text:
Talk:Marie Leszczyńska

Inconsistent citation styles
There is no consistent citation style on this page. I will work on this. Best, Oldsanfelipe2 (talk) 14:29, 11 May 2023 (UTC)

Why is titled "Marie Leszczynska of Poland"? She was of Polish origin but a French queen so it rather should be titled "Marie Leszczynska of France", or simply "Marie Leszczynska" (I don't think there were any other famous Marie Leszczynskas). 130.79.154.83 15:45, 22 Feb 2004 (UTC)
 * Good point. I moved it. -- Kpalion 17:46, 9 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * i dont think, that her name was "Maria Karolina Katarzyna Leszczyńska" .. Karolina is probably the english or french version of Katarzyna ;) .. so IMO her name ist "Maria Katarzyna Leszczyńska" ...Sicherlich 20:04, 17 Jan 2005 (UTC)
 * There is no doubt that her second name was Karolina. It is a Polish name, a feminine version of Karol (Charles). I can't confrim the information about her third name though. – Kpalion (talk) 22:47, 17 Jan 2005 (UTC)

According to Polski Słownik Biograficzny her name was Maria Karolina Zofia Felicja Leszczyńska h. Wieniawa, which agrees with the entry for Louis XV in Burke's Royal Families of the World, where she is called Marie-Caroline-Sophie -Fe'licite'.

Move to Marie Leczinska?
Since English language obviously doesn't have its own name for this woman (Mary Leszczyńska?), English-speaking historians have to choose between Polish spelling - Maria Leszczyńska - and French spelling - Marie Leczinska. French language was, and still is, naturally closer to English than Polish, which is probably why most English-speaking historians choose Marie Leczinska. A quick Google Book Search confirms this: Maria Leszczyńska gets 96 "English-language" results (though all I've seen are Polish books), while Marie Leczinska gets 808 English-langauge results.

Besides being closer to an Anglophone (for whom the article is written), the proposed title has another benefit: the lack of diacritics. I'm quoting an administrator of this Wiki: "Diacritics, especially Polish diacritics, make articles much more difficult to link to (it takes me about a minute to track down the proper letter and then copy/paste it), they interfere with proper alphabetization in category listings, are visually very intimidating to many English-speakers, cause confusion for pronounciation, and do not always display correctly on all web browsers."

Another posibility is Marie Leszczyńska; it is significantly more popular than Maria Leszczyńska (c. 400 hits), but Marie Leczinska is twice as popular as Marie Leszczyńska. Moreover, Marie Leszczyńska lacks the aforesaid benefit: it contains diacritics.

That being said, I informally propose moving the article to Marie Leczinska. Surtsicna (talk) 19:35, 1 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Oh, it turns out that the current title (rarely used by English-language sources) is as popular (or even less popular) than Mary Leszczyńska, which gets 75 hits (all of which are in English). The current title seems to be the least used version of her name. Surtsicna (talk) 20:22, 1 September 2009 (UTC)

 * Marie Leszczyńska: French wiki:
 * Maria Leszczyńska: Polish wiki
 * Maria Leszczyńska: German wiki
 * Maria Leszczyńska: Italian wiki
 * Maria Leszczyńska: Dutch wiki

 * Why should English Wikipedia be the only one to misspell her name?

 * This being said, I respectfully propose keeping the title Maria Leszczyńska.

 * Frania W. (talk) 20:24, 1 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Wow. I didn't expect a "no" from you, Frania, as you are always for gallicizing the names of Bourbon queens. Anyway, the answer to your question would be: because English-speaking historians misspell her name. Technically, the names of many French kings are misspelled (Philip, Hugh, John, Francis, Henry, etc), but that's how they are used in English. What about the name Marie Leszczyńska (twice as less popular than Marie Leczinska, but still four times more popular than Maria Leszczyńska)? Surtsicna (talk) 20:36, 1 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Surtsicna,
 * I am for respecting the spelling of a name in its own language as much as possible/feasible, that's a difference. For instance, I do not like Francis I for François I & Joan of Arc for Jeanne d'Arc, to which I even prefer Jehanne d'Arc but I shall not go on a crusade because I would have to fight the whole Anglo-Americano-Australiano Empire + you!
 * Also, as proof of an argument, I do not want to rely on the number of results given in a Google search: the same book can be listed many many times.  For instance, on a page giving ten books, it often happens that from four to eight are the same.
 * As for the simplification by the French of Leszczyńska to Leczinska, it is against my principles: a name is a name.
 * Finally, an encyclopedia is supposed to educate people, not lower the level; otherwise, why not accept that articles adopt "cemetary" for "cemetery", "should of" for "should have", "it's" for "its", "their" for "there", "recieve" for "receive"?
 * Please Surtsicna, do not take this personally! I know we'll work it out, as others will give their opinion on the matter & consensus will be reached. Regards,  Frania W. (talk) 22:48, 1 September 2009 (UTC)
 * I'll try not to take it personally, but it's hard since you've said that you're fighting me. Also, if you are for respecting the spelling of name in its own language, why did you support moving the article about Maria Theresa of Spain to Marie-Thérèse of Austria? Marie-Thérèse certainly isn't Spanish spelling (nor German, for that matter).
 * According to your arguments (respecting the spelling of a name and a name is a name), Wikipedia should refer to Germany as Deutschland. A name is a name - and so a country's name is a name too. We could easily list all books which refer to her as Marie Leczinska, Maria Leszczyńska and Marie Leszczyńska. Although this is unneccessary, given that hardly any English-language book calls her Maria Leszczyńska. Surtsicna (talk) 09:24, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Surtsicna, I hope you heard the humourous tone in my + you!  My argument in support of the move of the article about Maria Theresa of Spain to Marie-Thérèse of Austria was on "of Spain" vs "of Austria" because of the similarity of situation between Anne of Austria & MT of Spain or Austria, both of Habsburg ancestry born in Spain & becoming queens of France so, logically, if Anne was "of Austria", MT should also have been.  Now for the name part, and I believe that you know what I am referring to, it does not concern Germany vs Deutschland or Spain vs España, but the very personal name of a person and his/her acceptance of what contemporaries turned it into, i.e. while Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna accepted to become Marie Antoinette for the French (even de:wiki has her under that name), did anyone bother asking "Maria Leszczyńska" what she felt about her Polish last name being mutilated?  The difference in the spelling is explained in the article and I think this is sufficient, while the title of the article should have her real name.  And I am not "fighting" you on this, only explaining my point of view:  you have your opinion on the matter, I have mine, so do others, which means that it is up to consensus. Cordialement, oops, forgive me! this being en:wiki:  Cordially  Frania W. (talk) 13:42, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * I'm sorry, I honestly didn't hear the humourous tone. I have hard time understanding your humour, due to language barrier and the fact that I can't see your face, but probably due to its specific nature too :) Now, concerning the queen's first name, the fact that the name Maria is rarely (if ever) used when referring to her and that Marie is usually (if not always) used when referring to her, followed either by Leczinska or Leszczyńska, deserves more than a few sentences. Since common name rule outranks our POV, one can understand why I proposed a new title. Surtsicna (talk) 15:25, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Surtsicna, as I said, we have a difference of opinion & others will have to weigh in, in what hopefully will stay a courteous exchange aiming at consensus.
 * Now, as to my humourous tone: Surtsicna, I thought you could detect it even in writing, specially + you coming after the whole Anglo-Americano-Australiano Empire.  Was not it obvious???  And I will even add that you vs that Empire make the scale tip on your side!  I could even be more humourous, but fear I might not be understood because of the three language barriers separating us.  Cordially,  Frania W. (talk) 15:45, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Don't get me wrong; I love your humourous tone, but unfortunatly my hearing is not good enough to detect it every time. Oh, and the three language barriers don't help my hearing either. Cordialement! Surtsicna (talk) 16:01, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Wow! We finally got that one straight!  Diplomatic boo-boo avoided, and I will not have to close my embassy in your country.  Aurevoir, Surtsicna, as I must shut off the beast (= computer) for a few hours.  Frania W. (talk) 16:16, 2 September 2009 (UTC)

 * How about the same compromise as the New Cambridge Modern History: Marie Leszczyńska? Septentrionalis PMAnderson 16:58, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * That's what I already proposed as an alternative in my first comment. Among English-speaking historians, Marie Leszczyńska is at least four times more popular than Maria Leszczyńska. It should be noted that most (if not all) "English-language" books that call her Maria Leszczyńska are actually in polish, meaning that Marie Leszczyńska could even be 40 times more popular than Maria Leszczyńska. If someone doubts the numbers, I am willing to count all books which use Maria Leszczyńska and those which use Marie Leszczyńska. Surtsicna (talk) 19:33, 2 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Marie or Maria is fine with me as long as the original spelling of her Polish name is respected. Frania W. (talk) 15:51, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Why didn't you say so? Do we have an agreement? Surtsicna (talk) 16:31, 3 September 2009 (UTC)
 * Surtsicna, my only problem was having her last name mutilated in the title of the article... Then reference for the shortened version within the article is fine if it is the name she was the most known under, as long as it is clear that it is what the French did to her name, which is already mentioned. So, you have my stamp of approval for the above proposition.  Bonne journée!  Frania W. (talk) 17:26, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

That "n" with an accent over it is not in the English alphabet. This is the English-language Wikipedia. We English-speakers should be able to read it. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 71.168.149.180 (talk) 12:50, 15 January 2016 (UTC)

Of 99
She was of 99 eligible princess to marry the King! The other was Mariana Victoria of Spain. Who were the other 97?--Queen Elizabeth II's Little Spy (talk) 02:52, 28 November 2010 (UTC)

 * Hmm !
 * Have also been wondering... unless someone is confusing "princesses" & "mistresses" !
 * --Frania W. (talk) 23:07, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

Mariana Victoria of Spain was not on the list: she was already in France as his fiancee, and the list was created because she was to be sent home and discarded as bride. The list initially simply included near to all unmarried princesses in Europe of roughly the right age, mainly Catholic but also non-Catholic (which was expected to convert upon marriage), and most of them was removed when the list was reduced to seventeen: it was the list of seventeen brides that included those truly considered as possible choices.
 * The list of 99 Princesses considered as suitable brides of Louis XV:

