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Henley Royal Regatta

Henley Royal Regatta (or Henley Regatta, its original name pre-dating Royal patronage) is a rowing event held annually on the River Thames by the town of Henley-on-Thames, England. It was established on 26 March 1839. It differs from the three other regattas rowed over approximately the same course, Henley Women's Regatta, Henley Masters Regatta, and Henley Town and Visitors' Regatta, each of which is an entirely separate event.

The regatta lasts for six days (Tuesday to Sunday) ending on the first weekend in July. Races are head-to-head knock out competitions, raced over a course of 1 mi. The regatta regularly attracts international crews to race. The most prestigious event at the regatta is the Grand Challenge Cup for Men's Eights, which has been awarded since the regatta was first staged.

As the regatta pre-dates any national or international rowing organisation, it has its own rules and organisation, although it is recognised by both British Rowing (the governing body of rowing in England and Wales) and FISA (the International Federation of Rowing Associations). The regatta is organised by a self-perpetuating body of Stewards, who are largely former rowers themselves. One exception to this rule is that the Mayor of Henley-on Thames Council is an ex-officio Steward. Pierre de Coubertin modelled elements of the organisation of the International Olympic Committee on the Henley Stewards.

The regatta is regarded as part of the English social season. As with other events in the season, certain enclosures at the regatta have strict dress codes.

Qualifying
Entries for the regatta close at 6 pm sixteen days before the Regatta. In order to encourage a high quality of racing, create a manageable race timetable and to ensure that most crews race only once a day, each event has a limited number of places. Qualifying races are held on the Friday before the regatta. The regatta's Committee of Management decides at its absolute discretion which crews are obliged to qualify; the Committee will examine the form and calibre of the entrants and may choose to pre-qualify some of them.

The qualifying races take the form of a timed processional race up the regatta course, with the fastest crews qualifying. Times are released for non-qualifying crews only. This does not stop an enthusiastic band of unofficial timers with synchronised watches working out how fast their first round opposition might be.

If it is apparent that there are a number of outstanding crews in an event, they may be 'selected' by the Stewards, to prevent them from meeting too early in the competition. The regatta insists that selection is not the same as seeding, the main difference being that there is no 'rank order' as is usually the case in, for example, a tennis tournament.

The draw
The draw is a public event that takes place in the Henley Town Hall, normally at 3 pm on the Saturday before the regatta. For each event the names of all selected crews are placed on pieces of paper which are then drawn at random from the Grand Challenge Cup. These crews are then placed on pre-determined positions on the draw chart, as far apart as possible. The remaining qualifying crews are then drawn from the cup, filling in from the top of the draw chart downwards, until all places have been filled.

Racing

Each event in the regatta takes the form of a knockout competition, with each race consisting of two crews racing side by side up the Henley course. The course is marked out by two lines of booms (wooden bars which float on the water, secured between vertical poles), which are placed along the river to form a straight course 2,112 metres long. The course is wide enough to allow two crews to race down with a few metres between them. As such it is not uncommon for inexperienced steersmen or coxswains to crash into the booms, possibly costing their crew the race.

The race begins at the downstream end of Temple Island, where the crews attach to a pair of pontoons. The race umpire will then call out the names of the two crews and start them when they are both straight and ready. Each crew is assigned to row on either the 'Bucks' (Buckinghamshire) or 'Berks' (Berkshire) side of the race course. The coxswains or steersmen are expected to keep their crew on the allocated side of the course at all times during the race, else they risk disqualification. The only exception is when a crew leads by a sizeable margin and is not deemed by the umpire to be impeding the trailing crew.

There are several progress markers along the course. Intermediate times are recorded at two of them – "the Barrier" and "Fawley", in addition to the time to the finish. The regatta has official commentary, which is announced at these points along the course. The commentary is renowned for being unemotional and factual, with the commentator only allowed to announce the rate of striking, which crew is leading, the distance between the crews, and the progress marker which the crews are passing.

The course
Henley Royal Regatta has always been raced over a distance of ‘about one mile and 550 yards’ from Temple Island upstream towards Henley Bridge. However, four distinct courses have been used over the regatta's history, with smaller changes also being made incrementally. Changes to the course have all been aimed at improving the prospects for fair and safe racing.

The Old Course (1839–1885)

This ran from a point just upstream of Temple Island. At the first regatta in 1839, the finish line was Henley Bridge itself, but it was presumably quickly realised that this had inherent problems. From 1840 onward the finish was moved downstream slightly; eventually a point opposite the lawn of the Red Lion Hotel became the standard finish line. A grandstand was erected for the Stewards and their guests outside the Red Lion. Other spectators could watch from the adjacent roadway (in front of the Little White Hart Hotel) while those with carriages surveyed the scene from a vantage point on Henley Bridge. There were three racing stations (Berkshire, Centre and Buckinghamshire). When only two crews raced, the Centre Station was not used.

The Old Course had a large lefthand bend in the last quarter-mile. This benefited the crew on the Berkshire side of the course not only because they raced a shorter distance but also because they avoided the worst of the river's current. Between 1866 and 1885, 57.7% all races were won by the crew on the Berkshire station, with the Buckinghamshire and Centre crews sharing 42.3%. The course was not boomed or piled, although between 1871 and 1873, poles were roped across the bay on the Berkshire side upstream of Poplar Point, in an attempt to minimise the advantage given to the crew on the Berkshire station.

The New Course (1886–1922)

In 1884, a sub-committee of the regatta's Committee of Management discussed options for reducing the unfairness of the course. Their recommendation was to move the finish line downstream to Poplar Point (thus avoiding the bend) and the start to the bottom of Temple Island. This was not popular with spectators as it made previous viewing points obsolete. The sub-committee also recommending reducing the racing lanes from three to two and extending racing from two days to three. The Committee gained support from the Captains of competing Clubs and the changes were introduced for the 1886 Regatta.

