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Wolfgang Metzger

Wolfgang Metzger (born 22 July 1899 in Heidelberg, Germany; died 20 December 1979 in Bebenhausen, Germany) is considered one of the main representatives of Gestalt psychology (Gestalt theory) in Germany.

Metzger's most widely acclaimed work is Psychologie: Die Entwicklung ihrer Grundannahmen seit der Einführung des Experiments (Psychology: The development of basic principles since the introduction of the experimental method). It portrays systematically the foundations of psychology, including the different kinds of psychological reality, the problems associated with reference systems, order, and much more. Pivotal in its discussions is the cumulative knowledge, at that time, of the entire Gestalt school.

Biography
Metzger was a student and associate of the founders of the Berlin school of Gestalt theory, Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka. Metzger became Max Wertheimer's assistant in Frankfurt/Main in the 1930s and his successor when the Nazis forced Wertheimer out. Early in the 1940s Metzger became chairman at Münster, a position he held until his retirement.

Wolfgang Metzger joined the SA in 1933, and became a member of the NSDAP in 1937.

The early major work Gesetze des Sehens (Laws of Seeing) first appeared in serial part issues, edited by the Senckenbergische Naturforschende Gesellschaft in Frankfurt. Expanded editions were printed in 1936, 1954, and 1975. In this work Metzger supplemented his collection of phenomena from everyday perception and the fine arts, always endeavoring to find ever more compelling illustrations for the Gestalt point of view. As Heinz Heckhausen has pointed out this work is a masterpiece for those who come to it without an intense background in the psychology of perception; in a nontechnical style Metzger moves the reader toward a deeper experience, and sometimes an altered conception, of the visual world.

Following World War II Metzger devoted increasing energy to applied questions, especially those having to do with child-rearing, classroom education, and psychotherapy. His guiding principles in these applied endeavors were developed in his last two books, Schöpferische Freiheit (Productive freedom, 1949, 1962) and Psychologie in der Erziehung (Psychology in education, 1971). The theoretical starting point of these works is again Gestalt psychology with its assumption of a natural, nonforced order in nature, which led him to make his observations on the virtues of a theme of freedom among the goals of education. Metzger became eventually an outspoken advocate of Adlerian psychology with which he had become acquainted during his Berlin days through Fritz Künkel and later through Oliver Brachfeld who was in Münster from 1960 to 1965. Together with Brachfeld he founded in 1964 the German Alfred Adler Society which became in 1970 the German Society for Individual Psychology.

Metzger was president of the 16th International Congress for Psychology in 1960 in Bonn. From 1962 until 1964, he was president of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Psychologie. He was also highly committed to activities associated with his membership in the Association de Psychologie de la Langue Française. Metzger's legacy is carried forth in the Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications (GTA), an international multidisciplinary organization, of which he was honorary chairman.

title: Wolfgang Metzger


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21 Jump Street

21 Jump Street is an American police procedural television drama series that aired on the Fox network and in first-run syndication from April 12, 1987 to April 27, 1991, spanning 103 episodes over five seasons. The series focuses on a squad of youthful-looking undercover police officers investigating crimes in schools, gangs, and other teenage venues. It was originally going to be titled Jump Street Chapel, after the deconsecrated church building in which the unit has its headquarters, but was changed at Fox's request so as not to mislead viewers into thinking it was a religious program.

Created by Patrick Hasburgh and Stephen J. Cannell, the series was produced by Patrick Hasburgh Productions and Stephen J. Cannell Productions in association with 20th Century Fox Television. Executive producers included Hasburgh, Cannell, Steve Beers, and Bill Nuss. The show was an early hit for the fledgling Fox network, and was created to attract a younger audience. The final season aired in first-run syndication mainly on local Fox affiliates. It was later rerun on the FX cable network from 1996 to 1998.

The series provided a spark to Johnny Depp's acting career, garnering him national recognition as a teen idol. Depp found this status irritating, but he continued on the series under his contract and was paid $45,000 per episode. Eventually he was released from his contract after the fourth season.

A spin-off series, Booker, was produced for the character of Dennis Booker (Richard Grieco); it ran for only one season, from September 24, 1989, to May 6, 1990.

A film adaptation directed by Phil Lord and Christopher Miller was released on March 16, 2012. The film is set in the same continuity as the series, with Johnny Depp, Holly Robinson and Peter DeLuise reprising their characters in cameo appearances. Richard Grieco and Dustin Nguyen also have cameos in the 2014 film sequel 22 Jump Street.

Premise
The series focuses on a group of rookie police officers headquartered at the eponymous address. These young officers all have especially youthful appearances, allowing them to pass for teenagers. Their assignments frequently consist of undercover work in high schools or, less commonly, colleges, where they generally investigate drug trafficking and other criminal activities. The show's plots cover issues such as alcoholism, hate crimes, gang violence, drug abuse, homophobia, AIDS, child abuse, and sexual promiscuity. Similarly, each problem is often solved by the end of the hour-long episode, giving an implicit moral about a particular activity's impact. When the show originally aired, some episodes were followed immediately by public service announcements (PSAs) featuring cast members.

Cast
Jeff Yagher was originally cast as Officer Tom Hanson in the pilot. He was replaced after the original pilot episode was filmed, and his scenes were reshot with Johnny Depp. Midway through the first season, Frederic Forrest was replaced by Steven Williams. On the show, Forrest's character Richard Jenko is killed by a drunk driver.

Johnny Depp left the series at the end of the fourth season, but was credited in the first two episodes of the fifth season, despite not having appeared.

David Barry Gray's character was introduced at the end of the fourth season and starred in two episodes of season five with Alexandra Powers. Both episodes were filmed before the fourth season had ended but were not shown until the start of season five. Neither actor was approached in regards to portraying their character in the show's fifth and final season. Michael DeLuise joined the cast part way through the fifth season and stayed on until late in the season.

Guest stars
Some notable guest stars on the series include: Dom DeLuise, Josh Brolin, Mindy Cohn, Bridget Fonda, Bobby Rodriguez, Jada Pinkett Smith, Brad Pitt, Vince Vaughn, Barney Martin, Dann Florek, Blair Underwood, Shannen Doherty, John Waters, Rosie Perez, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Mario Van Peebles, Christina Applegate, Pauly Shore, David DeLuise, Bradley Gregg, Jason Priestley, Christine Elise, Christopher Titus, Kurtwood Smith, Peri Gilpin, Shannon Tweed, Sarah Buxton, David Paymer, Diedrich Bader, Russell Wong, Kelly Hu, Tim Russ, Thomas Haden Church, Sherilyn Fenn, Rob Estes, Ray Walston, R.J. Williams, Robyn Lively, Gloria Reuben, Billy Jayne, Jason Lively, Billy Warlock, Peter Berg, Larenz Tate, and Tracy Griffith.

Filming
Set in a fictional city and state (Metropolis, Evergreen State) in the United States, the series was primarily filmed in Vancouver, British Columbia. It was one of the first major television series to use Vancouver as a filming location and helped to establish the city as a center for film production.

Reception
21 Jump Street, along with Married... with Children and The Tracey Ullman Show, debuted in the spring of 1987. All three shows were hits with audiences and helped to establish the then-newly launched Fox network. 21 Jump Street was the first hit series for the Fox network. In August, 21 Jump Street became the first Fox series to win its timeslot against a Big Three network series. In the United Kingdom, it was shown on the similarly nascent, and interrelated, Sky One, which had yet to reach a sizeable audience.

Broadcast history
Season 4 was the last season to air on the Fox network. In the commentary provided with the Season 5 DVD set, Peter DeLuise said that Fox had decided to cancel the show after Season 4 because the ratings had fallen below a set limit. Following this season, Johnny Depp and Dustin Nguyen left the show. The departure of their characters was never fully explained in the narrative of the TV series, but in the movie it is explained that Officer Hanson was transferred to the DEA and was later joined by Officer Penhall. The Booker spin-off crossover episode, "Wheels and Deals – Part One," is included with 21 Jump Street's syndication package, and is also included on the Season 4 DVD set.

Officer Dean Garrett (David Barry Gray) makes his first appearance in "Everyday is Christmas." As it became more difficult for the original Jump Street cast to pass as high-school students, younger actors were brought in, intended to be "youthful" replacements in order to allow the show to maintain its original premise of young-looking cops posing as high-school students.

Home media
Anchor Bay Entertainment released all five seasons of 21 Jump Street on DVD in Region 1 between 2004 and 2006.

On October 14, 2009, it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to several Stephen J. Cannell series, including 21 Jump Street, and subsequently re-released the first four seasons. In addition, Mill Creek also released 21 Jump Street: The Complete Series, an 18-disc collection featuring all 103 episodes of the series on DVD on July 27, 2010.

On July 29, 2022, Visual Entertainment released 21 Jump Street: The Complete Series on DVD in Region 1.

In Region 2, Anchor Bay Entertainment released all 5 seasons on DVD in the UK. They also released a complete series set on March 5, 2012.

In Region 4, Madman Entertainment released all five seasons on DVD in Australia. They also released a complete series collection on May 1, 2013.

In Region 2, Pidax Film released a complete series set box set on September 18, 2020, in Germany with all original music intact. German and English audio tracks.

Film adaptation
On March 16, 2012, a feature film based on the television series from Sony Pictures was released starring Jonah Hill and Channing Tatum (who are also executive producers) and directed by Phil Lord and Chris Miller with the screenplay written by Michael Bacall from a story by both Hill and Bacall. Johnny Depp, Peter DeLuise, and Holly Robinson briefly reprise their roles as Tom Hanson, Doug Penhall, and Judy Hoffs.

Described in concept by Hill as an "R-rated, insane, Bad Boys-meets-John Hughes-type movie," the film departs from the dramatic style of the series and instead features a comedic tone. The film and series are also set in the same continuity. A sequel titled 22 Jump Street was released in 2014.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: 21 Jump Street


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Talk:Perch

Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment
This article is or was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment. Further details are available on the course page. Student editor(s): Liz0618, C0C0C0C0C0C0C0.

