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Ovule

In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells. It consists of three parts: the integument, forming its outer layer, the nucellus (or remnant of the megasporangium), and the female gametophyte (formed from a haploid megaspore) in its center. The female gametophyte — specifically termed a megagametophyte — is also called the embryo sac in angiosperms. The megagametophyte produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization. The ovule is a small structure present in the ovary. It is attached to the placenta by a stalk called a funicle. The funicle provides nourishment to the ovule. On the basis of the relative position of micropyle, body of the ovule, chalaza and funicle, there are six types of ovules.

Location within the plant
In flowering plants, the ovule is located inside the portion of the flower called the gynoecium. The ovary of the gynoecium produces one or more ovules and ultimately becomes the fruit wall. Ovules are attached to the placenta in the ovary through a stalk-like structure known as a funiculus (plural, funiculi). Different patterns of ovule attachment, or placentation, can be found among plant species, these include:
 * Apical placentation: The placenta is at the apex (top) of the ovary. Simple or compound ovary.
 * Axile placentation: The ovary is divided into radial segments, with placentas in separate locules. Ventral sutures of carpels meet at the centre of the ovary. Placentae are along fused margins of carpels. Two or more carpels. (e.g. Hibiscus, Citrus, Solanum)
 * Basal placentation: The placenta is at the base (bottom) of the ovary on a protrusion of the thalamus (receptacle). Simple or compound carpel, unilocular ovary. (e.g. Sonchus, Helianthus, Asteraceae)
 * Free-central placentation: Derived from axile as partitions are absorbed, leaving ovules at the central axis. Compound unilocular ovary. (e.g. Stellaria, Dianthus)
 * Marginal placentation: Simplest type. There is only one elongated placenta on one side of the ovary, as ovules are attached at the fusion line of the carpel's margins . This is conspicuous in legumes. Simple carpel, unilocular ovary. (e.g. Pisum)
 * Parietal placentation: Placentae on inner ovary wall within a non-sectioned ovary, corresponding to fused carpel margins. Two or more carpels, unilocular ovary. (e.g. Brassica)
 * Superficial: Similar to axile, but placentae are on inner surfaces of multilocular ovary (e.g. Nymphaea)

In gymnosperms such as conifers, ovules are borne on the surface of an ovuliferous (ovule-bearing) scale, usually within an ovulate cone (also called megastrobilus). In the early extinct seed ferns, ovules were borne on the surface of leaves. In the most recent of these taxa, a cupule (a modified branch or group of branches) surrounded the ovule (e.g. Caytonia or Glossopteris).

Parts and development
Ovule orientation may be anatropous, such that when inverted the micropyle faces the placenta (this is the most common ovule orientation in flowering plants), amphitropous, campylotropous, or orthotropous (anatropous are common and micropyle is in downward position and chalazal end in on the upper position hence, in amphitropous the anatropous arrangement is tilted 90 degrees and in orthotropus it is completely inverted). The ovule appears to be a megasporangium with integuments surrounding it. Ovules are initially composed of diploid maternal tissue, which includes a megasporocyte (a cell that will undergo meiosis to produce megaspores). Megaspores remain inside the ovule and divide by mitosis to produce the haploid female gametophyte or megagametophyte, which also remains inside the ovule. The remnants of the megasporangium tissue (the nucellus) surround the megagametophyte. Megagametophytes produce archegonia (lost in some groups such as flowering plants), which produce egg cells. After fertilization, the ovule contains a diploid zygote and then, after cell division begins, an embryo of the next sporophyte generation. In flowering plants, a second sperm nucleus fuses with other nuclei in the megagametophyte forming a typically polyploid (often triploid) endosperm tissue, which serves as nourishment for the young sporophyte.

Integuments, micropyle, chalaza and hilum
An integument is a protective layer of cells surrounding the ovule. Gymnosperms typically have one integument (unitegmic) while angiosperms typically have two integuments (bitegmic). The evolutionary origin of the inner integument (which is integral to the formation of ovules from megasporangia) has been proposed to be by enclosure of a megasporangium by sterile branches (telomes). Elkinsia, a preovulate taxon, has a lobed structure fused to the lower third of the megasporangium, with the lobes extending upwards in a ring around the megasporangium. This might, through fusion between lobes and between the structure and the megasporangium, have produced an integument.

The origin of the second or outer integument has been an area of active contention for some time. The cupules of some extinct taxa have been suggested as the origin of the outer integument. A few angiosperms produce vascular tissue in the outer integument, the orientation of which suggests that the outer surface is morphologically abaxial. This suggests that cupules of the kind produced by the Caytoniales or Glossopteridales may have evolved into the outer integument of angiosperms.

The integuments develop into the seed coat when the ovule matures after fertilization.

The integuments do not enclose the nucellus completely but retain an opening at the apex referred to as the micropyle. The micropyle opening allows the pollen (a male gametophyte) to enter the ovule for fertilization. In gymnosperms (e.g., conifers), the pollen is drawn into the ovule on a drop of fluid that exudes out of the micropyle, the so-called pollination drop mechanism. Subsequently, the micropyle closes. In angiosperms, only a pollen tube enters the micropyle. During germination, the seedling's radicle emerges through the micropyle.

Located opposite from the micropyle is the chalaza where the nucellus is joined to the integuments. Nutrients from the plant travel through the phloem of the vascular system to the funiculus and outer integument and from there apoplastically and symplastically through the chalaza to the nucellus inside the ovule. In chalazogamous plants, the pollen tubes enter the ovule through the chalaza instead of the micropyle opening.

Nucellus, megaspore and perisperm
The nucellus (plural: nucelli) is part of the inner structure of the ovule, forming a layer of diploid (sporophytic) cells immediately inside the integuments. It is structurally and functionally equivalent to the megasporangium. In immature ovules, the nucellus contains a megasporocyte (megaspore mother cell), which undergoes sporogenesis via meiosis. In the megasporocyte of Arabidopsis thaliana, meiosis depends on the expression of genes that facilitate DNA repair and homologous recombination.

In gymnosperms, three of the four haploid spores produced in meiosis typically degenerate, leaving one surviving megaspore inside the nucellus. Among angiosperms, however, a wide range of variation exists in what happens next. The number (and position) of surviving megaspores, the total number of cell divisions, whether nuclear fusions occur, and the final number, position and ploidy of the cells or nuclei all vary. A common pattern of embryo sac development (the Polygonum type maturation pattern) includes a single functional megaspore followed by three rounds of mitosis. In some cases, however, two megaspores survive (for example, in Allium and Endymion). In some cases all four megaspores survive, for example in the Fritillaria type of development (illustrated by Lilium in the figure) there is no separation of the megaspores following meiosis, then the nuclei fuse to form a triploid nucleus and a haploid nucleus. The subsequent arrangement of cells is similar to the Polygonum pattern, but the ploidy of the nuclei is different.

After fertilization, the nucellus may develop into the perisperm that feeds the embryo. In some plants, the diploid tissue of the nucellus can give rise to the embryo within the seed through a mechanism of asexual reproduction called nucellar embryony.

Megagametophyte
The haploid megaspore inside the nucellus gives rise to the female gametophyte, called the megagametophyte.

In gymnosperms, the megagametophyte consists of around 2000 nuclei and forms archegonia, which produce egg cells for fertilization.

In flowering plants, the megagametophyte (also referred to as the embryo sac) is much smaller and typically consists of only seven cells and eight nuclei. This type of megagametophyte develops from the megaspore through three rounds of mitotic divisions. The cell closest to the micropyle opening of the integuments differentiates into the egg cell, with two synergid cells by its side that are involved in the production of signals that guide the pollen tube. Three antipodal cells form on the opposite (chalazal) end of the ovule and later degenerate. The large central cell of the embryo sac contains two polar nuclei.

Zygote, embryo and endosperm
The pollen tube releases two sperm nuclei into the ovule. In gymnosperms, fertilization occurs within the archegonia produced by the female gametophyte. While it is possible that several egg cells are present and fertilized, typically only one zygote will develop into a mature embryo as the resources within the seed are limited.

In flowering plants, one sperm nucleus fuses with the egg cell to produce a zygote, the other fuses with the two polar nuclei of the central cell to give rise to the polyploid (typically triploid) endosperm. This double fertilization is unique to flowering plants, although in some other groups the second sperm cell does fuse with another cell in the megagametophyte to produce a second embryo. The plant stores nutrients such as starch, proteins, and oils in the endosperm as a food source for the developing embryo and seedling, serving a similar function to the yolk of animal eggs. The endosperm is also called the albumen of the seed. the zygote then develops into a megasporophyte, which in turn produces one or more megasporangia. The ovule, with the developing megasporophyte, may be described as either tenuinucellate or crassinucellate. The former has either no cells or a single cell layer between the megasporophyte and the epidermal cells, while the latter has multiple cell layers between.

Embryos may be described by a number of terms including Linear (embryos have axile placentation and are longer than broad), or rudimentary (embryos are basal in which the embryo is tiny in relation to the endosperm).

Types of gametophytes
Megagametophytes of flowering plants may be described according to the number of megaspores developing, as either monosporic, bisporic, or tetrasporic. (RF)

title: Ovule


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The Dublin Gazette

The Dublin Gazette was the gazette, or official newspaper, of the Irish Executive, the British-controlled government in Ireland based at Dublin Castle, between 1705 and 1922. Like the London Gazette on which it was modelled, its strapline was "Published by Authority", and it published notices of government business, including proclamations, the granting of royal assent to bills, writs of election, appointments to public office, commissions and promotions in the armed forces, and awards of honours, as well as notices of insolvency, grants of arms or change of name. The most important notices were generally printed in both the Dublin and London gazettes.

After the 1921–1922 partition of Ireland, The Dublin Gazette was superseded in Northern Ireland by The Belfast Gazette and in the Irish Free State by Iris Oifigiúil.

History
In 1670, when Elisha Leighton became Chief Secretary for Ireland, he began a gazette in Dublin, but stopped after a few months because there was "so little news to 'stuff it. Notices relating to Ireland were occasionally published in the London Gazette, for example the statutory preparation for the 1679 Irish Parliament. In late 1688 James II fled London and was deposed as king; in 1689 he established a power base in Dublin, summoned an Irish Parliament in May and established a gazette. After James lost the Battle of the Boyne to William III, the office of King's Printer was restored to Andrew II Crooke, whose Dublin Intelligence claimed to be "published by authority" from 1690 to 1693. This newspaper's official status was marginal; Dublin Castle made little input and reprimanded it for publishing a "scandalous" notice from the Jacobite Sir Theobald Butler.

In 1705, under the Lord Lieutenancy of the 2nd Duke of Ormonde, a new Dublin Gazette was founded, although in its early days it was only two pages in length. The earliest surviving copy, dated 9 February 1706, is numbered as Issue 84 and is held in the Library of Trinity College Dublin (TCD). The Dublin Gazette's first printer was Edwin Sandys: a proclamation dated from Dublin Castle on 25 October 1705 notified the people of Ireland that "to prevent imposition by the publication of any false news, the Lords Justices directed the paper entitled The Dublin Gazette to be published by their authority, and had appointed their secretary, Edwin Sandys, to peruse the same constantly, before it be printed; and that Edwin Sandys, at the Custom House Printing-office, should be the printer and publisher thereof."