The New Course started just downstream of Temple Island, on the Buckinghamshire side and finished opposite the upstream end of Phyllis Court, very close to the current finish line. There were two slight bends (at Remenham and just after Fawley) and a staggered start to compensate for them. The course was also piled for the first time, although not boomed. Unfortunately, it became apparent that in trying to eliminate the unfairness of the Old Course, a new problem had been introduced. Downstream of Fawley, bushes grew alongside the Buckinghamshire bank and provided shelter from the prevailing wind. The course now ran close to this bank and crew on the Buckinghamshire station gained the advantage of shelter whenever a ‘Bushes Wind’ was blowing. From 1886 to 1905, Bucks took 59% of wins against 41% on Berks.

To attempt to reduce the effect of the Bushes Wind, the course was narrowed and pushed further to the centre of the river. The width was 135 feet in 1887, in 120 feet in 1888 and then progressively until by 1914 it was down to 100 feet at the start tapering to 80 feet at the finish. In 1899, floating booms secured between the pilings which mark the course were also introduced along part of its length in an attempt to keep spectators from obstructing races.

The Experimental Course (1923) and the Straight Course (1924 onwards)
In around 1920, the Stewards carried out a survey canvassing the idea of a moving the start of the course to the Berkshire side of Temple Island. At the time this channel was a winding, shallow backwater and it would clearly not be possible to lay a course of the full Henley distance without significant alteration to the bank, the island and the riverbed.

For the 1923 regatta, the Stewards therefore decided to try a shorter experimental straight course which started at the top of the island. This produced 53.2% wins on Bucks and 46.8% on Berks, deemed enough of an improvement on the New Course to justify a permanent change. The consent of the landowners of the Berkshire bank and Temple island (Lord Hambleden and W.D. Mackenzie respectively) was obtained to widen and deepen the Berkshire channel; 10000 cuyd of material were excavated. The Straight Course was now ready for use.

The Straight Course runs from the upstream end of Temple Island to a point opposite the upstream end of the Phyllis Court. It is 80 ft wide. The Straight Course has generally addressed the problems of unfairness: for example, between 1975 and 1984, 50.52% of races were won on Bucks and 49.31% on Berks (with the remainder dead heats). However, when a strong stream is flowing, the Berks station enjoys considerable shelter from the stream, particularly in the last ¼ mile. Conversely, when there is a strong south-westerly wind it is better to be on the Bucks station because it is more sheltered from the wind. The course is now piled and boomed along its entire length, except for crossing points. The booms can present a hazard for the inexperienced coxswain or steersman.

Precise length of the course
When the start and finish positions of the Old Course had become established, the distance between them was found to be 1 mile 570 yds (2,131 metres). However, boats were aligned by their sterns at the start and judged by their bows at the finish. This meant that the course was slightly longer for shorter boats (such as single sculls) than for longer boats (such as eights). The length of an eight was assumed to be twenty yards and as such the course came to be described as "about 1 mile and 550 yards (2,112 metres)", which was the distance covered by an eight.

In 1967 the start of the Straight Course was relocated exactly 1 mile 550 yd from the finish. In the same year, moving pontoons were introduced at the start which allowed all boats, from singles to eights, to be aligned with their bows precisely on the start line. Since then all crews have raced a course of exactly one mile and 550 yards (2,112 metres).

Safety
During the whole regatta, during racing hours there are numerous safety boats provided by the Colwick Park Lifeguards to keep competitors safe. The regatta organisers arrange for a first aid provider to be present, who have an on site hospital-style area.

History
At a public meeting in Henley town hall on 26 March 1839, Captain Edmund Gardiner proposed "that from the lively interest which had been manifested at the various boat races which have taken place on the Henley reach during the last few years, and the great influx of visitors on such occasions, this meeting is of the opinion that the establishing of an annual regatta, under judicious and respectable management, would not only be productive of the most beneficial results to the town of Henley, but from its peculiar attractions would also be a source of amusement and gratification to the neighbourhood, and the public in general."

The regatta was first staged in 1839, and proved so successful that it was expanded the next year from one day to two. As the regatta's popularity has grown it has further expanded: to three days in 1886, four days in 1906 and five days in 1986. The regatta has been known as Henley Royal Regatta since 1851, when Prince Albert became the first royal patron. Since his death, every reigning monarch has agreed to be the patron.

Amateurism
At the regatta's inception it was intended for amateur oarsmen rather than those who rowed professionally. In 1879 Henley produced its first formal definition of an amateur:

In 1884, amateur status for overseas oarsmen was put on the same basis as for home oarsmen, thus ending the concession on racing for money prizes. By 1886 a phrase had also been added debarring any person "engaged in any menial activity".

These rules would become the cause of growing controversy as international entries to Henley increased; most foreign countries having a different definition of amateur. The adoption of Henley's definition of amateur by the Amateur Rowing Association of Great Britain would also cause a 66-year schism in British rowing, when in 1890 a rival National Amateur Rowing Association was set up, with a less restrictive definition of amateurism under which persons who worked in manual labour as their occupation could still be considered amateur rowers.

One well-known incident was the exclusion of future Olympic champion John B. Kelly Sr., who had served an apprenticeship as a bricklayer, from the 1920 regatta. According to the minutes of the regatta's Committee of Management, Kelly was excluded both because he was not eligible under the manual labour rules and because he was a member of Vesper Boat Club, which was banned in 1906 because members of its 1905 Henley crew had raised money to pay for their trip through public donations – making them professionals in the eyes of the Henley Stewards.

