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Las Vegas algorithm

In computing, a Las Vegas algorithm is a randomized algorithm that always gives correct results; that is, it always produces the correct result or it informs about the failure. However, the runtime of a Las Vegas algorithm differs depending on the input. The usual definition of a Las Vegas algorithm includes the restriction that the expected runtime be finite, where the expectation is carried out over the space of random information, or entropy, used in the algorithm. An alternative definition requires that a Las Vegas algorithm always terminates (is effective), but may output a symbol not part of the solution space to indicate failure in finding a solution. The nature of Las Vegas algorithms makes them suitable in situations where the number of possible solutions is limited, and where verifying the correctness of a candidate solution is relatively easy while finding a solution is complex.

Systematic search methods for computationally hard problems, such as some variants of the Davis–Putnam algorithm for propositional satisfiability (SAT), also utilize non-deterministic decisions, and can thus also be considered Las Vegas algorithms.

History
Las Vegas algorithms were introduced by László Babai in 1979, in the context of the graph isomorphism problem, as a dual to Monte Carlo algorithms. Babai introduced the term "Las Vegas algorithm" alongside an example involving coin flips: the algorithm depends on a series of independent coin flips, and there is a small chance of failure (no result). However, in contrast to Monte Carlo algorithms, the Las Vegas algorithm can guarantee the correctness of any reported result.

Example
As mentioned above, Las Vegas algorithms always return correct results. The code above illustrates this property. A variable k is generated randomly; after k is generated, k is used to index the array A. If this index contains the value 1, then k is returned; otherwise, the algorithm repeats this process until it finds 1. Although this Las Vegas algorithm is guaranteed to find the correct answer, it does not have a fixed runtime; due to the randomization (in line 3 of the above code), it is possible for arbitrarily much time to elapse before the algorithm terminates.

Definition
This section provides the conditions that characterize an algorithm's being of Las Vegas type.

An algorithm A is a Las Vegas algorithm for problem class X, if

 * 1) whenever for a given problem instance x∈X it returns a solution s, s is guaranteed to be a valid solution of x
 * 2) on each given instance x, the run-time of A is a random variable RTA,x

There are three notions of completeness for Las Vegas algorithms:

 * complete Las Vegas algorithms can be guaranteed to solve each solvable problem within run-time t max, where t max is an instance-dependent constant.

Let P(RTA,x ≤ t) denote the probability that A finds a solution for a soluble instance x in time within t, then A is complete exactly if for each x there exists

some t max such that P(RTA,x ≤ tmax) = 1.

 * approximately complete Las Vegas algorithms solve each problem with a probability converging to 1 as the run-time approaches infinity. Thus, A is approximately complete, if for each instance x, limt→∞ P(RTA,x ≤ t) = 1.
 * essentially incomplete Las Vegas algorithms are Las Vegas algorithms that are not approximately complete.

Approximate completeness is primarily of theoretical interest, as the time limits for finding solutions are usually too large to be of practical use.

Application scenarios
Las Vegas algorithms have different criteria for the evaluation based on the problem setting. These criteria are divided into three categories with different time limits since Las Vegas algorithms do not have set time complexity. Here are some possible application scenarios:

 * Type 1: There are no time limits, which means the algorithm runs until it finds the solution.
 * Type 2: There is a time limit tmax for finding the outcome.
 * Type 3: The utility of a solution is determined by the time required to find the solution.

(Type 1 and Type 2 are special cases of Type 3.)

For Type 1 where there is no time limit, the average run-time can represent the run-time behavior. This is not the same case for Type 2.

Here, P(RT ≤ tmax), which is the probability of finding a solution within time, describes its run-time behavior.

In case of Type 3, its run-time behavior can only be represented by the run-time distribution function rtd: R → [0,1] defined as rtd(t) = P(RT ≤ t) or its approximation.

The run-time distribution (RTD) is the distinctive way to describe the run-time behavior of a Las Vegas algorithm.

With this data, we can easily get other criteria such as the mean run-time, standard deviation, median, percentiles, or success probabilities P(RT ≤ t) for arbitrary time-limits t.

Analogy
Las Vegas algorithms arise frequently in search problems. For example, one looking for some information online might search related websites for the desired information. The time complexity thus ranges from getting "lucky" and finding the content immediately, to being "unlucky" and spending large amounts of time. Once the right website is found, then there is no possibility of error.

Randomized quicksort
A simple example is randomized quicksort, where the pivot is chosen randomly, and divides the elements into three partitions: elements less than pivot, elements equal to pivot, and elements greater than pivot. QuickSort always generates the solution, which in this case the sorted array. Unfortunately, the time complexity is not that obvious. It turns out that the runtime depends on which element we pick as a pivot.

 * The worst case Θ(n2) when the pivot is the smallest or the largest element.

 * $$T(n)=T(0)+T(n-1)+\Theta (n)$$
 * $$T(n)=\Theta (1)+T(n-1)+\Theta (n)$$
 * $$T(n)=T(n-1)+\Theta (n)$$
 * $$T(n)=\Theta (n^{2})$$

 * However, through randomization, where the pivot is randomly picked and is exactly a middle value each time, the QuickSort can be done in Θ(nlogn).

 * $$T(n) \leq 2*T(n/2) + \Theta(n)$$
 * $$T(n) = \Theta(n\log(n))$$

The runtime of quicksort depends heavily on how well the pivot is selected. If a value of pivot is either too big or small, the partition will be unbalanced, resulting in a poor runtime efficiency. However, if the value of pivot is near the middle of the array, then the split will be reasonably well balanced, yielding a faster runtime. Since the pivot is randomly picked, the running time will be good most of the time and bad occasionally.

In the case of average case, it is hard to determine since the analysis does not depend on the input distribution but on the random choices that the algorithm makes. The average of quicksort is computed over all possible random choices that the algorithm might make when choosing the pivot.

Although the worst-case runtime is Θ(n2), the average-case runtime is Θ(nlogn). It turns out that the worst-case does not happen often. For large values of n, the runtime is Θ(nlogn) with a high probability.

Note that the probability that the pivot is the middle value element each time is one out of n numbers, which is very rare. However, it is still the same runtime when the split is 10%-90% instead of a 50%–50% because the depth of the recursion tree will still be O(logn) with O(n) times taken each level of recursion.

Randomized greedy algorithm for the Eight queens problem
The eight queens problem is usually solved with a backtracking algorithm. However, a Las Vegas algorithm can be applied; in fact, it is more efficient than backtracking.

Place 8 queens on a chessboard so that no one attacks another. Remember that a queen attacks other pieces on the same row, column and diagonals.

Assume that k rows, 0 ≤ k ≤ 8, are successfully occupied by queens.

If k = 8, then stop with success. Otherwise, proceed to occupy row k + 1.

Calculate all positions on this row not attacked by existing queens. If there are none, then fail. Otherwise, pick one at random, increment k and repeat.

Note that the algorithm simply fails if a queen cannot be placed. But the process can be repeated and every time will generate different arrangement.

Complexity class
The complexity class of decision problems that have Las Vegas algorithms with expected polynomial runtime is ZPP.

It turns out that
 * $$\textsf{ZPP} = \textsf{RP} \cap \textsf{co-RP}$$

which is intimately connected with the way Las Vegas algorithms are sometimes constructed. Namely the class RP consists of all decision problems for which a randomized polynomial-time algorithm exists that always answers correctly when the correct answer is "no", but is allowed to be wrong with a certain probability bounded away from one when the answer is "yes". When such an algorithm exists for both a problem and its complement (with the answers "yes" and "no" swapped), the two algorithms can be run simultaneously and repeatedly: run each for a constant number of steps, taking turns, until one of them returns a definitive answer. This is the standard way to construct a Las Vegas algorithm that runs in expected polynomial time. Note that in general there is no worst case upper bound on the run time of a Las Vegas algorithm.

