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Governors of the Australian states

Each Australian state has a governor to represent Australia's monarch within it. The governors are the nominal chief executives of the states, performing the same constitutional and ceremonial functions at the state level as does the governor-general of Australia at the national or federal level. In practice, with notable exceptions the governors are generally required by convention to act on the advice of the state premiers or the other members of a state's cabinet.

Unlike lieutenant governors in Canada's provinces, Australia's state governors are not subject to the constitutional authority of the governor-general, but are directly responsible to the monarch. This means, for example, that the governor-general may not issue pardons or commutations of sentence for any state offences, or issue any state honours.

Origins
The office of governor ("governor in chief" was an early title) is the oldest constitutional office in Australia. The title was first used with the Governor of New South Wales, and dates back to 1788 to the day on which the area (which is now the city of Sydney) became the first British settlement in Australia. Each of the subsequent five states in Australia was also founded as a British colony, and a governor was appointed by the British government to exercise executive authority over the colony. The first governors of the colonies, and their dates of appointment, are as follows:

 * New South Wales: Captain Arthur Phillip (7 February 1788)
 * Western Australia: Captain James Stirling (6 February 1832)
 * South Australia: Captain John Hindmarsh (28 December 1836)
 * Tasmania: Sir Henry Fox Young (8 January 1855)
 * Victoria: Sir Charles Hotham (22 May 1855)
 * Queensland: Sir George Bowen (10 December 1859)

Only in New South Wales and South Australia was the date of the appointment of the first governor the actual date of the colony's foundation. The settlement which became Queensland was founded in 1824, but was not separated from New South Wales until 1859. In Tasmania, Victoria and Western Australia executive authority was exercised by a Lieutenant-Governor for some years before the first Governor was appointed; Tasmania was founded in 1804, Western Australia in 1828 and Victoria in 1835.

New South Wales and Tasmania (which was known as Van Diemen's Land until 1855) were founded as penal colonies, and their governors (lieutenant-governors in Tasmania) exercised more or less absolute authority. Tasmania in particular was run as a virtual prison camp in its early years. The Governors were also commanders-in-chief, and the troops under their command were the real basis of their authority.

From the 1820s, however, the increasing number of free settlers in the colonies led to a process of constitutional reform which gradually reduced the powers of the governors. New South Wales was given its first legislative body, the New South Wales Legislative Council, in 1825. Victoria, South Australia and Western Australia, which were not founded as penal settlements, moved rapidly towards constitutional government after their establishment.

Federation
When the six colonies federated to form the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, there were some suggestions that the position of state governor should be abolished or that its appointment be made by the Governor-General as was (and still is) done in Canada. However, the states insisted on retaining their separate links to the Crown, a concept that can be compared to the American system of separate sovereignty for state and federal governments. The states were concerned that Commonwealth-appointed governors might be used to do the federal government's bidding, up to and including use of a Governor's reserve powers to dismiss a recalcitrant state government. To ensure that state governments would be free from such extra-constitutional intervention or coercion, state governors continued to be appointed by the monarch on the advice of the Colonial Secretary in London, usually after an informal consultation with the state government.

The post of governor was again called into question during the Depression of the 1930s, when the cost of maintaining six vice-regal establishments (as well as a governor-general in Canberra) drew criticism from the labour movement and others. During this period some states (notably Western Australia) left the position unfilled as an economy measure for some years, and the vice-regal functions were filled by the state chief justices with the title of administrator. But no state attempted to abolish the post of governor, and this could not have been done at this time without the consent of the Crown (acting on the advice of the British government).

The political role of the governor became a matter of controversy in 1932 when the Governor of New South Wales, Sir Philip Game, used his reserve power to dismiss the premier, Jack Lang, on the grounds that Lang was acting illegally. All governors at this time were British, and most were from the upper classes and political conservatives, and Labor governments always suspected that they had an enemy in Government House. Most governors, however, tried to act impartially, and some were genuinely popular.

From the 1940s the states, particularly those with Labor governments, began to appoint Australians to the post of governor. The first Australian governors of each of the states, and their dates of appointment, were:

 * New South Wales: Sir John Northcott (1 August 1946)
 * Queensland: Sir John Lavarack (1 October 1946)
 * Western Australia: Sir James Mitchell (5 October 1948)
 * South Australia: Sir James Harrison (4 December 1968)
 * Tasmania: Sir Stanley Burbury (5 December 1973)
 * Victoria: Sir Henry Winneke (3 June 1974)

The first colonies were penal settlements and the early colonial governors were military officers who ruled under martial law. Once the governors' role moved from the executive to the ceremonial, most governors were drawn from the ranks of retired officers. Although a few members of the peerage served as governors (the most prominent being Earl Beauchamp in New South Wales), the Australian colonial capitals were small towns and considered not grand enough to attract senior members of the British aristocracy. Even when Australians replaced Britons as governors, most continued to be retired Army, Navy or Air Force officers until the 1970s. The last British-born governor of an Australian state was Rear Admiral Sir Richard Trowbridge, who was Governor of Western Australia from 1980 to 1983.

From the 1960s onward the governors were appointed by the Monarch of the United Kingdom, acting on the advice of the British Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary, but effectively acting on the advice of the state premiers. It was not until 1986, with the passage of the Australia Acts through the state, Australian and British parliaments, that governors became appointed by the Monarch of Australia on the direct advice of the relevant premier.

The Australia Acts 1986
Although the Commonwealth of Australia legally became a sovereign nation when it adopted the Statute of Westminster in 1942, the states had been established separately from (and prior to) the Commonwealth and retained their separate subordination to the British Government. The British Government retained the authority to intervene in the governments of the individual states under the Colonial Laws Validity Act 1865. As a result, the state governors continued to be formally appointed by the Queen on the advice of the British Foreign Secretary, as had been the case prior to 1942. In practice, however, the premier of each state recommended a prospective governor to the foreign secretary, who almost always acted in accordance with that recommendation. However, in 1976 the Foreign Secretary refused to transmit to the Queen the advice of the Premier of Queensland, Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen, to extend the term of Sir Colin Hannah as governor, on the grounds of the Governor's partisanship against the previous Commonwealth Government.

In 1978, the Parliament of New South Wales passed the Constitutional Powers (New South Wales) Act, requesting that the Commonwealth Parliament legislate to address the constitutional anomaly of the United Kingdom Government's role in the constitutional affairs of the state. Eventually, identical Australia Acts were passed by the Commonwealth Parliament and the Parliament of the United Kingdom in 1986, thus removing what remaining authority London had over affairs in Canberra. Under section 7 of these Acts, the King now receives advice on the appointment and termination of appointments of state governors from the relevant state premier.

Role of the governors
The role of state governor in modern times is broken down into constitutional, ceremonial and social responsibilities. Regarding constitutional practices, in most cases the governor observes the convention to act on the advice of the state's cabinet (and/or premier). Nevertheless, the state governors, like the governor-general, retain the full panoply of the reserve powers of the Crown. This has been shown on two recent occasions.

In 1987 the Governor of Queensland, Sir Walter Campbell, refused to accept the advice of the National Party premier, Joh Bjelke-Petersen, to dismiss five of his ministers and call fresh elections. Campbell believed that Bjelke-Petersen had lost the confidence of his own party and was behaving irrationally. He was also reluctant to call an election for a legislature that was barely a year old, and felt that the situation was a political rather than a constitutional matter. Bjelke-Petersen subsequently resigned.

In 1989 the Governor of Tasmania, Sir Phillip Bennett, refused to grant a fresh dissolution to the Liberal premier, Robin Gray, after Gray lost his majority in the recent election. Although no one party had a majority in the new House of Assembly, Bennett had already been assured that the Tasmanian Greens would support a minority Labor government under Michael Field. Bennett thus took the view that Gray no longer had enough support to govern and could not advise him to call a second election. Gray then resigned; Bennett then commissioned Field as premier.

In the event of a Governor-General's death, incapacity, removal, resignation or absence overseas, each of the state governors has a dormant commission to become the Administrator of the Commonwealth, that is, to take on the Governor-General's duties until he returns from overseas or a new appointment is made. The convention has been that the longest-serving state governor is appointed administrator. When Peter Hollingworth resigned in May 2003, Sir Guy Green, Governor of Tasmania, took on that role, serving until Major-General Michael Jeffery took office in August 2003.

Lieutenant-governors and administrators
A lieutenant-governor takes on the responsibilities of a governor when that post is vacant or when the governor is out of the state or unable to act. In some states the lieutenant governor is also the chief justice. An administrator takes on those duties if both the governor and lieutenant-governor are not able to act for the above reasons.

Backgrounds of governors
In 1976, South Australia appointed Sir Douglas Nicholls as the first (and, to date, the only) Aboriginal governor of an Australian state. Governors of non-Anglo-Australian background have been appointed in recent years. These include Ken Michael (Greek; Western Australia), Sir James Gobbo (Italian; Victoria), David de Kretser (Sri Lankan/Ceylonese; Victoria), Dame Marie Bashir (Lebanese; New South Wales), Alex Chernov (Russian: Victoria), and Hieu Van Le (Vietnamese; South Australia). Sir Matthew Nathan, Governor of Queensland from 1920 to 1925, was Australia's only Jewish governor until the appointment of Linda Dessau as Governor of Victoria in 2015.

