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Talk:Abbreviation

The concept of abbreviating was first employed by Kianna Eberle in 2008.
What? I think abbreviating has been in use for a lot longer than that! -- Steven, 10:15am, 19 April 2010 (AEDT) —Preceding unsigned comment added by 60.240.45.98 (talk) 00:16, 19 April 2010 (UTC)

Abbreviation != Acronym
Yes, an acronym is a form of abbreviation, but the two are quite distinct. It's like saying, well, a square is a type of rectangle, so let's merge square into the rectangle article. --mwazzap 00:41, 16 January 2006 (UTC)

Currently, in the article appears: "In strict analysis, abbreviations should not be confused with contractions or acronyms (including initialisms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in loose parlance.[1]:p16", which is the contrary of what appears in the abbreviation page. — Preceding unsigned comment added by B Global Institute (talk • contribs) 17:05, 1 September 2012 (UTC)

Specific phrase edits
"Use of periods (American English for "full stops")..." That's a fallacy. "Period" was originally British English, Shakespeare, for example, is known to have called full stops periods. Also, more recently, the term was used by the PM in the House of Commons (see the Wikipedia article on full stops). Though it is rarely heard in British English, "period" is acceptable, it has merely fallen out of use. Changed. -- Tom, 9.58 pm, 19th Oct. 2005

 * No, Shakespeare called them points. A Midsummer Night's Dream, Act V, Scene I: "This fellow does not stand upon points...." Seahen 01:47, 13 March 2006 (UTC)

Whether to add an apostrophe for a plural, e.g., kms vs km's. ALSO IT IS AN ACRONAM FOR NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTING

That's a particularly bad example. One may say "twenty kilometers" but this commonly written as "20 km", not "20 kms" nor "20 km's". This makes sense because "kms" could be interpreted as "kilometers times seconds", which is not intended.

The official rule can be found in the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures' International System of Units brochure, section 5.2 point 2 which simply says: Unit symbols are unaltered in the plural.

Furthermore, km is a symbol and not an abbreviation. As such it does not follow the rules for abbreviations. Because the article is about abbreviations and not about symbols, I suggest that unit symbols should not be included here.

Herbee 00:32, 2004 Feb 22 (UTC)

"If used to refer to a country or a group like the United States or United Nations, the period is not included, and only the first letter of the abbreviation is capitalised." I'm sure I've never read Us or Un to refer to the United States or United Nations in any British publication. Sars and Nato, yes, but not Usa or Un. Tjwood 21:46, 17 May 2004 (UTC)

Agreed, this statement is incorrect, as any search on BBC News will indicate. This should be divided into two points: Edit made. --Air 14:35, 21 May 2004 (UTC)
 * If used to refer to a country or a group like the United States or United Nations, the period is not included. In these examples US and UN are used.
 * Certain Acronyms pronounced as words (see Acronym) are referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalised. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is abbreviated as Nato, and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as Sars.

"Whether to add an apostrophe for a plural, e.g., CDs vs CD's. The apostrophe is not needed grammatically but sometimes is added to make it clear that the s is not part of the abbreviation." I have doubts whether use of the apostrophe is ever 'acceptable'. The entry for Acronym explicitly contradicts (forbids) this practice. --Air 14:42, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

The lede concludes with this sentence: In a dictionary with no abbreviation section, AUTM (variation of ATM) would come right after "authorize". So what? It would come after authorize anyway, wouldn't it? M comes after H. On the other hand, are we sure that, say, authorless wouldn't come right after authorize?

Furthermore, are there really dictionaries that file abbreviations separately from the rest of the words? I've never seen that. If there are, that would be worth pointing out (but probably not in the first paragraph). If the sentence meant to illustrate that abbreviations are alphabetized as though they were actually spelled out, then that would also be worth mentioning, but it should be done using an example that actually illustrates the point. For now, I'm removing the sentence pending an explanation of its significance. --Rob Kennedy 04:06, 6 July 2006 (UTC)

1911 encyclopedia
There is a warning on the page that, being based on the 1911 encyclopedia, "this article may reflect the thinking of the turn of the last century", but the big problem here is surely that it reflects the abbreviations of the turn of the last century. Or, in a way, I wish it did: since paper encyclopedias have always lagged behind their times, the "Abbreviations now in use (1911)" were old-fashioned at the time, as well as being heavily weighted towards academic honors, Church of England titles and Latin phrases (reflecting the priorities of the time). As for the lists of "Classical [=Roman] abbreviations", a really long list, and "Medieval abbreviations", who's going to look for them in this article? If their existence on Wikipedia is any use to anybody - I defer to Classical and historical scholars - is it, honestly? - surely they should be moved to Roman empire or similar? It's not that I don't appreciate the trouble someone took to scan and upload portions of the 1911 encyclopedia, but I suppose the intention was to eventually evaluate which bits were of an any use. And I also appreciate that the big need of this article is for an updated abbreviations list, rather than for just getting rid of the useless parts of the old one. But still, wouldn't that be a start?

I'm pretty new at Wikipedia. There may be an ongoing general project, that I haven't heard of, for getting rid of the obsolete parts of the 1911 encyclopedia - but if there isn't, can't we make a start by deleting some of it right here? My suggestion would be that we keep the list of "Abbreviations denoting moneys, weights, and measures" - abbreviations for hogshead and farthing are cool with me - and lose the rest. What do you think, people? Bishonen 20:42, 12 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * If anything, I'd say to move them to sub-pages such as "Medieval abbreviations" &c., and link to those pages from this one. The source (1911 encyclopedia) of the abbreviations is probably not important, but the content is worth preserving. DenisMoskowitz 17:56, 2004 Aug 18 (UTC)

Major edits
I've gone ahead and removed the lists - they were too long to keep inline in the page. I've also added sections. The article actually looks sensible and nice now. Not sure what to do about current examples, does list of acronyms and initialisms cover this (I suspect the line is blurred). zoney █ █ █  talk 01:30, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Distinction
Come to think of it... are initialisms and acronyms subsets of abbreviations? There's no discussion here of the distinction. zoney █ █ █  talk 01:32, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Not all abbreviations are acronyms: acronyms can be pronounced as if they are one word (eg NATO — nay-tow), non-acronyms can't (QED is not pronounced "ked").
 * Initialisms (iirc) are not really abbreviations. The Long List of Abbreviations — TLLA would not be really what I’d call an abbreviation. [[Image:Anarion.png]] 07:43, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Yes, but I was suggesting the reverse - are all acronyms abbreviations? zoney █ █ █  talk 12:38, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Sure all acronyms are abbreviations
Great work, Zoney, thanks a lot! It looks like a proper article now. I have always assumed abbreviation was the master category, and acronyms and initialisms subsets of it, on a common-sense basis: "abbreviation" means shortening or brief-making, and acronyms and initialisms are methods for shortening. If I'm right, then all acronyms are abbreviations (though I don't suppose anybody believes all abbreviations are acronyms). But, Anárion, if you're heavily into linguistic terminology there, I'll defer to you, because I'm not - as I say, I only make a common-sense argument.

Looking up the entry on abbreviation in modern Encyclopedia Britannica, I note a couple of points:

1. A third method for producing abbrevations is by truncation, e. g. Mets for Metropolitans. Apocopation, linked to under See also, looks a lot like it means the exact same thing, doesn't it? Anyway, truncation has to be about fifty times more likely to be searched for than apocopation, and a Wikipedia Truncation article only exists for math, so if I have some time later, I'll try to create a Truncation (lingustics) stub and a disambig Truncation page.

2. Not everybody agrees with Herbee above that unit symbols like km are not abbreviations. It's OK to call them abbreviations (though it's also OK to refuse to). Anyway, thanks very much both of you for responding to my VP appeal for input.Bishonen 12:43, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

All three
Sorry! Thanks all three of you, was what I meant. Bishonen 12:48, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

Abbreviation
I understand that I'm supposed to discuss a specific article on its Talk page, but I just haven't had any success with the Abbreviation article. I left a note on the Talk page six days ago, with suggestions for deleting most of the 1911 Britannica material, but haven't had any response so far. (I guess nobody's watching the page. Well, it's not John Kerry.) I don't feel right about deleting all that stuff without input from anybody else. Does anybody have a soft spot for abbreviations out there? Incidentally, if you do, and know more linguistics than me, which wouldn't be hard, I'd really appreciate it if you'd take a look at my HomO article. I wrote it mostly because the word (the short form for the Swedish ombudsman against discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation) is a cool, and to me amusing, uh, fake abbreviation. Well, maybe you had to be there. But, anyway, I don't think I do justice to the word itself in the article about the institution, and any input would be appreciated. If you think this posting is inappropriate, please tell me so, that would also be useful. Bishonen 16:55, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Well bringing it here is likely to garner the article some attention so hopefully that helps (its not my field, unfortunately). Wikipedia works on a system of massive numbers of incremental improvements. If no-one other than you is currently interested in an article, you have carte blanche to your best in improving it, doing whatever you think is right. Maybe you can't make it perfect, but it will be in a better state for the next person who comes along. Pcb21| Pete 19:59, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Be bold. Discussing a major change on the talk page is only a courtesy to people who care about the article, and those people would be watching. Also, all changes are reversible, so if someone comes back from vacation and finds their page "devastated", they'll revert and flame you then. I for one favour your suggestion, but I might suggest moving them to a list of "archaic abbreviations." Derrick Coetzee 20:59, 18 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I've gone ahead and removed the lists - they were too long to keep inline in the page. I've also added sections. The article actually looks sensible and nice now. Not sure what to do about current examples, does list of acronyms and initialisms cover this (I suspect the line is blurred). Discuss on Talk:Abbreviation. zoney █ █ █  talk 01:29, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Not all abbreviations are acronyms: acronyms can be pronounced as if they were a word. NATO is an acronym, QED is not. [[Image:Anarion.png]] 07:38, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Untrue. According to Merriam-Webster's Online, an acronym is "a word (as NATO, radar, or snafu) formed from the initial letter or letters of each of the successive parts or major parts of a compound term; also : an abbreviation (as FBI) formed from initial letters". QED is an acronym in the second sense (and even the first, depending on how you define "word"). Wikipedia's own article on acronyms is even clearer on this point. The essential difference is that NATO is pronounced "NAY-toe", whereas "QED" is pronounced "KYOO EE DEE". — Jeff Q 09:45, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * Nope - by any definition QED is not an acronym - it is always spelled out and never pronounced kwed. --JohnArmagh 10:01, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * But all acronyms are abbreviations? I.e. are acronyms a subset of abbreviations? Are initialisms also abbreviations? zoney █ █ █  talk 12:23, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * "By any definition?" Clearly, by at least one definition—the one Jeff cites above—it is indeed one.  The artificial acronym/initialism distinction has always irked me, and I suppose you're going to be chiding me for splitting infinitives next.  Austin Hair 12:51, Aug 19, 2004 (UTC)

 * Seconded. QED is not an acronym, since it is not pronounced as a word, but as three individual letters. All acronyms are abbreviations, yes.