Part of the list when the 99 was reduced to 17: The last remaining when the list of 17 was reduced to four:
 * Marie Leszczyńska - initially removed because her parents was too poor and her father was deposed.
 * Landgravine Caroline of Hesse-Rotenburg - removed "on account of her bad temper".
 * Elizabeth of Russia - removed because of her mother's commoner background.
 * Barbara of Portugal - removed because of the bad health of her family.
 * Princess Charlotte Amalie of Denmark - removed because it could cause conflict with the France's ally Sweden (enemy of Denmark).
 * Elisabeth Therese of Lorraine - removed because the House of Lorraine was too closely related to the Habsburgs.
 * Enrichetta d'Este - removed because of the disorderly situation within her family.
 * Anne of Great Britain - removed because of the fear that she would benefit the Huguenots if she should become regent of a minor regency.
 * Amelia of Great Britain - removed for the same reasons as her sister above.
 * Élisabeth Alexandrine de Bourbon - removed when her brother the Duke of Bourbon pointed out that she was not as pretty as her sister.
 * Henriette Louise de Bourbon - initially chosen as bride, but removed when Madame de Prie and the Paris Brothers Joseph Paris Duverney retracted their support, Cardinal Fleury already being opposed to it, which resulted in the selection of Marie Leszczyńska.--92.35.237.251 (talk) 15:07, 23 June 2019 (UTC)

How many grandchildren?
I have maybe made some errenous calculations, as to think she became a grandmother at the age of 38 or so. Is it so? In that case, I thought Queen Victoria was a bit early with becoming a grandmother?--85.164.223.189 (talk) 22:14, 20 December 2010 (UTC)

Pronunciation
The German Wiki article contains an audio pronouncer of this difficult Polish name:
 * https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Maria_Leszczy%C5%84ska_audio.ogg

Perhaps it could be added here. – Sca (talk) 13:15, 23 June 2019 (UTC)

Unsourced information
Special:Diff/1158014871 added a lot of new information, including the languages Marie Leszczynska spoke, that doesn't seem to be connected with any of the references. Can someone verify the info? Yxtqwf (talk) 14:19, 14 November 2023 (UTC)

title: Talk:Marie Leszczyńska


text:
Template:Did you know

Did you know mentions and links to new articles, articles expanded by a factor of five within the last seven days, and newly-promoted good articles. To propose a new fact for this template, make a suggestion on the talk page.

To report an error, see Main Page errors.

Admins:
 * Before updating please protect the featured image.
 * To manually update, please read and follow the "Manually posting the new update (if the bot is down)" instructions at the bottom of the queue.

Hooks

 * ... that Tobie Goedewaagen (pictured), a minister under the Nazi occupation government, fled the Netherlands with his belongings in a bedspread?
 * ... that sixteen-year-old Lisa Andreas, who represented Cyprus in the Eurovision Song Contest 2004, was that year's youngest contest entrant?
 * ... that Chris Patrick is one of seven Stanley Cup champions in his family?
 * ... that the Coon Rapids Dam on the Mississippi River is the northern terminus of the river's navigable portion?
 * ... that musician Henry Donch witnessed the assassination of Abraham Lincoln and served on the grand jury that indicted the assassin of President Garfield?
 * ... that the Pokémon species Lucario is used to promote fitness programs in Japan?
 * ... that Peter Talbot, the Catholic archbishop of Dublin, was imprisoned in 1678 due to an anti-Catholic conspiracy?
 * ... that the owners of the Narragansett Pier Railroad included a family of industrialists, a dentist, a systems analyst, a lumberyard, and the founder of Textron?
 * ... that valence populism cannot be positioned on the left–right political spectrum?
 * ... that 17-year-old women's basketball player Zhang Ziyu is at least tall?

class=dyk-footer noprint|style=margin-top: 0.5em; text-align: right;
 * Archive
 * Start a new article
 * Nominate an article

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Template:Did you know


text:
Istra, Istrinsky District, Moscow Oblast

Istra (И́стра) is a town and the administrative center of Istrinsky District in Moscow Oblast, Russia, located on the Istra River, 40 km west of Moscow, on the Moscow–Riga railway. Population: It was previously known as Voskresenskoye, Voskresensk (until 1930).

History
Known since the 16th century as the village of Voskresenskoye, it was acquired by Patriarch Nikon to serve the needs of the neighbouring Voskresensky (Resurrection) Monastery. By 1781, the village had grown into the town of Voskresensk and become the seat of an uyezd.

In 1930, the town was renamed Istra (after the river which flows through it) in order to avoid the old name's religious connotations. As a result of short-term occupation during the Great Patriotic War (from November 25 to December 11, 1941), the town was severely damaged. After the war, Istra became a center of research in the area of electrical power engineering.

Administrative and municipal status
Within the framework of administrative divisions, Istra serves as the administrative center of Istrinsky District. As an administrative division, it is, together with two rural localities, incorporated within Istrinsky District as the Town of Istra. As a municipal division, the Town of Istra is incorporated within Istrinsky Municipal District as Istra Urban Settlement.

Science
There is a large high voltage research center near Istra at 55.92389°N, 36.81944°W.

Education
There are 4 secondary schools in Istra:

 * 1) 1 after A. P. Chekhov, founded in 1908

 * 1) 2 after N.K. Krupskaya, reconstructed in 2008

 * 1) 3 after M.Y. Lermontov

 * 1) 4 Liceum

Other educational institutions in Istra:

- Musical School

- School of Arts

- Pedagogical College.

Architecture

New Jerusalem Monastery, also known as the Voskresensky Monastery, is located in Istra.

Notable people
Famous Russian short-story writer and playwright Anton Chekhov used to work in Istra and its outskirts, while his brother Ivan Chekhov was a teacher at a local school. Soviet geographer Alexander Kruber was born in Istra.

Twin towns – sister cities

Istra is twinned with:

 * 🇩🇪 Bad Orb, Germany
 * 🇷🇸 Bečej, Serbia
 * 🇷🇺 Dyurtyuli, Russia
 * 🇵🇱 Łobez, Poland
 * 🇮🇹 Loreto, Italy
 * 🇧🇬 Petrich, Bulgaria
 * 🇧🇾 Pinsk, Belarus
 * 🇨🇿 Rakovník, Czech Republic


text:
Template:In the news

 * General secretary and former president of Vietnam Nguyễn Phú Trọng (pictured) dies at the age of 80.
 * The International Court of Justice finds the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories to be a violation of international law.
 * A faulty software update by CrowdStrike, an American cybersecurity company, causes global computer outages.
 * In the Rwandan general election, Paul Kagame is re-elected as the president, and the Rwandan Patriotic Front coalition win a majority in the lower house.

title: Template:In the news


text:
Istra (river)

Istra (И́стра) is a river in Moscow Oblast, Russia. It is a left tributary of the Moskva. It is 113 km long, and has a drainage basin of 2050 km2. The town of Istra is located on it.

title: Istra (river)


text:
Surat Thani

Surat Thani (สุราษฎร์ธานี, ) is a city in Amphoe Mueang Surat Thani, Surat Thani Province, southern Thailand. It lies 651 km south of Bangkok. It is the capital of Surat Thani Province. The city has a population of 132,040 (2019), and an area of 68.97 km2. The city's population density is 1,914 inhabitants per km2.

Surat Thani is located near the mouth of the Tapi River on the Gulf of Thailand. The city offers no major tourist attractions in itself, and is mainly known to tourists as the jumping-off point to Ko Samui, Ko Tao, and Ko Pha Ngan. It is the regional commercial center, with a seaport dealing in the main products of the province, rubber and coconuts.

Toponymy
The city received its name, which means "city of good people", by King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) in 1915. The name was given to the city due to the intense devotion of the locals to Buddhism. Previously the city was known as Bandon (บ้านดอน), meaning "village on higher ground". The name of the city is taken from the Indian city Surat in Gujarat on the Indian River Tapi. King Vajiravudh (Rama VI) gave this name to his city as he was impressed with the Indian city.

History
On 21 December 1930 Surat Thani became a sanitary district (sukhaphiban), which was upgraded to a town (thesaban mueang) on 7 December 1935, with a municipal area of 2.67 km2. The area of the municipality was enlarged to 6.95 km2 on 14 October 1958, and on 22 December 1994 it was further enlarged to 68.97 km2. On 4 May 2007, the town was upgraded to city status (thesaban nakhon).

Rail
Surat Thani is connected with Bangkok by the Southern Line of the State Railway of Thailand. Surat Thani Railway Station is the main station of the province. It is in Phunphin, about 15 km from Surat Thani.

Road
Surat Thani is connected to Nakhon Si Thammarat by Route 401. Asian highway AH2 also passes the city at Phunphin.

Air
Surat Thani International Airport is about 30 km from the city by road.

Water
There are three main ferry companies that operate from mainland Surat Thani to the islands: Lomprayah, Seatran, and Raja.

There are only two ferry piers in Muang Surat Thani: Tapee Pier, which Lomprayah's High Speed Catarman operates from, and Bandon Pier, which is for night boats only. Seatran Pier and Raja Pier are both located in Don Sak District, 65km (40mi) east of the city centre.

Climate
Surat Thani has a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen climate classification Aw). Like other parts of Southern Thailand, Surat Thani has only two seasons; wet and dry. Temperatures are fairly stable throughout the year, although the pre-monsoon months (March–May) are somewhat hotter. There is a short dry season from January to April, followed by the wet season that lasts from May to December. The heaviest rains occur in October and November.

Festivals

 * Chak Phra - Celebrating Buddha's symbolic return to earth at the end of Buddhist Lent. Parade, floats and long-boat races.
 * Tham Bun Dern Sip (ทำบุญเดือนสิบ) - Southern Thai Festival of the Tenth Lunar Month
 * Surat Food Fair – Held annually in March (2019 dates: 8-16 March) along the Tapi River. The largest food festival in Southern Thailand.
 * Surat Thani Vegetarian Festival - Held annually in October (2018 dates: 8-15 October). Parades, more vegetarian options in restaurants and shops, and free food at the Chinese temples
 * Songkran - Thai New Year Festival
 * Loi Krathong -

Sports
Surat Thani is home to the Surat Thani Football Club (nicknamed “Police Tero”, previously known as “The Roosters”) and the Surat Thani Futsal Club (nicknamed “The Chargers”).

Colleges and universities

 * Prince of Songkla University (PSU), Surat Thani Campus
 * Surat Thani Rajabhat University (SRU)
 * Tapee University
 * Suratthani Technical College
 * Surat Thani Vocational Education College
 * Surat Commercial Technology College
 * Surat Thani Polytechnic College

Primary and secondary
Primary and secondary schools with English instruction include:
 * Surat Thani International School (STIS)
 * Oonrak International Bilingual School
 * Joy Bilingual School
 * Sarasas Witaed Suratthani School

Secondary

 * Suratthani School

Hospitals

 * Ministry of Public Health
 * Surat Thani Hospital - public hospital
 * Suan Saranrom Hospital - psychiatric hospital
 * Suratthani Cancer Hospital - cancer hospital
 * Military
 * Fort Wiphavadirangsit Hospital - military hospital
 * Wing 7 Hospital - Wing 7 Royal Thai Air Force
 * Private
 * Bangkok Hospital Surat - private hospital
 * Thaksin Hospital - private hospital

Administration
The administration of Surat Thani city municipality is responsible for an area that covers 68.97 square kilometers (26.63 square miles) and consists of six subdistricts, 18 villages (muban), 132,040 people in 74,548 households.