Kelly's exclusion was widely reported in newspapers in both the UK and USA, with many seeing it as an attempt to prevent an American from winning the Diamonds. Kelly's son John B. Kelly Jr. would dramatically win the 1947 Diamond Sculls, and his daughter would become the famous Academy Award-winning actress and Princess of Monaco Grace Kelly, keeping the incident in the public eye for decades afterwards.

In 1936, there was a further controversy when the Australian national eight, preparing for the Berlin Olympics, was excluded from the Grand Challenge Cup because the crew was composed of policemen, deemed to be 'manual workers'. The resulting embarrassment persuaded the Amateur Rowing Association and the Stewards of Henley Royal Regatta of the need for change. On 9 June 1937, the offending references to manual labourers, mechanics, artisans and menial duties were deleted from the ARA rules; Henley's rules were changed the following day, coming into effect from the 1938 regatta.

In September 1997, FISA removed all references to amateurism in its rules and in December 1998 Henley followed suit. The regatta is therefore now entirely open.

International participation

The first ‘overseas’ entry to the regatta was in 1870 when Trinity College, Dublin entered the Grand, Ladies’, Visitors’ and Wyfold. As Dublin was at that time within the United Kingdom, this was not a foreign entry. TCD won the Visitors’ and reached the final of the Ladies’.

The first international competitors came in 1878 when G.W. Lee of New Jersey and G. Lee of Boston entered the Diamonds, Shoe-wae-cae-mette BC of Monroe, Michigan, a crew of French Canadian watermen, entered the Stewards’ and Columbia College entered the Stewards’ and Visitors’.

Lee of Boston made little progress but Lee of New Jersey lost his heat in a very close race against Tom Edwards-Moss, the eventual winner. Shoe-wae-cae-mette, rowing with then-unusual swivel rowlocks, reached the final of the Stewards’ but lost to London Rowing Club.

Columbia won the Visitors' Challenge Cup, becoming the first foreign winners of a Henley trophy.

Accusations that both G.W. Lee and the Shoe-wae-cae-mette crew were not amateurs, led to a new, tighter, definition of amateurism in 1879. Any entries from outside the United Kingdom had to be made on or before 1 March and had to be ‘accompanied by a declaration made before Notary Public with regard to the profession of each member of the crew’, which then had to be certified by the British Consul, the mayor, or the chief authority of the locality.

Under these new rules, Shoe-wae-cae-mette were refused entry in 1879 as were Hillsdale Boat Club of Michigan in 1882.

The Germania Ruder Club of Frankfurt became the first entry from continental Europe in 1880, losing in a heat of the Grand to London Rowing Club.

Foreign entries grew over the next twenty years, to the consternation of some who felt that the regatta should be restricted to domestic entries only. There were also a number of disputes over amateurism and the two issues were often bound up together, as in this letter to The Times from Edmond Warre, headmaster of Eton College in 1901:

W.H. Grenfell MP proposed a motion for a special meeting of the Stewards that:

He proposed amendments to the rules restricting entries to the United Kingdom, and for the Goblets and Diamonds to British subjects domiciled in the UK. Warre seconded his proposals. The Amateur Rowing Association canvassed its member clubs on the proposal and the results were decisive: all clubs opposed the proposals save for Oxford University Boat Club which supported them with the caveat ‘Committee decide against foreign entries provided they can row other than Henley’.

At a special general meeting of the Stewards late in 1901, a motion moved by Colonel Makins ‘that in the opinion of this meeting it is inexpedient that any alteration in the rules of the regatta be made at present’ was carried by 19 votes to 5.

In 1906, Royal Club Nautique de Gand of Belgium became the first foreign crew to win the Grand Challenge Cup. A different Ghent Club, Sport Nautique de Gand took the Grand in 1907.

In advance of 1908, with the Olympic Regatta to be held on the Henley course in mid-July, the Stewards announced a temporary rule change excluding overseas entries from the 1908 regatta (which would take place two weeks before the Olympics). This led to criticism of the Stewards in the British and American press, particularly since it would not permit the Belgians to defend the Grand. The Stewards pointed out in a letter to The Times that the decision had been taken before the 1907 regatta and after consultation with the Belgians. A letter from Oscar Gregoire, President of the Belgian Rowing Federation was quoted:

Overseas entries and wins at the regatta have continued to multiply. Since the 1960s, the open events in particular have almost exclusively become the province of national squad crews. Up to 2007, the Grand Challenge Cup had been won by overseas crews 46 times: 12 times by crews from Germany, 11 from the US, 9 from the USSR, 4 from Canada, 3 each from Belgium and Australia, 2 from the Netherlands, and 1 each from Switzerland, France, Bulgaria and Croatia.

Crews from the United States have also become frequent winners of the Ladies' Challenge Plate, Temple Challenge Cup and Princess Elizabeth Challenge Cup. In 1927, the Kent School Boat Club of Kent School in Connecticut was the first American secondary school to race at the Henley Royal Regatta.

Women
Women coxswains of male crews were permitted from 1975 and Christine Paul, cox of Furnivall Sculling Club in the Thames Challenge Cup, became the first female competitor in the regatta in that year.

There was much discussion about the introduction of events for women. The Stewards felt that they faced a dilemma: on the one hand it was argued that women's rowing would never flourish while there were no women's events at Britain's premier regatta; on the other it was clear that open women's events would be dominated by foreign competitors, while events closed to foreign competitors would not serve the desired purpose. Another difficulty was the length of the course. The standard distance for international women's races was at that time 1000 m. It was clear that races over the full Henley course (2112 m) would not be appealing to women's crews preparing for international championships.

