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Napoleonic medal

Napoleonic medals are medals including those struck by the Paris Medal Mint celebrating the accomplishments of Napoleon I of France. The exact number of these medals is not precisely known since the official records of Napoleon's reign, including the list of medals struck by the mint, were erased by King Louis XVIII. Counting medals struck in England and Italy, the total number of different medals exceeds 2,000.

The sizes of these medals vary, although most are approximately 40mm in diameter. Many were struck in copper, although silver and gold were also used. The copper medals have a patina applied, which protects the copper from eroding and makes the medal look like bronze. A single copy of most of the medals was struck in gold for Napoleon's personal collection. Many of these gold medals were sold at auction from the personal collection of Victor Bonaparte.

The most definitive catalog of Napoleonic medals was created by a collector named Bramsen in three volumes published between 1904 and 1913. This catalog identifies more than 2300 medals, including medals struck by the Paris Mint and as well as medals from other countries related to Napoleon or his reign. The most common type, known as the St. Helena Medal, was issued to French grognards who rallied to Napoleon's cause during the Hundred Days.

There are at least 26 known volumes of The Napoleon Medals by Edward Edwards. Most copies are in Museums but some are held in private hands. It is a complete series of the medals struck in France, Italy, Great Britain and Germany, from the commencement of the French Republic in 1804 to the restoration in 1815. The books were printed in (M.DCCC.XXXV11) (1837) by Henry Hering, London.

Many of the medals struck during Napoleon's reign were restruck later from the same dies. Determining when a given medal was struck is sometimes difficult. Restrikes can often be identified by a punch mark applied to the edge of the medal, which is usually denoted by the word 'BRONZE'.

title: Napoleonic medal


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Spirella

The name Spirella refers to the Spirella Stay which was invented by Marcus Merritt Beeman in the US in 1904 and made from tightly twisted and flattened coils of wire. The founders were Beeman, William Wallace Kincaid and Jesse Homan Pardee.

Origins
The Spirella name was used by the Spirella Corset Company Inc that was founded in 1904 in Meadville, Pennsylvania, USA. It was founded on a patent of dressbone, for bustles, but started corset manufacture in 1904. The company manufactured made-to-measure corsets. Benefits for the company's employees included travel, education and health care.

United Kingdom
The UK subsidiary was The Spirella Company of Great Britain. Spirella co-founder and entrepreneur William Wallace Kincaid commissioned the architect Cecil Hignett to design a state-of-the art factory of architectural beauty. The design included embellishments in Arts & Crafts styling. This factory, the Spirella Building, was built and expanded in stages between 1912 and 1920. During World War II, the Irvin Airchute Company expanded its production of parachutes into the Spirella Building and women working for the British Tabulating Machine Company secretly produced components for the decoding machines called Bombes. The company's most popular corset was the Model 305. Spirella products were not sold in shops. Instead, female staff called corsetiers (or corsetières) were sent to customers' homes. After an ill-fated attempt to market garments of "Stub-tex", a form of Gore-Tex being used under licence from W. L. Gore & Associates, the company was sold in 1985 to the rival Spencers of Banbury and finally closed in July 1989. The Spirella Building was designed to provide workers with a highly productive and pleasant environment that focused on the comfort of factory employees. Referred to as the "factory of beauty", it offered a wide array of employee amenities including "baths, showers, gymnastics classes, a library, free eye tests and bicycle repairs". In 1979 it was Grade II* listed. The Letchworth Garden City Foundation bought the neglected building in 1995, restored the interior and re-opened it for leased office accommodation. It currently houses over twenty businesses.

Locations
At its height the company had factories in the USA (Meadville, Pennsylvania, New Haven, Connecticut, and Lincoln Nebraska ), in Canada (in 1910), in the UK (in 1910; from 1912 in the Spirella Building in Letchworth) and in Sweden (Malmö) in 1920 and Niagara Falls NY (in 1917). Their flagship location was Spirella House on Oxford Circus, London. A factory built in 1910 in Niagara falls, Ontario, eventually became the premises of the Bird Kingdom Tropical Adventure.

Archival Collections
A number of organisations have collected archival examples of documents and objects related to the Spirella Factory. The Garden City Collection in Letchworth includes over forty objects and documents in its collection. Additionally, collections are maintained by Hertfordshire's Community Archives Network. Archival examples include: the Castle Corset cartoon and an advertisement for the Spirella War Savings Association.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Spirella


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Joe Henderson

Joe Henderson (April 24, 1937 – June 30, 2001) was an American jazz tenor saxophonist. In a career spanning more than four decades, Henderson played with many of the leading American players of his day and recorded for several prominent labels, including Blue Note, Milestone, and Verve.

Early life
Born in Lima, Ohio, Henderson was one of 14 children. He was encouraged by his parents, Dennis and Irene (née Farley) and older brother James T. to study music. He dedicated his first album to them "for being so understanding and tolerant" during his formative years. Early musical interests included drums, piano, saxophone and composition. According to trumpeter Kenny Dorham, two local piano teachers who went to school with Henderson's brothers and sisters, Richard Patterson and Don Hurless, gave him a knowledge of the piano. He was particularly enamored of his brother's record collection.

A hometown drummer, John Jarette, advised Henderson to listen to musicians like Lester Young, Stan Getz, Dexter Gordon and Charlie Parker. He also liked Flip Phillips, Lee Konitz and the Jazz at the Philharmonic recordings. However, Parker became his greatest inspiration. Henderson's first approach to the saxophone was under the tutelage of Herbert Murphy in high school. During this time, he wrote several scores for the school band.

By age 18, Henderson was active on the Detroit jazz scene of the mid-'50s, playing in jam sessions with visiting New York City stars. While attending classes for flute and bass at Wayne State University, he further developed his saxophone and compositional skills under the guidance of renowned teacher Larry Teal at the Teal School of Music. In late 1959, he formed his first group. By the time he arrived at Wayne State University, he had transcribed and memorized so many Lester Young solos that his professors believed he had perfect pitch. Henderson's college classmates included Yusef Lateef, Barry Harris and Donald Byrd. He also studied music at Kentucky State College.

Shortly prior to his army induction in 1960, Henderson was commissioned by UNAC to write some arrangements for the suite "Swings and Strings", which was later performed by a ten-member orchestra and the local dance band of Jimmy Wilkins.

Early career
Henderson spent two years (1960–62) in the U.S. Army: first in Fort Benning, where he competed in an Army talent show and won first place, then in Fort Belvoir, where he was chosen for a world tour, with a show to entertain soldiers. While in Paris, he met Kenny Drew and Kenny Clarke. Then he was sent to Maryland to conclude his enlistment. In 1962, he was finally discharged and promptly moved to New York. He first met trumpeter Kenny Dorham, who provided invaluable guidance, at saxophonist Junior Cook's place. That evening, they went to hear Dexter Gordon at Birdland. Henderson was asked by Gordon to play something with his rhythm section and happily accepted.

Although Henderson's earliest recordings were marked by a strong hard-bop influence, his playing encompassed not only the bebop tradition, but R&B, Latin and avant-garde as well. He soon joined Horace Silver's band, and provided a seminal solo on the jukebox hit "Song for My Father". After leaving Silver's band in 1966, Henderson resumed freelancing and also co-led a big band with Dorham. His arrangements for the band went unrecorded until the release of Joe Henderson Big Band (Verve) in 1996.

Blue Note recordings
From 1963 to 1968, Henderson appeared on nearly 30 albums for Blue Note, including five released under his name. The recordings ranged from relatively conservative hard-bop sessions (Page One, 1963) to more explorative sessions (Inner Urge and Mode for Joe, 1966). He played a prominent role in many landmark albums under other leaders for the label, including most of Horace Silver's Song for My Father, Herbie Hancock's The Prisoner, Lee Morgan's The Sidewinder and "out" albums with pianist Andrew Hill (Black Fire, 1963 and Point of Departure, 1964) and drummer Pete La Roca (Basra, 1965).

In 1967, there was a brief association with Miles Davis's quintet featuring Herbie Hancock, Wayne Shorter, Ron Carter and Tony Williams, although the band was never recorded. Henderson's adaptability and eclecticism would become even more apparent in the years to follow.

Milestone Records recordings
Signing with Orrin Keepnews's fledgling Milestone label in 1967 marked a new phase in Henderson's career. He co-led the Jazz Communicators with Freddie Hubbard from 1967 to 1968. Henderson was also featured on Hancock's Fat Albert Rotunda for Warner Bros. It was during this time that Henderson began to experiment with jazz-funk fusion, studio overdubbing, and other electronic effects. Song and album titles such as Power to the People, In Pursuit of Blackness, and Black Narcissus reflected his growing political awareness and social consciousness, although Black Narcissus was named after the 1947 Powell and Pressburger film of the same title.

After a brief association with Blood, Sweat & Tears in 1971, Henderson moved to San Francisco. He was still signed to Milestone Records, which had recently moved to San Francisco after being acquired by Fantasy Records. Henderson wanted to be near his label, and get out of New York City. Henderson lived in San Francisco for the rest of his life, and taught at the San Francisco Conservatory of Music from 1978 to 1982, according to musicologist Joel Geoffrey Harris. A performance space at the San Francisco Jazz Center is named for him.

Later career and death
Though he occasionally worked with Echoes of an Era, the Griffith Park Band and Chick Corea, Henderson remained primarily a leader throughout the 1980s. An accomplished and prolific composer, he began to focus more on reinterpreting standards and his own earlier compositions. Blue Note attempted to position the artist at the forefront of a resurgent jazz scene in 1986 with the release of the two-volume State of the Tenor recorded at the Village Vanguard in New York City. The albums (with Ron Carter on bass and Al Foster on drums) revisited the tenor trio form used by Sonny Rollins in 1957 on his own live Vanguard albums for the same label. Henderson established his basic repertoire for the next seven or eight years, with Thelonious Monk's "Ask Me Now" becoming a signature ballad feature. Following his brief return to Blue Note Records, Henderson was signed by the Italian label Red Records, for which he recorded two more albums in the piano-less trio format.