The first act of the Parliament of Ireland referring to the Gazette was in 1727, requiring the publication in "the Dublin-Gazette published by authority" of the details of each new inmate in debtors' prison, for the benefit of creditors. That year three different periodicals were using the title "Dublin Gazette": the authorised one printed and published by J. Gowan from 21 June; another by Christopher Dickson was titled the "Dublin Gazette" from 3 June until 4 July, when it was renamed Dickson's News-Letter and Flying Post; while Thomas Hume's Dublin Courant was in August 1726 renamed The Dublin Gazette: or, Weekly Courant, and continued until at least 1729.

The official status of the Gazette, through various changes of printer, is unclear prior to 21 August 1750, when the series of copies collected in the Chief Secretary's Office begins with issue No. 1. Until some decades later, ownership of the title and any profits remained with the printer. Until the 1770s, The Dublin Gazette had less of the character of an organ of government than its London counterpart, since it included foreign news reports and private advertisements besides official notices. However, on 18 March 1776, an Order in Council was made which banned it from publishing news not "guaranteed" by the government. A notice subsequently appeared in the Gazette on 13 April 1776, dated from Dublin Castle on 27 March, stating "that it is his majesty's royal pleasure, that for the future, the Dublin Gazette shall, as nearly as possible, be put upon the same footing as the London Gazette; and that it shall contain no other articles of news than such as are authorized by his majesty's government of this kingdom, or duly authenticated; and his excellency the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland has appointed Mr W. Roseingrave compiler of the said Dublin Gazette."

The office of Compiler of The Dublin Gazette was in fact a sinecure; William Roseingrave had been first appointed during pleasure under letters patent on 20 April 1763, at which time he was already under secretary to the Second Secretary. Roseingrave died in 1780 and was succeeded by William Williams Hewitt, son of James Hewitt, 1st Viscount Lifford; he died in 1798 and was succeeded by Nicholas Price, a relative of Viscount Castlereagh.

The printers of the Gazette held onto their ownership until almost the end of the 18th century. There was a sensation on 9 April 1799, when two rival versions were published, one by the established publisher, Sir St George O'Kelly, and a second by George II Grierson, the King's Printer, who claimed authorisation from Price, the new Compiler. O'Kelly complained, to no avail, about the expropriation of his interest, thereafter losing the right to publish the title. Murphy surmises that, the year between the 1798 Rebellion and the Act of Union, the Irish government felt it needed total control. The Union abolished the Irish Parliament and hugely decreased the work for a King's Printer, such that printing the Gazette provided most of Grierson's business for several years. In the financial years 1819 to 1820, fees paid by the government to Grierson for printing notices in the Dublin Gazette amounted to £6,354, compared to a total of £15,021 for printing in various private newspapers.

As part of the 1817 absorption of the Exchequer of Ireland into the British Exchequer, the office of Compiler was among those scheduled to be abolished upon the demise of the present holder. In 1834, George III Grierson testified that he as printer paid fees of £1200 to Price as Compiler, that Price also received a salary of £300 from the Dublin Castle administration, and that Price did no work but was accountable for any errors. Price denied that his office was a sinecure, but in September 1836 he surrendered his patent in return for an annual pension of £1,590, which The Spectator reckoned eight times the value of the work he had been doing. In 1850, Alexander Thom took over as printer from Grierson's sons. Changes in 1836 and 1850 meant the printer produced the Gazette on a contract basis rather than retaining the profits, and government notices were included without charge. In the 1880s annual profits for the government were £400–£500.

Legal changes during the Tithe War of the 1830s required Church of Ireland ministers to place notices relating to their tithes within the Gazette, causing them to complain at the expense, responsibility for which was uncertain. In 1865, the Irish Court for Criminal Cases Reserved said that an 1857 issue of The Dublin Gazette which stated it was "printed by authority" was not prima facie admissible evidence under a statute requiring it to state that it was "printed by the Queen's authority". By contrast, the High Court of Justice in Ireland ruled in 1902 that a similar statute was satisfied by a 1902 issue which stated at the start it was "published by authority" and at the end that it was "printed under the authority of His Majesty's Stationery Office".

In evidence to an official enquiry in 1856, the Secretary to the Commissioners of Charitable Donations and Bequests for Ireland noted that a bequest for £3,000 had gone unclaimed for years despite being posted in the Gazette, and said, "there ought to be some better medium than the Gazette, which, it has been said, is a place to keep a secret." When an 1891 Land Purchase Bill required certain notices be printed in the Dublin Gazette, Thomas Sexton secured an additional requirement to place the notice in a newspaper published in the same county as the land for purchase; he argued "that Gazette only circulates among officials, mainly in the City of Dublin".

Until September 1887 the Gazette published average cereal prices from major towns. In 1898 the cessation was ruled in court to have the unintended consequence that quarter sessions and the Irish Land Commission lost their statutory power to alter agricultural rents based on the reported prices. In the debate on the 1900 bill that removed the anomaly, Independent Nationalist MP Tim Healy said, "the editor of the Dublin Gazette ... is the one journalist who is always entitled to my sympathy, and I suppose he was so busy printing coercion proclamations that, in the language of Fleet Street, his columns were "crowded out," and he had no room for printing the corn returns. ... I think also that if these corn returns in the Dublin Gazette, and even if the Gazette itself disappeared, Ireland as a whole would not be sorry."

At the beginning of the Easter Rising of 1916, the Gazette published a proclamation by Lord Wimborne, as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, of martial law. This stated that "certain evilly disposed persons" had "with deadly weapons attacked the Forces of the Crown". The Gazette ceased publication during the Rising and for more than a week following it, with the result that a compendium issue was later published for the period between 25 April and 9 May 1916.

Supersession
From 1919, during the Irish War of Independence, the Gazette was challenged by the Irish Bulletin, the official newspaper of the rival government of the self-proclaimed Irish Republic, produced clandestinely by its Department of Propaganda and appearing weekly from 11 November 1919 to 11 July 1921.

The Government of Ireland Act 1920 led to the creation of Northern Ireland in May 1921 and The Belfast Gazette, which first appeared on 7 June 1921, printed notices from the Northern Ireland government and the local authorities in its jurisdiction. Various Orders in Council, made by the Lord Lieutenant in 1921 and 1922 and his successor the Governor of Northern Ireland in 1922 and 1923, provided that references in previous legislation to The Dublin Gazette would be construed in relation to Northern Ireland as to the Belfast Gazette.

The War of Independence resulted in the Anglo-Irish Treaty, signed in London on 6 December 1921, and a nationalist Provisional Government recognised by the British on 16 January 1922 took over administration within what had been Southern Ireland and would become the Irish Free State. The final issue of The Dublin Gazette (number 21,977) was printed by Thom's and published on 27 January 1922. Four days later, now by authority of the Provisional Government, Thom's printed issue No. 1 of Iris Oifigiúil, initially with "The Dublin Gazette" as a subtitle and an essentially unchanged layout, except that the masthead changed the name and removed the royal arms. The name "Iris Oifigiúil (the Dublin Gazette)" was also used in statutory orders made by Diarmaid Fawsitt under the authority of the Provisional Government.

In December 1922, the Constitution of the Irish Free State came into force, the Provisional Government became the Executive Council, and the Free State Oireachtas passed an Adaptation of Enactments Act, which provided that references in British legislation to The Dublin Gazette would be construed as Iris Oifigiúil.

Archives
A complete set of bound volumes of The Dublin Gazette 1750–1922 is now in the Oireachtas library. It was transferred to the Provisional Government from the Chief Secretary's office when Dublin Castle was handed over in January 1922. Other large runs are in TCD Library, the National Library of Ireland, and the British Library. The Oireachtas volumes from 1750 to 1815 (except 1759, 1776, 1777) have been digitised, and individual issues can be freely searched and downloaded from both the library's catalogue and JSTOR. Subscription-based online archives include the Burney Collection of Newspapers (1708–1712; 1724–1725; 1797) and NewspaperArchive (1706–1744; from a 1950 microfilm, metadata misdates some issues as 18xx or 19xx instead of 17xx).

The "Virtual Record Treasury of Ireland", a website established for the centenary of the 1922 Four Courts explosion to recreate many of the Irish public records then destroyed, intends to make freely available a complete set of The Dublin Gazette, combined from partial sets in various libraries.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: The Dublin Gazette


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M1 Tank Platoon

M1 Tank Platoon is a tactical simulator of tank warfare developed and published by MicroProse for the Amiga, Atari ST and MS-DOS in 1989. The game features a mixture of first-person, third-person tank warfare, and tactical simulation gameplay. It was followed by a sequel, M1 Tank Platoon II, released by MicroProse in 1998 for Windows. M1 Tank Platoon was sold to Interplay Entertainment in 2009. M1 Tank Platoon is available on Steam and Epic Games services.

Gameplay

The player is put in the position of a main battle tank platoon commander in charge of four U.S. M1 Abrams tanks in a fictional campaign of battles against the Soviet Army in Central Europe. The player can give orders to friendly units via a tactical map of the battle area as well as taking control of a single tank - assuming the role of either the tank commander, driver or gunner. Between the battles, surviving crew members increase in military rank and skill—giving the player an incentive to keep their team alive.

Depending on the player's tastes, the whole game can be played more like an action/simulation game or like a strategy game. As platoon commander, direct control is limited to the four M1 tanks, however depending on the mission, support units like recon and attack helicopters, M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, MLRS artillery systems or other older M60 Patton tanks are available and can be given orders via the tactical map.

One feature of the game is the ability to change the viewpoint to a supporting unit to get a "recon" from that unit's perspective. According to the manual, doing this from the M1 tanks was supposedly approximate to a tank commander standing on his tank hull to get a better perspective. The external view is also able to track other objects in the centre of the view; this is not limited to vehicles but can actually track missiles or even tank rounds.

The Campaign typically depicts the rush across the Rhine by the numerically superior enemy forces. The Campaign starts as defensive with the challenge being to use technologically superior NATO vehicles to stem the "wave" of Warsaw Pact vehicles. Success may result on the scenarios gradually putting NATO on the offensive side with objective waypoints to reach/hold.

Terrain is a very important factor as going hull down was a critical strategy to surviving. Full use of the supporting forces makes success easier with even the infantry disembarking from their IFVs to use M47 Dragon anti-tank launchers. However, leaving them in one position too long invited an artillery barrage from the opposing force.

Reception
A United States Army Reserves officer and graduate of Armor School, Evan Brooks, stated in Computer Gaming World that M1 Tank Platoon was the first computer tank game to give the player control over four tanks instead of one. He favorably reviewed the game's documentation, internal and external graphics, and depiction of interdependent combat arms, and concluded that it was "the best armor simulator currently available". A General Dynamics Land Systems Simulation Lab software engineer, Dana Cadman, compared M1 Tank Platoon to other tank games of the time and the Army's SimNet training network in a later Computer Gaming World article. 1992 and 1994 surveys by the same author of wargames with modern settings gave the game four stars out of five. The game got 5 out of 5 stars in Dragon.