South Australia was also the first state to appoint a woman as governor, when Dame Roma Mitchell took office in 1991. With the appointment of Jeannette Young on 1 November 2021, Queensland currently has four female governors, more than any other state. Queensland is also the first state to have had two female governors in succession (Penelope Wensley succeeded Quentin Bryce), followed by Tasmania (Kate Warner in 2014 and Barbara Baker in 2021) and then Victoria in 2023. South Australia now has three female governors following the appointment of Frances Adamson who was sworn in on 7 October 2021. With the appointment of Margaret Gardner who was sworn in on 9 August 2023; New South Wales, Tasmania and Victoria will have had two each whilst Western Australia has only one so far. The Northern Territory, the only mainland territory to have an administrator, has had two female administrators (Sally Thomas and Vicki O'Halloran). Since 2021, every state Governor apart from that of Western Australia has been a woman.

John Landy, a former governor of Victoria, and Marjorie Jackson-Nelson, a former governor of South Australia, are former Australian Olympic medallists.

Contemporary changes and prospects
The Northern Territory received self-government on 1 July 1978 under its own administrator appointed by the governor-general. The Commonwealth prime minister, not the Chief Minister of the Northern Territory, advises the governor-general on the appointment of the administrator.

In the lead up to the 1999 republican referendum, state governments were required to consider state links to the Crown and thus the validity of appointing the governor through the Queen. At a constitutional convention in Gladstone, Queensland, the states indicated that, if the referendum was successful, governors should be appointed by the parliament, although agreement on the exact method of appointment was not reached. As the referendum failed, no state altered the appointment method.

title: Governors of the Australian states


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Allocative efficiency

Allocative efficiency is a state of the economy in which production is aligned with the preferences of consumers and producers; in particular, the set of outputs is chosen so as to maximize the social welfare of society. This is achieved if every produced good or service has a marginal benefit equal to the marginal cost of production.

Description
In economics, allocative efficiency entails production at the point on the production possibilities frontier that is optimal for society.

In contract theory, allocative efficiency is achieved in a contract in which the skill demanded by the offering party and the skill of the agreeing party are the same.

Resource allocation efficiency includes two aspects:
 * 1) At the macro aspect, it is the allocation efficiency of social resources, which is achieved through the economic system arrangements of the entire society.
 * 2) The micro aspect is the efficient use of resources, which can be understood as the production efficiency of the organization, which can be improved through innovation and progress within the organizations.

Although there are different standards of evaluation for the concept of allocative efficiency, the basic principle asserts that in any economic system, choices in resource allocation produce both "winners" and "losers" relative to the choice being evaluated. The principles of rational choice, individual maximization, utilitarianism and market theory further suppose that the outcomes for winners and losers can be identified, compared, and measured. Under these basic premises, the goal of attaining allocative efficiency can be defined according to some principles where some allocations are subjectively better than others. For example, an economist might say that a policy change is an allocative improvement as long as those who benefit from the change (winners) gain more than the losers lose (see Kaldor–Hicks efficiency).

An allocatively efficient economy produces an "optimal mix" of commodities. A firm is allocatively efficient when its price is equal to its marginal costs (that is, P = MC) in a perfect market. The demand curve coincides with the marginal utility curve, which measures the (private) benefit of the additional unit, while the supply curve coincides with the marginal cost curve, which measures the (private) cost of the additional unit. In a perfect market, there are no externalities, implying that the demand curve is also equal to the social benefit of the additional unit, while the supply curve measures the social cost of the additional unit. Therefore, the market equilibrium, where demand meets supply, is also where the marginal social benefit equals the marginal social costs. At this point, the net social benefit is maximized, meaning this is the allocative efficient outcome. When a market fails to allocate resources efficiently, there is said to be market failure. Market failure may occur because of imperfect knowledge, differentiated goods, concentrated market power (e.g., monopoly or oligopoly), or externalities.

In the single-price model, at the point of allocative efficiency price is equal to marginal cost. At this point the social surplus is maximized with no deadweight loss (the latter being the value society puts on that level of output produced minus the value of resources used to achieve that level). Allocative efficiency is the main tool of welfare analysis to measure the impact of markets and public policy upon society and subgroups being made better or worse off.

It is possible to have Pareto efficiency without allocative efficiency: in such a situation, it is impossible to reallocate resources in such a way that someone gains and no one loses (hence we have Pareto efficiency), yet it would be possible to reallocate in such a way that gainers gain more than losers lose (hence with such a reallocation, we do not have allocative efficiency).

Also, for an extensive discussion of various types of allocative efficiency in a production context and their estimations see Sickles and Zelenyuk (2019, Chapter 3, etc). In view of the Pareto efficiency measurement method, it is difficult to use in actual operation, including the use of human and material resources, which is hard to achieve a full range of efficiency allocation, and it is mainly to make judgments from the allocation of funds; therefore, analyzing the funds in the stock market. Allocation efficiency is used to determine the efficiency of resource allocation in the capital market.

In a perfectly competitive market, capital market resources should be allocated among capital markets under the principle of the highest marginal benefit. Therefore, the most important measurement standard in the capital market is to observe whether capital flows into the enterprise with the best operating efficiency. The most efficient companies should also get a large amount of capital investment, and the less efficient companies should get less capital investment. There are three conditions that come with Pareto efficiency
 * Best trade outcome
 * Even if you trade again, individuals cannot get greater benefits from it. At this time, for any two consumers, the marginal substitution rate of any two commodities is the same, and the utility of the two consumers is maximized at the same time.

 * Optimal production:
 * This economy must be on the boundary of its own production possibilities. At this time, for any two producers who produce different products, the marginal technology substitution rate of the two production factors that need to be input is the same, and the output of the two consumers is maximized at the same time.

 * Optimal product mix:
 * The combination of products produced by the economy must reflect consumer preferences. At this time, the marginal rate of substitution between any two commodities must be the same as the marginal product conversion rate of any producer between these two commodities.

A numerical example of allocative efficiency
Allocation efficiency occurs when there is an optimal distribution of goods and services, considering consumer's preference. When the price equals marginal cost of production, the allocation efficiency is at the output level. This is because the optimal distribution is achieved when the marginal utility of good equals the marginal cost. The price that consumer is willing to pay is same as the marginal utility of the consumer. From the graph we can see that at the output of 40, the marginal cost of good is $6 while the price that consumer is willing to pay is $15. It means the marginal utility of the consumer is higher than the marginal cost. The optimal level of the output is 70, where the marginal cost equals to marginal utility. At the output of 40, this product or service is under-consumed by the society. By increasing the output to 70, the price will fall to $11. Meanwhile, the society would benefit from consuming more of the good or service.

An example of allocation inefficiency
With the market power, the monopoly can increase the price to gain the super normal profit. The monopolies can set the price above the marginal cost of the production. In this case, the allocation is not efficient. It results in the dead weight welfare loss to the society as a whole. In real life, the government's intervention policy to monopoly enterprises will affect the allocation efficiency. Large-scale downstream companies with more efficient or better products are generally more competitive than other companies. The wholesale prices they get are much lower than those of their competitors. It is conducive to improving the efficiency of allocation. Ind erst and Shaffer (2009) found that banning prices would reduce allocation efficiency and lead to higher wholesale prices for all enterprises. More importantly, social welfare, industry profits, and consumer surplus will all be reduced.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Allocative efficiency


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Ilyushin Il-96

The Ilyushin Il-96 (Илью́шин Ил-96) is a Russian four-engined jet long-haul wide-body airliner designed by Ilyushin in the former Soviet Union and manufactured by the Voronezh Aircraft Production Association in Russia. It is powered by four high-bypass Aviadvigatel PS-90 two-shaft turbofan engines.

It is used as the main Russian presidential aircraft. The type's only commercial operator in passenger service is Cubana de Aviación.

Development

Despite its usefulness on domestic routes in the Soviet Union, the serviceable but ultimately disappointing performance of the Il-86, especially in regards to range caused Ilyushin to begin planning to produce the long range Il-86D variant and the design was completed in 1976. The main changes from the base Il-86 included slightly longer wings and increased fuel capacity. The Il-86D project was eventually cancelled, but it laid the foundation for the Il-96, and the new design has a strong resemblance to the older Il-86. The new Il-96 featured larger wings, a shorter fuselage, new modern avionics and systems, and, perhaps most important, the new PS-90A high-bypass turbofan, which greatly decreased fuel consumption and increased overall performance. The prototype was first flown 20 September 1988 and the aircraft was certified in 1992. Aeroflot began passenger service in 1993. In June 2005, the Volga-Dnepr Group signed a 15-year financial agreement with Ilyushin Finance Corporation (IFC) to take delivery of two new-build Il-96-400T aircraft, to be operated by Volga-Dnepr's subsidiary AirBridge Cargo. The first was due to have been delivered in late 2006.

The Cuban Government newspaper Granma announced on 3 January 2006 the first official flight of the Cubana Il-96-300, from Havana to Buenos Aires, Argentina.

On 11 August 2009 Russian Minister of Industry and Trade Viktor Khristenko announced that manufacturing of the Il-96-300 would cease. In particular, the Il-96-300 had been deemed inferior to counterparts from Boeing and Airbus, and the manufacturer could not arrange commercially viable mass production, making only one aircraft per year. The Il-96-400T cargo version was to remain in production.

On 9 October 2015, it was announced that an updated version of the Il-96 may be produced. This decision was taken due to the current diplomatic situation between Russia and the West, and the dependency of the Russian aerospace industry on Airbus and Boeing. In September 2017, the Vice President of Russia's United Aircraft Corporation Aleksandr Tulyakov announced the start of development of the 250–280 seat, wide-body long-haul aircraft in partnership with Chinese builders. The aircraft is to be a development of the Russian-designed IL-96 and will be assembled in China. A new engineering center will be built in Russia to undertake technical and electronics production.