Above undated message substituted from Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment by PrimeBOT (talk) 06:23, 17 January 2022 (UTC)

Discussion
What is the American definition of "species"?

I thought the basic distinction between species and subspecies was that cross-breeding between two species either does not produce any offspring or does not produce fertile offspring. Americans seem to have a much wider definition of species as compared to Europeans. In all of Eurasia there is only one Arcic hare (Lepus timidus) whereas in the US and Canada, this species is not only a different species, but three different species! (user: Wiglaf)

 * That's the general definition, but all the references I can find state that the yellow perch is (as of 2003, anyway) still considered a valid species. If you could provide a source which supports the claim that cross-breeding of yellow and European perch has resulted in viable offspring, then you've won your argument. I can't find any.

 * On a similar note, where did you get your weight measurement for European perch? 10.5 kilograms seems a slight too extreme; FishBase lists a max published weight of 4.75 kg.

 * As an aside, the classification of the discus is similarly questionable: there are two recognized species, but aquarists have known for ages that crossings will result in viable offspring. It's a murky subject, but I'd rather not disagree with the taxonomical authorities unless we can back up the discrepancy. Hadal 13:10, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Here it is: http://www.fundp.ac.be/recherche/projets/en/99275103.html According to the site (which seems reliable), cross-breeding the two stocks is a way of improving growth. You can keep the yellow perch as a separate species if you want to (I won't interfere), but in my mind it would be more "correct" to regard it as a subspecies.

The weight information comes from this link http://www.amonline.net.au/fishes/fishfacts/fish/pfluviat.htm Apparently, it was 10.4 kg It's a reasonable maximum weight considering the fact that the European perch grows to be twice as long as the yellow perch.Wiglaf

 * From my interpretation, your cite seems to contradict the notion of a subspecies. Not only do they reference the yellow perch as a distinct species (Perca flavescens), they also mention the nature of the offspring produced in this research:

 * "... by mastering the technique for producing monosex female populations and sterile triploids"

 * The above quote may only be referencing the non-hybrid European perch stocks, but either way it's not clear. There is no mention of viable offspring, unless I'm missing something. The only point which is explicitly stated is that of heterosis in the hybrids. A hybrid can be valuable to the aquaculture industry even if it's sterile; take the tiger muskellunge as but one example.

 * As for the weight measurement, I suspect it may be a typo but I won't argue it for now. All of these sources:, , , may be wrong, and I've mentioned the discrepancy for others to check if they see fit. Hadal 14:17, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

Sure, do as you please. I was only trying to contribute. I am sorry if it wasn't worth much. Wiglaf

 * You have! Your contributions are worthy and greatly appreciated, and you've raised an excellent question. It still isn't completely clear whether the two species are truly distinct or not. I'm simply concerned about siding with one camp over the other based on a somewhat vague reference. I'll reword the entry to read something like "although recognized as a distinct species, some consider the yellow perch to be a subspecies of European perch". How's that sound? Hadal 14:33, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

It sounds fine! Thanks! The question of whether a population is a subspecies or a species is sometimes more a question of convention (as in the case of the discus fish). If most authorities regard them as two distinct species, it is probably the most correct way of defining them. Wiglaf

 * It gets worse - in the plant world there are viable crosses between different genera(!), such as in orchids. Taxonomy can be a murky subject, and you can find plenty of heated arguments in the literature. Stan 14:50, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * If the type species is Perca fluvialatis, then why does the article state that it is usually know as the Yellow Perch? USA is not the whole world. In addition to that, why mention that three species are commonly recognised and then list a handful?82.6.1.85 (talk) 23:19, 6 October 2010 (UTC)Lance Tyrell

Anatomy Question: Teeth?
The Purdue University web site list Walleye as a Perch, and state that they have sharp teeth. So do Perch in general have sharp teeth? Link is below: https://www.purdue.edu/hhs/nutr/fish4health/indiana/FishesofIndiana/Perches/Walleye.htm

Trivia?
I don't think the perch trivia should be here at all. Perch and Bass have very similar names in German. (barsch vs. seebarsch ) Bush is known to have stocked his lake with Largemouth Bass. Reuters translated his speech with perch, AP used bass. 7.5 pounds is nowhere near a record, but is a satisfying catch. This "trivia" is mildly interesting, but it really has nothing to do with perch. Perhaps it could be moved to the largemouth bass page or the Red Herring page. If anyone concurs, I will delete it here.Juneappal 22:42, 8 May 2006 (UTC)

I concur with its deletion. This was an innocent translation error and though there was humor in it, does in fact have little to do with perch. I don't think it should be moved anywhere else either though, since though it is mildly interesting right now, the concept itself overall is so benign and uninteresting that it probably does wikipedia a disservice by having it included.

I verified the largemouth bass quote at whitehouse.gov and I'm moving it to that page, let them delete it there. --Our Bold Hero 02:00, 9 May 2006 (UTC)

Bad / wrong linking
Genus Perca in English is linked to Specie Perca fluviatilis in Italian and Spanish. This linking is not correct and should be changed to reflect the relationship between a genus and one of its species.

ICE77 -- 84.223.77.125 21:21, 5 September 2007 (UTC)

WikiProject Food and drink Tagging
This article talk page was automatically added with WikiProject Food and drink banner as it falls under Category:Food or one of its subcategories. If you find this addition an error, Kindly undo the changes and update the inappropriate categories if needed. The bot was instructed to tagg these articles upon consenus from WikiProject Food and drink. You can find the related request for tagging here. Maximum and careful attention was done to avoid any wrongly tagging any categories, but mistakes may happen... If you have concerns, please inform on the project talk page -- TinucherianBot (talk) 21:21, 3 July 2008 (UTC)

Why are the Australian fish on here?
The article is about the genus Perca, no? So why are the Australian, non-Perca, fish listed in the "species" section? —Preceding unsigned comment added by Wabofiur (talk • contribs) 12:27, 9 May 2010 (UTC)

perca vs perch
Several editors have commented on the poor distinctions made in this article. I have corrected the lead to refer to the genus as such, rather than the common name as used in America, and have drawn a distinction between true perches and other species sharing the common name throughout the article.μηδείς (talk) 23:34, 6 October 2010 (UTC)

Proposed Edits & Sources
The article also needs additional explanation regarding information provided in the anatomy section. Here is an article that I believe might be beneficial to the section talking about the external anatomy of the perch. “External Body Parts of a Bony Fish (Lutjanidae) - Csun.edu.” CSUN.edu, https://www.csun.edu/~msteele/classes/Ich530/handouts/1_external%20anatomy%20and%20taxonomy.pdf The article is also missing information regarding the internal anatomy of the fish. Here is an article that might be helpful to provide additional information on this topic. “Exploring Our Fluid Earth.” Structure and Function - Fish | Manoa.hawaii.edu/ExploringOurFluidEarth, https://manoa.hawaii.edu/exploringourfluidearth/biological/fish/structure-and-function-fish The article talks about the different species of Perch as if there are only three different species, the European Perch, the Yellow Perch, and the Balkhash Perch; however there are many more species of perch that it fails to mention. Here is an article relating to another very common species of Perch that might be useful to include in the Perch article, the Nile Perch. Pringle, Robert M. “Origins of the Nile Perch in Lake Victoria.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Sept. 2005, https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/55/9/780/286121?login=true. Here is another book that could be used to provide information on the external anatomy of the Perch. It also includes some great images that could potentially be used on the Perch page. Hubbs, Carl L., et al. “Perch Family - Percidae.” Fishes of the Great Lakes Region, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 2004, pp. 100–109. Elephantidae123 (talk) 18:10, 11 March 2022 (UTC)

Proposed Edits & Sources
Hi everyone, I have some proposed ideas to better the "Habitats" section. We looking over this section I noticed that there was many plagiarized phrases as well as, the flow of the section was not the best. I think a better way to phrase this section might be Perch are classified as carnivores, choosing waters where smaller fish, shellfish, and insect larvae are abundant. The Perch can be found in central parts of the United States in fresh water ponds, lakes, streams, or rivers. These fish can be found in freshwater all over the world, and are know to inhabit the Great Lake region, in particular Lake Erie. These fish inhabit bodies of water where vegetation and debris is readily accessible. In the spring when the Perch chooses to spawn, they use this vegetation to conceal their eggs from predators [1]". I found the relevant information I want to contribute from a more reliable source than some of the others (Pringle, Robert M. “Origins of the Nile Perch in Lake Victoria.” OUP Academic, Oxford University Press, 1 Sept. 2005, https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/55/9/780/286121?login=true.). Another contribution I think would be beneficial for the Perch Wikipedia page would be the addition of an image with the internal anatomy of the perch labeled. There is no current image on the page that has all the internal anatomy labeled the image I was thinking about contributed is https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Oste082p_labelled.png. For the caption for the image I was thinking " The above picture is a labeled image of the internal anatomy of the species Perch Perca flavescens. Each letter corresponds to an internal body part, A: gills, B: auricle of the heart, C: ventricle of the heart, D: liver, E: stomach, F: digestive cecum, G: swim bladder, H: intestine, I: testis, and J: urinary bladder".Sunsetblvd13 (talk) 16:01, 10 May 2022 (UTC)

Proposed Edits
I have the following proposed edits to add to the anatomy section with the proposal of adding an external and internal anatomy subsection:

External Anatomy:

The head consists of the skull (formed from loosely connected bones), eyes, mouth, operculum, gills, and a pair of nostrils (which has no connection to the oral cavity). They have small brush-like teeth across their jaws and on the roof of their mouth. The gills are located under the operculum on both sides of the head and are used to extract oxygen molecules from water and expel carbon dioxide; the gills have gill rakers inside the mouth.

