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Khalsa

Khalsa (ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ,, lit. 'to be pure' or 'to be clear' or 'to be free from' or 'to be liberated') refers to both a community that considers Sikhism as its faith, as well as a special group of initiated Sikhs. The Khalsa tradition was initiated in 1699 by the Tenth Guru of Sikhism, Guru Gobind Singh. Its formation was a key event in the history of Sikhism. The founding of Khalsa is celebrated by Sikhs during the festival of Vaisakhi.

Guru Gobind Singh started the Khalsa tradition after his father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was beheaded during the Islamic Sharia rule of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb after the Hindu Brahmins requested for his help to save their religion. Guru Gobind Singh created and initiated the Khalsa as a warrior with a duty to protect the innocent from religious persecution. The founding of the Khalsa started a new phase in the Sikh tradition. It formulated an initiation ceremony (amrit sanskar, nectar ceremony) and rules of conduct for the Khalsa warriors. It created a new institution for the temporal leadership of the Sikhs, replacing the earlier Masand system. Additionally, the Khalsa provided a political and religious vision for the Sikh community.

Upon initiation, a male Sikh was given the title of Singh meaning "lion". Kaur was made the sole, compulsory identifier for female Sikhs in the twentieth century. The rules of life include a behavioural code called Rahit. Some rules are no tobacco, no intoxicants, no adultery, no Kutha meat, no modification of hair on the body, and a dress code (Five Ks).

Etymology
"Khalsa", is derived from the Arabic word "Khalis" which means "to be pure, to be clear, to be free from, to be sincere, to be true, to be straight, to be solid".

Sikhism emerged in the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent (now parts of Pakistan and India). During the Mughal empire rule, according to professor Eleanor Nesbitt, Khalsa originally meant the land that was possessed directly by the emperor, which was different from jagir land granted to lords in exchange for a promise of loyalty and annual tribute to the emperor.

Prior to Guru Gobind Singh, the religious organization was organized through the masands or agents. The masands would collect revenue from rural regions for the Sikh cause, much like jagirs would for the Islamic emperor. The Khalsa, in Sikhism, came to mean pure loyalty to the Guru, and not to the intermediary masands who were increasingly becoming corrupt, states Nesbitt.

Background
The Sikhs faced religious persecution during the Mughal Empire rule. Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Guru, was arrested and executed by Mughal Emperor Jahangir in 1606. The following Guru, Guru Hargobind formally militarised the Sikhs and emphasised the complementary nature of the temporal power and spiritual power. In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru of the Sikhs and the father of Guru Gobind Singh was executed by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb for resisting religious persecution of non-Muslims, and for refusing to convert to Islam. Guru Gobind Singh's sons were killed since they refused to convert to Islam.

The term Khalsa in Sikhism predates the events of Vaisakhi in 1699. Before the formalization of the Khalsa Panth in April 1699, the term Khalsa referred to a very special Sikh who was held in high esteem and considered as being close to the Guru. The Khalsa Panth's formalization in 1699 essentially opened this restricted class of Sikhs as a possibility to attain for the wider congregation.

Foundation
In 1699, the tenth Guru of Sikhism, Guru Gobind Singh asked Sikhs to gather at Anandpur Sahib on 13 April 1699, the day of Vaisakhi, the annual harvest festival. Guru Gobind Singh addressed the congregation from the entryway of a tent pitched on a hill, now called Kesgarh Sahib. He drew his sword, according to the Sikh tradition, and then asked for a volunteer from those who gathered, someone willing to sacrifice his head. One came forward, whom he took inside a tent. The Guru returned to the crowd without the volunteer, but with a bloody sword.

He asked for another volunteer and repeated the same process of returning from the tent without anyone and with a bloodied sword four more times. After the fifth volunteer went with him into the tent, the Guru returned with all five volunteers, all safe. Rather, the Guru had slaughtered 5 goats from which the blood had appeared. He called the volunteers the Panj Pyare and the first Khalsa in the Sikh tradition. These five volunteers were: Daya Ram (Bhai Daya Singh), Dharam Das (Bhai Dharam Singh), Himmat Rai (Bhai Himmat Singh), Mohkam Chand (Bhai Mohkam Singh), and Sahib Chand (Bhai Sahib Singh).

Guru Gobind Singh then mixed water and sugar into an iron bowl, stirring it with a double-edged sword while reciting Gurbani to prepare what he called Amrit ("nectar"). He then administered this to the Panj Pyare, accompanied by recitations from the Adi Granth, thus founding the khanda ki pahul (baptism ceremony) of a Khalsa – a warrior community. After the first five Khalsa had been baptized, the Guru asked the five to baptize him as a Khalsa. This made the Guru the sixth Khalsa, and his name changed from Guru Gobind Rai to Guru Gobind Singh.

Around 80,000 men were initiated into the Khalsa order in a few days after its formalization on 13 April 1699.

He introduced ideas that indirectly challenged the discriminatory taxes imposed by Islamic authorities. For example, Aurangzeb had imposed taxes on non-Muslims that were collected from the Sikhs as well, for example the jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims), pilgrim tax and Bhaddar tax – the last being a tax to be paid by anyone following the Hindu ritual of shaving the head after the death of a loved one and cremation. Guru Gobind Singh declared that Khalsa does not need to continue this practice, because Bhaddar is not dharam, but a bharam (illusion). Not shaving the head also meant not having to pay the taxes of Sikhs who lived in Delhi and other parts of the Mughal Empire. However, the new code of conduct also led to internal disagreements between Sikhs in the 18th century, particularly between the Nanakpanthi and the Khalsa.

Guru Gobind Singh had a deep respect for the Khalsa, and stated that there is no difference between the True Guru and the Sangat (panth). Before he found the Khalsa, the Sikh movement had used the Sanskrit word Sisya (literally, disciple or student), but the favored term thereafter became Khalsa. Additionally, before the Khalsa, the Sikh congregations across India had a system of Masands appointed by the Sikh Gurus. The Masands led the local Sikh communities, and local temples collected wealth and donations for the Sikh cause.

Guru Gobind Singh concluded that the Masands system had become corrupt, he abolished them and introduced a more centralized system with the help of Khalsa that was under his direct supervision. These developments created two groups of Sikhs, those who initiated as Khalsa, and others who remained Sikhs but did not undertake the initiation. The Khalsa Sikhs saw themselves as a separate religious entity, while the Nanak-panthi Sikhs retained their different perspective.

The Khalsa warrior community tradition started by Guru Gobind Singh has contributed to modern scholarly debate on pluralism within Sikhism. His tradition has survived into modern times, with initiated Sikhs referred to as Khalsa Sikhs, while those who do not get baptized are referred to as Sahajdhari Sikhs.

Dress and code of conduct
Guru Gobind Singh initiated the Five K's tradition of the Khalsa,
 * Kesh: uncut hair.
 * Kangha: a wooden comb.
 * Kara: an iron or steel bracelet worn on the wrist.
 * Kirpan: a sword or dagger.
 * Kachera: short breeches.

He also announced a code of discipline for Khalsa warriors. Tobacco, eating meat slaughtered according to Muslim ritual and sexual intercourse with any person other than a spouse were forbidden. The Khalsas also agreed to never interact with those who followed rivals or their successors. The co-initiation of men and women from different castes into the ranks of Khalsa also institutionalized the principle of equality in Sikhism regardless of one's caste or gender. According to Owen and Sambhi, Guru Gobind Singh's significance to the Sikh tradition has been very important, as he institutionalized the Khalsa, resisted the ongoing persecution by the Mughal Empire, and continued "defense of Sikhism and Hinduism against the Muslim assault of Aurangzeb".

According to the Sikh Code of Conduct (Sikh Rehat Maryada), Amritdhari Khalsa Sikh men must wear a turban and the 5 K's. Baptized women are not required to tie a turban, and it remains a personal choice. It also clearly states that it is not appropriate for Sikh women to cover their faces with any type of veil as practiced in the Indian, Islamic, or Judeo-Christian traditions. Piercing of the nose or ears for wearing ornaments is forbidden for Sikh men and women. Sikhs cannot wear any token of any other faith. Sikhs must not have their head bare or wear caps. They also cannot wear any ornaments piercing through any part of the body.

Prohibitions
The four prohibitions or mandatory restrictions of the Khalsa or life of Khalsa at the time of Guru Gobind Singh are:

 * 1) Not to disturb the natural growth of the hairs.
 * 2) Not to eat the Kutha meat.
 * 3) Not to cohabit with a person other than one's spouse.
 * 4) Not to use tobacco, alcohol or any type of drugs.

A Khalsa who breaks any code of conduct is no longer a Khalsa and is excommunicated from the Khalsa Panth and must go and 'pesh' (get baptized again). Guru Gobind Singh also gave the Khalsa 52 hukams or 52 specific additional guidelines while living in Nanded in 1708.

The Khalsa as a Guru (Guru Khalsa Panth)
The Sikh Rehat Maryada states "The Guru Panth (Panth’s status of Guruhood) means the whole body of committed baptized Sikhs. This body was fostered by all the ten Gurus and the tenth Guru gave it its final shape and invested it with Guruhood".

The Khalsa is considered equal to the Guru in Sikhism.

The five men, known as the Panj Pyare or the Five Beloved Ones, were baptized by the Guru and given the title of Singh, which means lion. They were then given the Amrit, a mixture of sugar and water stirred with a sword, and were asked to drink it. The significance of the Khalsa is reflected in the fact that Guru Gobind Singh considered it his equal. He allowed the Panj Pyare to give him Tankah, or punishment. There are instances where this occurred, as reported in the Suraj Prakash.

Guru Gobind Singh demonstrated his respect for the Panj Pyare by bowing down to them and asking them to baptize him. This act is known as the Pahul ceremony or Amrit Sanchar, and it is still performed in Sikhism today. The Guru's act of bowing down to the Panj Pyare was a symbolic gesture of the Guru's humility and his recognition of the Panj Pyare's spiritual authority as being equal to his own.

