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Bondage positions and methods

Bondage in BDSM is the activity of tying or restraining people using equipment such as chains, cuffs, or collars for mutual erotic pleasure. According to the Kinsey Institute, 12% of females and 22% of males respond erotically to BDSM.

A number of bondage positions and methods are used in rope bondage and other BDSM activities. Ropes are a common element of these positions, although straps, webbing, chains, hooks, manacles, spreader bars, collars, common furniture, purpose-built frames, various gags and monogloves may also be used. The ties and frictions often are variants of Japanese bondage, shibari and kinbaku from where they derived.

Ball tie
The ball tie is a bondage position in which a person is bound into a ball position with the knees against the shoulders. A ball position (also called a fetal position) can be tightly bound so that the legs are also bent double so the heels press against the buttocks; the legs must be brought up so that the thighs are pressed against the chest. Pressing the thighs tightly against the abdomen may restrict breathing.

The hands may be tied either in front or behind the back, however behind the back is more typical. If behind, there may also be elbow bondage, or the arms may be in a reverse prayer position, with ropes round the arms and torso (or arms and legs) to hold the arms firmly against the back. If in front, the arms may be tied hugging the legs, or possibly with each wrist bound to the opposite elbow. The ankles may also be tied together, as well as the knees. Typically, the ankles are tied to the thighs in a frogtie.

Sometimes the submissive wears high-heeled shoes and has ropes wrapped round the heels and fixed to the wrists. This adds to the visual impact, and should be used as a supplement to other secure bondage. Under strain, the shoes may come off or the heels may break off. When tied this way, the shoes cannot be removed.

The head may be pulled back in some way, such as in head bondage. However, purists argue that this goes against the idea of binding into a ball. Alternatively, the head can be pulled forward to force the chin to press against the chest.

The position can be stringent while stimulating. At the same time, it is comfortable and the subject may remain in it for quite some time.

The ball tie is one of the positions possible in self-bondage. The mobility is limited so extra independent escape mechanisms should be used over and above the usual bondage precautions.

Hogtie bondage

Hogtie bondage requires all four limbs to be tied together behind the back. It typically involves connecting a person's wrists and ankles behind the back using some form of physical restraints such as rope or cuffs, but may in some BDSM contexts also refer to the binding of arms and legs behind the back. The binding may be loose with the ankles and wrists some distance apart, or more stringent with all four bound together even with the wrists and ankles crossing and being cinched to the knee or shoulder harness.

A classic western hogtie would be made more stringent by binding together the elbows and binding together the knees.

A variation of the hogtie involves tying bound wrists to frogtied legs, providing the dominant easier access to the submissive's crotch for sexual play.

Safety
The hogtie position places pressure on the abdomen of the tied person, which may create difficulty in breathing known as postural asphyxia. Care should be taken to ensure the person being bound can breathe easily throughout all stages of play. This is particularly important if gags, collars or rope are used to create a more stringent tie.

Crab tie
The submissive's wrists are tied to the ankles, and the elbows attached to the knees. It is restrictive, allowing only the opening and closing of the legs and some rolling.

Shrimp tie (ebi)
A shrimp tie (海老責め) (also known as an ebi (海老) or a kuri (繰り)) is a type of Kinbaku bondage. A chest tie, such as a box tie, is constructed. The participant sits cross-legged, and the ankles are tied together using a single column tie. The rope is looped over the participants neck (or chest harness), and back to the ankles; this is then progressively tightened, bringing the ankles up to the head.

Due to the forced bent-down position of the upper body, this position sends a burning sensation through the body if the subject remains in it for a long time. As the knees are widely spread, the position resembles the legs of a prawn or shrimp.

The shrimp tie originated over 300 years ago in 1742 in Japan as a torture and interrogation technique.

Variations

 * Knees are bound inward to further restrict movement
 * The ankles are tied to the neck instead of the chest harness

All variations have the crossed position of the ankles in common.

Reverse shrimp tie
A Gyaku ebi: A chest tie, such as a box tie, is constructed. The participant sits cross-legged, and the ankles are tied together using a single column tie. The participant is moved onto their stomach, and the rope is passed from ankles along the back, pulling them and securing them to the buttocks. This is also called the Japanese hog-tie.

Rope harness
A bondage rope harness (sometimes referred to as a bondage web, rope web, rope dress, or karada) is a binding which involves the tying of an intricate structure of rope around the body in a complex web-like fashion.

A rope harness is similar in effect to a leather bondage harness, in that both are not in themselves normally used to bind a person, but are used to apply pressure over the area bound and can provide securing points for other bondage techniques, including suspension bondage.

A rope harness uses around 10–15 m of rope to tie, and involves multiple passes of rope from front to back around the body to build up the characteristic diamond-shaped rope pattern. It typically starts from a rope halter, the double rope with four specifically placed overhand knots falls down the body, and is pulled loosely beneath the crotch and up to the back of the neck halter. The single strands are then passed from back to front, looping into the stem or using Munter hitches. In some cases, a rope harness may extend beyond the torso, into diamond-patterned webs that extend down the length of the arms or legs.

Though a rope harness is not normally used to bind the limbs, it can be used for that purpose by simply going around the arms rather than under. A rope harness can be used with a crotch rope or a shinju ("pearl") breast harness.

Japanese karada
The Japanese term shibari means simply "a tie", while kinbaku is a decorative tie; where the aim is to produce a beautiful rope pattern around the body. The Japanese term karada means simply "body". Traditionally, a distinction was made between kikkou ("turtle-shell" pattern; hexagonal) and hishi (diamond) patterned ties, although many modern sources just use the term kikkou to refer to any rope body harness.

Crotch rope
A crotch rope (known in Japanese bondage as Matanawa, Sakura  or Sukaranbo  ) is a rope that passes between the labia to apply painful or pleasurable pressure to the vulva. The rope is anchored by being tied around the waist. A crotch rope is most commonly made of hemp or jute, but webbing, straps or a harness are also used. It is sometimes combined with other bondage techniques including predicament bondage.

A crotch rope may be tied over clothing or directly onto the skin; it can be worn under clothing or in full view. While crotch ropes are most commonly used on women, variations exist for use on men. A crotch rope can also be used as an unsophisticated type of chastity belt.

Technique

A crotch rope may consist of either a single line running between the legs to stimulate the genitals, or two lines running either side of them to leave them exposed. In the former case, the rope may pass between the labia majora or deeper through the pudendal cleft of the vulva. Knots can be tied in the rope to apply specific pressure to the anus or clitoris. A crotch rope is usually fixed in place by tying it to a rope around the waist just above the hips or by tying the two ends to a fixture. Crotch ropes are sometimes used in BDSM activities, especially on female submissives, most commonly as a part of tease and denial. A crotch rope is sometimes combined with the damsel in distress pose used in silent films, where the arms are tied together behind the back at the elbows and wrists, and the legs are tied together at the knees and ankles.

Variations
For abrasion play if the rope is not tied to the waist it can be moved forward and backward between the labia or the subject can be made to walk across it.

The ropes may be wrapped tightly around the waist and tied off in front, fed down across the genitals, then pulled back up behind and tied to other cords wrapped around the wrists, doubling as a cinch to tighten them further. This allows the rope bound person some ability to vary pressure on the genitals (often causing sexual stimulation) at the cost of reduced freedom of movement. If such a cord is pulled extremely tight the wrists and arms will have very little freedom of movement particularly when combined with elbow bondage and the hands will be firmly forced in contact with the buttocks.

Frogtie
The frogtie is a lower-body bondage position in which a person's legs are bent fully at the knees. They are bound separately ankle-to-thigh, and also just behind the knee, in the likeness of a crouched frog. The knees may be left free, closely together or widely spread. This is the starting point of many other ties.

This tie places the person in a position where they are vulnerable but not completely immobilized and can still move about, albeit in an awkward crawling motion. The frogtie, with the person restrained so, can also be used as a restrictive sex position or as a basis for more restrictive bondage. The bound person's wrist tie can also be tethered to some sort of immovable ring by an arbitrary length of cord, allowing some limited freedom of movement while preventing escape. Kinbaku enthusiasts could use a futumomo tie.

The wrists on each side are often then tied to the ankle/thigh combination on their respective sides, although it is possible to tie each wrist to the opposite ankle and make the position noticeably more strict.

In a similar position, the person's wrists are simply bound to their corresponding ankles. However, that position cannot be fully considered as a frogtie, because it does not match the "bound ankle-to-thigh" condition.

Positions of the legs
The legs may be tied together, sometimes described as the "virgin position", or apart, known as the "slut position". The submissive can be standing, kneeling, sitting, or have the knees drawn up to the chest. The standing position may be relaxed, on tiptoe, or, at the most extreme, en pointe. A common technique in Japanese bondage is for the bound person to stand on one leg while the ankle of the other leg is bound to the standing thigh. This is a form of asymmetric bondage and the lack of balance is disorientating for the subject.

Lotus position
Some more flexible submissives are comfortable sitting in the yoga lotus position.

Box tie
The box tie is a tie of the chest and upper arms, and is combined to create with ties of the lower limbs as a component or variation of other ties. Both arms are supported in parallel behind the back by a core and made immobile by a tensioned rope connecting the midpoint of the upper arms.

The TK wrap or shibari box tie, gote shibari, is a single column tie of the upper body. It is also called a takate kote. The forearms are placed in parallel high behind the back. This forms the starting point for the tie that has a top rope that encircles the torso and arms just below the shoulder, tying back to a central point, creating a stem down to the forearms. This is the distinguishing feature of the box-tie. A lower rope encircles the arms and torso at a midpoint between the upper rope and elbow, tying back to the stem.

TK wraps are used in suspension bondage, and if the ropes are misplaced the body weight can crush the radial nerve leading to the serious and possibly irreversible condition known as wrist drop. There is no absolutely safe position for the top wrap; the mid-point gap between the triceps and the deltoid muscles is the most problematic.

Variants
The cross-chest boxtie replaces the top rope by one that passes over the shoulder and back under the opposite arm, reverses tension and then repeats over the other shoulder.

A more strenuous alternative is the elbows together tie, which can lead to a strappado, or the reverse-prayer ties The over-arm (Hasenohren) or bunny ears ties, method is another way of restraining the hands.

The Star Harness restrains the arms. There is also the Pentagram (Star Harness).