External anatomy can be used to determine the sex of a perch fish in multiple ways. Fish have two posterior openings located on their abdomen, the anal and urogenital. In males, the shape of the urogenital opening is round and larger than the anal opening. In females, the urogenital opening is often a V- or U-shape which is a similar size to the anal opening. Also, Males usually have a more brown-red colored urogenital opening compared to females.

Internal Anatomy:

The esophagus is a flexible tube that goes from the mouth to the stomach. The stomach is connected to the intestine via the pyloric sphincter. The intestines of perch consist of the small intestine and large intestine; the intestines have many pyloric caeca and a spiral value, the small intestine consists of a part called the duodenum. The spleen is located after the stomach and before the spiral value. The spleen is connected to the circulatory system, not part of the digestive tract. The liver is composed of three lobes: one small lobe (includes the gall bladder) and two large lobes. perch have long and narrow kidneys that contain clusters of nephrons that empty into the mesonephric duct. They have a two-chambered heart consisting of four compartments: the sinus venous, one atrium, one ventricle, and conus. Perch fish have a swim bladder that helps control buoyancy or floating within the water, the swim bladder is only found in bony fish. In perch, the duct connecting the swim bladder to the pharynx is closed so air is unable to pass through from the mouth, these fish are called physoclists. Specifically, in perch, the gas bladder can vary from 12% to 25% of Oxygen and 1.4% to 2.9% of Carbon dioxide gas. Perch fish reproductive organs include either a pair of testes (sperm-producing) or a pair of ovaries (egg-producing). — Preceding unsigned comment added by LepidopteraMonarch (talk • contribs) 16:30, 10 May 2022 (UTC)

Proposed Edits
Hi all, I have proposed some edits for the "Species" section of the Perch article. Here is my section with edits included:

Most authorities recognize three species within the perch genus:
 * The European perch (P. fluviatilis) is found primarily in Europe and North America, but a few can also be found in South Africa, and even as far east on the Southern hemisphere as Australia.[1] This species is typically greenish in color with dark vertical bars on its sides with a red or orange coloring in the tips of its fins. The European perch has been successfully introduced in New Zealand and Australia, where it is known as the redfin perch or English perch. In Australia, larger specimens have been bred, but the species rarely grows heavier than 2.7 kg (6 lb).
 * The Balkhash perch (P. schrenkii) is found in Kazakhstan, (in Lake Balkhash and Lake Alakol), Uzbekistan, and China. It is a dark gray/black color on its dorsal side, but the ventral areas of the fish are a lighter silver or even sometimes green color. The Balkhash perch also displays the vertical bars on its sides, similar to the European and yellow perches. In the latter half of the 20th century, the Balkhash perch was introduced into the basins of the Nuru and Chu rivers. The introduction of these fishes to the Nuru and Chu rivers was successful. Because of this success, the population of Balkhash perch in the Balkhash Lake is rarer now. They are similar in size to the yellow and European perches, weighing around 1.5 kg.[2]
 * The yellow perch (P. flavescens), smaller and paler than the European perch, is found in North America. In northern areas, it is sometimes referred to as the lake perch. This species is prized for its food quality and has often been raised in hatcheries and introduced into areas in which it is not native. Yellow perch are almost identical in appearance to European perch, but have a more yellow coloring. These fish typically only reach a size of about 38 cm (15 in) and 1 kg (2 lb 3 oz).

Proposed image to be added to this section:

Figure caption: European perch (Perca fluviatilis), exhibiting its green coloration and red tipped fins, as well as the vertical bars on its sides.

References used for this section:

1. Orban, Elena, et al. “Nutritional Quality and Safety of European Perch (Perca Fluviatilis) from Three Lakes of Central Italy.” Food Chemistry, vol. 100, no. 2, 20 Sept. 2005, pp. 482–490., https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.09.069.

2. Mamilov, Nadir Shamilevich. "Biology of Balkhash Perch (Perca schrenkii Kessler, 1874)." Biology of Perch (2016): 47-72.

Elephantidae123 (talk) 16:49, 10 May 2022 (UTC) Elephantidae123 (talk) 16:52, 10 May 2022 (UTC)

Wiki Education assignment: California Natural History
— Assignment last updated by Tianyi258 (talk) 22:57, 2 October 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Perch


text:
Talk:Governors of the Australian states

Incorrect comment about Canada
re: "Unlike lieutenant governors in Canada's provinces, Australia's state governors are not subject to the constitutional authority of the governor-general, but are directly responsible to the monarch. "

This is incorrect, and I presume it's based on someone making an assumption based on the fact that the Governor General (functionally, the Prime Minister) appoints the Lieutenant Governors.

To wit: ″There is a common misconception that Lieutenant Governors are somehow subordinate to the Governor General in the constitutional sense. That is not correct. Each is the Queen’s personal representative and the institutional embodiment of the Crown. Each is governed by the same rules and conventions, and each has the same responsibilities. Everything that I say about the powers of a Lieutenant Governor is equally applicable to those of the Governor General. The sole distinction between them is that the Governor General deals with matters which fall within the authority of Parliament and the Government of Canada while a Lieutenant Governor is circumscribed by the constitutional rules that define the ambit of the provincial legislatures, in our case the House of Assembly. This being so, I shall use the term “vice regal” to embrace all 11 of Canada’s constitutional offices. " http://revparl.ca/32/1/32n1_09e_Roberts.pdf

This was established by Maritime Bank v. Receiver-General of New Brunswick, the decision of which read: "the Lieutenant Governor [...] is as much a representative of Her Majesty, for all purposes of provincial government, as the Governor General himself is, for all purposes of Dominion government." — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.138.37.217 (talk) 00:25, 27 January 2024 (UTC)
 * If lieutenant-governors hold office at the governor-general's pleasure, then I would say by definition they are subordinate. ITBF (talk) 04:54, 27 January 2024 (UTC)

earlier comment
I will fix the lists of governors of the remaining three states tomorrow. Adam 13:03, 20 Feb 2004 (UTC)

subheads
anyone else think this needs some subheads? (quick look) --Samwisebruce 17:42, 4 May 2005 (UTC)

Australia Act
I read somewhere that the Australia Act 1986 removed any role that Britain had in the appointing of Australian Governors. If this is true, then it should be mentioned in the article. Snottygobble | Talk 05:04, 5 September 2005 (UTC)
 * It's not true, AFAIK. But then, what do you mean by "Britain"? The Premiers of the States of Australia still advise/tell the Queen who to appoint, much like the Prime Minister has his nomination appointed Governor-General. The Australia Act certainly didn't replace the process with the Canadian model, whereby the Prime Minister would nominate State Governors, if that's what you're referring to.--Cyberjunkie | Talk 07:37, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

The Queen they advise is the Queen of Australia, so Britain plays no role whatever in the appointment of state governors. Adam 09:12, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I see your points.

I went digging back through my reading, and found the paragraph. This is from Boyce, Peter. Introduction, in Black, David (ed) (1991). The House on the Hill: A History of the Parliament of Western Australia 1832–1990. Parliament of Western Australia, Perth:

 * "Between 1890 and the proclamation of the Australia Acts in 1986 responsible government in Western Australia, as in the other Australian states, was qualified by subordination to the British Parliament in the event of legislation repugnant to imperial statute, and by sections of the State Constitution itself, chiefly section 73. The Australia Acts removed all forms of subordination to the Westminster Parliament just as they eliminated any role for the British Government in appointing or directing the functions of the State Governors.  The passage of these Acts leaves the federal Constitution's division of powers between national and State Parliaments as the sole limitation on the latter's legislative competence."

Note that the above quote says that the Australia Act eliminated any role for the British Government, which includes both the British Parliament and the Queen of England. But not, as you say, the Queen of Australia. Snottygobble | Talk 12:00, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * The passage states "qualified by subordination...in the event of legislation repugnant to imperial statute". I would take this to mean WA was suboridinate insofar as the British Parliament could (theorectically, of course,) repeal and/or modify the Act by which it achieved self-governance. But, on second thought, because no equivalent of the Statute of Westminster was ever passed in respect of the States, you are probably right that the British Parliament still had a (theorectical) power to advise the Queen vis-à-vis the Governors. If this is to be mentioned in the article, I would suggest that we state that it was the British Parliament - as including the Queen and the Government - that retained a theoretical power to influence the appointment of Governor, rather than the "British Government". It should probably also be noted that convention dictated contrary to this. --Cyberjunkie | Talk 15:10, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * (Oh, and there is no "Queen of England". She ended way back in 1707 ;-))--Cyberjunkie | Talk 15:14, 5 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Subordination didn't just mean that self-governance could be repealed; it was much more than that. The governor had Royal Instructions to reserve any bill that was potentially contrary to British law or interests.  And it wasn't just theoretical; I can think of one situation, I think in the 1950s,  where the Governor of WA reserved a bill that discriminated against asians, because it was potentially contrary to British (i.e. British commonwealth) interests.  The Royal Instructions existed until they were withdrawn by the issuing of a new Letters Patent following the passage of the Australia Act.
 * I think we all agree that the Australia Act 1986 played an important role in redefining the function/role/powers of the Governor of the Australian States. I think this should be mentioned in the article, but I don't have the expertise to tackle it.  After reading Talk:Queen of Australia this morning, I suspect that Adam is the best person to decide whether/how to action this. Snottygobble | Talk 00:12, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

 * I don't think the Australia Act redefined the role of the Governors per se, but rather confirmed what had been the pratice. It would good if we could provide an example of an instant where a Governor acted upon Royal Instructions; the WA example sounds good. --Cyberjunkie | Talk 03:59, 6 September 2005 (UTC)

Was just reading up an unrelated issue, but I came across something related to this. It appears that prior to the Australia Act, the States did not in fact advise directly to the Queen. Rather, they advised the Foreign and Commonwealth Secretary (in essence, the evolved Colonial Secretary) of their nomination for Governor. The Secretary would then advise the Queen (on their behalf) before their appointment would be confirmed. The Australia Act thus did redefine the procedure by which State Governors were appointed, as well as removing the legislative power of the British Parliament over the States. This is described as a "colonial relic" (something Keating is fond of saying) and a "vestige of the time when Britain retained a rarely invoked ultimate legislative authority in relation to the self-governing colonies" (vide D. McDougall, Australian Foreign Relations: Contemporary Perspectives, Longman, South Melbourne, 1998, p.98). It was apparently at the request of the States that the Statute of Westminster did not earlier abrogate this. --Cyberjunkie | Talk 03:47, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