In 1990 Computer Gaming World named it as Simulation Game of the Year, and in 1996, the magazine ranked it as the 32nd best PC game of all time. In 1991, PC Format placed M1 Tank Platoon on its list of the 50 best computer games of all time. The editors wrote, "This is both a tank simulator and an excellent land combat game. Great graphics, gorgeous heavy weaponry, lots of strategy involved — can't go wrong really."

The game sold 400,000 copies worldwide.

title: M1 Tank Platoon


text:
Talk:Pope John VIII

Untitled
What is this evidence?

There should be a source citing the "slander" of Legend of Pope Joan rather than it's statement as fact. I have marked this page for NPOV review and/or improvement.64.3.45.46 19:33, 16 March 2007 (UTC)MKB

I rewrote the section about Joan to clarify that most historians believe she is just a legend, as well as to clarify the connection between the legend and the name "Pope John VIII". Does anyone still consider the article NPOV? Egsan Bacon 18:22, 21 September 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject class rating
This article was automatically assessed because at least one article was rated and this bot brought all the other ratings up to at least that level. BetacommandBot 02:05, 28 August 2007 (UTC) I agree. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 68.239.84.7 (talk) 18:02, 31 August 2007 (UTC)

Inconsistency in dating
This article claims that John VIII became Pope on 872-12-13. Yet the article on Pope Adrian II claims that Adrian's papacy ended with his death on 872-12-14. If somebody could assess which dates are incorrect and correct them, it would be much appreciated. 204.75.169.65 (talk) 00:17, 25 May 2012 (UTC) Anyone ever going to check the date to see if John VIII's papacy began on 872-12-14 or 872-12-13?

Oy. Also, this article claims that John's papacy ended with his death on 882-12-19, but the article on Pope Marinus I claims that Marinus' papacy started on 882-12-16. 204.75.169.65 (talk) 00:25, 25 May 2012 (UTC)

That isn't entirely correct. This article claims that John died on 882-12-16 and that his papacy ended on 882-12-19, three days after his death. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08423c.htm (the article on John from the Catholic Encyclopedia) states that he died on 882-12-16. It appears from what we've mentioned here that the 882-12-19 date is a typographical error. I'll make the correction. -JohnAlbertRigali (talk) 05:12, 22 January 2013 (UTC)

Restoration of Photius
Pope John VIII had a condition on Photius’s restoration, namely he was to make an apology for his prior usurpation and excommunication. Photius, of course, in keeping with his character, never did that. And since he didn’t, his excommunication was never actually lifted. This means that there was never a need to excommunicate him again as he remained excommunicated. And of course Pope John VIII realizing there was no apology, refused to actually approve of such a council led by someone who remained excommunicated. This of course Dvornik should have noted, but seems to have missed the obvious requirement of repentance as part of Photius’s restoration. The requirement of an apology is cited in ''The Photian schism. History and Legend'', Francis Dvornik,p 173 cited at http://macedonia.kroraina.com/en/fdps/fdps_1.htm#c6 — Preceding unsigned comment added by 72.34.102.22 (talk) 22:21, 15 March 2023 (UTC)

Patrick Madrid quote
I object to

He appears to have had a very weak personality, even perhaps somewhat effeminate...

effeminate (a deliberately pejorative word which is aiming to stereo-type all women as weak) does not, by default, mean a weak personality.

is wikipedia just here to bolster degrading comments on long-gone mythical persons. Do not have guidelines for using sources? — Preceding unsigned comment added by 89.85.21.66 (talk) 19:23, 2 December 2012 (UTC)

Death
The article without source claims John VIII was killed by his own relative and clerics. The source for that is the annals of the far away monastery in central Germany at Fuld. The annals give the wrong date of his death and are highly suspect as a source, The Catholic Encyclopedia mentions that the story is probably a fable due to its improper dating of his death. I suggest removing that. Pope John VIII (Catholic Encyclopedia)

title: Talk:Pope John VIII


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Julia Cameron

Julia B. Cameron (born March 4, 1948 ) is an American teacher, author, artist, poet, playwright, novelist, filmmaker, composer, and journalist. She is best known for her book The Artist's Way (1992). She also has written many other non-fiction works, short stories, and essays, as well as novels, plays, musicals, and screenplays.

Biography
Julia Cameron was born in Libertyville, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago, and raised Catholic. She was the second oldest of seven children. She started college at Georgetown University before transferring to Fordham University. She wrote for The Washington Post and then Rolling Stone.

She met Martin Scorsese while on assignment for Oui Magazine. They married in 1976 and divorced a year later in 1977. They have one daughter, Domenica Cameron-Scorsese, born in 1976. The marriage ended after Scorsese began seeing Liza Minnelli while the three of them were working on New York, New York. Cameron and Scorsese collaborated on three films. Her memoir Floor Sample details her descent into alcoholism and drug addiction, which induced blackouts, paranoia and psychosis. In 1978, reaching a point in her life when writing and drinking could no longer coexist, Cameron stopped abusing drugs and alcohol, and began teaching creative unblocking, eventually publishing the book based on her work: The Artist's Way. At first she sold Xeroxed copies of the book in a local bookstore before it was published by TarcherPerigee in 1992. She contends that creativity is an authentic spiritual path.

Cameron has taught filmmaking, creative unblocking, and writing. She has taught at The Smithsonian, Esalen, the Omega Institute for Holistic Studies, and the New York Open Center. At Northwestern University, she was writer in residence for film. In 2008 she taught a class at the New York Open Center, The Right to Write, named and modeled after one of her bestselling books, which reveals the importance of writing.

Cameron has lived in Los Angeles, Chicago, New York City, and Washington, D.C. She lives in Santa Fe, New Mexico.

Nonfiction

 * Living the Artist's Way: An Intuitive Path to Greater Creativity (St. Martin's Press, 2024; ISBN 978-1-250-89758-9)
 * Write for Life: A Toolkit for Writers (Profile Books, 2023)
 * Seeking Wisdom: A Spiritual Path to Creative Connection (A Six-Week Artist's Way Program) (St. Martin's Press, 2021)
 * The Listening Path: The Creative Art of Attention (St. Martin's Press, 2021)
 * It's Never Too Late to Begin Again: Discovering Creativity and Meaning at Midlife and Beyond (Tarcher, 2016)
 * The Artist's Way for Parents: Raising Creative Children (Tarcher/Hay House, 2013)
 * The Prosperous Heart: Creating a Life of "Enough"  (Tarcher/Hay House, 2011; ISBN 978-1-58542-897-7)
 * Faith and Will: Weathering the Storms in Our Spiritual Lives (Tarcher, 2010; ISBN 1585428019)
 * The Creative Life: True Tales of Inspiration (Tarcher, 2010)
 * The Artist's Way Every Day: A Year of Creative Living (Tarcher, 2009)
 * Prayers to the Great Creator: Prayers and Declarations for a Meaningful Life (Tarcher, 2008)
 * The Writing Diet: Write Yourself Right-Size (Tarcher, 2007; ISBN 1-58542-571-0)
 * Finding Water: The Art of Perseverance (Tarcher, 2006; ISBN 1585424633)
 * Floor Sample (Tarcher, 2006; ISBN 1-58542-494-3), a memoir
 * How to Avoid Making Art (2006; ISBN 1-58542-438-2), illustrated by Elizabeth Cameron
 * Letters to a Young Artist (Tarcher, 2005)
 * The Sound of Paper (Tarcher, 2004; Hardcover ISBN 1-58542-288-6)
 * Supplies: A Troubleshooting Guide for Creative Difficulties (Tarcher, 2003; Revised & Updated edition ISBN 1-58542-212-6)
 * Walking in this World (Tarcher, 2003; Reprint edition ISBN 1-58542-261-4)
 * The Artist's Way, 10th Annv edition (Tarcher, 2002; ISBN 1-58542-146-4)
 * Inspirations: Meditations from The Artist's Way (Tarcher, 2001; ISBN 1-58542-102-2)
 * God is Dog Spelled Backwards (Tarcher, 2000; ISBN 1-58542-062-X)
 * God is No Laughing Matter (Tarcher, 2000; ISBN 1-58542-065-4)
 * Supplies: A Pilot's Manual for Creative Flight (2000)
 * The Artist's Date Book (Tarcher, 1999; ISBN 0-87477-653-8), illustrated by Elizabeth Cameron Evans
 * Money Drunk Money Sober (Ballantine Wellspring, 1999; ISBN 0-345-43265-7)
 * The Writing Life (Sounds True, 1999; ISBN 1-56455-725-1)
 * Transitions (Tarcher, 1999; ISBN 0-87477-995-2)
 * The Artist's Way at Work (Pan, 1998; ISBN 0-330-37319-6)
 * Blessings (Tarcher, 1998; ISBN 0-87477-906-5)
 * The Right to Write: An Invitation and Initiation into the Writing Life (Tarcher, 1998; ISBN 1-58542-009-3)
 * Heart Steps (Tarcher, 1997; ISBN 0-87477-899-9)
 * The Vein of Gold (1997; ISBN 0-87477-836-0)
 * The Artist's Way Morning Pages Journal (Tarcher, 1995; ISBN 0-87477-886-7)
 * The Money Drunk (1993)
 * The Artist's Way (1992)

Fiction

 * Popcorn: Hollywood Stories (Really Great Books, 2000; ISBN 1-893329-12-7)
 * The Dark Room (Carroll & Graf Pub,1998; ISBN 0-7867-0564-7)

Musicals

 * Avalon
 * Magellan
 * The Medium at Large

Plays

 * Four Roses
 * Public Lives
 * The Animal in the Trees

Poetry collections

 * This Earth (Sounds True, 1997; ISBN 1-56455-549-6)
 * Prayers for the little ones (Renaissance Books, 1999; ISBN 1-58063-048-0)
 * Prayers to the nature spirits (Renaissance Books, 1999; ISBN 1-58063-047-2)
 * The Quiet Animal

Film/TV

 * Miami Vice TV (1 episode)
 * God's Will (independent movie)

title: Julia Cameron


text:
Iris Oifigiúil

Iris Oifigiúil ("Official Journal") is the official gazette of the government of Ireland. It replaced The Dublin Gazette, the gazette of the Dublin Castle administration, on 31 January 1922. The Belfast Gazette was established for the same purpose in the newly created Northern Ireland on 7 June 1921.

Iris Oifigiúil is sometimes referred to as the Irish State Gazette in English and has been issued twice weekly on Tuesdays and Fridays since 1922. Prima facie evidence on notices of government business are published in the newspaper; these include orders, rules, and proclamations.