 * From the OED: "Initialism: The use of initials; a significative group of initial letters. Now spec. a group of initial letters used as an abbreviation for a name or expression, each letter or part being pronounced separately (contrasted with ACRONYM)."

 * Sounds fairly unequivocable. -- Necrothesp 13:00, 19 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * What does "unequivocable" mean, exactly? It's certainly not unequivocal; few dictionaries even note the distinction, and those that do are quick to point out that it hasn't gained widespread acceptance—and rightly so, given its artificiality.  Educated commentators are quick to disavow this "correction" right along with the prohibition against the split infinitive (mentioned above), the ending of a sentence with a preposition, the beginning of a sentence with a conjunction, and numerous other non-errors which have no place in this encyclopedia.  Austin Hair 03:57, Aug 20, 2004 (UTC)

 * Zoney is quite correct - just as not all 'pronounceable' abbreviations are acronyms, not all acronyms are abbreviations. --JohnArmagh 05:21, 20 Aug 2004 (UTC)

 * I would like to see any reputable sources that anyone can provide to support the claim that not all acronyms are abbreviations, or that all are. -Pgan002 23:07, 11 December 2006 (UTC)

Link suggestions
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Question: "A" vs. "An"
Let's say we are talking about a book: a Lord of the Rings (LOTR) book. As I just said there, I said "a" lord of the rings book, but when you use the abbreviation LOTR, the sound changes. The first sound in "LOTR" is a hard "ell", not a soft L like in "lord". Now saying "a ell-oh-tee-are book" sounds wrong because the abbreviation starts with a vowel. When a normal word starts with a vowel, you use an not a. So, my question is, do you say "A LOTR book" or "An LOTR book"? · Zhatt ·  21:24, July 11, 2005 (UTC)

Here's my 2 cents: If you were speaking, and were to say it out ("LOTR"), you'd use "an"; same way in the military we'd say "an LSVW". BUT…if you are using "LOTR" as a written shorthand for "Lord of the Rings", you'd say "'a LOTR book" because if you read it out you'd say "a Lord of the Rings book"; in the military, for example, if I wanted a lieutenant and a lineman, I would ask for "a Lt and a Lmn". Basically, write it exactly as you're going to read it. (I know that's not explained very clearly, but that's the best you'll get out of me before I turn into a pumpkin). SigPig 02:34, 28 July 2005 (UTC)

 * See Reference desk.

merging
The Abbreviation has notices that someone is suggesting Acronym and initialism and Syllabic abbreviation should be merged in. I'm not an expert here and the proposal seems far from straightforward so thought I'd see if anyone's interested in discussing it, or just doing it. Tedernst 17:59, 27 October 2005 (UTC)
 * I have merged Syllabic abbreviation into this article, and may soon merge Apocopation and Acronym and initialism as well, depending on community comment. Brisvegas 09:32, 13 November 2005 (UTC)
 * I'm not a linguistic either, but in my mind, acronyms and initialism are different concepts from abbrevations (allthough connected) and should remain as separate articles. An abbreviation in it's simplest form should have a full stop, e.g. "Mass." for "Massachusetts", while the initialism "MA" should not. Generally, an abbrevation is a simplified written form not normally used for speech, while an acronym/initalism is also used in speech. I'm not a native English speaker/writer, but I feel that the distinction is greather in other languages, like Norwegian and Swedish.
 * Similarly, syllabic abbreviation is a special form of initialism. Apocopation, on the other hand, is a special form of abbrevation.
 * --Frodet 19:08, 16 November 2005 (UTC)

I also think it is best to leave things as they are, with separate articles. Lucien Duval, from the French Wikipedia, 28 November 2005 (UTC)

With regard to combining the article Apocopation into the article Abbreviation, although not a linguist I would suggest that such not be done. Abbreviations are letters taken from a word and used interchangeably with the word. E.g., kilometer and km. Apocopation, however, is a form of a word produced by shortening the original word and resulting in a word legitimate in its own right. For example, in Hebrew, the 3rd person singular feminine imperfect of hayah is tihyeh in its full form. The apocopated form, however, is thiy. This is not a contraction, however, for a contraction is the shortening of a word by omission of intermediate letters. Nor is it an abbreviation. Apocopation is distinct from both abbreviation and contraction. (David Medici)

I oppose the merge. There is enough distinct content about each subject to warrant separate articles. --TantalumT e lluride 21:57, 31 December 2005 (UTC)

I also am against the merge, for reasons similar to David Medici's, above. (I am also against the merging of Apocopation and Acronym and Initialism, as I posted on the Talk:Apocopation page. Unless two pages are so similar that there is a lot of redundant information and the concepts are basically similar, I think it is almost always wise, as a general rule, to keep them separate. - Kadin2048 20:59, 10 January 2006 (UTC)

I find it hard to see the point in a merge for similar reasons as above. The article is quite long enough and if a merge with Apocope you'd also want to merge in any articles that may be written on linguistic descriptions like aphesis and syncope. Better to keep separate as a general and specific case Peripitus 12:47, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

Link suggestions
An automated Wikipedia link suggester has some possible wiki link suggestions for the Abbreviation article, and they have been placed in a handy list for your convenience. — 203.134.197.133 23:13, 6 January 2006 (UTC)

Shorthand
Please include in the article something about shorthand as a form of abbreviation. -Pgan002 06:07, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

Removed reference to comintern
I removed the reference to Comintern as an example of a syllabic abbreviation. While it is one, it did not fit into the paragraph: it is neither German, nor from the USSR, nor does it have negative connotations as the following sentence implied. -Pgan002 07:06, 26 January 2006 (UTC)

keep apocope (& etc) separate
Abbreviation's entry is sufficiently long already. Particular forms of abbreviation (the parent category for all word shortening techniques) like acronyms and apocope (specific mechanims for generating shorter words) warrant their own entries for those wishing greater detail.

On an earlier subject, I'd say leaving somewhat archaic abbreviations in as examples is a very good idea. After all, those are the abbreviations that readers are most likely to need a reference to decipher.

-

i'm just your average user here, but jeez! this article is way too long for a dictionary term.

get to the point!
 * In your opinion, what parts of the article (apart from the etc, apocope bits) should be kept seperate? - Ta bu shi da yu 02:58, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

Pronuncitation-based style guides
Aren’t there style guides recommending periods for “shortings” that are (intended to be) read as letters, and no periods otherwise? If so the article doesn‘t mention those, unless I missed it somehow. Christoph Päper 14:41, 13 April 2006 (UTC)

Syllabic abbreviation
Is "Syllabic abbreviation" a recognised term in English? I googled it a few months ago and it seems to exist as a bona-fide term in Russian, but the English references were few: there are more now, I suspect due to the Wikipedia effect. There are only 2 hits in google print, one irrelevant and the other Russian. Maybe the section was added by a Russian-speaker? English texts distinguish blends from acronyms. I accept there is a useful distinction between acronyms-consisting-of-the-initial-letter-of-constituent-words and acronyms-consisting-of-the-initial-syllable-of-constituent-words, but if that distinction is not made in practice, the Wikipedia has no business inventing a name for it. There is enough contention on acronym and initialism between the "FBI is an acronym" and "no, FBI is an initialism" without adding yet another term to muddy the waters.jnestorius(talk) 12:56, 2 May 2006 (UTC)

Phoneme abbreviation
"A doubled letter also appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names": I don't know how common this is, but on occasion this is also the case for other non-phonemic letters (vs. phonemic letter pairs). e.g., Th., Ph. Perhaps this should be restated in more general terms, unless the doubled-letter case is much the more common (this is the part I'm not so clear on). Alai 18:24, 5 May 2006 (UTC)

Plurals and apostrophes again...
What do the style guides say about the plurals of abbreviations that end in "S"? for example, do I say "I need the MSDSs for Thiamine and Acetic Acid" or "I need the MSDS's for Thiamine and Acetic Acid"? And if the apostrophe is OK (as my eye would like it to be) does that cause any confusion with "I can't read the MSDS's first line"? I don't think so. What do you apostrophe-jocks say?
 * I'm not an expert [or an "apostrophe-jock"], but I would guess that the posessive would be MSDS', like when any other noun that ends with s is possesive. Looking at the article [as far as the plural goes] it seems like either way would be accepted, and the intent [to me] is clear both ways.Torca 09:33, 26 December 2006 (UTC)
 * Ancient post, but here goes: The old rule for possessives for any word ending in s was "write ' if it is plural and otherwise write 's"; the only exception was sometimes for historical names such as Pythagoras. That doesn't conflict necessarily with the proposed plural, but generally apostrophes in plurals have been frowned upon. More recently, both of the things I just said don't really seem to matter anymore.--91.11.124.193 (talk) 09:19, 19 August 2011 (UTC)

"abbreving"
Is "abbreving" a real word? Is it British English only or something? — Omegatron 22:26, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

 * Oh, I see. Nevermind.  I wasn't really reading the article; just noticed it in the edit window. — Omegatron 22:27, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

dots
whereas 5 m.s means 5 metre·second(s)

 * Is that true? Isn't a middle dot or a space for compound units? — Omegatron 02:25, 9 November 2006 (UTC)

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Discussion

 * }
 * Removing Cleanup tagging after seeing recent improvements and being attracted by the auto-tagging BOT above. The article is pretty good from what I see.

Twould be nice to easily find who attached the  and especially, when! // Fra nkB  19:41, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

I found this under the "Apostrophes" section:

 * Although, the proper way to write plurals when using abbreviations with numbers, decades, etc., would be to write them without an apostrophe, e.g. "Dot all your Is and cross all your Ts". This is because the "I" and "T" are not possessive; therefore, they do not need an apostrophe.