In 1991, Verve records signed Henderson to the label. That January, Henderson made a guest appearance on Stephen Scott's Verve album Something to Consider, and worked with Verve producer and vice president Richard Seidel during the session. Henderson and Seidel had first worked together in 1979 while making Henderson's Relaxin' at Camarillo album. After Verve expressed interest in signing Henderson, the saxophonist had to quickly complete his existing contract with Red Records, which he did by recording The Standard Joe in March 1991. Seidel said in a 2016 interview with musicologist Joel Geoffrey Harris that he decided to offer Henderson a record deal after hearing him perform live at Fat Tuesdays in New York. Seidel served as producer on all five of Henderson's 1990s Verve studio albums. Verve adopted a 'songbook' approach to recording him, coupling it with a considerable marketing and publicity campaign, which more successfully positioned Henderson at the forefront of the contemporary jazz scene. His 1992 'comeback' album Lush Life: The Music of Billy Strayhorn was a commercial and critical success, and was followed by tribute albums to Miles Davis, Antonio Carlos Jobim, a big band album, and a jazz adaptation of Porgy and Bess. After that time, he no longer recorded.

A chain smoker, Henderson died in San Francisco, California on June 30, 2001, after a long battle with emphysema. He was 64.

title: Joe Henderson


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Robert Coover

Robert Lowell Coover (born February 4, 1932) is an American novelist, short story writer, and T. B. Stowell Professor Emeritus in Literary Arts at Brown University. He is generally considered a writer of fabulation and metafiction.

Background
Coover was born in Charles City, Iowa. He attended Southern Illinois University Carbondale, received his B.A. in Slavic Studies from Indiana University Bloomington in 1953, then served in the United States Navy from 1953 to 1957, where he became a lieutenant. He received an M.A. in General Studies in the Humanities from the University of Chicago in 1965. In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War. Coover has served as a teacher or writer in residence at many universities. He taught at Brown University from 1981 to 2012.

Coover's wife is the noted needlepoint artist Pilar Sans Coover. They have three children, including Sara Caldwell.

Literary career
Coover's first novel was The Origin of the Brunists, in which the sole survivor of a mine disaster starts a religious cult. His second book, The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop., deals with the role of the creator. The eponymous Waugh, a shy, lonely accountant, creates a baseball game in which rolls of the dice determine every play, and dreams up players to attach those results to.

Coover's 1969 short story collection Pricksongs and Descants contains the celebrated metafictional story "The Babysitter," which was adapted into the 1995 movie of the same title, directed by Guy Ferland.

Coover's best-known work, The Public Burning, deals with the case of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg in terms that have been called magic realism. Half of the book is devoted to the mythic hero Uncle Sam of tall tales, dealing with the equally fantastic Phantom, who represents international Communism. The alternate chapters portray the efforts of Richard Nixon to stage the execution of the Rosenbergs as a public event in Times Square. As reviewer Thomas R. Edwards wrote in The New York Times, "Astonishingly, Nixon is the most interesting and sympathetic character in the story."

Coover's 1982 novella Spanking the Maid remained one of his favorites; asked in an interview "Which of your books will get you into heaven?", Coover quipped, "Spanking the Maid. God's deep into S&M." A later novella, Whatever Happened to Gloomy Gus of the Chicago Bears (1987), offers an alternate Nixon, one who is devoted to football and sex with the same doggedness with which he pursued political success in this reality. The theme anthology A Night at the Movies includes the story "You Must Remember This", a piece about Casablanca that features an explicit description of what Rick and Ilsa did when the camera wasn't on them. Pinocchio in Venice returns to mythical themes.

In 1987 he was the winner of the Rea Award for the Short Story. In 2021, Coover, in a collaboration with Art Spiegelman, released Street Cop with Isolarii.

Electronic literature
Coover was a supporter of early electronic literature, and was one of the founders of the Electronic Literature Organization. He taught electronic literature at Brown University and organized events such as the Technology Platforms for 21st Century Literature (TP21CL), held at Brown in 1999. In 1992 he published the essay "The End of Books" in The New York Times, making a mainstream audience aware of the new genre for perhaps the first time. The "now infamous" essay "roiled the literary scene and declaimed the imminent demise of the novel". Many scholars of electronic literature reference the essay, for instance J. Yellowlees Douglas in the title of her book, ''The End of Books–Or Books Without End? Reading Interactive Narratives''. In 1993, Coover published a second New York Times essay on electronic literature: "Hyperfiction: Novels for the Computer"

Coover established the MFA program in Digital Language Arts at Brown University, and helped bring a string of writers of electronic literature to the university, including John Cayley, Talan Memmott, Noah Wardrip-Fruin, William Gillespie and Samantha Gorman. Talan Memmott was Brown University's first graduate fellow of electronic writing.

Novels

 * The Origin of the Brunists (1966)
 * The Universal Baseball Association, Inc., J. Henry Waugh, Prop. (1968)
 * A Political Fable (1968); reprinted as The Cat in the Hat for President: A Fable (2018)
 * The Public Burning (1977)
 * Spanking the Maid (1982)
 * Gerald's Party (1986)
 * Whatever Happened to Gloomy Gus of the Chicago Bears? (1987)
 * Pinocchio in Venice (1991)
 * Dr. Chen's Amazing Adventure (1991)
 * John's Wife (1996)
 * Briar Rose (1996)
 * Ghost Town (1998)
 * The Adventures of Lucky Pierre: Director's Cut (2002)
 * The Grand Hotels (of Joseph Cornell) (2002)
 * Stepmother (2004)
 * Noir (2010)
 * The Brunist Day of Wrath (2014)
 * Huck Out West (2017)
 * The Enchanted Prince (2018)
 * Street Cop (with Art Spiegelman) (2021)
 *  Open House (2023)

Collections
 * Pricksongs & Descants (1969)
 * In Bed One Night & Other Brief Encounters (1983)
 * A Night at the Movies or, You Must Remember This (1987)
 * '[A Child Again'' (2005)
 * Going for a Beer: Selected Short Fictions (2018)

Uncollected Stories

 * “Blackdamp.” Noble Savage, no. 4 (October 1961), 218-29.
 * “The Square Shooter and the Saint: A Story about Jerusalem.” Evergreen Review, no. 25 (July/August 1962): 92-101.
 * “Dinner with the King of England.” Evergreen Review, no. 27 (November/December 1962): 110-18.
 * “D.D. Baby.” Cavalier, July 1963, 53-56, 93.
 * “The Neighbors.” Argosy, January 1966, 129-33.
 * “Letter from Patmos.” Quarterly Review of Literature, no. 16, 1969, 29-31.
 * “That the Door Opened.” Quarterly Review of Literature, no. 16, 1969, 311-17.
 * “The Reunion.” Iowa Review 1.4 (Fall 1970): 64-67.
 * “Party Talk: Unheard Conversation at Gerald’s Party. Fiction International 18.2 (Spring 1990): 187-203.
 * “A Sudden Story.” TriQuarterly, no. 78, Spring/Summer 1990, 396.
 * “Touch.” Paris Review 40.149 (Winter 1998): 155-59.
 * “The Photographer.” Fence Magazine 2.2 (Fall/Winter 1999-2000): 30-41.
 * “On Mrs. Willie Masters.” Review of Contemporary Fiction 24.3 (Fall 2004): 10-23.
 * “Ten Minutes in the Orxatería La Valenciana.” Storie, Afternoon Anthology, no. 42/43, 2008, 227.
 * “Red-Hot Ruby.” Conjunctions, no. 50, Spring 2008, 450-69.
 * "The Case of the Severed Hand." Harper's Magazine, June 2008.
 * "White-Bread Jesus". Harper's Magazine, December 2008.
 * "The War Between Sylvania and Freedonia." Harper’s Magazine, July 2010, 62-66.
 * "An Encounter". Fortnightly Review, 2010.
 * "The Old Man".Fortnightly Review, 2011.
 * “The Box.” Conjunctions, no. 56, Spring 2011, 221-27.
 * "Matinée". New Yorker, 25 July 2011, 67-71.
 * "Vampire". Granta, 21 October 2011.
 * "The Colonel’s Daughter". New Yorker, 2 September 2013.
 * "The Frog Prince". New Yorker, 27 January 2014.
 * "The Waitress". New Yorker, 19 May 2014.
 * "The Crabapple Tree". New Yorker, 12 January 2015.
 * "The Hanging of the Schoolmarm". New Yorker, 28 November 2016.
 * "The Wall". Conjunctions, no. 68, Spring 2017.
 * "The Boss". New Yorker, 2 August 2017.
 * "M*rphed". Granta, 20 October 2017.
 * "Treatments". New Yorker, 30 April 2018.
 * "Hulk". Granta, 10 June 2019.
 * "Citizen Punch". New Yorker, 18 July 2019.

Plays

 * The Kid (1970)
 * Love Scene (1971)
 * Rip Awake (1972)
 * A Theological Position (1972)

Other

 * The Water Pourer (1972) An unpublished chapter from The Origin of the Brunists, signed by author and limited to 300 copies. 22 pages.
 * (essay)
 * "The Bad Book". On the Bible

Awards and honors
William Faulkner, Brandeis University, American Academy of Arts and Letters, National Endowment of the Arts, Rea Lifetime Short Story, Rhode Island Governor's Arts, Pell, and Clifton Fadiman Awards, Rockefeller, Guggenheim, Lannan Foundation, and DAAD fellowships
 * 1967 William Faulkner Foundation Award for notable first novel for The Origin of the Brunists
 * 1987 Rea Award for the Short Story

title: Robert Coover


text:
Talk:Coram (charity)

When the article says it "draws on our experience to influence policy and practice", who is the "we" in "our"? Needs sorting out perhaps? Nevilley 18:05, 21 Feb 2004 (UTC)

title: Talk:Coram (charity)


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Milk River

Milk River may refer to:

Rivers

 * Milk River (British Columbia), a tributary of the upper Fraser River in Canada
 * Milk River (Michigan), United States
 * Milk River (Alberta–Montana), a tributary of the Missouri River
 * Milk River (Jamaica)

Places

 * Milk River, Alberta, a town in Canada
 * Milk River Airport, Alberta
 * Milk River Ridge, Alberta, Canada
 * Milk River Ridge Reservoir, a large body of water in southern Alberta, Canada
 * Milk River Bath, Jamaica

title: Milk River


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Humberto Nilo

Humberto Nilo Saavedra (born in Santiago de Chile in 1954) was the director of the University of Chile school of arts. He set up a mail art exhibit at a museum in Santiago. The exhibit criticized the lack of liberty in Chile. He was dismissed a few months later.

title: Humberto Nilo


text:
Memory Foundations

Memory Foundations is the name given by Daniel Libeskind to his site plan for the World Trade Center, which was originally selected by the Lower Manhattan Development Corporation (LMDC) to be the master plan for rebuilding at the World Trade Center site in New York City in February 2003.