Notable people

 * Panipak Wongpattanakit, taekwondo athlete.

title: Surat Thani


text:
Nicoletta Vallorani

Nicoletta Vallorani (born 7 February 1959) is an Italian science fiction writer.

Born in Offida, in the Marche region, she holds a degree in Foreign Languages with a dissertation on Contemporary American Literature, honed her writing skills as a translator and currently teaches English Language and Literature in the University of Milan, Milan.

Her work as an essayist focuses on Italian science fiction criticism, and science fiction from women in particular.

She contributed to various genre magazines, including Cosmo, La città e le stelle, Studi e ricerche sulla fantascienza and Ucronia. For Mondadori she did volume prefaces, articles, interviews, columns.

Starting in the mid-1980s she published novels and short-story collections.

She won the Premio Urania 1992 with the novel Il cuore finto di DR, a science fiction/noir cross-pollination published by Mondadori under the Urania inprint the following year, and also translated in French. She also writes noir and kids literature.

In 2012 her novel Le madri cattive won the Premio Nazionale di Narrativa Maria Teresa Di Lascia. In 2020 her novel Avrai i miei occhi (Zona 42) was longlisted for the Premio Campiello and Premio Napoli.

Her latest novel is Noi siamo campo di battaglia (Zona 42)

Work translated into English

 * "The Catalog of Virgins" (translated by Rachel S. Cordasco), Clarkesworld magazine (2017)

title: Nicoletta Vallorani


text:
Baron Henniker

Baron Henniker, of Stratford-upon-Slaney in the County of Wicklow, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1800 for Sir John Henniker, 2nd Baronet, who had previously represented Sudbury and Dover in the House of Commons. His son, the second Baron, also sat as a Member of Parliament. In 1792 he assumed by Royal licence the additional surname of Major (which was that of his maternal grandfather; see below). He was childless and was succeeded by his nephew, the third Baron. He assumed the additional surname of Major by Royal licence in 1822. His son, the fourth Baron, represented Suffolk East in Parliament. In 1866 he was created Baron Hartismere, of Hartismere in the County of Suffolk, in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. This title gave him and his descendants an automatic seat in the House of Lords. He was succeeded by his son, the fifth Baron. He also sat as Member of Parliament for Suffolk East and later held minor office in the Conservative administrations of Benjamin Disraeli and Lord Salisbury. His grandson, the eighth Baron, was a prominent diplomat and notably served as British Ambassador to Jordan and to Denmark. the titles are held by the latter's son, the ninth Baron, who succeeded in 2004.

The baronetcy, of Worlingworth Hall in the County of Suffolk, was created in the Baronetage of Great Britain in 1765 for John Major, with remainder to the aforementioned John Henniker, the husband of his daughter Anne. Major notably represented Scarborough in the House of Commons. He was succeeded according to the special remainder by his son-in-law, the second Baronet, who was elevated to the Peerage of Ireland in 1800.

Lieutenant-General the Hon. Brydges Henniker, youngest son of the first Baron Henniker, was created a baronet, of Newton Hall in the County of Essex, in 1813.

The town of Henniker, New Hampshire, in the United States was named after the first Baron.

The family seat is Thornham Hall, near Thornham Magna, Suffolk.

Major (later Henniker) baronets of Worlingsworth Hall (1765)

 * Sir John Major, 1st Baronet (1698–1781)
 * Sir John Henniker, 2nd Baronet (1724–1803) (created Baron Henniker in 1800)

Baron Henniker of Stratford-on-Slaney (1800)

 * John Henniker, 1st Baron Henniker (1724–1803)
 * John Henniker-Major, 2nd Baron Henniker (1752–1821)
 * John Minet Henniker-Major, 3rd Baron Henniker (1777–1832)
 * John Henniker-Major, 4th Baron Henniker, 1st Baron Hartismere (1801–1870) (created Baron Hartismere in 1866)
 * John Major Henniker-Major, 5th Baron Henniker, 2nd Baron Hartismere (1842–1902)
 * Charles Henry Chandos Henniker-Major, 6th Baron Henniker, 3rd Baron Hartismere (1872–1956)
 * John Ernest de Grey Henniker-Major, 7th Baron Henniker, 4th Baron Hartismere (1883–1980)
 * John Patrick Edward Chandos Henniker-Major, 8th Baron Henniker, 5th Baron Hartismere (1916–2004)
 * Mark Ian Philip Chandos Henniker-Major, 9th Baron Henniker, 6th Baron Hartismere (born 1947)

The heir apparent is the present holder's only surviving son, Hon. Edward George Major Henniker-Major (born 1985).

title: Baron Henniker


text: Template:LGPL

title: Template:LGPL


text:
Massimo del Pizzo

Massimo del Pizzo is an Italian science fiction writer and critic. From the Abruzzo region, del Pizzo teaches French Language and Literature in the Facoltà di Lingue of the Università degli Studi di Bari. He published studies on literary utopias, on fantasy and on French scientific imagination writing.

On the fiction front, he published a number of short stories in newspapers, magazines and anthologies. Many of his stories verge on the dream-like, while other are closer to science-fiction.

Works
His works include:

 * L'opera di Rosny Aîné. Dal realismo al naturalismo, dal fantastico alla fantascienza, Schena, 1990
 * Alphonse Rabbe, la parola austera e la parola disperata, Schena, 1990
 * Viaggi e passaggi. Letture di Jules Verne, Solfanelli 1995
 * I microscopi dell'Altrove. Utopia, Fantastico, Fantascienza, B.A. Graphis, 1996
 * Maurice Renard. Gli occhi dello scriba, B.A. Graphis, 2000
 * Restif de la Bretonne e «Les Posthumes». Il diavolo in coppia, B.A. Graphis, 2001

As editor he worked on:

 * Racconti di fantascienza. Il mondo attraverso la letteratura di immaginazione scientifica, Palumbo 2000.
 * Altri mondi, Nord.

title: Massimo del Pizzo


text:
Baron Hotham

Baron Hotham, of South Dalton in the County of York, is a title in the Peerage of Ireland. It was created in 1797 for the naval commander Admiral William Hotham, with remainder to the heirs male of his father. Hotham was the third son of Sir Beaumont Hotham, 7th Baronet, of Scorborough (see below), and in 1811 he also succeeded his nephew as eleventh Baronet. Lord Hotham never married and on his death in 1813 he was succeeded in both titles by his younger brother Beaumont, the second Baron and twelfth Baronet. He had previously represented Wigan in the House of Commons.

Beaumont Hotham, 3rd Baron Hotham, grandson of the second Baron, fought at the Battle of Waterloo and was later a General in the Army and sat as a Member of Parliament. He died unmarried and was succeeded by his nephew, the fourth Baron, the son of Rear-Admiral George Frederick Hotham, brother of the third Baron. He, like his successor and younger brother, the fifth Baron, died unmarried. The latter was succeeded by his first cousin once removed, the sixth Baron. He was the son of Reverend William Francis Hotham, second son of the second Baron.

On the death of the sixth Baron, that line of the family also failed and the titles passed to his first cousin twice removed, the seventh Baron. He was the great-grandson of the third son of the third Baron. the titles are held by his third son, the eighth Baron, who succeeded in 1967.

The Baronetcy, of Scorborough in the County of York, was created in the Baronetage of England in 1622 for John Hotham. Both he and his son, John Hotham the younger, were beheaded by the Parliamentarians in 1645. The title was inherited by the latter's son John, the second Baronet. Both he and his son, the third Baronet, represented Beverley in Parliament. The third Baron was succeeded by his cousin, the fourth Baronet. He sat as Member of Parliament for Scarborough and Beverley. His son, the fifth Baronet, also represented Beverley in the House of Commons. He was succeeded by his son, the sixth Baronet.

On his death in 1767 the line of the fifth Baronet failed and the title passed to the late Baronet's uncle, the seventh Baronet. His eldest son, the eighth Baronet, a Lieutenant-General in the Army, represented St Ives in Parliament and also assumed the additional surname of Thompson. When he died the titles passed to his younger brother, the ninth Baronet. He served as Lord Bishop of Clogher. He was succeeded by his son, the tenth Baronet. On his death in 1811 the title was inherited by the aforementioned eleventh Baronet, who had already been elevated to the peerage as Baron Hotham.

The family seat is Dalton Hall, Beverley, East Riding of Yorkshire.

Hotham Baronets of Scorborough (1622)

 * Sir John Hotham, 1st Baronet (died 1645)
 * Sir John Hotham, 2nd Baronet (1632–1689)
 * Sir John Hotham, 3rd Baronet (1655–1691)
 * Sir Charles Hotham, 4th Baronet (c. 1663–1723)
 * Sir Charles Hotham, 5th Baronet (1693–1738)
 * Sir Charles Hotham, 6th Baronet (died 1767)
 * Sir Beaumont Hotham, 7th Baronet (died 1771)
 * Sir Charles Hotham-Thompson, 8th Baronet (1729–1794)
 * Sir John Hotham, 9th Baronet (1734–1795)
 * Sir Charles Hotham, 10th Baronet (1766–1811)
 * Sir William Hotham, 11th Baronet (1736–1813) (had been created Baron Hotham in 1797)

Barons Hotham (1797)

 * William Hotham, 1st Baron Hotham (1736–1813)
 * Beaumont Hotham, 2nd Baron Hotham (1737–1814)
 * Beaumont Hotham, 3rd Baron Hotham (1794–1870)
 * Charles Hotham, 4th Baron Hotham (1836–1872)
 * John Hotham, 5th Baron Hotham (1838–1907)
 * Frederick William Hotham, 6th Baron Hotham (1863–1923)
 * Henry Frederick Hotham, 7th Baron Hotham (1899–1967)
 * Henry Durand Hotham, 8th Baron Hotham (born 1940)

The heir apparent is the present holder's son Hon. William Beaumont Hotham (born 1972).

The heir apparent's heir apparent is his son Merlin Frederick Hotham (born 2006).

title: Baron Hotham


text:
Alessandro Defilippi

Alessandro Defilippi is an Italian writer and screenwriter.

Born in Turin, he works as a psychoanalyst. His published works include the gothic tales collection Una lunga consuetudine (Sellerio, 1994) and two novels, Locus Animae (Passigli, 1999), a psychological thriller, and Angeli (Passigli 2002), a gothic novel with themes of mysticism, politics, ethics and philosophy.

He also worked on the screenplay for Prendimi l'anima, directed by Roberto Faenza, and has written poetry.

title: Alessandro Defilippi


text:
Absorptivity

In science, absorptivity may refer to:

 * Molar absorptivity, in chemistry, a measurement of how strongly a chemical species absorbs light at a given wavelength
 * Absorptance, in physics, the fraction of radiation absorbed at a given wavelength
 * , information on the radiometrical aspect

title: Absorptivity


text: Template:CC BY 1.0

title: Template:CC BY 1.0


text:
Spot Fetcher

Spot "Spotty" Fetcher (March 17, 1989 – February 21, 2004) was U.S. President George W. Bush's dog. She was an English Springer Spaniel, named after Scott Fletcher, a baseball player with the Major League Baseball team Texas Rangers, a team George W. Bush owned before becoming Governor of Texas in 1994.