This is pretty amusing, since an I doesn't need dotting, while an i does. (The T works either way, I suppose.) However, this is really a digression in this particular article, since i and t are being used in this case as letters, not as abbreviations. I'm going to remove this bit from the article, though I'll leave the bit in the previous paragraph about the differences between apostrophization of abbreviations and that of letters, though, since that is relevant. --ΨΦorg 02:03, 9 January 2007 (UTC)

Question about abbreviations in Asian languages
Do Asian languages, besides the "syllabic" style abbreviations mentioned in the artilce, also use the "period" style of abbreviations? Is one form or the other considerably more common? --babbage 23:48, 24 July 2007 (UTC)
 * This article is in the English wikipedia and concerns English only. Ask your question on the Talk page of each Asian language. Sleigh (talk) 13:57, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

Abbreviation, contraction, name initials
The article does not discuss the distinction between "abbreviations" proper and "contractions". It is sometimes stated that the difference between, e.g., "St." for Street (with period/full stop) and "St" for Saint (without period/full stop) is that the first is an abbreviation (St[reet]), the second a contraction (S[ain]t). Following this distinction, British English tends to regard shortened forms, when possible, as contractions, US English the same forms as abbreviations.

Name initials are also a form of abbreviation, and are still regularly given with period (though usually without spaces) in both British and US usage: e.g., "J.W. Smith" (not J W Smith, J. W. Smith). Shulgi 10:25, 25 July 2007 (UTC)

S.O.,E
Is it on purpose that "S.O.,E", as mentionned in the article, doesn't end with a period ? Palpalpalpal 17:28, 1 December 2007 (UTC)
 * That was just a good question ten years ago. By now, it's also a serious embarrassment to WP and our history and British culture specialists! --Jerzy•t 00:21, 3 May 2018 (UTC)

Abbreviating with a slash mark
Many abbreviations that consist of two letters are abbreviated by adding a slash in between the letters. Examples:
 * N/A (not applicable)
 * P/O (purchase order)
 * W/C (will-call)
 * I/O (input-output)
 * W/O (without)

How does this factor in with the rest of the article? Should there be an entry for this as well?

Bihlbo (talk) 19:11, 14 April 2008 (UTC)

Periods (full stops) and spaces
Abbreviations which end with the same letter as the original word are spelt without a period, such as Dr for Doctor. In Australia, which uses British English, this was first taught in either 1973 or 1974. The school syllabus, taught throughout the state, (probably) lags behind official start date of changes to English. What was this spelling change called and when was it introduced to British English? Prior to this spelling change 'Dr' was spelt 'Dr.' Books published prior to this spelling change (in Brtish English), use the old abbreviation spelling which is the same as today's American English. Sleigh (talk) 13:25, 29 July 2008 (UTC)

Two letter abbreviations
I know with great certainty that double letter abbreviations are not Welsh. In fact, some English names are (were) commonly abbreviated with two letters, such as Th. for Thomas, Wm for William, etc. Granted, in the second case it is the contraction of the whole name, but you get the point. In languages which do not follow the "sounds" used in English, e.g. Greek, Russian, etc., its quite common to use double letter abbreviations where that sound would be abbreviated as a whole in that language. E.g. Yuri Andropov is often referred to in US sources as Yu. Andropov since "Yu" is written as a single letter in Cyrillic. Same goes for Th in Greek (Theodoros...).

A compromise for the moment would be to eliminate the reference to Welsh and just say that sometimes two letters are used to abbreviate. 118.90.1.29 (talk) 22:20, 26 January 2009 (UTC)
 * Thanks for the explanation. I didn't read that "double-letter abbreviations are Welsh", rather that "some Welsh names are abbreviated with a double letter". (It's verifiable that, in Welsh dictionaries, 'Ll' is treated as a separate letter from 'L'.) See also, eg, here -- " Ll. An abbreviation of Llywelyn". Can you authoritatively document your personal "great certainty" for removal of the Welsh usage here? It is true, as you state, that other languages also have two-letter given-name abbreviations, or indeed three, as in 'Jno' or 'Jas' (Jonathan or James). But is this genre appropriate for inclusion in a small section named "Miscellaneous and general rules"--or should you consider ceating a new section for 'Personal name initialisms' (if not here, then maybe under Acronym and initialism, Given name) or some such, rather than overworking this section? Cheers Bjenks (talk) 01:29, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Economist epithet
I removed the description of The Economist as a newspaper. It calls itself a newspaper, but describing it as such can only cause confusion for American readers, who would invariably call a weekly news periodical on glossy paper a magazine. The Economist is probably at least as well-known as The Guardian, which appears without an epithet above. Gwil (talk) 19:30, 15 July 2009 (UTC)

Introduction is too confusing
The second paragraph of the introduction is written in such a mindlessly technical and confusing way that it is of very little use to someone trying to find out what the relationship between abbreviations, acronyms, initialisms (etc) are. I know fine well that acronyms are generally regarded as a type of abbreviation, but anyone who didn't know this would be none the wiser after reading the introduction. It's worth keeping in mind that the point in the article is to explain, in a clear and easily understandable manner, the subject, not to write in the most convoluted and ludicrously technical way possible. —Preceding unsigned comment added by 87.194.158.94 (talk) 23:52, 22 October 2009 (UTC)

AIM Abbreviations
AIM stands for aol instant messager. Here are some of the abbreviations people use on AIM. BRB- be right back ttyl- talk to you later b4- before bii- bye bbl- be back later idk- i don't know idc- i don't care ik- I know ikr- iknow, right?! ( like in shock) there are many more abbreviations, but these are just a few of the common ones i know. Edwardgirl12 (talk) 22:48, 17 December 2009 (UTC)

Contractions, Suspensions, and Abbreviations
are not entirely different, though the article uses these words as though they were: "contraction" is contrasted with "abbreviation" (though it is merely a type of abbreviation), and "suspension" isn't even mentioned!

Oughtn't the distinction be pointed out? "Abbreviation" is the general category of shortened words (or phrases); a "suspension" is an abbreviation from which the final letters have been omitted (e.g., "Conn." for "Connecticut"); a "contraction" is an abbreviation which retains its initial and final letters (e.g., "Rev’d" for "Reverend"); an "acronym" employs initial letters of a group of words to create a new word (e.g., "NASA" for -- well, you get it, dear reader!). Without such an explanation, the article is not only incomplete but misleading.

Firstorm (talk) 14:02, 8 February 2010 (UTC)

"Km" Is A Symbol, Not An Abbreviation
"Km" is shown as an example but "Km" is not an abbreviation, it's a symbol. Or, more precisely, it is the "K" prefix (kilo-) plus the "m" symbol (meter). - Gus (T, C) 2010-06-24 02:19Z

television isn't two words!
"The U.S. media tend to use periods in two-word abbreviations like United States (U.S.), but not ... television (TV)." Television is only one word. 86.153.173.126 (talk) 09:10, 8 July 2010 (UTC)

syllables in India
I am told that syllabic abbreviation is used (at least to some degree) in India, and I imagine it's known in other places where syllabaries or alphasyllabaries are standard. But I don't know enough to add to the article. —Tamfang (talk) 03:23, 26 April 2011 (UTC)

Measurement
Does the section on measurement really address the issue? SI uses symbols, not abbreviations because the "shorthand" used is identical in all languages regardless of the "longhand" version of the text. See Kilometres per hour for an example. Do others concur?

If so, I would like to overhaul that section emphasising the difference between a symbol and an abbreviation and point the reader to other artciles for the rules on how to write SI quanities. Martinvl (talk) 07:22, 24 August 2011 (UTC)

context: so what

 * Abbreviations can also be used to give a different context to the word itself, such as "PIN Number" (wherein if the abbreviation were removed the context would be invalid).

Meaning that "Number" doesn't mean the same thing as "PIN Number"? Any noun can be used in the same way, so this sentence amounts to: An abbreviation that stands for a noun phrase can be used as a noun.

Unless I've misunderstood it, and it's not trivial (in the mathematical sense), I'll remove it. —Tamfang (talk) 18:48, 23 October 2011 (UTC)

Spaces
''"Today, spaces are generally not used between single-letter abbreviations of words in the same phrase, so one almost never encounters "U. S."'' That seems to be correct, but it is "today". How was it earlier? In older texts one can find abbreviations with spaces (e.g. "O. T." for "Old Testament" and "A. D." for "anno Domini"). So, when did the usage change, and why did it change (maybe because it's shorter)? -19:58, 19 April 2015 (UTC) — Preceding unsigned comment added by 93.196.232.201 (talk)

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Table at #Periods (full stops) and spaces
I reverted an edit by, not because I decided that they are wrong, but only because the table has been stable for many months and the edit seemed to conflict with the sources (which I have not consulted). So time for a WP:BRD discussion.

As a general principle, we don't try to tell readers what to do but rather what exists and what is the evidence for it. To take a specific example, the abbreviation of Doctor, the text documents the existence of both "Dr" and "Dr." (with a suggestion of WP:ENVAR) – so which style should go in the table? We need to resolve. We could just delete the table (my preferred solution, tbh) or somehow extend it to give two columns called maybe "Main" and "Alternative" with citations for each?

Suggestions? --John Maynard Friedman (talk) 11:49, 2 January 2021 (UTC)

German
Enters DeAkuWa = Deutscher Abkürzungswahn, German abbreviation mania. Unfortunately OPSE doesn't find any occurrence, but I think I have it from the Spiegel. (OPSE = Our Preferred Search Engine) 2003:F5:6F19:1400:D38:DF3C:B69B:D2ED (talk) 19:45, 31 May 2021 (UTC) Marco PB

Abbreviations using the number of characters
Maybe abbreviations of the form first-letter number-of-characters-inbetween last-letter should be included? Exampels include "internationalization" -> "i18n", "localization" -> "l10n", "Kubernetes" -> "k8s". Might be hard to find citations though. Holzklöppel (talk) 18:16, 21 June 2022 (UTC)

Telegraph
It seems a miss that the history section doesn't mention telegraphy at all. You might say morse keyers were the first "textese" users. Morse code abbreviations. 17:20, 6 September 2022 (UTC) Keith D. Tyler ¶ 17:20, 6 September 2022 (UTC)

title: Talk:Abbreviation


text:
Everything to Everyone (album)

Everything to Everyone (commonly abbreviated E2E) is the sixth full-length studio album by Barenaked Ladies. It was released in 2003 and was produced by Ron Aniello. Singles from the album include "Another Postcard", "Testing 1, 2, 3", "For You", "Celebrity" and "Maybe Katie". The content of the album is noted for its increased political commentary over previous albums. This was their last album with Reprise Records (or any major label for that matter) before switching to a more independent label, Desperation Records and subsequently Raisin' Records.