Memory Foundations placed a large memorial to the victims of the September 11, 2001, attacks at the center of the World Trade Center. Surrounding the memorial was to be five large office buildings arranged in an ascending spiral upward from the southeast of the site. The spiral would culminate in the complex's tallest building, the One World Trade Center, a 1776 ft spire. Also included would be the World Trade Center Transportation Hub; the National September 11 Museum; a Performing Arts Center designed by Frank Gehry; and various parks and public spaces.

The actual design (the one which is constructed) involves a different design and arrangement of buildings. The original plan aimed to fully replace the 10,000,000 ft2 of office space lost on September 11, 2001, to memorialize the victims of the attacks, and to revive New York City's economy and skyline.

title: Memory Foundations


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Platte River (disambiguation)

The Platte River is a principal tributary of the Missouri River, in the United States.

The Platte River may also refer to:
 * Platte River (Iowa and Missouri), in the United States
 * Platte River (Michigan), in the United States
 * Platte River (Minnesota), in the United States
 * Platte River (Wisconsin), in the United States

title: Platte River (disambiguation)


text:
Empetrum

Empetrum is a genus of three species of dwarf evergreen shrubs in the heath family Ericaceae. They are commonly known as crowberries and bear edible fruit. They are commonly found in the northern hemisphere, from temperate to subarctic climates, and also in the Southern Andes of South America and on the South Atlantic islands of South Georgia, the Falklands and Tristan da Cunha. The typical habitat is on moorlands, tundra, muskeg and spruce forests. They are also often found in areas of coastal exposure on the sand dunes and dune slacks.

Species of Empetrum include: E. nigrum (crowberry or black crowberry) and its tetraploid subspecies E. nigrum ssp. hermaphroditum, E. eamesii (rockberry or purple crowberry) and E. rubrum (red crowberry). All are evergreen mat forming shrubs, with small, light green needle-like leaves 3–10 mm long. The flowers are small and either bisexual or dioecious. The fruit is a fairly dry berry. The plant has slender, wiry, spreading branches covered with short, narrow, stiff leaves, the margins of which are recurved so as to form a hollow cylinder concealing the hairy under face of the leaf, which protects against excessive loss of water from the leaf.

The genus and related ones such as Ceratiola and Corema were for most of the 20th century classified in their own family Empetraceae, but molecular data, leaf morphology, and other considerations point to their inclusion in the Ericaceae (specifically, as a tribe within the subfamily Ericoideae). This tribe does share a number of distinctive morphological features, which seem to be associated with wind pollination.

Uses
In subarctic areas, Empetrum has been a vital addition to the diet of the Inuit and the Sami. After waning popularity, the crowberry is regaining its reputation as an edible berry. It provides a steady crop and the gathering is relatively easy. The high concentration of anthocyanin pigment can be used as a natural food dye. The Dena'ina (Tanaina) harvest it for food, sometimes storing in quantity for winter, and like it mixed with lard or oil. They keep well in a cool place without any special preparation.

The berries are usually collected in the fall of the year but if not picked they may persist on the plant and can be picked in the spring. The Inuit and Native Americans mix them with other berries, especially the blueberry. Cooking enhances the flavor. They make good pie and jelly.

The leaves and stems are used in Dena'ina medicine for diarrhea and stomach problems; they are boiled or soaked in hot water, and the strained liquid drunk.

In Dena'ina plantlore in the Outer and Upper Inlet area of Lake Clark, the root is also used as a medicine, being used to remove a growth on an eye and to heal sore eyes. The roots are boiled and the eyes are washed with the strained, cooled tea, to which a little sugar may be added.

The vitamin content of crowberries is low, as is also the concentration of volatile liquids, the lack of which makes them almost odorless. The acidity is lower than is typically encountered in forest berries.

Crowberries are also occasionally grown as ornamental plants in rockeries, notably the yellow-foliage cultivar Empetrum nigrum 'Lucia' (photo, left).

title: Empetrum


text:
USS Parche (SSN-683)

USS Parche (SSN-683), a Sturgeon-class submarine, was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named for the parche, a small, coral reef butterfly fish. Parche was launched on 13 January 1973, sponsored by Natalie Beshany, the wife of Vice Admiral Philip A. Beshany, and commissioned on 17 August 1974.

Attributed as being a key resource of the National Underwater Reconnaissance Office, Parche is said to be "the most highly decorated vessel in U.S. history."

1974–1979
Parche served as a unit of the United States Atlantic Fleet Submarine Force from 1974 until 1976, before transferring to the United States Pacific Fleet in October 1976. Once arriving at her new home port at Mare Island Naval Shipyard in Vallejo, California, Parche received ocean engineering modifications. Parche deployed on a shakedown training cruise in August and September 1978.

Operation Ivy Bells, 1979
In the book Blind Man's Bluff, it is claimed that Parche successfully tapped into Soviet underwater military communication cables in the Sea of Okhotsk as part of Operation Ivy Bells.

1979–2004
During her career, Parche was ostensibly involved in recovering Soviet missile fragments from the seabed following test launches. While missile fragments were indeed collected in large numbers, Parche's primary missions typically revolved around the setting and retrieving of wire taps placed on Soviet underwater communication cables. Much of her operational history was spent undertaking clandestine missions, and as of late 2009, a vast majority of the missions undertaken remain classified.

From 1987 to 1991, Parche underwent an extended refueling overhaul at Mare Island Naval Shipyard during which she was modified for research and development work. An extension measuring 100 ft was added to her hull just forward of her sail. The added section was flat-topped (looking somewhat like the missile deck of a ballistic missile submarine) and provided the space required to support a larger crew and additional equipment. These additions included an extensive array of signals-intelligence-collecting antennas, electronic gear, and other navigational and ocean engineering equipment. The overhaul also added many auxiliary navigational and maneuvering features, including both upward and forward-facing short-range sonars, and a suite of armored spotlights and closed-circuit television cameras for under-ice operations.

Upon completion of her modifications in 1991, Parche began a new mission as part of Submarine Development Squadron 5. She resumed operations in the Pacific Fleet in 1992.

Parche was transferred to a new home port, Naval Base Kitsap at Bangor, Washington, in November 1994.

Parche may have recovered Chinese missile fragments. During the Third Taiwan Strait Crisis in 1995 and 1996, the People's Republic of China launched DF-21 and DF-15 ballistic missiles into the sea surrounding Taiwan to deter Taiwan from moving toward independence; Robert Karniol writes: "I suspect that "the Parche might have gone after these Chinese missile fragments", and "I suspect that Beijing gave away some useful missile secrets."

Decommissioning and disposal
On 19 October 2004, a decommissioning ceremony took place at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton, Washington; she was officially decommissioned on 18 July 2005 and stricken from the Naval Vessel Register the same day. The wardroom of the oldest submarine in the fleet carries Richard O'Kane's personal cribbage board, and upon Parche's decommissioning the board was transferred to the next oldest boat: USS Los Angeles (SSN-688). Her scrapping at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard via the Ship and Submarine Recycling Program was completed on 30 November 2006.

Parche's research and development duties were assumed by USS Jimmy Carter (SSN-23), a Seawolf-class submarine whose construction period was extended to include modifications that will allow her to carry out the same types of research and development. According to Robert Karniol, Jimmy Carter in succeeding Parche, has become "Washington's premier spy submarine."

Military awards
As of 2007, Parche was said to be "the most highly decorated vessel in U.S. history", receiving a total of nine Presidential Unit Citations and ten Navy Unit Commendations. The submarine also received thirteen Navy Expeditionary Medals and thirteen awards of the Battle Efficiency Award during her thirty years of service.

Commemoration
Parche's sail was preserved. It was moved from Puget Sound Naval Shipyard to the maritime park near Puget Sound Navy Museum in downtown Bremerton. The sail is decorated with stripes for the unit awards and ribbons:

title: USS Parche (SSN-683)


text:
Hurricane G

Gloria Rodríguez (1970 – November 6, 2022), better known by her stage name Hurricane G, was an American rapper of Puerto Rican descent. Her 1997 single release "Somebody Else" charted at #10 by Billboard Magazine on Hot Rap Singles, and at #54 on their Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Singles & Tracks chart.

Biography
Rodríguez was born in Brooklyn, New York City in 1970. She was the Hit Squad's first female member, and made guest appearances on albums by Keith Murray, Redman, Xzibit, Delinquent Habits, Funkdoobiest, the Cocoa Brovaz, and others. She also appeared on Puff Daddy's track "P.E. 2000". Her much-delayed debut album, All Woman, was released in 1997.

Rodríguez had a daughter, Lexus.

She died in hospice from lung cancer on November 6, 2022, at the age of 52.

Studio albums

 * All Woman (1997)
 * Mami & Papi with Thirstin Howl III (2013)

Singles

 * "Padre Nuestro (Our Father)" on Red Hot + Latin: Silencio = Muerte
 * "Somebody Else"
 * 2004 feature from the Tony Touch album The Reggaetony Album

title: Hurricane G


text:
Ephor

The ephors were a board of five magistrates in ancient Sparta. They had an extensive range of judicial, religious, legislative, and military powers, and could shape Sparta's home and foreign affairs.

The word "ephors" (Ancient Greek éphoroi, plural form of  éphoros) comes from the Ancient Greek  epi, "on" or "over", and  horaō, "to see", i.e., "one who oversees" or "overseer". The ephors were a council of five Spartan men elected annually who swore an oath monthly on the behalf of the state. The Spartan kings, however, would swear on behalf of themselves.

The ephors did not have to kneel before the Kings of Sparta, and were held in high esteem by the citizens because of the importance of their powers and because of the holy role that they earned throughout their functions.

Several other Greek city-states with a Spartan ancestry also had ephors, such as Taras or Cyrene.

Creation
Two different accounts of the origins of the ephorate exist in ancient sources. The earliest account is found in the Histories of Herodotus, who traces its origins to the mythical Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus—a version followed by Xenophon, Plato, or Isocrates. A diverging version first appears in the Politics, written in the middle of the 4th century BCE by Aristotle, who tells that the ephorate was created by the Spartan king Theopompos. This version is then more prevalent in subsequent authors, such as Cicero, and especially Plutarch. Modern scholars have identified the source of the second version in a lost work written by the Agiad king Pausanias after he had been forced to abdicate and go into exile in 394 BCE. In this logos, Pausanias likely published Lycurgus' laws, including the Rhetra, which details the different element of the Spartan constitution (kings, gerousia, ekklesia), but does not mention the ephors. It has therefore been suggested that Pausanias was hostile to the ephors, to whom he possibly attributed his banishment, and published the Rhetra to discredit their office. Although the contents of this logos and Pausanias' motivations remain disputed, most modern scholars think the ephors were created at the time of Theopompos, during the Messenian Wars.

