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Koseki

A koseki (戸籍) or family register is a Japanese family registry. Japanese law requires all Japanese households (basically defined as married couples and their unmarried children) to make notifications of their vital records (such as births, adoptions, deaths, marriages and divorces) to their local authority, which compiles such records encompassing all Japanese citizens within their jurisdiction.

Marriages, divorces by mutual consent, acknowledgements of paternity of non-marital children and adoptions (among others) become legally effective only when such events are recorded in the koseki. Births and deaths become legally effective as they happen, but such events must be filed by family members or other persons as allowed by law. Loss of Japanese or foreign nationalities have to be recorded in the koseki, too.

Format
There are two main types of certified copies of koseki: the Comprehensive Copy of Koseki (戸籍謄本, koseki tōhon) and Selected Copy of Koseki (戸籍抄本, koseki shōhon). The comprehensive koseki is a record of all family members, while the selected koseki is the information for only one individual family member. A typical koseki has one page for the household's parents and their first two children: additional children are recorded on additional pages. Any changes to this information have to be sealed by an official registrar.

The following items are recorded in the koseki. (Law of Family Register, (戸籍法, kosekihō), articles 9 and 13.)

 * (header) registered domicile (honseki)
 * (header) family name and given name of the "head of the koseki", i.e. the first person shown on the koseki. This family name will be shared by all the members of this koseki.
 * given name
 * date of birth
 * date of records and causes (marriage, death, adoption, etc.)
 * names of natural parents or, when there is a plenary adoption, name of adoptive parents
 * if adopted (non-plenary), names of the adoptive father and/or mother
 * if married, whether the person is a husband or a wife
 * if transferred from another koseki, the former koseki's header information
 * other matters as specified by ordinance.

When an individual is transferred from one koseki to another, certain pieces of registered information are duplicated onto the new koseki, while others are not. For example, information regarding birth, current marital status, and loss of foreign nationalities is transcribed without alteration. Conversely, details concerning divorces or acquisition of Japanese nationality through naturalization are not included in the new koseki. However, former koseki, referred to as joseki when all its members are deceased or transferred, are not discarded. Copies of a joseki can be obtained when necessary.

Additionally, the pronunciations in katakana of the family name and each member's given name will be also recorded on the koseki. This clause becomes effective from some point in 2025, see dedicated section.

History
Introduced in the 6th century, the original population census in Japan was called the kōgo no nenjaku (庚午年籍) or the kōin no nenjaku (庚寅年籍). This census was introduced under the ritsuryō system of governance. During the Bakufu, there were four major forms of population registration: the ninbetsuchō (人別帳) (Registry of Human Categories), the shūmon jinbetsu aratamechō (宗門人別改帳) (Religious Inquisition Registry) also called the shūmon aratamechō, the gonin gumichō (五人組帳) (Five Household Registry) and the kakochō (過去帳) (Death Registry). The shūmon jinbetsu aratamechō was created around 1670 and lasted almost 200 years. It combined social and religious registration, and data was renewed annually. Several categories of outcasts were not registered at all under this system, or were registered in specific registers, for instance the burakumin. The modern koseki, encompassing all of Japan's citizenry, appeared in 1872, immediately following the Meiji Restoration. This was the first time in history that all Japanese people were required to have family names as well as given names. Although all previous social categories were abolished and almost all Japanese people were recorded as heimin (commoners), some minorities became labelled as "new commoner" or "original eta" (shinheimin or motoeta), and discrimination went on. Problems also happened at the edge of the national territory, for instance in the Ogasawara Islands.

During the course of the Japanese Empire, a number of reforms were carried out after 1910 to eliminate double standards in the koseki system. In general, though, residents of the Empire's colonies held external registries (gaichi koseki) (based on the preexisting Hoju) and Japanese held domestic registries (naichi koseki).

After the full revision of the Family Register Act in 1947 (enforced the following year), the household, known as "ie" were redefined to a narrower scope (married couples and their unmarried children), thus limiting the maximum number of generations under the same koseki to two generations.

In 2003, the "GID Law" was enacted, enabling people with "gender identity disorder" (GID) or gender dysphoria to change their gender on their koseki provided they meet certain conditions. Persons diagnosed with GID must seek an official diagnosis with letters of support from two independent psychiatrists to change their koseki gender. A person with functional reproductive glands or a married person cannot change their koseki gender.

Imperial family
Members of the Imperial Household of Japan are registered not in a koseki but in a Register of Imperial Lineage (皇統譜, kōtōfu) instead, according to Article 26 of the Imperial House Law. The Register of Imperial Lineage is composed of the Taitōfu which handles matters related the emperor and the empress, and the Kōzokufu which handles matters related to the other members of the Imperial Household.

Citizenship
Only Japanese citizens have a koseki. If one parent is a Japanese, then the child is eligible for Japanese citizenship, hence a Japanese passport. So, the koseki doubles as a certificate of citizenship (a proof of Japanese nationality). Non-Japanese may be noted where required, such as being the spouse of a Japanese citizen or the parent of a Japanese offspring; however, they are not listed in the same fashion as Japanese spouses or parents, since being a regular member of a koseki is a sufficient condition to be a Japanese national.

When a person is naturalized to Japan (authorized by the Minister of Justice and properly noticed through the Official Gazette), this person has to declare the creation of a new koseki or join her/his Japanese spouse's koseki within one month after the notice. Besides, any loss of a foreign nationality that was not already lost before the naturalization date should be registered on the koseki within one month from the date of learning the fact of loss of foreign nationality (Family Register Act, article 103).

Address history and domicile transfers
The koseki system is different from the jūminhyō residency registration, which holds current address information of both Japanese and foreign nationals. For Japanese nationals, their residency registration is linked with their koseki. Each residency change is reported by the municipality in which the person actually lives to the honseki-chi (the municipality of the registered domicile), which records the residency history on a supplementary page called koseki no fuhyō (戸籍の附票). Koseki thus serves as the record of all the address history. Addresses abroad are also included, through the Overseas Residential Registration.

It is possible to transfer a koseki from one registered domicile to another. Any domiciliation is possible within the boundaries of the Japanese territory. After a transfer, some of the information shown on the preceding koseki, including the history of addresses, are not transcribed to the new one. But it is still possible to return to the previous koseki information because the preceding koseki domicile and name is always noted, allowing traceability. A koseki is supposed to be kept at least 150 years by the municipality in charge, even after all its members have passed away, been transferred to other koseki or have lost their Japanese nationality.

Furigana of names
Japanese names are written in kanji (mostly), hiragana, katakana, and other symbols (iteration marks or the prolonged sound mark). Since kanji characters are not phonetic, the pronunciation of most names is uncertain. To address this issue, laws have been amended in June 2023 to introduce a system that records the pronunciation of names in the family registry through the furigana of name. The actual kickoff of this new system is planned May 2025.

The furigana of name is a notation in kana characters that represents the pronunciation of family names and given names recorded in the koseki of Japanese nationals. It serves as important supplementary information for various identification documents and contributes to the promotion of digitization in society. However, it does not replace the actual names themselves.

The introduction of this system is driven by the challenges posed by uncertain pronunciation, such as the presence of multiple registered readings for the same person. Additionally, there have been discussions regarding the social issues surrounding unconventional name readings. When the law is enforced, it is expected that extremely unconventional names will not be accepted when registering new births.

Privacy concerns and other criticisms
Information provided in koseki is detailed and sensitive and makes discrimination possible against such groups as burakumin or illegitimate children and unwed mothers, for example. As the burakumin liberation movement gained strength in postwar Japan some changes were made to family registries. In 1974 a notice that prohibited employers from asking prospective employees to show their family registry was released by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. In 1975 one's lineage name was deleted and in 1976 access to family registries was restricted. As of April 2007, anyone interested was eligible to get a copy of someone else's koseki. However, on May 1, 2008, a new law was implemented to limit the persons eligible for a copy to the persons whose names are recorded in a given koseki and those who need such a copy to exercise their due rights (debt collectors, executors of wills). Anyone who is listed on a koseki, even if their name has been crossed off by reason of divorce and even if they are not a Japanese citizen, is eligible to get a copy of that koseki. One can obtain a copy in person or by mail. Lawyers can also obtain copies of any koseki if a person listed is involved in legal proceedings.

The koseki simultaneously fills the function of birth certificates, death certificates, marriage licenses, and the census in other countries. It is based on family rather than each individual. For married couples, only one family name may appear on the koseki, which means that one person has to abandon his or her family name when he or she marries. Usually it is the woman. On December 15, 2015, the Nikkei Asian Review reported that Japan's Supreme Court upheld a legal provision forcing married couples to use the same surname. Plaintiffs had argued that the legal provision amounts to "de facto discrimination against women."

Another concern is where children are not registered on the koseki. The onus is on the parents to register the child however there have been cases where this has not happened.

In September 2010, the Japanese government completed research into 230,000 "missing" persons age 100 years old or more. Some journalists claimed koseki is an antiquated system that enabled younger family members to receive the pensions of deceased elderly relatives.

Koseki tends to be criticized by commentators or activists situated on the left wing of the Japanese political spectrum, because its rigid framework functions as a barrier against societal innovations, and because the history of any citizen is easily searchable. On the contrary, other views praise the state-of-the-art reliability and traceability offered by this system for more than 150 years.

Family registries in other countries
A similar registration system exists within the public administration structures of all East Asian states influenced by the ancient Chinese system of government. The local pronunciations of the name of the household register varies, but all are derived from the same Chinese characters as that for koseki (in traditional ). These states include People's Republic of China (hukou), Republic of China (Taiwan) (hùjí), North Korea (hoju, hojeok, hojok) and in Vietnam (hộ khẩu). In South Korea, the hoju system was abolished in 2008.

title: Koseki


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Talk:Act of Uniformity

Untitled
The first one seems to have been under Edward VI's reign. See Google. Someone who knows the context better than I do should write it. Tualha 05:41, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC) uniformity is when things look alike in colour,shape ext

Someone who knows how should sort out the redirects so as to allow for all the various acts of uniformity. I've probably made a mess.Dhodges 18:56, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Act of Uniformity


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List of traditional Japanese games

This is a list of traditional Japanese games.