Optimal Las Vegas algorithm
In order to make a Las Vegas algorithm optimal, the expected run time should be minimized. This can be done by:
 * 1) The Las Vegas algorithm A(x) runs repeatedly for some number t1 steps. If A(x) stops during the run time then A(x) is done; otherwise, repeat the process from the beginning for another t2 steps, and so on.
 * 2) Designing a strategy that is optimal among all strategies for A(x), given the full information about the distribution of TA(x).

The existence of the optimal strategy might be a fascinating theoretical observation. However, it is not practical in real life because it is not easy to find the information of distribution of TA(x). Furthermore, there is no point of running the experiment repeatedly to obtain the information about the distribution since most of the time, the answer is needed only once for any x.

Relation to Monte Carlo algorithms
Las Vegas algorithms can be contrasted with Monte Carlo algorithms, in which the resources used are bounded but the answer may be incorrect with a certain (typically small) probability. A Las Vegas algorithm can be converted into a Monte Carlo algorithm by running it for set time and generating a random answer when it fails to terminate. By an application of Markov's inequality, we can set the bound on the probability that the Las Vegas algorithm would go over the fixed limit.

Here is a table comparing Las Vegas and Monte Carlo algorithms:

If a deterministic way to test for correctness is available, then it is possible to turn a Monte Carlo algorithm into a Las Vegas algorithm. However, it is hard to convert a Monte Carlo algorithm to a Las Vegas algorithm without a way to test the algorithm. On the other hand, changing a Las Vegas algorithm to a Monte Carlo algorithm is easy. This can be done by running a Las Vegas algorithm for a specific period of time given by confidence parameter. If the algorithm finds the solution within the time, then it is success and if not then output can simply be "sorry".

This is an example of Las Vegas and Monte Carlo algorithms for comparison:

Assume that there is an array with the length of even n. Half of the entries in the array are 0's and the remaining half are 1's. The goal here is to find an index that contains a 1.

Since Las Vegas does not end until it finds 1 in the array, it does not gamble with the correctness but run-time. On the other hand, Monte Carlo runs 300 times, which means it is impossible to know that Monte Carlo will find "1" in the array within 300 times of loops until it actually executes the code. It might find the solution or not. Therefore, unlike Las Vegas, Monte Carlo does not gamble with run-time but correctness.

title: Las Vegas algorithm


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Talk:List of Amiga games

Common Names
I'm not a fan of preemptive- or over-disambiguation (esp. since games typically get the shaft), but editors to this page need to keep an eye on link destinations for common names. It's pretty obvious that pages like Stalingrad, St. Thomas, and Manchester United won't be about computer games. --Mrwojo 16:53, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Waaait, wait, wait, wait, etc. Freespace - The Great War an Amiga game? This seems about as probable as running Final Fantasy games on an Intellivision. --Kizor 11:39, 20 May 2004 (UTC)

 * apparently so, http://www.amigaflame.com/amidem36.htm --Imran 00:08, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * *Blink* *Blink* Okay then. You, sir, have just blown my mind. Apparently they haven't stopped improving the Amiga just because of a small thing like the end of Commodore. --Kizor 12:45, 21 May 2004 (UTC)

 * I've just come across this page for just such a reason. I've removed the link concerned, but the over-linking, mis-linking, and reddlinking on this page is absurd.  Simply removing them all would probably be a pretty good start.  Alai 03:53, 2 Mar 2005 (UTC)

 * I'm working on it. Punkmorten 18:47, 13 November 2005 (UTC)

I've just realised this article was originally copied from the Amiga Games Database and then converted into a Wikipedia list. How do I know that? Because I spotted no less than three PD/Shareware games that I've reviewed myself on AGDB, but I don't think many other people have ever heard of. — J I P | Talk 04:57, 2 May 2005 (UTC)

Category:Amiga games
It would be really nice if someone pruned this list with Category:Amiga games. Punkmorten 19:35, 18 August 2005 (UTC)
 * This is how the progress is going: # A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
 * Done. Erroneous links should be a problem no more. Punkmorten 10:43, 19 November 2005 (UTC)

Article is too long
This article is currently 65 kilobytes long. I'm thinking of splitting it into three separate articles: Opinions? J I P | Talk 17:53, 13 June 2006 (UTC)
 * List of Amiga games: A-H
 * List of Amiga games: I-O
 * List of Amiga games: P-Z

 * Seems like the sensible thing to do, go for it. — Pix el8 18:01, 13 June 2006 (UTC)

CDTV and CD32 games
Just one question: Are CDTV and CD32 games included in this list? —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 217.184.70.203 (talk) 18:58, 26 January 2007 (UTC).

navigation problem
When I'm clicking e.g. on "contents" > "Z" when I'm on site "List of Amiga games: A-H" (or I-O) it does not work. —The preceding unsigned comment was added by 217.184.70.203 (talk) 19:07, 26 January 2007 (UTC).

 * uh why is this separated? --89.180.38.217 21:33, 13 July 2007 (UTC)

I've fixed this by replacing the tables. I've also moved the "Sources" links to the top page so they don't get repeated 3 times. 2fort5r (talk) 19:07, 13 September 2009 (UTC)

There was only one game beginning with a punctuation mark, 'Nam. I've moved it to the N category and replaced the !-9 category with 0-9. 2fort5r (talk) 12:55, 14 September 2009 (UTC)

Table of content is not visible on en.m.wikipedia.org
I cannot see the table of content in Safari on my Ipad on https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Amiga_games. If I force the browser to use desktop version, the table of content is visible.

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:List of Amiga games


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ANF

ANF may refer to:

Companies

 * ANF (real estate), a French property-management company
 * ANF Les Mureaux, a French aircraft manufacturer 1918–1937
 * Ateliers du Nord de la France, a French locomotive manufacturer
 * Abercrombie & Fitch (NYSE symbol), an American clothing retailer
 * Firat News Agency (Ajansa Nûçeyan a Firatê), a Kurdish news agency
 * WANF, Atlanta News First, an Atlanta-area CBS television affiliate; formerly CBS46 (WGCL-TV)

Federations and other organisations

 * Association d'entraide de la noblesse française, an official French organization for valid descendants of the French nobility
 * Australian Newsagents' Federation, a chain of newsagencies in Australia
 * Australian Nursing Federation, the national union for nurses in Australia

Places

 * Allegheny National Forest, near Erie, Pennsylvania
 * Angeles National Forest, near Los Angeles, California
 * Ashurst New Forest railway station (National Rail code), Ashurst, Hampshire, England
 * Cerro Moreno Airport (IATA code), Antofagasta, Chile

Science, technology, mathematics, and medicine

 * Administrative Normal Form, a representation used in computing
 * Agitated Nutsche Filter, a type of filter for liquid
 * Algebraic normal form, a method of standardizing and normalizing logical formulas
 * A-normal form, an intermediate representation of programs in functional compilers
 * Anti-nuclear antibody, or anti-nuclear factor in blood
 * Array Network Facility, a component of the EarthScope USArray project
 * Atrial natriuretic peptide, or atrial natriuretic factor, a hormone
 * α-Naphthoflavone, a synthetic organic compound

Other uses

 * America Needs Fatima, a campaign of the American TFP
 * Anti-Narcotics Force, a law enforcement agency in Pakistan
 * The Ante-Nicene Fathers, a collection of English translations of early Christian writings

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John McVie

John Graham McVie (born 26 November 1945) is a British bass guitarist. He is best known as a member of the rock bands John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers from 1964 to 1967 and Fleetwood Mac since 1967. His surname, combined with that of drummer Mick Fleetwood, was the source for the band's name.

He joined Fleetwood Mac shortly after its formation by guitarist Peter Green in 1967, replacing temporary bass guitarist Bob Brunning. McVie and Fleetwood are the only two members of the group to appear on every Fleetwood Mac release, and for over fifty years have been the group's last remaining original (or almost original in McVie's case) members.