The Panj Pyare, in turn, demonstrated their loyalty to the Guru by baptizing him and giving him the title of Singh, as well as still revering him as the Guru. This act was a recognition of the Guru's spiritual authority and his commitment to the principles of Sikhism. The Panj Pyare were not just the Guru's disciples; they were also his equals (collectively) and his companions in the struggle for justice and equality. Guru Gobind Singh wrote two famous excerpts collectively known as the Khalsa Mahima, which can be found in the Dasam Granth, and Sarbloh Granth. Below is an excerpt of the Khalsa Mahima from the Sarbloh Granth:

ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੀ ਜਾਤ ਅਰ ਪਤ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਸੋ ਮਾ ਕੋ ਉਤਪਤ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੋ ਭਵਨ ਭੰਡਾਰਾ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸੇ ਕਰ ਮੇਰੋ ਸਤਿਕਾਰਾ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੋ ਸਵਜਨ ਪਰਵਾਰਾ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੋ ਕਰਤ ਉਧਾਰਾ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੋ ਪਿੰਡ ਪਰਾਨ॥ ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਮੇਰੀ ਜਾਨ ਕੀ ਜਾਨ॥

''romanized: khhalasa maeree jath ar path. khhalasa so ma ko outhapath. khhalasa maero bhavan bhanddara. khhalasae kar maero sathikara. khhalasa maero svajan pravara. khhalasa maero karath oudhhara. khhalasa maero pindd paran. khhalasa maeree jan kee jan.''

Translation: Khalsa is my caste & creed. Because of the Khalsa, I was born. Khalsa is my world treasure. Because of the Khalsa, I have respect. Khalsa is my close family. Khalsa grants me favours. Khalsa is my body and soul. Khalsa is the breath of my life.

- Sri Manglacharan Purana, pages 519–524, Khalsa Mero Rup Hai Khas

The famous contemporary Writer, Bhai Gurdas Singh (Not to be confused with Bhai Gurdas), notes in his book of compositions, or veteran:

ਵਾਹਵਾਹਗੋਬਿੰਦਸਿੰਘਆਪੇਗੁਰੁਚੇਲਾ॥੧॥

vaeh vaeh gobi(n)dh si(n)gh aape gur chelaa ||1||

Hail, hail (Guru) Gobind Singh; He, Himself, is the Master and Disciple too.

- Bhai Gurdas Singh Ji Vaaran

Duties and warriors
A Khalsa is enjoined, to be honest, treat everyone as equal, meditate on God, maintain his fidelity, resist tyranny and religious persecution of oneself and others.

One of the duties of the Khalsa is to practice arms. This has been deemed necessary due to the rising persecution of the rulers. Before joining the Khalsa, most of the people were from professions like farming, pottery, masonry, carpenters, Labanas, etc. Guru Gobind Singh in Oct 1708 deputed his disciple Banda Singh Bahadur to lead the Khalsa in an uprising against the Mughals. Banda Singh Bahadur first established a Sikh republic and then brought in the land reforms in the form of breaking up large estates and distributing the land to peasants. He and his comrades were eventually defeated and executed, but he became an icon among the Sikhs. After a long exile the Khalsa regrouped under Nawab Kapur Singh, who gathered local Khalsa leaders and created Dal Khalsa, a coalition army. The Dal Khalsa fought against the Mughals and the Afghans, eventually resulting in the establishment of a number of small aristocratic republics called misls (autonomous confederacies) and later in the formation of the Sikh Empire.

After the fall of the Mughal Empire and the later establishment of the Sikh Empire in Punjab, the Khalsa was converted into a strong, multi-religious and multinational fighting force, modernized according to European principles: the Sikh Khalsa Army which had a huge role in the expansion of the empire. Led by generals like: Maharaja Ranjit Singh himself, Misr Diwan Chand and Hari Singh Nalwa. It successfully defeated all its adversaries, including the Afghan tribals and army, Hill Chiefs, Misldars, Chinese, Tibeans and Gorkhas. By the time of death of the Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1839, the whole army of Sikh Empire was assessed at 120,000 men, with 250 artillery pieces. The irregular levies were included.

The official name of the state (Sikh Empire) of Sikhs was "Sarkar-i-Khalsa": Government of the Khalsa. The boundaries of this state stretched from Tibet to Afghanistan and from Kashmir to Sutlej in the south and included regions of Punjab, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Kashmir, Ladakh, etc. The "Sarkar-i-Khalsa" was dissolved during two wars fought against the British between 1846 and 1849.

Initiation
Initiation into the Khalsa is referred to as Amrit Sanchar (water of immortality life-cycle rite) or Khande di Pahul (Initiation with the double edged sword). Anyone from any previous religion, age, caste, or knowledge group can take Amrit (Amrit Chhakh) when they are convinced that they are ready. This baptism is done by the Panj Pyare in front of the Guru Granth Sahib. The devotee must arrive at the place of baptism, usually a Gurdwara, in the morning after bathing completely including having washed their hair and must be wearing the 5 articles of the Khalsa uniform.

After baptism, the new Singh or Kaur must abide by the four restrictions or must get re-baptised if they break any of them.

Initiation of women
The initiation of women did not receive mainstream acceptance until the emergence of the Singh Sabha Movement in the twentieth century. Rehat-namas produced shortly after the Khalsa's inauguration are exclusively addressed to men, and communicate various notions surrounding women. Although they do not explicitly negate a woman's place in the Khalsa, the exhortations and directives within them are interpreted by scholars such as W. H. McLeod and Doris Jakobsh as women being ancillaries to the initiated men, as opposed to having a formal role. They mandate men to respect women in the same manner that is rendered to their mother, prohibit violence against them, cursing them, and engaging in extramarital affairs. They further regard women as innately untrustworthy never to be confided in or relied on. Men were to partake in righteous warfare and protect their families, whereas women were expected to be housewives raising their children and providing service for their husbands. Early Sikh texts either omitted any mention of directives concerning the initiation of women or rejected it; an exception to this norm was the Chaupa Singh Rahit-nama which explicitly forbade a woman's initiation conducted through the khanda ceremony; they were to instead receive charan amrit. W.H. McLeod notes that while the tenor of the rahitnamas marked the milieu of the 18th century and into the time of Ranjit Singh, some progress had occurred in the mid nineteenth century; Joseph Davey Cunningham, in 1849, reported that some women had received initiation conducted through a single edged sword, as opposed to the customary double edged one. The Tat Khalsa, concerned about the marginal presence of women in the Khalsa tradition and identity, led nascent efforts in the 1900s to allow women the same initiation as men, which was later emphatically advocated for and codified in the Sikh Rehat Maryada. According to Jaspal Kaur Singh, the baptism of women and the bestowal of Kaur was incipient only during the colonial period, during which the Tat Khalsa sought to combat perceived threats to Sikhism, both from Christian missionaries and Arya Samaj proselytization, by removing "Hinduized" and "un-Sikh" cultural and religious practices from within their fold and introducing egalitarian practices to the fore of the religion.

Gilbert Lewis, an anthropologist, wrote that the rigid delimitation between men and women in the praxis of the Khalsa stemmed from a need to enhance esotericism within their institution and create a tightly bonded brotherhood ready to deal with the harsh exigencies of war and defence. This also manifested through the disparity between male and female naming conventions as prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh; men were mandated the compulsory identifier of Singh, whereas women received no such dictum.

Nikky-Guninder Kaur Singh, in her explication of the inauguration of the Khalsa, maintained that women were allowed into the Khalsa and received the title of Kaur, which she purports was congruent with and indicative of the inherent egalitarianism of the Sikh tradition. Her claims were criticized by Doris Jakobsh who argued that her work revealed the effectiveness and pervasiveness of the Singh Sabha's interpolations. Jacob Copeman, an anthropologist, described Singh's analysis as deliberately elusive, clearly presenting itself at the level of mythos, and based on the recovery of lost potentials. Jakobsh contends that the initiation of women into the Khalsa originated with the Namdharis, who during the British Raj, were particularly active in preaching for the upliftment of women and against pervading social taboos. She further posits that as the military ethos of the Sikhs reached its apogee under the mandate of Guru Gobind Singh, women were concomitantly made to undertake more traditional roles. She cites tales from the Dasam Granth and rahit-namas to support her hypothesis; women were often depicted as seducers and thus inhibited men from attaining the warrior-saint status that the Guru wanted to inculcate in his order. According to Merry Wiesner-Hanks, as the influence of the Khalsa grew, women and those not in the Khalsa brotherhood were relegated to secondary status in the Sikh community.

J. S. Grewal considers Jakobsh to be fascinated by the "theology of difference," and oversimplifying the issue; Gurinder Singh Mann, not attributing the Charitropakhyan to Guru Gobind Singh, considers both the analyses of Nikky Singh and Jakobsh to be lopsided, as in his view they both glean selectively from the Dasam Granth.

Initial tensions with the non-Khalsa disciples
With the creation of Khalsa, Guru Gobind Singh abolished all existing social divisions in line with the teachings of Guru Nanak Dev. In their new order, the former lowest of the low would stand with the former highest; all would become one and drink from the same vessel. All previous beliefs relating to family, occupation, customs and ceremonies were declared useless by the Guru. This caused discomfort to the conservative followers of the Guru and they protested. Many departed from the ceremony, but the Guru declared that the low castes should be raised and would dwell next to him.

Sri Gur Sobha (18th century) by Senapati contains two sections (adhyays) on the controversies that arose, when Guru Gobind Singh's disciples in Delhi heard the news of his new order. Much of the controversy stated in Sri Gur Sobha revolves around bhaddar, the ritual shaving of the head after the death of a close relative, which was discouraged by Guru Gobind Singh. According to Sainapti, while creating the Khalsa, Guru Gobind Singh said that bhaddar is bharam (illusion), and not dharam.

Tensions developed between the Punjabi Khatri disciples of the Guru in Delhi, and members of the newly formed Khalsa. A prominent Khatri disciple was expelled from the place of worship (dharmasala) for refusing to join the Khalsa. Another disciple was expelled for eating with him, starting a chain of further expulsions. The expelled disciples convened a community gathering, at which two wealthy Khatris demanded that the Khalsa produce a written order from the Guru that a new mandatory code of conduct had been promulgated.

A Khatri family that refused to follow the bhaddar ritual was boycotted by the Khatri community. The Khatri council (panch) closed the bazaar to pressure the Khalsa. The Khalsa petitioned the state officials to intervene, who forced the reopening of the shops. Later, peace was established between the two groups in a sangat (congregation). However, hostility between some Khatris and the Khalsa persisted in the later years.

In contrast to the Khalsa Sikh, a Sahajdhari Sikh is one who reveres the teachings of the Sikh Gurus, but has not undergone the initiation. Sahajdhari Sikhs do not accept some or all elements of the dress and behavioral codes of the Khalsa Sikhs.