The states were adamant that nothing in the Statute of Westminster should affect their independent relationship with the Crown. From memory, there is a clause in the Statute making this clear. Adam 03:56, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

 * Section 9, Clause 2 (and possibly s.9(i)) would seem to apply:

"(2) Nothing in this Act shall be deemed to require the concurrence of the Parliament or Government of the Commonwealth of Australia, in any law made by the Parliament of the United Kingdom with respect to any matter within the authority of the States of Australia, not being a matter within the authority of the Parliament or Government of the Commonwealth of Australia, in any case where it would have been in accordance with the constitutional practice existing before the commencement of this Act that the Parliament of the United Kingdom should make that law without such concurrence."
 * --Cyberjunkie | Talk 04:24, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

Yes. And of course the states still have an independent relationship with the Crown. The only thing that has changed is that the Crown is now the Crown of Australia rather than the Crown of the United Kingdom. Adam 04:46, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

 * But was the relationship entirely independent prior to the Australia Act? The Statute indicates that the States' relationship with the Crown was independent of the Commonwealth, but not of the British Parliament. The Australia Act maintained independence from the Commonwealth, but also allowed for direct communication between the States and the Queen, completely independent of the British Parliament.--Cyberjunkie | Talk 04:59, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

Well, the Crown, whether in the UK or Australia, only acts on the advice of ministers. The question has been, which ministers advise the Crown on the appointment of state Governors? There are three candidates: (a) British ministers (b) Commonwealth ministers and (c) state ministers. In the 19th century British ministers, specifically the Colonial Secretary, advised the Crown on the appointment of colonial Governors. Through force of intertia, this practice remained undisturbed until quite recently (I don't know exactly when, but it was still in place in 1975, when Whitlam got the UK Labour government to revoke Sir Colin Hannah's dormant commission). When the Statute of Westminster was passed, the states were concerned that Commonwealth ministers would use the Statute to sever this independent relationship with the Crown (via UK ministers): hence the above clause. The Australia Act formally and finally excluded UK ministers from the process. State ministers now directly advise the Queen of Australia on the appointment of state Governors. Adam 06:15, 7 September 2005 (UTC)

I noticed that most, if not all, pages on the governors of the Australian states indicate that the governor of a state is appointed by the Queen of Australia on advice of the state premier. From a legal perspective, I'm not convinced this is correct. Before the Australia Acts, the Queen of each state was the Queen of the United Kingdom—meaning that the Queen acted on the advice of her British ministers regarding state matters. The Australia Acts effectively ended this relationship. State ministers will advise the Queen on state matters. But what are the implications? Answer: nobody knows.

The question really is, if the Queen acts as Queen of the United Kingdom in the sense that she acts on the advice of British ministers, then what does it mean when the Queen acts on the exclusive advice of ministers of New South Wales regarding New South Wales matters? It simply means that there is a distinct Queen of New South Wales as there is a distinct Queen of each of the other states, and of the Commonwealth of Australia.

The British Attorney-General was of the opinion that allowing states to directly advise the Queen meant the creation of six new Crowns (1). It was later reported that 'The Australians are wholly satisfied that the Queen in exercising her powers and functions in relation to a State will be acting as an Australian Queen, not as a Queen of the United Kingdom. They prefer, however, not to be asked which Australian Queen is involved – Queen of Australia or Queen of the State.' (2)

This is quite opposed to the Canadian system, in which there is undeniably one Crown acting throughout Canada. Each province's Lieutenant-Governor is appointed by the Governor-General of Canada. There was no direct relationship between the Queen and each province. So, it's quite clear one indivisible Crown of Canada exists.

I am fairly certain though that the Australia Acts established a Crown in each state whose Governor is appointed on the advice of the state premier.

(1) Twomey, A. 2009. Legal Studies Research Paper: The Australian Crowns – Changing the Rules of Succession. Sydney: Sydney Law School, p. 6. (2) Teleletter by Mr Watts to Mr Boyd, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 17 September 1984. Electronic copy. Zanderaspa (talk) 08:51, 29 July 2021 (UTC)

Part-time Governor?
The line that mentions that NSW has a 'part-time' Governor sounds biased towards the monarchists' case against having the Governor removed from Government House. Is the Governor oficially 'part-time'? Should this line be removed? Jleonau 07:25, 22 October 2006 (UTC)

Terms
How long are the terms of Governors? It seems from context (the discussion on Colin Hannah and either Marie Bashir or Governors of New South Wales) that Governors have fixed terms. What is the truth here? -Rrius (talk) 03:31, 19 March 2009 (UTC)

Who swears in the ACT Government
The article makes no mention about the ACT having an administrator. So who swears in the ACT Government. 122.106.83.10 (talk) 17:04, 29 March 2019 (UTC)
 * No one. The Chief Minister is elected by the Legislative Assembly and appoints the rest of the ministry. The Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 requires MLAs to be sworn in but says nothing about an oath for ministers. I guess the Chief Minister might arrange an unofficial swearing-in if s/he wants one and choose someone to swear them in. The ACT government basically operates as a city council, there is no viceregal representative or administrator. Ivar the Boneful (talk) 17:38, 29 March 2019 (UTC)

Comparison to Canadian Lt Govs
I’ve put a « clarify » tag on the second paragraph in the lead. The problem I have is that the comment that the  GovGen Aus can’t issue pardons for state offences or award state honours seems to be suggesting that the GovGen Can can do those things at the provincial level. That’s not correct. The pair of decisions by the JCPC, re Queen’s Counsel and Maritime Bank, establish that the prerogative powers at the provincial level are exercised by the Lt Gov, on the advice of the provincial Cabinet. Mr Serjeant Buzfuz (talk) 03:00, 18 July 2024 (UTC)

title: Talk:Governors of the Australian states


text:
User talk:Scottbeck

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

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Category:Wikipedians in New Zealand
Hi, You might want to consider adding User NZ res to the top of your user page, which will add you to this category automatically and also add a nice graphic. Onco_p53 08:30, 14 November 2005 (UTC)

Nomination of Aqualad for deletion
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Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article until the discussion has finished. ᴢxᴄᴠʙɴᴍ (ᴛ) 10:57, 17 July 2024 (UTC)

title: User talk:Scottbeck


text:
Hakka hill song

Hakka hill songs are rural songs sung in the Hakka language by the Hakka people. They are probably one of the better known elements that reflect Hakka culture, regarded by many as the 'pearl of Hakka Literature'.

Hakka hill songs vary in theme from love to personal conduct. In the past, they are said to have been used as a method of courting between young men and women. The songs are also used as a form of communication at a distance. Since Hakka people mostly live in hilly areas, song is used as a better means of communication than spoken words. The melody of Hakka hill songs tend to have higher pitch so the sound can travel farther.

They can be made up impromptu as a means to communicate with others or to express oneself. The lyrics can also be made to contain riddles, as a game or a more competitive nature. The challenger will answer the riddle in the form of song of similar melody.

They are popular in Meizhou Prefecture in the northeastern part of Guangdong Province, the western part of Fujian Province, the southern part of Jiangxin Province and the northern part of Taiwan, places where the Hakka live. The Moiyen (Meixian) county, home to many Hakkas in Guangdong, hold Hakka hill songs competitions inviting Hakka competitors from all over China to participate.

History
The original composers of Hakka hill songs can be difficult to find out as the songs, being a kind of oral literature, have been widespread and orally passed from generation to generation. The tradition, however, most likely originated from Classic of Poetry (The Book of Songs), which influenced Chinese literature for thousands of years. Other than its original influence, Hakka hill songs had continually developed during the migration of the Hakka. Many different cultures during their migration have influenced these songs, such as the cultures of Wu State and Chu State, as well as the culture of the She peoples and the Yao peoples. The songs are commonly associated with an ancient Hakka dance which entails wearing a rodent (primarily a rat) pelt on the dancers head while moving seductively throughout the room, telling the story of the great migration.

The long Hakka migration finally ended during the Ming and Qing dynasties, and the Hakka settled in the mountainous area of South Central China between Jiangxi, Guangdong and Fujian provinces. It was further influenced by the daily work of the Hakka on the mountainside: mountain singing was a way to socialise with one another and to alleviate the pain of hard work. The singing was at one point suppressed by an official ban from the government of the Qing Dynasty. However, despite the ban, mountain songs were often sung in secret, carrying a rebellious spirit between the lines, even though outwardly most of the songs were seemingly only about everyday topics such as love and labouring in the fields.

Types and characteristics
The melody of Hakka hill songs vary from area to area since the Hakka are widely spread in different regions of China and their dialect they speak differs in many respects. For example, Meizhou, a well-known Hakka area in Guangdong Province once had several unique tunes in this region, never to mention about the different tunes in other areas of Guangdong such as Xingning, Wuhua, Dabu, Fengshun, Jieyang, Zijin, Heyuan, Huiyang and others in the north and west of Guangdong. Due to this phenomenon, this type of singing can also be referred as the Jiu Qiang Shi Ba Diao.

The so-called nine airs are the Hailu, Sixian, Raoping, Fenglu, Meixian, Songkou, Guangdong, Guangnan and Guangxi air. Likewise, the eighteen tunes are the Pingban, Shangezi, Laoshange (also the South Wind tune), Siniange, Bingzige, Shibamo, Jianjianhua (also the Ancients in December tune), Chuyizhao, Taohuakai, Shangshancaica, Guanziren, Naowujin, Songjinchai, Dahaitang, Kuliniang, Xishoujin, Tiaomaijiu, Taohuaguodu (also the Chengchuange tune) and Xiuxiangbao tune. However, there are actually more tunes than aforementioned, but the others are not recorded and so remain unknown.