Born in the White House, she was the daughter of Millie, who had belonged to President George H. W. Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush. Her father was Tug Farish from Lane's End Farm in Kentucky, better known for its thoroughbred horse breeding program.

She was euthanized after suffering a series of strokes. She was 14 years old.

Spot is the only presidential pet to have lived in the White House under two presidents, the two being George H. W. Bush and his son, George W. Bush.

George had a dog at the time of her death, Barney, who became a popular figure for the US, and later another dog, Miss Beazley, who was born eight months after Spot's death.

title: Spot Fetcher


text:
Bressay

Bressay is a populated island in the Shetland archipelago of Scotland.

Geography and geology
Bressay lies due south of Whalsay, west of the Isle of Noss, and north of Mousa. With an area of 11 sqmi, it is the fifth-largest island in Shetland. The population is around 360 people, concentrated in the middle of the west coast, around Glebe and Fullaburn.

The island is made up of Old Red Sandstone with some basaltic intrusions. Bressay was quarried extensively for building materials, used all over Shetland, especially in nearby Lerwick. There are a number of sea caves and arches. The largest of eleven lochs on the island are the Loch of Grimsetter in the east, and the Loch of Brough.

Wildlife
Bressay has a large number of migrant birds, especially in the east. The Loch of Grimsetter is a haven for waders and whooper swans. In the far south, there is a colony of Arctic skuas.

History
The name of the island may have been recorded in 1263 as 'Breiðoy' (Old Norse "broad island"). In a 1490 document the island is referred to as "Brwsøy" - "Brusi's island" which name may indicate it was the 11th century base for Earl of Orkney Brusi Sigurdsson. This possibility is supported by a later reference to his son Rögnvald as "Lord of the Shetlanders" and Thompson (2008) is in "no doubt " that Shetland specifically was in Brusi's possession during his joint earldom with his brothers.

The Bressay Stone is an outstanding example of Pictish art.

 * a slab of chlorite slate, about 16 in wide at the top, tapering to less than a foot [300 mm] at the bottom.

The slender sides are engraved with ogham, and the two faces with various examples of knotwork, and imagery. The top of each face has a cross. On one side, there is an engraving of two men with crosiers, as well as various animals including horses, pigs, and what appears to be someone in the process of being swallowed by two sea monsters. It has been suggested that this is Jonah.

During World War I and II gun emplacements were built to guard Bressay Sound.

Infrastructure
Attractions on the island include Bressay Lighthouse. At Maryfield there is a heritage centre,  a hotel and the old laird's mansion, Gardie House, built in 1724.

Frequent car ferries sail from Maryfield to Lerwick on the Shetland Mainland. During the summer months, a passenger ferry service links the east coast of Bressay with the nature reserve Isle of Noss.

Lerwick and Bressay Parish Church (of the Church of Scotland) has three places of worship. The Bressay Church building is located close to the Marina, near the centre of the west coast of the island.

title: Bressay


text:
Danilo Arona

Danilo Arona is an Italian writer, journalist, freelance writer and essayist, born in Alessandria, Piedmont, where he currently lives.

He has also been involved for years with fantasy literature and cinema, and has followed any reference or appearance of fantasy in the news and in Italian society.

Essays

 * Guida al fantacinema, Gammalibri
 * Guida al cinema horror, Ripostes
 * Nuova guida al fantacinema - La maschera, la carne, il contagio, Puntozero
 * Tutte storie - Immaginario italiano e leggende contemporanee, Costa & Nolan 1994
 * Vien di notte l'Uomo Nero - Il cinema di Stephen King, Falsopiano 1997
 * Satana ti vuole, Corbaccio
 * Possessione mediatica, Marco Tropea Editore, 1998
 * Wes Craven - Il buio oltre la siepe, Falsopiano, 1999

Novels
Arona has also written a number of fanta-noir novels, all set in Italy, including:

 * La penombra del gufo, Amnesia
 * Un brivido sulla schiena del Drago, Amnesia
 * La pianura fa paura, Editoriale AGP
 * Il vento urla Mary, PuntoZero
 * Rock, Solid Books 2002
 * L'ombra del dio alato, Marco Tropea, 2003
 * L'esorcista, il cinema, il mito, Falsopiano, 2003
 * Palo Mayombe, Dario Flaccovio, 2004
 * La stazione del dio del suono, Larcher, 2004
 * Cronache di Bassavilla, Dario Flaccovio, 2006
 * Black Magic Woman, Frilli, 2006
 * Finis Terrae, Mondadori, 2007
 * Melissa Parker e l'incendio perfetto, Dino Audino, 2007
 * Santanta, Perdisa, 2008
 * L'estate di Montebuio, Gargoyle Books, 2009
 * Ritorno a Bassavilla, Edizioni XII, 2009

title: Danilo Arona


text:
Muskox

The muskox (Ovibos moschatus, in Latin "musky sheep-ox"), also spelled musk ox and musk-ox, plural muskoxen or musk oxen (in ᐅᒥᖕᒪᒃ; in, ), is a hoofed mammal of the family Bovidae. Native to the Arctic, it is noted for its thick coat and for the strong odor emitted by males during the seasonal rut, from which its name derives. This musky odor has the effect of attracting females during mating season. Its Inuktitut name "umingmak" translates to "the bearded one".

Its Woods Cree names "mâthi-môs" and "mâthi-mostos" translate to "ugly moose" and "ugly bison", respectively. In historic times, muskoxen primarily lived in Greenland and the Canadian Arctic of the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, They were formerly present in Eurasia, with their youngest natural records in the region dating to around 2,700 years ago, with reintroduced populations in the American state of Alaska, the Canadian territory of Yukon, and Siberia, and an introduced population in Norway, part of which emigrated to Sweden, where a small population now lives.

Extant relatives
The muskox is in the subtribe Ovibovina (or tribe Ovibovini) in the tribe Caprini (or subfamily Caprinae) of the subfamily Antilopinae in the family Bovidae. It is therefore more closely related to sheep and goats than to oxen; it is placed in its own genus, Ovibos (Latin: "sheep-ox"). It is one of the two largest extant members of the caprines, along with the similarly sized Takin Budorcas. While the takin and muskox were once considered possibly closely related, the takin lacks common ovibovine features, such as the muskox's specialized horn morphology, and genetic analysis shows that their lineages actually separated early in caprine evolution. Instead, the muskox's closest living relatives appear to be the gorals of the genus Naemorhedus, nowadays common in many countries of central and east Asia. The vague similarity between takin and muskox is therefore an example of convergent evolution.

Fossil history and extinct relatives
The modern muskox is the last member of a line of ovibovines that first evolved in temperate regions of Asia and adapted to a cold tundra environment late in its evolutionary history. Muskox ancestors with sheep-like high-positioned horns (horn cores being mostly over the plane of the frontal bones, rather than below them as in modern muskoxen) first left the temperate forests for the developing grasslands of Central Asia during the Pliocene, expanding into Siberia and the rest of northern Eurasia. Later migration waves of Asian ungulates that included high-horned muskoxen reached Europe and North America during the first half of the Pleistocene. The first well known muskox, the "shrub-ox" Euceratherium, crossed to North America over an early version of the Bering Land Bridge two million years ago and prospered in the American southwest and Mexico. Euceratherium was larger yet more lightly built than modern muskoxen, resembling a giant sheep with massive horns, and preferred hilly grasslands.

A genus with intermediate horns, Soergelia, inhabited Eurasia in the early Pleistocene, from Spain to Siberia, and crossed to North America during the Irvingtonian (1.8 million years to 240,000 years ago), soon after Euceratherium. Unlike Euceratherium, which survived in America until the Pleistocene-Holocene extinction event, Soergelia was a lowland dweller which disappeared fairly early, displaced by more advanced ungulates, such as the "giant muskox" Praeovibos (literally "before Ovibos"). The low-horned Praeovibos was present in Europe and the Mediterranean 1.5 million years ago, colonized Alaska and the Yukon one million years ago and disappeared half a million years ago. Praeovibos was a highly adaptable animal apparently associated with cold tundra (reindeer) and temperate woodland (red deer) faunas alike. During the Mindel glaciation 500,000 years ago, Praeovibos was present in the Kolyma river area in eastern Siberia in association with many Ice Age megafauna that would later coexist with Ovibos, in the Kolyma itself and elsewhere, including wild horses, reindeer, woolly mammoth and stag-moose. It is debated, however, if Praeovibos was directly ancestral to Ovibos, or both genera descended from a common ancestor, since the two occurred together during the middle Pleistocene. Defenders of ancestry from Praeovibos have proposed that Praeovibos evolved into Ovibos in one region during a period of isolation and expanded later, replacing the remaining populations of Praeovibos.

Two more Praeovibos-like genera were named in America in the 19th century, Bootherium and Symbos, which are now identified as the male and female forms of a single, sexually dimorphic species, the "woodland muskox", Bootherium bombifrons. Bootherium inhabited open woodland areas of North America during the late Pleistocene, from Alaska to Texas and maybe even Mexico, but was most common in the Southern United States, while Ovibos replaced it in the tundra-steppe to the north, immediately south of the Laurentian ice sheet.

Modern Ovibos appeared in Germany almost one million years ago and was common in the region through the Pleistocene. By the Mindel, muskoxen had also reached the British Isles. Both Germany and Britain were just south of the Scandinavian ice sheet and covered in tundra during cold periods, but Pleistocene muskoxen are also rarely recorded in more benign and wooded areas to the south like France and Green Spain, where they coexisted with temperate ungulates like red deer and aurochs. Likewise, the muskox is known to have survived in Britain during warm interglacial periods.

Today's muskoxen are descended from others believed to have migrated from Siberia to North America between 200,000 and 90,000 years ago, having previously occupied Alaska (at the time united to Siberia and isolated periodically from the rest of North America by the union of the Laurentide and Cordilleran Ice Sheets during colder periods) between 250,000 and 150,000 years ago. After migrating south during one of the warmer periods of the Illinoian glaciation, non-Alaskan American muskoxen would be isolated from the rest in the colder periods. The muskox was already present in its current stronghold of Banks Island 34,000 years ago, but the existence of other ice-free areas in the Canadian Arctic Archipelago at the time is disputed.

Along with the bison and the pronghorn, the muskox was one of a few species of Pleistocene megafauna in North America to survive the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event and live to the present day. The muskox is thought to have been able to survive the last glacial period by finding ice-free areas (refugia) away from prehistoric peoples.