The paper is published as a hard copy by the Office of Public Works. Since 2002, most contents are also published in the online edition. An exception is notices of naturalization: these are required under the Irish Nationality and Citizenship Act 1956 but online publication was stopped in 2016 on data privacy grounds. At the same time, the search functionality was removed from the website.

title: Iris Oifigiúil


text: User talk:152.163.253.69

title: User talk:152.163.253.69


text:
Pennsic War

The Pennsic War is an annual American medieval and Renaissance camping event held by the Society for Creative Anachronism (SCA), a "war" between two large regional SCA groups: the Kingdom of the East and the Middle Kingdom. It is the single largest annual SCA event, with more than 10,000 people attending each year, from as far as China, South Korea, Sweden, Germany, France, Italy, Greece, and Australia.

Pennsic is held in late summer and lasts for 17 days (begins on a Friday, ends on the third Sunday). The event centers on pre-17th century history and culture with all campers dressing in historically relevant clothing. The winners of the battles and other activities receive war points, and the Kingdom with the most war points wins that Pennsic. The Pennsic War uses numbers to identify each war rather than the year it was held, so the 2019 event was known as "Pennsic War 48", there having been 47 previous events. Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, no Pennsic event was held in 2020 or 2021, and so the 2022 event is known as "Pennsic War 49".

History
The Pennsic War takes place in late July/early August. Prior to 2007, Pennsic took place during the first two weeks of August, and some of the earliest Pennsics were held during September.

 * The first Pennsic was held in 1972, at Newton's Campground (now Shorehaven Campground) in Waterford, Pennsylvania.
 * The second was held at St. Clair Beach Campground near Pittsburgh.
 * The third was held on a private farm in Wexford, Pennsylvania.
 * The fourth, often called "Pennsic Pour" or "Pennsic Puddle", was held at Spencer Farm on Aquilla Road near Chardon, Ohio and was marred by massive flooding and mudslides. This is celebrated in song by performer Duke Moonwulf Starkadderson in "Pennsic War IV".
 * The fifth was held at the Berlin Reservoir outside Alliance, Ohio, after a site in West Virginia was rejected.
 * The sixth and all subsequent Pennsics have been held at Coopers Lake Campground in Worth Township near Slippery Rock, Pennsylvania near the intersection of Interstate 79 and US 422. The site is easily visible from the I-79 southbound lanes.

According to the HERSTAĐR-SAGA: An Incomplete History of Pennsic,

"One day, almost 30 years ago, Cariadoc of the Bow, the King of the Middle, got bored with peace and declared war upon the East, loser to take Pittsburgh. The King of the East read the declaration of war, filed it away and forgot about it. Time passed. Cariadoc moved to New York and subsequently became King of the East, whereupon he retrieved the declaration from the file cabinet and said, 'Let's fight.' The Middle won, and Cariadoc has the distinction of being the only king who declared war upon himself and lost."

Nearly every person who attends Pennsic has heard this story, and nearly every element of this story is incorrect. Negotiations for an inter-kingdom war had begun in early 1971 under the reigns of Murad (East) and Franz (Middle). The Middle did not prepare its declaration of war until January 1972, by which time Cariadoc had stepped down and Irial had succeeded the throne of the Middle. Cariadoc carried the challenge to the East in the form of a war arrow, which he presented that spring to the Eastern king, Shogun Rakkurai, who broke the arrow and cast it to the floor, saying "that's what we will do with your armies." It took months to arrange the details, so the date and location of the first Pennsic War were not announced until August 1972, by which time Rakkurai had stepped down and Cariadoc had succeeded the throne of the East. The territory of Pittsburgh was never in dispute and never changed hands, remaining part of the East until the formation of Æthelmearc in 1997.

People
Since Pennsic XXV in 1996, the event has gathered over 10,000 participants most years. These include not only SCA members from across the globe, but also members of various other historical re-enactment groups such as Markland; and martial arts–based organizations, such as the Tuchux or Rome. Pennsic is, however, an SCA event; members of other groups are welcome, but are generally expected to follow SCA rules—especially in regards to armor, weapons and behavior on the battlefield for the various fighting scenarios. According to the official Pennsic website, the final count for 2015 was 10,556. In 2023, the 50th Pennsic War, the final count was 11,384

Martial

 * Archery
 * SCA Heavy Combat
 * Rapier Combat
 * Thrown Weapons
 * Youth Combat

Non-martial

 * Pennsic University (and its offshoot, Bog U): a framework of classes where attendees learn period skills, trades, and performing arts.
 * Arts and Sciences Exhibition.
 * Youth Arts and Sciences Exhibition.
 * Performing Arts: which include acrobatics, busking, comedy, dance, magic, music, juggling, and theatre.
 * Period Games: where one can play board games such as Go, Chess and Tafl games, card games such as Tarot card games and dice games.
 * Pennsic Choir.
 * Dancing: including Renaissance dances, Middle Eastern Dance, South Asian Dance, and East Asian Dance.
 * Shopping (roughly 250 vendors)

Local impact
With over 10,000 people, Pennsic becomes the fourth largest populated place in Butler County, PA (after Cranberry and Butler Townships, and the City of Butler). Pennsic's annual economic impact on the immediate area amounts to $1.8 million added into the Butler County economy, and many local businesses cite the period during Pennsic being among their busiest of the year. During the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic when no Pennsic was held, regular Pennsic attendees who were aware of the event's historically positive impact on businesses organized fundraising for charities local to the area.

title: Pennsic War


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User talk:Caseyrousseau

Hi, welcome to the Wikipedia! Glad to have you. I saw your article on Pennsic War, by the way. Thanks! You might want to add a little context, though--where's the event held, how many attend, etc.? Just curiosity. Anyway, to learn how things work around here, you can check out a few pages:

 * Manual of Style
 * Images
 * How does one edit a page

Feel free to ask questions at the Village Pump, or my talk page. Glad to have you, and happy editing!

Meelar 22:51, 18 Mar 2004 (UTC)

title: User talk:Caseyrousseau


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Paulie

Paulie is a 1998 American adventure comedy-drama film directed by John Roberts and written by Laurie Craig. The film follows the adventurous story of the eponymous Paulie, a talking parrot who is capable of communicating with humans. It stars Jay Mohr as the voice of the title character, alongside Gena Rowlands, Tony Shalhoub, Cheech Marin, and Bruce Davison.

It received mixed-to-positive reviews and was a box office disappointment, grossing $26.9 million domestically against a $23 million budget. However, in the years after its release, Paulie would find a larger audience on home media sales. The film marked Buddy Hackett's last feature film appearance before his death in 2003.

Plot
While working as a janitor at an American institute, Russian immigrant Misha Vilyenkov encounters Paulie, a wisecracking and loudmouthed blue-crowned conure who can speak as clearly as a human. Subsequently, he doesn't speak a word when Misha brings Dr. Reingold, the head of the institute, and other scientists to witness him.

Frustrated with Paulie at first, Misha relents and opens up about his homesickness. Paulie warms up to Misha, and he tells him his story about his original owner, a little girl named Marie who stutters. The story transitions to a flashback when he was gifted to her in his infancy. As Marie works on speech therapy, he begins to speak. Her father, Warren, a soldier, returns home from Vietnam and decides that Paulie is not helping her, believing their bond is disillusioning Marie's reality due to her claims of his ability to talk; Paulie never spoke to her parents out of fear towards them, and also refused to learn how to fly due to acrophobia. After a near-death experience in which she falls off the roof in an attempt to teach Paulie to fly, Warren sends him away, devastating Marie.

Paulie is passed down to various owners and eventually ends up in a pawn shop where he spends his time badmouthing the customers. One day, a shady customer named Benny shows interest in purchasing him, thinking he could profit from his speaking abilities, until widowed artist Ivy purchases him first with the intent of reforming his ill behavior after he insults her. She befriends Paulie and agrees to help him find Marie, who has moved to Los Angeles. They begin traveling using her mobile home, but when she becomes blind in the middle of their trip, Paulie decides to stay and take care of her. She eventually passes away, and Paulie, having finally learned to fly, continues his journey.

In East Los Angeles, Paulie joins a group of performing conures owned by migrant musician Ignacio, temporarily forgetting about Marie as he develops feelings for a female conure named Lupe. At one of his performances, Benny, having also moved to Los Angeles, recognizes him and attempts to purchase him from Ignacio. When Ignacio refuses, Benny makes a prank call to the police at one of his performances. As the police show up, Benny kidnaps Paulie amidst the chaos as Ignacio is arrested and presumably deported. Under Benny's influence, Paulie begins a life of crime. In a botched jewel theft, he flies down through the chimney of a house, where he gets caught by the grandson of its owner. Benny flees the scene, betraying and abandoning Paulie in the process.

Paulie is then brought to the institute, where Reingold, his employees and fellow scientists are stunned by his ability to speak to humans. They subject him to speech testing, and Reingold promises that he will be reunited with Marie once finished. Paulie overhears Reingold privately revealing that, though Marie has been found, the institute has instead hidden this information from him to keep him as their property. Realizing he's been lied to all this time, a resentful Paulie humiliates Reingold in front of his scientific peers by acting like an ordinary parrot, disrespecting him and his assistants while refusing to cooperate with more tests. He then calls out Reingold's deception, and tries to make a break for it. As a result, his wings are clipped and he is eventually imprisoned in the basement when he starts pecking the researchers.

Moved by Paulie's story, Misha decides to release him and take him to Marie. They find Marie's contact information in Reingold's office, only to be caught by him. Misha stands up to Reingold for his cruelty to Paulie and gladly resigns. They narrowly escape the institute, just after releasing the other caged animals in the testing lab. The duo reach Marie's address, and find her as a beautiful young woman unrecognizable to Paulie. After singing a song her mother sang to her as a child, Paulie realizes that she is Marie and they happily reunite. He also realizes he can fly again as his feathers have regrown. Misha prepares to depart, but Paulie and Marie offer him to stay. Misha, evidently infatuated with Marie, decides to accept. The film ends with the trio happily entering her house.

Cast

 * Jay Mohr as the voice of Paulie, a blue-crowned parakeet
 * Mohr also plays Benny, a small-time thief
 * Gena Rowlands as Ivy, a widowed artist
 * Tony Shalhoub as Misha Vilyenkov, a recent US immigrant from Russia
 * Cheech Marin as Ignacio, a musician
 * Bruce Davison as Dr. Reingold, a biological research scientist
 * Trini Alvarado as Marie Alweather, Paulie's owner and Misha's love interest
 * Hallie Kate Eisenberg as Young Marie, a young girl who stutters
 * Buddy Hackett as Artie, owner of a pawn shop
 * Matt Craven as Warren Alweather, Marie's father
 * Bill Cobbs as Virgil, a janitor at the institute
 * Tia Texada as Ruby, Benny's girlfriend
 * Texada also voices Lupe, a jandaya parakeet
 * Laura Harrington as Lila Alweather, Marie's mother
 * Michael Badalucco as Paulie
 * Jerry Winsett as Mr. Tauper

Production
Directed by John Roberts and written by Laurie Craig, the film's production budget was $23 million.

Craig mentioned in an interview, "Paulie was an original story of mine.  I was inspired by seeing a lone parrot in a cage and I wondered what it would be like if he could actually tell me his life story.  Then I read about the amazing African Grey parrot named Alex who had a large vocabulary and was very bonded with his researcher."