In 1968, McVie married blues pianist and singer Christine Perfect, who became a member of Fleetwood Mac two years later. John and Christine McVie divorced in 1976, but continued working together professionally. During this time the band recorded the album Rumours, a major artistic and commercial success that borrowed its title from the turmoil in McVie's and other band members' marriages and relationships.

McVie was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998 as a member of Fleetwood Mac.

Early life
John Graham McVie was born in Ealing, west London, to Reg and Dorothy McVie and attended Walpole Grammar School. He says that he did have a sister, but she died when she was very young. John McVie started playing the trumpet at an early age then, at age 14, he began playing the guitar in local bands, covering songs by The Shadows. He soon realised that his friends were learning lead guitar so he decided to play the bass guitar instead. Initially he just removed the top two (B and E) strings from his guitar to play the bass parts until his father bought him a pink Fender bass guitar, the same as that used by McVie's major early musical influence Jet Harris, The Shadows' bass player. McVie was in 3J class with Roger Warwick, a baritone sax player who had studied under Don Rendell and was to emerge in the London rock-jazz scene. Their teacher, Mr Howell (a pianist), although not really appreciating this "funny" music, was intelligent and open-minded enough to give pupils space and time to use school facilities to practise and listen to the new wave.

Soon after leaving school at 17, McVie trained for nine months to be a tax inspector. This coincided with the start of his musical career.

Career
McVie's first experience making music with a group of like minds was in the back room of a house in Lammas Park Road, Ealing, with his long-term friends John Barnes and Peter Barnes who later went on to form a group called The Strangers performing Shadows covers.

McVie's first job as a bass player was in a band called the Krewsaders, formed by boys living in the same street as McVie in Ealing, West London. The Krewsaders played mainly at weddings and parties, covering songs from The Shadows.

McVie is listed at number 37 on Rolling Stone list of 50 greatest bassists.

John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers
Around the time of McVie's tenure as a tax inspector, John Mayall began forming a Chicago-style blues band, John Mayall and the Bluesbreakers. Initially Mayall wanted to recruit bass player Cliff Barton of the Cyril Davies All Stars for the rhythm section of his new band. Barton declined, however, but gave him McVie's phone number, urging Mayall to give the talented young bass player a chance in the Bluesbreakers. Mayall contacted McVie, and asked him to audition for his band. Soon thereafter, McVie got an offer to play bass in the Bluesbreakers. McVie accepted while still holding down his daytime job for a further nine months before becoming a musician full-time. Under Mayall's tutelage, McVie, not having had any formal training in music, learned to play the blues mainly by listening to B.B. King and Willie Dixon records given to him by Mayall. McVie was the band's bassist for four and a half years. During that time he was fired and re-hired several times. One of his temporary replacements was Jack Bruce.

Peter Green and Mick Fleetwood
In 1966, a young Peter Green was asked to join Mayall's Bluesbreakers as the band's new lead guitar player, after Eric Clapton, the third guitarist with the band (after Bernie Watson and then Roger Dean), had left. Some time later, after the recording of A Hard Road, drummer Aynsley Dunbar was replaced by Mick Fleetwood. Green, McVie, and Fleetwood quickly forged a strong personal relationship, and when John Mayall gave Green some free studio time for his birthday, Green asked McVie and Fleetwood to join him for a recording session. Produced by Mike Vernon, they recorded three tracks together, "Curly", "Rubber Duck", and an instrumental called "Fleetwood Mac". Later the same year, after having been replaced by Mick Taylor in the Bluesbreakers, Green opted to form his own band, which he called "Fleetwood Mac" after his preferred rhythm section (Fleetwood and McVie). Mick Fleetwood immediately joined Green's new band, having been dismissed earlier from the Bluesbreakers for drunkenness. However, McVie initially was reluctant to join Fleetwood Mac, not wanting to leave the security and well-paid job in the Bluesbreakers, forcing Green to temporarily hire a bassist named Bob Brunning. A few weeks later McVie changed his mind, however, as he felt that The Bluesbreakers musical direction were shifting too much towards jazz, and he joined Fleetwood Mac in September 1967.

Fleetwood Mac
With McVie now in Fleetwood Mac, the band recorded its first album, Fleetwood Mac, in the following months. The album was released in February 1968, and became an immediate national hit, establishing Fleetwood Mac as a major part in the English Blues movement. Fleetwood Mac started playing live gigs in blues clubs and pubs throughout England, and became a household name in the national blues circuit. In the next three years, the band scored a string of hits in the UK and also enjoyed success in continental Europe.

Christine Perfect
While on tour, Fleetwood Mac would often share venues with fellow blues band Chicken Shack. It was on one such occasion that McVie met his future first wife, the lead singer and piano player of Chicken Shack, Christine Perfect. Following a brief romance of, it has been said, only two weeks, McVie and Perfect got married with Peter Green as best man. With the couple being unable to spend much time together because of the constant touring with their bands, Christine (now McVie) quit Chicken Shack to become a housewife to spend more time with John. However, following the departure of Peter Green from Fleetwood Mac in 1970, McVie successfully persuaded Christine to join him in Fleetwood Mac.

International success and personal life
After 1970, Fleetwood Mac went through several different line-ups, which occasionally became the source of friction and unease within the band. In addition, frequent touring as well as his heavy drinking began to put some strain on his marriage to Christine. In 1974, the McVies, along with the other members of Fleetwood Mac, moved to Los Angeles, where they lived briefly with John Mayall. In 1975, Fleetwood Mac achieved enormous worldwide success after recruiting American singer-songwriter duo Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham. However, on the heels of the band's success followed serious marital problems for the McVies, and in 1976, during the recording of Rumours, John and Christine McVie's marriage unravelled and the couple divorced the same year. As a way to put behind the hurt and final dissolution, several of Christine's songs on this album were about John McVie, particularly "Don't Stop". John McVie remarried in 1978 to Julie Ann Reubens, but still continued to drink heavily. In 1981, McVie agreed to go on the road with the Bluesbreakers again for their reunion tour with John Mayall, Mick Taylor, and Colin Allen. During 1982 the band toured America, Asia and Australia (John McVie did not take part in the European Tour in 1983 and was replaced by Steve Thompson).

An alcohol-induced seizure in 1987 finally prompted McVie to stop drinking altogether and he has been sober ever since. In 1989, McVie's wife Julie Ann gave birth to their first child, a daughter, Molly Elizabeth McVie. In his spare time, McVie is a sailing enthusiast, and he nearly got lost at least once on a Pacific voyage.

In October 2013, McVie was diagnosed with colon cancer and began treatment. He continued to play with the band during their 2014 On With The Show tour following an improvement in his condition. In 2017, it was reported that McVie's colon cancer was completely cleared.

title: John McVie


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Talk:House of Aisin-Gioro

Untitled
In my browser, many mongolian characters display as blanks. It seems that the corresponding HTML entities are not Unicode but some other national code (Windows?). E.g. in "ài xīn jǘe lúo" the "ī" (&#299;) comes out as blank. Jorge Stolfi 17:01, 19 Mar 2004 (UTC)

It's because your browser doesn't recognize these characters or simply you don't have a font that covers them. They are Unicode characters and they are Chinese Pinyin, not Mongolian characters! --Nanshu 01:35, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

Oops, that seems to be it. I am using an old version of Mozilla that apparently has trouble with the Pinyin segment, even though it handles Han.) Thanks. Jorge Stolfi 12:31, 20 Mar 2004 (UTC)

The Veritable Records
What were The Veritable Records referred to? -- Kaihsu 20:19, 2004 Sep 5 (UTC)

manju-i yargiyan kooli/滿洲實錄. Maybe "Manchu Veritable Records" is better. --Nanshu 03:58, 30 Sep 2004 (UTC)

Aisin Jiaoluo?
Hardouin, I've never cared about Chinese transcription of purely Manchu terms, but you add it. So I let you know an interesting note I found.