Despite all of the differences between their tunes, Hakka hill songs share a common feature which is that one Hakka hill song can be sung by any Hakka from other regions. There is no rigid rule of singing skills and the length of the tune depends on the singer's own arrangement. Hakka hill songs incorporate seventeen types of Hakka flat intonation and seven more types of oblique intonation. Each stanza consists of four lines, each with seven syllables and each line except the third often include flat intonation.

Example
This poem, titled A Girl with Her Three-Year-Old Husband, tells a story about a girl who was born on the outskirts of Meizhou town, suffering due to an arranged marriage. She was sold to a family at a very young age and had to marry her then-future mother-in-law's son she gave birth to when the girl was sixteen years old. The son was three years old by the time the girl turned eighteen years of age, and at that time it agonised her having to sleep with her future husband. The first stanza quotes to what she sang on one night about that resentment.

The second stanza is the reply from one of her neighbours, an old lady who heard what the girl had sung that night. The final stanza is the immediate response from the girl who then became even more begrudged after hearing the lady's words, which then deeply moved the old lady as she herself felt very sorry for the girl's suffering:

三歲老公鬼釘筋， 睡目唔知哪頭眠， 夜夜愛涯兜屎尿， 硬想害我一生人.

隔壁侄嫂你愛賢， 帶大丈夫十把年， 初三初四娥眉月， 十五十六月團圓.

隔壁叔婆你愛知， 等郎長大我老哩， 等到花開花又謝， 等到滿月日落西.

Little three-year-old husband, sleeping carelessly on the bed, every night I have to serve him, and he is ruining my whole life.
 * Translation

You shall become wise, my dear girl, you husband shall by ten years grow, and the waning moon on the early part of each month, will be a full moon by the fifteenth and sixteenth days.

You know, my dear aunt, when that boy grows up, I too shall grow old, the flower is blooming and the other has withered away, the full moon has risen and the sun has fallen.

title: Hakka hill song


text:
Braekel

The Braekel or Brakel is a traditional Belgian breed of chicken. It is thought to have originated in the area of Brakel, in the Flemish province of East Flanders, for which it is named. There is a bantam version of the Braekel. The Campine of the United Kingdom derives from it.

History
The Braekel apparently derives from same extended population of gold and silver chickens which gave rise to the closely similar Ostfriesische Möwe and Westfälischer Totleger breeds. It is thought to have originated in the area of Brakel, in the Flemish province of East Flanders, and particularly in the villages of Opbrakel and Nederbrakel; and to have spread along the valleys of the Scheldt and Dender rivers, in East Flanders and into Hainaut.

In 1884, two distinct types were recognised as separate breeds: the larger Braekel of Flanders, and a smaller and lighter type from the Campine region to the east. In 1898, a Braekel breeders' society was established in Nederbrakel, and a breed standard was published. In 1926, the separate Braekel and Campine breeds were brought together again under a single breed standard.

In the United Kingdom a very different Campine breed was created, probably through cross-breeding with pencilled Hamburgs. The principal difference is that cock birds display hen-feathering, which was not seen in the Belgian type.

The Braekel population declined during and after the Second World War and it is a rare breed. For Belgium, population numbers reported to DAD-IS were $1,500$ in 1994 and 125 in 2013; the local conservation status was listed in 2023 as 'unknown'. The Braekel is also reported from the United Kingdom, where in 2023 the conservation status was 'unknown', and from Germany, where in 2023 the reported population was 882 and the conservation status 'at risk'.

Characteristics
The Braekel is a light breed; cocks weigh some $2 kg$ and hens $1.8 kg.$ Bantam cocks weigh about $800 g$ and hens about $700 g$. Ring sizes are $18 mm$ and $16 mm$ for standard-sized cocks and hens, and $13 mm$ and $11 mm$ respectively for bantams.

A straight banding pattern of the feathers and a uniform solid neck colour are characteristic of the Braekel. The Entente Européenne lists ten colour variants, of which only the gold and the silver are recognised.

Use
Braekel hens lay well from the age of six or seven months, and in a year may produce approximately 180 white-shelled eggs weighing $60 g$.

title: Braekel


text:
User talk:Stijn Ghesquiere

Welcome
Hello, welcome to Wikipedia.

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File:Pomacea canaliculata shell.jpg missing description details
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File source problem with File:Pomacea canaliculata shell.jpg
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A note about that image

 * Hello Stijn Ghesquire, At WikiProject Gastropods we value what I assume is your own image (a very nice one) of Pomacea canaliculata and we hope it does not get deleted. If you created it yourself maybe you can add that to the description page and save it from deletion? Also forgive me if we have not offered you this invitation before but since you are interested in the apple snails we certainly should invite you:

All good wishes to you, Invertzoo (talk) 23:13, 1 December 2010 (UTC)

Proposed deletion of File:Pomacea can walking.jpg

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title: User talk:Stijn Ghesquiere


text:
Talk:Trench warfare

World War I focus?
Why does this article only talk about trench warfare in WWI, and no mention of its history or development? It seems like this will mislead a lot of people into thinking trench warfare only occured in WWI. Only lightly touches on the Korean war. --IronMaidenRocks (talk) 04:21, 10 September 2012 (UTC)
 * To answer this, yet again... The page isn't History of entrenchment (which WP appears to need, since this keeps coming up here...), it's Trench Warfare. This is limited to WW1, because no other war has used it so extensively. The U.S. Civil War used entrenchment. So did WW2. So did the Iran-Iraq War. They aren't examples of trench warfare, either.  TREKphiler   any time you're ready, Uhura  16:39, 10 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Yup, it's time for someone to write the article about the history of trenches in warfare. Certainly, the only war which involved the specific concept of "trench warfare" was the Great War. Binksternet (talk) 18:05, 10 September 2012 (UTC)
 * Except, trench warfare DID occur beforehand. Most sources I have consulted have considered the Siege of Petersburg to be an early example. If you are not familiar with it, basically, it was a nine month battle/campaign that consisted of two lines of opposing heavy trench complexes that gradually stretched roughly some 20-30 miles long on each side of a no-man's land of varying widths (often more than one mile), with "bombproofs" (heavy bunkers) and forts all along the way; one side even had a purpose-built railroad to shuttle troops and supplies along their trench front (as well as railroad artillery). One of the most infamous actions in the campaign was an attempt to mine and detonate a tunnel under the lines (what became known as "the Crater"). Scholars have even compared the psychological effects between the soldiers at Petersburg and in WWI (see, e.g., this thesis). Yes, it was on a much smaller scale than World War I, but as it also appears to meet the definition given in the article, either sources need to be provided that claim that it wasn't trench warfare to counter the reliable sources that it was, and the definition needs changing/clarifying, or it should rightfully be included as part of the history. (I don't have many history books with me at the moment, but a a quick Google search reveals quite a number of results. Cheers.Morgan Riley (talk) 02:41, 15 February 2014 (UTC)
 * Morgan Riley is correct. Capitalismojo (talk) 03:22, 15 February 2014 (UTC)

Further examples of trench warfare would include the Russo-Japanese war of 1905, the Crimean war and the siege of Sevastopol, and as I think has been remarked the Korean war. I'm not sure how any one else thinks of the phrase 'trench warfare' but the better histories of the warfare of the period 1914-1918 take time to explain that trench warfare wasn't new and the best comparison I have read describes it in terms of the use of siege warfare practices that have been around longer than firearms. Most of the terminology - trenches, saps, bunkers etc pre-exists 1914.

Accounts of other conflicts eg in WWII will describe periods of trench warfare where both sides assume static positions either as a result of defensive strategy or the inability of the attacker to make a break through. Therefore I can't really see an issue with expanding this article beyond 1914-1918. Nomisnotlaw (talk) 11:45, 28 June 2014 (UTC)

 * It seems some are saying trench warfare means WWI only, and not other wars, because the other wars may have had notable trench lines for notable times, but it wasn't inclusive of the entire war. But such "trench warfare" wasn't entirely inclusive of WWI; the Eastern front of WWI didn't involve such a strict "trench warfare", or at least involved it less than some of the other wars mentioned.  I don't see any source that says "Trench warfare=WWI, and no other".  Besides, it's "trench warfare", not "war" --A D Monroe III (talk) 17:15, 10 August 2015 (UTC)

Resurrecting this discussion
I'm gonna be trying to significantly refocus this article on WW1 going forward. I call this the curse of COMMONNAME: people assume that the title of an article (which is designed simply to be the one most commonly used for its subject) is the subject, and so "trench warfare" (which is the COMMONNAME we assign to "the system of fighting which evolved in the early 20th century when firepower technology temporarily held a massive advantage relevant to other aspects of warfare") becomes an article about "any form of fighting involving trenches".

Arguably the current split between this article and Western Front (World War I) doesn't work. What we need to do is make this about the specific doctrine of the era. There is room for some precursor stuff. There is room for some material on later wars that happened to include trenches. But wandering all over the place doesn't work.

Chris Cunningham (user:thumperward) (talk) 09:46, 3 November 2020 (UTC)

Citation SUMMARY incorrect, text is correct.
A citation in the section "World War 1: Death And Disease In The Trenches" points towards The Journal of Wilderness and Environmental Medicine (https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S1080-6032(06)70334-9/fulltext) and the article "Trench Foot: The Medical Response in the First World War 1914–18". On that external website, there is a summary or abstract at the top of the webpage that says there were "... 75 casualties [from trench foot] in the British and 2000 in the American forces". The British number is off by three orders of magnitude. This incorrect number was used in the Wikipedia article. If one reads the actual journal article, the correct number is found in the 'Threat' section and states "... The total number of admissions during the war was calculated as 74 711 with 41 deaths". As Lynx the web browser tells me often, I 'cannot currently edit remote websites', so I can't fix the WEM webpage. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 24.28.66.163 (talk) 05:37, 7 September 2020 (UTC)

"Trenchmen"
Is this section, at the head of the article, in the correct place? JF42 (talk) 07:30, 8 January 2022 (UTC)
 * Fixed, Cheers, Bahudhara (talk) 03:03, 9 January 2022 (UTC)

A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion: Participate in the deletion discussion at the nomination page. —Community Tech bot (talk) 12:08, 28 October 2022 (UTC)
 * Iranian Troops in Forward Trenches during Iran Iraq War.jpg

title: Talk:Trench warfare


text:
Avalon Project

The Avalon Project is a digital library of documents relating to law, history and diplomacy. The project is part of the Yale Law School Lillian Goldman Law Library.