Children's games

 * Beigoma
 * Bīdama
 * Daruma-san
 * Hide-and-seek
 * Kemari
 * Kendama
 * Ken-ken-pa (Hopscotch)
 * Menko
 * Nawatobi (Jump rope)
 * Ohajiki
 * Onigokko
 * Oshikura Manju
 * Otedama

Board games

 * Go - originates in China, important rules change (free opening) in Japan
 * Renju
 * Shogi
 * Hasami shogi
 * Sugoroku
 * Ninuki-renju

Card games

 * Buta no shippo
 * Daifugō (another name: Daihinmin)
 * Hanafuda
 * Karuta
 * Oicho-Kabu
 * Two-ten-jack (Tsū-ten-jakku) - a Japanese trick-taking card game.
 * Uta-garuta - a kind of karuta (another name: Hyakunin Isshu)

Tile games

 * Japanese Mahjong - Japanese mahjong, also called rīchi mahjong
 * Goita

Dice games

 * Cho-han bakuchi - a gambling game
 * Kitsune bakuchi

Word games

 * Dajare
 * Henohenomoheji
 * Kaibun
 * Shiritori
 * Uta-garuta

Solitaire games

 * Sudoku
 * Tsume shogi

Drinking games

 * Konpira see https://www.samuraitours.com/japanese-partydrinking-game/

title: List of traditional Japanese games


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Talk:Proof that e is irrational

I think the proof should also prove that $$\lim_{n\to\infty}\left(1+\frac{1}{n}\right)^n=\sum_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{n!}$$ given that e is defined as the left hand side expression. -- Dissident 05:42, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, there are many ways of defining e, and since they all define the same number, no one definition is "the" definition of e. You can define it by the compound interest definition; I can define it by the infinite series, neither of us is "right" or "wrong". We just have to prove between the 2 of us that our definitions agree. What is proved here is that the number e, as defined by the series definition, is irrational. Then you can prove that any of the other definitions of e are irrational, by proving that all the definitions themselves give the same number. But that's a different problem, it seems to me. Part of the utility and beauty of having so many different equivalent definitions for e is that you can choose the one that best suits your needs in a particular problem.

 * In order to do what you want to do, the only way I can see to do it, (off the top of my head) would be to look at the exponential function e(x) as defined by (1 + (x/n))n as n goes to infinity, take the derivative of this function with respect to x, and show that you get the same function. Then, you can calculate the Taylor series of the function at x = 0 by noting that all the derivatives are equal to 1, then plug in x = 1 and note that the two expressions are in fact equal. But to do this really goes off the beaten track, for one thing, you have to interchange the limit and the derivative, which has to be justified, then you have to derive the formula for Taylor series, etc, etc. It doesn't seem to have much to do with why e is irrational. Revolver 06:09, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Just to give you an idea how many ways there are to "define" e, this is also a definition frequently used in analysis books:

 * Define the natural logarithm function log(x) for all x > 1, by integrating dt/t from 1 to x, and prove this is strictly increasing. Then define e to be the unique number x > 1 such that log(x) = 1. Revolver 06:14, 27 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * I found a relatively straightforward proof of the identity you give, that doesn't involve derivatives or Taylor expansions, just some inequalities and playing with lim sups...it's in baby Rudin ("Principles of mathematical analysis") in the chapter on sequences and series. But my opinion is still the same -- e.g. baby Rudin defines e by the series expansion. Revolver 02:45, 29 Feb 2004 (UTC)

 * Can you show it here? I'm pretty interested in it and it might be useful for Wikipedia. -- Dissident 19:33, 1 Mar 2004 (UTC)

 * I think there is a problem with this proof. Defining e as an infinite sum where all intermediate terms are rational means that using any intermediate (i.e. finite) result in the proof is the equivalent of using a rational approximation of e.

Another shortcoming of this proof is that there is no explanation as to why defining x in the way shown allows any conclusions about e itself to be drawn. 11/17/05 gwj

 * There is no shortcoming. This is a simple proof by contradiction. The definition of x includes e expressed as a rational number; when this results in a contradiction, the supposition that e is rational must clearly be false. —Lowellian (reply) 05:02, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Proofs of the equivalence of the definitions of e
See Definitions of the exponential function.

Brianjd 07:44, Jul 26, 2004 (UTC) how do u used e= a/b to change e= sum to infinity of the series 1/n! to x= b!(e-sum from 0 to b of 1/n!)?

The statement 'Since this continued fraction is infinite and every rational number has a terminating continued fraction, e is irrational' is not logically sound. We need a reason why the fact that this object (e) has property 1 (an infinite continued fraction representation) prevents it from having property 2 (a terminating continued fraction representation) and thus from belonging to set in question (the rationals). There seems to be a tacit assumption that continued fraction representations of real numbers are unique, or that, if they are not, at least all the continued fractions representations of the same real number are of the same type (either all terminating or all infinite). This assumption may be correct for the case at hand (the continued fractions representations of a real number), but without this knowledge, the logical argument is incomplete. — Preceding unsigned comment added by 2601:546:C400:2F70:7998:5E6B:2009:A0DF (talk) 16:29, 8 March 2020 (UTC)

Infinite sum
The formula for the infinite sum of a geometric series is used, but incorrectly, as the sum used counts only when summed from 0 to infinity, where as in this case, it is a sum from 1 to infinity. That means 0 < x < 1+ 1/b, which ofcourse makes the proof inadequate.

 * There is no sum from 1 to infinity here! Oli Filth 17:55, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

 * Ah, I see, sorry, my mistake. :) Thanks!

x < 1
Shouldn't we prove also that x < 1? It's straightforward, but I think it should be there for the sake of completeness

I don't see how it's straightforward at all. I see nothing from this proof that implies that x < 1. Can someone explain? All I can see is that b must be greater than 1 since e isn't an integer. That shows that x < 1, but it doesn't seem very rigorous.

—Preceding unsigned comment added by 76.182.194.195 (talk) 12:34, 14 March 2010 (UTC)
 * In the formula x=sum b!/n!, the ith term is less than 1/2i, so the whole sum is less than 1/2+1/4+1/8+...=1. —David Eppstein (talk) 17:31, 14 March 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Proof that e is irrational


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User:Ninjamask

Thats me.

de:Benutzer:Ninjamask

title: User:Ninjamask


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Gomashio

Gomashio (hiragana: ごま塩; also spelled gomasio) is a dry condiment, similar to furikake, made from unhulled sesame seeds (ごま) and salt (塩). It is often used in Japanese cuisine, such as a topping for sekihan. It is also sometimes sprinkled over plain rice or onigiri. Some commercially sold gomashio also has sugar mixed in with the salt.

Composition and use
The sesame seeds used to make gomashio may be either tan or black in color. They are toasted before being mixed with the salt. Occasionally the salt is also toasted. The ratio of sesame seeds to salt varies according to taste and diet, generally ranging between 5:1 (5 parts sesame seeds to 1 part salt) and 15:1. Gomashio is often homemade, though it is also commercially available in glass or plastic containers.

Gomashio is also a part of the macrobiotic diet, where it is used as a healthier alternative to ordinary salt. Generally, the gomashio used in macrobiotic cuisine will contain less salt than traditional Japanese gomashio (a ratio of 18 parts sesame seeds to 1 part salt is recommended for some individuals with a particularly restricted diet) and made by hand grinding in a suribachi.

The word gomashio is also used in the Japanese language to describe a head of hair containing both white and black hair strands that intermingle, similar to the English idiom "salt and pepper".

title: Gomashio


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Keio Shonan-Fujisawa Junior and Senior High School

Keio Shonan-Fujisawa Junior & Senior High School (慶應義塾湘南藤沢中・高等部) is located on the Shonan Fujisawa Campus of Keio University in Fujisawa, Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. Since its founding in 1992, the school has been commonly known as Keio SFC, or simply SFC. It is one of the prestigious private secondary schools in the Tokyo area, due to its rich curriculum and environment.

The overwhelming majority (99%) of its students advance to Keio University. In 2006, for example, out of 237 students who entered the senior or final year, 232 were admitted to the various campuses of Keio University.

School
The school is one of five schools affiliated with Keio University. The school is a combined Junior and Senior High, with grades seven through twelve. There are 160 students per grade in Junior High, with another 80 students joining in the first year of Senior High, bringing the total to 240 students per grade. Most of the teachers teach in both the Junior and Senior schools, which share the same buildings, which is uncommon in Japan.

Student life
Most students live in Kanagawa Prefecture and the typical commuting time is 90 minutes. About a quarter of the students are returnees who have lived abroad in various countries. Some of these students have a high English language proficiency, and the school emphasizes English education as well as information technology in its curriculum.

The school operates on a trimester system with a five-week summer vacation and a three-week break at the end spanning late December and early January.

Like other university-attached private high schools in Japan, students in their final year of high school are exempt from taking entrance exams in order to enter the affiliated university. Students in their last year can specify which Keio University faculty they wish to enter and are granted admission to a specific faculty dependent on their academic grades and other intangibles. This frees up enormous amounts of time for extra-curricular activities. Most students belong to clubs of some sort (sports, music, arts, dance, etc.) and will typically spend 6 to 15 hours a week on club pursuits.

The school is co-educational and the number of boys and girls is effectively equal.

Most of the teaching staff are Keio University graduates, many with master's degrees, which is unusual among secondary educators in Japan.

Notable alumni

 * Sayuri Hori, announcer for NHK
 * Mio Matsumura, announcer for Fuji Television
 * Mina Fujii, actress
 * Natsuki Uchiyama, former member of AKB48
 * Katsuhiro Suzuki, actor
 * Taka, lead vocalist of One Ok Rock
 * KOM_I, Former vocalist for Wednesday Campanella


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Gospellers

The Gospellers (ゴスペラーズ) are a Japanese a cappella vocal group made up of Tetsuya Murakami, Kaoru Kurosawa, Yuji Sakai, Yoichi Kitayama and Yutaka Yasuoka.