Quote from A dictionary of Manchu names : a name-index to the Manchu version of the "Complete genealogies of the Manchu clans and families of the Eight Banners", p.IX:
 * we may add, as a curiosity, that the Chinese transcription jue of the character 覺 is wrong: in Manchu the syllable jue is transcribed as giowei~jiyowei and, more rarely, as goi. Only the pronunciation "jiao" is transcribed as gio; therefore, the correct transcription is "Aixin Jiaoluo" and not "Aixin Jueluo."

How do you see this? --Nanshu 07:02, 1 Nov 2004 (UTC)

 * Well, as a matter of fact, the Chinese character 覺 can be pronounced either jue or jiao, but jue is by far the most common pronunciation, and the pronunciation jiao is found only in the word "to sleep" (睡觉) and all the derivatives of that verb. When we write the Manchu name, we should clearly spell it as close as possible from Manchu pronunciation. But when we write the Chinese version of the name, we should reflect how Chinese people would pronounce it. What I know, is that 99.9% of 1.3 billion Chinese people, when they will read the clan name 愛新覺羅, they will pronounce it Aixin Jueluo in putonghua, because that's just the first pronunciation that will come to their mind, irrelevant whether it is close or not from the way the Manchu actually pronounced it, as much as when we pronounce the word Chicago, we pronounce it Chicago, irrelevant how the native indian tribes actually pronounced it (they would have pronounced something like "Sheekagoo", for the records). Hardouin 12:32, 2 Nov 2004 (UTC)

Thanks. I confined the addition to a note. --Nanshu

Meaning of Aixin Jueluo
Aixin does mean gold, but not literally. Manchus are descendants of Jin(gold) Clan, so it really means the clan rather than gold.

Jueluo means surname(in Chinese Xingshi) or family(in Chinese Jiazhu). So it means Jin surname or Jin family.

My apologies as I could not cite the book that I came acrossed. I will check it out in the library again.

Marky

The word aisin does mean gold in Manchu. And gioro does not mean surname but is a surname. In fact, Gioro was a major Manchu clan name.

This common misunderstanding has its roots in Chinese descriptions of the clan. For example, the Chinese edition of the Veritable Record of Taizu Wu Huangdi (the oldest known version of the Veritable Record of Qing Taizu) says:
 * 愛新 華言金也 ，覺落 姓也 ．

We can hardly judge from these simple notes whether these words are concepts or their instances. --Nanshu 23:17, 29 September 2006 (UTC)

Aisin Gioro...
The word aisin means gold in the Manchu language, and "gioro" means clan in the Manchu language. The word aisin means gold in the Manchu language, but the meaning of gioro is unknown, probably surname.

Conflict? Ytlow 16:07, 12 December 2006 (UTC)

Clan sounds more likely... "Gold clan" makes sense... "Gold surname" is a bit odd... I expect what has happened is that this Manchu word for clan was subsequently also used for surnames and someone's got confused? Furius 02:31, 17 December 2006 (UTC)

No. No. Again, Gioro is a Manchu clan name of unknown etymology. In other words, Gioro is not a word that means "surname" in Manchu but is an instance of surname. Gioro was a major clan name among Manchus and that's probably why the term aisin (gold) was appended. The imperial family members were distinguished by aisin from the rest of people with the clan name Gioro. --Nanshu 22:27, 2 March 2007 (UTC)

Add a new person
I think there should be another person in one of the heirs and descendants of the Aisin Gioro family: Ai Xin Jue Luo YuHuan, he's an artist who died on June 23, 2003, He was the great-great grandson of the Daoguang Emperor, that means the nephew of the last Emperor Puyi. Just thought you'd like to know. Eisenhower 21:55, 6 November 2007 (UTC)

bryna aisin gyoro?
who the heck is her? does she even exist? —Preceding unsigned comment added by 219.184.122.53 (talk) 14:43, 21 July 2008 (UTC)

Portraits of Aisin Gioro

http://bbs.tiexue.net/post2_4865487_1.html

http://wechatinchina.com/thread-215204-1-1.html

Members of the imperial family who lost their rank
G. CARTER STENT

CHINESE EUNUCHS

[G. Carter Stent, "Chinese Eunuchs," in: Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, New Series, No. 11, Shanghai, 1877.]

"1 Members of the collateral branches of the imperial family, each generation becoming a degree lower in rank, (and it may be added, poorer in pocket) till eventually they become mere members of the family, with no rank whatever, wearing however the "Yellow Girdle," and receiving a trifling allowance from government. These persons are known as "Yellow Girdles," and some of them may be found in the lowest walks in life--beggars and thieves, even."

http://www.well.com/~aquarius/stent-chineseeunuchs.htm

http://books.google.com/books?id=5kADAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=Members+of+the+collateral+branches+of+the+imperial+family,+each+generation+becoming+a+degree+lower+in+rank,+(and+it+may+be+added,+poorer+in+pocket)+till+eventually+they+become+mere+members+of+the+family,+with+no+rank+whatever,+wearing+however+the+%22Yellow+Girdle,%22+and+receiving+a+trifling+allowance+from+government.+These+persons+are+known+as+%22Yellow+Girdles,%22+and+some+of+them+may+be+found+in+the+lowest+walks+in+life--beggars+and+thieves,+even.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RYDPUMKiHK_W0gGrl4GQBA&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Members%20of%20the%20collateral%20branches%20of%20the%20imperial%20family%2C%20each%20generation%20becoming%20a%20degree%20lower%20in%20rank%2C%20(and%20it%20may%20be%20added%2C%20poorer%20in%20pocket)%20till%20eventually%20they%20become%20mere%20members%20of%20the%20family%2C%20with%20no%20rank%20whatever%2C%20wearing%20however%20the%20%22Yellow%20Girdle%2C%22%20and%20receiving%20a%20trifling%20allowance%20from%20government.%20These%20persons%20are%20known%20as%20%22Yellow%20Girdles%2C%22%20and%20some%20of%20them%20may%20be%20found%20in%20the%20lowest%20walks%20in%20life--beggars%20and%20thieves%2C%20even.&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=J35JAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147&dq=Members+of+the+collateral+branches+of+the+imperial+family,+each+generation+becoming+a+degree+lower+in+rank,+(and+it+may+be+added,+poorer+in+pocket)+till+eventually+they+become+mere+members+of+the+family,+with+no+rank+whatever,+wearing+however+the+%22Yellow+Girdle,%22+and+receiving+a+trifling+allowance+from+government.+These+persons+are+known+as+%22Yellow+Girdles,%22+and+some+of+them+may+be+found+in+the+lowest+walks+in+life--beggars+and+thieves,+even.&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RYDPUMKiHK_W0gGrl4GQBA&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=Members%20of%20the%20collateral%20branches%20of%20the%20imperial%20family%2C%20each%20generation%20becoming%20a%20degree%20lower%20in%20rank%2C%20(and%20it%20may%20be%20added%2C%20poorer%20in%20pocket)%20till%20eventually%20they%20become%20mere%20members%20of%20the%20family%2C%20with%20no%20rank%20whatever%2C%20wearing%20however%20the%20%22Yellow%20Girdle%2C%22%20and%20receiving%20a%20trifling%20allowance%20from%20government.%20These%20persons%20are%20known%20as%20%22Yellow%20Girdles%2C%22%20and%20some%20of%20them%20may%20be%20found%20in%20the%20lowest%20walks%20in%20life--beggars%20and%20thieves%2C%20even.&f=false