Peter Coni, who was elected as Chairman of the regatta's Committee of Management in 1978, was the first to allow women to race in exhibition races in 1983. However he deemed the experiment a failure and women were excluded until 1996 from the regatta. His ban caused a furore but he asserted that what he called the "women's squealing" was "more noisy, stupid and harmful to their cause than anything I can think of."

In 1978 Kingston Rowing Club sent in an entry for the Double Sculls Challenge Cup in the names of A.Hohl and P.Bird. The crew was in fact Great Britain internationals Astrid Ayling and Pauline Hart, who had made the entry under their maiden names. The regatta realised the subterfuge and Coni made a statement to the press in which he said that it was "sad that a long-established club should think it reasonable behaviour to make a deliberately false declaration". He added that the stewards had no fear of the Sex Discrimination Act.

Exhibition races
In 1979, the Committee announced that there would be exhibition events for women in 1981, with entries by invitation only:

The entries were limited to four in each event (Coxed Fours and Double Sculls); two from abroad and two from the UK. The standard was good, but it was reckoned that the course from the Barrier start (over 600 m longer than the international standard 1000 m) contributed to there being no close verdicts.

In 1982, a Single Sculls Event was added and the start was moved to Fawley so that the course was closer to 1000 m. As the intermediate start installations were required for the shorter distance, the races had to take place during intervals in the normal racing programme (the lunch or tea breaks) which meant that only the dedicated stayed to watch. This was a pity, since the final of the Women's Invitation Single was a highlight of the regatta, with Beryl Mitchell of Thames Tradesmen's Rowing Club (World Silver medallist in 1981) beating Stephanie Foster of Waiariki Rowing Club, New Zealand (World Bronze medallist in 1982) by one length. Astrid Ayling was also able to race legitimately, winning the Invitation Double Sculls event with Rosie Clugston. The time taken to install the start equipment at Fawley combined with the relative lack of crowd interest meant that the Stewards took the decision not to repeat the experiment in 1983.

Introduction of current events

The change of the international distance to 2000 m and the addition of a fifth day to the regatta in 1986 allowed the Committee of Management to revisit the decision. In 1993 the regatta introduced an open Women's Single Sculls event and from 1993–96 this counted as a round of the FISA World Cup. The first winner was Maria Brandin of Sweden and she subsequently won a further four times. Fittingly, the prizegiver in 1993 was Peter Coni. In 1996, the Stewards purchased a silver cup as a challenge trophy and named it the Princess Royal Challenge Cup; it was presented for the first time in 1997.

An invitation event for women's eights was added in 1998. In 2000, this was replaced by an open women's eights event under the same rules as the Grand Challenge Cup. In 2002, the Remenham Challenge Cup was donated by Remenham Club as the trophy for this event. At the 2001 Regatta, an open event for Women's Quadruple Sculls was introduced. In 2003, this event became known as the Princess Grace Challenge Cup in memory of Princess Grace of Monaco. Her father, John B. Kelly Sr., had been controversially excluded from the Diamond Sculls in 1920 because of the regattas rules on amateurism; her brother, John B. Kelly Jr. had won the Diamonds Sculls in 1947 and in 1949. Princess Grace was the Regatta prizegiver in 1981.

At the Stewards' meeting in December 2016, it was agreed to equalise the number of events for Men and Women in the Open category, leading to the creation of three new events: the Women's Fours (Town Challenge Cup), the Women's Pairs (Hambleden Pairs Challenge Cup) and the Women's Double Sculls (Stonor Challenge Trophy). These were raced for the first time at the 2017 Regatta. In December 2019 the stewards announced the Island Challenge Cup (Student Womens Eight's). With a further two events for junior women's and club women's eights announced to run in the 2021 regatta.

1908 Olympic Regatta
Henley hosted the rowing events of the London Olympic Games in mid-July 1908, two weeks after the Royal Regatta. The course was extended 270 yd downstream and 60 yd upstream, making it 1 mi and 880 yd. Events for single sculls, coxless pairs, coxless fours and eights were offered but only the eights produced an international final.

1919 Peace Regatta
A meeting arranged by Leander Club in January 1919 concluded that it was too soon to revive the regatta but asked the Stewards to arrange a “Peace Regatta” and a four-day regatta was duly staged. Competition was not for the usual Henley trophies but for different cups and some events were restricted to ‘armed services’ crews. King George V presented a Cup to the victors of eight-oared event for servicemen crews. The Australian first AIF crew won the final against a crew of Oxford university alumni servicemen. In time, and in spite of dogged resistance from the Australian War Memorial, the Victorian Rowing Association petitioned the King to express his intention for the Cup, and at his command the King's Cup became the perennial trophy to be presented to the Australian winning state representative men's eight at the annual Australian Rowing Championships.

1945 Royal Henley Regatta
A two-day ‘Royal Henley Regatta’ (as opposed to Henley Royal Regatta) was staged between VE Day and VJ Day. Crews rowed three-abreast over a shortened course beginning at the Remenham Barrier. As in 1919, different trophies to the usual regatta prizes were on offer.

1948 Olympic Regatta
The canoeing and rowing events for the 1948 London Olympic Games were contested in early August, a month after the Royal Regatta. The course was widened to accommodate three lanes and shortened to start at the top of Temple Island: the distance was approximately 1980 metres – 20 metres short of the standard international distance. Twenty seven nations competed and events for single sculls, double sculls, coxless pairs, coxed pairs, coxless fours, coxed fours and eights were offered.

The Olympic races in 2012 were held at Dorney Lake.

Spectators

The racing can be viewed from a number of locations along both banks of the Thames. Areas open to the general public are generally on the Berkshire (towpath) side of the river. Viewing opportunities on the other side of the river (Buckinghamshire) side are limited to the Phyllis Court club, private residences and areas for corporate entertainment. A channel of the river remains open throughout the regatta, hence racing can also be viewed from boats although mooring is tightly restricted.