Breast bondage
Breast bondage is a bondage technique which involves the tying of rope around a woman's breasts in a visually intricate and decorative pattern. Breast bondage most commonly uses rope, but webbing, straps, a bondage harness or bondage tape may also be used.

Breast bondage often focuses on the decorative, aesthetic and erotic aspects of the result, and not on immobilization of the female subject. However, breast bondage can be combined with other techniques which restrict the subject's mobility and can provide securing points for other bondage plays, such as crotch rope and breast torture. Hence it can be used as an expression of dominance and submission as well as an aesthetic kink.

Technique
Breast bondage can be applied over clothing or directly to the skin, and can be worn under clothing or in full view. 1/4 in rope, ribbon, or leather straps can be used.

The basic breast bondage technique, sometimes known as circling, involves tying ropes around the base of the breasts, causing them to bulge outwards. Usually, the same rope is used for both breasts so that the rope harness is automatically held together at the front. The rope may then also be fixed behind the back, to make a sort of bra. The technique is most suitable for breasts that are C cup or larger.

Another technique is to put a rope around the torso just above the breasts, and another one just below them, then push the ropes together to squeeze the breasts from the top and bottom. This can be done instead of, or as well as, the other method. A rope can also be passed over the shoulders and between the breasts, drawing the rope above and below the breasts together, then pass back over the shoulders to the knots at the back. The primary rope can be used to place cinches between the arms and the body.

Shinju
Shinju is a traditional Japanese breast bondage technique in which a rope is tied above, below and between the breasts, and also forms a halter over the shoulders and around the neck. The term Shinju (from the Japanese 真珠 meaning pearl) is a euphemism to refer to the binding of female breasts. It has been popularly claimed that "shinju" is an authentic Japanese term for a "bikini harness". However, no such tie called a "shinju" is found in historic or present kinbaku.

The basic or foundational kinbaku form of binding the arms and breasts is known as the Ushiro Takatekote, which is to bind the arms behind (ushiro) the back in a box arm position (takate kote). This basic box arm tie, originally found in the samurai martial art of hojōjutsu (捕縄術) or Nawajutsu, (縄術) evolved into its erotic usage at the end of the 19th century and early 20th century, and is the foundation of most other kinbaku ties.

Combination with other techniques
Sometimes, breast bondage is combined with other bondage techniques. For example, the woman's arms can be tied behind her back, in an elbow or box tie or in a reverse prayer position. When combined with breast bondage, bound arms force the woman's chest and breasts to protrude further. When combining breast and arm bondage, the ropes can draw the ropes above and below the breasts together at the sides of the breasts as they pass under the shoulders and behind the neck, thus resulting in rope effectively surrounding the breasts.

Breast bondage can play an integral part in suspension bondage. If the subject is being suspended, particularly in a horizontal position such as a suspended hogtie, breast bondage is used as the main supporting area under the chest.

Positions of the arms
To describe a rig, a whole vocabulary has evolved. When the arms are crossed over the chest like a mummy: this is Egyptian, if they touch the opposite shoulders: this is a double-V. When both wrists are secured together behind the waist: this is a strappado. When a wrist is pulled behind the back and up to the opposing shoulder we have a hammerlock. When the wrists are in front of the body and the elbows tied with a spreader bar behind: this is a waitress. This hands may be on the head, or behind the neck or in an over-arm tie. They may be on the soles of the feet, on the ankles, on the opposite ankles on the knees, to the side crossed in front or holding the opposite elbow.

Captive tie
A captive tie or over-arm tie (Kotobu	Ryo-tekubi), is a bondage position in which a person's wrists are fastened behind the person's head using some form of physical restraints, such as rope or cuffs to which is attached a length of rope, chain or strap the other end of which is attached to a belt at the waist or other anchoring point.

People who practice rope bondage see this as a short term or temporary tie, to be used to restrain the submissive while moving to another room, or a warm up introductory tie. It is not inescapeable. This simple over-arm tie is sometimes used in sexual foreplay and in tickling games where it prevents the submissive from protecting their ticklish spots.

The wrists are tied together in front with a double column tie. They are taken over the head and the rope falls down the centre of the back. It is passed around the lower chest and looped around itself, it is reversed and the fall is tightened and centred, the rope passes back in front of the chest and is locked off at the centre back. Spare rope can be passed up to wrists tightening the tie. To use this as a permanent tie, the tension is reduced and a further rope is passed between the upperarms, closing the space under the elbows. The over-arm tie may be used as a part of more complicated bondage. For example, the back rope can be passed between the legs and fastened in front, forming a crotch rope. The wrists may be tied to the upper arms with any desired tension, from a loose tie to a strict tie where the wrists are almost touching the upper arms. The over-arm tie can be combined with other techniques which restrict the subject's mobility further, such as hogtie bondage, frogtie or the shrimp tie for the legs, or by securing the tied wrists to a fixed frame. In this position, the elbows stick out on each side, level with the head, with the hands tied behind the head.

Shouldering the rifle
Teppō shibari (Japanese: 鉄砲縛り)

This is an asymmetric arm tie, where one arm is taken behind the back, and the other arm is taken over the shoulder.

Reverse prayer
The reverse prayer position, a technique used in BDSM play, involves restraint of a person's arms by binding them behind the person's back, with the hands placed between the shoulders, with the fingers of both hands straight, extended, and the palms of the hands touching each other. The wrists are bound together. It is similar to the traditional prayer position, but with the arms behind, rather than in front of, the bound person, thus preventing use of the arms. Someone bound in the position may need careful monitoring. Many people find the position painful after a time, and cramps may set in.

To immobilize the arms further, ropes or a strap are often placed round the arms and torso, pressing the arms against the back. On a woman, this can conveniently be linked to ropes for breast bondage. Another technique is to fix ropes from the elbows to a belt or other ropes round the body.

In bondage fiction, people in this position are sometimes forced to have their elbows touching, turning this into a form of elbow bondage. Very few people can adopt this position without dislocation of the shoulders. However, with many people, it is possible to press the elbows together slightly and tie them in that position.

The reverse prayer position (without any bondage) is also used in some yoga exercises.

Head bondage
Head bondage, in BDSM play, includes all techniques used to apply control to the head of the subject. It may refer to one of several techniques:

 * It may refer to the use of rope or other material to achieve control of the head. In particular, it may refer to pulling the head backwards by hair bondage or a rope attached to the back or top of a hood or head harness.  It is also possible to use a rope attached to a blindfold or gag, but this is usually less secure and may cause excessive pressure on a small part of the face; in particular, with a gag, the corners of the mouth may be injured.
 * It may refer to encasing the head in a bondage hood, a head harness (a device made of interconnected straps designed to encircle the human head), a box, or the use of a device such as a Scold's bridle (also referred to as a branks). A head harness may include a blindfold and/or gag. The encasement may include or be supplemented by a wide, stiff posture collar round the neck to restrict movement of the head.

The straps of a head harness are generally secured by buckles that fasten at the back of the head. Head harnesses are most commonly used to provide points of attachments to secure various kinds of gags, such as ball gags, bit gags, muzzle gags and ring gags, although they also have other uses, such as providing attachment points for other forms of bondage, or may be used simply for their psychological effect. Head harnesses may also function as a gag by themselves, by restricting the ability to open the mouth, or have a mouth cover as an integral part.

Head harnesses, like many other forms of bondage, also have the effect of creating a sense of objectification and erotic helplessness in the wearer, which can be erotic for the wearer, or for those observing them. Many head harnesses are designed with straps that pass in front of the wearer's eyes, restricting their vision, and further increasing the sense of objectification and erotic subjugation. Some have full blindfolds.

Spread eagle
The spread eagle position is also employed as a bondage position in BDSM play, sometimes horizontally otherwise vertically and even upside down. This is a comfortable position, the submissive lies face up on their back with all four limbs secured to the furniture. Face down would be called prone. The ties can be slack allowing movement or more severe. The position allows for total front access, but none to the rear, so it excludes spanking games. Penetration is limited by the low angle.

X-cross
A standing or hanging spread eagle position can be achieved using equipment such as an X-cross (also referred to as Saint Andrew's cross) or spreader bars or with ropes or chains attached to different endpoints. As an erotic humiliation technique, it forces the subjects to display their genitals and to provide access to the crotch, groin or anal region.

Bondage furniture
Specialist bondage furniture with anchor points is manufactured. It encompasses cages, frames, stocks, chairs and tables. Standard household furniture can be discretely adapted. For instance, a bed can be adapted using a restraints kit; webbing attached to leather cuffs is placed under the mattress. A ladder back chair offers anchor points for binding the legs high in the air, or behind.

Strappado

Strappado bondage is a term describing a position and technique used in BDSM play. A person's arms are bound behind their back, then by use of some method of attachment such as a rope or chain that runs from their wrists to a securing point above, their arms are lifted behind them until the person is forced to bend forward. While the strappado bondage position is considered to be a form of BDSM play, it shares its basic principles of restraint with the method of torture and therefore can very easily become just that if not practiced safely.

Techniques
The different styles of the strappado bind can be summarized as follows and these can be combined with crotch ropes and breast bondage, gags or blindfolds. The exact technique used is very much related to the purpose of using this particular position in BDSM play:
 * legs apart – spreader bar or attachment points
 * legs together
 * knees bound together and ankles spread apart
 * elbows bound / not bound (see also armbinder)
 * rope around neck/collar pulling down to force increased bend (in the interests of safety, it is important to ensure that there is no pressure on the front of the neck)
 * hair bondage or other head bondage to pull head back

It intentionally reduces the subject's ability to struggle, as the body is placed in an awkward position such and any struggling on their part, could result in their losing balance. As a result, the subject chooses not to move for fear of falling over. It creates a sense of vulnerability in the subject's mind by exposing their buttocks and genital area. When the elbows are bound together, even for very flexible subject it is rarely possible to bind them to touch, for as arms are lifted towards a horizontal position, the shoulder joints shift into a different position preventing the usual movement that should occur when the elbows are drawn together. Irrespective of this any elbow bondage, even minor, applied in this manner may severely increase tension and pain.

The use of head bondage allows the subject's head to be pulled back to a front-facing position as opposed to hanging towards the floor and is often used to make the subject perform oral sex. In addition to the restrictiveness that this causes, if a suitable ring gag is used the subject may feel increasingly exposed to penetration and because the subject's head is facing down drooling may also occur.