In March 2022, after International sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, the CEO of Rostec Sergey Chemezov announced a large scale production relaunch of the Il-96.

Design

The Ilyushin Il-96 is a shortened, long-range, and advanced technology development of the Soviet Union's first widebody airliner, the Ilyushin Il-86. It features supercritical wings fitted with winglets, a glass cockpit, and a fly-by-wire control system. The basic Il-96-300 is equipped with modern Russian avionics integrating six multi-function colour LCD displays, inertial and satellite navigation systems, and a Traffic Collision Avoidance System (including mode "S"). It allows the airplane to be operated with two crew members. The avionics correspond to modern requirements on international routes in Europe and North America (RNP-1) and allow navigation and landing under ICAO CAT III/A conditions. The Il-96 is offered in three main variants: the Il-96-300, Il-96M/T and Il-96-400.

The Il-96-300 has a standard passenger capacity of 262 seats in a two-class configuration with 18 seats with a seat pitch of 54 in and 244 seats with a pitch of 32 in, of which typical seating is 3–3–3 (layout), but low density seating is possible with 2–4–2 (layout). Galleys are positioned on the upper deck, and the lower deck can accommodate 18 LD-3 containers and crew rest areas.

Variants
There are two variants of the Il-96. The Il-96-300 was launched in 1985 with introduction into service in 1993. The Il-96M was launched in 1993 with introduction into service in 2000.

Il-96-300
The Il-96-300 is the initial variant and is fitted with Aviadvigatel (Soloviev) PS-90A turbofans with a thrust rating of 16,000 kgf (157 kN, 35,300 lbf). Development started in the mid-80s while the first prototype flew on 28 September 1988. The first Il-96 entered service with Aeroflot in 1993. Range with 262 passengers and fuel reserves (for holding 75 minutes at an altitude of 450 m) in a two-class configuration is about 11,000 km (5,940 nmi), allowing flights from Moscow to US west coast cities, a great improvement over the Ilyushin Il-86.

Il-96-300PU
A highly customized version of the Il-96-300, called the Il-96-300PU, is used as the primary aircraft in the Russian presidential aircraft fleet. Four were used by Russian president Vladimir Putin, and by Dmitry Medvedev as VIP planes. The VIP aircraft is operated by Russia State Transport Company. The Cuban leadership uses the IL-96-300.

Il-96-300V
There were plans to produce a variant dubbed Il-96-300V which would include two sets of airstairs in it.

Il-96M
The Il-96M is a stretched variant of the Il-96-300. It features a 10 m (30 ft) fuselage stretch, is 15 tonnes (33,000 lb) heavier, is fitted with Western-style avionics, and is powered by four Pratt & Whitney PW2337 engines with a thrust rating of 165 kN (37,000 lbf). Range with 312 passengers in a three-class configuration or 92 tonne (203,000 lb) payload is about 10,400 km (5,600 nmi). This turned it into a true—but vastly more capable—Il-86 successor. Development on the M/T variant stalled when the US Export–Import Bank suspended talks on financing the engines and avionics, following pressure from Boeing. The dispute was later settled following an Aeroflot order for ten Boeing 737-400s—placed in April 1997 in a deal worth US$440 million that were granted a tax exemption by the Russian government. Nevertheless, the financing was blocked again when four Boeing 767-300ERs also ordered by Aeroflot were not included in the accorded exemption. The deal was never realised.

Il-96-400T
This is the freighter version of the Il-96-400. It is powered by four Aviadvigatel PS-90A1 engines.

Only a handful of Il-96-400T aircraft were built and most of them were in storage until recently. Sanctions on Russia by Boeing and Airbus have changed the situation though and in December 2023, Sky Gates who are owned by Red Wings leased an IL-96-400T and started using it to carry cargo to and from Russia. The plane received an overhaul prior to being leased in order to make sure it met air worthiness standards. Russian media suggest a second Il-96-400T is currently being overhauled and it too will be leased to Sky Gates in early 2024, once the overhaul is complete.

Il-96-400
The Il-96-400 is similar to the Il-96M, but features Russian avionics and engines. It is powered by four Aviadvigatel PS-90A1 turbofans and can carry up to 436 passengers. Typical two-class configuration will have 386 passengers. Range with 315 passengers in a three-class configuration is about 10,000 km. A special version, dubbed Il-96-400VT, was reported on Friday 19 March 2010 by the Wall Street Journal to bid on the US$40 billion Air Force Tanker Program contract. In February 2013, Cubana signed a deal for the order of three 350-seater Ilyushin Il-96-400s.

Il-96-400VPU
One modified Il-96-400, the Il-96-400VPU is being converted to serve as an Airborne Command Post by the Russian Aerospace Forces as part of "Project Zveno-3S" calling for two such aircraft to enter service to replace the current Il-80-based planes.

Il-96-400M
In February 2017, it was announced that Russia's United Aircraft Corporation had signed a contract with its subsidiary Ilyushin Aviation Complex for the development of a new version of Ilyushin Il-96-400 wide-body passenger airliner to compete with the Boeing 777-9 and Airbus A350-1000. Il-96-400M is the passenger version of the Il-96-400T cargo aircraft. Its fuselage is 9.65 m longer than the existing Il-96-300 passenger variant. The new interior planned seating capacity is 390 passengers. In 2017, the Russian Government injected ₽3.6 billion ($ million) into the Ilyushin Il-96-400M.

By January 2020, the first test-flight airframe was in final assembly and the wing and fuselage were joined, to be finished at the end of 2020 before a first flight in 2021, but by April 2021 it was announced that the aircraft will not enter mass production as expected because of "lack of interest from the airlines and the worldwide idling of the long-range fleet due to the pandemic". Still, due to sanctions, on 15 August 2022, it was announced that the first flight of the Il-96-400M was planned. On 7 June 2023, the United Aircraft Corporation rolled out Russia's future wide-body passenger airliner. It made its first flight on 1 November 2023.

Il-96-400TZ
In January 2015, a new tanker variant of the Il-96, designated the Il-96-400TZ (Russian: ТЗ for топливозаправщик - fuel replenisher), was proposed, with an initial order for two aircraft placed by the Russian Ministry of Defense. The new tanker would have been able to transfer more than 65 tons (IL-78M 40 tons) of fuel at a distance of up to 3500 km (Il-78M 3000 km). Universal aviation refueling systems ORM-1, proven on existing combat aircraft tankers Il-78/78М, would have been installed on the aircraft. According to Alexei Krivoruchko, Russian Deputy Minister of Defense, factory trials of the Il-96-400TZ are expected to be completed in May, 2020. However this is previously cancelled due to differences between Russian MoD and Ilyushin, and in favor of much proven Il-76MD-90A platform, which is the Il-78M-90A.

Il-96-500T
Projected freighter version of Il-96 with an enlarged fuselage to transport oversize cargo.

Il-96-550
Projected double-deck version of Il-96 for 550-600 passengers and powered by Kuznetsov NK-93 propfan engines. Following flight tests in 2007 the engines were removed and the aircraft was not developed further.

Twin engine
, Ilyushin is studying a new variant of airliner based on Il-96, powered by two Aviadvigatel PD-35s rated at 340 kN, developed by 2025 from the PD-14, or powered by foreign powerplants. The goal would be to reduce fuel consumption and maintenance costs.

Current operators
As of December 2023, current operators of the Ilyushin Il-96 are:

Production by year
The following sheet lists the number of finished aircraft per year since the start of its production:

Accidents and incidents
In the entire history of operation with the Il-96, there have been no accidents causing the deaths of passengers or crew.

 * In 2005, Russia indefinitely grounded Ilyushin Il-96-300 passenger aircraft after transport inspectors pointed out malfunctions in the jets’ braking systems. The decision came just weeks after a technical glitch in an Il-96-300 forced Russian President Vladimir Putin to fly in a back-up plane during a visit to Finland.
 * On 3 June 2014, RA-96010 of Aeroflot, which had been retired from service, was damaged beyond economical repair in a fire while parked in storage at Sheremetyevo International Airport, Moscow.

Avionics

The airplane has the following systems installed, providing compliance with ICAO recommendations and Eurocontrol requirements:
 * Integrated communication and navigation control panel and flight management system
 * Upgraded EFIS with LCD indicators
 * Inertial navigation system
 * Ground proximity warning system
 * TCAS
 * SELCAL
 * Weather radar
 * Aircraft Communications Addressing and Reporting System with satellite communication.
 * Flight Data Recorder and Cockpit Voice Recorder

title: Ilyushin Il-96


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Oklahoma State University Library Electronic Publishing Center

The Oklahoma State University Library Electronic Publishing Center is located at 103 Oklahoma State University Library Annex Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078, United States.

The Electronic Publishing Center has four important digital collections online:

 * Chronicles of Oklahoma;
 * Indian Affairs: Laws and Treaties;
 * The Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science;
 * Speeches of Boone Pickens.


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Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Present-day proponents of subordinating horses by force

 * The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review).  No further edits should be made to this page.