Stewards' Enclosure
The enclosure situated on the Berkshire side, adjacent to the last part of the course and the finish line. It comprises two covered grandstands, a restaurant marquee, several bars, a bandstand and so on – all set in immaculately prepared lawns. It is only open to the Stewards of the Regatta, members of the Stewards' Enclosure and their guests. Overseas competitors are also given the opportunity to purchase tickets.

The Stewards' Enclosure as understood today, an enclosure open to members (elected by the Committee of Management of the Regatta) and their guests, came into being in 1919 with a membership of 300. This grew to 704 in 1939 and 1,500 in 1956. In 1980 the Stewards set a ceiling of 5,000. The waiting list for membership of the Stewards Enclosure is now several years long, although preference is given to people who have previously competed at the regatta. The waiting list has grown rapidly since the 1970s, when membership could be applied for and granted on the same day.

The Stewards' Enclosure is also known for a strict enforcement of its dress code. Men are required to wear a "lounge suit, blazer and flannels, or evening dress, and a tie". In the past, women were required to wear a dress or skirt that covers their knees, and are "encouraged to wear a hat" (although women wearing hats is often frowned upon in higher rowing circles). Anyone not suitably dressed can be refused entry, no matter their prestige in rowing or elsewhere. Talking on mobile phones is also prohibited, though their use for emails, texts, and photography is allowed. In 2021, following a petition that gained over 1500 signatures, Henley Royal Regatta changed the 189 year old dress code in the Stewards' Enclosure to allow women to wear jackets or blazers with trousers, or trouser suits.

The regatta prizegiving takes place in the Stewards' Enclosure after the conclusion of racing on Sunday.

Regatta Enclosure
The Regatta Enclosure is situated immediately downstream of the Stewards Enclosure and further away from the finish. This enclosure is open to all on payment of the admission fee. Competitors gain free access to this area. There is no dress code.

Remenham Club
Remenham Club is situated a little over halfway along the course on the Berkshire side of the river. It is a social club run by and for members of seven rowing clubs on the Thames (the "Founding Clubs"): Kingston Rowing Club, London Rowing Club, Molesey Boat Club, Staines Boat Club, Thames Rowing Club, Twickenham Rowing Club and Vesta Rowing Club. Remenham Club is open only to its members and guests. It has a similar dresscode to the Stewards Enclosure, though the rules on women's outfits are less restrictive.

Upper Thames Rowing Club
The clubhouse and frontage of the Upper Thames Rowing Club is on the Berkshire side of the river, immediately downstream of Remenham Club. It has historically had an informal atmosphere and no dresscode. It is only open to its members and their guests. In 2011, UTRC initiated the Upper Thames Enclosure to include a fairly relaxed dress code. UTRC lease the land downstream of their clubhouse to retailers, food vendors and bars.

Remenham Farm
Remenham Farm spans the riverside on the Berkshire side of the Thames from opposite the Fawley box to a point just upstream of the Barrier (approximately the 1100 m – 700 m points on the regatta course). It is owned by The Copas Partnership.

During the Regatta it runs hospitality enclosures at The Temple Island Enclosure and The Courtyard Enclosure, and bars including the Barn Bar. Remenham Farm is open to the public and entrance fees apply for certain enclosures, boat moorings are also available.

Leander Club
The clubhouse and grounds of Leander Club is situated on the Berkshire side of the river beyond the finish line of the regatta course, between the boat tents and Henley Bridge. Leander Club has a large marquee constructed for the regatta week and holds a large function on the Saturday night of the Regatta. It is open only to its members and their guests and has a formal dress code.

Phyllis Court
The Phyllis Court Club is situated on the Buckinghamshire side of the river, opposite the finish line. It is open only to its members and their guests. Although it has an excellent view of the finish line, it is not generally frequented by rowers, being principally a lawn sports club.

Current events
The following events took place at the 2021 regatta:

 * Open Men
 * Grand Challenge Cup (8+)
 * Stewards' Challenge Cup (4-)
 * Queen Mother Challenge Cup (4x)
 * Silver Goblets & Nickalls' Challenge Cup (2-)
 * Double Sculls Challenge Cup (2x)
 * Diamond Challenge Sculls (1x)
 * Intermediate Men
 * Ladies' Challenge Plate (8+)
 * Visitors' Challenge Cup (4-)
 * Prince of Wales Challenge Cup (formerly the Men's Quadruple Sculls) (4x)
 * Club Men
 * Thames Challenge Cup (8+)
 * Wyfold Challenge Cup (4-)
 * Britannia Challenge Cup (formerly the Henley Prize) (4+)
 * Student Men
 * Temple Challenge Cup (formerly the Henley Prize) (8+)
 * Prince Albert Challenge Cup (formerly the Men's Student Coxed Fours) (4+)
 * Junior Men
 * Princess Elizabeth Challenge Cup (8+)
 * Fawley Challenge Cup (4x)
 * Open Women
 * Remenham Challenge Cup (formerly the Henley Prize) (8+)
 * Princess Grace Challenge Cup (formerly the Women's Quadruple Sculls) (4x)
 * Princess Royal Challenge Cup (1x)
 * Town Challenge Cup (formerly the Women's Fours) (4-)
 * Hambleden Pairs Challenge Cup (formerly the Women's Pairs) (2-)
 * Stonor Challenge Trophy (formerly the Women's Double Sculls) (2x)
 * Club Women
 * Wargrave Challenge Cup (8+)
 * Student Women
 * Island Challenge Cup (8+)
 * Junior Women
 * Prince Philip Challenge Trophy (8+)
 * Diamond Jubilee Challenge Cup (formerly the Junior Women's Quadruple Sculls) (4x)