The normal reaction of the subject is to increase the forward bending as the arms are lifted. By further lifting the arms beyond a critical point this may become too difficult or even physically impossible to continue without lifting themselves off the floor and force them to stand more upright and increase the strain on the shoulder joints. The subject can also be secured to e.g. a frame and ropes or chains substituted for other bondage devices. By completely immobilizing the subject's body the person in the dominant position can have complete and precise control over the tension and pain experienced. A form of predicament bondage is to tie one foot of the subject to the opposite thigh or another body part so they have to concentrate on not causing more pain. Their arms are raised to the point where they have to stand on their toes. To relieve pain in their foot they must lower their body and cause more pain in their shoulders. To relieve pain in their shoulders they must stand on tip-toes and cause more pain in their foot and leg. Another variation is to tie the subject's foot to a body part of another subject so they can relieve their own pain but increase it for the other subject.

With the breasts pointing towards the floor, the use of nipple clamps, possibly with weights attached, can be used to stimulate the subject with more pain.

Strappado bondage is most commonly used with the subject's feet on the ground. Very rarely will someone use this technique with their feet off the ground, because of the pain and possibly severe injury this can cause.

Due to the difficulty of maintaining this position, this type of BDSM play does not allow for long periods of being bound. Its major use is for sexual play with the bound subject. While bound like this, the subject is open to the use of various tools such as floggers, whips, etc., as well as general spanking. This position can also be used for sexual intercourse, or the use of vibrators and/or dildos to stimulate the bound person.

Precautions and safety
This bondage position is also used as a form of torture, therefore measures are usually taken to ensure that the subject bound in this position is not pushed beyond their physical capabilities. Any position that moves limbs into an extreme position and holds them there for an extended period of time can result in damage—sometimes permanent—to even the most flexible of people. It is possible, though very rare, for extreme iterations of this position to cause asphyxiation, as being suspended in this way can constrict the lungs and cause respiratory distress. Therefore, it is a technique to be performed with safety foremost in mind.

Suspension
Suspension bondage is a form of sexual bondage where a bound person is hung from one or more overhead suspension points. Suspension bondage is considered to carry a higher risk than other forms of sexual bondage and there is much attention to safety.

In partial suspension the person is bound in a way that part of their body weight is held by suspension ropes, cables or chains. The classic partial suspension position is to have the person balancing on one foot with part of their weight supported through a chest harness and the other leg pulled up in some direction. A person lying on their upper back with legs tied upwards to a suspension point to pull their lower back off the ground would also qualify as partial suspension.

In full suspension the person is completely supported by suspension ropes, cables or chains, and they have no contact with the ground. The position of the person's body in a full suspension may be horizontal, vertical or inverted; it is only limited by their endurance and the skill of the binder.

A small group practise self-suspension.

Rope and knots
Metal can be used for bondage ties with handcuffs, metal hobbles and spreader bars. The rope used for Japanese bondage is made from natural fibres such as hemp, it is prepared by boiling to make it soft, but it is coarse and binds to itself: there is a lot of friction, so the knots hold fast.

The two basic ties are the single-column tie, where the 'column' could be the end of a limb or an attachment point, and the double column tie which could be used to bind two limbs. They all start with a basic knot, and finish with securing the loose ends.

Danger and safety precautions
There is basic advice on precautions to take at a BDSM session. This includes never leaving the bound subject alone, never performing under the influence of alcohol or drugs and always having shears available to cut the rope in case there is an emergency.
 * Restricting the blood flow. The symptoms are numbness, temperature drop and color change. This happens gradually and tissue damage takes place slowly; if noticed and acted upon quickly, permanent damage is unlikely.
 * Most common is impaired venous return, as the veins are closest to the surface. The skin becomes red, then purple. This is avoided by the two finger rule; where the tie is loose enough for two fingers to be placed under the rope. This becomes dangerous around the head and around the male genitals.
 * Impaired arterial flow, which is difficult to achieve, is more dangerous and results in the limb going white.

 * Nerve damage is more serious, happens very quickly, is cumulative and often irreversible. Bondage practitioners should know the position of the nerves and place their rope to avoid them. Symptoms are pain, numbness or loss of feeling.
 * The lateral femoral cutaneous nerve in the leg and the radial nerve in the mid-upper arm area are common sites of nerve injury. The knees, elbows, groin, and armpits are places where major arteries, veins, and nerves are near the surface and should be subjected to only moderate pressure.

 * Asphyxiation is caused by restricting the airways round the neck and by compression of the lungs.
 * Suspension trauma leading to dizziness, nausea or fainting
 * Impact injuries due to falling.

title: Bondage positions and methods


text:
Talk:Frankopan family

2021-2023
Apparently someone's been posting this text or variants of it in the bottom of at least three Frankopan-related articles since 2021 (!):

Since it was done in such a copypasta manner, it should be reviewed by someone neutral before letting it stay there further. --Joy (talk) 15:05, 25 July 2023 (UTC)

license: Creative Commons - Attribution Share-Alike - https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

title: Talk:Frankopan family


text:
Kim Jae-gyu

Kim Jae-gyu (, April 9, 1924 – May 24, 1980) was a South Korean politician, army lieutenant general and the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency. He assassinated South Korean President Park Chung Hee—who had been one of his closest friends—on October 26, 1979, and was subsequently executed by hanging on May 24, 1980.

He remains a controversial figure with many contradictions: he is regarded by some as a patriot who ended Park's 18-year military dictatorship, and by others as a traitor who killed his long-time benefactor out of personal grievance. For many years, the latter was the prevailing view, but later revelations in the early 2000s about Kim's relationship with some leaders of the democracy movement prompted a re-evaluation in some circles.

Early life
Kim was born in Gumi, North Gyeongsang Province, Korea. He is the 27th generation descendant of Kim Moon-gi (김문기;金文起) who was the civil minister (문신;文臣), the loyalist (충신;忠臣) of King Danjong, and the one of Samjungsin (삼중신;三重臣) during the Joseon period. He graduated from Gyeongbuk University in 1945 and became a middle school teacher until the newly independent South Korean government established its military and created the Korea Military Academy, then called Joseon Defense Academy. He graduated from the Joseon Defense Academy in December 1946, the same year as Park Chung Hee, and from Army College in 1952. He served as a regimental commander in 1954 and as vice-president of the Army College in 1957, where Kim Gye-won was the president at the time. Later Kim Gye-won became Chief Presidential Secretary to President Park and was present at the scene of assassination. In 1961, when Park Chung Hee staged a military coup to seize power, Kim did not participate in the coup and was suspected of being a counterrevolutionary. He was temporarily detained until he was released on Park's order. He served Park's military dictatorship from then until his assassination of Park in 1979.

Park's dictatorship
During Park's dictatorship, Kim was appointed as the commander of 6th Division in 1963. When there was a widespread demonstration against the Korean-Japanese treaty in 1964, which Park pursued in secret and was widely regarded to be disadvantageous to Korean fishermen, Kim's Division was dispatched to Seoul to subdue student demonstrations. Kim's handling of the situation was said to have earned Park's trust and favor. On the other hand, it is also said that Kim refused to involve the Army in arrest of civilians and left the task to the police while instead ordering his troop to occupy itself with clean-up of streets and university campus. Afterward, he commanded Sixth Military District in 1966, Army Security Command in 1968 and the Third Army Group in 1971. While he was the commander of Army Security Command, a military organ whose chief function was to safeguard the dictatorship, Park ran for a third term in the 1971 presidential election. Kim persuaded Park to promise to voters that it would be his last term. He also opposed the formation of Hanahoe, a secret organization formed by Chun Doo-hwan and other young officers who took personal oaths of loyalty to Park and the group itself above all else, and criticized it as a private army. Eventually, Hanahoe staged a military coup under Chun's leadership after Park's assassination to seize power and drove out older generation of military generals.

While Kim was the commander of the Third Army Group in Kang-won Province, Park declared national emergency and martial law, dismissed the National Assembly and prohibited all political activities in October 1972. The purpose was to ratify the Yushin Constitution of 1972, which (a) abolished direct vote for presidential election and replaced it with indirect voting system involving delegates, (b) allotted one third of the National Assembly seats to the president, (c) gave the president the authority to issue emergency decrees and suspend the Constitution, (d) gave the president the authority to appoint all judges and dismiss the National Assembly and (e) repealed a term limit to presidency. In the 1971 election, Park had nearly lost to opposition leader Kim Dae-jung despite spending ten percent of the national budget on his reelection campaign. The Yushin Constitution was designed to guarantee his dictatorship for life. Indeed, Park was later re-elected as the president by a unanimous vote of approximately 2,000 delegates, who all became delegates themselves with Park's approval. According to Kim's subordinate officers at Third Army Group, Kim did not hide his displeasure at learning of the Yushin Constitution.

Yushin Constitution
After his arrest, Kim wrote in Chinese calligraphy that it took seven years to accomplish his resolution, suggesting that the Yushin Constitution turned him against Park. In his trial, he claimed that he planned to detain Park if the latter were to visit the Third Army Group base on his annual tour of army groups and force his resignation. According to Third Army Group operations chief of staff Oh Soo-choon, who was also Kim's brother-in-law, Kim installed fences around a small building in the base and set it up so that it would prevent exit from within rather than entry from outside. More significantly, Kim appears to have had a close relationship with Jang Jun-ha, widely respected leader of the democracy movement as a former Liberation Army officer, opposition lawmaker, and publisher of the monthly journal World of Ideology. According to Jang Ho-kweon, Jang's eldest son and current publisher of the journal, Jang told him that Kim was a patriotic soldier whom he would one day work together with for democracy. In 1979, Kim claimed to his lawyer that his first attempt to assassinate Park was on September 14, 1974, when he was appointed to be Construction Minister. A newsreel of this event shows something protruding in Kim's pocket when he shook hands with Park. According to the Reverend Yi Hae-hak, who was imprisoned with Jang Jun-ha when Jang was sentenced to fifteen years for creating a petition campaign against the Yushin Constitution, Jang knew of Kim's plan to assassinate Park and was very disappointed when it did not take place, uttering to himself, "Is it that great to be a minister?". After Jang died under suspicious circumstances while climbing a mountain in 1975, Kim secretly provided financial assistance to Jang's family. When Kim later became KCIA director in 1976, he told Jang's son with deep regret that Jang's death was not accidental as officially announced, but that the regime was involved.