Creative process
After recording and touring incessantly from 1995 until 2001, the quintet opted to take some time off for 2002 and most of 2003. It was the first long-term hiatus for the band since their inception. Upon returning to the recording studio to begin recording what would become Everything to Everyone, BNL adopted a new policy of keeping the writing exclusively within the band members. This resulted in increased contribution from Jim Creeggan and Kevin Hearn, and the band ended up recording more songs than usual (which in turn resulted in a 14-song album plus a bonus track). The album was recorded in Los Angeles, and was the first album the band recorded following the inception of their online blog. This allowed the band to communicate with their fans on a continual basis during the recording, and gave additional insight into the creative process.

The band took to the facility's B-studio near the end of the recording to record versions of the album's songs on acoustic instruments. This was quickly set up, and drummer Tyler Stewart ended up using a drum kit assembled from various unusual objects. The band performed eleven songs which comprised the entire released album except for "Shopping", "Unfinished", "War on Drugs" and the bonus track "Yes! Yes!! Yes!!!" This acoustic session proved successful, and a similar performance would be undertaken for their next album, Barenaked Ladies Are Me (abbreviated as BLAM).

The album's cover was painted by Canadian Chris Woods, and depicts the band in profile displaying a white flag of surrender. The title text was displayed over the flag, though to preserve the meaning of the white flag, the album title was not printed on the cover itself. It was instead placed as a sticker on the transparent wrapping, and was "flat", not wavy to match the flag's contours. For the special edition, the title was on the clear plastic sleeve, and matched the flag's waves. The original painting, a 60" x 60" oil on canvas, reportedly hangs at Page's farmhouse studio, Fresh Baked Woods.

Tracks recorded but not included on the album:
 * "Statue of Los Angeles" (unreleased) – a Hearn song; released on his album The Miracle Mile
 * "Sign Me Up" (unreleased) – described as "basically us swearing our heads off for six minutes"
 * "Adrift" (re-recorded for BLAM, and released on the album Stop Us If You've Heard This One Before)
 * "What a Let Down" (re-recorded for BLAM)
 * "I Can, I Will, I Do" (previously recorded on Disc One, and re-recorded for BLAM; appears on iTunes Originals - Barenaked Ladies. Later released on Stop Us If You've Heard This One Before).
 * "Yes! Yes!! Yes!!!" (bonus track on the special edition's DVD, and b-side on the UK single for "Celebrity". Later released on Stop Us If You've Heard This One Before).

As with each of their early albums, the band recorded one song, "Sign Me Up", completely naked. Everything to Everyone is the band’s last album for which a naked track (recorded in the nude) was recorded.

Release
The album was released in three versions:
 * The standard 14-track album
 * A limited edition, marked with a sticker, that contained three bonus tracks from the acoustic session
 * A special edition in a threefold digipack with plastic sleeve; with the standard CD, and a bonus DVD labeled Everything Else (containing DVD-Audio of the album including bonus track "Yes! Yes!! Yes!!!", and both video and stereo-audio forms of the acoustic show, and several video clips from the recording studio)

The album's first single was "Another Postcard", which many fans perceived as an attempt by the record company to repeat the success of hit singles "One Week" from Stunt and "Pinch Me" from Maroon, which have similar styles and rap-based vocals. Though the band appeared on a number of major U.S. talk shows to promote it, the single was not significantly successful. The band supported the album release with a U.S. tour called the Peepshow tour, which was not a typical promotional tour for the band and was seen as being somewhat geared towards the band's biggest fans, rather than promoting the album to casual fans. Everything to Everyone debuted in the Canadian and US Top 10, but dropped fairly quickly down the charts. At the time it was only the band's second album to have not at least been certified Gold in the US, along with 1994's Maybe You Should Drive.

The album's second single, "Testing 1,2,3", was released early in 2004 with its own music video, coinciding with a more traditional arena tour. A different single, "Maybe Katie", was released to radio in Canada. The album, however, did not see a significant resurgence in sales.

A third single, "For You", was released on a single with the album version and a live version from Glasgow, Scotland, but did not receive a video. The song received little airplay. In the UK, "Celebrity" was released as a radio and commercial single.

DualDisc version
Everything to Everyone was included among a group of 15 DualDisc releases that were test marketed in Boston and Seattle. It contains the standard CD album on one side, and bonus DVD material on the second side. The DualDisc version has not been reissued.

Personnel
Barenaked Ladies
 * Jim Creeggan – double bass, electric bass, vocals,
 * Kevin Hearn – organ, acoustic guitar, mandolin, piano, accordion, electric guitar, keyboards, vocals, saw, vibraphone
 * Steven Page – acoustic guitar, electric guitar, vocals
 * Ed Robertson – acoustic guitar, electric guitar, vocals
 * Tyler Stewart – drums, percussion, vocals

Additional personnel
 * Ron Aniello – banjo, percussion, electric guitar
 * Charlie Bisharat – violin
 * Blue Man Group (Chris Bowen, Matt Goldman, Brian Scott, Phil Stanton, Chris Wink) – percussion
 * Larry Corbett – cello
 * Joel Derouin – violin
 * Yvonne Gallegos – vocals
 * Annabelle Hill – vocals
 * Chris Wonzer – vocals
 * Roberto "Tiny" Menegoni – percussion

Production
 * Producer: Ron Aniello
 * Engineers: Tim Oberthier, Clint Roth, Eric Sarafin, Ed Thacker
 * Assistant engineers: Daniel Kresco, Brian Wohlgemuth, Chris Wonzer
 * Mixing: Mike Shipley
 * Mastering: Bob Ludwig
 * Digital Editing: Clint Roth
 * A&R: Jeffrey Aldrich
 * String arrangements: Jim Creeggan
 * String contractor: Suzie Katayama
 * Design: Stephen Walker
 * Collage: Phil Mucci
 * Photography: Phil Mucci
 * Cover painting: Chris Woods
 * Office coordinator: Jonathan Abrams

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Everything to Everyone (album)


text:
Talk:Kitchener–Waterloo

Untitled
It would be best to keep this page as short as possible; it serves almost as a disambig for the two cities than as an entry of itself. Radagast 00:34, Feb 22, 2004 (UTC)

Maybe refer people to an article on the Regional Municipality of Waterloo for all "bigger picture" information on the Twin Cities jointly?

Actually, K-W is a 'Tri-City' along with Cambridge.

Bad Link
Tricity doesn't link to these three so i am going to take its brackets off.

Erroneous Info
"Kitchener-Waterloo is connected by Weber Street, which also runs through Cambridge." While Weber Street runs through Kitchener and Waterloo it does NOT run through Cambridge. Weber Street ends in Kitchener at the Hwy 8 ramp. At this point, King Street continues. When King St (Kitchener) goes under the Hwy 401 bridge, it becomes Shantz Hill Rd (Cambridge). Shantz Hill Rd terminates at a T-intersection with Fountain Street (Cambridge). —Preceding unsigned comment added by Beowulf cam (talk • contribs) 21:40, 2 August 2010 (UTC)

title: Talk:Kitchener–Waterloo


text:
List of aircraft of the South African Air Force

The following is a list of current and historic aircraft of the South African Air Force.

Current aircraft
These aircraft are in service as of 2024

Historic aircraft Aircraft types no longer in service.
See also * Denel Dynamics Seeker


text: Talk:Camellia

title: Talk:Camellia


text:
CDMA2000

CDMA2000 (also known as C2K or IMT Multi‑Carrier (IMT‑MC)) is a family of 3G mobile technology standards for sending voice, data, and signaling data between mobile phones and cell sites. It is developed by 3GPP2 as a backwards-compatible successor to second-generation cdmaOne (IS-95) set of standards and used especially in North America and South Korea.

CDMA2000 compares to UMTS, a competing set of 3G standards, which is developed by 3GPP and used in Europe, Japan, China, and Singapore.

The name CDMA2000 denotes a family of standards that represent the successive, evolutionary stages of the underlying technology. These are:
 * Voice: CDMA2000 1xRTT, 1X Advanced
 * Data: CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized): Release 0, Revision A, Revision B, Ultra Mobile Broadband (UMB)

All are approved radio interfaces for the ITU's IMT-2000. In the United States, CDMA2000 is a registered trademark of the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA-USA).

1X
CDMA2000 1X (IS-2000), also known as 1x and 1xRTT, is the core CDMA2000 wireless air interface standard. The designation "1x", meaning 1 times radio transmission technology, indicates the same radio frequency (RF) bandwidth as IS-95: a duplex pair of 1.25 MHz radio channels. 1xRTT almost doubles the capacity of IS-95 by adding 64 more traffic channels to the forward link, orthogonal to (in quadrature with) the original set of 64. The 1X standard supports packet data speeds of up to 153 kbit/s with real world data transmission averaging 80–100 kbit/s in most commercial applications. IMT-2000 also made changes to the data link layer for greater use of data services, including medium and link access control protocols and quality of service (QoS). The IS-95 data link layer only provided best-effort delivery for data and circuit switched channel for voice (i.e., a voice frame once every 20 ms).

1xEV-DO
CDMA2000 1xEV-DO (Evolution-Data Optimized), often abbreviated as EV-DO or EV, is a telecommunications standard for the wireless transmission of data through radio signals, typically for broadband Internet access. It uses multiplexing techniques including code-division multiple access (CDMA) as well as time-division multiple access to maximize both individual user's throughput and the overall system throughput. It is standardized (IS-856) by 3rd Generation Partnership Project 2 (3GPP2) as part of the CDMA2000 family of standards and has been adopted by many mobile phone service providers around the world – particularly those previously employing CDMA networks.