History
Originally formed by Murakami and Kurosawa (along with 4 other members) in 1991 as a group within a college chorus club "Street Corner Symphony" at the University of Waseda, they recruited 3 new members in order to fill the vacancy (4 members previously left the group due to their job placement activities) for the recording of The Gospellers, their first major label release in 1994. They spent the next 6 years working towards national recognition, releasing 13 singles and 5 albums, until they finally came up with a hit single "Towa ni", which stayed in the Oricon chart ranking for 44 consecutive weeks in 2000 and 2001. They became the first a cappella group to be in the top 3 of the chart in Japan with their 16th single, "Hitori".

In early 2006, the group made a side-project release, Gosperats, which featured the members in blackface and singing with more soul and jazz-like accompaniment, with Rats & Star members Masayuki Suzuki, Nobuyoshi Kuwano and Yoshio Sato, who originally, along with such a style, established the popularity of R&B and Doo-wop in the 1980s in Japan.

In the first edition of the Japanese ice show Fantasy on Ice in 2010, the Gospellers made an appearance as guest artists. They performed together with former figure skater and figure skating commentator, Junko Yaginuma, to the song "1, 2, 3 for 5" amongst others.

Their single "Sky High" was used as the opening theme for the anime Nodame Cantabile: Paris.

The image song for the Japanese version of The Wild is called "Prisoner of Love" by the band.

Singles

 * Promise (21 December 1994)
 * U'll be Mine (21 July 1995)
 * Winter Cheers!〜winter special/Higher (9 November 1995)
 * Two-Way Street (1 March 1996)
 * Calendar (1 July 1996)
 * Machikirenai (1 November 1996)
 * Wolf (21 June 1997)
 * Owaranai Sekai/Vol. (26 December 1997)
 * Yuyake Shuffle (22 April 1998)
 * BOO -Onaka ga Sukuhodo Warattemitai- (20 June 1998)
 * Atarashii Sekai (12 December 1998)
 * Nettai-ya (19 June 1999)
 * Password (1 December 1999)
 * Towa ni (23 August 2000)
 * Kokuhaku (6 December 2000)
 * Hitori (7 March 2001)
 * Yakusoku no Kisetsu (1 August 2001)
 * Chikai (14 November 2001)
 * Get me on (20 February 2002)
 * Escort (10 April 2002)
 * Hoshikuzu no Machi (13 November 2002)
 * Right on,Babe (16 July 2003)
 * Shin Osaka (22 October 2003)
 * Machikado -on the corner- (28 January 2004)
 * Mimosa (27 October 2004)
 * Hitosuji no Kiseki/Kaze wo Tsukamaete (24 May 2006)
 * Platinum Kiss (18 October 2006)
 * Hinoataru Sakamichi (18 October 2006)
 * Platinum Kiss/Hinoataru Sakamichi (1 January 2007)
 * It still matters～ Ai wa nemuranai feat. Howie D /Kotoba ni Sureba (17 October 2007)
 * Aoi Tori (12 March 2008)
 * Lorelei (9 July 2008)
 * Sky High/SEPTENOVA (12 November 2008)
 * 1,2,3 for 5 (11 February 2009)
 * Sorae ~Reach for the sky~ (19 August 2009)
 * Love Notes (14 November 2009)
 * Ai no Shooting Star (22 September 2010)
 * Tokyo (3 November 2010)
 * NEVER STOP (18 May 2011)
 * BRIDGE (28 September 2011)
 * It's Alright～Kimi to Iru Dakede～ (11 July 2012)
 * STEP! (17 October 2012)
 * Kori no Hana (30 January 2013)
 * Robinson/Taiyo no Gonin (28 August 2013)
 * SING!!!!! (9 July 2014)
 * Christmas Choir (19 November 2014)
 * Dream Girl (9 September 2015)
 * GOSWING/Recycle Love (6 July 2016)
 * Fly me to the disco ball (22 February 2017)
 * Hikari (21 February 2018)
 * In This Room (4 July 2018)
 * VOXers (30 October 2019)
 * I Want You (5 October 2020)
 * INFINITY (5 November 2020)
 * Darekanosyatsu (5 December 2020)
 * Loving Out Loud (5 January 2021)

Albums

 * The Gospellers (21 October 1995)
 * Nimaime (1 September 1996)
 * MO' BEAT (21 July 1997)
 * Vol.4 (21 August 1998)
 * FIVE KEYS (23 July 1999)
 * Soul Serenade (12 October 2000)
 * Love Notes (6 June 2001)
 * FRENZY (20 February 2002)
 * A Cappella (4 December 2002)
 * Dressed up to the Nines (10 March 2004)
 * G10 (17 November 2004)
 * Be as One  (22 November 2006)
 * The Gospellers Works  (28 November 2007)
 * Hurray!  (11 March 2009)
 * Love Notes II  (28 October 2009)
 * Harmorhythm (8 June 2011)
 * STEP FOR FIVE (7 November 2012)
 * Hamo Sodo～The Gospellers Covers～ (25 September 2013)
 * The Gospellers Now (17 September 2014)
 * G20 (17 December 2014)
 * Soul Renaissance (22 March 2017)
 * What The World Needs Now (3 October 2018)
 * BOYS meet HARMONY(20 March 2019)
 * G25 -Beautiful Harmony- (18 December 2019)
 * A Cappella 2 (10 March 2021)

DVD

 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1999-2001 (1 August 2001)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1995-1998 (1 August 2001)
 * Sakaagari. (1 August 2001)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2003 "A Cappella Ko" (2 July 2003)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 2001-2004 (14 April 2004)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2005 "G10" (24 August 2005)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1995-2007 ～Complete～ (5 December 2007)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2009"Jugo Shunen Hyoryuki ～Akifuyu～" (24 March 2010)
 *  THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 2008-2010 (22 December 2010)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2012-2013 "FOR FIVE"  (28 August 2013)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2014 "The Gospellers no Hamore Meros" (25 March 2015)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2014-2015 "G20" (2 December 2015)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2017 "Soul Renaissance" (6 December 2017)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2018-2019 "What The World Needs Now" (19 June 2019)

BD

 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2009"Jugo Shunen Hyoryuki ～Akifuyu～" (14 April 2010)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2012-2013 "FOR FIVE"  (28 August 2013)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1995-2014～Complete Blu-ray Box～(21 January 2015)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2014 "The Gospellers no Hamore Meros" (25 March 2015)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2014-2015 "G20" (2 December 2015)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2017 "Soul Renaissance" (6 December 2017)
 * Sakaagari. (28 March 2018)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2003 "A Cappella Ko" (28 March 2018)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2005 "G10" (28 March 2018)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2018-2019 "What The World Needs Now" (19 June 2019)

VHS

 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1995-1998 (14 March 1999)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 1999-2001 (1 August 2001)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2003 "A Cappella Ko" (2 July 2003)
 * THE GOSPELLERS CLIPS 2001-2004 (14 April 2004)
 * THE GOSPELLERS Zaka Tour 2005 "G10" (24 August 2005)

title: Gospellers


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Talk:Semyazza

This information is very iffy, I found it online here: http://www.public.iastate.edu/~cbenton/fallen%20angels.htm -- Patrick

title: Talk:Semyazza


text: Template:Astute class submarine

title: Template:Astute class submarine


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HMS Ambush (S120)

HMS Ambush is an Astute-class nuclear-powered attack submarine of the Royal Navy, the second boat of her class.

Ambush is the third vessel, and the second submarine, to bear the name in Royal Naval service. She was ordered in 1997, laid down in 2003 and commissioned in 2013.

Propulsion
Ambush's nuclear reactor will not need to be refuelled during the boat's 25-year service. Since the submarine can purify water and air, she will be able to circumnavigate the planet without resurfacing. The main limit is that the submarine will only be able to carry three months' supply of food for 98 officers and ratings.

Weapons
Ambush has provision for up-to 38 weapons in six 21 in torpedo tubes. The submarine is capable of using Tomahawk Block IV land-attack missiles with a range of 1000 mi and Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes.

Construction and commissioning
Ambush was ordered from GEC's Marconi Marine (now BAE Systems Submarine Solutions) on 17 March 1997. She was laid down at Barrow-in-Furness on 22 October 2003, officially named on 16 December 2010, launched on 6 January 2011, completed her initial dive test on 30 September 2011, and departed Barrow for sea trials on 15 September 2012. Ambush was commissioned in a ceremony at HM Naval Base Clyde on 1 March 2013.

Operational history
Following her commissioning, Ambush continued sea trials throughout much of 2013. In May 2013, she carried out berthing trials with forward support ship RFA Diligence and, in August 2013, she successfully conducted her first live torpedo and cruise missile firings.

In October 2014, Ambush completed a maiden deployment to the United States and Brazil, visiting Florida's Port Canaveral along the way and taking part in the centenary celebrations of the Brazilian submarine force. In April 2015, Ambush participated in Exercise Joint Warrior, the largest military exercise held in Europe, alongside 55 other naval ships of NATO navies. She further participated in Exercise Dynamic Manta 15.

Collision
On 20 July 2016, while surfacing on an exercise in the Strait of Gibraltar, Ambush collided with the Panama-flagged merchant ship MV Andreas (1999), sustaining significant damage to the top of her conning tower where some of her sonar equipment is housed. It was reported that no crew members were injured during the collision and that the submarine's nuclear reactor section remained completely undamaged. Repairs cost £2.1 million and the commander, who was training a group of students at the time, was sentenced to forfeiting a year of seniority for negligently hazarding the vessel.

As of early 2024, HMS Ambush was reported to be undergoing a period of prolonged maintenance at Faslane, having last been to sea in the autumn of 2022.

Affiliations
Ambush is affiliated to:
 * Newark Sea Cadets: The Sea Cadet unit TS Newark Castle
 * The city of Derby
 * The Dolphin ward of Royal Derby Hospital
 * Bemrose School Derby
 * The Sea Cadet unit TS Kenya
 * Rolls-Royce Marine Division, Derby
 * Royal Naval Association, Derby Submariners' Association, Derby branch
 * National Memorial Arboretum

title: HMS Ambush (S120)


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HMS Artful (S121)

HMS Artful is the third Astute-class submarine nuclear-powered fleet submarine of the British Royal Navy. She is the second submarine of the Royal Navy to bear this name. Artful was ordered from GEC's Marconi Marine (now BAE Systems Submarine Solutions) on 17 March 1997, and was constructed at Barrow in Furness. She was named on 20 September 2013, was rolled out of the shipyard construction hall on 16 May 2014, and was due to start sea trials in early 2015. Artful made her first successful basin dive in October 2014, and sailed on 13 August 2015 for sea trials. Artful was handed over the Royal Navy on 14 December 2015, and commissioned on 18 March 2016.