The result was Retarget to Horse breaking, according to the discussion. (I'm just closing this so that this discussion can be properly archived on WP:AFD.) Steel1943  (talk) 20:33, 9 June 2016 (UTC)

Present-day proponents of subordinating horses by force

 * – ( View AfD View log  Stats )

[P0M:] It is extremely difficult to make sense of discussions when writers do not sign their posting. "I rewrote the article" could mean many different things. "You" (Rossami?) rewrote which article? P0M 14:01, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Present-day proponents of subordinating horses by force - Huh? RickK 04:11, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I think I created this page. I did the article on the "breaking" of horses and somebody claimed it was not NPOV because it did not include the views of people who favor doing things the "bronc buster" way. I would have included more information on that approach, especially since people still used it (and I've seen it used locally by a "rancher" who makes a business of raising, training, etc. horses), but I have never seen anybody who advocates/admits the use of the method in print. Delete it (i.e., Present-day proponents of subordinating horses by force) if you will. If somebody wants to describe how they abuse horses I guess they can make and link their own article. P0M 04:35, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Have you ever heard of a rodeo? If the wiki is going to write a politically correct article on every subject, I am going to hurt myself laughing ;) Sam Spade 04:48, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Gee, Sam, you wouldn't happen to know the politically correct terms for "flank strap" or "hotshot," would you? I can appreciate your concern about hurting yourself laughing. Just hope you're not a rodeo animal in your next reincarnation. Denni
 * I was making a serious comment, to which Same Spade responded in a very "Sam Spade" manner (you will know what that is if you ever listened to the radio program by that name). Why not do as I suggest, eliminate the empty article. Put the onus entirely on anyone who wants to write an article on how s/he traumatizes horses into submission. P0M 03:39, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Perhaps your question is warranted. I am never sure of how to satisfy the multitude of demands for NPOV and for objective and for "knowing the way of the world" articles. P0M
 * Put horse breaking, this page and the other related pages on the Clean-up list. After they've been thoroughly worked over, revisit the VfD question for any of the pages (if any) that are no longer necessary.  (Sorry, P0M.  I'm sure there's good content on the pages, but I can't make heads or tails of it.  From the discussion page, neither can others.  The creation of this page gives the appearance that the edit process for "horse breaking" fell into a straw man fallacy, but I can't be sure.)  Rossami 23:58, 17 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * I rewrote the article completely, based on the pioneering work of Monty Roberts. I read his book 5 years ago, and saw both movies.
 * Who are you?

P0M 03:49, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC): Let's just delete the blank article.

 * The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. Please do not modify it. Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a deletion review). No further edits should be made to this page.


text:
Aloha Airlines Flight 243

Aloha Airlines Flight 243 (IATA: AQ243, ICAO: AAH243) was a scheduled Aloha Airlines flight between Hilo and Honolulu in Hawaii. On April 28, 1988, a Boeing 737-297 serving the flight suffered extensive damage after an explosive decompression in flight, caused by part of the fuselage breaking due to poor maintenance and metal fatigue. The plane was able to land safely at Kahului Airport on Maui. The one fatality, flight attendant Clarabelle "C.B." Lansing, was ejected from the airplane. Another 65 passengers and crew were injured. The substantial damage inflicted by the decompression, the loss of one cabin crew member, and the safe landing of the aircraft established the incident as a significant event in the history of aviation, with far-reaching effects on aviation safety policies and procedures.

Aircraft and crew
The aircraft involved was a Boeing 737-200 and was the 152nd Boeing 737 airframe built at the Renton assembly plant. It was built in 1969 and delivered to Aloha Airlines as a new aircraft. Its registration was. When delivered to Aloha, it was named King Kalaniopuu, after Kalaniʻōpuʻu, until it was leased to Air California/AirCal, after which the name was reassigned to N728AL. When N73711 returned to Aloha, it received its second name, Queen Liliuokalani after Liliʻuokalani. While the airframe had accumulated 35,496 flight hours prior to the accident, those hours included nearly 90,000 flight cycles (takeoffs and landings), owing to its use on short flights. This amounted to more than twice the number of flight cycles for which it was designed. At the time of the incident, Aloha Airlines operated the two highest flight-cycle Boeing 737s in the world, with the incident aircraft being number two.

The captain of the flight was 44-year-old Robert Schornstheimer, an experienced pilot with 8,500 flight hours, 6,700 of which were in Boeing 737s. The first officer was 36-year-old Madeline "Mimi" Tompkins, who also had significant experience flying the 737, having logged 3,500 of her total 8,000 flight hours in that particular Boeing model.

Incident
Flight 243 departed from Hilo International Airport at 13:25 HST on April 28, 1988, with five crew members and 90 passengers on board, bound for Honolulu. Nothing unusual was noted during the pre-departure inspection of the aircraft, which had already completed three round-trip flights from Honolulu to Hilo, Maui, and Kauai earlier that day, all uneventful. Meteorological conditions were checked, but no advisories for weather phenomena were reported along the air route, per AIRMETs or SIGMETs.

After a routine takeoff and ascent, the aircraft had reached its normal flight altitude of 24000 ft, when at around 13:48, about 23 nmi south-southeast of Kahului on the island of Maui, a section on the left side of the roof ruptured with a "whooshing" sound. The captain felt the aircraft roll to the left and right, and the controls went loose; the first officer noticed pieces of grey insulation floating in the cockpit. The cockpit door had broken away and the captain could see "blue sky where the first-class ceiling had been." A large section of the roof had torn off, consisting of the entire top half of the aircraft skin extending from just behind the cockpit to the fore-wing area, a length of about 18 ft.

The only fatality was that of 58-year-old flight attendant Clarabelle "C.B." Lansing, who was swept out of the airplane while standing near the fifth-row seats; her body was never found. Lansing was a veteran flight attendant of 37 years at the time of the incident. Eight other people suffered serious injuries. All of the passengers had been seated and wearing their seat belts during the depressurization.

First Officer Tompkins was the pilot flying at the time of the incident; Captain Schornstheimer took over controls and performed an immediate emergency descent. The crew declared an emergency and diverted to Kahului Airport for an emergency landing. During the approach to the airport, the left engine failed, and the flight crew was unsure if the nose gear was lowered correctly. Nevertheless, they were able to land normally on Runway 2, thirteen minutes after the incident. Upon landing, the aircraft's emergency evacuation slides were deployed and passengers quickly evacuated from the aircraft. Sixty-five people were reported injured, eight of them with serious injuries. At the time, Maui had no plan in place for an emergency of this type. The injured were taken to the hospital in tour vans belonging to Akamai Tours, driven by office personnel and mechanics, as the island only had two ambulances. Air traffic control radioed Akamai and requested as many of their 15-passenger vans as they could spare to go to the airport (which was 3 mi from their base) to transport the injured. Two of the Akamai drivers were former paramedics and established a triage on the runway.

Aftermath

Additional damage to the airplane included damaged and dented horizontal stabilizers, both of which had been struck by flying debris. Some of the metal debris had also struck the aircraft's vertical stabilizer, causing slight damage. The leading edges of both wings and both engine cowlings had also sustained damage. The aircraft was damaged beyond repair, dismantled on site and written off.

The piece of the fuselage blown off the aircraft was never found. Investigation by the U. S. National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) concluded that the accident was caused by metal fatigue exacerbated by crevice corrosion. The aircraft was 19 years old and operated in a coastal environment, with exposure to salt and humidity.

During an interview, passenger Gayle Yamamoto told investigators that she had noticed a crack in the fuselage upon boarding, but did not notify anyone.

In 1995, a garden in Terminal 1 of Honolulu International Airport was named in honor of flight attendant Lansing.

Construction
The incident aircraft was line number 152. All 737s constructed after line number 291 included an additional outer layer of skin or doubler sheet at the lap joint of the fuselage. In the construction of the incident aircraft, this doubler sheet was not used. In the case of production line 292 and after, this doubler sheet gave an additional thickness of 0.91 mm at the lap joint. For airplane line number 291 and before, cold bonding had been used, with fasteners used to maintain surface contact in the joint, allowing bonding adhesive to transfer load within the joint. This cold-bonded joint used an epoxy-impregnated woven scrim cloth to join the edges of .9 mm skin panels. These epoxy cloths were reactive at room temperature, so they were stored at dry ice temperatures until used in manufacture. The bond cured at room temperature after assembly. The cold-bonding process reduced the overall weight and manufacturing cost. Fuselage hoop loads (circumferential loads within the skins due to pressurization of the cabin) were intended to be transferred through the bonded joint, rather than through the rivets, allowing the use of lighter, thinner fuselage skin panels with no degradation in fatigue life.

The additional outer layer construction improved the joint by:
 * Eliminating the knife-edge fatigue detail, which resulted from the countersinking of the panels for flush rivets in a disbonded upper skin, and
 * Eliminating the corrosion concern associated with the scrim cloth, which could wick moisture into the lap joint

Conclusion
The NTSB investigation determined that the quality of inspection and maintenance programs was deficient. Fuselage examinations were scheduled during the night, which made carrying out an adequate inspection of the aircraft's outer skin more difficult.

Also, the fuselage failure initiated in the lap joint along S-10L; the failure mechanism was a result of multiple-site fatigue cracking of the skin adjacent to rivet holes along the lap joint upper rivet row and tear strap disbond, which negated the fail-safe characteristics of the fuselage. Finally, the fatigue cracking initiated from the knife edge associated with the countersunk lap joint rivet holes; the knife edge concentrated stresses that were transferred through the rivets because of lap joint disbonding.