1X Advanced
1X Advanced (Rev.E) is the evolution of CDMA2000 1X. It provides up to four times the capacity and 70% more coverage compared to 1X.

Networks
The CDMA Development Group states that, as of April 2014, there are 314 operators in 118 countries offering CDMA2000 1X and/or 1xEV-DO service.

History
CDMA2000 technology was developed by Qualcomm in the late 1990s as an enhancement to the CDMA standard.

The intended 4G successor to CDMA2000 was UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband); however, in November 2008, Qualcomm announced it was ending development of the technology, favoring LTE instead.

Patent licensing
In 2007, Qualcomm provided a global patent license for CDMA2000 to the Chinese company Teleepoch.

title: CDMA2000


text:
Bosnian Church

The Bosnian Church (Crkva bosanska) was a schismatic Christian church in medieval Bosnia and Herzegovina that was independent from and considered heretical by both the Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox churches.

Historians traditionally connected the church with the Bogomils, although this has been challenged and is now rejected by the majority of scholars. Adherents of the church called themselves simply Krstjani ("Christians") or Dobri Bošnjani ("Good Bosnians"). The church's organization and beliefs are poorly understood, because few if any records were left by church members and the church is mostly known from the writings of outside sources — primarily Catholic ones.

The monumental tombstones called stećak that appeared in medieval Bosnia, as well as Croatia, Serbia, and Montenegro, are sometimes identified with the Bosnian Church.

Schism
Christian missions emanating from Rome and Constantinople started pushing into the Balkans in the 9th century, Christianizing the South Slavs, and establishing boundaries between the ecclesiastical jurisdictions of the See of Rome and the See of Constantinople. The East–West Schism then led to the establishment of Catholicism in Croatia and most of Dalmatia, while Eastern Orthodoxy came to prevail in Serbia. Lying in-between, the mountainous Bosnia was nominally under Rome, but Catholicism never became firmly established due to a weak church organization and poor communications. Medieval Bosnia thus remained a "no-man's land between faiths" rather than a meeting ground between the two Churches, leading to a unique religious history and the emergence of an "independent and somewhat heretical church".

Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy predominated in different parts of what is today Bosnia and Herzegovina; the followers of the former formed a majority in the west, the north, and in the center of Bosnia, while those of the latter were a majority in most of Zachlumia (present-day Herzegovina) and along Bosnia's eastern border. This changed in the mid-13th century, when the Bosnian Church began eclipsing the Roman. While Bosnia remained nominally Catholic in the High Middle Ages, the Bishop of Bosnia was a local cleric chosen by Bosnians and then sent to the Archbishop of Ragusa solely for ordination. Although the Papacy already insisted on using Latin as the liturgical language, Bosnian Catholics retained the Church Slavonic language.

Abjuration and crusade
Vukan, ruler of Dioclea, wrote to Pope Innocent III in 1199 that Kulin, ruler of Bosnia, had become a heretic, along with his wife, sister, other relatives, and 10,000 other Bosnians. The Archbishop of Spalato, vying for control over Bosnia, joined Vukan and accused the Archbishop of Ragusa of neglecting his suffragan diocese in Bosnia. Emeric, King of Hungary, a supporter of Spalato, also seized this opportunity to try to extend his influence over Bosnia. Further accusations against Kulin, such as harbouring heretics, ensued until 1202. In 1203, Kulin moved to defuse the threat of foreign intervention. A synod was held at his instigation on 6 April. Following the abjuration of Bilino Polje, Kulin succeeded in keeping the Bosnian Diocese under the Ragusan Archdiocese, thus limiting Hungarian influence. The errors abjured by the Bosnians in Bilino Polje seem to have been errors of practice, stemming from ignorance, rather than heretical doctrines.

History

The bid to consolidate Catholic rule in Bosnia in the 12th to 13th centuries proved difficult. The Banate of Bosnia held strict trade relations with the Republic of Ragusa, and Bosnia's bishop was under the jurisdiction of Ragusa. This was disputed by the Hungarians, who tried to achieve their jurisdiction over Bosnia's bishops, but Bosnia's first Ban Kulin averted that. In order to conduct a crusade against him, the Hungarians turned to Rome, complaining to Pope Innocent III that the Kingdom of Bosnia was a centre of heresy, based on the refuge that some Cathars (also known as Bogomils or Patarenes) had found there. To avert the Hungarian attack, Ban Kulin held a public assembly on 8 April 1203 and affirmed his loyalty to Rome in the presence of an envoy of the Pope, while the faithful abjured their mistakes and committed to following the Catholic doctrine. Yet, in practice this was ignored. After the death of Kulin in 1204, a mission was sent to convert Bosnia to Rome but failed.

On 15 May 1225, Pope Honorius III spurred the Hungarians to undertake the Bosnian Crusade. That expedition, like the previous ones, turned into a defeat, and the Hungarians had to retreat when the Mongols invaded their territories. In 1234, the Catholic Bishop of Bosnia was removed by Pope Gregory IX for allowing supposedly heretical practices. In addition, Gregory called on the Hungarian king to crusade against the heretics in Bosnia. However, Bosnian nobles were able to expel the Hungarians once again.

In 1252, Pope Innocent IV decided to put Bosnia's Bishop under the Hungarian Kalocsa jurisdiction. This decision provoked the schism of the Bosnian Christians, who refused to submit to the Hungarians and broke off their relations with Rome. In that way, an autonomous Bosnian Church came into being, in which many scholars later saw a Bogomil or Cathar church, whilst more recent scholars such as Noel Malcolm and John Fine maintain that no trace of Bogomilism, Catharism, or other dualism can be found in the original documents of the Bosnian Christians.

It was not until Pope Nicholas' Bull Prae Cunctis in 1291 that the Franciscan-led Inquisition was imposed on Bosnia. Bogomilism was eradicated in Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire in the 13th century, but survived in Bosnia and Herzegovina until the Ottoman Empire gained control of the region in 1463.

The Bosnian Church coexisted with the Catholic Church (and with the few Bogomil groups) for most of the Late Middle Ages, but no accurate figures exist as to the numbers of adherents of the two churches. Several Bosnian rulers were Krstjani, while others adhered to Catholicism. Stjepan Kotromanić shortly reconciled Bosnia with Rome, while ensuring at the same time the survival of the Bosnian Church. Notwithstanding the incoming Franciscan missionaries, the Bosnian Church survived, although weaker and weaker, until it disappeared after the Ottoman conquest.

Outsiders accused the Bosnian Church of links to the Bogomils, a stridently dualist sect of Gnostic Christians heavily influenced by the Manichaean Paulician movement. The Bogomil heretics were at one point mainly centered in Bulgaria and are now known by historians as the direct progenitors of the Cathars. The Inquisition reported the existence of a dualist sect in Bosnia in the late 15th century and called them "Bosnian heretics", but this sect was according to some historians most likely not the same as the Bosnian Church. The historian Franjo Rački wrote about this in 1869 based on Latin sources, but the Croatian scholar Dragutin Kniewald in 1949 established the credibility of the Latin documents in which the Bosnian Church is described as heretical. It is thought today that the Bosnian Church's adherents, who were persecuted both by the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches, predominantly converted to Islam upon the arrival of the Turkish Ottomans, thus adding to the ethnogenesis of the modern-day Bosniaks. According to Bašić, the Bosnian Church was dualist in character, and so was neither a schismatic Catholic nor Orthodox Church. According to Mauro Orbini (d. 1614), the Patarenes and the Manicheans were two Christian religious sects in Bosnia. The Manicheans had a bishop called djed and priests called strojnici (strojniks), the same titles ascribed to the leaders of the Bosnian Church.

The religious centre of the Bosnian Church was located in Moštre, near Visoko, where the House of Krstjani was founded. Some historians contend that the Bosnian Church had largely disappeared before the Ottoman conquest in 1463. Other historians dispute a discrete terminal point.

Organization and characteristics
The Bosnian Church used Slavic language in liturgy.

Djed
The church was headed by a bishop, called djed ('grandfather'), and had a council of twelve men called strojnici. The monk missionaries were known as krstjani or kršćani ('adherents of the cross' or 'christians'). Some of the adherents resided in small monasteries, known as hiže (hiža, 'house'), while others were wanderers, known as gosti (gost, 'guest'). It is difficult to ascertain how the theology differed from that of the Orthodox and Catholic. The practices were, however, unacceptable to both.

The Church was mainly composed of monks in scattered monastic houses. It had no territorial organization and it did not deal with any secular matters other than attending people's burials. It did not involve itself in state issues very much. Notable exceptions were when King Stephen Ostoja of Bosnia, a member of the Bosnian Church himself, had a djed as an advisor at the royal court between 1403 and 1405, and an occasional occurrence of a krstjan elder being a mediator or diplomat.

Hval's Codex
Hval's Codex, written in 1404 in Cyrillic, is one of the most famous manuscripts belonging to the Bosnian Church in which there are some iconographic elements which are not in concordance with the supposed theological doctrine of Christians (Annunciation, Crucifixion and Ascension). All the important Bosnian Church books (Nikoljsko evandjelje, Sreckovicevo evandelje, the Manuscript of Hval, the Manuscript of Krstyanin Radosav) are based on Glagolitic Church books.

Studies
The phenomenon of Bosnian medieval Christians attracted scholars' attention for centuries, but it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that the most important monograph on the subject, "Bogomili i Patareni" (Bogomils and Patarens), 1870, by eminent Croatian historian Franjo Rački, was published. Rački argued that the Bosnian Church was essentially Gnostic and Manichaean in nature. This interpretation has been accepted, expanded and elaborated upon by a host of later historians, most prominent among them being Dominik Mandić, Sima Ćirković, Vladimir Ćorović, Miroslav Brandt, and Franjo Šanjek. However, a number of other historians (Leo Petrović, Jaroslav Šidak, Dragoljub Dragojlović, Dubravko Lovrenović, and Noel Malcolm) stressed the impeccably orthodox theological character of Bosnian Christian writings and claimed the phenomenon can be sufficiently explained by the relative isolation of Bosnian Christianity, which retained many archaic traits predating the East-West Schism in 1054.