Page 147

http://books.google.com/books?ei=RYDPUMKiHK_W0gGrl4GQBA&id=2VMxAQAAMAAJ&dq=Members+of+the+collateral+branches+of+the+imperial+family%2C+each+generation+becoming+a+degree+lower+in+rank%2C+%28and+it+may+be+added%2C+poorer+in+pocket%29+till+eventually+they+become+mere+members+of+the+family%2C+with+no+rank+whatever%2C+wearing+however+the+%22Yellow+Girdle%2C%22+and+receiving+a+trifling+allowance+from+government.+These+persons+are+known+as+%22Yellow+Girdles%2C%22+and+some+of+them+may+be+found+in+the+lowest+walks+in+life--beggars+and+thieves%2C+even.&q=Yellow+Girdle+trifling+allowance#search_anchor

Title	Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volumes 11-12 Author	Royal Asiatic Society Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North China Branch, Shanghai Published	1967

Page 147

http://books.google.com/books?ei=t4DPUJzXE8fT0wHZ94HgBg&id=sLY_AAAAYAAJ&dq=Members+of+the+collateral+branches+of+the+imperial+family%2C+each+generation+becoming+a+degree+lower+in+rank%2C+%28and+it+may+be+added%2C+poorer+in+pocket%29+till+eventually+they+become+mere+members+of+the+family%2C+with+no+rank+whatever%2C+wearing+however+the+%22Yellow+Girdle%2C%22&q=mere+Yellow+Girdle#search_anchor

Title	Journal of the North-China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Volumes 11-12 Contributor	Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. North-China Branch Publisher	Kraus Reprint, Limited, 1967 Original from	the University of Virginia Digitized	Feb 18, 2009

http://books.google.com/books?id=adE9AQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=9DCrwVn_BeIC&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=b5rSQtoe0LcC&pg=PA173#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=lHJRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA400#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=AjXWAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA400#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=xT84AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA400#v=onepage&q&f=false

Rajmaan (talk) 20:31, 17 December 2012 (UTC)

Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet: From the establishment of the Mantchoo-Tartar dynasty to the commencement of the eighteenth century By Evariste Régis Huc

"The members of the imperial family constitute the sole nobility, the sole aristocracy of the country, if the words aristocracy and nobility are admissible as applied to a body which neither by fortune nor position can exercise any influence on the state. The imperial princes, have some few insignificant privileges, as, for instance, that of wearing the yellow girdle, but those who wish to fill public offices, or acquire wealth, must study like others, and be admitted into the corporation of the lettered; otherwise they must vegetate, far from the throne, in the crowd of mere citizens, and conceal their yellow girdle when they cannot afford to keep up an appearance conformable to their birth. We were ourselves acquainted at Pekin with several of these Mantchoo princes, who had been ruined by Chinese usurers, and who were dragging on their existence as absolute beggars."

http://books.google.com/books?id=1DAMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA329#v=onepage&q&f=false

Title	Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet: From the establishment of the Mantchoo-Tartar dynasty to the commencement of the eighteenth century Volume 3 of Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet, Evariste Régis Huc Author	Evariste Régis Huc Publisher	Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1858 Subjects	Missions

Rajmaan (talk) 03:38, 4 January 2013 (UTC)

http://books.google.com/books?id=HKgMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA653#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=3AIJAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA202#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=uiYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA397#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=TdoMAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA239#v=onepage&q&f=false

Rajmaan (talk) 03:33, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

http://books.google.com/books?id=irEIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA236#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=188DAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA236#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=c12yylGsuWkC&pg=PA138#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=6wtbGO5mMLkC&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=aSgPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA142#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=kOHLGPk7msoC&pg=PA396#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=j8kOEmIxyYYC&pg=PA396#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=uiYAAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA396#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=-LQTAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA107#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=blfu2jHHtpwC&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=L77chgc58X8C&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=un08AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA212#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=P5lFAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=h3pCAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=ZbAPAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA184#v=onepage&q&f=false

Page 151

http://books.google.com/books?id=36tDAAAAYAAJ&q=fruit+magpie#search_anchor

Page 138

http://books.google.com/books?id=0xQdFowp2_MC&q=red+fruit+magpie#search_anchor

Page 21

http://books.google.com/books?id=8Xo5FjPVn4kC&q=magpie#search_anchor

Page 566

http://books.google.com/books?id=_TkOAAAAIAAJ&q=illustrious+direct+line#search_anchor

Page 49

http://books.google.com/books?id=zTweAAAAMAAJ&q=jackdaw#search_anchor

Page 272

http://books.google.com/books?id=CcPRAAAAMAAJ&q=fruit+magpie#search_anchor

Page 14

http://books.google.com/books?id=zV0KAQAAIAAJ&q=appointed+Otoli#search_anchor

Page 206

http://books.google.com/books?id=zvI4AAAAIAAJ&q=First+Ancestor+virgin-born+hero#search_anchor

Page 84

http://books.google.com/books?id=xFNLAAAAMAAJ&q=miraculously+headquarters#search_anchor

Rajmaan (talk) 03:39, 7 January 2013 (UTC)

http://books.google.com/books?id=NUTE8V-WhwoC&pg=PA33#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=5iN5J9G76h0C&pg=PA66#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=OBEIq8kTQBcC&pg=PA188#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=Wn4iv_RJv8oC&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA176#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=qgYdycfeJyAC&pg=PA378#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=ZSNMGosP0cAC&pg=PR7#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=_qtgoTIAiKUC&pg=PA398#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=NESwGW_5uLoC&pg=PA189#v=onepage&q&f=false

Pulun
Create a separate article on Prince Aisin Gioro Pulun with these sources.

http://books.google.com/books?id=fjoPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA383#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=sFFxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA280&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=UssNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA280#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=NwJMn3ozD2kC&pg=PA289&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=1kgjAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA10-PA32&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CDsQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=wCYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CFEQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=DafNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mX0MUd6_GOqE0QHyl4CADw&ved=0CEAQ6AEwAzgK#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=wCYPAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA253&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CEMQ6AEwBDge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=EtcaAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA590&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CEkQ6AEwBTge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=YGwAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA792&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CE4Q6AEwBjge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=VTIAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA537&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CFMQ6AEwBzge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=uFfuYYilWisC&pg=PA111&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CFgQ6AEwCDge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=DafNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA159&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=UH4MUeeuKsbo0gGh0oCwCQ&ved=0CF0Q6AEwCTge#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=y_DGO9UeXCcC&pg=PA388&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=wH4MUeD8Jo-x0QHv54GYDg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwADgo#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=fMIOAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA60&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=234MUZn1L8uz0QHRzYDIDA&ved=0CE8Q6AEwBzgy#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=1uRCAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA36#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=_4BRAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA364&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Dn8MUfDYBIy10AG-8IG4Dg&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAzg8#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=oHA9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA259&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=S38MUfvGLtGK0QG6loHYCg&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAThQ#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=YZA8tdO5-GsC&pg=PA56&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=tgq1miGno-4C&pg=PA233&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CEYQ6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=xq51ko-eXlEC&pg=PA80&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CFcQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=sNPFc7kkjwAC&pg=PA236&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CGIQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=_syDsa8rGsYC&pg=PA244&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CEwQ6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=Q_ZTZWJa_o4C&pg=PA209&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-XoMUfHqKcfg0gHsj4C4Dg&ved=0CFwQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=RcdnrzTFHVEC&pg=PA109&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mX0MUd6_GOqE0QHyl4CADw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=Cs9yOuCZ-ekC&pg=PA75&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mX0MUd6_GOqE0QHyl4CADw&ved=0CDQQ6AEwATgK#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=4RzSp_wkvKoC&pg=PA75&dq=prince+pulun&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mX0MUd6_GOqE0QHyl4CADw&ved=0CDoQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=prince%20pulun&f=false

Rajmaan (talk) 20:39, 2 February 2013 (UTC)

Aisin Gioro Y chromosome DNA found in several ethnic minorities, but not found in Han Chinese
Aisin Gioro Y chomosome DNA was found in "Xibe, Outer Mongolians, Inner Mongolians, Ewenki, Oroqen, Manchu, and Hezhe" males and number around 1 million people. Their ancestor was Nurhaci's grandfather Giocangga, whose descendants made up the Qing dynasty nobility. But the Y chromosome was not found in the general Han Chinese population.