Propulsion
Artful's nuclear reactor will not need to be refuelled during the boat's 25-year service. Since the submarine can purify water and air, she will be able to circumnavigate the planet without resurfacing. The main limit is that the submarine will only be able to carry three months' supply of food for 98 officers and ratings.

Armament
Artful has provision for up-to 38 weapons in six 21 in torpedo tubes. The submarine is capable of using Tomahawk Block IV land-attack missiles with a range of 1000 mi and Spearfish heavyweight torpedoes.

Common Combat System
Artful is the first Astute-class submarine to utilise the Common Combat System, which will be fitted on every Astute, Vanguard and Dreadnought-class submarine. The Common Combat System was originally meant to be first tested on the fourth Astute boat, HMS Audacious (S122), but the system was completed ahead of time.

Operational history
In May 2021, Artful joined UK Carrier Strike Group 21 on its seven-and-a-half month-long maiden operational deployment to the Far East.

title: HMS Artful (S121)


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Mass in special relativity

The word "mass" has two meanings in special relativity: invariant mass (also called rest mass) is an invariant quantity which is the same for all observers in all reference frames, while the relativistic mass is dependent on the velocity of the observer. According to the concept of mass–energy equivalence, invariant mass is equivalent to rest energy, while relativistic mass is equivalent to relativistic energy (also called total energy).

The term "relativistic mass" tends not to be used in particle and nuclear physics and is often avoided by writers on special relativity, in favor of referring to the body's relativistic energy. In contrast, "invariant mass" is usually preferred over rest energy. The measurable inertia and the warping of spacetime by a body in a given frame of reference is determined by its relativistic mass, not merely its invariant mass. For example, photons have zero rest mass but contribute to the inertia (and weight in a gravitational field) of any system containing them.

The concept is generalized in mass in general relativity.

Rest mass
The term mass in special relativity usually refers to the rest mass of the object, which is the Newtonian mass as measured by an observer moving along with the object. The invariant mass is another name for the rest mass of single particles. The more general invariant mass (calculated with a more complicated formula) loosely corresponds to the "rest mass" of a "system". Thus, invariant mass is a natural unit of mass used for systems which are being viewed from their center of momentum frame (COM frame), as when any closed system (for example a bottle of hot gas) is weighed, which requires that the measurement be taken in the center of momentum frame where the system has no net momentum. Under such circumstances the invariant mass is equal to the relativistic mass (discussed below), which is the total energy of the system divided by c2 (the speed of light squared).

The concept of invariant mass does not require bound systems of particles, however. As such, it may also be applied to systems of unbound particles in high-speed relative motion. Because of this, it is often employed in particle physics for systems which consist of widely separated high-energy particles. If such systems were derived from a single particle, then the calculation of the invariant mass of such systems, which is a never-changing quantity, will provide the rest mass of the parent particle (because it is conserved over time).

It is often convenient in calculation that the invariant mass of a system is the total energy of the system (divided by $c^{2}$) in the COM frame (where, by definition, the momentum of the system is zero). However, since the invariant mass of any system is also the same quantity in all inertial frames, it is a quantity often calculated from the total energy in the COM frame, then used to calculate system energies and momenta in other frames where the momenta are not zero, and the system total energy will necessarily be a different quantity than in the COM frame. As with energy and momentum, the invariant mass of a system cannot be destroyed or changed, and it is thus conserved, so long as the system is closed to all influences. (The technical term is isolated system meaning that an idealized boundary is drawn around the system, and no mass/energy is allowed across it.)

Relativistic mass
The relativistic mass is the sum total quantity of energy in a body or system (divided by $c$). Thus, the mass in the formula $$E = m_\text{rel} c^2 $$ is the relativistic mass. For a particle of non-zero rest mass $m$ moving at a speed $$v$$ relative to the observer, one finds $$m_\text{rel} = \frac{m}{\sqrt{1 - \dfrac{v^2}{c^2}}}.$$

In the center of momentum frame, $$v = 0$$ and the relativistic mass equals the rest mass. In other frames, the relativistic mass (of a body or system of bodies) includes a contribution from the "net" kinetic energy of the body (the kinetic energy of the center of mass of the body), and is larger the faster the body moves. Thus, unlike the invariant mass, the relativistic mass depends on the observer's frame of reference. However, for given single frames of reference and for isolated systems, the relativistic mass is also a conserved quantity. The relativistic mass is also the proportionality factor between velocity and momentum, $$\mathbf{p} = m_\text{rel}\mathbf{v}.$$

Newton's second law remains valid in the form $$\mathbf{f} = \frac{d(m_\text{rel}\mathbf{v})}{dt}.$$

When a body emits light of frequency $$\nu $$ and wavelength $$\lambda $$ as a photon of energy $$E = h \nu = h c / \lambda $$, the mass of the body decreases by $$ E/c^2 = h/ \lambda c$$, which some interpret as the relativistic mass of the emitted photon since it also fulfills $$p = m_\text{rel}c = h/\lambda $$. Although some authors present relativistic mass as a fundamental concept of the theory, it has been argued that this is wrong as the fundamentals of the theory relate to space–time. There is disagreement over whether the concept is pedagogically useful. It explains simply and quantitatively why a body subject to a constant acceleration cannot reach the speed of light, and why the mass of a system emitting a photon decreases. In relativistic quantum chemistry, relativistic mass is used to explain electron orbital contraction in heavy elements. The notion of mass as a property of an object from Newtonian mechanics does not bear a precise relationship to the concept in relativity. Relativistic mass is not referenced in nuclear and particle physics, and a survey of introductory textbooks in 2005 showed that only 5 of 24 texts used the concept, although it is still prevalent in popularizations.

If a stationary box contains many particles, its weight increases in its rest frame the faster the particles are moving. Any energy in the box (including the kinetic energy of the particles) adds to the mass, so that the relative motion of the particles contributes to the mass of the box. But if the box itself is moving (its center of mass is moving), there remains the question of whether the kinetic energy of the overall motion should be included in the mass of the system. The invariant mass is calculated excluding the kinetic energy of the system as a whole (calculated using the single velocity of the box, which is to say the velocity of the box's center of mass), while the relativistic mass is calculated including invariant mass plus the kinetic energy of the system which is calculated from the velocity of the center of mass.

Relativistic vs. rest mass
Relativistic mass and rest mass are both traditional concepts in physics, but the relativistic mass corresponds to the total energy. The relativistic mass is the mass of the system as it would be measured on a scale, but in some cases (such as the box above) this fact remains true only because the system on average must be at rest to be weighed (it must have zero net momentum, which is to say, the measurement is in its center of momentum frame). For example, if an electron in a cyclotron is moving in circles with a relativistic velocity, the mass of the cyclotron+electron system is increased by the relativistic mass of the electron, not by the electron's rest mass. But the same is also true of any closed system, such as an electron-and-box, if the electron bounces at high speed inside the box. It is only the lack of total momentum in the system (the system momenta sum to zero) which allows the kinetic energy of the electron to be "weighed". If the electron is stopped and weighed, or the scale were somehow sent after it, it would not be moving with respect to the scale, and again the relativistic and rest masses would be the same for the single electron (and would be smaller). In general, relativistic and rest masses are equal only in systems which have no net momentum and the system center of mass is at rest; otherwise they may be different.

The invariant mass is proportional to the value of the total energy in one reference frame, the frame where the object as a whole is at rest (as defined below in terms of center of mass). This is why the invariant mass is the same as the rest mass for single particles. However, the invariant mass also represents the measured mass when the center of mass is at rest for systems of many particles. This special frame where this occurs is also called the center of momentum frame, and is defined as the inertial frame in which the center of mass of the object is at rest (another way of stating this is that it is the frame in which the momenta of the system's parts add to zero). For compound objects (made of many smaller objects, some of which may be moving) and sets of unbound objects (some of which may also be moving), only the center of mass of the system is required to be at rest, for the object's relativistic mass to be equal to its rest mass.

A so-called massless particle (such as a photon, or a theoretical graviton) moves at the speed of light in every frame of reference. In this case there is no transformation that will bring the particle to rest. The total energy of such particles becomes smaller and smaller in frames which move faster and faster in the same direction. As such, they have no rest mass, because they can never be measured in a frame where they are at rest. This property of having no rest mass is what causes these particles to be termed "massless". However, even massless particles have a relativistic mass, which varies with their observed energy in various frames of reference.

Invariant mass
The invariant mass is the ratio of four-momentum (the four-dimensional generalization of classical momentum) to four-velocity: $$p^\mu = m v^\mu$$ and is also the ratio of four-acceleration to four-force when the rest mass is constant. The four-dimensional form of Newton's second law is: $$F^\mu = m A^\mu.$$

Relativistic energy–momentum equation
The relativistic expressions for $E$ and $p$ obey the relativistic energy–momentum relation: $$E^2 - (pc)^2 = \left(mc^2\right)^2$$ where the m is the rest mass, or the invariant mass for systems, and $E$ is the total energy.

The equation is also valid for photons, which have $(p_{0}, p_{1})$: $$E^2 - (pc)^2 = 0$$ and therefore $$E = pc$$

A photon's momentum is a function of its energy, but it is not proportional to the velocity, which is always $p_{0}c = E$.

For an object at rest, the momentum $p$ is zero, therefore $$E = mc^2.$$ Note that the formula is true only for particles or systems with zero momentum.

The rest mass is only proportional to the total energy in the rest frame of the object.