During the production of the film, 14 trained blue-crowned conures were used to portray the titular character, with other conure species such as nanday, jenday and cherry-headed conures appearing in supporting roles.

Exterior shots of young Marie's house were filmed in Azusa, CA, on the corner of N. Soldano Ave. and Sixth St. Unfortunately, the house was demolished a couple of years after production, and the lot was split up for smaller homes. The production team mailed thank you letters to the residents along the street for the inconvenience.

Box office
Box office receipts grossed $5,369,800 on the opening weekend, and $26,875,268 total. It was released in 1,812 North American theaters.

Critical response
The film scored a 62% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes from 37 reviews, with an average rating of 6.2/10. It was distributed in 24 countries and 10 different languages between 1998 and 1999.

Roger Ebert of the Chicago Times gave the film two stars out of four and said, "Dogs and cats, horses and monkeys and even bears make charismatic movie stars, but "Paulie", I think, suggests that birds are more decorative than dramatic." Tracey Moore of Common Sense Media gave the film a four stars out of five and said, "Talking bird on a coming-of-age journey with some peril."

title: Paulie


text:
Arthur Goldberg

Arthur Joseph Goldberg (August 8, 1908 – January 19, 1990) was an American statesman and jurist who served as the 9th U.S. Secretary of Labor, an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and the 6th United States Ambassador to the United Nations.

Born in Chicago, Illinois, Goldberg graduated from the Northwestern University School of Law in 1930. He became a prominent labor attorney and helped arrange the merger of the American Federation of Labor and the Congress of Industrial Organizations. During World War II, he served in the Office of Strategic Services, organizing European resistance to Nazi Germany. In 1961, President John F. Kennedy appointed Goldberg as the Secretary of Labor.

In 1962, Kennedy successfully nominated Goldberg to the Supreme Court to fill a vacancy created by the retirement of Felix Frankfurter. Goldberg aligned with the liberal bloc of justices and wrote the majority opinion in Escobedo v. Illinois. In 1965, Goldberg resigned from the bench to accept appointment by President Lyndon B. Johnson as the Ambassador to the United Nations. In that role, he helped draft UN Resolution 242 in the aftermath of the Six-Day War. He ran for governor of New York in 1970 but was defeated by Nelson Rockefeller. After his defeat, he served as president of the American Jewish Committee and continued to practice law.

Early life and education
Goldberg was born and raised on West Side, Chicago, the youngest of eight children of Rebecca Perlstein and Joseph Goldberg, Orthodox Jewish immigrants from the Russian Empire. His paternal line derived from a shtetl called Zenkhov, in Ukraine, while his mother's family was from Tetiev. Goldberg's father, a produce peddler, died in 1916, forcing Goldberg's siblings to quit school and go to work to support the family. As the youngest child, Goldberg was allowed to continue school, but worked jobs on the side, including as a vendor at Wrigley Field and as a library clerk, to help support his family. He was childhood friends with future professional boxer Jackie Fields. Goldberg attended classes and lectures at the Hull House, which aimed to educate recent European immigrants. He graduated from Harrison Technical High School at the age of 16.

Goldberg's interest in the law was sparked by the noted murder trial in 1924 of Leopold and Loeb, two wealthy young Chicagoans who were spared the death penalty with the help of their high-powered defense attorney, Clarence Darrow. Goldberg attended the trial while he was a high school senior. Goldberg later pointed to the case as inspiration for his opposition to the death penalty on the bench, since he had seen how inequality of social status could lead to unfair application of the death penalty. Jewish Supreme Court Justices Louis Brandeis and Benjamin Cardozo also served as inspiration to Goldberg from a young age.

Goldberg, who worked part time as a construction worker, took night courses at Crane Junior College of the City Colleges of Chicago and DePaul University. He later earned a B.S.L. (magna cum laude; 1929) and J.D. (1930) degrees from Northwestern University. Goldberg served as the Editor of the Illinois Law Review (now known as the Northwestern Law Review) and helped Law Dean John Henry Wigmore write his third edition of the treatise on evidence. Goldberg graduated from Northwestern law school in just 2.5 years and with the highest academic record ever at Northwestern. Being just 21-years-old, he was too young to pass the Illinois Bar. However, he sued and successfully argued his own case to be admitted to the bar.

In 1931, Goldberg married Dorothy Kurgans. They had one daughter, Barbara Goldberg Cramer, and one son, Robert M. Goldberg (an attorney in Anchorage, Alaska). He was the uncle of prolific blues rock keyboardist Barry Goldberg.

World War II
During World War II, Goldberg was a member of the United States Army, wherein he served as a captain and later a major. He wanted to join the Marines, but was not physically fit enough. Goldberg served as well in an espionage group operated by the Office of Strategic Services, the precursor to the CIA, serving as chief of the Labor Desk, an autonomous division of the American intelligence agency that was charged with the task of cultivating contacts and networks within the European underground labor movement during World War II. The Jewish Telegraphic Agency stated, "Goldberg's file notes that as both a civilian and a member of the Army, he supervised a section in the Secret Intelligence Branch of OSS to maintain contact with labor groups and organizations regarded as potential resistance elements in enemy-occupied and enemy countries. He organized anti-Nazi European transportation workers into an extensive intelligence network."

Early legal career
Due to antisemitism, Goldberg was unable to work in Chicago's big law firms because they would not hire Jews. Instead, he started his legal career at Pritzger & Pritzger, a firm founded by German Jews. However, he was uncomfortable with his work at Pritzger because the work mainly dealt with representing large businesses.

Goldberg's interest in labor law spiked at the start of The Great Depression and in 1933 he left Pritzger to create his own boutique law firm, which was focused on labor law. Goldberg joined the National Lawyers Guild (NLG), a group that was advocating for The New Deal, in the mid-1930s. However, Goldberg, among others, resigned a few years later due to the NLG's growing association with the American Communist Party.

Goldberg became a prominent labor lawyer and represented striking Chicago newspaper workers on behalf of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) in 1938. The strike went on for eight months and Goldberg spent almost everyday in court arguing on the worker's behalf. Eventually, the strike persuaded William Randolph Hearst to recognize the newspaper union. Appointed general counsel to the CIO in 1948 to succeed Lee Pressman, Goldberg served as a negotiator and chief legal adviser in the merger of the American Federation of Labor and CIO in 1955. AFL-CIO is one of the US major labor unions representing America's workers and labor. Goldberg also served as general counsel of the United Steelworkers of America.

Political career

Goldberg was an active participant in the National Citizens Political Action Committee and the CIO Political Action Committee. He supported the presidential campaigns of Franklin D. Roosevelt and Harry Truman. Goldberg initially supported Senator Joseph McCarthy's efforts to investigate communism in the United States, but soon opposed those efforts after it became clear they threatened the organized labor movement.

In 1960, Goldberg wanted his friend Adlai Stevenson to run for president, but Stevenson encouraged Goldberg to back Hubert Humphrey. Instead, Goldberg backed Senator John F. Kennedy. Goldberg served as a labor advisor to Kennedy's campaign and was influential in getting unions to back Kennedy.

Kennedy administration
President John F. Kennedy nominated Goldberg to be United States Secretary of Labor, where he served from 1961 to 1962. He was the third Jew to be named to a Cabinet position. Goldberg wanted to be named Attorney General, so he would improve his chances of getting nominated to the Supreme Court, but that spot went to Kennedy's brother Robert. As Labor Secretary, Goldberg encouraged Kennedy to increase the minimum wage, extend unemployment benefits, create job opportunities for the youth and invest in economically distressed areas. Following Goldberg's advice, Kennedy established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), which ensured employees are treated fairly regardless of "race, creed, color, or national origin." Goldberg also championed the creation of the President's Advisory Committee on Labor-Management Policy.

Supreme Court
On August 31, 1962, Kennedy nominated Goldberg as an associate justice of the U.S. Supreme Court, to succeed Felix Frankfurter, who was retiring. Earlier that same year, Kennedy had considered nominating Goldberg to succeed Charles Whittaker, but chose Byron White instead. Frankfurter and Chief Justice Earl Warren were consulted by the President beforehand and both gave their full support.

He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on September 25, and served on the Court from October 1, 1962, until July 25, 1965. Only one Senator, Strom Thurmond from South Carolina, opposed his nomination. During his tenure, the seat Goldberg occupied on the Court came to be informally known as the "Jewish seat", as his two immediate predecessors—Frankfurter and Benjamin Cardozo before him—were also Jewish. , Goldberg is the last Cabinet official to have also served on the Supreme Court.

Despite his short time on the bench, Goldberg played a significant role in the Court's jurisprudence. Replacing Justice Felix Frankfurter, who was a center-right Justice, Goldberg's liberal views on constitutional questions shifted the Court's balance toward a broader construction of constitutional rights. A self-described judicial activist, Goldberg voted for a liberal outcome in 89% of cases before the court.

His best-known opinion came in the concurrence of Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), arguing that the Ninth Amendment supported the existence of an unenumerated right of privacy. He argued that to determine if a right is a fundamental right, the court should look to whether the right involved is of such a character that it cannot be denied without violating those fundamental principles of liberty and justice which lie at the base of all America's civil and political institutions.

Perhaps Goldberg's most influential move on the Court involved the death penalty. Goldberg argued in a 1963 internal Supreme Court memorandum that imposition of the death penalty was condemned by the international community and should be regarded as "cruel and unusual punishment," in contravention of the Eighth Amendment. Finding support in this position from two other justices (William J. Brennan and William O. Douglas), Goldberg published an opinion dissenting from the Court's denial of certiorari in a case, Rudolph v. Alabama, involving the imposition of the death penalty for rape, in which Goldberg cited the fact that only five nations responding to a UN survey indicated that they allowed imposition of the death penalty for rape, including the U.S., and that 33 states in the U.S. had outlawed the practice.

Goldberg's dissent sent a signal to lawyers across the nation to challenge the constitutionality of capital punishment in appeals. As a result of the influx of appeals, the death penalty effectively ceased to exist in the United States for the remainder of the 1960s and 1970s, and the Supreme Court considered the issue in the 1972 case of Furman v. Georgia, where the Justices, in a 5 to 4 decision, effectively suspended the death penalty laws of states across the country on the ground of the capricious imposition of the penalty. That decision would be revisited in Gregg v. Georgia (1976), where the justices voted to allow the death penalty under some circumstances; the death penalty for rape of an adult female victim, however, would be struck down in Coker v. Georgia (1977). In 2008, the death penalty for rape of children was ruled unconstitutional by a 5 to 4 decision (Kennedy v. Louisiana). Writing for The New York Times, Adam Liptak said that Goldberg's dissent helped "create the modern movement for the abolition of the death penalty."

Goldberg also wrote the majority opinions in Escobedo v. Illinois, which provided criminal defendants the right to counsel during interrogation under the Sixth Amendment and Kennedy v. Mendoza-Martinez, which declared unconstitutional parts of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that revoked citizenship for those that had fled the country in order to dodge the draft.