According to Cardinal Kim Sou-hwan, another leading figure in democracy movement, Kim (then KCIA deputy director) came to see him whenever there was political crisis. In 1975, he asked Cardinal Kim to speak with President Park to come up with the "third way," that is, to somehow amend the Yushin Constitution in a way that was acceptable to Park. According to Cardinal Kim, Kim compared President Park to "a sick patient" who needed weak medicine initially. Kim believed that the Catholic cardinal was the only person who could speak frankly to Park without repercussion and was disappointed when the talk was essentially fruitless. Kim's association with two key figures of democracy movement - Jang Jun-ha and Cardinal Kim Sou-hwan - led some to reconsider Kim's motive in assassinating Park.

As Construction Minister (1974–1976), Kim promoted the entry of Korean construction companies into Saudi Arabia, increasing South Korean exports to the Middle East twenty-fold, from $45 million in 1973 to $900 million in 1976, making Saudi Arabia the fourth most important overseas market, and helping South Korea weather the 1973 oil crisis.

KCIA Director
On February 4, 1976, Kim was summoned by Park and was appointed as the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA), one of the most powerful and feared positions under Park's dictatorship. The KCIA was created in 1961 to coordinate both international and domestic intelligence activities including those of the military with primary aim of combating communism and North Korea. Since then, it was also used to suppress any domestic opposition to Park's regime using its broad powers to wiretap, arrest, and detain suspects without a court order. The KCIA was responsible for widespread violations of human rights in South Korea, engaging in torture, political murder, and kidnapping. It was also heavily involved in behind-the-scene political maneuverings to weaken the opposition parties using bribery, blackmail, threats, arrest, and/or torture of opposition lawmakers. Later Kim claimed that he did not want the position but thought that it would give him the best chance to persuade President Park and reform the Yushin system.

Kim's tenure as the KCIA director has many contradictions. On one hand, Kim asked Park to lift the Ninth Emergency Decree at least three times, which punished any criticism of the Yushin Constitution with a prison term of at least one year, until it was finally replaced with the Tenth Emergency Decree, which relaxed many restrictions of the Ninth Decree. He also released many activists and students who had been arrested under the Ninth Decree. Declassified U.S. diplomatic cables revealed that Kim was considered an unusual KCIA director who often spoke of democracy, and one of the more approachable figures who often carried Washington's messages on human rights to Park.

On the other hand, Kim was responsible for KCIA activities that took place during his tenure including the assassination of former KCIA director Kim Hyong-uk, political sabotage of the opposing New Democratic Party (NDP)'s internal election and the violent arrest of female workers of a wig company YH Trade. Nearly 200 women who worked for YH Trade held a sit-in demonstrations at the NDP headquarters when 2,000 policemen stormed the NDP headquarters on August 11, 1979. In the process, one female worker fell to her death and 52 people including 10 workers, 30 NDP members, and 12 journalists were injured, some requiring hospitalization. Furthermore, KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-Seop and Kim Gye-won testified in their trial after Park's assassination that Kim pursued firm action in the YH case, over the objection of subordinates, and that Kim wanted stronger measures than the Ninth Decree allowed. However, their claims are not thought to be credible since some other testimonies are demonstrably untrue and they needed to distance themselves from Kim.

1979 regime troubles
The last year of Park's rule was particularly turbulent with increasing opposition from the NDP, which was emboldened after winning the 1978 election by 1.1%, despite Park's complete control of media, money, and all institutions of the government. Because of the Yushin Constitution, which allowed Park to appoint one third of National Assembly seats, Park's Democratic Republican Party (DRP) remained in power. In May 1979, Kim Young-sam was elected as the chairman of the NDP, despite intense behind-the-scene maneuverings by KCIA to back Yi Chul-seung, a more pliable candidate. Under Kim Young-sam's leadership, the NDP took the hardline policy of never compromising or cooperating with Park until the repeal of Yushin Constitution, and took on direct confrontation in many issues, especially the aforementioned YH Trade case. After a violent arrest, Kim Young-sam warned that Park's murderous regime would soon collapse in the most wretched manner. Park was determined to remove Kim from the political scene like imprisoned Kim Dae-joong. In September 1979, the KCIA worked behind the scene to entice three NDP members to challenge Kim's election as NDP chairmanship in the court on technicality, and the court obliged by ordering the suspension of Kim's NDP chairmanship. The political tension intensified further when Kim Young-sam gave an interview with New York Times reporter Henry Stokes, in which he called on the United States to make a choice between the military dictatorship and the Korean people and stop supporting Park's regime. Park ordered Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly, which Kim Jae-gyu feared to be a disastrous path. On October 3, 1979, Kim Jae-gyu met Kim Young-sam, hoping to find a way to avoid such development. Having asked a reluctant Kim Young-sam to come to the KCIA "for the sake of the country", Kim Jae-gyu warned that Park's hostility toward him reached the point where it might not end with just expulsion or arrest and literally begged Kim Young-sam to just say that there was miscommunication with the interview. According to Kim Young-sam, when he refused, Kim Jae-gyu appealed that it would bring misfortune to the country, to Kim Young-sam and to Park. Indeed, Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly the next day led all 66 NDP lawmakers to submit their resignation to the National Assembly en masse and the United States to recall its ambassador to South Korea in protest. Uprisings broke out in Kim Young-sam's hometown in Busan on October 16, the second largest city in South Korea, resulting in arson of 30 police stations over several days. It was the largest demonstration since the days of President Syngman Rhee and spread to nearby Masan on October 19 and other cities, with students and citizens calling for repeal of the Yushin Constitution. Kim Jae-gyu went to Busan to investigate the situation and found that the demonstrations were not riots by some college students, but more like a "popular uprising joined by regular citizens" to resist the regime. He warned Park that the uprisings would spread to five other largest cities including Seoul. Park said that he himself would give an order to fire upon demonstrators if the situation got worse.

Rivalry between Kim and Cha
Kim's position, already under stress of the series of political crises of 1979, was further complicated by his rivalry with Cha Ji-cheol, chief of the Presidential Security Service, as well as a worsening relationship with Park. The rivalry stemmed largely from Cha's increasing encroachment into KCIA turf and arrogant behavior that belittled Kim Jae-gyu in public. Almost universally disliked and feared, Cha served Park in close proximity since 1974 and became his favorite and most trusted adviser in the process. Cha appropriated tanks, helicopters and troops from the Army so that the presidential security apparatus had a division-level firepower under Cha's direct command. Furthermore, he began to engage in political maneuverings with Park's blessing, which resulted in frequent clash with the KCIA. In the NDP's election for its chairman in 1979, KCIA backed Yi Chul-seung to prevent the election of hardliner Kim Young-sam, but Cha Ji-chul interfered in KCIA's political sabotage with his own behind-scene maneuverings. When Kim Young-sam was elected as the NDP chairman, Cha laid the blame on KCIA, which infuriated Kim. Later Cha pushed for Kim Young-sam's expulsion from the National Assembly, which Kim Jae-gyu feared to be a disastrous development. Cha easily bested his opponent as his hardline approach was favored by Park, and he blamed worsening development on Kim Jae-gyu's weak leadership of KCIA at every opportunity. As Cha came to control the scheduling of Park's meetings and briefings and thus access to the president, KCIA briefings, which were usually the first business in the morning, were pushed down to afternoons. By October, there were wide rumors that Kim Jae-gyu would be soon replaced as KCIA director.

Assassination of Park Chung-hee
On the day of assassination, Park and his entourage visited ribbon-cutting ceremonies for a dam in Sap-gyeo-cheon and a KBS TV transmitting station in Dang-jin. Kim Jae-gyu was expected to accompany him since the TV station was under KCIA jurisdiction, but Cha blocked him from riding in the same helicopter with President Park. Kim angrily excused himself from the trip.

After the trip, Park instructed the KCIA to prepare for one of his numerous banquets—on average there were ten per month according to KCIA Chief Agent Park Seon-ho, one of the conspirators—at a KCIA safe house in Gungjeong-dong, Jongno-gu, Seoul. It was to be attended by Park, Kim Jae-gyu, Cha, Chief Presidential Secretary Kim Gye-won, and two young women—rising singer Shim Soo-bong and a college student named Shin Jae-soon. When Kim Jae-gyu was notified of the banquet, he called Korean Army Chief of Staff Jeong Seung-hwa 15 minutes later to invite him to the KCIA safe house and arranged to have him dine with KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-seop in a nearby KCIA building in the same compound. Just before the dinner, Kim Jae-gyu told Chief Presidential Secretary Kim Gye-won that he would get rid of Cha. It is not clear whether Kim Gye-won misheard or misunderstood Kim Jae-gyu, or if he ignored his words.

During the dinner, volatile political issues including demonstrations in Busan and the opposition leader Kim Young-sam were discussed with Park, with Chief Cha taking a hardline and Kim Jae-gyu calling for moderate measures, while Chief Presidential Secretary Kim was trying to steer the topic of discussion to small talk. Park rebuked Kim Jae-gyu for not being repressive enough in dealing with protesters and Kim Young-sam, whom Park said should be arrested. Each time the discussion drifted to other subjects, Cha continued to bring up the inability of KCIA to end the crisis and suggested that demonstrators and opposition lawmakers should be "mowed down with tanks." The rebukes from Park and especially Cha riled up Kim Jae-gyu. Kim Jae-gyu left the dining room to convene with his closest subordinates—former Marine colonel and KCIA Chief Agent Park Seon-ho and Army colonel and Kim Jae-gyu's secretary Park Heung-ju (no relations)—and said to them: "The chief of staff and deputy director are here as well. Today is the day." When asked if Park was included as a target, Kim Jae-gyu said yes. Kim Jae-gyu reentered the room with a semi-automatic Walther PPK pistol, shot Cha in the arm and then Park in the left chest. He attempted to fire again on Cha, but the gun jammed. Cha fled to a bathroom adjacent to the dining room. Kim Jae-gyu came back with his subordinate's gun and again shot Cha, this time in the abdomen, and Park in the head, even though he was already dead. Upon hearing the initial shots, Park Seon-ho held two bodyguards in the waiting room at gunpoint and ordered them to put their hands up in hope of preventing further bloodshed, especially since he was a friend of one of the bodyguards. When the other bodyguard attempted to reach for a gun, Park fatally shot them both. At the same time, Colonel Park Heung-ju and two other KCIA agents stormed the kitchen and killed the remaining bodyguards. In the end, Park, Cha, three presidential bodyguards and a presidential chauffeur all died.