The Y chromosome cluster is specifically C3c, part of the General Haplogroup C-M217, which Genghis Khan's lineage is a part of, although the Manchu Aisin Gioro Y chromosome is part of a different cluster than Genghis Khan's

The reason it spread among these specific minority groups, but not among the Han Chinese population, is because the Qing Manchu nobility was concentrated specifically in the ethnically Manchu Eight Banners and not in the Mongolian and Han Eight Banners, and the specific ethnic groups which made up the Manchu Eight banners were "Manchu, Mongolian, Daur, Oroqen, Ewenki, Xibe".

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1285168/

http://www.cell.com/ajhg/pdf/S0002-9297(07)63394-1.pdf

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002929707633941

http://www.genebase.com/learning/article/23

Rajmaan (talk) 21:27, 10 April 2014 (UTC)

Titles
http://books.google.com/books?id=lSsMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA3

http://books.google.com/books?id=oEE2AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA4

Marriage ties
http://books.google.com/books?id=gAIcwz3V_JsC&pg=PA180#v=onepage&q&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148&dq=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&hl=en&ei=O-ChToi7Jsn20gHW4ayvCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=To%20win%20the%20support%20and%20cooperation%20of%20Ming%20generals%20in%20Liaodong%2C%20Nurhaci%20gave%20them%20Aisin%20Gioro%20women%20as%20wives.%20In%201618%2C%20before%20he%20attacked%20Fushun%20city%2C%20he%20promised%20the%20Ming%20general%20defending%20the%20city%20a%20woman%20from%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=QXHbhsfaJAYC&pg=PA148&dq=To+win+the+support+and+cooperation+of+Ming+generals+in+Liaodong,+Nurhaci+gave+them+Aisin+Gioro+women+as+wives.+In+1618,+before+he+attacked+Fushun+city,+he+promised+the+Ming+general+defending+the+city+a+woman+from+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan&hl=en&ei=O-ChToi7Jsn20gHW4ayvCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CC0Q6AEwA#v=onepage&q=To%20win%20the%20support%20and%20cooperation%20of%20Ming%20generals%20in%20Liaodong%2C%20Nurhaci%20gave%20them%20Aisin%20Gioro%20women%20as%20wives.%20In%201618%2C%20before%20he%20attacked%20Fushun%20city%2C%20he%20promised%20the%20Ming%20general%20defending%20the%20city%20a%20woman%20from%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan&f=false

http://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79&dq=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li's+surrender+at+the+time+was+exceptional,+his+integration+into+the+Manchu+elite+was+only+the+first&hl=en&ei=WuGhTtyJO6Lx0gHC16WfBQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Li%20was%20made%20a%20banner%20general%2C%20was%20given%20gifts%20of%20slaves%20and%20serfs%2C%20and%20was%20betrothed%20to%20a%20young%20woman%20of%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan.%20Although%20Li's%20surrender%20at%20the%20time%20was%20exceptional%2C%20his%20integration%20into%20the%20Manchu%20elite%20was%20only%20the%20first&f=false http://books.google.com/books?id=ORBmFSFcJKoC&pg=PA79&dq=Li+was+made+a+banner+general,+was+given+gifts+of+slaves+and+serfs,+and+was+betrothed+to+a+young+woman+of+the+Aisin+Gioro+clan.+Although+Li#v=onepage&q=Li%20was%20made%20a%20banner%20general%2C%20was%20given%20gifts%20of%20slaves%20and%20serfs%2C%20and%20was%20betrothed%20to%20a%20young%20woman%20of%20the%20Aisin%20Gioro%20clan.%20Although%20Li&f=false

Rajmaan (talk) 14:29, 15 October 2014 (UTC)

External links modified
Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to 2 one external links on Aisin Gioro. Please take a moment to review my edit. If necessary, add after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
 * Added archive https://web.archive.org/20131125053101/http://www.genebase.com:80/learning/article/23 to http://www.genebase.com/learning/article/23
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Wording
The article currently begins as such: "Aisin Gioro was the Manchu ruling clan of the Later Jin dynasty (1616–1636), the Qing dynasty (1636–1912) and, nominally, Manchukuo (1932–1945). " The sentence appears to confuse dynasties with empires, or it is as mysterious as saying "The House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha is the house that rules the Windsor dynasty." - without mentioning the Kingdom of England. I believe the sentence should instead read "Aisin Gioro was the Manchu ruling clan of the Later Jin khanate (1616–1636), the Qing Empire (1636–1912) and, nominally, Manchukuo (1932–1945). " I will edit it but leave this comment in case there is need for a discussion. 2A02:810A:9C0:59E0:F037:39A5:D59C:5F24 (talk) 22:46, 15 January 2021 (UTC)

title: Talk:House of Aisin-Gioro


text: User talk:198.165.58.254

title: User talk:198.165.58.254


text:
Transgressive fiction

Transgressive fiction is a genre of literature which focuses on characters who feel confined by the norms and expectations of society and who break free of those confines in unusual or illicit ways.

Literary context
Because they are rebelling against the basic norms of society, protagonists of transgressive fiction may seem mentally ill, anti-social, or nihilistic. The genre deals extensively with taboo subject matters such as drugs, sexual activity, violence, incest, pedophilia, and crime. The genre of "transgressive fiction" was defined by Los Angeles Times literary critic Michael Silverblatt.

Michel Foucault's essay "A Preface to Transgression" (1963) provides an important methodological origin for the concept of transgression in literature. The essay uses Story of the Eye by Georges Bataille as an example of transgressive fiction.

Rene Chun, a journalist for The New York Times, described transgressive fiction: A literary genre that graphically explores such topics as incest and other aberrant sexual practices, mutilation, the sprouting of sexual organs in various places on the human body, urban violence and violence against women, drug use, and highly dysfunctional family relationships, and that is based on the premise that knowledge is to be found at the edge of experience and that the body is the site for gaining knowledge.

The genre has been the subject of controversy, and many forerunners of transgressive fiction, including William S. Burroughs and Hubert Selby Jr., have been the subjects of obscenity trials.

Transgressive fiction shares similarities with splatterpunk, noir, and erotic fiction in its willingness to portray forbidden behaviors and shock readers. But it differs in that protagonists often pursue means to better themselves and their surroundings—albeit unusual and extreme ones. Much transgressive fiction deals with searches for self-identity, inner peace, or personal freedom. Unbound by usual restrictions of taste and literary convention, its proponents claim that transgressive fiction is capable of incisive social commentary.

History
The basic ideas of transgressive fiction are by no means new. Many works that are now considered classics dealt with controversial themes and harshly criticized societal norms. Early examples include the scandalous writing of the Marquis de Sade and the Comte de Lautréamont's Les Chants de Maldoror (1869). French author Émile Zola's works about social conditions and "bad behavior" are examples, as are Russian Fyodor Dostoyevsky's novels Crime and Punishment (1866) and Notes from Underground (1864) and Norwegian Knut Hamsun's psychologically-driven Hunger (1890). Sexual extravagance can be seen in two of the earliest European novels, the Satyricon and The Golden Ass, and also (with disclaimers) Moll Flanders and some of the excesses of early Gothic fiction.

A simpler, more literal example of transgressive fiction is Kate Chopin's The Awakening, in which a married woman, feeling confined by the gender constructs of her society and pressures imposed upon her by her family and friends to be keen in her duties as a mother and wife, leaves her family and pursues extramarital relationships. Commenting on gender roles of the late 19th century, The Awakening faced major criticism for its depiction of a woman being unfaithful to her family, despite the fact that Chopin had written several similar short stories prior to Awakening's publication. It is now considered to be a landmark of early feminist literature.