The NTSB concluded in its final report on the accident:

"The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the failure of the Aloha Airlines maintenance program to detect the presence of significant disbonding and fatigue damage which ultimately led to failure of the lap joint at S-10L and the separation of the fuselage upper lobe. Contributing to the accident were the failure of Aloha Airlines management to supervise properly its maintenance force; the failure of the FAA to require Airworthiness Directive 87-21-08 inspection of all the lap joints proposed by Boeing Alert Service Bulletin SB 737-53A1039; and the lack of a complete terminating action (neither generated by Boeing nor required by the FAA) after the discovery of early production difficulties in the B-737 cold-bond lap joint, which resulted in low bond durability, corrosion, and premature fatigue cracking."

One board member dissented, arguing that the fatigue cracking was clearly the probable cause, but that Aloha Airlines maintenance should not be singled out because failures by the FAA, Boeing, and Aloha Airlines maintenance each were contributing factors to the disaster.

In popular culture

 * The events of Flight 243 were featured in "Hanging by a Thread", a season-three (2005) episode of the Canadian TV series Mayday (called Air Emergency and Air Disasters in the U.S. and Air Crash Investigation in the UK and elsewhere around the world). The flight was also included in Mayday season six (2007) Science of Disaster special titled "Ripped Apart".
 * The story of Flight 243 was the subject of the 1990 made-for-television movie called Miracle Landing.
 * A memorial garden was opened in 1995 to honor Lansing at Honolulu International Airport.
 * It is featured in season 1, episode 2, of the TV show Why Planes Crash, in an episode called "Breaking Point".
 * The Vampire Weekend album Only God Was Above Us is named after a New York Daily News article about the incident.

title: Aloha Airlines Flight 243


text:
New Zealand national cricket team

The New Zealand national cricket team represents New Zealand in men's international cricket. Nicknamed the Black Caps (Pōtae Pango), they played their first Test in 1930 against England in Christchurch, becoming the fifth country to play Test cricket. From 1930 New Zealand had to wait until 1956, more than 26 years, for its first Test victory, against the West Indies at Eden Park in Auckland. They played their first ODI in the 1972–73 season against Pakistan in Christchurch. New Zealand are the inaugural champions of WTC which they won in 2021 and they have also won ICC CT in 2000. They have played in the CWC final twice and the T20 WC final once.

Tom Latham is the current captain of the team in ODIs and T20Is, Tim Southee is the current test captain as Kane Williamson stepped down as captain in December 2022. The national team is organised by New Zealand Cricket.

The New Zealand cricket team became known as the Blackcaps in January 1998, after its sponsor at the time, Clear Communications, held a competition to choose a name for the team. This is one of many national team nicknames related to the All Blacks.

As of 21 September 2023, New Zealand have played 1472 international matches, out of which they have won 584, lost 654, tied 17 and drew 170 matches while 47 matches ended up as no result. The team is ranked 5th in Tests, 5th in ODIs and 4th in T20Is by the ICC.

As of 2022, the team has participated in all the 29 ICC Men's events taking place from 1975 onwards and have made six final appearances out of which they won two titles. In October 2000 they won the Knockout Trophy by defeating India which was their maiden ICC Title. They defeated South Africa to reach their maiden CWC Final in 2015. In the next edition they reached their second successive Final by defeating India. Then in June 2021 they won the inaugural WTC by defeating India and five months later they reached their maiden T20 WC Final by defeating England.

Beginnings of cricket in New Zealand
The reverend Henry Williams provided history with the first report of a game of cricket in New Zealand, when he wrote in his diary in December 1832 about boys in and around Paihia on Horotutu Beach playing cricket. In 1835, Charles Darwin and HMS Beagle called into the Bay of Islands on its epic circumnavigation of the Earth and Darwin witnessed a game of cricket played by freed Māori slaves and the son of a missionary at Waimate North. Darwin in The Voyage of the Beagle wrote:

several young men redeemed by the missionaries from slavery were employed on the farm. In the evening I saw a party of them at cricket.

The first recorded game of cricket in New Zealand took place in Wellington in December 1842. The Wellington Spectator reports a game on 28 December 1842 played by a "Red" team and a "Blue" team from the Wellington Club. The first fully recorded match was reported by the Examiner in Nelson between the Surveyors and Nelson in March 1844.

The first team to tour New Zealand was Parr's all England XI in 1863–64. Between 1864 and 1914, 22 foreign teams toured New Zealand. England sent 6 teams, Australia 15 and one from Fiji.

First national team
On 15–17 February 1894 the first team representing New Zealand played New South Wales at Lancaster Park in Christchurch. New South Wales won by 160 runs. New South Wales returned again in 1895–96 and New Zealand won the solitary game by 142 runs, its first victory. The New Zealand Cricket Council was formed towards the end of 1894.

New Zealand played its first two internationals (not Tests) in 1904–05 against a star-studded Australia team containing such players as Victor Trumper, Warwick Armstrong and Clem Hill. Rain saved New Zealand from a thrashing in the first match, but not the second, which New Zealand lost by an innings and 358 runs – currently the second-largest defeat in New Zealand first-class history.

Inter-war period
In 1927 NZ toured England. They played 26 first-class matches, mostly against county sides. They won seven matches, including those against Worcestershire, Glamorgan, Somerset and Derbyshire. On the strength of the performances of this tour New Zealand was granted Test status.

In 1929/30 the M.C.C toured NZ and played 4 Tests all of 3 days in duration. New Zealand lost its first Test match but drew the next 3. In the second Test Stewie Dempster and Jackie Mills put on 276 for the first wicket. This is still the highest partnership for New Zealand against England. New Zealand first played South Africa in 1931–32 in a three match series but were unable to secure Test matches against any teams other than England before World War II ended all Test cricket for 7 years. A Test tour by Australia, planned for February and March 1940, was cancelled after the outbreak of the war.

After World War II
New Zealand's first Test after the war was against Australia in 1945/46. This game was not considered a "Test" at the time but it was granted Test status retrospectively by the International Cricket Council in March 1948. The New Zealand players who appeared in this match probably did not appreciate this move by the ICC as New Zealand were dismissed for 42 and 54. The New Zealand Cricket Council's unwillingness to pay Australian players a decent allowance to tour New Zealand ensured that this was the only Test Australia played against New Zealand between 1929 and 1972.

In 1949 New Zealand sent one of its best-ever sides to England. It contained Bert Sutcliffe, Martin Donnelly, John R. Reid and Jack Cowie. However, 3-day Test matches ensured that all 4 Tests were drawn. Many have regarded the 1949 tour of England among New Zealand's best ever touring performances. All four tests were high-scoring despite being draws and Martin Donnelly's 206 at Lord's hailed as one of the finest innings ever seen there. Despite being winless, New Zealand did not lose a test either. Prior to this, only the legendary 1948 Australian team, led by the great Don Bradman, had achieved this.

New Zealand played its first matches against the West Indies in 1951–52, and Pakistan and India in 1955/56.

In 1954/55 New Zealand recorded the lowest ever innings total, 26 against England. The following season New Zealand achieved its first Test victory. The first 3 Tests of a 4 Test series were won easily by the West Indies but New Zealand won the fourth to notch up its first Test victory. It had taken them 45 matches and 26 years to attain.

In the next 20 years, New Zealand won only seven more Tests. For most of this period New Zealand lacked a class bowler to lead their attack although they had two excellent batsmen in Bert Sutcliffe and Glenn Turner and a great all-rounder in John R. Reid.

Reid captained New Zealand on a tour to South Africa in 1961–62 where the five-test series was drawn 2–2. The victories in the third and fifth tests were the first overseas victories New Zealand achieved. Reid scored 1,915 runs in the tour, setting a record for the most runs scored by a touring batsman of South Africa as a result.

New Zealand won their first test series in their three match 1969/70 tour of Pakistan 1–0. This was the first ever series win by New Zealand after almost 40 years and 30 consecutive winless series.

1970 to 2000
In 1973 Richard Hadlee debuted and the rate at which New Zealand won Tests picked up dramatically. Hadlee was one of the best pace bowlers of his generation, playing 86 Tests for New Zealand before he retired in 1990. Of the 86 Tests that Hadlee played in New Zealand won 22 and lost 28. In 1977/78 New Zealand won its first Test against England, at the 48th attempt. Hadlee took 10 wickets in the match.

During the 1980s New Zealand also had the services of one of its best-ever batsman, Martin Crowe and a number of good players such as John Wright, Bruce Edgar, John F. Reid, Andrew Jones, Geoff Howarth, Jeremy Coney, Ian Smith, John Bracewell, Lance Cairns, Stephen Boock, and Ewen Chatfield, who were capable of playing the occasional match-winning performance and consistently making a valuable contribution to a Test match.

The best example of New Zealand's two star players (R. Hadlee and M. Crowe) putting in match-winning performances and other players making good contributions is New Zealand versus Australia, 1985 at Brisbane. In Australia's first innings Hadlee took 9–52. In New Zealand's only innings, M Crowe scored 188 and John F. Reid 108. Edgar, Wright, Coney, Jeff Crowe, V. Brown, and Hadlee scored between 17 and 54*. In Australia's second innings, Hadlee took 6–71 and Chatfield 3–75. New Zealand won by an innings and 41 runs.

One-day cricket also gave New Zealand a chance to compete more regularly than Test cricket with the better sides in world cricket. In one-day cricket a batsman does not need to score centuries to win games for his side and bowlers do not need to bowl the opposition out. One-day games can be won by one batsman getting a 50, a few others getting 30s, bowlers bowling economically and everyone fielding well. These were requirements New Zealand players could consistently meet and thus developed a good one-day record against all sides.