Aftermath
After killing Park, Kim Jae-gyu asked Chief Presidential Secretary Kim to secure the safe house, and ran to the nearby KCIA building where Army Chief of Staff Jeong Seung-hwa was waiting. Jeong heard the shootings and was discussing them with KCIA Deputy Director Kim Jeong-seop when Kim Jae-gyu came in breathless to tell them that an emergency situation had occurred. In the car, Kim Jae-gyu advised Jeong that Park had died, but without explaining how. Kim Jae-gyu hoped that Jeong and Chief Presidential Secretary Kim would support him in the coup as both were appointed to their positions on his recommendation, and Chief Presidential Secretary Kim was especially close with him. The car initially headed to KCIA Headquarters in Namsan district but eventually went to Army Headquarters in Yongsan district, since the Army would have to be involved in declaring emergency martial law. Many historians believe that Kim Jae-gyu made a critical mistake in not going to KCIA Headquarters, where he would have been in control. However, his failure to gain Jeong's support sealed the fate of the conspirators. Meanwhile, Chief Presidential Secretary Kim took Park's body to the Army hospital and ordered doctors to save him at all costs (without revealing Park's identity), and went to Prime Minister Choi Kyu-hah to reveal what happened that night. When Chief of Staff Jeong learned of what happened from Chief Presidential Secretary Kim, he ordered Major General Chun Doo-hwan, commander of Security Command to arrest Kim Jae-gyu and investigate the incident. Kim Jae-gyu was arrested after he was lured to a secluded area outside Army HQ on the pretext of meeting with Army Chief of Staff. Eventually, everyone involved in the assassination was arrested, tortured and later executed. Kim himself was hanged on May 24. In the process, Chun Doo-hwan emerged as a new political force by investigating and subordinating KCIA under his Security Command and later by arresting Jeong Seung-hwa, who had become the chief martial law administrator and Chief Secretary Kim on suspicion of conspiring with Director Kim, when Chun Doo-hwan seized power in the Coup d'état of December Twelfth 1979.

Kim is buried in a hillside cemetery in Neungpyeong-dong, Gwangju, Gyeonggi. On May 26, 2020, Kim's family filed a retrial request with the Seoul High Court seeking a retrial for Kim on the basis that the original investigation and trial were illegal and that Kim had been tortured.

title: Kim Jae-gyu


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Centre Wellington

Centre Wellington is a township in south-central Ontario, Canada, located in Wellington County. The primary communities are Elora and Fergus. The area is agricultural but also includes industries such as manufacturing. In the Canada 2016 Census, the population was stated as 28,191.

History
The township was established on January 1, 1999, by amalgamating Fergus, Elora, the Townships of Nichol, Pilkington, West Garafraxa and a part of Eramosa. Fergus and Elora, in particular, have interesting histories that started in the 1830s.

Communities
In addition to Fergus and Elora, the township includes several small communities, hamlets and villages including; Aboyne, Belwood, Creek Bank, Cumnock, Dracon, Ennotville, Inverhaugh, Living Springs, Oustic, Pentland Corners, Ponsonby, Salem, Shiloh, Simpson Corners, Speedside and Spier.

Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Centre Wellington had a population of $31,093$ living in $11,972$ of its $12,701$ total private dwellings, a change of NaN% from its 2016 population of $28,191$. With a land area of 409.41 km2, it had a population density of in 2021.

According to the 2011 Canadian Census, the median age was 42.7 years old, a bit higher than the national median at 40.6 years old. According to the 2011 National Household Survey, the median value of a dwelling in Centre Wellington was $300,625, a bit higher than the national average at $280,552. The median household income (after-taxes) in Centre Wellington was $66,764, higher than the national average at $54,089.

Most of Centre Wellington's population in 2011 was of European descent; the following is the racial breakdown:
 * 96.5% White
 * 2.1% Aboriginal; 1.4% First Nations, 0.7% Metis
 * 0.4% South Asian
 * 0.3% East Asian; 0.3% Chinese, 0.0% Korean, 0.0% Japanese
 * 0.2% Latin American'
 * 0.2% Black
 * 0.1% Southeast Asian; 0.1% Filipino
 * 0.0% Arab
 * 0.0% West Asian
 * 0.0% Multiracial; 0.7% including Metis
 * 0.2% Other

Economy

Centre Wellington is heavily agricultural but is also the home to industries, manufacturers, retailers, health care services and trades people. The local economy also benefits greatly from tourism. At the time of the 2011 census, 6.4% of the workforce of Centre Wellington was involved in agriculture and other resource-based industries/utilities, 24.8% in manufacturing and construction, 19.8% in health and education and 13.2% in wholesale and retail trade. The top three categories for employment (in order of importance) were in Manufacturing, Healthcare and Agriculture. The major employers in the township include Jefferson Elora Corp., Nexans Canada, Polycorp Ltd., Groves Memorial Hospital, Wellington Terrace and PR Donnelly. The average real estate value, for a single detached home in 2014 was $342,817 in Centre Wellington.

Many tourists visit Centre Wellington, especially Elora, on daytrips, attracted by the historic nature of the towns or the Grand River Raceway with horse racing and slot machines. Also at the edge of town, the Elora Gorge Conservation Area often fills to capacity on summer weekends. The park offers paddleboat rentals, hiking, camp-grounds, fishing and picnicking. Also operated by the Grand River Conservation Authority, the nearby Elora Quarry is a popular swimming area. The annual Elora Festival (2 weeks in July) is particularly popular; the headliner in 2017 was Gordon Lightfoot. The Elora mill, built in the 1830s, was a hotel until 2010. It was restored to luxury level and reopened as the Elora Mill Inn and Spa on July 6, 2018.

The township encourages the filming of movies and TV shows; quite a few productions have taken advantage of the historic look of Fergus and especially Elora for location work. For example, in 2016, parts of the 10-part mini-series, Canada: The Story of Us, were filmed in Elora which stood in for scenes of WW II skirmishes in Holland and France.

Local government
Township council includes a mayor and six councilors. Three of the latter live in Fergus while one lives in Elora. The Township is also represented on the County of Wellington Council which is made up of seven mayors and nine councilors. The head of this council is the Warden.

The township of Centre Wellington has an active historical society and operates the Wellington County Museum and Archives in a historic stone building in Aboyne, halfway between Elora and Fergus, Ontario. This two-storey Italianate stone building was the earliest known state-supported poorhouse or almshouse in Canada, called the Wellington County House of Industry and Refuge when it opened in 1877. Subsequently, the home switched to caring for the elderly and chronically ill, eventually closing in 1971. The building was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1995.

Climate
This township has a humid continental climate (Dfb) under the Köppen climate classification with cold winters and warm summers.

Sports
Centre Wellington recently expanded the community centre in Fergus which now has two ice pads, a pool, a hall and a gym. The complex plays host to the Centre Wellington Fusion & Mustangs minor hockey associations, the Centre Wellington Thistles jr C minor lacrosse team, the Center Wellington Mohawks minor Lacrosse association, and the Fergus Flippers aquatic club. The Elora arena plays host to the Elora Rocks Sr.A hockey team, the Elora Mohawks Jr.B lacrosse team, and The Edge Ringette association. The Inverhaugh Cricket Club is the only privately owned turf wicket in Canada used for cricket. Highland Park is the home to Centre Wellington Minor Softball Association which has been providing safe and fun softball to families in CW for decades. They now offer Softball to both kids AND Adults to better serve the entire family and keep the people of Centre Wellington active. Fergus is also home to the Highland Rugby Club and the Fergus-Elora District Soccer Club (FEDS).

Fergus Curling Club, Ontario's oldest continuously running Curling Club, was founded in 1834 by settlers from Scotland. Adam Fergusson was the first president. Matches were held outdoors until 1879 when an indoor rink was opened.

Media
Centre Wellington is covered by local newspapers, television and local radio through the following services:
 * The Wellington Advertiser
 * TVCogeco
 * EloraFergusToday
 * The Grand @ 101 (101.1 FM)

title: Centre Wellington


text:
User talk:67.38.138.130

Nomination of Death knight (Dungeons & Dragons) for deletion
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Users may edit the article during the discussion, including to improve the article to address concerns raised in the discussion. However, do not remove the article-for-deletion notice from the top of the article. TTN (talk) 14:44, 30 January 2020 (UTC)

title: User talk:67.38.138.130


text:
P. K. Balakrishnan

'''Panikkassery Keshavan "P.K." Balakrishnan''' (March 2, 1925 – April 3, 1991) was an Indian novelist and critic. A doyen of Malayalam literature, he is best known for his novel, Ini Njan Urangatte (And now, Let me Sleep), a novel based on Mahabharata as well as a number of critical studies which include Chandu Menon Oru Padanam, Novel Siddhiyum Sadhanayum, Kavyakala Kumaranasaniloode, and Ezhuthachante Kala: Chila Vyasabharatha Patanangalum. His Jathivyavasthayum Kerala Charitravum is a work in social history.

Kerala Sahitya Akademi awarded him their annual award for novel in 1974. He was also a recipient of the Vayalar Award and other honours.

Biography
P. K. Balakrishnan was born on March 2, 1925, at Edavanakad at Vypin island in Kerala to Keshavan and Mani Amma. After early schooling in Edavanakkad, he joined Maharaja's College, Ernakulam but his studies were disrupted after four years when he participated in Quit India Movement and was jailed.

Although he was released from jail in 1944 and resumed his studies, he could not complete it as he joined Kochi rajya prajamandalam to enter politics only to move to Kerala Socialist Party (KSP) soon. His association with KSP brought him into contact with Mathai Manjooran, a noted Indian independence activist and KSP leader as well as Vaikom Muhammad Basheer and M. K. Sanu, among others.

Later, he took up the editorship of Dinaparabha but he had to quit following a public speech he made at a temple in Kozhikode. Later, he became associated with such publications as Kerala Bhooshanam, Kerala Kaumudi and Madhyamam.

Balakrishnan died on April 3, 1991, at the age of 66.

Legacy
The first of Balakrishnan's published works was a book on Narayana Guru, which was a compilation of writings on Guru, including biographical sketches, narratives on Guru's activities and his literary contributions. This was followed by critiques Chandu Menon, Kumaran Asan and Ezhuthachan.