When the object is moving, the total energy is given by $$E = \sqrt{\left(mc^2\right)^2 + (pc)^2}$$

To find the form of the momentum and energy as a function of velocity, it can be noted that the four-velocity, which is proportional to $$\left(c, \vec{v}\right)$$, is the only four-vector associated with the particle's motion, so that if there is a conserved four-momentum $$\left(E, \vec{p}c\right)$$, it must be proportional to this vector. This allows expressing the ratio of energy to momentum as $$pc = E \frac{v}{c} ,$$ resulting in a relation between $E$ and $v$: $$E^2 = \left(mc^2\right)^2 + E^2 \frac{v^2}{c^2},$$

This results in $$E = \frac{mc^2}{\sqrt{1 - \dfrac{v^2}{c^2}}}$$ and $$p = \frac{mv}{\sqrt{1 - \dfrac{v^2}{c^2}}}.$$

these expressions can be written as $$\begin{align} E_0 &= mc^2, \\ E &= \gamma mc^2, \\ p &= mv \gamma , \end{align}$$ where the factor $\gamma = {1}/{\sqrt{1-\frac{v^2}{c^2}}}.$

When working in units where $m = 0$, known as the natural unit system, all the relativistic equations are simplified and the quantities energy, momentum, and mass have the same natural dimension:

$$m^2 = E^2 - p^2.$$

The equation is often written this way because the difference $$E^2 - p^2$$ is the relativistic length of the energy momentum four-vector, a length which is associated with rest mass or invariant mass in systems. Where $c$ and $c = 1$, this equation again expresses the mass–energy equivalence $m > 0$.

The mass of composite systems
The rest mass of a composite system is not the sum of the rest masses of the parts, unless all the parts are at rest. The total mass of a composite system includes the kinetic energy and field energy in the system.

The total energy $E$ of a composite system can be determined by adding together the sum of the energies of its components. The total momentum $$\vec{p}$$ of the system, a vector quantity, can also be computed by adding together the momenta of all its components. Given the total energy $E$ and the length (magnitude) $p$ of the total momentum vector $$\vec{p}$$, the invariant mass is given by: $$ m = \frac{\sqrt{E^2 - (pc)^2}}{c^2}$$

In the system of natural units where $p = 0$, for systems of particles (whether bound or unbound) the total system invariant mass is given equivalently by the following: $$ m^2 = \left(\sum E\right)^2 - \left\|\sum \vec{p} \ \right\|^2$$

Where, again, the particle momenta $$\vec{p}$$ are first summed as vectors, and then the square of their resulting total magnitude (Euclidean norm) is used. This results in a scalar number, which is subtracted from the scalar value of the square of the total energy.

For such a system, in the special center of momentum frame where momenta sum to zero, again the system mass (called the invariant mass) corresponds to the total system energy or, in units where $E = m$, is identical to it. This invariant mass for a system remains the same quantity in any inertial frame, although the system total energy and total momentum are functions of the particular inertial frame which is chosen, and will vary in such a way between inertial frames as to keep the invariant mass the same for all observers. Invariant mass thus functions for systems of particles in the same capacity as "rest mass" does for single particles.

Note that the invariant mass of an isolated system (i.e., one closed to both mass and energy) is also independent of observer or inertial frame, and is a constant, conserved quantity for isolated systems and single observers, even during chemical and nuclear reactions. The concept of invariant mass is widely used in particle physics, because the invariant mass of a particle's decay products is equal to its rest mass. This is used to make measurements of the mass of particles like the Z boson or the top quark.

Conservation versus invariance of mass in special relativity
Total energy is an additive conserved quantity (for single observers) in systems and in reactions between particles, but rest mass (in the sense of being a sum of particle rest masses) may not be conserved through an event in which rest masses of particles are converted to other types of energy, such as kinetic energy. Finding the sum of individual particle rest masses would require multiple observers, one for each particle rest inertial frame, and these observers ignore individual particle kinetic energy. Conservation laws require a single observer and a single inertial frame.

In general, for isolated systems and single observers, relativistic mass is conserved (each observer sees it constant over time), but is not invariant (that is, different observers see different values). Invariant mass, however, is both conserved and invariant (all single observers see the same value, which does not change over time).

The relativistic mass corresponds to the energy, so conservation of energy automatically means that relativistic mass is conserved for any given observer and inertial frame. However, this quantity, like the total energy of a particle, is not invariant. This means that, even though it is conserved for any observer during a reaction, its absolute value will change with the frame of the observer, and for different observers in different frames.

By contrast, the rest mass and invariant masses of systems and particles are conserved  also invariant. For example: A closed container of gas (closed to energy as well) has a system "rest mass" in the sense that it can be weighed on a resting scale, even while it contains moving components. This mass is the invariant mass, which is equal to the total relativistic energy of the container (including the kinetic energy of the gas) only when it is measured in the center of momentum frame. Just as is the case for single particles, the calculated "rest mass" of such a container of gas does not change when it is in motion, although its "relativistic mass" does change.

The container may even be subjected to a force which gives it an overall velocity, or else (equivalently) it may be viewed from an inertial frame in which it has an overall velocity (that is, technically, a frame in which its center of mass has a velocity). In this case, its total relativistic mass and energy increase. However, in such a situation, although the container's total relativistic energy and total momentum increase, these energy and momentum increases subtract out in the invariant mass definition, so that the moving container's invariant mass will be calculated as the same value as if it were measured at rest, on a scale.

Closed (meaning totally isolated) systems
All conservation laws in special relativity (for energy, mass, and momentum) require isolated systems, meaning systems that are totally isolated, with no mass–energy allowed in or out, over time. If a system is isolated, then both total energy and total momentum in the system are conserved over time for any observer in any single inertial frame, though their absolute values will vary, according to different observers in different inertial frames. The invariant mass of the system is also conserved, but does not change with different observers. This is also the familiar situation with single particles: all observers calculate the same particle rest mass (a special case of the invariant mass) no matter how they move (what inertial frame they choose), but different observers see different total energies and momenta for the same particle.

Conservation of invariant mass also requires the system to be enclosed so that no heat and radiation (and thus invariant mass) can escape. As in the example above, a physically enclosed or bound system does not need to be completely isolated from external forces for its mass to remain constant, because for bound systems these merely act to change the inertial frame of the system or the observer. Though such actions may change the total energy or momentum of the bound system, these two changes cancel, so that there is no change in the system's invariant mass. This is just the same result as with single particles: their calculated rest mass also remains constant no matter how fast they move, or how fast an observer sees them move.

On the other hand, for systems which are unbound, the "closure" of the system may be enforced by an idealized surface, inasmuch as no mass–energy can be allowed into or out of the test-volume over time, if conservation of system invariant mass is to hold during that time. If a force is allowed to act on (do work on) only one part of such an unbound system, this is equivalent to allowing energy into or out of the system, and the condition of "closure" to mass–energy (total isolation) is violated. In this case, conservation of invariant mass of the system also will no longer hold. Such a loss of rest mass in systems when energy is removed, according to $c = 1$ where $E$ is the energy removed, and $m$ is the change in rest mass, reflect changes of mass associated with movement of energy, not "conversion" of mass to energy.

The system invariant mass vs. the individual rest masses of parts of the system
Again, in special relativity, the rest mass of a system is not required to be equal to the sum of the rest masses of the parts (a situation which would be analogous to gross mass-conservation in chemistry). For example, a massive particle can decay into photons which individually have no mass, but which (as a system) preserve the invariant mass of the particle which produced them. Also a box of moving non-interacting particles (e.g., photons, or an ideal gas) will have a larger invariant mass than the sum of the rest masses of the particles which compose it. This is because the total energy of all particles and fields in a system must be summed, and this quantity, as seen in the center of momentum frame, and divided by $c = 1$, is the system's invariant mass.

In special relativity, mass is not "converted" to energy, for all types of energy still retain their associated mass. Neither energy nor invariant mass can be destroyed in special relativity, and each is separately conserved over time in closed systems. Thus, a system's invariant mass may change only because invariant mass is allowed to escape, perhaps as light or heat. Thus, when reactions (whether chemical or nuclear) release energy in the form of heat and light, if the heat and light is not allowed to escape (the system is closed and isolated), the energy will continue to contribute to the system rest mass, and the system mass will not change. Only if the energy is released to the environment will the mass be lost; this is because the associated mass has been allowed out of the system, where it contributes to the mass of the surroundings.

Transverse and longitudinal mass
Concepts that were similar to what nowadays is called "relativistic mass", were already developed before the advent of special relativity. For example, it was recognized by J. J. Thomson in 1881 that a charged body is harder to set in motion than an uncharged body, which was worked out in more detail by Oliver Heaviside (1889) and George Frederick Charles Searle (1897). So the electrostatic energy behaves as having some sort of electromagnetic mass $m_\text{em} = \frac{4}{3} E_\text{em}/c^2$, which can increase the normal mechanical mass of the bodies.

Then, it was pointed out by Thomson and Searle that this electromagnetic mass also increases with velocity. This was further elaborated by Hendrik Lorentz (1899, 1904) in the framework of Lorentz ether theory. He defined mass as the ratio of force to acceleration, not as the ratio of momentum to velocity, so he needed to distinguish between the mass $$m_\text{L} = \gamma^3 m$$ parallel to the direction of motion and the mass $$m_\text{T} = \gamma m$$ perpendicular to the direction of motion (where $\gamma = 1/\sqrt{1 - v^2/c^2}$ is the Lorentz factor, $E = mc$ is the relative velocity between the ether and the object, and $c$ is the speed of light). Only when the force is perpendicular to the velocity, Lorentz's mass is equal to what is now called "relativistic mass". Max Abraham (1902) called $$m_\text{L}$$ longitudinal mass and $$m_\text{T}$$ transverse mass (although Abraham used more complicated expressions than Lorentz's relativistic ones). So, according to Lorentz's theory no body can reach the speed of light because the mass becomes infinitely large at this velocity.

Albert Einstein also initially used the concepts of longitudinal and transverse mass in his 1905 electrodynamics paper (equivalent to those of Lorentz, but with a different $$m_\text{T}$$ by an unfortunate force definition, which was later corrected), and in another paper in 1906. However, he later abandoned velocity dependent mass concepts (see quote at the end of next section).