According to Plutarch, the ephorate was born out of the necessity for leaders while the kings of Sparta were absent for long periods during the Messenian Wars. The ephors were elected by the popular assembly, and all citizens were eligible. The position of ephor was the only political office open to the whole damos (populace) of men between the ages of 30–60, so eligible Spartans highly sought after the position. They were forbidden to be re-elected and provided a balance for the two kings, who rarely co-operated. Plato called the ephors tyrants, who ran Sparta as despots while the kings were little more than generals. Up to two ephors would accompany a king on extended military campaigns as a sign of control, and they held the authority to declare war during some periods in Spartan history.

Since political and economic decisions were made by majority vote, Sparta's policy could change quickly, when the vote of one ephor changed. For example, in 403 BCE, Pausanias convinced three of the ephors to send an army to Attica, a complete reversal of the policy of Lysander. According to Aristotle, the ephors frequently came from poverty because any Spartan citizen could hold the position, and it was not exclusive to the upper-class. Aristotle stated that because of this they were often liable to corruption. There were times when the legal power of an ephor was taken advantage of, such as with Alcibiades's use of Endius, who persuaded the Spartans to allow Alcibiades to take control of Sparta's peace mission to Athens in 420 BCE.

Cleomenes III abolished the position of ephor in 227 BCE, and replaced them with a position called the patronomos. Cleomenes's coup resulted in the death of four of the five ephors, along with ten other citizens. His abolition of the ephorship allowed him to cement his role as king and prevent anyone from stopping his political reforms. However, the ephorate was restored by the Macedonian King Antigonus III Doson after the Battle of Sellasia in 222 BCE. Although Sparta fell under Roman rule in 146 BCE, the position existed into the 2nd century CE, when it was likely abolished by Roman Emperor Hadrian and superseded by imperial governance as part of the province of Achaea.

Election
The ephorate elections took place close to the Autumn equinox, because the term of the ephors matched the Spartan year, which started with the first full Moon after the equinox, therefore the end of September or October.

There was probably an age requirement of at least 30 years old to be elected ephor, the age from which a Spartan citizen was no longer considered eromenos.

The Spartan constitution is principally known through the work of Aristotle, who describes in detail the elections of the gerontes (the members of the Gerousia), but not the ephors. It is still assumed that the election procedure was similar. Candidates passed one by one before the assembled citizens, who shouted according to their preference, while several assessors who were confined into a windowless building declared winners the five candidates with the loudest shouts. As with the gerontes, this system of voice voting was considered "childish" by Aristotle, because influential men could easily manipulate the results by pressuring the jury.

The kings played a prominent role during election campaigns by favouring their candidates, even though only one instance of such practice is known, when in 243/2 Lysander was elected ephor with the help of the king Agis IV. The fact that influential kings such as Cleomenes I or Agesilaus II had no reported conflict with the ephors support the view that they could decide who would be the ephors. Some ephors were elected thanks to a famous deed that made them known among voters. For example, Leon, ephor in 419/8, had won the quadriga race at the Olympic Games in 440, while his son Antalkidas had concluded a treaty with Persia in 387 before becoming ephor in 370/69. The famous general Brasidas was elected in 431 just after his victory against Athens at Methone.

Eponymous ephor
One of the ephors was eponymous, i.e. he gave his name to the year, like the eponymous archon in Athens. He was probably designated during the elections as the candidate with the loudest shouts overall. The eponymous ephor did not have any additional power compared to his colleagues; it was only a prestigious position. In 413/2, the ordinary ephor Endios is thus described by Thucydides as wielding a lot of influence within the college, even though the eponymous was Onomantios.

As the eponymous ephors were used as dates, a list compiling their names existed in Sparta, and is mentioned by Polybius. This list was perhaps published by Apollodoros and Sosicrates, whose lost works were used by Diogenes Laertius. The list went at least as far as 556 (the year of Chilon's ephorate) and possibly up to 754 (during the reign of Theopompos as ancient authors believed). However, Diogenes lived in the 3rd century AD, and even his sources dated from the Hellenistic era, long after the events.

Legal power
The ephors held numerous duties in legislative, judicial, financial, and executive matters. Following Lycurgus's "Asteropus" in 620 BCE (increase in the power of the ephorate), the ephors became the ambassadors of Sparta. They handled all matters associated with foreign relations, including the creation of treaties with foreign powers and meeting with emissaries to discuss foreign politics. They held power within Sparta by also acting as the Presidents of the assembly and the justices of the supreme civil court as well as controlling army composition. The ephors needed a majority vote to make decisions binding and minority or dissenting decisions were not accepted by the assembly.

According to Plutarch, every autumn at the crypteia, the ephors would pro forma declare war on the helot population so that any Spartan citizen could kill a helot without fear of blood guilt. This was done to keep the large helot population in check. Plutarch also stated that every eight years the ephors would watch the skies on a moonless night. If shooting stars occurred, it was up to the ephors to decide whether one or both of the kings had transgressed in his dealings with the gods. A transgression could include any behavior that dishonored the Greek pantheon. Unless the oracle from Delphi or Olympia stated otherwise, the ephors had the ability to depose the offending king or kings. Plutarch also stated that the ephors tried cases involving contracts among citizens. He further reported that each ephor specialized in a different type of disputed contract.

According to Pausanias, the ephors served with the Gerousia on the Supreme criminal court of Sparta. This included presiding over treason, homicide, and other offenses that carried serious punishments. These punishments included exile, death, and disfranchisement.

Ephors had the authority to summon and preside over the assembly's regular meetings in the fifth century BCE. Initially this power was only assigned to kings in early years. However, with the passing of the Great Rhetra regular meetings became mandated. By the late sixth century BCE, the ephors had acquired this authority to oversee the assembly and could use this power against the kings of Sparta. For example, they used this authority to force King Anaxandridas II to change his conjugal arrangements to their advantage. King Anaxandridas' wife was barren but he refused to divorce her so the ephors forced him to marry a second wife to provide heirs.

Two ephors were always sent on military expeditions to ensure the king acted in line, and if not, could put the king on trial. Many kings were put on trial by the ephors, including Leotychidas, who was found to have accepted a bribe from the Thessalians during his military expedition to Thessaly.

The ephors, along with the Gerousia, held the majority of the power within the Spartan government, as the two kings had to consult either with the ephors or the Gerousia in almost any official matter. The ephors also held power over the Helots and the Perioeci. They controlled the Crypteia, the secret police who repressed the Helots, and they were even able to sentence Perioeci to death without a trial.

Other duties
The congress of the Peloponnesian League was always chaired by an ephor.

The ephors also had the authority to choose three hippagretai (Commanders of the Guard) every year from men over the age of thirty. The chosen hippagretes would then choose three hundred of the best hebontes to form a hippeis. The ephors also were responsible for penalizing disobedience in the military using fines.

Ephors could also intervene in cases of "disturbing the peace." This included punishing underage Spartans indirectly for their offenses against Sparta. This form of retribution would include penalizing the boys' erastes (adult lovers). When men between the ages of twenty and thirty (known as hebontes) committed offenses they were brought before the paidonomos, a magistrate charged with supervising the education of the youth in the agoge. Through this system the ephors could directly penalize the hebontes by giving them large fines.

The ephors paid close attention to the education of young Spartans, and played a significant role in ensuring the education was up to standard. According to Aelian, they would examine the naked bodies of the boys every ten days to ensure they were of proper complexion and fitness and not being overfed, as well as examining the boys' clothes daily to ensure that they fit.

The ephors had their own syssitia, the common meal of Spartan citizens.

Notable ephors
Only 67 ephors are known by name before the end of the third century BCE, out of potentially 3000.

 * Endius: Scion of wealthy family, son of Alcibiades (served in 413/2 BCE).
 * Brasidas: Came from higher class family (served in 431/0 BC).
 * Leon: Became an ephor at an older age and was the founder of a Spartan colony and Olympic victor (served in 419/8 BCE).
 * Antalcidas: Known for being the negotiator of peace treaty, named after him (served in 387/6 BCE).
 * Sthenelaidas: Known for causing physical division in the voting process by making voters stand in separate spaces to represent yes or no votes. This eliminated the secrecy of the voting process. (served in 432 BCE).
 * Cleandridas: Known for abandoning the invasion of Athens and returning to Peloponnese in 446 BCE. He went voluntarily into exile, with the Spartans condemning him to death in absentia.
 * Lysander: Was sent as an ambassador to King Agesilaus II on multiple campaigns but suffered a dispute with King Agesilaus over the locals' loyalty to him. Lysander returned home upon the end of term as ephor (served in 243 BCE).
 * Nausikleidas: Accompanied and supported King Pausanias on expedition (served in 403 BCE).
 * Epitadeus: Introduced legislation that destroyed the equal distribution of land that Lukourgos made in the fourth century BCE.
 * Chilon: Served in 556/5 BCE.
 * Agesilaos: Named eponymous ephor by his nephew Agis IV and was charged with implementing a new bill which included debt-cancellation and land-redistribution.

Other Greek poleis with ephors

 * Euesperides (Benghazi, Libya): The city was a colony of Cyrene and adopted its institutions as a result. It therefore counted ephors and a gerousia.
 * Herakleia (Lucania, Italy): The eponymous magistrate of the city was an ephor, because it reproduced the institutions of its mother-city, Taras.
 * Cyrene (Libya): Cyrene had a gerousia and a board of five ephors from an early date. It was a foundation of Thera.
 * Messene (Peloponnese): Messene took its independence from Sparta in 370/69, but retained some of its institutions, such as the ephors, who are mentioned c.295.
 * Taras (Taranto, Italy): The ephorate is attested in the 3rd century, but considering that its colony Herakleia also had ephors, Taras probably had ephors since the Archaic Era. The office was eponymous in the 3rd century.
 * Thera (Santorini Island): A board of three ephors were eponymous magistrates in the city.

Ephors in modern culture
The concept of an ephorate continues to be used by some contemporary organizations which require a monarchical element within a democratic framework. One such organization is the Ephorate of the Rascals, Rogues, and Rapscallions, an American fraternal research society.

The Hellenic Republic Ministry of Culture and Sports contains several regional ephorates that carry out the administration of archaeological investigations in their respective regions

The Neapolitan Republic's constitution of 1799, written by Francesco Mario Pagano, envisaged what would now be described as a constitutional court, the eforato, but the republic lasted only six months.