Discontinued events

 * The Town Challenge Cup (men), 1839–1883 (4+)
 * The District Challenge Cup for Fours, 1840–1847 (4+)
 * The Silver Wherry for local amateur scullers, 1846–1857 (1x)
 * The District Goblets for Pair Oars, 1858–1867 (2-)
 * The Presentation Cup for Fours Without Coxswain, 1869–1872 (4-)
 * The Public Schools Challenge Cup for Fours, 1879–1884 (4+)
 * The Special Race for Schools, 1974–1989 (8+)
 * The Prince Philip Challenge Cup, 1963–2003 (4+)
 * The Women's Invitation Coxed Fours, 1981–1982 (4+)
 * The Women's Invitation Double Sculls, 1981–1982 (2x)
 * The Women's Invitation Single Sculls, 1982 (1x)
 * The Women's Invitation Eights, 1998–1999 (8+)

title: Henley Royal Regatta


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Yaranga

A Yaranga (Chukchi: Яраӈы, Yarangy ) is a tent-like traditional mobile home of some nomadic Northern indigenous peoples of Russia, such as Chukchi and Siberian Yupik.

A Yaranga is a cone-shaped or rounded reindeer-hide tent. It is built of a light wooden frame covered with reindeer skins or canvas sewn together.

The word yaranga comes from the Chukchi word for house: jaraŋə (Cyrillic: яраӈы). In Russian use, the terms chum, yurt and yaranga may be used interchangeably.

Chauchu Chukchi
It is built of a light wooden frame covered with reindeer skins sewn together. A medium-size yaranga requires about 50 skins.

A large yaranga is hard to completely heat up. There is a smaller cabin called a polog built inside it, that can be kept warm and cozy.

Siberian Yupik and Anqallyt Chukchi
The most numerous of the Siberian Yupik peoples, the Chaplino Eskimos (Ungazigmit) had a round, dome-shaped building for winter. Literature refers to it as a "yaranga", the same term which the Chukchi people use, but the term used in the Chaplino Eskimos' language is mengteghaq (, extended Cyrillic: мыӈтыӷаӄ). Its framework was made of posts. Tarpaulins were used for covering the framework. The yaranga was surrounded by sod or planking around the base. There was a smaller cabin within the yaranga at the rear, used for sleeping and living. It was separated from the outer, cooler parts of the yaranga with haired reindeer skins and grass, supported by a cage-like framework. In the language of Chaplino Eskimos, it was called, a word borrowed from the Chukchi language. Household duties were done in the larger outer room of the yaranga in front of this inner building. In winter storms, and also at night, the dogs were there. This room for economical purposes was called.

There were also other types of buildings among Chaplino Eskimos: was a modernized type, and  was used for summer.

Cyrillic

 * The transliteration of author's name, and the rendering of title in English:

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Yaranga


text:
Golden lion tamarin

The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia; mico-leão-dourado ), also known as the golden marmoset, is a small New World monkey of the family Callitrichidae. Endemic to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, the golden lion tamarin is an endangered species. The range for wild individuals is spread across four places along southeastern Brazil, with a recent census estimating 3,200 individuals left in the wild and a captive population maintaining about 490 individuals among 150 zoos.

Physical characteristics
The golden lion tamarin gets its name from its bright reddish orange pelage and the extra long hairs around the face and ears which give it a distinctive mane. Its face is dark and hairless. The bright orange fur of this species does not contain carotenoids, which commonly produce bright orange colors in nature. The golden lion tamarin is the largest of the callitrichines. It is typically around 261 mm and weighs around 620 g. There is almost no size difference between males and females. As with all callitrichines, the golden lion tamarin has claw-like nails, instead of the flat nails found in other monkeys and apes, although callitrichines do have a flat nail on the big toe. Tegulae enable tamarins to cling to the sides of tree trunks. It may also move quadrupedally along the small branches, whether through walking, running, leaping or bounding. This gives it a locomotion more similar to squirrels than primates.

Habitat and distribution
The Golden Lion Tamarin has a very limited distribution range, as over time they have lost all but 2%–5% of their original habitat in Brazil rain forest. Today, this tamarin is confined to three small areas of the tropical rain forest in southeastern Brazil: Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, Fazenda União Biological Reserve, and private land through the Reintroduction Program. The first population estimate made in 1972 approximated the count at between 400 and 500. By 1981 the population was reduced to less than 200. Surveys from as recently as 1995 suggested that there may have been at most only 400 golden lion tamarins left in the wild; but the population has since recovered to some 3200 in the wild. Tamarins live along the far southeast border of the country in the municipalities of Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Araruama. However, they have been successfully reintroduced to the municipalities of Rio das Ostras, Rio Bonito, and Casimiro de Abreu. Tamarins live in coastal lowland forests less than 300 m (984 ft) above sea level. They can be found in hilltop forests and swamp forests.

Behaviour and ecology
The golden lion tamarin is active for a maximum of 12 hours daily. It uses different sleeping dens each day. By frequently moving their sleeping nests around, groups minimize the scent left behind, reducing the likelihood of predators finding them. The first activities of the day are traveling and feeding on fruits. As the afternoon nears, tamarins focus more on insects. By late afternoon, they move to their night dens. Tamarin groups use hollow tree cavities, dense vines or epiphytes as sleeping sites. Sites that are between 11 and 15 m off the ground are preferred. The golden lion tamarin tends to be active earlier and retire later in the warmer, wetter times of the year as the days are longer. During drier times, it forages for insects longer as they become scarcer.