The precise relativistic expression (which is equivalent to Lorentz's) relating force and acceleration for a particle with non-zero rest mass $$m$$ moving in the x direction with velocity v and associated Lorentz factor $$\gamma$$ is $$\begin{align} f_\text{x} &= m \gamma^3 a_\text{x} &= m_\text{L} a_\text{x}, \\ f_\text{y} &= m \gamma a_\text{y} &= m_\text{T} a_\text{y}, \\ f_\text{z} &= m \gamma a_\text{z} &= m_\text{T} a_\text{z}. \end{align}$$

Relativistic mass
In special relativity, an object that has nonzero rest mass cannot travel at the speed of light. As the object approaches the speed of light, the object's energy and momentum increase without bound.

In the first years after 1905, following Lorentz and Einstein, the terms longitudinal and transverse mass were still in use. However, those expressions were replaced by the concept of relativistic mass, an expression which was first defined by Gilbert N. Lewis and Richard C. Tolman in 1909. They defined the total energy and mass of a body as $$m_\text{rel} = \frac{E}{c^2},$$ and of a body at rest $$m_0 = \frac{E_0}{c^2},$$ with the ratio $$\frac{m_\text{rel}}{m_0} = \gamma.$$

Tolman in 1912 further elaborated on this concept, and stated: "the expression m0(1 − v/c)−1/2 is best suited for the mass of a moving body."

In 1934, Tolman argued that the relativistic mass formula $$m_\text{rel} = E / c^2 $$ holds for all particles, including those moving at the speed of light, while the formula $$m_\text{rel} = \gamma m_0 $$ only applies to a slower-than-light particle (a particle with a nonzero rest mass). Tolman remarked on this relation that "We have, moreover, of course the experimental verification of the expression in the case of moving electrons ... We shall hence have no hesitation in accepting the expression as correct in general for the mass of a moving particle."

When the relative velocity is zero, $$\gamma$$ is simply equal to 1, and the relativistic mass is reduced to the rest mass as one can see in the next two equations below. As the velocity increases toward the speed of light c, the denominator of the right side approaches zero, and consequently $$\gamma$$ approaches infinity. While Newton's second law remains valid in the form $$\mathbf{f} = \frac{d(m_\text{rel}\mathbf{v})}{dt}, $$ the derived form $$\mathbf{f} = m_\text{rel} \mathbf{a}$$ is not valid because $$m_\text{rel}$$ in $${d(m_\text{rel}\mathbf{v})}$$ is generally not a constant (see the section above on transverse and longitudinal mass).

Even though Einstein initially used the expressions "longitudinal" and "transverse" mass in two papers (see previous section), in his first paper on $$E = mc^2$$ (1905) he treated $m$ as what would now be called the rest mass. Einstein never derived an equation for "relativistic mass", and in later years he expressed his dislike of the idea:

Popular science and textbooks
The concept of relativistic mass is widely used in popular science writing and in high school and undergraduate textbooks. Authors such as Okun and A. B. Arons have argued against this as archaic and confusing, and not in accord with modern relativistic theory. Arons wrote: "For many years it was conventional to enter the discussion of dynamics through derivation of the relativistic mass, that is the mass–velocity relation, and this is probably still the dominant mode in textbooks. More recently, however, it has been increasingly recognized that relativistic mass is a troublesome and dubious concept. [See, for example, Okun (1989). ]... The sound and rigorous approach to relativistic dynamics is through direct development of that expression for momentum that ensures conservation of momentum in all frames: $p = {m_0 v \over {\sqrt{1 - \frac{v^2}{c^2}}}} $ rather than through relativistic mass.|undefined"

C. Alder takes a similarly dismissive stance on mass in relativity. Writing on said subject matter, he says that "its introduction into the theory of special relativity was much in the way of a historical accident", noting towards the widespread knowledge of $v$ and how the public's interpretation of the equation has largely informed how it is taught in higher education. He instead supposes that the difference between rest and relativistic mass should be explicitly taught, so that students know why mass should be thought of as invariant "in most discussions of inertia".

Many contemporary authors such as Taylor and Wheeler avoid using the concept of relativistic mass altogether: "The concept of "relativistic mass" is subject to misunderstanding. That's why we don't use it. First, it applies the name mass – belonging to the magnitude of a 4-vector – to a very different concept, the time component of a 4-vector. Second, it makes increase of energy of an object with velocity or momentum appear to be connected with some change in internal structure of the object. In reality, the increase of energy with velocity originates not in the object but in the geometric properties of spacetime itself."

While spacetime has the unbounded geometry of Minkowski space, the velocity-space is bounded by $c$ and has the geometry of hyperbolic geometry where relativistic mass plays an analogous role to that of Newtonian mass in the barycentric coordinates of Euclidean geometry. The connection of velocity to hyperbolic geometry enables the 3-velocity-dependent relativistic mass to be related to the 4-velocity Minkowski formalism.

title: Mass in special relativity


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Valenciennes

Valenciennes (, also, , ; Valencijn; Valincyinnes or Valinciennes; Valentianae) is a commune in the Nord department, Hauts-de-France, France.

It lies on the Scheldt (Escaut) river. Although the city and region experienced a steady population decline between 1975 and 1990, it has since rebounded. The 1999 census recorded that the population of the commune of Valenciennes was 41,278, and that of the metropolitan area was 399,677.

Before 1500
Valenciennes is first mentioned in 693 in a legal document written by Clovis II (Valentiana). In the 843 Treaty of Verdun, it was made a neutral city between Neustria and the Austrasia. Later in the 9th century the region was overrun by the Normans, and in 881 the town passed to them. In 923, it passed to the Duchy of Lower Lotharingia dependent on the Holy Roman Empire. Once the Empire of the Franks was established, the city began to develop, though the archaeological record has still not revealed all it has to reveal about this period. Under the Ottonian emperors, Valenciennes became the centre of marches on the border of the Empire.

In 1008, a terrible famine brought the Plague. According to the local tradition, the Virgin Mary held a cordon around the city which, miraculously, has since protected its people from the disease. Since then, every year at that time, the Valenciennois used to walk around the 14 km road round the town, in what is called the tour of the Holy Cordon.

In 1259, Valenciennes was the site of a General Chapter of the Dominican Order at which Thomas Aquinas together with masters Bonushomo Britto, Florentius, Albert, and Peter took part in establishing a ratio studiorum or program of studies for the Dominican Order that featured the study of philosophy as an innovation for those not sufficiently trained to study theology. This innovation initiated the tradition of Dominican scholastic philosophy put into practice, for example, in 1265 at the Order's studium provinciale at the convent of Santa Sabina in Rome, out of which would develop the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum.

1500–1793
In 1524, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, arrived at Valenciennes, and – even when Henry II of France allied with him against the Protestants in 1552 – Valenciennes became (c. 1560) an early center of Calvinism and in 1562 was location of the first act of resistance against persecution of Protestants in the Spanish Netherlands. On the "Journée des Mals Brûlés" (Bad Burnings Day) in 1562, a mob freed some Protestants condemned to die at the stake. In the wave of iconoclastic attacks called the Beeldenstorm that swept the Habsburg Netherlands in the summer of 1566, the city was the furthest south to see such an attack on August 24, 1566. It was also one of the first to feel the hand of repression after the siege and fall of the city on March 23, 1567. One of the victims of that repression was Guido de Bres, the author of the Belgic Confession. Following the "révolte des gueux's victory at Brielle, the army of Louis of Nassau, one of the major commanders of the Dutch rebel forces and supported by the Huguenot leader Gaspard de Coligny, invaded the Spanish Netherlands with an army composed of German, English, Scottish and French soldiers, and took Valenciennes on 21 May 1572. However, Louis went on to Mons, and the Protestant garrison left behind offered only a feeble defence to the Duke of Alba, at the head of the bulk of the Spanish army, who recaptured Valenciennes in early June 1572, depriving Louis' French allies, of one of their main bases.

In 1576, when for a time the Southern Netherlands joined the revolt, the Spanish forces massed at the porte d'Anzin (in a fortress known as "La Redoute") were besieged by Valenciennes. However, in 1580, Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma took Valenciennes and Protestantism was eradicated there. Hereafter, Valenciennes remained under Spanish protection, no longer directly involved in later fighting of the Eighty Years' War. With its manufacturers of wool and fine linens, the city was able to become economically independent.

The French army laid siege to the city in 1656 (Vauban participated in this siege without a command ). Defending the city, Albert de Merode, marquis de Trélon was injured during a sortie on horseback, died as a result of his injuries and was buried in the Church of St. Paul (his tomb was found during the archaeological campaign in 1990). The Spanish victory in the Battle of Valenciennes (16 July 1656) lifted the French siege.

In 1677, the armies of Louis XIV of France (this time led by Vauban ) captured the city and in 1678 the Treaty of Nijmegen gave the French control of Valenciennes (1678) and the surrounding southern part of Hainault, roughly cutting the former county in half.

1793–1914
The city was besieged by the First Coalition against Revolutionary France in 1793. Following a protracted Siege of Valenciennes the city was captured and occupied in July by Anglo-Austrian forces under the Duke of York and the Prince of Saxe-Coburg, and only retaken by the French Revolutionary armies in August 1794. In July 1795, one year after the execution of Robespierre put an end to the Reign of Terror, the Republicans of Valenciennes tortured, and guillotined five Ursuline nuns; by some accounts, the nuns were raped before being executed. After the Napoleonic era, Valenciennes gave itself up to the Bourbons in 1815 for 5 years.

First World War
During World War I the German army occupied the town in 1914. They were finally driven out by British forces at the Battle of Valenciennes in 1918, 'in which seven British divisions attacked eleven German divisions'. One dramatic first-hand experience of this battle is provided by A. S. Bullock who fought at a section of the front near Maresches.

1945 to present
The town's first antenna was set up in Lille in 1964, then the Centre universitaire was set up in 1970, becoming independent in 1979 as the University of Valenciennes and Hainaut-Cambrésis.

In 2005, a local resident, Isabelle Dinoire, became the first person to have a partial face transplant.

Climate
Valenciennes has an oceanic climate (Köppen climate classification Cfb). The average annual temperature in Valenciennes is 11.0 C. The average annual rainfall is 694.1 mm with December as the wettest month. The temperatures are highest on average in July, at around 18.7 C, and lowest in January, at around 3.9 C. The highest temperature ever recorded in Valenciennes was 40.9 C on 25 July 2019; the coldest temperature ever recorded was -14.9 C on 7 January 2009.