Perhaps New Zealand's most infamous one-day match was the "under arm" match against Australia at the MCG in 1981. Requiring six runs to tie the match off the final ball, Australian captain Greg Chappell instructed his brother Trevor to bowl the ball underarm along the wicket to prevent New Zealand batsman Brian McKechnie from hitting a six. The Australian umpires ruled the move as legal even though to this day many believe it was one of the most unsporting decisions made in cricket.

When New Zealand next played in the tri-series in Australia in 1983, Lance Cairns became a cult hero for his one-day batting. In one match against Australia, he hit six sixes at the MCG, one of the world's largest grounds. Few fans remember that New Zealand lost this game by 149 runs. However, Lance's greatest contribution to New Zealand cricket was his son Chris Cairns.

Chris Cairns made his debut one year before Hadlee retired in 1990. Cairns, one of New Zealand's best all-rounders, led the 1990s bowling attack with Danny Morrison. Stephen Fleming, New Zealand's most prolific scorer, led the batting and the team into the 21st century. Nathan Astle and Craig McMillan also scored plenty of runs for New Zealand, but both retired earlier than expected.

Daniel Vettori made his debut as an 18-year-old in 1997, and when he took over from Fleming as captain in 2007 he was regarded as the best spinning all-rounder in world cricket. On 26 August 2009, Daniel Vettori became the eighth player and second left-arm bowler (after Chaminda Vaas) in history to take 300 wickets and score 3000 test runs, joining the illustrious club. Vettori decided to take an indefinite break from international short form cricket in 2011 but continued to represent New Zealand in Test cricket and returned for the 2015 Cricket World Cup.

On 4 April 1996, New Zealand achieved a unique world record, where the whole team was adjudged Man of the Match for team performance against 4-run victory over the West Indies. This is recorded as the only time where whole team achieved such an award.

21st century
New Zealand started the new millennium by winning the 2000 ICC KnockOut Trophy in Kenya to claim their first ICC tournament. This was a knockout tournament where teams were seeded according to their performance in Cricket World Cup 1999, the top five teams from that world cup gained direct entry to quarter-finals and while remaining six teams had to play the pre-quarter finals. New Zealand gained direct entry to quarter-finals where they faced Zimbabwe against whom they had recently lost an ODI series, after a nervy start they pulled things back and romped to a crushing 64-run victory to get through to the semis. In semis they faced Pakistan, a team who had managed to knock New Zealand out from last World Cup at this very stage. New Zealand beat Pakistan this time in a thrilling run-chase to enter the final. In the final, they faced India who had knocked out world champions Australia and defending champions South Africa. New Zealand won the toss and opted to bowl but the decision seemed to backfire as India romped to a 141 run opening partnership in 27 overs, New Zealand somehow managed to pull things back but the target was a daunting 265, and in reply they struggled for the most part of their innings but in the end, it was a 122-run partnership between Chris Cairns and Chris Harris that took them close the target before Cairns finished the game with two balls to spare as New Zealand won its first-ever ICC event.

Shane Bond played 18 Tests for NZ between 2001 and 2009 but missed far more through injury. When fit, he added a dimension to the NZ bowling attack that had been missing since Hadlee retired, taking 87 wickets at an average of 22.09.

The rise of the financial power of the BCCI had an immense effect on NZ cricket and its players. The BCCI managed to convince other boards not to pick players who had joined the rival Twenty-20 Indian Cricket League. NZ Cricket lost the services of Shane Bond, Lou Vincent, Andre Adams, Hamish Marshall and Daryl Tuffey. The money to be made from Twenty-20 cricket in India may have also induced players, such as Craig McMillan and Scott Styris (from Test cricket) to retire earlier than they would have otherwise. After the demise of the Indian Cricket League Bond and Tuffey again played for New Zealand.

Vettori stood down as Test captain in 2011 leading to star batsman Ross Taylor to take his place. Taylor led New Zealand for a year which included a thrilling win in a low scoring Test match against Australia in Hobart, their first win over Australia since 1993. In 2012/13 Brendon McCullum became captain and new players such as Kane Williamson, Corey Anderson, Doug Bracewell, Trent Boult and Jimmy Neesham emerged as world-class performers. McCullum captained New Zealand to series wins against the West Indies and India in 2013/14 and both Pakistan and Sri Lanka in 2014/15 increasing New Zealand's rankings in both Test and ODI formats. In the series against India McCullum scored 302 at Wellington to become New Zealand's first Test triple centurion.

In early 2015 New Zealand made the final of the Cricket World Cup, going through the tournament undefeated until the final, where they lost to Australia by seven wickets. In 2015 the New Zealand national cricket team played under the name of Aotearoa for their first match against Zimbabwe to celebrate te Wiki o te Reo Māori (Māori Language Week).

In mid-2015 New Zealand toured England, performing well, drawing the Test series 1–1, and losing the One Day series, 2–3. From October to November 2015, and in February 2016, New Zealand played Australia in two Test Series, three and two games respectively. With a changing of an era in the Australian team, New Zealand was rated as a chance of winning especially in New Zealand. New Zealand lost both series by 2–0

In February 2016, Kane Williamson was appointed as the captain of the team after Brendon McCullum's retirement after playing his 101st test against Australia at Christchurch. Williamson's first international series as the full-time captain was Men's T20 World Cup 2016 in India in which the team won all four of its group games but lost to England in the semi-final at Delhi. After the annual rankings update on 4 May 2016 the team was awarded the No. 1 ranking in T20Is. The team then got into a rough patch after the T20WC where they would go onto lose away series to South Africa, India and Australia. In their home season they managed to beat Pakistan for the first time in a test series after 32 years, whitewashed Bangladesh across formats, won the Chappell-Hadlee Trophy against Australia but went onto lose to South Africa in T20I, ODI and Test series.

New Zealand started the 2017 international season with a tri-series involving hosts Ireland, and Bangladesh as a preparation for upcoming Champions Trophy in England. New Zealand managed to win the tri-series as they finished at the top of the points table but the Champions Trophy turned out to be a disastrous campaign as they got knocked out by Bangladesh and ended the tournament without a single win, the worst performance for them in an ICC Event. After that the team had to wait four months for their next tour which was to India in which both the ODI and T20I series were closely contested but New Zealand lost both by a scoreline of 2–1. The home season started with whitewash of the West Indies across formats followed by whitewash of Pakistan in the ODI series but after that New Zealand lost the T20I series to Pakistan and in the process lost their No. 1 ranking in T20Is. Then they took part in the first ever T20I tri-series involving full-members the Trans-Tasman T20I Tri-Series in which they ended up runners-up to Australia and England finished third. Then they played England where they lost the ODI series but then managed to win the test series. This was their first test series win against England after 19 years and 4th overall in their 87 year old rivalry.

New Zealand played no matches in the 2018 season. In 2018–19 they began with a tour of UAE in Oct–Dec 2018 to play Pakistan. The tour started with New Zealand suffering a whitewash in the T20I series but they drew the ODI series, 1–1. New Zealand produced a stunning act of resilience to register their first away test series win against Pakistan after 49 years. This put New Zealand 3rd on the test rankings table. After this in their home season they beat Sri Lanka across formats, lost to India in the ODI series before managing to beat them in the T20I series and lastly they beat Bangladesh across formats and consequently they climbed to No. 2 spot in Test rankings.

New Zealand started the 2019 season with the Cricket World Cup in England & Wales. New Zealand had a terrific start to their World Cup campaign as they remained unbeaten and top of the table for their first six games. Their formed dipped after that initial burst as they managed to lose their next three group games convincingly and only just managed to get through to the semi-finals on net run-rate. In the semi-final, they stunned favourites India on the reserve day to reach a second consecutive final. In the final, the scores were tied after 50 overs and again after the Super Over. England won by having hit more boundaries. This boundary countback rule was criticised and a couple of months later ICC abolished the rule.

In December 2022, captain Kane Williamson stepped down as test captain and was replaced by Tim Southee. Williamson will remain the white-ball captain.

International grounds
Listed chronologically in order of first match. Neutral fixtures such as World Cup and World Cup Qualifier games are included.

Current squad
New Zealand Cricket released the list of their 2023–2024 national contracts on 8 June 2023. 20 players received contracts.

This is a list of every active player who is contracted to New Zealand Cricket, has played for New Zealand since March 2023 or was named in the recent Test, ODI or T20I squads. Uncapped players are listed in italics.

 * Neil Wagner was contracted and had played Tests during this period however has since retired from international cricket.

Last updated: 1 March 2024

 * Forms – This refers to the forms they've played for New Zealand in the past year, not over their whole New Zealand career
 * No. – Shirt number
 * C – Contracted to New Zealand Cricket (Y = Holds contract)

Coaching history

 * 1985–1987: Glenn Turner
 * 1987–1990: Bob Cunis
 * 1990–1993: Warren Lees
 * 1993–1995: Geoff Howarth
 * 1995–1996: Glenn Turner
 * 1996–1999: Steve Rixon
 * 1999–2001: David Trist
 * 2001–2003: Denis Aberhart
 * 2003–2008: John Bracewell
 * 2008–2009: Andy Moles
 * 2010: Mark Greatbatch
 * 2010–2012: John Wright
 * 2012–2018: Mike Hesson
 * 2018–present: Gary Stead

Team colours
New Zealand's kit is manufactured by Canterbury of New Zealand, who replaced previous manufacturer WStar in 2009. When playing Test cricket, New Zealand's cricket whites feature logo of the sponsors Gillette on the left of the shirt, the ANZ logo on the left sleeve and on the middle of the shirt and the Canterbury logo on the right sleeve. New Zealand fielders may wear a black cap (in the style of a baseball cap rather than the baggy cap worn by some teams) or a white sun hat with the New Zealand Cricket logo in the middle. Helmets are also coloured black (although until 1996, they used to be white with the silver fern logo encased in a black circle).