Golden lion tamarins are characterized by using manipulative foraging under tree barks and epiphytic bromeliads. Their sites of foraging are usually distributed around their home ranges, which are large territories (averaging 123 hectares) in which multiple foraging sites are located, to find sufficient resources over long periods of time. These areas are sufficient in size that even if there is overlap between the home range of two different groups, the interactions are minimal due to the distribution of the foraging sites (they spend 50% of their time in approximately 11% of their home range).

The golden lion tamarin has a diverse, omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, flowers, nectar, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates. They rely on microhabitats for foraging and other daily activities and tamarins will use bromeliads, palm crowns, palm leaf sheaths, woody crevices, lianas, vine tangles, tree bark, rotten logs, and leaf litters. The golden lion tamarin uses its fingers to extract prey from crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth; a behavior known as micromanipulation. It is made possible by elongated hands and fingers. Insects make up to 10–15% of its diet. Much of the rest is made of small, sweet, pulpy fruits. During the rainy season, the golden lion tamarin mainly eats fruit; however, during drier times, it must eat more of other foods like nectar and gums. Small vertebrates are also consumed more at these times as insects become less abundant.

Social structure
Golden lion tamarins are social and groups typically consist of 2-8 members. These groups usually consist of one breeding adult male and female but may also have 2–3 males and one female or the reverse. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of either sex. These individuals are typically the offspring of the adults. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depends on longevity in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however females may replace their mothers as the breeding adult, if they die, which will lead to the dispersal of the breeding male who is likely her father. This does not happen with males and their fathers. Dispersing males join groups with other males and remain in them until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. The vast majority of recruits to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. Males may also aggressively displace resident males from their group; this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers. When this happens, only one of the new males will be able to breed and will suppress the reproduction of the other. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries and resources from other groups.

Tamarins emit "whine" and "peep" calls, which are associated with alarm and alliances respectively. "Clucks" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether directed at conspecifics or predators. "Trills" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individual's position. "Rasps" or "screeches" are usually associated with playful behavior. Tamarins communicate through chemicals marked throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females scent mark the most and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to show their social status and may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males.

Reproduction
The mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Reproduction is seasonal and depends on rainfall. Mating is at its highest at the end of the rainy season between late March to mid-June and births peak during the September–February rains. Females are sexually mature between the ages of 15–20 months but it is not until they are 30 months old that they can reproduce. Only dominant females can reproduce and will suppress the reproduction of the other females in the group. Males may reach puberty by 28 months. Tamarins have a four-month gestation period. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. This is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and, to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping to rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are completely dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infants spend less time on their mother's back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will socialize other group members. The sub-adult phase is reached at 14 months, when a tamarin first displays adult behaviors.

Ecosystem roles
The golden lion tamarin has a mutualistic interaction with 96 species of plants found in the Atlantic Forest. This interaction is based on seed dispersal and food sources for the tamarins. The tamarins show repeat visits to those plants with abundant resources. They tend to move around their territories, and therefore, seeds are dispersed to areas far from the parent shadow, which is ideal for germination. Their seed distribution is important to forest regeneration, and genetic variability and survival of endangered plant species.

Predation
A study has shown that increased predation has caused significant decreases in the population numbers. A survey conducted in 1992 found the number of wild population of golden lion tamarins to be 562 individuals in 109 groups. Currently, the average group size includes 3.6 to 5.7 individuals and densities from 0.39 groups/km to 2.35 groups/km. These predatory attacks occur at the golden lion tamarin sleeping sites. The predators make those sleeping sites, which are mainly tree holes (about 63.6%), larger in order to attack the golden lion tamarins, sometimes wiping out the entire family. The preferred sleeping sites of most golden lion tamarins are tree holes in living trees next to other larger trees with a small percentage of canopy cover. These sleeping sites not only provide a place for sleep, but also offer protection and easy access to foraging sites. Most of the tree holes are lower to the ground, so they are easier to enter. Tree holes that are located in living trees are drier, warmer, and have a lower number of insects and therefore a decreased percentage of transmitted diseases. A smaller percentage of canopy coverage allows the golden lion tamarins to detect the predators faster, and being surrounded by other large trees allows them access to escape routes. Due to degradation of their habitats, there are fewer trees that can support entire social groups and some have to resort to using bamboo (17.5%), vine tangles (9.6%), and bromeliads (4.7%) as a sleeping site, making them more susceptible to predators. Golden lion tamarins are known to use different den sites, but do not change sites often. They are more likely to reuse secure sites that will offer protection. However, the disadvantage of doing so is that predators are able to learn where these sites are located. Golden lion tamarins also scent mark their den holes, so they can quickly return to them in the afternoon time when predators are most active. While excessive scent makes it easier for golden lion tamarins to find their sleeping sites, it also helps predators locate their prey. Moreover, increased deforestation has decreased habitat space, providing predators easy access to their prey, causing a decline in the golden lion tamarin population.

Conservation
Threats to the golden lion tamarin population include illegal logging, poaching, mining, urbanization, deforestation, pet trading, and infrastructure development and the introduction of alien species. In 1969, the number of individuals in the Atlantic Forest was found to have dropped to a low of 150 individuals. In 1975 the golden lion tamarin was listed under Appendix I of CITES, given to animals threatened with extinction that may be or are being affected by trade. The species was listed as Endangered by the IUCN in 1982, and by 1984 the National Zoological Park in Washington, D.C. and the World Wide Fund for Nature, through the Golden Lion Tamarin Association, began a reintroduction programme from 140 zoos worldwide. Despite the success of the project, the IUCN classification rose to Critically Endangered in 1996. By 2003 the successful establishment of a new population at União Biological Reserve enabled downgrading the species to endangered, but the IUCN warns that extreme habitat fragmentation from deforestation means the wild population has little potential for any further expansion. In an attempt to curb the golden lion tamarin's precipitous decline, several conservation programs have been undertaken. The intent is to strengthen the wild population and maintain a secure captive population in zoos worldwide. The survival rate of re-introduced animals has been encouraging, but destruction of unprotected habitat continues.