In his writings, he first dealt with Kerala history in the anthology on Narayana Guru, the great social reformer of Kerala who changed the face of its caste-ridden society. He brushes with Kerala history again to study why Tipu Sultan, an able ruler and administrator is perceived as an aggressor and a religious fanatic. The culmination of these studies over 3 decades was his work on the social history which departed from the established narration, titled Jaathivyavasthayum Kerala Charitravum (The Caste System and History of Kerala).

Pluto, Priyapetta Plutto, was his first novel, was a real life story about his own dog. His next novel, Ini Njan Urangatte, a Mahabharata inspired work, is considered by many to be his magnum opus. This novel, has been translated into English by K.C. Sarsamma under the title And Now Let Me Sleep. Two decades after P. K. Balakrishnan's death, his daughter P. K. Jayalekshmy has been made another English translation under the title Battle beyond Kurukshetra. Balakrishnan also wrote a number of articles, of which only four collections have been published; two of them were published after his lifetime.

Awards and honours
P. K. balakrishnan received the Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award for Novel in 1974 for his work, Ini Njan Urangatte. Four years later, the same novel fetched him another major award in the form of Vayalar Award of 1978. He received the Kerala History Association Award for the book, Jaathivyavasthithium Keralacharithravum. He was also a recipient of SPBF Award, Prof. Velayudhan Endowment Award and Kesari Award.

Works

 * Ini Njan Urangatte (And now, Let me Sleep) (1973) - A work originating from the great Indian epic Vyasabharatha (Mahabharath).
 * Jaathivyavasthithium Keralacharithravum (The Caste system and History of Kerala) (1983) - a work in Kerala history.
 * Keraleeyatayum Mattum (The Essence of Kerala etc.) (2004) - a collection of 20 articles published in various periodicals over a time
 * Ini Njan Urangatte (And now, Let me Sleep) (1973) - A work originating from the great Indian epic Vyasabharatha (Mahabharath).
 * Jaathivyavasthithium Keralacharithravum (The Caste system and History of Kerala) (1983) - a work in Kerala history.
 * Keraleeyatayum Mattum (The Essence of Kerala etc.) (2004) - a collection of 20 articles published in various periodicals over a time
 * Ini Njan Urangatte (And now, Let me Sleep) (1973) - A work originating from the great Indian epic Vyasabharatha (Mahabharath).
 * Jaathivyavasthithium Keralacharithravum (The Caste system and History of Kerala) (1983) - a work in Kerala history.
 * Keraleeyatayum Mattum (The Essence of Kerala etc.) (2004) - a collection of 20 articles published in various periodicals over a time
 * Keraleeyatayum Mattum (The Essence of Kerala etc.) (2004) - a collection of 20 articles published in various periodicals over a time
 * Keraleeyatayum Mattum (The Essence of Kerala etc.) (2004) - a collection of 20 articles published in various periodicals over a time

title: P. K. Balakrishnan


text:
V. K. N.

Vadakkke Koottala Narayanankutty Nair, commonly known as V.K.N. (7 April 1929 – 25 January 2004), was a prominent Malayalam writer, noted mainly for his highbrow satire. He wrote novels, short stories and political commentaries. His works are noted for their multi-layered humour, trenchant criticism of the socio-political classes and ability to twist the meanings of words contextually and lend a touch of magic to his language.

Biography
A native of Kerala in south India, V.K.N. was born on 7 April 1929 in Thiruvilwamala in Trichur district (now Thrissur). (C. P. Nair, one of his close friends, tells that V.K.N's correct date of birth is 7 April 1929.) After completing his matriculation, he joined the Malabar Devaswom Board and worked there for 9 years. Like a number of modern Malayalam writers such as O. V. Vijayan, V.K.N. spent many years in New Delhi (from 1959 to 1969) as an English journalist. The experiences he gained during these years, which coincided with the nascent post-independent India, are reflected in his book, Pitamahan (The Great Grandfather). V.K.N.'s first story Parajithan was published in the October 1953 issue of Mathrubhumi Weekly.

Personal life
V.K.N was married to Vedavathi Amma. They had a son Balachandran & a daughter Ranjana.

Literary life
VKN's entry into Malayalam literature was in 1950s. Like for many others, his first love had been poetry. Though, before long, he gave it up, he kept up this adolescent infatuation all through his life. And he could quote from the Megasandesha or the Ramayanam chambu as quickly and effortlessly as he could from a new generation poet. This textual proficiency did not confine to poetry or literature alone. It was generic. Anything from under the sun, from contemporary politics to primitive occultism, from modern astrophysics to Chanakya's Arthashastra, or from Das Kapital to Kamasutra, was a narrative device for him, which he brought into play in his stories and novels.

It was in the 1960s that VKN came to prominence as a writer. But, by then he had left Kerala for New Delhi, where he spent about 10 years as a journalist. The New Delhi of the 1960s had a defining role in modern Malayalam literature. It was the group of young writers who happened to come together on various professional engagements in the country's capital that made Malayalam literature, fiction in particular, what it is today. Prominent among whom were O.V. Vijayan, M. Mukundan, George Varghese Kakkanadan and M. P. Narayana Pillai. VKN "landed" in this circle. These writers used to meet regularly to thrash out literature, politics or whatever else was the topic of the day – a preparation that capacitated them to accomplish new heights in writing.

As might be expected, VKN became an unfailing member of that collective. Those interactions, evidently, helped him be conversant with the latest developments in literature and consummate his style that is full of vim and vigour. Also, it could be that it was from those gatherings that he picked out many of his prototypical characters, especially the quick-witted, but hard-up "hero", Payyan (The Guy) of his seminal work, Payyan Kathakal (The Stories of Payyan), who made inroads into the higher echelons of power and wealth using nothing but his sharp intelligence and winning demeanour.

The Delhi life in 1960s had significantly contributed to framing VKN's social outlook as well. The institutionalisation of unscrupulous political manipulations, power brokerage, corruption and the murky dealings in the corridors of power; all that to which he became a silent, nonetheless alert, head-on witness deepened his distrust of the entire social and political order. And, what he did was to make them materials for a laugh that begot another laugh, which finally spread across our body, mind and intellect. For that reason, he was labelled "humorist". He called his novels "Pennpada", "Manchal" and "Pithamahan" "historical satires", a new genre he created.

VKN's important works are Pithamahan (The Great Grandfather), Arohanam, which literally means "The Ascend" but "Bovine Bugles" in the author's own translation, Adhikaram (The Power), Payyan Kathakal (The Stories of Payyan), Sir Chathuleecock, Kavi (The Saffron), Chathans, and Chitrakeralam (Kerala Pictures). "Humour", in none of these works, did mean just a laugh. Certainly, he made use of all that is available in the repertoire of humour: irony, satire, parody and burlesque. But, be it about the misuse of power, the abuse of female body, the libertinism of the affluent, or about the fate of the poor of the day; his narration was historically and politically many-voiced. Nothing escaped his keen-eyed scrutiny by which he puzzled readers as to how they should take it; laugh, cry or get agitated. His humour, in substance, was a lamentation on human fallacies. And, just like that, a resistance to authoritarianism of all sorts. He dispassionately chronicled the transition of society from one phase to another. And "laughed" because, like his favourite character Payyan, "he could not cry".

Death
He died on 25 January 2004 at his residence in Thiruvilwamala. He was 74. He was ailing for some time. The last rites were performed at Pambadi on the banks of the Bharathappuzha.

Novels

 * Arohanam (V.K.N. himself translated this work into English with the title Bovine Bugles)
 * Pithamahan
 * Adhikaram
 * Anantharam
 * Asuravani
 * Penpada
 * Kaavi
 * General Chathans
 * Manchal
 * Syndicate
 * Orazhcha

Collections of short stories

 * Payyan Kathakal
 * Sir Chathuvinte Ruling
 * Hajyaru
 * Mananchira Test
 * V. K. N. Kathakal
 * Ambathu Kathakal
 * Oru Nooru Mini Kathakal
 * Ayyaayiravum Kooppum
 * Naanuaru
 * Payyan
 * Kaalaghattathile Payyan
 * Mandahasam
 * Cleopatra
 * Payyante Samaram
 * Payyante Rajavu
 * Mangalapuram Pootham
 * Kozhi
 * prathal

Awards

 * 1969: Kerala Sahitya Akademi Award – Arohanam
 * 1978: M. P. Paul Award – overall contributions for Malayalam literature
 * 1982: Kendra Sahitya Akademi Award – Payyan Kathakal
 * 1987: Religious Harmony Award (instituted by the Organisation of Understanding and Fraternity, New Delhi
 * 1997: Muttathu Varkey Award – Pitamahan

title: V. K. N.


text:
Richard F. Kneip

Richard Francis Kneip (January 7, 1933 –March 9, 1987) was an American diplomat and politician who served as the 25th governor of South Dakota from 1971 until 1978 and the 6th United States Ambassador to the Republic of Singapore. He was a member of the Democratic Party and the first Catholic Governor of South Dakota.

Early life and education
Kneip was born on January 7, 1933, in Tyler, Minnesota, to Berniece and Frank Kneip, who lived in Elkton, South Dakota. He was of Luxembourgish ancestry. He attended South Dakota State University and St. John's University. He served in the U.S. Air Force and then owned a wholesale dairy equipment distributorship in Salem, South Dakota. He married Nancy Lou Pankey.

Early political career
He served in the South Dakota Legislature as a State Senator from 1965 to 1971.

Governor of South Dakota
When Richard F. Kneip was elected governor of South Dakota in 1970, defeating the Republican incumbent Frank Farrar, he was only the fourth governor elected from the Democratic Party since statehood. Known to the state's voters as "Dick", Kneip gained popularity through his "people to people" campaigns. Kneip memorably did launch his 1970 campaign for governor with radio ads asking "What is a Kneip?".

Taking office two days shy of his 38th birthday, Kneip is the youngest governor the state has ever elected. Kneip and his wife, Nancy, moved into the governor's mansion, along with their eight sons.

Kneip's first term was noted for major reform efforts. He successfully overhauled the organization of state government by creating a cabinet system. Kneip was re-elected in 1972, and became the last governor of South Dakota to serve a two-year term. He twice served two-year terms and then was elected to a final four-year term in 1974. This made Kneip the first governor to be elected three times. Kneip appeared on the November 19, 1977, episode of Saturday Night Live as one of the five finalists in the show's "Anyone Can Host" contest, which was won by Miskel Spillman.