Fossil DNA evidence suggests that muskoxen were not only more geographically widespread during the Pleistocene, but also more genetically diverse. During that time, other populations of muskoxen lived across the Arctic, from the Ural Mountains to Greenland. By contrast, the current genetic makeup of the species is more homogenous. Climate fluctuation may have affected this shift in genetic diversity: research indicates colder periods in Earth's history are correlated with more diversity, and warmer periods with more homogeneity. Muskox populations survived into the Holocene in Siberia, with their youngest records in the region being from the Taymyr Peninsula, dating to around 2,700 years ago (~700 BC).

Physical characteristics
Both male and female muskoxen have long, curved horns. Muskoxen stand 1.1 to 1.5 m high at withers, with females measuring 135 to 200 cm in length, and the larger males 200 to 250 cm. The small tail, often concealed under a layer of fur, measures only 10 cm long. Adults, on average, weigh 285 kg, but can range from 180 to 410 kg. The thick coat and large head suggest a larger animal than the muskox truly is; the bison, to which the muskox is often compared, can weigh up to twice as much. However, heavy zoo-kept specimens have weighed up to 650 kg. Their coat, a mix of black, gray and brown, includes long guard hairs that almost reach the ground. Rare "white muskoxen" have been spotted in the Queen Maud Gulf Bird Sanctuary. Muskoxen are occasionally semi-domesticated for wool, and rarely for meat and milk. The U.S. state of Alaska has several muskoxen farms specifically aimed at wool harvesting. The wool, called qiviut, is highly prized for its softness, length, and insulation value. Prices for yarn range between 40 and 80 $/oz.

A muskox can reach speeds of up to 60 km/h. Their life expectancy is between 12 and 20 years.

Prehistory
During the Pleistocene period, muskoxen were much more widespread. Fossil evidence shows that they lived across the Siberian and North American Arctic, from the Urals to Greenland. The ancestors of today's muskoxen came across the Bering Land Bridge to North America between 200,000 and 90,000 years ago. During the Wisconsinan, modern muskox thrived in the tundra south of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, in what is now the Midwest, the Appalachians and Virginia, while distant relatives Bootherium and Euceratherium lived in the forests of the Southern United States and the western shrubland, respectively. Though they were always less common than other Ice Age megafauna, muskox abundance peaked during the Würm II glaciation 20,000 years ago and declined afterwards, especially during the Pleistocene/Holocene extinction event, where its range was greatly reduced and only the populations in North America survived. The last known muskox population in Europe died out in Sweden 9,000 years ago. In Asia, muskox persisted until just 615-555 BCE in Tumat, Sakha Republic.

Following the disappearance of the Laurentide Ice Sheet, the muskox gradually moved north across the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, arriving in Greenland from Ellesmere Island at about 350 AD, during the late Holocene. Their arrival in northwestern Greenland probably occurred within a few hundred years of the arrival of the Dorset and Thule cultures in the present-day Qaanaaq area. Human predation around Qaanaaq may have restricted muskoxen from moving down the west coast, and instead kept them confined to the northeastern fringes of the island.

Recent native range in North America
In modern times, muskoxen were restricted to the Arctic areas of Northern Canada, Greenland, and Alaska. The Alaskan population was wiped out in the late 19th or early 20th century. Their depletion has been attributed to excessive hunting, but an adverse change in climate may have contributed. However, muskoxen have since been reintroduced to Alaska. The United States Fish and Wildlife Service introduced the muskox onto Nunivak Island in 1935 to support subsistence living. Other reintroduced populations are in Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, Bering Land Bridge National Preserve, Yukon's Ivvavik National Park, a wildlife conservation center in Anchorage, Aulavik National Park in Northwest Territories, Kanuti National Wildlife Refuge, Gates of the Arctic National Park, and Whitehorse, Yukon's wildlife preserve.

There have been at least two domestication endeavours. In the 1950s, an American researcher and adventurer was able to capture muskox calves in Northern Canada for relocation to a property he prepared in Vermont. One condition imposed by the Canadian government was that he was not allowed to kill adults defending their young. When nets and ropes proved useless, he and his crew herded family groups into open water, where calves were successfully separated from the adults. Once airfreighted to Montreal and trucked to Vermont, the young animals habituated to the temperate conditions. Although the calves thrived and grew to adulthood, parasite and disease resistance problems impaired the overall success of the effort. The surviving herd was eventually moved to a farm in Palmer, Alaska, where it has been successful since the mid-1950s.

Reintroductions in Eurasia
The species was reintroduced from Banks Island to the Dovre mountain range of Norway in 1932 but were hunted to extinction there during the Second World War. It was reintroduced to Norway in 1947; this population expanded into Härjedalen, Sweden, in 1971.

In 1913, workers building a railway over Dovrefjell found two fossil muskox vertebrae. This led to the idea of introducing muskoxen to Norway from Greenland. The first release in the world was made on Gurskøy outside Ålesund in 1925–26. They were muskoxen caught by Norwegian seal-hunting boats in Greenland. The animals colonized the island, but eventually died out there. An attempt to introduce the muskox to Svalbard also failed. Seventeen animals were released in 1929 by Adventfjorden on West Spitsbergen. In 1940, the herd numbered 50, but in the 1970s, the whole herd disappeared. In September 1932, polar researcher Adolf Hoel conducted another experiment, importing 10 muskoxen to Dovrefjell. This herd survived until World War II, when they were hunted and exterminated. In 1947 and later, new animals were released. A small group of muskoxen from Dovrefjell migrated across the national border to Sweden in 1971 and established themselves in Härjedalen, whereby a Swedish herd was established.

The Norwegian population on Dovrefjell is managed over an area of 340 km2 and in the summer of 2012 consisted of approximately 300 animals. Since 1999, the population has mostly been increasing, but it suffered a measles outbreak in the summer of 2004 that killed 29. Some animals are also occasionally killed as a result of train collisions on the Dovre Railway. The population is divided into flocks in the Nystuguhø area, Kolla (Norway) area and Hjerkinn. In the summer they move down towards Driva, where there are lush grass pastures.

Although the muskox belongs to the dry Arctic grassland, it seems to do well on Dovrefjell. However, the pastures are marginal, with little grass available in winter (the muskox eats only plants, not lichen as reindeer do), and over time, inbreeding depression is expected in such a small population which originated from only a few introduced animals.

In addition to the population on Dovrefjell, the University of Tromsø had some animals on Ryøya outside Tromsø until 2018.

Muskoxen were introduced to Svalbard in 1925–26 and 1929, but this population died out in the 1970s. They were also introduced in Iceland around 1930 but did not survive.

In Russia, animals imported from Banks and Nunivak were released in the Taymyr Peninsula in 1974 and 1975, and some from Nunivak were released in Wrangel Island in 1975. Both locations are north of the Arctic Circle. By 2019 the population on Wrangel Island was about 1100, and the Taymyr Peninsula, about 11,000–14,000. A few muskoxen herds migrated from the Taymyr Peninsula far to the south to the Putorana Plateau. Once established, these populations have been, in turn, used as sources for further reintroductions in Siberia between 1996 and 2010. One of the last of these actions was the release of six animals within the Pleistocene Park project area in the Kolyma River in 2010, where a team of Russian scientists led by Sergey Zimov aims to prove that muskoxen, along with other Pleistocene megafauna that survived into the early Holocene in northern Siberia, did not disappear from the region due to climate change, but because of human hunting.

Introductions in eastern Canada
Ancient muskox remains have never been found in eastern Canada, although the ecological conditions in the northern Labrador Peninsula are suitable for them. In 1967, 14 animals were captured near Eureka on Ellesmere Island by the Institute for Northern Agricultural Research (INAR) and brought to a farm in Old Fort Chimo Kuujjuaq, northern Quebec, for domestication to provide a local cottage industry based on qiviut, a fine natural fiber. The animals thrived and the qiviut industry showed early success with the training of Inuit knitters and marketing, but it soon became clear that the Quebec government had never intended that the muskoxen be domestic, but had used INAR to capture muskoxen to provide a wild population for hunting. Government officials demanded that INAR leave Quebec and the farm be closed. Subsequently, 54 animals from the farm were released in three places in northern Quebec between 1973 and 1983, and the remaining were ceded to local zoos. Between 1983 and 1986, the released animals increased from 148 to 290, at a rate of 25% per year, and by 2003, an estimated 1,400 muskoxen were in Quebec. Additionally, 112 adults and 25 calves were counted in the nearby Diana Island in 2005, having arrived there by their own means from the mainland. Vagrant adults are sometimes spotted in Labrador, though no herds have been observed in the region.

Ecology
During the summer, muskoxen live in wet areas, such as river valleys, moving to higher elevations in the winter to avoid deep snow. Muskoxen will eat grasses, arctic willows, woody plants, lichens (above lichens are excluded from the menu), and mosses. When food is abundant, they prefer succulent and nutritious grasses in an area. Willows are the most commonly eaten plants in the winter. Muskoxen require a high threshold of fat reserves in order to conceive, which reflects their conservative breeding strategy. Winter ranges typically have shallow snow to reduce the energy costs of digging through snow to reach forage. The primary predators of muskoxen are arctic wolves, which may account for up to half of all mortality for the species. Other occasional predators, likely mainly predators of calves or infirm adults, can include grizzly bears and polar bears and wolverines.

Physiology
Muskox are heterothermic mammals, meaning they have the ability to shut off thermal regulation in some parts of their body, like their lower limbs. Maintaining the lower limbs at a cooler temperature than the rest of their body helps reduce the loss of body heat from their extremities. Muskox display the unique characteristic of having hemoglobin that is three times less temperature sensitive than human hemoglobin. This temperature insensitivity allows the muskox's hemoglobin to have a heightened oxygen affinity in an extremely cold environment and continue to diffuse high amounts of oxygen into its cold tissues.

Social behavior and reproduction

Muskoxen live in herds of 12–24 in the winter and 8–20 in the summer when dominant bulls expel other males from the herd. They do not hold territories, but they do mark their trails with preorbital glands. Male and female muskoxen have separate age-based hierarchies, with mature oxen being dominant over juveniles. Dominant oxen tend to get access to the best resources and will displace subordinates from patches of grass during the winter. Muskox bulls assert their dominance in many different ways. One is a "rush and butt", in which a dominant bull rushes a subordinate from the side with its horns, and will warn the subordinate so it can have a chance to get away. Bulls will also roar, swing their heads, and paw the ground. Dominant bulls sometimes treat subordinate bulls like cows. A dominant bull will tap a subordinate with its foreleg, something they do to cows during mating. Dominant bulls will also mock copulate subordinates and sniff their genitals. A subordinate bull can change his status by charging a dominant bull. The mating (or "rutting") season of the muskoxen begins in late June or early July. During this time, dominant bulls will fight others out of the herds and establish harems of usually six or seven cows and their offspring. Fighting bulls will first rub their preorbital glands against their legs while bellowing loudly, and then display their horns. The bulls then back up about 20 m, lower their heads, and charge into each other, and will keep doing so until one bull gives up. Subordinate and elderly bulls will leave the herds to form bachelor groups or become solitary. However, when danger is present, the outside bulls can return to the herd for protection. Dominant bulls will prevent cows from leaving their harems. During mating, a bull will tap an estrous cow with his foreleg to calm her down and make her more receptive to his advances. The herds reassemble when summer ends.