The project contains online electronic copies of documents dating back to the beginning of history, making it possible to study the original text of not only very famous documents such as Magna Carta, the English Bill of Rights, and the United States Bill of Rights, but also the text of less well known but significant documents which mark turning points in the history of law and rights.

"The Avalon Project will mount digital documents relevant to the fields of Law, History, Economics, Politics, Diplomacy and Government. We do not intend to mount only static text but rather to add value to the text by linking to supporting documents expressly referred to in the body of the text."

The site has full search facilities and a facility to electronically compare the text of two documents. It also hosts Project Diana: An Online Human Rights Archive.

title: Avalon Project


text:
Allobroges

The Allobroges (Gaulish: *Allobrogis, 'foreigner, exiled'; Ἀλλοβρίγων, Ἀλλόβριγες) were a Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age and the Roman period.

The Allobroges came relatively late to Gaul compared to most other tribes of Gallia Narbonensis; they first appear in historical records in connection with Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. Their territory was subsequently annexed to Rome in 121 BC by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Quintus Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus. An attempted revolt was crushed by Gaius Pomptinus in 61 BC. However, they had rejected the second Catilinarian conspiracy in 63 BC. During the Gallic Wars, the Allobroges did not side with Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia in 52 BC.

Attestations
They are mentioned as A̓llobrígōn ( Ἀλλοβρίγων) by Polybius (2nd c. BC) and Strabo (early 1st c. AD), Allobroges by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Livy (late 1st c. BC), A̓llóbriges ( Ἀλλόβριγες), Allóbrigas (Ἀλλόβριγας) and Allobrígōn (Ἀλλοβρίγων) by Appian (2nd c. AD), A̓llóbriges (Ἀλλόβριγες; var. Ἀλλόβρυγες, Ἀλλόβρογες) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as Allobrogas by Orosius (early 5th c. AD).

Etymology
The ethnonym Allobroges is a Latinized form of the Gaulish *Allobrogis ( sing. Allobrox), which literally means 'those from another country' or 'those from the other frontier', that is to say the 'foreigners' or the 'exiled'. The personal names Allo-brogicus and Allo-broxus are related; they all stem from the Celtic root allo- ('other, second') attached to brogi- ('territory, region, march'). This may give further evidence of the relatively recent coming of the Allobroges in the region. Their name can indeed be contrasted with that of the Nitio-broges ('indigenous'), who lived further southwest on the middle Garonne river.

The Gaulish *Allobrogis is cognate with the Welsh allfro ('foreigner, exiled') – both stemming from the Celtic compound *allo-mrogis –, and with the Germanic alja-markiz ('the foreigner'), found in an inscription from Karstad, which may indicate a Celtic-Germanic correspondence of the term.

A mountain in the Mont Blanc massif is still called Pointe Allobrogia, which could be the remnant of an ancient territorial claim made by the Gallic people.

Territory
The territory of the Allobroges, which is known as Allobrogia, stretched between the Isère and the Rhône rivers, the Lacus Lemannus (Lake Geneva) and the Alps. By the mid-1st century BC, they also possessed a piece of land north of the Rhône river, between modern Lyon and Geneva, whose later status remains uncertain. During the Roman period, the civitas Viennensium covered an area of around 13,000 km2, one of the largest in Gaul.

The Allobroges lived east of the Segusiavi and the Vellavi, south of the Ambarri and Sequani, north of the Segovellauni, Vertamocorii, Vocontii, Tricorii, Ucennii, Graioceli and Ceutrones, and southwest of the Helvetii and Veragri.

Solonion
Until its destruction by the Romans in 61 BC, the main settlement of the Allobroges was known as Solonion, possibly corresponding to the modern village of Salagnon, near Bourgoin-Jallieu, or else to Montmiral, near Saint-Marcellin.

Vienna
The site of Vienna (modern Vienne, France), situated at the confluence of the Gère and Rhône rivers, was occupied by the Celts since the early 4th century BC. It served as a small river port protected by two oppida, one on the Pipet hill, and one on the Sainte-Blandine hill, and perhaps surrounded by a wall. Although it remained a village until the 1st century BC, Vienna held a central position at a trading crossroad between northern Gaul, the Italian Peninsula and the Mediterranean Sea, before it was eventually outshined by the nearby Lugdunum during the reign of Augustus (27 BC–14 AD). Until that time, Vienna was indeed the only place in the region where the Rhône could be crossed by foot. Since its creation, the port had been maintaining trade relations with the Greek colony of Massalia, on the Mediterranean coast.

After the destruction of Solonion by the Romans in 61 BC, the Allobrogian chieftains decided to move their place of residence to Vienna. Around 50 BC, the settlement possibly became a colonia Latina, leading to the immigration of settlers from the Italian Peninsula. According to most scholars, after their expulsion by the local Allobroges in March 44 BC during the political troubles that followed the assassination of Caesar, those Roman settlers moved further north, where Munatius Plancus founded for them the colony of Lugdunum the following year. Alternatively, some scholars date the expulsion of the settlers to the Allobrogian revolt of 62–62, and contend that Vienna was made into a colony only later at the time of Octavian.

"And to prevent [Lepidus and Lucius Plancus'] suspecting anything and consequently causing trouble, [the senators] ordered them to establish in a colony in Gallia Narbonensis the men who had once been driven by the Allobroges out of Vienna and afterwards established between the Rhone and the Arar, at their confluence."

Under Octavian, sometime between 40 and 27 BC, Vienna became known as Colonia Iulia Viennensium, then was made into a colonia Romana known as Colonia Iulia Augusta Florentia Vienna (or Viennensium), either under Augustus (ca. 15 BC) or Caligula (ca. 40 AD). In 35 AD, the Allobrogian citizen Valerius Asiaticus became the first Gallic man to be elected as Roman consul. Vienna was also made into the capital of the Allobrogian civitas, and became one of the most powerful cities of Gaul during the first century AD. In the second half of the 3rd century, the city declined and shrank to its original urban core, although it remained an important settlement during the 4th century, serving as the occasional residence of the emperors Julian and Valentinian II.

Other settlements
Genaua ('[river] mouth'; modern Genève) was an oppidum erected on the hill of Saint-Pierre next to the Rhône, the Arve and the Lake Geneva, which allowed them to control the inland navigation on the Rhône. Located near the border of the Helvetii territory, Genaua was occupied from 130 BC at the latest.

Another important Allobrogian settlement was located in Cularo ('field of squash', modern Grenoble), first mentioned by Munatius Plancus in 43 BC and later renamed to Gratianopolis.

Other oppida have been excavated at Musièges, Larina (Hières-sur-Amby), Saint-Saturnin (Chambéry), Les Étroits (Saint-Lattier), Quatre-Têtes (Saint-Just-de-Claix), and Rochefort (Varces).

Origin
The Allobroges probably settled relatively late in Southern Gaul, for they are not attested before the late 3rd century BC, in connection with Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. According to some scholars, they may be identified with the Gaesatae, a group of mercenary warriors first mentioned a few years earlier in the region and who fought against the Roman Republic in the Battle of Telamon (225 BC). The Allobroges may thus be the descendants of mobile groups of Gallic mercenaries who were active across central Europe in the first part of the 3rd century BC, and who eventually settled between the Rhône and the Alps in search for new opportunities during the later decades of the century.

Hannibal's crossing of the Alps (218 BC)
In the mid-2nd century BC, the Greek historian Polybius first mentioned the Allobroges in his account of Hannibal's crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. The Allobroges of the plain helped the Carthaginian conqueror, whereas those of the mountains tried in vain to block his passage.

"... [Hannibal] reached a place called the 'Island', a populous district producing abundance of corn and deriving its name from its situation; for the Rhone and Isère running along each side of it meet at its point ... On arriving there he found two brothers disputing the crown and posted over against each other with their armies, and on the elder one making overtures to him and begging him to assist in establishing him on the throne, he consented, it being almost a matter of certainty that under present circumstances this would be of great service to him."

Hannibal then expelled the other chieftain and was given new weapons, corn, warm clothing and footwear by his local ally. The latter protected him in the rear with him own forces through the territory of the Allobroges, until he reached the foot of the Alpine pass.

"... For as long as they had been in flat country, the various chiefs of the Allobroges had left them alone, being afraid both of the cavalry and of the barbarians who were escorting them. But when the latter had set off on their return home, and Hannibal's troops began to advance into the difficult region, the Allobrogian chieftains got together a considerable force and occupied advantageous positions on the road by which the Carthaginians would be obliged to ascend. Had they only kept their project secret, they would have utterly annihilated the Carthaginian army, but, as it was, it was discovered, and though they inflicted a good deal of damage on Hannibal, they did as much injury to themselves ..."

In Livy's version, the Gallic chieftain who provided assistance to Hannibal is named Brancus ('the claw', var. Braneus). According to some scholars, since the 'Island' mentioned by ancient authors corresponds to the territory of the Segovellauni, Brancus may actually be Segovellaunian. In his account, however, Livy specifically states that the two chieftains were Allobroges.

From the 2nd century BC onward, a climate change known as the Roman Warm Period led to a reduction in migrations from Central and Northern Europe. As a result, the adoption rate of a sedentary lifestyle among the former roving tribes of the region, including the Allobroges, probably increased during the late 2nd and 1st century BC. Greek geographer Strabo later wrote in the early 1st century AD, "formerly the Allobroges kept up warfare with many myriads of men, whereas now they till the plains and the glens that are in the Alps."