Conversely, the American historian of the Balkans, John Fine, does not believe in the dualism of the Bosnian Church at all. Though he represents his theory as a "new interpretation of the Bosnian Church", his view is very close to J. Šidak's early theory and that of several other scholars before him. He believes that while there could have been heretical groups alongside of the Bosnian Church, the church itself was inspired by Papal overreach.

Some Protestants have attempted to look back on the Bosnian church as their forerunner.

title: Bosnian Church


text:
Jiu Manzhou Dang

Jiu Manzhou Dang (Manchu:  Fe Manju Dangse) is a set of Manchu archives stored at the National Palace Museum in Taipei, Taiwan. It is the sourcebook of Manwen Laodang and a primary source of early Manchu history. It is often called yuandang (原檔 original archives).

It covers official Manchu documents from the 3rd month of the 35th year of the Wanli Emperor (1607) to the 12th month of the 1st year of Chongde (1636). Archives are mostly written in the script without dots and circles. Although Dahai is said to have invented the script with dots and circles in 1632, subsequent archives occasionally, but not always, add dots and circles. Standard Manchu required time to establish.

Jiu Manzhou Dang was discovered in 1931, a month after the discovery of the Beijing edition of Manwen Laodang. Three more volumes were found in 1935. It was moved from place to place due to long-running wars and was finally carried to Taiwan by the Kuomintang. The study on original archives was started in 1960s. The National Palace Museum published the copy under the name Jiu Manzhou Dang in 1969.

The Aisin Gioro emperor Hongtaiji claimed that their progenitor, Bukūri Yongšon (布庫里雍順), was conceived from a virgin birth. According to the legend, three heavenly maidens, namely Enggulen (恩古倫), Jenggulen (正古倫) and Fekulen (佛庫倫), were bathing at a lake called Bulhūri Omo near the Changbai Mountains. A magpie dropped a piece of red fruit near Fekulen, who ate it. She then became pregnant with Bukūri Yongšon. However, another older version of the story by the Hurha (Hurka) tribe member Muksike recorded in 1635 contradicts Hongtaiji's version on location, claiming that it was in Heilongjiang province close to the Amur river where Bulhuri lake was located where the "heavenly maidens" took their bath. This was recorded in the Jiu Manzhou Dang and his much shorter and simpler in addition to being older. This is believed to be the original version and Hongtaiji changed it to Changbai mountain. It shows that the Aisin Gioro clan originated in the Amur area and the Heje (Hezhen) and other Amur valley Jurchen tribes had an oral version of the same tale. It also fits with Jurchen history since some ancestors of the Manchus originated north before the 14th-15th centuries in the Amur and only later moved south.

title: Jiu Manzhou Dang


text:
Mutare

Mutare, formerly known as Umtali until 1982, is a heavily populated city in the province of Manicaland. It is the third most populated in Zimbabwe. Having surpassed Gweru in the 2012 census, with an urban population of 224,802 and approximately 260,567 in the surrounding districts, Mutare adds to the wider metropolitan area a total population of over 500,000 people. Mutare is also the capital of Manicaland Province and the largest city in eastern Zimbabwe.

Located near the border with Mozambique, Mutare has long been a centre of trade and a key terminus en route to the port of Beira (in Beira, Mozambique). Mutare is hub for trade with railway links, pipeline transport and highways linking the coast with Harare and Zimbabwe's interior. Other traditional industries include timber, papermaking, commerce, food processing, telecommunications, and transportation. In addition the city serves as a gateway to the scenic Eastern Highlands, nearby Gorongosa National Park, and the Mozambique coast.

History
Although the city was founded in the late nineteenth century, the region has a long history of trading caravans passing through on the way to the Indian Ocean, from ports such as Sofala, to inland settlements, such as Great Zimbabwe. Zimbabwe is also renowned for its soapstone carvings and figurines which are evidence of these trade routes, dating as far back as the late African Iron Age (c. 900 AD) right up to the colonial period. A large hoard of soapstone carvings, jewellery, weapons, sherds and other objects were found in the vicinity of Mutare by the British archaeologist E M Andrews at the beginning of the twentieth century - they were later donated by the trustees of Cecil Rhodes to the British Museum in 1905. The soapstone figures, which are both anthropomorphic and zoomorphic, might have been part of a votive offering, as they were discovered near what appeared to be an altar. Mutare was founded in 1897 as a fort, about 8 km from the border with Mozambique, and is just 290 km from the Mozambican port of Beira, earning Mutare the title of "Zimbabwe's Gateway to the Sea". It is sometimes also called "Gateway to the Eastern Highlands". Many Zimbabwean locals refer to it as 'Kumakomoyo' (place of many mountains). There is a border railway station on the railway line from Bulawayo to Beira with a railways mechanical workshop.

The area was the site of Chief Mutasa's kraal. In 1890 A. R. Coquhoun was given concessionary rights and Fort Umtali (the fort later became Mutare) was established between the Tsambe and Mutare Rivers. The word mutare originates from the word 'Utare' meaning iron (or possibly meaning gold). The name was probably given to the river as a result of gold being discovered in the Penhalonga valley through which the Mutare River runs.

In 1891 the location was moved to a site now known as Old Mutare, about 14 km north of the city centre. In 1896 the construction of the railway between Beira and Bulawayo led to the town being moved a third time so that it was closer to the railway line – compensation was paid by the British South Africa Company to the townspeople for the cost of moving. The town was proclaimed a municipality on 11 June 1914 and in 1971 it was granted city status. The name was officially changed from Umtali to Mutare in 1982.

The white population in Umtali dropped from 9,950 in 1969 to 8,600 in June 1978.

The city had a tramway from January 26, 1897, to May 23, 1921, which transported passengers from the Railway station up to the (then Umtali Club) now Mutare Club. The Tramway was at the centre of Main Street where the palm trees now stand.

There were plans to set up a Stock Exchange in Umtali. The main post office was at the site where CABS centre now stands.

Geography
The town lies north of the Bvumba Mountains and south of the Imbeza Valley. Christmas Pass is a mountain pass that leads into the city from the west. The pass was so named by some of the colonial pioneers who camped at the foot of the pass on Christmas Day 1890.

Mutare is home to several tourist attractions such as, the Mutare Museum, the Utopia House Museum dedicated to Kingsley Fairbridge, the National Gallery of Zimbabwe, Murahwa Hill, known for its rock paintings and Iron Age village, Cross Kopje with a memorial to Zimbabweans and Mozambicans killed in World War I and a nature reserve Cecil Kopje and Tigers Kloof. The Mutare Boys' High Chapel was constructed in honour of former Old boys who perished in World War II, situated on a hilly knoll at Mutare Boys High (then Umtali Boys High).

Mutare is served by rail with daily passenger and freight links to Nyazura, Rusape and Harare.

There are three small aerodromes; the smallest is at Mutare Provincial Hospital, a very small light aircraft strip for emergency evacuation (now defunct), a light plane aerodrome in Sakubva near Mutare Teachers College, and the Grand Reef Airport just outside the city at Irene. There is yet a fourth airport which was constructed in Chiadzwa to carry diamonds for processing in Harare.

Climate
Despite its subtropical location, the city has a humid subtropical climate, of the highland variety moderated by its altitude. Mutare experience drizzle almost throughout the year. The average annual temperature is 19 °C, surprisingly low for its moderate altitude (about the same as Harare which is 360 metres higher.) This is due to its sheltered position against the mountain ridge of Cecil Kop which encourages cool breezes from lower altitude to the east and south. The coldest month is July (minimum 6 °C and maximum 20 °C) and the hottest month is October (minimum 16 °C and maximum 32 °C). The annual rainfall is 818 mm. Rain falls mostly in the months December to February although heavy showers are possible before and after this period. The wettest month on record was January 1926 which received 580 mm while January 1991 received only 24 mm.

The city's climate is also influenced by its proximity to the ocean, compared to other Zimbabwean cities. This leads to warm to hot summers and mild winters. Winter is not particularly frosty with cool mornings often followed by mild sunny weather. Spring can feature "four seasons in a day" weather, but from March to June it is generally settled and mild. Temperatures during summer can reach 30 °C (86 °F). Due to its maritime influence, Mutare's temperate climate stands out considering its latitude. Prevailing winds in the city are mainly a cool, moist southeasterly and during late spring and winter alternating with subtropical winds from the north in summer.

Demographics
In 1965, Mutare had a population of 46,000. The racial makeup was split between 36,100 black Africans, 560 Asians, 340 Coloureds, and 9,100 whites.

The population is predominantly Shona, the majority of them speaking the Manyika dialect. Manyika people are locally known as Samanyika. According to the 2012 census data, Mutare has a population of 260,567. This marks a rapid increase from a population of 69,621 in 1982 and 131,367 in 1992.

Cityscape

Mutare, like most cities in Zimbabwe, classifies residential suburbs according to population density: Low density, Medium density and High density. In the past, as was done across Southern Africa during the colonial period, people were segregated to suburbs according to their racial ethnicity. Whites inhabited the Eastern upmarket suburbs the low-density suburbs, with Coloured people (mixed race) living in suburbs like Florida and black Africans being segregated to the townships of Sakubva and Dangamvura.

The most upscale suburbs (low-density suburbs) such as Murambi, Fairbridge Park, Morningside, Tiger's Kloof and the Avenues are located on the north and east ends of the city. The suburb of Avenues is found just east of the city centre on the way to Tiger's Kloof and Murambi, bordering Morningside.

East of the CBD is the suburbs of Palmerstone, Darlington, Greenside and Bordervale, which are all near the border with Mozambique.

In the west are the medium-density (i.e. middle class) suburbs, the largest and most famous being Yeovil - (the majority of street names in Yeovil are named after English counties e.g. Sussex Gardens, Hampshire, Devonshire, Somerset). Then more recently developed after Yeovil is Westlea (the majority all streets in Westlea are named after Australasian cities, (e.g. Canberra, Auckland, Sydney, Perth and Christchurch) and Florida (the streets in Florida have English Kings' names, e.g. Henry, Alfred, Richard, George), as well as the high-density suburb of Chikanga, which was constructed in phases, beginning in the late eighties.

Further west of Chikanga lies Garikai, Bernwin and Hobhouse. South of the railway tracks, is the working class suburb of Sakubva, which contains nearly half of the city's population despite an area of less than four square miles. Sakubva is considered to be the poorest of Mutare's suburbs, and its economy is centred around a large outdoor food and flea market and the "Musika weHuku" (The Chicken Market). The market has been recently razed in the recent exercise to clean up the city and in light of the COVID-19 pandemic and moved elsewhere.