Despite Goldberg's short tenure on the court, a number of his law clerks have gone on to become deeply influential. Stephen Breyer later became an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court and he held Goldberg's seat on the Court from 1994 until 2022. Another of Goldberg's law clerks was Harvard law professor Alan Dershowitz. Since other justices would be unlikely to hire a Jewish clerk, Goldberg emphasized hiring Jewish clerks. Six out of his eight law clerks were Jewish.

UN ambassador

In 1965, Goldberg was persuaded by Johnson to resign his seat on the court to replace the recently deceased Adlai Stevenson II as the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations (UN). Johnson wanted to appoint his friend, Abe Fortas, to the court. If any of his Great Society reforms were going to be deemed unconstitutional by the Court, he thought that Fortas would notify him in advance. Goldberg, who had declined an earlier offer to leave his position to be Secretary of Health, Education and Welfare, took Johnson's offer of the UN ambassadorship when Johnson discussed it with him on Air Force One to Illinois for Stevenson's funeral. Goldberg was promised by Johnson that he would be a member of the President's cabinet and would be involved in all decisions involving ending the Vietnam War. Bruce Allen Murphy, a professor at Lafayette College, wrote in one of his books that Johnson also told Goldberg that he would consider putting him on his ticket as vice president in the 1968 United States presidential election.

Goldberg wrote that he resigned to have influence in keeping the peace in Vietnam and that after the crisis had passed, he expected he would be reappointed to the Supreme Court by Johnson to replace the retiring Chief Justice Earl Warren. He also said, "I had an exaggerated opinion of my capacities. I thought I could persuade Johnson that we were fighting the wrong war in the wrong place [and] to get out."

David Stebenne, Goldberg's biographer, adds, "Many observers, then and later, found this answer hard to accept." He suggests, "Johnson must have had some influence over Goldberg that induced him [to resign from the Supreme Court]." Time reported in 1962 that Johnson knew that for a party thrown in Johnson's honor that year, a Goldberg aide, Jerry Holleman, solicited contributions from wealthy supporters of Johnson, including Billy Sol Estes. Holleman accepted responsibility and there was no public awareness of Goldberg and Johnson's involvement.

Johnson said of the Goldberg decision in his later-released audio tapes:

"Goldberg would be able to answer the Russians... very effectively... He's got a bulldog face on him, and I think this Jew thing would take The New York Times-- all this crowd that gives me hell all the time-- and disarm them. And still have a Johnson man. I've always thought that Goldberg was the ablest man in Kennedy's Cabinet, and he was the best man to us.... Goldberg sold bananas, you know.... He's kind of like I am... He's shined some shoes in his day and he's sold newspapers, and he's had to slug it out..."

Goldberg chose to retain only one of Stevenson's aides, US Ambassador Charles W. Yost, a career Foreign Service Office who was able to help Goldberg navigate the intricacies of United Nations procedures, and foreign affairs debates in the Security Council. While serving as UN Ambassador, Goldberg was successful at brokering peace between Greece and Turkey during the Cyprus crisis of 1967 and helped diplomatically resolve a conflict between North Korea and the United States following the 1968 Pueblo incident.

Resolution 242
In 1967, Goldberg was a key drafter of Resolution 242, which followed the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel and the Arab states. While interpretation of that resolution has subsequently become controversial, Goldberg was very clear that the resolution does not obligate Israel to withdraw from all of the captured territories. He stated that:

"The notable omissions in language used to refer to withdrawal are the words the, all, and the June 5, 1967, lines. I refer to the English text of the resolution. The French and Soviet texts differ from the English in this respect, but the English text was voted on by the Security Council, and thus it is determinative. In other words, there is lacking a declaration requiring Israel to withdraw from the (or all the) territories occupied by it on and after June 5, 1967. Instead, the resolution stipulates withdrawal from occupied territories without defining the extent of withdrawal. And it can be inferred from the incorporation of the words secure and recognized boundaries that the territorial adjustments to be made by the parties in their peace settlements could encompass less than a complete withdrawal of Israeli forces from occupied territories [italics by Goldberg]."

Goldberg's role as the UN ambassador during the Six-Day War may have been the reason why Sirhan Sirhan, the assassin of Robert F. Kennedy, also wanted to assassinate Goldberg.

Subsequent career

Frustrated with the war in Vietnam, Goldberg resigned from the ambassadorship in 1968 and accepted a senior partnership with the New York law firm Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison. Longing to return to the bench, Goldberg later claimed that he was Earl Warren's preference to succeed him when the chief justice announced his retirement in 1968, but President Johnson selected Abe Fortas instead. After Fortas's nomination was withdrawn in the face of Senate opposition, Johnson briefly considered naming Goldberg chief justice as a recess appointment before ruling out the idea. On 15 October 1969, Goldberg was a featured speaker at the Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam march.

With the prospect of a return to the Supreme Court closed to him by the election of Richard Nixon, Goldberg contemplated a run for elected office. Initially considering a challenge to Charles Goodell's reelection to the United States Senate, he decided to run against New York Governor Nelson Rockefeller in 1970. Though the former justice initially polled well, his campaign was unsuccessful. Goldberg faced accusations of being a "carpetbagger" by the New York media and he faced a contested Democratic primary campaign against Howard J. Samuels. Although Goldberg won the Democratic primary, his poor skills as a campaigner and lack of knowledge about New York (while campaigning in Manhattan, he mistakenly claimed that he was in Brooklyn), coupled with Rockefeller's formidable advantages, resulted in a 700,000 vote margin of victory for the incumbent Republican. At one point in the campaign, Goldberg told a voter, who commented that he wished he was still on the Court "so do I, sometimes." Basil Paterson was his running mate as Lt. Governor. His son David later became Governor in 2008.

After his defeat, Goldberg returned to law practice in Washington, D.C., and served as President of the American Jewish Committee. In 1972, Goldberg returned to the Supreme Court as a lawyer, representing Curt Flood in Flood v. Kuhn. His oral argument was referred to by one observer as "one of the worst arguments I'd ever heard – by one of the smartest men I've ever known..." Under President Jimmy Carter, Goldberg served as United States Ambassador to the Belgrade Conference on Human Rights in 1977, and was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1978.

Goldberg was a member of the Council on Foreign Relations from 1966 until 1989.

Goldberg died in 1990. As a former member of the U.S. Army he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery in Virginia.

title: Arthur Goldberg


text:
Bloodsport (film)

Bloodsport is a 1988 American martial arts sports action film directed by Newt Arnold and starring Jean-Claude Van Damme, Leah Ayres, Forest Whitaker, Donald Gibb, Roy Chiao and Bolo Yeung. The film centers on Frank Dux (Van Damme), a United States Army Captain and ninjutsu practitioner, who competes in an underground full-contact martial arts tournament called the Kumite in Hong Kong. Based on Dux's real-life claims, the film was marketed as a true story. It was one of Van Damme's first lead roles and showcased his abilities, launching his career as a mainstream action star.

The screenplay is based on many of Dux's claims first covered in the November 1980 issue of Black Belt magazine. The real Dux served as the action choreographer and technical advisor. After its release, many of Dux's claims were disputed, including by co-screenwriter Sheldon Lettich, who claimed Dux fabricated his fight record and the existence of the Kumite.

Bloodsport was produced and released by Cannon Films on February 26, 1988. Despite negative critical reviews, it was a considerable box office success, grossing $50 million on a budget of $1.5–2.3 million. It has been identified as a cult film and spawned a film series which includes four sequels.

Plot
U.S. Army Captain Frank Dux has trained in the ways of ninjutsu under his sensei Senzo Tanaka. As a boy, Dux and some of his friends broke into Tanaka's home to steal a katana, but Dux was apprehended while returning the katana to its place. Impressed by Dux's integrity and toughness, Senzo decided to train him alongside his son, Shingo. After Shingo's death, Senzo trains Dux as a member of the Tanaka clan. Dux is invited to the Kumite, an illegal martial arts tournament in Hong Kong. After his Army superiors refuse to let him go, Dux goes absent without leave, says goodbye to his sensei and leaves for Hong Kong. Two Criminal Investigation Command agents, Helmer and Rawlins, are assigned to track down and arrest Dux.

After arriving in Hong Kong, Dux befriends American fighter Ray Jackson and their guide Victor Lin. When they arrive at the Kumite arena, the officials are skeptical but eventually accept them after Dux proves his connection to the Tanaka clan by performing the Dim Mak death touch. On the first day of the tournament, Dux earns the enmity of the ruthless Kumite champion Chong Li after breaking his record for the fastest knockout.

Dux becomes involved with American journalist Janice Kent, who is investigating the Kumite. Dux refuses to help her, but she sneaks into the arena by agreeing to a date with a spectator. On the second day, Jackson is matched against Chong Li. Although Jackson comes close to defeating Li, he wastes time showboating for the crowd, allowing Li to recover and brutally beat him. Dux visits Jackson in the hospital and vows to avenge him. After witnessing the brutality of the tournament, Kent argues with Dux and tries to convince him not to return. Dux tells her that he has to win in order to become the best he can be.

Helmer and Rawlins arrive in Hong Kong and contact local police inspector Chen. They begin asking around for Dux and track him down to his hotel. A chase through the downtown ensues but Dux evades them when they fall into a canal. When Dux arrives at the Kumite, Helmer and Rawlins are waiting for him, along with Chen and four of his officers. Dux defeats them, but agrees to return with Helmer and Rawlins after the tournament.

On the final day, Li kills his semifinal opponent, much to the consternation of the crowd. Fearing defeat in the final against Dux, Li conceals a salt pill in his waistband before the bout. When Dux gains the upper hand, Li blinds him by crushing the pill and throwing it into Dux's face. Initially frustrated by his inability to see, Dux clears his mind and recalls his training from Tanaka, who taught him to fight blindfolded, overcoming the handicap and defeating Li. The next day, he bids farewell to Kent and Jackson before returning to the United States with Helmer and Rawlins.

Writing
Co-writer Sheldon Lettich came up with the idea for the film. According to Lettich:

"I had known Frank Dux for a number of months before I came up with the idea for Bloodsport. Frank told me a lot of tall tales, most of which turned out to be bullshit. But his stories about participating in this so-called 'Kumite' event sounded like a great idea for a movie. There was one guy who he introduced me to, named Richard Bender, who claimed to have actually been at the Kumite event and who swore everything Frank told me was true. A few years later this guy had a falling-out with Frank, and confessed to me that everything he told me about the Kumite was a lie; Frank had coached him in what to say."

On casting the lead role, producer Mark DiSalle said, "I wanted a new martial arts star who was a ladies' man. Jean Claude [Van Damme] appeals to both men and women. He's an American hero who fights for justice the American way and kicks the stuffing out of the bad guys."

Filming
Bloodsport was filmed entirely on location in Hong Kong. It is one of the few films featuring scenes filmed inside Kowloon Walled City before its demolition in 1993. Other locations included The Peninsula Hotel, Causeway Bay, Hong Kong Trail, Victoria Peak, and Stanley Fort.