Contemporary status

Today, the Khalsa is respected by the entire gamut of Sikhs; however, not all Sikhs are Amritdharis The issue of Khalsa code of conduct has led to several controversies. In the early 1950s, a serious split occurred in the Canadian Sikh community, when the Khalsa Diwan Society in Vancouver, British Columbia elected a clean-shaven Sikh to serve on its management committee. Although most of the early Sikh immigrants to Canada were non-Khalsa, and a majority of the members of the society were clean-shaven non-Khalsa Sikhs, a faction objected to the election of a non-Khalsa to the management committee. The factions in Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia broke away from the Khalsa Diwan Society and established their gurdwara society called Akali Singh.

The Khalsa has been predominantly a male institution in Sikh history, with Khalsa authority with the male leaders. In the contemporary era, it has become open to women but its authority remains with Sikh men.

3HO is a Western sect that emerged in 1971, founded by Harbhajan Singh Khalsa also known as Yogi Bhajan. It requires both men and women to wear turbans, and adopt the surname Khalsa.

Each year the Khalsa display their military skills around the world at a festival called Hola Mohalla. During Hola Mohalla, military exercises are performed alongside mock battles followed by kirtan and valor poetry competitions. The Khalsa also lead the Sikhs in the annual Vaisakhi parade.

Cited sources

 * Dhavan, P. (2011) When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799, Oxford University Press: Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-975655-1.
 * Dhavan, P. (2011) When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799, Oxford University Press: Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-975655-1.
 * Dhavan, P. (2011) When Sparrows Became Hawks: The Making of the Sikh Warrior Tradition, 1699–1799, Oxford University Press: Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-975655-1.

title: Khalsa


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Surtees Racing Organisation

The Surtees Racing Organisation was a race team that spent nine seasons (1970 to 1978) as a constructor in Formula One, Formula 2, and Formula 5000.

History
The team was formed by John Surtees, a four-time 500cc motorcycle champion and the 1964 Formula One champion in 1966 to compete in the newly formed Canadian-American Challenge Cup (CanAm) "unlimited" sports car racing series. Entering as an owner/driver, Surtees won the championship in its first year, driving a Lola T70.

Surtees also fielded an entry in another newly formed series in 1969, becoming part of Formula 5000 after taking over a project started by Len Terry and Roger Nathan, and his team constructed its own cars for the first time. His team was successful, winning five races, consecutively at Mondello Park, Koksijde, Zandvoort, Snetterton and Hockenheim, during a twelve race season.

This inspired Surtees to expand to Formula One, and after having had a difficult season with BRM in 1969, he decided to become an owner/driver again. The team ran the full 1970 season, but Surtees was forced to run the first four races in an old McLaren due to a delay in the construction of his in-house F1 car. The new BP-sponsored car earned its first (and only) points that year in the Canadian Grand Prix.

Surtees added a second full-time car in for German driver Rolf Stommelen, and ran a third car for various drivers in a number of races. Three drivers, Surtees, Stommelen, and motorcycling champion Mike Hailwood earned three points each for the marque that year.

After the 1971 season, Surtees retired from full-time competition, and the team ended up with three new full-time drivers in. Hailwood returned to Surtees for a full year; joining him were Australian Tim Schenken and Italian Andrea de Adamich, the latter of whom brought sponsorship money to the team. Hailwood produced Surtees' first podium finish that year in the Italian Grand Prix, finishing second to Emerson Fittipaldi. All three drivers scored points for the team, and Surtees finished fifth in the Constructors' Championship.

Schenken was replaced in 1973 by Brazilian Carlos Pace, and the team only ran two full-time cars after de Adamich left following the season opener. Pace finished third in Austria and fourth in Germany, but it was the only points finishes the team had all season, as Hailwood was left scoreless. Hailwood departed for McLaren after the year, being replaced by Jochen Mass in. It was a difficult year for Surtees, as Pace left the team in mid-season, and replacement Derek Bell struggled to qualify for races, capped by Austrian driver Helmut Koinigg's fatal crash at the 1974 United States Grand Prix. A fourth place by Pace at his home track were the only points Surtees managed to get, and they failed to finish in the top ten in the Constructors' Championship.

Low on money for, the team pared back to a single car for John Watson (although a second car was entered for Dave Morgan at Silverstone). The season was a tremendous struggle for Surtees, with no points scored, and the team missed three of the final four races. 1976 was much better, however, as Surtees landed a well-known, but otherwise controversial sponsorship deal with Durex condoms, and Australian Alan Jones joined the team. Jones finished fifth in Belgium and at Brands Hatch, and fourth in Japan. A second car, with Chesterfield sponsorship, was entered for American Brett Lunger, while a customer car was raced by Frenchman Henri Pescarolo during the second half of the season. With seven points, Surtees placed tenth in the Constructors' Championship.

Jones's success resulted in him leaving the team for the emerging Shadow team, and money problems forced Surtees to run one car regularly again in 1977, this time for Vittorio Brambilla. Brambilla's season was effective, also finishing in the points three times. Still, his good results did not prevent Surtees from further monetary troubles. In 1978, the team added a second car for pay driver, Briton Rupert Keegan, but the money problems continued. A lack of decent results caused further problems.

Unable to get sufficient money, the team left F1 after the season, despite having a car built for. After racing the car in the British Aurora championship (formerly F5000) briefly that year, Surtees Racing Organization was closed for good.

Models

 * TS5 1969-1970 F5000/Formula A. Runner up in the 1969 Guards F5000 championship. Won Le Circuit Continental at Circuit Mont-Tremblant (driven by David Hobbs). One car was purchased by James Garner's American International Racing team and raced at Lime Rock (blown engine) and the same race Hobbs won (knocked out in an 8-car pile-up part way through the 1st lap).
 * TS7 1970 Formula One. Designed by Surtees, Shahab Ahmed, and Peter Connew. DFV/Hewland "kit car" followed closely on TS5 layout. Surtees won the Oulton Park International Gold Cup non-Championship race in this car.
 * TS8 1971-1972 F5000. Runner up in Rothmans Championship in 1971.
 * TS9 1971-1972 Formula One. A derivative of the TS7 with a longer wheelbase and wider track. Surtees repeated his Oulton Park win in 1971.
 * TS10 1972 Formula Two. Powered by a Cosworth BDA engine Mike Hailwood convincingly won the 1972 European F2 Championship in this car. Two independent teams purchased TS10s but were not contenders in the series.
 * TS11 1972-1973 F5000. Based on the TS9 with a Chevrolet engine. Gijs van Lennep won the 1972 Rothmans European Formula 5000 Championship driving the TS11 and a McLaren M18. A TS11 chassis with TS8 bodywork was prepared to run the 1972 Tasman Series after the TS8 intended for the series was wrecked beyond repair.  Hailwood finished second in the series in this car.
 * TS14 1972-1973 Formula One. This car marked the beginning of the end for Surtees. Firestone was anticipating leaving Formula One and had little interest in working with Surtees to cure the TS14's habit of devouring tires. It was the first car in F1 to fully comply with crumple-zone legislation, incorporating these into its side pods within which the radiators were mounted, laying down the floorplan for the vast majority of subsequent F1 designs. It was a very quick car at its introduction but a series of accidents and lack of development support did not help it reach its potential. Surtees drove his last F1 race in the TS14 at Monza in 1972.
 * TS15 1973 Formula Two. With BMW supplying engines exclusively to March Surtees was forced to settle for second place in the F2 Championships. A good car, but no match for the BMW engine. A development of this car, the TS17, was intended to run a Ford Motor Company V8 in F5000, but nothing came of the plan.
 * TS16 1974-1975 Formula One. Based on the TS14, but overweight and with less than top notch DFV engines. The team also failed to engage a single major sponsor for 1974 so money was tight to say the least. Only a single car was run and to cap off a truly terrible year driver Helmuth Koinigg was killed during the 1974 United States Grand Prix at Watkins Glen. The car was run again in 1975 and John Watson scored in three non-Championship events, but no championship points were scored.
 * TS19 1976-1978 Formula One.  A fresh car designed by Surtees and Ken Sears the TS19 managed to score points for Surtees in 1976 and 1977, and even ran the opening races of the 1978 season.
 * TS20 1978 Formula One. A development of the TS19, the TS20 was a clean design that promised well, only to be completely overshadowed by the introduction of ground effects.

Complete Formula One World Championship results
The first table below details the complete World Championship Grand Prix results for the Surtees "works" team. The second table includes results from privately owned Surtees cars in World Championship Grands Prix.

Works team entries
(key)

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title: Surtees Racing Organisation


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Anzac Bridge

The Anzac Bridge is an eight-lane cable-stayed bridge that carries the Western Distributor (A4) across Johnstons Bay between Pyrmont and Glebe Island (part of the suburb of Rozelle), on the western fringe of the Sydney central business district, New South Wales, Australia. The bridge forms part of the road network leading from the central business district, the Sydney Harbour Bridge, and Cross City Tunnel to the Inner West and Northern Suburbs.

Glebe Island bridges
There were two bridges over Johnstons Bay before the construction of the Anzac Bridge.

The first bridge was constructed as part of a project to move the abattoirs out of central Sydney, and to construct public abattoirs at Glebe Island. The first pile of the original bridge was driven in October 1860. The bridge was opened in 1862 and was a timber beam bridge 1045 ft long and 28 ft wide with a 40 ft swing section on the eastern side. It replaced a double steam punt crossing.

The second Glebe Island Bridge was an electrically operated swing bridge opened in 1903, the year after the opening of the new Pyrmont Bridge over Sydney's Darling Harbour, which has a similar design. The bridge was designed by Percy Allan of the New South Wales Public Works Department who also designed the Pyrmont Bridge. Delays due to increasing traffic, which were exacerbated by having to close a major arterial road to allow the movement of shipping into Blackwattle Bay, led to the construction of the present-day Anzac Bridge. The 1903 bridge is still standing, but there is no access to pedestrians or vehicular traffic.

Anzac Bridge
The stay cable design concept development and final design for the new bridge were carried out by a team from the Roads & Traffic Authority, led by their Chief Bridge Engineer Ray Wedgwood and the construction by Baulderstone. The bridge was opened to traffic on 3 December 1995 as the Glebe Island Bridge.