South of the city, hidden from view from the rest of the city by a series of hills, is the high-density suburb of Dangamvura. The affluent areas of Weirmouth (Plots) and Fern Valley are also on the southern outskirts of the city; in these areas, residential lots exceed an acre, and market gardening is an economic activity. Nearby Fern Valley, is home to the new state university, the Manicaland College of Applied Sciences.

To the south east, in the mountains from the Prince of Wales viewpoint (with views of Mozambique below), lies the scenic Vumba Mountain range, an area of immense great natural beauty and temperate climate, and home to an indigenous afromontane forests, exotic trees, such as pine and oak and the upscale, Leopard Rock Hotel, as well as resort areas for horse riding, kayaking, mountain climbing mountain trails, a food processing plant and large plantations of pine and wattle forests.

Further south along the road to Masvingo, beyond the city limits is the high-density town of Zimunya. Mutare's main industrial areas lie south of the railway and west of Sakubva, although there is some light industry just east of the southern part of the city centre at "Greenmarket" and surrounding areas.

These are some of the major suburbs of Mutare.

Infrastructure
The city has one of the most important railway stations on the Beira–Bulawayo railway. Mutare is generally a clean town with the city council collecting rubbish daily, most of the roads in the older parts of the city are paved (or were paved before), however, due to years of neglect and mismanagement and corruption, public infrastructure is in shambles with roads and street lighting in a critical state, there is a main park in the city just before the cricket grounds that is also underutilised and not in good shape. A game park called the Cecil Kop is located in Tigers Kloof and also lacks proper management. most of the buildings in the city are low-rise buildings with the tallest being 8 floors high. however, the city has a pleasant ambience. there are generally no sidewalks on all roads outside the city centre and the downtown area seems more dilapidated and neglected. The post-independent city council does not seem to have strict building codes for new office and commercial buildings in the city centre which would allow for the expansion of high and modern architecture for a growing city that aims to match global standards. Mutareans, like most of Zimbabweans, prefer to live in houses made of brick, usually brick under tile or asbestos. There are no shanty towns, shacks or squatter camps in Mutare as they are illegal and residents could face penalties or demolition for not building houses to code. however, as the city expands and develops, the town planners have not considered playgrounds for children, street naming, pedestrian pavements, cycle tracks, proper drainage and flora (tree-lined streets) in their planning of new suburbs generally resulting in unpleasant-looking narrow neighbourhood streets. Mutare has a lot of shops for groceries and hardware. There are high quality furniture shops. There are generally shopping centers in all suburbs with a big shopping mall in Dangamvura.there are clinics in all suburbs as well as a main General Hospital and infectious diseases hospital. Maternity hospitals are also available in the city. The city generally has very good infrastructure that may need a bit of working on.

Transportation
Mutare is well connected by several roads which are asphalted and decent but potholes are increasingly common. The A3 motorway leads inland towards Harare and also passes through Rusape and Marondera, while the A9 turns southward into the southern Eastern Highlands and Chimanimani. To the east is EN9 which connects Mutare to Chimoio and with the coastal city of Beira. Traffic is often heavy since this is one of Zimbabwe's main routes to the sea. There is also a lot of cross-border traffic with people visiting the nearby cities of Manica and Chimoio.

Commuter buses are a popular way of travelling for traffic across the border and from outlying villages. Higher quality intercity buses are also available to both Harare and Beira, Mozambique.

Mutare is served by a small airport that is largely geared toward small aircraft and chartered flights. The nearest international gateway is in, Harare some 214 km (133 mi) west.there is the Aerodrome close to sakubva and the Grand Reef Airport in Irene just a short distance outside the city.

The National Railways of Zimbabwe serves Mutare with overnight train service from Harare three times a week, leaving Harare at 9:30PM on Wednesdays, Fridays and Sundays, arriving early the next morning at dawn. There are no cross-border rail services from Mozambique, which are limited to freight. The Mutare railway station is just southwest of the city centre.

Economy
The main activities of the area are farming farming- forestry, dairy, horticulture, mining, manufacturing, services - the city's name Mutare is derived from "metal" Utare possibly gold which used to be smelted by the indigenous population for centuries - and forestry. Two of the largest food producers in Zimbabwe, Cairns Foods and Tanganda Tea, operate in Mutare.

Mining includes gold at Redwing Mine, Penhalonga and some smaller mines, diamonds in Marange and gravel quarries around the city. There are a number of forestry companies including The Wattle Company, Allied Timbers, formerly FCZ, Border Timbers and Timcon Investments. The main timber products include rough sawn timber, wattle bark, charcoal, various doors and frames and mouldings. The major timber produced is pine, sydney blue gum, black wattle, and some hardwoods on a smaller scale. The railway is linked to Mocambique and is Zimbabwes gateway to the sea. The rail system however requires revamping and also including flyovers tunnels and or underpasses to avoid interaction with road traffic. Mutare has numerous hotels including Holiday Inn, Golden Peacock, Mountview, Eastgate and numerous lodges. There are a number of new manufacturing companies such as Willowton which manufactures edible oils, margari Mutare has a vehicle assembly Quest which assembles Buses Trucks and other vehicles.

There are also numerous retail outlets, stationery shops, fuel service stations, computer equipment sellers e.g. EMachines, Mutare Computers. There are a number of freight companies e.g. Tinmac, EMaster, Mantray, Augastalane Freight, Madziro, Tisu Anhu Acho among others Banks in Mutare include Stanbic Bank a member of Standard Bank group, CBZ, Nedbank, MBCA, Agribank, POSB, Cabs, Ecobank, BancABC, FBC, First Capital formerly Barclays. Standard Chartered has closed shop in Mutare Civic Center is the Mutare city council headquarters. It issues licenses e.g. shop licences, parking licenses, dog licensing, housing, industry planning certification online and other local authority by law certifications. Mutare has a small aerodrome that services small aircraft, helicopters. The city is in dire need of a proper airport for meaningful tourism to occur. There is also need for improved road networks, shopping mall/s and improved social amenities.

Education
Mutare is home to schools and tertiary institutions :

Primary education

 * Baring Primary School
 * Chancellor Junior School
 * Chikanga Primary School
 * Cross Kopje Junior School
 * Chirovakamwe
 * Dangamvura Primary School
 * Hillcrest Preparatory School (Private school)
 * Mutanda Primary School
 * Mutare Junior School
 * New Dangare Primary School
 * Rujeko Primary School
 * Sakubva Primary School
 * Rock of Ages Private Junior School
 * Murahwa Hill Primary School
 * St Joseph's Primary School
 * Sheni Primary School
 * Zamba Primary School
 * Zimunya Primary School
 * Sacred Heart Primary School
 * Chisamba Primary School
 * Matika Primary School
 * Joshua Dhube Primary School
 * Zhawari Primary School
 * Dangare primary School
 * Mutukwa primary School
 * Hartzell Central Primary School
 * Elim Primary School Penhalonga
 * Imbeza Primary School

Secondary education
There are a number of private colleges around the city.
 * Hartzell High School
 * Chikanga Secondary School
 * Dangamvura High School
 * Elise Gledhill High School
 * Hillcrest College (private school)
 * Mutare Boys' High School
 * Mutare Girls' High School
 * Nyamauru High School
 * Sakubva High School (Dangwe)
 * Sakubva High 2 School (Rushingo)
 * St Dominic's High School
 * St Joseph's High School
 * St Mary's Secondary School

Tertiary institutions

 * Africa University, a pan-African United Methodist funded university of about 5,000 students
 * Marymount Teachers' College
 * Mutare Teachers College
 * Mutare Polytechnic
 * Magamba Training Centre
 * Manicaland State University of Applied Sciences
 * Zimbabwe College of Forestry

Notable residents

 * Washington Arubi - professional footballer
 * Shacky Timburwa - Zimbabwean businessman
 * Onismor Bhasera - professional footballer, formerly at Plymouth Argyle in England, now with SuperSport United F.C. in South Africa
 * Herbert Chitepo - (15 June 1923 – 18 March 1975), Zimbabwe's first black lawyer and Chairman of ZANU July 1963 – 18 March 1975
 * Genius Chidzikwe - tennis player
 * Stephen Courtauld - philanthropist
 * Crispin Dube - Politician (Councilor)
 * Mario Frangoulis - Greek classical singer
 * Godfrey Herbert - Royal Navy officer of both world wars.
 * Willard Katsande - professional footballer with Kaizer Chiefs
 * Adiel Kugotsi - professional cricketer
 * Donal Lamont - Catholic bishop of Umtali/Mutare 1957–82, an outspoken opponent of the Ian Smith government; expelled from Rhodesia in 1977 after a high-profile trial
 * Trevor Madondo - (1976–2001), one of the first black cricket players in Zimbabwe
 * Blessing Makunike (24 January 1977 – 13 March 2004) - professional footballer with CAPS United and Zimbabwe national team
 * Supa Mandiwanzira - Minister of Information, Media and Broadcasting Services
 * Chiwoniso Maraire (5 March 1976 – 24 July 2013) - an accomplished Mbira player, singer, songwriter, and exponent of Zimbabwean mbira music
 * Agrippa Masiyakurima - businessman, philanthropist, and politician
 * Tino Mawoyo - Zimbabwean cricketer, born and raised in Mutare
 * C.W. Mercer - British author who wrote under the pen name Dornford Yates; lived near the city from 1948 until his death in 1960
 * Bjorn Mordt - cricketer
 * Opa Muchinguri - government minister
 * Lawrence Mudehwe - the first Executive Mayor to be elected as an independent candidate in Zimbabwe; served for two terms
 * Arthur Mutambara - former Deputy Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 11 February 2009
 * Bishop Abel Tendekayi Muzorewa - prime minister of Zimbabwe Rhodesia
 * Tichafa Samuel Parirenyatwa (1927–1962) - Zimbabwe's first black medical doctor
 * Douglas Rogers - journalist and memoirist was born in the city in 1968 and raised there
 * Edgar Tekere (1937–2011) - politician
 * Morgan Tsvangirai - ex-Prime Minister and MDC opposition leader
 * Farai Tumbare - Zimbabwean basketball player
 * Dion Yatras - professional cricketer

title: Mutare


text:
Shida Kartli

Shida Kartli (შიდა ქართლი, šida kartli, ; "Inner Kartli") is a landlocked administrative region (Mkhare) in eastern Georgia. It comprises a central part of the historical-geographic province of Shida Kartli. With an area of 5729 km2, Shida Kartli is the 8th largest Georgian region by land area. With 284,081 inhabitants, it is Georgia's seventh-most-populous region. Shida Kartli's capital and largest city, Gori, is the 5th largest city in Georgia.