Main sights
The Hindenburg Line ran through Valenciennes during World War I, leading to extensive destruction. Valenciennes was again almost completely destroyed during World War II, and has since been rebuilt in concrete.

A few surviving monuments are: 1) The façade of the town hall, which managed to survive the bombardments of the war; 2) the Basilica of Notre-Dame du Saint-Cordon, to which there is an annual pilgrimage; 3) La Maison Espagnole, the remains of the Spanish occupation, which ended in 1678. The building is now used as the town's tourist information office; 4) The Dodenne Tower, the remaining part of the medieval fortifications after Charles V ordered them reduced; 5) Théâtre le Phenix, a theatre and performing arts venue constructed in 1998; 6) The "Beffroi", a large, pin-like monument 45 m in height, built in 2007 on the site of the former belfry.

Economy
Valenciennes is historically renowned for its lace. Until the 1970s, the main industries were steel and textiles. Since their decline, reconversion attempts focus mainly on automobile production. In 2001, Toyota built its Western European assembly line for the Toyota Yaris in Onnaing near Valenciennes. Because of this and other changes, the average unemployment in the region is now below the national average.

On 15 July 2004, the Administrative Board of the European Union's Railway Agency held its first meeting in Phénix, with representatives of the 25 Member States and François Lamoureux, those days Director General for Energy and Transportation at the European Commission. Valenciennes was picked as the European Railway Agency headquarters in December 2003. International conferences are held in Lille.

Public transport
Line No. 1 of the Tramway de Valenciennes was put into service on 3 July 2006. 9.5 km long, this tramway crosses the five communes in the Valenciennois Metropolitan area, at a cost of 242.75 million Euros.

Valenciennes railway station offers connections with Lille, Paris and several regional destinations.

Administration
Valenciennes is a subprefecture of the Nord département.

Mayors since 1947

 * 1947–1988: Pierre Carous, resigned (died in 1990)
 * 1988–1989: Olivier Marlière
 * 1989–2002: Jean-Louis Borloo, resigned when he entered the national government
 * 2002–2012: Dominique Riquet
 * 2012–present: Laurent Degallaix

Notable people

 * Philippa of Hainault (1310/1315 - 1369), Queen of England, was born in Valenciennes.
 * Giovanni de Macque, (1548/1550 – 1614), composer, was born in Valenciennes.
 * Jean-Antoine Watteau (1684 - 1721), French painter, was born in Valenciennes.
 * Henri Harpignies (1819 - 1916), painter and watercolourist.
 * Alphonse Chigot (1824 - 1917), historical painter, soldier and art tutor, particularly associated with the city of Valenciennes.
 * Jean-Baptiste Carpeaux (1827 - 1875), sculptor, painter and tutor.
 * Gustave Crauck (1827 - 1905), sculptor and painter
 * Joseph Layraud (1834 - 1912), painter and tutor.
 * Auguste Désiré Saint-Quentin (1838 - 1906), painter
 * Eugène Chigot (1860 - 1923), post impressionist painter and official painter for the Marine Nationale.
 * Louis Cattiaux (1904 - 1953), philosopher, painter and poet, was born in Valenciennes.
 * Fabrice Jaumont (1972 - ), author, educator, advocate for dual-language bilingual education.

Sport
Valenciennes FC is based in the city.

Twin towns – sister cities
Valenciennes is twinned with:
 * 🇮🇹 Agrigento, Italy
 * 🇷🇺 Central AO (Moscow), Russia
 * 🇩🇪 Düren, Germany
 * 🇵🇱 Gliwice, Poland
 * Medway, England, United Kingdom
 * 🇨🇳 Yichang, China

title: Valenciennes


text:
Giacomo Matteotti

Giacomo Matteotti (22 May 1885 – 10 June 1924) was an Italian socialist politician. He was elected deputy of the Chamber of Deputies three times, in 1919, 1921 and in 1924. On 30 May 1924, he openly spoke in the Italian Parliament alleging the Italian fascists committed fraud in the 1924 general election, and denounced the violence they used to gain votes. Eleven days later, he was kidnapped and killed by the secret political police of Benito Mussolini.

Early life and education
Matteotti was born in 1885 into a wealthy family, in Fratta Polesine, Province of Rovigo in Veneto.

He graduated in law at the University of Bologna. An atheist and from early on an activist in the socialist movement and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI), he opposed Italy's entry into World War I and was interned in Sicily during the conflict for this reason.

Political career
He was elected deputy of the Chamber of Deputies three times, in 1919, 1921 and in 1924.

As a follower of Filippo Turati, Matteotti became the leader of the reformist Unitary Socialist Party (PSU) in the Italian Chamber of Deputies after a split from the more radical Italian Socialist Party.

Opposition to Fascism
Matteotti openly spoke out against Fascism and Benito Mussolini, and for a time was the leader of the opposition to the National Fascist Party (NFP). In 1921 he denounced fascist violence in a pamphlet titled Inchiesta socialista sulle gesta dei fascisti in Italia (Socialist enquiry on the deeds of the fascists in Italy).

A year before being killed, "a clear warning against him had appeared in the pages of the newspaper founded by Mussolini himself, Il popolo d’Italia".

In 1924 his book The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination was published and he made two impassioned and lengthy speeches in the Chamber of Deputies denouncing Fascism and declaring that the last election, marked by intimidation and militia violence, was "invalid".

In the speech Matteotti gave on 30 May 1924 in Parliament, he strongly contested the violence, saying "In Naples in one conference that the head of the constitutional opposition was to hold, he was prevented due to the mobilization of the armed corps, which intervened in the city", as a fraud in the 1924 elections (however won by PNF thanks to the Acerbo Law, which put in place an electoral system that guaranteed a majority to the Fascists). According to some theories, this speech was not the only cause of his murder. In fact, according to Renzo De Felice's essay Breve Storia del Fascismo, Matteotti publicly condemned the alliance of the socialist trade unions and the fascist counterpart. Moreover, he may have found evidence of bribes from Sinclair Oil in favour of Mussolini, in order to get permission for Sinclair's exploitation of petroleum reservoirs under Italian control and was deemed dangerous by Mussolini for his links to the British Labour Party.

Personal life
In 1912 he met Velia Titta, younger sister of the famous baritone Ruffo Titta, and they married in a civil ceremony in 1916. They had three children: Giancarlo (1918–2006), Matteo (1921–2000) and Isabella (1922–1994).

After Matteotti's assassination in 1924, his wife Velia was under house arrest until September 1933, but her heart and her health was broken and she died the following year. Several people who helped her were also imprisoned such as Carlo Rosselli. Matteotti's son Gianmatteo (also known as Matteo), became a Social Democratic parliamentary deputy after World War II, serving as Italy's Minister of Tourism in 1970–72 and Minister of Foreign Trade from 1972–1974.

Assassination
On June 1, 1924, the police chief Emilio De Bono ordered Otto Thierschädl, the spotter of the assassination squad, to be released from prison with a telegram signed "for the minister" of the interior: actually, the Minister of the interior, ad interim, was Prime Minister Benito Mussolini.

On 10 June 1924, Matteotti was bundled into a Lancia Kappa by five men while he was walking to Parliament to work. They were Amerigo Dumini, Albino Volpi, Giuseppe Viola, Amleto Poveromo and Augusto Malacria, all acting as members of the secret political police of Benito Mussolini. Inside the car, he was stabbed several times with a carpenter's file as he was struggling to escape. His corpse was found after an extensive search near Riano, 23 kilometres north of Rome, on 16 August 1924.

Consequences of the murder
The death of Matteotti sparked widespread criticism of Fascism and of the Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. In the days following Matteotti's disappearance it became clear Matteotti had been assassinated on the order of people at the top of the regime, prompting the outrage of the opposition. Within a fortnight since the murder, the judge appointed to investigate the crime had ordered the arrest of high profile members of Mussolini's inner circle and questions were asked about Mussolini's personal involvement.

In those weeks "Fascism fielded an articulated series of misdirections, obstructions of justice and red herrings, to declare the moral question closed". After a few weeks of confusion, Mussolini gained a favourable vote from the Senate of the Kingdom.

All opposition parties then united to agree to abandon Parliamentary proceedings until the government had clarified what had happened to Matteotti in what became known as the Aventino Secession. This was an attempt to give strength to the "moral question" that would point to public disapproval of fascism but also to put pressure on the King to dismiss Mussolini.

However, Victor Emmanuel III refused to act, since the Government was supported by a large majority of the Chamber of Deputies and almost all the Senate of the Kingdom. Moreover, he feared that compelling Mussolini to resign could be considered a coup d'état, that eventually could lead to a civil war between the Army and the Blackshirts.

But during the summer, the trial against Matteotti's alleged murderers and the discovery of the corpse of Matteotti once again spread rage against Mussolini – newspapers launched fierce attacks against him and the fascist movement.

On 13 September, a right-wing fascist deputy, Armando Casalini, was killed on a tramway in retaliation for Matteotti's murder by the anti-fascist Giovanni Corvi.

During the autumn of 1924, the extremist wing of the Fascist Party threatened Mussolini with a coup and dealt with him on the night of San Silvestro in 1924. Mussolini devised a counter-manoeuvre, and on 3 January 1925, he gave a famous speech both attacking anti-fascists and confirming that he, and only he, was the leader of Fascism. He challenged the anti-fascists to prosecute him, and claimed proudly that Fascism was the "superb passion of the best youth of Italy" and grimly that "all the violence" was his responsibility because he had created the climate of violence. Admitting that the murderers were Fascists of "high station", as Hitler later did after the Night of the Long Knives, Mussolini rhetorically claimed fault, stating "I assume, I alone, the political, moral, historical responsibility for everything that has happened. If sentences, more or less maimed, are enough to hang a man, out with the noose!" Mussolini concluded with a warning: Italy needs stability and Fascism would assure stability to Italy in any manner necessary.

This speech is considered the very beginning of the dictatorship in Italy.