The bridge was given its current name on Remembrance Day in 1998 to honour the memory of the soldiers of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (known as Anzacs) who served in World War I. An Australian Flag flies atop the eastern pylon and a New Zealand Flag flies atop the western pylon. A bronze memorial statue of an Australian Anzac soldier ("digger") holding a Lee–Enfield rifle in the "rest on arms reverse" drill position was placed on the western end of the bridge on Anzac Day in 2000. A statue of a New Zealand soldier was added to a plinth across the road from the Australian Digger, facing towards the east, and was unveiled by Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark in the presence of Premier of New South Wales Morris Iemma on Sunday 27 April 2008.

Description
The bridge is 32.2 m wide and the main span is 345 m long. The reinforced concrete pylons are 120 m high and support the deck by two planes of stay cables. Initially the stay cables were plagued by vibrations which have since been resolved by the addition of thin stabilising cables between the stay cables.

There is a grade-separated shared pedestrian footpath and cycleway located on the northern side of the bridge, making possible a walk from Glebe Point Road, down Bridge Road, over the bridge and round Blackwattle Bay back to Glebe Point Road.

The bridge can carry a maximum of 180,000 cars per day. It reached its maximum capacity in 2002, only seven years after it was finished and consistent with the principles of induced demand of traffic.

The bridge is regularly patrolled by security guards as a counter-terrorist attack measure. Security cameras also monitor the walkway.

The bridge has a speed limit of 60 km/h: it was reduced from 70 km/h in January 2005. Also prior to that date, the bridge had seven traffic lanes (4 eastbound, 3 westbound).

Originally, there were bus stops at the western end of the bridge, but they were removed because buses pulling out from the stops created a hazard as they merged with other traffic moving at (or close to) the speed limit. The Australian Anzac statue on the northern side of the bridge is adjacent to the former city-bound bus stop; the New Zealand Anzac statue was installed within the ramp area of the former stop on the southern side.

Use in popular culture
The bridge has been used in a number of artistic works including:

 * The bridge was used in the Looking for Alibrandi (1999) movie scene where the title character, Josephine Alibrandi, and her date Jacob Coote rode across the bridge on Jacob's motorcycle.
 * Deni Hines' song "It's Alright" (1995) features the nearly completed bridge in the music video group dance sequences, the filming of which taking place a few months before the bridge's December 1995 opening.
 * You Am I's song "Purple Sneakers" from the band's album Hi Fi Way (1995) opens with the lyric "Had a scratch only you could itch, underneath the Glebe Point bridge". The Glebe Island Bridge was still under construction when Tim Rogers wrote and recorded the song in 1994, with the bridge's name change to 'Anzac Bridge' not occurring until 1998.

title: Anzac Bridge


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El Segundo blue

The El Segundo blue (Euphilotes allyni) is an endangered species of butterfly. It is endemic to a small dune ecosystem in Southern California that used to be a community called Palisades del Rey, close to the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX).

Taxonomy
It was originally thought to be a subspecies of the square-spotted blue (E. battoides) or the Bernardino blue (E. bernardino), but recent authorities consider it its own species.

Conservation
In 1976 it became a federally designated endangered species. This butterfly’s habitat has been substantially reduced due to urban development and invasive plants, and it now exists as a handful of populations restricted to coastal dunes in the vicinity of Los Angeles.

Distribution and habitat
The El Segundo Blue Butterfly Habitat Preserve next to LAX exists to protect the subspecies. Until 2013, there are only three colonies of this tiny butterfly still in existence. The largest of these is on the grounds of LAX; a further colony exists on a site within the huge Chevron El Segundo oil refinery complex, and the smallest colony is an area of only a few square yards on a local beach. In 2013, the El Segundo blue was discovered living and breeding in the Ballona Wetlands, and its range now extends south to the Palos Verdes Peninsula and some have been located in Santa Barbara County. The butterfly lays its eggs on Seacliff buckwheat (Eriogonum parvifolium), which the adults also use as a nectar source. This is its host plant. Recently, some nearby beach cities such as Redondo Beach have replaced ice plant growth near the beaches with coast buckwheat, in order to provide the butterflies with more of their natural food source.

title: El Segundo blue


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Zookeeper

A zookeeper, sometimes referred as animal keeper, is a person who manages zoo animals that are kept in captivity for conservation or to be displayed to the public. They are usually responsible for the feeding and daily care of the animals. As part of their routine, the zookeepers may clean the exhibits and report health problems. They may also be involved in scientific research or public education, such as conducting tours and answering questions.

Background
Animal collections requiring wild animal care takers or zookeepers have existed since about 3,000 B.C.

Early civilizations in Mesopotamia (present day Iraq), Egypt, China and India allowed rulers and the wealthy class citizens to keep collections of wild animals. These civilizations had individuals who caught and cared for wild animals such as fish and birds. King Hammurabi (Babylonia, 1728-1686 BC) established the first known Code of Laws, which included fees that could be charged by “ox and ass doctors” or what we know today as veterinarians.

Some ancient collections of animals were very large and contained a wide variety of species, although specific details of these collections were not recorded. Many cultures such as the Chinese, Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Arabian, and India collected. Little is known about how or where they kept these animals, or even what the animals were. Our knowledge comes from when these animals appeared in the processionals (parades) or in the arena fights. However, there is proof that large elephant exhibits were maintained outside of Rome. There is also proof of people who cared for the sick animals (veterinarians).

In the areas known as the New World, Aztec and Inca societies also maintained large animal collections. While these were only discovered in the early 16th century, they were much older than that. Montezuma (Mexico City) had the largest known collections. One collection consisted of birds and required some 300 keepers. Another collection consisted of mammals and reptiles requiring another 300 keepers. There were also fresh and salt water fish ponds.

Duties and responsibilities

A zookeeper's responsibilities usually include feeding, maintaining and cleaning the animals, diet preparation, behavioral observation, record keeping, exhibit maintenance and providing environmental enrichment for the animals in their care. Some also conduct behavioral or reproductive research on a species and participate in public education through talks, programs or shows. They are expected to clean enclosures every day. They look for any signs of injuries or illness in the animals, and in the case of sickness or injury, the keeper is responsible for contacting a veterinarian, and sometimes a zookeeper will assist a veterinarian.

Some zookeepers train the animals to make caring for them easier. For example, a zookeeper can train an elephant to lift their feet so that a veterinarian can check them more easily. Some zookeepers are responsible for informing an audience, in an exhibit or presentation, about certain types of animals and their behavioral characteristics. They also talk about experiences with the animal, and answer questions. The keeper is also responsible for lecturing the visiting public on how to behave responsibly toward the exhibited animals.

Depending on the zoo structure, keepers may be assigned to work with a broad group of animals, such as mammals, birds, or reptiles, or they may work with a limited collection of animals such as primates, large cats, or small mammals. Traditionally, the live exhibits were often organized by taxonomy, resulting in clusters of carnivores cages, bird aviaries, primate exhibits, and so on, which led to sections within a zoo cared for by specialized staff. Some keepers can become highly specialized such as those who concentrate on a specific group of animals like birds, great apes, elephants or reptiles.

Modern habitat exhibits attempt to display a diversity of species of different animal classes within one enclosure to represent ecosystem concepts. Groups of enclosures are organized by themes, relating to, for example, zoogeography and bioclimatic zones, rather than taxonomy. The shift in exhibit arrangements is changing the scope of work for animal keepers, as they become habitat keepers, with a necessary working knowledge of living environment care, including landscape maintenance, plant care, climate control, and expanded knowledge of animals husbandry for many more species across taxonomic classes.

Educational requirements
The educational requirements for an entry-level zookeeper vary.

In the US they are often required to have completed a college degree in zoology, biology, wildlife management, animal science, or some other animal-related field. Some colleges offer programs oriented towards a career in zoos. Job advancement is also possible but more limited than in some other careers requiring a college degree. In other institutions keepers are required to have finished a full apprenticeship as craftsmen, before receiving special training for their task as animal keeper. In fact in many European countries, people intending to keep or take care of wild animals need to be licensed. This license will only be given if they can prove sufficient knowledge and practical abilities (evidence of competence). Of course in the vast array of zoos in the world, some of them are still privately owned amateur facilities with a lack of well-trained personnel.

In contrast, some zoos in Australia have a strong reliance on dedicated part-time volunteer workers, who assist zookeepers in the simpler tasks such as preparation of foods and medicines, and cleaning of animal enclosures.

Internships and volunteer work
In the US, in addition to good academic preparation, most zoos prefer to hire people for zookeeping positions who have prior animal-handling experience. There are a wide variety of internships that aspiring zoo keepers can take both during and after college. Many of these internships can be found by going to a local zoo or aquarium. Other internships can be found in an animal-related facility, including vet hospitals, humane society shelters, wildlife rehabilitation centers, farms and stables. Internships are an opportunity for individuals who are considering a career in animal welfare to learn more about companion animals and their behaviors.

Occupational hazards
There are several occupational hazards associated with zookeepers including allergens, zoonoses, bite injuries, slips, trips, and falls, chemicals, stress, and noise. These exposures have been associated with increased rates of alergic diseases, skin infections, bite-related infections, intestinal diseases, tuberculosis and psychological stress. The National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians publishes guidelines to identify and control risks associated with contact with animals in public settings.

title: Zookeeper


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Edmond Dantès

Edmond Dantès is a title character, Byronic hero and the protagonist of Alexandre Dumas's 1844 adventure novel The Count of Monte Cristo. Within the story's narrative, Dantès is an intelligent, honest and loving man who turns bitter and vengeful after he is framed for a crime he did not commit. When Dantès finds himself free and enormously wealthy, he takes it upon himself to reward those who have helped him in his plight and punish those responsible for his years of suffering. He is known by the aliases The Count of Monte Cristo (le Comte de Monte-Cristo), Abbé Busoni, Lord Wilmore, and Sinbad the Sailor.

Dantès, first mate
When the reader is first introduced to Edmond Dantès, he arrives in Marseille as first mate aboard the merchant ship Le Pharaon (The Pharaoh). At only 19 years old, the young Dantès seems destined for success. Although the trip was successful, the former Captain, Leclère, has fallen ill and died. Dantès relays these events to his patron, M. Morrel, who tells Dantès that he will try to have him named captain. Dantès rushes off to see his father and then his beloved, the young Catalan woman Mercédès, and the two agree to be married immediately.