The region is bordered by the Russian Federation to the north, Georgian regions of Mtskheta-Mtianeti to the east, Kvemo Kartli to the south, Samtskhe-Javakheti to the southwest, Imereti to the west, and Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti to the northwest. It consists of the following municipalities: Gori, Kaspi, Kareli, Java, Khashuri.

The northern part of the region, namely Java, and northern territories of Kareli and Gori municipalities (total area of 1,393 km2), have been controlled by the authorities of the self-proclaimed Republic of South Ossetia since 1992 and occupied by Russian troops since 2008 Russo-Georgian war.

Etymology
The name Shida Kartli in English translates as Inner Kartli. The term Kartli itself derives from Proto-Kartvelian root *kart- ("Georgian"), which is considered an ancient inner-Kartvelian formation by modern linguists.

Geography

Shida Kartli is located in a central part of the lowland between Greater and Lesser Caucasus. To the north, Shida Kartli shares 27.5 km international border with Russian Federation. As of 2018, the Georgian government lacks control over it, hence the border is closed for international transit. To the east, the region shares an administrative border with Mtskheta-Mtianeti, to the south with Kvemo Kartli, to the southwest with Samtskhe-Javakheti, to the west with Imereti, and to the northwest with Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti.

The region's northern border is formed by the Greater Caucasus mountains, the eastern border mainly goes along the Kharuli ridge and the Ksani River, the southern border goes along the Trialeti Range, and the western border is formed by the Likhi and Racha ranges.

Relief
Overall picture of Shida Kartli's relief is formed by extensive Shida Kartli plain and mountainous edges. The main orographic entities of the region are: small parts of the Greater Caucasus mountains and Racha range, Germukhi, Kharuli, Kvernaki, Trialeti, Likhi ranges and Shida Kartli plain.

The average height of the Shida Kartli terrain is 1,307 meter. The lowest point is at 473 meter in Kaspi municipality, at the confluence of the Mtkvari and the Ksani rivers. The highest point is the mountain Laghztsiti (3,877.4 m) which is located in occupied part of Shida Kartli. On the Georgian controlled part of the region the highest point is the mountain Arjevani (2,757.7 m).

Climate
Shida Kartli has various climate, in its central part, on the plain is represented moderate humid climate, with moderate cold winters and warm long summers. To the east from Gori environs, along Mtkvari valley (up to 600 m), is represented transient climate from dry subtropics to moderate humid subtropics, with moderate cold winters and hot summers. To the north of the plain on southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains (1,100–1,900 m) and to the south on northern slopes of the Trialeti range (1,400–1,900 m) climate is moderate humid with cold winters and long summers and from 1,900 m to 2,600 m with cold winters and short summers. On southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus mountains from 2,600 m to 3,400 m is represented moderate humid climate of the highlands with lack of true Summer, and above 3,400 m – moderate humid climate of the highlands with permanent snow and glaciers. To the west of the region, on Likhi range above 900 m is distributed transient highlands climate from marine humid to continental humid. In the most north-western part of the region, on the western slopes of Likhi range and Racha range, a humid climate is represented with cold winters and short summers, and above 2,600 m there is a humid highland climate with a lack of true summer.

Temperature

An average annual temperature of the region is 6.5 °C, maximum annual temperature of 12.2 °C is to the east of the Kaspi Municipality and minimum annual temperature of −5.0 °C is in the Java Municipality, on the Caucasus Mountains. The highest average annual temperature is on the Shida Kartli plain which rises from west to east from 9 °C to 12.2 °C. The hottest month of the region is August (18.5 °C) and its maximum average monthly temperature reaches 24.4 °C, while minimum – drops to 4.5 °C. The coldest month is January (-2,6 °C) and its minimum average monthly temperature drops to −12.6 °C, while maximum reaches – 1.6 °C.

Precipitation
On the territory of Shida Kartli an average annual precipitation equals to 824 mm. Maximum of a precipitation (1,045 mm) falls to the very north of the region, on the Caucasus Mountains, while the minimum (536 mm) falls to the east of Kaspi Municipality, along Mtkvari valley. By abundance of precipitation, the northern part of the region stand out: its amount varies from 800 mm up to 1,045 mm. On the Shida Kartli plain, average annual precipitation varies from 563 mm up to 800 mm, and on the Trialeti Range from 700 mm up to 900 mm.

By month, maximum average annual precipitation falls in May (109 mm) and June (105 mm), while the minimum falls in February (57 mm).

Winds
In Shida Kartli the strongest winds blow in December and January, their average speed reaching 2.49 m/s and 2.35 m/s respectively. The weakest winds are in October (1.83 m/s). In the region winds usually blow from the east or the west side.

By territorial distribution winds are especially strong on the southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains, while the weakest are on the Shida Kartli plain.

title: Shida Kartli


text:
Manwen Laodang

Manwen Laodang (滿文老檔) is a set of Manchu official documents of the Qing dynasty, compiled during the late Qianlong period based on Jiu Manzhou Dang.

Two editions
It was difficult to understand Old Manchu, written in the script without dots and circles, in the Qianlong period. Translation of old archives into Standard Manchu was started in 1775. Two versions, namely the Beijing edition and the Mukden edition, were created. Both editions slept deep inside the palaces.

Each edition contains both "tongki fuka sindaha hergen i dangse" (archives in the script with dots and circles) and "tongki fuka akū hergen i dangse" (archives in the script without dots and circles). The former is written in Standard Manchu. The Beijing edition gives commentaries to arcane passages and Manchu translations to Mongolian texts. The latter is basically written in Old Manchu. Note that it is not identical with Jiu Manzhou Dang since duplications of original archives were eliminated from Manwen Laodang. Some old archives written in Standard Manchu are reduced to Old Manchu but the rest is kept in the original language.

Discovery
The Mukden edition was discovered by the Japanese historian Naito Torajiro in 1905 and he named it Manwen Laodang (Mambun Rōtō). He filmed the archives in the script with dots and circles in 1912 and brought them to Japan. The Beijing edition was discovered in 1931.

title: Manwen Laodang


text:
Three Soldiers (statue)

Three Soldiers (also titled Three Servicemen) is a bronze statue by Frederick Hart. Unveiled on Veterans Day, November 11, 1984, on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., it is part of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial commemorating the Vietnam War. It was the first representation of an African American on the National Mall.

Creation and installation

Negative reactions to Maya Lin's design for the Memorial wall were so strong that several Congressmen complained, and Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt refused to issue a building permit. As the most highly ranked sculptor in the competition, Frederick Hart was commissioned to create a sculpture to appease those who wanted a more traditional approach.

In an editorial in The New York Times, Vietnam veteran Tom Carhart argued that without a heroic sculptural element, the abstract design would put too much emphasis on the "shame and sorrow" of the Vietnam War. Lin was furious at the adulteration of her design and called the decision to add Hart's piece "a coup" which "had nothing to do with how many veterans liked or disliked my piece." Lin stated that she had not received a single adverse letter from a veteran, adding that "most of them are not as conservative as Carhart." Hart's addition was placed a distance away from the memorial wall to minimize the effect on her design.

These conflicting expectations made for a challenging project. As Hart saw it, his task was "to preserve and enhance the elegant simplicity and austerity of the existing design" and "to create a sculpture which is in itself a moving evocation of the experience and service of the Vietnam Veteran."

Design and symbolism
To portray the major ethnic groups that were represented in the ranks of U.S. combat personnel that served in Vietnam, the statue's three men are purposely identifiable as Latino American (left), European American (center), and African American (right). These three figures were based on seven actual young men, of which two (the Caucasian-American and the African-American) were active-duty Marines when the sculpture was commissioned. The Caucasian figure was modeled after James E. Connell III, then a Corporal in the Marines; the African-American figure was modeled after three men, Marine Corporal Terrance Green, Rodney Sherrill, and Scotty Dillingham; the Hispanic figure was modeled after Guillermo (Willie) Smith De Perez DeLeon and Rene Farkass.

Made using the lost wax technique, the sculpture was Hart's first major work in bronze.

Concept
Of the memorial, the sculptor Hart has suggested, I see the wall as a kind of ocean, a sea of sacrifice that is overwhelming and nearly incomprehensible in the sweep of names. I place these figures upon the shore of that sea, gazing upon it, standing vigil before it, reflecting the human face of it, the human heart.

The portrayal of the figures is consistent with history. They wear the uniform and carry the equipment of war; they are young. The contrast between the innocence of their youth and the weapons of war underscores the poignancy of their sacrifice. There is about them the physical contact and sense of unity that bespeaks the bonds of love and sacrifice that is the nature of men at war. And yet they are each alone. Their strength and their vulnerability are both evident. Their true heroism lies in these bonds of loyalty in the face of their awareness and their vulnerability.

The statue and the Wall appear to interact, with the soldiers looking on in solemn tribute at the names of their fallen comrades. Noted sculptor Jay Hall Carpenter, Hart's assistant on the project, explains the sculpture was positioned especially for that effect: "We carried a full-size mockup of the soldiers around the memorial site trying many locations until we hit upon the perfect spot. It was here that the sculpture appeared to be looking over a sea of the fallen."

Of his work on Three Soldiers, Hart said he would put the "folds of those fatigue jackets and pants up against the folds of any [carved] medieval angel you can find."

Merchandise
The design of Three Soldiers was copyrighted by Hart and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Fund. Reproductions were sold on many pieces of memorabilia, including t-shirts, keychains, and snowglobes. Hart donated his share of the profits to a non-profit that provides name rubbings to families of veterans.

Replica
A partial replica of the sculpture was created and dedicated on July 12, 2008, in Apalachicola, Florida.

title: Three Soldiers (statue)