Trials against his murderers
Five men (Amerigo Dumini, the operational leader of the Ceka, the Fascist secret police; Giuseppe Viola, Albino Volpi, Augusto Malacria, and Amleto Poveromo) were arrested a few days after the kidnapping. Another suspect, Filippo Panzeri, fled from arrest. Only three men (Dumini, Volpi and Poveromo) were convicted and shortly after released under amnesty by King Victor Emmanuel III.

Before the trial against the murderers, the High Court of the Senate started a trial against general Emilio De Bono, commander of the Fascist paramilitary Blackshirts (MVSN), but he was discharged.

After the Second World War, in 1947, the trial against Francesco Giunta, Cesare Rossi, Dumini, Viola, Poveromo, Malacria, Filippelli and Panzeri was re-opened. Dumini, Viola and Poveromo were sentenced to life imprisonment.

In none of these three trials was evidence declared of Mussolini's involvement, due to trial extinction for the death of the defendant.

Mussolini's alleged involvement

The involvement of Mussolini in the assassination is much debated. Historians suggest different theories. The main biographer of Mussolini, Renzo De Felice, was convinced that the Duce was innocent. Aiding him were Aurelio Lepre and Emilio Gentile, who also believed in the Duce's innocence.

The former socialist and anti-fascist journalist Carlo Silvestri in 1924 was a harsh accuser of Mussolini; later, when he joined the Italian Social Republic, he affirmed that Mussolini had shown him the papers for the Matteotti case, and eventually he changed his mind. Silvestri became a strong defender of Mussolini's innocence in Matteotti's murder, and suggested that the socialist was killed by a plot, in order both to damage Mussolini's attempt to raise a leftist government (with the participation of Socialists and Popolari) and to cover some scandals in which the Crown (with the American oil company Sinclair Oil) was involved.

De Felice argued that maybe Mussolini himself was a political victim of a plot, and almost surely he was damaged by the crisis that followed the murder. Many fascists left the Party, and his government was about to collapse. Moreover, his secret attempt to bring Socialists and Popolari into a new reformist government was ruined.

John Gunther wrote in 1940 that "Most critics nowadays do not think that the Duce directly ordered the assassination ... but his moral responsibility is indisputable", perhaps with underlings believing they were carrying out Mussolini's desire by performing the kidnapping and murder on their own. Other historians, including Justin Pollard and Denis Mack Smith, thought Mussolini was probably aware of the assassination plot but that it was ordered and organized by someone else.

Mauro Canali suggested in 1997 that Mussolini probably did order the murder, as Matteotti uncovered and wanted to make public incriminating documents proving that Mussolini and his associates sold Sinclair Oil Corporation exclusive rights to all Italian oil reserves. It is worth noting the fact that judge Giovanni Spagnuolo, in relation to the business clue linked to the Sinclair Oil agreement, added in his 1946 indictment - refuting it in detail - that this "hypothesis clashes with the most elementary logic". . Whether or not the motive of the murder was linked to this corruption case, many scholars now believe Mussolini did order the murder which was executed by his political police, called Ceka.

In May 2024, Giorgia Meloni said in the 100 year anniversary of his death, that Italian fascists committed fraud in the 1924 Italian general election, and killed Matteotti. but she fell short of naming Mussolini as the istigator of the crime nor she blamed the fascist regime for it.

Works

 * 1924 The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination,, (1969)

Legacy
Numerous monuments to Matteotti have been established, including a Monument in Rome along Lungotevere Arnaldo da Brescia, where the kidnap-murder took place.

In Florestano Vancini's film The Assassination of Matteotti (1973), Matteotti is played by Franco Nero.

title: Giacomo Matteotti


text:
Rule 110

The Rule 110 cellular automaton (often called simply Rule 110) is an elementary cellular automaton with interesting behavior on the boundary between stability and chaos. In this respect, it is similar to Conway's Game of Life. Like Life, Rule 110 with a particular repeating background pattern is known to be Turing complete. This implies that, in principle, any calculation or computer program can be simulated using this automaton.

Definition
In an elementary cellular automaton, a one-dimensional pattern of 0s and 1s evolves according to a simple set of rules. Whether a point in the pattern will be 0 or 1 in the new generation depends on its current value, as well as on those of its two neighbors.

The Rule 110 automaton has the following set of rules:

The name "Rule 110" derives from the fact that this rule can be summarized in the binary sequence 01101110; interpreted as a binary number, this corresponds to the decimal value 110. This is the Wolfram code naming scheme.

History
In 2004, Matthew Cook published a proof that Rule 110 with a particular repeating background pattern is Turing complete, i.e., capable of universal computation, which Stephen Wolfram had conjectured in 1985. Cook presented his proof at the Santa Fe Institute conference CA98 before publication of Wolfram's book A New Kind of Science. This resulted in a legal affair based on a non-disclosure agreement with Wolfram Research. Wolfram Research blocked publication of Cook's proof for several years.

Interesting properties
Among the 88 possible unique elementary cellular automata, Rule 110 is the only one for which Turing completeness has been directly proven, although proofs for several similar rules follow as simple corollaries (e.g. Rule 124, which is the horizontal reflection of Rule 110). Rule 110 is arguably the simplest known Turing complete system.

Rule 110, like the Game of Life, exhibits what Wolfram calls "Class 4 behavior", which is neither completely stable nor completely chaotic. Localized structures appear and interact in complex ways.

Matthew Cook proved Rule 110 capable of supporting universal computation by successively emulating cyclic tag systems, then 2-tag system, and then Turing machines. The final stage has exponential time overhead because the Turing machine's tape is encoded with a unary numeral system. Neary and Woods (2006) presented a different construction that replaces 2-tag systems with clockwise Turing machines and has polynomial overhead.

The proof of universality
Matthew Cook presented his proof of the universality of Rule 110 at a Santa Fe Institute conference, held before the publication of A New Kind of Science. Wolfram Research claimed that this presentation violated Cook's nondisclosure agreement with his employer, and obtained a court order excluding Cook's paper from the published conference proceedings. The existence of Cook's proof nevertheless became known. Interest in his proof stemmed not so much from its result as from its methods, specifically from the technical details of its construction. The character of Cook's proof differs considerably from the discussion of Rule 110 in A New Kind of Science. Cook has since written a paper setting out his complete proof.

Cook proved that Rule 110 was universal (or Turing complete) by showing it was possible to use the rule to emulate another computational model, the cyclic tag system, which is known to be universal. He first isolated a number of spaceships, self-perpetuating localized patterns, that could be constructed on an infinitely repeating pattern in a Rule 110 universe. He then devised a way for combinations of these structures to interact in a manner that could be exploited for computation.

Spaceships in Rule 110
The function of the universal machine in Rule 110 requires a finite number of localized patterns to be embedded within an infinitely repeating background pattern. The background pattern is fourteen cells wide and repeats itself exactly every seven iterations. The pattern is 00010011011111.

Three localized patterns are of particular importance in the Rule 110 universal machine. They are shown in the image below, surrounded by the repeating background pattern. The leftmost structure shifts to the right two cells and repeats every three generations. It comprises the sequence 0001110111 surrounded by the background pattern given above, as well as two different evolutions of this sequence.

In the figures, time elapses from top to bottom: the top line represents the initial state, and each following line the state at the next time.

The center structure shifts left eight cells and repeats every thirty generations. It comprises the sequence 1001111 surrounded by the background pattern given above, as well as twenty-nine different evolutions of this sequence.

The rightmost structure remains stationary and repeats every seven generations. It comprises the sequence 111 surrounded by the background pattern given above, as well as five different evolutions of this sequence.

Below is an image showing the first two structures passing through each other without interacting other than by translation (left), and interacting to form the third structure (right).

There are numerous other spaceships in Rule 110, but they do not feature as prominently in the universality proof.

Constructing the cyclic tag system
The cyclic tag system machinery has three main components:
 * A data string which is stationary;
 * An infinitely repeating series of finite production rules which start on the right and move leftward;
 * An infinitely repeating series of clock pulses which start on the left and move rightward.

The initial spacing between these components is of utmost importance. In order for the cellular automaton to implement the cyclic tag system, the automaton's initial conditions must be carefully selected so that the various localized structures contained therein interact in a highly ordered way.

The data string in the cyclic tag system is represented by a series of stationary repeating structures of the type shown above. Varying amounts of horizontal space between these structures serve to differentiate 1 symbols from 0 symbols. These symbols represent the word on which the cyclic tag system is operating, and the first such symbol is destroyed upon consideration of every production rule. When this leading symbol is a 1, new symbols are added to the end of the string; when it is 0, no new symbols are added. The mechanism for achieving this is described below.

Entering from the right are a series of left-moving structures of the type shown above, separated by varying amounts of horizontal space. Large numbers of these structures are combined with different spacings to represent 0s and 1s in the cyclic tag system's production rules. Because the tag system's production rules are known at the time of creation of the program, and infinitely repeating, the patterns of 0s and 1s at the initial condition can be represented by an infinitely repeating string. Each production rule is separated from the next by another structure known as a rule separator (or block separator), which moves towards the left at the same rate as the encoding of the production rules.

When a left-moving rule separator encounters a stationary symbol in the cyclic tag system's data string, it causes the first symbol it encounters to be destroyed. However, its subsequent behavior varies depending on whether the symbol encoded by the string had been a 0 or a 1. If a 0, the rule separator changes into a new structure which blocks the incoming production rule. This new structure is destroyed when it encounters the next rule separator.

If, on the other hand, the symbol in the string was a 1, the rule separator changes into a new structure which admits the incoming production rule. Although the new structure is again destroyed when it encounters the next rule separator, it first allows a series of structures to pass through towards the left. These structures are then made to append themselves to the end of the cyclic tag system's data string. This final transformation is accomplished by means of a series of infinitely repeating, right-moving clock pulses in the right-moving pattern shown above. The clock pulses transform incoming left-moving 1 symbols from a production rule into stationary 1 symbols of the data string, and incoming 0 symbols from a production rule into stationary 0 symbols of the data string.

Cyclic tag system working

The figure above is the schematic diagram of the reconstruction of a cyclic tag system in Rule 110.

title: Rule 110