The engagement and the arrest
The marriage never occurs, however. On the very night of their nuptial feast, Dantès is arrested as a suspected Bonapartist, a helper to Napoléon, and taken to see the public prosecutor, Gérard de Villefort. Edmond had been anonymously and falsely denounced by Danglars, Edmond's shipmate over whom he was promoted, and Fernand Mondego, a rival suitor for Mercédès' hand. Prosecutor De Villefort concludes that Edmond is innocent, and assures him that he will be released. He then asks for a piece of evidence cited in a letter denouncing Edmond to the authorities. The letter claims that on Edmond's last voyage, he made a stopover at the island of Elba, and received a letter from the deposed Emperor Napoléon. Edmond hands over the letter, which he received in the name of Captain Leclère, and of which the contents are unknown to Edmond. De Villefort throws the letter on the fire for the letter is addressed to his father. Once again he promises Edmond's speedy release. De Villefort has renounced his father, a staunch Bonapartist, and destroyed the letter to protect himself, not Edmond; to further protect his name, de Villefort sentences Edmond to imprisonment in the dreaded Chateau d'If, an island fortress from which no prisoner had ever escaped, and to which the most dangerous political prisoners are sent.

Despair and near-suicide
After six long years in solitary confinement in the dungeons of the Chateau, Edmond decides to commit suicide by starving himself. Fearing he will be forced to eat, he throws out his food in secrecy. After nearly six months, he hears scratching against the wall of his cell. Curiosity about the source of the noise inspires him to begin eating again. He taps on his wall several times, and when the scratching stops, he concludes that it is a prisoner trying to escape. He then uses the saucepan on which his food is served to begin digging where he heard the scratching before in hopes that it was another prisoner digging his way to freedom. Dantès eventually breaks through enough of the wall that he is able to exchange a brief greeting with an old Italian abbé named Faria, sometimes called the "Mad Priest", who had indeed been attempting to dig to freedom.

Edmond and the Abbé
The two prisoners become very close, with the learned priest teaching Dantès all he knows about reading, mathematics, science, languages, philosophy, history, sword fighting, and economics. Together, they determine who betrayed Edmond, and although Faria disapproves, Edmond plans vengeance against his betrayers. The two spend years digging a tunnel to freedom, but Faria dies before they can escape. Before Abbe Faria died, he revealed to Edmond a secret treasure, hidden on the island of Monte Cristo. That night, Edmond exchanges himself for his mentor in the priest's bodybag, and escapes from the prison. The jailers, rather than burying prisoners, toss them over the fortress' wall into the sea, weighted with an iron ball chained around the legs. Using a knife made from a sharpened crucifix, Edmond frees himself and reaches the surface. Edmond swims to a small island nearby to seek refuge from the storm for the night. The next day, he swims out to sea as a smuggling ship passes by and is rescued under the pretense of being a shipwreck victim. Edmond soon suggests a stopover and trading of goods at the small island of Monte Cristo, during which he confirms that Faria's treasure exists. On this and subsequent visits, Edmond becomes wealthy.

Loyalty and betrayal
Upon returning to Marseille, Edmond learns that his father had died of hunger and that Mercédès had married Fernand 8 months after he was supposedly executed for treason. His old neighbour Gaspard Caderousse is still alive, and—under the guise of the Abbé Busoni—Edmond visits him to learn more. Caderousse tells him that Morrel had tried to obtain a fair trial for Edmond, and how Mercédès pleaded for his release. He also learns that those who had remained loyal to him had suffered greatly, while those who had betrayed him had prospered. Edmond thanks Caderousse for the information, paying him with a large diamond that he said had come into Edmond's possession while in prison. Realizing that only Morrel had remained loyal, Edmond creates three disguises — an Englishman named Lord Wilmore, a clerk from the banking firm Thomson and French, and Sinbad the Sailor — and uses them to save Morrel from bankruptcy and suicide. Edmond then goes into hiding, spending nine years reforming himself as the Count of Monte Cristo.

Paris and the Count
Edmond emerges into Parisian society as the mysterious and sophisticated Count of Monte Cristo. Having purchased the deed to the island from whence he obtained his treasure, Edmond is able to place himself in the upper strata of Parisian society and assume the role of one of the most influential men in all of France. As such, he is introduced to several other powerful men, most notably Danglars, who is now a wealthy banker; Mondego, who is now Count de Morcerf and a military hero; and M. Villefort, who is now the procureur du roi, one of the most powerful advocates in the country. Furthermore, Mondego has married Mercédès, and the two have a son named Albert. Having established himself in Parisian society, and having distanced himself from Edmond Dantès, the Count is able to formulate his plans of revenge against the men who betrayed him. By the end of the novel, Edmond had exacted his revenge on all of the men who would have seen him rot in prison. He exposes crimes committed by Villefort and Mondego, ruining their respective reputations and bringing the police down upon them; Villefort goes insane, and Mondego commits suicide. He arranges for Danglars to be temporarily captured by the Italian bandit Luigi Vampa, made to understand Edmond's suffering, and stripped of all of his wealth. Edmond, at the end of the novel, departs with his ward Haydée (previously enslaved by Mondego and liberated by Edmond), leaving with words of wisdom: "to wait and hope".

Portrayal in adaptations
James O'Neill, father of playwright Eugene, performed the title role over 6,000 times during his career. Edmond Dantès has been portrayed on TV and film many times by actors such as George Dolenz, Alan Badel, Robert Donat, Jean Marais, Louis Jourdan, Gérard Depardieu, Richard Chamberlain, and, most recently, Jim Caviezel. Dantès has also been portrayed on stage, including in a musical adaptation of the novel.

In the Japanese animated television series Gankutsuou: The Count of Monte Cristo, he is voiced by Jōji Nakata in the Japanese version and by Jamieson Price in the English dub.

There are also at least three adaptations into television soap operas, the last of which being the 2006 Mexican series Montecristo.

In 2011, ABC debuted the television drama Revenge, billed as a loose adaptation of Dumas' The Count of Monte Cristo. In it, the character of Dantès is envisioned as a female protagonist by the name of Emily Thorne (portrayed by actress Emily VanCamp).

He is portrayed as an Avenger-class Servant in the popular mobile game, Fate/Grand Order, where his character is designed for the game by Rui Komatsuzaki and voiced by Nobunaga Shimazaki.

Craig Horner portrays the Count of Monte Cristo in the second episode of the sixth season of Once Upon a Time. In the series, Edmond seeks revenge on Baron Danglars for burning down his village and murdering his fiancée. Edmond manages to kill him at a party. Afterwards, he is approached by the Evil Queen Regina who was impressed with his vengeance and hires Edmond to kill Snow White and Prince Charming. Edmond poses as a victim of the Queen and becomes Snow and Charming's wine steward, but he is hesitant to kill them after he discovers they are nice people. Edmond nonetheless prepares to poison the royal couple. As Rumplestiltskin needs them alive for his own purposes, he poisons Snow and Charming's handmaiden Charlotte, whom Edmond has fallen in love with, with poison from the Agrabahn Vipers. This forces Edmond to take Charlotte to the Land of Untold Stories where their story "cannot play out". Years later, the Evil Queen has redeemed but because of Dr. Jekyll's serum, Regina and the Queen are two separate people. Edmond is among the inhabitants of the Land of Untold Stories that are emigrated to Storybrooke with Charlotte dying from the poison. The Evil Queen takes Edmond's heart to try to force him to kill Snow and Charming. This left Regina with no choice but to kill Edmond by throwing her sword into his back.

Referenced in other films
Edmond Dantès was referenced in the final scenes of V for Vendetta (2005); protagonist Evey Hammond describes terrorist V as Edmond Dantès after he martyrs himself to bring down the tyrannical Norsefire government. Earlier in the movie, V and Evey watch the 1934 film adaptation of The Count of Monte Cristo, which V states is his favourite movie.

Writer/director John Hughes used Edmond Dantès as his pseudonym late in his career.

title: Edmond Dantès


text:
Try (rugby)

A try is a way of scoring points in rugby union and rugby league football. A try is scored by grounding the ball in the opposition's in-goal area (on or behind the goal line). Rugby union and league differ slightly in defining "grounding the ball" and the "in-goal" area. In rugby union a try is worth 5 points, and in rugby league a try is worth 4 points.

The term "try" comes from "try at goal", signifying that grounding the ball originally only gave the attacking team the opportunity to try to score with a kick at goal.

A try is analogous to a touchdown in American and Canadian football, with the major difference being that a try requires the ball be simultaneously touching the ground and an attacking player, whereas a touchdown merely requires that the ball enter the end zone while in the possession of a player. In both codes of rugby, the term touch down formally refers only to grounding the ball by the defensive team in their in-goal.

A try is scored in wheelchair rugby following a change in terminology in an effort to become more aligned to rugby union "tries" (Tries are worth 1 point each, and, unlike tries in rugby union and rugby league, there is no subsequent conversion attempt). Wheelchair rugby league gives tries the same number of points as the normal game (four) and conversions are taken and are worth two points.

Aspects common to both union and league
There are differences in the fine detail of the laws and their interpretation between the two rugby codes. These are the common aspects, while the differences are treated below.

 * The player holding the ball to score a try and the ball itself must not be in touch or touch-in-goal (including on or over the dead ball line). The touchline, touch-in-goal lines and dead ball lines count as being 'out'. There has to be contact with the ground by a player or the ball for it to be ruled in touch or touch-in-goal. Parts of the body in the air above the lines and outside the field of play or in-goal are not touch, and it is common to see players who are partly in the air over the lines still grounding the ball successfully.
 * The in-goal area in which the ball must be grounded includes the goal line, but not the touch-in-goal and dead ball lines.
 * Grounding the ball in both codes means either holding it and touching it to the ground in-goal, or placing hand, arm or front of body between waist and neck (the front torso) on top of the ball which is on the ground in-goal.
 * A player does not need to be holding the ball to ground it. If the ball is on the ground or just above it, it can be touched to the ground with a hand, arm or front torso. Match officials interpret dropping the ball in-goal as a knock-on, and disallow a try. For a try to be awarded, they consider whether the player had the intention to ground the ball and was in control of the ball when he did. Grounding of the ball can be instantaneous, it does not matter if the player immediately lets go and the ball then bounces forward.
 * An attacking player who falls to the ground before reaching the goal line scores a try if momentum carries the player so that the ball touches the in-goal, including the goal line.