In limited overs cricket, New Zealand's ODI and Twenty20 shirts feature the ANZ logo across the centre, with the silver fern badge on the left of the shirt, Canterbury logo on the right sleeve and the Ford logo on the right. In ODIs, the kit comprises a black shirt with blue accents and black trousers, whilst the Twenty20 kit comprises a beige shirt with black accents and black trousers. In ICC limited-overs tournaments, a modified kit design is used with sponsor's logos moving to the sleeve and 'NEW ZEALAND' printed across the front.

In ODI, New Zealand wore Beige and brown between 1980 World Series Cricket and 1988 World Series Cricket. The 1983–1984 version was made popular by the Black Caps supporter group Beige Brigade, who sells the version of this uniform to the general public together with a "moral contract" which explains the expectations that come with being a Beige Brigadier. and was also worn in the inaugural Twenty20 international between New Zealand and Australia. Between 1991 and 1997 grey or silver (with some splashes of black or white) was worn instead. Until 2000, the ODI uniform was teal with black accents.

Previous suppliers were Adidas (World Series Cricket 1980–1990), ISC (World Cup World Cup 1992 and 1996, World Series 1993–97) Canterbury (1998–1999), Asics (who supplied all the 1999 Cricket World Cup participating teams) and WStar (2000–2009).

Previous sponsors were DB Draught (1990–1994 in the front, 1995–1997 in the sleeve), Bank of New Zealand (1993–94 and 1997–99 in the front), Clear Communications, later TelstraClear (1997–2000 in the front, 2001–2005 in the sleeve), National Bank of New Zealand (2000–2014) and Dheeraj and East Coast (2009–2010), since 2014 ANZ is the current sponsor, due to National Bank's rebranding as ANZ. Amul became the new sponsor in May 2017 for the ICC CT.

ICC World Cup 2023 started on 5 October 2023. They have ended their journey to this tournament by getting defeated to India by 70 runs in the semi-final.

In December 2023, there had been a six-year deal with Castore to manufacture their kits starting from October 2024.

ICC

 * World Test Championship:
 * Champions (1): 2019–2021
 * World Cup:
 * Runners-up (2): 2015, 2019
 * T20 World Cup:
 * Runners-up (1): 2021
 * Champions Trophy:
 * Champions (1): 2000
 * Runners-up (1): 2009

Others

 * Commonwealth Games:
 * Bronze medal (1): 1998

Test matches
* Only bilateral series wherein a minimum of 2 matches were played have been included here. One-off matches are not credited as a bilateral series.

ODI matches
* Only bilateral series wherein a minimum of 2 matches were played have been included here. One-off matches are not credited as a bilateral series.

* "Tie+W" and "Tie+L" indicates matches tied and then won or lost in a tiebreaker such as a bowlout or one-over-eliminator ("Super Over").

* The win percentage excludes no results and counts ties (irrespective of a tiebreaker) as half a win.

* Forfeited matches are not included.

T20I matches
* Only bilateral series wherein a minimum of 2 matches were played have been included here. One-off matches are not credited as a bilateral series.

* "Tie+W" and "Tie+L" indicates matches tied and then won or lost in a tiebreaker such as a bowlout or one-over-eliminator ("Super Over")

* The win percentage excludes no results and counts ties (irrespective of a tiebreaker) as half a win.

World records

 * Richard Hadlee, one of New Zealand and the world's best all-rounders, took the world record for most Test wickets (374) vs India at Bangalore in 1988. Hadlee was the first bowler to reach 400 Test wickets, vs India at Christchurch in 1990, and finished his career with 431 wickets. He subsequently lost the record to Kapil Dev.
 * The black caps would be known for their world record of having the most semi final appearances of any country but The Black Caps have yet to claim the trophy.
 * Corey Anderson holds record for the second fastest century in One Day Internationals (or any other format of international cricket). Playing against West Indies, he scored his ton in just 36 balls. Corey Anderson lost the record to AB de Villiers when AB scored a century in just 31 balls against West Indies.
 * In a One Day International in 1996, the entire New Zealand team were awarded man of the match against the West Indies, the first such occasion.
 * Andrew Jones and Martin Crowe held the highest ever 3rd-wicket partnership in Tests, with 467 against Sri Lanka in 1991, which at the time was the highest partnership for any wicket.
 * Brian Hastings and Richard Collinge together scored 151 runs for the 10th-wicket against Pakistan in 1973, the highest 10th-wicket partnership at the time.
 * Nathan Astle scored Test cricket's fastest ever double century versus England, at Christchurch in 2002. He scored 200 off 153 balls with the second hundred coming off just 39 deliveries. He was eventually out for 222—the dreaded double Nelson. He knocked the first hundred off 114 balls. Astle smashed the record by 59 balls, previously held by Adam Gilchrist Australia vs South Africa Johannesburg 2002.
 * Brendon McCullum holds the world record for the fastest Test hundred in terms of balls faced. It was scored off 54 balls on 20 February 2016, against Australia during his final Test match, in Christchurch.
 * Brendon McCullum holds the world record for the most sixes in Test cricket with 107. He passed Adam Gilchrist's record of 100 in his final Test match. This record was also previously held by Chris Cairns.
 * Brendon McCullum was the first batsman to score two centuries in Twenty20 International Cricket (116* v. Australia and 123 v. Bangladesh).
 * Brendon McCullum held the record for the highest individual score in Twenty20 International cricket, when he scored 123 v. Bangladesh at Pallekele. He lost the record to Aaron Finch who scored 156* against England at Southampton.
 * Chris Cairns and his father Lance Cairns are one of the two father-son combinations to each claim 100 Test wickets, South Africa's Peter and Shaun Pollock being the other.
 * Martin Guptill scored the highest score in World Cups with 237* in 2015.
 * Guptill holds the record for most career runs (2,271) and most sixes (103, equal with Chris Gayle) in Twenty20 Internationals, both records previously held by Brendon McCullum.
 * John Bracewell was the first – and so far only – substitute fielder to take four catches in a One Day International, vs Australia in Adelaide on 23 November 1980.
 * Daniel Vettori was the first cricketer to take four wickets and score a half-century in each innings of a Test match, a feat he achieved against Bangladesh in October 2008 at Chittagong. His figures were 5/95 and 4/74 with the ball and 55* and 76 with the bat.
 * Colin Munro is the first player in to score three Twenty20 International hundreds. This was accomplished on 3 January 2018 against the West Indies when he scored 104 off 88 balls, with 3 fours and 10 sixes.
 * Ross Taylor is the first player to have played 100 ODI, Tests and T20Is.
 * Chris Harris holds the record for the most ODI caught and bowled dismissals, with 29.

Notable

 * Ross Taylor has the 8th highest ODI batting average among batsmen to have played at least 100 ODIs, and Kane Williamson has the 10th highest.
 * New Zealand dismissed Zimbabwe (Harare 2005) twice in the same day for totals of 59 and 99. Zimbabwe became only the second team (after India at Manchester in 1952) to be dismissed twice in the same day. The whole Test was completed inside two days. This feat was then repeated at Napier in 2012 when NZ dismissed Zimbabwe for 51 and 143 to end the match within three days.
 * Kane Williamson holds the record for most centuries by a New Zealander in Tests, with 32.
 * Brendon McCullum holds the record for the highest Test innings by a New Zealander of 302 (vs India in 2014). He is currently the only triple centurion from New Zealand.
 * Brendon McCullum holds the New Zealand Test record for the most innings of 200 or more, with 4.
 * Brendon McCullum scored the fastest World Cup fifty (off 18 balls) for New Zealand in a Pool A Match of 2015 Cricket World Cup against England, beating his own 20-ball record set against Canada in World Cup (2007) earlier.
 * Martin Guptill holds the record for the highest One Day International innings by a New Zealander, with 237 not out against West Indies in the 2015 World Cup quarter-final in Wellington.
 * Shane Bond took an ODI hat-trick in the last over (innings bowling figures: 10–0–61–4) vs Australia at Hobart in January 2007.
 * Tim Southee took a Twenty20 hat-trick, taking 5–18 in the match against Pakistan.
 * Colin Munro scored the second fastest T20 International 50, off 14 balls, against Sri Lanka at Eden Park, Auckland on 10 January 2016.
 * Chris Harris, Daniel Vettori, Kyle Mills and Chris Cairns are the only New Zealand cricketers to have taken 200 wickets in ODIs.
 * Chris Harris and Chris Cairns are the only two New Zealand cricketers to complete the 4000 run / 200 wicket double in ODIs. The others are Sri Lankan Sanath Jayasuriya, South African Jacques Kallis, Pakistani's Shahid Afridi and Abdul Razzaq and Bangladeshi Shakib Al Hasan).
 * Ajaz Patel took all 10 wickets in an innings, being the third international cricketer and first New Zealand cricketer to achieve this feat, after England's Jim Laker and India's Anil Kumble.
 * In June 2022 against England, New Zealand scored the fifth-highest team total (553) and second-highest match aggregate (837) in a losing cause in test match history.

title: New Zealand national cricket team


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Topper (dinghy)

The Topper is an 11 foot 43 kg sailing dinghy designed by Ian Proctor. The Topper was a one-design boat until 2023 when a new version was produced, and is sailed mostly around the British Isles. It was recognised as a World Sailing Class. The boat previously constructed from polypropylene, and now roto moulded, is popular as a racing boat or for sail training. The class association (ITCA) organise racing events, which range from small travellers to major championships. The RYA run squads alongside the events; in these squads young sailors who are given specialist race coaching.