Zack Snyder's 2007 film adaptation of the Battle of Thermoplyae, 300, depicts ephors as priestly class that exercise power by interpreting the words of the Oracle. In the film they are dramatized as elderly lepers with pale skin and lesions. At the beginning of the movie, Leonidas is shown visiting the ephors and proposing a war strategy to them. The ephors then consult the Oracle and refuse Leonidas' plan, showing that they have been bribed by Xerxes I. King Leonidas thus leads his 300 'bodyguards' to Thermoplyae without their approval.

Rudolph Maté's 1962 film The 300 Spartans also depicts the ephorate's role in the Battle of Thermopylae. They are shown conflicting with King Leotychidas over the decision to delay the battle until after the religious harvest festival of Carneia. The ephors decide to delay the battle but under the guise of having private bodyguards, King Leonidas marches into battle with 300 Spartans. The ephors are mentioned later in the film when Leonidas receives a letter from his wife informing him that the ephors have the remainder of the Spartan army will not be joining him. Xenathon is a named ephor in the film.

Ephors have appeared in Steven Pressfield's 1998 Gates of Fire, an historical fiction novel that recounts the Battle of Thermopylae. In Chapter 15, the ephors appear when a delegation of mothers and wives goes to the council, requesting they be allowed to join the battle.

In Kieron Gillen's graphic novel Three, ephors are referenced when Gillen describes the Krypteia and writes "Once a year, the masters declare war on the helots." The ephors were in charge of the Krypteia and declaring war on the helots in order to keep them terrified and controlled. The next scene depicts the ephor, Eurytos, being guided by his soldiers to a helot community where they demand hospitality. Eurytos is killed by a helot revolt and the only surviving soldier returns to Sparta to inform the remaining four ephors. The ephors send soldiers to kill the helots who killed Eurytos stating, "The only thing more unthinkable than a helot killing an ephor is that helot escaping punishment."

Ancient sources

 * Aristotle, Politics.
 * Cicero, De re publica, De Legibus.
 * Isocrates, Panathenaicus.
 * Plato, Epistles.
 * Plutarch, Parallel Lives (Cleomenes, Lycurgus), Moralia.
 * Xenophon, Constitution of the Lacedaemonians.

Modern sources

 * Paul Cartledge, Sparta and Lakonia, A Regional History 1300–362 BC, London, Routledge, 2002 (originally published in 1979). ISBN 0-415-26276-3
 * G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, The Origins of the Peloponnesian War, London, Duckworth, 1972. ISBN 0-7156-0640-9
 * Mogens Herman Hansen & Thomas Heine Nielsen, An Inventory of Archaic and Classical Poleis, Oxford University Press, 2004.
 * G. L. Huxley, Early Sparta, London, Faber & Faber, 1962. ISBN 0-389-02040-0
 * Anton Powell (editor), A Companion to Sparta, Hoboken, Wiley, 2018. ISBN 978-1-4051-8869-2

title: Ephor


text:
North River

North River may refer to:

Canada

 * North River, Newfoundland and Labrador, a town in Newfoundland
 * North River, Labrador, Newfoundland and Labrador, a village in Labrador
 * North River, Nova Scotia, a community in Colchester County
 * North River (Belmont Lake), Ontario
 * North River (Ontario), other rivers with the name in Ontario
 * North River, Prince Edward Island, a community in the town of Cornwall
 * North River (Gabriel River tributary), Chaudière-Appalaches, Quebec
 * Rivière du Nord (disambiguation)

China

 * Bei River, aka North River

Dominica

 * North River (Dominica)

Netherlands

 * Noord (river)

New Zealand

 * North River (New Zealand)

United States

 * North River (Alabama)
 * Georgia:
 * North River (Darien River)
 * North River (St. Marys River)
 * North River (Iowa)
 * North River (Maryland), tributary of the South River
 * Massachusetts:
 * North River (Deerfield River), in western Massachusetts
 * North River (Massachusetts Bay), in eastern Massachusetts
 * North River (Michigan)
 * North River (Minnesota)
 * Missouri
 * North River (Missouri), a waterway emptying into the Mississippi River
 * North River, Missouri, an unincorporated community
 * North River (New Hampshire)
 * New York:
 * North River (Hudson River), the historical name for the lower Hudson River between New York and New Jersey
 * North River, New York, a hamlet on the upper Hudson River
 * North River (North Carolina), a tidal river off of Albemarle Sound
 * North River, North Dakota, a city in Cass County
 * North River (Tennessee), tributary of the Tellico River
 * Virginia:
 * North River (Slate River), in central Virginia
 * North River (South Fork Shenandoah River), in northern Virginia
 * North River (Mobjack Bay), in tidewater Virginia
 * North River (Washington)
 * North River (Cacapon River tributary), West Virginia

Other uses

 * North River Steamboat, the first commercially successful paddle-driven steamship, built in 1807

title: North River


text:
BiiN

BiiN Corporation was a company created out of a joint research project by Intel and Siemens to develop fault tolerant high-performance multi-processor computers build on custom microprocessor designs. BiiN was an outgrowth of the Intel iAPX 432 multiprocessor project, ancestor of iPSC and nCUBE.

The company was closed down in October 1989, and folded in April 1990, with no significant sales. The whole project was considered within Intel to have been so poorly managed that the company name was considered to be an acronym for Billions Invested In Nothing. However, several subset versions of the processor designed for the project were later offered commercially as versions of the Intel i960, which became popular as an embedded processor in the mid-1990s.

History
BiiN began in 1982 as Gemini, a research project equally funded by Intel and Siemens. The project's aim was to design and build a complete system for so-called "mission critical" computing, such as on-line transaction processing, industrial control applications (such as managing nuclear reactors), military applications intolerant of computer down-time, and national television services. The central themes of the R&D effort were to be transparent multiprocessing and file distribution, dynamically switchable fault tolerance, and a high level of security. Siemens provided the funding through its energy division UBE (Unternehmensbereich Energietechnik), who had an interest in fault tolerant computers for use in nuclear installations, while Intel provided the technology, and the whole project was organised with alternate layers of Siemens and Intel management and engineers. Siemens staff stemmed from its various divisions, not just UBE (where the project unit was called E85G). The core development labs were located on an Intel site in Portland, OR, but there were also Siemens labs in Berlin, Germany, (Sietec Systemtechnik, Maxim Ehrlich's team creating the Gemini DBMS), Vienna, Austria, Princeton, New Jersey (United States) and also Nuremberg, Germany, involved in the development.

Since neither Siemens nor Intel could see how to market this new architecture if it were broken up, in 1985 the project became BiiN Partners, and in July 1988 was launched as a company wholly owned by Intel and Siemens. A second company wholly owned by Intel, called BiiN Federal Systems, was also created in order to avoid Foreign Ownership and Controlling Interest (FOCI) problems in selling to the US government. Intel owned all the silicon designs which were licensed to Siemens, while Siemens owned all the software and documentation and licensed them to Intel.

BiiN aimed their designs at the high-end fault tolerant market, competing with Tandem Computers and Stratus Computer, as opposed to the parallel processing market, where Sequent Computer Systems, Pyramid Technology, Alliant Computer Systems and others were operating. In order to compete here they had to make sure their first designs were as powerful as the best from the other vendors, and by the time such a system was ready both Intel and Siemens had spent about 300 million with no shipping units.

In 1989 Siemens underwent a reorganization, which brought UBE's own computer division into the mix. They had long been working with Sequent Computer Systems, and were sceptical that the BiiN systems would deliver anything that the Sequent systems could not. Eventually Intel and Siemens could not agree on further funding, and the venture ended. Several pre-orders on the books were cancelled, and the technology essentially disappeared.

With the closing of the project, Intel used the basic RISC core of the CPU design as the basis for the i960 CPU. For this role most of the "advanced" features were removed, including the complex tagged memory system, task control system, most of the microcode and even the FPU. The result was a "naked" core, useful for embedded processor use. Before Intel switched to the StrongARM for the embedded role in the late 1990s, the i960 was one of Intel's most popular products.

One odd historical footnote is that Hughes Aircraft had licensed the silicon designs for use in the Advanced Tactical Fighter (now the F-22 Raptor), where it apparently continues to be used today.

Description
Key to the BiiN system was the 960 XA processor, essentially a RISC-based version of the earlier i432. Like the i432, the 960 XA included tagged memory for complete memory protection even within programs (as opposed to most CPU's, which offer protection only between programs), a full set of instructions for task control, and complex microcode to run it all.

Unlike the i432, the 960 XA had fairly good performance, mostly as a side effect of dramatically reducing the complexity of the core instruction set, integration of all CPU functions on a single chip, and including an FPU. The CPUs were hosted on cards that included an I/O support CPU and either 8 to 16MB of RAM.

Two systems were designed, the BiiN 20 was an entry-level machine with one or two processors, and an interesting battery-backed disk-cache. The larger BiiN 60 was similar, but supported up to eight CPUs. Both machines could be used in larger multi-machine systems.

One interesting feature of the BiiN was that the CPU sets could be used to provide either fault tolerance, as in the Tandem systems, or parallel processing, as in the Pyramid and Sequent systems. This allowed users to tailor their systems to their needs, even on the fly. The BiiN systems also provided two versions of fault tolerance. In fault-checking mode, processors were paired so that they could check one another's calculations. In event of an error, the processors would stop, and the circuitry would determine which was faulty. This processor would then be excluded from the system, and the computer would restart. In continuous operation mode the fault-checking pairs were duplicated, so that if an error occurred the second pair could immediately take over the calculations.

Also of historical note was that the operating system (OSIRIS), applications, development tools, and every other piece of BiiN software was written exclusively in Ada — perhaps the largest non-military use of that programming language.

There was a command line interpreter CLI, that resembled a lot command shells' functionality only a couple of years later, like editable history and so forth. Documentation for Gemini was done in troff with a project proprietary set of macros or with the Scribe markup language.

Development for Gemini happened on VAXes running BSD Unix.

title: BiiN


text:
Education in the Republic of Ireland

Education in the Republic of Ireland is a primary, secondary and higher (often known as "third-level" or tertiary) education. In recent years, further education has grown immensely, with 51% of working age adults having completed higher education by 2020. Growth in the economy since the 1960s has driven much of the change in the education system. For universities there are student service fees (up to €3,000 in 2015), which students are required to pay on registration, to cover examinations, insurance and registration costs.

The Department of Education, under the control of the Minister for Education, is in overall control of policy, funding and direction, while other important organisations are the National Qualifications Authority of Ireland, the Higher Education Authority, and on a local level the Education and Training Boards are the only comprehensive system of government organisation. The Department of Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science, a department formed in August 2020, creates policy and controls funding for third-level institutions. Many other statutory and non-statutory bodies have a function in the education system. , the Minister for Education is Norma Foley and the Minister for Further and Higher Education, Research, Innovation and Science is Patrick O'Donovan.