Variations specific to rugby union

 * A player may ground the ball in one of two ways: 1) if the ball is held in the hand(s) or arm(s), merely touching the ball to the ground in-goal suffices and no downward pressure is required; 2) if the ball is on the ground in-goal, downward pressure from the hand(s), arm(s) or upper body (waist to neck) is required. For a try to be awarded, an attacking player must ground the ball before a defender does so. If there is doubt about which team first grounded the ball, the attacking team are awarded a 5-metre scrum.
 * A player who is in touch or touch-in-goal, but who is not carrying the ball, may score a try by grounding the ball in-goal.
 * Since May 2020 the goal-posts and padding at ground level are not considered part of the goal line. A try may not be scored by grounding the ball at the foot of the posts.
 * A player may ground the ball in a scrum as soon as the ball reaches or crosses the goal line. (A scrum can only exist in the field-of-play, so as soon as the ball touches or crosses the line, the scrum is over and players may unbind and ground the ball.)
 * If an attacking player is tackled short of the goal-line but immediately reaches out and places the ball on or over the goal-line, a try is scored. (This is a direct contrast to rugby league, which would award a penalty for "double movement", see below. There is occasionally confusion amongst spectators and players at community levels of the game and an incorrect protest of "double movement" is a common one at English rugby union matches. A "double movement" in rugby union involves movement of the torso, rather than arms only.)
 * If a television match official (TMO, or video referee) has been appointed, the referee may ask for advice before deciding whether to award a try. The referee is first required to specify the officials' on-field decision (try or no try) before specifying what matters are in doubt. This can include circumstances related to the scoring of the try, such as whether the ball was grounded properly or the scorer's foot was in touch, as well as matters that happened prior to the try, such as whether a pass was forward or a player committed an obstruction. The TMO is not confined to the matters the referee specified and can offer advice to the referee on other things that have happened. The TMO is, however, confined to looking back no further than the last two phases of play. If the officials determine that the on-field decision was clearly wrong, it will be reversed and another decision substituted. Otherwise, the on-field decision stands.

Variations specific to rugby league

 * The laws of rugby league still refer to the need for "downward pressure" to be exerted in grounding the ball with hand or arm.
 * The laws of rugby league specify that a try is scored if an attacker grounds the ball simultaneously with a defender.
 * An attacking player whose momentum does not allow the ball to reach the try-line or in-goal after their ball-carrying arm touches the ground may not reach out to score if a defender is in contact with them; this is disallowed by interpretation as a "double movement".
 * Players who are in touch-in-goal and not carrying the ball may not score a try by pressing a loose ball still in play to the ground.
 * A try may not be scored in a scrum which crosses the goal line, but when the ball comes out of scrum a player may pick it up and 'bore through' their own scrum to score a try.
 * Video referees in rugby league are given a wider scope to look at the validity of a try. If the onfield referee is unsure or needs clarification, they may refer to the video referee to award a possible try. This referral must also be sent with the onfield referee's opinion on whether the play is a 'Try' (signaled by forming a 'T' with their forearms) or 'No Try' (signaled by folding their arms across the shoulders). The video referee must then find evidence to support the opinion, or conclusive evidence against the opinion. In the event the video referee cannot prove or deny the opinion, the original opinion is upheld.

Point value
In rugby union, a try is worth five points; in rugby league, four (except in Nines, where a try between the goal posts is worth 5).

Although a try is worth less in rugby league, it is more often the main method of scoring due to the smaller value of a goal kick and surety of possession - penalties are worth 2 points and drop-goals are worth 1 point (2 points in the NRL if beyond 40 metres) whereas in rugby Union they are worth 3 points each. In rugby union, there is heavier reliance placed on goals to accumulate points at elite levels due to the significant value of goals and the defending team's skills.

In rugby union, the value of a try has varied over time, from none to five points. In rugby league, the original value was three; this was increased to four in 1983.

For the 2015–16 Welsh Premier Division season, World Rugby and the Welsh Rugby Union experimented with the awarding of six points for a try, along with other scoring changes. The intended result of a faster, more running-focussed game was not realised and the changes were reverted the following year.

In the NRL and NRLW Nines competitions, a try is normally worth 4 points, but is sometimes worth 5 points when the ball carrier enters the "try zone" between the uprights.

In some rugby union competitions, a 9 point try, or power try, is awarded if attacks are launched within 22 meters of the scoring team's own try line. Global Rapid Rugby was the most popular competition to implement this.

Penalty try
In both rugby league and rugby union, if the referee believes that a try has been prevented by the defending team's misconduct, he may award the attacking team a penalty try. Penalty tries are always awarded under the posts regardless of where the offence took place. In rugby union, the standard applied by the referee is that a try "probably" would have been scored. The referee does not have to be certain a try would have been scored. In rugby league, the referee "may award a penalty try if, in his opinion, a try would have been scored but for the unfair play of the defending team".

In rugby union, before 1 January 2017 a conversion had to be attempted following the award of a penalty try. From that date, no conversion is attempted and the attacking team is awarded 7 points. The offending player must be temporarily suspended or sent off.

In rugby league, a possible 8-point try is awarded if the defending team commits an act of foul play as the ball is being grounded. The try is awarded, and is followed by a conversion attempt, in-line from where the try was scored, and then a penalty kick from in front of the posts. In rugby union, foul play after a try being scored results in a penalty being awarded on the half way mark, in lieu of a kick off.

A penalty try and a possible 8 point try are two separate results with the latter being scarcely seen in today's game.

Conversion
In both codes, when a try is scored, the scoring team gets to attempt a conversion, which is a kick at goal to convert the try from one set of points into another larger set of points. The kick is taken at any point on the field of play in line with the point that the ball was grounded for the try, and parallel to the touch-lines. If successful, additional points are scored. For the conversion to be successful, the ball must pass over the crossbar and between the uprights. In both codes, the conversion may be attempted as either a place kick (from the ground) or a drop kick. Most players will nevertheless opt for a place kick, this being generally regarded as the easier skill. Note, however, that in both rugby sevens (usually, but not always, played under union rules) and rugby league nines, conversions may only take place as drop kicks.

In rugby league, the game clock continues during preparation and execution of a conversion, with the institution of a 25-second shot clock at certain tournaments from the moment the try is awarded by the referee, within which time the conversion kick must be taken, hence a team may decline a conversion attempt if recommencing play as quickly as possible is advantageous to them. An example of this occurred in the 2020 NRL Grand Final, when the Penrith Panthers scored a try with 20 seconds remaining in the match, bringing them to within 6 points of the Melbourne Storm. Penrith declined the conversion in order to give themselves time to try to draw level on the last play; had the team chosen to take the conversion, the remaining time on the clock would have elapsed, ending the match with a certain Panthers loss.

In rugby union the clock is not stopped during the conversion and the kicker has to attempt the conversion within 90 seconds. The try scorer has the right to decline the conversion attempt by saying to the referee "no kick" after scoring.

To make the conversion easier, attacking players will try to ground the ball as close to the centre of the in-goal area as possible. The attacking player will, however, generally ground the ball when confronted by a defender rather than risk losing the ball by being tackled or passing it to a teammate.

In both rugby union and rugby league, a conversion is worth two points; a successful kick at goal thus converts a five-point try to seven for rugby union, and a four-point try to six for rugby league.

Past to present
In early forms of rugby football, the point of the game was to score goals. A try [at goal] was awarded for grounding the ball in the opponents' in-goal area. The try had zero value itself, but allowed the attacking team to try a kick at goal without interference from the other team. This kick, if successful, converts a try into a goal.

Modern rugby and all derived forms now favour the try over a goal and thus the try has a definite value, that has increased over time and has for many years surpassed the number of points awarded for a goal. In rugby league and rugby union, a conversion attempt is still given, but is simply seen as adding extra 'bonus' points. These points, however, can mean the difference between winning or losing a match, so thought is given to fielding players with good goal-kicking skill.

Since 1979, in rugby union, the "try" and "conversion goal" have been officially considered as separate scores. Before then, the converted try was officially a single score called a "goal from a try" which replaced the score of the (unconverted) "try". The change allowed the player who touched down for the try and the player who kicked the conversion to be credited separately for their portions of the score.

title: Try (rugby)


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Clarkson University

Clarkson University is a private research university with its main campus in Potsdam, New York. Clarkson has additional graduate program and research facilities in the New York Capital District and Beacon, New York. It was founded in 1896 and has an enrollment of about 4,600 students studying toward bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees in each of its schools or institutes: the Institute for a Sustainable Environment, the School of Arts & Sciences, the David D. Reh School of Business, the Wallace H. Coulter School of Engineering, and the Earl R. and Barbara D. Lewis School of Health Sciences. The university is classified as an R2 research institution.

History
The school was founded in 1896, funded by the sisters of Thomas S. Clarkson, a local entrepreneur who was accidentally killed while working in his sandstone quarry not far from Potsdam. When a worker was in danger of being crushed by a loose pump, Clarkson pushed him out of the way risking his own life. Clarkson was crushed against a wall by the swinging pump, sustaining severe internal injuries. He died five days later. The Clarkson family realized great wealth in the development of such quarries, and Potsdam sandstone was highly sought after by developers of townhouses in New York City and elsewhere. The family were important benefactors in the Potsdam area. The school was called the Thomas S. Clarkson Memorial School of Technology.

In 1913, the name was changed to Thomas S. Clarkson Memorial College of Technology, which was used in a shortened version as Clarkson College of Technology or CCT. During the first half of the 20th century the majority of the campus was located "downtown". The campus slowly expanded to an area known as the "Hill", located on the south-western edge of Potsdam village. As of 2001, almost all academics and housing had moved to the hill campus, although the university still uses the downtown buildings known as Old Snell and Old Main for administrative functions. In 2022, the Clarkson board of trustees named the hill campus "The Collins Hill Campus" in honor of longtime President Tony Collins.

On February 24, 1984, the school officially became Clarkson University, although the pep band's rallying cry at hockey games is still "Let's Go Tech!". The school and its hockey team have carried the nickname "Tech" since the 1896 founding. "CCT" is still printed on older school property and equipment.

On February 1, 2016, Union Graduate College merged into Clarkson University and became the Clarkson University Capital Region Campus in Schenectady, New York.

Academics
More than 50 undergraduate majors and minors are available at the university. The university also offers master's and doctoral degrees. These degree programs are offered through the School of Arts & Sciences, David D. Reh School of Business, Institute for a Sustainable Environment, Wallace H. Coulter School of Engineering, the Earl R. and Barbara D. Lewis School of Health Sciences and the Clarkson School.Clarkson University is home to the Center for Advanced Materials Processing (CAMP). CAMP is dedicated to developing Clarkson's research and educational programs in high-technology materials processing. It focuses on developing innovations in advanced materials processing and transferring this technology to business and industry. The center receives support from the New York State Office of Science, Technology, and Academic Research for research and operating expenses as one of 14 Centers for Advanced Technology (CATs). In addition, CAMP-related work receives several million dollars each year from the federal government and private industry.