The early development of the genre was anticipated in the work of early 20th century writers such as Octave Mirbeau, Georges Bataille, and Arthur Schnitzler, who explored psychosexual development.

On 6 December 1933, US federal judge John M. Woolsey overturned the federal ban on James Joyce's Ulysses. The book was banned in the US due to what the government claimed was obscenity, specifically parts of Molly Bloom's "soliloquy" at the end of the book. Random House Inc. challenged the claim of obscenity in federal court and was granted permission to print the book in the US. Judge Woolsey's explanation for his removal of the ban is often quoted: "It is only with the normal person that the law is concerned."

In the late 1950s, American publisher Grove Press, under publisher Barney Rosset, began releasing decades-old novels that had been unpublished in most of the English-speaking world for many years due to controversial subject matter. Two of these works, Lady Chatterley's Lover (D. H. Lawrence's tale of an upper class woman's affair with a working class man) and Tropic of Cancer (Henry Miller's sexual odyssey), were the subject of landmark obscenity trials (Lady Chatterley's Lover was also tried in the UK and Austria). Both books were ruled not obscene and forced the US courts to weigh the merit of literature that would have once been instantly deemed pornographic (see Miller test). Similarly, the author Vladimir Nabokov published Lolita in 1955 to a great deal of controversy due to the hebephilia that occurs between the book's main characters, Humbert Humbert and Lolita. The transgressive nature of this subject has made Lolita a book often found on the list of books banned by governments and the list of most commonly challenged books in the United States.

Grove Press also published the explicit works of Beat writers, which led to two more obscenity trials. The first concerned Howl, Allen Ginsberg's 1955 poem which celebrated American counterculture and decried hypocrisy and emptiness in mainstream society. The second concerned William S. Burroughs' hallucinatory, satirical novel Naked Lunch (1959). Both works contained what were considered lewd descriptions of body parts and sexual acts. Grove also published Hubert Selby Jr.'s anecdotal novel Last Exit to Brooklyn (1964), known for its gritty portrayals of criminals, and sex workers and its crude, slang-inspired prose. Last Exit to Brooklyn was tried as obscene in the UK. Grove Press won all these trials, and the victories paved the way both for transgressive fiction to be published legally, as well as bringing attention to these works.

In the 1970s and '80s, an entire underground of transgressive fiction flourished. Its biggest stars included J. G. Ballard, a British writer known for his strange and frightening dystopian novels; Kathy Acker, an American known for her sex-positive feminist fiction; and Charles Bukowski, an American known for his tales of womanizing, drinking, and gambling. The notorious 1971 film version of Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, contained scenes of rape and "ultraviolence" by a futuristic youth gang complete with its own argot, and was a major influence on popular culture; it was subsequently withdrawn in the UK, and heavily censored in the US.

In the 1990s, the rise of alternative rock and its distinctly downbeat subculture opened the door for transgressive writers to become more influential and commercially successful than ever before. This is exemplified by the influence of Canadian Douglas Coupland's 1990 novel Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture, which explored the economically-bleak and apocalypse-fixated worldview of Coupland's age group. The novel popularized the term generation X to describe this age demographic. Other influential authors of this decade include Bret Easton Ellis, known for novels about depraved yuppies; Irvine Welsh, known for his portrayals of Scotland's drug-addicted working class youth; and Chuck Palahniuk, known for his characters' bizarre attempts to escape bland consumer culture. Both of Elizabeth Young's volumes of literary criticism from this period deal extensively and exclusively with this range of authors and the contexts in which their works can be viewed.

The early 21st century saw the rise of writers like Rupert Thomson, R. D. Ronald and Kelly Braffet with their protagonists further pushing the criminal, sexual, violent, narcotic, self-harm, anti-social and mental illness related subject matter taboos from the shadows of the transgressive umbrella into the forefront of mainstream fiction. Ronald's novels The Elephant Tree and The Zombie Room are based in the fictional city of Garden Heights, providing a fresh, contemporary melting pot to showcase the amalgamation of UK and US cultural and societal dissatisfaction and frustration, that had previously been portrayed very differently.

In the UK, the genre owes a considerable influence to "working class literature", which often portrays characters trying to escape poverty by inventive means, while in the US, the genre focuses more on middle class characters trying to escape the emotional and spiritual limitations of their lifestyle.

Notable works
Henry Miller
 * Tropic of Cancer (1934)
 * Tropic of Capricorn (1939)
 * The Rosy Crucifixion (1949–59)

William S. Burroughs
 * Junkie (1953)
 * Naked Lunch (1959)

Georges Bataille
 * Story of the Eye (1928)

Vladimir Nabokov
 * Lolita (1955)
 * Ada or Ardor (1969)

Hubert Selby Jr.
 * Last Exit to Brooklyn (1964)
 * Requiem for a Dream (1978)

J. G. Ballard
 * The Atrocity Exhibition (1970)
 * Crash (1973)

Ryu Murakami
 * Almost Transparent Blue (1976)

Katherine Dunn Kathy Acker
 * Geek Love (1989)
 * Blood and Guts in High School (1984)

Bret Easton Ellis
 * Less than Zero (1985)
 * American Psycho (1991)

Dennis Cooper
 * Frisk (1991)

Irvine Welsh
 * Trainspotting (1993)
 * Filth (1998)

Matthew Stokoe
 * Cows (1998)

Chuck Palahniuk
 * Fight Club (1996)
 * Invisible Monsters (1999)
 * Haunted (2005)

Alissa Nutting
 * Tampa (2013)

Blake Butler
 * 300,000,000 (2014)

Elle Nash
 * Animals Eat Each Other (2018)
 * Nudes (2021)
 * Gag Reflex (2022)

Chris Kelso
 * The DREGS Trilogy (2020)

Nikanor Teratologen
 * Assisted Living (1993)

Jason Tanamor
 * Anonymous (2013)

title: Transgressive fiction


text:
Quinnipiac

The Quinnipiac were a historical Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands. They lived in present-day New Haven County, Connecticut, along the Quinnipiac River. Their primary village, also called Quinnipiac, was where New Haven, Connecticut is today.

Name
The Quinnipiac name translates as "Long-water people." It was also spelled Quienepiage, Quenepiake, Qunnipiéuk, Qunnipiuck, Qunnipiug, Quinnpiipuck, Quunnipieuck, and Qvinipiak.

Language
The Quinnipiac and several neighboring tribes in central Connecticut and central Long Island all spoke the Quiripi language. This Eastern Algonquian language went extinct in the late 19th century. Reverend Abraham Pierson translated the catechism into Quiripi in 1658. Reverend Ezra Stiles and Thomas Jefferson both collected word lists in the language.

Political structure
Historian Edward Manning Ruttenber suggested that the Quinnipiac were part of the Wappinger confederacy, but the colonist Daniel Gookin wrote that they were part of the Pequot. Their leader was called a sachem, and historians invented the term sachemdom to describe political units led by a sachem. The Totoket people were part of the Quinnipiac sachemdom. The Hammonasset were likely also part of the Quinnipiac sachemdom.

17th century
The Puritans established the first Indian Reservation in 1638. Located near New Haven, Connecticut, the reserve was for the Quinnipiac, but only included 1,200 acres, a small portion of their original territory. The reservation's residents, described as "free" Indians, were placed under the authority of an English agent. They were not allowed to sell or abandon that land, and Native peoples from other tribes were not allowed to visit.

From around 1651 to 1669, Reverend Abraham Pierson, a Congregational minister, proselytized the Quinnipiac near Branford, Connecticut. He translated Christian texts into the Quiripi language. Missionization was not very successful, and the tribe showed "a perverse contempt" for the church.