History
On 10 September 1966, the Fianna Fáil Education Minister, Donogh O'Malley, made an unauthorised speech announcing plans for free upper second-level education in Ireland. Free upper second-level education was eventually introduced in September 1967, and is now widely seen as a milestone in Irish history.

In 1973, the Irish language requirement for a second-level certificate was abandoned.

Structure
Students must go to schools from ages 6 to 16 or until they have completed three years of second-level of education. Under the Constitution of Ireland, parents are not obliged "in violation of their conscience and lawful preference to send their children to schools established by the State, or to any particular type of school designated by the State." However, the parental right to homeschool his/her child has met legal contests over minimum standards in the absence of constitutional provision for State-defined educational standards.

While English is the primary medium of instruction at all levels in most schools across the state, in Gaelscoileanna (Irish-language schools), Irish is the primary medium of instruction at all levels and English is taught as a second language. The Irish language remains a core subject taught in all public schools with exemptions given to individual pupils on grounds of significant periods lived abroad, or with learning difficulties etc.

At third level, most university courses are conducted in English, with only a few Irish language options. Some universities offer courses partly through French, German or Spanish.

Years
Education is compulsory for all children in Ireland from the ages of six to sixteen or until students have completed three years of second-level education and including one sitting of the Junior Certificate examination. Primary education commonly starts at four to five years old. Children typically enrol in a Junior Infant class at age four or five depending on parental wishes. Some schools enrollment policies have age four by a specific date minimum age requirements.

Pre-school
Most play schools in Ireland are in the private sector. Increasingly, children of working parents, who are below school age; attend a myriad of crèches, play-schools, Montessori schools, etc., which have sprung up in response to the changing needs of modern families. These operate as businesses and may charge often substantial childcare fees. Since 2009, in response to public demand for affordable childcare, children may receive two years free preschool the years prior to starting primary schools under the "Early Childcare and Education Scheme".

Irish language Naíonraí are growing rapidly across Ireland. Nearly 4,000 preschoolers attend 278 preschool groups.

Primary school

 * Junior Infants (age 4–5/5–6) (informally known as Junior Infants)
 * Senior Infants (age 5–6/6–7) (informally known as Senior Infants)
 * First Class (age 6–7/7–8)
 * Second Class (age 7–8/8–9)
 * Third Class (age 8–9/9–10)
 * Fourth Class (age 9–10/10–11)
 * Fifth Class (age 10–11/11–12)
 * Sixth Class (age 11–12/12–13)

Primary school children usually start between 8:30 a.m. and 9:20 a.m. Children finish between 1.10 p.m. and 2 p.m. in Junior & Senior infants, while older children spend another hour in school and finish between 2:10 p.m. and 3 p.m.

Secondary school
Since 1967, secondary school education has been state funded in Ireland.

Junior Cycle
The Junior Cycle is a three-year programme, culminating in the Junior Certificate examination. The Junior Certificate examination is sat in all subjects (usually 10 or 11) in early-June, directly after the end of Third Year.
 * First Year (age 12–13/13–14)
 * Second Year (age 13–14/14–15)
 * Third Year (age 14–15/15–16)

Transition Year

 * Transition Year sometimes called Fourth Year (age 15-16/16-17) – depending on school, this may be compulsory, optional or unavailable.

Senior Cycle
The Senior Cycle is a two-year programme to prepare students for the Leaving Certificate examinations. The Leaving Certificate examinations take place directly after the end of Sixth Year, with the first exam being held on the Wednesday following the June public holiday (the first Monday in June).
 * Fifth Year (age 16–18 or age 15–17 if Transition Year is skipped)
 * Sixth Year (age 17–19 or age 16–18 if Transition Year is skipped)

To prepare students for the State examination in both the Senior (Leaving Certificate) and Junior (Junior Certificate) cycles, many schools hold Mock Examinations (also known as Pre-Certificate Examinations) around February each year. These "mocks" are not state examinations: independent companies provide the exam papers and marking schemes – and are therefore not mandatory across all schools.

Primary education
The Primary School Curriculum (1999) is taught in all schools. The document is prepared by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment and leaves to the church authorities (usually the Catholic Church but not universally) the formulation and implementation of the religious curriculum in the schools they control. The curriculum seeks to celebrate the uniqueness of the child:

 * ...as it is expressed in each child's personality, intelligence and potential for development. It is designed to nurture the child in all dimensions of his or her life—spiritual, moral, cognitive, emotional, imaginative, aesthetic, social and physical...

The Primary Certificate Examination (1929–1967) was the terminal examination at this level until the first primary-school curriculum, Curaclam na Bunscoile (1971), was introduced, though informal standardised tests are still performed. The primary school system consists of eight years: Junior and Senior Infants, and First to Sixth Classes. Most children attend primary school between the ages of four and twelve although it is not compulsory until the age of six. A minority of children start school at three.

In 1990 the first Muslim National School (originally on the South Circular Road, now in Clonskeagh) gained recognition and state funding from the Department of Education, and in 2001 a second Muslim National school was established on the Dominican campus on the Navan road in north Dublin. Both are under the patronage of the Islamic Foundation of Ireland. 2014 saw the establishment of the first independent Muslim primary school in Blanchardstown.

Stratford National School, is the only Jewish-ethos primary school in Ireland, under the patronage of the Dublin Talmud Torah. Due to the small community, only about 50% its pupils are of the Jewish faith.

As recently as 2016, virtually all state-funded primary schools – almost 97 percent – were under church control, with approximately 81% under Roman Catholic control. Irish law allowed schools under church (or other religious ethos) control to consider religion as the main factor in admissions. Oversubscribed schools often chose to admit Catholics over non-Catholics, a situation that created difficulty for non-Catholic families. The United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child in Geneva asked James Reilly, the Minister for Children at that time, to explain the continuation of preferential access to state-funded schools on the basis of religion. He said that the laws probably needed to change, but noted it may take a referendum because the Irish constitution gives protections to religious institutions. The issue is most problematic in the Dublin area. A petition initiated by a Dublin attorney, Paddy Monahan, received almost 20,000 signatures in favour of overturning the preference given to Catholic children. An advocacy group, Education Equality, planned a legal challenge. Ireland's main Muslim representative bodies, have praised the Irish education sector and catholic run schools for being accommodating to the needs of pupils from their community.

Reforms in recent years, including an increase in the number of schools with multi- and non-denominational patrons, has meant that the number of Roman Catholic patronage state-funded schools has fallen to approximately 80%.

Types of school
Primary education is generally completed at a national school, a multidenominational school, a gaelscoil or a preparatory school.
 * National schools date back to the introduction of state primary education in 1831. They are usually controlled by a board of management under diocesan patronage and often include a local clergyman. The term "national school" has of late become partly synonymous with primary school in some parts. Recently, there have been calls from many sides for fresh thinking in the areas of funding and governance for such schools, with some wanting them to be fully secularised.
 * Gaelscoileanna are a recent movement, started in the mid 20th century. The Irish language is the working language in these schools and they can now be found countrywide in English-speaking communities. They differ from Irish-language national schools in Irish-speaking regions in that most are under the patronage of a voluntary organisation, Foras Pátrúnachta na Scoileanna Lán-Ghaeilge, rather than a diocesan patronage. Approximately 6% of primary school children attend Gaelscoils and approximately 3% attend Gaelcholáistí with 187 primary and post-primary schools across the country making it the fastest growing education sector.
 * Multidenominational schools are another innovation. They are generally under the patronage of a non-profit limited company without share capital. They are often opened due to parental demand and students from all religions and backgrounds are welcome. Many are under the patronage of voluntary organisations such as Educate Together or An Foras Pátrúnachta. At least one proposed school has been approved under the patronage of the regional ETB, who generally run vocational secondary schools. In October 2020, general secretary of Education and Training Boards Ireland Paddy Lavelle confirmed that multidenominational state secondary schools, called State's Education and Training Boards (ETBs) – formerly called vocational schools – were going to phase out a set of Catholic influences such as mandatory graduation masses, displaying Catholic symbols only, and visits from diocesan inspectors, as described in the 'framework for the recognition of religious belief/identities of all students in ETB schools'.
 * Preparatory schools are independent, fee-charging primary schools that are not reliant on the state for funding. These typically serve to prepare children for entry to fee-charging independent or voluntary secondary schools. Most are under the patronage of a religious order.

As of 2021, mainstream primary schools numbered as follows:

As of 2021, the breakdown of mixed versus single-sex mainstream primary schools numbered as follows:

Secondary education
Most students enter secondary school aged 12–13. Most students attend and complete secondary education, with approximately 90% of school-leavers taking the terminal examination, the Leaving Certificate, at age 16–19 (in 6th Year at secondary school). Secondary education is generally completed at one of four types of school:
 * Voluntary secondary schools, or just "secondary schools", are owned and managed by religious communities or private organisations. The state funds 90% of teachers' salaries. With respect to other running costs, the vast majority of schools have 95% covered by the state with the balance being made up largely through voluntary contributions from pupils' families, while a minority of schools charge fees for pupils to attend and do not receive state subvention other than teachers' salaries. These schools cater for 57% of secondary pupils.
 * Community colleges, most of which were formerly called vocational schools, are owned and managed by Education and Training Boards, with 93% of their costs met by the state. These schools educate 28% of secondary pupils.
 * Comprehensive schools or community schools were established in the 1960s, often by amalgamating voluntary secondary and vocational schools. They are fully funded by the state and run by local boards of management. Nearly 15% of secondary pupils attend such schools.
 * Grind schools are fee-charging privately run schools outside the state sector, who tend to run only the Senior Cycle curriculum for 5th and 6th Year students as well as a one-year repeat Leaving Certificate programme.
 * Gaelcholáistí are second-level schools (voluntary, vocational or comprehensive) located within English-speaking communities but in which the Irish language is used as the main medium of education. Approximately 3% of secondary students attend these schools.

In urban areas, there is considerable freedom in choosing the type of school the child will attend. The emphasis of the education system at second level is as much on breadth as on depth; the system attempts to prepare the individual for society and further education or work. This is similar to the education system in Scotland. Although in 2012, the Programme for International Student Assessment (Pisa) found Ireland to be 7th in reading and 20th in mathematics in a world survey at the age of 15.