Educational efforts
Some of Kneip's most significant achievements was preventing the closure of South Dakota State University's now-J. Lohr School of Engineering and opening the four-year University of South Dakota School of Medicine.

Wounded Knee Incident of 1973
At the start of Kneip's second term in 1973, the state gained national attention because of a standoff between Native American activists and government agents at Wounded Knee, later known as the second Wounded Knee Incident.

Foreign service
Kneip resigned as governor on July 24, 1978, a few months before the expiration of his third term. He had been selected by President Jimmy Carter to become the United States ambassador to Singapore.

Death and legacy
Kneip sought to return to the governor's mansion in 1986, but he narrowly lost his party's nomination in the state Democratic Party primary to nominee Lars Herseth that June.

Although he had pondered yet another attempt at returning to public life, Kneip was diagnosed with cancer in early 1987. He died in Sioux Falls, South Dakota, on March 9, 1987, at the age of 54. He is the most recent Democrat elected to the Governorship of South Dakota.

In 1997, U.S. Highway 14 from Brookings to Elkton, was officially designated as the Richard Kneip Memorial Highway.

title: Richard F. Kneip


text:
ESC

ESC may refer to:

Arts and entertainment

 * Eurovision Song Contest, an annual international song competition
 * The Electric Swing Circus, a British band
 * Extreme Sports Channel, a television channel

Computing

 * Esc key on a keyboard
 * Escape character in the C0 control code set
 * Escape sequence
 * Extended static checking

Concepts and technologies

 * Einstein summation convention
 * Electronic speed control
 * Electronic stability control
 * Embryonic stem cell
 * Environmental stress cracking

Organizations

 * Electrical Safety Council, now Electrical Safety First, a British charity
 * European Society of Cardiology
 * European Society of Criminology

Education

 * Ecole Supérieure de Commerce, a type of French business school
 * Edison State College, now Florida SouthWestern State College
 * Empire State College of the State University of New York
 * English Subject Centre, a British English-language educational organization
 * European School, Culham, in Oxfordshire, England
 * European Solidarity Centre, a museum and library in Gdańsk, Poland
 * European Solidarity Corps, volunteering program by the European Commission
 * European Space Camp
 * Eyring Science Center, a science building at Brigham Young University in Provo, Utah, United States

Government and politics

 * Environmental Study Conference, U.S. House of Representatives
 * Economic and Social Council (Arab League)
 * European Social Charter
 * Essential Services Commission (Victoria)
 * Essential Services Commission of South Australia

Sports

 * Ekenäs Sport Club, a football club in Finland
 * Empire Supporters Club, a fan club of the New York Red Bulls
 * Equitable Stroke Control, in golf
 * Essex Senior Cup, an English football competition
 * Essex Skating Club, in New Jersey
 * European Shooting Confederation

Other uses

 * Esc, Aesc or Oisc of Kent, King of Kent, 474–516 AD
 * Delta County Airport, Escanaba, Michigan, by IATA code
 * Electronic Systems Center, a former product center of the United States Air Force
 * Energy Savings Certificate, a document certifying that a certain reduction of energy consumption has been obtained
 * Expeditionary Sustainment Command
 * Guggenmos ESC, a German hang glider

title: ESC


text:
Murray Edwards College, Cambridge

Murray Edwards College is a women-only constituent college of the University of Cambridge. It was founded in 1954 as New Hall and renamed in 2008. The name honours a gift of £30 million by alumna Ros Edwards and her husband Steve, and the first President and woman Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge, Rosemary Murray.

History

New Hall was founded in 1954, housing sixteen students in Silver Street where Darwin College now stands. Cambridge then had the lowest proportion of women undergraduates of any university in the United Kingdom and only two other colleges (Girton and Newnham) admitted female students.

In 1962, members of the Darwin family gave their home, "The Orchard", to the College. This new site was located on Huntingdon Road, about a mile from the centre of Cambridge. The architects chosen were Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, who are known for their design of the Barbican in London, and fundraising commenced. The building work began in 1964 and was completed by W. & C. French in 1965. The new college could house up to 300 students.

In 1967, one of the college's PhD students, Jocelyn Bell Burnell, a researcher in the university radio astronomy group, discovered the first four pulsars, leading to a Nobel Prize for her supervisor, and, ultimately, for Bell Burnell herself, a position as a research professor at the University of Oxford.

In 1975, the college's President Rosemary Murray became the first woman to hold the post of vice-chancellor of the University of Cambridge. Two subsequent presidents, Anne Lonsdale and Jennifer Barnes, have become pro-vice-chancellors of the University.

Following a 2005 donation of £30 million by alumna Rosalind Edwards (Smith) and her husband Steve Edwards to secure its future, in early 2008 New Hall was renamed Murray Edwards College, honouring the first President, Dame Rosemary Murray, and the benefactors. There was some opposition to this as the new name incorporated a man's surname, despite the college being reserved for women students. Ros Edwards had attended the college in the 1980s and made a fortune with her partner when their software company Geneva Technology was sold to Convergys in 2001.

Men-only Cambridge colleges were converted into mixed-sex colleges in the 1970s and 1980s. Since the 2006 announcement that the University of Oxford's last remaining women-only college, St Hilda's, would also admit men, Cambridge is the only United Kingdom university that partially maintains a female-only student admissions policy, represented by Newnham and Murray Edwards. The fellowship and staff at Murray Edwards College are recruited from all genders. There is no bar to male students frequenting the college and many are taught there by Murray Edwards' fellows.

Arms and logo
New Hall received its Royal Charter in 1972. The Arms of the college are emblazoned as follows:

 * Sable a Dolphin palewise head downwards to the dexter in chief three Mullets fesswise a Bordure embattled Argent

In plain English, this means: on a black background, place the following features in silver. Vertically in the centre, place a dolphin with head downwards to the left. On top, place three stars horizontally across. Bordering the arms, place a square wave representing the battlements of a castle.

The black castellation round the arms marks the college's location on Castle Hill. The three stars are borrowed from the Murray coat of arms, while the heraldic dolphin symbolises a youthful spirit of exploration and discovery, and a kindly intelligence.

The college had designed a new logo to mark its transition from New Hall to Murray Edwards College. It was based on the design of the interior of the dining hall (the "Dome") and was called the 'spark'. However, on consultation with its alumnae, the college decided to continue to use its arms in official materials.

Buildings
Like many of the other Cambridge colleges, Murray Edwards College was not built all at one time but expanded as the need arose, over several time periods. The college therefore has several accommodation blocks of differing styles. In order of construction: The first buildings of the college on Huntingdon Road were designed by the architects, Chamberlin, Powell and Bon, and are listed Grade II* (particularly important buildings of more than special interest). This includes:
 * Orchard Court (also known as Old Block) recalls the name of the grounds now occupied by the college, which was The Orchard, a large house part-owned by Norah Barlow, granddaughter of Charles Darwin. It is divided into the Wolfson, Nuffield and Spooner Wings, named after donors to New Hall during its first few decades. Part of the original structure was designed in the 1960s and completed in 1965. In 2009, part of this block was refurbished to improve fire safety and living standards. Some student rooms are split across two levels, meaning they have a bedroom upstairs and a separate living space downstairs. Many of the rooms have access to a shared balcony.
 * Pearl House (formerly known as New Block), named after Valerie Pearl, the second president of the college. The building was constructed with funding from the Kaetsu Foundation. All rooms are en suite. Wheelchair access is available to each floor via the central lift. Opened in 1994, this is where first year undergraduates are accommodated. Unlike most colleges at Cambridge, the building offers fully equipped kitchens, baths and a lift.
 * Buckingham House. The current building was a replacement for another building of the same name that stood on this site, and was opened in 2001. All rooms are en suite. The building is wheelchair accessible and has a lift. Contains a 142-seat auditorium which is used for lectures, film festivals and concerts.
 * Canning and Eliza Fok House is named after the Hong Kong entrepreneur Canning Fok and his wife Eliza Fok, who donated the funds for constructing this accommodation block. All rooms are en suite. The building is wheelchair accessible and has a lift. Opened in 2008. Canning and Eliza Fok House is specifically built to accommodate the growing population of graduate students at Murray Edwards, and has a large shared kitchen/living area between 8 bedrooms.
 * The Dome, which features some of the artwork the college is famed for, as well as a rising servery (a bar that rises from the floor for special events). This is where the cafeteria is located. Students take their meals here, including Saturday and Sunday brunch, often cited as the best brunch in Cambridge. Formals are held here, once a week on a Tuesday.
 * Fountain Court, which can be accessed from the bar and looks into the library, and features an illuminated fountain and waterways. Tables and chairs are put out there in warmer months as well as displays of flowers.
 * The Library, which was designed to reflect the interior of a Cathedral. Students can request heaters, blankets, tea, coffee and biscuits as they study. Yoga sessions, arts and craft and a variety of other welfare events are held here and it is open 24/7.

Gardens
The college gardens have an informal style, initially planned and planted by the first president, Dame Rosemary Murray. The gardens include a greenhouse originally belonging to the estate of the Darwin family, where banana plants are grown during the winter months.

In 2007, Murray Edwards College (then New Hall) became the first Cambridge College to participate in the RHS Chelsea Flower Show. The theme of the presented garden was the Transit of Venus, and was awarded a Bronze Flora medal in the Chic Garden Category. After the show, this garden was recreated in a slightly larger form beside the library.

As part of the Cambridge tradition of May Week, the college hosts an annual garden party that is popular with students from across the university. The garden party features a new theme each year and is well received by those in attendance. In Michaelmas (the Autumn/ Winter term), the college celebrates 'Apple Day' in the gardens, a day of autumnal activities such as apple picking, cooking, crafting and bonfires.

The students at Murray Edwards are encouraged to enjoy the gardens and walk on the lawns, meaning it is common to spot students sunbathing, studying, taking picnics or even relaxing on the small beach that is erected in the Summer. The gardens are maintained by professional staff, and recently also by fellows and students. Since 2012, gardening allotments have been provided for fellows, undergraduates and postgraduates for growing herbs and vegetables, in addition to the flowers and herbs already planted by the gardeners.

Studentships
The college maintains a fund for graduate research, including the Stephan Körner graduate studentship for studies in philosophy, classics or law.

The Women's Art Collection
Murray Edwards is home to The Women's Art Collection (known until 2022 as the New Hall Art Collection), the largest collection of women's art in Europe, and the second largest in the world (the largest being the National Museum of Women in the Arts in Washington, D.C.).