Clarkson's 15 Student Projects for Engineering Experience and Design (SPEED) teams allow students across all majors to participate in hands-on, extracurricular projects.

Clarkson participates in student exchange programs with schools in Europe and Australia.

Rankings
U.S. News & World Report's 2019 rankings "America's Best Colleges" placed Clarkson University in the top 125 institutions in the nation, and a listing on the "Great Schools, Great Prices" list. Clarkson's supply chain management program was listed as one of the top 20 in the nation. The survey editors also placed Clarkson in the "A+ Options for B Students" list and on the "Best Colleges for Veterans" list in the National University category. Clarkson University's Entrepreneurship Program is one of the top 15 in the nation, according to the Princeton Review's 2015 rankings. and Entrepreneur magazine's 2015 rankings. Clarkson University ranked #8 among "Top Salary-Boosting Colleges" nationwide in Money's 2015 rankings.

Clarkson's online graduate business programs #12 in the nation (U.S. News & World Report 2013).

Clarkson is #20 on the Fifty Most Affordable with a Return on Investment list, Bloomberg Businessweek, 2011.

Clarkson is ranked among the nation's most environmentally responsible colleges, by Princeton Review Guide to Green Colleges: 2019 edition.

U.S. News & World Report's Best Graduate Schools 2019 ranks Clarkson 40th overall in Environmental Engineering.

The Clarkson School
The Clarkson School, a special division of Clarkson University, was founded in 1978. The School offers students an early entrance opportunity into college, replacing the typical senior year of high school with a year of college. It is one of few college early admission programs in the country that provides a real community living/learning experience on a university campus.

The Clarkson School's Bridging Year is a "bridging year" between high school and college for students who are ready to enter college early. Every year, 50 to 80 high school students are accepted to The Clarkson School, where they may work towards a GED and take college classes. They may also work with their high schools to complete a high school diploma or drop out of high school entirely. After they complete the program, they are given the option to enter Clarkson University with all credits from the previous year or to transfer to another school, usually as freshmen with advanced standing.

Students in The Clarkson School are fully matriculated undergraduates with freshman status at the university. They take classes with other University students and usually carry a course load of 15 to 18 credits per semester for two semesters. College credits may also be given for college and Advanced Placement courses taken before entering The Clarkson School. Cross-registration at neighboring area colleges and universities can provide additional college credits, particularly in art, music and languages. These credits also appear on an official Clarkson University transcript.

The Clarkson School students are housed in Newell House and Ormsby House in Price Hall and the typical class size is about 50 students. Students participating in this program are often called "Schoolies" by other Clarkson students.

Campus
Clarkson has two campuses in Potsdam—the "downtown" campus and the Collins Hill Campus—as well as the Capital Region Campus in Schenectady, New York, and the Beacon Institute for Rivers and Estuaries in Beacon, New York.

The health science departments of Occupational Therapy, Physical Therapy and Physician Assistant Studies are located on the downtown campus. The campus bookstore is located in downtown Potsdam. The last student dormitory (Congdon) located on the downtown campus closed in May 2006. The only buildings remaining in Clarkson's service at the downtown campus are a few administration buildings, the Army ROTC house, the Clarkson Hall Center for Health Sciences (physical therapy and physician assistant studies), and the Peyton Hall Business Incubator. Other downtown campus buildings contain leased space to businesses.

Athletics
Clarkson's athletic teams are known collectively as the Golden Knights. There are 20 varsity athletic teams. Except for the men's and women's alpine and nordic skiing, all of these teams compete in the NCAA.

While Clarkson is an NCAA Division III school, both the men's and women's ice hockey teams compete in Division I, with both teams playing in the ECAC. The men's team is a traditional power in the ECAC. They have won 6 ECAC Tournament Championships, most recently in 2019. Clarkson's most recent NCAA tournament was as the number two seed in the 2019 NCAA Northeast Regional, where they lost in overtime to the University of Notre Dame, 3–2, in the 1st round.

The women's team has appeared in every tournament since entering the ECAC in 2004 and have appeared in four NCAA tournaments, winning the 2018 edition, 2017 edition, and 2014 edition, the first three NCAA titles won by the school, the first NCAA ice hockey title won by a school in St. Lawrence County, and the first Division I NCAA championship won by a school from the North Country.

Other Division III varsity teams compete in the Liberty League conference and include baseball, men's and women's basketball, men's and women's cross country, men's golf, men's and women's lacrosse, men's and women's soccer, softball, men's and women's swimming, and women's volleyball.

The men and women's alpine skiing and nordic skiing teams compete in the MacConnell Division of the Eastern Collegiate Ski Conference (ECSC), within the United States Collegiate Ski and Snowboard Association (USCSA). They are top contenders almost every year within their division and even conference, and have consistently qualified for the annual USCSA National Championships numerous times. In 2019, the Women's Nordic Team were USCSA National Champions and the Men placed second.

Other non-varsity clubs include men's and women's ice hockey, men's lacrosse, men's and women's rugby union, men's soccer, men's bowling, combined men's and women's crew, and ultimate frisbee. Clarkson's combined men's and women's club racquetball team won the Division II title at the USRA National Tournament in 2005. In 2010, the school started a club football team.

"The Golden Knight" is the university's hockey mascot, which can be seen at hockey games waving the Clarkson flag. The nickname "Golden Knights" was first suggested in an editorial of the October 28, 1950 issue of the Clarkson Integrator, and was in use by the following month.

Clubs
Clarkson University's Student Association (CUSA) sponsors more than 130 clubs and organizations, the largest of which being the Outing Club, Ski Club, Cornhole Club, the Clarkson Pep Band, and the Clarkson Union Board. All CUSA sponsored clubs are entirely student-run and both undergraduate and graduate students are welcome to join.

Clarkson Union Board (CUB) is the campus's programming board. CUB hosts various campus events throughout the semester and co-sponsors events with other organizations and University offices and departments. CUB provides professional quality audio and visual support for on-campus events, and hosts the annual SpringFest/FallFest concerts. Previous performers have included Yung Gravy, bbno$, Panic! at the Disco, Jay Sean, and The All-American Rejects.

K2CC
Amateur Radio Club (K2CC), established in 1922 is the university's oldest organization that is still active today. The club offers two licensing exam sessions per semester and interacts regularly with the local community. K2CC has both analog and digital voice repeaters and maintains a contest and experimentation room equipped with DX, weak signal and satellite radios and antennas.

WTSC
With WTSC 91.1 FM The Source, Clarkson also offers one of the North Country's most popular radio stations, which is run completely by the student body. Students can broadcast their own shows and offers a wide variety of music from Rap to Alternative, from Classic rock to street punk. The station has well over 1,000 CDs and nearly 24 Terabytes of music from vinyl. The station has a fully equipped broadcast studio (studio A), as well as a second studio for mixing (studio B), and a fully functional recording studio.

Golden Knotes
Clarkson Golden Knotes is the Co-ed a Cappella group on campus that formed in the Spring of 2002. Every semester a Final Performance is held to showcase the songs the group worked on for that semester. They also perform at various events on campus. Each year, executive board members of the Golden Knotes hire music students from the neighboring Crane School of Music to serve as music director of the group.

FIRST Robotics
Clarkson Robotics brings Clarkson University students together with local high school students to design, build, and test a robot that competes in the FIRST Robotics Competition each year.

Applied Computer Science Labs
Applied CS Labs - The Applied Computer Science Labs at Clarkson University consists of the Clarkson Open Source Institute, the Internet Teaching Lab, and the Virtual Reality Lab, however only the first two are populated. These labs, collectively referred to on campus as COSI, are almost entirely student-run, offering the opportunity to gain experience in managing both facilities and projects. All three labs are located on the 3rd floor of the Science Center in rooms SC334 and SC336. The Applied CS Labs are home to Clarkson University's open source mirror, which serves downloads for popular projects like Blender (software) and the Ubuntu operating system, among many others.

Clarkson Pep Band
The Clarkson University Pep Band is a student-run organization that supports the Clarkson University Golden Knights ice hockey teams. The band consists of approximately 75 full-time members, and performs at Clarkson's Cheel Arena at all of the home games for the Men's NCAA Division I hockey team and some games for the NCAA Division I Women's team.

The band also travels to Clarkson Men's ECAC Hockey conference away games with 35-40 members (unless restricted by the policies of the opposing team's arena) and post-season tournaments.

The Clarkson University Pep Band was founded in the fall of 1964, by a small group of Clarkson students.

Clarkson Theatre Company
The Clarkson Theatre Company (CTC) is a student-run theatre group, part of Clarkson University and supported by the Clarkson University Student Association (CUSA). The mission of CTC is to provide both theatrical entertainment and an outlet for artistic self-expression in the realm of the theatre arts at Clarkson. Membership consists of students and faculty from Clarkson and the other Associated Colleges of the St. Lawrence Valley (SUNY Potsdam, SUNY Canton, and St. Lawrence University)

Every fall, CTC puts on a musical over Clarkson University's family weekend, sometime in mid-to-late October. The production time for this show is between 5 and 7 weeks. After the fall production is over, preparations for the One Act Festival begin. This festival is made up of short plays chosen and directed by students, as well as several written by students. This festival is usually put on as a fundraiser for a charity chosen by the executive board, and takes place at the end of January or beginning of February. The next show, usually a straight play, is put on near the beginning of April. Show choice for each slot is not limited to either a musical or play, but it is traditional to use this structure; as shows are chosen by a general member vote, however, any show can be chosen to be put on any semester.

Wes Craven, creator of the A Nightmare on Elm Street franchise, was a professor at Clarkson University in 1968, as well as faculty adviser to the Clarkson Drama Club (the predecessor of the current Clarkson Theatre Company). As part of one of Professor Craven's classes, Humanities IV, several Theta Chi members wanted to make a spoof of traditional horror movies, about the strange occurrences in their fraternity's house at 18 Elm Street. The filming included CTC's home, Old Snell Hall, where the boiler room scene took place in the basement. While none of those involved had very much film experience, they made the film for about $300 and it was shown twice on campus. Much of Craven's inspiration for A Nightmare on Elm Street came from this first filmmaking experience; the house in the movie, while not the house used in the first version, resembles this house and also resides on Elm Street.