As of 2021, mainstream post-primary schools numbered as follows:

As of 2021, the breakdown of mixed versus single-sex mainstream post-primary schools numbered as follows:

Types of programme
The document Rules and Programme for Secondary Schools published by the Department of Education sets out the minimum standards of education required at this level. Examinations are overseen by the State Examinations Commission. Additional documents set out the standard in each element, module or subject.
 * The Junior Cycle builds on the education received at primary level and culminates with the Junior Certificate Examination. Students usually begin this at the age of 12 or 13. The Junior Certificate Examination is taken after three years of study and not before fourteen years of age. It consists of exams in English, Irish, Maths and Science (unless the student has an exemption in one of these) as well as a number of chosen subjects. This is typically a selection of subjects including Art, German, French, Spanish, Italian, Latin, Ancient Greek and Classical Studies, Music, Business Studies, Technology, Home Economics, Materials Technology (Woodwork, Metalwork), History, Geography, Civic Social and Political Education (CSPE), and Religious Education. The selection of optional and compulsory subjects varies from school to school. Most students take around ten examined subjects altogether. Other non-examined classes at Junior Cycle level include Physical Education and Social Personal and Health Education (SPHE).
 * Transition Year is a one-year informal course taken by an increasing number of students usually ages 15 or 16. The content of this is left to the school to model on the local needs. It is compulsory in some schools but optional in others. Some schools do not offer it. Students may attend structured classes, but do not cover material relevant to the Senior Cycle or the Leaving Certificate exams, and therefore students who choose not to do this year are in no way academically disadvantaged when entering the Senior Cycle. The range of activities in Transition Year or Fourth Year differs greatly from school to school, but many include activities such as work experience placements, project work, international trips or exchanges and excursions. Students may participate in courses such as creative writing, sailing, film-making, public speaking and so on, or enter competitions in science, fashion, motor sport and others that would normally be too time-consuming for a full-time student. Proponents of TY believe that it allows students an extra year to mature, engage in self-directed learning, explore career options and to choose subjects for senior cycle (the results of the Junior Certificate examination do not become available until midway through September, by which time students not taking Transition Year will already have chosen their classes and begun attending). Opponents believe that a year away from traditional study and the classroom environment can distract students and cause problems when they return to the Senior Cycle. They also believe that the activities undertaken in TY prevent some students from enrolling in this year, as they can be costly and most schools charge a fee of a few hundred euro to cover these activities.
 * The Senior Cycle builds on the junior cycle and culminates with the Leaving Certificate Examination. Students normally begin this aged 15–17 the year following the completion of the Junior Cycle or Transition Year. The Leaving Certificate Examination, with required exams in English, Irish, and Maths (barring exemptions), and 3 or 4 optional subjects, is taken after two years of study usually at the ages of 17–19.

Therefore, a typical secondary school will consist of First to Third Year (with the Junior Certificate at the end of Third), the usually optional Transition Year (though compulsory in some schools), and Fifth and Sixth Year (with the Leaving Cert. at the end of Sixth).

The vast majority of students continue from lower level to senior level, with only 12.3% leaving after the Junior Certificate. This is lower than the EU average of 15.2%.

Ireland's secondary students rank above average in terms of academic performance in both the OECD and EU; having reading literacy, mathematical literacy and scientific literacy test scores better than average. Ireland has the second best reading literacy for teenagers in the EU, after Finland.

Third-level education
According to the 2022 US News rankings, Ireland is among the top twenty best countries for education.

Special needs education
The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs Act 2004 established the framework for the education of students with special needs.

The National Council for Special Education (NCSE) supports students with physical and intellectual disabilities. Some schools provide specific services to students with disabilities. Students with dyslexia are offered additional supports where funding is available.

Special needs assistant
A special needs assistant (SNA) is a teaching assistant who has specialised in working with young people in the classroom setting who require additional learning support due to disability.

Areas of disadvantage
The Department of Education identifies disadvantaged schools and has schemes in place to provide additional assistance to low-income families and families experiencing financial hardship. Available assistance includes an allowance for school clothing and footwear, assistance with purchasing school books (administered by school principals), exemption from examination fees for the Leaving Certificate and Junior Certificate exams, and a 'remote areas boarding grant' that facilitates students living in remote areas to attend secondary school.

, the European Investment Bank is lending €200 million to finance investment in school buildings around Ireland. The project is part of the Department of Education's newest round of school capital investment, which seeks to improve the learning environment for about 23,000 pupils as well as teacher working conditions.

Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS, often in the anacronym form Deis) is the main policy initiative of the Department of Education to address educational disadvantage. Schools that operate under the Deis scheme are known as Deis schools. The increased resources under the program include reduced class sizes. The program has been in place since 2005. , there were 890 Deis schools with more than 180,000 students. In March 2022, Norma Foley, the minister for education, announced an expansion of the program to include an additional 310 schools (273 primary and 37 post-primary).

International students
Schools and universities in Ireland are popular destinations for international students. The country’s universities and colleges have educated many heads of state and government around the world, rivalled only by the United States.

Holidays
At primary level, schools are required to open for a minimum of 182 days and 167 at post-primary level. Standard Easter, Christmas and mid-term breaks are published by the Department of Education for the upcoming years. Exact dates vary depending on the school. Generally primary and secondary get similar holidays. The year is broken up into three terms: There is a mid-term break (one week off halfway through a term) around the public holiday at the end of October, two weeks off for Christmas: generally the last week in December and the first week in January, another mid-term break in February, two weeks off for Easter and 8 (primary) or 12 (secondary) weeks of summer holidays. Public Holidays are also taken off.
 * From the week in which 1 September falls to the week before Christmas.
 * From the week after New Year's Day to the week before Easter Sunday
 * From the week after Easter Sunday to the end of June for primary level or end of May/start of June for post-primary level to facilitate state exams starting in June.

In 2020, due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Ireland, all schools, colleges, universities and childcare facilities closed in March 2020 and remained closed until the end of August/September 2020.

title: Education in the Republic of Ireland


text:
Tego Calderón

Tegui Calderón Rosario (born February 1, 1972) is a Puerto Rican rapper, singer and actor. He began his musical career in 1996 (as Tego Tec) and was supported by the famous Puerto Rican rapper Eddie Dee, who invited him on his second studio album, El Terrorista de la Lírica, released in 2000. Calderón reached international success in 2003 with his first album, El Abayarde, which sold 300,000 copies worldwide and was nominated for a Latin Grammy Award. His importance in reggaeton music led him to participate in Eddie Dee's 12 Discípulos album in 2004. He released three more studio albums between 2006 and 2015, varying in styles, focusing more in hip hop and African music rather than reggaeton in The Underdog/El Subestimado (2006) and El Abayarde Contraataca (2007). His fourth studio album, El Que Sabe, Sabe, released in 2015, won a Latin Grammy Award for Best Urban Music Album. In the same year, he announced that he is planning a studio album alongside the Puerto Rican singer Yandel titled El Blanco y el Negro.

Calderón's style is characterized by his social and political themes, with lyrics against corruption in the Puerto Rican government. His themes also include dancing, love, self-reflection and personal experiences.

His film career started in 2007 with his supporting role in Illegal Tender. In 2009 he had a lead role in a short film called Los Bandoleros, which is part of Fast & Furious franchise, and the same year had a cameo appearance in the fourth installment of that franchise, Fast & Furious. In 2011, he reprised his character in a supporting role in Fast Five, alongside his colleague and friend Don Omar.

Early life
Calderón was born in Santurce, Puerto Rico. He is the son of Pilar Rosario Parrilla, a schoolteacher, and Esteban Calderón Ilarraza, a government worker for Puerto Rico's Department of Health. Moving at a young age from his native Puerto Rico to Miami, Florida, Calderón attended Miami Beach Senior High. Here he was exposed to several different cultures, eventually studying percussion and working as a drummer in a rock band. The band would cover songs produced by artists including Ozzy Osbourne and Led Zeppelin. He has noted that both of his parents were fans of Ismael Rivera, and that his father was also interested in jazz. He was influenced by both genres and incorporated them into his music, including songs such as "Minnie the Moocher". He eventually developed a music style that combined elements of salsa, plena, dancehall, and hip-hop, focusing on aspects of urban life in his lyrics.

Early musical career
Calderón's career began as a participant in Puerto Rican hip hop contests on television during the 1990s. He met Eddie Dee and DJ Adam who would become his main collaborators, but Calderón was rejected by most producers and deejays at the time. DJ Adam in an interview with Puerto Rican podcaster Chente Ydrach said that Calderón was going to be a part of the underground album DJ Adam's Mad Jam, but Calderón's style was too eccentric and underdeveloped, so he was taken out of the final tracklist.

Calderón signed to Eddie Dee's label in 2000, collaborating with Dee on his first hit on Puerto Rican radio, the hip hop song "En Peligro de Extinción" from Dee's second album El Terrorista de la Lírica.

During 2001-2002, Calderón participated in over a dozen original compilations including gold and platinum albums such as "Kilates", "Boricuas NY" volumes 1 and 2, "The Majestic", "La Mision" volumes 2 and 3 and of course his first worldwide crossover hit 'Cosa Buena' from the "Planet Reggae" production distributed by White Lion Records and Diamond Music. On top of that, he also was featured in the albums of Yaga y Mackie "Sonando Diferente" and Maestro's "The Movie" which further accelerated his buzz in the streets.

Thanks to 'Cosa Buena' and it being one of the first reggaeton videos receiving major rotation on mainstream channels such as Telemundo, in 2002, Calderón became a worldwide phenomenon before his debut album "El Abayarde" in November of that same year creating much hype for his debut. Despite only being available in Puerto Rico, the Dominican Republic and parts of the United States due to White Lion Records (formerly known as Boricua Guerrero and now 100% under Elías de León's ownership) being an independent label at the time; Regardless, 'El Abayarde' became the first hip hop/reggaeton album by a solo artist to sell over 75,000 units in one week with no major label distribution. This success led to Calderón and White Lion signing a joint venture with Sony Music Latin. Calderón formed his own label in the process known as Jiggiri Records under the White Lion banner and distributed by Sony Music Latin. Jiggiri Records would go on to sign and release multi-platinum albums from notable artists such as Zion & Lennox, Voltio and John Eric. Calderón would go on to become one of the most successful touring acts in all of Latin music from 2003-2005, thus further legitimizing the genre now known as reggaeton (once called 'underground').

In August 2003, Calderón performed at the Madison Square Garden in New York City. Based on his show and performance, The New York Times noted that he "made the best case for Reggaetón as music with room to grow" being a "forward-looking performer." His second appearance at the venue was in October 2004, where he headlined an event titled Megatón 2004. The concert sold out, with 20,000 in attendance, a mixed crowd of Latino and non-Latino fans.