The artwork can be seen throughout College, and students are encouraged to request pieces to be brought into their bedrooms as decoration.

The New Hall Art Collection was started in the early 1990s, when New Hall had few pieces of art and most of them were portraits of old gentleman. The college president wrote to 100 women artists and asked each to donate one piece of art, and more than 75% of the artists approached agreed to give a piece of work. Donations have continued since, and the Art Collection now contains work by many famous women artists, including:

 * Gillian Ayres
 * Fiona Banner
 * Wilhelmina Barns-Graham
 * Sandra Blow
 * Helaine Blumenfeld
 * Judy Chicago
 * Eileen Cooper
 * Tracey Emin
 * Mary Fedden
 * Elisabeth Frink
 * Guerrilla Girls
 * Maggi Hambling
 * Barbara Hepworth
 * Nicola Hicks
 * Lubaina Himid
 * Chantal Joffe
 * Mary Kelly (artist)
 * Cornelia Parker
 * Emily Patrick
 * Barbara Rae
 * Gwen Raverat
 * Paula Rego
 * Shani Rhys James
 * Bridget Riley
 * Cindy Sherman
 * Julia Sorrell
 * Jo Spence
 * Rose Wylie

New Hall

 * 1964–1981: Rosemary Murray
 * 1981–1995: Valerie Pearl
 * 1996–2008: Anne Lonsdale

Murray Edwards College

 * 2008–2012: Jennifer Barnes
 * 2012–2013: Ruth Lynden-Bell (acting)
 * 2013–2021: Barbara Stocking
 * 2021–present: Dorothy Byrne

Notable alumnae

 * Manel Abeysekera, diplomat
 * Baroness Haleh Afshar, professor in politics and women's studies at the University of York
 * Bina Agarwal, Professor of Development Economics and Environment, University of Manchester
 * Gina Barreca, professor of English literature at the University of Connecticut, author
 * Katherine Blundell, Professor of Astrophysics, University of Oxford
 * Dame Jocelyn Bell Burnell, astrophysicist who discovered the first four pulsars
 * Helen Cooper, literary scholar
 * Sarah Coakley, theologian and philosopher
 * Frances Edmonds, Best-selling author, broadcaster, and speaker
 * Baroness Natalie Evans, British politician
 * Liv Garfield, chief executive of Severn Trent Water and youngest female CEO of a FTSE 100 company.
 * Amika George, activist and founder of the #FreePeriods campaign against period poverty
 * Gillian Gill, writer and academic who specializes in biography
 * Roma Gill, academic and literary scholar
 * Siân Griffiths, British public health physician
 * Lizzy Hawker, British endurance athlete
 * Jane Heal, philosopher, Emeritus Professor
 * Angela Hobbs, philosopher, and Professor of the Public Understanding of Philosophy at the University of Sheffield
 * Alison Holmes, Professor of Infectious Diseases, Imperial College London.
 * Mishal Husain, newsreader for BBC News
 * Julia King, engineer and former Vice-Chancellor, University of Aston
 * Clare Lawrence, actress
 * Helen Macdonald, prize-winning author of H is for Hawk
 * Joanna MacGregor, concert pianist, conductor, and composer
 * Philippa Marrack, immunologist known for her T cell research
 * Hattie Morahan, actress
 * Serena Nik-Zainal, Professor of Clinical Genetics
 * Elizabeth Norton, writer and historian
 * Maggie O'Farrell, winner of the 2020 Women's prize for fiction.
 * Sue Perkins, comedian
 * Kate Pretty, Former Principal, Homerton College, Cambridge and former Deputy Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge University
 * Robin Raphael, American former diplomat, ambassador, CIA analyst, lobbyist, and an expert on Pakistan affairs
 * Dame Jessica Rawson, art historian, former Warden of Merton College, Oxford
 * Helen Rees, Medical researcher
 * Josie Rourke, artistic director of the Donmar Warehouse and film director
 * Sonia Ruseler, Argentine news anchor
 * Susan Sherratt, archaeologist
 * Elizabeth Slater, Professor of Archaeology at the University of Liverpool
 * Sarah Solemani, English actress, writer and activist
 * Sonya Stephens, President Emerita, Mount Holyoke College, USA
 * Dame Barbara Stocking, Director of Oxfam, former president of the college (elected in 2013)
 * Deborah Swallow, British educator, museum curator and academic
 * Tilda Swinton, Academy Award-winning actress
 * Camilla Toulmin, British economist and former Director of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED)
 * Carina Tyrrell, British-Swiss public health physician and former Miss United Kingdom of Miss World
 * Frances Vernon, novelist
 * Nicola Walker, actress
 * Alice Walpole, British diplomat
 * Fiona Watt, Professor, Cell biologist and founding director of the Centre for Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine (CSCRM)
 * Claudia Winkleman, TV presenter and journalist
 * Vicki Young, Chief Political Correspondent of BBC News

title: Murray Edwards College, Cambridge


text:
Clorinda Matto de Turner

Clorinda Matto de Turner (11 November 1852 in Cusco – 25 October 1909) was a Peruvian writer who lived during the early years of Latin American independence. Her own independence inspired women throughout the region as her writings sparked controversy in her own culture.

Early life and education

She was born and raised in Cuzco, Peru. Matto de Turner's father was Ramón Mato Torres and her mother was Grimanesa Concepción Usandivares. When her mother died, she became known as Azucena de los Andes ("Lily of the Andes") throughout the region. Matto de Turner was baptized Grimanesa Martina Mato, but was called Clorinda among her friends and family. She originally had one "T" in her last name, but after studying the Inca culture she added the extra "T" to give the name an Inca flavor.

Growing up in Cuzco, the former Inca capital, Matto spent most of her days on her family's estate, Paullo Chico, which is near the village of Coya. As a teenager, Matto attended the school that is now known as the Escuela Nacional de Educandas (National Women's Secondary School). There she took some very unconventional courses that were viewed as unfeminine in the culture. She majored in independent studies, which included Philosophy, Natural History, and Physics. Matto left school at the age of sixteen to spend more time taking care of her brother and father.

Career
In 1871, at the age of 19, Matto married an Englishman, Dr. Turner, a wealthy landowner. Shortly after their marriage they moved to Tinta, where they lived for 10 years. In Tinta, Matto de Turner became more aware of Peru's two histories: the colonial and the Inca. She became very familiar with indigenous culture, and the more she learned, the more she embraced it. Much of her writing is inspired by what she learned from her acquaintance with this culture. She found work as a journalist, with local and foreign papers. In 1878, Matto de Turner founded El Recreo de Casco, a magazine offering literature, science, art and education. She became known for literary works that portrayed indigenous people in a positive light, in contrast to the mainstream views of her society. Even though she was of white ancestry, she did not agree with the oppressive treatment of Peru's indigenous peoples, and she used her writings to speak out on their behalf. Matto de Turner also used her writings to campaign for better education for women.

In 1881, her husband died, leaving the estate bankrupt. Unable to improve her financial situation in Tinta, Matto de Turner moved to Arequipa where she worked as editor in chief at the newspaper La Bolsa Americana. While there she published two volumes of "tradiciones cuzqueñas," one in 1884 and another in 1886. She also wrote the drama Himacc-Suacc (1884) and translated the four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans into the Quechua language spoken by the indigenous people in the Cuzco Region of Peru. Besides her literary works she also got involved in politics, and raised money for the development of the battleship Almirante Grau.

Matto de Turner eventually moved from Tinta to live in Lima, although with her political and controversial writings she often thought it would be safer to live outside of Peru. In Lima she joined many different literary organizations and publications. In 1887, Matto de Turner became director of El Peru Ilustrado, where she published many of her novels. She published three novels between 1889 and 1895: Aves Sin Nido (Birds Without a Nest), Indole (Character), and Herencia (Heredity). These novels talk about the indigenous people getting stripped of all their civil rights as well as getting persecuted by the community and the self-indulgent priests. Matto de Turner's most famous novel was Aves Sin Nido (1889). This novel was controversial because it was about a love affair between a white man and an indigenous woman, which was considered a disgrace among Latin American society during this time, and because it spoke of the immorality of the priests during that period. The reason the characters in the novel couldn't marry was because they eventually learned that they were both fathered by the same philandering priest. Aves Sin Nido was not Matto de Turner's only controversial work. She also published a controversial story written by a Brazilian writer by the name of Henrique Coelho Neto in her newspaper, El Perú Illustrado. Her controversial writings led to her excommunication by the Archbishop.

In 1895, she moved to Buenos Aires, Argentina, where she continued her literary activities. In 1900, she wrote Boreales, Miniaturas y Porcelanas (Northerners, Miniatures, and Porcelain) a collection of essays which includes "Narraciones históricas," an important historiographical contribution that shows her deep sorrow at being exiled from Peru and her longing to return. In Buenos Aires Matto de Turner founded Búcaro Americano; she also gave numerous public lectures and wrote many articles for the press. Matto de Turner spent most of her time teaching at a local university as a professor. In 1908, when she visited Europe for the first time in her life, she made sure to carefully document this in the book Viaje de Recreo (Trip of Amusement). The book was released in newspapers upon her death in 1909.

Tradiciones y leyendas

 * Perú: Tradiciones cuzqueñas. Arequipa: "La Bolsa", 1884.
 * Tradiciones cuzqueñas. 2 vols. Lima: Torres Aguirre, 1886.
 * Leyendas y recortes. Lima: "La Equitativa", 1893.

Fiction

 * Aves sin nido. Lima: Imprenta del Universo de Carlos Prince, 1889. A first translation of the novel was published in London in 1904.
 * Índole. Lima: Imprenta Bacigalupi, 1891.
 * Herencia. Lima: Imprenta Bacigalupi, 1893.

Biography, epistolary prose, travel writing, and essays

 * Bocetos al lápiz de americanos célebres. Lima: Peter Bacigalupi, 1889.
 * Boreales, miniaturas y porcelanas. Buenos Aires: Juan A. Alsina, 1902.
 * Cuatro conferencias sobre América del Sur. Buenos Aires: Juan A. Alsina, 1909.
 *  Viaje de recreo: España, Francia, Inglaterra, Italia, Suiza, Alemana. Valencia: F. Sempere, 1909.

Theatre

 * Hima-Sumac: Drama en tres actos y en prosa. Lima: "La Equitativa", 1893.

title: Clorinda Matto de Turner