Class history and design
The Topper was designed by Ian Proctor in 1977 as a One-Design racing boat. The Topper has been in continuous production for over four decades and over 50,000 examples have now been sold. The Topper dinghy is built in the UK by Topper International Ltd. owned by Martin Fry who purchased the company from Guinness Leisure in 1983. In 1977 the boat won the Design Council Award and the Horner Award for achievements in plastics.

The Topper dinghy is widely used for racing, but it has also gained popularity as a boat in which to learn how to sail. The Topper was originally designed with a glass reinforced plastic (GRP) hull making it a relatively light but durable boat, however, it was later decided that the Topper should be constructed with injection moulding, using polypropylene, which is less expensive but heavier and less rigid.

In 2021, the injection mould was damaged beyond repair and would have required replacement. As this was not financially viable, the boat was redesigned to be rotomoulded in polyethylene. The new version was introduced in 2023.

Although the Topper was originally rigged with an aft mainsheet, since 2004 the option to use a centre main has been allowed. The motivation for such a change being that most other dinghies, including the ones Topper sailors are likely to advance to, are rigged with centre mainsheets.

In 2005 a smaller 4.2 m2 sail was approved, which can optionally be used in favour of the standard 5.3 m2 sail. The smaller sail is more efficient than a larger sail that is reefed. The first 4.2m² national championships were held in 2010.

In 2020, after two years of development, a new 6.4m² rig for the Topper was introduced.

At 11' the Topper is named for the ability to transport it on the roof of a car, and the mast splits into two sections, allowing the spars to be stored and transported.

Despite the age of the design, the Topper Class remains one of the fastest growing classes in the UK, with a very active national association. The Topper class is a recognised World Sailing International Class since 2005. The GBR Nationals and the World Championships often have over 200 boats.

The largest fleet is in Great Britain where the class is part of the RYA "pathway" class program with turnouts at the RYA regional Championships and the highest percentage of RYA Transitional Youth Squad members. Most 'GB Young Sailor of the Year' nominations in recent years have come from within the Topper Class.

title: Topper (dinghy)


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Protein isoform

A protein isoform, or "protein variant", is a member of a set of highly similar proteins that originate from a single gene or gene family and are the result of genetic differences. While many perform the same or similar biological roles, some isoforms have unique functions. A set of protein isoforms may be formed from alternative splicings, variable promoter usage, or other post-transcriptional modifications of a single gene; post-translational modifications are generally not considered. (For that, see Proteoforms.) Through RNA splicing mechanisms, mRNA has the ability to select different protein-coding segments (exons) of a gene, or even different parts of exons from RNA to form different mRNA sequences. Each unique sequence produces a specific form of a protein.

The discovery of isoforms could explain the discrepancy between the small number of protein coding regions of genes revealed by the human genome project and the large diversity of proteins seen in an organism: different proteins encoded by the same gene could increase the diversity of the proteome. Isoforms at the RNA level are readily characterized by cDNA transcript studies. Many human genes possess confirmed alternative splicing isoforms. It has been estimated that ~100,000 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) can be identified in humans. Isoforms at the protein level can manifest in the deletion of whole domains or shorter loops, usually located on the surface of the protein.

Definition
One single gene has the ability to produce multiple proteins that differ both in structure and composition; this process is regulated by the alternative splicing of mRNA, though it is not clear to what extent such a process affects the diversity of the human proteome, as the abundance of mRNA transcript isoforms does not necessarily correlate with the abundance of protein isoforms. Three-dimensional protein structure comparisons can be used to help determine which, if any, isoforms represent functional protein products, and the structure of most isoforms in the human proteome has been predicted by AlphaFold and publicly released at isoform.io. The specificity of translated isoforms is derived by the protein's structure/function, as well as the cell type and developmental stage during which they are produced. Determining specificity becomes more complicated when a protein has multiple subunits and each subunit has multiple isoforms.

For example, the 5' AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), an enzyme, which performs different roles in human cells, has 3 subunits: In human skeletal muscle, the preferred form is α2β2γ1. But in the human liver, the most abundant form is α1β2γ1.
 * α, catalytic domain, has two isoforms: α1 and α2 which are encoded from PRKAA1 and PRKAA2
 * β, regulatory domain, has two isoforms: β1 and β2 which are encoded from PRKAB1 and PRKAB2
 * γ, regulatory domain, has three isoforms: γ1, γ2, and γ3 which are encoded from PRKAG1, PRKAG2, and PRKAG3

Mechanism
The primary mechanisms that produce protein isoforms are alternative splicing and variable promoter usage, though modifications due to genetic changes, such as mutations and polymorphisms are sometimes also considered distinct isoforms.

Alternative splicing is the main post-transcriptional modification process that produces mRNA transcript isoforms, and is a major molecular mechanism that may contribute to protein diversity. The spliceosome, a large ribonucleoprotein, is the molecular machine inside the nucleus responsible for RNA cleavage and ligation, removing non-protein coding segments (introns).

Because splicing is a process that occurs between transcription and translation, its primary effects have mainly been studied through genomics techniques—for example, microarray analyses and RNA sequencing have been used to identify alternatively spliced transcripts and measure their abundances. Transcript abundance is often used as a proxy for the abundance of protein isoforms, though proteomics experiments using gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry have demonstrated that the correlation between transcript and protein counts is often low, and that one protein isoform is usually dominant. One 2015 study states that the cause of this discrepancy likely occurs after translation, though the mechanism is essentially unknown. Consequently, although alternative splicing has been implicated as an important link between variation and disease, there is no conclusive evidence that it acts primarily by producing novel protein isoforms.

Alternative splicing generally describes a tightly regulated process in which alternative transcripts are intentionally generated by the splicing machinery. However, such transcripts are also produced by splicing errors in a process called "noisy splicing," and are also potentially translated into protein isoforms. Although ~95% of multi-exonic genes are thought to be alternatively spliced, one study on noisy splicing observed that most of the different low-abundance transcripts are noise, and predicts that most alternative transcript and protein isoforms present in a cell are not functionally relevant.

Other transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulatory steps can also produce different protein isoforms. Variable promoter usage occurs when the transcriptional machinery of a cell (RNA polymerase, transcription factors, and other enzymes) begin transcription at different promoters—the region of DNA near a gene that serves as an initial binding site—resulting in slightly modified transcripts and protein isoforms.

Characteristics
Generally, one protein isoform is labeled as the canonical sequence based on criteria such as its prevalence and similarity to orthologous—or functionally analogous—sequences in other species. Isoforms are assumed to have similar functional properties, as most have similar sequences, and share some to most exons with the canonical sequence. However, some isoforms show much greater divergence (for example, through trans-splicing), and can share few to no exons with the canonical sequence. In addition, they can have different biological effects—for example, in an extreme case, the function of one isoform can promote cell survival, while another promotes cell death—or can have similar basic functions but differ in their sub-cellular localization. A 2016 study, however, functionally characterized all the isoforms of 1,492 genes and determined that most isoforms behave as "functional alloforms." The authors came to the conclusion that isoforms behave like distinct proteins after observing that the functional of most isoforms did not overlap. Because the study was conducted on cells in vitro, it is not known if the isoforms in the expressed human proteome share these characteristics. Additionally, because the function of each isoform must generally be determined separately, most identified and predicted isoforms still have unknown functions.

Glycoform
A glycoform is an isoform of a protein that differs only with respect to the number or type of attached glycan. Glycoproteins often consist of a number of different glycoforms, with alterations in the attached saccharide or oligosaccharide. These modifications may result from differences in biosynthesis during the process of glycosylation, or due to the action of glycosidases or glycosyltransferases. Glycoforms may be detected through detailed chemical analysis of separated glycoforms, but more conveniently detected through differential reaction with lectins, as in lectin affinity chromatography and lectin affinity electrophoresis. Typical examples of glycoproteins consisting of glycoforms are the blood proteins as orosomucoid, antitrypsin, and haptoglobin. An unusual glycoform variation is seen in neuronal cell adhesion molecule, NCAM involving polysialic acids, PSA.

Examples
Monoamine oxidase, a family of enzymes that catalyze the oxidation of monoamines, exists in two isoforms, MAO-A and MAO-B.
 * G-actin: despite its conserved nature, it has a varying number of isoforms (at least six in mammals).
 * Creatine kinase, the presence of which in the blood can be used as an aid in the diagnosis of myocardial infarction, exists in 3 isoforms.
 * Hyaluronan synthase, the enzyme responsible for the production of hyaluronan, has three isoforms in mammalian cells.
 * UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, an enzyme superfamily responsible for the detoxification pathway of many drugs, environmental pollutants, and toxic endogenous compounds has 16 known isoforms encoded in the human genome.
 * G6PDA: normal ratio of active isoforms in cells of any tissue is 1:1 shared with G6PDG. This is precisely the normal isoform ratio in hyperplasia. Only one of these isoforms is found during neoplasia.

title: Protein isoform


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Robert Carver

Robert Carver may refer to:

 * Robert Carver (composer) (c. 1485–c. 1570), Scottish Renaissance composer of Christian sacred music
 * Robert Carver (painter) (1730–1791), Irish painter
 * Bob Carver (fl. 1972–2013), audio electronics engineer

title: Robert Carver