18th century
In 1730, there were an estimated 250 to 300 Quinnipiac. In 1768, some Quinnipiac left their reservation and joined the Tunxi near Farmington, Connecticut. In 1774, only an estimated 38 Quinnipiac survived. They were part of the large Mahican tribe, whose descendants ultimately migrated to Wisconsin with the Stockbridge Munsee Community and Brotherton Indian Community.

title: Quinnipiac


text:
Phalloidin

Phalloidin belongs to a class of toxins called phallotoxins, which are found in the death cap mushroom (Amanita phalloides). It is a rigid bicyclic heptapeptide that is lethal after a few days when injected into the bloodstream. The major symptom of phalloidin poisoning is acute hunger due to the destruction of liver cells. It functions by binding and stabilizing filamentous actin (F-actin) and effectively prevents the depolymerization of actin fibers. Due to its tight and selective binding to F-actin, derivatives of phalloidin containing fluorescent tags are used widely in microscopy to visualize F-actin in biomedical research.

Discovery and background
Phalloidin was one of the first cyclic peptides to be discovered. It was isolated from the death cap mushroom and crystallized by Feodor Lynen and Ulrich Wieland in 1937. Its structure is unusual in that it contains a cysteine-tryptophan linkage to form a bicyclic heptapeptide. This linkage had not been characterized before and makes the structure elucidation of phalloidin significantly more difficult. They determined the presence of the sulfur atom using UV spectroscopy and found that this ring structure had a slightly shifted wavelength. Raney nickel experiments confirmed the presence of sulfur in the tryptophan ring. The researchers found the desulfurized phalloidin was still circular, which demonstrated that the structure of phalloidin is normally bicyclic. Once linearized, the amino acid sequence of de-sulfurized phalloidin was elucidated through Edman degradation by Wieland and Schön in 1955.

Due to its high affinity for actin, scientists discovered its potential use as a staining reagent for effective visualization of actin in microscopy. Derivatives conjugated with fluorophores are sold widely. Because of its ability to selectively bind filamentous actin (F-actin) and not actin monomers (G-actin), fluorescently labeled phalloidin is more effective than antibodies against actin.

Biosynthesis
Phalloidin is a bicyclic heptapeptide containing an unusual cysteine-tryptophan linkage. The gene coding for synthesis of phalloidin is part of the MSDIN family in the Death Cap mushroom and codes for a 34 amino acid propeptide. A proline residue flanks the seven-residue region that will later become phalloidin. After translation, the peptide must be proteolyticly excised, cyclized, hydroxylated, Trp-Cys cross-linked to form tryptathionine, and epimerized to form a D-Thr. The order and exact biochemical mechanism for these steps is not yet fully understood. The current belief is that the necessary biosynthetic genes are clustered near the MSDIN genes.

The first post-translational modification of the 34-mer is proteolytic cleavage via a prolyl oligopeptidase (POP) to remove the 10-amino acid "leader" peptide. The POP then cyclizes the heptapeptide Ala-Trp-Leu-Ala-Thr-Cys-Pro by transpeptidation between amino acid 1 (Ala) and amino acid 7 (Pro). It is believed that the formation of tryptathionine through Trp-Cys cross-linking occurs next.

Chemical synthesis
Since phalloidin is exploited for its ability to bind and stabilize actin polymers but cells cannot readily uptake it, scientists have found phalloidin derivatives to be more useful in research. Essentially, it follows typical small peptide synthesis, using hydroxyl-proline. The major difficulty in synthesis is the formation of the tryptathionine bond (cysteine - tryptophan cross-linkage).

Below is the general synthetic mechanism carried out by Anderson et al. in 2005 for the solid phase synthesis of ala7-phalloidin, which differs at residue 7 from phalloidin as indicated below. THPP stands for tetrahydropyranyl polystyrene linker, which is used to connect the molecule with the solid support during synthesis. Note that the synthesis below is simply a general scheme to show the order of bond formation to connect the starting materials. Ala7-phalloidin as well as many other similar variants of phalloidin are useful to increase cell uptake relative to phalloidin and to attach a fluorophore to aid in the visualization of F-actin in microscopy. The first total synthesis of phalloidin was achieved through a combination of solid phase and solution phase synthesis (Baosheng Liu and Jianheng Zhang, United States Patent, US 8,569,452 B2). The physical and chemical properties of the synthetic phalloidin are the same as the naturally occurring phalloidin.

Mechanism of action
Phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization and poisoning the cell. Phalloidin binds specifically at the interface between F-actin subunits, locking adjacent subunits together. Phalloidin, a bicyclic heptapeptide, binds to actin filaments much more tightly than to actin monomers, leading to a decrease in the rate constant for the dissociation of actin subunits from filament ends, which essentially stabilizes actin filaments through the prevention of filament depolymerization. Moreover, phalloidin is found to inhibit the ATP hydrolysis activity of F-actin. Thus, phalloidin traps actin monomers in a conformation distinct from G-actin and it stabilizes the structure of F-actin by greatly reducing the rate constant for monomer dissociation, an event associated with the trapping of ADP. Overall, phalloidin is found to react stoichiometrically with actin, strongly promote actin polymerization, and stabilize actin polymers.

Phalloidin functions differently at various concentrations in cells. When introduced into the cytoplasm at low concentrations, phalloidin recruits the less polymerized forms of cytoplasmic actin as well as filamin into stable "islands" of aggregated actin polymers, yet it does not interfere with stress fibers, i.e. thick bundles of microfilaments. Wehland et al. also notes that at higher concentrations, phalloidin induces cellular contraction.

Symptoms
Soon after its discovery, scientists injected phalloidin into mice and discovered its LD50 is 2 mg/kg via IP injection. When exposed to the minimum lethal dose, it took several days for these mice to die. The only apparent side effect of phalloidin poisoning is extreme hunger. This is because phalloidin is only taken up by the liver via bile salt membrane transport proteins. Once inside the liver, phalloidin binds F-actin, preventing its depolymerization. It takes time for this process to destroy the liver cells. The kidneys can also take up phalloidin, but not as effectively as the liver. Here, phalloidin causes nephrosis.

Use as an imaging tool
The properties of phalloidin make it a useful tool for investigating the distribution of F-actin in cells by labeling phalloidin with fluorescent analogs and using them to stain actin filaments for light microscopy. Fluorescent derivatives of phalloidin have turned out to be enormously useful in localizing actin filaments in living or fixed cells as well as for visualizing individual actin filaments in vitro. A high-resolution technique was developed to detect F-actin at the light and electron microscopic levels by using phalloidin conjugated to the fluorophore eosin which acts as the fluorescent tag. In this method known as fluorescence photo-oxidation, fluorescent molecules can be utilized to drive the oxidation of diaminobenzidine (DAB) to create a reaction product that can be rendered electron dense and detectable by electron microscopy. The amount of fluorescence visualized can be used as a quantitative measure of the amount of filamentous actin there is in cells if saturating quantities of fluorescent phalloidin are used. Consequently, immunofluorescence microscopy along with microinjection of phalloidin can be used to evaluate the direct and indirect functions of cytoplasmic actin in its different stages of polymer formation. Therefore, fluorescent phalloidin can be used as an important tool in the study of actin networks at high resolution.

Uses and limitations
Phalloidin is much smaller than an antibody that would typically be used to label cellular proteins for fluorescent microscopy which allows for much denser labeling of filamentous actin and much more detailed images can be acquired particularly at higher resolutions.

Unmodified phalloidins do not permeate cell membranes, making them less effective in experiments with living cells. Derivatives of phalloidin with greatly increased cell permeability have been synthesized.

Cells treated with phalloidins exhibit a number of toxic effects and frequently die. Furthermore, it is important to note that phalloidin-treated cells will have greater levels of actin associated with their plasma membranes, and the microinjection of phalloidin into living cells will change actin distribution as well as cell motility.

title: Phalloidin