Fraternities and sororities
Clarkson social fraternities began organizing on campus in 1903. Several local organizations accepted members from both Clarkson and SUNY Potsdam. In 1977, the first Clarkson-only sorority was founded, and in 1987, Clarkson discontinued recognition of the local sororities at SUNY Potsdam. Clarkson women were still allowed to join these organizations but they could not participate in on-campus rush or live in their houses prior to other off-campus options. Over the years, there have been many different fraternities and sororities that have come and gone due to declining membership, university probationary periods, and disaffiliation from nationals. In order for the university to recognize a Greek organization, all the members must be registered Clarkson students. Additionally, any new organization applying for recognition after 1977 must affiliate with a national organization within five years to maintain recognition. Clarkson recognized international and national fraternities are Alpha Chi Rho, Delta Upsilon, Phi Kappa Sigma, Sigma Chi, Sigma Phi Epsilon, Tau Epsilon Phi and Tau Kappa Epsilon; there remains only one recognized local fraternity, Zeta Nu. Clarkson recognized international and national sororities are Delta Zeta, Phi Sigma Sigma, Theta Phi Alpha, and Kappa Delta Chi. Additionally, there are a number of professional Greek-lettered organizations: Alpha Kappa Psi, Chi Epsilon, Omega Chi Epsilon, Phi Delta Epsilon, Phi Kappa Phi, Tau Beta Pi, and Tri-Beta. Clarkson is home to a chapter of the national service fraternity Alpha Phi Omega. Clarkson also has several local fraternities that are not recognized by the school including Beta Tau, Omicron Pi Omicron, and Tau Delta Kappa.

Interfraternity Council

The Interfraternity Council (IFC) provides outlets for social interaction among the fraternity and sorority members. IFC helps to sponsor educational opportunities for all of its members and to help to promote the fraternal ideals of leadership, scholarship, service, community, and brotherhood.

Panhellenic Council

The Panhellenic Council is the governing body of the sorority system. The Panhellenic Council provides many opportunities for involvement in campus life and the fraternity and sorority system outside of the individual sororities. Recruitment, social, and educational opportunities are provided by the council. All social sororities recognized by Clarkson University adhere to the rules and regulations set by the National Panhellenic Conference.

Greek Life

Fraternities and sororities attend each other's national philanthropy and local community service events. Greek Week and Ice Carnival have an extensive history both with the local colleges and the Potsdam community.

Publications and media

 * The Integrator is a weekly student-run newspaper that is distributed on Clarkson's campus as well as the town of Potsdam.
 * WCKN Television is a student-run television station and is also the local cable system's public access station. In-house programming includes hockey games, news, talk shows, comedy shows, game shows, and various other Clarkson sporting events.
 * WTSC Clarkson Radio is a student-run radio station that gives students the opportunity to produce their own weekly radio programs, and consequently serve the community by offering entertainment, news and weather, and special programming via the radio.
 * The Clarksonian is a student-run yearbook publication group.

ROTC
Clarkson University is a host university for both the Army ROTC and Air Force ROTC. ROTC has been an institution at Clarkson since May 1936, when the first ROTC Battalion was activated during the tenure of College President James S. Thomas. The ROTC program at Clarkson has commissioned well over 1,150 military officers. These alumni have been represented at each level of the Officer Corps, from Second Lieutenant to General.

Army ROTC
The Clarkson Army ROTC Battalion (officially the "Golden Knight Battalion") is one of 272 Army ROTC battalions in the United States. The average size of the Golden Knight Battalion is 100 Cadets, mostly Clarkson students.

title: Clarkson University


text:
Sian Williams

Sian Mary Williams (born 28 November 1964) is a Welsh journalist, current affairs presenter, and psychologist.

From 2001 until 2012, Williams regularly presented weekday editions of BBC Breakfast as well as all main news bulletins on BBC One. She presented two series of BBC One's discussion programme Sunday Morning Live from 2014 until 2015.

From January 2016 until March 2022, she was the main presenter of 5 News at 5. In March 2022 ITN announced Williams was to leave her daily presenting role. Williams said in the announcement she planned to continue with some broadcasting projects, but also devote more time to "delivering psychological support". Williams is a registered counselling psychologist with the Health and Care Professionals Council.

Early life
Williams was born in Paddington, London, to Welsh parents and was brought up in Eastbourne, East Sussex. Her mother, Katherine Rees, was from Llanelli and had moved to London to become a nurse. Williams' father was from Swansea, and his family had been farmers in Glamorgan. He was a journalist, working first in print and later in radio. Williams has two younger twin brothers. She gained a BA degree in English and History from Oxford Polytechnic (now Oxford Brookes University), and studied critical journalistic writing at the University of Rhode Island. In 2012, Williams began training in psychology, gaining an MSc degree from the University of Westminster, and was awarded a doctorate in counselling psychology in 2021 from City, University of London after working in the NHS and elsewhere.

Career
Williams joined the BBC in 1985 and began working as a reporter and producer for BBC Local Radio stations in Liverpool, Sheffield, Leeds and Manchester. From 1990 to 1997, she was editor for BBC Radio 4's The World at One and PM programmes. Williams was also a programme editor for a number of news and election specials across Radio 4 and BBC Radio 5 Live.

Prior to the channel's launch in 1997, Williams joined BBC News 24 as an output editor. During screen tests for potential presenters, one applicant became unwell and Williams was asked to step into the role. Producers were impressed with her performance and they offered her the prime presenting slot of 4:00 pm to 7:00 pm alongside Gavin Esler. She remained with the channel for nearly two years before joining BBC One's Six O'Clock News in 1999 as Special Correspondent. She became a relief presenter of the bulletin and in 2001 she became its main Friday presenter during Fiona Bruce's maternity leave. Williams also became a main presenter of the BBC One weekend news bulletins.

Williams joined BBC Breakfast on 12 January 2001 as a relief presenter, initially presenting on Friday–Sunday alongside Darren Jordon, to cover for main presenter, Sarah Montague, and then later with Jeremy Bowen, to cover for Sophie Raworth. She also regularly deputised on both the Six O'Clock News and the One O'Clock News during this period. In 2004, Williams covered for Raworth on the Six O'Clock News during her maternity leave, co-presenting with George Alagiah, and the following year, reported from Sri Lanka and Thailand on the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and from Pakistan on the Kashmir earthquake.

In May 2005 she was confirmed as the main female presenter of BBC Breakfast, presenting initially with Dermot Murnaghan and then Bill Turnbull from 2008. Williams left BBC Breakfast on 15 March 2012 after the programme's production team was relocated to Salford. In 2012 she rejoined BBC Radio 4 to co-present Saturday Live.

Williams has presented programmes outside of news and current affairs including The One Show, Big Welsh Challenge, Now You're Talking and City Hospital. In 2010, Williams was a reporter for Watchdog. In 2013, she hosted Your Money, Their Tricks with Nicky Campbell and Rebecca Wilcox. Williams also presented a three-part interview series for BBC One Wales titled The Sian Williams Interview featuring Tanni Grey-Thompson, Suzanne Packer and Siân Phillips.

In June 2014, Williams became the new presenter of Sunday Morning Live, BBC One's religious and ethical debating programme. She presented the programme for two series before stepping down and being replaced by Naga Munchetty in June 2016.

On 5 November 2015, Williams announced she would be leaving the BBC to become the new main presenter of 5 News. She presented her first 5 News bulletin on 4 January 2016. From 2017 to 2021 she co-presented Save Money: Good Health alongside Ranj Singh on ITV. and 'Secrets of your Supermarket Food on C5. Since 2021 Williams has presented a dedicated weekly mental health slot on 5 News called "Mind Matters with Dr Sian", bringing positive awareness to issues like autism, ADHD, anxiety and depression. In March 2022 ITN announced Williams was to leave her daily presenting role at 5 News but would continue to front "Mind Matters". Williams said in the announcement she planned to continue with some broadcasting projects, but also devote more time to "delivering psychological support".

In 2022, it was announced that she would be the new presenter of BBC Radio 4's Life Changing programme; this series began in October.

In November 2023, Williams participated in Series 7, Week 8 of Richard Osman's House of Games.

Other work
Williams was president of TRIC (Television and Radio Industries Club) for 2008–09 and won the title of Best Presenter in 2012 and 2013. She became an Honorary Fellow of the University of Cardiff in July 2012. and was awarded the title of Doctor of Arts of Oxford Brookes University in 2017 in recognition of her outstanding contribution to the pursuit of academic excellence.

In 2016, Williams wrote a book on dealing with adversity; Rise: Surviving and Thriving after Trauma.

Personal life
In February 1991, Williams married Neale Hunt, a former director of advertising firm McCann Erickson, with whom she has two sons. Following the couple's divorce, Williams married Paul Woolwich in 2006, with whom she has two sons and a stepdaughter. After giving birth to her third son in October 2006 she later disclosed in an interview that she received two litres of blood following complications.

Williams ran the 2001 New York City Marathon and spent several days recovering in hospital from hyponatraemia. After several years not participating in running, she completed the Virgin London Marathon in 2013 and 2018.

During filming for the BBC's Coming Home in November 2010, Williams discovered she was the first member of her family to have been born outside Wales in 350 years of her known family tree.

Health
In May 2016, Williams revealed she had undergone a double mastectomy after being diagnosed with breast cancer. She told Woman and Home magazine that she was diagnosed in 2014, a week after her 50th birthday. She said she had always thought she was healthy as she "did all the right things – I was a green tea drinker, a salmon eater, a runner". She said her main fear was not seeing her two youngest children grow up.

Filmography

 * City Hospital
 * BBC Breakfast (2001–2012) – Co-presenter
 * Watchdog (2010) – Reporter
 * Crimewatch (2012, 2015) – Stand-in presenter
 * Your Money Their Tricks (2013) – Co-presenter
 * The Sian Williams Interview – Presenter
 * Sunday Morning Live (2014–2015) – Presenter
 * 5 News at 5 (2016–2022) – Anchor
 * Save Money: Lose Weight (2017) – Co-presenter
 * Save Money: Good Health (2017–present) – Co-presenter
 * Secrets of Your Supermarket Food (2018–present) - Presenter
 * Richard Osman's House of Games (2023) - Contestant

title: Sian Williams