses the Nyatapola temple, the five storeyed temple commissioned by King Bhupatindra Malla and shrines the tantric goddess Siddhi Lakshmi, the personal deity of the royal couple. Under the shadow of Nyatapola stands the three storey temple associated with Bhairava which was first built by Vishva Malla and then later remodeled by Jagajjyoti Malla in its present form. The square also contains the courtyard of Til Mādhav Narayana, the Aesāmārhi satta(often called the Kasthamandap of Bhaktapur) , the Betala temple and a golden hiti. The Shikhara temple of Jagannath and the roofed temple of Lakshmi Narasimha are also established near the square.

The Dattatraya Square located in the Tachapal tole (Nepal bhasa: Devanagari=तचपाल, Pracalit script=𑐟𑐔𑐥𑐵𑐮) is one of the oldest monument of the town. The Dattatraya Square consists of the three-story pagoda-style Dattatraya Temple, dedicated to Guru Dattatreya, which is the combined form of three principal Hindu deities, (Brahma the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Maheswora the destroyer), was built during the reign of King Yaksha Malla (1428 A.D. – 1482 A.D.) and was opened to the public around 1486 A.D., only after his demise. The exact date of construction of the Dattatraya temple is still obscure. This temple, according to popular belief, was constructed from a single piece of wood from one tree. At the entrance are two large sculptures of the Jaiput wrestlers(locally known as kutuwo), Jaimala and Pata (as in the Nyatapola Temple), a "Chakra", and a gilded metal statue of Garuda, a bird-like divinity. Around the temple are wood carved panels with erotic decorations. It was subsequently repaired and renovated by King Vishwa Malla in 1548 A.D. The Dattatraya Square is also the home to the Pujari Math which was the former palace of the Malla Kings and later served as the settlement for the priests of the temple and Tibetan traders. Today, the Pujari Math has been converted into a Woodcraft and Bronze Museum. The Pujari Matha is mostly noted for its artistic windows including the popular Mhaykhā Jhyā (lit. Peacock Window). In front of the Dattatraya temple is the Bhimsena Temple which is dedicated to Bhin:dyo, the Newari deity of commerce often confused with the Pandava brother Bhimsena.

Changu Narayan

Changu Narayan is an ancient Hindu temple located near the village of Changunarayan in the Kathmandu Valley on top of a hill at the eastern end of the valley. It is 6 km to the north of Bhakathapur and 22 km from Kathmandu. The temple is one of the oldest Hindu temples of the valley and is believed to have been constructed first in the 4th century. Changu Narayan is the name of Vishnu, and the temple is dedicated to him. A stone slab discovered in the vicinity of the temple dates to the 5th century and is the oldest such stone inscription discovered in Nepal. It was rebuilt after the old temple was devastated. Many of the stone sculptures date to the Licchavi period. Changu Narayan Temple is listed by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site.

The temple is a double-roofed structure where the idol of Lord Vishnu in his incarnation as Narayana is deified. The temple has intricate roof struts showing multi-armed Tantric deities. A kneeling image of Garuda (dated to the 5th century), the vahana or vehicle of Vishnu with a snake around its neck, faces the temple. The gilded door depicts stone lions guarding the temple. Gilded windows also flank the door. A conch and a disc, symbols of Vishnu, are carved on the two pillars at the entrance. Non-Hindus are not allowed inside the temple.

Kailashnath Mahadev Statue
Kailashnath Mahadev is the World's Tallest Lord Shiva statue. The height of this statue is 143 feet high and is situated 20 km from Kathmandu, Nepal. The statues construction work was started in 2004 and was completed in 2012. The statue's inauguration took place on 21 June 2012. This statue stands on the 32nd position in the list of all statues by height in the world. It has been made of copper, cement, zinc and steel. To make this gigantic structure possible there were many professional workers and statue makers from India.

In popular culture
Portions of the Hollywood film Little Buddha starring Keanu Reeves and Bridget Fonda were filmed in the Bhaktapur Durbar Square. Also, portions of Indian films Hare Rama Hare Krishna and Baby were shot in Bhaktapur.

2015 earthquake

A magnitude of 7.8 Richter earthquake 2015 Nepal earthquake that struck on 25 April 2015 (12 Baisakh 2072 B.S., Saturday, at local time 11:56am) damaged 116 heritages in the city. 67 of those heritages were completely damaged while 49 suffered from partial damages. The earthquake badly damaged the Bhaktapur Durbar square, a significant heritage site included in the UNESCO world heritage list. The main premises of Taleju Temple also witnessed damages in the disaster.

The Nepal-Bihar earthquake in 1934 demolished several buildings that were never rebuilt. Chyasilin Mandap has been rebuilt in 1990 using contemporary earthquake proof technology. The building survived the 2015 earthquake unharmed.

Sister Cities

 * Pyongsong, North Korea

On 13 December 2023, Bhaktapur and Leshan, China signed a Memorandum of understanding regarding establishing a sisterly relation between the two cities.

Notable people

 * Devalakshmidevi, ruler
 * Ganga Devi, 16th century queen
 * Bhāgirāma Kāyastha (alias Bhāju Kasa), 18th century minister
 * Bhupatindra Malla, ruler
 * Ranajit Malla, ruler and Newar language writer
 * Briddhi Lakshmi, queen consort and Newar language poet
 * Padma Sundar Malla, electrical engineer and the first Nepalese to visit the US
 * Jagat Sundar Malla, activist and Newar language writer
 * Bharat Jangam, writer
 * Narayan Man Bijukchhe, politician and writer
 * Prem Suwal, politician and a Member of Parliament
 * Sunil Prajapati, politician and current mayor of Bhaktapur
 * Gita Shahi, actress

title: Bhaktapur


text:
Gemstones (album)

Gemstones is the third solo album by American musician Adam Green. It was released on January 10, 2005 in Europe and on February 22, 2005 in the United States. The album is characterised by the heavy presence of Wurlitzer piano, whereas its predecessor relied on a string section in its instrumentation.

Personnel

 * Adam Green – voice, guitar
 * Steven Mertens – bass
 * Parker Kindred – drums
 * Nathan Brown – electric piano (Wurlitzer), organ
 * Chis Isom – guitar
 * Greg Calbi – mastering
 * Dan Myers – mixing, recording

title: Gemstones (album)


text:
Houilles–Carrières-sur-Seine station

Houilles–Carrières-sur-Seine station (French: Gare de Houilles-Carrières-sur-Seine) is a railway station in Houilles, a suburb of Paris, on the Paris–Le Havre railway. Trains arrive at the station from Gare Saint-Lazare and the RER.

title: Houilles–Carrières-sur-Seine station