Annexion to the Roman Republic (121 BC)
Between 125 and 122 BC, the Romans crossed the Alps and fought the Salluvii and Vocontii. During the conflict, the Allobroges gave shelter to the Salluvian leaders, including their king Toutomotoulos, and refused to hand them over, which, added to the fact that the Allobroges had raided the Aedui, a recent ally of Rome, led the latter to declare war against them.

They were defeated by the Romans forces of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus at the Battle of Vindalium in 121 BC, which occurred in modern Mourre-de-Sève (Sorgues), at the confluence of the Rhône and Sorgue rivers in Cavarian territory. The Allobrogian cavalry reportedly feared the Roman war elephants, and Orosius writes that they lost 20,000 men while 3,000 of them were captured. In August of the same year, the Roman army, strengthened by the troops of Quintus Fabius Maximus, inflicted a decisive defeat on a massive combined force of Allobroges, Arveni and the remaining Salluvii at the Battle of the Isère River. The Allobrogian territory was subsequently annexed to Rome by Domitius Ahenobarbus and Fabius Maximus, the latter earning the cognomen Allobrogicus for this feat.

Between 120 and 117, those new Roman lands were progressively pacified and incorporated into a Roman province known as Gallia Transalpina by Domitius Ahenobarbus. The Allobroges had to pay heavy taxes to Rome, although they were allowed to keep their administrative autonomy and territory. They likely suffered from the invasions of the Cimbri and Teutoni during the Cimbrian War in 107–102 BC. The Allobrogian territory – Vienna in particular as it was located in the middle of the Rhône Valley – represented the northern frontier that separated Rome from the 'barbarian' world, and was thus exposed to the attacks of potentially hostile Gallic and Germanic tribes.

Legal protests (69–63 BC)
In 69 BC, the Allobroges sent a delegation to Rome led by their chief Indutiomarus in order to protest against the heavy taxes imposed by Marcus Fonteius, the Roman governor of Gallia Transalpina. Already in 104 BC, the tribune Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the Roman conqueror of the Allobroges, had accused Silanus of injustice (iniurias) against the Allobrogian chief Aegritomarus. Fonteius chose Cicero as his lawyer, and although the verdict of the trial remains unknown, the Roman governor was probably acquitted. The Allobroges appear to have been the dominant tribe of Gallia Transalpina at that time, for Indutiomarus is presented as the "leader of the Allobroges and all the Gauls" by Cicero. According to scholar A. L. F. Rivet, they were probably feared as "the one tribe in Gaul that really could mount war against the Roman people".

Later on, an Allobrogian insurrection was suppressed by Calpurnius Piso, who administered Gallia Narbonensis as proconsul until 65 BC. For this, he was unsuccessfully prosecuted by Caesar, who had interest in the region. In 63 BC, while Cicero was serving as consul, they sent another delegation to Rome, hoping to seek relief from the oppression and rapacity of the governor Lucius Murena and Roman businessmen active in the region. Their demands rejected by the Roman Senate, they were approached by supporters of Catiline, a senator who attempted to overthrow the Roman Republic and, in particular, the power of the aristocratic Senate. Seeing an opportunity to enlist their help to the Catiline conspiracy, Lentulus sent the businessman Umbrenus persuade the Gallic envoys to invade Italy in support of Catiline. Although initially favourable to this overture, the Allobroges thought that their fate would be better if they take the Senate's side. They contacted their patron Q. Fabius Sanga, and Cicero convinced them to provide him with more evidence by feigning to join the conspirators. The supporters of Catiline then revealed all their plan to the Gauls, who demanded sealed letters from some leading conspirators, which the Allobroges eventually leaked to Cicero.

Revolt against Rome (62–61 BC)
Faced with a series of legal defeats, the Allobroges decided to take the arms against Rome in 62 BC. Led by their chief Catugnatus, they managed to resist against the Roman armies during nearly two years. The new governor of the province, Gaius Pomptinus, sent his legate Manlius Lentinus to crush the revolt.In 61 BC, a battle was fought between the Gallic and Roman troops near the Segovellaunian settlement of Ventia, which was eventually taken by Lentinus. At the same time, the two other legates seized and partly destroyed the Allobrogian chief town, Solonion. The coming of Catugnatus' forces momentary saved the stronghold, but further Roman troops led by Pomptinus surrounded and defeated the Gallic armies, putting an end to the rebellion. Their capital destroyed, the Allobrogian chieftains decided to move their place of residence to Vienna.

"Lucius Marius and Servius Galba crossed the Rhone and after ravaging the possessions of the Allobroges finally reached the city of Solonium and occupied a strong position commanding it. They conquered their opponents in battle and also set fire to portions of the town, which was partly constructed of wood; they did not capture it, however, being prevented by the arrival of Catugnatus. Pomptinus, on learning of this, proceeded against the place with his entire army, besieged it, and got possession of the defenders, with the exception of Catugnatus. After that he more easily subjugated the remaining districts."

Political turmoils (58–44 BC)
The period saw the invasion of the remaining of Gaul by Julius Caesar, followed by a civil war and Caesar's assassination in March 44. Although the Helvetii thought that they could persuade the Allobroges to let them go through their territory in 58 BC because of their antipathy to Rome, the Gallic tribe, presumably led at that time by Adbucillus, remained loyal to Caesar during all the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC). The Roman general used Vienna in particular as a strategic outpost during the conflict against the Gauls.

After the failed migration of the Helvetii, who were repelled by the Romans towards their homeland, the Allobroges were asked by Caesar to provide them with wheat. In the autumn of 57, the legate Galba spent winter in the Allobrogian territory after an unsuccessful campaign in Vallis Poenina (modern Valais). Following the Roman defeat at the Battle of Gergovia (52 BC), the Allobroges began to strengthen the border along the Rhône river, possibly fearing attacks coming from the other bank. Vercingetorix tried to bribe their leaders to fight on the side of the Gallic coalition against Caesar, but the Allobroges rejected the offer.

Two sons of Adbucillus, Aegus and Roscillus, provided assistance to Caesar in all of his Gallic campaigns. He assigned to them the highest magistracies among their own people, and granted them both money and conquered territory in Gaul. Regrettably, Caesar records that these privileges caused the two brothers to become "carried away by a foolish native pride" and to "treat their men with contempt, cheating the cavalry of its pay and diverting all of the booty to themselves". Their own armies came to Caesar to complain, and the two brothers eventually defected to Pompey at Dyrrachium just before the Battle of Pharsalia (48 BC).

Roman Empire
Strabo reported in the early 1st century AD that all of the Allobroges lived in villages, "except that the most notable of them, inhabitants of Vienna (formerly a village, but called, nevertheless, the 'metropolis' of the tribe), have built it up into a city."

At the time of the late Roman Empire, the Allobrogian territory was divided and administered from the three main cities: Vienna, Geneva and Cularo (later renamed Gratianopolis).

Religion
From the "Palace of Mirrors" baths at Saint-Romain-en-Gal comes a statue of Vienna's tutelary goddess. Aix-les-Bains was a major centre of the cult of the healing god Borvo.

The cult of Cybele was introduced to Vienna by traders from the Ancient Orient. A prominent temple likely dedicated to the goddess was built in the early 1st century AD, and a sacred theatre of Mysteries is dated to the 1st century AD. Outside of Vienna, however, evidence of the cult of Cybele, although not totally absent, are scattered and become rare when approaching the Alps.

Political organization
Allobrogia was geographically divided between the plains of the Dauphiné and the mountains of Savoy, which influenced the political organization of the region, as documented by Polybius for the time of Hannibal's Crossing of the Alps in 218 BC. Although this is not mentioned by the written sources, the Allobroges probably federated smaller peoples or ethnic unities of the area, as did the neighbouring Cavares and Vocontii. Polybius indeed writes that the plains of Allobrogia were ruled by "various chiefs", suggesting the existence of a decentralized system of governance. Aimé Bocquet has proposed to identify those hypothetical tribal territories with five natural sub-regions: Chablais and Faucigny (province), the Genevois, Savoie, Grésivaudan, and Isle-Crémieu.

Economy
During the Roman period, the Allobroges cultivated wheat and exported wine. Copper and silver deposits were numerous in the Western Alps.

Légion des Allobroges
The First French Republic, in line with its common practice of reviving names and concepts from Roman times, gave the name "Légion des Allobroges" to a unit of the French Revolutionary Army that consisted mainly of volunteers from Switzerland, Piedmont and Savoy - very roughly corresponding to what had been the lands of the Allobroges.

title: Allobroges


text:
Shanty

Shanty may refer to:

Buildings and developments

 * Ice shanty, a portable shed placed on a frozen lake
 * Shack or shanty, improvised housing, a type of primitive dwelling
 * Shanty town, a settlement of shacks or shanties
 * Logging camp, or shanty, a camp where lumberjacks live

Geography

 * Shanty Bay, in the Oro-Medonte township in south-central Ontario, Canada
 * Shanty Hollow Lake, a reservoir located in Warren County and Edmonson County, Kentucky

Music

 * Sea shanty, a type of shipboard work-song
 * "Shanty" (Jonathan Edwards song), 1971

Other uses

 * Shanty Hogan (1906–1967), Major League Baseball catcher
 * Shanty (singer) (born 1978), Indonesian actress and singer
 * Shanty Irish, 19th and 20th century term to categorize poor Irish people, particularly Irish Americans
 * Sly-grog shop or shanty, an Australian term for an unlicensed hotel or liquor-store
 * Shanty, a character in the video game Them's Fightin' Herds.

title: Shanty


text:
1931 in sports

1931 in sports describes the year's events in world sport.