While the bulls are more aggressive during the rutting season and lead their groups, the females take charge during gestation. Pregnant females are aggressive and decide what distance the herd travels in a day and where they will bed for the night. The herds move more often when cows are lactating, to let them get enough food to nurse their offspring. Cows have an eight- to nine-month gestation period, with calving occurring from April to June. Cows do not calve every year. When winters are severe, cows will not go into estrus and thus not calve the next year. When calving, cows stay in the herd for protection. Muskox are precocial, and calves can keep up with the herd within just a few hours after birth. The calves are welcomed into the herd and nursed for the first two months. After that, a calf then begins eating vegetation and nurses only occasionally. Cows communicate with their calves through braying. The calf's bond with its mother weakens after two years.

Muskoxen have a distinctive defensive behavior: when the herd is threatened, the adults will face outward to form a stationary ring or semicircle around the calves. The bulls are usually the front line for defense against predators, with the cows and juveniles gathering close to them. Bulls determine the defensive formation during rutting, while the cows decide the rest of the year.

Components of glandular secretions
The preorbital gland secretion of muskoxen has a "light, sweetish, ethereal" odor. Analysis of preorbital gland secretion extract showed the presence of cholesterol (which is nonvolatile), benzaldehyde, a series of straight-chain saturated γ-lactones ranging from C8H14O2 to C12H22O2 (with C10H18O2 being most abundant), and probably the monounsaturated γ-lactone C12H20O2. The saturated γ-lactone series has an odor similar to that of the secretion.

The odor of dominant rutting males is described as "strong" and "rank". It derives from the preputial gland and is distributed over the fur of the abdomen via urine. Analysis of extract of washes of the prepuce revealed the presence of benzoic acid and p-cresol, along with a series of straight-chain saturated hydrocarbons from C22H46 to C32H66 (with C24H50 being most abundant).

Danger to humans
Muskoxen are not known to be aggressive. Fatal attacks are extremely rare, but humans who have come close and behaved aggressively have occasionally been attacked.

On 22 July 1964, a 73-year-old man was killed in a muskox attack in Norway. The animal was later killed by local authorities.

On 13 December 2022, a court services officer with the Alaska State Troopers was killed by a muskox near Nome, Alaska. The officer was trying to scare away a group of muskox near a dog kennel at his home when one of the animals attacked him.

Conservation status
Historically, this species declined because of overhunting, but populations have recovered following enforcement of hunting regulations. Management in the late 1900s was mostly conservative hunting quotas to foster recovery and recolonization from the historic declines. The current world population of muskoxen is estimated at between 80,000 and 125,000, with an estimated 47,000 living on Banks Island.

In Greenland, there are no major threats. However, populations are often small in size and scattered; this makes them vulnerable to local fluctuations in climate. Most populations are within national parks, where they are protected from hunting. Muskoxen occur in four of Greenland's protected areas, with indigenous populations in Northeast Greenland National Park and introduced populations in Arnangarnup Qoorua and Kangerlussuaq and Maniitsoq Caribou Reserve. In these areas, muskoxen receive full protection.

Muskoxen are being domesticated for the production of qiviut.

title: Muskox


text:
DLX

The DLX (pronounced "Deluxe") is a RISC processor architecture designed by John L. Hennessy and David A. Patterson, the principal designers of the Stanford MIPS and the Berkeley RISC designs (respectively), the two benchmark examples of RISC design (named after the Berkeley design).

The DLX is essentially a cleaned up (and modernized) simplified Stanford MIPS CPU. The DLX has a simple 32-bit load/store architecture, somewhat unlike the modern MIPS architecture CPU. As the DLX was intended primarily for teaching purposes, the DLX design is widely used in university-level computer architecture courses.

There are two known "softcore" hardware implementations: ASPIDA and VAMP. The ASPIDA project resulted in a core with many nice features: it is open source, supports Wishbone, has an asynchronous design, supports multiple ISAs, and is ASIC proven. VAMP is a DLX-variant that was mathematically verified as part of Verisoft project. It was specified with PVS, implemented in Verilog, and runs on a Xilinx FPGA. A full stack from compiler to kernel to TCP/IP was built on it.

History
In the Stanford MIPS architecture, one of the methods used to gain performance was to force all instructions to complete in one clock cycle. This forced compilers to insert "no-ops" in cases where the instruction would definitely take longer than one clock cycle. Thus input and output activities (like memory accesses) specifically forced this behaviour, leading to artificial program bloat. In general MIPS programs were forced to have a lot of wasteful NOP instructions, a behaviour that was an unintended consequence. The DLX architecture does not force single clock cycle execution, and is therefore immune to this problem.

In the DLX design a more modern approach to handling long instructions was used: data-forwarding and instruction reordering. In this case the longer instructions are "stalled" in their functional units, and then re-inserted into the instruction stream when they can complete. Externally this design behaviour makes it appear as if execution had occurred linearly.

How it works
DLX instructions can be broken down into three types, R-type, I-type and J-type. R-type instructions are pure register instructions, with three register references contained in the 32-bit word. I-type instructions specify two registers, and use 16 bits to hold an immediate value. Finally J-type instructions are jumps, containing a 26-bit address.

Opcodes are 6 bits long, for a total of 64 possible basic instructions. To select one of 32 registers 5 bits are needed.
 * In the case of R-type instructions this means that only 21 bits of the 32-bit word are used, which allows the lower 6 bits to be used as "extended instructions".
 * The DLX can support more than 64 instructions, as long as those instructions work purely on registers. This quirk is useful for things like FPU support.

Pipeline
The DLX, like the MIPS design, bases its performance on the use of an instruction pipeline. In the DLX design this is a fairly simple one, "classic" RISC in concept. The pipeline contains five stages:

 * IF – Instruction Fetch unit/cycle
 * IR<-Mem(PC)
 * NPC<-PC+4
 * Operation: Send out the PC and fetch the instruction from memory into the Instruction Register (IR); increment the PC by 4 to address the next sequential instruction. The IR is used to hold the next instruction that will be needed on subsequent clock cycles; likewise the register NPC is used to hold the next sequential PC.

 * ID – Instruction Decode unit
 * Operation: Decode the instruction and access the register file to read the registers. This unit gets instruction from IF, and extracts opcode and operand from that instruction. It also retrieves register values if requested by the operation.

 * EX – Execution unit/effective address cycle
 * Operation: The ALU operates on the operands prepared in prior cycle, performing one of the four functions depending on the DLX instruction type.
 * Memory Reference: Register–Register ALU instruction, Register–Immediate ALU instruction
 * Branch

 * MEM – Memory access unit
 * The DLX instructions active in this unit are loads, stores and branches.
 * Memory reference: access memory if needed. If instruction is load, data returns from memory and is placed in the LMD (load memory data) register
 * Branch

 * WB – WriteBack unit
 * Typically referred to as "the store unit" in modern terminology. Write the result into the register file, whether it comes from the memory system or from the ALU.

title: DLX


text:
Papa Stour

Papa Stour is one of the Shetland Islands in Scotland, with a population of under fifteen people, some of whom immigrated after an appeal for residents in the 1970s. Located to the west of mainland Shetland and with an area of 828 hectares (3.2 square miles), Papa Stour is the ninth largest island in Shetland. Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, and cliffs. The island and its surrounding seas harbour diverse populations of wildlife. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around the island are a Special Area of Conservation.

The island has several Neolithic burial chamber sites, as well as the remains of Duke Hakon's 13th-century house dating from the Norse occupation of the island. The population reached 380 or more in the 19th century, when a fishing station was opened at Crabbaberry in West Voe. Subsequently, there was a steady decline in population.

Today the main settlement on the island is Biggings, just to the east of which is Housa Voe from where the Snolda ferry arrives from its base at West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland. Crofting, especially sheep rearing, is the mainstay of island life.

Numerous shipwrecks have occurred around the coast, and the celebrated poem Da Sang o da Papa Men by Vagaland recalls the drama of the days when Papa Stour was a centre for deep-sea fishing.

Geography
Papa Stour is located at the south western end of St Magnus Bay. 34 km of rugged coastline is indented by numerous small embayments and four larger 'voes'. Hamna Voe (Old Norse: 'harbour bay') in the south is the most sheltered anchorage and the surrounding cliffs contain a natural rock arch. Housa Voe to the east (Old Norse: 'house bay') is less secluded but is the main harbour for the island and the ferry's embarkation point.

Brei Holm and Maiden Stack guard the harbour entrance to the south. The former is a tidal island and was a leper colony until the 18th century (although it has been suggested that many of the "lepers" there were suffering from a vitamin deficiency rather than leprosy). The latter's name relates to a story from the 14th century. Lord Thorvald Thoresson is said to have constructed the tiny house at its top, whose ruins are still visible, in order to "preserve" his daughter from men. Unfortunately for his plans, when she left she was found to be pregnant; in another version of the story, she and her fisherman sweetheart successfully eloped. West Voe, the inner part of which is called 'Robies Noust' is the main voe in the north coast, the smaller Culla Voe lying immediately to the west.

The main settlement on the island today is Biggings, which overlooks Housa Voe and is surrounded by in-bye land to the east of the hill dyke (which runs south from West Voe). To the west the island is bisected by a belt of glacial moraine about 1.5 km in length. Much of the rest of the area consists of a shallow stony soil that may be derived from glacial till. There is an almost complete absence of peat on the island and due to the volcanic rocks the soils are relatively fertile. The lack of peat led to 'turf scalping' for fuel and the bare areas of rock in the interior.

The highest point on the island is in the north west at Virda Field, which rises to 87 m. Virda is possibly from the Old Norse for 'heap of stones'.

List of outliers
In addition to the larger islets mentioned above there are various other isles and skerries around the coast of Papa Stour. They include: Aesha Stack, Boinna Skerry, Borse Skerry, Fogla Skerry, Forewick Holm, Galti Stacks, Holm of Melby, Koda Skerry, Lyra Skerry, Skerries of Quidaness, Skerry of Lambaness, Sula Stack, Swat Skerry, The Horn, Tiptans Skerry and Wilma Skerry. The Ve Skerries lie 5 km to the north west. They include: Helliogoblo, North Skerry, Ormal, Reaverack and The Clubb. In between Papa Stour and Ve Skerries lies the shallow bank of Papa-rof.

On 21 June 2008, Stuart Hill (AKA Captain Calamity) made a claim to the 1 ha island of Forewick Holm (which he calls "Forvik Island"). On the basis of a marriage arrangement between King Christian of Norway and King James III of Scotland that dates to 1468, Hill argued that the island should be considered a British crown dependency, and thus not a part of the United Kingdom or of the European Union. This claim was not recognised by the United Kingdom.