Soundtrack
Bloodsport's soundtrack score was composed by Paul Hertzog, who would also compose the score for Jean-Claude Van Damme's next movie Kickboxer. For the movie Bloodsport the songs "Fight to Survive" and "On My Own" were both performed by Stan Bush. Bush's performancess are replaced on the soundtrack with alternate versions sung by Paul Delph. Due to this work Paul Delph was nominated for a Grammy. The film plays the song "Steal the Night" by Michael Bishop during a scene where Dux runs from Helmer and Rawlins. The song was released in the mid-2000s as a single containing a vocal and instrumental version. On June 26, 2007, Perseverance Records released a limited-edition CD of the soundtrack including, for the first time, the original film versions of the Stan Bush songs. In 2021 the complete soundtrack was released on picture discs by Waxwork Records.

Home media
Bloodsport was released on VHS and Betamax by Warner Home Video on December 21, 1988. Within a few months, it had sold some 150,000 units. Warner also released a DVD of the film in the United States on October 1, 2002.

Box office
In January 1989, the Los Angeles Times reported a U.S. box office gross of $11.7 million against a budget of $2.3 million. In August 1989, the Chicago Tribune reported that the film pulled in $50 million worldwide, including $15 million in the U.S. and Canada, making it Cannon Group's most profitable film of 1988.

Critical response
Leonard Klady of the Los Angeles Times wrote, "Hacking through the jungle of cliche and reservoir of bad acting in Bloodsport [...] are some pretty exciting matches."

Van Damme was nominated for a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst New Star, but lost to Ronald McDonald in Mac and Me.

Rotten Tomatoes, a review aggregator, reports a 46% approval rating based on 28 reviews and an average rating of 5.1/10. The site's consensus reads: "This is where it all began for the Muscles from Brussels, but beyond Van Damme's athleticism, Bloodsport is a clichéd, virtually plotless exercise in action movie recycling." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Slashfilm regards it as one of the most influential martial arts movies of all time.

Sequels and possible remake
Bloodsport has become regarded as a cult film. Though Jean-Claude Van Damme doesn't appear in additional installments, it was followed by three sequels: Bloodsport II: The Next Kumite (1996), Bloodsport III (1997), and Bloodsport 4: The Dark Kumite (1999).

A remake of Bloodsport was reported to be in planning in 2011. Phillip Noyce was attached to direct a screenplay by Robert Mark Kamen. The main character was supposed to be an American Afghanistan War veteran competing in a vale tudo tournament in Brazil. Director James McTeigue was attached to the project by 2013, and the filming was to be done in Australia and Brazil. As of 2023, the remake has not been produced.

Legacy
Bloodsport has been credited with popularizing the concepts of full contact and mixed-style martial arts competition among mainstream audiences. Early mixed martial arts events, such as UFC 1, were sometimes compared to the film.

Retired professional mixed martial artist and kickboxer Mirko Cro Cop, inspired by Van Damme's performance in the film, began training in his parents' garage with his father's boxing equipment and weights.

The "shoot-style" professional wrestling event GCW Bloodsport, promoted by mixed-martial artists Josh Barnett and Matt Riddle, is inspired by the film.

Bloodsport was an inspiration for the video game Mortal Kombat, and Johnny Cage, one of the characters, is a parody of Jean-Claude Van Damme. Van-Damme himself later voiced a Johnny Cage character based on his likeness in Mortal Kombat 1.

In 2024, Capelight Pictures released The Last Kumite, a crowd-funded film "inspired by the likes of Bloodsport, Kickboxer and No Retreat No Surrender". Several people with ties to the original films were attached to the project, including Kurt McKinney, Michel Qissi, and Bolo Yeung's son David Yeung.

title: Bloodsport (film)


text:
List of marine reptiles

Following is a list of marine reptiles, reptiles which are adapted to life in marine or brackish environments.

Extant
The following marine reptiles are species which are currently extant or recently extinct.

Crocodiles

 * Crocodylus
 * Crocodylus acutus (American crocodile)
 * Crocodylus porosus (Saltwater crocodile)

Lizards

 * Iguanidae
 * Amblyrhynchus
 * Amblyrhynchus cristatus (Marine iguana)
 * Varanidae
 * Varanus
 * Varanus indicus (Mangrove monitor)

Snakes

 * Acrochordidae (Filesnakes)
 * Acrochordus
 * Acrochordus arafurae (Arafura filesnake)
 * Acrochordus granulatus (Little filesnake)
 * Acrochordus javanicus (Javan file snake)
 * Dipsadinae
 * Farancia
 * Farancia abacura (Mud snake)
 * Farancia erythrogrammus (Rainbow snake)
 * Helicops
 * Helicops angulatus (Brown-banded water snake)
 * Helicops infrataeniatus
 * Helicops scalaris
 * Hydrops
 * Hydrops triangularis
 * Leptodeira
 * Leptodeira rubricata (Costa Rican cat-eyed snake)
 * Pseudoeryx
 * Pseudoeryx relictualis
 * Tretanorhinus
 * Tretanorhinus nigroluteus
 * Tretanorhinus variabilis
 * Grayiinae
 * Grayia
 * Grayia smythii (Smith's African water snake)
 * Homalopsidae (Bockadams)
 * Bitia hydroides (Keel-bellied water snake)
 * Cantoria violacea (Cantor's water snake)
 * Cerberus (Dog-faced water snakes)
 * Cerberus australis
 * Cerberus dunsoni
 * Cerberus microlepis
 * Cerberus rynchops
 * Cerberus schneiderii
 * Djokoiskandarus annulata (Banded water snake)
 * Myrrophis
 * Myrrophis bennettii (Bennett's mud snake)
 * Fordonia leucobalia (White-bellied mangrove snake)
 * Myron
 * Myron karnsi
 * Myron resetari
 * Myron richardsonii
 * Hydrophiinae (Sea snakes)
 * Aipysurus
 * Aipysurus eydouxii (Spine-tailed sea snake)
 * Aipysurus laevis (Olive sea snake)
 * Astrotia stokesii (Stoke's sea snake)
 * Disteira
 * Disteira major (Olive-headed or greater sea snake)
 * Disteira nigrocincta
 * Disteira walli (Wall's sea snake)
 * Enhydrina schistosa (Beaked sea snake, hook-nosed sea snake, common sea snake, Valakadyn sea snake)
 * Enhydrina zweifeli  (Sepik or Zweifel’s beaked seasnake)
 * Hydrophis
 * Hydrophis belcheri (Faint-banded sea snake, Belcher's sea snake)
 * Hydrophis bituberculatus (Peters' sea snake)
 * Hydrophis brooki
 * Hydrophis caerulescens (Dwarf sea snake)
 * Hydrophis cantoris
 * Hydrophis cyanocinctus (Annulated sea snake, blue-banded sea snake)
 * Hydrophis fasciatus (Striped sea snake)
 * Hydrophis gracilis (Graceful small-headed sea snake, slender sea snake)
 * Hydrophis inornatus (Plain sea snake)
 * Hydrophis klossi (Kloss' sea snake)
 * Hydrophis lapemoides (Persian Gulf sea snake)
 * Hydrophis mamillaris (Bombay sea snake)
 * Hydrophis melanocephalus (Slender-necked sea snake)
 * Hydrophis obscurus (Russell's sea snake)
 * Hydrophis ornatus (Ornate reef sea snake)
 * Hydrophis semperi (Garman's sea snake)
 * Hydrophis spiralis (Yellow sea snake)
 * Hydrophis stricticollis (Collared sea snake)
 * Hydrophis viperinus
 * Kerilia jerdonii (Jerdon's sea snake)
 * Kolpophis annandalei (Bighead sea snake)
 * Lapemis
 * Lapemis curtus (Shaw's sea snake)
 * Lapemis hardwickii (Hardwicke's spine-bellied sea snake)
 * Laticauda
 * Laticauda colubrina (Colubrine sea krait, yellow-lipped sea krait)
 * Laticauda laticaudata (Blue-lipped sea krait)
 * Pelamis platurus (Yellowbelly sea snake, pelagic sea snake)
 * Thalassophis
 * Thalassophis anomalus (Anomalous sea snake)

Sea turtles

 * Dermochelyidae
 * Dermochelys coriacea (leatherback sea turtle)

 * Cheloniidae
 * Caretta caretta (Loggerhead sea turtle)
 * Lepidochelys kempii (Kemp's ridley)
 * Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive ridley)
 * Chelonia mydas (Green sea turtle)
 * Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill sea turtle)
 * Natator depressus (Flatback sea turtle)

Extinct
From the Permian to the present day there have been numerous groups of extinct reptiles that adapted to life in the marine realm:

Mesosaurs

 * Mesosauridae: Early Permian
 * Stereosternum
 * Mesosaurus

Phytosaurs

 * Pseudopalatinae: Late Triassic
 * Mystriosuchus

Squamates

 * Dolichosauridae: Late Cretaceous
 * Adriosaurus
 * Dolichosaurus
 * Judeasaurus

 * Mosasauroidea
 * Aigialosauridae
 * Opetiosaurus
 * Aigialosaurus
 * Portunatasaurus
 * Mosasauridae
 * Kaganaias
 * Mosasaurinae
 * Carinodens
 * Clidastes
 * Dallasaurus
 * Globidens
 * Kaikaifilu
 * Mosasaurus
 * Plotosaurus
 * Prognathodon
 * Thalassotitan
 * Halisaurinae
 * Eonatator
 * Halisaurus
 * Tylosaurinae
 * Hainosaurus
 * Tylosaurus
 * Taniwhasaurus
 * Plioplatecarpinae
 * Platecarpus
 * Plioplatecarpus
 * Selmasaurus

 * Ophidia
 * Simoliophiidae: Late Cretaceous
 * Eupodophis
 * Haasiophis
 * Pachyophis
 * Pachyrhachis
 * Palaeophiidae: Late Cretaceous - Eocene
 * Archaeophis
 * Palaeophis
 * Pterosphenus

 * Sphenodontia
 * Pleurosauridae Early - Late Jurassic (-Early Cretaceous?)
 * Pleurosaurus
 * Palaeopleurosaurus
 * Vadasaurus?
 * Derasmosaurus?
 * Ankylosphenodon

Tanysauria

 * Dinocephalosaurus: Middle Triassic
 * Tanystropheus: Middle Triassic

Sauropterygians

 * Placodonts: Triassic
 * Cyamodus
 * Henodus
 * Palatodonta
 * Paraplacodus
 * Placochelys
 * Placodus
 * Psephoderma
 * Protenodontosaurus
 * Glyphoderma
 * Psephosauriscus
 * Psephochelys
 * Pararcus
 * Parahenodus
 * Sinocyamodus

 * Nothosauroidea: Triassic
 * Nothosauridae
 * Ceresiosaurus
 * Germanosaurus
 * Lariosaurus
 * Nothosaurus
 * Silvestrosaurus
 * Simosauridae
 * Simosaurus