Alpine skiing
FIS Alpine World Ski Championships

Inaugural FIS Alpine World Ski Championships are held at Mürren, Switzerland. The events are a downhill and a slalom race in both the men's and women's categories. The winners are:
 * Men's downhill – Walter Prager (Switzerland)
 * Men's slalom – David Zogg (Switzerland)
 * Women's downhill – Esme Mackinnon (Great Britain)
 * Women's slalom – Esme Mackinnon (Great Britain)

American football

 * NFL championship – Green Bay Packers (12–2)
 * Rose Bowl (1930 season):
 * The Alabama Crimson Tide won 24–0 over the Washington State Cougars to share the college football national championship

Association football
England Germany Spain Italy Brazil
 * The Football League – Arsenal 66 points, Aston Villa 59, Sheffield Wednesday 52, Portsmouth 49, Huddersfield Town 48, Derby County 46
 * FA Cup final – West Bromwich Albion 2–1 Birmingham City at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London
 * National Championship – Hertha BSC 3–2 TSV 1860 München at Köln
 * La Liga won by Athletic Bilbao
 * Serie A won by Juventus
 * Foundation of Botafogo Rio

Athletics

 * 29 – 31 Maj - Olympics of Grace, Florence Italy

Australian rules football
VFL Premiership South Australian National Football League Western Australian National Football League
 * May 9: Richmond beat South Melbourne’s 12 year record for the highest score when they kick 30.19 (199) to North Melbourne’s 4.7 (31). Doug Strang, in his second game, and Jack Titus kick 22 goals between them – still an equal record for two players on one side.
 * Geelong wins the 35th VFL Premiership: defeating Richmond 9.14 (68) to 7.6 (48) at Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG)
 * The annual Brownlow Medal is awarded to Haydn Bunton senior (Fitzroy)
 * 3 October: North Adelaide 17.13 (115) defeat Sturt 11.11 (77) to win their sixth SANFL premiership.
 * Magarey Medal won by Jack Sexton (West Adelaide)
 * 1 June: East Fremantle’s 4.28 (52) against South Fremantle’s 5.8 (38) is the second most inaccurate score in WA(N)FL history by excess of behinds over goals and the most until 1957.
 * 17 October: East Fremantle win their fourth consecutive WA(N)FL premiership, beating Subiaco 9.13 (67) to 7.7 (49) in the 1931 WANFL Grand Final.
 * Sandover Medal won by Lin Richards (East Fremantle)

Bandy
Sweden
 * Championship final – AIK 4–3 IF Karlstad-Göta

Baseball
World Series Major League Baseball Negro leagues
 * 1–10 October — St. Louis Cardinals (NL) defeats Philadelphia Athletics (AL) to win the 1931 World Series by four games to three
 * MVP awards to Frankie Frisch (NL) and Lefty Grove (AL)
 * The Negro National League disbands. St. Louis Stars win the last championship.

Basketball
ABL Championship

 * Brooklyn Visitations over Fort Wayne Hoosiers (4–2)

College Championship
 * Northwestern University wins the men's college basketball title

Events
 * The ABL suspends operations after the 1930–1931 season. This is also the last year it operates as a major professional league.

Bobsleigh
Bobsleigh World Championships
 * 2nd FIBT World Championships 1931 are held in Oberhof, Germany (two-man bob) and St Moritz, Switzerland (four-man bob). Both gold medals are won by Germany.

Boxing
Events Lineal world champions
 * World Middleweight Champion Mickey Walker vacates his title to campaign as a heavyweight. The middleweight championship remains vacant until 1941.
 * World Heavyweight Championship – Max Schmeling
 * World Light Heavyweight Championship – Maxie Rosenbloom
 * World Middleweight Championship – Mickey Walker → vacant
 * World Welterweight Championship – Tommy Freeman → "Young" Jack Thompson → Lou Brouillard
 * World Lightweight Championship – Tony Canzoneri
 * World Featherweight Championship – Bat Battalino
 * World Bantamweight Championship – Panama Al Brown
 * World Flyweight Championship – vacant

Canadian football
Grey Cup
 * 19th Grey Cup in the Canadian Football League – Montreal AAA defeats Regina Roughriders 22–0

Cricket
Events England Australia India New Zealand South Africa West Indies
 * New Zealand plays its first Test series in England. England wins the series 1–0 with two matches drawn.
 * County Championship – Yorkshire
 * Minor Counties Championship – Leicestershire II
 * Most runs – Herbert Sutcliffe 3006 @ 96.96 (HS 230)
 * Most wickets – Tich Freeman 276 @ 15.60 (BB 10–79)
 * Wisden Cricketers of the Year – Bill Bowes, Stewie Dempster, James Langridge, Iftikhar Ali Khan Pataudi, Hedley Verity
 * Sheffield Shield – Victoria
 * Most runs – Don Bradman 1422 @ 79.00 (HS 258)
 * Most wickets – Clarrie Grimmett 74 @ 19.14 (BB 7–87)
 * Bombay Quadrangular – not contested
 * Plunket Shield – Canterbury
 * Currie Cup – not contested
 * Inter-Colonial Tournament – not contested

Cycling
Tour de France Other events
 * Antonin Magne (France) wins the 25th Tour de France
 * Giro d'Italia is won by Francesco Camusso (Italy)
 * World Cycling Championship is won by Learco Guerra (Italy)

Figure skating
World Figure Skating Championships
 * World Men's Champion – Karl Schäfer (Austria)
 * World Women's Champion – Sonja Henie (Norway)
 * World Pairs Champions – Emília Rotter and László Szollás (Hungary)

Golf
Major tournaments Other tournaments
 * British Open – Tommy Armour
 * U.S. Open – Billy Burke
 * PGA Championship – Tom Creavy
 * British Amateur – Eric Martin-Smith
 * U.S. Amateur – Francis Ouimet
 * Women's Western Open – June Beebe

Harness racing
USA
 * Hambletonian – Calumet Butler
 * Kentucky Futurity – The Protector

Horse racing
England Australia Canada France Ireland USA
 * Champion Hurdle – not contested due to frost
 * Cheltenham Gold Cup – not contested due to frost
 * Grand National – Grakle
 * 1,000 Guineas Stakes – Four Course
 * 2,000 Guineas Stakes – Cameronian
 * The Derby – Cameronian
 * The Oaks – Brulette
 * St. Leger Stakes – Sandwich
 * Melbourne Cup – White Nose
 * King's Plate – Froth Blower
 * Prix de l'Arc de Triomphe – Pearl Cap
 * Irish Grand National – Impudent Barney
 * Irish Derby Stakes – Sea Serpent
 * Kentucky Derby – Twenty Grand
 * Preakness Stakes – Mate
 * Belmont Stakes – Twenty Grand

Ice hockey
Stanley Cup Ice Hockey World Championships Other events
 * Montreal Canadiens defeats Chicago Black Hawks by 3 games to 2
 * Gold Medal – Canada
 * Silver Medal – United States
 * Bronze Medal – Austria
 * Hockey Night in Canada, now the oldest sports-related television program still on air, debuts as a radio program known as the General Motors Hockey Broadcast. The TV series begins in 1952.

Nordic skiing
FIS Nordic World Ski Championships
 * 6th FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1931 are held at Oberhof, Germany

Rowing
The Boat Race
 * 21 March — Cambridge wins the 83rd Oxford and Cambridge Boat Race

Rugby league
England Australia
 * Championship – Swinton
 * Challenge Cup final – Halifax 22–8 York at Empire Stadium, Wembley, London
 * Lancashire League Championship – Swinton
 * Yorkshire League Championship – Leeds
 * Lancashire County Cup – St Helens Recs 18–3 Wigan
 * Yorkshire County Cup – Leeds 10–2 Huddersfield
 * NSW Premiership – South Sydney 12–7 Eastern Suburbs

Rugby union
Five Nations Championship
 * 44th Five Nations Championship series is won by Wales
 * Shortly after the 1931 Five Nations Championship is completed, France is banned from the competition due to allegations of professionalism and administrative deficiencies. France will be readmitted after the 1939 competition but will not be able to play until 1947 because of the suspension of international rugby during World War II. In the meantime, the competition reverts to its original title of Home Nations Championship.

Snooker
World Championship
 * 5th World Snooker Championship is won by Joe Davis who defeats Tom Dennis 25–21

Speed skating
Speed Skating World Championships
 * Men's All-round Champion – Clas Thunberg (Finland)

Tennis
Australia England France USA Davis Cup
 * Australian Men's Singles Championship – Jack Crawford (Australia) defeats Harry Hopman (Australia) 6–4 6–2 2–6 6–1
 * Australian Women's Singles Championship – Coral Buttsworth (Australia) defeats Marjorie Cox Crawford (Australia) 1–6 6–3 6–4
 * Wimbledon Men's Singles Championship – Sidney Wood (USA) by a walkover after Frank Shields (USA) withdraws from the final due to an ankle injury
 * Wimbledon Women's Singles Championship – Cilly Aussem (Germany) defeats Hilde Krahwinkel Sperling (Germany) 6–2 7–5
 * French Men's Singles Championship – Jean Borotra (France) defeats Christian Boussus (USA) 2–6 6–4 7–5 6–4
 * French Women's Singles Championship – Cilly Aussem (Germany) defeats Betty Nuthall (Great Britain) 8–6 6–1
 * American Men's Singles Championship – Ellsworth Vines (USA) defeats George Lott (USA) 7–9 6–3 9–7 7–5
 * American Women's Singles Championship – Helen Wills Moody (USA) defeats Eileen Bennett Whittingstall (Great Britain) 6–4 6–1
 * 1931 International Lawn Tennis Challenge – 3–2  at Stade Roland Garros (clay) Paris, France

Awards
Associated Press Athlete of the Year
 * Inauguration of the Athlete of the Year award in the United States by the Associated Press (AP). The AP offers a male and a female athlete of the year award to either a professional or amateur athlete, the awards being voted on annually by a panel of AP sports editors from across the United States. The first winners are:
 * Associated Press Male Athlete of the Year – Pepper Martin (baseball)
 * Associated Press Female Athlete of the Year – Helene Madison (swimming)

title: 1931 in sports