Reintroduction
Because of the extensive habitat loss of the golden lion tamarin, the wild population reached endangered status in the early 1980s. Beginning in 1983, there has been a huge effort on behalf of scientists and conservationists to introduce captive-born golden lion tamarins back into the wild. With the help of the Brazilian government, conservationists established the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve and the União Biological Reserve as sites for reintroduction. The goals of the reintroduction process include increasing the size as well as the genetic diversity of the wild population, increasing the available range to better encompass the historic range of the tamarins in Brazil, and widening the scope of public awareness and education programs.

The first step of reintroduction begins with zoo free ranging programs, where tamarins have access to explore the entire zoo. However, they are kept on zoo grounds by the presence of a nest box, an ice box like container where their food is kept. When the tamarins are reintroduced in Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, they require a large amount of post-release training and veterinary care. For the first 6–18 months the reintroduced groups are monitored. Additionally, 1-2 tamarins from each group are radio collared to allow careful monitoring, and all reintroduced tamarins are tattooed and dye marked for easy identification.

Translocation
Secondly, in an effort to save the golden lion tamarins from extinction, some of the golden lion tamarins have been removed from small, isolated unsafe forests and placed into a larger, protected forest; specifically they were moved to União Biological Reserve and Poço das Antas reserve. This effort to move the golden lion tamarins into União Biological Reserve in Brazil began in 1991. The golden lion tamarins faced the potential of getting new diseases that they had not been previously exposed to. Many were exposed to callitrichid hepatitis, and contracted the disease.

Despite the challenge of illness, the forty-two translocated golden lion tamarins' population grew to over 200 in União Biological Reserve. The number of wild golden lion tamarins is now up in the thousands in all reserves and ranches combined in Brazil. These numbers were once down in the 200s in 1991. By 2025, the number of golden lion tamarins that are protected is projected to be greater than 2000.

Effects of habitat loss
Golden lion tamarins are native to the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Their original habitat was located from the southern part of the state of Rio de Janeiro to the southern part of the state of Espirito Santo. However, deforestation of Atlantic Forest for commercial purposes, predation, and capture of the golden lion tamarins for animal trade and sale as pets has limited their population to about five municipalities across Rio de Janeiro. Most of the population is now found in the Poco des Antas Biological Reserve in Rio de Janeiro.

However, due to the deforestation and fragmentation of the Atlantic forest, their home ranges have decreased in size. The decrease in size has been reported in terms of fragmentation, and today the forest consists of thousands of fragments equaling only 8% of its former size. This directly affects their areas of foraging and subsequently, the amount of resources available.

Effect on juvenile behavior
The habitat of the tamarins also affects their behavior and social interactions. For example, the type of trees present has a significant effect on the behavior of juvenile golden lion tamarins. Their juvenile behavior is characterized by social play between individuals of different ages and species. This is a key aspect of their social, cognitive and motor skill development, and it influences their behavior when facing competition and predators; how they play mirrors the way they act when facing predatory or competitive interactions. Social play is observed more in large branches (>10 cm) and vine tangles (4m above ground), which is considered safe for them, as they are less vulnerable to predators, compared to play in the dangerous areas including canopy branches and the forest floor. Therefore, deforestation affects the diversity in the forest and decreases the "safe" areas for play for the juvenile tamarins. As a result, play decreases and therefore the development of learned survivorship behaviors does as well. Also, if play is observed in the dangerous areas, the individuals are more exposed to predators, leading to a population decline; which resembles the effect of predation on their sleeping sites. The exposure to predation not only affects the juvenile tamarins but the adults as well, since it has been observed that play happens in the center of the group for protection of the young.

Increase in inbreeding
Additionally, this deforestation and fragmentation also leads to demographic instabilities, and an increased probability of inbreeding, consequently leading to inbreeding depression and a population decline. In the case of inbreeding, the problem lies in the increase of the isolated fragments where golden lion tamarins live. Inbreeding leads to low levels of genetic diversity and has a negative effect on survivorship; inbred offspring have a lower survivorship than non-inbred offspring. Fragmentation leads to a decline in dispersal and as a result, a decline in breeding with individuals of other groups. Consequently, inbreeding depression is observed in these populations. With delay breeding, the decrease and shortage of territory puts pressure on golden lion tamarins to disperse in order to find necessary resources and areas suitable for their survival. However, dispersal is risky and requires a lot of energy that could have been used for reproduction instead.

Yellow fever epidemic
A 2016-2018 yellow fever epidemic in southeastern Brazil had a significant impact on the golden lion tamarin population, reducing it by 32% to approximately 2,516 individuals. The tamarin population faced increased losses in forest areas that were of a larger size, with fewer edge zones and greater connectivity, all of which could create conditions conducive to the presence and spread of mosquitoes that transmit yellow fever. The impact of the outbreak was particularly devastating within the Poço das Antas Biological Reserve, with the population of around 400 tamarins dropping to only 32. The cause of this decline was attributed to human activities, such as the expansion of the BR-101 highway, which brings a constant flow of traffic into the area. Researchers noted that the rapid spread of the disease across Brazil, from north to south, was due to human mobility, as infected people carried the virus with them.

In response to the epidemic, Brazilian scientists created a customized yellow fever vaccine specifically for golden lion tamarins. The vaccine campaign started in 2021 and had vaccinated over 300 tamarins by February 2023, with no reported adverse effects. The efficacy of the vaccine is similar to human vaccines, with 90-95% of retested monkeys showing immunity. By February 2023, the yellow fever outbreak had subsided, and the tamarin population had stabilized.

title: Golden lion tamarin