 * Pachypleurosaurs: Triassic
 * Anarosaurus
 * Dactylosaurus
 * Keichousaurus
 * Neusticosaurus (Pachypleurosaurus)
 * Dawazisaurus
 * Diandongosaurus
 * Dianmeisaurus
 * Hanosaurus
 * Honghesaurus
 * Majiashanosaurus
 * Panzhousaurus
 * Qianxisaurus
 * Wumengosaurus
 * Dianopachysaurus
 * Luopingosaurus
 * Odoiporosaurus
 * Prosantosaurus
 * Serpianosaurus
 * Chusaurus

 * Pistosaurus:Middle Triassic
 * Plesiosaurs: Early Jurassic - Late Cretaceous
 * Plesiosauroids: Early Jurassic - Late Cretaceous
 * Plesiosaurus
 * Cimoliasauridae
 * Cryptoclididae
 * Cryptoclidus
 * Microcleidus
 * Muraenosaurus
 * Elasmosauridae
 * Elasmosaurus
 * Futabasaurus
 * Hydrotherosaurus
 * Kimmerosaurus
 * Libonectes
 * Mauisaurus
 * Morturneria
 * Thalassomedon
 * Tuarangisaurus
 * Polycotylidae
 * Dolichorhynchops
 * Edgarosaurus
 * Manemergus
 * Sulcusuchus
 * Thililua
 * Trinacromerum

 * Pliosaurs: Early Jurassic - Late Cretaceous
 * Kronosaurus
 * Liopleurodon
 * Pliosaurus
 * Macroplata
 * Peloneustes
 * Rhomaleosaurus
 * Umoonasaurus
 * Sachicasaurus

Ichthyosaurs

 * Ichthyosaurus
 * Ichthyotitan
 * Mixosaurus
 * Ophthalmosaurus
 * Shastasaurus
 * Shonisaurus

Choristoderes

 * Champsosaurus
 * Simoedosaurus
 * ?Pachystropheus (sometimes considered a thalattosaur )
 * ?Actiosaurus

Crocodylomorphs

 * Thalattosuchia: Early Jurassic - Early Cretaceous
 * Metriorhynchoidea
 * Eoneustes
 * Teleidosaurus
 * Zoneait
 * Aggiosaurus
 * Dakosaurus
 * Enaliosuchus
 * Geosaurus
 * Metriorhynchus
 * Neustosaurus
 * Purranisaurus
 * Teleidosaurus
 * Teleosauridae
 * Machimosaurus
 * Pelagosaurus
 * Platysuchus
 * Teleosaurus
 * Steneosaurus

 * Tethysuchia: Middle Jurassic - Early Eocene
 * Pholidosauridae: Middle Jurassic - Late Cretaceous
 * Elosuchus
 * Oceanosuchus
 * Terminonaris

 * Dyrosauridae: Late Cretaceous - Early Eocene
 * Arambourgisuchus
 * Atlantosuchus
 * Dyrosaurus
 * Guarinisuchus
 * Phosphatosaurus
 * Rhabdognathus

 * Gavialoidea: Late Cretaceous - Recent
 * Eothoracosaurus
 * Thoracosaurus
 * Eosuchus
 * Argochampsa
 * Eogavialis
 * Ikanogavialis
 * Piscogavialis
 * Siquisiquesuchus
 * Gryposuchus
 * Aktiogavialis

Testudines

 * Chelonioidea
 * Allopleuron
 * Archelon
 * Pneumatoarthrus
 * Protostega

 * Araripemydidae
 * Araripemys

 * Bothremydidae

Thalattosaurs

 * Agkistrognathus
 * Anshunsaurus
 * Askeptosaurus
 * Concavispina
 * Clarazia
 * Endennasaurus
 * Gunakadeit
 * Hescheleria
 * Miodentosaurus
 * Nectosaurus
 * Paralonectes
 * Thalattosaurus
 * Wapitisaurus
 * Wayaosaurus
 * Xinpusaurus

title: List of marine reptiles


text:
User:Egomaniac

Pages to which I have made major contributions:
 * Afterlife
 * Azeotrope
 * Demantoid
 * Java programming language
 * Java2D
 * Oxalic acid
 * RFID
 * Soft palate
 * Xenograft

title: User:Egomaniac


text:
Tommi Mäkinen

Tommi Antero Mäkinen (born 26 June 1964) is a Finnish racing executive and former rally driver.

Mäkinen is one of the most successful World Rally drivers of all time, ranking fifth in rally wins (24) and third in championships (4), tied with Juha Kankkunen behind Sébastien Ogier (8) and Sébastien Loeb (9). In 2018, as a head of Toyota Gazoo Racing WRT, he became the first person in the history of rally driving to win a Championship both as a driver and as a team principal.

He is a four-time World Rally Champion, a series he first won, and then successfully defended, continuously throughout 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999, on all occasions driving the Ralliart Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution. He also aided Mitsubishi to the 1998 world constructors' title as well as winning the 2000 Race of Champions. Mäkinen's navigators include compatriots Seppo Harjanne, Kaj Lindström and Risto Mannisenmäki, the former retiring from alongside Mäkinen having previously served 1985 champion, and fellow "Flying Finn", Peugeot's Timo Salonen.

Career
Mäkinen won the Group N Finnish Rally Championship driving a Lancia Delta HF 4WD in 1988. Mäkinen's first world rally win came on the 1994 1000 Lakes Rally (now Rally Finland), in a Ford Escort RS Cosworth. Mäkinen proved a late developer by the standards of some in rallying circles, only nabbing his first full-time manufacturer seat in a Group A formula Mitsubishi Lancer Evolution alongside former Group A rally champion Swede Kenneth Eriksson, in 1995 - but success was to prove spontaneous thereafter.

A cultured Safari Rally win in 1996 proved the platform on which to build a dominant championship lead, which he consolidated by taking the title in Australia, away from runner-up, Subaru's Colin McRae - a long-time rival. He proceeded to win every drivers' title for Mitsubishi from 1996 to 1999. The Mitsubishi team, with the Finn and young Briton Richard Burns among its driver personnel, also won its sole manufacturers' championship in 1998, while late that same year, the licensed Tommi Mäkinen Rally video game was also released. In 2000, despite opening his campaign with victory on the January Monte Carlo Rally, Mäkinen finally relinquished his grasp on the title, being beaten in the standings by new title holder and fellow Finn, Marcus Grönholm. That year Mitsubishi produced a 'Tommi Mäkinen edition' of the road version of the Lancer Evolution VI to commemorate his previous title successes. This car had a different front bumper than the regular Evolution VI, while some models also featured a red and white paint job to closely resemble Mäkinen's rally car.

Mäkinen remained with Mitsubishi until the end of the 2001 season, having finished third in that year's standings behind Burns and McRae, by now respectively drivers for Subaru and Ford - but not before the inauspicious introduction of team's first ever World Rally Car on the San Remo Rally. Mäkinen and teammate Freddy Loix struggled with the car before the Finn's crash on the mountainside roads of the following round in Corsica was responsible for breaking co-driver Mannisenmäki's back and in doing so, virtually ended his top-line career. The Finn was forced to fare with substitute co-drivers for the remaining events in Australia (with Timo Hantunen) and Great Britain, the latter of which he retired from, helping Burns to claim the championship.

A move to the Prodrive-run Subaru World Rally Team for 2002 as replacement for Burns (who had chosen to drive a works Peugeot 206 WRC alongside Grönholm for his title defence) yielded one more, final career victory, on the 2002 Monte Carlo Rally where a technical infringement committed by on-the-road winner, and emerging talent, Sébastien Loeb, allowed Mäkinen to upstage the Frenchman. But his form then took a dive and he was not to add again to his tally of world titles.

He retired from the sport after the 2003 season, ending his WRC career on the podium with third place on that seasons final rally, Rally Great Britain.

In 2004 he established his own company named Tommi Mäkinen Racing Oy Ltd with the aim to prepare rally cars and provide support to drivers.

In 2016, Mäkinen became the team principal of the Toyota Gazoo Racing, which is the factory team of Toyota and competes in the World Rally Championship (WRC). In 2018, the team managed to win the World Rally Championship earning Toyota their first manufacturers' title since 1999.

Personal life
Mäkinen was born in Puuppola, near Jyväskylä, Finland. From 1999, he has lived in both Jyväskylä and Monte Carlo, Monaco. He is married, with two children.

WRC victories

 * {|class="wikitable"

! Number ! Event ! Season ! Co-driver ! Car
 * 1
 * 🇫🇮 44th 1000 Lakes Rally
 * 1994
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Ford Escort RS Cosworth
 * 2
 * 🇸🇪 45th International Swedish Rally
 * 1996
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 3
 * 3
 * 🇰🇪 44th Safari Rally Kenya
 * 1996
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 3
 * 4
 * 🇦🇷 16º Rally Argentina
 * 1996
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 3
 * 5
 * 🇫🇮 46th Neste 1000 Lakes Rally
 * 1996
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 3
 * 6
 * 🇦🇺 9th API Rally Australia
 * 1996
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 3
 * 7
 * 🇵🇹 30º TAP Rallye de Portugal
 * 1997
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 4
 * 8
 * 🇪🇸 33º Rallye Catalunya-Costa Brava (Rallye de España)
 * 1997
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 4
 * 9
 * 🇦🇷 17º Rally Argentina
 * 1997
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 4
 * 10
 * 🇫🇮 47th Neste Rally Finland
 * 1997
 * Seppo Harjanne
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 4
 * 11
 * 🇸🇪 47th International Swedish Rally
 * 1998
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 4
 * 12
 * 🇦🇷 18º Rally Argentina
 * 1998
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 5
 * 13
 * 🇫🇮 48th Neste Rally Finland
 * 1998
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 5
 * 14
 * 🇮🇹 40º Rallye Sanremo - Rallye d'Italia
 * 1998
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 5
 * 15
 * 🇦🇺 11th API Rally Australia
 * 1998
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 5
 * 16
 * 🇲🇨 67ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 1999
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6
 * 17
 * 🇸🇪 48th International Swedish Rally
 * 1999
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6
 * 18
 * 🇳🇿 29th Rally New Zealand
 * 1999
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6
 * 19
 * 🇮🇹 41º Rallye Sanremo - Rallye d'Italia
 * 1999
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6
 * 20
 * 🇲🇨 68ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 2000
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6
 * 21
 * 🇲🇨 69ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 22
 * 🇵🇹 35º TAP Rallye de Portugal
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 23
 * 🇰🇪 49th Safari Rally Kenya
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 24
 * 🇲🇨 70ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 2002
 * Kaj Lindström
 * Subaru Impreza WRC2001
 * }
 * 21
 * 🇲🇨 69ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 22
 * 🇵🇹 35º TAP Rallye de Portugal
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 23
 * 🇰🇪 49th Safari Rally Kenya
 * 2001
 * Risto Mannisenmäki
 * Mitsubishi Lancer Evo 6.5
 * 24
 * 🇲🇨 70ème Rallye Automobile de Monte-Carlo
 * 2002
 * Kaj Lindström
 * Subaru Impreza WRC2001
 * }
 * Kaj Lindström
 * Subaru Impreza WRC2001
 * }

title: Tommi Mäkinen