Calderón's travels subsequently led him to Miami, where he incorporated dancehall elements into his musical style. In 2004, his album titled El Enemy de los Guasíbiri was released. The album's production included a mix of several urban genres. Calderón claimed that he preferred the influence of these other genres due to his belief that Salsa had "become too corporate and too safe". Years after its release, Calderón stated that he had never approved the release of the Guasibiri album, which he claimed was rather a collection of old songs and that it should be left out of his discography as an unauthorized album. Following the release of this album, reggaeton gained more influence with several hip-hop producers in New York. Calderón continued working on several mixtapes, being featured in remixes of Usher's "Yeah", Fat Joe's "Lean Back", N.O.R.E.'s "Oye Mi Canto" and Akon's "I Wanna Love You", 50 Cent's P.I.M.P remix and also Calderón featured Aventura's "We Got the Crown".

2005–present
Calderón participated on the 2004 and 2005 editions of New York's Puerto Rican Day parade. During this timeframe he became the first Latin American artist to be included on New York's Power-105. Calderón's influence among Latin American youth was noted in a featured published by the Village Voice. The publication claimed that he had "almost single-handedly. .. steered his country's dominant youth culture out of the island and Latino neighborhoods, and into the American stream of pop consciousness.” Around this time Calderón still remained a fixture in popular Latin music thanks to international hit such as the Don Omar– led "Bandoleros" (notably included in The Fast and the Furious: Tokyo Drift soundtrack) and "Quítate Tú Pa Ponerme Yo" from Dee's 12 Discípulos compilation album.

In mid-2005, Calderón signed a joint venture deal between Atlantic Records and his own independent label, Jiggiri Records, for the amount of a million dollars as reported in the Hip Hop/Reggaeton publications of the time. In 2006, he released The Underdog/El Subestimado, his second album, containing less reggaeton and more hip hop music. This album featured appearances by Buju Banton, Voltio, Bataklán, Eddie Dee, Luis Cabán, Yandel, Zion, Chyno Nyno, Don Omar and Oscar D'León. Several producers were involved in the album, including Cookee, Major League, Salaam Remi, Eric Figueroa, Luny Tunes, DJ Nelson, Danny Fornaris, Nesty la Mente Maestra, Naldo, DJ Joe, DJ Fat, Echo and Diesel.

In 2023, Calderón released "La Receta" through Paz y Esperanza and Universal Music Latino.

Musical styles and themes
Although Calderón is a reggaeton artist, he claims to like "all types of music". Evidence of this is seen both in his biography (he began his career in music in a heavy metal band and attended a school for music as a drummer) as well as in his music, which incorporates "'several musical tendencies'", including sounds and rhythms from places like Africa, Colombia, and the Caribbean. He obtains the sound for his popular reggaeton music through "fusing an experimental reggaeton style strongly rooted in the working-class Caribbean aesthetics of classic salsa with a strong dose of hip-hop". On The Underdog/El Subestimado, he collaborated with rap duo Anónimo Consejo to create a song entitled "Son Dos Alas" which eventually was shortened to an interlude without Calderón.

Calderón has also been praised for his lyrics, which are much more substantive and uplifting, expressing social consciousness. Calderón has been described as "the reggaeton champion of an Afro-Caribbean working-class aesthetic" and is known for lyrics that are equal parts poetry and politics. A consistent link between all of his albums "are the social themes and the untouchable bravado that he usually transmits through his artistic outlook." According to Tony Touch (legendary hip hop dj and collaborator), "Tego is someone who represents struggle, an underdog... He's more of an MC, a product of late-'80s hip-hop."

Film and other career projects
Calderón made his acting debut in the film Illegal Tender produced by John Singleton. Calderón played the role of Choco, a Puerto Rican gangster whose character was written specifically for him by director Franc. Reyes.

Calderón turned down roles in both Feel the Noise and "El Cantante" and instead chose to appear in Illegal Tender out of respect for its producer. After convincing John Singleton that he wanted to appear in a comedy, Calderón was slated to appear in an upcoming Singleton film which casts him as the coach of a baseball team., but the movie was never produced.

Calderón traveled to Sierra Leone along with artists Raekwon and Paul Wall to film a VH1 documentary about diamond mining entitled "Bling'd: Blood, Diamonds, and Hip-Hop." The documentary focused on the role of Hip Hop in the blood diamond trade, after the filming concluded Calderón publicly announced that he would no longer wear jewelry. His experience in Africa also changed his outlook on life, which influenced the recording of the track "Alegria", encouraging fans to not complain about life and recognize that there are other people with bigger problems in their lives.

Calderón and Don Omar are featured in Fast & Furious, Fast Five and The Fate of the Furious, the fourth, fifth and eighth installments of The Fast and the Furious franchise.

Discography

 * Studio albums
 * El Abayarde (2002)
 * The Underdog/El Subestimado (2006)
 * El Abayarde Contraataca (2007)
 * El Que Sabe, Sabe (2015)

 * Mixtapes
 * The Original Gallo Del País - O.G. El Mixtape (2012)

 * Compilation albums
 * El Enemy de los Guasíbiri (2004)

Awards and nominations

 * American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Latin Music Awards

!Ref.
 * style="text-align:center;"|2004
 * «Al Natural»
 * Hip hop/Rap/Reggaeton Song of the Year
 * Won
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * style="text-align:center;"|2009
 * «Quitarte To'» (featuring Randy)
 * Urban Song of the Year
 * Won
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * }
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * }

 * Grammy Awards

!Ref.
 * style="text-align:center;"|2007
 * The Underdog/El Subestimado
 * Best Latin Rock, Alternative or Urban Album
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * style="text-align:center;"|2008
 * El Abayarde Contraataca
 * Best Latin Urban Album
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * }
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * }

 * Latin Grammy Awards

!Ref.
 * style="text-align:center;"|2003
 * El Abayarde
 * rowspan="2"|Best Urban Music Album
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;"|
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2008
 * El Abayarde Contraataca
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
 * «Ni Fu Ni Fa»
 * Best Urban Song
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2012
 * "Calentura" (with ChocQuibTown and Zully Murillo)
 * Record of the Year
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
 * The Original Gallo del País
 * rowspan="2"|Best Urban Music Album
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2015
 * El Que Sabe, Sabe
 * Won
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|
 * «Dando Break»
 * Best Urban Song
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2023
 * «La Receta»
 * Best Reggaeton Performance
 * Won
 * }
 * Best Urban Song
 * Nominated
 * style="text-align:center;" rowspan="2"|2023
 * «La Receta»
 * Best Reggaeton Performance
 * Won
 * }
 * }

title: Tego Calderón


text:
Fox River (Illinois River tributary)

The Fox River is a 202 mi tributary of the Illinois River, flowing from southeastern Wisconsin to Ottawa, Illinois in the United States. The Wisconsin section was known as the Pishtaka River in the 19th century. There is another Fox River in Wisconsin that flows through Lake Winnebago into Green Bay. There are also two other "Fox Rivers" in southern Illinois: the Fox River (Little Wabash tributary) and a smaller "Fox River" that joins the Wabash River near New Harmony, Indiana.

The Fox River (Illinois River tributary) is known locally as an excellent fishery with opportunities for Smallmouth Bass, Flathead Catfish, and Walleye. The rivers watershed encompasses 1720 square miles in Illinois and 938 square miles in Wisconsin.

Wisconsin

The Fox River rises in the Halbach Swamp, 1 mi southeast of the community of Colgate, Wisconsin and flows past Brookfield, Waukesha, Big Bend, Waterford, Rochester, Burlington, Wheatland, Silver Lake and Wilmot, for a total of 84 mi in Wisconsin.

A major dam in Waterford forms a 1200 acre navigable waterway which is one of the busiest in southeastern Wisconsin. The river is generally navigable from the Iron Bridge (now a concrete bridge) in Tichigan, Wisconsin (just south of Big Bend) down to the dam. The river connects several small lakes in this section, and one large lake, Tichigan Lake and one smaller lake, Buena Lake. The entire area including connected lakes and the Fox are often referred to as Tichigan Lake.

At the southern end of this section, Foxwood Isle separates the main dam to its west and a spillway to the east.

A small dam is present just a few miles south in downtown Rochester. The river then flows unobstructed through Burlington, where it joins the White River, and on to Wilmot. This is a popular and picturesque day-canoe trip never straying far from the road, but often just out of sight of it.

Flooding is common on this section of the river, especially near Wheatland to the border.

The Fox River watershed encompasses 938 square miles in Wisconsin.

Illinois
The river enters Illinois where it widens into a large area of interconnected lakes known as the Chain O'Lakes. Fox Lake is the largest village in this area. From the chain, the river flows generally southward for 118 mi, until it joins the Illinois River at Ottawa. Illinois towns and communities that are on the Fox River include (from north to south): Fox Lake, Johnsburg, McHenry, Holiday Hills, Island Lake, Burtons Bridge, Port Barrington, Cary, Fox River Grove, Algonquin, Carpentersville, West Dundee, East Dundee, Elgin, South Elgin, St. Charles, Geneva, Batavia, North Aurora, Aurora, Montgomery, Oswego, Yorkville, Plano, Millington, Sheridan and Ottawa. Collectively, the area surrounding the Fox River is known as the Fox Valley. Around 1 million people live in this area.

Native American tribes that lived near the Fox River included the Potawatomi, Sac, and Fox tribes.

The Fox River has 15 dams, including McHenry Dam, which raises the river slightly to maintain depth in the Chain O'Lakes in northern Illinois, the Montgomery Dam and the Dayton Dam, a hydroelectric dam near Ottawa. In September 2023, the United States Army Corps of Engineers issued a draft report recommending the removal of nine of these dams for environmental reasons.

In the winter, bald eagles can be found nesting along the banks.

Early in the history of Illinois, the Fox River provided water for the Illinois and Michigan Canal via a feeder canal, allowing the canal to pass over the Fox River on an aqueduct.

The Fox River watershed encompasses 1720 square miles in Illinois.

title: Fox River (Illinois River tributary)


text:
User:Helenmarie

This is Helen's user page. I don't really know that much about all this Wiki malarky - but as baby sister to a wiki-holic, I felt it was my duty to find out what the hype was about, and to see why she never answers her phone!

So here I am, all grown up with my own user page now. I'd like to edit things -although I'm not overly sure how useful my contributions might be.

Love

Me x

title: User:Helenmarie