Geology
The island is composed of a variety of volcanic and sedimentary rock formations from the Devonian period. At that time the Scottish landmass formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 10-25 degrees south of the equator. The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone, laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago, were created as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and then were deposited into river deltas. The freshwater Lake Orcadie existed on the edges of the eroding mountains, stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. The structure of Papa Stour is largely made up of ashes and lavas from volcanic activity associated with this period, including bands of solidified volcanic ash and lava (rhyolite), but there is also a Devonian fish bed at Lamba Banks. There are numerous large boulders deposited by Pleistocene glaciation.

Erosion of the soft volcanic rocks by the sea has created an extraordinary variety of caves, stacks, arches, blowholes, cliffs, voes and geos that are amongst the finest in Britain. The 'Hol o' Bordie' is a cave that passes right through the north-west tip of the island. It is 300 m long and wide enough to row through. Kirstan (or Christie's) Hole in the south west is another spectacular cave, part of the roof of which collapsed in 1981. Yet another is 'Francie's Hole' close to Hamna Voe in the west. This was the favourite of John Tudor who wrote of the island in his Victorian memoirs and described the cave as: "...in fairyland, so exquisite is the colouring of the roof and sides and so pellucid is the water... [with] alcoves or recesses like stalls in a church."

In 1953 the spectacular headland, 'Da Horn o Papa' fell into the sea during a storm. The nearby islet of Brei Holm also has caves that can be accessed by small boats when conditions permit.

Ecology
Otters, grey seals, killer whales and harbour porpoises are frequently seen on and around Papa Stour. Atlantic puffin, Arctic and common tern, bonxie and Arctic skua, northern fulmar, common guillemot, razorbill, curlew, wheatear, ringed plover and great black-backed gull all breed on the island, and numerous migratory species have been recorded.

There is a profusion of wild flowers, including mountain everlasting, spring squill and eyebright as well as the ubiquitous heather. The west side of the island is a Site of Special Scientific Interest and the seas around Papa Stour are a Special Area of Conservation. The traditional Shetland Pony is still bred.

History and archaeology
Human settlement of the island dates from circa 3000 BC and there are remains of several Neolithic burial chambers known as 'heel-shaped cairns'. Little is known of the pre-Celtic and Celtic eras, but when the Norse arrived it is likely they found a religious settlement as the name of the island derives from Papey Stóra meaning "Big island of the Papar" (Celtic monks), in distinction to Papa Little some 12 km to the west.

Norse period
Papa Stour is the subject of a 1299 manuscript written in Old Norse, which is the oldest surviving document from Shetland. It deals with a dramatic incident in the house of Duke Hakon Magnusson, who was later to become King Hakon V of Norway. There is a circle of stones near the beach at Housa Voe, which are the remains of a 'ting', or local assembly. This was the scene of a duel, fought and won by Lord Thorvald Thoresson, who was accused of corruption in the 1299 document and was later called 'dominus de Papay'. (The story of his unfortunate daughter is referred to above.) The remains of Duke Hakon's 13th-century house are still visible near Housa Voe.

Scots rule and fishing
In 1469 Shetland came under nominal Scottish control, although the Norse 'Lairds of Norway' kept their Papa Stour estates until the 17th century. In the 16th century merchants from Bremen and Hamburg were operating a summer trading booth to buy fish from the local fleet. By the 18th century, two Scottish lairds, Thomas Gifford of Busta, and Arthur Nicolson of Lerwick, owned the island. They maintained a prosperous Haaf (Old Norse: 'deep sea') fishing industry, undertaken in the summer months using six-oared boats known as sixareens.

In addition to the leper colony on Brei Holm there may have been another at Hilla Fielle overlooking Hamna Voe. A recent archaeological survey was inconclusive but suggests the site may be much older than the supposed 18th-century colony.

The island church, which overlooks Kirk Sand in the bay of Fore Wick, was founded in 1806. 300 m from the present church there may be an older chapel site of Sneeans or Snøyans on the headland between the west end of Kirk Sand and the bay of Tusselby. It is called the 'ald kirk' by locals and referred to by the Ordnance Survey as "the site of a Romish chapel belonging to about the twelfth century". There is a tradition that the work there was interfered with by supernatural powers and that each day's work on the building was destroyed during the night. Eventually the cornerstones were moved overnight by these unearthly agencies to the present site of the church and work was re-commenced there successfully. Excavations in 2004 found little besides large blocks of rhyolite and a piece of whalebone rib, suggesting that the oral tradition may have some truth to it.

In the 19th century the Crabbaberry fishing station in West Voe was opened and the island had a population of 360 people or more. However, fuel shortages and a decline in fishing due to the introduction of steam drifters saw a fall in population from the 1870s on. At this time another duel entered the history of Papa Stour. Edwin Lindsay, an Indian army officer and the son of the 6th Earl of Balcarres, was declared insane and sent to the island in disgrace after refusing to fight in one. He spent 26 years as a prisoner before the Quaker preacher Catherine Watson arranged for his release in 1835. Lindsay's Well is a spring at the south of the island where he was allowed to bathe.

There are good examples of horizontal water mills, also known as Norse or Clack Mills, around Dutch Loch. Originally these were two storey buildings with turf roofs, built into banks to give access to the upper floor where the millstone was sited. Inside the building there was a fixed lower millstone, and a rotating upper millstone driven by the water falling onto the paddles below. Some were still in use on Papa Stour in the early years of the 20th century, and there is still a working example of one of these mills on the Burn of Clumlie, at Troswick in the south Mainland of Shetland.

20th and 21st centuries
In common with many small Scottish islands, Papa Stour's population peaked in the 19th century and has experienced a significant decline since then (see e.g. Mingulay). By 1970 the island school had closed and the population had declined to sixteen 'fairly elderly' residents, but an advertisement in Exchange and Mart reversed the decline. A croft and five sheep were offered free of charge to incomers which brought a flood of applicants. By 1981 the census recorded a population of 33. However, by 2005 the population had fallen to 20 after serious discord between islanders led to several court cases. A number of people left the island and the school closed. By early 2008 the population had dropped to just nine after a family of seven left. The 2011 census recorded a usually resident population of 15 – during the decade 2001–2011 Scottish island populations as a whole grew by 4% to 103,702.

Overview of population trends

Shipwrecks
The coasts around Papa Stour have claimed numerous wrecks. In Hamnavoe, Tiptans Skerry alone has sunk Dutch, French, German and Norwegian ships.

The Aberdeen trawler Ben Doran A178, foundered on the Ve Skerries 3 miles northwest of Papa Stour, on the evening of 28 March 1930 while on her way to the village of Scalloway to land her catch. When she grounded weather conditions were fairly good but it was not until the following day that a passing trawler saw, and reported the wreck. By the time that various rescue attempts were launched by the coastguard and local volunteers (there being no lifeboat in Shetland at that time), weather conditions had deteriorated to the point where it was impossible to approach the skerries. A request had been made for the Stromness lifeboat from Orkney, only 120 miles away, to launch, but the request was made too late to be of help. All 9 crew perished in the wreck. Only 3 bodies were recovered, that of James Mitchell, which was returned to Aberdeen, and the bodies of J. Cormack and J.R. Insh, which were buried in Scalloway.

The cargo ship SS Highcliffe ran aground in fog on Forewick Holm in February 1940. On this occasion the conditions were clement and only the ship and cargo were lost. In 1967 the Aberdeen trawler Juniper ran aground in Lyra Sound at the bottom of the 60 m cliffs. The 12 man crew were rescued by the Aith lifeboat, the coxswain being awarded the RNLI silver medal for this rescue.

Another shipwreck occurred on 9 December 1977 when the Aberdeen trawler Elinor Viking A278, skipper Alec Flett, foundered on the Ve Skerries. The Aith Lifeboat came to the scene but was unable to get near enough to rescue the crew because of the sea conditions. At the request of Alec Webster, Coastguard Station Officer, Lerwick, a volunteer crew in a British Airways Sikorsky S61N helicopter from Sumburgh Airport was scrambled. They managed to winch all the boat's crew to safety within hours of the grounding, despite the storm force winds. The helicopter crew later received a number of awards for bravery. There was no loss of life, but this incident prompted the building of a lighthouse on the skerries in 1979, and may also have been the example required for the formation of the present Search and Rescue helicopter unit, based at Sumburgh Airport.

Economy and transport
Crofting is the mainstay of island life. Sheep form the backbone of the agricultural economy but a diversity livestock are kept, including cattle, pigs, goats, chickens, ducks and geese. Vegetable are grown too, often in the shelter of circular walls, such plots being known as 'planti crubs' – these were originally used to propagate kale (cabbage) seedlings and were built well away from other buildings where they would be safe from mice. The seedlings would then be transplanted to kaleyards (gardens) near the houses. Fishing is still conducted but on a relatively small scale. There is a post office at the pier, but no shop. Mains electricity only came to the island at the close of the 20th century. The Papa Stour Project is a Christian supported housing service offering accommodation to men with drug and alcohol issues. Ferries now sail across the Sound of Papa to West Burrafirth on the Shetland Mainland. The crossing takes 45 minutes, and although the Snolda carries cars, there is only one short road on the island. For visiting yachts the four main voes provide good shelter, but the strong tides in both the Sound of Papa and to the north west require considerable care.

Culture and the arts
The Papa Stour sword dance may be of Norse origin and bears similarities to the long sword dance of the north east of England. A description of the dance appears in The Pirate by Sir Walter Scott.

The writer and journalist John Sands lived on Papa Stour and Foula for a while during the late 19th century. The writer, folklorist and musician, George P. S. Peterson was brought up on Papa Stour.

It is also the 'Papa' of Vagaland's poem Da Sang o da Papa men, now adopted as part of the folksong tradition, as set to music by T.M.Y. Manson. The insistent chorus chant, 'Rowin Foula Doon!', is particularly striking.

 * "Oot bewast da Horn o Papa,
 * Rowin Foula doon!
 * Owir a hidden piece o water,
 * Rowin Foula doon!
 * Roond da boat da tide-lumps makkin,
 * Sunlicht trowe da cloods is brakkin;
 * We maan geng whaar fish is takkin,
 * Rowin Foula doon!"

"Rowin Foula doon!" refers to the fishermens' practice of rowing their open fishing boat out to sea until the high cliffs of Foula were no longer visible. This entailed the boat being some 96 km west of Papa Stour. The 'tide-lumps' are increased swells of unusual size due to the combined action of wind against tide. The resonant final image of the piece is of the fishermen being led back home to Papa by the 'scent o flooers' across the water. This is an example of Vagaland's ability to create a vivid sensual impression of a situation. An extra layer of meaning is added by the knowledge that Da Horn o Papa collapsed in a storm around the time of this poem's composition, so that it is a tribute not just to a lost way of life, but a noted geographical feature.

title: Papa Stour


text: Template:CC BY-SA 1.0

title: Template:CC BY-SA 1.0


text:
Richard Misiano-Genovese

Richard Misiano-Genovese (born 1947) is a collagist, photographer, painter, and theorist, and practitioner of transgressive art.

Misiano-Genovese is the surrealist initiator of the Altered Lithograph, Excavation Collage and Novel, plus Superimposition "chance" overprints.

Publications

 * "Surrealismo: El Oro del Tiempo" (June 2014) (Madrid, Spain)
 * "Arturo Schwarz Il Surrealismo Ieri e oggi" (Libro terzo su CD allegato) (July 2014) (Milano, Italy)
 * A Phala, "revista del movimiento surrealista" No. 2, (January 2013), No. 3 (April 2015) (São Paulo, Brazil)
 * LOUP-GAROU, La Belle Inutile Editions (2010, 2012) (N.Y./Paris)
 * GRASP Magazin]#6 (April 2011)
 * Punto Seguido Issue 51 (2008) (Medellin, Colombia)
 * "ME", an autobiography,Fiji Island Mermaid Press (2003)
 * "The Exhibitioner", (Vol. 2, Issue No. 3 – 1994), Publications Archives Museum of Modern Art, New York, N.Y.
 * "Appearances Magazine" (No. 14, 1988), New York, N.Y.
 * "Excavations" (La Belle Inutile Editions, 2008), Paris/N.Y.
 * "Dreamwhite" (La Belle Inutile Editions, 2010), Paris/N.Y.
 * "Bloomsbury International Encyclopedia of Surrealism",(2020)

Special library collections

 * Twentieth-Century Materials, "The John Matthews Library of Surrealism" collection, Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas at Austin (ca. 1987)
 * "Guide to the Bob Witz Papers/Appearances Magazine", Fales Library and Special Collections, Elmer Holmes Bobst Library, NYU, New York, NY (ca. 1980–1996)
 * "The Register of Clayton Eshleman Papers", MSS 0021, Mandeville Special Collections Library, Geisel Library, University of California, San Diego; Accessions Processed in 1987 (1958–1993)

Museum collections

 * Ontological Museum of the International Post-Dogmatist Group (2010)
 * CES – Centro de Estudos do Surrealismo, Fundação Cupertino de Miranda (2013, 2016)
 * Fundación Camaleonart (2015)

Filmography

 * Visited (A Myk Saiten film), cameo appearance (2017)

Exhibitions

 * Service Culturels de L'Ambassade de France (NY, NY) "Cinquantenaire de la Parution la Surrealisme" (1974)
 * Surrealism in 2012: "Toward the World of the Fifth Sun" (2012)
 * Surrealismo Internacional Exposición (San José, Costa Rica) "Las Llaves Del Deseo" (2016)

title: Richard Misiano-Genovese


text:
Talk:Navajo (disambiguation)

Ethnic Slur
ethnic slur was in common use by the Utes until modern times and living Utes have a common and consistant knowledge of the term "Head Breakers" as a denigrating reference to all Navajos. Regional white settlers used the term "Head Breakers" as well in distinguishing Navajos from other Native Americans, although it is now archaic among white regional populations.

 * I'm a long time New Mexico resident with much contact with the regional Native American tribes of New Mexico, Arizona, and Utah.

Pronunciation
The correct pronounciation is "tine" with "t" and not with "d". You should correct that. Adrian Macelaru, Bucharest, Romania

 * and how does someone from Romania know? the way it is now is correct.

 * He may be referring to the fact the Navajo/Dine (like Mandarin Chinese), has no unvoiced dental (e.g. "d" sound)--technically the "d" in Navajo is just an unaspirated "t". (See Navajo language.) --198.59.190.201 21:53, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

 * Nevertheless, the pronounciation sounds more like "Dine" than "Tine" (to my ears anyway). The common English rendering of the word is "Dine," so the spelling should not be changed. LotR 13:00, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

 * The original comment did not dispute the spelling of Diné but questioned its pronunciation by suggesting that "" should be "". I am unfamiliar with the International Phonetic Alphabet so I can only assume that "t" is the correct IPA sound representation for the Navajo "d" as stated on the current Navajo language Wikipedia page. Although, I must say, my confidence in this is shaken a bit by "b[p]" being listed on the chart since it is known that the Navajo language lacks the p sound.

 * Aside from that, I believe the pronunciation key should remain "" since the d is indeed pronounced as the d in dig. None of the Navajo language courses I've ever taken has so much as suggested that a Navajo d sounded like anything other than an English d. Asdzani Bah 23:08, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

 * At the beginning of words English d is phonetically [t] similar to Navajo's d which is also [t]. American English d in the middle of words when pronounced very carefully is often phonetically [d] which differs from Navajo d in the middle of the word which is [t]. At the end of words, English d is sometimes [t] and sometimes [d] whereas Navajo d is always [t]. So Navajo d is always [t] while English d is variously [t] and [d]. (A complicating thing is that English d makes the preceding vowel longer; this doesnt happen in Navajo.) The same applies to Navajo b and English b: both [p] at beginning of word, Navajo [p] & English [b] in middle, Navajo [p] and English [b~p] at end.

 * All of the above leads to the following: English speakers tend to hear Navajo b, d, g as English b, d, g at beginning of words and tend to hear Navajo b, d, g as English p, t, k in the middle and at the end of words. – ishwar  (speak)  04:45, 12 June 2008 (UTC)

Question
Under the "name" section in the USA article, it states that the Najavo (Dine) name for the US is Wááshindoon bikéyah ałhidadiidzooígíí. Does anyone who speaks Navajo have any information about the literal meaning of the words and the name's origins and implications? Thanks so much! --198.59.190.201 21:16, 10 September 2006 (UTC)

Answer

 * (1) Wááshindoon = Washington D.C.
 * (2) bikéyah = land (literally "his/her family area")
 * (3) ałhidadiidzoo = physically grouped or clustered together
 * (4) ígíí = "the one that is ---"

Parts 1, 2 and 4 are simple and can be checked with a basic Navajo dictionary or Navajo language text book. A person who is fluent in Navajo gave me part 3 and its verification might require the more elaborate Navajo dictionary by Morgan & Young. Note: I am NOT fluent in Navajo. Do not ask me to translate anything. Asdzani Bah 21:18, 8 February 2007 (UTC)

Assessment comment
Substituted at 00:58, 30 April 2016 (UTC)

title: Talk:Navajo (disambiguation)


text:
Xi'an International Studies University

Xi'an International Studies University (XISU; ) is a provincial public linguistics university located in Xi'an, Shaanxi, China. The university is affiliated with and funded by the Province of Shaanxi.

XISU is one of the universities with well-known foreign language departments and a member of G8 Universities (G8 refers to the Group of Eight Universities of Foreign Languages and International Studies in China, who have the academic specialisation in Foreign Language teaching and International Studies). The university has three campuses, the north Yanta campus (old campus), the South Chang'an campus (in Xi'an University City) and Yahe campus, where the university's high school is located.

History
Established in 1952 as the Northwest College of Russian and later Xi'an Foreign Languages Institute, XISU is one of the four oldest foreign language teaching institutions in P. R. China (the other three located in Beijing, Shanghai and Sichuan). and the only international studies-based university in the northwest region of the country, covering a large geographical area spanning from Shaanxi to Xinjiang. In 1958, it was renamed Xi'an Foreign Languages Institute, and in 1979, the university initiated graduate programs in Linguistics and Literature. In 1995, it merged Shaanxi Foreign Language School, which is its current Yanta campus and, in 2005, the Chang'an campus was completed. Approved by the MOE (Ministry of Education), it was renamed Xi'an International Studies University in 2006. Currently, XISU offers its 24,000 students 43 undergraduate degree programs, with the humanities as the core of its curriculum while covering other areas such as social sciences, business, law, tourism, international relations, mass communication and education.

 * At the graduate level, XISU offers 26 Master of Arts programs, with majors in linguistics, literature, cross-cultural communication, translation studies, business, tourism and teaching Chinese to speakers of other languages. Besides the Ph.D. programs jointly offered with other three institutions in France and Germany, XISU has been approved by the central government to offer its own Ph.D. programs in linguistics and literature and began enrolling students in 2014.

Development phase
The university experienced three phases of development in its history. During the first one, from 1952 to 1958, the academy produced many Russian graduates who were the main force in the early construction of new China.

The second one was from 1958 to 2006 when the institution used the name of Xi'an Foreign Languages Institute. During this period, the institute experienced dramatic progress in its development with the introduction of undergraduate majors in English, German, Russian, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese, Arabic, Korean, Hindi,and Thai at different times after the Cultural Revolution, and with the Education Ministry's approval master's degree programs in English, Russian, French, German, and Japanese.

The current and ongoing phase began in 2006 when the Education Ministry upgraded the institute to a university, because of its comprehensive majors and minors, and its academic force. Several generations of people at XISU started from scratch and forged ahead with enterprise, creating a success story of perseverance. XISU is a highly recognized foreign studies university, with a salient focus on Literature, Economics, Management, Law, Education, Science and Art. It is an important base for foreign language education and teacher development, playing an irreplaceable role in the country's northwest and enjoying a positive reputation in the world.

Faculty
Now the university has 30 academic schools, colleges, and departments with 41 majors and 7 minors. It has 19 graduate programs of different foreign languages. It is now considered by many to be one of the top five foreign language universities in China.

There are also 25 centers in fields such as foreign languages and literature, foreign language and teaching, human geography, bilingual dictionary compiling and editing.

Students
Presently there are about 24,000 students studying in the university. Its graduates are well recognized in terms of “foreign language competence, interpersonal skills, work adaptability, professionalism and great potentialities”, thus ushering in a good influx of job opportunities. Alumni of XISU work all over the world, mostly in education. Many of them are working at universities in the U.S., England, Japan, Germany, and France. The university has established cooperative programs such as exchange programs with faculty, administrators, and students with most countries.

International exchange
It places stress on international cooperation and exchange, opening up to the global context of education. To date, it maintains close scholarly ties with 157 institutions of higher learning in the world, conducts a Confucius Institute in Kazakhstan and Argentina respectively, delivers dual-campus PhD, MA and BA programs in collaboration with seventy-two overseas universities, and runs several internship bases in the US, Singapore, Thailand, France and the UK.

Motto
The current motto of Xi'an International Studies University is '爱国 勤奋 博学 创新', which translates into 'Patriotism Diligence  Education  and  Innovation'.

List of presidents

 * 1) Sun Tianyi, 1986–1998
 * 2) Du Ruiqing, 1998–2005
 * 3) Hu Sishe, 2005–2014
 * 4) Liu Yuelian, 2014–2015
 * 5) Wang Junzhe, 2015–present

title: Xi'an International Studies University